17243	----	Full Revelations of a Professional Rat-Catcher, after 25 Years' Experience by Ike Matthews. [Title page image: title.jpg] Introduction. In placing before my readers in the following pages the results of my twenty-five years' experience of Rat-catching, Ferreting, etc., I may say that I have always done my best to accomplish every task that I have undertaken, and I have in consequence received excellent testimonials from many corporations, railway companies, and merchants. I have not only made it my study to discover the different and the best methods of catching Rats, but I have also taken great interest in watching their ways and habits, and I come to the conclusion that there is no sure way of completely exterminating the Rodents, especially in large towns. If I have in this work referred more particularly to Rat-catching in Manchester that is only because my experience, although extending over a much wider area, has been chiefly in that city, but the methods I describe are equally applicable to all large towns. Yours truly, IKE MATTHEWS. PROFESSIONAL RAT-CATCHER, PENDLETON, MANCHESTER. PART I. HOW TO CLEAR RATS FROM WAREHOUSES, OFFICES, STOREROOMS, ETC. In the first place my advice is--never poison Rats in any enclosed buildings whatever. Why? Simply because the Rats that you poison are Drain Rats, or what you call Black Rats, and you can depend upon it that the Rats that you poison will not get back into the drains, but die under the floor between the laths and plaster, and the consequence is that in a few days the stench that will arise will be most obnoxious. And there is nothing more injurious than the smell of a decomposed Rat. Having had a long experience in Manchester I am quite sure of this. As an instance, I remember a private house where I was engaged catching Rats under a floor with ferrets. I went as far as possible on my belly under the floor with two candles in my hands, and I saw the ferret kill a large bitch Rat, about six yards from me against a wall, where neither the dog nor myself could get at it. I finished the job and made out my bill for my services, but in about two or three weeks after they again sent for me, declaring they could not stay in the sitting-room on account of the smell that arose from beneath the flooring boards. They had in consequence to send for a joiner; and as I knew the exact spot where the Rat was killed I ordered him to take up the floor boards just where the dead Rat lay, and the stench that arose from the decomposed Rodent was bad in the extreme. I disinfected the place, and I was never sent for again. This was under a cold floor, and it is much worse where there is any heat. Now to deal with the different methods of catching Rats. The best way, in my opinion, is, TRAPPING THEM WITH STEEL SPRING TRAPS. Whenever you are trapping, never on any consideration put bait on the traps; always put traps in their runs, but you will find Rats are so cunning that in time, after a few have been caught, they will jump over the traps, and then you must try another way. A good one is the following, viz.:--Get a bag of fine, clean sawdust, and mix with it about one-sixth its weight of oatmeal. Obtain the sawdust fresh from under the saw, without bits of stick in, as these would be liable to get into the teeth of the trap and stop them from closing. Where you see the runs put a handful in say about 30 different places, every night, just dropping the sawdust and meal out of your hands in little heaps. That means 30 different heaps. Do this for four nights, and you will see each morning that the sawdust is all spread about. Now for four more nights you must bury a set trap under every heap of sawdust. Thus you will have 30 traps, on each of which there is a square centre plate; you must level the sawdust over the plate with a bit of stick, and set each trap as fine as you can on the catch spring, so that the weight of a mouse would set it off. They will play in the sawdust as usual, and you will have Rats in almost every trap. You will find that this plan will capture a great many of the Rodents. I have trapped as many as 114 in one night in this way. In time, however, the Rats will cease to go near sawdust. Then you must procure a bag of fine soot from any chimney sweep, and you will find that they will go at the soot just as keen as they did in the first instance at the sawdust. When they get tired of soot (which they will in time) you must procure some soft tissue paper and cut it fine, and use that in the same way as the sawdust and the soot. You can also use light chaff or hay seeds with the like result. I must not omit to tell my readers to always trap Rats in the night, and to go very quietly about it, for if you make much noise they will give over feeding. You must not go about with too big a light whilst trapping. You should stay at the building from dark until midnight, and every time a Rat is caught in the trap you should go with a bull's eye lamp, take it out of the trap or kill it, and then set the trap again, as you have the chance of another Rat in the same trap. From experience I can say that you need not stay in any place after 12 o'clock at night, as I think that the first feed is the best, and that the first three hours are worth all the other part of the night. You can go home at 12 o'clock, and be sure to be in the place by 6 or 7 a.m., for many a Rat caught in the trap by the front leg will, if it gets time, eat off its leg and get away again, and they are very cunning to catch afterwards. NEVER HAVE YOUR TRAPS SET IN THE DAYTIME. Handle them as little as possible. Always catch as many Rats as you can in your buildings in January and February, as they begin to breed in March, and every bitch Rat means, on the average, eight more. Also get as much ferreting done as possible before breeding time, for a young Rat can get into the ends of the joisting under a floor, where a ferret cannot get near it, and the consequence is that a ferret is unable to cope with its task. The best thing I can advise for clearing young Rats is a good cat, one that must not be handled nor made a pet of, but allowed to live in almost a wild state. A good cat can do as much, in my opinion, in one night, when Rats are breeding, as two ferrets can do in a day, especially in a building where there are cavity walls, as it is impossible for a ferret to follow a Rat in such walls. This is all the information I am able to give on the trapping of Rats--a method I have proved by 25 years' experience to excel all others. Still another way of clearing the pests is as follows:--The majority of Rats are Black, or what we call Drain Rats; if they are in a building they will in most cases come from a water-closet. Sometimes you will see from the drain pipes in the water-closet, say, a six-inch pipe fitted into a nine-inch pipe, and the joint covered round with clay, through which the Rats eat and scratch and get into the building in great numbers in the night, but most of them return into the drains during the day. Now, if it is the breeding season (about eight months out of the twelve) they will do much damage to silk, cotton, leather, lace, and, in fact, all other light goods. And one would be surprised to see the quantity of cloth, paper, etc., they will procure for their nests whilst breeding. The way to get clear of these is to go in the day with two or three ferrets and leave the drain pipe open. Ferret them all back into the drain; don't put a net over the drain for fear you might miss one or two. If they got back into the building they would be hard to catch, as they would not face the net again. Then, after ferreting, make the drain good, and if there be an odd Rat or two left in the building you will get them in a few nights by baiting the trap. There is another way of catching the Brown Rat which breeds under the floor in large buildings where there are no drains. They are very awkward to catch. Always have a trap or two set, but do not set them where they feed; place them in their runs. But there are other methods for other Rat-infested places. For instance, take a restaurant, where they feed in the cooking kitchen; we will suppose they have eaten four holes through either floor or skirting boards. The best way to catch these--however many holes they have leading into the kitchen--is to block up (with tin or similar material) all the holes with the exception of one, and let them use that one for two nights. Then put a plateful of good food, such as oatmeal and oil of aniseed, as far from the hole as you can in the same kitchen; then run a small train of meal and aniseed from the hole to the plate. Next drive two six-inch nails in the wall, with a long piece of string tied to the nail heads. Put on these nails a brick or piece of board right above the hole 2 inches up the wall. Be sure the nails are quite loose in the wall over the hole, and leave in that position for two nights, so that the Rats will get used to it. On the night that you are going to catch them, before leaving the place carry the string from the nail heads to the door or window; let the door or window be closed within an inch, with the end of the string outside. After the place has been quiet for thirty minutes return to the door or window very quietly, and you will hear the Rats feeding. Pull the string, the loose nails come out of the wall and the brick or board drops over the hole. You can then go in, close the door, turn up the gas and catch or kill them at your leisure, as they cannot get back again. By this method I may mention that I have caught a great number of Rats, and it is quite possible to clear a place in this manner: that is, if they do not come out of the drains. I have caught upwards of 103 in six nights in this way. The best time to catch Rats in any building is always at night, and always about half-an-hour after the place has been closed, as Rats are generally more adventurous to come for their first feed. Always go about as quietly as possible. In some of the very old Manchester buildings that were built in the days before drain plans had to be submitted to the corporation, one finds under the cellar floors old-fashioned brick and flag drains (better known as "spit" drains), that were left in when the place was built. Once the Rats get in these disused drains all the professional Rat-catchers in England could not clear them without pulling the building down. The Rats have, by some means, got out of the main sewer, probably by the bursting of a sewer into one of these disused dry brick drains. It is then impossible to get underground to see where they have got into the dry drain, and the only thing that can be done in a case of this sort is to engage a professional Rat-catcher occasionally, and keep two or three good cats to keep the Rats down. These places as a rule are more plagued with them when it is very wet weather and there are floods running. This is the best time to catch them, as they are all under the floor of the building, and are very easy to catch in the night with the traps. As a rule the Black or Drain Rats feed only in the night, very rarely in the day, as they are of a dirty nature, and prefer being in the drains. In my opinion the Black Rat is more vicious than the Brown. There is another Rat I call the Red Rat, which is akin to the Brown Rat. You will always catch these at a tannery, or about kennels, where hounds are kept, and they generally feed on horseflesh or offal. Red Rats are the "gameist" Rats I know, for whatever kind of Rats are put into the store cage, these Red Rats kill them the first night they are left quiet. I may describe another mode of catching Rats. In any Rat-overrun warehouse, storeroom, or cellar, where there is a deal of rubbish such as packing cases, wrappers, waste paper, etc., throw a lot of food, say oatmeal or soaked bread, carelessly amongst the cases or rubbish and let the Rats have a full week's feeding at their leisure, and then if you know the holes round the floor wherefrom they come, go in some night as quick as possible, turn up the lights, run to the three or four holes, and block them up with pieces of rag, etc. Now as all the Rats will not run out of the packing cases or waste paper, but will hide amongst the same, this is the time to take a good terrier dog or two with you, and to have a bit of sport. Let one dog hunt among the cases, etc., and hold the other, for the Rats will soon make for the holes, but the rags preventing their escape you will catch and kill a great many by this means. It should be stated here that as Rats are very cunning, it takes a lot of study, dodging, and experience to be able to rid them entirely. When you are feeding Rats anywhere, never feed them with other than soft stuff, which you can squeeze through your fingers, for if you feed them with anything lumpy, they will carry pieces into their holes and eat at their leisure. FERRETING. Ferreting is a very good plan for destroying Rats in cottage houses, stables, hotels, etc., as it can be done in the day, but in buildings, say five or six storeys high you cannot ferret very well as you cannot tell where to set your nets. The only way to ferret a large building is to ferret one floor at once, and always start at the top storey first. The majority of floors are laths and plaster. This is what the Rat likes, especially the Brown Rat, and there are more nests found in these places than anywhere else. To ferret thoroughly in such places you will require to have a board up at each end of the floor: the two end boards that run crossways with the joist; then you must have a man to put the ferret in at one end, and ferret one joist at a time; have a net set at the other end. The best way at the catching end is to have a long sheet net about a yard wide, and the full length of the boards that are up, for sometimes under the boards the Rats can get out of one joist into another, and if you use the long net you can catch them whichever joist they bolt at. Now we will suppose you are ferreting a seven-storey building, which might occupy three or four days. If you have ferreted two stories the first day, during the night the Rats that have not been ferreted on the lower stories may get back again to the top storey. How to prevent this happening I will give you a plan of my own, which I don't think any Rat-catcher but myself has ever employed. The course of action--a rather expensive one I admit--is the following: While you have the boards up you must go to the druggist and get two shillings' worth of cayenne pepper, and put it into a pepper duster. Scatter the cayenne along the boards and joist where you have had the long sheet net, and also along the other end of the joist where you put the ferrets in, and you will find that under no consideration will Rats face the cayenne pepper. Cayenne is alright for any dry place and will last a long time, but it will not do in any water closets or any damp places, as dampness takes all the nature out of the cayenne. After ferreting in any kind of building, always go carefully round the outside, and see that there are no broken air grids, or broken cellar windows, as these are likely ways that the Rats get into the building at first. When ferreting always be careful how you set your nets, and be extremely quick on the Rats when they bolt, for sometimes if they get back they will face the ferret before they will bolt again; then the ferrets kill them under the floors, and this as in the case of poisoning them is liable to cause an abominable smell, more especially where heat is near. In the whole of my experience of Rat-catching, which is a lengthy one, I never gave a guarantee to clear a place completely, in Manchester or any other town where so many large buildings are so close together. And let me show the reason for this. Take Cannon Street, Manchester, as an illustration. Here are six or eight different firms in one block of buildings. Now, suppose four of these firms are suffering from the damage the Rats are doing. Well, one or two of these firms may go to the expense of having the Rats cleared away. But between the two buildings there may be a hardware business or ironmonger's shop, where Rats cannot do any harm to their goods. The owners of these shops will not go to the expense of having Rats caught, nor will they let us go into their shops at midnight; therefore the result is the Rat-catcher in his trapping and ferreting is limited to these two places, and all he can do is to catch some and drive the rest into the hardware shop. When under the floors in such places one finds there has been so many alterations made at different times that one joist may be a foot or six inches below the other, and when the Rats are completely driven out of these places it would require joiners and bricksetters to work for weeks under the floors to stop the Rats returning. And most firms will not go to this expense. I only give my readers this as an illustration of what has often happened with me, and to show why I never guarantee to clear Rats completely in large towns. If they are in a private house, stable, greenhouse, or any block of houses, of say five or six, I might then, after looking through, give a guarantee to clear them completely. These are the fullest details I can give you, and if you will put any of the ways I have mentioned into practice you will find that they are all successful, especially the covering of traps. I can give you just one more instance in Manchester, where I was engaged. The workpeople had been tormenting the Rats with traps, not knowing how to set them. They sent for me, and on my looking round the place I knew there was a lot of Rats. I submitted my price to do the job, and when I went down one night with 40 traps, dog, and two ferrets I thought I should catch 20 or 30 Rats, but I found that they had plagued them so much with their attempted trapping that I only caught three in the whole night. This place belonged to a limited company, and when I went before the committee the next morning they were not satisfied. I told them that their own workpeople had tormented the Rats so much with traps that the Rats would not go near one. I then told the committee that I would still stick to my terms, but I would leave the job over for a fortnight. Now during that fortnight I went down a good many times, and laid the sawdust as I have already described, and thus got the Rats used to it. The first night that I went catching I took with me 33 traps. I had them all set by 8-30 p.m., and by 12-30 a.m. I had trapped 45 Rats; the next night 31 Rats; and before I completed the job, with the trapping and the other ways that I have mentioned, I caught 183 Rats! This I give merely as an illustration to show the necessity of engaging an experienced man to catch Rats--that is, if you want them caught. And to confirm the statements above, I shall be most happy to supply privately the name and place of the firm, and also to give a personal interview if necessary. And now a word or two respecting the different ways in which Rat-catchers are treated. Many people think that a Rat-catcher is favoured if they give him permission to catch Rats on their farms or round the banks of their corn or wheat fields. Well, on some occasions I grant this may be a favour, for I have seen when I have had an order in hand for about 10 dozen Rats, and have had only a day or two in which to get them. Such are the only times and circumstances when a Rat-catcher gives his services gratis, and simply because he wants the live Rats. Most farmers will send you word when they are threshing their corn, and then the value of the Rats are worth the day's work to the Rat-catcher. This is all right as far as it goes, but when one comes to consider the yearly expenses of the Rat-catcher it will be found that they are very heavy. Now, first of all it will cost, at the least, 5 pounds annually for the wear and tear of traps alone, then there is the wear and tear of nets; two dog licences; always three or four ferrets to keep (and ferrets are often lost down drains or killed by Rats); also sundry other expenses, such as store cages, etc. Then, again, the Rat-catcher always has to pay a man to help him. I don't call Rat-catching a trade only: I maintain that it is a profession, and one that requires much learning and courage. I have found this out when I have been under a warehouse floor, where a lot of Rats were in the traps, and I could not get one man out of 50 to come under the floor and hold the candle for me, not to mention helping me to take the live Rats out of the traps. I just relate this because at some places where we go and where we catch perhaps 30 Rats, the first thing they say when the bill is presented is "Why, you have got 15s. worth of live Rats!" They don't think of the damage 30 Rats can do to fancy goods, nor do they consider the evil smells that men have to tolerate under the floors or from the bad drains. I could relate many interesting anecdotes of what I have seen and heard about Rats, but I fear its perusal might take up too much of my readers' time. There is, however, one thing I will mention. I dare say you have heard of Rats running about in "swarms" in the night. Do not believe it. In my whole experience I have never been so fortunate as to meet a "swarm" of these, when I have had an empty cage on my back, and an order for 12 dozen live Rats at 5s. per dozen. When trapping at farms on a moonlight night I have seen a train of Rats almost in single file going from a barn to a pit or brook to drink, and then I have simply run a long net all along the barn very quickly, sent my dog round the pit and caught all the Rats in the net when they ran back to get in the barn. For in these places you must be as cunning as the Rats to catch them. The quickest way for a farmer to get rid of Rats is to run a long trail of good oatmeal outside his barn doors, and shoot them on a moonlight night. I have seen 11 killed at a shot in this way. They will stay eating the oatmeal because they cannot carry it away. At farms or out-houses you might poison Rats round a pit or along brook sides where they go to drink, although I don't believe in poisoning, as one never knows where it ends--the Rats being likely to carry the poisoned food about, and then dogs, hens, pigs, pigeons, etc., may pick it up. There may be a few more ways of catching Rats than I have enumerated, but I think I have given the best ways in detail. Some people think that to use THE MONGOOSE is very good, but I think that the mongoose is no better than a good fox terrier dog or a good cat, the only advantage in the mongoose being that all the Rats it kills it will bring back dead to its habitation, and that stops the dead Rats from smelling under the floors. I think that the mongoose is not half so sly or sharp as a good cat, and a mongoose, moreover, has to be taught how to kill a Rat (just the same as a dog). I am fortunate in having actually seen a mongoose and a Rat put alive in a tub together, and the mongoose would not even look at the Rat. And I maintain that the mongoose cannot compare with the ferret anytime, for the simple reason that a small ferret can get anywhere that a Rat can, whilst the mongoose must wait until the Rat comes out to feed. For instance, if a board of a floor be left up for a mongoose to get under the floor, it can only get into one of the joists; but a ferret can follow a Rat wherever it goes. Then again, the Rats can smell a mongoose even more strongly than they can smell a cat. So these facts prevent my recommending a mongoose on any account. I have also heard of people experimenting with different sorts of DRUGS AND CHEMICALS for enticing Rats out of their holes. I hope none of my readers will be attracted with this device. I hold that there is nothing that will tempt a Rat from its hole like hunger. The nearest approach that I have found to entice the Rodent out of its hole is oil of aniseed or oil of rhodium, but the latter is expensive. I can rely best on oil of aniseed, because I have often successfully tried it in experiment upon the plate of a set trap. I have placed only three or four drops of oil of aniseed upon the plate of a set trap without bait, and often the trap has closed and trapped the Rat by the nose; so that it will be seen that the Rat must have been licking the plate, or it could not be caught in that manner. I have also frequently noticed when I have set, say, 20 traps covered with meal and sawdust mixed, that if I have put only two drops of oil of aniseed on half the traps I should find next morning on looking at the traps that most Rats are in those in which I had placed the aniseed. I think that oil of rhodium and oil of aniseed are very good to drop on the traps after setting, or to mix with the stuff with which the traps are covered. There is also another way of bolting Rats. Sometimes when the ferret is put under a boarded floor, all the Rats will run together and pack themselves in a heap at the end of a joist. When the Rats pack themselves on each other thus, the ferret on reaching them will tackle only one at a time. You can always tell when this happens by the ferret working a long time and bolting no Rats. Now, immediately you notice this, put your mouth near the hole where you have put the ferrets in, and make a squealing noise with your mouth to imitate a squealing Rat. This causes the heap of Rats at the end of the joist to disperse through fear, and when they get running about they will bolt into the net. Many times I have not had a bolt for half-an-hour and when I have squealed at the hole I have had four or five Rats in the nets at once. These are some of the methods of clearing Rats from various places, and from experience I think they excel all others. PART II. HOW TO KEEP AND WORK FERRETS. The first necessity in ferret-keeping is that they shall be kept in hutches or "cotes," as they are commonly called. Care must always be taken to have their places well swilled with carbolic water, and then allowed to thoroughly dry before whitewashing the inside, which is also essential to keep them healthy. This should be done at least four times a year. Always have your hutches leaning from the wall, so that wet or refuse will not lodge, for when the bottom of a hutch is always wet it is liable to give the ferrets a disease called foot rot, which is very frequent where ferrets are neglected. Always keep the feeding part of the hutch well covered with sawdust. In feeding ferrets for the purpose of Rat-catching, never do so before going out with them; I think it is quite sufficient to feed them every 24 hours. If you feed them oftener they are liable to get too fat, and also lazy and unwilling to work as they should. The best food you can give them is bread and milk, and occasionally a little raw liver. Mix the bread and milk with a little hot water, stir well with a spoon or squeeze through your fingers, so that the ferrets will have to eat it where you feed them; if not they will carry the large pieces of bread that are wet into the corners of the sleeping place, which would soon cause that part of the hutch to smell very sour and become injurious to the health of the ferret, especially where four or five are kept together, as they are of a very perspiring nature. Always give them plenty of room to run about when you can; if you don't they are likely to take cramp. Ferrets are usually subject to distemper. The first symptom is the ferret's neglect of its food. When you see this you will observe a little matter at the corner of the eyes, and the ferret will have a slight running at the nostrils. Immediately you see these symptoms separate that ferret from the others, as this is, I think, the worst disease one has to contend with. In the whole of my ferret-keeping experience I have found distemper, if caught in time, can be cured; but if it gets too far I know of no cure for it. I have known a gamekeeper to have dogs with the distemper, and he has not touched his ferrets or handled them at all during the time his dogs were bad, yet a week afterwards his ferrets caught the disease. He tried all the remedies he knew of, but in 14 days 12 hitherto good, strong, healthy ferrets died: all he had. This will show at once that the disease is very contagious. The moment you see signs of distemper coming on feed the ferret as little as possible. Give it as little to eat as will just keep life in it, for in feeding the ferret you also feed the disease. When you have kept the food from it is the time to start curing if possible. Now, from experience the first thing I recommend is to sweat the disease out of it, and I find the best way to do this is as follows:--Get an old bucket with a few one-inch holes bored in the bottom, and almost fill it with good new straw horse-droppings; put a little hay on the top of the droppings, and then put the ferret on the hay. Place or hang the bucket over a boiler or on the mantelpiece, and let the kettle steam under the bucket, say for 30 minutes, and you will find the steam and the ammonia from the droppings will together sweat the disease out of the ferret; then you can start feeding it again. Feed it with something substantial, such as the jelly from stewed cowheels; give them the jelly only, not the meat; and you will have a good result. Also give them a teaspoonful of cream. This is the one and only cure for distemper. Another disease in ferrets, especially young ones, is what I call "red mange." This starts always under the belly, and you will find that the skin becomes very red and speckled. This is easily remedied by the simple process of washing in lukewarm water and rubbing with sweet oil and black sulphur. The same mixture will answer for "foot rot" if rubbed well into the paws. The general cause of this latter disease is neglect of the ferrets and the hutches not being cleaned out regularly. I think the best bedding for ferrets is good oat straw, fresh every fortnight. Throw the straw in carelessly, and the ferrets will make their own beds. When breeding ferrets, never go near them more than you can help, as they are of a wild nature and liable to destroy their young. When you know a Jill or bitch ferret has young, give her a little extra good food, but don't interfere with the young ones on any account, and if you want to give her a little extra bedding put the straw in the same place as the food, and she will take it into the sleeping place herself. It is advisable not to touch the young ones for five weeks, or better still leave them until they come out to feed themselves; and when running about, if there be a good number, say nine or ten, in the lot, it is a good plan to remove them into a larger place for sleeping, as young ferrets are very liable to catch the red mange, which arises from too many being together and sweating very much. WHEN WORKING FERRETS FOR RAT-CATCHING always work them unmuzzled. Make as little noise as possible, as Rats are very bad to bolt sometimes. Never grab at the ferret as it leaves the hole, nor tempt it out of the hole with a dead Rat. The best way is to let the ferret come out of its own choice, and then pick it up very quietly, for if you grab at it, it is likely to become what we call a "stopper;" and never on any account force a ferret to go into a hole. WHEN WORKING FERRETS FOR RABBIT-SHOOTING always muzzle them. The old-fashioned style of muzzle is, I think, the best, that is, made with string. I don't approve of wire muzzles, as they are liable to catch against tree roots and bits of sharp stones, and from experience I find the ferret works much better with the string muzzle. There is one way of working ferrets when rabbit-shooting which, if followed, I think would lead to a better day's shooting. You will often see the ferrets stick up with the rabbits. Now, in most cases the gamekeeper or his man working the ferrets will often cut open a dead rabbit and put the paunch to the burrow. I quite agree as to the desirability of this to get the ferrets out, but I say that the man using the ferrets ought never to touch the paunch, as the ferrets will not work half so well after he has the smell of the paunch on his hands. Another bad plan is that of throwing a dead rabbit into the burrow so that the ferret will follow it out. The best plan is to let the ferret get clear of the hole, and then pick it up quietly. If you will break your ferrets in in this manner you will never have any trouble with them afterwards. When ferrets are conveyed about for the purpose of rabbiting, boxes are much better to use than bags, as the ferrets then get a better chance of resting. If bags be used you disturb the ferrets' rest and position each time you remove one. Take care to observe this and it will result in a good day's sport. Always take your ferrets home as quickly as possible after a day's work. Ferrets kept only for rabbit-shooting should always be fed as soon as the day's work is over, but they must not have more food till the same time the following day. If fed in this way regularly you will find that they will work very well. It is also advisable to let them drink at a stream when they have worked about three hours. When ferrets have been fast in a rabbit burrow, their paws may be full of down with scratching at the rabbits. Always remove this before placing them to another burrow. Each time you handle the ferret see that the muzzle is alright, and in muzzling with string great care should be taken to remove the long hair on the snout from under the string; otherwise the ferret may experience a tickling sensation, and not work so well as it should; see also that the string is tied tightly around the ferret's neck; if not it can easily pull off the muzzle with its paws. Whenever a ferret is severely bitten by a Rat the best course to take immediately you get it home is to bathe the wound in clean luke-warm water. See that all the dirt is removed, and then apply a few drops of sweet oil to the wound. Repeat this every four hours, until the wound is healed, but until then do not work the ferret lest more dirt gets into the wound. My experience proves this to be the best way to cure a ferret when it has received a severe Rat-bite. It is also a good plan occasionally (say once a fortnight) to skin a nice young Rat and give it to the ferret. SUITABLE DOGS. And now a word or two as to what is a good dog for waterside hunting, or working with the ferrets. I recommend a cross-bred dog, but I find that it is always better to have the pointer breed in it, whatever other breed you get, because the pointer always has the nose or scent. Pointer and Airedale would be very good, or pointer and Irish terrier. I have often noticed that pure-bred dogs are not much good for hunting in buildings or rivers. I have frequently seen a cross-bred dog stand at one side of the river, and if the wind has been in his favour he has winded his nose across the river, and I have sent him over and he has turned a Rat out, bolted it into the water, and killed it. The best precaution to take in breaking a dog to Rat-catching and waterside hunting (especially if it be a puppy) is to never allow anybody but yourself to have anything to do with it, it being the worst thing possible to let a working dog have too many masters. Break it in to the ferrets first, and then it is a good plan to go up the river banks, with either a dead Rat or rabbit skin, letting the dog play with it for a while, and then burying it about 18 inches in the river bank; or you may pull up a clod and put it under, only you must not let the dog see where you place it. Then take the dog with you near to where the rat or skin is buried, and you will soon see that the dog knows its work. Do this a few times, and you will see that once the dog finds the dead Rat or the skin it will never forget. The younger the dog the better, the right age to break a puppy this way being about four or five months. Break it in for taking to the water at the same time. If you want a good working dog always keep it on the chain when at home, and feed it at the same time as the ferrets, but do not over-feed it; also give it one dose of castor oil or syrup of buckthorn every 14 days. I recommend this because you never know the nasty poisonous stuff that the dog gets on its stomach from the dirty brook and river sides. Let me add that all I have written about ferrets and dogs are not given merely from hearsay, but are the facts derived from study and experience during 25 years of dog and ferret-keeping. PART III. THE HABITS OF RATS. Rats breed very quickly. This I have often proved by visiting a given haunt for many years together. I remember an instance in point one June, when out with dog and ferrets. The dog made a set under the root of a tree. I put the ferret in and it bolted eight young Rats, nearly half grown, still suckling the bitch Rat. When the old Rat bolted my dog killed it, and whilst the dog was shaking it I found she was very heavy in young again. This, therefore, will prove how quickly Rats breed. Another result of my observation may be of interest to my readers. After removing a lot of old rubbish when ratting I came upon a nest of just- born Rats, and, in curiosity, I cut the tails off the lot, and then put the young Rodents back, leaving the nest undisturbed. When I returned next day, I found the old Rat had carried all her young away, and, later, I found the same tailless lot in another part of the building, and, after disturbing them again, I found the following day that the bitch Rat had killed every one by eating off their heads. This destruction of the offspring I have witnessed on more than one occasion. The old bitch Rat has always killed them in the same way by eating off their heads. I must not forget to tell you of the young Rat's dread of the ferrets. I have often seen when the ferrets have been put in the hole the young Rats (not many days old and their eyes yet unopened) creep out of the hole. This is a proof that the smell of the ferrets has a tendency to bolt Rats, either young or old. Old Rats are very bold whilst suckling their young. I have seen them very venturesome to get to water, and more eager for water than for food. I have often traced their runs a long way for water, and noticed that when crossing a field to get to a pit or river they never walk, but are always on the run; and in the summer, when they reach the pit, they not only drink, but often swim about. I have frequently watched them swimming on a moonlight night, but they generally go back to the buildings in the early morning, especially in the winter months. Another habit I have often noticed. Take a farm, or any place where there are many Rats, and it will be always found that when a Rat gets very old it becomes very greyish in colour and rather scabbed, and its hair comes off, mostly on the back. The healthy Rats will then drive the old Rat away, and these scabby old Rats may be caught by themselves in other parts of the buildings; and, further, I often notice that if the ferrets are bitten with these old Rats, they "take bad ways." I never put such Rats with the others nor allow my dog to kill them. I would advise any gentleman having a dog he values never to let it touch one of these old scabby Rats, as it may prove injurious to the health of the dog. It is surprising how far Rats will travel in the night. I have traced their tracks from a stackyard over two or three fields to a farm to get to their food. And you will always find that they have one time for feeding, which is as soon as it is dusk, the young Rats being the most venturesome for their food, always coming out first. Rats, especially stackyard ones, are of a very clean nature. You will find that after they have had their first feed they diligently wash themselves. These Rats feed on nothing but good stuff, such as wheat, corn, and meal; and from experience I find that if a man is bitten on the hand by one of these Brown or Stack Rats it never "takes bad ways," but, if bitten by a dirty Drain Rat, then whether he cauterises or bathes the wound is no matter, it is sure to "take bad ways." I think the reason of this is because the Drain Rat, when it cannot get anything else to eat, exists on the worms and slugs, and this, I think, causes the teeth to become more venomous. When bitten in this way blood poisoning is very likely to ensue. Indeed, you must understand that the teeth of a full- grown Rat are quite half-an-inch long, and the jaw is very strong, so that if you are bitten on the finger it is almost sure to penetrate to the bone. I have known a good many cases of blood poisoning through Rat- bites. The damage Rats can do to property, commodities, etc., is almost incredible. I have had so many examples of this that I scarcely know which to submit as illustration. I think the worst case I have seen was where they gnawed a hole half way through a 2-1/4 inch lead pipe, and often I have known them to bite through a one-inch lead pipe. The worst damage is done when they get under the flag floors of cottage houses out of the drains. They scratch the soil from beneath the flags, which then sink, and the consequent stench from the drains is abominable, jeopardising the health of the tenants. I have seen a great many of these cases in the poorer parts of Manchester. The damage the Rats will do in the silk and similar trades, to the goods of merchants, or in the grocery business, is enormous, and not so much by reason of what they actually eat as by what they carry away, which is often ten times as much as they eat. I have often proved this when ferreting at a wholesale grocery warehouse. When we have taken up the boards between the laths and plaster we have found the ceiling almost full of lump sugar, nuts, candles, etc., which have been there for years, hoarded by the Rats. Now, this all means heavy loss, and that is why I say that any business man so suffering ought to engage the services of a professional Rat-catcher once a year in order to keep the Rats down, and catch as many as possible before they begin breeding. Another Rat habit may be noticed where the Rodents are accustomed to have their holes and runs among flags and stones. If they find any soft wood such as pine or white deal, they will nibble at it until it is eaten through. I have often known them to eat right through the legs of tables in the middle of cooking kitchens. This, I think, they do simply to keep their teeth clean and in order; I have known half-grown Rats to do the same. Rats can exist a long time on herbage, if they can get nothing more palatable. It is a very common thing to find Rats in the rabbit burrows when ferreting; in fact, I have seen, not once, but many times, Rats, rabbits, and weasels all bolt from the same burrow. I have also unearthed a Rat and a rabbit together out of one single burrow. Now as to keeping Rats in store cages at home. Look well after them, and I think it is possible to keep them alive for quite a year; but if you keep, say, 20 in one store cage and neglect their feeding,, you will find that when hungry in the night they will kill the weakest of their number and eat it, sometimes even eating two or three in one night, leaving the skin as clean as if a man had skinned them. It is always the best plan to put the Rats in different cages, according to their sizes. The young ones together, the old ones together, and the middle-aged ones together, as they keep themselves much cleaner when thus divided, and do not fight so much as they would otherwise. They must also be kept in a warm place; if not, they soon have cramp. Also keep them in a dark place and see that they have plenty of water; sprinkle them now and then with it so that they will wash themselves. It is astonishing what a hungry Rat will do. I have seen them in the summer at dusk run at an old hen with her chickens under her, and almost as quick as I tell it, the Rat has snatched a live chicken and run with it under a pigsty floor. I have known them to take half-grown young ducks from the water side. I remember once ferreting round a pit, near a barn, and when I put my ferret in the hole, it pulled out two dead chickens and three middle-sized dead ducks, and behind them, not more than a yard deep in the pit bank, was an old Rat. I have also known them to get into the coops where a gamekeeper was rearing his pheasants, and to kill nine young ones in a single night all from under the same hen. Rats are also fond of eggs. I have read of many ways in which Rats take eggs, but in my quarter-of-a-century's experience of Ratting I never saw Rats take eggs save in one way, and that is, dragging or rolling them along the floor with their front paws, until they get them to the mouth of the hole. I remember one place where I was ferreting. There was an old cellar, the door of which at the top of the steps had to my knowledge been nailed up two or three years. Out of the hen house the Rats had eaten a hole at each side of the cellar door at the bottom. One day we burst open the door, went into the cellar (where it was impossible for a hen to get whilst the door was closed) and beneath the bottom step we caught two Rats. On lifting the flag at the bottom of the steps, we found 15 whole eggs, some good and some bad, all of which I am quite satisfied the Rats had carried down those nine stone steps! How they had done so I cannot explain, but content myself with stating only the plain facts of my own personal observation. Rats are also very cunning in the water, say a pit or a river. Now, a Rat can exist in water for at most about seven minutes, and you will find when a dog is swimming after a Rat that the Rat is watching the dog all the time, for as soon as the dog gets within a yard of the Rat the latter will dive under water and come to the surface again about 15 yards away. When the dog has tired the Rat out with swimming, you will very often see the Rat dive again and come up very quietly and just put its nose out of the water, or rest its head on a floating leaf. It is so cunning that it will remain still there, and if the leaf or reed gives way it will come up at the water side and just thrust out its nose to breathe. By this means the dog loses full scent of the Rat. I have also noticed how useful are the Rat's front paws and tail. I have seen a Rat on the top of a swill tub at a pigsty, when the swill has been about ten inches from the top of the tub. The Rat was too cunning to jump down on the wet swill and drown, but I saw it reach as far down the inside of the tub as possible with its front paws and scrape the grease from around the sides! I have also seen the same Rat, when unable to scrape any further down the tub sides, turn round, clutch the top of the tub with its front paws, dip its tail into the swill, and then gain the top of the tub and commence licking its tail. I have also tried an experiment with the same tub, which consisted of covering the top of the wet swill with bran, which floated on the surface, and placing a bit of lumpy swill in the middle of the bran, in the hope that the Rat would jump on the bran in the expectation of getting at the swill in the middle. However, it did not do so, no doubt instinctively guided against the danger. I have also watched Rats run round a set wire or cage trap for a full hour. I have seen them go half way in and out again, look at the bait and never touch it, but go away and never return to the same trap that night. These examples show the cunning instinct of Rats. There is, however, one power that the Rat is not favoured with, and I am afraid if they were they would be a greater pest. It is the ability of high jumping. A Rat cannot, I think, jump higher than three feet six inches, and will have to be very hungry before doing that to obtain food. Many people may not know how fierce Rats are when fighting. Let me instance. I have often taken, one in each hand, two good Rats from my cage before a hundred spectators and set the Rats at each other on the top of a table. To see them fight would be surprising. They will fight like two bulldogs. When they have got a grip of each other with their teeth I have taken away my hands, and they have stuck and shook one another for at least half-a-minute, although you must understand that the moment they are loose of one another they are off if you don't catch them again. There are several other cunning ways of Rats which I can scarcely explain. One must be amongst them regularly to know their wonderful ways and habits. Yet another little incident, in conclusion, may be of interest. I once called at a farm where they had been threshing a wheat stack. A Rat-catcher had been there but without a dog, and when I arrived two hours afterwards my dog made a set, and commenced scratching amongst the old chaff left at the bottom of the stack, and to the astonishment of myself and the farmer I pulled out of the hole where the dog was scratching 73 live Rats! The other Rat-catcher, who had been at the threshing all day, had caught only 14 Rats. This will serve to show that a Rat-catcher must not be without a good dog. And now, respecting the ways and habits of Rats I think I have given my readers interesting and varied illustrations of what I have seen and experienced during my time. PART IV. LIFE OF THE RAT-CATCHER. This work will not be complete if I do not deal with the Rat-catcher's life. The profession is a peculiar and exciting one, but all right if pursued in the right way. Although the calling takes one into dirty and obnoxious places, there is no reason why the Rat-catcher should not always appear respectable. The Rat-catcher has many temptations to dishonest conducts, for instance, when Rat-catching on a farm or private estate where there are numerous rabbits and game. It looks rather hard lines for the Rat-catcher to come off a farm with his cage full of Rats and see rabbits running about whilst he has all the requisites in his possession for catching them; and yet he must not touch one, but go home and merely reflect on what a good Sunday's dinner he is leaving behind. This I have experienced many a time, but I have always found even from the business view-point that the old advice still remains true, "Honesty is the best policy." Leaving the rabbits to themselves has always turned out to be the best, for to take a rabbit worth a shilling, and get caught in the act, means that you can never go on the same estate again. And from that same estate you might have got 500 Rats in a year, worth four shillings a dozen. I must also put in a good word here for the gamekeepers. My opinion is that if you go on a keeper's ground and do what is right, you will be able to go again, for in the whole of my experience never having carried any nets but Rat nets when on private estates, I have the consolation of knowing that I should always be welcome on going again to such estates. Of course there are inconveniences that the Rat-catcher has to put up with. Whatever engagements he takes in a town, the only time he can catch Rats with a good result is in the night. On one occasion, when going round with my bull's-eye lamp to examine the traps, I was taken for a burglar by the policeman on the beat, and he doubted me so much that he would not release me until I had shown him my cage with Rats in and my traps set all over the place. Then he took almost as much interest in the catching of Rats as myself, and also brought in the other policemen who were outside waiting for me to attempt an escape. Ever after that, when I had a night's engagement in any town, I always went to the police station to tell the man on that beat where I was. It behoves the Rat-catcher to be always attentive to his customers, those, I mean, who want live Rats wherewith to try their dogs. Amongst mine I have the honour to include clients of highest rank and position, barristers, magistrates, solicitors and a host of sporting gentry. If the Rat-catcher's efforts commend themselves to such gentlemen, and he always maintains a respectable appearance, he will obtain some very nice outings in the country. Oft-times a party of gentlemen have sent for me in the summer, having arranged with me to bring four or five ferrets and Ratting appliances, and we have gone 50 miles up the country. They would bring their terrier dogs, and we would hunt all along the brooks and rivers, and round the corn and wheat fields, putting the Rats we caught into the cage, and after lunch, taking the Rats to a meadow and coursing them with their dogs, which I think it real good sport. We would put up at the best hotels and repeat the procedure next day, very often taking a drag or coach, and driving ten or a dozen miles farther up the country. I can assure my readers that the Rat-catcher is well remunerated for the trouble he undertakes in these cases, and moreover this is the class of people he requires to fraternise with. There is always a plentiful supply of "refreshments" on these outings, and I would therefore advise the Rat-catcher not to indulge too freely. The foregoing is, of course, a brief sketch of the pleasantest part of a Rat-catcher's life, and to complete the picture I may as well describe some of the other features, and the way he has to rough it sometimes. Well, Rat-catchers are generally called upon to supply Rats for the Rat coursings usually held at beerhouses, etc., on Saturday afternoons, which one often sees advertised. Now, if he binds himself to supply a coursing at a certain date, the bills announcing the event are printed and posted, all of which means expense. Then you are bound to secure the live Rats, whatever be the weather. In doing this I always followed the threshing machine to the bays and stacks. (Anyone that catches Rats regularly can tell by looking at the bays or stacks whether there are many Rats in or not.) I remember many times when the men have started threshing a bay of wheat in which were a great many Rats, and by dark they have threshed only half of the bay. At such times the Rat-catcher must not leave the remaining half, no, not for half-an-hour throughout the whole night, for if he does the Rats will run out. To stop the Rats from leaving, the Rat- catcher has to lie on the top of the bay or go about every thirty minutes and beat the bottom with sticks until daylight, in order to keep the Rats in. Then, after the machine re-starts, and the bottom of the bay is reached, the Rat-catcher will be well paid for his trouble, for he may get, say, 150 good Rats for the coursing, at six shillings per dozen. The reason I call them good coursing Rats is because they have not been handled, and that enables them to run well. Now, when you go to these coursings (which are mostly in the colliery districts) you will find about 60 dogs entered. It is the Rat-catcher's business to measure and handicap the dogs, and a very unpleasant job it is. He has also to be the referee at these coursings, and if it is a "near thing" with two dogs running at one rat, and you decide to award the victory to a given one, then the owner of the other dog will probably accuse you of wrong-doing and favouritism. Then is the time the Rat-catcher has to be prepared to pull off his coat and start fighting before, perhaps, 500 spectators. This has often occurred with me. This, I can assure my readers, is what I call "roughing it." Of course, what I have just related occurred a few years ago, but when the Muzzling Order came into force, the authorities practically stopped Rat coursing, for they would not let a dog run at a Rat unless the dog was muzzled. This was about the worst thing that the authorities could do for Manchester and district, for at that time I was supplying for coursings about 100 Rats per week, and at the same time sending 50 Rats a week into Yorkshire, and all the Rats I supplied were caught within 15 miles of Manchester. This in my opinion, speaks very bad of the Muzzling Order, which I think is nothing but a farce, for at the very time I was going ratting, dogs were muzzled in some parts of the country but not in others. My opinion of dog muzzling is, muzzle all or muzzle none. You will see by what I have said respecting these coursings, etc., that the Rat-catcher has plenty of work to supply so many live rats, and he has also to mix with company high and low. He also sometimes experiences difficulties in travelling on the railway. I have often entered an empty third-class carriage, sent my dog under the seat, and put the Rat cage there also. The carriage would fill with passengers, and upon reaching my destination I would take from under the seat my cage full of live Rats, to the amusement of some and the disgust of others. I have also entered a railway carriage with my cage of rats when there were passengers in, one or two of whom would generally object to live Rats being in the same compartment, and on enquiring of the railway officials, I have found that any one travelling with live Rats is expected to put them in the guard's van. I have also had a few good customers in my business, one or two in particular. Gentlemen have often sent me post-cards instructing me to take six or twelve Rats to their residences. I would run them out on the lawn in front of the house with their dogs, and generally I have received good remuneration for my trouble. These are the customers who should be looked well after, for they are the sportsmen who do not consider expense, though of course there are others who are just the opposite. Further, Rat-catching is a business in which one is not called upon to allow credit. It is all a ready-money trade, and as there is not much competition, the Rat-catcher can command a good price for his work. He has always one resource open to him when he has finished a job according to contract (catching say 40 or 50 Rats), should there be a dispute about the price and the people decline to pay the bill, then he has the expedient of letting the Rats at liberty again in the place where he had caught them. Most people will pay the price you send in rather than have the Rats turned loose again. Although I am showing how the Rat-catcher can always have the advantage of stubborn payers, I may as well assure my readers that in all my experience such an occurrence as the above has never happened with me, simply because I always make my arrangements beforehand, which course I always find the best and most satisfactory all round. Another matter I may mention. If any one could find out a sure way of catching Rats so that he could give a guarantee to clear large buildings, my opinion is that he would make a fortune in a very short time; for I know firms in Manchester alone that would pay almost any amount to be rid of the Rats; not only because of what they consume, but more for the damage they do to their goods. I have referred to the Rat-catcher obtaining good pay. The reason he commands such a big price for his work at the present time is because there is not much sale for live Rats. The trade is not what it was some years ago when Rat-pits were allowed. I think it was one of the worst things they ever did for this country when the authorities stopped the Rat pits, for when Rat killing was allowed in pits, it was a common thing for a Rat-catcher to receive an order for 100 Rats, all to be killed at one time; then the Rat-catcher would get the Rats and wherever he got them from he was ridding that district of a nuisance. But when the authorities stopped Rat-pits and Rat-coursing, the consequence was that the Rat-catcher left the Rats to breed in thousands. Rats being vermin, I don't see why they should not be killed 50 or 100 at a time in the pit, but the Humane Society maintain that it is cruelty to dogs to put them in a pit with a lot of Rats. I don't see where the cruelty comes in, but from what I have seen of Rat-pits during my time I approve of them, and I think if they were in existence again there would be a clearing of many thousands of Rats. Some 15 or 20 years since, I supplied 400 Rats in one week, all to be killed in Rat-pits. Many of my readers may not understand what a Rat-pit is, and so I will just give an outline as well as I can. The Rat-pit is of circular construction, say ten feet diameter, and about four feet six inches deep, the sides being perfectly smooth to prevent the rats climbing up and making their escape. A certain number of Rats are placed in the pit according to the arrangements made with the owner of the dog. Then the dog is put in the pit with the rats to kill them, which a good dog does very quickly. The reason the pit is built circular is so that the Rats will keep running round, for if it were square they would all run in a corner, one on the other, and then the dog would have no difficulty in killing them. It is better to have the pit fairly deep; if not, the rats might escape. I think the best dog, within my recollection, that I have seen was a bull and fox terrier, which killed 40 good Rats in three minutes and 21 seconds. I have read and heard of dogs doing better feats, but I am only writing of what I have myself seen. I may say that the records for Rat- killing in Rat-pits are held by a dog called Jacko, which killed 200 Rats in 14 minutes and 37 seconds, and 1,000 Rats in less than one hour and 40 minutes. The Rat-catcher has also some very dirty jobs to do sometimes. Often he has to go under all sorts of cellar floors, both wet and dry, but the majority of places are very wet and dirty, for the Rats nearly always come out of some filthy drain, and very often near a water-closet, the abominable smell arising from these places being sufficient to cause a fever. I remember being once employed at a hospital, and I was paid at the rate of 5s. per visit for trapping Rats. Well, I found that 5s. per visit did not pay me (I had about 120 traps set all over the place), so I went before the committee and requested 8s. per night. The committee said they thought 5s. per visit was enough, and one or two of them said they thought 8s. per night was above a Rat-catcher's pay. Now, as I was not depending on that particular job at the time, I turned round and told them what I thought. I told them I considered Rat-catching was a skilled occupation, and I also offered any of them a five-pound note if they would only follow me under the floors at midnight, not to speak of taking the live Rats out of the traps in the dark; but I can assure you that none of these gentlemen would venture to undertake the task. Now, if any of these gentlemen had to do this a few times they would not refuse to pay the Rat-catcher the sum he asks, viz., 8s. per night. I remember more than once in big places such as bonding warehouses, when I have been under the floors, my candle or lamp has gone out through being knocked over with grabbing at Rats, and I have not had a match in my pocket, and have had to grope about in the dark trying to find the trap-door where I have got under the floors, more often than not putting my hand in a set trap. It would be of no use shouting for a light simply because I have been alone. It is always better for a Rat-catcher to have assistance for night work, but I have done it myself very often. Now, the expenses of travelling come very heavy sometimes, for wherever the Rat-catcher goes he always has to pay railway fare for himself and his dog. Another thing I must tell you. Often when I have gone to inspect a small building I have found that there were a great many Rats in, but I have also known, after inspecting the place, that they have all come from the one place, out of the drain. Well, if I have contracted to do this job for a lump sum, I could easily clear this place and not catch an odd Rat, simply by ferreting them all back into the sewer in the daytime, and then making it good; but in most of these cases they do not like to pay your bill because you have caught no Rats. Still, you have driven them all down the drains, and after making the drain good they cannot get back again into the building. Now, in a case like this I always trap them two or three nights and catch a few, just to give satisfaction to those engaging me. Sometimes gentlemen will write inviting me to meet them at a certain farm, and bring my ferrets and a good supply of nets, alleging that there are "hundreds of Rats in the stacks." I just relate this to indicate how anyone not regularly amongst Rats can easily be deceived as to their numbers, for a couple of Rats on the thatch of a stack, especially when they have young ones, will probably have twelve holes eaten in the thatch and underneath the stack, and anyone not understanding their habits would think there were a lot of Rats in it. And it is much the same with workpeople; if they chance to see two or three Rats at once, they will say there are "scores" of them. You would also be surprised to see the awful dread that tenants have of the Rat- catcher in private houses. When ferreting these places they think that if a Rat-catcher has once put his ferrets under the floor they will never see another Rat in the place; but depend upon it they are very bad to catch in these places. I have often had much trouble respecting houses, warehouses, etc., to know whose duty it would be to pay the Rat-catcher for his work, the landlord's or the tenant's, but I think that the landlord should pay. I have had many engagements to catch Rats in newly-built houses before they were tenanted. The time the Rats get into these places is whilst the workmen are putting the drains in the back yards, leaving the drains open at nights. Thence the Rats come out and get under the floors, sometimes having to stop there, too, simply because the next day the joiners board up the floors and thus block the Rats in underneath, and then the Rats can always get into the kitchens up the back of the fireplace. Most property owners would do well to take note of this fact. I must tell my readers, especially those having large shops, etc., that it is a good plan, if possible, to turn off the gas and water every night and week-end, for I have seen a good many cases where the Rats in the night-time have eaten through a water-pipe, and the place has been flooded by morning. It is just the same with a gas-pipe, and my opinion is that it is quite possible for fires to be caused by Rats in the night- time. Rats are very fond of nibbling and scratching at soft wood, and it would be an easy matter at a grocer's shop for a Rat to bite or scratch through the package of a gross of matches and ignite them, and the same cause may prove disastrous with any other inflammable goods. Respecting the conveyance of live Rats, the Rat-catcher should always be particular to have good strong cages and bags, because if he had a number of Rats in an unserviceable bag which happened to break open at a railway station or in the street, I think he could be summoned for the damage the escaped Rats might do. Still, I have not in my time had or heard of a case of this sort. Speaking of bags, a good many people seem to think that if a man puts his hand into a bagful of Rats they will bite him, but I can assure you that a child could do the same thing and not be bitten. Should there be only two or three in the bag, then they will bite, but not in the event of there being a good number. The same rule applies to Rats stored in a cage, where there is open daylight--if there be 40 or 50 Rats together, it is then the habit of the Rats for all to cling together, and they will let you handle them anyway if only you will have sufficient courage. It is very good sport for gentlemen who want a good day's outing to go to farms when threshing is on, and also to go hunting and ferreting round the corn and wheat fields, and I think many sporting gentlemen who have not seen such sport would indulge in it freely after they had once witnessed it. I think it is much better and healthier sport than rabbit- shooting, especially in the summer when the farmers are cutting their corn and wheat. When catching Rats as a regular pursuit, one is surprised at the queer places in which he finds them. I recollect ferreting seven full-sized Rats from under the floor of a built dog kennel not above four yards square, where a large mastiff and a terrier dog slept every night, only a 3/4-inch board dividing them from the Rats, and the Rats having eaten holes through the boards in the kennel! I have also found at an out-house an old bitch Rat and nine young ones in an old tin trunk without a lid. I have also caught Rats and taken young ones out of the nest from under railway sleepers where trains have been running and shunting operations carried on every day. And I have even taken old and young ones in their nest from a pile of Cheshire cheese, at a wholesale cheese and bacon factor's! And mentioning cheese in this connection reminds me that once I discovered that Rats had scratched and eaten a hole direct through the bottom lot of cheese in a pile which had only been there three weeks. A word or two about what a Rat will do with a ferret. I have often seen a Rat run a ferret out of the hole, and then wait with its head out of the hole until the ferret has come to it again. I remember once ferreting at a hencote, and put the ferret behind the hen nest, whereupon the Rat attacked the ferret, which then jumped back and died in five minutes, the Rats having given only one bite behind the ferret's ear! Of course this is a very rare occurrence. True, I have had many ferrets killed by Rats in my time, but it has always occurred through the poisonous bite first swelling and then "taking bad ways," the ferret dying in probably a week or so. You must understand that if you put a Rat and a ferret together in a tub the ferret would kill the Rat in nine cases out of ten, the nature of the Rat being to get away from the ferret if possible; but if it cannot it will fight, and I think a Rat, for its size, is of a very vicious nature, for I have often seen when trying a puppy at killing a Rat in a pit, that a game Rat will run the puppy all round the pit. The best way to try a pup to kill a Rat is to draw the teeth of the first Rat it secures for sometimes if a pup gets a severe bite from a Rat it will never look at another. It is a very bad plan to let a pup play with a Rat too much, for this causes the pup never to put a hard mouth on the Rat. When this latter occurs it is the best plan not to allow the same pup to see another Rat until it is a month or two older. If you will take care and trouble with a pup you can bring it up to your own liking, and to do anything you want. I have worked seven years with a curly-coated retriever bitch, and when ferreting a brook she would stand in the water and catch the Rats that escaped from the nets into the brook and bring them to me alive in her mouth. I have sold hundreds of Rats she has caught in this manner, and to show you how the dogs can be brought up with the ferrets I need only mention that this bitch would lie down and let two ferrets kill a Rat on the curly coat of her back. Farmers know too well of the many restless nights the cows and horses experience through Rats. I have seen when trapping all night at a farm the Rats running over the cows and horses whilst sleeping: and when horses have been working in the field all day they want better rest in the night. I have known when farmers would not let the Rat-catcher ferret their buildings gratis, simply because they have a few hens sitting. They don't consider that when the hens have hatched the eggs the Rats will take the chickens. Whenever a farmer has refused to let me ferret at his farm I have passed that farm ever afterwards. To show you the different dispositions of farmers I have met, I may mention that when once ferreting at a farm, we caught nine rats and lost the ferret, and two days afterwards the ferret was found on the farm, and I sent for it, but the farmer demanded two shillings of me for the ferret's keep. This same man I may add farmed about two hundred acres. Of course, there are other farmers just the opposite, who will not only pay you for your trouble, but take great interest in helping you to catch the Rats. I relate these facts and incidents to show you the contrast in the disposition of different people one meets in this business. I don't think the Rat-catcher's life is one of the worst if he looks well after his business, for he has a few advantages over other occupations. In the first place, he is his own master, and need only doff his coat when he chooses, there being for him no such summons to work as a factory bell. And if he fancies a day's outing in the country he can always take his dog and ferrets with him, and make a day's pleasure into a remunerative business, by reason of the income from the Rats, and I find from experience that the best friends he has are his dog and ferrets, if he will look well after them and treat them kindly, for I think that a Rat-catcher in the country without a good dog might walk over scores of Rats and never know they were there, so you will see that his dog is chiefly what he has to trust to. And now, in conclusion, let me express the hope that this book will prove instructive, entertaining, and profitable to my readers, inasmuch as I have endeavoured to make it so to the best of my ability and within the somewhat limited scope and sphere of a Rat-catcher's calling. Of course, I might have made the narrative portion of the book more startling and exciting, had I drawn upon my imagination, but I have thought it best to adhere to cold fact and actual experience. HINTS ON RABBIT SHOOTING. Always have your gun made at your gunmaker's to your own liking. Always be prepared for the worst of weather, and be sure to have good strong boots. Never have your gun on full cock while walking about, especially whilst going through a fence. Never stand too close to a burrow, and don't be too eager to shoot. Always have your gun pointed upwards to the clouds or down to the ground. Never shoot at a rabbit as it sits on the top of the hole, or you might shoot the ferret. Always stand so that all the shooters can see one another. Never remove from where the gamekeeper places you. Never have your gun barrels up while it is raining. When you go out in the country always provide yourself with refreshments before starting. If you miss an easy shot don't blame the gun. Don't be too excited, and get well on the rabbits before you pull. If the keeper's dog is retrieving rabbits never attempt to take one from it. AUTHOR'S NOTES. IKE MATTHEWS is prepared to go out Ratting with parties of gentlemen or their gamekeepers on their private estates during the summer, supplying dog, ferrets, and nets, at moderate charges. Arrangements may be made by post. IKE MATTHEWS is also willing to go out rabbit-shooting with gentlemen during the season, and will supply and work ferrets at reasonable charges. He is also prepared to break dogs and puppies to ferreting and Ratting on reasonable terms. Any number of live Rats and rabbits supplied at a few days' notice. All orders promptly attend to. Undeniable References. Yours truly, IKE MATTHEWS. 
19038	----	produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) * * * * * +------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Typographical errors have been corrected in this | | text. For a complete list, please see the bottom of | | this document. | | | | Bold text is marked so: =bold=. | | Italicized text is marked so: _italics_ | | | +------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * ENGLISH WALNUTS [Illustration] WHAT YOU NEED TO KNOW ABOUT PLANTING, CULTIVATING AND HARVESTING THIS MOST DELICIOUS OF NUTS (_Compiled by_ WALTER FOX ALLEN) (Copyright 1912) _Foreword._ Realizing the tremendous interest that is now being directed by owners of country estates everywhere to the culture of the Persian or English Walnut, I have compiled this little book with the idea of supplying the instruction needed on the planting, cultivation and harvesting of this most delicious of all nuts. I have gathered the material herein presented from a large number of trustworthy sources, using only such portions of each as would seem to be of prime importance to the intending grower. I am indebted to the United States Department of Agriculture and to numerous cultivators of the nut in all sections of the country. I have aimed at accuracy and brevity--and hope the following pages will furnish just that practical information which I have felt has long been desired. THE COMPILER. _English Walnuts._ [Illustration] Viewed as a comparatively new industry, the culture of the Persian or English Walnut is making remarkable strides in this country. Owners of farms and suburban estates everywhere are becoming interested in the raising of this delicious article of food, thousands of trees being set out every year. There are two important reasons for the rapidly growing enthusiasm that is being manifested toward the English Walnut: First, its exceptional value as a food property is becoming widely recognized, one pound of walnut meat being equal in nutriment to eight pounds of steak. Secondly, its superior worth as an ornamental shade tree is admitted by everyone who knows the first thing about trees. For this purpose there is nothing more beautiful. With their wide-spreading branches and dark-green foliage, they are a delight to the eye. Unlike the leaves of some of our shade trees, those of this variety do not drop during the Summer but adhere until late in the Fall, thus making an unusually clean tree for lawn or garden. In addition to all this, the walnut is particularly free from scale and other pests. Up to the present time, the English Walnut has been more largely in demand as a shade tree than as a commercial proposition; in fact, so little attention has been given to the nuts themselves that there are, comparatively speaking, few large producing orchards in the United States, the greater portion of the total yield of walnuts being procured from scattered field and roadside trees. It is a little difficult to understand why they should have been so neglected when there are records of single trees bearing as much as 800 pounds of nuts in one year. [Illustration: SIX YEAR OLD BEARING ENGLISH WALNUT TREE] In 1895 this country produced about 4,000,000 pounds, and more than 16,000,000 pounds of English Walnuts in 1907, with a proportionate annual increase each year to the present. But, when it is known that the United States is consuming yearly about 50,000,000 pounds of nuts, with the demand constantly increasing, thereby necessitating the importation annually of something more than 25,000,000 pounds, the wonderful possibilities of the industry in this country, from a purely business view point, will readily be appreciated. And of course the market price of the walnut is keeping step with the consumption, having advanced from 15 to 20 cents a pound in the past few years. [Sidenote: =A Rival of the Orange=] In California the nut industry is becoming a formidable rival of the orange; in fact, there are more dollars worth of nuts (all varieties) shipped from the state now per year than oranges. One grower is shipping $136,000 worth of English Walnuts a year while another man, with an orchard just beginning to bear, is getting about $200 an acre for his crop. No standard estimate can at present be placed on the yield per acre of orchards in full bearing, but the growers are confident that they will soon be deriving from $800 to $1600 per acre, this figure being based on the number of individual trees which are already producing from $90 to $120 a year. The success with the nut in California can be duplicated in the East providing certain hardy varieties are planted; and in the few instances where orchards have been started in the East, great things have already been done and still greater are expected in the next few years. [Sidenote: =Origin of the English Walnut=] But where did this walnut originate? What is its history? Juglans Regia (nut of the gods) Persian Walnut, called also Madeira Nut and English Walnut, is a native of Western, Central and probably Eastern Asia, the home of the peach and the apricot. It was known to the Greeks, who introduced it from Persia into Europe at an early day, as "Persicon" or "Persian" nut and "Basilicon" or "Royal" nut. Carried from Greece to Rome, it became "Juglans" (name derived from Jovis and glans, an acorn; literally "Jupiter's Acorn", or "the Nut of the Gods"). From Rome it was distributed throughout Continental Europe, and according to Loudon, it reached England prior to 1562. In England it is generally known as the walnut, a term of Anglo-Saxon derivation signifying "foreign nut". It has been called Madeira Nut, presumably because the fruit was formerly imported into England from the Madeira Islands, where it is yet grown to some extent. In America it has commonly been known as English Walnut to distinguish it from our native species. From the fact that of all the names applied to this nut "Persian" seems to have been the first in common use, and that it indicates approximately the home of the species, the name "Persian Walnut" is regarded as most suitable, but inasmuch as "English Walnut" is better known here, we shall use that name in this treatise. As a material for the manufacture of gunstocks and furniture the timber of the nut was long in great demand throughout Europe and high prices were paid for it. Early in the last century as much as $3,000 was paid for a single large tree for the making of gunstocks. [Sidenote: =Planting and Cultivation=] Everything depends upon the planting and cultivation of English Walnuts as indeed it does of all other fruits from which the very best results are desired. The following general rules should be thoroughly mastered. PLANT ENGLISH WALNUT TREES: On any well-drained land where the sub-soil moisture is not more than ten or twelve feet from the surface. Wherever Oaks, Black Walnuts or other tap-root nut trees will grow. Forty to sixty feet apart. In holes eighteen inches in diameter and thirty inches deep. Two inches deeper than the earth mark showing on the tree. AND REMEMBER: That the trees need plenty of good, rich soil about their roots. That the trees should be inclined slightly toward prevailing winds. That the trees should not be cut back. That the ground cannot be packed too hard around the roots and the tree. That the trees should be mulched in the Fall. That the ground should be kept cultivated around the trees during the Spring and Summer. That English Walnut trees should be transplanted while young, as they will often double in size the year the tap-root reaches the sub-soil moisture (that is, the moist earth). That tap-root trees are the easiest of all to transplant if the work is done while the trees are young and small. That trees sometimes bear the third year after transplanting three-year-old trees where the sub-soil moisture is within six or eight feet of the surface. That the age of bearing depends largely on the distance the tap-root has to grow to reach the sub-soil moisture. [Sidenote: =Peculiarities of Growth=] The growth of the English Walnut is different from that of most fruit trees. The small trees grow about six inches the first year, tap-root the same; the second year they grow about twelve inches, tap-root the same; the third year they grow about eighteen inches, tap-root nearly as much. For the first three years the tap-root seems to gain most of the nourishment, and at the end of the third year, or about that time, the tree itself starts its real growth. After the tap-root reaches the sub-soil moisture, the tree often grows as much in one year as it has in the preceding three or four. If the trees are transplanted previous to the time that the tap-root reaches this moisture and before the tree starts its rapid growth, very few young trees are lost in the process of transplanting. [Sidenote: =Orchard Planting=] For orchard planting the trees should be placed from forty to sixty feet apart and by staggering the rows a greater distance is gained between individual trees. Any other small fruits may be planted in the orchard between the walnut trees or any cultivated crop can be raised satisfactorily on the same land, many orchardists gaining triple use of the soil in this way. Besides, the cultivation of the earth in proximity to the walnuts proves of great benefit to the trees. Before trees are planted the tap-root should be trimmed or cut back and most if not all the lateral branches trimmed from the tree. The tree itself should not be cut back as is customary with either fruit trees, but by leaving the terminal bud intact, a much better shaped tree is developed. It is not necessary to prune English Walnut trees except in cases where some of the lower branches interfere with cultivation. Cultivation in the North should be stopped about the first of August, thus halting the growth of the trees and giving them a chance to harden their wood for Winter. This is a good plan to follow in the cultivation of nearly all the smaller fruit trees. When planting on the lawn for ornamental purposes a ring from two to three feet in diameter should be cultivated about the base of the tree. [Sidenote: =Selection of Varieties=] The tender varieties that have been used in Southern California must not be experimented with in the North, as they bloom too early and are almost certain to be caught by the frost. These varieties have been tried in Northern California without success, and the venture is quite likely to be disastrous in any but the warmest climates. [Illustration: MR. E.C. POMEROY, GATHERING ENGLISH WALNUTS ON HIS FARM IN LOCKPORT, N.Y.] The uncertainty of a crop is often due to the very early blooming of the kinds planted. These start to grow at the first warm spell in the latter part of the Winter or at the first blush of Spring, and almost invariably become victims of frost and consequently produce no fruit. Planting in the Northwest and the East until recently has been limited to an extremely narrow area. There was need of a variety possessing strong, distinct characteristics, hardy, late to start growth, and with the pistillate and staminate blossoms maturing at the same time and bearing a nut of good quality and flavor with a full rich meat. This variety has now been found, as will later be shown. English Walnuts grown in the North command from three to five cents more a pound than the other nuts in the markets, as the meat is plumper and the flavor better. Most fruit is at its best at the Northern limit of its range. One experienced grower, in reference to transplanting has said: "I have transplanted all the way from a year to six and the trees have grown and done well, but so far as my experience goes, I prefer to move them at three years of age or about that time. The best trees I have were transplanted at this age." [Sidenote: =Fall or Spring Planting?=] The following extract on tree planting in general, pertaining to all kinds of trees, is contributed by O.K. White of the Michigan Experiment Station: "The advisability of Fall or Spring planting depends upon several conditions. Fall planting has the advantage over Spring planting in that the trees become firmly established in the soil before Winter sets in, and are able to start growth in the Spring before the ground can be marked and put in condition for planting. This is important because the trees get a good growth in the early part of the season before the Summer droughts occur. On the other hand there is more or less danger from Winter injury during a severe season or from the drying out of the trees if the Winter is long and dry. Fall planting is much more successful with the hardy apples and pears than it is with the tender plums, cherries and peaches. "The convenience of the season will determine in a majority of cases whether or not the planting shall be done in the Fall or Spring. Very often the rush of the Spring work induces the grower to hurry his planting, or to do it carelessly; and as a result a poor start is secured, with crooked rows. Others have large crops to harvest in the Fall and would find it more convenient to do the planting in the Spring. If there is any doubt as to the best time to plant, let it be in the Spring." [Illustration: THIRTY YEAR OLD PARENT ENGLISH WALNUT TREES IN BACKGROUND, YOUNG BEARING TREE IN FRONT] [Sidenote: =Fertilizing=] We now come to the subject of fertilization. Up to the time when the young trees come into bearing, cultivation and fertilization will help them enormously, the cultivation keeping the soil in condition to hold the moisture of the tree. In fertilizing, a mulch of stable manure in the Fall is considered by most growers to be the best, but the following preparation is thought to be exceptionally good for all young orchards: Dried blood, 1,000 pounds; bone meal, 550 pounds; sulphate of potash, 350 pounds. Total, 2,000 pounds. This should be applied close up and about the tree, extending out each year in a circle somewhat beyond the spread of the branches. This provides a quickly available plant food, rich in nitrogen and especially recommended for rapid growth. After the tap-root reaches the sub-soil moisture it is well able to take care of the tree; and both cultivation and fertilization may then be stopped. In fact, by this time practically no further care is needed in the nut orchard with the exception of that required at the harvesting time, and this is a pleasant and easy occupation, especially in the Northern and Eastern states where the frost opens the shuck and the nuts drop free upon the ground where they may be picked up and put into sacks of 110 to 120 pounds each, ready for the market. Just before the first frost it is a very good idea to remove all leaves from the ground so that when the nuts fall they can be readily seen and gathered. An excellent method of accomplishing this is by means of a horse and rake. The nuts may be left on the ground to dry or may be removed to any convenient place for that purpose. [Sidenote: =The Different Kinds=] There are three distinct kinds of English Walnuts--hard-shell, soft-shell and paper-shell, the soft-shell being the best. Each of these three is divided into a number of varieties, the names of some of the more popular ones being the Barthere, Chaberte, Cluster, Drew, Ford, Franquette, Gant or Bijou, Grand Noblesse, Lanfray, Mammoth, Mayette, Wiltz Mayette, Mesange, Meylan, Mission, Parisienne, Poorman, Proeparturiens, Santa Barbara, Pomeroy, Serotina, Sexton, Vourey, Concord, Chase and the Eureka. The question of the best varieties for planting in the North as well as in the South is somewhat open to discussion, due largely to a lack of sufficient information in regard to some of the more promising kinds. There is but little question that the best proven variety for the Northwest is the Franquette and for the East and Northeast, the Pomeroy. Both of these are good producers bearing a fine nut, well filled with a white meat of excellent flavor, and of good shape and commanding the highest market prices. The two varieties are also very late in starting in the Spring making them safe against the late frosts. Their pistillate and staminate blossoms mature at the same time. [Illustration: ENGLISH WALNUTS BEAR IN CLUSTERS OF TWO TO FIVE] The white-meated nut is far superior to any other. The browning or staining is caused by the extremely dry heat and sun in the far South. In the North or where the tree has an abundant thick foliage the meat is invariably whiter. [Sidenote: =The Mission Nut=] The Mission Nut was introduced by the priests of Los Angeles and is the pioneer Persian Walnut of California. Most of the bearing orchards of the state are composed of seedling trees of this type. The nut is medium-sized with a hard shell of ordinary thickness. It succeeds admirably in a few favored districts (of Southern California) but fails in productiveness farther North. Its most prominent faults are--early blooming, in consequence of which it is often caught by the late frosts; the irregular and unequal blooming of its pistillate and staminate blossoms, and the consequent failure of the former to be fertilized and to develop nuts; and lateness in ripening its wood in the Fall and consequent liability to injury by frost at that time. [Sidenote: =The Santa Barbara Nut=] The Santa Barbara English Walnut (soft-shell) variety is about ten days later than the Mission in starting growth and in blooming in the Spring. It fruits from four to six years from seed and usually produces a full crop every year. It is not as strong a grower as the Mission and more trees can be grown to the acre. The shells are thin and easily broken, therefore the nuts are sometimes damaged in long shipment. The kernel is white and of very fine quality. [Sidenote: =The Pomeroy Nut=] The Pomeroy variety was started in a most peculiar and interesting way. The late Norman Pomeroy of Lockport, New York, made the discovery quite by accident. When he was in Philadelphia in 1876 visiting the Centennial Exposition, he awoke one morning to be greeted by the leaves of a gorgeous tree, which just touched his window and through which the sun shone brightly. He soon was examining a magnificent English Walnut tree. On the ground directly under he found the nuts, which had fallen during the night. Their flavor was more delicious and the meat fuller than any he had ever before tasted. The shell was unusually thin and Mr. Pomeroy was astonished, for he never believed the English Walnut grew in the East. Knowing the varieties grown in California could not be raised in the East or North, he questioned his landlord and found that this particular tree had been brought from Northern Europe. Mr. Pomeroy determined at once that possibly this variety would be hardy enough for cultivation in New York State. He procured some of the nuts and put them in his satchel which he entrusted to a neighbor who was about to start home. The neighbor reached home all right and so did the nuts--but--the neighbor's children found the rare delicacies and ate all but seven. They would doubtless have eaten these too but fortunately they had slipped into the lining of the satchel where Mr. Pomeroy found them on his return to Lockport. These seven nuts, which had so narrow an escape from oblivion, are now seven beautiful English Walnut trees, sixty or more feet high and the progenitors of the Pomeroy orchards, all of which are now producing nuts like the originals--a very fine quality. [Sidenote: =Some uses of English Walnuts=] English Walnuts to be used for making pickles, catsup, oil and other culinary products, are gathered when the fruit is about half mature or when the shell is soft enough to yield to the influence of cooking. The proper stage can be determined by piercing the nut with a needle, a certain degree of hardness being desired. The nut is often utilized for olive oil in some parts of Europe. It takes one hundred pounds of nuts to make eighteen pounds of oil. In England the nuts are preserved fresh for the table where they are served with wine. They are buried deep in dry soil or sand so as not to be reached by frost, the sun's rays or rain; or by placing them in dry cellars and covering with straw. Others seal them up in tin cans filled with sand. [Sidenote: =Examples of Hardiness=] As an illustration of the hardiness of the English Walnut, there is a tree at Red Hill, Virginia, which was brought from Edinburgh, Scotland, when six months old, planted in New York, where it remained three years, then removed to Staunton, Virginia, and after two years taken to Red Hill. In consequence of so many changes, the tree at first died back, but is now thrifty--twenty feet high; trunk, eight inches in diameter at the ground. During several severe Winters, the thermometer fell so low that some peach trees and grape vines growing near English Walnuts on the Pomeroy farm near Lockport, N.Y. were killed, while the nut trees were not in the least injured. [Illustration] _The English Walnut at its Best._ A smooth, soft-shelled nut. Meat full, with sweet, hickory-nut flavor. Nuts fall clean and free from outside shuck. Frosts harvest the nuts--in October. They are self-pruning. Require no care after arrival at bearing age. An alkali sap keeps scales and pests from the trees. Blossoms immune from late frosts, as they start late. Pistillate and Staminate blossoms mature at same time in the best varieties, insuring perfect fertilization and productivity. Bears more regularly than other nut trees. Bears heavier crops the older it becomes, unlike other fruit trees the size and quality of whose fruit degenerates with age. _Interesting Figures about the English Walnut._ In Spain and Southern France there are trees believed to be more than 300 years old which bear from fifteen to eighteen bushels of nuts each, annually. In Whittier, California, is a famous tree which has been leased for a term of years at $500. Orchards seven and eight years old bring all the way from $1,000 to $2,000 per acre and are a fine investment, yielding from 15 to 125 per cent. according to age. The total cost of producing and harvesting an English Walnut crop is about one and one-half cents a pound. [Illustration] _Kernels of Fact about the English Walnut._ The United States consumes more than 50,000,000 pounds a year. The United States imports about 27,000,000 pounds a year. The price is advancing steadily with the demand. Besides being profitable, the English Walnut is a clean, highly ornamental shade tree. The leaves remain on the tree until late in the Fall, not littering up the ground during the Summer. English Walnuts are not only a rare table delicacy, but may be utilized for catsup, pickles and oil. One pound of walnut meat equals eight pounds of steak in nutriment--and is a far more healthful food. _What Luther Burbank has to say:_ "When you plant another tree, why not plant the English Walnut? Then, besides sentiment, shade and leaves, you may have a perennial supply of nuts, the improved kind of which furnish the most delicious, nutritious and healthful food which has ever been known. The consumption of nuts is probably increasing among all civilized nations today faster than that of any other food; and we should keep up with this growing demand and make it still more rapid by producing nuts of uniform good quality, with a consequent increase in the health and a permanent increase in the wealth of ourselves and neighbors."--_From Address at Santa Rosa, California, in the Fall of 1905._ [Illustration] * * * * * +------------------------------------------------------+ | Typographical error corrected in text: | | | | Page 21: suceeds replaced with succeeds | | | +------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * 
15517	----	[Illustration: Joannes Evelyn Arm^r] _ACETARIA_ A DISCOURSE OF SALLETS * * * * * By _JOHN EVELYN, Esq._ Author of the _Kalendarium_ * * * * * _BROOKLYN_, Published by the _Women's Auxiliary_, BROOKLYN BOTANIC GARDEN 1937 _Printed in the United States of America_ _Publisher's Note_ This edition of Acetaria is a faithful reprint of the First Edition of 1699, with the correction of a few obvious typographical errors, and those noted in the Errata of the original edition. Whereas no attempt has been made to reproduce the typography of the original, the spirit has been retained, and the vagaries of spelling and punctuation have been carefully followed; also the old-style S [s] has been retained. Much of the flavour of Acetaria is lost if it is scanned too hurriedly; and one should remember also that Latin and Greek were the gauge of a man of letters, and if the titles and quotations seem a bit ponderous, they are as amusing a conceit as the French and German complacencies of a more recent generation. _Foreword to Acetaria_ John Evelyn, famous for his "Diary," was a friend and contemporary of Samuel Pepys. Both were conscientious public servants who had held minor offices in the government. But, while Pepys' diary is sparkling and redolent of the free manners of the Restoration, Evelyn's is the record of a sober, scholarly man. His mind turned to gardens, to sculpture and architecture, rather than to the gaieties of contemporary social life. Pepys was an urban figure and Evelyn was "county." He represents the combination of public servant and country gentleman which has been the supreme achievement of English culture. Horace Walpole said of him in his Catalogue of Engravers, "I must observe that his life, which was extended to eighty-six years, was a course of inquiry, study, curiosity, instruction and benevolence." Courtiers, artists, and scientists were his friends. Grinling Gibbons was brought to the King's notice by Evelyn, and Henry Howard, Duke of Norfolk, was persuaded by him to present the Arundel Marbles to the University of Oxford. In London he engaged in divers charitable and civic affairs and was commissioner for improving the streets and buildings in London. He had charge of the sick and wounded of the Dutch War and also, with the fineness of character typical of his kind, he remained at his post through the Great Plague. Evelyn was also active in organizing the Royal Society and became its first secretary. In the country he spent his time studying, writing and in developing his own and his brother's estates. He translated several French books, one of them by Nicolas de Bonnefons was entitled "The French Gardener; instructions how to cultivate all sorts of fruit-trees." Evelyn undoubtedly knew another book of de Bonnefons called "_Les Delices de la Campagne_." Delights of the country, according to de Bonnefons, consisted largely in delights of the palate, and perhaps it was this book which suggested to Evelyn to write a cookery-garden book such as Acetaria. He also translated Jean de la Quintinie's "The Compleat Gardener." His "Sylva, or a discourse of Forest Trees" was written as a protest against the destruction of trees in England being carried on by the glass factories and iron furnaces, and the book succeeded in inducing landowners to plant millions of trees. The list of Evelyn's writings shows a remarkable diversity in subject matter. There was a book on numismatics and translations from the Greek, political and historical pamphlets, and a book called "Fumifugium or the inconvenience of the Aer and Smoke of London dissipated," in which he suggests that sweet-smelling trees should be planted to purify the air of London. He also wrote a book called "Sculpture, or the History of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper." Living in the country and cultivating his fruits and vegetables, Evelyn grew to be an ardent believer in vegetarianism and is probably the first advocate in England of a meatless diet. He was so keen on preparing foods without meat that, like another contemporary, Sir Kenelm Digby, he collected recipes. These, interspersed with delightful philosophic comments and some directions about gardening, were assembled in the little book Acetaria. This was published in 1699 along with the ninth edition of the "Kalendarium Hortense," a gardener's almanac. The material for _Acetaria_ was gathered as early as 1679 with the idea of making it one chapter of an encyclopedic work on horticulture. The _Plan of a Royal Garden_, was Evelyn's outline for that ambitious work. The recipes are unusual and delicious and some of them are practical for today, especially for the owner of a garden where pot herbs are cultivated. Evelyn uses the pot herbs for flavoring soups, egg dishes, "salletts" and puddings. The eggs with sweet herbs prepared in ramikins and the pudding flavored with the petals of calendulas are particularly good. The book reveals his zest for living and the culture of his mind. It also shows the thought and life of a country gentleman during the reign of Charles the Second. Evidently, in Evelyn's home, the spirit of scientific investigation prevailed and there was a delight in new ideas. Evelyn supervised the garden and knew how to instruct the cook to prepare new dishes. Although Acetaria is a book of directions for gardening and cooking, it is not the least didactic but is written in a discoursive style and with a leisureliness and in a rhythm suited to the slow pace of a horse trotting through the winding lanes of the English countryside. As we read, we can almost see the butler bringing a fragrant pudding to the family assembled around the dining table in the wood-panelled room. Or again we can almost smell the thyme, mint, and savory growing in tidy rows in the well-tilled and neatly ordered garden of John Evelyn. _Helen M. Fox_ * * * * * [Illustration: _Facsimile of Title Page of First Edition_] * * * * * _To the Right Honourable_ _JOHN_ Lord Somers _of Evesham_ Lord _High-Chancellor_ of England, and _President_ of the _Royal-Society_. * * * * * _My Lord_, The _Idea_ and _Plan_ of the _Royal-Society_ having been first conceiv'd and delineated by a _Great_ and _Learned Chancellor_, which High Office your Lordship deservedly bears; not as an Acquisition of Fortune, but your Intellectual Endowments; Conspicuous (among other Excellencies) by the Inclination Your Lordship discovers to promote _Natural Knowledge_: As it justifies the Discernment of that _Assembly_, to pitch upon Your Lordship for their _President_, so does it no less discover the Candor, yea, I presume to say, the Sublimity of your Mind, in so generously honoring them with your _Acceptance_ of the _Choice_ they have made. A [1]_Chancellor_, and a very Learned Lord, was the _First_ who honoured the _Chair_; and a no less Honorable and Learned _Chancellor_, resigns it to Your Lordship: So as after all the Difficulties and Hardships the _Society_ has hitherto gone through; it has thro' the Favour and Protection of its _Presidents_, not only preserv'd its Reputation from the Malevolence of Enemies and Detracters, but gone on _Culminating_, and now _Triumphantly_ in Your Lordship: Under whose propitious Influence, I am perswaded, it may promise it self _That_, which indeed has hitherto been wanting, to justifie the Glorious _Title_ it bears of a ROYAL SOCIETY. The _Emancipating_ it from some Remaining and Discouraging Circumstances, which it as yet labours under; among which, that of a _Precarious_ and unsteady Abode, is not the least. This _Honor_ was reserv'd for Your Lordship; and an _Honor_, permit me to call it, not at all unworthy the Owning of the Greatest Person living: Namely, the Establishing and Promoting _Real Knowledge_; and (next to what is _Divine_) truly so called; as far, at least, as Humane Nature extends towards the Knowledge of Nature, by enlarging her Empire beyond the Land of _Spectres, Forms, Intentional Species, Vacuum, Occult Qualities_, and other _Inadequate Notions_; which, by their Obstreperous and Noisy Disputes, affrighting, and (till of late) deterring Men from adventuring on further Discoveries, confin'd them in a lazy Acquiescence, and to be fed with _Fantasms_ and fruitless Speculations, which signifie nothing to the _specifick_ Nature of Things, solid and useful knowledge; by the _Investigation of Causes, Principles, Energies, Powers_, and _Effects_ of _Bodies_, and _Things Visible_; and to improve them for the Good and Benefit of Mankind. _My Lord_, That which the _Royal Society_ needs to accomplish an entire Freedom, and (by rendring their Circumstances more easie) capable to subsist with Honor, and to reach indeed the Glorious Ends of its _Institution_, is an Establishment in a more Settl'd, _Appropriate_, and _Commodious Place_; having hitherto (like the _Tabernacle_ in the _Wilderness_) been only _Ambulatory_ for almost _Forty Years_: But _Solomon_ built the First _Temple_; and what forbids us to hope, that as Great a _Prince_ may build _Solomon's House_, as that Great _Chancellor_ (one of Your Lordship's Learned _Predecessors_) had design'd the _Plan_; there being nothing in that _August_ and _Noble Model_ impossible, or beyond the _Power_ of _Nature_ and Learned Industry. Thus, whilst King _Solomon's_ Temple was _Consecrated_ to the _God_ of _Nature_, and his true Worship; _This_ may be _Dedicated_, and set apart for the _Works_ of _Nature_; deliver'd from those Illusions and Impostors, that are still endeavouring to cloud and depress the True, and _Substantial Philosophy_: A _shallow_ and _Superficial Insight_, wherein (as that Incomparable Person rightly observes) having made so many _Atheists_: whilst a _profound_ and thorow _Penetration_ into her _Recesses_ (which is the _Business_ of the _Royal Society_) would lead Men to the _Knowledge_, and _Admiration_ of the _Glorious Author_. And now, _My Lord_, I expect some will wonder what my Meaning is, to usher in a _Trifle_, with so much Magnificence, and end at last in a fine _Receipt_ for the _Dressing_ of a _Sallet_ with an Handful of _Pot-Herbs_! But yet, _My Lord_, this _Subject_, as low and despicable as it appears, challenges a Part of _Natural History_, and the Greatest Princes have thought it no Disgrace, not only to make it their _Diversion_, but their _Care_, and to promote and encourage it in the midst of their weightiest Affairs: He who wrote of the _Cedar_ of _Libanus_, wrote also of the _Hysop which grows upon the Wall_. To verifie this, how much might I say of _Gardens_ and _Rural Employments_, preferrable to the Pomp and Grandeur of other Secular Business, and that in the Estimate of as Great Men as any Age has produc'd! And it is of such _Great Souls_ we have it recorded; That after they had perform'd the Noblest Exploits for the Publick, they sometimes chang'd their _Scepters_ for the _Spade_, and their _Purple_ for the Gardiner's _Apron_. And of these, some, My _Lord_, were _Emperors, Kings, Consuls, Dictators_, and Wise _Statesmen_; who amidst the most important Affairs, both in Peace and War, have quitted all their Pomp and Dignity in Exchange of this Learned Pleasure: Nor that of the most _refin'd_ Part of _Agriculture_ (the _Philosophy_ of the _Garden_ and _Parterre_ only) but of _Herbs_, and wholesom _Sallets_, and other plain and useful Parts of _Geoponicks_, and Wrote _Books_ of _Tillage_ and _Husbandry_; and took the _Plough-Tackle_ for their _Banner_, and their _Names_ from the _Grain_ and _Pulse_ they sow'd, as the Marks and Characters of the highest Honor. But I proceed no farther on a _Topic_ so well known to Your Lordship: Nor urge I Examples of such Illustrious Persons laying aside their Grandeur, and even of deserting their Stations; (which would infinitely prejudice the Publick, when worthy Men are in Place, and at the Helm) But to shew how consisent the Diversions of the _Garden_ and _Villa_ were, with the highest and busiest Employment of the _Commonwealth_, and never thought a Reproch, or the least Diminution to the Gravity and Veneration due to their Persons, and the Noble Rank they held. Will Your Lordship give me Leave to repeat what is said of the Younger _Pliny_, (Nephew to the _Naturalist_) and whom I think we may parallel with the Greatest of his time (and perhaps of any since) under the Worthiest _Emperor_ the _Roman_ world ever had? A Person of vast Abilities, Rich, and High in his Master's Favour; that so Husbanded his time, as in the Midst of the weightiest Affairs, to have Answer'd, and by his [2]_Example_, made good what I have said on this Occasion. The Ancient and best Magistrates of _Rome_ allow'd but the _Ninth_ Day for the _City_ and _Publick Business_; the rest for the _Country_ and the _Sallet Garden_: There were then fewer _Causes_ indeed at the _Bar_; but never greater _Justice_, nor _better Judges_ and _Advocates_. And 'tis hence observed, that we hardly find a Great and Wise Man among the Ancients, _qui nullos habuit hortos_, excepting only _Pomponius Atticus_; wilst his Dear _Cicero_ professes, that he never laid out his Money more readily, than in the purchasing of _Gardens_, and those sweet Retirements, for which he so often left the _Rostra_ (and Court of the Greatest and most flourishing State of the World) to visit, prune, and water them with his own Hands. But, _My Lord_, I forget with whom I am talking thus; and a _Gardiner_ ought not to be so bold. The present I humbly make your Lordship, is indeed but a _Sallet_ of _Crude Herbs_: But there is among them that which was a _Prize_ at the _Isthmian Games_; and Your Lordship knows who it was both accepted, and rewarded as despicable an Oblation of this kind. The Favor I humbly beg, is Your Lordship's Pardon for this Presumption. The Subject is _mean_, and requires it, and my _Reputation_ in danger; should Your Lordship hence suspect that one could never write so much of _dressing Sallets_, who minded anything serious, besides the gratifying a Sensual Appetite with a Voluptuary _Apician_ Art. Truly, _My Lord_, I am so far from designing to promote those _Supplicia Luxuriæ_, (as _Seneca_ calls them) by what I have here written; that were it in my Power, I would recall the World, if not altogether to their Pristine _Diet_, yet to a much more _wholsome_ and _temperate_ than is now in Fashion: And what if they find me like to some who are eager after _Hunting_ and other Field-Sports, which are _Laborious_ Exercises? and _Fishing_, which is indeed a _Lazy_ one? who, after all their Pains and Fatigue, never eat what they take and catch in either: For some such I have known: And tho' I cannot affirm so of my self, (when a well drest and excellent _Sallet_ is before me) I am yet a very moderate Eater of them. So as to this _Book-Luxury_, I can affirm, and that truly what the _Poet_ says of himself (on a less innocent Occasion) _Lasciva pagina, vita proba._ God forbid, that after all I have advanc'd in Praise of _Sallets_, I should be thought to plead for the Vice I censure, and chuse that of _Epicurus_ for my _Lemma_; _In hac arte consenui_; or to have spent my time in nothing else. The _Plan_ annext to these Papers, and the _Apparatus_ made to superstruct upon it, would acquit me of having bent all my Contemplations on _Sallets_ only. What I humbly offer Your Lordship, is (as I said) Part of _Natural History_, the Product of _Horticulture_, and the _Field_, dignified by the most illustrious, and sometimes tilled _Laureato Vomere_; which, as it concerns a Part of _Philosophy_, I may (without Vanity) be allow'd to have taken some Pains in Cultivating, as an inferior Member of the _Royal Society_. But, _My Lord_, wilst You read on (if at least You vouchsafe me that Honor to read at all) I am conscious I rob the Publick of its most Precious Moments. I therefore Humbly again Implore Your Lordship's Pardon: Nor indeed needed I to have said half this, to kindle in Your Breast, that which is already shining there (Your Lordship's Esteem of the _Royal Society_) after what You were pleas'd to Express in such an Obliging manner, when it was lately to wait upon Your Lordship; among whom I had the Honor to be a Witness of Your Generous, and Favourable Acceptance of their Addresses, who am, _My Lord, Your Lordship's Most Humble and Most Obedient Servant, JOHN EVELYN_. * * * * * THE PREFACE The _Favourable Entertainment which the_ Kalendar _has found, encouraging the_ Bookseller _to adventure upon_ a Ninth Impression, I _could not refuse his Request of my Revising, and Giving it the best Improvement I was capable_, to an Inexhaustible Subject, _as it regards a Part of_ Horticulture; _and offer some little Aid to such as love a Diversion so Innocent and Laudable. There are those of late, who have arrogated, and given the Glorious Title_ of Compleat _and_ Accomplish'd Gardiners, _to what they have Publish'd; as if there were nothing wanting, nothing more remaining, or farther to be expected from the Field; and that_ Nature _had been quite emptied of all her fertile Store: Whilst those who thus magnifie their Discoveries, have after all, penetrated but a very little Way into this Vast, Ample, and as yet, Unknown Territory; Who see not, that it would still require the Revolution of many Ages; deep, and long_ Experience, _for any Man to Emerge that Perfect, and Accomplish'd Artist_ Gardiner _they boast themselves to be: Nor do I think, Men will ever reach the End, and far extended Limits of the_ Vegetable Kingdom, _so incomprehensible is the Variety it every Day produces, of the most Useful, and Admirable of all the Aspectable Works of God; since almost all we_ see, _and_ touch, _and_ taste, _and_ smell, eat _and_ drink, are clad _with, and_ defended (_from the Greatest_ Prince _to the Meanest_ Peasant) _is furnished from that Great and Universal Plantation_, Epitomiz'd _in our_ Gardens, _highly worth the Contemplation of the most Profound Divine, and Deepest_ Philosopher. _I should be asham'd to acknowledge how little I have advanced, could I find that ever any Mortal Man from_ Adam, Noah, Solomon, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides, _and the rest of Nature's Interpreters, had ever arriv'd to the perfect Knowledge of any one_ Plant, _or_ Vulgar Weed _whatsoever: But this perhaps may yet possibly be reserv'd for another State of Things, and a_ [3]_longer Day; that is_, When Time shall be no more, but Knowledge shall be encreas'd. _We have heard of one who studied and contemplated the Nature of_ Bees _only, for_ Sixty Years: _After which, you will not wonder, that a Person of my Acquaintance, should have spent almost_ Forty, _in Gathering and Amassing Materials for an_ Hortulan _Design, to so enormous an Heap, as to fill some_ Thousand Pages; _and yet be comprehended within two, or three Acres of Ground; nay, within the Square of less than_ One (_skilfully Planted and Cultivated) sufficient to furnish, and entertain his Time and Thoughts all his Life long, with a most Innocent, Agreeable, and Useful Employment. But you may justly wonder, and Condemn the Vanity of it too, with that Reproach_, This Man began to build, but was not able to finish! _This has been the Fate of that Undertaking; and I dare promise, will be of whosoever imagines (without the Circumstances of extraordinary Assistance, and no ordinary Expence) to pursue the_ Plan, _erect, and finish the_ Fabrick _as it ought to be_. _But this is that which_ Abortives _the Perfection of the most Glorious and Useful Undertakings; the Unsatiable Coveting to Exhaust all that should, or can be said upon every Head: If such a one have any thing else to mind, or do in the World, let me tell him, he thinks of Building too late; and rarely find we any, who care to superstruct upon the Foundation of another, and whose_ Ideas _are alike. There ought therefore to be as many_ Hands, _and_ Subsidiaries _to such a Design_ (_and those_ Matters _too_) _as there are distinct Parts of the Whole (according to the subsequent Table) that those who have the Means and Courage, may_ (_tho' they do not undertake the_ Whole) _finish a_ Part _at least, and in time Unite their Labours into one Intire, Compleat, and Consummate Work indeed_. _Of_ One _or_ Two _of these_, I _attempted only a_ Specimen _in my_ SILVA _and the_ KALENDAR; Imperfect, _I say, because they are both capable of Great Improvements: It is not therefore to be expected_ (_Let me use the Words of an Old, and Experienced_ Gardiner) Cuncta me dicturum, quae vastitas ejus scientiæ contineret, sed plurima; nam illud in unius hominis prudentiam cadere non poterit, neque est ulla Disciplina aut Ars, quæ singulari consummata sit ingenio. _May it then suffice_ aliquam partem tradidisse, _and that I have done my Endeavour_. ... Jurtilis olim Ne Videar vixisse. _Much more might I add upon this Charming, and Fruitful Subject (I mean, concerning_ Gardening:) _But this is not a Place to Expatiate, deterr'd, as I have long since been, from so bold an Enterprize, as the Fabrick I mentioned. I content my self then with an_ Humble Cottage, _and a Simple_ Potagere, _Appendant to the_ Calendar; _which, Treating only (and that briefly) of the_ Culture _of_ Moderate Gardens; _Nothing seems to me, shou'd be more_ Welcome _and_ Agreeable, _than whilst the Product of them is come into more_ Request _and_ Use _amongst us, than heretofore (beside what we call, and distinguish by the Name of_ Fruit) _I did annex some particular Directions concerning_ S A L L E T S. * * * * * _THE_ PLAN _OF A_ _ROYAL GARDEN:_ Describing, and Shewing the _Amplitude_, and _Extent_ of that Part of _Georgicks_, which belongs to _Horticulture_. * * * * * In Three Books * * * * * _BOOK I_. _Chap. I_. Of _Principles and Elements_ in general. _Chap. II_. Of the Four (vulgarly reputed) Elements; _Fire, Air, Water; Earth_. _Chap. III_. Of the Celestial _Influences_, and particularly of the _Sun, Moon_, and of the _Climates_. _Chap. IV_. Of the Four _Annual Seasons_. _Chap. V_. Of the Natural _Mould_ and _Soil_ of a Garden. _Chap. VI_. Of _Composts_, and _Stercoration, Repastination, Dressing_ and _Stirring_ the _Earth_ and _Mould_ of a Garden. _BOOK II_. _Chap. I_. A Garden _Derived_ and _Defin'd;_ its _Dignity, Distinction_, and _Sorts_. _Chap. II_. Of a _Gardiner_, how to be _qualify 'd, regarded_ and _rewarded_; his _Habitation, Cloathing, Diet_, Under-_Workmen_ and _Assistants_. _Chap. III_. Of the _Instruments_ belonging to a Gardiner; their various _Uses_, and _Machanical_ Powers. _Chap. IV_. Of the _Terms_ us'd, and affected by Gardiners. _Chap. V_. Of _Enclosing, Fencing, Plotting_, and disposing of the Ground; and of _Terraces, Walks, Allies, Malls, Bowling-Greens, &c._ _Chap. VI_. Of a _Seminary, Nurseries_; and of Propagating _Trees, Plants_ and _Flowers, Planting_ and _Transplanting, &c._ _Chap. VII_. Of _Knots, Parterres, Compartiments, Borders, Banks_ and _Embossments_. _Chap. VIII_. Of _Groves, Labyrinths, Dedals, Cabinets, Cradles, Close-Walks, Galleries, Pavilions, Portico's, Lanterns_, and other _Relievo's_; of _Topiary_ and _Hortulan Architecture_. _Chap. IX_. Of _Fountains, Jetto's, Cascades, Rivulets, Piscinas, Canals, Baths_, and other Natural, and Artificial _Water-works_. _Chap. X_. Of _Rocks, Grotts, Cryptæ, Mounts, Precipices, Ventiducts, Conservatories_, of _Ice_ and _Snow_, and other Hortulan Refreshments. _Chap. XI_. Of _Statues, Busts, Obelisks, Columns, Inscriptions, Dials, Vasa's, Perspectives, Paintings_, and other Ornaments. _Chap. XII_. Of _Gazon-Theatres, Amphitheatres_, Artificial _Echo's, Automata_ and _Hydraulic Musck_. _Chap. XIII_. Of _Aviaries, Apiaries, Vivaries, Insects, &c._ _Chap. XIV_. Of _Verdures, Perennial Greens_, and _Perpetual Springs_. _Chap. XV_. Of _Orangeries, Oporotheca's, Hybernacula, Stoves_, and Conservatories of Tender _Plants_ and _Fruits_, and how to order them. _Chap. XVI_. Of the _Coronary_ Garden: _Flowers_ and _Rare Plants_, how they are to be _Raised, Governed_ and _Improved_; and how the Gardiner _is_ to keep his _Register_. _Chap. XVII_. Of the _Philosophical Medical_ Garden. _Chap. XVIII_. Of _Stupendous_ and _Wonderful_ _Plants_. _Chap. XIX_. Of the _Hort-Yard_ and _Potagere_; and what _Fruit-Trees, Olitory_ and _Esculent_ _Plants_, may be admitted into a Garden of Pleasure. _Chap. XX_. Of _Sallets_. _Chap. XXI_. Of a _Vineyard_, and Directions concerning the making of _Wine_ and other _Vinous_ Liquors, and of _Teas_. _Chap. XXII_. Of _Watering, Pruning, Plashing, Pallisading, Nailing, Clipping, Mowing, Rowlling, Weeding, Cleansing, &c._ _Chap. XXIII_. Of the _Enemies_ and _Infirmities_ to which Gardens are obnoxious, together with _Remedies_. _Chap. XXIV_. Of the Gardiner's _Almanack_ or _Kalendarium Hortense_, directing what he is to do Monthly, and what _Fruits_ and _Flowers_ are in prime. _BOOK III_. _Chap. I_. Of _Conserving, Properating, Retarding, Multiplying, Transmuting_, and Altering the _Species, Forms_, and (reputed) _Substantial Qualities_ of _Plants, Fruits_ and _Flowers_. _Chap. II_. Of the Hortulan _Elaboratory_; and of _distilling_ and _extracting_ of _Waters, Spirits, Essences, Salts, Colours_, Resuscitation of _Plants_, with other rare Experiments, and an Account of their _Virtues_. _Chap. III_. Of Composing the _Hortus Hyemalis_, and making Books, of _Natural, Arid Plants_ and _Flowers_, with several Ways of Preserving them in their _Beauty_. _Chap. IV_. Of _Painting_ of Flowers, Flowers _enamell'd, Silk, Callico's, Paper, Wax, Guns, Pasts, Horns, Glass, Shells, Feathers, Moss, Pietra Comessa, Inlayings, Embroyderies, Carvings_, and other Artificial Representations of them. _Chap. V_. Of _Crowns, Chaplets, Garlands, Festoons, Encarpa, Flower-Pots, Nosegays, Poeses, Deckings_, and other Flowery _Pomps_. _Chap. VI_. Of _Hortulan Laws_ and _Privileges_. _Chap. VII_. Of the _Hortulan Study_, and of a _Library, Authors_ and _Books_ assistant to it. _Chap. VIII_. Of _Hortulan Entertainments, Natural, Divine, Moral_, and _Political_; with divers _Historical_ Passages, and Solemnities, to shew the _Riches, Beauty, Wonder, Plenty, Delight_, and Universal Use of Gardens. _Chap. IX_. Of Garden _Burial_. _Chap. X_. Of _Paradise_, and of the most _Famous Gardens_ in the World, _Ancient_ and _Modern_. _Chap. XI_. The Description of a _Villa_. _Chap. XII_. The _Corollary_ and _Conclusion_. ----_Laudato ingentia rura_, _Exiguum colito_.---- * * * * * [Illustration] ACETARIA: A Discourse of Sallets * * * * * Sallets in general consist of certain _Esculent_ Plants and Herbs, improv'd by Culture, Industry, and Art of the _Gard'ner_: Or, as others say, they are a Composition of _Edule_ Plants and Roots of several kinds, to be eaten _Raw_ or _Green, Blanch'd_ or _Candied_: simple--and _per se_, or intermingl'd with others according to the Season. The Boil'd, Bak'd, Pickl'd, or otherwise disguis'd, variously accommodated by the skilful Cooks, to render them grateful to the more feminine Palat, or Herbs rather for the Pot, _&c._ challenge not the name of _Sallet_ so properly here, tho' sometimes mention'd; And therefore, Those who _Criticize_ not so nicely upon the Word, seem to distinguish the [4]_Olera_ (which were never eaten _Raw_) from _Acetaria_, which were never _Boil'd;_ and so they derive the Etymology of _Olus_, from _Olla, the Pot_. But others deduce it from [Greek: Olos], comprehending the _Universal Genus_ of the Vegetable Kingdom; as from [Greek: Pan] _Panis;_ esteeming that he who had [5]_Bread_ and _Herbs_, was sufficiently bless'd with all a frugal Man cou'd need or desire: Others again will have it, _ab Olendo_, i.e. _Crescendo_, from its continual _growth and springing up_: So the younger _Scaliger_ on _Varro_: But his Father _Julius_ extends it not so generally to all Plants, as to all the _Esculents_, according to the Text: _We call those_ Olera (says [6]_Theophrastus) which are commonly eaten_, in which sense it may be taken, to include both _Boil'd_ and _Raw_: Last of all, _ab Alendo_, as having been the Original, and genuine Food of all Mankind from the [7]Creation. A great deal more of this Learned Stuff were to be pick'd up from the _Cumini Sectores_, and impertinently Curious; whilst as it concerns the business in hand, we are by _Sallet_ to understand a particular Composition of certain _Crude_ and fresh Herbs, such as usually are, or may safely be eaten with some _Acetous_ Juice, _Oyl, Salt_, &c. to give them a grateful Gust and _Vehicle_; exclusive of the [8][Greek: psuchrai trapezai], eaten without their due Correctives, which the Learned [9]_Salmasius_, and, indeed generally, the [10]old _Physicians_ affirm (and that truly) all _Crude_ and raw [Greek: lachana] require to render them wholsome; so as probably they were from hence, as [11]_Pliny_ thinks, call'd _Acetaria_: and not (as _Hermolaus_ and some others) _Acceptaria ab Accipiendo_; nor from Accedere, though so [12]ready at hand, and easily dress'd; requiring neither _Fire, Cost_, or _Attendance_, to boil, roast, and prepare them as did Flesh, and other Provisions; from which, and other Prerogatives, they were always in use, _&c._ And hence indeed the more frugal _Italians_ and _French_, to this Day, gather _Ogni Verdura_, any thing almost that's _Green_ and Tender, to the very Tops of _Nettles_; so as every Hedge affords a _Sallet_ (not unagreeable) season'd with its proper _Oxybaphon_ of _Vinegar, Salt, Oyl_, &c. which doubtless gives it both the Relish and Name of _Salad, Emsalada_[13], as with us of _Sallet_; from the _Sapidity_, which renders not _Plants_ and _Herbs_ alone, but _Men_ themselves, and their Conversations, pleasant and agreeable: But of this enough, and perhaps too much; least whilst I write of _Salt_ and _Sallet_, I appear my self _Insipid_: I pass therefore to the Ingredients, which we will call Furniture _and_ Materials The _Materials_ of _Sallets_, which together with the grosser _Olera_, consist of _Roots, Stalks, Leaves, Buds, Flowers_, &c. _Fruits_ (belonging to another Class) would require a much ampler Volume, than would suit our Kalendar, (of which this pretends to be an _Appendix_ only) should we extend the following _Catalogue_ further than to a brief enumeration only of such _Herbaceous_ Plants, _Oluscula_ and smaller _Esculents_, as are chiefly us'd in _Cold Sallets_, of whose Culture we have treated there; and as we gather them from the _Mother_ and _Genial Bed_, with a touch only of their _Qualities_, for Reasons hereafter given. 1. Alexanders, _Hipposelinum; S. Smyrnium vulgare_ (much of the nature of _Persly_) is moderately hot, and of a cleansing Faculty, Deobstructing, nourishing, and comforting the Stomach. The gentle fresh Sprouts, Buds, and Tops are to be chosen, and the Stalks eaten in the Spring; and when _Blanch'd_, in Winter likewise, with _Oyl, Pepper, Salt_, &c. by themselves, or in Composition: They make also an excellent _Vernal_ Pottage. 2. Artichaux, _Cinara_, (_Carduus Sativus_) hot and dry. The Heads being slit in quarters first eaten raw, with _Oyl_, a little _Vinegar, Salt_, and _Pepper_, gratefully recommend a Glass of _Wine_; Dr. _Muffet_ says, at the end of Meals. They are likewise, whilst tender and small, fried in fresh _Butter_ crisp with _Persley_. But then become a most delicate and excellent Restorative, when full grown, they are boil'd the common way. The _Bottoms_ are also bak'd in _Pies_, with _Marrow, Dates_, and other rich Ingredients: In _Italy_ they sometimes broil them, and as the Scaly Leaves open, baste them with fresh and sweet _Oyl_; but with Care extraordinary, for if a drop fall upon the Coals, all is marr'd; that hazard escap'd, they eat them with the Juice of _Orange_ and _Sugar_. The Stalk is _Blanch'd_ in Autumn, and the _Pith_ eaten raw or boil'd. The way of preserving them fresh all Winter, is by separating the _Bottoms_ from the _Leaves_, and after Parboiling, allowing to every _Bottom_, a small earthen glaz'd Pot; burying it all over in fresh melted _Butter_, as they do Wild-Fowl, _&c._ Or if more than one, in a larger Pot, in the same Bed and Covering, _Layer_ upon _Layer_. They are also preserv'd by stringing them on Pack-thread, a clean Paper being put between every _Bottom_, to hinder them from touching one another, and so hung up in a dry place. They are likewise _Pickl'd_. 'Tis not very long since this noble _Thistle_ came first into _Italy_, Improv'd to this Magnitude by Culture; and so rare in _England_, that they were commonly sold for _Crowns_ a piece: But what _Carthage_ yearly spent in them (as _Pliny_ computes the Sum) amounted to _Sestertia Sena Millia_, 30000 _l. Sterling_. _Note_, That the _Spanish Cardon_, a wild and smaller _Artichoak_, with sharp pointed Leaves, and lesser Head; the Stalks being _Blanch'd_ and tender, are serv'd-up _a la Poiverade_ (that is with _Oyl, Pepper_, &c.) as the _French_ term is. 3. Basil, _Ocimum_ (as _Baulm_) imparts a grateful Flavour, if not too strong, somewhat offensive to the Eyes; and therefore the tender Tops to be very sparingly us'd in our _Sallet_. 4. Baulm, _Melissa, Baum_, hot and dry, Cordial and exhilarating, sovereign for the Brain, strengthning the Memory, and powerfully chasing away _Melancholy_. The tender Leaves are us'd in Composition with other Herbs; and the Sprigs fresh gather'd, put into _Wine_ or other Drinks, during the heat of Summer, give it a marvellous quickness: This noble Plant yields an incomparable _Wine_, made as is that of _Cowslip_-Flowers. 5. Beet, _Beta_; of which there is both _Red, Black_, and _White_: The _Costa_, or Rib of the _White Beet_ (by the _French_ call'd the _Chard_) being boil'd, melts, and eats like Marrow. And the _Roots_ (especially of the _Red_) cut into thin slices, boil'd, when cold, is of it self a grateful winter _Sallet_; or being mingl'd with other _Oluscula, Oyl, Vinegar, Salt_, &c. 'Tis of quality Cold and Moist, and naturally somewhat _Laxative_: But however by the _Epigrammatist_ stil'd _Foolish_ and _Insipid, as Innocentior quam Olus_ (for so the Learned [14]_Harduin_ reads the place) 'tis by _Diphilus_ of old, and others since, preferr'd before _Cabbage_ as of better Nourishment: _Martial_ (not unlearn'd in the Art of _Sallet_) commends it with _Wine_ and _Pepper_: He names it indeed--_Fabrorum prandia_, for its being so vulgar. But eaten with _Oyl_ and _Vinegar_, as usually, it is no despicable _Sallet_. There is a _Beet_ growing near the Sea, which is the most delicate of all. The Roots of the _Red Beet_, pared into thin Slices and Circles, are by the _French_ and _Italians_ contriv'd into curious Figures to adorn their _Sallets_. _6_. Blite, _Blitum_; English _Mercury_, or (as our Country House wives call it) _All-good_, the gentle _Turiones_, and Tops may be eaten as _Sparagus_, or sodden in Pottage: There is both a white and red, much us'd in _Spain_ and _Italy_; but besides its humidity and detersive Nature, 'tis _Insipid_ enough. 7. Borrage, _Borrago_ (_Gaudia semper ago_) hot and kindly moist, purifying the Blood, is an exhilarating Cordial, of a pleasant Flavour: The tender Leaves, and Flowers especially, may be eaten in Composition; but above all, the Sprigs in _Wine_, like those of _Baum_, are of known Vertue to revive the _Hypochondriac_, and chear the hard Student. See _Bugloss_. 8. Brooklime, _Anagallis aquatica_; moderately hot and moist, prevalent in the _Scorbute_, and _Stone_. 9. Bugloss, _Buglossum_; in mature much like _Borrage_, yet something more astringent. The Flowers of both, with the intire Plant, greatly restorative, being Conserv'd: And for the rest, so much commended by _Averroes_; that for its effects, cherishing the Spirits, justly call'd _Euphrosynum_; Nay, some will have it the _Nepenthes_ of _Homer_: But indeed, what we now call _Bugloss_, was not that of the Ancients, but rather _Borrage_, for the like Virtue named _Corrago_. Burnet, See _Pimpinella_. 10. Buds, _Gemmæ, Turiones_; the first Rudiments and Tops of most _Sallet_-Plants, preferrable to all other less tender Parts; such as _Ashen-Keys, Broom-buds_, hot and dry, retaining the vertue of _Capers_, esteem'd to be very opening, and prevalent against the _Spleen_ and _Scurvy_; and being _Pickl'd_, are sprinkl'd among the _Sallets_, or eaten by themselves. 11. Cabbage, _Brassica_ (and its several kinds) _Pompey's_ beloved Dish, so highly celebrated by old [15]_Cato_, _Pythagoras_, and _Chrysippus_ the Physician (as the only _Panacea_) is not so generally magnify'd by the rest of Doctors, as affording but a crass and melancholy Juice; yet _Loosening_ if but moderately boil'd, if over-much, _Astringent_, according to _C. Celsus_; and therefore seldom eaten raw, excepting by the _Dutch_. The _Cymæ_, or Sprouts rather of the _Cole_ are very delicate, so boil'd as to retain their Verdure and green Colour. In raising this _Plant_ great care is to be had of the Seed. The best comes from _Denmark_ and _Russia_, especially the _Cauly-flower_, (anciently unknown) or from _Aleppo_. Of the _French_, the _Pancaliere a la large Costé_, the white, large and ponderous are to be chosen; and so the _Cauly-flower_: After boiling some steep them in Milk, and seethe them again in Beef-Broth: Of old they added a little _Nitre_. The _Broccoli_ from _Naples_, perhaps the _Halmyridia_ of _Pliny_ (or _Athenæus_ rather) _Capiata marina_ & _florida_, our _Sea-keele_ (the ancient _Crambe_) and growing on our Coast, are very delicate, as are the _Savoys_, commended for being not so rank, but agreeable to most _Palates_, and of better Nourishment: In general, _Cabbages_ are thought to allay Fumes, and prevent Intoxication: But some will have them noxious to the Sight; others impute it to the _Cauly-flower_ rather: But whilst the Learned are not agreed about it, _Theophrastus_ affirms the contrary, and _Pliny_ commends the Juice raw, with a little _Honey_, for the moist and weeping Eye, not the dry or dull. But after all, _Cabbage_ ('tis confess'd) is greatly accus'd for lying undigested in the Stomach, and provoking Eructations; which makes me wonder at the Veneration we read the Ancients had for them, calling them _Divine_, and Swearing, _per Brassicam_. 'Tis scarce an hundred Years since we first had _Cabbages_ out of _Holland_. Sir _Anth. Ashley_ of _Wiburg St. Giles_ in _Dorsetshire_, being (as I am told) the first who planted them in _England_. 12. Cardon, See _Artichaux_. 13. Carrots, _Dauci_, or _Pastinaca Sativa_; temperately warm and dry, Spicy; the best are yellow, very nourishing; let them be rais'd in Ground naturally rich, but not too heavy. 14. Chervile, _Chærophyllum, Myrrhis_; The sweet aromatick _Spanish Chervile_, moderately hot and dry: The tender _Cimæ_, and Tops, with other Herbs, are never to be wanting in our _Sallets_, (as long as they may be had) being exceedingly wholsome and chearing the Spirits: The _Roots_ are also boil'd and eaten Cold; much commended for Aged Persons: This (as likewise _Spinach_) is us'd in _Tarts_, and serves alone for divers Sauces. Cibbols. \ Cives. / Vide Onions, _Schoenopræsson_. 15. Clary, _Horminum_, when tender not to be rejected, and in _Omlets_, made up with _Cream_, fried in sweet _Butter_, are eaten with _Sugar_, Juice of _Orange_, or _Limon_. 16. Clavers, _Aparine_; the tender Winders, with young _Nettle-Tops_, are us'd in _Lenten_ Pottages. 17. Corn-sallet, _Valerianella_; loos'ning and refreshing: The Tops and Leaves are a _Sallet_ of themselves, seasonably eaten with other Salleting, the whole Winter long, and early Spring: The _French_ call them _Salad de Preter_, for their being generally eaten in _Lent_. 18. Cowslips, _Paralysis_: See _Flowers_. 19. Cresses, _Nasturtium_, Garden _Cresses_; to be monthly sown: But above all the _Indian_, moderately hot, and aromatick, quicken the torpent Spirits, and purge the Brain, and are of singular effect against the _Scorbute_. Both the tender Leaves, _Calices, Cappuchin Capers_, and _Flowers_, are laudably mixed with the colder Plants. The _Buds_ being Candy'd, are likewise us'd in Strewings all Winter. There is the _Nastur. Hybernicum_ commended also, and the vulgar _Water-Cress_, proper in the Spring, all of the same Nature, tho' of different Degrees, and best for raw and cold Stomachs, but nourish little. 20. Cucumber, _Cucumis_; tho' very cold and moist, the most approved _Sallet_ alone, or in Composition, of all the _Vinaigrets_, to sharpen the Appetite, and cool the Liver, [16]_&c._ if rightly prepar'd; that is, by rectifying the vulgar Mistake of altogether extracting the Juice, in which it should rather be soak'd: Nor ought it to be over _Oyl'd_, too much abating of its grateful _Acidity_, and _palling_ the Taste from a contrariety of Particles: Let them therefore be pared, and cut in thin Slices, with a _Clove_ or two of _Onion_ to correct the Crudity, macerated in the Juice, often turn'd and moderately drain'd. Others prepare them, by shaking the Slices between two Dishes, and dress them with very little _Oyl_, well beaten, and mingled with the Juice of _Limon, Orange_, or _Vinegar, Salt_ and _Pepper_. Some again, (and indeed the most approv'd) eat them as soon as they are cut, retaining their Liquor, which being exhausted (by the former Method) have nothing remaining in them to help the Concoction. Of old they [17]boil'd the _Cucumber_, and paring off the Rind, eat them with _Oyl, Vinegar_, and _Honey_; _Sugar_ not being so well known. Lastly, the _Pulp_ in Broth is greatly refreshing, and may be mingl'd in most _Sallets_, without the least damage, contrary to the common Opinion; it not being long, since _Cucumber_, however dress'd, was thought fit to be thrown away, being accounted little better than Poyson. _Tavernier_ tells us, that in the _Levant_, if a Child cry for something to Eat, they give it a raw _Cucumber_ instead of _Bread_. The young ones may be boil'd in White-Wine. The smaller sort (known by the name of _Gerckems_) muriated with the Seeds of _Dill_, and the _Mango_ Pickle are for the Winter. 21. Daisy, _Buphthalmum_, Ox-Eye, or _Bellis-major_: The young _Roots_ are frequently eaten by the _Spaniards_ and _Italians_ all the Spring till _June_. 22. Dandelion, _Dens Leonis, Condrilla_: Macerated in several Waters, to extract the bitterness; tho' somewhat opening, is very wholsome, and little inferior to _Succory, Endive_, &c. The _French_ Country-People eat the Roots; and 'twas with this homely _Sallet_, the Good-Wife _Hecate_ entertain'd _Theseus_. See _Sowthistle_. 23. Dock, _Oxylapathum_, or sharp-pointed Dock: Emollient, and tho' otherwise not for our _Sallet_, the _Roots_ brewed in _Ale_ or _Beer_, are excellent for the _Scorbute_. Earth-Nuts, _Bulbo-Castanum_; (found in divers places of _Surry_, near _Kingston_, and other parts) the Rind par'd off, are eaten crude by Rustics, with a little _Pepper_; but are best boil'd like other Roots, or in Pottage rather, and are sweet and nourishing. 24. Elder, _Sambucus_; The Flowers infus'd in _Vinegar_, grateful both to the Stomach and Taste; attenuate thick and viscid Humours; and tho' the Leaves are somewhat rank of Smell, and so not commendable in _Sallet_; they are otherwise (as indeed is the intire Shrub) of the most sovereign Vertue; and the spring Buds and tender Leaves, excellently wholsome in Pottage at that Season of the Year. See _Flowers_. 25. Endive, _Endivium, Intubum Sativum_; the largest, whitest, and tenderest Leaves best boil'd, and less crude. It is naturally Cold, profitable for hot Stomachs; _Incisive_ and opening Obstructions of the Liver: The curled is more delicate, being eaten alone, or in Composition, with the usual _Intinctus_: It is also excellent being boil'd; the middle part of the Blanch'd-Stalk separated, eats firm, and the ampler Leaves by many perferr'd before _Lettuce_. See _Succory_. Eschalot. See _Onions_. 26. Fennel, _Foeniculum_: The sweetest of _Bolognia_: Aromatick, hot, and dry; expels Wind, sharpens the Sight, and recreates the Brain; especially the tender _Umbella_ and Seed-Pods. The Stalks are to be peel'd when young, and then dress'd like _Sellery_. The tender Tufts and Leaves emerging, being minc'd, are eaten alone with _Vinegar_, or _Oyl_, and _Pepper_, and to correct the colder Materials, enter properly into Composition. The _Italians_ eat the blanch'd Stalk (which they call _Cartucci_) all Winter long. There is a very small _Green-Worm_, which sometimes lodges in the Stemm of this Plant, which is to be taken out, as the _Red_ one in that of _Sellery_. 27. Flowers, _Flores_; chiefly of the _Aromatick Esculents_ and Plants are preferrable, as generally endow'd with the Vertues of their _Simples_, in a more intense degree; and may therefore be eaten alone in their proper _Vehicles_, or Composition with other _Salleting_, sprinkl'd among them; But give a more palatable Relish, being Infus'd in _Vinegar_; Especially those of the _Clove-Gillyflower, Elder, Orange, Cowslip, Rosemary, Arch-Angel, Sage, Nasturtium Indicum_, &c. Some of them are Pickl'd, and divers of them make also very pleasant and wholsome _Theas_, as do likewise the Wild _Time, Bugloss, Mint_, &c. 28. Garlick, _Allium_; dry towards Excess; and tho' both by _Spaniards_ and _Italians_, and the more Southern People, familiarly eaten, with almost every thing, and esteem'd of such sigular Vertue to help Conception, and thought a Charm against all Infection and Poyson (by which it has obtain'd the Name of the _Country-man's Theriacle_) we yet think it more proper for our Northern Rustics, especially living in _Uliginous_ and moist places, or such as use the _Sea_: Whilst we absolutely forbid it entrance into our _Salleting_, by reason of its intolerable Rankness, and which made it so detested of old; that the eating of it was (as we read) part of the Punishment for such as had committed the horrid'st Crimes. To be sure, 'tis not for Ladies Palats, nor those who court them, farther than to permit a light touch on the Dish, with a _Clove_ thereof, much better supply'd by the gentler _Roccombo_. _Note_, That in _Spain_ they sometimes eat it boil'd, which taming its fierceness, turns it into Nourishment, or rather _Medicine_. Ginny-Pepper, _Capsicum_. See _Pepper_. 29. Goats-beard, _Trago-pogon:_ The _Root_ is excellent even in _Sallet_, and very Nutritive, exceeding profitable for the Breast, and may be stew'd and dress'd as _Scorzonera_. 30. Hops, _Lupulus_: Hot and moist, rather _Medicinal_, than fit for _Sallet_; the _Buds_ and young _Tendrels_ excepted, which may be eaten raw; but more conveniently being boil'd, and cold like _Asparagus_: They are _Diuretic_; depurate the Blood, and open Obstructions. 31. Hyssop, _Hyssopus; Thymus Capitatus Creticus; Majoran, Mary-gold_, &c. as all hot, spicy _Aromatics_, (commonly growing in _Kitchin-Gardens_) are of Faculty to Comfort, and strengthen; prevalent against Melancoly and Phlegm; Plants, like these, going under the Names of _Pot Herbs_, are much more proper for _Broths_ and _Decoctions_, than the tender _Sallet_: Yet the _Tops_ and _Flowers_ reduc'd to Powder, are by some reserv'd for Strewings, upon the colder Ingredients; communicating no ungrateful Fragrancy. 32. Jack-by-the-Hedge, _Alliaria_, or _Sauce-alone_; has many Medicinal Properties, and is eaten as other _Sallets_, especially by Country People, growing wild under their Banks and Hedges. 33. Leeks, and _Cibbols, Porrum_; hot, and of Vertue Prolifick, since _Latona_, the Mother of _Appolo_ long'd after them: The _Welch_, who eat them much, are observ'd to be very fruitful: They are also friendly to the Lungs and Stomach, being sod in Milk; a few therefore of the slender and green Summities, a little shred, do not amiss in Composition. See _Onion_. 34. Lettuce, _Lactuca_: Tho' by _Metaphor_ call'd [18]_Mortuorum Cibi_, (to say nothing of [19]_Adonis_ and his sad _Mistriss_) by reason of its _Soporiferous_ quality, ever was, and still continues the principal Foundation of the universal _Tribe_ of _Sallets_; which is to Cool and Refresh, besides its other Properties: And therefore in such high esteem with the Ancients; that divers of the _Valerian_ Family, dignify'd and enobled their Name with that of _Lactucinii_. It is indeed of Nature more cold and moist than any of the rest; yet less astringent, and so harmless that it may safely be eaten raw in Fevers; for it allays Heat, bridles Choler, extinguishes Thirst, excites Appetite, kindly Nourishes, and above all represses Vapours, conciliates Sleep, mitigates Pain; besides the effect it has upon the Morals, _Temperance_ and _Chastity_. Galen (whose beloved _Sallet_ it was) from its _pinguid, subdulcid_ and agreeable Nature, says it breeds the most laudable Blood. No marvel then that they were by the Ancients called _Sana_, by way of eminency, and so highly valu'd by the great [20]_Augustus_, that attributing his Recovery of a dangerous Sickness to them, 'tis reported, he erected a _Statue_, and built an _Altar_ to this noble Plant. And that the most abstemious and excellent Emperor [21]_Tacitus_ (spending almost nothing at his frugal Table in other Dainties) was yet so great a Friend to _Lettuce_, that he was us'd to say of his Prodigality, _Somnum se mercari illa sumptus effusione_. How it was celebrated by _Galen_ we have heard; how he us'd it he tells himself; namely, beginning with _Lettuce_ in his younger Days, and concluding with it when he grew old, and that to his great advantage. In a word, we meet with nothing among all our crude Materials and _Sallet_ store, so proper to mingle with any of the rest, nor so wholsome to be eaten alone, or in Composition, moderately, and with the usual _Oxeloeum_ of _Vinegar, Pepper_, and _Oyl_, &c. which last does not so perfectly agree with the _Alphange_, to which the Juice of _Orange_, or _Limon_ and _Sugar_ is more desirable: _Aristoxenus_ is reported to have irrigated his _Lettuce_-Beds with an _Oinomelite_, or mixture of _Wine_ and _Honey_: And certainly 'tis not for nothing that our Garden-Lovers, and _Brothers of the Sallet_, have been so exceedingly Industrious to cultivate this Noble Plant, and multiply its _Species_; for to name a few in present use: We have the _Alphange_ of _Montpelier_, crisp and delicate; the _Arabic; Ambervelleres; Belgrade, Cabbage, Capuchin, Coss-Lettuce, Curl'd_; the _Genoa_ (lasting all the Winter) the _Imperial, Lambs_, or _Agnine_, and _Lobbs_ or _Lop-Lettuces_. The _French Minion_ a dwarf kind: The _Oak-Leaf, Passion, Roman, Shell_, and _Silesian_, hard and crimp (esteemed of the best and rarest) with divers more: And here let it be noted, that besides three or four sorts of this Plant, and some few of the rest, there was within our remembrance, rarely any other _Salleting_ serv'd up to the best Tables; with unblanch'd _Endive, Succory, Purselan_, (and indeed little other variety) _Sugar_ and _Vinegar_ being the constant _Vehicles_ (without _Oyl_) but now _Sugar_ is almost wholly banish'd from all, except the more effeminate Palates, as too much palling, and taking from the grateful _Acid_ now in use, tho' otherwise not totally to be reproved: _Lettuce_ boil'd and _Condited_ is sometimes spoken of. 35. Limon, _Limonia, citrea mala_; exceedingly refreshing, _Cordial_, &c. The Pulp being blended with the Juice, secluding the over-sweet or bitter. See _Orange_. 36. Mallow, _Malva_; the curl'd, emollient, and friendly to the _Ventricle_, and so rather Medicinal; yet may the Tops, well boil'd, be admitted, and the rest (tho' out of use at present) was taken by the Poets for all _Sallets_ in general. _Pythagoras_ held _Malvæ folium Sanctisimum_; and we find _Epimenides_ in [22]Plato at his _Mallows_ and _Asphodel_; and indeed it was of old the first Dish at Table: The _Romans_ had it also _in deliciis_, [23]_Malvæ salubres corpori_, approved by [24]_Galen_ and [25]_Dioscorides_; namely the _Garden-Mallow_, by others the _Wild_; but I think both proper rather for the _Pot_, than _Sallet_. _Nonius_ supposes the tall _Rosea, Arborescent Holi-hocks_, that bears the broad Flower, for the best, and very [26]_Laxative_; but by reason of their clamminess and _Lentor_, banished from our _Sallet_, tho' by some commended and eaten with _Oyl_ and _Vinegar_, and some with _Butter_. Mercury, _Bonus Henricus_, English Mercury, or _Lapathum Unctuosum_. See _Blitum_. 37. Melon, _Melo_; to have been reckon'd rather among _Fruits_; and tho' an usual Ingredient in our _Sallet_; yet for its transcendent delicacy and flavor, cooling and exhilarating Nature (if sweet, dry, weighty, and well-fed) not only superior all the _Gourd_-kind, but Paragon with the noblest Productions of the Garden. _Jos. Scaliger_ and _Casaubon_, think our _Melon_ unknown to the Ancients, (which others contradict) as yet under the name of _Cucumers_: But he who reads how artificially they were Cultivated, rais'd under Glasses, and expos'd to the hot Sun, (for _Tiberius_) cannot well doubt of their being the same with ours. There is also a _Winter-Melon_, large and with black Seeds, exceedingly Cooling, brought us from abroad, and the hotter Climates, where they drink _Water_ after eating _Melons_; but in the colder (after all dispute) _Wine_ is judg'd the better: That it has indeed by some been accus'd as apt to corrupt in the Stomach (as do all things else eaten in excess) is not deny'd: But a perfect good _Melon_ is certainly as harmless a Fruit as any whatsoever; and may safely be mingl'd with _Sallet_, in Pulp or Slices, or more properly eaten by it self, with a little _Salt_ and _Pepper_; for a _Melon_ which requires _Sugar_ to commend it, wants of Perfection. _Note_, That this Fruit was very rarely cultivated in _England_, so as to bring it to Maturity, till Sir _Geo. Gardner_ came out of _Spain_. I my self remembring, when an ordinary _Melon_ would have been sold for five or six Shillings. The small unripe Fruit, when the others are past, may be Pickl'd with _Mango_, and are very delicate. 38. Mint, _Mentha_; the _Angustifolia Spicata_, Spear-Mint; dry and warm, very fragrant, a little press'd, is friendly to the weak Stomach, and powerful against all _Nervous_ Crudities: The gentler Tops of the _Orange-Mint_, enter well into our Composition, or are grateful alone (as are also the other sorts) with the Juice of _Orange_, and a little _Sugar_. 39. Mushroms, _Fungi_; By the [27]Orator call'd _Terræ_, by _Porphyry Deorum filii_, without Seed (as produc'd by the Midwifry of _Autumnal_ Thunder-Storms, portending the Mischief they cause) by the _French, Champignons_, with all the Species of the _Boletus_, &c. for being, as some hold, neither _Root, Herb, Flower_, nor _Fruit_, nor to be eaten crude; should be therefore banish'd entry into our _Sallet_, were I to order the Composition; however so highly contended for by many, as the very principal and top of all the rest; whilst I think them tolerable only (at least in this _Climate_) if being fresh and skilfully chosen, they are accommodated with the nicest Care and Circumspection; generally reported to have something malignant and noxious in them: Nor without cause; from the many sad Examples, frequent Mischiefs, and funest Accidents they have produc'd, not only to particular Persons, but whole Families: Exalted indeed they were to the second Course of the _Cæsarian Tables_, with the noble Title [Greek: Brôma theôn], a Dainty fit for the _Gods_ alone; to whom they sent the Emperor [28]_Claudius_, as they have many since, to the other World. But he that reads how [29]_Seneca_ deplores his lost Friend, that brave Commander _Annæus Serenus_, and several other gallant Persons with him, who all of them perish'd at the same Repast; would be apt to ask with the [30]_Naturalist_ (speaking of this suspicious Dainty) _Quæ voluptas tanta ancipitis cibi_? and who indeed would hazard it? So true is that of the Poet; He that eats _Mushroms_, many time _Nil amplius edit_, eats no more perhaps all his Life after. What other deterring _Epithets_ are given for our Caution, [Greek: Barê pnigoenta mukêtôn], _heavy_ and _choaking_. (_Athenæus_ reporting of the Poet _Euripides's_, finding a Woman and her three Children strangl'd by eating of them) one would think sufficient warning. Among these comes in the _Fungus Reticularis_, to be found about _London_, as at _Fulham_ and other places; whilst at no small charge we send for them into _France_; as we also do for _Trufles_, _Pig-nuts_, and other subterraneous _Tubera_, which in _Italy_ they fry in Oyl, and eat with _Pepper_: They are commonly discovered by a _Nasute Swine_ purposely brought up; being of a Chessnut Colour, and heady Smell, and not seldom found in _England_, particularly in a Park of my Lord _Cotton's_ at _Rushton_ or _Rusbery_ in _Northampton_-shire, and doubtless in other [31]places too were they sought after. How these rank and provocative Excrescences are to be [32]treated (of themselves insipid enough, and only famous for their kindly taking any Pickle or _Conditure_) that they may do the less Mischief we might here set down. But since there be so many ways of Dressing them, that I can incourage none to use them, for Reasons given (besides that they do not at all concern our safer and innocent _Sallet_ Furniture) I forbear it; and referr those who long after this beloved _Ragout_, and other _Voluptuaria Venena_ (as _Seneca_ calls them) to what our Learned Dr. _Lyster_[33] says of the many Venomous _Insects_ harbouring and corrupting in a new found-out Species of _Mushroms_ had lately in deliciis. Those, in the mean time, which are esteemed best, and less pernicious, (of which see the _Appendix_) are such as rise in rich, airy, and dry [34]Pasture-Grounds; growing on the Staff or _Pedicule_ of about an Inch thick and high; moderately Swelling (_Target_-like) round and firm, being underneath of a pale saffronish hue, curiously radiated in parallel Lines and Edges, which becoming either Yellow, Orange, or Black, are to be rejected: But besides what the Harvest-Months produce, they are likewise rais'd [35]Artificially; as at _Naples_ in their Wine-Cellars, upon an heap of rank Earth, heaped upon a certain supposed _Stone_, but in truth, (as the curious and noble [36]_Peiresky_ tells us, he found to be) nothing but an heap of old _Fungus_'s, reduc'd and compacted to a stony hardness, upon which they lay Earth, and sprinkle it with warm Water, in which _Mushroms_ have been steeped. And in _France_, by making an hot Bed of _Asses_-Dung, and when the heat is in Temper, watering it (as above) well impregnated with the Parings and Offals of refuse _Fungus_'s; and such a Bed will last two or three Years, and sometimes our common _Melon_-Beds afford them, besides other Experiments. 40. Mustard, _Sinapi_; exceeding hot and _mordicant_, not only in the Seed but Leaf also; especially in _Seedling_ young Plants, like those of _Radishes_ (newly peeping out of the Bed) is of incomparable effect to quicken and revive the Spirits; strengthening the Memory, expelling heaviness, preventing the Vertiginous Palsie, and is a laudable _Cephalick_. Besides it is an approv'd _Antiscorbutick_; aids Concoction, cuts and dissipates Phlegmatick Humours. In short, 'tis the most noble _Embamma_, and so necessary an Ingredient to all cold and raw _Salleting_, that it is very rarely, if at all, to be left out. In _Italy_ in making _Mustard_, they mingle _Limon_ and _Orange-Peel_, with the Seeds. How the best is made, see hereafter. _Nasturtium Indicum_. See _Cresses_. 41. Nettles, _Urtica_; Hot, dry, _Diuretic, Solvent_; purifies the Blood: The Buds, and very tender _Cimae_, a little bruised, are by some eaten raw, by others boil'd, especially in _Spring-Pottage_, with other Herbs. 42. Onion, _Cepa_, _Porrum_; the best are such as are brought us out of _Spain_, whence they of St. _Omers_ had them, and some that have weigh'd eight Pounds. Choose therefore the large, round, white, and thin Skin'd. Being eaten crude and alone with _Oyl_, _Vinegar_, and _Pepper_, we own them in _Sallet_, not so hot as _Garlick_, nor at all so rank: Boil'd, they give a kindly relish; raise Appetite, corroborate the Stomach, cut Phlegm, and profit the _Asthmatical_: But eaten in excess, are said to offend the Head and Eyes, unless _Edulcorated_ with a gentle maceration. In the mean time, as to their being noxious to the Sight, is imputable only to the Vapour rising from the raw Onion, when peeled, which some commend for its purging and quickning that Sense. How they are us'd in Pottage, boil'd in Milk, stew'd, &c. concerns the Kitchin. In our cold _Sallet_ we supply them with the _Porrum Sectile_, Tops of _Leeks_, and _Eschalots_ (_Ascalonia_) of gust more exalted, yet not to the degree of _Garlick_. Or (by what of later use is much preferr'd) with a _Seed_ or two of _Raccombo_, of a yet milder and delicate nature, which by rubbing the Dish only, imparts its Vertue agreeably enough. In _Italy_ they frequently make a _Sallet_ of _Scalions_, _Cives_, and _Chibbols_ only season'd with _Oyl_ and _Pepper_; and an honest laborious Country-man, with good _Bread_, _Salt_, and a little _Parsley_, will make a contented Meal with a roasted _Onion_. How this noble _Bulb_ was deified in [37]_Egypt_ we are told, and that whilst they were building the _Pyramids_, there was spent in this Root [38]_Ninety Tun_ of _Gold_ among the Workmen. So lushious and tempting it seems they were, that as whole Nations have subsisted on them alone; so the _Israelites_ were ready to return to _Slavery_ and _Brick-making_ for the love of them. Indeed _Hecamedes_ we find presents them to _Patroclus_, in _Homer_, as a _Regalo_; But certainly we are either mistaken in the _Species_ (which some will have to be _Melons_) or use _Poetick_ Licence, when we so highly magnify them. 43. Orach, _Atriplex_: Is cooling, allays the _Pituit_ Humor: Being set over the Fire, neither _this_, nor _Lettuce_, needs any other Water than their own moisture to boil them in, without Expression: The tender Leaves are mingl'd with other cold _Salleting_; but 'tis better in Pottage. See _Blitum_. 44. Orange, _Arantiæ_ (_Malum aureum_) Moderately dry, cooling, and incisive; sharpens Appetite, exceedingly refreshes and resists Putrefaction: We speak of the _Sub acid_; the sweet and bitter _Orange_ being of no use in our _Sallet_. The _Limon_ is somewhat more acute, cooling and extinguishing Thirst; of all the [Greek: Oxubapha] the best _succedaneum_ to _Vinegar_. The very Spoils and Rinds of _Orange_ and _Limon_ being shred and sprinkl'd among the other Herbs, correct the Acrimony. But they are the tender _Seedlings_ from the _Hot-Bed_, which impart an _Aromatic_ exceedingly grateful to the Stomach. _Vide_ Limon. 45. Parsnep, _Pastinaca_, Carrot: first boil'd, being cold, is of it self a Winter-_Sallet_, eaten with _Oyl_, _Vinegar_, &c. and having something of Spicy, is by some, thought more nourishing than the _Turnep_. 46. Pease, _Pisum_: the Pod of the _Sugar-Pease_, when first beginning to appear, with the _Husk_ and _Tendrels_, affording a pretty _Acid_, enter into the Composition, as do those of _Hops_ and the _Vine_. 47. Peper, _Piper_, hot and dry in a high degree; of approv'd Vertue against all flatulency proceeding from cold and phlegmatic Constitutions, and generally all Crudities whatsoever; and therefore for being of universal use to correct and temper the cooler Herbs, and such as abound in moisture; It is a never to be omitted Ingredient of our _Sallets_; provided it be not too minutely beaten (as oft we find it) to an almost impalpable Dust, which is very pernicious and frequently adheres and sticks in the folds of the Stomach, where, instead of promoting Concoction, it often causes a _Cardialgium_, and fires the Blood: It should therefore be grosly contus'd only. _Indian Capsicum_, superlatively hot and burning, is yet by the _Africans_ eaten with _Salt_ and _Vinegar_ by it self, as an usual Condiment; but wou'd be of dangerous consequence with us; being so much more of an acrimonious and terribly biting quality, which by Art and Mixture is notwithstanding render'd not only safe, but very agreeable in our _Sallet_. Take the _Pods_, and dry them well in a Pan; and when they are become sufficiently hard, cut them into small pieces, and stamp 'em in a Mortar to dust: To each Ounce of which add a Pound of _Wheat-flour_, fermented with a little _Levain_: Kneed and make them into Cakes or Loaves cut long-wise, in shape of _Naples-Biscuit_. These Re-bake a second time, till they are Stone-hard: Pound them again as before, and ferce it through a fine Sieve, for a very proper Seasoning, instead of vulgar _Peper_. The Mordicancy thus allay'd, be sure to make the Mortar very clean, after having beaten _Indian Capsicum_, before you stamp any thing in it else. The green Husks, or first peeping Buds of the _Walnut-Tree_, dry'd to Powder, serve for _Peper_ in some places, and so do _Myrtle-berries_. 48. Persley, _Petroselinum_, or _Apium hortense_; being hot and dry, opens Obstructions, is very _Diuretic_, yet nourishing, _edulcorated_ in shifted warm Water (the Roots especially) but of less Vertue than _Alexanders_; nor so convenient in our crude _Sallet_, as when decocted on a Medicinal Account. Some few tops of the tender Leaves may yet be admitted; tho' it was of old, we read, never brought to the Table at all, as sacred to _Oblivium_ and the _Defunct_. In the mean time, there being nothing more proper for Stuffing, (_Farces_) and other _Sauces_, we consign it to the _Olitories_. _Note_, that Persley is not so hurtful to the Eyes as is reported. See _Sellery_. 49. Pimpernel, _Pimpinella_; eaten by the _French_ and _Italians_, is our common _Burnet_; of so chearing and exhilarating a quality, and so generally commended, as (giving it admittance into all _Sallets_) 'tis pass'd into a Proverb: _L'Insalata non è buon, ne bella_ _Ove non è la Pimpinella_. But a fresh sprig in _Wine_, recommends it to us as its most genuine Element. 50. Purslain, _Portulaca_; especially the _Golden_ whilst tender, next the Seed-leaves, with the young Stalks, being eminently moist and cooling, quickens Appetite, asswages Thirst, and is very profitable for hot and _Bilious_ Tempers, as well as _Sanguine_, and generally entertain'd in all our _Sallets_, mingled with the hotter Herbs: Tis likewise familiarly eaten alone with _Oyl_ and _Vinegar_; but with moderation, as having been sometimes found to corrupt in the Stomach, which being _Pickl'd_ 'tis not so apt to do. Some eat it cold, after it has been boil'd, which Dr. _Muffet_ would have in _Wine_, for Nourishment. The Shrub _Halimus_, is a sort of _Sea-Purslain_: The newly peeping Leaves (tho' rarely us'd) afford a no unpleasant _Acidule_, even during winter, if it prove not too severe. _Purslain_ is accus'd for being hurtful to the _Teeth_, if too much eaten. 51. Radish, _Raphanus_. Albeit rather Medicinal, than so commendably accompanying our _Sallets_ (wherein they often slice the larger Roots) are much inferior to the young Seedling Leaves and Roots; raised on the [39]Monthly _Hot-Bed_, almost the whole Year round, affording a very grateful mordacity, and sufficiently attempers the cooler Ingredients: The bigger Roots (so much desir'd) should be such as being transparent, eat short and quick, without stringiness, and not too biting. These are eaten alone with _Salt_ only, as carrying their _Peper_ in them; and were indeed by _Dioscorides_ and _Pliny_ celebrated above all Roots whatsoever; insomuch as in the _Delphic_ Temple, there was _Raphanus ex auro dicatus_, a Radish of solid Gold; and 'tis said of _Moschius_, that he wrote a whole Volume in their praise. Notwithstanding all which, I am sure, the great [40]_Hippocrates_ utterly condemns them, as _Vitiosoe, innatantes ac aegre concoctiles_. And the _Naturalist_ calls it _Cibus Illiberalis_, fitter for _Rustics_ than _Gentlemens_ Tables. And indeed (besides that they decay the Teeth) experience tells us, that as the Prince of _Physicians_ writes, It is hard of Digestion, _Inimicous_ to the Stomach, causing nauseous Eructations, and sometimes Vomiting, tho' otherwise _Diuretic_, and thought to repel the Vapours of _Wine_, when the _Wits_ were at their genial _Club_. _Dioscorides_ and [41]_Galen_ differ about their Eating; One prescribes it before Meals, the latter for after. Some macerate the young Roots in warm milk, to render them more _Nourishing_. There is a _Raphanus rusticanus_, the _Spanish_ black _Horse Radish_, of a hotter quality, and not so friendly to the Head; but a notable _Antiscorbutic_, which may be eaten all the Winter, and on that account an excellent Ingredient in the Composition of _Mustard_; as are also the thin Shavings, mingled with our cold Herbs. And now before I have done with this Root, for an excellent and universal _Condiment_. Take _Horse-Radish_, whilst newly drawn out of the Earth, otherwise laid to steep in Water a competent time; then _grate_ it on a _Grater_ which has no bottom, that so it may pass thro', like a Mucilage, into a Dish of Earthen Ware: This temper'd with _Vinegar_, in which a little _Sugar_ has been dissolv'd, you have a _Sauce_ supplying _Mustard_ to the _Sallet_, and serving likewise for any Dish besides. 52. Rampion, _Rapunculus_, or the _Esculent Campanula_: The tender Roots eaten in the Spring, like those of _Radishes_, but much more Nourishing. 53. Rocket, _Eruca Spanish_; hot and dry, to be qualified with _Lettuce_, _Purcelain_, and the rest, &c. See _Tarragon_. Roccombo. See _Onions_. 54. Rosemary, _Rosmarinus_; Soverainly _Cephalic_, and for the _Memory_, _Sight_, and _Nerves_, incomparable: And tho' not us'd in the Leaf with our _Sallet_ furniture, yet the _Flowers_, a little bitter, are always welcome in _Vinegar_; but above all, a fresh Sprig or two in a Glass of _Wine_. See _Flowers_. 55. Sage, _Salvia_; hot and dry. The tops of the _Red_, well pick'd and wash'd (being often defil'd with Venomous Slime, and almost imperceptible _Insects_) with the _Flowers_, retain all the noble Properties of the other hot Plants; more especially for the _Head_, _Memory_, _Eyes_, and all _Paralytical_ Affections. In short, 'tis a Plant endu'd with so many and wonderful Properties, as that the assiduous use of it is said to render Men _Immortal_: We cannot therefore but allow the tender _Summities_ of the young Leaves; but principally the _Flowers_ in our cold _Sallet_; yet so as not to domineer. Salsifax, _Scorzonera_. See _Vipergrass_. 56. Sampier, _Crithmum_: That growing on the Sea-Cliffs (as about _Dover_, &c.) not only _Pickl'd_, but crude and cold, when young and tender (and such as we may Cultivate, and have in our _Kitchin-Gardens_, almost the Year round) is in my Opinion, for its _Aromatic_, and other excellent Vertues and Effects against the _Spleen_, Cleansing the Passages, sharpning Appetite, &c. so far preferrable to most of our hotter Herbs, and _Sallet_-Ingredients, that I have long wonder'd, it has not been long since propagated in the _Potagere_, as it is in _France_; from whence I have often receiv'd the Seeds, which have prosper'd better, and more kindly with me, than what comes from our own Coasts: It does not indeed _Pickle_ so well, as being of a more tender Stalk and Leaf: But in all other respects for composing _Sallets_, it has nothing like it. 57. Scalions, _Ascalonia_, _Cepæ_; The _French_ call them _Appetites_, which it notably quickens and stirs up: Corrects Crudities, and promotes Concoction. The _Italians_ steep them in Water, mince, and eat them cold with _Oyl_, _Vinegar_, _Salt_, &c. 58. Scurvy-grass, _Cochlearia_, of the Garden, but especially that of the Sea, is sharp, biting, and hot; of Nature like _Nasturtium_, prevalent in the _Scorbute_. A few of the tender Leaves may be admitted in our Composition. See _Nasturtium Indicum_. 59. Sellery, _Apium Italicum_, (and of the _Petroseline_ Family) was formerly a stranger with us (nor very long since in _Italy_) is an hot and more generous sort of _Macedonian Persley_, or _Smallage_. The tender Leaves of the _Blancht_ Stalk do well in our _Sallet_, as likewise the slices of the whiten'd Stems, which being crimp and short, first peel'd and slit long wise, are eaten with _Oyl_, _Vinegar_, _Salt_, and _Peper_; and for its high and grateful Taste, is ever plac'd in the middle of the _Grand Sallet_, at our Great Mens Tables, and _Prætors_ Feasts, as the Grace of the whole Board. _Caution_ is to be given of a small red _Worm_, often lurking in these Stalks, as does the green in _Fennil_. Shallots. See _Onion_. 60. Skirrets, _Sisarum_; hot and moist, corroborating, and good for the Stomach, exceedingly nourishing, wholsome and delicate; of all the _Root-kind_, not subject to be Windy, and so valued by the Emperor _Tiberius_, that he accepted them for Tribute. This excellent Root is seldom eaten raw; but being boil'd, stew'd, roasted under the Embers, bak'd in Pies, whole, sliced, or in pulp, is very acceptable to all Palates. 'Tis reported they were heretofore something bitter; See what Culture and Education effects! 61. Sorrel, _Acetosa_: of which there are divers kinds. The _French Acetocella_, with the round Leaf, growing plentifully in the _North_ of _England_; _Roman Oxalis_; the broad _German_, &c. but the best is of _Green-Land:_ by nature cold, Abstersive, Acid, sharpning Appetite, asswages Heat, cools the Liver, strengthens the Heart; is an _Antiscorbutic_, resisting Putrefaction, and imparting so grateful a quickness to the rest, as supplies the want of _Orange_, _Limon_, and other _Omphacia_, and therefore never to be excluded. Vide _Wood-Sorrel_. 62. Sow-thistle, _Sonchus_; of the _Intybus_-kind. _Galen_ was us'd to eat it as _Lettuce_; exceedingly welcome to the late _Morocco._ Ambassador and his Retinue. 63. Sparagus, _Asparagus_ (_ab Asperitate_) temperately hot, and moist; _Cordial_, _Diuretic_, easie of Digestion, and next to _Flesh_, nothing more nourishing, as _Sim. Sethius_, an excellent Physician holds. They are sometimes, but very seldom, eaten raw with _Oyl_, and _Vinegar_; but with more delicacy (the bitterness first exhausted) being so speedily boil'd, as not to lose the _verdure_ and agreeable tenderness; which is done by letting the Water boil, before you put them in. I do not esteem the _Dutch_ great and larger sort (especially rais'd by the rankness of the Beds) so sweet and agreeable, as those of a moderate size. 64. Spinach, _Spinachia_: of old not us'd in _Sallets_, and the oftner kept out the better; I speak of the _crude_: But being boil'd to a _Pult_, and without other Water than its own moisture, is a most excellent Condiment with _Butter_, _Vinegar_, or _Limon_, for almost all sorts of boil'd Flesh, and may accompany a Sick Man's Diet. 'Tis _Laxative_ and _Emollient_, and therefore profitable for the Aged, and (tho' by original a _Spaniard_) may be had at almost any Season, and in all places. Stone-Crop, _Sedum Minus_. See _Trick-Madame_. 65. Succory, _Cichorium_, an _Intube_; erratic and wild, with a narrow dark Leaf, different from the _Sative_, tho' probably by culture only; and for being very bitter, a little _edulcorated_ with _Sugar_ and _Vinegar_, is by some eaten in the Summer, and more grateful to the Stomach than the Palate. See _Endive_. 66. Tansy, _Tanacetum_; hot and cleansing; but in regard of its domineering relish, sparingly mixt with our cold _Sallet_, and much fitter (tho' in very small quantity) for the Pan, being qualified with the Juices of other fresh Herbs, _Spinach_, _Green Corn_, _Violet_, _Primrose-Leaves_, &c. at entrance of the Spring, and then fried brownish, is eaten hot with the Juice of _Orange_ and _Sugar_, as one of the most agreeable of all the boil'd _Herbaceous_ Dishes. 67. Tarragon, _Draco Herba_, of _Spanish_ Extraction; hot and spicy: The Tops and young Shoots, like those of _Rochet_, never to be secluded our Composition, especially where there is much _Lettuce_. 'Tis highly cordial and friendly to the Head, Heart, Liver, correcting the weakness of the Ventricle, _&c._ 68. Thistle, _Carduus Mariæ_; our Lady's milky or dappl'd Thistle, disarm'd of its Prickles, is worth esteem: The young Stalk about _May_, being peel'd and soak'd in Water, to extract the bitterness, boil'd or raw, is a very wholsome _Sallet_, eaten with _Oyl_, _Salt_, and _Peper_; some eat them sodden in proper Broath, or bak'd in Pies, like the _Artichoak_; but the tender Stalk boil'd or fry'd, some preferr; both Nourishing and Restorative. 69. Trick-Madame, _Sedum minus_, Stone-Crop; is cooling and moist, grateful to the Stomach. The _Cimata_ and Tops, when young and tender, dress'd as _Purselane_, is a frequent Ingredient in our cold _Sallet_. 70. Turnep, _Rapum_; moderately hot and moist: _Napus_; the long _Navet_ is certainly the most delicate of them, and best Nourishing. _Pliny_ speaks of no fewer than six sorts, and of several Colours; some of which were suspected to be artificially tinged. But with us, the yellow is preferr'd; by others the red _Bohemian_. But of whatever kind, being sown upon the _Hot-bed_, and no bigger than seedling _Radish_, they do excellently in Composition; as do also the Stalks of the common _Turnep_, when first beginning to Bud. And here should not be forgotten, that wholsome, as well as agreeable sort of _Bread_, we are [42]taught to make; and of which we have eaten at the greatest Persons Tables, hardly to be distinguish'd from the best of _Wheat_. Let the _Turneps_ first be peel'd, and boil'd in Water till soft and tender; then strongly pressing out the Juice, mix them together, and when dry (beaten or pounded very fine) with their weight of Wheat-Meal, season it as you do other _Bread_, and knead it up; then letting the Dough remain a little to _ferment_, fashion the Paste into Loaves, and bake it like common Bread. Some roast _Turneps_ in a Paper under the Embers, and eat them with _Sugar_ and _Butter_. 71. Vine, _Vitis_, the _Capreols_, _Tendrels_, and _Claspers_ (like those of the _Hop_, &c.) whilst very young, have an agreeable _Acid_, which may be eaten alone, or with other _Sallet_. 72. Viper-grass, _Tragopogon_, _Scorzonera_, _Salsifex_, &c. tho' Medicinal, and excellent against the _Palpitation of the Heart_, _Faintings_, _Obstruction of the Bowels_, &c. are besides a very sweet and pleasant _Sallet_; being laid to soak out the bitterness, then peel'd, may be eaten raw, or _Condited_; but best of all stew'd with _Marrow_, _Spice_, _Wine_, &c. as _Artichoak_, _Skirrets_, &c. sliced or whole. They likewise may bake, fry, or boil them; a more excellent Root there is hardly growing. 73. Wood-Sorrel, _Trifolium acetosum_, or _Alleluja_, of the nature of other _Sorrels_. To all which might we add sundry more, formerly had in _deliciis_, since grown _obsolete_ or quite neglected with us: As among the noblest _Bulbs_, that of the _Tulip_; a Root of which has been valued not to eat, but for the _Flower_ (and yet eaten by mistake) at more than an hundred Pounds. The young fresh _Bulbs_ are sweet and high of taste. The _Asphodil_ or _Daffodil_; a _Sallet_ so rare in _Hesiod's_ Days, that _Lobel_ thinks it the _Parsnep_, tho' not at all like it; however it was (with the _Mallow_) taken anciently for any _Edule_-Root. The _Ornithogalons_ roasted, as they do _Chestnuts_, are eaten by the _Italians_, the wild yellow especially, with _Oyl_, _Vinegar_, and _Peper_. And so the small _tuberous_ Roots of _Gramen Amygdalosum_; which they also roast, and make an _Emulsion_ of, to use in Broaths as a great Restorative. The _Oxylapathum_, us'd of old; in the time of _Galen_ was eaten frequently. As also _Dracontium_, with the Mordicant _Arum Theophrasti_, which _Dodonæus_ teaches how to Dress. Nay, divers of the _Satyrions_, which some condited with _Sugar_, others boil'd in Milk for a great Nourisher, now discarded. But what think we of the _Cicuta_, which there are who reckon among _Sallet_ Herbs? But whatever it is in any other Country, 'tis certainly Mortiferous in ours. To these add the _Viola Matronalis_, _Radix Lunaria_, &c. nay, the _Green Poppy_, by most accounted among the deadly Poysons: How cautious then ought our _Sallet_-Gatherers to be, in reading ancient Authors; lest they happen to be impos'd on, where they treat of Plants, that are familiarly eaten in other Countries, and among other Nations and People of more robust and strong constitutions? bessides the hazard of being mistaken in the Names of divers _Simples_, not as yet fully agreed upon among the Learned in _Botany_. There are bessides several remaining, which tho' _Abdicated_ here with us, find Entertainment still in Foreign Countries: As the large _Heliotrope_ and Sun-flower (e're it comes to expand, and shew its golden Face) which being dress'd as the _Artichoak_, is eaten for a dainty. This I add as a new Discovery. I once made _Macaroons_ with the ripe blanch'd Seeds, but the _Turpentine_ did so domineer over all, that it did not answer expectation. The _Radix Personata_ mounting with their young Heads, _Lysimachia siliquosa glabra minor_, when fresh and tender, begins to come into the _Sallet_-Tribe. The pale whiter _Popy_, is eaten by the _Genouese_. By the _Spaniards_, the tops of _Wormwood_ with _Oyl_ alone, and without so much as _Bread_; profitable indeed to the Stomach, but offensive to the Head; As is also _Coriander_ and _Rue_, which _Galen_ was accustom'd to eat raw, and by it self, with _Oyl_ and _Salt_, as exceedingly grateful, as well as wholsome, and of great vertue against Infection. _Pliny_, I remember, reports it to be of such effect for the Preservation of _Sight_; that the _Painters_ of his Time, us'd to devour a great quantity of it. And it is still by the _Italians_ frequently mingled among their _Sallets_. The _Lapatha Personata_ (common _Burdock_) comes now and then to the best Tables, about _April_, and when young, before the _Burrs_ and _Clots_ appear, being strip'd, and the bitterness soaked out, treated as the _Chardoon_, is eaten in _Poiverade_; Some also boil them. More might here be reckon'd up, but these may suffice; since as we find some are left off, and gone out, so others be introduc'd and come in their room, and that in much greater Plenty and Variety, than was ever known by our Ancestors. The _Cucumber_ it self, now so universally eaten, being accounted little better than _Poyson_, even within our Memory, as already noted. To conclude, and after all that has been said of Plants and _Salleting_, formerly in great esteem, (but since obsolete and quite rejected); What if the exalted Juice of the ancient _Silphium_ should come in, and challenge the Precedency? It is a [43]Plant formerly so highly priz'd, and rare for the richness of its Taste and other Vertues; that as it was dedicated to _Apollo_, and hung up in his Temple at _Delphi_; So we read of one single Root brought to the Emperor _Nero_ for an extraordinary Present; and the Drug so esteem'd, that the _Romans_ had long before amass'd a quantity of it, and kept it in the Treasury, till _Julius Cæsar_ rob'd it, and took this away, as a thing of mighty value: In a word, it was of that Account; that as a sacred Plant, those of the _Cyrenaic Africa_, honour'd the very Figure of it, by stamping it on the Reverse of their [44]Coin; and when they would commend a thing for its worth to the Skies, [Greek: Bat-ou silphion], grew into a Proverb: _Battus_ having been the Founder of the City _Cyrene_, near which it only grew. 'Tis indeed contested among the Learned _Botanosophists_, whether this Plant was not the same with _Laserpitium_, and the Laser it yields, the odoriferous [45]_Benzoin_? But doubtless had we the true and genuine _Silphium_ (for it appears to have been often sophisticated, and a spurious sort brought into _Italy_) it would soon recover its pristine Reputation, and that it was not celebrated so for nothing extraordinary; since bessides its Medicinal Vertue; it was a wonderful Corroborater of the Stomach, a Restorer of lost Appetite, and Masculine Vigour, _&c._ and that they made use of it almost in every thing they eat. But should we now really tell the World, that this precious Juice is, by many, thought to be no other than the [46]_Faetid Assa_ our nicer _Sallet-Eaters_ (who yet bestow as odious an Epithet on the vulgar _Garlick_) would cry out upon it as intolerable, and perhaps hardly believe it: But as _Aristophanes_ has brought it in, and sufficiently describ'd it; so the _Scholiast_ upon the place, puts it out of Controversy: And that they made use both of the _Leaves_, _Stalk_, (and _Extract_ especially) as we now do _Garlick_, and other _Hautgouts_ as nauseous altogether. In the mean time, _Garcius_, _Bontius_, and others, assure us, that the _Indians_ at this day universally sauce their Viands with it; and the _Bramins_ (who eat no Flesh at all) inrich their _Sallets_, by constantly rubbing the Dishes with it. Nor are some of our own skilful _Cooks_ Ingnorant, how to condite and use it, with the Applause of those, who, ignorant of the Secret, have admir'd the richness of the Gust it has imparted, when it has been substituted instead of all our _Cipollati_, and other seasonings of that Nature. And thus have we done with the various _Species_ of all such _Esculents_ as may properly enter the Composition of our _Acetaria_, and cold _Sallet_. And if I have briefly touch'd upon their Natures, Degrees, and _primary Qualities_, which _Intend_ or _Remit_, as to the Scale of _Heat_, _Cold_, _Driness_, _Moisture_, &c. (which is to be understood according to the different Texture of their _component Particles_) it has not been without what I thought necessary for the Instruction of the _Gatherer_, and _Sallet-Dresser_; how he ought to choose, sort, and mingle his Materials and Ingredients together. What Care and Circumspection should attend the choice and collection of _Sallet_ Herbs, has been partly shew'd. I can therefore, by no means, approve of that extravagant Fancy of some, who tell us, that a _Fool_ is as fit to be the _Gatherer_ of a _Sallet_ as a _Wiser_ Man. Because, say they, one can hardly choose amiss, provided the Plants be green, young, and tender, where-ever they meet with them: But sad experience shews, how many fatal Mistakes have been committed by those who took the deadly _Cicutæ_, _Hemlocks_, _Aconits_, &c. for Garden _Persley_, and _Parsneps_; the _Myrrhis Sylvestris_, or _Cow-Weed_, for _Chaerophilum_, (_Chervil_) _Thapsia_ for _Fennel_; the wild _Chondrilla_ for _Succory_; _Dogs-Mercury_ instead of _Spinach_: _Papaver Corniculatum Luteum_, and horn'd _Poppy_ for _Eringo_; _Oenanthe aquatica_ for the _Palustral Apium_, and a world more, whose dire effects have been many times sudden Death, and the cause of Mortal Accidents to those who have eaten of them unwittingly: But supposing some of those wild and unknown Plants should not prove so _deleterious_ and [47]unwholsome; yet may others of them annoy the _Head_, _Brain_, and _Genus Nervosum_, weaken the _Eyes_, offend the _Stomach_, affect the _Liver_, torment the _Bowels_, and discover their malignity in dangerous and dreadful _Symptoms_. And therefore such _Plants_ as are rather _Medicinal_ than _Nourishing_ and _Refreshing_, are studiously to be rejected. So highly necessary it is, that what we sometimes find in _old Books_ concerning _Edules_ of other Countries and Climates (frequently call'd by the Names of such as are wholsome in ours, and among us) mislead not the unskilful Gatherer; to prevent which we read of divers _Popes_ and _Emperors_, that had sometimes Learned _Physicians_ for their _Master-Cooks_. I cannot therefore but exceedingly approve of that charitable Advice of Mr. _Ray_ [48](_Transact. Num._ 238.) who thinks it the Interest of Mankind, that all Persons should be caution'd of advent'ring upon unknown Herbs and Plants to their Prejudice: Of such, I say, with our excellent [49]_Poet_ (a little chang'd) _Happy from such conceal'd, if still do lie_, _Of Roots and Herbs the_ unwholsome _Luxury_. The Illustrious and Learned _Columna_ has, by observing what [50]_Insects_ did usually feed on, make Conjectures of the Nature of the Plants. But I should not so readily adventure upon it on that account, as to its wholsomness: For tho' indeed one may safely eat of a _Peach_ or _Abricot_, after a _Snail_ has been Taster, I question whether it might be so of all other Fruits and Herbs attack'd by other _Insects_: Nor would one conclude, the _Hyoscyamus_ harmless, because the _Cimex_ feeds upon it, as the Learned Dr. _Lyster_ has discover'd. Notice should therefore be taken what _Eggs_ of _Insects_ are found adhering to the Leaves of _Sallet-Herbs_, and frequently cleave so firmly to them, as not easily to be wash'd off, and so not being taken notice of, passing for accidental and harmless Spots only, may yet produce very ill effects. _Grillus_, who according to the Doctrine of _Transmigration_ (as _Plutarch_ tells us) had, in his turn, been a _Beast_; discourses how much better he fed, and liv'd, than when he was turn'd to _Man_ again, as knowing then, what Plants were best and most proper for him: Whilst Men, _Sarcophagists_ (Flesh-Eaters) in all this time were yet to seek. And 'tis indeed very evident, that Cattel, and other [Greek: panphaga], and _herbaceous_ Animals which feed on Plants, are directed by their Smell, and accordingly make election of their Food: But Men (bessides the _Smell_ and _Taste_) have, or should have, _Reason_, _Experience_, and the Aids of _Natural Philosophy_ to be their Guides in this Matter. We have heard _of Plants_, that (like the _Basilisk_) kill and infect by [51]looking on them only; and some by the touch. The truth is, there's need of all the Senses to determine _Analogically_ concerning the Vertues and Properties, even of the _Leaves_ alone of many _Edule Plants_: The most eminent Principles of near the whole Tribe of _Sallet_ Vegetables, inclining rather to _Acid_ and _Sowre_ than to any other quality, especially, Salt, Sweet, or Luscious. There is therefore Skill and Judgment requir'd, how to suit and mingle our _Sallet_-Ingredients, so as may best agree with the Constitution of the (vulgarly reputed) _Humors_ of those who either stand in need of, or affect these Refreshments, and by so adjusting them, that as nothing should be suffer'd to domineer, so should none of them lose their genuine Gust, Savour, or Vertue. To this end, The Cooler, and moderately refreshing, should be chosen to extinguish Thirst, attemper the Blood, repress Vapours, _&c._ The Hot, Dry, Aromatic, Cordial and friendly to the Brain, may be qualify'd by the Cold and Moist: The Bitter and Stomachical, with the _Sub-acid_ and gentler Herbs: The _Mordicant_ and pungent, and such as repress or discuss Flatulency (revive the Spirits, and aid Concoction;) with such as abate, and take off the keenness, mollify and reconcile the more harsh and churlish: The mild and insipid, animated with _piquant_ and brisk: The Astringent and Binders, with such as are Laxative and Deobstruct: The over-sluggish, raw, and unactive, with those that are Eupeptic, and promote Concoction: There are _Pectorals_ for the Breast and Bowels. Those of middle Nature, according as they appear to be more or less _Specific_; and as their Characters (tho' briefly) are describ'd in our foregoing _Catalogue_: For notwithstanding it seem in general, that raw _Sallets_ and _Herbs_ have experimentally been found to be the most soveraign Diet in that _Endemial_ (and indeed with us, _Epidemical_ and almost universal) Contagion the _Scorbute_, to which we of this Nation, and most other _Ilanders_ are obnoxious; yet, since the _Nasturtia_ are singly, and alone as it were, the most effectual, and powerful Agents in conquering and expugning that cruel Enemy; it were enough to give the _Sallet-Dresser_ direction how to choose, mingle, and proportion his Ingredients; as well as to shew what Remedies there are contain'd in our Magazine of _Sallet-Plants_ upon all Occasions, rightly marshal'd and skilfully apply'd. So as (with our [52]sweet _Cowley_) _If thro' the strong and beauteous Fence_ _Of Temperance and Innocence,_ _And wholsome Labours, and a quiet Mind,_ _Diseases passage find;_ _They must not think here to assail_ _A Land unarm'd, or without Guard,_ _They must fight for it, and dispute it hard,_ _Before they can prevail;_ _Scarce any Plant is used here,_ _Which 'gainst some Aile a Weapon does not bear_. We have said how necessary it is, that in the Composure of a _Sallet_, every Plant should come in to bear its part, without being over-power'd by some Herb of a stronger Taste, so as to endanger the native _Sapor_ and vertue of the rest; but fall into their places, like the _Notes_ in _Music_, in which there should be nothing harsh or grating: And tho' admitting some _Discords_ (to distinguish and illustrate the rest) striking in the more sprightly, and sometimes gentler Notes, reconcile all Dissonancies, and melt them into an agreeable Composition. Thus the Comical _Master-Cook_, introduc'd by _Damoxenus_, when asked [Greek: pôs esin autois onmphonia]; _What Harmony there was in Meats_? The very same (says he) that a _Diatessaron_, _Diapente_, and _Diapason_ have one to another in a Consort of Music: And that there was as great care requir'd, not to mingle [53]_Sapores minime consentientes_, jarring and repugnant Tastes; looking upon him as a lamentable Ignorant, who should be no better vers'd in _Democritus_. The whole Scene is very diverting, as _Athenæus_ presents it; and to the same sense _Macrobius_, _Saturn. lib._ I. _cap._ I. In short, the main Skill of the Artist lies in this: _What choice to choose, for delicacy best;_ _What Order so contriv'd, as not to mix_ _Tastes not well join'd, inelegant, but bring_ _Taste after Taste, upheld by kindliest change_. As our [54]_Paradisian Bard_ introduces Eve, dressing of a _Sallet_ for her _Angelical_ Guest. Thus, by the discreet choice and mixture of the _Oxoleon_ (_Oyl_, _Vinegar_, _Salt_, &c.) the Composition is perfect; so as neither the _Prodigal_, _Niggard_, nor _Insipid_, should (according to the _Italian_ Rule) prescribe in my Opinion; since _One_ may be too profuse, the _Other_ [55]over-saving, and the _Third_ (like himself) give it no Relish at all: It may be too _sharp_, if it exceed a grateful _Acid_; too _Insulse_ and flat, if the Profusion be extream. From all which it appears, that a Wise-Man is the proper Composer of an excellent _Sallet_, and how many _Transcendences_ belong to an accomplish'd _Sallet-Dresser_, so as to emerge an exact _Critic_ indeed, He should be skill'd in the Degrees, Terms, and various _Species_ of Tastes, according to the _Scheme_ set us down in the _Tables_ of the Learned [56]Dr. _Grew_, to which I refer the Curious. 'Tis moreover to be consider'd, that _Edule_ Plants are not in all their Tastes and Vertues alike: For as Providence has made us to consist of different Parts and Members, both Internal and External; so require they different Juices to nourish and supply them: Wherefore the force and activity of some Plants lie in the _Root_; and even the _Leaves_ of some _Bitter-Roots_ are sweet, and _è contra_. Of others, in the _Stem_, _Leaves_, _Buds_, _Flowers_, &c. Some exert their Vigour without _Decoction_; others being a little press'd or contus'd; others again _Raw_, and best in Consort; some alone, and _per se_ without any [Greek: skenasia], Preparation, or Mixture at all. Care therefore must be taken by the _Collector_, that what he gathers answer to these Qualities; and that as near as he can, they consist (I speak of the _cruder Salleting_) of the _Oluscula_, and _ex foliis pubescentibus_, or (as _Martial_ calls them) _Prototomi rudes_, and very tenderest Parts _Gems_, young _Buds_, and even first Rudiments of their several Plants; such as we sometimes find in the _Craws_ of the _Wood-Culver_, _Stock-Dove_, _Partridge_, _Pheasants_, and other Upland Fowl, where we have a natural _Sallet_, pick'd, and almost dress'd to our hands. I. Preparatory to the Dressing therefore, let your Herby Ingredients be exquisitely cull'd, and cleans'd of all worm-eaten, slimy, canker'd, dry, spotted, or any ways vitiated Leaves. And then that they be rather discreetly sprinkl'd, than over-much sob'd with Spring-Water, especially _Lettuce_, which Dr. [57]_Muffet_ thinks impairs their Vertue; but this, I suppose he means of the _Cabbage_-kind, whose heads are sufficiently protected by the outer Leaves which cover it. After washing, let them remain a while in the _Cullender_, to drain the superfluous moisture: And lastly, swing them altogether gently in a clean course Napkin; and so they will be in perfect condition to receive the _Intinctus_ following. II. That the _Oyl_, an Ingredient so indispensibly and highly necessary, as to have obtain'd the name of _Cibarium_ (and with us of _Sallet-Oyl_) be very clean, not high-colour'd, nor yellow; but with an Eye rather of a pallid _Olive_ green, without Smell, or the least touch of _rancid_, or indeed of any other sensible Taste or Scent at all; but smooth, light, and pleasant upon the Tongue; such as the genuine _Omphacine_, and native _Luca Olives_ afford, fit to allay the tartness of _Vinegar_, and other _Acids_, yet gently to warm and humectate where it passes. Some who have an aversion to _Oyl_, substitute fresh _Butter_ in its stead; but 'tis so exceedingly clogging to the Stomach, as by no means to be allow'd. III. _Thirdly_, That the _Vinegar_ and other liquid _Acids_, perfectly clear, neither sowre, _Vapid_ or spent; be of the best Wine Vinegar, whether Distill'd, or otherwise _Aromatiz'd_, and impregnated with the Infusion of _Clove-gillyflowers_, _Elder_, _Roses_, _Rosemary_, _Nasturtium_, &c. inrich'd with the Vertues of the Plant. A _Verjuice_ not unfit for _Sallet_, is made by a _Grape_ of that Name, or the green immature Clusters of most other Grapes, press'd and put into a small Vessel to ferment. IV. _Fourthly_, That the _Salt_ (_aliorum Condimentorum Condimentum_, as _Plutarch_ calls it) detersive, penetrating, quickning (and so great a resister of Putrefaction, and universal use, as to have sometimes merited Divine Epithets) be of the brightest _Bay grey-Salt_; moderately dried, and _contus'd_, as being the least Corrosive: But of this, as of _Sugar_ also, which some mingle with the _Salt_ (as warming without heating) if perfectly refin'd, there would be no great difficulty; provided none, save Ladies, were of the Mess; whilst the perfection of _Sallets_, and that which gives them the name, consists in the grateful _Saline Acid_-point, temper'd as is directed, and which we find to be most esteem'd by judicious Palates: Some, in the mean time, have been so nice, and luxuriously curious as for the heightning, and (as they affect to speak) giving the utmost _poinant_ and _Relevèe_ in lieu of our vulgar _Salt_, to recommend and cry-up the _Essential-Salts_ and _Spirits_ of the most Sanative Vegetables; or such of the _Alcalizate_ and _Fixt_; extracted from the _Calcination_ of _Baulm_, _Rosemary_, _Wormwood_, _Scurvy-grass_, &c. Affirming that without the gross Plant, we might have healing, cooling, generous, and refreshing _Cordials_, and all the _Materia Medica_ out of the _Salt-Cellar_ only: But to say no more of this Impertinence, as to _Salts_ of _Vegetables_; many indeed there be, who reckon them not much unlike in Operation, however different in _Taste_, _Crystals_, and _Figure_: It being a question, whether they at all retain the Vertues and Faculties of their _Simples_, unless they could be made without _Colcination_. _Franciscus Redi_, gives us his Opinion of this, in a _Process_ how they are to be prepar'd; and so does our Learned [58]Doctor (whom we lately nam'd) whether _Lixivial_, _Essential_, _Marine_, or other factitious _Salts_ of Plants, with their Qualities, and how they differ: But since 'tis thought all _Fixed Salts_ made the _common way_, are little better than our _common Salt_, let it suffice, that our _Sallet-Salt_ be of the best ordinary _Bay-Salt_, clean, bright, dry, and without claminess. Of _Sugar_ (by some call'd _Indian-Salt_) as it is rarely us'd in _Sallet_, it should be of the best refined, white, hard, close, yet light and sweet as the _Madera's_: Nourishing, preserving, cleansing, delighting the Taste, and preferrable to _Honey_ for most uses. _Note_, That both _this_, _Salt_, and _Vinegar_, are to be proportion'd to the Constitution, as well as what is said of the Plants themselves. The one for cold, the other for hot stomachs. V. That the _Mustard_ (another noble Ingredient) be of the best _Tewksberry_; or else compos'd of the soundest and weightiest _Yorkshire Seed_, exquisitely sifted, winnow'd, and freed from the Husks, a little (not over-much) dry'd by the Fire, temper'd to the consistence of a Pap with _Vinegar_, in which shavings of the _Horse-Radish_ have been steep'd: Then cutting an _Onion_, and putting it into a small Earthen _Gally-Pot_, or some thick _Glass_ of that shape; pour the _Mustard_ over it, and close it very well with a _Cork_. There be, who preserve the Flower and Dust of the bruised Seed in a well-stopp'd Glass, to temper, and have it fresh when they please. But what is yet by some esteem'd beyond all these, is compos'd of the dried Seeds of the _Indian Nasturtium_, reduc'd to Powder, finely bolted, and mixt with a little _Levain_, and so from time to time made fresh, as indeed all other _Mustard_ should be. _Note_, That the Seeds are pounded in a Mortar; or bruis'd with a polish'd _Cannon-Bullet_, in a large wooden Bowl-Dish, or which is most preferr'd, ground in a _Quern_ contriv'd for this purpose only. VI. _Sixthly_, That the _Pepper_ (white or black) be not bruis'd to too small a Dust; which, as we caution'd, is very prejudicial. And here let me mention the _Root_ of the _Minor Pimpinella_, or small _Burnet Saxifrage_; which being dried, is by some extoll'd beyond all other _Peppers_, and more wholsom. Of other _Strewings_ and _Aromatizers_, which may likewise be admitted to inrich our _Sallet_, we have already spoken, where we mention _Orange_ and _Limon-peel_; to which may also be added, _Jamaica-Pepper_, _Juniper-berries_, &c. as of singular Vertue. Nor here should I omit (the mentioning at least of) _Saffron_, which the _German_ Housewives have a _way_ of forming into Balls, by mingling it with a little _Honey_; which throughly dried, they reduce to Powder, and sprinkle it over their _Sallets_ for a noble _Cordial_. Those of _Spain_ and _Italy_, we know, generally make use of this Flower, mingling its golden Tincture with almost every thing they eat; But its being so apt to prevail above every thing with which 'tis blended, we little incourage its admittance into our _Sallet_. VII. Seventhly, That there be the Yolks of fresh and new-laid _Eggs_, boil'd moderately hard, to be mingl'd and mash'd with the _Mustard_, _Oyl_, and _Vinegar_; and part to cut into quarters, and eat with the Herbs. VIII. _Eighthly_, (according to the _super_-curious) that the _Knife_, with which the _Sallet Herbs_ are cut (especially _Oranges_, _Limons_, &c.) be of _Silver_, and by no means of _Steel_, which all _Acids_ are apt to corrode, and retain a Metalic relish of. IX. _Ninthly_ and _Lastly_, That the _Saladiere_, (Sallet-Dishes) be of _Porcelane_, or of the _Holland-Delft-Ware_; neither too deep nor shallow, according to the quantity of the _Sallet_ Ingredients; _Pewter_, or even _Silver_, not at all so well agreeing with _Oyl_ and _Vinegar_, which leave their several Tinctures. And note, That there ought to be one of the Dishes, in which to beat and mingle the Liquid _Vehicles_; and a second to receive the crude Herbs in, upon which they are to be pour'd; and then with a Fork and a Spoon kept continually stirr'd, 'till all the Furniture be equally moisten'd: Some, who are husbands of their _Oyl_, pour at first the _Oyl_ alone, as more apt to communicate and diffuse its Slipperiness, than when it is mingled and beaten with the _Acids_; which they pour on last of all; and 'tis incredible how small a quantity of _Oyl_ (in this quality, like the gilding of _Wyer_) is sufficient, to imbue a very plentiful assembly of _Sallet-Herbs_. The _Sallet-Gatherer_ likewise should be provided with a light, and neatly made _Withy-Dutch-Basket_, divided into several Partitions. Thus instructed and knowing in the _Apparatus_; the _Species_, _Proportions_, and manner of _Dressing_, according to the several Seasons you have in the following Table. It being one of the Inquiries of the Noble [59]Mr. _Boyle_, what _Herbs_ were proper and fit to make _Sallets_ with, and how best to order them? we have here (by the Assistance of Mr. _London_, His Majesty's Principal Gard'ner) reduc'd them to a competent Number, not exceeding _Thirty Five_; but which may be vary'd and inlarg'd, by taking in, or leaving out, any other _Sallet_-Plant, mention'd in the foregoing List, under these three or four Heads. But all these sorts are not to be had at the very same time, and therefore we have divided them into the _Quarterly Seasons_, each containing and lasting Three Months. _Note_, That by _Parts_ is to be understood a _Pugil_; which is no more than one does usually take up between the Thumb and the two next Fingers. By _Fascicule_ a reasonable full Grip, or Handful. * * * * * [Transcriber's Note: The following tables have been modified from their original layout. The left-most columns are converted to "section headers", the column headers have been reproduced above each of these new sections, and a horizontal rule added above them to better visually indicate the restructuring. The original structure is _very_ wide.] ========================================================================= Species. Ordering and Culture. ========================================================================= / 1. _Endive_, Tied-up to Blanch. | 2. _Cichory_, \ | 3. _Sellery_, | Earth'd-up IX. | 4. _Sweet-Fennel_, | Blanch'd | 5. _Rampions_, / | | 6. _Roman_ \ \ Tied-up to Blanch. | 7. _Cosse_ | _Lettuce,_ | | 8. _Silesian_ | | Tied close up. \ 9. _Cabbage_ / / Pome and Blanch of themselves. / 10. _Lob-Lettuce_, \ | 11. _Corn-Sallet_, | Leaves, all of a midling size. | 12. _Purslane_, / | XXVI. | 13. _Cresses_ broad, \ Seed-Leaves, | 14. _Spinach_, curled, / and the next to them. | Green | 15. _Sorrel_, French, \ The fine young Leaves only, Unblanch'd | 16. _Sorrel_, Greenland, / with the first Shoots. | | 17. _Radish_, Only the tender young Leaves. | 18. _Cresses_, The Seed-Leaves, and those | only next them. | 19. _Turnip_, \ | 20. _Mustard_, | The Seed-Leaves only. | 21. _Scurvy-grass_, / | | 22. _Chervil_, \ The young Leaves | 23. _Burnet_, | immediately after | 24. _Rocket_, Spanish, | the Seedlings. | 25. _Persly_, / | | 26. _Tarragon_, \ The tender Shoots | 27. _Mints_, / and Tops. | | 28. _Sampier_, \ | 29. _Balm_, | The young tender | 30. _Sage_, Red, / Leaves and Shoots. | | 31. _Shalots_, \ | 32. _Cives_ and _Onion_, / The tender young leaves. | | 33. _Nasturtium_, Indian The Flowers and Bud-Flowers. | | 34. _Rampion_, Belgrade \ The Seed-Leaves \ 35. _Trip-Madame_, / and young Tops. ========================================================================= ========================================================================= Month. _January_, _February_, and _March_. ========================================================================= Ordering and Species. Proportion. Culture. / _Rampions_, / 10 \ Blanch'd | _Endive_, | 2 | as before | _Succory_, | 5 | Roots in Number. | _Fennel_, Sweet. | 10 | \ _Sellery_, \ 4 / / _Lamb-Lettuce_, \ | _Lob-Lettuce_, / A pugil of each. | | _Radish_, \ | _Cresses_, / Three parts each. | | _Turneps_, \ | _Mustard_, Seedlings, / Of each One part. | _Scurvy-grass_, | _Spinach_, Two parts. | _Sorrel_, Greenland, \ Green and | _Sorrel_, French | Unblanch'd | _Chervil_, sweet, | One part of each. | _Burnet_, | | _Rocket_, / | Twenty large Leaves. | _Tarragon_, | _Balm_, \ | _Mint_, / One small part of each. | _Sampier_, | _Shalots_, \ | _Cives_, / Very few | | _Cabbage_, Winter. Two pugils or \ small handfuls. ========================================================================= Month. _April_, _May_, and _June_. ========================================================================= Ordering and Species. Proportion. Culture. / _Lop_, \ \ Blanch'd | _Silesan_, Winter, | Lettuce. | Of each a pugil. \ _Roman_, Winter, / / / _Radishes_, Three parts. Green Herbs | _Cresses_, Two parts. Unblanch'd. | _Purselan_, 1 Fasciat, | or pretty full gripe | _Sorrel_, French, Two parts. Note, _That | _Sampier_, One part. the young | _Onions_, young. Six parts. Seedling | _Sage_-tops,_ the Red, Two parts. Leaves of | Orange and | _Persley_, \ Lemon may | _Cresses_, the Indian, | all these | _Lettuce_, Belgrade, | Of each One part. months be | _Trip-Madame_, | mingled with | _Chervil_, sweet / the Sallet._ | \ _Burnet_, Two parts. ========================================================================= Month. _July_, _August_, and _September_. ========================================================================= Ordering and Species. Proportion. Culture. Blanch'd, / Silesian _Lettuce_, One whole _Lettuce_. _and may be | eaten by | Roman _Lettuce_, \ Two parts. themselves | _Cress_, / with some_ | Nasturtium- \ _Cabbage_, Four parts. _flowers_. / _Cresses_, \ | _Nasturtium_, / Two parts. | | _Purslane_, \ | _Lop-Lettuce_, / One part. | Green Herbs | Belgrade, _or_ \ _by | Crumpen-_Lettuce_. / Two parts. themselves | or mingl'd | _Tarragon_, One part. with the_ | Blanch'd. | _Sorrel_, French \ | _Burnet_, / Two parts of each. | \ _Trip-Madame_, One part. ========================================================================= Month. _October_, _November_, and _December_. ========================================================================= Ordering and Species. Proportion. Culture. / _Endive. \ Two if large, four | _Sellery_, | if small, Stalk and | | part of the Root and | / tenderest Leaves. | Blanch'd | _Lop-Lettuce_, \ | _Lambs-Lettuce_, / An handful of each. | | _Radish_, Three parts. \ _Cresses_, Two parts. / _Turneps_, \ | _Mustard_ Seedlings, / One part of each. Green | | _Cresses_, broad, \ \ _Spinach_, / Two parts of each. * * * * * _Farther Directions concerning the proper_ Seasons _for the_ Gathering, Composing, _and_ Dressing _of a_ Sallet. And _First_, as to the _Season_ both _Plants_ and _Roots_ are then properly to be _Gather'd_, and in prime, when most they abound with Juice and in Vigour: Some in the _Spring_, or a little anticipating it before they Blossom, or are in full Flower: Some in the _Autumnal_ Months; which later Season many prefer, the Sap of the Herb, tho' not in such exuberance, yet as being then better concocted, and so render'd fit for _Salleting_, 'till the Spring begins a fresh to put forth new, and tender Shoots and Leaves. This, indeed, as to the _Root_, newly taken out of the Ground is true; and therefore should such have their _Germination_ stopt the sooner: The approaching and prevailing Cold, both Maturing and Impregnating them; as does Heat the contrary, which now would but exhaust them: But for those other _Esculents_ and Herbs imploy'd in our _Composition_ of _Sallets_, the early _Spring_, and ensuing Months (till they begin to mount, and prepare to _Seed_) is certainly the most natural, and kindly Season to collect and accommodate them for the Table. Let none then consult _Culpeper_, or the _Figure-flingers_, to inform them when the governing _Planet_ is in its _Exaltation_; but look upon the _Plants_ themselves, and judge of their Vertues by their own Complexions. Moreover, in _Gathering_, Respect is to be had to their Proportions, as provided for in the _Table_ under that Head, be the Quality whatsoever: For tho' there is indeed nothing more wholsome than _Lettuce_ and _Mustard_ for the _Head_ and _Eyes_; yet either of them eaten in excess, were highly prejudicial to them both: Too much of the _first_ extreamly debilitating and weakning the _Ventricle_, and hastning the further decay of sickly _Teeth_; and of the _second_ the _Optic Nerves_, and _Sight_ it self; the like may be said of all the rest. I conceive therefore, a Prudent Person, well acquainted with the Nature and Properties of _Sallet-Herbs_, &c. to be both the fittest _Gatherer_ and _Composer_ too; which yet will require no great Cunning, after once he is acquainted with our _Table_ and _Catalogue_. We purposely, and _in transitu_ only, take notice here of the Pickl'd, _Muriated_, or otherwise prepared Herbs; excepting some such Plants, and Proportions of them, as are of hard digestion, and not fit to be eaten altogether _Crude_, (of which in the _Appendix_) and among which I reckon _Ash-keys_, _Broom-buds_ and _Pods_, _Haricos_, _Gurkems_, _Olives_, _Capers_, the Buds and Seeds of _Nasturtia_, _Young Wall-nuts_, _Pine-apples_, _Eringo_, _Cherries_, _Cornelians_, _Berberries_, _&c._ together with several Stalks, Roots, and Fruits; Ordinary Pot-herbs, _Anis_, _Cistus Hortorum_, _Horminum_, _Pulegium_, _Satureia_, _Thyme_; the intire Family of Pulse and _Legumena_; or other _Sauces_, _Pies_, _Tarts_, _Omlets_, _Tansie_, _Farces_, &c. _Condites_ and Preserves with _Sugar_ by the Hand of Ladies; tho' they are all of them the genuine Production of the _Garden_, and mention'd in our _Kalendar_, together with their Culture; whilst we confine our selves to such Plants and _Esculenta_ as we find at hand; delight our selves to gather, and are easily prepar'd for an _Extemporary Collation_, or to Usher in, and Accompany other (more Solid, tho' haply not more Agreeable) Dishes, as the Custom is. But there now starts up a Question, Whether it were better, or more proper, to _Begin_ with _Sallets_, or End and Conclude with them? Some think the harder Meats should first be eaten for better Concoction; others, those of easiest Digestion, to make way, and prevent Obstruction; and this makes for our _Sallets_, _Horarii_, and _Fugaces Fructus_ (as they call 'em) to be eaten first of all, as agreeable to the general Opinion of the great _Hippocrates_, and _Galen_, and of _Celsus_ before him. And therefore the _French_ do well, to begin with their _Herbaceous Pottage_, and for the _Cruder_, a Reason is given: [60]_Prima tibi dabitur Ventri_ Lactuca _movendo_ _Utilis, & Poris fila refecta suis_. And tho' this Custom came in about Domitian's time[61], [Greek: ho m arkaioi], they anciently did quite the contrary, [62]_Gratáque nobilium Lactuca ciborum_. But of later Times, they were constant at the _Ante-coenia_, eating plentifully of _Sallet_, especially of _Lettuce_, and more refrigerating Herbs. Nor without Cause: For drinking liberally they were found to expell, and allay the Fumes and Vapors of the _genial Compotation_, the spirituous Liquor gently conciliating Sleep: Besides, that being of a crude nature, more dispos'd, and apt to fluctuate, corrupt, and disturb a surcharg'd Stomach; they thought convenient to begin with _Sallets_, and innovate the ancient Usage. [63]----_Nam Lactuca innatat acri_ _Post Vinum Stomacho_---- For if on drinking Wine you Lettuce eat, It floats upon the Stomach---- The _Spaniards_, notwithstanding, eat but sparingly of Herbs at Dinner, especially _Lettuce_, beginning with _Fruit_, even before the _Olio_ and Hot-Meats come to the Table; drinking their Wine pure, and eating the best Bread in the World; so as it seems the Question still remains undecided with them, [64]_Claudere quae coenas_ Lactuca _solebat avorum_ _Dic mihi cur nostras inchoat illa dapes?_ The _Sallet_, which of old came in at last, Why now with it begin we our Repast? And now since we mention'd _Fruit_, there rises another Scruple: Whether _Apples_, _Pears_, _Abricots_, _Cherries_, _Plums_, and other Tree, and _Ort-yard-Fruit_, are to be reckon'd among _Salleting_; and when likewise most seasonably to be eaten? But as none of these do properly belong to our _Catalogue_ of _Herbs_ and _Plants_, to which this Discourse is confin'd (bessides what we may occasionally speak of hereafter) there is a very useful [65]Treatise on that Subject already publish'd. We hasten then in the next place to the _Dressing_, and _Composing_ of our Sallet: For by this time, our Scholar may long to see the _Rules_ reduc'd to _Practice_, and Refresh himself with what he finds growing among his own _Lactuceta_ and other Beds of the _Kitchin-Garden_. * * * * * DRESSING I am not ambitious of being thought an excellent _Cook_, or of those who set up, and value themselves, for their skill in _Sauces_; such as was _Mithacus_ a _Culinary Philosopher_, and other _Eruditæ Gulæ_; who read Lectures of _Hautgouts_, like the _Archestratus_ in _Athenæus_: Tho' after what we find the _Heroes_ did of old, and see them chining out the slaughter'd _Ox_, dressing the Meat, and do the Offices of both _Cook_ and _Butcher_, (for so [66]_Homer_ represents _Achilles_ himself, and the rest of those Illustrious _Greeks_) I say, after this, let none reproach our _Sallet-Dresser_, or disdain so clean, innocent, sweet, and Natural a Quality; compar'd with the Shambles Filth and _Nidor_, Blood and Cruelty; whilst all the World were _Eaters_, and _Composers_ of _Sallets_ in its best and brightest Age. The Ingredients therefore gather'd and proportion'd, as above; Let the _Endive_ have all its out-side Leaves stripped off, slicing _in_ the White: In like manner the _Sellery_ is also to have the hollow green Stem or Stalk trimm'd and divided; slicing-in the blanched Part, and cutting the Root into four equal Parts. _Lettuce_, _Gresses_, _Radish_, &c. (as was directed) must be exquisitely pick'd, cleans'd, wash'd, and put into the Strainer; swing'd, and shaken gently, and, if you please, separately, or all together; Because some like not so well the _Blanch'd_ and Bitter Herbs, if eaten with the rest: Others mingle _Endive_, _Succory_, and _Rampions_, without distinction, and generally eat _Sellery_ by it self, as also Sweet _Fennel_. From _April_ till _September_ (and during all the Hot _Months_) may _Guinny-Pepper_, and _Horse-Radish_ be left out; and therefore we only mention them in the Dressing, which should be in this manner. Your _Herbs_ being handsomely parcell'd, and spread on a clean Napkin before you, are to be mingl'd together in one of the Earthen glaz'd Dishes: Then, for the _Oxoleon_; Take of clear, and perfectly good _Oyl-Olive_, three Parts; of sharpest _Vinegar_ ([67]sweetest of all _Condiments_) _Limon_, or Juice of _Orange_, one Part; and therein let steep some Slices of _Horse-Radish_, with a little _Salt_; Some in a separate _Vinegar_, gently bruise a _Pod_ of _Guinny-Pepper_, straining both the _Vinegars_ apart, to make Use of Either, or One alone, or of both, as they best like; then add as much _Tewkesbury_, or other dry _Mustard_ grated, as will lie upon an Half-Crown Piece: Beat, and mingle all these very well together; but pour not on the _Oyl_ and _Vinegar_, 'till immediately before the _Sallet_ is ready to be eaten: And then with the _Yolk_ of two new-laid _Eggs_ (boyl'd and prepar'd, as before is taught) squash, and bruise them all into mash with a Spoon; and lastly, pour it all upon the _Herbs_, stirring, and mingling them 'till they are well and throughly imbib'd; not forgetting the Sprinklings of _Aromaticks_, and such Flowers, as we have already mentioned, if you think fit, and garnishing the Dish with the thin Slices of _Horse-Radish_, _Red Beet_, _Berberries_, &c. _Note_, That the _Liquids_ may be made more, or less _Acid_, as is most agreeable to your Taste. These _Rules_, and _Prescriptions_ duly _Observ'd_; you have a _Sallet_ (for a Table of Six or Eight Persons) _Dress'd_, and Accommodated _secundum Artem_: For, as the [68]Proverb has it, [Greek: 'Ou ôantos andros esin artusai kalôs.] _Non est cujusvis rectè condire_. And now after all we have advanc'd in favour of the _Herbaceous_ Diet, there still emerges a third Inquiry; namely, Whether the Use of _Crude Herbs_ and _Plants_ are so wholesom as is pretended? What Opinion the Prince of Physicians had of them, we shall see hereafter; as also what the Sacred Records of elder Times seem to infer, before there were any Flesh-Shambles in the World; together with the Reports of such as are often conversant among many Nations and People, who to this Day, living on _Herbs_ and _Roots_, arrive to incredible Age, in constant Health and Vigour: Which, whether attributable to the _Air_ and _Climate_, _Custom_, _Constitution_, &c. should be inquir'd into; especially, when we compare the _Antediluvians_ mention'd _Gen._ 1. 29--the whole _Fifth_ and _Ninth_ Chapters, _ver._ 3. confining them to _Fruit_ and wholesom Sallets: I deny not that both the _Air_ and _Earth_ might then be less humid and clammy, and consequently Plants, and Herbs better fermented, concocted, and less Rheumatick, than since, and presently after; to say nothing of the infinite Numbers of putrid Carcasses of Dead Animals, perishing in the Flood, (of which I find few, if any, have taken notice) which needs must have corrupted the Air: Those who live in Marshes, and Uliginous Places (like the Hundreds of _Essex_) being more obnoxious to _Fevers_, _Agues_, _Pleurisies_, and generally unhealthful: The Earth also then a very Bog, compar'd with what it likely was before that destructive _Cataclysm_, when Men breath'd the pure _Paradisian_ Air, sucking in a more _æthereal_, nourishing, and baulmy _Pabulum_, so foully vitiated now, thro' the Intemperance, Luxury, and softer Education and Effeminacy of the Ages since. _Custom_, and _Constitution_ come next to be examin'd, together with the Qualities, and _Vertue_ of the Food; and I confess, the two first, especially that of _Constitution_, seems to me the more likely Cause of Health, and consequently of Long-life; which induc'd me to consider of what Quality the usual _Sallet_ Furniture did more eminently consist, that so it might become more safely applicable to the Temper, Humour, and Disposition of our Bodies; according to which, the various Mixtures might be regulated and proportion'd: There's no doubt, but those whose Constitutions are Cold and Moist, are naturally affected with Things which are Hot and Dry; as on the contrary, Hot, and Dry Complexions, with such as cool and refrigerate; which perhaps made the _Junior Gordian_ (and others like him) prefer the _frigidæ Mensæ_ (as of old they call'd _Sallets_) which, according to _Cornelius Celsus_, is the fittest Diet for _Obese_ and Corpulent Persons, as not so Nutritive, and apt to Pamper: And consequently, that for the Cold, Lean, and Emaciated; such Herby Ingredients should be made choice of, as warm, and cherish the Natural Heat, depure the Blood, breed a laudable Juice, and revive the Spirits: And therefore my _Lord_ [69]_Bacon_ shews what are best Raw, what Boil'd, and what Parts of Plants fittest to nourish. _Galen_ indeed seems to exclude them all, unless well accompanied with their due Correctives, of which we have taken care: Notwithstanding yet, that even the most _Crude_ and _Herby_, actually Cold and Weak, may potentially be Hot, and Strengthning, as we find in the most vigorous Animals, whose Food is only Grass. 'Tis true indeed, Nature has providentially mingl'd, and dress'd a _Sallet_ for them in every field, besides what they distinguish by Smell; nor question I, but Man at first knew what Plants and Fruits were good, before the Fall, by his Natural Sagacity, and not Experience; which since by Art, and Trial, and long Observation of their Properties and Effects, they hardly recover: But in all Events, supposing with [70]_Cardan_, that Plants nourish little, they hurt as little. Nay, Experience tells us, that they not only hurt not at all, but exceedingly benefit those who use them; indu'd as they are with such admirable Properties as they every day discover: For some Plants not only nourish laudably, but induce a manifest and wholesom Change; as _Onions_, _Garlick_, _Rochet_, &c. which are both nutritive and warm; _Lettuce_, _Purselan_, the _Intybs_, &c. and indeed most of the _Olera_, refresh and cool: And as their respective Juices being converted into the Substances of our Bodies, they become _Aliment_; so in regard of their Change and Alteration, we may allow them _Medicinal_; especially the greater Numbers, among which we all this while have skill but of very few (not only in the Vegetable Kingdom, but in the whole _Materia Medica_) which may be justly call'd _Infallible Specifics_, and upon whose Performance we may as safely depend, as we may on such as familiarly we use for a Crude _Herb-Sallet;_ discreetly chosen, mingl'd, and dress'd accordingly: Not but that many of them may be improv'd, and render'd better in Broths, and Decoctions, than in _Oyl_, _Vinegar_, and other Liquids and Ingredients: But as this holds not in all, nay, perhaps in few comparatively, (provided, as I said, the Choice, Mixture, Constitution, and _Season_ rightly be understood) we stand up in Defence and Vindication of our _Sallet_, against all Attacks and Opposers whoever. We have mentioned _Season_ and with the great _Hippocrates_, pronounce them more proper for the Summer, than the Winter; and when those Parts of Plants us'd in _Sallet_ are yet tender, delicate, and impregnated with the Vertue of the Spring, to cool, refresh, and allay the Heat and Drought of the Hot and _Bilious_, Young and over-_Sanguine_, Cold, _Pituit_, and Melancholy; in a word, for Persons of all Ages, Humours, and Constitutions whatsoever. To this of the _Annual Seasons_, we add that of _Culture_ also, as of very great Importance: And this is often discover'd in the taste and consequently in the Goodness of such Plants and _Salleting_, as are Rais'd and brought us fresh out of the Country, compar'd with those which the Avarice of the _Gardiner_, or Luxury rather of the Age, tempts them to force and _Resuscitate_ of the most desirable and delicious Plants. It is certain, says a [71]Learned Person, that about populous Cities, where Grounds are over-forc'd for Fruit and early _Salleting_, nothing is more unwholsom: Men in the Country look so much more healthy and fresh; and commonly are longer liv'd than those who dwell in the Middle and Skirts of vast and crowded Cities, inviron'd with rotten Dung, loathsome and common Lay Stalls; whose noisome Steams, wafted by the Wind, poison and infect the ambient Air and vital Spirits, with those pernicious Exhalations, and Materials of which they make the _Hot Beds_ for the raising those _Præcoces_ indeed, and forward Plants and Roots for the wanton Palate; but which being corrupt in the Original, cannot but produce malignant and ill Effects to those who feed upon them. And the same was well observ'd by the _Editor_ of our famous _Roger Bacon's_ Treatise concerning the _Cure of Old Age_, and _Preservation of Youth_: There being nothing so proper for _Sallet Herbs_ and other _Edule Plants_, as the Genial and Natural Mould, impregnate, and enrich'd with well-digested Compost (when requisite) without any Mixture of Garbage, odious Carrion, and other filthy Ordure, not half consum'd and ventilated and indeed reduc'd to the next Disposition of Earth it self, as it should be; and that in Sweet, [72]Rising, Aery and moderately Perflatile Grounds; where not only _Plants_ but _Men_ do last, and live much longer. Nor doubt I, but that every body would prefer Corn, and other Grain rais'd from _Marle_, _Chalk_, _Lime_, and other sweet Soil and Amendments, before that which is produc'd from the _Dunghil_ only. Beside, Experience shews, that the Rankness of _Dung_ is frequently the Cause of Blasts and Smuttiness; as if the _Lord_ of the _Universe_, by an Act of visible Providence would check us, to take heed of all unnatural Sordidness and Mixtures. We sensibly find this Difference in Cattle and their Pasture; but most powerfully in _Fowl_, from such as are nourish'd with Corn, sweet and dry Food: And as of Vegetable _Meats_, so of _Drinks_, 'tis observ'd, that the same Vine, according to the Soil, produces a _Wine_ twice as heady as in the same, and a less forc'd Ground; and the like I believe of all other Fruit, not to determine any thing of the _Peach_ said to be Poison in _Persia_; because 'tis a _Vulgar Error_. Now, because among other things, nothing more betrays its unclean and spurious Birth than what is so impatiently longed after as _Early Asparagus_, &c. [73]Dr. _Lister_, (according to his communicative and obliging Nature) has taught us how to raise such as our _Gardiners_ cover with nasty Litter, during the Winter; by rather laying of Clean and Sweet _Wheat-Straw_ upon the Beds, _super-seminating_ and over-strowing them thick with the Powder of bruised _Oyster-Shells_, &c. to produce that most tender and delicious _Sallet_. In the mean while, if nothing will satisfie save what is rais'd _Ex tempore_, and by Miracles of Art so long before the time; let them study (like the _Adepti_) as did a very ingenious Gentleman whom I knew; That having some Friends of his accidentally come to Dine with him, and wanting an early Sallet, Before they sate down to Table, sowed _Lettuce_ and some other Seeds in a certain Composition of Mould he had prepared; which within the space of two Hours, being risen near two Inches high, presented them with a delicate and tender _Sallet_; and this, without making use of any nauseous or fulsome Mixture; but of Ingredients not altogether so cheap perhaps. _Honoratus Faber_ (no mean _Philosopher_) shews us another Method by sowing the Seeds steep'd in _Vinegar_, casting on it a good quantity of _Bean-Shell_ Ashes, irrigating them with _Spirit of Wine_, and keeping the Beds well cover'd under dry Matts. Such another Process for the raising early _Peas_ and _Beans_, &c. we have the like [74]Accounts of: But were they practicable and certain, I confess I should not be fonder of them, than of such as the honest industrious Country-man's Field, and Good Wife's Garden seasonably produce; where they are legitimately born in just time, and without forcing Nature. But to return again to _Health_ and _Long Life_, and the Wholesomness of the Herby-Diet, [75]_John Beverovicius_, a Learn'd Physician (out of _Peter Moxa_, a _Spaniard_) treating of the extream Age, which those of _America_ usually arrive to, asserts in behalf of Crude and Natural Herbs: _Diphilus_ of old, as [76]_Athenæus_ tells us, was on the other side, against all the Tribe of _Olera_ in general; and _Cardan_ of late (as already noted) no great Friend to them; Affirming Flesh-Eaters to be much wiser and more sagacious. But this his [77]Learned Antagonist utterly denies; Whole Nations, Flesh-Devourers (such as the farthest _Northern_) becoming Heavy, Dull, Unactive, and much more Stupid than the _Southern_; and such as feed much on Plants, are more Acute, Subtil, and of deeper Penetration: Witness the _Chaldæans_, _Assyrians_, _Ægyptians_, &c. And further argues from the short Lives of most _Carnivorous_ Animals, compared with Grass Feeders, and the Ruminating kind; as the _Hart_, _Camel_, and the longævous _Elephant_, and other Feeders on Roots and Vegetables. I know what is pretended of our Bodies being composed of _Dissimilar_ Parts, and so requiring Variety of Food: Nor do I reject the Opinion, keeping to the same _Species_; of which there is infinitely more Variety in the _Herby_ Family, than in all Nature bessides: But the Danger is in the _Generical_ Difference of _Flesh_, _Fish_, _Fruit_, &c. with other made Dishes and exotic Sauces; which a wanton and expensive Luxury has introduc'd; debauching the Stomach, and sharpening it to devour things of such difficult Concoction, with those of more easie Digestion, and of contrary Substances, more than it can well dispose of: Otherwise Food of the same kind would do us little hurt: So true is that of [78]_Celsus_, _Eduntur facilius; ad concoctionem autem materiæ, genus, & modus pertineat_. They are (says he) easily eaten and taken in: But regard should be had to their Digestion, Nature, Quantity and Quality of the Matter. As to that of _Dissimilar_ Parts, requiring this contended for Variety: If we may judge by other Animals (as I know not why we may not) there is (after all the late Contests about _Comparative Anatomy_) so little Difference in the Structure, as to the Use of those Parts and Vessels destin'd to serve the Offices of Concoction, Nutrition, and other Separations for Supply of Life, _&c._ That it does not appear why there should need any Difference at all of Food; of which the most simple has ever been esteem'd the best, and most wholsome; according to that of the [79]Naturalist, _Hominis cibus utilissimus simplex_. And that so it is in other Animals, we find by their being so seldom afflicted with Mens Distempers, deriv'd from the Causes above-mentioned: And if the many Diseases of _Horses_ seem to [80]contradict it, I am apt to think it much imputable to the Rack and Manger, the dry and wither'd Stable Commons, which they must eat or starve, however qualified; being restrained from their Natural and Spontaneous Choice, which Nature and Instinct directs them to: To these add the Closeness of the Air, standing in an almost continu'd Posture; besides the fulsome Drenches, unseasonable Watrings, and other Practices of ignorant _Horse-Quacks_ and surly Grooms: The Tyranny and cruel Usage of their Masters in tiring Journeys, hard, labouring and unmerciful Treatment, Heats, Colds, _&c._ which wear out and destroy so many of those useful and generous Creatures before the time: Such as have been better us'd, and some, whom their more gentle and good-natur'd Patrons have in recompence of their long and faithful service, dismiss'd, and sent to Pasture for the rest of their Lives (as the _Grand Seignior_ does his _Meccha-Camel_) have been known to live _forty_, _fifty_, nay (says [81]_Aristotle_,) no fewer than _sixty five_ Years. When once Old _Par_ came to change his simple, homely Diet, to that of the _Court_ and _Arundel-House_, he quickly sunk and dropt away: For, as we have shew'd, the Stomack easily concocts plain, and familiar Food; but finds it an hard and difficult Task, to vanquish and overcome Meats of [82]different Substances: Whence we so often see temperate and abstemious Persons, of a Collegiate Diet, very healthy; Husbandsmen and laborious People, more robust, and longer liv'd than others of an uncertain extravagant Diet. [83]----_Nam variae res_ _Ut noceant Homini, credas, memor illius escae,_ _Quae simplex olim tibi sederit_---- For different Meats do hurt; Remember how When to one Dish confin'd, thou healthier wast than now: was _Osellus's Memorandum_ in the Poet. Not that variety (which God has certainly ordain'd to delight and assist our Appetite) is unnecessary, nor any thing more grateful, refreshing and proper for those especially who lead sedentary and studious Lives; Men of deep Thought, and such as are otherwise disturb'd with Secular Cares and Businesses, which hinders the Function of the Stomach and other Organs: whilst those who have their Minds free, use much Exercise, and are more active, create themselves a natural Appetite, which needs little or no Variety to quicken and content it. And here might we attest the _Patriarchal_ World, nay, and many Persons since; who living very temperately came not much short of the _Post-Diluvians_ themselves, counting from _Abraham_ to this Day; and some exceeding them, who liv'd in pure Air, a constant, tho' course and simple Diet; wholsome and uncompounded Drink; that never tasted _Brandy_ or _Exotic Spirits_; but us'd moderate Exercise, and observ'd good Hours: For such a one a curious Missionary tells us of in Persia; who had attain'd the Age of _four hundred_ Years, (a full _Century_ beyond the famous _Johannes de Temporibus_) and was living _Anno_ 1636, and so may be still for ought we know. But, to our Sallet. Certain it is, Almighty God ordaining [84]_Herbs_ and _Fruit_ for the Food of Men, speaks not a Word concerning _Flesh_ for two thousand Years. And when after, by the _Mosaic_ Constitution, there were Distinctions and Prohibitions about the legal Uncleanness of _Animals_; _Plants_, of what kind soever, were left free and indifferent for every one to choose what best he lik'd. And what if it was held undecent and unbecoming the Excellency of Man's Nature, before Sin entred, and grew enormously wicked, that any Creature should be put to Death and Pain for him who had such infinite store of the most delicious and nourishing Fruit to delight, and the Tree of Life to sustain him? Doubtless there was no need of it. Infants sought the Mother's Nipple as soon as born; and when grown, and able to feed themselves, run naturally to Fruit, and still will choose to eat it rather than Flesh and certainly might so persist to do, did not Custom prevail, even against the very Dictates of Nature: Nor, question I, but that what the Heathen [85]_Poets_ recount of the Happiness of the _Golden Age_, sprung from some Tradition they had received of the _Paradisian_ Fare, their innocent and healthful Lives in that delightful Garden. Let it suffice, that _Adam_, and his yet innocent Spouse, fed on Vegetables and other Hortulan Productions before the fatal Lapse; which, by the way, many Learned Men will hardly allow to have fallen out so soon as those imagine who scarcely grant them a single Day; nay, nor half a one, for their Continuance in the State of Original Perfection; whilst the sending him into the Garden; Instructions how he should keep and cultivate it; Edict, and Prohibition concerning the _Sacramental_ Trees; the Imposition of [86]Names, so apposite to the Nature of such an Infinity of Living Creatures (requiring deep Inspection) the Formation of _Eve_, a meet Companion to relieve his Solitude; the Solemnity of their Marriage; the Dialogues and Success of the crafty Tempter, whom we cannot reasonably think made but one Assault: And that they should so quickly forget the Injunction of their Maker and Benefactor; break their Faith and Fast, and all other their Obligations in so few Moments. I say, all these Particulars consider'd; Can it be supposed they were so soon transacted as those do fancy, who take their Measure from the Summary _Moses_ gives us, who did not write to gratifie Mens Curiosity, but to transmit what was necessary and sufficient for us to know. This then premis'd (as I see no Reason why it should not) and that during all this Space they liv'd on _Fruits_ and _Sallets_; 'tis little probable, that after their Transgression, and that they had forfeited their Dominion over the Creature (and were sentenc'd and exil'd to a Life of Sweat and Labour on a cursed and ungrateful Soil) the offended God should regale them with Pampering _Flesh_, or so much as suffer them to slay the more innocent Animal: Or, that if at any time they had Permission, it was for any thing save Skins to cloath them, or in way of Adoration, or _Holocaust_ for Expiation, of which nothing of the _Flesh_ was to be eaten. Nor did the Brutes themselves subsist by Prey (tho' pleas'd perhaps with Hunting, without destroying their Fellow Creatures) as may be presum'd from their long Seclusion of the most Carnivorous among them in the Ark. Thus then for two thousand Years, the Universal Food was _Herbs_ and _Plants_; which abundantly recompens'd the Want of _Flesh_ and other luxurious Meats, which shortened their Lives so many hundred Years; the [87][Greek: makro-biotê-a] of the Patriarchs, which was an Emblem of Eternity as it were (after the new Concession) beginning to dwindle to a little Span, a Nothing in Comparison. On the other side, examine we the present Usages of several other Heathen Nations; particularly (bessides the _ægyptian_ Priests of old) the _Indian Bramins_, Relicts of the ancient _Gymnosophists_ to this Day, observing the Institutions of their Founder. _Flesh_, we know was banish'd the _Platonic_ Tables, as well as from those of _Pythagoras_; (See [88]_Porphyry_ and their Disciples) tho' on different Accounts. Among others of the Philosophers, from _Xenocrates_, _Polemon_, &c. we hear of many. The like we find in [89]_Clement Alexand._ [90]_Eusebius_ names more. _Zeno_, _Archinomus_, _Phraartes_, _Chiron_, and others, whom _Lærtius_ reckons up. In short, so very many, especially of the Christian Profession, that some, even of the ancient [91]Fathers themselves, have almost thought that the Permission of eating Flesh to _Noah_ and his Sons, was granted them no otherwise than _Repudiation_ of Wives was to the _Jews_, namely, for _the Hardness of their Hearts_, and to satisfie a murmuring Generation that a little after loathed _Manna_ it self, and _Bread from Heaven_. So difficult a thing it is to subdue an unruly Appetite; which notwithstanding [92]_Seneca_ thinks not so hard a Task; where speaking of the Philosopher _Sextius_, and _Socion's_ (abhorring Cruelty and Intemperance) he celebrates the Advantages of the _Herby_ and _Sallet_ Diet, as _Physical_, and _Natural_ Advancers of Health and other Blessings; whilst Abstinence from Flesh deprives Men of nothing but what _Lions_, _Vultures_, Beasts and birds of Prey, blood and gorge themselves withal, The whole _Epistle_ deserves the Reading, for the excellent Advice he gives on this and other Subjects; and how from many troublesome and slavish Impertinencies, grown into Habit and Custom (old as he was) he had Emancipated and freed himself: Be this apply'd to our present excessive Drinkers of Foreign and _Exotic_ Liquors. And now I am sufficiently sensible how far, and to how little purpose I am gone on this _Topic_: The Ply is long since taken, and our raw _Sallet_ deckt in its best Trim, is never like to invite Men who once have tasted _Flesh_ to quit and abdicate a Custom which has now so long obtain'd. Nor truly do I think Conscience at all concern'd in the Matter, upon any Account of Distinction of _Pure_ and _Impure_; tho' seriously consider'd (as _Sextius_ held) _rationi magis congrua_, as it regards the cruel Butcheries of so many harmless Creatures; some of which we put to merciless and needless Torment, to accommodat them for exquisite and uncommon _Epicurism_. There lies else no positive Prohibition; Discrimination of Meats being [93]Condemn'd as the _Doctrine of Devils_: Nor do Meats _commend us to God_. One eats _quid vult_ (of every thing:) another _Olera_, and of _Sallets_ only: But this is not my Business, further than to shew how possible it is by so many Instances and Examples, to live on wholsome Vegetables, both long and happily: For so [94]_The_ Golden Age, _with this Provision blest,_ _Such a_ Grand Sallet _made, and was a Feast._ _The_ Demi-Gods _with Bodies large and sound,_ _Commended then the Product of the Ground._ _Fraud then, nor Force were known, nor filthy Lust_, _Which Over-heating and Intemp'rance nurst:_ _Be their vile Names in Execration held,_ _Who with foul Glutt'ny first the World defil'd:_ _Parent of Vice, and all Diseases since,_ _With ghastly Death sprung up alone from thence._ _Ah, from such reeking, bloody Tables fly,_ _Which Death for our Destruction does supply._ _In_ Health, _if_ Sallet-Herbs _you can't endure;_ _Sick, you'll desire them; or for_ Food, _or_ Cure. As to the other part of the Controversie, which concerns us, [Greek: aimatophagoi], and _Occidental Blood_-Eaters; some Grave and Learn'd Men of late seem to scruple the present Usage, whilst they see the Prohibition appearing, and to carry such a Face of _Antiquity_, [95]_Scripture_, [96]_Councils_, [97]_Canons_, [98]_Fathers_; _Imperial Constitutions_, and _Universal Practice_, unless it be among us of these Tracts of _Europe_, whither, with other Barbarities, that of eating the _Blood_ and _Animal_ Life of Creatures first was brought; and by our Mixtures with the _Goths_, _Vandals_, and other Spawn of Pagan _Scythians_; grown a Custom, and since which I am persuaded more Blood has been shed between _Christians_ than there ever was before the Water of the Flood covered this Corner of the World: Not that I impute it only to our eating _Blood_; but sometimes wonder how it hap'ned that so strict, so solemn and famous a _Sanction_ not upon a _Ceremonial Account_; but (as some affirm) a _Moral_ and _Perpetual_ from _Noah_, to whom the Concession of eating _Flesh_ was granted, and that of Blood forbidden (nor to this Day once revok'd) and whilst there also seems to lie fairer Proofs than for most other Controversies agitated among _Christians_, should be so generally forgotten, and give place to so many other impertinent Disputes and Cavels about other superstitious Fopperies, which frequently end in Blood and cutting of Throats. As to the Reason of this Prohibition, its favouring of Cruelty excepted, (and that by _Galen_, and other experienc'd Physicians, the eating Blood is condemn'd as unwholsome, causing Indigestion and Obstructions) if a positive Command of _Almighty God_ were not enough, it seems sufficiently intimated; because _Blood_ was the _Vehicle_ of the _Life_ and _Animal Soul_ of the Creature: For what other mysterious Cause, as haply its being always dedicated to _Expiatory Sacrifices_, &c. it is not for us to enquire. 'Tis said, that _Justin Martyr_ being asked, why the _Christians_ of his time were permitted the eating _Flesh_ and not the _Blood_? readily answer'd, That God might distinguish them from Beasts, which eat them both together. 'Tis likewise urg'd, that by the _Apostolical Synod_ (when the rest of the _Jewish_ Ceremonies and Types were abolish'd) this Prohibition was mention'd as a thing [99]_necessary_, and rank'd with _Idolatry_, which was not to be local or temporary; but universally injoyn'd to converted Strangers and _Proselytes_, as well as _Jews_: Nor could the Scandal of neglecting to observe it, concern them alone, after so many Ages as it was and still is in continual Use; and those who transgress'd, so severely punish'd, as by an _Imperial Law_ to be scourg'd to _Blood_ and Bone: Indeed, so terrible was the Interdiction, that _Idolatry_ excepted (which was also Moral and perpetual) nothing in Scripture seems to be more express. In the mean time, to relieve all other Scruples, it does not, they say, extend to that [Greek: akribeia] of those few diluted Drops of _Extravasated Blood_, which might happen to tinge the Juice and Gravy of the Flesh (which were indeed _to strain at a Gnat_) but to those who devour the _Venal_ and _Arterial Blood_ separately, and in Quantity, as a choice Ingredient of their luxurious Preparations and _Apician_ Tables. But this, and all the rest will, I fear, seem but _Oleribus verba facere_, and (as the Proverb goes) be Labour-in-vain to think of preaching down _Hogs-Puddings_, and usurp the Chair of _Rabby-Busy_: And therefore what is advanc'd in Countenance of the _Antediluvian_ Diet, we leave to be ventilated by the Learned, and such as _Curcellæus_, who has borrow'd of all the Ancient Fathers, from _Tertullian, Hierom, S. Chrysostom_, &c. to the later Doctors and Divines, _Lyra_, _Tostatus_, _Dionysius Carthusianus_, _Pererius_, amongst the _Pontificians_; of _Peter Martyr_, _Zanchy_, _Aretius_, _Jac. Capellus_, _Hiddiger_, _Cocceius_, _Bochartus_, &c. amongst the _Protestants_; and _instar omnium_, by _Salmasius_, _Grotius_, _Vossius_, _Blundel_: In a Word, by the Learn'd of both Persuasions, favourable enough to these Opinions, _Cajetan_ and _Calvin_ only excepted, who hold, that as to _Abstinence_ from _Flesh_, there was no positive Command or Imposition concerning it; but that the Use of _Herbs_ and _Fruit_ was recommended rather for Temperance sake, and the Prolongation of Life: Upon which score I am inclin'd to believe that the ancient [Greek: theraôentai], and other devout and contemplative Sects, distinguish'd themselves; whose Course of Life we have at large describ'd in [100]_Philo_ (who liv'd and taught much in Gardens) with others of the Abstemious _Christians_; among whom, _Clemens_ brings in St. _Mark_ the _Evangelist_ himself, _James_ our Lord's Brother. St. _John_, &c. and with several of the devout Sex, the famous _Diaconesse Olympias_, mention'd by _Palladius_ (not to name the rest) who abstaining from Flesh, betook themselves to _Herbs_ and _Sallets_ upon the Account of Temperance, and the Vertues accompanying it; and concerning which the incomparable _Grotius_ declares ingenuously his Opinion to be far from censuring, not only those who forbear the eating _Flesh_ and Blood, _Experimenti Causa_, and for Discipline sake; but such as forbear _ex Opinione_, and (because it has been the ancient Custom) provided they blam'd none who freely us'd their Liberty; and I think he's in the right. But leaving this Controversie (_ne nimium extra oleas_) it has often been objected, that _Fruit_, and _Plants_, and all other things, may since the Beginning, and as the World grows older, have universally become _Effoete_, impair'd and diverted of those Nutritious and transcendent Vertues they were at first endow'd withal: But as this is begging the Question, and to which we have already spoken; so all are not agreed that there is any, the least [101]_Decay in Nature_, where equal Industry and Skill's apply'd. 'Tis true indeed, that the _Ordo Foliatorum, Feuillantines_ (a late Order of _Ascetic Nuns_) amongst other Mortifications, made Trial upon the _Leaves_ of _Plants_ alone, to which they would needs confine themselves; but were not able to go through that thin and meagre Diet: But then it would be enquir'd whether they had not first, and from their very Childhood, been fed and brought up with _Flesh_, and better Sustenance till they enter'd the _Cloyster_; and what the Vegetables and the Preparation of them were allow'd by their Institution? Wherefore this is nothing to our Modern Use of _Sallets_, or its Disparagement. In the mean time, that we still think it not only possible, but likely, and with no great Art or Charge (taking _Roots_ and _Fruit_ into the Basket) substantially to maintain Mens Lives in Health and Vigour: For to _this_, and less than this, we have the Suffrage of the great [102]_Hippocrates_ himself; who thinks, _ab initio etiam hominum_ (as well as other Animals) _tali victu usum esse_, and needed no other Food. Nor is it an inconsiderable Speculation, That since _all Flesh is Grass_ (not in a _Figurative_, but _Natural_ and _Real_ Sense) _Man_ himself, who lives on _Flesh_, and I think upon no Earthly Animal whatsoever, but such as feed on Grass, is nourish'd with them still; and so becoming an _Incarnate Herb_, and Innocent _Canibal_, may truly be said to devour himself. We have said nothing of the _Lotophagi_, and such as (like St. _John_ the _Baptist_, and other religious _Ascetics_) were Feeders on the _Summities_ and Tops of Plants: But as divers of those, and others we have mention'd, were much in times of Streights, Persecutions, and other Circumstances, which did not in the least make it a Pretence, exempting them from Labour, and other Humane Offices, by ensnaring Obligations and vows (never to be useful to the Publick, in whatever Exigency) so I cannot but take Notice of what a Learned _Critic_ speaking of Mens neglecting plain and Essential Duties, under Colour of exercising themselves in a more sublime Course of Piety, and being Righteous above what is commanded (as those who seclude themselves in Monasteries) that they manifestly discover excessive Pride, Hatred of their Neighbour, Impatience of Injuries; to which _add, Melancholy Plots and Machinations_; and that he must be either stupid, or infected with the same Vice himself, who admires this [Greek: etheloperiosothrêskeia], or thinks they were for that Cause the more pleasing to God. This being so, what may we then think of such Armies of _Hermits_, _Monks_ and _Friers_, who pretending to justifie a mistaken Zeal and meritorious Abstinence; not only by a peculiar Diet and Distinction of Meats (which God without Distinction has made the moderate Use of common and [103]indifferent amongst _Christians_) but by other sordid Usages, and unnecessary Hardships, wilfully prejudice their Health and Constitution? and through a singular manner of living, dark and _Saturnine_; whilst they would seem to abdicate and forsake the World (in Imitation, as they pretend, of the Ancient _Eremites_) take care to settle, and build their warm and stately Nests in the most Populous Cities, and Places of Resort; ambitious doubtless of the Peoples Veneration and Opinion of an extraordinary Sanclity; and therefore flying the _Desarts_, where there is indeed no use of them; and flocking to the _Towns_ and _Cities_ where there is less, indeed none at all; and therefore no Marvel that the Emperour _Valentinian_ banished them the Cities, and _Constantine Copronymus_ finding them seditious, oblig'd them to marry, to leave their Cells, and live as did others. For of these, some there are who seldom speak, and therefore edifie none; sleep little, and lie hard, are clad nastily, and eat meanly (and oftentimes that which is unwholsom) and therefore benefit none; Not because they might not, both for their own, and the Good of others, and the Publick; but because they will not; Custom, and a prodigious [104]Sloth accompanying it; which renders it so far from _Penance_, and the Mortification pretended, that they know not how to live, or spend their Time otherwise. This, as I have often consider'd, so was I glad to find it justly perstring'd, and taken notice of by a [105]Learned Person, amongst others of his useful Remarks abroad. 'These, says he, willingly renouncing the innocent Comforts of Life, plainly shew it to proceed more from a chagrin and morose Humour, than from any true and serious Principle of sound Religion; which teaches Men to be useful in their Generations, sociable and communicative, unaffected, and by no means singular and fantastic in Garb and Habit, as are these (forsooth) Fathers (as they affect to be call'd) spending their Days in idle and fruitless Forms, and tedious Repetitions; and thereby thinking to merit the Reward of those Ancient, and truly pious _Solitaries_, who, God knows, were driven from their Countries and Repose, by the Incursions of barbarous Nations (whilst these have no such Cause) and compell'd to Austerities, not of their own chusing and making, but the publick Calamity; and to _labour_ with their _Hands_ for their own, and others necessary Support, as well as with with their _Prayers_ and holy Lives, Examples to all the World: And some of these indeed (bessides the _Solitaries_ of the _Thebaid_, who wrought for abundance of poor Christians, sick, and in Captivity) I might bring in, as such who deserv'd to have their Names preserv'd; not for their rigorous Fare, and uncouth Disguises; but for teaching that the Grace of Temperance and other Vertues, consisted in a cheerful, innocent, and profitable Conversation. And now to recapitulate what other Prerogatives the _Hortulan Provision_ has been celebrated for, bessides its Antiquity, Health and _Longævity_ of the _Antediluvians_; that Temperance, Frugality, Leisure, Ease, and innumerable other Vertues and Advantages, which accompany it, are no less attributable to it. Let us hear our excellent _Botanist_ [106]Mr. _Ray_. 'The Use of Plants (says he) is all our Life long of that universal Importance and Concern, that we can neither live nor subsist in any Plenty with Decency, or Conveniency or be said to live indeed at all without them: whatsoever Food is necessary to sustain us, whatsoever contributes to delight and refresh us, are supply'd and brought forth out of that plentiful and abundant store: and ah, how much more innocent, sweet and healthful, is a Table cover'd with these, than with all the reeking Flesh of butcher'd and slaughter'd Animals: Certainly Man by Nature was never made to be a _Carnivorous_ Creature; nor is he arm'd at all for Prey and Rapin, with gag'd and pointed Teeth and crooked Claws, sharp'ned to rend and tear: But with gentle Hands to gather Fruit and Vegetables, and with Teeth to chew and eat them: Nor do we so much as read the Use of _Flesh_ for Food, was at all permitted him, till after the Universal Deluge, _&c._ To this might we add that transporting Consideration, becoming both our Veneration and Admiration of the infinitely wise and glorious Author of Nature, who has given to _Plants_ such astonishing Properties; such fiery Heat in some to warm and cherish, such Coolness in others to temper and refresh, such pinguid Juice to nourish and feed the Body, such quickening _Acids_ to compel the Appetite, and grateful vehicles to court the Obedience of the Palate, such Vigour to renew and support our natural Strength, such ravishing Flavour and Perfumes to recreate and delight us: In short, such spirituous and active Force to animate and revive every Faculty and Part, to all the kinds of Human, and, I had almost said Heavenly Capacity too. What shall we add more? Our Gardens present us with them all; and whilst the _Shambles_ are cover'd with Gore and Stench, our _Sallets_ scape the Insults of the Summer _Fly_, purifies and warms the Blood against Winter Rage: Nor wants there Variety in more abundance, than any of the former Ages could shew. Survey we their _Bills of Fare_, and Numbers of Courses serv'd up by _Athenæus_, drest with all the Garnish of _Nicander_ and other _Grecian_ Wits: What has the _Roman Grand Sallet_ worth the naming? _Parat Convivium_, The Guests are nam'd indeed, and we are told, ----[107]_Varias, quas habet hortus opes?_ How richly the Garden's stor'd: _In quibus est Luctuca sedens, & tonsile porrum, Nee deest ructatrix Mentha, nec herba salax, &c._ * * * * * A Goodly Sallet! _Lettuce_, _Leeks_, _Mint_, _Rocket_, _Colewort-Tops_, with _Oyl_ and _Eggs_, and such an _Hotch-Pot_ following (as the Cook in _Plautus_ would deservedly laugh at). But how infinitely out-done in this Age of ours, by the Variety of so many rare _Edules_ unknown to the Ancients, that there's no room for the Comparison. And, for Magnificence, let the _Sallet_ drest by the Lady for an Entertainment made by _Jacobus Catsius_ (describ'd by the Poet [108]_Barlæus_) shew; not at all yet out-doing what we every Day almost find at our _Lord Mayor's Table_, and other great Persons, Lovers of the Gardens; that sort of elegant Cookery being capable of such wonderful Variety, tho' not altogether wanting of old, if that be true which is related to us of [109]_Nicomedes_ a certain King of Bithynia, whose Cook made him a _Pilchard_ (a Fish he exceedingly long'd for) of a well dissembl'd Turnip, carv'd in its Shape, and drest with _Oyl_, _Salt_, and _Pepper_, that so deceiv'd, and yet pleased the Prince, that he commended it for the best Fish he had ever eaten. Nor does all this exceed what every industrious _Gardiner_ may innocently enjoy, as well as the greatest Potentate on Earth. Vitellius _his Table, to which every Day_ _All Courtiers did a constant Tribute pay,_ _Could nothing more delicious afford_ _Than Nature's Liberality._ _Help'd with a little Art and Industry,_ _Allows the meanest Gard'ners Board,_ _The Wanton Taste no Fish or Fowl can chuse,_ _For which the Grape or Melon she would lose._ _Tho' all th' Inhabitants of Sea and Air._ _Be lifted in the Glutton's Bill of Fare;_ _Yet still the_ Sallet, _and the_ Fruit _we see_ _Plac'd the third Story high in all her Luxury_. So the Sweet [110]_Poet_, whom I can never part with for his Love to this delicious Toil, and the Honour he has done me. Verily, the infinite Plenty and Abundance, with which the benign and bountiful Author of Nature has stor'd the whole Terrestrial World, more with _Plants_ and _Vegetables_ than with any other Provision whatsoever; and the Variety not only equal, but by far exceeding the Pleasure and Delight of Taste (above all the Art of the _Kitchen_, than ever [111]_Apicius_ knew) seems loudly to call, and kindly invite all her living Inhabitants (none excepted) who are of gentle Nature, and most useful, to the same _Hospitable_ and Common-Board, which first she furnish'd with _Plants_ and _Fruit_, as to their natural and genuine Pasture; nay, and of the most wild, and savage too _ab origine_: As in _Paradise_, where, as the _Evangelical_ [112]Prophet adumbrating the future Glory of the _Catholick Church_, (of which that happy _Garden_ was the _Antitype_) the _Wolf and the Lamb, the angry and furious Lion, should eat Grass and Herbs together with the Ox_. But after all, _latet anguis in herba_, there's a _Snake_ in the Grass; Luxury, and Excess in our most innocent Fruitions. There was a time indeed when the Garden furnish'd Entertainments for the most Renown'd Heroes, virtuous and excellent Persons; till the Blood-thirsty and Ambitious, over-running the Nations, and by Murders and Rapine rifl'd the World, to transplant its Luxury to its new Mistriss, _Rome_. Those whom heretofore [113]two Acres of Land would have satisfied, and plentifully maintain'd; had afterwards their very Kitchens almost as large as their first Territories: Nor was that enough: Entire [114]_Forests_ and _Parks_, _Warrens_ and _Fish-Ponds_, and ample Lakes to furnish their Tables, so as Men could not live by one another without Oppression: Nay, and to shew how the best, and most innocent things may be perverted; they chang'd those frugal and _inemptas Dapes_ of their Ancestors, to that Height and Profusion; that we read of [115]_Edicts_ and _Sumptuary Laws_, enacted to restrain even the Pride and Excess of _Sallets_. But so it was not when the _Pease-Field_ spread a Table for the Conquerors of the World, and their Grounds were cultivated _Vomere laureato, & triumphali aratore_: The greatest Princes took the _Spade_ and the _Plough-Staff_ in the same Hand they held the Sceptre; and the Noblest [116]Families thought it no Dishonour, to derive their Names from _Plants_ and _Sallet-Herbs_; They arriv'd, I say to that Pitch of ingrossing all that was but green, and could be vary'd by the Cook (_Heu quam prodiga ventris_!) that, as _Pliny_ tells us (_non sine pudore_, not without blushing) a poor Man could hardly find a _Thistle_ to dress for his Supper; or what his hungry [117]_Ass_ would not touch, for fear of pricking his Lips. Verily the Luxury of the East ruin'd the greatest Monarchies; first, the _Persian_, then the _Grecian_, and afterwards _Rome_ her self: By what Steps, see elegantly describ'd in Old [118]_Gratius_ the _Faliscian_, deploring his own Age compar'd with the former: _O quantum, & quoties decoris frustrata paterni!_ _At qualis nostris, quam simplex mensa Camillis!_ _Qui tibi cultus erat post tot, serrane, triumphos?_ _Ergo illi ex habitu, virtutisq; indole priscæ,_ _Imposuere orbi Romam caput_:---- Neighb'ring Excesses being made thine own, How art thou fall'n from thine old Renown! But our _Camilli_ did but plainly fare, No Port did oft triumphant _Serran_ bear: Therefore such Hardship, and their Heart so great Gave _Rome_ to be the World's Imperial Seat. But as these were the Sensual and Voluptuous, who abus'd their Plenty, spent their Fortunes and shortned their Lives by their Debauches; so never did they taste the Delicaces, and true Satisfaction of a sober Repast, and the infinite Conveniences of what a well-stor'd _Garden_ affords; so elegantly describ'd by the [119]_Naturalist_, as costing neither Fuel nor Fire to boil, Pains or time to gather and prepare, _Res expedita & parata semper_: All was so near at hand, readily drest, and of so easie Digestion; as neither to offend the Brain, or dull the Senses; and in the greatest Dearth of Corn, a little Bread suffic'd. In all Events, _Panis ematur, Olus, Vini Sextarius adde_ _Queis humana sibi doleat natura negatis_. Bread, Wine and wholsome Sallets you may buy, What Nature adds besides is Luxury. They could then make an honest Meal, and dine upon a _Sallet_ without so much as a Grain, of _Exotic Spice_; And the _Potagere_ was in such Reputation, that she who neglected her _Kitchen-Garden_ (for that was still the Good-Woman's Province) was never reputed a tolerable Hus-wife: _Si vespertinus subitò te oppresserit hospes_, she was never surpriz'd, had all (as we said) at hand, and could in a Trice set forth an handsome _Sallet_: And if this was Happiness, _Convictus facilis sine arte mensa_ (as the _Poet_ reckons) it was here in Perfection. In a Word, so universal was the _Sallet_, that the [120]Un-bloody Shambles (as _Pliny_ calls them) yielded the [121]_Roman_ State a more considerable Custom (when there was little more than honest _Cabbage_ and _Worts_) than almost any thing bessides brought to Market. They spent not then so much precious time as afterwards they did, gorging themselves with _Flesh_ and _Fish_, so as hardly able to rise, without reeking and reeling from Table. [122]----_Vides ut pallidus omnis_ _Coena desurgat dubia? quin corpus onustum_ _Hesternis vitiis, animum quoque prægravat unà,_ _Atque affigit humo divinæ particulam auræ_. See but how pale they look, how wretchedly, With Yesterday's Surcharge disturb'd they be! Nor Body only suff'ring, but the Mind, That nobler Part, dull'd and depress'd we find. Drowsie and unapt for Business, and other nobler Parts of Life. Time was before Men in those golden Days: Their Spirits were brisk and lively. ----_Ubi dicto citius curata sopori_ _Membra dedit, Vegetus præscripta ad munera surgit_. With shorter, but much sweeter Sleep content, Vigorous and fresh, about their Business went. And Men had their Wits about them; their Appetites were natural, their Sleep _molli sub arbore_, sound, sweet, and kindly: That excellent Emperour _Tacitus_ being us'd to say of _Lettuce_, that he did _somnum se mercari_ when he eat of them, and call'd it a sumptuous Feast, with a _Sallet_ and a single _Pullet_, which was usually all the Flesh-Meat that sober Prince eat of; whilst _Maximinus_ (a profess'd Enemy to _Sallet_) is reported to have scarce been satisfied, with sixty Pounds of Flesh, and Drink proportionable. There was then also less expensive Grandure, but far more true State; when _Consuls_, great Statesmen (and such as atchiev'd the most renown'd Actions) sup'd in their _Gardens_; not under costly, gilded, and inlaid Roofs, but the spreading _Platan_; and drank of the Chrystal Brook, and by Temperance, and healthy Frugality, maintain'd the Glory of _Sallets_, _Ah, quanta innocentiore victu_! with what Content and Satisfaction! Nor, as we said, wanted there Variety; for so in the most blissful Place, and innocent State of Nature, See how the first _Empress_ of the World _Regal's_ her _Celestial_ Guest: [123]_With sav'ry Fruit of Taste to please_ _True Appetite, ---- and brings_ _Whatever Earth's all-bearing Mother yields_ _----Fruit of all kinds, in Coat_ _Rough, or smooth-Rind, or bearded Husk, or Shell_. _Heaps with unsparing Hand: For Drink the Grape_ _She crushes, inoffensive Moust, and Meaches_ _From many a Berry, and from sweet Kernel prest,_ _She temper'd dulcid Creams_.---- Then for the Board. ----_Rais'd of a grassy Turf_ _The Table was, and Mossy Seats had round;_ _And on the ample Meaths from Side to Side,_ _All Autumn pil'd: Ah Innocence,_ _Deserving Paradise_! Thus, the _Hortulan_ Provision of the [124]_Golden Age_ fitted all _Places_, _Times_ and _Persons_; and when Man is restor'd to that State again, it will be as it was in the Beginning. But now after all (and for Close of all) Let none yet imagine, that whilst we justifie our present Subject through all the _Topics of Panegyric_, we would in Favour of the _Sallet_, drest with all its Pomp and Advantage turn Mankind to _Grass_ again; which were ungratefully to neglect the Bounty of Heaven, as well as his Health and Comfort: But by these Noble Instances and Examples, to reproach the _Luxury_ of the present Age; and by shewing the infinite Blessing and Effects of Temperance, and the Vertues accompanying it; with how little Nature, and a [125]Civil Appetite may be happy, contented with moderate things, and within a little Compass, reserving the rest, to the nobler Parts of Life. And thus of old, _Hoc erat in votis, modus agri non ita magnus, _&a._ He that was possess'd of a little Spot of Ground, and well=cultivated _Garden_, with other moderate Circumstances, had [126]_Hæredium_. All that a modest Man could well desire. Then, [127]_Happy the Man, who from Ambition freed,_ _A little Garden, little Field does feed._ _The Field gives frugal Nature what's requird;_ _The Garden what's luxuriously desir'd:_ _The specious Evils of an anxious Life,_ _He leaves to Fools to be their endless Strife_. O Fortunatos nimium bona si sua norint Horticulos! _FINIS_ * * * * * _APPENDIX_ Tho' _it was far from our first Intention to charge this small Volume and Discourse concerning_ Crude Sallets, _with any of the following Receipts: Yet having since received them from an_ Experienc'd Housewife; _and that they may possibly be useful to correct, preserve and improve our_ Acetaria, _we have allow'd them Place as an_ Appendant _Variety upon Occasion: Nor account we it the least Dishonour to our former Treatise, that we kindly entertain'd them; since (besides divers Learned_ Physicians, _and such as have_ ex professo _written_ de Re Cibaria) _we have the Examples of many other_ [128]Noble _and_ Illustrious _Persons both among the_ Ancient _and_ Modern. 1. Artichoak. _Clear it of the Leaves and cut the Bottoms in pretty thin Slices or Quarters; then fry them in fresh Butter with some Parsley, till it is crisp, and the Slices tender; and so dish them with other fresh melted Butter_. _How a_ Poiverade _is made, and the Bottoms preserv'd all the Winter, See_ Acetaria. p. 5, 6. Ashen-keys. _See_ Pickle. Asparagus. _See_ Pickle. Beets. \ Broom. | Buds. | _See_ Pickle. Capers. / Carrot. _See_ Pudding. Champignon. _See_ Mushroom. 2. Chessnut. _Roasted under the Embers, or dry fryed, till they shell, and quit their Husks, may be slit; the Juice of Orange squeezed on a Lump of hard Sugar dissolv'd; to which add some Claret Wine_. Collyflower. \ Cucumber. | Elder flowers. | _See_ Pickle. Flowers. | Gilly-flowers. / Herbs. _See_ Pudding _and_ Tart. Limon. _See_ Pickle. 3. Mushroom. _Chuse the small, firm and white Buttons_, growing _upon sweet Pasture_ _Grounds, neither under, or about any Trees: strip off the upper Skin, and pare away all the black spungy Bottom part; then slice them in quarters, and cast them in Water a while to cleanse: Then Boil them in fresh Water, and a little sweet Butter; (some boil them a quarter of an hour first) and then taking them out, dry them in a Cloth, pressing out the Water, and whilst hot, add the Butter; and then boiling a full Hour (to exhaust the Malignity) shift them in another clean Water, with Butter, as before till they become sufficiently tender. Then being taken out, pour upon them as much strong Mutton (or other) Broth as will cover them, with six Spoonfuls of White-Wine, twelve Cloves, as many Pepper-Corns, four small young Onions, half an Handful of Persly bound up with two or three Spriggs of Thyme, an_ Anchovy, _Oysters raw, or pickl'd; a little Salt, sweet Butter; and so let them stew_. _See_ Acetar. p. 26. Another. _Prepared, and cleans'd as above, and cast into Fountain-Water, to preserve them from growing black; Boil them in fresh Water and Salt; and whilst on the Fire, cast in the_ Mushrooms, _letting them boil till they become tender: Then stew them leisurely between two Dishes (the Water being drained from them) in a third Part of White-Wine_ _and Butter, a small Bundle of sweet Herbs at discretion. To these add Broth as before, with Cloves, Mace, Nutmeg_, Anchovies (_one is sufficient_) _Oysters_, &c. _a small Onion, with the green Stem chopt small; and lastly, some Mutton-Gravy, rubbing the Dish gently with a Clove of Garlick, or some_ Rocombo _Seeds in its stead. Some beat the Yolk of a fresh Egg with Vinegar, and Butter, and a little Pepper_. _In_ France _some (more compendiously being peel'd and prepared) cast them into a Pipkin, where, with the Sweet Herbs, Spices, and an Onion they stew them in their own Juice, without any other Water or Liquor at all; and then taking out the Herbs and Onion, thicken it with a little Butter, and so eat them_. _In_ Poiverade. _The large Mushrooms well cleansed_, &c. _being cut into quarters and strewed with Pepper and Salt, are broil'd on the Grid-iron, and eaten with fresh Butter_. _In_ Powder. _Being fresh gathered, cleans'd_, &c. _and cut in Pieces, stew them in Water and Salt; and being taken forth, dry them with a Cloth: Then putting them into an Earth-Glazed Pot, set them into the Oven after the Bread is drawn: Repeat this till they are perfectly dry; and reserve them in Papers to crumble into what Sauce you please. For the rest, see_ Pickle. 4. Mustard. _Procure the best and weightiest Seed: cast it into Water two or three times, till no more of the Husk arise: Then taking out the sound_ (_which will sink to the Bottom_) _rub it very dry in warm course Cloths, shewing it also a little to the Fire in a Dish or Pan. Then stamp it as small as to pass through a fine Tiffany Sieve: Then slice some Horse-Radish and lay it to soak in strong Vinegar, with a small Lump of hard Sugar_ (_which some leave out_) _to temper the Flower with, being drained from the Radish, and so pot it all in a Glaz'd Mug, with an Onion, and keep it well stop'd with a Cork upon a Bladder, which is the more cleanly: But this_ Receit _is improv'd, if instead of Vinegar, Water only, or the Broth of powder'd Beef be made use of. And to some of this_ Mustard _adding Verjuice, Sugar, Claret-Wine, and Juice of Limon, you have an excellent Sauce to any sort of Flesh or Fish_. _Note, that a Pint of good Seed is enough to make at one time, and to keep fresh a competent while. What part of it does not pass the_ Sarse, _may be beaten again; and you may reserve the Flower in a well closed Glass, and make fresh Mustard when you please_. _See_ Acetaria, p. 38, 67. Nasturtium. _Vide_ Pickle. Orange. _See_ Limon _in Pickle_. 5. Parsnip. _Take the large Roots, boil them, and strip the Skin: Then slit them long-ways into pretty thin Slices; Flower and fry them in fresh Butter till they look brown. The sauce is other sweet Butter melted. Some strow Sugar and Cinamon upon them. Thus you may accomodate other Roots_. _There is made a Mash or Pomate of this Root, being boiled very tender with a little fresh Cream; and being heated again, put to it some Butter, a little Sugar and Juice of Limon; dish it upon Sippets; sometimes a few_ Corinths _are added_. Peny-royal. _See_ Pudding. Pickles. 6. _Pickl'd_ Artichoaks. _See_ Acetaria, p. 5. 7. Ashen-keys. _Gather them young, and boil them in three or four Waters to extract the Bitterness; and when they feel tender, prepare a Syrup of sharp White-Wine Vinegar, Sugar, and a little Water. Then boil them on a very quick Fire, and they will become of a green Colour, fit to be potted so soon as cold_. 8. Asparagus. _Break off the hard Ends, and put them in White-Wine Vinegar and Salt, well covered with it; and so let them remain for six Weeks: Then taking them out, boil the Liquor or Pickle, and scum it carefully. If need be, renew the Vinegar and Salt; and when 'tis cold, pot them up again. Thus may one keep them the whole Year_. 9. Beans. _Take such as are fresh, young, and approaching their full Growth. Put them into a strong Brine of White-Wine Vinegar and Salt able to bear an Egg. Cover them very close, and so will they be preserved twelve Months: But a Month before you use them, take out what Quantity you think sufficient for your spending a quarter of a Year (for so long the second Pickle will keep them sound) and boil them in a Skillet of fresh Water, till they begin to look green, as they soon will do. Then placing them one by one, (to drain upon a clean course Napkin) range them Row by Row in a_ Jarr, _and cover them with Vinegar, and what Spice you please; some Weight being laid upon them to keep them under the Pickle. Thus you may preserve French-Beans_, Harico's, &c. _the whole Year about_. 10. Broom-Buds _and_ Pods. _Make a strong Pickle, as above; stir it very well, till the Salt be quite dissolved, clearing off the Dregs and Scum. The next Day pour it from the Bottom; and having rubbed the Buds dry pot them up in a Pickle-Glass, which should be frequently shaken, till they sink under it, and keep it well stopt and covered_. _Thus may you-pickle any other_ Buds. _Or as follows:_ 11. _Of_ Elder. _Take the largest_ Buds, _and boil them in a Skillet with Salt and Water, sufficient only to scald them; and so (being taken off the Fire) let them remain covered till Green; and then pot them with Vinegar and Salt, which has had one Boil up to cleanse it_. 12. Collyflowers. _Boil them till they fall in Pieces: Then with some of the Stalk, and worst of the Flower, boil it in a part of the Liquor till pretty strong: Then being taken off, strain it; and when settled, clear it from the Bottom. Then with_ Dill, _Gross Pepper, a pretty Quantity of Salt, when cold, add as much Vinegar as will make it sharp, and pour all upon the_ Collyflower; _and so as to keep them from touching one another; which is prevented by putting Paper close to them_. Cornelians _are pickled like_ Olives. 13. Cowslips. _Pick very clean; to each Pound of Flowers allow about one Pound of Loaf Sugar, and one Pint of White-Wine Vinegar, which boil to a Syrup, and cover it scalding-hot. Thus you may pickle_ Clove-gillyflowers, Elder, _and other Flowers, which being eaten alone, make a very agreeable Salletine_. 14. Cucumbers. _Take the_ Gorkems, _or smaller_ Cucumbers; _put them into_ Rape-Vinegar, _and boyl, and cover them so close, as none of the Vapour may issue forth; and also let them stand till the next day: Then boil them in fresh White-Wine Vinegar, with large Mace, Nutmeg, Ginger, white Pepper, and a little Salt, (according to discretion) straining the former Liquor from the_ Cucumbers; _and so place them in a Jarr, or wide mouthed Glass, laying a litle Dill and Fennel between each Rank; and covering all with the fresh scalding-hot Pickle, keep all close, and repeat it daily, till you find them sufficiently green_. _In the same sort_ Cucumbers _of the largest size, being peel'd and cut into thin Slices, are very delicate_. Another. _Wiping them clean, put them in a very strong Brine of Water and Salt, to soak two or three Hours or longer, if you see Cause: Then range them in the_ Jarr _or_ Barrellet _with Herbs and Spice as usual; and cover them with hot Liquor made of two parts Beer-Vinegar, and one of White-Wine Vinegar: Let all be very well closed. A Fortnight after scald the Pickle again, and repeat it, as above: Thus they will keep longer, and from being so soon sharp, eat crimp and well tasted, tho' not altogether so green. You may add a Walnut-Leaf, Hysop, Costmary_, &c. _and as some do, strow on them a little Powder of_ Roch-Allom, _which makes them firm and eatable within a Month or six Weeks after_. Mango _of_ Cucumbers. _Take the biggest_ Cucumbers _(and most of the_ Mango _size) that look green: Open them on the Top or Side; and scooping out the Seeds, supply their Place with a small Clove of Garlick, or some_ Roccombo _Seeds. Then put them into an Earthen Glazed_ Jarr, _or wide-mouth'd Glass, with as much White-Wine Vinegar as will cover them. Boil them in the Vinegar with Pepper, Cloves, Mace, &c. and when off the Fire, as much Salt as will make a gentle Brine; and so pour all boyling-hot on the_ Cucumbers, _covering them close till the next Day. Then put them with a little Dill, and Pickle into a large Skillet; and giving them a Boyl or two, return them into the Vessel again: And when all is cold, add a good Spoonful of the best_ Mustard, _keeping it from the Air, and so have you an excellent_ Mango. _When you have occasion to take any out, make use of a Spoon, and not your Fingers_. Elder. _See_ Buds. Flowers. _See_ Cowslips, _and for other_ Flowers. 15. Limon. _Take Slices of the thick Rind Limon, Boil and shift them in several Waters, till they are pretty tender: Then drain and wipe them dry with a clean Cloth; and make a Pickle with a little White-Wine Vinegar, one part to two of fair Water, and a little Sugar, carefully scum'd. When all is cold, pour it on the peel'd Rind, and cover it all close in a convenient Glass Jarr. Some make a Syrup of Vinegar, White-Wine and Sugar not too thick, and pour it on hot_. 16. Melon. _The abortive and after-Fruit of Melons being pickled as_ Cucumber, _make an excellent Sallet_. 17. Mushrom. _Take a Quart of the best White-Wine Vinegar; as much of White-Wine, Cloves, Mace, Nutmeg a pretty Quantity, beaten together: Let the Spice boil therein to the Consumption of half; then taken off, and being cold, pour the Liquour on the_ Mushroms; _but leave out the boiled Spice, and cast in of the same sort of Spice whole, the Nutmeg only slit in Quarters, with some Limon-Peel, white Pepper; and if you please a whole raw Onion, which take out again when it begins to perish_. Another. _The_ Mushroms _peel'd_, &c. _throw them into Water, and then into a Sauce-Pan, with some long Pepper, Cloves, Mace, a quarter'd Nutmeg, with an Onion, Shallot, or Roccombo-Seed, and a little Salt. Let them all boil a quarter of an hour on a very quick Fire: Then take out and cold, with a pretty Quantity of the former Spice, boil them in some White-Wine; which (being cold) cast upon the_ Mushroms, _and fill up the Pot with the best White-Wine, a Bay-Leaf or two, and an Handful of Salt: Then cover them with the Liquor; and if for long keeping, pour Sallet-Oil over all, tho' they will be preserved a Year without it_. _They are sometimes boil'd in Salt and Water, with some Milk, and laying them in the Colender to drain, till cold, and wiped dry, cast them into the Pickle with the White-Wine, Vinegar and Salt, grated Nutmeg, Ginger bruised, Cloves, Mace, white Pepper and Limon-Peel; pour the Liquor on them cold without boiling_. 18. Nasturtium Indicum. _Gather the Buds before they open to flower; lay them in the Shade three or four Hours, and putting them into an Earthen Glazed Vessel, pour good Vinegar on them, and cover it with a Board. Thus letting it stand for eight or ten Days: Then being taken out, and gently press'd, cast them into fresh Vinegar, and let them so remain as long as before. Repeat this a third time, and Barrel them up with Vinegar and a little Salt_. Orange. _See_ Limon. 20. Potato. _The small green Fruit (when about the size of the Wild Cherry) being pickled, is an agreeable Sallet. But the Root being roasted under the Embers, or otherwise, open'd with a Knife, the Pulp is butter'd in the Skin, of which it will take up a good Quantity, and is seasoned with a little Salt and Pepper. Some eat them with Sugar together in the Skin, which has a pleasant Crimpness. They are also stew'd and bak'd in Pyes_, &c. 21. Purselan. _Lay the Stalks in an Earthen Pan; then cover them with Beer-Vinegar and Water, keeping them down with a competent Weight to imbibe, three Days: Being taken out, put them into a Pot with as much White-Wine Vinegar as will cover them again; and close the Lid with Paste to keep in the Steam: Then set them on the Fire for three or four Hours, often shaking and stirring them: Then open the Cover, and turn and remove those Stalks which lie at the Bottom, to the Top, and boil them as before, till they are all of a Colour. When all is cold, pot them with fresh White-Wine Vinegar, and so you may preserve them the whole Year round_. 22. Radish. _The Seed-Pods of this Root being pickl'd, are a pretty Sallet_. 23. Sampier. _Let it be gathered about_ Michaelmas _(or the Spring) and put two or three hours into a Brine of Water and Salt; then into a clean Tin'd Brass Pot, with three parts of strong White-Wine Vinegar, and one part of Water and Salt, or as much as will cover the_ Sampier, _keeping the Vapour from issuing out, by pasting down the Pot-lid, and so hang it over the Fire for half an Hour only. Being taken off, let it remain covered till it be cold; and then put it up into small Barrels or Jars, with the Liquor, and some fresh Vinegar, Water and Salt; and thus it will keep very green. If you be near the Sea, that Water will supply the place of Brine. This is the_ Dover _Receit_. 24. Walnuts. _Gather the Nuts young, before they begin to harden, but not before the Kernel is pretty white: Steep them in as much Water as will more than cover them. Then set them on the Fire, and when the water boils, and grows black, pour it off, and supply it with fresh, boiling it as before, and continuing to shift it till it become clear, and the_ Nuts _pretty tender: Then let them be put into clean Spring Water for two Days, changing it as before with fresh, two or three times within this space: Then lay them to drain, and dry on a clean course Cloth, and put them up in a Glass Jar, with a few Walnut Leaves, Dill, Cloves, Pepper, whole Mace and Salt; strowing them under every Layer of Nuts, till the Vessel be three quarters full; and lastly, replenishing it with the best Vinegar, keep it well covered; and so they will be fit to spend within three Months_. To make a _Mango_ with them. _The green Nuts prepared as before, cover the Bottom of the Jar with some Dill, an Handful of Bay-Salt_, &c. _and then a Bed of Nuts; and so_ stratum _upon_ stratum, _as above, adding to the Spice some_ Roccombo-Seeds; _and filling the rest of the Jar with the best White-Wine Vinegar, mingled with the best Mustard; and to let them remain close covered, during two or three Months time: And thus have you a more agreeable_ Mango _than what is brought us from abroad; which you may use in any Sauce, and is of it self a rich Condiment_. _Thus far_ Pickles. 25. Potage Maigre. _Take four Quarts of Spring-Water, two or three Onions stuck with some Cloves, two or three Slices of Limon Peel, Salt, whole white Pepper, Mace, a Raze or two of Ginger, tied up in a fine Cloth (Lawn or Tiffany) and make all boil for half an Hour; Then having Spinage, Sorrel, white Beet-Chard, a little Cabbage, a few small Tops of Cives, wash'd and pick'd clean, shred them well, and cast them into the Liquor, with a Pint of blue Pease boil'd soft and strain'd, with a Bunch of sweet Herbs, the Top and Bottom of a_ French Roll; _and so suffer it to boil during three Hours; and then dish it with another small_ French Roll, _and Slices about the Dish: Some cut Bread in slices, and frying them brown (being dried) put them into the Pottage just as it is going to be eaten_. _The same Herbs, clean wash'd, broken and pulled asunder only, being put in a close cover'd Pipkin, without any other Water or Liquor, will stew in their own Juice and Moisture. Some add an whole Onion, which after a while should be taken out, remembring to season it with Salt and Spice, and serve it up with Bread and a Piece of fresh Butter_. 26. Pudding _of_ Carrot. _Pare off some of the Crust of Manchet-Bread, and grate of half as much of the rest as there is of the Root, which must also be grated: Then take half a Pint of fresh Cream or New Milk, half a Pound of fresh Butter, six new laid Eggs (taking out three of the Whites) mash and mingle them well with the Cream and Butter: Then put in the grated Bread and Carrot, with near half a Pound of Sugar; and a little Salt; some grated Nutmeg and beaten Spice; and pour all into a convenient Dish or Pan, butter'd, to keep the Ingredients from sticking and burning; set it in a quick Oven for about an Hour, and so have you a Composition for any_ Root-Pudding. 27. Penny-royal. _The Cream, Eggs, Spice_, &c. _as above, but not so much Sugar and Salt: Take a pretty Quantity of Peny-royal and Marigold flower_, &c. _very well shred, and mingle with the Cream, Eggs_, &c. _four spoonfuls of Sack; half a Pint more of Cream, and almost a Pound of Beef-Suet chopt very small, the Gratings of a Two-penny Loaf, and stirring all well together, put it into a Bag flower'd and tie it fast. It will be boil'd within an Hour: Or may be baked in the Pan like the_ Carrot-Pudding. _The sauce is for both, a little Rose-water, less Vinegar, with Butter beaten together and poured on it sweetned with the Sugar Caster_. _Of this Plant discreetly dried, is made a most wholsom and excellent Tea_. 28. _Of_ Spinage. _Take a sufficient Quantity of_ Spinach, _stamp and strain out the Juice; put to it grated Manchet, the Yolk of as many Eggs as in the former Composition of the_ Carrot-Pudding; _some Marrow shred small, Nutmeg, Sugar, some Corinths, (if you please) a few Carroways, Rose, or Orange-flower Water (as you best like) to make it grateful. Mingle all with a little boiled Cream; and set the Dish or Pan in the Oven, with a Garnish of Puff-Paste. It will require but very moderate Baking. Thus have you Receits for_ Herb Puddings. 29. Skirret-Milk _Is made by boiling the Roots tender, and the Pulp strained out, put into Cream or new Milk boiled, with three or four Yolks of Eggs, Sugar, large Mace and other Spice_, &c. _And thus is composed any other Root-Milk_. _See_ Acetar. p. 42. 30. Tansie. _Take the Gratings or Slices of three Naples-Biscuits, put them into half a Pint of Cream; with twelve fresh Eggs, four of the Whites cast out, strain the rest, and break them with two Spoonfuls of Rose-water, a little Salt and Sugar, half a grated Nutmeg: And when ready for the Pan, put almost a Pint of the Juice of Spinach, Cleaver, Beets, Corn-Sallet, Green Corn, Violet, or Primrose tender Leaves, (for of any of these you may take your choice) with a very small Sprig of Tansie, and let it be fried so as to look green in the Dish, with a Strew of Sugar and store of the Juice of Orange: some affect to have it fryed a little brown and crisp_. 31. Tart _of_ Herbs. _An_ Herb-Tart _is made thus: Boil fresh Cream or Milk, with a little grated Bread or_ Naples-Biscuit _(which is better) to thicken it; a pretty Quantity of Chervile, Spinach, Beete (or what other Herb you please) being first par-boil'd and chop'd. Then add_ Macaron, _or Almonds beaten to a Paste, a little sweet Butter, the Yolk of five Eggs, three of the Whites rejected. To these some add Corinths plump'd in Milk, or boil'd therein, Sugar, Spice at Discretion, and stirring it all together over the Fire, bake it in the Tart-Pan_. 32. Thistle. _Take the long Stalks of the middle Leaf of the_ Milky-Thistle, _about_ May, _when they are young and tender: wash and scrape them, and boil them in Water, with a little Salt, till they are very soft, and so let them lie to drain. They are eaten with fresh Butter melted not too thin, and is a delicate and wholsome Dish. Other Stalks of the same kind may so be treated, as the_ Bur, _being tender and disarmed of its Prickles_, &c. 33. Trufles, _and other_ Tubers, _and_ Boleti, _are roasted whole in the_ Embers; _then slic'd and stew'd in strong Broth with Spice_, &c. _as_ Mushroms _are. Vide_ Acetar. p. 28. 34. Turnep. _Take their Stalks (when they begin to run up to seed) as far as they will easily break downwards: Peel and tie them in Bundles. Then boiling them as they do_ Sparagus, _are to be eaten with melted Butter. Lastly_, 35. Minc'd, _or_ Sallet-all-sorts. _Take Almonds blanch'd in cold Water, cut them round and thin, and so leave them in the_ _Water; Then have pickl'd Cucumbers, Olives, Cornelians, Capers, Berberries, Red-Beet, Buds of_ Nasturtium, _Broom_, &c. _Purslan-stalk, Sampier, Ash-Keys, Walnuts, Mushrooms (and almost of all the pickl'd Furniture) with Raisins of the Sun ston'd, Citron and Orange-Peel, Corinths (well cleansed and dried)_ &c. _mince them severally (except the Corinths) or all together; and strew them over with any Candy'd Flowers, and so dispose of them in the same Dish both mixt, and by themselves. To these add roasted_ Maroons, Pistachios, Pine-Kernels, _and of Almonds four times as much as of the rest, with some Rose-water. Here also come in the Pickled Flowers and Vinegar in little_ China _Dishes. And thus have you an Universal_ Winter-Sallet, _or an_ All sort _in Compendium, fitted for a City Feast, and distinguished from the_ Grand-Sallet: _which shou'd consist of the Green blanch'd and unpickled, under a stately_ Pennash _of_ Sellery, _adorn'd with Buds and Flowers_. _And thus have we presented you a Taste of our_ English Garden Housewifry _in the matter of_ Sallets: _And though some of them may be Vulgar, (as are most of the best things;) Yet she was willing to impart them, to shew the Plenty, Riches and Variety of the_ Sallet-Garden: _And to justifie what has been asserted of the Possibility of living (not unhappily) on_ Herbs _and_ Plants, _according to_ Original _and_ Divine Institution, _improved by Time and long Experience. And if we have admitted_ Mushroms _among the rest (contrary to our Intention, and for Reasons given_, Acet. p. 43.) _since many will by no means abandon them, we have endeavoured to preserve them from those pernicious Effects which are attributed to, and really in them: We cannot tell indeed whether they were so treated and accommodated for the most Luxurious of the_ Cæsarean Tables, _when that Monarchy was in its highest Strain of_ Epicurism, _and ingross'd this_ Haugout _for their second Course; whilst this we know, that 'tis but what_ Nature _affords all her Vagabonds under every Hedge_. _And now, that our_ Sallets _may not want a Glass of generous Wine of the same Growth with the rest of the Garden to recommend it, let us have your Opinion of the following_. Cowslip-Wine. _To every Gallon of Water put two Pounds of_ Sugar; _boil it an Hour, and set it to cool: Then spread a good brown_ Toast _on both Sides with Yeast: But before you make use of it, beat some Syrup of_ Citron _with it, an Ounce and half of Syrup to each Gallon of Liquor: Then put in the_ Toast _whilst hot, to assist its_ Fermentation, _which will cease in two Days; during which time cast in the_ Cowslip-Flowers _(a little bruised, but not much stamp'd) to the Quantity of half a Bushel to ten Gallons (or rather three Pecks) four_ Limons _slic'd, with the Rinds and all. Lastly, one Pottle of_ White _or_ Rhenish Wine; _and then after two Days, tun it up in a sweet Cask. Some leave out all the Syrup_. _And here, before we conclude, since there is nothing of more constant Use than good Vinegar; or that has so near an Affinity to all our_ Acetaria, _we think it not amiss to add the following (much approved) Receit_. Vinegar. _To every Gallon of Spring Water let there be allowed three Pounds of_ Malaga-Raisins: _Put them in an Earthen Jarr, and place them where they may have the hottest Sun, from_ May till Michaelmas: _Then pressing them well, Tun the Liquor up in a very strong Iron-Hooped Vessel to prevent its bursting. It will appear very thick and muddy when newly press'd, but will refine in the Vessel, and be as clear as Wine. Thus let it remain untouched for three Months, before it be drawn off, and it will prove Excellent_ Vinegar. Butter. Butter _being likewise so frequent and necessary an Ingredient to divers of the foregoing_ Appendants: _It should be carefully melted, that it turn not to an Oil; which is prevented by melting it leisurely, with a little fair Water at the Bottom of the Dish or Pan; and by continual shaking and stirring, kept from boiling or over-heating, which makes it rank_. _Other rare and exquisite_ Liquors _and Teas (Products of our_ Gardens _only) we might super-add, which we leave to our_ Lady Housewives, _whose Province indeed all this while it is_. _THE END_ * * * * * The Table _Abstemious Persons who eat no Flesh, nor were under Vows_, 104 Abstersives, 42 ACETARIA, _Criticisms on the Word, how they differ from Olera, &c._, 1 Achilles, 77 Acids, 63 Adam _and_ Eve _lived on Vegetables and Plants_, 94 Africans _eat_ Capsicum Indicum, 34 _Aged Persons_, 44; _Sallet-Eaters_, 80 _Agues_, 81 _Air_, 80 Alliaria, 19 _Ale_, 15 Alleluja, 47 Alexanders, 5 Allium, 18 _Altar dedicated to Lettuce_, 21 Anagallis, 9 Annæus Serenus _poisoned by Mushroms_, 27 _Anatomy, Comparative_, 90 Antecoenia, 74 Antediluvians _eat no Flesh for_ 2000 _years_, 80 Aparine, 12 _Aperitives_, 10 _Appetite_, 21; _How to subdue_, 98 Apician _Luxury_, 103 Apium, 35; Italicum, 41 _Aromatics_, 13 _Artichoaks_, 5 Arum Theophrasti, 48 Ascalonia, 41 Ascetics, 106 _Asparagus_, 43; _preferable to the_ Dutch, 43; _how to cover in Winter without Dung_, 87 Asphodel, 23 _Astringents_, 9 _Asthmatical_, 31 Assa foetida, 52 Atriplex, 32 Augustus, 21 _Autumn_, 71 B. Barlæus's _Description Poetic of a Sallet Collation_, 113 _Basil_, 7 _Baulm_, 7 _Beere_, 15 _Beet_, 7, 79 _Benzoin_, 51 _Bile_, 36 _Blite_, 8 _Blood to purifie_, 8; _Eating it prohibited_, 100 Boletus, 26 _Books of_ Botany, 54; _to be read with caution where they write of Edule Plants_, ib. _Borrage_, 8 _Bowels_, 58 _Brain_, 7, 38 Bramins, 97 Brandy _and Exotic Liquors pernicious_, 93 _Bread and Sallet sufficient for Life_, 2; _Made of Turnips_, 46 _Breast_, 19 Broccoli, 10 _Brook lime_, 9 _Broth_, 19 _Brute Animals much healthier than Men, why_, 91 _Buds_, 9 _Buglos_, 9 Bulbo Castanum, 15 Buphthalmum, 15 _Burnet_, 35 _Butter_, 64 C. Cabbage, 10 Capsicum Indicum, 34 Cardialgia, 34 Carduus Sativus, 5 Cardon, Spanish, 6 _Carnivorous Animals_, 89 _Carrots_, 11 _Cattel relish of their Pasture and Food_, 86; _Vide Fowl_. _Cauly flower_, 11 Cepæ, 31 _Cephalics_, 30 Chæriphyllum, 12 Champignons, 26; _Vide_ Mushroms. _Chastity_, 21 _Children chuse to eat Fruit before other Meat_, 94 _Christians abstaining from eating Flesh_, 97 _Choler_, 20 _Church Catholics Future Glory predicted_, 115 Cibarium, 63 Cicuta, 48 Cinara, 5 _Clary_, 12 Claudius Cæsar, 27 _Claver_, 12 _Cleansing_, 44 _Climate_, 80 Cochlearia, 41; _vide Scurvy-Grass_. _Cooks_, 77; _Physicians to Emperors and Popes_, 55; _vide_ Heroes. _Collation of Sallet, Extemporary_, 73 _Cold_, 16 _Cooling_, 33 _Complexion_, 84 _Composing, and Composer of Sallets_, 71 _Compotation_, 74 _Concession to eat Flesh, since which Mens Lives shortned_, 97 _Concoction_, 18 Condiments, 64; _vide_ Sauce. _Conscience_, 98 _Consent; vide Harmony_. _Constitution of Body_, 57 Consuls _and Great Persons supt in their Garden_, 121 _Contemplative Persons_, 104 Convictus Facilis, 117 _Cordials_, 7 _Coriander_, 49 _Corrago_, 9 _Correctives_, 82 _Corn, what Ground most proper for it_, 86 _Corn Sallet_, 12 _Corroboratives_, 52 _Corpulency_, 82 _Cowslips_, 13 _Cresses_, 13 Crithmum, 40 _Crudities_, 26 _Cruelty in butchering Animals for Food_, 99 _Cucumber_, 13 _Culture, its Effects_, 42 _Custom_, 81; _Of Sallet Herbs, how great a Revenue to_ Rome, 119 D. _Daffodil_, 48 _Daisie_, 15 _Dandelion_, 15 Dapes Inemptæ, 116 Dauci, 11 _Decay in Nature, none_, 106 _Decoction_, 19 _Deobstructions_, 5 Deorum filii, 26 _Distinction of Meats abrogated_, 94 _Detersives_, 8 _Dishes for Sallets_, 69 _Dissimilar Parts of Animals require Variety of Food_, 89 _Diuretics_, 19 _Dock_, 15 _Dogs Mercury_, 54 Domitian _Emp._, 74 Draco herba, 45 _Dressing of Sallets_, vide _Sallet_. _Dry Plants_, 17 _Dung_, 85; _Sallets rais'd on it undigested_, 86 E. Earth, _whether much altered since the Flood_, 81; _about great Cities, produces rank and unwholsome Sallets_, 85 _Earth-Nuts_, 15 _Eggs_, 68 _Elder_, 16 _Emollients_, 15 _Endive_, 16 _Epicurism_, 99 _Eremit's_, vide _Monks_. _Eruca_, 39 _Eructation_, 38 Eruditæ gulæ, 77 _Escalons_, 31 _Eternity_, vide _Patriarchs_. Eupeptics, 58 Euphrosyne, 9 _Excess_, 72 _Exhilarate_, 7 _Exotic Drinks and Sauces dangerous_, 90 _Experience_, 83 _Eyes_, 7, vide _Sight_. F. Fabrorum prandia, 8 _Fainting_, 47 _Families enobl'd by names of Sallet Plants_, 20 _Farcings_, 35 Fascicule, 70 _Fevers_, 20 _Felicity of the Hortulan Life_, 122 _Fennel_, 17 _Flatulents_, 33 Flesh, _none eaten during 2000 years. Flesh eaters not so ingenious as Sallet eaters: unapt for Study and Bussiness; shortens Life; how all Flesh is Grass_, 94 _Flowers_, 17 Foliatorum ordo, 105 _Fowl relish of their Food_, 86 _Food. No Necessity of different Food_, 90; _The simplest best_, 92; _Man's original Food_, 93 _Fools unfit to gather Sallets contrary to the_ Italian _Proverb_, 61 _Friers_, vide _Monks_. Frigidæ Mensæ, 82 _Frugality of the ancient_ Romans, _&c._, 21 _Fruit_, 75; _not reckon'd among Sallets_, 76; _not degenerated since the Flood, where industry is us'd_, 104 Fugaces fructus, 74 Fungus, 26, vide _Mushroms_. Fungus reticularis, 27 _Furniture and Ingredients of Sallets_, 61 G. Galen _Lover of Lettuce_, 21 _Gardiner's happy Life_, 113; _Entertain Heroes and great Persons_, 115 _Garlick_, 18 _Garnishing_, 8 _Gatherers of Sallets should be skilful Herbarists_, 71 Gemmæ, 9, _vide_ Buds. _Gerkems_, 15, _vide Cucumber_. _Ginny-Pepper_, 78 _Goats beard_, 18 _Golden Age_, 99 Gordian _Emp._, 82 Gramen Amygdalosum, 48 _Grand Sallet_, 42 _Grass_, 82 _Grillus_, 56 _Gymnosophists_, 97 H. _Habits difficult to overcome, applied to Flesh-Eaters_, 98 Hæredium _of old_, 123 Halimus, 36 _Harmony in mixing Sallet Ingredients as Notes in Musick_, 60 Hautgout, 77 _Head_, 40, _vide Cephalicks_. _Heart_, 42, _vide Cordials_. Heliotrop, 49 _Hemlock_, 54 _Herbaceous Animals know by instinct what Herbs are proper for them better than Men_, 56; _and excel them in most of the senses_, ib. _Herbals_, vide _Books_. _Herbs, crude, whether wholsome_, 80; _What proper for Sallets_, 70; _Their Qualities and Vertues to be examined_, 82; _Herby Diet most Natural_, 98 Heroes _of old skill'd in Cookery_, 77 Hippocrates _condemns Radish_, 37; _That Men need only Vegetables_, 106 Hipposelinum, 5 Holyhoc, 24 _Honey_, 14 _Hops_, 19 Horarii fructus, 74 Horminum, 12 _Horses not so diseased as Men_, 91; _Recompens'd by some Masters for long Service_, 91 _Horse-Radish_, 38 _Hortulan Provision most plentiful of any, advantageous, universal, natural, &c._, 110 _Hot Plants_, 8 _Hot Beds, how unwholsome for Salleting_, 85 _House-wife had charge of the Kitchin Garden_, 119 _Humours_, 57 _Hypochondria_, 9 _Hysop_, 19 I. _Ilander_, 58; _obnoxious to the Scorbute_, ib. _Indigestion_, 38 _Ingredients_, 4, vide _Furniture_. _Insects_, 28 Intuba Sativa, 16 Isrælites _Love of Onions_, 32 J. _Jack-by-the-Hedge_, 19 John _the_ Baptist, 106 Justin Martyr _concerning the eating of Blood_, 101 K. _Knife for cutting Sallets_, 68 _Kitchen Garden_, 119, vide Potagere. L. Lapathum, 24 Laserpitium, 51 Latet anguis in herba, 115 _Laws_, 116 _Laxatives_, 7 _Leeks_, 20 Legumena, 73 _Lettuce_, 20 _Limon_, 23 _Liver_, 13 _Longævity_, 81 Lotophagi, 106 _Lungs_, 20 Lupulus, 19 _Luxury_, 81 Lysimachia Seliquosa glabra, 49 Lyster, _Dr._, 56 M. Macarons, 49 Majoran, 19 _Mallows_, 23 Malvæ folium sanctissimum, ib. _Man before the Fall knew the Vertues of Plants_, 83; _Unbecoming his Dignity to butcher the innocent Animal for Food_, 94; _Not by nature carnivorous_, 111; _Not lapsed so soon as generally thought_, 95 _Marygold_, 19 _Masculine Vigour_, 52 Materia medica, 65 _Materials for Sallets_, vide _Furniture_. Maximinus _an egregious Glutton, Sallet-hater_, 121 _Meats commend not to God_, 99 _Medals of_ Battus _with_ Silphium _on the reverse_, 51 Melissa, 7 _Melon, how cultivated by the Ancients_, 24 _Memory to assist_, 7 _Mints_, 25 Mithacus, _a Culinary Philosopher_, 77 _Mixture_, 57 _Moist_, 9 _Monks and Friers perstring'd for their idle unprofitable Life_, 107 & _seqq._ Morocco _Ambassador_, 43; _Lover of Sow-thistles_. Mortuorum cibi _Mushroms_, 20 Mosaical _Customs_, 94; Moses _gave only a summary account of the Creation, sufficient for instruction, not Curiosity_, 102 _Mushroms_, 26; _Pernicious Accidents of eating them_, 26; _How produced artificially_, 29 _Mustard_, 30 _Myrrh_, 12 _Myrtil-Berries_, 35 N. Napus, 46 Nasturtium, 13; Indicum, 41 _Nature invites all to Sallets_, 111 Nepenthes, 9 _Nerves_, 54 _Nettle_, 30 _Nigard_, 61 _Nourishing_, 5 O. _Obstructions_, 16 _Ocimum_, 7 Olera, _what properly, how distinguish'd from Acetaria_, 1, 2 Oluscula, 4 _Onion_, 31; _What vast Quantities spent in_ Egypt, 32 _Opening_, 16 Orach, 32 _Orange_, 23 Ornithogallon, 48 Oxalis, 42 Oxylapathum, 15 _Oyl, how to choose_, 63; _Its diffusive Nature_, 69 P. _Painters_, 50 _Palpitation_, 47 _Palsie_, 30 _Panacea_, 10 Paradisian _Entertainment_, 122 Paralysis, 13 _Parsnip_, 33 Pastinaca Sativa, 11 _Patriarchs_, 93; _Their Long Lives a Shadow of Eternity_, 96 _Peach said to be Poison in_ Persia, _a Fable_, 87 _Peas_, 33 _Pectorals_, 58 _Pepper_, 33; _Beaten too small, hurtful to the Stomach_, 34 _Persly_, 35; _Sacred to the Defunct_, ib. _Philosophers_, 56 _Phlegm_, 30 _Pickle_, 72; _What Sallet Plants proper for Pickles_, ib., _vide Appendix_. _Pig-Nuts_, 28 _Pimpernel_, 9 _Plants, their Vertue_, 59; _Variety_, 114; _Nourishment_, 83; _No living at all without them_, 110; _Plants infect by looking on_, 57; _When in prime_, 71; _how altered by the Soil and Culture_, 84; _Not degenerated since the Flood_, 105 Platonic _Tables_, 97 _Pleurisie_, 81 _Poiverade_, 7 _Poppy_, 48 Porrum, 20 Postdiluvians, 93 _Potage_, 5 Potagere, 119 _Pot-Herbs_, 19 _Poyson_, 18 _Præcoce Plants not so wholsome artificially rais'd_, 85 _Preparation to the dressing of Sallets_, 10 _Prodigal_, 61 _Pugil_, 70 _Punishment_, 18 _Purslan_, 36 _Putrefaction_, 33 Pythagoras, 97 Q. _Quality and Vertue of Plants_, 53. _See Plants_. R. _Radish_, 37; _of Gold dedicated at_ Delphi, 37; Moschius _wrote a whole Volume in praise of them_, ib.; Hippocrates _condemns them_, ib. Raphanus Rusticanus _Horse Radish_, 38 Radix Lunaria, 48; Personata, 49 Ragout, 28 _Rampion_, 39 _Rapum_, 46 _Ray, Mr._, 55 _Refreshing_, 13 _Restaurative_, 5 _Rocket_, 39 _Roccombo_, 18 Roman _Sallet_, 112; _Lux_, 115 _Rosemary_, 39 _Roots_, 37 _Rhue_, 49 S. _Saffron_, 68 _Sage_, 39 _Sallets, what, how improved, whence so called_, 3; _Ingredients_, 4; _Variety and Store above what the Ancients had_, 112; _Bills of Fare_, 112; _Skill in choosing, gathering, composing and dressing_, 48; _found in the Crops of Foul_, 62; _what formerly in use, now abdicated_, 49; _extemporary Sallets_, 87; _Whether best to begin or conclude with Sallets_, 73 Salade de Preter, 13 _Salt_, 64; _What best for Sallets_, 64; _Salts Essential, and of Vegetables_, 65 Sambucus, 16 _Sampier_, 40 _Sanguine_, 36 Sarcophagists, 56 _Sauce_, 39 _Savoys_, 11 _Scallions_, 41 Scorbute, vide _Scurvy_. _Scurvy-Grass_, 41 _Scurvy_, 9 _Season_, 71 _Seasoning_, 79, vide _Sallet_. Sedum minus, 45, _vide_ Stone-Crop. _Sellery_, 41 Seneca, 98 _Shambles_, 77 _Sight_, 50, vide _Eyes_. Silphium, 50; _How precious and sacred_, 51 _Simples_, 49 _Sinapi_, 30 _Sisarum_, 42 _Skirrits_, ib. _Sleep, to procure_, 21 _Smallage_, 41 _Smut in Wheat_, 86 Syrenium Vulgare, 5 _Snails, safe Tasters_, 56 _Sonchus_, 43 _Sordidness_, 87 _Sorrel_, 42 _Sow-thistle_, vide Sonchus. _Specificks, few yet discovered_, 83 _Spleen_, 10 _Spinach_, 12 _Spirits, cherishing and reviving_, 9 _Spring_, 71 _Stomach_, 16 _Stone_, 9 _Stone-Crop_, 44 _Strowings_, 67 _Students_, 9 _Succory_, 44 _Sugar_, 14 _Summer_, 84 _Sumptuary Laws_, 116 _Swearing_ per Brassicam, 11 _Swine used to find out Truffles and Earth-Nuts_, 28 T. _Table of Species, Culture, Proportion and dressing of Sallets, according to the Season_, 70 Tacitus, _Emp. Temperance_, 21 _Tansie_, 44 _Tarragon_, 45 _Taste should be exquisite in the Composer of Sallets_, 60 _Tea_, 17, vide Appendix. _Temper_, 81 _Temperance_, 21 _Teeth_, 37 Theriacle, _vide Garlick_. _Thirst, to asswage_, 33 _Thistle_, 45 _Thyme_, 19, vide _Pot-herbs_. Tiberius Cæs., 42 Tragopogon, 47 _Transmigration_, 56 _Tribute paid to Roots_, 42 Truffles, 28 Tubera, 28 _Tulip eaten that cost_ 100 _l._, 47 Turiones, 9 _Turnip_, 46; _Made a Fish_, 113 V. _Vapours to repress_, 21 _Variety necessary and proper_, 92 _Ventricle_, 20, vide _Stomach_. _Vine_, 47 _Vinegar_, 63; vide Appendix. _Viper-Grass_, 47 _Vertues of Sallet Plants and Furniture_, 57; _Consist in the several and different Parts of the same Plant_, 49 Voluptuaria Venena, 28 U. Urtica, 30 W. _Welsh, prolifick_, 20 _Wind_, 17 _Wine_, 7; vide _Appendix_. _Winter Sallets_, 7; vide _Appendix_. _Wood-Sorrel_, 47 _Worms in Fennel, and Sellery_, 17 _Wormwood_, 49 Y. _Youth to preserve_, 85 * * * * * FOOTNOTES [Footnote 1: _Lord Viscount_ Brouncker, _Chancellor to the Late Qu. Consort, now_ Dowager. _The Right Honourable_ Cha. Montague, _Esq; Chancellor of the_ Exchequer.] [Footnote 2: _Si quid temporis à civilibus negotiis quibis totum jam intenderat animum, suffurari potuit, colendis agris, priscos illos Romanos_ Numam Pompilium, Cincinnatum, Catonem, Fabios, Cicerones, _aliosque virtute claros viros imitare; qui in magno honore constituti, vites putare, stercorare agros, & irrigare nequaquam turpe & inhone stum putarunt_. In Vit. _Plin._ 2.] [Footnote 3: Ut hujusmodi historiam vix dum incohatum, non ante absolvendam putem. Exitio terras quam dabit una dies. _D. Raius_ Praefat. Hist. Plan.] [Footnote 4: Olera a frigidis distinct. _See_ Spartianus in Pescennio. Salmas. in Jul. Capitolin.] [Footnote 5: Panis erat primis virides mortalibus Herbae; Quas tellus nullo sollicitante dabat. Et modo carpebant vivaci cespite gramen; Nunc epulæ tenera fronde cacumen erant. Ovid, Fastor. IV.] [Footnote 6: [Greek: kaloumen gar lachana ta ôros tên hêmeneran chreian], Theophrast. Plant. 1. VII. cap. 7.] [Footnote 7: Gen. I. 29.] [Footnote 8: Plutarch Sympos.] [Footnote 9: Salmas. in Solin. _against_ Hieron. Mercurialis.] [Footnote 10: Galen. 2R. Aliment. cap. l. Et Simp. Medic. Averroes, lib. V. Golloc.] [Footnote 11: Plin. lib. XIX. c. 4.] [Footnote 12: Convictus facilis, fine arte mensa. Mart. Ep. 74.] [Footnote 13: [Greek: Apuron trophui], _which_ Suidas _calls_ [Greek: lachana], Olera quæ cruda sumuntur ex Aceto. Harduin in loc.] [Footnote 14: Plin. H. Nat. _lib. xix. cap. 8._] [Footnote 15: _De_ R.R. _cap. clvii_.] [Footnote 16: [Greek: 'Ephthos, dosikuos, apalos, aluôs, ourêtikos]. Athen.] [Footnote 17: Cucumis elixus delicatior, innocentior. Athenæus.] [Footnote 18: Eubulus.] [Footnote 19: In Lactuca occultatum à Venere Adonin cecinit _Callimachus_, quod Allegoricè interpretatus _Athenæus_ illuc referendum putat, quod in Venerem hebetiores fiant Lactucis vescentes assiduè.] [Footnote 20: Apud Sueton.] [Footnote 21: Vopiseus Tacit. _For the rest both of the Kinds and Vertues_ of Lettuce, _See_ Plin. H. Nat. _l. xix. c. 8. and xx. c. 7_. Fernel. &c.] [Footnote 22: De Legib.] [Footnote 23: _Hor_. Epod. II.] [Footnote 24: De Simp. Medic. L. vii.] [Footnote 25: _Lib._ ii. _cap._ 3.] [Footnote 26: Exoneraturas Ventrem mihi Villica Malvas Attulit, & varias, quas habet hortus, Opes. _Mart. Lib. x._ _And our sweet Poet_: ----Nulla est humanior herba, Nulla magis suavi commoditate bona est, Omnia tam placidè regerat, blandéquerelaxat, Emollítque vias, nec sinit esse rudes. Cowl. _Plan._ L. 4.] [Footnote 27: Cic _ad Attic_.] [Footnote 28: Sueton _in Claudi._] [Footnote 29: Sen. Ep. lxiii.] [Footnote 30: Plin. N.H. _l. xxi_. c. 23.] [Footnote 31: Transact. Philos. _Num._ 202.] [Footnote 32: Apitius, _lib. vii. cap. 13_.] [Footnote 33: Philos. Transact. _Num._ 69. _Journey to_ Paris.] [Footnote 34: Pratensibus optima fungis Natura est: aliis male creditur. _Hor. Sat. l. 7. Sat. 4._] [Footnote 35: Bacon _Nat. Hist._ 12. Cent. vii. 547, 548, &c.] [Footnote 36: Gaffend. _Vita Peirs._ l. iv. Raderus _Mart._ l. Epig. xlvi. In ponticum--_says, within four Days_.] [Footnote 37: O Sanctas gentes, quibus haec nascuntur in hortis Numina****---- _Juv. Sat. 15._] [Footnote 38: Herodotus.] [Footnote 39: [Greek: hôra to rhadiôs phaines], quia tertio à fatu die appareat.] [Footnote 40: De diaeta _lib._ ii. _cap._ 25.] [Footnote 41: De Aliment. Facult. _lib._ ii.] [Footnote 42: _Philos. Transact._ Vol. xvii. Num. 205. p. 970.] [Footnote 43: _Plin._ H. Nat. Lib. xix. cap. 3. & xx. c. 22. See Jo. Tzetzes Chil. vi. 48. & xvii. 119.] [Footnote 44: Spanheim, De usu & Praest. Numis. Dissert. 4to. _It was sometimes also the Reverse_ of Jupiter Hammon.] [Footnote 45: [Greek: oud an eidoiês ge moi] [Greek: Ton plouton auton k- to Bat-ou silphion]. _Aristoph_. in Pluto. Act. iv. Sc. 3.] [Footnote 46: _Of which some would have it a courser sort_ inamoeni odoris, _as the same Comedian names it in his_ Equites, _p. 239. and 240_. Edit. Basil. _See likewise this discuss'd, together with its Properties, most copiously, in_ Jo. Budaeus _a_ Stapul. _Comment. in_ Theophrast. lib. vi. cap. 1. _and_ Bauhin. _Hist. Plant._ lib. xxvii. cap. 53.] [Footnote 47: Vide _Cardanum_ de usu Cibi.] [Footnote 48: _Vol._ xx.] [Footnote 49: Cowley: [Greek: Oud oson in malachê te k- asphodelô meg oneiar] [Greek: Krupsantes gar echousi theoi Bion anthrôpoisi.] Hesiod.] [Footnote 50: _Concerning this of Insects, See Mr._ Ray's _Hist. Plant. li. l. cap. 24_.] [Footnote 51: _The poyson'd Weeds: I have seen a Man, who was so poyson'd with it, that the Skin peel'd off his Face, and yet he never touch'd it, only looked on it as he pass'd by_. _Mr._ Stafford, _Philos. Transact._ Vol. III. Num. xl. p. 794.] [Footnote 52: Cowley, _Garden_, Miscel. Stanz. 8.] [Footnote 53: Sapores minime Consentientes [Greek: kai sumpleko-uas ouchi symphônous haphas]: Haec despicere ingeniosi est artificis: _Neither did the Artist mingle his Provisions without extraordinary Study and Consideration_: [Greek: Alla mixas panta kata symphônian]. Horum singulis seorsum assumptis, tu expedito: Sic ego tanquam Oraculo jubeo.----Itaque literarum ignarum Coquum, tu cum videris, & qui Democriti scripta omnia non perlegerit, vel potius, impromptu non habeat, eum deride ut futilem: Ac ilium Mercede conducito, qui Epicuri Canonen usu plane didicerit, _&c. as it follows in the_ Gastronomia _of_ Archestratus, Athen. lib. xxiii. _Such another_ Bragadoccio Cook Horace _describes_ Nec sibi Coenarum quivis temere arroget artem Non prius exacta tenui ratione saporem. _Sat. lib. ii. Sat. 4._] [Footnote 54: Milton's _Paradise Lost_.] [Footnote 55: ---- Qui Tingat olus siccum muria vaser in calice emptâ Ipse sacrum irrorans piper ---- Pers. _Sat._ vi.] [Footnote 56: _Dr._ Grew, Lect. vi. c. 2. 3.] [Footnote 57: _Muffet_, de Diaeta, _c._ 23.] [Footnote 58: _Dr._ Grew, _Annat. Plant._ Lib. l. Sect. iv. cap. l, &c. _See also_, Transact. _Num._ 107. _Vol._ ix.] [Footnote 59: _Philosoph. Transact._ Vol. III. Num. xl. p. 799.] [Footnote 60: Mart. _Epig. lib._ xi. 39.] [Footnote 61: Athen. l. 2. _Of which Change of Diet see_ Plut. iv. _Sympos._ 9. Plinii _Epist._ I. _ad Eretrium._] [Footnote 62: Virg. _Moreto_.] [Footnote 63: Hor. _Sat. I. 2. Sat. 4._] [Footnote 64: Mart. _Ep. l._ v. _Ep. 17_.] [Footnote 65: _Concerning the Use of Fruit (bessides many others) whether best to be eaten before, or after Meals? Published by a Physician of_ Rochel, _and render'd out of_ French _into_ English. _Printed by_ T. Basset _in_ Fleetstreet.] [Footnote 66: Achilles, Patroclus, Automedon. _Iliad. ix. & alibi_.] [Footnote 67: _For so some pronounce it_, V. Athenaeum Deip. _Lib._ II. _Cap._ 26 [Greek: êd-] quasi [Greek: êdusma], _perhaps for that it incites Appetite, and causes Hunger, which is the best Sauce_.] [Footnote 68: Cratinus in Glauco.] [Footnote 69: Nat. Hist. IV. _Cent._ VII. 130. Se Arist. Prob. _Sect._ xx. _Quaest._ 36. _Why some Fruits and Plants are best raw, others boil'd, roasted_, &c, _as becoming sweeter; but the Crude more sapid and grateful_.] [Footnote 70: Card. _Contradicent_. Med. l. iv. _Cant._ 18. Diphilus _not at all_. Athenaeus.] [Footnote 71: _Sir_ Tho. Brown's _Miscel._] [Footnote 72: Caule suburbano qui ficcis crevit in agris Dulcior,-- --Hor. _Sat._ l. 2. Section 4.] [Footnote 73: Transact. Philos. _Num._ xxv.] [Footnote 74: _Num._ xviii.] [Footnote 75: _Thesaur. Sanit._ c. 2.] [Footnote 76: _As_ Delcampius _interprets the Place_.] [Footnote 77: Scaliger ad Card. Exercit. 213.] [Footnote 78: _Cel._ Lib. Cap. 4.] [Footnote 79: Plin. _Nat. Hist. l. 3. c. 12._] [Footnote 80: Hanc brevitatem Vitae (_speaking of Horses_) fortasse homini debet, _Verul. Hist._ Vit. & Mort. _See this throughly controverted_, Macrob. _Saturn._ l. vii. c. v.] [Footnote 81: Arist. _Hist. Animal. l._ v. _c._ 14.] [Footnote 82: [Greek: anomoia sasiazei].] [Footnote 83: Hor. _Sat. l._ II. _Sat._ 2. Macr. _Sat. l._ VII.] [Footnote 84: Gen. ix.] [Footnote 85: Metam. i. Fab. iii. _and_ xv.] [Footnote 86: Gen. xi. 19.] [Footnote 87: Gen. ix.] [Footnote 88: _Porphyr._ de Abstin. _Proclum_, _Jambleum_, &c.] [Footnote 89: Strom, vii.] [Footnote 90: Praep. Lv. passim.] [Footnote 91: Tertul. _de Tejun._ cap. iv. Hieron. _advers._ Jovin.] [Footnote 92: Sen. _Epist._ 108.] [Footnote 93: 1 _Cor._ viii. 8. 1. _Tim._ iv. 1. 3. 14. _Rom._ ii. 3.] [Footnote 94: Has Epulas habuit teneri gens aurea mundis Et coenæ ingentis tune caput ipsa sui. Semide unque meo creverunt corpora succo, Materiam tanti sanguinis ille dedit. Tune neque fraus nota est, neque vis, neque foeda libido; Hæc nimis proles sæva caloris erat. Si sacrum illorum, sit detestabile nomen, Qui primi servæ regne dedere gulæ. Hinc vitiis patefacta via est, morbisq; secutis sas, Se lethi facies exeruere novæ. Ah, fuge crudeles Animantum sanguine men Quasque tibi obsonat mors inimica dapes. Poscas tandem æger, si sanus negligis, herbas. Esse cibus nequeunt? at medicamen erunt. _Colci_ Plaut. lib. 1. Lactuca.] [Footnote 95: Gen. ix.] [Footnote 96: Ancyra xiv.] [Footnote 97: Can. Apost. 50.] [Footnote 98: Clem. Paedag. _Lib._ ii. c. l. _Vide_ Prudent. _Hymn_. [Greek: cha thêmerinôn]: Nos Oloris Coma, nos siliqua facta legumine multitudo paraveris innocuis Epulis.] [Footnote 99: xv. _Acts_, 20, 29.] [Footnote 100: _Philo_ de Vit. Contemp. _Joseph_. Antiq. _Lib._ 13 _Cap._ 9.] [Footnote 101: _Hackwell_. Apolog.] [Footnote 102: Hippoc. de vetere Medicina, Cap. 6, 7.] [Footnote 103: 2 _Tim._ iv. 3.] [Footnote 104: _This, with their prodigious Ignorance_. _See_ Mab. des Etudes Monast. _Part._ 2. c. 17.] [Footnote 105: _Dr._ Lister's _Journey to_ Paris. _See L'Apocalyps_ de Meliton, _ou Revelation des Mysteres Cenobitiques_.] [Footnote 106: Plantarum usus latissimè patet, & in omni vitæ parte occurrit, sine illis lautè, sine illis commodè non vivitur, ac nec vivitur omninò. Quæcunque ad victu necessaria sunt, quæcunque ad delicias faciunt, è locupletissimo suo penu abundè subministrant: Quantò ex eis mensa innocentior, mundior, salubrior, quam ex animalium cæde & Laniena! Homo certè naturâ animal carnivorum non est; nullis ad prædam & rapinam armis instructum; non dentibus exertis & ferratis, non unguibus aduncis: Manus ad fructos colligendos, dentes ad mandendos comparati; nee legimus se ante diluvium carnes ad esum concessas, &c. _Raii Hist. Plant. Lib._ 1. _cap._ 24.] [Footnote 107: Mart. _lib._ x. _Epig._ 44.] [Footnote 108: Barl. _Eleg. lib._ 3.] [Footnote 109: Athen. Deip. _l._ i.] [Footnote 110: Cowley, _Garden. Stanz._ 6.] [Footnote 111: _Hence in_ Macrobius Sat. lib. vii. c. 5. _we find_ Eupolis _the Comedian in his_ æges, _bringing in Goats boasting the Variety of their Food,_ [Greek: Boskometh ulês apo pantodaôês, elatês], &c. _After which follows a Banquet of innumerable sorts_.] [Footnote 112: Esa. lxv. 25.] [Footnote 113: Bina tunc jugera populo Romano satis erat, nullique majorem modum attribuit, quo servos paulo ante principis Neronis, contemptis hujus spatii Virdariis, piscinas juvat habere majores, gratumque, si non aliquem & culinas. _Plin. Hist. Nat. lib._ xviii. _c._ 2.] [Footnote 114: Interea gustus elements per omnia quaerunt. _Juv. Sat. 4._] [Footnote 115: Cicero. _Epist._ Lib. 7. _Ep._ 26. _Complaining of a costly Sallet, that had almost cost him his Life_.] [Footnote 116: Valeriana, _That of_ Lectucini, Achilleia, Lysimachia, Fabius, Cicero, Lentulus, Piso, &c. a Fabis, Cicere, Lente, Pisis bene serendis dicti, _Plin._] [Footnote 117: Mirum esset non licere pecori Carduis vesci, non licet plebei, &c. _And in another Place_, Quoniam portenta quoque terrarum in ganeam vertimus, etiam quæ refugeant quadrupeded consciæ, _Plin._ Hist. Nat. l. xix. c. 8.] [Footnote 118: Gra. Falisc. _Gyneget_. Was. _See concerning this Excess_ Macr. _Sat. l. 2. c. 9._ & sequ.] [Footnote 119: Horti maximè placebant, quia non egerent igni, parceréntque ligno, expedita res, & parata semper, unde _Acetaria_ appellantur, facilia concoqui, nee oneratura sensum cibo, & quæ minime accenderent desiderium panis. _Plin. Hist. Nat. Lib._ xix. _c._ 4. _And of this exceeding Frugality of the_ Romans, _till after the_ Mithridatic _War, see_ Athenæus Deip. Lib. 6. cap. 21. Horat. _Serm. Sat._ 1.] [Footnote 120: Nequam esse in domo matrem familias (etenim hæc cura Foeminæ dicebatur) ubi indiligens esset hortus.] [Footnote 121: Alterum succidium. _Cic._ in _Catone_. Tiberias _had a Tribute of_ Skirrits _paid him_.] [Footnote 122: Hor. _Sat. l. 2._ Vix prae vino sustinet palpebras, eunti in consilium, &c. _See the Oration of_ C. _Titius_ de Leg. Fan. Mac _Sat. l. 2. c. 12._] [Footnote 123: Milton's _Paradise_, 1. v. ver. 228.] [Footnote 124: At victus illa ætas cui secimus aurea nomen Fructibus arboreis, & quas humus educat herbis Fortunata fuit.----_Met. xv._] [Footnote 125: Bene moratus venter.] [Footnote 126: TAB. II.] [Footnote 127: Foelix, quem misera procul ambitione remotum, Parvus ager placide, parvus & hortus, alit. Præbet ager quicquid frugi natura requirit, Hortus habet quicquid luxuriosa petit, Cætera follicitæ speciosa incommoda vitæ Permittit stultis quærere, habere malis. _Cowley_, Pl. lib. iv.] [Footnote 128: Plin. Athenæus, Macrobius, Bacon, Boyle, Digby, _&c._] * * * * * _An Edition of one thousand copies was designed by Richard Ellis and printed under his supervision at The Haddon Craftsmen, Camden, New Jersey_. * * * * * 
10852	----	Proofreading Team. HARDY ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS. By A.D. WEBSTER, _Author of "Practical Forestry," "Hardy Coniferous Trees," "British Orchids," &c., &c._ 1897. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION, 1893. This book has been written and is published with the distinct object in view of bringing home to the minds of planters of Hardy Trees and Shrubs, the fact that the monotonous repetition, in at least nine-tenths of our Parks and Gardens, of such Trees as the Elm, the Lime, and the Oak, and such Shrubs as the Cherry Laurel and the Privet, is neither necessary nor desirable. There is quite a host of choice and beautiful flowering species, which, though at present not generally known are yet perfectly hardy, of the simplest culture, and equally well adapted for the ornamentation of our Public and Private Parks and Gardens. Of late years, with the marked decline in the cultivation of Coniferous Trees, many of which are ill adapted for the climate of this country, the interest in our lovely flowering Trees and Shrubs has been greatly revived. This fact has been well exemplified in the numerous enquiries after these subjects, and the space devoted to their description and modes of cultivation in the Horticultural Press. In the hope, too, of helping to establish a much-desired standard of nomenclature, I have followed the generic names adopted by the authors of _The Genera Plantarum_, and the specific names and orthography, as far as I have been able, of the _Index Kewensis_; and where possible I have given the synonyms, the date of introduction, and the native country. The alphabetical arrangement that has been adopted, both with regard to the genera and species, it is hoped, will greatly facilitate the work of reference to its pages. The descriptive notes and hints on cultivation, the selected lists of Trees and Shrubs for various special purposes, and the calendarial list which indicates the flowering season of the different species, may be considered all the more valuable for being concisely written, and made readily accessible by means of the Index. No work written on a similar plan and treating solely of Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs has hitherto been published; and it is not supposed for a moment that the present one will entirely supply the deficiency; but should it meet with any measure of public approval, it may be the means of paving the way towards the publication of a more elaborate work--and one altogether more worthy of the interesting and beautiful Flowering Trees and Shrubs that have been found suitable for planting in the climate of the British Isles. Of the fully thirteen hundred species and varieties of Trees and Shrubs enumerated, all may be depended upon as being hardy in some part of the country. Several of them, and particularly those introduced from China and Japan, have not before been included in a book of this character. Trials for the special purpose of testing the hardiness of the more tender kinds have been instituted and carried out in several favoured parts of England and Ireland. A.D.W. HOLLYDALE, WOBURN. PREFACE TO SECOND AND CHEAP EDITION, 1897. The First Edition of Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs having been sold out, it has been considered desirable to run off a second and cheap edition on exactly similar lines to the first, and previous to the more elaborate illustrated edition which is now in hand. A.D.W. BOXMOOR, HERTS, 1897. HARDY ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING TREES & SHRUBS. ABELIA. ABELIA CHINENSIS (_syn A. rupestris_).--The Rock Abelia China, 1844. This is a neat, twiggy shrub, growing from 2 ft. to 3 ft. high, with slender shoots, and very pleasing, shining green serrated leaves. The tubular, sweet-scented flowers are produced in clusters at the ends of the shoots, even the smallest, and are of a very delicate shade of pink--indeed, almost white. It makes an excellent wall plant, but by no means refuses to grow and flower freely without either shelter or protection, provided a fairly rich and well drained soil is provided. From August to October is the flowering period of this handsome deciduous shrub. This is the only really hardy species of the genus, for though the rosy-purple flowered A. floribunda from Mexico has stood for several years uninjured in the South of England, it is not to be relied upon. Both species are readily propagated from cuttings. A. TRIFLORA.--Himalayan regions, 1847. A half-hardy and beautiful species with small lanceolate, entire leaves, and pretty star-shaped flowers that are white and flushed with pink. The long, narrow, and hairy calyx-lobes give a light and feathery appearance to the flowers, which are produced continuously from May to November. It does best as a wall plant, and several beautiful examples may be seen in and around London, as also at Exeter, and in the South of Ireland. ADENOCARPUS. ADENOCARPUS DECORTICANS (_syn A. Boissieri_).--Spain, 1883. This little known hardy shrub, a native of the Sierra Nevada mountains, in Spain, is one of great beauty, and well worthy of extended culture. The flowers are produced abundantly, and are of a bright yellow colour, resembling those of our common Broom, to which family it is nearly allied. Peaty soil suits it well, and repeated trials have clearly proved that it is hardy, at least in the South of England. AESCULUS. AESCULUS CALIFORNICA (_syn Pavia californica_).--California. This is one of the handsomest species, of low, spreading habit, and blooming freely about midsummer. AE. GLABRA (_syn Ae. rubicunda_).--Red-flowered Horse Chestnut. North America, 1820. If only for its neat and moderate growth, and attractive spikes of brightly-coloured flowers, this species must be considered as one of the handsomest and most valuable of small growing trees. Being of moderate size, for we rarely meet with specimens of greater height than 30 feet, and of very compact habit, it is rendered peculiarly suitable for planting in confined spots, and where larger growing and more straggling subjects would be out of place. It withstands soot and smoke well, and is therefore much valued for suburban planting. The long spikes of pretty red flowers are usually produced in great abundance, and as they stand well above the foliage, and are of firm lasting substance, they have a most pleasing and attractive appearance. As there are numerous forms of the red-flowered Horse Chestnut, differing much in the depth of flower colouring, it may be well to warn planters, for some of these have but a faint tinge of pink overlying a dirty yellowish-green groundwork, while the finest and most desirable tree has the flowers of a decided pinky-red. There is a double-flowered variety Ae. glabra flore-pleno (_syn Ae. rubicunda flore-pleno_) and one of particular merit named Ae. rubicunda Briotii. AE. HIPPOCASTANUM.--The Common Horse Chestnut. Asia, 1629. A fine hardy free-flowering tree, supposed to have been introduced from Asia, and of which there are several varieties, including a double-flowered, a variegated, and several lobed and cut-leaved forms. The tree needs no description, the spikes of pinky-white flowers, which are produced in great abundance, and ample foliage rendering it one of, if not the handsomest tree of our acquaintance. It gives a pleasing shade, and forms an imposing and picturesque object in the landscape, especially where the conditions of soil--a rich free loam--are provided. Ae. Hippocastanum alba flore-pleno (the double white Horse Chestnut), has a decidedly pyramidal habit of growth, and the flowers, which are larger than those of the species, are perfectly double. It is a very distinct and desirable large growing tree. Ae. Hippocastanum laciniata and Ae. Hippocastanum digitalis are valuable for their divided leaves; while Ae. Hippocastanum foliis variegatis has the foliage rather irregularly variegated. AE. PARVIFLORA (_syn Pavia macrostachya_).--Buckeye. North America, 1820. This is very distinct, and possesses feature which are shared by no other hardy tree or shrub in cultivation. Rarely exceeding 12 feet in height, and with a spread of often as much as 20 feet, this shrub forms a perfect hemisphere of foliage, and which, when tipped with the pretty fragrant flowers, renders it one of the most effective and handsome. The foliage is large, and resembles that of the common Horse Chestnut, while the pure white flowers, with their long projecting stamens and red-tipped anthers, are very pretty and imposing when at their best in July. It succeeds well in rich, dampish loam, and as a shrub for standing alone in any conspicuous position it has, indeed, few equals. AE. PAVIA (_syn Pavia rubra_).--Red Buckeye. North America, 1711. A small growing and slender-branched tree or shrub, which bears an abundance of brownish-scarlet flowers. There are several good varieties, two of the best being Ae. Pavia atrosanguinea, and Ae. Pavia Whittleyana, with small, brilliant red flowers. There are several other species, such as Ae. Pavia humilis (_syn Pavia humilis_) of trailing habit; Ae. flava (_syn Pavia flava_) bearing pretty yellow flowers; Ae. Pavia macrocarpa (_syn Pavia macrocarpa_) an open-headed and graceful tree; Ae. flava discolor (_syn Pavia discolor_); and Ae. chinensis; but they have not been found very amenable to cultivation, except in very favoured parts of the South of England and Ireland. AILANTHUS. AILANTHUS GLANDULOSA.--Tree of Heaven. China, 1751. A handsome, fast-growing tree, with large pinnate leaves that are often fully three feet long, and terminal erect clusters of not very showy greenish-white flowers that exhale a rather disagreeable odour. It is one of the most distinct and imposing of pinnate-leaved trees, and forms a neat specimen for the lawn or park. Light loam or a gravelly subsoil suits it well. AKEBIA. AKEBIA QUINATA.--Chinese Akebia. China, 1845. This, with its peculiarly-formed and curiously-coloured flowers, though usually treated as a cool greenhouse plant, is yet sufficiently hardy to grow and flower well in many of the southern and western English counties, where it has stood uninjured for many years. It is a pretty twining evergreen, with the leaves placed on long slender petioles, and palmately divided into usually five leaflets. The sweet-scented flowers, particularly so in the evening, are of a purplish-brown or scarlet-purple, and produced in axillary racemes of from ten to a dozen in each. For covering trellis-work, using as a wall plant, or to clamber over some loose-growing specimen shrub, from which a slight protection will also be afforded, the Akebia is peculiarly suitable, and soon ascends to a height of 10 feet or 12 feet. Any ordinary garden soil suits it, and propagation by cuttings is readily affected. AMELANCHIER. AMELANCHIER ALNIFOLIA.--Dwarf June Berry. N.W. America, 1888. This is a shrub of great beauty, growing about 8 feet high, and a native of the mountains from British America to California. This differs from A. canadensis in having much larger and more brilliant-tinted fruit, and in its shorter and more compact flower racemes. The shape of the leaves cannot be depended on as a point of recognition, those before me, collected in the native habitat of the plant, differing to a wide extent in size and shape, some being coarsely serrated while others are almost entire. A. CANADENSIS.--June Berry. Canada, 1746. Unquestionably this is one of the most beautiful and showy of early flowering trees. During the month of April the profusion of snow-white flowers, with which even young specimens are mantled, render the plant conspicuous for a long way off, while in autumn the golden yellow of the dying-off foliage is quite as remarkable. Being perfectly hardy, of free growth, and with no particular desire for certain classes of soils, the June Berry should be widely planted for ornamental effect. In this country it attains to a height of 40 feet, and bears globose crimson fruit. There are several varieties, including A. canadensis rotundifolia, A. canadensis oblongifolia, and A. canadensis oligocarpa, the latter being by some botanists ranked as a species. A. VULGARIS.--Common Amelanchier. South of Europe, 1596. This is the only European species, and grows about 16 feet in height. It has been in cultivation in this country for nearly 300 years. Generally this species flowers earlier than the American ones, has rounder and less deeply serrated leaves, but the flowers are much alike. A. vulgaris cretica, from Crete and Dalmatia, is readily distinguished by the soft white hairs with which the under sides of the leaves are thickly covered. To successfully cultivate the Amelanchiers a good rich soil is a necessity, while shelter from cutting winds must be afforded if the sheets of flowers are to be seen in their best form. AMORPHA. AMORPHA CANESCENS.--Lead Plant. Missouri, 1812. This is of much smaller growth than A. fruticosa, with neat pinnate foliage, whitened with hoary down, and bearing panicles of bluish-purple flowers, with conspicuous orange anthers. It is a charming shrub, and all the more valuable as it flowers at the end of summer, when few hardy plants are in bloom. To grow it satisfactorily a dry, sandy soil is a necessity. A. FRUTICOSA.--False Indigo. Carolina, 1724. This is a fast growing shrub of fully 6 feet high, of loose, upright habit, and with pretty pinnate leaves. The flowers are borne in densely packed spikes, and are of a purplish tint with bright yellow protruding anthers and produced at the end of summer. It prefers a dry, warm soil of a sandy or chalky nature, and may readily be increased from cuttings or suckers, the latter being freely produced. Hard cutting back when full size has been attained would seem to throw fresh vigour into the Amorpha, and the flowering is greatly enhanced by such a mode of treatment. A native of Carolina, and perfectly hardy in most parts of the country. Of this species there are several varieties, amongst others, A. fruticosa nana, a dwarf, twiggy plant; A. fruticosa dealbata, with lighter green foliage than the type; and others differing only in the size and width of the leaves. ANDROMEDA. ANDROMEDA POLIFOLIA.--An indigenous shrub of low growth, with lanceolate shining leaves, and pretty globose pinky-white flowers. Of it there are two varieties. A. polifolia major and A. polifolia angustifolia, both well worthy of culture for their neat habit and pretty flowers. See CASSANDRA, CASSIOPE, LEUCOTHOE, OXYDENDRUM, PIERIS, and ZENOBIA. ARALIA. ARALIA MANDSHURICA (_syn Dimorphanthus mandschuricus_).--Manchuria, 1866. There is not much beauty about this Chinese tree, for it is but a big spiny stake, with no branches, and a tuft of palm-like foliage at the top. The flowers, however, are both large and conspicuous, and impart to the tree an interesting and novel appearance. They are individually small, of a creamy-white colour, and produced in long, umbellate racemes, and which when fully developed, from their weight and terminal position, are tilted gracefully to one side. Usually the stem is spiny, with Horse Chestnut-like bark, while the terminal bud, from its large size, as if all the energy of the plant was concentrated in the tip, imparts a curious and somewhat ungainly appearance to the tree. From its curious tropical appearance this species is well worthy of a place in the shrubbery. It is unmindful of soil, if that is of at all fair quality, and may be said to be perfectly hardy over the greater part of the country. A. SPINOSA.--Angelica Tree. Virginia, 1688. Amongst autumn-flowering shrubs this takes a high place, for in mild seasons it blooms well into October. It grows about 12 feet high, with large tri-pinnate leaves, composed of numerous serrulate leaflets. The individual flowers are small and whitish, but being borne in large branched panicles have a very imposing appearance. It is of free growth, and produces suckers abundantly. See also FATSIA. ARBUTUS. ARBUTUS ANDRACHNE.--Levant, 1724. This Mediterranean species is of stout growth, with narrow Laurel-like leaves, reddish deciduous bark, and greenish-white flowers that are produced freely in May. A hybrid form, said to have originated between this species and A. Unedo, partakes in part of the nature of both shrubs, but the flowers are larger than those of A. Unedo. A. MENZIESII (_syn A. procera_).--Tall Strawberry Tree. North-west America, 1827. This is hardy in many parts of these islands, particularly maritime districts, and is worthy of culture if only for the large racemose panicles of deliciously-scented white flowers, and peculiar metallic-green leaves. The fruit is orange-red, and only about half the size of those of our commonly cultivated species. A. UNEDO.--Strawberry Tree. Ireland. This is a beautiful evergreen shrub or small-growing tree, sometimes fully 20 feet high, with ovate-lanceolate leaves, and clusters of pure white or yellowish-tinged flowers appearing in September and October. The bright scarlet fruit, about the size of and resembling a Strawberry, is highly ornamental, and when borne in quantity imparts to the plant an unusual and very attractive appearance. Generally speaking, the Arbutus is hardy, although in inland situations it is sometimes killed to the ground in severe winters, but, springing freely from the root, the plant soon becomes re-established. In a young state it suffers too, but after becoming established and a few feet high, the chances of injury are greatly minimised. Three well-marked varieties are A. Unedo coccinea and A. Unedo rubra, bearing scarlet and deep-red flowers, and A. Unedo microphylla, with much smaller leaves than those of the parent plant. A. UNEDO CROOMEI differs considerably from the former, in having larger foliage, larger clusters of reddish-pink flowers, and the bark of the young shoots of an enticing ruddy, or rather brownish-red colour. It is a very desirable and highly ornamental plant, and one that is well worthy of extended culture. There are several others, to wit A. photiniaefolia, A. Rollissoni, A. Millerii, with large leaves, and pretty pink flowers, and A. serratifolia, having deeply serrated leaves. Deep, light loam, if on chalk all the better, and a fairly warm and sheltered situation, would seem to suit the Arbutus best. ARCTOSTAPHYLOS. ARCTOSTAPHYLOS UVA-URSI.--Bearberry. Britain. A neat shrub of trailing habit, and with flowers resembling those of the Arbutus, but much smaller. The leaves are entire, dark green in colour, and about an inch long, and obovate or oblong in shape. Fruit globular, of a bright red, smooth and shining. This is a native shrub, being found in Scotland, northern England and Ireland. A. ALPINA.--Black Bearberry. Scotland. This is confined to the northern Highlands of Scotland, is of smaller growth, with toothed deciduous leaves, and small drooping flowers of two or three together. ARISTOLOCHIA. ARISTOLOCHIA SIPHO.--Dutchman's Pipe. North America, 1763. A large-growing, deciduous climbing shrub, remarkable for its ample foliage, and curiously formed yellow and purple streaked flowers. A native of North America, it is perfectly hardy in this country, and makes an excellent wall plant where plenty of space can be afforded for the rambling branches. What a pity it is that so ornamental a climber, whose big, dark-green leaves overlap each other as if intended for keeping a house cool in warm weather, is not more generally planted. It does well and grows fast in almost any soil. ASIMINA. ASIMINA TRILOBA.--Virginian Papaw. Pennsylvania, 1736. This is a curious and uncommon shrub that one rarely sees outside the walls of a botanic garden. The flowers are dark purple or chocolate brown, fully 2 inches across, and succeeded by a yellow, oblong, pulpy fruit, that is relished by the natives, and from which the name of North American Custard Apple has been derived. In this country it is quite at home, growing around London to quite 12 feet in height, but it wants a warm, dry soil, and sunny sheltered situation. As a wall plant it does well. AZARA. AZARA MICROPHYLLA.--Chili, 1873. This is the only recognised hardy species, and probably the best from an ornamental point of view. In mild seaside districts it may succeed as a standard in the open ground, but generally it is cultivated as a wall plant, and for which it is peculiarly suitable. The small dark green, glossy leaves are thickly arranged on the nearly horizontal branches, while the flowers, if they lack in point of showiness, are deliciously fragrant and plentifully produced. For wall-covering, especially in an eastern aspect, it is one of the neatest of shrubs. Other species in cultivation are A. serrata, A. lanceolata, and A. integrifolia, but for general planting, and unless under the most favoured conditions, they are not to be recommended. The Azaras are by no means particular about the quality of soil in which they are planted, and succeed well even in stiffish loam, bordering on clay. BACCHARIS. BACCHARIS HALIMIFOLIA.--Groundsel Tree or Sea Purslane. North America. For seaside planting this is an invaluable shrub, as it succeeds well down even to high water mark, and where it is almost lashed by the salt spray. The flowers are not very ornamental, resembling somewhat those of the Groundsel, but white with a tint of purple. Leaves obovate in shape, notched, and thickly covered with a whitish powder, which imparts to them a pleasing glaucous hue. Any light soil that is tolerably dry suits well the wants of this shrub, but it is always seen in best condition by the seaside. Under favourable conditions it attains to a height of 12 feet, with a branch spread nearly as much in diameter. A native of the North American coast from Maryland to Florida. B. PATAGONICA.--Megallan. This is a very distinct and quite hardy species, with small deep green leaves and white flowers. It succeeds under the same conditions as the latter. BERBERIDOPSIS. BERBERIDOPSIS CORALLINA.--Coral Barberry. Chili, 1862. This handsome evergreen, half-climbing shrub is certainly not so well known as its merits entitle it to be. Unfortunately it is not hardy in every part of the country, though in the southern and western English counties, but especially within the influence of the sea, it succeeds well as a wall plant, and charms us with its globular, waxy, crimson or coral-red flowers. The spiny-toothed leaves approach very near those of some of the Barberries, and with which the plant is nearly allied. It seems to do best in a partially shady situation, and in rich light loam. BERBERIS. BERBERIS AQUIFOLIUM (_syn Mahonia Aquifolium_).--Holly-leaved Barberry. North America, 1823. This justly ranks as one of the handsomest, most useful, and easily-cultivated of all hardy shrubs. It will grow almost any where, and in any class of soil, though preferring a fairly rich loam. Growing under favourable conditions to a height of 6 feet, this North American shrub forms a dense mass of almost impenetrable foliage. The leaves are large, dark shining green, thickly beset with spines, while the deliciously-scented yellow flowers, which are produced at each branch tip, render the plant particularly attractive in spring. It is still further valuable both on account of the rich autumnal tint of the foliage, and pretty plum colour of the plentifully produced fruit. B. AQUIFOLIUM REPENS (_syn Mahonia repens_).--Creeping Barberry. This is of altogether smaller growth than the preceding, but otherwise they seem nearly allied. From its dense, dwarf growth, rising as it rarely does more than a foot from the ground, and neat foliage, this Barberry is particularly suitable for edging beds, or forming a low evergreen covering for rocky ground or mounds. B. ARISTATA, a native of Nepaul, is a vigorous-growing species, resembling somewhat our native plant, with deeply serrated leaves, brightly tinted bark, and yellow flowers. It is of erect habit, branchy, and in winter is rendered very conspicuous by reason of the bright reddish colour of the leafless branches. B. BEALEI (_syn Mahonia Bealli_).--Japan. This species is one of the first to appear in bloom, often by the end of January the plant being thickly studded with flowers. It is a handsome shrub, of erect habit, the leaves of a yellowish-green tint, and furnished with long, spiny teeth. The clusters of racemes of deliciously fragrant yellow flowers are of particular value, being produced so early in the season. B. BUXIFOLIA (_syn B. dulcis_ and _B. microphylla_).--Straits of Magellan, 1827. A neat and erect-growing shrub of somewhat stiff and upright habit, and bearing tiny yellow flowers. This is a good rockwork plant, and being of neat habit, with small purplish leaves, is well worthy of cultivation. B. CONGESTIFLORA, from Chili, is not yet well-known, but promises to become a general favourite with lovers of hardy shrubs. It is of unusual appearance for a Barberry, with long, decumbent branches, which are thickly covered with masses of orange-yellow flowers. The branch-tips, being almost leafless and smothered with flowers, impart to the plant a striking, but distinctly ornamental appearance. B. DARWINII.--Chili, 1849. This is, perhaps, the best known and most ornamental of the family. It forms a dense bush, sometimes 10 feet high, with dark glossy leaves, and dense racemes of orange-yellow flowers, produced in April and May, and often again in the autumn. B. EMPETRIFOLIA.--Straits of Magellan, 1827. This is a neat-habited and dwarf evergreen species, that even under the best cultivation rarely exceeds 2 feet in height. It is one of the hardiest species, and bears, though rather sparsely, terminal golden-yellow flowers, which are frequently produced both in spring and autumn. For its compact growth and neat foliage it is alone worthy of culture. B. FORTUNEI (_syn Mahonia Fortunei_).--China, 1846. This is rather a rare species in cultivation, with finely toothed leaves, composed of about seven leaflets, and bearing in abundance clustered racemes of individually small yellow flowers. A native of China, and requiring a warm, sunny spot to do it justice. B. GRACILIS (_syn Mahonia gracilis_).--Mexico. A pretty, half-hardy species, growing about 6 feet high, with slender branches, and shining-green leaves with bright red stalks. Flowers small, in 3-inch long racemes, deep yellow with bright red pedicels. Fruit globular, deep purple. B. ILICIFOLIA (_syn B. Neumanii_).--South America, 1791. This is another handsome evergreen species from South America, and requires protection in this country. The thick, glossy-green leaves, beset with spines, and large orange-red flowers, combine to make this species one of great interest and beauty. B. JAPONICA (_syn Mahonia japonica_).--Japan. This is not a very satisfactory shrub in these isles, although in warm seaside districts, and when planted in rich loam, on a gravelly subsoil, it forms a handsome plant with noble foliage, and deliciously fragrant yellow flowers. B. NEPALENSIS (_syn Mahonia nepalensis_).--Nepaul Barberry. This is a noble Himalayan species that one rarely sees in good condition in this country, unless when protected by glass. The long, chalky-white stems, often rising to 8 feet in height, are surmounted by dense clusters of lemon-yellow flowers. Planted outdoors, this handsome and partly evergreen Barberry must have the protection of a wall. B. NERVOSA (_syn Mahonia glumacea_).--North America, 1804. This, with its terminal clusters of reddish-yellow flowers produced in spring, is a highly attractive North-west American species. It is of neat and compact growth, perfectly hardy, but as yet it is rare in cultivation. The autumnal leafage-tint is very attractive. B. PINNATA (_syn Mahonia facicularis_).--A native of Mexico, this species is of stout growth, with long leaves, that are thickly furnished with sharp spines. The yellow flowers are produced abundantly, and being in large bunches render the plant very conspicuous. It is, unfortunately, not very hardy, and requires wall protection to do it justice. B. SINENSIS.--China, 1815. This is a really handsome and distinct species, with twiggy, deciduous branches, from the undersides of the arching shoots of which the flowers hang in great profusion. They are greenish-yellow inside, but of a dark brownish-crimson without, while the leaves are small and round, and die off crimson in autumn. B. STENOPHYLLA, a hybrid between B. Darwinii and B. empetrifolia, is one of the handsomest forms in cultivation, the wealth of golden-yellow flowers being remarkable, as is also the dark purple berries. It is very hardy, and of the freest growth. B. TRIFOLIOLATA (_syn Mahonia trifoliolata_).--Mexico, 1839. This is a very distinct and beautiful Mexican species that will only succeed around London as a wall plant. It grows about a yard high, with leaves fully 3 inches long, having three terminal sessile leaflets, and slender leaf stalks often 2 inches long. The ternate leaflets are of a glaucous blue colour, marbled with dull green, and very delicately veined. Flowers small, bright yellow, and produced in few-flowered axillary racemes on short peduncles. The berries are small, globular, and light red. B. TRIFURCA (_syn Mahonia trifurca_).--China, 1852. This is a shrub of neat low growth, but it does not appear to be at all plentiful. B. VULGARIS.--Common Barberry. This is a native species, with oblong leaves, and terminal, drooping racemes of yellow flowers. It is chiefly valued for the great wealth of orange-scarlet fruit. There are two very distinct forms, one bearing silvery and the other black fruit, and named respectively B. vulgaris fructo-albo and B. vulgaris fructo-nigro. B. WALLICHIANA (_syn B. Hookeri_).--Nepaul, 1820. This is exceedingly ornamental, whether as regards the foliage, flowers, or fruit. It is of dense, bushy growth, with large, dark green spiny leaves, and an abundance of clusters of clear yellow flowers. The berries are deep violet-purple, and fully half-an-inch long. Being perfectly hardy and of free growth it is well suited for extensive planting. BERCHEMIA. BERCHEMIA VOLUBILIS.--Climbing Berchemia. Carolina, 1714. A rarely seen, deciduous climber, bearing rather inconspicuous greenish-yellow flowers, succeeded by attractive, violet-tinted berries. The foliage is neat and pretty, the individual leaves being ovate in shape and slightly undulated or wavy. It is a twining shrub that in this country, even under favourable circumstances, one rarely sees ascending to a greater height than about 12 feet. Sandy peat and a shady site suits it best, and so placed it will soon cover a low-growing tree or bush much in the way that our common Honeysuckle does. It is propagated from layers or cuttings. BIGNONIA. BIGNONIA CAPREOLATA--Virginia and other parts of America, 1710. This is not so hardy as to be depended upon throughout the country generally, though in the milder parts of England and Ireland it succeeds well as a wall plant. It is a handsome climbing shrub, with long, heart-shaped leaves, usually terminating in branched tendrils, and large orange flowers produced singly. BILLARDIERA. BILLARDIERA LONGIFLORA.--Blue Apple Berry. Van Diemen's Land, 1810. If only for its rich, blue berries, as large as those of a cherry, this otherwise elegant climbing shrub is well worthy of a far greater share of attention than it has yet received, for it must be admitted that it is far from common. The greenish bell-shaped blossoms produced in May are, perhaps, not very attractive, but this is more than compensated for by the highly ornamental fruit, which renders the plant an object of great beauty about mid-September. Leaves small and narrow, on slender, twining stems, that clothe well the lower half of a garden wall in some sunny favoured spot. Cuttings root freely if inserted in sharp sand and placed in slight heat, while seeds germinate quickly. BRYANTHUS. BRYANTHUS ERECTUS.--Siberia. This is a pretty little Ericaceous plant, nearly allied to Menziesia, and with a plentiful supply of dark-green leaves. The flowers, which are borne in crowded clusters at the points of the shoots, are bell-shaped, and of a pleasing reddish-lilac colour. It wants a cool, moist peaty soil, and is perfectly hardy. When in a flowering stage the Bryanthus is one of the brightest occupants of the peat bed, and is a very suitable companion for such dwarf plants as the Heaths, Menziesias, and smaller growing Kalmias. B. EMPETRIFORMIS (_syn Menziesia empetrifolia_).--North America, 1829. This is a compact, neat species, and well suited for alpine gardening. The flowers are rosy-purple, and produced abundantly. BUDDLEIA. BUDDLEIA GLOBOSA.--Orange Ball Tree. Chili, 1774. A shrubby species, ranging in height from 12 feet to 20 feet, and the only one at all common in gardens. Favoured spots in Southern England would seem to suit the plant fairly well, but to see it at its best one must visit some of the maritime gardens of North Wales, where it grows stout and strong, and flowers with amazing luxuriance. Where it thrives it must be ranked amongst the most beautiful of wall plants, for few, indeed, are the standard specimens that are to be met with, the protection afforded by a wall being almost a necessity in its cultivation. The leaves are linear-lanceolate, and covered with a dense silvery tomentum on the under side, somewhat rugose above, and partially deciduous. Flowers in small globular heads, bright orange or yellow, and being plentifully produced are very showy in early summer. It succeeds well in rich moist loam on gravel. B. LINDLEYANA.--China, 1844. This has purplish-red flowers and angular twigs, but it cannot be relied upon unless in very sheltered and mild parts of the country. B. PANICULATA (_syn B. crispa_).--Nepaul, 1823. This may at once be distinguished by its curly, woolly leaves, and fragrant lilac flowers. It is a desirable species, but suffers from our climate. BUPLEURUM. BUPLEURUM FRUTICOSUM.--Hare's Ear. South Europe, 1596. A small-growing, branching shrub, with obovate-lanceolate leaves, and compound umbels of yellowish flowers. It is more curious than beautiful. CAESALPINIA. CAESALPINIA SEPIARIA (_syn C. japonica_).--India, 1857. This is as yet a comparatively little known shrub, but one that from its beauty and hardihood is sure to become a general favourite. Planted out in a light, sandy, peaty soil, and where fully exposed, this shrub has done well, and proved itself a suitable subject for the climate of England at least. The hard prickles with which both stem and branches are provided renders the shrub of rather formidable appearance, while the leaves are of a peculiarly pleasing soft-green tint. For the flowers, too, it is well worthy of attention, the pinky anthers contrasting so markedly with the deep yellow of the other portions of the flower. They are arranged in long racemes, and show well above the foliage. CALLUNA. CALLUNA VULGARIS (_syn Erica vulgaris_).--Common Ling on Heather. This is the commonest native species, with purplish-pink flowers on small pedicels. There are many very distinct and beautiful-flowering forms, the following being some of the best: C. vulgaris alba, white-flowered; C. vulgaris Hammondi, C. vulgaris minor, and C. vulgaris pilosa, all white-flowered forms; C. vulgaris Alportii, and C. vulgaris Alportii variegata, the former bearing rich crimson flowers, and the latter with distinctly variegated foliage; C. vulgaris argentea, and C. vulgaris aurea, with silvery-variegated and golden foliage; C. vulgaris flore-pleno, a most beautiful and free-growing variety, with double flowers; C. vulgaris Foxii, a dwarf plant that does not flower freely; and C. vulgaris pumila, and C. vulgaris dumosa, which are of small cushion-like growth. CALOPHACA. CALOPHACA WOLGARICA.--Siberia, 1786. This member of the Pea family is of dwarf, branching growth, thickly clothed with glandular hairs, and bears yellow flowers, succeeded by reddish-purple pods. It is of no special importance as an ornamental shrub, and is most frequently seen grafted on the Laburnum, though its natural easy habit of growth is far preferable. Hailing from Siberia, it may be considered as fairly hardy at least. CALYCANTHUS. CALYCANTHUS FLORIDUS.--Carolina Allspice. Carolina, 1726. If only for the purplish-red, pleasantly-scented flowers, this North American shrub is worthy of extensive culture. The hardiness, accommodating nature, and delicious perfume of its brightly-coloured flowers render this shrub one of the choicest subjects for the shrubbery or edges of the woodland path. It is of easy though compact growth, reaching in favourable situations a height of 12 feet, and with ovate leaves that are slightly pubescent. Growing best in good fairly moist loam, where partial shade is afforded, the sides of woodland drives and paths will suit this Allspice well; but it wants plenty of room for branch-development. There are several nursery forms of this shrub, such as C. floridus glaucus, C. floridus asplenifolia, and C. floridus nanus, all probably distinct enough, but of no superior ornamental value to the parent plant. C. OCCIDENTALIS.--Californian or Western Allspice. California, 1831. This is larger in all its parts than the former, and for decorative purposes is even preferable to that species. The flowers are dark crimson, and nearly twice as large as those of C. floridus, but rather more sparsely produced. This is a very distinct and desirable species, and one that can be recommended for lawn and park planting, but, like the former, it delights to grow in a rather moist and shady situation. CARAGANA. CARAGANA ARBORESCENS.--Siberian Pea Tree. Siberia, 1752. On account of its great hardihood, this is a very desirable garden shrub or small-growing tree. The bright-yellow, pea-shaped flowers are very attractive, while the deep-green, pinnate foliage imparts to the tree a somewhat unusual but taking appearance. Soil would not seem to be of much moment in the cultivation of this, as, indeed, the other species of Caragana, for it thrives well either on dry, sunny banks, where the soil is light and thin, or in good stiff, yellow loam. C. FRUTESCENS.--Siberia, 1852. Flowers in May, and is of partially upright habit; while C. Chamlagii, from China, has greenish-yellow flowers, faintly tinted with pinky-purple. C. MICROPHYLLA (_syn C. Altagana_), also from Siberia, is smaller of growth than the foregoing, but the flowers are individually larger. It is readily distinguished by the more numerous and hairy leaflets and thorny nature. C. SPINOSA.--Siberia, 1775. This, as the name indicates, is of spiny growth, and is a beautiful and distinct member of the family. They are all hardy, and readily propagated from seed. CARDIANDRA. CARDIANDRA ALTERNIFOLIA.--Japan, 1866. With its neat habit, and pretty purple-and-white, plentifully-produced flowers, this is worthy of the small amount of care and coddling required to insure its growth in this country. Hailing from Japan, it cannot be reckoned as very hardy, but treated as a wall plant this pretty evergreen does well and flowers freely. It can, however, be said that it is equally hardy with some of the finer kinds of Hydrangea, to which genus it is nearly allied. CARPENTERIA. CARPENTERIA CALIFORNICA.--Sierra Nevada, California, 1880. This is undoubtedly one of the most distinct and beautiful of hardy shrubs. That it is perfectly hardy in England and Ireland recently-conducted experiments conclusively prove, as plants have stood unprotected through the past unusually severe winters with which this country has been visited. When in full bloom the pure-white flowers, resembling those of the Japanese Anemone, render it of great beauty, while the light gray leaves are of themselves sufficient to make the shrub one of particular attraction. The Carpenteria is nearly related to the Mock Orange (Philadelphus), grows about 10 feet in height, with lithe and slender branches, and light gray leaves. The flowers, which are pure white with a bunch of yellow stamens, and sweet-scented, are produced usually in fives at the branch-tips, and contrast markedly with the long and light green foliage. It grows and flowers with freedom almost anywhere, but is all the better for wall protection. From cuttings or suckers it is readily increased. CARYOPTERIS. CARYOPTERIS MASTACANTHUS.--China and Japan, 1844. This is a neat-growing Chinese shrub, and of value for its pretty flowers that are produced late in the autumn. It must be ranked as fairly hardy, having stood through the winters of Southern England unprotected; but it is just as well to give so choice a shrub the slight protection afforded by a wall. The leaves are neat, thickly-arranged, and hoary, while the whole plant is twiggy and of strict though by no means formal growth. Flowers lavender-blue, borne at the tips of the shoots, and appearing in succession for a considerable length of time. Light, sandy peat would seem to suit it well, at least in such it grows and flowers freely. CASSANDRA. CASSANDRA CALYCULATA (_syn Andromeda calyculata_).--North America, 1748. This is a handsome species from the Virginian swamps, but one that is rarely seen in a very satisfactory condition in this country. It grows about 18 inches high, with lanceolate dull-green leaves, and pretty pinky-white flowers, individually large and produced abundantly. For the banks of a pond or lake it is a capital shrub and very effective, particularly if massed in groups of from a dozen to twenty plants in each. There are several nursery forms, of which A. calyculata minor is the best and most distinct. CASSINIA. CASSINIA FULVIDA (_syn Diplopappus chrysophyllus_).--New Zealand. This is a neat-growing and beautiful shrub, the rich yellow stems and under sides of the leaves imparting quite a tint of gold to the whole plant. The flowers are individually small, but the whole head, which is creamy-white, is very effective, and contrasts strangely with the golden sheen of this beautiful shrub. It is inclined to be of rather upright growth, is stout and bushy, and is readily increased from cuttings planted in sandy soil in the open border. Probably in the colder parts of the country this charming shrub might not prove perfectly hardy, but all over England and Ireland it seems to be quite at home. The flowers are produced for several months of the year, but are at their best about mid-November, thus rendering the shrub of still further value. It grows freely in sandy peaty soil of a light nature. CASSIOPE. CASSIOPE FASTIGIATA (_syn Andromeda fastigiata_) and C. TETRAGONA (_syn Andromeda tetragona_) are small-growing species, only suitable for rock gardening--the former of neat upright habit, with large pinky-white bells all along the stems; and the latter of bushy growth, with square stems and small white flowers. CASTANEA. CASTANEA SATIVA (_syn C. vesca_ and _C. vulgaris_).--Sweet Spanish Chestnut. Asia Minor. Few persons who have seen this tree as an isolated specimen and when in full flower would feel inclined to exclude it from our list. The long, cylindrical catkins, of a yellowish-green colour, are usually borne in such abundance that the tree is, during the month of June, one of particular interest and beauty. So common a tree needs no description, but it may be well to mention that there are several worthy varieties, and which flower almost equally well with the parent tree. CATALPA. CATALPA BIGNONIOIDES.--Indian Bean. North America, 1798. When in full bloom this is a remarkable and highly ornamental tree, the curiously-marked flowers and unusually large, bronzy-tinted foliage being distinct from those of almost any other in cultivation. That it is not, perhaps, perfectly hardy in every part of the country is to be regretted, but the numerous fine old specimens that are to be met with all over the country point out that there need be little to fear when assigning this pretty and uncommon tree a position in our parks and gardens. The flowers, produced in spikes at the branch-tips, are white, tinged with violet and speckled with purple and yellow in the throat. Individually the flowers are of large size and very ornamental, and, being produced freely, give the tree a bright and pleasing appearance when at their best. Usually the tree attains to a height of 30 feet in this country, with rather crooked and ungainly branches, and large heart-shaped leaves that are downy beneath. It flourishes well on any free soil, and is an excellent smoke-resisting tree. C. bignonioides aurea is a decided variety, that differs mainly in the leaves being of a desirable golden tint. C. BUNGEI and C. KAEMPFERI, natives of China and Japan, are hardly to be relied upon, being of tender growth, and, unless in the most favoured situations, suffer from our severe winters. They resemble our commonly cultivated tree. C. SPECIOSA.--United States, 1879. The Western Catalpa is more erect and taller of growth than C. bignonioides. The flowers too are larger, and of purer white, and with the throat markings of purple and yellow more distinct and not inclined to run into each other. Leaves large, heart-shaped, tapering to a point, of a light pleasing green and soft to the touch. It flowers earlier, and is more hardy than the former. CEANOTHUS. CEANOTHUS AMERICANUS.--New Jersey Tea. North America, 1713. A shrub of 4 feet in height, with deep green serrated leaves, that are 2 inches long and pubescent on the under sides. Flowers white, in axillary panicles, and produced in great abundance. This is one of the hardiest species, but succeeds best when afforded wall protection. C. AZUREUS.--Mexico, 1818. This species, though not hardy enough for every situation, is yet sufficiently so to stand unharmed as a wall plant. It grows from 10 feet to 12 feet high, with deep-green leaves that are hoary on the under sides. The flowers, which are borne in large, axillary panicles, are bright blue, and produced in June and the following months. In a light, dry soil and sunny position this shrub does well as a wall plant, for which purpose it is one of the most ornamental. There are several good nursery forms, of which the following are amongst the best:--C. azureus Albert Pettitt, C. azureus albidus, C. azureus Arnddii, one of the best, C. azureus Gloire de Versailles, and C. azureus Marie Simon. C. CUNEATUS (_syn C. verrucosus_).--California, 1848. This is another half-hardy species that requires wall protection, which may also be said of C. Veitchianus, one of the most beautiful of the family, with dense clusters of rich blue flowers and a neat habit of growth. C. DENTATUS.--California, 1848. With deeply-toothed, shining-green leaves, and deep blue, abundantly-produced flowers, this is a well-known wall plant that succeeds in many parts of the country, particularly within the influence of the sea. It commences flowering in May, and frequently continues until frosts set in. It is a very desirable species, that in favoured situations will grow to fully 10 feet high, and with a spread laterally of nearly the same dimensions. C. PAPILLOSUS.--California, 1848. This is a straggling bush, with small, blunt leaves, and panicles of pale blue flowers on long footstalks. A native of California and requiring wall protection. C. RIGIDUS.--Another Californian species, is of upright, stiff growth, a sub-evergreen, with deep purple flowers produced in April and May. There are other less hardy kinds, including C. floribundus, C. integerrimus, C. velutinus, and C. divaricatus. CEDRELA. CEDRELA SINENSIS (_syn Ailanthus flavescens_).--China, 1875. This is a fast growing tree, closely resembling the Ailanthus, and evidently quite as hardy. It has a great advantage over that tree, in that the flowers have an agreeable odour, those of the Ailanthus being somewhat sickly and unpleasant. The flowers are individually small, but arranged in immense hanging bunches like those of Koelreuteria paniculata, and being pleasantly scented are rendered still the more valuable. The whole plant has a yellow hue, and the roots have a peculiar reddish colour, and very unlike those of the Ailanthus, which are white. CELASTRUS. CELASTRUS SCANDENS.--Climbing Waxwork, or Bitter Sweet. North America, 1736. When planted in rich, moist soil, this soon forms an attractive mass of twisting and twining growths, with distinct glossy foliage in summer and brilliant scarlet fruit in autumn. The flowers are inconspicuous, the chief beauty of the shrub being the show of fruit, which resembles somewhat those of the Spindle Tree (Euonymus), and to which it is nearly allied. A native of North America, it grows from 12 feet to 15 feet high, and is useful in this country for covering arches or tree stems, or for allowing to run about at will on a mound of earth or on rockwork. CELTIS. CELTIS AUSTRALIS.--South Europe, 1796. This species is much like C. occidentalis, with black edible fruit. It is not of so tall growth as the American species. C. OCCIDENTALIS.--Nettle tree. North America, 1656. In general appearance this tree resembles the Elm, to which family it belongs. It has reticulated, cordate-ovate, serrated leaves, with small greenish flowers on slender stalks, and succeeded by blackish-purple fruit about the size of a pea. A not very ornamental tree, at least so far as flowers are concerned, but valuable for lawn planting. It varies very much in the size and shape of the leaves. CERCIS. CERCIS CANADENSIS.--North America, 1730. This species resembles C. Siliquastrum, but is of much smaller growth, and bears paler flowers; while C. CHINENSIS, which is not hardy, has large, rosy-pink flowers. C. SILIQUASTRUM.--Judas Tree. South Europe, 1596. A small-growing tree of some 15 feet in height, and with usually a rather ungainly and crooked mode of growth. It is, however, one of our choicest subjects for ornamental planting, the handsome reniform leaves and rosy-purple flowers produced along the branches and before the leaves appear rendering it a great favourite with planters. There are three distinct forms of this shrub--the first, C. Siliquastrum alba, having pure white flowers; C. Siliquastrum carnea, with beautiful deep pink flowers; and C. Siliquastrum variegata, with neatly variegated foliage, though rather inconstant of character. Natives of South Europe, and amongst the oldest trees of our gardens. They all succeed best when planted in rather damp loam, and do not object to partial shade, the common species growing well even beneath the drip of large standard trees. CHIMONANTHUS. CHIMONANTHUS FRAGRANS.--Winter Flower. Japan, 1766. This Japanese shrub is certainly one of the most remarkable that could be brought under notice, the deliciously fragrant flowers being produced in abundance during the winter months, and while the plant is yet leafless. Being of slender growth, it is best suited for planting against a wall, the protection thus afforded being just what is wanted for the perfect development of the pretty flowers. C. fragrans grandiflora has larger and less fragrant flowers than the species, and is more common in cultivation. CHIONANTHUS. CHIONANTHUS RETUSA.--China, 1852. This is not a very hardy species, and, being less ornamental than the American form, is not to be recommended for general planting. C. VIRGINICA.--Fringe Tree. North America, 1736. A very ornamental, small-growing tree, with large deciduous leaves and pendent clusters of pure white flowers with long fringe-like petals, and from which the popular name has arisen. It is a charming tree, or rather shrub, in this country, for one rarely sees it more than 10 feet high, and one that, to do it justice, must have a cool and rather damp soil and a somewhat shady situation. CHOISYA. CHOISYA TERNATA.--Mexican Orange Flower. Mexico, 1825. A beautiful and distinct shrub that succeeds well in the south and west of England. The evergreen leaves are always fresh and beautiful, and of a dark shining green, while the sweetly-fragrant flowers are produced freely on the apices of last year's wood. They have a singular resemblance to those of the orange, and on the Continent are commonly grown as a substitute for that popular flower. The plant succeeds well in any light, rich soil, and soon grows into a goodly-sized shrub of 4 feet or 5 feet in height. As a wall plant it succeeds well, but in warm, maritime situations it may be planted as a standard without fear of harm. Cuttings root freely if placed in slight heat. CISTUS. CISTUS CRISPUS.--Portugal, 1656. This is a distinct species, with curled leaves, and large reddish-purple flowers. It is a valuable ornamental shrub, but, like the others, suffers from the effects of frost. C. LADANIFERUS.--Gum Cistus. Spain, 1629. A pretty but rather tender shrub, growing in favourable situations to about 4 feet in height. It has lanceolate leaves that are glutinous above, and thickly covered with a whitish tomentum on the under sides, and large and showy vhite flowers with a conspicuous purple blotch at the base of each petal. Unless in southern and western England, but particularly on the sea-coast, this handsome Portuguese shrub is not to be depended on, in so far as hardihood is concerned. C. LAURIFOLIUS.--Laurel-leaved Cistus. Spain, 1731. This is the hardiest species in cultivation, but, like the latter, is favourable to the milder parts of these islands, and especially maritime districts. Frequently it rises to 7 feet in height, and is then an object of great beauty, the large yellowish-white flowers showing well above the deep green Laurel-like leaves. C. MONSPELIENSIS (South of Europe, 1656), and its variety C. monspeliensis florentinus, the former with white, and the latter with white and yellow flowers, are fairly hardy in the milder parts of Britain, but cannot be recommended for general planting. C. PURPUREUS.--Purple-flowered Cistas. In this species, which may rank next to the latter in point of hardihood, the flowers are of a deep reddish-purple, and with a darker blotch at the base of each petal. C. SALVIFOLIUS is of loose and rather untidy growth, with rugose leaves and white flowers. It is very variable in character, and the form generally cultivated grows about 4 feet high, and has ovate-lanceolate, almost glabrous leaves. Other species that are occasionally to be found in collections are C. creticus, with yellow and purple flowers; C. hirsutus, white with yellow blotches at the base of the petals; and C. Clusii, with very large pure-white flowers. All the species of Gum Cistus, or Rock Rose as they are very appropriately named, will be found to succeed best when planted in exalted positions, and among light, though rich, strong soil. They are easy of propagation. CITRUS. CITRUS TRIFOLIATA.--Japan, 1869. This is a singular low-growing shrub, with ternate leaves, spiny branches, and fragrant white flowers. It is hardy in many English situations, but does not fruit freely, although the orange-blossom-like flowers are produced very abundantly. A pretty little glossy-leaved shrub that is well worthy of attention, particularly where a cosy corner can be put aside for its cultivation. CLADRASTIS. CLADRASTIS AMURENSIS.--Amoor Yellow Wood. Amur, 1880. This is a shrub that is sure to be extensively cultivated when better known, and more readily procured. It has stood uninjured for several years in various parts of England, so that its hardihood may be taken for granted. The pretty olive-green of the bark, and the greyish-green of the leathery leaves, render the shrub one of interest even in a flowerless state. In July and August the dense spikes of white, or rather yellowish-white flowers are produced freely, and that, too, even before the shrub has attained to a height of 2 feet. It is well worthy of extended culture. C. TINCTORIA (_syn C. lutea_ and _Virgilia lutea_).--Yellow Wood. North America, 1812. This is a handsome deciduous tree that does well in many parts of the country, and is valued for the rich profusion of white flowers produced, and which are well set-off by the finely-cut pinnate leaves. It is a valuable tree for park and lawn planting, requiring a warm, dry soil, and sunny situation--conditions under which the wood becomes well-ripened, and the flowers more freely produced. CLEMATIS. CLEMATIS ALPINA (_syn Atragene alpina, A. austriaca_ and _A. siberica_).--Europe and North America. This is a climbing species with bi-ternately divided leaves, and large flowers with four blue sepals and ten to twelve small flattened organs, which are usually termed petals. C. CIRRHOSA.--Evergreen Virgin's Bower. Spain, 1596. An interesting, early-flowering species. The flowers, which are greenish-white, are produced in bunches and very effective. It is an evergreen species, of comparative hardihood, and flowers well in sheltered situations. C. FLAMMULA.--Virgin's Bower. France, 1596. This old and well-known plant is quite hardy in this country. The leaves are pinnate, and the flowers white and fragrant. C. Flammula rubro-marginata is a worthy and beautiful-leaved variety. C. FLORIDA.--Japan, 1776. This is a beautiful species, and an old inhabitant of English gardens. Leaves composed of usually three oval-shaped leaflets, and unusually bright of tint. The flowers are very large, and pure white. It should be planted in a warm sheltered corner against a wall. C. GRAVEOLENS.--This is a dwarf shrub, with neatly tripinnate leaves, and solitary, strongly-scented yellow flowers of medium size. A native of Chinese Tartary, and quite hardy. C. LANUGINOSA.--China, 1851. A handsome species, with large purple leaves that are hairy on the under sides. Flowers pale blue or lilac, very large, and composed of six or eight spreading sepals. C. lanuginosa pallida has immense flowers, often fully half a foot in diameter. Flowers in June. C. MONTANA.--Nepaul, 1831. This is valuable on account of its flowering in May. It is a free-growing species, with trifoliolate leaves on long footstalks, and large white flowers. C. montana grandiflora is a beautiful variety, having large white flowers so abundantly produced as to hide the foliage. It is quite hardy and of rampant growth. C. PATENS (_syns C. caerulea_ and _C. azurea grandiflora_).--Japan, 1836. This has large, pale-violet flowers, and is the parent of many single and double flowered forms. The typical form is, however, very deserving of cultivation, on account of the freedom with which it blooms during June and July from the wood of the previous year. It is perfectly hardy even in the far north. C. VIORNA.--Leather Flower. United States. This is a showy, small-flowered species, the flowers being campanulate, greenish-white within and purplish without. C. Viorna coccinea is not yet well known, but is one of the prettiest of the small-flowered section. The flowers, which are leathery as in the species, are of a beautiful vermilion on the outside and yellow within. C. VITALBA.--Lady's Bower, or Old Man's Beard. A handsome native climbing shrub, common in limestone or chalky districts, and unusually abundant in the southern English counties. Clambering over some neglected fence, often to nearly 20 feet in height, this vigorous-growing plant is seen to best advantage, the three or five-lobed leaves and festoons of greenish-white, fragrant flowers, succeeded by the curious and attractive feathery carpels, render the plant one of the most distinct and desirable of our native wildlings flowering in August. C. VITICELLA.--Spain, 1569. This is a well-known species of not too rampant growth, and a native of Spain and Italy. The flowers vary a good deal in colour, but in the typical plant they are reddish-purple and produced throughout the summer. Crossed with C. lanuginosa, this species has produced many ornamental and beautiful hybrids, one of the finest and most popular being C. Jackmanii. C. WILLIAMSI (_syn C. Fortunei_).--Japan, 1863. The fragrant, white flowers of this species are semi-double, and consist of about 100 oblong-lanceolate sepals narrowed to the base. The leathery leaves are trifoliolate with heart-shaped leaflets. It proves quite hardy, and has several varieties. GARDEN VARIETIES.--As well as the above there are many beautiful garden hybrids, some of which in point of floral colouring far outvie the parent forms. Included in the following list are a few of the most beautiful kinds:-- Alba Victor. Alexandra. Beauty of Worcester. Belle of Woking. Blue Gem. Duchess of Edinburgh. Edith Jackman. Fairy Queen. John Gould Veitch. Lady Bovill. Lord Beaconsfield. Lucie Lemoine. Madame Baron Veillard. Miss Bateman. Mrs. A. Jackman. Othello. Prince of Wales. Rubella. Star of India. Stella. Venus Victrix. William Kennett. CLERODENDRON. CLERODENDRON TRICHOTOMUM.--Japan, 1800. This is at once one of the most beautiful and distinct of hardy shrubs. It is of stout, nearly erect growth, 8 feet high, and nearly as much through, with large, dark-green, ovate leaves, and deliciously fragrant white flowers, with a purplish calyx, and which are at their best in September. Thriving well in any light soil, being of vigorous constitution, and extremely handsome of flower, are qualities which combine to render this shrub one of particular importance in our gardens. C. FOETIDUM, a native of China, is only hardy in southern and seaside situations, where it forms a bush 5 feet high, with heart-shaped leaves, and large clusters of rosy-pink flowers. CLETHRA. CLETHRA ACUMINATA.--Pointed-leaved Pepper Tree. Carolina, 1806. This is not so hardy as C. alnifolia, hailing from the Southern States of North America, but with a little protection is able to do battle with our average English winter. It resembles C. alnifolia, except in the leaves, which are sharp pointed, and like that species delights to grow in damp positions. The flowers are white and drooping, and the growth more robust than is that of C. alnifolia generally. For planting by the pond or lake-side, the Pepper Trees are almost invaluable. C. ALNIFOLIA.--Alder-leaved Pepper Tree. North America, 1831. A rather stiff-growing shrub of about 5 feet in height, with leaves resembling those of our common Alder, and bearing towards the end of July spikes of almost oppressively fragrant dull-white flowers at the tips of the branches. It is a valuable shrub, not only in an ornamental way, but on account of it thriving in damp, swampy ground, where few others could exist, while at the same time it will succeed and flower freely in almost any good garden soil. COCCULUS. COCCULUS CAROLINUS.--This is a half hardy, twining shrub, of free growth when planted by a tree stem in a sheltered wood, but with by no means showy flowers; indeed, it may be described in few words as a shrub of no great beauty nor value. C. LAURIFOLIUS, from the Himalayas and Japan, is even less hardy than the above, although, used as a wall plant, it has survived for many years in the south and west of England. The foliage of this species is neat and ornamental, but liable to injury from cold easterly winds. COLLETIA. COLLETIA CRUCIATA (_syn C. bictonensis_).--Chili, 1824. With flattened woody branches, and sharp-pointed spines which take the place of leaves, this is at once one of the most singular of hardy flowering shrubs. It forms a stout dense bush about 4 feet high, and bears quantities of small white flowers, which render the plant one of great beauty during the summer months. C. SPINOSA.--Peru, 1823. This species grows fairly well in some parts of England and Ireland, and is a curious shrub with awl-shaped leaves, and, like the other members of the family, an abundant producer of flowers. It thrives best as a wall plant, and when favourably situated a height of 12 feet is sometimes attained. COLUTEA. COLUTEA ARBORESCENS.--Bladder Senna. France, 1548. This is a common plant in English gardens, bearing yellow Pea-shaped flowers, that are succeeded by curious reddish bladder-like seed pods. It grows to 10 feet or 12 feet in height, and is usually of lax and slender growth, but perfectly hardy. C. CRUENTA (_syn C. orientalis_ and _C. sanguine_).--Oriental Bladder Senna. Levant, 1710. This is a free-growing, round-headed, deciduous bush, of from 6 feet to 8 feet high when fully grown. The leaves are pinnate and glaucous, smooth, and bright green above, and downy beneath. Flowers individually large, of a reddish-copper colour, with a yellow spot at the base of the upper petal. The fruit is an inflated boat-shaped reddish pod. The Bladder Sennas are of very free growth, even in poor, sandy soil, and being highly ornamental, whether in flower or fruit, are to be recommended for extensive cultivation. CORIARIA. CORIARIA MYRTIFOLIA.--South Europe, 1629. A deciduous shrub growing to about 4 feet in height, with Myrtle-like leaves, and upright terminal racemes of not very showy flowers, produced about mid-summer--generally from May to August. For its pretty foliage and the frond-like arrangement of its branches it is principally worthy of culture. From southern Europe and the north of Africa, where it is an occupant of waste ground and hedges, but still rare in our gardens. CORNUS. CORNUS ALBA.--White-fruited Dogwood. Siberia, 1741. This is a native of northern Asia and Siberia, not of America as Loudon stated. For the slender, red-barked branches and white or creamy flowers, this species is well worthy of notice, while the white fruit renders it very distinct and effective. It grows to about 10 feet in height. C. alba Spathi is one of the most ornamental of shrubs bearing coloured leaves, these in spring being of a beautiful bronzy tint, and changing towards summer to a mixture of gold and green, or rather an irregular margin of deep gold surrounds each leaf. It was first sent out by the famous Berlin nurseryman whose name it bears. C. alba Gouchaulti is another variegated leaved variety, but has no particular merit, and originated in one of the French nurseries. C. ALTERNIFOLIA.--North America, 1760. This species is a lover of damp ground, and grows from 20 feet to nearly 30 feet high, with clusters of pale yellow flowers, succeeded by bluish-black berries that render the plant highly ornamental. It is still rare in British gardens. C. AMOMUM (_syn C. sericea_).--From the eastern United States. It is a low-growing, damp-loving shrub, with yellowish-white flowers, borne abundantly in small clusters. It grows about 8 feet in height, and has a graceful habit, owing to the long and lithe branches spreading regularly over the ground. The fruit is pale blue, and the bark a conspicuous purple. C. ASPERIFOLIA is another showy American species, with reddish-brown bark, hairy leaves, of small size, and rather small flowers that are succeeded by pearly-white berries borne on conspicuous reddish stalks. C. BAILEYI resembles somewhat the better-known C. stolonifera, but it is of more erect habit, is not stoloniferous, has rather woolly leaves, at least on the under side, and bears yellowish-white fruit. It grows in sandy soil, and is a native of Canada. C. CALIFORNICA (_syn C. pubescens_) grows fully 10 feet high, with smooth branches, hairy branchlets, and cymes of pretty white flowers, succeeded by white fruit. It occurs from southern California to British Columbia. C. CANADENSIS.--Dwarf Cornel or Birchberry. Canada, 1774. This is of herbaceous growth, and remarkable for the large cream-coloured flower bracts, and showy red fruit. C. CANDIDISSIMA (_syn C. paniculata_) is a beautiful American species, with panicled clusters of almost pure white flowers, that are succeeded by pale blue fruit. It is a small growing tree, with narrow, pointed leaves, and greyish coloured, smooth bark. Like many of its fellows, this species likes rather moist ground. C. CIRCINATA, from the eastern United States, is readily distinguished by its large, round leaves, these sometimes measuring 6 inches long by 3-1/2 inches wide. The yellowish-white flowers are individually small, and succeeded by bright blue fruits, each as large as a pea. C. CAPITATA (_syn Benthamia fragifera_).--Nepaul, 1825. An evergreen shrub, with oblong, light green leaves and terminal inconspicuous greenish flowers, surrounded by an involucre of four large, pinky-yellow bracts. It is this latter that renders the shrub so very conspicuous when in full flower. Unfortunately, the Benthamia is not hardy throughout the country, the south and west of England, especially Cornwall, and the southern parts of Ireland being the favoured spots where this handsome shrub or small growing tree--for in Cornwall it has attained to fully 45 feet in height, and in Cork nearly 30 feet--may be found in a really thriving condition. Around London it does well enough for a time, but with severe frost it gets cut back to the ground, and though it quickly recovers and grows rapidly afterwards, before it is large enough to flower freely it usually suffers again. The fruits are as large and resemble Strawberries, and of a rich scarlet or reddish hue, and though ripe in October they frequently remain on the trees throughout the winter. Both for its flowers and fruit, this Nepaul shrub-tree is well worthy of a great amount of trouble to get it established in a cosy corner of the garden. Rich, well-drained loam is all it wants, while propagation by seed is readily effected. C. FLORIDA, the Florida Dogwood, is not always very satisfactory when grown in this country, our climate in some way or other being unsuitable for its perfect development. It is a handsome shrub or small-growing tree, with small flowers surrounded by a large and conspicuous white involucre. The leaves are ovate-oblong, and pubescent on the undersides. It is a valuable as well as ornamental little tree, and is worthy of a great amount of coddling and coaxing to get it established. C. KOUSA (_syn Benthamia japonica_).--Japan. This is a very distinct and beautiful flowering shrub. Flowers very small individually, but borne in large clusters, and yellow, the showy part being the four large, pure white bracts which subtend each cluster of blossoms, much like those in Cornus florida, only the bracts are more pointed than those of the latter species. Being quite hardy, and a plant of great interest and beauty, this little known Cornus is sure to be widely planted when better known. C. MACROPHYLLA (_syn C. brachypoda_).--Himalayas, China and Japan, 1827. This is an exceedingly handsome species, of tabulated appearance, occasioned by the branches being arranged almost horizontally. The leaves are of large size, elliptic-ovate, and are remarkable for their autumnal tints. The elder-like flowers appear in June. They are pure white and arranged in large cymes. C. macrophylla variegata is a distinct and very ornamental form of the above, in which the leaf margins are bordered with white. C. MAS.--Cornelian Cherry. Austria, 1596. One of our earliest flowering trees, the clusters of yellow blooms being produced in mild seasons by the middle of February. It is not at all fastidious about soil, thriving well in that of very opposite description. It deserves to be extensively cultivated, if only for the profusion of brightly-tinted flowers, which completely cover the shoots before the leaves have appeared. C. Mas aurea-elegantissima, the tricolor-leaved Dogwood, is a strikingly ornamental shrub, with green leaves encircled with a golden band, the whole being suffused with a faint pinky tinge. It is of more slender growth than the species, and a very desirable acquisition to any collection of hardy ornamental shrubs. C. Mas argenteo-variegata is another pretty shrub, the leaves being margined with clear white. C. NUTTALLII grows to fully 50 feet in height, and is one of the most beautiful of the Oregon and Californian forest trees. The flower bracts are of large size, often 6 inches across, the individual bracts being broad and white, and fully 2-1/2 inches long. C. OFFICINALIS is a Japanese species, that is, however, quite hardy in this country, and nearly resembles the better known C. Mas, but from which it may at once be known by the tufts of brownish hairs that are present in the axils of the principal leaf veins. C. STOLONIFERA.--Red Osier Dogwood. North America, 1741. This has rather inconspicuous flowers, that are succeeded by whitish fruit, and is of greatest value for the ruddy tint of the young shoots. It grows fully 6 feet high, and increases rapidly by underground suckers. The species is quite hardy. C. TARTARICA (_syn C. siberica_).--Siberia, 1824. This has much brighter coloured bark, and is of neater and dwarfer habit, than the typical C. alba. It is a very beautiful and valuable shrub, of which there is a variegated leaved form. COROKIA. COROKIA COTONEASTER.--New Zealand, 1876. A curious, dwarf-growing shrub, with small, bright yellow, starry flowers produced in June. The hardiness of the shrub is rather doubtful. CORONILLA. CORONILLA EMERUS.--Scorpion Senna. France, 1596. This shrub, a native of the middle and southern parts of Europe, forms an elegant loose bush about 5 feet high, with smooth, pinnate, sub-evergreen leaves, and Pea-shaped flowers, that are reddish in the bud state, but bright yellow when fully expanded. It is an elegant plant, and on account of its bearing hard cutting back, is well suited for ornamental hedge formation; but however used the effect is good, the distinct foliage and showy flowers making it a general favourite with planters. It will thrive in very poor soil, but prefers a light rich loam. CORYLOPSIS. CORYLOPSIS HIMALAYANA.--E. Himalayas, 1879. This is a stronger growing species than C. pauciflora and C. spicata, with large leaves averaging 4 inches long, that are light green above and silky on the under sides. The parallel veins of the leaves are very pronounced, while the leaf-stalks, as indeed the young twigs too, are covered with a hairy pubescence. C. PAUCIFLORA is readily distinguished from the former by its more slender growth, smaller leaves, and fewer flowered spikes. Flowers primrose-yellow. C. SPICATA.--Japan, 1864. This Japanese shrub is of very distinct appearance, having leaves like those of our common Hazel, and drooping spikes of showy-yellowish, fragrant flowers that are produced before the leaves. There is a variegated form in cultivation. The various species of Corylopsis are very ornamental garden plants, and to be recommended, on account of their early flowering, for prominent positions in the shrubbery or by the woodland walk. Light, rich loam seems to suit them well. CORYLUS. CORYLUS AVELLANA PURPUREA.--Purple Hazel. This has large leaves of a rich purple colour, resembling those of the purple Beech, and is a very distinct plant for the shrubbery border. Should be cut down annually if large leaves are desired. C. COLURNA.--Constantinople Hazel. Turkey, 1665. This is the largest and most ornamental of the family, and is mentioned here on account of the showy catkins with which the tree is usually well supplied. When thickly produced, as they usually are on established specimens, these long catkins have a most effective and pleasing appearance, and tend to render the tree one of the most distinct in cultivation. Under favourable circumstances, such as when growing in a sweet and rather rich brown loam, it attains to fully 60 feet in height, and of a neat shape, from the branches being arranged horizontally, or nearly so. Even in a young state the Constantinople Hazel is readily distinguished from the common English species, by the softer and more angular leaves, and by the whitish bark which comes off in long strips. The stipules, too, form an unerring guide to its identity, they being long, linear, and recurved. COTONEASTER. COTONEASTER BACILLARIS.--Nepaul, 1841. A large-growing species, and one of the few members of the family that is more ornamental in flower than in fruit. It is of bold, portly, upright growth, and sends up shoots from the base of the plant. The pretty white flowers are borne in clusters for some distance along the slender shoots, and have a very effective and pleasing appearance; indeed, the upper portion of the plant has the appearance of a mass of white blossoms. C. FRIGIDA.--Nepaul, 1824. The species forms a large shrub or low tree with oblong, elliptical, sub-evergreen leaves. The flowers are white and borne in large corymbs, which are followed by scarlet berries in September. C. MICROPHYLLA.--Small-leaved Cotoneaster. Nepaul, 1825. This is, from a flowering point of view, probably the most useful of any member of this rather large genus. Its numerous pretty white flowers, dark, almost Yew-green leaves, and abundance of the showiest red berries in winter, will ever make this dwarf, clambering plant a favourite with those who are at all interested in beautiful shrubs. All, or nearly all, the species of Cotoneaster are remarkable and highly valued for their showy berries, but, except the above, and perhaps C. buxifolia (Box-leaved Cotoneaster), few others are worthy of consideration from a purely flowering point of view. C. SIMONSII.--Khasia, 1868. The stems of this species usually grow from 4 feet to 6 feet high, with sub-erect habit. The leaves are roundly-elliptic and slightly silky beneath. The small flowers are succeeded by a profusion of scarlet berries that ripen in autumn. This is generally considered the best for garden purposes. CRATAEGUS. CRATAEGUS AZAROLUS.--South Europe, 1640. This is a very vigorous-growing species, with a wide, spreading head of rather upright-growing branches. The flowers are showy and the fruit large and of a pleasing red colour. C. AZAROLUS ARONIA (_syn C. Aronia_).--Aronia Thorn. South Europe, 1810. This tree attains to a height of 20 feet, has deeply lobed leaves that are wedge-shaped at the base, and slightly pubescent on the under sides. The flowers, which usually are at their best in June, are white and showy, and succeeded by large yellow fruit. Generally the Aronia Thorn forms a rather upright and branchy specimen of neat proportions, and when studded with its milk-white flowers may be included amongst the most distinct and ornamental of the family. C. COCCINEA.--Scarlet-fruited Thorn. North America, 1683. If only for its lovely white flowers, with bright, pinky anthers, it is well worthy of a place even in a selection of ornamental flowering trees and shrubs. It is, however, rendered doubly valuable in that the cordate-ovate leaves turn of a warm brick colour in the autumn, while the fruit, and which is usually produced abundantly, is of the brightest red. C. COCCINEA MACRANTHA.--North America, 1819. This bears some resemblance to the Cockspur Thorn, but has very long, curved spines--longer, perhaps, than those of any other species. C. CORDATA is one of the latest flowering species, in which respect it is even more hardy than the well-known C. tanace-tifolia. It forms a small compact tree, of neat and regular outline, with dark green shining leaves, and berries about the same size as those of the common species, and deep red. C. CRUS-GALLI.--Cockspur Thorn. North America, 1691. This has large and showy white flowers that are succeeded by deep red berries. It is readily distinguished by the long, curved spines with which the whole tree is beset. Of this species there are numerous worthy forms, including C. Crus-galli Carrierii, which opens at first white, and then turns a showy flesh colour; C. Crus-galli Layi, C. Crus-galli splendens, C. Crus-galli prunifolia, C. Crus-galli pyracanthifolia, and C. Crus-galli salicifolia, all forms of great beauty--whether for their foliage, or beautiful and usually plentifully-produced flowers. C. DOUGLASII.--North America, 1830. This is peculiar in having dark purple or almost black fruit. It is of stout growth, often reaching to 20 feet in height, and belongs to the early-flowering section. C. NIGRA (_syn C. Celsiana_).--A tree 20 feet high, with stout branches, and downy, spineless shoots. Leaves large, ovate-acute, deeply incised, glossy green above and downy beneath. Flowers large and fragrant, pure white, and produced in close heads in June. Fruit large, oval, downy, and yellow when fully ripe. A native of Sicily, and known under the names of C. incisa and C. Leeana. This species must not be confused with a variety of our common Thorn bearing a similar name. C. OXYACANTHA.--Common Hawthorn. This is, perhaps, the most ornamental species in cultivation, and certainly the commonest. The common wild species needs no description, the fragrant flowers varying in colour from pure white to pink, being produced in the richest profusion. Under cultivation, however, it has produced some very distinct and desirable forms, far superior to the parent, including amongst others those with double-white, pink, and scarlet flowers. C. OXYACANTHA PUNICEA flore-pleno (Paul's double-scarlet Thorn), is one of, if not the handsomest variety, with large double flowers that are of the richest crimson. Other good flowering kinds include C. Oxyacantha praecox (Glastonbury Thorn); C. Oxyacantha Oliveriana; C. Oxyacantha punicea, with deep scarlet flowers; C. Oxyacantha rosea, rose-coloured and abundantly-produced flowers; C. Oxyacantha foliis aureis, with yellow fruit; C. Oxyacantha laciniata, cut leaves; C. Oxyacantha multiplex, double-white flowers; C. Oxyacantha foliis argenteis, having silvery-variegated leaves: C. Oxyacantha pendula, of semi-weeping habit; C. Oxyacantha stricta, with an upright and stiff habit of growth; C. Oxyacantha Leeana, a good form; and C. Oxyacantha leucocarpa. C. PARVIFOLIA.--North America, 1704. This is a miniature Thorn, of slow growth, with leaves about an inch long, and solitary pure-white flowers of large size. The flowers open late in the season, and are succeeded by yellowish-green fruit. C. PYRACANTHA.--Fiery Thorn. South Europe, 1629. This is a very distinct species, with lanceolate serrated leaves, and pinkish or nearly white flowers. The berries of this species are, however, the principal attraction, being orange-scarlet, and produced in dense clusters. C. Pyracantha crenulata and C. Pyracantha Lelandi are worthy varieties of the above, the latter especially being one of the most ornamental-berried shrubs in cultivation. C. TANACETIFOLIA.--Tansy-leaved Thorn. Greece, 1789. This is a very late-flowering species, and remarkable for its Tansy-like foliage. It is of unusually free growth, and in almost any class of soil, and is undoubtedly, in so far at least as neatly divided leaves and wealth of fruit are concerned, one of the most distinct and desirable species of Thorn. Other good species and varieties that may just be mentioned as being worthy of cultivation are C. apiifolia, C. Crus-galli horrida, C. orientalis, and C. tomentosum (_syn C. punctata_). To a lesser or greater extent, the various species and varieties of Thorn are of great value for the wealth and beauty of flowers they produce, but the above are, perhaps, the most desirable in that particular respect. They are all of free growth, and, except in waterlogged soils, thrive well and flower freely. CYTISUS. CYTISUS ALBUS.--White Spanish Broom. Portugal, 1752. This is a large-growing shrub of often 10 feet in height, with wiry, somewhat straggling branches, and remarkable for the wealth of pure-white flowers it produces. In May and June, if favourably situated, every branch is wreathed with small white flowers, and often to such an extent that at a short distance away the plant looks like a sheet of white. Being perfectly hardy and of very free growth in any light soil, and abundantly floriferous, this handsome shrub is one of particular value in ornamental planting. By placing three or five plants in clump-fashion, the beauty of this Broom is greatly enhanced. C. ALDUS INCARNATUS (_syn C. incarnatus_) resembles C. purpureus in its leaves and general appearance, but it is of larger growth. The flowers, which are at their best in May, are of a vinous-rose colour, and produced plentifully. C. BIFLORUS (_syn C. elongatus_).--Hungary, 1804. This is a dwarf, spreading, twiggy bush, of fully a yard high. Leaves trifoliolate, clothed beneath with closely adpressed hairs, and bright yellow, somewhat tubular flowers, usually produced in fours. C. DECUMBENS.--A charming alpine species, of low, spreading growth, bright-green three-parted leaves, and bearing axillary bunches of large yellow, brownish-purple tinted flowers. A native of the French and Italian Alps, and quite hardy. C. NIGRICANS.--Austria, 1730. Another beautiful species, with long, erect racemes of golden-yellow flowers, and one whose general hardihood is undoubted. On its own roots, and allowed to roam at will, this pretty, small-growing Broom is of far greater interest than when it is grafted mop-high on a Laburnum stem, and pruned into artificial shapes, as is, unfortunately, too often the case. C. PURPUREUS.--Purple Broom. Austria, 1792. Alow, spreading shrub, with long wiry shoots, clothed with neat trifoliolate leaves, and bearing an abundance of its purple, Pea-shaped flowers. There is a white-flowered form, C. purpureus albus, and another named C. purpureus ratis-bonensis, with pretty yellow flowers, produced on long and slender shoots. C. SCOPARIUS.--Yellow Broom. This is a well-known native shrub, with silky, angular branches, and bright yellow flowers in summer. There are several varieties, but the most remarkable and handsome is C. scoparius Andreanus, in which the wings of the flowers are of a rich golden brown. It is one of the showiest shrubs in cultivation. For ornamental planting the above are about the best forms of Broom, but others might include C. austriacus, C. Ardoini, and C. capitatus, the latter being unusually hardy, and bearing dense heads of flowers. In so far as soil is concerned, the Brooms are readily accommodated, while either from seeds or cuttings they are easily propagated. DABOECIA. DABOECIA POLIFOLIA (_syn Menziesia polifolia_).--St. Dabeoc's Heath. South Western Europe, Ireland and the Azores. A dwarf, and rather straggling, viscid shrub, with linear-ovate leaves that are silvery beneath. The flowers are pink, and abundantly produced. D. polifolia alba has white flowers; and D. polifolia atro-purpurea, purplish flowers. DANAE. DANAE LAURUS (_syn D. racemosa_ and _Ruscus racemosus_).--Alexandrian Laurel. A native of Portugal (1739), with glossy-green leaf substitutes, and racemes of small, not very showy, greenish-yellow flowers. DAPHNE. DAPHNE ALPINA.--Italy, 1759. A deciduous species, which has white or rosy-white, sweet-scented flowers. It is a pretty, but rare shrub, that grows well in light sandy leaf soil. D. ALTAICA.--Siberia, 1796. Though rare in gardens, this is a pretty and neat-foliaged species, and bears white flowers in abundance. It wants a warm corner and dry soil. D. BLAGAYANA.--Styria, 1872. This is still rare in cultivation, but it is a very desirable species, bearing ivory-white highly-fragrant flowers. For the alpine garden it is particularly suitable, and though growing rather slowly thrives well in good light soil. D. CHAMPIONI (_syn D. Fortunei_), from China, is a rare and pretty species, bearing lilac flowers in winter, and whilst the shrub is leafless. It does best in a warm situation, such as planted against a wall facing south. D. CNEORUM.--Garland Flower. South Europe, 1752. This is a charming rock shrub, of dwarf, trailing habit, with small glossy-green leaves, and dense clusters of deep pink, deliciously-fragrant flowers. D. FIONIANA is of neat growth, with small, glossy, dark leaves, and pale rose-coloured flowers. Its sturdy, dwarf habit, constant verdure, and pretty sweet-scented flowers, should make this species a favourite with cultivators. Known also as D. hyemalis. D. GENKWA.--Japanese Lilac. Japan, 1866. This is a rare and beautiful species, of recent introduction, with large lilac-tinted, sweetly-scently flowers. D. LAUREOLA.--Spurge Laurel. This is not, in so far at least as flowers are concerned, a showy species, but the ample foliage and sturdy habit of the plant will always render this native species of value for the shrubbery. It is of value, too, as growing and flowering freely in the shade. The flowers are sweetly-scented and of a greenish-yellow colour, and appear about February. D. MEZEREUM.--The Mezereon. Europe (England). One of the commonest and most popular of hardy garden shrubs. It is of stout, strict growth, and produces clusters of pinky, rose, or purplish flowers before winter is past, and while the branches are yet leafless. Few perfectly hardy flowering shrubs are so popular as the Mezereon, and rightly so, for a more beautiful plant could not be mentioned, wreathed as every branch is, and almost back to the main stem, with the showiest of flowers. It likes good, rich, dampish soil, and delights to grow in a quiet, shady nook, or even beneath the spread of our larger forest trees. There are several very distinct varieties, of which the white-flowered D. Mezereum flore albo is one of the most valuable. The fruit of this variety is bright golden-yellow. D. Mezereum autumnale and D. Mezereum atro-rubrum are likewise interesting and beautiful forms. D. PETRAEA (_syn D. rupestris_).--Rock Daphne. Tyrol. This is quite hardy in the more sheltered corners of the rock garden, with neat, shining foliage and pretty rosy flowers, produced so thickly all over the plant as almost to hide the foliage from view. At Kew it thrives well in peaty loam and limestone, and although it does not increase very quickly is yet happy and contented. It is a charming rock shrub. D. PONTICA.--Pontic Daphne. Asia Minor, 1759. This is much like D. lauriola, but has shorter and more oval leaves, and the flowers, instead of being borne in fives like that species, are produced in pairs. They are also of a richer yellow, and more sweetly scented. D. SERICEA (_syn D. collina_).--Italy and Asia Minor, 1820. This forms a bush fully 2 feet high, with evergreen, oblong, shining leaves, and clusters of rose-coloured flowers that are pleasantly scented. It is quite hardy, and an interesting species that is well worthy of more extended culture. There is a variety of this with broader foliage than the species, and named D. sericea latifolia (_syn D. collina latifolia_). DAPHNIPHYLLUM. DAPHNIPHYLLUM GLAUCESCENS.--East Indies, Java and Corea. A handsome Japanese shrub that will be valued for its neat Rhododendron-like foliage, compact habit of growth, and for the conspicuous bark which is of a warm reddish hue. The leaves are large and elliptic, six inches long, and are rendered strangely conspicuous from the foot-stalks and midrib being dull crimson, this affording a striking contrast to the delicate green of the leaves. It grows freely in light sandy peat. There are two well-marked forms, one named D. glaucescens viridis, in which the red markings of the leaves are absent; and D. glaucescens jezoensis, a pretty and uncommon variety. DESFONTAINEA. DESFONTAINEA SPINOSA.--Andes from Chili to New Grenada, 1853. This is a desirable shrub, and one that is perfectly hardy in most parts of the country. It is a charming shrub of bold, bushy habit, with prickly holly-like foliage, and scarlet and yellow, trumpet-shaped pendent flowers, borne in quantity. The shelter of a wall favours the growth and flowering of this handsome shrub, but it also succeeds well in the open if planted in rich, light soil, and in positions that are not exposed to cold and cutting winds. DEUTZIA. DEUTZIA CRENATA (_syn D. scabra_ and _D. Fortunei_).--Japan 1863. This is of stout, bushy growth, often reaching a height of 8 feet, and lateral spread of nearly as much. The ovate-lanceolate leaves are rough to the touch, and its slender, but wiry stems, are wreathed for a considerable distance along with racemes of pure white flowers. It is a very distinct shrub, of noble port, and when in full flower is certainly one of the most ornamental of hardy shrubs. The double-flowered form, D. crenata flore-pleno, is one of the prettiest flowering shrubs in cultivation, the wealth of double flowers, not white as in the species, but tinged with reddish-purple being highly attractive. D. crenata, Pride of Rochester, is another form with double-white flowers, and a most distinct and beautiful shrub. Two other very beautiful varieties are those known as D. crenata Watererii and D. crenata Wellsii. D. GRACILIS is a somewhat tender shrub of fully 18 inches high, with smooth leaves and pure-white flowers produced in the greatest freedom. It does well in warm, sheltered sites, but is most frequently seen as a greenhouse plant. A native of Japan. DIERVILLA. DIERVILLA FLORIBUNDA (_syn D. multiflora_ and _Weigelia floribunda_), from Japan, 1864, has narrow, tubular, purplish-coloured corollas, that are only slightly opened out at the mouth. The Diervillas are valuable decorative shrubs, of free growth in good rich loam, and bearing a great abundance of the showiest of flowers. For shrubbery planting they must ever rank high, the beautiful flowers and rich green ample leafage rendering them distinct and attractive. D. GRANDIFLORA (_syn D. amabilis_ and _Weigelia amabilis_).--Japan. This is of larger growth than D. rosea, with strongly reticulated leaves, that are prominently veined on the under sides, and much larger, almost white flowers. It is a distinct and worthy species. There are some beautiful varieties of this species, named Isolinae, Van Houttei, and Striata. D. ROSEA (_syn Weigelia rosea_).--China, 1844. This is a handsome hardy shrub of small stature, with ovate-lanceolate leaves, and clusters of showy pink, or sometimes white flowers, that are produced in April and May. There are many good varieties of this shrub, of which the following are the most popular:--D. rosea arborescens grandiflora; D. rosea Lavallii, with an abundance of crimson-red flowers; D. rosea Stelzneri, with an abundance of deep red flowers; D. rosea hortensis nivea, large foliage, and large, pure-white flowers; D. rosea candida, much like the latter, but bearing pure-white flowers; and D. rosea Looymansii aurea has beautiful golden leaves. DISCARIA. DISCARIA LONGISPINA.--This is at once a curious and beautiful shrub, of low, creeping growth, and poorly furnished with leaves, which, however, are amply made up for by the deep green of the shoots and stems, and which give to the plant almost the appearance of an evergreen. The flowers, which are bell-shaped and white, are almost lavishly produced, and as they last for a very long time, with only the pure white assuming a pinky tinge when subjected to excessive sunshine, the value of the shrub is still further enhanced. For planting against a mound of rock this scrambling shrub is of value, but the position should not be exposed to cold winds, for the plant is somewhat tender. From South America, and allied to the better known Colletias. D. SERRATIFOLIA (_syn Colletia serratifolia_), is even a handsomer plant than the former, with minute serrated foliage, and sheets of small white flowers in June. DIOSPYROS. DIOSPYROS KAKI COSTATA.--The Date Plum. China, 1789. Fruit as big as a small apple; leaves leathery, entire, and broadly ovate; flowers and fruits in this country when afforded the protection of a wall. The fruit is superior to that of D. virginiana (Persimmon). D. LOTUS, the common Date Plum, is a European species, with purplish flowers, and oblong leaves that are reddish on the under sides. Both species want a light, warm soil, and sheltered situation. D. VIRGINIANA.--The Persimmon, or Virginian Date Plum. North America, 1629. A small-growing tree, with coriaceous leaves, and greenish-yellow flowers. In southern situations and by the seaside it is perfectly hardy, and succeeds well, but in other districts it is rather tender. The fruit is edible, yellow in colour, and about an inch in diameter. DIRCA. DIRCA PALUSTRIS.--Leather Wood. North America, 1750. A much-branched bush, of quite a tree-like character, but rarely more than 3 feet high. To the Daphnes it is nearly allied, and is close in resemblance; but there is a curious yellowish hue pervading the whole plant. The flowers are produced on the naked shoots in April, and are rendered conspicuous by reason of the pendent yellow stamens. They are borne in terminal clusters of three or four together. It delights to grow in a cool, moist soil, indeed it is only when so situated that the Leather Wood can be seen in a really thriving condition. DRIMYS. DRIMYS AROMATICA (_syn Tasmannia aromatica_).--Tasmanian Pepper Plant. Tasmania, 1843. This is, if we might say so, a more refined plant than D. Winteri, with smaller and narrower leaves, and smaller flowers. The plant, too, has altogether a faint reddish tinge, and is of upright growth. A native of Tasmania, and called by the natives the Pepper Plant, the fruit being used as a substitute for that condiment. Like the other species the present plant is only hardy in warm, maritime places, and when afforded the protection of a wall. D. WINTERI (_syn Winter a aromatica_).--Winter's Bark. South America, 1827. The fine evergreen character is the chief attraction of this American shrub, so far at least as garden ornamentation is concerned. With some persons even the greenish-white flowers are held in esteem, and it cannot be denied that a well flowered plant has its own attractions. The long, narrow leaves are pale green above and glaucous beneath, and make the shrub of interest, both on account of their evergreen nature and brightness of tint. Unfortunately it is not very hardy, requiring even in southern England a sunny wall to do it justice. ELAEAGNUS. ELAEAGNUS ARGENTEA.--Silver Berry. North America, 1813. A spreading shrub 8 feet or 10 feet high, with lanceolate leaves clothed with silvery scales. The flowers are axillary and clustered, and are succeeded by pretty, silvery-ribbed berries. E. GLABRA (_syn E. reflexus_).--From Japan. This is one of the handsomest species, forming bushes of delightful green, leathery leaves, and with a neat and rather compact habit of growth. It grows with great freedom when planted in light, sandy soil, big globose bushes being the result of a few years' growth. Being perfectly hardy it is to be recommended if only for the ample leathery, deep green foliage. The flowers are inconspicuous. There is a form having the leaves margined with pale yellow, and known under the name of E. glabra variegata. E. LONGIPES (_syn E. edulis_ and _E. crisp a_).--Japan, 1873. This species, is also worthy of culture, whether for the ornamental flowers or fruit. It is a shrub 6 feet high, bearing an abundance of spotted, oval red berries on long footstalks. Quite hardy. E. MACROPHYLLA.--Japan. This is of robust growth, with handsome, dark green leaves, and purplish branch tips. The leaves are thick of texture, often fully 3 inches long, glossy-green above, and silvery beneath. The latter is all the more remarkable, as the leaves have the habit of curling up their edges, and thus revealing the light, silvery tint of the under sides. It thrives well in light, sandy peat, and may be relied upon as one of the hardiest of shrubs. E. ROTUNDIFOLIA.--An interesting and perfectly hardy species, growing about five feet high, and remarkable for the great wealth of pretty scarlet and amber-coloured berries. The flowers are not very showy, but this is made up by the beautiful silvery leaves, most pronounced on the under sides, and wealth of fruit, which hangs on long stalks like Cherries. Other species of less interest are E. pungens, of which there is a variegated variety; E. Simoni, a neat Chinese shrub; and E. latifolia, of good habit and with large leaves. The various species and varieties of Elaeagnus may all be cultivated in light, free soil, and from experiments that were recently made, they have been found of great value for planting by the seaside. They are popularly known as the Wild Olives and Evergreen Oleasters. EMBOTHRIUM. EMBOTHRIUM COCCINEUM.--Fire Bush. South America, 1851. This is a beautiful shrub, of tall growth, with flowers of great interest and beauty. Except in warm and favoured situations, it is not very hardy, and should always be grown as a wall plant. The fiery scarlet, orange-tinted flowers, resembling somewhat those of the Honeysuckle, are very beautiful by the first weeks of May. It grows to about 6 feet in height in southern England, and is, when in full flower, a shrub of unusual beauty. EPHEDRA. EPHEDRA VULGARIS (_syn Ephedra monastachya_), from Siberia, 1772, is a half-hardy shrub of trailing habit, with inconspicuous flowers. Thriving in very poor soil, or on rocky situations, is the only reason why it is introduced here. EPIGAEA. EPIGAEA REPENS.--Ground Laurel, or New England Mayflower. Northern United States, 1736. This is, perhaps, in so far as stature is concerned, hardly worthy of a place in our list, yet it is such a pretty and useful shrub, though rarely rising more than 6 inches from the ground, that we cannot well pass it over. For planting beneath Pine or other trees, where it can spread about at will, this prostrate shrub is most at home. There it enlivens the spot with its pretty evergreen foliage, and sweet-scented, white or pinky flowers. It is quite hardy. ERCILLA. ERCILLA SPICATA (_syn Bridgesia spicata_).--Chili, 1840. A small-growing, half-climbing shrub, with leathery, deep green leaves, and inconspicuous flowers. Hailing from Chili, it is not very hardy, but given the protection of a wall, or planted against a tree-stump, it soon forms a neat mass of evergreen foliage. ERICA. ERICA CARNEA.--South Europe, 1763. This is one of the most beautiful and desirable of hardy Heaths, on account of the richly-coloured flowers and early season at which they are produced. In the typical species the flowers are pink or flesh-coloured, and produced in January and February. It is a dwarf, compact growing species, with bright green foliage. There is a form with pure white flowers, named E. carnea alba, or E. herbacea, but although distinct and beautiful, it is not of so robust growth as the parent. E. CILIARIS.--A pretty native species, with ciliate glandular leaves, and racemes of highly-coloured, rosy flowers. Found in Dorsetshire and Cornwall. E. CINEREA,--Gray-leaved Heath. In this species, also a native of Britain, the flowers are of a reddish-purple colour, and borne in dense terminal racemes. There are numerous varieties, including a white-flowered E. cinerea alba; E. cinerea atro-purpurea, bearing dark purple flowers; E. cinerea atro-sanguinea, dark red flowers; E. cinerea coccinea, scarlet; E. cinerea purpurea, purple flowers; and E. cinerea rosea, with deep rose-coloured flowers. E. MEDITERRANEA.--Mediterranean Heath. Portugal, 1648. This is a robust-growing species, of rather erect habit, and often attaining to fully a yard in height. Flowers abundantly produced, and of a pretty pinky hue. Of this there are several varieties, the following being best known: E. mediterranea hibernica, found in Ireland; E. mediterranea alba, with white flowers; E. mediterranea nana, of very dwarf growth; and E. mediterranea rubra, with showy, deep red flowers. E. SCOPARIA and E. ERECTA are desirable species, the former bearing greenish flowers, and the latter of decidedly upright growth. E. TETRALIX.--Cross-leaved Heath. A native species of low, and bushy growth, with close umbels or terminal clusters of pretty pinky flowers. The varieties of this most worthy of notice are E. Tetralix alba, white flowered; E. Tetralix Mackiana, crimson flowered; E. Tetralix rubra, deep red flowers; and E. Tetralixbicolor, with parti-coloured flowers. E. VAGANS..--Cornish Heath. A native species, bearing pinky-white flowers, but there are forms with white and red flowers, named E. vagans alba and E. vagans rubra. The various kinds of Heath succeed best either in peaty soil, or that composed for the greater part of light, sandy loam, but many will grow and flower freely if planted in rich yellow loam. They are very desirable plants, either for bed formation, for rockwork ornamentation, or for planting around the shrubbery margins. Propagation is effected either by cuttings or sub-divisions, but seedlings of several species spring up freely under favourable conditions. ESCALLONIA. ESCALLONIA FLORIBUNDA (_syn E. montevideusis_).--New Grenada, 1827. This is one of the handsomest species, bearing long, arching clusters of white flowers. It is a very desirable shrub for wall or lattice-work covering, against which it grows rapidly, and soon forms an object of great beauty by reason of its neat foliage and graceful habit, as also wealth of pretty flowers. E. ILLINATA.--Chili, 1830. This should also be included, it being a handsome and pretty-flowered plant. E. MACRANTHA.--Chiloe, 1848. This is a general favourite in English gardens, where it succeeds well, but especially in maritime parts of the country. It is of stout growth, 6 feet or more in height, of spreading habit, and with elliptical, serrulated, bright green leaves, and clusters of crimson-red flowers produced in summer. For wall-covering this is an almost invaluable shrub, although it succeeds well as a standard in all but the colder parts of the country. Any free, open soil suits it well, but thorough drainage must be attended to. There are several very distinct and good varieties, such as E. macrantha sanguinea, with flowers deeper in colour than those of the parent plant; and E. macrantha Ingrami, a profuse-blooming and very desirable form. E. PHILLIPIANA.--Valdivia, 1873. When seen as a standard bush, and loaded with its myriads of tiny white flowers, this must rank amongst the handsomest members of the family. It is very hardy, and retains its foliage throughout the winter. The hybrid forms, E. exoniensis and E. leucantha, deserve recognition, the latter even as late as November being laden with its small spikes of pretty white flowers, which contrast nicely with the neat, evergreen foliage. E. PTEROCLADON.--Patagonia, 1854. This is remarkable for the curiously-winged branches, which give to the shrub a rather peculiar and distinct appearance. The freely-produced flowers are white or pink. E. RUBRA.--Chili, 1827. This has less handsome leaves and flowers than the above, but it is, all the same, a beautiful plant. The flowers vary a good deal in depth of colouring, and may be seen of all tints between pure white and red. The Escallonias are all of very free growth in any light, warm, sandy, and well-drained soil, and are readily propagated. EUCRYPHIA. EUCRYPHIA PINNATIFOLIA.--Chili, 1880. This shrub, is as yet rare in cultivation, and is not suited for the colder or more exposed parts of the country. It is, however, a singularly distinct and beautiful shrub, with deep glossy-green, pinnate foliage, and bearing large, pure white flowers, that are rendered all the more conspicuous by the golden-yellow anthers. As an ornamental shrub it is well worthy of cultivation. In so far as its hardihood in this climate has to do, it may be mentioned that in various parts of England and Ireland it has stood in the open ground unharmed for several years back. Light, sandy, well drained peat would seem to meet with its requirements. EUONYMUS. EUONYMUS AMERICANA.--American Spindle Tree. North America, 1686. This is a deciduous or semi-evergreen shrub, of about 6 feet in height, found over a wide area in Canada and the United States. It is of partially erect growth, with long and lithe branches, covered with pleasing light green bark. Flowers appearing in June, and succeeded by rough, warted, brilliant scarlet capsules, which are particularly showy and attractive. It likes a shady situation, and rich, rather damp soil. E. EUROPAEUS.--West Asia, Europe (Britain), &c. An indigenous species, rarely exceeding 6 feet in height, and rendered very effective in autumn by reason of the pale scarlet fruit, which, when fully ripe, and having split open, reveals the orange-coloured arils of the seeds. It, too, delights to grow in the shade. E. FIMBRIATUS, Japan and India, and its handsome variegated form, E. fimbriatus foliis variegatus et argenteo maculatus, are rather too tender for cultivation in this country, even in southern districts, and where afforded wall protection. E. verrucosus and E. atropurpureus are also worthy of cultivation. E. LATIFOLIUS.--Broad-leaved Spindle Tree. A European species (1730), deciduous, and growing from 10 feet to sometimes fully 20 feet in height. The leaves are bright, shining green, and much larger than those of our native species. Flowers, purplish-white, appearing in June; the capsules large, deep red, and when open contrasting very effectively with the bright orange arils in which the seeds are enveloped. It is a very distinct and beautiful, small-growing lawn tree, and succeeding, as it does, best in shade is an extra qualification. FABIANA. FABIANA IMBRICATA.--Chili, 1838. This is, unfortunately, not hardy in any but the milder maritime parts of England and Ireland. It is a charming shrub of Heather-like appearance, with small, crowded leaves, and pure white flowers produced in May. Planted at the base of a southern wall it does best, and where it thrives it is certainly one of our handsomest half-hardy shrubs. FATSIA. FATSIA JAPONICA (_syns Aralia japonica_ and _A. Sieboldii_).--Japan, 1858. This is of no particular value as a flowering shrub, but being hardy in most districts, and having large handsome leaves that impart to it a tropical appearance, it is well worthy of culture. The flowers are ivory-white, and produced in large umbels towards the end of autumn, but our early frosts too often mar their beauty. In this country it grows about 10 feet high, and is usually what is termed "leggy" in appearance, and thrives well in any good loamy soil if fairly dry. FENDLERA. FENDLERA RUPICOLA.--Mexico, 1888. A low-growing shrub, peculiar to the dry rocky parts of the United States, particularly the south-western district. It grows about a yard high, and bears a great profusion of bluish-white flowers, that are rendered very conspicuous by reason of the bright yellow stamens. It is the only known species, and is nearly allied to the Saxifrages. Any fairly good garden soil will suit it well, but it wants to be planted where superfluous moisture is quickly carried off. FORSYTHIA. FORSYTHIA SUSPENSA (_syn F. Fortunei_ and _F. Sieboldii_).--Japan and China, 1864. A slender-growing shrub, with variable leaves, and long, trailing shoots. The flowers are abundantly produced, are of a beautiful golden tint, and bell-shaped, and being of good substance last for a long time. Either as a wall plant, or for using in some sheltered corner, and where the branches can spread about at will, it forms a very distinct and handsome shrub, and one that is perfectly hardy and quite indifferent as regards the quality of soil in which it is planted. There are several forms of this pretty shrub, but as they do not differ to any great extent from the species, are hardly worthy of consideration. F. suspensa intermedia is a garden hybrid, 1891. F. VIRIDISSIMA.--Japan, 1845. This is another desirable species, but it is not comparable in point of beauty with the former. It is usually of strong erect growth, with stout shoots, wreathed with bright yellow flowers towards the end of winter. It is a very beautiful shrub, and a valuable addition to the winter or early spring flowering section. FOTHERGILLA. FOTHERGILLA ALNIFOLIA.--North Eastern America, 1765. This is an ungainly habited shrub, of dwarf growth, the branches being somewhat slender and crooked. The flowers are white, sweetly scented, and produced in dense terminal spikes. It is perfectly hardy. FRAXINUS. FRAXINUS ORNUS (_syn F. argentea, F. rotundifolia_, and _Ornus europea_).--Manna Ash. South Europe, 1730. This is a handsome tree, especially when young and vigorous, and by far the most ornamental species in cultivation. For planting in situations where large-growing subjects would be out of place this is a valuable tree, while the wealth of flowers renders it particularly interesting and effective. It rarely exceeds 30 feet in height, with leaves not unlike those of the common Ash, and conspicuous panicles of light, feathery, white petaliferous flowers, produced usually in great abundance all over the tree. Perfectly hardy. F. Ornus serotina alba and F. Ornus serotina violacea are beautiful seedling forms that were raised in France, and on account of their dwarf habit and profusion of flowers are well worthy of attention. The flowers of the first-named variety are pure white, the stamens having at first yellow anthers, which speedily turn to a rich blackish-brown. The other differs but little, only in the flowers, which are of a distinct greyish-violet hue, while the leaves are of a darker shade of green, and the leaflets longer and narrower. F. MARIESII.--Northern China, 1880. This is hardy in most parts of the country. The whole tree is quite glabrous except the petioles, which are clothed with a dense pubescence. Flowers pure white, and arranged in large dense panicles. FREMONTIA. FREMONTIA CALIFORNICA.--California, 1851. A handsome and deciduous Californian shrub, but scarcely hardy enough for the open air without protection. In Southern England and Ireland, however, it does well, and all the better if planted within the influence of the sea. The large yellow flowers are often about 2 inches across, and produced singly along the branches, while the leaves are large, lobed, and of an enticing shade of green. Planted against a wall, in good dampish loam, it succeeds well. FUCHSIA. FUCHSIA MACROSTEMA GLOBOSA (_syn F. globosa_).--Chili. This is readily recognised by the globose form assumed by the incurved sepals, while the flowers are smaller and less showy than those of F. Riccartoni. Hardihood about similar to the following. F. RICCARTONI.--This seedling from F. m. globosa is one of the two hardiest varieties, but even this plant, except in warm, maritime districts, is by no means satisfactory. Where it does well it is a shrub of great beauty, and blooms profusely. This species has red, straight sepals, and a purple corolla. In favoured districts it may frequently be seen as much as 12 feet high, and is then during the flowering period an object of great beauty. It originated at Riccarton, near Edinburgh, about 1830. GARRYA. GARRYA ELLIPTICA.--California, 1818. This is a handsome shrub, with dark green coreaceous leaves, resembling very nearly those of the Evergreen Oak. The long, tassellated catkins, of a peculiar yellowish-green colour, render the plant one of much interest and beauty. As a wall plant it thrives well, the slight protection thus afforded favouring the growth and expansion of the catkins. For planting in the shrubbery it is also well suited, and where it oft-times attains to a height of 6 feet, and is bushy in proportion. It is well to bear in mind that there are male and female plants of the Garrya, and that the former is the more ornamental. Good rich, well-drained loam will suit this shrub well. GAULTHERIA. GAULTHERIA NUMMULARIOIDES (_syn G. nummulariae_ and _G. repens_). --Himalayas. This is a neat Alpine species, with small and very dark green leaves. It likes a shady situation and vegetable soil. For planting on the rockwork, amongst tree roots, or beneath the shade of trees, the Gaultherias are particularly suitable. Light, but rich vegetable soil suits them best. G. PROCUMBENS.--Canada Tea, or Creeping Winter-green. North America, 1762. This is of much smaller growth than the following, rarely rising to a greater height than about half a foot, with lanceolate, serrated leaves, and pendulous axillary clusters of white flowers. G. SHALLON.--North-west America, 1826. Growing in favourable situations to fully a yard in height, this distinct evergreen shrub, which is fairly common in cultivation, is particularly valuable, as it thrives well under the shade and drip of trees. It is a rambling plant, with ovate-cordate, almost sessile leaves, and bears tiny white flowers that are succeeded by purplish fruit. G. Shallon acutifolia has more sharply pointed leaves than those of the species. GENISTA. GENISTA AETNENSIS (_syn Spartium aetnensis_).--Etna Broom. Sicily and Sardinia, 1816. This is a large-growing species of elegant growth, and remarkable for the abundance of yellow flowers with which it is literally covered in August. Than this South-European Pea-flower, perhaps not another member of the family is more worthy of culture, the neat, elegant habit of growth and profusion of flowers rendering it a plant of particular interest and beauty. It is quite hardy, thrives in any light soil if well drained, and is readily propagated from seed, which it ripens in abundance. G. ANXANTICA.--Naples, 1818. This is a nearly allied species to our native G. tinctoria, and is of dwarf growth with a rich abundance of golden yellow flowers that are produced towards the end of summer. G. CINEREA (_syn G. ramosissima_), from South Europe, is a very beautiful and desirable species, a yard high, and bearing in July slender twigs of the brightest yellow flowers. G. EPHEDROIDES.--Corsica and Sardinia, 1832. With small and abundantly-produced flowers, this resembles Ephedra, hence its name. G. GERMANICA.--Germany, 1773. This is a handsome rock garden shrub, of fully 18 inches in height, with arching stems and a plentiful supply of bright flowers during the summer and autumn months. G. HISPANICA.--South-western Europe, 1759. This species resembles our common Broom, but the branches are not angular. The large, yellow, fragrant flowers appear in July. There is a charming double-flowered variety named G. hispanica flore-pleno. G. LUSITANICA.--Portugal, 1771. This is remarkable for its opposite branches, is of spiny growth, and one of the earliest to appear in flower. G. MONOSPERMA.--South Europe, 1690. This has white flowers, and is of value as a seaside shrub, and grows well in almost pure sand. A native of the Mediterranean coast. G. PILOSA.--Greenweed. Europe (Britain). This is a dense prostrate native species, with bright yellow blossoms produced freely during May and June. A delightful rock shrub, and one that will succeed well almost in pure gravel. G. PROSTRATA.--Burgundy and Alps of Jura, 1775. A small-growing species suitable for rock gardening, and of spreading bushy growth. Flowers small, but ornamental, and produced in May and June. G. RADIATA (_syn Spartium radiatum_).--South Europe, 1758. This is a slender-growing shrub, about 18 inches high, with narrow leaflets, and terminal heads of yellow flowers produced in summer. G. SAGITTALIS.--South Europe, 1750. With its peculiarly winged and jointed stems, which are of a deep green colour, this is one of the most distinct forms. The flowers are few but pretty, and with the dwarf habit render the plant an excellent subject for rockwork. G. TINCTORIA.--Dyers' Greenweed. Europe (Britain), North and West Asia. This is a spineless species, and bears a profusion of yellow flowers from July onwards. The double-flowering variety, G. tinctoria flore-pleno, is, in so far as ornamental qualities are concerned, superior to the parent form. G. TINCTORIA ELATIOR (_syn G. elatior_) grows to 12 feet in height, is of free, spreading growth, and a very handsome plant. The flowers, which are individually small and yellow, are so thickly produced that the shrub, in late summer, has the appearance of a sheet of gold. G. TRIANGULARIS (_syn G. triquetra_).--South Europe, 1815. This is a decidedly good garden plant, and of neat, trailing habit. The stems are three sided, and the flowers golden yellow and plentifully produced. A native of South Europe, and perfectly hardy in almost any position. The above include most of the hardy Genistas, though G. capitata and G. daurica, both very ornamental kinds, might be added to the list. They are all very hardy, free-flowering shrubs, of simple culture, and succeeding well in any light and rather dry soil. GLEDITSCHIA. GLEDITSCHIA TRIACANTHOS.--Honey Locust. United States, 1700. As an ornamental hardy tree this is well worthy the attention of planters, the pinnate and bipinnate foliage being particularly elegant, while the flowers, though individually small, are borne in such quantities of fascicled racemes as to attract notice. The stem and branches are armed with formidable prickles, but there is a form in which the prickles are absent. A native of North America, and readily cultivated in any soil of even fair quality. For town planting it is a valuable tree. There is a good weeping variety named G. triacanthos pendula. G. SINENSIS (_syn G. horrida_).--China, 1774. This nearly resembles the latter, and is occasionally to be met with in cultivation in this country. GORDONIA. GORDONIA LASIANTHUS.--Loblolly Bay. North America, 1739. A shrub of great beauty, but one that, unfortunately, is rarely to be seen outside the walls of a botanic garden. It is of Camellia-like growth, with large, sweetly fragrant flowers and a good habit of growth. G. PUBESCENS.--North America, 1774. This is of smaller growth than the latter, rarely exceeding about 6 feet high, with large white flowers that are rendered all the more conspicuous by the tuft of golden stamens. Both species are somewhat tender, although hailing from the coast, swampy grounds of the southern States of North America. Planted in favoured sites, they usually grow freely in light, peaty soil, or that containing a large admixture of decayed leaf soil. GRABOWSKIA. GRABOWSKIA BOERHAAVIAEFOLIA.--Peru, 1780. This is occasionally to be seen in sheltered and favoured gardens, but it is not to be relied upon in other than southern and seaside districts. The plant is of no particular interest to the cultivator, the outline being ungainly, while the pale blue flowers are both dull and uninteresting. It belongs to the Solanum family, and is only worth cultivating as a curiosity. Light, warm soil and a sunny position are necessities in the cultivation of this shrub. GRISELINIA. GRISELINIA LITTORALIS.--New Zealand, 1872. This forms a compact bush of moderate size, and is fairly hardy. The leaves are of a light, pleasing green shade, coriaceous, and glossy, and remain on the plant during winter. It is an excellent shrub for the seaside, and, moreover, will succeed well in stiff soils where many other plants would refuse to grow. GYMNOCLADUS. GYMNOCLADUS CANADENSIS.--Kentucky Coffee Tree. Canada, 1748. When in full leafage this is a distinct and beautiful tree, the foliage hanging in well-rounded masses, and presenting a pretty effect by reason of the loose and tufted appearance of the masses of finely-divided leaves. Leaves often 3 feet long, bipinnate, and composed of numerous bluish-green leaflets. Flowers white, borne in loose spikes in the beginning of summer, and succeeded by flat, somewhat curved brown pods. It prefers a rich, strong soil or alluvial deposit. G. CHINENSIS.--Soap Tree. China, 1889. Readily distinguished from the American species by its much smaller and more numerous leaflets, and thicker fruit pod. It is not very hardy in this country unless in the milder sea-side districts. The leaves are used by the Chinese women to wash their hair, hence the popular name of Soap Tree. HALESIA. HALESIA DIPTERA (_syn H. reticulata_).--North America, 1758. This is not so suitable for our climate as H. tetraptera, though in southern parts of the country it forms a neat, healthy bush, and flowers freely. It is distinguished, as the name indicates, by having two wings to the seed vessel, H. tetraptera having four. H. HISPIDA (_syn Pterostyrax hispidum_).--Japan, 1875. This is a shrub of perfect hardihood, free growth, and very floriferous. The flowers, which are pure white, and in long racemes, resemble much those of the Snowdrop Tree. Leaves broad and slightly dentated. It is a handsome shrub, of free growth, in light, sandy loam, and quite hardy even when fully exposed. H. PARVIFLORA has smaller flowers than those of our commonly-cultivated plant. H. TETRAPTERA.--Snowdrop Tree. North America, 1756. This is a very ornamental tall-growing shrub, of somewhat loose growth, and bearing flowers which resemble, both in size and appearance, those of our common Snowdrop. It is one of the most ornamental of all the small-growing American trees, and richly deserves a place in every collection, on account of the profusion with which the flowers are produced in April and May. They are snow-white, drooping, and produced in lateral fascicles of eight or ten together. It is a native of river banks in North Carolina, and is well suited for cultivation in this country. Light, peaty soil will grow it to perfection. HALIMODENDRON. HALIMODENDRON ARGENTEUM (_syn Robinia Halimodendron_).--Salt tree. A native of Asiatic Russia (1779), having silvery foliage, and pink or purplish-pink flowers, axillary or fascicled. It is a neat and pretty shrub, that is rendered valuable as succeeding well in maritime districts. Quite hardy and of free growth in sandy soil. HAMAMELIS. HAMAMELIS JAPONICA.--The Japanese Witch Hazel. Japan, 1862. This is a small species with lemon-yellow flowers. H. japonica arborea is a taller growing variety, with primrose-yellow petals, and a deep claret calyx. The flowers are borne in clusters in early spring. Rarely in this country do we find this species of greater height than about 8 feet, but it is of bushy growth, though somewhat straggling in appearance. As early as the beginning of January this Witch Hazel may be found in bloom, the bare branches being studded here and there with the curious-shaped flowers, these having bright yellow, twisted petals and reddish calyces. H.j. Zuccarinianais a very desirable free-flowering variety, with pale yellow petals and a greenish-brown calyx. H. VIRGINICA.--Virginian Witch Hazel. North America, 1736. This has smaller flowers than H.j. arborea, and they are plentifully produced in autumn or early winter. In this country it assumes the shape of an open bush of about 6 feet in height, but is usually of untidy appearance from the branches being irregularly disposed. They all delight in cool, rather moist soil, and are of value for their early-flowering nature. HEDYSARUM. HEDYSARUM MULTIJUGUM.--South Mongolia. Hardly ten years have elapsed since this pretty shrub was introduced into England, so that at present it is rather rare in our gardens. It is a decided acquisition, if only for the production of flowers at a time when these are scarce. Usually the flowering time is in August, but frequently in the first weeks of October the pretty flowers are still full of beauty. It is of bushy habit, from 4 feet to 5 feet high, with oblong leaflets, in number from twenty to thirty-five, which are Pea-green above and downy on the under sides. Flowers bright red, and produced in axillary racemes. It is perfectly hardy, and grows freely in porous decomposed leaf-soil. HELIANTHEMUM. HELIANTHEMUM HALIMIFOLIUM.--Spain, 1656. This species is of erect habit, 3 feet or 4 feet high, and with leaves reminding one of those of the Sea Purslane. It is an evergreen, and has large bright yellow flowers, slightly spotted at the base of the petals. H. LAEVIPES (_syn Cistus laevipes_).--South-western Europe. A dwarf shrub, with Heath-like leaves, and yellow flowers that are produced in great abundance. H. LASIANTHUM (_syns H. formosum_ and _Cistus formosus_).--Spain and Portugal, 1780. This is a beautiful species, but not hardy unless in the South and West. It has large, bright yellow flowers, with a deep reddish-purple blotch at the base of each petal. H. LAVENDULAEFOLIUM has lavender-like leaves, with the under surface hoary, and yellow flowers. A native of the Mediterranean regions. H. LIBONATES.--This species bears dark green Rosemary-like leaves, and yellow flowers that are produced very abundantly. South Europe. H. PILOSUM.--South of France, 1831. This bears white flowers that are of good substance, and about an inch across. H. POLIFOLIUM (_syn H. pulverulentum_).--Europe (Britain), and North Africa. This is a neat-growing shrub, of very dwarf growth, with hairy leaves and yellow flowers; and H. polifolium roseum, has pretty rosy-red flowers. H. UMBELLATUM.--South Europe, 1731. A neat, small-growing species, with white flowers and glossy-green leaves covered with a rusty-white tomentum beneath. H. VULGARE.--Common Rock Rose. Europe (Britain), North Africa, and West Asia. A widely distributed native plant, of dwarf growth, with linear-oblong, hairy leaves, and usually yellow flowers. H. vulgare nummularium differs in having the leaves green and sub-orbicular, with yellow flowers. H. vulgare barbaturn is of erect habit, with silky, hairy, oval leaves. H. vulgare mutabile bears pale rose flowers, marked with yellow at the base. H. vulgare grandiflorum is remarkable for the large, bright yellow flowers, and is one of the most beautiful and worthy varieties. H. vulgare ovalifolium (_syn H. serpyllifolium_) bears yellow flowers and ovate leaves, with the margins revolute. H. vulgare hyssopifolium bears reddish flowers, but the colouring varies considerably, and saffron is not uncommon. The Rockroses are very valuable plants, in that they will succeed on poor, gravelly banks where few other plants could eke out an existence. They cannot withstand stiff soil, nor that at all inclined to be damp, their favourite resorts being exposed, rocky ground, and dry, gravelly banks. Being readily increased from cuttings, which take root well under a hand glass or in a cool house, it is advisable, at least with the more tender forms, to have at hand a stock, so that blanks in the shrubbery may be filled up. HIBISCUS. HIBISCUS SYRIACUS (_syn Althaea frutex_).--Syrian Mallow. Syria, 1596. An old occupant of our gardens, and one that cannot be too freely cultivated. When favourably situated, it often reaches 6 feet in height, with three-lobed, neatly-toothed leaves, and with large, showy blossoms that are borne towards the end of summer. The typical species has purplish flowers, with a crimson spot at the base of each petal, but others, varying in colour from snow-white to purple and blue, are common in cultivation. H. syriacus coelestis bears bright blue flowers, while H. syriacus variegatus has beautifully variegated foliage. Of the double-flowered forms, there are several beautiful and worthy plants, the following list containing some of the best varieties of this popular shrub:-- H. syriacus albo-pleno. " amaranthus. " amplissima. " ardens. " caerulea plena. " carnea plena. " De la Veuve. " elegantissimum. " fastuosa. " Lady Stanley. " Leopoldii. " lilacina plena. " paeoniaeflora. " puniceus plenus. " rosea plena. " rubra plena. " spectabilis plena. " violacea. HIPPOPHAE. HIPPOPHAE RHAMNOIDES.--Sea Buckthorn, or Sallow Thorn. Though generally considered as a sea-side shrub, the Sea Buckthorn is by no means exclusively so, thriving well, and attaining to large dimensions, in many inland situations. The flowers are not at all conspicuous, but this is amply compensated for by the beautiful silvery-like leaves and wealth of fruit borne by the shrub. In not a few instances, for fully a foot in length, the branches are smothered with crowded clusters of bright orange berries, and which render the shrub during November and December both distinct and effective. It does best in sandy soil, and is readily increased from suckers, which are usually plentifully produced by old plants. For sea-side planting it is one of our most valuable shrubs, succeeding, as it does, well down even to high water mark, and where the foliage is lashed with the salt spray. HOLBOELLIA. HOLBOELLIA LATIFOLIA (_syn Stauntonia latifolia_).--Himalayas, 1840. An evergreen climbing shrub that is more often found under glass than out of doors. In the South of England, however, it is quite hardy against a sunny wall. It grows 12 feet high, with shining green leathery leaves, and fragrant purplish-green flowers. H. latifolia angustifolia has decidedly narrower leaves than the species, but is in no other way different. HYDRANGEA. HYDRANGEA ARBORESCENS.--North America, 1736. This is a plant of large growth, but the flowers are greenish-white, and by no means conspicuous. H. HORTENSIS (_syn Hortensia opuloides_).--China, 1790. This is an old-fashioned garden shrub that is only hardy in the south and west of these islands and in the vicinity of the sea. In some of the forms nearly all the flowers are sterile, the calyx-lobes being greatly expanded, and in others the outer flowers only are sterile. According to the nature of the soil the flowers vary much in colour, some being pure white, others pink, and others of varying shades of blue. There are some very beautiful and distinct varieties, such as H. hortensis japonica; H. hortensis Otaksa, with large panicles of sterile blue flowers; H. hortensis rosea-alba, with large rosy flowers; H. hortensis Thomas Hogg, a very free-flowering and welcome form; H. hortensis mandschurica, and H. hortensis stellata flore-pleno, with partially double flowers, are worthy of attention. H. PANICULATA.--Japan, 1874. This is one of the most distinct species, in which the flower-heads are elongated, not flat, as in most other species, and from which the finest form in cultivation has been obtained. This is H. paniculata grandiflora, in which the flowers are sterile and pure white, forming large panicles often a foot in length. It is a magnificent variety, and, being perfectly hardy, should be extensively planted for ornament. The flowers are produced in late summer, but remain in good form for fully two months, dying off a rich reddish hue. H. QUERCIFOLIA.--Oak-leaved Hydrangea. Florida, 1803. This species has neatly lobed leaves, and terminal panicles of pinky-white, but partially barren, flowers. H. SCANDENS.--Climbing Hydrangea. Japan, 1879. This is not very hardy, but with the protection of a sunny wall it grows freely. The Hydrangeas require a rich, loamy soil, and, unless in maritime districts, a warm and sheltered situation. They are readily propagated by means of cuttings. HYMENANTHERA. HYMENANTHERA CRASSIFOLIA.--A curious New Zealand shrub with rigid ashy-coloured branches, and small leathery leaves. The flowers are violet-like in colour, but by no means conspicuous. The small white berries which succeed the flowers are, in autumn, particularly attractive, and very ornamental. It is perfectly hardy and of free growth in light peaty earth. HYPERICUM. HYPERICUM ANDROSAEMUM.--Tutsan, or Sweet Amber. Europe (Britain). A pretty native species, growing about 2 feet high, with ovate leaves having glandular dots and terminal clustered cymes of yellow flowers. H. AUREUM.--South Carolina and Georgia, 1882. This soon forms a neat and handsome plant. The flowers are unusually large, and remarkable for the tufts of golden-yellow stamens with which they are furnished. H. CALYCINUM.--Aaron's Beard, or Rose of Sharon. South-east Europe. This is a well-known native species of shrubby growth, bearing large yellow flowers from 3 inches to 4 inches in diameter. It is a prostrate plant, with coriaceous glossy leaves with small pellucid dots, and of great value for planting in the shade. H. ELATUM is a spreading species from North America (1762), growing to fully 4 feet in height, and bearing terminal corymbs of large, bright yellow flowers in July and August. Leaves rather large, oblong-ovate, and revolute. On account of its spreading rapidly from the root, this species requires to be planted where it will have plenty of room. H. HIRCINUM.--Goat-scented St. John's Wort. Mediterranean region, 1640. A small-growing and slender species, with oblong-lanceolate leaves 2 inches long, and producing small yellow flowers in terminal heads. There is a smaller growing form known as H. hircinum minus. The plant emits a peculiar goat-like odour. H. MOSERIANUM is a beautiful hybrid form with red anthers. H. OBLONGIFOLIUM (_syns H. Hookerianum_ and _H. nepalensis_).--Nepaul, 1823. An evergreen species, about 4 feet high, with oblong, pellucid, dotted leaves, and deep golden, somewhat waxy flowers at the end of summer. H. PROLIFICUM.--North America, 1758. This is a much branched twiggy shrub, about 4 feet high, with small, linear-lanceolate leaves, thickly studded with pellucid dots. Flowers not very large, five-petalled, and of a pleasing bright yellow colour. The allied if not identical H. Kalmiana is worthy of being included in a selection of these plants. H. URALUM.--Nepaul, 1823. A neat but fragile species that attains to about a yard in height. Leaves rather small, elliptic, almost stalkless, and perforated with transparent dots. Flowers small and of a bright golden yellow. H. fasciculatum, H. pyrimidatum, and H. patulum are all worthy of attention, where a good representative collection is of importance. The Hypericums succeed best when planted in a rather sandy and not too dry loam, and they are readily increased either from divisions or by means of cuttings. IDESIA. IDESIA POLYCARPA (_syns Flacourtica japonica_ and _Polycarpa Maximowiczii_).--A Japanese tree of small growth, and only introduced to this country in 1866. It is a handsome, hardy species, bearing large, bright-green leaves with conspicuous crimson footstalks, often 4 inches across, and of a glaucous tint on the under sides. The deliciously fragrant flowers are greenish-white or yellowish-green, and produced in graceful drooping racemes. In southern England it does well, and, being a tree of unusual beauty of both leaves and flowers, is well worthy of attention. Rich loam, not too stiff, will grow the Idesia well. ILEX. ILEX AQUIFOLIUM.--Common Holly. Europe (Britain) and West Asia. Though the Hollies are not usually reckoned ornamental for the sake of their flowers, their berries are highly so. Some of them are nevertheless deliciously fragrant when in bloom. The leaves of this, our native species, in their typical form are oblong-ovate, wavy, and deeply spiny-toothed. The tree flowers in May and June, while the clusters of bright red berries ripen in autumn, persist all the winter, and sometimes even hang on tree till a second crop is matured, provided they are not devoured by birds during severe weather. The varieties are very numerous, and differ chiefly in the form and toothing of the leaves, which are variegated in many cases, their size and form, and in the colour of the berries in a few instances. I. Aquifolium albo-marginata has ovate, nearly flat, spiny-serrate leaves, with a narrow silvery margin, and fruits freely. I. Aquifolium fructu albo has white berries; in I. Aquifolium fructu luteo they are yellow and very abundantly produced; and in I. Aquifolium fructu nigro they are black. I. Aquifolium handsworthensis has elliptic-oblong spiny leaves, with a creamy-white margin and marbled with gray. Grafted trees bear berries in great profusion from the time they are only a foot high, and are highly ornamental. I. Aquifolium Hodginsii has large, broadly oblong-ovate, slightly spiny leaves, and large crimson-red berries that ripen late in autumn. I. Aquifolium Hodginsii aurea is a sub-variety with a broad golden margin to the leaves, and the disc splashed with gray. Beautiful and distinct is I. Aquifolium Lawsoniana, with ovate, flat, almost spineless leaves, heavily and irregularly blotched with yellow in the centre. The berries are of a brilliant red. The variety differs from Milkmaid in having flat, nearly entire leaves. I. Aquifolium pendula has a wide, rounded, drooping head, but otherwise does not differ from the type. Many others bear berries, but the above are all very distinct forms. I. OPACA.--American Holly. United States, 1744. The leaves of this species are oblong or oval, small, spiny-serrate, and of a dark opaque green. The berries, which ripen in autumn, are small, bright red, and very liable to be eaten by birds. In America this Holly is put to precisely the same purposes as the common Holly is in Europe. It is perfectly hardy here. ILLICIUM. ILLICIUM FLORIDANUM, from Florida (1771), is a beautiful but uncommon shrub, probably on account of its being tender and susceptible to injury by frost, unless in the warmer and more favoured parts of the country. The fragrant flowers are of a purplish-rose, while the foliage is neat and of a pleasing green. I. ANISATUM (_syn I. religiosum_), from China and Japan (1842), is too tender for outdoor culture in this country. INDIGOFERA. INIDGOFERA GERARDIANA (_syns I. floribunda_ and _I. Dosua_).--India, 1842. This forms a compact dwarf bush in the open, but is still better suited for covering a wall, the growth and floriferousness being then much increased. The foliage is neat and Pea-green, while the bright pink Pea-like flowers are produced in long racemes. It is a pretty bush, and grows freely enough in any good garden soil, but very fine flowering specimens may be seen in light, sandy soil of a peaty nature. There is a white flowered variety named I. Gerardiana alba. ITEA. ITEA VIRGINICA.--North America, 1744. This is a neat, deciduous shrub of 3 feet or 4 feet in height. The ovate-lanceolate leaves are of a light greyish-green, and the small white flowers are produced in dense racemes or spikes. Planted in a somewhat shady place, and in rather cool, damp soil, this little shrub does well and flowers profusely. JAMESIA. JAMESIA AMERICANA.--Rocky Mountains and Colorado, 1865. Amongst early spring-flowering shrubs this pretty but neglected plant is one of the best, of perfect hardihood, for it stands the vigour of our winters with impunity, and of dense thick growth; it is suitable for using in a variety of ways, as well as for purely ornamental purposes. The leaves are oval and neatly dentated, and the flowers individually of large size, pure white, and produced in terminal bunches. Cool soil and a shady situation would seem to suit the plant admirably, but for screen purposes in the rock garden or border it is invaluable on account of the strong and dense twigs. JASMINUM. JASMINUM FRUTICANS.--South Europe, 1570. An evergreen species, well adapted, from its rather stiff and upright growth, for planting alone. It has trifoliolate leaves and showy yellow flowers. J. HUMILE.--India, 1656. A hardy species of dwarf growth, and bearing beautiful golden flowers produced in summer. J. NUDIFLORUM.--Naked Jasmine. China, 1844. A showy and well-known species, from China, with numerous, usually solitary yellow flowers, ternate leaves, and flexible branches. The variety J. nudiflorum aureo-variegatum has golden-variegated leaves. J. OFFICINALE.--Northern India to Persia, 1548. The white-flowered Jasmine of our gardens is a very beautiful and desirable clambering shrub, either for wall covering, for planting by tree stumps, rooteries, or rockeries, or for screening and draping the pergola or garden latticework. From its great hardihood, vigour of growth, and beauty of flowers, it is certainly one of the most deservedly popular of wall shrubs. The branches are deep green, angular, and flexible, the leaves pinnate, and the flowers pure-white and sweetly-scented. The variety J. officinale affine has flowers that are individually larger than those of the species; J. officinale aurea has badly variegated leaves; J. officinale grandiflorum and J. officinale grandiflorum majus, are also desirable kinds. J. PUBIGERUM GLABRUM (_syn J. Wallichianum_), from North-west India, is not well-known, being tender in most parts of the country. J. REVOLUTUM.--India, 1812. This has persistent dark, glossy-green leaves, and fragrant, bright yellow flowers, produced in large, terminal clusters. From India, but perfectly hardy as a wall plant, and for which purpose, with its bright evergreen leaves, it is well suited. As regards soil, the Jasmines are very accommodating, and are propagated by layers or cuttings. KADSURA. KADSURA JAPONICA.--Japan, 1846. This is a small-growing shrub, with lanceolate and pointed leaves, that are remotely dentated. The flowers are not very showy, being of a yellowish-white colour and about an inch across. They are produced both terminal and axillary, and in fair abundance. The scarlet fruits are arranged in clusters, and when fully ripe are both showy and interesting. Generally speaking this shrub suffers from severe frost, but as only the branch tips are injured, it shoots freely from the stock. It produces its flowers in the autumn. There is a variety with variegated leaves. KALMIA. KALMIA ANGUSTIFOLIA.--Sheep Laurel. Canada, 1736. This is at once distinguished from K. latifolia by its much smaller and narrower leaves and smaller flowers, which latter are, however, of brighter tint and more plentifully produced. It rarely exceeds 2 feet in height. Of this there are two very distinct forms, that named K. angustifolia pumila, being of neat and dense small growth; and K. angustifolia rubra, in which the flowers are of an unusually deep red. K. GLAUCA.--Canada and Sitcha, 1767. This, which has lilac-purple flowers, produced in early spring, is not a very desirable species, being rather straggling of growth and with few flowers. K. HIRSUTA.--Hairy-leaved Kalmia. South-east Virginia to Florida, 1786. This is at once distinguished by the rather rough and hairy foliage and few rosy-tinted flowers. It is of dwarf, neat growth. K. LATIFOLIA.--Calico Bush, or Mountain Laurel. Alleghanies, Canada, and Western Florida, 1734. A favourite shrub in every garden where the conditions of soil will allow of its being successfully cultivated. In peaty soil, or light, friable loam and leaf soil, it forms a dense, round-headed bush, often 8 feet in height, and nearly as much through, with pleasing green leaves, and dense clusters of beautiful pink, wax-like flowers. The flowering period commences in May, and usually extends to the end of July. This is a choice shrub of great hardihood, and one of the handsomest flowering in cultivation. There is a still more beautiful form named K. latifolia major splendens, and one with small Myrtle-like foliage named K. latifolia myrtifolia. The members of this handsome family are, as a rule, partial to cool, damp soil, peat of a light, sandy nature being preferred. They thrive well where Azaleas and Rhododendrons will succeed. In bold masses they have a fine effect, but a well developed standard specimen of the commonly cultivated species is highly ornamental. KERRIA. KERRIA JAPONICA (_syn Corchorus japonicus_).--Japan, 1700. A Japanese shrub, the double-flowered variety of which, K. japonica flore-pleno, is one of our commonest wall plants. The orange-yellow flowers, produced in great rosettes, are highly ornamental, and have earned for the shrub a well-known name. It succeeds well almost anywhere, and, though usually seen as a wall plant, is perfectly hardy, and forms a neat shrub for the open border. There is a form in which the leaves are variegated, and known under the name of K. japonica variegata. KOELREUTERIA. KOELREUTERIA PANICULATA.--Northern China, 1763. Whether for its foliage or flowers, this small-growing tree is worthy of a place. Though of rather irregular growth, the beautiful foliage and large panicles of yellowish flowers, which stand well above the leaves, make the shrub (for it does not in this country attain to tree height), one of particular interest, and a valuable aid in ornamental planting. In a sheltered corner, and planted in rich soil, it grows and flowers freely. LABURNUM. LABURNUM ADAMI (_syn Cytisus Adami_).--A graft hybrid form between the common Laburnum and Cytisus purpureus, the result being flowers of the Laburnum, the true Cytisus purpureus, and the graft hybrid between the two. It was raised by Jean Louis Adam in 1825. It is a curious and distinct tree, worthy of culture if only for the production of three distinct kinds of flowers on the same plant. L. ALPINUM (_syn Cytisus alpinus_).--Scotch Laburnum. Europe, 1596. This very closely resembles the common Laburnum, but it is of larger growth, and flowers later in the season. The flowers, too, though in longer racemes, are usually less plentifully produced. It grows 30 feet high. There is a weeping form, L. alpinum pendulum, and another with fragrant flowers, named L. alpinum fragrans, as also a third, with very long racemes of flowers, named L. alpinum Alschingeri. L. CARAMANICUM.--Asia Minor, 1879. A bushy shrub of vigorous habit, with trifoliolate and petiolate leaves of a pale green colour, thick and tough, and brightly polished on the upper surface. Flowers bright yellow, the calyx being helmet-shaped and rusty-red. It is a beautiful but uncommon shrub, and succeeds very well in chalky or calcareous soil. Flowers in July. L. VULGARE (_syn Cytisus Laburnum_).--Common Laburnum. Southern France to Hungary, 1596. This is one of our commonest garden and park trees, and at the same time one of the most beautiful and floriferous. The large, pendulous racemes of bright yellow flowers are, when at their best in May, surpassed neither in quantity nor beauty by those of any other hardy tree. There are several varieties of this Laburnum--a few good, but many worthless, at least from a garden point of view. L. vulgare Parkesii is a seedling form, bearing large racemes of deep-coloured flowers, often 14 inches long; L. vulgare Watereri was raised in the Knap Hill Nursery, Surrey, and is one of the most distinct and beautiful of the many forms into which the Laburnum has been sub-divided. The flower racemes are very long and richly coloured. L. vulgare quercifolium and L. vulgare sessilifolium are fairly well described by their names; L. vulgare fragans differs only in having sweetly-scented flowers; L. vulgare involutum has curiously-curled leaves; while L. vulgare aureum, where it does well, is a beautiful and distinct form. LARDIZABALA. LARDIZABALA BITERNATA.--Chili, 1848. Requires wall protection, there being few situations in which it will succeed when planted in the open. It is a tall, climbing shrub, with dark green persistent leaves, and bearing purplish flowers in drooping racemes in mid-winter. Planted in rather dry soil, at the base of a sunny wall, this shrub forms a by no means unattractive covering, the twice ternate, glossy leaves being fresh and beautiful the winter through. LAPAGERIA. LAPAGERIA ROSEA.--Chili, 1847. This is, unfortunately, not hardy, unless in favoured maritime districts, but in such situations it has stood unharmed for many years, and attained to goodly proportions. It is a beautiful climber, with deep-green leaves, and large, fleshy, campanulate flowers of a deep rose colour. There is a white-flowered form called L. alba, introduced from Chili in 1854. Planted on an east aspect wall, and in roughly broken up peat and gritty sand, it succeeds well. LAVANDULA. LAVANDULA VERA (_syn L. Spica_).--Common Lavender. South Europe, 1568. A well-known and useful plant, but of no particular value for ornamental purposes. It is of shrubby growth, with narrow-lanceolate, hoary leaves, and terminal spikes of blue flowers. LAVATERA. LAVATERA ARBOREA.--Tree Mallow. Coasts of Europe, (Britain). A stout-growing shrub reaching in favourable situations a height of fully 6 feet, with broadly orbicular leaves placed on long stalks. The flowers are plentiful and showy, of a pale purplish-red colour, and collected into clusters. It is a seaside shrub succeeding best in sheltered maritime recesses, and when in full flower is one of the most ornamental of our native plants. There is also a beautiful variegated garden form, L. a. variegata. LEDUM. LEDUM LATIFOLIUM (_syn L. groenlandicum_).--Wild Rosemary, or Labrador Tea. This is a small shrub, reaching to about 3 feet in height, indigenous to swampy ground in Canada, Greenland, and over a large area of the colder parts of America. Leaves oval or oblong, and plentifully produced all over the plant. Flowers pure white, or slightly tinted with pink, produced in terminal corymbs, and usually at their best in April. A perfectly hardy, neat-growing, and abundantly-flowered shrub, but one that, somehow, has gone greatly out of favour in this country. This plant has been sub-divided into several varieties, that are, perhaps, distinct enough to render them worthy of attention. They are L. latifolium globosum, with white flowers, borne in globose heads, on the short, twiggy, and dark-foliaged branches. L. latifolium angustifolia has narrower leaves than those of the species, while L. latifolium intermedium is of neat growth and bears pretty, showy flowers. L. PALUSTRE.--Marsh Ledum. This is a common European species, growing from 2 feet to 3 feet high, with much smaller leaves than the former, and small pinky-white flowers produced in summer. It is an interesting and pretty plant. The Ledums succeed best in cool, damp, peaty soil. LEIOPHYLLUM. LEIOPHYLLUM BUXIFOLIUM (_syns L. thymifolia, Ammyrsine buxifolia_ and _Ledum buxifolium_).--Sand Myrtle. New Jersey and Virginia, 1736. This is a dwarf, compact shrub from New Jersey, with box-like leaves, and bunches of small white flowers in early summer. For using as a rock plant, and in sandy peat, it is an excellent subject, and should find a place in every collection. LESPEDEZA. LESPEDEZA BICOLOR (_syn Desmodium penduliflorum_).--North China and Japan. A little-known but beautiful small-growing shrub, of slender, elegant growth, and reaching, under favourable culture, a height of about 6 feet. The leaves are trifoliolate, small, and neat, and the abundant racemes of individually small, Pea-shaped flowers are of the richest and showiest reddish-purple. Being only semi-hardy will account for the scarcity of this beautiful Japanese shrub, but having stood uninjured in all but the coldest parts of these islands should induce lovers of flowering shrubs to give it a fair chance. LEUCOTHOE. LEUCOTHOE AXILLARIS (_syn Andromeda axillaris_).--North America, 1765. This is of small growth, from 2 feet to 3 feet high, with oval-pointed leaves and white flowers in short racemes produced in May and June. It is not a very satisfactory species for cultivation in this country. L. CATESBAEI (_syns Andromeda Catesbaei_ and _A. axillaris_).--North America. This has white flowers with an unpleasant odour like that of Chestnut blossoms, but is worthy of cultivation, and succeeds best in cool sandy peat or friable yellow loam. L. DAVISIAE, from California (1853), is a very handsome evergreen shrub, of small and neat growth, and will be found an acquisition where compact shrubs are in demand. The leaves are small, of a deep green colour, and remain throughout the year. Flowers produced in great abundance at the branch tips, usually in dense clusters, and individually small and pure white. L. RECURVA (_syn Andromeda recurva_).--North America. A very distinct plant on account of the branch tips being almost of a scarlet tint, and thus affording a striking contrast to the grayish-green of the older bark. The flowers are pinky-white and produced in curving racemes and abundantly over the shrub. Like other members of the family it delights to grow in cool sandy peat. LEYCESTERIA. LEYCESTERIA FORMOSA, from Nepaul (1824), is an erect-growing, deciduous shrub, with green, hollow stems, and large ovate, pointed leaves of a very deep green colour. The flowers are small, and white or purplish, and produced in long, pendulous, bracteate racemes from the axils of the upper leaves. It is one of the most distinct and interesting of hardy shrubs, the deep olive-green of both stem and leaves, and abundantly-produced and curiously-shaped racemes, rendering it a conspicuous object wherever planted. Perfectly hardy, and of free, almost rampant growth in any but the stiffest soils. Cuttings root freely and grow rapidly. LIGUSTRUM. LIGUSTRUM IBOTA (_syn L. amurense_).--Japan, 1861. A compact growing species, about 3 feet in height, with small spikes of pure white flowers produced freely during the summer months. L. JAPONICUM (_syns L. glabrum, L. Kellennanni, L. Sieboldii_ and _L. syringaeflorum_).--Japan Privet. This is a dwarf-growing species rarely exceeding 4 feet in height, with broad, smooth, glossy-green leaves, and large compound racemes of flowers. There are several varieties, including L. japonicum microphyllum, with smaller leaves than the parent; and one with tricoloured foliage and named L. japonicum variegatum. L. LUCIDUM (_syns L. magnoliaefolium_ and _L. strictum_).--Shining-leaved Privet, or Woa Tree. China, 1794. A pretty evergreen species, with oval leaves, and terminal, thyrsoid panicles of white flowers. It is an old inhabitant of our gardens, and forms a somewhat erect, twiggy bush, of fully 10 feet in height. Of this there are two varieties, one with larger bunches of flowers, and named L. lucidum floribundum, and another with variegated leaves, L. lucidum variegatum. L. lucidum coriaceum (Leathery-leaved Privet) is a distinct variety, with thick, leathery-green leaves, and dense habit of growth. L. OVALIFOLIUM (_syn L. californicum_).--Oval-leaved Privet. Japan, 1877. This is a commonly-cultivated species, with semi-evergreen leaves, and spikes of yellowish-white flowers. It is a good hedge plant, and succeeds well as a town shrub. There are several variegated forms, of which L. ovalifolium variegatum (Japan, 1865) and L. ovalifolium aureum are the best. L. QUIHOI.--China, 1868. This is a much valued species, as it does not flower until most of its relations have finished. Most of the Privets flower at mid-summer, but this species is often only at its best by the last week of October and beginning of November. It forms a straggling freely-branched shrub, of fully 6 feet in height and nearly as much through, with dark shining-green oblong leaves, and loose terminal panicles of pure white, powerfully-scented flowers. It flourishes, like most of the Privets, on poor soil, and is a little-known species that note should be made of during the planting season. L. SINENSE (_syns L. villosum_ and _L. Ibota villosum_).--Chinese Privet. China, 1858. This is a tall deciduous shrub, with oblong and tomentose leaves, and flowers in loose, terminal panicles and produced freely in August. L. sinense nanum is one of the prettiest forms in cultivation. It is almost evergreen, with a horizontal mode of growth, and dense spikes of crearny-white flowers, so thickly produced as almost to hide the foliage from view. It is a most distinct and desirable variety. L. VULGARE.--Common Privet. Although one of our commonest shrubs, this Privet can hardly be passed unnoticed, for the spikes of creamy-white flowers, that are deliciously scented, are both handsome and effective. Of the common Privet there are several distinct and highly ornamental forms, such as L. vulgare variegatum, L. vulgare pendulum, having curiously-creeping branches, and the better-known and valuable L. vulgare sempervirens (_syn L. italicum_), the Italian Privet. LINNAEA. LINNAEA BOREALIS.--Twin Flower. A small and elegant, much-creeping evergreen shrub, with small, ovate crenate leaves, and pairs of very fragrant, pink flowers. Two conditions are necessary for its cultivation--a half-shaded aspect where bottom moisture is always present, and a deep, rich, friable loam. A native of Scotland and England, flowering in July. LIPPIA. LIPPIA CITRIODORA (_syns Aloysia citriodora_ and _Verbena triphylla_).--Lemon-scented Verbena. Chili, 1794. With its slender branches and pale green, pleasantly-scented, linear leaves, this little plant is a general favourite that needs no description. The flowers are not very ornamental, being white or lilac, and produced in small, terminal panicles. A native of Chili, it is not very hardy, but grown against a sunny wall, and afforded the protection of a mat in winter, with a couple of shovelfuls of cinders heaped around the stem, it passes through the most severe weather with little or no injury, save, in some instances, the branch tips being killed back. Propagated readily from cuttings placed in a cool frame or under a hand-light. LIRIODENDRON. LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA.--Tulip Tree. North America, 1688. One of the noblest hardy exotic trees in cultivation. The large, four-lobed, truncate leaves, of a soft and pleasing green, are highly ornamental, and are alone sufficient to establish the identity of the tree. Flowers large, yellow, and sweet-scented, and usually freely produced when the tree has attained to a height of between 20 feet and 30 feet. When we consider the undoubted hardihood of the tree and indifference to soil, its noble aspect, handsome foliage that is so distinct from that of any other tree, and showy flowers, we feel justified in placing it in the very first rank of ornamental trees. L. tulipifera integrifolia has entire leaves, which render it distinct from the type; L. tulipifera fastigiata, or pyramidalis, is of erect growth; L. tulipifera aurea, with golden foliage; and L. tulipifera crispa, with the leaves curiously undulated--a peculiarity which seems constant, but is more curious than beautiful. Few soils come amiss to the Tulip Tree, it thriving well in that of very opposite descriptions--loam, almost pure gravel, and alluvial deposit. LONICERA. LONICERA CAPRIFOLIUM.--Europe. This species resembles L. Periclymenum, but is readily distinguished by the sessile flower-heads, and fawny-orange flowers. L. FLEXUOSA (_syn L. brachypoda_).--Japan, 1806. This is a pretty species, and one of the most useful of the climbing section. By its slender, twining, purplish stems, it may at once be distinguished, as also by the deep green, purplish-tinted leaves, and sweetly-scented flowers of various shades of yellow and purple. A native of China, and perfectly hardy as a wall plant. L. flexuosa aureo-reticulata is a worthy variety, in which the leaves are beautifully netted or variegated with yellow. L. FRAGRANTISSIMA.--China, 1845. This species is often confounded with L. Standishii, but differs in at least one respect, that the former is strictly a climber, while the latter is of bushy growth. The leaves, too, of L. Standishii are hairy, which is not the case with the other species. It is a very desirable species, with white fragrant flowers, produced during the winter season. L. PERICLYMENUM.--Honeysuckle, or Woodbine. An indigenous climbing shrub, with long, lithe, and twisted cable-like branches, and bearing heads of sweetly-scented, reddish-yellow flowers. This is a favourite wild plant, and in the profusion and fragrance of its flowers it is surpassed by none of the exotic species. There are several distinct nursery forms of this plant, including those known as L. Periclymenum Late Dutch, L. Periclymenum Early Cream, and L. Periclymenum odoratissimum; as also one with variegated foliage. L. SEMPERVIRENS.--Scarlet Trumpet Honeysuckle. A North American evergreen species (1656), with scarlet, almost inodorous flowers, produced freely during the summer. For wall covering it is one of the most useful of the family. The variety L. sempervirens minor is worthy of attention. L. STANDISHII, a Chinese species (1860), has deliciously fragrant while flowers, with a slight purplish tint, and is well worthy of attention, it soon forming a wall covering of great beauty. L. TATARICA.---Tartarian Honeysuckle. Tartary, 1752. This is a very variable species, in so far at least as the colour of flowers is concerned, and has given rise to several handsome varieties. The typical plant has rosy flowers, but the variety L. tatarica albiflora has pure white flowers; and another, L. tatarica rubriflora has freely produced purplish-red flowers. L. XYLOSTEUM (_syn Xylosteum dumetorum_).--Fly Honeysuckle. Europe (England) to the Caucasus. The small, creamy-white flowers of this plant are not particularly showy, but the scarlet berries are more conspicuous in September and October. The gray bark of the branches has also a distinct effect in winter when grown in contrast to the red-barked species of Cornus, Viburnum, and yellow-barked Osier. It is one of the oldest occupants of British shrubberies. L. Xylosteum leucocarpum has white berries; those of L. Xylosteum melanocarpum are black; and in L. Xylosteum xanthocarpum they are yellow. The Honeysuckles are all of the readiest culture, and succeed well in very poor soils, and in that of opposite qualities. Propagated from cuttings or by layering. LOROPETALON. LOROPETALON CHINENSE.--Khasia Mountains and China, 1880. This is a pretty and interesting shrub belonging to the more familiar Witch Hazel family. Flowers clustered in small heads, the calyx pale green, and the long linear petals almost pure white. Being quite hardy, and interesting as well as ornamental, should insure this Chinese shrub a place in every good collection. LYCIUM. LYCIUM BARBARUM.--Box Thorn, or Tea Tree. North Asia, 1696. A pretty lax, trailing shrub, with long, slender, flexible twigs, small linear-lanceolate leaves, and rather sparsely-produced lilac or violet flowers. Planted against a wall, or beside a stout-growing, open-habited shrub, where the peculiarly lithe branches can find support, this plant does best. Probably nowhere is the Box Thorn so much at home as in seaside places, it then attaining to sometimes 12 feet in height, and bearing freely its showy flowers during summer, and the bright scarlet or orange berries in winter. L. EUROPAEUM.--European Box Thorn. South Europe, 1730. This is a spiny, rambling shrub, that may often be seen clambering over some cottage porch, or used as a fence or wall plant in many parts of England. It often grows nearly 20 feet long, and is then a plant of great beauty, with linear-spathulate leaves of the freshest green, and pretty little pink or reddish flowers. For quickly covering steep, dry banks and mounds where few other plants could exist this European Box Thorn is invaluable. Either species will grow in very poor, dry soil, and is readily propagated by means of cuttings. LYONIA. LYONIA PANICULATA (_syns L. ligustrina, Andromeda globulifera, A. pilifera_, and _Menziesia globularis_).--North America, 1806. This species grows about a yard high, with clustered, ovate leaves, and pretty, pinky, drooping flowers. MACLURA. MACLURA AURANTIACA.--Osage Orange, or Bow-wood. North America, 1818. This is a wide-spreading tree with deciduous foliage, and armed with spines along the branches. The leaves are three inches long, ovate and pointed, and of a bright shining green. Flowers rather inconspicuous, being green with a light tinge of yellow, and succeeded by fruit bearing a resemblance when ripe to the Seville orange. It is hardy, and grows freely in rather sandy or gravelly soil. MAGNOLIA. MAGNOLIA ACUMINATA.--Cucumber Tree. North America, 1736. This is a large and handsome species, of often as much as 50 feet in height, and with a head that is bushy in proportion. The leaves are 6 inches long, ovate and pointed, and of a refreshing shade of green. Flowers greenish-yellow, sweetly scented, and produced abundantly all over the tree. They are succeeded by small, roughish fruit, resembling an infant cucumber, but they usually fall off before becoming ripe. M. CAMPBELII.--Sikkim, 1868. This is a magnificent Indian species, but, unfortunately, it is not hardy except in the favoured English and Irish localities. The leaves are large, and silky on the undersides, while the flowers are crimson and white, and equally as large as those of the better-known M. grandiflora. M. CONSPICUA (_syn M. Yulan_).--Yulan. China, 1789. A large-growing shrub, with Pea-green, deciduous foliage, and large, pure white flowers that oft get damaged by the spring frosts. M. conspicua Soulangeana is a supposed hybrid between M. conspicua and M. obovata. Whatever may be the origin of this Magnolia, it is certainly a handsome and showy plant of very vigorous growth, producing freely its white, purple-tinted flowers, and which last for a long time in perfection. There are several other varieties, including M. conspicua Soulangeana nigra, with dark purplish flowers; M. conspicua Alexandrina, M. conspicua Soulangeana speciosa, and M. conspicua Norbertii. M. CORDATA, a native of the Southern Alleghanies (1801), is still rare in collections. It is a small-growing, deciduous species, with yellow flowers, that are neither scented nor showy. M. FRASERI (_syn M. auriculata_).--Long-leaved Cucumber Tree. North America, 1786. This species has distinctly auriculated leaves and large, yellowish-white, fragrant flowers. M. GLAUCA.--Laurel Magnolia. North America, 1688. This is one of the commonest species in our gardens, and at the same time one of the hardiest. It is of shrub size, with Laurel-like leaves, and sweetly-scented, small, pure white flowers, produced about the end of June. M. GRANDIFLORA.--North America, 1737. One of the handsomest species, with very large, glossy, evergreen leaves, and deliciously odoriferous, creamy-white flowers, that are often fully 6 inches across. It is usually seen as a wall plant, and the slight protection thus afforded is almost a necessity in so far as the development of the foliage and flowers is concerned. M. grandiflora exoniensis (Exmouth Magnolia) is a very handsome form. M. LENNEI.--This is a garden hybrid between M. conspicua and M. obovata discolor, and has flowers as large as a goose's egg, of a rosy-purple colour, and produced profusely. M. MACROPHYLLA.--North America, 1800. This species has very large leaves and flowers, larger, perhaps, than those of any other species. They are very showy, being white with a purple centre. It attains a height of 30 feet. M. OBOVATA DISCOLOR (_syn M. purpurea_).--Japan, 1790. This is a small-growing, deciduous shrub, with large, dark green leaves, and Tulip-shaped flowers, that are purple on the outside and almost white within. M. PARVIFLORA, from Japan, with creamy-white, fragrant flowers, that are globular in shape, is a very distinct and attractive species, but cannot generally be relied upon as hardy. M. STELLATA (_syn M. Halleana_).--Japan, 1878. A neat, small-growing, Japanese species, of bushy habit, and quite hardy in this country. The small, white, fragrant flowers are produced abundantly, even on young plants, and as early as April. One of the most desirable and handsome of the small-growing species. M. stellata (pink variety) received an Award of Merit at the meeting of the Royal Horticultural Society on March 28, 1893. This bids fair to be really a good thing, and may best be described as a pink-flowered form of the now well-known and popular species. M. UMBRELLA (_syn M. tripetala_).--Umbrella Tree. North America, 1752. A noble species, with large, deep green leaves, that are often 16 inches long. It is quite hardy around London, and produces its large, white, fragrant flowers in succession during May and June. The fruit is large and showy, and of a deep purplish-red colour. MEDICAGO. MEDICAGO ARBOREA.--South Europe, 1596. This species grows to the height of 6 feet or 8 feet, and produces its Pea-shaped flowers from June onwards. The leaves are broadly oval and serrated at the tips, but they vary in this respect. It is not hardy unless in warm, sheltered corners of southern England and Ireland, although it stood unharmed for many years at Kew. It succeeds best, and is less apt to receive injury, when planted in rather dry and warm soil. MENISPERMUM. MENISPERMUM CANADENSE.--Moonseed. North America, 1691. This shrub is principally remarkable for the large, reniform, peltate leaves, which are of value for covering pergolas, bowers and walls. The flowers are of no great account, being rather inconspicuous and paniculate. It is hardy in most places, and is worthy of culture for its graceful habit and handsome foliage. MICROGLOSSA. MICROGLOSSA ALBESCENS (_syn Aster albescens_ and _A. cabulicus_).--Himalayas, 1842. This member of the Compositae family is a much-branched shrub, with grayish lanceolate foliage, and clusters of flowers about 6 inches in diameter, and of a bluish or mauve colour. It is a native of Nepaul, and, with the protection of a wall, perfectly hardy around London. MITCHELLA. MITCHELLA REPENS.--Partridge Berry. North America, 1761. A low-growing, creeping plant, having oval, persistent leaves, white flowers, and brilliant scarlet fruit. It is a neat little bog plant, resembling Fuchsia procumbens in habit, and with bunches of the brightest Cotoneaster-like fruit. For rock gardening, or planting on the margins of beds in light, peaty soil, this is one of the handsomest and most beautiful of hardy creeping shrubs. MITRARIA. MITRARIA COCCINEA.--Scarlet Mitre Pod. Chiloe, 1848. This is only hardy in the South of England and Ireland, and even there it requires wall protection. It is a pretty little shrub, with long, slender shoots, which, during the early part of the summer, are studded with the bright red, drooping blossoms, which are urn-shaped, and often nearly 2 inches long. It delights in damp, lumpy, peat. MYRICA. MYRICA ASPLENIFOLIA (_syn Comptonia asplenifolia_).--Sweet Fern. North America, 1714. A North American plant of somewhat straggling growth, growing to about 4 feet high, and with linear, pinnatified, sweet-smelling leaves. The flowers are of no decorative value, being small and inconspicuous, but for the fragrant leaves alone the shrub will always be prized. It grows well in peaty soil, is very hardy, and may be increased by means of offsets. This shrub is nearly allied to our native Myrica or Sweet Gale. M. CALIFORNICA.--Californian Wax Myrtle. California, 1848. In this we have a valuable evergreen shrub that is hardy beyond a doubt, and that will thrive in the very poorest classes of soils. In appearance it somewhat resembles our native plant, but is preferable to it on account of the deep green, persistent leaves. The leaves are about 3 inches long, narrow, and produced in tufts along the branches. Unlike our native species, the Californian Wax Myrtle has no pleasant aroma to the leaves. M. CERIFERA.--Common Candle-berry Myrtle. Canada, 1699. This is a neat little shrub, usually about 4 feet high, with oblong-lanceolate leaves, and inconspicuous catkins. M. GALE.--Sweet Gale or Bog Myrtle. This has inconspicuous flowers, and is included here on account of the deliciously fragrant foliage, and which makes it a favourite with cultivators generally. It is a native shrub, growing from 3 feet to 4 feet high, with deciduous, linear-lanceolate leaves, and clustered catkins appearing before the leaves. A moor or bog plant, and of great value for planting by the pond or lake side, or along with the so-called American plants, for the aroma given off by the foliage. The Myricas are all worthy of cultivation, although the flowers are inconspicuous--their neat and in most cases fragrant foliage, and adaptability to poor soil or swampy hollows, being extra recommendations. MYRTUS. MYRTUS COMMUNIS.--Common Myrtle. South Europe, 1597. A well-known shrub, which, unless in very favoured spots and by the sea-side, cannot survive our winters. Where it does well, and then only as a wall plant, this and its varieties are charming shrubs with neat foliage and an abundance of showy flowers. The double-flowered varieties are very handsome, but they are more suitable for glass culture than planting in the open. M. LUMA (_syn Eugenia apiculata_ and _E. Luma_).--Chili. Though sometimes seen growing out of doors, this is not to be recommended for general planting, it being best suited for greenhouse culture. M. UGNI (_syn Eugenia Ugni_).--Valdivia, 1845. A small-growing, Myrtle-like shrub, that is only hardy in favoured parts of the country. It is of branching habit, with small, wiry stems, oval, coriacious leaves, and pretty pinky flowers. The edible fruit is highly ornamental, being of a pleasing ruddy tinge tinted with white. This dwarf-growing shrub wants the protection of a wall, and when so situated in warm seaside parts of the country soon forms a bush of neat and pleasing appearance. NEILLIA. NEILLIA OPULIFOLIA (_syn Spiraea opulifolia_).--Nine Bark. North America, 1690. A hardy shrub, nearly allied to Spiraea. It produces a profusion of umbel-like corymbs of pretty white flowers, that are succeeded by curious swollen membraneous purplish fruit. N. opulifolia aurea is worthy of culture, it being of free growth and distinct from the parent plant. N. THYRSIFLORA, Nepaul, 1850, would seem to be quite as hardy as N. opulifolia, and is of more evergreen habit. The leaves are doubly serrated and three lobed, and cordate-ovate. Flowers white in spicate, thyrsoid racemes, and produced rather sparsely. NESAEA. NESAEA SALICIFOLIA (_syn Heimia salicifolia_).--Mexico, 1821. This can only be styled as half hardy, but with wall protection it forms a pretty bush often fully a yard in height. The leaves resemble those of some species of Willow, being long and narrow, while the showy yellow flowers are freely produced in August and September. It thrives best when planted in light, dry soil, and in a sheltered position. NEVIUSA. NEVIUSA ALABAMENSIS.--Alabama Snow Wreath. Alabama, 1879. This is a rare American shrub, with leaves reminding one of those of the Nine Bark, Neillia opulifolia, and the flowers, which are freely produced along the full length of the shoots, are white or yellowish-green, with prominent stamens of a tufted brush-like character. It is usually treated as a green-house plant, but may be seen growing and flowering freely in the open ground at Kew. NUTTALLIA. NUTTALLIA CERASIFORMIS.--Osoberry. California, 1848. This shrub is of great value on account of the flowers being produced in the early weeks of the year, and when flowers are few and far between. It grows from 6 feet to 10 feet high, with a thick, twiggy head, and drooping racemes of white flowers borne thickly all over the plant. Few soils come amiss to this neglected shrub, it growing and flowering freely even on poor gravelly clay, and where only a limited number of shrubs could succeed. OLEARIA. OLEARIA HAASTII.--New Zealand, 1872. This Composite shrub is only hardy in the milder parts of England and Ireland. It is of stiff, dwarf growth, rarely growing more than 4 feet high, but of neat and compact habit. Flowering as it does in late summer it is rendered of special value, the Daisy-like white blossoms being produced in large and flat clusters at the branch tips. The leaves are neat and of leathery texture, and being evergreen lend an additional charm to the shrub. O. MACRODONTA (_syn O. dentata_), from New Zealand, 1886, is tolerably hardy, and may be seen in good form both at Kew and in the South of Ireland. The large Holly-like leaves are of a peculiar silvery-green tint above, and almost white on the under sides. Flowers white, and produced in dense heads in June and July. O. Forsterii and O. Gunniana (_syn Eurybia Gunniana_) are nearly hardy species, the latter, from New Zealand, bearing a profusion of white Daisy-like flowers on dense, twiggy branches. ONONIS. ONONIS ARVENSIS.--Restharrow. A native undershrub of very variable size, according to the position in which it is found growing. It creeps along the ground, the shoots sending out roots as they proceed, and is usually found on dry sandy banks. The flowers when at their best are very ornamental, being bright pink, and with the standard streaked with a deeper shade. They are abundantly produced, and render the plant very conspicuous during the summer and autumn months. When planted on an old wall, and allowed to roam at will, the Restharrow is, perhaps, seen to best advantage. OSMANTHUS. OSMANTHUS AQUIFOLIUM ILLICIFOLIUS.--Holly-leaved Osmanthus. Japan. This is a handsome evergreen shrub, with Holly-like leaves, and not very conspicuous greenish-white flowers. It is a very desirable shrub, of which there are varieties named O.A. ilicifolius argenteo-variegatus, O.A. ilicifolius aureo-variegatus, and O.A. ilicifolius nanus, the names of which will be sufficient to define their characters. O.A. ILICIFOLIUS MYRTIFOLIUS.--Myrtle-leaved Osmanthus. A very distinct and beautiful shrub, with unarmed leaves. It is of dwarf, compact growth, with small, sharply-pointed leaves, and inconspicuous flowers. For the front line of a shrubbery this is an invaluable shrub, its pretty leaves and neat twiggy habit making it a favourite with planters. The variety rotundifolius is seldom seen in cultivation, but being distinct in foliage from any of the others is to be recommended. They grow freely in any good garden soil, but all the better if a little peat is added at the time of planting. OSTRYA. OSTRYA CARPINIFOLIA (_syn O. vulgaris_).--Common Hop Hornbeam. South Europe, 1724. A much-branched, round-headed tree, with cordate-ovate, acuminate leaves. Both this and the following species, by reason of the resemblance between their female catkins and those of the Hop, and between their leaves and those of the Hornbeam, have acquired the very descriptive name of Hop Hornbeam. This is a large-growing tree, specimens in various parts of the country ranging in height from 50 feet to 60 feet. O. VIRGINICA.--Virginian Hop Hornbeam. Eastern United States, 1692. Resembles the latter, but is of smaller growth, rarely exceeding 40 feet in height. They grow fairly well in almost any class of soil, and on account of the long and showy catkins are well worthy of cultivation. OXYDENDRUM. OXYDENDRUM ARBOREUM (_syn Andromeda arborea_).--Sorrel-tree. Eastern United States, 1752. Unfortunately this species is not often found under cultivation, being unsuitable generally for our climate. In some instances, however, it has done well, a specimen in the Knap Hill Nursery, Surrey, being 30 feet high, and with a dense rounded head. The flowers are very beautiful, being of a waxy white, and produced abundantly. It wants a free rich soil, and not too exposed site. OZOTHAMNUS. OZOTHAMNUS ROSMARINIFOLIUS.--Australia, 1827. A pretty little Australian Composite, forming a dense, twiggy shrub, with narrow, Rosemary-like leaves, and small, whitish, Aster-like flowers which resemble those of its near relative, the Olearia, and are produced so thickly that the plant looks like a sheet of white when the blooms are fully developed. It flowers in June and July. In most parts of the country it will require protection, but can be classed as fairly hardy. Cuttings root freely if placed in sandy soil in a cool frame. PAEONIA. PAEONIA MOUTAN.--Moutan Paeony, or Chinese Tree Paeony. China and Japan, 1789. A beautiful shrubby species introduced from China about one hundred years ago. The first of the kind introduced to England had single flowers, and the plant is figured in Andrews' _Botanists' Repository_ (tab. 463) under the name of P. papaveracea. The flowers are white with a dark red centre. In the _Botanical Magazine_ (tab. 2175), the same plant is figured under the name of P. Moutan var. papaveracea. This is perfectly hardy in our gardens, and is the parent of many beautiful and distinct varieties, including double and single white, pink, crimson, purple, and striped. PALIURUS. PALIURUS ACULEATUS (_syn P. australis_).--Christ's Thorn, or Garden Thorn. Mediterranean region, 1596. A densely-branched, spiny shrub, with small leaves, and not very showy, yellowish-green flowers. It grows and flowers freely enough in light, peaty earth, but is not very hardy, the tips of the branches being usually killed back should the winter be at all severe. PARROTIA. PARROTIA PERSICA.--Persia, 1848. Well known for the lovely autumnal tints displayed by the foliage when dying off. But for the flowers, too, it is well worthy of culture, the crimson-tipped stamens of the male flowers being singularly beautiful and uncommon. In February it is no unusual sight to see on well-established plants whole branches that are profusely furnished with these showy flowers. For planting in a warm corner of a rather dry border it seems to be well suited; but it is perfectly hardy and free of growth when suited with soil and site. It is as yet rare in cultivation, but is sure, when better known and more widely disseminated, to become a general favourite with lovers of hardy shrubs. PASSIFLORA. PASSIFLORA CAERULEA.--Passion Flower. Brazil and Peru, 1699. Though not perfectly hardy, yet this handsome climbing plant, if cut down to the ground, usually shoots up freely again in the spring. The flowers, which are produced very freely, but particularly in maritime districts, vary from white to blue, and the prettily-fringed corona and centre of the flower render the whole peculiarly interesting and beautiful. P. caerulea Constance Elliott has greenish-white flowers; and P. caerulea Colvillei has white sepals and a blue fringe. The latter is of more robust growth, and more floriferous than the species. PAULOWNIA. PAULOWNIA IMPERIALIS.--Japan, 1840. This is a handsome, fast-growing tree, and one that is particularly valuable for its ample foliage, and distinct and showy flowers. Though perfectly hardy, in other respects it is unfortunate that the season at which the Paulownia flowers is so early that, unless the conditions are unusually favourable, the flower buds get destroyed by the frost. The tree grows to fully 40 feet high in this country, and is a grandly decorative object in its foliage alone, and for which, should the flowers never be produced, it is well worthy of cultivation. They are ovate-cordate, thickly covered with a grayish woolly tomentum, and often measure, but particularly in young and healthy trees, as much as 10 inches in length. The Foxglove-like flowers are purplish-violet and spotted, and borne in terminal panicles. They are sweetly-scented. When favourably situated, and in cool, sandy loam or peaty earth, the growth of the tree is very rapid, and when a tree has been cut over, the shoots sent out often exceed 6 feet in length in one season, and nearly 2 inches in diameter. There are many fine old trees throughout the country, and which testify to the general hardihood of the Paulownia. PERIPLOCA. PERIPLOCA GRAECA.--Poison Vine. South Eastern Europe, and Orient, 1597. A tall, climbing shrub, with small, ovate-lanceolate leaves, and clusters of curious purplish-brown, green-tipped flowers produced in summer. The long, incurved appendages, in the shape of a crown, and placed so as to protect the style and anthers, render the flowers of peculiar interest. Though often used as a greenhouse plant, it is perfectly hardy, and makes a neat, deciduous wall or arch covering, thriving to perfection in rich soil that is well-drained. It is readily propagated from cuttings. PERNETTYA. PERNETTYA MUCRONATA (_syn Arbutus mucronata_).--Prickly Heath. Magellan, 1828. This is a dwarf-growing, wiry shrub, with narrow, stiff leaves, and bears an abundance of white, bell-shaped flowers. It is a capital wind screen, and may be used to advantage on the exposed side of rockwork or flower beds, or as an ornamental shrub by the pond or lake side. The small dark-green leaves, the tiny white flowers, and great abundance of deep purple berries in winter, are all points that are in favour of the shrub for extended cultivation. The pretty, pinky shoots, too, help to make the plant attractive even in mid-winter. Propagation by layers or seed is readily brought about. To grow this shrub to perfection, peaty soil or decayed vegetable matter will be found most suitable. There is a narrow-leaved form named P. mucronata angustifolia, and another on which the name of P. mucronata speciosa has been bestowed. There are many beautiful-berried forms of the Pernettya, but as their flowers are small can hardly be included in our list. PHILADELPHUS. PHILADELPHUS CORONARIUS.--Mock Orange, or Syringa. South Europe, 1596. A well-known and valuable garden shrub, of from 6 feet to 10 feet high, with ovate and serrulated leaves, and pretty racemes of white or yellowish-white, fragrant flowers. P. coronarius aureo-variegatus is one of the numerous forms of this shrub, having brightly-tinted, golden foliage, but the flowers are in no way superior to those of the parent. It is, if only for the foliage, an extremely pretty and distinct variety. P. coronarius argenteo-variegatus has silvery-tinted leaves; P. coronarius flore-pleno, full double flowers; and P. coronarius Keteleeri flore-pleno is the best double-flowered form in cultivation. P. GORDONIANUS, an American species (1839), is a well-known and beautiful shrub, in which the flowers are usually double the size of those of the common species, and which are not produced till July, while those of P. coronarius appear in early May. P. GRANDIFLORUS (_syns P. floribundus, P. latifolius_ and _P. speciosus_).--Southern United States, 1811. This has rotundate, irregularly-toothed leaves, and large white, sweetly-scented flowers produced in clusters. This forms a stout bush 10 feet high, and as much through. There are two varieties, P. grandiflorus laxus, and P. grandiflorus speciosissimus, both distinct and pretty kinds. P. HIRSUTUS.--North America, 1820. Another handsome, small-flowered species, of dwarf growth, and having hairy leaves. P. INODOROUS, also from North America (1738), differs little in size and shape of flowers from P. grandiflorus, but the flowers are without scent. The leaves, too, are quite glabrous and obscurely toothed. P. LEMOINEI BOULE D'ARGENT is a cross, raised in 1888, from P. Lemoinei and the double-flowered form of P. coronarius. The flowers are double white and with the pleasant, but not heavy, scent of P. microphyllus. P. Lemoinei Gerbe de Neige bears pleasantly-scented flowers that are as large as those of the well-known P. speciosissimus. There is an erect form of P. Lemoinei named erectus that is also worthy of note. P. LEWISI, from North America, is hardly sufficiently distinct from some of the others to warrant special notice. P. MICROPHYLLUS, from New Mexico (1883), is of low growth, and remarkable for its slender branches, small, Myrtle-like leaves, and abundance of small, white flowers. It is a decidedly pretty shrub, but is not so hardy as the others. P. SATZUMI (_syn P. chinensis_).--Japan, 1851. A slender-growing species, with long and narrow leaves, and large, white flowers. P. TRIFLORUS and P. MEXICANUS are other species that might be worthy of including in a representative collection of these plants. This is a valuable genus of shrubs, all being remarkable for the abundance of white, and usually sweet-scented, flowers which they produce. They require no special treatment, few soils, if at all free and rich, coming amiss to them; while even as shrubs for shady situations they are not to be despised. Propagation is effected by means of cuttings, which root freely if placed in sandy soil. PHILLYREA. P. ANGUSTIFOLIA (narrow-leaved Phillyrea), P. ilicifolia (Holly-leaved Phillyrea), P. salicifolia (Willow-leaved Phillyrea), P. buxifolia (Box-leaved Phillyrea), and P. ligustrifolia (Privet-leaved Phillyrea), are all more or less valuable species, and their names indicate their peculiarities of leafage. P. angustifolia rosmarinifolia (_syn P. neapolitana_) is a somewhat rare shrub, but one that is well worthy of culture, if only for its neat habit and tiny little Rosemary-like leaves. It is from Italy, and known under the synonym of _P. rosmarinifolia_. P. LATIFOLIA (_syn P. obliqua_).--Broad-leaved Phillyrea. South Europe, 1597. This is a compact-growing and exceedingly ornamental shrub, with bright and shining, ovate-serrulated leaves. For its handsome, evergreen foliage and compact habit of growth it is, perhaps, most to be valued, for the small flowers are at their best both dull and inconspicuous. Not very hardy unless in the sea-coast garden. P. MEDIA (_syns P. ligustrifolia_ and _P. oleaefolia_).--South Europe, 1597. This is another interesting species, but not at all common in cultivation. P. VILMORINIANA (_syns P. laurifolia_ and _P. decora_).--Asia Minor, 1885, This is a grand addition to these valuable shrubs, of which it is decidedly the best from an ornamental point of view. It is of compact growth, with large, Laurel-like leaves, which are of a pleasing shade of green, and fully 4 inches long. They are of stout, leathery texture, and plentifully produced. That this shrub is perfectly hardy is now a well-established fact. The Phillyreas succeed well in light, warm, but not too dry soil, and they do all the better if a warm and sheltered position is assigned to them. Being unusually bright of foliage, they are of great service in planting for shrubbery embellishment, and which they light up in a very conspicuous manner during the dull winter months. They get shabby and meagre foliaged if exposed to cold winds. PHLOMIS. PHLOMIS FRUTICOSA.--Jerusalem Sage. Mediterranean region, 1596. This is a neat-growing shrubby plant, with ovate acute leaves, that are covered with a yellowish down. From the axils of the upper leaves the whorls of yellow flowers are freely produced during the summer months. It is valued for its neat growth, and as growing on dry soils where few other plants could eke out an existence. PHOTINIA. PHOTINIA JAPONICA (_syn Eriobotrya japonica_).--Loquat, Japan Medlar, or Japan Quince. Japan, 1787. This is chiefly remarkable for its handsome foliage, the leaves being oblong of shape and downy on the under sides. The white flowers are of no great beauty, but being produced at the beginning of winter, and when flowers are scarce, are all the more welcome. It requires protection in all but the warmer parts of these islands. P. ARBUTIFOLIA (_syns Crataegus arbutifolia_ and _Mespilus arbutifolia_).--Arbutus-leaved Photinia, or Californian May-bush. California, 1796. This is a very distinct shrub, with leaves resembling those of the Strawberry Tree (Arbutus), the flowers in an elongated panicle, and bright red bark on the young wood. P. BENTHAMIANA is only worthy of culture for its neat habit and freedom of growth when suitably placed. P. SERRULATA (_syn Crataegus glabra_).--Chinese Hawthorn. Japan and China, 1804. This has Laurel-like leaves, 4 inches or 5 inches long, and, especially when young, of a beautiful rosy-chocolate colour, and clustered at the branch-tips. Flowers small, white, and produced in flat corymbs. An invaluable seaside shrub. They all grow well either in light, rich loam, or in sandy, peaty earth, and are usually propagated by grafting. PHYLODOCE. PHYLODOCE TAXIFOLIA (_syns P. caerulea_ and _Menziesia caerulea_).--An almost extinct native species, having crowded linear leaves, and lilac-blue flowers. It is only of value for rock gardening. PIERIS. PIERIS FLORIBUNDA (_syns Andromeda floribunda_ and _Leucothoe floribunda_).--United States, 1812. Few perfectly hardy shrubs are more beautiful than this, with its pure white Lily-of-the-Valley like flowers, borne in dense racemes and small, neat, dark green leaves. To cultivate this handsome shrub in a satisfactory way, fairly rich loam or peat, and a situation sheltered from cold and cutting winds, are necessities. P. JAPONICA (_syn Andromeda japonica_).--Japan, 1882. A hardy, well-known shrub, that was first brought specially under notice in "The Garden," and of which a coloured plate and description were given. It is thickly furnished with neat and small deep-green, leathery leaves, and pretty, waxy white flowers, pendulous at the branch tips. Planted in free, sandy peat, it thrives vigorously, and soon forms a neat specimen of nearly a yard in height. It is a very desirable hardy species, and one that can be confidently recommended for ornamental planting. There is a variegated variety, P. japonica elegantissima, with leaves clearly edged with creamy-white, and flushed with pink. Amongst variegated, small-growing shrubs it is a gem. P. MARIANA (_syn Andromeda Mariana ovalis_).--North America, 1736. A neat shrub of about 3 feet in height, with oval leaves, and pretty white flowers in pendent clusters. P. OVALIFOLIA (_syn Andromeda ovalifolia_).--Nepaul, 1825. A fine, tall-growing species, with oval-pointed, leathery leaves placed on long footstalks. Flowers in lengthened, drooping, one-sided racemes, and white or pale flesh-coloured. Being perfectly hardy, and attaining to as much as 20 feet in height, it is a desirable species for the lawn or shrubbery. PIPTANTHUS. PIPTANTHUS NEPALENSIS (_syn Baptisia nepalensis_).--Evergreen Laburnum. Temperate Himalaya, 1821. A handsome, half-hardy shrub, of often fully 10 feet high, with trifoliolate, evergreen leaves, and terminal racemes of large yellow flowers. In the south and west of England and Ireland it does well, and only receives injury during very severe winters. Planted either as a single specimen, or in clumps of three or five, the evergreen Laburnum has a pleasing effect, whether with its bright, glossy-green leaves, or abundance of showy flowers. It is of somewhat erect growth, with stout branches and plenty of shoots. Propagated from seed, which it ripens abundantly in this country. PITTOSPORUM. PITTOSPORUM TOBIRA.--Japan, 1804. This forms a neat, evergreen shrub, with deep green, leathery leaves, and clusters of white, fragrant flowers, each about an inch in diameter. It is hardy in the more favoured parts of the south and west of England, where it makes a reliable seaside shrub. P. UNDULATUM, from Australia (1789), is also hardy against a wall, but cannot be depended upon generally. It is a neat shrub, with wavy leaves, that are rendered conspicuous by the dark midribs. They grow well in any good garden soil. PLAGIANTHUS. PLAGIANTHUS LYALLI, a native of New Zealand (1871), and a member of the Mallow family, is a free-flowering and beautiful shrub, but one that cannot be recommended for general planting in this country. At Kew it does well and flowers freely on an east wall. The flowers are snow-white, with golden-yellow anthers, and produced on the ends of the last season's branchlets during June and July. The flower-stalks, being fully 2 inches long, give to the flowers a very graceful appearance. In this country the leaves are frequently retained till spring. P. LAMPENI.--Van Dieman's Land, 1833. This is about equally hardy with the former, and produces a great abundance of sweetly-scented flowers. P. PULCHELLUS (_syn Sida pulchella_).--Australia and Tasmania. Another half-hardy species, which bears, even in a young state, an abundance of rather small, whitish flowers. POLYGALA. POLYGALA CHAMAEBUXUS.--Bastard Box. A neat little shrubby plant, with small ovate, coriaceous leaves, and fragrant yellow and cream flowers. P. chamaebuxus purpureus differs in bearing rich reddish-purple flowers, and is one of the most showy and beautiful of rock plants. They are natives of Europe (1658), and grow best in vegetable mould. POTENTILLA. POTENTILLA FRUTICOSA.--Northern Hemisphere (Britain). An indigenous shrub that grows about a yard high, with pinnate leaves and golden flowers. It is a most persistent blooming plant, as often for four months, beginning in June, the flowers are produced freely in succession. It delights to grow in a strong soil, and, being of low, sturdy growth, does well for the outer line of the shrubbery. PRUNUS. PRUNUS AMYGDALUS (_syn Amygdalus communis_).--Common Almond. Barbary, 1548. Whether by a suburban roadside, or even in the heart of the crowded city, the Almond seems quite at home, and is at once one of the loveliest and most welcome of early spring-flowering trees. The flowers are rather small for the family, pale pink, and produced in great quantity before the leaves. There are several distinct forms of the Almond, differing mainly in the colour of the flowers, one being pink, another red, while a third has double flowers. P. Amygdalus macrocarpa (Large-fruited Almond) is by far the handsomest variety in cultivation, the flowers being large, often 3 inches in diameter, and white tinged with pink, particularly at the base of the petals. The flowers, too, are produced earlier than those of any other Almond, while the tree is of stout growth and readily suited with both soil and site. P. AMYGDALUS DULCIS (_syn A. dulcis_), Sweet Almond, of which there are three distinct varieties, P.A. dulcis purpurea, P.A. dulcis macrocarpa, and P.A. dulcis pendula, should be included in every collection of these handsome flowering plants. P. AVIUM JULIANA (_syn Cerasus Juliana_).--St. Julian's Cherry. South Europe. This bears large flowers of a most beautiful and delicate blush tint. P. Avium multiplex is a double form of the Wild Cherry, or Gean, with smaller leaves than the type. P. BOISSIERII (_syn Amygdalus Boissierii_).--Asia Minor, 1879. This is a bushy shrub, with almost erect, long, and slender branches, and furnished with leaves an inch long, elliptic, and thick of texture. Flowers pale flesh-coloured, and produced abundantly. It is a very ornamental and distinct plant, and is sure, when better known, to attract a considerable amount of attention. P. CERASIFERA (_syn P. Myrobalana_).--Cherry, or Myrobalan Plum. Native Country unknown. A medium-sized tree, with an abundance of small white flowers, which are particularly attractive if they escape the early spring frosts. It is of stout, branching habit, with a well-rounded head, and has of late years attracted a good deal of notice as a hedge plant. P. cerasifera Pissardii, the purple-leaved Cherry plum, is a remarkable and handsome variety, in which the leaves are deep purple, thus rendering the plant one of the most distinct and ornamental-foliaged of the family. It produces its white, blush-tinted flowers in May. It was received by M.A. Chatenay, of Sceau, from M. Pissard, director of the garden of His Majesty the Shah of Persia. When it flowered it was figured in the _Revue Horticole_, 1881, p. 190. P. CERASUS (_syn Cerasus vulgaris_).--Common Cherry. A favourite medium-sized tree, and one that lends itself readily to cultivation. As an ornamental park tree this Cherry, though common, must not be despised, for during summer, when laden with its pure white flowers, or again in autumn when myriads of the black, shining fruits hang in clusters from its branches, it will be readily admitted that few trees have a more beautiful or conspicuous appearance, P. Cerasus flore-pleno (double-flowered Cherry) is a distinct and desirable variety. P. Cerasus multiplex is a very showy double form, more ornamental than P. Avium muliplex, and also known under the names of _Cerasus ranunculiflora_ and _C. Caproniana multiplex_. P. Cerasus semperflorens (_syn Cerasus semperflorens_), the All Saints, Ever Flowering, or Weeping, Cherry, is another valuable variety, of low growth, and with gracefully drooping branches, particularly when the tree is old. It is a very desirable lawn tree, and flowers at intervals during the summer. P. CHAMAECERASUS (_syn Cerasus Chamaecerasus_).--Ground Cherry. Europe, 1597. This is a dwarf, slender-branched, and gracefully pendent shrub, of free growth, undoubted hardihood, and well worthy of extended cultivation. The variety C. Chamaecerasus variegata has the leaves suffused with greenish lemon. There is also a creeping form named P. Chamaecerasus pendula. P. DAVIDIANA.--Abbé David's Almond. China. This is the tree to which, under the name of Amygdalus Davidiana alba, a First-class Certificate was awarded in 1892 by the Royal Horticultural Society. The typical species is a native of China, from whence it was introduced several years ago, but it is still far from common. It is the earliest of the Almonds to unfold its white flowers, for in mild winters some of them expand before the end of January; but March, about the first week, it is at its best. It is of more slender growth than the common Almond, and the flowers, which are individually smaller, are borne in great profusion along the shoots of the preceding year, so that a specimen, when in full flower, is quite one mass of bloom. There is a rosy-tinted form known as Amygdalus Davidiana rubra. P. DIVARICATA, from the Caucasus (1822), is useful on account of the pure white flowers being produced early in the year, and before the leaves. It has a graceful, easy habit of growth, and inclined to spread, and makes a neat lawn or park specimen. P. DOMESTICA, Common Garden Plum, and P. domestica insititia, Bullace Plum, are both very ornamental-flowering species, and some of the varieties are even more desirable than the parent plants. P. ILLICIFOLIA (_syn Cerasus ilicifolius_).--Holly-leaved Cherry. California. A distinct evergreen species, with thick leathery leaves, and erect racemes of small white flowers. A native of dry hilly ground along the coast from San Francisco to San Diego. Hardy in most situations, but requiring light warm soil and a dry situation. P. LAUNESIANA (_syn Cerasus Launesiana_).--Japan, 1870. This is a valuable addition to the already long list of ornamental-flowering Cherries. It flowers in the early spring, when the tree is literally enshrouded in rose-coloured flowers, and which produce a very striking effect. The tree is quite hardy, flowers well even in a young state, and will grow in any soil that suits our common wild species. P. LAUROCERASUS (_syn Cerasus Laurocerasus_).--Common, or Cherry Laurel. Levant, 1629. Although a well-known garden and park shrub, of which a description is unnecessary, the common or Cherry Laurel, when in full flower, must be ranked amongst our more ornamental shrubs. There are several varieties all worthy of culture for the sake of their evergreen leaves and showy flower spikes. P. Laurocerasus rotundifolia has leaves that are broader in proportion to their length than those of the common species; P. Laurocerasus caucasica is of sturdy growth, with deep green leaves, and a compact habit of growth; P. Laurocerasus colchica is the freest-flowering Laurel in cultivation, with horizontally arranged branches and pale green leaves; P. Laurocerasus latifolia, a rather tender shrub, with bold handsome foliage; and P. Laurocerasus parvifolia, of low growth, but never very satisfactory in appearance. Three other less common forms might also be mentioned. P. Laurocerasus angustifolia, with narrow leaves; P. Laurocerasus camelliaefolia, with thick leathery foliage; and P. Laurocerasus intermedia, halfway between P. Laurocerasus angustifolia and the common Laurel. P. LUSITANICA (_syn Cerasus lusitanica_).--Portugal Laurel. Portugal, 1648. A well-known shrub or small growing tree, and one of the most valuable of all our hardy evergreens. It is of neat and compact growth, with a good supply of bright green shining foliage, and bears long spikes of pleasing creamy white perfumed flowers. P. lusitanica myrtifolia (Myrtle-leaved Portugal Laurel) differs from the species in the smaller, longer, and narrower leaves, which are more thickly arranged, and in its more decided upright habit. P. lusitanica variegata is hardly sufficiently constant or distinct to warrant recommendation. P. lusitanica azorica, from the Azores, is of more robust growth than the common plant, with larger and richer green leaves, and the bark of the younger branches is of a very decided reddish tinge. P. MAHALEB (_syn Cerasus Mahaleb_).--The Mahaleb, or Perfumed Cherry. South Europe, 1714. This and its variegated variety P. Mahaleb variegata are very free-flowering shrubs, and of neat growth. The variegated variety is well worthy of attention, having a clear silvery variegation, chiefly confined to the leaf margin, but in a less degree to the whole of the foliage, and imparting to it a bright, glaucous tint that is highly ornamental. There is a partially weeping form named P. Mahaleb pendula. P. MARITIMA.--Beach or Sand Plum. North America, 1800. A prostrate, spreading shrub, that is of value for planting in poor sandy soil, and along the sea coast. The flowers are small, but plentifully produced. P. NANA (_syns Amygdalus nana_ and _A. Besseriana_).--Dwarf Almond. From Tartary, 1683. This is of dwarf, twiggy growth, rarely more than 3 feet high, and bearing an abundance of rose-coloured flowers in early February. From its neat, small growth, and rich profusion of flowers, this dwarf Almond may be reckoned as a most useful and desirable shrub. Suckers are freely produced in any light free soil. P. PADUS (_syn Cerasus Padus_).--Bird Cherry or Hagberry. An indigenous species, with oblong, doubly-serrated leaves, and terminal or axillary racemes of pure-white flowers. It is a handsome and distinct small-growing tree, and bears exposure at high altitudes in a commendable manner. P. PANICULATA FLORE-PLENO (_syns Cerasus serrulata flore-pleno_ and _C. Sieboldii_).--China, 1822. This is one of the most desirable of the small-growing and double-flowered Cherries. It is of neat growth, with short, stout branches that are sparsely furnished with twigs, and smooth, obovate, pointed leaves, bristly serrated on the margins. Flowers double and white at first, but afterwards tinged with pink, freely produced and of good, lasting substance. P. paniculata Watereri is a handsome variety that most probably may be linked to the species. P. PENNSYLVANIA.--American Wild Red Cherry. North America, 1773. This is an old-fashioned garden tree, and one of the choicest, producing in May a great abundance of its tiny white flowers. P. PERSICA FLORE-PLENO (_syns Amygdalus Persica flore-pleno_ and _Persica vulgaris_), double-flowering Peach, is likewise well worthy of culture, there being white, rose, and crimson-flowering forms. P. PUDDUM (_syns P. Pseudo-cerasus_ and _Cerasus Pseudo-cerasus_).--Bastard Cherry. China, 1891. There are very few more ornamental trees in cultivation in this country than the double-flowering Cherry. It makes a charming small-growing tree, is of free growth and perfectly hardy, and one of, if not the most, floriferous of the tribe. The flowers are individually large, pinky or purplish-white, and produced with the leaves in April. P. SINENSIS.--China, 1869. A Chinese Plum of somewhat slender growth, and with the branches wreathed in small, white flowers. It is often seen as a pot plant, but it is one of the hardiest of its family. P. sinensis flore-pleno is a double white form, and the most ornamental for pot work. There is also a variety with rose-coloured flowers. P. SPINOSA.--Sloe, or Blackthorn. An indigenous, spiny shrub, with tiny white flowers; and P. spinosa flore-pleno has small, rosette-like flowers that are both showy and effective. P. TOMENTOSA.--Japan, 1872. This is one of the most desirable of hardy shrubs, with large, white, flesh-tinted flowers produced in the first weeks of March, and in such quantities as almost to hide the branches from view. It forms a well-rounded, dense bush of 5 feet or 6 feet high. P. TRILOBA (_syns P. virgata, Amygdalopsis Lindleyi_ and _Prunopsis Lindleyi_).--China, 1857. This is a very handsome early-flowering shrub, that is at once recognised by the generally three-lobed leaves. It is one of the first to flower, the blossoms being produced in March and April, and sometimes even earlier when the plant is grown against a sunny, sheltered wall. The semi-double flowers are large and of good substance, and of a rosy-white tint, but deep rose in the bud state. There is a nursery form of this plant with white flowers, named P. triloba alba. It is quite hardy, bears pruning well, and grows quickly, soon covering a large space of a wall or warm, sunny bank. As an ornamental flowering lawn shrub it has few equals, the blossoms remaining good for fully a fortnight. P. VIRGINIANA (_syn Cerasus virginiana_) and P. SEROTINA (North American Bird Cherries) are worthy species, with long clusters of flowers resembling those of our native Bird Cherry. They are large-growing species, and, particularly the latter, are finding favour with cultivators in this country on account of their bold and ornamental appearance. PTELEA. PTELEA TRIFOLIATA.--Hop Tree, or Swamp Dogwood. North America, 1704. A small-growing tree, with trifoliolate, yellowish-green leaves placed on long footstalks, and inconspicuous greenish flowers. The leaves, when bruised, emit an odour resembling Hops. P. trifoliata variegata is one of the handsomest of golden-leaved trees, and is well worthy of extensive planting. It is preferable in leaf colouring to the golden Elder. Perfectly hardy. PUNICA. PUNICA GRANATUM.--Pomegranate. For planting against a southern-facing wall this pretty shrub is well suited, but it is not sufficiently hardy for the colder parts of the country. Frequently in the more favoured parts of the country it reaches a height of 14 feet, with a branch-spread of nearly as much, and is then, when in full flower, an object of general admiration and of the greatest beauty. The flowers are of a rich, bright scarlet colour, and well set off by the glossy, dark green leaves. P. Granatum rubra flore-pleno is a decidedly ornamental shrub, in which the flowers are of a bright scarlet, and perfectly double. They grow satisfactorily in light, but rich soil. PYRUS. PYRUS ARIA.--White Beam Tree. Europe (Britain). A shrub or small-growing tree, with lobed leaves, covered thickly on the under sides with a close, flocculent down. The flowers are small and white, and produced in loose corymbs. It is a handsome small tree, especially when the leaves are ruffled by the wind and the under sides revealed to view. The red or scarlet fruit is showy and beautiful. P. AUCUPARIA.--Mountain Ash, or Rowan Tree. Too well-known to need description, but one of our handsomest small-growing trees, and whether for the sake of its dense corymbs of small white flowers or large bunches of scarlet fruit it is always welcomed and admired. P. Aucuparia pendula has the branches inclined to be pendulous; and P. Aucuparia fructo-luteo differs from the normal plant in having yellowish instead of scarlet fruit. P. AMERICANA (_syn Sorbus americana_).--American Mountain Ash. This species, a native of the mountains of Pennsylvania and Virginia (1782), is much like our Rowan Tree in general appearance, but the bunches of berries are larger, and of a brighter red colour. P. ANGUSTIFOLIA.--North America, 1750. A double-flowered crab is offered under this name, of vigorous growth, bearing delicate pink, rose-like flowers that are deliciously fragrant, and borne contemporaneously with the leaves. The merits claimed for the shrub are perfect hardihood, great beauty of blossom and leaf, delicious fragrance, and adaptability to various soils. The single-flowered form extends over large areas in the Atlantic States of North America. They are very desirable, small-growing trees, and are described by Professor Sargent as being not surpassed in beauty by any of the small trees of North America. P. BACCATA.--Siberian Crab. Siberia and Dahuria, 1784. This is one of the most variable species in cultivation, and from which innumerable forms have been developed, that differ either in habit, foliage, flowers, or fruit. The deciduous calyx would seem to be the only reliable distinguishing character. It is a widely-distributed species, being found in North China and Japan, Siberia and the Himalayas, and has from time immemorial been cultivated by the Chinese and Japanese, so that it is not at all surprising that numbers of forms have been developed. P. CORONARIA.--Sweet Scented Crab. North America, 1724. This is a handsome species, with ovate, irregularly-toothed leaves, and pink and white fragrant flowers. The flowers are individually large and corymbose, and are succeeded by small green fruit. P. DOMESTICA (_syn Sorbus domestica_).--True Service. Britain. This resembles the Mountain Ash somewhat, but the flowers are panicled, and the berries fewer, larger, and pear-shaped. The flowers are conspicuous enough to render the tree of value in ornamental planting. P. FLORIBUNDA (_syns P. Malus floribunda_ and _Malus microcarpa floribunda_).--China and Japan, 1818. The Japanese Crabs are wonderfully floriferous, the branches being in most instances wreathed with flowers that are individually not very large, and rarely exceeding an inch in diameter when fully expanded. Generally in the bud state the flowers are of a deep crimson, but this disappears as they become perfectly developed, and when a less striking tint of pinky-white is assumed. From the St. Petersburgh gardens many very ornamental Crabs have been sent out, these differing considerably in colour of bark, habit, and tint of flowers. They have all been referred to the above species. P. floribunda is a worthy form, and one of the most brilliant of spring-flowering trees. The long, slender shoots are thickly covered for almost their entire length with flowers that are rich crimson in the bud state, but paler when fully opened. There are numerous, very distinct varieties, such as P. floribunda atrosanguinea, with deep red flowers; P. floribunda Elise Rathe, of pendulous habit; P. floribunda John Downie, very beautiful in fruit; P. floribunda pendula, a semi-weeping variety; P. floribunda praecox, early-flowering; P. floribunda mitis, of small size; P. floribunda Halleana or Parkmanii, probably the most beautiful of all the forms; and P. floribunda Fairy Apple and P. floribunda Transcendant Crab, of interest on account of their showy fruit. P. floribunda Toringo (Toringo Crab) is a Japanese tree of small growth, with sharply cut, usually three-lobed, pubescent leaves, and small flowers. Fruit small, with deciduous calyx lobes. P. GERMANICA (_syn Mespilus germanica_).--Common Medlar. Europe (Britain), Asia Minor, Persia. Early records show that the Medlar was cultivated for its fruit as early as 1596. Some varieties are still grown for that purpose, and in that state the tree is not devoid of ornament. The large, white flowers are produced singly, but have a fine effect in their setting of long, lanceolate, finely-serrate leaves during May. P. JAPONICA (_syn Cydonia japonica_).--Japanese Quince. Japan, 1815. This is one of the commonest of our garden shrubs, and one that is peculiarly well suited for our climate, whether planted as a standard or as a wall plant. The flowers are brilliant crimson, and plentifully produced towards the end of winter and before the leaves. Besides the species there are several very fine varieties, including P. japonica albo cincta, P. japonica atropurpurea, P. japonica coccinea, P. japonica flore-pleno, P. japonica nivalis, a charming species, with snowy-white flowers; P. japonica rosea, of a delicate rose-pink; and P. japonica princeps. P. japonica cardinalis is one of the best of the numerous forms of this beautiful shrub. The flowers are of large size, of full rounded form, and of a deep cardinal-rose colour. They are produced in great quantity along the branches. A well-grown specimen is in April a brilliant picture of vivid colour, and the shrub is sooner or later destined to a chief place amongst our ornamental flowering shrubs. P. japonica Maulei (_syn Cydonia Maulei_), from Japan (1874), is a rare shrub as yet, small of growth, and with every twig festooned with the brightest of orange-scarlet flowers. It is quite hardy, and succeeds well under treatment that will suit the common species. P. PRUNIFOLIA.--Siberia, 1758. Whether in flower or fruit this beautiful species is sure to attract attention. It is a tree of 25 feet in height, with nearly rotundate, glabrous leaves on long footstalks, and pretty pinky-white flowers. The fruit is very ornamental, being, when fully ripe, of a deep and glowing scarlet, but there are forms with yellow, and green, as also striped fruit. P. RIVULARIS.--River-side Wild Service Tree. North-west America, 1836. A native of North America, with terminal clusters of white flowers, succeeded by sub-globose red or yellow fruit, is an attractive and handsome species. The fruit is eaten by the Indians of the North-west, and the wood, which is very hard and susceptible of a fine polish, is largely used in the making of wedges. It is a rare species in this country. P. SINICA (_syn P. sinensis of Lindley_).--Chinese Pear Tree. China and Cochin China, 1820. Another very ornamental Crab, bearing a great abundance of rosy-pink or nearly white flowers. It is a shrub-like tree, reaching a height of 20 feet, and with an upright habit of growth. Bark of a rich, reddish-brown colour. It is one of the most profuse and persistent bloomers of the whole family. P. SINENSIS (_syn Cydonia chinensis_).--Chinese Quince. China, 1818. This is rarely seen in cultivation, it having, comparatively speaking, few special merits of recommendation. P. SMITHII (_syns Mespilis Smithii_ and _M. grandiflora_).--Smith's Medlar. Caucasus, 1800. The habit of this tree closely resembles that of a Hawthorn, and although the flowers are only half the size of those of the Common Medlar, they are produced in greater profusion, so that the round-headed tree becomes a sheet of white blossom during May and June. The reddish-brown fruits are small for a Medlar, and ripen in October. P. TORMINALIS.--Wild Service Tree. A native species of small growth, with ovate-cordate leaves, and small white flowers. P. torminalis pinnatifida, with acutely-lobed leaves, and oval-oblong fruit may just be mentioned. P. VESTITA.--Nepaul White Beam. Nepaul, 1820. In this species the leaves are very large, ovate-acute or elliptic, and when young thickly coated with a white woolly-like substance, but which with warm weather gradually gives way until they are of a smooth and shining green. The flowers are borne in woolly racemose corymbs, and are white succeeded by greenish-brown berries as large as marbles. Other species of less interest are P. varidosa, P. salicifolia, P. salvaefolia, P. Bollwylleriana, and P. Amygdaliformis. They are all of free growth, and the readiest culture, and being perfectly hardy are well worthy of a much larger share of attention than they have heretofore received. RHAMNUS. RHAMNUS ALATERNUS.--Mediterranean region, 1629. This is an evergreen shrub, with lanceolate shining leaves of a dark glossy-green colour, and pretty flowers produced from March till June. There are several well-marked varieties, one with golden and another with silvery leaves, and named respectively, R. Alaternus foliis aureis, and R. Alaternus foliis argenteus. R. ALPINUS.--Europe, 1752. This is a neat-growing species, with greenish flowers and black fruit. R. CATHARTICUS, Common Buckthorn, is a native, thorny species, with ovate and stalked leaves, and small, thickly clustered greenish flowers, succeeded by black berries about the size of peas. R. FRANGULA.--The Berry-bearing Alder. Europe and Britain. A more erect shrub than the former, and destitute of spines. The leaves too are larger, and the fruit of a dark purple colour when ripe. More common in Britain than the former. RHAPHIOLEPIS. RHAPHIOLEPIS JAPONICA INTEGERRIMA (_syn R. ovata_).--A Japanese shrub (1865), with deep green, ovate, leathery leaves that are not over abundant, and produced generally at the branch-tips. The pure white, fragrant flowers are plentifully produced when the plant is grown in a cosy corner, or on a sunny wall. Though seldom killed outright, the Raphiolepis becomes badly crippled in severe winters. It is, however, a bold and handsome shrub, and one that may be seen doing well in many gardens around London. RHAPHITHAMNUS. RHAPHITHAMNUS CYANOCARPUS (_syn Citharexylum cyanocarpum_). Chili. This bears a great resemblance to some of the thorny Berberis, and is at once a distinct and beautiful shrub. The flowers are large and conspicuous, and of a taking bluish-lilac colour. Having stood unharmed in Ireland through the unusually severe winters of 1879-80, when many more common shrubs were killed outright, it may be relied upon as at least fairly hardy. The soil in which this rare and pretty shrub does best is a brown, fibrous peat, intermingled with sharp sand. RHODODENDRON. RHODODENDRON ARBORESCENS (_syn Azalea arborescens_), from the Carolina Mountains (1818), is a very showy, late-blooming species. The white, fragrant flowers, and noble port, together with its undoubted hardihood, should make this shrub a general favourite with cultivators. R. CALENDULACEUM (_syn Azalea calendulacea_), from North America (1806), is another of the deciduous species, having oblong, hairy leaves, and large orange-coloured flowers. It is of robust growth, and in favoured situations reaches a height of 6 feet. When in full flower the slopes of the Southern Alleghany Mountains are rendered highly attractive by reason of the great flame-coloured masses of this splendid plant, and are one of the great sights of the American Continent during the month of June. R. CALIFORNICUM.--California. A good hardy species with broadly campanulate rosy-purple flowers, spotted with yellow. R. CAMPANULATUM (_syn R. aeruginosum_).--Sikkim, 1825. A small-growing species, rarely over 6 feet high, with elliptic leaves that are fawn-coloured on the under sides. The campanulate flowers are large and showy, rose or white and purple spotted, at the base of the three upper lobes. In this country it is fairly hardy, but suffers in very severe weather, unless planted in a sheltered site. R. CAMPYLOCARPUM.--Sikkim, 1851. This has stood the winter uninjured in so many districts that it may at least be recommended for planting in favoured situations and by the seaside. It is a Sikkim species that was introduced about forty years ago, and is still rather rare. The leaves are about 4 inches long, 2 inches wide, and distinctly undulated on the margins. Flowers bell-shaped, about 2 inches in diameter, and arranged in rather straggling terminal heads. They are sulphur-yellow, without markings, a tint distinct from any other known Indian species. R. CATAWBIENSE.--Mountains from Virginia to Georgia, 1809. A bushy, free growing species, with broadly oval leaves, and large campanulate flowers, produced in compact, rounded clusters. They vary a good deal in colour, but lilac-purple is the typical shade. This is a very valuable species, and one that has given rise to a large number of beautiful varieties. R. CHRYSANTHUM is a Siberian species (1796) of very dwarf, compact growth, with linear-lanceolate leaves that are ferruginous on the under side, and beautiful golden-yellow flowers an inch in diameter. It is a desirable but scarce species. R. COLLETTIANUM is an Afghanistan species, and one that may be reckoned upon as being perfectly hardy. It is of very dwarf habit, and bears an abundance of small white and faintly fragrant flowers. For planting on rockwork it is a valuable species. R. DAHURICUM.--Dahuria, 1780. A small-growing, scraggy-looking species of about a yard high, with oval-oblong leaves that are rusty-tomentose on the under sides. The flowers, which are produced in February, are purple or violet, in twos or threes, and usually appear before the leaves. It is a sparsely-leaved species, and of greatest value on account of the flowers being produced so early in the season. One of the hardiest species in cultivation. R. dahuricum atro-virens is a beautiful and worthy variety because nearly evergreen. R. FERRUGINEUM.--Alpine Rose. Europe, 1752. This dwarf species, rarely exceeding a yard in height, occurs in abundance on the Swiss Alps, and generally where few other plants are to be found. It is a neat little compact shrub, with oblong-lanceolate leaves that are rusty-scaly on the under sides, and has terminal clusters of rosy-red flowers. R. FLAVUM (_syn Azalea pontica_).--Pontic Azalea. A native of Asia Minor (1793), is probably the commonest of the recognised species, and may frequently, in this country, be seen forming good round bushes of 6 feet in height, with hairy lanceolate leaves, and large yellow flowers, though in this latter it varies considerably, orange, and orange tinged with red, being colours often present. It is of free growth in any good light peaty or sandy soil. R. HIRSUTUM.--Alpine Rose. South Europe, 1656. Very near R. ferrugincum, but having ciliated leaves, with glands on both sides. R. hallense and R. hirsutiforme are intermediate forms of a natural cross between R. hirsutum and R. ferrugincum. They are handsome, small-growing, brightly flowered plants, and worthy of culture. R. INDICUM.--Indian Azalea. A native of China (1808), and perfectly hardy in the more favoured portions of southern England, where it looks healthy and happy out of doors, and blooms freely from year to year. This is the evergreen so-called Azalea that is so commonly cultivated in greenhouses, with long hirsute leaves, and large showy flowers. R. indicum amoenum (_syn Azalea amoena_), as a greenhouse plant is common enough, but except in the South of England and Ireland it is not sufficiently hardy to withstand severe frost. The flowers are, moreover, not very showy, at least when compared with some of the newer forms, being dull magenta, and rather lax of habit. R. LEDIFOLIUM (_syns Azalea ledifolia_ and _A. liliiflora_).--Ledum-leaved Azalea. China, 1819. A perfectly hardy species. The flowers are large and white, but somewhat flaunting. It is, however, a desirable species for massing in quantity, beside clumps of the pink and yellow flowered kinds. Though introduced nearly three-quarters of a century ago, this is by no means a common plant in our gardens. R. MAXIMUM.--American Great Laurel. North America, 1756. This is a very hardy American species, growing in favoured localities from 10 feet to 15 feet high. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, slightly ferruginous beneath. Flowers rose and white, in dense clusters. There are several handsome varieties that vary to a wide extent in the size and colour of flowers. R. maximum album bears white flowers. R. MOLLE (_syn Azalea mollis_), from Japan (1867), is a dwarf, deciduous species of neat growth, with flame-coloured flowers. It is very hardy, and a desirable acquisition to any collection of small-growing shrubs. R. OCCIDENTALE (_syn Azalea occidentalis_), Western Azalea, is valuable in that the flowers are produced later than those of almost any other species. These are white, blotched with yellow at the base of the upper petals; and being produced when the leaves are almost fully developed, have a very pleasing effect, particularly as they are borne in great quantity, and show well above the foliage. This is a Californian species that has been found further west of the Rocky Mountains than any other member of Ihe family. R. PARVIFOLIUM.--Baiacul, 1877. This is a pleasing and interesting species, with small deep-green ovate leaves, and clusters of white flowers, margined with rose. It is of dwarf and neat growth, and well suited for planting on the rock garden. R. PONTICUM.--Pontic Rhododendron, or Rose Bay. Asia Minor, 1763. This is the commonest species in cultivation, and although originally a native of the district by the Black or Pontic Sea, is now naturalised in many parts of Europe. It is the hardiest and least exacting of the large flowered species, and is generally employed as a stock on which to graft the less hardy kinds. Flowers, in the typical species, pale purplish-violet and spotted. There is a great number of varieties, including white, pink, scarlet, and double-flowering. R. PONTICUM AZALEOIDES (_syn R. ponticum deciduum_), a hybrid between R. ponticum and a hardy Azalea, is a sub-evergreen form, with a compact habit of growth, and bearing loose heads of fragrant lavender-and-white flowers. It is quite hardy at Kew. R. RACEMOSUM.--Central China, 1880. A neat little species, of dwarf, compact growth, from the Yunnan district of China. The flowers are pale pink edged with a deeper tint, about an inch across, and borne in terminal and axillary clusters. It has stood unharmed for several years in southern England, so may be regarded as at least fairly hardy. Its neat dwarf growth, and flowering as it does when hardly a foot high, renders it a choice subject for the Alpine garden. R. RHODORA (_syn Rhodora canadensis_).--North America, 1767. In general aspect this shrub resembles an Azalea, but it comes into flower long even before R. molle. Being deciduous, and producing its pretty purplish sweet-scented flowers in early spring, gives to the plant a particular value for gardening purposes, clumps of the shrub being most effective at the very time when flowers are at their scarcest. It thrives well in any peaty soil, and is quite hardy. R. VISCOSUM (_syn Azalea viscosa_).--Clammy Azalea, or Swamp Honeysuckle. North America, 1734. This is one of the hardiest, most floriferous, and easily managed of the family. The white or rose and deliciously fragrant flowers are produced in great abundance, and impart when at their best quite a charm to the shrub. It delights in rather moist, peaty soil, and grows all the stronger and flowers all the more freely when surrounded by rising ground or tall trees at considerable distance away. The variety R. viscosum glaucum has leaves paler than those of the species; and R. viscosum nitidum, of dwarf, compact growth, has leaves deep green on both sides. R. WILSONI, a cross between R. ciliatum and R. glaucum, is of remarkably neat growth, and worthy of cultivation where small-sized kinds are a desideratum. The following Himalayan species have been found to thrive well in the warmer parts of England, and in close proximity to the sea;--R. argenteum, R. arboreum, R. Aucklandii, R. barbatum, R. ciliatum, R. campanulatum, R. cinnabarinum, R. Campbelli, R. compylocarpum, R. eximium, R. Fortunei, R. Falconeri, R. glaucum, R. Hodgsoni, R. lanatum, R. niveum, R. Roylei, R. Thompsoni, and R. Wallichii. R. Ungernii and R. Smirnowii, from the Armenian frontier, are also worthy of culture, but they are at present rare in cultivation in this country. Few hardy shrubs, it must be admitted, are more beautiful than these Rhododendrons, none flowering more freely or lasting longer in bloom. Their requirements are by no means hard to meet, light, peaty soil, or even good sandy loam, with a small admixture of decayed vegetable matter, suiting them well. Lime in any form must, however, be kept away both from Azaleas and Rhododendrons. They like a quiet, still place, where a fair amount of moisture is present in the air and soil. HARDY HYBRID RHODODENDRONS. GHENT AZALEAS, as generally known, from having been raised in Belgium, are a race of hybrids that have been produced by crossing the Asiatic R. pontica with the various American species noted above, but particularly R. calendulaceum, R. nudiflorum, and R. viscosum, and these latter with one another. These have produced hybrids of almost indescribable beauty, the flowers of which range in colour from crimson and pink, through orange and yellow, to almost white. Within the last few years quite an interesting race of Rhododendrons has been brought out, with double or hose-in-hose flowers, and very appropriately termed the Narcissiflora group. They include fully a dozen highly ornamental kinds, with flowers of varying shades of colour. The following list includes some of the best and most beautiful of these varieties:-- Alba marginata. Ardens. Astreans. Aurore-de-Royghen. Baron G. Pyke. Beauté Celeste. Bessie Holdaway. Belle Merveille. Bijou des Amateurs. Cardinal. Charles Bowman. Comte de Flanders. Decus hortorum. Due de Provence. Emperor Napoleon III. Eugenie. Fitz Quihou. Glorie de Belgique. Gloria Mundi. Gueldres Rose. Honneur de Flandre. Imperator. Jules Caesar. La Superbe. Louis Hellebuyck. Madame Baumann. Marie Verschaffelt. Mathilde. Meteor. Nancy Waterer. Ne Plus Ultra. Optima. Pallas. Queen Victoria. Reine des Belges. Remarquable. Roi des Belges. Roi des Feux. Sinensis rosea. Sulphurea. Triumphans. Unique. Viscocephala. Double-flowered Rhododendrons:-- Bijou de Gendbrugge. Graf Von Meran. Heroine. Narcissiflora. Louis Aimée Van Houtte. Mina Van Houtte. Ophirié. Van Houttei. RHODOTHAMNUS. RHODOTHAMNUS CHAMAECISTUS (_syn Rhododendron Chamaecistus_).--Ground Cistus. Alps of Austria and Bavaria, 1786. A very handsome shrub, of small growth, and widely distributed in Bavaria, Switzerland, and elsewhere. Planted in peaty soil and in a rather damp, shady situation it thrives best, the oval-serrate leaves, covered with white, villous hairs, and pretty rosy flowers, giving it an almost unique appearance. It is a charming rock shrub and perfectly hardy. RHODOTYPOS. RHODOTYPOS KERRIOIDES.--White Kerria. Japan, 1866. A handsome deciduous shrub, and one that is readily propagated, and comparatively cheap. It is distinct and pretty when in flower, and one of the hardiest and most accommodating of shrubs. The leaves are handsome, being deeply serrated and silky on the under sides, while the pure white flowers are often about 2 inches across. It grows about 4 feet in height, and is a very distinct and desirable shrub. RHUS. RHUS COTINUS.--Smoke Plant, Wig Tree, or Venetian Sumach. Spain to Caucasus, 1656. On account of its singular appearance this shrub always attracts the attention of even the most unobservant in such matters. It is a spreading shrub, about 6 feet high, with rotundate, glaucous leaves, on long petioles. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, but the feathery nature of the flower clusters, occasioned by the transformation of the pedicels and hairs into fluffy awns, renders this Sumach one of the most curious and attractive of hardy shrubs. Spreading about freely, this south European shrub should be allowed plenty of room so that it may become perfectly developed. R. GLABRA (_syns R. caroliniana, R. coccinea, R. elegans_, and _R. sanguinea_).--Smooth or Scarlet Sumach. North America, 1726. A smaller tree than the last, with leaves that are deep glossy-green above and whitish beneath. The male tree bears greenish-yellow flowers, and the female those of a reddish-scarlet, but otherwise no difference between the trees can be detected. R. glabra laciniata (Fern Sumach) is a distinct and handsome variety, with finely cut elegant leaves, and a dwarf and compact habit of growth. The leaves are very beautiful, and resemble those of the Grevillea robusta. It is a worthy variety. R. SUCCEDANEA.--Red Lac Sumach. Japan, 1768. This is not often seen planted out, though in not a few places it succeeds perfectly well. It has elegant foliage, each leaf being 15 inches long, and divided into several pairs of leaflets. R. TOXICODENDRON.--Poison Oak or Poison Ivy. North America, 1640. This species is of half-scandent habit, with large, trifoliolate leaves, which turn of various tints of red and crimson in the autumn. It is quite hardy, and seen to best advantage when allowed to run over large rockwork and tree stumps in partial shade. The variety R. toxicodendron radicans has ample foliage, and is suited for similar places to the last. The leaves turn bright yellow in the autumn. R. TYPHINA.--Stag's Horn Sumach, or Vinegar Tree. A native of North America (1629), and a very common shrub in our gardens, probably on account of its spreading rapidly by suckers. It is, when well grown, a handsome and distinct shrub or small tree, with large, pinnate, hairy leaves, and shoots that are rendered very peculiar by reason of the dense hairs with which they are covered for some distance back. The dense clusters of greenish-yellow flowers are sure to attract attention, although they are by no means pretty. R. typhina viridiflora is the male-flowered form of this species, with green flowers. R. VENENATA (_syn R. vernix_).--Poison Elder, Sumach, or Dogwood. North America, 1713. This is remarkable for its handsome foliage, and is the most poisonous species of the genus. All the Sumachs grow and flower freely in any good garden soil, indeed, in that respect they are not at all particular. They throw up shoots freely, so that increasing the stock is by no means difficult. RIBES. RIBES ALPINUM PUMILUM AUREUM.--Golden Mountain Currant. The ordinary green form is a native of Britain, of which the plant named above is a dwarf golden-leaved variety. R. AUREUM.--Buffalo Currant. North-west America, 1812. In this species the leaves are lobed and irregularly toothed, while the flowers are yellow, or slightly reddish-tinted. It is of rather slender and straggling growth. R. aureum praecox is an early-flowering variety; and R. aureum serotinum is valued on account of the flowers being produced much later than are those of the parent plant. R. CEREUM (_syn R. inebrians_).--North America, 1827. One of the dwarfer-growing species of Flowering Currant, forming a low, dense bush of Gooseberry-like appearance, but destitute of spines. By May it is in full flower, and the blooms, borne in large clusters, have a pretty pinkish tinge. The foliage is small, neat, and of a tender green that helps to set off the pretty flowers to perfection. It is a native of North-west America, and perfectly hardy in every part of the country. Though not equal in point of floral beauty with our common flowering Currant, still the miniature habit, pretty and freely-produced pink-tinted flowers, and fresh green foliage will all help to make it an acquisition wherever planted. Like the other species of Ribes the present plant grows and flowers very freely in any soil, and almost however poor. R. FLORIDUM (_syns R. missouriense_ and _R. pennsylvanicum_).--American Wild Black Currant. North America, 1729. This should be included in all collections for its pretty autumnal foliage, which is of a bright purplish bronze. R. GORDONIANUM (_syns R. Beatonii_ and _R. Loudonii_) is a hybrid between R. aureum and R. sanguineum, and has reddish, yellow tinged flowers, and partakes generally of the characters of both species. R. MULTIFLORUM, Eastern Europe (1822), is another desirable species, with long drooping racemes of greenish-yellow flowers, and small red berries. R. SANGUINEUM.--Flowering Currant. North-west America, 1826. An old inhabitant of our gardens, and well deserving of all that can be said in its favour as a beautiful spring-flowering shrub. It is of North American origin, with deep red and abundantly-produced flowers. There are several distinct varieties as follows:--R. sanguineum flore-pleno (Burning Bush), with perfectly double flowers, which are produced later and last longer than those of the species; R. sanguineum album, with pale pink, or almost white flowers; R. sanguineum atro-rubens, with deeply-coloured flowers; R. sanguineum glutinosum and R. sanguineum grandiflorum, bearing compact clusters of flowers that are rosy-flesh coloured on the outside and white or pinky-white within. R. SPECIOSUM.--Fuchsia-flowered Gooseberry. California, 1829. A Californian species, remarkable for being more or less spiny, and with flowers resembling some of the Fuchsias. They are crimson, and with long, protruding stamens. As a wall plant, where it often rises to 6 feet in height, this pretty and taking species is most often seen. The flowering Currants are of unusually free growth, and are not at all particular about soil, often thriving well in that of a very poor description. They are increased readily from cuttings and by layers. ROBINIA. ROBINIA DUBIA (_syns R. echiuata_ and _R. ambigua_).--A very pretty garden hybrid form, said to have for its parentage R. Pseud-Acacia and R. viscosa. It is of quite tree-like growth and habit, with unusually short spines, and Pea-green foliage. The flowers are produced pretty freely, and are of a pale rose colour, and well set off by the light-green leaves, over which they hang in neat and compact spikes. R. HISPIDA.--Rose Acacia. North America, 1743. Amongst large-growing shrubs this is certainly one of the most distinct and handsome, and at the same time one of the hardiest and readiest of culture. Under favourable conditions it grows about 16 feet high, with large oval or oblong leaflets, and having the young branches densely clothed with bristles. The flowers, which are individually larger than those of the False Acacia, are of a beautiful rosy-pink, and produced in June and July. It is a very ornamental, small growing species, and one that is peculiarly suitable for planting where space is limited. R. hispida macrophylla (Large-leaved Rose Acacia) is rendered distinct by its generally more robust growth, and by its larger foliage and flowers. The species, however, varies a good deal in respect of the size of leaves and flowers. R. PSEUD-ACACIA.--Common Locust, Bastard Acacia, or False Acacia. North America, 1640. A noble-growing and handsome tree, with smooth shoots, and stipules that become transformed into sharp, stiff spines. The flowers are in long racemes, pure-white or slightly tinged with pink, and with a faint pleasing odour. This species has been sub-divided into a great number of varieties, some of which are very distinct, but the majority are not sufficiently so to warrant special attention. The following include the best and most popular kinds:--R. Pseud-Acacia Decaisneana, a distinct form bearing light pinky flowers; R. Pseud-Acacia Bessoniana, with thornless branches and a dense head of refreshing Pea-green foliage; R. Pseud-Acacia angustifolia, with narrow leaves; R. Pseud-Acacia aurea, a conspicuous but not very constant golden leaved form; R. Pseud-Acacia inermis, of which there are weeping, upright, and broad-leaved forms, has narrow leaves that are glaucous beneath, and the characteristic spines of the species are wanting or rarely well developed. R. Pseud-Acacia monophylla is very distinct, the leaves being entire instead of pinnate; while R. Pseud-Acacia crispa has curiously-curled foliage. Then there is the peculiar R. Pseud-Acacia tortuosa, of ungainly habit; R. Pseud-Acacia umbraculifera, with a spreading head; R. Pseud-Acacia sophoraefolia, the leaves of which resemble those of Sophora japonica; and R. Pseud-Acacia amorphaefolia, with very large foliage when compared with the parent tree. The above may be taken as the most distinct and desirable forms of the False Acacia, but there are many others, such as R. Pseud-Acacia colutoides, R. Pseud-Acacia semperflorens, and R. Pseud-Acacia Rhederi, all more or less distinct from the typical tree. R. VISCOSA (_syn R. glutinosa_).--Clammy Locust. North America, 1797. This is a small-growing tree, and readily distinguished by the clammy bark of the younger shoots. Flowers in short racemes, and of a beautiful rose-pink, but varying a good deal in depth of tint. It is a valuable species for ornamental planting, and flowers well even in a young state. Few soils would seem to come amiss to the Acacias, but observations made in many parts of the country conclusively prove that the finest specimens are growing on light, rich loam overlying a bed of gravel. They are propagated from seed, by layers, or by grafting. ROSA. ROSA ALBA.--This is a supposed garden hybrid between R. canina and R. gallica (1597). It has very glaucous foliage, and large flowers, which vary according to the variety from pure white to rose. R. REPENS (_syn R. arvensis_).--Field Rose. Europe (Britain). This species bears white flowers that are produced in threes or fours, rarely solitary. The whole plant is usually of weak and straggling growth, with shining leaves. R. BRACTEATA (Macartney Rose), R. PALUSTRIS (Marsh Rose), and R. MICROPHYLLA (small-leaved Rose), belong to that section supplied with floral leaves or bracts, and shaggy fruit. They are of compact growth, with neat, shining leaves, the flowers of the first-mentioned being rose or carmine, and those of the other two pure white. R. CANINA.--Dog Rose. Our native Roses have now been reduced to five species, of which the present is one of the number. It is a straggling shrub, 6 feet or 8 feet high, and armed with curved spines. Flowers sweet-scented, pink or white, and solitary, or in twos or threes at the branch tips. R. CENTIFOLIA.--Hundred-leaved, or Cabbage Rose. Orient, 1596. A beautiful, sweetly-scented species, growing to 6 feet in height, and having leaves that are composed of from three to five broadly ovate, toothed leaflets. The flowers are solitary, or two or three together, drooping, and of a rosy hue, but differing in tint to a considerable extent. This species has varied very much, principally through the influences of culture and crossing, the three principal and marked variations being size, colour, and clothing of the calyx tube. There are the common Provence Roses, the miniature Provence or Pompon Roses, and the Moss Rose--all of which are merely races of R. centifolia. R. DAMASCENA.--Damask Rose. Orient, 1573. A bushy shrub varying from 2 feet to 8 feet in height according to cultural treatment and age. The flowers are white or red, large, borne in corymbose clusters, and produced in great profusion during June and July. The varieties that have arisen under cultivation by seminal variation, hybridisation, or otherwise are exceedingly numerous. Those now grown are mostly double, and a large proportion of them are light in colour. They include the quatre saisons and the true York and Lancaster. The flowers are highly fragrant, and, like those of R. centifolia and other species, are used indiscriminately for the purpose of making rose water. The species is distinguished from R. centifolia by its larger prickles, elongated fruit, and long, reflexed sepals. R. FEROX.--North Asia. This species bears flowers in clusters of two and three together, terminating the branches. The petals are white with a yellow base. The branches are erect, and thickly crowded with prickles of unequal size. R. GALLICA.--The French, or Gallic Rose. Europe and Western Asia. This Rose forms a bushy shrub 2 feet to 3 feet high, and has been so long grown in British gardens that the date of its introduction has been lost in obscurity. It is doubtless the red Rose of ancient writers, but at present the flowers may be red, crimson, or white, and there are varieties of all intermediate shades. Several variegated or striped Roses belong here, including Gloria Mundi, a popular favourite often but erroneously grown under the name of York and Lancaster. They all flower in June and July, and, together with other kinds that flower about the same time, are generally known as summer or old-fashioned garden Roses. R. HEMISPHAERICA (_syn R. sulphurea_).--Orient, 1629. A bushy plant growing from 4 feet to 6 feet high, and bearing large double yellow flowers. R. INDICA.--Common China, or Monthly Rose. Introduced from China, near Canton, in 1789, but the native country is not known with certainty. The flowers of the plant when first introduced were red and generally semi-double, but the varieties now vary through all shades of blush, rose, and crimson, and the plant varies exceedingly in height, in its different forms 1 foot to 20 feet in height. The Monthly Roses form bushes generally about 2 feet high or a little over. The Noisette and Tea Roses, with several other more or less distinct types, belong here, but as most of them are well known and otherwise well cared for, it is unnecessary to dwell upon them in detail beyond the two varieties here given, and which should not be overlooked. R. INDICA MINIMA (_syn R. semperflorens minima, R. Lawrenceana_, and _R. minima_).--Fairy, or Miniature Rose. China, 1810. A beautiful little Rose that rarely exceeds a height of 4 inches or 5 inches. The flowers are about the size of a half-crown, and somewhat after the York and Lancaster as regards colouring, though not, perhaps, so distinctly marked, and are produced in abundance. For the rock garden it is one of the most desirable, and being perfectly hardy still further adds to its value. R. INDICA SEMPERFLORENS (_syns R. bengalensis_ and _R. diversifolia_).--The Ever-flowering China Rose. China, 1789. A somewhat spreading bush, with slender branches, armed with curved prickles. Leaves composed of three or five leaflets, and tinted with purple. Flowers almost scentless, solitary, semi-double, and of a bright and showy crimson. R. LUTEA (_syn R. Eglanteria_).--The Austrian Brier, or Yellow Eglantine. South Europe, 1596. This belongs to the Sweet Brier section, and is a bush of from 3 feet to 6 feet high, with shining dark-green leaves, and large, cup-shaped flowers that are yellow or sometimes tinged with reddish-brown within. The Scarlet Austrian Brier (R. lutea punicea) is a handsome variety, with the upper surface of the petals scarlet and the under surface yellow. R. RUBIGINOSA (_syn R. Eglanteria_).--Eglantine, or Sweet Brier. This species has pink flowers and clammy leaves, which are glandular on the under surface, and give out a fragrant smell by which it may be recognised. R. RUGOSA (_syn R. ferox of Bot. Reg._), a Japanese species, and its variety R. rugosa alba, are beautiful shrubs that have proved themselves perfectly hardy and well suited for extensive culture in this country. They are of stiff, shrubby habit, about 4 feet high, and with branches thickly clothed with spines becoming brown with age. Leaflets oval in shape, deep green, with the upper surface rough to the touch, the under sides densely tomentose. Flowers single, fully 3 inches in diameter, the petals of good substance, and white or rose-coloured. The fruit is large, larger than that of perhaps any other rose, and of a bright red when fully ripe. In so far as beauty of fruit is concerned, this Rose has certainly no rival, and whether for the rockwork or open border it must be classed amongst the most useful and beautiful of hardy shrubs. R. rugosa is a capital hedge plant, and being a true species it is readily propagated from seed. R. rugosa Kamtschatika is a deep-red flowered form with deciduous spines. R. SEMPERVIRENS.--Evergreen Rose. South Europe and India, 1529. A climbing species, with long, slender branches, armed with hooked prickles. Leaves evergreen, shining, and composed of from five to seven leaflets. The clustered flowers are white and sweet-scented. R. SPINOSISSIMA (_syn R. pimpinellifolia_).--Burnet, or Scotch Rose. A small bush about 2 feet high, of neat growth, with small leaves, and pink or white flowers that are solitary at the branch ends. R. VILLOSA.--Downy Rose. Europe (Britain). This species is of erect bushy growth, with the leaflets softly downy on both sides. Flowers white or pale pink, succeeded by globular fruits, that are more or less covered with fine hair or prickles. ROSMARINUS. ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS.--Common Rosemary. Mediterranean region, 1848. A familiar garden shrub, of dense growth, with dusky-gray green linear leaves, and pale blue or white flowers. There is a golden and a silver leaved variety, named respectively R. officinalis foliis-aureis, and R. officinalis foliis-argenteis; as also one distinguished by having broader foliage than the species, and named R. officinalis latifolius. RUBUS. RUBUS ARCTICUS.--Arctic Regions of both hemispheres. An interesting species about 6 inches high, with trifoliolate leaves, and deep-red flowers. For Alpine gardening it is a valuable species of dwarf growth. R. AUSTRALIS, from New Zealand, is a very prickly species, with the leaves reduced to their stalks and the midribs of three leaflets. Not being very hardy it is usually seen as a wall plant. R. BIFLORUS.--Himalayas, 1818. A tall-growing species with whitish, spiny stems, and simple three-lobed leaves that are tomentose on the under sides. The flowers are thickly produced, pure white, and render the plant highly attractive, and of great beauty. R. DELICIOSUS.--This Rocky Mountain Bramble (1870) is a very worthy species, with three or five-lobed (not pinnate) leaves, and large, pure white flowers that are each about 2 inches in diameter, and produced in profusion from the leaf-axils. For ornamental planting this may be placed in the first rank of the family to which it belongs. R. FRUTICOSUS.--Common Bramble, or Blackberry. Of this well-known native species there are several worthy varieties, of which the double-flowered are especially worth notice, blooming as they do in the latter part of summer. R. fruticosus flore albo-pleno (Double white-flowered Bramble), and R. fruticosus flore roseo-pleno (Double red-flowered Bramble) are very pretty and showy varieties, and well worth including in any collection. There is a pretty variegated-leaved form of the common Bramble, known as R. fruticosus variegatus. R. LACINIATUS, Cut-leaved Bramble, might also be included on account of its profusion of white flowers, and neatly divided foliage. R. NUTKANUS.--North America, 1826. This has white flowers, but otherwise it resembles R. odoratus. R. ODORATUS.--Purple flowering Raspberry. North America, 1700. The sweet-scented Virginian Raspberry forms a rather dense, upright growing bush, fully 4 feet high, with large broadly five-lobed and toothed leaves, that are more or less viscid, sweet-scented, and deciduous. The leaves are placed on long, hairy, viscid foot-stalks. Flowers in terminal corymbs, large and nearly circular, purplish-red in colour, and composed of five broad, round petals. The fruit, which is rarely produced in this country, is velvety and amber-coloured. It is a very ornamental species, the ample Maple-like leaves and large flowers rendering it particularly attractive in summer. The leaves, and not the flowers as is generally supposed, are sweetly scented. R. ROSAEFOLIUS.--Rose-leaved Raspberry. Himalayas, 1811. Another half-hardy species, and only suited for planting against sunny walls. Leaves pinnate, finer than those of the Raspberry. R. r. coronarius, with semi-double white flowers, is better than the type. R. SPECTABILIS.--The Salmon Berry. North America, 1827. Grows about 6 feet high, with ternate or tri-lobate leaves that are very thickly produced. Flowers usually bright red or purplish-coloured, and placed on long pendulous footstalks. It is of very dense growth, occasioned by the number of suckers sent up from the roots. There are also some of the so-called American Brambles well worthy of attention, two of the best being Kittatiny and Lawton's: The brambles are particularly valuable shrubs, as owing to their dense growth they may be used for a variety of purposes, but especially for covering unsightly objects or banks. They are all wonderfully floriferous, and succeed admirably even in very poor and stony soils. Increase is readily obtained either from root suckers or by layering. RUSCUS. RUSCUS ACULEATUS.--Butcher's Broom, Pettigree and Pettigrue. Europe (Britain), and North Africa. This is a native evergreen shrub, with rigid cladodes which take the place of leaves, and not very showy greenish flowers appearing about May. For the bright red berries, which are as large as small marbles, it is alone worth cultivating, while it is one of the few shrubs that grow at all satisfactorily beneath the shade of our larger trees. R. HYPOPHYLLUM.--Double Tongue. Mediterranean region, 1640. This species has the flowers on the undersides of the leaf-like branches; and its variety R.H. Hypoglossum has them on the upper side. Both are of value for planting in the shade. SAMBUCUS. SAMBUCUS CALIFORNICA.--Californian Elder. A rare species as yet, but one that from its elegant growth and duration of flowers is sure, when better known, to become widely distributed. S. GLAUCA has its herbaceous parts covered with a thick pubescence; leaves pubescent on both sides, and with yellow flowers produced in umbels. S. NIGRA.--Common Elder. Bourtry, or Bour tree. Although one of our commonest native trees, the Elder must rank amongst the most ornamental if only for its large compound cymes of white or yellowish-white flowers, and ample bunches of shining black berries. There are, however, several varieties that should be largely cultivated, such as S. nigra foliis aureis (Golden Elder), S. nigra fructu albo (White Fruited), S. nigra laciniata (Cut-leaved Elder), S. nigra argentea (Silver-leaved Elder), S. nigra rotundifolia (Round-leaved Elder), the names of which will be sufficient for the purposes of recognition. S. RACEMOSA.--Scarlet-berried Elder. South Europe and Siberia, 1596. This is almost a counterpart of our native species, but instead of black the berries are brilliant scarlet. It is a highly ornamental species, but it is rather exacting, requiring for its perfect growth a cool and moist situation. Of this there is a cut-leaved, form, named S. racemosa serratifolia. S. ROSAEFLORA is said to be a seedling from S. glauca, but differs in many important points from the parent. It has smooth shoots and branches, ovate-acuminate leaves that are downy beneath, and flowers rose-coloured without and white within. They are produced in short, spike-like clusters, and are almost destitute of smell. The reddish rings at the insertion of the leaves is another distinguishing feature. For freedom of growth in almost every class of soil, and readiness with which they may be increased, the more showy kinds of Elder are well worthy of attention. SCHIZANDRA. SCHIZANDRA CHINENSIS.--Northern China, 1860. This is a climbing shrub, with oval, bright green leaves, and showy carmine flowers. For clothing arbors and walls it may prove of use, but it is as yet rare in cultivation. S. COCCINEA, from North America (1806), is another uncommon species in which the leaves are oblong and petiolate, and the flowers red or scarlet. For purposes similar to the last this species may be employed. SCHIZOPHRAGMA. SCHIZOPHRAGMA HYDRANGEOIDES.--Climbing Hydrangea. Japan, 1879. As yet this is an uncommon shrub, and allied to the Hydrangea. It is of slender growth, the stems rooting into the support, and with pinky-white flowers. As an ornamental climber it is of no great value, and requires a favoured spot to grow it at all satisfactorily. SHEPHERDIA. SHEPHERDIA ARGENTEA.--Beef Suet Tree, or Rabbit Berry. North America, 1820. This shrub is rendered of particular interest on account of the intense silvery hue of the foliage. The leaves are narrow and lanceolate, silvery on both sides, and dotted over with rusty-brown scales beneath. The flowers, which are produced in April, are small and yellow, unisexual, or each sex on a distinct plant. Berries scarlet, about the size of red Currants, and ripe about September. S. CANADENSIS.--North America, 1759. This is a small-growing, straggling species, fully 4 feet high, and clothed with rusty scales. The leaves are ovate or elliptic, and green above, and the flowers of an inconspicuous yellow, succeeded by orange-red berries. SKIMMIA. SKIMMIA FORTUNEI.--Japan, 1845. This is a neat-growing shrub, with glossy, laurel-like leaves, white or greenish-white flowers, and an abundance of scarlet berries in autumn. It succeeds best in a somewhat shady situation, and when planted in not too heavy peaty soil, but where abundance of not stagnant moisture is present. S. JAPONICA (of Thunberg) (_syn S. oblata_).--Japan, 1864. A neat-growing, evergreen shrub, with rather larger and more showy leaves than the former, and spikes of pretty whitish, sweetly scented flowers. The female form of this is usually known as S. fragrans. What is usually known as S. oblata ovata, and S. oblata Veitchii, are only forms of the true S. japonica; while S. fragrantissima is the male of the same species. The beautiful, berried plant that has been exhibited under the name of S. Foremanii, and which is of very vigorous growth, and produces pyramidal spikes of sweetly scented flowers, is probably S. japonica, or a seminal variety. Another variety sent out under the name of S. macrophylla has unusually large leaves; and another named S. Rogersi produces fruit very abundantly. S. LAUREOLA (_syn Limonia Laureola_), from the Himalayas, is an uncommon species, with very fragrant and pale yellow flowers. S. RUBELLA (China, 1874) is another member of the family that has greenish-white, sweet-scented flowers, and which when better known will be largely planted. SMILAX. SMILAX ASPERA.--The Prickly Ivy. South Europe, 1648. A trailing-habited shrub, with prickly stems, ovate, spiny-toothed, evergreen leaves, and rather unattractive flowers. There are other hardy species from North America, including S. Bona-nox (better known as S. tamnoides), S. rotundifolia, and S. herbacea, the first being the most desirable. S. aspera mauritanica is a hardy variety, but one that is rare in cultivation, with long, wiry shoots, and well adapted for wall or trellis covering. They all require favoured situations, else the growth is short, and the plants stunted and meagre in appearance. SOLANUM. SOLANUM CRISPUM.--Potato-tree. A native of Chili, 1824, and not very hardy, except in the coast regions of England and Ireland. It grows stout and bushy, often in favoured places rising to the height of 12 feet, and has large clusters of purple-blue flowers that are succeeded by small, white berries. This is a decidedly ornamental shrub, that should be cultivated wherever a suitable place can be spared. It bears hard pruning back with impunity, and succeeds in any light, rich, loamy soil. S. DULCAMARA.--Bitter Sweet, and Woody Nightshade. This is a native plant, and one of great beauty when seen clambering over a fence, or bank. It has long, flexuous stems, and large clusters of purple flowers, which are made all the more conspicuous by the showy yellow anthers. The scarlet fruit is very effective. SOPHORA. SOPHORA JAPONICA (_syn Styphnolobium japonicum_).--Chinese or Japanese Pagoda-tree. China and Japan, 1763. A large deciduous tree, with elegant pinnate foliage, and clusters of greenish-white flowers produced in September. Leaves dark-green, and composed of about eleven leaflets. S. japonica pendula is one of the most constant of weeping trees, and valuable for planting in certain well-chosen spots on the lawn or in the park. S. TETRAPTERA.--New Zealand, 1772. This requires protection in this country. It is a valuable species, having numerous leaflets, and bearing racemes of very showy yellow flowers. S. tetraptera microphylla is a smaller-leaved variety, with ten to forty pairs of leaflets, and is known in gardens under the names of Edwardsia Macnabiana, and E. tatraptera microphylla. SPARTIUM. SPARTIUM JUNCEUM (_syn S. acutifolium_).--Spanish, or Rush Broom. Mediterranean region and Canary Isles, 1548. This resembles our common Broom, but the slender Rush-like branches are not angular, and usually destitute of leaves. The fragrant yellow flowers are produced abundantly in racemes, and when at their best impart to the shrub a very striking and beautiful appearance. For planting in poor, sandy or gravelly soils, or amongst stones and shingle, and where only a very limited number of shrubs could be got to grow, the Spanish Broom will be found an excellent and valuable plant. It is a native of Southern Europe, and is quite hardy all over the country. Propagated from seed. SPIRAEA. SPIRAEA BELLA.--Pretty-flowered Spiraea. Himalayas, 1820. The reddish stems of this rather tall-growing species are of interest, and render the plant distinct. Leaves ovate, acute, and serrated, and tomentose beneath. Flowers in spreading corymbs of a very beautiful rose colour, and at their best from the middle of May till the middle of June. S. bella alba has white flowers. S. BLUMEI.--Blume's Spiraea. Japan. This is a Japanese species, growing 4 feet or 5 feet high, with small, ovate, bluntly-pointed leaves, and white flowers arranged in compact terminal cymes. It is a good and worthy species for ornamental planting. S. BULLATA (_syn S. crispifolia_.)--Japan. This will ever be accounted valuable for the rock garden, owing to its very dwarf habit and extreme floriferousness. It bears tiny bunches of bright rose-coloured flowers, and these look all the more charming owing to the miniature size of the shrub, its average height being about 12 inches. A very interesting and valuable rock shrub, and one that no doubt about its perfect hardihood need be entertained. S. CANA.--Hoary-leaved Spiraea. Croatia, 1825. This is a small spreading shrub that rarely rises to more than 18 inches in height, with small, ovate, hoary leaves, and pretty white flowers arranged in corymbs. For rockwork planting it is one of the most valuable species, growing freely and producing its showy flowers in abundance. Quite hardy. S. CANTONIENSIS (_syn S. Reevesiana_).--Reeve's Spiraea. Japan, 1843. An evergreen or sub-evergreen species, growing 3 feet high, with lanceolate leaves on long footstalks, and large, pure white flowers arranged in terminal corymbs, and placed on long peduncles. S. CHAMAEDRIFOLIA (_syn S. ceanothifolia_).--Germander-leaved Spiraea. South-eastern Europe to Japan, 1789. Grows about a yard high, with ovate, pubescent leaves, and white flowers. It varies widely in the shape and size of leaves. S. chamaedrifolia ulmifolia (Elm-leaved Spiraea) a twiggy shrub, 3 feet high, with broad leaves and white flowers, is from Siberia. S. chamaedrifolia crataegifolia (Hawthorn-leaved Spiraea) is of stout, half-erect growth, with rather stiff glaucous leaves that are oval in shape, and bright red or pink flowers in fastigiate panicles. From Siberia 1790, and flowering at mid-summer. S. DECUMBENS (_syn S. nana_).--Decumbent Spiraea. Tyrol. This is the smallest-growing of the shrubby Spiraeas, rarely attaining to a greater height than 12 inches. It is a neat growing plant, with small oval leaves, and white pedunculate flowers. For planting on the rockwork or in the front line of the shrubbery, this is an invaluable shrub, and soon forms a neat and pretty specimen. It is perfectly hardy. S. DISCOLOR ARIAEFOLIA (_syn S. ariaefolia_).--White Beam-leaved Spiraea. North-west America, 1827. This forms a dense, erect shrub about 6 feet high, with elliptic-oblong leaves, and clothed beneath with a whitish tomentum. The flowers are in large, terminal, slender-stalked panicles, and white or yellowish-white. It is one of the handsomest species in cultivation, the neat and yet not stiff habit, and pretty, plume-like tufts of flowers making it a general favourite with the cultivators of hardy shrubs. Flowers about mid-summer. In rich soils, and where partially shaded from cold winds, it thrives best. S. DOUGLASII.--Douglas's Spiraea. North-west America. This has long, obovate-lanceolate leaves, that are white with down on the under surface, and bears dense, oblong, terminal panicles of rosy flowers. S. Douglasii Nobleana (Noble's Spiraea) is a variety of great beauty, growing about a yard high, with large leaves often 4 inches long, and looser panicles of purple-red flowers. Flowering in July. The variety was introduced from California in 1859. S. FISSA.--Split-leaved Spiraea. Mexico, 1839. A stout, erect-growing shrub, about 8 feet high, with rather small leaves, angular, downy branches, and long, loose, terminal panicles of small and greenish-white flowers. The leaves are wedge-shaped at the base, and when young have the lateral incisions split into a pair of unequal and very sharp teeth. Flowering in May and June. In the south and west of England it thrives best. S. HYPERICIFOLIA (_syn S. flagellata_).--Asia Minor, 1640. A wiry twiggy shrub, fully 4 feet high, with entire leaves, and small, white flowers produced in umbels at the tips of the last year's shoots. It is a pretty and desirable species. S. JAPONICA (_syns S. callosa_ and _S. Fortunei_).--Japanese Spiraea. China and Japan, 1859. This is a robust species about a yard high, with large lanceolate leaves, and small, rosy-red flowers arranged in corymbose heads. Flowering at mid-summer. There are several fine varieties of this species, including S. japonica alba, a compact bush about a foot high with white flowers; S. japonica rubra differs from the type in having dark red flowers; S. japonica splendens, is a free-flowering dwarf plant, with peach-coloured flowers and suitable for forcing; and S. japonica superba, has dark rose-red flowers. S. Bumalda is a closely allied form, if not a mere variety of S. japonica. It is of dwarf habit, with dark reddish-purple flowers. S. LAEVIGATA (_syns S. altaicensis_ and _S. altaica_).--Smooth Spiraea. Siberia, 1774. A stout, spreading shrub about a yard high, with large, oblong-lanceolate, smooth, and stalkless leaves. The white flowers are arranged in racemose panicles, and produced in May. S. LINDLEYANA.--Lindley's Spiraea. Himalayas. A handsome, tall-growing species, growing from 6 feet to 8 feet high, with very large pinnate leaves, and pretty white flowers in large terminal panicles. It is the largest-leaved Spiraea in cultivation, and forms a stately, handsome specimen, and produces its showy flowers in great quantities. Flowering at the end of summer. S. MEDIA (_syns S. confusa_ and _S. oblongifolia_).--Northern Asia, etc. The pure white flowers of this species are very freely produced in corymbs along the shoots of the previous season during the months of June and July. The lanceolate-elliptic leaves are serrate, or the smaller ones toothed near the apex only. Within the past few years the species has been brought into prominence for forcing purposes, for which it is admirably suited. It forms an upright, branching bush usually about 3 ft. high, and is best known under the name of S. confusa. S. PRUNIFOLIA.--China and Japan, 1845. A twiggy-branched shrub growing 4 feet or 5 feet high, with oval, Plum-like leaves, and white flowers. There is a double-flowering variety named S. prunifolia flore-pleno, which is both distinct and beautiful. S. ROTUNDIFOLIA.--Round-leaved Spiraea. Cashmere, 1839. A slender-branched shrub, having downy shoots, and round, blunt leaves, flowering in July. S. SALICIFOLIA.--Willow-leaved Spiraea. Europe, and naturalised in Britain. An erect-growing, densely-branched shrub, with smooth shoots, which spring usually directly from the ground. Leaves large, lanceolate, smooth, doubly serrated, and produced plentifully. Flowers red or rose-coloured, and arranged in short, thyrsoid panicles. It flowers in July and August. S. salicifolia carnea has flesh-coloured flowers; S. salicifolia paniculata has white flowers; and S. salicifolia grandiflora has pink flowers as large again as the type. S. salicifolia alpestris (Mountain Spiraea) grows fully 2 feet high, with lanceolate, finely-toothed leaves, and loose, terminal panicles of pink or red flowers. From Siberia, and flowering in autumn. S. salicifolia latifolia (_syn S. carpinifolia_), the Hornbeam-leaved Spiraea, is a white-flowered variety, with leaves resembling those of the Hornbeam. From North America. S. SORBIFOLIA.--Sorbus-leaved Spiraea. Siberia, 1759. A handsome, stout species, 4 feet high, with large, pinnate, bright green leaves, and small, white, sweetly-scented flowers produced in thyrsoid panicles. S. THUNBERGII.--Thunberg's Spiraea. Japan. The white flowers of this species smell somewhat like those of the Hawthorn, and are freely produced on the leafless, twiggy stems, in March or early in April, according to the state of the weather. They are borne in axillary clusters from buds developed in the previous autumn, and are very welcome in spring, long before the others come into bloom. The bush varies from one to three feet high, and is clothed with linear-lanceolate, sharply serrated leaves. S. TOMENTOSA.--Tomentose Spiraea. North America, 1736. This species grows 2 feet or 3 feet high, has rusty tomentose shoots and leaves, and large, dense, compound spikes of showy red flowers. Flowering in summer. S. TRILOBATA (_syn S. triloba_).--Three-lobed Spiraea. Altaian Alps, 1801. This is a distinct species with horizontally arranged branches, small, roundish, three-lobed leaves, and white flowers arranged in umbel-like corymbs. It flowers in May, and is quite hardy. S. UMBROSA (Shady Spiraea) and S. EXPANSA (Expanded-flowered Spiraea), the former from Northern India and the latter from Nepaul, are well suited for planting in somewhat shady situations, and are very ornamental species. The first mentioned grows about a foot high, with rather large leaves, and cymes of white flowers on long slender footstalks; while S. expansa has pink flowers, and lanceolate and coarsely serrated leaves. There are other valuable-flowering kinds, such as S. capitata, with ovate leaves and white flowers; S. pikowiensis, a rare species with white flowers; S. cuneifolia, with wedge-shaped leaves and panicles of pretty white flowers; and S. vacciniaefolia, a dwarf-growing species, with small ovate, serrulated leaves, and showy, pure white flowers. S. betulifolia and S. chamaedrifolia flexuosa are worthy forms of free growth and bearing white flowers. STAPHYLEA. STAPHYLEA COLCHICA.--Colchican Bladder Nut. Caucasus. This is a very distinct shrub, about 6 feet high, with large clusters of showy white flowers. Being quite hardy, and very ornamental, this species is worthy the attention of planters. S. PINNATA.--Job's Tears, or St. Anthony's Nut. South Europe. This is a straggling shrub, from 6 feet to 8 feet high, with white, racemose flowers, succeeded by bladder-like capsules. S. TRIFOLIA.--North America, 1640. This is distinguished by its larger white flowers and trifoliolate leaves. It is the American Bladder Nut, but, like the latter, can hardly be included amongst ornamental plants. All the Bladder Nuts grow freely in good light dampish loam. STAUNTONIA. STAUNTONIA HEXAPHYLLA.--China and Japan, 1876. This evergreen twining shrub is not to be generally recommended, it requiring wall protection even in southern England. The leaves are deep green and pinnate, while the greenish-white flowers are fragrant, and produced in the beginning of summer. STUARTIA. STUARTIA PENTAGYNA (_syn Malachodendron ovatum_).--North America, 1785. This differs only from the S. virginica in having five distinct styles, hence the name. Under very favourable circumstances this is the taller growing species, and the leaves and flowers are larger. S. PSEUDO-CAMELLIA (_syn S. grandiflora_).--Japan, 1879. This is of recent introduction, and differs from the others in the flowers being rather larger, and of a purer white, and supplied with yellow instead of red stamens. It is quite hardy in Southern England and Ireland at least. S. VIRGINICA (_syn S. marylandica_).--North America, 1743. This is a handsome free-growing shrub, of often 10 feet in height, with large, creamy-white flowers, that are rendered all the more conspicuous by the crimson-red stamens. The flowers--like those of a single Rose, and fully 2-1/2 inches across--are produced in May. Quite hardy, as many fine specimens in some of our old English gardens will point out. Though, perhaps, rather exacting in their requirements, the Stuartias may be very successfully grown if planted in light, moist, peaty earth, and where they will be screened from cold, cutting winds. STYRAX. STYRAX AMERICANA and S. PULVERULENTA are not commonly cultivated, being far less showy than the Japanese species. They bear white flowers. S. OFFICINALIS.--Storax. Levant, 1597. This is a small deciduous shrub, with ovate leaves, and short racemes of pretty pure white flowers. A not very hardy species, and only second-rate as an ornamental flowering shrub. S. SERRULATA VIRGATA (_syn S. japonica_).--Japanese Storax. Japan. A neat-habited and dense-growing shrub, with pretty white flowers that are neatly set off by the showy yellow stamens. It is an extremely pretty shrub, with long, slender, much-branched shoots, furnished with ovate leaves, and deliciously-scented, snow-white bell-shaped flowers, produced for nearly the full length of the shoots. So far, this shrub of recent introduction has proved quite hardy. S. serrulata variegata is a well-marked and constant form. SYMPHORICARPUS. SYMPHORICARPUS OCCIDENTALIS.--Wolf Berry. North America. This species has larger and more freely-produced flowers, and smaller fruit than the commonly-cultivated plant. S. RACEMOSUS (_syn Symphoria racemosus_).--Snowberry. North America, 1817. One of the commonest shrubs in English gardens, with small, oval, entire leaves, and neat little racemes of pretty pink flowers, succeeded by the familiar snow-white berries, and for which the shrub is so remarkable. S. VULGARIS.--Coral Berry, Common St. Peter's Wort. North America, 1730. This is readily distinguished by its showy and freely-produced coral berries. There is a very neat and much sought after variety, having conspicuous green and yellow leaves, and named S. vulgaris foliis variegatis. The Snowberries are of no great value as ornamental shrubs, but owing to their succeeding well in the very poorest and stoniest of soils, and beneath the shade and drip of trees, it is to be recommended that they are not lost sight of. They grow and spread freely, and are therefore useful where unchecked and rampant shrub growth is desirable. SYMPLOCOS. SYMPLOCOS JAPONICA (_syn S. lucida_).--A small growing and not very desirable species from Japan (1850). S. TINCTORIA.--Sweet-leaf, or Horse Sugar. South United States, 1780. This is a small-growing shrub, with clusters of fragrant yellow flowers, but it is not very hardy unless planted against a sheltered and sunny wall. SYRINGA. SYRINGA CHINENSIS (_syns. S. dubia_ and _S. rothomagensis_).--Rouen, or Chinese Lilac. A plant of small growth, with narrow leaves, and reddish-violet flowers. It is said to have been raised by M. Varin, of the Botanic Garden, Rouen, as a hybrid between S. vulgaris and S. persica, 1795. S. EMODI.--Himalayas, 1840. This is a desirable species, that forms a stout bush or small tree, with oblong, reticulately-veined leaves, and erect, dense panicles of white flowers, that are sometimes lilac tinged. The flowers are strongly scented, and borne in great profusion late in the season. There is a variegated form, S. Emodi variegata, and another named S. Emodi villosa, both good varieties. S. JAPONICA (_syns S. amurensis_ and _Ligustrina amurensis_).--Japan. This is of recent introduction, and is a decided acquisition, producing in summer large and dense clusters of creamy-white flowers. It is a very desirable species, and though coming from Japan seems to be perfectly hardy. S. JOSIKAEA, Josika's Lilac, is of Hungarian origin (1835), and is so totally different from the others as to be well worthy of special attention. It rarely exceeds 6 feet in height, with dark-green, wrinkled leaves, and erect spikes of pale mauve flowers. S. PERSICA (Persian Lilac).--Persia, 1640. This is a distinct small-growing species, with slender, straight branches, and lilac or white flowers produced in small clusters. The form bearing white flowers is named S. persica alba; and there is one with neatly divided foliage called S. persica laciniata. S. VULGARIS.--Common Lilac, or Pipe Tree. Persia and Hungary, 1597. This is one of the commonest and most highly praised of English garden shrubs, and one that has given rise, either by natural variation or by crossing with other species, to a great number of superior forms. The following include the best and most ornamental of the numerous varieties:--alba, pure white flowers; alba-grandiflora, very large clusters of white flowers; alba-magna, and alba virginalis, both good white-flowering forms; Dr. Lindley, large clusters of reddish-lilac flowers; Charles X., purplish-lilac flowers, but white when forced; Souvenir De Ludwig Spath, with massive clusters of richly coloured flowers; Glorie de Moulins, Marie Legrange, Noisetteana, Duchesse de Nemours, and Vallettiana, all beautiful flowering forms that are well worthy of cultivation, and that are of the simplest growth. The double-flowered varieties, for which we are much indebted to M. Victor Lemoine, of Nancy, are fast gaining favour with cultivators in this country, and rightly, too, for they include several very handsome, full flowered forms. The following are best known:-- S. vulgaris Alphonse Lavallee, with full double red flowers, changing to mauve. " Emile Lemoine, mauve-pink, suffused with white; very handsome. " La Tour d'Auvergne, mauve shaded with rose. A beautiful and very dark coloured form. " Lemoinei, nearly resembling our common species, but with full double flowers. " Leon Simon, light pink, mauve shaded. " Madame Lemoine, the finest form, bearing very large pure white double flowers. " Michael Buchner, rosy lilac. " Virginité, whitish pink, nearly white when fully expanded. President Grevy is one of the same beautiful group. The blooms are large, double, and produced in very massive clusters, and of a light bluish-lilac tint, when forced almost white. The first of this group, S. vulgaris Lemoinei, was sent out about 1884, and was then awarded a certificate by the R.H.S. The range in colouring of these Lilacs is rather confined, so that the various forms resemble one another in no small degree, particularly when the flowers are opened under glass. From the large size of the flower bunches, and the individual flowers being double, they are all of great beauty, and being quite hardy still further enhances their value for outdoor gardening purposes. The Lilacs grow freely in any soil of fair quality, but a free, rich, and not too dry loam, would seem to suit the majority of these plants best. TAMARIX. TAMARIX GALLICA.--Common Tamarisk. India to Europe. This shrub often in favoured maritime places reaches to a height of fully 10 feet, with long and slender branches, and spikes of pretty, rosy-pink flowers produced at the end of summer. For sea-side planting, it is an invaluable shrub, and on account of its feathery appearance and wealth of showy flowers is well worthy of being included in our list of ornamental and useful shrubs. T. PARVIFLORA (_syns T. africana_ and _T. tetrandra_), South-eastern Europe and Levant, is a nearly allied species, with white, pinky-tinged flowers. TECOMA. TECOMA GRANDIFLORA (_syn Bignonia grandiflora_), from China and Japan (1800), is not so hardy as T. radicans, although in certain maritime districts it succeeds fairly well. The flowers are very attractive, being of a rich orange-scarlet, and produced in drooping clusters. Both foliage and flowers are larger than those of T. radicans. It wants a warm, sunny wall, and light, rich, and well-drained soil, and if only for its lovely flowers, it is well worthy of coddling and good treatment. T. RADICANS (_syn Bignonia radicans_).--Trumpet Flower. North America, 1640. An old occupant of our gardens and one of the most beautiful wall plants in cultivation. It is a tall climber, of sometimes fully 20 feet in height, with graceful pinnate leaves, and handsome trumpet-shaped scarlet-red flowers, that are at their best about mid-summer, though the period of flowering extends over a considerable length of time. The stems are long, twisted, and wiry, and like those of the Ivy send out roots at the joints and so fasten the plant in position. Few climbing plants are more attractive than the Trumpet Flower, and being hardy in most parts of the country, and free of growth, is to be recommended for covering walls, and arches, or similar structures. T. radicans major is of more robust growth than the species, with larger foliage and paler flowers. The orange-scarlet flowers are produced in terminal corymbs. TILIA. TILIA VULGARIS (_syns T. europea_ and _T. intermedia_).--Lime, or Linden Tree. Europe, Caucasus, and naturalised in Britain. Probably none of the Limes would be included in a list of ornamental-flowering trees and shrubs, still that they are of great interest and beauty even in that state cannot be denied. The common species as well as its numerous varieties have sweetly scented, yellowish-white flowers in terminal cymes, and are, though individually small, highly ornamental when fully developed. Other species of great interest when in flower are T. alba (_syn T. argentea_), Silver Lime; T. petiolaris, a curious and beautiful species; and T. euchlora. The various species and varieties of Lime succeed well in almost any class of soil, but rich loam on sand is considered the most suitable for their perfect development. ULEX. ULEX EUROPAEUS.--Furze, Gorse, or Whin. This pretty native shrub needs no description, suffice it to say that it is one of the handsomest-flowering shrubs in cultivation. U. europaeus flore-pleno (Double-flowered Gorse) is even more beautiful than the species, the wealth of golden flowers almost hiding the plant from view. U. europaeus strictus (Irish Furze) is of more erect and slender growth, and less rigid than the common species. U. NANUS.---Dwarf Gorse, Cat Whin, and Tam Furze. This differs considerably from the common plant, not only in stature, but in the time of flowering. In this species the bracts at the calyx base are small compared with those of U. europaeus, while the smaller flowers are produced during summer, and when not a bloom is to be found on its supposed parent. It is of dense growth, the tallest stems rarely rising from the ground to a greater height than about 15 inches. All the Furze family succeed admirably in the poorest of soil; indeed, a dry gravelly bank would seem to be their favourite haunt. VACCINIUM. VACCINIUM CORYMBOSUM.--Canada to Carolina and Georgia, 1765. This is one of the most beautiful and showy species, with dense clusters of small, pinky flowers. V. MYRTILLUS.--Whortleberry, Bilberry, Blackberry, and Blueberry. A native plant, with angular stems, ovate-toothed leaves, and pinky-white flowers, succeeded by bright, bluish-black berries. V. PENNSYLVANICUM.--New England to Virginia, 1772. This has rather inconspicuous flowers, and is of greatest value for the autumnal foliage tints. V. VITIS-IDEA (Cowberry, Flowering Box, or Brawlins) a native species, has racemose flowers, and red berries. Other species that might be included are V. canadense, V. stamineum, V. frondosum, and V. ligustrifolium. The various species of Vaccinium are of dwarf or procumbent growth, and only suitable for planting in beds, or on rockwork, where they will not be lost sight of. They thrive best in soil of a peaty nature. VERONICA. VERONICA PINQUIFOLIA.--New Zealand, 1870. This is one of the hardiest species, but it is of low growth, and only suitable for alpine gardening. It is a dwarf spreading shrub, with intensely glaucous leaves and white flowers. V. TRAVERSII.--New Zealand, 1873. This may be considered as one of the few species of hardy Veronicas. It grows about 4 feet high, with deep green leaves arranged in rows, and white flowers, produced late in summer. It is a very free-growing shrub, of perfect hardihood, and one of, if not the best for general planting. The above two species are, so far as is at present known, the hardiest in cultivation, although there are many kinds that will succeed well under very favourable conditions, and particularly when planted by the sea-side. Other half-hardy species might include V. salicifolia (Willow-leaved Veronica), with long, narrow leaves, and white or purplish flowers; V. ligustrifolia (Privet-leaved Veronica), with spikes of feathery-white flowers; V. speciosa, with erect spikes of purplish-blue flowers; and V. Andersoni, a hybrid form, with spikes of bluish-violet flowers. The dwarf or alpine species might include V. cupressoides, with Cypress-like foliage, V. Lyallii, V. carnosula, and others, but such hardly come within our scope. VIBURNUM. VIBURNUM ACERIFOLIUM.--Dockmackie. New England to Carolina, 1736. This is one of the handsomest members of the family, being of slender growth and compact and neat in habit. It grows to fully 4 feet in height, and is well supplied with neatly three-lobed leaves, these in the autumn turning to a deep crimson. The flowers, too, are highly ornamental, being borne in fair sized clusters, and white or yellowish-white. It is a very desirable and beautiful plant, quite hardy, and of free growth in any fairly rich soil. V. AWAFUKII.--Japan, 1842. This is another rare and beautiful plant, of neat habit, and producing an abundance of showy white flowers, that are, however, seldom produced in this country. V. DAHURICUM.--Dahuria, 1785. This is a charming hardy species, which in May and June is covered with numerous umbels of showy white flowers. It forms a rather spreading bush of 6 feet or 8 feet high, with gray downy branches, and neat foliage. The berries are oval-oblong, red at first, but becoming black and faintly scented when fully ripe. V. DENTATUM.--Arrowwood. A native of the United States, 1763. This can be recommended as a distinct and beautiful shrub, with cymes of white flowers that are produced in plenty. The leaves are dark green, smooth, and shining, and strongly veined, while the bark is ash-coloured, and the berries bright blue. V. LANTANA.--Wayfaring Tree. Europe (Britain). This is a native species of large bush, or almost tree growth, with rugose, oblong, serrulated leaves, and large, flat cymes of white flowers appearing in May and June. The whole tree is usually covered with a scaly tomentum, while the fruit is a black flattened drupe. V. LENTAGO.--Sheepberry and Sweet Viburnum. North America, 1761. This resembles our native V. Lantana, with dense clusters of white blossoms succeeded by black berries. V. MACROCEPHALUM (_syn V. Fortunei_).--China, 1844. This is a Chinese species, but one that cannot be depended on as hardy enough to withstand our most severe winters. It has very large heads or panicles of white neutral flowers. Against a sunny wall and in a cosy nook it may occasionally be found doing fairly well, but it is not to be generally recommended. V. NUDUM.--American Withe Rod. Canada to Georgia, 1752. This is also worthy of being included in a selection of these shrubs. V. OPULUS.--Guelder Rose. A native shrub of great beauty, whether in foliage, flower, or fruit. The leaves are variously lobed or deeply toothed, large and handsome, and the flower heads of good size, flat, and composed of a number of small flowers, the outer only being sterile. Individually the flowers are dull and inconspicuous, but being produced in amazing quantity, they have a very pleasing and effective appearance. The great bunches of clear pinky berries render a fair-sized plant particularly handsome and attractive, and for which alone, as also beauty of autumnal foliage, the shrub is well worthy of extensive culture. It grows fully 15 feet high, and may frequently be seen as much through. V. Opulus sterilis (Snowball Tree) is one of the commonest occupants of our shrubberies, and a decidedly ornamental-flowering shrub. The large, almost globular flower heads hanging from every branch tip, are too well-known to require description, and have made the shrub one of the most popular in ornamental planting. V. PAUCIFLORUM is a native of cold, moist woods from Labrador to Alaska, and may best be described as a miniature V. Opulus. It rarely grows more than 4 feet high, with small cymes of flowers, that are devoid of the neutral flowers of that species. V. PLICATUM, from Japan 1846, is another very beautiful and desirable shrub, of rather dwarf, spreading growth, and having the leaves deeply wrinkled, plaited, and serrated on the margins. The flowers resemble those of the commonly cultivated species, but they are rather larger, and of a purer white. It is a decidedly ornamental species of easy growth in any good soil, and where not exposed to cold winds. V. PRUNIFOLIUM, New England to Carolina, 1731, with Plum-like leaves, and pretty white flowers, is another free-growing and beautiful North American species. V. PYRIFOLIUM.--Pear-leaved Viburnum. Pennsylvania to New Jersey, 1812. This is a rarely-seen, but very ornamental species, with oval-shaped, finely-toothed leaves, that are borne on short, slightly-winged stalks about half-an-inch long. Flowers sweetly scented, white, and in broad corymbs, the feathery appearance of the long, projecting stamens, each tipped with a golden anther, adding considerably to the beauty of the flowers. V. RETICULATUM and V. LAEVIGATUM are rarely seen species, but of interest botanically, if not for floral beauty. V. TINUS.--Laurustinus. South Europe, 1596. So commonly cultivated a shrub needs no description here, sufficient to say that the handsome evergreen foliage and pretty pinky-white flowers assign to it a first position amongst hardy ornamental flowering shrubs, V. Tinus strictum has darker foliage than the species, is more upright, rather more hardy, but not so profuse in the bearing of flowers. V. Tinus lucidum (Glossy-leaved Laurustinus), of the several varieties of Laurustinus has the largest foliage, finest flowers, and altogether is of the most robust growth. It is, unfortunately, not very hardy, probably in that respect not even equalling the parent plant. Usually it does not flower freely, neither are the flowers produced so early as in the species, but individually they are much larger. It is of tall growth, and rarely forms the neat, dense bush, for which the common shrub is so admired. V. Tinus rotundifolium has rounded leaves; and V. Tinus rotundifolium variegatum has irregularly variegated leaves. VINCA. VINCA MAJOR.--Band-plant, Cut-finger, and Larger Periwinkle. Europe (Britain). For trailing over tree-stumps or rockwork this pretty evergreen shrub has a distinctive value, the bright green leaves and showy deep blue flowers rendering it both conspicuous and ornamental. V. major elegantissima is a decided variety, the leaves being neatly and evenly variegated, and making the plant of great value for bank or rock-work decoration. V. MINOR.--Lesser Periwinkle. This is of much smaller growth than the preceding, and differs, too, in not having the leaf-margins ciliated. The variety V. minor flore-albo has white flowers, those of the normal plant being pale blue; V. minor flore-pleno differs in having double blue flowers; V. minor foliis aureis has golden-tinted leaves; and V. minor foliis argenteis bears silvery mottled and very attractive foliage. They are all of simple growth, succeeding well in somewhat shady situations, and in by no means the richest of soil. As they run about freely and soon cover an extent of ground they are rendered of great value for a variety of purposes. VITEX. VITEX AGNUS-CASTUS.--Chaste Tree, Hemp Tree, and Monk's Pepper-tree. A South European shrub (1670), growing from 6 feet to 10 feet high, with digitate leaves that are almost hoary beneath, and spikes of small violet flowers. It is not very hardy, although in some of the warmer parts of southern England and Ireland, fair-sized, healthy-looking specimens are now and then to be met with. As a wall plant, however, it succeeds best, and for which purpose, with its neat foliage and pretty flowers, it is peculiarly suitable. VITIS. VITIS HETEROPHYLLA HUMILIFOLIA.--Turquoise-berried Vine. North China and Japan, 1868. The leaves of this Vine are three to five lobed, and the small flowers freely produced in slightly branching cymes. The latter are succeeded by their most interesting and attractive berries, that ripen in September and October. They are pale china-blue, marked all over with very dark specks. The stems grow to a height of 4 feet to 8 feet, and should be trained against a wall in a sunny position to ripen the berries. The plant is perfectly hardy. The variety V. heterophylla variegata is a dwarf, low-growing plant with variegated leaves, and is used for pot work, for covering the ground in sub-tropical bedding designs, and might be used to great advantage for rambling over large stones in the rock garden. WISTARIA. WISTARIA CHINENSIS (_syns W. sinensis, Glycine chinensis_, and _G. sinensis_).--Chinese Wistaria. China, 1816. This is the only species at all common in gardens, and by far the handsomest in cultivation. It justly ranks amongst the most beautiful of hardy climbing shrubs, and is invaluable as a wall plant, or for clothing the bare stems of sparsely foliaged trees. The purplish-lilac flowers are produced in long, drooping racemes in early summer. W. chinensis alba has pretty white flowers; W. chinensis flore-pleno has not proved very satisfactory, but when seen at its best, which is, however, but rarely, the double flowers are both beautiful and showy; W. chinensis variegata has badly variegated foliage; and W. chinensis macrobotrys is a plant of great beauty with very long racemes of pale lavender flowers, but they vary a good deal in colour, those of some plants being almost white. It is a very desirable variety, and one that when better known is sure to attract attention. W. FRUTESCENS (_syns Glycine frutescens_ and _Thyrsanthus frutescens_).--North America, 1724. This is a very handsome deciduous climbing species from North America. The flowers, which appear towards autumn, are bluish purple and fragrant, and borne in erect racemes. It is quite hardy and equally suitable with the Chinese species for using as a wall covering. W. frutescens magnifica is an improved form of the species. W. JAPONICA.--Japan. A bush-like species bearing white flowers, but it is rarely seen in cultivation. It is, however, quite hardy, and succeeds well in the bush state at Kew. W. MULTIJUGA.--Japan, 1874. Resembles somewhat our commonly-cultivated species, and has pale purple flowers arranged in long racemes. It is a very ornamental and desirable species, but the flowers are not borne in great quantity. The Wistarias are of simple culture, but succeed best in rather rich alluvial soil, and where protection from cold winds is provided. XANTHOCERAS. XANTHOCERAS SORBIFOLIA.--China, 1870. An extremely pretty flowered and handsome leaved shrub, but owing to its late introduction is not yet well known. So far it has proved itself perfectly hardy in this country, there being specimens at wide distances apart that have stood uninjured through our past severe winters. The leaves are pale green, and pinnate, somewhat resembling those of the Rowan Tree. Flowers five petalled, creamy white, sometimes very slightly tinged with flesh colour, with a coppery red or violet-purple centre, and disposed in racemes. When fully expanded they are an inch across, and somewhat reflexed. It flowers early in April, with the appearance of the leaves, the blooms being produced in great abundance, in spike-like clusters fully seven inches long, and succeeded by a small green Pear-like fruit. This is one of the most distinct and handsome of recently introduced shrubs, and will, when more widely disseminated, be largely planted for purely ornamental purposes. It grows from 10 feet to about 15 feet high. XANTHORHIZA. XANTHORHIZA APIIFOLIA.--Yellow-root. Pennsylvania, 1776. A small growing shrub, with yellow creeping roots, from which suckers are thrown up profusely. The leaves are irregularly pinnate, and the minute flowers, which are borne in large, branching spikes, are of a peculiar dark purple colour. It prefers a cool, moist situation. YUCCA. YUCCA FILAMENTOSA.--Silk Grass. North America, 1675. A well-known and beautiful plant, with numerous leaves arranged in a dense rosette, and from 1 foot to 2 feet long by 2 inches broad. Flower scape rising to 5 feet or 6 feet in height, and bearing numerous flowers that are each about 2 inches deep. There is a beautiful variegated form of this species named Y. filamentosa variegata, and one with much narrower leaves than the typical species, and known as Y. filamentosa angustifolia. Y. GLORIOSA.--The Mound Lily. United States, 1596. This is another well-known hardy species, with long, sharp-pointed leaves, and a handsome, much branched scape, of flowers that are each about 2 inches deep. There are several varieties, differing in colour of foliage, including Y. gloriosa glaucescens, with decidedly glaucous foliage; Y. gloriosa superba, with rigid leaves and a shorter and denser flower scape; and another with variegated leaves. Y. gloriosa recurvifolia is usually dwarfer in the stem than the type, and more inclined to branch than the other species, and less rigid, with recurving leaves that are not so sharp-pointed, The flower panicle is large and very much branched. The Yuccas all do well if planted in light loam of good quality. ZELKOVA. ZELKOVA ACUMINATA (_syns Z. japonica_ and _Planera acuminata_).--Japan. This resembles very nearly our common Elm in appearance, and being perfectly hardy is to be recommended for planting in this country. Z. CRENATA (_syns Planera crenata_ and _P. Richardi_).--Zelkova Tree. Western Asia to Mount Caucasus, 1760. This is a handsome, large growing tree, with oblong deeply-crenated leaves, and small and inconspicuous flowers. For avenue planting or as a standard specimen this is a valuable tree, being quite hardy, and of free and quick growth. P. crenata pendula is a good weeping form, and worthy of culture. Z. CRETICA.--Crete. A pretty small growing bush or tree of about 20 feet in height, with crenate, leathery, dark green leaves, which are usually fully an inch in length. The leaves are hairy, and the twigs, too, are thickly covered with short grey hairs. ZAUSCHNERIA. ZAUSCHNERIA CALIFORNICA.--Californian Fuchsia, or Humming Birds' Trumpet. California and Mexico, 1847. A small-growing, densely-branched shrub, with linear-lanceolate silvery pubescent leaves, and bright red or scarlet tubular flowers, with a long, slender style resembling some of the Fuchsias. It is a pretty and distinct Alpine shrub, and not being perfectly hardy should be assigned a rather warm and sheltered position. ZENOBIA. ZENOBIA SPECIOSA (_syn Andromeda speciosa_ and _A. cassinaefolia_).--South United States, 1800. This is a distinct and pretty hardy species, a native of swampy low-lying districts. It grows about four feet high, and bears pure white, bell-shaped, Lily-of-the-Valley like flowers in great abundance during the summer. In too dry situations it becomes sparse of foliage and unhappy, but grows and flowers freely in light, peaty soil. Z. speciosa pulverulenta is a very desirable variety, the whole plant, stems, foliage, and flowers, being of a pleasing light gray or white colour. Individually the flowers are larger than those of the species. _ADDENDA_. EXOCHORDA. EXOCHORDA GRANDIFLORA (_syn Spiraea grandiflora_).--North China. This handsome shrub forms a much branched, spreading bush, about 4 feet to 6 feet high, and flowers abundantly in May. The habit is similar to that of a shrubby Spiraea, but the pure white flowers are as large as those of some of the species of Cherry, and quite unlike those of any known species of Spiraea. The flowers are liable to injury sometimes from late spring frosts, but the plant itself is quite hardy. As a bush on the lawn it is nevertheless highly ornamental and desirable. MYRICARIA. MYRICARIA GERMANICA.--Europe, Asia, 1582. A tall, somewhat straggling shrub, very similar to the Tamarisk, with terminal spikes of pink or rosy flowers, produced freely nearly all the summer. It succeeds well in this country in sea-side situations, and is often described as a Tamarisk by gardeners. TREES SUITABLE FOR PLANTING IN TOWNS. Acer macrophylla saccharinum Aesculus Hippocastanum rubicunda Ailanthus glandulosa Crataegus Oxyacantha flore-plena tenacetifolia Catalpa bignonioides Cerasus (Prunus), nearly all Gleditschia triacanthos Liriodendron tulipiiera Magnolia acuminata glauca Pyrus of sorts Robinia Pseud-acacia and its varieties viscosa Sophora japonica Tilia, in variet. SHRUBS FOR TOWN PLANTING. Amelanchier, in variety Arbutus Unedo Berberis Aquifolium vulgaris Cistus ladaniferus laurifolius Colutea arborescens Daphne Laureola Mezereum pontica Deutzia crenata gracilis Forsythia suspensa viridissima Griselinia littoralis Hibiscus syriacus Hypericum calycinum Hypericum nepalense Koelrenteria paniculata Leycesteria formosa Philadelphus Gordonianus Prunus nana Pyrus japonica Rhus Cotinus Ribes aureum sanguineum Skimmia japonica Syringa (nearly all) Ulex europaeus fl.-pl. Viburnum Opulus Weigelia rosea Yucca gloriosa recurva TREES FOR THE SEASIDE. Acer campestre saccharinum Arbutus Unedo Ailanthus glandulosa Aesculus Hippocastanum rubicunda Catalpa bignonioides Fraxinus Ornus SHRUBS FOR THE SEASIDE. Atriplex halimus Cerasus lusitanica Cytisus Laburnum scoparius Euonymus japonicus europaeus Fabiana imbricata Griselinia littoralis Hippophae rhomnoides Ilex Aquifolium Laurus nobilis Lycium europaeum Prunus Padus Rhamnus frangula Ribes sanguineum Rosa spinosissima Shepherdia argentea Spirea adiantifolia Syringa persica vulgaris Symphoricarpus racemosus Tamarix gallica germanica Ulex europaea Viburnum Tinus THE FLOWERING SEASONS OF TREES AND SHRUBS. _The asterisk * after the name denotes that the species continues in flower for a longer period than the month under which it is placed_. JANUARY. Erica carnea* Chimonanthus fragrans* Crataegus Oxyacantha praecox* Jasminum nudiflorum* Ulex europaeus* Viburnum Tinus* FEBRUARY. Cornus Mas* Daphne Laureola* Mezereum* Hamamelis japonica Lonicera fragrantissima* Magnolia conspicua* Parrotia persica* Pittosporum Tobira* Prunus nana* Davidiana* Rosmarinus officinalis* MARCH. Arbutus Andrachne* Berberis japonica* Erica mediterranea* Forsythia viridissima* Garrya elliptica Magnolia stellata* Nuttallia cerasiformis* Prunus Amygdalus* ilicifolia* japonica* spinosa* triloba* tomentosa Rhododendron dahuricum ledifolium Skimmia Fortunei Spiraea Thunbergi* Xanthoriza apiifolia* APRIL. Akebia quinata* Amelanchier alnifolia canadensis vulgaris Berberis Aquifolium* Darwinii* pinnata vulgaris Caesalpinia sepiaria Caragana frutescens spinosa* Ceanothus cuneatus* rigidus* Clematis cirrhosa* florida* Cornus florida Cytisus scoparius* Daphne altaica Blagayana Cneorum* Genkwa sericea Deutzia gracilis* Diervilla rosea* Drimys aromatica Fothergilla alnifolia* Fremontia californica Halesia diptera tetraptera Kalmia glauca* Laburnum vulgare* Ledum latifolium palustre Lonicera Caprifolium* tatarica* Magnolia cordata* Fraseri Lennei obovata discolor Pieris floribunda* japonica* Prunus Avium Juliana cerasifera cerasifera Pissardii Cerasus domestica divaricata Mahaleb maritima Padus* paniculata flore-pleno Puddum* sinensis Pyrus angustifolia baccata* floribunda* japonica Maulei Pyrus prunifolia* rivularis* sinica vestita Rhododendron campanulatum Rhodora* Rhodotypos kerrioides Ribes aureum* cereum floridum* sanguineum Rosa indica* Sambucus racemosa* Skimmia japonica Laureola Spiraea prunifolia Stuartia virginica* Syringa Emodi Xanthoceras sorbifolia MAY. Abelia triflora* Aesculus glabra Hippocastanum Arbutus Menziesii Berberis aristata* Bealei empetrifolia sinensis trifoliolata Wallichiana Calycanthus floridus* Caragana arborescens microphylla Ceanothus dentatus* Cercis canadensis Siliquastrum Chionanthus retusa virginica Citrus trifoliata Cladrastis tinctoria Clematis alpina* montana* Cornus canadensis stolonifera Coronilla Emerus* Crataegus Azarolus Azarolus Aronia coccinea cordata* Crus-galli Douglasii Oxyacantha* parvifolia Pyracantha tenacetifolia Cytisus albus* albus incarnate* biflorus* Daphne alpina* Deutzia crenata* Epigaea repens Fabiana imbricata Fraxinus Ornus* Mariesii Gaultheria Shallon Genista lusitanica pilosa* prostrata* Halesia parviflora Halimodendron argenteum* Laburnum Adami* Leiophyllum buxifolium* Leucothoe axillaris Catesbaei Magnolia acuminata* glauca Umbrella Ostrya carpinifolia Paeonia Moutan Pernettya mucronata* Philadelphus coronarius Pieris Mariana* ovalifolia Piptanthus nepalensis Polygala Chamaebuxus* Prunus Chamaecerasus pennsylvanica virginiana* Pyrus Aria* Aucuparia* coronaria germanica prunifolia sinensis Smithii* torminalis Rhododendron arborescens calendulaceum Collettiana ferrugineum* flavum hirsutum* molle ponticum racemosum Ribes speciosum Robinia hispida Pseud-Acacia* viscosa Rosa spinosissima* Rubus biflorus deliciosus spectabilis Sophora tetraptera Spiraea cantoniensis laevigata trilobata Staphylea pinnata* trifolia* Stuartia pentagyna* Syringa chinensis* Josikaea persica* vulgaris* Vaccinium corymbosum* pennsylvanicum Viburnum acerifolium* Lantana* Lentago* nudum* plicatum* prunifolium pyrifolium* Wistaria chinensis* multijuga* Exochorda grandiflora JUNE. Adenocarpus decorticans* Aesculus californica* Andromeda polifolia Bryanthus erectus Buddleia globosa* Lindleyana* paniculata* Calophaca wolgarica* Calycanthus occidentalis* Carpenteria californica Castanea saliva Catalpa speciosa Ceanothus azureus* Choisya ternata* Cistus crispus* ladaniferus laurifolius* monspeliensis* purpureus* salvifolius* Clematis lanuginosa* patens* Viorna Viticella Colutea arborescens* cruenta* Cornus circinata macrophylla Crataegus nigra* Cytisus decumbens nigricans Daboecia polifolia Diervilla floribunda* grandiflora* Escallonia macrantha* Fuchsia Riccartoni* Genista aetnensis* saggitalis Helianthemum halimifolium* lasianthum lavendulaefolium* Helianthemum pilosum* polifolium* umbellatum* Hypericum calycinum* patulum* Itea virginica Jamesia americana Jasminum revolutum* Kalmia angustifolia latifolia* Kerria japonica* Laburnum alpinum caramanicum Ligustrum japonicum lucidum* ovalitolium* sinense* Liriodendron tulipifera* Lyonia paniculata Magnolia macrophylla Myricaria germanica* Myrtus communis* Neillia opulifolia Olearia macrodonta Oxydendrum arboreum* Philadelphus grandiflorus hirsutus inodorus Lewisi microphyllus* Phlomis fruticosa Plagianthus pulchellus* Potentilla fruticosa Prunus lusitanica Rhododendron californicum campylocarpum chrysanthum Rhus Cotinus* Robinia dubia* Rosa alba* centifolia* damascena* gallica* lutea rubiginosa rugosa sempervirens* Rubus arcticus laciniatus* odoratus* Sambucus nigra Spiraea bullata* cana* chamaedrifolia* decumbens* hypericifolia* japonica* media* Staphylea colchica Stuartia Pseudo-Camellia* Syringa japonica* Tecoma radicans* Tilia vulgaris* Veronica pinquifolia Traversii* Viburnum dahuricum* dentatum macrocephalum Opulus* Yucca filamentosa Zenobia speciosa* JULY. Aesculus parviflora* Berberis Fortunei Ceanothus americanus* Clematis Flammula* Vitalba* Cornus alba alternifolia tartarica Escallonia floribunda Phillipiana* pterocladon rubra* Eucryphia pinnatifolia* Fuchsia macrostema globosa* Genista anxanctica* cinerea germanica hispanica* radiata* tinctoria* Gordonia lasianthus* Hydrangea hortensis* Hypericum elatum fasciculatum hircinum* prolificum* uralum* Jasminum fruticans* humile* Kalmia hirsuta* Ligustrum Ibota* Quihoi* Lonicera Xylosteum* Periploca graeca* Philadelphus Gordonianus satzumi Photinia arbutifolia Plagianthus Lyalli Philadelphus Lemoinei Rhododendron catawbiense maximum viscosum Rosa bracteata hemisphaerica Spartium junceum* Spiraea bella* discolor ariaefolia Spiraea salicifolia* sorbifolia* tomentosa Tamarix gallica* parviflora* Tilia petiolaris* Wistaria japonica* Yucca gloriosa Zauschneria californica AUGUST. Abelia chinensis* Calluna vulgaris* Catalpa bignonioides Clerodendron foetidum Erica cinerea* Escallonia illinita Gordonia pubescens Hedysarum multijugum Hibiscus syriacus* Hypericum oblongifolium Leycesteria formosa* Loropetalum chinense* Magnolia grandiflora* Nesaea salicifolia* Passiflora caerulea* Rubus nutkanus Sophora japonica* Spiraea Douglasii Lindleyana Vitex Agnus-castus SEPTEMBER. Arbutus Unedo* Baccharis halimifolia Clerodendron trichotomum Clethra acuminata* alnifolia Daphne Cneorum* Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora* Olearia Haastii Gunniana Photinia japonica Microglossa albescens* Tecoma grandiflora* OCTOBER. Berberidopsis corallina Berberris nervosa* Caryopteris Mastacanthus Hamamelis virginica* Lespedeza bicolor NOVEMBER. Azara microphylla Cassinia fulvida Chimonanthus fragrans* Jasminum nudiflorum* DECEMBER. Chimonanthus fragrans* Lardizabala biternata Viburnum Tinus* INDEX. _Synonymous names are printed in italics_. Aaron's Beard, Abelia chinensis, _rupestris_, triflora, Adenocarpus _Boissieri_, decorticans, Aesculus californica, chinensis, flava, flava discolor, glabra, Hippocastanum, Pavia, Pavia atrosanguinea, Pavia humilis, Pavia macrocarpa, Pavia Whitleyana, parviflora, _rubicunda_, Ailanthus _flavescens_, glandulosa, Akebia quinata, Alabama Snow Wreath, Alder, the berry bearing Alexandrian Laurel, Almond, Abbé David's common, _Aloysia citriodora_, _Aloysia_. See Lippia Alpine Rose, _Althaea frutex_, Amelanchier alnifolia, canadensis, vulgaris, American Great Laurel, American Withe Rod, _Ammyrsine buxifoiia_, Amoor Yellow Wood, Amorpha canescens, fruticosa, _Amygdatus communis_, _dulcis_, _Besseriana_, _Boissieri_, _Lindleyi_, _nana_, _persica flore-pleno_, _Amygdalus_. See Prunus, Andromeda _arborea_, _axillaris_, _calyculata_, _cassinaefolia_, _Catesbaei_, _fastigiata_, _floribunda_, _globulifera_, _japonica_, _Mariana ovalis_, _ovalifolia_, _pilifera_, polifolia, _recurva_, _speciosa_, _tetragona_, Angelica tree, Aralia _japonica_, mandshurica, _Sieboldii_, spinosa, Aralia. See Fatsia, Arbutus Andrachne, Menziesii, Milleri, _mucronata_, photiniaefolia, _procera_, Rollisoni, serratifolia, Unedo, Unedo Croomei, Arctostaphylos alpina, Uva-ursi, Aristolochio Sipho, Aronia Thorn, Arrowwood, Asimina triloba, _Aster albescens_, _cabulicus_, _Atragene alpina_, Azalea _arborescens_, _calendulacea_, _ledifolia_, _mollis_, _occidentalis_, _pontica_, _viscosa_, _Azalea_. See Rhododendron, Azaleas, Ghent, Azara microphylla, integrifolia, lanceolata, serrata, Baccharis halimifolia, patagonica, Band plant, Bastard Acacia, Bastard Box, _Baptisia nepalensis_, Beach or Sand Plum, Bearberry, Beef Suet tree, _Benthamia fragifera_, _japonica_, _Benthamia_. See Cornus, Berberidopsis corallina, Berberis Aquifolium, Aquifolium repens, aristata, Bealei, buxifolia, congestiflora, Darwinii, _dulcis_, empetrifolia, Fortunei, gracilis, ilicifolia, japonica, Berberis _microphylla_, nepalensis, nervosa, pinnata, sinensis, stenophylla, trifoliolata, trifurca, vulgaris, Wallichiana, Berchemia volubilis, Bignonia capreolata, grandiflora, radicans, Bignonia. See Tecoma, Billardiera longiflora, Billberry, Birchberry, Bird Cherry, Bitter Sweet, Bladder Senna, Blue Apple berry, Blueberry, Bog Myrtle, Bour tree, Box, flowering, Box Thorn, Bow-wood, _Bridgesia spicata_, _Bridgesia_. See Ercilla, Bryanthus erectus, empetriforrnis, Buckeye, the, Buckthorn, common, Buddleia _crispa_, globosa, Lindleyana, paniculata, Bupleurum fruticosum, Butcher's Broom, Caesalpinia _japonica_, sepiaria, Calico bush, Californian or Western Allspice, Californian Fuchsia, Calluna vulgaris, Calophaca wolgarica, Calycanthus floridus, occidentalis, Canada Tea, Caragana _Altagana_, arborescens, frutescens, microphylla, spinosa, Cardiandra alternifolia, Carolina Allspice, Carpenteria californica, Caryopteris Mastacanthus, Casandra calyculata, Cassinia fulvida, Cassiope fastigiata, tetragona, Castanea sativa, _vesca_, _vulgaris_, Catalpa bignonioides, Bungei, Kaempferi, speciosa, Cat Whim, Ceanothus americanus, azureus, cuneatus, dentatus, pappilosus, rigidus, _verrucosus_, Cedrela sinensis, Celustrus scandens, Celtis australis, occidentalis, Cerasus _Caproniana multiplex_, _Chamaecerasus_, _ilicifolius_, _Juliana_, _Launesiana_, _Laurocerasus_, _lusitanica_, _Mahaleb_, _Padus_, _Pseudocerasus_, _ranunculiflora_, _semperflorens_, serrulata flore-pleno, Sieboldii, _virginiana_, _vulgaris_, _Cerasus_. See Prunus, Cercis canadensis, Siliquastrum, Chaste tree, Cherry, Bastard, common, ground, Laurel, St. Julian's, Chimonanthus fragrans, Chinese Akebia, Chinese Pear tree, Quince, Chionanthus retusa, virginica, Choisya ternata, Christ's Thorn, Cistus crispus, _formosus_, ladaniferus, _laevipes_, laurifolius, monspeliensis, purpureus, salvifolius, _Citharexylum cyanocarpum_, _Citharexylum_. See Rhapithamnus, Citrus trifoliata, Cladrastis amurensis, tinctoria, _lutea_, Clammy Azalea, Clammy Locust, Clematis alpina, _austriaca_, _azurea grandiflora_, _cirrhosa_, _caerulea_, Flammula, florida, _Fortunei_, graveolens, lanuginosa, montana, patens, _sibirica_, Viorna, Vitalba, Williamsii, Clerodendron foetidum, trichotomum, Clethra acuminata, alnifolia, Climbing Berchemia, Climbing Waxwork, Cockspur Thorn, Cocculus carolinus, laurifolius, Colchican Bladder Nut, Colletia _bictonensis_, cruciata, _serratifolia_, spinosa, Colutea arborescens, cruenta, _orientalis_, _sanguinea_, _Comptonia asplenifolia_, _Comptonia_. See Myrica, Constantinople Hazel, Coral Barberry, Coral Berry, _Corchorus japonicus_, Coriaria myrtifolia, Cornel, the, Cornelian Cherry, Corokia Cotoneaster, Coronilla Emerus, Cernus alba, alternifolia, amomum, asperifolia, Baileyi, _brachypoda_, californica, canadensis, candidissima, capitata, circinata, florida, Kousa, macrophylla, Mas, Nuttalii, officinalis, _paniculata_, _pubescens_, _sericea_, stolonifera, tartarica, _sibirica_, Corylopsis Himalayana, pauciflora, spicata, Corylus Avellana purpurea, Colurna, Cotoneaster bacillaris, frigida, microphylla, Simonsii, Cowberry, Crataegus _arbutifolia_, Azarolus, Azarolus Aronia, _Celsiana_, coccinea, coccinea macrantha, cordata, Crus-galli, Douglasii, _glabra_, nigra, Oxyacantha, parvifolia, Pyracantha, tanacetifolia, Cucumber tree, Currants, flowering, _Cydonia chinensis_, _japonica_, Cytisus _Adami_, albus, albus incarnatus, _alpinus_, biflorus, decumbens, Cytisus _elongatus_, _incarnatus_, _Laburnum_, nigricans, purpureus, scoparius, Daboecia polifolia, Danae Laurus, _racemosa_, Daphne alpina, altaica, Blagayana, Championi, Cneorum, _collina_, Fioniana, _Fortunei_, Genkwa, Laureola, Mezereum, petraea, pontica, _rupestris_, sericea, Daphniphyllum glaucescens, Date Plum, the, Desfontainea spinosa, _Desmodium penduliftorum_, _Desmodium_. See Lespedeza, Deutzia crenata, _Fortunei_, gracilis, _scabra_, Diervilla _amabilis_, floribunda, grandiflora, _multiflora_, rosea, _Dimorphanthus mandshuricus_, _Dimorphanthus_. See Aralia, Diospyros Kaki costata, lotus, virginiana, _Diplopappus chrysophyllus_, _Diplopappus_. See Cassinia, Dirca palustris, Discaria longispina, serratifolia, Dockmackie, Dogwood, Drimys aromatica, Winteri, Dutchman's Pipe, Elaeagnus argentea, _crispa_, _edulis_, glabra, longipes, macrophylla, _reflexus_, rotundifolia, Elder, Californian, Scarlet berried, Embothrium coccineum, Ephedra _monastachya_, vulgaris, Epigaea repens, Ercilla spicata, Erica carnea, ciliaris, cineria, erecta, mediterranea, scoparia, Tetralix, vagans, _vulgaris_, _Eriobotrya japonica_, _Eriobotrya_. See Photinia, Etna Broom, Eucryphia pinnatifolia, _Eugenia apiculata_, _Luma_, _Ugni_, Euonymus americana, europaeus, fimbriatus, latifolius, _Eurybia Gunniana_, Evergreen Laburnum, Escallonia floribunda, illinita, macrantha, _montevidensis_, Phillipiana, pterocladon, rubra, Exochorda grandiflora, Fabiana imbricata, False Acacia, Fatsia japonica, Fendlera rupicola, Fiery Thorn, Fire Bush, _Flacourtia japonica_, Florida Dogwood, Forsythia _Fortunei_, _Sieboldii_, suspensa, viridissima, Fothergilla alnifolia, Fraxinus _argentea_, Ornus, Ornus serotina alba, Ornus serotina violacea, Mariesii, Fremontia californica, Fuchsia _globosa_, macrostemma globosa, Riccartoni, Garland Flower, Garrya elliptica, Gaultheria _nummulariae_, nummularioides, procumbens, _repens_, Shallon, Genista aetnensis, anxantica, capitata, cinerea, daurica, _elatior_, ephedroides, germanica, hispanica, lusitanica, monosperma, pilosa, prostrata, radiata, _ramosissima_, sagittalis, tinctoria, tinctoria elatior, triangularis, _triquetra_, Gleditschia triacanthos, triacanthos pendula, sinensis, _horrida_, _Glycine chinensis_, _frutescens_, _sinensis_, Gordonia Lasianthus, pubescens, Grabowskia boerhaaviaefolia, Griselinia littoralis, Ground Cistus, Ground Laurel, Groundsel Tree, Guelder Rose, Gum Cistus, Gymnocladus canadensis, chinensis, Hagberry, Halesia diptera, hispida, parviflora, _reticulata_, tetraptera, Halimodendron argenteum, Hamamelis japonica, japonica arborea, japonica Zuccariniana, virginica, Hare's Ear, Hawthorn, the, Hazel, the, Heather, the Common, Hedysarum multijugum, _Heimia salicifolia_, _Heimia_. See Nesaea, Helianthemum _formosum_, halimifolium, laevipes, lasianthum, lavendulaefolium, libanotis, pilosum, polifolium, _pulverulentum_, _serpyllifolium_, umbellatum, vulgare, vulgare nummularium, vulgare barbatum, vulgare mutabile, vulgare grandiflorum, vulgare ovalifolium, vulgare hysopifolium, Hemp Tree, Hippophae rhamnoides, Holboellia latifolia, Holly, the, Honey Locust, Honeysuckles, Hop tree, Hornbeam, Horse Chestnut, _Hortensia opuloides_, Humming Bird's Trumpet, Hybiscus syriacus, syriacus vars., Hydrangea arborescens, hortensis, hortensis vars., quercifolia, scandens, paniculata, paniculata grandiflora, Hydrangea, climbing, Hymenanthera crassifolia, Hypericum Androsaemum, aureum, calycinum, elatum, hircinum, Moserianum, oblongifolium, _Hookerianum_, _nepalensis_, prolificum, uralum, Idesia polycarpa, Ilex Aquifolium, Aquifolium vars., opaca, Illicium anisatum, floridanum, _religiosum_, Indian Azalea, Indigofera Dosua, _floribunda_, Gerardiana, Itea virginica, Jamesia americana, Japanese Storax, Japan Medlar, or Quince, Jasminum fruticans, humile, nudiflorum, officinale, pubigerum glabrum, revolutum, Wallichianum, Jerusalem Sage, Job's Tears, Judas tree, June Berry, the, Kadsura japonica, Kalmia angustifolia, glauca, hirsuta, latifolia, latifolia vars., Kentucky Coffee Tree, Kerria japonica, Koelreuteria paniculata, Labrador Tea, Laburnum Adami, alpinum, caramanicum, vulgare, Lady's Bower, Lapageria rosea, Lardizabala biternata, Laurel, Alexandrian, American Great, Cherry, Ground, Mountain, Portugal, Sheep, Spurge, Laurustinus, Lavender, common, Lavandula _Spica_, vera, Lavatera arborea, Leather Wood, Ledum _buxifolium_, _groenlandicum_, latifolium, palustre, Leiophyllum buxifolium, _thymifolia_, Lemon Scented Verbena, Lespedeza bicolor, Leucothoe axillaris, Catesbaei, Davisiae, floribunda, recurva, Leycesteria formosa, _Ligustrina amurensis_, Ligustrum _amurense_, _californicum_, _glabrum_, Ibota, _Ibota villosum_, japonicum, Ligustrum _Kellermanni_ lucidum, magnoliaefolium, ovalifolium, _Sieboldii_, sinense, _strictum_, _villosum_, vulgare, Lily, the Mound, _Limonia Laureola_, Linden Tree, Ling, the common, Linnaea borealis, Lippia citriodora, Liriodendron tulipifera, Loblolly Bay, Locust, common, Lonicera _brachypoda_, Caprifolium, flexuosa, fragrantissima, Periclymenum, sempervirens, Standishii, tatarica, Xylosteum, Loquat, the, Loropetalum chinense, Lycium barbarum, europaeum, Lyonia _ligustrina_, paniculata, Maclura aurantiaca, Mahaleb, or Perfumed Cherry, _Mahonia Aquifolium_, _Bealei_, _facicularis_, _Fortunei_, _glumacea_, _gracilis_, _Hookeri_, _japonica_, _nepalensis_, _Neumanii_, _repens_, _trifoliolata_, _trifurca_, Magnolia acuminata, _auriculata_, Campbelii, conspicua, conspicua Alexandrina, conspicua Soulangeana, conspicua Soulangeana nigra, conspicua Soulangeana Norbertii, conspicua Soulangeana speciosa, cordata, Fraseri, glauca, grandiflora, _Halleana_, Lennei, macrophylla, obovata discolor, parviflora, _purpurea_, stellata, _tripetala_, Umbrella, _Yulan_, _Malachodendron ovatum_, Mallow, Syrian, Mallow tree, _Malus microcarpa floribunda_, Manna Ash, Marsh Ledum, Mayflower, New England, Medicago arborea, Medlar, common, Menispermum canadense, _Menziesia_. See Daboecia; Phylodoce; and Lyonia, _Menziesia caerulea_, _empetrifolia_, _globularis_, _polifolia_, _Mespilus arbutifolia_, _germanica_, _grandiflora_, _Smithii_, Mexican Orange Flower, Mezereon, the, Microglossa albescens, Mitchella repens, Mitraria coccinea, Mitre pod, scarlet, Mock Orange, Monk's Pepper-tree, Moonseed, Mountain Ash, Mountain Laurel, Moutan Paeony, Myrica asplenifolia, californica, cerifera, Gale, Myricaria germanica, Myrobalan Plum, Myrtle, Bog, Common, Californian Wax, Common Candle-berry, Sand, Myrtus communis, Luma, Ugni, Neillia opulifolia, thyrsiflora, Nepaul White Beam, Nesaea salicifolia, Neviusa alabamensis, New Jersey Tea, Nine Bark, Nuttalia cerasiformis, Old Man's beard, Olearia _dentata_, Forsterii, Gunniana, Haastii, macrodonta, Ononis arvensis, Orange Ball tree, _Ornus europea_, Osage Orange, Osmanthus Aquifolium ilicifolius, Aquifolium illicifolius myrtifolius, Osoberry, Ostrya carpinifolia, virginica, _vulgaris_, Oxydendrum arboreum, Ozothamnus rosmarinifolius, Paeonia Moutan, Pagoda-tree, Chinese, Paliurus aculeatus, _australis_, Papaw, the Virginian, Parrotia persica, Partridge Berry, Passiflora caerulea, Paulownia imperialis, _Pavia californica_, _discolor_, _flava_, _humilis_, _Pavia macrocarpa_, _macrostachya_, _rubra_, _Pavia_, See Aesculus, Pepper-plant, Tasmanian, Pepper-tree, Periploca graeca, Periwinkles, Pernettya mucronata, Persimmon, the, Philadelphus coronarius, _chinensis_, _floribundus_, Gordonianus, grandiflorus, hirsutus, inodorus, _latifolius_, Lemoinei, Lewisii, mexicanus, microphyllus, satzumi, _speciosus_, triflorus, Phillyrea angustifolia, _decora_, latifolia, _laurifolia_, _ligustrifolia_, media, _neapolitana_, _obliqua_, _oleaefolia_, _rosmarinifolia_, Vilmoriniana, Phlomis fruticosa, Photinia arbutifolia, Benthumiana, japonica, serrulata, Phyllodoce taxifolia, _caerulea_, Pieris floribunda, japonica, Mariana, ovalifolia, Pipe tree, Piptanthus nepalensis, Pittosporum Tobira, undulatum, Plagianthus Lyalli, Lampeni, pulohellus, _Planera acuminata_, _crenata_, 134 _Richardi_, _Planera_, See Zelkova, Poison Elder, Poison Ivy, Poison Oak, Poison Vine, _Polycarpa Maximowiczii_, Pomegranate, Pontic Daphne, Portugal Laurel, Potato tree, Potentilla fruticosa, Prickly Ivy, Privets, _Prunopsis Lindleyi_, Prunus Amygdalus, Amygdalus dulcis, Avium Juliana, Boissieri, cerasifera, cerasifera Pissardii, Cerasus, Prunus Chamaecerasus, Davidiana, divaricata, domestica, ilicifolia, Launesiana, Laurocerasus, lusitanica, Mahaleb, maritima, _Myrobalana_, nana, Padus, paniculata flore-pleno, pennsylvanica, Persica flore-pleno, _Pissardii_, _Pseudo-cerasus_, Puddum, serotina, sinensis, spinosa, tomentosa, triloba, virginiana, _virgata_, Ptelea trifoliata, _Pterpstyrax hispidum_, Punica Granatum, Purple Broom, Purple Hazel, Pyrus amygdaliformis., Aria, Aucuparia, americana, angustifolia, baccata, Bollwylleriana, coronaria, domestica, floribunda, germanica, japonica, prunifolia, _Malus floribunda_, rivularis, salvaefolia, salicifolia, _sinensis of Lindley_, sinensis, sinica, Smithii, torminalis, vestita, Quince, Japanese, Chinese, Rabbit berry, Red Osier Dogwood, Restharrow, Rhamnus Alaternus, alpinus, catharticus, Frangula, Rhaphiolepis japonica integerrima, _ovata_ Rhaphithamnus cyanocarpus, Rhododendron _aeruginosum_, arborescens, arboreum, argenteum, Aucklandii, barbatum, calendulaceum, californicum, campanulatum, Campbelli, campylocarpum, catawbiense, Rhododendron _Chamaecistus_, chrysanthum, ciliatum, cinnabarinum, Collettianum, dahuricum, eximium, Falconeri, ferrugineum, flavuni, Fortunei, glaucum, hirsutum, Hodgsoni, indicum, lanatum, ledifolium, maximum, molle, niveum, occidentale, parvifolium, ponticum, ponticum azaleoides, _ponticum deciduum_, racemosum, Rhodora, Roylei, Smirnowii, Thompsoni, Ungernii, viscosum, Wallichii, Wilsoni, Rhododendrons, hardy hybrid, Rhodora canadensis, Rhodothamnus Chamaecistus, Rhodotypos Kerrioides, Rhus caroliniana, _coccinea_, Cotinus, _elegans_, glabra, _sanguinea_, succedanea, Toxicodendron, typhina, venenata, _vernix_, Ribes alpinum pumilum aureum, aureum, _Beatonii_, cereum, floridum, Gordonianum, _inebrians_, _Loudonii_, _missouriense_, multiflorum, _pennsylvanicum_, sanguineum, speciosum, Robinia ambigua, dubia, _echinata_, glutinosa, _Halimodendron_, hispida, Pseud-Acacia, viscosa, Rock Abelia, Rock Daphne, Rock Rose, the, Rosa alba, _arvensis_, _bengalensis_, bracteata, canina, Rosa centifolia, damascena, _diversifolia_, _Eglanteria_, ferox, gallica, hemisphaerica, indica, indica minima, indica semperflorens, _Lawrenceana_, lutea, _minima_, _pimpinellifolia_, repens, rugosa, sempervirens, _semperflorens minima_, spinosissima, sulphurea, villosa, Rose Acacia, Rose Bay, Rose of Sharon, Rosmarinus officinalis, Rosemary, common, Rosemary, wild, Rowan-tree, Rubus arcticus, australis, biflorus, deliciosus, fruticosus, laciniatus, nutkanus, odoratus, rosaefolius, spectabilis, Ruscus aculeatus, Hypophyllum, _racemosus_, St. Anthony's Nut, St. Dabeoc's Heath, St. Peter's Wort, Sand Myrtle, Sallow thorn, Salt tree, Sambucus californica, glauca, nigra, racemosa, rosaeflora, Schizandra chinensis, coccinea, Schizophragma hydrangeoides, Scorpion Senna, Sea Buckthorn, Sea Purslane, Service tree, true, Sheepberry, Sheep Laurel, Shepherdia argentea, canadensis, Shrubs for seaside planting, for town planting, Siberian Crab, Siberian Pea tree, _Sida pulchella_, Silk grass, Silver Berry, Skimmia Fortunei, japonica, Laureola, _oblata_, rubella, Smilax aspera, Smoke Plant, Snowberry, Snowdrop Tree, Soap Tree, Solanum crispum, Dulcamara, Sophora japonica, tetraptera, _Sorbus Americana_, _domestica_, Sorrel-tree, Spanish Broom; White, Spanish Chestnut, Sweet, Spartium junceum, _acutifolium_, _aetnensis_, _radiatum_, Spindle tree, Spiraea altaica, _altaicensis_, _ariaefolia_, bella, Blumei, bullata, _callosa_, cana, cantoniensis, ceanothifolia, chamaedrifolia, _confusa_, _crispifolia_, decumbens, discolor ariaefolia, Douglasii, fissa, _flagellata_, _Fortunei_, _grandiflora_, hypericifolia, japonica, laevigata, Lindleyana, media, nana, _oblongifolia_, _opulifolia_, prunifolia, _Reevesiana_, rotundifolia, salicifolia, sorbifolia, Thunbergii, tomentosa, _triloba_, trilobata, umbrosa, Spurge Laurel, Stag's Horn Sumach, Staphylea colchica, pinnata, trifolia, Stauntonia haxaphylla, _latifolia_, Strawberry Tree, Stuartia grandiflora, _marylandica_, pentagyna, pseudo-Camellia, virginica, _Styphnolobium japonicum_, Styrax americana, _japonica_, officinalis, pulverulenta, serrulata virgata, Sumach, Swamp Dogwood, Swamp Honeysuckle, Sweet Amber, Sweet Fern, Sweet Gale, Sweet Viburnum, _Symphoria racemosus_, Symphoricarpus occidentalis, racemosus, vulgaris, Syrian Mallow, Syringa chinensis, _dubia_, _rothomagensis_, Emodi, japonica, _amurensis_, Josikaea, persica, vulgaris, Symplocos japonica, tinctoria, Tamarix gallica, _africana_, parviflora, tetrandra, Tam Furze, Tansy-leaved Thorn, _Tasmania aromatica_, Tea, Labrador, Tea tree, Tecoma grandiflora, radicans, Thyrsanthus frutescens, Tilia _europea_, _intermedia_, vulgaris, Tree Mallow, Tree of Heaven, Trees for seaside planting, for town planting, Trumpet Flower, Tulip tree, Tutsan, the, Ulex europaeus, nanus, Vaccinium corymbosum, Myrtillus, pennsylvanicum, Vitis-Idea, Veronica pinquifolia, Travereii, Vinca major, minor, Vinegar tree, Venetian Sumach, Verbena, Lemon-scented, _Verbena triphylla_, Viburnum acerifolium, Awafukii, Viburnum daburicum, dentatum, _Fortunei_, laevigatum, Lantana, Lentago, macrocephalum, nudum, Opulus, pauciflorum, plicatum, prunifolium, pyrifolium, reticulatum, Tinus, _Virgilia lutea_, _Virgilia_. See Cladrastis, Virgin's Bower, Vitex Agnas-castus, Vitis heterophylla humulifolia, Wayfaring tree, _Weigelia_. See Diervilla, _Weigelia amabilis_, _floribunda_, _rosea_, White Bean tree, White Kerria, Whortlebury, Wig tree, Wild Rosemary, _Wintera aromatica_, Winter Flower, Winter's Bark, Wistaria chinensis, frutescens, japonica, multijuga, _sinensis_, Witch Hazel, the, Wolf Berry, Woody Nightshade, Xanthoceras sorbifolia, Xanthoriza apiifolia, _Xylosteum dumetorum_, Yellow root, Yellow wood, Yucca filamentosa, gloriosa, Yulan, the, Zauschneria californica, Zenobia speciosa, Zelkova acuminata, crenata, cretica, _japonica_. [Illustration: MESSRS. JAMES VEITCH & SONS, LTD. CAN SUPPLY THE FOLLOWING RARE AND BEAUTIFUL Japanese Magnolias, Which are among the finest recent additions to the British Arboretum, and especially desirable for the Lawn and Park, whether as single specimens or in groups. Magnolia Hypoleuca. One of the largest of the deciduous Magnolias. The flowers are creamy white, measuring from six to seven inches in diameter when fully expanded, deliciously fragrant, and produced in large numbers on the adult tree, and even on young plants their appearance is quite a usual occurence. In the autumn the tree is loaded with cones of brilliant scarlet fruit, six to eight inches long. The large obovate leaves are often a foot in length and half, as much broad. Our Mr. JAMES H. VEITCH during his recent journeys in Japan frequently met with it at considerable elevations, and considers it the finest flowering tree in that country. First Class Certificate, Royal Horticultural Society. Magnolia Parviflora. A smaller tree than the preceding, and one of the finest lawn trees ever introduced. It has a handsome deciduous foliage; the leaves are of ovate-oblong shape, rather sharply pointed, and from five to six inches long. The flowers, which are freely produced, are smaller than those of _M. hypoleuca_ and with more oval segments, of which the outer three are light purplish pink, and the inner three milk-white. An excellent coloured plate of this species is published in _The Garden_ of December 8th, 1883, page 508. Magnolia Watsonii. A very fine Magnolia, resembling the preceding in habit and foliage, but in its flowers approaching nearer to _M. hypoleuca_. These are from five to six inches in diameter, cream colour on the inside, and exhaling a pleasant perfume like that of Calycanthus. The broad ring of incumbent yellow stamens, with blood-red filaments, is a conspicuous ornament of the expanded flower. A beautiful coloured plate of this species is given in the _Botanical Magazine_, tab. 7,157. Well established young plants of each of the above Magnolias, 7s. 6d. and 10s. 6d. each. THE ROYAL EXOTIC NURSERY, 544, KING'S ROAD, CHELSEA, S.W.] [Illustration: IF YOU WANT REALLY GOOD BULBS AND SEEDS AT MODERATE PRICES, SEND TO MR. ROBERT SYDENHAM, Tenby Street, Birmingham. THE LARGEST AMATEUR IMPORTER IN THE KINGDOM. No Nurseryman can Serve you Better or Cheaper, and Gardeners who Study their Employers' Interests will do Well to Give Him a Trial. HIS UNIQUE SEED LIST, Acknowledged by all to be the Best, Cheapest, Most Reliable and Unique List ever Published, is posted to all his friends and supporters January 2nd of each year, and will be sent to any others on application; it contains only the Best Vegetables and Flowers WORTH GROWING. Being the Selections of the Largest Seed Growers, the Largest Market Gardeners, and the most Celebrated Professional Gardeners and Amateurs in the kingdom; it contains most useful cultural instructions for Amateurs. HIS UNIQUE BULB LIST, With Pamphlet Revised and Enlarged, "How I Came to Grow Bulbs," The most Reliable Guide to the Best Varieties, and how to Grow them, is posted to all his friends and supporters each year, August 15th, or sent to any others, post free on application. Mr. SYDENHAM'S Bulbs and Seeds were Represented, and gained First Prizes at London, Birmingham, Preston, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Shrewsbury, Edinburgh, &c., &c., in 1892 and 1893. _LIST OF SPECIAL PRIZES OFFERED DURING EACH YEAR ON APPLICATION_.] [Illustration: Business Established 1820. MAURICE YOUNG & SON. Nurserymen, Seedsmen, AND Landscape Gardeners MILFORD NURSERIES, MILFORD, Near GODALMING. Our Extensive Nurseries are well-stocked with a Grand Collection of Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs. Coniferae, Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and other American Plants. Roses, Fruit Trees, Clematis, and other Climbers, Transplanted Forest Trees, etc., all being in Splendid Condition for Removal. Every description of Landscape Gardening carefully carried out. Plans prepared and estimates given. Forest Trees planted by the acre, and failures replaced. Full descriptive and reference catalogues post free on application.] [Illustration: CATALOGUES FREE. ORDERS EXECUTED PROMPTLY. BARRS SUPERIOR SEEDS FOR FLOWER & KITCHEN GARDEN The best Seeds in the World for securing a supply of VEGETABLES "ALL THE YEAR ROUND," and for keeping the FLOWER GARDEN always gay, and with abundance of Flowers to cut for vases and bouquets; also seeds of plants for Greenhouse decoration, summer and winter. _We guarantee all seeds we send out to be of Finest Selected Strains, and of Good Growth. They cannot fail to give the fullest satisfaction_. Barr's 21/ Collection of Vegetable Seeds contains a liberal assortment of the following useful Vegetables:--Beans (Broad and French Beans), Beet, Borecole, Broccoli, Brussel Sprouts, Cabbage, Capsicum, Carrot, Cauliflower, Celery, Colewort, Corn Salad, Cress, Cucumber, Endive, Herbs, Leeks, Lettuce, Melon, Mustard, Onions, Parsley, Parsnips, Peas, Radish, Salsify, Savoy Cabbage, Scorzonera, Spinach, Tomato, Turnip, and Vegetable Marrow. Barr's 10/6 Collection of Choice Flower Seeds contains 31 Packets and 5 ozs. of Choice and Showy Annuals and Perennials, all of FINEST SELECTED STRAINS. Send for our Catalogue of all the most beautiful Annuals and Perennials; and with particulars of collections for all purposes, and many sterling Novelties for 1897. All SEEDS CARRIAGE FREE, on Receipt of Remittance. Barr's Illustrated SEED GUIDE for 1897 FREE. BARR'S 12 & 13, King St., Covent Garden. LONDON. Autumn, Winter, Spring, and Summer Flowering Bulbs have a world-wide reputation. Catalogue. ready 1st September. Hardy Plants. Descriptive Catalogue ready in Feb. Old English Florist Tulips. The Revival of a FAVOURITE OLD ENGLISH TASTE. Catalogue ready in August. BARR'S BEAUTIFUL HARDY GOLD MEDAL DAFFODILS THE MOST LOVELY OF ALL SPRING FLOWERS Awarded the only GOLD MEDAL at the great Daffodil Conference of the Royal Horticultural Society. Priced and Descriptive Catalogue sent Free on Application. BARR'S NURSERIES are reached from London by South-Western Rail to Surbiton Station, and from thence a short walk past the New Recreation Grounds, or cab to Pound Farm entrance (cab fare 1s.). Daffodils in flower, April; Tulips in flower, May other hardy flowers "all the year round." BARR & SONS, 12 & 13, King Street, Covent Garden LONDON.] [Illustration: 65 HIGHEST AWARDS. GOLD MEDALS from all the principal Exhibitions. PURE ICHTHEMIC GUANO _ADJUDGED by the must eminent growers throughout the world_ THE MOST RELIABLE, THE RICHEST FOOD, and THE MOST NATURAL FERTILISER _FOR EVERY FORM OF GROWTH_. Send for book, "All about Ichthemic," by the late Dr. TAYLOR, F.G.S., Gratis and Post Free. THIS GUANO, for the convenience of small users, is put up in handsome enamelled Tins at 6d. and 1s.; sealed Bags, 7 lbs., 2s. 6d.; 14 lbs., 4s. 6d., carriage forward. Larger Bags, 28 lbs., 7s. 6d.; 56 lbs., 12s. 6d.; 1 cwt., 20s., carriage paid. May be obtained from the principal Nurserymen, Seedsmen, Florists, and Chemists, or direct of Wm. COLCHESTER, IPSWICH, ENGLAND. Shipping Depots all over the World.] [Illustration: GARDENING BOOKS. Chrysanthemums and their Culture By Edwin Molyneux. Ninth Edition. By far the best practical work yet written on this subject. _Price 1s.; post free, 1s. 2d_. Vines and Vine Culture. The best book on Grapes. By Archibald F. Barron, late Superintendent of the Royal Horticultural Society's Garden, Chiswick, and Secretary of the Fruit Committee.--A New and Cheaper Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Demy 8vo, Handsomely Bound in Cloth. _Price, 5s.; post free, 5s. 3d_. The Carnation: its History, Properties, and Management, With a descriptive list of the best varieties in cultivation, By the late E.S. Dodwell. Third edition, with supplementary chapter on the yellow ground. _Price, 1s. 6d.; post free, 1s. 7d_. Ferns and Fern Culture, By J. Birkenhead, F.R.H.S.--How to grow Ferns, with selections for stove, warm, cool, and cold greenhouses; for baskets, walls, wardian cases, dwelling houses, &c. _Price, 1s. Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs, By A.D. Webster. A valuable guide to planters of beautiful trees and shrubs for the adornment of parks and gardens. Second and cheaper edition. _Price 2s.; post free, 2s. 3d_. The Tuberous Begonia: Its History and Cultivation. 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ONE PENNY WEEKLY. _Edited by JOHN FRASER, F.L.S., F.R.H.S._ The Leading Gardening Paper. Has the Largest Circulation amongst Gardeners and the best class of Amateurs. Subscriptions:--1s. 8d. for three months; 3s. 3d. for 6 months; 6s. 6d. for 12 months. MUST BE PREPAID. THE BEST PAPER FOR SHOW LISTS AND REPORTS. ADVERTISEMENT SCALE FOR SINGLE INSERTION. £ s. d. Whole Page 9 0 0 Half Page 5 0 0 One-Third Page ) Column ) 3 5 0 Per inch 0 6 0 
18288	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING ROCHESTER, NEW YORK SEPTEMBER 1 AND 2 1915 NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING ROCHESTER, NEW YORK SEPTEMBER 1 AND 2, 1915 CONCORD, N.H. THE RUMFORD PRESS 1916 CONTENTS PAGE Officers and Committees of the Association 4 Members of the Association 5 Constitution of the Association 10 By-laws of the Association 11 Proceedings of the Meeting held at Rochester, New York, September 1 and 2, 1915 13 Report of the Secretary-Treasurer 14 The Relation of Forest Conditions in New York to Possibilities of Nut Growing, Dr. Hugh P. Baker, New York 17 New Tree Crops and a New Agriculture, Dr. J. Russell Smith, Pennsylvania 30 Notes on the Hazels, Dr. Robert T. Morris, New York 36 An Appeal to Owners of Hardy Nut Trees, C. A. Reed, Washington, D. C. 51 Northern Pecan Trees, and Notes on the Observation of Propagated Trees, W. C. Reed, Indiana 58 Walnut Observations in California, L. D. Batchelor, California 63 Pruning the Persian Walnut, J. G. Rush, Pennsylvania 69 Report on Nut Growing in Canada, G. H. Corsan, Toronto 71 Appendix: Present at the Sixth Annual Meeting 73 Program for Automobile Trips September 1 and 2, 1915 74 Exhibits 75 Resolutions 76 Bibliography of the Year 77 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President_ J. RUSSELL SMITH University of Pennsylvania _Vice-President_ W. C. REED Indiana _Secretary and Treasurer_ W. C. DEMING Georgetown, Connecticut COMMITTEES _Auditing_ C. P. CLOSE, C. A. REED _Executive_ T. P. LITTLEPAGE, R. T. MORRIS, AND THE OFFICERS _Finance_ C. P. CLOSE, T. P. LITTLEPAGE, W. C. DEMING _Hybrids_ R. T. MORRIS, J. R. SMITH, C. P. CLOSE _Membership_ HARRY R. WEBER, G. H. CORSAN, C. H. PLUMP, LEON D. BATCHELOR, W. C. REED, R. T. OLCOTT, F. N. FAGAN, THOMAS L. ENGLEBY, W. O. POTTER, W. O. RIDGWAY, W. C. DEMING _Nomenclature_ W. C. REED, R. T. MORRIS, E. R. LAKE, C. A. REED, R. L. McCOY _Press and Publication_ RALPH T. OLCOTT, T. P. LITTLEPAGE, W. C. DEMING _Programme_ THE PRESIDENT, THE SECRETARY, THE EDITOR OF THE _American Nut Journal, ex-officio_; C. A. REED, W. N. HUTT _Promising Seedlings_ T. P. LITTLEPAGE, C. A. REED, J. RUSSELL SMITH STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS Arizona C. R. Biederman Garces California Prof. Leon D. Batchelor Riverside Canada G. H. Corsan University of Toronto Connecticut Charles H. Plump West Redding Delaware E. R. Angst Wilmington 527 Dupont Bldg. Florida H. Harold Hume Glen Saint Mary Georgia J. B. Wight Cairo Illinois E. A. Riehl Alton Indiana J. F. Wilkinson Rockport Iowa Wendell P. Williams Danville Kansas Durrett Winsborough Argentine R. 2 Box 118 Kentucky A. L. Moseley Calhoun Maryland Prof. C. P. Close College Park Massachusetts James H. Bowditch Boston 903 Tremont Building Michigan Miss Maude M. Jessup Grand Rapids 440 Thomas St. Minnesota Col. C. A. Van Duzee St. Paul Missouri P. C. Stark Louisiana New Jersey C. S. Ridgway Lumberton New Mexico E. A. Clemens Magdalena New York Th. E. Wile Rochester 37 Calumet St. North Carolina Prof. W. N. Hutt Raleigh Ohio Harry R. Weber Cincinnati 601 Gerke Bldg. Pennsylvania J. G. Rush West Willow Texas R. S. Trumbull El Paso M.S.R.R. Co. Utah M. A. Pendleton Lehi Virginia John S. Parish Eastham Washington Dr. A. E. Baldwin Kettle Falls West Virginia B. F. Hartzell Shepherdstown MEMBERS OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION ARIZONA C. R. Biederman, Garces CALIFORNIA Batchelor, Leon D., Riverside Dawson, L. H., Llano Tucker, T. C., Manager California Almond Growers' Exchange, 311 California St., San Francisco CANADA Corsan, G. H., University of Toronto Dufresne, Dr. A. A., 1872 Cartier St., Montreal CONNECTICUT Barnes, John R., Yalesville Deming, Dr. W. C., Georgetown Deming, Mrs. W. C., Georgetown Hungerford, Newman, Torrington, R. 2, Box 76, for circulars, Box 1082, Hartford, for letters Ives, Ernest M., Sterling Orchards, Meriden Lay, Charles Downing, Wellesmere, Stratford Miller, Mrs. Charles, 32 Hillside Ave., Waterbury * Morris, Dr. Robert T., Cos Cob, R. 28, Box 95 Plump, Charles H., West Redding White, Gerrard, North Granby Williams, W. W., Milldale DELAWARE Angst, E. R., 527 DuPont Building, Wilmington, Del. Lord, George Frank, care of DuPont Powder Company, Wilmington DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Close, Prof. C. P., Pomologist, Department of Agriculture, Washington Goddard, R. H., Farm Management, Department of Agriculture, Washington Lake, Prof. E. R., Pomologist, Department of Agriculture, Washington * Littlepage, T. P., Union Trust Building, Washington Orr, Herbert R., Evans Building, Washington Reed, C. A., Nut Culturist, Department of Agriculture, Washington FLORIDA Hume, H. Harold, Glen Saint Mary Simpson, Ray C., Monticello GEORGIA Wight, J. B., Cairo ILLINOIS Dickey, Samuel, 4 Chalmers Place, Chicago Fletcher, Joe, Zion City Keely, Royal R. 4720 Clarendon Ave., Chicago Poll, Carl J., 1009 Maple St., Danville Potter, Hon. W. O., Marion Riehl, E. A., Alton Webster, H. G., 450 Belmont Ave., Chicago INDIANA Burton, Joe A., Mitchel Hutchings, Miss Lida G., 118 Third St., Madison McCoy, R. L., Lake Reed, M. P., Vincennes Reed, W. C., Vincennes Schmidt, Hugh C., Evansville Simpson, H. D., Vincennes White, Paul, Boonville Wilkinson, J. F., Rockport IOWA Williams, Wendall P., Danville KANSAS Winsborough, Durrett, Argentine, R. 2, Box 118 KENTUCKY Matthews, Prof. C. W., Horticulturist, State Agricultural Station, Lexington Moseley, A. L., Bank of Calhoun, Calhoun MARYLAND Darby, R. U., Suite 804, Continental Building, Baltimore Hayden, Chas. S., 200 E. Lexington St., Baltimore Heapes, J., Granville, Street Henshaw, Mrs. H. C., Adamstown Keenan, John N., Brentwood King, W. J., 232 Prince George St., Annapolis Murray, Miss Annie C., Cumberstone Newcomer, Aaron, Smithburg, R. 1. MASSACHUSETTS * Bowditch, James H., 903 Tremont Building, Boston Gilbert, Ralph D., 9 Ridgefield Road, Winchester Hoffman, Bernhard, Overbrook Orchard, Stockbridge Rich, William P., Secretary State Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Ave., Boston Smith, Fred A., 39 Pine St., Danvers Vaughan, Horace A., Peacehaven, Assonet White, Warren, Holliston MICHIGAN Copland, Alexander W., Strawberry Hill Farm, Birmingham Jessup, Miss Maud M., 440 Thomas St., Grand Rapids Kellogg, J. H., Battle Creek Linton, Wm. S., Pres. Board of Trade, Saginaw Staunton, Gray, Muskegon, Box 233 MINNESOTA Powers, L. L., 1018 Hudson Ave., St. Paul Van Duzee, Col. C. A., St. Paul MISSOURI Bauman, X. C., Ste. Genevieve Buffam, Frank W., Commissioner of Highways, Jefferson City Johnson, Alfred E., McBaine, R. 1 Koontz, E. J., Richards Stark, P. C., Louisiana (Mo.) NEW JERSEY Black, Walter C., of Jos. H. Black, Son & Co., Hightstown De Cou, Howard F., Truesdale Farm, Merchantville Dietrick, Dr. Thomas S., 12 West Washington Ave., Washington Henderson, Howard W., 603 Spooner Ave., Plainfield. Lovett, J. T., Little Silver Marston, Edwin S., Florham Park, Box 72 Mechling, Edward A., Wonderland Farm, Moorestown Putnam, J. H., Vineland Ridgeway, C. S., Floralia, Lumberton, N.J. Roberts, Horace, Moorestown Young, Frederick C., Palmyra, Box 335 NEW MEXICO Clemens, E. A., Magdalena NEW YORK Abbott, Frederick B., 419 Ninth St., Brooklyn Ackerly, Orville B., 243 W. 34th St., New York City Atwater, C. G., Manager Agricultural Department, American Coal Products Company, 17 Battery Place, New York City Baker, Dr. Hugh P., Dean of State College of Forestry, Syracuse Baker, Prof. J. Fred, Director of Forest Investigations, State College of Forestry, Syracuse Baker, Wm. A., North Rose Bixby, Willard G., 46th St. and 2nd Ave., Brooklyn Brown, Ronald J., 320 Broadway, New York City Ellwanger, Mrs. W. D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Felt, Henry W., 238 William St., New York City Foote, Avery L., Newark, Wayne Co. Fullerton, H. B., Director Long Island Railroad Experiment Station, Medford, L.I. Haywood, Albert, Flushing Hickox, Ralph, 3832 White Plains Ave., New York City Hicks, Henry, Westbury, L.I. Holden, E. B., Hilton * Huntington, A. M., 15 W. 81st St., New York City Jackson, Dr. James H., Dansville Keeler, Charles E., Chichester and Briggs Aves., Richmond Hill Morse, Geo. A., Fruit Acres, Williamson, N.Y. Nelson, Dr. James Robert, 23 Main St., Kingston-on-Hudson Olcott, Ralph T., Ellwanger & Barry Building, Rochester Palmer, A. C., New York Military Academy, Cornwall-on-Hudson Pomeroy, A. C., Lockport Rice, Mrs. Lillian McKee, Adelano, Pawling Stephen, Prof. John W., Assistant Professor of Agriculture, State College of Forestry, Syracuse Teele, A. W., 30 Broad St., New York City Teter, Walter C, 10 Wall St., New York City Thomson, Adelbert, East Avon Tuckerman, Bayard, 118 E. 37th St., New York City Turner, K. M., 220 W. 42nd St., New York City Ulman, Dr. Ira, 213 W. 147th St., New York City Wile, M. E., 37 Calumet St., Rochester Williams, Dr. Charles Mallory, 48 E. 49th St., New York City * Wissmann, Mrs. F. de R., Westchester, New York City NORTH CAROLINA Glover, J. Wheeler, Morehead City Heely, Dr. O. J., Andrews, R.F.D. Hutt, Prof. W. H., State Horticulturist, Raleigh Van Lindley, J., J. Van Lindley Nursery Company, Pomona OHIO Dayton, J. H., Storrs & Harrison Company, Painesville Denny, Mark E., Middletown Evans, Miss Myrta L., Briallen Farm, Oak Hill, Jackson County Miller, H. A., Gypsum Weber, Harry R., 601 Gerke Building, Cincinnati Witte, O. F., Amherst, R. 2 Yunck, E. G., 710 Central Ave., Sandusky PENNSYLVANIA Ballou, C. F., Halifax Corcoran, Chas. A., Wind-Rush Fruit Farm, New Albany Creasy, Wm. T., Catawissa Doan, J. L., School of Horticulture, Ambler Druckemiller, W. C., Sunbury Fagan, Prof. F. N., Department of Horticulture, State College Grubbs, H. L., Fairview, R. 1 Hall, Robt. W., 133 Church St., Bethlehem Heffner, H., Highland Chestnut Grove, Leeper Hile, Anthony, Curwensville National Bank, Curwensville Hoopes, Wilmer W., Hoopes Brothers and Thomas Company, Westchester Howell, Lardner, Girard Trust Company, Philadelphia Hutchinson, Mahlon, Ashwood Farm, Devon, Chester County Jenkins, Charles Francis, Farm Journal, Philadelphia * Jones, J. F., Lancaster, Box 527 Leas, F. C., 882 Drexel Building, Philadelphia, Mountain Brook Orchard Company, Salem, Va. Leeds, Sarah B., Westchester, R. 4 Middleton, Fenton H., 1118 Chestnut St., Philadelphia Moss, James, Johnsville, Bucks County Murphy, P. J., Vice-President L. & W.R.R.R. Company, Scranton Myers, C. N., Hanover O'Neill, Wm. C., 1328 Walnut St., Philadelphia Pelton, Joseph L., North Girard, R. 1 Rick, John, 438 Pennsylvania Sq., Reading Rush, J. G., West Willow Ryan, Charles D., Spring Mount, Montgomery County Smedley, Sam'l L., 902 Stephen Girard Building, Philadelphia Smitten, H. W., Rochester Mills, R. 2 * Sober, Col. C. K., Lewisburg Spackman, H. B., Lukens Iron Company, Coatesville Thomas, Joseph W., Jos. W. Thomas & Sons, King of Prussia P.O. Walter, Dr. Harry, Spring Mount Weaver, Wm. S., McCungie Webster, Mrs. Edmund, 1324 S. Broad St., Philadelphia Wister, John C., Wister St. and Clarkson Ave., Germantown Wright, R. P., 235 W. 6th St., Erie TEXAS Trumbull, R. S., Agricultural Agent, El Paso & S.W. System, Morenci Southern Railroad Company, El Paso UTAH Pendleton, M. A., Lehi Smith, Joseph A., Providence (Edgewood Hall) Stayner, Horace, 1844 S. State St., Salt Lake City VIRGINIA Carver, W. N., Cismont, Albemarle County Crockett, E. B., Monroe Dodge, Geo. P., Lovingston, R. 1 Engleby, Thos. L., 1002 Patterson Ave., Roanoke Lee, Lawrence R., Leesburg Miller, L. O., Miller & Rhodes, Richmond Parish, John S., Eastham, Albemarle County Shackford, Theodore B., care of Adams Brothers-Paynes Company, Lynchburg Smith, Dr. J. Russell, Roundhill WASHINGTON Baldwin, Dr. A. E., Kettle Falls WEST VIRGINIA Hartzell, B. F., Shepherdstown ~* Life members.~ CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I _Name._ This society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION. ARTICLE II _Object._ Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III _Membership._ Membership in the society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president and a secretary-treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and an executive committee of five persons, of which the president, two last retiring presidents, vice-president and secretary-treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI _Meetings._ The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. ARTICLE VII _Quorum._ Ten members of the association shall constitute a quorum, but must include a majority of the executive committee or two of the three elected officers. ARTICLE VIII _Amendments._ This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or a copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I _Committees._ The association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on nomenclature, on promising seedlings, on hybrids, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II _Fees._ The fees shall be of two kinds, annual and life. The former shall be two dollars, the latter twenty dollars. ARTICLE III _Membership._ All annual memberships shall begin with the first day of the calendar quarter following the date of joining the association. ARTICLE IV _Amendments._ By-laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present at any annual meeting. Northern Nut Growers Association SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING SEPTEMBER 1 AND 2, 1915 ROCHESTER, NEW YORK The sixth annual convention of the Northern Nut Growers Association was called to order in the convention hall of Powers Hotel, Rochester, New York, on Wednesday, September 1, at 10:15 A.M., the president, Dr. J. Russell Smith, presiding, and thirty-two people being assembled. THE PRESIDENT: Ladies and Gentlemen, Members of the Northern Nut Growers Association, the meeting will please come to order. With an organization of this sort, the main purpose of the meeting is the dissemination of information, but it is necessary that certain business shall be conducted to keep the organization going. Some business is dry; usually the reports of our secretary-treasurer are not, and the first order of business, I think, should be to hear from our secretary-treasurer. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I should be glad to have the floor for a moment, Mr. President. In the Congressional Library at Washington City are many very beautiful and attractive inscriptions and quotations, one of which has always appealed to me as a lawyer, and I have repeated it many times: "Of law there can be no less acknowledged than that her voice is the harmony of the world." Mr. President, I have noted very many times that the voice of the law is sometimes silent. It speaks only through those in authority and there should always be some emblem of authority. I therefore took the liberty, Mr. President, of having made for you a gavel from the wood of an Indiana pecan tree, where as a youth I lived and learned of this most delicious of all the nuts, and I take pleasure in presenting it to you, and if anyone doubts the hardiness or hardness of the Indiana pecan, I authorize you to demonstrate both. I am presenting you duplicate gavels, Mr. President, one of which I desire to have you turn over to your successor in office as an official emblem of his authority, to be used at future meetings; the other I am presenting to you as a personal tribute for your most excellent work in behalf of northern nut culture. This gavel I shall ask you to place among the trophies in your beautiful mountain home, where the birds sing sweetly, the sun shines brightly, and the breezes murmur softly; and where the days are made to rest and the nights are made to sleep. THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Littlepage, not being prepared for this, and not being naturally eloquent, I am unable to make a speech. However, as a part of the way out of the difficulty, I accept this one officially with great pleasure, and personally accept the other with deep gratitude, and desire to express the appreciation of the meeting. The pecan is calling the walnut meeting to order. Last year we went to see the pecan; this year we come to see the walnut, which, has done more than any other nut in the East. We will now listen to the report of our secretary-treasurer. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY-TREASURER Balance on hand, date of last report $7.23 Receipts: Dues $379.30 Advertisements 42.00 Contributions 42.50 Sale of report 22.40 Contributions for prizes 40.00 Miscellaneous 1.05 ------- $534.48 Expenses: Printing report $233.76 Miscellaneous printing 51.80 Postage and stationery 41.09 Stenographer 2.00 Express, freight, carting 3.74 Prizes 10.00 Check J.R.S. expenses, circulars 37.30 Bills receivable 10.00 Miscellaneous 4.55 ------- $394.24 ------- Balance on hand $140.24 This is the best financial report that the treasurer has ever been able to transmit, and this is chiefly due to the efforts of our president who, during the year, has sent out numerous notices of, and articles about, our Association, its purposes, and the desirability of finding and propagating our best nut trees. He also offered three prizes of $5 each for a nut contest and did the work necessary to get publicity for this contest. He sent letters to the members of the horticultural societies of Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Virginia, Maryland, and Ohio which resulted in our getting 24 new members, mostly from the state of Pennsylvania. Twenty-five dollars of the cost of this circularizing the president paid out of his own pocket. The rest was more than made up by the fees of new members. The president also had printed an educational leaflet on nut growing for distribution by Mr. Cobb with the nut trees which he sends to the schools and farmers of Michigan. With Professor Close he was on the finance committee which sent a circular letter to the members of the Association for funds to help pay for the printing of the annual report, and obtained advertisements for the report. As stated in the treasurer's report contributions for this purpose amounted to $42.50 and advertisements brought in $42.00. _Prizes_ The Association offered last year prizes of $5 each for the best shagbark hickory nut, black walnut and hazel nut sent in. Something over a hundred specimens were received and the prize for hickory nut was awarded to J. K. Triplett of Elkins, W. Va. The prize for black walnut was awarded to J. G. Rush of West Willow, Pa. Mr. Rush returned his prize to be used for the purposes of the Association. No prize for hazels was awarded as only one or two insignificant specimens were sent in. Perhaps the stimulation of this contest accounts for our being able to offer such substantial prizes for this year. In addition to the $80 worth of prizes already announced the secretary has received from a life member, James H. Bowditch of Boston, a check for $25 as a prize to be offered by the Association for a hickory nut under such conditions as the Association may decide. A circular announcing these prizes has been sent out to agricultural and other papers to the number of 200, the expenses of which have been borne by another member, Mr. Chas. H. Plump of Connecticut. A committee on competitions should be appointed or the direction of them delegated to some already existent committee. _Membership_ Seventy-four members were added during the interval between this meeting and the last, one less than in the previous year. Since its organization 287 persons have joined the Association. We have at present 153 paid up members, 21 more than last year. There are a few members whose dues are unpaid who are active workers and will eventually pay, probably. Four members have resigned, though none in anger, and we have lost one by death, the late Prof. H. E. Van Deman. _Annual Dues_ Some way should be found out of the difficulties arising from the dissatisfaction of members who join late in the year when they receive a notice for dues soon after having once paid. It is desirable to take in members at all times during the year. At the same time some method should be found to give the late comer something for his money. Shall membership continue to date from the calendar year? Or shall we make some change? Some societies date memberships from the opening of the annual meeting. It would not be impossible to make memberships date from the beginning of the quarter year immediately following date of joining. This would give every member a full year at least before he would again receive a notice for dues. It would be quite inconvenient to date each membership from the day of joining. It would not be so bad if members paid promptly on receipt of notice. Or a rebate might be made for each month of the year elapsed before new members' dues were paid. _Meetings_ No field meeting was held this year. It has been suggested, and would seem to be a favorable subject for discussion, that it might be well to hold our annual meeting late in the year in some central location, such as New York City, Philadelphia or Washington, for our business and formal program of papers and discussions, and the study of the nuts sent in, perhaps for judging any competition that might be held, if the meeting were late enough for that; and a summer meeting of informal nature at some place where nut trees with their crops growing could be studied. _Nut Journal_ Our official organ, the _American Nut Journal_, has done its part well through the past year and is becoming, as it should, a very important element in the success of the purposes of this Association. Most new and old members of the Association have availed themselves during the year of the offer of membership and the _Journal_ for $2.50. In spite of the reduction of 25 cents on each membership, the receipts for dues have increased from $273 to $331. I would suggest that the membership fee be still further reduced by 25 cents, when combined with subscription to the _Journal_, if the editor is willing to continue the present arrangement whereby the price of the _Journal_ is reduced to 75 cents when subscribed to with membership, so that the two together will cost $2.25. Another year it may be possible to make a similar reduction. The object toward which we ought to work is membership for $1, and membership with the _Journal_$2. I should like to hear the opinions of the members as to the advisability of working to reduce our dues to $1 annually. _How Members May Help_ At the risk of monotony I will repeat my concluding remarks of last year and ask that each member help increase the prosperity and usefulness of the Association by enlisting new members, by advertising his business in the annual report, and by paying his dues promptly. The secretary would much rather spend his time answering questions and imparting such information as lies in his power, than to have to send repeated notices to members in arrears for dues. The secretary will be happy at all times to learn of the plans and progress of the members. * * * * * THE PRESIDENT: You have heard the report of the secretary. There are two things to be done with it. It is, as you will notice, first a report of the year's business and, second, it has certain suggestions for your consideration. I think that as a business report we can discuss and move its adoption, amendment or rejection. After that we may take up the suggestions. [Adoption moved, seconded and carried.] He has brought before our consideration the amount of dues, and the question of their payment. I doubt the advisability of a lengthy discussion in this business meeting. I think it better to refer it to the executive committee. Unless I hear further suggestions, I will take that action. The next piece of business is the matter of the report on the amendments to the constitution. Professor Close and the secretary were appointed a committee for this matter, and as Professor Close cannot be here, we will hear from the secretary on the matter. (See amended constitution.) DR. SMITH: I am now glad to announce that we have covered the necessary business ground, and now come to the real meat of the meeting. We have with us this morning Dr. Baker, Dean of the State College of Forestry, at Syracuse, who is going to address us on the subject of "The Relation of Forestry Conditions in New York to Possibilities of Nut Growing." THE RELATION OF FOREST CONDITIONS IN NEW YORK TO POSSIBILITIES OF NUT GROWING DR. HUGH P. BAKER, DEAN OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF FORESTRY AT SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY The forester presumes to come before your organization because he is concerned with one of the greatest of the natural resources of this and other states of the Union and not with the idea of bringing information as to details in nut culture. Possibly nut culture as a business is more closely related to agriculture than forestry. Forestry is not subordinate to agriculture in this country but co-ordinate with it. Together they will come as near solving the soil problems of the country as is possible for man to solve them. The forester is interested and concerned with the wild nut trees wherever he has to do with the forests or forest lands of the country. Throughout the great hardwood sections of the East there are many native nut-bearing trees, and in the proper utilization of the trees which make up the forests the forester is concerned not alone with the lumber which may come from these trees, but he is concerned as well with the value of the by-products of the forest and the influence of the utilization of these by-products upon the forest. In view of the forester's interest in all of the trees which make up our forests, my purpose of addressing you today is to bring before you the question of the most effective use of the forest soils of this state. I shall also attempt to make some suggestions to your organization in the matter of interesting the man on the street in nut growing. This profession and the business of forestry have been passing through a period of general educational work in this country. Some of the lessons which we have learned through our efforts to interest the people in their forests may be of help to you in interesting the people both in the consumption and the production of nuts. _New York as a Great Forest State_ Twenty-five years ago New York was one of the leading lumber-producing states of the Union. Today some twenty other states produce more lumber than comes from the forests and woodlots of New York. Statistics given out recently by the United States Census Bureau and the Conservation Commission of New York show that, out of the land acreage of over thirty-two millions in New York, but twenty-two millions are included within farms. This leaves something over eight millions of acres outside of farms and presumably non-agricultural. The forests of the Adirondacks and Catskills and the woodlots of the rougher hill counties in the southern and southwestern part of the state come within this vast area of eight millions of acres. Without doubt with increasing population there will come some increase in the use of what are now non-agricultural lands for the practice of agriculture, but with three hundred years of agricultural history back of us in this state it does not seem likely that there will be much change in the relation of non-agricultural to agricultural land during the next half-century. Out of the twenty-two millions of acres of farm lands in the state but fifteen millions are actually under cultivation, leaving, therefore, from six to eight millions of acres within the farms of the state but lying idle. That is, we have a Massachusetts enclosed within our farms which is non-productive as far as direct returns are concerned. Yet there is really no waste land in New York, as every square foot of the state which is covered with any soil at all is capable of producing good forest trees. It is this great area of idle land enclosed within our farms which seems to have unusual promise in the development of nut culture in the state. There is a great deal of land now idle in the form of steep hillsides or ridges or rocky slopes upon which we may grow with comparative ease our walnuts, butter-nuts, hickories, hazelnuts, in the wild form at least. The fact that the state is in really rather serious condition financially should be a strong reason for our association to urge upon the farmers of the state the planting of nut-bearing trees that the returns from the farms may be increased by annual sales of nuts which should in the aggregate in the next fifty years be a large sum of money. It has been estimated that the total debt of the State of New York, that is, the state, county and municipal debts, are equal to $47 for every acre of land, good and bad. On top of this condition the legislature last year laid a direct tax of eighteen millions of dollars upon our people, and there is every indication that it will be several years before it becomes unnecessary to lay a direct tax either larger or smaller than that put upon us last year. There is ever-increasing competition among the farmers of the state as the standards in animal, milk and fruit production are ever increasing. In view of the amount of idle land and of our financial condition it seems to be an unusually opportune time for those interested in nut culture to bring before the farmers and other landowners of the state the idea of planting nut trees, the products of which will add to the annual income from the land. _The State of New York is Somewhat Ignorant of the Value of its Forest Lands_ When the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse began its studies of forest conditions in New York in 1911 it turned its attention immediately to the very large areas of farm woodlots and woodlands within farms. There has been a good deal of general information current among our people regarding the forest conditions of the state, but there is really very little accurate information except such little as the college has secured since 1911. As a first step in the taking of stock of our forest resources and especially the amount of timber in our farm woodlots and what is coming from these woodlots in the way of annual return to their owners, the State College of Forestry in 1912 began, in co-operation with the United States Forest Service, a study of the wood-using industries of the state. This study has resulted in a very comprehensive bulletin issued by the College of Forestry upon the wood-using industries of the State of New York. From these studies it was determined for the first time that New York was spending annually over ninety-five millions of dollars for products of the forest. Unfortunately for the state, we are sending over fifty millions of dollars of this vast amount out into other states to the south and to the west for timber which New York is capable of producing in amount, at least, in its forests and on its idle lands. The report shows further that New York is producing very large quantities of pine and hemlock and the hardwoods, and, much to the surprise of those interested in forest conditions in the state, it was shown that a large proportion of the hardwoods come from the woodlots in the farms of the state. This would seem to indicate that there is a real opportunity for the growing of such hardwood timber as black walnut, butternut, and hickory, not only on the idle lands of the state which are not covered with forest now, but also in the woodlots of the farms. That is, it would not be a difficult matter to show the farmers through publications and possibly through public lectures that it would be very advantageous to them to favor nut-growing trees and to plant them where they are not now growing, both because of the value of the nuts which they produce and of the value of their wood. If the people of a great state like New York are more or less ignorant of the extent and value of their forest holdings, how much more ignorant are they of the character and the value of a particular species which make up their forest lands. How few people are able to go into the forest and say that this tree is a shagbark hickory or that that is a butternut or that that is a red pine, and if this is the case, as you will agree with me that it is, is it not time that propagandist or general educational work be done that will bring forcibly to the attention of the wage-earners of the state that it is a financial necessity for the state to consider better use of its forest lands, so that all of the soils of New York may share in the burden of the support of the commonwealth rather than a few of the soils which are now being given up to agricultural use? The wage-earner should know also that nuts used as food are conducive to health and that possibly a more extensive use of nuts with less of meat will mean a considerable difference over a period of a year in the amount that is saved in the living expenses of an individual or a family. It is often difficult for the forester to interest the average farmer in the planting of trees, even though those trees may add to the beauty and value of the farm or the comfort of the home buildings, but your organization will make a place for itself most decidedly if it will go to the farmer or to a group of farmers and show them that they can actually save money in the purchase of their needed lumber and wood of other kinds if they will cut their woodlots co-operatively and produce in the woodlots trees of greatest possible value and trees which will give such by-products as nuts as well as direct returns from the lumber. Just as soon as you can reach the pocket-book of the average wage-earner, it makes little difference whether it is nuts or books or clothing, they are going to be interested in a thing that will allow them to get more for the amount which they make from their day's labor. _The Association May Accomplish Much by Demonstrating the Value of Nut Trees as Trees and the Value of Their Products as Food_ Many organizations in our Eastern States are becoming interested in the beautification of communities and the tremendous development in the use of the automobile is interesting even more organizations in the beautification of rural highways. It would not be a difficult thing for the Nut Growers Association to interest civic associations or women's clubs in the planting not only of forest trees alone along rural highways but a certain number of nut trees. We are literally in the age of the "Movie" and if a man who walks or drives along our highways can see as he passes the growing nut trees and the bountiful harvest which they may be made to yield, he is being convinced that not only elm and maple are of value along our highways, but that the nut-producing trees may give equal satisfaction in beauty of form and comfort of shade and at the same time yield fruit of very definite value. Even though the fruit of the nut-bearing trees of our woodlands and highways may not give an annual return to the town or village or county it will bring immeasurable joy and possibly better health to the boys and girls of the future. In many ways the children of this country are educating their parents and it is not an impossible idea to think of the parents of the future being converted by the influence of their children to the desirability if not the necessity of growing trees and nut trees, the fruit of which will give pleasant healthfulness and at the same time aid in the saving of the daily wage and in the support of the commonwealth. I wish to emphasize this idea of considering not alone the financial return from the trees and the forests of this state. As the son of a lumberman and as a forester I am, of course, most vitally interested in the growing of trees as a business proposition, but I feel that such an organization as yours, especially, should look at this matter not alone from actual financial returns, but because of indirect benefits such as the making of outdoor people of us Americans. This can be done, I believe, to a very considerable extent by giving our people, especially the boys and girls, a purpose for getting out into the woodlot and the forests wherever they occur in the state. The women of this state are interested vitally these days not only in their own welfare as possible citizens, but in the improving of living conditions and opportunities of our people. We should have more women interested in the work of this association and interested in seeing that the future value of nuts is appreciated by the wage-earners of the state, both because of their healthfulness and because of the possibility of cheapening somewhat the cost of living. I urge upon the organization a campaign of education, a campaign which will reach through the women's clubs, civic organizations, schools and state associations in a way that will cause the people to demand more nuts for food and more nut trees as an absolutely indispensable part of the complete utilization of both the agricultural and forest soils of the state. The agencies working for agriculture and forestry in a state like New York understand these problems, but often it remains for an organization like yours to bring these forces into active play and to produce the results for which you are working. Before you can achieve lasting results and results commensurate with the time and effort which you are putting into the organization, you must get hold of the man and the woman who spend the dollars for the living of our people. _The State College of Forestry at Syracuse Experimenting with Nut Culture_ Soon after the organization of the New York State Forest Experiment Station south of Syracuse the college took up the matter of growing nut trees and of improving the quality of nuts of native species. On the New York State Forest Experiment Station just south of Syracuse, where the college is growing a million forest trees a year, there is a woodlot of thirty acres. In this woodlot were a number of native nut trees and these have been set aside for the purpose of grafting and improving to see what can be done in helping out native nut trees of different ages and sizes. In 1913 the college purchased a thousand acres of cut-over land two hours south of Buffalo in Cattaraugus County. At the same time it purchased one hundred and thirteen acres lying along the main line of the New York Central Railroad at Chittenango in Madison County. This past spring nut trees were ordered from nurseries in Pennsylvania and planted in the heavy soils on the Chittenango Forest Station and also on the State Forest Experiment Station at Syracuse. At the Salamanca station young nut trees are being staked so that they may be protected and cared for with a hope of developing them as nut-producing trees. The college plans, as a part of its work in the Division of Forest Investigations, to see what can be done in the way of grafting chestnut sprouts and in introducing nut-growing trees for the purpose of demonstrating that idle lands within farms may be used profitably for nut culture. The college will be very glad, indeed, to learn of any native nut trees of unusual value anywhere in New York as it is anxious to get material for grafting to native stock already growing on its various forest stations. DR. SMITH: It was an exceedingly great pleasure to me to listen to that address by the Dean of the New York State College of Forestry. I want to assure you that his address marks an epoch. He tells us that the State of New York is going to experiment in nut growing, give place, time and money; and this is what I have been long waiting for. I shall defer my discussion until this evening, when I use the screen and lantern. I rejoice exceedingly that the State of New York is not alone in the march of progress; the State of Pennsylvania is also in line and comes next on the program. Professor Fagan has been making a survey of Pennsylvania with particular reference to ascertaining what it has in nut trees. He will now give us a report. * * * * * PROFESSOR FAGAN: The President has caught me rather unprepared. I did not expect to talk at this time. I had our walnut survey tabulated in regard to county locations, so that you could see the results of our work in the state this past summer. This report is in my grip so I will talk only from memory. The necessity for this work in Pennsylvania has been increasing right along. The State Experiment Station has been receiving letters nearly every week from parties wanting information in regard to the Persian walnut. The calls for information have been increasing more and more each year for the past three years. Our people ask questions about the right kind of soils for the nuts--what varieties are best suited for Pennsylvania--how to topwork their standing black walnut--and, in fact, almost any question. The Experiment Station does not have a nut plantation and it was thought best to study the growing Persian walnut trees throughout the state. A publicity campaign was started through the agricultural press and our daily and weekly newspapers. In this way we have been able to learn the location of some 1,800 to 2,000 bearing trees in Pennsylvania. I tried to visit the trees this summer but time would not permit. Trees are reported in twenty-five different counties. Erie County reported, likely, the two largest plantings. Here we have two seedling groves, at least one is a seedling grove. The seedling grove is fourteen years old and contains 250 trees. They are seedling Pomeroy trees and this year show their first real crop of nuts. Since they are seedlings we naturally find all types and variations among the trees. We see a difference in their foliage, habit of growth, shape and size of nuts. The trees show no effects of ever having been winter-killed. The trees have always been farmed so the owner, Mr. E. A. Silkirk of North East, Pa., has been able to receive returns from his land. Grapes and berries have been grown between the trees as intercrops. The trees are planted on the corners of a 50-foot square and cover about fourteen acres. In four different counties of the mountain section of the state, bearing trees are to be found. From these trees we hope to find something at least fairly good but above that something hardy. Some of these trees have been winter-killed to a more or less degree, but so have the common peach trees in the same sections. The southeastern part of the state reports the largest number of trees. From Harrisburg east and south the trees become more common. In this section we find Dauphin, Adams, York, Lancaster, Chester, Philadelphia, Bucks, Lebanon, Lehigh and Berks counties. In these counties the Persian walnut is not at all uncommon. They are often called Dutch nuts as well as English walnuts. Just north of the above section we find Northampton County reporting a large number of trees, and even in the Wilkes-Barre and Scranton section with a higher elevation the nut is growing and yielding good crops. I asked nearly all walnut tree owners whether or not they thought the business could be developed, and in most cases they believed it possible. I have come to more or less of the conclusion from what I have been able to see, that the business will not be developed in our so-called mountain land or upon the waste lands. The better soil should be used for the walnut groves. As time goes on we are going to find more and more groves of the nuts being planted in our state. I came here to learn rather than to lecture. If I can answer any question I will be glad to do so. Tonight I will gladly show you a few pictures with the lantern. I might say that the Experiment Station plans to have a small grove in a few years; with this and co-operative work we hope to be able to give to our growers and interested people some idea of the culture and care of the Persian walnut in Pennsylvania. DR. MORRIS: I don't like to speak so often here, but it is in the spirit of setting a pace rather than of giving expression to my own views. In the first place, I would like to ask Professor Fagan if he has looked up the matter of the introduction of any of the oriental walnuts into Pennsylvania. According to the knowledge of the botanists, all species of plants from the northeastern Orient are better adapted to the eastern states of America than are any trees from the central or western portions of the Old World. Pacific coast plants do well in England, but not in New England as a rule. Next I would suggest, _apropos_ of the nature of the seedling orchard reported by the last speaker, that no nut tree of any sort be sold under a varietal name for propagation, excepting that it be accompanied by the statement that it is a seedling. This is perfectly proper and fair to all parties. Going back to the remarks of Professor Baker, a number of very interesting points arose. One reason why the great waste lands of the state have not been covered with forests of nut trees is because we must leave something for the people who are to come 5,000 years after us. We must not accomplish everything in civilization this year. Be generous; leave something for others to accomplish later. Nut trees grown in forest form say to themselves: "Here are trees enough. We shall store up cellulose." Therefore the trees store up cellulose, make great trunks and timber, and little fruit. A nut tree on the other hand which is growing alone in a field says, "Here are not trees enough. I shall be fruitful," and therefore it bears much fruit. Consequently, nut trees to be grown as forest are out of the question as nut producers, but may be very valuable for timber. In regard to setting out trees along the highways, that is a beautiful idea theoretically. I happen to see one of my neighbors in Connecticut here in the audience. He remembers when I tried to be public-spirited and set out a number of fruit trees around the borders of my place, in order that the passerby might have some fruit. What happened was that not only the passerby wanted fruit, but he wanted it early, and he brought others from a distance who wanted fruit. They broke down the trees, and also entered my premises and carried off my private supply having been attracted by my roadside bait. I wanted to beautify the highway for a mile and set out 3,000 pine trees. After they had grown to look pretty, people came in automobiles and carried them off. These people could not think of helping to set out roadside trees but when someone else had done it they came and lugged off the trees. So long as we are in a semi-civilized state, we cannot talk about beautifying our roads, as does Germany. Germany has set an example of efficiency for the entire world, no matter what your opinion may be as to the present conflict. At the present time she is perhaps believing that she is carrying on a utility crusade. One of the German methods is to line the roadways with fruit-bearing trees, including nut trees, in such a way that the income pays the taxes for some villages. But they are under government control. MR. POMEROY: Dr. Morris's suggestion is very good in regard to marking seedlings. Of course his office is in New York City, though his farm is in Connecticut and New York has a law which fills the bill. A customer can get a complete history of the tree from his nurseryman. If from a barren tree, he must so state. I think this state is about the only state that has such a law. One other thing. The first big battle fought between the Germans and the Belgians was on a highway along ten miles of which stood Persian walnut trees, and I have often wondered how much damage was done to the trees. THE PRESIDENT: I will ask the secretary to read the motion Dr. Morris incorporated in his talk. THE SECRETARY: "No ungrafted nut tree of any sort shall be sent out under a name for propagation purposes except with the statement that it is a seedling." MR. LITTLEPAGE: That is a matter which I imagine will come before the executive committee, and I would suggest that it be left in their hands and worked out by them. With Dr. Morris's consent I would refer this to that committee. MR. POMEROY: Just because a tree has been grafted, why is all this necessary? The nurseryman is bound to tell from what it is taken. That is covered by the law. He need not be even a buyer, merely a prospective buyer. What I want to bring out is this. Suppose a nurseryman here in this state sells a tree,--he must have a permit before he can do it; he cannot send even a twig through the post office otherwise. I don't see if a bud is taken from a tree and put on a black walnut tree that it necessarily makes the bud that grows on the black walnut tree any better than the parent. DEAN BAKER: I told you I wanted to raise a discussion on this subject. I really am a dyed-in-the-wool optimist. I am willing to sacrifice some nut trees to laboratory purposes for the benefit of our young men. We want the individuals to profit by the education. This should be an educational society. THE PRESIDENT: I will ask the vice-president to take the chair. MR. REED: At the last meeting a committee was appointed to report on the Persian walnut, of which committee the president was the chairman, and will make his report at this time. * * * * * THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen: I think you appreciate the chaos at the present moment in the status of investigation of the Persian walnut. When Professor Fagan reports that the number of trees in Pennsylvania exceeds 2,000, most of which he has not seen, this chaos is evident. The varieties propagated in the eastern United States are experiments. I have done nothing that will compare with Mr. Fagan's work, but have found certain interesting facts. First: I found in Maryland a Persian walnut which does not come into leaf until June. When the cherries are ripe, it is just coming into leaf; and it has borne regularly for fifteen years. While going through the orchards at Grenoble in France, I asked a man "What is the matter with that tree?" This was on June 9th. "There is nothing the matter," he told me, "it is only coming into leaf." I want to call your attention to possibilities of a hybrid of that tree and the Maryland tree. The Persian walnuts of the Grenoble tree were of good quality, but low yield. The Maryland tree is a heavy yielder but of third quality. In this matter of variety, I want to emphasize Dr. Morris's point of the great possibilities of the oriental walnut. Great results are likely to be attained from the introduction of these species into Pennsylvania, New York and elsewhere in this country. Second: What is a good walnut? They may be divided into three qualities: 1. Positively sweet. 2. Neutral. 3. Those with a little bitterness in the skin of the kernel, which develops as you masticate the kernel. Most of those which distinguish themselves for good yield here in the East are unfortunately of the third class. I have taken samples of these to commercial dealers. One of the largest walnut buyers in Philadelphia classifies the Grenobles as first class. The California crop he classes second quality but pays more for it. Most of the California quality is second class. Eastern nuts are mostly third class. I found one in New Jersey which was almost first class. First quality apples are not grown for the market. They are consumed by the growers. They know the market would not pay for them. They sell mostly the second and third class apples. The present market for nuts is like the apple market. The nut dealer told me to send along nuts, like several eastern samples, and he would sell them, even though they were third quality. He has assured me that if he had the nuts he could sell them. Investigate every good nut tree you hear about. Very good results may come from this. You don't know what you may learn by doing so. If you will ask about it every time you hear of a good nut tree, good will be accomplished. We are going to keep on finding these trees for the next twenty-five years. Will you help the process along? * * * * * MR. POMEROY: In the smaller towns, where the grocery men buy of the boys, if they will ask them about the trees from which they get good nuts you will locate many good trees. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I understand in California they have been planting walnut trees for thirty to forty years but have never yet agreed on the matter of varieties. One of the very practical questions before this association is the determination of the best varieties to set. I would like to hear from some of the members on this question of varieties. MR. RUSH: I would like to say a word about this matter. We cannot be too severe on quality. We might ask ourselves today what is the matter with the peach crop. The physical changes and conditions are responsible not only for the peach crop, but the nut crop as well. The weather has unfortunate effects on certain varieties of the walnut. So we must make allowance for weather conditions. MR. LITTLEPAGE: Excuse me for butting in so often. I should like to ask Mr. Rush a question. I highly respect his judgment. If he were planting a walnut orchard of 500 trees in the latitude between Philadelphia and Washington, I should like to know what varieties he would plant and in what proportion? MR. RUSH: Well, that is a question that would require a little consideration. Now we have some very good varieties. You have a very good variety known as the Holden. I would like to know more of it. One I would choose would be the Nebo, and another originating on my place, and called the Rush, is productive and good quality and a most excellent pollenizer. We have another fine walnut in Adams County, introduced by John Garretson, from California. Then we have other types, the Lancaster, and the Alpine. Hall, in Erie County is noted for its good size, not strictly a commercial nut. Something like the Holden, Garretson and Rush Parisienne are my favorite varieties. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I think we are getting some really valuable information now. We must plant the best varieties we have. I think we might start with Mr. Rush's list and have the varieties analyzed. I think this will be of use when we are called upon to advise people. THE SECRETARY: If I were going to make a choice of the varieties of walnuts, I should name the Franquette, Mayette and Parisienne. Mr. Rush says that his Rush variety is practically a Parisienne. The Garretson walnuts seem to be of these varieties. These have been producing good crops of nuts. It is my opinion that at this time these are the most promising varieties for use in the East. THE PRESIDENT: I wish to say that a tree of the Mayette variety or one greatly resembling it has been living in Pennsylvania for fifteen years and bearing crops. There is little doubt that the Mayette is the best walnut on the market. MR. LITTLEPAGE: Well, is there anything really surprising, when you consider the origin of these trees? These varieties originally came from the Grenoble district in France. France lies north of the 42d parallel. This is the northern boundary of Pennsylvania and runs through Michigan. But France has a maritime climate. THE PRESIDENT: If I may act as geographer for a moment, there are two things in connection with the foreign climate. The maritime climate is cooler in summer and milder in winter. Over here fungus invasion does great harm but the climate there is detrimental to the fungi and keeps them in subjection. I call attention again to that Mayette in Pennsylvania for sixteen years, as a matter of fact, not theory, an achievement on which we can act with some certainty. The hour for adjournment has come. This afternoon at 1:30 we have been invited to visit nut trees in the neighborhood in automobiles kindly loaned for the occasion. Tonight at 8 we meet here again. THE SECRETARY: I want to say a word in regard to Mr. Baker's remarks. The purpose of this association is chiefly educational, but in order that we may be educational, and in order that we may give the man in the street some definite information, in response to his inquiries, we ourselves must first investigate these matters, such as the question of varieties. This is a point that appeals to me particularly. People ask me what nuts to plant, and how to plant them. We must advise them. One thing that we may tell them is that it is advisable to plant about the grounds high priced, grafted nut trees. It is not advisable to plant high class, grafted trees along fences or roads. They will usually do badly or fail. Grafted trees require careful attention and proper treatment. The proper thing to do along fences and roadsides is to graft the native nut trees already established there, or to plant native nuts abundantly in order that later we may have established nut trees to graft. Adjournment at 12:30 P.M. WEDNESDAY EVENING SESSION The evening session was called to order at 8:40 P.M. by President Smith. The total attendance of the evening was approximately one hundred. The evening was devoted to two stereopticon lectures, the first being slides by Professor Fagan, illustrating the lecture of the afternoon on the "Nut Survey of Pennsylvania." This was followed by an illustrated lecture by Dr. J. Russell Smith, President of the Association. NEW TREE CROPS AND A NEW AGRICULTURE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS DR. J. RUSSELL SMITH, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA We have all heard of the scientist who made a discovery and exclaimed, "Thank God! This can't be of any possible use to anybody!" This useless aspect of science in a world with so many possibilities of service does not appeal to me. I hope that science and service and utility may go hand in hand. The conservation of natural resources, the creation of new ones is a topic which combines the qualities of science, service and utility. Of all our resources the soil is the most vital. Most of the others have some possibility of substitution, but for the soil there is no substitute. The forest burned to destruction can rise again if the soil remains. Some examination will show that the most vital part of the whole conservation matter is the preservation of the soil, and that soil conservation is 99 per cent the prevention of erosion. Soil robbery by unscientific agriculture can go to its most extreme lengths and reduce the soil to the depths of non-productivity; but scientific agriculture can, by the addition of humus and some fertilizer, soon restore such soil to high fertility. In these conditions of exhaustion the loss to fertility by soil leaching is small, because of the non-soluble character of the earth particles. Thus experiments at Cornell have shown that in the average foot of top soil from rather unproductive farms in a low state of production, there was plant food sufficient for 6,000 crops of corn. We have all seen a single thunder shower remove from a hillside corn field the fertility adequate for the making of a hundred crops of corn. American agriculture is peculiarly soil destructive. Three of our greatest money crops--corn, cotton and tobacco--require that the earth shall, throughout the summer, be loose and even furrowed with the cultivator, which prepares the ground for washing away, and by its furrow starts the gully. The second factor in this peculiarly destructive agriculture is the fact of our emphasis of rainfall in summer. Third in the list of factors of destruction is the rainfall unit, the thunder shower, which dumps water, hundreds of tons per hour on every hillside acre. A little examination of the facts and careful inclusion of the time element will show that the old-world saying, "After man the desert" is quite as true in the United States as in Europe and Asia, where it has been so fearfully proven in the seats of ancient empire. This soil resource destruction from erosion leads to the destruction of other valuable resources. We appear to be upon the eve of an epoch of waterway construction and experiment. The greatest injury to waterways is channel filling by down-washed mud. Pittsburgh has been praised highly for the energetic action of her Chamber of Commerce and citizens in appropriating money for the careful survey of drainage basins above the river, with the idea of obtaining knowledge preparatory to the building of reservoirs to check floods. They have forty-three reservoir sites, and the early construction of nineteen of these reservoirs is recommended. A part of the reservoir plan, however, is that the land above it shall not be cultivated; otherwise the erosion from the tilled fields will promptly fill up the reservoirs, as the present condition of many eastern mill dams so emphatically attests. The carrying out, therefore, of the Pittsburgh reservoir plan necessitates the exodus of hundreds of thousands of farmers and the restriction of many farming communities to forest or a new type of agriculture. We cannot spare all this land from tillage. But fortunately, there are other ways of using it. Land east of the 100th meridian may be divided into three classes: First, which in the absence of better estimate covers one third of the area, is hopeless for agriculture because of hills and rocks. This is mostly now in rather poor forests. The second class, also covering one third--by the same estimate--has been cleared for agriculture, but is so hilly and eroded as to be in a low state of fertility and production. The third class, the remaining third of the land, is suited to the plow and should be plowed and cultivated much more intensively than it now is. For the first and second classes of land we need a new type of agriculture, the crop-yielding trees. Our agriculture, which depends so largely now upon those members of the grass family which we call grains, is the result of accident, not the result of science. At the dawn of history man had practically all of these small grains, which have probably resulted from the selection and seed saving of the primitive woman, as the race came up from savagery into agriculture. This primitive woman in selecting plants for her garden and little field, did not pick out the best of nature, or the most productive, or the ultimately most promising; she picked annuals because they gave the quickest return. And man has left alone and practically unimproved for all these thousands of years nearly all the great engines of nature, the crop-yielding trees, such as the walnut, hickory, pecan, acorn yielding oak, chestnut, beech, pinenut, hazel, honey locust, mesquite, screw bean, carob, mulberry, persimmon, paw-paw, etc., because their slow growth has deterred us from any attempts at improving them. We have depended upon and greatly improved the quick growing grains, which spend most of their short life in putting up a frame work which promptly perishes; whereas the tree endures like a manufacturing plant. Further than this, most of the grains have a period of crisis, during which they must receive water or the harvest is almost a failure. Thus corn must within a short period receive moisture, or it is too late to produce even husks. Yet trees are the great engines of nature. The mazzard cherry tree, growing wild throughout the southeastern United States, often yields twenty bushels of fruit. Fifty bushels and upwards are often obtained from the mature apple trees. The walnut yields its bushels, the persimmon breaks with fruit. Europe shows us an agriculture making considerable use of crop-yielding trees other than the ordinary fruits. Mr. C. F. Cook, of the Department of Agriculture, is the authority for the statement that Mediterranean agriculture began on the basis of tree crops, and there are now about twenty-five such crops in the Mediterranean basin. The oak tree furnishes five, cork bark, an ink producing gall which enters into the manufacture of all our ink, the Valonia, or tannin-yielding acorn, which is an important export from the Balkan states; the truffle worth several million dollars to France; and lastly the acorn. In the Balaeric Isles, I am informed, certain acorns are more prized than chestnuts and the trees yielding them are grafted like apples, and the porker is turned out to make his living picking up acorns where they fall, and enriching his diet with a special kind of fig grown in the same way for his use. We Americans are too industrious; we insist upon putting a pig in a pen and then waiting upon him. The pistachio, the walnut, the filbert and the chestnut are all important tree crops in parts of the Mediterranean countries and many American travelers have probably seen the chestnut orchards of France and Italy, which I have found by examination are able to make the rough and unplowable mountain-side, bristling with rocks, as valuable as the level black prairies of Illinois. The natural objection may be raised that the utilization of so much hilly land in fruit and nut-yielding trees will give such supplies of new food that people will refuse to use them. The above objection is well founded; but swine, sheep and poultry eat what is given them. I have an example of a farmer of Louisiana, who planted a hillside to mulberry trees. The mulberries held the ground in place by their roots and dropped their black harvest to the ground through three months of summer, and the hogs gathered them up and converted them into pork worth $12 an acre, without any effort on the part of the owner. The mulberry area in the United States is probably close to a million square miles. Over most of the region south of Mason and Dixon's Line the persimmon is a hated tree weed; yet it stands by the millions in fields and fence rows, fairly bending down with a full crop of fruit every other year, which is much sought after by the opossum and other wild animals, and eaten when possible by the American porker from September, the end of the mulberry season, until March, for the persimmon has a habit of dropping its fruit through the long winter period. The oak whose acorns probably made the pig what he is, is almost neglected in America; yet for ages the Indians of the Pacific coast have made their bread from acorns of two species of oak, one of which is now gathered by the farmers of California, put into their barns and bought and sold as stock food. The beechnut and the hickory nut are rich and much prized swine food. Legumes, of which there are many species, can be grown between nut-yielding trees to maintain the fertility of the soil through the nitrogen gathering nodules upon their roots. As it often seems desirable to cultivate trees of this character where possible, the tree crops agriculturist is above all others able to adjust his crop and the one device that permits the tillage of hilly land--terracing. Terraces interfere with machinery which is so increasingly essential in the cultivation and harvesting of the present crops. But terracing interferes least of all with the tree crop agriculture, because the trees can stand in the terrace rows and make a fortunate combination of the heavy yielding tree crops and the soil preservation through terracing. We have an interesting example of tree crop productivity in Hawaii, where the agaroba was introduced from Peru in the last century. It has now spread until it covers considerable area with forests, and information from the Hawaiian Experiment Station is to the effect that it is now the mainstay of the dairy industry of the island. The annual crop of four tons of big beans to the acre can be and is ground into a highly nutritious meal food selling at $25 a ton, an agriculture which, for ease of operation and richness of return, puts Illinois to shame, for, in addition to the $100 worth of animal food, there is a ton of wood per acre every year. The tree crop agriculture seems to hold the possibility of letting the worst third of our soil (Class 1 as mentioned above) become as productive as the best land (Class 3), while (Class 2) the hill land can probably be doubled in productivity. This is a goal well worthy of much endeavor on the part of the plant breeder. Tree crops offer equal possibilities for the arid land. The grains with their period of crisis are an uncertain dependence on land of such uncertain rainfall as exists in the United States west of the 100th meridian. This is attested by the fact that some of this land has been settled three times and abandoned twice to the wreckage of hundreds of thousands of private fortunes. Yet the tree with its far-reaching roots and ability to store energy can survive in much of this area where grains are so very uncertain. The mesquite, yet a tree weed over much of this area, has one species which produces a nutritious seed that has been used for bread stuff by unknown generations of Indians. The screw bean, a legume, with a nutritious seed, grows from El Paso to the Imperial Valley; while the broad leafed honey locust, with a seed closely akin to that of the carob, or St. John's Bread, will also grow over wide areas in the arid southwest. Five varieties of the small but productive wild almond have been found by a Government botanist growing upon the shores of Pyramid Lake; while Frank Myer, Plant Explorer of the Department, brings back from Turkestan accounts of wild almonds producing good fruit on mountain slopes with a rainfall of 8 inches a year. These productive plants, several of them legumes, adjusted by nature to this region, with allied species in other continents, seem to hold before the plant breeder the possibilities of hundreds of thousands of square miles of Western orchard ranges of high productivity, rather than the present would-be grass-ranges of low and declining productivity. I believe that the development of a tree crop agriculture offers one of the greatest possibilities in constructive conservation of natural resources. Individuals cannot be depended upon to do it. The work is too slow. A man might by decades of work create species that would be, if fully utilized, worth a hundred million dollars a year to a state like Pennsylvania; yet he would be unable to realize personal gain from the results, provided he had secured them. Institutions must do it. It is like the Geological Survey and the Census Bureau and Agricultural Experiment Stations, which depend upon appropriations. The appropriations depend upon the realization of the importance of the work. There are interesting examples of similar work already in operation, of which the following might be mentioned: The Agricultural Experiment Station of Arizona has started a twenty-four-year series of experiments in breeding the date palm. In North Dakota, where the blizzards kill nearly all the ordinary fruits, an experimenter has done much work in the breeding of hardy strains of apple, cherry and other trees. * * * * * Then followed a display of lantern slides showing scenes from Spain, Portugal, Balaeric Islands, Sicily, Corsica, Italy, Algeria, Tunis, France and southern and central United States. This collection of pictures revealed a surprising amount of tree crop agriculture already worked out but needing wider application. * * * * * The meeting adjourned without discussion of either lecture at 10 P.M. THURSDAY MORNING SESSION The third session of the convention was called to order at 9:50 A.M. with the president, Dr. J. Russell Smith, in the chair. The opening attendance was twenty-eight persons. THE PRESIDENT: Owing to the fact that business needs to be predigested, we have decided to postpone the amendments to the constitution until this evening's session. We think it will take but a short time to discuss them. Resolutions, informal discussion on seedlings, the chestnut, and similar topics will also be brought up at that time. This morning's session, therefore, will be devoted to the intellectual, rather than the business end. I know of no subject in which there is greater possibility of securing knowledge than the question of nuts for the north. A few years ago a friend of mine wrote me he had bought some land, and was planting native walnuts in the fence corners to be topworked with English walnuts. I wrote him, recommending oranges instead, telling him he would lose less money. I was basing this advice upon my own bitter experience. The accumulations of nut knowledge in the last few years and the trees now growing on my own place show how ridiculous was my position of a short time ago. This morning I think we are likely to have somewhat similar surprises in a paper by Dr. Morris. He will give us information on the hazel nut, giving his experience with the European varieties. NOTES ON THE HAZELS DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, NEW YORK CITY The hazels are descended from an ancient and honorable family. Impressions of leaves found in the Upper Cretaceous rocks of the Yellowstone Valley cannot be distinguished from those of the leaves of our two American hazel species of today. The hazels belong to the _Cupuliferae_ or oak family. Our American species are only two in number, although there are many varieties of the species. The one which is most prized, _Corylus americana_, is found over a wide range of territory and abundantly in many places between Canada and the southern extremity of the Appalachians, and from the central Mississippi valley to the Atlantic coast. This species bears nuts of excellent quality for the most part, but of rather small size and thick shell, excepting in individual plants. The common American hazel, while valuable for hybridizing purposes, will probably never be cultivated to any great extent, because of its habit of growth. The characteristic life history in the Eastern States is as follows: A hazel plant bears a few nuts in its third year, a fairly large crop in its fourth year, a heavy crop in its fifth year, a very few nuts in its sixth year and it dies at the seventh or eighth year of age. Meanwhile, the plant has been sending out long stoloniferous roots which have surrounded the original plant with a chaplet of progeny, each one of which follows the life course of the parent. One hazel plant when left free to its own devices may increase in this way rapidly enough to drive cows out of a pasture lot. I have trimmed off stoloniferous roots experimentally from a number of hazel plants, for the purpose of throwing all of the strength into the original stocks, hoping, thereby, to prolong their lives. This, however, appears not to be effective, as the stocks died at their appointed time. Like many other wild plants, not yet subjected to processes of cultivation, the common American hazel does not respond very readily to cultivation, and too much attention on the part of the horticulturist leads it into confusion. Some years ago I expended about six weeks in making a study of fruiting hazels and examined many thousands of bushes in Rhode Island, Connecticut and eastern New York state, including Long Island. In the regions visited, the native hazels are so abundant as to be considered a pest. Out of all the bushes examined, I saved but three for purposes of propagation. The best one of these for size, quality and thinness of shell, I have named the Merribrooke, and young plants of this variety will be sent to any member of the Association who wishes to cultivate them. Bushes of this particular wild variety have had a reputation among the boys of the locality for more than a hundred years, according to legends of the neighborhood. I have recently budded specimens of this variety upon stocks of the Byzantine hazel, in the hope of prolonging the life of an individual plant beyond its normal seven or eight years. The other American hazel, variously known as the beaked hazel, tailed hazel or horned hazel, was named _Corylus cornuta_ by Marshall (Arbustrum Americanum 37, 1785). Consequently, that is the name by which it should be known instead of the name _Corylus rostrata_ which was bestowed subsequently. This hazel has a much more northern range than the common American hazel and I have seen it in Labrador and in Ontario nearly to Hudson's Bay. On the Pacific coast it is said to reach a height of thirty feet. Although spreading by stoloniferous roots like the common American hazel, these roots are shorter, and it does not extend rapidly enough to dominate the situation when growing in competition with the common hazel. The nuts, while very good, and sometimes of large size with comparatively thin shell, lack quality, a very important element in any nut. It is probable that this tailed hazel will be valuable for adding hardiness to hybrids with the European and Asiatic hazels, when the time comes for horticulturists of Canada to make fortunes from their hazel orchards. In Europe and Asia and in the northern parts of Africa several species of hazels are extremely important commercially, sometimes furnishing the chief source of income for large districts, very much as wheat or corn make special crops over large areas in this country. These foreign hazels have not been raised successfully in our country, excepting very recently on the northwest coast. The reason for failure depends almost wholly upon the presence of a blight, _Cryptosporella anomala_, which belongs to our native hazels. In the course of evolution, host and parasite have come to be peers of each other, and consequently this blight does not menace our native hazels very seriously. Introduced species, with the exception, perhaps, of the Byzantine hazel, appear to carry a protoplasm which has not learned to resist the attacks of the blight. All organic warfare is fundamentally enzymic in its nature, and it is possible that through process of natural selection some of the foreign hazels would eventually become securely established in this country, without aid from the nurseryman. As a matter of fact, the hazel blight is very easily managed. Not knowing this at first, I allowed almost all of my exotic hazels to become destroyed, and a number of nurserymen told me of having given up the problem as hopeless. Recently I have learned of the ease with which the disease may be controlled, and now feel very comfortable in its presence. The blight is of slow development and chooses the larger hazel stems for its battleground. All that one notices at first is a depression of the bark extending in the long axis of a large branch. If one observes more closely, he will find spore-bearing pustules occurring as little round elevations upon the depressed part of the bark. The blight proceeds slowly, and I pass about for examination specimens from two hazel limbs. In the smaller one the blight has been two years under way, and in the larger one three years. These patches of blight were allowed to grow experimentally. Meanwhile, I trimmed out all other blight areas of the bark with my jack-knife. This is very readily done. If one will look over his hazel bushes once a year and simply whip out the few slices of bark carrying the blight, it is done so easily and quickly that we now need to have no fear whatsoever for the future of hazel culture in this country. If the members of the Association will examine these Cryptosporella specimens which are passed about, and if they will dispose of the blight according to directions, I feel that the hazel question involving a matter perhaps of millions of dollars worth of investment has been settled. Among the foreign hazels which will thrive in this country the Byzantine hazel, _Corylus colurna_ is by all means the most beautiful. It makes a tree as large as the ordinary oaks, and in Hungary I have seen a trunk three feet in diameter at a short distance above the ground. I have been told that a single tree of this species will sometimes bear about twenty bushels of nuts at a single crop. This presumably refers to the nuts in their large involucral mass,--say four or five bushels of husked nuts. The wood of these species is hard, takes a high polish and is valuable. The tree itself is strikingly beautiful as the members will observe this afternoon when examining the Byzantine hazels which Superintendent Laney will show us in one of the Rochester parks. This species of hazel in some of the localities about the Black Sea is said to form almost the entire source of income over large districts. The nuts are not large, as a rule averaging about like those of our common American hazel in size, quality and thinness of shell. Grafted or budded stocks may be made to bear large thin-shelled nuts. I am using this hazel at present for grafting stock for choice foreign species and varieties of other kinds, and for the American hazel, although it may be that the American hazel will not respond well to so large and vigorous a stock in the long run. Nuts and nursery stock may be obtained through French nursery firms. The reason why the Byzantine hazel has not been planted widely in America as yet, is because we have not advanced that far in civilization,--people have not happened to think about it. We must leave something for the people who are to come five thousand years after us, and not think of all good things at once. The Byzantine hazel appears to be quite free from the blight and this, perhaps, is due to its thick corky bark, which is in itself an attractive feature. In some individuals the corky bark stands out in ridges almost like that of the corky elm. The beauty of the European and Asiatic hazels, in general, makes them extremely desirable for ornamental purposes in parks and in dooryards. One of the most attractive is the purple variety of _Corylus avellana_. In many parts of Europe this is held to be desirable for its nuts, but in Connecticut it is prone to flower so early in the season that the elongated male catkins are caught by frost. I have seen elongated catkins in a warm week at the end of February. A very desirable variety of _Corylus avellana_ is one of which I now show specimens. The section of the branch which I pass about carried four large nuts yesterday but I find that one of them has disappeared, and it is probable that last night in the sleeping car a squirrel got in when the porter was looking the other way. The specimen represents a seedling individual among a lot presented to me by Prince Colloredo Mannsfeld of Bohemia nine years ago. This particular shrub is rather homely, with small unattractive leaves and big bony branches, but it bears heavily of large thin shelled hazels of the highest quality, and the sort which are now bringing fifty cents per pound in the New York market as green hazels. It blossoms very late in the spring. I have not as yet given a name to this individual bush, but as Professor J. Russell Smith caught my description of it and speaks of it as "the bony-bush" we will allow his nomenclature to stand if members of the Association wish to call for any of the wood for grafting or budding purposes. _Corylus avellana_ in its many varieties is the chief European hazel which gives us the cobnuts and filberts of the market, and it is the one which will probably be most widely introduced into this country. The name "filbert" is a corruption of "full beard" and is properly applied only to those nuts in which the husk extends beyond the nut. The shrubs of this species commonly reach a height of about fifteen to eighteen feet, with a spread of the same dimensions. Trimming by the horticulturist allows of the development of a larger bearing surface, very much as it does with peach or apple trees. In some parts of Europe this species serves for hedge fences, indicating the practical ideas belonging to an older civilization. In this country we make hedge fences of worthless osage orange, privet, or honey locust which steal nourishment from the soil, add little to the beauty of the landscape, and give us no return whatsoever. Such a typical American way of doing things will be changed when we stop to think. Stopping to think is rather a painful process and gives us many jolts, but it has its rewards. When we replace our worthless hedge plants with hazels which yield heavy annual crops of valuable nuts we shall have made one step forward. A fine hazel is the _Corylus pontica_. The shrub in itself has beauty, and it bears nuts sometimes as large as those of the average shagbark hickory. The kernel is of good quality, but the shell is so thick that these nuts are chiefly attractive to squirrels and to men who are out of work. I do not know the origin of the nut which is known in the market as the Barcelona hazel, but I imagine the plants bearing this nut are derived from the _Corylus pontica_. (Specimens of branches and nuts of various species and varieties of hazels are now passed about in the audience.) The nuts are beginning to ripen in this first week in September. Hazels do not come true to parent variety from seed, and consequently valuable stock is propagated by budding, by grafting or by layering. Personally, I find that the hazel is rather easily budded, although layering is the method for propagation of choice varieties most often employed in Europe. The hazels have comparatively few insect enemies, but mine are sometimes attacked destructively by the elm beetle and by the larvae of two species of saw flies which are also found upon the elms. It is a rather curious fact that the insects should recognize a similarity between the leaves of the hazels and of the elms, which are somewhat alike in general appearance, although the trees are of widely different descent. It brings up an interesting question, if the flying parents of the parasites from the elm are attracted by the appearance of the hazel leaves, or if they are attracted by the odor or other characteristics. Occasionally the exotic hazels are attacked by various leaf blights but not to any troublesome extent so far as my experience goes, up to the present time. The chief predatory elements which we shall have to meet when raising hazels are squirrels, white-footed mice and the neighbors' children. W. C. REED: May I ask, Doctor, what you bud the Byzantine on? DR. MORRIS: I am budding other things on those for stocks. I bud our American hazels and European hazels on the European and Asiatic trees. MR. RUSH: Do you know anything of the quality of that nut? DR. MORRIS: It is the chief hazel in parts of northern Turkey, and of excellent quality. Hazels form a source of income for some localities like the wheat or corn in other parts of the world, or the olive, as Dr. Smith told us last night. MR. HOLDEN: Do they get these trees from seedlings? DR. MORRIS: Yes, so far as I know. The nuts are called Constantinople nuts. A MEMBER: What kind is it that blooms in the fall? DR. MORRIS: I don't know any but the witch hazel which blooms in the fall; has a small yellow flower, but is not a true hazel. Catkins form upon all hazels in the fall, but these do not really blossom until springtime. A MEMBER: I would like to ask if the Byzantine hazel is attacked by blight as are the others? DR. MORRIS: No; none of my trees have been attacked by blight at all as yet. W. C. REED: What method of budding do you find most successful? DR. MORRIS: I have usually used the ring budding. It is not very difficult. PROFESSOR HEDRICK: Are there any East Asia hazels that thrive in this country? DR. MORRIS: There are specimens in the park here at Rochester that you will see this afternoon. PROFESSOR HEDRICK: Our experience with Asiatic hazels is very satisfactory. MR. MCGLENNON: A friend of mine here has some specimens that he would like to present. DR. SMITH: We will ask Mr. Vollertsen to describe the specimens himself. MR. VOLLERTSEN: They are from a private place of G. H. Perkins on East Avenue. They have never failed a year since 1886. Unfortunately we have no name for them, except that this one was always called John Jones. It has certainly proved a good strong hardy variety. Then we have another one, a long one, which has never been named, and I am not able to say exactly what it is. Last year they were exceptionally well filled. This year there are not quite so many on them, although a goodly number. They have never failed a single year. I have one little variety which was given me by Dr. Mann, on Alexander Street. The limbs are practically hanging down with the nuts. They are ready for market now, falling out. I have here some purple hazels which have always borne fruit and no other hazel in the vicinity is as good. It has sometimes two crops in a year. These are really beautiful specimens. This little early variety should be passed round and have special attention. I have given this variety no name, but for over thirty-five years it has borne good fruit every year. DR. MORRIS: If you are in doubt as to the name of a variety, I think Mr. Laney will find a way for getting you the name for almost every variety that is found in the markets. THE PRESIDENT: Mr. McGlennon asks that the gentleman advise us how he has propagated them. We went through Mr. McGlennon's beautiful orchard yesterday. MR. VOLLERTSEN: We have been using an ordinary way of budding. An ordinary seedling can be used to good advantage for grafting. I have found in grafting in winter they do not seem to grow as well. In our fall layering we naturally get a larger plant. THE PRESIDENT: Do we understand that these hazels that have borne for twenty-five years are European hazels? MR. VOLLERTSEN: Yes; European hazels. I have had them under my care since 1886, and never noticed any blight. A MEMBER: Can't you explain to us, with one of your specimens, your method of spring layering? MR. VOLLERTSEN: In layering them, we practically don't cover them at all for the time being. They are merely pinned down. DR. MORRIS: Do you cut the bark? MR. VOLLERTSEN: Not on them. After they have grown some we cover them up. We find this a very successful way. We get younger and smaller plants in the fall lay. THE PRESIDENT: I should like to ask Dr. Morris a question. In this native hazel, does it keep on spreading under ground? DR. MORRIS: One single plant, planted in a pasture lot and not interfered with will in a few years occupy practically that whole pasture lot. In my part of the country this is true; how is it with you, Dr. Deming? A MEMBER: Going back to the blight, will this tackle any size limb? DR. MORRIS: It usually does not come until your hopes are at top notch, and then it drops in on you. It does not attack the smaller twigs at first, but may finally extend to them. A MEMBER: Are any of your hybrids a success? DR. MORRIS: There are none in bearing as yet. Byzantines are little, if any, larger than American hazel nuts, excepting from selected trees. Pontines are much larger. Both plants make a remarkably vigorous growth. THE PRESIDENT: Do I understand that this Merribrooke hazel, put in the middle of an acre will fill the acre? DR. MORRIS: I believe this is true. I don't think it is an exaggeration. The wild hazel is a nuisance in Connecticut. THE SECRETARY: I know they will cover a very large space, but I cannot tell how they get there. THE PRESIDENT: The point I am trying to get after is this, not the exact extent of spread but the method of propagation. Can we get a sprout from a good tree, and then have it go on sprouting indefinitely? DR. MORRIS: Yes, that is true. A MEMBER: In your experience are fungicides useful in handling the blight? DR. MORRIS: I have not used them. I have talked with nurserymen who did, and they say the blight got the best of them just the same. They left the matter with employees, who did not give proper attention. This was perhaps because they did not know that a small jack-knife was better than a spraying outfit for the purpose. A MEMBER: Once on, will it stay? DR. MORRIS: Yes, until the blight area has circled the limb. A MEMBER: What is the difference between the cobs and the filberts? DR. MORRIS: The cob nut is generally a round nut. The filberts are longer nuts. "Filbert" is a corruption of "full beard," and refers to the involucre extending beyond the nut. DR. SMITH: We may now proceed to the next number on the program, if the hunger for hazel knowledge abates. Members of this association have topworked pecans, hickories, etc. I followed the instructions of members of this association in my work and have had some success. Some workers report splendid success mixed with very great failures, so we may be encouraged to the very top notch, and the next spring we come back feeling very different. Last fall I was as large almost as a beer barrel with the gratification that followed the setting of 100 English walnut buds. I have adopted the motto "Blessed is he that rejoices early, or he may not rejoice at all." In March there were about ten or twelve alive. In June about nine were alive, and now these also have failed to grow. Last year I knew just how to bud walnuts. This last Fourth of July I was very humble. For some reason or other we have not all the facts. We can propagate splendidly one year, and the next year we have a fall-down. Mr. Roper, of one of the pioneer nurseries, said he had 2,000 fine live walnut buds last fall, and had but 500 this spring, and not one of them grew. While the technique seems to be simple, there seems to be something lacking in our experience. I will ask Mr. Littlepage to give us his confessions first. MR. LITTLEPAGE: The proposition of topworking is one of the schemes where art beats nature. In the fight in Congress over the oleomargarine bill some years ago, one member who favored it, said in support of his contention, that nature always beat art; and one of his opponents immediately referred him to a picture gallery near, where pictures of the statesmen were exhibited, as a proof that art sometimes beats nature. In top working, art improves upon nature. The first thing to be considered is what is topworking, and then the logical question, why topworking. Possibly this should come first. If an individual is dissatisfied with his friends and neighbors, he must put up with them; he cannot change them. But if he is dissatisfied with a nut tree, it is his own fault if he does not change it. It can be top worked. He does not care to top work maples or oaks. We only top work to get something better than we have. The trees, of course, that interest us specially in top working are the nut trees. We have seedling pecans, seedling walnuts, seedling hickories, and seedling chestnuts. Down at the mouth of Green River in Kentucky are nearly two hundred acres of wild pecan trees. So far as we know there are only two trees in that orchard worthy of propagation. Of thousands of trees there we have propagated only two varieties. These trees are now too large to top work, but had it been possible 150 years ago to go in there and select the desirable nuts, and topwork all the other trees with these, there could have been a great orchard there now of the highest quality nuts. Topworking consists in cutting off the top of some undesirable seedling and replacing it with scions or buds from some desirable variety. It is just the same as any other grafting or budding process. Almost any size tree can be topworked but, of course, the larger the tree the more difficult the operation. A young tree, from two to five inches in diameter, can be sawed off four or five feet above the ground and topworked by grafting from two to four scions on it, by the slip bark process. If the tree is larger than five inches in diameter, it is better to go up to the first branches, saw off part of them and proceed just as if each branch were itself a small tree. If the tree is a large tree, with a number of branches or prongs, it is best to work part of them one year and leave the remaining branches to maintain the root system. It would probably kill a large tree to cut the whole top off at one time. I have seen trees, two feet in diameter, successfully topworked. It sometimes happens that the scions placed in the tree, in the spring, for some reason or other, do not grow. The tree then sends up nice green shoots that later in the season can be budded into just as if they were small seedlings. The wild black walnut trees, growing around the fields and hills, can all be very easily topworked to the English walnut by the slip bark method. The scions must be dormant and the tree starting into active growth. The wild hickory, wild pecan and wild black walnut trees, offer the best field for profitable work along this line. We have topworked a great many hickories to pecan, but we do not expect permanent satisfactory results. The experience of the pecan on the hickory is not very satisfactory. The hickory is a dense, hard wood, that has a short growing season, and matures its nuts early; the pecan is of the coarser, faster growing wood, whose nuts grow until late in the fall. This inconsistency of the growing habits of the two trees prevents the pecan top on the hickory from producing normal crops of nuts. The pecan topworked to the pecan, however, is a perfect success and there is no reason why the wild hickories of all descriptions cannot be successfully and profitably topworked to the better varieties of the good shagbark hickories. I believe that there are great opportunities in the state of New York for successful nut culture by utilizing the wild black walnut trees and the hickories. I have seen hundreds of English walnut trees growing around Rochester, some of them bearing perfectly wonderful crops of walnuts. I am surprised that the people in this section have not availed themselves more of the opportunities along this line. If the farmers in this section would take up nut growing as a side proposition and set five or ten acres of nut trees on each farm, they would soon find that these nut trees would be producing them more than all the balance of their farms. We hear a great deal today about the back to the farm movement, but my opinion is that for everyone who is going to the farm, ten are leaving it, and the reason for this is that the heavy operating expense of the annual crops, such as corn, wheat and potatoes, etc., lay such a heavy toll on the farmer that farming is not profitable. The requirements of time, labor and money in producing these crops are so great that it discourages many farmers. I have made the statement to some of the farmers in my part of the country that they must produce alfalfa or go broke. I believe that alfalfa and tree crops will be two of the greatest factors in the rehabilitation of the farm, especially the nut trees, for the reason that nut trees do not require the same high degree of care, spraying, pruning, as do apple and peach trees, nor are the products as perishable. A crop of nuts can be harvested and stacked up in barrels, and boxes, in the smoke house, the barn or in a flat car and go to the market tomorrow, next week or next month. Recurring to the advantage of topworking, however, it meets the objection that is often raised by those who say they have not time to wait for the nut trees to grow. Of course, this is a perfectly foolish statement; they are going to wait anyhow; it is simply a question as to whether they wait for something or nothing, and trees grow into maturity in a surprisingly short time. A few years ago, when I was setting out an orchard of nut trees, a neighbor of mine came over and looked very doubtfully with a trace of pity in his expression and said, "When do you expect all those trees that you are setting to bear?" I replied, "I am not sure, but I do know that they will bear a long time before those trees that you are not setting." Topworking, however, gives quick results and enables one to take advantage of the long-established thrifty root systems of the wild black walnuts, hickories and pecans growing in economic spots, around the fences, corners, creeks and hillsides. * * * * * MR. JONES: In all our grafting we cut the cleft; we don't split it. The slip bark method is better in some cases. MR. PRESIDENT: What is the size limit for the slip bark method? MR. JONES: Anything less than two inches we would cut. THE PRESIDENT: Will Mr. Jones tell us about budding with cold storage wood? MR. JONES: The cold storage buds would take better, but you would have more loss in their failing to grow. In other words, a much larger percentage of buds set with the current season's growth, will grow in the following spring. I would not recommend either method alone. By grafting in the spring and then budding, first with cold storage and later with the season buds, you would have three chances. THE PRESIDENT: Have you budded any cold storage wood before this year? MR. JONES: We have done more or less of it for six or eight years, and it has been successful. Anyone with very little experience can use cold storage buds. THE PRESIDENT: Mr. W. C. Reed, have you any additions that we ought to know? MR. W. C. REED: Mr. Jones' method and views in regard to cold storage buds agree with mine exactly. Last year I put in on July 30th quite a number of English walnut buds that were held in cold storage. In the fall we seemed to have almost perfect stands from these buds, but they are still lying dormant. Buds of the season's growth put in about three or four weeks later gave better results, although our success last year was very poor. We seemed to have a fair stand on quite a number of varieties, but this spring they refused to grow. I lay much of this trouble to the extreme cold we had in November. This killed many peach trees that were from six to eight years old, and I think it injured many of the walnut buds. I found the buds that started best were those nearest the ground, where they were protected by a little grass. In regard to the topworking of the English walnut, several of you have seen my trees, the three trees along the highway in a ditch where they catch the wash where they have made 91/2 feet growth. I am sorry to report that two of these trees are entirely gone, killed by the cold spell, and the other is about half alive, but I was not in the least discouraged by that loss. In September the rains commenced, following the extreme drouth and started a second growth, and the freeze caught them November 22d as full of sap then as they were in September, when you were there. Other trees that I had topworked had made a moderate growth, and were not injured in the least. They made a good growth this season, and should be quite fruitful next year. The Pomeroy trees in the bluegrass pasture had made only a moderate growth, and went through the winter in good shape. I had three trees of the Rush, probably twenty-five feet high. They were injured a little, some of the growth killing back a third of the way, and one or two buds were killed entirely. In regard to topworking pecans, I have not done much of this, but our success has been very good with what we have tried. I find them much easier to work, as far as the bud starting in the spring is concerned. Some varieties, however, do not start readily. With the Major, Green River, and one or two other varieties, we can use wood five, six and eight years old, and have it come out all right. I find, however, that the current season's growth, cut from two-year-old trees, well developed, will give you at least double the growth in the nursery the first year that older or dormant wood will. THE PRESIDENT: Some apple experience of mine is a close match to the killing that Mr. Reed just reported. The season of 1912 was a very dry one. All September it rained frequently and heavily. The trees waked up and grew with such speed that many of them made a sappy growth where they had been manured, and a very cold spell early in the winter killed 100 of them. Others across the road were uninjured. MR. W. C. REED: In regard to grafting in the nursery, this spring my experience has been somewhat varied. In grafting we started about April 10th; the first grafting was almost an utter failure. On May 1st it improved. On May 9th we set 900 and have 75 per cent growing today, some higher than my head. Set with wood some of which would run three-fourths inches in diameter. LADY DELEGATE: My sister has on her place 200 or 300 black walnut seedlings. What would you advise her to do with these? They are in all ages and stages of growth, from one to ten years. MR. LITTLEPAGE: That is a very broad question to answer. I should topwork them to the Persian walnut. I should topwork all of them on the chance that future developments would leave them the proper distance apart. The walnut transplants very easily, except that the larger the tree, the more danger of loss. Trees of that size ought to be worked very nicely. Assume that this is your tree, and that you have sawed off the top. Here is your scion from your desirable tree. It is to be cut on one side only, and there is considerable art in making that cut true. Then with the knife split down the bark on the stock a little way and shove the scion down between the wood and bark, the cut side next to the wood of the stock (demonstrating), and cover with waxed cloth. Then apply grafting wax to the cut surface, and cover all with a paper bag for two or three weeks. There should not be more than two buds on a scion. Don't leave too many. One bud is better than three, but you may leave two buds. This scion must be kept entirely dormant until used. Any time after the bark will slip readily is the proper time to graft, and you will then get a high percentage of success. Keep your sap circulating to the top by putting two or three scions around the top of the stock. This method of grafting is a very simple operation when you know a few little fundamental facts about it. The kind of wax or cloth is not particularly important. Mr. Reed and Mr. Jones and Mr. Rush have had much experience in this work. MR. PARISH: In doing this, shall we put in a little air hole? MR. LITTLEPAGE: No. In from ten days to two weeks tear a little hole in the paper bag. Next time be careful, for it may be full of wasps. The purpose of that paper sack is to keep the water off the buds. This is essential. MR. PHILLIPS: I had about 300 trees planted in 1911, black walnuts. In 1913 I budded them according to the Oregon method. I failed to make any of these grow. In 1913 I cleft grafted and a great many of these started, but they all failed to live. I wonder wherein I failed. MR. LITTLEPAGE: No one can tell why a particular scion does not live. I had scions from a very fine hickory and I put them in cold storage. The wood was in perfect condition. I grafted perhaps 100 of these scions as I have described. I have four trees growing out of the 100 grafted. In handling the wood I got fungus on it probably. That may be one reason why it failed. There may be other reasons. If the scions were not dormant that might explain it. MR. W. C. REED: I think it is very important that walnut grafting wood should be cut before severe weather in the winter, though I don't think it ever grows cold enough to hurt pecan wood. You need not worry about pecan wood, but in the case of the walnut it should be cut before extreme cold weather and put in cold storage. I cut some last year after the extreme cold snap in December and we threw it practically all away this spring. It is useless. You are throwing away your time to use it. MR. JONES: I don't think we had any wood that was not injured during the cold winter of 1911-12. Out of about 2,600 grafts set we had two grow. QUESTION: What do you mean by cold storage? MR. W. C. REED: I have been storing all of our wood in ordinary apple cold storage plants. Pack it in damp moss or excelsior. Paper line your boxes well, and nail them up, and leave them there until you are ready to use them. I have put wood in in November and taken it out in good shape in August. Pecan wood can be held the year round. THE PRESIDENT: What can you tell us, Mr. White, that has not yet been covered? MR. PAUL WHITE: About all I would care to say about topworking would be to ask a question. They claim that the pecan topworked on the hickory, only bears for a few years, and then stops. What would be the result in the case of the English and black walnuts? Might there not be some danger there? THE PRESIDENT: I have made considerable investigation of this. I have found several English walnuts topworked on black walnuts, one done eighty years ago down in Maryland. The tree is reported to have borne twenty-five bushels of nuts. I think there is good explanation for the pecan-hickory trouble. A hickory grows for a short time in early summer and does not grow much, but a pecan grows twice as much. Therefore the hickory roots cannot feed the pecan top enough to make both vegetation and fruit. We are, in this city, in a very unusual place. Not only is it the center of a great wealth of seedling Persian walnut trees, but we have in the parks a great tree collection under Superintendent Laney. This is a very fine and notable collection, including American and foreign trees, some of which we will see this afternoon. Adjournment at 12:12 P.M. Photographs of the convention were then taken on the steps of the City Hall. THURSDAY EVENING SESSION. Convened at 8:20 P.M., Dr. Smith presiding. Attendance about twenty. A Nominating Committee was appointed, consisting of Messrs. Littlepage, C. A. Reed, J. F. Jones, Webber, and Teter. At this point was given the address by C. A. Reed. AN APPEAL TO OWNERS OF HARDY NUT TREES C. A. REED, NUT CULTURIST, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Ever since the colonists first established themselves in the Western Hemisphere, nut trees have been planted up and down the Atlantic Coast. One of the species oftenest included in such planting was a walnut, a native to Persia which, with Romanism, had spread across Europe and the channel into England. In the Old World it had variously been known as Jove's nut, under the supposition that it had once been the food of the gods; Royal nut, meaning King nut; and by other common names which would be interesting to discuss but which are not pertinent in this connection. In England it had been known merely as the "walnut," but in the New World, in order to distinguish it from the walnut found here, it was called the "English" walnut. In the trade today it is commonly known by the Old World name, other walnuts being distinguished from it by prefixing their common names, as Eastern, California, Mexican or Japanese black walnut, etc. However, being a native of Persia, it was long ago decided that the correct name of this nut should be "Persian" walnut, and not "English" walnut. As such it has now been referred to in scientific publications for well towards a quarter of a century. Subsequent to this rather limited and scattered planting on the Atlantic Coast, by perhaps three hundred years, the Persian walnut put in its appearance on the Pacific Coast. According to Bulletin No. 231 by the University of California, it is probable that occasional trees were planted in that state long before the discovery of gold in 1848. Following that date, planting became much more general, but usually with hardshell strains and always with seedling trees. From these early trees the crops were never of great importance. In 1867 Mr. Joseph Sexton of Santa Barbara, planted a sack of walnuts bought in the markets of San Francisco, which he had reason to believe had been grown in Chili. Of the resulting trees some were very good, others mediocre, and some worthless. Later on, nuts from the best of these trees were planted, and second generation seedlings produced. In this way the famous Santa Barbara Papershell type of walnut was evolved. With it developed an industry which among the tree products of southern California is now second only to that of the orange. In 1910, the census takers found that in the year preceding, the crop of walnuts of southern California, which, by the way, came almost entirely from four counties, was valued at more than that of the total crop of all other nuts grown in the United States put together. Four years after Mr. Sexton of southern California had planted this sack of walnuts from San Francisco, Mr. Felix Gillet of Nevada City, in northern California, began the introduction of French walnuts both by seed and scions. Out of his efforts and those of others who subsequently joined him, developed the walnut industry of northern California, which now bids fair some day to equal that of the lower part of the state. The famous French varieties of Franquette and Mayette were introduced by Mr. Gillet, and from seedlings of his growing evolved the Concord, the San Jose, and no doubt the Chase varieties.[1] A nut which probably has received equally as much, if not more, attention at the hands of experimental planters in this part of the country is the chestnut. Just when the introduction of foreign strains began, history seems to have failed to make clear; but according to Powell[2] general dissemination in the Delaware section began with introductions by Eleuthers Irénée du Pont de Nemours, made at about 1803. It is said that some of the original trees planted at that time near the present site of the du Pont Powder mills by Mr. du Pont, still survived when Mr. Powell recorded their history in 1898. The spread of both European and Japanese chestnuts and their general trial throughout the Eastern States has been narrated at former meetings of this association. The chestnut blight, discovered on Long Island in 1904, after it had apparently gained several years' headway, and which now seems fairly certain to have been introduced from Japan, has so monopolized the attention of orchardists, foresters, landscape gardeners and others interested in the chestnut that for the time being little is being done with it, other than to study and discuss this disease. What the final outcome will be no one can predict, but it is not improbable that our pathologists will discover some practical means of control, or that a natural enemy to the blight will appear. Nor is it unlikely that immune strains of chestnuts, either native or foreign, will replace our present groves and orchards, in case other efforts fail. Another nut which has received a large degree of attention at the hands of the planters and upon which hopes have been built from time to time is the hazel, or filbert. Here again, history seems to have failed us, for as yet the writer has been able to learn but little regarding the early introductions into this country. In his _Nut Culturist_, published in 1896, Mr. Fuller (A. S.) reasoned that at that time plants of the European hazels must have been grown in the gardens of this country for at least a hundred years. Writers on pomology make little reference to this nut, but according to Mr. Fuller, nurserymen's catalogs listed hazel varieties all through the early part of the last century. It was believed that the hazel promised much for the gardener and the general planter who wished for early returns. The species seemed capable of readily adapting itself to cultivation, and being a shrub rather than a tree, it required little space. It could be cultivated along with other garden products at little additional expense for labor. Being an early bearer it doubtless appealed strongly to the normal American demand for quick returns. Nevertheless, this nut met with its mortal foe in the way of a native fungus which in a great many sections has proved entirely too much for the European species. Where once this species was well represented up and down the Atlantic Coast, few of its representatives are now to be found. Some early attention in these Eastern States has been paid to the almond, another foreign species. It is supposed that this nut is a native of the Mediterranean basin. Just when it was first tried on the Atlantic Coast is not known, but of the nuts thus far mentioned it has proved to be the least promising for the Eastern section. Sometimes said to be "as hardy as the peach," it has been found to be the most exacting in its requirements of soil and climate of any important nut now grown in this country. Except with certain of the hardshell varieties, no almonds are now known to be in any sense successful east of the Rocky Mountains. According to Wickson (E. J.) in his _California Fruits_, the almond is known to have been introduced into California previous to 1853. At that time efforts to build up an almond industry on the Pacific Coast began to assume a somewhat serious air. After a half century of trials and more or less persistent effort by the California planters the culture of this nut has developed into the third most important nut industry in the United States. As for the time being, the growing of Persian walnuts centered in southern California, so did the growing of almonds in the Sacramento Valley of northern California. During the whole of this period of early American nut growing history, little attention in any part of the country was paid to the native nuts. However, in the southeastern part of the United States there existed a large portion of the country to which no choice species of nut trees were either indigenous or had been introduced. Necessity, curious interest, and, more probably intelligent purpose, prompted sea captains, plying from West to East Gulf Coast ports, Easterners returning home from visits in the West, Westerners visiting in the East, and no doubt nomadic bands of Indians, to carry pecans from the Mississippi River and beyond, to the coast of Mississippi, to Alabama and the South Atlantic States, where they were planted as seed. For fully a century the species gradually spread over the plains sections of the eastern Gulf and South Atlantic States. In 1846, according to Taylor (William A.) in the Yearbook (Department of Agriculture) of 1904, a Louisiana slave succeeded in grafting a number of pecan trees. So far as can now be learned, really intelligent interest in pecan culture began with that date, although history records no further successful propagation of the species until about 1882 when William Nelson began to propagate this variety in his nursery near New Orleans. Soon afterwards, C. E. Pabst of Ocean Springs, Miss., and E. E. Risien of San Saba, Texas, joined in the pioneer work. The late Col. W. R. Stuart of Ocean Springs soon took part by giving publicity to the early varieties. Gradually, but steadily, choice varieties developed, were propagated and were disseminated. Orchard planting followed, but did not assume great importance until since about 1905. The orchards, therefore, were still too young at the time the last census was taken to have been in bearing to any extent. However, the crop of pecans from the native forests and from single trees left standing in the open space where the forests had been cleared is shown by the census reports to have been the second most valuable of American nut crops in 1909. In quantity, the production of cultivated pecans is still slight in comparison with that of the wild product or with cultivated walnuts and almonds of the Pacific Coast. Just now, however, a great many of the orchards, planted this century, are beginning to bear and not improbably the production of cultivated pecans will soon eclipse that of the forest product, and before long will overhaul the lead now held by the Persian walnut. Thus, briefly, has been the separate history of the principal nuts of this country. Collectively, the history of American nut culture has been as follows: Nuts from foreign countries which have been under cultivation for centuries have been more inviting than have the native and undeveloped species, and so have received the major portion of attention in America. Then too, human nature has shown itself in the greater interest taken by nut planters in foreign nuts instead of those near at hand. It is in sections remote from their place of origin that many of the leading nuts have attained their greatest degree of perfection. Thus, the average pecan of the Atlantic Coast is distinctly superior to that of the western Gulf; the Persian walnut scarcely known in Persia is best known in France and in southern California. Progress has been slow and not concerted. Seedling trees have been planted under the firm conviction that they would come true, or because methods of propagation other than by seedage were not understood. The Persian walnut orchards of California from which today the bulk of the production is being realized, are of seedling trees. However, the Californians have learned their lesson and today are replacing their orchards with budded stock as rapidly as possible. They have found that while the Persian walnut, which for centuries has been grown from seed, will reproduce itself fairly true to type, it does not repeat true to variety. Every tree, no matter how carefully its parentage may have been guarded, is unlike any other. The seedlings differ in traits of vigor, hardiness, susceptibility to disease, time of beginning to bear, productiveness, and longevity, and the nuts vary in size, form, thickness of shell, ease of cracking, and in kernel characteristics. The people of California have also found that in many ways, Persian walnut trees on their own roots are less desirable than are those budded or grafted on the roots of some black walnut. The earliest pecan planters likewise set seedling trees, partly because no others were available, but more largely because of a supposition that such seedlings would come true. Later on, planters chose grafted trees of large varieties, irrespective of others' merits or demerits. Today, the orchards of both seedling trees and illy-selected varieties are being topworked at great expense of time, labor, and money. In the northern and eastern part of the United States, the situation until very recently has been one of practical standstill. Efforts with foreign nuts have resulted in our being but little ahead of the starting point of a couple of centuries ago. The great majority of the Persian walnut, chestnut, and hazel trees which have been tried have failed us; some have even brought fatal or near-fatal diseases to us. At first thought, we would feel compelled to abandon all further efforts with the foreign nuts; but not all that have been tried are guilty of offence or failure. Here and there, from New England to Michigan and from Maryland to Missouri, we are finding occasional nut trees either in groups or standing singly, which because of their age, vigor, productiveness, and quantity and quality of nuts, appear to be fit foundation stock for the varieties so much needed in this part of the country. A number of such are being propagated by the nurserymen and, as the members here present know, are being disseminated. The present great need is for knowledge regarding the location of other such trees, not only of the foreign species, but of the natives as well. The Northern Nut Growers' Association and the Federal Department of Agriculture at Washington together are seeking to find Persian, Japanese, or black walnut, Asiatic, European or American chestnut, European or American hazel, and native butternut, hickory, pecan, chinquapin and beech trees of more than ordinary merit. Upon the locating of, and the propagation from such trees, as new varieties, apparently depends the future of nut growing east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers. The appeal therefore is made to the owners of hardy nut trees that they drop a postal to the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., stating that they desire a mailing box and frank for sending in a few specimens of the nuts which they believe to be of more than average merit. The only expense necessary to incur will be in the price of the card, and in the trouble of collecting and packing the nuts. Before mailing, the package should be plainly marked with the name and address of the sender, and a note should be inclosed giving information regarding the location, ownership, bearing habits, etc., of the tree from which the nuts were obtained. If more convenient, the nuts may be sent to this association, which in any case will be apprised by the Department of all new varieties of apparent merit which may be brought to light. However, no one should anticipate a great fortune as the result of any nut tree of which he may find himself the owner. It is not possible for a variety to be of especial value, no matter how promising the parent tree may appear to be, until it has established proof of its adaptability and merit in other sections remote from that of its origin. Except in rare cases it has been only after a variety of any kind of fruit has become well known by many who have tested it and spoken for it that it has become popular or in great demand. Therefore, all there will be "in it" for you, if you chance to be the owner of a nut tree of merit will be the thanks of this Association and posterity and the probability of having the variety named in your honor. * * * * * MR. LITTLEPAGE: I should like to drop a word about the _American Nut Journal_ published here at Rochester, N. Y. I would like to ask all the members of the Association to make as much effort as they possibly can to get new subscribers to the _Journal_. I don't own any stock in it, but I am talking purely in the interests of nut culture. Without a magazine nine tenths of our work would be entirely useless because it would be lost to the public. One of the duties of the members should be the support of the organ which puts forth the information for which this organization stands. THE PRESIDENT: Methods of propagating pecans, hickories and walnuts have been discovered and used, at times, for a century. I know of a man who grafted them twenty years ago in New Jersey, but he left no records of his methods. The _Journal_ helps us to keep these records. This association has a great variety of contributors. We have with us men who work on the exceedingly practical end of propagation. W. C. Reed is a combination of the student and the propagator. HISTORY, DIMENSIONS AND CROP RECORDS OF PARENT NORTHERN PECAN TREES, AND NOTES ON THE OBSERVATION OF PROPAGATED TREES W. C. REED, VINCENNES, INDIANA _Varieties_ In considering varieties of the northern pecan, there are many points to be estimated, such as size, thinness of shell, cracking quality, quality of kernel, growth of trees in nursery and bearing records. The latter is perhaps most important. What we want are trees that will give us a fair crop annually; next would be the cracking qualities. If they crack easily and come out of the shell with a large percentage of whole meats the size does not make so much difference, for ultimately the value of a variety will be gauged largely by the number of pounds of whole meats a bushel, or a given number of pounds, will produce. I would therefore place prolific bearing and cracking qualities as the two most important points to be considered in selecting a variety worthy of planting. _Crop Records_ In considering crop records of the different northern varieties; we have no grafted or budded trees old enough as yet from which to make comparisons, and in considering the crops of the original trees it is well to keep in mind that many of these trees are located in the native forest without cultivation, without proper sunlight and with a poor chance for the full development of the tree; also it is well to remember that scarcely two trees have the same surroundings and conditions, and that it is not often that the owner is able to secure the entire crop from any one tree, being located in the forest where a large part of the crop is carried off by others. With these conditions it is often impossible to tell what a certain tree may yield, except by comparison with former crops. In giving you these yields I am giving my own knowledge so far as I can, and then information and estimates from the most reliable sources at my command. _Indiana_ This variety is perhaps the best known (owing largely to its name), and has not failed to produce at least a partial crop annually for the past fifteen years. Since it has been under close observation, which has been about seven to eight years, it has usually borne from 100 to 300 pounds. Often a large part of the crop has been stolen. Crop 1912 about 200 pounds; 1913, 250 pounds; 1914, I am confident would have been 300 pounds. The owner secured 125 pounds; balance carried off by others. This year, 1915, is almost a failure; just a light sprinkling of nuts; was full of blooms but owing to heavy cold rain, failed to pollenize. The tree is located in a cultivated field, circumference of tree is 5 feet, height about 60 feet, spread 50 to 60 feet. _Busseron_ This is almost identical with Indiana, and the owner tells me has borne as many as seven bushels to twelve bushels at a single crop. The tree being very tall, the entire top was cut out of it a few years ago and it is just now commencing to bear again. The lower limbs, however, of older wood that were left, have borne annual crops. In the nursery this variety has shown a tendency to very early bearing; most one year trees, spring 1914, set full of catkins, and one tree produced 16 well-developed nuts. These, however, dropped during the extreme drouth of August. The past spring most Busseron trees in the nursery again set full of catkins and at the present time we have one tree, coming two years old from bud, bearing one nut that is full grown and looks as though it would mature during the next thirty days. Several other varieties have set full of catkins in the nursery row but have not developed any pistillate blossoms. The Busseron has furnished much propagating wood and at the present time there are, perhaps, more trees growing in the nurseries of this than of any other northern variety. Crop of 1915 promises to be fairly good. _Niblack_ Crop of 1912, 100 pounds; crop 1913, about 50 pounds; crop 1914, 225 pounds; crop 1915, I would estimate at 100 pounds. This tree is very deceiving; the top is rather open and the nuts are usually scattered all through. The crop of 1914 was not considered heavy until after it was gathered. The past spring this tree bloomed very full, but owing to wet, cold weather when in full bloom did not set well. Size of tree 18 to 20 inches in diameter; 50 to 60 feet high with 40 feet spread, and is located in a cultivated field. _Posey_ Crop of 1914 was 125 pounds saved; this tree is about the same size as the Niblack, located in the edge of a cornfield near heavy timber, being far from any house. A large part of the crop is often stolen; the crops of 1911 and 1912 were not so heavy, perhaps 50 to 75 pounds. It usually bears a fair crop, however, but I do not consider it a heavy cropper like the Indiana or Niblack. Its large size and splendid cracking qualities, however, will make it a popular variety and it may prove to bear much better on budded trees under cultivation. _Butterick_ This giant tree stands out in the open field, measures 14 feet in circumference, 90 feet spread and perhaps 100 feet high, and usually bears from 5 to 7 bushels. The owner tells me he has owned this tree for forty-four years and that it has not missed more than two or three crops during that time and that the former owner told him he owned the tree for fifty years and that it was a good sized tree when he bought the farm and bearing regular crops. _Major_ Crop 1912, 160 pounds saved, and from what information I can get this tree usually bears 100 pounds or more; tree about 3 feet in diameter, 120 feet high and 60 feet to first limb. Owing to its height and size it is very hard to get much of an estimate in regard to the crop it may carry until after it is gathered. Being located in the dense forest a large part of the crop is often carried off. _Greenriver_ Tree is located in the same grove with the Major, is about 3 feet in diameter, 35 feet to first limb, crop 1912 reported 260 pounds and has not missed a crop in twelve years. Have had no report for 1915. _Kentucky_ Crop 1912, 41/2 bushels; since that has borne good crops, but do not know the exact amount, but fair crop this year. The owner says it has only missed two crops in twenty years. _Warrick_ This tree bears very regularly, but owing to the fact that it has been cut so severely for propagating wood has not made any heavy yields the past few years. The old wood has heavy crop this season. This practically covers the named list of varieties for the Indiana pecan belt. I might say, however, that most of the native trees are bearing a very good crop of pecans this season in our country. _Observations on Propagated Trees_ The Busseron has shown a stronger tendency to early bearing than any other variety. The Major and Greenriver seem to be the best growers in the nursery, with very heavy foliage. The Posey makes a very stocky tree but seems to be one of the most difficult to propagate. _Southern Varieties_ The summer of 1914 we had the Stuart, Delmas and Schley. The first killing frost was a severe cold snap; mercury dropped to 10 above zero, November 22d. Foliage on these perfectly green as well as the nuts. The Stuart seemed to have about matured fruit although foliage was green. Husk on nuts had burst open ready to drop. The fruit which looked to be ripe, however, when cracked, the kernel looked plump, but when cut open was found pithy and more like a piece of cork. Stuart tree bearing this season nuts at present, September 1st, only half grown, while Busseron alongside in nursery row is full size. The northern varieties usually mature ready to gather October 1st; the Indianas in the jar on the table were gathered September 28th last year. _High Land versus Low Land. Pecans in High Land_ There have been a number of articles written by men well posted claiming that the pecan will not bear or thrive except on the cultivated bottom lands of our valleys and streams. The writer wishes to disprove this erroneous idea. It is not borne out by facts. On the farm of W. J. Coan of Bruceville, Knox County, Ind., there are a number of pecans planted from ten to fifteen years ago. Part of these trees are on bottom land and part on high land. This high land is heavy clay underlaid with considerable hardpan. The writer visited these trees two weeks ago and has photographs showing four trees in a group that were planted fifteen years ago that have borne for the past six years, each crop getting better. At the present time I would judge they are bearing at least one bushel to the tree. A single tree in the barnyard has not made the growth owing to the compact soil around it. However, it has borne quite heavily, commenced bearing at nine years of age from seed. The trees on the bottom land are not as large and have not borne half as many nuts as the ones planted on high land. This is Mr. Coan's report and he says that were he planting again he would plant entirely on high ground. The trees shown in these photographs are located on perhaps the highest elevation in Knox County, Ind. There are a number of other trees near the writer's home planted on high land 150 feet above the river, back from three to six miles, that are large trees, measuring 18 to 24 inches in diameter and bearing regular crops. Heavy clay land seems to push a stronger and more vigorous growth than does the more loamy, darker soil. I submit here a number of photographs taken August 10 of pecan trees in the nursery row, budded one year ago, showing a growth of from 4 to 6 feet, many of them 5 to 7 feet and some 8 feet high and still growing rapidly. These were budded on four-year-old pecans. _Propagation_ We have tried all known methods of propagating the pecan with varied results; one of the methods you do not want to try is the Edwards method. While it may be a success in Texas, where it originated, it is a miserable failure in the North. Grafting above ground is done after the sap is well up, and gives fair results. However, best results have been obtained by the patch bud method on seedlings three to four years old. Good strong seedlings, well-ripened buds cut from the scion orchard or from trees two years old in the nursery have given best results--in some cases, as high as 85 per cent stand the past season. * * * * * MR. JONES: Mr. Rush had a Stuart bearing last year in south-eastern Pennsylvania. The nuts were not very large but they matured fairly well. I am more encouraged than ever that the Indiana variety will be safe for use in Pennsylvania. MR. REED: I think that if the Stuart bloomed as early as the others it would be all right, but it is about two weeks later. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I don't believe in the Stuart very much: I have better pecans myself, hardy in the north. THE PRESIDENT: I wish to corroborate Mr. Reed's point about the success of the pecan on high land. One man is, I believe, responsible for that widely circulated statement that the pecan will grow only on alluvial land. I have travelled a thousand miles in investigating that fact, and found it a fallacy. Some of the biggest pecan trees I have ever seen were growing at 900 feet elevation down in Georgia. This was on clay hills. I have seen the same thing in Raleigh. That alluvial soil business is a hoax. This ends the intellectual side of our program. Business meeting. Meeting adjourned _sine die_ at 10 P. M. WALNUT OBSERVATIONS IN CALIFORNIA[3] L. D. BATCHELOR, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, CITRUS EXPERIMENT STATION, RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA. The walnut industry of California is just entering a transition period from the planting of seedling groves to the established plantings of grafted trees. Just as other seedling fruit trees, such as the orange, apple, peach, almond, etc., have been eliminated, so too, the seedling walnut groves of California seem doomed to be replaced by clonal varieties. In many ways this industry is as much in its infancy as the apple industry of New York was sixty-five years ago, when varieties first began to be propagated in a commercial way by grafting and budding. This readjustment in the walnut industry is well started, and, although it is likely to be gradual in its evolution, and wisely so, the change seems nevertheless certain. There are but a very few seedling trees for sale at the present time by the progressive nurseries, and, in fact, only a very few such trees have been set out in groves during the past four or five years. The demand for grafted trees has been brought about largely by the wide range of variation in walnut seedlings as regards their productivity, commercial value of the nuts, season of harvest and ability of the trees to resist the walnut blight. In view of the very recent propagation of the walnut by grafting, which has extended over only about ten to twelve years, it is reasonable to expect that the majority of the varieties thus propagated so early in the development of the industry are only partially suited to the needs of the walnut grower. The nuts from many of these grafted varieties fall considerably short of the commercial standard for high-grade walnuts. Some of the heaviest-bearing sorts, such as the Chase, Prolific and El Monte, produce nuts that cannot be sold in the very best grade of the commercial product. On the other hand, the Placentia, which produces one of the most nearly ideal commercial nuts, is not a heavy-producing variety, especially in the northern walnut sections, and is quite as susceptible to walnut blight as the average seedling tree. Again, the Eureka variety, which seems to successfully avoid the walnut blight during many seasons by its lateness in coming into bloom, is a very moderately yielding variety in the southern sections. The above examples are only a few of many that might be cited to show the short-comings of most of the varieties of walnuts now being propagated. The wide range of climatic and soil conditions makes the eventual propagation of quite a large number of varieties inevitable. While the coast regions are bathed in fog nearly every morning during the growing season, the inland valleys experience an extremely dry climate with high maximum temperatures. Walnuts are being grown at the present time on soil types varying from the extremes of sand to heavy clay loams. Many of the future varieties must be especially adapted to some one of these particular environments if they are to stand the test of time. Many of the present seedling groves are of uncertain origin and represent greatly varying values. No doubt some of these groves are the progeny of especially selected trees known to have considerable merit. On the other hand, it is very apparent that many of them are the result of a great demand for seedling trees when the industry was in its infancy twenty or thirty years ago. At that time without doubt, great quantities of walnuts were planted without due regard for their parentage. Again, there is a wide range of variability among the individual trees of any grove, as variations in type of tree, blooming season, character of foliage, resistance to disease, productivity and character of the nuts. _Type of Tree_ The tree types vary from the upright, sturdy individual to the more or less spreading, weeping types which droop nearly to the ground under the burden of the crop. The upright, vigorous growing type is well exemplified in the Eureka. On the other hand, such varieties as the Prolific have a spreading, bushy habit and an almost semi-dwarfness characterizes their growth. _Blooming Season_ It is not unusual to find the blooming season in an ordinary seedling grove extending over a period of from a month to six weeks. A few individual trees leaf out and blossom with the first signs of spring. Then the great majority of the trees in the grove come out in full leaf. But there are frequently trees still leafless after the nuts on the early individuals are of the size of a marble. This variation in the blooming season has considerable economic importance in relation to the harvesting and marketing of the nuts as well as the avoidance of diseases and frost which may be more prevalent during certain periods in the spring. _Foliage Characteristics_ The character of the foliage varies from the broad-leaved types, whose foliage somewhat resembles that of the horse-chestnut, to the narrow-leaved varieties whose leaves have a tendency to curl up like the foliage of the Winesap apple. The broad-leaved types are much more densely foliated and this factor has considerable bearing on the problems of sun-scald on the twigs and trunks of the tree and the exposure of the nuts to this injury. For this reason, the densely foliated varieties may prove best adapted to the inland valleys, where the difficulties of sun-scald are most prevalent. The more sparsely foliated types often appear to have less blight on the nuts and leaves because of their exposure to the sunshine. _Disease Resistance_ Probably one of the most important limiting factors in walnut production in California, and especially in the older walnut sections, is the bacterial disease commonly known as walnut blight. The inroads of this disease have caused a very heavy dropping of the nuts during many seasons of the past, and although a great deal of time and scientific effort has been devoted to the control of the trouble, there is no satisfactory known means for the prevention of walnut blight at the present time. It is a well-known fact that in the vegetable kingdom closely related species suffer in different degrees from the attacks of the same parasite. This difference in resistance is often as marked among different varieties of the same species as between the species themselves. The absence of blight is not necessarily an indication of immunity. There is a great deal of difference in the amount of blight prevalent at the present season in the different walnut growing sections. Again, the immunity from blight of a particular tree for one season may be followed by more or less prevalency of blight on the same tree the next season. The degree of resistance must be tested out through a number of years before any variety can be pronounced resistant to this disease. The observations must also be carried out in different localities as certain varieties seem to behave differently on different soils and when growing under different climatic conditions. Some varieties seem to avoid the blight the majority of the seasons but really have little or no resistant qualities when the seasonal conditions and the growth of the plant happen to coincide with the most favorable time for the spread of the disease. An example of this is seen in the Eureka variety the present season. While this variety has maintained a reputation during a majority of seasons for freedom from blight, during the present year the Eureka is badly diseased in certain sections of Orange County. This may, perhaps, be explained by the prevalence of damp, cloudy weather for about a week or ten days during the first of May when this variety was in full bloom. In one grove under observation the trees were thought to have lost at least 50 per cent of their blossoms soon after blooming. At the present time on these same trees, 32 per cent of the nuts are afflicted with more or less blight. To be sure, some of these will likely mature, but the appearance of blight on nearly one third of the crop shows that this variety has very little resistant power against walnut blight. Its freedom from disease in the past has no doubt been due largely to its dormancy during the most favorable weather conditions for the spread of blight. The field for the selection of blight resistant varieties must necessarily be in the badly blighted sections. A tree with only 10 per cent blighted nuts in an orchard having an average of 70 per cent to 80 per cent may really be more resistant to blight than a variety which appears to be positively free from the disease when growing among trees which are only 15 per cent to 20 per cent blighted. In making observations and selections, therefore, it is quite as important to know the amount of blight on the surrounding trees and the grove, as a whole, as it is to know the prevalence of blight on the selected individual. The extreme variation of different seedling trees in their susceptibility to this disease is well illustrated in some of the following observations which were made the present year. The percentages which follow the varieties named were determined by counting at least 100 nuts on a tree just before the blighted nuts began to drop. In a seedling grove in the Whittier district about 300 trees were examined and 100 nuts counted on each tree. The individual trees varied from 2 per cent to 85 per cent blighted nuts, while the grove as a whole averaged 25 per cent. There were at least a dozen or fifteen trees in this grove which were blighted less than 10 per cent, although some of the nearby trees were blighted as high as 60 per cent or 70 per cent. Another seedling grove in Orange County which was counted in the same way, averaged 47 per cent blighted nuts during the second week in June. In making this determination 105 trees were examined. In this same grove, there were, however, at least three trees which averaged less than 6 per cent blighted nuts. It is interesting to know that the Placentia variety, growing within a stone's throw of the aforementioned seedling grove and under identical cultural conditions, was blighted to the extent of 71.9 per cent on the same date. Observations of the Prolific (Ware's) in the vicinity of the above mentioned grove, showed less than 1 per cent blighted nuts on the trees and practically none of the nuts have dropped to the ground at the present time, yet in the past this variety has not had a reputation for disease immunity. The original Chase tree was observed during this time and showed a percentage of 37 per cent blighted nuts. These examples are given neither in support of any particular variety nor to discredit others, but are noted merely to call attention to the wide variation, and this variation is a great source of encouragement in our endeavors to produce a disease resistant variety. Of course blight immunity is not the only factor to be considered in selecting a variety of walnut. A profitable yield of good commercial nuts is the real test of the superiority of any variety. A very heavy yielding tree with a small amount of blight may prove more profitable than a light yielding variety that is totally immune to this disease. The production of a medium grade nut which would grade only as a seedling No 1, might prove more profitable if the tree is at least partially blight immune than the production of such a high grade nut as the Placentia with its susceptibility to blight. These things must be considered and weighed carefully by the growers who are planting walnuts in the blight sections. The various areas where walnut blight is not a factor might profitably sacrifice heavy production to superior quality. From our present knowledge it is very apparent that the disease resistance of individual trees varies considerably from year to year and under different soil and climatic conditions. The thorough testing of resistant varieties will require considerable time. _Nut Characteristics_ The character of the nuts is as variable as the trees themselves, not only in the exterior appearance, but in the character of the meats as well. The ideal commercial nut should be of medium size, about one and one-eighth to one and one-half inches in diameter, of regular oval form somewhat elongated, with smooth surface, and light brown color, and uniform for these characters. The cracking quality of the nuts is quite as important as their exterior appearance. The nuts should be well sealed so they will not crack open in shipping. The shells should be thin but strong, so the nut may be easily opened and the whole meat taken out intact. The pellicle surrounding the kernel should be light tan colored or silvery brown with a glossy waxed appearance attractive to look upon. The meat should be smooth, and plump, averaging 50 per cent or more of the total weight of the nut, and with a mild, pleasant flavor, free from any astringency. The shells vary all the way from extremely rough and unattractive specimens to the smooth commercial type, as the Placentia, while the color of the meats varies from dark brown to nearly white, and so on through the other characteristics mentioned. In the selection of varieties the walnut breeder is exceptionally favored by the occurrence of large areas of seedling trees. According to the 1910 census there were in the neighborhood of one and a quarter million seedling trees growing in California. With this almost unlimited material for selective use, it seems indeed reasonable that many varieties will be selected in the future which are better adapted to the demands of the industry than some of those now being propagated. By means of hybridizing methods it is also hoped that some of the desirable unit characters of the varieties now in cultivation may be recombined into more nearly ideal varieties for future generations. The fact that walnut breeding is necessarily a long-termed, expensive problem has made it rather unattractive to the practical breeders. Such work will depend largely upon public or specially endowed institutions for its support. PRUNING THE PERSIAN WALNUT J. G. RUSH, WEST WILLOW, PA. Pruning is as old as horticulture itself, but the Persian walnut has escaped this treatment thus far. Practical experience, however, in growing these trees for fruiting, shows the great importance of systematic pruning. It is a common occurrence to see a young tree with straggling and irregular growths. Very frequently we see that growth takes place on part of the tree only, leaving the other part undeveloped, which would throw the tree very much out of balance in course of time. Pruning should begin early in the life of the young tree and as soon as it leaves the nursery the pruning shears should be in evidence. There are two important objects in view in proper and systematic pruning. First is form, with a well balanced head. Second, to increase productiveness by having more lateral branches properly distributed all over the tree. As a matter of course productiveness will follow. It is a singular fact that a misfortune can sometimes develop into a blessing. Last year, 1914, was an unfortunate one in that an early and late drouth caused poor bud development, and, of course, they were not in a condition to withstand our usual winter weather. In the spring of 1915, as soon as bud development took place, I commenced to prune. I cut off all weak branches to a strong bud and sometimes went over the trees a second time in order to insure that the work should be well done. These trees referred to are mostly three years old and at that age the pruning should be done very systematically. It is a mistake to have a tree three or four years old in bearing. You will have branches from 2 to 4 feet long without any laterals, quite differently from other fruits, as the apple, peach, pear, etc. If these long branches are allowed to remain you will find that the terminal buds will develop nuts and weigh down the branch. But with proper management the life and productiveness of the tree can be improved by pruning. A branch 3 or 4 feet long should be cut back one half. Of course great care must be taken where the cut is made, for the future welfare of the tree. I have a very fine five-year-old Hall variety on my side lawn that shows the neglect of proper pruning at the right time. The branches are entirely too long and drooping. In order to overcome this defect I will have to cut back to two-year-old wood and force the dormant buds for the future tree. There is another great advantage in the proper method of pruning the young Persian, that is, that the finest kind of bud wood becomes available. You will please remember that in pruning the walnut we are not pruning for color as with other fruits. The tree should be as round headed as a Norway maple, and if some of the limbs should show indications of weakness by crowding then cut them out for the benefit of others close by. REPORT ON NUT GROWING IN CANADA G. H. CORSAN, TORONTO Not being able to meet with you this September, as I have to go down to the State of Mississippi, I send this paper to your president whose paper on the Garden of Eden we all read in the _Country Gentlemen_ of July 7, and so much admired. Progress has not been made on my place sufficient to warrant my inviting you to Toronto next convention, but I will say that the year after next I will certainly have something worth seeing. But Dr. J. H. Kellogg of Battle Creek, Mich., extends an invitation to you to hold the next convention at the Battle Creek Sanitarium where nuts and nut preparations are used exclusively in the place of meat and fish and fowl. Here at Battle Creek on Dr. Kellogg's private grounds and on the Sanitarium grounds may be seen Colonel Sober's Paragon chestnuts, Mr. Pomeroy's English walnuts and Mr. Reed's grafted pecans, as well as some grafted persimmons of named varieties. In my statement in the _American Nut Journal_ last May or June I mentioned that all the grafted persimmons sent from Washington were winter-killed. I find on returning in August that the Early Golden is very much alive. Twelve other varieties have been planted to see what this winter will do to them. The persimmon is exceedingly interesting to us northern nut growers because where it will succeed the pecan will also, without a doubt. Now I also find that my statement in the same paper that the grafted pecans sent by Mr. Reed were winter-killed was an error, as only certain trees failed to grow above the graft. Those that are growing are the Major, Busseron and Indiana, the Busseron showing most decidedly better than the Indiana, both here and at Toronto. All pecans lived, both here and at Toronto, if I include those that sprung up below the graft. Out of thirteen varieties that I experimented with at Toronto, Major, Posey and Niblack were the only ones that lived well above the graft and showed no winter-killing. Others were more or less winter-killed. Kentucky, Mantura, Appomattox, Luce and Greenriver showed no desire to live in the north. Mr. Pomeroy's English walnuts showed a most distinct dislike for Toronto, but all forty-eight are doing well here and are being cared for. Colonel Sober's Paragon chestnuts showed the most determined attempt to not grow the Paragon part of the tree, and an equally determined mind to grow good and strong below the Paragon part--may this part yield good trees! I have three or four Paragons left out of 135 trees. Pecans grew as many as four feet both here and at Toronto this summer. Of the new trees sent from Washington two specimens of Castanea Crenata (from the north Island of Japan), six specimens of Castanea Mollissima (almost blight proof, from north China) all are thriving. Juglans regia sinensis lived to the tip through the winter and budded out strong from the top, as did J. cordiformis--may it always be so. _Re_ Dr. Deming's question as to the farthermost northern pecans I said Charles City, Iowa. Now these forty trees were planted twenty years ago and are all alive and yield crops, but the nuts are small as they are seedlings. Write Mr. Charles D. Patten _re_ how his trees are doing and their history. He has been asking Mr. Reed for scions of better trees. I have five types of soil to grow my trees in, stiff clay, rich gravel, quicksand and humus, light sand and silt or bottom land, well drained. I have no sour, undrained spot on my fifteen acres. APPENDIX PRESENT AT THE SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION Henry T. Brown, Rochester Mrs. McLean, Rochester Rev. A. C. Crapsey, Rochester Prof. Fairchild, University Rochester Chas. E. Bunnell, Rochester S. W. Taylor, Stamford, Conn. Herbert E. Ingram, 432 4th Ave., New York Dr. J. W. Jackson, Dansville, N. Y. Martha Rush, New Providence, Lancaster Co., Pa. Edna Mylin, Willow St., Pa. Paul White, Boonville, Ind. J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pa. J. F. Jones, Lancaster, Pa. John S. Parish, Eastham, Va. Thos. P. Littlepage, Washington, D. C. Dr. and Mrs. Wm. C. Deming, Georgetown, Conn. Ralph T. Olcott, Rochester Dr. Robt. T. Morris, New York City Dean Baker, Syracuse, N. Y. E. R. Angst, Wilmington, Del. H. L. Grubbs, Fairview, Pa. M. E. Wile, Rochester Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio Frank A. Bailey, Rochester E. E. Streeter, Rochester C. K. Sober, Lewisburg, Pa. W. C. Reed, Vincennes, Ind. M. P. Reed, Vincennes, Ind. Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa. Mr. and Mrs. C. A. Reed, Washington, D. C. Carl J. Poll, Danville, Ill. Walter C. Teter, New York City Jas. S. McGlennon, Rochester Conrad Vollertsen, Rochester H. L. Reynolds, Canandaigua, N. Y. Prof. and Mrs. F. N. Fagan, State College, Pa. Jas. Rissew, Macedon, N. Y. J. C. South, Rochester R. L. Fitzgerald, Rochester H. M. Brown, Fairport, N. Y. Nellie Doty Butts, Barnards, N. Y. H. Goodall, Spencerport, N. Y. John Rick, Reading, Pa. W. A. H. Reider, Reading, Pa. Adelbert Thompson, East Avon, N.Y. Mr. and Mrs. A. C. Pomeroy, Lockport, N. Y. Daniel Pomeroy, Lockport, N. Y. Howard Pomeroy, Lockport, N. Y. C. C. Laney, Rochester, N. Y. John Dunbar, Rochester, N. Y. E. B. Holden, Hilton, N. Y. Mr. and Mrs. B. S. Abrams, Charlotte, N. Y. Henry Hohener, Rochester, N.Y. Dr. Charles Forbes, Brick Church Institute, Rochester, N. Y. PROGRAM FOR AUTOMOBILE TRIPS SEPTEMBER 1ST AND 2D, 1915 The program below is intended as a guide only. It may be necessary on account of conditions to vary this. It is therefore highly important that all automobiles follow one another along the lines later designated in this sheet. On the afternoons of September 1st and 2d, we propose to drive in automobiles to the various trees of interest in the immediate neighborhood of Rochester. The limit of the trip on September 1st will be Hilton, N. Y. The present plan is to visit the trees in the following order: 1--230 Saratoga Avenue, Persian Walnut seedling; 2--Kramer, Emerson Street and Lake Avenue, Persian Walnut (This is the parent tree of the Thompson Grove seedlings at East Avon, N. Y.); 3--Riverside Cemetery, Hybrid Hickory Laneyii (tree named after Mr. Calvin C. Laney, Superintendent of Parks, Rochester, N. Y., by Dr. Sargeant of the Arnold Arboretum); 4--Westgate farm, Stone Road, Persian Walnut seedlings and filberts (nuts for the seedling trees and filbert bushes imported from England); 5--W. H. Anderson and Wm. Twitchill, Ridge Road, seedling Walnut (of these one tree 105 years old); 6--Hilton, N. Y., Holden trees, from which the Holden Walnuts originated; 7--McGlennon Nursery, Denise Road, filbert plantings, two years old; 8--Clifford Avenue, between St. Paul Street and Clinton Avenue North, seedling Walnuts; 9--Spiegel Park, seedling Walnuts; 10--Culver Road and Parsells Avenue, Hybrid Walnut and Butternuts. (End of trip September 1st, 1915) _September 2d, 1915_ 1--Gregory Street, McGlennon Nursery, filberts; 2--Highland Park, Hazel; 3--West Brighton, Mrs. W. J. Miller, seedling Walnuts; 4--Golah, N. Y., King Nut Hickory; 5--Seedling Walnut grove, Adelbert Thompson, East Avon, N. Y. All automobiles intended to convey members of the Association will have a sign "Northern Nut Growers Association." All cars will follow a pilot car, which will be plainly marked. There will be one relief car, which will be plainly marked, and will carry no passengers except in emergency. In the event of any break-down in an automobile, the emergency car will immediately pick up the passengers of the one delayed, and transfer its sign to the delayed car. The delayed car, after repairs, will act as a relief car in its place. The start of both trips will be made from Powers Hotel at 1:45 P. M. All members are requested to be on hand promptly, as the several stops will consume considerable time. Unless delay in starting is provided against, the trip may be prolonged beyond a comfortable limit. _Local Committee_ Ralph T. Olcott Supt. C. C. Laney, Park Dept. Asst. Supt. John Dunbar, Park Dept. M. E. Wile Mrs. W. D. Ellwanger James S. McGlennon W. Robert Bruce John Hall, Secy. W.N.Y. Hort. Soc. EXHIBITS Corylus cornuta Beaked Hazel Branch Dr. R. T. Morris Corylus avellana European Hazel Stem showing blight Dr. R. T. Morris Corylus colurna Byzantine Hazel Branch Dr. R. T. Morris Corylus avellana Purple Variety Branch Dr. R. T. Morris Corylus pontica Pontine Hazel Branch Dr. R. T. Morris Corylus avellana Var. Barcelona Branch J. G. Rush Corylus americana Var. Rush Branch J. G. Rush Long Hazel Joseph Risseu Walworth, N.Y. Round Hazel Joseph Risseu, Walworth, N.Y. Hicoria ovata Var. Taylor Nuts Dr. R. T. Morris Hicoria ovata Var. LeFevre Nuts J. G. Rush Hicoria ovata Plate Nuts Miss Ruth N. Reeves Newark, N.Y. Juglans regia Var. Alpine Miss Ruth N. Reeves, Newark, N.Y. Juglans regia Var. Nebo Miss Ruth N. Reeves, Newark, N.Y. Rush Miss Ruth N. Reeves, Newark, N.Y. Hall Miss Ruth N. Reeves, Newark. N.Y. Juglans hybrid supposed J. regia Miss Ruth N. Reeves, X cinerea Newark, N.Y. Juglans regia Var. Holden spec. E. B. Holden, Hilton, N.Y. Juglans cathayensis Foliage Park Board, Rochester Juglans rupestris 2 clusters, 4 nuts Park Board, each and foliage Rochester Juglans sieboldiana cluster 7 nuts and Park Board, foliage Rochester Pteryocarya stenoptera False Walnut Foliage Park Board, Rochester Castanea sativa Var. Paragon Branch with one very J. S. Parish, large bur Eastham, Va. Castanea pumila Common chinquapin Branch with cluster of nuts Dr. R. T. Morris Castanea pumila Southwestern Branch with nuts chinquapin Dr. R. T. Morris Panel with general collection of pecans, hickory nuts and walnuts, W. C. Reed, Vincennes, Ind. Juglans nigra Var. Rush Nuts J. G. Rush Juglans regia Branch Mrs. B. S. Abrams, Latta Farm, Charlotte, N.Y. RESOLUTIONS PASSED BY THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION IN SESSION AT ROCHESTER, N. Y., SEPTEMBER 1 AND 2, 1915 No chestnut stock should go out unless it is thoroughly sterilized by some satisfactory method and tagged by proper authority to show that fact. States that are still clear of the blight are advised that effective quarantine is desirable to delay, for a time at least, the spread of the blight. Four infestations of chestnut blight have been found in Indiana in July and August, 1915. This fact, and the continued spread of this fatal fungus, are some of the reasons for this recommendation. * * * * * Nut trees may and do sometimes come fairly true to type but they do not come true to variety. Consequently our association does not approve of the sale of seedling trees under variety names; and this association further recommends to all journals that they take no advertisements for nut trees if such trees are not sold under conditions that clearly comply with the provisions of this resolution. BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE YEAR. The Chestnut Bark Disease on Freshly Fallen Nuts. J. Franklin Collins. Reprinted from _Phytopathology_, Vol. V, No. 4, August, 1913. With One Figure in the Text. Melaxuma of the Walnut, "Juglans regia." (A Preliminary Report.) Howard S. Fawcett. Bulletin No. 261, Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, California, November, 1915. The Pecan Business. From Planting the Nuts to Gathering the Nuts. Catalogue of B. W. Stone, nurseryman, Thomasville, Georgia, containing cuts and information about pecan growing in the South. Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Convention of the National Nut Growers Association, held at Albany, Georgia, October 27-29, 1915. Report of the Proceedings at the Sixth Annual Meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association at Rochester, New York, September 1 and 2, 1915. (In press.) Walnut Aphides in California. W. M. Davidson. (Professional Paper.) Bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture No. 100, August 31, 1914. The Possibilities of Nut Growing in the East. W. C. Deming. _Women's National Agricultural and Horticultural Association Quarterly_, August, 1915. The _Walnut Book and Horticultural Digest_, A Monthly Publication Devoted to the Production, Distribution and Consumption of the Walnut. Vol. I, No. 1, November, 1915. The Walnut Book Publishing Co., Orenco, Oregon. One dollar a year. Official Organ of the Western Walnut Association. Nut Trees for the Country's Waste Places. Gilbert E. Bailey, Ph.D. University of Southern California. _American Fruits_, July, 1915, p. 8. The Inside of a Graft. F. A. Waugh, _The Country Gentleman_, February 20, 1915, p. 328. Progress of Nut Culture in the East. Possibilities of a Coming Industry. W. C. Deming. _The Rural New-Yorker_, March 6, 1915, p. 327. Illustrations of methods of budding and grafting nut trees. Air and Wind Dissemination of Ascospores of the Chestnut-Blight Fungus. F. D. Heald, M. W. Gardner, and R. A. Studhalter. Reprint from _Journal of Agricultural Research_, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., March 25, 1915. Vol. III, No. 6. Grafting and Budding the Walnut. E. R. Lake. Weekly News Letter to Crop Correspondents, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., April 7, 1915. Vol. II, No. 35. Numerous cuts. Neglected Northern Pecans. Dr. J. Russell Smith, University of Pennsylvania. _Country Gentleman_, January 9, 1915. Riehl Fun for Nuts. Dr. J. Russell Smith, University of Pennsylvania. _Country Gentleman_, October 9, 1915. A Georgia Tree Farmer. Dr. J. Russell Smith, University of Pennsylvania. _Country Gentleman_, December 4, 1915. Shade Trees that Bear Nuts. Dr. J. Russell Smith, University of Pennsylvania. _Country Gentleman_, January 7, 1916. Grafting Nut Trees. Dr. J. Russell Smith, University of Pennsylvania. _Country Gentleman_, January 28, 1916. * * * * * FOOTNOTES [1] Bulletin No. 231 by Prof. Ralph E. Smith of the University of California, is authority for this history of walnut introduction into that state. [2] G. Harold Powell, Bull. XLII, Delaware Agricultural Experiment Station, 1898. [3] Paper No. 21, Citrus Experiment Station, College of Agriculture, University of California, Riverside, California. * * * * * ~"No, we would not think of planting a tree without using dynamite."--~ Extract from a letter received from Edwards & Patterson, Milledgeville, Ga., who are amongst Georgia's best known pecan growers. [Illustration: Pecan nut] Edwards & Patterson's pecans, actual size, sent to us as fair average samples of nuts grown on unblasted and blasted trees. The pecan at the top was grown on a tree in unblasted soil,--at the bottom is the pecan grown where the soil was blasted. [Illustration: Pecan nut] Blasting with RED CROSS EXPLOSIVES shatters the compact soil, extends the feeding area of roots and increases the water-holding capacity of the ground. Tree-planting in blasted ground is "life insurance" for all kinds of fruit and nut trees. Plant your pecans in blasted ground, and stop first-year losses. Write for HANDBOOK OF EXPLOSIVES telling about tree-planting and other ways of using RED CROSS EXPLOSIVES. E. I. du PONT de NEMOURS & CO. WILMINGTON, DEL. * * * * * Vincennes Nurseries PROPAGATORS OF _The Pecan_ _The Persian Walnut_ _The Hickory_ _The Chestnut_ _The Almond_ _The Hazelnut_ _And the Persimmon_ SEND FOR OUR SPECIAL NUT CATALOGUE We offer also a general line of Nursery Stock W. C. REED, _Proprietor_ VINCENNES INDIANA * * * * * Plant My Hardy Pennsylvania Grown, Budded and Grafted ENGLISH WALNUT AND PECAN TREES IF YOU WANT TO START RIGHT * * * * * You can't afford to experiment with trees of doubtful hardiness, neither do you want seedlings or inferior varieties _My 1915-16 Catalogue is yours for the asking_ * * * * * Address J. F. JONES, The Nut Tree Specialist LANCASTER PENNSYLVANIA * * * * * CHESTER VALLEY NURSERIES ESTABLISHED 1853 Choice Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Cherry Trees on Mazzard Roots, Hardy Evergreens, Flowering Shrubs, Hedge Plants, etc. Originators of the THOMAS BLACK WALNUT JOS. W. THOMAS & SONS, King of Prussia P. O., Montgomery Co., Pa. 
19006	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) New York State College of Agriculture At Cornell University Ithaca, N. Y. Library * * * * * Cabbages and Cauliflowers: HOW TO GROW THEM. A PRACTICAL TREATISE, GIVING FULL DETAILS ON EVERY POINT, INCLUDING KEEPING AND MARKETING THE CROP. [Illustration: Cabbage Head] BY JAMES J. H. GREGORY, ORIGINAL INTRODUCER OF THE MARBLEHEAD, DEEP HEAD, WARREN, ALL SEASONS, HARD HEADING, AND REYNOLDS CABBAGES. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1889, by JAMES J. H. GREGORY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. CONTENTS. PAGE OBJECT OF TREATISE 1 THE ORIGIN OF CABBAGE 1 WHAT A CABBAGE IS 2 SELECTING THE SOIL 4 PREPARING THE SOIL 5 THE MANURE 6 HOW TO APPLY THE MANURE 8 MAKING THE HILLS AND PLANTING THE SEED 11 CARE OF THE YOUNG PLANTS 16 PROTECTING THE PLANTS FROM THEIR ENEMIES 18 THE GREEN WORM 22 CLUB, OR STUMP ROOT, OR MAGGOT 24 CARE OF THE GROWING CROP 29 MARKETING THE CROP 30 KEEPING CABBAGE THROUGH THE WINTER 32 HAVING CABBAGE MAKE HEADS IN WINTER 39 FOREIGN VARIETIES OF CABBAGE 43-45 AMERICAN VARIETIES 46-60 SAVOY VARIETIES 60-63 OTHER VARIETIES 63-67 CABBAGE GREENS 67 CABBAGE FOR STOCK 69 RAISING CABBAGE SEED 73 COOKING CABBAGE, SOUR-KROUT, ETC. 75 CABBAGE UNDER GLASS 76 COLD FRAME AND HOT-BED 78 CAULIFLOWER, BROCCOLI, BRUSSELS-SPROUTS, KALE AND SEA-KALE 81 CABBAGES AND CAULIFLOWERS. OBJECT OF THIS TREATISE. As a general, yet very thorough, response to inquiries from many of my customers about cabbage raising, I have aimed in this treatise to tell them all about the subject. The different inquiries made from time to time have given me a pretty clear idea of the many heads under which information is wanted; and it has been my aim to give this with the same thoroughness of detail as in my little work on Squashes. I have endeavored to talk in a very practical way, drawing from a large observation and experience, and receiving, in describing varieties, some valuable information from McIntosh's work, "The Book of the Garden." THE ORIGIN OF CABBAGE. Botanists tell us that all of the Cabbage family, which includes not only every variety of cabbage, Red, White, and Savoy, but all the cauliflower, broccoli, kale, and brussels sprouts, had their origin in the wild cabbage of Europe (_Brassica oleracea_), a plant with green, wavy leaves, much resembling charlock, found growing wild at Dover in England, and other parts of Europe. This plant, says McIntosh, is mostly confined to the sea-shore, and grows only on chalky or calcareous soils. Thus through the wisdom of the Great Father of us all, who occasionally in his great garden allows vegetables to sport into a higher form of life, and grants to some of these sports sufficient strength of individuality to enable them to perpetuate themselves, and, at times, to blend their individuality with that of other sports, we have the heading cabbage in its numerous varieties, the creamy cauliflower, the feathery kale, the curled savoy. On my own grounds from a strain of seed that had been grown isolated for years, there recently came a plant that in its structure closely resembled Brussels Sprouts, growing about two feet in height, with a small head under each leaf. The cultivated cabbage was first introduced into England by the Romans, and from there nearly all the kinds cultivated in this country were originally brought. Those which we consider as peculiarly American varieties, have only been made so by years of careful improvement on the original imported sorts. The characteristics of these varieties will be given farther on. WHAT A CABBAGE IS. If we cut vertically through the middle of the head, we shall find it made up of successive layers of leaves, which grow smaller and smaller, almost _ad infinitum_. Now, if we take a fruit bud from an apple-tree and make a similar section of it, we shall find the same structure. If we observe the development of the two, as spring advances, we shall find another similarity (the looser the head the closer will be the resemblance),--the outer leaves of each will unwrap and unfold, and a flower stem will push out from each. Here we see that a cabbage is a bud, a seed bud (as all fruit buds may be termed, the production of seed being the primary object in nature, the fruit enclosing it playing but a secondary part), the office of the leaves being to cover, protect, and afterwards nourish the young seed shoot. The outer leaves which surround the head appear to have the same office as the leaves which surround the growing fruit bud, and that office closes with the first year, as does that of the leaves surrounding fruit buds, when each die and drop off. In my locality the public must have perceived more or less clearly the analogy between the heads of cabbage and the buds of trees, for when they speak of small heads they frequently call them "buds." That the close wrapped leaves which make the cabbage head and surround the seed germ, situated just in the middle of the head at the termination of the stump, are necessary for its protection and nutrition when young, is proved, I think, by the fact that those cabbages, the heads of which are much decayed, when set out for seed, no matter how sound the seed germ may be at the end of the stump, never make so large or healthy a seed shoot as those do the heads of which are sound; as a rule, after pushing a feeble growth, they die. For this reason I believe that the office of the head is similar to and as necessary as that of the leaves which unwrap from around the blossom buds of our fruit trees. It is true that the parallel cannot be fully maintained, as the leaves which make up the cabbage head do not to an equal degree unfold (particularly is this true of hard heads); yet they exhibit a vitality of their own, which is seen in the deeper green color the outer leaves soon attain, and the change from tenderness to toughness in their structure: I think, therefore, that the degree of failure in the parallel may be measured by the difference between a higher and a lower form of organic life. Some advocate the economy of cutting off a large portion of the heads when cabbages are set out for seed to use as food for stock. There is certainly a great temptation, standing amid acres of large, solid, heads in the early spring months, when green food of all kinds is scarce, to cut and use such an immense amount of rich food, which, to the inexperienced eye, appears to be utterly wasted if left to decay, dry, and fall to the ground; but, for the reason given above, I have never done so. It is possible that large heads may bear trimming to a degree without injury to the seed crop; yet I should consider this an experiment, and one to be tried with a good deal of caution. SELECTING THE SOIL. In some of the best cabbage-growing sections of the country, until within a comparatively few years it was the very general belief that cabbage would not do well on upland. Accordingly the cabbage patch would be found on the lowest tillage land of the farm. No doubt, the lowest soil being the richer from a gradual accumulation of the wash from the upland, when manure was but sparingly used, cabbage would thrive better there than elsewhere,--and not, as was generally held, because that vegetable needed more moisture than any other crop. Cabbage can be raised with success on any good corn land, provided such land is well manured; and there is no more loss in seasons of drouth on such land than there is in seasons of excessive moisture on the lower tillage land of the farm. I wish I could preach a very loud sermon to all my farmer friends on the great value of liberal manuring to carry crops successfully through the effects of a severe drouth. Crops on soil precisely alike, with but a wall to separate them, will, in a very dry season, present a striking difference,--the one being in fine vigor, and the other "suffering from drouth," as the owner will tell you; but, in reality, from want of food. The smaller varieties of cabbage will thrive well on either light or strong soil, but the largest drumheads do best on strong soil. For the _Brassica_ family, including cabbages, cauliflowers, turnips, etc., there is no soil so suitable as freshly turned sod, provided the surface is well fined by the harrow; it is well to have as stout a crop of clover or grass, growing on this sod, when turned under, as possible, and I incline to the belief that it would be a judicious investment to start a thick growth of these by the application of guano to the surface sufficiently long before turning the sod to get an extra growth of the clover or grass. If the soil be very sandy in character, I would advise that the variety planted be the Winnigstadt, which, in my experience, is unexcelled for making a hard head under almost any conditions, however unpropitious. Should the soil be naturally very wet it should be underdrained, or stump foot will be very likely to appear, which is death to all success. PREPARING THE SOIL. Should the soil be a heavy clay, a deep fall ploughing is best, that the frosts of winter may disintegrate it; and should the plan be to raise an early crop, this end will be promoted by fall ploughing, on any soil, as the land will thereby be made drier in early spring. In New England the soil for cabbages should be ploughed as deep as the subsoil, and the larger drumheads should be planted only on the deepest soil. If the season should prove a favorable one, a good crop of cabbage may be grown on sod broken up immediately after a crop of hay has been taken from it, provided plenty of fine manure is harrowed in. One great risk here is from the dry weather that usually prevails at that season, preventing the prompt germination of the seed, or rooting of the plants. It is prudent in such a case to have a good stock of plants, that such as die may be promptly replaced. It is wise to plant the seed for these a week earlier than the main crop, for when transplanted to fill the vacant places it will take about a week for them to get well rooted. The manure may be spread on the surface of either sod or stubble land and ploughed under, or be spread on the surface after ploughing and thoroughly worked into the soil by the wheel harrow or cultivator. On ploughed sod I have found nothing so satisfactory as the class of wheel harrows, which not only cut the manure up fine and work it well under, but by the same operation cut and pulverize the turf until the sod may be left not over an inch in thickness. To do the work thus thoroughly requires a yoke of oxen or a pair of stout horses. All large stones and large pieces of turf that are torn up and brought to the surface should be carted off before making the hills. THE MANURE. Any manure but hog manure for cabbage,--barn manure, rotten kelp, night-soil, guano, fertilizers, wood ashes, fish, salt, glue waste, hen manure, slaughter-house manure. I have used all of these, and found them all good when rightly applied. If pure hog manure is used it is apt to produce that corpulent enlargement of the roots known in different localities as "stump foot," "underground head," "finger and thumb;" but I have found barn manure on which hogs have run, two hogs to each animal, excellent. The cabbage is the rankest of feeders, and to perfect the larger sort a most liberal allowance of the richest composts is required. To grow the smaller varieties either barn-yard manure, guano, fertilizers, or wood ashes, if the soil be in good condition, will answer; though the richer and more abundant the manure the larger are the cabbages, and the earlier the crop will mature. To perfect the large varieties of drumhead,--by which I mean to make them grow to the greatest size possible,--I want a strong compost of barn-yard manure, with night-soil and muck or fish-waste, and, if possible, rotten kelp. A compost into which night-soil enters as a component is best made by first covering a plot of ground, of easy access, with soil or muck that has been exposed to a winter's frost, to the depth of about eighteen inches, and raising around this a rim about three feet in height, and thickness. Into this the night-soil is poured from carts built for the purpose, until the receptacle is about two-thirds full. Barn manure is now added, being dropped around and covering the outer rim, and, if the supply is sufficient, on the top of the heap also, on which it can be carted after cold weather sets in. Early in spring, the entire mass should be pitched over, thoroughly broken up with the bar and pick where frozen, and the frozen masses thrown on the surface. In pitching over the mass, work the rim in towards the middle of the heap. After the frozen lumps have thawed, give the heap another pitching over, aiming to mix all the materials thoroughly together, and make the entire mass as fine as possible. A covering of sand, thrown over the heap, before the last pitching, will help fine it. To produce a good crop of cabbages, with a compost of this quality, from six to twelve cords will be required to the acre. If the land is in good heart, by previous high cultivation, or the soil is naturally very strong, six cords will give a fair crop of the small varieties; while, with the same conditions, from nine to twelve cords to the acre will be required to perfect the largest variety grown, the Marblehead Mammoth Drumhead. Of the other kinds of manure named above, I will treat farther under the head of: HOW TO APPLY THE MANURE. The manure is sometimes applied wholly in the hill, at other times partly broadcast and partly in the hill. If the farmer desires to make the utmost use of his manure for that season, it will be best to put most of it into the hill, particularly if his supply runs rather short; but if he desires to leave his land in good condition for next year's crop, he had better use part of it broadcast. My own practice is to use all my rich compost broadcast, and depend on guano, fertilizers, or hen manure in the hill. Let all guano, if at all lumpy, like the Peruvian, be sifted, and let all the hard lumps be reduced by pounding, until the largest pieces shall not be larger than half a pea, before it is brought upon the ground. My land being ready, the compost worked under and the rows marked out, I select three trusty hands who can be relied upon to follow faithfully my directions in applying so dangerous manure as guano is in careless or ignorant hands; one takes a bucket of it, and, if for large cabbage, drops as much as he can readily close in his shut hand, where each hill is to be; if for small sorts, then about half that quantity, spreading it over a circle about a foot in diameter; the second man follows with a pronged hoe, or better yet, a six-tined fork, with which he works the guano well into the soil, first turning it three or four inches under the surface, and then stirring the soil _very thoroughly_ with the hoe or fork. Unless the guano (and this is also true of most fertilizers) is faithfully mixed up with the soil, the seed will not vegetate. Give the second man about an hour the start, and then let the third man follow with the seed. Of other fertilizers, I use about half as much again as of guano to each hill, and of hen manure a heaping handful, after it has been finely broken up, and, if moist, slightly mixed with dry earth. When salt is used, it should not be depended on exclusively, but be used in connection with other manures, at the rate of from ten to fifteen bushels to the acre, applied broadcast over the ground, or thoroughly mixed with the manure before that is applied; if dissolved in the manure, better yet. Salt itself is not a manure. Its principal office is to change other materials into plant food. Fish and glue waste are exceedingly powerful manures, very rich in ammonia, and, if used the first season, they should be in compost. It is best to handle fish waste, such as heads, entrails, backbones, and liver waste, precisely like night soil. "Porgy cheese," or "chum," the refuse, after pressing out the oil from menhaden and halibut heads, and sometimes sold extensively for manure, is best prepared for use by composting it with muck or loam, layer with layer, at the rate of a barrel to every foot and a half, cord measure, of soil. As soon as it shows some heat, turn it, and repeat the process, two or three times, until it is well decomposed, when apply. Another excellent way to use fish waste is to compost it with barn manure, in the open fields. It will be best to have six inches of soil under the heap, and not layer the fish with the lower half of the manure, for it strikes down. Glue waste is a very coarse, lumpy manure, and requires a great deal of severe manipulation, if it is to be applied the first season. A better way is to compost it with soil, layer with layer, having each layer about a foot in thickness, and so allow it to remain over until the next season, before using. This will decompose most of the straw, and break down the hard, tough lumps. In applying this to the crop, most of it had better be used broadcast, as it is apt, at best, to be rather too coarse and concentrated to be used liberally directly in the hill. Slaughter-house manure should be treated much like glue manure. Mr. Proctor, of Beverly, has raised cabbage successfully on strong clay soil, by spreading a compost of muck containing fish waste, in which the fish is well decomposed, at the rate of two tons of the fish to an acre of land, after plowing, and then, having made his furrows at the right distance apart, harrowing the land thoroughly crossways with the furrows. The result was, besides mixing the manure thoroughly with the soil, to land an extra proportion of it in the furrows, which was equivalent to manuring in the drill. Cabbage can be raised on fertilizers alone. I have raised some crops in this way; but have been led to plow in from four to six cords of good manure to the acre, and then use from five hundred to a thousand pounds of some good fertilizer in the hill. The reason I prefer to use a portion of the cabbage food in the form of manure, is, that I have noticed that when the attempt is made to raise the larger drumhead varieties on fertilizers only, the cabbages, just as the heads are well formed, are apt to come nearly to a standstill. I explain this on the supposition that they exhaust most of the fertilizer, or some one of the ingredients that enter into it, during the earlier stage of growth; perhaps from the fact that the food is in so easily digestible condition, they use an over share of it, and the fact that those fed on fertilizers only, tend to grow longer stumped than usual, appears to give weight to this opinion. Though any good fertilizer is good for cabbage, yet I prefer those compounded on the basis of an analysis of the composition of the plants; they should contain the three ingredients, nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid, in the proportion of six, seven, five, taking them in the order in which I have written them. MAKING THE HILLS AND PLANTING THE SEED. The idea is quite prevalent that cabbages will not head up well except the plants are started in beds, and then transplanted into the hills where they are to mature. This is an error, so far as it applies to the Northern States,--the largest and most experienced cultivators of cabbage in New England usually dropping the seed directly where the plant is to stand, unless they are first started under glass, or the piece of land to be planted cannot be prepared in season to enable the farmer to put his seed directly in the hill and yet give the cabbage time sufficient to mature. Where the climate is unpropitious, or the quantity of manure applied is insufficient, it is possible that transplanting may promote heading. The advantages of planting directly in the hill, are a saving of time, avoiding the risks incidental to transplanting, and having all the piece start alike; for, when transplanted, many die and have to be replaced, while some hesitate much longer than others before starting, thus making a want of uniformity in the maturing of the crop. There is, also, this advantage, there being several plants in each hill, the cut-worm has to depredate pretty severely before he really injures the piece; again, should the seed not vegetate in any of the hills, every farmer will appreciate the advantage of having healthy plants growing so near at hand that they can be transferred to the vacant spaces with their roots so undisturbed that their growth is hardly checked. In addition to the labor of transplanting saved by this plan, the great check that plants always receive when so treated is prevented, and also the extra risks that occur should a season of drouth follow. It is the belief of some farmers, that plants growing where the seed was planted are less liable to be destroyed by the cut-worm than those that have been transplanted. When planning to raise late cabbage on upland, I sow a portion of the seed on a moist spot, or, in case a portion of the land is moist, I plant the hills on such land with an extra quantity of seed, that I may have enough plants for the whole piece, should the weather prove to be too dry for the seed to vegetate on the dryer portions of it. It is wise to sow these extra plants about a week earlier, for they will be put back about a week by transplanting them. Some of our best farmers drill their seed in with a sowing machine, such as is used for onions, carrots, and other vegetable crops. This is a very expeditious way, and has the advantage of leaving the plants in rows instead of bunches, as in the hill system, and thus enables the hoe to do most of the work of thinning. It has also this advantage: each plant being by itself can be left much longer before thinning, and yet not grow long in the stump, thus making it available for transplanting, or for sale in the market, for a longer period. The usual way of preparing the hills is to strike out furrows with a small, one-horse plough, as far apart as the rows are to be. As it is very important that the rows should be as straight as practicable, it is a good plan to run back once in each furrow, particularly on sod land where the plough will be apt to catch in the turf and jump out of line. A manure team follows, containing the dressing for the hills, which has previously been pitched over and beaten up until all the ingredients are fine and well mixed. This team is so driven, if possible, as to avoid running in the furrows. Two or three hands follow with forks or shovels, pitching the manure into the furrows at the distance apart that has been determined on for the hills. How far apart these are to be will depend on the varieties, from eighteen inches to four feet. On land that has been very highly manured for a series of years, cabbage can be planted nearer than on land that has been under the plow but a few years. For the distance apart for different varieties see farther on. The manure is levelled with hoes, a little soil is drawn over it, and a slight stamp with the back of the hoe is given to level this soil, and, at the same time, to mark the hill. The planter follows with seed in a tin box, or any small vessel having a broad bottom, and taking a small pinch between the thumb and forefinger he gives a slight scratch with the remaining fingers of the same hand, and dropping in about half a dozen seed covers them half an inch deep with a sweep of the hand, and packs the earth by a gentle pat with the open palm to keep the moisture in the ground and thus promote the vegetation of the seed. With care a quarter of a pound of seed will plant an acre, when dropped directly in the hills; but half a pound is the common allowance, as there is usually some waste from spilling, while most laborers plant with a free hand. The soil over the hills being very light and porous, careless hands are apt to drop the seed too deep. Care should be taken not to drop the seed all in one spot, but to scatter them over a surface of two or three inches square, that each plant may have room to develop without crowding its neighbors. If the seed is planted in a line instead of in a mass the plants can be left longer before the final thinning without danger of growing tall and weak. If the seed is to be drilled in, it will be necessary to scatter the manure all along the furrows, then cover with a plough, roughly leveling with a rake. Should the compost applied to the hills be very concentrated, it will be apt to produce stump foot; it will, therefore, be safest in such cases to hollow out the middle with the corner of the hoe, or draw the hoe through and fill in with earth, that the roots of the young plants may not come in direct contact with the compost as soon as they begin to push. When guano or phosphates are used in the hills it will be well to mark out the rows with a plough, and then, where each hill is to be, fill in the soil level to the surface with a hoe, before applying them. I have, in a previous paragraph, given full instructions how to apply these. Hen manure, if moist, should be broken up very fine, and be mixed with some dry earth to prevent it from again lumping together, and the mixture applied in sufficient quantity to make an equivalent of a heaping handful of pure hen manure to each hill. Any liquid manure is excellent for the cabbage crop; but it should be well diluted, or it will be likely to produce stump foot. Cabbage seed of almost all varieties are nearly round in form, but are not so spherical as turnip seed. I note, however, that seed of the Savoys are nearly oval. In color they are light brown when first gathered, but gradually turn dark brown if not gathered too early. An ounce contains nearly ten thousand seed, but should not be relied upon for many over two thousand good plants, and these are available for about as many hills only when raised in beds and transplanted; when dropped directly in the hills it will take not far from eight ounces of the larger sorts to plant an acre, and of the smaller cabbage rather more than this. Cabbage seed when well cured and kept in close bags will retain their vitality four or five years; old gardeners prefer seed of all the cabbage family two or three years old. When the plan is to raise the young plants in beds to be transplanted, the ground selected for the beds should be of rich soil; this should be very thoroughly dug, and the surface worked and raked very fine, every stone and lump of earth being removed. Now sprinkle the seed evenly over the bed and gently rake in just under the surface, compacting the soil by pressure with a board. As soon as the young plants appear, sprinkle them with air-slaked lime. Transplant when three or four inches high, being very careful not to let the plants get tall and weak. For late cabbage, in the latitude of Boston, to have cabbages ready for market about the first of November, the Marblehead Mammoth should be planted the 20th of May, other late drumheads from June 1st to June 12th, provided the plants are not to be transplanted; otherwise a week earlier. In those localities where the growing season is later, the seed should be planted proportionally later. CARE OF THE YOUNG PLANTS. In four or five days, if the weather is propitious, the young plants will begin to break ground, presenting at the surface two leaves, which together make nearly a square, like the first leaves of turnips or radishes. As soon as the third leaf is developed, go over the piece, and boldly thin out the plants. Wherever they are very thick, pull a mass of them with the fingers and thumb, being careful to fill up the hole made with fine earth. After the fourth leaf is developed, go over the piece again and thin still more; you need specially to guard against a slender, weak growth, which will happen when the plants are too crowded. In thinning, leave the short-stumped plants, and leave them as far apart in the hill as possible, that they may not shade each other, or so interfere in growing as to make long stumps. If there is any market for young plants, thousands can be sold from an acre when the seed are planted in the hill; but in doing this bear in mind that your principal object is to raise cabbages, and to succeed in this the young plants must on no account be allowed to stand so long together in the hills as to crowd each other, making a tall, weak, slender growth,--getting "long-legged," as the farmers call it. If the manure in any of the hills is too strong, the fact will be known by its effects on the plants, which will be checked in their growth, and be of a darker green color than the healthy plants. Gently pull away the earth from the roots of such with the fingers, and draw around fresh earth; or, what is as well or better, transplant a healthy plant just on the edge of the hill. When the plants are finger high they are of a good size to transplant into such hills as have missed, or to market. When transplanting, select a rainy day, if possible, and do not begin until sufficient rain has fallen to moisten the earth around the roots, which will make it more likely to adhere to them when taken up. Take up the young plants by running the finger or a trowel under them; put these into a flat basket or box, and in transplanting set them to the same depth they originally grew, pressing the earth a little about the roots. If it is necessary to do the transplanting in a dry spell, as usually happens, select the latter part of the afternoon, if practicable, and, making holes with a dibble, or any pointed stick an inch and a half in diameter, fill these holes, a score or more at a time, with water; and as soon as the water is about soaked away, beginning with the hole first filled, set out your plants. The evaporation of the moisture below the roots will keep them moist until they get a hold. Cabbage plants have great tenacity of life, and will rally and grow when they appear to be dead; the leaves may all die, and dry up like hay, but if the stump stands erect and the unfolded leaf at the top of the stump is alive, the plant will usually survive. When the plants are quite large, they may be used successfully by cutting or breaking off the larger leaves. Some advocate wilting the plants before transplanting, piling them in the cellar a few days before setting them out, to toughen them and get a new setting of fine roots; others challenge their vigor by making it a rule to do all transplanting under the heat of mid-day. I think there is not much of reason in this latter course. The young plants can be set out almost as fast as a man can walk, by holding the roots close to one side of the hole made by the dibble, and at the same moment pressing earth against them with the other hand. PROTECTING THE PLANTS FROM THEIR ENEMIES. As soon as they have broken through the soil, an enemy awaits them in the small black insect commonly known as the cabbage or turnip fly, beetle, or flea. This insect, though so small as to appear to the eye as a black dot, is very voracious and surprisingly active. He apparently feeds on the juice of the young plant, perforating it with small holes the size of a pin point. He is so active when disturbed that his motions cannot be followed by the eye, and his sense of danger is so keen that only by cautiously approaching the plant can he be seen at all. The delay of a single day in protecting the young plants from his ravages will sometimes be the destruction of nearly the entire piece. Wood ashes and air-slaked lime, sprinkled upon the plants while the leaves are moist from either rain or dew, afford almost complete protection. The lime or ashes should be applied as soon as the plant can be seen, for then, when they are in their tenderest condition, the fly is most destructive. I am not certain that the alkaline nature of these affords the protection, or whether a mere covering by common dust might not answer equally well. Should the covering be washed off by rain, apply it anew immediately after the rain has ceased, and so continue to keep the young plants covered until the third or fourth leaves are developed when they will have become too tough to serve as food for this insect enemy. A new enemy much dreaded by all cabbage raisers will begin to make his appearance about the time the flea disappears, known as the cut-worm. This worm is of a dusky brown color, with a dark colored head, and varies in size up to about two inches in length. He burrows in the ground just below the surface, is slow of motion, and does his mischievous work at night, gnawing off the young plants close at the surface of the ground. This enemy is hard to battle with. If the patch be small, these worms can be scratched out of their hiding places by pulling the earth carefully away the following morning for a few inches around the stump of the plant destroyed, when the rascals will usually be found half coiled together. Dropping a little wood ashes around the plants close to the stumps is one of the best of remedies; its alkaline properties burning his nose I presume. A tunnel of paper put around the stump but not touching it, and sunk just below the surface, is recommended as efficacious; and from the habits of the worm I should think it would prove so. Perpendicular holes four inches deep and an inch in diameter is said to catch and hold them as effectively as do the pit falls of Africa the wild animals. Late planted cabbage will suffer little or none from this pest, as he disappears about the middle of June. Some seasons they are remarkably numerous, making it necessary to replant portions of the cabbage patch several times over. I have heard of as many as twenty being dug at different times the same season out of one cabbage hill. The farmer who tilled that patch earned his dollars. When the cabbage has a stump the size of a pipe stem it is beyond the destructive ravages of the cut-worm, and should it escape stump foot has usually quite a period of growth free from the attacks of enemies. Should the season prove unpropitious and the plant be checked in its growth, it will be apt to become "lousy," as the farmers term it, referring to its condition when attacked by a small green insect known as aphidæ, which preys upon it in myriads; when this is the case the leaves lose their bright green, turn of a bluish cast, the leaf stocks lose somewhat of their supporting powers, the leaves curl up into irregular shapes, and the lower layer turns black and drops off, while the ground under the plant appears covered with the casts or bodies of the insects as with a white powder. When in this condition the plants are in a very bad way. Considering the circumstances under which this insect appears, usually in a very dry season, I hold that it is rather the product than the cause of disease, as with the bark louse on our apple-trees; as a remedy I advocate sprinkling the plants with air-slaked lime, watering, if possible, and a frequent and thorough stirring of the soil with the cultivator and hoe. The better the opportunities the cabbage have to develop themselves through high manuring, sufficient moisture, good drainage, and thorough cultivation, the less liable they are to be "lousy." As the season advances there will sometimes be found patches eaten out of the leaves, leaving nothing but the skeleton of leaf veins; an examination will show a band of caterpillars of a light green color at work, who feed in a compact mass, oftentimes a square, with as much regularity as though under the best of military discipline. The readiest way to dispose of them is to break off the leaf and crush them under foot. The common large red caterpillar occasionally preys on the plants, eating large holes in the leaves, especially about the head. When the cabbage plot is bordered by grass land, in seasons when grasshoppers are plenty, they will frequently destroy the outer rows, puncturing the leaves with small holes, and feeding on them until little besides their skeletons remain. In isolated locations rabbits and other vegetable feeders sometimes commit depredations. The snare and the shot-gun are the remedy for these. Other insects that prey upon the cabbage tribe, in their caterpillar state, are the cabbage moth, white-line, brown-eyed moth, large white garden butterfly, white and green veined butterfly. All of these produce caterpillars, which can be destroyed either by application of air-slaked lime, or by removing the leaves infested and crushing the intruders under foot. The cabbage-fly, father-long-legs, the millipedes, the blue cabbage-fly, brassy cabbage-flea, and two or three other insect enemies are mentioned by McIntosh as infesting the cabbage fields of England; also three species of fungi known as white rust, mildew, and _cylindrosporium concentricum_; these last are destroyed by the sprinkling of air-slaked lime on the leaves. In this country, along the sea coast of the northern section, in open-ground cultivation, there is comparatively but little injury done by these marauders, which are the cause of so much annoyance and loss to our English cousins. THE GREEN WORM. A new and troublesome enemy to the cabbage tribe which has made its appearance within a few years, and spread rapidly over a large section of the country, is a green worm, _Anthomia brassicæ_. This pest infests the cabbage tribe at all stages of its growth; it is believed to have been introduced into this country from Europe, by the way of Canada, where it was probably brought in a lot of cabbage. It is the caterpillar of a white butterfly with black spots on its wings. In Europe, this butterfly is preyed on by two or more parasites, which keep it somewhat in check; but its remarkably rapid increase in this country, causing a wail of lamentation to rise in a single season from the cabbage growers over areas of tens of thousands of square miles, proved that when it first appeared it had reached this country without its attendant parasites. Besides this green worm, there are found in Europe four varieties of caterpillar variously marked, the caterpillars from all of which make great havoc among the cabbage tribe. The most effective destroyer of this, and about every other insect pest, is what is known as the "Kerosene Emulsion." This is made by churning common kerosene with milk or soap until it is diffused through the liquid. Take one quart of kerosene oil and pour it into a pint of hot water in which an ounce of common soap has been dissolved; churn this briskly while hot (a force pump is excellent for this), and, when well mixed, which will be in a few minutes, it will be of a creamy consistency; mix one quart to ten or twelve of cold water, and spray or sprinkle it over the plants with a force-pump syringe or a whisk broom. Another remedy is pyrethrum. Use that which is fresh; either blowing it on in a dry state with a bellows, wherever the worm appears, or using it diluted, at the rate of a tablespoonful to two gallons of water; applying as with the kerosene emulsion. Mr. A. S. Fuller, who is good authority on garden matters, succeeds by applying tar-water. Place a couple of quarts of coal tar in a barrel and fill with water; let it stand forty-eight hours, then dip off, and apply with a watering-pot, or syringe. Chickens allowed to run freely among the growing plants, the hen being confined in a movable coop, if once attracted to them will fatten on them. This remedy might answer very well for small plots. Large areas in cabbage, in proportion to their size are, as a rule, far less injured by insect enemies than small patches. The worm is of late years less troublesome in the North than formerly. CLUB OR STUMP FOOT AND MAGGOT. The great dread of every cabbage grower is a disease of the branching roots, producing a bunchy, gland-like enlargement, known in different localities under the name of club foot, stump foot, underground head, finger and thumb. The result is a check in the ascent of the sap, which causes a defective vitality. There are two theories as to the origin of club foot; one that it is a disease caused by poor soil, bad cultivation, and unsuitable manures; the other that the injury is done by an insect enemy, _Curculio contractus_. It is held by some that the maggots at the root are the progeny of the cabbage flea. This I doubt. This insect, "piercing the skin of the root, deposits its eggs in the holes, lives during a time on the sap of the plant, and then escapes and buries itself for a time in the soil." If the wart, or gland-like excrescence, is seen while transplanting, throw all such plants away, unless your supply is short; in such case, carefully trim off all the diseased portions with a sharp knife. If the disease is in the growing crop, it will be made evident by the drooping of the leaves under the mid-day sun, leaves of diseased plants drooping more than those of healthy ones, while they will usually have a bluer cast. Should this disease show itself, set the cultivator going immediately, and follow with the hoe, drawing up fresh earth around the plants, which will encourage them to form new fibrous roots; should they do this freely, the plants will be saved, as the attacks of the insect are usually confined to the coarse, branching roots. Should the disease prevail as late as when the plants have reached half their growth, the chances are decidedly against raising a paying crop. When the land planted is too wet, or the manure in the hill is too strong, this dreaded disease is liable to be found on any soil; but it is most likely to manifest itself on soils that have been previously cropped with cabbage, turnip, or some other member of the Brassica family. Farmers find that, as a rule, _it is not safe to follow cabbage, ruta baga, or any of the Brassica family, with cabbage, unless three or four years have intervened between the crops_; and I have known an instance in growing the Marblehead Mammoth, where, though five years had intervened, that portion of the piece occupied by the previous crop could be distinctly marked off by the presence of club-foot. Singular as it may appear, old gardens are an exception to this rule. While it is next to impossible to raise, in old gardens, a fair turnip, free from club-foot, cabbages may be raised year after year on the same soil with impunity, or, at least, with but trifling injury from that disease. This seems to prove, contrary to English authority, that club-foot in the turnip tribe is the effect of a different cause from the same disease in the cabbage family. There is another position taken by Stephens in his "Book of the Farm," which facts seem to disprove. He puts forth the theory that "all such diseases arise from poverty of the soil, either from want of manure when the soil is naturally poor, or rendered effete by over-cropping." There is a farm on a neck of land belonging to this town (Marblehead, Mass.), which has peculiar advantages for collecting sea kelp and sea moss, and these manures are there used most liberally, particularly in the cultivation of cabbage, from eight to twelve cords of rotten kelp, which is stronger than barn manure, and more suitable food for cabbage, being used to the acre. A few years ago, on a change of tenants, the new incumbent heavily manured a piece for cabbage, and planted it; but, as the season advanced, stump-foot developed in every cabbage on one side of the piece, while all the remainder were healthy. Upon inquiry, he learned that, by mistake, he had overlapped the cabbage plot of last season just so far as the stump-foot extended. In this instance, it could not have been that the cabbage suffered for want of food; for, not only was the piece heavily manured that year and the year previous, but it had been liberally manured through a series of years, and, to a large extent, with the manure which, of all others, the cabbage tribe delight in, rotten kelp and sea mosses. I have known other instances where soil, naturally quite strong, and kept heavily manured for a series of years, has shown stump-foot when cabbage were planted, with intervals of two and three years between. My theory is, that the _mere presence of the cabbage_ causes stump-foot on succeeding crops grown on the same soil. This is proved by the fact that where a piece of land in grass, close adjoining a piece of growing cabbage, had been used for stripping them for market, when this was broken up the next season and planted to cabbage, stump-foot appeared only on that portion where the waste leaves fell the year previous. I have another instance to the same point, told me by an observing farmer, that, on a piece of sod land, on which he ran his cultivator the year previous, when turning his horse every time he had cultivated a row, he had stump-footed cabbage the next season just as far as that cultivator went, dragging, of course, a few leaves and a little earth from the cabbage piece with it. Still, though the mere presence of cabbage causes stump-foot, it is a fact, that, under certain conditions, cabbage can be grown on the same piece of land year after year successfully, with but very little trouble from stump-foot. In this town (Marblehead), though, as I have stated, we cannot, on our farms, follow cabbage with cabbage, even with the highest of manuring and cultivation, yet in the gardens of the town, on the same kind of soil (and our soil is green stone and syenite, not naturally containing lime), there are instances where cabbage has been successfully followed by cabbage, on the same spot, for a quarter of a century and more. In the garden of an aged citizen of this town, cabbages have been raised _on the same spot of land_ for over half a century. The cause of stump foot cannot, therefore, be found in the poverty of the soil, either from want of manure or its having been rendered effete from over cropping. It is evident that by long cultivation soils gradually have diffused through them something that proves inimical to the disease that produces stump foot. I will suggest as probable that the protection is afforded by the presence of some alkali that old gardens are constantly acquiring through house waste which is always finding its way there, particularly the slops from the sink, which abound in potash. This is rendered further probable from the fact given by Mr. Peter Henderson, that, on soils in this vicinity, naturally abounding in lime, cabbage can be raised year following year with almost immunity from stump foot. He ascribes this to the effects of lime in the soil derived from marine shells, and recommends that lime from bones be used to secure the same protection; but the lime that enters into the composition of marine shells is for the most part carbonate of lime, whereas the greater portion of that which enters into the composition of bones is phosphate of lime. Common air-slaked lime is almost pure carbonate of lime, and hence comes nearer to the composition of marine shells than lime from bones, and, being much cheaper, would appear to be preferable. An able farmer told me that by using wood ashes liberally he could follow with cabbage the next season on the same piece. One experiment of my own in this direction did not prove successful, where ashes at the rate of two hundred bushels to the acre were used; and I have an impression that I have read of a like want of success after quite liberal applications of lime. In a more recent experiment, on a gravelly loam on one of my seed farms in Middleton, Mass., where two hundred bushels of unleached ashes were used per acre, three-fourths broadcast, I have had complete success, raising as good a crop as I ever grew the second year on the same land, without a single stump foot on half an acre. Still, it remains evident, I think, that nature prevents stump foot by the diffusing of alkalies through the soil, and I mistrust that the reason why we sometimes fail with the same remedies is that we have them mixed, rather than intimately combined, with the particles of soil. The roots of young plants are sometimes attacked by a maggot, though there is no club root present. A remedy for this is said to be in the burying of a small piece of bi-sulphide of carbon within a few inches of the diseased plant. I have never tried it, but know that there is no better insecticide. As I have stated under another head, an attack of club foot is almost sure to follow the use of pure hog manure, whether it be used broadcast or in the hill. About ten years ago I ventured to use hog manure nearly pure, spread broadcast and ploughed in. Stump foot soon showed itself. I cultivated and hoed the cabbage thoroughly; then, as they still appeared sickly, I had the entire piece thoroughly dug over with a six-tined fork, pushing it as deep or deeper into the soil than the plough had gone, to bring up the manure to the surface; but all was of no use; I lost the entire crop. Yet, on another occasion, stable manure on which hogs had been kept at the rate of two hogs to each animal, gave me one of the finest lots of cabbage I ever raised. CARE OF THE GROWING CROP. As soon as the young plants are large enough to be seen with the naked eye, in with the cultivator and go and return once in each row, being careful not to have any lumps of earth cover the plants. Follow the cultivator immediately with the hoe, loosening the soil about the hills. The old rule with farmers is to cultivate and hoe cabbage three times during their growth, and it is a rule that works very well where the crop is in good growing condition; but if the manure is deficient, the soil bakes, or the plants show signs of disease, then cultivate and hoe once or twice extra. "Hoe cabbage when wet," is another farmer's axiom. In a small garden patch the soil may be stirred among the plants as often as may be convenient: it can do no harm; cabbages relish tending, though it is not necessary to do this every day, as one enthusiastic cultivator evidently thought, who declared that, by hoeing his cabbages every morning, he had succeeded in raising capital heads. If a season of drouth occurs when the cabbages have begun to head, the heads will harden prematurely; and then should a heavy rain fall, they will start to make a new growth, and the consequence will be many of them will split. Split or bursted cabbage are a source of great loss to the farmer, and this should be carefully guarded against by going frequently over the piece when the heads are setting, and starting every cabbage that appears to be about mature. A stout-pronged potato hoe applied just under the leaves, and a pull given sufficient to start the roots on one side, will accomplish what is needed. If cabbage that have once been started seem still inclined to burst, start the roots on the other side. Instead of a hoe they may be pushed over with the foot, or with the hand. Frequently, heads that are thus started will grow to double the size they had attained when about to burst. There is a marked difference in this habit in different varieties of cabbage. I find that the Hard-heading is less inclined to burst its head than any of the kinds I raise. MARKETING THE CROP. When preparing for market cabbages that have been kept over winter, particularly if they are marketed late in the season, the edges of the leaves of some of the heads will be found to be more or less decayed; do not strip such leaves off, but with a sharp knife cut clean off the decayed edges. The earlier the variety the sooner it needs to be marketed, for, as a rule, cabbages push their shoots in the spring in the order of their earliness. If they have not been sufficiently protected from the cold, the stumps will often rot off close to the head, and sometimes the rot will include the part of the stump that enters the head. If the watery-looking portion can be cut clean out, the head is salable; otherwise it will be apt to have an unpleasant flavor when cooked. As a rule, cabbages for marketing should be trimmed into as compact a form as possible; the heads should be cut off close to the stump, leaving two or three spare leaves to protect them. They may be brought out of the piece in bushel baskets, and be piled on the wagon as high as a hay stack, being kept in place by a stout canvas sheet tied closely down. In the markets of Boston, in the fall of the year, they are usually sold at a price agreed upon by the hundred head; this will vary not only with the size and quality of the cabbage, but with the season, the crop, and the quality in market on that particular day. Within a few years I have known the range of price for the Stone Mason or Fottler cabbage, equal in size and quality, to be from $3 to $17 per hundred; for the Marblehead Mammoth from $6 to $25 per hundred. Cabbages brought to market in the spring are usually sold by weight or by the barrel, at from $1 to $4 per hundred pounds. The earliest cabbages carried to market sometimes bring extraordinary prices; and this has created a keen competition among market gardeners, each striving to produce the earliest, a difference of a week in marketing oftentimes making a difference of one half in the profits of the crop. Capt. Wyman, who controlled the Early Wyman cabbage for several years, sold some seasons thirty thousand heads if my memory serves me, at pretty much his own price. As a rule, it is the very early and the very late cabbages that sell most profitably. Should the market for very late cabbages prove a poor one, the farmer is not compelled to sell them, no matter at what sacrifice, as would be the case a month earlier; he can pit them, and so keep them over to the early spring market which is almost always a profitable one. In marketing in spring it should be the aim to make sale before the crops of spring greens become plenty, as these replace the cabbage on many tables. By starting cabbage in hot beds a crop of celery or squashes may follow them the same season. KEEPING CABBAGES THROUGH THE WINTER. In the comparatively mild climate of England, where there are but few days in the winter months that the ground remains frozen to any depth, the hardy cabbage grows all seasons of the year, and turnips left during winter standing in the ground are fed to sheep by yarding them over the different portions of the field. With the same impunity, in the southern portion of our own country, the cabbages are left unprotected during the winter months; and, in the warmer portions of the South they are principally a winter crop. As we advance farther North, we find that the degree of protection needed is afforded by running the plough along each side of the rows, turning the earth against them, and dropping a little litter on top of the heads. As we advance still farther northward, we find sufficient protection given by but little more than a rough roof of boards thrown over the heads, after removing the cabbages to a sheltered spot and setting them in the ground as near together as they will stand without being in contact, with the tops of the heads just level with the surface. In the latitude of central New England, cabbages are not secure from injury from frost with less than a foot of earth thrown over the heads. In mild winters a covering of half that depth will be sufficient; but as we have no prophets to foretell our mild winters, a foot of earth is safer than six inches. Where eel-grass can be procured along the sea coast, or there is straw or coarse hay to spare, the better plan is to cover with about six inches of earth, and when this is frozen sufficiently hard to bear a man's weight (which is usually about Thanksgiving time), to scatter over it the eel-grass, forest leaves, straw, or coarse hay, to the depth of another six inches. Eel-grass, which grows on the sandy flats under the ocean along the coast, is preferred to any other covering as it lays light and keeps in dead air which is a non-conductor of heat. Forest leaves are next in value; but snow and water are apt to get among these and freezing solid destroy most of their protecting value. When I use forest leaves, I cover them with coarse hay, and add branches of trees to prevent its being blown away. In keeping cabbages through the winter, three general facts should be borne in mind, viz.: that repeated freezing and thawing will cause them to rot; that excessive moisture or warmth will also cause rot; while a dry air, such as is found in most cellars, will abstract moisture from the leaves, injure the flavor of the cabbage, and cause some of the heads to wilt, and the harder heads to waste. In the Middle States we have mostly to fear the wet of winter, and the plan for keeping for that section should, therefore, have particularly in view protection from moisture, while in the Northern States we have to fear the cold of winter, and, consequently, our plan must there have specially in view protection from cold. When storing for winter, select a dry day, if possible, sufficiently long after rainy weather to have the leaves free of water,--otherwise they will spout it on to you, and make you the wettest and muddiest scarecrow ever seen off a farm,--then strip all the outer leaves from the head but the two last rows, which are needed to protect it. This may be readily done by drawing in these two rows toward the head with the left hand, while a blow is struck against the remaining leaves with the fist of the right hand. Next pull up the cabbages, which, if they are of the largest varieties, may be expeditiously done by a potato hoe. If they are not intended for seed purposes, stand the heads down and stumps up until the earth on the roots is somewhat dry, when it can be mostly removed by sharp blows against the stump given with a stout stick. In loading do not bruise the heads. Select the place for keeping them in a dry, level location, and, if in the North, a southern exposure, where no water can stand and there can be no wash. To make the pit, run the plough along from two to four furrows, and throw out the soil with the shovel to the requisite depth, which may be from six to ten inches; now, if the design is to roof over the pit, the cabbages may be put in as thickly as they will stand; if the heads are solid they may be either head up or stump up, and two layers deep; but if the heads are soft, then heads up and one deep, and not crowded very close, that they may have room to make heads during the winter. Having excavated an area twelve by six feet, set a couple of posts in the ground midway at each end, projecting about five feet above the surface; connect the two by a joist secured firmly to the top of each, and against this, extending to the ground just outside the pit, lay slabs, boards or poles, and cover the roof that will be thus formed with six inches of straw or old hay, and, if in the North, throw six or eight inches of earth over this. Leave one end open for entrance and to air the pit, closing the other end with straw or hay. In the North close both ends, opening one of them occasionally in mild weather. When cabbages are pitted on a large scale this system of roofing is too costly and too cumbersome. A few thousand may be kept in a cool root cellar, by putting one layer heads down, and standing another layer heads up between these. Within a few years farmers in the vicinity of Lowell, Mass., have preserved their cabbages over winter, on a large scale, by a new method, with results that have been very satisfactory. They cut off that portion of the stump which contains the root; strip off most of the outer leaves, and then pile the cabbages in piles, six or eight feet high, in double rows, with boards to keep them apart, in cool cellars, which are built half out of ground. The temperature of these, by the judicious opening and closing of windows, is kept as nearly as possibly at the freezing point. The common practice in the North, when many thousands are to be stored for winter and spring sales, is to select a southern exposure having the protection of a fence or wall, if practicable, and, turning furrows with the plough, throw out the earth with shovels, to the depth of about six inches; the cabbages, stripped as before described, are then stored closely together, and straw or coarse hay is thrown over them to the depth of a foot or eighteen inches. Protected thus they are accessible for market at any time during the winter. If the design is to keep them over till spring, the covering may be first six inches of earth, to be followed, as cold increases, with six inches of straw, litter, or eel-grass. This latter is my own practice, with the addition of leaving a ridge of earth between every three or four rows, to act as a support and keep the cabbages from falling over. I am, also, careful to bring the cabbages to the pit as soon as pulled, with the earth among the roots as little disturbed as possible; and, should the roots appear to be dry, to throw a little earth over them after the cabbages are set in the trench. The few loose leaves remaining will prevent the earth from sifting down between the heads, and the air chambers thus made answer a capital purpose in keeping out the cold, as air is one of the best non-conductors of heat. It is said that muck-soil, when well drained, is an excellent one to bury cabbage in, as its antiseptic properties preserve them from decay. If the object is to preserve the cabbage for market purposes only, the heads may be buried in the same position in which they grew, or they may be inverted, the stump having no value in itself; but if for seed purposes, they must be buried head up, as, whatever injures the stump, spoils the whole cabbage for that object. I store between ten and fifty thousand heads annually to raise seed from, and carry them through till planting time with a degree of success varying from a loss, for seed purposes, of from one-half to thirty-three per cent. of the number buried; but, if handled early in spring, many that would be worthless for seed purposes, could be profitably marketed. A few years since, I buried a lot with a depth varying from one to four feet, and found, on uncovering them in the spring, that all had kept, and apparently equally well. In the winter of 1868, excessively cold weather came very early and unexpectedly, before my cabbage plot had received its full covering of litter. The consequence was, the frost penetrated so deep that it froze through the heads into the stumps, and, when spring came, a large portion of them came out spoiled for seed purposes, though most of them sold readily in the market. A cabbage is rendered worthless for seed when the frost strikes through the stump where it joins the head; and though, to the unpractised eye, all may appear right, yet, if the heart of the stump has a water-soaked appearance on being cut into, it will almost uniformly decay just below the head in the course of a few weeks after having been planted out. If there is a probability that the stumps have been frozen through, examine the plot early, and, if it proves so, sell the cabbages for eating purposes, no matter how sound and handsome the heads look; if you delay until time for planting out the cabbage for seed, meanwhile much waste will occur. I once lost heavily in Marblehead Mammoth cabbage by having them buried on a hill-side with a gentle slope. In the course of the winter they fell over on their sides, which let down the soil from above, and, closing the air-chambers between them, brought the huge heads into a mass, and the result was, a large proportion of them rotted badly. At another time, I lost a whole plot by burying them in soil between ledges of rock, which kept the ground very wet when spring opened; the consequence was, every cabbage rotted. If the heads are frozen more than two or three leaves deep before they are pitted they will not come out so handsome in the spring; but cabbages are very hardy, and they readily rally from a little freezing, either in the open ground or after they are buried, though it is best, when they are frozen in the open ground, to let them remain there until the frost comes out before removing them, if it can be done without too much risk of freezing still deeper, as they handle better then, for, being tougher, the leaves are not so easily broken. If the soil is frozen to any depth before the cabbages are removed, the roots will be likely to be injured in the pulling, a matter of no consequence if the cabbages are intended for market, but of some importance if they are for seed raising. Large cabbages are more easily pulled by giving them a little twist; if for seed purposes, this should be avoided, as it injures the stump. A small lot, that are to be used within a month, can be kept hung up by the stump in the cellar of a dwelling-house; they will keep in this way until spring; but the outer leaves will dry and turn yellow, the heads shrink some in size, and be apt to lose in quality. Some practise putting clean chopped straw in the bottom of a box or barrel, wetting it, and covering with heads trimmed ready for cooking, adding again wet straw and a layer of heads, so alternating until the barrel or box is filled, after which it is headed up and kept in a cool place, at, or a little below, the freezing point. No doubt this is an excellent way to preserve a small lot, as it has the two essentials to success, keeping them cool and moist. Instead of burying them in an upright position, after a deep furrow has been made the cabbages are sometimes laid on their sides two deep, with their roots at the bottom of the furrow, and covered with earth in this position. Where the winter climate is so mild that a shallow covering will be sufficient protection, this method saves much labor. HAVING CABBAGE MAKE HEADS IN WINTER. When a piece of drumhead has been planted very late (sometimes they are planted on ground broken up after a crop of hay has been taken from it the same season), there will be a per cent. of the plants when the growing season is over that have not headed. With care almost all of these can be made to head during the winter. A few years ago I selected my seed heads from a large piece and then sold the first "pick" of what remained at ten cents a head, the second at eight cents, and so down until all were taken for which purchasers were willing to give one cent each. Of course, after such a thorough selling out as this, there was not much in the shape of a head left. I now had what remained pulled up and carted away, doubtful whether to feed them to the cows or to set them out to head up during winter. As they were very healthy plants in the full vigor of growth, having rudimentary heads just gathering in, I determined to set them out. I had a pit dug deep enough to bring the tops of the heads, when the plants were stood upright as they grew, just above the surface of the ground; I then stood the cabbages in without breaking off any of the leaves, keeping the roots well covered with earth, having the plants far enough apart not to crowd each other very much, though so near as to press somewhat together the two outer circles of leaves. They were allowed to remain in this condition until it was cold enough to freeze the ground an inch in thickness, when a covering of coarse hay was thrown over them a couple of inches thick, and, as the cold increased in intensity, this covering was increased to ten or twelve inches in thickness, the additions being made at two or three intervals. In the spring I uncovered the lot, and found that nearly every plant had headed up. I sold the heads for four cents a pound; and these refuse cabbages averaged me about ten cents a head, which was the price my best heads brought me in the fall. I have seen thousands of cabbages in one lot, the refuse of several acres that had been planted on sod land broken up the same season a crop of hay had been taken from it, made to head by this course, and sold in the spring for $1.30 per barrel. When there is a large lot of such cabbages the most economical way to plant them will be in furrows made by the plough. Most of the bedding used in covering them, if it be as coarse as it ought to be to admit as much air as possible while it should not mat down on the cabbages, will, with care in drying, be again available for covering another season, or remain suitable for bedding purposes. These "winter-headed" cabbages, as they are called in the market, are not so solid and have more shrinkage to them than those headed in the open ground; hence they will not bear transportation as well, neither will they keep as long when exposed to the air. The effect of wintering cabbage by burying in the soil is to make them exceedingly tender for table use. VARIETIES OF CABBAGE. If a piece of land is planted with seed grown from two heads of cabbage the product will bear a striking resemblance to the two parent cabbages, with a third variety which will combine the characteristics of these two, yet the resemblance will be somewhat modified at times by a little more manure, a little higher culture, a little better location, and the addition of an individuality that particular vegetables occasionally take upon themselves which we designate by the word "sport." The "sports" when they occur are fixed and perpetuated with remarkable readiness in the cabbage family, as is proved by a great number of varieties in cultivation, which are the numerous progeny of one ancestor. The catalogues of the English and French seedsmen contain long lists of varieties, many of which (and this is especially true of the early kinds) are either the same variety under a different name or are different "strains" of the same variety produced by the careful selections of prominent market gardeners through a series of years. Every season I experiment with foreign and American varieties of cabbage to learn the characteristics of the different kinds, their comparative earliness, size, shape, and hardness of head, length of stump, and such other facts as would prove of value to market gardeners. There is one fact that every careful experimenter soon learns, that one season will not teach all that can be known relative to a variety, and that a number of specimens of each kind must be raised to enable one to make a fair comparison. It is amusing to read the dicta which appear in the agricultural press from those who have made but a single experiment with some vegetable; they proclaim more after a single trial than a cautious experimenter would dare to declare after years spent in careful observation. The year 1869 I raised over sixty varieties of cabbage, importing nearly complete suites of those advertised by the leading English and French seed houses, and collecting the principal kinds raised in this country. In the year 1888, I grew eighty-five different varieties and strains of cabbages and cauliflowers. I do not propose describing all these in this treatise or their comparative merits; of some of them I have yet something to learn, but I will endeavor to introduce with my description such notes as I think will prove of value to my fellow farmers and market gardeners. I will here say in general of the class of early cabbages, that most of them have elongated heads between ovoid and conical in form. They appear to lack in this country the sweetness and tenderness that characterize some varieties of our drumhead, and, consequently, in the North when the drumhead enters the market there is but a limited call for them. It may be well here to note a fundamental distinction between the drumhead cabbage of England and those of this country. In England the drumhead class are almost wholly raised to feed to stock. I venture the conjecture that owing in part, or principally, to the fact European gardeners have never had the motive, and, consequently, have never developed the full capacity of the drumhead as exampled by the fine varieties raised in this country. The securing of sorts reliable for heading being with them a matter of secondary consideration, seed is raised from stumps or any refuse heads that may be standing when spring comes round. For this reason English drumhead cabbage seed is better suited to raise a mass of leaves than heads, and always disappoints our American farmers who buy it because it is cheap with the expectation of raising cabbage for market. English-grown drumhead cabbage seed is utterly worthless for use in this country except to raise greens or collards. The following are foreign varieties that are accepted in this country as standards, and for years have been more or less extensively cultivated: EARLY YORK, EARLY OXHEART, EARLY WINNIGSTADT, RED DUTCH, RED DRUMHEAD. In my experience as a seed dealer, the Sugar Loaf and Oxheart are losing ground in the farming community, the Early Jersey Wakefield having, to a large extent, replaced them. ~Early York.~ Heads nearly ovoid, rather soft, with few waste leaves surrounding them, which are of a bright green color. Reliable for heading. Stump rather short. Plant two feet by eighteen inches. This cabbage has been cultivated in England over a hundred years. LITTLE PIXIE with me is earlier than Early York, as reliable for heading, heads much harder, and is of better flavor; the heads do not grow quite as large. ~Early Oxheart.~ Heads nearly egg-shaped, small, hard, few waste leaves, stumps short. A little later than Early York. Have the rows two feet apart, and the plants eighteen inches apart in the row. ~Early Winnigstadt.~ (A German cabbage.) Heads nearly conical in shape, having usually a twist of leaf at the top; larger than Oxheart, are harder than any of the early oblong heading cabbages; stumps middling short. Matures about ten days later than Early York. The Winnigstadt is remarkably reliable for heading, being not excelled in this respect when the seed has been raised with care, by any cabbage grown. It is a capital sort for early market outside our large cities, where the very early kinds are not so eagerly craved. It is so reliable for heading, that it will often make fine heads where other sorts fail; and I would advise all who have not succeeded in their efforts to grow cabbage, to try this before giving up their attempts. It is raised by some for winter use, and where the drumheads are not so successfully raised, I would advise my farmer friends to try the Winnigstadt, as the heads are so hard that they keep without much waste. Have rows two feet apart, and plant twenty inches to two feet apart in the rows. ~Red Dutch.~ Heads nearly conical, medium sized, hard, of a very deep red; outer leaves numerous, and not so red as the head, being somewhat mixed with green; stump rather long. This cabbage is usually planted too late; it requires nearly the whole season to mature. It is used for pickling, or cut up fine as a salad, served with vinegar and pepper. This is a very tender cabbage, and, were it not for its color, would be an excellent sort to boil; to those who have a mind to eat it with their eyes shut, this objection will not apply. ~Red Drumhead.~ Like the preceding, with the exception that the heads grow round, or nearly so, are harder, and of double the size. It is very difficult to raise seed from this cabbage in this country. I am acquainted with five trials, made in as many different years, two of which I made myself, and all were nearly utter failures, the yield, when the hardest heads were selected, being at about the rate of two great spoonfuls of seed from every twenty cabbages. French seed-growers are more successful, otherwise this seed would have to sell at a far higher figure in the market than any other sort. ~The Little Pixie.~ has much to recommend it, in earliness, quality, reliability for heading, and hardness of the head; earlier than Early York, though somewhat smaller. Among those that deserve to be heartily welcomed and grow in favor, are the EARLY ULM SAVOY (for engraving and description of which see under head of Savoy), and the ST. DENNIS DRUMHEAD, a late, short-stumped sort, setting a large, round, very solid head, as large, but harder, than Premium Flat Dutch. The leaves are of a bluish-green, and thicker than those of most varieties of drumhead. Our brethren in Canada think highly of this cabbage, and if we want to try a new drumhead, I will speak a good word for this one. ~Early Schweinfurt~, or ~Schweinfurt Quintal~, is an excellent early drumhead for family use; the heads range in size from ten to eighteen inches in diameter, varying with the conditions of cultivation more than any other cabbage I am acquainted with. They are flattish round, weigh from three to nine pounds when well grown, are very symmetrical in shape, standing apart from the surrounding leaves. They are not solid, though they have the finished appearance that solidity gives; they are remarkably tender, as though blanched, and of very fine flavor. It is among the earliest of drumheads, maturing at about the same time as the Early Winnigstadt. As an early drumhead for the family garden, it has no superior; and where the market is near, and does not insist that a cabbage head must be hard to be good, it has proved a very profitable market sort. The following are either already standard American varieties of cabbage, or such as are likely soon to become so; very possibly there are two or three other varieties or strains that deserve to be included in the list. I give all that have proved to be first class in my locality: EARLY WAKEFIELD, EARLY WYMAN, EARLY SUMMER, ALL SEASONS, HARD HEADING, SUCCESSION, WARREN, VANDERGAW, PEERLESS, NEWARK, FLAT DUTCH, PREMIUM FLAT DUTCH, STONE MASON, LARGE LATE DRUMHEAD, MARBLEHEAD MAMMOTH DRUMHEAD, AMERICAN GREEN GLAZED, FOTTLER'S DRUMHEAD, BERGEN DRUMHEAD, DRUMHEAD SAVOY, and AMERICAN GREEN GLOBE SAVOY. All of these varieties, as I have previously stated, are but improvements of foreign kinds; but they are so far improved through years of careful selection and cultivation, that, as a rule, they appear quite distinct from the originals when grown side by side with them, and this distinction is more or less recognized, in both English and American catalogues, by the adjective "American" or "English" being added after varieties bearing the same name. ~Early Wakefield~, sometimes called ~Early Jersey Wakefield.~ Heads mostly nearly conical in shape but sometimes nearly round, of good size for early, very reliable for heading; stumps short. A very popular early cabbage in the markets of Boston and New York. Plant two and a half feet by two feet. There are two strains of this cabbage, one a little later and larger than the other. [Illustration] [Illustration] ~Early Wyman.~ This cabbage is named after Capt. Wyman, of Cambridge, the originator. Like Early Wakefield the heads are usually somewhat conical, but sometimes nearly round; in structure they are compact. In earliness it ranks about with the Early Wakefield, and making heads of double the size, it has a high value as an early cabbage. Capt. Wyman had entire control of this cabbage until within the past few years, and, consequently, has held Boston Market in his own hands, to the chagrin of his fellow market gardeners, raising some seasons as many as thirty thousand heads. Have the rows from two to two and a half feet apart, and the plants from twenty to twenty-four inches apart in the row. Crane's Early is a cross between the Wyman and Wakefield, intermediate in size and earliness. [Illustration] ~Premium Flat Dutch.~ Large, late variety; heads either round or flat, on the top (varying with different strains); rather hard; color bluish green; leaves around heads rather numerous; towards the close of the season, the edge of some of the exterior leaves and the top of the heads assume a purple cast. The edges of the exterior leaves, and of the two or three that make the outside of the head, are quite ruffled, so that when grown side by side with Stone Mason, this distinction between the habit of growth of the two varieties is noticeable at quite a distance. Stumps short; reliable for heading. Have the rows three feet apart, and the plants from two and a half to three feet apart in the rows. This cabbage is very widely cultivated, and, in many respects, is an excellent sort to raise for late marketing. There are several strains of it catalogued by different seedsmen under various names, such as Sure Head, &c. [Illustration] ~Stone Mason.~ An improvement on the Mason, which cabbage was selected by Mr. John Mason of Marblehead, from a number of varieties of cabbage that came from a lot of seed purchased and planted as Savoys. Mr. John Stone afterwards improved upon the Mason cabbage, by increasing the size of the heads. Different growers differ in their standard of a Stone Mason cabbage, in earliness and lateness, and in the size, form, and hardness of the head. But all these varieties agree in the characteristics of being very reliable for heading, in having heads which are large, very hard, very tender, rich and sweet; short stumps, and few waste leaves. The color of the leaves varies from a bluish green to a pea-green, and the structure from nearly smooth to much blistered. In their color and blistering some specimens have almost a Savoy cast. The heads of the best varieties of Stone Mason range in weight from six to twenty-five pounds, the difference turning mostly on soil, manure, and cultivation. The Stone Mason is an earlier cabbage than Premium Flat Dutch, has fewer waste leaves, and side by side, under high cultivation, grows to an equal or larger size, while it makes heads that are decidedly harder and sweeter. These cabbages are equally reliable for heading. I am inclined to the opinion that under poor cultivation the Premium Flat Dutch will do somewhat better than the Stone Mason. Until the introduction of Fottler's Drumhead it was the standard drumhead cabbage in the markets of Boston and other large cities of the North. Have the rows three feet apart, and the plants from two to three feet apart in the row. ~Large Late Drumhead.~ Heads large, round, sometimes flattened at the top, close and firm; loose leaves numerous; stems short; reliable for heading, hardy, and a good keeper. The name "Large Late Drumhead" includes varieties raised by several seedsmen in this country, all of which resemble each other in the above characteristics, and differ in but minor points. Have rows three feet apart, and plants from two and a half to three feet apart in the row. ~Marblehead Mammoth Drumhead.~ This is the largest of the cabbage family, having sometimes been grown to weigh over ninety pounds to the plant. It originated in Marblehead, Mass., being produced by Mr. Alley, probably from the Mason, by years of high cultivation and careful selection of seed stock. I introduced this cabbage and the Stone Mason to the general public many years ago, and it has been pretty thoroughly disseminated throughout the United States. Heads varying in shape between hemispherical and spherical, with but few waste leaves surrounding them; size very large, varying from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter, and, in some specimens, they have grown to the extraordinary dimensions of twenty-four inches. In good soil, and with the highest culture, this variety has attained an average weight of thirty pounds by the acre. Quality, when well grown, remarkably sweet and tender, as would be inferred from the rapidity of its growth. Cultivate in rows four feet apart, and allow four feet between the plants in the rows. Sixty tons of this variety have been raised from a single acre. ~American Green Glazed.~ Heads loose, though rather large, with a great body of waste leaves surrounding them; quality poor; late; stump long. This cabbage was readily distinguished among all the varieties in my experimental plot by the deep, rich green of the leaves, with their bright lustre as though varnished. It is grown somewhat extensively in the South, as it is believed not to be so liable to injury from insects as other varieties. Plant two and a half feet apart each way. I would advise my Southern friends to try the merits of other kinds before adopting this poor affair. I know, through my correspondence, that the Mammoth has done well as far South as Louisiana and Cuba, and the Fottler, in many sections of the South, has given great satisfaction. [Illustration] ~Fottler's Early Drumhead.~ Several years ago a Boston seedsman imported a lot of cabbage seed from Europe, under the name of Early Brunswick Short Stemmed. It proved to be a large heading and very early Drumhead. The heads were from eight to eighteen inches in diameter nearly flat, hard, sweet, and tender in quality; few waste leaves; stump short. In earliness it was about a fortnight ahead of the Stone Mason. It was so much liked by the market gardeners that the next season he ordered a larger quantity; but the second importation, though ordered and sent under the same name, proved to be a different and inferior kind, and the same result followed one or two other importations. The two gardeners who received seed of the first importation brought to market a fine, large Drumhead, ten days or a fortnight ahead of their fellows. The seed of the true stock was eagerly bought up by the Boston market gardeners, most of it at _five dollars an ounce_. After an extensive trial on a large scale by the market farmers around Boston, and by farmers in various parts of the United States, Fottler's Cabbage has given great satisfaction, and become a universal favorite, and when once known it, and especially the improved strain of it, known as Deep Head, is fast replacing some of the old varieties of Drumhead. Very reliable for heading. [Illustration] ~Vandergaw Cabbage.~ This new Long Island Cabbage must be classed as A No. 1 for the midsummer and late market. It is as sure to head as the Succession, and has some excellent characteristics in common. It makes large, green heads, hard, tender, and crisp. This is an acquisition. [Illustration] ~The Warren Cabbage.~ This first-class cabbage is closely allied to, but an improvement on, the old Mason Cabbage of twenty-five years ago. It makes a head deep, round, and very hard, the outer leaves wrapping it over very handsomely. In reliability for heading no cabbage surpasses it; a field of them when in their prime is as pretty a sight as a cabbage man would wish to see. It comes in as early as some strains of Fottler, and a little earlier than others. A capital sort to succeed the Early Summer. The heads being very thick through, and nearly round, make it an excellent sort to carry through the winter, as it "peels" well, as cabbage-growers say. Ten inches in diameter, in size it is just about right for profitable marketing. A capital sort, exceedingly popular among market-man in this vicinity. [Illustration] ~Early Bleichfeld Cabbage.~ I find the Bleichfeld to be among the earliest of the large, hard-heading Drumheads, maturing earlier than the Fottler's Brunswick. The heads are large, very solid, tender when cooked, and of excellent flavor. The color is a lighter green than most varieties and it is as reliable for heading as any cabbage I have ever grown. The above engraving I have had made from a photograph of a specimen grown on my grounds. [Illustration] ~Danish Drumhead Cabbage.~ In 1879, Mr. Edward Abelgoord wrote me from Canada, that he raised a large Drumhead Cabbage, the seed of which was brought from Denmark, which was the best kind of cabbage that he had seen in that latitude (46°), being very valuable for the extreme North. It was earlier than Fottler's Drumhead, and made large, flat heads, of excellent flavor, and was so reliable for heading. I raised a field of this new cabbage, and it proved a large, flat, early Drumhead, very reliable for heading. [Illustration] ~The Reynolds Early Cabbage.~ In the year 1875, Mr. Franklin Reynolds, of this town, crossed the Cannon-Ball Cabbage on the Schweinfurt Quintal, by carefully transferring the pollen of the former on the latter, the stamens having first been removed, and immediately tying muslin around the impregnated blossoms to keep away all insects. The results were a few ripe seeds. These were carefully saved and planted the next season, when the product showed the characteristics of the two parents. The best heads were selected from the lot, and, from these, seeds were raised. Several selections were made of the choicest heads from year to year; and I now have the pleasure of introducing the results, _a new cabbage which combines the good qualities of both its parents_. The flavor of this new cabbage is rich, tender, and sweet, being superior to the general Drumhead class, making it a very superior variety for family use, and also for marketing when there is not a long transportation. None of the scores of varieties I have ever grown has a shorter stump than this; the heads appear to rest directly on the ground, and no one is surer to head. [Illustration] ~All-Seasons Cabbage.~ This new cabbage is the result of a cross made by a Long Island gardener between the Flat Dutch and a variety of Drumhead. The result is a remarkably large, early Drumhead, that matures close in time with the Early Summer, while it is from one third to one half larger. It is an excellent variety either as an early or late sort; the roundness of the head, leaving a thick, solid cabbage, should it become necessary, as is often the case with those marketed in the spring, to peel off the outer layer of leaves. Heads large in size, solid and tender, and rich flavored when cooked. It has already, in three years, verified the prophecy I made when sending it out, and become a standard variety in some localities. [Illustration] ~Gregory's Hard-Heading Cabbage.~ I am not acquainted with any variety of cabbage (I believe I have raised about all the native and foreign varieties that have been catalogued) that makes so hard a head as does the "Hard-heading" when fully matured. Neither am I acquainted with any variety that is so late a keeper as is this; the German gardener, from whom I obtained it, said that it gave him, and his friends who had it, complete control of the Chicago market for about a fortnight after all other varieties had "played out." My own experience with it tends to confirm this statement, for under the same conditions it kept decidedly later than all my other varieties, was greener in color, and when planted out they were so late to push seed-shoots that I almost despaired of getting a crop of seed. I find, also, that they are much less inclined to burst than any of the hard-heading varieties. Heads grow to a good market size, are more globular than Flat Dutch; and, as might be presumed, of great weight in proportion to their size. The color is a peculiar green, rather more of an olive than most kinds of cabbage. About a fortnight later than Flat Dutch. For late fall, winter, and spring sales plant 3 by 3 the first of June. [Illustration] ~Early Deep-Head Cabbage.~ This is a valuable improvement on the Fottler made by years of careful selection and high cultivation by Mr. Alley of Marblehead, a famous cabbage grower, who, as the name indicates, has produced a deeper, rounder heading variety than the original Fottler, thus making what that was not, an excellent sort for winter and spring marketing. It has all the excellent traits of its parent in reliability for making large, handsome heads. ~Bergen Drumhead.~ Heads round, rather flat on the top, solid; leaves stout, thick, and rather numerous; stump short. With me, under same cultivation, it is later than Stone Mason. It is tender and of good flavor. A popular sort in many sections, particularly in the markets of New York City. Have the plants three feet apart each way. SAVOY CABBAGES. The Savoys are the tenderest and richest-flavored of cabbages, though not always as sweet as a well-grown Stone Mason; nor is a Savoy grown on poor soil, or one that has been pinched by drouth, as tender as a Stone Mason that has been grown under favoring circumstances; yet it remains, as a rule, that the Savoy surpasses all other cabbages in tenderness, and in a rich, marrow-like flavor. The Savoys are also the hardiest of the cabbage tribe, enduring in the open field a temperature within sixteen degrees of zero without serious injury; and if the heads are not very hard they will continue to withstand repeated changes from freezing to thawing for a couple of months, as far north as the latitude of Boston. A degree of freezing improves them, and it is common in that latitude to let such as are intended for early winter use, in the family, remain standing in the open ground where they grew, cutting the heads as they are wanted. As a rule Savoys neither head as readily (the "Improved American Savoy" being an exception) nor do the heads grow as large as the Drumhead varieties; indeed, most of the kinds in cultivation are so unreliable in these respects as to be utterly worthless for market purposes, and nearly so for the kitchen garden. ~The Drumhead Savoy.~ This, as the name implies, is the result of a cross between a Savoy and a Drumhead cabbage, partaking of the characteristics of each. Many of the cabbages sold in the market as Savoy are really this variety. One variety in my experimental garden, which I received as TOUR'S SAVOY (evidently a Drumhead variety of the Savoy), proved to be much like Early Schweinfurt in earliness and style of heading; the heads were very large, but quite loose in structure; I should think it would prove valuable for family use. It is a fact that does not appear to be generally known that we have among the Savoys some remarkably early sorts which rank with the earliest varieties of cabbage grown. Pancalier and Early Ulm Savoy are earlier than that old standard of earliness, Early York; Pancalier being somewhat earlier than Ulm. ~Pancalier~ is characterized by very coarsely blistered leaves of the darkest-green color; the heads usually gather together, being the only exception I know of to the rule that cabbage heads are made up of overlapping leaves, wrapped closely together. It has a short stump, and with high cultivation is reliable for heading. The leaves nearest the head, though not forming a part of it, are quite tender, and may be cooked with the head. Plant fifteen by thirty inches. ~Early Ulm Savoy~ is a few days later than Pancalier, and makes a larger head; the leaves are of a lighter green and not so coarsely blistered; stump short; head round; very reliable for heading. It has a capital characteristic in not being so liable as most varieties to burst the head and push the seed shoot immediately after the head is matured. For first early, I know no cabbages so desirable as these for the kitchen garden. [Illustration] The ~Early Dwarf Savoy~ is a desirable variety of second early. The heads are rather flat in shape, and grow to a fair size. Stumps short; reliable for heading. ~Improved American Savoy.~ Everything considered, this is the Savoy, "par excellence," for the market garden. It is a true Savoy, the heads grow to a large size, from six to ten inches in diameter, varying, of course, with soil, manure, and cultivation. In shape the heads are mostly globular, occasionally oblong, having but few waste leaves, and grow very solid. Stump short. In reliability for heading it is unsurpassed by any other cabbage. [Illustration] ~Golden Savoy~ differs from other varieties in the color of the head, which rises from the body of light green leaves, of a singular pale yellow color, as though blanched. The stumps are long, and the head rather small, a portion of these growing pointed. It is very late, not worth cultivating, except as a curiosity. ~Norwegian Savoy.~ This is a singular half cabbage, half kale--at least, so it has proved under my cultivation. The leaves are long, narrow, tasselated, and somewhat blistered. The whole appearance is very singular and rather ornamental. I have tried this cabbage twice, but have never got beyond the possible promise of a head. ~Victoria Savoy~, ~Russian Savoy~, and ~Cape Savoy~, tested in my experimental garden, did not prove desirable either for family use or for market purposes. ~Feather Stemmed Savoy.~ This is a cross between the Savoy and Brussels sprouts, having the habit of growth of Brussels sprouts. OTHER VARIETIES OF CABBAGE. I will add notes on some other varieties which have been tested, from year to year, in my experimental plot. The results from tests of different strains of standard sorts, I have not thought it worth the while to record. ~Cannon Ball.~ The heads are usually spherical, attaining to a diameter of from five to nine inches, with the surrounding leaves gathered rather closely around them; in hardness and relative weight it is excelled by but few varieties. Stump short. It delights in the highest cultivation possible. It is about a week later than Early York. In those markets where cabbages are sold by weight, it will pay to grow for market; it is a good cabbage for the family garden. ~Early Cone~, of the Wakefield class, but with me not as early. ~Garfield Pickling~, of late variety, of the conical class. ~Cardinal Red.~ A large, late variety of red; but on my grounds, it is not equal to Red Drumhead. ~Vilmorin's Early Flat Dutch.~ Not quite as large as Early Summer, though about as early and resembles it in shape of head. ~Royal German Drumhead.~ Reliable for heading. ~Large White Solid Magdeburg.~ A late Drumhead; short stumped; reliable for heading. Medium late. ~Pak Choi.~ Evidently of the Kale class; no heads. ~Chou de Burghlez~ and ~Chou de Milan~. These are coarse, loose, small heading varieties, allied to Kale. The latter is of the Savoy class. ~Earliest Erfurt Blood-Red.~ Decidedly the earliest of the red cabbages. Very reliable for heading. A Drumhead; smaller than Red Drumhead. Very dark red. ~Empress.~ Resembles Wyman in size and shape; but the heads are more pointed, and it makes head earlier. Heads well. ~Schlitzer.~ This makes heads mostly shaped like the Winnigstadt, but a third larger. Its mottling of green and purple gives it a striking appearance. Early and very reliable for heading. Heads are not very hard; but, when cooked, are just about as tender and rich-flavored as the Savoy. Promises to be an excellent sort for family use. ~Rothelburg.~ An early sure heading variety of the Drumhead class. Heads of medium size; resembling in shape Deep Head. ~Sure Head.~ A strain of Flat Dutch. A late variety; heads deeper than Fottler, but with me not so reliable. ~Dark Red Pointed.~ Resembles Winnigstadt in shape. About as late as Red Dutch, and not as desirable. ~Bacalan Late.~ In shape resembles Winnigstadt. Grow a little wild. ~Amack.~ A late variety. Heads generally nearly globular and quite hard. Very reliable for heading. ~Bangholm.~ First of all. As early as the earliest, but very small,--not as large as Little Pixie. ~Early Enfield Market.~ ~Tourleville.~ Heads resemble Wakefield in form; but, with me, are neither so large nor so large, and are more inclined to burst. ~Danish Round Winter.~ A late variety; bearing deep, hard heads on long stumps. ~Dwarf Danish.~ Late. Reliable to head; uneven in time of heading. Worth planting for market. ~Danish Ball Drumhead.~ Heads not characterized by globular shape, but rather flattish. Irregular in length of stump. ~Early Paris.~ Closely resembles Wakefield. ~Very Early Etampes.~ Earlier than Wakefield. Shape partakes of both Oxheart and Wakefield. ~Early Mohawk.~ Light green in color; a good header, but not so hard heading as Fottler. Appears to have a little of the Savoy cross in it. ~Sure Head.~ A late variety of the Dutch class; reliable for heading; stump rather long. ~Excelsior.~ A variety which is of the Fottler class, but makes smaller sized heads. ~Louisville Drumhead.~ Of the flat Dutch type; nearly as early as Early Summer. ~Early Advance.~ Of the Wakefield type. With me it is full as early as Wakefield, and considerably larger. Rather coarser in structure. ~Market Garden.~ Of the Fottler class; very reliable for heading. Heads of good size, but rather coarser than the Deep Head. ~Chase's Excelsior.~ A second early; much like Fottler; heads finely. ~Bloomsdale Early Market.~ With me this is not as good a variety as Wakefield. ~Berkshire Beauty.~ There appear to be fine possibilities in this cabbage, which have not yet been developed into uniformity. ~Landredth's Extra Early.~ With me it does not prove as early as Wakefield, and does not head as well. ~Bridgeport Late Drumhead.~ A large Drumhead; in size, between Stone Mason and Marblehead Mammoth. Reliable for heading, but does not head as hard as either of these varieties. Not inclined to burst. ~Large French Oxheart~ closely resembles Early Oxheart, but grows to double the size, and is about ten days later; quality usually good. ~Early Sugar Loaf.~ Heads shaped much like a loaf of sugar standing on its smaller end, resembling, as Burr well says, a head of Cos lettuce in its shape, and in the peculiar clasping of the leaves about the head. Heads rather hard, medium size; early, and tender. It is said not to stand the heat as well as most sorts. ~Large Brunswick Short-Stemmed.~ (English seed.) Late, long-stumped, wild, plenty of leaves, almost no head; bears but a slight resemblance to Fottler's Drumhead. ~Early Empress.~ Cabbages well; heads conical; early. ~Robinson's Champion Ox Drumhead.~ Stump long; heads soft and not very large; wild. ~English Winnigstadt.~ Long-stumped; irregular; not to be compared with French stock. ~Blenheim.~ Early; heads mostly conical; of good size. ~Shillings Queen.~ Early; heads conical; stumps long. ~Carter's Superfine Early Dwarf.~ Surpasses in earliness and hardness of head. Closely allied to Little Pixie. ~Enfield Market Improved.~ Most of the heads were flat; rather wild; not to be compared with Fottler. ~Kemp's Incomparable.~ Long-headed; heads, when mature, do not appear to burst as readily as with most of the conical class. ~Fielderkraut.~ Closely resembles Winnigstadt, with larger and longer heads and stump; requires more room than Winnigstadt. ~Ramsay's Winter Drumhead.~ Closely resembles St. Dennis. I think it is the same. ~Pomeranian Cabbage.~ Heads very long; quite large for a conical heading sort; very symmetrical and hard; color, yellowish-green. It handles well, and I should think would prove a good keeper. Medium early. ~Alsacian Drumhead.~ Stump long; late; wild. ~Marbled Bourgogne.~ Stumps long; heads small and hard; color, a mixture of green and red. CABBAGE GREENS. In the vicinity of our large cities, the market gardeners sow large areas very thickly with cabbage seed, early in the spring, to raise young plants to be sold as greens. The seed is sown broadcast at the rate of ten pounds and upwards to the acre. Seed of the Savoy cabbage is usually sown for this purpose, which may be sometimes purchased at a discount, owing to some defect in quality or purity, that would render it worthless for planting for a crop of heading cabbage. The young plants are cut off about even with the ground, when four or five inches high, washed, and carried to market in barrels or bushel boxes. The price varies with the state of the market, from 12 cents to $3 a barrel, the average price in Boston market being about a dollar. With the return of spring most families have some cabbage stumps remaining in the cellar; these can be planted about a foot apart in some handy spot along the edge of the garden, where they will not interfere with the general crop, setting them under ground from a quarter to a half their length, depending on the length of the stumps. They will soon be covered with green shoots, which should be used as greens before the blossom buds show themselves, as they then become too strong to be agreeable. If the spot is rich and has been well dug, the rapidity of growth is surprising; and if the shoots are frequently gathered, many nice messes of greens can be grown from a few stumps. Farmers in Northern Vermont tell me, that if they break off each seed shoot as soon as it shows itself, close home to the stump, nice little heads will push out on almost every stump. In England, where the winter climate is much milder than that of New England, it is the practice to raise a second crop of heads in this way. In my own neighborhood I have seen an acre from which a crop of drumhead cabbage had been cut off early in the season, every stump on which had from three to six hard heads, varying from the size of a hen's egg to that of a goose egg; but to get this second growth of heads, as much of the stump and leaves should be left as possible, when cutting out the original head. As in the cabbage districts of the North little or no use is made of this prolific after growth, it is worse than useless to suffer the ground to be exhausted by it; the stump should be pulled by the potato hoe as soon as the heads are marketed. When cabbages are planted out for seed, if, for any reason, the seed shoot fails to push out, and at times when it does push out, fine sprouts for greens will start below the head; when the stock of these sprouts becomes too tough for use, the large leaves may be stripped from them and cooked. I usually break off the tender tops of large sprouts, and then strip off the tenderest of the large leaves below. CABBAGE FOR STOCK. No vegetable raised in the temperate zone, Mangold Wurtzel alone excepted, will produce as much food to the acre, both for man and beast, as the cabbage. I have seen acres of the Marblehead Mammoth drumhead which would average thirty pounds to each cabbage, some specimens weighing over sixty pounds. The plants were four feet apart each way which would give a product of over forty tons to the acre; and I have tested a crop of Fottler's that yielded thirty tons of green food to the half acre. Other vegetables are at times raised for cattle feed, such as potatoes, carrots, ruta bagas, mangold wurtzels; a crop of potatoes yielding four hundred bushels to the acre at sixty pounds the bushel would weigh twelve tons; a crop of carrot yielding twelve hundred bushels to the acre would weigh thirty tons; ruta bagas sometimes yield thirty tons; and mangolds as high as seventy tons to the acre. I have set all these crops at a high capacity for fodder purposes; the same favoring conditions of soil, manure, and cultivation that would produce four hundred bushels of potatoes, twelve hundred bushels of carrots, and thirty-five tons of ruta baga turnips, would give a crop of forty tons of the largest variety of drumhead cabbage. If we now consider the comparative merits of these crops for nutriment, we find that the cabbage excels them all in this department also. The potatoes abound in starch, the mangold and carrot are largely composed of water, while the cabbage abounds in rich, nitrogeneous food. Prof. Stewart states that cabbage for milch cows has about the same feeding value as sweet corn ensilage, and makes the value not over $3.40 per ton. Now it is admitted by general current that the value of common ensilage, which is inferior to that made from sweet corn, is, when compared with good English hay, as 3 to 1. This would make cabbages for milch cows worth not far from $7.00 per ton. When cabbage is kept for stock feed later than the first severe frost, if the quantity is large there is considerable waste even with the best of care. The loose leaves should be fed first, and the heads kept in a cool place, not more than two or three deep, at as near the freezing point as possible. If it has been necessary to cut the heads from the stumps, they may be piled, after the weather has set in decidedly cold, conveniently near the barn, and kept covered with a foot of straw or old litter. As long as a cabbage is kept frozen there is no waste to it; but if it be allowed to freeze and thaw two or three times, it will soon rot with an awful stench. I suspect that it is this rotten portion of the cabbage that often gives the bad flavor to milk. On the other hand, if it is kept in too warm and dry a place, the outer leaves will dry, turning yellow, and the whole head lose in weight,--if it be not very hard, shrivelling, and, if hard, shrinking. If they are kept in too warm and wet a place, the heads will decay fast, in a black, soft rot. The best way to preserve cabbages for stock into the winter, is to place them in trenches a few inches below the surface, and there cover with from a foot to two feet of coarse hay or straw, the depth depending on the coldness of the locality. When the ground has been frozen too hard to open with a plough or spade, I have kept them until spring by piling them loosely, hay-stack shape, about four feet high, letting the frost strike through them, and afterwards covering with a couple of feet of eel-grass; straw or coarse hay would doubtless do as well. I have treated of cabbage thus far when grown specially for stock; in every piece of cabbage handled for market purposes, there is a large proportion of waste suitable for stock feed, which includes the outside leaves and such heads as have not hardened up sufficiently for market. On walking over a piece just after my cabbages for seed stock have been taken off, I note that the refuse leaves that were stripped from the heads before pulling are so abundant they nearly cover the ground. If leaves so stripped remain exposed to frost, they soon spoil; or, if earlier in the season they are exposed to the sun, they soon become yellow, dry, and of but little value. They can be rapidly collected with a hay fork and carted, if there be but a few, into the barn; should there be a large quantity, dump them within a convenient distance of the barn or feeding ground, but not where the cattle can trample them, and spread them so that they will be but a few inches in depth. If piled in heaps they will quickly heat; but even then, if not too much decayed, cattle will eat them with avidity. Cabbages are hardy plants, and loose heads will stand a good deal of freezing and thawing without serious injury. They are not generally injured with the thermometer 16° below freezing. The waste, after the seed and all market cabbage are removed, brings me about $10 per acre on the ground, for cow feed. If cabbage is fed to cows in milk without some care, it will be apt to give the milk a strong cabbage flavor; all the feed for the day should be given early in the morning. Beginning with a small quantity, and gradually increasing it, the dairy man will soon learn his limits. The effect of a liberal feed to milk stock is to largely increase the flow of milk. Avoid feeding to any extent while the leaves are frozen. An English writer says: "The cabbage comes into use when other things begin to fail, and it is by far the best succulent vegetable for milking cows,--keeping up the yield of milk, and preserving, better than any other food, some portion of the quality which cheese loses when the cows quit their natural pasturage. Cows fed on cabbages are always quiet and satisfied, while on turnips they often scour and are restless. When frosted, they are liable to produce hoven, unless kept in a warm shed to thaw before being used; fifty-six pounds given, at two meals, are as much as a large cow should have in a day. Frequent cases of abortion are caused by an over-supply of green food. Cabbages are excellent for young animals, keeping them in health, and preventing 'black leg.' A calf of seven months may have twenty pounds a day." RAISING CABBAGE SEED. Cabbage seed in England, particularly of the drumhead sorts, is mostly raised from stumps, or from the refuse that remains after all that is salable has been disposed of. The agent of one of the largest English seed houses, a few years since, laughed at my "wastefulness," as he termed it, in raising seed from solid heads. In our country, cabbage seed is mostly raised from soft, half-formed heads, which are grown as a late crop, few, if any of them, being hard enough to be of any value in the market. Seedsmen practise selecting a few fine, hard heads, from which to raise their seed stock. It has been my practice to grow seed from none but extra fine heads, better than the average of those carried to market. I do this on the theory that no cabbage can be too good for a seedhead, if the design is to keep the stock first-class. Perhaps such strictness may not be necessary; but I had rather err in setting out too good heads than too poor ones; besides, the great hardness obtained by the heads of the Stone Mason, makes it possible, at least, that I am right. Cabbage raised from seed grown from stumps are apt to be unreliable for heading, and to grow long-stumped, though under unfavorable conditions, long-stumped and poor-headed cabbage may grow from the best of seed. To have the best of seed, all shoots that start below the head should be broken off. To prevent the plants falling over after the seed-stalks are grown, dig deep holes, and plant the entire stump in the ground. Scarecrows should be set up, or some like precaution be taken, to keep away the little seed-birds, that begin to crack the pods as soon as they commence to ripen. A plaster cat is a very good scarecrow to frighten away birds from seed and small fruits, if its location is changed every few days. I find that the pods of cabbage seed grown South are tough, and not brittle, like those grown North, and hence that they are injured but little, if any, by seed birds. When the seed-pods have passed what seedsmen call their "red" stage, they begin to harden; as soon as a third of them are brown, the entire stalk may be cut and hung up in a dry, airy place, for a few days, when the seed will be ready for rubbing or threshing out. Different varieties should be raised far apart to insure purity; and cabbage seed had better not be raised in the vicinity of turnip seed. There is some difference of opinion as to the effect of growing these near each other; where the two vegetables blossom at the same time, I should fear an admixture. When the care requisite to select good seed stock, and the trouble, and, often, great loss, in keeping it over winter, planting it in isolated locations, protecting it from wind and weather, guarding it from injury from birds and other enemies, gathering it, cleaning it, are all considered, few men will find that they can afford to raise their own seed, provided they can buy it from reliable seedsmen. COOKING CABBAGE, SOUR-KROUT, ETC. Cabbage when boiled with salt pork, as it is mostly used, is the food for strong and healthy digestive powers; but when eaten in its raw state, served with vinegar and pepper, it is considered one of the most easily digested articles of diet. In the process of cooking, even with the greatest care, a large portion of the sweetness is lost. The length of time required to cook cabbage by boiling varies with the quality, those of the best quality requiring about twenty minutes, while others require an hour. In cooking put it into boiling water in which a little salt and soda has been sprinkled, which will tend to preserve the natural green color. It will be well to change the water once. The peculiar aroma given out by cabbage when cooking is thought to depend somewhat on the manner in which it is grown; those having been raised with the least rank manure having the least. I think this is one of the whims of the community. By using some varieties of boilers all steam is carried into the fire, and there is no smell in the house. To _Pickle_, select hard heads, quarter them, soak in salt and water four or five days, then drain and treat as for other pickles, with vinegar spiced to suit. For _Cold Slaw_, select hard heads, halve and then slice up these halves exceedingly fine. Lay these in a deep dish, and pour over vinegar that has been raised to the boiling point in which has been mixed a little pepper and salt. _Sour-Krout._ Take large, hard-headed drumheads, halve, and cut very fine; then pack in a clean, tight barrel, beginning with a sprinkling of salt, and following with a layer of cabbage, and thus alternating until the barrel is filled. Now compact the mass as much as possible by pounding, after which put on a well-fitting cover resting on the cabbage, and lay heavy weights or a stone on this. When fermented it is ready for use. To prepare for the table fry in butter or fat. The outer green leaves of cabbages are sometimes used to line a brass or copper kettle in which pickles are made in the belief that the vinegar extracts the coloring substance (chlorophyl) in the leaves, and the cucumbers absorbing this acquire a rich green color. Be not deceived by this transparent cheat, O simple housewife! the coloring matter comes almost wholly from the copper or brass behind those leaves; and, instead of an innocent vegetable pigment, your green cucumbers are dyed with the poisonous carbonate of copper. CABBAGES UNDER GLASS. The very early cabbages usually bringing high prices, the enterprising market gardener either winters the young plants under glass or starts them there, planting the seed under its protecting shelter long before the cold of winter is passed. When the design is to winter over fall grown plants, the seed are planted in the open ground about the middle of September, and at about the last of October they are ready to go into the cold frames, as such are called that depend wholly on the sun for heat. Select those having short stumps and transplant into the frames, about an inch and a half by two inches apart, setting them deep in the soil up to the lower leaves, shading them with a straw mat, or the like, for a few days, after which let them remain without any glass over them until the frost is severe enough to begin to freeze the ground, then place over the sashes; but bear in mind that the object is not to promote growth, but, as nearly as possible, to keep them in a dormant state, to keep them so cold that they will not grow, and just sufficiently protected to prevent injury from freezing. With this object in view the sashes must be raised whenever the temperature is above freezing, and this process will so harden the plants that they will receive no serious injury though the ground under the sash should freeze two inches deep; cabbage plants will stand a temperature of fifteen to twenty degrees below the freezing point. A covering of snow on the sash will do no harm, if it does not last longer than a week or ten days, in which case it must be removed. There is some danger to be feared from ground mice, who, when everything else is locked up by the frost, will instinctively take to the sash, and there cause much destruction among the plants unless these are occasionally examined. When March opens remove the sash when the temperature will allow, replacing it when the weather is unseasonably cold, particularly at night. The plants may be brought still farther forward by transferring them from the hot-bed when two or three inches high to cold frames, having first somewhat hardened them. When so transferred plant them about an inch apart, and shield from the sun for two or three days. After this they may be treated as in cold frames. The transfer tends to keep them stocky, increases the fibrous roots and makes the plants hardier. As the month advances it may be left entirely off, and about the first of April the plants may be set out in the open field, pressing fine earth firmly around the roots. When cabbages are raised in hot-beds the seed, in the latitude of Boston, should be planted on the first of March; in that of New York, about a fortnight earlier. When two or three inches high, which will be in three or four weeks, they should be thinned to about four or less to an inch in the row. They should now be well hardened by partly drawing off the sashes in the warm part of the day, and covering at night; as the season advances remove the sashes entirely by day, covering only at night. By about the middle of April the plants will be ready for the open ground. When raised in cold frames in the spring, the seed should be planted about the first of April, mats being used to retain by night the solar heat accumulated during the day. As the season advances the same process of hardening will be necessary as with those raised in hot-beds. COLD FRAME AND HOT-BED. To carry on hot-beds on a large scale successfully is almost an art in itself, and for fuller details I will refer my readers to works on gardening. Early plants, in a small way, may be raised in flower pots or boxes in a warm kitchen window. It is best, if practicable, to have but one plant in each pot, that they may grow short and stocky. If the seed are not planted earlier than April, for out-of-door cultivation, a cold frame will answer. For a cold frame select the locality in the fall, choosing a warm location on a southern slope, protected by a fence or building on the north and north-west. Set posts in the ground, nail two boards to these parallel to each other, one about a foot in height, and the other towards the south about four inches narrower; this will give the sashes resting on them the right slope to shed the rain and receive as much heat as possible from the sun. Have these boards at a distance apart equal to the length of the sash, which may be any common window sash for a small bed, while three and a half feet is the length of a common gardener's sash. If common window sash is used cut channels in the cross-bars to let the water run off. Dig the ground thoroughly (it is best to cover it in the fall with litter, to keep the frost out) and rake out all stones or clods; then slide in the sash and let it remain closed for three or four days, that the soil may be warmed by the sun's rays. The two end boards and the bottom board should rise as high as the sash, to prevent the heat escaping, and the bottom board of a small frame should have a strip nailed inside to rest the sash on. Next rake in, thoroughly, guano, or phosphate, or finely pulverized hen manure, and plant in rows four to six inches apart. As the season advances raise the sashes an inch or two, in the middle of the day, and water freely, at evening, with water that is nearly of the temperature of the earth in the frame. As the heat of the season increases whitewash the glass, and keep them more and more open until just before the plants are set in open ground, then allow the glass to remain entirely off, both day and night, unless there should be a cold rain. This will harden them so that they will not be apt to be injured by the cabbage beetle, as well as chilled and put back by the change. Should the plants be getting too large before the season for transplanting, they should be checked by root pruning,--drawing a sharp knife within a couple of inches of the stalk. If it is desirable still further to check their growth, or harden them, transplant into another cold frame, allowing each plant double the distance it before occupied. The structure and management of a hot-bed is much the same as that of a cold frame, with the exception that the sashes are usually longer and the back and front somewhat higher; being started earlier the requisite temperature has to be kept up by artificial means, fermenting manure being relied upon for the purpose; and the loss of this heat has to be checked more carefully by straw matting, and, in the far North, by shutters also. In constructing it, horse-manure, with plenty of litter, and about a quarter its bulk in leaves, if attainable, all having been well mixed together, is thrown into a pile, and left for a few days until steam escapes, when the mass is again thrown over and left for two or three days more, after which it is thrown into the pit (or it may be placed directly on the surface) which is lined with boards, from eighteen inches to two feet in depth, when it is beaten down with a fork and trodden well together. The sashes are now put on and kept there until heat is developed. The first intense heat must be allowed to pass off, which will be in about three days after the high temperature is reached. Now throw on six or eight inches of fine soil, in which mix well rotted manure, free from all straw, or rake in, thoroughly, superphosphate, or guano, at the rate of two thousand pounds to the acre, and plant the seed as in cold frame. Harden the plants as directed in preceding paragraph. CAULIFLOWER, BROCCOLI, BRUSSELS-SPROUTS, KALE, AND SEA-KALE. My treatise on the cabbage would hardly be complete without some allusion to such prominent members of the Brassica family as the cauliflower, broccoli, brussels-sprouts, and kale. ~Cauliflower.~ Wrote the great Dr. Johnson: "Of all the flowers of the garden, give me the cauliflower." Whether from this we are to infer the surpassing excellence of this member of the Brassica family, or that the distinguished lexicographer meant emphatically to state his preference of utility to beauty (perhaps our own Ben. Franklin took a leaf from him), each reader must be his own judge; but be that as it may, it remains true, beyond all controversy, that the cauliflower, in toothsome excellence, stands at the head of the great family of which it is a member. To be successful, and raise choice cauliflowers, is the height of the ambition of the market gardener; and, with all his experience, and with every facility at hand, he does not expect full success oftener than three years in four. The cauliflower, like the strawberry, is exceedingly sensitive to the presence or absence of sufficient water, and success or failure with the crop may turn on its having a full supply from the time they are half grown. The finest specimens raised in Europe are grown in beds, which are kept well watered from the supply which runs between them; and the most successful growers in the country irrigate their crops during periods of drouth. Cauliflowers do best on deep, rich, rather moist soils. In the way of food, they want the very best, and plenty of it at that. The successful competitor, who won the first prize at the great Bay State Fair, to the disgusted surprise of a grower justly famous for his almost uniform success in winning the laurels, whispered in my ear his secret: "R. manures very heavily in the spring for his crop. I manure very heavily both fall and spring." In manuring, therefore, do as well by them as by your heaviest crop of large drumhead cabbage, using rich and well-rotted manure, broadcast, with dissolved bone or ashes, or both, in the drill. Plough deep, and work the land very thoroughly, two ploughings, with a harrowing between, are better than one. Give plenty of room; three by three for the smaller sorts, and three by three and a half for the later and larger. They need the same cultivation, and, being subject to the same diseases and injury from insect enemies, need the same protection as their cousins of the cabbage tribe. In raising for the summer market, start in the cold frame, or plant as early as the ground can be worked, that the plants may get well started before the dry season, or the crop will be likely to make such small heads "buttons" as to be practically a failure. For late crop, plant seed in the hills where they are to grow, from the 20th of May to the middle of June. The crop ripens somewhat irregularly. When there is danger from frost, the later heads should be pulled and stored, with both roots and leaves, being crowded, standing as they grew, into a cold cellar or cold pit, when they will continue growing. As soon as the heads begin to form, they should be protected from sunlight by either half breaking off the outer leaves and bending them over them, or by gathering these leaves loosely together and confining them loosely by rough pegs, or by tying them together with a wisp of rye-straw. ~Varieties.~ These are almost as numerous as in the cabbage family. I find notes on some thirty-five varieties, tested from year to year, in my experimental grounds. Most of them prove themselves to be but a lottery, in this country of dry seasons, though in the moister climate of the European localities, where they are at home, they are a success. [Illustration] [Illustration] The Half-Early Paris, or Demi-Dur, was for years the standard variety raised in this country, and from this, by selection, favorite local varieties were obtained; but, of late years, this has been, to a large degree, superseded by several excellent sorts, of which the Extra-Early Dwarf Erfurt was, doubtless the parent. Principal among these varieties are the Snowball, the Sea-Foam, Vick's Ideal, and Berlin Dwarf. All of these are early sorts and excellent strains. After testing them side by side, I find that the best strain of the Snowball is not excelled by either of them. Of the somewhat later ripening sorts, a variety which originated in this country, called the "Long Island Beauty," gives me great satisfaction, in its reliability for heading, and in the large size of its heads; this, with the Algerian, as a larger late sort, will give us a first-class series. [Illustration] Cauliflower seed is not raised, as yet, to any large extent in this country, though some successful efforts have recently been made in this direction. I have found that there is a remarkable difference between varieties in the quantity of seed they will yield. From one variety I have raised as high as sixty pounds of seed from a given number of plants, while from two others, equally early, having the same number of plants in each instance, and raised in the same location (an island in the ocean), with precisely the same treatment in every way, I got, in each case, less than a tablespoonful of seed, though the heads of some of them grew to the enormous size of sixteen inches in diameter. A fine cauliflower is the pet achievement of the market gardener. The great aim is not to produce size only, "but the fine, white, creamy color, compactness, and what is technically called curdy appearance, from its resemblance to the curd of milk in its preparation for cheese. When the flower begins to open, or when it is of a warty or frost-like appearance, it is less esteemed. It should not be cut in summer above a day before it is used." The cauliflower is served with milk and butter, or it may become a component of soups, or be used as a pickle. The ~Broccoli~ are closely allied to the cauliflower, the white varieties bearing so close a resemblance that one of them, the Walcheren, is by some classed indiscriminately with each. The chief distinction between the two is in hardiness, the broccoli being much the hardier. Of Broccoli over forty varieties are named in foreign catalogues, of which WALCHEREN is one of the very best. KNIGHT'S PROTECTING is an exceedingly hardy dwarf sort. As a rule, the white varieties are preferred to the purple kinds. Plant and treat as cauliflower. Of ~Brussels-Sprouts~ (or bud-bearing cabbage) there are but two varieties, the dwarf and the tall; the tall kind produces more buds, while the dwarf is the hardier. The "sprouts" form on the stalks, and are miniature heads of cabbage from the size of a pea to that of a pigeon's egg. They are raised to but a limited extent in this country, but in Europe they are grown on a large scale. The sprouts may be cooked and served like cabbage, though oftentimes they are treated more as a delicacy and served with butter or some rich sauce. The FEATHER STEM SAVOY and DALMENY SPROUTS are considered as hybrids, the one between the brussels-sprouts and Savoy, the other between it and Drumhead Savoy. The soil for brussels-sprouts should not be so rich as for cabbage, as the object is to grow them small and solid. Give the same distance apart as for early cabbage, and the same manner of cultivation. Break off the leaves at the sides a few at a time when the sprouts begin to form and when they are ready to use cut them off with a sharp knife. ~Kale.~ Sea-kale, or sea-cabbage, is a native of the sea coast of England, growing in the sand and pebbles of the sea-shore. It is a perennial, perfectly hardy, withstanding the coldest winters of New England. The blossoms, though bearing a general resemblance to those of other members of the cabbage family, are yet quite unique in appearance, and I think worthy of a place in the flower garden. It is propagated both by seed and by cuttings of the roots, having the rows three feet apart, and the plants three feet apart in the rows. It is difficult to get the seeds to vegetate. Plant seed in April and May. The ground should be richly manured, and deeply and thoroughly worked. It is blanched before using. In cooking it it requires to be very thoroughly boiled, after which it is served up in melted butter and toasted bread. The sea-kale is highly prized in England; but thus far its cultivation in this country has been very limited. The ~Borecole~, or common kale, is of the cabbage family, but is characterized by not heading like the cabbage or producing eatable flowers like the cauliflower and broccoli. The varieties are very numerous, some of them growing very large and coarse, suitable only as food for stock; others are exceedingly finely curled, and excellent for table use; while others in their color and structure are highly ornamental. They are annual, biennial, and perennial. They do not require so strong a soil or such high manuring as other varieties of the cabbage family. The varieties are almost endless; some of the best in cultivation for table use are the DWARF SCOTCH, DWARF GREEN CURLED or GERMAN GREENS, TALL GREEN CURLED, PURPLE BORECOLE, and the variegated kales. The crown of the plant is used as greens, or as an ingredient in soups. The kales are very hardy, and the dwarf varieties, with but little protection, can be kept in the North well into the winter in the open ground. Plant and cultivate like Savoy cabbage. The variegated sorts, with their fine curled leaves of a rich purple, green, red, white, or yellow color, are very pleasing in their effects, and form a striking and attractive feature when planted in clumps in the flower garden, particularly is this so because their extreme hardiness leaves them in full vigor after the cold has destroyed all other plants--some of the richest colors are developed along the veins of the uppermost leaves after the plant has nearly finished its growth for the season. The JERSEY COW KALE grows to from three to six feet in height and yields a great body of green food for stock; have the rows about three feet apart, and the plants two to three feet distant in the rows. In several instances my customers have written me that this kale raised for stock feed has given them great satisfaction. The THOUSAND-HEADED KALE is a tall variety sending out numerous side shoots, whence the name. * * * * * SQUASHES: HOW TO GROW THEM. PRICE, 30 CENTS, BY MAIL. This treatise is amply illustrated, and gives full particulars on every point, including keeping and marketing the crop. * * * * * FERTILIZERS: WHERE THE MATERIALS COME FROM; HOW TO GET THEM IN THE CHEAPEST FORM; HOW TO MAKE OUR OWN FERTILIZERS. In this work there will be found many valuable tables, with many suggestions, and much information on the purchase of materials, the combining of them, and the use of the fertilizers made from them. I believe it will give a good return to any of my customers, for his outlay. The treatise makes a book of 116 pages. PRICE, BY MAIL, 40 CENTS. CABBAGES AND CAULIFLOWERS: _HOW TO GROW THEM_. A PRACTICAL TREATISE, GIVING FULL DETAILS ON EVERY POINT, INCLUDING KEEPING AND MARKETING THE CROP. BY JAMES J. H. GREGORY, AUTHOR OF WORKS ON SQUASH RAISING, ONION RAISING, ETC., ETC. BOSTON: CASHMAN, KEATING & CO., PRINTERS, 1889. * * * * * ONION RAISING: WHAT KINDS TO RAISE AND THE WAY TO RAISE THEM. BY JAMES J. H. GREGORY, SEED GROWER AND DEALER, MARBLEHEAD, MASS. This work has been warmly recommended by some of the best authorities in the country, and has gone through fourteen editions. It gives the minutest details, from selecting the ground and preparing the soil, up to gathering and marketing the crop. Illustrated with thirteen engravings of Onions, Sowing Machines, and Weeding Machines. ~PRICE, BY MAIL, 30 CENTS.~ * * * * * A NEW TREATISE. CARROTS, MANGOLD WURTZELS AND SUGAR BEETS. WHAT KIND TO RAISE: How to Grow Them AND How to Feed Them. This treatise presents, in minutest detail, every step of progress, from planting the seed to the matured crop. BY JAMES J. H. GREGORY, MARBLEHEAD, MASS. PRICE, BY MAIL, 30 CENTS. 
19392	----	[Cover illustration] [Illustration of Boswell and Johnson at the Mitre] THE LITTLE TEA BOOK COMPILED BY ARTHUR GRAY _Compiler of Over the Black Coffee_ ILLUSTRATED BY GEORGE W. HOOD [Illustration of tea kettle] NEW YORK THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY 33-37 EAST 17TH ST., UNION SQ. NORTH COPYRIGHT, 1903, BY THE BAKER & TAYLOR COMPANY _Published, October, 1903_ The Crow Press, N.H. Thou soft, thou sober, sage, and venerable liquid! Thou innocent pretence for bringing the wicked of both sexes together in the morning! Thou female tongue-running, smile-soothing, heart-opening, wink-tipping cordial to whose glorious insipidity I owe the happiest moments of my life. --COLLEY CIBBER. _INTRODUCING THE LITTLE TEA BOOK_ After all, tea is _the_ drink! Domestically and socially it is the beverage of the world. There may be those who will come forward with _their_ figures to prove that other fruits of the soil-- agriculturally and commercially--are more important. Perhaps they are right when quoting statistics. But what other product can compare with tea in the high regard in which it has always been held by writers whose standing in literature, and recognized good taste in other walks, cannot be questioned? A glance through this book will show that the spirit of the tea beverage is one of peace, comfort, and refinement. As these qualities are all associated with the ways of women, it is to them, therefore--the real rulers of the world--that tea owes its prestige and vogue. Further peeps through these pages prove this to be true; for nearly all the allusions and references to the beverage, by male writers, reveal the womanly influence that tea imparts. But this is not all. The side-lights of history, customs, manners, and modes of living which tea plays in the life of all nations will be found entertaining and instructive. Linked with the fine feminine atmosphere which pervades the drinking of the beverage everywhere, a leaf which can combine so much deserves, at least, a little human hearing for its long list of virtues; for its peaceful walks, talks, tales, tattle, frills, and fancies which go to make up this tribute to "the cup that cheers but not inebriates." _THE ORIGIN OF TEA_ Darma, third son of Koyuwo, King of India, a religions high priest from Siaka (the author of that Eastern paganism about a thousand years before the Christian era), coming to China, to teach the way of happiness, lived a most austere life, passing his days in continual mortification, and retiring by night to solitudes, in which he fed only upon the leaves of trees and other vegetable productions. After several years passed in this manner, in fasting and watching, it happened that, contrary to his vows, the pious Darma fell asleep! When he awoke, he was so much enraged at himself, that, to prevent the offence to his vows for the future, he got rid of his eyelids and placed them on the ground. On the following day, returning to his accustomed devotions, he beheld, with amazement, springing up from his eyelids, two small shrubs of an unusual appearance, such as he had never before seen, and of whose qualities he was, of course, entirely ignorant. The saint, however, not being wholly devoid of curiosity--or, perhaps, being unusually hungry--was prompted to eat of the leaves, and immediately felt within him a wonderful elevation of mind, and a vehement desire of divine contemplation, with which he acquainted his disciples, who were eager to follow the example of their instructor, and they readily received into common use the fragrant plant which has been the theme of so many poetical and literary pens in succeeding ages. [Illustration of Dr. Johnson's chair] _TEA_ By FRANCIS SALTUS SALTUS From what enchanted Eden came thy leaves That hide such subtle spirits of perfume? Did eyes preadamite first see the bloom, Luscious nepenthe of the soul that grieves? By thee the tired and torpid mind conceives Fairer than roses brightening life's gloom, Thy protean charm can every form assume And turn December nights to April eves. Thy amber-tinted drops bring back to me Fantastic shapes of great Mongolian towers, Emblazoned banners, and the booming gong; I hear the sound of feast and revelry, And smell, far sweeter than the sweetest flowers, The kiosks of Pekin, fragrant of Oolong! _LITTLE CUPS OF CHINESE AND JAPANESE TEA_ Although the legend credits the pious East Indian with the discovery of tea, there is no evidence extant that India is really the birthplace of the plant. Since India has no record of date, or facts, on stone or tablet, or ever handed down a single incident of song or story--apart from the legend--as to the origin of tea, one is loath to accept the claim--if claim they assert--of a people who are not above practising the "black art" at every turn of their fancy. Certain it is that China, first in many things, knew tea as soon as any nation of the world. The early Chinese were not only more progressive than other peoples, but linked with their progress were important researches, and invaluable discoveries, which the civilized world has long ago recognized. Then, why not add tea to the list? At any rate, it is easy to believe that the Chinese were first in the tea fields, and that undoubtedly the plant was a native of both China and Japan when it was slumbering on the slopes of India, unpicked, unsteeped, undrunk, unhonored, and unsung. A celebrated Buddhist, St. Dengyo Daishai, is credited with having introduced tea into Japan from China as early as the fourth century. It is likely that he was the first to teach the Japanese the use of the herb, for it had long been a favorite beverage in the mountains of the Celestial Kingdom. The plant, however, is found in so many parts of Japan that there can be little doubt but what it is indigenous there as well. The word TEA is of Chinese origin, being derived from the Amoy and Swatow reading, "Tay," of the same character, which expresses both the ancient name of tea, "T'su," and the more modern one, "Cha." Japanese tea, "Chiya"--pronounced Châ. Tea was not known in China before the Tang dynasty, 618-906 A.D. An infusion of some kind of leaf, however, was used as early as the Chow dynasty, 1122-255 B.C., as we learn from the Urh-ya, a glossary of terms used in ancient history and poetry. This work, which is classified by subjects, has been assigned as the beginning of the Chow dynasty, but belongs more properly to the era of Confucius, K'ung Kai, 551-479 B.C. Although known in Japan for more than a thousand years, tea only gradually became the national beverage as late as the fourteenth century. In the first half of the eighth century, 729 A.D., there was a record made of a religious festival, at which the forty-fifth Mikado---"Sublime Gate"--Shommei Tenno, entertained the Buddhist priests with tea, a hitherto unknown beverage from Corea, which country was for many years the high-road of Chinese culture to Japan. After the ninth century, 823 A.D., and for four centuries thereafter, tea fell into disuse, and almost oblivion, among the Japanese. The nobility, and Buddhist priests, however, continued to drink it as a luxury. During the reign of the eighty-third Emperor, 1199-1210 A.D., the cultivation of tea was permanently established in Japan. In 1200, the bonze, Yei-Sei, brought tea seeds from China, which he planted on the mountains in one of the most northern provinces. Yei-Sei is also credited with introducing the Chinese custom of ceremonious tea-drinking. At any rate, he presented tea seeds to Mei-ki, the abbot of the monastery of To-gano (to whom the use of tea had been recommended for its stimulating properties), and instructed him in the mystery of its cultivation, treatment, and preparation. Mei-ki, who laid out plantations near Uzi, was successful as a pupil, and even now the tea-growers of that neighborhood pay tribute to his memory by annually offering at his shrine the first gathered tea-leaves. After that period, the use of tea became more and more in fashion, the monks and their kindred having discovered its property of keeping them awake during long vigils and nocturnal prayers. Prom this time on the development and progress of the plant are interwoven with the histories and customs of these countries. _ON TEA_ The following short poem by Edmund Waller is believed to be the first one written in praise of the "cup that does not inebriate": Venus her myrtle, Phoebus has her bays; Tea both excels, which she vouchsafes to praise. The best of Queens, and best of herbs, we owe To that bold nation, which the way did show To the fair region where the sun doth rise, Whose rich productions we so justly prize. The Muse's friend, tea does our fancy aid, Repress those vapors which the head invade, And keep the palace of the soul serene, Tit on her birthday to salute the Queen. Waller was born in 1605, and died in 1687, aged eighty-two. _SOME ENGLISH TEA HISTORY_ Tea was brought into Europe by the DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY, in 1610. It was at least forty, and perhaps forty-seven, years later that England woke up to the fascinations of the new drink. Dr. Johnson puts it at even a later date, for he claims that tea was first introduced into England by Lords Arlington and Ossory, in 1666, and really made its debut into society when the wives of these noblemen gave it its vogue. If Dr. Johnson's statement is intended to mean that nothing is anything until the red seal of the select says, "Thus shall it be," he is right in the year he has selected. If, on the other hand, the Doctor had in mind society at large, he is "mixed in his dates," or leaves, for tea was drawn and drunk in London nine years before that date. Garway, the founder of Garraway's coffee house, claimed the honor of being first to offer tea in leaf and drink for public sale, in 1657. It is pretty safe to fix the entrance of tea into Europe even a few years ahead of his announcement, for merchants in those days did not advertise their wares in advance. However, this date is about the beginning of TEA TIME, for in the _Mercurius Politicius_ of September, 1658, appeared the following advertisement: That excellent and by all Physitians approved China drink, called by the Chineans, Tcha, by other nations, Tay, or Tea, is sold at the Sultana's Head, a Copphee House, in Sweetings Rents, by the Royal Exchange, London. Like all new things, when they have fastened on to the public's favor, tea was on everybody's lips and in everybody's mouth. It was lauded to the skies, and was supposed to be good for all the ills of the flesh. It would cure colds and consumption, clear the sight, remove lassitude, purify the liver, improve digestion, create appetite, strengthen the memory, and cure fever and ague. One panegyrist says, while never putting the patient in mind of his disease, it cheers the heart, without disordering the head; strengthens the feet of the old, and settles the heads of the young; cools the brain of the hard drinker, and warms that of the sober student; relieves the sick, and makes the healthy better. Epicures drink it for want of an appetite; _bon vivants_, to remove the effects of a surfeit of wine; gluttons, as a remedy for indigestion; politicians, for the vertigo; doctors, for drowsiness; prudes, for the vapors; wits, for the spleen; and beaux to improve their complexions; summing up, by declaring tea to be a treat for the frugal, a regale for the luxurious, a successful agent for the man of business, and a bracer for the idle. Poets and verse-makers joined the chorus in praise of tea, in Greek and Latin. One poet pictures Hebe pouring the delightful cup for the goddesses, who, finding it made their beauty brighter and their wit more brilliant, drank so deeply as to disgust Jupiter, who had forgotten that he, himself, "Drank tea that happy morn, When wise Minerva of his brain was born." Laureant Tate, who wrote a poem on tea in two cantos, described a family jar among the fair deities, because each desired to become the special patroness of the ethereal drink destined to triumph over wine. Another versifier exalts it at the expense of its would-be rival, coffee: "In vain would coffee boast an equal good, The crystal stream transcends the flowing mud, Tea, even the ills from coffee spring repairs, Disclaims its vices and its virtues shares." Another despairing enthusiast exclaims: "Hail, goddess of the vegetable, hail! To sing thy worth, all words, all numbers, fail!" The new beverage did not have the field all to itself, however, for, while it was generally admitted that Tea was fixed, and come to stay. It could not drive good meat and drink away. Lovers of the old and conservative customs of the table were not anxious to try the novelty. Others shied at it; some flirted with it, in tiny teaspoonfuls; others openly defied and attacked it. Among the latter were a number of robust versifiers and physicians. "'Twas better for each British virgin, When on roast beef, strong beer and sturgeon, Joyous to breakfast they sat round, Nor were ashamed to eat a pound." The fleshly school of doctors were only too happy to disagree with their brethren respecting the merits and demerits of the new-fangled drink; and it is hard to say which were most bitter, the friends or the foes of tea. Maria Theresa's physician, Count Belchigen, attributed the discovery of a number of new diseases to the debility born of daily tea-drinking. Dr. Paulli denied that it had either taste or fragrance, owing its reputation entirely to the peculiar vessels and water used by the Chinese, so that it was folly to partake of it, unless tea-drinkers could supply themselves with pure water from the Vassie and the fragrant tea-pots of Gnihing. This sagacious sophist and dogmatizer also discovered that, among other evils, tea-drinking deprived its devotees of the power of expectoration, and entailed sterility; wherefore he hoped Europeans would thereafter keep to their natural beverages-- wine and ale--and reject coffee, chocolate, and tea, which were all equally bad for them. In spite of the array of old-fashioned doctors, wits, and lovers of the pipe and bottle, who opposed evil effects, sneered at the finely bred men of England being turned into women, and grumbled at the stingy custom of calling for dish-water after dinner, the custom of tea-drinking continued to grow. By 1689 the sale of the leaf had increased sufficiently to make it politic to reduce the duty on it from eight pence on the decoction to five shillings a pound on the leaf. The value of tea at this time may be estimated from a customhouse report of the sale of a quantity of divers sorts and qualities, the worst being equal to that "used in coffee-houses for making single tea," which, being disposed of by "inch of candle," fetched an average of twelve shillings a pound. During the next three years the consumption of tea was greatly increased; but very little seems to have been known about it by those who drank it--if we may judge from the enlightenment received from a pamphlet, given gratis, "up one flight of stairs, at the sign of the Anodyne Necklace, without Temple Bar." All it tells us about tea is that it is the leaf of a little shoot growing plentifully in the East Indies; that Bohea--called by the French "Bean Tea"--is best of a morning with bread and butter, being of a more nourishing nature than the green which may be used when a meal is not wanted. Three or four cups at a sitting are enough; and a little milk or cream renders the beverage smoother and more powerful in blunting the acid humors of the stomach. The satirists believed that tea had a contrary effect upon the acid humors of the mind, making the tea-table the arena for the display of the feminine capacity for backbiting and scandal. Listen to Swift describe a lady enjoying her evening cups of tea: "Surrounded with the noisy clans Of prudes, coquettes and harridans. Now voices over voices rise, While each to be the loudest vies; They contradict, affirm, dispute, No single tongue one moment mute; All mad to speak, and none to hearken, They set the very lapdog barking; Their chattering makes a louder din Than fish-wives o'er a cup of gin; Far less the rabble roar and rail When drunk with sour election ale." Even gentle Gay associated soft tea with the temper of women when he pictures Doris and Melanthe abusing all their bosom friends, while-- "Through all the room From flowery tea exhales a fragrant fume." But not all the women were tea-drinkers in those days. There was Madam Drake, the proprietress of one of the three private carriages Manchester could boast. Few men were as courageous as she in declaring against the tea-table when they were but invited guests. Madam Drake did not hesitate to make it known when she paid an afternoon's visit that she expected to be offered her customary solace--a tankard of ale and a pipe of tobacco. Another female opponent of tea was the _Female Spectator_, which declared the use of the fluid to be not only expensive, but pernicious; the utter destruction of all economy, the bane of good housewifery, and the source of all idleness. Tradesmen especially suffered from the habit. They could not serve their customers because their apprentices were absent during the busiest hours of the day drumming up gossips for their mistresses' tea-tables. This same censor says that the most temperate find themselves obliged to drink wine freely after tea, or supplement their Bohea with rum and brandy, the bottle and glass becoming as necessary to the tea-table as the slop-basin. Although Jonas Hanway, the father of the umbrella, was successful in keeping off water, he was not successful in keeping out tea. All he did accomplish in his essay on the subject was to call forth a reply from Dr. Johnson, who, strange to say, instead of vigorously defending his favorite tipple, rather excuses it as an amiable weakness; confessing that tea is a barren superfluity, fit only to amuse the idle, relax the studious, and dilute the meals of those who cannot take exercise, and will not practise abstinence. His chief argument in tea's favor is that it is drunk in no great quantity even by those who use it most, and as it neither exhilarates the heart nor stimulates the palate, is, after all, but a nominal entertainment, serving as a pretence for assembling people together, for interrupting business, diversifying idleness; admitting that, perhaps, while gratifying the taste, without nourishing the body, it is quite unsuited to the lower classes. It is a singular fact, too, that at that period there was no other really vigorous defender of the beverage. All the best of the other writers did was to praise its pleasing qualities, associations, and social attributes. Still, tea grew in popular favor, privately and publicly. The custom had now become so general that every wife looked upon the tea-pot, cups, and caddy to be as much her right by marriage as the wedding-ring itself. Fine ladies enjoyed the crowded public entertainments with tea below stairs and ventilators above. Citizens, fortunate enough to have leaden roofs to their houses, took their tea and their ease thereon. On Sundays, finding the country lanes leading to Kensington, Hampstead, Highgate, Islington, and Stepney, "to be much pleasanter than the paths of the gospel," the people flocked to those suburban resorts with their wives and children, to take tea under the trees. In one of Coleman's plays, a Spitalfield's dame defines the acme of elegance as: "Drinking tea on summer afternoons At Bagnigge Wells with china and gilt spoons." London was surrounded with tea-gardens, the most popular being Sadlier's Wells, Merlin's Cave, Cromwell Gardens, Jenny's Whim, Cuper Gardens, London Spa, and the White Conduit House, where they used to take in fifty pounds on a Sunday afternoon for sixpenny tea-tickets. One D'Archenholz was surprised by the elegance, beauty, and luxury of these resorts, where, Steele said, they swallowed gallons of the juice of tea, while their own dock leaves were trodden under foot. The ending of the East India Company's monopoly of the trade, coupled with the fact that the legislature recognized that tea had passed out of the catalogue of luxuries into that of necessities, began a new era for the queen of drinks destined to reign over all other beverages. [Illustration of woman] _O TEA!_ In the drama of the past Thou art featured in the cast; (O Tea!) And thou hast played thy part With never a change of heart, (O Tea!) For 'mid all the ding and dong Waits a welcome--soothing song, For fragrant Hyson and Oolong. . . . A song of peace, through all the years, Of fireside fancies, devoid of fears, Of mothers' talks and mothers' lays, Of grandmothers' comforts--quiet ways. Of gossip, perhaps--still and yet-- What of Johnson? Would we forget The pictured cup; those merry times, When round the board, with ready rhymes Waller, Dryden, and Addison--Young, Grave Pope to Gay, when Cowper sung? Sydney Smith, too; gentle Lamb brew, Tennyson, Dickens, Doctor Holmes knew. The cup that cheered, those sober souls, And tiny tea-trays, samovars, and bowls. . . . So here's a toast to the queen of plants, The queen of plants--Bohea! Good wife, ring for your maiden aunts, We'll all have cups of tea. --ARTHUR GRAY. _TEA TERMS_ JAPANESE Ori-mono-châ . . . Folded Tea Giy-ôku-ro-châ . . . Dew Drop Tea Usu-châ . . . Light Tea Koi-châ . . . Dark Tea Tô-bi-dashi-châ . . . Sifted Tea Ban-châ . . . Common Tea Yu-Shiyutsu-châ . . . Export Tea Neri-châ . . . Brick Tea Koku-châ . . . Black Tea Ko-châ . . . Tea Dust Broken Leaves Riyoku-châ . . . Green Tea CHINESE Bohea . . . "Happy Establishment" So called after two ranges of hills, Fu-Kien or Fo-Kien Congou . . . Labor Named so at Amoy from the labor in preparing it. Sou chong . . . Small Kind Hyson . . . Flourishing Spring Pe-koe . . . White Hair So called because only the youngest leaves are gathered, which still have the delicate down--white hair--on the surface. Pou-chong . . . Folded Tea So called at Canton after the manner of picking it. Brick Tea--prepared in Central China from the commonest sorts of tea, by soaking the tea refuse, such as broken leaves, twigs, and dust, in boiling water and then pressing them into moulds. Used in Siberia and Mongolia, where it also serves as a medium of exchange. The Mongols place the bricks, when testing the quality, on the head, and try to pull downward over the eyes. They reject the brick as worthless if it breaks or bends. [Illustration of Japanese woman] _TEA LEAVES_ BY JOHN ERNEST MCCANN According to Henry Thomas Buckle, the author of "The History of Civilization in England," who was the master of eighteen languages, and had a library of 22,000 volumes, with an income of $75,000 a year, at the age of twenty-nine, in 1850 (he died in 1860, at the age of thirty-nine), tea making and drinking were, or are, what Wendell Phillips would call lost arts. He thought that, when it came to brewing tea, the Chinese philosophers were not living in his vicinity. He distinctly wrote that, until he showed her how, no woman of his acquaintance could make a decent cup of tea. He insisted upon a warm cup, and even spoon, and saucer. Not that Mr. Buckle ever sipped tea from a saucer. Of course, he was right in insisting upon those above-mentioned things, for tea-things, like a tea-party, should be in sympathy with the tea, not antagonistic to it. Still, not always; for, on one memorable occasion, in the little town of Boston, the greatest tea-party in history was anything but sympathetic. But let that pass. Emperor Kien Lung wrote, 200 years or more ago, for the benefit of his children, just before he left the Flowery Kingdom for a flowerier: "Set a tea-pot over a slow fire; fill it with cold water; boil it long enough to turn a lobster red; pour it on the quantity of tea in a porcelain vessel; allow it to remain on the leaves until the vapor evaporates, then sip it slowly, and all your sorrows will follow the vapor." He says nothing about milk or sugar. But, to me, tea without sugar is poison, as it is with milk. I can drink one cup of tea, or coffee, with sugar, but without milk, and feel no ill effects; but if I put milk in either tea or coffee, I am as sick as a defeated candidate for the Presidency. That little bit of fact is written as a hint to many who are ill without knowing why they are, after drinking tea, or coffee, with milk in it. I don't think that milk was ever intended for coffee or tea. Why should it be? Who was the first to color tea and coffee with milk? It may have been a mad prince, in the presence of his flatterers and imitators, to be odd; or just to see if his flatterers would adopt the act. The Russians sometimes put champagne in their tea; the Germans, beer; the Irish, whiskey; the New Yorker, ice cream; the English, oysters, or clams, if in season; the true Bostonian, rose leaves; and the Italian and Spaniard, onions and garlic. You all know one of the following lines, imperfectly. Scarcely one in one hundred quotes them correctly. _I_ never have quoted them as written, off-hand--but lines run out of my head like schoolboys out of school, "When the lessons and tasks are all ended, And school for the day is dismissed." Here are the lines: "Now stir the fire, and close the shutters fast; Let fall the curtains; wheel the sofa round; And while the bubbling and loud-hissing urn Throws up a steamly column, and the cups That cheer, but not inebriate, wait on each, To let us welcome peaceful evening in." Isn't that a picture? Not one superfluous word in it! Who knows its author, or when it was written, or can quote the line before or after "the cups That cheer, but not inebriate"? &&or in what poem the lines run down the ages? I tell you? Not I. I don't believe in encouraging laziness. If I tell you, you will let it slip from your memory, like a panic-stricken eel through the fingers of a panic-stricken schoolboy; but if you hunt it up, it will be riveted to your memory, like a ballet, and one never forgets when, where, how, why, and from whom, he receives that. What a pity that, in Shakespeare's time, there was no tea-table! What a delightful comedy he could, and would, have written around it, placing the scene in his native Stratford! What a charming hostess at a tea-table his mother, Mary Arden (loveliest of womanly names), would have made! Any of the ladies of the delightful "Cranford" wouldn't be a circumstance to a tea-table scene in a Warwickshire comedy, with lovely Mary Arden Shakespeare as the protagonist, if the comedy were from the pen of her delightful boy, Will. Had tea been known in Shakespeare's time, how much more closely he would have brought his sexes, under one roof, instead of sending the more animal of the two off to The Boar's Head and The Mermaid, leaving the ladies to their own verbal devices. Shakespeare, being such a delicate, as well as virile, poet, would have taken to tea as naturally as a bee takes to a rose or honeysuckle; for the very word "tea" suggests all that is fragrant, and clean, and spotless: linen, silver, china, toast, butter, a charming room with charming women, charmingly gowned, and peach and plum and apple trees, with the scent of roses, just beyond the open, half-curtained windows, looking down upon, or over, orchard or garden, as the May or June morning breezes suggest eternal youth, as they fill the room with perfume, tenderness, love, optimism, and hope in immortality. Coffee suggests taverns, cafés, sailing vessels, yachts, boarding-houses-by-the-river-side, and pessimism. Tea suggests optimism. Coffee is a tonic; tea, a comfort. Coffee is prose; tea is poetry. Whoever thinks of taking coffee into a sick-room? Who doesn't think of taking in the comforting cup of tea? Can the most vivid imagination picture the angels (above the stars) drinking coffee? No. Yet, if I were to show them to you over the teacups, you would not be surprised or shocked. Would you? Not a bit of it. You would say: "That's a very pretty picture. Pray, what are they talking about, or of whom are they talking?" Why, of their loved ones below, and of the days of their coming above the stars. They know when to look for us, and while the time may seem long to us before the celestial reunion, to them it is short. They do not worry, as we do. We could not match their beautiful serenity if we tried, for they know the folly of wishing to break or change divine laws. What delightful scandals have been born at tea-tables--rose and lavender, and old point lace scandals: surely, no brutal scandals or treasons, as in the tavern. Tea-table gossip surely never seriously hurt a reputation. Well, name one. No? Well, think of the shattered reputations that have fallen around the bottle. Men are the worst gossips unhanged, not women. In 1652, tea sold for as high as £10 in the leaf. Pepys had his first cup of tea in September, 1660. (See his Diary.) The rare recipe for making tea in those days was known only to the elect, and here it is: "To a pint of tea, add the yolks of two fresh eggs; then beat them up with as much fine sugar as is sufficient to sweeten the tea, and stir well together. The water must remain no longer upon the tea than while you can chant the Miserere psalm in a leisurely fashion." But I am not indorsing recipes of 250 odd years ago. The above is from the knowledge box of a Chinese priest, or a priest from China, called Père Couplet (don't print it Quatrain), in 1667. He gave it to the Earl of Clarendon, and I extend it to you, if you wish to try it. John Milton knew the delights of tea. He drank coffee during the composition of "Paradise Lost," and tea during the building of "Paradise Regained." Like all good things, animate and inanimate, tea did not become popular without a struggle. It, like the gradual oak, met with many kinds of opposition, from the timid, the prejudiced, and the selfish. All sorts of herbs were put upon the market to offset its popularity; such as onions, sage, marjoram, the Arctic bramble, the sloe, goat-weed, Mexican goosefoot, speedwell, wild geranium, veronica, wormwood, juniper, saffron, carduus benedictus, trefoil, wood-sorrel, pepper, mace, scurry grass, plantain, and betony. Sir Hans Sloane invented herb tea, and Captain Cook's companion, Dr. Solander, invented another tea, but it was no use--tea had come to stay, and a blessing it has been to the world, when moderately used. You don't want to become a tea drunkard, like Dr. Johnson, nor a coffee fiend, like Balzac. Be moderate in all things, and you are bound to be happy and live long. Moderation in eating, drinking, loving, hating, smoking, talking, acting, fighting, sleeping, walking, lending, borrowing, reading newspapers--in expressing opinions--even in bathing and praying--means long life and happiness. _WIT, WISDOM, AND HUMOR OF TEA_ Tea tempers the spirits and harmonizes the mind, dispels lassitude and relieves fatigue, awakens thought and prevents drowsiness, lightens or refreshes the body, and clears the perceptive faculties.--CONFUCIUS. Thank God for tea! What would the world do without tea?--how did it exist? I am glad I was not born before tea.--SYDNEY SMITH. "Sammy," whispered Mr. Weller, "if some o' these here people don't want tappin' to-morrow mornin', I ain't your father, and that's wot it is. Why this here old lady next me is a drown-in' herself in tea." "Be quiet, can't you?" murmured Sam. "Sam," whispered Mr. Weller, a moment afterward, in a tone of deep agitation, "mark my words, my boy; if that 'ere secretary feller keeps on for five minutes more, he'll blow himself up with toast and water." "Well, let him if he likes," replied Sam; "it ain't no bis'ness of yourn." "If this here lasts much longer, Sammy," said Mr. Weller, in the same low voice, "I shall feel it my duty as a human bein' to rise and address the cheer. There's a young 'ooman on the next form but two, as has drank nine breakfast cups and a half; and she's a swellin' wisibly before my wery eyes."--_Pickwick Papers_. Books upon books have been published in relation to the evil effects of tea-drinking, but, for all that, no statistics are at hand to show that their arguments have made teetotalers of tea-drinkers. One of the best things, however, said against tea-drinking is distinctly in its favor to a certain extent. It is from one Dr. Paulli, who laments that "tea so dries the bodies of the Chinese that they can hardly spit." This will find few sympathizers among us. We suggest the quotation to some enterprising tea-dealer to be used in a street-car advertisement. Of all methods of making tea, that hit upon by Heine's Italian landlord was perhaps the most economical. Heine lodged in a house at Lucca, the first floor of which was occupied by an English family. The latter complained of the cookery of Italy in general, and their landlord's in particular. Heine declared the landlord brewed the best tea ho had ever tasted in the country, and to convince his doubtful English friends, invited them to take tea with him and his brother. The invitation was accepted. Tea-time came, but no tea. When the poet's patience was exhausted, his brother went to the kitchen to expedite matters. There he found his landlord, who, in blissful ignorance of what company the Heines had invited, cried: "You can get no tea, for the family on the first floor have not taken tea this evening." The tea that had delighted Heine was made from the used leaves of the English party, who found and made their own tea, and thus afforded the landlord an opportunity of obtaining at once praise and profit by this Italian method of serving a pot of tea. --_Chambers's Journal_. [Illustration of two women] _FATE_ Matrons who toss the cup, and see The grounds of Fate in grounds of tea. --_Churchill_. _TEA MAKING AND TAKING IN JAPAN AND CHINA_ The queen of teas in Japan is a fine straw-colored beverage, delicate and subtle in flavor, and as invigorating as a glass of champagne. It is real Japan tea, and seldom leaves its native heath for the reason that, while it is peculiarly adaptable to the Japanese constitution, it is too stimulating for the finely-tuned and over-sensitive Americans, who, by the way, are said to be the largest customers for Japan teas of other grades in the world. This particular tea, which looks as harmless as our own importations of the leaf, is a very insidious beverage, as an American lady soon found out after taking some of it late at night. She declared, after drinking a small cup before retiring, she did not close her eyes in sleep for a week. We do not know the name of the brand of tea, and are glad of it; for we live in a section where the women are especially curious. But the drink of the people at large in Japan is green tea, although powdered tea is also used, but reserved for special functions and ceremonial occasions. Tea, over there, is not made by infusing the leaves with boiling water, as is the case with us; but the boiling water is first carefully cooled in another vessel to 176 degrees Fahrenheit. The leaves are also renewed for every infusion. It would be crime against his August Majesty, the Palate, to use the same leaves more than once--in Japan. The preparation of good tea is regarded by the Japs as the height of social art, and for that reason it is an important element in the domestic, diplomatic, political, and general life of the country. Tea is the beverage--the masterpiece--of every meal, even if it be nothing but boiled rice. Every artisan and laborer, going to work, carries with him his rice-box of lacquered wood, a kettle, a tea-caddy, a tea-pot, a cup, and his chop-sticks. Milk and sugar are generally eschewed. The Japs and the Chinese never indulge in either of these ingredients in tea; the use of which, they claim, spoils the delicate aroma. From the highest court circles down to the lowliest and poorest of the Emperor's subjects, it is the custom in both Japan and China to offer tea to every visitor upon his arrival. Not to do this would be an unpardonable breach of national manners. Even in the shops, the customer is regaled with a soothing cup before the goods are displayed to him. This does not, however, impose any obligation on the prospective purchaser, but it is, nevertheless, a good stimulant to part with his money. This appears to be a very ancient tradition in China and Japan--so ancient that it is continued by the powers that be in Paradise and Hades, according to a translation called "Strange Stories from My Small Library," a classical Chinese work published in 1679. The old domestic etiquette of Japan never intrusted to a servant the making of tea for a guest. It was made by the master of the house himself; the custom probably growing out of the innate politeness and courtesy of a people who believe that an honored visitor is entitled to the best entertainment possible to give him. As soon as a guest is seated upon his mat, a small tray is set before the master of the house. Upon this tray is a tiny tea-pot with a handle at right angles to the spout. Other parts of this outfit include a highly artistic tea-kettle filled with hot water, and a requisite number of small cups, set in metal or bamboo trays. These trays are used for handing the cups around, but the guest is not expected to take one. The cups being without handles, and not easy to hold, the visitor must therefore be careful lest he let one slip through his untutored fingers. The tea-pot is drenched with hot water before the tea is put in; then more hot water is poured over the leaves, and soon poured off into the cups. This is repeated several times, but the hot water is never allowed to stand on the grounds over a minute. The Japanese all adhere to the general household custom of the country in keeping the necessary tea apparatus in readiness. In the living-room of every house is contained a brazier with live coals, a kettle to boil water, a tray with tea-pot, cups, and a tea-caddy. Their neighbors, the Chinese, are just as alert; for no matter what hour of the day it may be, they always keep a kettle of boiling water over the hot coals, ready to make and serve the beverage at a moment's notice. No visitor is allowed to leave without being offered a cup of their tea, and they themselves are glad to share in their own hospitality. The Chinese use boiling water, and pour it upon the dry tea in each cup. Among the better social element is used a cup shaped like a small bowl, with a saucer a little less in diameter than the top of the bowl. This saucer also serves another purpose, and is often used for a cover when the tea is making. After the boiling water is poured upon the tea, it is covered for a couple of minutes, until the leaves have separated and fallen to the bottom of the cup. This process renders the tea clear, delightfully fragrant, and appetizing. A variety of other cups are also used; the most prominent being without handles, one or two sizes larger than the Japanese. They are made of the finest china, set in silver trays beautifully wrought, ornate in treatment and design. A complete tea outfit is a part of the outfitting of every _Ju-bako_--"picnic-box"--with which every Jap is provided when on a journey, making an excursion, or attending a picnic. The Japanese are very much given to these out-of-door affairs, which they call _Hanami_--"Looking at the flowers." No wonder they are fond of these pleasures, for it is a land of lovely landscapes and heaven-sent airs, completely in harmony with the poetic and artistic natures of this splendid people. Tea-houses--_Châ ya_--which take the place of our cafes and bar rooms, but which, nevertheless, serve a far higher social purpose, are everywhere in evidence, on the high-roads and by-roads, tucked away in templed groves and public resorts of every nature. Among the Japanese are a number of ceremonial, social, and literary tea-parties which reflect their courtly and chivalrous spirit, and keep alive the traditions of the people more, perhaps, than any other of their functions. The most important of these tea-parties are exclusively for gentlemen, and their forms and ceremonies rank among the most refined usages of polite society. The customs of these gatherings are so peculiarly characteristic of the Japanese that few foreign observers have an opportunity of attending them. These are the tea-parties of a semi-literary or aesthetic character, and the ceremonious _Châ-no-ya_. In the first prevails the easy and unaffected tone of the well-bred gentleman. In the other are observed the strictest rules of etiquette both in speech and behavior. But the former entertainment is by far the most interesting. The Japanese love and taste for fine scenery is shown in the settings and surroundings. To this picturesque outlook, recitals of romance and impromptu poetry add intellectual charm to the tea-party. For these occasions the host selects a tea-house located in well-laid-out grounds and commanding a fine view. In this he lays mats equal to the number of guests. By sliding the partition and removing the front wall the place is transformed into an open hall overlooking the landscape. The room is filled with choice flowers, and the art treasures of the host, which at other times are stored away in the fire-proof vault--"go down"--of his private residence, contribute artistic beauty and decoration to the scene. Folding screens and hanging pictures painted by celebrated artists, costly lacquer-ware, bronze, china, and other heirlooms are tastefully distributed about the room. Stories told at these tea-parties are called by the Japanese names of _Châ-banashi_, meaning tea-stories, or _Hiti-Kuchá_--"one mouth stories," short stories told at one sitting. At times professional story-tellers are employed. Of these there are two kinds: Story-Tellers and "Cross-Road Tradition Narrators," both of whom since olden times have been the faithful custodians and disseminators of native folk-lore and tales. These professionals are divided into a number of classes, the most important being the _Hanashi-Ka_, members of a celebrated company under a well-known manager, who unites them into troops of never less than five or more than seven in number. Such companies are often advertised weeks before their arrival in a place by hoisting flags or streamers with the names of the performers thereon. Their programme consists of war-stories, traditions, and recitals with musical accompaniment. During the intermission, feats of legerdemain or wrestling fill in the time and give variety to the entertainment. These are the leading professional performers. The other classes, while not held in as high regard by the select, nevertheless have a definite place in Japanese amusement circles. One of the latter is the _Tsuji-kô-shâku-ji_. This word-swallower does not belong to any company, but is a "free-lance" entertainer. A sort of "has been," he does not, however, rest on his past laurels, but continues to perform whenever he can obtain an audience--on the highways, to passers-by, in public resorts and thoroughfares. Although the Chinese are not so neat in their public habits as the Japs, still their tea-houses and similar resorts are just as numerous and popular as they are in the neighboring country. Perhaps the most interesting caterers in China, however, are the coolies, who sell hot water in the rural districts. These itinerants have an ingenious way of announcing their coming by a whistling kettle. This vessel contains a compartment for fire with a funnel going through the top. A coin with a hole is placed so that when the water is boiling a regular steam-whistle is heard. Plentiful as tea is in China, however, the poor people there do not consume as good a quality of the leaf as the same class in our own country. Especially is this the case in the northern part of China, where most of the inhabitants just live, and that is all. There they are obliged to use the last pickings of tea, commonly known as "brick tea," which is very poor and coarse in quality. It is pressed into bricks about eight by twelve inches in size, and whenever a quantity of it is needed a piece is knocked off and pulverized in a kettle of boiling water. Other ingredients, consisting of suit, milk, butter, a little pepper, and vinegar, are added, and this combination constitutes the entire meal of the family. Tea in China and Japan is the stand-by of every meal--the never-failing and ever-ready refreshment. Besides being the courteous offering to the visitor, it serves a high purpose in the home life of these peoples; uniting the family and friends in their domestic life and pleasures at all times and seasons. At home round the brazier and the lamp in winter evenings, at picnic parties and excursions to the shady glen during the fine season, tea is the social connecting medium, the intellectual stimulant and the universal drink of these far-and-away peoples. [Illustration of Japanese garden] _TEA-DRINKING IN OTHER LANDS_ While tea-drinking outside of Japan and China is not attended with any "high-days and holidays," still there are countries where it is just as important element of the daily life of its people as it is in the Land of the Rising Sun. Among the Burmese a newly-married couple, to insure a happy life, exchange a mixture of tea-leaves steeped in oil. In Bokhara, every man carries a small bag of tea about with him. When he is thirsty he hands a certain quantity over to the booth-keeper, who makes the beverage for him. The Bokhariot, who is a confirmed tea-slave, finds it just as hard to pass a tea-booth without indulging in the herb as our own inebriates do to go by a corner cafe. His breakfast beverage is _Schitschaj_--tea in which bread is soaked and flavored with milk, cream, or mutton fat. During the daytime he drinks green tea with cakes of flour and mutton suet. It is considered a gross breach of manners to cool the hot tea by blowing the breath. This is overcome by supporting the right elbow in the left hand and giving an easy, graceful, circular movement to the cup. The time it takes for each kind of tea to draw is calculated to a second. When the can is emptied it is passed around among the company for each tea-drinker to take up as many leaves as can be held between the thumb and finger; the leaves being considered a special dainty. An English traveller once journeying through Asiatic Russia was obliged to claim the hospitality of a family of Buratsky Arabs. At mealtime the mistress of the tent placed a large kettle on the fire, wiped it carefully with a horse's tail, filled it with water, threw in some coarse tea and a little salt. When this was nearly boiled she stirred the mixture with a brass ladle until the liquor became very brown, when she poured it into another vessel. Cleaning the kettle as before, the woman set it again on the fire to fry a paste of meal and fresh butter. Upon this she poured the tea and some thick cream, stirred it, and after a time the whole. Was taken off the fire and set aside to cool. Half-pint mugs were handed around and the tea ladled into them: the result, a pasty tea forming meat and drink, satisfying both hunger and thirst. M. Vámbéry says: "The picture of a newly encamped caravan in the summer months, on the steppes of Central Asia, is a truly interesting one. While the camels in the distance, but still in sight, graze greedily, or crush the juicy thistles, the travellers, even to the poorest among them, sit with their tea-cups in their hands and eagerly sip the costly beverage. It is nothing more than a greenish warm water, innocent of sugar, and often decidedly turbid; still, human art has discovered no food, invented no nectar, which is so grateful, so refreshing, in the desert as this unpretending drink. I have still a vivid recollection of its wonderful effects. As I sipped the first drops, a soft fire filled my veins, a fire which enlivened without intoxicating. The later draughts affected both heart and head; the eye became peculiarly bright and began to glow. In such moments I felt an indescribable rapture and sense of comfort. My companions sunk in sleep; I could keep myself awake and dream with open eyes!" Tea is the national drink of Russia, and as indispensable an ingredient of the table there as bread or meat. It is taken at all hours of the day and night, and in all the griefs of the Russian he flies to tea and vodka for mental refuge and consolation. Tea is drunk out of tumblers in Russia. In the homes of the wealthy these tumblers are held in silver holders like the sockets that hold our soda-water glasses. These holders are decorated, of course, with the Russian idea of art. In every Russian town tea-houses flourish. In these public resorts a large glass of tea with plenty of sugar in it is served at what would cost, in our money, about two cents. Tea with lemon is so general that milk with the drink, over there, is considered a fad. The Russians seem to like beverages that bite--set the teeth on edge, as it were. The poor in Russia take a lump of sugar in their mouths and let the tea trickle through it. Travelling tea-peddlers, equipped with kettles wrapped up in towels to preserve the heat, and a row of glasses in leather pockets, furnish a glass of hot tea at any hour of the day or night. The Russian samovar--from the Greek "to boil itself"--is a graceful dome-topped brass urn with a cylinder two or three inches in diameter passing through it from top to bottom. The cylinder is filled with live coals, and keeps the water boiling hot. The Russian tea-pots are porcelain or earthen. Hot water to heat the pot is first put in and then poured out; dry tea is then put in, boiling water poured over it; after which the pot is placed on top of the samovar. We all know about tea-drinking in England. It is not a very picturesque or interesting occasion, at best. To the traditional Englishman's mind it means simply a quiet evening at home, attended by the papers, and serious conversations in which the head of the house deals out political and domestic wisdom until ten o'clock. During the day, tea-taking begins with breakfast and rounds up on the fashionable thoroughfares in the afternoon. Here one may see the Britishers at their best and worst. These places are called "tea-shops," and in them one may acquire the latest hand-shake, the freshest tea and gossip, see the newest modes and millinery, meet and greet the whirl of the world. An interesting study of types, in contrasts and conditions of society, worth the price of a whole chest of choice tea. We are pretty prosaic tea-drinkers in America. Is it because there is not enough "touch and go" about the drink, or that we are too busy to settle down to the quiet, comfort, and thoughtful tea-ways of our contemporaries? Wait until a few things are settled; when our kitchen queens do not leave us in the "gray of the morning," and all of our daughters have obtained diplomas in the art and science of gastronomy. However made or taken, tea at best or worst is a glorious drink. As a stimulant for the tired traveller and weary worker it is unique in its restful, retiring, soothing, and caressing qualities. _THE TEA-TABLE_ Tho' all unknown to Greek and Roman song, The paler hyson and the dark souchong, Tho' black nor green the warbled praises share Of knightly troubadour or gay trouvère, Yet deem not thou, an alien quite to numbers, That friend to prattle and that foe to slumbers, Which Kian-Long, imperial poet, praised So high that, cent per cent, its price was raised; Which Pope himself would sometimes condescend To place commodious at a couplet's end; Which the sweet Bard of Olney did not spurn, Who loved the music of the "hissing urn." . . . For the dear comforts of domestic tea Are sung too well to stand in need of me By Cowper and the Bard of Rimini; Besides, I hold it as a special grace When such a theme is old and commonplace. The cheering lustre of the new-stirr'd fire, The mother's summons to the dozing sire, The whispers audible that oft intrude On the forced silence of the younger brood, The seniors' converse, seldom over new, Where quiet dwells and strange events are few, The blooming daughter's ever-ready smile, So full of meaning and so void of guile. And all the little mighty things that cheer The closing day from quiet year to year, I leave to those whom benignant fate Or merit destines to the wedded state. . . . 'Tis woman still that makes or mars the man. And so it is, the creature can beguile The fairest faces of the readiest smile. The third who comes the hyson to inhale, If not a man, at least appears a male. . . . Last of the rout, and dogg'd with public cares, The politician stumbles up the stairs; Whose dusky soul nor beauty can illume, Nor wine dispel his patriotic gloom. In restless ire from guest to guest he goes, And names us all among our country's foes; Swears 'tis a shame that we should drink our tea, 'Till wrongs are righted and the nation free, That priests and poets are a venal race, Who preach for patronage and rhyme for place; Declares that boys and girls should not be cooing. When England's hope is bankruptcy and ruin; That wiser 'twere the coming wrath to fly, And that old women should make haste to die. Condensed from a poem published in _Fraser's Magazine_, January, 1857, and ascribed to Hartley Coleridge. _LADIES, LITERATURE, AND TEA_ In spite of the fact that coffee is just as important a beverage as tea, tea has been sipped more in literature. Tea is certainly as much of a social drink as coffee, and more of a domestic, for the reason that the teacup hours are the family hours. As these are the hours when the sexes are thrown together, and as most of the poetry and philosophy of tea-drinking teem with female virtues, vanities, and whimsicalities, the inference is that, without women, tea would be nothing, and without tea, women would be stale, flat, and uninteresting. With them it is a polite, purring, soft, gentle, kind, sympathetic, delicious beverage. In support of this theory, notice what Pope, Gay, Crabbe, Cowper, Dryden, and others have written on the subject. "The tea-cup times of hood and hoop, And when the patch was worn" --wrote Tennyson of the early half of the seventeenth century. What a suggestive couplet, full of the foibles and follies of the times! A picture a la mode of the period when fair dames made their red cheeks cute with eccentric patches. Ornamented with high coiffures, powdered hair, robed in satin petticoats and square-cut bodices, they blossomed, according to the old engravings, into most fetching figures. Even the beaux of the day affected feminine frills in their many-colored, bell-skirted waistcoats, lace ruffles, patches, and powdered queues. Dryden must have succumbed to the charms of women through tea, when he wrote: "And thou, great Anna, whom three realms obey, Dost sometimes take counsel, and sometimes tay." From the great vogue which tea started grew a taste for china; the more peculiar and striking the design, the more valuable the tea-set. Pope in one of his satirical compositions praises the composure of a woman who is "Mistress of herself though china fall." Even that fine old bachelor, philosopher, and humorist, Charles Lamb, thought that the subject deserved an essay. In speaking of the ornaments on the tea-cup he says, in "Old China": "I like to see my old friends, whom distance cannot diminish, figuring up in the air (so they appear to our optics), yet on terra firma still, for so we must in courtesy interpret that speck of deeper blue which the decorous artist, to prevent absurdity, has made to spring up beneath their sandals. I love the men with women's faces and the women, if possible, with still more womanish expressions. "Here is a young and courtly Mandarin, handing tea to a lady from a salver--two miles off. See how distance seems to set off respect! And here the same lady, or another--for likeness is identity on tea-cups--is stepping into a little fairy boat, moored on the hither side of this calm garden river, with a dainty, mincing foot, which is in a right angle of incidence (as angles go in our world) that must infallibly land her in the midst of a flowery mead--a furlong off on the other side of the same strange stream!" The _Spectator_ and the _Tatter_ were also susceptible to the female influence that tea inspired. In both of these journals there are frequent allusions to tea-parties and china. At these gatherings, poets and dilletante literary gentlemen read their verses and essays to the ladies, who criticised their merits. These "literary teas" became so contagious that a burning desire for authorship took possession of the ladies, for among those who made their debut as authors about this time were Fanny Burney, Mrs. Alphra Behn, Mrs. Manley, the Countess of Winchelsea, and a host of others. One of the readers of the _Spectator_ wrote as follows: "_Mr. Spectator:_ Your paper is a part of my tea-equipage, and my servant knows my humor so well that, calling for my breakfast this morning (it being past my usual hour), she answered, the _Spectator_ was not come in, but that the tea-kettle boiled, and she expected it every minute." Crabbe, too, was a devotee of ladies, literature, and tea, for he wrote: "The gentle fair on nervous tea relies, Whilst gay good-nature sparkles in her eyes; And inoffensive scandal fluttering round, Too rough to tickle and too light to wound." What better proof do we want, therefore, that to women's influence is due the cultivation and retention of the tea habit? Without tea, what would become of women, and without women and tea, what would become of our domestic literary men and matinee idols? They would not sit at home or in salons and write and act things. There would be no homes to sit in, no salons or theatres to act in, and dramatic art would receive a blow from which it could not recover in a century, at least. [Illustration of woman and cat] In the year 1700, J. Roberts, a London publisher, issued a pamphlet of about fifty pages which was made up as follows: Poem upon Tea in Two Cantos . . . 34 pages Dedication of the poem . . . . . . 6 " Preface to the poem . . . . . . . 2 " Poem upon the poem . . . . . .. . 1 " Introduction to the poem . . . . . 4 " To the author upon the poem . . 1 " Postscript . . . . . . . . . .. . 3 " Tea-Table . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 " The poem--_pièce de résistance_--which is by one Nahum Tate, who figures on the title-page as "Servant to His Majesty," is an allegory; and although good in spots is too long and too dry to reproduce here. "The poem upon the poem," "The Introduction," and the "Tea-Table" verses will be found interesting and entertaining. _ON OUR ENGLISH POETRY AND THIS POEM UPON TEA_ See Spanish Curderon in Strength outdone: And see the Prize of Wit from Tasso won: See Corneil's Skill and Decency Refin'd; See Rapin's Art, and Molier's Fire Outshin'd; See Dryden's Lamp to our admiring View, Brought from the Tomb to shine and Blaze anew! The British Laurel by old Chaucer worn, Still Fresh and Gay, did Dryden's Brow Adorn; And that its Lustre may not fade on Thine, Wit, Fancy, Judgment, Taste, in thee combine. Thy pow'rful Genius thus, from Censure's Frown And Envy's Blast, in Flourishing Renown, Supports our British Muses Verdant Crown. Nor only takes a Trusty Laureat's Care, Lest Thou the Muses Garland might'st impair; But, more Enrich'd, the Chaplet to Bequeath, With Eastern Tea join'd to the Laurel-Wreath. --R. B. _TO THE AUTHOR ON HIS POEM UPON TEA_ Let Rustick Satyr, now no more Abuse, In rude Unskilful Strains, thy Tuneful Muse; No more let Envy lash thy true-bred Steed, Nor cross thy easy, just, and prudent Speed: Who dext'rously doth bear or loose the Rein, To climb each lofty Hill, or scour the Plain: With proper Weight and Force thy Courses run; Where still thy Pegasus has Wonders done, Come home with Strength, and thus the Prize has Won. But now takes Wing, and to the Skies aspires; While Vanquish'd Envy the bold Flight admires, And baffled Satyr to his Den retires. --T. W. _THE INTRODUCTION_ Fame Sound thy Trump, all Ranks of Mortals Call, To share a Prize that will enrich 'em All. You that with Sacred Oracles converse, And clearly wou'd Mysterious Truths rehearse; On soaring Wings of Contemplation rise, And fetch Discov'ries from above the Skies; Ethereal TEA your Notions will resine, Till you yourselves become almost Divine. You statesmen, who in Storms the Publick Helm Wou'd Guide with Skill, and Save a sinking Realm, TEA, your Minerva, shall suggest such Sense, Such safe and sudden Turns of Thought dispense, That you, like her Ulysses, may Advise, And start Designs that shall the World surprise. You Pleaders, who for Conquest at the Bar Contend as Fierce and Loud as Chiefs in War; Would you Amaze and Charm the list'ning Court? First to this Spring of Eloquence resort: Then boldly launch on Tully's flowing Seas, And grasp the Thunder of Demosthenes. You Artists of the AEsculapian Tribe, Wou'd you, like AEsculapius's Self, Prescribe, Cure Maladies, and Maladies prevent? Receive this Plant, from your own Phoebus sent; Whence Life's nice Lamp in Temper is maintain'd, When Dim, Recruited, when too fierce, restrained. You Curious Souls, who all our Thoughts apply, The hidden Works of Nature to descry; Why veering Winds with Vari'd Motion blow, Why Seas in settled Courses Ebb and Flow; Wou'd you these Secrets of her Empire know? Treat the Coy Nymph with this Celestial Dew, Like Ariadne she'll impart the Clue; Shall through her Winding Labyrinths convey, And Causes, iculking in their Cells, display. You that to Isis's Bark or Cam retreat, Wou'd you prove worthy Sons of either Seat, And All in Learning's Commonwealth be Great? Infuse this Leaf, and your own Streams shall bring More Science than the fam'd Castalian Spring. Wou'd you, O Musick's Sons, your art Compleat, And all its ancient Miracles repeat, Rouse Rev'ling Monarchs into Martial Rage, And, when Inflam'd, with Softer Notes As swage; The tedious Hours of absent Love beguile, Charm Care asleep, and make Affliction smile? Carouse in Tea, that will your Souls inspire; Drink Phoebus's liquor and command his Lyre. Sons of Appelles, wou'd you draw the Face And Shape of Venus, and with equal Grace In some Elysian Field the Figure place? Your Fancy, warm'd by TEA, with wish'd success, Shall Beauty's Queen in all her Charms express; With Nature's Rural Pride your Landscape fill The Shady Grotto, and the Sunny Hill, The Laughing Meadow, and the Talking Rill. Sons of the Muses, would you Charm the Plains With Chearful Lays, or Sweet Condoling Strains; Or with a Sonnet make the Vallies ring, To Welcome home the Goddess of the Spring? Or wou'd you in sublimer Themes engage, And sing of Worthies who adorn the Age? Or, with Promethean Boldness, wou'd aspire To Catch a Spark of the Celestial Fire That Crowned the Royal Conquest, and could raise Juverne's Boyn above Scamander's Praise? Drink, drink Inspiring TEA, and boldly draw A Hercules, a Mars, or a NASSAU. _THE TEA-TABLE_ Hail, Queen of Plants, Pride of Elysian Bow'rs! How shall we speak thy complicated Pow'rs? Thou Won'drous Panacea to asswage The Calentures of Youths' fermenting rage, And Animate the freezing Veins of age. To Bacchus when our Griefs repair for Ease, The Remedy proves worse than the Disease. Where Reason we must lose to keep the Round, And drinking others Health's, our own confound: Whilst TEA, our Sorrows to beguile, Sobriety and Mirth does reconcile: For to this Nectar we the Blessing owe, To grow more Wise, as we more Cheerful grow. Whilst fancy does her brightest beams dispense, And decent Wit diverts without Offense. Then in Discourse of Nature's mystick Pow'rs And Noblest Themes, we pass the well spent Hours. Whilst all around the Virtues' Sacred Band, And list'ning Graces, pleas'd Attendants, stand. Thus our Tea-Conversation we employ, Where with Delight, Instruction we enjoy; Quaffing, without the waste of Time or Wealth, The Sov'reign Drink of Pleasure and of Health. _DR. JOHNSON'S AFFINITY_ DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON drew his own portrait thus: "A hardened and shameless tea-drinker, who for twenty years diluted his meals with the infusion of this fascinating plant; whose kettle had scarcely time to cool; who with tea amused the evening, with tea solaced the midnight, and with tea welcomed the morning." _EARLIEST MENTION OF TEA_ According to a magazinist, the first mention of tea by an Englishman is to be found in a letter from Mr. Wickham, an agent of the East India Company, written from Japan, on the 27th of June, 1615, to Mr. Eaton, another officer of the company, a resident of Macao, asking him to send "a pot of the best chaw." In Mr. Eaton's accounts of expenditure occurs this item: "Three silver porringiys to drink chaw in." _AUSTRALIAN TEA_ In the interior of Australia all the men drink tea. They drink it all day long, and in quantities and at a strength that would seem to be poisonous. On Sunday morning the tea-maker starts with a clean pot and a clean record. The pot is hung over the fire with a sufficiency of water in it for the day's brew, and when this has boiled he pours into it enough of the fragrant herb to produce a deep, coffee-colored liquid. On Monday, without removing yesterday's tea-leaves, he repeats the process; on Tuesday da capo and on Wednesday da capo, and so on through the week. Toward the close of it the great pot is filled with an acrid mash of tea-leaves, out of which the liquor is squeezed by the pressure of a tin cup. By this time the tea is of the color of rusty iron, incredibly bitter and disagreeable to the uneducated palate. The native calls it "real good old post and rails," the simile being obviously drawn from a stiff and dangerous jump, and regards it as having been brought to perfection. _FIVE-O'CLOCK TEA_ There is a fallacy among certain tea-fanciers that the origin of five-o'clock tea was due to hygienic demand. These students of the stomach contend that as a tonic and gentle stimulant, when not taken with meat, it is not to be equalled. With meat or any but light food it is considered harmful. Taken between luncheon and dinner it drives away fatigue and acts as a tonic. This is good if true, but it is only a theory, after all. Our theory is that five o'clock in the afternoon is the ladies' leisure hour, and that the taking of tea at that time is an escape from _ennui_. _TEA IN LADIES' NOVELS_ What would women novelists do without tea in their books? The novelists of the rougher sex write of "over the coffee and cigars"; or, "around the gay and festive board"; or, "over a bottle of old port"; or, "another bottle of dry and sparkling champagne was cracked"; or, "and the succulent welsh rarebits were washed down with royal mugs of musty ale"; or, "as the storm grew fiercer, the captain ordered all hands to splice the main brace," _i. e._, to take a drink of rum; or, "as he gulped down the last drink of fiery whiskey, he reeled through the tavern door, and his swaying form drifted into the bleak, black night, as a roar of laughter drowned his repentant sobs." But the ladies of the novel confine themselves almost exclusively to tea--rarely allowing their heroes and heroines to indulge in even coffee, though they sometimes treat their heroes to wine; but their heroines rarely get anything from them but Oolong. [Illustration of Old Russian Samovar] _SYDNEY SMITH_ One evening when Sidney Smith was drinking tea with Mrs. Austin the servant entered the crowded room with a boiling tea-kettle in his hand. It seemed doubtful, nay, impossible, he should make his way among the numerous gossips--but on the first approach of the steaming kettle the crowd receded on all sides, Mr. Smith among the rest, though carefully watching the progress of the lad to the table. "I declare," said he, addressing Mrs. Austin, "a man who wishes to make his way in life could do no better than go through the world with a boiling tea-kettle in his hand."--_Life of Rev. Sydney Smith_. _DR. JOHNSON AGAIN_ The good doctor evidently lived up to his reputation as a tea-drinker at all times and places. Cumberland, the dramatist, in his memoirs gives a story illustrative of the doctor's tea-drinking powers: "I remember when Sir Joshua Reynolds, at my home, reminded Dr. Johnson that he had drunk eleven cups of tea. 'Sir,' he replied, 'I did not count your glasses of wine; why should you number my cups of tea?'" At another time a certain Lady Macleod, after pouring out sixteen cups for him, ventured mildly to ask whether a basin would not save him trouble and be more convenient. "I wonder, madam," he replied, roughly, "why all ladies ask such questions?" "It is to save yourself trouble, not me," was the tactful answer of his hostess. _A CUP OF TEA_ _From St. Nicholas, December, 1899_. Now Grietje from her window sees the leafless poplars lean Against a windy sunset sky with streaks of golden green; The still canal is touched with light from that wild, wintry sky, And, dark and gaunt, the windmill flings its bony arms on high. "It's growing late; it's growing cold; I'm all alone," says she; "I'll put the little kettle on, to make a cup of tea!" Mild radiance from the porcelain stove reflects on shining tiles; The kettle beams, so red and bright that Grietje thinks it smiles; The kettle sings--so soft and low it seems as in a dream-- The song that's like a lullaby, the pleasant song of steam: "The summer's gone; the storks are flown; I'm always here, you see, To sing and sing, and shine, and shine, and make a cup of tea!" The blue delft plates and dishes gleam, all ranged upon the shelf; The tall Dutch clock tick-ticks away, just talking to itself; The brindled pussy cuddles down, and basks and blinks and purrs; And rosy, sleepy Grietje droops that snow-white cap of hers. "I do like winter after all; I'm very glad," says she, "I put--my--little--kettle--on--to make--a cup--of--tea!" --HELEN GRAY CONE. [Illustration of landscape] 
17155	----	file was produced from images generously made available by the Digital & Multimedia Center, Michigan State University Libraries.) [Illustration: VANDA SANDERIANA Reduced to One Sixth.] ABOUT ORCHIDS _A CHAT_ BY FREDERICK BOYLE _WITH COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS_ LONDON: CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD. 1893 [_All rights reserved_] LONDON: PRINTED BY GILBERT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN'S HOUSE, CLERKENWELL, E.C. I INSCRIBE THIS BOOK TO MY GUIDE, COMFORTER AND FRIEND, JOSEPH GODSEFF. CONTENTS. PAGE MY GARDENING 1 AN ORCHID SALE 24 ORCHIDS 42 COOL ORCHIDS 60 WARM ORCHIDS 103 HOT ORCHIDS 138 THE LOST ORCHID 173 AN ORCHID FARM 183 ORCHIDS AND HYBRIDIZING 210 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE VANDA SANDERIANA _Frontispiece_ ODONTOGLOSSUM CRISPUM ALEXANDRÆ 67 ONCIDIUM MACRANTHUM 88 DENDROBIUM BRYMERIANUM 127 COELOGENE PANDURATA 160 CATTLEYA LABIATA 173 LOELIA ANCEPS SCHROEDERIANA 197 CYPRIPEDIUM (HYBRIDUM) POLLETTIANUM 210 PREFACE. The purport of this book is shown in the letter following which I addressed to the editor of the _Daily News_ some months ago:-- "I thank you for reminding your readers, by reference to my humble work, that the delight of growing orchids can be enjoyed by persons of very modest fortune. To spread that knowledge is my contribution to philanthropy, and I make bold to say that it ranks as high as some which are commended from pulpits and platforms. For your leader-writer is inexact, though complimentary, in assuming that any 'special genius' enables me to cultivate orchids without more expense than other greenhouse plants entail, or even without a gardener. I am happy to know that scores of worthy gentlemen--ladies too--not more gifted than their neighbours in any sense, find no greater difficulty. If the pleasure of one of these be due to any writings of mine, I have wrought some good in my generation." With the same hope I have collected those writings, dispersed and buried more or less in periodicals. The articles in this volume are collected--with permission which I gratefully acknowledge--from _The Standard_, _Saturday Review_, _St. James's Gazette_, _National Review_, and _Longman's Magazine_. With some pride I discover, on reading them again, that hardly a statement needs correction, for they contain many statements, and some were published years ago. But in this, as in other lore, a student still gathers facts. The essays have been brought up to date by additions--in especial that upon "Hybridizing," a theme which has not interested the great public hitherto, simply because the great public knows nothing about it. There is not, in fact, so far as I am aware, any general record of the amazing and delightful achievements which have been made therein of late years. It does not fall within my province to frame such a record. But at least any person who reads this unscientific account, not daunted by the title, will understand the fascination of the study. These essays profess to be no more than chat of a literary man about orchids. They contain a multitude of facts, told in some detail where such attention seems necessary, which can only be found elsewhere in baldest outline if found at all. Everything that relates to orchids has a charm for me, and I have learned to hold it as an article of faith that pursuits which interest one member of the cultured public will interest all, if displayed clearly and pleasantly, in a form to catch attention at the outset. Savants and professionals have kept the delights of orchidology to themselves as yet. They smother them in scientific treatises, or commit them to dry earth burial in gardening books. Very few outsiders suspect that any amusement could be found therein. Orchids are environed by mystery, pierced now and again by a brief announcement that something with an incredible name has been sold for a fabulous number of guineas; which passing glimpse into an unknown world makes it more legendary than before. It is high time such noxious superstitions were dispersed. Surely, I think, this volume will do the good work--if the public will read it. The illustrations are reduced from those delightful drawings by Mr. Moon admired throughout the world in the pages of "Reichenbachia." The licence to use them is one of many favours for which I am indebted to the proprietors of that stately work. I do not give detailed instructions for culture. No one could be more firmly convinced that a treatise on that subject is needed, for no one assuredly has learned, by more varied and disastrous experience, to see the omissions of the text-books. They are written for the initiated, though designed for the amateur. Naturally it is so. A man who has been brought up to business can hardly resume the utter ignorance of the neophyte. Unconsciously he will take a certain degree of knowledge for granted, and he will neglect to enforce those elementary principles which are most important of all. Nor is the writer of a gardening book accustomed, as a rule, to marshal his facts in due order, to keep proportion, to assure himself that his directions will be exactly understood by those who know nothing. The brief hints in "Reichenbachia" are admirable, but one does not cheerfully refer to an authority in folio. Messrs. Veitch's "Manual of Orchidaceous Plants" is a model of lucidity and a mine of information. Repeated editions of Messrs. B.S. Williams' "Orchid Growers' Manual" have proved its merit, and, upon the whole, I have no hesitation in declaring that this is the most useful work which has come under my notice. But they are all adapted for those who have passed the elementary stage. Thus, if I have introduced few remarks on culture, it is not because I think them needless. The reason may be frankly confessed. I am not sure that my time would be duly paid. If this little book should reach a second edition, I will resume once more the ignorance that was mine eight years ago, and as a fellow-novice tell the unskilled amateur how to grow orchids. FREDERICK BOYLE. North Lodge, Addiscombe, 1893. ABOUT ORCHIDS. MY GARDENING. I. The contents of my Bungalow gave material for some "Legends" which perhaps are not yet universally forgotten. I have added few curiosities to the list since that work was published. My days of travel seem to be over; but in quitting that happiest way of life--not willingly--I have had the luck to find another occupation not less interesting, and better suited to grey hairs and stiffened limbs. This volume deals with the appurtenances of my Bungalow, as one may say--the orchid-houses. But a man who has almost forgotten what little knowledge he gathered in youth about English plants does not readily turn to that higher branch of horticulture. More ignorant even than others, he will cherish all the superstitions and illusions which environ the orchid family. Enlightenment is a slow process, and he will make many experiences before perceiving his true bent. How I came to grow orchids will be told in this first article. The ground at my disposal is a quarter of an acre. From that tiny area deduct the space occupied by my house, and it will be seen that myriads of good people dwelling in the suburbs, whose garden, to put it courteously, is not sung by poets, have as much land as I. The aspect is due north--a grave disadvantage. Upon that side, from the house-wall to the fence, I have forty-five feet, on the east fifty feet, on the south sixty feet, on the west a mere _ruelle_. Almost every one who works out these figures will laugh, and the remainder sneer. Here's a garden to write about! That area might do for a tennis-court or for a general meeting of Mr. Frederic Harrison's persuasion. You might kennel a pack of hounds there, or beat a carpet, or assemble those members of the cultured class who admire Mr. Gladstone. But grow flowers--roses--to cut by the basketful, fruit to make jam for a jam-eating household the year round, mushrooms, tomatoes, water-lilies, orchids; those Indian jugglers who bring a mango-tree to perfection on your verandah in twenty minutes might be able to do it, but not a consistent Christian. Nevertheless I affirm that I have done all these things, and I shall even venture to make other demands upon the public credulity. When I first surveyed my garden sixteen years ago, a big Cupressus stood before the front door, in a vast round bed one half of which would yield no flowers at all, and the other half only spindlings. This was encircled by a carriage-drive! A close row of limes, supported by more Cupressus, overhung the palings all round; a dense little shrubbery hid the back door; a weeping-ash, already tall and handsome, stood to eastward. Curiously green and snug was the scene under these conditions, rather like a forest glade; but if the space available be considered and allowance be made for the shadow of all those trees, any tiro can calculate the room left for grass and flowers--and the miserable appearance of both. Beyond that dense little shrubbery the soil was occupied with potatoes mostly, and a big enclosure for hens. First I dug up the fine Cupressus. They told me such a big tree could not possibly "move;" but it did, and it now fills an out-of-the-way place as usefully as ornamentally. I suppressed the carriage-drive, making a straight path broad enough for pedestrians only, and cut down a number of the trees. The blessed sunlight recognized my garden once more. Then I rooted out the shrubbery; did away with the fowl-house, using its materials to build two little sheds against the back fence; dug up the potato-garden--made _tabula rasa_, in fact; dismissed my labourers, and considered. I meant to be my own gardener. But already, sixteen years ago, I had a dislike of stooping. To kneel was almost as wearisome. Therefore I adopted the system of raised beds--common enough. Returning home, however, after a year's absence, I found my oak posts decaying--unseasoned, doubtless, when put in. To prevent trouble of this sort in future, I substituted drain-pipes set on end; the first of those ideas which have won commendation from great authorities. Drain-pipes do not encourage insects. Filled with earth, each bears a showy plant--lobelia, pyrethrum, saxifrage, or what not, with the utmost neatness, making a border; and they last eternally. But there was still much stooping, of course, whilst I became more impatient of it. One day a remedy flashed through my mind: that happy thought which became the essence or principle of my gardening, and makes this account thereof worth attention perhaps. Why not raise to a comfortable level all parts of the area over which I had need to bend? Though no horticulturist, perhaps, ever had such a thought before, expense was the sole objection visible. Called away just then for another long absence, I gave orders that no "dust" should leave the house; and found a monstrous heap on my return. The road-contractors supplied "sweepings" at a shilling a load. Beginning at the outskirts of my property, I raised a mound three feet high and three feet broad, replanted the shrubs on the back edge, and left a handsome border for flowers. So well this succeeded, so admirably every plant throve in that compost, naturally drained and lifted to the sunlight, that I enlarged my views. The soil is gravel, peculiarly bad for roses; and at no distant day my garden was a swamp, not unchronicled had we room to dwell on such matters. The bit of lawn looked decent only at midsummer. I first tackled the rose question. The bushes and standards, such as they were, faced south, of course--that is, behind the house. A line of fruit-trees there began to shade them grievously. Experts assured me that if I raised a bank against these, of such a height as I proposed, they would surely die; I paid no attention to the experts, nor did my fruit-trees. The mound raised is, in fact, a crescent on the inner edge, thirty feet broad, seventy feet between the horns, square at the back behind the fruit-trees; a walk runs there, between it and the fence, and in the narrow space on either hand I grow such herbs as one cannot easily buy--chervil, chives, tarragon. Also I have beds of celeriac, and cold frames which yield a few cucumbers in the summer when emptied of plants. Not one inch of ground is lost in my garden. The roses occupy this crescent. After sinking to its utmost now, the bank stands two feet six inches above the gravel path. At that elevation they defied the shadow for years, and for the most part they will continue to do so as long as I feel any interest in their well-being. But there is a space, the least important fortunately, where the shade, growing year by year, has got the mastery. That space I have surrendered frankly, covering it over with the charming saxifrage, _S. hypnoides_, through which in spring push bluebells, primroses, and miscellaneous bulbs, while the exquisite green carpet frames pots of scarlet geranium and such bright flowers, movable at will. That saxifrage, indeed, is one of my happiest devices. Finding that grass would not thrive upon the steep bank of my mounds, I dotted them over with tufts of it, which have spread, until at this time they are clothed in vivid green the year round, and white as an untouched snowdrift in spring. Thus also the foot-wide paths of my rose-beds are edged; and a neater or a lovelier border could not be imagined. With such a tiny space of ground the choice of roses is very important. Hybrids take up too much room for general service. One must have a few for colour; but the mass should be Teas, Noisettes, and, above all, Bengals. This day, the second week in October, I can pick fifty roses; and I expect to do so every morning till the end of the month in a sunny autumn. They will be mostly Bengals; but there are two exquisite varieties sold by Messrs. Paul--I forget which of them--nearly as free flowering. These are Camoens and Mad. J. Messimy. They have a tint unlike any other rose; they grow strongly for their class, and the bloom is singularly graceful. The tiny but vexatious lawn was next attacked. I stripped off the turf, planted drain-pipes along the gravel walk, filled in with road-sweepings to the level of their tops, and relaid the turf. It is now a little picture of a lawn. Each drain-pipe was planted with a cutting of ivy, which now form a beautiful evergreen roll beside the path. Thus as you walk in my garden, everywhere the ground is more or less above its natural level; raised so high here and there that you cannot look over the plants which crown the summit. Any gardener at least will understand how luxuriantly everything grows and flowers under such conditions. Enthusiastic visitors declare that I have "scenery," and picturesque effects, and delightful surprises, in my quarter-acre of ground! Certainly I have flowers almost enough, and fruit, and perfect seclusion also. Though there are houses all round within a few yards, you catch but a glimpse of them at certain points while the trees are still clothed. Those mounds are all the secret. II. I was my own gardener, and sixteen years ago I knew nothing whatever of the business. The process of education was almost as amusing as expensive; but that fashion of humour is threadbare. In those early days I would have none of your geraniums, hardy perennials, and such common things. Diligently studying the "growers'" catalogues, I looked out, not novelties alone, but curious novelties. Not one of them "did any good" to the best of my recollection. Impatient and disgusted, I formed several extraordinary projects to evade my ignorance of horticulture. Among others which I recollect was an idea of growing bulbs the year round! No trouble with bulbs! you just plant them and they do their duty. A patient friend at Kew made me a list of genera and species which, if all went well, should flower in succession. But there was a woeful gap about midsummer--just the time when gardens ought to be brightest. Still, I resolved to carry out the scheme, so far as it went, and forwarded my list to Covent Garden for an estimate of the expense. It amounted to some hundreds of pounds. So that notion fell through. But the patient friend suggested something for which I still cherish his memory. He pointed out that bulbs look very formal mostly, unless planted in great quantities, as may be done with the cheap sorts--tulips and such. An undergrowth of low brightly-coloured annuals would correct this disadvantage. I caught the hint, and I profit by it to this more enlightened day. Spring bulbs are still a _spécialité_ of my gardening. I buy them fresh every autumn--but of Messrs. Protheroe and Morris, in Cheapside; not at the dealers'. Thus they are comparatively inexpensive. After planting my tulips, narcissus, and such tall things, however, I clothe the beds with forget-me-not or _Silene pendula_, or both, which keep them green through the winter and form a dense carpet in spring. Through it the bulbs push, and both flower at the same time. Thus my brilliant tulips, snowy narcissus poeticus, golden daffodils, rise above and among a sheet of blue or pink--one or the other to match their hue--and look infinitely more beautiful on that ground colour. I venture to say, indeed, that no garden on earth can be more lovely than mine while the forget-me-not and the bulbs are flowering together. This may be a familiar practice, but I never met with it elsewhere. Another wild scheme I recollect. Water-plants need no attention. The most skilful horticulturist cannot improve, the most ignorant cannot harm them. I seriously proposed to convert my lawn into a tank two feet deep lined with Roman cement and warmed by a furnace, there to grow tropical nymphæa, with a vague "et cetera." The idea was not so absolutely mad as the unlearned may think, for two of my relatives were first and second to flower _Victoria Regia_ in the open-air--but they had more than a few feet of garden. The chances go, in fact, that it would have been carried through had I been certain of remaining in England for the time necessary. Meanwhile I constructed two big tanks of wood lined with sheet-zinc, and a small one to stand on legs. The experts were much amused. Neither fish nor plant, they said, could live in a zinc vessel. They proved to be right in the former case, but utterly wrong in the latter--which, you will observe, is their special domain. I grew all manner of hardy nymphæa and aquatics for years, until my big tanks sprung a leak. Having learned by that time the ABC, at least, of _terra-firma_ gardening, I did not trouble to have them mended. On the contrary, making more holes, I filled the centre with Pampas grass and variegated Eulalias, set lady-grass and others round, and bordered the whole with lobelia--renewing, in fact, somewhat of the spring effect. Next year, however, I shall plant them with _Anomatheca cruenta_--quaintest of flowering grasses, if a grass it must be called. This charming species from South Africa is very little known; readers who take the hint will be grateful to me. They will find it decidedly expensive bought by the plant, as growers prefer to sell. But, with a little pressing seed may be obtained, and it multiplies fast. I find _Anomatheca cruenta_ hardy in my sheltered garden. The small tank on legs still remains, and I cut a few _Nymphæa odorata_ every year. But it is mostly given up to _Aponogeton distachyon_--the "Cape lily." They seed very freely in the open; and if this tank lay in the ground, long since their exquisite white flowers, so strange in shape and so powerful of scent, would have stood as thick as blades of grass upon it--such a lovely sight as was beheld in the garden of the late Mr. Harrison, at Shortlands. But being raised two feet or so, with a current of air beneath, its contents are frozen to a solid block, soil and all, again and again, each winter. That a Cape plant should survive such treatment seems incredible--contrary to all the books. But my established Aponogeton do somehow; only the seedlings perish. Here again is a useful hint, I trust. But evidently it would be better, if convenient, to take the bulbs indoors before frost sets in. Having water thus at hand, it very soon occurred to me to make war upon the slugs by propagating their natural enemies. Those banks and borders of _Saxifraga hypnoides_, to which I referred formerly, exact some precaution of the kind. Much as every one who sees admires them, the slugs, no doubt, are more enthusiastic still. Therefore I do not recommend that idea, unless it be supplemented by some effective method of combating a grave disadvantage. My own may not commend itself to every one. Each spring I entrust some casual little boy with a pail; he brings it back full of frog-spawn and receives sixpence. I speculate sometimes with complacency how many thousand of healthy and industrious batrachians I have reared and turned out for the benefit of my neighbours. Enough perhaps, but certainly no more, remain to serve me--that I know because the slugs give very little trouble in spite of the most favourable circumstances. You can always find frogs in my garden by looking for them, but of the thousands hatched every year, ninety-nine per cent. must vanish. Do blackbirds and thrushes eat young frogs? They are strangely abundant with me. But those who cultivate tadpoles must look over the breeding-pond from time to time. My whole batch was devoured one year by "devils"--the larvæ of _Dytiscus marginalis_, the Plunger beetle. I have benefited, or at least have puzzled my neighbours also by introducing to them another sort of frog. Three years ago I bought twenty-five Hyloe, the pretty green tree species, to dwell in my Odontoglossum house and exterminate the insects. Every ventilator there is covered with perforated zinc--to prevent insects getting in; but, by some means approaching the miraculous, all my Hyloe contrived to escape. Several were caught in the garden and put back, but again they found their way to the open-air; and presently my fruit-trees became vocal. So far, this is the experience of every one, probably, who has tried to keep green frogs. But in my case they survived two winters--one which everybody recollects, the most severe of this generation. My frogs sang merrily through the summer; but all in a neighbour's garden. I am not acquainted with that family; but it is cheering to think how much innocent diversion I have provided for its members. Pleasant also it is, by the way, to vindicate the character of green frogs. I never heard them spoken of by gardeners but with contempt. Not only do they persist in escaping; more than that, they decline to catch insects, sitting motionless all day long--pretty, if you like, but useless. The fact is, that all these creatures are nocturnal of habit. Very few men visit their orchid-houses at night, as I do constantly. They would see the frogs active enough then, creeping with wondrous dexterity among the leaves, and springing like a green flash upon their prey. Naturally, therefore, they do not catch thrips or mealy-bug or aphis; these are too small game for the midnight sports-man. Wood-lice, centipedes, above all, cockroaches, those hideous and deadly foes of the orchid, are their victims. All who can keep them safe should have green frogs by the score in every house which they do not fumigate. I have come to the orchids at last. It follows, indeed, almost of necessity that a man who has travelled much, an enthusiast in horticulture, should drift into that branch as years advance. Modesty would be out of place here. I have had successes, and if it please Heaven, I shall win more. But orchid culture is not to be dealt with at the end of an article. III. In the days of my apprenticeship I put up a big greenhouse: unable to manage plants in the open-air, I expected to succeed with them under unnatural conditions! These memories are strung together with the hope of encouraging a forlorn and desperate amateur here or there; and surely that confession will cheer him. However deep his ignorance, it could not possibly be more finished than mine some dozen years ago; and yet I may say, _Je suis arrivé_! What that greenhouse cost, "chilled remembrance shudders" to recall; briefly, six times the amount, at least, which I should find ample now. And it was all wrong when done; not a trace of the original arrangement remains at this time, but there are inherent defects. Nothing throve, of course--except the insects. Mildew seized my roses as fast as I put them in; camellias dropped their buds with rigid punctuality; azaleas were devoured by thrips; "bugs," mealy and scaly, gathered to the feast; geraniums and pelargoniums grew like giants, but declined to flower. I consulted the local authority who was responsible for the well-being of a dozen gardens in the neighbourhood--an expert with a character to lose, from whom I bought largely. Said he, after a thorough inspection: "This concrete floor holds the water; you must have it swept carefully night and morning." That worthy man had a large business. His advice was sought by scores of neighbours like myself. And I tell the story as a warning; for he represents no small section of his class. My plants wanted not less but a great deal more water on that villainous concrete floor. Despairing of horticulture indoors as out, I sometimes thought of orchids. I had seen much of them in their native homes, both East and West--enough to understand that their growth is governed by strict law. Other plants--roses and so forth--are always playing tricks. They must have this and that treatment at certain times, the nature of which could not be precisely described, even if gardening books were written by men used to carry all the points of a subject in their minds, and to express exactly what they mean. Experience alone, of rather a dirty and uninteresting class, will give the skill necessary for success. And then they commit villanies of ingratitude beyond explanation. I knew that orchids must be quite different. Each class demands certain conditions as a preliminary: if none of them can be provided, it is a waste of money to buy plants. But when the needful conditions are present, and the poor things, thus relieved of a ceaseless preoccupation, can attend to business, it follows like a mathematical demonstration that if you treat them in such and such a way, such and such results will assuredly ensue. I was not aware then that many defy the most patient analysis of cause and effect. That knowledge is familiar now; but it does not touch the argument. Those cases also are governed by rigid laws, which we do not yet understand. Therefore I perceived or suspected, at an early date, that orchid culture is, as one may say, the natural province of an intelligent and enthusiastic amateur who has not the technical skill required for growing common plants. For it is brain-work--the other mechanical. But I shared the popular notion--which seems so very absurd now--that they are costly both to purchase and to keep: shared it so ingenuously that I never thought to ask myself how or why they could be more expensive, after the first outlay, than azaleas or gardenias. And meanwhile I was laboriously and impatiently gathering some comprehension of the ordinary plants. It was accident which broke the spell of ignorance. Visiting Stevens' Auction Rooms one day to buy bulbs, I saw a _Cattleya Mossiæ_, in bloom, which had not found a purchaser at the last orchid sale. A lucky impulse tempted me to ask the price. "Four shillings," said the invaluable Charles. I could not believe it--there must be a mistake: as if Charles ever made a mistake in his life! When he repeated the price, however, I seized that precious Cattleya, slapped down the money, and fled with it along King Street, fearing pursuit. Since no one followed, and Messrs. Stevens did not write within the next few days reclaiming my treasure, I pondered the incident calmly. Perhaps they had been selling bankrupt stock, and perhaps they often do so. Presently I returned. "Charles!" I said, "you sold me a _Cattleya Mossiæ_ the other day." Charles, in shirt-sleeves of course, was analyzing and summing up half a hundred loose sheets of figures, as calm and sure as a calculating machine. "I know I did, sir," he replied, cheerfully. "It was rather dear, wasn't it?" I said. "That's your business, sir," he laughed. "Could I often get an established plant of _Cattleya Mossiæ_ in flower for 4s.?" I asked. "Give me the order, and I'll supply as many as you are likely to want within a month." That was a revelation; and I tell the little story because I know it will be a revelation to many others. People hear of great sums paid for orchids, and they fancy that such represent only the extreme limits of an average. In fact, they have no relation whatsoever to the ordinary price. One of our largest general growers, who has but lately begun cultivating those plants, tells me that half-a-crown is the utmost he has paid for Cattleyas and Dendrobes, one shilling for Odontoglots and Oncidiums. At these rates he has now a fine collection, many turning up among the lot for which he asks, and gets, as many pounds as the pence he gave. For such are imported, of course, and sold at auction as they arrive. This is not an article on orchids, but on "My Gardening," or I could tell some extraordinary tales. Briefly, I myself once bought a case two feet long, a foot wide, half-full of Odontoglossums for 8s. 6d. They were small bits, but perfect in condition. Of the fifty-three pots they made, not one, I think, has been lost. I sold the less valuable some years ago, when established and tested, at a fabulous profit. Another time I bought three "strings" of _O. Alexandræ_, the Pacho variety, which is finest, for 15s. They filled thirty-six pots, some three to a pot, for I could not make room for them all singly. Again--but this is enough. I only wish to demonstrate, for the service of very small amateurs like myself, that costliness at least is no obstacle if they have a fancy for this culture: unless, of course, they demand wonders and "specimens." That _Cattleya Mossiæ_, was my first orchid, bought in 1884. It dwindled away, and many another followed it to limbo; but I knew enough, as has been said, to feel neither surprised nor angry. First of all, it is necessary to understand the general conditions, and to secure them. Books give little help in this stage of education; they all lack detail in the preliminaries. I had not the good fortune to come across a friend or a gardener who grasped what was wrong until I found out for myself. For instance, no one told me that the concrete flooring of my house was a fatal error. When, a little disheartened, I made a new one, by glazing that _ruelle_ mentioned in the preliminary survey of my garden, they allowed me to repeat it. Ingenious were my contrivances to keep the air moist, but none answered. It is not easy to find a material trim and clean which can be laid over concrete, but unless one can discover such, it is useless to grow orchids. I have no doubt that ninety-nine cases of failure in a hundred among amateurs are due to an unsuitable flooring. Glazed tiles, so common, are infinitely worst of all. May my experience profit others in like case! Looking over the trade list of a man who manufactures orchid-pots one day, I observed, "Sea-sand for Garden Walks," and the preoccupation of years was dissipated. Sea-sand will hold water, yet will keep a firm, clean surface; it needs no rolling, does not show footprints nor muddy a visitor's boots. By next evening the floors were covered therewith six inches deep, and forthwith my orchids began to flourish--not only to live. Long since, of course, I had provided a supply of water from the main to each house for "damping down." All round them now a leaden pipe was fixed, with pin-holes twelve inches apart, and a length of indiarubber hose at the end to fix upon the "stand-pipe." Attaching this, I turn the cock, and from each tiny hole spurts forth a jet, which in ten minutes will lay the whole floor under water, and convert the house into a shallow pond; but five minutes afterwards not a sign of the deluge is visible. Then I felt the joys of orchid culture. Much remained to learn--much still remains. We have some five thousand species in cultivation, of which an alarming number demand some difference of treatment if one would grow them to perfection. The amateur does not easily collect nor remember all this, and he is apt to be daunted if he inquire too deeply before "letting himself go." Such in especial I would encourage. Perfection is always a noble aim; but orchids do not exact it--far from that! The dear creatures will struggle to fulfil your hopes, to correct your errors, with pathetic patience. Give them but a chance, and they will await the progress of your education. That chance lies, as has been said, in the general conditions--the degree of moisture you can keep in the air, the ventilation, and the light. These secured, you may turn up the books, consult the authorities, and gradually accumulate the knowledge which will enable you to satisfy the preferences of each class. So, in good time, you may enjoy such a thrill of pleasure as I felt the other day when a great pundit was good enough to pay me a call. He entered my tiny Odontoglossum house, looked round, looked round again, and turned to me. "Sir," he said, "we don't call this an amateur's collection!" I have jotted down such hints of my experience as may be valuable to others, who, as Juvenal put it, own but a single lizard's run of earth. That space is enough to yield endless pleasure, amusement, and indeed profit, if a man cultivate it himself. Enthusiast as I am, I would not accept another foot of garden.[1] FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: It is not inappropriate to record that when these articles were published in the _St. James' Gazette_, the editor received several communications warning him that his contributor was abusing his good faith--to put it in the mild French phrase. Happily, my friend was able to reply that he could personally vouch for the statements.] AN ORCHID SALE. Shortly after noon on a sale day, the habitual customers of Messrs. Protheroe and Morris begin to assemble in Cheapside. On tables of roughest plank round the auction-rooms there, are neatly ranged the various lots; bulbs and sticks of every shape, big and little, withered or green, dull or shining, with a brown leaf here and there, or a mass of roots dry as last year's bracken. No promise do they suggest of the brilliant colours and strange forms buried in embryo within their uncouth bulk. On a cross table stand some dozens of "established" plants in pots and baskets, which the owners would like to part with. Their growths of this year are verdant, but the old bulbs look almost as sapless as those new arrivals. Very few are in flower just now--July and August are a time of pause betwixt the glories of the Spring and the milder effulgence of Autumn. Some great Dendrobes--_D. Dalhousianum_--are bursting into untimely bloom, betraying to the initiated that their "establishment" is little more than a phrase. Those garlands of bud were conceived, so to speak, in Indian forests, have lain dormant through the long voyage, and began to show a few days since when restored to a congenial atmosphere. All our interest concentrates in the unlovely things along the wall. The habitual attendants at an auction-room are always somewhat of a family party, but, as a rule, an ugly one. It is quite different with the regular group of orchid-buyers. No black sheep there. A dispute is the rarest of events, and when it happens everybody takes for granted that the cause is a misunderstanding. The professional growers are men of wealth, the amateurs men of standing at least. All know each other, and a cheerful familiarity rules. We have a duke in person frequently, who compares notes and asks a hint from the authorities around; some clergymen; gentry of every rank; the recognized agents of great cultivators, and, of course, the representatives of the large trading firms. So narrow even yet is the circle of orchidaceans that almost all the faces at a sale are recognized, and if one wish to learn the names, somebody present can nearly always supply them. There is reason to hope that this will not be the case much longer. As the mysteries and superstitions environing the orchid are dispersed, our small and select throng of buyers will be swamped, no doubt; and if a certain pleasing feature of the business be lost, all who love the flower and their fellow-men alike will cheerfully submit. The talk is of orchids mostly, as these gentlemen stroll along the tables, lifting a root and scrutinizing it with practised glance that measures its vital strength in a second. But nurserymen take advantage of the gathering to show any curious or striking flower they chance to have at the moment. Mr. Bull's representative goes round, showing to one and another the contents of a little box--a lovely bloom of _Aristolochia elegans_, figured in dark red on white ground like a sublime cretonne--and a new variety of Impatiens; he distributes the latter presently, and gentlemen adorn their coats with the pale crimson flower. Excitement does not often run so high as in the times, which most of those present can recall, when orchids common now were treasured by millionaires. Steam, and the commercial enterprise it fosters, have so multiplied our stocks, that shillings--or pence, often enough--represent the guineas of twenty years back. There are many here, scarcely yet grey, who could describe the scene when _Masdevallia Tovarensis_ first covered the stages of an auction-room. Its dainty white flowers had been known for several years. A resident in the German colony at Tovar, New Granada, sent one plant to a friend at Manchester, by whom it was divided. Each fragment brought a great sum, and the purchasers repeated this operation as fast as their morsels grew. Thus a conventional price was established--one guinea per leaf. Importers were few in those days, and the number of Tovars in South America bewildered them. At length Messrs. Sander got on the track, and commissioned Mr. Arnold to solve the problem. Arnold was a man of great energy and warm temper. Legend reports that he threw up the undertaking once because a gun offered him was second-hand; his prudence was vindicated afterwards by the misfortune of a _confrère_, poor Berggren, whose second-hand gun, presented by a Belgian employer, burst at a critical moment and crippled him for life. At the very moment of starting, Arnold had trouble with the railway officials. He was taking a quantity of Sphagnum moss in which to wrap the precious things, and they refused to let him carry it by passenger train. The station-master at Waterloo had never felt the atmosphere so warm, they say. In brief, this was a man who stood no nonsense. A young fellow-passenger showed much sympathy while the row went on, and Arnold learned with pleasure that he also was bound for Caraccas. This young man, whose name it is not worth while to cite, presented himself as agent for a manufacturer of Birmingham goods. There was no need for secrecy with a person of that sort. He questioned Arnold about orchids with a blank but engaging ignorance of the subject, and before the voyage was over he had learned all his friend's hopes and projects. But the deception could not be maintained at Caraccas. There Arnold discovered that the hardware agent was a collector and grower of orchids sufficiently well known. He said nothing, suffered his rival to start, overtook him at a village where the man was taking supper, marched in, barred the door, sat down opposite, put a revolver on the table, and invited him to draw. It should be a fair fight, said Arnold, but one of the pair must die. So convinced was the traitor of his earnestness--with good reason, too, as Arnold's acquaintances declare--that he slipped under the table, and discussed terms of abject surrender from that retreat. So, in due time, Messrs. Sander received more than forty thousand plants of _Masdevallia Tovarensis_--sent them direct to the auction-room--and drove down the price in one month from a guinea a leaf to the fraction of a shilling. Other great sales might be recalled, as that of _Phaloenopsis Sanderiana_ and _Vanda Sanderiana_, when a sum as yet unparalleled was taken in the room; _Cypripedium Spicerianum_, _Cyp. Curtisii_, _Loelia anceps alba_. Rarely now are we thrilled by sensations like these. But 1891 brought two of the old-fashioned sort, the reappearance of _Cattleya labiata autumnalis_ and the public sale of _Dendrobium phaloenopsis Schroderianum_. The former event deserves a special article, "The Lost Orchid;" but the latter also was most interesting. Messrs. Sander are the heroes of both. _Dendrobium ph. Schroederianum_ was not quite a novelty. The authorities of Kew obtained two plants from an island in Australasia a good many years ago. They presented a piece to Mr. Lee of Leatherhead, and another to Baron Schroeder; when Mr. Lee's grand collection was dispersed, the Baron bought his plant also, for £35, and thus possessed the only specimens in private hands. His name was given to the species. Under these conditions, the man lucky and enterprising enough to secure a few cases of the Dendrobium might look for a grand return. It seemed likely that New Guinea would prove to be its chief habitat, and thither Mr. Micholitz was despatched. He found it without difficulty, and collected a great number of plants. But then troubles began. The vessel which took them aboard caught fire in port, and poor Micholitz escaped with bare life. He telegraphed the disastrous news, "Ship burnt! What do?" "Go back," replied his employer. "Too late. Rainy season," was the answer. "Go back!" Mr. Sander repeated. Back he went. This was in Dutch territory. "Well," writes Mr. Micholitz, "there is no doubt these are the meanest people on earth. On my telling them that it was very mean to demand anything from a shipwrecked man, they gave me thirty per cent. deduction on my passage"--201 dollars instead of 280 dollars. However, he reached New Guinea once more and tried fresh ground, having exhausted the former field. Again he found the Dendrobiums, of better quality and in greater number than before. But they were growing among bones and skeletons, in the graveyard of the natives. Those people lay their dead in a slight coffin, which they place upon the rocks just above high tide, a situation which the Dendrobes love. Mr. Micholitz required all his tact and all his most attractive presents before he could persuade the Papuans to let him even approach. But brass wire proved irresistible. They not only suffered him to disturb the bones of their ancestors, but even helped him to stow the plunder. One condition they made: that a favourite idol should be packed therewith; this admitted, they performed a war dance round the cases, and assisted in transporting them. All went well this time, and in due course the tables were loaded with thousands of a plant which, before the consignment was announced, had been the special glory of a collection which is among the richest of the universe. There were two memorable items in this sale: the idol aforesaid and a skull to which one of the Dendrobes had attached itself. Both were exhibited as trophies and curiosities, not to be disposed of; but by mistake, the idol was put up. It fetched only a trifle--quite as much as it was worth, however. But Hon. Walter de Rothschild fancied it for his museum, and on learning what had happened Mr. Sander begged the purchaser to name his own price. That individual refused. It was a great day indeed. Very many of the leading orchid-growers of the world were present, and almost all had their gardeners or agents there. Such success called rivals into the field, but New Guinea is a perilous land to explore. Only last week we heard that Mr. White, of Winchmore Hill, has perished in the search for _Dendrobium ph. Schroederianum_. I mentioned the great sale of _Cyp. Curtisi_ just now. An odd little story attaches to it. Mr. Curtis, now Director of the Botanic Gardens, Penang, sent this plant home from Sumatra when travelling for Messrs. Veitch, in 1882. The consignment was small, no more followed, and _Cyp. Curtisi_ became a prize. Its habitat was unknown. Mr. Sander instructed his collector to look for it. Five years the search lasted--with many intermissions, of course, and many a success in discovering other fine things. But Mr. Ericksson despaired at last. In one of his expeditions to Sumatra he climbed a mountain--it has been observed before that one must not ask details of locality when collecting orchid legends. So well known is this mountain, however, that the Government, Dutch I presume, has built a shelter for travellers upon it. There Mr. Ericksson put up for the night. Several Europeans had inscribed their names upon the wall, with reflections and sentiments, as is the wont of people who climb mountains. Among these, by the morning light, Mr. Ericksson perceived the sketch of a Cypripedium, as he lay upon his rugs. It represented a green flower, white tipped, veined and spotted with purple, purple of lip. "_Curtisi_, by Jove!" he cried, in his native Swedish, and jumped up. No doubt of it! Beneath the drawing ran: "C.C.'s contribution to the adornment of this house." Whipping out his pencil, Mr. Ericksson wrote: "Contribution accepted. Cypripedium collected!--C.E." But day by day he sought the plant in vain. His cases filled with other treasures. But for the hope that sketch conveyed, long since he would have left the spot. After all, Mr. Curtis might have chosen the flower by mere chance to decorate the wall. The natives did not know it. So orders were given to pack, and next day Mr. Ericksson would have withdrawn. On the very evening, however, one of his men brought in the flower. A curious story, if one think, but I am in a position to guarantee its truth. Of another class, but not less renowned in its way, was the sale of March 11th last year. It had been heavily advertised. A leading continental importer announced the discovery of a new Odontoglossum. No less than six varieties of type were employed to call public attention to its merits, and this was really no extravagant allowance under the circumstances alleged. It was a "grand new species," destined to be a "gem in the finest collections," a "favourite," the "most attractive of plants." Its flowers were wholly "tinged with a most delicate mauve, the base of the segment and the lip of a most charming violet"--in short, it was "the blue Odontoglossum" and well deserved the title _coeleste_. And the whole stock of two hundred plants would be offered to British enthusiasm. No wonder the crowd was thick at Messrs. Protheroe's room on that March morning. Few leading amateurs or growers who could not attend in person were unrepresented. At the psychological moment, when eagerness had reached the highest pitch, an orchid was brought in and set before them. Those experienced persons glanced at it and said, "Very nice, but haven't you an _Odontoglossum coeleste_ to show?" The unhappy agent protested that this was the divine thing. No one would believe at first; the joke was too good--to put it in that mild form. When at length it became evident that this grand new species, heavenly gem, &c., was the charming but familiar _Odontoglossum ramossissimum_, such a tumult of laughter and indignation arose, that Messrs. Protheroe quashed the sale. A few other instances of the kind might be given but none so grand. The special interest of the sale to us lies in some novelties collected by Mr. Edward Wallace in parts unknown, and he is probably among us. Mr. Wallace has no adventures in particular to relate this time, but he tells, with due caution, where and how his treasures were gathered in South America. There is a land which those who have geographical knowledge sufficient may identify, surrounded by the territories of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil. It is traversed by some few Indian tribes, and no collector hitherto had penetrated it. Mr. Wallace followed the central line of mountains from Colombia for a hundred and fifty miles, passing a succession of rich valleys described as the loveliest ever seen by this veteran young traveller, such as would support myriads of cattle. League beyond league stretches the "Pajadena grass," pasturage unequalled; but "the wild herds that never knew a fold" are its only denizens. Here, on the mountain slopes, Mr. Wallace found _Bletia Sherrattiana_, the white form, very rare; another terrestrial orchid, unnamed and, as is thought, unknown, which sends up a branching spike two feet to three feet high, bearing ten to twelve flowers, of rich purple hue, in shape like a Sobralia, three and four inches across; and yet another of the same family, growing on the rocks, and "looking like masses of snow on the hill-side." Such descriptions are thrilling, but these gentlemen receive them placidly; they would like to know, perhaps, what is the reserve price on such fine things, and what the chance of growing them to a satisfactory result. Dealers have a profound distrust of novelties, especially those of terrestrial genus; and their feeling is shared, for a like reason, by most who have large collections. Mr. Burbidge estimates roughly that we have fifteen hundred to two thousand species and varieties of orchid in cultivation; a startling figure, which almost justifies the belief of those who hold that no others worth growing will be found in countries already explored. But beyond question there are six times this number in existence, which collectors have not taken the trouble to gather. The chances, therefore, are against any new thing. Many species well known show slight differences of growth in different localities. Upon the whole, regular orchidaceans prefer that some one else should try experiments, and would rather pay a good price, when assured that it is worth their while, than a few shillings when the only certainty is trouble and the strong probability is failure. Mr. Wallace has nothing more to tell of the undiscovered country. The Indians received him with composure, after he had struck up friendship with an old woman, and for the four days of his stay made themselves both useful and agreeable in their fashion. The auctioneer has been chatting among his customers. He feels an interest in his wares, as who would not that dealt in objects of the extremest beauty and fascination? To him are consigned occasionally plants of unusual class, which the owner regards as unique, and expects to sell at the fanciest of prices. Unique indeed they must be which can pass unchallenged the ordeal of those keen and learned eyes. _Plumeria alba_, for instance, may be laid before them, and by no inexperienced horticulturist, with such a "reserve" as befits one of the most exquisite flowers known, and the only specimen in England. But a quiet smile goes round, and a gentleman present offers, in an audible whisper, to send in a dozen of that next week at a fraction of the price. So pleasant chat goes on, until, at the stroke of half-past twelve, the auctioneer mounts his rostrum. First to come before him are a hundred lots of _Odontoglossum crispum Alexandræ_, described as of "the very best type, and in splendid condition." For the latter point everyone present is able to judge, and for the former all are willing to accept the statements of vendors. The glossy bulbs are clean as new pins, with the small "eye" just bursting among their roots; but nobody seems to want _Odontoglossum Alexandræ_ in particular. One neat little bunch is sold for 11s., which will surely bear a wreath of white flowers, splashed with red brown, in the spring--perhaps two. And then bidding ceases. The auctioneer exclaims, "Does anybody want any _crispums_?" and instantly passes by the ninety-nine lots remaining. It would mislead the unlearned public, and would not greatly interest them, to go through the catalogue of an orchid sale and quote the selling price of every lot. From week to week the value of these things fluctuates--that is, of course, of bulbs imported and unestablished. Various circumstances effect it, but especially the time of year. They sell best in spring, when they have months of light and sun before them, in which to recover from the effects of a long voyage and uncomfortable quarters. The buyer must make them grow strong before the dark days of an English winter are upon him; and every month that passes weakens his chance. In August it is already late; in September, the periodical auctions ceased until lately. Some few consignments will be received, detained by accident, or forwarded by persons who do not understand the business. That instance of _Odontoglossum Alexandræ_ shows well enough the price of orchids this month, and the omission of all that followed illustrates it. The same lots would have been eagerly contested at twice the sum in April. But those who want that queenliest of flowers may get it for shillings at any time. The reputation of the importer, and his assurance that the plants belong to the very best type, give these more value than usual. He will try his luck once more perhaps this season; and then he will pot the bulbs unsold to offer them as "established" next year. _Oncidium luridum_ follows the Odontoglots, a broad-leaved, handsome orchid, which the untrained eye might think to have no pseudo-bulb at all. This species always commands a sale, if cheap, and ten shillings is a reasonable figure for a piece of common size. If all go well, it may throw out a branching spike six or seven feet long next summer, with--such a sight has been offered--several hundred blooms, yellow, brown and orange, _Oncidium juncifolium_, which comes next, is unknown to us, and probably to others; no offer is made for its reed-like growths described as "very free blooming all the year round, with small yellow flowers." _Epidendrum bicornutum_, on the other hand, is very well known and deeply admired, when seen; but this is an event too rare. The description of its exquisite white blossoms, crimson spotted on the lip, is still rather a legend than a matter of eye-witness. Somebody is reported to have grown it for some years "like a cabbage;" but his success was a mystery to himself. At Kew they find no trouble in certain parts of a certain house. Most of these, however, are fine growths, and the average price should be 12s. 6d. to 15s. Compare such figures with those that ruled when the popular impression of the cost of orchids was forming. I have none at hand which refer to the examples mentioned, but in the cases following, one may safely reckon shillings at the present day for pounds in 1846. That year, I perceive, such common species as _Barkeria spectabilis_ fetched 5l. to 17l. each; _Epidendrum Stamfordianum_, five guineas; _Dendrobium formosum_, fifteen guineas; _Aerides maculosum_, _crispum_ and _odoratum_ 20l., 21l., and 16l., respectively. No one who understands orchids will believe that the specimens which brought such monstrous prices were superior in any respect to those we now receive, and he will be absolutely sure that they were landed in much worse condition. But the average cost of the most expensive at the present day might be 30s., and only a large piece would fetch that sum. It is astonishing to me that so few people grow orchids. Every modern book on gardening tells how five hundred varieties at least, the freest to flower and assuredly as beautiful as any, may be cultivated without heat for seven or eight months of the year. It is those "legends," I have spoken of which deter the public from entertaining the notion. An afternoon at an orchid sale would dispel them. ORCHIDS. There is no room to deal with this great subject historically, scientifically, or even practically, in the space of a chapter. I am an enthusiast, and I hold some strong views, but this is not the place to urge them. It is my purpose to ramble on, following thoughts as they arise, yet with a definite aim. The skilled reader will find nothing to criticize, I hope, and the indifferent, something to amuse. Those amiable theorists who believe that the resources of Nature, if they be rightly searched, are able to supply every wholesome want the fancy of man conceives, have a striking instance in the case of orchids. At the beginning of this century, the science of floriculture, so far as it went, was at least as advanced as now. Under many disadvantages which we escape--the hot-air flue especially, and imperfect means of ventilation--our fore-fathers grew the plants known to them quite as well as we do. Many tricks have been discovered since, but for lasting success assuredly our systems are no improvement. Men interested in such matters began to long for fresh fields, and they knew where to look. Linnæus had told them something of exotic orchids in 1763, though his knowledge was gained through dried specimens and drawings. One bulb, indeed--we spare the name--showed life on arrival, had been planted, and had flowered thirty years before, as Mr. Castle shows. Thus horticulturists became aware, just when the information was most welcome, that a large family of plants unknown awaited their attention; plants quite new, of strangest form, of mysterious habits, and beauty incomparable. Their notions were vague as yet, but the fascination of the subject grew from year to year. Whilst several hundred species were described in books, the number in cultivation, including all those gathered by Sir Joseph Banks, and our native kinds, was only fifty. Kew boasted no more than one hundred and eighteen in 1813; amateurs still watched in timid and breathless hope. Gradually they came to see that the new field was open, and they entered with a rush. In 1830 a number of collections still famous in the legends of the mystery are found complete. At the Orchid Conference, Mr. O'Brien expressed a "fear that we could not now match some of the specimens mentioned at the exhibitions of the Horticultural Society in Chiswick Gardens between 1835 and 1850;" and extracts which he gave from reports confirm this suspicion. The number of species cultivated at that time was comparatively small. People grew magnificent "specimens" in place of many handsome pots. We read of things amazing to the experience of forty years later. Among the contributions of Mrs. Lawrence, mother to our "chief," Sir Trevor, was an Aerides with thirty to forty flower spikes; a Cattleya with twenty spikes; an _Epidendrum bicornutum_, difficult to keep alive, much more to bloom, until the last few years, with "many spikes;" an Oncidium, "bearing a head of golden flowers four feet across." Giants dwelt in our greenhouses then. So the want of enthusiasts was satisfied. In 1852 Mr. B.S. Williams could venture to publish "Orchids for the Million," a hand-book of world-wide fame under the title it presently assumed, "The Orchid Grower's Manual." An occupation or amusement the interest of which grows year by year had been discovered. All who took trouble to examine found proof visible that these masterworks of Nature could be transplanted and could be made to flourish in our dull climate with a regularity and a certainty unknown to them at home. The difficulties of their culture were found to be a myth--we speak generally, and this point must be mentioned again. The "Million" did not yet heed Mr. Williams' invitation, but the Ten Thousand did, heartily. I take it that orchids meet a craving of the cultured soul which began to be felt at the moment when kindly powers provided means to satisfy it. People of taste, unless I err, are tiring of those conventional forms in which beauty has been presented in all past generations. It may be an unhealthy sentiment, it may be absurd, but my experience is that it exists and must be taken into account. A picture, a statue, a piece of china, any work of art, is eternally the same, however charming. The most one can do is to set it in different positions, different lights. Théophile Gautier declared in a moment of frank impatience that if the Transfiguration hung in his study, he would assuredly find blemishes therein after awhile--quite fanciful and baseless, as he knew, but such, nevertheless, as would drive him to distraction presently. I entertain a notion, which may appear very odd to some, that Gautier's influence on the æsthetic class of men has been more vigorous than that of any other teacher; thousands who never read a line of his writing are unconsciously inspired by him. The feeling that gave birth to his protest nearly two generations since is in the air now. Those who own a collection of art, those who have paid a great sum for pictures, will not allow it, naturally. As a rule, indeed, a man looks at his fine things no more than at his chairs and tables. But he who is best able to appreciate good work, and loves it best when he sees it, is the one who grows restless when it stands constantly before him. "Oh, that those lips had language!" cried Cowper. "Oh, that those lovely figures would combine anew--change their light--do anything, anything!" cries the æsthete after awhile. "Oh, that the wind would rise upon that glorious sea; the summer green would fade to autumn yellow; that night would turn to day, clouds to sunshine, or sunshine to clouds." But the _littera scripta manet_--the stroke of the brush is everlasting. Apollo always bends the bow in marble. One may read a poem till it is known by heart, and in another second the familiar words strike fresh upon the ear. Painters lay a canvas aside, and presently come to it, as they say, with a new eye; but a purchaser once seized with this desperate malady has no such refuge. After putting his treasure away for years, at the first glance all his satiety returns. I myself have diagnosed a case where a fine drawing by Gerôme grew to be a veritable incubus. It is understood that the market for pictures is falling yearly. I believe that the growth of this dislike to the eternal stillness of a painted scene is a chief cause of the disaster. It operates among the best class of patrons. For such men orchids are a blessed relief. Fancy has not conceived such loveliness, complete all round, as theirs--form, colour, grace, distribution, detail, and broad effect. Somewhere, years ago--in Italy perhaps, but I think at the Taylor Institution, Oxford--I saw the drawings made by Rafaelle for Leo X. of furniture and decoration in his new palace; be it observed in parenthesis, that one who has not beheld the master's work in this utilitarian style of art has but a limited understanding of his supremacy. Among them were idealizations of flowers, beautiful and marvellous as fairyland, but compared with the glory divine that dwells in a garland of _Odontoglossum Alexandræ_, artificial, earthy. Illustrations of my meaning are needless to experts, and to others words convey no idea. But on the table before me now stands a wreath of _Oncidium crispum_ which I cannot pass by. What colourist would dare to mingle these lustrous browns with pale gold, what master of form could shape the bold yet dainty waves and crisps and curls in its broad petals, what human imagination could bend the graceful curve, arrange the clustering masses of its bloom? All beauty that the mind can hold is there--the quintessence of all charm and fancy. Were I acquainted with an atheist who, by possibility, had brain and feeling, I would set that spray before him and await reply. If Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like a lily of the field, the angels of heaven have no vesture more ethereal than the flower of the orchid. Let us take breath. Many persons indifferent to gardening--who are repelled, indeed, by its prosaic accompaniments, the dirt, the manure, the formality, the spade, the rake, and all that--love flowers nevertheless. For such these plants are more than a relief. Observe my Oncidium. It stands in a pot, but this is only for convenience--a receptacle filled with moss. The long stem feathered with great blossoms springs from a bare slab of wood. No mould nor peat surrounds it; there is absolutely nothing save the roots that twine round their support, and the wire that sustains it in the air. It asks no attention beyond its daily bath. From the day I tied it on that block last year--reft from home and all its pleasures, bought with paltry silver at Stevens' Auction Rooms--I have not touched it save to dip and to replace it on its hook. When the flowers fade, thither it will return, and grow and grow, please Heaven, until next summer it rejoices me again; and so, year by year, till the wood rots. Then carefully I shall transfer it to a larger perch and resume. Probably I shall sever the bulbs without disturbing them, and in seasons following two spikes will push--then three, then a number, multiplying and multiplying when my remotest posterity is extinct. That is, so Nature orders it; whether my descendants will be careful to allow her fair play depends on circumstances over which I have not the least control. For among their innumerable claims to a place apart among all things created, orchids may boast immortality. Said Sir Trevor Lawrence, in the speech which opened our famous Congress, 1885: "I do not see, in the case of most of them, the least reason why they should ever die. The parts of the orchideæ are annually reproduced in a great many instances, and there is really no reason they should not live for ever unless, as is generally the case with them in captivity, they be killed by errors in cultivation." Sir Trevor was addressing an assemblage of authorities--a parterre of kings in the empire of botany--or he might have enlarged upon this text. The epiphytal orchid, to speak generally, and to take the simple form, is one body with several limbs, crowned by one head. Its circulation pulsates through the whole, less and less vigorously, of course, in the parts that have flowered, as the growing head leaves them behind. At some age, no doubt, circulation fails altogether in those old limbs, but experience does not tell me distinctly as yet in how long time the worn-out bulbs of an Oncidium or a Cattleya, for example, would perish by natural death. One may cut them off when apparently lifeless, even beginning to rot, and under proper conditions--it may be a twelvemonth after--a tiny green shoot will push from some "eye," withered and invisible, that has slept for years, and begin existence on its own account. Thus, I am not old enough as an orchidacean to judge through how many seasons these plants will maintain a limb apparently superfluous. Their charming disposition is characterized above all things by caution and foresight. They keep as many strings to their bow, as many shots in their locker, as may be, and they keep them as long as possible. The tender young head may be nipped off by a thousand chances, but such mishaps only rouse the indomitable thing to replace it with two, or even more. Beings designed for immortality are hard to kill. Among the gentle forms of intellectual excitement I know not one to compare with the joy of restoring a neglected orchid to health. One may buy such for coppers--rare species, too--of a size and a "potentiality" of display which the dealers would estimate at as many pounds were they in good condition on their shelves. I am avoiding names and details, but it will be allowed me to say, in brief, that I myself have bought more than twenty pots for five shillings at the auction-rooms, not twice nor thrice either. One half of them were sick beyond recovery, some few had been injured by accident, but by far the greater part were victims of ignorance and ill-treatment which might still be redressed. Orchids tell their own tale, whether of happiness or misery, in characters beyond dispute. Mr. O'Brien alleged, indeed, before the grave and experienced signors gathered in conference, that "like the domestic animals, they soon find out when they are in hands that love them. With such a guardian they seem to be happy, and to thrive, and to establish an understanding, indicating to him their wants in many important matters as plainly as though they could speak." And the laugh that followed this statement was not derisive. He who glances at the endless tricks, methods, and contrivances devised by one or other species to serve its turn may well come to fancy that orchids are reasoning things. At least, many keep the record of their history in form unmistakable. Here is a Cattleya which I purchased last autumn, suspecting it to be rare and valuable, though nameless; I paid rather less than one shilling. The poor thing tells me that some cruel person bought it five years ago--an imported piece, with two pseudo-bulbs. They still remain, towering like columns of old-world glory above an area of shapeless ruin. To speak in mere prose--though really the conceit is not extravagant--these fine bulbs, grown in their native land, of course, measure eight inches high by three-quarters of an inch diameter. In the first season, that _malheureux_ reduced their progeny to a stature of three and a half inches by the foot-rule; next season, to two inches; the third, to an inch and a half. By this time the patient creature had convinced itself that there was something radically wrong in the circumstances attending its normal head, and tried a fresh departure from the stock--a "back growth," as we call it, after the fashion I have described. In the third year then, there were two heads. In the fourth year, the chief of them had dwindled to less than one inch and the thickness of a straw, while the second struggled into growth with pain and difficulty, reached the size of a grain of wheat, and gave it up. Needless to say that the wicked and unfortunate proprietor had not seen trace of a bloom. Then at length, after five years' torment, he set it free, and I took charge of the wretched sufferer. Forthwith he began to show his gratitude, and at this moment--the summer but half through--his leading head has regained all the strength lost in three years, while the back growth, which seemed dead, outtops the best bulb my predecessor could produce. And I have perhaps a hundred in like case, cripples regaining activity, victims rescued on their death-bed. If there be a placid joy in life superior to mine, as I stroll through my houses of a morning, much experience of the world in many lands and many circumstances has not revealed it to me. And any of my readers can attain it, for--in no conventional sense--I am my own gardener; that is to say, no male being ever touches an orchid of mine. One could hardly cite a stronger argument to demolish the superstitions that still hang around this culture. If a busy man, journalist, essayist, novelist, and miscellaneous _littérateur_, who lives by his pen, can keep many hundreds of orchids in such health that he is proud to show them to experts--with no help whatsoever beyond, in emergency, that which ladies of his household, or a woman-servant give--if he can do this, assuredly the pursuit demands little trouble and little expense. I am not to lay down principles of cultivation here, but this must be said: orchids are indifferent to detail. There lies a secret. Secure the general conditions necessary for their well-doing, and they will gratefully relieve you of further anxiety; neglect those general conditions, and no care will reconcile them. The gentleman who reduced my Cattleya to such straits gave himself vast pains, it is likely, consulted no end of books, did all they recommend; and now declares that orchids are unaccountable. It is just the reverse. No living things follow with such obstinate obedience a few most simple laws; no machine produces its result more certainly, if one comply with the rules of its being. This is shown emphatically by those cases which we do not clearly understand; I take for example the strangest, as is fitting. Some irreverent zealots have hailed the Phaloenopsis as Queen of Flowers, dethroning our venerable rose. I have not to consider the question of allegiance, but decidedly this is, upon the whole, the most interesting of all orchids in the cultivator's point of view. For there are some genera and many species that refuse his attentions more or less stubbornly--in fact, we do not yet know how to woo them. But the Phaloenopsis is not among them. It gives no trouble in the great majority of cases. For myself, I find it grow with the calm complacency of the cabbage. Yet we are all aware that our success is accidental, in a measure. The general conditions which it demands are fulfilled, commonly, in any stove where East Indian plants flourish; but from time to time we receive a vigorous hint that particular conditions, not always forthcoming, are exacted by Phaloenopsis. Many legends on this theme are current; I may cite two, notorious and easily verified. The authorities at Kew determined to build a special house for the genus, provided with every comfort which experience or scientific knowledge could suggest. But when it was opened, six or eight years ago, not a Phaloenopsis of all the many varieties would grow in it; after vain efforts, Mr. Thiselton Dyer was obliged to seek another use for the building, which is now employed to show plants in flower. Sir Trevor Lawrence tells how he laid out six hundred pounds for the same object with the same result. And yet one may safely reckon that this orchid does admirably in nine well-managed stoves out of ten, and fairly in nineteen out of twenty. Nevertheless, it is a maxim with growers that Phaloenopsis should never be transferred from a situation where they are doing well. Their hooks are sacred as that on which Horace suspended his lyre. Nor could a reasonable man think this fancy extravagant, seeing the evidence beyond dispute which warns us that their health is governed by circumstances more delicate than we can analyze at present. It would be wrong to leave the impression that orchid culture is actually as facile as market gardening, but we may say that the eccentricities of Phaloenopsis and the rest have no more practical importance for the class I would persuade than have the terrors of the deep for a Thames water-man. How many thousand householders about this city have a "bit of glass" devoted to geraniums and fuchsias and the like! They started with more ambitious views, but successive disappointments have taught modesty, if not despair. The poor man now contents himself with anything that will keep tolerably green and show some spindling flower. The fact is, that hardy plants under glass demand skilful treatment--all their surroundings are unnatural, and with insect pest on one hand, mildew on the other, an amateur stands betwixt the devil and the deep sea. Under those circumstances common plants become really capricious--that is, being ruled by no principles easy to grasp and immutable in operation, their discomfort shows itself in perplexing forms. But such species of orchids as a poor man would think of growing are incapable of pranks. For one shilling he can buy a manual which will teach him what these species are, and most of the things necessary for him to understand besides. An expenditure of five pounds will set him up for life and beyond--since orchids are immortal. Nothing else is needed save intelligence. Not even heat, since his collection will be "cool" naturally; if frost be excluded, that is enough. I should not have ventured to say this some few years ago--before, in fact, I had visited St. Albans. But in the cool house of that palace of enchantment with which Mr. Sander has adorned the antique borough, before the heating arrangements were quite complete though the shelves were occupied, often the glass would fall very low into the thirties. I could never learn distinctly that mischief followed, though Mr. Godseff did not like it at all. One who beheld the sight when those fields of Odontoglossum burst into bloom might well entertain a doubt whether improvement was possible. There is nothing to approach it in this lower world. I cannot forbear to indicate one picture in the grand gallery. Fancy a corridor four hundred feet long, six wide, roofed with square baskets hanging from the glass as close as they will fit. Suspend to each of these--how many hundreds or thousands has never been computed--one or more garlands of snowy flowers, a thicket overhead such as one might behold in a tropic forest, with myriads of white butterflies clustering amongst the vines. But imagination cannot bear mortal man thus far. "Upon the banks of Paradise" those "twa clerks" may have seen the like; yet, had they done so their hats would have been adorned not with "the birk," but with plumes of _Odontoglossum citrosmum_. I have but another word to say. If any of the class to whom I appeal incline to let "I dare not wait upon I would," hear the experience of a bold enthusiast, as recounted by Mr. Castle in his small brochure, "Orchids." This gentleman had a fern-case outside his sitting-room window, six feet long by three wide. He ran pipes through it, warmed presumably by gas. More ambitious than I venture to recommend, "in this miniature structure," says Mr. Castle, "with liberal supplies of water, the owner succeeded in growing, in a smoky district of London"--I will not quote the amazing list of fine things, but it numbers twenty-five species, all the most delicate and beautiful of the stove kinds. If so much could be done under such circumstances, what may rightly be called difficult in the cultivation of orchids? COOL ORCHIDS. This is a subject which would interest every cultured reader, I believe, every householder at least, if he could be brought to understand that it lies well within the range of his practical concerns. But the public has still to be persuaded. It seems strange to the expert that delusions should prevail when orchids are so common and so much talked of; but I know by experience that the majority of people, even among those who love their garden, regard them as fantastic and mysterious creations, designed, to all seeming, for the greater glory of pedants and millionaires. I try to do my little part, as occasion serves, in correcting this popular error, and spreading a knowledge of the facts. It is no less than a duty. If every human being should do what he can to promote the general happiness, it would be downright wicked to leave one's fellow-men under the influence of hallucinations that debar them from the most charming of quiet pleasures. I suspect also that the misapprehension of the public is largely due to the conduct of experts in the past. It was a rule with growers formerly, avowed among themselves, to keep their little secrets. When Mr. B.S. Williams published the first edition of his excellent book forty years ago, he fluttered his colleagues sadly. The plain truth is that no class of plant can be cultivated so easily, as none are so certain to repay the trouble, as the Cool Orchids. Nearly all the genera of this enormous family have species which grow in a temperate climate, if not in the temperate zone. At this moment, in fact, I recall but two exceptions, Vanda and Phaloenopsis. Many more there are, of course--half a dozen have occurred to me while I wrote the last six words--but in the small space at command I must cling to generalities. We have at least a hundred genera which will flourish anywhere if the frost be excluded; and as for species, a list of two thousand would not exhaust them probably. But a reasonable man may content himself with the great classes of Odontoglossum, Oncidium, Cypripedium, and Lycaste; among the varieties of these, which no one has ventured to calculate perhaps, he may spend a happy existence. They have every charm--foliage always green, a graceful habit, flowers that rank among the master works of Nature. The poor man who succeeds with them in his modest "bit of glass" has no cause to envy Dives his flaunting Cattleyas and "fox-brush" Aerides. I should like to publish it in capitals--that nine in ten of those suburban householders who read this book may grow the loveliest of orchids if they can find courage to try. Odontoglossums stand first, of course--I know not where to begin the list of their supreme merits. It will seem perhaps a striking advantage to many that they burst into flower at any time, as they chance to ripen. I think that the very perfection of culture is discounted somewhat in this instance. The gardener who keeps his plants at the _ne plus ultra_ stage brings them all into bloom within the space of a few weeks. Thus in the great collections there is such a show during April, May, and June as the Gardens of Paradise could not excel, and hardly a spike in the cool houses for the rest of the year. At a large establishment this signifies nothing; when the Odontoglossums go off other things "come on" with equal regularity. But the amateur, with his limited assortment, misses every bloom. He has no need for anxiety with this genus. It is their instinct to flower in spring, of course, but they are not pedantic about it in the least. Some tiny detail overlooked here and there, absolutely unimportant to health, will retard florescence. It might very well happen that the owner of a dozen pots had one blooming every month successively. And that would mean two spikes open, for, with care, most Odontoglossums last above four weeks. Another virtue, shared by others of the cool class in some degree, is their habit of growing in winter. They take no "rest;" all the year round their young bulbs are swelling, graceful foliage lengthening, roots pushing, until the spike demands a concentration of all their energy. But winter is the most important time. I think any man will see the peculiar blessing of this arrangement. It gives interest to the long dull days, when other plant life is at a standstill. It furnishes material for cheering meditations on a Sunday morning--is that a trifle? And at this season the pursuit is joy unmixed. We feel no anxious questionings, as we go about our daily business, whether the _placens uxor_ forgot to remind Mary, when she went out, to pull the blinds down; whether Mary followed the instructions if given; whether those confounded patent ventilators have snapped to again. Green fly does not harass us. One syringing a day, and one watering per week suffice. Truly these are not grave things, but the issue at stake is precious: we enjoy the boon of relief proportionately. Very few of those who grow Odontoglossums know much about the "Trade," or care, seemingly. It is a curious subject, however. The genus is American exclusively. It ranges over the continent from the northern frontier of Mexico to the southern frontier of Peru, excepting, to speak roughly, the empire of Brazil. This limitation is odd. It cannot be due to temperature simply, for, upon the one hand, we receive Sophronitis, a very cool genus, from Brazil, and several of the coolest Cattleyas; upon the other, _Odontoglossum Roezlii_, a very hot species, and _O. vexillarium_, most decidedly warm, flourish up to the boundary. Why these should not step across, even if their mountain sisters refuse companionship with the Sophronitis, is a puzzle. Elsewhere, however, they abound. Collectors distinctly foresee the time when all the districts they have "worked" up to this will be exhausted. But South America contains a prodigious number of square miles, and a day's march from the track carries one into _terra incognita_. Still, the end will come. The English demand has stripped whole provinces, and now all the civilized world is entering into competition. We are sadly assured that Odontoglossums carried off will not be replaced for centuries. Most other genera of orchid propagate so freely that wholesale depredations are made good in very few years. For reasons beyond our comprehension as yet, the Odontoglossum stands in different case. No one in England has raised a plant from seed--that we may venture to say definitely. Mr. Cookson and Mr. Veitch, perhaps others also, have obtained living germs, but they died incontinently. Frenchmen, aided by the climate, have been rather more successful. MM. Bleu and Moreau have both flowered seedling Odontoglots. M. Jacob, who takes charge of M. Edmund de Rothschild's orchids at Armainvilliers, has a considerable number of young plants. The reluctance of Odontoglots to propagate is regarded as strange; it supplies a constant theme for discussion among orchidologists. But I think that if we look more closely it appears consistent with other facts known. For among importations of every genus but this--and Cypripedium--a plant bearing its seed-capsules is frequently discovered; but I cannot hear of such an incident in the case of Odontoglossums. They have been arriving in scores of thousands, year by year, for half a century almost, and scarcely anyone recollects observing a seed-capsule. This shows how rarely they fertilize in their native home. When that event happens, the Odontoglossum is yet more prolific than most, and the germs, of course, are not so delicate under their natural conditions. But the moral to be drawn is that a country once stripped will not be reclothed. I interpolate here a profound observation of Mr. Roezl. That wonderful man remarked that Odontoglossums grow upon branches thirty feet above the ground. It is rare to find them at thirty-five feet, rarer at twenty-five; at greater and less heights they do not exist. Here, doubtless, we have the secret of their reluctance to fertilize; but I will offer no comments, because the more one reflects the more puzzling it becomes. Evidently the seed must be carried above and must fall below that limit, under circumstances which, to our apprehension, seem just as favourable as those at the altitude of thirty feet. But they do not germinate. Upon the other hand, Odontoglossums show no such daintiness of growth in our houses. They flourish at any height, if the general conditions be suitable. Mr. Roezl discovered a secret nevertheless, and in good time we shall learn further. To the Royal Horticultural Society of England belongs the honour of first importing orchids methodically and scientifically. Messrs. Weir and Fortune, I believe, were their earliest employés. Another was Theodor Hartweg, who discovered _Odontoglossum crispum Alexandræ_ in 1842; but he sent home only dried specimens. From these Lindley described and classed the plant, aided by the sketch of a Spanish or Peruvian artist, Tagala. A very curious mistake Lindley fell into on either point. The scientific error does not concern us, but he represented the colouring of the flower as yellow with a purple centre. So Tagala painted it, and his drawing survives. It is an odd little story. He certainly had Hartweg's bloom before him, and that certainly was white. But then again yellow Alexandræs have been found since that day. To the Horticultural Society we are indebted, not alone for the discovery of this wonder, but also for its introduction. John Weir was travelling for them when he sent living specimens in 1862. It is not surprising that botanists thought it new after what has been said. As such Mr. Bateman named it after the young Princess of Wales--a choice most appropriate in every way. [Illustration: ODONTOGLOSSUM CRISPUM ALEXANDRAE Flower reduced to One Fourth Flower Stem to One Sixth] Then a few wealthy amateurs took up the business of importation, such as the Duke of Devonshire. But "the Trade" came to see presently that there was money in this new fashion, and imported so vigorously that the Society found its exertions needless. Messrs. Rollisson of Tooting, Messrs. Veitch of Chelsea, and Messrs. Low of Clapton distinguished themselves from the outset. Of these three firms one is extinct; the second has taken up, and made its own, the fascinating study of hybridization among orchids; the third still perseveres. Twenty years ago, nearly all the great nurserymen in London used to send out their travellers; but they have mostly dropped the practice. Correspondents forward a shipment from time to time. The expenses of the collector are heavy, even if he draw no more than his due--and the temptation to make up a fancy bill cannot be resisted by some weak mortals. Then, grave losses are always probable--in the case of South American importations, certain. It has happened not once but a hundred times that the toil of months, the dangers, the sufferings, and the hard money expended go to absolute waste. Twenty or thirty thousand plants or more an honest man collects, brings down from the mountains or the forests, packs carefully, and ships. The freight alone may reach from three to eight hundred pounds--I have personally known instances when it exceeded five hundred. The cases arrive in England--and not a living thing therein! A steamship company may reduce its charge under such circumstances, but again and again it will happen that the speculator stands out of a thousand pounds clean when his boxes are opened. He may hope to recover it on the next cargo, but that is still a question of luck. No wonder that men whose business is not confined to orchids withdrew from the risks of importation, returning to roses and lilies and daffodowndillies with a new enthusiasm. There is another point also, which has varying force with different characters. The loss of life among those men who "go out collecting" has been greater proportionately, than in any class of which I have heard. In former times, at least, they were chosen haphazard, among intelligent and trustworthy employés of the firm. Trustworthiness was a grand point, for reasons hinted. The honest youth, not very strong perhaps in an English climate, went bravely forth into the unhealthiest parts of unhealthy lands, where food is very scarce, and very, very rough; where he was wet through day after day, for weeks at a time; where "the fever," of varied sort, comes as regularly as Sunday; where from month to month he found no one with whom to exchange a word. I could make out a startling list of the martyrs of orchidology. Among Mr. Sander's collectors alone, Falkenberg perished at Panama, Klaboch in Mexico, Endres at Rio Hacha, Wallis in Ecuador, Schroeder in Sierra Leone, Arnold on the Orinoco, Digance in Brazil, Brown in Madagascar. Sir Trevor Lawrence mentions a case where the zealous explorer "waded for a fortnight up to his middle in mud," searching for a plant he had heard of. I have not identified this instance of devotion, but we know of rarities which would demand perseverance and sufferings almost equal to secure them. If employers could find the heart to tempt a fellow-creature into such risks, the chances are that it would prove bad business. For to discover a new or valuable orchid is only the first step in a commercial enterprise. It remains to secure the "article," to bring it safely into a realm that may be called civilized, to pack it and superintend its transport through the sweltering lowland to a shipping place. If the collector sicken after finding his prize, these cares are neglected more or less; if he die, all comes to a full stop. Thus it happens that the importing business has been given up by one firm after another. Odontoglossums, as I said, belong to America--to the mountainous parts of the continent in general. Though it would be wildly rash to pronounce which is the loveliest of orchids, no man with eyes would dispute that _O. crispum Alexandræ_ is the queen of this genus. She has her home in the States of Colombia, and those who seek her make Bogota their headquarters. If the collector wants the broad-petalled variety, he goes about ten days to the southward before commencing operations; if the narrow-petalled, about two days to the north--on mule-back of course. His first care on arrival in the neighbourhood--which is unexplored ground, if such he can discover--is to hire a wood; that is, a track of mountain clothed more or less with timber. I have tried to procure one of these "leases," which must be odd documents; but orchid-farming is a close and secret business. The arrangement concluded in legal form, he hires natives, twenty or fifty or a hundred, as circumstances advise, and sends them to cut down trees, building meantime a wooden stage of sufficient length to bear the plunder expected. This is used for cleaning and drying the plants brought in. Afterwards, if he be prudent, he follows his lumber-men, to see that their indolence does not shirk the big trunks--which give extra trouble naturally, though they yield the best and largest return. It is a terribly wasteful process. If we estimate that a good tree has been felled for every three scraps of Odontoglossum which are now established in Europe, that will be no exaggeration. And for many years past they have been arriving by hundreds of thousands annually! But there is no alternative. An European cannot explore that green wilderness overhead; if he could, his accumulations would be so slow and costly as to raise the proceeds to an impossible figure. The natives will not climb, and they would tear the plants to bits. Timber has no value in those parts as yet, but the day approaches when Government must interfere. The average yield of _Odontoglossum crispum_ per tree is certainly not more than five large and small together. Once upon a time Mr. Kerbach recovered fifty-three at one felling, and the incident has grown into a legend; two or three is the usual number. Upon the other hand, fifty or sixty of _O. gloriosum_, comparatively worthless, are often secured. The cutters receive a fixed price of sixpence for each orchid, without reference to species or quality. When his concession is exhausted, the traveller overhauls the produce carefully, throwing away those damaged pieces which would ferment in the long, hot journey home, and spoil the others. When all are clean and dry, he fixes them with copper wire on sticks, which are nailed across boxes for transport. Long experience has laid down rules for each detail of this process. The sticks, for example, are one inch in diameter, fitting into boxes two feet three inches wide, two feet deep, neither more nor less. Then the long file of mules sets out for Bogota, perhaps ten days' march, each animal carrying two boxes--a burden ridiculously light, but on such tracks it is dimension which has to be considered. On arrival at Bogota, the cases are unpacked and examined for the last time, restowed, and consigned to the muleteers again. In six days they reach Honda, on the Magdalena River, where, until lately, they were embarked on rafts for a voyage of fourteen days to Savanilla. At the present time, an American company has established a service of flat-bottomed steamers which cover the distance in seven days, thus reducing the risks of the journey by one-half. But they are still terrible. Not a breath of wind stirs the air at that season, for the collector cannot choose his time. The boxes are piled on deck; even the pitiless sunshine is not so deadly as the stewing heat below. He has a store of blankets to cover them, on which he lays a thatch of palm-leaves, and all day long he souses the pile with water; but too well the poor fellow knows that mischief is busy down below. Another anxiety possesses him too. It may very well be that on arrival at Savanilla he has to wait days in that sweltering atmosphere for the Royal Mail steamer. And when it comes in, his troubles do not cease, for the stowage of the precious cargo is vastly important. On deck it will almost certainly be injured by salt water. In the hold it will ferment. Amidships it is apt to be baked by the engine fire. Whilst writing I learn that Mr. Sander has lost two hundred and sixty-seven cases by this latter mishap, as is supposed. So utterly hopeless is their condition, that he will not go to the expense of overhauling them; they lie at Southampton, and to anybody who will take them away all parties concerned will be grateful. The expense of making this shipment a reader may judge from the hints given. The Royal Mail Company's charge for freight from Manzanilla is 750l. I could give an incident of the same class yet more startling with reference to Phaloenopsis. It is proper to add that the most enterprising of Assurance Companies do not yet see their way to accept any kind of risks in the orchid trade; importers must bear all the burden. To me it seems surprising that the plants can be sold so cheap, all things considered. Many persons think and hope that prices will fall, and that may probably happen with regard to some genera. But the shrewdest of those very shrewd men who conduct the business all look for a rise. _Od. Harryanum_ always reminds me--in such an odd association of ideas as everyone has experienced--of a thunderstorm. The contrast of its intense brown blotches with the azure throat and the broad, snowy lip, affect me somehow with admiring oppression. Very absurd; but _on est fait comme ça_, as Nana excused herself. To call this most striking flower "Harryanum" is grotesque. The public is not interested in those circumstances which give the name significance for a few, and if there be any flower which demands an expressive title, it is this, in my judgment. Possibly it was some Indian report which had slipped his recollection that led Roezl to predict the discovery of a new Odontoglot, unlike any other, in the very district where _Od. Harryanum_ was found after his death, though the story is quoted as an example of that instinct which guides the heaven-born collector. The first plants came unannounced in a small box sent by Señor Pantocha, of Colombia, to Messrs. Horsman in 1885, and they were flowered next year by Messrs. Veitch. The dullest who sees it can now imagine the excitement when this marvel was displayed, coming from an unknown habitat. Roezl's prediction occurred to many of his acquaintance, I have heard; but Mr. Sander had a living faith in his old friend's sagacity. Forthwith he despatched a collector to the spot which Roezl had named--but not visited--and found the treasure. The legends of orchidology will be gathered one day, perhaps; and if the editor be competent, his volume should be almost as interesting to the public as to the cognoscenti. I have been speaking hitherto of Colombian Odontoglossums, which are reckoned among the hardiest of their class. Along with them, in the same temperature, grow the cool Masdevallias, which probably are the most difficult of all to transport. There was once a grand consignment of _Masdevallia Schlimii_, which Mr. Roezl despatched on his own account. It contained twenty-seven thousand plants of this species, representing at that time a fortune. Mr. Roezl was the luckiest and most experienced of collectors, and he took special pains with this unique shipment. Among twenty-seven thousand two bits survived when the cases were opened; the agent hurried them off to Stevens's auction-rooms, and sold them forthwith at forty guineas each. But I must stick to Odontoglossums. Speculative as is the business of importing the northern species, to gather those of Peru and Ecuador is almost desperate. The roads of Colombia are good, the population civilized, conveniences abound, if we compare that region with the orchid-bearing territories of the south. There is a fortune to be secured by anyone who will bring to market a lot of _O. noeveum_ in fair condition. Its habitat is perfectly well known. I am not aware that it has a delicate constitution; but no collector is so rash or so enthusiastic as to try that adventure again, now that its perils are understood; and no employer is so reckless as to urge him. The true variety of _O. Hallii_ stands in much the same case. To obtain it the explorer must march in the bed of a torrent and on the face of a precipice alternately for an uncertain period of time, with a river to cross about every day. And he has to bring back his loaded mules, or Indians, over the same pathless waste. The Roraima Mountain begins to be regarded as quite easy travel for the orchid-hunter nowadays. If I mention that the canoe-work on this route demands thirty-two portages, thirty-two loadings and unloadings of the cargo, the reader can judge what a "difficult road" must be. Ascending the Roraima, Mr. Dressel, collecting for Mr. Sander, lost his herbarium in the Essequibo River. Savants alone are able to estimate the awful nature of the crisis when a comrade looses his grip of that treasure. For them it is needless to add that everything else went to the bottom.[2] One is tempted to linger among the Odontoglots, though time is pressing. In no class of orchids are natural hybrids so mysterious and frequent. Sometimes one can detect the parentage; in such cases, doubtless, the crossing occurred but a few generations back: as a rule, however, such plants are the result of breeding in and in from age to age, causing all manner of delightful complications. How many can trace the lineage of Mr. Bull's _Od. delectabile_--ivory white, tinged with rose, strikingly blotched with red and showing a golden labellum? or Mr. Sander's _Od. Alberti-Edwardi_, which has a broad soft margin of gold about its stately petals? Another is rosy white, closely splashed with pale purple, and dotted round the edge with spots of the same tint so thickly placed that they resemble a fringe. Such marvels turn up in an importation without the slightest warning--no peculiarity betrays them until the flowers open; when the lucky purchaser discovers that a plant for which he gave perhaps a shilling is worth an indefinite number of guineas. Lycaste also is a genus peculiar to America, such a favourite among those who know its merits that the species _L. Skinneri_ is called the "Drawing-Room Flower." Professor Reichenbach observes in his superb volume that many people utterly ignorant of orchids grow this plant in their miscellaneous collection. I speak of it without prejudice, for to my mind the bloom is stiff, heavy, and poor in colour. But there are tremendous exceptions. In the first place, _Lycaste Skinneri alba_, the pure white variety, beggars all description. Its great flower seems to be sculptured in the snowiest of transparent marble. That stolid pretentious air which offends one--offends me, at least--in the coloured examples, becomes virginal dignity in this case. Then, of the normal type there are more than a hundred variations recognized, some with lips as deep in tone, and as smooth in texture, as velvet, of all shades from maroon to brightest crimson. It will be understood that I allude to the common forms in depreciating this species. How vast is the difference between them, their commercial value shows. Plants of the same size and the same species range from 3s. 6d. to 35 guineas, or more indefinitely. Lycastes are found in the woods, of Guatemala especially, and I have heard no such adventures in the gathering of them as attend Odontoglossums. Easily obtained, easily transported, and remarkably easy to grow, of course they are cheap. A man must really "give his mind to it" to kill a Lycaste. This counts for much, no doubt, in the popularity of the genus, but it has plenty of other virtues. _L. Skinneri_ opens in the depth of winter, and all the rest, I think, in the dull months. Then, they are profuse of bloom, throwing up half a dozen spikes, or, in some species, a dozen, from a single bulb, and the flowers last a prodigious time. Their extraordinary thickness in every part enables them to withstand bad air and changes of temperature, so that ladies keep them on a drawing-room table, night and day, for months, without change perceptible. Mr. Williams names an instance where a _L. Skinneri_, bought in full bloom on February 2, was kept in a sitting-room till May 18, when the purchaser took it back, still handsome. I have heard cases more surprising. Of species somewhat less common there is _L. aromatica_, a little gem, which throws up an indefinite number of short spikes, each crowned with a greenish yellow triangular sort of cup, deliciously scented. I am acquainted with no flower that excites such enthusiasm among ladies who fancy Messrs. Liberty's style of toilette; sad experience tells me that ten commandments or twenty will not restrain them from appropriating it. _L. cruenta_ is almost as tempting. As for _L. leucanthe_, an exquisite combination of pale green and snow white, it ranks with _L. Skinneri alba_ as a thing too beautiful for words. This species has not been long introduced, and at the moment it is dear proportionately. There is yet another virtue of the Lycaste which appeals to the expert. It lends itself readily to hybridization. This most fascinating pursuit attracts few amateurs as yet, and the professionals have little time or inclination for experiments. They naturally prefer to make such crosses as are almost certain to pay. Thus it comes about that the hybridization of Lycastes has been attempted but recently, and none of the seedlings, so far as I can learn, have flowered. They have been obtained, however, in abundance, not only from direct crossing, but also from alliance with Zygopetalum, Anguloa, and Maxillaria. The genus Cypripedium, Lady's Slipper, is perhaps more widely scattered over the globe than any other class of plant; I, at least, am acquainted with none that approaches it. From China to Peru--nay, beyond, from Archangel to Torres Straits,--but it is wise to avoid these semi-poetic descriptions. In brief, if we except Africa and the temperate parts of Australia, there is no large tract of country in the world that does not produce Cypripediums; and few authorities doubt that a larger acquaintance with those realms will bring them under the rule. We have a species in England, _C. calceolus_, by no means insignificant; it can be purchased from the dealers, but it is almost extinct in this country now. America furnishes a variety of species; which ought to be hardy. They will bear a frost below zero, but our winter damp is intolerable. Mr. Godseff tells me that he has seen _C. spectabile_ growing like any water-weed in the bogs of New Jersey, where it is frozen hard, roots and all, for several months of the year; but very few survive the season in this country, even if protected. Those fine specimens so common at our spring shows are imported in the dry state. From the United States also we get the charming _C. candidum_, _C. parviflorum_, _C. pubescens_, and many more less important. Canada and Siberia furnish _C. guttatum_, _C. macranthum_, and others. I saw in Russia, and brought home, a magnificent species, tall and stately, bearing a great golden flower, which is not known "in the trade;" but they all rotted gradually. Therefore I do not recommend these fine outdoor varieties, which the inexperienced are apt to think so easy. At the same cost others may be bought, which, coming from the highlands of hot countries, are used to a moderate damp in winter. Foremost of these, perhaps the oldest of cool orchids in cultivation, is _C. insigne_, from Nepal. Everyone knows its original type, which has grown so common that I remarked a healthy pot at a window-garden exhibition some years ago in Westminster. One may say that this, the early and familiar form, has no value at present, so many fine varieties have been introduced. A reader may form a notion of the difference when I state that a small plant of exceptional merit sold for thirty guineas a short time ago--it was _C. insigne_, but glorified. This ranks among the fascinations of orchid culture. You may buy a lot of some common kind, imported, at a price representing coppers for each individual, and among them may appear, when they come to bloom, an eccentricity which sells for a hundred pounds or more. The experienced collector has a volume of such legends. There is another side to the question, truly, but it does not personally interest the class which I address. To make a choice among numberless stories of this sort, we may take the instance of _C. Spicerianum_. It turned up among a quantity of _Cypripedium insigne_ in the greenhouse of Mrs. Spicer, a lady residing at Twickenham. Astonished at the appearance of this swan among her ducks, she asked Mr. Veitch to look at it. He was delighted to pay seventy guineas down for such a prize. Cypripediums propagate easily, no more examples came into the market, and for some years this lovely species was a treasure for dukes and millionaires. It was no secret that the precious novelty came from Mrs. Spicer's greenhouse; but to call on a strange lady and demand how she became possessed of a certain plant is not a course of action that commends itself to respectable business men. The circumstances gave no clue. Messrs. Spicer were and are large manufacturers of paper; there is no visible connection betwixt paper and Indian orchids. By discreet inquiries, however, it was ascertained that one of the lady's sons had a tea-plantation in Assam. No more was needed. By the next mail Mr. Forstermann started for that vague destination, and in process of time reached Mr. Spicer's bungalow. There he asked for "a job." None could be found for him; but tea-planters are hospitable, and the stranger was invited to stop a day or two. But he could not lead the conversation towards orchids--perhaps because his efforts were too clever, perhaps because his host took no interest in the subject. One day, however, Mr. Spicer's manager invited him to go shooting, and casually remarked "we shall pass the spot where I found those orchids they're making such a fuss about at home." Be sure Mr. Forstermann was alert that morning! Thus put upon the track, he discovered quantities of it, bade the tea-planter adieu, and went to work; but in the very moment of triumph a tiger barred the way, his coolies bolted, and nothing would persuade them to go further. Mr. Forstermann was no shikari, but he felt himself called upon to uphold the cause of science and the honour of England at this juncture. In great agitation he went for that feline, and, in short, its skin still adorns Mrs. Sander's drawing-room. Thus it happened that on a certain Thursday a small pot of _C. Spicerianum_ was sold, as usual, for sixty guineas at Stevens's; on the Thursday following all the world could buy fine plants at a guinea. Cypripedium is the favourite orchid of the day. It has every advantage, except, to my perverse mind--brilliancy of colour. None show a whole tone; even the lovely _C. niveum_ is not pure white. My views, however, find no backing. At all other points the genus deserves to be a favourite. In the first place, it is the most interesting of all orchids to science.[3] Then its endless variations of form, its astonishing oddities, its wide range of hues, its easy culture, its readiness to hybridize and to ripen seed, the certainty, by comparison, of rearing the proceeds, each of these merits appeals to one or other of orchid-growers. Many of the species which come from torrid lands, indeed, are troublesome, but with such we are not concerned. The cool varieties will do well anywhere, provided they receive water enough in summer, and not too little in winter. I do not speak of the American and Siberian classes, which are nearly hopeless for the amateur, nor of the Hong-Kong _Cypripedium purpuratum_, a very puzzling example. On the roll of martyrs to orchidology, Mr. Pearce stands high. To him we owe, among many fine things, the hybrid Begonias which are becoming such favourites for bedding and other purposes. He discovered the three original types, parents of the innumerable "garden flowers" now on sale--_Begonia Pearcii_, _B. Veitchii_, and _B. Boliviensis_. It was his great luck, and great honour, to find _Masdevallia Veitchii_--so long, so often, so laboriously searched for from that day to this, but never even heard of. To collect another shipment of that glorious orchid, Mr. Pearce sailed for Peru, in the service, I think, of Mr. Bull. Unhappily--for us all as well as for himself--he was detained at Panama. Somewhere in those parts there is a magnificent Cypripedium with which we are acquainted only by the dried inflorescence, named _planifolium_. The poor fellow could not resist this temptation. They told him at Panama that no white man had returned from the spot, but he went on. The Indians brought him back, some days or weeks later, without the prize; and he died on arrival. Oncidiums also are a product of the New World exclusively; in fact, of the four classes most useful to amateurs, three belong wholly to America, and the fourth in great part. I resist the temptation to include Masdevallia, because that genus is not so perfectly easy as the rest; but if it be added, nine-tenths, assuredly, of the plants in our cool house come from the West. Among the special merits of the Oncidium is its colour. I have heard thoughtless persons complain that they are "all yellow;" which, as a statement of fact, is near enough to the truth, for about three-fourths may be so described roughly. But this dispensation is another proof of Nature's kindly regard for the interests of our science. A clear, strong, golden yellow is the colour that would have been wanting in our cool houses had not the Oncidium supplied it. Shades of lemon and buff are frequent among Odontoglossums, but, in a rough, general way of speaking, they have a white ground. Masdevallias give us scarlet and orange and purple; Lycastes, green and dull yellow; Sophronitis, crimson; Mesospinidium, rose, and so forth. Blue must not be looked for. Even counting the new Utricularia for an orchid, as most people do, there are, I think, but five species that will live among us at present, in all the prodigious family, showing this colour; and every one of them is very "hot." Thus it appears that the Oncidium fills a gap--and how gloriously! There is no such pure gold in the scheme of the universe as it displays under fifty shapes wondrously varied. Thus--_Oncidium macranthum!_ one is continually tempted to exclaim, as one or other glory of the orchid world recurs to mind, that it is the supreme triumph of floral beauty. I have sinned thus, and I know it. Therefore, let the reader seek an opportunity to behold _O. macranthum_, and judge for himself. But it seems to me that Nature gives us a hint. As though proudly conscious what a marvel it will unfold, this superb flower often demands nine months to perfect itself. Dr. Wallace told me of an instance in his collection where eighteen months elapsed from the appearance of the spike until the opening of the first bloom. But it lasts a time proportionate. [Illustration: ONCIDIUM MACRANTHUM Reduced to One Sixth] Nature forestalled the dreams of æsthetic colourists when she designed _Oncidium macranthum_. Thus, and not otherwise, would the thoughtful of them arrange a "harmony" in gold and bronze; but Nature, with characteristic indifference to the fancies of mankind, hid her _chef-d'oeuvre_ in the wilds of Ecuador. Hardly less striking, however, though perhaps less beautiful, are its sisters of the "small-lipped" species--_Onc. serratum_, _O. superbiens_, and _O. sculptum_. This last is rarely seen. As with others of its class, the spike grows very long, twelve feet perhaps, if it were allowed to stretch. The flowers are small comparatively, clear bronze-brown, highly polished, so closely and daintily frilled round the edges that a fairy goffering-iron could not give more regular effects, and outlined by a narrow band of gold. _Onc. serratum_ has a much larger bloom, but less compact, rather fly-away indeed, its sepals widening gracefully from a narrow neck. Excessively curious is the disposition of the petals, which close their tips to form a circle of brown and gold around the column. The purpose of this extraordinary arrangement--unique among orchids, I believe--will be discovered one day, for purpose there is, no doubt; to judge by analogy, it may be supposed that the insect upon which _Onc. serratum_ depends for fertilization likes to stand upon this ring while thrusting its proboscis into the nectary. The fourth of these fine species, _Onc. superbiens_, ranks among the grandest of flowers--knowing its own value, it rarely consents to "oblige;" the dusky green sepals are margined with yellow, petals white, clouded with pale purple, lip very small, of course, purple, surmounted by a great golden crest. Most strange and curious is _Onc. fuscatum_, of which the shape defies description. Seen from the back, it shows a floriated cross of equal limbs; but in front the nethermost is hidden by a spreading lip, very large proportionately. The prevailing tint is a dun-purple, but each arm has a broad white tip. Dun-purple, also, is the centre of the labellum, edged with a distinct band of lighter hue, which again, towards the margin, becomes white. These changes of tone are not gradual, but as clear as a brush could make them. Botanists must long to dissect this extraordinary flower, but the opportunity seldom occurs. It is desperately puzzling to understand how nature has packed away the component parts of its inflorescence, so as to resolve them into four narrow arms and a labellum. But the colouring of this plant is not always dull. In the small Botanic Garden at Florence, by Santa Maria Maggiore, I remarked with astonishment an _Onc. fuscatum_, of which the lip was scarlet-crimson and the other tints bright to match. That collection is admirably grown, but orchids are still scarce in Italy. The Society did not know what a prize it had secured by chance. The genus Oncidium has, perhaps, more examples of a startling combination in hues than any other--but one must speak thoughtfully and cautiously upon such points. I have not to deal with culture, but one hint may be given. Gardeners who have a miscellaneous collection to look after, often set themselves against an experiment in orchid-growing because these plants suffer terribly from green-fly and other pests, and will not bear "smoking." To keep them clean and healthy by washing demands labour for which they have no time. This is a very reasonable objection. But though the smoke of tobacco is actual ruination, no plant whatever suffers from the steam thereof. An ingenious Frenchman has invented and patented in England lately a machine called the Thanatophore, which I confidently recommend. It can be obtained from Messrs. B.S. Williams, of Upper Holloway. The Thanatophore destroys every insect within reach of its vapour, excepting, curiously enough, scaly-bug, which, however, does not persecute cool orchids much. The machine may be obtained in different sizes through any good ironmonger. To sum up: these plants ask nothing in return for the measureless enjoyment they give but light, shade from the summer sun, protection from the winter frost, moisture--and brains. * * * * * I am allowed to print a letter which bears upon several points to which I have alluded. It is not cheerful reading for the enthusiast. He will be apt to cry, "Would that the difficulties and perils were infinitely graver--so grave that the collecting grounds might have a rest for twenty years!" _January 19th, 1893._ DEAR SIR, I have received your two letters asking for _Cattleya Lawrenceana_, _Pancratium Guianense_, and _Catasetum pileatum_. Kindly excuse my answering your letters only to-day. But I have been away in the interior, and on my return was sick, besides other business taking up my time; I was unable to write until to-day. Now let me give you some information concerning orchid-collecting in this colony. Six or seven years ago, just when the gold industry was starting, very few people ever ventured in the far interior. Boats, river-hands, and Indians could be hired at ridiculously low prices, and travelling and bartering paid; wages for Indians being about a shilling per day, and all found; the same for river-hands. Captains and boatswains to pilot the boat through the rapids up and down for sixty-four cents a day. To-day you have got to pay sixty-four to eighty cents per day for Indians and river-hands. Captains and boatswains, $2 the former, and $1:50 the latter per day, and then you often cannot get them. Boat-hire used to be $8 to $10 for a big boat for three to four months; to-day $5, $6, and $7 per day, and all through the rapid development of the gold industry. As you can calculate twenty-five days' river travel to get within reach of the Savannah lands, you can reckon what the expenses must be, and then again about five to seven days coming down the river, and a couple of days to lay over. Then you must count two trips like this, one to bring you up, and one to bring you down three months after, when you return with your collection. Besides this, you run the risk of losing your boat in the rapids either way, which happens not very unfrequently either going or coming; and we have not only to record the loss of several boats with goods, etc., every month, but generally to record the loss of life; only two cases happening last month, in one case seven, in the other twelve men losing their lives. Besides, river-hands and blacks will not go further than the boats can travel, and nothing will induce them to go among the Indians, being afraid of getting poisoned by Inds. (Kaiserimas) or strangled. So you have to rely utterly on Indians, which you often cannot get, as the district of Roraima is very poorly inhabited, and most of the Indians died by smallpox and measles breaking out among them four years ago, and those that survived left the district, and you will find whole districts nearly uninhabited. About five years ago I went up with Mr. Osmers to Roraima, but he broke down before we reached the Savannah. He lay there for a week, and I gave him up; he recovered, however, and dragged himself into the Savannah near Roraima, about three days distant from it, where I left him. Here we found and made a splendid collection of about 3000 first-class plants of different kinds. While I was going up to Roraima, he stayed in the Savannah, still too sick to go further. At Roraima I collected everything except _Catt. Lawrenceana_, which was utterly rooted out already by former collectors. On my return to Osmers' camp, I found him more dead than alive, thrown down by a new attack of sickness; but not alone that, I also found him abandoned by most of our Indians, who had fled on account of the Kanaima having killed three of their number. So Mr. Osmers--who got soon better--and I, made up our baskets with plants, and made everything ready. Our Indians returning partly, I sent him ahead with as many loads as we could carry, I staying behind with the rest of baskets of plants. Had all our Indians come back, we would have been all right, but this not being the case I had to stay until the Indians returned and fetched me off. After this we got back all right. This was before the sickness broke out among the Indians. Last year I went up with Mr. Kromer, who met me going up-river while I was coming down. So I joined him. We got up all right to the river's head, but here our troubles began, as we got only about eight Indians to go on with us who had worked in the gold-diggings, and no others could be had, the district being abandoned. We had to pay them half a dollar a day to carry loads. So we pushed on, carrying part of our loads, leaving the rest of our cargo behind, until we reached the Savannah, when we had to send them back several times to get the balance of our goods. From the time we reached the Savannah we were starving, more or less, as we could procure only very little provisions. We hunted all about for _Catt. Lawrenceana_, and got only about 1500 or so, it growing only here and there. At Roraima we did not hunt at all, as the district is utterly rubbed out by the Indians. We were about fourteen days at Roraima and got plenty of _Utricularia Campbelliana_, _U. Humboldtii_, and _U. montana_. Also _Zygopetalum_, _Cyp. Lindleyanum_, _Oncidium nigratum_ (only fifty--very rare now), _Cypripedium Schomburgkianum_, _Zygopetalum Burkeii_, and in fact, all that is to be found on and about Roraima, except the _Cattleya Lawrenceana_. Also plenty others, as Sobralia, Liliastrum, etc. So our collection was not a very great one; we had the hardest trouble now through the want of Indians to carry the loads. Besides this, the rainy weather set in and our loads suffered badly for all the care we took of them. Besides, the Indians got disagreeable, having to go back several times to bring the remaining baskets. Nevertheless, we got down as far as the Curubing mountains. Up to this time we were more or less always starving. Arrived at the Curubing mountains, procured a scant supply of provisions, but lost nearly all of them in a small creek, and what was saved was spoiling under our eyes, it being then that the rainy season had fully started, drenching us from morning to night. It took us nine days to get our loads over the mountain, where our boat was to reach us to take us down river. And we were for two and a half days entirely without food. Besides the plants being damaged by stress of weather, the Indians had opened the baskets and thrown partly the loads away, not being able to carry the heavy soaked-through baskets over the mountains, so making us lose the best of our plants. Arrived at our landing we had to wait for our boat, which arrived a week later in consequence of the river being high, and, of course, short of provisions. Still, we got away with what we had of our loads until we reached the first gold places kept by a friend of mine, who supplied us with food. Thereafter we started for town. Halfway, at Kapuri falls (one of the most dangerous), we swamped down over a rock, and so we lost some of our things; still saved all our plants, though they lay for a few hours under water with the boat. After this we reached town in safety. So after coming home we found, on packing up, that we had only about 900 plants, that is, _Cattleya Lawrenceana_, of which about one-third good, one-third medium, and one-third poor quality. This trip took us about three and a half months, and cost over 2500 dollars. Besides, I having poisoned my leg on a rotten stump which I run up in my foot, lay for four months suffering terrible pain. You will, of course, see from this that orchid-hunting is no pleasure, as you of course know, but what I want to point out to you is that _Cattleya Lawrenceana_ is very rare in the interior now. The river expenses fearfully high, in fact, unreasonably high, on account of the gold-digging. Labourers getting 64 c. to $1.00 per day, and all found. No Indians to be got, and those that you can get at ridiculous prices, and getting them, too, by working on places where they build and thatch houses and clear the ground from underbush, and as huntsmen for gold-diggers. Even if Mr. Kromer had succeeded to get 3000 or 4000 fine _Cattleya Lawrenceana_, it would have been of no value to us, as we could not have got anybody to carry them to the river where a boat could reach. Besides this, I also must tell you that there is a license to be paid out here if you want to collect orchids, amounting to $100, which Mr. Kromer had to pay, and also an export tax duty of 2 cents per piece. So that orchid collecting is made a very expensive affair. Besides its success being very doubtful, even if a man is very well acquainted with Indian life and has visited the Savannah reaches year after year. We spent something over $2500 to $2900, including Mr. Kromer's and Steigfer's passage out, on our last expedition. If you want to get any _Lawrenceana_, you will have to send yourself, and as I said before, the results will be very doubtful. As far as I myself am concerned, I am interested besides my baking business, in the gold-diggings, and shall go up to the Savannah in a few months. I can give you first-class references if you should be willing to send an expedition, and we could come to some arrangement; at least, you would save the expenses of the passage of one of your collectors. I may say that I am quite conversant with the way of packing orchids and handling them as well for travel as shipment. Kindly excuse, therefore, my lengthy letter and its bad writing. And if you should be inclined to go in for an expedition, just send me a list of what you require, and I will tell you whether the plants are found along the route of travel and in the Savannah visited; as, for instance, _Catt. superba_ does not grow at all in the district where _Catt. Lawrenceana_ is to be found, but far further south. Before closing, I beg you to let me know the prices of about twenty-five of the best of and prettiest South American orchids, which I want for my own collection, as _Catt. Medellii_, _Catt. Trianæ_, _Odontoglossum crispum_, _Miltonia vexillaria_, _Catt. labiata_, &c. I shall await your answer as soon as possible, and send you a list by last mail of what is to be got in this colony. We also found on our last visit something new--a very large bulbed Oncidium, or may be Catasetum, on the top of Roraima, where we spent a night, but got only two specimens, one of which got lost, and the other one I left in the hands of Mr. Rodway, but so we tried our best. It decayed, having been too seriously damaged to revive and flower, and so enable us to see what it was, it not being in flower when found. Awaiting your kind reply, Yours truly, SEYLER. P.S.--If you should send out one of your collectors, or require any information, I shall be glad to give it. One of the most experienced collectors, M. Oversluys, writes from the Rio de Yanayacca, January, 1893:-- "Here it is absolutely necessary that one goes himself into the woods ahead of the peons, who are quite cowards to enter the woods; and not altogether without reason, for the larger part of them get sick here, and it is very hard to enter--nearly impenetrable and full of insects, which make fresh-coming people to get cracked and mad. I have from the wrist down not a place to put in a shilling piece which is not a wound, through the very small red spider and other insects. Also my people are the same. Of the five men I took out, two have got fever already, and one ran back. To-morrow I expect other peons, but not a single one from Mengobamba. It is a trouble to get men who will come into the woods, and I cannot have more than eight or ten to work with, because when I should not be continually behind them or ahead they do nothing. It is not a question of money to do good here, but merely luck and the way one treats people. The peons come out less for their salaries than for good and plenty of food, which is very difficult to find in these scarce times.... "The plants are here one by one, and we have got but one tree with three plants. They are on the highest and biggest trees, and these must be cut down with axes. Below are all shrubs, full of climbers and lianas about a finger thick. Every step must be cut to advance, and the ground cleared below the high trees in order to spy the branches. It is a very difficult job. Nature has well protected this Cattleya.... Nobody can like this kind of work." The poor man ends abruptly, "I will write when I can--the mosquitos don't leave me a moment." FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 2: See a letter at p. 92.] [Footnote 3: _Vide_ "Orchids and Hybridizing," _infra_, p. 210.] WARM ORCHIDS. By the expression "warm" we understand that condition which is technically known as "intermediate." It is waste of time to ask, at this day, why a Latin combination should be employed when there is an English monosyllable exactly equivalent; we, at least, will use our mother-tongue. Warm orchids are those which like a minimum temperature, while growing, of 60°; while resting, of 55°. As for the maximum, it signifies little in the former case, but in the latter--during the months of rest--it cannot be allowed to go beyond 60°, for any length of time, without mischief. These conditions mean, in effect, that the house must be warmed during nine months of the twelve in this realm of England. "Hot" orchids demand a fire the whole year round--saving a few very rare nights when the Briton swelters in tropical discomfort. Upon this dry subject of temperature, however, I would add one word of encouragement for those who are not willing to pay a heavy bill for coke. The cool-house, in general, requires a fire, at night, until June 1. Under that condition, if it face the south, in a warm locality, very many genera and species classed as intermediate should be so thoroughly started before artificial heat is withdrawn that they will do excellently, unless the season be unusual. Warm orchids come from a sub-tropic region, or from the mountains of a hotter climate, where their kinsfolk dwelling in the plains defy the thermometer; just as in sub-tropic lands warm species occupy the lowlands, while the heights furnish Odontoglossums and such lovers of a chilly atmosphere. There are, however, some warm Odontoglossums, notable among them _O. vexillarium_, which botanists class with the Miltonias. This species is very fashionable, and I give it the place of honour; but not, in my own view, for its personal merits. The name is so singularly appropriate that one would like to hear the inventor's reasons for transfiguring it. _Vexillum_ we know, and _vexillarius_, but _vexillarium_ goes beyond my Latin. However, it is an intelligible word, and those acquainted with the appearance of "regimental colours" in Old Rome perceive its fitness at a glance. The flat bloom seems to hang suspended from its centre, just as the _vexillum_ figures in bas-relief--on the Arch of Antoninus, for example. To my mind the colouring is insipid, as a rule, and the general effect stark--fashion in orchids, as in other things, has little reference to taste. I repeat with emphasis, _as a rule_, for some priceless specimens are no less than astounding in their blaze of colour, the quintessence of a million uninteresting blooms. The poorest of these plants have merit, no doubt, for those who can accommodate giants. They grow fast and big. There are specimens in this country a yard across, which display a hundred and fifty or two hundred flowers open at the same time for months. A superb show they make, rising over the pale sea-green foliage, four spikes perhaps from a single bulb. But this is a beauty of general effect, which must not be analyzed, as I think. _Odontoglossum vexillarium_ is brought from Colombia. There are two forms: the one--small, evenly red, flowering in autumn--was discovered by Frank Klaboch, nephew to the famous Roezl, on the Dagua River, in Antioquia. For eight years he persisted in despatching small quantities to Europe, though every plant died; at length a safer method of transmission was found, but simultaneously poor Klaboch himself succumbed. It is an awful country--perhaps the wettest under the sun. Though a favourite hunting-ground of collectors now--for Cattleyas of value come from hence, besides this precious Odontoglot--there are still no means of transport, saving Indians and canoes. _O. vexillarium_ would not be thought costly if buyers knew how rare it is, how expensive to get, and how terribly difficult to bring home. Forty thousand pieces were despatched to Mr. Sander in one consignment--he hugged himself with delight when three thousand proved to have some trace of vitality. Mr. Watson, Assistant Curator at Kew, recalls an amusing instance of the value and the mystery attached to this species so late as 1867. In that year Professor Reichenbach described it for the first time. He tells how a friend lent him the bloom upon a negative promise under five heads--"First, not to show it to any one else; (2) not to speak much about it; (3) not to take a drawing of it; (4) not to have a photograph made; (5) not to look oftener than three times at it." By-the-bye, Mr. Watson gives the credit of the first discovery to the late Mr. Bowman; but I venture to believe that my account is exact--in reference to the Antioquia variety, at least. The other form occurs in the famous district of Frontino, about two hundred and fifty miles due north of the first habitat, and shows--_savants_ would add "of course"--a striking difference. In the geographical distinctions of species will be found the key to whole volumes of mystery that perplex us now. I once saw three Odontoglossums ranged side by side, which even an expert would pronounce mere varieties of the same plant if he were not familiar with them--_Od. Williamsi_, _Od. grande_, and _Od. Schlieperianum_. The middle one everybody knows, by sight at least, a big, stark, spread-eagle flower, gamboge yellow mottled with red-brown, vastly effective in the mass, but individually vulgar. On one side was _Od. Williamsi_, essentially the same in flower and bulb and growth, but smaller; opposite stood _Od. Schlieperianum_, only to be distinguished as smaller still. But both these latter rank as species. They are separated from the common type, _O. grande_, by nearly ten degrees of latitude and ten degrees of longitude, nor--we might almost make an affidavit--do any intermediate forms exist in the space between; and those degrees are sub-tropical, by so much more significant than an equal distance in our zone. Instances of the same class and more surprising are found in many genera of orchid. The Frontino _vexillarium_ grows "cooler," has a much larger bloom, varies in hue from purest white to deepest red, and flowers in May or June. The most glorious of these things, however, is _O. vex. superbum_, a plant of the greatest rarity, conspicuous for its blotch of deep purple in the centre of the lip, and its little dot of the same on each wing. Doubtless this is a natural hybrid betwixt the Antioquia form and _Odontoglossum Roezlii_, which is its neighbour. The chance of finding a bit of _superbum_ in a bundle of the ordinary kind lends peculiar excitement to a sale of these plants. Such luck first occurred to Mr. Bath, in Stevens' Auction Rooms. He paid half-a-crown for a very weakly fragment, brought it round, flowered it, and received a prize for good gardening in the shape of seventy-two pounds, cheerfully paid by Sir Trevor Lawrence for a plant unique at that time. I am reminded of another little story. Among a great number of _Cypripedium insigne_ received at St. Albans, and "established," Mr. Sander noted one presently of which the flower-stalk was yellow instead of brown, as is usual. Sharp eyes are a valuable item of the orchid-grower's stock-in-trade, for the smallest peculiarity among such "sportive" objects should not be neglected. Carefully he put the yellow stalk aside--the only one among thousands, one might say myriads, since _C. insigne_ is one of our oldest and commonest orchids, and it never showed this phenomenon before. In due course the flower opened, and proved to be all golden! Mr. Sander cut his plant in two, sold half for seventy-five pounds to a favoured customer, and the other half, publicly, for one hundred guineas. One of the purchasers has divided his plant now and sold two bits at 100 guineas. Another piece was bought back by Mr. Sander, who wanted it for hybridizing, at 250 guineas--not a bad profit for the buyer, who has still two plants left. Another instance occurs to me while I write--such legends of shrewdness worthily rewarded fascinate a poor journalist who has the audacity to grow orchids. Mr. Harvey, solicitor, of Liverpool, strolling through the houses at St. Albans on July 24, 1883, remarked a plant of _Loelia anceps_, which had the ring-mark on its pseudo-bulb much higher up than is usual. There might be some meaning in that eccentricity, he thought, paid two guineas for the little thing, and on December 1, 1888, sold it back to Mr. Sander for 200l. It proved to be _L. a. Amesiana_, the grandest form of _L. anceps_ yet discovered--rosy white, with petals deeply splashed; thus named after F.L. Ames, an American amateur. Such pleasing opportunities might arise for you or me any day. The first name that arises to most people in thinking of warm orchids is Cattleya, and naturally. The genus Odontoglossum alone has more representatives under cultivation. Sixty species of Cattleya are grown by amateurs who pay special attention to these plants; as for the number of "varieties" in a single species, one boasts forty, another thirty, several pass the round dozen. They are exclusively American, but they flourish over all the enormous space between Mexico and the Argentine Republic. The genus is not a favourite of my own, for somewhat of the same reason which qualifies my regard for _O. vexillarium_. Cattleyas are so obtrusively beautiful, they have such great flowers, which they thrust upon the eye with such assurance of admiration! Theirs is a style of effect--I refer to the majority--which may be called infantine; such as an intelligent and tasteful child might conceive if he had no fine sense of colour, and were too young to distinguish a showy from a charming form. But I say no more. The history of Orchids long established is uncertain, but I believe that the very first Cattleya which appeared in Europe was _C. violacea Loddigesi_, imported by the great firm whose name it bears, to which we owe such a heavy debt. Two years later came _C. labiata_, of which more must be said; then _C. Mossiæ_, from Caraccas; fourth, _C. Trianæ_ named after Colonel Trian, of Tolima, in the United States of Colombia. Trian well deserved immortality, for he was a native of that secluded land--and a botanist! It is a natural supposition that his orchid must be the commonest of weeds in its home; seeing how all Europe is stocked with it, and America also, rash people might say there are millions in cultivation. But it seems likely that _C. Trianæ_ was never very frequent, and at the present time assuredly it is so scarce that collectors are not sent after it. Probably the colonel, like many other _savants_, was an excellent man of business, and he established "a corner" when he saw the chance. _C. Mossiæ_ stands in the same situation--or indeed worse; it can scarcely be found now. These instances convey a serious warning. In seventy years we have destroyed the native stock of two orchids, both so very free in propagating that they have an exceptional advantage in the struggle for existence. How long can rare species survive, when the demand strengthens and widens year by year, while the means of communication and transport become easier over all the world? Other instances will be mentioned in their place. Island species are doomed, unless, like _Loelia elegans_, they have inaccessible crags on which to find refuge. It is only a question of time; but we may hope that Governments will interfere before it is too late. Already Mr. Burbidge has suggested that "some one" who takes an interest in orchids should establish a farm, a plantation, here and there about the world, where such plants grow naturally, and devote himself to careful hybridization on the spot. "One might make as much," he writes, "by breeding orchids as by breeding cattle, and of the two, in the long run, I should prefer the orchid farm." This scheme will be carried out one day, not so much for the purpose of hybridization as for plain "market-gardening;" and the sooner the better. The prospect is still more dark for those who believe--as many do--that no epiphytal orchid under any circumstances can be induced to establish itself permanently in our greenhouses as it does at home. Doubtless, they say, it is possible to grow them and to flower them, by assiduous care, upon a scale which is seldom approached under the rough treatment of Nature. But they are dying from year to year, in spite of appearances. That it is so in a few cases can hardly be denied; but, seeing how many plants which have not changed hands since their establishment, twenty or thirty or forty years ago, have grown continually bigger and finer, it seems much more probable that our ignorance is to blame for the loss of those species which suddenly collapse. Sir Trevor Lawrence observed the other day: "With regard to the longevity of orchids, I have one which I know to have been in this country for more than fifty years, probably even twenty years longer than that--_Renanthera coccinea_." The finest specimens of Cattleya in Mr. Stevenson Clarke's houses have been "grown on" from small pieces imported twenty years ago. If there were more collections which could boast, say, half a century of uninterrupted attention, we should have material for forming a judgment; as a rule, the dates of purchase or establishment were not carefully preserved till late years. But there is one species of Cattleya which must needs have seventy years of existence in Europe, since it had never been re-discovered till 1890. When we see a pot of _C. labiata_, the true, autumn-flowering variety, more than two years old, we know that the very plant itself must have been established about 1818, or at least its immediate parent--for no seedling has been raised to public knowledge.[4] In avowing a certain indifference to Cattleyas, I referred to the bulk, of course. The most gorgeous, the stateliest, the most imperial of all flowers on this earth, is _C. Dowiana_--unless it be _C. aurea_, a "geographical variety" of the same. They dwell a thousand miles apart at least, the one in Colombia, the other in Costa Rica; and neither occurs, so far as is known, in the great intervening region. Not even a connecting link has been discovered; but the Atlantic coast of Central America is hardly explored, much less examined. In my time it was held, from Cape Camarin to Chagres, by independent tribes of savages--not independent in fact alone, but in name also. The Mosquito Indians are recognized by Europe as free; the Guatusos kept a space of many hundred miles from which no white man had returned; when I was in those parts, the Talamancas, though not so unfriendly, were only known by the report of adventurous pedlars. I made an attempt--comparatively spirited--to organize an exploring party for the benefit of the Guatusos, but no single volunteer answered our advertisements in San José de Costa Rica; I have lived to congratulate myself on that disappointment. Since my day a road has been cut through their wilds to Limon, certain luckless Britons having found the money for a railway; but an engineer who visited the coast but two years ago informs me that no one ever wandered into "the bush." Collectors have not been there, assuredly. So there may be connecting links between _C. Dowiana_ and _C. aurea_ in that vast wilderness, but it is quite possible there are none. Words could not picture the glory of these marvels. In each the scheme of colour is yellow and crimson, but there are important modifications. Yellow is the ground all through in _Cattleya aurea_--sepals, petals, and lip; unbroken in the two former, in the latter superbly streaked with crimson. But _Cattleya Dowiana_ shows crimson pencillings on its sepals, while the ground colour of the lip is crimson, broadly lined and reticulated with gold. Imagine four of these noble flowers on one stalk, each half a foot across! But it lies beyond the power of imagination. _C. Dowiana_ was discovered by Warscewicz about 1850, and he sent home accounts too enthusiastic for belief. Steady-going Britons utterly refused to credit such a marvel--his few plants died, and there was an end of it for the time. I may mention an instance of more recent date, where the eye-witness of a collector was flatly rejected at home. Monsieur St. Leger, residing at Asuncion, the capital of Paraguay, wrote a warm description of an orchid in those parts to scientific friends. The account reached England, and was treated with derision. Monsieur St. Leger, nettled, sent some dried flowers for a testimony; but the mind of the Orchidaceous public was made up. In 1883 he brought a quantity of plants and put them up at auction; nobody in particular would buy. So those reckless or simple or trusting persons who invested a few shillings in a bundle had all the fun to themselves a few months afterwards, when the beautiful _Oncidium Jonesianum_ appeared, to confound the unbelieving. It must be added, however, that orchid-growers may well become an incredulous generation. When their judgment leads them wrong we hear of it, the tale is published, and outsiders mock. But these gentlemen receive startling reports continually, honest enough for the most part. Much experience and some loss have made them rather cynical when a new wonder is announced. The particular case of Monsieur St. Leger was complicated by the extreme resemblance which the foliage of _Onc. Jonesianum_ bears to that of _Onc. cibolletum_, a species almost worthless. Unfortunately the beautiful thing declines to live with us--as yet. _Cattleya Dowiana_ was rediscovered by Mr. Arce, when collecting birds: it must have been a grand moment for Warscewicz when the horticultural world was convulsed by its appearance in bloom. _Cattleya aurea_ had no adventures of this sort. Mr. Wallis found it in 1868 in the province of Antioquia, and again on the west bank of the Magdalena; but it is very rare. This species is persecuted in its native home by a beetle, which accompanies it to Europe not infrequently--in the form of eggs, no doubt. A more troublesome alien is the fly which haunts _Cattleya Mendellii_, and for a long time prejudiced growers against that fine species, until, in fact, they had made a practical and rather costly study of its habits. An experienced grower detects the presence of this enemy at a glance. It pierces an "eye"--a back one in general, happily--and deposits an egg in the very centre. Presently this growth begins to swell in a manner that delights the ingenuous horticulturist, until he remarks that its length does not keep pace with its breadth. But one remedy has yet been discovered--cutting off any suspected growth. We understand now that _C. Mendellii_ is as safe to import as any other species, unless it be gathered at the wrong time.[5] Among the most glorious, rarest, and most valuable of Cattleyas is _C. Hardyana_, doubtless a natural hybrid of _C. aurea_ with _C. gigas Sanderiana_. Few of us have seen it--two-hundred-guinea plants are not common spectacles. It has an immense flower, rose-purple; the lip purple-magenta, veined with gold. _Cattleya Sanderiana_ offers an interesting story. Mr. Mau, one of Mr. Sander's collectors, was despatched to Bogota in search of _Odontoglossum crispum_. While tramping through the woods, he came across a very large Cattleya at rest, and gathered such pieces as fell in his way--attaching so little importance to them, however, that he did not name the matter in his reports. Four cases Mr. Mau brought home with his stock of Odontoglossums, which were opened in due course of business. We can quite believe that it was one of the stirring moments of Mr. Sander's life. The plants bore many dry specimens of last year's inflorescence, displaying such extraordinary size as proved the variety to be new; and there is no large Cattleya of indifferent colouring. To receive a plant of that character unannounced, undescribed, is an experience without parallel for half a century. Mr. Mau was sent back by next mail to secure every fragment he could find. Meantime, those in hand were established, and Mr. Brymer, M.P., bought one--Mr. Brymer is immortalized by the Dendrobe which bears his name. The new Cattleya proved kindly, and just before Mr. Mau returned with some thousands of its like Mr. Brymer's purchase broke into bloom. That must have been another glorious moment for Mr. Sander, when the great bud unfolded, displaying sepals and petals of the rosiest, freshest, softest pink, eleven inches across; and a crimson labellum exquisitely shown up by a broad patch of white on either side of the throat. Mr. Brymer was good enough to lend his specimen for the purpose of advertisement, and Messrs. Stevens enthusiastically fixed a green baize partition across their rooms as a background for the wondrous novelty. What excitement reigned there on the great day is not to be described. I have heard that over 2000l. was taken in the room. Most of the Cattleyas with which the public is familiar--_Mossiæ_, _Trianæ_, _Mendellii_, and so forth--have white varieties; but an example absolutely pure is so uncommon that it fetches a long price. Loveliest of these is _C. Skinneri alba_. For generations, if not for ages, the people of Costa Rica have been gathering every morsel they can find, and planting it upon the roofs of their mud-built churches. Roezl and the early collectors had a "good time," buying these semi-sacred flowers from the priests, bribing the parishioners to steal them, or, when occasion served, playing the thief themselves. But the game is nearly up. Seldom now can a piece of _Cat. Skinneri alba_ be obtained by honest means, and when a collector arrives guards are set upon the churches that still keep their decoration. No plant has ever been found in the forest, we understand. It is just the same case with _Loelia anceps alba_. The genus Loelia is distinguished from Cattleya by a peculiarity to be remarked only in dissection; its pollen masses are eight as against four. To my taste, however, the species are more charming on the whole. There is _L. purpurata_. Casual observers always find it hard to grasp the fact that orchids are weeds in their native homes, just like foxgloves and dandelions with us. In this instance, as I have noted, they flatly refuse to believe, and certainly "upon the face of it" their incredulity is reasonable. _Loelia purpurata_ falls under the head of hot orchids. _L. anceps_, however, is not so exacting; many people grow it in the cool house when they can expose it there to the full blaze of sunshine. In its commonest form it is divinely beautiful. I have seen a plant in Mr. Eastey's collection with twenty-three spikes, the flowers all open at once. Such a spectacle is not to be described in prose. But when the enthusiast has rashly said that earth contains no more ethereal loveliness, let him behold _L. a. alba_, the white variety. The dullest man I ever knew, who had a commonplace for all occasions, found no word in presence of that marvel. Even the half-castes of Mexico who have no soul, apparently, for things above horseflesh and cockfights, and love-making, reverence this saintly bloom. The Indians adore it. Like their brethren to the south, who have tenderly removed every plant of _Cattleya Skinneri alba_ for generations unknown, to set upon their churches, they collect this supreme effort of Nature and replant it round their huts. So thoroughly has the work been done in either case that no single specimen was ever seen in the forest. Every one has been bought from the Indians, and the supply is exhausted; that is to say, a good many more are known to exist, but very rarely now can the owner be persuaded to part with one. The first example reached England nearly half a century ago, sent probably by a native trader to his correspondent in this country; but, as was usual at that time, the circumstances are doubtful. It found its way, somehow, to Mr. Dawson, of Meadowbank, a famous collector, and by him it was divided. Search was made for the treasure in its home, but vainly; travellers did not look in the Indian gardens. No more arrived for many years. Mr. Sander once conceived a fine idea. He sent one of his collectors to gather _Loelia a. alba_ at the season when it is in bud, with an intention of startling the universe by displaying a mass of them in full bloom; they were still more uncommon then than now, when a dozen flowering plants is still a show of which kings may be proud. Mr. Bartholomeus punctually fulfilled his instructions, collected some forty plants with their spikes well developed; attached them to strips of wood which he nailed across shallow boxes, and shipped them to San Francisco. Thence they travelled by fast train to New York, and proceeded without a moment's delay to Liverpool on board the _Umbria_; it was one of her first trips. All went well. Confidently did Mr. Sander anticipate the sensation when a score of those glorious plants were set out in full bloom upon the tables. But on opening the boxes he found every spike withered. The experiment is so tempting that it has been essayed once more, with a like result. The buds of _Loelia anceps_ will not stand sea air. Catasetums do not rank as a genus among our beauties; in fact, saving _C. pileatum_, commonly called _C. Bungerothi_, and _C. barbatum_, I think of none, at this moment, which are worthy of attraction on that ground. _C. fimbriatum_, indeed, would be lovely if it could be persuaded to show itself. I have seen one plant which condescended to open its spotted blooms, but only one. No orchids, however, give more material for study; on this account Catasetum was a favourite with Mr. Darwin. It is approved also by unlearned persons who find relief from the monotony of admiration as they stroll round in observing its acrobatic performances. The "column" bears two horns; if these be touched, the pollen-masses fly as if discharged from a catapult. _C. pileatum_, however, is very handsome, four inches across, ivory white, with a round well in the centre of its broad lip, which makes a theme for endless speculation. The daring eccentricities of colour in this class of plant have no stronger example than _C. callosum_, a novelty from Caraccas, with inky brown sepals and petals, brightest orange column, labellum of verdigris-green tipped with orange to match. Schomburgkias are not often seen. Having a boundless choice of fine things which grow and flower without reluctance, the practical gardener gets irritated in these days when he finds a plant beyond his skill. It is a pity, for the Schomburgkias are glorious things--in especial _Sch. tibicinis_. No description has done it justice, and few are privileged to speak as eye-witnesses. The clustering flowers hang down, sepals and petals of dusky mauve, most gracefully frilled and twisted, encircling a great hollow labellum which ends in a golden drop. That part of the cavity which is visible between the handsome incurved wings has bold stripes of dark crimson. The species is interesting, too. It comes from Honduras, where the children use its great hollow pseudo-bulbs as trumpets--whence the name. At their base is a hole--a touch-hole, as we may say, the utility of which defies our botanists. Had Mr. Belt travelled in those parts, he might have discovered the secret, as in the similar case of the Bullthorn, one of the _Gummiferæ_. The great thorns of that bush have just such a hole, and Mr. Belt proved by lengthy observations that it is designed, to speak roughly, for the ingress of an ant peculiar to that acacia, whose duty it is to defend the young shoots--_vide_ Belt's "Naturalist in Nicaragua," page 218. Importers are too well aware that _Schomburgkia tibicinis_ also is inhabited by an ant of singular ferocity, for it survives the voyage, and rushes forth to battle when the case is opened. We may suppose that it performs a like service. Dendrobiums are "warm" mostly; of the hot species, which are many, and the cool, which are few, I have not to speak here. But a remark made at the beginning of this chapter especially applies to Dendrobes. If they be started early, so that the young growths are well advanced by June 1; if the situation be warm, and a part of the house sunny--if they be placed in that part without any shade till July, and freely syringed--with a little extra attention many of them will do well enough. That is to say, they will make such a show of blossom as is mighty satisfactory in the winter time. We must not look for "specimens," but there should be bloom enough to repay handsomely the very little trouble they give. Among those that may be treated so are _D. Wardianum_, _Falconeri_, _crassinode_, _Pierardii_, _crystallinum_, _Devonianum_--sometimes--and _nobile_, of course. Probably there are more, but these I have tried myself. _Dendrobium Wardianum_, at the present day, comes almost exclusively from Burmah--the neighbourhood of the Ruby Mines is its favourite habitat. But it was first brought to England from Assam in 1858, when botanists regarded it as a form of _D. Falconeri_. This error was not so strange as its seems, for the Assamese variety has pseudo-bulbs much less sturdy than those we are used to see, and they are quite pendulous. It was rather a lively business collecting orchids in Burmah before the annexation. The Roman Catholic missionaries established there made it a source of income, and they did not greet an intruding stranger with warmth--not genial warmth, at least. He was forbidden to quit the town of Bhamo, an edict which compelled him to employ native collectors--in fact, coolies--himself waiting helplessly within the walls; but his reverend rivals, having greater freedom and an acquaintance with the language, organized a corps of skirmishers to prowl round and intercept the natives returning with their loads. Doubtless somebody received the value when they made a haul, but who, is uncertain perhaps--and the stranger was disappointed, anyhow. It may be believed that unedifying scenes arose--especially on two or three occasions when an agent had almost reached one of the four gates before he was intercepted. For the hapless collector--having nothing in the world to do--haunted those portals all day long, flying from one to the other in hope to see "somebody coming." Very droll, but Burmah is a warm country for jests of the kind. Thus it happened occasionally that he beheld his own discomfiture, and rows ensued at the Mission-house. At length Mr. Sander addressed a formal petition to the Austrian Archbishop, to whom the missionaries owed allegiance. He received a sympathetic answer, and some assistance. From the Ruby Mines also comes a Dendrobium so excessively rare that I name it only to call the attention of employés in the new company. This is _D. rhodopterygium_. Sir Trevor Lawrence has or had a plant, I believe; there are two or three at St. Albans; but the lists of other dealers will be searched in vain. Sir Trevor Lawrence had also a scarlet species from Burmah; but it died even before the christening, and no second has yet been found. Sumatra furnishes a scarlet Dendrobe, _D. Forstermanni_, but it again is of the utmost rarity. Baron Schroeder boasts three specimens--which have not yet flowered, however. From Burmah comes _D. Brymerianum_, of which the story is brief, but very thrilling if we ponder it a moment. For the missionaries sent this plant to Europe without a description--they had not seen the bloom, doubtless--and it sold cheap enough. We may fancy Mr. Brymer's emotion, therefore, when the striking flower opened. Its form is unique, though some other varieties display a long fringe--as that extraordinary object, _Nanodes Medusæ_, and also _Brassavola Digbyana_, which is exquisitely lovely sometimes. In the case of _D. Brymerianum_ the bright yellow lip is split all round, for two-thirds of its expanse, into twisted filaments. We may well ask what on earth is Nature's purpose in this eccentricity; but it is a question that arises every hour to the most thoughtless being who grows orchids. [Illustration: DENDROBIUM BRYMERIANUM. Reduced To One Fourth.] Everybody knows _Dendrobium nobile_ so well that it is not to be discussed in prose; something might be done in poetry, perhaps, by young gentlemen who sing of buttercups and daisies, but the rhyme would be difficult. _D. nobile nobilius_, however, is by no means so common--would it were! This glorified form turned up among an importation made by Messrs. Rollisson. They propagated it, and sold four small pieces, which are still in cultivation. But the troubles of that renowned firm, to which we owe so great a debt, had already begun. The mother-plant was neglected. It had fallen into such a desperate condition when Messrs. Rollisson's plants were sold, under a decree in bankruptcy, that the great dealers refused to bid for what should have been a little gold-mine. A casual market-gardener hazarded thirty shillings, brought it round so far that he could establish a number of young plants, and sold the parent for forty pounds at last. There are, however, several fine varieties of _D. nobile_ more valuable than _nobilius_. _D. n. Sanderianum_ resembles that form, but it is smaller and darker. Albinos have been found; Baron Schroeder has a beautiful example. One appeared at Stevens' Rooms, announced as the single instance in cultivation--which is not quite the fact, but near enough for the auction-room, perhaps. It also was imported originally by Mr. Sander, with _D. n. Sanderianum_. Biddings reached forty-three pounds, but the owner would not deal at the price. Albinos are rare among the Dendrobes. _D. nobile Cooksoni_ was the _fons et origo_ of an unpleasant misunderstanding. It turned up in the collection of Mr. Lange, distinguished by a reversal of the ordinary scheme of colour. There is actually no end to the delightful vagaries of these plants. If people only knew what interest and pleasing excitement attends the inflorescence of an imported orchid--one, that is, which has not bloomed before in Europe--they would crowd the auction-rooms in which every strange face is marked now. There are books enough to inform them, certainly; but who reads an Orchid Book? Even the enthusiast only consults it. _Dendrobium nobile Cooksoni_, then, has white tips to petal and sepal; the crimson spot keeps its place; and the inside of the flower is deep red--an inversion of the usual colouring. Mr. Lange could scarcely fail to observe this peculiarity, but he seems to have thought little of it. Mr. Cookson, paying him a visit, was struck, however--as well he might be--and expressed a wish to have the plant. So the two distinguished amateurs made an exchange. Mr. Cookson sent a flower at once to Professor Reichenbach, who, delighted and enthusiastic, registered it upon the spot under the name of the gentleman from whom he received it. Mr. Lange protested warmly, demanding that his discovery should be called, after his residence, _Heathfieldsayeanum_. But Professor Reichenbach drily refused to consider personal questions; and really, seeing how short is life, and how long _Dendrobium nobile Heathfield_, &c., true philanthropists will hold him justified. We may expect wondrous Dendrobes from New Guinea. Some fine species have already arrived, and others have been sent in the dried inflorescence. Of _D. phaloenopsis Schroederi_ I have spoken elsewhere. There is _D. Goldiei_; a variety of _D. superbiens_--but much larger. There is _D. Albertesii_, snow-white; _D. Broomfieldianum_, curiously like _Loelia anceps alba_ in its flower--which is to say that it must be the loveliest of all Dendrobes. But this species has a further charm, almost incredible. The lip in some varieties is washed with lavender blue, in some with crimson! Another is nearly related to _D. bigibbum_, but much larger, with sepals more acute. Its hue is a glorious rosy-purple, deepening on the lip, the side lobes of which curl over and meet, forming a cylindrical tube, while the middle lobe, prolonged, stands out at right angles, veined with very dark purple; this has just been named _D. Statterianum_. It has upon the disc an elevated, hairy crest, like _D. bigibbum_, but instead of being white as always, more or less, in that instance, the crest of the new species is dark purple. I have been particular in describing this noble flower, because very, very few have beheld it. Those who live will see marvels when the Dutch and German portions of New Guinea are explored. Recently I have been privileged to see another, the most impressive to my taste, of all the lovely genus. It is called _D. atro-violaceum_. The stately flowers hang down their heads, reflexed like a "Turban Lily," ten or a dozen on a spike. The colour is ivory-white, with a faintest tinge of green, and green spots are dotted all over. The lobes of the lip curl in, making half the circumference of a funnel, the outside of which is dark violet-blue; with that fine colour the lip itself is boldly striped. They tell me that the public is not expected to "catch on" to this marvel. It hangs its head too low, and the contrast of hues is too startling. If that be so, we multiply schools of art and County Council lectures perambulate the realm, in vain. The artistic sense is denied us. Madagascar also will furnish some astonishing novelties; it has already begun, in fact--with a vengeance. Imagine a scarlet Cymbidium! That such a wonder existed has been known for some years, and three collectors have gone in search of it; two died, and the third has been terribly ill since his return to Europe--but he won the treasure, which we shall behold in good time. Those parts of Madagascar which especially attract botanists must be death-traps indeed! M. Léon Humblot tells how he dined at Tamatave with his brother and six compatriots, exploring the country with various scientific aims. Within twelve months he was the only survivor. One of these unfortunates, travelling on behalf of Mr. Cutler, the celebrated naturalist of Bloomsbury Street, to find butterflies and birds, shot at a native idol, as the report goes. The priests soaked him with paraffin, and burnt him on a table--perhaps their altar. M. Humblot himself has had awful experiences. He was attached to the geographical survey directed by the French Government, and ten years ago he found _Phajus Humblotii_ and _Phajus tuberculosus_ in the deadliest swamps of the interior. A few of the bulbs gathered lived through the passage home, and caused much excitement when offered for sale at Stevens' Auction Rooms. M. Humblot risked his life again, and secured a great quantity for Mr. Sander, but at a dreadful cost. He spent twelve months in the hospital at Mayotte, and on arrival at Marseilles with his plants the doctors gave him no hope of recovery. _P. Humblotii_ is a marvel of beauty--rose-pink, with a great crimson labellum exquisitely frilled, and a bright green column. Everybody who knows his "Darwin" is aware that Madagascar is the chosen home of the Angræcums. All, indeed, are natives of Africa, so far as I know, excepting the delightful _A. falcatum_, which comes, strangely enough, from Japan. One cannot but suspect, under the circumstances, that this species was brought from Africa ages ago, when the Japanese were enterprising seamen, and has been acclimatized by those skilful horticulturists. It is certainly odd that the only "cool" Aerides--the only one found, I believe, outside of India and the Eastern Tropics--also belongs to Japan, and a cool Dendrobe, _A. arcuatum_, is found in the Transvaal; and I have reason to hope that another or more will turn up when South Africa is thoroughly searched. A pink Angræcum, very rarely seen, dwells somewhere on the West Coast; the only species, so far as I know, which is not white. It bears the name of M. Du Chaillu, who found it--he has forgotten where, unhappily. I took that famous traveller to St. Albans in the hope of quickening his recollection, and I fear I bored him afterwards with categorical inquiries. But all was vain. M. Du Chaillu can only recall that once on a time, when just starting for Europe, it occurred to him to run into the bush and strip the trees indiscriminately. Mr. Sander was prepared to send a man expressly for this Angræcum. The exquisite _A. Sanderianum_ is a native of the Comorro Islands. No flower could be prettier than this, nor more deliciously scented--when scented it is! It grows in a climate which travellers describe as Paradise, and, in truth, it becomes such a scene. Those who behold young plants with graceful garlands of snowy bloom twelve to twenty inches long are prone to fall into raptures; but imagine it as a long-established specimen appears just now at St Albans, with racemes drooping two and a half feet from each new growth, clothed on either side with flowers like a double train of white long-tailed butterflies hovering! _A. Scottianum_ comes from Zanzibar, discovered, I believe, by Sir John Kirk; _A. caudatum_, from Sierra Leone. This latter species is the nearest rival of _A. sesquipedale_, showing "tails" ten inches long. Next in order for this characteristic detail rank _A. Leonis_ and _Kotschyi_--the latter rarely grown--with seven-inch "tails;" _Scottianum_ and _Ellisii_ with six-inch; that is to say, they ought to show such dimensions respectively. Whether they fulfil their promise depends upon the grower. With the exceptions named, this family belongs to Madagascar. It has a charming distinction, shared by no other genus which I recall, save, in less degree, Cattleya--every member is attractive. But I must concentrate myself on the most striking--that which fascinated Darwin. In the first place it should be pointed out that _savants_ call this plant _Æranthus sesquipedalis_, not _Angræcum_--a fact useful to know, but unimportant to ordinary mortals. It was discovered by the Rev. Mr. Ellis, and sent home alive, nearly thirty years ago; but civilized mankind has not yet done wondering at it. The stately growth, the magnificent green-white flowers, command admiration at a glance, but the "tail," or spur, offers a problem of which the thoughtful never tire. It is commonly ten inches long, sometimes fourteen inches, and at home, I have been told, even longer; about the thickness of a goose-quill, hollow, of course, the last inch and a half filled with nectar. Studying this appendage by the light of the principles he had laid down, Darwin ventured on a prophecy which roused special mirth among the unbelievers. Not only the abnormal length of the nectary had to be considered; there was, besides, the fact that all its honey lay at the base, a foot or more from the orifice. Accepting it as a postulate that every detail of the apparatus must be equally essential for the purpose it had to serve, he made a series of experiments which demonstrated that some insect of Madagascar--doubtless a moth--must be equipped with a proboscis long enough to reach the nectar, and at the same time thick enough at the base to withdraw the pollinia--thus fertilizing the bloom. For, if the nectar had lain so close to the orifice that moths with a proboscis of reasonable length and thickness could get at it, they would drain the cup without touching the pollinia. Darwin never proved his special genius more admirably than in this case. He created an insect beyond belief, as one may say, by the force of logic; and such absolute confidence had he in his own syllogism that he declared, "If such great moths were to become extinct in Madagascar, assuredly this Angræcum would become extinct." I am not aware that Darwin's fine argument has yet been clinched by the discovery of that insect. But cavil has ceased. Long before his death a sphinx moth arrived from South Brazil which shows a proboscis between ten and eleven inches long--very nearly equal, therefore, to the task of probing the nectary of _Angræcum sesquipidale_. And we know enough of orchids at this time to be absolutely certain that the Madagascar species must exist. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 4: _Vide_ "The Lost Orchid," _infra_, p. 173.] [Footnote 5: I have learned by a doleful experience that this fly, commonly called "the weavil," is quite at home on _Loelia purpurata_; in fact, it will prey on any Cattleya.] HOT ORCHIDS. In former chapters I have done my best to show that orchid culture is no mystery. The laws which govern it are strict and simple, easy to define in books, easily understood, and subject to few exceptions. It is not with Odontoglossums and Dendrobes as with roses--an intelligent man or woman needs no long apprenticeship to master their treatment. Stove orchids are not so readily dealt with; but then, persons who own a stove usually keep a gardener. Coming from the hot lowlands of either hemisphere, they show much greater variety than those of the temperate and sub-tropic zones; there are more genera, though not so many species, and more exceptions to every rule. These, therefore, are not to be recommended to all householders. Not everyone indeed is anxious to grow plants which need a minimum night heat of 60° in winter, 70° in summer, and cannot dispense with fire the whole year round. The hottest of all orchids probably is _Peristeria elata_, the famous "Spirito Santo," flower of the Holy Ghost. The dullest soul who observes that white dove rising with wings half spread, as in the very act of taking flight, can understand the frenzy of the Spaniards when they came upon it. Rumours of Peruvian magnificence had just reached them at Panama--on the same day, perhaps--when this miraculous sign from heaven encouraged them to advance. The empire of the Incas did not fall a prey to that particular band of ruffians, nevertheless. _Peristeria elata_ is so well known that I would not dwell upon it, but an odd little tale rises to my mind. The great collector Roezl was travelling homeward, in 1868, by Panama. The railway fare to Colon was sixty dollars at that time, and he grudged the money. Setting his wits to work, Roezl discovered that the company issued tickets from station to station at a very low price for the convenience of its employés. Taking advantage of this system, he crossed the isthmus for five dollars--such an advantage it is in travelling to be an old campaigner! At one of the intermediate stations he had to wait for his train, and rushed into the jungle of course. _Peristeria_ abounded in that steaming swamp, but the collector was on holiday. To his amazement, however, he found, side by side with it, a Masdevallia--that genus most impatient of sunshine among all orchids, flourishing here in the hottest blaze! Snatching up half a dozen of the tender plants with a practised hand, he brought them safe to England. On the day they were put up to auction news of Livingstone's death arrived, and in a flash of inspiration Roezl christened his novelty _M. Livingstoniana_. Few, indeed, even among authorities, know where that rarest of Masdevallias has its home; none have reached Europe since. A pretty flower it is--white, rosy tipped, with yellow "tails." And it dwells by the station of Culebras, on the Panama railway. Of genera, however, doubtless the Vandas are hottest; and among these, _V. Sanderiana_ stands first. It was found in Mindanao, the most southerly of the Philippines, by Mr. Roebelin when he went thither in search of the red Phaloenopsis, as will be told presently. _Vanda Sanderiana_ is a plant to be described as majestic rather than lovely, if we may distinguish among these glorious things. Its blooms are five inches across, pale lilac in their ground colour, suffused with brownish yellow, and covered with a network of crimson brown. Twelve or more of such striking flowers to a spike, and four or five spikes upon a plant make a wonder indeed. But, to view matters prosaically, _Vanda_ _Sanderiana_ is "bad business." It is not common, and it grows on the very top of the highest trees, which must be felled to secure the treasure; and of those gathered but a small proportion survive. In the first place, the agent must employ natives, who are paid so much per plant, no matter what the size--a bad system, but they will allow no change. It is evidently their interest to divide any "specimen" that will bear cutting up; if the fragments bleed to death, they have got their money meantime. Then, the Manilla steamers call at Mindanao only once a month. Three months are needed to get together plants enough to yield a fair profit. At the end of that time a large proportion of those first gathered will certainly be doomed--Vandas have no pseudo-bulbs to sustain their strength. Steamers run from Manilla to Singapore every fortnight. If the collector be fortunate he may light upon a captain willing to receive his packages; in that case he builds structures of bamboo on deck, and spends the next fortnight in watering, shading, and ventilating his precious _trouvailles_, alternately. But captains willing to receive such freight must be waited for too often. At Singapore it is necessary to make a final overhauling of the plants--to their woeful diminution. This done, troubles recommence. Seldom will the captain of a mail steamer accept that miscellaneous cargo. Happily, the time of year is, or ought to be, that season when tea-ships arrive at Singapore. The collector may reasonably hope to secure a passage in one of these, which will carry him to England in thirty-five days or so. If this state of things be pondered, even without allowance for accident, it will not seem surprising that _V. Sanderiana_ is a costly species. The largest piece yet secured was bought by Sir Trevor Lawrence at auction for ninety guineas. It had eight stems, the tallest four feet high. No consignment has yet returned a profit, however. The favoured home of Vandas is Java. They are noble plants even when at rest, if perfect--that is, clothed in their glossy, dark green leaves from base to crown. If there be any age or any height at which the lower leaves fall of necessity, I have not been able to identify it. In Mr. Sander's collection, for instance, there is a giant plant of _Vanda suavis_, eleven growths, a small thicket, established in 1847. The tallest stem measures fifteen feet, and every one of its leaves remain. They fall off easily under bad treatment, but the mischief is reparable at a certain sacrifice. The stem may be cut through and the crown replanted, with leaves perfect; but it will be so much shorter, of course. The finest specimen I ever heard of is the _V. Lowii_ at Ferrières, seat of Baron Alphonse de Rothschild, near Paris. It fills the upper part of a large greenhouse, and year by year its twelve stems produce an indefinite number of spikes, eight to ten feet long, covered with thousands of yellow and brown blooms.[6] Vandas inhabit all the Malayan Archipelago; some are found even in India. The superb _V. teres_ comes from Sylhet; from Burmah also. This might be called the floral cognizance of the house of Rothschild. At Frankfort, Vienna, Ferrières, and Gunnersbury little meadows of it are grown--that is, the plants flourish at their own sweet will, uncumbered with pots, in houses devoted to them. Rising from a carpet of palms and maidenhair, each crowned with its drooping garland of rose and crimson and cinnamon-brown, they make a glorious show indeed. A pretty little coincidence was remarked when the Queen paid a visit to Waddesdon the other day. _V. teres_ first bloomed in Europe at Syon House, and a small spray was sent to the young Princess, unmarried then and uncrowned. The incident recurred to memory when Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild chose this same flower for the bouquet presented to Her Majesty; he adorned the luncheon table therewith besides. This story bears a moral. The plant of which one spray was a royal gift less than sixty years ago has become so far common that it may be used in masses to decorate a room. Thousands of unconsidered subjects of Her Majesty enjoy the pleasure which one great duke monopolized before her reign began. There is matter for an essay here. I hasten back to my theme. _V. teres_ is not such a common object that description would be superfluous. It belongs to the small class of climbing orchids, delighting to sun itself upon the rafters of the hottest stove. If this habit be duly regarded, it is not difficult to flower by any means, though gardeners who do not keep pace with their age still pronounce it a hopeless rebel. Sir Hugh Low tells me that he clothed all the trees round Government House at Pahang with _Vanda teres_, planting its near relative, _V. Hookeri_, more exquisite still, if that were possible, in a swampy hollow. His servants might gather a basket of these flowers daily in the season. So the memory of the first President for Pahang will be kept green. A plant rarely seen is _V. limbata_ from the island of Timor--dusky yellow, the tip purple, outlined with white, formed like a shovel. I may cite a personal reminiscence here, in the hope that some reader may be able to supply what is wanting. In years so far back that they seem to belong to a "previous existence," I travelled in Borneo, and paid a visit to the antimony-mines of Bidi. The manager, Mr. Bentley, showed me a grand tapong-tree at his door from which he had lately gathered a "blue orchid,"--we were desperately vague about names in the jungle at that day, or in England for that matter. In a note published on my return, I said, "As Mr. Bentley described it, the blossoms hung in an azure garland from the bough, more gracefully than art could design." This specimen is, I believe, the only one at present known, and both Malays and Dyaks are quite ignorant of such a flower! What was this? There is no question of the facts. Mr. Bentley sent the plant, a large mass to the chairman of the Company, and it reached home in fair condition. I saw the warm letter, enclosing cheque for 100l., in which Mr. Templar acknowledged receipt. But further record I have not been able to discover. One inclines to assume that a blue orchid which puts forth a "garland" of bloom must be a Vanda. The description might be applied to _V. coerulea_, but that species is a native of the Khasya hills; more appropriately, as I recall Mr. Bentley's words, to _V. coerulescens_, which, however, is Burmese. Furthermore, neither of these would be looked for on the branch of a great tree. Possibly someone who reads this may know what became of Mr. Templar's specimen. Both the species of Renanthera need great heat. Among "facts not generally known" to orchid-growers, but decidedly interesting for them, is the commercial habitat, as one may say, of _R. coccinea_. The books state correctly that it is a native of Cochin China. Orchids coming from such a distance must needs be withered on arrival. Accordingly, the most experienced horticulturist who is not up to a little secret feels assured that all is well when he beholds at the auction-room or at one of the small dealer's a plant full of sap, with glossy leaves and unshrivelled roots. It must have been in cultivation for a year at the very least, and he buys with confidence. Too often, however, a disastrous change sets in from the very moment his purchase reaches home. Instead of growing it falls back and back, until in a very few weeks it has all the appearance of a newly-imported piece. The explanation is curious. At some time, not distant, a quantity of _R. coccinea_ must have found its way to the neighbourhood of Rio. There it flourishes as a weed, with a vigour quite unparalleled in its native soil. Unscrupulous persons take advantage of this extraordinary accident. From a country so near and so readily accessible they can get plants home, pot them up, and sell them, before the withering process sets in. May this revelation confound such knavish tricks! The moral is old--buy your orchids from one of the great dealers, if you do not care to "establish" them yourself. _R. coccinea_ is another of the climbing species, and it demands, even more urgently than _V. teres_, to reach the top of the house, where sunshine is fiercest, before blooming. Under the best conditions, indeed, it is slow to produce its noble wreaths of flower--deep red, crimson, and orange. Upon the other hand, the plant itself is ornamental, and it grows very fast. The Duke of Devonshire has some at Chatsworth which never fail to make a gorgeous show in their season; but they stand twenty feet high, twisted round birch-trees, and they have occupied their present quarters for half a century or near it. There is but one more species in the genus, so far as the unlearned know, but this, generally recognized as _Vanda Lowii_, as has been already mentioned, ranks among the grand curiosities of botanic science. Like some of the Catasetums and Cycnoches, it bears two distinct types of flower on each spike, but the instance of _R. Lowii_ is even more perplexing. In those other cases the differing forms represent male and female sex, but the microscope has not yet discovered any sort of reason for the like eccentricity of this Renanthera. Its proper inflorescence, as one may put it, is greenish yellow, blotched with brown, three inches in diameter, clothing a spike sometimes twelve feet long. The first two flowers to open, however--those at the base--present a strong contrast in all respects--smaller, of different shape, tawny yellow in colour, dotted with crimson. It would be a pleasing task for ingenious youth with a bent towards science to seek the utility of this arrangement. Orchids are spreading fast over the world in these days, and we may expect to hear of other instances where a species has taken root in alien climes like _R. coccinea_ in Brazil. I cannot cite a parallel at present. But Mr. Sander informs me that there is a growing demand for these plants in realms which have their own native orchids. We have an example in the letter which has been already quoted.[7] Among customers who write to him direct are magnates of China and Siam, an Indian and a Javanese rajah. Orders are received--not unimportant, nor infrequent--from merchants at Calcutta, Singapore, Hong Kong, Rio de Janeiro, and smaller places, of course. It is vastly droll to hear that some of these gentlemen import species at a great expense which an intelligent coolie could gather for them in any quantity within a few furlongs of their go-down! But for the most part they demand foreigners. The plants thus distributed will be grown in the open air; naturally they will seed; at least, we may hope so. Even _Angræcum sesquipedale_, of which I wrote in the preceding chapter, would find a moth able to impregnate it in South Brazil. Such species as recognize the conditions necessary for their existence will establish themselves. It is fairly safe to credit that in some future time, not distant, Cattleyas may flourish in the jungles of India, Dendrobiums on the Amazons, Phaloenopsis in the coast lands of Central America. Those who wish well to their kind would like to hasten that day. Mr. Burbidge suggested at the Orchid Conference that gentlemen who have plantations in a country suitable should establish a "farm," or rather a market-garden, and grow the precious things for exportation. It is an excellent idea, and when tea, coffee, sugar-cane, all the regular crops of the East and West Indies, are so depreciated by competition, one would think that some planters might adopt it. Perhaps some have; it is too early yet for results. Upon inquiry I hear of a case, but it is not encouraging. One of Mr. Sander's collectors, marrying when on service in the United States of Colombia, resolved to follow Mr. Burbidge's advice. He set up his "farm" and began "hybridizing" freely. No man living is better qualified as a collector, for the hero of this little tale is Mr. Kerbach, a name familiar among those who take interest in such matters; but I am not aware that he had any experience in growing orchids. To start with hybridizing seems very ambitious--too much of a short cut to fortune. However, in less than eighteen months Mr. Kerbach found it did not answer, for reasons unexplained, and he begged to be reinstated in Mr. Sander's service. It is clear, indeed, that the orchid-farmer of the future, in whose success I firmly believe, will be wise to begin modestly, cultivating the species he finds in his neighbourhood. It is not in our greenhouses alone that these plants sometimes show likes and dislikes beyond explanation. For example, many gentlemen in Costa Rica--a wealthy land, and comparatively civilized--have tried to cultivate the glorious _Cattleya Dowiana_. For business purposes also the attempt has been made. But never with success. In those tropical lands a variation of climate or circumstances, small perhaps, but such as plants that subsist mostly upon air can recognize, will be found in a very narrow circuit. We say that Trichopilias have their home at Bogota. As a matter of fact, however, they will not live in the immediate vicinity of that town, though the woods, fifteen miles away, are stocked with them. The orchid-farmer will have to begin cautiously, propagating what he finds at hand, and he must not be hasty in sending his crop to market. It is a general rule of experience that plants brought from the forest and "established" before shipment do less well than those shipped direct in good condition, though the public, naturally, is slow to admit a conclusion opposed by _à priori_ reasoning. The cause may be that they exhaust their strength in that first effort, and suffer more severely on the voyage. I hear of one gentleman, however, who appears to be cultivating orchids with success. This is Mr. Rand, dwelling on the Rio Negro, in Brazil, where he has established a plantation of _Hevia Brazilienses_, a new caoutchouc of the highest quality, indigenous to those parts. Some years ago Mr. Rand wrote to Mr. Godseff, at St. Albans, begging plants of _Vanda Sanderiana_ and other Oriental species, which were duly forwarded. In return he despatched some pieces of a new Epidendrum, named in his honour _E. Randii_, a noble flower, with brown sepals and petals, the lip crimson, betwixt two large white wings. This and others native to the Rio Negro Mr. Rand is propagating on a large scale in shreds of bamboo, especially a white _Cattleya superba_ which he himself discovered. It is pleasing to add that by latest reports all the Oriental species were thriving to perfection on the other side of the Atlantic. Vandas, indeed, should flourish where _Cattleya superba_ is at home, or anything else that loves the atmosphere of a kitchen on washing-day at midsummer. Though all the Cattleyas, or very nearly all, will "do" in an intermediate house, several prefer the stove. Of two among them, _C. Dowiana_ and _C. aurea_, I spoke in the preceding chapter with an enthusiasm that does not bear repetition. _Cattleya guttata Leopoldi_ grows upon rocks in the little island of Sta. Catarina, Brazil, in company with _Loelia elegans_ and _L. purpurata_. There the four dwelt in such numbers only twenty years ago that the supply was thought inexhaustible. It has come to an end already, and collectors no longer visit the spot. Cliffs and ravines which men still young can recollect ablaze with colour, are as bare now as a stone-quarry. Nature had done much to protect her treasures; they flourished mostly in places which the human foot cannot reach--_Loelia elegans_ and _Cattleya g. Leopoldi_ inextricably entwined, clinging to the face of lofty rocks. The blooms of the former are white and mauve, of the latter chocolate-brown, spotted with dark red, the lip purple. A wondrous sight that must have been in the time of flowering. It is lost now, probably for ever. Natives went down, suspended on a rope, and swept the whole circuit of the island, year by year. A few specimens remain in nooks absolutely inaccessible, but those happy mortals who possess a bit of _L. elegans_ should treasure it, for more are very seldom forthcoming. _Loelia elegans Statteriana_ is the finest variety perhaps; the crimson velvet tip of its labellum is as clearly and sharply-defined upon the snow-white surface as pencil could draw; it looks like painting by the steadiest of hands in angelic colour. _C. g. Leopoldi_ has been found elsewhere. It is deliciously scented. I observed a plant at St. Albans lately with three spikes, each bearing over twenty flowers; many strong perfumes there were in the house, but that overpowered them all. The _Loelia purpurata_ of Sta. Catarina, to which the finest varieties in cultivation belong, has shared the same fate. It occupied boulders jutting out above the swamps in the full glare of tropic sunshine. Many gardeners give it too much shade. This species grows also on the mainland, but of inferior quality in all respects; curiously enough it dwells upon trees there, even though rocks be at hand, while the island variety, I believe, was never found on timber. Another hot Cattleya of the highest class is _C. Acklandiæ_ It belongs to the dwarf section of the genus, and inexperienced persons are vastly surprised to see such a little plant bearing two flowers on a spike, each larger than itself. They are four inches in diameter, petals and sepals chocolate-brown, barred with yellow, lip large, of colour varying from rose to purple. _C. Acklandiæ_ is found at Bahia, where it grows side by side with _C. amethystoglossa_, also a charming species, very tall, leafless to the tip of its pseudo-bulbs. Thus the dwarf beneath is seen in all its beauty. As they cling together in great masses the pair must make a flower-bed to themselves--above, the clustered spikes of _C. amethystoglossa_, dusky-lilac, purple-spotted, with a lip of amethyst; upon the ground the rich chocolate and rose of _C. Acklandiæ_. _Cattleya superba_, as has been said, dwells also on the Rio Negro in Brazil; it has a wide range, for specimens have been sent from the Rio Meta in Colombia. This species is not loved by gardeners, who find it difficult to cultivate and almost impossible to flower, probably because they cannot give it sunshine enough. I have heard that Baron Hruby, a Hungarian enthusiast in our science, has no sort of trouble; wonders, indeed, are reported of that admirable collection, where all the hot orchids thrive like weeds. The Briton may find comfort in assuming that cool species are happier beneath his cloudy skies; if he be prudent, he will not seek to verify the assumption. The Assistant Curator of Kew assures us, in his excellent little work, "Orchids," that the late Mr. Spyers grew _C. superba_ well, and he details his method. I myself have never seen the bloom. Mr. Watson describes it as five inches across, "bright rosy-purple suffused with white, very fragrant, lip with acute side lobes folding over the column,"--making a funnel, in short--"the front lobe spreading, kidney-shaped, crimson-purple, with a blotch of white and yellow in front." In the same districts with _Cattleya superba_ grows _Galleandra Devoniana_ under circumstances rather unusual. It clings to the very tip of a slender palm, in swamps which the Indians themselves regard with dread as the chosen home of fever and mosquitoes. It was discovered by Sir Robert Schomburgk, who compared the flower to a foxglove, referring especially, perhaps, to the graceful bend of its long pseudo-bulbs, which is almost lost under cultivation. The tube-like flowers are purple, contrasting exquisitely with a snow-white lip, striped with lilac in the throat. Phaloenopsis, of course, are hot. This is one of our oldest genera which still rank in the first class. It was drawn and described so early as 1750, and a plant reached Messrs. Rollisson in 1838; they sold it to the Duke of Devonshire for a hundred guineas. Many persons regard Phaloenopsis as the loveliest of all, and there is no question of their supreme beauty, though not everyone may rank them first. They come mostly from the Philippines, but Java, Borneo, Cochin China, Burmah, even Assam contribute some species. Colonel Berkeley found _Ph. tetraspis_, snow-white, and _Ph. speciosa_, purple, in the Andamans, when he was Governor of that settlement, clinging to low bushes along the mangrove creeks. So far as I know, all the species dwell within breath of the sea, as it may be put, where the atmosphere is laden with salt; this gives a hint to the thoughtful. Mr. Partington, of Cheshunt, who was the most renowned cultivator of the genus in his time, used to lay down salt upon the paths and beneath the stages of his Phaloenopsis house. Lady Howard de Walden stands first, perhaps, at the present day, and her gardener follows the same system. These plants, indeed, are affected, for good or ill, by influences too subtle for our perception as yet. Experiment alone will decide whether a certain house, or a certain neighbourhood even, is agreeable to their taste. It is a waste of money in general to make alterations; if they do not like the place they won't live there, and that's flat! It is probable that Maidstone, where Lady Howard de Walden resides, may be specially suited to their needs, but her ladyship's gardener knows how to turn a lucky chance to the best account. Some of his plants have ten leaves!--the uninitiated may think that fact grotesquely undeserving of a note of exclamation, but to explain would be too technical. It may be observed that the famous Swan orchid, _Cycnoches chlorochilon_, flourishes at Maidstone as nowhere else perhaps in England. Phaloenopsis were first introduced by Messrs. Rollisson, of Tooting, a firm that vanished years ago, but will live in the annals of horticulture as the earliest of the great importers. In 1836 they got home a living specimen of _Ph. amabilis_, which had been described, and even figured, eighty years before. A few months later the Duke of Devonshire secured _Ph. Schilleriana_. The late Mr. B.S. Williams told me a very curious incident relating to this species. It comes from the Philippines, and exacts a very hot, close atmosphere of course. Once upon a time, however, a little piece was left in the cool house at Holloway, and remained there some months unnoticed by the authorities. When at length the oversight was remarked, to their amaze this stranger from the tropics, abandoned in the temperate zone, proved to be thriving more vigorously than any of his fellows who enjoyed their proper climate!--so he was left in peace and cherished as a "phenomenon." Four seasons had passed when I beheld the marvel, and it was a picture of health and strength, flowering freely; but the reader is not advised to introduce a few Phaloenopsis to his Odontoglossums--not by any means. Mr. Williams himself never repeated the experiment. It was one of those delightfully perplexing vagaries which the orchid-grower notes from time to time. There are rare species of this genus which will not be found in the dealers' catalogues, and amateurs who like a novelty may be pleased to hear some names. _Ph. Manni_, christened in honour of Mr. Mann, Director of the Indian Forest Department, is yellow and red; _Ph. cornucervi_, yellow and brown; _Ph. Portei_, a natural hybrid, of _Ph. rosea_ and _Ph. Aphrodite_, white, the lip amethyst. It is found very, very rarely in the woods near Manilla. Above all, _Ph. Sanderiana_, to which hangs a little tale. So soon as the natives of the Philippines began to understand that their white and lilac weeds were cherished in Europe, they talked of a scarlet variety, which thrilled listening collectors with joy; but the precious thing never came to hand, and, on closer inquiry, no responsible witness could be found who had seen it. Years passed by and the scarlet Phaloenopsis became a jest among orchidaceans. The natives persisted, however, and Mr. Sander found the belief so general, if shadowy, that when a service of coasting steamers was established, he sent Mr. Roebelin to make a thorough investigation. His enterprise and sagacity were rewarded, as usual. After floating round for twenty-five years amidst derision, the rumour proved true in part. _Ph. Sanderiana_ is not scarlet but purplish rose, a very handsome and distinct species. To the same collector we owe the noblest of Aerides, _A. Lawrenciæ_, waxy white tipped with purple, and deep purple lip. Besides the lovely colouring it is the largest by far of that genus. Mr. Roebelin sent two plants from the Far East; he had not seen the flower, nor received any description from the natives. Mr. Sander grew them in equal ignorance for three years, and sent one to auction in blossom; it fell to Sir Trevor Lawrence's bid for 235 guineas. [Illustration: COELOGENE PANDURATA. Reduced to One Sixth] Many of the Coelogenes classed as cool, which, indeed, rub along with Odontoglossums, do better in the stove while growing. _Coel. cristata_ itself comes from Nepaul, where the summer sun is terrible, and it covers the rocks most exposed. But I will only name a few of those recognized as hot. Amongst the most striking of flowers, exquisitely pretty also, is _Coel. pandurata_, from Borneo. Its spike has been described by a person of fine fancy as resembling a row of glossy pea-green frogs with black tongues, each three inches in diameter. The whole bloom is brilliantly green, but several ridges clothed with hairs as black and soft as velvet run down the lip, seeming to issue from a mouth. It is strange to see that a plant so curious, so beautiful, and so sweet should be so rarely cultivated; I own, however, that it is very unwilling to make itself at home with us. _Coel. Dayana_, also a native of Borneo, one of our newest discoveries, is named after Mr. Day, of Tottenham. I may interpolate a remark here for the encouragement of poor but enthusiastic members of our fraternity. When Mr. Day sold his collection lately, an American "Syndicate" paid 12,000l. down, and the remaining plants fetched 12,000l. at auction; so, at least, the uncontradicted report goes. _Coel. Dayana_ is rare, of course, and dear, but Mr. Sander has lately imported a large quantity. The spike is three feet long sometimes, a pendant wreath of buff-yellow flowers broadly striped with chocolate. _Coel. Massangeana_, from Assam, resembles this, but the lip is deep crimson-brown, with lines of yellow, and a white edge. Newest of all the Coelogenes, and supremely beautiful, is _Coel. Sanderiana_, imported by the gentleman whose name it bears. He has been called "The Orchid King." This superb species has only flowered once in Europe as yet; Baron Ferdinand Rothschild is the happy man. Its snow-white blooms, six on a spike generally, each three inches across, have very dark brown stripes on the lip. It was discovered in Borneo by Mr. Forstermann, the same collector who happed upon the wondrous scarlet Dendrobe, mentioned in a former chapter. There I stated that Baron Schroeder had three pieces; this was a mistake unfortunately. Mr. Forstermann only secured three, of which two died on the journey. Baron Schroeder bought the third, but it has perished. No more can be found as yet. Of Oncidiums there are many that demand stove treatment. The story of _Onc. splendidum_ is curious. It first turned up in France some thirty years ago. A ship's captain sailing from St. Lazare brought half a dozen pieces, which he gave to his "owner," M. Herman. The latter handed them to MM. Thibaut and Ketteler, of Sceaux, who split them up and distributed them. Two of the original plants found their way to England, and they also appear to have been cut up. A legend of the King Street Auction Room recalls how perfervid competitors ran up a bit of _Onc. splendidum_, that had only one leaf, to thirty guineas. The whole stock vanished presently, which is not surprising if it had all been divided in the same ruthless manner. From that day the species was lost until Mr. Sander turned his attention to it. There was no record of its habitat. The name of the vessel, or even of the captain, might have furnished a clue had it been recorded, for the shipping intelligence of the day would have shown what ports he was frequenting about that time. I could tell of mysterious orchids traced home upon indications less distinct. But there was absolutely nothing. Mr. Sander, however, had scrutinized the plant carefully, while specimens were still extant, and from the structure of the leaf he formed a strong conclusion that it must belong to the Central American flora; furthermore, that it must inhabit a very warm locality. In 1882 he directed one of his collectors, Mr. Oversluys, to look for the precious thing in Costa Rica. Year after year the search proceeded, until Mr. Oversluys declared with some warmth that _Onc. splendidum_ might grow in heaven or in the other place, but it was not to be found in Costa Rica. But theorists are stubborn, and year after year he was sent back. At length, in 1882, riding through a district often explored, the collector found himself in a grassy plain, dotted with pale yellow flowers. He had beheld the same many times, but his business was orchids. On this occasion, however, he chanced to approach one of the masses, and recognized the object of his quest. It was the familiar case of a man who overlooks the thing he has to find, because it is too near and too conspicuous. But Mr. Oversluys had excuse enough. Who could have expected to see an Oncidium buried in long grass, exposed to the full power of a tropic sun? _Oncidium Lanceanum_ is, perhaps, the hottest of its genus. Those happy mortals who can grow it declare they have no trouble, but unless perfectly strong and healthy it gets "the spot," and promptly goes to wreck. In the houses of the "New Plant and Bulb Company," at Colchester--now extinct--_Onc. Lanceanum_ flourished with a vigour almost embarrassing, putting forth such enormous leaves, as it hung close to the glass, as made blinds quite superfluous at midsummer. But this was an extraordinary case. Certainly it is a glorious spectacle in flower--yellow, barred with brown; the lip violet. The spikes last a month in full beauty--sometimes two. An Oncidium which always commands attention from the public and grateful regard from the devotee is _Onc. papilio_. Its strange form fascinated the Duke of Devonshire, grandfather to the present, who was almost the first of our lordly amateurs, and tempted him to undertake the explorations which introduced so many fine plants to Europe. The "Butterfly orchid" is so familiar that I do not pause to describe it. But imagine that most interesting flower all blue, instead of gold and brown! I have never been able to learn what was the foundation of the old belief in such a marvel. But the great Lindley went to his grave in unshaken confidence that a blue _papilio_ exists. Once he thought he had a specimen; but it flowered, and his triumph had to be postponed. I myself heard of it two years back, and tried to cherish a belief that the news was true. A friend from Natal assured me that he had seen one on the table of the Director of the Gardens at Durban; but it proved to be one of those terrestrial orchids, so lovely and so tantalizing to us, with which South Africa abounds. Very slowly do we lengthen the catalogue of them in our houses. There are gardeners, such as Mr. Cook at Loughborough, who grow _Disa grandiflora_ like a weed. Mr. Watson of Kew demonstrated that _Disa racemosa_ will flourish under conditions easily secured. I had the good fortune to do as much for _Disa Cooperi_, though not by my own skill. One supreme little triumph is mine, however. In very early days, when animated with the courage of utter ignorance, I bought eight bulbs of _Disa discolor_, and flowered them, every one! No mortal in Europe had done it before, nor has any tried since, I charitably hope, for a more rubbishing bloom does not exist. But there it was--_Ego feci_! And the specimen in the Herbarium at Kew bears my name. But legends should not be disregarded when it is certain that they reach us from a native source. Some of the most striking finds had been announced long since by observant savages. I have told the story of _Phaloenopsis Sanderiana_. It was a Zulu who put the discoverer of the new yellow Calla on the track. The blue Utricularia had been heard of and discredited long before it was found--Utricularias are not orchids indeed, but only botanists regard the distinction. The natives of Assam persistently assert that a bright yellow Cymbidium grows there, of supremest beauty, and we expect it to turn up one day; the Malagasy describe a scarlet one. But I am digressing. Epidendrums mostly will bear as much heat as can be given them while growing; all demand more sunshine than they can get in our climate. Amateurs do not seem to be so well acquainted with the grand things of this genus as they should be. They distrust all imported Epidendrums. Many worthless species, indeed, bear a perplexing resemblance to the finest; so much so, that the most observant of authorities would not think of buying at the auction-room unless he had confidence enough in the seller's honesty to accept his description of a "lot." Gloriously beautiful, however, are some of those rarely met with; easy to cultivate also, in a sunny place, and not dear. _Epid. rhizophorum_ has been lately rechristened _Epid. radicans_--a name which might be confined to the Mexican variety. For the plant recurs in Brazil, practically the same, but with a certain difference. The former grows on shrubs, a true epiphyte; the latter has its bottom roots in the soil, at foot of the tallest trees, and runs up to the very summit, perhaps a hundred and fifty feet. The flowers also show a distinction, but in effect they are brilliant orange-red, the lip yellow, edged with scarlet. Forty or fifty of them hanging in a cluster from the top of the raceme make a show to remember. Mr. Watson "saw a plant a few years ago, that bore eighty-six heads of flowers!" They last for three months. _Epid. prismatocarpum_, also, is a lovely thing, with narrow dagger-like sepals and petals, creamy-yellow, spotted black, lip mauve or violet, edged with pale yellow. Of the many hot Dendrobiums, Australia supplies a good proportion. There is _D. bigibbum_, of course, too well known for description; it dwells on the small islands in Torres Straits. This species flowered at Kew so early as 1824, but the plant died. Messrs. Loddiges, of Hackney, re-introduced it thirty years later. _D. Johannis_, from Queensland, brown and yellow, streaked with orange, the flowers curiously twisted. _D. superbiens_, from Torres Straits, rosy purple, edged with white, lip crimson. Handsomest of all by far is _D. phaloenopsis_. It throws out a long, slender spike from the tip of the pseudo-bulb, bearing six or more flowers, three inches across. The sepals are lance-shaped, and the petals, twice as broad, rosy-lilac, with veins of darker tint; the lip, arched over by its side lobes, crimson-lake in the throat, paler and striped at the mouth. It was first sent home by Mr. Forbes, of Kew Gardens, from Timor Laüt, in 1880. But Mr. Fitzgerald had made drawings of a species substantially the same, some years before, from a plant he discovered on the property of Captain Bloomfield, Balmain, in Queensland, nearly a thousand miles south of Timor. Mr. Sander caused search to be made, and he has introduced Mr. Fitzgerald's variety under the name of _D. ph. Statterianum_. It is smaller than the type, and crimson instead of lilac. Bulbophyllums rank among the marvels of nature. It is a point comparatively trivial that this genus includes the largest of orchids and, perhaps, the smallest. _B. Beccarii_ has leaves two feet long, eighteen inches broad. It encircles the biggest tree in one clasp of its rhizomes, which travellers mistake for the coil of a boa constrictor. Furthermore, this species emits the vilest stench known to scientific persons, which is a great saying. But these points are insignificant. The charm of Bulbophyllums lies in their machinery for trapping insects. Those who attended the Temple show last year saw something of it, if they could penetrate the crush around _B. barbigerum_ on Sir Trevor Lawrence's stand. This tiny but amazing plant comes from Sierra Leone. The long yellow lip is attached to the column by the slenderest possible joint, so that it rocks without an instant's pause. At the tip is set a brush of silky hairs, which wave backwards and forwards with the precision of machinery. No wonder that the natives believe it a living thing. The purpose of these arrangements is to catch flies, which other species effect with equal ingenuity if less elaboration. Very pretty too are some of them, as _B. Lobbii_. Its clear, clean, orange-creamy hue is delightful to behold. The lip, so delicately balanced, quivers at every breath. If the slender stem be bent back, as by a fly alighting on the column, that quivering cap turns and hangs imminent; another tiny shake, as though the fly approached the nectary, and it falls plump, head over heels, like a shot, imprisoning the insect. Thus the flower is impregnated. If we wished to excite a thoughtful child's interest in botany--not regardless of the sense of beauty either--we should make an investment in _Bulbophyllum Lobbii_. _Bulbophyllum Dearei_ also is pretty--golden ochre spotted red, with a wide dorsal sepal, very narrow petals flying behind, lower sepals broadly striped with red, and a yellow lip, upon a hinge, of course; but the gymnastic performances of this species are not so impressive as in most of its kin. A new Bulbophyllum, _B. Godseffianum_, has lately been brought from the Philippines, contrived on the same principle, but even more charming. The flowers, two inches broad, have the colour of "old gold," with stripes of crimson on the petals, and the dorsal sepal shows membranes almost transparent, which have the effect of silver embroidery. Until _B. Beccarii_ was introduced, from Borneo, in 1867, the Grammatophyllums were regarded as monsters incomparable. Mr. Arthur Keyser, Resident Magistrate at Selangor, in the Straits Settlement, tells of one which he gathered on a Durian tree, seven feet two inches high, thirteen feet six inches across, bearing seven spikes of flower, the longest eight feet six inches--a weight which fifteen men could only just carry. Mr. F.W. Burbidge heard a tree fall in the jungle one night when he was four miles away, and on visiting the spot, he found, "right in the collar of the trunk, a Grammatophyllum big enough to fill a Pickford's van, just opening its golden-brown spotted flowers, on stout spikes two yards long." It is not to be hoped that we shall ever see monsters like these in Europe. The genus, indeed, is unruly. _G. speciosum_ has been grown to six feet high, I believe, which is big enough to satisfy the modest amateur, especially when it develops leaves two feet long. The flowers are--that is, they ought to be--six inches in diameter, rich yellow, blotched with reddish purple. They have some giants at Kew now, of which fine things are expected. _G. Measureseanum_, named after Mr. Measures, a leading amateur, is pale buff, speckled with chocolate, the ends of the sepals and petals charmingly tipped with the same hue. Within the last few months Mr. Sander has obtained _G. multiflorum_ from the Philippines, which seems to be not only the most beautiful, but the easiest to cultivate of those yet introduced. Its flowers droop in a garland of pale green and yellow, splashed with brown, not loosely set, as is the rule, but scarcely half an inch apart. The effect is said to be lovely beyond description. We may hope to judge for ourselves in no long time, for Mr. Sander has presented a wondrous specimen to the Royal Gardens, Kew. This is assuredly the biggest orchid ever brought to Europe. Its snakey pseudo-bulbs measure nine feet, and the old flower spikes stood eighteen feet high. It will be found in the Victoria Regia house, growing strongly. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 6: _Vanda Lowii_ is properly called _Renanthera Lowii_.] [Footnote 7: _Vide_ page 100.] THE LOST ORCHID. Not a few orchids are "lost"--have been described that is, and named, even linger in some great collection, but, bearing no history, cannot now be found. Such, for instance, are _Cattleya Jongheana_, _Cymbidium Hookerianum_, _Cypripedium Fairianum_. But there is one to which the definite article might have been applied a very few days ago. This is _Cattleya labiata vera_. It was the first to bear the name of Cattleya, though not absolutely the first of that genus discovered. _C. Loddigesii_ preceded it by a few years, but was called an Epidendrum. Curious it is to note how science has returned in this latter day to the views of a pre-scientific era. Professor Reichenbach was only restrained from abolishing the genus Cattleya, and merging all its species into Epidendrum, by regard for the weakness of human nature. _Cattleya labiata vera_ was sent from Brazil to Dr. Lindley by Mr. W. Swainson, and reached Liverpool in 1818. So much is certain, for Lindley makes the statement in his _Collectanea Botanica_. But legends and myths encircle that great event. It is commonly told in books that Sir W. Jackson Hooker, Regius Professor of Botany at Glasgow, begged Mr. Swainson--who was collecting specimens in natural history--to send him some lichens. He did so, and with the cases arrived a quantity of orchids which had been used to pack them. Less suitable material for "dunnage" could not be found, unless we suppose that it was thrust between the boxes to keep them steady. Paxton is the authority for this detail, which has its importance. The orchid arriving in such humble fashion proved to be _Cattleya labiata_; Lindley gave it that name--there was no need to add _vera_ then. He established a new genus for it, and thus preserved for all time the memory of Mr. Cattley, a great horticulturist dwelling at Barnet. There was no ground in supposing the species rare. A few years afterwards, in fact, Mr. Gardner, travelling in pursuit of butterflies and birds, sent home quantities of a Cattleya which he found on the precipitous sides of the Pedro Bonita range, and also on the Gavea, which our sailors call "Topsail" Mountain, or "Lord Hood's Nose." These orchids passed as _C. labiata_ for a while. Paxton congratulated himself and the world in his _Flower Garden_ that the stock was so greatly increased. Those were the coaching days, when botanists had not much opportunity for comparison. It is to be observed, also, that Gardner's Cattleya was the nearest relative of Swainson's;--it is known at present as _C. labiata Warneri_. The true species, however, has points unmistakable. Some of its kinsfolk show a double flower-sheath;--very, very rarely, under exceptional circumstances. But _Cattleya labiata vera_ never fails, and an interesting question it is to resolve why this alone should be so carefully protected. One may cautiously surmise that its habitat is even damper than others'. In the next place, some plants have their leaves red underneath, others green, and the flower-sheath always corresponds; this peculiarity is shared by _C. l. Warneri_ alone. Thirdly--and there is the grand distinction, the one which gives such extreme value to the species--it flowers in the late autumn, and thus fills a gap. Those who possess a plant may have Cattleyas in bloom the whole year round--and they alone. Accordingly, it makes a section by itself in the classification of _Reichenbachia_, as the single species that flowers from the current year's growth, after resting. Section II. contains the species that flower from the current year's growth before resting. Section III., those that flower from last year's growth after resting. All these are many, but _C. l. vera_ stands alone. [Illustration: CATTLEYA LABIATA. Reduced to One Sixth.] We have no need to dwell upon the contest that arose at the introduction of _Cattleya Mossiæ_ in 1840, which grew more and more bitter as others of the class came in, and has not yet ceased. It is enough to say that Lindley declined to recognize _C. Mossiæ_ as a species, though he stood almost solitary against "the trade," backed by a host of enthusiastic amateurs. The great botanist declared that he could see nothing in the beautiful new Cattleya to distinguish it as a species from the one already named, _C. labiata_, except that most variable of characteristics, colour. Modes of growth and times of flowering do not concern science. The structure of the plants is identical, and to admit _C. Mossiæ_ as a sub-species of the same was the utmost concession Lindley would make. This was in 1840. Fifteen years later came _C. Warscewiczi_, now called _gigas_; then, next year, _C. Trianæ_; _C. Dowiana_ in 1866; _C. Mendellii_ in 1870--all _labiatas_, strictly speaking. At each arrival the controversy was renewed; it is not over yet. But Sir Joseph Hooker succeeded Lindley and Reichenbach succeeded Hooker as the supreme authority, and each of them stood firm. There are, of course, many Cattleyas recognized as species, but Lindley's rule has been maintained. We may return to the lost orchid. As time went on, and the merits of _C. labiata vera_ were understood, the few specimens extant--proceeding from Mr. Swainson's importation--fetched larger and larger prices. Those merits, indeed, were conspicuous. Besides the season of flowering, this proved to be the strongest and most easily grown of Cattleyas. Its normal type was at least as charming as any, and it showed an extraordinary readiness to vary. Few, as has been said, were the plants in cultivation, but they gave three distinct varieties. Van Houtte shows us two in his admirable _Flore des Serres; C. l. candida_, from Syon House, pure white excepting the ochrous throat--which is invariable--and _C. l. picta_, deep red, from the collection of J.J. Blandy, Esq., Reading. The third was _C. l. Pescatorei_, white, with a deep red blotch upon the lip, formerly owned by Messrs. Rouget-Chauvier, of Paris, now by the Duc de Massa. Under such circumstances the dealers began to stir in earnest. From the first, indeed, the more enterprising had made efforts to import a plant which, as they supposed, must be a common weed at Rio, since men used it to "pack" boxes. But that this was an error they soon perceived. Taking the town as a centre, collectors pushed out on all sides. Probably there is not one of the large dealers, in England or the Continent, dead or living, who has not spent money--a large sum, too--in searching for _C. l. vera_. Probably, also, not one has lost by the speculation, though never a sign nor a hint, scarcely a rumour, of the thing sought rewarded them. For all secured new orchids, new bulbs--Eucharis in especial--Dipladenias, Bromeliaceæ, Calladiums, Marantas, Aristolochias, and what not. In this manner the lost orchid has done immense service to botany and to mankind. One may say that the hunt lasted seventy years, and led collectors to strike a path through almost every province of Brazil--almost, for there are still vast regions unexplored. A man might start, for example, at Para, and travel to Bogota, two thousand miles or so, with a stretch of six hundred miles on either hand which is untouched. It may well be asked what Mr. Swainson was doing, if alive, while his discovery thus agitated the world. Alive he was, in New Zealand, until the year 1855, but he offered no assistance. It is scarcely to be doubted that he had none to give. The orchids fell in his way by accident--possibly collected in distant parts by some poor fellow who died at Rio. Swainson picked them up, and used them to stow his lichens. Not least extraordinary, however, in this extraordinary tale is the fact that various bits of _C. l. vera_ turned up during this time. Lord Home has a noble specimen at Bothwell Castle, which did not come from Swainson's consignment. His gardener told the story five years ago. "I am quite sure," he wrote, "that my nephew told me the small bit I had from him"--forty years before--"was off a newly-imported plant, and I understood it had been brought by one of Messrs. Horsfall's ships." Lord Fitzwilliam seems to have got one in the same way, from another ship. But the most astonishing case is recent. About seven years ago two plants made their appearance in the Zoological Gardens at Regent's Park--in the conservatory behind Mr. Bartlett's house. How they got there is an eternal mystery. Mr. Bartlett sold them for a large sum; but an equal sum offered him for any scrap of information showing how they came into his hands he was sorrowfully obliged to refuse--or, rather, found himself unable to earn. They certainly arrived in company with some monkeys; but when, from what district of South America, the closest search of his papers failed to show. In 1885, Dr. Regel, Director of the Imperial Gardens at St. Petersburg, received a few plants. It may be worth while to name those gentlemen who recently possessed examples of _C. l. vera_, so far as our knowledge goes. They were Sir Trevor Lawrence, Lord Rothschild, Duke of Marlborough, Lord Home, Messrs. J. Chamberlain, T. Statten, J.J. Blandy, and G. Hardy, in England; in America, Mr. F.L. Ames, two, and Mr. H.H. Hunnewell; in France, Comte de Germiny, Duc de Massa, Baron Alphonse and Baron Adolf de Rothschild, M. Treyeran of Bordeaux. There were two, as is believed, in Italy. And now the horticultural papers inform us that the lost orchid is found, by Mr. Sander of St. Albans. Assuredly he deserves his luck--if the result of twenty years' labour should be so described. It was about 1870, we believe, that Mr. Sander sent out Arnold, who passed five years in exploring Venezuela. He had made up his mind that the treasure must not be looked for in Brazil. Turning next to Colombia, in successive years, Chesterton, Bartholomeus, Kerbach, and the brothers Klaboch overran that country. Returning to Brazil, his collectors, Oversluys, Smith, Bestwood, went over every foot of the ground which Swainson seems, by his books, to have traversed. At the same time Clarke followed Gardner's track through the Pedro Bonita and Topsail Mountains. Then Osmers traced the whole coast-line of the Brazils from north to south, employing five years in the work. Finally, Digance undertook the search, and died this year. To these men we owe grand discoveries beyond counting. To name but the grandest, Arnold found _Cattleya Percevaliana_; from Colombia were brought _Odont. vex. rubellum_, _Bollea coelestis_, _Pescatorea Klabochorum_; Smith sent _Cattleya O'Brieniana_; Clarke the dwarf Cattleyas, _pumila_ and _præstans_; Lawrenceson _Cattleya Schroederæ_; Chesterton _Cattleya Sanderiana_; Digance _Cattleya Diganceana_, which received a Botanical certificate from the Royal Horticultural Society on September 8th, 1890. But they heard not a whisper of the lost orchid. In 1889 a collector employed by M. Moreau, of Paris, to explore Central and North Brazil in search of insects, sent home fifty plants--for M. Moreau is an enthusiast in orchidology also. He had no object in keeping the secret of its habitat, and when Mr. Sander, chancing to call, recognized the treasure so long lost, he gave every assistance. Meanwhile, the International Horticultural Society of Brussels had secured a quantity, but they regarded it as new, and gave it the name of _Catt. Warocqueana_; in which error they persisted until Messrs. Sander flooded the market. AN ORCHID FARM. My articles brought upon me a flood of questions almost as embarrassing as flattering to a busy journalist. The burden of them was curiously like. Three ladies or gentlemen in four wrote thus: "I love orchids. I had not the least suspicion that they may be cultivated so easily and so cheaply. I am going to begin. Will you please inform me"--here diversity set in with a vengeance! From temperature to flower-pots, from the selection of species to the selection of peat, from the architecture of a greenhouse to the capabilities of window-gardening, with excursions between, my advice was solicited. I replied as best I could. It must be feared, however, that the most careful questioning and the most elaborate replies by post will not furnish that ground-work of knowledge, the ABC of the science, which is needed by a person utterly unskilled; nor will he find it readily in the hand-books. Written by men familiar with the alphabet of orchidology from their youth up, though they seem to begin at the beginning, ignorant enthusiasts who study them find woeful gaps. It is little I can do in this matter; yet, believing that the culture of these plants will be as general shortly as the culture of pelargoniums under glass--and firmly convinced that he who hastens that day is a real benefactor to his kind--I am most anxious to do what lies in my power. Considering the means by which this end may be won, it appears necessary above all to avoid boring the student. He should be led to feel how charming is the business in hand even while engaged with prosaic details; and it seems to me, after some thought, that the sketch of a grand orchid nursery will best serve our purpose for the moment. There I can show at once processes and results, passing at a step as it were from the granary into the harvest-field, from the workshop to the finished and glorious production. "An orchid farm" is no extravagant description of the establishment at St. Albans. There alone in Europe, so far as I know, three acres of ground are occupied by orchids exclusively. It is possible that larger houses might be found--everything is possible; but such are devoted more or less to a variety of plants, and the departments are not all gathered beneath one roof. I confess, for my own part, a hatred of references. They interrupt the writer, and they distract the reader. At the place I have chosen to illustrate our theme, one has but to cross a corridor from any of the working quarters to reach the showroom. We may start upon our critical survey from the very dwelling-house. Pundits of agricultural science explore the sheds, I believe, the barns, stables, machine-rooms, and so forth, before inspecting the crops. We may follow the same course, but our road offers an unusual distraction. It passes from the farmer's hall beneath a high glazed arch. Some thirty feet beyond, the path is stopped by a wall of tufa and stalactite which rises to the lofty roof, and compels the traveller to turn right or left. Water pours down it and falls trickling into a narrow pool beneath. Its rough front is studded with orchids from crest to base. Coelogenes have lost those pendant wreaths of bloom which lately tipped the rock as with snow. But there are Cymbidiums arching long sprays of green and chocolate; thickets of Dendrobe set with flowers beyond counting--ivory and rose and purple and orange; scarlet Anthuriums: huge clumps of Phajus and evergreen Calanthe, with a score of spikes rising from their broad leaves; Cypripediums of quaint form and striking half-tones of colour; Oncidiums which droop their slender garlands a yard long, golden yellow and spotted, purple and white--a hundred tints. The crown of the rock bristles all along with Cattleyas, a dark-green glossy little wood against the sky. The _Trianæs_ are almost over, but here and there a belated beauty pushes through, white or rosy, with a lip of crimson velvet. _Mossiæs_ have replaced them generally, and from beds three feet in diameter their great blooms start by the score, in every shade of pink and crimson and rosy purple. There is _Loelia elegans_, exterminated in its native home, of such bulk and such luxuriance of growth that the islanders left forlorn might almost find consolation in regarding it here. Over all, climbing up the spandrils of the roof in full blaze of sunshine, is _Vanda teres_, round as a pencil both leaves and stalk, which will drape those bare iron rods presently with crimson and pink and gold.[8] The way to our farmyard is not like others. It traverses a corner of fairyland. We find a door masked by such a rock as that faintly and vaguely pictured, which opens on a broad corridor. Through all its length, four hundred feet, it is ceilinged with baskets of Mexican orchid, as close as they will fit. Upon the left hand lie a series of glass structures; upon the right, below the level of the corridor, the workshops; at the end--why, to be frank, the end is blocked by a ponderous screen of matting just now. But this dingy barrier is significant of a work in hand which will not be the least curious nor the least charming of the strange sights here. The farmer has already a "siding" of course, for the removal of his produce; he finds it necessary to have a station of his own also for the convenience of clients. Beyond the screen at present lies an area of mud and ruin, traversed by broken walls and rows of hot-water piping swathed in felt to exclude the chill air. A few weeks since, this little wilderness was covered with glass, but the ends of the long "houses" have been cut off to make room for a structure into which visitors will step direct from the train. The platform is already finished, neat and trim; so are the vast boilers and furnaces, newly rebuilt, which would drive a cotton factory. A busy scene that is which we survey, looking down through openings in the wall of the corridor. Here is the composing-room, where that magnificent record of orchidology in three languages, the "Reichenbachia," slowly advances from year to year. There is the printing-room, with no steam presses or labour-saving machinery, but the most skilful craftsmen to be found, the finest paper, the most deliberate and costly processes, to rival the great works of the past in illustrating modern science. These departments, however, we need not visit, nor the chambers, lower still, where mechanical offices are performed. The "Importing Room" first demands notice. Here cases are received by fifties and hundreds, week by week, from every quarter of the orchid world, unpacked, and their contents stored until space is made for them up above. It is a long apartment, broad and low, with tables against the wall and down the middle, heaped with things which to the uninitiated seem, for the most part, dry sticks and dead bulbs. Orchids everywhere! They hang in dense bunches from the roof. They lie a foot thick upon every board, and two feet thick below. They are suspended on the walls. Men pass incessantly along the gangways, carrying a load that would fill a barrow. And all the while fresh stores are accumulating under the hands of that little group in the middle, bent and busy at cases just arrived. They belong to a lot of eighty that came in from Burmah last night--and while we look on, a boy brings a telegram announcing fifty more from Mexico, that will reach Waterloo at 2.30 p.m. Great is the wrath and great the anxiety at this news, for some one has blundered; the warning should have been despatched three hours before. Orchids must not arrive at unknown stations unless there be somebody of discretion and experience to meet them, and the next train does not leave St. Albans until 2.44 p.m. Dreadful is the sense of responsibility, alarming the suggestions of disaster, that arise from this incident. The Burmese cases in hand just now are filled with Dendrobiums, _crassinode_ and _Wardianum_, stowed in layers as close as possible, with _D. Falconerii_ for packing material. A royal way of doing things indeed to substitute an orchid of value for shavings or moss, but mighty convenient and profitable. For that packing will be sent to the auction-rooms presently, and will be sold for no small proportion of the sum which its more delicate charge attains. We remark that the experienced persons who remove these precious sticks, layer by layer, perform their office gingerly. There is not much danger or unpleasantness in unpacking Dendrobes, compared with other genera, but ship-rats spring out occasionally and give an ugly bite; scorpions and centipedes have been known to harbour in the close roots of _D. Falconerii_; stinging ants are by no means improbable, nor huge spiders; while cockroaches of giant size, which should be killed, may be looked for with certainty. But men learn a habit of caution by experience of cargoes much more perilous. In those masses of _Arundina bambusæfolia_ beneath the table yonder doubtless there are centipedes lurking, perhaps even scorpions, which have escaped the first inspection. Happily, these pests are dull, half-stupefied with the cold, when discovered, and no man here has been stung, circumspect as they are; but ants arrive as alert and as vicious as in their native realm. Distinctly they are no joke. To handle a consignment of _Epidendrum bicornutum_ demands some nerve. A very ugly species loves its hollow bulbs, which, when disturbed, shoots out with lightning swiftness and nips the arm or hand so quickly that it can seldom be avoided. But the most awkward cases to deal with are those which contain _Schomburghkia tibicinis_. This superb orchid is so difficult to bloom that very few will attempt it; I have seen its flower but twice. Packers strongly approve the reluctance of the public to buy, since it restricts importation. The foreman has been laid up again and again. But they find pleasing curiosities also, tropic beetles, and insects, and cocoons. Dendrobiums in especial are favoured by moths; _D. Wardianum_ is loaded with their webs, empty as a rule. Hitherto the men have preserved no chrysalids, but at this moment they have a few, of unknown species. The farmer gets strange bits of advice sometimes, and strange offers of assistance. Talking of insects reminds him of a letter received last week. Here it is:-- SIRS,--I have heard that you are large growers of orchids; am I right in supposing that in their growth or production you are much troubled with some insect or caterpillar which retards or hinders their arrival at maturity, and that these insects or caterpillars can be destroyed by small snakes? I have tracts of land under my occupation, and if these small snakes can be of use in your culture of orchids you might write, as I could get you some on knowing what these might be worth to you. Yours truly ---- Thence we mount to the potting-rooms, where a dozen skilled workmen try to keep pace with the growth of the imported plants; taking up, day by day, those which thrust out roots so fast that postponement is injurious. The broad middle tables are heaped with peat and moss and leaf-mould and white sand. At counters on either side unskilled labourers are sifting and mixing, while boys come and go, laden with pots and baskets of teak-wood and crocks and charcoal. These things are piled in heaps against the walls; they are stacked on frames overhead; they fill the semi-subterranean chambers of which we get a glimpse in passing. Our farm resembles a factory in this department. Ascending to the upper earth again, and crossing the corridor, we may visit number one of those glass-houses opposite. I cannot imagine, much more describe, how that spectacle would strike one to whom it was wholly unfamiliar. These buildings--there are twelve of them, side by side--measure one hundred and eighty feet in length, and the narrowest has thirty-two feet breadth. This which we enter is devoted to _Odontoglossum crispum_, with a few _Masdevallias_. There were twenty-two thousand pots in it the other day; several thousand have been sold, several thousand have been brought in, and the number at this moment cannot be computed. Our farmer has no time for speculative arithmetic; he deals in produce wholesale. Telegraph an order for a thousand _crispums_ and you cause no stir in the establishment. You take it for granted that a large dealer only could propose such a transaction. But it does not follow at all. Nobody would credit, unless he had talked with one of the great farmers, on what enormous scale orchids are cultivated up and down by private persons. Our friend has a client who keeps his stock of _O. crispum_ alone at ten thousand; but others, less methodical, may have more. Opposite the door is a high staging, mounted by steps, with a gangway down the middle and shelves descending on either hand. Those shelves are crowded with fine plants of the glorious _O. crispum_, each bearing one or two spikes of flower, which trail down, interlace, arch upward. Not all are in bloom; that amazing sight may be witnessed for a month to come--for two months, with such small traces of decay as the casual visitor would not notice. So long and dense are the wreaths, so broad the flowers, that the structure seems to be festooned from top to bottom with snowy garlands. But there is more. Overhead hang rows of baskets, lessening in perspective, with pendent sprays of bloom. And broad tables which edge the walls beneath that staging display some thousands still, smaller but not less beautiful. A sight which words could not portray. I yield in despair. The tillage of the farm is our business, and there are many points here which the amateur should note. Observe the bricks beneath your feet. They have a hollow pattern which retains the water, though your boots keep dry. Each side of the pathway lie shallow troughs, always full. Beneath that staging mentioned is a bed of leaves, interrupted by a tank here, by a group of ferns there, vividly green. Slender iron pipes run through the house from end to end, so perforated that on turning a tap they soak these beds, fill the little troughs and hollow bricks, play in all directions down below, but never touch a plant. Under such constant drenching the leaf-beds decay, throwing up those gases and vapours in which the orchid delights at home. Thus the amateur should arrange his greenhouse, so far as he may. But I would not have it understood that these elaborate contrivances are essential. If you would beat Nature, as here, making invariably such bulbs and flowers as she produces only under rare conditions, you must follow this system. But orchids are not exacting. The house opens, at its further end, in a magnificent structure designed especially to exhibit plants of warm species in bloom. It is three hundred feet long, twenty-six wide, eighteen high--the piping laid end to end, would measure as nearly as possible one mile: we see a practical illustration of the resources of the establishment, when it is expected to furnish such a show. Here are stored the huge specimens of _Cymbidium Lowianum_, nine of which astounded the good people of Berlin with a display of one hundred and fifty flower spikes, all open at once. We observe at least a score as well furnished, and hundreds which a royal gardener would survey with pride. They rise one above another in a great bank, crowned and brightened by garlands of pale green and chocolate. Other Cymbidiums are here, but not the beautiful _C. eburneum_. Its large white flowers, erect on a short spike, not drooping like these, will be found in a cool house--smelt with delight before they are found. Further on we have a bank of Dendrobiums, so densely clothed in bloom that the leaves are unnoticed. Lovely beyond all to my taste, if, indeed, one may make a comparison, is _D. luteolum_, with flowers of palest, tenderest primrose, rarely seen unhappily, for it will not reconcile itself to our treatment. Then again a bank of Cattleyas, of Vandas, of miscellaneous genera. The pathway is hedged on one side with _Begonia coralina_, an unimproved species too straggling of growth and too small of flower to be worth its room under ordinary conditions; but a glorious thing here, climbing to the roof, festooned at every season of the year with countless rosy sprays. Beyond this show-house lie the small structures devoted to "hybridization," but I deal with them in another chapter. Here also are the Phaloenopsis, the very hot Vandas, Bolleas, Pescatoreas, Anæctochili, and such dainty but capricious beauties. We enter the second of the range of greenhouses, also devoted to Odontoglossums, Masdevallias, and "cool" genera, as crowded as the last; pass down it to the corridor, and return through number three, which is occupied by Cattleyas and such. There is a lofty mass of rock in front, with a pool below, and a pleasant sound of splashing water. Many orchids of the largest size are planted out here--Cypripedium, Cattleya, Sobralia, Phajus, Loelia, Zygopetalum, and a hundred more, "specimens," as the phrase runs--that is to say, they have ten, twenty, fifty, flower spikes. I attempt no more descriptions; to one who knows, the plain statement of fact is enough, one who does not is unable to conceive that sight by the aid of words. But the Sobralias demand attention. They stand here in clumps two feet thick, bearing a wilderness of loveliest bloom--like Irises magnified and glorified by heavenly enchantment. Nature designed a practical joke perhaps when she granted these noble flowers but one day's existence each, while dingy Epidendrums last six months, or nine. I imagine that for stateliness and delicacy combined there are no plants that excel the Sobralia. At any single point they may be surpassed--among orchids, be it understood, by nothing else in Nature's realm--but their magnificence and grace together cannot be outshone. I must not dwell upon the marvels here, in front, on either side, and above--a hint is enough. There are baskets of _Loelia anceps_ three feet across, lifted bodily from the tree in their native forest where they had grown perhaps for centuries. One of them--the white variety, too, which æsthetic infidels might adore, though they believed in nothing--opened a hundred spikes at Christmas time; we do not concern ourselves with minute reckonings here. But an enthusiastic novice counted the flowers blooming one day on that huge mass of _Loelia albida_ yonder, and they numbered two hundred and eleven--unless, as some say, this was the quantity of "spikes," in which case one must have to multiply by two or three. Such incidents maybe taken for granted at the farm. [Illustration: LOELIANCEPS SCHROEDERIANA. Reduced to One Sixth] But we must not pass a new orchid, quite distinct and supremely beautiful, for which Professor Reichenbach has not yet found a name sufficiently appreciative. Only eight pieces were discovered, whence we must suspect that it is very rare at home; I do not know where the home is, and I should not tell if I did. Such information is more valuable than the surest tip for the Derby, or most secrets of State. This new orchid is a Cyrrhopetalun, of very small size, but, like so many others, its flower is bigger than itself. The spike inclines almost at a right angle, and the pendent half is hung with golden bells, nearly two inches in length. Beneath it stands the very rare scarlet Utricularia, growing in the axils of its native Vriesia, as in a cup always full; but as yet the flower has been seen in Europe only by the eyes of faith. It may be news to some that Utricularias do not belong to the orchid family--have, in fact, not the slightest kinship, though associated with it by growers to the degree that Mr. Sander admits them to his farm. A little story hangs to the exquisite _U. Campbelli_. All importers are haunted by the spectral image of _Cattleya labiata_, which, in its true form, had been brought to Europe only once, seventy years ago, when this book was written. Some time since, Mr. Sander was looking through the drawings of Sir Robert Schomburgk, in the British Museum, among which is a most eccentric Cattleya named--for reasons beyond comprehension--a variety of _C. Mossiæ_. He jumped at the conclusion that this must be the long-lost _C. labiata_. So strong indeed was his confidence that he despatched a man post-haste over the Atlantic to explore the Roraima mountain; and, further, gave him strict injunctions to collect nothing but this precious species. For eight months the traveller wandered up and down among the Indians, searching forest and glade, the wooded banks of streams, the rocks and clefts, but he found neither _C. labiata_ nor that curious plant which Sir Robert Schomburgk described. Upon the other hand, he came across the lovely _Utricularia Campbelli_, and in defiance of instructions brought it down. But very few reached England alive. For six weeks they travelled on men's backs, from their mountain home to the River Essequibo; thence, six weeks in canoe to Georgetown, with twenty portages; and, so aboard ship. The single chance of success lies in bringing them down, undisturbed, in the great clumps of moss which are their habitat, as is the Vriesia of other species. I will allow myself a very short digression here. It may seem unaccountable that a plant of large growth, distinct flower, and characteristic appearance, should elude the eye of persons trained to such pursuits, and encouraged to spend money on the slightest prospect of success, for half a century and more. But if we recall the circumstances it ceases to astonish. I myself spent many months in the forests of Borneo, Central America, and the West African coast. After that experience I scarcely understand how such a quest, for a given object, can ever be successful unless by mere fortune. To look for a needle in a bottle of hay is a promising enterprise compared with the search for an orchid clinging to some branch high up in that green world of leaves. As a matter of fact, collectors seldom discover what they are specially charged to seek, if the district be untravelled--the natives, therefore, untrained to grasp and assist their purpose. This remark does not apply to orchids alone; not by any means. Few besides the scientific, probably, are aware that the common _Eucharis amasonica_ has been found only once; that is to say, but one consignment has ever been received in Europe, from which all our millions in cultivation have descended. Where it exists in the native state is unknown, but assuredly this ignorance is nobody's fault. For a generation at least skilled explorers have been hunting. Mr. Sander has had his turn, and has enjoyed the satisfaction of discovering species closely allied, as _Eucharis Mastersii_ and _Eucharis Sanderiana_; but the old-fashioned bulb is still to seek. In this third greenhouse is a large importation of _Cattleya Trianæ_, which arrived so late last year that their sheaths have opened contemporaneously with _C. Mossiæ_. I should fear to hazard a guess how many thousand flowers of each are blooming now. As the Odontoglossums cover their stage with snow wreaths, so this is decked with upright plumes of _Cattleya Trianæ_, white and rose and purple in endless variety of tint, with many a streak of other hue between. Suddenly our guide becomes excited, staring at a basket overhead beyond reach. It contains a smooth-looking object, very green and fat, which must surely be good to eat--but this observation is alike irrelevant and disrespectful. Why, yes! Beyond all possibility of doubt that is a spike issuing from the axil of its fleshy leaf! Three inches long it is already, thick as a pencil, with a big knob of bud at the tip. Such pleasing surprises befall the orchidacean! This plant came from Borneo so many years ago that the record is lost; but the oldest servant of the farm remembers it, as a poor cripple, hanging between life and death, season after season. Cheerful as interesting is the discussion that arises. More like a Vanda than anything else, the authorities resolve, but not a Vanda! Commending it to the special care of those responsible, we pass on. Here is the largest mass of Catasetum ever found, or even rumoured, lying in ponderous bulk upon the stage, much as it lay in a Guatemalan forest. It is engaged in the process of "plumping up." Orchids shrivel in their long journey, and it is the importer's first care to renew that smooth and wholesome rotundity which indicates a conscience untroubled, a good digestion, and an assurance of capacity to fulfil any reasonable demand. Beneath the staging you may see myriads of withered sticks, clumps of shrunken and furrowed bulbs by the thousand, hung above those leaf-beds mentioned; they are "plumping" in the damp shade. The larger pile of Catasetum--there are two--may be four feet long, three wide, and eighteen inches thick; how many hundreds of flowers it will bear passes computation. I remarked that when broken up into handsome pots it would fill a greenhouse of respectable dimensions; but it appears that there is not the least intention of dividing it. The farmer has several clients who will snap at this natural curiosity, when, in due time, it is put on the market. At the far end of the house stands another piece of rockwork, another little cascade, and more marvels than I can touch upon. In fact, there are several which would demand all the space at my disposition, but, happily, one reigns supreme. This is a _Cattleya Mossiæ_, the pendant of the Catasetum, by very far the largest orchid of any kind that was ever brought to Europe. For some years Mr. Sander, so to speak, hovered round it, employing his shrewdest and most diplomatic agents. For this was not a forest specimen. It grew upon a high tree beside an Indian's hut, near Caraccas, and belonged to him as absolutely as the fruit in his compound. His great-grandfather, indeed, had "planted" it, so he declared, but this is highly improbable. The giant has embraced two stems of the tree, and covers them both so thickly that the bare ends of wood at top alone betray its secret; for it was sawn off, of course, above and below. I took the dimensions as accurately as may be, with an object so irregular and prickly. It measures--the solid bulk of it, leaves not counted--as nearly as possible five feet in height and four thick--one plant, observe, pulsating through its thousand limbs from one heart; at least, I mark no spot where the circulation has been checked by accident or disease, and the pseudo-bulbs beyond have been obliged to start an independent existence. In speaking of _Loelia elegans_, I said that those Brazilian islanders who have lost it might find solace could they see its happiness in exile. The gentle reader thought this an extravagant figure of speech, no doubt, but it is not wholly fanciful. Indians of Tropical America cherish a fine orchid to the degree that in many cases no sum, and no offer of valuables, will tempt them to part with it. Ownership is distinctly recognized when the specimen grows near a village. The root of this feeling, whether superstition or taste, sense of beauty, rivalry in magnificence of church displays, I have not been able to trace. It runs very strong in Costa Rica, where the influence of the aborigines is scarcely perceptible, and there, at least, the latter motive is sufficient explanation. Glorious beyond all our fancy can conceive, must be the show in those lonely forest churches, which no European visits save the "collector," on a feast day. Mr. Roezl, whose name is so familiar to botanists, left a description of the scene that time he first beheld the Flor de Majo. The church was hung with garlands of it, he says, and such emotions seized him at the view that he choked. The statement is quite credible. Those who see that wonder now, prepared for its transcendent glory, find no words to express their feeling: imagine an enthusiast beholding it for the first time, unwarned, unsuspecting that earth can show such a sample of the flowers that bloomed in Eden! And not a single branch, but garlands of it! Mr. Roezl proceeds to speak of bouquets of _Masdevallia Harryana_ three feet across, and so forth. The natives showed him "gardens" devoted to this species, for the ornament of their church; it was not cultivated, of course, but evidently planted. They were acres in extent. The Indian to whom this _Cattleya Mossiæ_ belonged refused to part with it at any price for years; he was overcome by a rifle of peculiar fascination, added to the previous offers. A magic-lantern has very great influence in such cases, and the collector provides himself with one or more nowadays as part of his outfit. Under that charm, with 47l. in cash, Mr. Sander secured his first _C. Mossiæ alba_, but it has failed hitherto in another instance, though backed by 100l., in "trade" or dollars, at the Indian's option. Thence we pass to a wide and lofty house which was designed for growing _Victoria Regia_ and other tropic water-lilies. It fulfilled its purpose for a time, and I never beheld those plants under circumstances so well fitted to display their beauty. But they generate a small black fly in myriads beyond belief, and so the culture of _Nymphæa_ was dropped. A few remain, in manageable quantities, just enough to adorn the tank with blue and rosy stars; but it is arched over now with baskets as thick as they will hang--Dendrobium, Coelogene, Oncidium, Spathoglottis, and those species which love to dwell in the neighbourhood of steaming water. My vocabulary is used up by this time. The wonders here must go unchronicled. We have viewed but four houses out of twelve, a most cursory glance at that! The next also is intermediate, filled with Cattleyas, warm Oncidiums, Lycastes, Cypripediums--the inventory of names alone would occupy all my space remaining. At every step I mark some object worth a note, something that recalls, or suggests, or demands a word. But we must get along. The sixth house is cool again--Odontoglossums and such; the seventh is given to Dendrobes. But facing us as we enter stands a _Lycaste Skinneri_, which illustrates in a manner almost startling the infinite variety of the orchid. I positively dislike this species, obtrusive, pretentious, vague in colour, and stiff in form. But what a royal glorification of it we have here!--what exquisite veining and edging of purple or rose; what a velvet lip of crimson darkening to claret! It is merely a sport of Nature, but she allows herself such glorious freaks in no other realm of her domain. And here is a new Brassia just named by the pontiff of orchidology, Professor Reichenbach. Those who know the tribe of Brassias will understand why I make no effort to describe it. This wonderful thing is yet more "all over the shop" than its kindred. Its dorsal sepal measures three inches in length, its "tail," five inches, with an enormous lip between. They term it the Squid Flower, or Octopus, in Mexico; and a good name too. But in place of the rather weakly colouring habitual it has a grand decision of character, though the tones are like--pale yellow and greenish; its raised spots, red and deep green, are distinct as points of velvet upon muslin. In the eighth house we return to Odontoglossums and cool genera. Here are a number of Hybrids of the "natural class," upon which I should have a good deal to say if inexorable fate permitted; "natural hybrids" are plants which seem species, but, upon thoughtful examination and study, are suspected to be the offspring of kindred and neighbours. Interesting questions arise in surveying fine specimens side by side, in flower, all attributed to a cross between _Odontoglossum Lindleyanum_ and _Odontoglossum crispum Alexandræ_, and all quite different. But we must get on to the ninth house, from which the tenth branches. Here is the stove, and twilight reigns over that portion where a variety of super-tropic genera are "plumping up," making roots, and generally reconciling themselves to a new start in life. Such dainty, delicate souls may well object to the apprenticeship. It must seem very degrading to find themselves laid out upon a bed of cinders and moss, hung up by the heels above it, and even planted therein; but if they have as much good sense as some believe, they may be aware that it is all for their good. At the end, in full sunshine, stands a little copse of _Vanda teres_, set as closely as their stiff branches will allow. Still we must get on. There are bits of wood hanging here so rotten that they scarcely hold together; faintest dots of green upon them assure the experienced that presently they will be draped with pendant leaves, and presently again, we hope, with blue and white and scarlet flowers of Utricularia. From the stove opens a very long, narrow house, where cool genera are "plumping," laid out on moss and potsherds; many of them have burst into strong growth. Pleiones are flowering freely as they lie. This farmer's crops come to harvest faster than he can attend to them. Things beautiful and rare and costly are measured here by the yard--so many feet of this piled up on the stage, so many of the other, from all quarters of the world, waiting the leisure of these busy agriculturists. Nor can we spare them more than a glance. The next house is filled with Odontoglossums, planted out like "bedding stuff" in a nursery, awaiting their turn to be potted. They make a carpet so close, so green, that flowers are not required to charm the eye as it surveys the long perspective. The rest are occupied just now with cargoes of imported plants. My pages are filled--to what poor purpose, seeing how they might have been used for such a theme, no one could be so conscious as I. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 8: I was too sanguine. _Vanda teres_ refused to thrive.] ORCHIDS AND HYBRIDIZING. In the very first place, I declare that this is no scientific chapter. It is addressed to the thousands of men and women in the realm who tend a little group of orchids lovingly, and mark the wonders of their structure with as much bewilderment as interest. They read of hybridization, they see the result in costly specimens, they get books, they study papers on the subject. But the deeper their research commonly, the more they become convinced that these mysteries lie beyond their attainment. I am not aware of any treatise which makes a serious effort to teach the uninitiated. Putting technical expressions on one side--though that obstacle is grave enough--every one of those which have come under my notice takes the mechanical preliminaries for granted. All are written by experts for experts. My purpose is contrary. I wish to show how it is done so clearly that a child or the dullest gardener may be able to perform the operations--so very easy when you know how to set to work. [Illustration: CYPRIPEDIUM (HYBRIDUM) POLLETTIANUM. Reduced to One Sixth.] After a single lesson, in the genus _Cypripedium_ alone, a young lady of my household amused herself by concerting the most incredible alliances--_Dendrobium_ with _Odontoglossum_, _Epidendrum_ with _Oncidium_, _Oncidium_ with _Odontoglossum_, and so forth. It is unnecessary to tell the experienced that in every case the seed vessel swelled; that matter will be referred to presently. I mention the incident only to show how simple are these processes if the key be grasped. Amateur hybridizers of an audacious class are wanted because, hitherto, operators have kept so much to the beaten paths. The names of Veitch and Dominy and Seden will endure when those of great _savants_ are forgotten; but business men have been obliged to concentrate their zeal upon experiments that pay. Fantastic crosses mean, in all probability, a waste of time, space, and labour; in fact, it is not until recent years that such attempts could be regarded as serious. So much the more creditable, therefore, are Messrs. Veitch's exertions in that line. But it seems likely to me that when hybridizing becomes a common pursuit with those who grow orchids--and the time approaches fast--a very strange revolution may follow. It will appear, as I think, that the enormous list of pure species--even genera--recognized at this date may be thinned in a surprising fashion. I believe--timidly, as becomes the unscientific--that many distinctions which anatomy recognizes at present as essential to a true species will be proved, in the future, to result from promiscuous hybridization through æons of time. "Proved," perhaps, is the word too strong, since human life is short; but such a mass of evidence will be collected that reasonable men can entertain no doubt. Of course the species will be retained, but we shall know it to be a hybrid--the offspring, perhaps, of hybrids innumerable. I incline more and more to think that even genera may be disturbed in a surprising fashion, and I know that some great authorities agree with me outright, though they are unprepared to commit themselves at present. A very few years ago this suggestion would have been absurd, in the sense that it wanted facts in support. As our ancestors made it an article of faith that to fertilize an orchid was impossible for man, so we imagined until lately that genera would not mingle. But this belief grows unsteady. Though bi-generic crosses have not been much favoured, as offering little prospect of success, such results have been obtained already that the field of speculation lies open to irresponsible persons like myself. When Cattleya has been allied with Sophronitis, Sophronitis with Epidendrum, Odontoglossum with Zygopetalum, Coelogene with Calanthe, one may credit almost anything. What should be stated on the other side will appear presently. How many hybrids have we now, established, and passing from hand to hand as freely as natural species? There is no convenient record; but in the trade list of a French dealer those he is prepared to supply are set apart with Gallic precision. They number 416; but imagination and commercial enterprise are not less characteristic of the Gaul than precision. In the excellent "Manual" of Messrs. Veitch, which has supplied me with a mass of details, I find ten hybrid Calanthes; thirteen hybrid Cattleyas, and fifteen Loelias, besides sixteen "natural hybrids"--species thus classed upon internal evidence--and the wondrous Sophro-Cattleya, bi-generic; fourteen Dendrobiums and one natural; eighty-seven Cypripediums--but as for the number in existence, it is so great, and it increases so fast, that Messrs. Veitch have lost count; Phajus one, but several from alliance with Calanthe; Chysis two; Epidendrum one; Miltonia one, and two natural; Masdevallia ten, and two natural; and so on. And it must be borne in mind that these amazing results have been effected in one generation. Dean Herbert's achievements eighty years ago were not chronicled, and it is certain that none of the results survive. Mr. Sander of St. Albans preserves an interesting relic, the only one as yet connected with the science of orchidology. This is _Cattleya hybrida_, the first of that genus raised by Dominy, manager to Messrs. Veitch, at the suggestion of Mr. Harris of Exeter, to the stupefaction of our grandfathers. Mr. Harris will ever be remembered as the gentleman who showed Mr. Veitch's agent how orchids are fertilized, and started him on his career. This plant was lost for years, but Mr. Sander found it by chance in the collection of Dr. Janisch at Hamburg, and he keeps it as a curiosity, for in itself the object has no value. But this is a digression. Dominy's earliest success, actually the very first of garden hybrids to flower--in 1856--was _Calanthe Dominii_, offspring of _C. Masuca_ × _C. furcata_;--be it here remarked that the name of the mother, or seed parent, always stands first. Another interest attaches to _C. Dominii_. Both its parents belong to the _Veratræfolia_ section of Calanthe, the terrestrial species, and no other hybrid has yet been raised among them. We have here one of the numberless mysteries disclosed by hybridization. The epiphytal Calanthes, represented by _C. vestita_, will not cross with the terrestrial, represented by _C. veratræfolia_, nor will the mules of either. We may "give this up" and proceed. In 1859 flowered _C. Veitchii_, from _C. rosea_, still called, as a rule, _Limatodes rosea, × C. vestita_. No orchid is so common as this, and none more simply beautiful. But although the success was so striking, and the way to it so easy, twenty years passed before even Messrs. Veitch raised another hybrid Calanthe. In 1878 Seden flowered _C. Sedeni_ from _C. Veitchii × C. vestita_. Others entered the field then, especially Sir Trevor Lawrence, Mr. Cookson, and Mr. Charles Winn. But the genus is small, and they mostly chose the same families, often giving new names to the progeny, in ignorance of each other's labour. The mystery I have alluded to recurs again and again. Large groups of species refuse to inter-marry with their nearest kindred, even plants which seem identical in the botanist's point of view. There is good ground for hoping, however, that longer and broader experience will annihilate some at least of the axioms current in this matter. Thus, it is repeated and published in the very latest editions of standard works that South American Cattleyas, which will breed, not only among themselves, but also with the Brazilian Loelias, decline an alliance with their Mexican kindred. But Baron Schroeder possesses a hybrid of such typical parentage as _Catt. citrina_, Mexican, and _Catt. intermedia_, Brazilian. It was raised by Miss Harris, of Lamberhurst, Kent, one single plant only; and it has flowered several times. Messrs. Sander have crossed _Catt. guttata Leopoldii_, Brazil, with _Catt. Dowiana_, Costa Rica, giving _Catt. Chamberliana_; _Loelia crispa_, Brazil, with the same, giving _Loelio-Cattleya Pallas_; _Catt. citrina_, Mexico, with _Catt. intermedia_, Brazil, giving _Catt. citrina intermedia_ (Lamberhurst hybrid); _Loelia flava_, Brazil, with _Catt. Skinneri_, Costa Rica, giving _Loelio-Catt. Marriottiana_; _Loelia pumila_, Brazil, with _Catt. Dowiana_, Costa Rica, giving _Loelio-Catt. Normanii_; _Loelia Digbyana_, Central America, with _Catt. Mossiæ_, Venezuela, giving _Loelio-Catt. Digbyana-Mossiæ_; _Catt. Mossiæ_, Venezuela, with _Loelia cinnabarina_, Brazil, giving _Loelio-Catt. Phoebe_. Not yet flowered and unnamed, raised in the Nursery, are _Catt. citrina_, Mexico, with _Loelia purpurata_, Brazil; _Catt. Harrisoniæ_, Brazil, with _Catt. citrina_, Mexico; _Loelia anceps_, Mexico, with _Epidendrum ciliare_, U.S. Colombia. In other genera there are several hybrids of Mexican and South American parentage; as _L. anceps_ × _Epid. ciliare_, _Sophronitis grandiflora_ × _Epid. radicans_, _Epid. xanthinum_ × _Epid. radicans_. But among Cypripediums, the easiest and safest of all orchids to hybridize, East Indian and American species are unfruitful. Messrs. Veitch obtained such a cross, as they had every reason to believe, in one instance. For sixteen years the plants grew and grew until it was thought they would prove the rule by declining to flower. I wrote to Messrs. Veitch to obtain the latest news. They inform me that one has bloomed at last. It shows no trace of the American strain, and they have satisfied themselves that there was an error in the operation or the record. Again, the capsules secured from very many by-generic crosses have proved, time after time, to contain not a single seed. In other cases the seed was excellent to all appearance, but it has resolutely refused to germinate. And further, certain by-generic seedlings have utterly ignored one parent. _Zygopetalum Mackayi_ has been crossed by Mr. Veitch, Mr. Cookson, and others doubtless, with various Odontoglossums, but the flower has always turned out _Zygopetalum Mackayi_ pure and simple--which becomes the more unaccountable more one thinks of it. Hybrids partake of the nature of both parents, but they incline generally, as in the extreme cases mentioned, to resemble one much more strongly than the other. When a Cattleya or Loelia of the single-leaf section is crossed with one of the two-leaf, some of the offspring, from the same capsule, show two leaves, others one only; and some show one and two alternately, obeying no rule perceptible to us at present. So it is with the charming _Loelia Maynardii_ from _L. Dayana_ × _Cattleya dolosa_, just raised by Mr. Sander and named after the Superintendent of his hybridizing operations. _Catt. dolosa_ has two leaves, _L. Dayana_ one; the product has two and one alternately. Sepals and petals are alike in colour, rosy crimson, veined with a deeper hue; lip brightest crimson-lake, long, broad and flat, curving in handsomely above the column, which is closely depressed after the manner of _Catt. dolosa_. The first bi-generic cross deserves a paragraph to itself if only on that account; but its own merits are more than sufficient. _Sophro-Cattleya Batemaniana_ was raised by Messrs. Veitch from _Sophronitis grandiflora_ × _Catt. intermedia_. It flowered in August, 1886; petals and sepals rosy scarlet, lip pale lilac bordered with amethyst and tipped with rosy purple. But one natural hybrid has been identified among Dendrobes--the progeny doubtless of _D. crassinode_ × _D. Wardianum_. Messrs. J. Laing have a fine specimen of this; it shows the growth of the latter species with the bloom of the former, but enlarged and improved. Several other hybrid crosses are suspected. Of artificial we have not less than fifty. Phaius--it is often spelt Phajus--is so closely allied with Calanthe that for hybridizing purposes at least there is no distinction. Dominy raised _Ph. irroratus_ from _Ph. grandifolius_ × _Cal. vestita_; Seden made the same cross, but, using the variety _Cal. v. rubro-occulata_, he obtained _Ph. purpureus_. The success is more interesting because one parent is evergreen, the other, Calanthe, deciduous. On this account probably very few seedlings survive; they show the former habit. Mr. Cookson alone has yet raised a cross between two species of Phajus--_Ph. Cooksoni_ from _Ph. Wallichii_ × _Ph. tuberculosus_. One may say that this is the best hybrid yet raised, saving _Calanthe Veitchii_, if all merits be considered--stateliness of aspect, freedom in flowering, striking colour, ease of cultivation. One bulb will throw up four spikes--twenty-eight have been counted in a twelve-inch pot--each bearing perhaps thirty flowers. Seden has made two crosses of Chysis, both from the exquisite _Ch. bractescens_, one of the loveliest flowers that heaven has granted to this world, but sadly fleeting. Nobody, I believe, has yet been so fortunate as to obtain seed from _Ch. aurea_. This species has the rare privilege of self-fertilization--we may well exclaim, Why! why?--and it eagerly avails itself thereof so soon as the flower begins to open. Thus, however watchful the hybridizer may be, hitherto he has found the pollen masses melted in hopeless confusion before he can secure them. One hybrid Epidendrum has been obtained--_Epi. O'Brienianum_ from _Epi. evectum × Epi. radicans_; the former purple, the latter scarlet, produce ×a bright crimson progeny. Miltonias show two natural hybrids, and one artificial--_Mil. Bleuiana_ from _Mil. vexillaria × Mil. Roezlii_; both of these are commonly classed as Odontoglots, and I refer to them elsewhere under that title. M. Bleu and Messrs. Veitch made this cross about the same time, but the seedlings of the former flowered in 1889, of the latter, in 1891. Here we see an illustration of the advantage which French horticulturists enjoy, even so far north as Paris; a clear sky and abundant sunshine made a difference of more than twelve months. When Italians begin hybridizing, we shall see marvels--and Greeks and Egyptians! Masdevallias are so attractive to insects, by striking colour, as a rule, and sometimes by strong smell--so very easily fertilized also--that we should expect many natural hybrids in the genus. They are not forthcoming, however. Reichenbach displayed his scientific instinct by suggesting that two species submitted to him might probably be the issue of parents named; since that date Seden has produced both of them from the crosses which Reichenbach indicated. We have three natural hybrids among Phaloenopsis. _Ph. intermedia_ made its appearance in a lot of _Ph. Aphrodite_, imported 1852. M. Porte, a French trader, brought home two in 1861; they were somewhat different, and he gave them his name. Messrs. Low imported several in 1874, one of which, being different again, was called after Mr. Brymer. Three have been found since, always among _Ph. Aphrodite_; the finest known is possessed by Lord Rothschild. That these were natural hybrids could not be doubted; Seden crossed _Ph. Aphrodite_ with _Ph. rosea_, and proved it. Our garden hybrids are two: _Ph. F.L. Ames_, obtained from _Ph. amabilis × Ph. intermedia_, and _Ph. Harriettæ_ from _Ph. amabilis × Ph. violacea_, named after the daughter of Hon. Erastus Corning, of Albany, U.S.A. Oncidiums yield only two natural hybrids at present, and those uncertain; others are suspected. We have no garden hybrids, I believe, as yet. So it is with Odontoglossums, as has been said, but in the natural state they cross so freely that a large proportion of the species may probably be hybrids. I allude to this hereafter. I have left Cypripediums to the last, in these hasty notes, because that supremely interesting genus demands more than a record of dry facts. Darwin pointed out that Cypripedium represents the primitive form of orchid. He was acquainted with no links connecting it with the later and more complicated genera; some have been discovered since that day, but it is nevertheless true that "an enormous extinction must have swept away a multitude of intermediate forms, and left this single genus as the record of a former and more simple state of the great orchidacean order." The geographical distribution shows that Cypripedium was more common in early times--to speak vaguely--and covered an area yet more extensive than now. And the process of extermination is still working, as with other primitive types. Messrs. Veitch point out that although few genera of plants are scattered so widely over the earth as Cypripedium, the species have withdrawn to narrow areas, often isolated, and remote from their kindred. Some are rare to the degree that we may congratulate ourselves upon the chance which put a few specimens in safety under glass before it was too late, for they seem to have become extinct even in this generation. Messrs. Veitch give a few striking instances. All the plants of _Cyp. Fairieanum_ known to exist have sprung from three or four casually imported in 1856. Two bits of _Cyp. superbiens_ turned up among a consignment of _Cyp. barbatum_; none have been found since, and it is doubtful whether the species survives in its native home. Only three plants of _Cyp. Marstersianium_ have been discovered. They reached Mr. Bull in a miscellaneous case of Cypripediums forwarded to him by the Director of the Botanic Gardens at Buitzenzorze, in Java; but that gentleman and his successors in office have been unable to find another plant. These three must have reached the Gardens by an accident--as they left it--presented perhaps by some Dutchman who had been travelling. _Cyp. purpuratum_ is almost extinct at Hong Kong, and is vanishing fast on the mainland. It is still found occasionally in the garden of a peasant, who, we are told, resolutely declines to sell his treasure. This may seem incredible to those who know the Chinaman, but Mr. Roebelin vouches for the fact; it is one more eccentricity to the credit of that people, who had quite enough already. Collectors expect to find a new habitat of _Cyp. purpuratum_ in Formosa when they are allowed to explore that realm. Even our native _Cyp. calceolus_ has almost disappeared; we get it now from Central Europe, but in several districts where it abounded the supply grows continually less. The same report comes from North America and Japan. Fortunate it is, but not surprising to the thoughtful observer, that this genus grows and multiplies with singular facility when its simple wants are supplied. There is no danger that a species which has been rescued from extinction will perish under human care. This seems contradictory. How should a plant thrive better under artificial conditions than in the spot where Nature placed it? The reason lies in that archaic character of the Cypriped which Darwin pointed out. Its time has passed--Nature is improving it off the face of the earth. A gradual change of circumstances makes it more and more difficult for this primitive form of orchid to exist, and, conscious of the fate impending, it gratefully accepts our help. One cause of extermination is easily grasped. Cypripeds have not the power of fertilizing themselves, except a single species, _Cyp. Schlimii_, which--accordingly, as we may say--is most difficult to import and establish; moreover, it flowers so freely that the seedlings are always weak. In all species the sexual apparatus is so constructed that it cannot be impregnated by accident, and few insects can perform the office. Dr. Hermann Muller studied _Cyp. calceolus_ assiduously in this point of view. He observed only five species of insect which fertilize it. _Cyp. calceolus_ has perfume and honey, but none of the tropical species offer those attractions. Their colour is not showy. The labellum proves to be rather a trap than a bait. Large insects which creep into it and duly bear away the pollen masses, are caught and held fast by that sticky substance when they try to escape through the lateral passages, which smaller insects are too weak to force their way through. Natural hybrids occur so rarely, that their existence is commonly denied. The assertion is not quite exact; but when we consider the habits of the genus, it ceases to be extraordinary that Cypripeds rarely cross in their wild state. Different species of Cattleya, Odontoglots, and the rest live together on the same tree, side by side. But those others dwell apart in the great majority of cases, each species by itself, at a vast distance perhaps from its kindred. The reason for this state of things has been mentioned--natural laws have exterminated them in the spaces between, which are not so well fitted to maintain a doomed race. Doubtless Cypripeds rarely fertilize--by comparison, that is, of course--in their native homes. The difficulty that insects find in performing that service has been mentioned. Mr. Godseff points out to me a reason far more curious and striking. When a bee displaces the pollen masses of a Cattleya, for instance, they cling to its head or thorax by means of a sticky substance attached to the pollen cases; so, on entering the next flower, it presents the pollen _outwards_ to the stigmatic surface. But in the case of a Cypriped there is no such substance, the adhesive side of the pollen itself is turned outward, and it clings to any intruding substance. But this is the fertilizing part. Therefore, an insect which by chance displaces the pollen mass carries it off, as one may say, the wrong side up. On entering the next flower, it does not commonly present the surface necessary for impregnation, but a sterile globule which is the backing thereof. We may suppose that in the earlier age, when this genus flourished as the later forms of orchid do now, it enjoyed some means of fertilization which have vanished. Under such disadvantages it is not to be expected that seed capsules would be often found upon imported Cypripeds. Messrs. Veitch state that they rarely observed one among the myriads of plants that have passed through their hands. With some species, however, it is not by any means so uncommon. When Messrs. Thompson, of Clovenfords, bought a quantity of the first _Cyp. Spicerianum_ which came upon the market, they found a number of capsules, and sowed them, obtaining several hundred fine plants. Pods are often imported on _Cyp. insigne_ full of good seed. In the circumstances enumerated we have the explanation of an extraordinary fact. Hybrids or natural species of Cypripediums artificially raised are stronger than their parents, and they produce finer flowers. The reason is that they get abundance of food in captivity, and all things are made comfortable for them; whilst Nature, anxious to be rid of a form of plant no longer approved, starves and neglects them. The same argument enables us to understand why Cypripeds lend themselves so readily to the hybridizer. Darwin taught us to expect that species which can rarely hope to secure a chance of reproduction will learn to make the process as easy and as sure as the conditions would admit--that none of those scarce opportunities may be lost. And so it proves. Orchidaceans are apt to declare that "everybody" is hybridizing Cypripeds nowadays. At least, so many persons have taken up this agreeable and interesting pursuit that science has lost count of the less striking results. Briefly, the first hybrid Cypripedium was raised by Dominy, in 1869, and named after Mr. Harris, who, as has been said, suggested the operation to him. Seden produced the next in 1874--_Cyp. Sedeni_ from _Cyp. Schlimii × Cyp. longiflorum_; curious as the single instance yet noted in which seedlings turn out identical, whichever parent furnish the pollen-masses. In every other case they vary when the functions of the parents are exchanged. For a long time after 1853, when serious work begun, Messrs. Veitch had a monopoly of the business. It is but forty years, therefore, since experiments commenced, in which time hundreds of hybrids have been added to our list of flowers; but--this is my point--Nature has been busy at the same task for unknown ages, and who can measure the fruits of her industry? I do not offer the remark as an argument; our observations are too few as yet. It may well be urged that if Nature had been thus active, the "natural hybrids" which can be recognized would be much more numerous than they are. I have pointed out that many of the largest genera show very few; many none at all. But is it impossible that the explanation appears to fail only because we cannot yet push it far enough? When the hybridizer causes by force a fruitful union betwixt two genera, he seems to triumph over a botanical law. But suppose the genera themselves are artificial, only links in a grand chain which Nature has forged slowly, patiently, with many a break and many a failure, in the course of ages? She would finish her work bit by bit, and at every stage the new variety may have united with others in endless succession. Few natural hybrids can be identified among Cattleyas, for instance. But suppose Cattleyas are all hybrids, the result of promiscuous intercourse among genera during cycles of time--suppose, that is, the genus itself sprang from parents widely diverse, crossing, returning, intercrossing from age to age? It is admitted that Cypripedium represents a primeval form--perhaps _the_ primeval form--of orchid. Suppose that we behold, in this nineteenth century, a mere epoch, or stage, in the ceaseless evolution? Only an irresponsible amateur could dare talk in this way. It would, in truth, be very futile speculation if experiments already successful did not offer a chance of proof one day, and others, hourly ripening, did not summon us to think. I may cite, with the utmost brevity, two or three facts which--to me unscientific--appear inexplicable, unless species of orchid were developed on the spot; or the theory of special local creations be admitted. _Oncidium cucullatum_ flourishes in certain limited areas of Peru, of Ecuador, of Colombia, and of Venezuela. It is not found in the enormous spaces between, nor are any Oncidiums which might be accepted as its immediate parents. Can we suppose that the winds or the birds carried it over mountain ranges and broad rivers more than two thousand miles, in four several directions, to establish it upon a narrow tract? It is a question of faith; but, for my own part, I could as soon believe that æsthetic emigrants took it with them. But even winds and birds could not bear the seed of _Dendrobium heterocarpum_ from Ceylon to Burmah, and from Burmah to Luzon in the Philippines; at least, I am utterly unable to credit it. If the plants were identical, or nearly, in their different habitats, this case would be less significant. But the _D. heterocarpum_ of Ceylon has a long, thin pseudo-bulb, with bright yellow flowers; that of Burmah is short and thick, with paler colouring; that of Luzon is no less than three feet high, exaggerating the stature of its most distant relative while showing the colour of its nearest; but all, absolutely, the same botanic plant. I have already mentioned other cases. Experience hitherto suggests that we cannot raise Odontoglossum seedlings in this climate; very, very few have ever been obtained. Attempts in France have been rather more successful. Baron Adolf de Rothschild has four different hybrids of Odontoglossum in bud at this present moment in his garden at Armainvilliers, near Paris. M. Moreau has a variety of seedlings. Authorities admit now that a very great proportion of our Odontoglossums are natural hybrids; so many can be identified beyond the chance of error that the field for speculation has scarcely bounds. _O. excellens_ is certainly descended from _O. Pescatorei_ and _O. triumphans_, _O. elegans_ from _O. cirrhosum_ and _O. Hallii_, _O. Wattianum_ from _O. Harryanum_ and _O. hystrix_. And it must be observed that we cannot trace pedigree beyond the parents as yet, saving a very, very few cases. But unions have been contracting during cycles of time; doubtless, from the laws of things the orchid is latest born of Nature's children in the world of flora, but mighty venerable by this time, nevertheless. We can identify the mixed offspring of _O. crispum Alexandræ_ paired with _O. gloriosum_, with _O. luteopurpureum_, with _O. Lindleyanum_; these parents dwell side by side, and they could not fail to mingle. We can already trace with assurance a few double crosses, as _O. lanceans_, the result of an alliance between _O. crispum Alexandræ_ and _O. Ruckerianum_, which latter is a hybrid of the former with _O. gloriosum_. When we observe _O. Roezlii_ upon the bank of the River Cauca and _O. vexillarium_ on the higher ground, whilst _O. vexillarium superbum_ lives between, we may confidently attribute its peculiarity of a broad dark blotch upon the lip to the influence of _O. Roezlii_. So, taking station at Manaos upon the Amazons, we find, to eastward, _Cattleya superba_, to westward _C. Eldorado_, and in the midst _C. Brymeriana_, which, it is safe to assume, represents the union of the two; for that matter, the theory will very soon be tested, for M. Alfred Bleu has "made the cross" of _C. superba_ and _C. Eldorado_, and its flower is expected with no little interest. These cases, and many more, are palpable. We see a variety in the making at this date. A thousand years hence, or ten thousand, by more distant alliances, by a change of conditions, the variety may well have developed into a species, or, by marriage excursions yet wider, it may have founded a genus. I have named Mr. Cookson several times; in fact, to discourse of hybridization for amateurs without reference to his astonishing "record" would be grotesque. One Sunday afternoon, ten years ago, he amused himself with investigating the structure of a few Cypripeds, after reading Darwin's book; and he impregnated them. To his astonishment the seed-vessel began to swell, and so did Mr. Cookson's enthusiasm simultaneously. He did not yet know, and, happily, these experiments gave him no reason to suspect, that pseudo-fertilization can be produced, actually, by anything. So intensely susceptible is the stigmatic surface of the Cypriped that a touch excites it furiously. Upon the irritation caused by a bit of leaf, it will go sometimes through all the visible processes of fecundation, the ovary will swell and ripen, and in due time burst, with every appearance of fertility; but, of course, there is no seed. Beginners, therefore, must not be too sanguine when their bold attempts promise well. From that day Mr. Cookson gave his leisure to hybridization, with such results as, in short, are known to everybody who takes an interest in orchids. Failures in abundance he had at first, but the proportion has grown less and less until, at this moment, he confidently looks for success in seventy-five per cent. of his attempts; but this does not apply to bi-generic crosses, which hitherto have not engaged his attention much. Beginning with Cypripedium, he has now ninety-four hybrids--very many plants of each--produced from one hundred and forty capsules sown. Of Calanthe, sixteen hybrids from nineteen capsules; of Dendrobium, thirty-six hybrids from forty-one capsules; of Masdevallia, four hybrids from seventeen capsules; of Odontoglossum, none from nine capsules; of Phajus, two from two capsules; of Vanda, none from one capsule; of bi-generic, one from nine capsules. There may be another indeed, but the issue of an alliance so startling, and produced under circumstances so dubious, that Mr. Cookson will not own it until he sees the flower. It does not fall within the scope of this chapter to analyze the list of this gentleman's triumphs, but even _savants_ will be interested to hear a few of the most remarkable crosses therein, for it is not published. I cite the following haphazard:-- Phajus Wallichii × Phajus tuberculosus. Loelia præstans. × Cattleya Dowiana. " purpurata × Cattleya Dowiana. " " × Loelia grandis tenebrosa. " " × Cattleya Mendellii. " marginata × Loelia elegans Cooksoni. Cattleya Mendellii × " purpurata. " Trianæ × " harpophylla. " Percivalliana × " " Lawrenceana × Cattleya Mossiæ. " gigas × " Gaskelliana. " crispa × " " " Dowiana × " " " Schofieldiana × " gigas imperialis. " Leopoldii × " Dowiana. Cypripedium Stonei × Cypripedium Godefroyæ. " " × " Spicerianum. " Sanderianum × " Veitchii. " Spicerianum × " Sanderianum. " Io × " vexillarium. Dendrobium nobile nobilus × Dendrobium Falconerii. " " × " nobile Cooksonianum. " Wardianum × " aureum. " " × " Linawianum. " luteolum × " nobile nobilius. Masdevallia Tovarensis × Masdevallia bella. " Shuttleworthii × " Tovarensis. " " × " rosea. Of these, and so many more, Mr. Cookson has at this moment fifteen thousand plants. Since my object is to rouse the attention of amateurs, that they may go and do likewise, I may refer lightly to a consideration which would be out of place under other circumstances. Professional growers of orchids are fond of speculating how much the Wylam collection would realize if judiciously put on the market. I shall not mention the estimates I have heard; it is enough to say they reach many, many thousands of pounds; that the difference between the highest and the lowest represents a handsome fortune. And this great sum has been earned by brains alone, without increase of expenditure, by boldness of initiative, thought, care, and patience; without special knowledge also, at the beginning, for ten years ago Mr. Cookson had no more acquaintance with orchids than is possessed by every gentleman who takes an interest in them, while his gardener the early time was both ignorant and prejudiced. This should encourage enterprise, I think--the revelation of means to earn great wealth in a delightful employment. But amateurs must be quick. Almost every professional grower of orchids is preparing to enter the field. They, however, must needs give the most of their attention to such crosses as may be confidently expected to catch the public fancy, as has been said. I advise my readers to be daring, even desperate. It is satisfactory to learn that Mr. Cookson intends to make a study of bi-generic hybridization henceforward.[9] The common motive for crossing orchids is that, of course, which urges the florist in other realms of botany. He seeks to combine tints, forms, varied peculiarities, in a new shape. Orchids lend themselves to experiment with singular freedom, within certain limits, and their array of colours seems to invite our interference. Taking species and genera all round, yellow dominates, owing to its prevalence in the great family of Oncidium; purples and mauves stand next by reason of their supremacy among the Cattleyas. Green follows--if we admit the whole group of Epidendrums--the great majority of which are not beautiful, however. Of magenta, the rarest of natural hues, we have not a few instances. Crimson, in a thousand shades, is frequent; pure white a little rare, orange much rarer; scarlet very uncommon, and blue almost unknown, though supremely lovely in the few instances that occur. Thus the temptation to hybridize with the object of exchanging colours is peculiarly strong. It becomes yet stronger by reason of the delightful uncertainty which attends one's efforts. So far as I have heard or read, no one has yet been able to offer a suggestion of any law which decides the result of combination. In a general way, both parents will be represented in the offspring, but how, to what degree either will dominate, in what parts, colours, or fashions a hybrid will show its mixed lineage, the experienced refuse to conjecture, saving certain easy classes. After choosing parents thoughtfully, with a clear perception of the aim in view, one must "go it blind." Very often the precise effect desired appears in due time; very often something unlooked for turns up; but nearly always the result is beautiful, whether or no it serve the operator's purpose. Besides effect, however, there is an utility in hybridization which relates to culture. Thus, for example, the lovely _Cypripedium Fairieanum_ is so difficult to grow that few dealers keep it in their stock; by crossing it with _Cyp. barbatum_, from Mount Ophir, a rough-and-ready cool species, we get _Cyp. vexillarium_, which takes after the latter in constitution while retaining much of the beauty of the former. Or again, _Cypripedium Sanderianum_, from the Malay Archipelago, needs such swampy heat as few even of its fellows appreciate; it has been crossed with _Cyp. insigne_, which will flourish anywhere, and though the seedlings have not yet bloomed, there is no reasonable doubt that they will prove as useful and beautiful as in the other case. _Cypripedium insigne_, of the fine varieties, has been employed in a multitude of such instances. There is the striking _Cyp. hirsutissimum_, with sepals of a nameless green, shaded yellow, studded with spiculæ, exquisitely frilled, and tipped, by a contrast almost startling, with pale purple. It is very "hot" in the first place, and, in the second, its appearance would be still more effective if some white could be introduced; present it to _Cyp. niveum_ and confidently expect that the progeny will bear cooler treatment, whilst their "dorsal sepal" will be blanched. So the charming _Masdevallia Tovarensis_, warm, white and lowly, will take to itself the qualities, in combination, of _Mas. bella_, tall, cool, and highly coloured red and yellow, as Mr. Cookson has proved; so _Phaloenopsis Wightii_, delicate of growth and small of flower, will become strong and generous by union with _Phal. grandiflora_, without losing its dainty tones. It is worth mention that the first Flora medal offered by the Royal Horticultural Society for a seedling--a hybrid--in open competition was won by _Loelia Arnoldiana_ in 1891; the same variety took the first prize in 1892. It was raised by Messrs. Sander from _L. purpurata_ × _Catt. labiata_; seed sown 1881, flowered 1891. And now for the actual process by which these most desirable results, and ten thousand others, may be obtained. I shall not speak upon my own authority, which the universe has no reason to trust. Let us observe the methods practised in the great establishment of Mr. Sander at St. Albans. Remark, in the first place, the low, unshaded range of houses devoted to hybridization, a contrast to those lofty structures, a hundred yards long or more, where plants merely flourish and bloom. Their span roofs one may touch with the hand, and their glass is always newly cleaned. The first and last demand of the hybridizer is light--light--eternally light. Want of it stands at the bottom of all his disappointments, perhaps. The very great majority of orchids, such as I refer to, have their home in the tropics; even the "cool" Odontoglots and Masdevallias owe that quality to their mountaineering habit, not to latitude. They live so near the equator that sunshine descends almost perpendicularly--and the sun shines for more than half the year. But in this happy isle of ours, upon the very brightest day of midsummer, its rays fall at an angle of 28°, declining constantly until, at midwinter, they struggle through the fogs at an inclination of 75°. The reader may work out this proportion for himself, but he must add to his reckoning the thickness of our atmosphere at its best, and the awful number of cloudy days. We cannot spare one particle of light. The ripening seed must stand close beneath the glass, and however fierce the sunshine no blind may be interposed. It is likely that the mother-plant will be burnt up--quite certain that it will be much injured. This house is devoted to the hybridizing of Cypripediums; I choose that genus for our demonstration, because, as has been said, it is so very easy and so certain that an intelligent girl mastered all its eccentricities of structure after a single lesson, which made her equally proficient in those of Dendrobes, Oncidiums, Odontoglots, Epidendrums, and I know not how many more. The leaves are green and smooth as yet, with many a fantastic bloom, and many an ovary that has just begun to swell, rising amidst the verdure. Each flower spike which has been crossed carries its neat label, registering the father's name and the date of union. Mr. Maynard takes the two first virgin blooms to hand: _Cypripedium Sanderianum_, and _Cypripedium Godefroyæ_, as it chances. Let us cut off the lip in order to see more clearly. Looking down now upon the flower, we mark two wings, the petals, which stood on either side of the vanished lip. From the junction of these wings issues a round stalk, about one quarter of an inch long, and slightly hairy, called the "column." It widens out at the tip, forming a pretty table, rather more than one-third of an inch long and wide. This table serves no purpose in our inquiry; it obstructs the view, and we will remove it; but the reader understands, of course, that these amputations cannot be performed when business is intended. Now--the table snipped off--we see those practical parts of the flower that interest us. Beneath its protection, the column divides into three knobbly excrescences, the central plain, those on either side of it curling back and down, each bearing at its extremity a pad, the size of a small pin's head, outlined distinctly with a brown colour. It is quite impossible to mistake these things; equally impossible, I hope, to misunderstand my description. The pads are the male, the active organs. But the column does not finish here. It trends downward, behind and below the pads, and widens out, with an exquisitely graceful curve, into a disc one-quarter of an inch broad. This is the female, the receptive part; but here we see the peculiarity of orchid structure. For the upper surface of the disc is not susceptible; it is the under surface which must be impregnated, though the imagination cannot conceive a mere accident which would throw those fertilizing pads upon their destined receptacle. They are loosely attached and adhesive, when separated, to a degree actually astonishing, as is the disc itself; but if it were possible to displace them by shaking, they could never fall where they ought. Some outside impulse is needed to bring the parts together. In their native home insects perform that service--sometimes. Here we may take the first implement at hand, a knife, a bit of stick, a pencil. We remove the pads, which yield at a touch, and cling to the object. We lay them one by one on the receptive disc, where they seem to melt into the surface--and the trick is done. Write out your label--_"Cyp. Sanderianum × Cyp. Godefroyæ_, Maynard." Add the date, and leave Nature to her work. She does not linger. One may almost say that the disc begins to swell instantly. That part which we term the column is the termination of the seed-purse, the ovary, which occupies an inch, or two, or three, of the stalk, behind the flower. In a very few days its thickening becomes perceptible. The unimpregnated bloom falls off at its appointed date, as everybody knows; but if fertilized it remains entire, saving the labellum, until the seed is ripe, perhaps half a year afterwards--but withered, of course. Very singular and quite inexplicable are the developments that arise in different genera, or even species, after fertilization. In the Warscewiczellas, for example, not the seed-purse only, but the whole column swells. _Phaloenopsis Luddemanniana_ is specially remarkable. Its exquisite bars and mottlings of rose, brown, and purple begin to take a greenish hue forthwith. A few days later, the lip jerks itself off with a sudden movement, as observers declare. Then the sepals and petals remaining take flesh, thicken and thicken, while the hues fade and the green encroaches, until, presently, they assume the likeness of a flower, abnormal in shape but perfect, of dense green wax. This Cypripedium of ours will ripen its seed in about twelve months, more or less. Then the capsule, two inches long and two-thirds of an inch diameter, will burst. Mr. Maynard will cut it off, open it wide, and scatter the thousands of seeds therein, perhaps 150,000, over pots in which orchids are growing. After experiments innumerable, this has been found the best course. The particles, no bigger than a grain of dust, begin to swell at once, reach the size of a mustard-seed, and in five or six weeks--or as many months--they put out a tiny leaf, then a tiny root, presently another leaf, and in four or five years we may look for the hybridized flower. Long before, naturally, they have been established in their own pots. Strange incidents occur continually in this pursuit, as may be believed. Nine years since, Mr. Godseff crossed _Catasetum macrocarpum_ with _Catasetum callosum_. The seed ripened, and in due time it was sown; but none ever germinated in the proper place. A long while afterwards Mr. Godseff remarked a tiny little green speck in a crevice above the door of this same house. It grew and grew very fast, never receiving water unless by the rarest accident, until those experts could identify a healthy young Catasetum. And there it has flourished ever since, receiving no attention; for it is the first rule in orchid culture to leave a plant to itself where it is doing well, no matter how strange the circumstances may appear to us. This Catasetum, wafted by the wind, when the seed was sown, found conditions suitable where it lighted, and quickened, whilst all its fellows, carefully provided for, died without a sign. It thrives upon the moisture of the house. In a very few years it will flower. In another case, when all hope of the germination of a quantity of seed had long been lost, it became necessary to take up the wooden trellis that formed the flooring of the path; a fine crop of young hybrids was discovered clinging to the under side. The amateur who has followed us thus far with interest, may inquire how long it will be before he can reasonably expect to see the outcome of our proceedings? In the first place, it must be noted that the time shortens continually as we gain experience. The statements following I leave unaltered, because they are given by Messrs. Veitch, our oldest authority, in the last edition of their book. But at the Temple Show this year Norman C. Cookson, Esq., exhibited _Catt. William Murray_, offspring of _Catt. Mendellii × Catt. Lawrenceana_, a lovely flower which gained a first class certificate. It was only four years old. The quickest record as yet is _Calanthe Alexanderii_, with which Mr. Cookson won a first-class certificate of the Royal Horticultural Society. It flowered within three years of fertilizing. As a genus, perhaps, Dendrobiums are readiest to show. Plants have actually been "pricked out" within two months of sowing, and they have bloomed within the fourth year. Phajus and Calanthe rank next for rapid development. Masdevallia, Chysis, and Cypripedium require four to five years, Lycaste seven to eight, Loelia and Cattleya ten to twelve. These are Mr. Veitch's calculations in a rough way, but there are endless exceptions, of course. Thus his _Loelia triophthalma_ flowered in its eighth season, whilst his _Loelia caloglossa_ delayed till its nineteenth. The genus _Zygopetalum_, which plays odd tricks in hybridizing, as I have mentioned, is curious in this matter also. _Z. maxillare_ crossed with _Z. Mackayi_ demands five years to bloom, but _vice versâ_ nine years. There is a case somewhat similar, however, among the Cypripeds. _C. Schlimii_ crossed with _C. longifolium_ flowers in four years, but _vice versâ_ in six. It is not to be disputed, therefore, that the hybridizer's reward is rather slow in coming; the more earnestly should he take measures to ensure, so far as is possible, that it be worth waiting for. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 9: Mr. Cookson writes to me: "Give some of the credit to my present gardener, William Murray, who is entitled to a large proportion, at least."] INDEX. PAGE Aerides Lawrenciæ 160 Angræcum arcuatum 134 " caudatum 135 " Duchailluianum 134 " Ellisii 135 " falcatum 133 " Kotschyi 135 " Leonis 135 " Sanderianum 134 " Scottianum 135 " sesquipedale (Æranthus sesquipedalis) 135 Anomatheca cruenta 11 Begonia coralina 195 Begonias 86 Brassias 207 Brassavola Digbyana 128 Bulbophyllum barbigerum 169 " Beccarii 169 " Dearei 170 " Godseffianum 170 " Lobbii 170 Bullthorn acacia 124 Calanthe Alexanderii 246 " Dominii 214 " Sedeni 215 " Veitchii 215 Catasetum barbatum 123 " Bungerothi (C. pileatum) 123 " callosum 123 " fimbriatum 123 Cattleya Acklandiæ 154 " amethystoglossa 154 " aurea 115 " Brymeriana 232 " Dowiana 115, 151 " Hardyana 118 " hybrida 214 " labiata 111 " Lawrenceana 92 " Mendellii 117 " " fly 117 " Mossiæ 111 " Sanderiana 118 " Skinneri alba 119 " superba 152 " Trianæ 111, 201 " violacea 110 Coelogene cristata 160 " Dayana 161 " pandurata 160 " Sanderiana 161 Cookson, Norman, Esq. 22433 Collectors:-- Arnold 27, 28, 70, 180, 181 Bartholomeus 122, 180 Bestwood 180 Chaillu, M. Du 134 Chesterton 180, 181 Clarke 181 Digance 181 Dressel 77 Endres 70 Ericksson 32, 33 Falkenberg 69 Forstermann 162 Gardner 174, 175, 181 Hartweg 67 Humblot 133 Kerbach 72, 180 Klaboch 70, 105, 180 Kromer 95, 98, 99 Lawrenceson 181 Micholitz 30, 31 Osmers 94, 181 Oversluys 163, 180 Roebelin 140, 160 Roezl 66, 75, 76, 105, 139, 204, 205 Schroeder 70 Seyler 100 Smith 180, 181 Steigfers 99 Swainson 173-175, 177, 179, 181 Wallace 35 Wallis 70 Weir 67 Cypripedium calceolus 82, 224, 225 " candidum 82 " Curtisi 32 " Fairieanum 223 " guttatum 82 " insigne 83, 84, 108 " macranthum 82 " niveum 85 " parviflorum 82 " planifolium 87 " pubescens 82 " purpuratum 223 " Sedeni 228 " spectabile 82 " Spicerianum 83, 85 " vexillarium 238 Cymbidium Lowianum 195 " Albertesii 131 Dendrobium atro-violaceum 131 " bigibbum 168 " Broomfieldianum 131 " Brymerianum 127 " Forstermanni 127 " Goldiei 130 " heterocarpum 230 " Johannis 168 " luteolum 195 " nobile nobilius 128 " " Cooksoni 129 " " Sanderianum 129 " phaloenopsis 168 " " Schroederianum 29 " rhodopterygium 127 " superbiens 168 " Wardianum 125 Disa Cooperi 166 " discolor 166 " grandiflora 165 " racemosa 165 Epidendrum bicornutum 40 " O'Brienianum 220 " prismatocarpum 167 " radicans 167 " Randii 152 " rhizophorum 167 Frogs, green, value of 13 Galleandra Devoniana 156 Grammatophyllum speciosum 171 " Measureseanum 171 " multiflorum 172 Hybridizing 210 Lycaste Skinneri 79-81, 206 " " alba 79, 81 " aromatica 80 " cruenta 81 Loelia anceps 109, 120, 122 " elegans 153 " Maynardii 218 " purpurata 153, 154 " guttata Leopoldi 152, 153, 154 " anceps alba 122 " " Amesiana 109 Masdevallia Livingstoniana 140 " Schlimii 76 " Tovarensis 27 Odontoglossum Alexandræ 39, 67, 71 " citrosmum 58 " grande 107 " Hallii 77 " Harryanum 75 " Hybrids 64, 78, 108, 231 " noeveum 77 " ramossissimum (coeleste) 34 " Roezlii (Miltonia Roezlii) 64 " Schlieperianum 107 " vexillarium (Miltonia vexillaria) 104 " Williamsi 107 Oncidium cibolletum 116 " crispum 47 " cucullatum 230 " fuscatum 90 " Jonesianum 116 " juncifolium 39 " Lanceanum 164 " luridum 39 " macranthum 88 " papilio 164 " sculptum 89 " serratum 89 " splendidum 162, 163 " superbiens 89 Peristeria elata 138 Phajus Cooksoni 219 " Humblotii 133 " irroratus 219 " purpureus 219 " tuberculosus 133 Phaloenopsis 54 " amabilis 158 " cornucervi 159 " F.L. Ames 221 " Harriettæ 221 " intermedia 221 " Luddemanniana 244 " Manni 159 " Portei 159 " Sanderiana 159 " Schilleriana 158 " speciosa 157 " tetraspis 156 Renanthera coccinea 113, 146, 147 Roraima Mountain 77, 94 Schomburgkia tibicinis 124 Sobralias 196 Sophro-Cattleya Batemaniana 218 Thanatophore 92 Utricularia Campbelli 199 Vanda limbata 144 " Lowii 143, 148 " teres 143, 144 
11892	----	GARDENING FOR THE MILLION _By_ ALFRED PINK AUTHOR OF "RECIPES FOR THE MILLION." T. FISHER UNWIN PREFACE. It is with the object of stimulating the cultivation of gardens still more beautiful than those generally to be met with that the present volume has been written. It has not been thought necessary to repeat in each case the times when the seeds of the various flowers and plants are to be sown. A careful attention to the remarks made under the headings of "Annuals," "Biennials," "Perennials," and "Seed-Sowing" will supply all the information needed. That the work may prove useful to those at least who supervise their own gardens is the sincere wish of the author. DULWICH. GARDENING FOR THE MILLION A Aaron's Rod.--_See_ "Solidago." Abelia.--Very ornamental evergreen shrubs, bearing tubular, funnel-shaped flowers. They succeed in any ordinary soil if the situation is warm and sheltered, and are readily raised by cuttings. Height, 3 ft. to 4 ft. Abies _(Spruce Firs)_.--Among these ornamental conifers mention may be made of the beautiful Japanese Spruce Ajanensis, which grows freely in most soils and has dual-coloured leaves--dark green on the upper surface and silvery white underneath; this makes a grand single specimen anywhere. The White Spruce (_Abies Alba Glauca_) is a rapid grower, but while it is small makes a lovely show in the border; it prefers a moist situation. Of the slow-growing and dwarf varieties Gregorii is a favourite. The Caerulea, or Blue Spruce, is also very beautiful. Clanbrasiliana is a good lawn shrub, never exceeding 4 ft. in height. The Pigmy Spruce (_A. Pygmea_) is the smallest of all firs, only attaining the height of 1 ft. Any of these may be increased by cuttings. Abronia.--Handsome half-hardy annual trailers. Grow in sandy peat and multiply by root division. Flowers in April. Height, 4 in. to 6 in. Abutilon.--Evergreen greenhouse shrubs of great beauty and easy cultivation. May be raised from seed, or by cuttings of young shoots placed in spring or summer in sand under glass, or with a bottom heat. Cut the old plants back in January, and when new shoots appear re-pot the plants. Height, 5 ft. to 8 ft. Acacia.--Winter and spring flowering greenhouse shrubs with charming flowers and graceful foliage. May be grown from seed, which should be soaked in warm water for twenty-four hours, or they may be propagated by layers, cuttings placed in heat, or suckers. They like a rich sandy loam soil. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Acæna.--These shrubby plants are herbaceous and mostly hardy, of a creeping nature, fast growers, and suitable for dry banks or rough stony places. They flourish best in sandy loam and peat, and may be increased by cuttings placed under glass. The flowers, which are green, are produced in May. The height of the various kinds varies from 3 in. to 2 ft. Acantholimon Glumaceum _(Prickly Thrift)_.--This is a frame evergreen perennial, thriving in any light, rich soil. It can be increased by dividing the roots. In May it puts forth its rose-coloured flowers. Height, 3 in. Acanthus.--A coarse, yet stately hardy perennial, which has large ornamental foliage, and flowers in August. It is not particular as to soil or situation, but free space should be given it. Will grow from seed sown from March to midsummer, or in August or September in a sheltered situation. Will also bear dividing. Height, 3 ft. Acer (_Maple_).--Very vigorous plants, suitable when young for pots, and afterwards for the shrubbery. The A. Negundo Variegata has silvery variegated leaves, which contrast effectively with dark foliage, Campestre Colchicum Rubrum, with its bright crimson palmate leaves, is very ornamental, as is also Negundo Californicum Aurem, with its golden-yellow foliage. The Maple grows best in a sandy loam. It may be increased by cuttings planted in a shaded situation, or by layers, but the choice varieties are best raised from seed sown as soon as it is ripe. Achillea Ptarmica (_Sneezewort_).--A pure white hardy perennial which blooms in August. The dried leaves, powdered, produce sneezing. Any soil. Best increased by rooted off-sets. Flowers from July to September. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Achimenes.--Fine plants, suitable for the greenhouse, sitting-room, or hanging baskets. Plant six tubers in a 5-in. pot, with their growing ends inclining to the centre and the roots to the edge of the pot, and cover them an inch deep with a compost of peat, loam, and leaf-mould, or a light, sandy soil. Keep them well supplied with liquid manure while in a growing state. Height, 6 in. to 2-1/2 ft. Aconite (_Monk's-Hood or Wolf's-Bane_).--Very pretty and very hardy, and succeeds under the shade of trees; but being very poisonous should not be grown where there are children. Increased by division or by seeds. Flowers June to July. Height, 4 ft. (_See also_ "Winter Aconites.") Acorus (_Sweet Flag)._--A hardy bog plant, having an abundance of light-coloured evergreen foliage. It will grow in any wet soil. Height, 2 ft. Acroclinium.--Daisy-like everlastings. Half-hardy annuals suitable for cutting during summer, and for winter bouquets. Sow in pots in February or March, cover lightly with fine soil, plunge the pot in gentle heat, place a square of glass on the top, and gradually harden off. Seed may also be sown in the open during May or in autumn for early flowering. Height, 1 ft. Acrophyllum Verticillatum.--A greenhouse evergreen shrub. It will grow in any soil, and may be increased by cuttings of half-ripened wood. March is its flowering season. Height, 3 ft. Acrotis.--These are mostly hardy herbaceous plants from South Africa. The soil should consist of two parts loam and one part leaf-mould, and the situation should be dry and sunny. Seed may be sown early in March in gentle heat, and the plants grown on in a cold frame till May, when they may be planted out a foot apart. They will flower at midsummer. Winter in a warm greenhouse. Height, 2 ft. Some few are of a creeping nature. Actaea Spicata (_Bane Berry_).--A hardy herbaceous perennial which delights in a shady position, and will even grow under trees. It is increased by division of the roots, or it may readily be raised from seed in ordinary soil. May is its flowering month. Height, 3 ft. Actinella Grandiflora.--A showy herbaceous plant, bearing large orange-coloured flowers in July. It is not particular as to soil, and is increased by dividing the roots. Height, 1 ft. Actinomeris Squarrosa.--This hardy and ornamental herbaceous plant bears heads of bright yellow flowers, resembling small sunflowers, from June to August. It thrives in any loamy soil, and is easily increased by dividing the root. Height, 4 ft. Adam's Needle.--_See_ "Yucca." Adenandra Fragrans.--An evergreen shrub suitable for the greenhouse. It thrives best in a mixture of sandy peat and turfy loam. Cuttings of the young branches stuck in sand will strike. It flowers in June. Height, 3 ft. Adenophora Lilifolia.--Pretty hardy perennials suitable for the border. Produce drooping pale blue flowers on branching spikes in July. Any soil suits them. They may be grown from seed, but will not allow being divided at the root. Height, 1 ft. Adlumia Cirrhosa.--Interesting hardy climbers. Will grow in any soil, and are readily increased by seeds sown in a damp situation. Require the support of stakes. Bloom in August. Height, 15 ft. Adonis Flos.--Showy crimson summer flowers, requiring only the simplest treatment of hardy annuals. Sow in March or April in the open border. Height, 1 ft. Adonis Pyrenaica.--A rare but charming Pyrenean perennial species, with thick ornamental foliage, and producing large golden-yellow flowers from May to July. It needs no special treatment. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Adonis Vernalis.--A favourite hardy perennial, which grows freely from seed in any garden soil. It may also be increased by dividing the roots. Height, 1 ft. Æthionema Cordifolium.--This little Alpine plant is a hardy evergreen that is very suitable for rock-work, as it will grow in any soil. Its rose-hued flowers are produced in June. It may be propagated by seeds or cuttings. Height, 3 in. Agapanthus (_African Lily_).--This is a noble plant, which succeeds well in the open if placed in a rich, deep, moist loam in a sunny situation or in partial shade. In pots it requires a strong loamy soil with plenty of manure. Throughout the summer the pots should stand in pans of water. Re-pot in March. Give it plenty of pot room, say a 9-in. pot for each plant. In winter protect from severe frost, and give but very little water. The flowers are both lovely and showy, being produced during August in great bunches on stems 3 ft. high. The plant is nearly hardy. Several growing together in a large tub produce a fine effect. It is increased by dividing the root while in a dormant state. Ageratum.--Effective half-hardy annual bedding plants, thriving best in a light, rich soil. Seed should be sown in heat in February or March. Cuttings root freely under glass. Height, 1-1/2 ft. There is a dwarf variety suitable for ribbon borders and edgings. Height, 6 in. Agricultural Seeds.--Required per statute acre. Carrot 5 to 6 lb. Cabbage (to transplant) 1" Cabbage (to drill) 2 to 3" Kohl Rabi (to drill) 2 to 3" Lucerne 16 to 20" Mangold Wurtzel 5 to 7" Mustard (Broadcast) 10 to 20" Rape or Cole 4 to 6" Rye Grass, Italian 3 bus. Rye Grass, Perennial 2" Sainfoin 4" Tares, or Vetches 3" Turnip, Swedish 3 lb. Turnip, Common 2 to 3" Trifolium 16 to 20" Agrostemma.--A hardy annual that is very pretty when in flower; suitable for borders. Flourishes in any soil, and is easily raised from seed sown in spring. Blooms in June and July. There are also perennial varieties: these are increased by division of the root. Height, 1 ft. to 3 ft. Agrostis.--A very elegant and graceful species of Bent-Grass. It is a hardy annual, and is largely used for bouquets. Sow the seed in March. Height, 1 ft. to 1-1/2 ft. Ajuga Reptans.--A hardy herbaceous perennial, suitable for the front of borders. It will grow in any soil, and may be propagated by seeds or division. May is its flowering season. Height, 6 in. Akebia Quinata.--This greenhouse evergreen twining plant delights in a soil of loam and peat; flowers in March, and is increased by dividing the roots. Height, 10 ft. Alchemilla Alpina (_Lady's Mantle_).--A useful hardy perennial for rock-work. It will grow in any soil, if not too wet, and may be increased by seed sown in the spring or early autumn, or by dividing the roots. It flowers in June. Height, 1 ft. Allium Descendens.--A hardy, bulbous perennial. Plant in October or November in any garden soil, and the flowers will be borne in July. Height, 1 ft. Allium Neapolitanum.--This is popularly known as the "Star." It bears large heads of pure white flowers, and is suitable for borders, pots, or forcing in a cool house. Any common soil suits it. It is increased by off-sets. Being one of our earliest spring flowers, the bulbs should be planted early in autumn. Height, 1 ft. Allspice.--_See_ "Calycanthus" and "Chimonanthus." Alonsoa.--A pretty and free-blooming half-hardy annual, which produces fine spikes of orange-scarlet flowers in June. It is multiplied by cuttings or seeds. Height, 1 ft. to 1-1/2 ft. Aloysia Citriodora.--This favourite lemon-scented verbena should be grown in rich mould. If grown in the open, it should be trained to a wall facing south, and in winter the roots need protecting with a heap of ashes and the branches to be tied up with matting. It is increased by cuttings planted in sand. August is its flowering season. Height, 3 ft. Alsine Rosani.--This pretty little herbaceous plant, with its cushions of green growth, makes a very fine display on rock-work or in any shady position. Ordinary soil suits; it is of easy culture, and flowers during June and July. Height, 3 in. Alstromeria (_Peruvian Lilies_).--These beautiful summer-flowering hardy perennials produce large heads of lily-like blossoms in great profusion, which are invaluable for cutting for vase decorations as the bloom lasts a long time in water. Plant in autumn 6 in. deep in a well-drained sunny situation, preferably on a south border. Protect in winter with a covering of leaves or litter. They may be grown from seed sown as soon as it is ripe in sandy loam. They bloom in July. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Alternantheras.--Cuttings of this greenhouse herbaceous plant may be struck in autumn, though they are usually taken from the old plants in spring. Insert them singly in 4-1/2-in. pots filled with coarse sand, loam, and leaf-mould. When rooted, place them near the glass, and keep the temperature moist and at 60 degrees or 65 degrees, then they will flower in July. Height, 4 in. to 1 ft. Althea--_See_ "Hibiscus." Alyssum.--Well adapted for rock-work or the front of flower-beds, and is best sown in autumn. The annual, or Sweet Alyssum, bears an abundance of scented white flowers in June, and on to the end of September. The hardy perennial, Saxatile (commonly called Gold Dust), bears yellow flowers in spring. Height, 6 in. Amaranthus.--The foliage of these half-hardy annual plants are extremely beautiful, some being carmine, others green and crimson, some yellow, red, and green. They are very suitable either for bedding or pot plants. Sow the seed early in spring in gentle heat, and plant out in May or June in very rich soil. If put into pots, give plenty of room for the roots and keep well supplied with water. Flower in July and August. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 6 ft. Amaryllis.--These plants bear large drooping bell-shaped lily-like blossoms. They thrive best in a compost of turfy loam and peat, with a fair quantity of sand. The pots must in all cases be well drained. Most of the stove and greenhouse species should be turned out of their pots in autumn, and laid by in a dry place until spring, when they should be re-potted and kept liberally supplied with water. A. Reticulata and A. Striatifolia bloom best, however, when undisturbed. Discontinue watering when the foliage shows signs of failing, but avoid shrivelling the leaves. The hardy varieties should be planted 6 in. deep in light, well--drained soil, and allowed to remain undisturbed for two or three years, when they will probably require thinning out. They are increased by off-sets from the bulbs. The Belladonna (_Belladonna Lily_) should be planted in June in a sheltered border in rich, well-drained soil. Formosissima (_the Scarlet Jacobean Lily_) is a gem for the greenhouse, and very suitable for forcing, as it will bloom two or three times in a season. It should be potted in February. Lutea (_Sternbergia)_ flowers in autumn. Plant 4 in. deep from October to December. Purpurea (_Vallota Purpurea or Scarborough Lily_) is a very beautiful free bloomer. October and November or March and April are the most favourable times for potting, but established plants should be re-potted in June or July. Ambrosia Mexicana.--A hardy annual of the simplest culture. Sow the seed in spring in any fine garden soil. Height, 1-1/2 ft. American Plants.--These thrive most in a peat or bog soil, but where this cannot be obtained a good fertile loam, with a dressing of fresh cow manure once in two years, may be used; or leaf-mould and soil from the surface of pasture land, in the proportions of three parts of the former to one of the latter. The soil should be chopped up and used in a rough condition. Sickly plants with yellowish foliage may be restored by applying liquid manure once a week during the month of July. A light top-dressing of cow manure applied annually, and keeping the roots free from stagnant water, will preserve the plants in good health. Ammobium.--Pretty hardy perennials which may be very easily raised from seed on a sandy soil. Flower in June. Height, 2 ft. Ampelopsis.--Handsome and rapid climbers, with noble foliage, some changing to a deep crimson in autumn. The Veitchii clings to the wall without nailing, and produces a profusion of lovely leaves which change colour. Any of the varieties may be grown in common garden soil, and may be increased by layers. Anagallis (_Pimpernel_.)--Very pretty. Sow the hardy annuals in the open early in March; the biennials or half-hardy perennials in pots in a greenhouse or a frame, and plant out when strong enough. May also be increased by cuttings planted in ordinary soil under glass. Flower in July. Height, 6 in. Anchusa.--Anchusa Capensis is best raised in a frame and treated as a greenhouse plant, though in reality it is a hardy perennial. The annual and biennial kinds succeed well if sown in the open in rich soil. All are ornamental and open their flowers in June. Height, 1-1/2 ft. (_See also_ "Bugloss.") Andromeda.--An ornamental evergreen shrub, commonly known as the Marsh Cystus, and thriving in a peat soil with partial shade. May be grown from seed sown directly it is ripe and only lightly covered with soil, as the seed rots if too much mould is placed over it. Place the seedlings in a cold frame and let them have plenty of air. It is more generally increased by layers in September, which must not be disturbed for a year. Drought will kill it, so the roots must never be allowed to get dry. It flowers in April and May. Height, 2 ft. Androsace.--Pretty little plants, mostly hardy, but some require the protection of a frame. They grow best in small pots in a mixture of turfy loam and peat. Water them very cautiously. They flower at different seasons, some blooming as early as April, while others do not put forth flower till August. They can be increased by division as well as by seed. Height, 6 in. Anemones.--These are highly ornamental, producing a brilliant display of flowers. The scarlets make very effective beds. They are mostly hardy, and may be grown in any moist, light, rich garden soil, preferably mixed with a good proportion of silver sand. They should occupy a sunny and well-drained situation. For early spring flowering plant from October to December, placing the tubers 2-1/2 or 3 in. deep and 4 or 5 in. apart, with a trowelful of manure under each plant, but not touching them. A little sea sand or salt mixed with the soil is a preventive of mildew. If planted in February and March they will bloom from April to June. They are increased by seeds, divisions, or off-sets; the greenhouse varieties from cuttings in light loam under glass. The tubers will not keep long out of the ground. In growing from seed choose seeds from single-flowering plants; sow in March where they are intended to flower 1 in. deep and 9 in. apart; cover with leaf-mould. Two or three sowings may be made also during the summer. Height, 6 in. to 2 ft. Anemonopsis Macrophylla.--A rather scarce but remarkably handsome perennial, producing lilac-purple flowers with yellow stamens in July and August. It will grow in ordinary soil, and may be increased by division. Height, 2 ft. Angelonia Grandiflora Alba.--An elegant and graceful greenhouse plant, giving forth a delicious aromatic odour. It grows best in a compost of turfy loam and peat, but thrives in any light, rich soil. Take cuttings during summer, place them under glass, but give a little air occasionally. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Annuals.--Plants of this description arrive at maturity, bloom, produce seed, and die in one season. _Hardy_.--The seed should be sown thinly in the open borders during March, April, or May in fine soil, covering slightly with well-prepared mould--very small seeds require merely a dusting over them. When the plants are large enough to handle, thin them out boldly, to allow them to develop their true character. By this means strong and sturdy plants are produced and their flowering properties are enhanced. Many of the hardy annuals may be sown in August and September for spring flowering, and require little or no protection from frost. _Half-Hardy._--These are best sown in boxes 2 or 3 in. deep during February and March, and placed on a slight hotbed, or in a greenhouse at a temperature of about 60 degrees. The box should be nearly filled with equal parts of good garden soil and coarse silver sand, thoroughly mixed, and have holes at the bottom for drainage. Scatter the seeds thinly and evenly over the soil and cover very lightly. Very small seeds, such as lobelia and musk, should not be covered by earth, but a sheet of glass over the box is beneficial, as it keeps the moisture from evaporating too quickly. Should watering become necessary, care must be taken that the seeds are not washed out. As soon as the young plants appear, remove the glass and place them near the light, where gentle ventilation can be given them to prevent long and straggly growth. Harden off gradually, but do not plant out until the weather is favourable. Seed may also be sown in a cold frame in April, or in the open border during May; or the plants may be raised in the windows of the sitting-room. _Tender_.--These must be sown on a hotbed, or in rather stronger heat than is necessary for half-hardy descriptions. As soon as they are large enough to be shifted, prick them off into small pots, gradually potting them on into larger sizes until the flowering size is reached. Anomatheca Cruenta.--This produces an abundance of bright red flowers with a dark blotch and a low growth of grass-like foliage. It is suitable for either vases, edges, or groups. Plant the bulbs in autumn in a mixture of loam and peat, and the plants will flower in July. They require a slight protection from frost. If the seed is set as soon as it is ripe it produces bulbs which will flower the following year. Height, 6 in. Antennaria.--Hardy perennial plants, requiring a rich, light soil. They flower in June and July, and may be increased by cuttings or division. The heights of the various kinds range from 3 in. to 2 ft. Anthemis Tinctoria (_Yellow Marguerites_).--These perennials are almost hardy, needing protection merely in severe weather. They are readily raised from seed sown in gentle heat early in spring or by slips during the summer months. Transplant into light soil. As pot plants they are very effective. June is their flowering period. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Anthericum Liliago (_St. Bernard's Lily_).--One of the finest of hardy plants, and easy to grow. Planted in deep, free, sandy soil, it will grow vigorously, and in early summer throw up spikes of snowy-white, lily-like blossoms from 2 to 3 feet in height. It may be divided every three or four years, but should not be disturbed oftener. Mulching in early springtime is advantageous. Anthericum Liliastrum _(St. Bruno's Lily_).--This hardy perennial is a profuse bloomer, throwing up spikes of starry white flowers from May to July. Treat in the same manner as the foregoing. Height, 2 ft. Anthoxanthum Gracila.--Sweet vernal grass. It is graceful and ornamental, and is used for edgings. Sow in spring, keeping the seed moist until it germinates. Height, 6 in. Anthyllis Montana.--A fine hardy perennial for rock-work. It is of a procumbent habit, and has a woody nature. A vegetable soil is best suited for its growth, and its roots should be in contact with large stones. It may be increased by cuttings taken in spring and planted in the shade in leaf-mould. It flowers at midsummer. Height, 6 in. Antirrhinum (_Snapdragon_).--Handsome hardy perennials; most effective in beds or borders. They stand remarkably well both drought and excessive rainfall, and succeed in any common soil. Seeds sown early in spring produce flowers the same year. For spring bedding, sow in July; keep the young plants in a cold frame, and plant out in March or April. Choice sorts may be plentifully increased by cuttings taken in July or August. Flower from July to September. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. Ants in Gardens.--Contrary to general belief, ants do more good than harm to a garden; but as they are unsightly on flowers, it is advisable to tie a little wool round the stems of standard roses and other things upon which they congregate. They will not crawl over the wool. A little sulphur sprinkled over a plant will keep them from it; while wall-fruit, etc., may be kept free from them by surrounding it with a broad band of chalk. Should they become troublesome on account of their numbers a strong decoction of elder leaves poured into the nest will destroy them; or a more expeditious method of getting rid of them is to put gunpowder in their nests and fire it with a piece of touch-paper tied on to a long stick. Aotus Gracillima.--A charming and graceful evergreen shrub, whose slender branches are covered with small pea-like flowers in May. It is most suitable for the greenhouse, and delights in a soil of loamy peat and sand. Cuttings of half-ripened wood planted under glass will take root. Height, 3 ft. Aphides, or plant-lice, make their presence known by the plant assuming an unhealthy appearance, the leaves curling up, etc. Frequently swarms of ants (which feed upon the aphides) are found beneath the plants attacked. Syringe the plant all over repeatedly with gas-tar water, or with tobacco or lime-water. The lady-bird is their natural enemy. Apios Tuberosa (_Glycine Apios_).--An American climbing plant which produces in the autumn bunches of purple flowers of an agreeable odour. The foliage is light and elegant. The plant is quite hardy. It enjoys a light soil and a good amount of sunshine. It may be increased by separating the tubers after the tops have died down, and planting them while they are fresh. Height, 12 ft. Aponogeton.--_See_ "Aquatics." Apples.--Apples delight in a moist, cool climate. All apples will not succeed on the same soil, some preferring clay, while others grow best in sandy loam or in well-drained peat. For a deep, good soil and a sheltered situation the standard form grafted on the Crab-apple is generally considered to be the most profitable. For shallow soils it is better to graft on to the Paradise stock, as its roots do not run down so low as the Crab. The ground, whether deep or shallow, should receive a good mulching in the autumn; that on the deep soil being dug in at the approach of spring, while that on the shallow soil should be removed in the spring to allow the ground to be lightly forked and sweetened, replacing the manure when the dry, hot weather sets in. The best time to perform the grafting is March, and it should be done on the whip-handle system, particulars of which will be found under "Grafting." Young trees may be planted in the autumn, as soon as the leaves have fallen. Budding is done in August, just in the same manner as roses. In spring head back to the bud; a vigorous shoot will then be produced, which can be trained as desired. Apples need very little pruning, it being merely necessary to remove branches growing in the wrong direction; but this should be done annually, while the branches are young--either at the end of July or in winter. If moss makes its appearance, scrape it off and wash the branches with hot lime. The following sorts may be specially recommended:--For heavy soils, Duchess of Oldenburgh, equally suitable for cooking or dessert; Warner's King, one of the best for mid-season; and King of the Pippins, a handsome and early dessert apple. For light, warm soils, Cox's Orange Pippin or Bess Pool. The Devonshire Quarrenden is a delicious apple, and will grow on any good soil. In orchards standards should stand 40 ft. apart each way, and dwarfs from 10 ft. to 15 ft. Apricots.--Early in November is the most favourable time for planting Apricots. The soil--good, sound loam for preference--should be dug 3 ft. deep, and mixed with one-fourth its quantity of rotten leaves and one-fourth old plaster refuse. Place a substratum of bricks below each tree and tread the earth very firmly round the roots. They will not need any manure until they are fruiting, when a little may be applied in a weak liquid form, but a plentiful supply of water should be given during spring and summer months. The fan shape is undoubtedly the best way of training the branches, as it allows a ready means of tucking small yew branches between them to protect the buds from the cold. They may be grown on their own roots by planting the stone, but a quicker way to obtain fruit is to bud them on to vigorous seedling plum trees. This should be done in August, inserting the bud on the north or north-west side of the stem and as near the ground as possible. To obtain prime fruit, thin the fruit-buds out to a distance of 6 in. one from the other. In the spring any leaf-buds not required for permanent shoots can be pinched back to three or four leaves to form spurs. The Apricot is subject to a sort of paralysis, the branches dying off suddenly. The only remedy for this seems to be to prevent premature vegetation. The following are good sorts: Moor Park, Grosse Peche, Royal St. Ambroise, Kaisha, Powell's Late, and Oullin's Early. In plantations they should stand 20 ft. apart. Aquatics.--All aquatics grow best in wicker-baskets filled with earth. Cover the surface of the earth with hay-bands twisted backwards and forwards and round the plant, and lace it down with tarred string, so as to keep the earth and plant from being washed out. The following make good plants:--White Water Lily (_Nymphaea Alba_) in deep water with muddy bottom; Yellow Water Lily (_Nuphar Lutea_); and Nuphar Advena, having yellow and red flowers; Hottonia Palustris, bearing flesh-coloured flowers, and Alismas, or Water Plantain, with white, and purple and white flowers. Water Forget-me-nots (_Myosotis Palustris_) flourish on the edges of ponds or rivers. The Water Hawthorn (_Aponogetou Distachyon_) does well in a warm, sheltered position, and may be grown in loam, plunged in a pan of water. Calla Ethiopica bears pretty white flowers, so also does the before-mentioned Aponogeton Distachyon. The Flowering Rush (_Butomus Umbellatus_), produces fine heads of pink flowers. The Water Violet merely needs to be laid on the surface of the water; the roots float. For shallow water Menyanthus Trifoliata (Three-leaved Buckbean) and Typha Latifolia (Broad-leaved Cat's Tail) are suitable. Weeping Willows grow readily from cuttings of ripened shoots, planted in moist soil in autumn. Spiraea does well in moist situations, near water. Aquatics are propagated by seed sown under water: many will allow of root-division. Tender Aquatics are removed in winter to warm-water tanks. Aquilegia (_Columbine_).--Very ornamental and easily-grown hardy perennials. Sow seed in March in sandy soil, under glass, and transplant when strong enough. Common garden soil suits them. The roots may be divided in spring or autumn. The flowers are produced from May to July. Height, 2 ft. Arabis Alpina (_Rock Cress, or Snow in Summer_).--Pure white hardy perennial, which is valuable for spring bedding. Not particular to soil, and easily raised from seed sown from March to June, placed under a frame, and transplanted in the autumn, or it may be propagated by slips, but more surely by rootlets taken after the plants have done flowering. Plant 3 in. apart. Height, 6 in. Aralia (_Fatsia Japonica_).--Fine foliage plants, very suitable for a shady situation in a living-room. They may be raised from seed sown in autumn in a gentle heat, in well-drained pots of light sandy soil. Keep the mould moist, and when the plants are large enough to handle, pot them off singly in thumb pots, using rich, light, sandy soil. Do not pot too firmly. Keep them moist, but do not over water, especially in winter, and re-pot as the plants increase in size. Be careful not to let the sun shine on them at any time, as this would cause the leaves to lose their fresh colour. Aralia Sieboldi (_Fig Palm_).--This shrub is an evergreen, and is generally given stove culture, though it proves quite hardy in the open, where its large deep-green leaves acquire a beauty surpassing those grown indoors. Slips of half-ripened wood taken at a joint in July may be struck in heat and for the first year grown on in the greenhouse. The young plants should be hardened off and planted out in May in a sunny situation. It should be grown in well-drained sandy loam. Is increased also by off-sets, and blooms (if at all) in July. Height, 3 ft. Aralia Sinensis. _See_ "Dimorphantus." Araucaria Imbricata (_The Monkey Puzzle, or Chilian Pine_).--This strikingly handsome conifer is very suitable for a forecourt or for a single specimen on grass. Young plants are sometimes grown in the conservatory and in the borders of shrubberies, as well as in the centres of beds. It requires a good stiff sandy loam, which must be well drained, and plenty of room for root action should be allowed. Young plants are obtained from seed sown in good mellow soil. Water sparingly, especially during the winter. Arbor Vitae. _See_ "Thuya." Arbutus (_Strawberry Tree_).--Elegant evergreen shrubs with dark foliage of great beauty during October and November, when they produce an abundance of pearly-white flowers, and the fruit of the previous year is ripe. A. Unedo is particularly charming. They flourish in the open in sandy loam. The dwarfs are increased by layers, the rest by seeds or by budding on each other. Arctostaphylos.--These evergreen shrubs need the same treatment as Arbutos. A. Uva-ursi, or Creeping Arbutos, is a pretty prostrate evergreen, which flowers in May, and is only 3 in. high. Arctotis.--A showy and interesting half-hardy annual. Raise the seed in a frame in March, and transplant in May. It succeeds best in a mixture of loam and peat. It flowers in June. Height, 1 ft. Arctotis Grandis.--A very handsome, half-hardy annual producing large daisy-like flowers on long wiry stems, the upper part being white and the base yellow and lilac, while the reverse of the petals are of a light lilac. The seed should be sown early in spring on a slight hot-bed, and the plants potted off, when sufficiently strong, using a rich, light mould. They may be transferred to the border as soon as all fear of frost is over. Height, 2-1/2 ft. Ardisia Japonica.--An evergreen shrub which delights in a mixture of loam and peat. Cuttings will strike if planted in sand under glass with a little bottom heat. It flowers in July. Height, 6 ft. Arenaria Balearica (_Sand Wort_).--A hardy evergreen trailing plant of easy culture, provided it is favoured with a sandy soil. Its cushions of white flowers are produced in July, and it may be increased by seed or division. Height, 3 in. It is a beautiful plant for moist, shady rock-work. Argemone.--Interesting hardy annuals, succeeding well in any common garden soil. Are increased by suckers or by seed sown in spring. Height, 6 in. to 3 ft. Aristolochia Sipho (_Dutchman's Pipe_).--This hardy, deciduous climber grows best in peat and sandy loam with the addition of a little dung. It may be raised from cuttings placed in sand under glass. Height, 30 ft. Armeria (_Thrift_).--Handsome hardy perennials for rock-work or pots. They require an open, rich, sandy soil. Bloom June to September. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Arnebia.--Ornamental hardy annuals, closely allied to the Anchusa. The seeds are sown in the open in spring, and flowers are produced in July. Height, 2 ft. There is also a dwarf hardy perennial variety (_A. Echioides_) known as the Prophet's Flower, growing about 1 ft. high, and flowering early in summer. It needs no special treatment. Artemisia Annua.--Pretty hardy annuals, the silvery leaves of the plant being very effective on rock-work. Sow the seed in spring where it is to flower. Height, 6 ft. Artemisia Arborea. _See_ "Southernwood." Artemisia Villarsii.--A hardy perennial whose graceful sprays of finely-cut silvery foliage are very useful for mixing with cut flowers. It may be grown from seed on any soil, and the roots bear dividing; flowers from June to August. Height, 2 ft. Artichokes.--The Jerusalem variety will flourish in light sandy soil where few other things will grow. Plant the tubers in March, 6 in. deep and 12 in. apart in rows 3 ft. asunder, and raise and store them in November. The Globe variety is increased by off-sets taken in March. Set them in deeply manured ground in threes, at least 2 ft. apart and 4 ft. from row to row. Keep them well watered, and the ground between them loose. They bear best when two or three years old. Arum Lilies.--In warm districts these beautiful plants may be grown in damp places out of doors, with a south aspect and a background of shrubs, though, not being thoroughly hardy, it is safer to grow them in pots. They may be raised from seed in boxes of leaf-mould and sand, covering them with glass, and keeping them well watered. As soon as they can be handled, transplant them into small pots, and pot on as they increase in size. They may also be increased by the small shoots that form round the base of the corms, using a compost of loam, leaf-mould, and sand, with a little crushed charcoal. In June transplant them in the open to ripen their corms, and in August put them carefully into 6-in. pots filled with the above-mentioned compost. They need at all times a good amount of moisture, especially at such times as they are removed from one soil to another. At the same time, it is necessary to procure good drainage. It is well to feed them every other day with weak liquid manure. A temperature of 55 degrees throughout the winter is quite sufficient. When grown in the open, the bulbs should be placed 3 in. below the soil, with a little silver sand beneath each, and not be disturbed oftener than once in four years. Three or four may stand a foot apart. Stake neatly the flower stems. They flower from September to June. Arums.--Remarkably handsome plants with fine foliage and curious inflorescence more or less enclosed in a hooded spathe, which is generally richly coloured and marked. They are hardy, easily grown in any soil (a good sandy one is preferable), and flower in July. Height, 1-1/2 ft. (_See also_ "Calla.") Asarum Europaeum.--This curious hardy perennial will grow in almost any soil, and may be increased by taking off portions of the root early in autumn, placing them in small pots till the beginning of spring, then planting them out. It produces its purple flowers in May. Height, 9 in. Asclepias (_Swallow-Wort_).--Showy hardy perennials which require plenty of room to develop. They may be grown from seed sown in August or April, or can be increased by division of the root. A very light soil is needed, and plenty of sunshine. Flowers are produced in July. Height, 1 ft. to 2-1/2 ft. Asparagus.--Sow in March or April, in rich light soil, allowing the plants to remain in the seed-beds until the following spring; then transplant into beds thoroughly prepared by trenching the ground 3 ft. deep, and mixing about a foot thick of well-rotted manure and a good proportion of broken bones and salt with the soil. The plants should stand 2 ft. apart. In dry weather water liberally with liquid manure, and fork in a good supply of manure every autumn. Give protection in winter. The plants should not be cut for use until they become strong and throw up fine grass, and cutting should not be continued late in the season. April is a good time for making new beds. The roots should be planted as soon as possible after they are lifted, as exposure to the air is very injurious to them. Asparagus Plumosus Nanus is a greenhouse variety, bearing fern-like foliage. The seeds should be sown in slight heat early in spring. Asparagus Sprengeri.--This delightful greenhouse climber is seen to best advantage when suspended in a hanging basket, but it also makes an attractive plant when grown on upright sticks, or on trellis-work. It is useful for cut purposes, lasting a long time in this state, and is fast taking the place of ferns, its light and elegant foliage making it a general favourite. It should be grown in rich, light mould, and may be propagated by seed or division. The roots should not be kept too wet, especially in cold weather. Asperula (_Woodruff_).--A. Azurea Setosa is a pretty, light-blue hardy annual, which is usually sown in the open in autumn for early flowering; if sown in the spring it will bloom in June or July. A. Odorata is a hardy perennial, merely needing ordinary treatment. It is serviceable for perfuming clothes, etc. Asperulas thrive in a moist soil, and grow well under the shade of trees. Height, 1 ft. Asphalte Paths.--Sift coarse gravel so as to remove the dusty portion, and mix it with boiling tar in the proportion of 25 gallons to each load. Spread it evenly, cover the surface with a layer of spar, shells, or coarse sand, and roll it in before the tar sets. Asphodelus.--Bold hardy herbaceous plants; fine for borders; will grow in common soil, and flower between May and August. Increased by young plants taken from the roots. Height, 2-1/2 ft. to 4 ft. Aspidistra.--This greenhouse herbaceous perennial is a drawing-room palm, and is interesting from the fact that it produces its flowers beneath the surface of the soil. It thrives in any fairly good mould, but to grow it to perfection it should be accommodated with three parts loam, one part leaf-mould, and one part sand. It will do in any position, but is best shaded from the midday sun. It may be increased by suckers, or by dividing the roots in April, May, or June. Supply the plant freely with water, especially when root-bound. When dusty, the leaves should be sponged with tepid milk and water--a teacup of the former to a gallon of the latter. This imparts a gloss to the leaves. A poor sandy soil is more suitable for the variegated kind, as this renders the variegation more constant. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Asters.--This splendid class of half-hardy annuals has been vastly improved by both French and German cultivators. Speaking generally, the flowers of the French section resemble the chrysanthemum, and those of the German the paeony. They all delight in a very rich, light soil, and need plenty of room from the commencement of their growth. The first sowing may be made in February or March, on a gentle hotbed, followed by others at about fourteen days' interval. The seeds are best sown in shallow drills and lightly covered with soil, then pressed down by a board. Prick out the seedlings 2 in. apart, and plant them out about the middle of May in a deeply-manured bed. If plant food be given it must be forked in lightly, as the Aster is very shallow-rooting, and it should be discontinued when the buds appear. For exhibition purposes remove the middle bud, mulch the ground with some good rotten soil from an old turf heap, and occasionally give a little manure water. Astilbe.--Ornamental, hardy herbaceous perennials, with large handsome foliage, and dense plumes of flowers, requiring a peaty soil for their successful cultivation. They may be grown from seed sown in July or August, or may be increased by division. They flower at the end of July. The varieties vary in height, some growing as tall as 6 ft. Astragalus Alpinus.--A hardy perennial bearing bluish-purple flowers. It will grow in any decent soil, and can be propagated from seed sown in spring or autumn, or by division. Height, 6 ft. Astragalus Hypoglottis.--A hardy deciduous trailing plant, producing purple flowers in July. Sow the seed early in spring on a moderate hotbed, and plant out into any garden soil. Height, 3 in. Astragalus Lotoides.--This pretty little trailer is of the same height as A. Hypoglottis, and merely requires the same treatment. It flowers in August. Astrantia.--This herbaceous plant is quite hardy, and will thrive in any good garden soil, producing its flowers in June and July. Seed may be sown either in autumn or spring. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. Atragene Austriaca.--Handsome, hardy climbers, which may be grown in any garden soil. They flower in August, and are increased by layers or by cuttings under glass. Height, 8 ft. Atriplex.--Straggling hardy annuals of very little beauty. Will grow in any soil if sown in spring, and only require ordinary attention. Flower in July. Height, 5 ft. Aubergine.--_See_ "Egg-Plant." Aubrietia.--An early spring-blooming hardy perennial. Very ornamental either in the garden or on rock-work, the flowers lasting a long time. An open and dry situation suits it best. May be readily raised from seed, and increased by dividing the roots or by cuttings under a glass. Flowers in March and April. Height 6 in. Aucuba.--Hardy evergreen shrubs, some having blotched leaves. They look well standing alone on grass plots, and are indifferent to soil or position. Cuttings may be struck in any garden soil under a hand-glass in August, or by layers in April or May. When the male and female varieties are planted together, the latter produce an abundance of large red berries, rendering the plant very showy and ornamental. They bloom in June. Height, 6 ft. Auricula.--This is a species of primrose, and is sometimes called Bear's Ear from the shape of its leaves. It succeeds best in a mixture of loam and peat, or in four parts rotten loam, two parts rotten cow dung, and one part silver sand; delights in shade, and will not bear too much water. It makes an effective border to beds, and is readily propagated by off-sets taken early in autumn, or in February or March, by division of roots immediately after flowering, or from seed sown in March on gentle heat in firmly pressed light, rich soil, covered with a piece of glass and shaded from the sun till the plants are well up, when sun and air is needed. When large enough to handle, prick them out in a cold frame 6 in. apart, and keep them there through the winter. Take care to press the soil well round the roots of off-sets. October is a good time for making new borders. The half-hardy kinds require the protection of a house in winter. Height, 6 in. Avena Sterilis.--A very singular hardy-annual ornamental grass, generally known as Animated Oats. Very useful in a green state for mixing with cut flowers. Sow in March or early in April. Height, 3 ft. Azaleas (_Greenhouse_).--A good soil for these deciduous shrubs is made by mixing a fair quantity of silver sand with good fibrous peat. The plants must never be allowed to become too wet nor too dry, and must be shaded from excessive sunshine. After they have flowered remove the remains of the blooms, place the plants out of doors in the sun to ripen the wood, or in a temperature of 60 degrees or 65 degrees, and syringe them freely twice a day. If they require shifting, it must be done directly the flowers have fallen. Cuttings taken off close to the plant will root in sand under a glass placed in heat. A. Indica is a plant of great beauty. Stand it in the open air in summer, in a partially shaded position. In winter remove it to a cool part of the greenhouse. The hardy varieties should receive the same treatment as rhododendrons. Flowers in June. Height, 4 ft. Azara Microphylla--This hardy evergreen shrub, with its fan-like branches and small dark, glossy leaves, is very ornamental and sweet-scented. It is increased by placing cuttings of ripened wood in sand under glass with a little heat. Height, 3 ft. B Babianas.--Charming, sweet-scented flowers, suitable for either pot cultivation or the border. In August or September place five bulbs in a well-drained 5-in. pot, using rich, light, very sandy soil; cover them completely, and press the mould down gently. Water very sparingly until the roots are well formed; indeed, if the soil is moist when the bulbs are planted, no water will be needed till the new growth appears above ground. Stand the pots in ashes and cover them with 3 in. of cocoa-nut fibre. When the flower spikes are formed, give weak liquid manure twice a week till the flowers open. Keep them in a temperature of 55 degrees. When the foliage begins to die down gradually, lessen the amount of moisture given. The bulbs while dormant are best left in the pots. For cultivation in the open, choose a warm situation, make the soil light and sandy, adding a good proportion of well-rotted manure, and plant the bulbs 5 in. deep either in autumn or spring. Height, 6 in. to 9 in. Bahia Lanata.--A hardy herbaceous plant of easy culture from seed sown in spring or autumn in any garden soil. It produces bright orange flowers from June to August. Height, 1 ft. Bahia Trolliifolia.--This hardy herbaceous perennial will grow in any kind of soil. It flowers in August, and can be increased by division. Height, 1 ft. Balsams.--The seeds of these tender annuals require to be sown in early spring in a hot-house or a warm frame having a temperature of 65 to 75 degrees. When 2 or 3 in. high, or large enough to handle, prick off singly into small pots, shade them till they are established, and re-pot as they advance in strength in a compost of loam, leaf-mould, sand, and old manure. Give them air when the weather is favourable. The last shift should be into 24-sized pots. Supply them with an abundance of liquid manure, admit as much air as possible, and syringe freely. They must never be allowed to get dry. Secure their stems firmly to sticks. They will flower in the open early in September. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. Bambusa.--The dwarf-growing Bamboos Fortunei variegata and Viridi-striata make graceful edgings to borders or paths. The whole family like a rich, loamy, damp soil. Baneberry.--_See_ "Actæa." Baptisia Australis.--This ornamental hardy perennial makes a good border plant, growing in any loamy soil, and producing its blue flowers in June and July. It can be multiplied by dividing the root. Height, 3 ft. Barbarea.--_See_ "Rocket." Barberries.--Very ornamental hardy shrubs, bearing rich yellow flowers in spring and attractive fruit in the autumn. Most handsome when trained to a single stem and the head allowed to expand freely. They are not particular as to soil, but prefer a rather light one, and succeed best in a moist, shady situation. Cuttings or layers root freely in the open. They require very little attention, beyond occasionally cutting away some of the old branches to make room for new growth. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. Bartonia aurea.--Beautiful hardy annuals, the flowers of which open at night and effuse a delightful odour. Sow the seed in autumn on a gentle hotbed; pot off, and protect in a greenhouse during the winter. Plant them out in the open in May, where they will flower in June. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Bay, Sweet _(Laurus Nobilis_).--This half-hardy evergreen shrub likes a sheltered position. Protection from severe frosts is requisite, especially while it is young. It is more suitable as an isolated specimen plant than for the border. Increased by layers or by cuttings of the roots. Beans, Broad.--A deep, strong loam is most suitable, but good crops can be obtained from any garden soil. The first sowing should be made in February or March, and in succession to May. A sowing of Beck's Green Gem or Dwarf Fan may even be made in November in rows 2 ft. apart. Other varieties should be planted in rows 3 ft. apart, sowing the seed 3 in. deep and at intervals of 6 in. When the plants have done flowering pinch off the tops, to ensure a better crop; and if the black fly has attacked them, take off the tops low enough down to remove the pests, and burn them at once. Seville Longpod and Aquadulce may be recommended for an early crop, and Johnson's Wonderful and Harlington Windsor for a main one. Beans, French.--The soil should be dug over to a depth of at least 12 in. and liberally enriched with manure. In the open ground the first sowing may be made about the third week in April, another sowing early in May, and subsequent sowings for succession every two or three weeks until the end of July. Plant in rows 2 ft apart, and the seeds 6 to 9 in. apart in the rows. A sharp look-out ought to be kept for slugs, which are very partial to French Beans when pushing through the soil. For forcing, sow in pots under glass from December to March. Beans, Runner.--These are not particular as to position or soil, but the best results are obtained by placing them in a deep rich mould where they can get a fair amount of sunlight. Sow, from the second week in May until the first week in July for succession, in rows 6 ft. apart, thinning the plants out to 1 ft. apart in the rows. Protect from slugs when the plants are coming through the ground, and support them with sticks immediately the growth begins to run. Scarlet Runners may be kept dwarf by pinching off the tops when the plants are about 1 ft. high, and nipping off the subsequent shoots when 6 in. long. Beet.--Land that has been well manured for the previous crop is the best on which to obtain well-shaped roots of high quality. Sow in April and May in drills 18 in. apart, and thin out the plants to about 9 in. apart. Take up for use as wanted until November, when the whole crop should be taken up and stored in dry sand, and in a place where neither moisture nor frost can reach them. When storing them cut off the tails and some portion of the crowns, but be careful not to wound any part of the fleshy root. Begonias.--A somewhat succulent genus of conservatory plants. They all require a very rich loamy soil containing a little sand; and heat, moisture, and shade are essential to their health. Cuttings 2 or 3 in. long will root readily in spring or summer. Stand the cuttings in the shade and do not over-water them; or they may be raised from seed sown in March in a hot-house or frame having a temperature of 65 degrees. Height, 1 ft. to 3 ft. Tuberous Begonias should be planted in small pots placed in heat, early in spring, and at intervals of a fortnight for succession, using a compost of equal parts of fibrous loam, leaf-mould, and sand. Press the soil rather firmly so as to promote sturdy growth, and only just cover the top of the tuber. Water moderately till the plants begin to grow freely. Gradually harden off, and plant out the last week in May or early in June, or shift into larger pots for conservatory decoration. Cuttings may be taken in April. The plants may also be raised from seed sown in February or March in a temperature of 65 degrees. Before sowing mix the seed with silver sand, then sprinkle it evenly over a box or pan of moist, fine, light loam and silver sand; cover with a sheet of glass, and keep shaded. Transplant into small pots, and pot on from time to time as the plants increase in size. Plants so treated will flower in June or July. When the leaves of the old plants turn yellow keep the roots quite dry, afterwards turn them out of the pots and bury them in cocoa-nut fibre till January, when they must be re-potted. Belladonna Lily.--_See_ "Amaryllis." Bellis Perennis.--_See_ "Daisies." Benthamia.--An ornamental half-hardy shrub. A profuse bloomer, the flowers of which are followed by edible strawberry-like fruit. Will succeed in any good garden against a south wall. Easily raised from seed or by layers. Flowers in August. Height, 3 ft. Berberidopsis Corallina.--Distinct and very pretty evergreen climbing shrubs, which prove hardy in the south and west, but need protection in other places. They are not particular as to soil, and may be increased by cuttings. Bergamot _(Monardia Didyma_).--This hardy perennial will grow almost anywhere, and may be increased by seed or by division of the root. It flowers in _July_. Height, 4 ft. Beta Cicla.--A hardy annual which succeeds in any common soil. Its dark crimson and yellow flowers are borne in August. Height, 6 ft. It is used as spinach. In Germany the midrib of the leaf is boiled and eaten with gravy or melted butter. Betonica.--_See_ "Stachys." Biennials.--These plants take two years to flower, and then they die away altogether. The seed of the hardy varieties is sown thinly in the open border any time between April and June, and the plants transferred in the autumn to the place where they are intended to bloom. Seed is also sown in August and September for flowering the following year. The half-hardy kinds may be sown in May or June. These require protection during winter, such as is afforded by a cold pit, frame, or greenhouse, or the covering of a mat or litter. Bignonia _(Trumpet Flower_).--This is admirably suitable for a south wall, but it requires plenty of room. It is propagated by cuttings placed in sand, or by cuttings of the root. These should be planted out in the spring, or autumn will do if they are covered with a hand-glass. Biota.--_See_ "Thuya." Bird Cherry.--_See_ "Cerasus." Blackberries.--To obtain good crops plant in a poor, dry soil on raised banks facing south. The bushes should be planted 6 ft. apart. Bladder Nut.--_See_ "Staphylea." Blanket Flower.--_See_ "Gaillardia." Bleeding Heart.--_See_ "Dielytra." Bocconia Cordata.--Ornamental hardy perennials. They do best on a loamy soil, and may be increased by suckers taken from established plants in the summer and placed in rich soil; or by cuttings planted in sand, in a gentle heat under glass; also by seed sown during the autumn months. They appear to the greatest advantage when grown as solitary plants, away from other tall-growing flowers. The variety B. Frutescens has an exceedingly pretty foliage. August is the month in which they flower. Height, 6 ft. Bog or Marsh Land.--By planting a few of the more distinct species adapted for such positions, bogs or marshes may be made interesting. The following plants are suitable:--Arundo Donax, Bambusa Fortunei, Cypripedium Spectabile, Dondia Epipactis, Drosera Rotundifolia, Gunnera Scabra, Iris Kaempferi, Iris pseud-Acorus, Juncus Zebrinus, Myosotis Palustris, Osmunda Regalis, Parnassia Palustris, Pinguicula Vulgaris, Polygonum Sieboldi, and Sarracenia Purpurea. Boltonia Asteroides.--This is a hardy perennial which flowers in September. The same treatment that is given to Asters is suitable for this plant. Height, 3 ft. Bomarea.--A useful greenhouse climber, the flowers of which are valuable for cutting, as they last a long time in water. It thrives best in a mixture of sand, peat, and loam. Borago Laxiflora.--This very choice Boragewort is a trailing hardy biennial. It produces lovely pale pendent flowers from June to August, will grow in almost any soil, and can be increased by seed or division. Height, 1 ft. Borecole, Kale, or Curled Greens.--Sow towards the end of March or early in April. Plant out as soon as ready in moderately rich soil in rows 3 ft. apart, and the plants 2 ft. apart in the rows. If the seed is sown thickly, the young plants must be pricked off into another bed until ready for planting, as strong, sturdy plants always produce the best results. They may succeed peas without any fresh manure. Boronias.--Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. A single plant of B. Megastigma is sufficient to perfume a good-sized house. B. Drummondi, Elatior, Heterophylla, and Serrulata are all good plants. The pots should be filled with sandy peat and be well drained. They are propagated by cuttings taken at a joint and placed under glass. May is their flowering month. Height, 2 ft. Bougainvillea.--A greenhouse evergreen climber, thriving best in a loamy soil. It flowers in June, and may be increased by cuttings. Height, 15 ft. Bousingaultia Basselloides.--A rapidly growing climber, beautiful both in flower and foliage, the former of which is pure white, produced in July in elegant racemes from 6 in. to 8 in. long. It is nearly hardy; very suitable for a cool greenhouse. Any garden soil suits it. Height, 6 ft. Bouvardias.--Favourite stove plants. They are propagated by pieces of the thick fleshy roots, about 2 in. long, inserted in light, rich, sandy soil, and plunged in a bottom-heat. Plant out in May in rich, light soil, cutting back all the over-vigorous growth, so as to form a well-balanced plant. At the approach of cold weather they may be taken up and potted off, using small pots to prevent them damping off. In a warm greenhouse they will flower all the winter. Box Edging.--A deep loam suits the box best. Cuttings should be taken early in autumn. Dig a trench, and make the bottom firm and even. Set the young plants thinly and at regular intervals, leaving the tops 1 in. above the surface. Tread the soil firmly against them. Cover with 1 in. of gravel to prevent them growing too luxuriantly. The end of June is a good time for clipping. May be transplanted early in spring or late in autumn. (_See also_ "Buxus.") Brachycome (_Swan River Daisy_).--Beautiful little half-hardy annuals bearing cineraria-like flowers that open well in the border in summer. If well watered in autumn and removed to the greenhouse they will continue to bloom during early winter. Sow the seed as for ordinary half-hardy annuals in rich, light mould, covering them sparingly. Bloom in May. Height, 6 in. Bravoa Geminiflora (_Twin Flower_).--This hardy bulbous plant bears lovely racemes of coral-coloured flowers in July. A rich loam suits it best. Height, 1 ft. Briza (_Quaking Grass_).--There are several varieties of this ornamental hardy annual grass. Briza Gracillis is slender, and very pretty both in a green and dried state. Briza Maxima bears large and handsome panicles. Each variety should be sown in pots, or on a sheltered bed out of doors, early in spring. Height, 1 ft. Broccoli.--Requires a heavy, deep, rich soil, and liquid manure during growth. For earliest crop sow thinly in beds early in March, giving a little protection if necessary. Successional sowings should be made to the end of June, to produce a constant supply till Cauliflowers are ready. Transplant, when large enough to handle, about 2 ft. from each other. Keep the ground free from weeds, and earth the plants up as they advance in growth. Sow Purple Sprouting Broccoli in May for late spring supplies. Brodiaea Coccinea.--Handsome plants for rock-work or the border. On a dry, light, sandy soil, with plenty of sunshine, their gorgeous spikes of brilliant scarlet flowers are very attractive in May. The bulbs may be planted in November, and left undisturbed. Broom.--Hardy shrubs thriving in almost any soil. Cuttings will strike if planted in sand under glass. (_See also_ "Genista" _and_ "Spartium.") Broussonetia Papyrifera.--A very effective deciduous shrub, with large, curiously-cut leaves. It likes an open soil, and is propagated by cuttings. February is its blooming time. Height, 12 ft. Browallia.--Very handsome half-hardy annuals; will grow readily from seed in any garden soil, but prefer a sandy one. They bloom in July. Height, 2 ft. Brussels Sprouts.--For a first crop sow early in March, and in April for succession. Transplant as soon as ready into deeply-trenched, well-manured soil, about 2 ft. apart. Hoe well, and keep clear from weeds. For exhibition and early use sow in a greenhouse, or in a frame over a gentle hotbed, about the middle of February; prick off into a cold frame, gradually harden off, and plant out in May. Bryanthus Erectus.--A hardy evergreen shrub, which will grow in any soil if the situation is shady and damp. It thrives without any sunshine, but will not endure the constant dropping of moisture upon its leaves from trees. Cuttings strike readily. April is its flowering time. Height, 1 ft. Budding.--Budding consists in raising an eye or bud from one part of a bush or tree and transplanting it to another part, or to any other plant of the same species. The process is not only more simple and rapid than that of grafting, but many leading nurserymen contend that a better union is effected, without the risk of dead wood being left at the junction. It may be performed at any time from June to August, cloudy days being most suitable, as the buds unite better in wet weather. It is chiefly employed on young trees having a smooth and tender bark. Of the various systems of budding, that known as the Shield is probably the most successful. Make a small horizontal cut in the bark of the stock, and also a vertical one about an inch long, thus forming an elongated T shape. Next select a branch of the current year's growth on which there is a well-formed leaf-bud. Pass a sharp knife 1/2 in. above the bud and the same distance below it, taking about a third of the wood with the bud. If in the process of detaching it the interior of the bud is torn away it is useless, and a fresh bud must be taken. Now hold the bud in the mouth, and with as little delay as possible raise the bark of the stock with a knife, insert the bud, and bind it on with raffia. When the bud begins to grow the binding must be loosened. To prevent the shoots being torn away by the wind a stake may be tied on to the stock, and the new shoot secured to it by means of raffia. Fruit trees are sometimes budded close to the soil on stocks 1-1/2 ft. in height. The buds are rubbed off the stock as soon as they appear, but the stock is not cut away until the following spring. Buddlea.--Half-hardy, tall, deciduous greenhouse shrubs, delighting in a loamy soil mixed with peat. They may be grown out of doors during the summer, but need the protection of a house in winter. Bugloss (_Anchusa_).--This showy plant, bearing large blue flowers in June, may be increased by division of the roots into as many plants as there are heads, from slips, or from seed sown in the open border in spring. It is popularly known as Ox-Tongue. Bulbocodium Trigynum (_Colchicum Caucasium_).--A miniature hardy bulbous plant, which produces in February and March erect flowers about the size of snowdrops. Set the bulbs in sandy loam or leaf-mould, choosing a sunny situation. The bulbs may be divided every other year. Height, 2 in. Bulbocodium Vernum (_Spring Saffron_).--This bulb produces early in spring, and preceding the foliage, a mass of rose-purple flowers close to the ground. It is perfectly hardy, and valuable for edgings or rock-work. Plant in autumn in light vegetable mould, and in a sheltered, well-drained position. It will not grow in stiff, clay soil. The bulbs may be divided every two years, after the tops have died down. This dwarf plant flowers from January to March. Height, 6 in. Buphthalmum Salicifolium (_Deep Golden-yellow Marguerite_).--Showy and ornamental hardy perennials. They will grow in any good soil, and flower from May to September; may be increased by suckers. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Burning Bush.--_See_ "Dictamnus" _and_ "Fraxinella." Buxus (_Tree Box_).--A useful evergreen shrub which may be grown in any soil or situation. The B. Japonica Aurea is one of the best golden plants known for edgings to a walk. The closer it is clipped the brighter it becomes. Increased by suckers or layers. C Cabbage.--Sow from February to April for an autumn supply, and in July and August for spring cutting. As soon as the plants have made four or five leaves, transplant into soil that has been liberally manured and trenched, or dug deeply, placing them 18 in. or 2 ft. apart, according to the kind grown. Keep the soil well broken up, and give a liberal supply of liquid manure while they are in a growing state. An open and sunny situation is necessary. Among the best varieties for spring sowing are Heartwell, Early Marrow, Little Pixie, Nonpareil, Sugarloaf, and Early Dwarf York. For autumn sowing, Ellam's Dwarf Early Spring, Defiance, and Enfield Market may be recommended. Coleworts may be sown in June, July, and August for succession, placing them about a foot apart, and cutting before they heart. Chou de Burghley is of great value for spring sowing, and will be found very useful during autumn and early in winter. This vegetable is sometimes called Cabbage Broccoli, on account of the miniature Broccoli which are formed among its inner leaves towards autumn. Couve Tronchuda, known also as Braganza Marrow and Portugal Cabbage, should be sown in March, April, and May for succession. Savoy Cabbage is sown in March or April, and given the same treatment as other Cabbage. Its flavour is much improved if the plants are mellowed by frost before being cut for use. Red Dutch is used almost solely for pickling. Its cultivation is precisely the same as the white varieties. Cacalia.--Hardy annuals, remarkable for their awkward-looking stems and discoloured leaves. They grow best in a mixture of sandy loam, brick rubbish, and decomposed dung, well reduced. They require very little water while growing, and the pots must be well drained. Cuttings, laid by for a few days to dry, strike readily. Flower in June. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Cactus.--A sandy loam with brick rubbish and a little peat or rotten manure suits them. Echinopsis is a good plant for cool houses or windows. During the summer it should be syringed over-head with tepid water, and weak soot water should be given three times a week. It is propagated by off-sets planted in sand, also by slicing off a portion from the top of the plant and placing it in light, rich, porous loam. Caladiums.--Favourite hothouse foliage plants, generally grown in peat soil at a temperature of 70 degrees. They require plenty of light while growing, and to be kept moderately moist at the roots. As the leaves lose colour less water should be given, and during winter they must be kept almost dry. When fresh growth begins, shake them out of their pots and put them into fresh mould. In syringing the plants use nothing but the purest rainwater, but the less the leaves are wetted the better for the appearance of the plants. They may be increased by dividing the root stock into as many pieces as there are crowns. These should be planted in very rich, sandy soil, an inch or so below the surface. Calamintha Grandiflora.--This hardy herbaceous plant has sweetly-fragrant foliage, and bears rose-coloured flowers from May to September. Any loamy soil suits it, and it is easily increased by suckers. Height, 1 ft. Calampelis.--A species of half-hardy climbing plants of great merit. They are elegant when in flower, and will endure the open air. They should be trained to a south wall, or over a vase, or up a pillar. Any light loamy soil suits them, and they are easily increased by cuttings. Flower in July. Height, 10 ft. (_See also_ "Eccremocarpus.") Calandrinia.--Very pretty hardy annuals. They grow well in sunny places in a mixture of loam and peat, and may be raised from seed sown in the spring or by cuttings placed under hand-glasses. Bloom in July. Height, 6 in. to 1 ft. Calceolaria.--Many of the varieties are suitable for the greenhouse only. They may be grown from seed, but as this is so small it should not be covered; and in watering them it is best to stand the seed-pans in water so that the moisture ascends, as watering from the top might wash the seed too deeply into the soil. July and August are the two best months for sowing. The half-shrubby kinds make fine bedding plants. They are easily reared from cuttings. These are best taken in October. Put them in light, sandy mould on a well-drained north border; press the earth round them, and cover with a hand-glass. In very frosty weather a mat should be laid over the glass. Pot them off in spring; give plenty of air, and plant them out at the beginning of June, or before, if weather permits. Calendula (_Marigolds_).--Very showy hardy annuals. They merely require sowing in the open in autumn for an early display of bloom, or in spring for a later show, but the autumn sowing gives the more satisfaction. Flower during June and July. Height, 1 ft. Californian Plants.--Great care should be taken not to allow the sun to strike on the collar of any of the plants from California, as they readily succumb if it does so. Calla.--These showy plants, sometimes called Arum, are worth cultivating. They make handsome pot-plants, bearing fine white flowers in the spring. May be grown from seeds, or roots may be divided. They are quickly increased by off-sets from the root in August or September. Plant the off-sets from the fleshy roots singly in small, well-drained pots of sandy loam with one-fourth leaf-mould or well-rotted manure, and keep them in a very warm situation. Water them well while in growth, scantily after the leaves begin to wither, and afterwards give only enough moisture to keep them alive. Leave the plants in the light while the leaves die off, and then place them in a shed, in complete repose, for a month or so. Re-pot them in October or November, and give plenty of water. They may stand in saucers of water, but this must be changed daily. They flower from May to July. Height, 2 ft. Callichroa.--A hardy annual which well deserves a place in the garden border, both on account of its dwarf and slender habit and also the colour of its flowers. It is satisfied with any ordinary soil. The seed is raised on a hotbed in March, or in the open in April, and it blooms in the autumn. Height, 1 ft. Calliopsis.--_See_ "Coreopsis." Callirhoe (_Digitata_).--Hardy annuals demanding but little attention. The seed is sown in the open in March. Height, 1 ft. Calochortus Luteus.--This very handsome hardy perennial thrives best in sandy peat with a little loam. It produces yellow flowers in July, and is propagated by offsets from the bulbs. Height, 1 ft. Caltha.--Early-flowering, showy perennials, all thriving in a moist or boggy situation. C. Leptosepala is especially choice, its pure white flowers resembling a water-lily. They may be increased from seed, or by division. Height, 1 ft. Calthus Palustris Flore-Pleno (_Double Marsh Marigold_).--This hardy herbaceous perennial is very useful for mixing with cut flowers. It will grow anywhere, but prefers a clayey soil and a boggy situation, and may be increased by dividing the roots in spring. A succession of flowers are borne from April to June. Height, 9 in. Calycanthus Floridus (_Allspice_).--This shrub likes an open loamy soil; flowers in July, and is propagated by layers. Height, 6 ft. Calystegia.--A perfectly hardy climbing convolvulus, and a beautiful plant for covering arbours, etc., growing 20 ft. to 30 ft. in one season. It thrives in any loamy soil or situation; flowers from May to September, and may be increased by division of the roots. Camassia Esculenta.--A handsome, hardy, bulbous plant, bearing clusters of beautiful blue flowers in July. It needs a sandy peat border under a north wall, and is increased by bulbs or seeds. Plant the bulbs early in October, 4 in. deep and 5 in. apart. Height, 1-1/3 ft. Camellias.--The best soil for these beautiful greenhouse evergreens is a mixture of rough peat, plenty of sand, and a little turfy loam. The greenhouse should be kept rather close, at a temperature of 55 degrees to 60 degrees, while the plants are growing; but abundant syringing is necessary at all times. Induce a vigorous growth of wood, and let this be well matured by exposure to the sun and free ventilation. Old and straggling plants may be renovated by cutting them hard back as soon as they go out of flower, and placing them in a warm house where a moist atmosphere is maintained. This will induce them to break. Comparatively little water should be given for some time after they are cut back. When the state of the roots require the plants to be re-potted, remove as much of the old soil as possible without injuring them, and put them into the smallest sized pots into which they can be got, with fresh soil. This may be done after the last flower has fallen, or after the buds have fairly commenced to push. The plants may be placed out of doors at the beginning of June, and returned to the greenhouse in October. There are several varieties suitable for growing in the open. These should be provided with a soil, 2 ft. deep, composed of peat, leaf-mould, and cows' dung. The roots should always be kept moist and cool, and the plants disturbed as little as possible. A top dressing of fresh soil may be given each winter, and the plants protected from frost by binding straw round the stems. Campanula.--A showy genus of plants, mostly hardy perennials, which need no special treatment. They are readily raised from seed, or division of roots. The less hardy kinds may be sown on a hotbed or in the greenhouse, and when large enough potted off. Campanula Mayii is a grand plant for hanging baskets, and also grows well trained up sticks in a pyramidal form. A rich, gritty soil suits them all. The tall-growing varieties make fine pot-plants. Flower in July. Height, 1 ft. to 5 ft. Canary Creeper (_Tropaeolum Canariense_).--This is eminently suitable for trellis-work or for walls. Its elegant foliage and bright yellow flowers make it a general favourite. It may be raised from seed on a hotbed in spring, gradually hardened off, and planted out in May. Height, 10 ft. Candytuft (_Iberis_).--Very pretty hardy annuals. Sow the seed in autumn in a light, rich soil, or in spring if a less prolonged flowering season will give satisfaction. Bloom in May or June. Height, 1 ft. Canna (_Indian Shot or Hemp_).--For pot-plants on terraces, gravel walks, and such like places, few things can equal and none surpass Cannas. They are half-hardy perennials, and may be increased from seed or by dividing the roots late in autumn, allowing them first to partially dry. File the tough skin off one end of the seed, and steep it in hot water for a few hours before it is sown, then stand it in a hot place till it has germinated. Harden off and plant out, or shift into larger pots in June, using a rich, light soil. Lift and store the roots in autumn in the same way as Dahlias. Different kinds flower at various seasons, so that a succession of bloom may be had throughout the year. Height, 2 ft. to 10 ft. Cannabis Gigantea (_Giant Hemp_).--This half-hardy Hemp is grown for its ornamental foliage, and is treated as above described. Height, 6 ft. Canterbury Bells.--Showy hardy biennials, which may be raised from seed sown in the spring. Transplant in the autumn to the border where they are intended to flower. The seed may also be sown in a sheltered position in August or September. Flower in July. Height, 2 ft. Cape Primroses.--_See_ "Streptocarpus." Caprifolium.--_See_ "Honeysuckle." Capsicum.--Sow early in March in well-drained pots of rich, light, free mould; cover the seed with 1/2 in. of soil, and keep it constantly moist at a temperature of 65 degrees. When strong enough to handle put two or three plants in a 5-in. pot, and replace them in warmth. Keep them rather close till established, then shift them into 7-in. pots. When established remove them to a cold frame and harden off. Plant out at the end of May in a warm situation. Keep them well supplied with water in dry weather and syringe the leaves. By stopping the shoots they become nice, bushy shrubs. Flower in July. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Cardamine Pratensis (_Cuckoo Flower, or Milkmaid_).--This hardy perennial thrives in a moist, shady situation. It produces its purple flowers from May to August, and is easily propagated by seeds or division. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Cardamine Trifolia.--A hardy herbaceous plant; will grow in any soil, flowers in May, and is easily raised from seed. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Cardoons.--Sow two or three seeds together in clumps 1 ft. apart, in trenches prepared as for Celery, in April or May. When 6 in. high pull up the superfluous plants, leaving the strongest one in each case. When they have attained the height of 1-1/2 ft, tie the leaves lightly to a stake and earth-up the stem. Keep them well supplied with water, adding a little guano. They will be ready for use in September. Another sowing may be made in June for a spring crop. Carduus (_Milk Thistle_).--Coarse hardy annuals; somewhat ornamental, but are hardly more than weeds. They grow freely from seed, and flower from June to August. Height, 2 ft. to 4 ft. Carex Japonica.--This is a graceful and very beautiful variegated grass, striped green, silver, and gold, and makes a fine decoration for the table. It will grow in any moderately moist soil, and bears dividing. Sow in spring. Carlina.--Ornamental, thistle-like, hardy perennials, which will grow in any ordinary soil. Flowers are borne from June to September. Seed may be sown as soon as it is ripe. Height, 9 in. to 2 ft. Carnations.--These are divided into three classes, but they are all said originally to come from the clove: (1) Flakes, which are striped with one colour and white; (2) Bizarres, those streaked with two colours and white; (3) Picotees, which have each petal margined with colour on a white or yellow ground, or dotted with small spots. For pot culture, about the end of March put two roots in an 11-in. pot, filled with light, turfy loam, well drained (too much moisture being injurious), pressing the earth firmly round the roots. Stand them on a bed of ashes in a sheltered position, and when the flower-stems appear, stake and tie up carefully. As the buds swell thin out the weakly ones. To prevent them bursting unevenly put an india-rubber ring round the bud, or tie it with raffia. They will flourish in the open borders even in towns if planted in light loam, and may be propagated by _layers_ at the end of July or beginning of August. Choose for this purpose fine outside shoots, not those which have borne flowers. Cut off all the lower leaves, leaving half a dozen near the top untouched. Make incisions on the under sides of the layers, just below the third joint. Peg down, and cover the stems with equal quantities of leaf-mould and light loam. Do not water them till the following day. The young plants may be separated and potted off as soon as they have taken root--say, the end of August. They may also be increased by _pipings_. Fill the pots nearly to the top with light, rich mould and fill up with silver sand. Break off the pipings at the third joint, then in each piping cut a little upward slit, plant them pretty thickly in the sand, and place the pot on a gentle hotbed, or on a bed of sifted coal ashes. Put on the sashes, and keep the plants shaded from the sun till they have taken root, then harden off gradually, and place each of the young plants separately in a small pot. Carnations may also be grown from seed sown in spring. When the seedlings have made six or eight leaves, prick them out into pots or beds. They will flower the following year. The beds must be well drained, as stagnant wet is very injurious to them. Carnation Margaritae.--May be sown in heat during February or March, pricked out when strong enough, and planted in the open in May or June. Carpenteria Californica.--The white flowers of this evergreen shrub, which make their appearance in July, are delicately fragrant. The plant is most suitable for a cool greenhouse, but does well in the open, in warm, well-drained situations. When grown in pots the mould should consist of two parts turfy loam, one part peat, and a little sharp sand. It may be increased by seeds or by cuttings planted in sandy soil, with a medium bottom heat. Carrots.--To grow them to perfection carrots require a deep, rich, sandy soil, which has been thoroughly trenched and manured the previous autumn. For the main crop the seed should be sown in March, either broadcast or in rows 18 in. apart. A calm day must be chosen for sowing, as the seed is very light and liable to be blown about. It has also a tendency to hang together, to obviate which it is generally rubbed into some light soil or sand previously to being scattered. Thin out to a distance of from 4 to 7 in., according to the kind grown. For early use the French Horn may be sown on a hotbed in January and February. Keep the surface of the ground well open with the hoe. Cassia Corymbosa.--This stove shrub is an evergreen. It should be grown in a mixture of loam and peat, and may be increased by cuttings planted in sand under glass in a little heat. It flowers in July. Height, 3 ft. Castor Oil Plants.--_See_ "Ricinus." Catananche.--Pretty hardy biennials that will grow in almost any soil, and may be increased by seed or division. They bloom in August. Height, 21/2 ft. to 3 ft. Catchfly.--_See_ "Silene." Cathcartia Villosa.--A beautiful Himalayan poppy, possessing a rich, soft, hairy foliage and yellow flowers, borne in succession from June to September. Any light, rich soil suits it, but it requires a sheltered position. It is propagated by seeds sown in spring. Height, 11/2 ft. Cauliflowers.--Sow thinly in pans or shallow boxes early in February and March on a gentle bottom-heat. Make a larger and the main sowing in the open ground in March, April, and May for autumn cutting. A sowing should also be made in August for spring and summer use. These latter should be pricked into a frame or under a hand-glass during the winter, and in spring planted out so as to stand 30 in. apart. When the heads appear break some of the large leaves down over them to afford protection, and during the whole of their growth pour plenty of water round the stems in dry weather. They require a thoroughly rich and well-tilled soil to grow them to perfection. Ceanothus.--A genus of handsome and ornamental evergreen shrubs. They are free-flowering and suitable for the conservatory or outdoor decoration if placed in warm situations. They flourish best in peat and loam, and are increased by cuttings planted in sand and subjected to gentle heat. Height, 3 ft. to 6 ft. Cedronella.--Ornamental hardy perennials; will grow in any soil, but require a little protection in the winter. They produce their deep purple flowers in June. Height, 3 ft. Cedrus Deodora.--A beautiful and graceful conifer, its arched branches being thickly set with long grey-coloured or whitish-green leaves. In its young stage it makes an exquisite specimen for the lawn. It is the best of all the Cedars for such a purpose. The usual method of propagating it is by grafting it on to the common Larch. Celery.--Sow in February or early in March on a mild hotbed for the earliest crop. Prick the seedlings off into shallow boxes as soon as they are large enough to handle, and keep them rather close and warm until they are established. Towards the end of March prick them out in rows in a frame, setting them 6 in. apart each way, and early in May transfer to rather shallow trenches, protecting them from night frosts. For main and late crops sow in a cold frame in April and plant out in June or July, 9 in. apart, in trenches 3 ft. distant from each other, 9 in. wide, and 18 in. deep, pressing the soil firmly round the roots. Earthing up should be delayed until the plants are nearly full grown, and should be done gradually; but let the whole be completed before the autumn is far advanced. When preparing the trench plenty of manure should be dug into the soil. Water liberally until earthed up to ensure crisp, solid hearts, and an occasional application of liquid manure will benefit the plants. During winter protect from frost with straw, or other suitable material. Celosia (_Feathered Cockscomb_).--Sow the seed in early spring in a warm frame; prick off singly into small pots, and re-pot as they advance in strength in a compost of loam, leaf-mould, old manure, and sand. Their final shift should be into 24-sized pots. Give them abundance of liquid manure, never allowing them to become dry, and syringe freely. These half-hardy annuals, rising to the height of 3 ft. and bearing fine spikes of flowers in July and August, make fine pot-plants for table decoration. They may be planted in the open, in June, choosing a warm, sheltered situation and rich, loamy soil. Centaurea.--The hardy annual and biennial kinds merely require to be sown in the open in the autumn. The half-hardy ones must be sown on a slight hotbed, where they should remain till strong enough to be planted in the border. Cuttings of the perennials should be inserted singly in 3-in. pots filled with sandy loam, placed in a shady, cool frame till established, and then watered very carefully. The different varieties vary from 6 in. to 2 ft. in height, and flower from June to August. Centauridium Drummondi.--A blue hardy annual which may be sown in the open in spring. Centranthus.--Ornamental hardy annuals. Sow in the open border in March in any good, well-drained soil. They flower in June. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Cephalaria (_Yellow Scabious_).--Strong-growing hardy perennials, suitable for backs of borders. They succeed in any garden soil, and are propagated by seed or division of root. Height, 3 ft. to 5-1/2 ft. Cephalotaxus (_Podocarpus Koraiana_).--Handsome conifers of the Yew type. These shrubs are quite hardy, and in favoured localities will produce berries. They succeed best in a damp, shady spot, and may be increased by cuttings planted in heavy loam. Cerastium Biebersteini.--A hardy trailing perennial which will grow in any light soil, and may be increased by suckers. It flowers in June. Height, 6 in. Cerasus Padus (_Bird Cherry_).--An ornamental tree; useful in the shrubbery in its earlier stages, as it will grow in any soil. It may be increased by seed, budding, or grafting; flowers in April. Height, 35 ft. Cerinthe.--Hardy annuals, suitable for any ordinary soil, and needing merely ordinary treatment. A grand plant for bees. Height, 1 ft. Cestrums.--Charming conservatory plants, flowering early in spring. Cuttings may be taken in autumn, placed in small pots in a light compost of peat and sand, and given a little bottom-heat. The young plants may be topped to form bushy ones. Re-pot before the roots have filled the small pots, using two parts loam, one part peat, and one part sharp sand. C. Parqui is suitable for the open if planted in a sheltered position. Chamaepeuce.--Half-hardy perennial Thistle plants of little merit. Any soil suits them, and they may be increased by seed or division. Flower in June. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Chamaerops (_Chusan Palm_).--Fine greenhouse plants, delighting in a rich, loamy soil. Height, 10 ft. Cheiranthus.--_See_ "Wallflower." Chelidonium.--This hardy perennial will flourish in any garden soil; flowers in May, and may be increased by division. Height, 2 ft. Chelone.--Charming hardy herbaceous plants. Succeed well in a mixture of peat and loam or any rich soil. Increased by division of root, or by seed treated like other hardy perennials. They are very effective for the centre of beds, or in groups. Bloom in July. Height, 3 ft. Cherries.--A light, rich soil is the one that Cherries succeed in best, though they will grow in any fairly good dry ground. The position should be open, but at the same time sheltered, as the blossoms are liable to be cut off by spring frosts. The planting may be done at any time during November and the beginning of March, when the ground is in a workable condition. Cherries are often worked upon the Mahaleb stock. As they have a tendency to gumming and canker, the knife should be used as little as possible, but where pruning is necessary, let it be done in the summer. If gumming occurs, cut away the diseased parts and apply Stockholm tar to the wounds. Aphides or black-fly may be destroyed by tobacco dust and syringing well with an infusion of soft soap. Morello succeeds on a north wall. Bigarreau, Waterloo, Black Eagle, Black Tartarian, May Duke, White Heart, and Kentish are all good sorts. Bush trees should stand 10 ft. apart, standards 30 ft. Cherry (_Cornelian_).--_See_ "Cornus Mas." Cherry Pie.--_See_ "Heliotrope." Chervil.--For summer use sow in March, and for winter requirements in July and August, in shallow drills 6 or 8 in. apart. Cut for use when 3 or 4 in. high. The tender tops and leaves are used in soups and stews, to which they impart a warm, aromatic flavour. They likewise give piquancy to mixed salads. Chestnuts.--To raise trees from seed sow the nuts in November, about 2 in. deep. When two years old they may be transplanted to their permanent site. The only pruning they require is to cut away any branches which would prevent the tree forming a well-balanced head. Chicory.--Sow in May or June in drills of rich soil, and thin out to 6 in. apart. In autumn lift the roots and store them in dry sand. To force leaves for salads, plant the roots closely together in boxes or large pots, with the tops only exposed, using ordinary soil; place in a temperature of 55 degrees, and keep in the dark. Long blanched leaves will soon appear, ready for use. Chilli.--Same treatment as Capsicum. Chimonanthus Fragrans (_Japan Allspice_).--This delightfully fragrant hardy shrub, known as the Winter Flower, produces its blooms in January before the leaves appear. Should sharp frost set in, protection ought to be given to the flowers. The plant requires a fairly good soil, and is most at home when trained against a wall. It is generally propagated by means of layers. Height, 6 ft. Chinese Sacred Narcissus (_Oriental Lily, Joss Flower, or Flower of the Gods, the Chinese emblem of good luck_).--This is a very beautiful variety of the Polyanthus Narcissus, and is grown to bloom at the advent of the Chinese New Year. It is very fragrant and free blooming, and is generally flowered in an ornamental bowl of water, the bulb being surrounded with pretty pebbles to keep it well balanced. It may also be grown in a pot of mould, kept in a dark place for about ten days, then placed in a sunny position and supplied with water. It flowers from six to eight weeks after planting. Chionanthus Virginica (_Fringe Tree_).--A curious shrub which is best raised from seed. It succeeds in any soil, and bears white flowers in July. It will grow to the height of 20 ft. or more. Chionodoxa Luciliae (_Glory of the Snow_).--A pretty hardy spring-flowering bulbous plant. The blossoms, from five to six in number, are produced on gracefully arched stems, 4 to 8 in. high, and are nearly 1 in. across, star-like in form, and of a lovely blue tint on the margin, gradually merging into pure white in the centre. Fine for growing in clumps. Plant the bulbs in autumn in equal parts of loam, peat, and sand. It succeeds fairly well in the open, but reaches perfection in a cold frame, where the flowers will be produced in March. Height, 6 in. Choisya Ternata (_Mexican Orange_).--A pretty evergreen wall plant, bearing sweet-scented white flowers in July. The bush is round, and extremely ornamental when grown in the shrubbery. It delights in a mixture of peat and loam, and is propagated by cuttings placed in sand under a handglass, or, better still, by layers of the lower branches in March, detaching them in the autumn. While young it makes a fine pot-plant. Height, 6 ft. Chorozemas.--These Australian plants delight in rich turfy peat mixed with fibrous loam, leaf-mould, and coarse sand. When freshly potted they should be given a warm part of the greenhouse and watered cautiously till they are in full growth, when a little clear liquid manure may be given twice a week. May be shifted at any time except from October to Christmas. Propagated by cuttings about 1 or 2 in. long of half-ripened young wood taken in July or August, and inserted in sand under a glass. When the pots are full of roots shift the plants into larger sizes. They bloom nearly all the year round, especially in the winter and spring. The plants have rather a rambling habit, and are usually trained over balloon or pyramidal trellises; but this trouble can be spared by cutting them back freely and employing a few light sticks to keep them within bounds. Christmas Rose.--_See_ "Helleborus." Chrysanthemum.--The Chrysanthemum will grow in any good mould, a naturally good soil being often preferable to an artificial one. Where the ground is not in good condition a compost may be made of one-half rich loam and one-fourth each of well-rotted manure and leaf-mould, with sufficient sand to keep it porous. Cuttings taken in November or December make the finest exhibition plants. Pot them singly in 2-in. or 3-in. pots; stand them on coal ashes in a cold frame, and re-pot them in March or April in 6-in. pots, making the soil moderately firm. When they attain the height of 6 in. pinch off the extreme point of the shoot, which will induce the growth of side-shoots. Shift the plants from time to time into larger pots, until at the end of May they receive their final shift into 10-in. pots, after which they must not on any account be stopped. In June they may be placed in a sheltered and partially shaded part of the open border, standing the pots on pieces of slate to prevent the ingress of worms. Syringe the leaves each day and give the roots a liberal supply of liquid manure. When the flower-buds begin to show colour, discontinue the manure water. Thin out the flower-buds, leaving two or three only of the strongest on each stem. At the end of September they must be removed to a cool greenhouse to flower. Where there is no greenhouse a canvas structure may be erected to protect them from the cold. Good plants for the border may be raised from cuttings in March or April. These should be kept close in a frame until rooted, then gradually hardened off, and planted in rich soil. Syringing with soot-water twice a week until the flower-buds appear will darken the leaves and deepen the colour of the flowers. Chrysogonum Virginianum.--A free-flowering, hardy, herbaceous plant, best grown in loam and peat. Its deep-golden, star-shaped flowers are produced from June to September. Cuttings of ripened wood planted in sand and subjected to moist heat will strike. It may also be increased by dividing the root. Height, 1 ft. Cichorium Intybus.--This is a hardy herbaceous plant producing blue flowers in July. It will grow in any soil and needs no special treatment. Seeds may be sown either in autumn or spring. Height, 2 ft. Cimcifuga.--These hardy herbaceous plants will flourish in any good garden soil and are easily raised from seed, or they may be increased by dividing the roots. Various species produce their flowers from May to September. Height, 1 ft. to 3 ft. Cinerarias.--These grow well in a soil composed of equal parts of rich loam, leaf-mould, and thoroughly rotted horse-dung, liberally mixed with sharp sand. They are increased by seed, cuttings, or off-sets. The seed should be sown as soon as it is ripe and covered with the lightest layer of the finest soil; or it may be sown during March on a slight hotbed. Keep the young plants shaded from the sun, and as soon as they can be handled put them into 3-in. pots. Return them to the hotbed and keep them shaded till established, then gradually harden them off, and towards the end of May they may be planted in the open, choosing a sheltered situation. The first flower-stem should be cut out close to the bottom, but the side-shoots may either be reduced or not. At the end of September place them in a cool frame to bloom during the following month. They require to be well supplied with manure water. As soon as the plants have done flowering, cut them down, and keep them well supplied with water, and in March shake them out of their pots and plant each sucker separately. Other sowings may be made in April and May. To obtain cuttings, when the plants have flowered cut them down, and when they have again grown large enough take the cuttings and plant them in pots filled with the above compost, putting a layer of silver sand on the top. When the cuttings have made shoots 3 in. long, pinch off the tops to make the plants grow bushy. Re-pot when the roots are well grown, but before they get matted, and give occasionally a little liquid manure. Keep a good look-out for green fly, and as soon as this nuisance appears fumigate the plants with tobacco paper. An excess of fumigation is injurious. Those that have bloomed in pots may be planted in the north border of the garden in July, where they may shed their seed, from which early plants will be produced. They may also be increased by off-sets. If the old plants are cut down and kept well watered they will throw up suckers, which may be separated and potted off into thumb pots, transplanting into larger ones when required. They must _always_ be kept shaded from the sun. A cool frame suits them in summer, and being nearly hardy, should never be subjected to a forcing temperature, sufficient heat to keep away frost and damp being all that is necessary. Cinnamon Plant.--This is a stove or greenhouse plant, and requires a loam and peat soil. Cuttings of the ripe wood strike freely. Cissus Orientalis.--Useful climbing plants which delight in a light, rich soil. They are increased by cuttings planted under glass and kept in a gentle, moist heat. Cistus (_Rock Rose_).--A compost of loam and peat suits these beautiful evergreen shrubs. They may be increased by layers, ripe cuttings covered with a hand-glass, or seed. Though the plants are pretty hardy it is advisable to afford them protection during severe frosts. June is their flowering month. Height, 3 ft. to 6 ft. Citrus Japonica.--A greenhouse evergreen tree, requiring a rich loamy soil. Very little water should be given it while in a growing state. It is generally budded on an orange or lemon tree and plunged in a bottom-heat. June is its flowering season. Height, 5 ft. Cladanthus.--The annuals may be sown in the open in April to flower in July. The greenhouse evergreens may be propagated by cuttings under glass. These produce flowers in June. Clarkia.--These hardy annuals make a pretty display in the borders during summer. Seed ripens plentifully, and merely requires sowing in the open in March, or in September if protected in winter. The bloom lasts from June to September. Height, 18 in. Claytonia Sibirica.--A hardy herbaceous plant which yields light yellow flowers in June. It is not particular as to soil, and may be raised from seed sown either in autumn or spring. It stands division of the root. Height, 4 ft. Clematis (_Virgin's Bower_).--These plants like a dry situation. They will grow in smoky districts, and may be increased by cuttings of firm side-shoots under a glass in summer or by layers in September. With the protection of a greenhouse they come into flower early in spring. They are the most beautiful of all flowering hardy climbers. The stove and greenhouse varieties are best planted in loam and peat, though they will thrive in any light soil. Any good garden soil suits the hardy kinds. The herbaceous varieties are increased by dividing the roots early in spring. They bloom at various periods. After they have ceased to flower, the Jackmanni and Viticella sections should be cut down to within 9 or 12 in. of the ground. The Patens and Florida do not require pruning; those of the Lanuginosa should be cut back moderately, but not too close. A good dressing of leaf-mould and manure should be dug in about November. Heights vary from 2 ft. to 20 ft. (_See also_ "Traveller's Joy.") Cleome.--The species of this genus are very pretty and free flowering, some being half-hardy climbers notable for their foliage. They like a rich, light soil. Cuttings of the stove kinds root freely under a glass. Some of the annual species require to be sown in a hotbed frame or in a hot-house, then potted off and placed with tender annuals. The hardier ones may be sown on a hotbed, and afterwards planted out in a sheltered position. They flower in May, June, and July. Heights vary from 6 in. to 8 ft. Clethra Alnifolia.--This hardy deciduous shrub bears in September deliciously scented pure white flowers on the side-shoots of the previous year's growth. It needs a light soil and a dry, sunny situation. It may be propagated by cuttings placed under glass in sandy loam, or by suckers taken when the leaves have fallen, but is more generally increased by layers. Height, 3 ft. Clianthus.--A genus of very elegant, free-flowering, evergreen greenhouse shrubs. They flourish in the border of the conservatory (or against a south wall if protected from cold) in an equal mixture of loam, peat, and sand. Cuttings root freely in the same soil under glass. Seed sown early in spring produce flowers the first year, in May. Height, 3 ft. to 4 ft. Clintonia.--Very pretty half-hardy annuals; useful for beds, edging, pots, or rock-work. They produce an abundance of Lobelia-like flowers in August. Sow the seed in the open in spring. Height, 6 in. Clitoria.--A greenhouse climbing or trailing plant, which thrives in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand. Cuttings will strike in heat, but it is more readily grown from seed. Clivias (_Caffre Lilies_).--Most beautiful evergreen plants for the greenhouse. The soil most suitable for them is a compost of leaf-mould, loam, and sand. Give a liberal supply of water when in full growth, but from September to February keep them only moderately moist. Shade from strong sunshine, and keep the temperature at from 60 to 70 degrees. They will not bear much disturbance. Seed may be sown in bottom-heat early in spring, or they may be increased by suckers. Cobæa Scandens.--This rapid climber is well adapted for the conservatory, but it will thrive in the open air if the root is protected during the winter. If planted against a rough wall its tendrils will catch in the crevices and support it without any assistance. It requires plenty of room and a rather poor soil, otherwise it runs to leaf instead of to bloom. The tops of the shoots should be constantly pinched off, to induce thickness of growth. Cuttings of firm side-shoots taken in summer will root under glass in a little moist heat; but it is best raised from seed, sown sideways, in a hotbed in March. Its blue and purple flowers are produced in August. Height, 10 ft. to 20 ft. Cob Nuts.--_See_ "Filberts." Cockscomb.--These tender annuals should be sown on a moderate hotbed in March or April, in pans of leaf-mould and sand, covering with 1/4 in. of soil. When a couple of inches high place them in small pots, replace them on the hotbed, and give shade till they have taken fresh root. When the weather is favourable let them have a moderate amount of fresh air. Afterwards shift them into larger pots, and when the combs are full grown place them in the greenhouse, taking care not to allow any damp to lodge on them, at the same time supplying them well with water and all the air possible. Height, 9 in. (_See also_ "Celosia.") Codonopsis.--These hardy perennials are best grown in sandy peat and loam. They are easily raised from seed or cuttings, and produce their flowers in July and August. Height, 1 ft. Coix Lachryma (_Job's Tears_).--A half-hardy, annual, ornamental grass bearing clusters of beautiful pearl-like seeds. Sow in a warm spot in April, barely covering the seed with fine soil, and keep the surface of the ground moist till germination is ensured. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Colchicum (_Autumn-Flowering Crocus_).--Plant the bulbs in February in light, loamy soil, placing them 2 in. deep and 3 in. apart. They are readily increased by off-sets from the bulb. September is their flowering season. Height, 3 in. (_See also_ "Bulbocodium.") Coleus.--Tender perennial shrubs of some merit, requiring the protection of a greenhouse. Keep the plants root-bound and near the glass, with a good supply of heat and moisture. They succeed best in a mixture of loam and peat. Cuttings of shoots 3 in. long planted in sand, covered with a glass, and plunged in heat 60 to 70 degrees, will strike. Pot off singly in loam and sand. Bloom in June or July. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Colletia.--Ornamental evergreen shrubs. A mixture of peat and loam, with a sheltered position, is their delight. Cuttings will strike in sand if covered with glass. They produce their flowers in July. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Collinsia.--Most elegant hardy annuals, doing well in any garden soil. The seed is sown in autumn for early flowering, and in spring for a later display. Bloom May to August. Height, 1 ft. Collomia.--Hardy annuals, possessing little beauty. Treat as Collinsia. Flower in July. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Colt's-foot.--This hardy perennial flowers before the leaves appear. It grows best in a moist, clayey soil, and may be increased by pieces of the running root. Columbine.--_See_ "Aquilegia." Colutea Arborescens (_Bladder Senna_).--A shrub with Acacia-like leaves and producing yellow Pea-shaped flowers in July, followed with bladder-shaped seed vessels. It will grow in any soil, and may be raised either from seed or cuttings taken in autumn. Height, 10 ft. Commelina Sellowina (_Blue Spider Wort, or Day Flower_).--A pretty greenhouse climber, bearing cobalt-blue flowers. It should occupy a sunny position, and be watered freely from March to September, after which very little should be given. Commelina Tuberosa.--Perfectly hardy plants, bearing in June blue or white flowers the size of a shilling. The bulbs may be planted in spring in any garden soil; the plants are increased by off-sets. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Compost Heap.--Get a heap of dead leaves and press and jam them down as closely as possible. Then take as much manure, in appearance, as you have dead leaves, and for each cartload have two bushels of unslaked quicklime and some earth. Now spread upon the ground, in some out-of-the-way corner, a layer of the dead leaves, upon which sprinkle a layer of lime, and over that a thin layer of earth. Next lay on a covering of manure, then a layer of leaves, and one of lime and earth as before, and proceed in this way till all the materials are used up. It will be well, however, to give the heap a good watering whenever you come to the layer of leaves. This slakes the lime and hastens the decomposition of the vegetable matter. After letting it stand for about six weeks, begin at the top of the heap and turn it completely over, so that what was at the bottom will be at the top. Repeat this operation from time to time at intervals of six or seven weeks, until it has become perfectly friable and will powder through a garden-fork like dust. It will then be ready for use. This compost is invigorating to flowers of all kinds, and is so ready for them to assimilate. Comptonia Asplenifolia.--This ornamental deciduous shrub is quite hardy, but requires a light, sandy loam or peat soil and a shady situation. It is increased by layers. Blooms in April. Height, 4 ft. Cone Flower.--_See_ "Echinacea." Conifers.--Conifers (so called because they bear cones in place of ordinary seed) are mostly of tall growth, yet among the class are many low--growing evergreens well adapted for the lawn or border. Indeed, any of the specimens may be utilised in this way, but of course must be removed from the shrubbery or border before they attain undue proportions. They are hardy, and, generally speaking, not particular as to soil or situation. Firs, Pines, Cedars, etc., come under this heading, and mention is made in other parts of this work of those most suitable for the amateur's requirements. Convallaria Prolificans.--This is one of the most beautiful hardy perennials known. It has large, deep-green foliage, with erect and much-branched flower-stems. The flowers are white, internally flushed rose; are very fragrant, and are produced from May to September. The plant will grow in any ordinary soil, and may be increased by dividing the root. Height, 2-1/2 ft. Convolvulus (_Morning Glory_).--Showy plants. The tender species are well adapted for the stove or conservatory, and are best grown in loam and peat: cuttings strike freely in sand under a glass. The half-hardy annual kinds should be sown on a gentle hotbed in February, and when large enough transferred to the open; or they may be sown in the open in April. Hardy kinds merely require sowing in the open, early in spring. The stove and greenhouse annuals and biennials require to be sown in heat, and treated as other stove and greenhouse annuals and biennials. Flowering season, May to July. Height, 6 in. to 15 ft. Coral Plant.--_See_ "Erythrina." Corchorus.--_See_ "Kerria." Cordyline.--A stove evergreen shrub, which may be grown in any light, vegetable mould or in peat and loam, and is easily increased by suckers. It flowers in spring. Height, 3 ft. Coreopsis.--Very pretty and long-flowering. They all like a light, rich, and sandy soil. Cuttings of the stove kinds root freely under glass. Hardy perennials may be divided at the roots. The annuals may be sown either in the autumn or in March; they bear transplanting. Longipes flowers in April; Grandiflora in August. Useful as cut flowers. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 3 ft. Cornel.--_See_ "Cornus." Cornflower.--_See_ "Cyanus." Corn Salad (_Lamb's Lettuce_).--Sow in drills--the plants to stand 6 in. apart--from March till August, in well-drained sandy loam. Autumn sowings will stand the winter and prove useful in early spring. It must be gathered young. Cornus Canadensis (_Canadian Cornel_).--A pretty herbaceous plant, suitable for moist parts of rock-work. It is very hardy, likes a light soil, and produces flowers from June to August. The roots may be divided in autumn, or in the early part of spring. Height, 8 in. Cornus Mas (_Cornelian Cherry_).--This hardy deciduous shrub does well in common soil if a fair amount of moisture be given. Its yellow flowers are produced on bare stems from February to April. It may be increased by seeds, cuttings, or layers, autumn being the time to propagate. Coronilla.--The greenhouse shrubs should be grown in peat and loam. They are raised by seeds and by cuttings. Most of the hardy perennials need protection in winter, therefore they are best grown in pots. These are propagated by seed or division. The annuals need no special treatment. Coronilla Iberica.--A pretty creeping hardy perennial suitable for rock-work, on which its bright yellow flowers are very attractive during June and July. It thrives best in a mixture of peat and loam, and may be increased by seeds or division of the roots. Height, 6 in. Correa Cardinalis.--An evergreen greenhouse shrub. Place in equal parts of sand and loam, and propagate by cuttings, which should have plenty of room, as they are liable to damp off. July is its flowering season. Height, 4 ft. C. Magnifica is also a capital plant. Cortusa Matthioli.--This ornamental hardy herbaceous plant thrives best in a mixture of peat and loam. It is advisable to give protection to the roots in winter. It may be increased by seeds or by division of the roots. It makes a good pot-plant, and produces flowers in May and June. Height, 1 ft. Corydalis (_Fumitory_).--These low-growing perennials are suitable for dry positions on rock-work. They are not particular as to soil, and may be increased by division of roots, while some scatter seed in abundance. Their flowering period extends over many months. Height, 6 in. to 1 ft. Cosmea Bipinnata.--A very pretty half-hardy annual which flowers in July. Sow the seed early in spring on a slight hotbed covered with glass, and transplant to the flower border at the end of May. Height, 2 ft. Cosmos.--Pretty plants, the flowers resembling a single Dahlia. They are mostly hardy, but some need protection. The annuals should be raised on a hotbed in February and be planted out in May. The perennials, too, are brought forward in heat. Some flower in June, others in September. Height, 1 ft. to 3 ft. Cotoneaster.--Evergreen shrubs which will grow in any soil and are easily increased by layers. C. Hookeriana attains the dimensions of small trees, and produces a profusion of white flowers and bright crimson berries. C. Simonsii is largely used as a hedge. Height, 6 ft. to 8 ft. C. Rupestris is a small-leaved, prostrate perennial species, bearing white flowers from May to August, followed by red berries. Height, 3 in. Cotyledon Chrysantha (_Umbilicus)._--A choice Alpine succulent which thrives in a sandy loam, or in well-drained pots of the same soil. It flowers from May to August, and is multiplied by cuttings, which must be left to dry for a few days in a sunny place. Flowers are produced from May to August. Height, 3 in. Cowslips.--Well-known hardy perennials. These require the same treatment as Primulas. Plant in a mixture of loam and peat, and divide as soon as the bloom has died off. Height, 6 in. Cowslips, Cape.--_See_ "Lachenalia." Crambe Cordifolia (_Tournefort, or Sea Cabbage_).--This hardy herbaceous plant is suitable for a wild garden. It likes a good, rich soil, and is easily increased by seed or division. August is its flowering period. Height, 3 ft. Crane's Bill.--_See_ "Geranium Argentium." Crataegus Pyracantha (_Fire Thorn_).--This hardy, ornamental shrub will grow in any soil. It should be planted early in spring on a south or south-west wall, and may be increased by seeds, by budding, or by grafting. The profuse brilliant orange-coloured berries of the C. Lelandii (Mespilus) ensures it a place on walls and trellises. A sunny position gives best results. Prune in March. Creeping Jenny.--_See_ "Lysimachia Nummularia." Crepis (_Hawkweed_).--An interesting hardy annual. It merely requires sowing in spring, and will grow in any soil. The flowers are produced in June. Height, 1 ft. Cress.--Sow at intervals of a week from March to September in the open ground, and during the winter months in frames. A shady position is most suitable. By these frequent sowings, and by often cutting over such as readily renew a bottom growth, a constant succession of tender shoots is obtained. Crocus.--Among our earliest spring flowers. These will grow in any garden soil, but prefer rich, sandy earth. Plant in October or November, 3 in. deep and 2 in. apart. Take the roots up every second year, and plant the small off-sets in a nursery bed for two years, when they will be fit for the beds or borders. Protect the bulbs from mice, as they are very partial to them, especially in winter. _Indoor Culture_.--Select strong bulbs of the seedling varieties, and plant them in succession, commencing early in autumn, in good, rich, sandy soil. A liberal supply of water is necessary during the blooming season, but perfect drainage must be secured. They grow well in bowls filled with wet moss or sand. Height, 6 in. (_See also_ "Colchicum.") Crotons.--Fine-foliaged hothouse plants. A mixture of peat and sandy loam suits their growth, and they require a good amount of light to properly colour their leaves, with a night temperature of 70 degrees. Crowea Saligna.--Charming greenhouse evergreen shrubs, which send forth their purple flowers in September. They grow best in loam and peat. Cuttings may be struck in sand under bell-glasses. Height, 3 ft. Crown Imperials.--_See_ "Fritillarias." Crucianella Stylosa.--A hardy perennial. Sow in August or September in a sheltered spot to stand the winter. The seed may also be sown from March to midsummer, and the plants moved in autumn to the place where they are to bloom. Their delicate pink flowers are produced in July. Height, 1 ft. Cuckoo Flower.--_See_ "Cardamine." Cucumbers.--A rich, loamy soil is most suitable for their growth. Sow frame varieties in a heat of 75 degrees or 85 degrees during February and March for summer use, and when the plants are of sufficient size transplant to a well-prepared hotbed. Sow again in September for winter use. The hardy or ridge cucumbers (which are not suited for frame or hothouse culture) should be raised in a frame or hot-bed in April, and planted out about the middle of May in a warm border on strawed ridges prepared with good stable manure, placing a hand-glass over each plant until it is well established. Cunila Mariana (_Dittany_).--This hardy perennial produces heads of pretty purple flowers from July to September. It is not particular as to soil, and can easily be increased by division. Height, 1 ft. Cuphea.--Shrubs of a rather pretty description. The stove varieties require a sandy loam to grow in, and may be propagated by cuttings. The annuals should be sown on a gentle hotbed, and when strong enough potted off and kept in the greenhouse; they should not be moved into the open before the end of May. The perennial species if sown early make good bedding plants the first year; they need protection in the winter. Currants.--_Black._--A rich, deep soil and a moist situation, together with partial shade, are most suitable for their growth. They succeed better as bushes than as espaliers or trained to walls. Cuttings of the previous year's growth are taken in autumn and planted firmly 1 ft. by 6 in. apart. In two years shift every alternate plant so as to allow room for expansion, and plant out finally to a distance of 5 ft. In pruning the bushes, remember that the fruit is borne on the young wood, therefore only sufficient should be cut away to allow of the admission of air and sunshine and the further growth of young branches. A portion of the old wood should be removed each year. Mulch the roots, and keep the plants supplied with water in dry seasons. Baldwin's Black, Ogden's Black, Black Naples, Lee's Prolific, James' Prolific, and Old Black are among the best. _Red and White._--An open, sunny position is needed. The soil that suits them best is a deeply-manured, stiff loam. They are readily raised from cuttings--which should be as long and strong as possible--taken in autumn. Cut away all the eyes except the three uppermost ones, and plant firmly in rows 1 ft. by 6 in. apart. Transplant at the end of the second year to a distance of 5 ft. apart. While the plants are young cut out all the top centre branches, cutting always to an outgrowing bud, so as to give a cylindrical form to the bush. In further pruning leave the leading shoots untouched, but shorten all others to 4 in. or 6 in., and cut out all old, mossy wood. Towards the end of June is a good time for cutting the young wood away. The fruit is produced on spurs. In the autumn of each year carefully dig in a good dressing of half-rotted manure, in such a manner as not to injure the roots. Among the leading red varieties are the following:--Champagne, Cherry, Chiswick Red, Houghton Castle, Raby Castle, and Red Dutch. Of the white fruit the White Dutch and the Cut-leaved White are the leaders. In plantations they should stand from 4 ft. to 6 ft. apart. Currants, Flowering.--_See_ "Ribes." Cyanthus Lobatus--A small, but very beautiful procumbent perennial, well adapted to fill moist places on rock-work if the situation is open and sunny. A mixture of vegetable mould and sand suits it, and it is best increased by cuttings placed in moist peat. It flowers in the autumn, the flower-stems being from 6 in. to 1 ft. in length. Cyanus(_Cornflower_).--Very pretty and free-blooming hardy annuals. Sow the seed in the open in autumn for an early display of flowers, or in March for a later one. Thin out to 2 ft. apart. Bloom in July. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Cyclamen.--Charming winter and spring blooming bulbous greenhouse plants, which thrive in a mixture of sandy loam and vegetable mould. They require a moist atmosphere and a uniform temperature not lower than 50 degrees. They may be increased by seed sown in slight heat as soon as it is ripe. Plant the bulbs in October, also in February and March, placing them so that the crown is level with the top of the pots. One full-sized bulb is sufficient for a 6-in. pot, which must be provided with good drainage and placed on a layer of coal ashes that is kept constantly moist. Water moderately till growth begins, then increase the supply. Give a little liquid manure, in a weak state, if a large quantity of flower-buds appear. When the blooming season is over, plunge the pots in a shady, well-drained border, and when the leaves start afresh turn the plants carefully out of the pots, so as not to injure their roots, and re-pot in fresh soil. C. Persicum flowers in February, and C. Neapolitanum in April. C. Europeum is a hard variety, thriving in any situation. It produces sweetly-scented flowers throughout July and August. It does best when planted under trees, or in partial shade on rock-work, in well-drained, good loamy or peaty soil mixed with a fair proportion of brick rubble. Plant the corms in September 3 in. apart, and 1-1/2 in. deep. Height, 6 in. to 9 in. Cydonia (_Pyrus_).--These hardy plants are well adapted for trellis-work, but are more effective when grown as bushes, and flower more freely than when trained to the wall, the bloom often lasting to the winter. They will grow in any soil, and are increased by suckers. Height, 4 ft. and upwards. Cyperius Alternifolius.--A stove grass which will grow in any soil, but requires a plentiful supply of water. It is increased by dividing the roots. Height, 2 ft. Cypress (_Cupressus_).--Among these useful conifers C. Lawsoniana has no superior as a single specimen for the decoration of the lawn. Of free growth and perfectly hardy, it succeeds in almost any soil or situation. C. Fraserii is also hardy, of erect habit, and of a rich glaucous hue. When it attains a good size it is very ornamental. The beautiful silver variegated variety Argenteo Variegata deserves a place in every shrubbery. Nana Alba Maculata is a dwarf globular plant, the slender branches of which are tipped with white, giving it the appearance of being partly covered with snow. Pygmea is a compact dwarf-growing variety suitable for the centre of small beds and for rock-work. Japan Cypresses are elegant little shrubs, one of the finest being Retinospora Ericoides, whose peculiar violet-red leaves contrast charmingly with light green plants. Any of the above may be increased by cuttings. They succeed best in a rich, deep loam, and are improved by thinning out the branches where too thick, and pinching out the stronger shoots where too thin, so as to encourage new growth. Cypripedium (_Hardy Ladies' Slipper Orchid_).--This plant is of the simplest culture and is well adapted for pots, ferneries, or rock-work. It is most at home in a well-drained yet moist peaty soil, and kept in a frame or on a shady border, where it will bloom in June. Protect from frost and heavy rains, but never allow the roots to get dry. Height, 1 ft. Cytisus.--Elegant hardy shrubs with finely-cut leaves and terminal racemes of Pea-shaped flowers in July. They will grow in any soil, and are readily raised from seed or layers. Height, 3 ft. to 4 ft. D Daffodils.--These will grow in any good, cool, moist, well-drained garden soil if sand be put round their roots, but thrive best in a moderately rich loam. They may remain in the ground for years, for large bulbs produce the finest flowers. When the flowering is over the leaves must be allowed to die down, not cut off. Plant from September to December. The top of the bulb should be about 3 in. below the surface, according to its size; 10 in. apart is a good distance. Daffodils are also suitable for pot culture. Plant three to six bulbs, according to size, in a 4-in. or 5-in. pot, using a compost of two parts fibrous loam, one part leaf-mould, and one part sand. Place the pots on a bed of ashes, and cover with 4 in. of cocoa-nut fibre. As soon as top growth has commenced, remove the plants indoors, and give plenty of light and air to prevent them being drawn. Daffodils likewise make a good display when planted on a lawn. Dahlias.--These attractive plants require a deep, friable soil, not over rich. They may be grown from seed sown on a hotbed in March and lightly covered with fine mould. As soon as they are up give all the air which can with safety be given. When the seedlings are large enough pot them off singly in the smallest-sized pots or round the edges of 6-in. ones. Plant them out at the end of May, 1 ft. apart; they will flower at the end of August. Any that turn out very good had better be propagated by cuttings from the young tops, to save the kind in case the roots should die. When flowering is over take up the young bulbs and treat them as directed afterwards for old tubers. Another way to propagate them is to place the old tubers in soil over a hotbed early in March. When the shoots are a couple of inches high the tubers may be taken up and divided with a sharp knife. Pot off separately. Water them occasionally with liquid manure, made from guano and powdered charcoal, well mixed with rain water, and plant them out early in May. Give them plenty of room, and tie the branches securely to stakes firmly fixed in the soil. When they have become good bushy plants put a layer of half-rotted manure round each plant. As soon as frost turns their foliage brown take them up, cut off the roots, leaving about 6 in. of stem attached, and plunge them into a box of sand, chaff, or ashes, and preserve them from damp, frost, and heat during the winter. Daisies (_Bellis Perennis_).--These pretty, little hardy perennials are very useful as edgings. To grow them to perfection the ground should be highly manured, and the roots divided every year, planting them out 6 in. apart in a cool, shady situation. October is a suitable time for transplanting. They flower continuously from February to July. Height, 6 in. Dandelions.--Dandelions on lawns, etc., may be killed by cutting them down as low as possible, and putting a little gas-tar or a pinch of salt on the wound. Or they may be dug up and blanched for mixing with salad. In this case plant six roots in an 8-in. pot, and place an inverted flower-pot over the whole, in order to exclude the light; the plants are sometimes blanched in the open by covering them with old tan or fine ashes. The flowers must be kept picked off, for they soon run to seed, and if unattended to become troublesome. Daphne.--Beautiful shrubs, mostly evergreens, bearing elegant flowers followed by bright-red poisonous berries. D. Mezereum is the most common variety, and is very suitable for the front of shrubberies. The Chinese variety D. Odorata is too tender for outdoors, but makes a fine ornament for the greenhouse. The dwarf kinds, bearing fragrant pink flowers, are rather tender, but are very useful for rockeries occupying sheltered positions. They all need a peaty soil, and may be increased by grafting on to the common Spurge Laurel. Different varieties flower at various periods, from February to October. Height, 9 in. to 6 ft, but the majority are from 2 ft. to 3 ft. high. Datura.--Ornamental half-hardy annuals. The seeds of all the species must be sown on a hotbed early in spring. When the plants are strong enough transplant them in the border, where they will bloom more freely than in pots. The seeds of D. Ceratocaula will sometimes remain several years in the ground before they germinate. They flower in July. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Day Flower.--_See_ "Commelina." Day Lily.--_See_ "Hemerocallis." Delphinium (_Larkspur_).--The gorgeous spikes of flowers produced by these plants render them invaluable for the border. They like a deep soil, highly enriched. The perennials may be divided at the root in autumn, care being taken not to injure the young fleshy sprouts. The annuals are readily raised from seed. The quickest way to grow the perennial varieties from seed is to sow in a frame with a slight bottom-heat, at any time from March to August; but sowings made in the open from April to June will succeed. Keep the ground moist, and shade from the sun till the plants are up, then transplant to nursery beds for the summer, afterwards transferring them to their final quarters. Flower in June and July. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 6 ft. Dentaria Digitata (_Toothwort_).--This tuberous hardy perennial grows well in old leaf-mould, and is very suitable for the base portion of rock-work, where it can obtain both shade from the midday sun and moisture. It is readily increased by cutting the roots into pieces about 1-1/2 in. long, and replanting them where they are intended to bloom, putting 1 in. or so of sand round them. They flower in May. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Desfontania Spinosa.--A fine, evergreen wall shrub with holly-like leaves, and long, pendulous scarlet and orange flowers in June. It grows best in a compost of loam, peat, and sand, with a south or west aspect. It is propagated by cuttings under glass. Height, 10 ft. Desmodium Canadense.--This is a fine border hardy perennial, producing long racemes of rosy-purple flowers in June or July. It prefers a soil of sandy loam and peat, and may be increased by seed or by cuttings planted in sand and subjected to heat. Height, 4 ft. Desmodium Pendulaeflorum.--A hardy evergreen shrub, flowering in July. It thrives in sandy loam and peat. Cuttings planted in sand with a little bottom-heat and under glass will strike. Height, 6 ft. Deutzia.--A beautiful conservatory shrub, bearing in spring a large quantity of flowers resembling the snowdrop. A peaty soil suits it. It is pretty hardy. Height, 3 ft. Devil-in-a-Bush.--_See_ "Nigella." Dianthus.--Very beautiful and fragrant flowers. The genus embraces Carnations, Pinks, Picotees, and Sweet Williams. The soil most suitable for them is a light, loamy one, mixed with a little rotten dung and sand. It is well to confine the rarer kind to pots, so as the better to protect them in winter. They are propagated by layers, cuttings, or division of roots. If the cuttings are taken about the middle of June, and placed under glass on a gentle hotbed, they will be ready in about three weeks to plant out in the open. The annuals and biennials merely require sowing where they are intended to bloom. Flower in July. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. Dictamnus (_Burning Bush_).--_See_ "Fraxinella." Dielytra Spectabilis (_Venus's Car, Bleeding Heart, or Lyre Flower_).--One of the most elegant hardy perennials for forcing for table decorations, or cutting for vases. The graceful, pendent branches are laden with beautiful red or purple heart-shaped flowers; these, combined with the delicate green of the foliage, give them a conspicuous place among plants. Out of doors in summer, among shrubs or herbaceous plants, they are exceedingly attractive. Let them be planted in tufty groups in a warm, sheltered border of rich, light soil. They may be increased by division of the root, as in the Dahlia, or by cuttings. Height, 3 ft. Digitalis (_Foxglove_).--Very showy, hardy, perennial border plants. They will grow in any garden soil, and are readily raised from seed, which, if sown in the autumn, will produce flowers the following June and July. Height, 1 ft. to 3 ft. Digitata.--_See_ "Callirhoe." Dimorphantus _(Aralia Sinensis_).--The Dimorphantus Mandschuricus is one of the noblest of deciduous shrubs, the foliage being very large and much divided. Any soil is suitable for its growth, and it may be propagated by cuttings of ripe wood, taken at a joint and planted on a shaded site. It produces its flowers at midsummer. Height, 4 ft. to 6 ft. Dimorphotheca Ecklonis.--This plant is not perhaps quite hardy, still it may be grown out of doors in a sheltered, sunny situation. It grows well in sandy loam and leaf-mould, and requires a good deal of moisture in the summer months, though from autumn till spring it should be kept on the dry side. During winter it is safest to afford it protection. It is generally raised from cuttings late in summer, which are kept through the winter in small pots in the greenhouse. Diphylleia Cymosa.--A very pretty bog plant which blooms from June to August. Plant in rich, light soil, and give plenty of water. It is propagated by division. Height, 9 in. Diplacus Glutinosus _(Hard-wooded Mimulus_).--This elegant greenhouse shrub is an evergreen which delights in a rich, sandy loam. It flowers in June, and is increased by cuttings. Height, 3 ft. Diplopappus.--Dwarf-growing evergreen shrubs of pretty habit. The golden stems and leaves of D. Chrysophylla render that variety specially attractive. A sandy loam is most suitable for their growth. They require the warmest situation the garden affords, and to be protected during the winter. Cuttings strike readily. They flower in August. Height, 2 ft. Disbudding--The object of Disbudding is to prevent the growth of branches which, from their position, would be useless to the tree, and would consequently have to be cut away later on. The process is both simple and expeditious. The trees are gone over once a week during the spring, and the useless buds are rubbed off with the thumb, taking off first those which are most unfavourably situated. The work should be done gradually, so as not to give any check to the tree. The term is also applied to the pinching out of flower-buds, such as those of the Chrysanthemum, so as to give more room and strength to the remaining blooms. Disemma.--Splendid evergreen climbers, suitable either for the greenhouse or in a sheltered position out of doors. Plant in rich, loamy soil mixed with peat, and, if grown in the open, give protection to the roots during the winter. They flower in July, and may be increased by cuttings planted in sand under glass. Height, 20 ft. to 30 ft. Dittany.--_See_ "Cunila." Docks, to Kill.--Cut the weeds down to the ground, and run a skewer dipped in vitriol through the roots. Dodecatheon.--A hardy perennial, which is very ornamental when in flower. It grows best in a loamy soil, and is easily increased by dividing the roots. Blooms in May. Height, 1 ft. Dog's-Tooth Violets.--_See_ "Violets." Dolichos Lablab.--Half-hardy annuals. The seed should be sown in spring in pots placed in heat, and kept in the hothouse till May, when the plants may be set out in a sheltered position, placing sticks for them to run up, in the like manner to Beans. Flower in July. Height, 6 ft. Dondia Epipactis.--A very pretty and extremely hardy little perennial, suitable for either pot culture or rock-work. It thrives in peat or leaf-mould, and likes a moist position. Strong clumps may be divided in February, but it is rather shy at being moved. It flowers in May. Height, 6 in. Doronicum (_Leopards Bane_).--An ornamental hardy perennial. It will grow in any garden soil, and may be propagated from seed sown either in the autumn or spring, or by dividing the root. It produces its flowers in May. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Draba.--Pretty dwarf Alpine plants which bloom during April and May; very suitable for rock-work. They flourish in a compost of loam and peat, and may be propagated by seed or division. Height, 1-1/2 in. to 3 in. Dracaena Indivisa.--A stove evergreen shrub much valued for its foliage and as a table plant. It requires a light, loamy soil and plenty of light. Cuttings stuck in tan or peat and sand, and provided with strong heat, will strike. It flowers in June. Height, 3 ft. Dracocephalum (_Dragon's Head_).--Ornamental plants, mostly bearing lilac or blue flowers. Many of the half-hardy kinds are grown in pots, so that they may the more readily be removed to the greenhouse in winter. The perennials are propagated by dividing the roots. The annuals are increased from seed sown in March or early in April. They like a rich, light soil, and come into bloom in June and July. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Dracophyllum.--Greenhouse evergreen shrubs of an ornamental character. The pots should be filled with an equal mixture of sand and peat. They are propagated by planting the young shoots in sand, covering them with a hand-glass, and plunging them in heat. They flower in June. Height, 2 ft. Dragon's Head.--_See_ "Dracocephalum." Dryas Octopetala (_Mountain Avens_).--A prostrate, creeping perennial which bears white Anemone-like flowers from July to September. It thrives in peat, and is increased by seeds, cuttings, or division. Not being quite hardy, protection should be afforded during winter. Height, 6 in. Dutchman's Pipe--_See_ "Aristolochia." E Earwigs, to Trap.--An inverted flower-pot, containing a little dry moss or hay, placed on a stick, forms a good trap for these pests. They will also congregate in any hollow stems of plants that may be laid about. They may be destroyed by shaking them into boiling water. Eccremocarpus (_Calampelis_).--These climbing half-hardy perennials will grow in any garden soil, a light, loamy one being preferable. Sow the seed in autumn on a slight hotbed, pot off, and winter in a greenhouse. The plants will be ready to turn out on a warm south wall in April or May. Cut them down in the autumn, and cover the roots with dry leaves: they will shoot up again in the spring. The foliage is dark and Clematis-like; the flowers are borne in clusters, are tube-shaped, and bright orange-scarlet in colour. They are increased by cuttings. Echeveria.--Choice greenhouse evergreen shrubs. They grow best in a sandy loam, with a little peat, mixed with pulverised brick rubbish. Water must be given cautiously. Young plants may be taken off the parent in October and pressed firmly, but without bruising them, in light, rich soil. Cuttings should be left for a few days to dry before planting. They flower in autumn. In winter keep them in a cold frame, and as dry as possible. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Echinacea Purpurea (_Purple Cone Flower_).--A stately hardy perennial, very pretty when in flower, but hardly suitable for cutting purposes. It likes a rich, light, loam soil and plenty of sunshine. The roots may be divided in spring, after growth has fairly started. It blooms during September and October. Height, 2-1/2 ft. Echinops (_Globe Thistle_).--Coarse perennial plants, of stiff growth. Any soil suits them, and they may be increased by dividing the roots. They bloom in July. Height, 4 ft. Echium Creticum.--A scarlet-flowering hardy annual which should be grown wherever bees are kept. Sow in spring in any garden soil. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Edelweiss.--_See_ "Gnaphalium." Edraianthus Dalmaticus.--A charming little herbaceous perennial which proves quite hardy in our climate, and well deserves a place in the rockery. Plant in deep, rich loam, and cover the surface of the crown with 1/2 in. of coarse sand. It may be propagated from off-sets, taken with as much root as possible as soon as flowering ceases. Winter the young plants in a cold frame, and do not give them too much water, or they will rot. They will bloom in July and August. Height, 4 in. Egg-Plant (_Aubergine_).--The fruit of the egg-plant is edible. The seed is sown in March or April in pots of well-drained, light, rich soil, and placed in a cucumber frame or on a hotbed with a temperature of 75 degrees. When the plants are fairly up they are potted off separately, and when they have started into growth the points are pinched out, so as to induce a bushy habit. It is necessary to keep the roots well supplied with water. When the fruit is set, the growth is stopped at the first joint beyond it. They are mostly treated as greenhouse pot-plants, but may be grown in the open if planted on a south border, in ridges like those made for cucumbers, and covered with hand-glasses till established. The Aubergine is a tender annual. Height, 2 ft. Eggs of Insects, to Destroy.--Into 3 gallons of water stir 1/4 peck of lime, 1/2 lb. of sulphur, and 1/2 lb. of tobacco. When settled, syringe the trees and walls with the clear liquid. More water may be added afterwards. Eichhornia Crassipes Major.--A pretty and curious plant which may be grown in bowls of water like the Chinese Lily. The stalks are bladders about the size of a greengage, which enable the plant to float. The flowers are soft lilac-rose in colour, and sparkle as if polished, each one being about 2 in. in diameter. A little soil at the bottom of the bowl is beneficial. It will flourish out of doors in summer. Elder.--_See_ "Sambucus." Eleagnus.--Effective variegated shrubs which prove perfectly hardy in the south of England. They grow in any ordinary soil, and are increased by cuttings. Height, 10 ft. Elsholtzia Cristata.--Hardy annuals of great value where there are bees, the flowers being very sweet. Sow in the open in spring. Height, 1 ft. Empetrum.--Small hardy evergreen shrubs requiring an elevated and exposed position, and a dry, barren soil. They flower in May, and are propagated by layers. Height, 1 ft. Endive.--Sow at intervals from May till the end of August, but the principal sowing, to stand the winter, should be made the first week in August, giving the plants the protection of a frame. When the early sown ones are 2 in. high transplant them to a rich nursery bed. When 4 in. high lift them carefully, with the soil round the roots, and place them in drills about 3 in. deep and 1 ft. apart each way. Water well immediately after planting, and keep the soil moist. Epacris.--Pretty Heath-like shrubs. They like a sandy peat soil, and plenty of moisture. The pots in which they grow should be provided with ample drainage and stood in a larger-sized pot, with wet moss between the two. As soon they have done blooming cut them back freely, and when the fresh shoots are 2 or 3 in. long, pot them off, placing them in a close, cool pit for three or four weeks. Gradually harden off, then place them in a sunny situation out of doors, and remove them to the conservatory in October. They only need sufficient heat to keep out the frost. Cuttings of the young wood placed in sand with a little bottom-heat will strike. Epigaea Repens (_Creeping Laurel_).--This creeper is hardy and evergreen, and its flowers possess a delicious fragrance. It may be grown in loam and sandy peat or in leaf-mould with a little sand added, in a well-sheltered and moist situation; and may be propagated by layers, in the same manner as Carnations. It flowers in April. Height, 6 in. Epilobium Angustifolium.--An ornamental herbaceous plant which may be grown in any common soil from seed sown in autumn, or may be increased by division of the roots. It puts forth its flowers in July. Height, 4 ft. Epimedium.--An elegant hardy perennial, suitable for shaded borders or rock-work. The best soil for it is sandy peat. It flowers between April and June, and is increased by dividing the root. Height, 1 ft. Eragrostis Elegans (_Love Grass_).--One of the best of our hardy, annual, ornamental grasses. Sown in March, it will reach perfection in August or September. Height, 1 ft. Eranthis Hyemalis.--_See_ "Winter Aconite." Eremurus Robustus.--This hardy perennial bears tall, handsome spikes of sweetly-scented, peach-coloured flowers in May. It will grow in any ordinary soil, and is easily propagated by young plants from the roots. Height, I ft. Ericas (_Heaths_).--It is useless to attempt to grow these beautiful shrubs unless proper soil is provided. The free-growing kinds thrive best in good black peat and require large pots. The dwarf and hard-wooded kinds must be provided with sandy peat, and the pots thoroughly well drained. They need less water than the free-growing kinds. They all want a good deal of air, and must not be crowded too closely together. Protect from frost and damp. Cuttings off the tender tops of the shoots planted in sand under glass will strike. The cuttings of the stronger-growing kinds should be somewhat longer. As soon as rooted, pot off singly, place in a close frame, and harden off by degrees. The hardy sorts grow in a sandy peat, and may be increased by layers or by cuttings. They bloom at various times. Height, 6 in. to 4 ft. (_See_ "Heaths, Greenhouse.") Erigeron.--Very handsome hardy perennials, producing a copious display of bloom. They will grow in any soil, and may be increased by division or by seed sown between March and July, or in August or September. They flower at the end of July. Height, 1 ft. Erinus.--The hardy perennial kinds bloom in March, the greenhouse varieties in May. The latter are very pretty. They all like a sandy soil, and may be increased by seed or by division. Height, 6 in. to 9 in. Eriogonum.--These pretty, hardy, herbaceous plants bloom in June. They grow best in a compost of loam and peat, and are easily raised from seed. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Eriostemon.--Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Grow in sandy peat with a little loam added. Cuttings will strike in sand. They flower in May and June. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Erodium.--An extensive genus of very beautiful plants, mostly hardy. They will grow in any soil, and merely require ordinary treatment. The bloom is produced in June or July. Height, 4 in. to 1 ft. Eryngium.--A very ornamental and beautiful kind of Thistle. They are mostly quite hardy, and will grow in any garden soil, though they thrive best in a light, sandy one. The greenhouse and frame varieties should be grown in pots, so that they can be easily housed in winter. They are readily increased by seed or division, and produce their flowers in July. Height, 1 ft. to 4 ft. Erysimum.--Flowers of little merit. The herbaceous kinds thrive in common soil, but do best in a mixture of loam and peat. They may be increased by cuttings placed under glass. The annuals and biennials merely need sowing in the open during autumn. They bloom in June and July. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. Erythrina Crista Galli (_Coral Plant_).--A showy, summer-blooming greenhouse plant. Place it in turfy loam enriched with old manure. It may be transferred to the garden in the summer, and when the wood is ripe cut it back and keep it dry till spring. Cuttings taken at a joint, with the leaves left on, may be struck in sand. Erythronium Dens-Canis _(Dog's Tooth Violets_).--_See_ "Violets." Escallonia.--Handsome, half-hardy, evergreen shrubs, possessing rich glaucous leaves and bunches of tubular flowers. A peat and sandy loam soil suits them best. They may be planted against, and trained to, a south wall, but need protection from frost. The laterals may be cut back fairly close in March to encourage new growth. They may be propagated by layering in the autumn, or by suckers taken in the spring. Height, 3 ft. Eschscholtzia.--Pretty hardy annuals, especially during August, when they are in flower. Any rich soil suits them. Easily raised from seed sown on a gentle hotbed in spring, and afterwards transplanted to the border. They flower longest if sown in autumn, but the young plants need protection through the winter. Height, 1 ft. Eucalyptus Citriodora.--A useful window or greenhouse plant, with small, oblong, bright green leaves, furnished with appendages that emit an odour resembling the Lemon-scented Verbena. It is of easy cultivation, growing freely from seed sown in slight heat. Height, 4 ft. Eucalyptus Globulus.--A greenhouse everlasting tree, commonly known as Blue Gum. It delights in a mixture of peat, loam, and sand. Cuttings, which should not be too ripe, root in sand under glass. It may be grown from seed sown, in a temperature of 65 degrees, from February to April. It flowers in June. Eucharidium.--Pretty little hardy annuals, nearly allied to the Clarkia. The seed may be sown in autumn for early flowering, or in spring for blooming in July. Height, 1 ft. Eucomis Punctata.--A fine, autumn-blooming plant, bearing long spikes of fragrant creamy-white flowers and curiously-spotted stems. It may be grown in any rich soil. Height, 2 ft. Eucryphia Pinnatifida.--A dwarf evergreen shrub with flowers resembling a white St. John's Wort. It grows best in a compost of loam and peat, and is propagated by cuttings planted in sand, and subjected to heat. Eugenia Ugni.--An evergreen shrub which produces white flowers in May, succeeded by round, edible berries. It should be grown in loam and peat. Ripened cuttings may be struck in sand under glass. Height, 4 ft. Eulalia Japonica.--A hardy perennial Giant Grass. It is very handsome as single specimens on lawns, or used in groups on the margins of shrubberies. The flower panicles in their first stage have erect branches, but as the flowers open these curl over gracefully, resembling a Prince of Wales feather. Height, 6 ft. Euonymus Radicans Variegata.--A hardy evergreen shrub which, given a sunny situation, will grow in any soil, though a rich, sandy one is preferable. It may be increased by layers, by seed, by cuttings of ripe wood taken early in autumn and planted in the shade, or by dividing strong roots. May is its time to flower. Height, 6 ft. Other varieties of the Euonymus, or Spindle Tree, are equally hardy, and easy to propagate. Eupatorium Odoratum.--A greenhouse shrub which bears sweet-scented white flowers in August, continuing in bloom for a long while. It may be planted out at the end of May, but must be lifted before the frost comes. When flowering ceases, give less water and prune hard back. It grows well in peat and loam, and is increased by seed or by cuttings of the young shoots in spring in bottom-heat. Pinch back freely until the end of July, leaving all growth after that period. Height, 2-1/2 ft. Euphorbia.--An elegant class of plants. The stove and greenhouse varieties are generally succulent, and require but little water, while the hardy kinds need plenty of moisture. Any rich, light soil suits them, but for the tender, succulent plants it should be mixed with brick rubbish. Best grown from seed, though the roots may be divided. Height, 2 ft. Eurya Latifolia Variegata.--A fine, variegated, large-leaved evergreen, very suitable for covering a low wall, or for conservatory decoration. It delights in a compost of loam and peat, and is propagated by cuttings planted in a sandy soil on gentle heat. Height, 2 ft. Eurybia.--Very pretty flowering shrubs for walls, borders, or rockeries. They require a light, rich soil, and may be increased by seeds sown early in spring on a gentle hotbed. Height, 2 ft. Eutaxia Myrtifolia.--Pretty evergreen shrubs, suitable for the greenhouse. They thrive best in a mixture of peat and loam, and require the pots to be well drained. To have nice bushy plants they must be pinched back well. Cuttings will strike in sand under glass. They flower in August. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Eutoca.--Exceedingly pretty hardy annuals. Sow the seed in light soil early in spring where it is to flower, and thin out so that the plants have plenty of room. They bloom in July. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Evening Primrose.--_See_ "Oenothera." Everlasting Peas.--_See_ "Peas, Everlasting." F Fabacea.--_See_ "Thermopsis." Fatsia Japonica.--_See_ "Aralia." Feather Grass.--_See_ "Stipa Pennata." Fennel.--Sow the seed in April, cover lightly with fine mould, and when the plants are strong enough set them out 1 ft. apart. Cut off the flower-stalks as soon as they appear, to prevent them running to seed. The bed will last for years. (_See also_ "Ferula.") Fenzlia.--Elegant half-hardy annuals. Sow the seed on a peat soil. If this be done in autumn, they will flower in April or May; if sown in spring, they will bloom in autumn. Height, 6 in. Ferns.--Most Ferns delight in a loose soil, an abundance of moisture, and a warm, humid atmosphere. The stove and greenhouse kinds are best cultivated in a mixture of sandy loam and peat. The hardy kinds grow best among rock-work or in a shady border: a light, sandy soil suits them. They may be increased by dividing the roots. Ferns from Seed.--Collect the spore-fronds towards the end of summer, just as the spore-cases begin to open. Place them on a sheet of paper in a box for a few days, keeping it in a dry place. Most of the spores will fall out, the others may be rubbed out with the hand. These spores will keep good a long time, but are best sown within a year. Fill the pots with good heavy loam, water freely, and apply a coating of charcoal, coarse sand, and sphragnum moss, rubbed through a fine sieve. Damp the surface, sow the spores thinly, and cover with glass. Keep the soil moist by standing the pots for a time each day up to their rim in water. No surface water should be given. Stand the pots in a warm, light place in the greenhouse, but keep them shaded from the sun. When the surface is covered with growth, prick out into pans or boxes, using a rich, light soil. When they are large enough pot them off singly in thumb-pots, re-potting as soon as these are filled with roots. Ferraria.--_See_ "Tigridia." Ferula (_Giant Fennel_).--Strong-growing, hardy, herbaceous plants. F. Gigantea has bright, glistening foliage, changing to a brilliant orange, and attains a height of 8 ft or 10 ft. F. Tingitana is very stately and graceful, growing 4 ft. high. They are easily raised from seed, will grow in any garden soil, and flower in August and September. Festuca.--An annual ornamental grass, which is grown best on a loamy soil. Sow the seed in March, and keep moist till it germinates. Height, 1 ft. Feverfew.--This hardy perennial will grow in any soil and ripen its seed freely. Young plants, obtained by sowing the seed early in spring, are very useful for edgings; when planted alternately with, or in proximity to, Lobelia a pretty effect is produced. Ficaria Grandiflora.--A hardy perennial which thrives well when planted under the shade of trees. It is increased by separating the tubers in autumn, and produces its flowers in May. Height, 6 in. Ficus Elastica (_India-rubber Plant_).--This thrives well in any light, rich soil, or in loam and peat. Keep it moderately moist throughout the winter, using tepid water. In summer any of the artificial manures may be used. Sponge the leaves once a week to free them from dust, and keep the plant well sheltered from draughts. Cuttings with uninjured leaves will root in autumn in sand with a bottom-heat of 65 or 75 degrees; or the cuttings may be taken in spring, stem-rooting the slips. It flowers in May, and sometimes attains the height of 20 ft. Fig Palm.--_See_ "Aralia." Figs.--Though in some parts of our country Figs are cropped on standards, as a rule they require to be trained on a wall having a southern exposure. The soil should be a fairly good loam mixed with old mortar and crushed bones, but no manure is needed. The end of March or the beginning of April is the most favourable time for planting. The trees should be firmly set, and the surface of the soil kept moist until they are established. Manure may be given--preferably in a liquid state--when heavy crops of fruit are being borne. Old and exhausted wood may be cut away in April, but the knife must be used sparingly. The branches should be trained to a distance of 10 in. apart, and the fruit-bearing shoots may be pinched back with the thumb and finger at the end of August. The fruit is borne on the previous year's growth. They may be increased by layers, by suckers, or by cuttings of the young wood placed in sand and plunged in a bottom-heat under glass. Brown Turkey, Black Ischia, Yellow Ischia, White Marseilles, Brunswick, and St John's are all good varieties for open-air cultivation, or for growing in houses. When grown under glass, Figs may be trained on trellises near the roof of the house, or may be planted in tubs or pots, not allowing too much root-room. At starting the temperature in the day should be about 60 degrees, and at night 55 degrees. More heat can be given as the plants advance, keeping up a moist atmosphere, but taking care not to give too much water to the roots. By pinching off the points of the shoots when they have made five or six leaves a second crop of fruit will be obtained. Use the knife upon them as little as possible. When the fruit begins to ripen admit air, and as soon as it is gathered give liquid manure to the roots every other day to encourage a second crop. When the plants are at rest they need hardly any water. Filberts and Cob Nuts.--These Nuts will succeed on any soil that is not cold or wet. The bushes should be planted in October, when the leaves have nearly all fallen. Make the soil firm about the roots and give a mulching of stable manure. At the beginning of April the old and exhausted wood may be cut away, as well as any branches that obstruct light and air. Encourage well-balanced heads to the bushes by cutting back any branch that grows too vigorously, and remove all suckers as they make an appearance, except they are required for transplanting. The crop is produced on the small wood. The best method of propagation is by layers in November or any time before the buds swell in spring. The process is simple, it merely requiring a notch to be made in a branch of two or three years' growth, which is then pegged down 2 or 3 in. below the surface. The following autumn it may be cut away from its parent, pruned, and planted. They may also be grown from nuts sown in autumn and transplanted when two years old. In Kent the bushes are kept low and wide-spreading, by which means the harvest is more readily reaped. On a fairly good soil they should stand from 10 to 14 ft. apart. Lambert's Filberts, Frizzled Filberts, Purple Filberts are good varieties, the former two bearing abundantly. Among the best of the Cobs may be mentioned the Great Cob and Merveille de Bollwyller. Fire Thorn.--_See_ "Crataegus." Flea Bane.--_See_ "Inula" _and_ "Stenactis." Flower-Pots, Sizes of.--Various practices prevail at different potteries, but the appended names and sizes are generally adopted. In every case the inside measurement is taken. Inches Inches SIZES. across Top. Deep. Thimbles 2 2 Thumbs 2-1/2 2-1/2 Sixties (60's) 3 3-1/2 Fifty-fours (54's) 4 4 Forty-eights (48's) 4-1/2 5 Thirty-twos (32's) 6 6 Twenty-fours (24's) 8-1/2 8 Sixteens (16's) 9-1/2 9 Twelves (12's) 11-1/2 10 Eights (8's) 12 11 Sixes (6's) 13 11 Fours (4's) 15 13 Threes (3's) 17 13 Twos (2's) 18 14 Foam Flower.--_See_ "Tiarella." Fontanesia Phillyraeoides.--This shrub will grow in any soil, but needs protection in severe weather. It may be propagated by layers or by cuttings planted under glass. August is its time for flowering. Height, 10 ft. Forget-me-not.--_See_ "Myosotis." Forsythia.--Any good soil suits these pretty shrubs. F. Suspensa thrives best under greenhouse treatment, but F. Viridissima is quite hardy. The former flowers in March, the latter in February. They may be increased by layers or cuttings. Height, 10 ft. Foxglove.--_See_ "Digitalis." Fragaria Indica (_Ornamental Strawberry_).--A rich or peaty mould suits this half-hardy perennial. It may be saved through the winter by protecting the roots, but seed sown in spring will generally fruit the same year. It flowers in July. Height, 1 ft. Francoa.--Hardy perennials bearing white flowers from June to September. They like a good, warm soil. The only way of raising them is from seed. They require a slight protection in winter. Height, 2-1/2 ft. Fraxinella (_Dictamnus_).--This ornamental hardy perennial is commonly known as the Burning Bush. It succeeds in any garden soil, and is easily raised from seed, which ripens freely. If the flowers are rubbed they emit a fine odour. It blooms in June. Height, 3 ft. Freesia.--Remarkably pretty and graceful Cape flowers, possessing a most agreeable perfume. The plants grow about 9 in. high and produce six or eight tubular flowers on a stem. They are easily cultivated in a cool greenhouse, frame, or window, and are invaluable for cutting, the long sprays lasting from two to three weeks in water. The bulbs should be planted early in the spring in rich, very sandy soil, and given the protection of a cold frame in the winter. By successional plantings they may be had in bloom from January to May. Put six to twelve bulbs in a 4-in. or 8-in pot, place in a sunny position in a cold frame, and cover with damp cinder ashes to keep them fairly moist. When growth has begun and the pots are full of roots, remove the covering of ashes, but keep the pots in the frame, giving a little ventilation when the weather is mild, and watering carefully when the soil appears dry. Protect from frost by a covering of mats. For early flowering remove the plants to a warm greenhouse when the flower spikes appear, keeping them as near the glass as possible. When the buds are developed an occasional application of weak liquid manure will prove beneficial. Fremontia Californica.--A beautiful and somewhat singular wall shrub, with large yellow flowers. Any soil is suitable for it, but a south or west aspect is indispensable. Fringe Tree.--_See_ "Chionanthus." Fritillarias (_Crown Imperials, or Snake's Head Lilies_).--Soil, sandy loam, or well-drained, deep, rich mould. Plant in the open ground in autumn; take the bulbs up as soon as the leaves decay, and preserve them in a rather moist place. Increased by off-sets taken from the old roots every third year. They are not so suitable for pot culture as for outdoor decoration. They are quite hardy, and flower in the spring, bearing clusters of pendent bell-shaped flowers surrounded with tufts of fresh green leaves. F. Meleagris are of dwarf, slender growth, and bear in early spring elegant pendent flowers of various shades netted and marked with darker colours. These are suitable for either the border or pots. Plant in autumn. Fruit Trees, the Pruning of.--Cut away all growths that have an inward tendency, and do not allow any shoot to cross over or come in contact with another; also keep the centres of the trees or bushes open. The fruit of trees thus treated is not so liable to be blown down by the wind, and the sun can more readily ripen it. If the ground is poor a dressing of rotted manure worked into the soil will be beneficial to the roots. Fuchsias.--These like a warm and moist atmosphere. The hardy sorts do well out of doors in rich, light soil. On the approach of frost cut them down and cover the roots with 3 or 4 in. of coal dust, ashes, or moss. Remove the ashes in April and thin out the shoots in May. They will also grow well from cuttings taken off the old wood as soon as they are 1 in. long, inserted in sand and placed under glass, or plunged in dung at a temperature of 60 degrees. Cuttings will also strike in loam and leaf-mould. If grown in pots, take them indoors before the frosty weather begins, and give them very little or no water at all during the winter. Keep them in a cool place, yet free from frost. Re-pot them in the spring, trimming the branches and roots, and making a compost for them of one-half mellow yellow loam, one quarter leaf-mould, and one quarter old manure. Place them in a frame with bottom-heat, and water and syringe them moderately while they are growing. When they are in full growth never give them plain water, but always plenty of liquid manure. Fumitory.--_See_ "Corydalis." Funkia.--Ornamental plants which delight in a deep, light soil and a warm, moist situation, without which they will not flower. They are increased by division (which should not be too severe) and bloom in July and August. Height, 1 1/2 ft. Furze.--Enjoys a sandy soil. Increased by cuttings taken in spring or autumn and placed in a shady border under hand-glasses. It is of evergreen habit, and forms a dense and highly ornamental hedge. (_See also_ "Ulex.") G Gages.--The cultivation of Gages is similar to that of Plums. In the open they may be grown as dwarfs or pyramids, and in orchard-houses as gridirons, cordons, or in pots. The chief points to observe are to thin the branches in order to admit plenty of light into the middle of the tree, thus inducing the production of a plentiful supply of fruit spurs, and to occasionally lift and root-prune the tree if growing too strong. Among the choicest sorts are: Bonne Bouche (producing its fruit at the end of August), Coe's Golden Drop (end of September), Old Green Gage (August), Guthrie's Late Green Gage (September), M'Laughlin's Gage (end of August), Oullin's Golden Gage (end of August), and Reine Claude de Bavay (beginning of October). Gaillardia (_Blanket Flower_).--Very ornamental flowers, which will grow in any common soil, but thrive most in a light, rich one. Seeds of the annual kinds are sown in the spring. The perennials are increased by dividing the roots. Bloom in July. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Galanthus.--_See_ "Snowdrops." Galax Aphylla (_Wand Plant_).--The Heart-shaped Galax is a charming little plant for rock-work. It is perennial, and does not lose the old leaves till the new ones appear. A rich, light mould is required for its growth, and its situation should be a somewhat shady one. Its flowers are borne in July and August, on stalks 1 ft. or more high. The plant may be increased by taking up a strong clump, shaking it apart, and transplanting at once. (_See also_ "Shortia.") Galega (_Goats Rue_).--Ornamental hardy perennials, requiring plenty of room. They are readily increased by seed or division of the root, and flower in July. Height, 3 ft. to 4 ft. Galium.--This hardy herbaceous plant blooms in July. It will grow in any soil, and can be increased by division of the root. Height, 1 ft. Gardenias.--Plant in a hothouse in fibrous peat mixed with a large proportion of sand. Give plenty of heat and moisture during growth, with a thin shade to keep off the sun's midday rays. Lower the temperature as soon as growth is completed, and in the middle of summer stand the plants out in the open for a week or two for the wood to ripen. Height, 3 ft. Garlic.--Plant small cloves from February to April in rows 9 in. apart and 6 in. from each other in the row. Lift them when the leaves die down, dry them in the sunshine, and store in an airy, cool shed. Garrya Elliptica.--A hardy evergreen shrub, which is very suitable in its early stages for pot-culture. A light, loamy soil is what it likes. Cuttings taken in August and placed in sand under a hand-glass will strike freely, but it is most readily increased by layers. In October it bears graceful yellowish-green tassels of flowers from the ends of its shoots. Height, 6 ft. Gasteria Verrucosa.--This plant grows best in pots of turfy loam and leaf-mould, to which has been added a little old mortar. Good drainage is essential. Water freely in summer, and keep just moist in winter. Keep the foliage clean by sponging. Give plenty of light, and during warm weather turn the plants out of doors. Gastrolobium.--Elegant evergreen shrubs which flower in April and May. They are most suitable for adorning the greenhouse, and grow best in a soil of loamy peat and sand. Cuttings of half-ripened wood planted under glass will take root. Height, 2 ft. Gaultheria.--Dwarf, creeping evergreen shrubs, having dark foliage and producing white flowers in May, June, or July. They require to be grown in peat, and are increased by layers. G. Procumbens is suitable for rockeries, as it only grows to the height of 6 in. G. Shallon attains the height of 2 ft. Gaura Lindheimeri.--This free-flowering, hardy, herbaceous plant will thrive in any light, rich soil. It bears elegant spikes of white flowers from May onwards, followed by red bracts in September, and is readily propagated by seeds. Height, 4 ft. Gazania Splendens.--A showy greenhouse plant. It may be planted in the open in warm positions, but will require protecting in winter. Grow it in peat and loam. Cuttings will strike if placed in sand under glass. It flowers in July. Height, 1 ft. Genethyllis.--Greenhouse evergreen shrubs which thrive best in sandy loam and peat. Cuttings of the young wood planted in the same soil and plunged in heat will take root. Their flowering season is in August. Height, 3 ft. Genista (_Broom_).--G. Canariense is an exceedingly ornamental and free-flowering greenhouse shrub. It should be planted in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand. Young cuttings inserted in sand under a glass take root readily. It blooms in June. Height, 2 ft. Hardy species of Genista may be placed in the front of shrubberies. They are increased by seeds or by layers. Gentians.--The herbaceous kinds do best in a light, rich soil, such as loam and peat mixed with vegetable mould. The annuals are raised from seed sown as soon as it is ripe; if left till spring before it is sown it will probably not come up till the second year. The perennials are increased by dividing the roots. Both of the latter kinds do best in a dry, sandy soil. Gentiana Acaulis, or Gentianella, is very suitable for edgings, or for rock-work; it is an evergreen creeper, and bears large trumpet-shaped flowers of rich ultramarine blue. All the Gentians need plenty of free air, and some of them moisture at the roots. Bloom in July. Height, 4 in. to 2 ft. Geranium Argentium(_Silvery Crane's-Bill_).--This hardy perennial alpine is very effective on rock-work, especially in front of dark stones; but provision must be made for its long tap roots. A rich, deep loam suits it well. Its seeds germinate freely when sown in peat and sand. Flowers are borne from May to July. Height, 6 in. Geraniums.--Take cuttings in July or August, and let them he to partially dry for twenty-four hours before planting. When rooted pot them off in 60's, and keep them under glass during the winter at a temperature of 55 degrees. If the cuttings are taken in September put three or four slips in a 48-size pot. In the spring they should be re-potted singly and hardened off as early as possible. A suitable soil for them is made by mixing two parts of good turfy loam, one of leaf-mould, one of well-decomposed cow-dung, and a good proportion of silver sand. Bone dust is an excellent addition to the soil. Old plants stripped of their leaves may be packed in sand during the winter, and re-potted in spring. Gerardia.--These hardy perennials form pyramidal bushes bearing Pentstemon-like flowers, thickly set and varying in colour from light pink to dark purple. A peat soil suits them best. They may be propagated by cuttings placed under glass, but are best grown from seed. July is their flowering season. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. German Seeds.--These require to be sown in a cold frame in seed-pans, in the greenhouse, or under a handglass, in good, rich compost, composed of old turf, leaf-mould, some well-rotted manure, and silver sand. The seeds should be sown thinly and watered sparingly. Sow early in April, and transplant in the middle or end of May in rich soil. Water occasionally with weak liquid manure. Gesneria.--Handsome greenhouse perennials. They thrive in any light, rich soil. Cuttings will strike readily either in sand or soil if placed under glass in heat. They may also be raised from seed sown in a temperature of 75 degrees in March or April. They flower in October. Height, 18 in. Geum.--Very handsome hardy perennials. They grow well in any light, rich, loamy soil, and may be increased either by seeds or by dividing the roots. G. Coccineum is extremely pretty. Flower in July. Height, 18 in. Gherkins.--Sow the seed the first week in April in small pots, and cover it lightly with fine soil. Plunge the pots in a hotbed covered with a frame. When grown to nice little plants, remove them to a cold frame to harden, and plant them out on a warm border towards the end of May. When the fruit begins to form, give liquid manure twice a week. For pickling they must be cut while small. Gilia.--Extremely pretty and free-flowering hardy annuals, deserving of a place in every garden. They are very suitable for small beds. They should be sown in the open early in spring. G. Tricolour may be sown in autumn. Bloom in July. Height, 1 ft. Gillenia Trifoliata.--The Three-Leaved Gillenia is a hardy herbaceous perennial which is very useful as a cut flower for the decoration of vases, etc. It should be grown in large clumps, delights in a deep, moist soil and partial shade, and may be propagated by dividing the roots early in spring. It lasts in bloom from June to August. Height, 1 ft. Gladiolus.--Dig the ground out to a depth of 1 ft. or 15 in.; put in a layer of leaf-mould or rotted manure, and then 4 or 5 in. of earth mixed with sand; insert the bulbs (6 in. from the surface and 9 in. apart), cover them with 1 in. of sand, and fill up with earth. In frosty weather cover with a thick layer of litter. Give plenty of water when they begin to throw up their flower-stems. They may be planted at any time between December and the end of March. If planted late in the season, a depth of 3 or 4 in. is enough. The roots must be kept dry in winter. They are increased by off-sets, taken when the bulbs are removed from the ground after the leaves have turned yellow. These should be planted at once in well-drained earth. If early flowers are required, plant the old bulbs in pots (three to six bulbs being placed in a 5-in. pot) any time between December and March. Give them frame culture up to the second week in May, when they may be transferred to the border. The flowers are invaluable for vase decoration. Glaucium Flavum Tricolor (_Hardy Horn Poppy_).--The large, brilliant, orange-red flowers of this plant are very effective in the border, and the bloom is continuous during the greater part of the summer. The seed is rather slow to germinate, but when sown in the open ground in autumn, it blooms from June to August; when sown in early spring it flowers from July to September. Height, 2 ft. Glaux Maritima (_Sea Milkweed_).--A pretty little hardy trailing plant bearing flesh-coloured flowers in June and July. It grows in sandy loam, and is raised from seed sown in spring. Height, 3 in. Globe Amaranthus (_Gomphrena_).--This tender annual is well known for its clover-like heads of everlasting flowers. It will grow in any rich soil, but to produce really fine plants, much attention must be given to shifting, watering, etc. Increased by seed in the same manner as other tender annuals. Blooms in July. Height, 1 ft. Globe Flower.--_See_ "Trollius." Globe Thistle.--_See_ "Echinops." Globularia Trichosantha.--A pretty dwarf perennial rock-plant bearing pale blue flowers in May and June. It is hardy, thrives in light, sandy soil, and is increased by either seeds or cuttings planted in sand. Height, 6 in. The greenhouse varieties of Globularia grow best in loam and peat. Glory of the Snow.--_See_ "Chionodoxa." Gloxinias.--A very ornamental family of tuberous-rooted hothouse plants. They are of two classes, the drooping and the erect. Pot at any time during January and March in a mixture of equal quantities of loam, peat, and sand, with the addition of a little vegetable soil, and place in a warm (60 degrees), moist temperature, where they can be favoured with a little shade. In summer supply the roots plentifully with water, but give them very little in winter. Overhead watering is likely to rot the leaves and flowers. G. Maculata is increased by division. The leaves of most of the others, if taken off close to the stem, and planted, will soon make young plants. They may be raised from seed sown from March to July in a hothouse or frame having a temperature of 65 to 75 degrees. They flower in June, and on into September. Height, 6 in. to 1 ft. Glycine.--_See_ "Wistaria" _and_ "Apios." Gnaphalium _(Edelweiss_).--Hardy everlasting flowers, which are covered with a woolly substance. They may be grown in any light, rich soil. The shrubby and herbaceous kinds may be increased by cuttings or division. The annuals are easily raised from seed. They flower in July. Height, 1 ft. Goat's Rue.--_See_ "Galega." Godetia.--Very pretty hardy annuals, that may be grown in any garden soil. Sow in the autumn for early flowering, or in spring for later blooms. July is their ordinary season of coming into flower. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. Golden Feather.--Hardy annual foliage plants. They are not particular as to soil, and are easily raised from seed sown early in spring. They bloom in July. Height, 1 ft. Golden Rod.--_See_ "Solidago." Gompholobium.--Delicate greenhouse evergreen shrubs requiring a soil of sandy loam and peat and but little water. They flower in June, and are propagated by cuttings planted in sand under glass. Height, 2 ft. Gomphrena.--_See_ "Globe Amaranthus." Gooseberries.--From the middle of October to the end of November is the best time for planting. To produce good crops the soil should be rich, deep, and well drained. The position should be somewhat cool and sheltered, and a liberal quantity of liquid manure is beneficial. In dry seasons mulching may be resorted to with advantage. Cuttings are taken in autumn as soon as the leaves begin to fall. Select strong shoots about 1 ft. long. Cut the bottom end straight across, just below a joint, and with a sharp knife remove all the buds or eyes from the base to within a couple of inches of the top, so as to prevent the formation of suckers. Plant the shoots firmly 3 in. deep, in rows 1 ft. apart and 6 in. apart in the rows, on a north border. At the end of the second season cut back all leading shoots to two-thirds of their length. In after years remove weak and superfluous branches, as also any that are growing near the ground, but plenty of young wood must always be left on the bushes. The pruning may be done either in spring or autumn. The following varieties may be recommended:--Red, White, and Yellow Champagne, Wilmot's Early Red, Golden Drop, Ironmonger, and Warrington Red for dessert; while for preserving and culinary purposes Old Rough Red, Conquering Hero, Favourite, Broom Girl, British Crown, Ironsides, Lady Leicester, Thumper, Green Walnut, Leader, and Moreton Hero may be classed among the leading varieties. When grown in bush form ample room must be allowed between each to enable one to get round the bushes to gather the fruit. Gooseberry Caterpillar.--To prevent caterpillars attacking Gooseberries syringe the bushes with a decoction of common foxglove (Digitalis), or dust the leaves with Hellebore powder. If the caterpillar has begun its attack, sprinkle some fresh lime below the bushes, and shake the bushes vigorously, so that the insects are dislodged. Gorse.--_See_ "Ulex." Gourds.--Sow at the end of March or the beginning of April on a slight hotbed; pot off when the plants are sufficiently advanced, and transplant to the open border in June. They are well adapted for arbours, trellis-work, or sloping banks. The following are among the most ornamental:--Abobra Viridiflora, Benincasa Cerifera (Wax Gourd), Bryonopsis Erythrocarpa, Coccinea Indica (scarlet fruit), Cucumis Anguinus (Serpent Gourd), Cucumis Dipsaceus (Teasel Gourd), Cucumis Dudaim (Balloon Gourd), Cucumis Erinaceus (Hedgehog Gourd), Cucumis Grossularoides (Gooseberry Gourd), Cucumis Perennis, Cucurbita Argyrosperma, Cucurbita Melopepo, Cyclanthera Explodens (Bombshell Gourd), Cyclanthera Pedata, Eopepon Aurantiacum, Eopepon Vitifolius, Lagenaria Clavata (Club Gourd), Lagenaria Enormis, Lagenaria Leucantha Depressa, Lagenaria Leucantha Longissima, Lagenaria Plate de Corse, Lagenaria Poire a Poudre, Lagenaria Siphon, Luffa Cylindrica, Luffa Solly Qua, Melothria Scabra, Momordica Balsamina, Momordica Charantia, Momordica Elaterium, Mukia Scabrella, Scotanthus Tubiflorus, Trichosanthes Anguina, Trichosanthes Coccinea, Trichosanthes Colubrina, and Trichosanthes Palmata. Grafting.--The objects of Grafting are to bring a bush or tree into an earlier state of bearing than it would do naturally; to produce good fruit from an inferior plant; and to save space by putting dwarf scions on to rampant-growing trees. By the process of uniting strong-growing trees to those of a weaker nature their exuberance is checked, and weaker ones are improved by being worked on those of a stronger growth. Whatever form of Grafting is adopted, the inner layers of the bark of the stock or tree on which the operation is performed, must be brought into direct contact with the inner layers of the bark of the branch which is grafted, or, as it is called, the scion. This scion should be a branch of the early growth of the previous year's wood, and should be in the same state of vegetation as the stock. If the scion is in a more advanced state than the stock, its growth may be stopped by cutting it off and burying it in the earth under a north wall until the stock has advanced sufficiently in growth. Grafting of all kinds is best done in March, when the sap is flowing freely. Many methods of Grafting are adopted, the following being the principal:-- Whip or Tongue Grafting is suitable for almost any description of trees. Saw the stock off level at any desired height, then make a deep upward slanting cut through the bark at the top 2 or 3 in. in length, and in the middle of the cut turn the knife downwards and cut out a thin wedge-shaped socket. Next cut the scion in a similar manner so that it will fit exactly into the incision of the stock, bringing the bark of each into direct contact. Bind it firmly in position, and cover it over, from the top of the stock to the bottom of the scion, with grafting wax or clay. When the scion and the stock are united, which is demonstrated by the former making growth, remove the wax and cut away all shoots that may be produced on the stock. In the French mode of Grafting known as the Bertemboise, the crown of the stock is cut at a long level, about 1 in. at the top being left square, and an angular piece is cut away in which the scion is inserted. It is then bound and waxed over. Theophrastes or Rind Grafting is used where a tree has strong roots but inferior fruit. The branches are cut off about 1-1/2 or 2 ft. from the main stem. A sharp cut 2 or 3 in. in length is made down the bark of the branches, and the lower parts of the scion, selected from a superior tree, having been cut into tongues resembling the mouth-piece of a flageolet, the bark of the branches is lifted with a knife, and the tongues of the scions are slipped in, bound, and waxed. Side Grafting is useful where it is desired to replenish the tree with a fresh branch. A T-shaped cut is made in the stem of the tree, extending to the inner bark; the scion is prepared by a longitudinal sloping cut of the same length as that in the stem, into which it is inserted, and the two are bound together and treated like other grafts. Approach Grafting is the most favourable method of obtaining choice varieties of the vine, or of growing weak sorts on roots of a stronger growth. The scion is generally grown in a pot. A portion of the bark is cut from both scion and stock while the vine is in active growth, and the two wounded parts brought into contact, so that they fit exactly. They are then tied together, and moss (kept constantly wet) is bound round the parts. The union may be completed by the following spring, but it is safer to leave the cutting down of the stock to the point of union and the separation of the scion from the potted plant until the second spring. Grafting Wax (_Cobbetts_), etc.--Pitch and resin four parts each, beeswax two parts, tallow one part. Melt and mix the ingredients, and use when just warm. It may be rolled into balls and stored in a dry place. Clay bands are frequently employed for excluding the air from wounds caused in the process of grafting. These are liable to crack, unless the clay is well kneaded and mixed with wood ashes or dry horse droppings. Grapes.--The cultivation of Grapes in the open in our cloudy and changeable climate cannot be looked forward to with any certainty of success. Two successive favourable seasons are indispensable--one to ripen the wood, and the next to ripen the fruit. Nevertheless, the highly ornamental foliage of the vine entitles it to a place on our walls, and every facility should be afforded for the production of a chance crop of fruit. The soil most suited to the growth of the vine is a medium loam, with which is incorporated a quantity of crushed chalk and half-inch bones. It should be given a south aspect, and be liberally supplied with water in dry seasons. April is the best time to plant it, spreading the roots out equally about 9 in. below the surface of the soil, and mulching with 3 or 4 in. of manure. Should mildew set in, syringe the vine with a mixture of soapsuds and sulphur. To secure a continuance of fruit, cut out some of the old rods each year as soon as the leaves fall, and train young shoots in their places. Last year's shoots produce other shoots the ensuing summer, and these are the fruit-bearers. One bunch of grapes is enough for a spur to carry. Professional gardeners cast off the weight of the bunches, and allow 1 ft. of rod to each pound of fruit. Tie or nail the bunches to the trellis or wall, and remove all branches or leaves that intercept light and air. The vine may be increased by layers at the end of September. Cut a notch at a bud, and bury it 4 or 5 in. deep, leaving two or three eyes above ground. It may also be propagated by cuttings, about 1 ft. in length, of the last year's growth, with 1 in. of old wood attached, taken the latter end of February. Plant these deep in the ground, leaving one eye only above the surface. Both the Black Hamburgh and Royal Muscadine ripen as well as any in the open. It is under glass only that Grapes can be brought to perfection. Here a night temperature of 55 to 65 degrees, with a rise of 5 or 10 degrees in the day, should be maintained, the walls and paths damped once or twice a day, and the vine syringed frequently until it comes into bloom, when syringing must cease, and a drier atmosphere is necessary; the moisture being reduced by degrees. As the grapes ripen, admit more air, and reduce the heat, otherwise the fruit will shrivel. After gathering the grapes syringe the vine frequently to clear it from spiders or dust, and keep the house cool to induce rest to the plant. The fruit may be preserved for a long while in a good condition by cutting it with about 1 ft. of the rod attached, and inserting the cuttings in bottles of water in which a piece of charcoal is placed: the bottles to be placed in racks nailed on to an upright post in any room or cellar where an equable temperature of 45 or 50 degrees can be kept up. The system of pruning adopted is that known as spur pruning (_see_ "Pruning"). Mrs. Pearson is a very fine variety, and produces very sweet berries; the Frontignan Grizzly Black and White are also delicious. Grasses, Natural-- _AGROSTIS STOLONIFERA_ (_Creeping Bent Grass_).--Useful for damp meadows. _ALOPECURUS PRATENSIS_ (_Meadow Foxtail_).--Strong-growing and very nutritious. _ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM_ (_True Sweet Vernal_),--Hardy and gives fragrance to hay. _AVENA FLAVESCENS_ (_Yellow Oat Grass_).--Fine for sheep; grows freely on light soils. _CYNOSURUS CRISTATUS_ (_Crested Dogstail_).--Suitable for any soil. _DACTYLIS GLOMERATA_ (_Cocksfoot_).--Strong and coarse-growing; cattle are fond of it. _FESTUCA DURIUSCULA_ (_Hard Fescue_).--Dwarf-growing; excellent for sheep. _FESTUCA ELATIOR_ (_Tall Fescue_).--Useful for cold, strong soils. _FESTUCA OVINA_ (_Sheep's Fescue_).--Fine for dry, sandy soils. _FESTUCA OVINA TENUIFOLIA_ (_Slender Fescue_).--Suitable for mountain pastures. _FESTUCA PRATENSIS_ (_Meadow Fescue_).--Good permanent grass for rich, moist soil. _PHLEUM PRATENSE_ (_Timothy, or Catstail_).--Suitable for strong soils; nutritious and hardy. _POA NEMORALIS_ (_Wood Meadow Grass_).--Good for poor soils. _POA PRATENSIS_ (_Smooth-stalked Meadow Grass_).--Grows well on light, dry soil, and also in water-meadows. _POA TRIVIALIS_ (_Rough-stalked Meadow Grass_).--Fine for damp soil. Grasses, Ornamental.--Fine for mixing in a green state with cut flowers, or in a dried condition for the decoration of vases, winter bouquets, etc. To have them in perfection gather them while quite fresh, with the pollen on them. Cut with as long stems as possible, arrange lightly in vases, and keep them in the dark till they are dried and the stems become stiff. The Grasses may be divided into two sections, viz., those for bouquets or edgings, and those grown in the border or on lawns for specimen plants. The class is numerous, but the following (which may be found described herein under alphabetical classification) may be mentioned:-- For bouquets and edgings: Agrostis, Anthoxanthum, Avena, Briza, Coix Lachryma, Eragrostis, Festuca, Hordeum Jubatum, Lagurus, and Stipa Pennata. For specimen plants: Eulalia, Gynerium, Panicum, Phalaris, and Zea. Gratiola Officinalis.--This hardy herbaceous plant bears light blue flowers in July. A rich, moist soil is its delight. It is propagated by dividing the roots. Height, 1 ft. Green Fly.--Fumigate the infected plants with tobacco, and afterwards syringe them with clear water; or the plants may be washed with tobacco water by means of a soft brush. Grevillea.--Handsome greenhouse shrubs, which require a mould composed of equal parts of peat, sand, and loam. Give plenty of water in summer, a moderate amount at other seasons. Ripened cuttings may be rooted in sand, under a glass. Young plants may also be obtained from seed. They bloom in June. Their common height is from 3 to 4 ft., but G. Robusta attains a great height. Grevilleas will grow well in windows facing south. Griselinia Littoralis.--A dwarf-growing, light-coloured evergreen shrub, which will thrive near the sea. It requires a light, dry soil, and may be increased by cuttings. Guelder Rose.--_See_ "Viburnum." Guernsey Lily (_Nerine Sarniense_).--Soil, strong, rich loam with sand, well drained. Plant the bulbs deeply in a warm, sheltered position, and let them remain undisturbed year by year. Keep the beds dry in winter, and protect the roots from frost. They also make good indoor plants, potted in moss or cocoa-nut fibre in September, or they may be grown in vases of water. Gumming of Trees.--Scrape the gum off, wash the place thoroughly with clear water, and apply a compost of horse-dung, clay, and tar. Gunnera Manicata (_Chilian Rhubarb_).--This hardy plant bears large leaves on stout foot-stalks, and is very ornamental in the backs of borders, etc. Planted in a rich, moist soil, it will flower in August. It can be propagated by division. Height, 6 ft. Gunnera Scabra.--Has gigantic leaves, 4 to 5 ft. in diameter, on petioles 3 to 6 ft. in length. It prefers a moist, shady position, and bears division. Makes a fine addition to a sub-tropical garden, where it will flower in August. Height, 6 ft. Gynerium (_Pampas Grass_).--This unquestionably is the grandest of all grasses, and is sufficiently hardy to endure most of our winters. It is, however, desirable to give it some protection. It requires a deep, rich, alluvial soil, with plenty of room and a good supply of water. Plants may be raised from seed sown thinly in pots during February or March, barely covering it with very fine soil, and keeping the surface damp. Plant out at end of May. They will flower when three or four years old. The old leaves should be allowed to remain on till the new ones appear, as they afford protection to the plant. It may be increased by division of the root. Height, 7 ft. Gypsophila.--Of value for table bouquets, etc. They will grow in any soil, but prefer a chalky one. The herbaceous kinds are increased by cuttings; the annuals are sown in the open either in autumn or spring. They bloom during July and August. Height, 1 ft. to 3 ft. H Habrothamnus.--These beautiful evergreen shrubs require greenhouse culture, and to be grown in sandy loam and leaf-mould. The majority of them flower in spring. Height, 4 ft. to 6 ft. Halesia Tetraptera (_Snowdrop Tree_).--This elegant shrub will grow in any soil, and may be propagated by cuttings of the roots or by layers. The pendent white flowers are produced close to the branches in June. Height, 8 ft. Hamamelis (_Witch Hazel_).--An ornamental shrub which will grow in ordinary soil, but thrives best in a sandy one. It is increased by layers. May is its season for flowering. Height, 12 ft. to 15 ft. H. Arborea is a curious small tree, producing brownish-yellow flowers in mid-winter. Harpalium Rigidum.--A hardy perennial, producing very fine yellow flowers in the autumn. It will grow in any good garden soil, and may be propagated by seed sown in early autumn, or by division of the roots. Height, 3 ft. Hawkweed.--_See_ "Crepis" _and_ "Hieracium." Heartsease.--_See_ "Pansies." Heaths, Greenhouse.--For their successful growth Heaths require a well-drained soil, composed of three parts finely pulverised peat and one part silver sand, free ventilation, and a careful supply of water, so that the soil is always damp. If they suffer a check they are hard to bring round, especially the hard-wooded kinds. Some of the soft-wooded Heaths, such as the H. Hyemalis, are easier of management. After they have flowered they may be cut hard back, re-potted, and supplied with liquid manure. The stout shoots thus obtained will bloom the following season. (_See also_ "Ericas.") Hedera.--_See_ "Ivy." Hedychium Gardnerianum.--A hothouse herbaceous plant, delighting in a rich, light soil, plenty of room in the pots for the roots, and a good amount of sunshine. In the spring a top-dressing of rich manure and soot should be given. From the time the leaves begin to expand, and all through its growing stage, it needs plenty water, and an occasional application of liquid manure. The foliage should not be cut off when it dies, but allowed to remain on all the winter. While the plant is dormant keep it rather dry and quite free from frost. It may be increased by dividing the roots, but it blooms best when undisturbed. July is its flowering month. Height, 6 ft. Hedysarum.--Hardy perennials, requiring a light, rich soil, or loam and peat. They may be raised from seed, or increased by dividing the roots in spring. H. Multijugum bears rich purple flowers. Height, 6 in. to 3 ft. Heleniums.--The Pumilum is a very pretty hardy perennial that may be grown in any soil, and increased by dividing the roots. It produces its golden flowers in August. Height, 1-1/2 ft. H. Autumnale is also easy to grow, but flowers a month later than the Pumilum, and attains a height of 3 ft. H. Bigelowi is the best of the late autumn-flowering species, producing an abundance of rich yellow flowers with purple discs. Flowers in August. Height, 3-1/2 ft. Helianthemum Alpinum (_Rock Roses_).--These hardy perennials are best grown in sandy loam and peat, and may be increased by cuttings placed under glass in a sheltered situation. Bloom in June or July. Height, 1 ft. Helianthus (_Sunflowers_).--The tall variety is a very stately plant, suitable for the background or a corner of the border. Well-grown flowers have measured 16 in. in diameter. The miniature kinds make fine vase ornaments. They grow in any garden soil, and are easily increased by seed raised on a hotbed in spring and afterwards transplanted. The perennials may be propagated by division of the root. They produce their flowers in August. Height, 3 ft. to 6 ft. Helichrysum.--Fine everlasting hardy annuals, that grow best in a mixture of three parts peat and one part sandy loam. May be readily raised from seed sown in a cold frame in March, or cuttings taken off at a joint will strike in peat and sand. Bloom during July and August. For winter decoration the flowers should be gathered in a young state, as they continue to develop after being gathered. Height, 1 ft. to 6 ft, but most of them are 2 ft. high. Heliophila.--Pretty little hardy annuals, thriving best in sandy loam and peat. Sow the seed early in spring in pots placed in a gentle hotbed, and plant out in May. They flower in June. Height, 9 in. Heliopsis.--This hardy perennial is useful for cutting purposes, the flowers being borne on long stalks, and lasting for two or three weeks in water. It is not particular as to soil, and may be increased by dividing the roots. Height, 5 ft. Heliotrope.--Commonly called Cherry Pie. Sow the seed early in spring in light, rich soil in a little heat, and plant out in May. The best plants, however, are obtained from cuttings taken off when young, in the same way as Verbenas and bedding Calceolarias. They are very sensitive to frost. Flower in June. Height, 1 ft. Helipterium.--A half-hardy annual, bearing everlasting flowers. It should receive the same treatment as Helichrysum. Blooms in May or June. Height, 2 ft. Helleborus (_Christmas Rose_).--As its name implies, the Hellebore flowers about Christmas, and that without any protection whatever. The foliage is evergreen, and of a dark colour. When the plant is once established it produces flowers in great abundance. The plants of the white-flowered variety should be protected with a hand-light when the flower-buds appear, in order to preserve the blossoms pure and clean. Any deeply-dug rich garden soil suits it, and it is most at home under the shade of a tree. It prefers a sheltered situation, and during the summer months a mulching of litter and an occasional watering will be beneficial. Readily increased by division in spring or seed. Height, 1 ft. Helonias Bullata.--A pretty herbaceous plant, bearing dense racemes of purple-rose flowers from June to August. It grows best in peat, in a moist position. It can be raised from seed or increased by division of the roots. Height 1-1/2 ft. Hemerocallis (_Day Lily_).--Old-fashioned plants of great merit. Planted in large clumps they produce a grand effect. They are easily grown in any common garden soil, and bloom in July. Height, 3 ft. H. Kwanso has handsome, variegated foliage. Hemp.--_See_ "Canna" _and_ "Cannabis." Hepatica.--This enjoys a rather light, sandy soil and a shady situation. The roots should be taken up and divided every second year. Well adapted for surrounding beds or clumps of Rhododendrons. Flowers in March. Height, 4 in. Heracleum.--Coarse hardy biennials, that may be grown in any kind of soil, and are readily raised from seed. They flower at midsummer. Height, 2 ft. to 4 ft. Herbs.--Thyme, Marjoram, Chervil, Basil, Burnet, Hyssop, Savory, etc., should be sown early in spring, in dry, mild weather, in narrow drills about 1/2 in. deep and 8 or 9 in. apart, covered evenly with soil, and transplanted when strong enough. Mint is quickly increased by separating the roots in spring, and covering them with 1 in. of earth. Sage is propagated by slips of the young shoots taken either in spring or autumn. If planted in light soil and in a sunny position it produces very fragrant flowers. Chives should be planted 6 or 8 in. apart: they are increased by division in spring. Penny Royal, like mint generally, will grow from very small pieces of the root; it needs to be frequently transplanted, and to be kept from a damp condition. Rosemary will grow from cuttings planted under glass in a shady spot. Thyme likes a light, rich soil, and bears division. Sorrel will grow in any soil, and the roots should be divided every two or three years. Chamomile roots are divided and subdivided in spring. Herbs should be harvested on a fine day, just before they are in full bloom. Tie them up in small bunches and hang in the shade to dry, then wrap in paper and store in air-tight vessels, or rub the leaves to a powder and keep in tightly-corked bottles. They will retain their strength for a long time. Herbs, the Uses of Sweet and Pot.-- _ANGELICA_.--A biennial. Leaves and stalks are eaten raw or boiled; the seeds are aromatic, and used to flavour spirits. _ANISE_.--Leaves used for garnishing, and for seasoning, like fennel; the seeds are medicinal. _BALM_.--A hardy perennial. Makes a useful tea and wine for fevers. _BASIL_, Sweet and Bush.--Half-hardy annuals. The leaves and tops of the shoots, on account of their clove-like flavour, are used for seasoning soups and introduced into salads. _BORAGE_.--Hardy annual. Used for salads and garnishing, and as an ingredient in cool drinks; excellent also for bees. _CHAMOMILE_.--A hardy perennial. Flowers used medicinally. _CARAWAY_.--A biennial. Leaves used in soups, and the seeds in confectionery and medicine. _CHERVIL_.--An annual. Useful for salads. _CHIVES_.--Hardy perennial. The young tops used to flavour soups, etc. _CORIANDER_.--A hardy annual. Cultivated for garnishing. _DILL_.--A hardy perennial. Leaves used in soups and sauces, also in pickles. _FENNEL_.--Hardy perennial. Used in salads and in fish sauce, also for garnishing dishes. _HOREHOUND_.--Hardy perennial. Leaves and young shoots used for making a beverage for coughs. _HYSSOP_.--Hardy evergreen shrub. Leaves and young shoots used for making tea; also as a pot herb. _LAVENDER_.--Hardy perennial. Cultivated for its flowers, for the distillation of lavender water, for flavouring sauces, and for medicinal purposes. _MARIGOLD_, Pot.--Hardy annual. Flowers used in soups. _MARJORAM_, Sweet or Knotted, and Pot.--Hardy annuals. Aromatic and sweet flavour. Used for stuffings and as a pot herb; leaves dried for winter use. _RAMPION_.--Hardy perennial. Roots used as a radish; they have a nutty flavour. _ROSEMARY_.--Hardy ornamental shrub. Sprigs used for garnishing and the leaves in drink. _RUE_.--Hardy evergreen shrub. Leaves used for medicinal drinks; useful for poultry with croup. _SAGE_.--Hardy perennial. Decoction of leaves drank as tea; used also for stuffing, meats, and sauces. _SAVORY_, Summer.--Hardy annual. Used for flavouring soups and salads. _SAVORY_, Winter.--Hardy evergreen shrub. Its aromatic flavour makes it valuable as a pot herb. _SCURVY GRASS_.--The small leaves are eaten as watercress. _SKIRRET_.--Hardy perennial. Sweet, white, and pleasant; the tubers are boiled and served up with butter. _SORREL_, Broad-Leaved.--Hardy perennial. Imparts an acid flavour to salads and soups. _THYME_, Broad-Leaved.--Hardy perennial. Young leaves and tops used for stuffing, also in soups and sauces. _TARRAGON_.--Hardy perennial. For flavouring vinegar; also used in salads, soups, and pickles. _WORMWOOD_.--A hardy shrub. Beneficial to horses and poultry, and is used for medical purposes. Herniaria Glabra.--These dwarf carpeting plants are of easy culture. Grow from seed in spring and transplant into sandy soil. Height, 1-1/2 in. Hesperis.--_See_ "Rocket." Heuchera.--Very neat, but not showy, hardy American perennials. They may be grown in any ordinary light garden soil, are increased by dividing the root, and bloom in May. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Hibbertia Dentata.--An evergreen twining plant, requiring a greenhouse for its cultivation and a soil of sandy loam and peat. It flowers in July, and is increased by cuttings taken in spring or summer and kept under glass. Height, 6 ft. Hibiscus Africanus.--A handsome hardy annual Mallow. Sow in March in slight heat, and plant out in May 10 in. apart. Grows best in a mixture of loam and peat. Blooms in June. Height, 2 ft. Hibiscus Syriacus (_Rose of Sharon_).--A hardy, deciduous, autumn-flowering shrub, which will grow in common soil, and may be propagated by seeds, layers, or cuttings planted under glass. Height, 6 ft. Hieracium (_Hawkweed_).--A free-growing hardy perennial, suitable for a sunny bank or border. It is not particular as to soil. From June to September it produces orange-brown flowers. It grows freely from seed, and the roots bear division. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Hippeastrums.--_See_ "Amaryllis." Hippocrepis.--Very pretty hardy trailing perennials, covered from May to July with golden Pea-shaped flowers. They will grow in any light, sandy soil, and may be increased by cuttings, which root readily under glass. Height, 3 in. to 6 in. Hippophae.--Ornamental shrubs, thriving in ordinary soil, and increased by layers or cuttings of the roots. H. Rhamnoides (Sea Buckthorn) flowers in May. Height, 12 ft. Holboellia Latifolia.--_See_ "Stauntonia Latifolia." Holly (_Ilex_).--This pleasing hardy evergreen shrub thrives best on a deep, sandy loam, but will grow in any good soil, provided the position is dry. It succeeds well in the shade. Cuttings of young shoots having 1 in. of the old wood attached will strike root, but the plant is of very slow growth, and takes at least four years to grow into a good bush. Choice varieties may be grafted or budded on to the common sorts in June or July. To grow Holly from seed, gather the berries when ripe, crush them, and mix them up with a little sandy loam, bury them in a hole 3 ft. deep, and cover with litter. Dig them up and sow them in March. Big bushes are best moved at the end of August, mixing the earth to a puddle before planting. The less pruning they receive the better. They may be trimmed in spring. Hollyhock.--May be raised from seed or cuttings. Sow the seed about the second week of March in very rich soil, and cover it with 1 in. of dry earth. In June (having soaked the bed thoroughly overnight) remove the young plants to a nursery-bed, setting them 6 in. apart. Press the earth firmly round the roots, and water plentifully until settled. In the autumn plant them where they are to bloom. Cuttings may be taken as soon as the flowers appear, or from the old plants in autumn. Each joint having an eye will furnish a plant. Select side branches having two or three joints and leaves. Cut the shoots through just under the lower joint, leaving the leaf entire; cut it also about 2 in. above the joint. Plant in equal parts of loam, gritty sand, and leaf-mould; shelter from the sun, and sprinkle them every day in fine weather with water. If the cuttings are taken in autumn pot them off in 60-sized pots, and keep them in a cold frame till the spring, when they may be planted out. Flowers in August. Height, 6 ft. Homerias.--Beautiful little South African plants. For out-door cultivation plant the bulbs in a dry, warm situation, from October to January, 3 in. deep, and the same distance apart, in rich, light, well-drained soil, and protect them from heavy rains with a good layer of leaves. For pot culture put four or five bulbs in a 5-in. pot, place in a cold frame, and cover with cocoa-nut fibre until the growth appears. Water moderately, and when the flowers fade abstain from supplying moisture. The bulbs are not quite hardy, therefore they should be removed indoors before frosts appear. Homogyne Alpina.--Hardy herbaceous plants flowering in April. Any soil is suitable for them, and they may be increased by division. Height, 6 in. Honesty (_Lunaria_).--Interesting hardy biennials. When dried, the shining seed-pods make a handsome addition to winter bouquets, mixed with ornamental grass. Any common soil suits them. Sow the seed any time from April to June, and transplant them to the border in the autumn for flowering the following May. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 3 ft. Honeysuckles.--These rapid twiners thrive in any loamy soil, and may be increased by putting down layers in the autumn, after the leaves begin to fall. They can also be propagated by cuttings taken in the autumn and planted in a shady, sheltered spot. Caprifolium Brachypoda and the evergreen C. Sempervirens are handsome, free-flowering kinds, suitable for almost any situation. C. Aurea-reticulata has beautifully variegated leaves, which render it very ornamental. Height, 6 ft. to 8 ft. Hop.--A useful hardy climber for covering verandahs, summer-houses, etc. Plant in rich, loamy soil, and increase by dividing the roots. (_See also_ "Humulus Japonicus.") Hordeum Jubatum (_Squirrel-tail Grass)_.--A very pretty species resembling miniature barley. Sow seed in March, covering it very lightly, and keep the surface of the soil moist till the grass appears. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Horminum Pyrenaicum.--This hardy perennial produces erect white flowers with blue corolla in June or July. It will grow in any ordinary soil, but needs protection in winter, as it is apt to be injured by damp. It may be propagated either by seed or division. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Horn Poppy.--_See_ "Glaucium." Horseradish.--Plant in October or February in deep, rich soil; or it may be grown on a heap of cinder-ashes, or on any light ground through which the roots can make their way readily. The best way to increase it is by slips taken from the roots. It requires little or no attention beyond pinching out the tops when running to seed and keeping the ground hoed. Hotbeds, to Make.--Take dead leaves and stable-straw, with the dung, in the proportion of two double loads for a three-light frame. Turn it over four or five times during a fortnight, watering it if it is dry. Then mark out the bed, allowing 1 ft. or more each way than the size of the frame. Shake the compost well up, and afterwards beat it down equally with the fork. Place the frame on the bed, leaving the lights off for four or five days to allow the rank steam to escape. Keep a thermometer in the frame, and as soon as the temperature falls below 70 degrees apply a lining of fresh dung to the front and one side of the bed, and when this again declines, add another lining to the back and other side, and so on from time to time as occasion requires. The mats used for covering the frames in frosty weather should be made to fit the top, and not hang over the sides. Houseleek.--_See_ "Sempervivum." Houstonia Coerulea.--These hardy little evergreens are more generally known as Bluets. They make charming ornaments for rock-work, planted between large stones, but in this position they need protection from severe frosts. When planted in pots and placed in a cold frame they show to most advantage. A mixture of leaf-mould and sand, and a moist but well-drained situation is what they delight in. They bloom continuously from April to July. Height, 3 in. Hovea Celsi.--A greenhouse shrub, which is evergreen and elegant when in flower in June. A sandy loam and peat soil is most suitable, and it may be increased by cuttings planted in sand under a hand-glass. Height, 3 ft. Humea.--A remarkably handsome and graceful plant, the leaves of which when slightly bruised yield a strong odour. It is equally suitable for the centre of beds or large borders, and placed in pots on terraces or the lawn it is very effective. The seed should be raised on a gentle hotbed, then potted off and kept in the greenhouse till the second year, when it may be turned out into a warm situation. It generally succeeds better in such a position than in the greenhouse. Flowers in July. Height, 6 ft. to 8 ft. Humulus Japonicus.--(_Japanese Hop_).--A hardy annual Hop of rapid growth, the leaves of which are splashed with white. Useful for covering arbours, verandahs, etc. A deep, loamy soil suits it best. Increased by seed sown in gentle heat in February, and gradually hardened off. Flowers in July. Height, 20 ft. Hutchinsia Alpina.--This small alpine creeper is a profuse bloomer, its glistening white flowers being produced at all seasons. It grows in moist vegetable mould, and bears transplanting at any season. Care, however, is required to prevent its roots over-running and choking other things. Height, 2 in. Hyacinths.--May be grown in pots, in glasses, or in beds and borders. The soil should be rich and light. Good loam mixed with old manure and a little leaf-mould and sand suits them very well. If intended to be grown in pots the best time to begin potting is early in September, putting more in at intervals of two or three weeks until the end of December. One bulb is sufficient for a 5-in. or 6-in. pot, or three may be placed in an 8-in. pot. The soil under the bulb should not be pressed down. The top of the bulb should be just above the surface. Place the pots on a bed of ashes in a cold frame, put a small inverted pot over the top of the bulb, and cover the whole with cocoa-nut fibre or cinder-ashes to the depth of about 4 in. In about a month roots will have formed with about 1 in. of top growth. The plants may then be taken out, gradually exposed to the light, and finally removed to the conservatory or sunny window. The doubles do best in pots. For growing in glasses select the firmest and best-shaped bulbs. Those with single blossoms are preferable, as they are of stronger constitution than the doubles. Fill the glasses with pure pond or rain water, so that the bulbs just escape touching it, and put a piece of charcoal in each glass, and change the water when it becomes offensive, taking care that the temperature is not below that which is poured away. Stand the glasses in a cool, dark place for three or four weeks until the roots have made considerable progress, then gradually inure to the full light. September is a good time to start the growth. When planted in beds or borders, place the bulbs about 4 in. deep and 6 in. apart, putting a little silver sand below each one. This may be done at any time from October till frost sets in. They succeed fairly well in any good garden soil, but give greatest satisfaction when the ground is rich and light. Hyacinthus (_Muscari_).--A very hardy race of spring-flowering bulbs. Though the varieties are very dissimilar in appearance, they all produce a good effect, especially when planted in good large clumps. Plant from September to December. A sandy soil suits them best. The following are well-known varieties:--_BOTRYOIDES_ (_Grape Hyacinth_).--Very pretty and hardy, bearing fine spikes of deep, rich blue flowers in compact clusters on a stem 6 to 9 in. high. Sweet-scented, and blooms about May. The _Alba_, or white, variety is also sweet-scented. Hyacinthus--_continued_. _CANDICANS_ (_Galtonia_).--The white Cape Hyacinth, or Spire Lily. A hardy, summer-flowering, bulbous plant 3 ft. to 4 ft. in height, gracefully surmounted with from twenty to fifty pendent, bell-shaped snow-white flowers. Thrives in any position and equally suitable for indoor or outdoor decoration. _MOSCHATUS_ (_Musk Hyacinth_).--Bears very fragrant purplish flowers. _PLVMOSUM_ (_Feather Hyacinth_).--A fine, hardy, dwarf plant suitable for any soil. Its massive sprays of fine blue flowers, arranged in curious clusters, 5 to 6 in. in length, resemble much-branched slender coral. _RACEMOSUM_ (_Starch Hyacinth_).--Rich dark-blue or reddish-purple flowers. Very free-flowering and fine for massing. It is similar to the Cape Hyacinth, but flowers in denser spikes. Hydrangea.--This shrub delights in a moist, sheltered position and rich soil. It may be increased at any time from cuttings of the young side-shoots, 2 or 3 in. long, under glass, in sandy soil. The old stems will also strike if planted in a sheltered situation. The plants should be cut back when they have done flowering, and protected from frost; or they may be cut down to the root and covered with manure. They are well suited for the front of shrubberies, and also make fine plants for pot cultivation. The flowers are produced in June and July. Height, 3 ft. Hymenanthera Crassifolia.--Ornamental evergreen shrubs, thriving best in a compost of loam and peat. They are increased by cuttings planted in sand and subjected to a little heat. Height, 6 ft. Hymenoxys.--Pretty little hardy annuals that may be easily raised from seed sown early in March in any garden soil. They bloom in June. Height, 1 ft. Hypericum (_St. John's Wort_).--Favourite dwarf shrubs. Any soil suits the hardy kinds, but they prefer shade and moisture. These may be increased by seed or division. The greenhouse varieties thrive best in a mixture of loam and peat. Young cuttings placed in sand under glass will strike. July is their flowering season. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. I Iberis.--_See_ "Candytuft." Ice Plants.--_See_ "Mesembryanthemum." Ilex.--_See_ "Holly." Impatiens Sultani.--Half-hardy perennials. May be raised from seed sown early in spring on a hotbed, or later on in a shady spot in the open border; greenhouse culture, however, is more suitable. They bloom in August. Height, 11/2 ft. Incarvilleas.--Ornamental hardy herbaceous plants, of easy culture. They are suitable for the border or the rockery, and will grow in any soil if not too dry and exposed. The tuberous roots may be planted at any time in autumn, 4 in. deep. I. Delavayi makes a fine solitary or lawn plant, its leaves being from 1 to 3 ft. long; the soft rose-pink, Mimulus-shaped flowers, which are carried on stout stems well above the foliage, appearing in May. Care should be taken not to disturb it in spring, and it is advisable to cover the roots in winter with a pyramid of ashes, which may be carefully removed at the end of April. Incarvilleas may be propagated by seed sown, as soon as it is ripe, in light, well-drained soil, giving the young plants protection in a frame during the first winter, with enough water merely to keep them moist. Height, 2 ft. Indian Corn.--_See_ "Zea." Indian Shot.--_See_ "Canna." India-rubber Plants.--_See_ "Ficus." Indigofera.--Beautiful evergreen shrubs. I. Australis has elegant, fern-like foliage and racemes of pink or purple Pea-shaped flowers in April. I. Decora Alba bears its white flowers in July. They require a sandy loam or peat soil, and greenhouse culture. Cuttings of the young wood planted in sand under glass will strike. Height, 21/2 ft. Insects on Plants.--To destroy insects on plants wash the plant with Tobacco-Water (_which see_). Or put 1 oz. of quassia chips in a muslin bag, pour on some boiling water, and make it up to I gallon; dissolve 1 oz. of soft soap, add it to the chips, and stir well. Use it two or three times during spring and early summer. Inula Royleana (_Fleabane_).--A hardy perennial which flowers in November. It will grow in any garden soil, and can be increased by seeds, or by division of the roots. Height, 3 ft. Ionopsidium.--These hardy annuals grow freely in any rich, damp soil; a shady position is indispensable. Height, 1/8 ft. Ipomoea.--These beautiful climbing plants are very suitable for covering trellis-work, or for the pillars or rafters of the stove-house. The seed is generally sown in April on a hotbed or under glass, and the young plants set out in the border of the house in May in light, rich soil. Success is mainly secured by allowing plenty of root-room. The perennial kinds are increased from cuttings taken from the small side-shoots placed in sand in a brisk bottom-heat. If grown in the open they often shed their seed, and come up year after year with but little attention. They make a good contrast to Canariensis. The Ipomoea Horsfalliae, with its bright scarlet flowers, has a lovely appearance, but must be treated as a stove evergreen. This is propagated by layers, or by grafting on some strong-growing kind. It thrives in loam and peat mixed with a little dung, and flowers in July or August. Height, 6 ft. to 10 ft. Ipomopsis.--A very beautiful half-hardy biennial, but difficult to cultivate. Some gardeners steep the seed in hot water before sowing it; but the best way seems to be to sow it in July in 3-in. pots in equal parts of sandy peat and loam, ensuring good drainage, and place it in a cold frame, giving it very little water. When the leaves appear, thin out the plants to three or four in each pot. Replace them in the frame for a week or so, then remove them to a light, airy part of the greenhouse for the winter. During this period be careful not to over-water them. In spring shift them into well-drained 4-1/2-in. pots, using the same kind of soil as before, and taking great care not to injure the roots; still give the least possible amount of water. If plenty of light and air be given, they will flower in July or August. Height, 2 ft. Iresines.--Take cuttings of these greenhouse plants in autumn; insert them thinly in 48-size pots filled with coarse sand, loam, and leaf-mould, and place in a uniform temperature of 60 or 70 degrees. When they have taken root place them near the glass. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Iris.--The Iris is the orchid of the flower garden; its blossoms are the most rich and varied in colour of hardy plants. For cutting, for vases, table decoration, etc., it is exceedingly useful, as it is very free-flowering, and lasts a long time in water. It thrives in almost any soil, though a sandy one suits it best, and is strikingly effective when planted in clumps. It soon increases if left undisturbed. The English Iris blooms in June and July, bearing large and magnificent flowers ranging in colour from white to deep purple, some being self-colours, while others are prettily marbled. The German Iris is especially suitable for town gardens. The Spanish Iris blooms a fortnight before the English. Its flowers, however, are smaller, and the combinations of colours very different. The Leopard Iris (_Pardanthus Chinensis_)is very showy, its orange-yellow flowers, spotted purple-brown, appearing in June and July. They are quite hardy. The best time for planting them is October or November, selecting a sunny position. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Isopyrums--Hardy herbaceous plants of great beauty, nearly related to the Thalictrums. They will grow in any ordinary soil, but flourish best in vegetable mould, and in a moist, yet open, situation. They are readily raised from seed, or may be propagated by division of the roots in autumn. They flower in July. Height, 1 ft. to 1-1/2 ft. Ivy (_Hedera_).--A deep, rich soil suits the common Ivy; the more tender kinds require a lighter mould. To increase them, plant slips in a north border in sandy soil. Keep them moist through the autumn, and plant them out when well rooted. The following are the principal choice sorts:--Aurea Spectabilis, palmate-leaved, blotched with yellow; Cavendishii, a slender-growing variety, leaves margined with white, with a bronzy shade on the edge; Conglomerata, crumpled leaves; Elegantissima, slender-growing, with silvery variegated leaves; Irish Gold-Blotch, large leaves, blotched with yellow; Latifolia Maculata, large white-blotched leaves; Lee's Silver, silver variegated; Maderiensis Variegata, leaves broadly marked with white; Marmorata, small leaves blotched and marbled with white; Pupurea, small leaves of a bright green changing to bronzy-purple; Rhomboides Obovata, deep green foliage; Rhomboides Variegata, greyish-green leaves, edged with white; and Silver Queen, a good hardy variety. Ixias.--Plant out of doors from September to December, in a sunny, sheltered position, in light, rich, sandy soil. For indoor cultivation, plant four bulbs in a 5-in. pot in a compost of loam, leaf-mould, and silver sand. Plunge the pot in ashes in a frame or cold pit, and withhold water until the plants appear. When making free growth remove them to the conservatory or greenhouse, placing them near the glass, and give careful attention to the watering. Ixias are also known under the name of African Corn Lilies. J Jacobaea (_Ragwort_).--May be raised from cuttings in the same way as Verbenas, and will grow freely from seeds sown in autumn or spring. It delights in a rich, light soil. The purple Jacobaea is a great favourite of the public. Flowers in August. Height, 1 ft. Jacob's Ladder.--_See_ "Polemonium." Jasione Perennis (_Sheep Scabious_).--A hardy perennial which produces a profusion of heads of blue flowers in June, and continues to bloom till August. It enjoys a peat soil, and should have the protection of a frame during the winter. It can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, or division. Height, 1 ft. Jasminum.--These are favourite plants for training over arbours or trellis-work, and for growing against walls. The hardy kinds will flourish in ordinary soil. The stove and greenhouse sorts should be provided with a mixture of sandy peat and loam. They may all be increased by cuttings of ripened wood planted in a sandy soil under glass. J. Nudifolium produces an abundance of bright flowers after its leaves have fallen, and is very suitable for town gardens. J. Unofficinale is likewise adapted for town, bearing confinement well, and has very sweet flowers. J. Revolutum needs protection in severe weather. They bloom in July. Height, 12 ft. Job's Tears.--_See_ "Coix Lachryma." Jonquils.--These are quite hardy, and may be grown in the open in the same manner as Hyacinths. Five or six bulbs in a 5-in. pot make a very pretty bouquet. They are excellent early flowers, and very odoriferous. Plant in autumn, placing sand round the bulbs. Best not disturbed too often. The leaves should not be cut off when withering, but allowed to die down. They bloom in April. Height, 1 ft. Joss Flower.--_See_ "Chinese Sacred Narcissus." Juniper (_Juniperus_).--These useful conifers prefer dry chalk or sandy soils, but will thrive in any ground that is not too heavy. J. Japonica, Sabina, and Tamariscifolia do well on steep banks and rock-work. They may be propagated by seeds, grafting, or by cuttings of firm young shoots planted in a sandy compost, kept shaded, and covered with a hand-glass. K Kadsura Japonica.--This is a beautiful creeper for a south or west aspect. It thrives best in loam and sandy peat. Cuttings may be struck in sand, placed under a glass, and subjected to heat. Kale.--_See_ "Borecole." Kalmia Latifolia.--This hardy, dwarf evergreen shrub is deservedly a great favourite. It produces a wealth of flowers in large clusters. It requires to be grown in peat or good leaf-mould, and needs pure air. It is increased by pegging down the lower branches, which soon become rooted. The flowers are produced from June to August. Height, 2 ft. Kalosanthes.--Showy greenhouse succulent plants. A light, turfy loam is suitable for them, and they may be increased by placing cuttings of the young shoots in a sandy soil on a slight hotbed in spring. Pinch them back so as to produce a bushy growth, and give support to the heavy heads of bloom. The cuttings should be left for twenty-four hours to dry before they are planted. The plants require very little water, and they flower in July. Height, 6 in. to 1 ft. Kaulfussia.--Sow this pretty hardy annual in April in the open border, or in March in slight heat. It may also be sown in autumn for early flowering. It will succeed in any light soil, blooming in July. Height, 6 in. Kennedya Marryattæ.--A greenhouse evergreen twining plant of a very beautiful order, which thrives best in a compost of sandy loam and peat. Cuttings of the young wood planted in sand, and having a bottom-heat, will strike. It produces its flowers in May. Height, 4 ft. Other varieties of Kennedyas range from 2 to 10 ft. They all need to be well drained and not to stand too near the pipes. Kerria (_Corchorus_).--Beautiful hardy shrubs, which may be grown in any garden soil, and can be propagated by cuttings of the young wood, taken at a joint, and placed under glass. They flower at midsummer. Height, 4 ft. Koelreuteria Paniculata.--This is an ornamental tree bearing long spikes of yellow flowers in July. It will grow in any soil, but requires a sheltered position, and may be increased by layers or root cuttings. Height, 10 ft. Kohl Rabi (_Turnip-rooted Cabbage_).--Though mostly grown as a farm crop, this vegetable is strongly recommended for garden cultivation, as it is both productive and nutritious, and is delicious when cooked while still very small and young. Sow in March, and transplant to deeply-dug and liberally manured ground, at a distance of 15 in. from each other. L Lachenalia. (_Cape Cowslips_).--Charming greenhouse plants for pot or basket culture. Pot in December in a compost of fibrous loam, leaf-mould, and sand; place as near the glass as possible, and never allow the soil to become dry, but maintain good drainage, and only give a little water till they have produced their second leaves. No more heat is required than will keep out the frost. Lactuca Sonchifolia. (_Sow Thistle-Leaved Lettuce_).--An ornamental, but not handsome, hardy perennial, with leaves 1 ft. in length and 9 in. in breadth. It is of neat habit and enjoys the sunshine. A deeply-dug, sandy loam suits it, and it may be increased by seed or division of the roots. The flowers are produced from September till frost sets in. Height, 2 ft. Ladies' Slipper Orchid.--_See_ "Cypripedium." Lady's Mantle.--_See_ "Alchemilla." Lagurus Ovatus.--This hardy annual is commonly known as Hare's-Tail Grass. It is distinctly ornamental, producing elegant egg-shaped tufts of a silvery-white hue, and is fine for ornamenting bouquets. Sow in March, and keep the ground moist till the seed germinates. Height, 1 ft. Lallemantia Canescens.--Bees are very fond of this blue hardy annual, which may readily be grown from seed sown in the spring. Height, 1 ft. Lamium.--These plants are mostly of a hardy herbaceous description and of little value. They will grow well in any kind of soil, flowering from March to July, according to their varieties, and can be propagated by seed or division. Height, 6 in. to 1 ft. Lantana.--These dwarf, bushy, half-hardy perennial shrubs bear Verbena-like blossoms. They like a dry and warm situation and rich, light soil. The seed is sown in March to produce summer and autumn blooming plants. If cuttings are placed in sand, in heat, they will take root easily. Height, 1 ft. to 1-1/2 ft. Lapageria Rosea.--A beautiful climbing plant which bears large rose-coloured flowers in May. It can be grown in any light, rich soil, but a compost of leaf-mould, sand, and peat suits it best. It makes a very desirable greenhouse plant, and can be increased either by cuttings or by division. Lapagerias require partial shade, plenty of water, and good drainage. Height, 10 ft. Lardizabala Biternata.--This climbing shrub has fine ornamental foliage. It is most suitable for a south or west aspect, where it proves hardy; in other positions protection should be afforded. It will grow in any good soil. May is the month in which it flowers. Height, 20 ft. Larkspur.--The Stock-flowered Larkspur is of the same habit as the Dutch Rocket, but has longer spikes and larger and more double flowers. The Hyacinth-flowered is an improved strain of the Rocket. Among other of the hardy annual varieties may be mentioned the Candelabrum-formed, the Emperor, and the Ranunculi-flowered. They are charming flowers for beds or mixed borders, and only require the same treatment as ordinary annuals, when they will flower in June. Height, 1 ft. to 2-1/2 ft. For perennial Larkspurs, _see_ "Delphinium." Lasiandra.--Stove evergreen shrubs, flourishing best in a mixture of equal parts of loam, peat, and sand. They are propagated by cuttings of the young wood, plunged in heat. July is their flowering month. Height, 5 ft. Lasthenia.--A hardy annual of a rather pretty nature, suitable for flower-beds or borders. Autumn is the best time for sowing the seed, but it may also be sown early in the spring. It blooms in May. Height, 1 ft. Lathyrus.--Handsome plants when in flower, the larger kinds being well adapted as backgrounds to other plants in the shrubbery, where they will require supports. They may be planted in any garden soil, and can be increased by seed, and some of the perennial kinds by division of the root. L. Latifolia (Everlasting Pea) flowers in August, other varieties at different times, from May onwards. Height, 1 ft. to 8 ft. Laurel.--Laurels will grow in any good garden soil. They are grown both as bushes and standards, and require but little attention beyond watering. The standards are produced by choosing a young Portugal plant and gradually removing the side-shoots on the lower part of the stem, and when the desired height is reached a well-balanced head is cultivated, any eyes that break out on the stem being rubbed off with the thumb. Lauro Rotundifolia is beyond dispute the best of all Laurels; it is of free growth and of dense habit, and its leaves are roundish and of a lively green. (_See also_ "Epigaea.") All Laurels may be propagated by cuttings and by layers, the latter being the plan usually adopted. Laurestinus.--_See_ "Viburnum Tinus." Laurus.--_See_ "Bay, Sweet." Lavatera.--The greenhouse and frame kinds grow in any light soil, and are increased by cuttings of the ripened wood, under glass. The hardy herbaceous species grow well in any common soil, and are propagated by seeds or division. The annuals are sown in the open in spring. Some bloom in June, others as late as August. Height, 2 ft. to 5 ft. Lavender (_Lavandula Spied_).--A hardy shrub whose sweetly-scented flowers, which are produced in August, are much prized. A dry, gravelly soil is what it likes best. Young plants should be raised every three years. It is readily propagated from seed sown in spring. Cuttings about 8 in. long, taken in autumn and planted 4 in. deep under a hand-light or in a shaded, sheltered position, will strike. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Lawns--To make or renovate Lawns sow the seed on damp ground during March or April, if possible, but in any case not later than September, as the young plants are easily ruined by frost. Rake the seed in lightly, afterwards roll with a wooden roller, and carefully weed the ground until the grass is well established. To form a thick bottom quickly on new Lawns sow 60 lbs., or 3 bushels, to the acre; for improving old ones, 20 lbs. per acre. Frequent cutting and rolling is essential to success. If the grass is inclined to grow rank and coarse it will be much improved by a good dressing of sand over it; if it has an inclination to scald and burn up, sprinkle it with guano or soot just before a shower of rain. An accumulation of moss upon a lawn can only be cured by under-draining. Lawns, Shrubs for.--_See_ "Shrubs for Lawns." Layering.--_See under_ "Carnations." Ledum (_Labrador Tea_).--Low-growing American evergreen shrubs, thriving best in sandy peat, and may be increased by layers. Leek.--Sow early in March, and prick out the plants in rich soil, in a sheltered position, to strengthen. As soon as they are large enough, plant them out in very rich, light ground in drills 6 in. between each plant and the rows 18 in. apart. For large exhibition Leeks sow in boxes in February, under glass. Plant out in June in trenches 15 in. wide and 18 in. deep, with plenty of old manure at the bottom of the trench and 6 in. of good light mould on the top of it. Gradually earth up as the stems grow. Water liberally in dry weather, and give a little weak liquid manure occasionally. Leontopodium.--Hardy perennials, succeeding best in peat soil. They are most suitable for rock-work, and may be increased by seed or division of the roots. Bloom is produced in June. Height, 6 in. Leopard's Bane.--_See_ "Doronicum." Leptosiphon.--Charming hardy annuals which make nice pot-plants. The seed should be sown in rich, light soil--peat for preference. If this is done in autumn they will flower in April and May; if sown in spring they will bloom in autumn. They are very attractive in beds or ribbons, and also on rock-work. Height, 3 in. to 1 ft. Leptospermum.--Neat greenhouse evergreen shrubs, most at home in equal portions of loam, peat, and sand. Cuttings may be struck in sand under glass. They flower in June. Height, 4 ft. to 5 ft. Leschenaultia.--Elegant greenhouse shrubs, delighting in a mixture of turfy loam, peat, and sand. They are evergreen, flower in June, and are propagated by cuttings of the young wood under glass. Height, 1 ft. Lettuce.--Sow early in February on a slight hotbed, and prick out into a well-manured and warm border, having the soil broken down fine on the surface. For early summer supplies sow outdoors in March, and at intervals till the middle of September for later crops. Some of the plants raised in September should be wintered in a cold frame, and the remainder transplanted to a dry, sheltered border, or protected with hand-lights. The June and July sowings may be made where the plants are intended to remain. They should stand from 6 to 9 in. apart. A north border is a suitable position in the summer months, as they are less exposed to the sun, and do not run to seed so quickly. The Cos Lettuce requires to be tied up to blanch; this should be done ten days before it is wanted for use. Cabbage Lettuce does not need to be tied. Leucanthemum (_Hardy Marguerites_).--Same treatment as Chrysanthemum. Leucojum (_Snowflake_).--Also known as St. Agnes' Flower. Handsome plants. The flowers are pure white, every petal being tipped with green, dropping in a cluster of from six to eight blooms, each nearly 1 in. long. They grow freely in almost any soil, sandy loam being preferable. Increased by off-sets from the bulb, or by seed as soon as it is ripe. The spring snowflake blooms in March, the summer variety in June. The latter is a much more vigorous plant than the former. Height, 12 in. to 18 in. Leucophyton Browni.--A popular white-foliaged bedding plant, which may be increased by dibbling cuttings in sandy soil and placing them in a cool frame. Lewisia Rediviva.--This makes a pretty rock-plant. It is a perennial and quite hardy, but requires plenty of sun. During April and May it produces large flowers varying in colour from satiny rose to white. The most suitable soil is a light loam mixed with brick rubbish. It is increased by division of the root, or it may be raised from seed. Height, 3 in. Leycesteria Formosa.--Ornamental plants, the flowers resembling Hops of a purple colour. They will grow in any soil, but need protection in winter. They are multiplied by cuttings. Height, 3 ft. Liatris Pycnostachya.--A curious old herbaceous perennial, now seldom met with, sending up late in summer a dense cylindrical purple spike 2 ft. high. It needs a rich, light, sandy soil, and to be protected during the winter with a thick covering of litter. The roots may be divided in the spring. Height, 3 ft. Libertia Formosa.--The narrow foliage and spikes of pure white flowers, produced in May and June, render this hardy perennial very ornamental. The soil should consist of equal parts of loam and peat. It is propagated by dividing the roots. Height, 1 ft. Libonia Floribunda.--This is a winter-flowering plant, and is easily grown in a cool greenhouse. It is very useful for table decoration, its slender red and yellow tubes of bloom being very effective, but it does not do to keep it for any length of time in a room where there is gas. When flowering has ceased, encourage new growth by giving it plenty of water, air, and sunlight. The new shoots should be cut back in May, and the tips of them used as cuttings, which strike readily in good mould. Height, 2 ft. Ligustrum _(Privet)._--L. Ovalifolium is a handsome hardy evergreen, of very rapid growth, and one of the best ornamental hedge plants in cultivation, especially for towns or smoky situations. L. Japonicum is likewise ornamental and hardy: Tricolor is considered one of the best light-coloured variegated plants grown. L. Coriaceum is a slow-growing, compact bush with very dark, shining green leaves, which are round, thick, and leathery. Privet will grow in any soil or situation, and is readily increased by cuttings planted in the shade in spring. Lilac--_See_ "Syringa." Lilium.--The Lily is admirably adapted for pot culture, the conservatory, and the flower border, and will flourish in any light soil or situation. To produce fine specimens in pots they should be grown in a mixture of light turfy loam and leaf-mould. Six bulbs planted in a 12-in. pot form a good group. The pots should have free ventilation, and the bulbs be covered with 1 in. of mould. For outdoor cultivation plant the bulbs 4 to 5 in. deep, from October to March. After once planting they require but little care, and should not be disturbed oftener than once in three years, as established plants bloom more freely than if taken up annually. Give a thin covering of manure during the winter. Lilium seed may be sown in well-drained pots or shallow boxes filled with equal parts of peat, leaf-mould, loam, and sand. Cover the seeds slightly with fine mould and place the boxes or pots in a temperature of 55 or 65 degrees. A cold frame will answer the purpose, but the seeds will take longer to germinate. The Lancifolium and Auratum varieties have a delicious fragrance. Lilium--_continued_. _CANDIDUM_ (the Madonna, or White Garden Lily) should be planted before the middle of October, if possible, in groups of three, in well-drained, highly-manured loam. Should they decline, take them up in September and re-plant at once in fresh, rich soil, as they will not stand being kept out of the ground long. They are increased by off-sets. As soon as these are taken from the parent bulb, plant them in a nursery-bed; after two years they may be transferred to the garden. This Lily is quite hardy, and needs no protection during winter. _LANCIFOLIUM_ make very fine pot-plants, or they may be placed in a sunny situation in the border, but in the latter case they must have a thick covering of dry ashes in winter. If grown in pots place them, early in March, in rich, sandy soil. Three bulbs are sufficient for an 11-in. pot. Give very little water, but plenty air in mild weather. Let them grow slowly. When all frost is over place pans under them, mulch the surface with old manure, and supply freely with air and water. They are propagated by off-sets. _MARTAGON_ (or Turk's Cap) requires the same treatment as the Candidum, with the exception that a little sand should be added to the soil. _TIGRINUM_ (Tiger Lily) also receives the same treatment as the Madonna. When the flower-stems grow up they throw out roots. A few lumps of horse manure should be placed round for these roots to lay hold of. They are increased by the tiny bulbs which form at the axis of the leaves of the flower-stem. When these fall with a touch they are planted in rich, light earth, about 6 in. apart. In four or five years' time they will make fine bulbs. _AURATUM_ and _SZOVITZIANUM_ (or Colchicum) thrive best in a deep, friable, loamy soil, which should be well stirred before planting. If the soil is of a clayey nature it should be loosened to a depth of several feet, and fresh loam, coarse sand, and good peat or leaf-mould added, to make it sufficiently light. For _PARDALINUM_ (the Panther Lily) and _SUPERBUM_ mix the garden soil with three parts peat and one part sand, and keep the ground moist. They should occupy a rather shady position. All the other varieties will succeed in any good garden soil enriched with leaf-mould or well-decayed manure. For _VALLOTA_ (Scarborough Lily), _BELLADONNA_, and _FORMOSISSIMA_ (or Jacobean) Lilies, _see_ "Amaryllis." For _AFRICAN LILY, see_ "Agapanthus." For _PERUVIAN LILIES, see_ "Alstromeria." For _ST BERNARD'S_ and _ST BRUNO'S LILIES, see_ "Anthericum." For _CAFFRE LILIES, see_ "Clivias." Lily of the Valley.--Set the roots in bunches 1 ft. apart, and before severe weather sets in cover them with a dressing of well-rotted manure. They should not be disturbed, even by digging among the roots. If grown in pots, they should be kept in a cool place and perfectly dry when their season is over: by watering they will soon come into foliage and flower again. For forcing put ten or twelve "buds" in a 5-in. pot--any light soil will do--plunge the pot in a sheltered part of the garden. From this they may be removed to the forcing-house as required to be brought into bloom. Plunge the pots in cocoa-nut fibre and maintain an even temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees. Limnanthes Douglasii.--Very elegant and beautiful hardy annuals, which are slightly fragrant. They must be grown in a moist and shady situation. The seeds ripen freely, and should be sown in autumn to produce bloom in June, or they may be sown in spring for flowering at a later period. Height, 1 ft. Linaria.--These all do best in a light, sandy loam, and make good plants for rock-work. L. Bipartita is suitable for an autumn sowing. The other annuals are raised in spring. L. Triornithophora is a biennial, and may be sown any time between April and June, or in August. The hardy perennial, L. Alpina, should be sown in April, and if necessary transplanted in the autumn. Linarias flower from July to September. Height, 6 in. to 1 ft. Linnaea Borealis.--A rare, native, evergreen creeping perennial. From July to September it bears pale pink flowers; it makes a pretty pot-plant, and also does well in the open when planted in a shady position. It enjoys a peat soil, and is propagated by separating the creeping stems after they are rooted. Height, 11/2 in. Linum (_Flax_).--This succeeds best in rich, light mould. The Linum Flavum, or Golden Flax, is very suitable for pot culture; it grows 9 in. in height, and bears brilliant yellow flowers. It requires the same treatment as other half-hardy perennials. The Scarlet Flax is an annual, very free-flowering, and unsurpassed for brilliancy; easily raised from seed sown in spring. Height, 11/2 ft. The hardy, shrubby kinds may be increased by cuttings placed under glass. A mixture of loam and peat makes a fine soil for the greenhouse and frame varieties. They flower from March to July. Lippia Reptans.--A frame creeping perennial which flowers in June. It requires a light soil. Cuttings of the young wood may be struck under glass. Height, 1 ft. Lithospermum Prostratum.--A hardy perennial, evergreen trailer, needing no special culture, and adapting itself to any soil. It is increased by cuttings of the previous year's growth, placed in peat and silver sand, shaded and kept cool, but not too wet. They should be struck early in summer, so as to be well rooted before winter sets in. Its blue flowers are produced in June. Height, 1 ft. Loasa.--The flowers are both beautiful and curiously formed, but the plants have a stinging property. They grow well in any loamy soil, and are easily increased by seed sown in spring. Flowers are produced in June and July. Height, 2 ft. Besides the annuals there is a half-hardy climber, L. Aurantiaca, bearing orange-coloured flowers, and attaining the height of 10 or 12 ft. Lobelia.--These effective plants may be raised from seed sown in January or February in fine soil. Sprinkle a little silver sand or very fine mould over the seed; place in a greenhouse, or in a frame having a slight bottom-heat, and when large enough prick them out about 1 in. apart; afterwards put each single plant in a thumb-pot, and plant out at the end of May. As the different varieties do not always come true from seed, it is best to propagate by means of cuttings taken in autumn, or take up the old plants before the frost gets to them, remove all the young shoots (those at the base of the plant are best, and if they have a little root attached to them so much the better), and plant them thinly in well-drained, shallow pans of leaf-mould and sand; plunge the pans in a hotbed under a frame, shade them from hot sunshine, and when they are rooted remove them to the greenhouse till spring, at which time growth must be encouraged by giving a higher temperature and frequent syringing. They may then be planted out in light, rich soil, where they will bloom in June or July. Height, 4 in. Lobels Catchfly.--_See_ "Silene." London Pride.--_See_ "Saxifrage." Lonicera.--Hardy deciduous shrubs, which will grow in any ordinary soil, and produce their flowers in April or May. They are propagated by cuttings planted in a sheltered position. Prune as soon as flowering is over. Height, from 3 ft. to 10 ft. Lophospermum.--Very elegant half-hardy climbers. Planted against a wall in the open air, or at the bottom of trellis-work, they will flower abundantly in June, but the protection of a greenhouse is necessary in winter. They like a rich, light soil, and may be grown from seeds sown on a slight hotbed in spring, or from cuttings taken young and placed under glass. Height, 10 ft. Love Apples.--_See_ "Tomatoes." Love Grass.--_See_ "Eragrostis." Love-in-a-Mist.--_See_ "Nigella." Love-lies-Bleeding (_Amaranthus Caudatus_).--A hardy annual bearing graceful drooping racemes of crimson blossom. The seed should be sown in the open at the end of March, and thinned out or transplanted with a good ball of earth. Makes a fine border plant. Height, 2 ft. Luculia Gratissima.--A fine plant either for the wall or border. It grows well in a compost of peat and light, turfy loam, but it is not suitable for pot culture. During growing time abundance of water is needed. When flowering has ceased, cut it hard back. It may be increased by layering, or by cuttings placed in sand under glass and subjected to heat. It flowers in August. Height, 8 ft. Lunaria.--_See_ "Honesty." Lupins.--Though old-fashioned flowers, these still rank among our most beautiful annual and herbaceous border plants. They may be grown in any soil, but a rich loam suits them best. The seed germinates freely when sown in March, and the flowers are produced in July. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Lychnis.--Hardy perennials which, though rather straggling, deserve to be cultivated on account of the brilliancy of their flowers. L. Chalcedonica, commonly known as Ragged Robin, is perhaps the most showy variety; but L. Viscaria Plena, or Catchfly, is a very beautiful plant. They grow freely in light, rich, loamy soil, but need dividing frequently to prevent them dwindling away. The best season for this operation is early in spring. Beyond the care that is needed to prevent the double varieties reverting to a single state, they merely require the same treatment as other hardy perennials. They flower in June and July. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Lyre Flower.--_See_ "Dielytra." Lysimachia Clethroides.--This hardy perennial has something of the appearance of a tall Speedwell. When in flower it is attractive, and as it blooms from July on to September it is worth a place in the border. A deep, rich loam is most suitable for its growth, and a sheltered position is of advantage. The roots may be divided either in November or early in spring. Height, 3 ft. Lysimachia Nummularia (_Creeping Jenny_).--This plant is extremely hardy, and is eminently suitable either for rock-work or pots. It is of the easiest cultivation, and when once established requires merely to be kept in check. Every little piece of the creeping root will, if taken off, make a fresh plant. Lythrum.--Very handsome hardy perennials which thrive in any garden soil, and may be raised from seed or increased by dividing the roots. They flower in July. Height, of different varieties, 6 in. to 4 ft. M Madia.--A hardy annual of a rather handsome order. The seed should be sown in May in a shady situation. The plant is not particular as to soil, and will flower about eight weeks after it is sown, and continue to bloom during August and September. Height, 11/2 ft. Magnolia Grandiflora.--A handsome, hardy evergreen, with large shining, Laurel-shaped leaves, and highly-scented, Tulip-shaped white flowers. A noble plant for a spacious frontage, but in most places requires to be grown on a wall. It flourishes in any damp soil, and is increased by layers. Flowers in August. Height, 20 ft. Mahonia.--Handsome evergreen shrubs, useful for covert planting or for grouping with others. They grow best in a compost of sand, peat, and loam, and may be propagated by cuttings or by layers of ripened wood, laid down in autumn. They flower in April. Height, 4 ft. to 6 ft. Maianthemum Bifolium.--The flowers of this hardy perennial are produced in April and May, and somewhat resemble miniature Lily of the Valley. Seed may be sown at the end of July. The plant will grow in any soil, but delights in partial shade. Height, 6 in. Maize.--_See_ "Zea." Malope.--Very beautiful hardy annuals having soft leaves. They may be raised from seed sown in April in any garden soil. They bloom in June or July. Height, 11/2 ft. to 2 ft. Malva.--Very ornamental plants, more especially the greenhouse varieties. The hardy perennials succeed in any good garden soil, and are increased by seed sown in the autumn, or by division of the root. The greenhouse kinds should be grown in rich earth: these are propagated by cuttings planted in light soil. The annuals are poor plants. Some of the varieties bloom in June, others in August. Height, 2 ft. Mandevillea Suaveolens.--A fine climbing plant bearing very sweet white flowers in June. It is rather tender, and more suitable for the conservatory than the open air. It does not make a good pot-plant, but finds a suitable home in the border of the conservatory in equal parts of peat and sandy loam. In pruning adopt the same method as for the vine or other plants which bear flowers on wood of the same year's growth. It is propagated by seed sown in heat, or by cuttings under glass. Syringe the leaves daily during the hot season. A temperature of from 40 to 50 degrees in winter, and from 55 to 65 degrees in summer should be maintained. Height, 10 ft. Manures.--One of the best fertilisers of the soil is made by saturating charred wood with urine. This may be drilled in with seeds in a dry state. For old gardens liquid manure is preferable to stable manure, and if lime or chalk be added it will keep in good heart for years without becoming too rich. A good manure is made by mixing 64 bushels of lime with 2 cwts. of salt. This is sufficient for one acre. It should be forked in directly it is put upon the ground. Superphosphate of lime mixed with a small amount of nitrate of soda and forked into the ground is also a fine manure, but is more expensive than that made from lime and salt. Charred cow-dung is ready for immediate use. For established fruit-trees use, in showery weather, equal quantities of muriate of potash and nitrate of soda, scattering 1 oz. to the square yard round the roots. Peruvian guano, in the proportion of 1 oz. to each gallon of water, is a very powerful and rapid fertiliser. In whatever form manure is given, whether in a dry or liquid form, care must be taken not to administer it in excessive quantities, for too strong a stimulant is as injurious as none at all. In ordinary cases loam with a fourth part leaf-mould is strong enough for potting purposes; and no liquid except plain water should be given until the plants have been established some time. For roses, rhubarb, and plants that have occupied the same ground for a considerable time, mix 1 lb. of superphosphate of lime with 1/2 lb. of guano and 20 gallons of water, and pour 2 or 3 gallons round each root every third day while the plants are in vigorous growth. Herbaceous plants are better without manure. Liquid manure should be of the same colour as light ale. Maple.--_See_ "Acer." Marguerites (_Chrysanthemums Frutescens_).--The White Paris Daisies are very effective when placed against scarlet Geraniums or other brightly-coloured flowers, and likewise make fine pot-plants. They will grow in any light soil, and merely require the same treatment as other half-hardy perennials. Height, 1 ft. (_See also_ "Anthemis" _and_ "Buphthalmum.") Margyricarpus Setosus (_Bristly Pearl Fruit_).--A charming little evergreen, of procumbent growth, bearing throughout the whole summer a number of berries on the main branches. Being only half-hardy, it requires protection from frost, but in the warmer weather it may be planted on rock-work in sandy loam and vegetable mould. Cuttings planted in moist peat under a hand-glass will strike, or it may be propagated by layers. Height, 6 in. Marigolds.--Handsome and free-flowering half-hardy annuals. The greenhouse varieties thrive in a mixture of loam and peat, and cuttings root easily if planted in sand under glass. The African and tall French varieties make a fine display when planted in shrubberies or large beds, while the dwarf French kinds are very effective in the foreground of taller plants, or in beds by themselves. They are raised from seed sown in a slight heat in March, and planted out at the end of May in any good soil. Height, 6 in. to 2 ft. (_See also_ "Calendula," "Tagetes," _and_ "Calthus.") Martynia.--Handsome half-hardy, fragrant annuals. The seed should be sown on a hotbed in March. When the plants are sufficiently advanced transplant them singly into pots of light, rich earth, and keep them in the stove or greenhouse, where they will flower in June. Height, 11/2 ft. Marvel of Peru (_Mirabilis_).--Half-hardy perennials, which are very handsome when in flower, and adorn equally the greenhouse or the open. They may be increased by seed sown in light soil in July or August and planted out in the border in spring. At the approach of frost take the roots up and store them in dry ashes or sand. They flower in July. Height, 2 ft. Massonia.--Singular plants, which to grow to perfection should be placed in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand. They require no water while in a dormant state, and may be increased by seed or by off-sets from the bulbs. Height, 3 in. to 6 in. Mathiola.--_See_ "Stocks." Mathiola Bicornis (_Night-scented Stocks_).--A favourite hardy annual whose lilac flowers are fragrant towards evening. They may be grown from seed sown between February and May on any ordinary soil. Height, 1 ft. Matricaria.--This is a half-hardy annual of little interest so far as its flowers are concerned, and is mostly grown as a foliage plant. The seed should be sown in a frame in March, and transplanted at the end of May. Height, 1 ft. Maurandia Barclayana.--This elegant twining plant is best grown in pots, so that it can more conveniently be taken indoors in the winter. The soil should be light and rich. Cuttings can be taken either in spring or autumn, or it may be raised from seed. It does very well in the open during the summer, placed against a wall or trellis-work, but will not stand the cold. In the greenhouse it reaches perfection, and blooms in July. Height, 10 ft. Mazus Pumilio.--A pretty diminutive herbaceous plant. When grown in peat and sand in an open situation it survives from year to year, but it will not live through the winter in cold clay soils. Its pale green foliage is seen to advantage in carpet bedding, and its branched violet flowers, put forth from June to September, make it a desirable rock-work plant. It may be increased by transplanting, at the end of April, the rooted stems which run under the surface of the ground. Meconopsis Cambrica(_Welsh Poppy_).--An ornamental hardy perennial, often found on English rocks. It may be grown in any light, rich soil, is easily raised from seed, and blooms in June. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Medlars.--These trees will grow on any well-drained soil. The Dutch Medlar is most prized, as it bears the largest fruit. It is raised from seed, and usually trained to a standard form. The Nottingham and Royal are also excellent varieties. Any special variety may be grafted on to the seedlings. On deep soils it is best grafted on the Pear stock; on light, sandy soil it may be grafted on the White Thorn. No pruning is required, beyond cutting away cross-growing branches. Megasea.--This hardy herbaceous plant flowers from April to June. A light, sandy soil suits it best. It may be grown from seed or multiplied by division. Height, 1 ft. Melissa Officinalis.--A hardy perennial, flowering in July. Any soil suits it. It is increased by division of the root. Height, 1 ft. Melittis Melissophyllum (_Large-flowered Bastard Balm_).--This handsome perennial is not often seen, but it deserves to be more generally grown, especially as it will thrive in almost any soil; but to grow it to perfection, it should be planted in rich loam. It flowers from June to August, and may be increased by division of the roots any time after the latter month. Height, 11/2 ft. Melon.--Sow from January to June in pots plunged in a hotbed, the temperature of which should not be under 80 degrees. When the plants have made four or five leaves, set them out in a house or hotbed having a temperature ranging from 75 to 85 degrees. Keep the plants well thinned and water carefully, as they are liable to damp off at the collar if they have too much wet. Do not allow them to ramble after the fruit has begun to swell, nor allow the plants to bear more than two, or at most three, melons each. They require a strong, fibry, loamy soil, with a little rotten manure worked in. The Hero of Lockinge is a grand white-fleshed variety, and Blenheim Orange is a handsome scarlet-fleshed sort. Menispermum Canadense (_Moon seed_).--A pretty slender-branched, hardy, climbing, deciduous shrub, with yellow flowers in June, followed with black berries. It grows in any soil, and can be propagated by seed, by division of roots, or by planting cuttings in spring in a sheltered spot. Height, 10 ft. Mentha Rotundifloria Variegata (_Variegated Mint_).--A hardy perennial, which may be grown in any soil, and is easily increased by dividing the roots. It flowers in July. Height, 2 ft. Menyanthes.--Treat as other hardy aquatics. Menziesia (_Irish Heath_).--This evergreen thrives best in fibrous peat to which a fair quantity of silver sand has been added. While excessive moisture is injurious, the plant must not be kept too dry; the best condition for it is to be constantly damp. Slips torn off close to the stem will root in sand under glass, placed in gentle heat. Height, 2 ft. Mertensia.--These hardy perennials flower from March to July. They will grow in any garden soil, but do best in peat, and are propagated by division. They make fine border plants. Mertensia Maritima and M. Parviflora, however, are best grown in pots, in very sandy soil, perfection being afforded them during the winter. Height, 11/2 ft. to 2 ft. Mesembryanthemums (_Ice Plants_).--These half-hardy, annual succulents have a bright green foliage covered with ice-like globules. They must be raised in a greenhouse or on a hotbed, sowing the seed in April on sandy soil. Prick the young plants out in May. If grown in pots they thrive best in a light, sandy loam. In the border they should occupy a hot and dry situation. Keep the plants well watered until established, afterwards give a little liquid manure. May be increased by cuttings taken in autumn. Cuttings of the more succulent kinds should be allowed to dry a little after planting before giving them water. A dry pit or frame is sufficient protection in the winter; they merely require to be kept from frost. Flower in July. Height, 1 ft. Mespilus.--_For treatment, see_ "Medlars." Meum Athamanticum.--A hardy perennial with graceful, feathery green foliage, but of no special beauty. It is a native of our shores, will grow in any soil, blooms in July or August, and is freely propagated by seeds. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Michaelmas Daisies (_Starworts_).--A numerous family of hardy herbaceous perennials. Some few are very pretty, while others can only be ranked with wild flowers. They thrive in any soil or position, but flourish best where there is a due proportion of sunshine. They are easily raised from seed, sown early in spring, or may be increased by root-division either in the autumn, as soon as they have done flowering, or in the spring. They vary in height from 1 ft. to 5 ft. Michauxia Campanuloides.--This is an attractive border biennial, bearing from March to June white campanula-like flowers tinged with purple, on erect stems. It is not particular as to soil, but requires a southern position and protection in winter. Propagated by seeds in the same way as other biennials. Height, 4 ft. Mignonette.--For summer-flowering plants sow the seed in spring, and thin out to a distance of 9 in. apart. To obtain bloom during the winter and spring successive sowings are necessary. Let the first of these be made the second week in July in light, rich soil; pot off before frost sets in, plunge them in old tan or ashes, and cover with a frame facing the west. Another sowing should be made about the middle of August, giving them the same treatment as the previous; and a third one in February, in gentle heat. Height, 9 in. to 3 ft. The Mignonette tree is produced by taking a vigorous plant of the spring sowing, and removing all the lower shoots in the autumn. Pot it in good loam, and keep it in the greenhouse in a growing state, but removing all the flowers. By the spring the stem will be woody. Let the same treatment be given it the second year, and the third season it will have become a fine shrub. It may be made to bloom during the winter by picking off the blossom in the summer and autumn. Height, 3 ft. Mildew.--Syringe with a strong decoction of green leaves and tender branches of the elder-tree, or with a solution of nitre made in the proportion of 1 oz. of nitre to each gallon of water. Another good remedy is to scatter sulphur over the leaves while the dew is upon them, afterwards giving them a syringing of clear water. Milkmaid.--_See_ "Cardamine." Milk Thistle.--_See_ "Carduus." Mimosa.--These shrubs are often called Sensitive Plants, on account of the leaves of several of the species of this genus shrinking when touched. They grow well in loam and peat with a little sand, but require to be planted in a warm situation or to have greenhouse care. Cuttings of the young wood root readily in sand under a glass. They may also be raised from seed. Mimosa Pudica exhibits most sensibility. Height, 2 ft. Mimulus (_Monkey Flower_).--Showy half-hardy perennials which thrive in moist and shady situations and in almost any soil. They may be grown from seed sown in slight heat from February to May, or increased by division of the root. The frame and greenhouse kinds grow best in a rich, light soil, and may be multiplied by cuttings. The annuals may be sown where they are to flower. They bloom in June and July. Height, 2 in. to 11/2 ft. (_See also_ "Diplacus.") Mina Lobata.--A charming half-hardy annual climber, bearing singularly shaped flowers, produced on long racemes. When young the buds are a vivid red, changing to orange-yellow, and when fully expanded the flowers are creamy-white. It thrives in loam and peat to which a little dung has been added, and is well adapted for arbours, trellises, or stumps of trees. Sow the seed on a hotbed in March, harden off, and transplant when all fear of frost is over. Height, 8 ft. to 12 ft. Mint.--May be grown in any garden soil. It is increased by runners, which, if not held in check, become very troublesome. The roots may be confined by means of tiles or slates. Flowers in July. Height, 11/2 ft. Mistletoe.--Raise the bark of an apple, pear, or oak tree on the underneath part of a branch and insert some well-ripened berries, then tie the bark down neatly with raffia or woollen yarn. If the berries were inserted on the top of the branch the operation would result in failure, as the birds would devour them. Mitella Diphylla.--A hardy perennial which bears slender racemes of white flowers in April. It makes a pretty rock plant, delights in a peat soil, and is increased by division of the root. Height, 6 in. Moles.--These pests may be destroyed by placing in their runs worms that have been kept for some time in mould to which carbonate of barytes has been added. Monardia Didyma (_Oswego Mint, or Horse Balm_).--_See_ "Bergamot." Monetia Barlerioides.--An ornamental shrub, suitable for the greenhouse or stove. It requires to be grown in loam and peat, and may be increased by cuttings planted in sand, under glass, in a bottom-heat. Height, 3 ft. Monkey Flower.--_See_ "Mimulus." Monkey Puzzle.--_See_ "Araucaria." Monk's-hood.--_See_ "Aconite." Montbretia.--Very graceful and showy plants. The flowers, which are like small Gladioli, are produced on long branched spikes and are excellent for cutting. Plant 3 in. deep and 2 in. apart in sandy loam and leaf-mould. The corms should never be kept long out of the ground, as they shrivel, and weak growth and few flowers are the result. Though they are hardy it is well to give them a covering of litter in winter. They may also be grown in pots. Height, 2-1/2 ft. Moraea Iridioides.--These plants flower in May, and require the same treatment as Ixias. Morina (_Whorl Flower_).--An ornamental hardy perennial, which is seldom met with. It forms rosettes of large, deep green, shiny foliage and stout spikes of rose-coloured flowers in whorls, which make it one of the most attractive of Thistles. It likes a rich, light soil, is increased by seed sown in the autumn, also by division in August, and flowers in July. Height, 21/2 ft. Morisia Hypogaea.--This is a pretty hardy perennial for rock-work. It flowers in May, and is raised from seed sown as soon as it is ripe. Height, 2 in. Morna Elegans.--Beautiful half-hardy annuals. For early flowering sow the seed in September: for later blooms sow in February in slight heat, pot off, affording good drainage to the plants. They are very sensitive to cold, and should not be placed out of doors before the end of May. Avoid over-watering, as this would prove fatal to them. The soil should be light and sandy. Those sown in September will bloom in the greenhouse in May; those sown in February will flower in the open in the autumn. Height, 11/2 ft. Morning Glory.--_See_ "Convolvulus." Morrenia Odorata.--A good twining plant for the greenhouse, producing fragrant cream-coloured flowers in July. It will grow in any good loamy soil, and may be increased by cuttings. Height, 3 ft. Moss.--To eradicate moss from fruit-trees wash the branches with strong brine or lime water. If it makes its appearance on the lawn, the first thing to do is to ensure a good drainage to the ground, rake the moss out, and apply nitrate of soda at the rate of 1 cwt. to the half-acre, then go over the grass with a heavy roller. Should moss give trouble by growing on gravel paths, sprinkle the ground with salt in damp weather. Mountain _Avens.--See_ "Dryas." Muhlenbeckia Complexa.--A very decorative climber, hardy in nature but requiring a good amount of sunshine to make it bloom. A well-drained, sandy soil is best for its growth, and it can be increased by cuttings of hardy shoots taken early in summer. Height, 6 ft. Mulberries.--Any good soil will grow the Mulberry. The tree is hardy, but the fruit wants plenty of sunshine to bring it to perfection. It may be propagated by cuttings of wood one year old with a heel two years old attached. The only pruning necessary is to keep the branches well balanced. Autumn is the time to do this, not forgetting that the fruit is borne on the young wood. When grown in tubs or large pots in the greenhouse the fruit attains the perfection of flavour. In addition to the Large Black and the White (Morus Alba) the New Weeping Russian White may be recommended. Mulching.--_See_ "Soil." Muscari.--_See_ "Hyacinthus." Muscari Botryoides.--_See_ "Hyacinthus." Mushrooms.--Take partially dry horse manure and lay it in a heap to ferment. Turn and mix it well every few days, and when well and equally fermented, which will be from ten to fourteen days, make it into a bed 4 ft. wide and 2 ft. deep, mixing it well together and beating or treading it firmly. When the temperature of the bed falls to 75 degrees, or a little under, the spawn may be inserted in pieces about the size of a walnut, 2 in. deep and 6 in. apart. Now give a covering of loamy soil, 2 in. deep, and beat it down evenly and firmly. Finish off with a covering of clean straw or hay about 1 ft. thick. Water when necessary with lukewarm water; but very little should be given till the Mushrooms begin to come up, then a plentiful supply may be given. They may be grown in any warm cellar or shed, and usually appear in from four to six weeks after planting. Musk (_Mimulus Moschatus_).--A well-known sweet-scented, half-hardy perennial, well adapted for pot culture. A moist, shady position is most congenial to it when placed in the border. Seed sown in autumn make fine, early-flowering greenhouse plants. For summer blooming the seed is sown early in spring, under a frame or hand-glass, at a temperature of from 55 to 60 degrees. It is readily propagated by division. Height, 6 in. Mustard and Cress.--For sowing in the open choose a shady border, make the surface fine and firm, and water it well before putting down the seed. Let the seed be sown thickly at intervals of seven or fourteen days from March to September. As the Cress does not germinate so quickly as the Mustard, the former should be sown four days before the latter. The seed must not be covered, but simply pressed into the surface of the soil. Keep the ground moist, and cut the crop when the second leaf appears. For winter use it is best sown in boxes and grown in a frame, the seed being covered with flannel kept constantly moist. This may be removed as soon as the seed germinates. Gardeners mostly prefer to grow it through coarse flannel, to avoid the possibility of grit being sent to table. The curled leaf Cress is the best, and the new Chinese Mustard is larger in leaf than the old variety, and is very pungent in flavour. Myosotis (_Forget-me-not_).--The perennial varieties of these beautiful plants grow best in moist places, such as the edges of ponds or ditches; but they also do well in pots among Alpine plants. Most of them may be increased by root division, and all of them by seed. The annuals like a dry, sandy soil, and are grown from seed sown in March. They flower in June or July. Height, 6 in. Myrica Gala (_Candleberry Myrtle_).--This hardy deciduous shrub is very ornamental, and its foliage is scented like the myrtle. It will grow in light, rich soil, but thrives best in peat, and may be increased by seeds or layers. May is its flowering time. Height, 4 ft. M. Cerifera is treated in precisely the same manner. Height, 6 ft. Myrsiphyllum Asparagoides.--_See_ "Smilax." Myrtle (_Myrtus_).--Will strike readily if the cuttings be placed in a bottle of water till roots grow, and then planted; or young cuttings will strike in sandy soil under a hand-glass. They succeed best in a mixture of sandy loam and peat and on a south wall. Near the sea they prove quite hardy. Height, 6 ft. N Narcissus.--_See_ "Daffodils." Nasturtiums.--These are among the most useful of our hardy annuals, producing a display of the brightest of colours throughout the entire summer. The tall-growing climbers make a gay background to a border, and are equally valuable for trellis-work, while the dwarf varieties are first-class bedding plants, and of great service for ribboning. The seeds may be sown in pots in September or in the open ground early in spring. A light sandy or gravelly soil is the best to produce a wealth of bloom. Height, 6 ft. and 1 ft. Nectarines.--Require the same treatment as the Peach. In fact, the Nectarine stone sometimes produces a Peach, and a Peach stone often produces a Nectarine. Fairchild's, Humboldt, Lord Napier, and Red Roman are useful varieties. They should stand 20 ft. apart. Neilla.--These shrubs thrive in ordinary soil, and are increased by cuttings of the young wood. They flower in July. N. Torreyi bears white Spiraea-like flowers, which are very effective. Height, 6 ft. Nemesia.--A most beautiful half-hardy annual of the Antirrhinum class. Sow the seed early in spring on a hotbed, and plant out in May in rich, light soil. Cuttings of the young wood will strike under glass. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2-1/2 ft. Nemophila.--Pretty, neat, and compact hardy annuals, well worth cultivating. They succeed best in a moist and shady situation, delight in peat or vegetable mould, and when grown in circles are very striking. If wanted to flower early, sow the seed in autumn, or on a hotbed in spring; and if required for late blooming, sow in the open in March. Treated thus they flower from June to September. Height, 1 ft. Nepeta Glechoma Variegata.--A very useful plant for hanging baskets. It can be trained as a pyramid or allowed to hang down; in many cases it is employed as edgings. It is of easy culture, and does well as a window plant or in a cool greenhouse. The soil should be light and dry. It flowers in July, and may be increased by root-division. Nerine Sarniense.--_See_ "Guernsey Lily." Nertera Depressa (_Coral Berry_).--This pretty Moss-like plant is fairly hardy, and is eminently suited for a sheltered position on the rockery. The soil should consist of leaf-mould and sand, and overhead sprinkling with soft water is very beneficial. In cold districts it is better to grow it in the greenhouse. The flowers are produced in July, succeeded by orange-coloured berries. It is easily increased by dividing it early in the spring. Height, 3 in. Neuvusia Alabamensis.--A tamarix-like shrub, bearing clusters of white flowers early in spring. Will grow in any soil or situation. Increased by cuttings placed in sand under glass. Nicotiana (_Tobacco Plants_).--Very showy half-hardy annuals. N. Affinis bears long, tubular, sweet-scented, white flowers in July, and grows to the height of 3 ft. N. Virginica produces immense leaves and pink flowers, and the plants are 4 to 5 ft. high. The seed is sown on a hotbed in spring, and when the second or third leaf appears the plants are put into small pots and placed in a frame till the end of May, when they are transferred to the border. Nierembergia (_Cup Flowers_).--These elegant half-hardy annuals grow well in any light soil, but prefer a mixture of sandy loam and leaf-mould. Sow the seed in March or April in slight heat, harden off, and plant out in May as soon as all fear of frost is over. They flower in July. Height, 9 in. to 1 ft. Nierembergia Rivularis.--This herbaceous plant is of a creeping nature; it has deep green ovate foliage and large saucer-shaped white flowers. It needs a moist position, and is increased by division. The bloom is produced throughout June, July, and August. Height, 3 in. Nigella.--These hardy annuals, a species of Fennel-flower, are both curious and ornamental. Perhaps the best known among them is N. Hispanica, or Love-in-a-Mist. They only require sowing in the open in spring--but not before the middle of March--to produce flowers in July and August. Height, 9 in. to 2 ft. Night-scented Stocks.--_See_ "Mathiola." Nolana.--Hardy annuals that are suitable for the border, as they are very showy when in flower. The seed should be sown in spring on a gentle hotbed, and the plants transferred to the garden about the middle of May. N. Atriplicifolia may be sown in the open in the autumn. They flower in July and August. Height, 6 in. to 2 ft. North Borders, Plants suitable for.--Hardy Camellias, Chrysanthemums, black and green Tea Plant, Rhododendrons, Ferns, Red Currants, Morello Cherries, and spring and summer cuttings of all sorts. Nuttallia.--This early-flowering shrub is only hardy in the south and south-west of our country. It requires a light, rich soil, and may be increased by division. Racemes of white flowers are produced during February and March. Height, 2 ft. Nycterina.--Exquisite little half-hardy plants, suitable for pots or rock-work. The seed should be sown early in spring on a gentle hotbed, and the young plants transferred to the pots or open ground at the end of May, using a light, rich soil. Height, 3 in. Nymphaea Alba.--A hardy aquatic perennial, frequently found in our ponds. It flowers in June, and may be increased by dividing the roots. Height, 1 ft. O Odontoglossum Grande.--A most beautiful orchid, delighting in a temperature of from 60 to 70 degrees and an abundance of water during summer, but good drainage is essential. The blooms are yellow, spotted and streaked with venetian red, and are often 6 in. across. The pots should be two-thirds filled with crocks, then filled up with fibrous peat and sphagnum moss. During winter only a very little moisture should be given. Oenothera.--The Evening Primroses are most useful and beautiful plants, well suited for ornamenting borders, beds, edgings, or rock-work. All the species are free-flowering, and grow well in any good, rich soil. The annual and biennial kinds are sown in the open in spring. The perennials may be increased by dividing the roots, by cuttings, or by seed, the plants from which will flower the first season if sown early in spring. They bloom in June and July. Height, 6 in. to 4 ft. Olearia.--These evergreen shrubs thrive in peat and loam, and may be increased by division of the roots. O. Haastii has foliage resembling the Box, and a profusion of white, sweet-scented flowers in summer: a chalk soil suits it admirably. Height, 3 ft. to 4 ft. Omphalodes Verna.--A hardy perennial which may be grown under the shade of trees in ordinary soil. It produces its flowers in March, and is increased by dividing the roots in autumn. Height, 6 in. Oncidium Sarcodes.--Plant these Orchids firmly in well-drained pots, using equal parts of live sphagnum and fibrous peat. Give one good watering as soon as the potting is finished, and stand them in a light, warm part of the greenhouse. They will require very little more water until the roots have taken hold of the soil--only sufficient to keep the pseudo-bulbs from shrivelling--and during the winter months scarcely any moisture is needed. They flower in August. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Onions.--Require a deep, rich, heavy soil. Where the ground is not suitable it should have had a good dressing of rotten manure the previous autumn, and left in ridges during the winter. Level the ground, and make it very firm just before the time of sowing. The seed should be sown early in March for the main crop and for salad and pickling Onions, and in August for summer use. Thin out to about 6 in. apart, excepting those intended to be gathered while small. The Tripoli varieties attain a large size if transplanted in the spring. The Silver-skins do best on a poor soil. For exhibition Onions sow in boxes early in February in a greenhouse; when about 1 in. high prick out, 3 in. apart, into other boxes; give gentle heat and plenty of air, and when they have grown 6 in. high put them in a cool frame until the middle of April, when they must be planted in the open, 1 ft. apart. Ononis Rotundifolia (_Round-leaved Restharrow_).--A charming hardy evergreen of a shrubby nature. It will grow in any ordinary garden soil, and is increased by seed, sown as soon as it is ripe. It is most effective in clumps, and blooms from June to September. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Onopordon.--Half-hardy perennials of a rather interesting nature and of easy cultivation. Sow the seed any time between March and June. They require the protection of a frame or greenhouse during winter, and produce flowers in July. Height, 6 in. to 8 ft. Onosma Taurica (_Golden Drop_).--This hardy herbaceous plant is very pretty when in flower, and suitable for rock-work. It requires a well-drained vegetable mould, and to be planted where it can obtain plenty of sun. It is increased from cuttings taken in summer, placed in a cucumber frame, kept shaded for about a fortnight, and hardened off before the winter. The flowers succeed one another from June to November. Height, 1 ft. Opuntia Rafinesquii (_Hardy Prickly Fig_).--A dwarf hardy Cactus with sulphur-coloured flowers, produced from June to August; very suitable for dry spots in rock-work. It grows best in peat with a little sand, and is propagated by separating the branches at a joint, and allowing them to dry for a day or so before putting them into the soil. Height, 2 ft. Orange, Mexican.--_See_ "Choisya." Orchids.--The four classes into which these charming and interesting plants are divided may be described as (1) those coming from the tropics, (2) from South Africa, (3) from the South of Europe, and (4) our native varieties. The first require a stove, the second a greenhouse, the third and fourth slight protection during winter. As their natural character differs so widely it is necessary to ascertain from what part of the globe they come, and to place them in houses having as near as possible the same temperature and humidity as that to which they are accustomed. The pots in which they are grown should be filled with fibrous peat and sphagnum moss, largely mixed with charcoal, and abundant drainage ensured. They are propagated by dividing the root stocks, by separating the pseudo-bulbs, and, in case of the Dendrobiums, by cuttings. Orchis Foliosa (_Leafy Orchis_) may be grown in the open ground in good sandy loam. When once established it is best not to disturb it, but if needed it may be increased by division, after the tops have died down. Orchis Fusca (_Brown Orchis_) may likewise be planted in the open, in a sheltered position, in fine loam and leaf-mould, the soil to be well drained, yet constantly moist. Origanum Pulchellum.--Popularly known as the Beautiful Marjoram, this plant is useful for cutting for vases. It is perennial and hardy, and thrives in a dry situation with a sunny aspect and in a sandy soil. The bloom is in its best condition in October. The rooted shoots may be divided in spring or almost at any other period, or it may be propagated by taking cuttings in summer. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Ornithogalum.--O. Arabicum bears a large white flower with a shiny black centre. It is a fine plant for pot culture, or it may be grown in water like the Hyacinth. It may be planted in the open early in spring in sandy loam and peat. Take it up before the frost sets in and store it in a dry place, as it requires no moisture while in a dormant state. In September the flowers are produced. Height, 6 in. O. Umbellatum (_Star of Bethlehem_) is a pretty little flower often found in English meadows, is quite hardy, and once established may be left undisturbed for years. It throws up large heads of starry flowers, which are produced in great abundance. While in a dormant state the bulbs should be kept almost dry. It is propagated by off-sets; flowers in May. Height, 1 ft. Orobus.--These hardy perennials bear elegant Pea-shaped blossoms. The plants will grow readily in any light soil, and are easily increased by root-division in the spring, or by seeds. They flower in June. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Osmanthus.--These elegant hardy evergreen shrubs succeed best in light, sandy loam, and like a dry situation. They may be increased by cuttings of the young shoots with a little old wood attached, or they may be grafted on to common Privet. The variegated varieties are very beautiful. They grow well on chalk soils. Height, 4 ft. to 6 ft. Othera Japonica.--A newly introduced evergreen shrub very similar to the Holly. It is perfectly hardy and may be treated in the same manner as that plant. Ourisia Coccinea.--A hardy herbaceous, surface-creeping perennial of singular beauty as regards both leaf and flower. The soil in which it is grown must be well drained, a peat one being preferable; and the position it occupies must be well shaded from the rays of the midday sun. It flowers from May onwards to September, the cut bloom being admirable for mixing with fern leaves. As soon as new life starts in spring the roots may be divided. Height, 9 in. Oxalis.--A genus of very pretty bulbous plants that thrive well in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand, or will grow in any light soil. Most of the tender kinds may be reared in a frame if protected from frost in the winter. After they have done flowering they should be kept dry until they begin to grow afresh. They are increased by off-sets from the bulb. The hardy species should be planted in a shady border, where they will grow and flower freely. The seeds of these may be sown in the open in spring. Some of the varieties have fibrous roots: these will bear dividing. They are equally suitable for pots, borders, or rock-work. Height, 9 in. to 3 ft. Ox-Tongue.--_See_ "Bugloss." Oxythopis Campestris.--A hardy perennial with lemon-yellow flowers in June and July. It will grow in any good garden soil, and is propagated by seed only, which should be sown where the plants are intended to be grown. Height, 6 in. P Pachysandra.--This early hardy perennial has ornamental foliage and blooms in April. It will succeed in almost any soil, and may be increased by suckers from the roots. Height, 1 ft. Paeonies.--These beautiful flowering plants are mostly hardy enough to endure our winters. The herbaceous kinds are increased by dividing the plants at the roots, leaving a bud on each slip. The shrubby species are multiplied by cuttings taken in August or September, with a piece of the old wood attached, and planted in a sheltered situation. Tree Paeonies require protection in winter, and may be propagated by grafting on to the others, by suckers, or by layers. New varieties are raised from seed. A rich, loamy soil suits them best. Height, 2 ft. Palms from Seed.--Soak the seed in tepid water for twenty-four hours, then put them singly 1 in. deep in 2-in. pots filled with equal parts of loam, leaf-mould, and sand. Cover the pots with glass and stand them in the warmest part of a hothouse. Shade from strong sunshine, and keep the soil just moist. Re-pot as soon as the roots have filled the old ones. Pampas Grass.--_See_ "Gynerium." Pampas Lily of the Valley.--_See_ "Withania." Pancratium.--A handsome class of plants. Their habit of growth is somewhat like that of the Amaryllis. They are admirably adapted for growing in pots in the greenhouse. They may also be planted in the open ground under a south wall. The bulbs should be placed in a composition of three parts light, sandy loam and one of vegetable mould. They are increased by off-sets from the roots, or by seeds, by which the new varieties are obtained. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Pandanus Veitchi (_Variegated Screw Pine_).--For table decoration or vases this is a most useful plant. It requires a warm greenhouse where a temperature of 60 or 70 degrees can be kept up throughout the year, and grows well in equal parts of peat and loam with one-sixth part sand. During the autumn a little liquid manure is beneficial. In the winter months it should be watered carefully, but in the summer it is improved by syringing with warm water. It is propagated very easily by suckers taken off in spring or summer, placed in a temperature of 75 degrees. Panicum.--Handsome ornamental grasses. They will grow in any soil or situation. P. Capillare is an annual, suitable for bouquets or edgings; it is increased by seed. P. Altissimum, an annual, and P. Sulcatum, a most elegant greenhouse plant, are fine for specimens. P. Plicatum is highly ornamental and hardy, but is best grown as a conservatory or window plant; it has a Palm-like appearance, and is of quick growth. Most of the plants flower in July. They may be propagated by seed or by division of the roots. Average height, 1-1/2 ft. Pansies (_Heartsease_).--Grow well from seed sown in July or August on a raised bed of light earth. They may also be increased from cuttings taken in August, September, April, or May, selecting young side-shoots and planting them in light earth mixed with silver sand. The cuttings should be kept in a cool frame, moderately moist, and shaded from the hot sun. They can likewise be increased by layers, merely pegging them down and not slitting them on account of their tendency to damp off. They may also be increased by dividing the roots in April or May. They should be planted where they will get all the morning sun, yet be sheltered from mid-day rays; in an open and airy situation, yet protected from cutting winds. While the plants are blooming they should be supplied with liquid manure. Papaver (_Poppy_).--These showy flowers are most at home in a rich, light soil. They are easily raised from seed sown where they are intended to bloom. The perennials may also be increased by dividing the roots. They flower at midsummer. Height varies from 1 ft. to 3 ft. Pardanthus Chinensis.--_See_ "Iris." Parsley.--In order to grow Parsley to perfection it is necessary that the ground be well drained, as the roots and stems must be kept dry, and the soil should be rich and light. Three sowings may be made during the year: the first in spring for late summer and autumn use, the next in June for succession, and another in August or September for spring and early summer use. Thin out or transplant, to 6 in. apart. Parsley takes longer than most seeds to germinate; it must therefore be watched during dry weather and watered if necessary. Plants potted in September and placed in a cold frame, or protected in the open from rain and frost with a covering of mats supported by arches, will be valuable for winter use. Parsnips.--These succeed best in a rich soil, but the application of fresh manure should be avoided, as it induces forked and ill-shaped roots. Let the ground be trenched two spits deep and left ridged up as long as possible. As early in March as the weather will permit level the surface and sow the seed in drills 15 in. apart, covering it with half an inch of fine soil. When the plants are 2 or 3 in. high, thin them out to 9 in. apart. They may be taken up in November and, after cutting off the tops, stored in a pit or cellar in damp sand, or they may be left in the ground till required for use. Passion Flower.--Cuttings of the young shoots strike readily in sand under glass. The plant likes a good loamy soil mixed with peat. A sheltered position with a south or south-western aspect should be assigned those grown out of doors, and the root should be well protected in winter. The flowers are borne on seasoned growth of the current year: this fact must be considered when pruning the plants. During the hot months the roots require a copious supply of water, and the foliage should be syringed freely. Passiflora Cærulea is fine for outdoor culture, and Countess Guiglini makes a capital greenhouse plant. Pavia Macrostachya.--This is a deciduous hardy shrub or tree which bears elegant racemes of white Chestnut-like flowers in July. Any soil suits it. It is propagated by layers or by grafting it on to the Horse-chestnut. Height, 10 ft. Peaches.--These are best grown on a strong loam mixed with old mortar; though any soil that is well drained will produce good fruit. When possible, a south wall should be chosen; but they are not particular as to position, providing they are afforded shelter from cold winds. November and February are the most favourable months for planting. The roots should be carefully arranged at equal distances apart, 3 or 4 in. below the surface of soil, and then covered with fine mould. Avoid giving manure at all times, except when the trees are bearing fruit heavily. Train the shoots about 6 in. apart, removing all the wood-buds except one at the base of the shoot and one at the point. Keep the flowers dry and free from frost by means of an overhead shelter, to which tiffany or canvas can be attached, which should, however, only be used so long as the cold weather lasts. To ensure good fruit, thin the same out to 6 in. apart as soon as it attains the size of a small pea, and when the stoning period is passed remove every alternate one, so that they will be 1 ft. apart. After gathering the fruit, remove any exhausted and weak wood, leaving all that is of the thickness of a black-lead pencil. To keep the foliage clean, syringe once a day with water; this may be continued until the fruit is nearly ripe. The following may be recommended for outdoor cultivation:--Hale's Early, Dagmar, and Waterloo for fruiting in July or August; Crimson Galande, Dymond, and the well-known Bellegarde for succession in September; and Golden Eagle for a late sort. When planted in quantities, Peaches should stand 20 ft. apart. When grown under glass a day temperature of 50 degrees, falling to 45 degrees at night, is sufficient to start with, gradually increasing it so that 65 degrees by day and 55 by night is reached at the period of blossoming. Syringe the leaves daily until the flowers are produced, then discontinue it, merely keeping the walls near the pipes and the paths damp. As soon as the fruit is set the syringing should recommence. Water of the same temperature as that of the house should in all cases be used. When the fruit begins to ripen, cease once more the syringing until it is gathered, then admit air freely, wash the trees daily, and apply liquid manure to the roots in sufficient quantities to keep the soil moist during the time the trees are at rest. Rivers's Early, Pitmaston Orange, Dagmar, and Royal George are all good under glass. Pears.--Wherever Apples are a success Pears will grow. As a rule, they are best grown dwarf. On light soils they should be grafted on to Pear stocks, but on heavy soils they are best worked on the Quince. The fruiting of young trees may be accelerated by lifting them when about five years old, spreading out the roots 1 ft. below the surface of the soil, and mulching the ground. The mulching should be raked off in the spring, the ground lightly stirred with a fork and left to sweeten, and another mulching applied when the weather becomes hot and dry. In pruning, leave the leading branches untouched, but let all cross shoots be removed, and the young wood be cut away in sufficient quantity to produce a well-balanced tree, and so equalise the flow of sap. Some of the pruning may be done in summer, but directly the leaves fall is the time to perform the main work. A good syringing once a week with the garden hose will keep the trees vigorous and free from insects. Should scab make its appearance on the leaves, spray them occasionally with Bordeaux Mixture, using the minimum strength at first, and a stronger application afterwards if necessary. There are over 500 varieties of Pears, so it is no easy matter to give a selection to suit all tastes, but a few may be named as most likely to give satisfaction. Louise Bonne de Jersey succeeds in almost any soil and in any situation, is a great favourite, and ripens its fruit in October. Beurré Giffard makes a fine standard, and ripens in July. Beurré Hardy is delicious in October and November. Doyenné du Comice is one of the best-flavoured, and is very prolific. Beurré d'Amanlis ripens in August. Williams's Bon Chrêtien, Aston Town, Pitmaston Duchess, Clapp's Favourite, Comte de Lamy, and Josephine de Malines are all reliable for dessert, while for stewing purposes Catillac, Black Pear of Worcester, Verulam, and Vicar of Winkfield are among the best. In orchards standards should be from 20 to 25 ft. apart; dwarfs 12 ft. to 1 rod. Peas.--For the production of heavy summer and autumn crops a rich and deeply-stirred soil is essential, one of the best fertilisers being well-decayed farmyard manure; but for the earliest crop a poorer soil, if deep and well pulverised, will give the best results. Peas under 3 ft. in height do not require sticking, but they can be more easily gathered if a few small twigs are used to keep the haulm off the ground. If sown in successive lines the space between the rows should correspond with the height of the variety grown. A good plan is to arrange the rows 10 or 15 ft. apart, and crop the intervening spaces with early dwarf vegetables. The earliest varieties may be sown from November to February, on the warmest and most sheltered border: these may be gathered in May and June. The second early round, varieties, if sown from January to April, will be ready for gathering in June and July. The main crop round varieties may be sown from February to May: these will be ready to gather in July and August. The early wrinkled varieties may be sown from March to June, for gathering between June and September. Sow main crop and late varieties at intervals of fourteen days from March to May: these will be ready to gather in July, August, and September. When the plants are a couple of inches high draw the earth neatly round them, and stake the taller varieties as soon as the tendrils appear. Keep them well watered in dry weather, and if on a light soil a mulching of manure will be beneficial. As soon as the pods are setting apply weak liquid manure to the roots when the ground is moist. Peas, Everlasting (_Lathyrus Latifolia_).--These well-known and favourite hardy perennials are very useful for covering trellises, etc. They will grow in any garden soil, and may be raised from seed sown early in spring in slight heat. Where there is no greenhouse or frame the seed may be planted, about 1/2 in. deep, round the edges of pots filled with nice, light soil, and covered with a sheet of glass, keeping the soil moist till the seed germinates. When the plants are strong enough they may be placed in their permanent quarters. They bloom from June to September. Old roots may be divided. Height, 6 ft. Peas, Sweet.--These most beautiful and profuse blooming hardy annuals will grow almost anywhere, but they prefer a dry soil that is both rich and light. The seed should be sown as early in March as practicable, and in April and May for succession. When the plants are 2 or 3 in. high a few twigs may be placed among them, to which they will cling. The flowers are produced in July, and the more liberally they are gathered the longer the plants will continue to bloom. Height, 3 ft. Pelargonium.--The shrubby kinds will grow well in any rich soil; loam and decayed leaves form a good compost for them. They require good drainage and plenty of air and light while in a vigorous state. Cuttings root readily in either soil or sand, especially if placed under glass. Most of the hard-wooded varieties are more easily increased by cuttings from the roots. The tuberous-rooted ones should be kept quite dry while dormant, and may be increased by small off-sets from the roots. Pentstemon.--This charming hardy perennial is deserving of a place in every garden. It may be grown in any good soil, but a mixture of loam and peat is most suitable. The seed may be sown in April, and the plants transferred when strong enough to their flowering quarters; or it may be sown in a sheltered position during August or September to stand the winter. It may also be increased by dividing the roots in spring, as soon as growth begins. Cuttings of the young side-shoots about 6 in. long may be taken at any period--the middle of September is a good time; these should be placed under a hand-glass in sandy loam and leaf-mould. These cuttings will flower the first year. It blooms from May to October. Height, 2 ft. Peppermint.--This may be grown on any damp or marshy soil, and increased by dividing the roots. Perennials.--These are plants that die down during the winter, but spring up and produce new stems annually. Some, as for instance Antirrhinums and Pansies, flower the first season, but usually they do not bloom till the second season. Many of the species improve by age, forming large clumps or bushes. The stock is increased by division of the roots, which, if judiciously done, improves the plant. Like annuals, they are divided into classes of Hardy, Half-hardy, and Tender plants. Hardy perennials do not require artificial heat to germinate the seeds, or at any period of their growth, but are the most easily cultivated of all plants. Seed may be sown from March to midsummer, transplanting in the autumn to their flowering quarters; or it may be sown in August and September in a sheltered position to stand the winter. Half-hardy plants require artificial heat to germinate their seed, and must be gradually introduced into the open. They may be sown during March and April in frames or a greenhouse, when many will bloom the first season. If sown between May and the end of August they will flower the following spring and summer. They require protection during winter, such as is afforded by a cold pit, frame, or greenhouse, or the covering of a mat or litter. Tender perennials may be sown as directed above, but the plants should be kept constantly under glass. Some perennials, such as Pinks, Carnations, Saxifrages, etc., do not die down, but retain their leaves. These are called evergreen perennials. Pergularia.--Very fragrant twining plants, suitable for trellis-work, arbours, etc. A rich soil suits them best. They are easily increased by cuttings sown in sand under glass. They flower at midsummer. Height, 8 ft. to 12 ft. Perilla Nankinensis.--A plant of little merit, except for its foliage, which is of a rich bronze purple. It bears a cream-coloured flower in July. It may be raised in the same manner as other half-hardy annuals, and prefers a light, loamy soil. Height, 1 1/2 ft. Periploca Graeca.--A hardy, deciduous, twining shrub, which will grow in any soil, and may be increased by layers or by cuttings placed under glass. It flowers in July. Height, 10 ft. Periwinkle.--_See_ "Vinca." Pernettya.--An American evergreen shrub, which, like all of its class, thrives best in sandy peat; it delights in partial shade, and a moist but well-drained position. It is increased by layers in September, which should not be disturbed for a year. It is a good plan to mulch the roots with leaf-mould or well-rotted manure. Height, 5 ft. Petunias.--These ornamental half-hardy perennials prefer a mixture of sandy loam and vegetable mould, but will grow in any rich, light soil. Seeds sown in March or April, at a temperature of from 65 to 75 degrees, make fine bedding plants for a summer or autumn display. As the seeds are very minute, they should be covered merely with a dusting of the finest of soil. Moisture is best supplied by standing the pots up to the rims in water. Pot off singly, harden off, and plant out at the end of May. May also easily be raised from cuttings, which will strike at any season in heat, but care must be taken that they do not damp off. They flower in July and August. Height, 1-1/2 ft. to 2 ft. Phacelia Campanularia.--A superb, rich blue, hardy annual. It will grow in any soil, and is easily raised from seed sown in spring. Flowers are borne in June. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Phalaris.--P. Arundinacea is the well-known perennial Ribbon Grass; it is easily grown from seed, and the root allows division. P. Canariensis is the useful canary seed: it may be propagated from seed on any soil. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Philadelphus.--Among the best of our flowering shrubs, producing a wealth of sweetly-scented flowers. For cultivation, _see_ "Syringa." Philesia.--An American evergreen shrub which grows best in peat, but will thrive in any light soil. It should occupy a cool position, but be well sheltered from winds. It is increased by suckers. Flowers in June. Height, 4 ft. Phillyrea.--This effective border evergreen will grow in any ordinary garden soil, and may be increased either by layers or cuttings. It has dark green shining leaves, and is quite hardy. Height, 6 ft. Phlomis (_Lion's Tail_).--This effective hardy perennial will grow in any rich, light soil in a warm position, and is a fine lawn plant. Flowers are produced from June to August. It may be increased by seed or division. Protect the plant from damp in winter. Height, 3 ft. Phlox.--For richness of colour and duration of bloom there are few plants that can rival either the annual or perennial Phlox. The trailing kinds are very suitable for small pots or rock-work, C. Drummondi for beds, and the French perennials, P. Decussata, for mixed borders. A rich, loamy soil suits them best, and they must never lack moisture. They are easily raised in spring from seed, and the perennials may be increased by cuttings placed under glass, or by division. Flower in July. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Phormium Tenax.--A greenhouse herbaceous plant which succeeds best in rich loam. It flowers in August, and may be propagated by dividing the roots. Height, 3 ft. Phygelius Capensis.--A greenhouse perennial bearing carmine and yellow flowers in June, but is hardy enough to be grown on a warm border. It is increased by off-sets from the root, taken off in May. Height, 2 ft. Physalis (_Winter Cherry_).--A rich, light soil is most suitable for the stove and greenhouse kinds, cuttings of which root freely under glass. The hardy kinds will grow in any soil, and are increased by seed. P. Francheti produces seed-pods over 2 in. in diameter, the Cherry-like fruit of which is edible and makes a fine preserve. It is larger than that of the old Winter Cherry, P. Alkekengi. They flower in August. Height, 1 ft. to 2 ft. Physianthus Albens.--This evergreen climber is a good plant for training to the rafters of a greenhouse. It grows well in a mixture of sandy loam and peat, and should receive bold treatment. Its white flowers are produced in July. The plant is propagated by seeds, also by cuttings. Height, 20 ft. Physostegia.--Ornamental hardy herbaceous plants, ranging in colour from white to purple. They like a rich soil, and can be raised from seed sown in March. They also bear division. July and August are their flowering months. Height, from 1 ft. to 5 ft. Phyteuma Hallierii.--A very pretty hardy perennial. It will thrive in any soil, blooms from May to August, and can be readily increased by seed or division. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Phytolacca Decandra (_Virginian Poke_).--A very fine herbaceous plant, bearing bunches of pretty black berries. It requires a rich soil and plenty of room for its widespreading branches. Cuttings will strike under glass, or the seed may be sown in autumn. It flowers in August. Height, 6 ft. Picotees.--_See_ "Carnations." Pimelias.--Very beautiful, compact, and free-growing greenhouse everlasting shrubs. The most suitable soil consists of three parts sandy peat and one part loam, with good drainage. June or July is their flowering season. They may be grown from seed or young cuttings 2 in. long, placed in sandy peat, with a little bottom heat. Do not give too much water. Height, 2 ft. to 4 ft. Pimpernel.--_See_ "Anagallis." Pinguicula Grandiflora (_Great Irish Butterwort_).--This handsome, hardy bog-plant produces deep violet-blue flowers in August and September. It may be grown in any damp soil and increased by division. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Pinks.--Will live in almost any soil, but if large blooms are required rich earth is essential. They are increased by pipings taken in May or June. These should be planted out in October, but must be given a well-drained position, as too much wet is injurious to them. Do not set the roots too deep, but let the collar of the plant be on a level with the soil. Pinus.--As a tall specimen tree nothing is more graceful than the Corsican Pine (_Pinus Laricio_). P. Strobus Nana is a curious dwarf variety, rarely exceeding 3 ft. in height. The Argentea Aurea is also of dwarf habit. Its leaves, which are green in summer, change to a bright golden colour in winter. The Umbrella Pine (_Sciadopitys_) is a very striking conifer, and does well everywhere. It gets its name from its leaves being set at regular intervals round the branches, like the ribs of an umbrella. The Pinus may be increased by layers, or by sowing the cones in spring, after they have opened out, in rather sandy soil, covering them lightly. Piping.--This consists in drawing out the young grass, or shoots, from the joints of Pinks, etc., from May to July being the time for doing so. Place them in light, sandy soil, and cover them with a hand-glass. Towards the end of September they may be planted out in beds or potted off in rich, light loam. In either case they must not be planted too deeply. The crust of the soil should be level with the collar of the plant. If the pots are put into a frame the plants will require very little water during winter, but as much air should be given as is possible. In March re-pot them, using 8-1/2-in. pots. Platycodon (_Japanese Balloon Flower_).--Hardy and elegant herbaceous plants, requiring a sandy soil. They may be raised either from seeds or from cuttings of the young growth; they flower in July. Height, 1 ft. Platystemon Californicus.--Pretty hardy annuals which thrive in a sandy soil. They are easily raised from seed sown in March or April, and bring forth their flowers in August. Height, 1 ft. Pleroma Elegans.--A beautiful evergreen shrub for a greenhouse. Pot in equal parts of loam, peat, and sand. It flowers in July. Cuttings may be struck in peat in a rather warm temperature. Height, 4 ft. Plumbago.--These pretty evergreens will grow in any soil, and can be propagated in September by cuttings of half-ripened wood having a heal, planted in a sandy soil, and kept near the glass in a greenhouse. They flower in June. Height, 3 ft. P. Occidentalis is a charming greenhouse climber. P. Capensis Alba is a greenhouse evergreen shrub, flowering in November, and growing to a height of 2 ft. P. Larpentae is good for a sunny border, in light soil: it bears terminal clusters of rich violet-purple flowers in September. Height, 1 ft. Plumbagoes require very little attention in winter. Plums.--Almost any soil will grow this useful fruit. Young trees may be planted at any time, when the ground is friable, from November to March, but the earlier it is done the better. The situation should be somewhat sheltered. In exposed positions protection may be afforded by a row of damson trees. Many varieties are suitable for growing on walls or sheds, where they are trained into fans, as cordons, and other decorative designs; but it must not be overlooked that until the trees are well established a great deal of fruit is necessarily lost by the severe pruning and disbudding which is required to bring the tree into shape. A pyramid-shaped tree is useful, and is easily grown by training one straight, central shoot, which must be stopped occasionally so that fresh side branches may be thrown out, which of course must be kept at the desired length. A bush tree about 7 ft. in height is undoubtedly the best form of growth, and needs but a minimum amount of attention. In pruning wall trees the main object is to get the side-shoots equally balanced, and to prevent the growth advancing in the centre. The bush form merely require the removal of any dead wood and of cross-growing branches. This should be done late in the summer or in the autumn. The trees are frequently attacked by a small moth, known as the Plum Fortrix, which eats its way into the fruit and causes it to fall. In this case the fallen unripe fruit should be gathered up and burned, and the trees washed in winter with caustic potash and soda. For growing on walls the following kinds may be recommended: Diamond, White Magnum Bonum, Pond's Seedling, and Belle de Louvain for cooking; and Kirke, Coe's Golden Drop, and Jefferson for dessert. For pyramids and bushes, Victoria, Early Prolific, Prince Engelbert, Sultan, and Belgian Purple are good sorts. In orchards Plums should stand 20 ft. apart. Poa Trivalis.--A very pretty, dwarf-growing, variegated grass. Plant in a moist situation in a rich, light, loamy soil. It is increased either by seed or division. Podocarpus.--_See_ "Cephalotaxus." Podolepis.--Hardy annuals bearing yellow and red and white flowers. A mixture of loam and peat is most suitable for their growth. They are easily raised from seed sown in March, and bloom from June to August. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Podophyllum Peltatum (_Duck's Foot, or May Apple_).--Grown chiefly for its foliage and berries, this hardy herbaceous perennial forms a pleasing spectacle when planted in moist soil under trees; it likewise makes a splendid pot-plant. A mixture of peat and chopped sphagnum is what it likes. The pots are usually plunged in wet sand or ashes on a northern border. It is propagated by cutting the roots into pieces several inches in length, with a good bud or crown on each. During May and June the plant produces small white Dog-rose-like flowers. Height, 1 ft. Poinsettia Pulcherrima.--A stove evergreen shrub which produces lovely crimson bracts in the winter. Plant in sandy loam, give plenty of water to the roots, and syringe the leaves frequently. In early spring cut down the branches to within three or four eyes of the old wood. These cuttings, if laid aside for a day to dry and then planted under glass, will form new plants. It flowers in April. Height, 2 ft. Polemonium (_Jacob's Ladder_).--Hardy perennial border plants of an ornamental character and of the easiest culture. Any soil suits them, and they merely require sowing in the open either in spring or autumn. P. Richardsoni is most commonly met with, its blue flowers being produced in early autumn. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Polyanthus.--Sow the seed late in autumn in well-drained boxes of light, rich mould; cover it very lightly, place under glass, and water sparingly, but give enough to keep the plants moist. The seed requires no artificial heat to germinate it. The roots should be divided each year as soon as they have flowered, and fresh soil given. The single varieties only are florists' flowers. The Polyanthus is a species of primrose, grows best in a rather shady position in a loam and peat compost, and produces its flowers in May. Height, 6 in. Polygala Chamaesbuxus.--A hardy evergreen trailing plant requiring a peat soil in which to grow. It may be increased from seed or by division of the roots. May is the time at which it blooms. Height, 6 in. Polygala Dalmaisiana.--This showy evergreen shrub needs a greenhouse treatment. Soil--three parts peat, one part turfy loam, and a little sand. It flowers in March. To increase it, top the shoots, which will cause it to throw out new ones. Take the new growth off when it is 3 in. long, and place it under glass in a propagating house. Height, 1 ft. The hardy annual varieties of Polygala are obtained by seed sown in peat. These flower at midsummer. (_See also_ "Solomon's Seal.") Polygonatum.--These pretty herbaceous plants are quite hardy. The flowers, which are borne in May or June, are mostly white. Plants succeed best in a rich soil. They may be raised from seed, or the roots can be divided. Height, 1ft. to 3 ft. Polygonum Brunonis (_Knotweed_).--This strong-growing creeping perennial plant is not particular as to soil so long as it can enjoy plenty of sunshine. The shoots root of themselves and must be kept in check, else they will choke other things. It flowers in August, after which the leaves assume beautiful autumnal tints. Height, 1 ft. Pomegranate.--This requires a deep, loamy soil and a warm, airy situation. May be propagated by cuttings of the shrubs or the root, putting the cuttings into light, rich soil, or by layers. The double kinds of Punica, or Pomegranate, should be grafted on to the single ones. There is a dwarf kind, bearing scarlet flowers in August, which requires heat. Poppies.--_See_ "Papaver" _and_ "Stylophorum." Portulaca.--The seeds of the hardy annual species of this genus may be sown in a sheltered open spot in spring. The half-hardy annuals should be sown thinly in boxes during March and placed in gentle heat. Harden off and plant out in May, as soon as the weather permits, in a light, dry soil where it can get a good amount of sunshine. Its brilliant and striking colour admirably adapts it for small beds, edgings, or rock-work; and it will succeed in dry, hot sandy positions where scarcely any other plant would live. It flowers in June. Height, 6 in. Potatoes.--Ground intended for Potatoes should be dug deeply in the autumn, thoroughly drained, well manured and trenched, and left rough on the surface during the winter. At the beginning of February stand the tubers on end in shallow boxes, and expose them to the light to induce the growth of short, hard, purple sprouts. Allow one sprout to each tuber or set, rubbing off the rest. They may be planted at any time from the end of February to the end of March in rows 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 ft. asunder, placing the sets 6 in. deep and from 6 to 9 in. apart. As soon as growth appears keep the ground well stirred with the hoe to prevent the growth of weeds, and when the tops are 4 to 6 in. high ridge the earth up about them. Directly flower appears, pick it off, as it retards the growth of the tubers. They should be taken up and stored in October. If short of storage room dig up every other row only, and give the remaining ridges an additional covering of earth. They keep well this way. Potentilla.--Handsome herbaceous plants with Strawberry-like foliage. They will grow in any common soil, and may be increased by dividing the roots or by seeds treated like other hardy perennials. The shrubby kinds are well adapted for the fronts of shrubberies, and are propagated by cuttings taken in autumn and planted in a sheltered situation. They flower at midsummer. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Potting.--Great attention must be paid to this important gardening operation. It is necessary that the pots used be perfectly clean, and, if new, soaked in water for several hours previously, otherwise they would absorb the moisture from the soil to the detriment of the roots. At the bottom of the pots place a few layers of crocks, and on these some rough mould so as to ensure perfect drainage. For all delicate, hard-wooded plants one-third of each pot should be occupied with drainage, but a depth of 1-1/2 in. is sufficient for others. Lift the plant carefully so as not to break the ball of earth round the roots, and fill in with mould round the sides. In order to supply water readily the pots must not be filled up to the rim. Pot firmly, and in the case of hard-wooded plants ram the earth down with a blunt-pointed stick; soft-wooded ones may be left rather looser. Give shade till the plants have recovered themselves. The soil used for potting should be moist, but not clammy. A rather light, rich loam is most suitable for strong-growing plants; peat for slow-growing, hard-wooded ones, like Ericas, Camellias, etc.; and a mixture of light loam, one-third its bulk of leaf-soil, and silver sand in sufficient quantity to make the whole porous for quick-growing, soft-wooded plants, such as Pelargoniums, Calceolarias, Fuchsias etc. Pratia Repens (_Lobelia Pratiana_).--This pretty little creeping perennial is very suitable for the front of rock-work. It requires a well-drained vegetable soil and all the sun it can get. It is self-propagating. Though pretty hardy, it is safer to pot it off in autumn and place it in a cold frame throughout the winter. Flowers are produced in June, and are succeeded till cut off by frost. Primroses.--_See_ "Primulas," _and_ "Streptocarpus." Primulas.--This genus embraces the Auricula, the Polyanthus, and the Primrose. The greenhouse varieties are among the most useful of our winter-flowering plants. The seed may be sown at any time from March to July in a pot of two-year-old manure, leaf-mould, or fine, rich mould, but not covering it with the soil. Tie a sheet of paper over the pot and plunge it in a hotbed. Sufficient moisture will be communicated to the seed by keeping the paper damp. When the plants make their appearance remove the paper and place the pot in the shady part of the greenhouse. When they are strong enough to handle, pot off into 4-1/2 in. pots, and stand them near the glass. The roots may be divided as soon as the plants have done flowering. The hardy kinds may be sown in the open. It should be borne in mind that the seed must be new, as it soon loses its germinating properties. These flower in March or April. Height, 6 in. Prince's Feather.--An ornamental hardy annual, producing tall spikes of dark crimson flowers and purple-tinted foliage. It is not particular as to soil, and merely requires sowing in the open in spring to produce flowers in July. Height, 2 ft. Privet.--_See_ "Ligustrum." Prophet's Flower.--_See_ "Arnebia." Prunella Grandiflora.--A pretty hardy perennial, suitable for a front border or rock-work, bearing dense spikes of flowers from May to August. It grows well in any ordinary soil, and is propagated by division. Height, 6 in. Pruning.--The main objects to bear in mind in Pruning any kind of bush or tree are to prevent a congested growth of the branches, to remove any shoots that cross each other, as well as all useless and dead wood, and to obtain a well-balanced head. It may be done either in August or in the winter when the sap is at rest, after the worst of the frosts are over, the end of February being usually suitable; but the former period is generally acknowledged to be the better, especially for fruit-trees. The cuts should be clean and level, and when a saw is used should be made smooth with a chisel and covered with grafting wax. In all cases as little wound as possible should be presented. Root-pruning has for its object the suppression of over-vigorous growth and the restoration of old trees to a bearing condition. It consists in taking off all the small fibres, shortening the long roots to within 6 or 8 in. of the stem, and cutting away any bruised or injured roots before the trees are first planted out. The mode of procedure in the case of old or unproductive trees is to open the earth in autumn 3 ft. from the stem of the tree, and to saw through two-thirds of the strongest roots. The opening is then filled in with fresh mould. Should the growth still be too vigorous, the soil must be opened again the following season and the remaining roots cut through, care being taken not to injure the young fibrous roots. Prunus.--Beautiful early-flowering trees, which will grow in any soil, and can be increased by seeds or suckers. Ptelia Trifoliata (_Hop Tree_).--This is very suitable for planting on the borders of still waters, where its long frond-like leaves, which turn to a golden yellow in autumn, produce a fine effect. It blooms in June, and is propagated by layers. Height, 10 ft. Pulmonarias (_Lungworts_).--Hardy perennials that require but little attention; may be grown in any common soil, and propagated by division at any time. They flower in April and May. Height, 1 ft. Pumilum.--_See_ "Heleniums." Pumpkins.--Valuable for soups and pies in winter, and in summer the young shoots are an excellent substitute for Asparagus. For their cultivation, _see_ "Gourds." Punica Granata Nana.--A greenhouse deciduous shrub which flowers in August. The soil in which it is placed should be a light, rich loam. It can be most freely multiplied by layers, and cuttings will strike in sand under glass. Height, 4 ft. Puschkinia (_Striped Squills_).--This charming bulbous plant may be grown in any light, rich mould, provided it is drained well. The bulbs may be separated when the clumps get overcrowded, late in summer, after the tops have died down, being the most suitable time to do so. If planted in a warm position it will begin to flower in March, and continue in bloom till May. Height, 8 in. Pyrethrum.--The greenhouse kinds grow in any rich soil, and young cuttings planted under glass root readily. The hardy kinds are not particular as to soil so long as it is not cold and wet, and are increased by seeds sown in heat in February if wanted for early use, or in the open during March and April for later growth. The crowns may be divided either in autumn or spring: each eye or bud will make a fresh plant. Young plants produced in this way in the autumn require the protection of a frame during the winter. They flower in July. Height varies from 6 in. to 3 ft. Pyrola.--A handsome hardy plant, suitable for a moist, shady situation. It is raised from seed, or will bear dividing, but is rather hard to grow. Height, 6 in. Pyrus Japonica.--_See_ "Cydonia." Q Quaking Grass.--_See_ "Briza." Quercus Ilex.--A handsome evergreen Oak, delighting in a deep, loamy soil. It is propagated by seed sown as soon as it is ripe. Quinces.--Plant in autumn in a moist but well-drained soil. Cuttings of stout stems 6 or 8 in. long, firmly and deeply planted in a shady situation, mulched with leaf-mould, and kept watered in dry weather, will take root; but the surest method of propagation is by layers, pegged down in the soil and detached the following year. A good watering with liquid manure will swell the fruit to a large size. Keep the branches well thinned out and cut them regular, so as to let in light and air and form nicely shaped trees. The pruning should be done as soon as the leaves fall. In orchards they should stand 1 rod apart. R Radish.--For an early supply sow on a gentle hotbed under a frame in January, February, and March. For succession sow thinly on a warm and sheltered border early in March. Follow on with sowings in the open till the middle of September. The Black Spanish and China Rose should be sown during August and September for winter use. Lift in November, and store in sand in a cool place. Radishes should be liberally watered in dry weather, and the soil made rich and light some time before sowing commences. Ragged Robin.--_See_ "Lychnis." Ragwort.--_See_ "Jacobaea." Ramondia Pyrenaica.--A pretty dwarf perennial, suitable for moist interstices of rock-work. It should be planted in a slanting position, so that the roots, while absorbing plenty of moisture, will not rot through being continually in stagnant water. Peat soil suits it best. It may be increased by division in spring. If grown from seed it takes two years before flowers are produced. During the height of summer it is in full beauty. Rampion.--The roots are used in cooking, and also for salads. For winter use sow in April in rows 12 in. apart, covering the seeds lightly with fine mould, and thin out to 4 in. apart. Sow at intervals for a succession. Ranunculus.--These prefer a good stiff, rather moist, but well-drained loam, enriched with well-rotted cow-dung, and a sunny situation. February is probably the best time for planting, though some prefer to do it in October. Press the tubers (claws downwards) firmly into the soil, placing them 2 or 3 in. deep and 4 or 5 in. apart. Cover them with sand, and then with mould. Water freely in dry weather. Protect during winter with a covering of dry litter, which should be removed in spring before the foliage appears. They flower in May or June. Seeds, selected from the best semi-double varieties, sown early in October and kept growing during the winter, will flower the next season. They may likewise be increased by off-sets and by dividing the root. The claws may be lifted at the end of June and stored in dry sand. The plants are poisonous. Height, 8 in. to 12 in. Raphiolepis Ovata.--Beautiful evergreen shrubs, producing long spikes of white flowers in June. A compost of loam, peat, and sand is their delight. Cuttings will strike in sand under glass. Height, 4 ft. Raspberries.--A rich, moist, loamy soil is most suitable for their cultivation. Suckers are drawn by the hand from the old roots any time between October and February, and set in groups of three in rows 6 ft. apart. If taken in October, the young plants may be pruned early in November. It is usual to cut one cane to the length of 3 ft., the second one to 2 ft., and the third to within a few inches of the ground. As soon as the year's crop is gathered, the old bearing shoots are cut clean away, the young canes are drawn closer together, and at the end of August the tops of the tall ones are pinched off. When the leaves have fallen all the suckers are drawn out and the canes pruned (about four being left to each root). The canes are then tied and manure applied. About May they are, if necessary, thinned out again, and the suckers that are exhausting both soil and plant removed. They produce their fruit on one-year-old canes, which wood is of no further use. The general way of training them is by tying the tops together, or by training them in the shape of a fan on a south wall, but perhaps the best way is to tic them about equal distances apart round hoops supported by light sticks. Seed may be separated from the fruit, dried, and sown early in February on a gentle hotbed. Prick off into good rich mould, harden off by the middle of May, and plant in rich soil. Train them and keep down suckers. When they are grown tall pinch off the tops. Red Antwerp, Yellow Antwerp, Prince of Wales, Northumberland Filbasket, Carter's Prolific, and White Magnum Bonum are all good sorts. Red-hot Poker.--_See_ "Tritoma." Red Scale.--_See_ "Scale." Red Spiders.--These troublesome pests which appear in the heat of summer, may be got rid of by constantly syringing the plants attacked, and by occasionally washing the walls, etc., with lime or sulphur. Retinospora Filifera.--A large-growing, hardy evergreen shrub. It may be grown in any light soil, and increased by seed, or by cuttings planted under glass in the shade. It flowers in May. Rhamnus (_Buckthorn_).--Fine evergreen shrubs, of hardy habit and quick growth. They may be grown in any soil, but prefer a sheltered situation, and are very suitable for planting near the sea. R. Latifolius has handsome broad leaves. Some, such as R. Alaternus and R. Catharticus, attain large proportions, the former reaching 30 ft. and the latter 10 ft. in height. They may be propagated by layers or by seed. Rheum Palmatum.--This species of rhubarb makes an effective plant for the back portion of a border. It does well in rich loam, flowering in June, and is increased by dividing the root. Height, 5 ft. Rhodanthe (_Swan River Everlasting_).--These beautiful everlasting flowers are half-hardy annuals and are suitable for beds or ribbons, and make most graceful plants for pot culture, placing four plants in a 5-in. pot. They thrive best in fibrous peat or a rich, light soil, and prefer a warm situation. Used largely for winter bouquets, and are perfect gems for pot culture. A succession of bloom may be obtained by sowings made in August, October, and March. The temperature of the seed-pots should be kept at from 60 to 70 degrees, and the soil kept constantly damp with water of the same heat. After potting the seedlings remove them to a cooler house and keep them near the glass. Those sown in March may be planted in the open in June, where they will flower in autumn. Height, 1 ft. Rhodochiton--This evergreen climber makes a fine plant for trellis-work. It is more suitable for the greenhouse, though it may be grown in the open in summer. A light, rich, well-drained soil is its delight, and it may be propagated by seed or by cuttings under glass. In the greenhouse it should not be placed near the pipes. July is its time for flowering. Height, 10 ft. Rhododendrons.--Plant in October in peat, or in a compost of sandy, turfy loam, with a good proportion of decayed leaves and charred refuse. The best position for them is a sheltered one where they can get a moderate amount of sunshine to develop the flower-buds. They like plenty of moisture, but the ground must be well drained. If it is desired to shift their position spring is the best time, the next best being October. They are propagated by layers or seeds, and the small wooded kinds by slips torn off close to the stems, planted in sand, and placed under glass in heat. The seed should be sown early in spring in pans of peat soil, and covered very lightly. Place the pans in a frame, and when the soil becomes dry stand the pans in water nearly up to the rims until the surface is moist. Pot off when strong enough to handle, and keep close in the frame till fresh roots are produced, then harden off. Rhododendrons may, when desired, be transplanted in spring, even after the flower-buds are well advanced, if care be taken not to break the ball of earth round their roots. They bloom at the end of May. Height, 4 ft. Rhubarb.--Seed may be sown thinly during April in drills 1 ft. apart. Thin out the plants 12 in. from each other, and let them grow on till the following April, then plant them out 4 ft. apart in deeply trenched ground into which a good quantity of well-rotted manure has been worked. Large roots may be divided in autumn or early spring; every portion of the root that has a crown will make a fresh plant. When the last of the crop has been pulled, fork in a dressing of old manure. It may be forced out of doors by covering the ground thickly with stable manure, and placing large flower-pots over the plants to bleach them; but if forced in a frame the light need not be excluded. None but the earliest kinds should be selected for forcing. Rhubarb, Chilian.--_See_ "Gunnera." Rhus (_Sumach_).--Lovely shrubs, growing in any ordinary soil. The young shoots of R. Cotinus are clothed with round leaves which change to bright crimson and orange, surmounted with fluffy pink seed-vessels, while R. Glabra Laciniata resembles a tree fern. They may be propagated either by layers or cuttings. Height, 8 ft. to 10 ft. Rhynchospermum (Trachelospermum) Jasminoides.--A pretty, evergreen, woody climber for the conservatory, which succeeds best in a compost of light loam and peat; is of easy culture, and readily increased by cuttings. It is a fine plant for rafters or trellis, and produces in July deliciously fragrant white flowers at the ends of the branches. Height, 10 ft. Ribes (_Flowering Currants_).--Well-known shrubs, growing in any soil, and flowering early in spring. The colours vary from crimson to white. They may be raised from cuttings either in autumn or early spring. Height, 4 ft. Richardia Aethiopica.--A fine herbaceous perennial with very bold leaves. It needs a good supply of water, and on dry soils should be planted in trenches. A light, rich mould is best for it, and it should have sufficient sun to ripen the wood. Lift it in September and winter in the greenhouse. It is increased from off-sets from the root, and flowers in March. Height, 2 ft. Ricinus, or Palma Christi (_Castor-oil Plant, etc._).--The foliage of these half-hardy annuals is very ornamental. The plants like a rich soil. Sow the seed early in spring in a slight heat, harden off gradually, and put out at the end of May in a warm, sheltered spot. They may also be propagated by cuttings. Height, 3 ft. to 6 ft. Robinia.--All these shrubs have fine, Fern-like foliage which changes colour in autumn. The Pea-shaped flowers vary in colour from cream to purple, and while in bloom the plants are very handsome. They grow in any soil, flower in May and onwards, and are increased by layers. Height varies, the Rose Acacia _(Hispida)_ reaching 10 ft., while the Locust Tree (_Pseudo-Acacia_) grows to the height of 40 ft. Rock Cress.--_See_ "Arabis." Rocket (_Hesperis_).--The hardy perennials like a light, rich soil, and need to be frequently divided. The best time to divide them is just after they have done flowering, when they should be potted off, planting them out again in the spring. The annual and biennial kinds merely require to be sown in the open border. Most of the Rockets give forth greater fragrance towards evening. Their flowering season is June. Height, 1 ft. to 1-1/2 ft. Rock Rose.--_See_ "Cistus" _and_ "Helianthemum." Rodgersia Podophylla.--A hardy perennial having immense bronze foliage. It thrives best in a moist, peaty soil; flowers from May to July, and may readily be increased either by seed or division. Height, 3 ft. Rogiera Gratissima.--A pretty evergreen stove shrub, which is often trained to a single stem so as to form a standard. It succeeds in sandy loam and peat. It may be sunk in the flower-border during the height of summer, but must be taken indoors before frost sets in. Cuttings placed in sand under a hand-glass in heat will strike. It flowers in June. Height, 3 ft. Romneyi Coulteri.--This grand white-flowered Poppy Tree is quite hardy, and will grow in any light, rich soil. It blooms in August and September, and may be increased by seed or by division. Height, 4 ft. Rose Campion.--A pretty hardy perennial which may be grown from seed sown in autumn, choosing a sheltered site, or in March in a frame or under a hand-glass, transplanting it in the autumn into a light, rich, loamy soil. Height, 2 ft. Rosemary (_Rosmarinus Officinalis_).--This hardy evergreen shrub should occupy a dry and sheltered position. Its fragrant purple flowers are produced in February. Cuttings of the ripened wood, if planted in spring, will strike root freely. Height, 2 ft. Roses.--A good, deep, loamy soil, well drained, but which retains a certain amount of moisture, is the most suitable. The position should be sheltered, yet open and exposed to the sun. The latter part of October or November is the most favourable time for planting, but it may be continued with safety until the commencement of March. A fortnight before planting the holes should be dug out 1-1/2 or 2 ft. deep, and plenty of old manure thrown in and trodden down. On this a good layer of fine mould should be placed, so that the roots do not come in contact with the manure. Great care must be taken not to expose the roots to the cold air. When the ground is quite ready for their reception dip the roots in a pail of water, then spread them out carefully on top of the mould, fill in the earth, and tread it firmly. If the plants are standards they require to be firmly staked. Precaution is necessary not to plant too deeply, keeping them as near as possible at the depth at which they were previously grown, in no case exceeding 1 in. above the mark which the earth has left on the stem. Three weeks after planting tread the earth again round the roots. Pruning should be done in March, except in the case of those planted in spring, when the beginning of April will be early enough. Cut away all of the wood that is unripe, or exhausted and dead. Dwarf growers should be cut back to within two or three buds of the previous year's growth, but five or six eyes may be left on those of stronger growth. The majority of climbing and pillar roses do not require to be cut back, it being only necessary to take out the useless wood. In pruning standards aim at producing an equally balanced head, which object is furthered by cutting to buds pointing outwards. At the first sign of frost the delicate Tea and Noisette Roses need to be protected. In the case of standards a covering of bracken fern or straw must be tied round the heads; dwarfs should have the soil drawn up over the crowns, or they may be loosely covered by straw. Apply a top-dressing of farm-yard manure to the beds before the frosts set in, as this will both nourish and protect the roots. Fork it in carefully in the spring. Cow manure is especially valuable for Tea Roses. After the first year of planting most of the artificial manures may, if preferred, be used; but nothing is better than farmyard stuff. If the summer be dry, water freely in the evening. Roses may be propagated by cuttings in the summer or autumn. The slips should be 5 or 6 in. long, of the spring's growth, taken with 1 in. of the previous year's wood attached. A little bottom-heat is beneficial. They may also be increased by grafting or by separating the suckers. Keep a sharp look-out for maggots in the spring, which will generally be found where the leaves are curled up. These must be destroyed by hand-picking. Green fly can be eradicated with tobacco wash. Mildew may be cured by sprinkling the leaves with sulphur while dew is on them. Rose of Heaven.--_See_ "Viscaria Coeli Rosa." Rose of Sharon.--_See_ "Hibiscus Syriacus." Rubus.--_See_ "Blackberries." Rudbeckia (_Cone Flower._)--Hardy annuals yielding yellow flowers in July. They are readily grown from seed sown early in spring, and will grow in any garden soil, but naturally succeed best in deeply-worked, well-manured ground. They may be increased by division in October or November, as well as in spring-time. Height, 3 ft. Ruscus Aculeatus (_Butchers Broom_).--A hardy evergreen shrub which thrives in any rich soil, and may be increased by division of the root. Height, 1 ft. Ruta Graveolens.--This hardy evergreen shrub is a species of Rue. It enjoys a good, rich soil, in which it flowers freely in August. Cuttings may be struck under a hand-glass. Height, 3 ft. Ruta Patavina (_Rue of Padua_).--For rock-work this hardy perennial is very useful. It likes a dry yet rich and light soil. At midsummer it produces an abundance of greenish-yellow flowers. It can be raised from seed, or cuttings may be struck under a hand-glass. Height, 6 in. S Saffron, Spring.--_See_ "Bulbocodium." Sage.--This useful herb likes a rich, light soil, and is propagated by division of the root, by cuttings, or by seed. Saintpaulia Ionantha.--The leaves of this plant spread themselves laterally just over the soil, forming a rosette, in the centre of which spring up large violet-like flowers. It is a continuous bloomer. A rather light, rich soil or vegetable mould suits it best. The seed, which is very minute, should be sown early in spring, in gentle heat: to prevent it being washed away, the pots may stand up to the rims in water for a while when the ground wants moisture. Height, 1 ft. St. John's Wort.--_See_ "Hypericum." Salix Reticulata.--A dwarf creeping plant whose dark green leaves eminently fit it for the rock-work or carpet bedding. It will grow in any soil, but prefers a moist one, and produces unattractive brown flowers in September. Propagated in spring by detaching rooted portions from the parent plant and planting them in moist, sandy loam. Height, 2 in. Salpiglossis.--Very beautiful half-hardy annuals which are greatly prized for cut bloom. A light but not over-rich soil suits them best. The seed may be sown in the open border early in spring, or preferably on a hotbed at the same period. For early flowering raise the plants in the autumn, and winter them in a frame or greenhouse. Flowers are produced in July and August. Height, 2 ft. Salsafy (_Vegetable Oyster_).--Sow the seed in any good garden soil--deep sandy loam is best--towards the end of April in drills 1 ft. apart, and thin the plants out to a distance of 6 in. from each other. The roots may remain in the ground till required for use, or be lifted in October and stored in the same way as Beet or Carrots. They are prepared for table in the same manner as Parsnips, and are also used for flavouring soups. Salvia.--Very showy flowers, well worth cultivating, and easily grown in a rich, light soil. The annuals and biennials may be sown in the open early in spring. The herbaceous kinds are increased by dividing the roots; the shrubby varieties by cuttings of the young wood planted under glass in March; while the stove species require to be placed in heat. They flower in August in the open. Heights vary, according to the kinds, but S. Coccinea and S. Patens, which are most commonly met with in gardens, grow to a height of 2 ft. Sambucus (_The Elder_).--Useful deciduous shrubs. S. Nigra Aurea has golden foliage, and is suitable for town gardens. The silvery variegated variety (Variegata), is fine for contrasting with others. They may all be propagated by cuttings or by division. Flower in June. Sand Wort.--_See_ "Arenaria." Sanguinaria Canadensis (_Bloodroot_).--A hardy perennial, curious both in leaf and flower. It requires a light, sandy soil, shade, and moisture; is propagated by seed sown in July, also by division of the tuberous roots, and it blooms in March. The tubers should be planted 5 in. deep and 3 in. apart. Height, 6 in. Santolina.--This hardy evergreen shrub grows freely in any soil. It flowers in July, and is increased by cuttings. Height, 2 ft. Sanvitalia.--Interesting, hardy annual trailers, which may be readily raised from seed sown in March or April, and merely require ordinary treatment. They produce their golden and brown and yellow flowers in July. Height, 1 ft. Saponaria.--These grow best in a mixture of sandy loam and peat or decayed vegetable soil. The annuals may be sown either in autumn, and wintered in a frame, or in the open in April. The perennials are increased by seed or by division of the root, and young cuttings of the branching species root freely if planted under glass. S. Ocymoides, on account of its trailing nature, and S. Calabrica make fine rock-work plants. The leaves of S. Officinalis, or Soap Plant, if stirred in water form a lather strong enough to remove grease spots. They bloom in June and July. Height, 6 in. to 2 ft. Sarracenia.--Curious herbaceous plants, requiring to be grown in pots of rough peat, filled up with sphagnum moss, in a moderately cool house having a moist atmosphere. They flower in June, and are increased by division. Height, from 9 in. to 1 ft. Sauromatum Guttatum.--This makes a good window or cool greenhouse plant. Pot the tuber in good loam and leaf-soil, and keep the mould only just damp until the foliage, which follows the flowers, appears. When the foliage fails, keep the tubers dry till spring. If grown out of doors the tubers must be lifted before frost sets in. Savoys.--Sow the seed in March or April, and when the plants are 2 in. high remove them to a nursery-bed, selecting the strongest first. Let them remain till they are about 6 in. high, then transplant them, 18 in. apart, in well-manured soil. Their flavour is greatly improved if they are frozen before being cut for use. Saxifrage.--These beautiful Alpine perennials delight in a light, sandy soil, and are easily propagated by seed or division. It is most convenient to grow the rare and tender kinds in pots, as they require the protection of a frame in winter. Saxifraga Sibthorpii is very suitable for the lower and damper parts of rock-work; it is hardy, and sheds its seed freely. S. Umbrosa (London Pride) makes a neat border, and is also useful for rock-work. S. Sarmentosa (Mother-of-Thousands) is a fine hanging plant for greenhouse or window. They flower in April. Height, mostly 4 in. to 6 in., but some grow as high as 1-1/2 ft. Scabious.--Ornamental and floriferous hardy biennials, which grow freely in common soil. The seed may be sown at any time between March and midsummer; transplant in the autumn. They bloom in June. Height, 1 ft to 3 ft. (_See also_ "Cephalaria.") Scale.--Red Scale may be easily overcome with a strong solution of soft soap applied with a sponge. White Scale is harder to deal with. Syringe frequently with strong soapsuds heated to 120 degrees. If the plant is badly attacked it is best to destroy it. Schizanthus.--Extremely beautiful and showy annuals. A rather poor, light soil is most suitable for their growth. For early flowering sow the seed in autumn, and keep the young plants in a frame or greenhouse throughout the winter. For a succession of bloom sow in the open border early in the spring. They flower in July and August. Height, 2 ft. Schizopetalum.--This singular and delightfully fragrant annual does best in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand, or sandy loam and leaf-mould. Sow the seed in pots in the spring, place in a greenhouse, and when large enough to handle, plant out in the open border, or it may be kept in an airy part of the house, where it will bloom in June. Height, 1 ft. Schizostylis Coccinea (_Crimson Flag, or Kaffre Lily_).--A most lovely autumn-blooming plant, producing abundant spikes of Izia-like flowers about 2 ft. high. It is suitable for pot-culture or planting outdoors, and is quite hardy. It requires a rich, light soil. Scillas (_Squills_).--Very useful spring-flowering bulbs. They are hardy, and do well in any position in light soil. When mixed with Crocuses and Snowdrops they produce a very charming effect. To get perfection of bloom they require deep planting. S. Siberica especially looks well when grown in pots with Snowdrops. Scilla roots are poisonous. General height, 1 ft. Scorzonera.--Sow in March in light soil in rows 18 in. apart. Thin the plants out to about 7 in. one from the other. They may perhaps be ready for use in August, but to have large roots they should be left till they are two years old. They may remain in the ground till wanted for use, or they may be lifted in October and stored like Beet, etc. This vegetable is scraped and thrown into cold water for a few hours, then boiled in the same way as Carrots and Parsnips. Scutellaria.--These plants will grow in any good soil. The hardy perennials flower in July. The greenhouse varieties merely require protecting in the winter. They all bear division of the root, and are easily raised from seed. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Scyphanthus.--An elegant and curious trailer, which is best grown in a loamy soil. It may be increased from seed sown in April, and it flowers in August. Height, 2 ft. Sea Cabbage.--_See_ "Crambe Cordifolia." Seakale.--The readiest way of propagating this useful vegetable is by off-sets, but it may be raised from seed sown in March or April in rows 1 ft. apart. Thin out the young plants to 6 in. in the rows, and transplant in February or March into well-trenched, deep, rich soil in rows 2 ft. apart and the plants 15 in. asunder. Keep the plants to one crown, or shoot, and remove all flower-shoots as they appear. In dry weather give a liberal quantity of liquid manure. Cropping may commence after the roots have been planted two years. Sea Lavender.--_See_ "Statice." Sea Milkweed.--_See_ "Glaux." Sedum (_Stonecrop_).--This well-known hardy perennial is suitable for pots or rock-work. It delights in a light, sandy soil, and is readily increased by division or cuttings. It flowers in June or July. Height, 3 in. Seed-Sowing.--Two of the most important points in the sowing of seed are the proper condition of the ground and the regular and uniform depth at which the seed is sown. Seeds require light, heat, air, and moisture for their germination. The ground should be light, and in such a condition that the young roots can easily penetrate it, and in all cases should be freshly dug so as to communicate air and moisture: it should be neither too wet nor too dry. The most favourable time for seed-sowing is just before a gentle rain. If sown too early on cold, wet ground, the seed is apt to rot; when sown too shallow in a dry time, there may not be sufficient moisture to cause it to sprout. The seed should be sown evenly. The size of a seed is a nearly safe guide as to the depth at which it should be sown. For instance, Beans and Peas of all kinds should be sown about a couple of inches deep, while very small flower-seeds merely require to be just covered. As to the time for sowing, _see_ "Annuals," "Biennials," and "Perennials." Seeds, the Protection of.--In order to protect seeds against birds, insects, and rodents, soak them in water containing 20 or 25 per cent, of mineral oil. Vegetable seeds, such as Haricot Beans and Peas, should be soaked for twelve hours, and the pips of Apples and Pears for double that time. For soaking the finer seeds, bitter liquids, such as that of Quassia and Gentian, should be used. Sempervivum (_Houseleek_).--The hardy kinds are well known, and may often be seen growing on the roofs of cottages and on walls. They make good rock-work plants, and are easily increased by off-sets. The more tender kinds are suitable for the greenhouse. These should be planted in sandy loam and old brick rubbish. They require but very little water; more may be given when they are in flower. Cuttings, after being laid aside for a day or two to dry, will soon make root. Height, 6 in. Senecio Pulcher (_Noble Crimson Groundsel_).--A warm position and a deep, rich, well-drained soil are needed for this flower. It may be propagated by cutting the roots into pieces 5 or 6 in. long, and dibbling them into light soil. It is also increased by the rootlets, which send up small growths in spring. Protect from damp and frost, and keep a sharp look-out for slugs. The flowers are produced in autumn. Height, 3 ft. Senna, Bladder.--_See_ "Colutea." Sensitive Plant.--_See_ "Mimosa." Shallots.--Plant the bulbs in November, or in February or March, in rows 9 in. apart, and the bulbs 6 in. one from the other. In July, when the tops are dying down, lift the bulbs, lay them in the sunshine to dry, then store them in a cool place. Shamrock.--_See_ "Trifolium Repens." Sheep Scabious.--_See_ "Jasione." Shortia Galacifolia.--A hardy, creeping Alpine evergreen, having oval leaves, slightly notched at the margins, which turn to a brilliant crimson during the autumn and winter months. In April and May it produces pearly-white flowers, somewhat Campanulate in form. It may be planted in early autumn or spring. A light, rich soil suits it best, and it delights in partial shade. It is a lovely plant for rock-work. Height, 6 in. Shrubs.--Deciduous shrubs may be transplanted at any time during late autumn or winter when the ground is not too wet. Evergreen shrubs may be moved either early in autumn or in April or May, damp, warm, but not sunny weather being most suitable for the operation. They rejoice in a clean, healthy soil, such as good loam; animal manure does not agree with them, but wood ashes, or charcoal powder with a little guano, may be used. Cuttings of shrubs or trees may be taken in September, placed in a mixture of sandy loam and leaf-mould with 1/2 in. of sand on top, and covered with a hand-glass; 5 to 8 in. is a good length for the cuttings, all of which, with the exception of about 1 in., should be buried, and preferably with a heel of old wood. Keep the soil just damp and give shade. Shrubs for Lawns.--Monkey Puzzle (_Araucaria Imbricata_)--mix wood ashes and burnt refuse with the soil; Thujopsis Delabrata, Thujopsis Borealis (of taller growth), Irish Yews, Cupressus Lawsoniana Erecta Viridis, Thujas Orientalis, Vervaeneana, Semperaurescens, Standard Rhododendrons, Standard and Pyramid Hollies, Yucca Gloriosa (a perfect picture), Yucca Recurva (the best hardy plant for vases). The Cercis tree is also well adapted for lawns. Sicyos.--This hardy annual somewhat resembles the Cucumber, but is scarcely worth growing except as a curiosity. The seeds are sown on a hotbed in spring, potted off when strong enough, and transferred to the open border early in June. It is a climber, and flowers in August. Height, 3 ft. Sidalcea.--Very pretty hardy perennials, of easy culture. S. Candida has pure white flowers closely arranged on the upper part of the stems. S. Malvaeflora bears beautifully fringed, satiny pink flowers. They will grow in any good soil from seed sown in autumn and protected during the winter, or they may be increased by division of the roots. Height, 3 ft. Silene _(Catchfly_).--Elegant plants, delighting in a light, rich soil. Sow the seeds of the annual varieties early in April where they are intended to bloom. Silene Pendula, when sown in the autumn, makes a pleasing show of pink flowers in the spring. The roots of the herbaceous kinds may be divided in spring. The shrubby sorts are increased by cuttings planted under a hand-glass. The dwarfs make fine rock-work ornaments. Flowers are produced in June and July. Height, 2 in. to 1-1/2 ft. Silphium Aurantiacum.--A good and hardy border perennial, which produces during July and August large deep orange-yellow flowers resembling a Sunflower. It is very useful for cutting, will grow anywhere, and can be increased by dividing the root. Height, 4 ft. Sisyrinchium Grandifolium(_Satin Flower, or Rush Lily_).--A light loam suits this plant, which is moderately hardy. The soil should be moist, but not wet. It does not like being disturbed, but when necessary the crowns may be divided in autumn, taking care to spread the roots well out. It blooms in April or May. Height, 1 ft. Skimmia.--Neat-growing, dwarf evergreen shrubs having Laurel-like leaves, and producing a profusion of scarlet berries in winter. They succeed in any ordinary soil, but thrive best in peat and loam; and are propagated by cuttings placed in heat under glass. Slugs.--A sharp watch should be kept over all slugs, and constant visits paid to the garden at daybreak for their destruction. If fresh cabbage leaves are strewed about in the evening the slugs will congregate under them, and in the morning they may be gathered up and dropped into strong brine. The ground may also be dusted with fresh lime, which is fatal to them, but in wet weather the lime soon loses its power. Smilax.--A greenhouse climbing plant that is admired for its foliage rather than its bloom. A mixture of peat and loam or leaf-mould and sandy loam suits it. Train the shoots up string, and freely water the plant in summer; during the autumn and winter it does not need much moisture. Keep the temperature of the house up to 60 degrees throughout the winter. It is readily increased by cuttings. It flowers in July. Fine for table decoration. Height, 4 ft. Snails.--To prevent snails crawling up walls or fruit trees daub the ground with a thick paste of soot and train oil. There is no remedy so effectual for their destruction as hand-picking. Snake's Head Lilies.--_See_ "Fritillarias." Snapdragon.--_See_ "Antirrhinum." Sneezewort.--_See_ "Achillea." Snowball Tree.--_See_ "Viburnum." Snowberry.--_See_ "Symphoricarpus." Snowdrops _(Galanthus)._--These are most effective in clumps. They may be planted at any time from September to December, and left alone for three or four years, when they may be taken up and divided. They grow best in a light, rich soil. Snowdrop Tree.--_See_ "Halesia." Snowflake.--_See_ "Leucojum." Snow in Summer.--_See_ "Arabis." Soil and its Treatment.--Loam is a mixture of clay and sand. When the former predominates it is termed heavy loam, and when the latter abounds it is called light. Marl is a compound of chalk and clay, or chalk and loam. Though suitable for certain fruit-trees and a few other things, few flowers will grow in it. Drainage is one of the most important considerations in the cultivation of flowers. Should the soil be clayey, and hold water, make V-shaped drains, 3 ft. below the surface, and let 2-in. pipes lead to a deep hole made at the lowest part of the garden and filled with brick rubbish, or other porous substances, through which the water may drain; otherwise the cold, damp earth will rot the roots of the plants. Trenching is the process of digging deep, so as to loosen and expose the soil as much as possible to the action of the air. If this is done in the autumn or early winter to a new garden, it is best to dig it deep, say about 2 ft, and leave it in large clods to the pulverising action of the frost, after which it is easily raked level for spring planting. If the clods are turned over the grass will rot and help to improve the ground; new land thus treated will not require manuring the first year. Should the ground be clayey, fine ashes or coarse sand thrown over the rough clods after trenching will greatly improve it. Digging should be done when the ground is fairly dry, and about one spade deep. Avoid treading it down as much as possible. Hoeing must be constantly attended to, both to prevent the soil becoming exhausted of its nourishment by the rapid growth of weeds, and because when the surface becomes hard and cracked the rain runs through the deep fissures, leaving the surface soil dry and the roots of the plants unnourished. Mulching consists in spreading a layer of stable manure, about 3 in. deep, over the roots of trees and plants in the autumn to keep them warm and moist. The manure may be forked into the soil in the spring. Watering the plants carefully is of great consequence. Evening or early morning is the best time, and one copious application is far better than little and often. Water may be given to the _roots_ at any time, but should not be sprinkled over the leaves in a hot sun nor in cold weather. Plants having a soft or woolly foliage should never be wetted overhead, but those with hard and shiny leaves may be freely syringed, especially when in full growth. Solanum.--Showy greenhouse shrubs, some of which have ornamental foliage. The soil in which they are grown should be light and rich. Cuttings planted in sand under glass strike readily. The tender annual varieties may be sown on a hotbed in spring, and placed in the border at the end of May in a dry, sheltered situation, where they will flower in June. Height, 1 ft. and upwards. Soldanellas.--These small herbaceous perennials should find a place in all Alpine collections. They grow best in sandy peat, or in leaf-mould with a liberal addition of sand, and they require a moderate amount of moisture. They may be increased by dividing the roots in April. They flower from March to May. Height, 4 in. or 5 in. Solidago (_Golden Rod_).--A useful hardy perennial for the back of borders. Throughout late summer and autumn it produces masses of golden flowers. It is not over-particular as to soil, and may be increased by dividing the root in the spring. It increases very rapidly. Height, 2 ft. to 6 ft. Solomon's Seal (_Polygonatum Multiflorum_).--A graceful hardy plant bearing white pendulent flowers on long curving stems. Plant freely in light, rich soil, in a shady position or under trees. The plants should not be disturbed, even by digging among the roots. Flowers in May. Height, 2 ft. Soot-Water.--For room and window plants soot-water has this advantage over coarse animal manures, that while the latter are unhealthy and apt to taint the air, the former is purifying and has no unpleasant smell. It is easily made by tying a little soot in a coarse canvas bag and immersing it in a pail of water. It should be applied in a clear, thin state to plants in bud or in full growth during the summer months. Sorrel.--Sow in March or April in any garden soil, thin out to 1 ft. apart. It is desirable to cut away the flower-stems and to divide the roots every two or three years. The plants may be forced for winter use. Southernwood (_Artemisia Arborea_).--Any soil suits this odoriferous bush, and it is readily increased by cuttings or by division. Sparaxis.--Closely allied to the Ixias, equally beautiful and varied in colour, but rather dwarfer and compact in growth. Invaluable for pot-culture. For outdoor cultivation plant them early in September, 5 or 6 in. deep, on a sheltered border, in rich, well-drained, loamy soil. Protect from frost and wet in the winter, but keep the roots moist while they are growing. For indoor cultivation plant four to six bulbs in a 5-in. pot, plunge in ashes in a cold frame, withholding water till the plants appear. When making full growth remove them to a sunny window or conservatory, and water them carefully. They will bloom in March or April. Height, 3 ft. Sparmannia Africana.--An exceedingly handsome and attractive greenhouse evergreen shrub, thriving best in loam and peat. Cuttings may be struck in sand under glass. May is its flowering season. Height, 10 ft. Spartium Junceum(_Yellow Broom_).--A hardy evergreen shrub which will grow in any soil, and is propagated by seeds. It flowers in August. Height, 6 ft. Specularia Speculum.--_See_ "Venus's Looking-Glass." Spergula Pilfera.--May be grown in any moist situation in sandy soil. It is of little value. Sphenogyne Speciosa.--An elegant hardy annual. Sow the seed early in spring on a gentle hotbed in loam and peat, harden off, and transplant at the end of May to a soil composed of loam and leaf-mould, if peat cannot be obtained. The bloom is produced in July. Height, 1 ft. Spider Wort.--_See_ "Commelina" _and_ "Tradescantia." Spigelia Marilandica.--From August to October this hardy perennial produces tubular crimson and yellow flowers. It finds a congenial home in damp peat, shaded from the sun, and may be propagated by cuttings in loam and peat under glass. Height, 1 ft. Spinach.--For summer use sow the round-seeded kinds at intervals of two or three weeks from February to the end of July in rows 1 ft. apart, cover with the finest of soil, and thin out to a distance of 3 or 4 in. In dry weather give a liberal supply of manure water. Pull before it runs to seed. For winter use sow the prickly-seeded variety in August and September, and thin the plants out 9 in. apart. If the ground is hot and dry, the seed should be soaked for twenty-four hours before it is sown. New Zealand Spinach may be sown in the open during May, choosing the warmest spot for its growth; but it is best to sow it in heat in March, keeping the soil fairly moist, and, after hardening it off, to plant it out in June, 3 ft. apart Sow Perpetual Spinach or Spinach Beet in March in drills 1 ft. apart. Cut the leaves frequently, when a fresh crop will be produced. Spiraeas.--Placed in the open ground these make splendid plants, and are not particular as to soil, though a moist, rich one is preferable. For forcing, plant the clumps in 6-in. pots, and keep them in a cool frame until they are well rooted. They may then be removed indoors and forced rapidly, supplying them with an abundance of water. Their elegant flower spikes are invaluable for bouquets and table decoration. The shrubby kinds are increased by layers or cuttings of the young wood, the herbaceous varieties by division of the roots in autumn. Spiraea Aruncus, if potted early in the autumn, is very valuable for winter decoration. Spiraeas bloom at different periods, from May to August, and vary in height, 3 or 4 ft. being the general growth. Spruce Firs.--_See_ "Abies." Stachys Coccinea.--This scarlet hardy annual is fine for bees. It may be grown in any soil from seed sown in March or April. Height, 1 ft. Stachys Lanata.--A hardy perennial which will grow in any soil, and bears division. It flowers in July. Height, 2 ft. Staphylea Colchica_(Mexican Bladder Nut)._--This beautiful free-flowering shrub will grow in any garden soil, and produces bunches of fragrant, delicate white flowers in June. It forces well, and may be made to flower at Easter by potting it in rich, light soil, placing it in a cold frame till the middle of January, keeping the roots moist, then bringing it into the warm house. It may be propagated by suckers from the roots, by layers, or by cuttings taken in autumn. Star Flower.--_See_ "Trientalis." Star of Bethlehem.--_See_ "Ornithogalum." Statice _(Sea Lavender)._--The greenhouse and frame varieties succeed best in sandy loam and peat, and may be increased by cuttings placed under a bell-glass or in a warm pit. The hardy herbaceous kinds are very suitable for the front of flower borders, and may be freely increased by seeds or division. The annuals, if sown in March, will produce flowers in July. Statices require a good amount of water, but thorough drainage must be ensured. If the flowers are dried they will keep their colour for a considerable time. Height, 1 ft. to 1-1/2 ft. Stauntonia Latifolia.--A greenhouse evergreen climbing plant, which needs a peat and loam soil and plenty of room for its roots. It flowers in April, and is increased by cuttings planted in sand under glass, with a gentle heat. Height, 10 ft. Stenactis (_Fleabane_).--Showy hardy perennials which make fine bedding plants. They may be grown from seed, which is produced in great quantities, and merely requires the same treatment as other perennials, or they may be propagated by dividing the plants. They bloom in July. Height, 2 ft. Stephanotis.--This pretty evergreen twining plant is most suitable for the greenhouse, and flourishes in a mixture of loam and leaf-mould. It flowers in May, and is increased by cuttings struck in heat. Height, 10 ft. Sternbergia Lutea.--A hardy perennial which produces bright yellow flowers in August. It likes a rich soil, and is propagated by off-sets. Height, 6 in. Stipa Pennata (_Feather Grass_).--One of the most graceful of our ornamental grasses, and most attractive in the border. The seed may be sown early in March, keeping the ground moist until it has germinated, and it is also increased by division. Height, 2 ft. Stobæa Purpurea.--A hardy border plant with long spiny foliage, and bearing from July to September large light blue flowers. It requires a light, rich soil. Young cuttings may be struck in sand. Height, 1 ft. Stocks-- _ANNUAL, OR TEN WEEKS' STOCKS_.--Sow the seeds in February, March, April, and May for succession; those sown in May will continue to flower till Christmas. The soil should be rich, and occasionally a little manure-water may be given. Another sowing may be made in August and September. When the plants have several leaves pot off singly in vegetable loam and river sand. Height, 1 ft. to 1-1/2 ft. _BROMPTON_.--Sow very thinly during the first week in May in a rich, light, sandy border, with an eastern aspect. When 2 or 3 in. high, thin out to 9 in. apart. Those taken out may be re-planted in the flower border, 9 in. from each other. In transplanting reject those plants having a long tap-root: they generally prove to be single. If the following winter be severe they must be protected with mats. Any desirable varieties may be propagated by cuttings, which root readily under glass if kept shaded. Should it be desirable to transplant them to another part of the garden, March or April will be found the best time to remove them. Shade the plants till they are established, and use liquid manure till they begin to flower. _GREENHOUSE OR SHRUBBY_ species grow best in a mixture of light soil and sand, and cuttings of these Stocks root readily under glass. _NIGHT-SCENTED STOCKS_.--_See_ "Mathiola Bicornis." If Emperor, Imperial, or Intermediate Stocks are sown in March or April, they will flower in the autumn; if sown in June or July they will flower during the following June, and throughout the summer and autumn. Stokesia Cyanea.--A handsome herbaceous perennial which is quite hardy, but owing to the late period at which it flowers its blooms are liable to be cut off by frosts. It is therefore more suitable for a cool house than the open air, unless the warmest and most sheltered position be assigned to it. A rich, sandy soil is indispensable for its growth. It may be increased by dividing the roots in spring. The flowers are produced from October to December. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Stonecrop.--_See_ "Sedum." Strawberries.--The soil most suitable for the growth of this fruit is a rich, deep, adhesive loam. July or early in August is the best time to make new beds, but if the ground be not then available runners from the old plants may be planted in peat on a north border and lifted with good balls of earth to their permanent bed in the spring. Set them firmly in rows 2 ft. apart and 18 in. from plant to plant. Spread out the roots and avoid deep planting. Remove from the old plants all runners not required for new beds before they take root, as they exhaust the crown. In dry seasons liquid manure is highly beneficial. Some growers give supports to the fruit by means of forked-shaped pegs, while others lay straw down to keep the fruit free from grit. Keep a sharp look-out for snails and slugs. King of the Earlies, Auguste Nicaise, Royal Sovereign, Vicomtesse Héricart de Thury, Gunton Park, President, Sir Joseph Paxton, Lord Suffield, Noble, and Samuel Bradley are excellent sorts. For Ornamental Strawberries, _see_ "Fragaria Indica." Strawberry Tree.--_See_ "Arbutus." Streptocarpus (_Cape Primrose_).--This plant is a greenhouse perennial, showing great variety of colours, from white to violet and crimson, and is of neat habit. A light and rather rich soil or vegetable mould suits it best. Seed sown in February in slight heat will produce plants for flowering in July; that sown in March or April will flower in August and September. Grow slowly in small pots, and in February put them in their flowering pots. Give plenty of air and shade them from the sun. It may also be increased by division, or leaf-cuttings may be taken under a bell-glass. The plants like plenty of water, but need good drainage. Height, 9 in. Streptosolen Jamesoni.--A good compost for this greenhouse evergreen shrub is two parts sandy loam, one part leaf-mould, and a little silver sand. During growth it needs a liberal supply of water and to be kept near the glass; only a small amount of moisture should be given in winter. In March cut it into shape, and re-pot it as soon as new growth starts. During the summer syringe it frequently to keep off red spider, and during winter maintain a temperature of 55 degrees. Stylophorum _(Celandine Poppy, or Poppywort)._--During May and June this hardy and handsome plant produces fine yellow flowers. It accommodates itself to any soil, but prefers a rich, light one, and can be increased by seed sown in autumn or early spring. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Styrax.--Ornamental shrubs requiring a light soil for their cultivation. S. Japonica has Snowdrop-like flowers, and S. Obasa Lily-of-the-Valley-like scented flowers. They are best propagated by layers. Height, 4 ft. to 10 ft. Sunflower.--_See_ "Helianthus." Swainsonia Galegifolia Alba.--A graceful and charming cool greenhouse plant, with Fern-like evergreen foliage and pure white flowers, which are borne from April to November. The soil most suitable for it is a mixture of loam and sandy peat. Cuttings of the young growth planted in sand under glass strike readily. Height, 2 ft. Swallow Wort.--_See_ "Asclepias." Swamp Lilies.--_See_ "Zephyranthes." Swan River Daisy.--_See_ "Brachycome." Sweet Alyssum.--_See_ "Alyssum." Sweet Flag.--_See_ "Acorus." Sweet Peas.--_See_ "Peas, Sweet." Sweet Rocket.--_See_ "Rocket." Sweet Scabious.--_See_ "Scabious." Sweet Sultan.--Sweet-scented, Thistle-shaped hardy annual flowers, which are very useful for cutting. They may be raised in any garden soil from seed sown in March or April, and will flower in August. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Sweet William.--Well-known hardy perennials, and deservedly favourite border plants, which may be grown in any good soil; but to have them to perfection they should be placed in light, loamy ground mixed with a little old manure and sand. They can be raised with little trouble from seed sown thinly at any time between March and midsummer where they are to bloom, and may also be increased by dividing the old plants in spring. They produce their flowers in July. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Symphoricarpus (_Snowberry_).--A handsome species of St. Peter's Wort. The shrubs will grow in any ordinary soil, are hardy, and readily propagated by suckers, which are produced abundantly; or cuttings may be taken either in spring or autumn. They bloom in August. Height, 4 ft. Symphytum Caucasicum.--Hardy perennials. They will grow in any soil or situation, even thriving under the shade of trees, and may be increased by division. June is the month in which they flower. Height, 3 ft. Syringa (_Lilac_.)--There are many choice varieties of these favourite shrubs, but any of them may be grown in a tolerably good soil. They are propagated by layers or by suckers from the root. They bloom in May or June. Height varies from 4 ft. to 12 ft. T Tacsonia.--A beautiful twining shrub belonging to the Passiflora family. It should be provided with a rich soil, and, as the flowers are produced upon the lateral shoots, it requires frequent stopping. Syringe frequently in warm weather to induce a quick growth. It is a quick grower, and, when properly treated, a profuse bloomer, the flowers being produced in July, August, and September. Cuttings of young shoots placed under glass in a sandy soil will strike. Height, 20 ft. Tagetes (_French and African Marigolds_).--Half-hardy annuals, very elegant when in flower, and deserve a place in the garden. The seed should be sown on a hotbed in March or April, the plants gradually hardened off, and placed in the open at the end of May in a rich, light soil, when they will flower in August. Height, 1 ft. to 2-1/2 ft. Tamarix.--Neat feathery plants, very suitable for banks and thriving at the seaside, as is evidenced by its luxuriant growth along the parades at Eastbourne. The hardy kinds will grow in any soil, and may be propagated by cuttings planted in the open either in spring or autumn. The greenhouse and stove varieties require a soil of loam and peat. Cuttings of these should be placed in sand under glass. They flower in June and July. Height, 8 ft. to 10 ft. Tansy.--A feathery-foliaged hardy perennial, useful for mixing with cut blooms. No special treatment is required. Height, 11 ft. Taxus.--_See_ "Yew." Tecoma.--Ornamental evergreen shrubs of a twining nature, needing a greenhouse for their cultivation. They require a rich, loamy soil mixed with a little sand, or loam and peat, and rejoice in shade and moisture. T. Radicans will grow in the open against a wall, but a warm situation is needed to make it flower. They may be propagated by cuttings of the roots placed in sand under a hand-glass, and by layers. Their flowers are produced in July and August. Height, 6 ft. to 30 ft. Telekia.--_See_ "Buphthalmum." Tellima Grandiflora.--A hardy and very ornamental perennial with round bronzy foliage and spikes of white flowers at midsummer. It succeeds best in peat, but will grow in any rich, light soil. To increase it, divide the roots. Height, 1 ft. Tetratheca.--Pretty greenhouse evergreen shrubs which produce pink flowers in July. They flourish in a soil consisting of equal proportions of loam, peat, and sand. Cuttings of the young wood planted under glass in a sandy soil will strike. Height, 1 ft. Teucrium Scorodonia.--This hardy herbaceous plant will grow in any ordinary garden soil. It flowers in July, and is easily raised from seed or increased by division. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Thalictrum.--Hardy Fern-like perennials, suitable for the backs of borders. They grow well in any light soil from seed sown in spring or autumn, and may also be increased by division. Thermopsis Montana_(Fabacea)._--This hardy perennial produces spikes of yellow Lupin-like flowers from June to September. The soil should be light and rich. As the plants suffer by division, it is best to raise them by seed, which may be sown either in autumn or spring. Height, 2 ft. Thladianthe Dubia.--A fine climbing plant with handsome foliage and an abundance of fine yellow flowers. Quite hardy. Sow on a hotbed early in spring, and when sufficiently large and strong, pot off, place in a cold frame to harden, and plant out at the end of May in rich soil. Thrift.--_See_ "Armeria." Thumbergia.--These slender, rapid-growing climbers are extremely pretty when in bloom during June, but they are only half-hardy; they therefore need greenhouse care, or to be planted in a warm situation. They flourish best in a mixture of sandy loam and leaf-mould, and may be grown from seed sown in heat (65 to 75 degrees) early in spring. Cuttings strike readily. Height, 4 ft. Thuya (_Arbor Vitae_).--Very decorative conifers, mostly of conical shape, and indispensable to the shrubbery. They thrive in any soil, but prefer a moist situation. For sheltered positions, where a small dome-shaped bush is required, the Chinese Arbor Vitae _(Biota Orientalis)_ is most desirable; it delights in a heavy soil. The Biota Elegantissima is one of the most unique hardy shrubs cultivated, and presents a bright golden appearance. Another effective yellow variety is the Semperaurescens, which retains its colour throughout the winter, and makes a fine pot-plant. One of the most beautiful of all evergreens is the Thuyopsis Dolabrata; its flat, spray-like leaves are bright green above and silvery below. The China varieties are somewhat tender, and require protection from frost. They may all be propagated from seed or by cuttings. Thymus.--Effective little perennials for rock-work, growing best in a light, dry, sandy soil. The hardy kinds like an exposed position; rarer kinds should be grown in pots, as they need protection in winter. They are easily increased by seed sown in spring, by cuttings or division. Height, 3 in. to 6 in. Tiarella.--These hardy herbaceous plants are very suitable for rock-work or the front of a border. They are not particular as to soil; they flower in April, and may be propagated by seed or division. Height, 9 in. to 1 ft. Tiarella Cordifolia (_Foam Flower_).--A hardy herbaceous perennial, having fine foliage. It will grow in any good soil, but likes shade and moisture. It may be increased by dividing the roots at the end of the summer. The blooms are produced during May and June. Height, 1 ft. Tigridia (_Ferraria; Mexican Tiger Flower, popularly called the Tiger Iris_).--A gorgeous flower of exceptional beauty. Plant the bulbs in the sunniest spot out of doors during March, April, or May, in a sandy loam enriched with a liberal amount of leaf-mould, placing them 3 in. deep and 6 in. apart, and putting a little silver sand round each bulb before covering it with the soil. Shelter from cutting winds. The blossoms appear in July or August. Each bloom lasts only one day, but is succeeded on the next by fresh ones, so that a continuance of bloom is maintained. Protect them in winter with a covering of dead leaves, or, better still, take them up when they have done flowering, and keep them dry and free from frost. For pot-culture plant the bulbs in sandy loam and peat, plunge them in a cold frame, and withhold water until the foliage appears. They may be increased by off-sets or seeds. Height, 1 ft. Tobacco Plants.--_See_ "Nicotiana." Tobacco-Water.--Boil 2 oz. of shag, or other strong tobacco, in a pint of water. Apply with a soft brush. This is a deadly poison to insects. Tomatoes (_Love Apples_).--Those intended to be grown in the open should be raised from seed sown the first week in March in pots of very rich, light mould. Place them in a cucumber-house or other gentle heat, and when the second leaf appears, pot them off singly, keeping them near the glass and well watered. Towards the end of May remove them to a cold frame to harden off, and plant out as soon as fear of frost is over, in deeply-dug and moderately manured ground, against a south wall fully exposed to the sun. Train to a single stem and remove all lateral growths. When the plants are 3 or 4 ft. high pinch off the tops to prevent further growth and throw strength into the fruit. Watering should cease as soon as the blossom-buds appear, except in periods of very severe drought. When grown under glass Tomatoes need to be trained in much the same way as Grape Vines. Constant attention must be given to removing all useless shoots and exposing the fruit to air and light. An average temperature of 60 degrees should be maintained, with a rather dry and buoyant atmosphere. Toothwort.--_See_ "Dentaria." Torch Lily.--_See_ "Tritoma." Torenia.--These stove and greenhouse plants require a rich soil. They may be increased by seed or division. They flower during June and July. Height, 6 in. to 9 in. Tournefort.--_See_ "Crambe Cordifolia." Tradescantia Virginica (_Spider Wort_).--A hardy herbaceous plant. In a light, rich soil it will flower in July. Height, 1 ft. There are other varieties of Tradescantia; they all make good border plants, thrive in any situation, and are continuous bloomers. Transplanting.--Plants may be transplanted as soon as they are large enough to handle. They must be lifted carefully with a small trowel, or if they are very small, such as Golden Feather, with a still smaller blunt article, disturbing the roots as little as possible. It should be done when the ground is wet, and preferably in the evening. In dry weather they should be well watered twelve hours before they are disturbed. Shade them from sun for one or two days. Cabbages, Lettuces, Cauliflowers, Broccoli, Kale, and other members of the Brassica family _must_ be transplanted, or they will be a failure. Root crops such as Carrots, Parsnips, Turnips, etc., must not be transplanted, but thinned out. Celery may be transplanted in June or July. Traveller's Joy (_Clematis Viorna_).--This hardy climbing plant grows best in a light soil, flowers in August, and is increased by layers of the young shoots in summer. Height, 12 ft. Trees, Plants that Flourish under.--Ivy, St. John's Wort (Hypericum Calycinum), early-flowering White Aconite. Tricyrtis.--These greenhouse herbaceous plants bloom in May. A rich, light soil suits them. Height, 6 in. Trientalis Europæa (_Star Flower_).--To grow this native perennial to advantage, it should be planted in leaf-mould with which a large proportion of sand has been mixed. Confine the roots to a narrow compass by means of slates placed just beneath the surface of the soil. Let the ground be kept moist, but well drained. The bloom is produced during May and June, and it is propagated by runners. Height, 6 in. to 8 in. Trifolium Repens Pentaphyllum.--A showy, hardy, deciduous perennial. It thrives in ordinary soil, puts forth its white flowers in June, and is propagated by seed or division. Height, 6 in. Trillium Erectum (_Wood Lily_).--This tuberous perennial is quite hardy, and flourishes in partial shade. The soil must be light and rich, yet moist. The plant does not increase very fast, but the roots of good-sized plants may be divided. It flowers in May and June. Height, 6 in. Tritelia.--A charming spring-flowering plant, bearing pretty white star-like flowers on slender stalks. It is used largely for edgings. It looks well in clumps on the front of borders. Plant in autumn, and divide the bulbs every two or three years. Height, 6 in. Tritoma (_Red-hot Poker, or Torch Lily_).--Requires a rich, sandy soil, and to be protected in a frame from wet and frost in the winter. Increase by division or by suckers from the root. The flower spikes grow 18 to 27 in. long. The crown of the plant should not be more than 11/2 in. in the soil, which should be dug deeply and mixed with rotted manure. In winter, if it is left in the ground, surround the plant with 2 in. of sawdust, well trodden. Remove this in May, and water liberally with liquid manure till it blooms. The best time to plant is March or October. By many it is considered advisable not to disturb the plant too often. Tritonias.--These somewhat resemble miniature Gladioli, and are among the most useful bulbs for pot-culture. Plant from September to December, placing five or six bulbs in a 5-in. pot, and using a compost of loam, leaf-mould, and silver sand. Plunge the pots in ashes in a cold pit or frame, and keep them dry until the plants appear. When in full growth they may be removed to the conservatory, placing them near the glass, and giving careful attention to watering. For outdoor cultivation choose a sunny, sheltered position, with a light, rich, sandy soil. Give protection in frosty weather by covering with dry litter. Trollius Altaiense (_Globe Flower_).--A pretty, hardy herbaceous plant, with very handsome foliage. It likes a light but moist soil, may be increased by seed or by dividing the root, and flowers in May. Height, 9 in. to 2 ft. Trollius Asiaticus.--A very pretty herbaceous plant, suitable for the border. It may be raised from seed sown in the autumn, and grown on in light, moist soil. The plant is hardy and flowers in May. Height, 1 ft. Tropæolums-- _JARRATTI_ (_scarlet, orange, and black_) are remarkable for a slender and graceful growth. Well adapted for covering wire globes, trellises, etc. _LOBBIANUM_ (_various colours_).--Elegant dwarf climbers, suitable either for the conservatory or for outdoor culture. They may also be used for bedding if planted thinly and kept pegged down; or may be grown in window-boxes. Height, 6 ft. _PENTAPHYLLUM_ (_red_) is slender and graceful, and an elegant climber. _POLYPHYLLUM_ (_yellow_) succeeds best against a south wall. It is hardy, has rich abundant glaucous foliage, and is a particularly fine climber. _SPECIOSUM_ (_scarlet_).--Of wild, graceful, luxuriant and slender growth. Fine for covering walls and fences, festooning arches, etc. Plant at the beginning of October in an eastern aspect or at the base of a north wall, the soil and atmosphere being moderately moist. Bury the roots 4 in. deep. _TUBEROSUM_ (_yellow and red_) is quite hardy, and may be planted in any situation. Generally a light, rich soil is most suitable. The greenhouse varieties may be increased by cuttings placed in sandy soil under glass. The tuberous-rooted kinds should be taken up in winter and kept in sand till spring, when they may be planted in a sheltered part of the garden. The annuals merely require to be sown in the open in spring. They flower in July, August, and September. Height, 1 ft. to 10 ft. (_See also_ "Canary Creeper.") Trumpet Flower.--_See_ "Bignonia." Tuberose.--Plant the bulbs in January in a mixture of sandy loam and rotten dung, or leaf-mould, using a small pot for each bulb. Plunge them in a hotbed, taking care that the temperature does not fall below 60 degrees, and withhold water until the foliage appears, when a moderate amount should be given. When the pots are full of roots, shift the plants into larger ones, and grow on in a house with a uniform high temperature and moist atmosphere. For a succession of bloom place the roots in a cold frame and cover with cocoanut fibre until growth begins, then remove the fibre, water moderately, and transfer the most forward plants to the conservatory. Bloom may be had all the year round by planting in succession from September to June. Tulips.--Drainage may be considered as the chief means of success in the cultivation of these showy spring flowers. The soil they like best is well-rotted turf cut from pasture land and mixed with a moderate amount of sand, but they will thrive in any ground that is well drained. The bulbs should be planted during October and November about 3 in. deep and 5 in. apart, either in lines or groups, and they retain their bloom longest in a shady situation. As soon as the leaves begin to decay the bulbs may be taken up, dried, and stored away, keeping the colours separate. For pot-culture the single varieties are best. Put three bulbs in a 5-in. pot and six in a 6-in. one, and treat in the same manner as the Hyacinth. They may, if desired, be forced as soon as the shoots appear. When required to fill vases, etc., it is a good plan to grow them in shallow boxes, and transfer them when in flower to the vases or baskets. By this method exactitude of height and colouring is ensured. Tulips are divided into three classes: (1) Roses, which have a white ground, with crimson, pink, or scarlet marks; (2) Byblomens, having also a white ground, but with lilac, purple, or black marks; and (3) Bizarres, with a yellow ground having marks of any colour. Tunica.--Same treatment as "Dianthus." Turkey's Beard.--_See_ "Xerophyllum." Turnips.--To obtain mild and delicately-flavoured Turnips a somewhat light, sandy, but deep, rich soil is necessary. For a first crop sow the Early White Dutch variety in February or the beginning of March on a warm border. For succession sow Early Snowball at intervals of three weeks until the middle of July. For winter use sow Golden Ball, or other yellow-fleshed kinds, early in August. Thin each sowing out so that the bulbs stand 9 in. apart. To ensure sound, crisp, fleshy roots they require to be grown quickly, therefore moist soil and liberal manuring is necessary, and the ground kept free from weeds. If fly becomes troublesome, dust the plants with quicklime early in the day, while the dew is on them, and repeat the operation as often as is necessary. Tussilago Fragrans (_Winter Heliotrope_).--A very fragrant hardy perennial, flowering in January and February. It will grow in any good garden soil and bears division. Height, 1 ft. Twin Flower.--_See_ "Bravoa." U Ulex Europaeus Flore Pleno (_Double Furze_).--This elegant, hardy, evergreen shrub likes a rich, sandy soil, and may be increased by cuttings planted in a shady border and covered with a hand-glass. Height, 5 ft. Umbilicus Chrysanthus.--This little Alpine plant should occupy a warm, sheltered, and dry situation, and be protected with an overhead screen in wet seasons. The soil it most enjoys is a mixture of peat and coarse sand. Its procumbent stalks emit roots. This new growth may be transplanted in the spring or early summer months. Height, 6 in. Uvularia.--Beautiful hardy perennials, producing drooping flowers from May to July. They succeed best in a light, sandy soil, and may be increased by dividing the roots. Height, 1 ft. V Vaccineum Myrtillus and V. Uliginosum.--Attractive deciduous shrubs. They require to be grown in peat or very sandy loam. In April or May they produce flowers. They can be increased by dividing the creeping roots. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Vaccineum Vitis-Idæa (_Red Whortleberry_).--A neat native shrub which, with its flowers and clusters of bright red berries, is very attractive in autumn. A rich, light, sandy soil, moist but well drained, is necessary, and the position should be sunny so as to ripen the berries. It may be increased at any time by division. It flowers from May to October. Height, 9 in. Valeriana.--An ornamental hardy perennial. It will succeed in any garden soil, and merely requires the same treatment as ordinary perennials. It is readily increased by dividing the roots, and produces its flowers in July. Height, 1 ft. Vegetable Marrow.--Sow in pots during March or April, and place in a cucumber frame or on a hotbed, and cover with a hand-glass. Harden off, and plant out about the third week in May in ground previously prepared with a heavy dressing of good stable or farmyard manure, protecting the plants at night for the first week or so with a handglass or large flower-pot. Do not allow the roots to feel the want of water, and keep a sharp look-out for slugs. Seed may also be sown in May in the open. The best way of proceeding in this case is to dig a pit 2 ft. deep and the same in width, fill it with fermenting manure, and put 1 ft. of light mould on top. Let it remain for a week so that the soil may get warm, then sow the seed, and cover it with a hand-glass. Train the shoots so that they may have plenty of room, and pinch off the tops when the plant has attained its desired length. Venidium.--Hardy annuals, which are best raised from seed sown early in March on a slight hotbed, and grown in turfy loam, or loam and peat. They bloom in May. Height, 1 ft. Venus's Car.--_See_ "Dielytra." Venus's Looking-Glass (_Specularia Speculum_).--A pretty hardy annual, bearing a profusion of Campanula-like flowers in July. Suitable for beds, pots, hanging baskets, or rock-work. It flourishes most in a compost of sandy loam and peat. The seeds are best sown in autumn and wintered in a greenhouse, but they may be raised on a hotbed early in spring. Cuttings of the young wood planted under glass root freely. Height, 9 in. Venus's Navel Wort.--A charming hardy annual for rock-work. The seed should be sown early in spring in good garden mould. Height, 6 in. Veratum.--Handsome foliage plants. They are quite hardy, and delight in a rich soil. July is the month in which they flower. They may be raised from seed, or propagated by division. Height, 5 ft. Verbascum.--A hardy annual, which produces a profusion of showy flowers in July, and is very suitable for the backs of borders. It will thrive in any soil, and is easily raised from seed sown early in spring. Height, 3 ft. Verbena.--This charming half-hardy perennial succeeds best in light, loamy soil. It seeds freely, and roots rapidly by being pegged down. It is usual to take the cuttings in February, as spring-struck plants prove best both for growth and flowering. Place a score of cuttings in a 48-sized pot containing 1/3 of drainage material, covered with 1 in. of rough leaf-mould, then filled to within 1-1/2 in. of the rim with equal parts of loam, leaf-mould, or peat and sand, with 1/3 in. of sand on the top. Make the soil firm at the base of the cuttings, and water level. It is, however, more easily obtained from seed raised on a gentle hotbed, and the plants thus raised are more robust and floriferous. It flowers in July. Height, 1 ft. Verbena, Lemon-scented.--_See_ "Aloysia." Veronica.--This graceful evergreen, commonly called Speedwell, bears handsome spikes of autumn flowers, and makes a good conservatory or sitting-room plant. It stands the winter out of doors in a sheltered position with a dry sub-soil. The annual varieties may be sown in autumn for spring flowering. Any light, rich, moist soil suits them. The hardy perennial kinds are increased by dividing the roots, and the greenhouse varieties by seeds or cuttings. The different species flower from July to October. Height, 1 ft. to 10 ft. Vesicaria Graeca.--A small hardy evergreen shrub, suitable for rock-work or edgings. It likes a light, dry soil and an open situation. It may be propagated by seeds, which are freely produced; but the readiest way to increase it is by cuttings of the side-shoots, taken as early as possible so as to become well rooted before cold weather sets in. It flowers from April to June. Height, 6 in. to 8 in. Viburnum Opulus(_Guelder Rose_, or _Snowball Tree_).--A very elegant and hardy deciduous shrub, which will grow in any soil, and may be increased by layers, or by cuttings planted in the shade under glass. It blooms in June. Height, 12 ft. Viburnum Tinus (_Laurestinus_).--This well-known and much-admired evergreen shrub produces masses of white flowers through the winter months, at which season it is especially ornamental. It is generally propagated by layers, but where a number of the plants are required they may be obtained from autumn cuttings planted in the shade and covered with a hand-glass. Height, 5 ft. Vicia Pyrenaica.--A hardy and good perennial for rock-work, having compact tufts of green growth and producing deep crimson flowers in May and June. It will grow in any soil, and is of easy culture. It is increased by seed, also by division of the roots. Height, 1 ft. Vinca (_Periwinkle_).--Many of these are variegated and very showy as rock-work plants, and will grow in any moist soil, enjoying a shady situation. They may be raised from seed sown early in spring in a warm situation, or may be increased by runners, which strike root at the joints like the Strawberry. They may be planted under the shade of trees. Many choice greenhouse evergreens bearing fine circular flowers and shining foliage are also included under the name of Vinca. Height, 2 ft. Vines.--_See_ "Grapes." Violas.--The hardy perennials are suitable for the front of flower borders or rock-work, but the smaller species succeed best when grown in pots in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand. The herbaceous kinds are increased by seed or division of the roots, the shrubby varieties by cuttings planted under glass, and the annuals by seed sown in the open in spring. Height, 3 in. to 6 in. Violets.--Plant the runners or off-sets in May in loam and leaf-mould, choosing a damp, shady situation. Russian and Neapolitan Violets may be made to flower throughout the winter and early spring by placing them in a stove or warm pit. Dog-toothed Violets will grow in any light soil. Autumn is the best time to plant them, and 1 in. of silver sand round the roots prevents decay; they are hardy and early, but will not bloom unless planted 9 in. deep. White Violets like a chalky soil. One of the best manures for Violets is the ash from bonfires. They may be multiplied to any extent by pegging down the side-shoots in April. The common Violet flowers in March and April. Height, 6 in. Virgilia.--For the most part greenhouse shrubs, requiring to be grown in a compost of loam, peat, and sand. Young cuttings planted in sandy loam and covered with glass will strike. The hardy kinds, such as V. Lutea, grow in any light soil, and are increased by laying down shoots in autumn or spring. July is the month in which they flower. Height, from 2 ft. to 12 ft. Virginian Creeper (_Ampelopsis Hederacea_).--May be propagated by layers or cuttings, and will grow in any common garden soil. The plant is also known as the Five-leaved Ivy, is a rapid grower, and a favourite for covering unsightly walls. Virginian Stock.--This pretty little hardy annual is readily raised from seed sown on a border in autumn or spring. It is not particular as to soil. Height, 9 in. Virgin's Bower.--_See_ "Clematis." Viscaria Coeli Rosa (_the Rose of Heaven_).--Sow in April, or on a warm, dry, sheltered spot in September. Other varieties of Viscaria are graceful and effective in beds, masses, or lines, and only require the usual care bestowed upon hardy annuals. The flowers are produced in June and July. Height, 1 ft. Vitis Heterophylla.--These vines are hardy, and will grow in any rich soil. They are propagated by cuttings, and also by layers. V. Purpureus has purple leaves, which are very effective. V. Coignettae, or the Chinese Vine, has very noble foliage. W Wahlenbergia.--The hardy perennial kinds thrive best in pots, the soil in which should be kept moist. The annuals, which are raised on a hotbed in March, may be planted out in May in a warm situation. Waitzia.--Very beautiful half-hardy annuals, but more suitable for the greenhouse than the open flower-bed. They require a sandy peat and leaf-mould, and the pots to be well drained, as too much water is as destructive to them as too little. They may be had in flower from May to August by making two sowings, one in September and the other in February, and keeping them in the greenhouse. When large enough to handle, pot off into 3-in. pots, putting two plants in each pot close to the sides, and shift them into larger ones when they have made sufficient growth. Place them in a dry and airy situation and near the glass. They are unable to stand the least frost, therefore, if they are planted out, it should not be done before the beginning of June. Height, 11/2 ft. Waldsteina Fragarioides.--A hardy and pretty trailing rock plant, with deep green foliage. From March to May it bears yellow Strawberry-like flowers. Any soil suits it, and it may be increased by seed or division. Height, 6 in. Wall-flower (_Cheiranthus_).--These favourite hardy perennials prefer a rich, light, sandy soil, and a dry situation. The seed may be sown where it is intended for them to bloom either in autumn or spring. Thin out to 2 ft. apart. They may also be increased by shoots torn from the stems of old plants. As well as flowering early in spring, they often bloom in the autumn. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Walnuts.--The Nuts for raising young trees may be planted at any time between October and the end of February, 3 in. deep and 1-1/2 ft. apart. Train to a single stem 8 to 10 ft. high, removing all the side branches as soon as they make an appearance. The following year they may be planted in their permanent position, which should be high, yet sheltered from frost. Two of the best tall-growing varieties are Thin-shelled and Noyer à Bijou. The Dwarf Prolific makes a good bush tree. Wand Plant.--_See_ "Galax." Wasps.--To destroy Wasps rinse a large bottle with spirits of turpentine, and thrust the neck into the principal entrance to their nest, stopping up all the other holes to prevent their escape. In a few days the nest may be dug up. The fumes of the spirit first stupefies and eventually destroys the insects. Water-cress.--Sow in prepared places, during spring, in sluggish brooks and moist situations; or it may be grown on a shady border if kept moist by frequent waterings. It may also be grown in a frame in September from cuttings placed 6 in. apart, sprinkling them daily, but keeping the frame closed for two or three weeks, then watering once a week. Give all the air possible in fine weather, but cover the frame with mats during frosts. It is best when grown quickly. Watsonia.--Plant the bulbs during January in sandy loam with a little peat. They flower in April. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Weeds in Paths.--These may be destroyed by strong brine, applied when hot. Or mix 1/2 lb. of oil of vitriol with 6 gallons of water, and apply, taking care not to get the vitriol on the hands or clothes. Weigelia.--Free-flowering, hardy, deciduous shrubs, the flowers being produced in profusion along the shoots in April, and varying in colour from white to deep crimson. The plants will grow in any soil, and require no special culture. All the varieties force well, and may be increased by cuttings. Height, 6 ft. White Scale.--_See_ "Scale." Whitlavia.--A hardy annual, needing no special treatment. It may be sown in autumn, and protected during winter in a frame, or it may be raised in spring in the open ground, where it will bloom in June. Height, 2 ft. Whortleberry.--_See_ "Vaccineum." Wigandia Caraccasana.--A stove deciduous shrub which thrives best in a mixture of loam and peat. Cuttings in sand will strike if placed under glass and in heat. It flowers in April. Height, 10 ft. Windflowers.--_See_ "Anemones." Winter Aconite (_Eranthis Hyemalis_).--This is one of the very first of flowers to bloom, being in advance of the Snowdrop. In the bleakest days of winter this little flower covers the ground with its gilt spangles. Plant in early autumn. Any soil or situation suits it, but it does best in a light mould and a moist, shady position, or under trees. Most effective when planted in masses. The tubers may remain permanently in the ground, or they may be lifted and divided in summer, as soon as the foliage dies down. Flowers are produced from December to February. Winter Cherry.--_See_ "Physalis." Winter Heliotrope.--_See_ "Tussilago." Wire-worms.--Before using mould for potting purposes it is advisable to examine it carefully and pick out any Wire-worms that are in it. For the border the best traps are small potatoes with a hole cut in them, buried at intervals just beneath the surface of the soil. Wistaria.--This noble wall plant may be abundantly produced, as a long layer will root at every joint. It will also grow from cuttings of the plant and root. Though of slow growth at first, when well established it is very free-growing and perfectly hardy. It may also be grown as a small tree for the lawn or centres of large beds by keeping the long twining shoots pinched in. Witch Hazel.--_See_ "Hamamelis." Withania Origanifolia (_Pampas Lily-of-the-Valley_).--A hardy climbing plant, attaining a height of 20 or 30 ft. in a very short period. The foliage is small, but very dense and of a dark green, the flowers being white. It may be raised from seed, and when once established the roots may remain undisturbed for any length of time, merely removing the stems as soon as they are destroyed by frost. Wolf's Bane.--_See_ "Aconite." Wood, to Preserve.--In order to prevent wooden posts, piles, etc., from rotting, dip the parts to be sunk in the earth in the following composition:--Fine, hard sand, three hundred parts; powdered chalk, forty parts; resin, fifty parts; linseed oil, four parts. Heat these together in a boiler, then add red lead, one part; sulphuric acid, one part. Mix well together, and use while hot. If too thick, more linseed oil may be added. This composition when dry attains the consistency of varnish, and becomes extremely hard. Wood Lily.--_See_ "Trillium." Woodruff.--_See_ "Asperula." Worms, to Destroy.--To each 5 lbs. of newly-slaked lime add 15 gallons of water. Stir it well, let it settle, draw off the clear portion, and with it water the surface of the lawn, etc. The Worms will come to the top and may be swept up. Worms in pots may be brought to the top by sprinkling a little dry mustard on the surface of the soil, and then giving the plant a good watering. Wulfenia Carinthiaca.--A pretty and hardy perennial from the Corinthian Alps, suitable alike for rock-work or the border, throwing up spikes of blue flowers from May to July. During winter place it in a frame, as it is liable to rot in the open. It needs a light, rich, sandy soil and plenty of moisture when in growth. Cuttings will strike in sand; it may also be propagated by seeds or division. Height, 1 ft. X Xeranthemum.--These charming everlasting annuals retain, in a dried state, their form and colour for several years. They are of the easiest culture, merely requiring to be sown in spring in light, rich soil to produce flowers in July. Height, 2 ft. Xerophyllum Asphodeloides (_Turkey's Beard_).--A showy hardy perennial with tufts of graceful, curving, slender foliage. From May to July, when it bears spikes of white flowers, it is very handsome. It does best in a peat border, and may be increased by well-ripened seed or by division. Height, 1-1/2 ft. Xerotes.--Herbaceous plants, which thrive well in any light, rich soil, and are readily increased by dividing the roots. They flower in June. Height, 2 ft. Y Yew (_Taxus_).--For landscape gardening the old gold-striped (_Baccata Aurea Variegata_) is most effective. The Japanese variety, T. Adpressa, is a pleasing evergreen having dark green leaves and large scarlet berries; it is very suitable for the front of large borders. The Common Yew (_Baccata_) grows dense and bushy, and is excellent for hedges. The dark green leaves of the Irish Yew (_Baccata Fastigiata_) make a fine contrast with lighter foliage. Dovastonii is a fine Weeping Yew with long dark green leaves and extra large red berries. There are many other good sorts. The Yew likes shade and moisture, but it is not very particular as to soil, loams and clays suiting it admirably. Yucca.--This plant, popularly known as Adam's Needle thrives best in dry, sandy loam. It is quite hardy, and does well on rock-work, to which it imparts a tropical aspect, Yucca Recurva has fine drooping leaves, and is suitable for vases, etc. It bears a white flower. Yuccas are mostly evergreen shrubs, are very beautiful, and have the habit of palm-trees. A light, rich soil suits them all. They are increased by suckers from the root. They make handsome plants for lawns, terraces, ornamental vases, the centre of beds, or sub-tropical gardens, and bloom in September. Height, 2 ft. Z Zauschneria.--A Californian half-hardy perennial plant which bears a profusion of scarlet tube-shaped flowers from June to October. It grows freely in a sunny position in any dry, light, gravelly, rich soil, and is increased by division of roots or by cuttings. Height, 1 ft. Zea (_Indian Corn_).--This is best raised in a hotbed early in spring, but it will germinate in ordinary soil in May. It requires a sunny situation. Height, 2 ft. to 3 ft. Zea Japonica Variegata (_Striped Japanese Maize_).--A fine half-hardy annual ornamental grass, the foliage being striped green and white, and growing to the height of 3 ft. The cultivation is the same as the foregoing. Zephyranthes (_Swamp Lilies_).--Plant on a warm border in a rather sandy, well-drained soil. Give protection in severe weather, and supply with water during the growing season. Take up and divide every second or third year. The flowers are produced in July. Height, 9 in. Zinnia.--A genus of very pretty annuals, well deserving of cultivation. The seeds must be raised on a gentle hotbed in spring, and planted out in June 1 ft. apart in the richest of loamy soil and warmest and most sheltered position. Height 1 ft. to 11/2 ft. 
18189	----	[Illustration: Eat more nuts Carl Weschcke author] GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH A personal story of the author's experience of 33 years with nut culture in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Includes his failures as well as final successes. Scientific as well as readable for the amateur horticulturist with many illustrations. Tells how to grow and to propagate nut bearing trees and shrubs. By CARL WESCHCKE Published WEBB PUBLISHING CO. ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA, U.S.A. 1953 Copyright 1954 CARL WESCHCKE ST. PAUL, MINNESOTA Introduction GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH Only a few books have been written on the subject of nut trees and their bearing habits, and very little of that material applies to their propagation in cold climates. For these reasons I am relating some of the experiences I have had in the last thirty-two years in raising nut trees in Wisconsin. To me, this has been a hobby with results both practical and ornamental far beyond my original conception. I hope that the information I am giving will be of help and interest to those who, like myself, enjoy having nut-bearing trees in their dooryards, and that it will prevent their undergoing the failures and disappointments I sometimes met with in pioneering along this line. Since my purpose is to give advice and assistance to those whose interest parallels mine by relating my successes and failures and what I learned from each, I have included only those details of technique which are pertinent. It is a fine thing to have a hobby that takes one out-of-doors. That in itself suggests healthful thought and living. The further association of working with trees, as with any living things, brings one into the closest association with nature and God. I hope this book may help someone achieve that attitude of life, in which I have found such great pleasure and inner satisfaction. Anyone wishing to make a planting of a few nut trees in his dooryard or a small orchard planting should join the Northern Nut Growers' Association. This Association can be joined by writing the current secretary, but since that office may be changed from time to time, persons applying for membership should write George L. Slate of Geneva Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, or Dr. H. L. Crane, Principal Horticulturist, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Beltsville, Maryland, or the Author. The first president was Dr. Robert T. Morris, New York City, N. Y., 1910-1911, the Association being founded by Dr. W. C. Deming of Westchester, New York, who called the first meeting in 1910. Each year a report was printed of the proceedings of the Annual Meeting and exclusive of the 1952 meeting, the Reports which are in substantial book form number forty-two. Most of these Reports can be obtained by writing to the secretary, the total library of these Reports constituting one of the best authorities for nut tree planting in the northern hemisphere of the United States than any extant. The author acknowledges with thanks the consistent encouraging praise from his father, Charles Weschcke, of the work involved in nut growing experiments, also for his financial assistance, thus making the publication of this book possible and available to readers at a nominal price. The editor of the greater part of this book, Allison Burbank Hartman (a descendent of the great Luther Burbank), is entitled to great praise and thanks for the interest and work she put forth. Grateful acknowledgment is made to William Kuehn, the artist. He had been associated with the author in Boy Scout work, also became a part of the nut growing experiments in Northern Wisconsin, which work was interrupted by World War II. Acknowledgment is hereby made with gratitude to Dr. J. W. McKay of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.; Harry Weber of Cincinnati, Ohio; Ford Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind.; Fayette Etter, Lehmasters, Pa.; Dr. W. C. Deming, Litchfield, Conn.; Clarence A. Reed, Washington, D. C.; Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa.; George S. Slate, Urbana, Ill.; Herman Last, Steamboat Rock, Iowa, and many other professors and horticulturists who lent their time and effort assisting me in my experiments throughout the years. And last but not least, the author is indebted to his secretary, Dorothy Downie, for tireless efforts in re-writing the manuscript many times which was necessary in compiling this book. GROWING NUTS IN THE NORTH Contents Introduction Chapter 1 First Encounters Chapter 2 First Attempts Chapter 3 Black Walnuts Chapter 4 Hazels and Filberts Chapter 5 Hazels and/or Filberts Chapter 6 Pecans and Their Hybrids Chapter 7 Hickory the King Chapter 8 Butternut Chapter 9 Pioneering With English Walnuts in Wisconsin Chapter 10 Other Trees Chapter 11 Pests and Pets Chapter 12 Storing and Planting Seeds Chapter 13 Tree Planting Methods Chapter 14 Winter Protection of Grafts and Seedlings Chapter 15 Tree Storage Chapter 16 Suggestions on Grafting Methods Chapter 17 Grafting Tape Versus Raffia Chapter 18 Effects of Grafting on Unlike Stocks Chapter 19 Distinguishing Characteristics of Scions Chapter 20 Hybridizing Chapter 21 Toxicity Among Trees and Plants Conclusion Chapter 1 FIRST ENCOUNTERS Almost everyone can remember from his youth, trips made to gather nuts. Those nuts may have been any of the various kinds distributed throughout the United States, such as the butternut, black walnut, beechnut, chestnut, hickory, hazel or pecan. I know that I can recall very well, when I was a child and visited my grandparents in New Ulm and St. Peter, in southern Minnesota, the abundance of butternuts, black walnuts and hazels to be found along the roads and especially along the Minnesota and Cottonwood river bottoms. Since such nut trees were not to be found near Springfield, where my parents lived, which was just a little too far west, I still associate my first and immature interest in this kind of horticulture with those youthful trips east. The only way we children could distinguish between butternut and black walnut trees was by the fruit itself, either on the tree or shaken down. This is not surprising, however, since these trees are closely related, both belonging to the family _Juglans_. The black walnut is known as _Juglans nigra_ and the butternut or white walnut as _Juglans cinera_. The similarity between the trees is so pronounced that the most experienced horticulturist may confuse them if he has only the trees in foliage as his guide. An experience I recently had is quite suggestive of this. I wished to buy some furniture in either black walnut or mahogany and I was hesitating between them. Noting my uncertainty, the salesman suggested a suite of French walnut. My curiosity and interest were immediately aroused. I had not only been raising many kinds of walnut trees, but I had also run through my own sawmill, logs of walnut and butternut. I felt that I knew the various species of walnut very thoroughly. So I suggested to him: "You must mean Circassian or English walnut, which is the same thing. It grows abundantly in France. You are wrong in calling it French walnut, though, because there is no such species." He indignantly rejected the name I gave it, and insisted that it was genuine French walnut. "Perhaps," I advised him, "that is a trade name to cover the real origin, just as plucked muskrat is termed Hudson seal." That, too, he denied. We were both insistent. I was sure of my own knowledge and stubborn enough to want to prove him wrong. I pulled a drawer from the dresser of the "French walnut" suite and asked him to compare its weight with that of a similar drawer from a black walnut suite nearby. Black walnut weighs forty pounds per cubic foot, while butternut weighs only twenty-five. He was forced to admit the difference and finally allowed my assertion to stand that "French walnut" was butternut, stained and finished to simulate black walnut. Since it would have been illegal to claim that it was black walnut, the attractive but meaningless label of "French walnut" had been applied. Although it is less expensive, I do not mean to imply that butternut is not an excellent wood for constructing furniture. It ranks high in quality and is probably as durable as black walnut. I do say, though, that it was necessary for me to know both the species names and the relative weights of each wood to be able to distinguish between them indisputably. An instance in which the nuts themselves were useless for purposes of identification occurred when I sent some black walnuts to the Division of Pomology at Washington, D. C. These were the Ohio variety which I had grafted on butternut roots. The tree had been bearing for three or four years but this was the first year the nuts had matured. During their bearing period, these black walnuts had gradually changed in appearance, becoming elongated and very deeply and sharply corrugated like butternuts although they still retained the black walnut flavor. Because of this mixture of characteristics, the government experts had great difficulty in identifying the variety, although the Ohio was well known to them. Another variety of black walnut, the Thomas, I have also known to be influenced by the butternut stock on which it was grafted, when in 1938, one of my trees bore black walnuts whose meat had lost its characteristic flavor and assumed that of the butternut. [Illustration: _A--Genuine original Ohio Black Walnut from parent tree_ _B--Nut produced by grafting Ohio on Butternut_] I also liked to pick hazelnuts when I was a boy. These are probably the least interesting among the wild nuts since they are usually small and hard to crack. There is much variation in wild hazels, however, and many people may recall them as being reasonably large. One of the two species abundant in Minnesota, _Corylus cornuta_ or Beak hazel, has fine, needle-like hairs on its husk which are sure to stick into one's fingers disagreeably. When the husk is removed, _Corylus cornuta_ resembles a small acorn. It does not produce in southern Minnesota and central Wisconsin as well as the common hazel, _Corylus Americana_, does, nor is its flavor as pleasing to most people. It is lighter in color than the common hazel and has a thinner shell. Of course, some hazels are intermediate or natural hybrids between these two species, and if the nuts of such hybrids are planted, they generally revert to one of the parents when mature enough to bear. This natural hybridization occurs among all plants, between those of the same species, the same genera or the same family. It is very rare between plants of different families. The process is a very important one in horticulture and I shall explain some of the crosses which are well-known later in this book. Chapter 2 FIRST ATTEMPTS When I was about fifteen years old, my family moved to St. Paul, Minnesota, where my home now is and where my experimental work with nuts was begun. St. Paul is in the 45th north parallel, but although it is farther north, it is as favorable for the growth of nut trees as New Ulm or St. Peter, because it lies in the Mississippi River valley and is farther east. Bodies of water and altitudes have as great an influence on plant life as latitude; at least, they can have, and these are factors that must be understood thoroughly. Soil conditions also vitally affect plant life, particularly deep-rooted trees such as nut trees usually are. Each has its own requirements; hickory, Japanese heartnut and Persian walnuts favor an alkaline soil, which chestnuts, wanting acid will not grow in; chestnuts thrive best in a slightly acid, well-drained soil; hazels will grow in either alkaline or acid soil as will black walnuts and butternuts; almonds need a light sandy soil, similar to that suitable to plums, pecans do well in either rich river bottoms, which may be slightly acid, or in clay soil on high hillsides which are alkaline. A deep, sandy or graveltype soil is usually accepted by the chestnuts even though it may not be slightly acid, and successful orchards have been grown on a deep clay soil on hillsides. It is not always easy to obtain black walnuts and butternuts to eat. Hickory nuts have been a favorite of mine since I first tasted them and I often have found it difficult to procure fresh ones, ones that were not slightly rancid. Because I liked eating these nuts, I thought I would try to grow some for my own consumption and so avoid having to depend on a grocer's occasional supply of those shipped in, always a little stale. Raising nuts appealed to me economically too, since obviously trees would need little care, and after they had begun to bear would supply nuts that could be sold at interesting prices. I turned the back yard of my home in St. Paul into an experimental plot. Here I set out some of each kind of tree I planted or grafted at my farm in Wisconsin. I had purchased a farm 35 miles east of St. Paul, beyond the influence of the St. Croix River Valley. My experiments really began there. The farm was covered with butternut trees, hazel bushes, and a wild hickory called "bitternut." This last is well-named for I have never found an animal other than a squirrel that could endure its nuts. Possibly the white-footed mouse or deer-mouse could--I don't know. He usually eats anything a squirrel does. I learned to appreciate these bitternut trees later and they became a source of experience and interest to me as I learned to graft on them many varieties, species and hybrids of hickory. They served as a root-system and shortened the length of time required to test dozens of hickory types, helping me in that way, to learn within one lifetime what types of nuts are practical for growing in the north. Remembering the nut trees in southern Minnesota, I first thought to procure black walnut and hickory trees from some farmer in that district. Through acquaintances in St. Peter, I did locate some black walnut trees only to find that it was impractical to dig and transport trees of the size I wanted. A nursery near St. Paul supplied me with some and I bought twenty-eight large, seedling black walnut trees. I was too eager to get ahead with my plans and I attempted, the first year these trees were planted, to graft all of them. My ability to do this was not equal to my ambition though, and all but two of the trees were killed. I was successful in grafting one of them to a Stabler black walnut; the other tree persisted so in throwing out its natural sprouts that I decided it should be allowed to continue doing so. That native seedling tree which I could not graft now furnishes me with bushels of walnuts each year which are planted for understocks. This is the name given to the root systems on which good varieties are grafted. In an effort to replace these lost trees, I inquired at the University of Minnesota Farm and was given the addresses of several nurserymen who were then selling grafted nut trees. Their catalogues were so inviting that I decided it would be quite plausible to grow pecans and English walnuts at this latitude. So I neglected my native trees that year for the sake of more exotic ones. One year sufficed; the death of my whole planting of English walnuts and pecans turned me back to my original interest. My next order of trees included grafted black walnuts of four accepted varieties to be planted in orchard form--the Stabler, Thomas, Ohio and Ten Eyck. I ordered a few hickories at the same time but these eventually died. My experience with hickories was very discouraging since they were my favorite nuts and I had set my heart on growing some. I think I should have given up attempting them had not one dealer, J. F. Jones, urged that I buy just three more hickory trees of the Beaver variety. He gave me special instructions on how to prepare them against winter. I have always felt that what he told me was indeed special and very valuable since those three trees lived. Subsequently, I bought several hundred dollars worth of trees from him. More than that, we became friends. I visited him at his nurseries in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and he again demonstrated his interest and generosity by giving me both horticultural information and the kindest hospitality. My friendship with him was but one of many that I have formed while traveling and corresponding in the interests of nut culture. True and lasting friends such men make, too, with no circumstances of selfish import to taint the pleasure of the relationship. Since I wanted to have many black walnut trees some day, I decided to plant ten bushels of black walnuts in rows. I thought I could later graft these myself and save expense. The theory was all right but when I came to practice it, I found I had not taken squirrels into consideration. These bushy-tailed rats dug up one complete bed which contained two bushels of nuts and reburied them in haphazard places around the farm. When the nuts started to sprout, they came up in the fields, in the gardens, and on the lawn--everywhere except where I had intended them to be. I later was grateful to those squirrels, though, because, through their redistributing these nuts I learned a great deal about the effect of soil on black walnut trees, even discovering that what I thought to be suitable was not. The trees which the squirrels planted for me are now large and lend themselves to experimental grafting. On them I have proved, and am still proving, new varieties of the English walnut. The other eight bushels had been planted near a roadside and close to some farm buildings. The constant human activity thereabouts probably made the squirrels less bold, for although they carried off at least a bushel of walnuts, about two thousand seedlings grew. I had planted these too close together and as the trees developed they became so crowded that many died. The remaining seedlings supplied me with root-stocks for experimental work which proved very valuable. I have always suspected the squirrels of having been responsible for the fact that my first attempt to grow hickory seedlings was unsuccessful. I planted a quart of these nuts and not one plant came up. No doubt the squirrels dug them up as soon as I planted them and probably they enjoyed the flavor as much as I always have. In 1924 I ordered one hundred small beechnut trees, _Fagus ferruginea_, from the Sturgeon Bay Nurseries at Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin. The company was very generous and sent me three hundred of them. I planted these trees in a heavy clay soil with limestone running near the surface. They grew well the first year, except that there was heavy mortality during cold weather. In working with these trees my lack of experience and horticultural knowledge was against me. They could not tolerate the soil and within three years they were all dead. To give variety to the landscape at my farm, I planted several other kinds of trees. Among these were Kentucky coffee-trees which have beautiful bronze foliage in the spring and honey locusts. I planted five hundred Douglas fir but unfortunately, I put these deep in the woods among heavy timber where they were so shaded that only a few lived. Later, I moved the surviving fir trees into an open field where they still flourish. About two hundred fifty pines of mixed varieties--white, Norway and jack--that I planted in the woods, also died. I decided, then, that evergreens might do better if they were planted from seeds. I followed instructions in James W. Toumey's "Seeding and Planting in the Practice of Forestry," in bed culture and spot seeding. In the latter one tears off the sod in favorable places and throws seed on the unprotected ground. In doing this, I ignored the natural requirements of forest practice which call for half-shade during the first two to three years of growth. Thousands of seedlings sprouted but they all died either from disease or from attacks by cows and sheep. One should never attempt to raise trees and stock in the same field. Because of these misfortunes, I determined to study the growth of evergreens. I invested in such necessary equipment as frames and lath screening. Better equipped with both information and material, I grew thousands of evergreen trees. Among the varieties of pine were: native White Pine --Pinus strobus Norway pine --Pinus silvestrus Mugho pine --Pinus pumila montana sugar pine --Pinus Lambertiana (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) Swiss stone --Pinus cembra (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) Italian stone --Pinus pinea (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) pinon --Pinus edulis (not hardy in northern Wisconsin) bull pine --Pinus Jeffreyi (hardy) jack pine --Pinus banksiana (very hardy) limber pine --Pinus flexilis (semi-hardy, a fine nut pine). Many of the limber pines came into bearing about fifteen years after the seed was planted. At that age they varied in height from three to fifteen feet. One little three-foot tree had several large cones full of seed. Each tree varied in the quality and size of its seeds. Although it might be possible to graft the best varieties on young seedling stocks, in all the hundreds of grafts I have made on pine, I have been successful only once. I doubt that such a thing would ever be practical from a commercial standpoint unless some new method were discovered by which a larger percentage of successful grafts could be realized. I cultivated the Douglas fir, white, Norway, and Colorado blue varieties of spruce. Besides these, I planted balsam fir, red cedar, _Juniperus Virginiana_, and white cedar, _Arborvitae_. Practically all of these trees are still growing and many of them bear seed. I wish to describe the limber pine, _Pinus flexilis_, for it is not only a good grower and quite hardy but it is also a very ornamental nut pine which grows to be a broad, stout-trunked tree 40 to 75 feet high. The young bark is pale grey or silver; the old bark is very dark, in square plates. The wood itself is light, soft and close-grained, having a color that varies from yellow to red. The needles, which are found in clusters of five, are slender, 1-1/2 to 3 inches long, and are dark green. They are shed during the fifth or sixth year. The buds of the tree are found bunched at the branch tips and are scaly and pointed. The limber pine has flowers like those of the white pine, except that they are rose-colored. Although the fruit is described as annual, I have found that, in this locality, it takes about fifteen months from the time the blossoms appear for it to reach maturity. That is, the fruit requires two seasons for growth, maturing its seeds the second September. The cones of the limber pine, which vary from three to seven inches in length, are purple, having thick rounded scales and being abruptly peaked at the apex. The seeds are wingless or have only very narrow wings around them. With the idea of getting practical results sooner, since nut trees mature slowly, I interplanted my nut trees with varieties of apple, plum and cherry. Doing so also served to economize on ground, since ultimately nut trees require a great deal of space for best growth. Walnut trees, for example, should be set 40 to 60 feet apart in each direction. [Illustration: _Pinus Flexilus nut seeds, Natural Size_] I learned a variety of facts during these first years of trial and error. I discovered, for instance, that iron fence posts rust away in an acid soil; that one must use cedar or oak. Conversely, in alkaline soil, iron will last indefinitely, but that the nitrogenous bacteria will quickly rot wooden posts. I found that the secret of growing hickories successfully lies in giving them plenty of room, with no forest trees around to cut off their supply of sunlight and air. I learned that it is impractical to graft a large forest tree of butternut or hickory. Incidental to that, I learned that a branch of a butternut tree which looks large enough to support a man's weight near the trunk, will not do so when the branch is green and alive, but that a dead branch of similar size will. Contrariwise, even a small green limb of a bitternut-hickory will bear my weight, but an old limb, though several inches thick, becomes so brittle after it is dead for several years that it will break under slight pressure. Fortunately, falls from trees do not usually result in serious injuries but I did acquire quite a few bruises learning these distinctions. There is always a natural mortality in planting trees, but in those first years, lacking badly-needed experience, I lost more than 75%. Nearly all of them started to grow but died during the first few winters. Those which survived were the start of a nursery filled with hardy trees which can endure the climate of the north. In looking back, I appreciate how fortunate I was in having sought and received advice from experienced nurserymen. Had I not done so, frequent failures would surely have discouraged me. As it was, the successes I did have were an incentive which made me persist and which left me with faith enough in an ultimate success to go on buying seeds and trees and to make greater and more varied experiments. Chapter 3 BLACK WALNUTS I have spent more of my time cultivating black walnuts than any other kind of nut tree and given more of my ground area over to them. Yet it was with no great amount of enthusiasm that I started working with these trees. Obviously there could be nothing new or extraordinary resulting from my planting trees of this species either on my farm or at my St. Paul home, since there already were mature, bearing black walnut trees at both places. It was only with the idea that they would be an attractive addition to the native butternut groves that I decided to plant some black walnut seedlings. This did not prove feasible as I first attempted it. I had engaged a Mr. Miller at St. Peter to procure wild black walnut trees for me since they grew near that town. He was to dig these trees with as much of the root system included as possible and ship them to my farm. But the winter season came before this had been accomplished and both Mr. Miller and I, deciding the idea was not as practical as we had hoped it would be, abandoned it. Later that same autumn I found that a nursery just outside of St. Paul had several rows of overgrown black walnut trees which they would sell me quite reasonably. I bought them and sent instructions to the tenant at my farm to dig twenty-eight large holes in which to plant them. Packed in straw and burlap, the trees weighed about 500 pounds, I found. This was much too heavy and cumbersome to pack in my old touring car, so I hunted around for some sort of vehicle I could attach to my car as a trailer. In an old blacksmith shop, I came upon an antiquated pair of buggy wheels. They looked as though they were ready to fall apart but I decided that with repairs and by cautious driving, they might last out the trip of thirty-five miles. So I paid the blacksmith his asking price--twenty-five cents. The spokes rattled and the steel tires were ready to roll off their wooden rims but the axles were strong. My father-in-law and I puttered and pounded, strengthened and tightened, until we felt our semi-trailer was in good-enough order. It might have been, too, if the roads in the country hadn't been rough and frozen so hard that they hammered on the solid, unresisting tires and spokes until, almost within sight of the farm, one wheel dismally collapsed. As the wheel broke, the trailer slid off the road into a ditch, so that it was necessary to send on to the farm for the plow horses to haul out the car, the trailer and the trees. The horses finished hauling the trees to that part of the farm where holes had been dug for them. I had told my tenant to dig large holes and large holes he had certainly dug! Most of them were big enough to bury one of the horses in. Such was my amateurish first endeavor. It was not until December of that year, 1919, that the twenty-eight trees were finally planted. Although the ground was already somewhat frozen and the trees poorly planted as a result, most of them started to grow in the spring. They would probably be living now if I had not been too ambitious to convert them from seedlings into grafted varieties such as the Ohio, Thomas and Stabler, which I had learned of during a winter's study of available nut-culture lore. I obtained scionwood from J. F. Jones, part of which I put on these abused trees and the remainder of which I grafted on butternut trees. At that time, I must admit, I was much more interested in trying the actual work of grafting than I was in developing or even conceiving a methodical plan to be worked out over a period of years. In order to facilitate my grafting work that spring, I pitched a tent in the woods and lived there for a week at a time, doing my own cooking and roughing it generally. Cows were being pastured in this part of the woods and they were very interested in my activities. If I were absent for a long time during the day, on my return I would find that noticeable damage had been done to my tent and food supplies by these curious cows. While preparing some scionwood inside the tent one day, I heard a cow approaching and picked up a heavy hickory club which I had for protection at night, intending to rush out and give the animal a proper lesson in minding its own business. The cow approached the tent from the side opposite the door and pushed solidly against the canvas with its nose and head. This so aggravated me that I jumped over to that part of the tent and gave the cow a hard whack over the nose with my hickory stick. It jumped away fast for such a big animal. This seemed to end all curiosity on the part of these cows and I was allowed to carry on my work in peace. With beginner's luck, I succeeded with many of the butternut grafts, as well as with some of the grafts on the twenty-eight planted black walnuts. However, all of the grafted black walnut trees ultimately died with the exception of one grafted Stabler. This large tree was a monument of success for twenty years, bearing some nuts every year and maturing them, and in a good season, producing bushels of them. One other of these seedlings survived but as it would not accept any grafts, I finally let it live as nature intended. In 1921, I began ordering grafted black walnut trees, as well as grafted hickory trees from J. F. Jones, who had the largest and best known of the nurseries handling northern nut trees. Some of these grafted trees were also planted at my home in St. Paul, using the two locations as checks against each other. The site in St. Paul eventually proved unsatisfactory because of the gravelly soil and because the trees were too crowded. The varieties of black walnuts I first experimented with were the Thomas, Ohio, Stabler and Ten Eyck, which were planted by hundreds year after year. If I had not worked on this large scale there would be no reason for me to write about it today as the mortality of these black walnuts was so high that probably none would have lived to induce in me the ambition necessary to support a plan involving lengthy, systematic experimentation. Some of these early trees survive today, however, and although few in number, they have shown me that the experiment was a worthy one since it laid the foundation for results which came later. In fact, I feel that both the time and money I spent during that initial era of learning were investments in which valuable dividends of knowledge and development are still being paid. In grafting black walnuts on butternut trees, I very foolishly attempted to work over a tree more than a foot in diameter and I did not succeed in getting a single graft to grow on it. Other younger trees, from three to six inches in diameter, I successfully grafted. Some of these are still living but clearly show the incompatibility of the two species when black walnut is grafted on butternut. The opposite combination of butternut on black walnut is very successful and produces nuts earlier and in greater abundance than butternut does when grafted on its own species. The expense of buying trees by hundreds was so great that after a year I decided that I could very easily plant black walnuts to obtain the young trees needed as understocks. When they had grown large enough, I would graft them over myself. I wrote to my friend in St. Peter, Mr. E. E. Miller, and he told me where I could obtain walnuts by the bushel. Soon I was making trips to the countryside around St. Peter buying walnuts from the farmers there. I planted about five bushels of these at the River Falls farm and the rest, another two bushels, at St. Paul. Soon I had several thousand young walnut trees which all proved hardy to the winters. When pruning the black walnut trees purchased from Mr. Jones for transplanting, I saved the tops and grafted them to the young trees with a fair degree of success. In a few years, I was using my own trees to fill up spaces left vacant by the mortality of the Pennsylvania-grown trees. I did not neglect seeding to provide stocks of the Eastern black walnut also, which is almost a different species from the local black walnut, but these seedling trees proved to be tender toward our winters and only a few survived. After they had grown into large trees, these few were grafted to English walnuts. The difference between the Eastern black walnut and the local native black walnut is quite apparent when the two trees are examined side by side. Even the type of fruit is different, although I do not know of any botanical authority who will confirm my theory that they are different species. They are probably to be considered as geographically distinct rather than as botanically different species. For several years I continued to graft black walnuts on butternut trees with the intention of converting hundreds, perhaps thousands, of these wild trees over to prolific, cultured black walnuts. I did not realize my mistake in doing this until ten years had elapsed. I believed that since the tops were growing, the trees would shortly produce nuts. Today they are still growing, bigger and better, yet most of these grafted trees bear no nuts, having only a crop of leaves. A few nuts result from these grafts, however, and some of the trees bear a handful of nuts from tops of such size that one would expect the crops to be measured in bushels. The kind which bore the best was the Ohio variety. In another chapter, I shall relate parallel experience in hickory grafting which I carried on simultaneously with grafting of black walnut on butternut. My first big disappointment in my black walnut orchard was when, in about 1930, having a fairly good crop of nuts, I unsuccessfully attempted to sell them to local stores. They were not interested in anything except walnut kernels and to them, a wild walnut kernel was the same as a cultivated one as long as it was highly-flavored. This so cooled my enthusiasm and hopes for a black walnut orchard that I ceased experimenting with them except to try out new varieties being discovered through nut contests carried on by the Northern Nut Growers' Association. The 1926 contest produced a number of black walnut possibilities, among them being such named varieties as the Rohwer, Paterson, Throp, Vandersloot, Pearl and Adams. The neglected and over-grown walnut seedlings now began to serve a useful purpose in grafting the new varieties which I obtained for testing in this locality. These were propagated by obtaining scionwood from the originators of the variety and grafting it on these seedling trees. My technical knowledge had increased by this time to such an extent that I was usually certain of one-half of the grafts growing. The behavior of the Rohwer and Paterson in 1937 invited nursery propagation on a greater scale than did other better-known types, because of their qualities of hardiness and earlier-ripening. In the spring of 1937, these native seedlings were again offered to the spirit of propagation, when a large part of the scionwood of English walnuts I had imported from the Carpathian mountains of Poland was grafted on them. The success of my grafting in this instance was only about 1-1/2%, showing that something was decidedly wrong. Two conclusions were possible: Either the scionwood had been injured by transportation and the severe winter temperatures during January and February of 1937 during which they were stored, or incompatibility existed between the imported walnuts and our local ones. My conclusion now is that when these stocks are fifteen years old or more and are thrifty, they will support grafting of the Carpathian English walnuts much more successfully than they will in their first decade of growth. Results have shown that these local stocks will accept such grafts, however, and that crops of English walnuts will be produced. The fertility of the soil must be maintained carefully, since the English walnut top tends to overgrow its black walnut root-stock, and unless nutritional substance for the support of these tops is fed to the root-system, meager crops, if any, will result. I might note in comparison to the 1-1/2% success I had in this grafting, that during the same season I put several hundred scions of these same English walnuts on the Eastern black walnut stocks without a single successful graft occurring. In 1933 and 1934, many of these experimentally grafted walnuts, such as Vandersloot, Paterson, and Rohwer as well as others, were planted in orchard formation. In digging these trees, we took care to get all of the root possible and to take a ball of dirt with the root. In spite of these precautions, some of the trees died, not having sufficient vitality and root development to withstand transplantation. This was a result not only of the crowded condition under which the stocks had grown but also of the poor soil which had nourished them. The soil was heavy blue clay underlaid with limestone within two feet of the top of the ground. Enough trees were set out in orchard formation which are growing well and bearing annual crops, to give us the proof we need in drawing conclusions of superiority among these varieties. Black walnuts will keep for several years if they are properly dried and then stored in a cool, but not too damp, place. Storing nuts in attics which are likely to become excessively hot in the summer time, causes rancidity sooner than any other method. Nuts keep very well in attics during the winter but they should be transferred to a basement during hot weather. If the basement is very damp, though, nuts will mould there. For general storage, without having to move them from one place to another for different seasons, nuts can be kept most practically in a barn or outside shed. The only precaution necessary under such circumstances is that they should be in a box or steel barrel to prevent squirrels and mice from feeding on them, since barns and sheds are easily accessible to these animals. The kernels of black walnuts need not be discolored if the hulls of the fresh nuts are removed as soon as the nuts are ripe. At my farm, we have done this with an ordinary corn-sheller. The nuts, having been hulled this way, are then soaked in water for a few hours to remove any excess coloring matter left on their shells, after which they are dried for several days out-of-doors, although not exposed to the sun since this might cause them to crack open. Thorough drying is necessary before sacking to prevent moulding. Kernels extracted from nuts treated this way are very light in color like English walnuts. This enhances their market value and they command a higher price when they are to be used for culinary purposes such as cake frosting and candies where there is exposure of large pieces or halves of the nut kernel. I find black walnuts are exceptionally delicious when used in a candy called divinity fudge. The strong flavor of the black walnut kernel although appreciated by many people, is not as popular as that of the butternut, of which more is said in another chapter. The food value of black walnut kernels is high since they are composed of concentrated fat and protein, similar to the English walnut, the hickory nut and the pecan. There is also the advantage, which John Harvey Kellogg of Battle Creek, Michigan, has pointed out, that nuts are a food of high purity being entirely free from disease bacteria. One could safely say of unshelled nuts that there is not a disease germ in a carload. There was a time when black walnut hulls were purchased by producers of insecticides. The black walnut hull, when dried and pulverized, produces a substance which gives body to the concentrated pyrethrum extract which is the essential ingredient of many insecticides. One cannot leave a discussion of black walnuts without reflecting on the furniture which has been possible only through the use of vast forests of black walnut timber. Beautiful veneers have come from the burl walnut, being formed by protuberances on the trunks of the trees near the surface of the ground. There is a variety of black walnut which we have been experimenting with for quite a few years, called the Lamb, which has a beautifully figured grain. As this appears only in mature timber, ours is not yet old enough to show it. I have found that the Ohio black walnut is prone to hybridize with butternut trees in its vicinity and others have told me of its hybridizing with English walnut trees near it, which shows it to be almost as vacillating in character as our Japanese walnuts or heartnuts. Ohio black walnuts, when planted, usually produce vigorous stocks, many of which show hybridity of some sort. If one examines the nuts of the Ohio and finds them dwarfed or deformed, he may be sure that they have been pollinized by something other than a black walnut. Planting such nuts, then, will grow hybrid trees. Most of us have enough curiosity to want to try this as an experiment. Thomas walnut seedlings have produced more thrifty trees than Ohio nuts have. However, the best understocks are those produced from seeds of native grown trees. It is well understood that rarely does a specific type such as the Ohio, Thomas or Stabler reproduce itself exactly from seeds. In raising black walnut seedlings, my experience has taught me that the nuts should be planted in the fall and not too deep, one to two inches below the surface being all the depth necessary. They may never sprout if they are four to six inches under ground. The black walnut tree is a glutton for food seemingly, it will use all the fertilizer that it is given although, no doubt, there is a practical limit. It must have plenty of food to produce successive crops of nuts, and barnyard manure is the safest and most practical kind to use. This can be put on as a heavy mulch around the trees but some of it should also be spaded into the ground. One must always remember that the feeding roots of a tree are at about the same circumference as the tips of the branches so that fertilizer put close to the trunk will do little good except in very young trees. Since 1936 we have been watching a small native walnut which came into bearing while in a nursery row. This tree bore such fine thin-shelled easy-to-crack nuts and lent itself so readily to being propagated by graftage and had so many other good characteristics that we have selected it as representative of the black walnut varieties for the north and have named it the Weschcke walnut and patented the variety. A list is here appended to show the order of hardiness and value based on our experience: 1--Weschcke--very hardy--excellent cracking and flavor 2--Paterson--very hardy--excellent cracking and flavor (originating in Iowa) 3--Rohwer--very hardy--good cracker (originating in Iowa) 4--Bayfield--very hardy--good cracker (originating in Northern Wisconsin) 5--Adams (Iowa)--fairly hardy--good cracker 6--Ohio--semi-hardy, excellent cracking and flavor (parent tree in Ohio) 7--Northwestern--a new, good hardy nut 8--Pearl--semi-hardy--good (from Iowa) 9--Vandersloot--semi-hardy--very large 10--Thomas--tender to our winters--otherwise very good (from Pennsylvania) 11--Stabler--tender--many nuts single-lobed 12--Throp--tender, many nuts single-lobed A friend of mine, who lives in Mason, Wisconsin, discovered a black walnut tree growing in that vicinity. Since Mason is in the northern part of the state, about 47° parallel north, this tree grows the farthest north of any large black walnut I know of. I would estimate its height at about sixty-five feet and its trunk diameter at about sixteen inches at breast-height. Because of the short growing season there, the nuts do not mature, being barely edible, due to their shrinkage while drying. Some seasons this failure to mature nuts also occurs in such varieties as the Thomas, the Ohio and even the Stabler at my River Falls farm, which is nearly 150 miles south of Mason. Such nuts will sprout, however, and seedlings were raised from the immature nuts of this northern tree. Incidentally these seedlings appear to be just as hardy in wood growth as their parent tree. I have also grafted scionwood from the original tree on black walnut stocks at my farm in order to determine more completely the quality of this variety. Since grafted, these trees have borne large, easy to crack mature nuts and are propagated under the varietal name (Bayfield) since the parent tree is in sight of Lake Superior at Bayfield, Wisconsin. Many of our best nut trees, from man's point of view, have inherent faults such as the inability of the staminate bloom of the Weschcke hickory to produce any pollen whatsoever, as has been scientifically outlined in the treatise by Dr. McKay under the chapter on hickories. In the Weschcke walnut we have a peculiarity of a similar nature as it affects fruiting when the tree is not provided with other varieties to act as pollinators. It has been quite definitely established, by observation over a period of ten or more years, that the pollen of the Weschcke variety black walnut does not cause fruiting in its own pistillate blooms. Although this is not uncommon among some plants, such as the chestnut and the filbert where it is generally the rule instead of the exception, yet in the black walnuts species the pollen from its own male (or staminate) flowers is generally capable of exciting the ovule of the female (pistillate) flower into growth. Such species are known as self-fertile. As in the case of ordinary chestnuts which receive no cross pollination, and the pistillate flowers develop into perfect burrs with shrunken meatless, imperfect nuts, the Weschcke black walnut, when standing alone or when the prevailing winds prevent other nearby pollen from reaching any or but few of its pistillate bloom, goes on to produce fine looking average-sized nuts practically all of which are without seed or kernels. Such therefore is the importance of knowing the correct pollinators for each variety of nut tree. In the self-sterility of filberts the failure of self-pollination results in an absence of nuts or in very few rather than a full crop of seedless fruits such as the common chestnut and the Weschcke black walnuts produces. This is the only black walnut that has come to the author's attention where its pollen acting on its pistillate bloom has affected the production of nuts in just this way but the variety of black walnut known as the Ohio, one of the best sorts for this northern climate except for hardiness, has often demonstrated that it has a peculiarity which might be caused by lack of outside pollen or because of the action of its own pollen on its pistillate bloom. This peculiarity is the often found one-sided development of the Ohio walnut kernel when the tree is isolated from other pollen bearing black walnuts. One lobe of the kernel is therefore full-meated while the other half or lobe is very undernourished or it may be a thin wisp of a kernel as is the appearance of the Weschcke variety in similar circumstances. [Illustration: _Stabler variety of Black Walnut grafted on a Minnesota seedling stock bore many years but was winter killed. Photo by C. Weschcke_] Cutting scionwood early one spring, I noticed that the sap was running very fast in the grafted Stabler tree previously referred to. Later when I came back to inspect this tree, I noticed that the sap had congealed to syrupy blobs at the ends of the cut branches. My curiosity led me to taste this and I found it very sweet and heavy. I mean to experiment some time in making syrup from the sap of this tree as I believe its sugar content to be much higher than that of the local sugar maple. This makes the Stabler a 3-purpose tree, the first being its nuts, the second being the syrup, and the third being, at the end of its potentially long life, a good-sized piece of timber of exceptionally high value. The tree is one of beauty, having drooping foliage similar to that of the weeping willow. This is another point in its favor, its being an ornamental tree worthy of any lawn. However, the Stabler is now considered as a tender variety and is not recommended for northern planting. [Illustration: _Stabler graft on old seedling grafted in May, 1938 bearing in August of the same year. Photo by C. Weschcke_] [Illustration: _Cut Leaf Black Walnut. Scions furnished by Harry Weber of Cincinnati, Ohio. Variety was hardy on Minnesota seedling for about 5 years. Photo by C. Weschcke_] The aesthetic value of the black walnut does not cease here since there are some varieties which are exceptionally attractive. One of these is the cut-leaf black walnut which has the ordinary compound leaf but whose individual leaflets are so scalloped and serrated that they resemble a male fern. Everyone who has seen one of these has evinced pleasurable surprise at this new form of leaf and it may become very popular with horticulturists in the future. Another interestingly different variety is the Deming Purple walnut which, although orthodox in leaf form, has a purplish tint, bordering on red in some cases, coloring leaf, wood and nuts, resulting in a distinctly decorative tree. This tree was named for Dr. W. C. Deming who was the founder of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. Neither the Laceleaf nor Deming Purple are hardy for this climate but survived several years nevertheless before succumbing to one of our periodical test winters. Chapter 4 HAZELS AND FILBERTS In October 1921, I ordered from J. F. Jones, one hundred plants of what is known as the Rush hazel which was, at that time, the best known of the propagated hazels. In ordering these, I mentioned the fact that I expected to get layered plants or grafted ones. Mr. Jones wrote me at once to say that the plants he had were seedlings of the Rush hazel which are said to come very true to seed, but that if I did not want them as seedlings he would cancel the order. Rather than lacking a profitable filler between the orchard trees, I accepted the order of one hundred plants and received from him a fine lot of hazels which took good root and began to grow luxuriantly. It was several years before any of them began to bear and when one or two did, the nuts were not hazels at all, but filberts and hybrids. In most cases these nuts were larger and better than those of the original Rush hazel. One of these seedlings grew into a bushy tree ten or twelve feet high. For several years it bore a crop which, though meager, was composed of large, attractive nuts shaped like those of the common American hazel but very unlike the true Rush hazelnut. One year this tree began to fail and I tried to save it or propagate it by layering and sprouting seeds. Unfortunately it did not occur to me at that time to graft it to a wild hazel to perpetuate it. I still lament my oversight as the tree finally died and a very hardy plant was lost which was apparently able to fertilize its own blossoms. I ordered four Winkler hazel bushes from Snyder Bros. of Center Point, Iowa, in March 1927, asking them to send me plants that were extra strong and of bearing size. I planted these that spring but the following summer was so dry that all four died. I ordered twelve more Winklers in September for spring delivery, requesting smaller ones this time (two to three feet). Half of these were shipped to me with bare roots, the others being balled in dirt for experimental purposes. Four of the latter are still living and producing nuts. In April 1928, I planted a dozen Jones hybrid hazels but only two of them survived more than two years. I think the reason they lasted as well as they did was that around each plant I put a guard made of laths four feet high, bound together with wire and filled with forest leaves. I drove the laths several inches into the ground and covered them with window screening fastened down with tacks to keep mice out of the leaves. Although somewhat winter-killed, most of the plants lived during the first winter these guards were used. The second winter, more plants died, and I didn't use the guards after that. The two Jones hybrids that lived produced flowers of both sexes for several years but they did not set any nuts. One day while reading a report of one of the previous conventions of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, I discovered an article by Conrad Vollertsen in which he stressed the importance of training filberts into a single truncated plant, allowing no root sprouts or suckers to spring up since such a condition prevents the bearing of nuts. I followed his advice with my two Jones hybrids and removed all surplus sprouts. This resulted in more abundant flowers and some abortive involucres but still no nuts developed. In the spring of 1940, I systematically fertilized numerous pistillate flowers of these plants with a pollen mixture. On the branches so treated, a fairly good crop of nuts similar to those of the orthodox Jones hybrid appeared. I had cut off a few branches from the Jones hybrids when I received them and grafted these to wild hazels. This had been suggested by Robert Morris in his book, "Nut Growing," as an interesting experiment which might prove to be practical. It did not prove to be so for me for although the grafting itself was successful I found it tiresome to prune, repeatedly, the suckers which constantly spring up during the growing period and which are detrimental to grafts. Although they lived for five years, these grafts suffered a great deal of winter-injury and they never bore nuts. The one which lived for the longest time became quite large and overgrew the stock of the wild hazel. This same plant produced both staminate and pistillate blossoms very abundantly for several seasons but it did not set any nuts in spite of the many wild hazels growing nearby which gave it access to pollen. It is now known that this hybrid is self-sterile and must have pollinators of the right variety in order to bear. My next work with members of the genus Corylus was discouraging. In April 1929, I bought one hundred hazel and filbert plants from Conrad Vollertsen of Rochester, New York, which included specimens of the Rush hazel and of the following varieties of filberts: Italian Red Merribrook Kentish Cob Early Globe Zellernuts White Lambert Althaldensleben Medium Long Bony Bush Large Globe Minnas Zeller Marveille de Bollwyller Although many of these filberts bore nuts the first year they were planted, within two years they were all completely winter-killed. In 1932, I received ten filbert bushes from J. U. Gellatly of West Bank, British Columbia. These consisted of several varieties of Glover's best introductions and some Pearson seedlings. I planted them on the south side of a high stone wall, a favorable location for semi-hardy plants. They appeared to be thrifty and only slightly winter-killed during the first two years but by 1939, all but two of the bushes had died or were dying. Although as nut-bearing plants they have been of little value to me, their pollen has been of great service. I found an unusually fine wild hazel growing in the woods on my farm and in 1934, I began an experiment in hybridizing it. I crossed the pistillate flowers of the native hazel with pollen from a Gellatly filbert and obtained four hybrid plants, which I have called hazilberts. In the spring of 1940, three of these hybrids had pistillate flowers but no staminate blooms. As I was very eager to see what the new crosses would be like, I fertilized the blossoms with a gunshot mixture of pollen from other plants such as the Winkler hazel, the European filbert and the Jones hybrid hazel. Certain difficulties arose in making these hybrids, mainly due to the curiosity of the squirrels who liked to rip open the sacks covering the blossoms which were being treated. Deer mice, too, I found, have a habit of climbing the stems of hazel bushes and gnawing at the nuts long before they are mature enough to use for seed. Later I learned to protect hybrid nuts by lacing flat pieces of window screening over each branch, thus making a mouse-proof enclosure. Even after gathering the nuts I discovered that precautions were necessary to prevent rodents from reaching them. The best way I found to do this is to plant nuts in cages of galvanized hardware cloth of 2 by 2 mesh, countersunk in the ground one foot and covered completely by a frame of the same material reinforced with boards and laths. The most interesting hazilbert that has developed bears nuts of outstanding size, typically filberts in every detail of appearance, although the plant itself looks more like a hazel, being bushy and having many suckers. After more testing, this hybrid may prove to be a definite asset to nursery culture in our cold northern climate, fulfilling as it does, all the requirements for such a plant. The second hazilbert resembles the first closely except that its nuts, which are also large, are shaped like those of Corylus Americana. The third hazilbert has smaller nuts but its shell is much thinner than that of either of the others. In reference to the hazilberts, I am reminded of certain correspondence I once had with J. F. Jones. He had sent me samples of the Rush hazel and although I was impressed by them, I mentioned in replying to him that we had wild hazels growing in our pasture which were as large or larger than the Rush hazelnuts. I admitted that ours were usually very much infested with the hazel weevil. Mr. Jones was immediately interested in wild hazels of such size and asked me to send him samples of them. He wrote that he had never seen wild hazels with worms in them and would like to learn more about them. I sent him both good and wormy nuts from the wild hazel bush to which I had referred. He was so impressed by them that he wished me to dig up the plant and ship it to him, writing that he wished to cross it with filbert pollen as an experiment. I sent it as he asked but before he was able to make the cross he intended, his death occurred. Several years later, his daughter Mildred wrote to me about this hazel bush, asking if I knew where her father had planted it. Unfortunately I could give her no information about where, among his many experiments, this bush would be, so that the plant was lost sight of for a time. Later Miss Jones sent me nuts from a bush which she thought might be the one I had sent. I was glad to be able to identify those nuts as being, indeed, from that bush. In the spring of 1939, I crossed the Winkler hazel with filbert pollen; the European hazel with Winkler pollen; the Gellatly filbert with Jones hybrid pollen. These crosses produced many plants which will be new and interesting types to watch and build from. I have already made certain discoveries about them. By close examination of about forty plants, I have been able to determine that at least five are definitely hybrids by the color, shape and size of their buds. This is a very strong indication of hybridity with wild hazel or Winkler. On one of these plants, about one-foot high, I found staminate bloom which I consider unusual after only two seasons' growth. During the fall of 1941, I became interested in a phenomenon of fruit determination previous to actual fructification of the plant by detailed examinations of its buds. I noticed, for instance, that large buds generally meant that the plant would produce large nuts and small buds indicated small nuts to come. The color of the buds, whether they were green, bronze green or reddish brown, could be fairly well depended upon to indicate their hybridity in many cases. These tests were not wholly reliable but the percentage of indication was so high that I was tempted to make predictions. At that time, hazilbert No. 1 had not borne nuts. The bush resembled a wild hazel so much that I had begun to doubt its hybridity. Upon examining its buds, I found indications in their color that it was a hybrid, although the nuts apparently would not be large. It would be an important plant to me only if its pollen should prove to be effective on the other hazilberts. At the time this was only a wishful hope, because the pollen of the wild hazel, which this plant resembles, apparently does not act to excite the ovules of either filberts or filbert hybrids with filbert characteristics. Pure filbert pollen seemed to be necessary. In 1942, its pollen did prove to be acceptable to the other hazilberts and my hope for a good pollinizer was realized in it. From the conclusions I reached through my study of the buds, I made sketches of which I believed the nuts of No. 1 would be like in size and shape. In March 1942, these sketches were used as the basis of the drawing given here. A comparison of this drawing with the photograph taken in September 1942, of the actual nuts of hazilbert No. 1 show how accurate such a predetermination can be. I am convinced from the work I have done and am still doing, that we are developing several varieties of hazilberts as hardy and adaptable to different soils as the pasture hazel is, yet having the thin shell and the size of a European filbert. As to the quality of the kernel of such a nut, that of the wild hazel is as delicious as anyone could desire. [Illustration: _3/4 Natural size Filberts_] [Illustration: _3/4 Natural size Hazilberts and Winkler Hazel_] [Illustration: _31/32 of actual size Hazilberts. Left to right: No. 3, No. 5, No. 4, No. 2_] [Illustration: _No. 1 Hazilbert about 9/15/42. Note almost identical size and shape of this actual photograph of No. 1 compared to predetermined size and shape in drawing made almost one year previous to photograph. Plant had not produced any nuts prior to crop of 1942_] Chapter 5 HAZELS AND/OR FILBERTS There is a certain amount of confusion in the minds of many people regarding the difference between filberts and hazels, both of which belong to the genus Corylus. Some think them identical and call them all hazels dividing them only into European and American types. I see no reason for doing this. "Filbert" is the name of one species of genus Corylus just as "English walnut" is the commercial name of one of the members of the Juglans family. There is as much difference between a well-developed filbert and a common wild hazelnut as there is between a cultivated English walnut and wild black walnut. For ordinary purposes the nuts sold commercially, whether imported or grown in this country, are called filberts while those nuts which may be found growing prolifically in woodlands and pastures over almost the whole United States but which are not to be found on the market are called hazelnuts. This lack of commercialization of hazelnuts should be recognized as due to the smallness of the nut and the thickness of its shell rather than to its lacking flavor. Its flavor, which seldom varies much regardless of size, shape or thickness of shell, is both rich and nutty. The three main food components of the hazelnut, carbohydrate, protein and oil, are balanced so well that they approach nearer than most other nuts the ideal food make-up essential to man. The English walnut contains much oil and protein while both chestnuts and acorns consist largely of carbohydrates. One salient feature which definitely separates the species Corylus Americana or wild hazel, from others of its genus, is its resistance to hazel blight, a native fungus disease of which it is the host. Controversies may occur over the application of the names "hazel" and "filbert" but there is no dispute about the effect of this infection on members of genus Corylus imported from Europe. Although there is wide variety in appearance and quality within each of the species, especially among the European filberts, and although filberts may resemble hazels sufficiently to confuse even a horticulturist, the action of this fungus is so specific that it divides Corylus definitely into two species. Corylus Americana and Corylus cornuta, through long association, have become comparatively immune to its effects and quickly wall off infected areas while filbert plants are soon killed by contact with it. Hybrids between filberts and hazels will usually be found to retain some of the resistance of the hazel parent. The ideal nut of genus Corylus should combine qualities of both hazels and filberts. Such a hybrid should have the bushy characteristics of the American hazel with its blight-resisting properties and its ability to reproduce itself by stolons or sucker-growth. It should bear fruit having the size, general shape, cracking qualities and good flavor of the filbert as popularly known. The hybrids I am growing at my farm, which I call "hazilberts" and which are discussed later, seem to fulfill these requirements. The plants may be grown as bushes or small trees. They are blight-resistant and their nuts are like filberts in appearance. Three varieties of these hazilberts have ivory-colored kernels which are practically free of pellicle or fibre. They have a good flavor. A comparison of the ripening habits and the effect of frost on the various members of the genus Corylus growing in my nursery in the fall of 1940, is shown by these extracts taken from daily records of the work done there. It should be noted that the summer season that year was rainy and not as hot as usual, so that most nuts ripened two to three weeks later than they normally do. "September 7 and 8: Wild hazels ripe and picked at this time. (Their kernels showed no shrinkage by October 25.) September 14 and 15: I picked ripe nuts from hazilbert No. 5 which seems to be the first to ripen. Also picked half of the European filberts. (There was slight shrinkage in the kernels of the latter a few weeks later showing that they could have stayed on the trees another week to advantage.) All of the nuts of a Jones hybrid, which is a cross between Rush and some European variety such as Italian Red, could have been picked as they were ripe. Some were picked. The almond-shaped filbert classified as the White Aveline type, was not quite ripe; neither were hazilberts No. 2 and No. 4, nor the Gellatly filberts. Wild hazelnuts at this time had dry husks and were falling off the bushes or being cut down by mice. September 21 and 22: The remaining European filberts of the imported plants were picked. Also, I picked half of the White Aveline type nuts. [Illustration: _Carlola Hazilberts No. 5, about 8/10/42. This is the earliest ripening and thinnest shell of the large type hazilberts, not the largest size however. Carlola Weschcke shown in picture. Photo by C. Weschcke_] September 28 and 29: We picked most of the nuts remaining on hazilbert No. 5 and the remainder of the White Aveline type. At this time we record a heavy frost which occurred during the previous week, that is, between September 22 and 28th. Since it froze water it was considered a "killing" frost. However, the damage was spotty all over the orchard, most things continuing to develop and ripen. Winkler hazels picked and examined at this time showed them far from ripe. Hazilberts growing next to limestone walls on the south side showed no signs of frost damage whereas the Winkler, on higher ground, showed severe damage to the leaves and the husks of the nuts which immediately started to turn brown. Leaves of other filbert plants in the vicinity showed no frost damage and the very few nuts that had been left on, such as those of the Jones hybrid, were undamaged. October 5 and 6: Picked all of hazilbert No. 2 except the last two nuts. Gellatly filberts were picked about October 10 and were ripe at that time. October 11 to 13: Two English walnuts were picked and found to be as ripe as they would get. These as well as the black walnuts showed distinct signs of lacking summer heat needed for their proper development. The last two nuts on hazilbert No. 2 and the only nut on hazilbert No. 4 were picked at this time and were ripe. Chestnut burrs had opened up and the nuts enclosed were fully mature. October 19 and 20: I found the last of the Winkler hazelnuts had been picked during the previous week, approximately October 14. These were left the longest on the bush of any hazel and still were not ripe although they were not entirely killed by the several frosts occurring before that time. They are always much later than the wild hazel." On October 20, I had an opportunity of comparing the action of frost on the leaves of these plants. Those of the White Aveline type had not changed color and were very green. The leaves of the Jones hybrid showed some coloration but nothing to compare with those of the Winkler hazel, many of which had the most beautiful colors of any of the trees on the farm--red, orange and yellow bronze. Hazilbert No. 1, which resembles a wild hazel in appearance and habits of growth, had colored much earlier in reaction to the frost and was as brightly tinted as the wild hazel and Winkler plants except that, like the wild hazel, it had already lost much of its foliage. Some of the wild hazels were entirely devoid of leaves at this time. Hazilbert No. 5 showed the best color effects with No. 4 second and No. 2 last. The color of the leaves and the action of the frost on the plants during the autumn is another thing, in my opinion, that helps to differentiate between and to classify European filberts, American hazels and their hybrids. My conclusion in regard to the effect of frost is that the reaction of the Winkler hazel is very similar to that of the wild hazel in color but exceeding it in beauty since its leaves do not drop as soon after coloring. At this time, the leaves had not changed color on the imported European plants, the Gellatly filberts from British Columbia or the White Aveline type. They had turned only slightly on the Jones hybrid. I think an accurate idea of the general hardiness of a plant is indicated by the effect of frost and by early dropping of leaves, using the sturdy wild hazel as the limit of hardiness and assuming that its hardiness is shown by both degree of coloration and early dropping of leaves. In noting the action of frost on the Winkler hazel, I have mentioned that it was more like that on the American hazel than on the European filberts. The Winkler has always been considered a native woodland hazel, but, although it does show several similarities to Corylus Americana, I have also noticed certain qualities which definitely suggest some filbert heritage. I have based my theory on a study of the Winkler hazels which have been bearing annually at my farm for six years, bearing more regularly, in fact, than even the wild hazels growing nearby. My comparisons have been made with wild hazels in both Minnesota and Wisconsin and with European filberts. I found the first point of similarity with the filbert is in the involucre covering the nut. In the wild hazel, this folds against itself to one side of the nut, while in the filbert it is about balanced and if not already exposing a large part of the end of the nut, is easily opened. The involucre of the Winkler hazel is formed much more like that of the filbert than that of the hazel. In Corylus Americana this involucre is usually thick, tough and watery, while in the filbert it is thinner and drier, so that while a person may be deceived in the size of a hazelnut still in its husk, he can easily tell that of a filbert. This is also true of the Winkler whose involucre is fairly thick but outlines the form of the enclosed nut. Another feature about the involucre of the Winkler which classes it with the filberts rather than the hazels is in its appearance and texture, which is smooth and velvety while that of the hazel is hairy and wrinkled. The staminate blooms of the Winkler hazel show similarity to those of both filberts and hazels. Sometimes they appear in formation at the ends of branches, much as those of the European filberts do, in overlapping groups of three or four. Again, they may be found at regular intervals at the axis of leaf stems very much as in the case of the American hazel. The buds on the Winkler hazel are dull red which is also true of those on the hybrid hazilberts, another indication of hybridity. The initial growth of the embryo nut is very slow in the Winkler as it is in the filbert, as contrasted with the very rapid development of the native hazel embryo which matures in this latitude about one month ahead of the Winklers and some filberts. Although Winkler nuts are shaped like hazels and have the typically thick shells of hazelnuts, their size is more that of a filbert usually three times as large as a native hazel. During the years between 1942 and 1945 many new hybrids between filberts and hazels were produced. Four wild varieties of hazels, which had unusual characteristics such as tremendous bearing and large size nuts and others having very early maturing or very thin shelled nuts were used as the female parents in making the crosses. Pollen was obtained from other parts of the U. S. or from filbert bushes which were growing on the place. Crosses included pollen of the Barcelona, Duchilly, Red Aveline, White Aveline, Purple Aveline, the Italian Red, Daviana and several hybrids between other filberts and hazels. By 1945 the number of these plants were in the neighborhood of 2000 and by 1952 considerable knowledge had been gained as to the hardiness, blight resistance to the common hazel blight (known scientifically as cryptosporella anomala), freedom from the curculio of the hazelnuts (commonly known as the hazel weevil) and resistance to other insect pests. Also, considerable data had been accumulated by cataloging over 650 trees each year for five years; cataloging included varied and detailed studies of their growth, bearing habits, ability to resist blight, curculio and other insects, the size of the nut, the thinness of the shell and the flavor of the kernel. Several books of all this detail were accumulated in trying to nail down several commercial varieties that would be propagated from this vast amount of material. Although some bushes produced good nuts at the rate of as much as two tons to the acre, measured on the basis of space that they took up in the test orchard, the most prolific kind seemed to be the ones that had a tendency to revert to the wild hazel type. The better and thinner-shelled types, more resembling the filberts, seemed to be shy bearers so that there being a host of new plants to catalog (more than 1000) which had not indicated their bearing characteristics, we included these among the possible ideal plants we were seeking. Although there were several plants that could be considered commercial in the original group of over 650 it has been thought that the waiting of a few more years to ascertain whether there would be something better in the next 1000 plants to bear that would be worthwhile waiting for and no attempt has been made to propagate the earlier tested plants. Some of these 650 tested hybrids proved to have nuts that were classed as Giants being much larger than the filberts produced by male or pollen parent such as the Barcelona, Duchilly or Daviana, and several times the size of the nuts of the female parent which was the wild hazel. [Illustration: _Wild Wisconsin Hazel discovered on Hazel Hills Farm near River Falls. Note size of nuts in husks as compared to woman's hand. This plant became the female parent in over 1,000 crosses by pollen furnished from male blooms of Duchilly, Barcelona, Italian Red, White, Red, and Purple Aveline and many other well known filberts. Photo by C. Weschcke_] Chapter 6 PECANS AND THEIR HYBRIDS At the same time, October 1924, that I purchased Beaver hickory trees from J. F. Jones, I also procured from him three specimens each of three commercial varieties of pecan trees, the Posey, Indiana and Niblack, as well as some hiccan trees, i.e., hybrids having pecan and hickory parents. Only one tree survived, a Niblack pecan, which, after sixteen years, was only about eighteen inches in height. Its annual growth was very slight and it was killed back during the winter almost the full amount of the year's growth. In the 17th year this tree was dead. In September 1925, at a convention of the Northern Nut Growers' Association in St. Louis, Missouri, I became acquainted with a man whose experience in the nut-growing industry was wide and who knew a great deal about the types of hickory and pecan trees in Iowa. He was S. W. Snyder of Center Point, Iowa. (He later became president of the Association.) In one of his letters to me the following summer, Mr. Snyder mentioned that there were wild pecan trees growing near Des Moines and Burlington. I decided I wanted to know more about them and at my request, he collected ten pounds of the nuts for me. I found they were the long type of pecan, small, but surprisingly thin-shelled and having a kernel of very high quality. I first planted these nuts in an open garden in St. Paul, but after a year I moved them to my farm, where I set them out in nursery rows in an open field. The soil there was a poor grade of clay, not really suited to nut trees, but even so, most of the ones still remaining there have made reasonably good growth. I used a commercial fertilizing compound around about half of these seedlings which greatly increased their rate of growth, although they became less hardy than the unfertilized ones. After five years, I transplanted a number of them to better soil, in orchard formation. Although I have only about fifty of the original three hundred seedlings, having lost the others mainly during droughts, these remaining ones have done very well. Some of these trees have been bearing small crops of nuts during the years 1947 to date. The most mature nuts of these were planted and to date I have 17 second generation pure pecan trees to testify as to the ability of the northern pecan to become acclimated. I gave several of the original seedlings to friends who planted them in their gardens, where rich soil has stimulated them to grow at twice the rate of those on my farm. There were four individual pecan trees growing in or near St. Paul from my first planting, the largest being about 25 feet high with a caliber of five inches a foot above ground. Although this tree did not bear nuts I have used it as a source of scionwood for several years. These graftings, made on bitternut hickory stock, have been so successful that I am continuing their propagation at my nursery, having named this variety the Hope pecan, for Joseph N. Hope, the man who owns the parent tree and who takes such an interest in it. [Illustration: _Shows the use of a zinc metal tag fastened by 16 or 18 gauge copper wire to branch of tree._] By the year 1950 the tree had such a straggly appearance, although still healthy and growing but being too shaded by large trees on the boulevard, that Mr. Hope caused it to be cut down. The variety is still growing at my farm, grafted on bitternut stocks and although blossoming it has never produced a nut up to this time. Another tree given to Joseph Posch of the city of St. Paul, Minnesota, had made even better growth and was luxuriantly healthy and in bloom when it was cut down by the owner because the branches overhung the fence line into a neighbor's yard. This was done in about 1950. Another tree given to Mrs. Wm. Eldridge of St. Paul still flourishes and is quite large (in 1952 at breast height, 6 inches in diameter) but being in a dense shade, it has not borne any nuts. The fourth tree, given to John E. Straus, the famous skate maker, presumably exists at his lake residence north of St. Paul. I have not seen it in the last seven or eight years. Although they are not as hardy as bitternut stocks, I have found the wild Iowa pecan seedlings satisfactory for grafting after five years' growth. I use them as an understock for grafting the Posey, Indiana and Major varieties of northern pecan and find them preferable to northern bitternut stocks with which the pecans are not compatible for long, as a rule, such a union resulting in a stunted tree which is easily winter-killed. Although the Posey continued to live for several years our severe winters finally put an end to all these fine pecans. The root system of the seedling understock continued to live, however. I chanced to discover an interesting thing in the fall of 1941 which suggests something new in pecan propagation. There were two small pecans growing in the same rows as the large ones planted fifteen years previously. When I noticed them, I thought they were some of this same planting and that they had been injured or frozen back to such an extent that they were mere sprouts again, for this has happened. I decided to move them and asked one of the men on the farm to dig them up. When he had dug the first, I was surprised to find that this was a sprout from the main tap root of a large pecan tree which had been taken out and transplanted. The same was true of the second one, except that in this case we found three tap roots, the two outside ones both having shoots which were showing above the ground. Another remarkable circumstance about this was that these tap roots had been cut off twenty inches below the surface of the ground and the sprouts had to come all that distance to start new trees. All of this suggests the possibility of pecan propagation by root cuttings. These two pecans, at least, show a natural tendency to do this and I have marked them for further experimentation along such lines. On the advice of the late Harry Weber of Cincinnati, Ohio, an eminent nut culturist, who, after visiting my nursery in 1938, became very anxious to try out some of the Indiana varieties of pecans in our northern climate, I wrote to J. Ford Wilkinson, a noted propagator of nut trees at Rockport, Indiana, suggesting that he make some experimental graftings at my farm. Both Mr. Wilkinson and Mr. Weber gathered scionwood from all the black walnut, pecan, hiccan and hickory trees at their disposal, for this trial. There was enough of it to keep three of us busy for a week grafting it on large trees. Our equipment was carried on a two-wheeled trailer attached to a Diesel-powered tractor, and we were saved the trouble of having to carry personally, scions, packing material, wax pots, knives, pruning shears, tying material, canvas and ladders into the woods. Mr. Wilkinson remarked, on starting out, that in the interests of experimental grafting, he had travelled on foot, on horseback, by mule team and in rowboats, but that this was his first experience with a tractor. When he saw the type of grafting with which I had been getting good results, Mr. Wilkinson was astounded. He declared that using a side-slot graft in the South resulted in 100% failure, while I had more than 50% success with it. He was willing to discard his type of grafting for mine, which was adequate for the work we were doing, but I wanted to check his grafting performance and urged him to continue with his own (an adaptation of the bark-slot graft to the end of a cut-off stub). We both used paper sacks to shade our grafts. Although results proved that my methods averaged a slightly higher percentage of successful graftings in this latitude and for the type of work we were doing, his would nonetheless be superior in working over trees larger than four inches in diameter and having no lateral branches up to eight feet above ground, at which height it is most convenient to cut off a large hickory preparatory to working on it. In the late fall of that year, we cut scionwood of the season's growth and inverted large burlap bags stuffed with leaves over the grafts, the bags braced on the inside by laths to prevent their collapsing on the grafts. So we have perpetuated the following varieties: Hickories: Cedar Rapids, Taylor, Barnes, Fairbanks. Hiccans: McAlester, Bixby, Des Moines, Rockville, Burlington, Green Bay. The Major and Posey pure pecans being incompatible on bitternut hickory roots were grafted on pecan stocks, but they proved to be tender to our winters and the varieties were finally lost. [Illustration: _Largest planted pecan in World having a record. About 17 ft. circumference breast height, 125 ft. spread and 125 ft. height. Very small worthless pecans. Easton, Maryland. Photo by Reed 1927_] Other experiments I have made with pecans include an attempt to grow Southern pecans from seed, but they seem to be no more hardy than an orange tree would be. It is certain that they are not at all suited to the climate of the 45th parallel. In 1938, I received from Dr. W. C. Deming of Connecticut, some very good nuts from a large pecan tree at Hartford, Connecticut. Of the twelve pecans I planted, only six sprouted, and of these, only one has survived up to this date and is now a small weak tree. Apparently, the seedlings of this Hartford pecan are not as hardy as those from Iowa. [Illustration: _Iowa seedling Pecans. Tree planted in 1926 as seed. First crop October 29, 1953. 7/8 of actual size. Nuts were fully matured. Photo by C. Weschcke_] Of the hiccans, hybrids between hickory and pecan, there are several varieties, as I mentioned before. Of these, the McAlester is the most outstanding, its nuts measuring over three inches in circumference and about three inches long. Horticulturists believe that this hybrid is the result of a cross between a shell-bark hickory, which produces the largest nut of any hickory growing in the United States, and a large pecan. I have experimented a number of times with the McAlester and my conclusion is that it is not hardy enough to advocate its being grown in this climate. There are other hiccans hardier than it is, however, such as the Rockville, Burlington, Green Bay and Des Moines, and it is certain that the North is assured of hardy pecans and a few hardy hybrids, which, although they do not bear the choicest pecan nuts, make interesting and beautiful lawn trees. Indeed, as an ornamental tree, the pecan is superior to the native hickory in two definite ways: by its exceedingly long life, which may often reach over 150 years as contrasted with the average hickory span of 100 years, and by its greater size. One pecan tree I saw growing in Easton, Maryland, in 1927, for example, was then seventeen feet in circumference at breast-height, one hundred twenty-five feet in height and having a spread of one hundred fifty feet. The wood of the pecan is similar to that of the hickory in both toughness and specific gravity, although for practical purposes, such as being used for tool handles, the shagbark hickory is enough harder and tougher to make it the superior of the two. I was pleasantly surprised on October 30, 1953 when a pecan seedling of the Iowa origin, which had not yet borne any nuts, showed a small crop. These nuts were fully matured and were of sufficient size so that they could be considered a valuable new variety of pecan nut for the North. A plate showing a few of these pecans illustrates, by means of a ruler, the actual size of these pecans, and the fact that they matured so well by October 30 indicates that in many seasons they may be relied upon to mature their crop. No other data has been acquired on this variety and we can only be thankful that we can expect it to do a little better in size as successive crops appear, which is the usual way of nut trees. Also, by fertilizing this tree we can expect bigger nuts, as is generally the case. The shell of this pecan is so thin that it can be easily cracked with the teeth, which I have done repeatedly, and although small is thinner-shelled than any standard pecan. Chapter 7 HICKORY THE KING The acknowledged autocrat of all the native nuts is the hickory. Perhaps not all the experts admit this leadership but it is certainly the opinion held by most people. Of course, when I speak of the hickory nut in this high regard, I refer to the shagbark hickory which, as a wild tree, is native as far north as the 43rd parallel in Minnesota and Wisconsin, and somewhat farther in the eastern states. Wild hickory nuts have been commercialized only to a slight extent. Its crops are almost entirely consumed in the locality in which they are grown by those people who find great pleasure in spending fine autumn days gathering them. The obvious reason why hickory nuts have not been made a product of commerce lies in the nut itself, which is usually very small and which has a shell so strong and thick that the kernel can be taken out only in small pieces. The toughness of the shell makes cracking difficult, too, and since only rarely is one found that can be broken by a hand cracker, it is necessary to use the flatiron-and-hammer method. It is quite possible, though, that some day the hickory will rival or exceed its near relative, the wild pecan, in commercial favor. The wild pecans which formerly came on the market at Christmastime in mixtures of nuts were just as difficult to extract from their shells as the wild shagbark hickory nuts are now. By means of selection and cultivation, the pecan was changed from a small, hard-to-crack nut to that of a large thin-shelled nut whose kernel was extractable in whole halves. Among many thousands of wild pecan trees were a few which bore exceptionally fine nuts, nuts similar to those now found at every grocery store and called "papershell" pecans. These unusual nuts were propagated by grafting twigs from their parent trees on ordinary wild pecan trees whose own nuts were of less value. These grafted trees were set out in orchards where they produce the millions of pounds of high-grade pecans now on the market. The question which naturally occurs is, "Why hasn't this been done with hickory nuts?" Hundreds of attempts have been made to do so, by the greatest nut propagators in the United States. They have been successful in grafting outstanding varieties of hickory to wild root stocks but the time involved has prevented any practical or commercial success, since most grafted hickories require a period of growth from ten to twenty years before bearing any nuts. This length of time contrasts very unfavorably with that required by grafted pecans which produce nuts on quite young trees, frequently within three to five years after grafting. This factor of slow growth has set the pecan far ahead of the tasty shagbark hickory. Experimenters have long thought to reduce the time required by the hickory to reach maturity by grafting it to fast-growing hickory roots such as the bitternut or the closely related pecan. Both of these grow rapidly and the bitternut has the additional advantage of growing farther north and of being transplanted more easily. It has always been thought that when a good variety of shagbark hickory had been successfully grafted to bitternut root stocks, orchards of hickory trees would soon appear. This takes me to my discovery of the variety now known as the Weschcke hickory, which I have found fulfills the necessary conditions. [Illustration: _Shows exceptionally thin shell of Weschcke hickory variety. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn_] One fall day in 1926, when I was at the home of a neighboring farmer, he offered me some mixed hickory nuts he had received from an uncle in Iowa. As he knew of my interest in nuts, he wanted my opinion of them. I looked them over and explained that they were no better than little nutmegs, having very hard shells and a small proportion of inaccessible meat. To demonstrate this, I cracked some between hammer and flatiron. My demonstration was conclusive until I hit one nut which almost melted under the force I was applying. The shape of this nut was enough different from the others to enable me to pick out a handful like it from the mixture. I was amazed to see how very thin-shelled and full of meat they were. Upon my request, this neighbor wrote to his uncle, John Bailey, of Fayette, Iowa, asking if he knew from which tree such fine nuts had come. Unfortunately he did not, because the nuts had been gathered from quite a large area. After corresponding with Mr. Bailey myself, I decided that I would go there and help him locate the tree, although it was nearly Christmas and heavy snowfalls which already covered the ground would make our search more difficult. [Illustration: _Carl Weschcke, Jr., hand holding Weschcke hickory in hull. 9/15/42 Photo by C. Weschcke_] On my arrival in Fayette, I called on Mr. Bailey, who was glad to help me hunt out the tree in which I had so much interest. We called A. C. Fobes, the owner of the farm from which the nuts were believed to have come, and arranged to go out there with him by bob sleigh. A rough ride of six or seven miles brought us to the farm and we began our quest. Once there, Mr. Bailey had a more definite idea of where to look for the tree from which these particular nuts came than he had had before and we had not been at our task for more than an hour before it was located. There were still quite a few nuts on the ground beneath it, which identified it accurately. It was a large shagbark whose first living branch was fully sixteen feet off the ground and, since we had no ladder with us, I had to shin up the tree to cut off some of the smaller branches. This shagbark, true to its name, had rough bark which tore not only my clothes but some of the skin on my legs as well and whereas the climbing up was difficult, the coming down was equally so. Having contracted verbally with Mr. Fobes to buy the tree, I packed the branches I had cut in cardboard boxes with straw packing and carefully brought them home to St. Paul. I wrote at once to my friend, J. F. Jones, of my expedition, telling him of my plans to propagate this hickory. I also sent him some of the nuts from the parent tree and samples of extra-good nuts from other trees growing near it so that he could give me his opinion of them. Mr. Jones responded by advising me about the kind of a contract to make with Mr. Fobes in regard to both the purchasing and propagation of the original hickory tree and he urged the latter enthusiastically. Of the Weschcke hickory nuts themselves, he wrote: "This is practically identical with the Glover. The Glover is usually a little larger but this varies in all nuts from year to year. This is a fine nut and if it comes from Iowa, it ought to be propagated. I suggest you keep the stock of it and propagate the tree for northern planting, that is for Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, etc., where most nuts grown here would not mature." A few years ago, I saw the Glover hickory nut for the first time and I also thought it much the same as the Weschcke in shape, as is also the Brill. Because I did not know how to preserve the scions I had cut, they dried out during the winter to such an extent that they were worthless for spring grafting. This meant losing a whole season. The next fall I obtained more scionwood from Mr. Fobes and having kept it in good condition during the winter by storing it in a Harrington graft box shown by illustration, I was able to graft it in the spring. However, these grafts did not take hold well, only two or three branches resulting from all of it and these did not bear nor even grow as they should have. I was disappointed and discouraged, writing to Mr. Fobes that I did not believe the tree could be propagated. [Illustration: _This drawing illustrates how to build a Harrington graft storage box_] In the fall of 1932, Mr. Fobes sent me a large box of scions and branches, explaining that he had sold his farm and, as the tree might be cut down, this was my last opportunity to propagate it. Without much enthusiasm, I grafted the material he had sent me on about a dozen trees, some of them very large hickories and I was most agreeably surprised to find the grafting successful and more than one branch bearing nutlets. These nuts dropped off during the summer until only one remained to mature, which it did in the latter part of October. But I waited too long to pick that nut and some smart squirrel, which had probably been watching it ripen as diligently as I had, secured it first. I made a very thorough search of the ground nearby to find the remains of it, for while I knew I would not get a taste of the kernel--the squirrel would take care of that--I was interested in finding out whether it followed the exact shape and thinness of shell of the first nuts I had examined. I finally did find part of it, enough to see that it was similar to the nuts from the parent tree. The grafts I made in 1932 have been bearing nuts every year since that time. The Weschcke hickory makes a tremendous growth grafted on bitternut hickory (Carya Cordiformis). The wood and buds are hardy to a temperature of 47° below zero Fahrenheit, so that wherever the wild bitternut hickory grow, this grafted tree will survive to bear its thin-shelled nuts. The nuts have a fine flavor and the unusual quality of retaining this flavor without becoming rancid, for three years. The only fault to find with them is the commercial one of being only medium in size, so that compared to English walnuts, for example, they become unimpressive. I have noticed time and again that the average person will pass over a small, sweet nut to choose a larger one even though the latter may not have as attractive a flavor. This is noticeably true in regard to pecans, when the large paper-shell types, which have a rather dry, sweet kernel, are almost invariably preferred to the smaller ones of finer flavor, which are plump and have slightly thicker shells. Previous to finding the Weschcke hickory, I experimented with several varieties of hickory hybrids. In March 1924, I purchased twelve Beaver and twelve Fairbanks hybrid hickories from J. F. Jones. I planted these trees in April of that year but of the lot, only two Beaver trees lived to bear nuts. One of these is still growing on my farm, in thin, clay soil underlaid with limestone, and it bears nuts annually. It is only a fair-sized tree but I think its slow growth has protected it from the usual amount of winter damage. I also ordered from Mr. Jones, in July 1924, 12 Marquardt hiccans, 12 Laney, 12 Siers, 34 Beaver and 30 Fairbanks. The last four are hybrids between species of hickories. Out of the whole order, amounting to one hundred trees, none remains alive now. The Marquardt hiccan mentioned above was the subject of dispute among nut culturists for a time but it has been definitely agreed now, that the Marquardt was never actually propagated, the tree having been lost or cut down before scions were taken from it. Substitutes were taken from the Burlington, a hybrid whose nut is similar to the Marquardt and whose foliage and other attributes are thought to be like it. The name of Marquardt persisted for several years, however, and it has been entirely discarded only recently. The Burlington is now known to be the representative of that part of Iowa. However, I grafted some of the tops of the Marquardt trees from Jones to bitternut trees at the time that I transplanted them; several of the grafts made successful growth and resulted in several trees growing deep in the woods. After 28 years these grafts are still alive and certainly have established their right to be called compatible with bitternut hickory stocks. Close examination of the branches, leaves and buds, particularly the leaf-scars, indicate that this hiccan is enough different and more hardy than the Burlington, which also grows well on the bitternut, to discredit the story that the Marquardt is lost. It will not be determined, however, that this is the genuine Marquardt until it has fruited. Altogether I have grafted about 70 varieties of hickory and its hybrids on bitternut stocks in my attempts to increase the number of varieties of cultured hickory trees in the North. Most of those I worked with were compatible with the bitternut stock, but a few, perhaps a dozen, have indicated that they would rather not live on the bitternut and have died, either from incompatibility or winter-killing. Yet as a root system, the bitternut is the hardiest and easiest to transplant of any of the hickories and for these reasons it makes an ideal stock for the amateur nut-grower to use. I did try, in 1926, to grow some shagbark hickory stocks, which would be more compatible with those varieties I could not get started on bitternut. I planted half a bushel of shagbark hickory nuts from Iowa, but although they sprouted nicely, they were not sufficiently hardy and were winter-killed so severely that, after twelve years, the largest was not more than a foot high, nor thicker than a lead pencil. Some of these, about 50, were transplanted into the orchard and in other favorable locations. The largest of these, in 1952, is about 4 inches in diameter, 1-foot off the ground, and about 15 feet high. I have not grafted any yet and only one has borne any seedling nuts so far. I am now reconciled to using my native bitternut trees for most of my stock in spite of some disadvantages. A list of successfully grafted varieties is appended, and indicates to what extent this stock is a universal root stock for most of the hickories and their hybrids. A successful union, however, and long life, does not mean that good bearing habits will be established, since most of these trees grow in the woods in dense shade and poor surroundings. Some varieties have not borne many nuts, and some not at all. The following scions were cut this fall (in 1952) from successfully grafted trees deep in the woods: Bixby hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 Burlington hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 Green Bay hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 Des Moines hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 Burton hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1939 McAlester hiccan (pecan by shellbark) grafted in 1938 Anthony Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 Barnes Shagbark by mocker nut grafted in 1938 Brill Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 Brooks Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 Camp No. 2 Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 (?) Deveaux Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 Fox Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 Glover Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 Gobble Shagbark hickory grafted in 1940 Hand Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 Harman Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 Leonard Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 Lingenfelter Shagbark hickory grafted in 1942 Manahan Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 Milford Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 Murdock Shagbark hickory grafted in 1941 Netking Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 Platman Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 Pleas Pecan by bitternut grafted in 1938 Schinnerling Shagbark hickory grafted in 1942 Stanley Shellbark hickory grafted in 1939 Swaim Shagbark hickory grafted in 1941 Taylor Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 Triplett Shagbark hickory grafted in 1939 Woods grafted in 1939 The varieties below are growing in orchard or random locations out of the woods: Beaver Hybrid hickory grafted in 1924 Cedar Rapids Shagbark hickory grafted in 1926 Clark Shagbark hickory grafted in 1938 Fairbanks hybrid Shagbark by bitternut grafted in 1924 Herman Last Hybrid grafted in 1948 Hope pecan Pure pecan grafted to bitternut grafted in 1938 Kirtland Shagbark hickory grafted in 1936 Laney Pecan by shellbark grafted in 1936 Marquardt Hiccan grafted in 1924 Norton Hiccan grafted in 1938 River hickory Undetermined hybrid grafted in 1948 Rockville hiccan Pecan by shellbark grafted in 1926 Siers Mockernut by bitternut grafted in 1936 Stratford Shagbark by bitternut grafted in 1938 Weiker hybrid Shagbark by shellbark grafted in 1936 In addition to the above, several large and small trees of the Weschcke variety are located in orchard and random locations, some having been grafted in 1926 and later. Also, there is a sprinkling of Bridgewater variety, grafted in 1936 and later, all bearing each year. For many years, I observed hickories and walnuts in bloom and hand-pollinated them, yet I overlooked many things I should have discovered earlier in study. It was only after ten years of observing the Weschcke hickory, for example, that I realized the importance of proper pollinization of it. In years when it produced only a few nuts, I had blamed seasonal factors, rains and soil conditions, but I now realize that it was due to lack of the right pollen. In the spring of 1941, I decided to make special pollen combinations with all the hickories then in bloom. The information I acquired in return was great reward for the work I did. I selected branches of the Weschcke hickory trees bearing a profuse amount of pistillate (female) blossoms. I hand-pollinated these with a special apparatus (the hand-pollen gun described later in this book), using a magnifying glass so that both pollen and blossom could be plainly seen. In doing this, I found it most practical to wear what jewelers call a "double loupe," a light, fiber head-gear carrying lenses well-suited to such work. I treated the marked branches with pollen gathered from the Bridgewater, the Kirtland and the Beaver, all very good pollen-bearers. I also pollinated branches of the Cedar Rapids variety, which bears little pollen in this locality, with Kirtland pollen. However, the pollinization of the Cedar Rapids, which involved treating from 35 to 50 pistillate blossoms, resulted in only two mature nuts. The Weschcke hickory has an abortive staminate bloom so that it must depend on some other variety for pollen. At the Northern Nut Growers' Convention, held at Hershey, Pa. in 1941, (where I had the honor of being elected president of that venerable organization and succeeded myself thereafter for the next five years) I mentioned this abortive staminate bloom of my hickory to my friend, Dr. J. W. McKay, Associate Cytologist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture at that time. He was very interested in this phenomenon and wanted specimens of the abortive catkins for examination. These were sent to him in the spring of 1942. I quote from Dr. McKay's report on his primary findings: "I have just made a preliminary examination of the catkins from your hickory tree received last May, and it seems that the individual staminate flower of the catkin produces 4-5 undersized stamens, the anthers of which are devoid of either pollen or pollen-mother-cells. So far I have made only temporary preparations of the crushed anthers in stain but careful study of these mounts discloses no sign of pollen grains or mother cells, so we may tentatively conclude that no pollen is produced by the tree; in other words it is male-sterile. The stage at which degeneration of the pollen-forming tissue occurs in the anthers and its nature will have to be determined by means of a longer and more elaborate technique and I will let you know what we find as soon as the results are available. It may be that pollen-mother-cells are not even formed in the anthers; the small size of these structures and their more or less shriveled appearance lead me to believe that this may be the case. "So far as I know there is no instance among nut species comparable to that outlined above. We have two or three cases of male sterility in chestnut but in these no stamens are formed in the individual staminate flower. In one of the hybrid walnuts that I reported on at the Hershey convention, imperfect pollen grains are formed in the anthers but the latter structures never open, so no pollen is shed. "Bear in mind that the above report is preliminary and other angles may turn up when permanent mounts are available for study." On December 14, 1943 I received a second, and final report from Dr. McKay from which I quote, as follows: "Dear Mr. Weschcke: The enclosed pencil sketches will give you an idea of the results obtained from sectioning four lots of material from the two samples of catkins that you sent, two lots from each sample. Since the sample collected May 25 at the time of catkin fall was old enough to contain mature pollen and showed only anthers of the two types described herewith I think we may safely conclude that the tree is male sterile because of the failure of the mother cells to function. It is odd that in some anthers the pollen-mother-cells develop (type 2) while in others they do not (type 1). For this we have no explanation; nor can we explain why the tree is male sterile. I am afraid these phenomena will remain a matter of conjecture for some time to come. Since sterilities of this and other sorts in most other plants are largely genetic, that is, controlled by one or more genes that are inherited in Mendelian fashion, it is likely that such is the case here. You and I will not live long enough, however, to grow the necessary number of generations of trees to clear up these matters. "In the course of routine preparation of other material I plan to run up other lots from your samples, and I will let you know if anything different turns up. I believe we may safely conclude, however, that the results reported herewith are representative." In further explanation, Dr. McKay submitted the drawings shown on page 57, and says: "Four lots of material were sectioned, two from the collection of May 6 and two from that of May 25. Of these, two gave anthers of type one, and two of type two. More material will have to be sectioned before we know which type is predominant. "The anthers of type one are greatly shriveled, and a band of deeply-staining collapsed cells apparently represents the remains of archesporial or pollen-forming tissue. "The anthers of type two are normal in appearance, but the pollen-mother-cells degenerate before pollen grains are formed. A comparison of the degenerate pollen-mother-cells of this plant with normal pollen-mother-cells is given below:" [Illustration: Sections of anthers of the Weschcke Hickory Carya ovata _Illustrations by Dr. McKay showing pollen degeneration in Weschcke hickory._] This substantiates the conclusion that I had arrived at previous to this report, that this hickory is able to mature its nuts early in the fall by reason of not having to waste its energy in the production of pollen. (There is only one other variety of hickory which I have grafted on bitternut which has proved unable to mature pollen and it is the Creager from Iowa.) I was immensely pleased to find that it responded very well to Bridgewater pollen, a high percentage of the blooms treated with it developing mature nuts. The results with the Kirtland pollen were almost equally good, the poorest showing coming from those branches treated with Beaver pollen on which only three mature nuts developed. (The Beaver is presumed to be a hybrid between bitternut and shagbark hickories.) Sixty-two nuts from these pollinizations were planted in the fall of 1941 in rodent-proof seed beds. In the spring, counting germination, I found 100% of these nuts had sprouted and grown into small trees during the season. After finding the most suitable pollen for the Weschcke hickory, I realized the necessity for including more than one variety of hickory in a planting, just as there should be more than one variety of apple or plum tree in an orchard. I think that it would always be well to have three or more varieties of known compatibility within reasonable distances, probably not more than 100 feet apart, nor less than 40 to 50 feet for large hickories. Of the many varieties of hickory and hickory hybrids I have tested, about twenty have, by now, proved to be sufficiently hardy to recommend for this latitude. These include: *Beaver hybrid hickory *Fairbanks hybrid hickory *Laney hybrid hickory Burlington hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory Rockville hybrid between pecan and shellbark hickory Hope pecan pure pecan grafted on to bitternut roots Hand pure shagbark *Bridgewater pure shagbark Barnes hybrid hickory *Cedar Rapids pure shagbark *Weschcke pure shagbark *Deveaux pure shagbark *Brill pure shagbark *Glover pure shagbark *Kirtland pure shagbark *Siers thought to be a hybrid between the mocker nut and bitternut *Stratford hybrid (bitternut by shagbark) *Creager *Have produced mature nuts There are three or four others that are hardy but all means of identification having been lost, it will be necessary to wait until they come into bearing before their varieties will be known. As experiments continue, more varieties of worthy, hardy hickories and hiccans will be found which will justify completely the opinion of those of us who always hail as king of all our native nuts, the hickory. [Illustration: _1930--Weschcke Hickory as borne by parent tree at Fayette, Iowa._ _1939--After several years of bearing grafted on Northern Bitternut hickory at River Falls, Wis._ _1940--Still further change in shape and size from graft on Bitternut._ _1941--Change and increase in size now is so pronounced as to almost extinguish its original identity._] [Illustration: _Weschcke hickory nut natural size shows free splitting hull. Photo by C. Weschcke._] Chapter 8 BUTTERNUT Like the hickory tree, the butternut shares in the childhood reminiscences of those who have lived on farms or in the country where butternuts are a treat to look forward to each fall. The nuts, which mature early, have a rich, tender kernel of mild flavor. Only the disadvantage of their heavy, corrugated shells prevents them from holding the highest place in popularity, although a good variety cracks easily into whole half-kernels. Butternuts grow over an extended range which makes them the most northern of all our native wild nut trees, although their nuts do not mature as far north as hazelnuts do. Butternut trees blossom so early that in northern latitudes the blossoms are frequently killed in late spring frosts. Only when the trees are growing near the summit of a steep hillside will they be likely to escape such frosts and bear crops regularly. I have found that really heavy crops appear in cycles in natural groves of butternut trees. My observation of them over a period of thirty-two years in their natural habitat in west-central Wisconsin has led me to conclude that one may expect butternut trees to bear, on an average, an enormous crop of nuts once in five years, a fairly large crop once in three years, with little or no crop the remaining years. As a seedling tree of two or three years, the butternut is indistinguishable from the black walnut except to a very discerning and practiced eye, especially in the autumn after its leaves have fallen. As the trees grow older, the difference in their bark becomes more apparent, that of the butternut remaining smooth for many years, as contrasted to the bark on black walnut trees which begins to roughen on the main trunk early in its life. Bark on a butternut may still be smooth when the tree is ten years old. Forest seedlings of butternut, when one or two years old, are easily transplanted if the soil is congenial to their growth. Although the tree will do well on many types of soil, it prefers one having a limestone base, just as the English walnut does. A butternut seedling usually requires several more years of growth than a black walnut does before it comes into bearing, although this varies with climate and soil. It is impossible to be exact, but I think I may safely say that it requires at least ten years of growing before a seedling butternut tree will bear any nuts. Of course, exceptions will occasionally occur. As a butternut tree matures, it spreads out much like an apple or chestnut tree. Of course, it must have enough room to do so, an important factor in raising any nut tree. Enough room and sunlight hasten bearing-age and insure larger crops of finer nuts. Grafting valuable varieties of butternut on black walnut stock will also hasten bearing. I have had such grafts produce nuts the same year the grafting was done and these trees continued to grow rapidly and produce annually. However, they were not easy to graft, the stubborn reluctance of the butternut top to accept transplantation to a foreign stock being well known. This factor will probably always cause grafted butternut trees to be higher in price than black walnut or hickory. The reverse graft, i.e., black walnut on butternut should never be practiced for although successful, the black walnut overgrows the stock and results in an unproductive tree. Specimens 25 or more years old prove this to be a fact. Butternut trees are good feeders. They respond well to cultivation and lend themselves to being grafted upon, although, from my own experience, I question their usefulness as a root stock. I have found that when I grafted black walnuts, English walnuts or heartnuts on butternut stock, the top or grafted part of the tree became barren except for an occasional handful of nuts, even on very large trees. Since this has occurred throughout the many years of my nut culture work, I think it should be given serious consideration before butternut is used as a root stock for other species of nut trees. [Illustration: _Weschcke Butternut. Smooth shallow convolutions of shell allow kernels to drop out freely. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn._] I had the good luck to discover an easy-cracking variety of butternut in River Falls, Wisconsin, in 1934, which I have propagated commercially and which carries my name. A medium-sized nut, it has the requisite properties for giving it a varietal name, for it cracks mostly along the sutural lines and its internal structure is so shallow that the kernel will fall out if a half-shell is turned upside down. I received one of those surprises which sometimes occur when a tree is asexually propagated when I grafted scions from this butternut on black walnut stock. The resulting nuts were larger than those on the parent tree and their hulls peeled off with almost no effort. Whether these features continue after the trees become older is something I shall observe with interest. [Illustration: _Self hulling Butternut. Weschcke variety. Drawing by Wm. Kuehn._] The nearly self-hulling quality of these nuts makes them very clean to handle. The absence of hulls in cracking butternuts not only does away with the messiness usually involved, but also it allows more accurate cracking and more sanitary handling of the kernels. In 1949 I noticed a new type of butternut growing near the farm residence. This butternut was fully twice as large as the Weschcke and had eight prominent ridges. The nut proved to be even better than the older variety and we intend to test it further by grafting it on butternuts and black walnut stocks. Although hand-operated nutcrackers have been devised to crack these and other wild nuts, they are not as fast as a hammer. If one protects the hand by wearing a glove and stands the butternut on a solid iron base, hitting the pointed end with a hammer, it is quite possible to accumulate a pint of clean nut meats in half an hour. The butternut tree is one whose lumber may be put to many uses. It is light but very tough and stringy and when planed and sanded, it absorbs varnish and finishes very well. Although not as dark in natural color as black walnut, butternut resembles it in grain. When butternut has been stained to represent black walnut, it is only by their weight that they can be distinguished. In late years, natural butternut has become popular as an interior finish and for furniture, being sold as "blonde walnut," "French walnut," or "white walnut," in my opinion very improper names. I see no reason for calling it by other than its own. Depletion of forests of butternut trees brings its lumber value up in price nearly to that of fine maple or birch, approaching that of black walnut in some places. I have run several thousand feet of butternut lumber from my farmland through my own sawmill and used it for a variety of purposes. It is probably the strongest wood for its weight except spruce. I have used it successfully to make propellers which operate electric generators for deriving power from the wind. Because butternut is so light and, properly varnished, resists weathering and decay to so great an extent, I have found it the best material I have ever tried for such construction. In building a small electric car for traveling around the orchards, I used butternut rather than oak or metal, which saved at least 100 pounds of weight, an important matter since the source of the car's power is automobile storage batteries. Butternut is very durable in contact with the ground and is used for fence posts on farms where it is plentiful. Bird houses built of this wood will last indefinitely, even a lifetime if they are protected with paint or varnish. Butternut is like red cedar in this respect, although much stronger. Stories have been told of black walnut logs which, after lying unused for fifty years, have been sawed into lumber and found to be still in excellent condition. It is quite likely that the same could be said of butternut for these woods are very much alike in the degree of their durability and resistance to weather. An incidental value butternut trees have is their ability to bleed freely in the spring if the outer bark is cut. Therefore, they can be tapped like maple trees and their sap boiled down to make a sweet syrup. It does not have the sugar content that the Stabler black walnut has, however. Another possible use is suggested by the shells of butternuts which, even when buried in the ground, show great resistance to decay. I have found them to be still intact and possessing some strength after being covered by earth for fifteen years. This indicates that they might be used with a binder in a composition material. Their extreme hardness also offers a good wearing surface. [Illustration: _Electrically operated wagon constructed of native butternut wood known for strength and light weight as well as durability. Author's sons aboard. Photo by C. Weschcke 1941._] Not only good things can be said of the butternut tree and it would be wrong to avoid mentioning the deleterious effect that a butternut tree may have on other trees planted within the radius of its root system. I have had several experiences of this kind. One butternut tree on my farm, having a trunk six inches in diameter, killed every Mugho pine within the radius of its root system. This amounted to between 50 and 100 pines. Their death could not be attributed to the shade cast by the butternut as Mugho pines are very tolerant of shade. As the first branches of the butternut were more than three feet off the ground, the pines could not have been influenced by the top system of the tree nor do I believe that it was due to fallen leaves, but rather directly to the greatly ramified roots. Large evergreens, such as Colorado blue spruce, native white pine, limber pine and Jeffrey pine are known to have been similarly influenced. While small butternut trees do not, in my experience, have this effect, this may be explained by the fact that the radius of their root systems is much more limited. Most plants, other than pines, thrive within the influence of butternut roots, however, and it certainly does not damage pasture grass as some of the country's best grazing land is among such trees. The damage results from a chemical known as Juglone which is elaborated by the root system and when the roots of the butternut cross those of its evergreen neighbor, this acts as a poison to the evergreen and may kill it. [Illustration: _An 8-foot propeller of butternut wood is the prime mover for wind power generator which in a brisk wind generated 110 volts and 10 amperes at 300 RPM._] The butternut is attacked by one serious disease which is in the nature of a blight (melanconium oblongum), since it is transmitted through spores. It usually attacks old trees, the branches of the top part dying, and the bark on the main trunk becoming loose. The disease progresses slowly and I have seen large trees infected for twelve or fifteen years, continuing to bear fine crops. It does have a very weakening effect, though, and eventually saps the life from the tree long before its natural span of life of about fifty years is over. Chapter 9 PIONEERING WITH ENGLISH WALNUTS IN WISCONSIN The convention of the Northern Nut Growers' Association at Geneva, New York, in 1936, brought many interesting subjects to the attention of nut enthusiasts. None, however, commanded as much attention as an exhibit by Paul C. Crath, of Toronto, of walnuts from the Carpathian Mountains in Europe. There were more than forty varieties of walnuts represented in it, in sizes ranging from that of a large filbert to that of a very large hen's egg, and in shape being globular, ovate or rectangular. The exhibitor had these identified by varietal numbers until testing and propagation should suggest appropriate names. In several talks which Rev. Crath gave during the convention, he described his trips and findings in the walnut-producing sections of the Polish Carpathians. The subject remained in prominence during the three days of the convention and the idea was suggested that the Association sponsor another trip to Europe to obtain walnuts growing there which Rev. Crath considered even hardier and finer than the ones he had. The plan was tabled, however, for only two of us were eager to contribute to the venture. On my return home, I thought more about what a splendid opportunity this would be to procure hardy English walnuts to grow in this part of the country. I interested my father in the idea, and, with his backing, corresponded with Rev. Crath. This was not the first or the last time that my father, Charles Weschcke, had encouraged me and had backed his good wishes and advice with money. A professional man and a graduate of pharmacy and chemistry of the University of Wisconsin, he showed an unusual interest in my horticultural endeavors. The immediate outcome was Rev. Crath's visit to my nursery at River Falls, to determine whether material that he might collect could be properly tested there. To my satisfaction, he found that temperature, soil conditions and stock material were adequate for such work. We contracted with Rev. Crath to reproduce asexually all the varieties that he could discover and ship to us, agreeing to finance his trip and to pay him a royalty whenever we sold trees resulting from the plant material he sent us. We decided that the material which he was to gather should include not only English walnuts but also the hazels or filberts native to Poland. The walnuts were to consist of about six hundred pounds of seeds, representing some forty varieties, several thousand scions and about five hundred trees. We planned that the filberts should consist of both trees and nuts, but because of a total failure of this crop the year that Rev. Crath was there, only trees were available. Rev. Crath left Canada in October 1936, and spent all of the following winter in Poland. While he was there, I began the task of arranging for the receipt of the walnuts and hazels he was to send, and so began a wearisome, exasperating experience. First, it was necessary to obtain permits from the Bureau of Plant Industry in Washington. Because of the vast quantity of material expected, these permits had to be issued in the names of five people. Next, I engaged a New York firm of importers, so that no time would be lost in re-routing the shipment to the proper authorities for inspection. This firm, in turn, hired brokers who were responsible for paying all duty, freight and inspection charges. I certainly thought that we had everything in such readiness that there would be nothing to delay the shipment when it arrived. How wrong I was! Although Rev. Crath had written me that the shipment had been sent on a certain Polish steamer, I learned of its arrival only from a letter I received from the importing company, which requested that the original bill of lading and invoice be sent to them at once, as the shipment had already been in the harbor for a week but could not be released by the customs office until they had these documents. I had received the bill of lading from Rev. Crath but not the invoice, for he had not known that I would need it. So my valuable, but perishable, shipment remained in port storage day after day while I frantically sought for some way to break through the "red tape" holding it there. Cables to Rev. Crath were undeliverable as he was back in the mountains seeking more material. In desperation, I wrote to Clarence A. Reed, an old friend, member of the Northern Nut Growers' Association and in charge of government nut investigations in the Division of Pomology at Washington. Through his efforts and under heavy bond pending receipt of the invoice, the walnut and filbert material was released and sent to Washington, D. C. As there was too much of it to be inspected through the usual facilities for this work, it was necessary to employ a firm of seed and plant importers to do the necessary inspecting and fumigating. At last, terminating my concern and distress over the condition in which the trees and scions would be after such great delays and so many repackings, the shipment arrived in St. Paul. There remained only the requirement of getting permission from the Bureau of Plant Inspection of the State of Minnesota to take it to Wisconsin, where, if there was anything left, I intended to plant it. This permission being readily granted, we managed, by truck and, finally, by sled, to get it to the nursery about the middle of the winter. The following spring, we planted the nuts and trees and grafted the scions on black walnut and butternut stocks. The mortality of these grafts was the greatest I have ever known. Of about four thousand English walnut grafts, representing some twenty varieties, only one hundred twenty-five took well enough to produce a good union with the stock and to grow. Some of them grew too fast and in spite of my precautions, were blown out; others died from winter injury the first year. By the following spring, there were only ten varieties which had withstood the rigor of the climate. Of the five hundred trees, only a few dozen survived. Fortunately, this was not one of our severe, "test" winters, or probably none of these plants would have withstood it. The walnuts which were planted showed a fairly high degree of hardiness. Of 12,000 seedling trees, our nursery is testing more than 800 for varietal classification. These have been set out in test orchard formation on two locations, both high on the slope of a ravine, one group on the north side, one on the south. It has been suggested that from the remaining seedlings, which number thousands, we select 500 to 1000 representative specimens and propagate them on black walnut stocks in some warmer climate, either in Oregon, Missouri or New York. This would determine their value as semi-hardy trees worthy of propagation in such localities. Such an experiment will probably be made eventually. The same year, 1937, in which I obtained the Polish nuts, I also bought one hundred pounds of Austrian walnuts, to serve as a check. Eighty pounds of these consisted of the common, commercial type of walnut, while the remainder was of more expensive nuts having cream-colored shells and recommended by the Austrian seed firm as particularly hardy. Altogether these nuts included approximately one hundred varieties, twenty of which were so distinctive that their nuts could be separated from the others by size and shape. About two thousand seedlings grew from this planting, most of which proved to be too tender for our winter conditions. The seedlings grown from the light-colored nuts show about the same degree of hardiness as the Carpathian plants. Many of them have been set out in experimental orchards to be brought into bearing. After the first year, the English walnuts progressed fairly well. Large trees, which had not been entirely worked over at first, were trimmed so that nothing remained of the original top, but only the grafted branches. The winter of 1938-39 was not especially severe and mortality was low, although it was apparent that all of the varieties were not equally hardy. Even a few of the scions grafted on butternut stocks were growing successfully. I had made these grafts realizing that the stock was not a very satisfactory one, to learn if it could be used to produce scionwood. As the results were encouraging, I decided it would be worthwhile to give them good care and gradually to remove all of the butternut top. Each fall, the first two years after I had grafted all these walnuts, I cut and stored enough scionwood from each variety to maintain it if the winter should be so severe as to destroy the grafts. Unfortunately, the grafts had developed so well, even to the actual bearing of nuts by three varieties, that in 1940 I did not think this precaution was necessary. Then came our catastrophic Armistice Day blizzard, the most severe test of hardiness and adaptability ever to occur in the north. Many of our hardiest trees suffered great injury from it, such trees, for instance, as Colorado blue spruce, limber pine, arborvitae; cultured varieties of hickories, hiccans, heartnuts; fruit trees, including apples, plums and apricots, which bore almost no fruit the next summer. Although not one variety of English walnut was entirely killed, all, except one, suffered to some degree, and it was not until late the following summer that several varieties began to produce new wood. The variety which showed the greatest degree of hardiness is "Firstling," originally known as Letter F. Although the primary buds on the Firstling were nearly all killed, very few of the small branches were affected and the union itself suffered no injury. Second in hardiness is Kremenetz, much of its top being killed, but its union being only slightly affected. No. 64 was affected in about the same amount as Kremenetz. Increasing degrees of tenderness and, of course, decreasing degrees of hardiness, were shown by the many other varieties, some of which may never recover completely from the shock of that blizzard. The seedling trees suffered only slight damage so that I expect that they are hardy enough to produce fruit here. I cannot conclude this chapter without mentioning certain observations I have made regarding hardiness, which, although they require more specific study, I wish to describe as a suggestion for further experimentation by either amateur or professional horticulturists. My theory is that a determination of the hardiness factor of an English walnut tree can be made according to the color of its bark. I have seen that a tree having thin bark which remains bright green late into the fall is very likely to be of a tender variety. Conversely, among these Carpathian walnuts, I have found that varieties whose bark becomes tan or brown early in autumn show much more hardiness than those whose bark remains green. One variety, Wolhynie, whose bark is chocolate brown, is very resistant to winter injury. Another, whose green bark is heavily dotted with lenticels, shows itself hardier than those having none or only a trace of them. In testing almonds, I have found that trees whose bark turns red early in the fall are definitely more hardy than those whose bark remains green or tan. In observing apricots, I have learned that young twigs with red bark are more resistant to cold than those with brown. Of course, these findings cannot be considered as facts until further studies have been made. I hope that others will find the idea of investigating this more-than-possibility as interesting as I do. As the years increased, however, the growth of the seedling walnuts decreased and some having made a nice tree-like form, with a trunk of approximately an inch in diameter, within a succession of years were reduced in size through the combination of winter injury and attacks by the butternut curculio as well as a bacterial blight until by 1952 only a fraction of the 12,000 seedlings remained, certainly less than 1,000. All of the originally grafted specimens are dead with the exception of one variety which has been kept alive by constantly re-grafting it on black walnut. We have not named this variety as yet, although it has borne both staminate and pistillate bloom, it has never borne any ripe nuts. Some of the seedlings, however, still show persistent traits of hardiness and of insect resistance and we still have hopes that after 15 years these trees will yet overcome the adversities of this uncongenial climate for this species. Chapter 10 OTHER TREES Heartnut The heartnut is a sport of the Japanese walnut (Juglans sieboldiana). Since its nut is heart-shaped, it has the name of "cordiformis" added to its species name. There are many of these sports, some of which have been propagated under the varietal names of Faust, Lancaster, Fodermaier, Wright, Walters, Canoka, Okay and Gellatly. I think this is the most ornamental of all nut trees. In shape, it is similar to an apple tree, spreading out rather than growing tall, but its long, compound leaves give it a tropical appearance. During the autumn these leaves do not color any more than do those of the black walnut. The tree produces long racemes of red blossoms and its staminate blooms are catkins eight to ten inches long, which, when fully ripened, swish in the wind and release clouds of yellow pollen. The heartnut tree holds the interest of its owner closely during that time when the nuts resulting from the racemes of blossoms are steadily increasing in size. I have seen as many as sixteen nuts on one stem and doubtless, there sometimes are more. The owner of such a tree, at least if he is at all like me, will proudly exhibit it to all comers during the spring and summer seasons. And then, at harvest time, after the nuts have gradually changed from green to the dull yellow that indicates their maturity, he will have the satisfaction of shaking them down for drying and storage. The heartnut kernel tastes much like that of the butternut and its internal structure is almost the same but the outside shell is smooth. Cultivated varieties usually crack easily and in such a way that the kernel is released in halves. From all this, it is easy to see that the heartnut is not only a beautiful tree but is definitely useful. In my own work with heartnuts I have found that, although they are to be classed only as semi-hardy, there are a few varieties which are hardy enough for northern temperatures. Only testing will determine which ones can endure severe climates. In the spring of 1921, I planted a Lancaster heartnut grafted on a black walnut, but the weather was cold that season and it was killed down to the graft joint, where it threw out a sprout. This was weak and succulent by fall and the graft was entirely killed back that winter. I bought twelve more Lancaster heartnuts a year later. They were interspersed in the orchard among some black walnuts. Although a few survived the first winter, none ever lived to come into bearing. From time to time, I also experimented with seedlings sent to me by Professor James A. Neilson of Vineland, Ontario, who was interested in having them tested in this latitude. These, too, were always unsuccessful. I had my first success with several unnamed varieties of heartnuts I purchased in 1933 from J. U. Gellatly of British Columbia. These were grafted on black walnut stocks of considerable size. To insure their surviving the first winter, I built wooden shelters which completely enclosed them, filling these shelters with forest leaves and protecting them against mice with screen covers. No doubt this was a decided help; at least all of these heartnuts lived for many years until the invasion of the butternut curculio and the damage done by the yellow bellied sap sucker bird caused me the loss of all except one variety, the Gellatly. This variety I have perpetuated by re-grafting on other black walnut stocks and by spraying and covering the limbs with screen to prevent the sap sucker from working on it, still have it in the nursery and at my home in St. Paul where a young tree on the boulevard bears each year. I have found that heartnuts are difficult to propagate, the number of successful grafts I have made being far below that of black walnuts on black walnut stocks. The reason for this is not well understood any more than is the fact, in my experience, that the Stabler walnut will graft readily and the Ten Eyck persistently refuses to. A good feature that these grafted trees do have, however, is their early productiveness. I have seen them set nuts the second year after grafting and this has also occurred in trees I have sold to others. When a nut of J. sieboldiana cordiformis is planted, it does not reliably reproduce itself in true type, sometimes reverting to that of the ordinary Japanese walnut, which looks more like a butternut and has a rather rough shell as distinguished from the smooth shell of the heartnut. In hulling my heartnut crop for 1940, I noticed many deformed nuts. The season had been a prolific one for nut production of all kinds, and I knew there had been a mixture of pollen in the air at the time these nutlets were receptive (a mixture made up largely of pollen from black walnuts, butternuts, with some English walnuts). Since irregularities in size and shape indicate hybridity frequently and since heartnuts are easily hybridized I have assumed that these were pollinized by the mixture. I have planted these odd-shaped nuts and I expect them to result in many new crosses of J. sieboldiana cordiformis, some five to eight years from now. [Illustration: _Beautiful tropical looking Japanese Walnut (Juglans sieboldiana cordiformis). Variety Gellatly, from Westbank, B. C., Canada. Photo by C. Weschcke._] To show how nature reacts to much interference I will follow through on these nearly 100 small trees that resulted from this pollination. They were transplanted into an orchard on a side hill and well taken care of for several years, but during that time one after another was killed, apparently by winter conditions or perhaps the site was too exposed or the soil may have been uncongenial. Today there remains but three trees, none of which have borne but all indicate that they are true heartnuts from the shape of the leaves and color of the bark and general formation. In order to hasten their bearing, scions have been taken from these small trees and will be grafted on large black walnut stocks to bring them into fruitfulness much earlier than if they were left to their own slow growth. This system of testing out seedlings long before they have reached a size sufficient to bear on their own roots is applicable to all of the species of nut trees and is one way that the plant breeder can hurry up his testing for varieties after making crosses and obtaining young plants. [Illustration: _Natural size Heartnut. Photo 10/26/38 by C. Weschcke. Gellatly variety._] Beechnut The beechnut, Fagus ferruginea, belonging to the oak family, is one of the giants of the forest, growing to great size and age. Even very old beech trees have smooth bark and this, in earlier and more rustic days, was much used for the romantic carving of lovers' names, as scars still visible on such ancient trees testify. The wood itself is dense and hard, even more so than hard maple, and is considered good lumber. Beechnut is one of the few nut trees with a more shallow and ramified root system as contrasted with that of most, which, as in the oak, walnut and hickory, is a tap root system. This fact suggests that in those localities where beeches grow wild, grafts made on such trees, and transplanted, would survive and grow well. Perhaps one of the reasons why very little propagation is done with beeches is that no outstanding variety has ever been discovered. Although the nut shell is thin and the meat sweet and oily, the kernel is so small that one must crack dozens of them to get a satisfying sample of their flavor. This, of course, prevents their having any commercial value as a nut. There is also the fact that the beechnut is the slowest growing of all the common nut trees, requiring from twenty to thirty years to come into bearing as a seedling. Of course this could be shortened, just as it is in propagating hickories and pecans, by making grafts on root systems which are ten or more years old, as explained in the chapter on heartnuts. However, I know of no nursery in which beechnuts are propagated in this way. My attempts to grow beechnut trees in Wisconsin have met with little success. About the year 1922, I obtained 150 trees from the Sturgeon Bay Nurseries. I planted these on level ground which had clay near the surface with limestone about a foot under it. Although all of these trees seemed to start satisfactorily, some even growing about a foot, within two or three years they had all died. I decided they were not hardy but I now realize that the character of the soil was responsible for their gradual death; they should be planted in a limestone or calcareous soil, preferably of the fine sandy type, the main requisite being plenty of moisture because of their shallow root system. Since then, I have purchased beechnut seeds several times from various seedsmen, but none of these seeds has ever sprouted. I think this is because beechnuts, like chestnuts, must be handled with great care to retain their viability. In 1938, I ordered 100 beechnut trees from the Hershey Nurseries of Downingtown, Pennsylvania. Although these trees were set in sandy soil, there are now only about five of them alive, and of these, only four are growing well enough to suggest that they will some day become big trees. Beechnuts must be protected against mice and rabbits as these species of rodents are very fond of bark and young growth of these trees and I have every reason to believe that deer are in the same category. Oaks Although the acorns produced by the red oak are very bitter and consistently wormy, those from the white oak are more edible. In my own exploring, I have found one tree, apparently a hybrid between the red and white oaks, which bears good acorns. The nuts, which are long and thin, are generally infested with weevils. If there were a demand for such a nut tree, I'm sure that it could easily be grafted on oak roots. During favorable seasons, when these edible nuts were of good size and free from worms, I have carried them in my pocket and enjoyed munching on them. I found that their flavor, like that of chestnuts, was improved by roasting. Acorns are a balanced food and contain enough starch to make them readily assimilated, except for their bitterness. They are a good food for farm animals and chickens. I have kept a flock of goats in good condition by feeding them acorns during the winter. It isn't necessary to grind them for such use. I have read that Indians at one time prepared acorns for their own use by storing them in bags submerged in cold running water. This not only extracted the bitterness but also it probably discouraged the development of weevil eggs. Oak trees are generally prolific and are regular bearers, but of course, what they are widely known and loved for is the beauty of their leaves in the autumn. No one doubts their esthetic value, which will keep them forever popular whether they come into demand as a grafted nut tree or not. Chestnuts Another of our ornamental nut trees is the chestnut, also of the oak family, classified under the genus Castanea, which grows into a large, beautiful tree with wide-spread branches. Chestnuts do not grow well on limestone soil and always fail in the heavy blue clay so common on farm lands in this part of the country. It is best for their growth that the soil be gravelly and slightly acid. The chestnut has always been a good timber tree. Its wood, although not as hard as the red oak, resembles it in grain. The beams of many old pioneer homes are found to be chestnut. It is said that this is one of few woods to give a warning groan under too heavy a burden before it cracks or breaks. Chestnut wood is very durable in contact with the soil, outlasting all others except possibly black walnut and cedar. It contains so much siliceous matter in its pores that it quickly dulls chisels and saws used in working it. The chestnut trees at my nursery were grown from mixed hybrid seeds which I obtained from Miss Amelia Riehl of Godfrey, Illinois. Almost all of the seeds she first sent me, in 1926, spoiled while they were stored during the winter. But Miss Riehl sent me more the following spring, many of which proved hardy. In 1937, the oldest of these trees produced staminate bloom for the first time. I naturally expected a crop of nuts from it that year, but none developed. The same thing happened in 1938. I then wrote to Miss Riehl about it, also asking her where to look for the pistillate blossoms. Her reply was a very encouraging one in which she wrote that the pistillate blossoms appear at the base of the catkins or staminate blooms, but that it is quite a common thing for chestnut trees to carry the latter for several years before producing pistillate blossoms. She also explained that it was very unlikely that the tree would fertilize its own blooms, so that I should not expect one tree to bear until other nearby chestnuts were also shedding pollen. This occurred the next year and another chestnut close to the first one set a few nuts. It was not until 1940 that the tree which had blossomed first, actually bore nuts. In 1940, I crossed the pistillate blossoms of this tree with pollen from a Chinese variety called Carr, resulting in half a dozen nuts which I planted. Since the chestnuts in these parts do not bloom usually until early July we can expect chestnuts to be a more reliable crop than butternuts, for instance, which bloom very early in the spring about May 1 to 15th. Having had this reward for my efforts I took much more interest in chestnut growing and ordered trees of the Chinese varieties, Castanea mollissma from J. Russell Smith, H. F. Stoke, and John Hershey. Some of these were seedlings and some were grafted trees, not over a dozen of them alive today and none have produced mature nuts. Seemingly they have not been hardy although they have grown large enough to produce both staminate and pistillate blooms; they have never winter killed back to the ground, however. Also, I have been planting nuts from all sources from which I could obtain them, mostly of the Chinese chestnut type. Some of these nuts were results of crosses, and showed their hybridity in the young seedlings that resulted there from. Today I have perhaps 150 of such young seedlings which I am pampering with the hope of getting something worthwhile from them. One of the big thrills of chestnut growing was the result of a chestnut that I picked up from a plant that was no higher than 2 feet, growing at Beltsville, Maryland in the government testing ground there, in 1937. My records show that this plant began to bear nuts in 1943 and have subsequently borne several crops in between the times that it was frozen to the ground and grew up again, which happened at least three times. Like most chestnuts this one has to be pollinated by taking the staminate bloom from a dwarfed chestnut nearby whose bloom coincides with the blossoming of the female flowers of this Chinese hybrid. Chestnuts rarely set any nuts that produce mature seed from their own pollen but depend on cross-pollination. The nut from this hybrid is also the largest of any that I have grown and to my taste is a palatable one. It may not rank among the best ones of known varieties today, but for our climate I would consider it unusually large and good. Experimentally, I have been able to produce new plants from this tree by layering young shoots coming from the roots. This generally requires two years to make a well-rooted plant before they are cut off and transplanted. This alternative of propagating by grafting or budding is considered a better method if it can be practiced, as it gives a plant on its own roots instead of the roots of some unknown seedling stock. [Illustration: _Hybrid Chestnut; natural size, one of the two survivors of several dozen trees sent by the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture for testing this far north. Fair size nut and it resembles the American Sweet Chestnut. Photo by C. Weschcke._] Another tree that surprised me when it came into bearing proved to bear one nut in a burr which led me to believe that it was a chinquapin hybrid. Later on, the habit of this tree changed somewhat and some of the burrs had more than one nut. I have found this to be the experience of others who have observed so-called chinquapin trees of a hybrid nature. It is my belief that the kind of pollen with which these blossoms are fertilized directly influences the number of nuts in a burr and sometimes the size of the nuts, again showing the importance of the cross-pollinating varieties when setting out an orchard of trees. This particular chinquapin type chestnut has upright growing habits different from a tree bearing similar nuts but having a very dwarfed habit. All of the nuts of the latter after six years of bearing can be picked off this tree by standing on the ground. There are several other trees bearing chestnuts, some large and some small nuts, all of which are interesting to me and may be important in the future of the chestnuts this far north since they indicate without doubt that the chestnut can accommodate itself to our climate, providing it has the right type of soil to grow in. In 1952 I acquired a 20-acre adjoining piece of land which has a much better chestnut growing site, being deep sandy soil, well drained, and yet not ever being dry. New varieties will be tested on this piece and should give much better results than the old trees which already were good enough to indicate success in chestnuts. [Illustration: _A hybrid chestnut presumed to be a cross between European Chestnut (Castanea Sativa) and its American cousin (Castanea Americana). Actual size. Photo by C. Weschcke._] [Illustration: _Chinquapin hybrids from a tall growing tree. Nuts grow in racemes of burrs with as many as 10 burrs on one stem. Photo by C. Weschcke._] Apricot If it were not that an apricot is a nut as well as a fruit, I should hesitate to include a description of my work with it. But the apricot seed has a rich kernel which, in many countries, for example, China, is used as a substitute for the almond to which it is closely related. It was in 1933 that my aunt, Margaret Weschcke, told me of an apricot tree growing in a yard on the Mississippi River bluff in St. Paul and said to be bearing fruit. I was quite skeptical until I saw the tree and also saw fruit from it which had been preserved by the woman who owned it. Convinced of the hardiness of the tree, I was anxious to obtain scionwood but it was not until late that winter that I received permission to do so. It happened that a truck had broken off a large branch from the tree while delivering coal, and the owner very reasonably decided that taking a few twigs from it would not hurt it any more. I not only took the small branches that she was willing to sacrifice from her tree but also as many as possible from the branch which had been torn off, as its terminals were still in a fresh condition. I grafted these scions on hybrid plum trees where they took hold readily, and in 1938, they began to bear prolifically. The apricots, which I have named Harriet, in honor of my mother, are a fine-flavored fruit, medium in size. Their cheeks are a mottled red with raised surfaces. Their pits are well-formed and fairly edible. Although the parent tree died the winter I took scions from it, my grafts have proved quite hardy, having received no injury when temperatures as low as 47° below zero have occurred. Since the parent tree died because its roots were severely frozen, it would seem that the top of the tree, in this case, was more hardy than the root system. This does occur sometimes, although it is unusual. In developing the factor of hardiness further in this apricot variety, I have taken advantage of something I had observed about other fruit trees. When one combines parts of two trees by grafting, it is a simple thing to select a hardy root stock from the available plants, just as I selected hardy plum stock on which to graft my apricot scions. This is not always possible in choosing scionwood, however, since scionwood is usually selected for such reasons as the quality of its fruit. It may happen that the top part of a tree is limited in its climatic scope because of its inability to withstand precipitate or otherwise unfavorable temperatures. Having observed that certain grafted varieties of fruit trees, such as the Wealthy apple, for instance, have gradually come to be planted much farther north than they originally were, I reasoned that this was because only the hardiest of them survived and these hardy ones therefore became the mother blocks for future grafting. This was an inescapable procedure which acted as a method of bud selection. I therefore assumed that by a careful choice of the hardiest among surviving twigs of the most recent graft of the Harriet apricot, when particularly severe winter weather had caused some injury, I could induce extra-hardiness in future grafts. I also believe that I have added to the hardiness factor of the apricot by making frequent grafts. It is my theory that the root stock is able to exert some influence over the top other than mere maintenance of life. By frequently uniting a hardy stock with a less hardy top, I think that the individuality of the top part may be somewhat broken down and the extra characteristic of hardiness added to it. After the fifth re-graft of this apricot made in eight years, I am convinced by its appearance and behavior that it is capable of becoming a reliable apricot for the region around St. Paul. Today the apricot still exists grafted on plum at my nursery at River Falls, Wisconsin, and the weakness of the tree seems to be in the union between the top and the plum stock. If this union were not so corky and large and succulent it might be less injured by our winters; therefore it is quite apparent that the plum is not a congenial stock for an apricot, at least it does not produce a satisfactory union. I am now making tests with this same variety by grafting it on more hardy apricot seedling stock such as the Prof. N. E. Hansen of Brookings, South Dakota, introduces. Chapter 11 PESTS AND PETS The pocket gopher is an herbivorous animal which attains approximately the size of a gray squirrel. It has a sleek, grey-brown coat of fur which is almost as fine as that of the mole and would, I think, make a good quality fur except that the skin is too tender to stand either sewing or the wear that fur coats have to undergo. I learned this by trapping them and having a furrier try them out, as I knew that the quickest way to get rid of a pest is to eat it or use its hide. Since I found its hide to be of no practical value, I enjoined my troop of Boy Scouts, a willing group of boys, to carry out my suggestions that they skin and prepare one of these animals in a stew. Gophers are purely herbivorous and I thought they should be quite edible, but as I am a strict vegetarian myself, I had to depend on them to make this experiment. The boys followed instructions up to the point of cooking, but by that time the appearance of the animal had so deprived them of their enthusiasm and appetites that I had no heart to urge them to continue. I am still of the opinion, however, that to meat-eating people, the pocket gopher would taste as good as squirrel or pigeon. The first introduction I had to the devastating work that these animals can do in an orchard was when I was working among my young apple and plum trees one spring. I noticed that the foliage was turning yellow on many of them and upon investigation I found that the trees were very loose in the ground. At first I thought that planting operations and heaving of the ground by frost in the spring might be the cause, but in testing the looseness of one of these trees, I found that I could pull it out of the ground easily. There I saw what appeared to be the marks of an axe. I was completely convinced that I had personal enemies who went around nights chopping off the roots of my trees, for I knew that most of my neighbors were completely out of sympathy with my tree cultivation. In fact, farmers living in that section of the country were always poking fun at my nut tree plantings and orchard work, for their idea of what was proper on a farm was a treeless field of plowed ground. As I thought of all these things, I pulled up many other trees; in fact, there were dozens that were chopped off so that they could be completely pulled out. Others still had one or two roots clinging to the main trunk and these I carefully replanted so that they would continue to live and grow. Not long after the tragic day on which I found all these ravaged trees, I noticed, winding in and out close to the young orchard trees, the mounds which pocket gophers make when they tunnel under the ground. I followed some of these by digging into them with a shovel, and discovered that they led to the roots of trees, the very trees that had been chopped off and killed. My enemies were not human after all. Sending for a pamphlet from the U. S. Department of Agriculture, I studied the material given about pocket gophers and their habits. I then began their systematic eradication, using about twelve steel muskrat traps. I succeeded in trapping, in one season, over thirty of them, at a time when they were so prolific and their holes so numerous that I could not drive a horse through the orchard without danger of breaking one of its legs. I also used poisoned grains and gases but I do not recommend them. Trapping is the only method in which one obtains actual evidence of elimination. It took me many years to force the gophers out of my orchards and I still must set traps every fall, during September and October when they are most active. Their habits are such that they do most of their tunnelling in the early fall months, before frost, during which time they expose and isolate the roots on which they intend to feed during the winter months when the ground is so hard that they cannot burrow further. This period is when they are most easily trapped. It was with the idea of establishing a balance of nature against these animals that I conceived the idea of importing bull snakes. Almost everyone has heard of the bull snake, but its name is a poor one, for it has the wrong connotation. These snakes are actually a fine friend to the farmer since each snake accounts for the death of many rodents each year. Their presence certainly was of definite value in decreasing the number at my farm. Bull snakes have the long body typical of constrictors, sometimes reaching a length of nearly six feet at maturity, and being at the most an inch and one-half in diameter. This country had a natural abundance of such snakes at one time but ignorance and superstition have lessened their number so that it is now a rare thing to find one. During the early days of automobiles, these huge bull snakes, or gopher snakes, as I prefer to call them, would lie across the sunny, dusty roads, and drivers of cars delighted in running them down. Since they are very docile, they are the least afraid of man of any members of the local snake family. They are slow in movement until they sense the immediate presence of their natural food, which is live mice, rats, gophers, squirrels, young rabbits, and sometimes, though rarely, birds. Then it is they become alert, and the horny appendage on their tails vibrates with a high-pitched, buzzing sound, simulating, although not similar to, the sound of a poisonous rattlesnake. When I first brought some of these snakes to my farm, I loosed them and they wandered off to a neighbor's premises where they were promptly found and killed. Later importations I confined to my basement, where I built an artificial pool with frogs and fish in it. However, I could never induce the bull snakes to eat any of these batrachians. They would, almost playfully, stalk the frogs, but at the moment when one was within reach, the snake would glide away. Neither would the snakes, unless force-fed, eat anything they had not caught themselves. My children were delighted to have the snakes there and made pets of them. Only once was one of the girls bitten when she attempted force-feeding. The bite was a mere scratch but we feared that it might be slightly poisonous. However, it healed so promptly that it was quite apparent that the bull snake's bite is not toxic. I, too, have had my skin slightly punctured by their teeth, but always the wound healed with no more pain or trouble than a pin prick. Such is not at all the case when a person is nipped by a squirrel or gopher. I have purposely allowed a pocket gopher to bite me, to determine what the effects are. The pain was severe and healing was slow. Once, bitten by a gray squirrel when I reached into a hollow tree to get it, I received such a wound that fever started in my whole hand. Its teeth punctured a finger-nail and were stopped only by meeting the bone. Such bites I consider rather poisonous. Rabbits also committed much damage at my nursery by gnawing the bark of my trees, especially during times of deep snow. They did not bother the walnuts particularly, but were very fond of hickories and pecan trees. On the smallest ones, they cut branches off and carried them away to their nests. On larger trees, they gnawed the bark off of most of the lower branches. This was dangerous but seldom fatal, whereas the gnawing of mice, near the base of the trunks, was such that in some cases when complete girdling occurred, it was necessary to use bridge-grafting to save the trees. This consists of connecting the bark immediately above the roots with the bark above the girdled portion, so that the tree can receive and send the food substances it elaborates to its upper and lower parts. Rabbits and mice, therefore, had to be dealt with. Of course, one could go hunting for rabbits and later eat them. This was one task I had my employees do. I, myself, was unwilling to take an active part in it, although still intent on saving my trees in spite of my pity for the little animals. Placing hundreds of cans in the orchard, with a pinch of poisoned wheat and oat mixture in each, helped to eradicate the mice. The bait was placed inside the cans to prevent birds from being poisoned, and the cans were tipped at an angle so that water would not enter them. To be absolutely sure of preventing mice damage, one should provide each tree with a screen guard. I have made about 10,000 screen protectors for my trees for this purpose. I have also trapped rabbits which we were not able to shoot and I conceived the idea of painting the traps with white enamel. When these were set on the snow around those trees which the rabbits attacked, they worked very successfully. The traps were a size larger than the common gopher trap, but were not expensive. There are other ways of catching rabbits or curtailing their activities, but on my list, shooting comes first, with trapping as a second effective measure. Squirrels, although they do no damage to the trees themselves, except on rare occasions, are a definite nuisance when they come in large numbers and cut down nuts before they are ripe. They do this to hickory nuts, and apparently are very fond of the half-ripened nuts. I have seen squirrels chew hickory buds and young sprouts of hickory grafts and I had to trap several before I stopped them from doing this to certain ornamental trees in our garden. In fact, when one has a large nut orchard, squirrels will be attracted in number that preclude the possibility of harvesting a crop unless measures are taken to banish them. They are very active early in the morning and my experiences indicate that two or three people should hunt them together, as they are very clever at dodging a single hunter. I also have built galvanized metal guards around isolated trees which prevent squirrels from climbing them. In speaking of mice, we have two important species commonly known as the meadow mouse and the other species known as the white-footed mouse. The meadow mouse is the one that does so much damage to the orchard trees and young nursery stock if unprotected, and the white-footed mouse may be responsible for some of this when present in great numbers, but of the white-footed mouse this much good can be said: [Illustration: Drwg. by Wm. Kuehn. _Squirrel guards._] Much of its diet, especially of the mother mouse during the time that she is nursing her young ones, is made up of insects. A personal experience accentuates this. Since these are such pretty little creatures, having such cunning ways, it was my ambition to catch a complete family of mother and young ones which sometimes numbered as high as ten. My ambition was finally gratified and I was able to get a mother of eight and her tiny mouslings, which have a habit of fastening themselves securely to her breasts while she runs about, and drags them all along in a most ludicrous fashion. At times, under these circumstances, the combined weight of the brood exceeds that of the mother mouse but they are exceptionally strong creatures for their size, a mature mouse being able to jump out of a 3-foot barrel with one leap. In observing this brood of mice, I was particularly anxious to see what kind of a diet they throve on and tried the mother's appetite with tidbits from the table. While she ate most everything, it soon became apparent that something was wrong because the young ones became weaker, finally to the extent that they were unable to nurse, and one morning I found several on their backs with their feet feebly waving in the air indicating that they were dying of starvation. At about that time I was drying some hazelnuts on a flat back porch floor and in sweeping them up found a lot of alive and dried up larvae which had escaped from the shells. Just for fun, I swept this material up and threw it into the mouse cage. The reaction of this treatment was gratifying, for the mother mouse pounced upon this insect life greedily devouring everything. Within three days, the young mice were all in good health and running around showing that the milk produced from the diet that I had been giving the mother was inadequate for the baby mice. It is therefore to their credit to state that these mice and probably at times the meadow mice do consume large quantities of larvae and grubs in the surface soil, as well as mature active insects, such as crickets and grasshoppers. HOW TO PREPARE RODENT PROTECTORS FOR TREES 1. Cut 6" strips from 24" wide roll of galvanized screen with a 12 x 12 mesh. 2. Cut strips in half to make two protectors from each strip. 3. Make bundles of 25 each by running wire through protectors. 4. Dip these bundles in a solution containing 5 pounds of red lead per gallon of linseed oil. Use from 3 to 5 gallons of this solution. 5. Remove bundles and hang them on a pole with a drip pan beneath to catch the solution, which can be used again. Allow bundles to drip for 8 hours, then separate each protector and place on grass for a few days to dry. 6. Roll each protector around a 3/4" pipe or broomstick and it is ready for the tree. [Illustration: Drwg. by Wm. Kuehn. _Preparation of screen guards._] In dealing with wild creatures, one must forebear condemning a whole species of animals merely because at times they become troublesome, for the main purpose of their existence, like owls, hawks and crows, they may be more beneficial than otherwise. A good word should be said here for skunks and moles. A great deal of the skunk diet is insect life. The same is true of the mole whose diet probably consists of 75% insects, mostly in their larval state. This is an important feature of mole and skunk as they dig these insects out before they mature into winged female adults which may lay hundreds of eggs. If these larvae should be allowed to develop into a mature winged insect that would lay eggs, this particular insect would multiply itself hundreds of times over and it would take many more birds than at present exist to take over the big job of keeping the balance between necessary insect life and a surplus which would be destructive to all plant life. We can never hope to eradicate all insect life which we deplore as being deleterious to the interests of mankind, and it is mighty well that we cannot do this for the insects are as important to us as all other life, for without them we would be unable to produce the vast quantities of foods that are now dependent upon such insect life. It is true that they take their toll of the food that they are instrumental in sometimes producing but when one attempts to unravel the mystery of balance of nature one is confronted by the big question of how far to go in the eradication of both animals and insect pests. Before man's interference the wild crops were plentiful and balances were kept in harmony by vast multitudes of frogs and toads, birds and rodents, all of which have been slaughtered and reduced by such amounts as to endanger man's food supply, forcing him to resort to poison sprays and other measures in order to hold destruction in check. All of this expense and trouble he could have avoided if he had been sensible enough to observe the natural checks and foster the natural procedure of which nature is the best guide. Chapter 12 STORING AND PLANTING SEEDS Most nut tree seed requires ideal storage conditions to preserve its germinating power or viability. Under natural circumstances, such nuts as black walnuts, English walnuts, butternuts, hickory nuts, pecans, hazelnuts, filberts and almost all other nuts, will be planted by squirrels, mice and other rodents. Although most of these will be eaten by the animals who buried them, a large percentage of the ones which are not eaten will sprout. The sprouts which achieve maturity and bearing age, however, will be only a very small percentage--some say only a fraction of 1%--of the number that sprouted. This is an expensive and wasteful method, horticulturally speaking, but it does indicate that it is best to plant nuts as soon as possible after they have properly ripened and been dried. After walnuts, hickory nuts, butternuts and hazels have been gathered, they should be dried until the hulls have lost most of their moisture. The husks should be removed from filberts before they are dried. While this preparation is not essential, nuts are less likely to mold if they are dried somewhat before they are planted. However, I have planted freshly-gathered black walnuts and butternuts and most of them sprouted. If nuts are to be stored in large quantities, the drying-out process is absolutely essential and should be carried to the point of completely drying the hulls. The system I followed in doing this is to gather the nuts after they have fallen and spread them out in the sunlight on roofs or floors where air can circulate around them. After the hulls are dry, such nuts as black walnuts, English walnuts and butternuts may be put in barrels or burlap bags and stored in an unheated basement without seriously deteriorating. English walnuts are most safely stored when they are hulled before being packed in burlap bags. These bags should be suspended above the floor of the cellar by a rope or wire. These are additional precautions which allow better circulation of air, further prevention of mold, and safety from mice and squirrels. Chestnuts, beechnuts and acorns require more care when they are to be stored, for their viability is very sensitive to dryness. I have found that these soft-shelled species of nuts should be treated in a different manner than the walnut and hickory types of seeds if we are to get the most out of their germination. Since chestnuts are very prone to molding or rotting, the best way to maintain their viability and freshness over winter is to stratify them in a can or box between layers of a peat moss. This peat moss must be decidedly on the acid side and must be dampened, but must not be so wet that you can wring any water out of it. The best way to prepare this dry peat moss is to soak it in water and wring as much water out of it as possible by squeezing with your hands. Then mix it with half as much of the undampened peat. This will give you approximately the right moisture coefficient. If stored in cans, the bottom of the can must be punctured with a few holes about 1/4 of an inch in diameter, well distributed on the bottom to act as a drain and to admit some slight circulation of air. The same thing should be done with the cover. First, put down an even layer about 1-1/2 inches of this dampened moss, then put in a layer of chestnuts or other nuts to be stratified, placed evenly or well distributed but not touching each other. After the first layer, carefully sift in more dampened moss about 1 inch thick and repeat the process until either the can is full or all the seeds have been stored. The last layer should be a 2-inch layer of peat moss before the cover is placed on. Now the important thing about all this is to place this can in a storage room of low temperature and yet it should not freeze solid. But in a temperature of from 32 to 40 degrees is ideal and preferably it should be on the ground floor so as to maintain the moisture that is already stored in the seed and the moss. A mechanical refrigerator which would constantly dehydrate might eventually dry them out too much for good germination; otherwise such a refrigerator would be ideal for the storage of small amount of seeds of this kind. It would be well from time to time to inspect these seeds to see whether they were in good condition and check the temperatures as well. If they start to sprout all the better; they can then be planted with the sprout downward and the nut barely covered with earth. Some years I have had sprouts nearly six inches long on my chestnuts which had been so stored and care will have to be taken not to break the sprout when transplanting the nuts. In planting nuts, great care must be taken not to plant them too deeply. Large nuts, such as black walnuts, butternuts and English walnuts, are often planted with a small part of the nut still exposed. Certainly, the depth of the soil over a nut should never exceed the thickness of the nut. Most seeds develop best when they are planted just under the surface of the soil. The earth should be lightly tamped around the planted seeds to eliminate air-pockets. A thin coating of manure, not more than three inches deep, is valuable if large seeds are planted but it is detrimental to the development of small seeds and manure should never be used for evergreens. Seeds of the nut pines, usually purchased from seedsmen and received in a dry state, should be planted no deeper than their own diameter in a light, sandy loam. A seed bed, incidentally, is a very necessary protection against rodents in the case of nut pine seed. I have used a mixture of bone meal on such seeds with good results. Four quarts of bone meal carefully worked into the first two or three inches of the surface soil of a 4 x 12 seed bed greatly increases its fertility. Sifted hardwood ashes scattered over the bed after the seed is in, will discourage cutworms and increase the potash content of the soil. Proper drying and storage are of no use if nuts are not planted where they will have protection against rodents, improper drainage, and other hazards. To keep them from being eaten by rodents, nut seeds should be planted under wire screens inside a deep frame. The seed beds I have made for use in my nursery are four feet wide and twelve feet long. By using heavy galvanized hardware cloth 2 x 2 mesh, which means that it has 1/2-inch square holes, is ideal for the top and sides of this frame. By using this wire cloth 2 feet wide, 18 inches is sunk under the ground surface, and only 6 inches protrudes above. This is to prevent burrowing rodents from going underneath and extracting the seeds which you will find they will do unless the screen protection goes down deep enough into the ground to discourage them. A stout frame of rot-resisting wood, such as cedar or fir should be placed on the inside of this countersunk screen. This should also be 4 feet wide, 12 feet long so that a similar frame, which is removable, can be placed over this. The edges of the frame should match perfectly so that no rodents can reach the interior of the seed bed without going down 1-1/2 feet under ground to burrow under the countersunk screen. Several thousand evergreens or several hundred walnut trees can be raised in a seed bed this size. The soil is now removed from the inside of this enclosure or stationary part of the bed to the depth of 6 inches so that the plants will have head room to develop leaves and stems and still be protected under the top or removable frame part. The top frame made of the same material and covered also by the 2 x 2 hardware cloth should be about 6 inches in height so that there will actually be 18 inches of head room for the plants to grow in before touching the screen. [Illustration: _This 60 x 30 foot corrugated galvanized iron fence 3-1/2 feet tall and sunk 6 inches into ground protects valuable hybrids against invasion by rodents. Photo by C. Weschcke._] There are several important points to remember in starting a seed bed. It must be in a well-drained site, so that the seeds will not be under water or water-logged for any length of time. It should be in an open place where sunlight is plentiful, unless evergreens are being grown. Evergreens must be in half-shade the first season to avoid a condition known as "damping off." The top six inches of soil in the bed should be the best garden soil obtainable, the growth resulting from using good, clean soil, free from weed seeds, being worth the trouble of preparing it. By having the bed in two parts, with a cover that may be taken off, proper weeding can be done when necessary. The cover should always be replaced afterward, though, as rodents will sometimes attack the young shoots and the remainder of the seed kernel. In the spring of the second season of growth, the young plants may be dug up and lined out in nursery rows. After two or three years more, they may be planted in permanent locations. Chapter 13 TREE PLANTING METHODS Since nut trees usually have deep, well-developed root systems of the taproot type, they are more difficult to transplant than such trees as plum, apple, elm or maple which have many small fibrous roots. Taproots have a long, main trunk like a parsnip, from which lateral roots branch. These roots are heavy and may extend deep into the ground even in trees only two or three years old. In moving such a tree, the lower part of the central taproot must, of course, be cut off, but as many of the side roots as possible are retained. Because such roots have no fibrous or hair-root system, their handling during transplantation necessarily differs from that of the ordinary shade or fruit tree. If trees having a taproot system, such as the English walnut, black walnut, butternut, hickory or pecan, are received with bare roots, they should be treated in the following way: Immediately after the trees have been unpacked, their roots should be submerged in a barrel of water for several hours. After their thirst has been quenched, the roots should be dipped into a mixture of clay and water made to the consistency of thick paint. With a heavy coating of wet clay around them, the roots may then be wrapped in wet burlap sacks. They are now ready to be transported to their planting site. Selecting a favorable location for nut trees is very important. They should never be planted at the bottom of a gulch or valley because, in such places, frost pockets may occur which will interfere with both blossoming in the spring and ripening of nuts in the fall. Nut trees grow best near the summit of a hill. Although such soils are difficult to plant in, stony soil or soil overlaid with limestone results in good growth. Shallow surface soil, underlaid with heavy clay, will usually slow down the growth of a young tree so that it remains dwarfed for many years. It is more satisfactory to have at least three feet of soil before clay is reached. If the soil is light and sandy, it will be improved by adding black dirt immediately around the roots of each tree. As most nut trees ultimately grow to be very large, they should be planted at least forty feet apart. The hole dug to receive each tree should be wide and deep enough to accommodate the roots without bending or twisting them. If the excavated soil is of poor quality, it should be discarded, and good, rich soil brought in for setting the tree. Trees should not be planted too deeply. The collar of a tree, which is a discoloration of its trunk resulting from contact with the ground, indicates how much of the tree was previously underground. Although it is a good idea to plant so that this collar is a little lower than the surface to allow access to extra moisture, the actual planting depth should be about as it was previously in the nursery. All broken or damaged parts on the roots should be trimmed smoothly with pruning shears. Such clean cuts will send out new rootlets to replace the lost ones. After a tree has been set into the hole made for it, the soil, which should be thoroughly mixed with a quart of bone meal to increase its fertility, is replaced a little at a time. It must be packed very solidly about the roots with a rounded tamping stick to avoid leaving air pockets. I find it advisable to retamp the earth about each tree two or three times during the first year's growing season, to insure intimate contact between soil and roots. Planting should be delayed if the soil is very wet. Trees will stay in good condition for several days, if the burlap sacks are kept moistened. Wet, soggy soil is certain to shrink away from the roots and leave air pockets which will, in time, kill the trees. If trees are transplanted during a very dry season, they should be thoroughly watered. To do this, remove several shovelfuls of dirt from the ground about a foot from the tree, being careful not to cut any roots. Fill this hole with water and after the water has seeped away, fill it two more times. The tree should receive about five gallons of water. Sprinkling with a hose does not suffice. If dry weather continues, each tree should be watered in this way every week. Nurserymen in the future will have to deal with this transplanting problem in a different way than the old time nurserymen who handles fruit trees. A suggested way to improve the root system and at the same time make it easy to lift the tree with a ball of dirt, similar to the way an evergreen is transplanted, is to prepare a pocket of special transplanting soil previous to the lining out (which is the term used by nurserymen in setting out seedlings preparatory to grafting them in nursery rows). A suggested balanced soil for making the method practical is to use 1/2 by volume of peat moss; the other half should be rich, black sandy loam with very little clay mixture in it. In other words, each nut tree should be allowed about a bushel of soil for its development, 1/2 bushel to be peat moss, the other half bushel to be represented by rich black loam. This mixture will encourage many fibrous roots to develop and when the tree is dug, approximately all of this bushel of soil will be retained around the roots. Having such a high proportion of peat moss makes it lighter than ordinary ground; such a ball and the tree will weigh approximately from 100 to 125 pounds which can be shipped by freight at a low rate and is well worth the extra price that nurserymen must ask for a specimen of this kind. Such trees have really never been unplanted and for this reason do not suffer the shock which is inevitable in the usual transplanting process. Although pre-planted trees are more expensive to buy and to transport, their improved chances of living make them worth the price. The above recommendation is especially applicable to young grafted hickory trees since they are among the most difficult trees to transplant satisfactorily. The English walnut (Persian), black walnut, butternut and especially the hickory are improved by the use of a handful of ground lime mixed with the soil in preparing these pockets which will later constitute the ball surrounding the roots of the tree to be transplanted. There is a tendency in grafted trees to produce sprouts below the graft. Unless these are rubbed off, the grafted portion will become discouraged and the tree will revert to a seedling variety. Filberts should never be allowed more than two or three stems, or trunks, while one is more preferable. If they are allowed to have more, they will produce a rank growth of wood but only a few, if any, nuts. I stress, by repeating, that trees should not be planted too deeply and that great care must be taken to eliminate air pockets. Extra effort and nursing of transplanted trees during the first season will be repaid by their successful development and growth. It is a wise precaution to place a protective screen around the trunk of each tree to prevent rodents from attacking it. Mice gnaw off the bark near the ground, sometimes girdling a tree and so killing it. Rabbits chew off branches and they, too, may girdle the upper part of a tree. Rabbits are very fond of pecan and hickory bark. In some places, it may be necessary to encircle each pecan and hickory tree with a three or four-foot rabbit fence until the tree is large enough to lose its appeal to these nuisances. Compared with the number of insects which infest fruit trees, very few attack nut trees. One of those which does is the walnut-leaf caterpillar. These appear as a closely congregated group of small worms which feed on the leaves of black walnut and hickory trees during the latter half of the summer season. Very often they are all to be found on a single leaf, which should be picked from the tree and crushed underfoot. A simple spray of lead arsenate of the strength recommended by companies selling spray material, will effectively rid trees of these pests. Another insect often found in a nut orchard is the oak tree girdler, which also is active in the latter part of the summer. It often causes limbs as large as an inch in diameter to be cut through and to fall to the ground. By removing such freshly girdled branches and cutting into the hollow made by the larva, it is possible to find the live worm and destroy it. A good way to combat this pest is to keep each tree pruned of all dead branches and to burn all broken and dead wood each fall. While some nut trees are subject to other insects, the two described here are the most frequently found. Fortunately, they are easily controlled if a watch is kept for them. Chapter 14 WINTER PROTECTION OF GRAFTS AND SEEDLINGS It is not enough to make a successful graft and to watch it carefully during the growing season, picking all sprouts off the stock, spraying it so that insects will not chew the tender leaves and bark, bracing it against windstorms and perching birds. Each graft must also be protected from winter injury. For many years I have studied and experimented to find a successful way of achieving such protection. To enumerate my many experiments, from simple to far-fetched, would be to write another book quite as long as this one. My conclusion, now, is that there is little one can do to assist nature in the process of acclimatizing grafted plants and seedlings. I have repeatedly noticed that the place where most damage is done by the cold is at the union between stock and graft. For example, I observed this on the European walnuts, imported from Poland, grafted to Minnesota black walnut stocks. Although both the buds and the wood of the top remained fresh and green, the unions suffered severe, and sometimes total winter injury. In grafts where the latter occurred, the dead cells soon caused the wood to ferment and sour. Occasionally, a small group of healthy cells succeeded in re-establishing circulation with the unharmed, grafted top and the graft, continuing its growth, would eventually overcome the injury it had suffered. I have seen this occur with grafts of English walnut, apricot and pecan. A blackbird's nest in the crotch of a small tree suggested to me the most satisfactory guard I have yet found against this greatest of dangers to all exotic, grafted varieties of nut trees. The nest, which enclosed over half of the graft union, was partly composed of woolen fibers which its builder had gathered from barbed-wire fences that sheep had brushed against. On the exposed portion of the graft union, discoloration indicated injury and dead cells, but on that part covered by the nest, all the cells were alive and green. I have improved on the bird's nest by wrapping a large wad of wool loosely around each graft union. The value of wool is that it will not collect moisture and so start fermentation. It allows the cells to breathe, yet protects the union from the shock of temperature extremes. Birds will inevitably steal some of the strands of wool but this activity in and about the trees means a decrease in injuries from insects--a worthwhile exchange. When an unusually large swelling at the graft union appears, it is certain that the plant needs protection such as I have described. Such swellings result from a too-rapid multiplication of cells, a condition which leaves the union weak and susceptible to injury. Although a union is never entirely safe, even after many seasons of growth, each year adds to the safety factor by the development of rough, cork-like bark. I suggest the use of a woolen guard for several winters, by which time this outer bark should be able to do its protective work alone. A successful but rather expensive method of winter protection, both to the graft itself and its union with its host, is to enclose the entire tree with a box-like structure consisting of four corrugated aluminum roofing sheets set up on their ends and countersunk into the ground about six inches. The purpose of countersinking these below the ground surface is two-fold: it stiffens and braces the structure and prevents the intrusion of mice and other rodents, which may also appreciate both the shelter and possible food supply contained therein. By fastening these sheets together with a stout wire you can depend on the structure to stand up against wind and snow pressures. Fill the entire inside with forest leaves, oak leaves preferred, as their insulating quality is the best and they are slow to rot and ferment. When working with semi-hardy plants in a cold climate, avoid fertilizing and cultivating the ground after the first of August. Doing so stimulates late growth and such growth is very likely to be badly injured during the winter months. If fertilizer is used, it should be early in the spring, as soon as the ground is free from frost. Trees which persist in growing late into the fall are more subject to winter injury. Protective measures to avoid their doing so by inducing an earlier dormancy, include keeping the soil around them dry and exposing, somewhat, the roots near the trunk of each tree. My last word of advice in raising what might be termed semi-hardy trees, is to grow them in sod, the ordinary quack grass, June grass, bluegrass or other natural grass sods which can be found on your planting site. Although this will probably hold back your tree development for a few years, until the roots are thoroughly established in the deeper soil beneath the sod roots, it is surprising how many species of trees will thrive in sod and perish on open cultivated ground. I can give no better example of this than relating a circumstance which bears this out in a most convincing way. In 1941 I purchased about 250 filbert seedlings from Samuel Graham of Ithaca, New York. These were planted out on a field site and practically all of the plants made good growth the first year. They were thoroughly cultivated. The next year a second batch of plants of a like amount were purchased from the same man and of the same kind of seedlings. Mr. Graham told me that these were seedling trees from Jones hybrid seeds which he had growing in his orchard. These plants were put on heavy sod ground; all plants were protected by screens, but the plants on the sod ground were subject to a very wet season and it was necessary to build up the soil around some of the plants in order to save them from being drowned out. Today about 45 plants are living on the sod culture and two or three barely alive exist in the open field culture. Although the plants remaining alive on the sod culture plot are almost pure filbert strain they are therefore very subject to the common hazel blight. Some have grown into bushes 10 feet high which later were hit by blight and have been reduced to small bushes. Others are producing good filbert-type nuts and are somewhat blight resistant, but the main fact to remember is that about 1/4 of the plants on sod culture lived, whereas not over 2% are alive of the open field culture plants. The distance between these plantings is approximately 1/8 of a mile. In addition to being placed in sod these filberts which have survived are sheltered by rows of evergreen trees both on the south and on the north side which may be construed as of some assistance but is not altogether the reason for the tremendous difference between the winter protection value of sod and open field culture. This is not the only example that I could cite but is one of the most outstanding ones which has come to my attention. Sod culture is now being recommended to fruit orchardists in this part of the country and in my own experience, I can highly recommend it for apples, plums, pears, mulberries and nut trees. Chapter 15 TREE STORAGE If it is necessary to store trees through the winter months, one of several procedures may be followed. If the trees are quite small, their tops may be dipped in melted paraffin or beeswax, not hot enough to injure the buds. If the trees are too large for this to be practical, wax may be painted on with a brush. Roots should be protected by heeling them in dirt. An unheated cellar with a dirt floor is a very satisfactory place for storing trees. Select a corner of the cellar far from any source of heat or temperature change. Place the trees so that the roots are pointing toward the basement wall. Cover the roots to a depth of six inches with either sand or sandy loam, packing the soil firmly to eliminate air pockets. Lastly, cover the trees completely with burlap sacks. Once every two weeks, the earth around the roots should be watered. Trees maintained in this way are conveniently ready to plant when the ground thaws out in the spring. Another and better method of storing trees is to plant them outside in a trench, preferably on the north side of a building, having first waxed them as described above. One side of the trench should slope so that the trees will lie in an oblique position with their branches touching the ground. The roots of these trees should be covered with dirt, then more trees set alongside them, until all have been planted and the earth made firm about their roots. Trees will usually suffer no damage during such winter storage if their roots have been properly packed in sand or sandy loam. Six or more cans, each containing a little poisoned grain, should be set among the branches. If these cans are laid on their sides, rodents will have easier access to the poison. The branches of the trees should then be well covered with straw or hay, with heavy boards laid on top to keep it from blowing away. If trees are received for planting after the ground has frozen, all that is necessary is to build a log fire on the side where they are to be heeled in. This will thaw out the soil enough so that a trench can be made to accommodate them. Chapter 16 SUGGESTIONS ON GRAFTING METHODS Grafting, including budding, may be defined as inserting a piece of wood which carries buds of a desired variety, on a root stock sufficiently compatible to accept it, for the purpose of propagation. Methods vary, each nurseryman having one or more which he prefers, but the principle is always the same. Scionwood may be cut the fall before grafting is to be done, after the growing season has ended, but some prefer to cut the scions in early spring. This means that the scions must be stored until time to graft, and correct storage is so important that nurserymen make elaborate provision for it. I have found that keeping scions underground in a Harrington graft storage box is the safest method. An illustration of this box is given, with directions for its construction and location. A small quantity of scions may be kept in an icebox (not a mechanical refrigerator), by cutting them into convenient lengths of one or two feet, dipping them in melted beeswax, wrapping them in tar or asphalt paper and placing them close to the ice. They will remain in good condition for several months if there is always a good supply of ice. Care must be taken in dipping the scions in melted wax, for if the wax is too hot it will injure the buds. It should never become so hot that it smokes. I find it advisable to keep an unmelted piece of wax in the liquid wax to hold the temperature down. Another method of storing scions, after they have been dipped in beeswax, is to place them on the earth of a cellar floor and cover them with a few burlap sacks. They should never be allowed to become wet or they will start to mold. If they are to be stored in this way, a watch must be kept for mice which will molest them and destroy them if they have an opportunity. Although bud wood may be stored in any of the three ways mentioned, it should not be waxed. Because of this, it is more likely to deteriorate. It must be examined frequently and if mold is found, the wood should be dipped in a Bordeaux solution. After drying, it may be placed in storage again. It is a good plan to wrap bud wood in tar or asphalt paper when storing it. However, I have found that the best storage conditions for all scionwood that I have yet discovered is in the use of peat moss. Peat moss must be on the distinctly acid side in order to perform the function of storing scionwood. Most peat moss is generally acid; however the simple litmus paper test with which every high school pupil is familiar, can be made. Having acquired good acid peat moss, dampen a sufficient quantity to pack the scions in to give them liberal protection. Do not make the bundles of scionwood too large, from 10 to 20 scions in a bundle is better than a large number and much easier to handle. The moss should be prepared exactly the same as advised in storing chestnuts (see chapter for storing seeds). In this case it is not necessary to wax the scions at all. The moss should be applied by sifting it into the open spaces between the scions and a larger wad at the base of the cuttings, not at the terminal or bud ends as these would be better left unpacked. The package is now rolled into a cylinder, using tar paper or asphalt treated paper, and both ends left open. Do not use ordinary paper or wax paper as it will turn moldy. Cylinders of tar paper containing the packed scions should be placed in a damp room like a cellar with a dirt floor which is cold enough to keep potatoes and other roots in good condition throughout the winter. If the cellar is not a good storage cellar for roots and herbs it will not be good enough for the scionwood as it will be too warm generally. Neither should they be frozen solid, therefore if a good root cellar is not obtainable then these should be put in the Harrington graft box already described or placed under the sawdust in an icehouse and close to the ice. An old-fashioned ice refrigerator will also make a good storage bin, placing them close to the ice at all times. [Illustration: Drwg by Wm. Kuehn. _Making a scarf with a plane preparatory to grafting._] Selection of good scionwood and bud wood, a very important matter, is made according to definite standards. Some plants graft better if wood is used that has two seasons' growth, but, in general, wood of the current season's growth is used. It must have reached its maximum possible maturity before it is cut. Also, some attention should be paid to the vigor of the growth which it has made during the season. For instance, in choosing between wood which has made only two or three inches' growth and that which has made a foot or more of growth, both being equally sound and mature, the more vigorous should be chosen. Attention should be paid to the development of the buds, which should be plump and never immature. It is advisable to label scions before they are stored to avoid the confusion that will result if they are mixed. I find that the best method of doing this is to get a sheet of zinc, from 20 to 30 gauge thick, and cut it into strips one inch wide by one and three-quarters inches long. I bore a small hole in one corner of each tag, through which I thread 18-gauge copper wire, doubled and with the bottom loop folded over (see page 40). In preparing these tags, it is important to remember that both wires must pass through the hole in the metal tag, otherwise, the slight movement due to winds will cause the metal to wear through. Two wires prevent this action indefinitely. Since a small wire cuts through a zinc tag in one or two years, heavy wire must be used. Wire such as I have indicated is satisfactory. I print the necessary information on each tag with a small, steel awl, and such labels are still legible after twenty-five years. Copper, brass or aluminum would also make good tags, but these metals are more expensive. Of course, these tags may be used for small trees as well as grafts and scionwood and it is always well to do a good job of labeling all work, since many errors may result from disregard to this important detail. In the north, the time to graft nut trees is when the cambium layer of the host, or stock, is active, which is usually during the entire month of May. This cambium layer consists of those cells lying just inside of the outer bark, between it and the woody part of the tree. When these cells are active, the inner side of the bark feels slippery and a jelly-like substance can be scraped from it. Although this is the state in which the stock should be for grafting, the condition of the scions should be almost the opposite, rather dry and showing no signs of cambium activity. The bark should cling firmly to the woody part of the scions, whereas the bark of the stock should slip off readily. Another good and fairly satisfactory rule is never to graft the stocks of nut trees until after the young leaves appear. In grafting young nursery trees not more than an inch in diameter, the whole tree is cut off at any distance from the ground convenient to the nurseryman. Sometimes they are cut within a few inches of the ground, sometimes two or three feet. In my work, I like to keep the scions as high above the ground as I can. When the top of a stock is cut off, there is a great deal of sap pressure and the tree bleeds. It is a poor policy to attempt grafting while this is happening. Rather, one should cut the tops off, then wait for several days before inserting any grafts. Tools must be kept very sharp. A good grafting knife is sharpened on one side only, so that the blade is flat along the side which lies next to the cut made on the scion when it is trimmed. If unaccustomed to handling a knife, one can obtain more accurate results by using a small plane. I do this by holding the scion firmly in my right hand and pulling it toward me, against the cutting edge of the plane which is held in the left hand. Illustrations show how this is done. The only disadvantage in using a plane is that one must exchange it for a knife to make the receiving cut in the stock before inserting the graft. This necessitates exposing the graft to the air for a longer time than does using a single instrument. Spring budding is done during the same period as grafting. Bud wood is usually much larger in diameter than scionwood, for it is easier to remove buds from big branches than from wood only one-quarter inch in diameter. When budding is to be done, take along only enough wood for half a day's work, leaving the rest safely stored. A piece of wood having a bud is prepared as shown in the illustrations "A" and "B" (next page). A T-shaped slot is made in the stock to receive the bud, a process called "shield budding." This is tied in place with either string, raffia or gummed tape, as shown in "C" and "D" (next page). The bud must be free to grow, and although it may be covered completely with wax, no part of the binding material should be close to it. Since it is not necessary to cut off all the tree in budding, enough of it may remain above the bud to brace the shoot that develops. Later, it may be necessary to cut back the tree to the bud so that a callus will form and cause the wound to heal properly. [Illustration: Drwg by Wm. Kuehn _Shield Budding._] Best results are obtained when a graft union is coated with melted beeswax. Another and cheaper wax may be made by combining four parts of rosin, one part of beeswax and one-sixteenth part of raw linseed oil. To this is sometimes added a little lampblack to color the mixture so that it can be seen on the graft. Again, care must be taken to prevent injuring the cells with wax that is too hot. I have used many kinds of tying materials, but the one which gives me best results is gummed tape, which preparation I describe in another chapter. By wrapping it in spirals around a graft union, I have a material which holds the graft in place and at the same time excludes air. The rubber also seems to encourage the formation of that tissue which unites the stock and scion. In addition to tape, melted wax should be brushed into those crevices and cracks which always occur in making a graft. It is usually advisable, although not necessary, to shade new grafts. To do this, cover them with light-colored or white paper sacks. Never use glassine alone for it causes the grafts to overheat and so destroys them. Whatever tying material is used, either to fasten on these bags or to support the grafts, it should be inspected at intervals during the summer, as it may constrict the graft or stock and injure or cut off the cambium. After a scion begins to grow, it must be firmly braced against the force of the wind, for a heavy gale can rip out grafts made years before. Laths make good braces for growing shoots. They may be attached to the main branch by stout waterproof twine such as binder twine, and the growing graft tied with soft muslin strips to the lath. As the graft grows more muslin strips should be used to keep the excessive growth anchored to the lath. Grafts will often make three or more feet in growth in one season. It is important to remember that sprouts or buds which start from the stock must be rubbed off. If they are allowed to flourish, they may prevent the scion from growing. When working over a tree several inches in diameter, it becomes an art to keep the tree stock satisfied, yet to encourage the growth of the scions. In large trees, a few sprouts must grow to nourish the root system, but this is not necessary if the stock is one inch, or less, in diameter. Chapter 17 GRAFTING TAPE VERSUS RAFFIA It is necessary that a person who is grafting trees and developing hybrids experiment not only with the plants he is interested in, but also with the equipment and materials he uses. For more than twelve years, I used raffia to tie the grafts I made, becoming more annoyed and irritated with its limitations each year. Finally, I began trying other materials, until I found one which I think is very satisfactory. This is a rubberized grafting tape. At my nursery, we make our own tape. We buy pure rubber gum, known as Lotol NC-356, from the Naugatuck Chemical Company, at a cost of $7.50 for five gallons, F.O.B. their factory. With this, we use unbleached muslin of an 80 x 80 mesh, or finer. As the muslin is usually a yard wide, we fold it and take it to a printing firm, where, for a small charge, it is cut into both one-half and three-quarter inch strips by being fed through a paper-cutting machine. We use the wider strips for heavy work on large trees which have three to five-inch stubs; the narrower strips we use in the nursery, grafting young seedlings. First, pour about a gallon of the rubber compound into a twelve or sixteen-quart pail having a smooth, rolled edge. Next, separate a dozen or so of the strips of muslin. Then, set out a pair of rails on which to dry the tape after it has been dipped. I make these rails by using two 1" x 2" boards about twelve feet in length, nailed together at the ends with boards two feet long. This frame, resting on carpenter's horses or benches, makes a good drying rack. Holding a piece of tape by one end, submerge it in the rubber solution, forcing it down with a spatula or knife. Swishing it around or moving it up and down several times helps to fill the pores with rubber. Drag it from the solution by pulling it sharply over the rolled edge of the pail, using the spatula on the upper side of the strip to scrape off superfluous rubber. A little practice soon enables one to judge the amount of rubber needed on the tape. There should not be so much that it drips off. Hang the tape on the rack so that the ends are attached to the rails, the tape sagging slightly in the center. Space the pieces of tape so that they do not touch, for, if they do, they will be very difficult to separate later. After they have dried for twenty-four hours, wind the tape on pieces of cardboard about one foot square, being careful not to overlap the tape. The tape is now ready for field-work. I want to mention some of the advantages I have found in using this rubberized tape rather than raffia. The tape is uniform throughout and is stronger than raffia. It does not fly around and frequently get tangled as the latter does. There is no necessity for keeping it slightly damp to be usable. It may easily be torn off at any convenient length or it may be cut without injuring the edge of the grafting knife. A last advantage is that it is self-sealing since it overlaps on itself slightly when wound around a graft union. Because of this, there is no necessity for painting the finished graft with melted wax as is absolutely vital when using raffia. Personally, I use wax in addition to the tape for I feel that it is probably safer with that extra protection. Also it gives me an opportunity to wax over the tip end of the scion when it is devoid of a terminal bud. The only disadvantage in using tape is its cost which, I must admit, is very much higher than that of raffia. But if, by using tape, twice as many grafts can be made each day, and if the resulting takes are 50% better, as they have been in my experience, then the cost is justified and raffia is actually the more expensive to use. Chapter 18 EFFECTS OF GRAFTING ON UNLIKE STOCKS It is unquestionably a great shock to a tree when 90% of its top is cut off. If it is healthy and vigorous, the root system will try to recover, using every means possible to do so. If a new top is grafted to it, the stock must either accept and nourish that foreign and sometimes incompatible new part, or give up its struggle for life. Nature and the tree stock usually accept the challenge and the graft begins to grow. In an attempt to continue with its own identity, the stock will bring into activity adventitious buds. These are tiny microscopic buds imbedded in the bark of a tree that are not apparent to the eye but are nature's protection against destruction of the individual plant. But these must be removed by the horticulturist to insure proper nourishment of the grafts. Because the root system is striving hard to live, and because it is usually the stronger, it may force the top to accept certain of its characteristics. Occasionally, it may assume some qualities of the original top. Such cooperation is necessary if either is to survive. First of all, the grafted scions must accept the vital quality of climatic hardiness, a powerful factor developed through ages spent in a certain climate. To hasten the acclimatization of a tender variety, I cut scionwood from such unions early in the winter, storing it until spring. When these scions are grafted on new root systems, I find that they are much more readily accepted than the first grafts were. The following season, I allow the grafts of this later union to go through their first winter of exposure. Early each spring I continue to cut scions from the most recent unions and graft them to new root systems, so hastening and setting the factor of hardiness through frequent asexual propagation. Because my observations of the effects of scion on root and vice versa, have not extended over a sufficient period of time, I think it is possible that the changes I have seen may be only transient. In any case, I do know that the phenomenon occurs, for I have seen many examples of it. One instance in which the stock was apparently affecting the scions, occurred in the case of several varieties of black walnuts which had been grafted on wild butternut stock over a period of sixteen years. The walnut top flourished but tended to outgrow the butternut, so that the caliber of the walnut was greater than that of the stock a few inches below the graft union. I also noticed that, although the graft began to bear about as early as black walnuts do when they are grafted on their own species, the nuts did not mature at all during the first few years of bearing. In 1938, after a favorable season, I found mature nuts on one variety, the Thomas. These nuts varied in size more than they do when grafted on black walnut. The most surprising thing about them, though, was that they did not have the characteristic black walnut flavor. When properly dried and cured, they could have passed as an entirely different nut since they tasted like neither the black walnut, the butternut nor the Persian walnut. The overgrowth of the Ohio black walnut, grafted on butternut, was even more apparent than that of the Thomas. These nuts were, as I have said, immature the first few years they appeared and they, too, lacked the usual black walnut flavor. In their case, however, the most striking change was in the shape and structure of their shells which were elongated like butternuts, with corrugations typical of those found on butternuts and nearly as deep and sharp. (See Illustration in Chapter 1, Page 5.) In 1937, I made experimental graftings on native black walnut stocks of the Weschcke No. 4 butternut, a variety I found to be superior to hundreds of other native trees tested. The grafts grew luxuriantly and in 1940, produced about two pounds of nuts. These nuts were approximately 30% larger than those on the parent tree. They cracked well and the kernels were similar to those from the parent tree. They definitely distinguished themselves, however, by being a free-hulling nut, which is not true of the mother tree nor of most butternuts. Soon after the nuts had dropped to the ground and were still green, they were hulled and their hulls peeled off like those of the Persian walnut, leaving the nuts clean and free from remnants. Apparently this phenomenon was a transient one since later crops did not display this free-hulling feature. I have mentioned, elsewhere, the seedling apricot which came into bearing in St. Paul, and how I obtained grafts before it died during a very cold winter. I have grafted scions of this apricot on both hybrid and wild plum stocks repeatedly and this apricot now exhibits a material gain in hardiness. It overgrows the plum stock, but this does not seem to inhibit its bearing, the fruit growing to greater size than that of the mother tree. These are some of the instances in which I have seen stock exert a definite, and, mainly a beneficial influence on its grafted top. It may easily be that these are only of a temporary nature and until I have seen them maintained for many more years, I must consider them to be transient effects. Chapter 19 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIONS Loss of identification markings from my grafted trees has, on occasion, caused me much confusion. There was one time when I had from six to ten varieties of hickories and their hybrids grafted on wild bitternut hickory stocks, totally lacking in identification. Although this disconcerted me considerably, I knew of nothing I could do except to wait for the grafts to bear nuts and determine the varieties from these. As I continued my experimental grafting, I made sure that the tags I used were not only indestructible, but also secured to the grafts in such a way that the action of the wind could not wear them out nor cause them to drop off. Not long after this had happened, I received from Dr. Deming a shipment of about twenty varieties of hickory scions. While I was preparing this material for grafting, I noticed that each variety could be readily distinguished by its appearance in general and, specifically, by differences in its leaf scars. I also noticed markings on the bark, particularly the stomata, which differed with each variety. Color and stripes added further differentiation. Although I also found variations in the size and shape of the buds, I later discovered that these do not always remain constant within a variety, but depend somewhat on each season's growth. For instance, a second growth sometimes develops during a favorable season with a large number of lateral buds growing out of it like spines. It seemed to me that if scions could be maintained in an approximately fresh state, they would furnish a key by which any variety of graft could be determined as easily as it could by its nuts. I therefore set myself to preserve scionwood in its fresh state. First, I cut five-inch pieces of plump, healthy wood, each piece having a terminal bud. I placed these buds downward in large test tubes which I then filled with pure, strained honey. Such models did very well for a time, but after about a year, the honey crystallized and of course the scions were no longer visible. I emptied the tubes and washed them, cleaned the scions in warm water, replaced them and refilled the tubes with pure glycerine. I submerged a thin, zinc tag, stencilled with the varietal name and bent to conform with the contour of the tube, inside of each one as a name plate which could not easily be lost or removed. I also labeled each cork with the name of the variety enclosed so that any one of them could be located when looking down at a nest of tubes in a vertical position. In order to display these preserved specimens at illustrated lectures, I had a rack made of redwood, of a size to hold twenty tubes. The tubes could easily be taken from the rack for closer observation by members of an audience. I find this to be an interesting adjunct to various nut culture exhibits I make in trying to promote nut culture education. Since I was able to identify my unlabeled, hickory grafts by means of this catalogue of submerged scions, I consider it of great practical worth. At the present time, I have about 50 hickory specimens, a good catalogue, although not a complete one. I see no reason why the same thing could not be done with black walnut or any other kind of nut scions. Chapter 20 HYBRIDIZING Working with nature to develop new varieties of trees is fascinating although it requires infinite patience and study combined with skill and concentration. A person without experience may taste of this pleasure, however, by trying his hand at cross-pollination, and there is no end to the number of hybrids possible. In attempting to make crosses, one must necessarily understand the botanical relationship between the trees to be crossed. Trees of the same species cross readily in almost all cases; trees of the same genus are not as easily crossed; trees belonging only to the same family are usually difficult to cross. It is generally assumed that trees not in the same family are impossible to hybridize. The plum serves as a practical example of this. The American wild plum crosses readily with almost any other plum and particularly well with the Japanese plum. These crosses have resulted in such phenomenal fruit as the Underwood plum, a cross made between species. If a cross were made between a chestnut and a walnut, it would be between members of different families. I recommend to anyone who is attempting to cross-pollinate for the first time, that he limit his work to crosses made within species. His chances of success will be greater and such success added to the experience he is acquiring, will give him the background needed for more difficult hybridizing. Crosses made between filberts and hazels usually produce great changes in the resulting fruit. J. F. Jones won considerable horticultural fame from crosses he made between the wild American hazel known as the Rush hazel, and such varieties of the European filbert as the Italian Red and Daviana. Hazel and filbert cross readily and the resulting seedlings will usually bear after only three or four years. For both these reasons, they are good material for a beginner to work with. If the wild hazel is to be used as the female, or mother, of the cross, it is necessary to pick off all the male blossoms, or staminate blooms. This should be done long before they begin to expand. The pistillate, or female blossoms, should be enclosed in bags, about six of the three-pound, common kraft bags should be enough. These are slipped over those branches which bear female blossoms and are tied around a heavy packing of absorbent cotton, which has been wound around the branch at approximately the place where the opening of the bag will be. In fastening the mouth of the bag around the cotton, I find that No. 18 copper wire, wrapped several times around and the ends twisted together, is more satisfactory than string. This makes a pollen-tight house for the pistillate blossoms but not one so air-tight as to cause any damage to either the plant or blossoms. In order to have pollen available at the proper time, it is necessary to cut a few filbert branches which bear staminate blooms and store them in a dark, cold place to prevent the pollen from ripening too soon. I recommend keeping such branches in dampened sphagnum moss until it is time for the pollen to ripen, or if a cold cellar is available, burying the cut ends of large branches carrying male catkins one foot deep in clean, moist sand. When the pollen is wanted, the branches should be placed in a container of water and set near a window where sunlight will reach them. Usually, after one day of exposure to bright sunlight, the staminate blooms will expand and begin to shed their pollen. The pollen may easily be collected by allowing an extended catkin to droop inside a vial or test tube and then, as the catkin rests against its inner wall, tapping the outside of the tube sharply with a pencil to jar the pollen grains loose. A separate test tube must be used for each variety of pollen to be experimented with. By following this procedure for several days with all the staminate blooms that have been gathered, the experimenter should have enough pollen for work on a small scale. The test tubes containing this pollen should never be stoppered with corks, but with plugs of absorbent cotton, which will allow the passage of air. Pollen may be stored in this manner for several days, possibly as long as two weeks, if it is kept dry. By a close observation of the blooming period of the wild hazels, one is able to determine the best time for placing the filbert pollen on the pistillate blossoms. No attempt should be made to do so until the male catkins of the wild hazel species are so entirely exhausted that no amount of shaking will release any grains of pollen. When this condition exists, it is time to move the stored filbert branches to strong sunlight. A quiet day should be chosen to pollinize the hazels for two reasons. If there is a wind, it will blow away the pollen and so make the work more difficult. A wind will also increase the danger of the hazels being fertilized by native hazel pollen which may still be circulating in the air and which the flowers may prefer to filbert pollen. When good conditions are present, then, the hybridizer proceeds to his work. A brush with which to transfer pollen from the vial to the pistillate blossoms is made by wrapping a little absorbent cotton around the end of a match. The paper bag is removed from around a group of hazel blossoms, a small amount of pollen is dabbed on each blossom and the bag is immediately replaced, to remain on for two more weeks. When the bags are finally taken off, the branches should be marked to indicate that the nuts will be hybrids. Before receiving pollen, each pistillate blossom has, emerging from its bud tip, a few delicate red or pink spikes which are sticky enough to make pollen adhere to them. Within a few days after receiving pollen, these spikes may dry up and turn black, a fair indication that the pollen has been effective. If the pollen does not take hold, the spikes of the staminate blooms are sure to continue pink for a long time. I have seen them in the middle of the summer, still blooming and waiting for pollen which would let them continue on their cycle. This ability of hazel flowers to remain receptive for a long period allows the nut-culturist ample time to accomplish his work. It is not so true with all members of the nut tree group, some, such as the English walnuts, being receptive for such a short period that only by very frequent examination and many applications of pollen can one be sure of making a cross. Early in the fall, the hybrid nuts should be enclosed in a wire screen to prevent mice and squirrels from taking them before they are ripe. Such wire screens may be used in the form of a bag and fastened around each branch. When the husks turn brown and dry, the nuts are ripe, and ready to be gathered and planted. Careful handling of the nuts is advisable to preserve their viability. They should be planted in an outdoor bed which has been fully protected against the invasion of rodents. A screen such as I described for other nut seed is satisfactory for these hybrid nuts but it need not be as large as that. After the nuts have sprouted and the plants have grown for one season, they may be transplanted into a permanent location where they should again be well protected against mice by a trunk screen, and against rabbits by driving a stout stake deep into the ground on the south side of the tree and tying it to the tree. This use of a stake discourages rabbits from cutting off the tree. There are innumerable other crosses that can be made as well as those between hazels and filberts. It is possible, for example, to cross the English walnut with the black walnut. Many such crosses have been made although none of them is known to have produced superior nuts. Thousands of crosses exist between butternuts and Japanese heartnuts. Many of these are of some worth and are being propagated. Crosses between heartnut and butternut are easily made, following the same procedure used in crossing hazels and filberts, except that larger bags are necessary for covering the female blossoms. Also, these bags should have a small, celluloid window glued into a convenient place, so that the progress of the female blossoms toward maturity can be observed. When hybridizing walnuts, it is necessary to use a pollen gun instead of removing the bag from around the female blossoms and applying the pollen with a cotton-covered applicator. Such a pollen gun can be made by using a glass vial which does not hold more than an ounce of liquid. An atomizer bulb, attached to a short copper or brass tube soldered into a metal screw-cap, is fitted to the vial. Another small copper or brass tube should also be inserted in the screw-cap close to the first one. The second tube should be bent to a right angle above the stopper and its projecting end filed to a sharp point. Without removing the bag from around the pistillate blossoms, the hybridizer forces the point of the atomizer through the cotton wadding between bag and branch. The pollen in the vial is blown through the tube into the bag in a cloud, covering all the enclosed blossoms. It is advisable to repeat this on several successive days to make certain of reaching the female blossoms during their most receptive period. [Illustration: _8 x 8 x 8 foot tightly woven sheet of unbleached muslin stretched over mother hazel plant during pollination period in the process of making controlled crosses between it and filbert parents. Photo by C. Weschcke._] [Illustration: THE WESCHCKE POLLEN GUN Taper end of copper tube ... not absolutely necessary, but it saves pollen. Long fibre cotton wad wired to intake side of bulb to strain out foreign pollens that may be in atmosphere. De Vilbiss atomizer bulb. Pollen grains Any small glass bottle with a wide mouth and screw cap. Tubes A and B--3/16" outside diameter copper tubing can be purchased at any garage. Solder both tubes to screw cover C. Drwg by Wm. Kuehn _How to make pollen gun._] Chapter 21 TOXICITY AMONG TREES AND PLANTS Although quack grass will grow luxuriantly up to the trunks of both black walnut and butternut trees, I know, from things I have seen myself, that the roots of the latter and probably of the former have a deadly effect on members of the evergreen family. I have seen northern white pine and other pines, too, suddenly lose their needles and die when, as large trees, they have been transplanted to the vicinity of butternut trees. To save as many of these transplanted trees as possible, it was necessary for me to sacrifice almost one hundred fine butternut trees by cutting them off close to the ground and pruning all the sprouts that started. Other instances have also demonstrated to me this deleterious power of butternut trees over evergreens. For years, I watched a struggle between a small butternut tree and a large Mugho pine. Gradually the Mugho pine was succumbing. At last, when the pine had lost over half its branches on the side near the butternut, I decided to take an active part in the fight. I cut off the trunk of the butternut and pruned off all of its sprouts. The butternut surrendered and died. The Mugho pine took new heart, lived and again flourished. At another time, I transplanted several thousand Montana pines, about thirty or forty of which came within the branch limits of a medium size butternut tree. Within a year, these thirty or more trees had turned brown and were completely dead, while those immediately outside the branch area were dwarfed and not at all thrifty. The trees farther from the butternut were unaffected and grew consistently well. A similar condition, although not to the same degree, developed under a white oak where more Mugho pines were growing. Another instance occurred when a planting of several thousand Colorado blue spruce were lined out and fell within the area affected by two butternut trees. The spruce were all dead within a few months. Many people have observed the detrimental effect of trees of the walnut family on alfalfa, tomatoes and potatoes, resulting in wilting and dying. It is the root systems of the walnut which are responsible for this damage. Apparently, there is some chemical elaborated near the surface of the roots, and sensitive plants, whose roots come in contact with either roots or ground containing this factor, are injured and sometimes killed by it. One must therefore be very cautious about trusting these trees as protectors of many of the ornamental and garden plants. I am certain, from my own observations, that their influence on evergreens is strongly antagonistic. On another basis is the association between catalpas and chestnut trees growing adjacent to one another. Constructive symbiosis apparently develops when a young chestnut tree is planted within the radius of the root system of a catalpa. The latter very definitely influences the chestnut tree to grow more vigorously than it otherwise would. I have recorded my observations of these antagonisms and friendships between trees and plants to show that they are a reality which should be taken into consideration in grouping and transplanting. Such warnings are infrequent because some people may mistake them as condemnations of certain favorite trees. I do not intend them as such, for these plants are often valuable and worthwhile. This ability which they have developed through the many years of their existence is a guarantee of the sturdiness and strength of their family and species, not at all a quality to be condemned. CONCLUSION If I had written this book twenty years ago, I would have prophesied a future for nut culture in the north, full of wonder, hope and profit. If I had written it ten years ago, I should have filled it with discouragement and disillusion. Now, after growing such trees for more than 30 years, I realize that the truth lies somewhere between these extremes, but nearer the first. It is seldom practical to move native trees very far from their natural range, nor is it necessary to do so in this part of the north: We have four fine, native nut trees: the hazel, the butternut, the black walnut and the hickory. In my experience, these four have completely demonstrated their practical worth. If commercialization is the primary hope of the nut tree planter, he should first consider the large, hardy hybrids, known as hazilberts, which I have produced between a large Wisconsin wild hazel and European filberts. Hazilberts equal the best European filberts in every way, without the latter's disadvantage of susceptibility to hazel blight and its lack of hardiness. They are as hardy as the common wild hazel and are more adaptable to environment and soil conditions than any other native nut tree. They may be trained into trees or allowed to grow as large bushes. Like all other filberts and hazels, they, too, need companion plants for cross pollinization to obtain full crops of nuts. The butternut is also a very adaptable tree. No one who is acquainted with it, questions the quality of the butternut kernel. In a good variety, the nuts should crack out in halves and the kernels drop out readily. So many good varieties of black walnuts are being propagated, I need not say much about them, except that many of the best ones are not practical for this climate. Nurserymen who grow them can give the best advice about varieties to anyone selecting black walnuts for orchard planting. Hickories are the last of these native trees to be recommended from a commercial standpoint, as they are the most particular about soil and climate. However, with improved propagation methods and planting technique they should become some day as valuable as pecan plantations have become valuable to the south. Considering the nut tree as a dooryard tree, an ornament rather than a business, makes it possible to include many more species as suitable for growing in the north. For this purpose, I suggest heartnuts, chestnuts, pecans and hiccans. The heartnut tree is always one to draw attention and interest, picturesque in its leaves, blossoms and clusters of nuts. Last, but certainly not least in it potentialities, is the English walnut. I am certain that we shall have some varieties of these which will be hardy enough to plant in the north. When these have been completely proven, they will be a delightful addition to the number of trees flourishing here. What family would not receive enjoyment and satisfaction from having, in its dooryard, a gracious English walnut tree, its spreading branches laden with nuts? Although the commercial aspect of producing hazilberts is engrossing me at the present time, my greatest pleasure in nut culture still comes, as it always shall come, from actual work with these trees. It is both a physical and mental tonic. I recommend nut tree culture to everyone who enjoys spending his time out-of-doors, who is inspired by work of a creative nature, and who appreciates having trees, or even one tree, of his own. Suggested reading on Nut Tree Culture: Nut Growing by Morris Nut Growers' Handbook by Bush Tree Crops by J. Russell Smith The Nut Culturist by Fuller Improved Nut Tree of North America by Clarence Reed Annual Reports of N.N.G.A. 
13537	----	Distributed Proofreaders Team _The Library of Work and Play_ GARDENING AND FARMING BY ELLEN EDDY SHAW 1911 COPYRIGHT, 1911 THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO THE REAL BOYS OF THIS REAL CLUB AND TO THE GIRLS WHO ARE JUST AS GOOD AS BOYS CONTENTS PART I--THE GARDEN CLUB CHAPTER I. The Garden Club II. The Boys' Garden Difficulties III. The Girls' Secret IV. Garden Experiments Performed Indoors V. The Work Shop End of the Garden VI. What the Girls Made Winter Evenings VII. Improving the School Grounds VIII. Myron's Strawberry Bed IX. Jack's All-Round Garden X. Albert and Jay's Drainage Problem XI. George's Cabbage Troubles XII. Peter, Potatoes and Profit XIII. Philip's Backyard XIV. The Corn Contest XV. The Girls' Secret Work XVI. More About the Girls' Work XVII. The Girls' Winter Work XVIII. The Grand Wind-Up--Girls vs. Boys PART II.--THE CHIEF'S GARDEN TALKS CHAPTER I. The Soil II. Plant Food III. Seeds IV. The Plant Itself V. Increasing Plants VI. Garden Operations VII. Common Weeds VIII. Garden Pests IX. Vegetable Culture X. Flower Culture XI. The Wild-Flower Garden XII. Landscape Gardening XIII. How Boys and Girls Can Make Money from Their Gardens ILLUSTRATIONS Dee's Garden Was a "Lovesome Thing" _Frontispiece_ The Way The Chief Taught His Boys to Handle Tools Jay's Tile Drain Converted a Swamp into a Garden Philip's Backyard Made Beautiful by Annuals and Quick-growing Vines The Bulb Story Constant Cultivation of the Soil Saved George's Cabbages Jack's Rake Handle as a Measuring Stick Albert Sowing Large Seeds Singly Elizabeth Sowing Small Seed from the Package Myron Transplanting His Long-rooted Strawberry Plants Katharine Transplanting Her Flowers by a Method of Lifting PART I--THE GARDEN CLUB I THE GARDEN CLUB The door opened. A gust of wind and rain literally swept five boys, wet and breathless, into the room. The man at the big oak table in front of a huge open fire looked up, smiled, and said, "Off with your duds, boys! Bar the door securely, Jay, for it's a wild night. Throw a fresh log on the fire, Albert. And all line up." For a few moments the big cheerful room seemed full of wriggling, twisting boys as great coats were pulled off and hung up carefully on pegs at the far end of the room. It was a rule here at The Chief's home that things should always be shipshape. Then the "line up" came. This was a little ceremony the boys always went through, having dropped into it quite of their own accord. They formed a line in front of the open fire with backs to it and faces toward the man. Then they solemnly saluted in military style. At this The Chief arose, saluted, and by a wave of the hand assigned each boy to his place at the table. This little group of boys had formed itself naturally into a club. It met with The Chief every Saturday night. He was really no chief, this big, boy-loving man who had come to spend a while in this little country village, to rest and to write. The boys had named him The Chief because, as Albert said, "He could lead any tribe and tame any savage." At this Albert always laughed for he himself had been called a savage so many times he almost believed he was one. The boys dropped into their places. Jay, or the "Little Chief" as the boys called him, sat opposite the Big Chief at the end of the table and right in front of the fire. He was slim and tall and light of foot. He could run faster, throw farther, and play better than any other boy in the village. He always led, he never bullied, he played fair, so the other boys always followed. Albert, Jay's brother, big and heavy and as full of mischief as he could hold, took his place at The Chief's right hand. Albert called this his place of honour although knowing full well that he was there so The Chief might have him within reach. Next to Albert came George, frank-faced and bashful, sturdy and loyal. Opposite him red-headed, stubby Peter sat always on the edge of his chair, always with a bit of a smile on his face, never talking much, always agreeing good-naturedly. Beside Peter and at The Chief's left was Jack, who wriggled constantly like a young eel. After the boys were seated and quiet, The Chief pushed back his work, a plan of his summer's garden, leaned back in his chair and said, "I think first we had better take up your reports." Then he pointed at Jay who began: "Well, when Albert and I asked father for a piece of the garden for our very own to work exactly as we pleased this summer, with no questions asked or answered, he laughed. He said that Albert wouldn't stick to it a day." "I will, just the same," shouted out Albert quite red in the face. "Just keep out of this, Savage, until I get through." The man laid a restraining hand on Albert's arm and Jay continued: "But I begged father, and told him we'd always worked for him, and he might let us try for ourselves. Besides, I told him we'd not shirk his work. So finally he said we each could have the ten hills in the corn patch for the experiment, just as you wished. And then--" "And then," broke in Albert, unable longer to contain himself, "what do you think he gave us? It's just no use trying, for he gave us an old piece of land below the barn. It's a regular old swamp; why, water stands there the whole spring long, and it takes half the summer to dry it out. Then it gets hard as a brick. Now what is the use of trying on that?" "We'll take it just the same, and so we told father," continued Jay. "We have just got to make that old land do something." The Chief nodded and pointed to George for his report. "Same here," began George. "My father wouldn't listen at all at the first; then he said I might have the hills of corn. He threw in also an old side slope which he thinks is too poor for any use." George sank back in his chair in a quite dejected manner. It was now Jack's turn. "You see," he began at his lightning rate, "we haven't much land anyway, seeing as we live in the village. I can have the backyard, such as it is, but that's precious little use. It's never been used for a garden, and it's full of rock. One of our neighbours says I may have a piece of her corn patch for my corn, if I'll take care of hers, too. Of course I took her offer. Just had to." Peter took his turn last, as usual. "We have no place at our home; too much lawn, and mother will not have it cut up. Grandfather said I might have any place I wanted in his garden if I'd really care for it myself." "My!" said Albert, "what a snap! Your grandfather has the best garden land around here. You'll win The Chief's five dollars for the best garden; you just can't help yourself. I'd like to punch you, Peter, for having such luck." Peter smiled a little more broadly. "Fin sorry the garden's so good, but I can't help it." "It's all right, Peter," began The Chief; "after all, boys, I believe we are not having such bad luck. Cheer up! We are going to surprise those fathers of yours, and have a good time out of it, too. Jay and Albert have a big problem of draining; George has simply got to put that sandy slope in shape; it looks as if Jack would have to fill in for his garden; and Peter--well, some of you may beat Peter yet." At this last Peter smiled, Jack skilfully tumbled him off his chair and Albert gave a war whoop. The Chief called his meeting to order again. "And now, boys, I shall see you each one separately about your garden problems. Remember, not a word at home, for we are going to surprise the people. And at our next regular meeting, and at all others this winter we shall have reports on the manner in which you are going to get at your work and the way in which you will beat conditions. In this way we can keep track of each other's work. We must make our plans, too, on paper, which will help out. We have catalogues to write for, garden stakes to make, and no end of things will come up. But first you boys ought to understand a bit more than you do about the soil. It is a storehouse of good things. Knowledge of the soil is a key to this storehouse. "We can roughly divide the soil into three classes and call these sand, clay, and humus. The ideal soil has all three of these elements in it. Sandy soil is made up, as the name itself really tells, of broken up rock masses. One can tell this sort of soil by its lightness and the ease with which a mass of it drops apart. By the word lightness one does not mean colour or weight, but looseness. A clay soil may be told by its stickiness; its power to form lumps or masses; its tendency to crack and bake under the hot sun. Such a soil is called heavy. Humus soil is made up largely of decayed animal and vegetable matter. Its presence is told by a dark, rich colour. "In trying to improve the soil we are dealing with, we have first to think of its physical, and second, its chemical condition. "The great needs of the soil are air and water. Just think of all soils as made up of many particles; let us say like a lot of marbles, one placed upon another. Each given mass of particles has a given air space between every particle. Again, if a marble is dipped in water a film of water remains on it a short time. Let us think of the particles as always having a film of water on them. Then, as roots and root-hairs of plants strike down among these they find the two necessities, air and water. "Now sand is very loose and so lets the water drain down through it too rapidly. How shall we improve a sandy soil? Just add something to bind the loose sand particles together. Humus is good for this binding purpose. "Clay absorbs much water. Then its particles squeeze tightly together and so air is shut out. Add sand to clay soils, to lighten them. "Humus soil is very rich in nitrogen. This brings us to the chemical side of soils. There are many chemicals in soils which act as foods to plants, but only three are the essentials. If these cannot be unlocked from the soil, or are lacking, they must be supplied. These plant foods are nitrogen, potash, and phosphorus. "The chief source of nitrogen is manure; of potash, nitrate or sulphate of potash, and wood ashes; of phosphorus, bone ash or phosphates. How can you tell when one of these is lacking? Well, first it is well to know what each one does for a plant. Nitrogen makes fine, green, sturdy growth of leaf and stalk; phosphorus helps blossoming plants; while potash makes plump fruit. If foliage looks sickly then nitrogen is needed. If one wishes a good growth of leaves, as in lettuce, nitrogen is needed. If the fruit is small and poor, supply potash; while if the flower and stalk need better growth, add phosphorus. "Be careful in adding nitrogen. Nitrogen is the plant food which is most easily lost out of the soil. Study the soil you are dealing with, supply if possible what it lacks, and try to unlock to your seedlings the goodness already in the garden soil." The interesting talk ended. "Couldn't we meet oftener than just Saturdays?" questioned Jack. "We'll see; it all depends upon how much work there is. Possibly we may have to meet Fridays, too, later on, for you have no lessons that night. Anything more, boys, before the popcorn?" "I'd like to know," asked Peter, "if my cousin Philip, who comes from the city to grandfather's to spend almost every Saturday and Sunday, may join us too. He wants to fix up his city backyard and doesn't know how to begin." "Bring him along next Saturday. We'll be glad to have him, shan't we, boys?" "Don't know," blurted out Albert, "it's our club." "Keep quiet, Albert. Let him in as long as he behaves and works. Isn't that right?" asked Jay. "Yes," answered George and Jack. "Then, boys, we'll have Jack's report next week, as his problem is not so difficult. If Jay and Albert drop in some day from school they shall have a book which will help them, and George needs one, too." At this point Albert dropped off his seat in mock alarm murmuring as he fell, "Worse, much worse than school!" George dropped a heavy book on top of him to add to his comfort. The Chief went on as if nothing had happened. "Jack and Peter, shell and pop the corn, George and Jay, crack the nuts. And you, Albert, run to the cellar for the apples. Get good ones, young man." "Why," questioned Albert, as he picked himself up, "why must poor Albert always do the hard work, while the other fellows stay by the warm fire?" No one answered him and he slowly marched off. Soon the corn was popped, the nuts cracked and the big red apples on deck. And then it was a quiet room save for the snapping of a shell from a half-cracked nut, and the munching of the firm apples as the boys ate. The firelight played softly over the old room bringing out strongly the big oak table, the group of boys, the silent man, throwing far back into the shadows the old rush-bottomed chairs, the short-legged rockers and the pieces of furniture at all distant from the fire. The clock struck nine. The boys reluctantly got up from the floor and struggled into their coats. Jay unbarred the door. The man held the light high above his head sending a stream of light after them, George astride his old farm horse ready for his three-mile ride, Jay and Albert trudging after him, and Jack and Peter hand in hand on a run toward the village. "Good-night!" they shouted back at the man, "We'll be on time next Saturday night, seven sharp. Good-night!" II THE BOYS' GARDEN DIFFICULTIES "It's fine to see you back, Myron," began The Chief, looking at a big, good looking fellow, who had dropped quietly into his place by George. "Are you here for all the time, now?" "Yes," replied Myron, "I got tired of the town and am glad enough to be back again." "We are just as glad as you are. Is Philip here for Sunday?" Philip wriggled happily beside Peter and said nothing. For Peter had impressed Philip with the fact that he must keep quiet for it wasn't very much his club anyway. "There is business up for discussion, and two applications," began The Chief. "Applications!" broke in Albert. "May we have those first?" "If you can't keep still," retorted Jay, "you'll get applications all right, but of quite another sort." The Chief passed two letters to George. George stood up, swallowed hard, for he was a bashful lad, and began. "'Will the Junior Garden Club give suggestions and practical help for the improvement of the Oldfield Centre School Grounds?' Signed 'The Teacher.'" "Crickey!" said Albert. "That's white in her! Expert advice! I guess we will!" "What shall we do about this?" asked The Chief. "We just ought to do it, I think," began Jack. "There surely is no other public-spirited club in this place." "Just so," murmured Peter. "We ought now to have a secretary for the club, and a chairman, too. I believe to-night is the time to vote for these officers," suggested The Chief. "Suppose Jack and Philip tear up slips of paper and pass them. Then Myron and George collect, and count the ballots. We should vote for chairman first." "What does the chairman have to do?" asked Myron. "A chairman always calls a meeting to order and presides," answered the man. For a few minutes they were all very busy with paper and pencil. The results were given by Myron. "Jay has all the votes for chairman. Albert has four for secretary, and so I suppose we'll have to have him." Albert, nothing daunted, said, "I guess you will, but I write like a hen." "That's right, you do," chimed in Jack to Albert's apparent annoyance. "Now, Jack, call your meeting to order and let's have these matters voted on." "Come to order all of you. What shall we do about this school-ground business?" "I vote," began Myron. "Stand on your feet," advised Jay. "I vote--" "No, Myron," corrected The Chief, "move--not vote." "I move, then, that we fix up those grounds." "Who seconds this?" and Jay looked hard at George. "I will," he responded. "I'm not sure, now," appealed Jay to The Chief, "I'm not sure just how to go on." "It's this way--it has been moved and seconded that this request be granted. All in favour say 'aye'; all contrary minded 'no'. It is a vote." Jay repeated this and the boys voted, Albert, as usual, voting "no," just for fun. "Now, if George will read the second letter-----" "I should think," Jack half questioned, "that the secretary should read things, now we have a secretary." "So he should, hand those papers over, George." George, delighted, gave place to Albert, who stumblingly read. "We girls wish to garden, too. We'd like to join your club. We can do just as good work as boys. Will you take us in?" "Not much!" went on Alfred just as if he were still reading, "Girls in our club, no siree, girls never!" "Girls might do something," began Myron. "But," Jack broke in, "they'd after all spoil a boys' club. Why, it wouldn't be a boys' club then." "They might have one of their own," suggested Peter. "And do different things," continued Philip. "I really don't see," Jay went on, "quite how we could have them. But, I suppose, they might meet with The Chief and we could help them sometimes." "No," said Albert, "we don't wish to get mixed up with that sort of thing. They'd run the whole club in the end." "That's right," agreed George. This was put to vote properly and the girls were barred out. "You must write them a letter, Albert," concluded Jay. "Write a letter! A letter to those girls! Never!" "Yes you will; you are the secretary and you have to, understand," said Jay. Poor Albert, not long before so proud of his office, looked as if he'd rather be whipped than be the secretary. "The real business to-night is to hear reports so we can do a little experimenting and testing next week," suggested the man. "All right, we'll have George's first." "I shall, of course," began George, "plant my corn, Country Gentleman, in with father's. We have plenty of seed corn, so I shall not have to buy any. As far as my old slope goes I have to pick all the stone off. Then I am not sure just how to drain it, for the rains from another slope above wash it all the spring and summer. I shall then put some barnyard manure on and plant it all to corn. Of course, I must plough and harrow it, too." "Now," said The Chief, "I guess we'd better stop right here and have a little talk, for George has brought up some problems for discussion. In the first place--let us consider the draining. All George has to consider is that he has to conduct or lead the water off his land." "But," said George, "that is what seems to me difficult." "Have you noticed how water takes definite courses down hills? That ought to give you some help." "I see," cried Jack, "George could make gutters for the rain to travel along and so lead the water off his garden." "Exactly, Jack has the idea. It is really a bit of engineering. Suppose George finds the highest point, the greatest slope, of his land. From this point a gutter or furrow should be dug so that the water is made to flow off and away from his land." "How deep shall I dig the gutter?" "Dig it about three feet deep and fill stones right into this gutter. Two feet of stone in the gutter is about right. Water falling on a stone mass drains off properly. It would sink into an earth mass. Bring a little sketch of this with you next week, George, showing where you are going to dig the drain. Now boys, how much fertilizer do you think ought to go on this poor land of George's?" "I was going to put on two inches," said George. "I should think he ought to put at least four inches on," half questioned Myron. "I'll say eight," began Philip. The boys shouted at this. "Philip," went on the man after the laughter ceased, "is very nearly right. If George wishes to get anything from this old land at once, he must fertilize it heavily. If your father can spare a foot of fertilizer put it on." The boys all whistled. "Now about the corn! Did you know, George, that corn is a most exhaustive crop?" "I don't even know what you mean." "I do," said Jack, "he means corn tires the soil." "Just so," continued The Chief, "the soil supplies food to the plant. Some crops use up more of the soil's goodness than others. Corn is one of these. Now, George, what do you think about planting a crop that works the soil very hard, especially when the soil you are dealing with is rather poor?" "It wouldn't be the best thing, I should say. Will you suggest good things to plant?" "Well, potatoes, tomatoes and cabbage demand less from the soil." "Then I choose cabbage, I'll plant that entire old slope to cabbage." "Now, Jack, suppose you talk." "I have decided to build a coldframe, so I can get a little earlier start with my plants; I suppose I should have begun this frame last fall. I know this--that I have to dig out my whole garden spot and fill it in. So I thought I could get a start with the coldframe while I was working at filling in. I have decided to plant lettuce, radish, beets, tomatoes, peppers and some flowers. I think I shall plant asters, stock and sunflowers." "Why sunflowers?" asked Philip. "I want the seed for my squirrel's feed next winter. Then, too, I think sunflowers make a pretty nice background for a garden." "If you wish to drop in to see me before the next week's meeting we'll have plans for the coldframe worked out to explain to the boys then. You measure the space where you are going to put the frame and ask your father about the lumber. As lumber is your father's business, I should almost think you could get us some soft wood, say white-wood, for our stakes and markers," suggested The Chief. "Of course, I can," promised Jack. "Now Peter," said Jay. "My garden is to be just potatoes." "Peter and potatoes!" jeered Albert. "Oh, Peter!" "I don't care, I'm for potatoes and profit." "Peter always does make money. So I suppose his potatoes will turn into money, too," volunteered Philip. "My stunt," said Myron next, "is to be strawberries. I want to raise strawberries. Mr. Marsh, on the Longmeadow Farm, has offered to give me some plants. I'll do the corn stunt; aren't you going to, Pete?" "Of course, that was understood, and Philip will have his corn at grandfather's too, for a city backyard is no place for corn." "Now, Albert, you may talk for both of us," said Jay. "Our land has to be drained, but it is not exactly the same proposition that George has. Water stands on our land. We had thought of putting a drain pipe in. It seems as if there should be an easier way, but we don't know one," Albert stopped and looked at The Chief, who leaned back in his chair and thought a minute. "I guess, boys, we had better stop and talk over the matter of drainage. There are three kinds of drains, namely: the open drain, the blind drain, and the tile drain. Each one has worked out of the other. The simplest sort and the one man first used is the open ditch. A piece of land was covered with water. A ditch was dug through the land at the place or places where water was standing. Usually a little stone is thrown into the bottom to help drain the water off. "Such a drain put out of use quite a bit of land. So partly because of this a second sort of drain was worked out. A good body of stone was put into the drain, then earth filled in over this. Water percolating down through the soil followed along these drainage courses. Formerly it settled in spots and made boggy land. Finally a more systematic sort of drain developed from this last one. Instead of a body of stone, a drain tile was placed on the bottom of the trench. "Straight off you boys can see which one of these three represents the best all around drain. Out in the country or where there is no need to think of utilizing every bit of land, the open drain is often seen. But where every bit of land must be used, the open drain is out of the question. "All drains come under the head of one of these three types. After all, boys, since you can put in the tile drain would it not be wiser to do so?" "Surely," answered Albert. "But I should think soil which has been under water for some time, as this has, would be a bit poor." "In case you find the soil is sour, as it may be, you can sweeten it up. There is a certain farm sweetener in lime," added The Chief. "We shall plant on our land onions, peas, and tomatoes." continued Albert. "We believe that the soil is going to be especially good for onions." "I guess I shall have to break in again right here. Onions need a fine, rich, deep soil. To be sure moist soil is good for certain varieties of onions. That is why, I imagine, you thought your soil good. You must get this soil into better garden condition before you devote it to a crop like onions. Try a general vegetable garden this season. Work out the crop value of the soil. "Philip, do you know what you are going to do?" "I know that I have everything to do. I thought perhaps I should do something like this. We want that old backyard to be really pretty. The yard is a long narrow strip of land just like most city backyards. I thought I'd make a walk straight through it. I want a little fish pond at the end. I thought I'd lay out a few flower beds with paths in between them. Mother says she will buy me a few shrubs." "I say, Chief, don't you think some of us might go up to the city and help Philip make the cement pond?" asked Albert eagerly. "We might," murmured Jay, "if we get invited." "Boys, it's late. We know a little of what our stunts are to be. Next week each of you bring about fifty seeds of each kind you intend to plant. Be able to tell just how these seeds should be planted. Also have the dimensions of your plots. Jack will bring some soft wood along, too. And Philip, find out, if possible just how much money you can have for shrubs. Now on with your coats! Out of my house in two seconds!" "No food to-night is a sad blow, Chief," said Albert pretending to weep as he opened the outside door. "This blow is sadder," replied Jack, playfully shoving Albert clean out of the door. III THE GIRLS' SECRET A very timid little knock roused The Chief from his study of Jack's coldframe plans. The outer door gently opened and three little girls entered and advanced to where the man sat. One, the smallest of the three, was thrust forward as spokesman. Gathering herself together she began with a rush. She thrust a letter into The Chief's hands. "This is the boys' horrid letter. We don't care particularly about belonging to a boys' club. We wouldn't now, any way. But we'd like to show those boys a thing or two and we thought perhaps you would help us. Will you?" "Sit down, and we will work out a little plot together. But first tell me your names. I like to know the names of people with whom I plot." The girls came close to the man. The spokesman did the introducing. "I am Delia, Peter's sister, and just as smart as he is. This," pointing to a quiet, pleasant-faced girl, "is Ethel. And the other is Jack's sister, Elizabeth." "How many more girls belong to this company?" "They are all outside waiting, I'll call them in if you say so. They are behind the lilac bushes. You see we were afraid some of the boys might come to see you, so we hid. For we don't wish them to know about this at all. I'll call the girls in now." So Delia ran to the door, held it wide open, and called "Come girls, he wants to meet you!" "Come right in, girls. This one," pointing to a girl with light hair and bright eyes, "is Eloise. Her father keeps the Inn. And this is Josephine, who has no yard at all; and Helena who has plenty of ground; and this," with a grand flourish, "this is the judge's daughter, Katharine." "I hate," said Katharine, "always being labelled; I think it's pretty hard on a girl to be tagged this way." "If you'll sit down," began The Chief--"although there are not chairs enough--we'll get right down to business." And then how they talked! Closer and closer they drew up to The Chief until the eight heads were so close together they seemed almost one huge head. Finally they all shouted with laughter. "Not a word outside, mind you, not one word. Prove that girls can keep a secret." "We solemnly promise," said Katharine for the others. "Look," cried Elizabeth, "there comes Jack; what shall we do?" "Out this way," quietly replied the man, almost sweeping seven happy little girls out of the door. "Now, cut and run." And off they scampered over the fields. IV GARDEN EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED INDOORS "The meeting is called to order," began Jay. "To-night, so The Chief says, each fellow has some special thing to talk about. Albert will have an accident with that bottle unless he begins right off, so tune up, Savage." "This bottle is full of vinegar. I might have brought a lemon or anything else acid. This blue paper is called litmus paper. I got it at the drug store for ten cents. Just look right here, and you will see magic worked. I shall put some vinegar on this piece of paper. See!" "Turned red as quick as scat!" said Jack. "Litmus will always turn red when any acid gets on it. I've tried several acids at home. It works every time," went on Albert as if no one else had spoken. "I cannot see what this has to do with gardens." began Philip. "Now you keep quiet until I finish. Haven't you fellows heard your fathers talk about sour ground? Well, that means acid soil." "Why, we have a piece of ground, where sorrel grows thick; father says that is sour," added George. "Just a minute, Albert," broke in The Chief; "that is one way, George, that farmers tell a sour bit of land. Weeds grow thickly over such ground, but as George has said, sorrel is likely to predominate. Go on, Albert." "Any soil may be tested with this litmus. The Chief calls this the scientific way of going at it. I was able to get a little soil from our future garden plot, and I'll find out right now if it's acid." Albert opened a small box which was full of soil that looked quite clayey. He wet a piece of litmus and buried it in the soil. "We'll have to leave this a few minutes, and I'll finish what I have to say. If soil is very acid it has to be changed back again." "Back again to what?" asked Jack. "Why, back again, so it isn't acid," Albert continued, decidedly confused. "I'll help you a bit," and The Chief came to the rescue, "Get that big bottle over there, Albert." Albert brought the bottle. In it was a liquid clear as water. "Taste it, Peter," and The Chief handed Peter a little in a small glass. "Why it doesn't taste like much of anything; sort of flat." "That's it exactly, Peter. It certainly is not an acid, is it?" Peter shook his head. "It is lime water and does not belong in the acid class, but to one which is exactly opposite to the acids, the alkalies. Soils ought to be neither acid nor alkaline, but neutral, as it is called. An alkali will help make neutral an acid. If the soil is acid it is bad for your crop. Put a little lime water on the litmus which the acid has turned red." Albert did this and the boys watched interestedly to see the effect. "Back again," sang out Jack as the red litmus changed to blue. "Now from this you see a way to overcome the acid conditions of Albert's piece of land, if it proves to be acid." "I see," said Jack, "lime it." "Exactly! Now see, Albert, if the paper has changed colour." "My, I should say it had!" and Albert held up the piece of litmus paper, now quite red from its contact with the soil. "Well, Albert, it is pretty plain to see what you have to do. Did you find out the amount of lime to use?" "In the book I read it said for clay soils 400-2000 pounds per acre." "I should say," said The Chief, "for that special piece of land use about 20 bushels to the acre." "How many pounds of lime," asked Jack, "to the bushel?" "I can answer," grandly went on Albert, "there are 70 pounds to the bushel. So that makes 1400 pounds." "Quite a proposition!" said Jay. "Yes, but your land is only a half acre and so that changes matters a little. How much is lime a bushel, Jack? Ask your father, will you?" "I think," said The Chief, "that we'll have to lay a drain pipe through your land. Anyway I shall come around in early spring and have a look at it." "Now Peter, we'll hear from you," Jay announced. "My work was to find out how long it took different kinds of seeds to germinate, that is sprout. I took a dozen each of different seeds, put blotters in dishes, wet the blotters, and placed the seeds on these. I kept them in a warm place in the dining room. I have made each of you fellows a copy of the table." PETER'S GERMINATING TABLE Beans 5-10 days. Onion 7-10 days. Beets 7-10 " Peas 6-10 " Cabbage 5-10 " Pepper 9-14 " Carrot 12-18 " Radish 3-6 " Celery 10-20 " Tomato 6-12 " Lettuce 6-8 " Turnip 4-8 " "I'd like to know what use a germinating table is, anyway?" asked Albert scornfully. "Well," Peter replied thoughtfully, "it gives you an exact knowledge of the time to expect your seedlings to poke up. Now suppose radish came up in four days. The carrot you had planted didn't come up and after twelve days, discouraged, you plant more seed. Now two days later the first carrots you sowed begin to appear. If you had known that it took carrots from 12 to 18 days to germinate you'd not have made the mistake of planting again so soon. I think of another reason," went on Peter warming up to his subject. "Suppose you planted beet seed. You waited ten days; nothing happened; you wait two more and still no seedling appears; something is surely wrong and you plant over again." "What could be wrong," asked Philip. "The seed might be poor," replied Peter. "George has been testing seed," said Jay, "and he might tell us about it now, couldn't he, Chief? It seems to come in here." The Chief nodded. "I have been finding out whether certain seeds which I happen to have on hand are worth planting or not. If any of you fellows have seed and wish to find this out, you can easily enough. So you can be sure whether old seed is worth planting. Now it happens that father had some of his last year's corn and some from four years ago. So I took 100 seeds of each. If you test small seed like lettuce, The Chief says 50 seeds will do. These I put on blotters just as Pete did his. Of course, I kept them separate. From last year's seed 90 seeds sprouted out of the 100, or 9/10 of them. And that equals 90 per cent. If all seed was 90 per cent. good it would be all right to use, I think. Now when I looked at the four-year-old seed, what do you think? Only five seeds had started. That makes only 1/20, or 5 per cent. Of course, no one would care to use seed where only 5 per cent. of the seed sprouted." "Is there any real percentage of germination that seeds should have?" Jack asked eagerly. "Yes," replied The Chief, "although value as you see from George's experiment is lost by age. The real standard germination value for corn is 87 per cent., for beans 90, for turnips 90, for peas 93, etc. You can see that the per cents. for these vegetables run high. So do not use seeds when the per cent. has dropped too low. "Has George found out the time when other seeds lose value?" asked Peter. "I did not work this table out because I did not have the old seed to work with," replied George, "but The Chief gave me a book to look it up in. I have printed on our press the table. So you fellows may each have a copy." George handed the sheets around the table. It happened that The Chief had a little old printing press that he had presented to the Club. Club real estate, Albert called it. GEORGE'S TABLE AGE OF SEEDS FOR PLANTING PURPOSES 2-3 years. 3-4 years. 5-6 years. 8-10 years. Corn Tomato Beet Pea (5-6) Cucumber Celery Pepper Lettuce Radish (4-5) Melon Carrot Onion Turnip (3-6) Squash Bean Parsley Pumpkin "Now, George," Albert begged, "give us a table of germinating per cents." "Not much, each fellow can work out the value of his own old seeds and see if they are worth using." "I think George is right," began The Chief after the laugh at Albert's expense ceased. "Perhaps you'd like to try the effect of depth of planting on corn. Here are some boxes of earth. George, you plant six kernels of corn one inch deep and mark the box with your name and the depth on it, Peter, plant the next box with six kernels at two inches. Albert, try three inches, and Jack, four inches. It will be your business, Myron, to drop in here each half day and note the first appearance of corn in the different boxes." The result of this experiment, which took about two weeks in all, was as follows: DEPTH OF PLANTING TIME TO COME UP 1 in. 8-1/2 days 2 in. 10 " 3 in. 12 " 4 in. 13-1/2 " This experiment showed the boys that seeds too deeply planted are hindered in progress. "Myron, you may take the floor now," signalled Jay. "I have worked out and printed for you the amount of seed necessary to plant a certain space. I have printed my table just as George did. 'H' stands for hills and 'D' means drills." "What is a drill?" asked Philip. "Why a drill is a furrow. You can make a drill with a rake handle, or a hoe. We can show you better when we get outdoors, Philip," Myron answered quite condescendingly. MYRON'S SEED-ESTIMATE TABLE NAME METHOD OF PLANTING QUANTITY OF SEED HILLS OR DRILLS Bean (Bush) D 1 qt. for 100ft. Beet D 1 oz. " 50ft. Cabbage H 1 oz. " 2000 plants Carrot D 1 oz. " 100 ft. Corn H 1 qt. " 100 hills. Lettuce D 1 oz. " 120 ft. Musk melon H 1 oz. " 60 hills. Onion D 1 oz. " 100 ft. Parsley D 1 oz. " 150 ft. Pea D 1 oz. " 100 ft. Pepper D 1 oz. " 2000 plants. Potato H 1 peck " 100 hills. Pumpkin H 1 oz. " 30 hills. Radish D 1 oz. " 100 ft. Tomato H 1 oz. " 1000 plants. Turnip D 1 oz. " 150 ft. "This table is all right, I suppose," began Philip, "but if a fellow doesn't know quite how far apart to plant his cabbage, say, I can't see how this table helps much." "I took it for granted," Myron answered, "that you fellows know a little about things. But if a person didn't know what you ask, Philip, I suppose this table isn't much good. Shall I call all the tables in, Chief?" "Not at all, Myron, this is a good table so far as it goes. Next time each of you boys look up this matter. Perhaps you can work out a good scheme for such information." "Now, Philip, we'd like to hear about your shrub money and then we'll have time to see Jack's coldframe plans, before club time is over," at which Jay settled back in his chair as if club work was a strain on a fellow after all. "I may have one dollar to spend. I have decided to buy three shrubs. I shall plant one by itself; the two others together in a clump. I wanted forsythia, but I have finally decided on Japan snowball and Van Houtte's spirea." "Why?" asked Albert. "You see the forsythia shows up best against a dark background because of the bright yellow flowers. I have no good setting for such a shrub. Then, too, it blossoms so very early in the spring, in April you know, that it seemed to me, since I must plant this spring, I'd disturb less a later flowering shrub. I chose the Japan snowball because it's less liable to have lice than some others and because it looks well all by itself on the lawn. That spirea is a specially good variety of spirea because it does well almost anywhere, and also it is very showy and the foliage is handsome all summer long. Some shrubs look scrubby after awhile." "Where did you get all this knowledge, Philip?" asked Albert, half enviously. "I made it my business to know. I hunted up shrubs in a catalogue, then I called on a florist, and we had a shrub talk together." "Now, I call that getting down to real work," Jay remarked. Philip looked happy and Peter nearly tilted his chair over in his pleasure for he evidently felt the city was making good. "Now, Jack, bring on the coldframe." "I have my drawing right here," began Jack, spreading it out on the table while the boys crowded about. "You look at the drawing as I explain. Myron and Jay have promised to help me make it. It will be a coldframe this year; next fall I shall change it into a hotbed." "How?" broke in Albert. "I shall dig out the soil from the coldframe. Then I shall put in two feet of manure and cover it with four inches of soil. This spring about all I can do is to mix into the soil some well-rotted manure. I guess I shall put in about three inches in all. I guess I can explain," continued Jack, delighted at this opportunity to air his newly acquired knowledge. "The Chief has talked this over with me. It all depends upon what you wish to use the frame for. I want to use mine to get an early start this spring, so I make the bed rich and depend on the sun's rays mostly for heat. This, then, is a coldframe. The sloping glass frame helps you see. But next winter I hope to really get results out of this frame, so I have to supply extra heat. The layer of manure underneath gives this. I then have a hotbed. If I just wish to keep plants along, ready to force next spring, then the sun's rays would be enough for that work without the layer of heat." "I see, thank you, and why do you say layer of heat? I should call it a layer of manure." "Because it is heat, isn't it? And anyway real gardeners call it that. We may as well use the right names; don't you think so, Chief?" "Surely, Jack. It's our business to know right terms. Each line of work has its own language. Jack has done a good piece of work so far. We shall have most of our next meeting in the workshop. Jack, Myron and Jay are going to work on this frame. You other fellows will be able to make stakes and dibbers enough for the crowd." "What is a dibber?" asked Albert. "That is for you to look up. If you have any old rake or hoe handles bring them along for dibber making. Good-night, boys." Off into the night they scampered--a jolly, sound lot of lads. V THE WORKSHOP END OF THE GARDEN "Before we go to the workshop we might take up the methods of planting our vegetables. Then if any fellow has worked out a table, Peter, the star printer, may strike off copies for all of us," began Jay, after calling the meeting to order. "I'd be glad to hear from any of you fellows who have done anything on this matter." All was quiet. Finally Myron arose and began to read from a paper covered with writing. "The carrot--common name of the _Daucus Carota_--a biennial, indigenous to Europe, believed by some botanists to have been derived from the common wild carrot." "Where'd you copy that stuff? No table can be made from that! Imagine a fellow out planting carrots and reading before he sows: The carrot--a bi--bi what, biped, did you say, Myron?" Albert chuckled away and Myron dropped into his seat saying angrily, "I tried hard, anyway. It took me a whole evening to copy just the carrot." "I should think it might have. Has any fellow a really simple table?" "I've worked at it," Peter replied modestly. "I think I have something here that will really be of use." At this Peter spread out on the big table a neat piece of work. PETER'S OUTDOOR PLANTING TABLE NAME DEPTH TO DISTANCE APART PLANT SEEDS FURROWS Bean (Bush) 2 in. 12-20 in. 3 ft. Beet 1-1/2 in. 4-9 in. 12-15 in. Cabbage 1/2 in. 20-24 in. 3 ft. Corn 1-1/2 in. 3 ft. 3-4 ft. (hills) Lettuce 1/2 in. 6-8 in. 12-18 in. Musk melon 1 in. 4-6 ft. 4-6 ft. (hills) Onion 1/2 in. 4-12 in. 10-12 in. Parsley 1/2 in. 6 in. 1 ft. Pepper 1/2 in. 18 in. 2 ft. Potato 5 in. 12-18 in. 24-36 in. (hills) Pumpkin 1-1/2 in. 8-10 ft. 8-10 ft. (hills) Radish 1/2 in. 3 in. 6-8 in. Tomato 1/2-1 in. 3 ft. 3 ft. (hills) Turnip 1/2 in. 6 in. 12 in. "That's all right," and The Chief laid a hand on Peter's shoulder and he smiled across at Myron. "Each one of you boys ought to know how to make a working plan of his garden. I showed Jack how to make his coldframe plan. It is well done. Now gather about the table and I will make a plan of a supposed garden." [Illustration: DRAWING I DRAWING II DRAWING III DRAWING IV This very simple plan of a garden, used by The Chief, has in it the essentials for all your garden plan drawing. Follow each step as the boys did and you will be able to make a drawing of your own garden.] "I will lend you mine and you might make a drawing of that," craftily suggested Albert. "No, young man, you are to make your own. Let us suppose for the sake of an easy problem that we claim our garden is to be on a square piece of land, forty feet by forty feet. In drawing to a scale, one takes a certain small measure to stand for a foot. If we take an inch to be a foot, then the entire forty-foot length would have to be forty inches. That is a pretty good large drawing. Let us take something smaller and say one-eighth of an inch equals a foot, thus 1/8 in. = 1 ft. So we shall have a length and a width of five inches. "The first step in the actual drawing is to find the centre of your given piece of drawing paper. See, I just make short lines or portions of diagonals through the centre as shown right here in what I call Drawing I. Draw a vertical line through the centre extending to the top and the bottom of the paper. Now draw a horizontal line through the centre to the extreme left and right of the sheet. Now measure up from the centre on the vertical line the half width of the garden. If the centre is to stand for the centre of the garden, then the garden itself would extend up, down, and to the right and left of its centre, just 20 ft. or 2-1/2 in. in a plan with scale 1/8 in. to 1 ft. So measure up from the centre along the vertical line just two and one-half inches and place a dot. Letter this dot A. Do this same thing down the vertical line and we have dot B. Also measure the same distance along the horizontal to left, calling the dot D and along the right calling the last dot C. Now draw a horizontal line 5 in. long through A with 2-1/2 in. either side of the dot. This gives you one side of your garden or a 40-ft. length. Do a similar thing through dot B. Through C and D draw similar lines. We now have the outline of our garden of 40 ft. square. We have on our paper, though, a square 5 x 5 in. "I have decided to have a circular bed in the centre of the garden which shall be 10 ft. in diameter. Therefore, the radius of the circle should be 5 ft. or 5/8 in. Get a pair of compasses for that, Jack. Now I shall swing the circle. But I wish a 2-ft. path all about this circular garden. If the path is 2 ft., then I must set my compasses on 2/8 in. more or now make the 5/8 in. into 7/8 in. Let us swing another circle with the same point as a centre. "It strikes me that if I should lay my garden out into four squares, the combination of squares, central circles and straight main paths would look incongruous. So I shall cut the central points of the four square beds off by swinging circles. Have patience and you will see, for the general plan is in my mind just as it ought to be in the mind of any person who is to make a garden. Now swing another circle with a radius of 1 in., and still another the radius of which shall be 1-1/8 in. "Now we come to stage two of this working drawing (Drawing II). I wish a 4-ft. path going down to the centre bed from the points A, B, C and D. Place your ruler, Jay, on point A, for you may draw now. Measure to the right of A 1/4 in. and to the left 1/4 in., and place dots at these points. You have the width of your 4-ft. paths. Do this same thing at points B, C and D. Number these points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. With very light lines connect points 1 and 3, 2 and 4, 5 and 7, 6 and 8. Where the line 1-3 cuts the second circle from the centre, letter the intersections E and F. The intersections of 2-4 mark G and H, of 5-7 I and J, and of 6-8 N and L. You now see the outline of these paths running through the garden. Let us border each path with two 1-ft. borders. So place the ruler at point 1 and mark off two 1/8 in. spaces by dots. Do the same at points 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Connect the opposite dots by light lines. "Now let George take the third stage (Drawing III). Go right over the inside circle so as to make it stand out boldly. Strengthen line 1 to E, 2 to G, 3 to F, 4 to H, 5 to I, 6 to N, 7 to J and 8 to L. Now these circles should be strengthened and lines erased that interfere. That leaves curve EI, GJ, LH, and FN standing out clearly. You see in the drawing one-half the garden plan erased and all right. "After Myron has erased every line (Drawing IV), you will see the garden plan in all its neatness. Place the measurements on the drawing. It looks well, does it not, boys? "These are the steps. Any of you can work out your plan if you have one to work out." "Now boys, for the shop! Myron, Jay and Jack are to work on the coldframe. Peter will have an evening's work printing this planting table. Albert will tell us the use of the dibber and make you one each from all these old handles." Albert, assuming a grand oratorical manner, gave the boys the benefit of his search for knowledge. "A dibber is a pointed tool, usually a stick, used to make holes for planting seeds, bulbs, setting out plants and transplanting of seedlings." Off they all trooped to a little workshop back of the man's home. Soon the boys were hard at work, sawing, whittling, and setting up type. [Illustration: A sturdy dibber. This needs no directions for the making. The cut tells the story.] Here are directions for what the boys made. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING A COLDFRAME Hemlock was the wood Jack used. The lumber for sides and ends is one inch thick while strips marked A and B are one and one-fourth inches thick. Cut out pieces 14 in. x 5 ft. 7 in., and 10 in. x 5 ft. 7 in., for the back and the front. Cut two pieces 14 x 36 in. and shape them according to drawing for the ends. Nail these four pieces together to form the frame. The sides should be nailed to the ends. Use ten-penny nails and drive them slantingly. [Illustration: WORKING SKETCH OF HOTBED Jack's working drawing of his hotbed. This was to serve for a coldframe temporarily.] Saw out strips A two inches wide and as long as the slanting edge of the end of the frame. Be careful with this measurement not to measure the slanting edge of the _end_ piece only, but to include with it the thickness of both front and back pieces. Saw out two more pieces two inches wide and as long as the frame is wide at the bottom. Make strip B 2-1/2 in. x 5 ft. 7 in. Lay out notches marked A by dividing top and bottom edges of front and back into three equal spaces. Cut notches to receive strips marked A. Nail strips A in place, also B. To make a neat piece of work the ends of strips A should be planed slightly slanting to make them exactly even, or "flush" with front and back boards. The real object of strips A is to keep the frame from bulging at the centre. Jack had three common single window sashes, 22-in. x 3 ft. which made an excellent cover for the frame. These should be placed in position and fastened to strip B with two-inch butts. Notice the sashes project over the front so as to carry the water away from the frame. The sash should be fastened to the frame, putty side out. GARDEN STAKE The stake may be made of soft wood or hard. It is a good one to use in staking off the garden. It is entirely a piece of knife work. The dimensions are clearly given on the working plan. If the stake is made 12 inches instead of 14 inches, it may be used as a foot rule in measuring off furrows. [Illustration: A heavy stake like this one, Jack used in marking off his drills. It is adapted to just such work.] THE BOY'S GARDEN REEL A piece of wood (ash is suitable for this work), 11-3/8 x 4-1/2 x 1/2 in. is needed. Draw pencil lines lengthwise and widthwise through the centre of this piece. From the centre measure out one inch in both directions, placing dots. These give the central points for centre cut. Measure from the four corners of the piece 3 inches along the length. Connect by line the opposite dots. This gives the line marked 4-1/2 in. in the diagram. It shows the beginning of the cut to the centre line. One inch above these lines draw other lines straight across the wood. Find centre of these. Place a dot one-half inch on both sides of each from centre. This gives the one-inch end cuts. Cut this up to one-half inch of each corner. This makes a large substantial garden reel. [Illustration: Made of hard wood this reel will last forever.] A PLANT STOOL OR TABOURET The materials needed are four pieces 18 x 3 x 7/8 in. planed, for legs; one piece 14 x 14 x 7/8 in., planed, top; two pieces 8-1/2 x 1-3/4 x 7/8 in., planed, lower braces; one piece 8-1/2 x 8-1/2 x 7/8 in., planed, upper brace. Use chestnut, white wood, white oak, mahogany, cherry or birch. You will need also 2-in. blued screws, round head, for fastenings. [Illustration: This looks like a pretentious piece of woodwork for a lad to make. George did not think so. The construction is simple. Note the good lines.] To construct the stool make with the two 8-1/2 x 1-3/4 x 7/8 in. pieces the lower braces, a lap joint. Find the mid-line of each piece by measuring 4-1/4 in. from the ends. From this line lay off two other lines parallel to it and at a distance of 7/8 in. to the right and left. This makes a 1-3/4 in. square in the centre of each piece. Now transfer these lines down the edges of the lower brace pieces. Saw on the inside of the lines down one-half the thickness or saw and chisel down to one-half. It is necessary to saw on the inside of the lines or a loose joint will result. The joint must be exactly in the middle and all arms must be equal in length when completed. Brads or finishing nails should be used to hold the joint in place. This lower brace is 7 in. up from the floor or bottom of the stool. In the picture the screws, which hold the brace, show plainly. Now lay off an octagon, with a diameter of 8-1/2 in. on the 8-1/2 x 8-1/2 x 7/8 in. piece, sawing off the corner pieces so as to just fit the leg. Glue and screw this to the under sides of the top piece, placing the grain across that of the top wood. Warping is thus prevented. This brace acts as a support to which the upper ends of the legs are firmly screwed and glued. A 3/16 in. gimlet hole should be bored for each screw or the wood will split. The holes should not be deeper than 1-1/2 in. if the screws are to hold firmly. Try drawing the screws across a cake of soap and see if they will not be applied more easily. To be sure that the legs go on exactly rigid it would be well to draw lines diagonally through the centre of the under surface of the top piece. The legs are to be attached at right angles to these diagonals. After the legs are screwed to the upper and lower braces sandpaper the entire stool. Do this lengthwise to the grain, never across. Then stain and wax. VI WHAT THE GIRLS MADE WINTER EVENINGS While the boys were making their pieces of garden apparatus the girls were at work also. They met with The Chief at Katharine's house and made a number of pieces of garden apparatus. The directions for making these are given so that other children may make some too. DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING SEED ENVELOPES Cut paper 7-1/2 in. by 5-3/4 in.; place it the long way of the paper going from front to back of the desk or table at which you work. Measure from the upper left corner down 1-3/4 in., and place point 1; 3-1/4 in. farther down place point 2. Measure from the upper right corner down 1-3/4 in. and place point 3; 3-1/4 in. farther down place point 4. Measure from the upper left corner toward the right 1-1/4 in. and place point 5; 3-3/4 in. farther toward the right place point 6. Measure from the lower left corner toward the right 1-1/4 in., and place point 7; 3-3/4 in. farther toward the right place point 8. [Illustration: PATTERN FOR SEED ENVELOPE Katharine made this seed envelope of rather stiff paper So it was of real service] Draw dotted lines through 1 and 3, 2 and 4, 5 and 7, 6 and 8. Measure 1/4 in. toward the right from points 5 and 7 and place a dot. Draw full lines toward the left to the intersection of the dotted lines. Measure 1/4 in. down from 1 and 3, and place dots. Draw full lines upward to the intersection of the dotted lines. Measure 1/4 in. up from points 2 and 4, place dots, and draw full lines downward to the intersection of the dotted lines. Draw a full line from points 6 and 8 to the intersection of dotted lines. Cut on full lines. Fold on dotted lines. Fold A, B, and C, in this order, and paste, leaving D for flap to be pasted down when the envelope has been filled with seeds. DIMENSIONS OF MARKERS The right marker is 3-1/2 in. long. The distance from head to central point of notch is 1/2 in. The distance between notches, or from the central point of one notch across the marker to the central point of the other, is 3/8 in. The width is 1/2 in. and the thickness 1/8 in. The middle marker is 4-1/2 in. long, 1/2 in. wide, and 1-1/16 in. thick. Allow about 5/8 in. for the pointing at the end. The left marker is rather larger and stronger; it, too, may be pointed and not notched, so acting as a good pot-marker. Make it 5 ins. long, 7/8 in. wide, and 3/15 in. thick. The line between the notches measures 5/8 in. and is 1 in. from the top of the marker. [Illustration: Such labels as these, made of thin wood, serve as plant labels as well as being useful in the outdoor garden] A GARDEN SIEVE--MATERIALS 2 small boards 13 x 2-1/2 x 1/2 in. 2 small boards 7 x 2-1/2 x 1/2 in. 2 strips of wood 12 x 1/2 x 1/4 in. 2 strips of wood 8 x 1/2 x 1/4 in. Fine wire netting 13 x 8 in. [Illustration: Josephine's box had too limited a drainage area] [Illustration: Make a flat like this one of Eloise's and so provide plenty of drainage space] Make the framework of a box without a lid, using the 13-inch pieces for the sides and 7-inch pieces for ends, putting the ends between the side pieces. Use the wire netting for the bottom of the box, nailing it on with the strips of wood. Paint the sieve with two coats of dark green paint. A BULB FLAT The dimensions of the box are the same as those for the sieve except for the depth, which is three inches instead of two and a half inches. Of course the bottom is wood with three drainage holes bored in it. A flat may be constructed without the drainage holes as shown in the cut. In this case make the bottom of small pieces of wood leaving an inch space between each piece. This is Eloise's kind of a bulb box. A GATHERING BASKET FOR FLOWERS The materials needed are: 8 spokes, 10 ins. long, of number 6 reed. 3 weavers of number 2 reed. 12 weavers of number 3 reed. 31 spokes, 20 in. long, of number 4 reed. _Directions_.--Split four spokes of number 6 reed exactly in the centre, and slip the remaining four through the slits in the first group. [Illustration: This is the basket made and used by Katharine. It is a gathering basket just right for fruit and short-stemmed flowers] Double a number 2 weaver and slip the loop over the upper vertical group and with the pairing weave go around each group four times. Next, separate the spokes in groups of two and continue the pairing weave until four more rows have been woven in. Then separate the spokes by ones and weave until the diameter is 4-1/2 in. Cut all off that remains of the number 2 weaver, and insert 3 weavers of number 3 reed. Continue with the triple weave to a diameter of 9 in. Cut off the ends of the spokes and insert 31 spokes, 20 in. long, of number 4 reed; one on each side of the spokes, except the first; in this instance insert but one. Use the side which has been next the weaver for the inside of the basket, letting rough ends come on the outside of the basket. Turn the spokes up, and hold in place with one row of quadruple, weave over three spokes and back of one, using the number 3 reed. With the same reed put in eleven rows of plain weave, over one spoke and under the next. Next, one row of quadruple and follow with seven rows of double weave, over two and under one, and finish with one row of quadruple weave. For the first row of the border carry number 1 spoke back to number 2 spoke, or the next spoke at the right, and out; number 2 spoke back of number 3, and out. Continue once around the basket. For the second row carry number 1 spoke over number 2 and 3, and down; number 2 over 3 and 4 and down, and so on around. For the third row carry number 1 over number 2 and down; number 2 over number 3 and down. This may be continued until you have formed a roll over the entire edge. If handles are desired, on each side of the basket insert a piece of number 9 reed for the foundation of these. The end of a number 3 weaver is woven in at the left of the foundation under the third row from the top of the basket, and the long end of the weaver is twisted around the foundation to the other side of the handle. Here it is pushed down inside the basket on one side of the handle and over again on the other side of the handle, three rows from the top, making a loop inside. The weaver is then laid close beside the first twist and follows it across to the opposite side. Now it goes in under the third row on the left of the handle and out on the right side. Each row of twisting must follow close beside the last. Six or seven rows will cover the foundation. The end is fastened off by bringing it inside the basket again where it is cut off. This flower basket may be made without the handles. But they add much to it without being a great deal of extra work. A SUNDIAL Take two pieces of the wood you have chosen: A, 6-1/2 x 6-1/2 x 1/4 in. and B, 7 x 7-1/2 x 1/4 in. _Construction_.--True up each piece to the given dimensions, and sandpaper carefully. Be careful to stroke the wood always with the grain--never across the fibres. [Illustration: Dee's sundial kept fairly accurate time. It is a real ornament to the garden.] [Illustration: Gnomon pattern just one-half actual size] Next make a shadow-piece, or gnomon, as it is called. Get a thin piece of the same kind of wood as is used in piece A, and lay it out as follows: With the fibres running in the direction AB, beginning at point A construct an angle equal to the latitude of the place where the dial is to be used. For example, if the latitude of a town is 41 degrees construct the angle D 41 degrees, or if it is 42 degrees, let D be 42 degrees. Then cut from A to C, and sandpaper carefully. Take the wooden shadow-piece and fasten it to the centre of piece A. Fasten by two brads or small nails about 3/4 inch or 1 inch long, or glue it. Place piece A over piece B so that a margin of 1/4 in. will be left on all sides. Place A so that the fibres will run at right angles to B to prevent the boards from warping. These two pieces may be fastened together by driving a brad in each corner, or gluing, or both. POT-REST Use almost any kind of wood, as white wood, cherry or white oak. Two pieces of wood 8 x 1/2 x 1-1/2 in. are needed for the cross pieces. These should be planed. There are needed also four little pieces as feet or pads. The dimensions of these should be 1-1/2 x 1-1/2 x 1/2 in. To make this stand, draw a line across the two long pieces 4 inches from either end. Lay off two other lines parallel to this 5/8 inch to the right and left. Transfer these lines down the edges by the aid of the try square. Saw on the inside of these lines down one half the thickness, or 1/4 inch. Chisel out for a half-lap joint. [Illustration: A pot-rest like the above is worth making because it lasts] The sawing and chiseling should be done carefully. It is necessary to saw on the inside of the lines or a loose joint will be had. Doubling the passage of the saw through the wood will often make the difference of 1/8 inch. After these are made to fit, the upper ends may be rounded down by chisel and compasses, or bevelled, using the plane. Use 7/8-inch brads or finishing nails, four in each pad or foot to fasten pads to the arms. The pads should project 1/8 inch from ends and sides. To finish the work nicely so the rest will both look well and stand exposure, apply a suitable stain. Allow it to stand at least thirty minutes. Then rub down with a cloth to an even stain. It is better to allow the stain to stand a day or so. This gives time for the stain to set before applying the wax. Otherwise, some of the stain will be loosened and removed when waxing and a lighter shade of stain will result. PLANT JARDINI�RE The measurements are easy since the scale is one-half inch. That is, as you measure the line in the working plan you allow one whole inch for every one-half inch you measure on that. So, if a line measures three and one-half inches, make the line for your box seven inches. This is the real height of the box. Notice some lines have their real measures given at the side. Directions for making are as follows: Fold a piece of paper large enough for one of the sides and sketch one-half the outline on one of the folds. Cut to line and then draw the other half. This will give perfect balance. Cut two pieces of wood from this pattern by placing it on the wood and tracing. [Illustration: From the ruler you can read off the exact size of the jardinière] Draw a line parallel to each side 3/8 inch in on the pattern for a new pattern for the other two sides. These sides will need to be 3/4 inch narrower, 3/8 inch on each side, as they must fit between the other two sides. If wood of different thickness is used it will be double the thickness. Use a coping saw to cut out the base. The tapering sides may be cut to lines by saw, plane or chisel. The curve at the base may be bored by 1/2-inch auger, and in this way a better curve may be had. [Illustration: Helena used a scale of 1/2 inch in the construction of this jardinière So the plan is very easy to work from] Use 1-1/4-inch brads or finishing nails. A little glue added will make a firmer box. A much larger box after the same pattern will make a beautiful holder for a larger plant or shrub, using, of course, thicker wood. Two small cleats should be nailed and glued from the inside to support a bottom. The bottom will give better service if it does not entirely fill the space. Let it be the proper length but allow a space of an inch on both sides for dirt and leaves to fall through and out. Chestnut was the wood Helena used. It was stained and later waxed and polished. A beautiful permanent brown stain may be had on chestnut or white oak by applying strong ammonia to it with a brush and later sandpapering down and waxing. White wood is another good wood to use, but a stain will have to be applied to white wood, as ammonia will not act on it. A strong solution of permanganate of potash put on with a brush will darken any wood; it has no fumes. VII IMPROVING THE SCHOOL GROUNDS During the first days of early spring The Chief and his boy assistants looked over the school grounds to see what should be done for its improvement. The school was situated on a triangular piece of land right in the fork of two roads. The land was elevated; so much so that the building stood on a real slope; it was practically a road bank. This slope was washed by spring rains leaving large rocks exposed to view. The country road was especially poor at this section. There were deep gullies in it; the gutters were full of leaves and rock. About the school building was a comparatively level spot covered with rock. No trees grew here; a little grass struggled up each year, soon to lose heart and die. "It seems to me," said Albert thrusting his hands deep down into his pockets, "that we have our life work here." "Not at all," announced The Chief, "this is just the sort of thing which confronts most country schools." Sitting on a rock The Chief gathered his clan in solemn conclave. At the close of the conference Jay marched into the schoolhouse and wrote the following headings on the board: I. Constructing a wall to form an embankment. II. Cleaning the grounds and making a lawn. III. Planting of trees. IV. Preparation and planting of the flower garden. V. Cleaning and mending the road. These headings represented the general lines of work the conclave had decided were the right ones, the most pressing ones to begin on. First all the stones were picked up. The smaller boys and girls made little heaps of the small stones, while the larger rocks, requiring strength to move, were left to the older boys and girls. To some rocks the boys were obliged to take the pickaxe and crowbar. These were rolled, dragged and carted to the gutter at the bottom of the bank. A sand bank of this description where the wash is great always needs an embankment of some sort to hold the soil in place. So the boys built a stone wall. They made this wall of the stones picked from the grounds. First the height was decided on. This was to be two feet. They drove stakes, one at the beginning, and so on for every five feet of extent. After leveling, two inches was measured from top of each stake down and a cord was strung along from stake to stake. Previously, to be sure that the stakes were at the same level, one of the boys, squatting down on the ground so that his eye was on a level with the stake nearest him, looked or "sighted" along the stakes. Where one stake seemed to rise up above the others it was hammered down a little to fall into line. Thus a straight line or top level for the wall was obtained. The wall itself was not difficult to build. It meant only the selection of stones and firming them into place. Close to the wall there was a strip of level land; then the slope arose from this quite gently. After the stones were picked off the boys raked the ground all over fine, free from lumps and small stones. One evening in the village store George's father offered to plough and harrow the entire grounds if Jack's father would give the grass seed. The bargain was sealed. But after all, this sandy soil was no sort of soil to plant grass seed in. The father of one of the girls gave to the school a few loads of good soil. This was spread over the slope to a depth of about a foot. Again they raked it all over smooth, filling in and making as pleasing a grade as possible. The Chief told them it would have been far better if they could have had two feet of good soil. Grass needs all of that. Another way to have improved the soil conditions would have been to plant corn or potatoes on this ground for one year. With such a crop the boys and girls would have been constantly working it, stirring it up. This improves soil. After the soil was spread the next thing was to make it firm. This was done in three ways. One day the teacher decided that for gymnastic work they might all turn out and tramp the soil. Up the bank they stamped, then down by the old drive to the road again, and up the bank. Another way was by using tamping sticks. The boys made these sticks from old broom handles, to the ends of which they fitted solid pieces of board about ten inches square. Some were merely nailed upon the ends of the broom handle; but this method was insecure. The others were made with holes in the centre of the boards of the same diameter as the handles. These sticks were used to tamp the soil or spank it down. But on the day when an old farmer, stopping to watch the work, offered his roller, there was great rejoicing. Between classes, during recesses and at any odd time the slope was rolled. One boy in the very beginning pushed the roller but not after that, for when it was explained to him he understood why he should pull the roller. First, because pulled there are no foot prints left; and secondly, one slips and makes bad places on the lawn when pushing. Next came the seed sowing. The allowance of seed was one quart to each 300 square feet. Jack's father chuckled when his son refused absolutely the variety he offered him. "No, sir, I do not wish Kentucky Blue Grass. It takes three years to get good results from it. The results are all right." "Thanks," murmured the highly entertained father. "We can't wait three years, we must have speedy results. I wish a recleaned mixture, and no chaff in it." "Very well, young man, I wish to know two things: First, where did you get your knowledge? And second, where does my pay come in?" "The Chief told me what book to read to understand about lawns. As for the pay, you made your bargain with George's father. Anyway I should think it would be pay enough to see a fine lawn in a public place made from your grass seed." "Right you are, young man. Go on, read and read. But remember to work as well." They chose a rather cloudy day for the planting, and a day when the wind did not blow. Grass seed is so fine it will blow all about if the wind is stirring. Grass seed is sown broadcast, that is, scattered by the hand. It is not sown in drills. It was a pleasure to watch the sowing, for it was done right. First, the sowing hand was held low, the person stooping down. Some seed was taken with the fingers. Then the sowing arm was swung freely in a semi-circle. After going over the ground once, a second sowing was made at right angles to the first. A second relay of boys and girls came out and raked the sown ground all over. A third relay then rolled the ground. Do you see that there was little opportunity then for the seed being blown off the surface of the ground? The children were delighted when a gentle rain, followed by several warm days came right after the sowing. A soaking rain or a series of cold damp days might have spoiled the work. The only way to have a good lawn from a poor piece of land is to do a thorough piece of work. Patching up means constant patching. The paths and driveway to the school were just rock masses. The first thing was to clear out all the rock. Then loads of ashes were brought from the houses of the different children. All the parents were glad to get rid of the ash-dumps in the backyards. All kinds of carts were brought into use. For a week no boy dared appear without a load of ashes. All these ashes were dumped into the drive and paths. Then the whole ash layer was rolled and rolled. It finally made a good solid kind of walk. It was the business of the tree-planting committee to have two saplings ready by Arbor Day and to know themselves just how to plant. In the start of this work, committees had been formed. Now these committees were supposed to know exactly how to do the work and to procure the necessary material for it. It was not the duty of the committee to do all the work; by no means, or the others would not have known how to work. Two trees were to be planted, one little maple near the building; another, a buttonball tree, down on the lower grade. A maple was chosen because it was easy to get from the woods and also because the maple is such a good all-round tree. Then later, because of a cold wind exposure on one side of the schoolhouse it was decided to plant a screen of little poplar trees. This was to shut off an unsightly view which could not be remedied in any other way. One of the girls on the tree committee suggested a poplar in place of the maple. She was voted down. Now if quick results had been wished, of course the poplar would have been the tree to have chosen. That was why the poplars were chosen for screening purposes. But for permanence the maple, the oak, the buttonball are all better. The poplar shoots up quickly, to be sure, but again it sheds its leaves early in the season. Its life is not as long as the oak's. There are more reasons, too. But if you must have quick results, here is a trick. Plant first a poplar then a maple or some other tree and so on. Later the poplars may be cut out and you have left the fine sturdy, long-lived trees. At the same time the poplars have tided over that in-between period. We sometimes weary of waiting for an oak to grow sizable. The tree planting was left until May because of the state Arbor Day. The maple and buttonball or plane-tree were dug up by the boys in the woods the morning of Arbor Day. The trees were chosen from a rather open part of the wood. It is better to choose trees from the open places than from the denser woods. Trees thus selected are far more likely to grow on being transplanted into a place similar to that from which they came. The boys chose trees about five feet tall. The smaller the tree the better. The following directions were the ones agreed upon: (1) Dig a hole large enough and deep enough to accommodate the roots without cramping. Allow so that the tree shall sit one inch lower than it did before. (2) Place the topsoil on one side of the hole; on the other the poorer subsoil. If the topsoil is very poor, get some good, rich, black soil. (3) Place good soil in the bottom of the hole. (4) Put the tree on this layer, spreading the roots out carefully. (5) Shovel rich soil over the roots. See that it goes in between the roots. Don't be afraid to use your fingers for this work. (6) The poorer soil goes in on top. (7) Tramp the soil down with your feet, making firm about the tree trunk. (8) If the planting comes late in the warm weather make the soil into a soft mud with plenty of water, in this form washing it in between and about the roots, all roots and rootlets come in direct contact with the mud. (9) Last of all cut the tree back, shortening the larger branches about one-quarter their length. After planting the boys kept the trees soaked with water, thus making it possible for the young saplings to have plenty of water. As the spring went on the little maple prospered but the plane-tree started to put out a few sickly looking leaves and finally died in midsummer. Just what was the trouble? Supposedly these two trees were planted according to the same directions. It finally came out that the boys who planted the plane-tree had not cut off the bruised rootlets. These rootlets being in a bad condition rotted and affected the entire root. Another mistake was the failure of the boys to put the good soil about the roots, and they had made the hole a little too small for the entire root area. Well, it simply went to show that such a piece of work must be done right and carefully, if success is to be certain. These were the reasons why our boys lost one of their Arbor Day trees. The Chief told the children that it might have been done over then, but that spring was the better time, because the transplanted tree has the good long feeding season ahead of it, and therefore has an opportunity to get over the shock and to get accustomed to its new surroundings before winter is on. Trees planted in the fall should not be cut back. Leave this until the next spring. The children wished later that they had used something else for a screen. The poplar trees grew fast but of course did not fill out as evergreens and shrubs do. So, after all, the hedge of shrubs would have acted as a better screen. Had they chosen evergreens these would have made a better wind-break in the winter season for the exposure was north, cold, and windy. Such work, though, is worth while, because we learn so many better ways of doing things. The flower garden was almost entirely the girls' work. In the first place the school had no money. Seeds do cost something. But the amount of seed which can be purchased for one dollar is amazing. Peter's grandfather, hearing of the school's needs, gave a dollar. This was money enough to buy seeds of ageratum, zinnia, dwarf nasturtium, California poppy and verbena besides some others. Most schools have interested friends. All along the sides and front of the schoolhouse close to the building the nasturtiums were planted. The ground was hard packed. The plough had left the soil untouched near the building. So the boys spaded this up. All the stone was picked out. Good soil was brought from the woods, fertilizer from the barn and it was all worked thoroughly in. Stakes had to be made. An easy stake to make is one from a lath. Mark off 18-inch lengths or such lengths as are required. Make one end pointed for about six inches; sandpaper. You have a good stake, that is, a good temporary one. These were driven in to the outer edge of these nasturtium strips at distances of four feet and strung with three cords four inches apart. The cords should be carried about the stakes in a groove made for this purpose. Thus the cord will be held and not slip up or down. Thus strung off, border beds will not be stepped on or run over by cats and dogs. The nasturtiums were planted four inches apart, in drills one foot apart. Just two rows were planted. The first row was six inches from the front edge, then a foot space left, then another drill. Finally one foot was left between that and the foundation of the building. The girls of the fourth grade made the drills with the hoe handle. The children of the first and second grades cut out pieces of paper in inch lengths. Four of these placed along in a row gave the right distance for planting the seeds. The nasturtium seeds were soaked over night. And since the soil was warm and mellow, it helped. Along the walks ageratum was planted in the following manner to serve as a border. A drill was made as if for lettuce planting. The seeds were sown in the same way as for that vegetable. When the plants were an inch high they were thinned to six inches apart. The zinnia was planted according to Helen's way of planting and told by her under the girls' planting in a later chapter. The verbenas, as the other flowers, were planted in early May. They were planted one-fourth inch deep and six inches apart in drills one foot apart. The poppy bed was made fine, very fine, by much raking. Then the seed was sown as the grass seed was, that is, by the method we term broadcast sowing. These plants were thinned later so as to stand about eight inches apart. But the plants thinned out were not used again, for these poppies will not stand transplanting. This bed was simply one gorgeous red in August. In the early spring days the gutters were cleaned out thoroughly. The road patching was quite a different matter. These country roads, like those of many places, were just dirt roads. Now earth is poor material for road construction. But if drainage is properly looked out for, and the earth road is smooth from rolling, earth roads make, after all, fine roads for summer travel. It was suggested that rock be filled in, and the earth over this. But when the boys considered how deep cuts would be formed in such a mend by wagon wheels, this was given up. Then it was decided to fill in with layers of rock mass. Myron brought a load of slate for this purpose. But slate, while it makes a smooth road, does not stand wet weather well. So Myron had to return his slate to the road-side bed from which he had taken it. Then The Chief told the children briefly about road materials; how soft limestone makes too weak roads for loads, how easily they wash and wear; how granite, because of its being made up of several materials, is poor, too; how flint and quartz, while hard, are brittle, and are not sufficiently tough; and that sandstone was impossible. Then he told them that good gravel, tough limestone and trap-rock were good road materials. Roads need materials having hardness, toughness and cementing qualities. By taking a trip to a gravel bed, some three miles out of town, the boys were able to get gravel for their patchwork. They did not merely fill in the breaks but dug out the road bed straight across wherever a break occurred until they came to good road. Coarse gravel was put at the bottom up to six inches of the top surface. This was packed down and rolled. At the same time it was watered until mud rose or flushed over the top surface. Finally pebbles from about a half-inch size to coarse sand were laid on and rolled thoroughly. This is the way these lads fixed one piece of poor roadway. It happened that one of the farmers near by tethered his cow on the school grounds during the summer. One of the girls gave a workable solution for this problem. This was it: the boys should come back in relays all summer long and keep the grass so short that no cow could get a nibble from their new lawn. This was done and it worked. When the subject of the care of the flower garden arose it was easily settled. The girls gladly divided themselves off into committees. Each committee's business was that of weeding, picking and distributing the flowers. The prophecy that there would be blossoms enough to supply the homes, the churches and the sick proved true. To be sure the garden did not look so well in the fall as in early summer, but it took only a short time to fix up the grounds when school re-opened. Plans were made for another spring during the first weeks of school. The lawn would need a little more work done on it, an oak should be planted, a group of shrubs put in. But the foundation work had been done. And one day when the news was brought that the town was going to put the first strip of real macadam road by the schoolhouse, a deafening shout went up. VIII MYRON'S STRAWBERRY BED One fine day in early April Myron spaded up his strawberry bed. The bed was made in a sunny spot, on moist but not soggy soil, land excellent for strawberry culture because the year before it was part of a potato field. Following The Chief's advice he had spread over the bed only a very light covering of well-rotted manure. Myron first measured off his garden bed driving stakes in at the four corners. Then he strung off the bed with stout garden cord. "Now," he said to himself, "I know exactly what I have to do." Then going to one corner of the space with his back toward all the rest of the bed he began his work. [Illustration: Photographs by Edward Mahoney The Way the Chief Taught His Boys to Handle Tools] He had a fine spading fork which he had bought a few days before. Grasping the top of the handle with his right hand, with the left midway down the handle, he pressed the prongs of the fork with his left foot vertically into the ground. Then lowering the top of the handle toward the ground and backward, he slipped his left hand down the handle to about a foot from the prongs, and drew up the spading fork with earth on it. This earth he threw a little forward and with the prongs broke up the lumps. He continued this until all the work was done. Then he looked at his spading fork, his brand new fork, and found the prongs quite bent, "The Chief told us to buy decent tools, but I thought I'd save a little money. Well, I'll break up some of these lumps a bit with my hoe and see how that will stand a little work." The land Myron's father had given him was very good indeed, rich and light, so that work of lump breaking was really very slight, yet it made the new hoe-blade rattle in its socket. After this work had been thoroughly done the boy took his rake and started making fine the soil for the bed. Myron had learned well how to handle his tools. These lessons of handling tools The Chief had taught the boys for he felt that a tool should be a skilful instrument in the hand. "A gardener should wield his hoe as well as a surgeon does his scalpel," The Chief had often said. So the boys were proud of really knowing how to work. After looking proudly at the fine, smooth bed the boy shouldered his tools and marched off to the village. [Illustration: The crosses show where Myron set the strawberry plants. The dotted lines signify the plantings of succession crops] Do not think that you can save money by purchasing poor tools. It is quite impossible, because always one has either to buy new and better ones, or mend and remend the poor ones. The lad found out that a good trowel costs at least 50 cents although a smaller one called a transplanting trowel may be had for 15 cents; cast steel rake, 50 cents (10 teeth), 75 cents (14 teeth); hoe, 50 cents; Dutch hoe, four inches, 40 cents; spading fork, $1.25, and weeder 10 cents. That afternoon armed with cord, stakes, a tape, and the plan of the bed, Myron started to mark it off for the plants. After tacking his plan up on the fence post he began the measuring. The piece of ground was 5-3/4 feet wide by 6 feet long. Beginning at one edge of the garden he measured in six inches along the width. The same thing was done from the opposite edge. Stakes were driven in at these two points and a cord stretched between. The same thing was done from the other two ends. So Myron had two cords extending down the length of his garden each six inches from the edge of the patch. These cords are lettered A A and D D in his plan. B B is 15 inches from A A; C C is 15 inches from D D. The next thing was to get the position of each plant in the bed. This is the way it was done: beginning with A A, measure from the upper stake nine inches down the line and place a small stake. This is the place to set the first plant. From this, measure and place stakes at one-foot distances. There will be five plants down the line. Down B B, measure fifteen inches and place a stake. This gives the position for the first plant, then, as before, place stakes at one-foot intervals. C C is marked off similar to A A; and D D to B B. In all Myron then had places for twenty plants. As the work was finished Myron looked up to see Jack's face peeping over the fence. "How do you like my strawberry bed?" "It's all right," Jack replied, "especially the strawberry plants. They look very promising." "Quit your fooling, and come in and see this bed face to." As Jack went over the fence he stopped to look at the plan. "I say, Myron, this shows a plan's of some use to a man. What do you mean by succession crops?" "That stands for the sort of seed you keep sowing at intervals and so getting several crops a season. I shall put in radish and lettuce. I am to supply our own table all summer. Father is not going to sow either of these. He is depending on me." The trip to Longmeadow Farm for strawberry plants was one of pleasure and profit to Myron. The boys used to say that while old Mr. Mills had a crust inches deep, underneath this he was as fine as the strawberries he raised. I. Constructing a wall to form an embankment. II. Cleaning the grounds and making a lawn. III. Planting of trees. IV. Preparation and planting of the flower garden. V. Cleaning and mending the road. "Strawberry plants are worth," said the old gentleman, "about two cents apiece. I will give you your plants if you will do two things. First, during this season, you are to pinch all the blossoms as they appear, off the plants. Secondly, I wish to experiment with a new variety of berry to see if it is good for this locality. I wish you to take five of these plants and try the experiment with me. Do you agree?" "Certainly. But can't I leave just one blossom on each plant to see what the fruit is like?" And also leave one entire row blossoming as it will?" "Yes, that will be all right. The reason for pinching off the blossoms the first year is to save the strength of the young plant. Otherwise it all goes to fruit forming. It pays to do this, because the second year you will have a good yield. Remember that strawberries which flourish in certain localities may fail utterly in others. That is why you and I are experimenting with this new berry. I am going to give you five plants of Marshall, five of Nick Ohmer, and five of Brandywine. Remember, shorten back the roots three inches before you plant. I shall be around to see your strawberry bed. Remember to cultivate after every rain, and in between times, too." "Thank you, and good-bye," said the boy. Myron set his plants after the following fashion: he dug trenches along the cord lines previously marked out. Then the roots were shortened. To plant, hold the plant against one side of the trench just as Myron did, as illustrated in one of the pictures. Then push the earth in from the other side and press firmly in place. The plants should sit so that their crowns are even with the top of the ground. When Mr. Mills came to see that bed he found two or three plants badly placed. Care must be taken in the placing. The days after planting were very hot so Myron covered the plants with straw to protect them from the heat. As the season advanced the little plants sent out runners. These were immediately cut off. If they had not been, they would have become entangled and thus formed what is called a matted row. Some people cultivate strawberries this way. But Myron's way, the hill culture, while it means constant attention, is perhaps a better method. One day, old Mr. Mills took Myron on a little trip with him to a farm where a man was cultivating berries by the matted row method and doing it in a very slovenly way. "It taught me a lesson," the boy told his mother that evening, "that lazy methods are pretty bad." Once or twice that season he sprinkled wood ashes on the ground of the bed. Just a little should be sprinkled on, as one sprinkles salt on a potato. Soil gives food to a plant. This food is nitrogen in various forms, potash and phosphorus. Sometimes we help the soil supply one or more of these chemicals. The wood ash adds a little extra potash which is very good for the strawberry. It turned out after a second year that the new variety gave very small and flavourless berries. So the old gentleman and Myron wasted no more space on that variety. The second year Myron obtained excellent results. From some of his plants he got one quart of berries each, during the season. That was good, but no better than a strawberry plant should do under good cultivation. As far as his lettuce and radish went there was nothing new or startling in his experience. He tried this little trick of lettuce sowing with some success: Instead of sprinkling the seed in the drill, he placed each seed separately and four inches apart. By this method one need not transplant to get good heads. He tried the Black Tennis Ball seed. This forms a good head. Did you ever try the Icicle radish? Myron recommends it. It is long and white and so gets its name. Along with the radish he planted parsley. This is a good way to do as these vegetables do not interfere one with the other. "Grow any more lettuce and radish?" exclaimed Myron's father one evening in the village store, "not while I have a boy who can do it as Myron can. He beats me all right. And I am glad." IX JACK'S ALL-ROUND GARDEN Just as soon as the ground was workable Jack set his coldframe. He chose a southern exposure, back of the barn, so that the frame should sit up against the stone foundation of the I. Constructing a wall to form an embankment. II. Cleaning the grounds and making a lawn. III. Planting of trees. IV. Preparation and planting of the flower garden. V. Cleaning and mending the road. building. First he dug down about a foot deep. As he dug, he knocked up the lumps and picked out the stone. Then he went to the barn and got a barrow load of horse manure, not fresh, but old, rotted manure. This he very carefully mixed in with the soil already made fine. "Now I shall put the frame on. Come, Elizabeth, and give me a lift with this." After some tugging the frame was set. "I thought frames were usually sunk in the ground," commented Elizabeth. "I shall do that this fall and make a real hotbed out of it. You see this spring I just want to give my seeds a little extra start. That's why I made the soil so rich and so deep. Now I am going to bank the frame about with manure. Then I shall put dirt over that. You see I get some extra heat that way. Just see the fine slope of the glass. I guess Old Sun will get caught all right." Jack busily banked the frame, spanking the fertilizer down hard with the back of his spade. He sloped it up some four inches along the sides and front. "Now I am going to make drills for my seed. In the first partition I shall plant lettuce and tomato; then pepper and onion go in, and the third is for flower seed." Jack bent over the frame, and began to scratch lengthwise of the beds with the edge of his trowel. Red-faced from bending over, and hot from his former exertion, his trouser knees covered with earth and manure, he stood off and looked at his work. "I'm precious glad Elizabeth has gone, for if those aren't the worst, crookedest old rows I ever saw." And so they were. They were all distances apart, of different depths and entirely untidy-looking. Jack picked up his rake and again raked the little beds over, so that no trace of his poor work was left. Then he found a board which stretched across the frame widthwise, so that he could kneel upon this and work to advantage in the bed. He next whittled out two little pointed sticks to act as stakes, and tying to these a piece of cord just the right length for the drills, he was ready for work. With one stake stuck in the bed at the upper end, the other at the lower, the cord between gave Jack a good string line for the drill. Then, with the end of a small round stick held close against the taut line, the drill was made. So he continued making drills at distances of four inches apart. Pouring out some lettuce seed in his hand, Jack began to sprinkle it rather unevenly in the first little drill. Elizabeth, having returned, stood by watching and shaking her head. "I didn't know you were here. You make me nervous," began Jack. "I feel more nervous than you possibly can, for you are wasting seed and sowing in a poor way. See, here you have a little pile of seed, and there you have none," and Elizabeth bent eagerly over the bed. "Well, if you think you can do better, just try this next drill." Jack straightened up, and gave way to Elizabeth. "Wait a minute," and Elizabeth ran into the house. Soon she came out with some small seed envelopes in her hand. From the bag of lettuce seed--for Jack had bought his seed by bulk--Elizabeth poured some into a small envelope. Then by shaking the envelope she carefully and sparingly sowed the lettuce in the drill. "I say, that is good!" said Jack admiringly. "Now I'll do some myself." "I should think you would wish only one more row; then have a row, or perhaps two, to transplant in. For I believe you'll have to prick out the plants before the garden is ready." "You talk like the real thing, Elizabeth. What do you mean by pricking out?" "Why, pricking is just lifting out the seedlings with a pointed stick from one row to another, or from a box or hotbed into the outside garden. What else are you going to plant, Jack?" "I thought I'd put in--say two rows of tomatoes, one row of onions, and one of peppers. In the third partition I'd start asters. I just love asters. So I've made up my mind to make a kind of specialty of these." "That's fine! May I help?" "You certainly may, for you are a help." Elizabeth chuckled away to herself, for Jack evidently was not questioning where she got her knowledge. "It seems to me," she rather timidly suggested, "that it would look more shipshape to label these rows, and put in little sticks where each row begins and ends." "Well now, that is a fine suggestion." So Jack stuck in some little sticks he got from the woodshed. Elizabeth did not dare offer some nicely made little markers laid away in her desk for future use. She feared those would call forth questions. Jack brought out a hammer and tacks. Then writing the names of the seeds on the little envelopes Elizabeth had brought out, he tacked one over each row onto the inside of the frame. They both stood off and admired the work. Warm days Jack opened the frame, at first only a little, and later, wide open for all day. One night he forgot to close it, and a slight frost made a sorry looking set of seedlings next morning. He lost every single plant except a few little asters, which were protected by the inner partition of the frame. These seedlings he watered at intervals all day. This was at Elizabeth's suggestion. By this treatment these were saved. So Jack, sadder and wiser, started over again. When the lettuce plants had four little leaves Jack, with Elizabeth's help, transplanted some into the drills left for them. When they were larger yet, they transplanted the lettuce to the real garden. This is the way they did it. In the first place the children chose a cloudy day for the work. A cloudy day is far better than a bright sunny one because bright sun is too strong for little lettuces which have been disturbed from their places and put into new ones. To transplant, dig up a number of plants and plenty of earth with them. Use a trowel for this work, gently lifting plants and earth. A drill may be made; or, perhaps better yet, make holes with the dibber. Pour a little water into the hole. Then gently separate a plant taking as much soil with it as you can keep on its roots. Place the little plant in the hole or drill, and cover the roots with soil. With the fingers press the soil firmly about the plant. Water the earth, not the leaves of the plant. Next day, and for several days, cover the transplanted plants with strawberry baskets. These are far better than newspaper coverings, because light and air freely come through the crevices of the basket. The newspaper makes a covering too tight and close for the tender lettuces. Between plants the children left six inches. Jack raised Boston lettuce. He not only had enough for his mother all summer long, but sold some, too. The way he happened to sell it was merely an accident. Not far from the village was a large summer hotel. One day the proprietor had driven around to the house to see Jack's father on business. As the men were talking Jack and Elizabeth came from the garden with two fine heads of lettuce. "Have you any more lettuce than what you can use yourself?" asked the proprietor, after feeling of the heads of lettuce and admiring the good firm centres. "Yes," replied Jack, "I have now, and shall have all along, more than we can use. You see I keep making sowings every ten days in the coldframe, and transplanting." "I'll take all the extra lettuce you have at five cents a head. That is what I pay all summer long for it. To-morrow bring me up what you can." "Thank you, sir. Ten heads will walk up to-morrow." "The first time I've ever heard of heads walking," laughed Jack's father, well pleased with his lad. But we are away ahead of the story, for we have planted and sold lettuce before Jack has had a chance to really make his garden. The soil in the backyard was very poor, so Jack decided to cultivate only a strip twenty feet long and eight feet wide. He dug out all the soil to the depth of two feet. His father lent him the use of a horse and wagon, and gave him from the barns whatever fertilizer he needed. The digging was a long, tedious piece of work. It was hard, too; but the boy kept at it. Any piece of land can be used if a boy has a mind to work hard over it. Some of the poorest of the soil was carted off, then into the top of the remaining soil he mixed the old manure. Then into the garden space six inches of manure was spread, and over this was filled in the old top soil and fertilizer, that mixture which he had previously prepared. About one foot of this was put in. Jack's father lent him the horse again and the services of a man. They drove to the Longmeadow Farm and got a load of top soil. Old Mr. Mills said he would give the soil if Jack could answer three garden questions correctly. "All right," said the boy, "you'll probably knock me over, for I don't know much about gardening, but I'm trying hard." "Question number one: suppose your backyard had been clay soil--what would you have done with it then?" "I should have mixed in sand, using about one-quarter the amount of sand as I had of clay." "Good! Question number two: suppose you had no sand--what then?" "I'd have used ashes; old clinkers I guess would be best. Everyone has ashes." "Question number three: what is the object of mixing sand or coal ashes or clinkers with clay." "The reason is to break up the clay. Clay bakes hard, becomes sticky, and little air or light gets into it. Ash or sand breaks it up. I think that's about all I know about this." "The soil is yours, young man, I shall be around to see your garden some day. Remember good gardening means working your muscles hard." "Thank you, Mr. Mills. By the way my arms and legs ache, I guess I know about muscles." "And remember too," continued Mr. Mills, "that certain vegetables are very closely related and will intermingle. For example, do not plant different kinds of corn close together. The pollen from one kind will fertilize another kind and so you get a crossing which results in a mongrel sort of corn. Melons and cucumbers will do the same thing. And so care must be taken in order that this sort of intermingling does not take place. You see, Jack, that there are many things a real good gardener has to consider. Gardening is not only a matter of soil preparation but it is also a matter of understanding plants and their relations one to the other." So the good soil was put on and Jack was ready for business. Straight across the back was planted a row of sunflowers. Sunflower seeds belong under the head of large seeds, and should be planted one inch deep and one foot apart. Two seeds were placed in together. This is a safe plan, because if one fails to come up, the other doubtless will come up. If both appear, when the plants get about three inches high, pull out the weaker one. Then the boy planted a second row two feet from the first one. The first row was planted close up to the fence. Jack found out that this was a mistake. Always leave all about the garden a space of a foot or so, in order that one may walk about freely and get at the rear row of plants without trouble. Again, do not plant too close to a fence, unless the planting be some vine or climbing plant, which you desire to have cover the fence. Next the aster plants were transplanted. This was done after the same manner as the lettuce. They were placed about one foot apart each way. These were put across the entire spot just as the sunflowers had been. Thirty-two little aster plants were set out and still Jack had a number left over. It is amazing the amount of aster plants one can raise from a little packet of seeds. "I'm going to sell the rest of these aster plants," he declared. And he did. The boy tramped about until he found a lady desiring the plants, to whom he sold 50 little plants for $1 and set them out for 50 cents. The rest of the garden space was used for the onions, peppers, lettuce, tomatoes and radish. The onions transplanted from the coldframe gave fine early onions with a mild flavour. When Jack was making furrows for the sunflower seed Jay came along and leaned over the fence. "Jack," he drawled, "you look like a kangaroo all humped over making that furrow. Why don't you use your hoe right?" "I thought I was using it right. Come in here and show me how, will you?" So Jay jumped the fence and picked up the hoe. "Stand this way! Straddle the furrow with your back in the direction you are going to hoe; or else stand on the left side of the furrow facing it. Grasp the handle of the hoe in the right hand near the upper end. The back of your hand should be up. Now the left hand should be a foot or more below the other hand. And see the back of my hand. It is toward the left and my thumb points down the handle, just so with the rake handle." All summer long the boy worked or cultivated his piece of land. He kept hoeing and weeding constantly. One of the August pieces of work was to fix the hotbed for winter. Now the frame was taken up and the pit dug deeper--about two feet this time. Previous to this a great pile of manure had been heaped up near by. Jack had sprinkled it with hot water to start fermentation. Steam rising from the heap was proof of this, and it may be used at this time. Then the manure was put into the pit. An eighteen-inch bed of it was made and firmly tramped down. At first the temperature of this was over one hundred degrees. When it dropped to ninety-five degrees soil was put on. The temperature was taken by means of a thermometer buried in the manure. The frame was placed after two inches of soil had been put in; then four more inches went on. The surface of the soil was made to slope at the same angle as the glass. All about the frame was banked, again, manure covered with earth and leaf matter. Jack transplanted violet plants into one compartment. These were good violets and were placed four inches apart. In the second bed he sowed foxglove, pansy and stock. The third was left for radish and lettuce, a bit later. Elizabeth helped him sew together several thicknesses of straw matting as covering for the winter nights. They had decided that newspapers next the glass, then the mats, and finally a rubber blanket, would be protection sufficient. But Jack's hotbed work is quite another story. However, I can tell you that the next winter he added two other frames to this one. X ALBERT AND JAY'S DRAINAGE PROBLEM. The problem of draining which Albert and Jay had to consider, was perhaps the biggest piece of work that was done all that spring. In the first place, it should have been done in the fall. That is the time to do such work, for if put off until spring it delays greatly the spring planting. It was a wet spring, too. The boys, rather impatient of waiting, started digging one day, but it ended in disaster. The ground was soft and wet and hence very heavy to handle. This piece of land was one hundred feet wide or deep. It had a frontage of one hundred and fifty feet. A slope rose up in front of it, which accounted for the water being drained onto this land. The water naturally would have run off the land into a brook at the back. But in about the centre was a hollow, and beyond that the ground rose a little, and then dropped toward the brook. The depression made a kind of drain hole and the water settled there all the spring through. This strip of land of the boys was not by any means the entire piece of land, which was much larger, but the boys' father had given them this largely to try their mettle. He felt so certain they could not do it that he said they might have all they needed from a pile of drain pipe he intended to use himself on a piece of wet land the next fall. "I shall have all my drain pipe left to me," he said to the boys' mother one night. She smiled, for the boys had talked matters over a bit with her. Myron's strawberry bed was all made, Jack's garden-filling work done, George's ploughing and planting finished, before the boys could lay the drain. "It's no use," said Albert, "I'm ready to give up." "Now Savage, there's to be no quitting. I'd be ashamed of you, at least we can surprise father." "All right, Jay, I'm with you." Finally the day came when The Chief and the boys started work. A drain pipe should be laid ordinarily anywhere from twenty inches to three feet deep. One may dig or plough to make the trench. It is wise to dig as narrow a trench as possible and so lift as little soil as possible. Then, too, the bed of the drain should slope gradually from the upper or highest point to the lowest. The drop in level should be about four inches per hundred feet. So the boys had to consider just this. This is the way they "sighted" to get the drop in level. They drove a stake into the ground at some twenty feet from the place where the drain was to begin. Previously a cord had been stretched from one end of the centre of the field to the other end. Since the centre of the field seemed to be the place for the deposit of water the drain was to go directly through the centre. If you ever have a piece of draining to do the problem may not be so simple as this. You may find several natural drainage areas. Then you must lay drains through these. Or instead of separate drains make side ones which empty into a main drain. Going back again to the "sighting" for the drain bed level--the boys have driven a stake into the ground. It stands five feet above the ground level. If a tree had been in line with the drain line this might have been used and saved driving the stakes. Across the stake, at right angles to it, a board with a perfectly straight edge was nailed. This board was about four feet long, one end pointed at the drain line. At the other end Jay placed his eye looking across this to where Albert had driven stakes. One stake had been driven into the ground at the beginning where the drain was to be dug; another at the extreme end or outlet of the drain. Albert stood at the first stake and ran a little piece of paper slowly up and down the stake until Jay raised his hand. This meant that the paper was on the same line with the sighting board. Then Albert ran to the other stake and did the same. The difference in these two points gives the difference in level of the ground. Albert measured from the ground to his mark on the first stake, and, doing the same in the case of the other stake, found the difference to be eight inches. This was too great a drop. Then the boys drove two stakes in between these others and did the same work of level finding. From stake 1 to 2, or for the first twenty-five feet there was no difference in level. For the first fifty feet there was four inches drop; for the next twenty-five feet, five inches rise; and the last twenty-five feet, six inches drop. They marked all this on the stakes in order to make sure they got the level right. The bed must, you see, drop one inch for every twenty-five feet. For the first fifty feet of the line the drop was just twice too much; then came the abrupt rise and drop. Albert ploughed a furrow straight along the line and ploughed back again. Then he reploughed. The boys then began to dig, making a ditch three feet deep right through the land. In order to get the right level they used a home-made device and plumb-line which can be made as follows: Nail the ends of two six-inch boards ten feet long, so as to make a right angle; then across the open end of the triangle, nail another six-inch board having the lower edge about a foot from the ends of the boards. Cut off the ends of the boards on a level, so that they will rest evenly on the ground. Next drive a nail into the apex of the triangle, and to it tie a line long enough so that when the triangle is stood on its legs, the plumb-bob, which you will tie on the other end of it, will almost reach the ground. The centre must next be determined. To do it, set the triangle up on its legs on a level place and when the plumb-line comes to rest, mark the place. A lead-pencil mark will do, but as it is liable to become obliterated by the dirt, a saw mark is more permanent. Now you know what the grade of the bottom of your ditch will be. Reproduce this on a level place by means of a board with a large enough block under one end to give the right pitch; put the triangle on this and when the plumb-line comes to a rest, mark the place on the cross piece. Reverse the ends of the triangle to get a similar mark on the other side of the centre or level mark. This makes a level by which a fairly accurate grade can be made. The tile pipes were laid upon a bed of gravel. This prevents the clogging up of the loosely put together joints. To fit tiles place the small end of one into the large end of the next, and so on. Over the end of the last tile, which emptied into the brook, they wired a bit of rather fine-meshed chicken wire. Then the trench was filled in. By test Albert had found the soil of this land acid. Lime was to be put on it. Now lime must be in a crumbling state for this purpose. So after they had bought the lime they dumped it in a heap on a corner of the plot. After it had become air slaked, or reduced to a powder by the action of air upon it, it was spread over the lot. This and considerable fertilizer was ploughed in. The boys then had an ideal sort of planting soil for almost anything. The drain actually worked. Now some boy may ask, suppose a fellow has no tile and cannot afford to buy any. In such a case there are two alternatives or choices. A wooden trough may be made by nailing together boards six inches wide. Then make a gravel bed and tip this trough over on it peak up. The wooden drain, however, is likely to rot. The other way is to put a double row of stones right through the centre of the bed slope. These stones--perfectly flat ones--should be placed on end with a foot between the rows. In this space put small stones. The chief thing to remember in the drainage problem is that one wants a gradual flow of water from inlet to outlet. Any boy can fix his wet, soggy garden spot even though he has no tiles. Stones can be found surely, and, if no gravel beds are near, all the little brothers and sisters can pick small stones. The boys had decided on planting what they called a general vegetable garden--corn, pumpkins, beans (bush), melons, tomatoes, beets and carrots. This combination of vegetables was a happy choice as they all can well wait until rather late for planting. The boys used the planting table that Peter had worked out. [Illustration: Photograph by H.L. Schultz <b>Jay's Tile Drain Converted a Swamp Into a Garden</b>] Many times boys and girls are bothered by the word "hill". I have seen boys make nice little heaps of earth and then make a hole in the top of these like a crater in a volcano. Down into this crater they poke seeds. Now a hill merely means a place. This place is not to be heaped up above the level of the ground. Place five seeds to the hill. Do not, of course, make a little pile of these seeds but lay them on the ground with a little space between seeds, say an inch. When planting beans place the eye of each bean down against the ground. The bean stands up on edge. The pumpkins were planted in between the hills of corn. This is just the place to plant pumpkin or squash because there is opportunity sufficient for the vines to run. Remember not to plant these two together. Soon after the pumpkins began to come up the boys noticed one morning that the leaves had been eaten. Some were completely riddled, looking like lace work. Digging about the ground Albert found a black and white striped beetle. Its name is the Striped Beetle. The boys killed these in the course of three days. They bought five cents' worth of white hellebore, which is a powder, and sprinkled it on the ground in a circle about the stems of the young plants. They made the circles some six inches from the plant stalk. Doing this at night, the evening dews prevented the scattering about of the powder. They put this on for three nights. Afterwards sand was sprinkled lightly over the hills and at the end of the runners. This makes a discouraging sort of prospect for the beetle who is hunting for something good to eat, not sand to walk over. If instead of sand they had used lime it would have been better. For the lime is quite likely to form a sticky mass on the legs of the insect pest. The moisture from dew or rainwater helps this along, while sand is far more likely to drop off the victim's legs. The Chief felt sure that besides the beetles there were slugs in the garden. Slugs are very likely to bother. They appear early in the season, feed chiefly at night and after rains, and lay eggs throughout the summer and autumn. These eggs are laid in the ground and in rubbish heaps. The treatment suggested above and started just as soon as there are signs of slugs, will work. The boys treated their melons in the same way and had no further trouble with beetles and slugs. The tomato plants were started inside. They were transplanted into strawberry baskets. These are excellent to use, because in transplanting to the ground the little strawberry baskets may be knocked apart without disturbing the plant nearly so much as if it were planted in a compact box. Be sure to line the basket with paper before filling with earth. When the plants began to straggle about and bend over stakes were driven into the ground and the plants tied to these. Jay used hoops and made a sort of cage for the separate plants. He drove four stakes into the ground at distances of eighteen inches from the stalk and in a circular form. Then slipping hoops over the plant he nailed these hoops to the stakes. Some plants had two hoops about them, some three; it all depends on the size and needs of the plant. Only keep this in mind; that the object in staking tomatoes is not only to keep the plant erect, and the fruit off of the ground, but to allow plenty of light and air to get at all parts of the plant. The bean culture resulted in a little private contest between Albert and Jay. That winter The Chief had given the boys a talk on inoculation of soil. One day while they were working on their land Jay suggested that they separate the bean section of their garden, having a bean plot at one end and another of the same size at the extreme other end; that one of them should inoculate the soil of his plot and the other should not. These plots being so far removed would not be in danger of soil washing one from the other. Albert, who rather scorned inoculation of soil, willingly agreed to make the experiment, stipulating that he have the uninoculated plot. By inoculation of the soil is meant introducing into the soil a germ. This germ makes it possible that the nitrogen already in the soil be given to the plant in such a form that it may be absorbed, and absorbed in greater quantities than it otherwise could be. Jay sent to the nearest State Agricultural Experiment Station, asking for the soil. This was sent free of charge. It was a soil, fine in texture and brown in appearance. According to the directions sent with it Jay spread it evenly over the top of his bean patch. A piece of land for inoculation should be prepared all ready for planting; then the inoculated soil is merely put over this, as frosting on a cake. After this the seeds are planted. They planted bush limas. Of course they had to plant the same kind of bean for the sake of the experiment. Beans are not hard to cultivate. They should be kept free from weeds and the soil well stirred up. Albert, fearful of his beans becoming affected by spots or anthracnose, sprayed them from the start. This disease is likely to affect beans about July. So in order to get ahead of the inoculated crop the boy did what he later found there was no need of. To be sure beans are liable to this trouble, but it is not a surety. It is never likely to appear unless the weather be very moist. This summer happened to be a dry one. The spray he used was the Bordeaux mixture. His father offered to supply him with the mixture if he would do mixing for both. So he used this receipt: Dissolve six pounds of copper sulphate in six gallons of water. It is an excellent plan to crush up this chemical in a mortar and put this powder into a bag. Hang the bag up so it just touches the surface of the water. Add twenty-five gallons of water to this. To four pounds of slaked lime add twenty-five gallons of water. Then add this solution to the other. The boy's father had a spraying machine. So Albert used this. I have known boys to use a corn broom to spray with. Dip this in the spraying mixture and shake over the foliage. The only spraying rule Albert used was to keep the foliage covered with the mixture; this does not mean many applications. At the close of the bean season Jay had the finer, larger, beans with a better flavour. His yield was one-third greater than Albert's. "And think, too, how I worked," Albert moaned. "Hereafter I shall not make fun of inoculation." There is not much more to tell of this garden. The poppies yielded well. These were supported as they grew by stakes, as tomatoes are. Carrots need rather mellow, upland soil. The boys found that their carrots did not do so well as the other vegetables. The soil was a bit heavy and moist for them. They found this out about beets: beets should not be transplanted. Transplanting puts them back. Albert transplanted a few and learned this fact. XI GEORGE'S CABBAGE TROUBLES George had a long task in stone picking. The old slope seemed to be full of stone. George would pick continuously from school to supper time, and next morning declare that new stones had grown in the night. The ditching was very little work. It meant digging a ditch about two feet deep and then making at either end of this gutter a side ditch at a very severe angle to the main ditch. These side ditches were directed along the sides of the hill for about six feet, and the water thus directed would conduct itself off. Of course the angle was such that the ditch led away from the garden spot. [Illustration: SLOPE SLOPE --------------------- / DITCH \ SIDE / -------------------- \ SIDE SLOPE / / \ \ SLOPE / / GARDEN \ \ / / \ \ Picture this as the ditch George dug right above his garden. The water passed through the side slopes away from the garden.] As the stones were picked off he piled them into the gutter, where this stony bottom also helped the drainage problem. George was a master hand at ploughing, for he had always done his share of it, so ploughing meant nothing to him. First, you will remember George had one foot of dressing to put on the land. This he ploughed in; and then reploughed. After this the slope was harrowed. You all know that the harrow simply makes fine the soil after the plough has done its work of throwing up the earth. The rake is a kind of harrow. Of course, when the garden plot is large, the rake is impossible, and then the harrow, really a big rake dragged by a horse, must do this work. It took the boy longer than some of the others to do his work, for George did more work at home than the others. He was probably better informed on farm matters, however. His father was a real farmer; the other boys' fathers farmed, too, but not as a business. Anticipating the amount of time this preparatory work would take he had not started his cabbage inside. To get an early crop of cabbage, seed must be planted in January or February; then one may start in March. But for the late crop plant in the open in May or June. This is just what George did. He made furrows straight down his sunny southern slope. These furrows were two feet apart. The seed, of Savoy cabbage, was sprinkled in the furrows. This was done after rain. Cabbage needs much moisture for quick germination. George might have poured water into the furrows and puddled or stirred the earth a bit, if the garden had been small, but his was too large for this, so he took advantage of Nature's watering. When the plants were about two inches above ground they were thinned out to stand two feet apart in the furrow. Cabbage, you know, is quite likely to become infested by pests. Perhaps the most common of which are lice or aphis and the cabbage worm, a green caterpillar. Therefore it is well to try a little prevention. So all over the ground about the plants sprinkle unslaked lime. Tobacco dust or soot may be used for this purpose, too. Good cultivation also helps prevent these pests. One row of cabbage began to develop worms. These George picked off, but he found that he could not keep up with them; so The Chief advised him to buy a little pyrethrum powder at the store. This he mixed with five times its bulk of dust. Putting the mixture into an old potato sack he shook it over the infested heads of cabbage. Except for this drawback the cabbage did well. He lost the infested row of cabbage. For he pulled them all up, spaded the ground over, and sprinkled it with the poison mixture. All the other cabbage heads were sprinkled with it, too. One may easily lose all his cabbage from these worms. In the fall the cabbages were harvested. This was about the last of October. George pulled them up by the roots. He found some of the heads rather soft, some bursting open. As it does not pay to keep such cabbage over, these were fed to the cattle--a gift, George called it, to pay for the fertilizer. All the fine solid heads are worth storing. In order to get nice white inner leaves, as the head begins to form break and bend over the outer leaves and those that protect the inner ones. It is a sort of blanching or bleaching process. Two hundred fine firm heads were the result of the work of this boy. "What are you going to do with all these, I'd like to know?" asked Jack. "I expect to store a number of them--one hundred and fifty, I should say. I'm going to give away fifty. In the winter I hope to sell about one hundred of my stored ones." George's way of storing cabbages is a good one. A spot was ploughed in the orchard between the rows of trees. Then the cabbages were piled in a neat pile roots up, one cabbage fitting into the other. All about and over this heap a layer of straw about four inches thick was placed. To hold the pile in place stakes were driven in about its base. To hold the straw, branches were placed over the whole and boards put on last. The straw packing kept the cabbage from freezing. If George's father had had a good tight shed the cabbage could have been stored on shelves in this. The ordinary home cellar is no place for storage of cabbage. Later in the winter he sold one hundred heads of cabbage to the markets in a near-by city. These he sold at two cents per head. They kept fifty at home. The boys tried long and hard to find out where the other fifty went. But George would not tell. There was an orphans' home some few miles from the village. It seems that at one time an appeal had been made at the school to the boys and girls to give whatever they could to this home. At that time George had nothing to give. No one knew how badly the boy felt, so as his cabbages grew the lad made a pledge with himself to give one quarter of his cabbage to this home. One evening in late October, George had hitched up an old farm horse, loaded his cabbage in, and had driven over to the home. The Chief learned of his kindness one December evening, when he visited the matron to see about Christmas gifts for the children. She told him that one evening in the fall a bashful lad had brought a load of cabbage to her, but would not tell his name. As the man walked home he thought of the really splendid ending of George's cabbage experiment. After all a garden reaches its real work when some of its product is given to those who are in need. "Now I see," said The Chief out loud, as he walked past George's house on his homeward way, "why George made out of his garden so much less than the others. I never could understand why he lost the prize. I am glad there are boys who care less for money than for other things." XII PETER, POTATOES, AND PROFIT Peter had a mile to go to his garden, which was on his grandfather's farm. This farm land, you will remember, was especially good. The ploughing, fertilizing and harrowing were done for Peter. The soil was just the sort potatoes thrive on, a sandy loam. After the furrows had been made about six inches deep and two feet apart, Peter put a sprinkling of chemical fertilizer into the bottom of each furrow. This was sprinkled on as one puts salt on potato before eating it. Over this he placed some dirt so the fertilizer would not burn the potato. Early the morning of planting Peter cut his seed potatoes. The date was the 1st of April, not a bit too soon to get in early potatoes. The seed potatoes chosen were fair, smooth specimens of good size. These he cut so that only one eye was left to a piece of potato the size of a hen's egg. These pieces were dropped into the furrows at distances of fifteen inches apart and four inches deep. After covering, the man went over the potato patch with a harrow. A boy might use a rake for this work, but as Peter's patch was a small part of his grandfather's field the harrowing of the whole was done by the man. When the little potato plants were well up Peter sprayed them with Paris green. This was wise because he thus got ahead of the potato bug. Some one may like to know how to mix up Paris green. The proportion used was one tablespoonful to a pail of water. This was put on with a watering pot every two weeks, thus Peter kept his potatoes quite free from bugs. Although the rest of the potato patch was cultivated by the horse, Peter used the hoe. He could not plough, for Peter was a rather small boy for his age and not very muscular. The secret of potato culture is to cultivate well and keep the bugs down. He dug his potatoes about the middle of June. From the one quarter acre his grandfather had lent him for his garden Peter dug seven bushels of potatoes. At the time new potatoes were selling for $1.25 per bushel. His father bought three bushels and the other four were sold in the city to Philip's mother and friends. The constant working of the soil for potato culture gets it into a fine mellow condition exactly right for celery. Peter's grandfather suggested that the boy put this in, and so have another crop, a fall one. Although this soil had been well fertilized in the spring for the potatoes this was yet not sufficient for celery culture. Celery ought to be started either indoors in flats, or in a hothouse or seed bed late in February--transplanted to other flats, and again finally to the open ground. To prepare for the celery trenches were dug three feet apart and one foot wide. The earth thrown out in trench digging was piled between the ditches to be used later in banking up the celery. These trenches were six inches deep. In the bottom of the trench was put some enriched manure. This was of different materials. Peter used well-rotted barnyard dressing, a little hen manure, and about the same quantity of chemical fertilizer. Hen manure is rich, so he did not use the bulk of that. Over this was put an inch of soil. Celery plants should be set about six inches apart in the trench. First cut them back; that is, cut off about one quarter of the root and one-third of the top. This cutting back increases the spread of root-growth later and decreases the amount of respiration of water from the leaves. The top alone grows more stocky and bulky. Firm the plants well. That is, press the soil firmly about the roots and stalk. When the plant has received its growth it must be blanched. This process not only whitens celery, but also takes the bitter taste out of it. This may be done in various ways, but Peter used the earth process. He tied the bunches up together with bits of raffia. This was done merely to keep the earth from pressing in between the stalks. Then the earth which had been left in between the trenches was drawn up with the hoe about the stalks until only the top leaves poked out above. Do not do all this banking at once. Take several days at it. Boards may be placed along the sides of the banked celery hills. Peter having heard of the self-blanching kinds told his grandfather that he would plant this kind to obviate blanching. But there were two drawbacks. In the first place, he had waited too late to start seed. And secondly, these varieties, too, should be bleached to take out the bitter taste. So Peter bought young celery plants from his grandfather. He paid $1 for two hundred small plants. Later in November he sold these to the same market where his potatoes had gone. Fifty bunches he sold to his father. These were left protected in the ground for use when needed. The rest he sold in the city. From his celery he made $1.80. In all the lad made $9.55. This was a pretty good sum to make. So Peter's saying of "potatoes and profit" actually worked out. XIII PHILIP'S BACKYARD On a beautiful Saturday in late April one might have seen The Chief and his boys boarding the train for the city. It was the day set apart for helping Philip. The boy had cleared up the yard ready for work. You will remember shrubs were to be planted, a walk and cement pond made, and a little gardening done. The shrubs were planted as the school trees were. One must be careful to dig the hole large enough to receive the roots of the shrub. If old shrubs are transplanted be sure to cut out all the old wood, and also cut the top back severely; that is, reduce it to one-third its former size. It was great fun to make the little pond. Such a pond may be used for fish or for water plants or for both. Do not make too large a one, unless you have a very large yard. The smaller ones are easier to care for, and more pleasing in appearance. First stake off the outside limits for the pond. Philip's was to be four feet by two and one-half feet. Dig down three feet. Fill in the bottom of the pond up to fifteen inches of the top with large stones. Then in between and over these put small stones so that you have filled in about six to eight inches of the cavity. Now it is time to mix cement. Mix only a little at a time. Get a board about two feet square. With a trowel put on the board one part of Portland cement to three parts of sand. Have a watering pot full of water at hand. Add water enough each time to the cement and sand to make a soft but not running mass. If it be possible for you to have small stones to put in, it will improve the mortar you are mixing. These stones should not be larger than one inch in size. Add four parts of these to the mixture. Now over the bottom of the pond put on the paste about three inches thick. Fill in with the trowel and smooth it off with the back of this same tool. The sides are the next job. Put a board slantwise against the bottom of the pond so there is a space between the board and the side you are to plaster. Drop the mortar down into this space and press the board against the sides. This firms the mortar. Keep up this work all around the sides of the pond. Another way to do this work is to make a box that will fit approximately into the pond, but that gives a space all around over three inches from the sides. Then the mortar may be dropped in. After three days knock out the box and you have the inside all right. If you wet the sides and bottom of the box the mortar will cling to it less. If the mortar looks rather rough after you finish, mix cement with water, take a whisk broom and with this brush the paste all over the bottom and sides of the pond. All around the ground by the pond, mortar for about six inches. This prevents the breaking in of the edges. Albert and George, who worked on this job, did the mortaring the first way. The pond was left unfilled for a week to dry thoroughly. Then after placing two inches of sand in the bottom it was filled with water. Philip bought two pond lily roots. He tied stones with string on the roots of the plants to keep them down: otherwise they would have bobbed up and floated on the surface of the water. Some one gave him two water hyacinths. In the middle of the yard a round bed was made. To do this take a cord and tie a stake at either end. The cord should be whatever length you have decided shall be the radius of the circle. The radius of a circle, you remember, is the distance from the centre to the circumference. Now drive one of the stakes into the ground at the exact centre. Grasp in your hand the other stake and swing a circle with it. The stake will scratch a well-defined line so that you have the outline of the circle, the boundary of the bed. Jay spaded down to about six inches all along the outlines of bed. After that the bed itself was spaded. Philip insisted on outlining it with brick which had been given him. Some children use whitewashed stones, some use shells. Either plan gives a spotty effect. The idea fails of being artistic. A neat cutting of the turf and a slight heaping up of a round bed toward the centre gives after all a far more pleasing effect. Try to keep as near to Nature's own plan as you can. Shells belong on the seashore or in a collection; keep stones for road making, wall building, cement work and curbs; bricks are for foundations and buildings. Rarely use things for what they were not intended. It is better usually to border a bed with low-growing flowers. Ageratum, candytuft and dwarf nasturtiums are good for the purpose. Along a walk to an old outhouse they planted asters on one side and four o'clocks on the other. Asters, as all boys and girls know, are better if started inside early. Then they may be transplanted to the outside. In his way one gets a bit ahead of the season. But Philip was obliged to plant seed for both. So he planted it in a drill as one plants lettuce. Later the little seedlings were thinned out to stand six inches apart. This thinning was done when the plants were four inches high. Four o'clocks need lots of room as they grow bushy. Plants in narrow strips are quite likely to drop over their limits. To keep these in bounds Philip later built a fence. For this he used stakes driven into the ground at intervals of every four feet. To these he nailed strips of railing. Sometimes cords are used instead of railings. An old fence was all about the yard and an old unused outbuilding in the rear. These were both unsightly in appearance, so they had to be hidden. Vines were used for this purpose. About six inches from the fence a furrow was made four inches deep. Climbing nasturtium seeds were dropped into this furrow at distances of every four inches. The seeds had been soaked over night. This was because the ground was very dry and the weather was now quite settled and warm. If the ground is wet and the weather cold, never soak seed. It just adds to the general soggy condition to do this. [Illustration: Photograph by Mary H. Northend. Philip's Backyard Made Beautiful by Annuals and Quick-growing Vines.] Morning-glory seeds were planted along the end of the fence by the outbuilding and all around it. After these climbing things began to grow the pretty effect of the vines was amazing. Many times one has to train vines so they will grow where one wishes. In such cases drive small stakes into the ground back of where the vine is planted. Tie a cord or string to the stake and carry this up to where you wish the vine to go. The string may be attached in the best way, according to the place. If it is to an old building, drive a nail into the side, roof or peak of this. Some people make latticed trellises. These may be made from laths. A neighbour gave Philip some canna bulbs which he planted in an old sieve filled with rich dirt. Canna bulbs look much like sweet potatoes. Usually a bit of stalk is left on the bulb. Leave this in planting above ground for about one-half inch. Dig a hole large enough to place the canna bulb and deep enough so the stalk comes above the ground. Place one big, fat bulb, or two or three little chaps in one spot. Leave about one foot between plantings. In the fall after frost cut off the stalks about two inches above the ground, dig up the bulbs, shake all dirt off, and put into a box with a little thoroughly dry dirt until spring. Leave this box where it is dark and cool. It would have been far better had Philip planted the cannas either in the round bed or against the fence as a screen. As a general rule the planting in tubs, kettles, kegs and similar receptacles is not only inartistic, but gives the plant very confined and cramped quarters. When possible plant right out in the ground. Window boxes and roof gardening in boxes is "another story." The cost of Philip's flower garden was 25 cents. He bought five-cent packages of each of the flower seeds. The cannas cost nothing. The shrubs were $1, the cement 70 cents, and the water-lily roots 50 cents. So the total cost for changing an ugly yard to a mass of flowers was $2.46. Philip's clearing up seemed to be catching for the girl across the street started in with her work. For ten cents she bought a collection of flower seed. These seed were planted in three-foot beds. The beds were banked up or supported by strips of board. This same girl planted flowers in two old kettles and set one upon an empty cask and the other on an old drain tile. But she later decided very wisely that this was not after all so very pretty. Kettles are better for potato boiling than for flowers. But such a good time as she had all summer in her own green, pleasant backyard! And so had Philip, too! "Just a few cents and some hard work will change your backyard into something beautiful," Philip was heard to say one day to a group of city boys. XIV THE CORN CONTEST Each boy was to take a certain number of hills of corn in his father's corn patch. He was to select his seed corn after a few suggestions given him by The Chief. These hills of selected corn were to be cared for by the boy himself, but it was perfectly legitimate that the soil be prepared for him, since most of the boys were to plant in their fathers' cornfields. In the growing of corn the first matter for a boy or girl to consider is the selection of the seed. Corn should be selected carefully by the individual stalk; that is, choose ears from stalks bearing an ear or ears at, or a little below, the middle of the stalk. The stalk itself should be thick and free from suckers or any evidence of disease. The ear should be cylindrical. The kernels should be deep setting, uniform and compact. Then the cob should not be too large. Look at some samples. See how some ears have too large a cob, others too small, while still others show a right amount of cob. The butt and tip of the ear should be well filled out. Look for a perfect ear. The kernels are uniform in size, in even rows, with only a slight space between rows. See the tip and butt. Very little space is lost at the butt. You have seen ears where the butt was all space. There is still another sort of corn. It might be called mongrel. Any one can raise such corn. Good care shows in corn as good breeding does in boys and girls. One more point the boys were told to consider in selecting seed ears, that was the relation of the circumference of the ear to its length. An ear should have a fairly large circumference at the base and taper toward the tip. To estimate relation of circumference to length, which should be as three is to four, measure the ear one-third the distance from butt to tip. So if the ear is eight inches long the circumference should be about six inches. All the boys but Jack and Myron tested their seed corn to be sure of its vitality. Peter went a little further than the other boys. He not only tested for general vitality, but he tested for vitality among the ears he had selected as good seed ears. This he did in the following manner: He chose twenty-five ears, and used four kernels from each ear. First a soup plate was filled with sand. This was moistened by dropping a little water on the sand. Sand must not be too wet for this work. He partitioned off the sand-bed into rows with cardboard between them. On the cardboards was marked over each row of four kernels the number of the ear from which they came. The sand was moistened each day. Peter worked out from this the best ears for quick germination. The next point to be considered in corn culture is that of the soil. Soil for corn should be mellow and fine. If it has vegetable matter or humus in it, then its value as a corn-growing soil is increased. Fertilize well and plough, or if the plot is small, spade. You ought to have surely eight inches of good, mellow soil. In planting corn place five kernels in a hill. You will remember that a hill means a place. For corn which grows high make the hills four feet apart; while for the low growing varieties place three feet apart. Cover the early varieties with one inch of soil; the later varieties with one-half inch. As the corn shoots begin to appear every boy should appear with his hoe or cultivator, for one secret of good gardening is constant cultivation or stirring of the soil. Water, as you know, rises in the ground and coming to the surface evaporates. Now the point is to keep the moisture in the ground for the plant's food supply. So if one keeps stirring the soil he makes a layer of earth which stops the water as it rises. We call this a mulch. When the shoots are six inches high choose the three finest little corn seedlings in the group of five. Pull the others out. The reason for putting in five kernels in the first place, instead of three, is that some may not come up. And, too, some that do come up may be poor and sickly. Myron did a very stupid thing. At least he called it stupid. Some one sent him a packet of seed popcorn. Myron thought it would be pretty interesting to raise some and supply the club with popcorn at its meetings all the next winter. Now Myron did not know that from the corn tassels the pollen when ripe or dry blows all over the corn field. This pollen falls on the silk of corn plants anywhere in the field. The pollen fertilizes the plant and the ear of corn sets and grows. Because the pollen being light is blown to such distances and because different kinds of corn can interpollinate, is reason enough for not planting different varieties of corn in one patch. Myron's popcorn and sweet corn fertilized each other and he got a corn which was a cross between the sweet corn and popcorn. He learned a lesson of pollination, but at the expense of the corn crop. One may plant early and late corn in the same patch but otherwise he should stick to one kind of corn. The boys in the fall were to submit twelve of the finest ears they had raised. These were to be scored or sized up as follows: ---------------------------------------------------------- | NAME OF CONTESTANT | VARIETY OF | DATES OF PLANTING | | | CORN | | | .................. | ..............| ................. | |------------------------------------|-------------------| | (1) Ear: | | | | A. Trueness to type | 10 | | | B. Shape | 10 | 20 | |------------------------------------|---------|---------| | (2) Filling of: | | | | A. Tip | 10 | | | B. Butt | 10 | 20 | |------------------------------------|---------|---------| | (3) Kernels: | | | | A. Shape | 6 | | | B. Arrangement of cob | 12 | | | C. Depth | 6 | | | D. Colour | 6 | 30 | |------------------------------------|---------|---------| | (4) Measurements of ear: | | | | A. Length | 10 | | | B. Circumference | 10 | 20 | |------------------------------------|---------|---------| | (5) Proportion of Corn to Cob: | 10 | 10 | |------------------------------------|---------|---------| | Total 100 | |--------------------------------------------------------| This score card needs a little explanation. Take up (1) Ear, first. All the twelve ears presented ought to be much alike; that is, like the type or parent ear you are striving to produce again. So if, out of twelve specimens, six were fine ears and the other six were rather poor, then surely ten credits or points could not be given. The shape of an ear should in general be tapering, well rounded a little below the centre, and tapering not too abruptly toward the tip. The second point is the Filling of the Tip and Butt. The tip should be filled with even, regularly arranged kernels. It should not be too pointed nor too blunt. The butts should be covered over with kernels except where a deep, clean-cut depression is left. Here, as in the tips, the shape has to be considered, for flattened and blunted butts are bad form. As to Kernels, they should be uniform and well-shaped, not only on the single cob, but in all the specimens. The furrows must be uniform, regular, and with only a slight space between. To determine depth cut a square inch right out of an ear. All kernels should be of one colour. If a red kernel is in with the white then there has been an intermixing. All kernels on all ears ought to have the colour of those of the type form. Not only should there be a proper proportion between Length of Ear and Circumference, but an ear may be too long. The usual length of ears is from eight to twelve inches, according to variety. We have spoken of cob-relation before. This cannot be determined accurately by your eye but must be done by weight; so shell the corn, weighing the ear first. Now weigh the cob. The difference is weight of corn. Divide the weight of the corn by the weight of the ear. This gives per cent. of corn. For the exhibit the boys afterward used half their samples submitted and reckoned per cent. on this. The proper percentage of corn to cob should be 86 or 87 per cent. You can easily find out if you come up to standard. Myron brought in some corn merely to show his mistake but of course did not submit any. Jack, you will remember, did not test his corn and results showed this. Out of his twelve samples there were two good ears. The others showed many changes. The poorly filled tips, irregular rows, and wide space between rows--all these scored against Jack. George's corn was thrown out because black kernels were found here and there in with the others. Albert's and Jay's Peep-o-day came out in fine shape. But Peter's Country Gentleman after all had the record. Philip dropped out of the race because he went on a summer vacation. So for a slight amount Peter took over Philip's corn hills. That fall the boys made very careful selection of seed corn. "After all," Myron said one night at club meeting, "although Peter's corn was the only really fine specimen, I think some of the rest of us got fully as much out of the corn contest." "So do I," added Jack; "and I, for one, shall test corn after this." "I think our corn was pretty good," Albert went on in a half-injured way; "but we are going to beat that record next year. We shall rotate our crop, planting our corn where the beans were this season. That's a thing fellows ought to know; that it's a mighty good thing to rotate crops." "What's that?" asked Philip. "Rotating crops means not always planting the same crop on the same piece of land, but changing every two or three years. It happens that beans are very good to plant before corn. They do not take from the soil, The Chief says, what the corn needs. So a piece of soil planted to beans gets in shape for corn planting another year. It would not be well to plant corn on a certain piece of land more than two successive years. Then something else should be planted on this land and the corn put somewhere else." "Good!" said The Chief. "Some day we shall discuss rotation of crops more fully. There are no end of topics for us to work over this next winter." XV THE GIRLS' SECRET WORK The girls were each to raise something special at their own home and then each was to have a share in a big garden. Katharine, who had quite a lovely yard, was to give the space for the general garden. This was largely because Katharine's home was on the river road, a bit out of the village and near none of the boys' places, for the girls wished to keep the knowledge of their work from the boys as long as possible. Helena lived next house to George and the land she might have used for this big garden would have bordered George's corn patch. So that, of course, would never do. The garden while formal was ornamental. The girls were all to work on the staking out and preparation. But each girl was then to take a section of it and plant and care for that. Katharine was to take the centre portion of grass and cannas. Now a grass plot is very pleasing in a garden. It is restful to the eye and is much more harmonious with the other colours in a garden than a mass of brilliant blossoms. Cannas have some height, a delicate splash of colour in the blossom and so work in well. It is always well to put some tall-growing plant in the centre. The effect is that of working up to a climax. One should not immediately jump from very low flowers in the beds to a few tall ones in the centre. This is ludicrous. Make the gradation gradual from low to high. This garden of the girls may seem almost to violate this principle. Not so, for the nasturtiums merely acted as a border. Then all around the garden were the zinnias, poppies and marigolds a step up to the cannas. One may buy tall or rather low growing cannas. These latter grow about four feet high. They chose these low ones with yellow and orange in the blossom to harmonize with the yellow and orange of the nasturtiums. Note the proportional amount of grass space in the girls' garden. Observe too that it is the centre of interest. The nasturtium border was Elizabeth's. Zinnias were chosen by Helena, and Katharine was to help in this work. Eloise loving the mignonette had asked for it, poppies were Josephine's and marigold was for Dee. Ethel wanted the border of sweet alyssum although it represented a long strip to work. [Illustration Diagram: Scale 1/8 in.-1 ft. Note the proportional amount of grass space in the girls' garden. Observe, too, that it is the centre of interest.] If you think over this garden with its brilliant poppy colour, the heavy yellow of the marigold, the lighter colour effect of yellow in the nasturtium, the dark red zinnia--quite a splash of colour, was it not? In order to have great masses of brilliant colour in the same garden one must break them in some way. There are two possibilities that are good: first, paths between beds, and second, borders of white or inconspicuously coloured plants. Sweet alyssum is good for this purpose and so too is mignonette. Mignonette has such a small and modest little flower that one thinks always of mignonette in terms of green. The mignonette was massed at the entrance of the garden for pleasing and subdued effect. In staking out a garden it is well first to put heavy stakes, like the ones the boys made, in each of the four corners of the entire plot and put a string around. This strings off the outline of the entire garden. Sight along the lines as Jay and Albert did to be sure the lines are straight. In sloping land true up with great care. On a level bit of land sighting is easy. Next if there is a main path string that off using twine, stakes and always sighting. If the garden is a large one of many small plots the next thing to do is to string lengthwise the entire garden, measuring off plots and paths. Then widthwise measure off paths. The side paths give you the width-boundary of the plots. But the paths have cords through portions of them. So put stakes in the corners of the plots. Cut the cord in the centres of cross paths and tie to stakes. If carefully done each plot is marked off shipshape. In general make the main paths four feet wide, plot paths or side paths eighteen inches. Plots with widths about one-third of the lengths are right. This did not hold true for this garden since the beds were long narrow strips. In such cases the width should be a comfortable one to lean over and work across. In staking such a garden plot as the girls' it is well to first line off with stakes and cord the entire outline of the garden. Then next string off main paths and intermediate ones. It is very easy then to string off the beds, for the path boundaries have done most of the work for you. The girls planted all their seeds except poppy and grass seed in drills just as one plants lettuce and radish. This is a far easier way to plant since as the little seedlings come up one can easily distinguish the nice even row of little plants from weeds. They decided later that it would have been easier if the poppy had come up in drills. For it came up in little tufts here and there. And, sad to say, the poppy does not stand transplanting. In making drills take two stakes and a string. To either end of the string tie a stake. The length of the string after tying should be the length of the drill one wishes to make. This will be usually either the length or width of the bed. This, then, is your line for the drill making. Another thing the girls did which makes garden measurements easy is the following: mark off on the rake or hoe handle three feet. One of these feet measure off into inches. This saves carrying a measuring rod into the garden. The marking should be done on the edge of the handle and not on either the under or upper surface of it. If garden stakes are made one foot in length they can be used in measuring. Nasturtium culture needs some explanation. Nasturtiums are the most accommodating of flowers. They will live on almost any soil. The seeds are large and so are very easy for little girls to handle. They may be placed two seeds together six inches apart in the furrow. If the soil is very dry and the weather very warm, soak the seeds over night. Plant the seeds about one inch deep, cover over the soil and firm it well. It is easy enough to keep the nasturtium bed weeded for the seedlings are large and not to be mistaken. Keep the flowers well picked all summer and you will have numberless blooms. Sweet alyssum is a charming border plant. This, too, grows in almost any soil. It is well to sow the seed in a box indoors. Transplant when the little seedlings are two inches high. But alyssum may be sown right outdoors in the garden plot. Sprinkle the seeds along in the drill. After the seedlings come up and are about an inch high thin out until the seedlings stand six to twelve inches apart. Marigolds are very gay sort of flowers. Many do not like them on account of their disagreeable odour. But a strong point about these flowers is this: they bloom and bloom, and then they bloom again. There are three kinds of marigolds one might plant. These are the African, French and dwarf. They differ in height and also bushiness. The African varieties must be thinned out to stand fifteen inches apart, the French ten inches and the dwarf six inches. These seeds are dry, dead looking chaps, but are not so small that they cannot be handled separately and placed carefully in the drill. Plant them nearer together than they are to stand later. For instance, put the African five inches apart, the French five inches, too, and the dwarf three inches. Then you have extras, so if some do not come up your garden is not crippled. Mignonette, again, is accommodating and will grow in almost any kind of soil. These seeds are small and may be sprinkled along in the drill. Later thin out so the plants stand from six to twelve inches apart. In choosing mignonette seed remember that there is a great difference in mignonette. Some is very sweet, some is not: some have large sturdy spikes, while others have rather small spikes. It pays to buy good seed. Poppy is a trifle more particular about the soil it grows in. It requires a rather rich, sandy loam. Again remember that poppies never stand transplanting. Poppy may be planted broadcast or in drills. The tall growing varieties should finally stand eighteen inches apart and the smaller ones nine inches. In order that poppies may blossom freely you should never let a seed capsule form. For you see that if one wishes bloom, one must not let the strength of a plant go to any other work except blossom making. Zinnias are satisfactory just as marigolds are. To be sure they are not a very graceful flower. But what of that? We need all kinds of flowers. When you buy the little packets of seed you usually get a mixture of colour. In order to have just the colour one wishes, seed must be bought from the seedsman by the ounce. The girls wanted dark red zinnia. One ounce planted this space. It is not as expensive to buy seed this way. A number of people may club together for seed. Helena's method of planting zinnia was to sow the seeds in a drill. Later she thinned her seedlings so that they stood eight inches apart in the row. Cornflowers or bachelor's buttons are lovely too. They are far lovelier if bought by bulk so one may have the one colour, that lovely blue. These seeds may be planted in drills two seeds every six inches apart. Later thin to twelve inches apart. Most people start cannas from the bulb. When one does this, plant a good sized bulb and leave about an inch of stalk above ground. If the bulbs are smaller use two to a hole or planting. If cannas are started from seed follow this direction: File holes in the canna seed. The reason for this is that the outer crust is tough and filing helps the young plant to get out. These seeds should be soaked in warm water for a day. Plant in pots. When the plants are six to eight inches tall transplant to the garden. Cannas should stand two to six feet apart. It depends on variety, whether tall or dwarfed, how far apart to place them. When the flower garden was first started the question arose: "Shall we plant annuals, biennials or perennials." "For my part," said Josephine, "I don't know at all what these words mean." Katharine got a dictionary and soon she and Eloise had these botanical terms worked out as follows: A perennial is a plant which lives year after year in the soil. It usually blossoms its second season. Trees and shrubs are hardy perennials. A biennial is sown one year, blossoms the next and then dies. Biennials should be covered lightly with straw or leaves through the winter. An annual blossoms and dies its first season. But some annuals sow themselves and so come up again the next season. The girls worked out a table of planting by months which Ethel called the plant time-table. Besides the garden which the girls all had together each one did something to improve things at home. THE FLOWER TIME-TABLE +--------------+-------------+--------------------+ | NAME | SOWING TIME | BLOSSOMING TIME | +--------------+-------------+--------------------+ |Ageratum | May | June-October | |Aster | May | Until frost | |Balsam | May | June-September | |Calendula | May | June-October | |Cal. Poppy | May | August | |Candytuft | May | June-September | |Coreopsis | May | June-August | |Cornflower | April | June | |Cosmos | May | August-September | |Four o'clock | May | July-August | |Foxglove | May | June | |Gaillardia | May | July-October | |Helianthus | May | August-September | |Hollyhocks | August | August | |Iceland Poppy | May | June-September | |Larkspur | May | June-July | |Marigold | May | Until frost | |Mignonette | May | Until frost | |Morning-glory | May | July-August | |Petunia | May | July-September | |Phlox | May | July-October | |Scabiosa | May | July-August | |Stock | May | June-July | |Sunflower | April | July-September | +--------------+-------------+--------------------+ Ethel and Dee set up a sundial in Ethel's own backyard. The directions that follow will help other girls and boys in setting up theirs. Sun-time and clock-time are not quite the same. There are four days in the year when, if you work out the sun-shadow time, your dial will be almost accurate. This is because on these days the sun-time and the clock-time practically coincide. These dates are April 15th, June 15th, September 1st, and December 24th. Before you go outdoors draw on the platform of the sundial a straight line from angle B of the gnomon to the front edge of the platform. Set the dial out in direct sunlight. The shadow cast must fall right on the straight line which you previously drew. When the shadow and the line coincide, mark the extreme end of the line XII. This stands for twelve o'clock. Now screw the sundial in this position to the column you have made for it to rest upon. At one o'clock mark where the shadow points, and keep on with this for every hour. You remember the gnomon angle was the number of degrees corresponding to the degrees in latitude of your special place. Poughkeepsie boys and girls will be interested to know that if a sundial be brought to them from Rome, it will be right for them. And if New York City boys and girls could get one from Florence, they would find it accurate for their own use. These girls lived near Poughkeepsie. Elizabeth planted a border of nasturtium, sunflower and zinnia along her sidewalk. It cost eight cents for seed to plant these two by ten feet strips. Helena made a bed of different kinds of flowers right back of her father's field. The garden was thirteen and one-half feet square. The edges her father helped her sod, this making a terrace effect. Nine little flower beds were marked off with paths between. In the beds were asters, celosia, balsam, nasturtiums, marigold, zinnia, carnation, schizanthus, sweet peas, dahlias, gladiolus, candytuft, lilies, scabiosa, stocks, salvia, snapdragon, phlox, mignonette, four o'clocks and petunias. Helena's mother worked with her in the garden as did one of the boys across the street. He was not a club member but was hoping to be one the next year. And so Leston worked with Helena all summer long. He finally won his place in The Chief's club. Eloise decided she would have a window garden and so before all the front windows of the inn, window boxes were placed. Most of the trouble with the window box is a lack of drainage space. Estimate off the bottom of the box something like this: To every foot bore six holes. This is none too much. The great trouble usually is lack of drainage, or lack of air, or sour soil. Over each drainage hole put a bit of broken pot. Then it is well to put a half-inch of drainage material in the box. Stone, broken pot, sphagnum moss, or hay will do for this. The soil should be good, rich, garden soil. With this one might mix in some sand to help drainage. Window boxes should be watered with care; they should not be flooded. Eloise had very effective boxes. Vincas trailed over the edges; dwarf cannas were in the back of each box; and red and white geraniums were a glory all summer long. Josephine's gardening was a little difficult. She had no space at all. The backyard at her house was seeded down and her mother did not wish it spaded up. She had no front yard. Josephine thought and thought for some time, then decided she would just simply have to make a way to have a garden. So one day she went to the grocery store and bought a soap box for ten cents. This she filled with soil from Eloise's garden. Then she bought a five-cent package of parsley seed. These seeds were soaked over night in warm water, for parsley seeds are slow to germinate. Then the seeds were planted in neat little rows in her box garden. This garden was most convenient. It stood out near the house in the backyard all summer. It went to the exhibit in the fall. It stayed on the piazza until frost and then went into the kitchen for the winter. Josephine had parsley enough for her mother's table all the year around. XVI MORE ABOUT THE GIRLS' WORK. In late September the girls began agitating the matter of bulb planting for the school grounds and their homes. The boys were rather scornful of it. "I believe in gardens," said Albert with great finality, "but bulb work seems to me like fancy work. And then too, bulbs are pretty expensive." "Very well," answered Dee, "we girls are quite able, as you boys know, to work alone. But spading is pretty hard, and I should think some of you would be glad to help." "I'll help any time," Myron volunteered, "and I promise to bring two of these other chaps whenever you say." "Thank you, Myron. We'll not bother you boys further now." Off the girls ran to Katharine's home to study bulb catalogues. Katharine's father gave five dollars for bulbs for the school grounds. This he stipulated was for outdoor planting. Elizabeth and Ethel were going to plant outdoors at home. The other girls had each some money for indoor work. You may all like to know what the girls found out from their search in bulb catalogues. In the first place very good and perfectly reliable information is obtained from the catalogue of any reputable seed house. The girls found out that certain bulbs are better adapted to outside planting, while others do equally well indoors or out. Take tulips first; these are suited to the outdoor conditions. To be sure the florist, whose business it is to raise them inside does so with great success. But boys and girls are more likely to have trouble with inside planting of tulips than of other bulbs. Oftentimes lice cover them when the bulb is first brought up from the cellar. Then when treated with kerosene emulsion or some other insecticide the bud becomes blasted, for the blossom is close under the folded outer leaves, so is in a very precarious position. Then, too, tulip bulbs rot easily and the buds blast easily. So it is wise not to run so many risks but try the kinds of bulbs which are less prone to trouble. The easiest and safest bulbs for children to work with are narcissus (including daffodils, jonquils, Chinese lily bulbs and paper narcissus), and hyacinth. Hyacinth has one bad habit when planted indoors. This is the tendency to unfold its blossom too soon. So the beautiful hyacinth blossom appears dwarfed and stunted close down near the ground. To avoid this condition do not take the bulb from the dark until the leaves are about an inch to two inches above the earth and until they have spread apart. This gives the blossom a chance to shoot up. Tip the pot over and see if the roots are visible through the drainage hole. The time to buy bulbs is in late August or early September. After this bulbs through shrinkage depreciate in value; by which value is meant not one in price but in soundness and ability to produce blossoms. Do not buy cheap or cut-rate bulbs. Buy good, big, sound ones. The Roman hyacinths are excellent for forcing. They are small flowered, quite different from the large sturdy Dutch hyacinths more commonly planted. In choosing hyacinths you have to decide upon the colour and whether you wish double or single varieties. In general most people enjoy single flowers better. If you are to use the hyacinths for outdoor planting or bedding it is perfectly safe just to write for bulbs which are to be bedded. La Grandesse is a beautiful white; King of the Blues speaks for itself and the Sarah Bernhardt is a salmon pink. These do well inside, too. Charles Dickens is a fine rose colour, Prince of Wales, violet, and L'Innocence, a fine white. These are good for inside planting. Some may like the smaller Roman hyacinths, which do splendidly indoors. Very good hyacinths are bought for fifteen cents. Tulips do especially well outdoors. A capital one for either bedding or indoor forcing is the Isabelle. It is a beautiful red tulip which is bought for five cents. The Summer Beauty, a hardy white tulip, is well worth the ten cents asked for each one. Some of you may like to raise some freaks; then try parrot tulips at about thirty-five cents a dozen. A thing to remember about the indoor planting of tulips is this--tulips, more than other bulbs, are likely to have plant lice, so watch out! In daffodils you may be sure of the Van Sion. These are worth forty cents a dozen. You can buy daffodils for twenty. If you wish to lay in a stock of bulbs for water planting choose, of course, Chinese lilies, but try, too, the paper white narcissus. These bulbs cost forty cents a dozen. Buy from the five-and-ten-cent store a glass dish, and gather stones for it. About three weeks before you wish blossoms plant a dozen of these narcissi in the glass dish with the stones as a foundation, and water enough to come up around the base of the bulbs. It is a good plan to set the dish of bulbs in the dark for four or five days. You can grow hyacinths in water too. For this a special glass is sold, although I have seen children place a bulb in the top of a preserve jar. It works all right. Bulbs must never drop low into water or they decay. These, too, should be placed in the dark for about a week. Suppose you have a quarter to spend. You can make all kinds of interesting combinations. Three daffodils for ten cents, a hyacinth for ten, and a tulip for five, give you a chance to experiment. A word more about narcissus. This is a large family, One gets confused sometimes with the names daffodil, jonquil and paper white narcissus. All these are of the family narcissus. The daffodils are the bulbs with large single or double cups. The jonquil has a cluster of small blossoms of from three to six single flowers. The paper white narcissus has four to twelve single blossoms to the flower head. Ethel and Dee had good lawns at home which their mothers were not willing to have spaded up, but they gave consent to the girls putting crocus bulbs here and there over the lawns. These bulbs should be planted about an inch deep and three inches apart in the group. These were dotted about in clusters of six. The dibble is a good instrument to use in dotting bulbs around the turf. Crocuses are good for indoor planting as well. They may be planted in flats or in indoor boxes. Remember crocuses are of practically no use for cut-flower purposes. The school tulip bed was made just as Philip's round bed was made. The time to plant depends on the weather. It is always well to get all outdoor planting done before the time of frost. Why? Because you wish to get the bulbs in while the earth is still warm. Bulbs lie in the ground all winter slowly putting out roots, slowly starting to push up toward the light above. For good root forming they need this long time of slow growth. Get the outdoor bulbs in the ground during September. Before this the ground may be prepared. In all the beds dig down about two feet. Work over the soil well. Make it fine and free from lumps and stones. Ordinary garden soil will be right for these beds. Put no fertilizer in. If your ground is clayey, mix sand with it. Use one-quarter sand in a mixture of this sort. This makes a lighter soil. Clay soil is what we call a heavy soil. Bulbs require light soils. Now comes planting. Different kinds of bulbs require different depths of soil. Place the tulip bulbs four inches deep, and six inches apart. Hyacinths were planted by Elizabeth in a strip beside the house. Jack also planted daffodils in a corner sheltered by the house foundation and an old high fence. The daffodils were planted exactly as the tulips, but the hyacinths were planted six inches deep, instead of four. In buying bulbs for outdoor planting ask for bedding bulbs, while for indoor work buy forcing varieties. One bright day in October the girls met at Katharine's house to pot their bulbs for winter. Some had made wooden boxes or flats during the winter; others had bought low pots; while still others had the ordinary high pot. In potting bulbs or any other plant two things are to be kept in mind--first, the soil, and second, the drainage. The soil may be any good garden soil. To a given quantity one may add one-fourth rotted manure and one-fourth sand. This last helps lighten the material, allowing more air to get at the entire mass and making good drainage easier. Mix all this together. If one lacks the well-rotted manure and sand, any good garden soil may be used. Sift the soil until it is perfectly fine. A simple sieve, which works well, may be made from a small soap or starch box. Knock the bottom out and use in place of this wire netting. Helena and Eloise made two sieves which did for all the girls. Eloise also made some very good flats as described before under the chapter on the girls' winter work. You can easily see how excellent this style of flat is from a drainage point of view. More trouble, in potted bulbs and all kinds of plants, comes from too little drainage space than from any other one thing. Most boys and girls think it enough if one little stone or piece of pot is put in the hole of the flower pot. Not so; there should be from one to two inches of drainage material in the pot. That seems a great deal, doesn't it? But it will give not only drainage but air space, too, and this keeps the plant in good healthy shape. With too little drainage area the earth in a pot gets clogged and very often sour. A high pot needs more drainage matter in it than a low one. First use a piece of broken pot to place over the drainage hole. But put this in such a position that the drainage hole will be kept open. Then put in two inches of coarse material like broken pot. It is now a good plan to place over this a layer of coarse material. This gives a greater opportunity for air. Over this goes the soil you have already prepared. Place bulbs just below the surface and have soil one inch below the top of pot. Narcissus and hyacinths may be planted with their tops out of the soil. A low pot needs less drainage material. Some pots have sphagnum moss over the drainage. Instead of this use old sod finely torn up or coarse soil. See, too, that the bulb comes nearly to the top of the soil. When indoor bulbs are planted at some distance below the surface of the soil they have too much work to do to force their way up and out. It takes too long. After the girls had finished potting the next step was to make arrangements for the resting time. Bulbs should stay in the dark and cold from five to ten weeks. It is difficult to give an exact time as conditions differ and bulbs too. Bulbs may take their retirement in a dark cold cellar where there is no danger from mice. Some attics are suited for this. Eloise put hers in an old bureau. This bureau was in an unused, cold room. The bulbs were placed in the drawers which were then closed, but not tightly. Ethel, Dee and Josephine put theirs in the cellar. Helena, Elizabeth and Katharine tried another plan. They had a trench dug outdoors two feet deep and eighteen inches wide. In this they placed their pots and flats. Then the trench was filled in with dirt and over this a layer of ashes was put. The pots were given a good watering before they were sunk into the ground. Unless the winter is a very dry and open one the bulbs will need no more water. If there should be little snow-fall then it may be necessary to water the ground where the bulbs are, but this is not usual. Little sticks were put into the ground just where the bulbs were. These help in locating them when digging-up time comes. The girls left them in the ground for six weeks. Then they were taken in and put in a cold north window for a week. Helena put hers in the dark a week and then brought them to a north window for another week. Then she put them in a south window. Bulbs should go very slowly from dark and cold to warmth and light. This is a point to be remembered. The girls who stored their pots in attic and cellar of course had to water them. This should be done as often as the plant needs it, perhaps three times a week. [Illustration: THE BULB STORY 1. Ample Drainage 2. Depth of Planting 3. Perfect Root Development 4. Ready to Come to the Light Photographs by H.E. Angell and Henry Schultz.] When the plant is about an inch above the ground, as one of the pictures shows, it is the time to bring it to the light. Be sure the outer leaves have spread apart in the ease of hyacinths and tulips; also invert the pot and see if the roots are poking through; this is another way to be sure that the bulb is ready to come to the light. A way to help a hyacinth or tulip develop its stems properly and so prevent blossoming low down in the box is to put a cone over the bulb as soon as you bring it to the light. Make the cone of paper and have one opening at the top two inches in diameter. The flower stem and leaves of the bulb will quickly start to grow up to the light. Take this cone off when the leaves are several inches high. The girls did some water-planting, too. For this purpose hyacinths, Chinese lilies, paper narcissus and jonquils are good. Some people put these dishes and glasses immediately in the light. But it is better if they are set away in the dark until the shoots start and the roots, too, begin development. The girls bought glass dishes at the five-and-ten-cent store. Into these dishes were put small stones which they had gathered in the fall for this purpose. Stones should be small for this work, from one-half inch to an inch in diameter. Josephine had a lot of fine white sand which she packed in all about the stones. The sand was kept thoroughly wet all the time. This is a good method of treatment. Paper white narcissus, if planted early, will blossom by Thanksgiving. They may be held back until Christmas. These blossoms are sweet smelling and very graceful in appearance. Eloise tried the same method with jonquils with excellent results. In February they had a bulb exhibit and their display was really fine. In the spring they all felt that the outdoor work, too, had paid. The beds were uncovered as early as possible. The outdoor bulb will stand considerable cold, even after it is well up. Cut worms may trouble the hyacinths; if so try the paper collar treatment. Finally remember then three things about bulbs: good bulbs, good drainage, plenty of time in the dark. After bulbs are through blooming let the blossom dry thoroughly and the leaves get yellow and dry. One need not keep these homely looking plants in the living room in plain sight. Put them away down cellar to finish drying out. Then cut the leaves and blossoms off to one inch of the bulb itself. Take bulb out of pot, shake all dirt off, and dry thoroughly. These may be put into paper bags and hung up in a dry place or just packed in a pasteboard box. These indoor bulbs may be planted outdoors in the fall. They will do better for the change. Indoor bulb culture means forcing, a hard strain and demand on a bulb. Outdoor planting gives a long winter's rest, not entire rest, to be sure, but the growth during the winter is slow. LIST OF BULBS BY COLOURS WHITE FLOWERS ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- NAME |DEPTH |OUTDOOR|INDOOR |HEIGHT |SPECIAL POINTS | TO | | | | |PLANT |BLOOM |BLOOM | | ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- Snowdrop 2 in. March Christmas 3-4 in. Earliest of spring flowers. Likes cool and shady spots Crocus 2 in. " " 3-5 in. Buy _Crocus_ _biflorus_. var. _argenteus_ White 3-4 in. April January 10 in. Increases very crowned rapidly daffodils Poet's 3-4 in. May " 12 in. Excellent for narcissus outdoor work Grape 3 in. March " 4-6 in. Plant in shady hyacinth places in the lawn Bell- 3 in. May Christmas 12 in. Poet's narcissus flowered and this scilla scilla planted together bloom at same time Star of 3 in. " 12 in. Most satisfactory Bethlehem for bloom Tulips 4 in. April January 6-12 in. Try Duc Van Thol and d'Immaculée Hyacinths 5 in. " " 6-12 in. Plant Baroness Van Thuyl, very large and very early --------------------------------------------------------------------- YELLOW FLOWERS ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- NAME |DEPTH |OUTDOOR|INDOOR |HEIGHT |SPECIAL POINTS | TO | | | | |PLANT |BLOOM |BLOOM | | ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- Crocus 2-3 in. March Christmas 3-5 in. Plant Cloth of Gold Trumpet daffodils 4 in. April January 15 in. Van Sion is especially satisfactory. Flowers double Jonquil 4 in. " " 12 in. Flowers sweetly fragrant Daffodil 3 in. " " 4 in. Variety _Narcissus_ _Bulbocodium_ Tulips 4 in. " " 12 in. Due Van Thol, yellow Hyacinths 5 in. " " 12 in. Choose from those called bedding varieties ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- BLUE FLOWERS ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- NAME |DEPTH |OUTDOOR|INDOOR |HEIGHT |SPECIAL POINTS | TO | | | | |PLANT |BLOOM |BLOOM | | ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- Common crocus 2-3 in. March Christmas 5 in. Good for lawn effects Grape Hyacinths 2-3 in. April January 15 in. Good for pot culture Iris 4 in. May " 12-24 Plant in groups (Spanish) in. for garden effect Iris 3 in. June " 12-24 If planted outdoors in (English) in. September, cover well with leaves Bulb- 2-3 in. May " 12 in. Satisfactory for flowered bloom scilla Hyacinths 5 in. " " 12 in. King of the Blues ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- RED FLOWERS ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- NAME |DEPTH |OUTDOOR|INDOOR |HEIGHT |SPECIAL POINTS | TO | | | | |PLANT |BLOOM |BLOOM | | ---------+-------+-------+---------+-------+------------------------- Peony 4 in. May 2 - Plant outdoors 2-1/2 ft. in September. Increases and lives a long time Late 6 in. July 3 ft. Showy and peony attractive Red 6-8 in. August 3 ft. Protect through speciosum the winter, lily leaving bulbs in the ground Tulips 4 April January 6-18 in. Isabelle Choose variety ---------------------------------------------------------------------- XVII THE GIRLS' WINTER WORK. "We want some plants at school this winter, and we each should like some plants of our own at home." This remark greeted The Chief one day in late September as he entered his home after a long tramp in the woods. The slant rays of the late afternoon sun and the low fire in the fireplace were not able to give The Chief any clue as to the speakers. "Who are '_we_'?" he demanded. "I am Dee," was the reply, "and 'we' are all the girls." "Dear me" said the man, "I thought I had settled your case by recommending bulb culture to you." "Not much!" shouted the girls all together. "We have finished our bulb work," Katharine went on to say, "and now we are very anxious to do something with house plants. We have a good six weeks or more to wait for our bulbs, and so we thought possibly you would be willing to help us." "I did think," grumbled the man, "that after I had invited you to a series of talks this winter you would leave me in peace." And then they all laughed gaily together. "Well, what is your stock you have to work with, girls? I shall have to know that before I can help you." "We have--that is, most of us have--a lot of old straggly geraniums in our gardens. Then Katharine's mother has some fuchsias and begonias which she has promised us," replied Miriam. "Up at the hotel where Jack sold his lettuce there are a few things I have been promised," added Elizabeth. "Do you know what these are?" asked Ethel. "Yes. There are some heliotrope plants, marguerites, some lovely rose geraniums, and a few flowering maples or--I have forgotten the long name for them." "Abutilon is the other name," added The Chief. "Well, that is a start, surely. I'll do some potting with you next Saturday afternoon. That will give Elizabeth time to get her hotel plants. I guess Dee will drive you up. You are to take a big basket with you, and your trowels. Carefully lift each plant from its resting-place. Water the soil a bit before you take up the plants. They come up easier for this, and soil is more likely to remain clinging to the roots. If it should rain Friday you will be saved the trouble of taking a watering pot with you. Be sure to take up with the plant some of its own soil. Then pack all these soil-encased plants in your basket. Do not let the sun get at them before we get at potting. Come all of you at two in the afternoon. Bring your plants with their own earth, your straggly geraniums, pots, and each a trowel. Now perhaps you will be willing to trot home so I may eat my supper." Next Saturday at two a grand collection of girls, plants, big pots, little pots, and trowels arrived. The Chief took girls and all out into his potting shed. This was once an old woodhouse; now a shed with benches running along two sides of it. Under the benches were great heaps of soil. Pots and pans were piled in one corner and garden implements were neatly put up on the walls. "I call this a pretty nice place for work," said Eloise in tones full of real interest. The Chief nodded smilingly at her, for there was a bond of sympathy between the man and this real outdoor girl. Eloise had a greater appreciation of the work than any one of the others. "Where did that splendid window box come from?" asked Josephine. "That is one the boys made last winter especially for the school. I shall have to give you girls some group work first. Then I'll demonstrate potting and slipping to you all together. Eloise and Josephine will start to put the drainage material into the pots. Ethel and Dee may do the same for the window box. Put in your curved pieces of pot over the drainage hole, then about an inch of drainage material. There is a wooden mallet. Crack up some bits of old flower pot as you need them. Outside is a half barrel of old pots. Instead of using all pot for this half inch of drainage material, use some charcoal. In that barrel marked charcoal you will find plenty of pieces. The charcoal is not only good for drainage but helps keep the soil sweet. Helena, Miriam and Katharine will mix the soil. Here are some firkins and peck measures. To every three measures of soil from that pile there, which is nothing but garden soil, add one measure of sand and one of leaf mould. Now, my leaf mould over there in that tub isn't real mould from the woods. You see the part desired in leaf mould is vegetable matter. I can get that from old rotted leaves and rotted sods. Notice, girls, that you see no green grass in that soddy matter I have shaved off with my spade--only the under surface of the sods. This surface is full of vegetable matter in the form of young roots. Stir up all these portions thoroughly. "Now, Elizabeth, look at these pots. Some are brand new, some are clogged with soil and green matter. Soak the new ones in a pailful of water and clean and wash the dirty ones." "I'd like to ask why I am to soak the new pots, and why, since soil is going right back into these old pots, I have to clean them. I should think the soil clinging to the sides would help out." "Yes, I should like to know that, too," said Miriam, stopping her work. "If new pots are not soaked the soil in them dries out very rapidly. You can see that would be bad. Old soil clinging to plants interferes with the new root growth while the green affects the porosity of the pot." The girls stirred, scraped, and placed bits of pot in boxes and pots for a time without speaking. "Are we putting the right amount of drainage into these pots?" finally questioned Eloise. "Not quite enough into those large pots. In the small ones the inch of drainage you have in the pots is quite sufficient, but in those pots over six inches in size put an inch and a half of drainage material. There should be two inches of drainage in that window box. Katherine, you are taking those new pots out of the water too soon. Leave them in until the bubbling is all over. Wait a minute, you mixing girls over there. You mustn't put such coarse soil into your mixture. That could well go into the pots and window box above the drainage material. But it is far too coarse for a good potting soil. What soil you need for potting one of you should sift. If the lumps were not so large it would have been all right. What is that you are saying, Dee?" "I wanted to know what you were going to use in place of sphagnum moss. We have the drainage fixed in the box. Shall we put on the coarse material next? Helena said you always used sphagnum moss." "So I do when I can get it. But I can't always, so I just take some old thin sods and put them on, green side down, next to the drainage. To be sure, the coarse material could go on next, but it is very apt to settle badly in the pot or box. You will find that sod just outside. Pick out the very thinnest pieces; any others will be too thick." "Now," said Elizabeth, "if you will bring your pots over, we'll fill them up with soil for you." "Wait a little, Elizabeth. What is going to happen with that pot already full of soil when you put the plant in? Just how are you going to work that?" "Why, I had intended to make a hole in the soil and put the plant in." "That is no way to pot plants. Come here, girls, and let us talk this point out. I will pot a plant for you. I guess this begonia would be a good one. See, it has quite a ball of earth of its own. Now look at Elizabeth's full pot. Trying to plant in a pot already full of soil is beginning entirely wrong. Hand over another pot, Josephine. Thank you. See, here is a pot with its drainage, and a very little bit of old sod over this. The soddy matter takes up only about a quarter inch. Give me a trowel full of the potting soil, or a little coarse soil first. Now I lower into the pot my plant with its own earth still about it. See, it is going to be about right. Now, while I hold the plant in position in the pot with my left hand, I shake the potting soil in all about the plant. Here is a stick. I made it and call it my potting stick. It is about the length of a foot ruler. See, it is about an inch thick and has a rounded end. With this end I gently poke the soil into place. Occasionally, I give the pot a little shake, which settles the soil into crevices and crannies. But never do this jerkily or violently. When the soil is within a half inch of the top of the pot, press it down all about the plant stem; that is, firm the plant. You should be able to take up a potted plant by the plant stalk without uprooting it. The florist can do this with any of his potted plants. If the plant is loose in its new home it will not do well." "You said to have a half-inch space between top of soil and top of pot. I should like to know why, because all the plants at my aunt's house are done the other way," eagerly inquired Helena. "The purpose of the half-inch space is for watering the plant. I should be willing to wager that when your aunt waters her plants she has a bad time with water spilling over and soil washing out. The space allows for this and prevents its happening." "I shall tell her about that when I go to see her. I am to go next week. Don't you think I might carry her a plant nicely potted?" "Indeed I do. I think we can spare a begonia for her. Just let me water this plant a little. Notice that I do not flood it. Now, set it outside, Elizabeth, right by my back door where it will be sheltered." "Why put it outside?" asked the child, as she took the pot; "I'd have left it here under shelter." "It goes out because good fresh air is as important for newly potted plants as good soil, careful handling, and watering. Now for a slipping geranium lesson! "Old, stocky geraniums in the fall garden are exactly right to slip. These properly slipped and started, if well cared for, will blossom by January or February. If closely crowded into the window box, you may be certain of bloom provided you have good, strong sunlight on them. Florists slip geraniums and put them into sand; many people put the slips into water to form roots; but it is far easier for you children and for schools to place the slips immediately into the earth of the window box. "The slipping process itself is easy. Suppose we have a big, old geranium from which to take our slips. It is full of branches. These branches or stems have around them at intervals rings called nodes. The space between two nodes is called an internode. On the nodes are what seem to be small leaves. Press one aside, notice between it and the stem what appears to be a very small bud. Here a new shoot can start. "So choose a branch, pick off all the large leaves except two at the extreme end. If there are more than two, choose the two smallest leaves. Now it is ready to cut. About four inches down the stem cut it off between two nodes. Do not cut straight across the stem but cut slantwise. "You have now as I have in my hand, a geranium slip which is four inches long. At one end of the stalk are two leaves; the other end is cut obliquely across. Before you plant this slip look between the two leaves and see if there is a small bud. If so, and it is all green, leave it. For this green means that as the bud develops only leaves will unfold. If you see any other colour in the bud, pinch it out with your fingers. The colour tells us that the bud is a flower bud. If this be left on the slip, all the strength of the little plant will be taken up in forming the blossom. A new plant is not strong enough to stand this. It needs all its power for plant growth. "Plant the slip in your window box, burying it in earth above the first node; that is, the node just above the cut. Thus you have buried in the earth the place where roots will form. "Crowd the slips in, three or four inches only apart. They should not be exposed to the full glare of the sun at first. Some gardeners say to let the slips wilt before watering. But it is quite safe to water a little from the first. Do not soak the soil, however, or the young plants will decay. "Now the slips may be put right into a window box, or into these flats. I would not place them immediately in a sunny window. But place them where the sun does not shine directly. It is excellent to leave window boxes and newly potted plants outdoors for a time, until in the fresh air they get accustomed to their new living conditions." "Shall we fix up the school window boxes now?" asked Josephine. "Yes, we will get right at that. But first I will give you a window-box talk. "The most satisfactory way to grow plants in the schoolroom and in many cases, at home, is in the window box. The window box means the possibility of easily caring for a number of plants in a small space. Plants in pots take much more space than the same number of plants in a window box. "It is the cleanest way, too. You are all familiar with the sight of a pot covered with crêpe paper stained and discoloured from water spilt upon it and moisture given off from the porous pot. "The window box, if properly watered, need never leak. Its freshly painted sides need never be covered with any material. It stands for just what it is--a well-made, well-painted wooden box. "It is quite impossible to give dimensions for the construction of the window box, since it must fit the space one wishes to use. It is wise to keep in mind this--that these boxes when filled with soil are very, very heavy and awkward to handle. So if your window is large, why not have two small boxes for the space rather than one large one? When these are placed end to end the effect is of one long box. The ordinary house window may well have the single box. "Other things to keep in mind for the constructing of the box are depth, drainage, holes, joints and paint. "Just as bulb boxes need no great depth, so with window boxes. If the depth be great the plants spend too much energy in root growth. A shallow box means, if properly filled, a compact root mass. So if your box is to be, say three and a half feet long make it not more than ten inches deep. "As we make drainage holes in the bottom of the bulb box, so we do in the window box. Many people make window boxes without drainage holes. It seems rather better to have them since they offer exit for surplus water, and places for the roots to get at the air. These holes may be bored six inches apart down through the centre of the box; or they may be bored in two lines, thus doubling the number of holes and the amount of air space. Take this rule, for every square foot of space have four drainage holes. "A box filled with soil all winter constantly in a state of moisture is quite likely to spring or spread apart at the joints. The better fitted the joints the better the box, and the better it stands the inside pressure and moisture continually brought to bear upon it. "As to paint, of course the box must have one coat (perhaps two) on the outside. A dark green is all around the best. Green is always the best setting for plants. Nature made this colour scheme. We only follow her lead. "After the box is made, and the paint dry, it must be filled. "Do any of you girls happen to know just where in the school room the boxes are to be placed?" "One goes into a south window, and I believe the other is to be in a north one," replied Dee. "That certainly tells us enough to help us in selecting plants for these boxes. The kind of plants to place in the box depends upon whether the box is to go into a bright sunny window or into one which gets little or no sun. Everyone knows the most satisfactory plant of all for sunny windows is the geranium. It is easy enough to get them for schools without money, because this is the time when everyone's mother is taking up plants for the winter, some of which are always thrown away. Many large, old plants slipped make six or more good little chaps. Begonias are most satisfactory; you can plant these either in sun or shade. A good one for a shady window is the one called the 'beefsteak' begonia. "Fuchsias make a fine show. If you wish to have a plant of some height do not choose a fern or palm, for these plants need so much water they should always be planted by themselves in single pots or in fern dishes. The amount of water required for a palm would cause ordinary plants, like geraniums, to decay. So choose plants which take up about the same quantity of water. For height, then, one might plant a flowering maple. These are fine in leaf and blossom. So they add much to the box. Dracenas are good for both sun and shade; so, too, is pandanus. The foliage of this is pleasing. Much is added to the general effect if some plants which form long hangers are put in, and planted close to the front side of the box. In sun or shade the Wandering Jew grows. A bit breaks off; it is stuck back into the earth and again it grows. Pieces cut and put into water grow equally well. Trailing over the sides of the vessel they are in, they make a pleasing effect in a corner, or by the side of a window. "An important thing to be remembered in connection with window boxes is that the closer you plant the better the growth of the plants. It sounds wrong. We think that plants ought to have space to grow in. They should, usually; but space defeats the object of the window box, because the idea is to have top growth and blossom. If you give plants a chance to grow under the ground they will do it at a sacrifice to their growth above ground. So crowd the plants in. The root growth, thus limited and checked, gives added strength above. This is true too, in a measure, of planting in pots. Most people put plants in too large pots, and so fail often to get good top growth and blossom. Notice next time you drop into a florist's shop the large palms in comparatively small pots. Why is this? Just to get good growth of foliage. "Finally, as to sunny and sunless windows: put into the boxes for the shady windows plants which run to foliage, and into those for the sunny windows plants from which you expect blossom. For blossoms, sun is necessary. "The last thing of all is the placing of the box. Shall it go on the sill? Not if you wish to keep the sill in good condition. Shall it be screwed to the casement? It may be, but it is hard to place each year, and often the strain is too great on the screws. The best arrangement is that of iron brackets screwed to the casement beneath the window sill. These brackets when not in use may be folded in against the wall and so are quite out of the way and do not have to be removed from schoolrooms each spring when the box goes outdoors. The weight of the box is sufficient to hold the brackets out, and so steadies them that it is not necessary to even screw the box on. Two boys holding the brackets straight, two others placing the box on, is all the labour needed to make that box permanently secure. It remains here now until its journey outdoors next spring. "I would like to add the English ivy to the list of trailing plants for the window box. "Some people have candytuft and others marguerites in the indoor box. They do not look as well through an entire indoor season as geraniums, fuchsias and begonias. I think I'll ask Miriam, Elizabeth, and Helena to work on the shady window box. We will use dracena, vincas, pandanus, begonia and Wandering Jew. Ethel, Katharine, and Josephine fix up the sunny window box--the fuchsia, heliotrope, marguerite, geraniums, Wandering Jew, and English ivy. This will be a charming box. Dee, you and I will plant the rest of these geranium slips for the girls." They all worked away busily for some time. Then The Chief asked the girls to come into the house for a time. As they entered the living room they noticed an array of plants on the big table. "Sit down, girls, I have a little gift for each of you. I wish you to study and nurse these plants throughout the winter. "This first tall, rather stiff-looking plant is called an aspidistra. It is the best all-around plant for the house or schoolroom. It does not need much or special care. Be sure to keep the leaves clean. See that you do it, Miriam. "This little Norfolk Island pine is the only one of the cone-bearing trees that you can bank on. Notice that the method of branching is by whorls. You are to have this plant, Elizabeth. "I imagined that Eloise would love this little lemon tree called Ponderosa. You can raise lemon trees from seed, but like the apple tree, they need special attention before they grow good fruit. "The Jersualem cherry tree is for Josephine. It does not absolutely need sun. It, too, stands a great deal of neglect. Remember I am not recommending neglect to you. I am giving you the house plants that are of easiest culture. You will be glad to make note of this entire list. Of course, the berries are the charm of this Jerusalem cherry tree. "To Ethel I will give this lovely genista. It is the finest of all yellow-flowered winter plants. As the blossoms fade they should be taken off. Since this is a good winter flower, it should be allowed to rest in the summer. "The azalea is for Dee. It needs the same care as Ethel's plant. These need not be thrown away next spring. But put them in a shady spot laid on their sides. "Helena's plant is a palm called the _Cocos Weddelliana_, and Katharine's is a fern, the holly fern. "I wish to tell you a bit about ferns and palms. "In most school buildings and homes these two kinds of plants hold chief place. This doubtless is because they, too, stand lack of attention. Most people keep them water-logged because supposedly they are accustomed to and need lots of water. We must keep in mind that while ferns for instance are found outdoors in very damp spots, they are not in places undrained and choked off from air. So the jardinière half full of water does not quite represent the real environment of the fern. "Going on with the fern there are a few points to hold in mind. Do not permit the room temperature to fall below 55 degrees. Neither should it rise above 70 degrees. Direct sunlight injures the delicate fronds of ferns. A north window where there is light without direct sunshine is the right fern place. Keep the leaves clean by spraying with clear water on bright days. If bugs appear, spray weekly with tobacco water. This solution should be very weak. "The best varieties to grow are the sword, Boston, holly, and maidenhair. Use spider ferns for a fern dish. "Palms require great quantities of water, even temperatures, little direct sunlight, and daily sponging of the leaves. A sponge dampened in clean water is the best thing to use for this purpose. The most popular and easiest-to-grow palms are the following: _Cocos Weddelliana_, date palm, kentia, and the arcea." "Will you tell us about the watering of plants?" asked Ethel. "Surely, although I can say but little since it depends largely upon good judgment. Water a plant when it needs it. Keep the soil moist but not soaked. If plants are beginning to decay or a mould is coming on the surface of the soil, the trouble usually is over watering. At such a time let the soil of the pot or box dry out. Then water carefully after that. If the pot is always damp or has become green you may know that the trouble is either too much water or poor drainage." "What pests are likely to attack our plants?" questioned Elizabeth. "Lice and scale troubles are the chief pests of the house plants. You all know plant lice. Use kerosene emulsion for these. The scale appears as a scaly mass, usually on the stems of plants. These scales are living animal forms. The best way to get rid of them is to wipe them off with a rag soaked in kerosene emulsion." "Why didn't you give some one a rubber plant?" was the next question from Miriam. "I guess because of its bad habit of growing so tall and losing its lower leaves. They look like giraffes at the circus. But one may top these plants." "What is topping?" and "How do you do it?" burst from Dee and Helena at the same time. "I suppose you see that if one could get that nice-looking top off and start again the old rubber plant would be all right. So about a foot below the last leaf on the stalk--I mean the last leaf numbering from the top--- you should start the operation. Cut a slit in the bark at this place. Pack soil about the stem. Then encase this with sacking. So you have a nice ball of earth packed about the stem. Let the ball be about six inches in diameter. Keep it moist. You can sprinkle the water on. After a time roots will appear coming through the sacking. The roots have started to develop at this incision of the stem. Now the stalk may be cut below these new roots and the new rubber plant potted." "That is very interesting," began Katharine. "I should so like to try it," broke in Dee. "Now, girls, I believe you'd better pick up your new plants and scamper. We certainly have done a good afternoon's work. The chief things to try for in indoor plant culture are cleanliness of the plant, proper drainage, and freedom from abrupt changes in temperature and draughts. Good-by, girls. We meet again soon at our exhibits." "Good-by, and thank you so much," cried the girls in chorus. XVIII THE GRAND WIND-UP--GIRLS VS. BOYS One day in late September the Boys' Garden Club received an invitation to Katharine's house for four o'clock the following Saturday. Never were boys more astonished than these as they were ushered into the girls' garden. "Well," Albert said quite frankly, "you have beaten us as far as beauty goes. You try vegetables next summer, and we fellows will race you." "Thank you!" answered Dee, "You are very kind to us, very! You may possibly have noticed those beautiful window boxes at the Inn. Eloise made those herself, stocked the boxes, and has cared for them, too. Elizabeth's borders have grown as well, I should say, as Jack's flowers. Peter will tell you of our sundial. Helena has a beautiful garden. To be sure Leston has helped her but only because he wanted to so badly. Girls are not such bad gardeners, are they?" "Not bad?" shouted the boys, "you are wonders!" "Every fellow here give three cheers for the girls," commanded Jay. This was done with a hearty good will. A week later the girls received an invitation to attend the boys' fall exhibit, held at The Chief's house. Early that morning the boys had gone to the woods to gather autumn boughs. The walls were a blaze of bright-coloured leaves. About the room were placed tables upon which the boys' products were exhibited. Fathers and mothers had come to the exhibit; in fact, the whole village had turned out. The prize went to Peter, for he had made the most money out of his garden. Just a word from a talk given by The Chief about the arrangement of exhibits and matters in general. He said, "There are as many ways to prepare vegetables and flowers for an exhibit as there are boys and girls to exhibit. It is not enough to bring the articles to be exhibited. The real art of showing one's things comes in artistic and attractive arrangement. "Vegetables should be thoroughly scrubbed and cleaned. Dirt clinging to the roots needs sometimes a brush to get it entirely off. Carrots, beets, radishes, turnips, celery and other vegetables where the edible part is beneath ground, need this sort of attention, not only to make them clean, but to bring out the colours in each case. "The foliage of a vegetable plant often adds much to its appearance in exhibition. For instance, the carrot has quite lovely lacey leaves. Beet leaves have such good red colours in them that they, too, add something to the general effect. The colours of the leaf and the colour of the fruit itself are a harmony. When radish leaves are taken off there is no good way of bunching the radishes. They are cut quite off from kith and kin. "The only objection to the foliage is its wilting, drooping, tired looking leaves certainly add nothing lovely to the exhibit. If the exhibition is of short duration there is no trouble along this line; if it is one of several days the problem is different. "Children's exhibits, however, usually last but a short time. But if the products can be put away in cold storage over night, or in water in a cool place, then it is possible to keep them in good shape. "An outdoor exhibit is not wholly satisfactory because of the effect of the air on the products. They wilt badly. A tent is far better than the open-air table for exhibiting. With care the exhibition may always be made attractive. "The arrangement of products is one of the main features. Generally children's exhibits are pretty messy and mussy looking. This is because of two things: first, the children have so many little separate exhibits; second, we do not stop to discuss carefully the matter of arrangement and preparation. If the children understood fully that no products would be admitted for exhibition unless these were cleaned, were of uniform size, and of the requisite number, there would be little trouble. With them, arrangement would have to be worked out largely on the scene of action, although colour effects, bunching, and general matters could be taken up beforehand. "Let us think out a few general directions for exhibiting. First, all products must be thoroughly cleaned. Heading vegetables, as cabbage and lettuce, should be cleaned well, and perhaps two heads of each kind shown by the exhibitor. Radishes, carrots, young onions and small vegetables which are to be bunched should have anywhere from twelve to twenty specimens in the bunch. Leave the foliage on such bunches. The large vegetables like beets and parsnips may have from four mammoth specimens to eight smaller ones. Potatoes are exhibited by the plate and so are tomatoes. There are supposed to be seven large specimens to the plate. "Flowers are usually shown cut and arranged in vases. The vases should be of clear, white glass for the best effects. Rose bowls may be used, too. Do not put grand collections of all varieties and colours of flowers together. Suppose the exhibit of a certain person is to be one of asters. Then put the purple ones together in a vase, the pink ones together in another vase. "Another mistake of exhibitors is the huddling of products into close quarters. Give your individual specimens plenty of room. Let the things stand out as individual. The entire exhibit is spoiled when it looks messy and huddled up. "The labelling is often done poorly. Any little piece of paper is stuck on the vases or under a bunch of vegetables. The child's name is written in abominable handwriting. Write or neatly print a little card. Put on this the date, name of the exhibitor (or number) and his place of residence, if required. "These, in brief, show the real educative lines along which one ought to conduct a children's exhibit. The aesthetic side enters in largely, and a proper bit of the commercial is here, too." Well, this exhibit of the boys' was pretty good. Each boy had a set of photographs showing the round of his work. These had been made into books. Some of the boys had kept diaries. The diaries had in them not only an account of experiences, but also the tables worked out with The Chief. Jack had what he called an improvement section, which gave ways by which he might improve over his present methods of work. The garden plans drawn to a scale were on the walls. Myron had brought his set of real garden tools. The pieces of hand work made by the boys were there, too. George had made a collection of garden pests, while Philip and Peter had made collections of weed pests. All the pamphlets from Washington which they had used in their work and those from their own state experiment station were on a little table. Each boy told briefly the difficulties he had encountered and how he had met them. After a talk by Jay, Albert spoke of the experiment in inoculation of soil. Then he and Jay disappeared, and returned with plates, one for each guest, and on each plate were two spoonfuls of beans, one of the inoculated and the other of the uninoculated beans. The visitors were not told which were which. Then a vote was taken as to which were the better. Of course, the inoculated beans won out. After this, the real refreshments were served. "I should like to ask," Dee made bold to say, "where you boys got strawberries to make ice cream of? Strawberries in October! You certainly do not expect us to believe you raised them." "I did," said Myron, striking an attitude before her. "I did in my own little patch." "Did you make a few cakes of ice and thus have a cold storage plant?" Dee continued sarcastically. "Dear me, no! I'm much more clever than that. One day, with a few baskets of berries tucked under this noble right arm of mine, I walked to this house. I knocked at the door. A man let me in. He tied an apron about this waist. We actually canned these same berries which you are now eating as a frozen delicacy." "You boys are altogether too smart," and Dee turned her back on Myron to accept a second dish of cream from Philip. That didn't disturb Myron any, for he cakewalked back to the kitchen for more cream. "Well, it was a fine exhibit for mere lads," Jack's father was heard to say on his way home; "If we could bring into this little village a few more men like our boys' Chief there would be no question about a boy's coming up all right. It makes me ashamed to think that we parents have left this work to an outsider." "I feel," answered George's father, "that this man is a real 'insider'." After all the guests had left The Chief's once again the boys formed their line and saluted the man. "Is there nothing for us this winter, O Chief?" asked Albert. "Plenty. We are going to have a beautiful winter, and next spring better work." Laden with their trophies the boys reluctantly started for home. They stood in the road in front of The Chief's gate, and the moon shone down on seven happy, manly boys. The three cheers to The Chief arose clear and shrill on the still evening air. As it died away the boys seemed to melt into the shadows of the road. The man stood motionless in his doorway until the last sound of the boys died away. Then he went back into the room to dream over the fire dreams for his boys. PART II THE CHIEF'S GARDEN TALKS I THE SOIL The following winter The Chief gave Friday afternoon talks to his boys and girls. These meetings did not in any way interfere with the boys' regular Saturday evening club. Immediately after school each Friday afternoon they all trooped round to The Chief's little house, which had become a centre of village interest. Finally the men came too, for they had found out that this man knew of what he spoke. But we are wandering away from those Friday afternoons. There was the strangest collection of stools and benches in The Chief's side entry, all belonging to the boys and girls. "You must each one bring your own seat, because you all know that I haven't chairs enough to go around." And this called forth the collection. It was an odd sight that first Friday in early November. A long straggly line of boys and girls, each one with a seat of some kind, wound its way up to The Chief's hospitable door, where he stood waiting, laughing aloud at the sight. In they came, and made a semi-circle about the big fireplace. "I just love this room," said Albert, voicing the feelings of them all. "I have thought," began The Chief, "that since our really successful first year of gardening, we ought to be in a position to undertake and to desire to know more about certain subjects which I shall discuss. Each Friday I am going to take up a topic such as I should if I were teaching you in school." "You do not mean that we'll have to remember and answer questions just like school? You surely do not mean that, Big Chief," broke in Albert. "No," replied the man laughing, "no, you may forget it all if you like. Remember it, if it seems to you useful. But if it's a strain on you, Albert, make it your business to forget." They all laughed at this, but none so heartily as Albert himself. "That's one on this old head of mine," he said, banging that member up against the side of the chimney. "My first talk I have given you in part, but I have more I wish to add. I believe even Albert can stand it. The subject is the soil. "Soil primarily had its beginning from rock together with animal and vegetable decay, if you can imagine long stretches or periods of time when great rock masses were crumbling and breaking up. Heat, water action, and friction were largely responsible for this. By friction here is meant the rubbing and grinding of rock mass against rock mass. Think of the huge rocks, a perfect chaos of them, bumping, scraping, settling against one another. What would be the result? Well, I am sure you all could work that out. This is what happened: bits of rock were worn off, a great deal of heat was produced, pieces of rock were pressed together to form new rock masses, some portions becoming dissolved in water. Why, I myself, almost feel the stress and strain of it all. Can you? "Then, too, there were great changes in temperature. First everything was heated to a high temperature, then gradually became cool. Just think of the cracking, the crumbling, the upheavals, that such changes must have caused! You know some of the effects in winter of sudden freezes and thaws. But the little examples of bursting water pipes and broken pitchers are as nothing to what was happening in the world during those days. The water and the gases in the atmosphere helped along this crumbling work. "From all this action of rubbing, which action we call mechanical, it is easy enough to understand how sand was formed. This represents one of the great divisions of soil--sandy soil. The sea shores are great masses of pure sand. If soil were nothing but broken rock masses then indeed it would be very poor and unproductive. But the early forms of animal and vegetable life decaying became a part of the rock mass and a better soil resulted. So the soils we speak of as sandy soils have mixed with the sand other matter, sometimes clay, sometimes vegetable matter or humus, and often animal waste. [Illustration: Constant Cultivation of the Soil Saved George's Cabbages Photograph by Karl W. Helmer] "Clay brings us right to another class of soils--clayey soils. It happens that certain portions of rock masses became dissolved when water trickled over them and heat was plenty and abundant. This dissolution took place largely because there is in the air a certain gas called carbon dioxide or carbonic acid gas. This gas attacks and changes certain substances in rocks. Sometimes you see great rocks with portions sticking up looking as if they had been eaten away. Carbonic acid did this. It changed this eaten part into something else which we call clay. A change like this is not mechanical but chemical. The difference in the two kinds of change is just this: in the one case of sand, where a mechanical change went on, you still have just what you started with, save that the size of the mass is smaller. You started with a big rock, and ended with little particles of sand. But you had no different kind of rock in the end. Mechanical action might be illustrated with a piece of lump sugar. Let the sugar represent a big mass of rock. Break up the sugar, and even the smallest bit is sugar. It is just so with the rock mass; but in the case of a chemical change you start with one thing and end with another. You started with a big mass of rock which had in it a portion that became changed by the acid acting on it. It ended in being an entirely different thing which we call clay. So in the case of chemical change a certain something is started with and in the end we have an entirely different thing. The clay soils are often called mud soils because of the amount of water used in their formation. The slate that Myron brought for road making belongs to the clay family, and so does shale. "The third sort of soil which we farm people have to deal with is lime soil. Remember we are thinking of soils from the farm point of view. This soil of course ordinarily was formed from limestone. Just as soon as one thing is mentioned about which we know nothing, another comes up of which we are just as ignorant. And so a whole chain of questions follows. Now you are probably saying within yourselves, how was limestone first formed? "At one time ages ago the lower animal and plant forms picked from the water particles of lime. With the lime they formed skeletons or houses about themselves as protection from larger animals. Coral is representative of this class of skeleton-forming animal. "As the animal died the skeleton remained. Great masses of this living matter pressed all together, after ages, formed limestone. Some limestones are still in such shape that the shelly formation is still visible. Marble, another limestone, is somewhat crystalline in character. Another well-known limestone is chalk. Perhaps you'd like to know a way of always being able to tell limestone. I'll drop a little of this acid on some lime. See how it bubbles and fizzles. Now Albert will drop some on this chalk and on the marble, too. The same bubbling takes place. So lime must be in these three structures. One does not have to buy a special acid for this work, for even the household acids like vinegar will cause the same result. Albert will prove this to you. "Then these are the three types of soil with which the farmer has to deal, and which we wish to understand. For one may learn to know his garden soil by studying it, just as one learns a lesson by study. "I believe the boys from their last winter's work feel fairly familiar with soils, I have in these three tumblers the three types of soil. As I pour water on them just see what happens. Observe how little water it takes to saturate sand. The limy soil holds more water and the clayey an amazing quantity. "I do not know whether you are much acquainted with the sea shore, I doubt it." "I am," broke in Katharine, "for each summer, except this last one, I have spent a month at the beach." "Then possibly you can tell us, Katharine, whether, or not, the sand takes in, or absorbs, much heat during the day." "Indeed it does absorb heat; why some days we used to go barefooted on the beach right after dinner. I can tell you there were times when we couldn't stand the heat of the sand." "That is quite true," continued The Chief, "sand absorbs heat to a remarkable degree. This heat is, to be sure, in the upper layers of the sand. Had Katharine burrowed down with her toes below those upper layers she would have found moist, cool sands. But an upper layer of soil, made up of particles which fall apart easily because of the loose make-up, a layer which has absorbed little water and much heat--well, to me that sort of soil doesn't sound quite right for good gardening. Add to such a soil, humus in the shape of stable manure in large quantities and this same poor soil becomes very good. "Now here is the lime soil tumbler. This soil has taken up rather more water than the sand took. But it, too, surely needs to develop greater power to take in and hold water. So the same sort of medicine which we gave the sandy soil may be dealt out to the lime soil. Lime is a pretty good substance to have in soil. Lime is a kind of fertilizer in itself; it's a soil sweetener; it helps to put plant food in shape for use, and causes desirable bacteria to grow. This sounds a bit staggering but all of these things I am going to talk over with you. So just at present forget it, Albert, if it is a heavy burden. "The clay soil, you observe, has taken in quite a quantity of water. That seems like a good thing. It is. But clay has a mean little habit of squeezing tightly its particles together with the aid of water so that air is excluded from the mass. It forms huge lumps; it bakes out and cracks badly; and it is also very damp, cold and soggy in early spring. "As the problem with sand is to add something so that more water may be held in the soil, so the problem with clay is to overcome that bothersome habit of baking and caking and cracking. To do this we might add sand or ashes. But perhaps it would be better yet to add manure with a lot of straw in it. This is the easiest kind of thing for country boys and girls to get, because the bedding swept out of horses' stalls is just the thing. "When I speak of clay's horrid habit of tight squeezing, I always have to stop and talk about the two great needs of all soils. One is the need for water; the other, for air. A soil cannot exist without these two things any more than we can. Without these, or poorly supplied with them, a soil is as if it were half-starved. "That trouble always comes from a lack of one or the other is quite sufficient to prove to us that these are essential. Just see how sand lacks water, as does lime soil too! But there is plenty of air space, unless these soils are too finely powdered. Now look at clay! plenty of water, but how about the air? When clay begins its packing, then air is excluded. "So one of the questions to be asked in soil improvement concerns the water and air problem. We must have air spaces, and we must have water-holding capacity. "Before we go home I must just speak of soil and subsoil. When you strike your spade down into the earth and lay bare a section of the soil this is what you see: on top is the plant growth, the soil beneath this, dark in texture and about our locality of a depth of from six to eight inches. This layer is called the topsoil. In sections of the West it is several feet in depth. Now below the topsoil is a lighter coloured, less fertile, more rocky layer, the subsoil. Beneath comes a layer of rock. "And finally you may be a bit confused by the word loam. It is often given as one of the classes of soils. By loam we mean clay, sand and humus. You will often hear people speaking of a sandy loam or a clayey loam according as there is a greater percentage of sand or clay in the soil. "Next Friday I shall talk about soil fertility. So trot home lively now!" II PLANT FOOD A soil, as I have said before to the boys, may contain all the food necessary for plant growth and still not support any good growth at all. That means then we ought to be able in some way or other so to understand the soil that it will be possible to unlock these good things for the plants to live on. "I see a question in Josephine's and Miriam's faces. I guess that this question is concerning what the plant food is in soils. That is right, is it not? "Well, I'll take that up first, then;--different ways of improving and increasing the goodness of the soil. "The foods that are necessary and essential to plants and most likely to be lacking in the soil are nitrogen, potash and phosphorus. Now by no means must you think that these are the only chemicals which are foods, for there are something like thirteen, all of which do a share in the food supply. Oxygen and carbon are very necessary indeed. Oxygen is both in the air and in water. Carbon plants take entirely from the air. I might go on and tell you of iron, of sulphur, of silicon and all the others. But you would only get confused, so I am going to make you acquainted with these three entirely necessary ones. They are capricious; often missing, and when not missing hard to make into available food for plants. "The soil contains many bacteria, small living organisms. These may be divided into two classes, the good ones and the bad ones. The good ones acting on nitrogenous matter put it in shape for the plant to absorb or feed upon. You see nitrogen may be in soil in quantities sufficient for nourishment. But unless it is in a compound available for use, it is of no value to the plant. Then there are the bad bacteria which act upon nitrogen in such a way as to form compounds which escape from the soil as a gas. That is pretty bad, is it not? "How can the good bacteria be encouraged to grow, and the bad ones prevented from forming? The necessary conditions for the growth of good bacteria are air, water, darkness, humus matter and freedom from acid condition of the soil. If the soil is acid then these other 'chaps' set up their work; so we must see to it that our soils are well cultivated, well aired, have plenty of manure, and, if acid, have a liming, so that these bacteria missionaries can start their good work. "The manure I spoke of above is the great source of nitrogen upon which most plants depend. There is nitrogen sufficient right in the air, but that again is not available. Certain plants like beans, peas and clovers belonging to the family of legumes are a great deal more fortunate than the rest of the plant families, for, under favourable conditions, they develop bacteria which make it possible to take into themselves free nitrogen. Just look here! See this narrow box; I can drop down one side of it. Here is a sheet of glass put on so you may look at the roots of the beans which are planted close to this glass side. Just observe the great extent of root system. Now see on the roots these white lumps, or nodules as they are called. These contain nitrogen-gathering bacteria. Some farmers in order to get more available nitrogen in the soil plant a crop of some legume. Then these root masses with their treasures on them are spaded into the soil. "But most plants depend for nitrogen on manure. Whenever you see sickly looking foliage know that nitrogen is lacking, and supply manure in order to obtain it. "The next element is potash. Its most common source of supply is wood ashes, not coal ashes. One may buy potash in the form of the muriate or sulphate. I told the boys before that potash was good for seed and fruit. Pretty necessary to have in the soil, is it not? Stunted fruit and poor seed mean lack of potash. Phosphorus helps in this work too, and also assists in the forming of fine flowers. Bone ash and phosphates are the sources of this food element. "So if we just consider the classes of soils with which we have to deal, remember the foods that must be had, and the effects on plants where one (or all) of these is lacking, we have in our hands a help to soil troubles. "Take sandy soil--what is its greatest need? I should say humus. It certainly should have more nitrogen. So add humus in the form of manure. Spread it on your piece of garden plot anywhere from two to six inches deep. This spaded in will, I think, do the work. You see sand allows water to trickle away too fast. Water must be held properly in the soil. "The clay soil really needs air. The good bacteria will not work without this. So spade the soil up in the fall, and leave it weathering in huge lumps. Sand or ashes added in the spring helps the air question too. A sprinkling of lime over the surface tends to sweeten the entire soil; for clay soil, so often too wet, is liable to get sour. Lime also adds another plant food called calcium. It would not be bad to add some humus in order to have an even greater supply of nitrogen. "The lime soil, light and sweet, needs humus too. It should have this to add body and ability to hold water. "Sometimes it is well to add in the spring a sprinkling of phosphates; that is a chemical fertilizer. Chemical fertilizers are like tonics to the soil. "All this very briefly puts us in touch with plant foods. I think you all know from your school work that plants take their foods in liquid form. These solutions of foods are very, very weak. That is another reason why we should see that, if possible, there is plenty of nourishment available in the soil, and plenty of water too. "These bean roots and rootlets show the feeding area or places of plants. Notice the small roots which apparently have a fringe on them. These fringes we call the root hairs. These absorb, soak up the dilute food which is in the soil. "It is very wonderful what power they have of penetrating the soil. See the bit of blotter I have put down the path of one bean's root course. It would seem to shut the rootlets entirely off from the soil. "Jay will gently press the bit of blotter away from the soil. See here and there how these root hairs have wound their way through the blotter to the soil, their feeding place. It is well that plants have this power of seeking and finding food. Because it greatly increases their food chances. "So much very briefly for plant food. I have not told you very much to be sure, but it is quite enough, I think, for a 'starter,' I wish to tell you a bit about the plant itself soon. A few experiments may liven up the subject. So I shall ask Josephine, Miriam, and Ethel to attend to those for us. We can take turns at demonstrating as Jay and Albert have to-day. So you girls must remember to drop in to see me--say, Wednesday of next week." III SEEDS Now before we begin just have a look at these geraniums. They have turned entirely around again and are looking out of the window at the sun. The power which plants have to move is very clearly shown, is it not? I am going to talk a little this afternoon about seeds. "Any reliable seed house can be depended upon for good seeds; but even so, there is a great risk in seeds. A seed may to all appearances be all right and yet not have within it vitality enough, or power, to produce a hardy plant. "If you save seed from your own plants you are able to choose carefully. Suppose you are saving seed of aster plants. What blossoms shall you decide upon? Now it is not the blossom only which you must consider, but the entire plant. Why? Because a weak, straggly plant may produce one fine blossom. Looking at that one blossom so really beautiful you think of the numberless equally lovely plants you are going to have from the seeds. But just as likely as not the seeds will produce plants like the parent plant. "So in seed selection the entire plant is to be considered. Is it sturdy, strong, well shaped and symmetrical; does it have a goodly number of fine blossoms? These are questions to ask in seed selection. "If you boys and girls should happen to have the opportunity to visit a seedsman's garden, you will see here and there a blossom with a string tied around it. These are blossoms chosen for seed. If you look at the whole plant with care you will be able to see the points which the gardener held in mind when he did his work of selection. "Last winter we had quite a discussion on corn seed selection. So we will not discuss that further. Only let me say this for the benefit of the girls in order to show them the care which must be exercised in selection. Should a finely formed ear of corn have one or two black kernels on it, then that shows a cross or taint, do not use such an ear for the old trouble may crop out. Take an ear of seed corn, notice the small and rather undersized kernels at the top; do not use these. Select kernels, the largest, plumpest and best shaped. "In seed selection size is another point to hold in mind. Suppose Peter had bought a package of bean seed. Pull the little envelope out of your pocket, young man, and open it up. Just look at those seeds as Peter spreads them out here. Now we know no way of telling anything about the plants from which this special collection of seeds came. So we must give our entire thought to the seeds themselves. It is quite evident that there is some choice; some are much larger than the others; some far plumper, too. By all means choose the largest and fullest seed. The reason is this: When you break open a bean--and this is very evident, too, in the peanut--you see what appears to be a little plant. So it is. Under just the right conditions for development this 'little chap' grows into the bean plant you know so well. "This little plant must depend for its early growth on the nourishment stored up in the two halves of the bean seed. For this purpose the food is stored. Beans are not full of food and goodness for you and me to eat, but for the little baby bean plant to feed upon. And so if we choose a large seed, we have chosen a greater amount of food for the plantlet. This little plantlet feeds upon this stored food until its roots are prepared to do their work. So if the seed is small and thin, the first food supply insufficient, there is a possibility of losing the little plant. "You may care to know the name of this pantry of food. It is called a cotyledon if there is but one portion, cotyledons if two. Thus we are aided in the classification of plants. A few plants that bear cones like the pines have several cotyledons. But most plants have either one or two cotyledons. "Some plantlets, as they develop and start to push above the ground, bear along the cotyledon. This is true in the case of the bean. Jack and Peter have planted corn and beans in this box, not to have succotash but to show you about the habits of seeds. See the bean plantlet, big, sturdy, fellow, is still clinging to its seed leaves or cotyledons, its baby nourishment. Now look at the corn: there is absolutely no sign above ground of its one seed leaf. "So from large seeds come the strongest plantlets. That is the reason why it is better and safer to choose the large seed. It is the same case exactly as that of weak children. Look at Myron, great strapping fellow! Hasn't he a fine chance in the world? Do you remember that little sickly boy who was in school last spring? He was as old as Myron, yet see how handicapped he is. Try not to bring weak little plantlets into the plant world. Bring strong, sturdy, healthy ones by careful seed selection. "There is often another trouble in seeds that we buy. The trouble is impurity. Seeds are sometimes mixed with other seeds so like them in appearance that it is impossible to detect the fraud. Pretty poor business, is it not? The seeds may be unclean. Bits of foreign matter in with large seed are very easy to discover. One can merely pick the seed over and make it clean. By clean is meant freedom from foreign matter. But if small seed are unclean, it is very difficult, well nigh impossible, to make them clean. "The third thing to look out for in seed is viability. We know from our testings that seeds which look to the eye to be all right may not develop at all. There are reasons. Seeds may have been picked before they were ripe or mature; they may have been frozen; and they may be too old. Seeds retain their viability or germ developing power, a given number of years and are then useless. There is a viability limit in years which differs for different seeds. This matter, along with directions for testing, the girls may get from our club secretary, Albert. All of this we took up last year in our preliminary garden work before we started outdoor work. "From the test of seeds we find out the germination percentage of seeds. Now if this percentage is low, don't waste time planting such seed unless it be small seed. Immediately you question that statement. Why does the size of the seed make a difference? This is the reason. When small seed is planted it is usually sown in drills. Most amateurs sprinkle the seed in very thickly. So a great quantity of seed is planted. And enough seed germinates and comes up from such close planting. So quantity makes up for quality. "But take the case of large seed, like corn for example. Corn is planted just so far apart and a few seeds in a place. With such a method of planting the matter of per cent, of germination is most important indeed. "Small seeds that germinate at fifty per cent. may be used but this is too low a per cent. for the large seed. Suppose we test beans. The percentage is seventy. That per cent. would pass you in school, but it does not pass muster here. For if such low-vitality seeds were planted, we could not be absolutely certain of the seventy per cent. coming up. But if the seeds are lettuce go ahead with the planting. Peter will pass around these germinating per cent. tables which he has printed for you. I'd advise you to paste these in your garden diaries. After a test refer to this table which is from a United States Agricultural Dept. list for seeds not over one year old. You then know at once whether the seed is worth using. -------------------------------------------------------- PER CENT. OF GERMINATION -------------------------------------------------------- Beans 90 | Leek 80 | Pumpkin 87 Cabbage 90 | Lettuce 85 | Radish 90 Carrots 80 | Muskmelon 87 | Spinach 84 Cauliflower 80 | Okra 80 | Squash 87 Celery 60 | Onion 80 | Tomatoes 85 Corn 87 | Parsley 70 | Turnips 90 Cucumber 87 | Peas 93 | Watermelon 87 Eggplant 80 | Peppers 80 | -------------------------------------------------------- "After being sure of good seed the next step to consider is when to plant the seed. It is well to start certain seed inside and so get a bit ahead of the season. Other seed may as well wait, and be planted out in the open when the ground is warm. "Such vegetable seed as the following may be started inside. -------------------------------------------- INDOOR PLANTING TIME-TABLE -------------------------------------------- FEBRUARY | MARCH | APRIL -------------------------------------------- Artichoke | | Cabbage | | Celery | Cucumber | Egg plant | Egg plant | Lettuce | Lettuce | Muskmelon Onion | Pepper | Radish | Radish | Tomato | | Tomato -------------------------------------------- "Flower seeds I will take up later because I wish to think over the flower garden by itself. "When shall we plant seeds outdoors? Now no one under the sun can say plant such and such a seed on May 30th or April 1st. It is the same absurd case as saying change your winter clothes for summer ones on May 1st. Many writers will cover this subject by saying plant seeds when the earth is warm. But even that is a pretty general sort of direction. "Nature has given us a planting guide. She tacks her notice on the fruit trees. When those early blooming trees, the peach and the plum, put out their beautiful blossoms the first planting time is on. To be sure the temperature then is a bit low, only about 45 degrees, so the planting is not of the more tender vegetables. Get your seed of beet, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower, endive, kale, lettuce, parsley, parsnip, onion, pea, radish, turnip and spinach. These may all be planted. "The next signal to watch for is given by the blooming of the apple trees. This is the planting time for the more tender seed. These need a temperature of about 60 degrees in the shade, real apple-blooming time. Corn, beans, egg plant, melon, squash, cucumber, pumpkin, tomato and pepper seeds may be planted. "But when is the time to put out the hotbed, or indoor-started seedlings? When the apple blossoms drop their petals and have passed by is the signal for them to go into the ground. Of course, they naturally would be the last, for they are made very tender from their glass-grown coddling. "When it comes to the planting of seed there are certain things to remember always. First the ground should be made very fine. This is an easy matter if the planting is done in the hotbed, but more of a problem in the outdoor garden. It is foolish to plant at all if one does not intend to do things right. So work over the seed bed thoroughly. After all is fine and deeply worked, say to about a foot deep, the next thing to consider is this--how deep should a seed be planted? "The depth depends upon the size of the seed. Take such small seed as poppy, parsley, even lettuce, and these may be just sprinkled on the surface of the ground. Then tread them in with the foot or place a board over them and walk on the board. In this way the small seed are pressed into the soil quite sufficiently. "For seeds in general the following might answer for a rule: There are seeds like corn, oats, wheat and the grasses which come up unhampered by their seed leaves. Such seed may be planted deeply--say ten times the thickness of the seed. Other seed like beans, squash, radish, etc., push and carry their seed leaves up through the soil with them. So these, because of this extra work, should be planted nearer the surface. Four or five times the thickness of the seed is a safe rule to follow. "When the seed becomes entirely or nearly saturated with water then germination begins. Sometimes people soak their corn in tepid water before planting. This hastens germination. But on the other hand if the soil is very wet and cold the soaked seeds may rot in so much moisture. Certain seeds have very thick coverings. Canna, date and nut seeds are examples. Their cases are so hard and absorb moisture so slowly that germination is a long process. To hasten this little holes may be drilled in the case, thus giving the plant germ a chance to get out. Nurserymen crack the nuts in order to help matters along. You can readily see what a really difficult piece of work it is for a tiny embryo or baby plant to break open a thick case. "If seeds are planted too deeply again, a tremendous piece of work is imposed upon the little plant. To push up through, say one inch of soil, would be quite a task for a lettuce seedling. "Finally in seed planting, the soil must be safely compacted or pressed about the seed. The object of this is to bring in contact with all parts of the seed soil particles with their films of water. Suppose a radish seed is planted and no soil happens to come in direct contact with the seed. That distance, so slight to us, is a well-nigh impossible one for the rootlets to extend to. "There is a possibility of course, of too close compacting. This occurs when the soil is very wet. Do not compact at all then. In fact, such soil condition represents a very bad time for planting, anyway. Moisture is necessary for germination, but superabundance of water is fatal. It is simply ideal when after a planting a gentle rain comes--germination. "I remember once seeing a garden which school children had planted so close to the surface that after a rain most of the seeds were lying all sprouted on the surface of the soil. Take care not to plant in such a manner. "This talk has been largely for the purpose of bringing to your minds certain necessary points. Let me sum them up: Cheap seed are expensive because they are often full of impurities and lack vital power. Buy good seed and test _them_. Plant large seed, because the storage of food is greater. Make the soil conditions right in order to give every help to the seed. Plant neither too deep, nor too near the surface. Compact the soil, and so aid germination. The first start of work must be right; otherwise, trouble comes." IV THE PLANT ITSELF "To think of a plant as a breathing, growing thing is wonderful, but it is far more wonderful to think of it as something possible for even boys and girls to train and improve. Here is a bed of petunias, let us say; do you know just how it is possible to have larger, finer petunias next year? "A slight operation performed, and behold magic has been worked! "First, we will go over the life history of a plant, and then I'll tell you of this magic and how to work it. Or better yet my assistants here, Josephine, Miriam and Ethel, will do the trick. "A plant really goes through much the same operations in life as does an animal. Only to be sure, these operations are performed in a rather different way. A plant has a digestive, or feeding, system, a breathing apparatus, the power to rid itself of waste and to make seed; it moves, and it grows, too. Philip looked a bit skeptical when I said it moves. Well, it does. Of course, a plant does not walk about, and move from spot to spot. But a plant can and does move. Why it can turn itself around back to, even. Just look at my geranium slips there! they seem to be breaking their backs to peep out of the window and look at their best friend, the sun. Turn all of them around, George. See, they face us now! remember to look at them next Friday. "But to start over again. A plant has just three necessary and important parts: these parts are the roots, stem, and leaves. No, Elizabeth, the fruit and flowers are not separate parts. Why? Well, merely because by some queer provision of the plant world, the leaves are responsible for making or forming both the flower and the fruit. If you watch a bud form and unfold, you will notice that the entire little bud seems to be a series of leaves. And if your fingers were clever enough you could take tiny leaves and fold them into the parts which go to make up the flower and the fruit. This last, like most of the rest of that I am telling you, is just one of the miracles of nature. "The root, rootlets and root hairs all go to make up the root-system of a plant. This system is a feeding and food storage system; cold storage, we might call it. "I have spoken before about how the root hairs absorb food. Food is soaked up something as a blotter soaks up ink. Underground plant food must be liquid in nature. This is because plants, like babies, must have very dilute food. Plants can no more get food out of a dry lump of soil than a little baby can get its food from a hunk of bread or a thick slice of corn beef. But let that soil be water-soaked, and have the proper bacteria at work, and the material is in plant-food form. Josephine has here an old, old experiment. What was a white pink is now a red one. It has been in that glass of red ink and a little water. And lo, up the stem the red fluid climbed until it suffused the white flower and made it red. Notice as Miriam holds that lump of sugar only just touching the surface of the water, the water moves up that lump. In this way water and liquid food rise up the stems of plants. Just so, too, water rises in the soil from the lower layers up to the feeding place of the roots, and even up to the surface of the ground. "As the roots are feeding and storing places, so the stem is a sort of passage way for the passing back and forth of liquids. Take a stem of a big plant, like an oak tree, and you see in the wood where storage of fibre has gone on. But the great work is that of interchange. "Leaves are very active portions of the plant. They represent a great, busy manufactory. Manufacturing what? That question I see stamped on Myron's face so plainly he need not speak it out. Manufacturing real food out of raw material--that is the work of these plant shops. "Let me tell you about this. Ethel has in her hands two little plants. The one in her right hand has been growing in the light; the other, in her left hand, has been put away in the dark to grow. The absence of green colour is very marked in this latter plant. So you see it takes light to form this green, or chlorophyll as it is called. The chlorophyll-saturated cells, absorbing carbonic acid and the water-diluted food from the soil, literally break them up. And when broken, food is found suitable for plants to absorb. Wonderful, is it not? "I spoke of carbonic acid; well, this is a gas, as some of you have found out before, made up of carbon and oxygen. It is a gas which we of the animal kingdom breathe out as waste from our bodies. The plant takes it in through the leaf--and, by the way, I ought to explain that. It is this way: if we had a magnifying glass we should find over the inner surface of leaves, pores, or stomata as they are called. They open in the presence of light; and from these openings what the plant has no use for passes out, and gases from the air may pass in. Some call these openings breathing pores. "Quantities of water pass out through these pores. When this process goes on too rapidly a plant will wilt. "So, to go back, we will suppose that carbonic acid gas has passed into the leaves. Straightway the chlorophyll bodies get to work. The gas is broken up, and oxygen and carbon are left. The carbon is wood the plant builds. Some of the oxygen passes out into the air and some is kept for plant food use. "It is a good thing for us that some of the oxygen does escape into the air for we need it. So you see we, in our respiration, and the plant, in its breathing, are doing each other a good turn. "Of course, there is the dilute food from the soil, which is largely mineral matter and water. The chlorophyll bodies work away on these minerals, and make them into foods. A great body of water, as I have said before, passes out of the plant through the stomata. "I have told you a thing that the plant can do which we are not capable of doing. A plant takes a mineral and makes it over into food. You and I, unless we happen to be circus glass-eaters, are not built to do this work. But the vegetables which we eat do the work for us. "A great deal of plant food is in the form of sugars and starches. I remember Katharine and Peter told me last winter that in their physiology they learned how sugars and starches were made in our own bodies. And lo and behold, the geranium can do a similar thing. "Some plants store up lots of starch, as the potato. Others store quantities of sugar, as the Southern sugar cane and the beet. Wonderful? Well, I guess it is. If we could hear and see all the work these energetic little chlorophyll bodies are doing, we should be amazed. "You will remember that I told you some plants could take the very necessary chemical nitrogen from the air; most of them, however, must get it from the soil. And so again this from the soil solution is worked over into available food. "After all we must not fail to see that water is most important. It floats all the important food elements to the leaves for the work to be done there. The food carbon, of course, is an exception to this rule and I will say again in certain cases nitrogen is, also. "Thus you boys and girls now understand how necessary it is that a soil should be of the right texture to hold water. If it is not, it must be helped to be so. Sand, you will remember, had to be doctored to hold water. Clay needed treatment in order to make it quit its bad habit of baking out. "Here is a rather interesting experiment set up by Josephine and Ethel. Look at the first piece of apparatus--a tumbler partly full of water, a piece of cardboard over the top of the tumbler, and passing down through a hole in the cardboard a piece of plant just stem stripped of leaves, and finally a second tumbler clapped over the first. The second piece of apparatus is exactly like the first, only that the stem, one end of which is in the water, has leaves on the other end. Notice that the upper glass in the second case has moisture on it. The upper tumbler of the other set is perfectly dry. Whence, then, came the moisture? It must, of course, be the leaves which gave it off, since they represent the only difference in the two pieces of apparatus. "I wish we might go on with whole sets of experiments, but for that we have not time. "You understand a little of the mission of root, stem and leaf. The root does a good work in holding a plant in place. It is the foundation material of the plant. There is much, much more to be learned about all these subjects. This little is just to open your eyes to the wonders of the work each plant is performing all the time. "I said I would show you some magic. Well, this magic has to do with plant improvement. It is not much of a trick to raise a plant, but it is a great one to be able to improve that plant. "Let me tell you of a friend of mine whom we will call Rodney, because that is his real name. One day Rodney noticed the gardener doing something with a little flat knife to a pansy. Then he tied a little paper bag over the pansy, of course leaving the whole thing on the plant. "'What are you doing?' asked the lad. 'I am fixing that pansy so that the seed from it shall be finer seed than they otherwise would be.' "Then the old gardener explained this to Rodney: There are two parts to flowers which are very necessary, absolutely necessary to making seed. One part is the pistil, the other the stamen. Some flowers have both pistils and stamen, while others have just the pistil and one has to hunt for another plant having the stamen. You can tell the stamens in this way: they are the parts which have in their care the pollen. Most of you know pollen as a yellow powder or dust. Sometimes it is a sticky gummy mass. The pistil is that part of the flower which ends in the seed vessel. It very often takes a central position in the flower, standing up importantly as if it were the 'part' of the flower. And after all, it is. Now, when this pollen powder falls on the pistil it does not explode. The pistil merely opens up a bit and down travels the powder into the seed vessel to help form seed. There would be no real fertile seed without the pollen. "Sometimes the pollen from one flower falls on its own pistil, sometimes the wind, the bees, the birds carry the pollen to flowers far off and drop it on their pistils. Marvelous, is it not? Everything has to be just right, or the pollen does not do its work nor the pistil, either. Pollen has to be ripe to help make the seed. "But how can the work of the wind and the bees and the birds be improved on? Just as the old gardener was doing it. He had one pansy, oh such a large one, but not at all beautiful in colour. He had another one, small but exquisite in colouring. If he could but grow those two together, shake them up, say a magic word and get a pansy both beautiful and large! "Rodney's gardener used magic but not a magic wand. He took a little knife called a scalpel. He carefully took some pollen from the beautiful pansy and then rubbed it gently over the pistil of the big pansy. The pollen was all ready to drop, and by this he knew it was ripe. "Why did he place a bag over the pansy? Well, simply because he didn't wish that pansy interfered with. Suppose the bag were not on; suppose after he had put the pollen on, the wind had blown other pollen to this same pistil? Let us suppose that this other pollen came from a very inferior flower. The experiment would have been spoiled. "Any of you can try this plant improvement. I see by Katharine's eyes and Dee's also that they are going to try it. It is well if you have a pair of forceps. Then you need not use your fingers against the plant at all. Gently pull the pistil a bit forward, gently place the pollen on with the scalpel and you have performed the operation entirely with the proper instruments. "The girls did some saving of fine specimens of flowers this fall, but the kind of work of which I have just told you means far more. In the one case you choose from what you have; in the other case you make what you want. "Good-by, again, until next Friday afternoon!" V INCREASING PLANTS "This last garden season we have tried two methods of raising plants: one was by seed; the other by slips or cuttings. The girls will typify still another method with their bulbs. This last method is by division. A bulb as it stores up its nourishment after the blossoming time forms new little bulbs. These may be separated from the parent tuber if large enough. You all saw me dividing my peonies. Those peonies doubtless were started years ago from one or two roots. And now when I dug them up it looked as if I were laying in a stock of sweet potatoes so great was the increase. "There are just three other methods of propagating or increasing plants. These are layering, budding and grafting. "Layering is done in several ways. Suppose you have a gooseberry bush you wish to layer. The time to do the work is after the flowering season is past. Choose a branch which has not flowered. Strip off the lower leaves. Now where the old and new wood meet is the place for the cut. Make a cut right into the stem which will be like a tongue. Let this be about an inch long. Hold this to the ground with the cut side down. Bank soil over this. At and under the tongue the new shoots will start, and the new gooseberry bush grow from this. This new plant may be cut off from the parent. If the twig will not stay bent down in this position, cut a forked piece of wood which shall act as a pin. Do you picture this? A branch bent so that not far from the parent plant it is buried under ground with the rest of the root protruding from the ground. "A rubber plant may be layered or topped as it is called. Rubber plants have an ugly habit of going to top, dropping off their lower leaves as they do this. So they look as if they were trying to develop into huge bushes, and they become very ugly in so doing. The top looks all right and many a person wishes that top were off all by itself and nicely potted. "This is the way it is topped. A slit is cut in the bark about where you would like to see roots growing. Then soil and florists' moss is bound about the wound. These may easily be kept moist. A paper pot could be put about the soil if one wished. The soil mass should be a ball of about six inches in diameter. When the new roots appear through the moss or poking out of the paper pot, cut the stem of the plant below the pot. And behold you have a little rubber plant just as good as new, I have told this before to the girls. "Another method of layering is to cut the parent off down to the ground. What is left is called the stool. This stool should be covered with about six inches of earth. Let us suppose this is done in early spring. When fall comes around uncover the stool. There will be found a number of new shoots or plants all nicely protected. These may be transplanted. Do you know that stool can be used over again? "This work of layering is really very simple. Myron used it with his strawberries. The runners were bent and buried just as those of the gooseberry I spoke of. In this way new strawberry plants were obtained. One shoot may be bent and buried more than once. So one may get just as easily two or more new plants from one shoot. This seems as much a miracle as the cross fertilization of plants. "The fifth method is that of budding. Apple, peach, plum, cherry and pear trees may be budded; so, too, may roses. "In a word, a bud is taken from some desirable tree and inserted within the bark of a tree either less desirable or young. Young fruit trees, as you know, need some help before they produce good fruit. Now if George had at home a peach tree which bore very fine fruit he would be glad to cross a young tree with this. Budding is a kind of crossing. "This work should be done in the spring, although it may be done in the fall. But the spring is a more limber time with Nature. Sap is begining to flow; life is new and fresh again; all the plant world is ready to start up and do something. Then, too, the bark of trees should be in as flexible a condition as possible. The two things really necessary for the work are mature buds and bark easy to peel. "Buds should be taken from the very strongest and best twigs of the last year's growth. The little seedlings in which the buds are to be inserted should be one year old. These are called the stock. "This is the manner of inserting the bud: first make a T-shaped cut in the bark of the stock. This cut should be made on the north side of the little tree, because it will thus be more sheltered from the sun's rays. The cut should not be far from the ground on the main trunk, although it may be at the base of strong shoots. But make it in the former position for these yearlings. Then loosen the bark with the flat handle of a regular budding knife. Not many boys and girls own such knives. Some of you have scalpels. The handles of these are flat enough to use. Again, you could easily whittle a piece of wood thin and flat enough for this work. "The next question is how to sever a bud from its parent shoot. Suppose you have chosen a nice full bud. About a quarter of an inch below the base of the bud start cutting into the wood. Run the knife up to about one quarter of an inch above the bud. Do not cut out through to the surface, but rather from the upper surface cut the bark loose and peel this carefully down until you can see the under surface of the bud. You still have the wood attached to the twig at its upper edge. If as you look at the under surface of the bud you see that it is hollow, throw the whole thing away. If it has fibres then it is all right. The proper layer is left to reunite with the stock. Now the bud and peeled-off bark may be inserted in the T-shaped slip. Bind the bud in place with raffia. Do this raffia bandaging both above and below the slit. "In about ten days the bandage may come off, for the knitting of fibres is well under way. Now the top of the little tree should be cut right back to about two inches above the bud, because you wish all the growth to go to the bud. This is the part of promise to the tree. All its hope lies in this new bud. "The best method of increase is that of grafting. A graft or scion, which is a shoot with two or more buds on it of last year's growth, is inserted on the stem of another plant called the stock. "By means of this process of grafting, trees bearing poor fruit are made to bear good fruit. Wild fruit trees are brought under cultivation, and a given tree may bear several varieties of its given fruit. For example, I have in mind a tree, the marvel of my childhood, which bore big sour apples, beautiful Gravensteins, and a good quality of Baldwins. This sort of experimenting with trees is not only as good as a puzzle, but is of great value. To make a wild apple tree with its gnarly, little sour apples into a really truly, well-behaved tree bearing good fruit is worth while, is it not? Grafting is not only a method of improvement but of taming stock, which is after all improvement. "There are certain necessary precautions to take in this operation of grafting; for this, like budding, is a surgical operation. "In all woody branches the outer layer is the bark; next comes the green layer. Between this layer and the real wood is a mass of fibres which go by the name of 'cambium'. The cambium layer of the stock and the scion must be one against the other in grafting in order that the sap may flow freely as before. This layer of cambium might be likened to our blood system. The two cambium layers must be pressed closely together so that the operation may be successful. And finally no cut surface should be left exposed to the air. It is air, you know, that plays havoc with flesh wounds. More and more we see that tree doctors have a work something like our own physicians. "Grafting is usually done in the spring--in March or April--about the time sap begins to flow. The grafts or scions may be cut before this. Choose the tree from which you wish to take a scion. You choose it because of its fine-flavoured, sound fruit. Perhaps the fruit is especially large, too. Size of fruit, however, does not denote fine fruit. I once had an apple that weighed a pound. It was a beauty, fair to look upon. But what a tasteless, pithy piece of fruit it was. Appearances in fruit are often deceitful. The scions were to be of the last year's growth with two or more buds. The shoots should be clean, healthy and vigorous. You must transmit no disease along with the scions. These may be cut off in January or February, and stuck into the soil for about four to six inches. Keep away from direct sunlight. The buds of scions cut at this time are dormant as they should be. "Grafting is named according to the manner in which the scion is put into the stock. There is whip grafting, and cleft grafting. Whip grafting is sometimes spoken of as tongue grafting. "This latter method is accomplished in this way: Suppose you have a scion in your hand. Cut across the end of it diagonally. Use a sharp knife for this, and make a clean cut, as I now cut across this twig. About two-thirds of the distance back from the narrow or more pointed end of the cut make a vertical cut of about an inch right up into the scion. Cut the stock in a similar way. Then insert the tongue of the stock into the slit of the scion. Press these together carefully. Bind with raffia. Whenever this work is done outdoors, as it would be in the case of any of you who try this experiment, the union must be sealed over. As official documents are sealed with wax, so this union is legally sealed in wax. One can buy a regular grafting wax. Sometimes people mix clay and grease together. That is simple, but pretty sticky sounding. "Realgrafting wax is made this way: To two parts of beeswax, add four of resin. Melt these together with one pound of tallow or linseed oil. When all are melted together, pour into cold water. Pull like molasses candy until it is light coloured. One's fingers should be greased to apply this wax properly. "Cleft grafting is almost described by its name. A cleft or cut is made in the stock after the stem has been neatly cut across. The cleft is a vertical cut of about an inch in length. This is made through the centre of the stock. The scion is made to fit down into this, so naturally it is cut like a wedge. But there should be cuts made on both sides of the scion diagonally to form this wedge. So two cut surfaces of cambium are laid bare to fit against two similar surfaces of the stock. If the stock is several times thicker than the graft or scion, there should be two of these latter inserted. Place one at either end of the cleft. Bind and wax. "If the stock is the same thickness as the graft then these two fit perfectly one into the other. "This is only a little bit about grafting; but I trust this is enough to get you all interested in this work. "'Is grafting really necessary?' I heard Albert whisper a while ago. It does seem like a great deal of work. The trouble with starting fruit from seed and expecting to get good results lies in this point: Fruit trees seems to lose in their development from seed the ability to produce fruit as fine as the parent stock; and so grafting becomes a necessity. Strange that this should be so, but it is. "Start with a peach stone or seed. It came from a fine tree; the fruit was luscious. And yet the little seedling which comes from that very stone as a rule must be grafted to bear fruit of equally fine flavour as that of the original peach. Fruit trees have a tendency to revert to old wild poor forms. And so we must save them and help them. "If any of you should start a little orchard he would wish to know how far apart the trees should be. Apple trees should be set thirty to forty feet apart each way; pear trees twenty to thirty feet each way; plums and peaches sixteen to twenty feet each way. Trees need room in which to spread out and develop; hence the distance given them. I am glad that Myron has made a start on small fruits. His strawberries were a success. I'd like to think that next season each of you was to have in his garden, vegetables, flowers, one small fruit and one of the larger ones, such as a seedling apple or peach." VI GARDEN OPERATIONS "I suppose the talk to-day will seem to you all merely a repetition of things you already know. Beginnings, however, are most important. Results often take care of themselves, but beginnings never do. Gardens started wrong always go wrong; that is, unless one tears up one's work and begins over again. "The first thing in garden making is the selection of a spot. Some of us are saved that trouble, since we have no choice; or like Josephine, have nothing at all in the way of space. Without a choice, it means simply doing the best one can with conditions. With space limited it resolves itself into no garden, or a box garden. Surely a box garden is better than nothing at all. At least, Josephine felt this to be true, and proved that parsley grows (with care) as well in a box as in the garden. I claim that everyone may have something of a garden if he be willing to take what comes to hand. "But we will now suppose that it is possible to really choose just the right site for the garden. What shall be chosen? The greatest determining factor is the sun. No one would have a north corner, unless it were absolutely forced upon him; because, while north corners do for ferns, certain wild flowers, and begonias, they are of little use as spots for a general garden. "If possible, choose the ideal spot--a southern exposure. Here the sun lies warm all day long. When the garden is thus located the rows of vegetables and flowers should run north and south. Thus placed, the plants receive the sun's rays all the morning on the eastern side, and all the afternoon on the western side. One ought not to have any lopsided plants with such an arrangement. "Suppose the garden faces southeast. In this case the western sun is out of the problem. In order to get the best distribution of sunlight run the rows northwest and southeast. "The idea is to get the most sunlight as evenly distributed as possible for the longest period of time. From the lopsided growth of window plants it is easy enough to see the effect on plants of poorly distributed light. So if you use a little diagram remembering that you wish the sun to shine part of the day on one side of the plants and part on the other, you can juggle out any situation. The southern exposure gives the ideal case because the sun gives half time nearly to each side. A northern exposure may mean an almost entire cut-off from sunlight; while northeastern and southwestern places always get uneven distribution of sun's rays, no matter how carefully this is planned. "The garden, if possible, should be planned out on paper. The plan is a great help when the real planting time comes. It saves time and unnecessary buying of seed. Last winter we drew some plans to a scale. Peter, Philip, and Myron did this work in fine shape. They offer to take groups of you girls and show you how to do it; so whenever you are ready for this, the boys are ready, too. Sometimes we do change our plans some, anyway a change is easily made when a plan has been drawn as a basis. "New garden spots are likely to be found in two conditions: they are covered either with turf or with rubbish. In large garden areas the ground is ploughed and the sod turned under; but in small gardens remove the sod. How to take off the sod in the best manner is the next question. Stake and line off the garden spot. The line gives an accurate and straight course to follow. Cut the edges with the spade all along the line. If the area is a small one, say four feet by eighteen or twenty, this is an easy matter. Such a narrow strip may be marked off like a checkerboard, the sod cut through with the spade, and easily removed. This could be done in two long strips cut lengthwise of the strip. When the turf is cut through, roll it right up like a roll of carpet. "But suppose the garden plot is large. Then divide this up into strips a foot wide and take off the sod as before. What shall be done with the sod? Do not throw it away for it is full of richness, although not quite in available form. So pack the sod grass side down one square on another. Leave it to rot and to weather. When rotted it makes a fine fertilizer. Such a pile of rotting vegetable matter is called a compost pile. All through the summer add any old green vegetable matter to this. In the fall put the autumn leaves on. A fine lot of goodness is being fixed for another season. "The girls, I suppose, think this is a wretched heap to have in the corner of a garden. So it is. But it is possible to screen it. Plant before the space allotted to this, castor beans, tall cannas or sunflowers. Perhaps the castor beans would be the best of all. Sunflowers get brown and straggly looking before the season is past its prime. "Even when the garden is large enough to plough, I would pick out the largest pieces of sod rather than have them turned under. Go over the ploughed space, pick out the pieces of sod, shake them well and pack them up in a compost heap. "What is to be done with the rubbish often found on new garden sites? If this be only weeds and other vegetable matter it may be very easily burned on the garden spot. But suppose it is a grand collection of tin cans, bottles and such things as cannot be burned? What can we do with them? Cities have public dumps where lots are to be filled in. All such trash may go to these. Oftentimes it is possible to find suitable places in the country for dumping. But do not dump where the rubbish is to be unsightly for others as it has been for yourself; far better have a dump heap on your own land and screen this as the compost heap was to be shielded from view. We take the wrong point of view if we dump rubbish anywhere, for the sake of getting rid of it. You remember your plan is to help make a more beautiful village. "How must the small garden be spaded? A method called trenching, is good because it is so thorough. Here is a diagram George has made. Just get your heads around this, and I'll explain it. [Illustration: From this plan see the scheme of trenching. Top soil from AA' is carted to EE'. Then the top soil from BB' goes into AA'. Continue this method and see that the soil on EE' finally goes into trench DD'. So all the top soil in this given area is worked over and is still kept on top.] "This rectangle is supposed to be the plot which needs digging. Line it off into strips one foot wide. Have your wheelbarrow right beside AA'. Dig one foot of top soil out of strip A' along all its length. Put this into the barrow and dump it into the strip marked EE' outside of the garden proper. Do the same thing to strip BB', only throw the soil into trench AA'. The top soil from CC' goes into BB'; that of DD' into CC'. Now the soil that was dumped outside the garden upon the strip EE' of course is already to go right into trench DD'. "The value of this work is to get the soil of the bed entirely worked over. Most people dig but poorly. Digging is hard work; so a boy digs a little here, and a little there, throughout the seed bed and thinks the work is all done. It is really done when the above method is used. And after all we have said about the necessity for airing soil, and the need of stirring things up so that the good bacteria may do their work, I know you will all see the point immediately. "Mere spading of the ground is not sufficient. The soil is still left in lumps. Always as one spades one should break up the big lumps. But even so the ground is in no shape for planting. Ground must be very fine indeed to plant in, because seeds can get very close indeed to fine particles of soil. But the large lumps leave large spaces which no tiny root hair can penetrate. A seed is left stranded in a perfect waste when planted in chunks of soil. A baby surrounded with great pieces of beefsteak would starve. A seed among large lumps of soil is in a similar situation. The spade never can do this work of pulverizing soil. But the rake can. That's the value of the rake. It is a great lump breaker, but will not do for large lumps. If the soil still has large lumps in it take the hoe. "Many people handle the hoe awkwardly. Get up, Jay, and show us just how to hold it! Walk along as you hoe, drawing the hoe toward you. The chief work of this implement is to rid the soil of weeds and stir up the top surface. It is used in summer to form that mulch of dust so valuable in retaining moisture in the soil. I often see boys hoe as if they were going to chop into atoms everything around. Hoeing should never be such vigorous exercise as that. Spading is vigorous, hard work, but not hoeing and raking. "After lumps are broken use the rake to make the bed fine and smooth. Now the great piece of work is done. To be sure I have said nothing of fertilizing. The kind and amount of fertilizer depends on the kind of soil. Well-rotted manure being the best all-around fertilizer, we will say that we have spaded that into the seed bed after the trenching operation is over. "Now the plan made on paper comes into practical use, and garden stakes, cord and a means of measuring are the things necessary to have on hand. Jay and Albert have made their garden stakes one foot in length. They will serve as a good rule in furrow making. On their hoe handles Jack and Elizabeth have marked two feet off into inches. This is another scheme for measuring. George has a pole four feet long which he uses. This has inches marked on one foot of its length. Katharine has a seventy-five foot tape measure. And Leston and Helena have made this tool I have here in my hand. It looks like a wooden toothed rake with its teeth eight inches apart. This dragged over the surface of a nice, fine garden bed marks off furrows. It makes the most regular furrows you ever saw because it cannot help itself. Miriam used a board last summer. She laid this across her seed bed, kneeling on it, then she drew a dibber along the board's straight edge, pressing firmly into the soil with the dibber. This also made a good straight furrow. "Peter and Philip always use a line and two stout garden stakes. Their hoes do the rest. "We usually think of furrows, or drills, as they really should be called when little soil is removed, as being about a half inch or even less in width. Sometimes certain seed, beans and peas, for example, are placed in double rows in a wide drill. "I think you all understand hill making. Then you remember how we planted certain seeds broadcast, as grass and poppy seeds. Remember that seeds thus sown need only a dusting of soil over them. "But in general, drill sowing for both vegetables and flower seeds is the most satisfactory method. "Most boys and girls sow seeds too thickly. The seedlings as they come up are too crowded for proper amounts of sunlight, air and food. You have seen lettuce seedlings crowded together growing small and weak. Why? Lack of light and air, lack of moisture and food are the reasons for this. Thin out pretty severely. Wait, of course, until the seedlings are an inch or more high. Then look over the little plants and gently take out the weakest and smallest specimens. Press the soil firmly about those which remain. If the first planting has been very thick have two times of thinning. It is a bit easier on those seedlings remaining if too many comrades do not go at once. [Illustration: Jack's Rake Handle as a Measuring Stick] [Illustration: Albert Sowing Large Seeds Singly Photographs by Edward Mahoney] "Of course, some of these seedlings may be transplanted. They should be about two inches above ground for this purpose. Lettuce, cabbage and peppers transplant beautifully; so do asters. I would not try to transplant beets, radish or turnips. The reason is that these plants have long tap roots. Usually a portion of the root is left in the ground and the transplanted seedling has an injured root. So you either lose it, or it does poorly. "Beets may be allowed to grow thickly for a time. Then when the thinning is done, the tender beet tops may be used for greens. "Transplanting is a delicate operation. A trowel or a thin garden marker, a can of water and dibber are the necessary tools for the business. A cloudy day is a good thing to have on hand, also. If this is impossible, place the sun behind a cloud. The little seedling should be taken up with great care from its old home. A little soil should come with the roots. This gives the little plant a home feeling in its new quarters. The thin stick is often better to use than the trowel. If the soil is watered a bit about the small plant, one is far more likely to get the soil up with the roots. "Now make the hole in the ground with the dibber just where you wish. A motion, like that of a revolving top, is the one to use in working the dibber. Water the hole. Drop a little soil in the bottom of the hole. You see the dibber leaves an awkward little peak there at the bottom of the hole. Water lodges there and stays. The tiny rootlets do not quite reach into the bottom of the hole, and perhaps dangle in the water and begin to decay. A little soil dropped in prevents all this. Now a little plant goes in. Do not place it too low, nor too high in the hole. Have the roots uncramped. Drop soil in gently and finally firm it all with both hands. "The sun must not shine too hotly for the first few days on these little plants in their new home. They are not yet used to their surroundings and must be coddled a bit if they are to do well. "The remaining garden operations are weeding and constant cultivation. A part of the work in the flower garden is close picking, if constant bloom is wished. "I have said nothing about how to plant different seeds because each of you had tables to cover all of that. "The object of this talk is to impress upon you the necessity for careful preparation. Well-prepared soil, carefully handled tools and plants are ways to success. "Good tools, good seed, good hard work make for results such as will satisfy your highest hopes. But it is not the result only that is worth the struggle; the knowledge and the power are the greater glories." VII COMMON WEEDS What a delight it would be if we could garden without weeds. But that is well-nigh impossible. For these rascals, the weeds, are such persistent fellows, so clever in their devices for getting over the surface of the earth, so able to live where nothing else in the plant world can live, that it is a discouraging matter to attempt to exterminate them. They always seem to me like pushing sort of people trying to live among those who do not want them. Then, too, they crowd the better class of inhabitants out. "There are a certain number of plants which we always looked upon as weeds, such as burdock and wild carrot, for example. But if a beautiful garden plant should persist in living and spreading itself over our vegetable garden, then that, too, would become a weed. Over across the sea in England the poppy grows wild in the fields. It looks very beautiful to the traveler, because it makes lovely red splashes of colour through the field. But I doubt very much if it looks really attractive to the farmer. These things depend largely, do they not, upon one's point of view? "Even a question like weeds we have no right to look at from one point of view only. The good points of weeds do not balance up the bad points; but it is well to give even weeds their due. Rid the world of weeds and unless these despoiled spots were cultivated, think of the great waste places there would be over the earth's surface. The weeds shade the ground thus preventing too great surface evaporation. Then the weeds are a signal to farmers and all gardeners to get busy. We people of the world are lazy, just naturally so, and perhaps if there were no weeds we might cultivate the soil too little. Years ago certain weeds were much used in medicine. This is more or less true, to-day. The dandelion with its bitter secretion was good, it was believed, for the liver, a sort of spring tonic. The Department of Agriculture has printed a pamphlet on 'Weeds Used in Medicine' (Farmers' Bulletin, No. 188). Jack and Jay each sent for a copy last spring. You all might start a garden library with these pamphlets for a basis. They are sent to you free and are invaluable in your work. Get together all the helps you can on the subject you are studying. Boys and girls receive free so much in the present day that it seems a shame not to make use of these things. The boys have written to the Department of Agriculture and each month it sends to the club a list of the publications sent out or reprinted during the previous month. You girls might follow this good example set you by the boys. "Well, we have wandered a bit from the subject in hand. Weeds are again discouraging because they have such facilities for travel. Talk about flying machines--weeds are centuries ahead of men along these lines. Look at a milkweed seed; it is a complete flying apparatus. With its perfect ballast it flies beautifully along over field and river ready to alight in proper seed style, end down. "There is a piece of mechanism in the end of each burdock seed that seems to make travel possible, and dissemination sure. Never was fish hook more cleverly made than this hook of the bur seed. It catches on to your clothing and travels until you feel its pull. Then you pick it off and cast it aside. So it goes. It sticks to the furry and hairy coats of animals and again is carried along. "Did you ever observe the seed of wild carrot? It, too, is arranged with clinging points all around and about its seed. If you should give just a little attention to the subject of the means of distribution of wild seeds you would have a greater respect for the ways and means of Nature. "Here is another discouraging side to the weed question. Weeds produce so many, many seeds! Look at a single stalk of plantain. This stalk does not stand for one seed capsule, but all up and down the stalk are the seeds; again, not one seed here and one there, but each capsule or seed case holding many seeds. When these become ripe, then the top of the capsule comes off just like the cover of a box, or the top of a salt cellar, and the seeds are sent out. It would not be a useless thing to count sometimes the number of seeds on one plantain stalk, and thus gain an idea of the tremendous possibilities of increase which the weeds have. "A lad I once knew counted the number of seeds in a milkweed pod which he had, and found very nearly two hundred. I do not remember the exact number. It was between one hundred and ninety-five and two hundred. Think of one pod scattering that number of seeds! Think again of the number of pods on one milkweed plant! It is staggering, is it not? To be sure we can remember the parable of the sower and have some hope, for some seed may fall on soil in which they will never come to maturity. "Weeds, like the wild morning glory, form new plants not from their seed only, but from their travelling, trailing branches. "If, then, the chances are so good for renewal of weeds, what is the plan of campaign which we should follow? Once a German gentleman who loved and cultivated roses was asked how to get rid of rose bugs. 'Kill them,' he said. 'Pick them off by hand and kill them by foot is the sure method!' he continued. "So, to get rid of weeds, just destroy them. Persistently and constantly weed them out and cultivate the soil. Clean cultivation is the only sort for good crops and freedom from weeds. "Weeds, as flowers, drop in the three classes of annuals, biennials and perennials. Any annual is easy enough to hold down. Just pull such weeds up. Some merely cut the weed off at the surface of the ground, but it is a better way to be rid of the thing entirely. And should you not be quite sure of the kind of weed, then pulling up is the only really safe plan. For if the weed happened to be a perennial, leaving the root in the ground would be the worst possible thing to do. "The greatest business of all annuals is to form seed. Now I know you wish to say that this is the business of all plants. It is. But with annuals there is only one chance to produce seed. That chance is the one short year of their lives, and this is doubtless the reason why these chaps work so hard at seed forming, and produce so many seed. Therefore, the thing evidently to be done is to make it impossible for annuals to form seed. "The biennials and perennials must have further treatment than just that of preventing seed formation. The underground part of such weeds must be destroyed. For these live in the ground ready to come up again. Biennials may be killed out by deep hoeing. Get rid of all the young plants, keep at the older ones with the hoe and prevent seed formation, too. Biennials are found most abundantly in waste places along woodsides and where the soil for a long time has been left undisturbed. "Perennials need about the same treatment as biennials. But even greater persistency should be exercised in destroying the underground portion. For these underground plants produce new plants as surely as seeds do. The bindweed has a creeping root, wild garlic has a bulb, and such forms are always producing new forms underground while the seed above the ground is able to do the same thing. "Ploughing helps destroy perennials, as the roots are exposed to direct sunlight and so destroyed. Another method of treatment is that of cutting off the top down to the root and putting salt on the freshly cut root tap. Then again these roots may be starved out by never allowing the top or leafy part to form. You will remember that it is the leaf which makes the food. And if there is no food then there will be none to store away in the root for new root formation. Some farmers smother roots. This is done by planting such crops as hemp, clover or cowpeas. These crops choke out the weeds. They cover the ground very completely, and so the weeds have less of a chance. "I give the following table of a few very common weeds in order that you may know just how to handle them. "I must speak especially about snapdragon or butter and eggs. It came to our country as a garden flower. It has spread and spread, partly by its seeds and partly by its root stalks, which are creeping ones, and now it is a perennial weed. For since it has become a nuisance it must be classed as a weed. As it spreads along it tends to force out other plants. "This weed, like the wild carrot, is really very lovely. Could such weeds be properly held down in small garden areas they would be very ornamental. I saw a little flower garden once, quite beautiful, with two small clumps, one of wild mustard and one of field daisy, among the other flowers. ----------------------------------------------------------------- COMMON NAME CLASS SEED TIME COLOUR OF FLOWER ----------------------------------------------------------------- Burdock Biennial Aug.-Oct. Purple Bur-marigold or Annual July-Nov. Yellow beggar ticks Canada thistle Perennial " " " Chickweed Annual Mar.-July White Cocklebur " July-Oct. Green Dandelion Perennial May-Oct. Yellow English bindweed or " Aug.-Oct. White morning glory Moth Mullein Biennial July-Nov. Yellow Narrow-leaved Annual July-Oct. Blue stickseed or beggar tick Ox-eye daisy or Perennial Aug.-Oct. White white daisy Pigweed Annual Aug.-Nov. Green Prickly lettuce, " July-Nov. Yellow milkweed Purslane, pursley " June-Dec. " Rib-grass, plantain Biennial July-Nov. White Ragweed, Roman wormwood Annual Aug.-Nov. Yellow Russian thistle " " " Purplish Smartweed Perennial Aug.-Sept. Pink Sorrel Perennial June-Nov. Red Wild carrot, Biennial July-Nov. White Queen Anne's lace Wild garlic, onion Perennial July-Oct. " Wild mustard Annual June-Oct. Yellow Wild parsnip Biennial July-Oct. " Yellow daisy, " July-Sept. " ox-eye daisy, brown-eyed Susan Yellow dock Perennial Aug.-Oct. Green ----------------------------------------------------------------- "The seeds of the wild mustard, like those of the plantain and other weeds, get in with the grain seed and so cause constant trouble. Farmers feel that such weeds must be thoroughly gotten out of the fields. "It is not our own native weeds which are so troublesome but the foreign ones. Most of our worst weeds are foreigners. They have come to this country as stowaways from across the seas. They have fought for centuries and can keep the fight up over here. "I am not going to give you a description of each weed we have. This table, a copy of which is for each of you, will be, I think, of true help. The study of weeds is something quite by itself. It is for you to help prevent the seeding of weeds everywhere. Do not carelessly scatter seeds. Keep your own garden plots free from these pests by clean and careful cultivation. Remember, too, the value of cover crops. "There is another pest to fight. This pest is of the animal kingdom and not of the plant kingdom. Next Friday our talk is on animal pests, and how to destroy them." VIII GARDEN PESTS If we could garden without any interference from the pests which attack plants, then indeed gardening would be a simple matter. But all the time we must watch out for these little foes--little in size, but tremendous in the havoc they make. "As human illness may often be prevented by healthful conditions, so pests may be kept away by strict garden cleanliness. Heaps of waste are lodging places for the breeding of insects. I do not think a compost pile will do the harm, but unkempt, uncared-for spots seem to invite trouble. "There are certain helps to keeping pests down. The constant stirring up of the soil by earthworms is an aid in keeping the soil open to air and water. Many of our common birds feed upon insects. The sparrows, robins, chickadees, meadow larks and orioles are all examples of birds who help in this way. Some insects feed on other and harmful insects. Some kinds of ladybugs do this good deed. The ichneumon-fly helps too. And toads are wonders in the number of insects they can consume at one meal. The toad deserves very kind treatment from all of us. "Each girl and boy gardener should try to make her or his garden into a place attractive to birds and toads. A good birdhouse, grain sprinkled about in early spring, a water-place, are invitations for birds to stay a while in your garden. If you wish toads, fix things up for them too. During a hot summer day a toad likes to rest in the shade. By night he is ready to go forth to eat but not to kill, since toads prefer live food. How can one "fix up" for toads? Well, one thing to do is to prepare a retreat, quiet, dark and damp. A few stones of some size underneath the shade of a shrub with perhaps a carpeting of damp leaves, would appear very fine to a toad. "Suppose a certain crop in your garden has had an insect pest. Do not plant this same crop next year, for it would doubtless have the same pest. Don't let the soil get full of insect troubles; therefore, keep the soil open and aired and study it well. "There are two general classes of insects known by the way they do their work. One kind gnaws at the plant really taking pieces of it into its system. This kind of insect has a mouth fitted to do this work. Grasshoppers and caterpillars are of this sort. The other kind sucks the juices from a plant. This, in some ways, is the worst sort. Plant lice belong here, as do mosquitoes, which prey on us. All the scale insects fasten themselves on plants, and suck out the life of the plants. "Now can we fight these chaps? The gnawing fellows may be caught with poison sprayed upon plants, which they take into their bodies with the plant. The Bordeaux mixture which Peter used is a poison sprayed upon plants for this purpose. So, too, is Paris green. "In the other case the only thing is to attack the insect direct. So certain insecticides, as they are called, are sprayed on the plant to fall upon the insect. They do a deadly work of attacking, in one way or another, the body of the insect. The kerosene emulsion made by the girls for their infested house plants worked this same way. Tobacco water and tobacco dust sprinkled on act in similar manner. "Lime, soot, and sand are other means of blocking and choking off insects. "Sometimes we are much troubled with underground insects at work. You have seen a garden covered with ant hills. Here is a remedy, but one of which you must be careful. "Carbon bisulphid comes in little tin cans. It is a liquid of a vile smell, something like onions and rotten eggs mixed. The girls' noses are going up sky-high now. But it does the work of ant killing. You must be careful in handling this. It has a horrid explosive habit. Pour about a teaspoonful down an ant hole. Do not use a good silver spoon from the dining room. Get an old spoon, or buy a tin one. For you will never use it again except it be for carbon-bisulphid work. After this liquid has been poured down the hole, place a bit of a chip over it, for there may be a slight volcanic action underground. It is well to do this on a damp, cloudy day when all the ants are at home. "Remember this stuff is not to be fooled with, as it is poisonous and also takes fire readily. Never open the can inside by a fire, in too great a heat, or near a lighted match. Invite your fathers to help in this. By no means do anything silly. Keep the can closed except when pouring out a teaspoonful. "This question is constantly being asked, 'How can I tell what insect is doing the destructive work?' Well, you can tell partly by the work done, and partly by seeing the insect itself. This latter thing is not always so easy to accomplish. I had cutworms one season and never saw one. I saw only the work done. If stalks of tender plants are cut clean off be pretty sure the cutworm is abroad. What does he look like? Well, that is a hard question because his family is a large one. Should you see sometime a grayish striped caterpillar, you may know it is a cutworm. But because of its habit of resting in the ground during the day and working by night, it is difficult to catch sight of one. The cutworm is around early in the season ready to cut the flower stalks of the hyacinths. When the peas come on a bit later, he is ready for them. A very good way to block him off is to put paper collars, or tin ones, about the plants. These collars should be about an inch away from the plant. "Of course, plant lice are more common. Those we see are often green in colour. But they may be red, yellow or brown. Kerosene emulsion is the medicine for plant lice. Lice are easy enough to find since they are always clinging to their host. As sucking insects they have to cling close to a plant for food, and one is pretty sure to find them. But the biting insects do their work, and then go hide. That makes them much more difficult to deal with. "Rose slugs do great damage to the rose bushes. They eat out the body of the leaves, so that just the veining is left. They are soft-bodied, green above and yellow below. Since they are eating insects Paris green will kill them. But the kerosene emulsion penetrates their soft bodies; so this also may be used. "A beetle, the striped beetle, attacks young melons and squash leaves. It eats the leaf by riddling out holes in it. This beetle, as its name implies, is striped. The back is black with yellow stripes running lengthwise. White hellebore powder kills these pests. Ask the druggist for five cents' worth and you will have a great plenty for any of your gardens. It, too, is a poison. This poison is also good to use for the caterpillars that eat many of our garden plants. Make a circle four inches from the stalk of an infested plant and sprinkle the powder in this. Evening time is good for this, because the dew moistens the powder just enough to make it a nuisance to the insect. "Then there are the slugs, which are garden pests. The slug will devour almost any garden plant, whether it be a flower or a vegetable. They lay lots of eggs in old rubbish heaps. Do you see the good of cleaning up rubbish? The slugs do more harm in the garden than almost any other single insect pest. You can discover them in the following way. There is a trick for bringing them to the surface of the ground in the day time. You see they rest during the day below ground. So just water the soil in which the slugs are supposed to be. How are you to know where they are? They are quite likely to hide near the plants they are feeding on. So water the ground with some nice clean lime water. This will disturb them, and up they'll poke to see what the matter is. "Beside these most common of pests already mentioned, pests which attack many kinds of plants, there are special pests for special plants. Discouraging, is it not? Beans have pests of their own; so have potatoes and cabbages, as George well knows. In fact, the vegetable garden has many inhabitants. In the flower garden lice are very bothersome, the cutworm and the slug have a good time there, too, and ants often get very numerous as the season advances. But for real discouraging insect troubles the vegetable garden takes the prize. If we were going into fruit to any extent, perhaps the vegetable garden would have to resign in favour of the fruit garden. "A common pest in the vegetable garden is the tomato worm. This is a large yellowish or greenish striped worm. Its work is to eat into the young fruit. "A great, light green caterpillar is found on celery. This caterpillar may be told by the black bands, one on each ring or segment of its body. "The squash bug may be told by its brown body, which is long and slender, and by the disagreeable odour from it when killed. The potato bug is another fellow to look out for. It is a beetle with yellow and black stripes down its crusty back. The little green cabbage worm is a perfect nuisance. It is a small caterpillar and smaller than the tomato worm. These are perhaps the most common of garden pests by name. It might be well to take up the common vegetables and flowers mentioning the pests which prey on each one. "Let us take the vegetables first. None of us have grown asparagus yet; but it will be well to know about this vegetable. There is a beetle which may trouble asparagus plants. It is red with markings of black. The grub of this beetle is dark green. Look out for the asparagus beetle during April and May, for these are the months when it appears. The eggs are laid on young shoots of the plant. Such shoots should be cut right off. After the cutting season is over the plants should be sprayed. This may be done in August. Very dilute Bordeaux mixture or Paris green may be used for a spray. "Next in the alphabet come beans. The most common trouble that beans have is one called anthracnose. That staggering word means that the leaves become covered with spots which are round with purple borders. Again, a spray of Bordeaux mixture should be used. The plants should be sprayed until the pods form. Look for this trouble in July. "Beets are prone to leaf spots. As soon as such spots appear, the plants should be sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture. Every two weeks give the plants about three sprayings. "The cabbage worm I have spoken of. This worm works all summer. Cabbages, if neglected, become literally alive with the little caterpillars. They eat and eat the foliage, riddling it completely. They eat into the heads so that the cabbage plant is completely spoiled. George treated his with pyrethrum powder. This he mixed with five times its bulk of dust. It was then dusted or shaken over the cabbage plant. A very good thing to do before trouble begins is to dust the soil and tender plants with lime. After the plants have begun to head use hellebore powder. "Lice appear on cauliflower. The kerosene emulsion which we use on our indoor plants is all right for this work, too. The lice appear on the foliage in great white masses. They suck the life and goodness from the plant. They come all through the summer at any time. Whale oil soap is another good spray to use. Peter has typewritten receipts for these sprays which you may have at the close of this talk. Sometimes the root of the cauliflower is attacked. Little white maggots mine or burrow through the root. They are quite likely to begin their bad work in June or July. That rather dangerous carbon bisulphid is the medicine for this trouble. Make a hole in the soil as you did when treating the ant. Do not make this too near the plant. I should say six inches away would be about right. Pour a teaspoonful of the poison into the hole and it will take care of itself. Cover the hole over as you would in the case of the ant. When cauliflower plants begin to look sickly pull one up. If it is full of maggots that is easy to determine. But it may be that you will find great lumps or knots on the root. Since these knots appear during the same months as the maggots, you can only be sure of the real cause by pulling up a plant. If these knots are on the root, then you have a very serious trouble to contend with. So serious is the club root condition that the only safe thing to do is to pull up and completely destroy the diseased plants. Dig the soil up after this. Then lime it. Put a lot of lime on, not just a dusting over the surface of the soil. This represents soil that is in trouble, so do not plant cauliflower here again, or its coarser cousin, the cabbage. "Sometimes a little red or orange and black bug appears. This is called the harlequin bug from its fantastic appearance. This bug may come all summer long at any time. The whale oil soap spray is the one to use. Celery may be troubled with the light green caterpillar with the black bands before spoken of. This caterpillar arrives in August. It is not difficult at all to see, so many may be picked off just by hand. One may use Paris green as a spray. "None of you had any trouble with corn being infested. But sometimes a worm, called the earworm, which is like the tomato worm, will appear during June and eat the tips of the young ears. A little Paris green sprinkled on the leaves, at their base will kill them. "Cucumbers and melons, as I have before said, are prone to be preys of the cutworms, squash bugs, striped beetles, and lice or aphis. You know treatment for cutworms and lice. The squash bug may be destroyed by hand. Sometimes when bits of sticks are placed on the ground the bugs will crawl under them. Next morning a small harvest of bugs can be killed. The squash bug lays its eggs on the under surface of the plant's leaves. These leaves should be removed and burned. The striped beetle is kept off by the Bordeaux mixture spray. This beetle appears in June. A spraying during this month often prevents a blight of the leaves in July. This blight appears first as a spotting on the leaves, after which the leaves soon wither up. "Onions, as well as radishes, are affected by maggots which will mine through the onion bulb as well as the stems of the young, tender plants. A solution made from carbolic soap and water is excellent with which to water the soil about the plants. "Peas have green lice as melons and cucumbers do. The lice appear early in May and June, and are killed and kept down by the regulation treatment. Many times during the latter part of summer peas may become mildewed. You can tell this by a growth of white down on stem and leaves. Put some soap in the Bordeaux mixture and spray. "From May to October potato bugs flourish. Paris green is the spray to use. In the start they may be hand picked. But do not let them get ahead of your hand. A very serious potato disease is that of scab. Scales appear on the potatoes themselves. To prevent this, uncut seed potatoes are soaked in poison. But this is not a work for you to do alone by any means. "The squash bug naturally seeks out the squash vine. He should be treated as we said when we talked of the same bug and melons. "Tomatoes have numerous troubles. The cutworm, the tomato worm, the horn worm, potato beetle and various blights may come to tomatoes. The horn worm is a large green worm named from the horn at one end of its body. It appears in midsummer. Such large worms usually may be hand picked. If you should see a tomato plant wilting for no reason at all, pull it up and burn it; it probably has an infectious trouble which is carried from one plant to another by insects. It is really an infectious disease. "These are the most common vegetable garden pests and their remedies. "As the girls know, the flower garden is not without pests, too. Plant lice are plenty enough. These may appear at one time or another during the entire year. "Some plants become covered with a little red spider. It attacks the foliage and does great damage. This may be due to lack of moisture with house plants. I do not mean lack of watering, but a dry condition of the air of the room. Often just a spray of clear water is sufficient to rid the plant of the mites. "Roses have more troubles than any one other flower. The rose bush may have lice or it may have a little green bug that jumps very quickly and so gets its name of leaf-hopper. Kerosene emulsion is good to use. Often slugs will feed upon the surface of the leaves. A dusting of lime over the leaves keeps these feeders away. There is a brown beetle called the rose chafer, which eats the flower itself. Hand picking is about the best weapon to employ against this enemy. A scale sometimes comes on the stems. This scale looks like a white crust. It is wise to spray such rose bushes with kerosene emulsion. And better still, if possible, cut off and burn such scale-encrusted parts. "Cutworms bother the early bulbs and the violets, too. A great many of the larger pests may be hand picked. The lice should be sprayed. "And for the remedies. The following will be the ones you will need the most: KEROSENE EMULSION Soap (Ivory) 1/4 pound Boiling water 2 quarts Kerosene 4 quarts "The soap should be shaved up and dissolved in the water. To this add the kerosene (of course not when the soap and water is on the stove) a little at a time. Beat it with an egg beater to be kept for that purpose; or shake it vigorously. "For use against plant lice add to one cup of this emulsion 8 cups of water. For scale insects dilute with four cups of water. BORDEAUX MIXTURE I. Copper sulphate (blue vitriol) 1 lb. Water 1 gal. Dissolve the sulphate in the water. II. Slaked lime 1 lb. Water 1 gal. Dissolve the lime in the water. To one bucket (2-1/2 gallons) of fresh water add four pints of the first solution. To another bucket of fresh water add six pints of the second solution. Stir these together. Keep the rest of the solutions I. and II. for later mixing when it is needed. WHALE OIL SOAP HOT WATER SOLUTION Whale oil soap 1 pound Hot water 6 quarts This is the right dilution for plant lice but for scale insects it is too weak; for them use about two quarts of water to one pound of soap. "The best way to apply liquid sprays in small gardens is to use a whisk broom. Just dip the little broom into the mixture needed and shake the brush over the plant. Then the hands need never come in contact with the poison. Careful children can use sprays without any trouble. Josephine has used kerosene emulsion in this fashion: she pours a little into a saucer, takes a bit of cheese cloth and dipping it into the emulsion wipes the lice off an infested part. Usually one application is enough. This sounds like a much more disagreeable task than it really is. A plant syringe may be used. But personally I like the hand method. Of course if there are lots of lice on many plants this would not be practical at all. "It stands to reason that sick plants need medicines of some kind. Sometimes to be sure they need better living conditions. Often the soil is sour, water-logged, unaired and totally unfit for a self-respecting plant to live in. The whole thing resolves itself into a study of conditions, and a desire to help the plant have as comfortable a time as possible in life." IX VEGETABLE CULTURE "As a rule, boys and girls choose to grow bush beans rather than pole beans. I cannot make up my mind whether or not this is from sheer laziness. In a city backyard the tall varieties might perhaps be a problem since it would be difficult to get poles. But these running beans can be trained along old fences and with little urging will run up the stalks of the tallest sunflowers. So that settles the pole question. There is an ornamental side to the bean question. Suppose you plant these tall beans at the extreme rear end of each vegetable row. Make arches with supple tree limbs, binding them over to form the arch. Train the beans over these. When one stands facing the garden, what a beautiful terminus these bean arches make. "Beans like rich, warm, sandy soil. In order to assist the soil be sure to dig deeply, and work it over thoroughly for bean culture. It never does to plant beans before the world has warmed up from its spring chills. There is another advantage in early digging of soil. It brings to the surface eggs and larvae of insects. The birds eager for food will even follow the plough to pick from the soil these choice morsels. A little lime worked in with the soil is helpful in the cultivation of beans. "Bush beans are planted in drills about eighteen inches apart, while the pole-bean rows should be three feet apart. The drills for the bush limas should be further apart than those for the other dwarf beans--say three feet. This amount of space gives opportunity for cultivation with the hoe. If the running beans climb too high just pinch off the growing extreme end, and this will hold back the upward growth. "Among bush beans are the dwarf, snap or string beans, the wax beans, the bush limas, one variety of which is known as brittle beans. Among the pole beans are the pole limas, wax and scarlet runner. The scarlet runner is a beauty for decorative effects. The flowers are scarlet and are fine against an old fence. These are quite lovely in the flower garden. Where one wishes a vine, this is good to plant for one gets both a vegetable, bright flowers and a screen from the one plant. When planting beans put the bean in the soil edgewise with the eye down. "Beets like rich, sandy loam, also. Fresh manure worked into the soil is fatal for beets, as it is for many another crop. But we will suppose that nothing is available but fresh manure. Some gardeners say to work this into the soil with great care and thoroughness. But even so, there is danger of a particle of it getting next to a tender beet root. The following can be done; Dig a trench about a foot deep, spread a thin layer of manure in this, cover it with soil, and plant above this. By the time the main root strikes down to the manure layer, there will be little harm done. Beets should not be transplanted. If the rows are one foot apart there is ample space for cultivation. Whenever the weather is really settled, then these seeds may be planted. Young beet tops make fine greens. Greater care should be taken in handling beets than usually is shown. When beets are to be boiled, if the tip of the root and the tops are cut off, the beet bleeds. This means a loss of good material. Pinching off such parts with the fingers and doing this not too closely to the beet itself is the proper method of handling. I throw this in for the benefit of our future cooks, the girls. "There are big coarse members of the beet and cabbage families called the mangel wurzel and ruta baga. About here these are raised to feed to the cattle. They are a great addition to a cow's dinner. "The cabbage family is a large one. There is the cabbage proper, then cauliflower, broccoli or a more hardy cauliflower, kale, Brussels sprouts and kohlrabi, a cabbage-turnip combination. George has worked out cabbage culture successfully. I refer to him for full particulars. "Cauliflower is a kind of refined, high-toned cabbage relative. It needs a little richer soil than cabbage and cannot stand the frost. A frequent watering with manure water gives it the extra richness and water it really needs. The outer leaves must be bent over, as in the case of the young cabbage, in order to get the white head. The dwarf varieties are rather the best to plant. "Kale is not quite so particular a cousin. It can stand frost. Rich soil is necessary, and early spring planting, because of slow maturing. It may be planted in September for early spring work. "Brussels sprouts are a very popular member of this family. On account of their size many people who do not like to serve poor, common old cabbage will serve these. Brussels sprouts are interesting in their growth. The plant stalk runs skyward. At the top, umbrella like, is a close head of leaves, but this is not what we eat. Shaded by the umbrella and packed all along the stalk are delicious little cabbages or sprouts. Like the rest of the family a rich soil is needed and plenty of water during the growing period. The seed should be planted in May, and the little plants transplanted into rich soil in late July. The rows should be eighteen inches apart, and the plants one foot apart in the rows. "Kohlrabi is a go-between in the families of cabbage and turnip. It is sometimes called the turnip-root cabbage. Just above the ground the stem of this plant swells into a turnip-like vegetable. In the true turnip the swelling is underground, but like the cabbage, kohlrabi forms its edible part above ground. It is easy to grow. Only it should develop rapidly, otherwise the swelling gets woody, and so loses its good quality. Sow out as early as possible; or sow inside in March and transplant to the open. Plant in drills about two feet apart. Set the plants about one foot apart, or thin out to this distance. To plant one hundred feet of drill buy half an ounce of seed. Seed goes a long way, you see. Kohlrabi is served and prepared like turnip. It is a very satisfactory early crop. "Before leaving the cabbage family I should like to say that the cabbage called Savoy is an excellent variety to try. It should always have an early planting under cover, say in February, and then be transplanted into open beds in March or April. If the land is poor where you are to grow cabbage, then by all means choose Savoy. "Carrots are of two general kinds: those with long roots, and those with short roots. If long-rooted varieties are chosen, then the soil must be worked down to a depth of eighteen inches, surely. The shorter ones will do well in eight inches of well-worked sandy soil. Do not put carrot seed into freshly manured land. Another point in carrot culture is one concerning the thinning process. As the little seedlings come up you will doubtless find that they are much, much too close together. Wait a bit, thin a little at a time, so that young, tiny carrots may be used on the home table. These are the points to jot down about the culture of carrots. I am saying very little about depths and distances because these were all worked out by the boys last winter and tables may be had for the asking. "Peter covered the ground of celery raising. One or two points only I will speak of. A very rich, workable soil is a celery soil. In the process of getting such a bed ready it ought to have a thorough wetting down a day before planting. Celery seed is small, and, as is the case with other small seed, it is quite likely to be planted in clumps or bunches. To avoid this the seed should be mixed with sand and then sprinkled in drills. These drills should be six inches apart, and very shallow. Sow the seed, cover, and water. This bed should be screened from direct sunlight. A careful, gentle, daily watering is necessary. Thin the little plants to four inches apart. Peter can tell the rest of the story. The only other thing I need add is this, that in transplanting the work should be done quickly. One should not take up celery plants and perhaps leave them a long time before placing in new quarters. Plant immediately. It takes little to upset a celery plant and check its growth. So never take up a whole lot of celery plants at one time. Take up a few, keep them moist, plant them, and then start again. [Illustration: Elizabeth Sowing Small Seed From the Package. Photograph by Helen W. Cook.] "I am not going to say a word about corn. You all remember the boys' work of last year. Your teacher has planned next Friday afternoon for the boys to discuss this at school. So we shall not have our meeting, but I shall come to the school to hear their report. I hope our girls will take notes on this. For I know that Eloise has decided to raise corn next year; Helena is going to; and Leston will not be out of the corn contest this season. "The cucumber is the next vegetable in the line. This is a plant from foreign lands. Some think that the cucumber is really a native of India. It is believed that it was brought here by the Negro, and that a species of cucumber from Africa became finally at home in this country. A light, sandy and rich soil is needed--I mean rich in the sense of richness in organic matter. When cucumbers are grown outdoors, as we are likely to grow them, they are planted in hills. Nowadays, they are grown in hothouses; they hang from the roof, and are a wonderful sight. In the greenhouse a hive of bees is kept so that cross-fertilization may go on. "But if you intend to raise cucumbers follow these directions: Sow the seed inside, cover with one inch of rich soil. In a little space of six inches diameter, plant six seeds. Place like a bean seed with the germinating end in the soil. When all danger of frost is over, each set of six little plants, soil and all, should be planted in the open. Later, when danger of insect pests is over, thin out to three plants in a hill. The hills should be about four feet apart on all sides. "Egg plant is another vegetable we have not tried. It is another of those which has been improved by crossing, usually with peppers and tomatoes. But as we are not Burbanks yet, I shall not talk of that side of egg plant culture. Some varieties of egg plant grow to a large size but the smaller fruits, on the whole, have the better flavour. A good, well-worked, rich garden loam is the soil for this vegetable. The seed may be planted out in the open in little drills six inches apart. The seed should be scattered along as lettuce seed is. When the plants are about six inches high, transplant them to their permanent place. They should then stand about two feet apart on all sides. More often the seeds are started inside in March. When the little plants are about two inches high they should be transplanted into boxes or pots. Screen from too hot sunshine. About the time of corn planting the plants should go into the open. A rich soil is now quite necessary. Again I would suggest as a good method the placing of a little well-rotted manure under each place where an egg plant is to go. There is a rather interesting parasite which sometimes fastens itself upon the egg plant. A parasite is a form which clings to another and takes its nourishment from this latter or host. The parasite is a lazy shirk. So in this case the parasite grows on the egg plant and absorbs the food which the egg plant needs for itself. This is not an uncommon thing in nature. When such a thing happens first pull up and destroy the poor egg plant, for the parasite is clinging too closely and persistently to be removed. "Nearly everyone in our country clings to lettuce as the only plant for a salad. Over across the sea in old England this is not so. Other plants are used in this way and called salad plants. Endive is one of these. Some of the endives are curly-leaved, and when blanched are attractive to look upon; and surely there is no reason why we should not consider the side of beauty in vegetables. "Endive is a very hardy plant. One-half an ounce of the seed will sow one hundred feet of drill. Sow it as you would lettuce seed in soil which should be moist and rich. The plants finally should be about eight inches apart in the drill. The outer leaves should be tied over the top in order to blanch the inner ones for table use. In the fall the plants from summer sowings may be taken up with balls of earth on the roots and placed in the coldframes ready for use through the winter. The coldframe is a blessing. It is a place of storage all the fall and early winter. It is a place for early work in the late winter and first part of spring. "Lettuce with children has always been a prime favourite for cultivation. Before the time of Christ, lettuce was grown and served. There is a wild lettuce from which the cultivated probably came. There are a number of cultivated vegetables which have wild ancestors, carrots, turnips and lettuce being the most common among them. Lettuce may be tucked into the garden almost anywhere. It is surely one of the most decorative of vegetables. The compact head, the green of the leaves, the beauty of symmetry--all these are charming characteristics of lettuces. "Not all form heads. There is a mistaken idea abroad among children that by transplanting, any lettuce can be made to head. Only such varieties as are called heading lettuces will head. And these must be transplanted in order to have really good heads. There are two general types of lettuce--the Cos and the cabbage. The cabbage grows more like a cabbage with great tendency toward heading. The Cos grows longer, narrower, and has spoon-shaped leaves, which have a big, coarse midrib. The inner leaves cling more closely together after a heading fashion; the outer leaves spread apart. We grow in our American gardens more of the cabbage type than of the Cos. Should we go to see our French cousins next summer, the Cos lettuce would be served to us with plenty of oil as a dressing. "As the summer advances and as the early sowings of lettuce get old they tend to go to seed. Don't let them. Pull them up. None of us are likely to go into the seed-producing side of lettuce. What we are interested in is the raising of tender lettuce all the season. To have such lettuce in mid and late summer is possible only by frequent plantings of seed. If seed is planted every ten days or two weeks all summer, you can have tender lettuce all the season. When lettuce gets old it becomes bitter and tough. "Melons are most interesting to experiment with. We suppose that melons originally came from Asia, and parts of Africa. Watermelons grow wild in Africa. The Negroes and wild animals feed upon them. Perhaps that is the reason why the coloured people so love them. Anyway, melons belong to these countries. Melons are a summer fruit. Over in England we find the muskmelons often grown under glass in hothouses. The vines are trained upward rather than allowed to lie prone. As the melons grow large in the hot, dry atmosphere, just the sort which is right for their growth, they become too heavy for the vine to hold up. So they are held by little bags of netting, just like a tennis net in size of mesh. The bags are supported on nails or pegs. It is a very pretty sight I can assure you. Over here usually we raise our melons outdoors. They are planted in hills. Eight seeds are placed two inches apart and an inch deep. The hills should have a four foot sweep on all sides; the watermelon hills ought to have an allowance of eight to ten feet. Make the soil for these hills very rich. As the little plants get sizeable--say about four inches in height--reduce the number of plants to two in a hill. Always in such work choose the very sturdiest plants to keep. Cut the others down close to or a little below the surface of the ground. Pulling up plants is a shocking way to get rid of them. I say shocking because the pull is likely to disturb the roots of the two remaining plants. When the melon plant has reached a length of a foot, pinch off the end of it. This pinch means this to the plant: just stop growing long, take time now to grow branches. Sand or lime sprinkled about the hills tends to keep bugs away. "Onions are about as popular a vegetable as we have. Some people are quite scornful of onions because of their truly disagreeable odour. But I do not know what we should do without the onion for flavourings. Peter is to plant onions where he last had celery. That is very wise, because onions do especially well coming after a crop for which the land was heavily fertilized. Onions like moisture of soil, too. If the soil is not rich enough, nitrate of soda may be added. The most discouraging thing about chemical fertilizers is the fact that advertisements say to have a certain quantity for an acre of land. Few boys and girls are planting entire acres, to just one thing. Now, suppose you write down this: Add 1/4 pound of nitrate of soda to 100 square feet of land then use the proper fractional amount. To buy 1/40 of a pound for example sounds absurd. Buy your quarter pound and put the approximate amount on. Sprinkle chemical fertilizer over the surface of the soil and rake it in just under the surface. "There are two methods for the planting of onions. One way is to use seed; the other, sets. Sets mean little onion bulbs. These are placed in drills about six inches apart and so that the little bulb may be just beneath the surface of the soil. Do not set too low. These bulbs are ready before seed onions. Seeds are rather slow in development. If you make sowings pretty thick the tender tops may be used, and so the thinning process is done to advantage. "I believe that all your gardens should have some parsley in them. It can be planted as a border, since it grows low and has a fringy, decorative effect. If you were Italian girls and boys you would have parsley if you had nothing else; for the Italians always use it in their soups. There is a European variety, not as pretty as the common variety, which grows taller and ranker. It has a stronger smell. An Italian boy who was living in America had a garden in which he grew both kinds of parsley. He was asked which he liked the better. Straightening up, he pointed to the European saying, 'Smells stronger.' ''I believe none of us have raised parsnips. It takes 1/4 of an ounce of seed to plant 100 feet of drill. Any deep, rich, moist garden soil will do. Just as early as the ground is workable, the seed should be sown. Sow in drills of 1/2 inch depth and 6 inches apart. The plants should finally stand about eight inches apart. They may be dug before or after frost. Some people think that the early frosts improve the flavour of parsnips. "I suppose there is no vegetable so well liked as peas. Who would wish a Fourth of July dinner without peas? The early varieties of peas go into the ground just as early as possible. I like best to dig trenches six inches deep and about eighteen inches apart. As the peas are dropped into the trench, cover over with about two inches of soil. As the plants grow, fill soil into the trench. Of course, peas have to be brushed. So as soon as the little runners form put brush behind the plant and start the twiners about the brush stalks. A variety of pea called Gradus is very excellent in flavour. "As for potatoes--well, now, just see Peter grin! He has covered that subject. Of course, I can add nothing to an expert's advice. "Peppers are worth trying. If you do not care for them in your home gardens, add them to the school garden. They work in with the courses in cooking. Just as egg plants are started inside, so ought peppers to be. Whenever the soil is warm and the weather settled, the pepper plants may go out. The best soil for them is a rich, sandy one. The little plants should have about one and a half foot of space on all sides. At first they look pretty lonesome so far apart but soon they will grow to large, bushy plants. A little hen manure mixed with soil and put on top of the ground about the little peppers gives them a good start in their new quarters. There are many interesting kinds of peppers to grow. If a pepper with a little sting is wished try such varieties as Bird's Eye, Red Cluster, and Tobasco. Suppose the peppers are to be used for stuffing. Then large, rather more mild-flavoured kinds are needed. Ruby King pepper is a bouncing beauty. The Red Etna, Improved Bull Nose and Golden King are other good ones. "The word pumpkin stands for good, old-fashioned pies, for Thanksgiving, for grandmother's house. It really brings more to mind than the word squash. I suppose the squash is a bit more useful, when we think of the fine Hubbard, and the nice little crooked-necked summer squashes; but after all, I like to have more pumpkins. And as for Jack-o'-lanterns--why they positively demand pumpkins. In planting these, the same general directions hold good which were given for melons. And use these same for squash-planting, too. But do not plant the two cousins together, for they have a tendency to run together. Plant the pumpkins in between the hills of corn and let the squashes go in some other part of the garden. "We have very nearly worn out the subject of radish. About the only cultural point I would add is this: Make radish develop quickly. If growth is slow, the radish is likely to be poor. Sometimes all the growth goes to top. Fine, green leaves result, but no good radishes. Then doctor the soil in order that fruit development may be quickened. Radishes are the quickest in maturing of all vegetables. That is why your teacher had radish beds for the lower grades in the school. The children got a result and got it quickly. Josephine might have raised radishes as well as parsley in the box garden she had. People in cities could raise these two vegetables on their roofs just as well as not. They are worth the effort it takes in trying. "There is one point I wish to speak of in tomato culture. The great trouble in cultivating comes in the overgrowth of vines. Each plant becomes a large, overgrown, unwieldy sort of affair unless looked out for. Use a stake for each vine. Tie the main stalk of the plant to this. Let the development of fruit come from the top of the plant. So pinch back the lateral branches and remove these. In this way the tomato garden is a neat and pretty one. This treatment is similar to that given grapes. "There is a tomato called the dwarf champion. This is a dwarf variety and so gives less trouble than the other kinds. It does not get troublesome and often does not need staking. If you were little boys and girls, I should say plant this kind of tomato every time. "I have little more to say about turnips. They are an old vegetable, for over two thousand years ago, the Greeks dined on turnips. I usually plant mine right out in the open. The soil may be a sandy one. X FLOWER CULTURE In planting the flower garden there are a few things always to be considered. These are matters of colour, of time and of persistency. "The subject of colour is not so trying, after all, as many gardeners seem to think. If you people wish to plant a few of a good many gay-blooming plants, then I guess colour is a problem. The chief thought in a flower garden should be, how I can make a beautiful picture of this garden of mine. You see right off how tiring and dazzling the garden of too many little dots of colour could be. Look about in nature--see the beautiful range of the butterfly weed, the pinky purple of Joe Pye, the scarlet of cardinal flowers, the blue of certain asters, the pink of bouncing Bet, the yellow of tansy and goldenrod. Nature is constantly presenting perfect splashes of brilliant colour here and there. And yet it is not inharmonious. Why? One reason is that much of the colour is in great masses, and what is not has been softened by stretches of soft green. "Let us take a hint from this for our small gardens. Plant colours in masses, and have breaks of green in between. Not a bad idea! I seem to hear you say. "Then a garden should have a strong time element about it. By this I mean that one should plan a garden for a round of bloom. Why have all the blooms in August? If you look at this bulb time-table I shall have ready for you, you will find that it is possible to start with bulbs. Snowdrops and crocuses will gladly usher in a continuous round of bloom for you. I do not mean that these two will bloom continuously. Not at all! But I mean they are the starters. There are conditions, where spring bloom and fall bloom alone is desired. This is the case with all school gardens where summer care is impossible. Another table called a garden of continuous bloom will help you plan this. "Another point to think of is persistency. Why not plant some seed which will produce plants that come up year after year? Why not have some hardy perennials and some self-sowing annuals? Poppy and cornflower sow themselves. These are annuals. Think of the perennials, which come year after year to welcome us. I think you should have hardy matter in your gardens. Peonies come up year after year, iris takes care of itself, helianthus or perennial sunflower bobs up each year. "George asked me one day, what I meant when I spoke of herbaceous plants. A herbaceous plant is one with a non-woody stem, as geraniums. Mock orange is not herbaceous, because it has a woody stem. When I speak of hardy plants, I mean those which can stand living outdoors through their existence, from start to finish. A half-hardy plant is one that requires fostering before being planted outdoors. We consider asters half-hardy, because they need the extra heat for start which the nasturtium does not need. You would not think of starting nasturtiums indoors. But asters and stock really need this sort of a start in life. "The tall flowers must go toward the back of the garden, for if they were placed in the foreground they would screen the others. The plants of medium height make up the main part of the garden; while the low plants are in the foreground as borders. "Perhaps it would be wiser to put some tall perennials or self-sowing annuals in the background, and among the shrubbery. Then save bed spaces for the annuals. This will cause less disturbance in the garden than the sowing of annuals in with the perennials. "I cannot take up all the garden flowers with you, because it is an impossibility. But a certain number of the more common ones I will talk of. "There are certain plants rather easier to grow than others, and very satisfactory in results. One of these all-around plants is the pansy. It likes best of all cool, moist places but it will do well, under rather reverse conditions. Pansies are the easiest of plants to grow from seed, and they offer a ready response to experiments with cross-fertilization. The very best time to sow plants is after midsummer. Anyway, the work must be done before October the first. Let us claim then that the middle of August is a good time. Make little drills a quarter of an inch deep for the seed; or better, sprinkle it on a fine seed bed. Over the seed sift a little soil. Pansy seed is fine and small, so great care must be taken in the early waterings; better far to cover the bed with old sacking, and water the sacking. In this way, the seed is not washed away. The little sturdy plants should be covered over with leaves or straw for the wintertime. When early spring comes, you will be delighted with plants which are well along. "Pansy flowers should always be kept well picked. Do not let the seed pods form if you desire continuous bloom. It is well to hold this in mind--that if plants are hurried along too fast, the flowers suffer in size. Small, inferior flowers result from such treatment. Pansies have a habit of running out--that is, the flowers grow smaller each year. It is merely a warning to keep making new sowings in order that one may always have large, vigorous blooms. "Choice seed of this flower is very expensive. It is a plant that some florists have put all their time upon. It has seemed to certain men that one of the greatest things in the world, is to find out ways of improving the plants of the earth. So certain fruits are crossed to make new and better ones; and certain flowers are being constantly worked over to get superior strains. Sweet peas, pansies, stock, and dahlias are plants which have been much improved by man's skill. "Larkspur is one of those plants which children so rarely try. I have wondered often why. It is not hard to raise, and so I am hoping that some of you will try it another season. The larkspur is a hardy plant, and there are both annuals and perennials in this family. Some varieties are dwarfed, and grow only a foot and a half high, while others grow five feet in height. This latter growth is very charming in the background of the garden. The flower spikes are showy and the foliage pretty. The larkspur likes a pretty rich sort of soil. The seed is very slow in germinating, and that is reason enough for fall planting. The stay over winter gives these fussy seeds time to make up their minds to germinate. This sowing should be done after the middle of October. "Really charming blue flowers are a bit difficult to find because we have fewer blue flowers than those of the reds and yellows. Do not get the impression that larkspurs are only blue in colour. There are yellow, pink, red, and white varieties. But the blue is very fine. So when you are thinking of high flowers for backgrounds, keep the larkspur in mind. "Hollyhock is another good background plant, because of its height and sentinel-like effect. It sows itself, so will take care of itself. Perennial phlox is well to put into the garden. Helianthus, I have mentioned, as suitable for backgrounds. It has a rather bad habit of too free spreading. "Peonies are very satisfactory. I am sure you will all want some of them. They look their best planted in clumps. A certain pink and white peony is called the rose peony. It is sweet scented, and when in blossom it scents the portion of the yard where it is placed. These look well planted in wide borders. The roots, or bulbs, should go about three inches below ground in nice, rich, garden soil. Do not plant where they get the full blaze of early sun. "I'd put some iris in the border, too. It requires no care. You need not bed it over, even, in the fall. It likes a certain amount of moisture, but grows readily under almost all conditions. The German iris is an easy grower; the French fleur-de-lis is lovely with its more delicate blossom. Certain irises, to be sure, are particular about their quarters, but the two kinds mentioned are not. They like a certain amount of open space. Do not hide them in the shrubbery, although they may be planted near it. "You might put in some hardy chrysanthemums. These need good rich garden soil. They should also be placed near the back of the garden for good effect. You may choose almost any colour in these. Some of the little button chrysanthemums are good for backgrounds. The yellow ones make good splashes of colour, while the dull reds are most beautiful. These bloom after frost. When the frost has made havoc with the foliage, cut the plant down to about one inch of the ground. It is well to cut the flowers before frost. "You have now a few good background plants which are hardy. "The biennials can be so planted as to behave like perennials. These plants, you remember, are doing their best blossoming work the second summer. So by yearly sowings you may always have good effects. I have mentioned some already for your garden:--Canterbury bell, cornflower and foxglove are biennials. Cornflower tends to self sow, but needs help in this work from you. Sweet William is an old favourite. Of course, it is pretty gaudy. But I like old sweet William in spite of his gay tendency. They are rather stiff, but so easy to raise, being not very particular about anything. "When it comes to annuals there is a multitude of these to plant each season. There are candytuft and alyssum for borders. Then mignonette is absolutely necessary to keep the garden sweet. Coreopsis is easy to raise, and so is godetia. If a great big bold mass of colour is desired, put in Shirley poppies. These grow well even on sandy soil. It is well to remember, that these do not lend themselves kindly to transplanting. "Suppose there is a bit of sandy ground which needs a low-growing plant. Put in this spot portulaca. The bright little blossoms, constantly blooming, add a bit of cheer to that old sandy place. "There are the old stand-bys which are good bloomers--nasturtiums, zinnias, marigolds and petunias. In the case of zinnia, it is better to buy these seeds by the ounce. Children's penny packages and the regular five-cent packages are filled usually with seeds which produce variously coloured blossoms. One can plan for no good effects in this way. If you get a seed catalogue, and look through the zinnia list, you can choose just what you like. "Certain plants are spoken of as plants for bedding. These plants are placed in a formal bed after the spring flowers have finished their blooming. You sometimes see in the park fine beds of tulips and hyacinths early in the season. After these have finished their blooming, plants which are all started are put in their bed. If seeds were planted they would take so long to develop that the bed would look bad for a long time. So bedding plants are put in. Geraniums are the most popular of all. Begonias, fuchsias, heliotrope and coleus are often used. Geraniums will stand almost any kind of soil, and therefore have great advantages over most plants. Begonias will flourish in the shade; while the strong point about coleus is that of beauty of foliage. "To those of you who have started outdoor bulb beds, the bedding list will be of some service. Marguerites look well in such a bed. Often one sees a border of ageratum about such a one. There is always a sort of stiff effect about such borders, however. A canna bed is after the same order, yet is effective. Salvia, or scarlet sage, looks well in wide borders, or near the underpinning of the house. Both these may act as bedding plants. "There are three other kinds of gardens I should like to bring to your minds--the rock garden, the herb garden and the wild-flower garden. This last we shall have to leave for another time, however. "Whenever a rockery is mentioned to some people they shrug their shoulders, and murmur something about a mere heap of rocks. Now, a rock garden may be very pretty, or very ugly. Such a garden should never be stuck out in the front yard to hit one in the face. But if you have a place in your yard, which is near the woods or in the vicinity of trees, or by a rocky ledge--in short, if you have any place with a bit of wildness surrounding it, use this for a rockery. If your yard is just a plain, tame, civilized yard, you'd better leave the rock garden out. I know of a lady living in a city, whose backyard is a rocky ledge. That ledge itself told her what her garden ought to be. It just cried out to her, 'Build a rock garden on me.' And she did it. Any other kind of a garden would have been out of place and taste there. Wherever a rocky ledge is found, there is a possibility for a rock garden. "To have a good garden of this sort, one must have earth as well as rocks. Earth must be put into all the crevices of rock, so that there is some depth to it, and at such an angle that it won't be washed out by hard rains. A rock garden should have an earth foundation. I mean that there must be much of earth about it. I saw a charming one, which had only climbing nasturtiums planted over it. It was a great rock jutting out, and extending back into the yard--a big, flat, irregular affair--and all over it were these running vines. It was very simple and very effective. Go to the woods and seek out ferns which are growing in rocky places. Take what little earth they have about them, and try to give them a similar position in your own rockery. Bring back some leaf mould from the woods, and mix the garden soil for the rockery. Candytuft, dwarf phlox, stonecrop, morning glory, saxifrage, bleeding heart, rock cress, myrtle, thrift, columbine, bell flower, and moss pink. Get some moss, too, for chinks between rocks. "If we could go back to old colonial days, and visit a dame's garden, I am sure we should find a little herb garden there. Our mothers might call these herbs pot herbs. Here all the flavourings for the soups were raised. Here sweet lavender might be found, its flowers used to make fragrant the bed linen. Horehound, anise and others were used in medicines; while little caraway seeds made delicious the cakes and cookies. I can see bunches of dried sage hung in the attic. "Even with us there might be good use made of this garden both at home and at school. We do, of course, grow parsley, which is an herb, but the others seem to have dropped out of our gardens. We might at least grow next summer the sage and savoury for the turkey stuffing. "Herbs need a sandy, well-worked soil. Seed should be sown in drills about twelve inches apart. The seed should be sown in early spring, as soon as the ground is warm. Sprinkle the seed just below the surface, and cover lightly with soil. "A list of common herbs includes the following: Anise, balm, basil, borage, caraway, catnip, coriander, dill, fennel, horehound, hop, hyssop, lavender, pot marigold, sweet and pot marjoram, parsley, pennyroyal, rosemary, rue, sage, savoury, tansy, sorrel, thyme, and wormwood. It would be of little use to plant all of these, even to see what the plants were like. I would suggest your trying lavender, sage, savoury, and dill. "Lavender seed is very slow to germinate, so sow the seed plentifully in early spring. The soil should have a dusting of lime over it as lavender plants enjoy lime. The flower is the part you wish. Pick these flower stalks before the flowers get old. Dry, and then sprinkle the dried flowers in the linen chest. Lavender is very sweet, and is often spoken of as sweet lavender. To this day one will hear women singing in the streets of London, 'Sweet lavender, buy my sweet lavender.' "Sage likes a good, well-drained soil. It, too, likes lime. The little seedlings should be thinned out to stand about ten inches apart. When you see flowers forming cut the sage plant and quickly dry. It makes a pretty border plant in the garden. Savoury is also a border plant. But this is a hardy annual, while lavender and sage are perennials. It likes a light but rich soil. Both the leaves and flowers are used in soup flavouring. "Dill is also sown in early spring. It is the seed of the dill plant, and not the leaves and flowers, which is the useful part. The seeds are used in the making of pickles. "I shall hope to see something in the herb line, in your gardens next year--a hardy garden started, and a good bit of taste displayed by all of you. You girls might raise mint to put in lemonade. "Next time we shall have our talk on wild flowers. Some of you know and love many of these wild flowers." ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNUALS FOR SANDY SOILS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Clarkia Rose June 1-1/2 ft. Good to use for a border White Oct. plant. Purple Use single varieties. Poppy White July 1-1/2 ft. Do not transplant. Fine for Red Aug. mass effects. Nasturtium Yellow June Most satisfactory, especially to Maroon Oct. 1-5 ft. for cut flowers. Blooms freely. Portulaca White June 1/2 ft. Blooms freely -- grows close Red to the ground. Yellow Zinnia Red June 1-1/2 ft. Grows without great care. Magenta Frost Blooms freely. Looks best when massed. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNUALS FOR HEAVY SOILS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Godetia Red July 1-2 ft. Easy to grow. An English White Oct. favourite: blooms freely. Sweet Pea Variety July 4-6 ft. Plant early in the spring in Oct. a sunny spot. Keep flowers well clipped for constant bloom. Petunia Magenta May 1-2 ft. Mass or use in borders. Give plenty of sun. Good for the outdoor window box. Sweet White July 1/2 ft. Sow thickly in the borders. Alyssum Sept. Blooms freely. Grows in every soil. Pot Orange June 1-1/2 ft. Blooms freely. Looks well Marigold Yellow Frost in masses. Stiff effect as a cut flower. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ SEVEN FAVOURITE ANNUALS FOR CUT FLOWERS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Sweet White July 1/2 ft. Use in low bowls for table Alyssum Red Sept. decorations. China Aster White July 1 ft. Lasts long after cutting. Blue to Oct. Purple Baby's White June 2-3 ft. Use in bouquets with other Breath Rose Oct. flowers. Coreopsis Yellow June 1-2 ft. Place by themselves in tall Brown Nov. vases. Nasturtium Scarlet June 1-5 ft. Cut freely for constant Yellow Oct. bloom. Use in great masses in low vases. Pansy Purple May 1/2-1 ft. Cut closely. Place in low Blue June dishes. Yellow White Pink White May 1 ft. Lasts well after cutting. Maroon Aug. Rose ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNUALS THAT BLOOM AFTER FROST ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Sweet Alyssum White July 1/2 ft. Withstands early frosts. Sept. Good border plant. Candytuft Red June to 1/2 ft. Sow at intervals through White Sept. the summer. Good cut flower. Cornflower Rose June 2-3 ft. Good for cut flowers. Blue Blooms freely. White Marigold Yellow June 1/2 - 2 Better for garden effects Browns Aug. ft. than for cut flowers. Annual Phlox Yellow May 1/2 - 1 Self sows. Good all round Reds Aug. ft. plant. White Ten-weeks White June 1 1/2 A second sowing made in stock Purple July ft. May flowers the same Pink season. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ FRAGRANT ANNUALS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Mignonette Green May 1 ft. Beautifully fragrant. Do Oct. not transplant. Good to use as a break for clashing colours. Sweet Peas White July 4-6 ft. Free bloomer. Try variety Scarlet Oct. _Lathyrus odorata._ Blue Yellow Ten- weeks Pink June 1 ft. Good for cut flowers. stock Purple July Fragrant at night. White Sweet Sultan White June 2 ft. _Centaurea moschata_ good Yellow Aug. for cut flowers. Purple Sweet Alyssum White July 1/2 ft. _Alyssum maritimun._ Low Sept. growing, border plant. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNUALS THAT RE-SOW THEMSELVES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Morning glory Reds July 15-30 ft. Grows rapidly. Makes a Blues Oct good screen. Whites Poppy Pink June 1/2-2 ft. _Papaver Rhocas_ and P. Scarlet Sept. _somniferum_. White Phlox Yellow May l/2-1 ft. _Phlox Drummondii._ Reds Aug. Need much water. White Pot Marigold Orange June 1-2 ft. _Calendula officinalis_ Yellow Oct. Likes a warm soil. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNUALS THAT CLIMB ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Balloon Vine White Aug. 10 ft. Grows rapidly. Good screen. Japanese Hop Incon- July 8-20 ft. Rapid grower. Looks well spicuous Oct. growing along old fences. Moon-flower White July 15-30 ft. Night bloomer. Grows Sept. rapidly. Morning Glory Purple June 20 ft. Rapid grower. Good White Aug. screen. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNUALS FOR SHADY PLACES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Godetia White July 1-2 ft. The flowers are showy. Red to Oct. Musk Yellow June 1/2-1 ft. Need moisture and coolness. to Aug Nemophila Blue June 1-3 ft. Moisture, partial shade and White to Oct. coolness. Pansy White May 1/2-1 ft. Sow under same conditions Yellow to Oct. as musk in early spring. Purple Blooms freely in the fall. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNUALS FOR SUNNY PLACES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Balsam Red June to 1-2 ft. Plant in rich sandy loam Yellow Oct. under direct rays of sun. White Cornflower Blue May to 2 ft. Full flower. Resows itself Sept. Cosmos White July to 4 ft. Overrich soil retards Pink Sept. bloom. Crimson Gaillardia Red July to 3 ft. Good cut flower. Blossoms Yellow Oct. freely. Marigold, Yellow July to 3 ft. Blooms profusely; stiff African Frost flower head. Nasturtium Yellow June to 1-5 ft. Both dwarf and tall varieties Scarlet Oct. are rapid growers and free bloomers. Rose moss White June 1/2-3/4 ft. _Portulaca grandiflora._ Magenta Aug. Plant in position direct sunshine. Verbena Various July to 2 ft. Start inside for early Sept. bloom. Wallflower Orange June 1-1/2 ft. Sown in Sept. blooms in July May. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ANNUALS FOR ROCKY PLACES ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Phlox Red June to 1-1-1/2 ft. Variety _Phlox Drumondii_ White Oct. Duration of bloom depends on richness of soil. Candytuft Red May 1/2-1-1/2 ft. Plant in the fall and cover White Frost for early spring bloom. Clarkia Purple June 1-1/2 ft. Use _Clarkia elegans._ Red Oct. Thrives in both sun and White partial shade. Nasturtium Reds June 1 ft. _Tropoeolum minor;_ blooms (Dwarf) Yellows Oct. very early. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ FRAGRANT PERENNIALS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Winter Lilac Dec. 1 ft. Blooms outdoors in winter. Heliotrope Feb. Flowers small. Russian Violet March 1/2 ft. Double flowers. Hardy. Violets Lily-of- White May 3/4 ft. Plant by middle of March the-Valley for that season's bloom. Needs part shade. Spreads. Valerian Pinkish June 3 ft. Finely cut foliage. Easy to grow. Lemon Lily Yellow June 2 ft. Flowers 4 in. long. Tubers which multiply rapidly. Fringed Pink Lilac July 1 ft. Blooms until autumn if prevented from seeding. Bee Balm Scarlet July 2 ft. Odour of mint. Good for Aug. mass effects. White Day White Aug. 2 ft. Lilies 4-6 in. long. Fine, Lily Sept. broad-leaved foliage. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ PERENNIALS FOR CUT FLOWERS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Christmas Rose White Nov. 1/2 ft. Blooms outdoors in the Feb. snow. No fragrance. Charming in masses. California Violet March 1/2 ft. Large flowers but single. Violets Fragrant. Foxglove Purple June 3-4 ft. Large flowers, long stems. Oriental Blue June 2-3 ft. Beautiful colour, long Larkspur White stems. Let no flowers go to seed. Japan Iris Variety July 3-4 ft. Short lived when cut. of Fine blooms. Japan Anemone Pink Sept. 3 ft. Finest September flower. White Plant in spring. Plant for afternoon sun. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ TALL PERENNIALS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Hollyhock Variety July 6 ft. Single varieties are the of hardier; double varieties last longer. Plume Poppy Pinkish July 6 ft. Spreads rapidly. Fine for massing and screening. Do not plant on the west as it shuts off sun. Golden Glow Yellow Aug. 6 ft. Multiplies rapidly. Fine bloomer. Liable to pest lice. Spray with soap solution. Double Yellow Aug. 5 ft. Largest double flower of Sunflower any perennial. Likely to run out unless divided Late Yellow Sept. 10-12 ft. Tallest of perennials; Sunflower blooms till October. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ LOW GROWING PERENNIALS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Crested Blue April 9 in. Earliest of iris. Good for Dwarf Iris edgings. Plant the middle of March. Dwarf Flag Purple April 9 in. Increases rapidly. Large flowers. Good colouring English Pink April 6 in. Good for spring budding Daisy White purposes. Tufted Blue June 6 in. More but smaller flowers Pansies or Yellow than pansies. After Violets White July cut back, manure and they will bloom again in September. Carpathian Blue July 8 in. Bloom for 6 weeks. Easy Harebell to grow. Coral Bells Red Aug. 12 in. Grow in sandy, well-drained soil. Coral red flowers. Popp-mallow Crimson Sept. 9 in. Blooms nearly 12 weeks. Colour does not harmonize with others. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------ PERENNIALS OF MEDIUM HEIGHT ------------------------------------------------------------------------ NAME COLOUR TIME HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Bleeding Pink May 1-1/2 ft. Long lived and long of Heart bloom. Graceful. European Crimson May 3 ft. Earliest of peonies. Poor Peony White appearance in the fall. Sweet Red June 12 in. Self sows. Flowers at their William Pink best the second year. White Chinese Crimson June 2-1/2 ft. Long-lived. Very Peony Pink satisfactory. Plant White in September. Foxglove Purple June 3-3-1/4 ft. Spire-like cluster White of flowers. Oriental Blue June 2-3 ft. Best blue perennial. Cut Larkspur flower spikes as soon as they fade. Oriental Red June 3 ft. Self sows. Flowers 6 in. Poppy across. Gaillardia Red June 1 ft. Flowers more freely than Yellow Nov. any other perennial. Cover plants after ground freezes. Late Phlox All best Aug. 1-1/2 ft. Fragrant in the evening. Blue Sept. Many colours of bloom. and Yellow Hardy Blue Sept. 3ft. Long season of bloom. Chrysanthemum Scarlet Nov. Deep rich soil and sunny exposure for best results. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ XI THE WILD-FLOWER GARDEN "A wild-flower garden has a most attractive sound. One thinks of long tramps in the woods, collecting material, and then of the fun in fixing up a real for sure wild garden. "If the wild garden is to be a school affair, then I certainly should plant the different kinds of flowers together. The north corner near the building is a suitable place. But if the garden is to be at home--your own private little garden--I am inclined to think it would be better to plant the wild flowers here and there among the cultivated ones. "A wild-flower garden is a joy each year, because up it comes without constant replanting of seed. It is a hardy garden. As Nature often covers her wood-flowers over with leaves preparatory to winter, so you might copy her and do the same. "Many people say they have no luck at all with such a garden. It is not a question of luck, but a question of understanding, for wild flowers are like people and each has its personality. What a plant has been accustomed to in Nature it desires always. In fact, when removed from its own sort of living conditions, it sickens and dies. That is enough to tell us that we should copy Nature herself. Suppose you are hunting wild flowers. As you choose certain flowers from the woods, notice the soil they are in, the place, conditions, the surroundings, and the neighbours. "Suppose you find dog-tooth violets and wind-flowers growing near together. Then place them so in your own new garden. Suppose you find a certain violet enjoying an open situation; then it should always have the same. You see the point, do you not? If you wish wild flowers to grow in a tame garden make them feel at home. Cheat them into almost believing that they are still in their native haunts. "Wild flowers ought to be transplanted after blossoming time is over. Take a trowel and a basket into the woods with you. As you take up a few, a columbine, or a hepatica, be sure to take with the roots some of the plant's own soil, which must be packed about it when replanted. "The bed into which these plants are to go should be prepared carefully before this trip of yours. Surely you do not wish to bring those plants back to wait over a day or night before planting. They should go into new quarters at once. The bed needs soil from the woods, deep and rich and full of leaf mold. The under drainage system should be excellent. Then plants are not to go into water-logged ground. Some people think that all wood plants should have a soil saturated with water. But the woods themselves are not water-logged. It may be that you will need to dig your garden up very deeply and put some stone in the bottom. Over this the top soil should go. And on top, where the top soil once was, put a new layer of the rich soil you brought from the woods. "Before planting water the soil well. Then as you make places for the plants put into each hole some of the soil which belongs to the plant which is to be put there. "I think it would be a rather nice plan to have a wild-flower garden giving a succession of bloom from early spring to late fall; so let us start off with March, the hepatica, spring beauty and saxifrage. Then comes April bearing in its arms the beautiful columbine, the tiny bluets and wild geranium. For May there are the dog-tooth violet and the wood anemone, false Solomon's seal, Jack-in-the-pulpit, wake robin, bloodroot and violets. June will give the bellflower, mullein, bee balm and foxglove. I would choose the gay butterfly weed for July. Let turtle head, aster, Joe Pye weed, and Queen Anne's lace make the rest of the season brilliant until frost. "Let us have a bit about the likes and dislikes of these plants. After you are once started you'll keep on adding to this wild-flower list. "There is no one who doesn't love the hepatica. Before the spring has really decided to come, this little flower pokes its head up and puts all else to shame. Tucked under a covering of dry leaves the blossoms wait for a ray of warm sunshine to bring them out. The last year's leaves stay on through the winter brooding over the little fresh sprouts. These embryo flowers are further protected by a fuzzy covering. This reminds one of a similar protective covering which new fern leaves have. In the spring a hepatica plant wastes no time on getting a new suit of leaves. It makes its old ones do until the blossom has had its day. Then the new leaves, started to be sure before this, have a chance. These delayed, are ready to help out next season. You will find hepaticas growing in clusters, sort of family groups. They are likely to be found in rather open places in the woods. The soil is found to be rich and loose. So these should go only in partly shaded places and under good soil conditions. If planted with other woods specimens give them the benefit of a rather exposed position, that they may catch the early spring sunshine. I should cover hepaticas over with a light litter of leaves in the fall. During the last days of February, unless the weather is extreme take this leaf covering away. You'll find the hepatica blossoms all ready to poke up their heads. "The spring beauty hardly allows the hepatica to get ahead of her. With a white flower which has dainty tracings of pink, a thin, wiry stem, and narrow, grass-like leaves, this spring flower cannot be mistaken. You will find spring beauties growing in great patches in rather open places. Plant a number of the roots and allow the sun good opportunity to get at them. For this plant loves the sun. "The other March flower mentioned is the saxifrage. This belongs in quite a different sort of environment. It is a plant which grows in dry and rocky places. Often one will find it in chinks of rock. There is an old tale to the effect that the saxifrage roots twine about rocks and work their way into them so that the rock itself splits. Anyway, it is a rock garden plant. I have found it in dry, sandy places right on the borders of a big rock. It has white flower clusters borne on hairy stems. "The columbine is another plant that is quite likely to be found in rocky places. Standing below a ledge and looking up, one sees nestled here and there in rocky crevices one plant or more of columbine. The nodding red heads bob on wiry, slender stems. The roots do not strike deeply into the soil; in fact, often the soil hardly covers them. Now, just because the columbine has little soil, it does not signify that it is indifferent to the soil conditions. For it always has lived, and always should live, under good drainage conditions. I wonder if it has struck you, how really hygienic plants are? Plenty of fresh air, proper drainage, and good food are fundamentals with plants. "It is evident from study of these plants how easy it is to find out what plants like. After studying their feelings, then do not make the mistake of huddling them all together under poor drainage conditions. "I always have a feeling of personal affection for the bluets. When they come I always feel that now things are beginning to settle down outdoors. They start with rich, lovely, little delicate blue blossoms. As June gets hotter and hotter their colour fades a bit, until at times they look quite worn and white. Some people call them Quaker ladies, others innocence. Under any name they are charming. They grow in colonies, sometimes in sunny fields, sometimes by the road-side. From this we learn that they are more particular about the open sunlight than about the soil. "If you desire a flower to pick and use for bouquets, then the wild geranium is not your flower. It droops very quickly after picking and almost immediately drops its petals. But the purplish flowers are showy, and the leaves, while rather coarse, are deeply cut. This latter effect gives a certain boldness to the plant that is rather attractive. The plant is found in rather moist, partly shaded portions of the woods. I like this plant in the garden. It adds good colour and permanent colour as long as blooming time lasts, since there is no object in picking it. "I suppose little children would not have a perfect spring without the dog's tooth violet. The leaves are attractive and almost make the beauty of a bouquet. It is sometimes called trout lily. The mottled effect of the leaves accounts for the trout part of the name, and as for lily, it _is_ a lily, and never belonged to the violet family at all. Dig the plant up, and the bulbous root tells the story. It really does belong to the lily family. The nodding yellow flower is pretty, too. These, when picked, last a long time in water. They like to grow in the neighbourhood of the brook. A moist, half-shaded half-open piece of land is their delight, and therefore in many gardens the trout lily might have to be left out. "There is a sweet little flower called the wood anemone, or wind-flower. It is another modest little flower, white in colour. The constant nodding of the petals stirred by even a breath of wind gives it the name of wind-flower. These also grow in colonies. Have you noticed how social, but clannish, our wild flowers are? Especially is this true of the real woods flowers, rather than of the wayside flowers. The anemone grows in open places by the woods or the hillside. They are a sort of border plant evidently trying to leave the woods, but still bound to it. "If in your yard there happens to be a big old fatherly tree or a decaying stump, plant wind-flowers all about it. You may make the flowers feel that they are on the edge of the woods. "While I have numbered bloodroot among May flowers, it often does appear in April, and before the wood anemone. The silvery, white blossom pushes its head above the leaves in a fine fashion. They are sensitive flowers, closing partly in cloudy weather, and actually dropping to pieces in a rainstorm or under severe winds. The leaves are large, rather coarse, but pretty with their light under surfaces. The stems have tinges of red on them, a dark red sap in the roots. These roots bleed when disturbed. The Indians used to stain their faces with this orange sap-blood. You will find bloodroot growing in rich soil either in open woods or on rocky slopes. "In a nice, rich, moist place put a few Jack-in-the pulpits. This flower is much like a child's jack-in-the-box. It is so different from most of our plants that it has the effect of the joker in a pack of cards. Push back the flap over Jack's face and you will see a club like a policeman's billy. Along this club the inconspicuous flowers are borne. Later, in the fall, the fruit forms, and inside, instead of rather uninteresting flowers, are bright red berries. So Jack jokes again. "There is always a great feeling of joy when the first trilliums, or wake robins, appear. Walking in the deep, moist woods suddenly one sees a mass of big leaves and white flowers. The same irresistably lovely trilliums have come again. Three big leaves, then a flower stalk shooting up from the centre of this whorl of leaves, and on top the crowning glory--the three-petaled trillium flower. A fragrant white or pink form is called the nodding wake robin. These in a glance tell their wishes. The plant sometimes is nearly two feet high. So a clump of these could easily go toward the back of the wild-flower garden in shade and moist soil. "Another wild flower of striking beauty is the May apple or mandrake. It comes very early in May, often in April. This plant grows to about the same height as the trillium. Only the big spreading leaves of the mandrake are visible at first sight. Beneath these, and daintily hung in the junction of the leaf stalks, is the lovely, waxy, white blossom. Late after the fading of the blossom the fruit appears. So its name of May apple comes from this fruit, which has a sickly sweet taste. The leaf and stalk part of the May apple are of a poisonous nature. This flower, too, likes rather low, moist, shaded places. "The false Solomon's seal is found in woods where moisture is. During June and July this plant is in blossom. After the white flowers the fruit, or berry, appears. The berry changes from green, to white, to red. There is a two-leaved Solomon's seal called the false lily-of-the-valley which is found at this same time. It has usually two little lily-like leaves and a blossom stalk running up from these. Tiny fragrant flowers are borne on this stalk. These plants grow in moist woods, also. One might plant these two near together in the garden, for the soil conditions are the same for both. "Who would wish a wild-flower garden without violets? The little sweet wood ones, the big horse shoes, the rare white, and more rare yellow--any and all are worth our while! Violets, at least the most of them, prefer not to be huddled away. I wonder why, when people think of transplanting violets, a dull, dark, moist spot immediately comes to mind? Violets like the sun, like good soil, and plenty of air. Some violets are found in the swamps, but did you happen to notice what long stems they have? Why? The reason is to raise the lovely flowers into the light. Nothing could be sweeter or more satisfactory than a violet bed. I rather like violets bedded by themselves. They fill in corners beautifully. They grow gladly about trees. They adorn borders. You may cover them, in the fall or not as you like. They are not fussy. Take a north corner at school, a corner not wholly shaded by any means--fill that in solid with violet plants in the fall. That corner always will be a thing of real beauty. "The bellflower coming in May blooms on until September. The flower is blue, purple or violet. It is a flower found in dry places, on grassy slopes, along hillsides, and is common to most localities. "I have a sneaking fondness for mullein. One or two stalks of it give a charming effect in the garden. Its yellow flowers, its tall flower stalk, the thick, hairy leaves--all these are its charms. It is said that these same hairy leaves were used as wicks by the ancients. Anyway, the flowers themselves on the tall stalks that often reach to seven feet, look like gleaming lights on a torch. The mullein has a simple dignity. It grows in the dry fields and along roadsides. So you see it is by no means particular about its habitat, its place of abode. "Another tall plant is the foxglove. The flowers are gathered together in a sort of spike at the end of the stalk, are large and yellow and really lovely. The plant grows to about four feet in height. It has a bad habit, this downy false foxglove, of absorbing some of its nourishment from the roots of plants near which it stands. This plant, too, is fond of dry places. "A very gay flower, intensely red, is the bee balm. It is an herb, and a perennial. It is often called Oswego tea, because the Indians are supposed to have used it for tea. Then, again, you will hear it called Indian's plume. This name seems most suitable. I can just imagine a chief strutting around with this gay plume on his head. It likes a somewhat secluded, moist, shady, cool place. I think it would be possible for some of you to make it grow at home. For colour it would be invaluable. The cardinal flower is the only flower more gaudy in red than this bee balm. "When one comes to orange colour the butterfly weed takes the prize. This flower has a variety of names: it is called pleurisy root, and wind root, and orange root. Would you think that this gay little beggar was a member of the milkweed family? It is. When seed time comes it produces a seed pod like unto the milkweed pod only more slender than this. All summer long the insects hover about it. It is just like a signal to them. "Come over here to me!" it calls to them all. It is found in dry places, in the fields and pastures, along the dusty road sides, and by the sooty railroad track it flashes its signal. You can make this plant feel at home surely. And think of the butterflies that will visit your garden all summer long. "Then later comes old Joe Pye weed. Joe Pye was an Indian doctor but that doesn't seem to have anything to do with his weed. Yes, it has its connection. For when old Joe Pye went out on a case of typhoid fever he carried this plant along; hence, its name. The plant sometimes grows to ten feet in height. Really the swamp is its home. So if you are to use it at all remember that it must have this condition of great moisture, even to swampiness. The flower clusters are of a charming colour, a beautiful dull pink. "Another inhabitant of wet places is the turtle head. The flower resembles in shape a turtle's or a snake's head, and so receives both names. "When it comes to Queen Anne's lace, you say that is a troublesome weed. Yes, it is. But it is truly beautiful with its lacy flower head. A great bouquet of these on the porch, the dining table, or the school piano is a real picture. A clump of these in the garden, if held in check, is simply stunning. How can they be held down? The only way is to let no flower heads go to seed. The little, clinging, persistent, numerous seeds are seeds of trouble. This lovely bother grows in any sort of soil. "There are numbers and numbers of wild flowers I might have suggested. These I have mentioned were not given for the purpose of a flower guide, but with just one end in view--your understanding of how to study soil conditions for the work of starting a wild-flower garden. "If you fear results, take but one or two flowers and study just what you select. Having mastered, or better, become acquainted with a few, add more another year to your garden. I think you will love your wild garden best of all before you are through with it. It is a real study, you see." XII LANDSCAPE GARDENING The subject to-night is a very pretentious one, for no one would expect boys and girls to be landscape gardeners. But many boys and girls have excellent taste and taste is the foundation stone of landscape gardening. This work has often been likened to the painting of a picture. Your art-work teacher has doubtless told you that a good picture should have a point of chief interest, and the rest of the points simply go to make more beautiful the central idea, or to form a fine setting for it. Look at that picture over Miriam's head. See that lone pine, the beautiful curve of the hillside, the scrub undergrowth about the tree, the bit of sky beyond! As soon as one looks at that picture one's eye rests on the pine, and the other features seem to appear afterward. "So in landscape gardening there must be in the gardener's mind a picture of what he desires the whole to be when he completes his work. Take, for example, your school grounds. You did a bit of landscape work there, although we never called it that before. The little schoolhouse itself was our centre of interest. How could we fix up the grounds so that the little building should have a really attractive setting? That, I believe, was the thought in each of your heads, although no one of you ever put this into words. "Notice now with me the good points about that work, and from this study we shall be able to work out a little theory of landscape gardening. "First there is a good extent of lawn about the building, the path to the door is slightly curved and pleasingly so, a fine little maple stands out rather interestingly on the side lawn, the flower garden has a good mass effect, the screen of poplar trees at the back acts as a stately rear guard, and the vines over the outbuilding hide what was once a blemish. "Let us go back to the lawn. A good extent of open lawn space is always beautiful. It is restful. It adds a feeling of space to even small grounds. So we might generalize and say that it is well to keep open lawn spaces. If one covers his lawn space with many trees, with little flower beds here and there, the general effect is choppy and fussy. It is a bit like an over-dressed person. One's grounds lose all individuality thus treated. A single tree or a small group is not a bad arrangement on the lawn. Do not centre the tree or trees. Let them drop a bit into the background. Make a pleasing side feature of them. In choosing trees one must keep in mind a number of things. You should not choose an overpowering tree; the tree should be one of good shape, with something interesting about its bark, leaves, flowers or fruit. While the poplar is a rapid grower, it sheds its leaves early and so is left standing, bare and ugly, before the fall is old. Mind you, there are places where a row or double row of Lombardy poplars is very effective. But I think you'll agree with me that one lone poplar is not. The catalpa is quite lovely by itself. Its leaves are broad, its flowers attractive, the seed pods which cling to the tree until away into the winter, add a bit of picturesqueness. The bright berries of the ash, the brilliant foliage of the sugar maple, the blossoms of the tulip tree, the bark of the white birch, and the leaves of the copper beech--all these are beauty points to consider. "Place makes a difference in the selection of a tree. Suppose the lower portion of the grounds is a bit low and moist, then the spot is ideal for a willow. Don't group trees together which look awkward. I never should have Peter and Myron march together in school. Why? Because they look wretchedly together. Myron makes Peter look short and Peter causes Myron to look overgrown. So it is with trees. A long-looking poplar does not go with a nice rather rounded little tulip tree. A juniper, so neat and prim, would look silly beside a spreading chestnut. One must keep proportion and suitability in mind. "I'd never advise the planting of a group of evergreens close to a house, and in the front yard. The effect is very gloomy indeed. Houses thus surrounded are overcapped by such trees and are not only gloomy to live in, but truly unhealthful. The chief requisite inside a house is sunlight and plenty of it. "There are no shrubs on the school grounds. You had spoken of doing that but bulbs took up the attention of the girls this fall. And as for you boys--you were attending to your own crops. Shrubbery is very pleasing if properly placed. It is just the thing to fill in corners near buildings, to help define the turns in walks, and to use as hedges. Usually one shrub standing by itself is not nearly so pleasing as one tree by itself. It has a squatty and isolated appearance. There is a corner close by the school building where shrubs should go. Why? Because the place looks bare and staring, and the building is very ugly at that point; the shrubs would fill in the space, and make the building look much better. "As trees are chosen because of certain good points, so shrubs should be. In a clump I should wish some which bloomed early, some which bloomed late, some for the beauty of their fall foliage, some for the colour of their bark and others for the fruit. Some spireas and the forsythia bloom early. The red bark of the dogwood makes a bit of colour all winter, and the red berries of the barberry cling to the shrub well into the winter. This list of shrubs which Philip has made out will be a help to you in this work. PHILIP'S SHRUB TABLE --------------------------------------------------------------------- COMMON NAME BOTANICAL NAME HEIGHT COLOUR SPECIAL POINTS --------------------------------------------------------------------- _March_ Spice Bush _Benzoin_ 6-15 ft. Yellow Flowers appear _odoriferum_ before leaves. Crimson fruit in fall. Aromatic odour. Daphne _Daphne Mezereum_ 4 ft. Purple The only hardy deciduous daphne. Plant in light soil and in shade. _April_ Barberry _Berberis- 2-4 ft. Yellow Prefers dry soil. Berries _Thunbergii_ all winter. Golden Bell _Forsythia_ 5-8 ft. Yellow Flowers appear before _suspensa_ leaves. Hardy; free from insects. _May_ Red-osier _Cornus_ 4-8 ft. White Red branched. Plant Dogwood _stolonifera_ in moist soil. Japanese Snow _Deutzia_ 1-3 ft. White Very beautiful when Flower _gracilis_ flowering. Needs well drained soil. Japanese _Viburnum_ 8 ft. White Not as likely to have Snowball _plicatum_ lice as common snowball. Larger balls. Lilac _Syringa_ 15 ft. Purple Very fragrant. Will _vulgaris_ grow anywhere even in some shade. _June_ Deutzia _Deutzia_ 1-3 ft. White Hardy; flowers showy. _Lemoinei_ Weigela _Diervilla_ 6 ft. Pink May have white or red _Florida_ White flowers. Flowers under Red trees. Lives where other shrubs die. Spirea _Spiræa_ 4 ft. White Most showy of spireas. _Van Houttei_ Grows anywhere. Mock Orange _Philadelphus_ 10 ft. Varieties Fragrant; _Coronarius_ of different makes good screen. colours. Smoke Bush _Rhus cotinus_ 4-10 ft. Purplish Hardy. Beautiful all summer. Purple colour changes to smoke colour. _July_ Spirea _Spirea_ 3 ft. White Flowers run from white _Bumalda_, to deep pink. Late var._Anthony_ flowering. Hardy. _Waterer_ Sweet Pepper _Clethra_ 3-10 ft. White Moist soil or sandy. Bush _alnifolia_ Late blooming; fragrant flowers. _August_ Althea, Rose _Hibiscus_ 12 ft. White to Very hardy. Plant in of Sharon _Syriacus_ purple any good garden soil. _September_ Hardy _Hydrangea_ 8 ft. White to A showy shrub. Flowers Hydrangea _paniculata_ pink remain on all winter. _October_ Witch Hazel _Hamamelis_ 6-20 ft. Yellow Grows anywhere. Likes _Virginiana_ moisture. Fruit "explodes." "Certain shrubs are good to use for hedge purposes. A hedge is rather prettier usually than a fence. The Californian privet is excellent for this purpose. Osage orange, Japan barberry, buckthorn, Japan quince, and Van Houtte's spirea are other shrubs which make good hedges. "You have to remember that not only should grounds look well to the passerby but they should look equally well from the inside of the building. As your mother is working in the kitchen during the hot summer or sewing during a long dull winter afternoon, would it not be a joy to her to look out at a syringa sweet with blossom or a barberry with nodding red berries? Landscape gardening is not only for the purpose of adding beauty to the earth's surface, but also for the putting joy into the heart of a person as well. "I forgot to say that in tree and shrub selection it is usually better to choose those of the locality one lives in. Unusual and foreign plants do less well, and often harmonize but poorly with their new setting. "I spoke of the path to the schoolhouse with its slight curve. Landscape gardening may follow along very formal lines or along informal lines. The first would have straight paths, straight rows in stiff beds, everything, as the name tells, perfectly formal. The other method is, of course, the exact opposite. There are danger points in each. "The formal arrangement is likely to look too stiff; the informal, too fussy, too wiggly. As far as paths go, keep this in mind, that a path should always lead somewhere. That is its business--to direct one to a definite place. Now, straight, even paths are not unpleasing if the effect is to be that of a formal garden. The danger in the curved path is an abrupt curve, a whirligig effect. It is far better for you to stick to straight paths unless you can make a really beautiful curve. No one can tell you how to do this. "Garden paths may be of gravel, of dirt, or of grass. One sees grass paths in some very lovely gardens. I doubt, however, if they would serve as well in your small gardens. Your garden areas are so limited that they should be re-spaded each season, and the grass paths are a great bother in this work. Of course, a gravel path makes a fine appearance, but again you may not have gravel at your command. It is possible for any of you to dig out the path for two feet. Then put in six inches of stone or clinker. Over this, pack in the dirt, rounding it slightly toward the centre of the path. There should never be depressions through the central part of paths, since these form convenient places for water to stand. The under layer of stone makes a natural drainage system. "A building often needs the help of vines or flowers or both to tie it to the grounds in such a way as to form a harmonious whole. Vines lend themselves well to this work. It is better to plant a perennial vine, and so let it form a permanent part of your landscape scheme. The Virginia creeper, wistaria, honeysuckle, a climbing rose, the clematis and trumpet vine are all most satisfactory. "Just close your eyes and picture a house of natural colour, that mellow gray of the weathered shingles. Now add to this old house a purple wistaria. Can you see the beauty of it? I shall not forget soon a rather ugly corner of my childhood home, where the dining room and kitchen met. Just there climbing over, and falling over a trellis was a trumpet vine. It made beautiful an awkward angle, an ugly bit of carpenter work. "Of course, the morning-glory is an annual vine, as is the moon-vine and wild cucumber. Now, these have their special function. For often, especially in school work, it is necessary to cover an ugly thing for just a time, until the better things and better times come. The annual is 'the chap' for this work. "Along an old fence a hop vine is a thing of beauty. One might try to rival the woods' landscape work. For often one sees festooned from one rotted tree to another the ampelopsis vine. "Flowers may well go along the side of the building, or bordering a walk. In general, though, keep the front lawn space open and unbroken by beds. What lovelier in early spring than a bed of daffodils close to the house? Hyacinths and tulips, too, form a blaze of glory. These are little or no bother, and start the spring aright. One may make of some bulbs an exception to the rule of unbroken front lawn. Snowdrops and crocuses planted through the lawn are beautiful. They do not disturb the general effect, but just blend with the whole. One expert bulb gardener says to take a basketful of bulbs in the fall, walk about your grounds, and just drop bulbs out here and there. Wherever the bulbs drop, plant them. Such small bulbs as those we plant in lawns should be in groups of four to six. Daffodils may be thus planted, too. You all remember the grape hyacinths that grow all through Katharine's side yard. "The place for a flower garden is generally at the side or rear of the house. The backyard garden is a lovely idea, is it not? Who wishes to leave a beautiful looking front yard, turn the corner of a house, and find a dump heap? Not I. The flower garden may be laid out formally in neat little beds, or it may be more of a careless, hit-or-miss sort. Both have their good points. Great masses of bloom are attractive. "You should have in mind some notion of the blending of colour. Nature appears not to consider this at all, and still gets wondrous effects. This is because of the tremendous amount of her perfect background of green, and the limitlessness of her space, while we are confined at the best to relatively small areas. So we should endeavour not to blind people's eyes with clashes of colours which do not at close range blend well. In order to break up extremes of colours you can always use masses of white flowers, or something like mignonette, which is in effect green. "The old-fashioned flowers are lovely--sweet William, phlox, old-fashioned pinks, petunia, verbena, zinnia, marigold, mignonette, and poppy are always dear and sweet. Hollyhocks are charming. They represent a kind of guard for the garden. Stand this hollyhock phalanx up against a wall like naughty boys, close to the house, or by an old fence. They are so tall that they must be in the background. They grace it. Otherwise they would overtop and shadow the other garden plants. If there is an old ash pile, an old dump or anything else unsightly, plant something tall before it. Hollyhocks would not do for this, since their foliage is too scanty. Castor beans are just the thing, however; and sunflowers, the old giant ones, are good, too. A screen is for screening, so that the foliage is of first consideration. "A wild-flower garden is a good scheme, too. What is lovelier? Bank in a north corner full of these. Hepatica, columbines, anenome, bellflower, butterfly weed, turtle head and aster represent wild flowers which bloom from March through October. I can see that north corner now. Miriam has planned to have one, and has really done the work this fall. "The water garden is another good thing to try with just the right setting. A place at the end of a slope of land, near some drooping trees, a bit shaded would be right. The garden Philip made is a pattern for you all to follow. "Finally, let us sum up our landscape lesson. The grounds are a setting for the house or buildings. Open, free lawn spaces, a tree or a proper group well placed, flowers which do not clutter up the front yard, groups of shrubbery--these are points to be remembered. The paths should lead somewhere, and be either straight or well curved. If one starts with a formal garden, one should not mix the informal with it before the work is done. "At one time we said a little about poor taste in garden furnishings. Painted kettles, old drain pipes, whitewashed bricks, and edgings of shells seemed to us then a bit fussy and crude. So, too, is a summer house stuck out on the front lawn, a rustic seat all by itself in an open spot, an archway which forms an arch over nothing. The summer house should be placed in the side yard, or in the rear in a spot where trees lend it a background. If its use is that of a resting spot for your mother, she certainly would not wish it right out on the front lawn. If the house is for children to play in, then again it is not for the front of the house. An appropriate place is near the garden where it makes a cool place to rest after labour, a spot from which to view the beauties of the garden, and a charming place to serve afternoon tea. "A good general plan to follow in this landscape work is to see what natural charms your place has, and then try to increase and help these. 'Help Nature' is a good watchword. Even though the garden plan is to be a formal one, the natural resources and setting of your place should be kept in mind. The little we did last year on the school grounds was a bit of landscape garden work. I did not call it that to you then, for if I had you would have been scared off. Philip's work in his backyard was of the same nature. The girls' flower garden was a bit of formal work. I guess, too, the outdoor bulb planting which Albert scorned might come under the same head. So you see you have been landscape gardeners without knowing it. To continue to be, all we have to do is to go on somewhat along the general lines I have spoken of to-night. Different committees have prepared a number of tables which should help you much in matters of selection." GARDEN OF CONSTANT BLOOM BY MONTHS -------------------------------------------------------------- NAME COLOUR HEIGHT SPECIAL POINTS -------------------------------------------------------------- _March_ Columbine Red 1 ft. Grows on rocky places. Graceful flower. Hepatica White 6 in. Early spring flower. Ready to blossom Blue under the snow. Last year's Pink leaves shelter flower. Saxifrage White 8 in. Grows in rocky, sandy places. --------------------------------------------------------------------- _April_ Bluebell Blue 16 in. Likes rock soil and sun. Dwarf Iris Blue 1 ft. A good border plant. Does not require any special soil. Spreads. Moss Pink Pink 6 in. Likes full sun. Spreads rapidly. Violet Blue 6 in. Good soil. Plant in either sun or shade. --------------------------------------------------------------------- _May_ Lily-of- White 9 in. Grows under trees, spreads rapidly. the-Valley Flowers fragrant. Cut flower effect. German Iris Different 2 ft. The best of flags for general planting purposes. Forget- Blue low Thrives on moist soil. Planted with me-not tulips follows them in bloom. Chinese Different 4 ft. The earliest of peonies. Good in Peony borders. Myrtle Blue low Grows even in shade and poorly drained soils. Spreads rapidly. --------------------------------------------------------------------- _June_ Bleeding Pink 2 ft. A hardy plant. Needs moist, good Heart soil. Good border plant. Foxglove Purple 4 ft. Perennial which self sows. Effective in backgrounds. Likes shade. Garden Peony Crimson 3 ft. The real old-fashioned peony. Good border plant. Large blossoms. Larkspur Blue 4 ft. Good for borders and backgrounds. The finest of blue flowers. Sweet Different 2 ft. A self sewing perennial. Bright William colours. Good for massing. Sweet and constant bloomer. --------------------------------------------------------------------- _July_ Baby's White 3 ft. Grows in rocky soil. Use for formal Breath bouquets. Butterfly Orange 2 ft. Likes full sunlight and dry soil. Fine Weed colour effect. Perennial Different 2-5 ft. Good for borders and cut flowers. Phlox Spiked Pink 3 ft. Belongs in wet swamp lands. Will Loosestrife grow in borders. Hollyhock Different 6 ft. Use for backgrounds and borders. --------------------------------------------------------------------- _August_ Aster, New Blue 4 ft. Grows in any soil. The best of tall England asters. Golden Glow Yellow 6 ft. Grows in any soil and spreads rapidly. Good background. Japanese White Climber Rapid flowering vine. Use on trellis. Clematis Sweet flowers. Sunflower Yellow 6 ft. Fine for backgrounds and screens. Any dry soil. Turtle Head Rose 2 ft. Flowers on spikes. Any soil, but wet Purple preferred. --------------------------------------------------------------------- _September_ Hardy White 6 ft. Blooms till frost. Blossom heads Hydrangea effective. Japanese Carmine 3 ft. Good border plant. Blossoms last Anemone till frost. --------------------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- WATER AND BOG PLANTS --------------------------------------------------------------------- COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME SPECIAL POINTS --------------------------------------------------------------------- Arrowhead _Sagittaria latifolia_ One of the most popular water plants. Spreads badly. Arum (water) _Calla palustris_ Popular water plant. Grows less than 1 ft. high. Blooms in June. Blue Flag _Iris versicolor_ Grows from 2-3 ft. high. Grows in bogs and gardens. Cat-tail _Typha latifolia_ Grows to 8 ft. or more. Spreads rapidly. Floating Heart _Limnanthemum Grows less than 1 ft. high. nymphoides_ Good plant for a pond. Spreads readily. Forget-me-not _Myosotis Palustris_ Grows less than 1 ft. high. Prefers half-shady places. Lotus, American _Nelumbo lutea_ Good for a pond. Marsh Marigold _Caltha palustris_ Grows 1-1/2 ft. high. Blooms in May. Pickerel Weed _Pontederia Grows 3-4 ft. high. Blooms in cordata_ July. Pitcher Plant _Darlingtonia Grows less than 1 ft. Good for Californica_ bog planting. Sweet Flag _Acorus Calamus_ Height is 2 ft. Flowers in early summer. Water-lily _Nymphaea odorata_ Sweet-scented, most popular water-lily. Water Mint _Mentha Aquatica_ One of the popular mint family. Low growing. --------------------------------------------------------------------- FOUR WATER-LILIES FOR BEGINNERS --------------------------------------------------------------------- NAME COLOUR SPECIAL POINTS --------------------------------------------------------------------- _Nymphaea Gladstoniana_ White This is a hardy variety " _Marliacea_ Yellow " " " " " _dentata_ White Tender, night blooming plant " _Zanzibariensis_ Blue Tender, day blooming plant. --------------------------------------------------------------------- WATER-LILIES FOR SMALL PONDS --------------------------------------------------------------------- NAME |COLOUR |REQUIRED DEPTH | | OF WATER --------------------------------------------------------------------- _Nymphoea alba_ (hardy) | White |More than 2 ft. " _tuberosa_ (hardy) | White | " " " " _Marliacea rosea_ (hardy) | Pink | " " " " _odorata_, var. _minor_ |White |Less than 1 ft. (hardy) | | " _tetragona_ (hardy) |Yellow | " " " " _Laydekeri_, var. |Pink | " " " _rosea_ (hardy) | | " _Zanzibariensis_ (tender) |White | " " " --------------------------------------------------------------------- NOTE:--Any of these forms may be grown in from 1 to 2 ft. of water. --------------------------------------------------------------------- TREE TABLE --------------------------------------------------------------------- NAME |HEIGHT | SPECIAL POINTS --------------------------------------------------------------------- Carolina Poplar |100 ft.|Grows in a dry soil. Fastest growing street | | tree. Its dropping fruit is a nuisance. | | Sheds leaves early. Catalpa |50ft. |Lovely white blossoms in June. Seed pods | | stay on into winter. Quick growing. | | Good lawn tree. English Hawthorn|30ft. |Flowers in June. Red berries. Grows on | | dry soils. Slow grower. Sharp thorns. Linden |90ft. |Easy to grow. Fragrant flowers. Rapid | | grower. European species smaller than | | American. Live Oak |100 ft.|Not hardy in the North. Grows south of | | Virginia. Beautiful evergreen oak. Likes | | moist soil. Locust |80ft. |Fragrant flowers in May and June. Rapid | | grower. Seeds in pods. Thorny bark. Lombardy Poplar |90ft. |Quick grower. Stiff, straight and tall. | | Dignified but melancholy tree. Fine for | | pathway effect. Norway Maple |100 ft.|Tall, well rounded tree. Yellow foliage in | | the fall. Pin Oak |100 ft.|Fastest grower among oaks. You cannot | | grow plants under it. Red Maple |100 ft.|Earliest flowering maple. Good for lowlands. | | Bright red foliage in the fall. Sugar Maple |100 ft.|Moist soil. Bright foliage in the fall. Best | | street tree among maples. Horse Chestnut |60 ft. |Fine white flowers in June. Attractive buds | | and leaves. Foliage grows very dense. --------------------------------------------------------------------- XIII HOW BOYS AND GIRLS CAN MAKE MONEY FROM THEIR GARDENS Naturally, we are all interested in ways and means of earning money. It is not a bad thing at all for a boy or girl to wish to turn work into cash. Not always is it possible for one to find a market next door for products. No, it is rarely as easy a matter as that. One has to really work a bit. "Let me tell you one boy's story. This lad, let us call him Newton, had a nice vegetable and flower garden. He had worked so hard over it, it did seem to him as if he ought to be able to sell some of his produce. One day he loaded a little cart with vegetables and went down the street to a corner market. I imagine he went in a half-hearted sort of way. The market-man was busy and he spoke a bit roughly to the boy. But Newton went on to another store. He received the same sort of treatment there. This time he gave up discouraged and went home. His mother was not discouraged. She showed him how he should have made his vegetables, wagon and all, look more attractive. "So Newton went to work again. He scrubbed his radishes and new carrots until they shone. He bunched them up into neat little bundles. Then the lettuce came in for its washing and cleaning. Thus he treated all the vegetables. Then he printed a sign 'Fresh Vegetables For Sale' and started off again. This time he went to the largest hotel in the little city in which he lived. There he was sent to the cook. This big, good-natured fellow said that he would look at his stuff. 'Looks good to me,' said the cook, 'it really looks like home-grown things,' Straightway he bought a good part of what Newton had and there and then made arrangements for daily deliveries of certain vegetables. "The lesson from Newton's experience is this: in order to sell, you must put your wares in attractive shape. Who wishes to buy dirty radishes or droopy looking lettuce? No one is willing to pay decent prices. Putting materials in such condition that all the good points speak loudly at first, is one way to attract notice and sell later. If you find you can sell by shipping your goods the same points hold true. "Another way to make money is to raise young plants for sale. Jack did this with his aster plants. Lots of people wish their garden plants partly started. They either do not have the interest, or else they have not the time for initial work. Asters, stock, tomatoes, lettuce, cabbage, pepper, celery--all of these may be started for market purposes. "Suppose you have planted tomato seed. You are bound to have more young plants than you wish. Why not sell them? Suppose Mrs. Jones always buys hers. Then go to her and ask if she will not buy of you. She may not believe you can be a very good gardener, so she hesitates. Well, then just ask her if you cannot bring your little plants around for her to see when the time comes. Get to work in your best style. Transplant in little paper cups or strawberry baskets. Then the setting out of the plants will be very easy and quite a scientific performance. I think you will sell to Mrs. Jones all right. "If you really intend to go into this early market side then you should certainly have a coldframe. You could not blame your mother if she refused to have the kitchen littered up with old tin cans and boxes all the spring. Do not be a nuisance at home just to make money. [Illustration: Photograph by W.H. Jenkins Myron Transplanting his Long-rooted Strawberry Plants. Photograph by Helen W. Cooke Katherine Transplanting Her Flowers by a Method of Lifting.] "I know a little girl who raised aster and stock plants, also young vegetable plants. She had a coldframe. In the spring, when people were starting their gardens and wondering where they should go for plants, she fixed up an attractive basket filled with her plants. She asked no exorbitant price, but a fair one for a little girl's good work. One year she bought herself a dressing table from her garden earnings. I think that well worth while. Don't you? "Another way to make money from your garden is to sell your seed. I do not think any of you will be at all likely to try to rival the seed houses. But I am sure that you can supply certain seeds for your own fathers and mothers. "Such seed as those of radish, lettuce and turnip you would not save. It is better to buy them. But surely you can make some pretty good selections for seed corn. I believe you can manage beans, peas, melons, pumpkins, potatoes and squash. Then we have, I believe, learned from the school flower garden how to select seed. Nasturtium seed may always be saved, dried and put into its own envelope. This will be found to be true, that seeds saved from our own flower garden often do not give satisfactory results as time goes on. The plants and flowers after a few seasons seem to spindle out. In the large seed gardens the varieties of flowers raised are either many or cross-pollination is carried on. "In putting up your seeds in envelopes give a few cultural directions on them; that is, tell how to plant the special seed. Also, put on when to plant and the proper soil conditions under which planting should go on. If the seeds are those of flowers add information concerning height, colour of blossom, and time of blossoming. Someone might like to know also if the seed was that of an annual, biennial or perennial plant. Think out a neat, attractive way to fix these envelopes. If you do not wish to sell them, they will serve as nice Christmas gifts. "Among the garden trappings which we made last winter are things you could easily sell. Such a plant stand as Jack made for his own room is certainly marketable. Make samples of your wares and then take orders for them. Again, these represent Christmas gifts, too. "Rustic seats, a woven mat of corn husks to kneel on when weeding, a bit of nice trellis work, a little tool house are all possible pieces of work. "I saw once what a boy called his handy boxes. These were wooden boxes, with hinged covers and handles, so that they might be carried about. One was for seeds. This box had partitions inside, and all the different envelopes of seeds were arranged in the different cubby holes. Another box had garden accessories. The word sounds interesting. It means all the little extras needed in the work. Labels, small stakes, a garden reel, measure, knife, cord, note book, pencil--all were in the box, all were things which the boy often used. You can make variations on these. But a box which may be carried about has advantages over one that is screwed up in the tool house. "I believe the flower-gathering basket would sell well. It is not that it is a rather picturesque sort of Englishy custom to go out and pick flowers with a pretty basket tucked under one's arm, but it is very inconvenient, very hot work, and very mussy, to have to hold bunches of flowers in the hand as one gathers. "In some places where there are summer colonies it is possible to sell bunches of flowers. I knew of a case where big bunches of sweet peas were brought to the hotel every morning. These sold for ten and fifteen cents the bunch and went like hot cakes. "The girls may think of all sorts of wicker mats and trays that would make the garden tea more attractive. One ought to think of the aesthetic side. "I have not mentioned working for others. Hire yourself out. Let it be known that you can and will weed, mow lawns, plant and transplant for so much per hour. Someone may be going off for a few weeks; see to it that you are the boy or girl to be employed. Prove yourself faithful. "In the winter make garden utensils and also attend to the bulb end of it. At Christmas time you could do a big business. "Someone might make and bottle kerosene emulsion. Paste on each bottle directions for using. Print very neatly, so it will look well. "There are doubtless many other ways of making money. But, above all, do not neglect the other side; give away some things from your garden and some of your labour, too. If all you think of is the making of money the soul and heart of you all will get as small and shrivelled as a dry pea. Who wants to be stingy? Better never to make money than to grow like that. Don't let people pay you for everything you do. Do certain things for mother and father for nothing. The home garden is as much theirs as yours. Wouldn't it be ludicrous if your mother said, 'No, Katharine, you cannot have those flowers to carry to school unless you pay ten cents for them,' How cross you would be! Just as absurd, is it not, for you to suggest that you cannot work on that same garden unless you receive ten cents an hour? No, that is all wrong. And if any one of you feels that way do one of two things--either sit down and be ashamed for a good, long time and think of all the things done freely for you; or else go take all the money in your own little bank at home, buy something your mother wants, and give it, being glad, so glad you can get rid of what you have been so stingy about. "Give flowers to the poor, the sick at home and the sick in hospitals, the church, the people you love, the people you think you don't love, and the people who seem lonely and forlorn. "Once upon a time there was made a wondrous garden. It was called the earth. The flowers, the trees, the plants which afterwards became through man's skill our staple products--all these were free, absolutely free. "If this is a true story, how can we be so small as always to make money from this garden? Let us pay our debt to it freely and gladly. "This is our last talk. Some of you already have started your early vegetables and flowers. Instead of one coldframe we have four in our family and one belongs to a girl. "It is going to be a better year of gardening than before. Leston is with us now. Another season there will be others. The school grounds look well, and if you have noticed the entire village looks a little better than ever before. "We will shake hands all around. In a few weeks we shall have hands quite dirty with good old garden soil. You may take your stools and benches off with you, or leave them all here." "We shall leave them," said Eloise; "for I am coming back often to sit on my little cricket right on your hearth." "I am a little large for a cricket," went on Albert; "but I'd not quit this hearthstone, so my stool stays." "And mine, too," each one added. Off they trooped again, some down the country road, some up the road, others across the fields, and George, as usual, on his old horse. They shouted until out of sight. "The best things in the world," the man murmured as he stepped out into the open and drew into his lungs deep breaths of the fresh spring air. 
19050	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING [Illustration] STAMFORD, CONNECTICUT SEPTEMBER 5 AND 6, 1917 NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING STAMFORD, CONNECTICUT SEPTEMBER 5 AND 6, 1917 ANNAPOLIS PUB. CO. PRINT. * * * * * OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. _President_ W. C. REED Vincennes, Indiana _Vice-President_ W. N. HUTT Raleigh, North Carolina _Secretary and Treasurer_ W. C. DEMING Georgetown, Connecticut COMMITTEES _Auditing_--C. P. CLOSE, C. A. REED _Executive_--T. P. LITTLEPAGE, J. RUSSELL SMITH AND THE OFFICERS _Finance_--T. P. LITTLEPAGE, WILLARD G. BIXBY, W. C. DEMING _Hybrids_--R. T. MORRIS, C. P. CLOSE, W. C. DEMING, J. G. RUSH _Membership_--HARRY E. WEBER, R. T. OLCOTT, F. N. FAGAN, W. O. POTTER, W. C. DEMING, WENDELL P. WILLIAMS, J. RUSSELL SMITH _Nomenclature_--C. A. REED, R. T. MORRIS, J. F. JONES _Press and Publication_--RALPH T. OLCOTT, J. RUSSELL SMITH, W. C. DEMING _Programme_--W. C. DEMING, J. RUSSELL SMITH, C. A. REED, W. N. HUTT, R. T. MORRIS _Promising Seedlings_--C. A. REED, J. F. JONES STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS California T. C. Tucker 311 California St., San Francisco Canada G. H. Corsan 63 Avenue Road, Toronto Connecticut Henry Leroy Lewis Stratford Delaware E. R. Angst 527 Dupont Building, Wilmington Georgia J. B. Wight Cairo Illinois E. A. Riehl Alton Indiana M. P. Reed Vincennes Iowa Wendell P. Williams Danville Kentucky Prof. C. W. Matthews State Agricultural Station Lexington Maryland C. P. Close College Park Massachusetts James H. Bowditch 903 Tremont Building, Boston Michigan Dr. J. H. Kellogg Battle Creek Minnesota L. L. Powers 1018 Hudson Ave., St. Paul Missouri P. C. Stark Louisiana New Jersey C. S. Ridgway Lumberton New York M. E. Wile 37 Calumet St., Rochester North Carolina W. N. Hutt Raleigh Ohio Harry R. Weber 601 Gerke Building, Cincinnati Pennsylvania J. G. Rush West Willow Texas R. S. Trumbull M. S. R. R. Co., El Paso Virginia Lawrence R. Lee Leesburg Washington A. E. Baldwin Kettle Falls West Virginia B. F. Hartzell Shepherdstown MEMBERS OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION ALABAMA Baker, Samuel C., Centerville ARKANSAS *Drake, Prof. N. F., University of Arkansas, Fayetteville CALIFORNIA Dawson, L. H., Llano Kelley, M. C., San Dimas Tucker, T. C., Manager California Almond Growers Exchange, 311 California St., San Francisco CANADA Corsan, G. H., University of Toronto, Athletic Association, Toronto Sager, Dr. D. S., Brantford CONNECTICUT Barnes, John R., Yalesville Bartlett, Francis A., Stamford Barrows, Paul M., May Apple Farm, High Ridge, Stamford Deming, Dr. W. C., Georgetown Deming, Mrs. W. C., Georgetown Donning, George W., North Stamford Filley, W. O., State Forester, Drawer 1, New Haven Glover, James L., Shelton Goodwin, James L., Hartford, Box 447 Hungerford, Newman, Hartford, Box 1082 Irwin, Mrs. Payson, 575 Main St., Stamford Ives, Ernest M., Sterling Orchards, Meriden Lewis, Henry Leroy, Stratford *McGlashan, Archibald, Kent Mikkelsen, Mrs. M. A., Georgetown *Morris, Dr. Robert T., Cos Cob, Route 28, Box 95 Randel, Noble P., 157 Grove St., Stamford Sessions, Albert L., Bristol Southworth, George E., Milford, Box 172 Staunton, Gray, Stamford, Route 30 Stocking, Wilber F., Stratford, Route 13 Walworth, C. W., Belle Haven, Greenwich White, Gerrard, North Granby Williams, W. W., Milldale DELAWARE Angst, E. R., 527 DuPont Building, Wilmington DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Close, Prof. C. P., Pomologist, Department of Agriculture, Washington *Littlepage, T. P., Union Trust Building, Washington Reed, C. A., Nut Culturist, Department of Agriculture, Washington Taylor, Dr. Lewis H., The Cecil, Washington ENGLAND Spence, Howard, Eskdale, Knutsford, Cheshire GEORGIA Bullard, William P., Albany Van Duzee, C. A., Judson Orchard Farm, Cairo Wight, J. B., Cairo ILLINOIS Casper, O. H., Anna Librarian, University of Illinois, Urbana Poll, Carl J., 1009 Maple St., Danville Potter, Hon. W. O., Marion Riehl, E. A., Godfrey INDIANA Burton, Joe A., Mitchel Phelps, Henry, Remington Reed, M. P., Vincennes Reed, W. C, Vincennes Simpson, H. D., Vincennes Stadermann, A. L., 120 S. Seventh St., Terre Haute Woolbright, Clarence, Elnora, R 3, Box 76 IOWA Snyder, D. C., Center Point (Linn Co. Nurseries) Williams, Wendell P., Danville KANSAS Sharpe, James, Council Grove, (Morris Co. Nurseries) KENTUCKY Matthews, Prof. C. W., Horticulturist, State Agricultural Station, Lexington LOUISIANA Montgomery, Dr. Mary, Weyanoke MARYLAND Darby, R. U., Suite 804, Continental Building, Baltimore Fisher, John H. Jr., Bradshaw Hayden, Charles S., 200 E. Lexington St., Baltimore Hoopes, Wilmer P., Forest Hill Keenan, Dr. John, Brentwood Kyner, James H., Bladensburg Littlepage, Miss Louise, Bowie Stabler, Henry, Hancock MASSACHUSETTS *Bowditch, James H., 903 Tremont Building Boston Cleaver, C. Leroy, Hingham Center Cole, Mrs. George B., 15 Mystic Ave., Winchester Hoffman, Bernhard, Overbrook Orchard, Stockbridge (103 Park Ave. N. Y. City) Simmons, Alfred L., 72 Edison Park, Quincy Smith, Fred A., Hathorne MICHIGAN Kellogg, Dr. J. H., Battle Creek, 202 Manchester St. Linton, W. S., President Board of Trade, Saginaw Ritchey, Paul H., 12 South Rose Lawn Drive, Pontiac MISSOURI Bauman, X. C., Sainte Genevieve Darche, J. H., Parkville Dod, Mrs. Nettie L., Knox City Stark, P. C., Louisiana. NEBRASKA Kurtz, John W., 5304 Bedford St., Omaha Warta, Dr. J. J., 1223 First National Bank Building, Omaha NEW JERSEY Hoecker, R. B., Tenafly, Box 703 Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly St., Jersey City Heights Marston, Edwin S., Florham Park, Box 72 Ridgeway, C. S., Floralia, Lumberton Roberts, Horace, Moorestown Roffe, John C., 720 Boulevard, E. Weehawken NEW YORK Abbott, Frederick B., 419 Ninth St., Brooklyn Atwater, C. C., The Barrett Co., 17 Battery Place, New York City Baker, Prof. J. Fred, Director of Forest Investigations, State College of Forestry, Syracuse Bixby, Willard G., 46th St. and 2nd Ave., Brooklyn Brown, Ronald J., 320 Broadway, New York City Buist, Dr. George J., 3 Hancock St., Brooklyn Crane, Alfred J., Monroe, Box 342 Ellwanger, Mrs. W. D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Haywood, Albert, Flushing Hicks, Henry, Westbury, Long Island Hickox, Ralph, 3832 White Plains Ave. New York City Hodgson, Casper W., World Book Co., Yonkers Holden, E. B., Hilton *Huntington, A. M., 15 W. 81st St., New York City Hupfel, Adolph, 611 W. 107th St., New York City McGlennon, James S., 406 Cutler Building, Rochester Manley, Dr. Mark, 261 Monroe St., Brooklyn Martin, Harold, 140 Continental Ave., Forest Hills Gardens, L. I. N. Y. Miller, Milton R., Batavia, Box 394 Nelson, Dr. James Robert, 23 Main St., Kingston-on-Hudson Olcott, Ralph T., Editor American Nut Journal, Ellwanger and Barry Building, Rochester Palmer, A. C., New York Military Academy, Cornwall-on-Hudson. Pannell, W. B., Pittsford Pomeroy, A. C., Lockport Rice, Mrs. Lillian McKee, Adelano, Pawling Stuart, C. W., Newark Teele, A. W., 30 Broad St., New York City Thomson, Adelbert, East Avon Tuckerman, Bayard, 118 E 37th St., New York City Ulman, Dr. Ira, 213 W. 147th St., New York City Wile, M. E., 37 Calumet St., Rochester Williams, Dr. Charles Mallory, 48 E. 49th St., New York City *Wissman, Mrs. F. deR., Westchester, New York City NORTH CAROLINA Hadley, Z. T., Graham Hutchings, Miss Lida G., Pine Bluff Hutt, Prof. W. N., State Horticulturist, Raleigh Le Fevre, Revere, Johns Van Lindley, J., J. Van Lindley Nursery Co., Pomona OHIO Burton, J. Howard, Casstown Cruickshank, Prof. R. R., State College of Agriculture Extension Service, Columbus Dayton, J. H., Storrs & Harrison Co., Painesville Dysart, J. T., Belmont, Route 3 Ketchum, C. S., Middlefield Thorne, Charles E., Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster Weber, Harry R., 601 Gerke Building, Cincinnati Yunck, E. G., 706 Central Ave., Sandusky OKLAHOMA Heffner, Chris, Collinsville, Box 255 PENNSYLVANIA Corcoran, Charles A., Wind Rush Fruit Farm, New Albany Druckemiller, W. C., Sunbury Fagan, Prof. F. N., Department of Horticulture, State College Heffner, H., Highland Chestnut Grove, Leeper Hile, Anthony, Curwensville National Bank, Curwensville Hoopes, Wilmer W., Hoopes Brothers & Thomas Co., Westchester Hutchinson, Mahlon, Ashwood Farm, Devon Jenkins, Charles Francis, Farm Journal, Philadelphia *Jones, J. F., Lancaster, Box 527 Kaufman, M. M., Clarion Leas, F. C., Merion Station Murphy, P. J., Vice President L. & W. R. R. Co., Scranton O'Neill, William C., 328 Walnut St., Philadelphia Rheam, J. F., 45 North Walnut St., Lewiston *Rick, John, 438 Pennsylvania Square, Reading Rife, Jacob A., Camp Hill Rush, J. G., West Willow Smedley, Samuel L., 902 Stephen Girard Building, Philadelphia *Sober, Col. C. K., Lewisburg Thomas, Joseph W., Jos. W. Thomas & Sons, King of Prussia Weaver, William S., McCungie *Wister, John C., Wister St. & Clarkson Ave., Germantown Wright, R. P., 235 W. 6th St., Erie SOUTH CAROLINA Shanklin, Prof. A. G., Clemson College TENNESSEE Marr, Thomas S., 701 Stahlmam Building, Nashville TEXAS Burkett, J. H., Nut Specialist, State Department of Agriculture, Clyde Trumbull, R. S., Agricultural Agent, El Paso & S. W. System, Morenci Southern R. R. Co., El Paso VIRGINIA Crockett, E. B., Monroe Lee, Lawrence R., Leesburg Smith, Dr. J. Russell, Roundhill WEST VIRGINIA Cather, L. A., 215 Murry St., Fairmont Hartzell, B. F., Shepherdstown Cannaday, Dr. John Egerton, Charleston, Box 693 ~* Life Member.~ CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I _Name._ This society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION. ARTICLE II _Object._ Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III _Membership._ Membership in the society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president and a secretary-treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and an executive committee of five persons, of which the president, two last retiring presidents, vice-president and secretary-treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI _Meetings._ The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. ARTICLE VII _Quorum._ Ten members of the association shall constitute a quorum, but must include a majority of the executive committee or two of the three elected officers. ARTICLE VIII _Amendments._ This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or a copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I _Committees._ The association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on nomenclature, on promising seedlings, on hybrids, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II _Fees._ The fees shall be of two kinds, annual and life. The former shall be two dollars, the latter twenty dollars. ARTICLE III _Membership._ All annual memberships shall begin with the first day of the calendar quarter following the date of joining the association. ARTICLE IV _Amendments._ By-laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present at any annual meeting. Northern Nut Growers' Association EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING SEPTEMBER 5 AND 6, 1917 STAMFORD, CONNECTICUT. The eighth annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers' Association was called to order at the Hotel Davenport, Stamford, Connecticut, at 9.30 A. M., the Vice-President, Prof. W. N. Hutt, presiding in the absence of the President, Mr. W. C. Reed. The meeting opened without formalities with a short business session. The report of the Secretary was read and adopted as follows: REPORT OF THE SECRETARY-TREASURER. Balance on hand date of last report $ 21.45 Receipts: Dues 255.00 Advertisements 36.00 Contributions 15.00 Sale of reports. 26.65 Contributions for prizes 46.75 Miscellaneous .89 ------- $401.74 Expenses: Printing report $158.60 Miscellaneous printing 19.00 Postage and stationery 45.91 Stenographer 40.30 Prizes 57.00 Litchfield Savings Society 65.00 ------- $385.81 ------- Balance on hand $15.93 Total receipts were a little greater than the year before, receipts from dues a little less. There are several new life members, ten in all now, and the secretary has followed the course adopted some time ago of depositing receipts from life memberships in a savings bank as a contingent fund. There are 138 paid up members, compared with 154 last year. Fifty members have not paid their dues and there seems to be no other course but to drop them, after repeated notice, though some are old friends. Four members have resigned and there has been one death, that of Mrs. Charles Miller, of Waterbury, Connecticut. We have added but 28 new members during the year, while we have lost 55. There have been 358 members since organization, of whom we still have 138, 220 having dropped out. Mr. T. P. Littlepage, as chairman of the Committee on Incorporation, reported at some length on the advisability and the possibilities. On motion of Mr. R. T. Olcott, the question of incorporation was left in the hands of the committee with power. The following Nominating Committee was elected: Col. Van Duzee, Mr. Weber, Mr. Bixby, Mr. Smith, Mr. Ridgeway. The following Committee on Resolutions was appointed by the Chair: Dr. Morris, Mr. Bartlett, Mr. Olcott. Moved by Mr. Littlepage: That the association request the Secretary of Agriculture to include in his estimates of appropriations for the next fiscal year a sum sufficient, in his judgment, to enable the department to carry on a continuous survey of nut culture, including the investigation and study of nut trees throughout the northern states, such nut trees including all the native varieties of nuts, hickories, walnuts, butternuts and any sub-divisions of those varieties, and that a committee of three be appointed to interview the secretary personally to have this amount included in the appropriation. [Motion carried.] Mr. Olcott recalled that last year the National Nut Growers' Association secured an appropriation, and he suggested that this would make it easier for the Northern Nut Growers to do so this year. MR. BARTLETT: It occurred to me that the boy scouts, with their great membership and being often out in the woods, would be valuable to the nut growers' association in hunting native nuts. I took up the matter with Dr. Bigelow of the Agassiz Association, who is also Scout Naturalist and I think he can tell us more about getting the boy scouts interested. DR. BIGELOW: I would suggest that you enlist also the interest of other organizations for outdoor life. If I knew a little more definitely what is wanted it could be exploited in definite terms in Boys' Life, the official organ of the Boy Scouts of America, which has a mailing list of over 100,000, and which reaches ten or twenty boys each copy. So you have nigh on to 1,000,000 members who would be reached in this way. My predecessor, Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton, has organized the Woodcrafters, which consists of both boys and girls. It seems to me that their service should be enlisted. They have done remarkably good work. And there are other organizations such as the Camp Fire Girls. I would suggest that some of you formulate a resolution and let me have a copy of it to publish in Boys' Life. DR. MORRIS: I will say one word in harmony with Dr. Bigelow and the possibility of enlisting the interest of these organizations. One of our members, I think Mr. Weber, has found on a tributary of the Ohio River a thin shelled black walnut that came down with the flood. He has found two specimens at the mouth of the stream and he knows that this particular thin shelled black walnut grows somewhere up that stream. He would give $50 to anybody who would find that black walnut tree. I will give five dollars every year to any boy scout who wins any of our prizes. That is a permanent offer. Or I will enlarge it perhaps, after we discuss the matter further by including the Camp Fire Girls. I will add others to that list. I will give five dollars to any member of one of those organizations affiliated with us who wins any nut prize in any year, in addition to our regular prizes. Furthermore we will offer to name any prize nut after the discoverer, so that his or her name will go down in history, perhaps causing much fame. DR. BIGELOW: I have had my attention called to the fact that in the West the beech trees are heavily laden with nuts. It suddenly dawned on me that in all of my boyhood experience as a hunter and tramper, I had never seen one edible beech nut in Connecticut. I know there are many beech trees around Stamford, but I have not been able to find any nuts. I have advertised for them but although I have received more than a hundred packages from over the rest of the country, I have not seen one single beech nut from Connecticut. Some of the old-timers say they were once plentiful. I wonder whether beech nuts have disappeared from Connecticut as have potato balls. DR. MORRIS: In the lime stone regions they commonly fill well. I have a great many beech trees on my place from one year to more than one hundred years of age, and they came from natural seeding, but the seeds in this part of Connecticut are very small and shrivelled. They are not valuable like the ones in western New York, for instance, and I do not remember even as a boy to have known of eastern beech trees with well-filled nuts. Many of these inferior nuts will sprout, however. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I think Dr. Bigelow has hit upon a point of a great deal of interest. For example, on my farm in Maryland I think there are perhaps three or four hundred beech trees of various sizes, probably none of them under ten years of age and up to fifty, and in the four years that I have been observing these beech trees, there has never grown upon them a single full, fertile beech nut. I have observed very carefully. On my farm in Indiana I have been observing the same thing for probably ten or twelve years, and I have never seen a single filled beech nut. There are some beech trees there two feet in diameter. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS. W. C. REED, INDIANA. (Read by the Secretary.) FELLOW MEMBERS NORTHERN NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: Our association convenes today under changed conditions not only in this country but throughout the world. Upon the United States rests the burden of feeding the world, or at least a large portion of it. With seven-tenths of the globe's population at war, surely this is a mammoth undertaking. The government is urging the farmer to increase his acreage of all leading grain crops, to give them better cultivation, and is guaranteeing him a liberal price. CROP VALUES. Crop values have increased until today there is land bringing more than $100.00 per acre for a single wheat crop. Corn has sold above $2.00 per bushel, beans at 20 cents per pound, and hogs at $20.00 per 100 pounds on foot. LABOR ADVANCES. With these high prices all along the line the price of labor has advanced to the highest point ever known. Surely it is up to the American farmer to husband his resources by the use of labor-saving machinery, by using the tractor and other power machines to conserve horse feed, by the cultivation of all waste land possible and by practicing economy and thrift. MORE INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE. In the more intensive agriculture that is urged upon us the Northern Nut Growers' Association can do a splendid work by the interesting of all land owners in the conservation of the native nut trees and the planting of grafted nut trees in gardens, orchards and yards, to take the place of many worthless shade trees. HIGHWAY PLANTING. With the government and states working together in the establishment of market highways and the building of permanent roads, now is the time to urge the planting of trees that will last for this generation and the ones that are to follow. In sections of the country the different kind of nut trees suitable could be selected and, if planted and given proper care, would be a source of large income in the years that are to come. Community effort is needed for such work and if the members of this association will use their influence it will help to bring this about. There is one county in England where all the roadsides have been planted to Damson plums, which has not only made the landscape more beautiful and furnished the people with much fruit, but the past season has furnished many tons of plums that were picked half ripe for the manufacture of dyes that had become scarce owing to the war. If such a movement as this had been taken in this country in the planting of nut trees in former years our roadsides today would be more beautiful, the country more healthy, the farmer more independent, having these side crops that require little labor and that could be marketed at leisure. Our soldier boys might today have sealed cartons of nut meats included in their rations on the European battle fronts that would be very acceptable as food and add little to their burden. NUT MEATS IN PLACE OF PORK. If every land owner had enough nut trees to furnish his family with all the nut meats they cared to use, and all the nut bread they would eat, it would go a long way in solving the high cost of pork and beef. The better grafted varieties of the black walnut are specially well adapted for use in nut bread and can be grown in many places where pecans and English walnuts will not succeed so well. WHAT THIS ASSOCIATION HAS ACCOMPLISHED. In looking backward over the past eight years since this association was organized it might be well to review some of the things accomplished. When this organization first came into existence there was a small demand for budded and grafted nut trees, but none were to be had in the hardy northern varieties. Interest was created, best individual trees have been located and new varieties introduced. Methods of propagation have been worked out, public opinion has been moulded, government investigation has been fostered, commercial planting of northern nut trees made possible, and today pecans, English walnuts and best varieties of grafted black walnuts may be had in quantity. This association has caused thousands of nut trees to be planted that would otherwise not have been. Some may ask the question, has it paid? Individually I would say it has not, but collectively it has, and will pay large dividends to future generations by making it possible for a larger food supply at a minimum cost. CARE OF TRANSPLANTED NUT TREES. It might be well to urge greater care in the cultivation of transplanted nut trees. Trees should be set fall or early spring while perfectly dormant. If bodies are wrapped the first summer and first winter it will prevent much trouble from sun scald. If mounds of earth one foot high are banked around trees before first cold weather it will often prevent bark bursting which may be caused by freezing of the trees when full of sap, caused by late growth. This mound can be removed the next spring and in case of any winter injury you have plenty of fresh healthy wood to produce a top. Cultivation should commence early in the spring and be kept up until September first. Never allow weeds to grow or ground to become crusted. Nut trees form new rootlets slowly the first summer and require special care. After the second summer they will stand more neglect, but extra cultivation will be rewarded with extra growth at all times. FINANCES. In looking over the treasurer's report at Washington I find a balance of $21.45, reported at last meeting under date August 14th, 1917. Treasurer reports balance on hand of $14.13 and no obligations. I think he is to be congratulated on being able to make ends meet and issue the reports. After going over the budget for the coming year I think that we may be able to keep up this record if the membership committee will look after new members and see that all old members renew their membership promptly. PLACE OF MEETINGS. Owing to present war conditions the president would recommend that selection of the next place of meeting be left to executive committee to be fixed later after conditions and crops for next year are better assured. It would seem that some central location might draw the largest attendance and be of greatest benefit to the association for the coming year. NUT EXHIBITS. Nut exhibits should be encouraged as much as possible and prizes offered when finances will permit, or where members offer special premiums. This effort will bring out varieties that are worthy of propagation and valuable trees will be saved to posterity. These exhibits can often be held in connection with local horticultural meetings. It is well for our members to keep a watch for such chances. REASONS FOR OUR LIMITED KNOWLEDGE AS TO WHAT VARIETIES OF NUT TREES TO PLANT. PROF. W. N. HUTT, NORTH CAROLINA. Agriculturally this continent is about three centuries old. Horticulturally its experience has scarcely reached the century mark. Practically all the commercial fruit industry of the United States is the product of the last half century. Relatively speaking we are quite young and therefore there are a great many things about nut-growing that we may not be expected to know. In the older lands of Europe and Asia they have a horticultural experience going back from ten to twenty centuries. In this new country the pioneers had necessarily to confine themselves to the fundamentals and it is to be expected that their horticultural operations were confined to a very narrow maintenance ratio. As the country was cleared up and developed certain sections were found to be especially suited to fruit culture. About these centers specialized fruit-growing industries were developed. These planters tried out all available varieties and developed their own methods of culture. As these industries developed horticultural societies were formed for the exchanging of ideas and experiences. In 1847 the American Pomological Society was formed as a national clearing house of horticultural ideas. The first work the society undertook was to determine the varieties of the different classes of fruits suitable for planting in different sections of the country. Patrick Barry, of Rochester, one of the pioneers of American horticulture was for years the chairman of the committees on varietal adaptation and did an immense amount of work on that line. At the meetings of the society he went alphabetically over the variety lists of fruits and called for reports on each one from growers all over the country. This practice was kept up for years and the resulting data were collated and compiled in the society's reports. In this systematic way the varietal adaptations of the different classes of fruits were accurately worked out for all parts of the country. A similar systematic roll call of classes and varieties of nuts grown by the members of this association would be of immense value to intending planters of nut trees. In northern nut-growing, however, it may be questioned if we are yet arrived at the Patrick Barry stage. What we need is pioneer planters who have the courage to plant nut trees and take a chance against failure and not wait for others to blaze the trail. It needs men of vision and courage to plant the unknown and look with hope and optimism to the future. So many are deterred from planting by the fact that nut trees are tardy in coming into bearing and uncertain of results. In these stirring times we want men of nerve in the orchard as well as in the trenches. We need tree planters like Prof. Corsan who, at a former meeting of this association when joked about planting hickories, replied that he wasn't nervous and could watch a hickory tree grow. It takes nerve to be an innovator and to plant some radically different crop from what your conservative neighbors all about you are planting. The Georgia cotton planters wagged their heads and tapped their foreheads when Col. Stuart and Major Bacon turned good cotton land into pecan groves. But the thousands of acres of commercial pecan orchards now surrounding these original plantings showed that these pioneer pecan planters were not lunatics or impractical dreamers, but courageous men of vision, thirty years ahead of their time. Nut tree planting is not all waiting. It will give the busy man some surprises as I have reason to know from my own limited experience. Ten years ago when I planted my first experimental orchard I set about preparing several other lines of quick maturing experimental work, for I did not expect those trees would have any thing to report for a decade or so. You can imagine how surprised and delighted I was when on the third year there was a sprinkling of nuts, enough to be able to identify the most precocious varieties. The surprise increased to wonder the next year when there was an increased number of nuts on the trees that had borne last year and a number of new varieties came into bearing. In the eighth year when an 800-pound crop of nuts changed that experimental planting into a commercial pecan orchard, I was, to use a sporting phrase, "completely knocked out of the box." The man who thinks there are no thrills in tree planting has something yet to learn. It is the surest sign of a real true-blue horticulturist that he wants to set some kind of new tree or plant. It is the rarest kind of a plantation that has on it no waste land. Fence rows, ditch banks and rough or stony places are to be found on practically every farm. Such spots too often lie waste or galled or at best are covered with weeds, briars, bushes or useless scrubby trees. These waste places would make a fine trial ground for testing out nut trees. A few fine walnuts, pecans or hickories, or rows of chinquapins and hazels would add profit as well as beauty to these waste and unsightly places found on most farms. Following old conservative methods the average farmer sets about his house and buildings unproductive oaks, elms and maples, with scarcely a question of a thought that there are as handsome shade trees that will produce pleasure and profit as well. On our lawns and about our door yards we could plant to advantage the Japanese walnut and the hardier types of pecans and Persian walnuts. It would be of interest to try a few seedlings of these classes of nuts. If such practices were followed in the planting of nut trees it would not be long until new and valuable sorts would be found and a great deal of data made available to intending nut planters. I believe that a great deal of good would result from the preparation and dissemination of a circular encouraging farmers in nut planting. This association is doing a valuable work in offering prizes to locate high class seedling nut trees that will be worthy of propagating. Sooner or later valuable sorts will be found in this way. In this connection it will be wise for this association to solicit the active co-operation of the horticultural workers in the different states. The workers of the agricultural colleges, experiment stations and extension service do a great deal of traveling and have special facilities for getting in touch with promising varieties. The horticulturists of some states have made nut surveys of their states to ascertain their resources in the way of valuable varieties and of conditions suitable for nut culture. The interesting bulletin, "Nut Growing in Maryland," gotten out by Prof. Close, when he was State Horticulturist in Maryland, is a very valuable contribution along this line. It would be well for this association to solicit the co-operation of the trained horticulturists in the northern states to make nut surveys and ascertain definitely the valuable varieties already growing within their borders and what are the possibilities for the production of these types for home purposes for commercial growing. A few of the state experiment stations have taken up definite experimental and demonstration nut projects and are doing valuable work in this line. This association should memorialize the directors of the other stations to undertake definite nut projects and surveys and get the work under way as soon as possible. While endeavoring to stimulate private, state and national investigations in nut culture, the author would be very remiss if he failed to recognize the very valuable work already done by the zealous, painstaking and unselfish pioneers of northern nut growing. Messrs. Bush and Pomeroy have given to the country and especially to the north and east, two valuable hardy Persian walnuts. Our absent president, Mr. W. C. Reed, of Vincennes, Ind., is doing a great deal in the testing and dissemination of hardy nut trees. Our first president, though an exceedingly busy surgeon and investigator in medicine, finds time to turn his scientific attention to the testing and breeding of nut trees. Some of our brilliant legal friends, too, find time to pursue the elusive phantom of ideal nuts for northern planting. We cannot go through the growing list of nut investigators nor chronicle their achievements, but we know that when the history of American horticulture is written up ample justice will be done to their labors and attainments. Let each of us do our part in the building up of the country by the planting of nut trees. Let us plant them on our farms, in our gardens and about our buildings and lawns. Let us induce and encourage our neighbors to plant and do all possible to make nut planting fashionable until it becomes an established custom all over the land. It will not then be long before valuable varieties of nut trees will be springing up all over the country. This association will then soon have a wealth of available data at hand to give to intending planters in all parts of the country. A MEMBER: In Europe they raise a great many nuts that they ship to this country, chestnuts, hazels and Persian walnuts. I understand they grow usually in odd places about the farms, but the aggregate production amounts to a great deal. We could very well follow the lead given by Europe in that particular, at least. I think we could have for dissemination circulars which would stimulate people to plant nut trees more widely than at present. THE SECRETARY: This question of nut planting in waste places always comes up at our meetings and is always encouraged by some and frowned upon by others. I do not think we ought to recommend in an unqualified way the planting of nut trees in waste places. I have planted myself, lots of us have tried it, and found that most nut trees planted in waste places are doomed to failure. I do not recall an exception in my own experience. I understand that in Europe the road sides and the fence rows are planted with trees and the farmers get a part of their income in that way. But with us in Connecticut nut planting in waste places does not seem to be a success. It is quite different when you come to plant nut trees about the house and about the barn. They seem to thrive where they don't get competition with native growth and where they have the fertility which is usually to be found about houses and barns. In fact, I have advocated the building of more barns in order that we might have more places for nut trees. I think we should plant nut trees around our houses and barns where we can watch them and keep the native growth from choking them, and where we can give them fertility and keep them free from worms. The worms this year in Connecticut have been terribly destructive. My trees that I go to inspect every two or three weeks, at one inspection would be leafing out, at the next would be defoliated. If such trees are about your house where you can see them every day or two you can catch the worm at its work. So for experimental planting I think places about our houses and barns can be very successfully utilized. When it comes to commercial planting, I think we must recommend for nut trees what we do for peach trees. We must give them the best conditions. I am hoping from year to year that somebody will come forward to make the experiment of planting nut trees in orchard form and give them the best conditions, as he would if he were going to set out an apple or peach orchard. The association has made efforts by means of circulars to interest the experiment stations, schools of forestry and other agricultural organizations. A number of the members of such organizations are members of the association. The work has been taken up to some slight degree in such places as the School of Forestry at Syracuse. I do not recall any others at this moment, although there are some. I will read part of a letter from Professor Record of the Yale School of Forestry: "The only reasons I can think of why the consideration of nut trees is not given more attention in our school are (1) it comes more under the head of horticulture than forestry (2) lack of time in a crowded curriculum (3) unfamiliarity with the subject on the part of the faculty." We would like to interest these faculties in nut growing. We look upon them as sources of education but evidently we are more advanced than they are in the subject of nut growing and it is up to us to educate them. COL. VAN DUZEE: Right now when you are at the beginning of nut growing in the North you cannot over estimate the value for the future of records. My heart goes out to the man who comes to us as a beginner and wants to know something definite. Our records are the only thing we can safely give him. The behavior of individual nut trees, the desirability of certain varieties for certain localities--those things are of tremendous value. No doubt you know that in California they have come to the point in many sections where they keep records of what each individual tree does. I began that some years ago with the commercial planting that I have had charge of for the last twelve years. We now have an individual tree record of every nut produced since these trees came into bearing--about 2500 trees. I went further than that--I kept a record of the value of the different nuts for growing nursery stock so that I might grow trees that would be the very best produced in our section. Now the years have gone by and I have a ledger account with every tree in that 2500 and I know exactly what it has given me. I know how many nuts it has produced. You would be surprised to see the wide discrepancy in those records, the different behavior of individual trees. I wish I could talk to you longer on that subject. It is something I am very enthusiastic about. By virtue of the records we have kept for years I have found a source of supply for seed nuts and nursery stock which has proved to be a constant performer. I bud this nursery stock from trees with individual records that have proved themselves to be good performers, I have found that certain varieties have proved themselves not worthy of being planted, and certain other varieties have proven themselves at least promising. This last year I took 100 Schley, 100 Stuart, 100 Delmas and 100 Moneymaker trees and planted them all on the same land. Now these trees, you understand, are grown from the stock grown from a nut that I know the record of for years. I know its desirability. The buds are from selected trees whose records I have. More than that, I alternated the rows and the trees in the rows. These trees are now where they have got to stand right up and make a record so that we will know ten years from today what is the best variety for our section. I do not think I can make myself as clear as I wish I could this morning, but here is the point. If anybody comes to me I can tell him definitely, and I have records in my office to show, what the different varieties are doing and what soil they are growing in. Here in the north where the industry is in its infancy now is the time to start records. When I saw the subject of Professor Hutt's paper, the "Reasons For Our Limited Knowledge as to What Varieties of Nut Trees to Plant," it occurred to me that if you don't now start right in making records, ten years from today you will still have existing one of the principal reasons why you don't know. MR. KELSEY: I started out four years ago with English walnuts. I read the account of Pomeroy and so I got a half dozen trees from him. They all died. I got five or six trees from Mr. Jones. I think this is the third year and one of those has some nuts on. I have got now about 150 trees planted in regular rows where I am cultivating them. But I was going to say that four years ago I sent to Pomeroy and asked him if he wouldn't send me a few nuts as a sample. He sent me 16. I cracked two of them. Fourteen of them I put in. I didn't know how to put them in so I took a broom handle, punched a hole in the ground and stuck them in the bottom. I never thought I would get any results from them. They came up in July. They did not come up quick. I suppose I had them so deep. I set them out three years ago. Some of them are as high as this room in three years on cultivated land set out in rows. They have never borne any. No one knows how long it takes for a seedling to bear. It may be two years, or five years, or ten. DR. MORRIS: I want to bear witness on the point that Col. Van Duzee made, the matter of keeping records. The man who keeps good records is a public benefactor because what he learns becomes public property upon the basis of available data. Every one of us should pay attention to that point which Col. Van Duzee has brought out. Unfortunately my records have been kept by my secretaries in shorthand notes and I have had four different secretaries in ten years, and each with different methods of shorthand. They have not had time to write up all the notes, and so I find it difficult to present good nut records when busily occupied with professional responsibilities, which must come first. I had one field filled with young hybrid nut trees. A neighbor's cow got into that field and the boy who came after the cow found her to be refractory. The boy began to pull up stakes with tags marking the different trees and threw them at the cow. Before he got through he had hybridized about forty records of nut trees. THE CHAIRMAN: As a horticulturist along experimental lines I find the trouble is to get people to plant trees and properly plant them. I do not think that the average farmer knows how to plant trees. That is why they get such poor results. They plant them where anybody with intelligence would not plant them. We find in the South that we can grow trees if there is protection against fire and stock. If fire is kept out and stock is kept from grazing, nature will cover the land with forest trees. I think that will go a long way to getting nut trees. But a man planting something as valuable as a nut tree wants to take a little more pains than that. I have seen Mr. Littlepage's place where he is raising handsome trees, but he has planted crops around each tree and there is plenty of plant food. You can grow trees almost anywhere if you make the conditions favorable. In hedge rows and odd places, if the forest soil is preserved, you can grow almost any kind of a nut tree. These conditions must prevail or we must make them prevail. Just another point on the matter of home planting. I wouldn't be a very good preacher if I didn't carry out my own practices. Just to show my faith by my works I want to say that I took out every shade tree at home and put a nut tree in its place. Down south where shade is very valuable they said "that man is very foolish to cut down nice elms and maples like that and put nut trees in their place." It did look so then for a while. Now I have some handsome pecans and Persian walnuts and Japanese walnuts, and this year I get my first dividends from a tree five years old. Of course we have taken care to preserve their symmetry, but I think our nut trees come pretty close to being our best shade tree. I will challenge anybody to find a handsomer tree than a well-grown pecan. It is a very stalwart tree with its branches of waving foliage, which is the characteristic of an ideal shade tree, and yet, in addition to that, it produces in the fall magnificent nuts. So the proposition of home planting is one that pays quick dividends on attention given. I think I have convinced my neighbors that it is a good deal better to raise handsome nut trees than poplars. My neighbor planted Carolina poplars at the same time. He was out there the other morning raking up the leaves and that is all he will have to do until Christmas time. THE DISEASES OF NUT TREES. S. M. MCMURREN, WASHINGTON, D. C. MR. PRESIDENT AND MEMBERS: It is a source of great regret with me that I cannot report to you some new and horrible disease attacking nut trees. This makes a more interesting talk. Last year in Washington I talked to you briefly about the Persian walnut blight which we had definitely established as occurring in the East. Last March the National Nut Growers' Association got very busy and so amended the agricultural appropriation bill that all the funds for national nut investigation were spent for pecan investigation, so it left us up in the air for work in the north. We have, however, been able to continue our observations with the Persian walnut blight and there is only one further point to be emphasized and brought out at this time. Those of you who have informed yourselves on this matter know that the serious period of infection on the Pacific Coast is in the spring. It is a blossom blight. During the past two years the period of infection in the East has been in the late summer and it has not been serious on that account. It is well known that in certain dry springs on the Pacific Coast this blight does not occur and those years the growers are assured of good crops. I think that this investigation, and the bulletin which will soon be forthcoming, will not act as a discouragement for those who want to plant Persian walnuts. I think it should not but should rather encourage planting of these nuts. In spite of the presence of this disease on the Pacific Coast the walnut industry has grown to be very profitable, and if it proves that late infection is the rule in the East there is every reason to believe that the disease will not be so serious. That is practically the only walnut disease worthy of attention at present. The filbert disease is a fungus disease and Dr. Morris and others are authority for the statement that it can be readily controlled by cutting out. DR. MORRIS: I will show this afternoon that it can be controlled in a way. DR. MCMURREN: We in the department have not been in a position to do any work on the hazel blight so far. The hazel blight is interesting in that it illustrates a principle in plant diseases which it is well to know, that most of our serious plant diseases fall in one of two classes; either a native disease on imported plants or an imported disease on native plants. This filbert blight is very slight on native hazels but very serious on imported European hazels. I do not think there is anything more on the filbert disease, but Dr. Morris will have some interesting things to show you this afternoon. I want to interject a remark here about the business of planting trees for commercial crops along the road sides. There is more to be considered than the mere matter of planting a tree. Insect pests and diseases have to be taken into consideration. There is nothing that an apple orchard planter more hates to see than a tree out of the orchard. It doesn't receive proper attention and is apt to be a source of disease. I believe that wherever the nut industry has been established on an orchard scale it is a matter that should receive careful thought before trees are planted on the road side. When you have an adequate fertilizing department and can give it careful attention the same as trees in the orchard, all right. But they do not as a rule receive it. Roadside planting perhaps sounds very attractive on the surface and is probably a very good plan in some cases, but I think it is open to grave objections where an orchard industry is in the same section. THE SECRETARY: I am sorry that Mr. C. A. Reed is not here to take up the discussion of the walnut blight, because I think he takes a little more serious view of it than Mr. McMurren. MR. MCMURREN: I know he does. THE SECRETARY: That is right that Mr. Reed does, and I am glad he is here (Mr. Reed having just entered) to talk it over. Mr. Jones is also here. Mr. Jones is a close observer and has followed it in the field from the beginning. This matter of walnut bacteriosis is a very important one. Here is the walnut industry just in its infancy. We want to know whether this walnut bacteriosis is threatening such proposed industry seriously or not. We know it is a very serious thing in California. Can we safely begin planting English walnut trees or is the question of the seriousness of bacteriosis so serious that we should not plant extensively until we know more about it. Mr. McMurren has been saying a few words about bacteriosis in which he has not given us an impression of seriousness. I think Mr. Reed will give us some remarks on that matter. MR. REED: I do not like to go up against Mr. McMurren. He is the disease man. He is the last word in the government. I am only a second fiddle when it comes to diseases but I must say that I have not a very optimistic feeling over the blight situation. I have been depending very largely on him to give us information. THE SECRETARY: Where did you find it, Mr. Reed? MR. REED: Speaking for the East only, for the part of the country that we are directly interested in, I have visited a number of the walnut sections. I think I have tried to reach all of them and in nearly every place that I have been to in the last year or two there has been blight. Several of the orchards that have been most widely advertised have blight, according to Mr. McMurren's identification. I went all the way from Georgia to Northwestern Pennsylvania and Northern New York State last year to be present when the crops were gathered from orchards of those sections, and in one of those orchards, one at North East, Pennsylvania, the crop was what I would call about 65 per cent failure due to blight. The other orchard, one near Rochester, was not badly blighted, but there was a very light crop, not over 10 per cent of a crop, but still there was some blight there. Now, I do not know just what Mr. McMurren has said. I do know that he does not feel very badly alarmed over the blight situation in the East and I would rather hear him talk and Mr. Rush, and Mr. Jones. MR. BARTLETT: I would like to know what the chief characteristics of the blight are. MR. MCMURREN: The ordinary late infection in the East begins with a little spot on the husk around the 1st of July, and that merely spreads until just about the time they fall off the tree. When the blight infection strikes it it stains the nut badly. The point I want to make is that you get the nuts anyhow. Mr. Littlepage, do you recall the trees in Georgetown? The blight there is a very late infection. It is not a thing that I can say should be discouraging. Blights are all over, the pear blight, the apple blight, the lettuce blight. If we can make the crop in spite of it I don't see why we should be unduly alarmed. I think there are a good many other factors to be taken into consideration in planting on a large scale and to make the question hinge on the blight is not right. Spraying is of no avail. I don't think the walnut growers should be discouraged because even in California where it is most serious the industry is still profitable. MR. JONES: Some times the husk worm may spoil the husk and that may be confused with the blight. So far Mr. Rush has had the blight ever since I have known his trees. Last year the blight was more prevalent than this year. This year I estimated the loss in the nuts about 10 per cent. Last year I think it ran one-quarter. THE SECRETARY: Would those nuts be ruined? MR. JONES: Some of them would be and some of them not. THE SECRETARY: One-quarter would be affected by blight and some of those would be good but not all? MR. JONES: I don't know what proportion. If the nut when taken out of the husk is black, it would not be worth much. You can eat them but they are not marketable. NOTES ON THE NUT BEARING PINES AND ALLIED CONIFERS. DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, NEW YORK Among the food trees of the world of the nut bearing group the palms with their many species of cocoanuts probably stand first, the pines next, and the chestnuts third in order, so far as food supply for various peoples is concerned. Then come the almonds, walnuts, hazels, hickories and other nut bearing trees, the nuts of which have been somewhat carelessly looked upon as luxuries rather than as an important pantry full of good substantial calories to be turned into human kinetics. The pines and allied conifers like _Araucaria_ and _Podocarpus_ will take their respective places in furnishing food supply for us all when the need comes. Such need is already close upon our new vista of war supplies. The squirrels and mice this year will eat thousands of tons of good food that our soldiers would be glad to have. The particular advantage in planting nut bearing pines rests in the fondness of these trees for waste places where little else will grow, and they need less attention perhaps than any other trees of the nut bearing group. For purposes of convenience in description I shall group all of the conifers together under the head of pines in this paper, although in botany the word "Pinus" is confined to generic nomenclature. Up to the present time we have not even developed our resources to the point of utilizing good grounds very largely for any sort of nut tree plantations. In accordance with the canons of human nature men work hardest, and by preference, with crops which give them small returns for their labor. Riches from easily raised crops go chiefly to the lazy folks who don't like work. On the way to this meeting some of you perhaps noticed near Rye on the west side of the railroad track, a chicken farm on a side hill and a rich bottom land which had been ditched and set out to about three hundred willow trees along the ditch banks. Now if the owner of this property had set out English walnuts in the place of the willows, each tree at the present time, at a low estimate, might be bearing five dollars worth of nuts per year per tree, and I am, sure that would be a much larger income than the owner gets from his chickens--an income obtained certainly with much less trouble, because neighbors cannot break in at night and carry off walnut trees of such size. Two or three weeks from the present time you will observe people everywhere in this section of the country raking up leaves from various willows, poplars and maples, when they might quite as well be raking up bushels of nuts of various kinds instead of just leaves. I presume that the extensive planting of pine trees for food purposes will have to wait until we have advanced to the point of putting other kinds of nut trees upon good ground first. Pines will be employed for the more barren hillsides when the folks of three hundred years from now begin to complain of the high cost of living. Among some thirty or more species of pine trees which furnish important food supply for various peoples I exhibit nuts from only sixteen species today, because much of the crop comes from Europe and from Asia. I could not obtain a larger variety of specimens on account of the present interest of people in the game which military specialists play wherever industrious nations have saved up enough money to be turned over to their murder experts. In the pine trees we have opportunity for combining beauty and utility. As a group they are mountain lovers preferring localities where the air drainage is particularly good, but many of them will grow thriftily and will fruit well on low grounds. Fine nuts range in character from the rich, sugary, oily and highly nitrogenous nut of the Mexican piñon to the more starchy _bunya bunya_ of Australia, as large as a small potato and not much better than a potato, unless it is roasted or boiled. Yet this latter pine is valuable for food purposes and the British Government has reserved one forest of the species thirty miles long and twelve miles wide in which no one is allowed to cut trees. The nut of the _Araucaria imbricata_ has constituted a basis for contention among Indian tribes in Chile for centuries, and perhaps more blood has been shed over the forests of this pine than over any other single source of food supply in the world. We do not know if the _Pinus imbricata_ will fruit in the climate and at the latitude of New York, but I know that at least one tree of the species has lived for twenty years on the Palmer estate here in Stamford. Some of the smaller pine nuts like those of the single-leaved pine, or of the sugar pine, are delicious when cracked and eaten out of hand, but the smaller pine nuts are pounded up by the Indians with a little water and the thick, rich, creamy emulsion like hickory milk when pressed out, is evaporated down to a point where the milk can be kept for a long time without decomposition. In addition to the nuts of the sugar pine, the Indians collect the sugar of dried juice which exudes at points where cuts have been made in the tree for the purpose. Incidentally, the sugar pine is one of our finest American trees anyway. Botanists tell us that it grows to a height of two hundred and seventy-five feet, and travellers say that it reaches three hundred feet. The latter people having actually seen the trees we may know which estimate to accept. Aside from the beauty of most pines and the majesty of some of them, their utility is not confined to nuts alone. Timber and sap products are very valuable. The sugar pine in the latitude of New York is hardy, but does not grow as rapidly as it does in the West. The same may be said of the Jeffrey bull pine, but I shall show you some thriftier trees of this latter species tomorrow on my property. A very pretty striped nut is that of the _Pinus pinea_. This is the Italian pignolia, and you may buy them in the confectionery stores in this country. They are used as a dessert nut chiefly, but form an important food supply in some parts of Europe. The Swiss stone pine, _Pinus cembra_, is one of the hardy nut pines, fruitful in this vicinity, and the _Pinus Armandi_, the Korean pine and the Lace-bark pine from central China, are hardy and fruitful in this vicinity, to our knowledge. Two very handsome pine nuts are those of the Digger pine, _Pinus Sabiniana_ and the Big-cone pine, _Pinus Coulteri_. Both trees are hardy in this latitude, but I have not been able to locate any which are of bearing age as yet. The nuts have a rich dark brown or nearly black and tan shading. The nut of the Digger pine is very highly prized by the Indians and is larger and better in quality than the nut of the Big-cone pine which looks so much like it. Nuts of the Torrey pine have been somewhat difficult to secure for planting, because they are esteemed so highly for food purposes that they have been collected rather closely by local people in the small area in which this species is found, on our Pacific Coast. It is improbable that the Torrey pine will be hardy much above our most southern states. We do not advertise dealers in our association as a rule, but Mr. Thomas J. Lane, of Dresher, Pennsylvania, is not likely to make any great fortune from his sale of pine nuts to us. Consequently, I am stating at this point that Mr. Lane has offered to go to the trouble of securing pine nuts from different parts of the world for our members who wish to plant different species experimentally. I have given him a list of species to be kept permanently on file, and the list is marked in such a way that ones which are known to be hardy, semi-hardy, or fruitful in the latitude of New York may be selected for experimental planting. I hope that some of our southern planters will plant South American, Asiatic, African and Australian species of nut pines for purposes of observation. Mr. Lane will get the seed for them. I have included among the specimens here today nuts of the ginkgo because that tree belongs among the conifers in natural order. It is an ancient tree which should not fit into this time and generation, but it has gone on down past the day when it belonged on earth. Its prehistoric enemies have died out, so the ginkgo tree has come rolling along down the centuries without enemies and at the same time with many peculiarities. Comparatively few of the trees are females, but the tree grows heartily in this latitude and one may graft male ginkgos in any quantity from some one female. The nut of this tree is rather too resinous to suit the American palate, but the Chinese and Japanese visitors to the Capitol grounds at Washington greedily collect the nuts from a bearing female tree growing there. Most of the pine nuts have a resinous flavor, but as a class they are so rich and sweet that this is not disagreeable. The nuts of the single-leaf pine and our common piñon, _Pinus edulis_, are delicious when eaten out of hand and both of these trees are hardy in this latitude, but they do not grow as rapidly here as they do upon the arid mountains and under the conditions of their native habitat. In Europe and Asia pine nuts for the market are cracked by machinery or by cheap hand labor, and I presume that we may eventually hull some of the smaller ones as buckwheat is hulled. If the contents of the smaller nuts are extracted by the Indian method of grinding them up with a little water and then subjecting them to pressure, the waste residue will probably be valuable for stock food of the future, very much as we now use oil cake. When planting nuts of pine trees I would call the attention of horticulturists to one very important point. The nuts must be planted in ground that does not "heave" in the spring time when the frost goes out. Many of the pine nuts send down a rather slender root at first without many side rootlets, and when the frost opens the ground in the spring the young trees are thrown out and lost. Here is another point of practical importance. Do not plant pine seed where stock can get at the young shoots in March. The little gems look so bright and green, so fresh and attractive when the snow goes off that cows and sheep, deer, squirrels and field mice will all try to collect them. Young pines should be grown in half shade during their first two years. They will require weeding and nice attention on the part of a lover who wishes to be polite to them. QUESTION: Is there any difficulty in harvesting the crops, do the cones shed? ANSWER: With some species the cones are shed before they are fully opened. They are collected and stored until the nuts can be beaten out. Other species retain the cones until the nuts have been shed. The branches are shaken and the nuts collected from tree to tree by the beaters and spread out upon the ground. Sometimes coarse sheeting or matting is carried from tree to tree by the beaters and spread out upon the ground. QUESTION: At what age will they bear? ANSWER: Pines bear rather late as a rule. I doubt if very many of them will bear in less than 10 years from seed. QUESTION: Would it be possible to produce grafted trees? ANSWER: Yes, without much difficulty. Undoubtedly you could get bearing wood from old trees and graft on young trees, or graft on other species. They may be grafted back and forth like the ornamental firs and spruces of the nurserymen. QUESTION: They don't compass, do they. If you cut them off, do shoots come out of the stumps? ANSWER: Not as a rule. Adventitious buds belong to few pine trees. They graft conifers when the stocks are young. QUESTION: Of those that you suggest, what would be the best here? ANSWER: The Korean, the Bungeana or lace-bark, the Swiss stone pine, and the Armandi. These can be counted on to bear in the vicinity of New York. Several other species not yet tried out may bear well here, but I have not gone over the trees on estates very extensively as yet with that question in mind. QUESTION: Are any of these specially good for the South? ANSWER: Yes, most of the pine nuts that I have shown here will grow south of Maryland and seven of the best pine nuts in the world belong to our Southwest. QUESTION: Is there any more trouble with the cows and squirrels over nut pines than there is with ordinary pine trees? ANSWER: No, excepting that you don't miss the ordinary kinds so much. It is largely a matter of comparative interest. NOTES TAKEN ON AN EXCURSION TO MERRIBROOKE, THE COUNTRY PLACE OF DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, AT STAMFORD, CONN., SEPTEMBER 5, 1917. DR. MORRIS CONDUCTING THE PARTY. (1) Taylor shagbark hickory tree, overhanging the entrance-gate. A tree remarkable for annual bearing and for nuts of high quality, thin shell, large size, and excellent cleavage. Among hundreds of hickories examined, many of them in response to prize offers, this tree at the entrance furnishes one of the very best nuts of the lot. (2) Buckley hickory (_Hicoria Buckleyi_) from Texas. Supposed not to be hardy in this latitude. Perfectly hardy, but not growing as rapidly as it does at home. Very large roundish thick shelled nut with a kernel of good quality if you can get it. Kernel has a peculiar but agreeable fragrance. (3) Another southern species, the North Carolina hickory (_Hicoria Carolinae-septentrionalis_). Note the small, pointed, dark colored buds and beautiful foliage. The tree is perfectly hardy in Connecticut. This shagbark bears a small thin shelled nut of high-quality and it will be particularly desirable for table purposes. The tree grows thriftly in Connecticut. (4) Carolina hickory. Grafted on native shagbark. (5) A group of Korean nut pines (_Pinus Koraensis_). Raised from seed and now six years of age. One of the valuable food supply pines of northern Asia. Like most eastern Asiatic trees the species does well in eastern North America. (6) A central Asian prune (_Prunus Armeniaca_). Without value for the fleshy part of the drupe, but with a nut like that of the apricot, highly prized for its kernel. The tree is hardy and thrifty, but rather vulnerable to a variety of blights belonging to Prunus. (7) An ordinary black walnut grafted to the Lutz variety. A very large nut with good cleavage, good color and good quality. (8) Alder-leaved chestnut (_Castanea alnifolia_) from central Georgia. One of the most beautiful of the American chestnuts, with more or less of the trailing habit, running over the ground like the juniper, and apparently not subject to blight. In Georgia it is an evergreen, but in Connecticut it is deciduous, although sometimes a few green leaves are found in the early spring if they have been covered by snow or by loose dead leaves during the winter. The nut is of high quality and fair size. There are a number of hybrids between this and other chestnuts at Merribrooke, but not bearing as yet. (9) A group of common papaws (_Asimina triloba_), two of them grafted. The Journal of Heredity offered a prize of fifty dollars for the best American papaw, and the prize was awarded to the Ketter variety, the fruits of which weigh about one pound each. Seven little trees of this species were secured and two larger papaw trees grafted from cuttings when the seven were set out. Papaws grow well in this part of Connecticut, and because of the high quality of the fruit should be more largely planted. (10) Mills persimmon. One of a group of several varieties that are being cultivated in this country. Hardy and thrifty in Connecticut. (11) A group of Jeffrey bull pines (_Pinus Jeffreyi_) from Colorado. One of the nut pines. Supposed to do its best in the arid mountains of the West. Perfectly hardy and thrifty with beautiful bluish-green foliage in Connecticut. (12) Himalayan white pine (_Pinus excelsa_). One of the nut pines and with remarkably handsome foliage. (13) A group of Chinese pistache nut trees (_Pistacia sinensis_). At Merribrooke it has the habit of frequently growing twice in one year and sometimes three times in one year. The shoots will grow a foot or more and then make resting buts early in July. After about ten days of resting the buds burst, new shoots grow again and rest for the second time in the early part of September. If we have a warm moist fall the buds burst for the third time and make a third growth. This third growth winter-kills without injury to the tree, however. The significance of the growth presumably relates to the tree being an inhabitant of an arid country, where it has adapted itself to the rainfall of that country. I do not know if the trunk adds a new ring of wood after each resting period, but it likely enough does so. (14) Moneymaker pecan. Perfectly hardy and thrifty. It has not borne as yet and there may be a question of the season being long enough for ripening the nut. At the left a Stuart pecan, that comes from the very borders of the Gulf of Mexico. Sometimes the smaller branches winter-kill badly and at other times they do not. It is remarkable that a tree from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico should live here at all in the winter. (15) A field of six-year-old trees. Most of them the result of placing bitternut hickory pollen on staminate butternut flowers. The trees have not borne as yet and we can not tell if they are true hybrids or parthenogens. Parthenogenesis occurs readily with many nut trees. Pollen of an allied species which does not fuse with the female cell to make a gamete may, nevertheless, excite a female cell into division and the development of a tree. Such a tree would be expected to show intensified characteristics belonging to the parent. This lot of trees notable for the fact that some are very small for their age and some very large. (16) A group of Japanese chestnuts. They blight and die and blight and live and are not given much attention as they are of little value anyway. The chestnut blight (_Endothia parasitica_) attacks the Japanese chestnut about as freely as it does the American chestnut. The trees do not die from it quite so quickly and may bear for some years before dying. (17) A group of Japanese persimmons in a protected corner of a west-facing side hill. Most of the Japanese persimmons are not hardy in Connecticut, but an occasional variety given a moderate degree of protection will manage to live pretty well. They are uncertain trees, however, as two of the trees grafted to Bennett Japaneses persimmons from Newark, N. J., had two-year-old shoots winter-killed this year. These were on low ground. I shall put my other Bennetts on hill sides. (18) American sweet chestnut grafted upon Japanese stock. Ordinarily Asiatic and American chestnuts do not make very satisfactory exchange stocks. In this case the American chestnut happens to be doing very well. The variety is known as the Merribrooke. Among the many thousands of chestnut trees here when I bought the place this one bore the best nut of all, very large and of high quality, and beautifully striped with alternate longitudinal stripes of dark and light chestnut color. The parent tree was one of the very first to go down with the blight ten years ago, and the standing dead trunk was removed at the time when I cut out five thousand dead or dying chestnut trees. Stump sprouts of the Merribrooke variety survived for grafting purposes, and I have now kept the variety going by patient grafting ever since, on new stocks, hoping to carry the variety along until this epidemic of blight runs out of its protoplasmic energy. (19) Ordinary Japanese chestnut. With fairly good crop of large nuts, but not of good quality, except for cooking purposes. (20) A group of hybrids resulting from placing the pollen of the Siebold Japanese walnut upon the pistillate flowers of our butternut. The young trees have not borne as yet. (21) Hybrids between the common American hazel and the European purple hazel. There are a number of these hybrids, and none of them with nuts better than those of either parent, consequently I give them little attention. Some of the hybrids, not as yet bearing, may prove to be more valuable. We have to make lots of hybrids in order to get a small percentage of important ones. In this particular lot the hybrid has taken on a habit of the mother parent, the common American hazel, growing long stoloniferous roots, an undesirable feature. (22) The Golden Gem persimmon, laden with fruit. Grafted upon the stock of a staminate common persimmon. (23) Early Golden persimmon. Bearing heavily, a variety grafted upon common persimmon stock. (24) A group of Chinese chestnut trees (_Castanea mollissima_). Very beautiful trees, worthy of a position on almost any lawn, the foliage is bright and shining, and the thrifty growth very attractive. The species is practically immune to blight, sometimes at a point of injury bark blight will appear, but it spreads very slowly, is easily cut out and does not reappear at that point. It will be a success in Connecticut. The nut is not quite up to our native chestnut in quality, but it is larger in size and a first rate nut on the whole. The tree comes from the original home of the blight, and the two plants having lived together for ages the law of survival of the fittest has given us this chestnut tree, which can largely take the place of our lost American chestnut. The tree does not grow to be quite so large as our chestnut, but I am making hybrids between this species and three species of American chestnuts, and may find some remarkable ones eventually. (25) Two young nut pines with lost labels. I shall probably not be able to determine the species until they bear cones. (26) A number of black walnut trees grafted with several varieties of English walnut (_Juglans regia_). There is particular advantage in grafting English walnut upon black walnut stock for the reason that mice are extremely destructive to English walnut roots in winter time. Furthermore black walnuts will grow in soil that is distinctly acid in reaction, while the English walnut demands a neutral or alkaline soil. The nearest tree of this group had new shoots of the Rush English walnut nearly six feet long, which blew off last week in a wind storm because they had not been braced sufficiently. It is very important when grafting nut trees to fasten strong bracing sticks alongside of vigorous shoots and tying them with sisal tarred cord, which holds good for two years. (27) Appomattox pecan, Busseron pecan, and Major pecan. All three trees growing very thriftily and all set nuts this spring, but did not hold them. This is the habit of young hickories and walnuts rather largely. None of my pecan trees are old enough as yet to fruit well. I do not know what varieties will find our season long enough for ripening purposes. That particular feature of pecan raising is quite as important as the mere question of hardiness in Connecticut. (28) A little old butternut tree by my garden. This has been the mother of practically all my hybrids between butternuts and other species of walnuts. This little old tree bears flowers every year and is very conveniently situated for hybridizing work. (29) An English walnut tree near the garden gate is growing thriftily, making sometimes four feet in a year, but as a seedling has not borne as yet. (30) Pecan seedling with buds of Busseron recently inserted. They are fastened in place with waxed muslin and then painted with ordinary white paint. I use that a great deal in place of grafting wax, but make the paint thick and heavy so that little free oil runs in between the cambium layers when grafting or budding. Paint seems to be harder and better than liquid grafting wax if it has no free oil. (31) A rapidly growing Chinese walnut (_Juglans sinensis_). Very much like _Juglans regia_. The nuts have prominent sutures and the kernel is rather more oily than that of the English walnut, but of very good quality, nevertheless. (32) A number of hickory trees of different species grafted by my favorite method, unless we call it "budding." I call it "the slice graft," and have not known any one else to try it. A slice of bark from one inch to four inches in length is removed from the stock and this area is fitted with a slice of about the same length and breadth, carrying a bud or spur cut from the guest variety. On one of these young hickories you observe I made three slice grafts and all of them have taken with a very thrifty growth of the Taylor variety. One point of importance, I believe, is to have the slice from the guest variety a trifle smaller than the slice from the host stock. The guest slice is bound firmly to the host with waxed muslin. (33) Paragon chestnut heavily loaded with burs. This particular tree is said to belong to a variety that is much advertised, but there is some question if it is a peculiar variety of the Paragon, because Mr. Engel, of Pennsylvania, is said to have furnished his own Paragon chestnut scions when the other people were short of stock. If the nursery firm that has put out this Paragon chestnut on the market with so much vigor and at such expense had been a little more frank everybody would have profited. They have made a point of advertising the Paragon chestnut as blight resistant, which it is not; consequently, the country is full of disappointed customers. The dealers should have said something more or less as follows: "This chestnut blights freely, but it bears so well and so abundantly and with such a good nut that people can afford to plant it in large acreage and let it blight, carrying it along with about the degree of attention that one would naturally give to good apple trees." Had the dealers only said something like that, the members of our Association who receive very many letters from all over the country asking about this particular chestnut would have advised its purchase in large quantities. Prospective customers are shy of nurserymen in general. They write to members of our Association asking who is reliable. People have learned what we stand for. (34) A hybrid between a pecan and a bitternut hickory. A large handsome thin shelled nut, but bitter. The great vigor of growth of the seedlings of this hybrid, which comes from Mr. G. M. Brown, of Van Buren, Ark., would seem to make this hybrid variety of remarkable value as grafting stock for other hickories. The nuts are exceptional in carrying the type form of progeny. (35) Two rows of many species of nut trees planted in thick glazed earthenware pots. The pots are about four feet in depth and with round perforations. I had these made to order. I sunk them in the ground to the level of the rim and then planted these trees in the pots under the impression that they would remain dwarfed on account of the confinement of the roots, and that I would have a conveniently placed series for experiments in hybridization. The experiment was not a success. I knew that growing trees would move rocks, but had no idea that roots protruding through these holes in heavy glazed earthenware would be able to break the pots. The roots have done just that, and whenever a tree in a pot becomes large enough the protruding roots break the pot to pieces, and the tree marches straight along to its original destiny. (36) One of a group of European chestnuts from seed brought me by Major L. L. Seaman. The parent tree is famous in England for its enormous size and heavy bearing; it is said to be centuries of age and is growing upon the estate of Sir George B. Hingley, Droitwich, Worcestershire, England. My young trees are growing very thriftily. They are showing some blight spots, but this has been controlled by cutting out and painting. (37) A group of vigorous young trees, the result of placing pecan pollen on the pistillate trees of Siebold walnut. They show the Siebold parentage so distinctly that I imagine them to be parthenogens, but we cannot tell to a certainty until they bear fruit. (38) A hillside set out with a large number of common bush chinkapins from the East, tree chinkapins from Missouri and a number of hybrids. The chinkapins and the alder-leaved chestnuts on this side hill have been so blight resistant as to require almost no attention, and for that reason I am making hybrids between the chinkapin and the alder-leaved chestnut and the Chinese chestnut in the hope of making an excellent combination of chinkapin quality and Chinese size. Up to the present time none of my hybrids have been as valuable as either parent, with the exception of two. Two of the hybrids bear nuts about the size of the average American sweet chestnut and of first rate quality. These two hybrid trees have shown no sign of blight as yet. (40) A hybrid between an American chestnut and a chinkapin. It blights freely like its American parent. Some of the hybrids do that while others show the resistance of the chinkapin parent. This particular tree grows lustily, and I have taken the trouble to cut out the blight every year. The leaves and general appearance are very closely like the common American chestnut. When it first began to bear, the nuts were of the chinkapin type, a single nut to the bur and hardly to be distinguished from other chinkapins. A year or two later the nuts changed in appearance, becoming distinctly lighter in color and with peculiar longitudinal corrugations of the shell. A year or so later still the tree made another change, and it now bears two or three nuts to the bur like the American chestnut, the nuts retain their light color and peculiar corrugation. (41) A group of European hazels (_Corylus avellana_). Several years ago the Prince of Colloredo-Mannsfeld was visiting Merribrooke. His Highness was much interested in the experimental work in nut trees and later sent me a number of hazel nuts from one of his estates in Bohemia. Among the hazel bushes which grew from these nuts there was one which bore large, long, thin-shelled nuts of high quality. This bush, as you observe, has rather small dark leaves and stout, crooked branches. At one of the meetings of the Association I spoke of the bush as having a bony look, and Prof. J. Russell Smith referred to it in discussion as the "Bony Bush" hazel, and that name has been retained. I have grafted a number of other American and European hazels from this bush and I have sent scions to friends. (42) A Cook shagbark hickory from Moscow, Ky., grafted upon bitternut stock. This variety bears a very large thin-shelled, irregular nut, with rather poor cleavage, but the quality of the kernel is of such distinct value that I prize the variety. (43) An example of the spur graft. A common T cut is made in the bark of the stock and then a slice of guest bark carrying a small branch or spur is inserted. In this particular case I put in a branch about ten inches in length and you see that it is growing very well. (44) My beautiful Merribrooke chestnut grafted upon an ordinary American chestnut stock growing by the roadside. Five years ago I noticed this little chestnut tree growing by the roadside with two stems. One of the stems was blighted and I cut it off and stopped the blight for the time being. The following year the other stem blighted and I trimmed out the blight and sprayed the stem with pyrox. In the following year I grafted the stock, but blight appeared at another point, the blight was cut out, and the stem again sprayed. In the following year blight appeared again, but at another point, and after cutting it out I put on tanglefoot, simply because I happened to have some with me when passing the tree. This year the stem has blighted again and I have cut out the blight and sprayed it, and I shall now whitewash a large part of the stock with whitewash containing a little carbolineum. The graft now in its third year is bearing one big bur. The interesting point is that this tree has blighted every year for five years, and I have kept it going along by giving it attention. This means if we are willing to take the trouble we can get the best of the blight, even with such a remarkably vulnerable tree as this one proves to be. (45) A barren hillside covered with very handsome red pines eleven years of age, some of them grow nearly two feet per year. The soil is sandy and gravelly glacial till which will raise little else beside feather grass and sumac. The red pines are not nut pines, and attention is called to them incidentally because of their value for growing upon this sort of soil. (46) A Korean chestnut filled with burs. The Korean chestnut does not blight quite so readily as the American chestnut, and certain individuals are fairly blight resistant. I raised several hundreds of them, but almost all of them are dead. A fairly large number are growing well and bearing without much attention. The nut is pretty good, but coarser than that of the American chestnut. (47) A group of Tamba chestnuts from Japan. This is the favorite chestnut of the Japanese. I secured a number of the nuts, sprouted them and planted them out here in rows, intending to transplant them to permanent sites later. Finding that they were going to blight badly, I have neglected them and have allowed them to stand. One little tree among them bore a single bur at eighteen months of age and has borne steadily ever since with a heavy crop this year. This particular tree has not blighted, but its nut is coarse and of little value. (48) When collecting walnuts I obtained a lot of nuts from a correspondent from the Mogollon Mountains in Arizona. The nut resembles that of _Juglans rupestris_, but is larger and thicker shelled. No one knows whether it is an undescribed species or only a distinct variety of _Juglans rupestris_. Several of the nuts sprouted, but various accidents happened to them and this tree now, seven years old, is the only one of the lot living. It looks very different from any American walnut I have ever seen. In fact, it looks so much like a stunted heart nut that I suspected that one of these nuts might have gotten into the lot by accident. In digging down about the stem, however, I found only the shells of a Mogollon walnut. We can not tell what the tree will bring forth, as it is not bearing as yet. (49) Two groups of chestnut trees of the McFarland variety, about eighteen years of age. They grow and blight and bear, but have not blighted to the point of killing altogether. They have been neglected because the nut has not much value. (50) A group of Merribrooke hazels. Some years ago I devoted several weeks to examining hundreds of hazel bushes in this part of the country, where they are a pest, and I also visited other hazel localities at a distance. Among all the bushes examined the best nut was found on my own property and I learned later that this particular bush had been known among the boys of the locality for a century. The nut is of large size for an American hazel, thin shelled, of high quality. This group consists of transplants of root progeny from the parent bush. (51) A Horn hazel (_Corylus cornuta_, commonly wrongly designated as _Corylus rostrata_). A species fairly abundant in Connecticut, and I transplanted these bushes because they happened to have a tremendously long involucre. The nut of the horn hazel is not of such good quality as that of the common American hazel, and I have not succeeded in making hybrids between this and other hazels as yet. The hazels are very ancient in descent and each species likes to retain particular identity. (52) A number of stocks of red birch, white birch and scrub oak grafted with European hazels and chinkapins, but the grafts all died. The grafting was done as an experiment in the hope that we might possibly utilize our waste lands which are covered with birch and scrub oak by grafting these trees with hazels and chinkapins. Some of the grafts lived for such a long time and put out such long shoots that the experiment will be tried again next year. It would not seem worth while, excepting for the fact that it was a bad spring for grafting anyway, and hazels did not even catch on hazels, though they caught freely last year. The Japanese do grafting on stocks widely different from the scions, but we have not developed that particular feature in this country as yet. (53) Asiatic tree hazels (_Corylus colurna_). This species makes a tree as large as the common oaks and bears heavily. The nut is about the size of that of the common American hazel. The tree is very beautiful, and I am using it for grafting stock and for hybridizing. (54) Sprouting cages. A double row of galvanized wire cages sunk four inches into the ground and about four inches free above ground, filled with sandy loam and used for sprouting any nuts which are to be employed in experimental work. Each cage is fitted with a cover of galvanized wire, the purpose of which is to keep out rodents which are so destructive to planted nuts. In these cages there are now a large number of hybrid nut trees growing, and they will be transplanted to permanent sites or to the garden for culture next spring. (55) Japanese heart nut (_Juglans cordiformis_). The tree is supposed by some botanists to be a form of the Siebold walnut, but it has quite a different appearance. It has an open habit with large leaves and nuts which are suggestive of the conventional heart. The quality of the nut is very good, much like that of the Siebold, but the nut is larger and compressed. The tree is very hardy and is almost tropical in appearance. It has not been planted very largely in this county, but it undoubtedly will be eventually. (56) Siberian walnut. The tree looks much like the Siebold walnut in general appearance, but with smaller leaflets, and the nut is very much like our butternut, but smaller and with much rougher shell. (57) Two pecan trees that I bought from a nursery about twelve years ago. They have not borne as yet and being seedlings we cannot know if they will be of value. I shall probably graft them next year and not wait for them to bear their own nuts. (58) Two large Siebold walnuts only twelve years of age, but growing in rich ground and sometimes making five feet of growth in a single year. They were well filled with nuts two weeks ago, but the red squirrels have cut down all of the nuts including numbers which I hybridized with English walnut pollen this spring. On one of the lower branches of one of the Siebold walnuts is a long thrifty graft of the Lutz black walnut that I put in this spring, simply because I happened to cut off the lower branches of the Siebold that were shading the garden, and I happened to have some of the black walnut scions with me at the time. It will not be allowed to remain on this tree. (59) A cross between our Siebold walnut and our butternut, now about eight years old, but growing thriftily. It has not borne nuts as yet. I have a number of these trees and they appear to be good hybrids. (60) A group of Kaghazi Persian walnuts. A valuable variety and one of the so-called English walnuts, a term that we use for convenience because the name has become established in this country by the market men, not by the botanists. (61) A thrifty young Chinese seedling persimmon (_Diospyros lotus_). (62) Little trees of one of the nut pines (_Pinus edulis_). They are at their best in the arid mountains of Arizona, and the species is very important as furnishing a food supply for the Indians. The little trees are hardy here in dry soil among the rocks, but do not grow rapidly. Mine have been in more than six years and are not more than six inches in height, but are very pretty. (63) The Chinese Tamopan persimmon. The tree is very handsome, with large glossy leaves, but somewhat tender in Connecticut and requiring protected exposure. The fruit of the Tamopan is as large as a very large apple. (64) Several trees five years of age, the result of English walnut pollen on Siebold walnut pistillate flowers. The trees are growing very thriftily, but they show the Siebold characteristic without much evidence of the English walnut parentage. (65) A field of Pomeroy English walnuts, notable for their beautiful white bark. The trees have been in over eight years and set nuts for the first time this year. As seedling trees we cannot tell what they will do when in full bearing. (66) Two species of nut bearing pines from which the marking labels have become lost, and I shall not be able to determine the species until they bear cones. One of them is very beautiful, with long leaves and pleasing bluish green foliage. A VISIT TO THE ESTATE OF THE LATE LOWELL M. PALMER, NOTABLE FOR ITS COLLECTION OF TREES AND SHRUBS, DR. MORRIS CONDUCTING. Here we see the Ginkgo trees, two of them bearing. The Ginkgo belongs by descent to the coniferous tree group. A very fine tree with nuts that are highly prized by the Asiatics, but somewhat too resinous for the American palate. Most of the Ginkgo trees are males, but one may graft any number of males with bearing female scions. An _Araucaria imbricata_ grew for twenty years on this place, and we have only just learned that it died last year. This pine is one of the most important of the nut pines and furnishes a large food supply in South America. The fact that one tree lived for twenty years in this latitude means a great deal. A number of European hazel bushes are growing on the property and bearing heavily. A large heart nut tree, but bearing small nuts, is growing well. Several of the Himalayan nut pines (_Pinus excelsa_) beautify the property, and one of the trees, heavily laden with cones, is at least fifty years of age. Another one of the nut-bearing pines (_Pinus paviflora_, from Japan) is represented by several specimens on the Palmer property, and one little tree apparently less than ten years of age, is heavily loaded with cones. Incidentally we may examine here a trifoliate orange filled with fruit. It is growing in a well protected corner of the grounds. Mr. Webber sent some valuable trifoliate hybrids to Merribrooke. One variety lived through the winter, but made a crippled start in the spring. Some day we may have good trifoliate orange hybrids in Connecticut if the Buckley hickory, Stuart pecan, Arizona walnut and imbricated pine grow here. * * * * * A dinner was held at the Hotel Davenport on the evening of the 5th, at which about thirty-five members and guests were present. After dinner the public was admitted and the following papers were read, Mr. Collingwood being a guest of the Association: DR. KELLOGG: I feel a great interest in the work of this Association and a great sympathy with it. I feel that you are all working for me and I am doing what I can to promote your interests also. That is, I am trying to create a market for your products. ADVENT OF NUTS INTO THE NATION'S LIST OF STAPLE FOODS. DR. J. H. KELLOGG, MICHIGAN. In these days when a condition of food shortage exists in the greater part of the civilized world, any question which concerns a nation's food supply is of public interest. Food conservation is the great question of the hour. Visions of vanishing steaks and chops alarm the overfed and rising prices of all foodstuffs pinch the bills of fare of the poor. It may easily be shown that most of all the hardships which the civilized world is suffering as regards food supply is due to lack of understanding and of foresight. The fundamental error is the popular faith in the high protein ration. The physiologists are at least partly at fault. Liebig's dictum, which made protein the essential food factor in supporting work, has misled the whole civilized world for more than half a century. The dietaries of institutions, armies, whole nations have been based upon a conception which modern science has shown to be utterly false, and the result has been an economic loss which staggers belief, and a destruction of human life and efficiency which overshadows every other malign influence. To properly appreciate the place of nuts in the national dietary we must have in mind a clear conception of the nature of food as revealed to us in the light of modern laboratory studies of human nutrition and metabolism. Food is to an animal what soil is to a plant. It is the soil out of which we grew. What we eat today is walking around and talking tomorrow. The most marvelous of miracles is the transmutation of common foodstuffs into men and women, the transfiguration of bread, potatoes and beefsteak into human intelligence, grace, beauty and noble action. We read in holy writ how the wandering Israelites were abundantly fed in the Assyrian desert with manna from the skies and marvel at the Providence which saved a million souls from death, forgetting that every harvest is a repetition of the same miracle, that each morsel of food we eat is a gift of Heaven conveyed to us by a sunbeam. Food is simply sunshine captured by the chlorophyll of plants and served up to us in tiny bundles called molecules, which, when torn apart in our bodies by the processes of digestion and assimilation release the captured energy which warms us with heat brought from the sun and shines out in human thought and action. It is less than a century since Liebig and Lehmann and their pupils began to unravel the mystery of food. In recent years no subject has received more assiduous attention from scientific men, and none has been made the object of more constant or more profound research than the questions of food and food supply. The feeding of animals and men is without question the most pressing and vital of all economic problems. The labors of Voit and Pettenkofer, Rubner, Zuntz, Atwater, Benedict, Chittenden, Mendel, Lusk and Hindhede have demonstrated that there is the closest relation between food supply or food selection and human efficiency. In fact, it has been clearly shown that the quality of the food intake is just as directly and as closely related to the question of human efficiency as is the quality and quantity of gasoline to the efficiency of an automobile. In fact it has been established as a fundamental principle in human physiology that food is fuel. Life is a combustion process. The human body is a machine which may be likened to a locomotive--it is a self-controlling, self-supporting, self-repairing mechanism. As the locomotive rushes along the iron road, pulling after it a thousand-ton cargo of produce or manufactured wares or human freight sufficient to start a town or stock a political convention its enormous expenditure of energy is maintained by the burning of coal from the tender which is replenished at every stopping place. The snorting-monster at the head of the rushing procession gets hungry and has to have a lunch every few miles along the way. After a run of a hundred miles or so the engine leaves the train and goes into a roundhouse for repairs; an iron belt has dropped out or a brass nut has been shaken off. Every lost or damaged part of the metal leviathan is replaced, and then it is ready for another century run. The human body is wonderfully like the locomotive. It pulls or carries loads, it expends energy, it consumes fuel and has to stop at meal stations to coal up; it has to go off duty periodically for repairs. The body needs just what the locomotive needs--fuel to furnish energy and material for repair of the machinery. Food differs from fuel chiefly in the one particular, that in each little packet of food done up by Mother Nature there is placed along with the fuel for burning a tiny bit of material to be used for repair of the machine. In other words, food represents in its composition both the coal and the metal repair materials of the locomotive. The starch, sugar and fat of foods are the coal and the protein or albumin is the metal repair stuff. Here we see at once the reason why starch and sugar and fat are so abundant in our foodstuffs, while protein or albumin is in quantity a minor element. But there are other differences between food and common fuel which are worthy of mention. The water and the salts are essential to meet the body's needs, especially the various mineral elements, lime, soda, potash and iron. All these we must have--lime for the bones and nerves, soda and potash to neutralize the harmful acid products of combustion processes, and iron for the blood. All these are found in normal foodstuffs, but in greatly varying proportions, so that a pretty large variety of foods must be eaten to make sure that each of the different food principles required for perfect nutrition are supplied in ample quantity. In recent years science has discovered another and most surprising property of food in which it transcends all other fuel substances as a diamond from the Transvaal outshines a lump of coal. Natural food contains vitamines. It has long been known that an exclusive rice diet sometimes causes beri-beri, a form of general neuritis, and that a diet of dry cereals and preserved food in time gives rise to scurvy, but the reason was a profound mystery. In very recent years it has been learned that the real cause of beri-beri and scurvy is the lack of vitamines which are associated with the bran of cereals and so are removed in the process of polishing rice and in the bolting of wheat and other grains. Vitamines do not enter into the composition of the body as do other food principles, but they are somehow necessary to activate or render active the various subtle elements which are essential to good nutrition. There are several kinds of vitamines. Some are associated with the bran of cereals, other with the juices of fruits. Some are easily destroyed by heat, while others survive a boiling temperature. The discovery of vitamines must stand as one of the most masterly achievements of modern science, even outshining in brilliancy the discovery of radium. It was only by the most persevering efforts and the application of all the refinements of modern chemical technic that the chemist, Funk, was able to capture and identify this most subtle but marvelously potent element of the food. This discovery has cleared up a long category of medical mysteries. We now know not only the cause of beri-beri and scurvy and the simple method of cure by supplying vitamine-containing foods, but within a very short time it has been shown that rickets and pellagra are likewise deficiency diseases, probably due to lack of vitamines, and in a recent discussion before the New York Academy of Medicine by Funk, Holt, Jacobi and others, it was maintained that vast multitudes of people are suffering from disorders of nutrition due to the same cause. Osborne a few years ago conducted experiments which demonstrated that something more than pure food elements and salts is essential for growth and development. They found that rats fed on starch and fat lived only four to eight weeks. When protein was added they sometimes lived and grew and sometimes remained stunted or died. It was thus evident that proteins differ. Their observations proved very clearly that there are perfect and imperfect proteins. The protein of corn, zein, for example, was shown to be incapable of supporting life. With the addition of a chemical fraction, tryptophan, obtained from another protein, the rats lived, but did not grow. By adding another fractional protein, lysin, the rats were made to thrive. A minute study of the subject by Osborne, Mendel and numerous other physiologic chemists have shown that a perfect protein is composed of more than a dozen different bodies called amino-acids, each of which must be present in the right proportion to enable the body to use the protein in body building. Each plant produces its one peculiar kind of protein. The protein of milk, caseine, is a perfect protein. Eggs and meat, of course, supply complete proteins, but among plants there are many imperfect proteins. McCollum has demonstrated that grains, either singly or in combination will not maintain life and growth. The same is true of a mixture of grains with peas or navy beans. Another element is lacking which must be supplied to support life and growth. With these facts before us we are prepared to inquire what place in the dietary are nuts prepared to fill? With few exceptions nuts contain little carbohydrate (starch or sugar). They are, however, rich in fat and protein. On account of their high fat content they are the most highly concentrated of all natural foods. A pound of nuts contains on an average more than 3,000 calories or food units, double the amount supplied by grains, four times as much as average meats and ten times as much as average fruits or vegetables. For example, according to Jaffi's table, ten of our common nuts contain on an average 20.7 per cent. of protein, 53 per cent. of fat and 18 per cent. of carbohydrate, as shown in the following table: Protein Fat Carbohydrate Almonds 21.4 54.4 13.8 Peanuts 29.8 46.5 17.1 Filberts 16.5 64.0 11.7 Hickory 15.4 67.4 11.4 Pine nut 33.9 48.2 6.5 Walnut 18.2 60.7 13.7 Pecan 12.0 70.7 18.5 Butternut 27.9 61.2 5.7 Beechnut 21.8 49.9 13.8 Chestnut 10.7 7.8 70.1 ------ ------ ------ Average 20.76 53.08 18.23 Meat (round steaks) gives 19.8 per cent. of protein and 15.6 per cent. of fat, with no carbohydrate. A pound of average nuts contains the equivalent of a pound of beefsteak, and in addition, nearly half a pound of butter and a third of a loaf of bread. A nut is, in fact, a sort of vegetable meat. Its composition is much the same as that of fat meat, only it is in much more concentrated form. There can be no doubt that the nut is a highly concentrated food. The next question naturally is, can the body utilize the energy stored in nuts as readily as that supplied by meat products, for example. The notion that nuts are difficult of digestion has really no foundation in fact. The idea is probably the natural outgrowth of the custom of eating nuts at the close of a meal when an abundance, more likely a super-abundance, of highly nutritious foods has already been eaten, and the equally injurious custom of eating nuts between meals. Neglect of thorough mastication must also be mentioned as a possible cause of indigestion following the use of nuts. Nuts are generally eaten dry and have a firm hard flesh which requires thorough use of the organs of mastication to prepare them for the action of the several digestive juices. Experiments made in Germany showed that nuts are not digested at all, but pass through the alimentary canal like foreign bodies unless reduced to a smooth paste before swallowing. Particles of nuts the size of small seeds wholly escaped digestion. Having been for more than fifty years actively interested in promoting the use of nuts as a staple food, I have given considerable thought and study to their dietetic value and have made many experiments. About twenty-five years ago it occurred to me that one of the above objections to the extensive dietetic use of nuts might be overcome by mechanical preparation of the nut before serving so as to reduce it to a smooth paste and thus insure the preparation for digestion which the average eater is prone to neglect. My first experiments were with the peanut. The result was a product which I called peanut butter. I was much surprised at the readiness with which the product sprang into public favor. Several years ago I was informed by a wholesale grocer of Chicago that the firm's sales of peanut butter amounted on an average to a carload a week. I think it is safe to estimate that not less than one thousand carloads of this product are annually consumed in this country. The increased demand for peanuts for making peanut butter led to the development of "corners" in the peanut market, and more than doubled the price of the shelled nuts and to a marked degree influenced the annual production. The nut butter idea also caught on in England. I am citing my experience with the peanut not for the purpose of recommending this product, for I am obliged to confess that I was soon compelled to abandon the use of peanut butter prepared from roasted nuts for the reason that the process of roasting renders the nut indigestible to such a degree that it was not adapted to the use of invalids. I only mention the circumstance as an illustration of the readiness with which the public accepts a new dietetic idea when it happens to strike the popular fancy. Ways may be found to render the use of nuts practical by adapting them to our culinary and dietetic customs and to overcome the popular objections to their use by a widespread and efficient campaign of education. Other nuts, when crushed, made most delicious "butters," as easily digestible as cream, since they did not require roasting. I later found ways for preparing the peanut without roasting. The fats of nuts, their chief food principle, are the most digestible of all forms of fat. Having a low melting point they are far more digestible than most animal fats. Hippocrates noted that the stearin of eels was difficult of digestion. The indigestibility of beef and mutton fat has long been recognized. The fat of nuts much more closely resembles human fat than do fats of the sort mentioned. The importance of this will be appreciated when attention is called to the fact that fats entering the body do not undergo the transformation changes which take place in other foodstuffs; for example, protein in the process of digestion is broken into its ultimate molecular units. Starch is transformed into sugar which serves as fuel to the body, but fats are so slightly modified in the process of digestion and absorption that after reaching the blood and the tissues they are reconstructed into the original form in which they are eaten, that is, beef fat is deposited in the tissues as beef fat without undergoing any chemical change whatever; mutton fat is deposited as mutton fat; lard as pig fat, etc. When the body makes its own fat from starch or sugar, the natural source of this tissue element, the product formed is _sui generis_ and must be better adapted to the body uses than the animal fat which was _sui generis_ to a pig, a sheep or a goat. It is certainly a pleasant thought that one who rounds out his figure with the luscious fatness of nuts may felicitate himself upon the fact that his tissues are participating in the sweetness of the nut rather than the relic of the sty and the shambles. It is also worthy of note that the fat of nuts exists in a finely divided state, and that in the chewing of nuts a fine emulsion is produced so that nut fats enter the stomach in a form best adapted for prompt digestion. Another question which will naturally arise is this: if nuts are to be granted the place of a staple in our list of food supplies will it be safe to accept them as a substitute for flesh foods? Beef steak has become almost a fetish with many people, but the experiments of Chittenden and others have demonstrated that the amount of protein needed by the body daily is so small that it is scarcely possible to arrange a bill of fare to include flesh foods without making the protein intake excessive. This is because the ordinary foodstuffs other than meat contain a sufficient amount of protein to meet the needs of the body. Nuts present their protein in combination with so large a proportion of easily digestible fat that there is comparatively little danger of getting an excess. It is also worthy of note that the protein of nuts is superior in quality to that of grains and vegetables. The critically careful analyses made in recent years have shown that the proteins of nuts, at least of a number of them, contain all the elements needed for building up complete body proteins, in other words, nuts furnish perfect proteins, which are not supplied so abundantly by any other vegetable product. This fact places the nut in an exceedingly important position as a foodstuff. In face of vanishing meat supplies it is most comforting to know that meats of all sorts may be safely replaced by nuts not only without loss, but with a decided gain. Nuts have several advantages over flesh foods which are well worth considering. 1. Nuts are free from waste products, uric acid, urea, carmine and other tissue wastes. 2. Nuts are aseptic, free from putrefactive bacteria and do not readily undergo decay either in the body or outside of it. Meats, on the other hand, are practically always in an advanced stage of putrefaction, as found in the meat markets. Ordinarily meats contain from three million to ten times that number of bacteria per ounce, and such meats as hamburger steak often contain more than a billion putrefactive organisms to the ounce. Nuts are clean and sweet. 3. Nuts are free from trichinae, tapeworm and other parasites, as well as the infections due to specific disease. Nuts are in good health when gathered and remain so until eaten. The contrast between the delectable product of the beautiful walnut, chestnut or pecan tree and the abattoir recalls the story of the Tennessee school teacher who was told when she made inquiry about a certain shoulder of pork which had been promised in part payment of services, but had not arrived: "Dad didn't kill the pig." "And why not," said the teacher. "Because," replied the observing youngster, "he got well." Nearly all the cows slaughtered are tuberculous. They are killed to be eaten because too sick to longer serve as community wet nurses. That nuts are competent to serve as staple foods might be inferred from a fact to which Professor Matthews, of the New York Museum of Natural History, calls attention to, to wit, that our remote ancestors, the first mammals, were all nut and fruit eaters. They may have gobbled an insect now and then, but their staple food was fruits and nuts, with tender shoots and succulent roots, which is still true of those old fashioned forest folks, the primates of which the orang outang, the chimpanzee and the gorilla are consistent representatives, while their near relative, also a primate, civilized man, has departed from his original bill of fare and has exploited the bills of fare of the whole animal kingdom. The keeper of the famous big apes of the London Zoo informed me that they were never given meat. Even the small monkeys generally regarded as insectivorous, were confined to a rigid vegetarian fare and were thriving. Whole races of men, comprising many millions, live their entire lives without meats of any sort, and when fed a sufficient amount are wonderfully vigorous, prolific, enduring and intelligent. Witness the Brahmins of India, the Buddists of China and Japan and the teeming millions of Central Africa. Carl Mann, the winner of the great walking match between Berlin and Dresden, performed his great feat on a diet of nuts with lettuce and fruits. The Finn Kilmamen, the world's greatest runner, eats no meat. Weston, the long-distance champion, never eats meat when taking a long walk. The Faramahara Indians, the fleetest and most enduring runners in the world are strict vegetarians. The gorilla, the king of the Congo forests, is a nut feeder. Milo, the mighty Greek, was a flesh abstainer, as was also Pythagoras, the first of the Greek philosophers, Seneca, the noble Roman Senator, and Plutarch, the famous biographer. The writer has excluded meat from his diet for more than fifty years, and has within the last forty years, supervised the treatment of more than a hundred thousand sick people at the Battle Creek Sanitarium on a meatless diet. Even carnivorous animals nourish on a diet of nuts with other vegetable foods and cooked cereals. The Turks mix nuts with their pilaff of rice and the Armenians add nuts to their baalghoor, a dish prepared from wheat which has been cooked and dried. That nuts are not only competent to serve as a staple food, but that they may fill a very important place as accessory foods in supplementing the imperfect proteins of the grains and vegetables is shown in a very conclusive way by an extended research by Dr. Hoobler, of Detroit. Before describing Dr. Hoobler's experiment I may be allowed to explain that some years ago, in 1899, I was asked by the then United States Secretary of Agriculture to undertake experiments for the purpose of providing a vegetable substitute for meat. Dr. Dabney said there was no doubt that the time would come when such substitutes would be needed on account of the scarcity of meat. I succeeded in developing several products which have come to be quite widely known and used more or less extensively in this country and Europe. Among these were Protose (resembling potted meat) and malted nuts, a soluble product somewhat resembling malted milk. It was noted that the malted nuts when used by nursing mothers greatly increased the flow of milk and promoted the health of the infant. Recently Dr. Hoobler undertook an extensive feeding experiment with nursing mothers and wet nurses as subjects. He made use of these nut preparations as well as of ordinary nuts and compared the results with various combinations into which meat and milk entered in various proportions. He found that a diet of fruits, grains and vegetables alone gave a very poor quality of milk, but when nuts were added the result was a milk supply superior in quantity and quality to any other combination of foodstuffs, not excepting those which included liberal quantities of milk, meat and eggs. From this it appears that nuts possess such superior qualities as supplementary or accessory foods that they are able to replace not only meats, but even eggs and milk in the dietary. The full account of Dr. Hoobler's interesting observations will be found in the Journal of the American Medical Association for August 11, 1917. Extensive feeding experiments are now being conducted at the research laboratory of the Battle Creek Sanitarium, which it is hoped will develop still other points of interest respecting the superior nutritive properties of the choicest and most remarkable of all the food products which are handed to us from the fertile laboratory of the vegetable world. Another and most interesting phase of my subject is the relation of nut feeding to anaphylaxis. This newly coined word perhaps needs explanation for the benefit of my lay hearers. For many years it has been known that some persons were astonishingly sensitive to certain foods which indeed appeared to act as violent poisons. Oysters, shellfish, mutton, fish and other animal products, as well as a few vegetable products, especially honey, strawberries and buckwheat, were most likely to be the cause of these violent disturbances. More recently it has been found that cow's milk very often shows the same peculiarity. It is now known that this remarkable phenomenon is due to the fact that the body sometimes becomes sensitized to certain proteins which thereafter act as most violent poisons and may cause death. Sensitization to animal proteins is much the more frequent. In such cases nut products become a very precious resource. This is especially true with reference to cow's milk. Liquid nut preparations have saved the lives of hundreds of infants within the last twenty years. I have had the pleasure of meeting several fine looking young people who owed their lives to nut-feeding when other resources had failed. One case was particularly interesting. A telegram from a well-known Senator at Washington announced the fact that his infant daughter and only child was dying from mal-nutrition, as cow's milk and all the known infant foods had been found to disagree. I advised nut-feeding, and fortunately the prescription suited the case and the little one began to improve at once. When the physician in attendance learned that the child was eating nuts he vigorously protested, declaring that such a diet was preposterous and would certainly kill the infant, but the child flourished wonderfully on the liquid nut diet, eating almost nothing else for the first three years of her life, and today is a splendidly developed young woman, a brilliant witness to the food value of nuts. I have by no means exhausted the physiologic phases of my subject, but will now turn a moment in concluding my paper, to its economic aspects. The high price of nuts is constantly urged as an objection to their use as a staple. It is probable that a largely increased demand would lead to so great an increase in the supply that the cost of production, and hence the cost to the consumer, would be decreased. But even at the present prices the choicest varieties of nuts are cheaper than meats if equivalent food values are compared. This is clearly shown by the following table which indicates the amounts of various flesh foods which are equivalent to one pound of walnut meats. Beef loin, lean 4.00 pounds Beef ribs, lean 6.50 " Beef neck, lean 9.50 " Veal 5.50 " Mutton leg, lean 4.20 " Ham, lean 3.00 " Fowls 4.00 " Chicken, broilers 10.00 " Red bass 25.00 " Trout 4.80 " Frogs' legs 15.00 " Oysters 13.50 " Lobsters 22.00 " Eggs 5.00 " Milk 9.50 " Evaporated cream 4.00 " But the great economic importance of the encouragement of nut culture in every civilized land is best shown by comparing the amount of food which may be annually produced by an acre of land planted to nut trees and the same area devoted to the production of beef. I am credibly informed that two acres of land and two years are required to produce a steer weighing 600 pounds. The product of one acre for one year would be one-fourth as much, or 150 pounds of steer. The same land planted to walnut trees would produce, if I am correctly informed, an average of at least 100 pounds per tree per annum for the first twenty years. Forty trees to the acre would aggregate 4,000 pounds of nuts, or 1,000 pounds of walnut meats. The highest food value which could be ascribed to the 150 pounds of beef would be 150,000 calories or food units. The food value of the nut meats would be 3,000,000 calories, or twenty times as much food from the nut trees as from the fattened steer, and food of the same general character, protein and fat, but of superior quality. One acre of walnut trees will produce every year food equal to: 14,000 lbs. red bass (a ship load). 3,000 " beef (five steers). 7,500 " chicken broilers. 15,000 " lobsters. 10,000 " oysters. 60,000 eggs (5,000 dozen). 4,000 qts. milk. A ton of mutton (13 sheep). 250,000 frogs. And when one acre will do so much, think of the product of a million acres. Ten times the product of all the fisheries of the country. Half as much as all the poultry of the country. One seventh as much as all the beef produced. More than twice the value of all the sheep. Half as much as all the pork. And many millions of acres may be thus utilized in nut culture. And the walnut is not the only promising food tree. The hickory, the pecan, the butternut, the filbert and the piñon are all capable of producing equal or greater results. A single acre of nut trees will produce protein enough to feed four persons a year and fat enough for twice that number of average persons. So 25,000,000 acres of nut trees would more than supply the whole people of the United States with their two most expensive food stuffs. Cereals and fresh vegetables, our cheapest foods, would be needed for the carbohydrate portion of the dietary. Just think of it. A little nut orchard 200 miles square supplying one-third enough food to feed one hundred million of citizens. The trouble is the frogs and cattle are eating up our food supplies. We feed a steer 100 pounds of food and get back only 2.8 pounds. If we plant 10 pounds of corn we get back 500 pounds. If we plant one walnut we get back in twenty harvests a ton of choicest food. In nut culture there is a treasury of wealth and health and national prosperity and safety that is at present little appreciated. * * * * * Here is a veritable treasury of wealth, a potential food supply which may save the world from any suggestion of hunger for centuries to come if properly utilized. Every man who cuts down a timber tree should be required to plant a nut tree. A nut tree has a double value. It produces valuable timber and yields every year a rich harvest of food while it is growing. Every highway should be lined with nut trees. Nut trees will grow on land on which no other crop will grow and which is even worthless for grazing. The piñon flourishes in the bleak and barren peaks of the rockies. The nut should no longer be considered a table luxury. It should become a staple article of food and may most profitably replace the pork and meats of various sorts which are inferior foods and are recognized as prolific sources of disease. * * * * * Ten nut trees planted for each inhabitant will insure the country against any possibility of food shortage. A row of nut trees on each side of our 5,000,000 miles of country roads will provide for a population of 160,000,000. With a vanishing animal industry, nut culture offers the only practical solution of the question of food supply. As the late Prof. Virchow said, "The future is with the vegetarians." THE IMPORTANCE OF NUT GROWING. H. W. COLLINGWOOD, NEW JERSEY. In these days the importance of most things is valued in figures. I never was good at figures. It seems to me that you can do anything you like with figures, except make them clear, yet it was the failure to figure that gave me my first idea of the importance of nut culture. Some 50 years ago a small boy on a New England farm could not, or would not, do his sums in the old Coburn Arithmetic. It made no difference that the teacher called it Mathematics, and pointed it with the end of a hickory stick. By any other name it was not sweet. This boy got stuck on a question about a hare and a hound. It appeared that the hare jumped a rod at a time, and made 33 jumps a minute. The hound started 200 feet behind the hare. This hound made 18 ft. at a jump, and made 321/2 jumps a minute. Now, would the hound catch the hare before they got to a hickory tree half a mile away? I am glad they introduced that hickory tree because the question was a hard nut at best and needed brain food. I couldn't tell where the hare would be, and I can't now; nor do I believe that some of you wise heads, grown hairless with constant thinking, could really tell how the hare came out. If I saw one of my children headed for me with such a problem in hand, I confess that I should make a prompt engagement outside. The old folks who brought me up, had sterner ways of enforcing education. They decided that the boy should live on brown bread and water until he did that example. In order to assist hunger in bringing the boy to it, after the first day showed that the boy was still going, the old gentleman hunted up all the axes and hatchets, scythes and knives on the place, and made the boy turn grindstone while he held the implements on. Greek met Greek. The boy wouldn't give in, and the old man couldn't and preserve his dignity, but try as he might the old man could not tire out the boy; the old hands gave out first, and the old man straightened his back and gazed at that wonderful boy. Now it wasn't in brown bread and water to sustain strength and will in that way. Not when there are baked beans for supper and you can smell them! The old man had to acknowledge a higher power which beat him. He wouldn't do it openly, that was not the New England way, but he did it on the second night by helping the boy to baked beans and fried potatoes without a word. The old man went to his death thinking that he had a most wonderful boy, and the little fellow did not give his secret away. Now we may have it as a slight contribution to the importance of nut culture. The sustaining power which carried the boy through his trial was the hickory nut. There was a pile of them in the attic, and the boy on the quiet, cracked and ate a quart of them every day. That boy could not spell protein to save his life, and carbo-hydrates would have scared him off the floor, but the nuts and the brown bread gave him a balanced ration which did everything except find out about the hound and the hare. I think it would have required a balanced ration fed to an unbalanced brain to settle that problem. Now I think the importance of the nut industry must come to the general public in that way, through the stomach rather than through the mind. The human mind is a marvelous piece of mental machinery, so is the machine which sets type or weaves fine cloth, yet both are powerless unless the fire pot under the engine, or the stomach of the man, are kept filled with fuel or food. I have heard very old men tell of the prejudice which existed against coal, years ago, in New England, when attempts were made to introduce the new fuel. Cord wood was the local fuel, people knew what it was, and its preparation provided a local industry. The introduction of coal meant destruction for this local business of wood cutting, and wiped out the value of many a farm. Coal had to win its way against prejudice and local interest, and it only won out by showing power. I am sure that 75 years ago, if some visionary Yankee had said that coal would be so freely used in New England that cord wood would be almost unsaleable, the public would surely have given him that honorary title which goes with prospective and persistent knowledge, "nut." In like manner the importance of nut growing will not be truly recognized until we can show a man in the most practical way that nuts provide the energy to be found in beef steak. It is said that knowledge creates an atmosphere in which prejudice cannot live. I know an old man who is absolutely settled in his conviction that New England has degenerated because her people have given up eating baked beans and cod fish balls, and introduced the sale of these delicacies in the West. That man says, with convincing logic, that in the old days when New England lived on brown bread and baked beans, we produced statesmen on every rocky hillside, and we dominated the thought of the nation. Now, he says, we have not developed one single statesman since the canned baked bean industry took our specialty away from us. The only way to convince him is to produce a dozen statesmen out of men who are willing to subscribe to a diet of nuts. I have a friend who says he feels like throwing a brick every time he passes a modern laundry. He says the invention of the linen collar kept him a poor man. His grandfather invested the family fortune in the stock of a paper collar factory. Many of our older men remember the time when we all wore paper collars, and bought them by the dozen in boxes. It seemed like a sure thing when the old man put all his money into it. He figured that by 1915 there would be 40,000 people in this country, each one wearing at least 200 paper collars a year, something like the hound and the hare, perhaps, but he didn't know that the hare in this case would drop dead, and the hound double his jump, as happened to paper and linen collars. Some one invented the modern linen collar. The laundry service started up, and paper collars disappeared with the family fortune. Now, my friend must work for a living, and throw mental bricks at the laundry. In a way every new habit, or every new interference with the thought and method of the plain people must run the gauntlet and submit to just such violent changes. Now the future of the nut business, which contains the importance of the industry, depends upon our ability to make the plain, common people understand that in the future we must cut our beef steak and our chops off a nut tree. We have made some of the brainy people understand this already, but the hound is still chasing the hare, and he is several jumps behind. You may say what you will, or think as highly as you like of your own place in society, but the world is not run or pushed on by the brainy people. They may steer it for a while and master it, but only at the permission of what I may call the stomach people, who always sooner or later rise up and dominate things. A gild-edged, red line edition of nut knowledge will get the few or select class, but in order to make the industry truly important we must make a homely appeal to the plain people. It seems to me that one of the most effective nut documents yet issued is that bulletin by George Carver, a colored man at the Tuskegee Institute. Carver simply makes his appeal to the Southern farmer, and he gives him 45 ways of cooking and eating peanuts. I rather think that Carver's work in trying to get the Southern negroes to eat more peanuts and more cow-peas has done about as much for the race as the academic instruction given in the college. On the principle that "Like begets like," I feel sure that the continued practice of cracking the shell to get at the sweet meat inside will tend to put more phosphorus and less lime into the skull of the race. I once explained the nut proposition to an energetic man and he said: "Fine--the theory is perfect--now hire a man who lives on rare beef to get out and fight for your proposition and you will put it over!" Last year I went up into New York State with a prominent public man, who was to make a speech. This man was delayed, and in order to get there he had to jump on the last platform of the last car. He had eaten no lunch, and only a light breakfast. He said he should surely fail in his speech because he was faint from lack of food. I asked him what he would eat if he had the chance. He said soup, half a chicken, potatoes and asparagus, and apple pie. I told the train boy to bring samples of everything he had, and we finally selected an apple from Oregon, a banana from Mexico, a box of figs from California, some pop corn from Massachusetts, chocolate from Venezuela, and salted nuts from Louisiana. The air and the sunshine and the water seemed to be produced in New York, but nothing else. A great dinner for a New York man, but to his surprise it satisfied him, took the place of the chicken, and carried him through his speech with a strong punch. It seems to me that one trouble with our nut propaganda is that we go at it in such a way that the pupils regard us somewhat as "nuts," and why should the man who becomes a specialist on any subject, and airs it on all occasions, be called a nut? We shall have to admit that men are called such names. I think it is because we let our brains work somewhat like the oyster or clam, and secrete a hard shell of formal knowledge around the sweet meat of condensed human nature, for that is what all useful knowledge is. We must crack our shell of formal knowledge and grind it up finer before we can put it into the think works of the plain people. While I was working up the Apple Consumers' League some years ago, I ran upon the fact that Corbett, the prize-fighter, consumed 3 dishes of apple sauce every day while training. Now, I had used the statement that J. P. Morgan always had a baked apple for his lunch, but I got small results from that story. Few people ever expected to make millions, and Morgan was out of their class. Every man carried a punch, which he wanted to enlarge and make effective. If Corbett used apple sauce to oil his arm for a knock-out blow, every man with red blood wanted apples. Now we must work our nut campaign in some such popular way, if we expect to put a nut on the wheel of progress. The fact that Prof. Johnson, or Dr. Jackson, or the Rev. Thompson, or Judge Dixon, or Senator Harrison, find strength and comfort from eating nuts, is very important and very pleasant, but 99 per cent of our people never expect to enter the learned profession, and they must not get the idea that these professions stand around the full use of nuts like a barbed wire fence. Most men must live and work in the rough and tumble of life, and at present they think red meat is the sustaining power for that sort of stuff. We must change their point of view. Let us find athletes, baseball men, wrestlers, fighters, runners, men who stand well in popular sports and who will publicly state that they substitute nuts for meat in part at least. We must put this thing into the popular imagination of the plain people if it is to be of full importance. When some fellow with a new brand of cigarettes wants to develop a trade among young men, he gets some noted ball player to write a letter stating his love for that brand. I think we should follow that plan somewhat in putting our nut campaign before the people. Two years ago the Oregon Agricultural College sent a football team East. The college was almost unknown here, but I asked one or two football men about it. They laughed at these Pacific Coast athletes. Here was a college they said which had issued a bulletin advising the people to send their children to school with nut sandwiches instead of meat. This man said that such training could only result in puny, half grown men, and he doubted if this team would last half way across the country. Those Oregon boys lined up a team of giants. They simply wiped the earth with most teams of their class, and left behind the cracked shells of a long line of reputation, with the sweet meat well picked out. Personally I believe that within 25 years, 50 at the latest, our people will be absolutely forced to accept a diet of nuts in place of our present proportion of meat. As I see it, the time is coming when increased population and shortage of available land will make prime, beef nearly as scarce as turkey and venison are today. Not only so, but I think knowledge will slowly but surely lead men to change their diet from choice. My children will live to see the time when the acre nut orchard on the average farm will be considered just as useful and as much of a necessity, and far more profitable, than the present chicken yard. In that day I think the nut industry will rank in food importance second only to that of corn, and I believe that the greatest change will be found here in New England, for I believe that nut culture is to change history, and readjust population and industry to some extent. Frankly, I expect my children to live to see the time when the hickory nut in New England will rank far above the walnut industry in California or in France. I think this nut culture will, in time, bring a greater income to the New England States than all its fruits and grain combined today. Out in the wild woods on some New England hillside there are growing today strains or varieties of nuts which will do far more for this section than the Baldwin apple, or the Bartlett pear have ever done. They will be found, tamed and propagated. You may, if you like, call me a dreamer, or what is the same thing, a "nut." I can stand that, for have I not in my short span of life seen dreams come true. Suppose the wandering hunter, or the farmer's boy, who discovered the Baldwin apple in the woods of Massachusetts, had gone back to his home and stated that the time would come when this beautiful red fruit would grow wherever it found a suitable climate, that it would revolutionize horticulture, bring millions of dollars to New England, and find its way throughout the world wherever the sails of commerce are blown. They might have hung him as a witch or dreamer, and yet, his dream would be no more improbable than what I say of nut culture in New England. I have seen the telephone, the flying machine, the gasoline engine, all grow from the vain dream of a crazy inventor to public necessities, and as surely as fate the nut industry is to bring back to the old hillsides of New England much of the profit and the glory of old days. THE PROPER PLACE OF NUT TREES IN THE PLANTING PROGRAM. BY C. A. REED, NUT CULTURIST, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the planting of trees for most purposes, it is now possible to exercise practically the same degree of choice with regard to special fitness as is employed in the selection of men for positions or tools for a piece of work. The fruit grower in every part of the country has his special species and pomological varieties from which to choose. The foresters and landscape gardeners have their species and botanical varieties or improved strains to pick from. Among the important purposes for which trees are planted the production of native nuts is singularly behind. The leading species of native nut-bearing trees include the hickories, the walnuts, the chestnuts, the pines, and the beech. Of these, one of the hickories, the pecan, is the only species which has so far been developed by cultivation as to become of importance for the production of an orchard product. The timber of the pecan is less valuable than is that of most other hickories, and is in commercial use only as second-class material. However, it is the most important species of nut-bearing tree in the United States. Its native and introduced range includes the fertile lands of the plains of practically the entire southeastern quarter of the country. It is neither an upland nor a wet land tree. In the United States it is not found in the mountainous sections, nor, to any important extent, south of Middle Florida. In Mexico, it is occasionally found on mountain sides at considerable elevations and by some is supposed to be there indigenous. However, according to "Pomological Possibilities of Texas," written by Gilbert Onderdonk, of Nursery, Texas, and published by the State Department of Agriculture in 1911, its success at those altitudes is vitally dependent upon the water supply. In each case investigated by Mr. Onderdonk, while upon official trips made for the United States Department of Agriculture, he found the pecan trees to be adjacent to some stream, either natural or artificial. "At Bustamente," says Mr. Onderdonk, "one hundred and seven miles beyond Laredo, are pecan trees two hundred years old that have been watered all their lives and have continued productive. From these trees, grown from Texas pecans, pecan culture has been extended until there are now thousands of thrifty pecan trees under irrigation. One owner of a small lot sold his water right when his trees were about seventy-five years old, and when the writer visited his grounds fourteen years later, every one of his trees was either dead or dying." We may yet find the pecan to be suitable for plateau or mountain land growth, but as Mr. Onderdonk reports was the case in Mexico, it is also the case here. The species must have ample water. With the proper amount of moisture, neither too much nor yet too little, there is no way of predicting to what altitudes or even latitudes it may be taken. Its northernmost points of native range are near Davenport, Iowa, and Terre Haute, Indiana. Iowa seed planted in 1887, at South Haven, Michigan, on the eastern shore of Lake Michigan, at a latitude of about 421/2 degrees, have never been seriously affected by winter temperatures. However, they have fruited but little. So far as the writer can ascertain the crops of nuts have been insignificant both as regards quantity and character. Dr. Deming reports a large tree at Hartford, Conn., at a latitude of nearly 42 degrees which, judging from a photograph which he took several years ago, was then 3 feet in diameter and quite at home, so far as growth was concerned. Other planted trees are fairly numerous along the Atlantic Coast between Washington and New York. There is one in the southern part of Lancaster County, Pa., near Colemanville, but so far as is known to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, important crops of nuts have never been realized from any of these northern trees. Crops from the native trees in the bottoms north of latitude 39 degrees or approximately that of Washington, D. C., and Vincennes, Indiana, are fairly uncertain. Northern nurserymen are now disseminating promising varieties of pecans from what has come to be known as the "Indiana district," which includes the southwestern part of that state, northwestern Kentucky and southwestern Illinois. In many respects these varieties compare very favorably with the so-called "papershells" of the southern states. They are believed to be of very great promise for northern planting in sections to which they may be adapted. However, before any northern varieties are planted for commercial (orchard) purposes, they should be fully tested as to their adaptability in the particular section where the planting is to take place. The commercial propagation of northern varieties of pecans began less than ten years ago; the first attempts were not generally successful, and as a result there are no budded or grafted trees of northern varieties yet of bearing age. Aside from the pecan there are no named Pomological varieties of any native nut now being propagated, with very few exceptions. So far as these exceptions are concerned, it is probable that fewer than one hundred budded or grafted trees of such varieties are yet of bearing age, and of such as have attained the age at which fruit might be expected, exceedingly few have borne in paying quantities for any number of consecutive years. Therefore, with reference to the planting of native nut species for profit, the truth of the situation is simply this: In the ordinary course of events, with the exception of the pecan, years of experimentation in the testing of varieties and in a study of their cultural requirements must be gone through before any native species of nut-bearing trees can be planted in any of the northern states with a certainty of commercial return from nuts alone which would be comparable with that of many other crops which already are upon a well established commercial basis in this part of the country. With reference to two of the foreign species of nuts which have been introduced, the situation is quite different. In order of commercial importance of the nuts now grown in this country, two foreign species, the Persian (English) walnut and the almond, stand second and third, respectively, the pecan, which is an American species only, being first. With these exceptions, the foreign introductions are all in the experimental or test stage, and while possibly the European hazel (filbert) may now be making a strong bid for commercial recognition in the northwest, and the pistache in parts of California, neither species can yet be recommended for commercial planting. With the exception of a few hardshell varieties of almonds, which are practically as hardy as the peach and which are suitable only for home planting, as they are in no way to be compared with the almond of commerce, there is now no indication that this species is destined ever to be come of commercial importance east of the Rocky Mountains. The Persian or so-called English walnut is of commercial importance in this county only in the far Western States. In the South, it has thus far failed altogether. In the North and East it has held out gleams of hope, first bright, then dull, for more than a century. There is no way of telling the number of trees of this species which have been planted in the northeastern section of the country, but let us imagine it to have been sixty thousand. Of these fully fifty per cent have succumbed to climatic conditions; twenty-five per cent have been but semi-hardy, and possibly twenty-five per cent have attained the bearing age. A part of each of the last two classes have borne crops of commercial size for a number of years. Some have produced nuts of good size and quality. A great many of all those surviving are now proving susceptible to a walnut blight upon which Mr. McMurran is to report tomorrow. A liberal estimate of the present number of bearing Persian walnut trees in this part of the country would be ten per cent of the original supposed sixty thousand or six thousand trees. Of these, the writer has positive knowledge of none which are now bearing crops of nuts in such quantity, and of such size, and quality and with such regularity and which have so borne for such length of time as to encourage commercial planting. Few of the eastern grown nuts are so free from tannin as to be really pleasing to the taste, or favorably comparable with the best nuts of the market. The writer is now closely watching the best known varieties which the nurserymen are putting out, but at the present time there is no variety which, in his judgment, should be commercially planted without further testing. The proper place for such partially improved species, as are most of the nut producers hardy in this section at the present time, is that in which they may be used for more than the single purpose of nut production. Most of the species of the botanical family _Juglandaceae_, to which the walnuts and hickories belong, are slow growers, and as such, are objectionable to the average planter. In answer to this, it may be said that among trees, slowness of growth is invariably associated with longevity of tree and its value when cut as timber. Also, when due pains are taken, it is possible to select species which are exceedingly satisfactory in the landscape. Several of the slides, which are to follow, illustrate the individual beauty of selected nut trees, and some show their effective use in the landscape. Foresters are now advocating the planting of trees in waste places in the country, especially about farm buildings. There are, perhaps, no conspicuous waste places with a greater aggregate area than the strips along the public highway. In certain foreign countries, these strips are planted to fruit trees and the right of harvest awarded to the highest bidder. The revenue so obtained goes a long way toward keeping the highways in good condition. It is possible that this practice may sometime be introduced into the United States, but until public opinion is radically changed, the planting of fruit trees along the highways can not be expected to yield any satisfactory returns to the public. The experience of Dr. Morris who planted cherry trees along the public road past his farm here in Connecticut, where we have just been, is typical of what, under present conditions, might be expected in any part of the country. When the cherries were ripe, automobile parties came for many miles to pick the fruit, and when that in the highway was gone, the cherries from the nearby orchard were taken. In both cases, the branches were broken down and the trees left in badly mangled condition. Dr. Morris then tried nursery-grown and expensive evergreens, but on Sundays, automobile parties came again with spades and shovels and dug up the trees. The ratio of population to tillable land in this country is not such that, for a long time to come, the American people as a whole will be pressed into the using of highway land for the production of crops or into respecting the right of the public to harvest such crops as might be grown in its highways. Therefore, for the present, except in densely populated, or in more than ordinarily well regulated communities, it would be useless to advocate the planting of ordinary fruit trees along the public roadways. Irrespective of the possible value of their crops, fruit trees of most species are both too small and too short-lived to be suitable for highway planting. With nut trees, the situation is entirely different. The native walnuts, most species of hickories and the American beech are large-growing and long-lived trees. In addition, they are capable of withstanding severe temperatures; they are tough and strong and not liable to injury by storm or while being climbed by ordinary persons; and they readily adapt themselves to a wide range of soil, moisture, and climatic conditions. Ordinary species of nut trees can not be recommended for the dual purpose of timber and nut production, as, for the former purpose, the trees should be planted close together in order to induce length and straightness of trunk with a minimum of top or bearing surface, while for the latter, they should be planted in the open and given space for the maximum development to bearing surface and a minimum length of trunk. The great demand for hickory in the making of axles, wheels, and other vehicle parts and handles for tools, and for walnut in the manufacture of furniture and gun stocks, makes it not only possible but common practice to use these woods in short lengths. Therefore, both species planted along the highways and in other waste places might profitably be converted into their timber upon reaching maturity, if their crops of nuts should prove to be of small commercial value. The butternut, _J. cinerea_, is a less symmetrical grower than are the black walnuts. The timber is less valuable and the nuts are cracked with greater difficulty. Nevertheless, it is the most hardy of any native species of _Juglans_. Its kernels are rich in quality and of a flavor more pleasing to some persons than that of any other nut. Cracking the native butternut and marketing the kernels affords the rural people in many sections a fairly profitable means of employment during the winter months. Its native range extends farther north than does that of either the eastern black walnut, or that of the shagbark hickory, _Hicoria ovata_, and considerably beyond that of the shellbark hickory, _H. laciniosa_. Therefore, in view of its hardiness, and the merit of its kernels, it is well worthy of consideration for planting in the most northern parts of the country. Were it not for the blight which is now making practically a clean sweep of destruction over the eastern states, wherever the native chestnut is found, the American chestnut, _Castanea dentata_, would certainly be entitled to leading consideration as a highway, an ornamental or a nut producing tree. Unaffected by blight or other diseases, it is one of the largest-growing and most graceful species in the eastern United States. The European chestnut is nearly as susceptible to this blight as is the American species. The chestnuts from eastern Asia now appear to be sufficiently immune to offer a practical solution to the situation by their introduction into this country. However, they commonly lack the sweet agreeable flavor of the American species and need hybridizing in order to improve their quality. This, the Federal Department of Agriculture is now doing, and in due time, there may be something to offer in ample quantity which will make a satisfactory substitute for the native species. Exclusive of the Asiatic species and the government hybrids, there are now no available species which can be recommended for planting in the blight affected area, and these should be planted only for test purposes. The pines referred to at the outset of this article as being important nut producers are all western species found only on the mountains and nowhere under cultivation. There are at least fourteen American species. Representatives are found in most of the Rocky Mountain states. The most important species is _Pinus edulis_. It is found at altitudes of from five to seven thousand feet in the mountains of New Mexico, Arizona and northern Mexico. In favorable years, the seeds are gathered in enormous quantities under the name of "piñons," or according to the Mexicans, "pinyonies." The nuts are rich in flavor but small and difficult to extract from the shells. They are not well known in the eastern market, but in the southwest they form a highly important article of food for the Indians and Mexicans. These pines are exceedingly slow growers and not of graceful form. They could scarcely be considered for ornamental planting, except at the altitudes to which they are common, and then; probably, only where some more satisfactory shade trees would not succeed. Among all American species of trees, it is probable that in a combination of beauty, longevity, strength and hardiness, the American beech, _Fagus grandifolia_, is unexcelled. Although commonly looked upon as being a northern species, its range extends south to northern Florida and west to the Trinity River in Texas. It is most familiar as a clean-barked, spreading tree, with low head, and a height of from fifty to sixty feet. However, its form depends largely upon environment. The writer has seen it in the bottoms of southwestern Georgia, in common with the magnolia, growing to a height of from seventy-five to one hundred feet and with trunks of two feet in diameter extending upward in a manner which, with regard to height and uniformity of size, compared favorably with the long-leafed Georgia pine. The nuts of the beech are rich in quality and of excellent flavor, but owing to their small size and the great difficulty attending the extraction of the kernels, they are not ranked as being of direct importance for human food. Their principal use in this country is as a mast crop for turkeys and swine, for which they serve a most useful purpose. Crops which can be used in this manner to good advantage, thus practically obviating the problems of harvesting, storing and marketing, are certainly well worth thinking about in these days of labor scarcity. There are few large sections of the United States adapted to the growing of trees to which some nut-bearing species is not suited. Most species of nut trees are as capable of producing shade and ornamental effect, and are as hardy and lasting as any others which might be mentioned. In addition, they produce an edible product which is entering into the list of staple food products with great rapidity. The present scarcity of meats and the consequent high prices are compelling the substitution of other products. The superiority of nuts over practically all other products which are available, as substitutes, scarcely needs argument. Already, nuts are being pressed into service as rapidly as production permits, and perhaps more so than prices and comparative food values justify. Singularly enough, this section of the United States, which is the oldest and most thickly populated portion of the country, and that within which the greatest number of edible species of nuts are indigenous, is today practically without pomological varieties for planting. Within this area, individuals have made tests of species and varieties for many generations, yet little progress has resulted. The obvious need is for further test on a large scale. A better opportunity for the making of such a test could scarcely be imagined than that of highway planting. Pomologists are firmly recommending the exclusive use of budded or grafted trees. But this advice applies only to orchard planting for the purpose of commercial production. Until more and better varieties are known and their merits established, that portion of the country lying north of the pecan belt and east of the Rocky Mountains, must await the development and trial of new varieties. Seedlings must be planted in large numbers from which to select varieties. The process is too slow and the percentage of varieties which may be expected to be worth while too small for it to be possible for the individual to make much headway during an ordinary lifetime. Our present system of national highways by which all parts of the country are being connected is perfecting the opportunity. The general planting along these great national highways of elm, oak, poplar, tulip, cedar, hemlock, magnolia, pine or any other species which, unless cut, are capable of producing no crop other than that of shade, would hardly be in keeping with the present need for utility. It would be giving a questionable degree of thought to the welfare of future generations. To the list of nut trees as utility trees there might be added the sugar maple, and certain species of prolific-bearing oaks. The former could be drawn upon for the making of syrup and sugar, and the acorns from the latter could be put to good use as hog and turkey food. In wet sections, willows might prove useful from which to cut material for baskets, furniture, or tying bundles. A way of overcoming the objection of slow growth of some of the nut species might be the alternate planting of quick-growing species which would furnish shade in a minimum length of time, and which could be cut for pulp or other purposes by the time the nut trees reach maturity. A practical objection to highway planting of nut trees is that unless cared for, such trees are in danger of becoming breeding places for diseases and insect pests which would quickly spread to nearby orchards. However, such planting in numbers too small to be worth caring for is not to be considered. Already the country is agreed that the maintaining of the middle of the road in such condition that it can render maximum service is a paying investment. The suggestion here made is only as the next step in highway investment. It is a proposition to make more comfortable and attractive the present system of roadways, and at the same time to help develop new varieties of nut trees for orchard planting. Unless such new varieties are soon to become available, a large part of the country will presently find itself dependent upon outside sources for its principal substitute for meat and its main supply of vegetable fats. A little thought should be able to work out a sound program for the planting of utility trees on practically every highway in this country. Since this manuscript was completed, attention has been called to a reference to a war use of the horse chestnut, which appears on page 18 of the July number of "My Garden," a monthly publication, with headquarters at 6 Bouverie Street, Fleet Street, London. As the heading "NEW USE FOR HORSE CHESTNUTS," and its sub-head "Cereal Saving," both indicate it may be of interest to the American people, although the production of horse chestnuts in this country is not large. The article which is credited to The Times, is as follows: "An important war time use has been found for horse chestnuts by the systematic collection and transport of all the nuts that can be obtained to the centre where they can be utilized. Up to the present time cereals have been necessary for the production of an article of great importance in the prosecution of the war. Under the direction of the Food (War) Committee of the Royal Society, which acts for and in consultation with the Royal Commission on Wheat Supplies, the Minister of Food, and the Minister of Munitions, experiments have been carried out during the winter to find a substitute for these cereals, and thus to set them free for food supplies. Brilliant work has ended in the difficulties being overcome, and the proof that the seeds of the horse chestnuts answer the purpose admirably. Except as food for deer and goats the seeds have, in the past, been practically a waste crop, and they can be used instead of cereals, essential for human consumption, without interfering with any existing industry or interest. "The organization for the collection and transport of all that can be obtained is being rapidly perfected. When the time comes it will be the privilege and duty of every owner of a tree or trees to help and to give facilities for the collection of the nuts. Every ton of chestnuts collected will set free an equivalent amount of grain. The tree being chiefly grown for ornamental purposes occurs most freely in towns and private gardens. In some towns it is the practice to remove the young nuts from the trees in July so as to prevent them from being stoned and broken by boys later on when the "conker" demand begins. Urban authorities and park-keepers must discontinue the practice this year. Chestnut Day, early in next autumn, will have a far wider observance and significance this year than any Chestnut Sunday at Bushey, or than Arbor Day over here, or even in America. For once the small boy will collect the nuts with the full approval of the owner. "To prevent any misapprehension it should perhaps be made clear that the horse chestnuts will not themselves be used as food. They are required for another purpose altogether, and the only way in which they will help the food supplies of the country is by setting free cereals which have now to be consumed in the production of a necessary article." * * * * * THURSDAY, SEPT. 6, 1917. Meeting called to order at 9.30 A. M. The Nominating Committee reported the renomination of all the officers. The Secretary was instructed to cast one vote for these candidates. [Carried.] Moved and carried that the selection of the time and place for next meeting to be left to the Executive Committee with especial consideration of a joint meeting with the National Association at Albany, Georgia. SOME INSECTS INJURING-NUT TREES. BY W. E. BRITTON, STATE ENTOMOLOGIST, CONNECTICUT. Nut-bearing trees, like other kinds of trees, are attacked by insect pests. Some kinds are seriously injured by them; others scarcely at all. Some of these insects are borers in the trunk and branches; some devour the leaves; some feed inside the nuts and ruin them; some suck the sap from the stems and leaves. I shall make no attempt in this paper to enumerate these pests. Time forbids. I shall only mention a few of the most obvious and most serious, and where possible, point out control measures. THE WALNUT CATERPILLAR. _Datana integerrima_ G. & R. During the month of August clusters of blackish caterpillars bearing white hairs, may be seen stripping the terminal branches of black walnut, butternut and hickory trees. This is called the walnut caterpillar, and it has been very abundant in Connecticut this season. Many small trees have been entirely stripped and large ones almost defoliated. There is only one brood each year in Connecticut, though two occur in the southern states, and the pupae winter in the ground. The adult is a reddish brown moth, having a wing-spread of about one and one-half inches. Clipping off the twigs and crushing the mass of caterpillars is perhaps the simplest control method on small trees. Spraying with lead arsenate will prevent defoliation. THE FALL WEB-WORM. _Hyphantria cunea_ Drury. Though a general feeder attacking all kinds of fruit, shade and forest trees, the fall web-worm commonly feeds upon the foliage of nut trees, especially hickories, causing considerable damage in the South. The adult is a white moth, having a wing-spread of an inch or more, appearing in midsummer and laying its egg-cluster on the under side of a leaf. The young caterpillars make a nest at the end of a lateral branch by drawing the leaves together with their webs. These nests usually appear in July and August, though in Connecticut there is a partial second brood and usually a few nests of the early brood may be found in June. In the South there are two complete generations. When the larvae have exhausted their food supply, they extend their nest by taking in fresh leaves, but always feed inside the nest, differing in this respect from the tent caterpillar which makes its nests here in May. When fully grown the caterpillars are about one and one-fourth inches long, with brown bodies covered with light brown hairs, and may be seen crawling about seeking a place to pupate. They soon go into the ground where they transform, the adults emerging the following year. The best remedies are (1) clipping off and burning the nests when small, and (2) spraying the foliage with arsenical poison. THE WALNUT BUD MOTH. _Acrobasis caryae_ Grote? Inconspicuous nests containing small caterpillars are often found at the ends of the new shoots of _Juglans regia_, seriously injuring them, and sometimes killing the trees. One small tree two feet high was killed, and thirty-five pupae were found in the nests at Dr. Morris' farm in 1912. The adult is a small gray moth with a wing expanse of about three-fourths of an inch. There are three broods each season in Connecticut, the larvae appearing about June 1, July 10 and August 18. By spraying the foliage with lead arsenate (3 lbs. in 50 gals. water) this insect can be controlled. One application should be made about June 1, followed by a second about July 10. Though this insect is thought to be _Acrobasis caryae_ Grote, it is often difficult to distinguish some of these species in this genus without a knowledge of their food habits and seasonal life histories. We possess such knowledge regarding this species which we have studied and reared in Connecticut, but it is lacking in connection with adult specimens in the United States National Museum labeled _caryae,_ which superficially seemed identical with ours. Further study, therefore, may prove this to be an undescribed species. There are other bud-worms attacking nut trees, especially in the southern states, where they cause considerable damage to pecans. THE WALNUT WEEVIL OR CURCULIO. _Conotrachelus juglandis_ LeC. Probably the most serious enemy of _Juglans_, in Connecticut at least, is the walnut weevil or curculio, _Conotrachelus juglandis_ LeC. The larvae tunnel in the tender shoots, often ruining the new growth, and they also infest the nuts. The adults feed upon the shoots and leaf petioles. Observations on the different hosts indicate that _Juglans cordiformis_ and _J. sieboldiana_ are preferred, and the most severely injured, followed in order by _cinerea_, _regia_, _nigra_ and _mandshurica_. Though described as early as 1876, little was known about the life history of this insect until the studies were made at the Station in 1912 by Mr. Kirk and the writer. Formerly it was supposed that this insect attacked and injured only the nuts or fruit, and Dr. Morris in 1909 seems to be the first on record to observe the injury to the shoots of _Juglans regia_. It was on the trees of Dr. Morris here in Stamford and those of Mr. H. L. Champlain at Lyme that the life history studies were made. There is but one brood each year, and the winter is passed in the adult stage. The beetles appear the latter part of May and feed upon the stems and leaf veins during the egg-laying period, which extends from the last week in May up to August 1st. The eggs are laid in irregular crescent-shaped punctures, similar to those of the plum curculio, and hatch in from six to twelve days, depending upon the weather. From four to six weeks are necessary for the development of the larvae, and when mature they go into the ground where they remain for about ten days an inch or so beneath the surface. They then pupate, and from sixteen to twenty days later the adult beetles emerge. They fly to the trees and eat small holes chiefly at the base of the leaf petioles, but must early go into winter quarters as they are seldom seen after the first week in September. This insect occurs throughout the Eastern United States, but seems to cause more injury in Connecticut than has been noted elsewhere. The remedy is to spray the new shoots and under side of the leaves about June 1, with lead arsenate (6 lbs. of the paste in 50 gallons of water), to kill the beetles when feeding on the leaf petioles. THE NUT WEEVILS. _Balaninus_ sp. Several kinds of nuts are attacked and injured by long-beaked snout beetles or weevils belonging to the genus _Balaninus_, the chestnut probably being the most seriously damaged. All of them feed inside the nuts or fruit during the larval stage, and the larvae are without legs. As both the methods of attack and the life history are similar for all species, they will be considered here in a group. For the sake of distinguishing them, however, their names are mentioned. Larger Chestnut weevil, _Balaninus proboscideus_ Fabr. Lesser Chestnut weevil, _B. rectus_ Say. Hickory nut or Pecan weevil, _B. caryae_ Horn. Hazelnut weevil, _B. obtusus_ Blanch. Common acorn weevil, _B. quercus_ Horn. Mottled acorn weevil, _B. nasicus_ Say. Straight-snouted acorn weevil, _B. orthorhynchus_ Chittn. Sooty acorn weevil, _B. baculi_ Chittn. Confused acorn weevil, _B. confusor_ Ham. Spotted acorn weevil, _B. pardalus_ Chittn. All of these weevils pass the winter in the ground in the larval stage, transforming to pupae about three weeks before the adult beetles emerge, which varies from June, when they are usually few and scattering, to September, when they have become abundant. Thus there is a single brood each year, and the larval period lasts from three to five weeks in the nuts and some ten months in the ground, from two to eight inches below the surface. The control of these weevils is difficult, and ordinary methods such as spraying are not effective. In fact little can be done other than destroying the weeviled nuts, which may be fed to hogs. When first gathered the nuts may be fumigated with carbon disulphide. About two fluid ounces of the liquid should be used for each bushel of nuts and placed in a shallow dish on top of the nuts, which should be enclosed in a tight box or barrel. The period of fumigation should be from 12 to 24 hours. Where nuts are not to be used for seed they may be thrown into boiling water for about five minutes--just long enough to kill the weevils. The nuts are then dried and sold. Most of the weeviled nuts will rise to the surface and may be discarded, but this test is not absolute and cannot be depended on to distinguish the sound from the weeviled nuts. HICKORY BARK BEETLE OR BARK BORER. _Scolytus quadrispinosus_ Say. Outbreaks of the hickory bark borer occur periodically throughout the northeastern United States, and during the past five years many hickory trees in this vicinity have died. The adult is a small black beetle appearing in May and June, which eats holes in the axils of the leaf stems causing them to fall early--usually in July and August. Brood galleries are then made longitudinally just under the bark of the trunk by the female, and a row of eggs is placed along either side of this brood chamber. On hatching the grubs, which are at first very small, tunnel at right angles to the central chamber, each making its own separate gallery. These galleries never meet or cross each other, but must necessarily diverge toward their extremities as they become larger. The effect of this is to girdle the tree which soon dies. The larvae pass the winter under the bark, finish their development in the spring, pupate, and the adults emerge in May and June from small round holes about the size of bird shot. For control measures, Dr. Hopkins advises examining the trees during the fall and marking all dead and dying trees within an area of several square miles. Then between October 1 and May 1, cut all such trees and dispose of the infested portion to destroy the insects before the adults emerge. Many forms of treatment have been devised and recommended by tree doctors for the control of this insect. Some of them may be worth trying; most are of doubtful value, and some are absolutely injurious to the trees. On July 3, 1914, some affected hickory trees on the Station grounds were sprayed heavily with powdered lead arsenate, 4 lbs. in 50 gallons of water, to which one pint of "Black Leaf No. 40" was added. Two days later many dead beetles were found on the tar walks under the trees, and a few were observed each day up until about the middle of August. Most of the trees treated, however, had been so badly injured by the insect that they were removed. Since then this insect has caused little damage on the grounds, though a few hickory trees still remain. In 1901 an outbreak of the hickory bark beetle caused the death of 110 trees on the Hillhouse place in New Haven; then the destructive work of the insect ceased and the few remaining hickory trees are still standing and in fairly good condition. I mention these instances to show that nature's control methods through parasites and natural enemies is far more effective with certain pests than any which man has yet devised. Of course, we hope that in the future man will make better progress along this line. THE PAINTED HICKORY BORER. _Cyllene pictus_ Drury. There are several borers attacking the wood of the trunk of the hickory, but one of the commonest is the painted hickory borer. It also occasionally attacks black walnut, butternut, mulberry and osage orange. In hickory especially the larval tunnels are often found in the wood when trees are felled. There is probably one brood annually and the winter passed in the pupa stage, though it may possibly hibernate as a larva. Its life history is not fully understood. It is a common occurrence in Connecticut, and specimens are sent me every year, for the adult beetles to emerge in March from firewood in the house or cellar and crawl about seeking a chance to escape. The housewife fears that a terrible household pest has descended upon her, and with fear and trembling invokes the aid of the Agricultural Station. The beetles appear outside in April and May, and probably oviposit soon afterward. They are about three-fourths of an inch in length and are black, prettily marked with golden yellow. The insect can be controlled only by the old arduous methods of digging out, and injecting carbon disulphide into the burrows. Several other long-horned beetles are borers in the hickory and other nut trees. Then, too, the leopard moth, _zeuzera pyrina_ Linn., and the carpenter worm, _Prionoxystus robiniae_ Peck, may be found occasionally in most any kind of tree. The chestnut tree (if it has thus far escaped the blight or bark disease) may show small, deep tunnels into the wood of trunk and branch, made by the chestnut timber worm, _Lymexylon sericeum_ Harr. Slow-growing woodland trees are more apt to show these galleries than trees of rapid growth standing in the open. There are a number of tussock moths, sawflies, beetles, etc., which feed on the leaves of nut trees. Spraying with lead arsenate will prevent damage. There are also many sucking insects attacking them, such as the hickory gall aphis, and several species found on the leaves. Some of these may be controlled by spraying with a contact insecticide such as nicotine solution or kerosene emulsion. In the Southern States, pecan trees are attached by some of these insects which I have mentioned; there are also many more which cannot even be mentioned in the time allotted to this paper. Information may be obtained regarding them, by any one interested, and for this purpose I have appended a short list of publications. LITERATURE. Britton, W. E., and Kirk, H. B. The Life History of the Walnut Weevil or Curculio. Report Conn. Agr. Expt. Station for 1912, page 240. Brooks, Fred E. Snout Beetles That Injure Nuts. Bull. 128, West Virginia Agr. Expt. Sta., Morgantown, W. Va., 1910. Chittenden, F. H. The Nut Weevils, Circular 99, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D. C., 1908. Felt, E. P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. Memoir No. 8, N. Y. State Museum, Albany, N. Y. 2 vols., 1905, 1906. Gossard, H. A. Insects of the Pecan, Bull. 79, Fla. Agr. Expt. Station, Gainesville, Fla., 1905. Herrick, G. W. Insects Injurious to Pecans, Bull. 86, Miss. Agr. Expt. Station, Agricultural College, Miss., 1904. Hopkins, A. D. The Dying Hickory Trees. Circular 144, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agr., Washington, D. C., 1912. Kirk, H. B. The Walnut Bud Moth. Report Conn. Agr. Expt. Station for 1912, page 253. * * * * * A MEMBER: Early in the spring I noticed something on the hickory trees swollen and bright red in color, so that the trees were conspicuous from a distance. Later insects emerged which appeared to be these little gnats that fly in swarms. DR. BRITTON: From the description I am not able to say what it was, but it was probably one of those gall flies, a great many species of which exist and which attack all kinds of plants. They do not, as a rule, cause very serious damage, and I can not suggest any particular remedy. Did it interfere with the growth of the tree? A MEMBER: I noticed what seemed to be the same insect on the grape vines. DR. MORRIS: I would call attention to one pest that is very destructive to hazels; unless watched closely it will produce serious injury. That is the larvae of two of the sawflies. Dr. Britton was unable to determine off-hand the species of the specimens I sent him, but you may know the sawfly larvae by their habit of collecting in a row like soldiers around the edge of the leaf and when the branch is disturbed, their heads and tails stand up. These sawfly larvae need looking after and can be killed by spraying. They usually collect on two or three leaves at a time. I would like to ask about a bud worm that attacks the leaf of the hickory near the axil, sometimes very extensively, but not very injuriously. At the same time it makes deformities. Colonies of this insect select certain trees, for instance, the Taylor tree that you saw yesterday is infected with this particular bud larva. The base of a petiole becomes enlarged two or three times, and you will find one white worm at the bottom. This colony is confined to this one tree, and the very next tree adjoining the Taylor has its branches interwining, but is not bothered at all, so far as I can determine. This colony habit is also true of the hickory nut weevil--the hickory weevil makes the Taylor tree a colony house, whereas I haven't found a single weevil in nuts of the adjoining hickory tree that has its branches interwining. That colony habit is, perhaps, a weak point with the weevil, and it may enable us to eradicate them by concentrating our attention upon their colony trees. One point in regard to the chestnut weevil. When our chestnuts began to die here, I supposed that the chestnut weevils would immediately turn to my chinquapins for comfort. Weevils attack the chinquapins so extensively in the South that Mr. Littlepage said chinquapins would not be acceptable to Dr. Kellogg because they furnished so much animal diet. (Laughter). Curiously enough, the chestnut weevils did not go to my chinquapins. These chinquapins bear full crops, heavy crops, and one will almost never find a chestnut weevil in the nuts. I have found now and then a little weevil, about half a dozen altogether, that attacks the involucre at its point of attachment to the chinquapin. This looks like the chestnut weevil, but perhaps, only according to my eye, very much as all Chinamen look alike to one who has never seen them before. The matter of carbon disulphide for the painted hickory borer. I have used that apparently successfully, but I didn't tunnel through six feet of hickory tree afterward to see whether the borers were dead or not. It is a successful treatment for apple borers. I have no trouble with the apple borers now. I simply clean off the entrance of the hole, the "sawdust," and then with a little putty spread out with my hand make a sort of putty shelf below the hole, then I squirt in a few drops of carbon disulphide with a syringe, turn up the putty and leave it adhering to the bark, closing the hole. You can do that very quickly, and it spares a good deal of perspiring and backache. The black walnut. On one of my black walnut trees there is a serious pest, a very little worm which infests the involucre. The black walnuts of this tree fall early. I found that same worm last year also extending to the Asiatic walnuts, so that a great many Japanese walnuts fell early as the black walnuts fall, as a result of this little worm's working in large numbers within the involucre. I sent some specimens to New Haven for the species to be observed. This will be a very serious matter if it is going to involve the English walnuts as it does on Long Island. I have found the same thing, apparently, on Long Island in the black walnut, in the English walnut, and in the pecan. It causes a serious drop of these nuts at Dana's Island, near Glen Cove, Long Island. THE EXTENT OF THE HARDY NUT TREE NURSERY BUSINESS. R. T. OLCOTT, NEW YORK. For obvious reasons this subject may well be considered as constituting a gauge of commercial nut culture in the North; it is therefore of much more importance than the mere title would suggest. If there is merit in all that has been preached regarding the planting of budded and grafted trees instead of seedlings; and if it is still true, as we have long observed, that the propagation of named varieties of nut trees, and especially of hardy nut trees, is successful almost solely in the hands of experts, the progress of commercial nut culture in the northern states rests largely in the hands of the nurserymen. We may even go further and assert that it rests for the present mainly in the hands of a few nurserymen who have persistently studied the problems pertaining to the taming of a denizen of the forest, and have persevered with experiments in the face of repeated failure; for, as editor of the _American Nurseryman_, I am in a position to state that with a few exceptions nurserymen generally have not attempted to prepare to supply a demand for hardy, northern-grown, improved nursery nut trees. Seedling walnuts and hickories have been procurable for years from nurseries all over the country, as is shown by nursery catalogue listings; and at least two concerns--one at Lockport, N. Y., and another at Rochester, N. Y.,--have advertised nut tree seedlings extensively, despite the universal nursery practice of budding or grafting or layering practically all other kinds of trees and plants offered for sale as nursery stock--simply because it is not easy to propagate nut trees, and these nurserymen would take advantage of the growing demand for nut orchards. Within established nut circles all this is commonly known. It was my purpose in referring to these conditions to direct the attention of those not posted to what has been done by a half dozen or more conscientious nursery concerns in an endeavor to supply material of quality for the starting of nut orchards or the planting of isolated trees in response to the arguments set forth in behalf of nut culture. My subject lies at the very base of the formation of this association; for was it not with the idea of directing into safe channels interest which might be aroused in nut culture that the pioneers of the industry in the North organized and convened repeatedly to select and propagate and recommend certain varieties? As the result of years of concentrated effort selections have been made and varieties have been named--and to some extent recommended--throughout the northern states. Now and for some time past the public has had opportunity to purchase and plant carefully grown budded and grafted true-to-name nursery nut trees of varieties having in the parent trees exceptional characteristics deemed sufficient to warrant propagation and dissemination. I need not go into the matter of years of patient effort on the part of a few nurserymen and of a few investigators who entered the lists solely for the love of Nature's developments. This, in brief, is the rise of the hardy nut tree nursery business. Now, what of its extent? There are upwards of two thousand propagating nurserymen in the country, but those who have made a specialty of hardy, northern-grown nut trees are few. They include the Vincennes Nurseries, W. C. Reed & Son, Vincennes, Ind.; the Indiana Nurseries, J. Ford Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind.; the McCoy Nut Nurseries, R. L. McCoy, president, Evansville and Lake, Ind.; the Maryland Nurseries, T. P. Littlepage, Bowie, Md.; J. F. Jones, Lancaster, Pa,; J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pa.; C. K. Sober, Lewisburg, Pa., and some in the northwest. As showing the extent of the business, Mr. Reed, of Vincennes, reports demand for nut trees increasing. He had to return orders unfilled last spring. His nurseries have 3,000 to 4,000 Persian walnut trees and about the same number of pecan trees for fall sales; also about 1,000 grafted black walnut trees. There are growing in the Vincennes nurseries ready for budding and grafting 50,000 black walnut seedlings and 50,000 pecan seedlings. Mr. Reed said recently: "Owing to the extreme difficulty of propagating nut trees in the North, I think the demand will keep up with the supply." Mr. Jones sold last year about 8,000 nut trees which went to points all over the country; not many to California, or to the far South; a good many to New Jersey, New York, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, etc. The largest order was for 600 trees. A number of orders were for 100 to 300 trees. New Jersey leads in planting, he finds, with Virginia a close second, in large orders. In small orders, Pennsylvania leads with him. Mr. McCoy has done a great deal of experimenting with grafts and he is still at it. He has 40 acres mostly under nut tree cultivation, and has a considerable number of trees for sale. Anyone who has seen the handsome nut tree catalogue issued by Mr. Littlepage, of the Maryland Nurseries, must have been impressed with the great care taken to produce the attractive trees and nuts there depicted. These nurseries have been recently established and not a great number of trees have yet been offered for sale, but Mr. Littlepage has 150,000 seedling nut trees in his nurseries for propagating purposes. Mr. Sober's nurseries are devoted almost entirely to the cultivation of chestnut trees. Mr. Rush's specialty is the Persian walnut. Mr. Wilkinson naturally specializes in Indiana pecan trees. At Rochester, N. Y., James S. McGlennon and Conrad Vollertsen have produced interesting results with filberts imported some years ago from Germany. They have five-year-old bushes bearing; these have proved hardy in every way and they have no blight. The nuts compare favorably with the best of the imported kinds. Nursery stock will soon be ready in quantity, and they now have 500 plants suitable for transplanting. Filbert and walnut are the only nut trees grown commercially to any extent in the nurseries of the northwest. A few almond and chestnut trees are grown there, but the demand for them is very light. J. B. Pilkington, Portland, Ore., a well-known grower of a general line of nursery stock, advertises French, Japanese and Italian chestnut trees and the American Sweet. Filberts are being produced to a considerable extent. At present the nurseries cannot supply the demand for filbert plants, owing to the limited number of mother plants in the northwest. Practically all the nurseries have Barcelona and Du Chilly for sale, and a number have the Avelines. From one nursery or another De Alger, Kentish Cob and a few other varieties can be had. Persian walnuts are grown on a larger scale. Groner & McClure, Hillsboro, Ore., are the largest exclusive walnut nurserymen in the northwest. They produce close to 6,000 grafted trees annually. These sell at 90c. to $1.00 per tree in lots of 100. The Oregon Nursery Company, Orenco, Ore., produce a large number of both grafted and seedling walnut trees, asking up to $2.00 per tree for grafted and 35 to 50c. for seedlings. Many of the smaller nurseries procure their nut trees from California nurseries. Each year the proportion of seedlings planted is less. Franquette is the popular variety that is propagated. The Northern Nut Growers' Association and one or two other similar organizations have labored for years to extend interest in nut culture. The files of the secretary of this association will show in heaps of letters and piles of newspaper clippings the marked success in view of the means that were at hand. And it has all been upon a high plane. The campaigns have been marked by the utmost degree of conscientious effort to arrive at the truth regarding, adaptability of varieties and cultural methods. This work is still in progress--indeed, the need for it will never end. But in the opinion of the writer there should from this day go hand in hand with investigation and experiment a very practical application to orchard purposes of what has been learned. The sooner northern nut trees come into bearing in grove form the sooner will general interest in nut culture increase. I would urge constant effort in that direction; even, if need be, to the exclusion of some of the further study on varieties. There are now grown in northern nut tree nurseries approved by this association named varieties of pecans, Persian walnuts, black walnuts, hickories and some other nuts amply sufficient to start orchards. The pecan growers of the southern states selected and experimented and discussed for a time--and then they planted. Mistakes were made, but these were discovered quicker by grove planting. Now they are shipping improved varieties of pecans by the carload, at $12,000 per car. Naturally interest in pecan culture in the South is widespread. With bearing orchards of nut trees in the northern states, similar interest will be manifested; and then we shall all see the real progress which comes of producing commercial results. Has not the time arrived to put into practical operation what has been learned in the last eight years? I believe this association could wisely consider the policy of confining discussion in the open session of its annual meetings to topics relating to behavior of varieties in orchard form and commercial cultural methods--at least to the handling of the planted tree by the public, whether isolated or in orchard rows--and reserve for executive sessions the discussion of varieties and methods not yet at a stage for formal endorsement by the association. It seems to me that any other policy obscures the issue which, I take it, is to foster the extension of nut culture. How can nut culture be practically extended if the public is constantly confronted with features of the experimental stage? Persons mildly interested in nut culture, as the result, perhaps, of association propaganda, drift into our meetings or make ad interim inquiry and receive for membership enrollment, or otherwise, printed matter relating almost wholly to experimentation in nut work. No wonder their interest wanes a short time afterward and many of them are not heard from again. What most of them expected was information as to varieties of improved nut trees available, where to get them and how to treat them when planted. Discussion by the experts is not for them; they will reap the result of that in due time. Now, the extent of the hardy nut tree nursery industry is directly dependent upon all this. If that extent is not yet great, it is due undoubtedly to the newness of the industry. But it is also due in part to conditions which have been referred to. I wish especially for the purposes of this address that this association were an incorporated body so that I could speak of it as such and not seem to be criticising individuals. What has been done by our officers and members has been very necessary. It is of the future that I speak. Nut brokers, wholesale grocers and manufacturers of confectionery are calling for crop and market reports of nuts. A letter from a large commission house in San Francisco, importers and exporters, says that what is wanted is information as to growing crops of nuts and market conditions. Other brokers and dealers ask the same thing. The _American Nut Journal_ has given crop and market conditions of southern pecans and California walnuts and almonds; and, in peace times, of foreign nut crops. What else is there to give? The native nut crop? But that concerns this association about as much as the blueberry and huckleberry crops of the Michigan and Minnesota barrens concerns the horticultural societies and the National Apple Growers. What the brokers, wholesale grocers and commission merchants want is crop and market reports on cultivated nuts. But where are they? The public and the middlemen are calling for nuts. And these people write that they are not interested in cultural methods. The hardy nut tree nursery business is what it is and will be what it will be just in proportion to the character of the crop and the market report. Interest in nut culture generally will lag or increase in just the same ratio. This is the eighth annual convention of this association. Will the sixteenth annual meeting see a greatly augmented membership without a practical incentive? I have said that this association has recommended to some extent the planting of nut trees--the named varieties. I believe that what is needed is a publicity campaign bearing upon the planting of the varieties now on the market. When other varieties come on they may receive proper attention. Native nuts are in great demand. The varieties considered by this association are the best of the natives. Is that not sufficient basis to proceed on? Has not this association officially endorsed the varieties grown by the nut tree nurserymen we have referred to, by officially endorsing those nurserymen? Having endorsed the named varieties grown for sale by the nurserymen on its approved list can this association consistently do otherwise then to urge without hesitation the planting of those varieties by the public? DR. MORRIS: Mr. Olcott spoke on the almonds of the Pacific Coast. Here in the east it was said yesterday that only hard shelled almonds would thrive. That has been my experience with one exception. I got from a missionary some soft shelled almonds of very high quality and thin shelled. There were about twenty of those almonds, I ate two and planted the rest. The ants enjoyed the sprouting cotyledons of all but one. That one lived and thrived and grew in two years to a height of about four feet. In its third winter it was absolutely killed. Now that means that somewhere in Syria there is a soft shelled almond of very high quality that will live three years in Connecticut according to accurate record. It may live fifty years here if well started and protected when young. THE CHAIRMAN: You showed us some hard shelled almonds I believe from your place. DR. MORRIS: The hard shelled almonds do pretty well on my place if looked after. I have had trees that bore nearly a bushel each, but the chief difficulty is due to the leaf blights. Almond trees are quite subject to leaf blights. As long as I sprayed the almond trees frequently they did well but I had several other things to do and couldn't keep it up. A MEMBER: The Association has a list of nurserymen who are reliable and who will furnish reliable trees. It occurred to me in line with the spirit of Mr. Olcott's paper, if it would be practicable, for the Association to get up a little paper on approved varieties of trees for planting. That may seem foolish to suggest but a good many members who come in here are very green on the subject of nut growing. It may have been done but if it has I am not familiar with it. THE SECRETARY: A good many requests are received by the secretary for information as to what nut trees to plant. My advice usually is that they get the catalogues of all the different nurserymen on our approved list and select from those catalogues as many nut trees of each variety recommended by the nurserymen as they wish and give them the best cultural conditions they can. I don't see that we can recommend any particular varieties. There are few enough grafted varieties of nut trees obtainable, and I do not see that we can, as an association, recommend any particular varieties. I would like to have suggestions. MR. OLCOTT: I Don't Think It Is Advisable for the Association To go into that detail. I think that as the association has endorsed a list of nurserymen, so long as those nurserymen keep within boundary and retain that endorsement that is sufficient guarantee to the public. MR. REED: We cannot recommend the different varieties because they have not been tested out and fruited. In the National Nut Growers' Association data are obtainable because they have been worked out by experiment stations and by individuals. But in this association where varieties are just being discovered and have not been disseminated and tried we have got to test them. We haven't got developed beyond the infant class in this Northern Nut Growers' Association. A MEMBER: I realize that the thing is in an experimental stage, but since I have been at this meeting I have been asked by two different people here if I could give them any information as to what varieties to plant. That is a very live question for a person here for the first time and he wants a primer. THE SECRETARY: We had a circular, now exhausted, giving the best information known at that time. It gave the method of procedure from the cultivation of the land until the nut trees were advanced several years in their growth, covering it in detail in so far as it lay in the secretary's ability to give it at that time. The same advice perhaps would not be given now but it would be practically the same thing. It may be desirable that we reprint something of the kind for the person who wants to begin the cultivation of nuts and has no knowledge on the subject. MR. JONES: I think the association might do something of the kind. We could have a map of the states for instance, and have that outlined in belts and varieties specified that would be somewhat likely to succeed in those belts. MR. CHAIRMAN: I think it is only a question of time when that will be done. In the National Association that has been worked out, what they plant in Florida what they plant in west Georgia, what they plant in Mississippi, and what they plant in all the different sections. I think it is only a question of time when it will be worked out by this association. Every year will bring in new data. You will find in the National Nut Growers' Association that good reports on new varieties of nuts from year to year keep accumulating. From that we get data very definite for certain varieties. I expect the members of this association will know lots of them. They have become past history in nut growing in the south. We have got past those poor things and in to something that is definite and satisfactory. MR. BARTLETT: Would it be possible and advisable for the association to have such a thing as an experimental orchard, provided they could get somebody to take care of such a place? There is a man in this room who has plenty of room and facilities for taking care of an orchard. THE CHAIRMAN: That is worthy of attention but I do not know whether the association is in a position to take care of it. In my paper yesterday I spoke about putting it up to the experiment stations. COL. VAN DUZEE: The experiment stations are at the service of the people and if you will call upon your stations repeatedly they will respond eventually. It is going to take some little time but it seems to me that they are the logical people to carry it out. We have found in the south that the behaviour of varieties in different localities was so different that we have been obliged to wait until each locality had something of history to guide us. I suppose it would be a very good plan if all who are interested in nut culture in the North would convey the information to their experiment stations that they are desirous of having these orchards established. Eventually the country could be covered with little experimental plots where the information obtained would be reliable, where the work could be under the supervision and inspection of people who are paid by the state for that purpose. Now in regard to the publicity. We have followed a plan for a number of years in the South of publishing frequently what we call Nut Notes. They were gathered together by the editor of the Nut Grower. Whenever an item of interest to the public came to him in his exchange and from any other source, he made a paragraph of it and then at the end of the month, or perhaps two months, he would publish a little circular "Nut Notes," and that would be run off in some large number, and distributed to the nurserymen, or other interested people, and they would simply enclose it in their correspondence. They would send them to the local papers all through the South so that the things that were found worthy of dissemination in the way of new records and new ideas were constantly being sent to the local papers and to the interested people in that way. I have a vast sympathy for Dr. Deming. He is not drawing a princely salary and he has a lot of things to do. I know his heart is in this work and he would be glad to do these things but he must have help. These two ways I suggest to you are ways we have found in the South to accomplish a considerable work. Make a demand upon your experiment stations that this work be taken up and get Mr. Olcott to print the slips and then get the nurserymen who are interested and the local newspaper people to publish the nut notes that become available from time to time. MR. OLCOTT: I have knowledge of these circulars of Nut Notes sent out by Dr. Wilson in the South and have thought of doing something like it but have not gotten at it yet. I have exchanges and notices coming in that could be summarized just that way and even more extensively but I haven't had time to do this work. THE SECRETARY: I think this proposal of Mr. Bartlett's is very important and I promise Mr. Bartlett and Mr. Barrows that all the members of this association will help. I am sure Dr. Morris will be glad to give advice about planting this orchard. I haven't the slightest doubt that Mr. Reed will go there in his position as Nut Culturist of the Department of Agriculture. I think we ought to go ahead and do that without waiting for the Connecticut authorities, but at the earliest opportunity begin to try to interest them. They are not interested enough to go into it now. Some of the members of this association have got to start this thing and then we have got to interest the men at the agricultural experiment station. Two of them were here yesterday and have expressed their interest in the subject. We hope eventually that they will take full charge of such work which really ought to be in the hands of self perpetuating institutions and not in the hands of individuals. I can assure Mr. Bartlett of the hearty co-operation of this association in any planting of that kind and I wish that the steps might be taken at once to begin such a planting. DR. MORRIS: I would be only too glad to give him some trees to start with. MR. JONES: The nurseries growing these trees would be glad to cooperate and supply these trees at reduced prices for this experimental orchard. THE CHAIRMAN: There seems to be lots of interest in this matter but it ought not to be on a voluntary basis. It might be interesting to you to have an idea of how we have done that further south. In North Carolina we have definite nut projects on our experiment station's list. The work is outlined and funds appropriated for carrying it out, and workers and funds are assigned to that particular project. They have a regular definite program and when a project is once begun that project has to be reported on. It cannot be discontinued. It has to be continued until it is worked out. In that way we are getting something definite and we have some machinery to work with. At first we had no commercial nut growing. We instituted a nut survey of the state. We issued instructions for our extension men to look out for nut trees on the farms. Then we made a list of the growers and orchards. There we made experimental planting and we made them in every section of the state so as to find out what varieties were best for the different sections. We had difficulty in finding varieties for all of our conditions. We had experiment orchards in all of the various sections of the State which have been conducted now for ten years and we have very definite data. The man who writes in to me for information can be answered shortly. Every year we are getting new data. I think every tree that we can get from any nursery catalogue that I can find is in those experimental orchards. Every year eliminates a few. If the stocks are good we work them over. There is no uncertainty about it. It is either a positive or a negative result. These results are published just as soon as they can be. It is part of our experiment work just as we experiment with cotton or apples or corn. I made a suggestion in my paper for work of this kind here and I thought it would be picked up by the Committee on Resolutions, but it was not acted on. To get this matter crystallized and get it to the attention of the experimental station I think that the secretary ought to be empowered to write officially to the directors of the experiment station in the various states asking that a nut survey be made of those states and that nut projects be entered upon and especially the testing of the varieties that have been found in the various states. DR. BRITTON: Representing the Connecticut station I can say that the men there will be glad to help you, but they are in the same position as Dr. Deming, doing all they can at present, more than they ought to do, and most of the funds for that reason are arranged for in definite projects. That being the case, it will be necessary to provide for a future appropriation. During his war we are all short handed. I have four young men working in my department who have not had a day's vacation this summer--more work than they can do. At present we have no one connected with the station who is a specialist on nuts, and it would mean getting in a man to work up this subject. But I think that can be brought about in time. Of course if the legislature is asked for any appropriation, this association or those interested in growing nuts would have to help get the appropriation for the state. THE SECRETARY: Prof. Hutt is State Horticulturist of his state and he is also a specialist on nuts. He lives in a state where nut culture is much further advanced than it is here, consequently it has been, it seems to me, a good deal simpler for him to accomplish results there than it is for us here. I approve of grasping this opportunity and going ahead with it and at the same time following up the suggestions of Dr. Britton of trying to get the appropriation in order to enable the agricultural experiment station to take action. MR. OLCOTT: I move that the secretary be asked to communicate with the experiment stations in the various states along just the lines you suggested for the purpose of getting started. The motion, duly seconded, was passed. MR. OLCOTT: I would like to make another motion that the association do whatever it can to take advantage of this opportunity that Mr. Bartlett has just spoken about, and I would move that the matter be put in the hands of the secretary with power to act. Mr. Webber seconded the motion and it was carried. NUT TREES FOR SHADE. FRANCIS A. BARTLETT, CONNECTICUT. Were we to limit our shade trees to those trees which alone produce edible nuts we would then have a greater assortment of trees than one could hardly suppose, and not only would be varieties be numerous but they would embrace many of our most noble and most beautiful trees. Let us consider the varieties from which we may draw. In so doing let me ask why, with all these trees, we really need other trees which in themselves are no more ornamental and are non-producing. Of the oaks there are many, while the nuts or acorns are seldom eaten by man, yet they have often composed his diet when other foods have failed. In many parts of the South this nut has been the principal food used in the fattening, or possibly the sustaining food, of the native razor-back hog. Our native beech produces the small triangular nuts which have been sought by the boys and girls of centuries and are as popular today as of hundreds of years ago. The beech will grow to immense size and may live sometimes for centuries. A beautiful bright smooth foliage makes it very desirable as a park tree and it does not lose its charm in winter. On an extensive lawn it makes a very desirable tree but in close proximity to the house the one objection there may be is that the dead foliage seems to cling to the twigs sometimes the entire winter. This objection is more pronounced, however, in the younger trees than in the older ones. Our native black walnut is a magnificent tree which can compare favorably with the finest oak in size, in shape, in picturesqueness and above all, in its huge nuts, which are both wholesome and delicious. Were it not for the great value of its wood for making gun stocks and for cabinet work we would today have hundreds of these trees growing, where now but few can be found; yet there are individual specimens with spread of over 150 feet and as magnificent and majestic as the finest oak. Our native chestnut; let us not think of it in memory only, though the pride of our forests seems to have left us after the scourge of the chestnut blight. Unless the history of all scourges has been upset we will find some tree somewhere sometime that is blight resistant and then from this tree we will produce and propagate the chestnut back to its own. At least, as far as an ornamental and useful nut-producing tree is concerned. Should we find no tree in all this huge area which is disease-resistant we have at least one hope in the chestnut brought from China, where for probable centuries this disease has been present, but unable to destroy its host, the chestnut. Already in this country there are thousands of these seedlings growing which are apparently disease-resistant. The tree itself compares very favorably with our native tree. We will yet grow our favorite chestnuts and our children will yet enjoy them as we have done in the days of our youth. We must not forget the chinkapin, the little brother of the chestnut, but a better fighter of its enemies, for this latter tree is almost resistant to the blight and will bloom and bear nuts while only a little tree, and the nuts are sweet and good. Then, too, it is not necessary to climb the tree to gather the nuts for the tree being small the nuts can almost be gathered from the ground. For planting over rocky banks and hillsides nothing is more handsome. The dark green foliage dotted here and there with the bright green burrs always attracts favorable attention and comment. Our butternut, too, cannot be omitted, for there are few better flavored nuts than the butternut. Though hard to crack, this fault, if it may be a fault, will soon be overcome, for we will find a tree with thin-shelled nuts somewhere. They are no doubt present and when we do find such a tree we may all propagate from it. Though the tree is a rather irregular grower and is susceptible to certain bark diseases yet it has its place in the home planting for its compound leaves and light bark always shows prominently in the landscape. This tree sometimes grows to an immense size. At my early home in Massachusetts one huge butternut stood in the yard. Though the tree died long before I became especially interested in old trees I remember that we counted the annular rings and as near as I can recall the figures for its measurements and rings were 13 ft. in circumference and 80 annular rings. The trunk was perfectly solid and showed no signs of decay. Many bushels of nuts were gathered from this one tree yearly and I can remember the long winter evenings when we sat in the kitchen cracking the nuts from this old tree. Some have said the butternut is unsatisfactory as an ornamental tree but let me add--do not neglect it in the planting plan for it will give you much pleasure, and, too, the meats are well worth the trouble in cracking the nuts even though a bruised finger may result. To the family of the walnut we are indebted to Japan for the beautiful and tropical foliage of the Japanese walnut, _Sieboldiana_. Although the tree has many characteristics of the butternut the foliage is much more luxuriant and it is an admirable tree for planting in the open lawn. The individual fruit of the _Sieboldiana_ walnut is similar in appearance to that of the butternut and is borne in clusters or racemes, sometimes as many as twenty or more in a cluster, and is equal in every way to that of the butternut but the nuts being smaller contain a much less quantity of meat. The king of the walnuts, _Juglans regia_, sometimes called Madeira walnut, Persian walnut, Spanish walnut and English walnut, is the finest of the nuts as far as the fruit is concerned, and is a handsome tree growing to immense size with large spreading branches and almost tropical foliage. For over 150 years this tree has been growing and thriving in our immediate neighborhood, producing bushels of nuts annually, yet few people whom we have met will hardly believe that the English walnut will thrive in this northern latitude. There is one specimen of this tree today with which I am familiar in Tarry town, N. Y., which is over 2 feet in diameter, with a spread of 75 feet or more and nearly 100 feet in height. While the tree has not produced regularly yet it bears a few nuts each year and sometimes numbers of bushels. The English walnut always attracts attention on account of its symmetrical growth and its luxuriant foliage. As a shade tree there are few better. Of the nut family the one truly American tree of which we should be duly proud is the hickory, this tree being found in no other part of the world, with the exception of China, but North America. As a park or roadside tree there are few trees that can compare with it,--upright in growth with a beautifully rounded head, sometimes growing to immense size and producing nuts almost annually. Of this group of trees we have the shellbark, shagbark and pignut. The pignut being of little value as far as the nuts are concerned, yet having smaller and possibly more luxuriant foliage than the shagbark or shellbark. The shagbark is the nut most sought for by the younger generations and bids fair to become a nut of considerable importance. It seems strange that in the long history of the hickory or shagbark more has not been done in the improvement of the nuts in the growing of large thin-shelled and sweeter nuts. Trees bearing such nuts do exist and I think most of us can recall certain trees in our boyhood days that produced nuts of far superior quality than are ordinarily found from the common tree. At least, I can recall one tree from which twenty-five years ago there was produced a very large fine sweet nut which was sought by all the children in the neighborhood. This tree, however, has passed away with hundreds of others, either by the hickory bark beetle or the axe. It is well to mention the filbert and hazel. While not really trees the filbert sometimes reaches a height of 5 ft. or more with very luxuriant foliage in the summer and in the early spring the catkins are very prominent and attractive. There is no reason why the filbert should not be grown more extensively even though it is affected by blight or canker. We are assured that this can be readily cut away with less trouble than the ordinary treatment of trees. Of the hazel there are two kinds, the common hazel and beaked hazel, both native here. While the nuts of these shrubs are really too small to be of any commercial value yet I believe we will find nuts growing somewhere that are as large as our imported filberts. Of the pines and evergreens there are a number which produce nuts of which Dr. Morris has told us. Some of them are rapid growing trees and there seems to be good reason why we should not plant out evergreens which produce fruit and are just as attractive and fine as those evergreens which produce shade only. I have not mentioned one tree which I believe to be the most promising for this locality--that is the pecan. It has been demonstrated that we can grow the pecan on our native hickories and from what I have seen of the wonderful growth of the first year of the bud I am sure we will be able to produce as fine pecans as can be produced in any section of the country, and further than that, we have an unlimited number of native hickories on which we can graft this finest of nuts. The pecan is hardy in this locality and farther north. I have seen it grown to a fair sized tree in Connecticut. I have seen it on the south side of Long Island and have seen one tree planted possibly over 100 years near Oyster Bay, L. I. which today is more than 3 ft. in diameter and reaches possibly 75 ft. in height. The pecan, too, is fruiting on Long Island and I believe we will have it fruiting in this locality within the next two or three years. During the last few years I have talked with numbers of people, many of them owners of large estates who could hardly believe it is possible to grow the English walnut and pecan in this latitude. I have said that were we to limit our shade trees to those trees alone which produce edible nuts we would then have a greater assortment than one could hardly suppose. Each and every one of the trees I have mentioned were they not to produce a single nut would in themselves equal or surpass almost any tree in beauty and majesty. Were we to develop a park and limit the plantings to nut trees alone how attractive such a park might be--the taller trees in the background to be of the black walnut and beech. These trees to be banked with the smaller trees of the butternut and English walnut. Over the rocky places we could plant the chinkapin and hazel. We could then put in specimen trees of the hickory and pecans with groups of filberts, dotted here and there with plantings of nut bearing pines. I believe such a planting would be as attractive as a planting of an added number of our ordinary shade trees. Let us imagine what the return from such a planting might mean to the public or the owners. In fifty years from this time, and in speaking of nut trees looking forward to fifty years is but a comparatively short time, our roadside trees could be replaced by nut bearing trees which are as attractive as any shade tree. I have no doubt that in this city alone were the roadsides planted with nut trees and these received reasonable care the returns from these trees would pay the entire city and town tax. * * * * * DR. MORRIS: Mr. Bartlett said that the hickory belonged only to North America. That was supposed to be the case until very recently Mr. Meyer, an agricultural explorer, found an open bud hickory in China. MR. OLCOTT: Mr. Bartlett said he hoped the day would come when the filbert and hazels would be produced in this country. I saw last week the report of a crop in Rochester, New York, on five-year old filbert bushes that had been pronounced as good as imported nuts in quality and certainly were in size, and finer in coloring. I have some photographs of the trees on which they grew. These were the trees which were described in detail in a paper read at the National Nut Growers' Association at Nashville last year by Mr. McGlennon, of Rochester. He told me that all he said at that time stands, with the addition that since then he has had proof regarding the absence of blight and the extreme hardiness of the trees and their continued bearing. The trees are grown for propagating purposes and not for fruit, and therefore they are not in their best condition for bearing. Mr. McGlennon is a business man of Rochester, with no special experience except that he became interested in some southern pecan plantings. Afterwards the filbert planting came up and he worked with Mr. Vollertson, who was experienced in this work in Germany. He and Mr. McGlennon imported 22 kinds of filberts from Europe. They are so far blight-proof and extremely hardy and are bearing. MRS. IRWIN: I would like to say that I do not think there is enough publicity given this organization. There are a number of people, to whom I casually mentioned yesterday, that I had become interested in this thing, but they had not seen the Advocate and knew nothing about the meeting. They are interested, I think, and it seems to me that an organization for growth must have publicity and a lot of it. A MEMBER: We were discussing this morning why we did not have a larger number of people here from Stamford and Greenwich. It is the merest chance I saw the notice. I have been interested for some time. I think there should be greater publicity because only by large membership can we get the growth and the standing that we want. DR. MORRIS: Even a good many people in the vicinity who knew about this conference and said they would be interested to come, have not appeared. Our meeting came to Stamford this year because there are so many wealthy people interested in horticulture in Stamford and Greenwich. Very large funds are required for development of this subject, experimental orchards, publication and publicity. We believed here we would strike the sort of men to further public interest in the subject. This is by all means the smallest local attendance, however, that we have ever had since the beginning of the Association in any part of the country. THE SECRETARY: We have never had the advertising more thoroughly done. Mr. Bartlett and Mr. Staunton and Dr. Morris and I have all worked at it; notices have been in at least three of the New York papers, clippings of which have been sent me, and articles in Ansonia and Hartford papers; articles and programs have been sent repeatedly to Stamford, Greenwich, Darien, Port Chester, Danbury, Ridgefield and New Canaan papers. Dr. Morris has written personal letters. And then, too, there are the signs around here. I don't know what other measures could have been taken. DR. MORRIS: My chauffeur, who is in the Naval Reserve, and doesn't know about nuts at all, dropped in casually yesterday, but stayed through the whole session. That shows what interest might be aroused if only you can catch people. No trouble to hold them when captured. Every person who has come into this association has done so because of something from the heart within. MR. BIXBY: On this subject of publicity, I have done something in a very humble way that I thought might help, and this year I am planning to do it to a little larger extent. I have been very much interested in the butternut. The concern with which I am associated has a connection with general stores throughout the country, so I sent circulars calling attention to the butternut prizes to the general stores in the smaller towns throughout New Hampshire and Vermont. That circular invited the people who had specimens of butternuts that they thought superior to send them to Dr. Deming, and in the same circular I called attention to the fact that there were prizes for other nuts, and invited them to communicate with Dr. Deming. It was all done in the name of the Association. PROF. HUTT: When we started our meeting we announced a question box. THE SECRETARY: We expected to have a revised proof of our question box to be distributed among the audience, but it has not come. I would like to ask any one who now desires to ask questions relative to nut culture to do so and I think he will be able to get answers from members present. I had better begin by propounding a question myself that has been asked often--what variety of nut trees to plant--and I am going to make a short answer myself, just to bring about discussion. For early bearing, and encouragement to the nut grower, plant chinkapins, hazels, or filberts, many varieties, so that they will pollenize one another, and plant Japanese walnuts, early bearing and beautiful trees. For later results plant Persian walnuts, the Franquette and Mayette varieties, which are old standard ones. If you want to go a little bit more experimentally, plant pecans, say the Indiana and Busseron varieties, both from the Indiana district, and both hardy, though neither of them have fruited here. Plant some black walnuts, say of the Stabler and the Thomes varieties, which are the best known, and plant a few shagbark hickories. There are very few varieties to be had in the shagbark. We don't know much about the Kirtland, although that is one of the best nuts. We know little of the bearing records of these trees. I leave this answer for emendation, addition or correction. DR. MORRIS: Has anybody any Kirtland hickories in stock grafted for sale? MR. JONES: 100 to 150. DR. MORRIS: Have you any Weicker? MR. JONES: Yes, some are in stock for sale. DR. MORRIS: Hales's hickories? MR. JONES: No, not grown. DR. MORRIS: The Hales' nut is big, too coarse and not very good. MR. JONES: The kernel is yellowish. DR. BRITTON: I would like to ask Dr. Morris what time of the year he would advise pruning the Persian walnuts here in Stamford. DR. MORRIS: The editor of a horticultural journal at one time set out to get opinions about the best time for pruning peaches. There were opinions from all points as to whether peach trees should be trimmed in winter, spring, summer or autumn, and summing up all of the replies, the editor said, "We have come to the conclusion that the right time to prune peach trees is when your knife is sharp." I presume that that in a way will apply to almost all trees. Pruning the walnut trees in the spring when sap is flowing freely would not be desirable, I should think. Walnut trees need very little pruning. Very few of the nut trees need pruning, excepting the hazels. These need to be pruned in order to put them in good head. And possibly some of the hickories, but for the most part I doubt if pruning is desirable, save for broken branches. I leave that to Mr. Jones. DR. BRITTON: The reason why I asked the question is that when we were carrying on this investigation with the walnut weevil, we found that when branches were cut early in the spring there was nearly always a bad wound that did not heal over. It died back around the place. But when we cut branches later, from the first to the middle of June, when the growth was taking place, it healed over very smoothly without leaving any bad scars, and I was wondering whether that happened over the region where the Persian walnut was grown. DR. MORRIS: I am glad to have that observation that the wounds did not granulate and heal well. I have noticed that the shag bark hickory cannot be cut well for scions in the spring without injuring the rest of the limb on the tree. I have cut back the Taylor tree's lower branches, in order to cut off scions, and almost every branch from which I have cut scions is dead or dying. That is perhaps in line with the observation of Dr. Britton. Some of the juglandaciae cannot be cut in the spring. MR. JONES: I have found that in cutting scions of walnut trees when the sap is running the tree bleeds and makes a bad wound and doesn't heal over. It dies back. But if you cut those any time in the winter when you have say two or three days without freezing, they will not bleed then nor in the spring when the sap comes up. Also, if cut after the growth is well started, they won't bleed very much. MR. WEBER: Are back numbers of the Journal available? THE SECRETARY: All of our reports. MR. WEBER: I would suggest for the benefit of uninitiated persons that they get the back numbers, also send to each of the accredited nurserymen and get a copy of each, catalogue and then study the back numbers and the catalogues. They will be pretty well posted, as all the nut catalogues are well illustrated and contain a great deal of information, and it will take them out of the realm of hazy knowledge they now have on the subject. MR. JONES: The Government has some excellent bulletins in line with this work. MR. SMITH: I would like to get some information about spring and fall planting in Massachusetts. A MEMBER: I advise planting in the spring. Where the ground freezes heavily in the winter, plant in the spring. In the South you don't have any injury from cold. MR. WEBER: I have planted trees in the fall and the tops winter-kill down to the grafts. I had them wrapped and still they were winter-killed, or else the wrapping killed them. Persian walnuts and Indiana pecans. They threw a good shoot in the spring, however, and made a very good growth. I move that a vote of thanks be extended to the local committee for making this convention a success, and a rising vote of thanks to show Dr. Morris the appreciation of the convention. The convention thereupon adjourned. APPENDIX. I report on soft shell almonds as follows: In February, 1914, I ordered from Armstrong Nurseries, Ontario, California, the following trees: 10 four to six ft. Jordon Almond trees 10 four to six ft. I. X. L. Almond trees 10 four to six ft. Ne Plus Ultra Almond trees The trees were shipped in March of the same year and healed in until May. The farm on which these trees were planted is situated on the south shore of Lake Ontario, in Wayne County, New York. This district is a large producer of peaches and apples. The trees were planted twenty feet apart in a sandy loam soil in line with a young apple orchard. This soil is especially adapted to peach growing. The entire orchard was given clean cultivation with intercrops until the Spring of 1917. For two years potatoes were grown among the trees, and for one year cabbage. The land was limed and fertilized with both natural and chemical fertilizers. Cultivation of the tree rows stopped about the 1st of August, the intercrops about the 15th of September. For the year 1917 the trees were grown in sod. The trees were pruned similar to the peach trees, and have made somewhat less growth than a peach tree would make under the same conditions. The lake on the boundary of the farm tempers the climate conditions of this location so that the opening of the season is about two weeks later than the average, and the date of the first frost is two to three weeks later. On this account the trees have had a better opportunity to ripen the wood for the winter period after cultivation ceases. During these winters the thermometer has gone as low as four degrees below zero without winter killing those trees which survived. Six trees of the thirty originally planted are now living. All others died the first winter after being set out. Unfortunately, the trees were not labeled at the time of getting out so I am unable to indicate what varieties lived through. Of the six trees living, three blossomed scantily this year, but all the blossoms proved false. I think there is no particular cause for discouragement on this account, as we have the same experience with peach trees. That is, they often bear a number of blossoms the first year, and none of them come to maturity. All the trees appear to have buds for next year. Some of these should develop into blossoms, and unless there is a frost after the blossoms come out in the spring of 1918, there may be some nuts produced. The final test as to whether or not these trees can be brought into bearing, will come next spring. The site upon which the trees are planted, as mentioned before, on account of the proximity of the lake, is more favorable than most locations for peach growing, and if the experience of the peach growers in New York State is any index, there would be little opportunity for success with almond trees, except under similar conditions. M. E. WILE. I am pleased to advise that the hardy soft shell pecan trees I have planted in Virginia, and the hardy English walnut trees are all growing finely. I find it just as easy to get a budded pecan tree to grow as it is to get an apple tree to grow. I am telling my friends about this all over Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky and Tennessee as well as Virginia. They have planted a good many trees and all report favorably. My advice is to plant pecan and English walnut trees as they are just as beautiful and useful for shade as any other kind, and in addition to this they will produce a large amount of the healthiest and most nutritious of food for the human family. I am very much indebted to the Northern Nut Growers Association for the knowledge obtained along this line. You can rest assured that I will try and pass it along as I go. JOHN S. PARRISH. ATTENDANCE R. T. Olcott, Rochester N. Y. Mr. and Mrs. C. A. Reed, Washington, D. C. Irwin R. Waite, Stamford, Ct. Prof. W. O. Filley, State Forester, Connecticut. Prof. Record, State College of Forestry. A. C. Pomeroy, Lockport, N. Y. S. M. McMurran, Washington, D. C. Harry E. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio. Fitch A. Hoyt, Stamford, Conn. Wm. H. Bump, Stamford, Ct. Wilber F. Stocking, Stratford, Ct. J. A. Seitz, Greenwich, Ct. L. C. Root, Stamford, Ct. John Rick, Redding, Pa. F. A. Bartlett, Stamford, Ct. J. F. Jones, Lancaster, Pa. R. H. G. Cunningham, Stamford, Ct. Col. C. A. Van Duzee, Cairo, Ga. John H. Hohener, Rochester, N. Y. C. L. Cleaver, Hingham, Mass. Fred A. Smith, Hathorne, Mass. Dr. Lewis H. Taylor, Washington, D. C. W. H. Druckemiller, Sunbury, Pa. W. G. Bixby, Brooklyn, N. Y. Mr. and Mrs. C. S. Ridgway, Lumberton, N. J. Miss Marie Brial, Stamford, Ct. J. E. Brown, Elmer, N. J. A. M. Heritage, Elmer, N. J. Dr. R. T. Morris, N. Y. City. T. P. Littlepage, Washington, D. C. Gray Staunton, Stamford, Ct. J. L. Glover, Shelton, Ct. Dr. E. F. Bigelow, Stamford, Ct. Prof. W. N. Hutt, Raleigh, N. C. Mr. and Mrs. H. L. Lewis, Stratford, Ct. H. W. Collingwood, New York City. Dr. J. H. Kellogg, Battle Creek, Mich. Dr. and Mrs. W. C. Deming, Georgetown, Ct. Mr. and Mrs. M. A. Mikkelsen, Georgetown, Ct. Paul M. Barrows, Stamford, Ct. G. W. Donning, North Stamford. Mrs. Payson Irwin, Stamford, Ct. Noble P. Randel, Stamford, Ct. * * * * * ~Vincennes Nurseries~ W. C. REED, Proprietor. VINCENNES, INDIANA, U. S. A. PROPAGATORS AND INTRODUCERS _Budded and Grafted Pecans, Hardy Northern Varieties_ _English (Persian) Walnut Grafted on Black Walnut_ _Best Northern and French Varieties_ _Grafted Thomas Black Walnut_ _Grafted Persimmons, best sorts_ _Hardy Almonds_ _Filberts and Hazelnuts_ _Also General Line Nursery Stock_ SPECIAL NUT CATALOGUE ON REQUEST * * * * * ~STABLER~ ~BLACK WALNUT TREES~ If you would provide for the future beauty of your lawn or roadside, plant at least a few trees of the new Stabler Black Walnut. Its luxuriant fern-like foliage and its weeping twigs make it unique among shade trees--its thin-shelled nuts and heavy bearing habit put it at the top of the list as a nut producer. The only black walnut that yields a whole kernel when cracked. ORDER NOW FOR SPRING DELIVERY. My trees, if you plant them in a fertile spot, will surprise you by their growth. Fine Grafted Trees $1.50 to $2.00. ~HENRY STABLER~ HANCOCK, MD. * * * * * ~CHESTER VALLEY NURSERIES~ ESTABLISHED 1853 Choice Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Cherry Trees on Mazzard Roots, Hardy Evergreens, Flowering Shrubs, Hedge Plants, etc. Originators of the ~THOMAS BLACK WALNUT~ ~JOS. W. THOMAS & SONS King of Prussia P. O., MONTGOMERY CO., PENNA.~ * * * * * ~CHESTNUT TREES~ Best Varieties Grown. Grown in section free from blight. Descriptive Pricelist. E. A. RIEHL, GODFREY, ILL. 
19073	----	COCOA AND CHOCOLATE _Their History from Plantation to Consumer_ By ARTHUR W. KNAPP B. Sc. (B'ham.), F.I.C., B. Sc. (Lond.) Member of the Society of Public Analysts; Member of the Society of Chemical Industry; Fellow of the Institute of Hygiene. Research Chemist to Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd. LONDON CHAPMAN AND HALL, LTD. 1920 PREFACE Although there are several excellent scientific works dealing in a detailed manner with the cacao bean and its products from the various view points of the technician, there is no comprehensive modern work written for the general reader. Until that appears, I offer this little book, which attempts to cover lightly but accurately the whole ground, including the history of cacao, its cultivation and manufacture. This is a small book in which to treat of so large a subject, and to avoid prolixity I have had to generalise. This is a dangerous practice, for what is gained in brevity is too often lost in accuracy: brevity may be always the soul of wit, it is rarely the body of truth. The expert will find that I have considered him in that I have given attention to recent developments, and if I have talked of the methods peculiar to one place as though they applied to the whole world, I ask him to consider me by supplying the inevitable variations and exceptions himself. The book, though short, has taken me a long time to write, having been written in the brief breathing spaces of a busy life, and it would never have been completed but for the encouragement I received from Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd., who aided me in every possible way. I am particularly indebted to the present Lord Mayor of Birmingham, Mr. W.A. Cadbury, for advice and criticism, and to Mr. Walter Barrow for reading the proofs. The members of the staff to whom I am indebted are Mr. W. Pickard, Mr. E.J. Organ, Mr. T.B. Rogers; also Mr. A. Hackett, for whom the diagrams in the manufacturing section were originally made by Mr. J.W. Richards. I am grateful to Messrs. J.S. Fry and Sons, Limited, for information and photographs. In one or two cases I do not know whom to thank for the photographs, which have been culled from many sources. I have much pleasure in thanking the following: Mr. R. Whymper for a large number of Trinidad photos; the Director of the Imperial Institute and Mr. John Murray for permission to use three illustrations from the Imperial Institute series of handbooks to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics; M. Ed. Leplae, Director-General of Agriculture, Belgium, for several photos, the blocks of which were kindly supplied by Mr. H. Hamel Smith, of _Tropical Life_; Messrs. Macmillan and Co. for five reproductions from C.J.J. van Hall's book on _Cocoa_; and _West Africa_ for four illustrations of the Gold Coast. The photographs reproduced on pages 2, 23, 39, 47, 49 and 71 are by Jacobson of Trinidad, on pages 85 and 86 by Underwood & Underwood of London, and on page 41 by Mrs. Stanhope Lovell of Trinidad. The industry with which this book deals is changing slowly from an art to a science. It is in a transition period (it is one of the humours of any live industry that it is always in a transition period). There are many indications of scientific progress in cacao cultivation; and now that, in addition to the experimental and research departments attached to the principal firms, a Research Association has been formed for the cocoa and chocolate industry, the increased amount of diffused scientific knowledge of cocoa and chocolate manufacture should give rise to interesting developments. A.W. KNAPP. Birmingham, _February, 1920._ CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE v INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER I COCOA AND CHOCOLATE--A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY 5 CHAPTER II CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION 17 CHAPTER III HARVESTING AND PREPARATION FOR THE MARKET 45 With a dialogue on "The Kind of Cacao the Manufacturers Like." CHAPTER IV CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE 81 With notes on the chief producing areas, cacao markets, and the planter's life CHAPTER V THE MANUFACTURE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 119 CHAPTER VI THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE 139 CHAPTER VII BY-PRODUCTS OF THE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY 157 (_a_) Cacao Butter, (_b_) Cacao Shell CHAPTER VIII THE COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE 165 (including Milk Chocolate) CHAPTER IX ADULTERATION, AND THE NEED FOR DEFINITIONS 179 CHAPTER X THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO 183 BIBLIOGRAPHY 191 A List of the Important Books on Cocoa and Chocolate from the earliest times to the present day. INDEX 207 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Cacao Pods Old Drawing of an American Indian, with Chocolate Whisk, etc. Native American Indians Roasting the Beans, etc. Ancient Mexican Drinking Cups Cacao Tree, with Pods and Leaves Cacao Tree, shewing Pods Growing from Trunk Flowers and Fruits on main branches of a Cacao Tree Cacao Pods Cut Pod, revealing the White Pulp round the Beans Cacao Pods, shewing Beans inside Drawing of Typical Pods illustrating varieties Tropical Forest, Trinidad Characteristic Root System of the Cacao Tree Nursery with the Young Cacao Plants in Baskets, Java Planting Cacao from Young Seedlings in Bamboo Pots, Trinidad Cacao in its Fourth Year Copy of an Old Engraving shewing the Cacao Tree, and a tree shading it Cacao Trees shaded by Kapok, Java Cacao Trees shaded by Bois Immortel, Trinidad Cacao Tree with Suckers Cutlassing Common Types of Cacao Pickers Gathering Cacao Pods, Trinidad Collecting Cacao Pods into a Heap Men Breaking Pods, etc. Sweating Boxes, Trinidad Fermenting Boxes, Java Charging Cacao on to Trucks in the Plantation, San Thomé Cacao in the Fermenting Trucks, San Thomé Tray-barrow for Drying Small Quantities Spreading the Cacao Beans on mats to dry, Ceylon Drying Trays, Grenada "Hamel Smith" Rotary Dryer Drying Platforms with Sliding Roofs, Trinidad Cacao Drying Platforms, San Thomé Washing the Beans, Ceylon Claying Cacao Beans, Trinidad Sorting Cacao Beans, Java Diagram: World's Cacao Production MAP of the World, with only Cacao-Producing Areas marked Raking Cacao Beans on the Driers, Ecuador Gathering Cacao Pods, Ecuador Sorting Cacao for Shipment, Ecuador MAP of South America and the West Indies Workers on a Cacao Plantation MAP of Africa, with only Cacao-Producing Areas marked Foreshore at Accra, with Stacks of Cacao ready for Shipment Carriers conveying Bags of Cacao to Surf Boats, Accra Crossing the River, Gold Coast Drying Cacao Beans, Gold Coast Shooting Cacao from the Road to the Beach, Accra Rolling Cacao, Gold Coast Rolling Cacao, Gold Coast Carrying Cacao to the Railway Station, Gold Coast Wagon Loads of Cacao being taken from Depot to the Beach, Accra The Buildings of the Boa Entrada Cacao Estate, San Thomé Drying Cacao, San Thomé Barrel Rolling, Gold Coast Bagging Cacao, Gold Coast Surf Boats by the Side of the Ocean Liner, Accra Bagging Cacao Beans for Shipment, Trinidad Transferring Bags of Cacao to Lighters, Trinidad Diagram showing Variation in Price of Cacao Beans, 1913-1919 Group of Workers on Cacao Estate Carting Cacao to Railway Station, Ceylon The Carenage, Grenada Early Factory Methods Women Grinding Chocolate Cacao Bean Warehouse Cacao Bean Sorting and Cleaning Machine Diagram of Cacao Bean Cleaning Machine Section through Gas Heated Cacao Roaster Roasting Cacao Beans Cacao Bean, Shell and Germ Section through Kibbling Cones and Germ Screens Section through Winnowing Machine Cacao Grinding Section through Grinding Stones A Cacao Press Section through Cacao Press-pot and Ram-plate Chocolate Mélangeur Plan of Chocolate Mélangeur Chocolate Refining Machine Grinding Cacao Nib and Sugar Section through Chocolate Grinding Rolls "Conche" Machines Section through "Conche" Machine Machines for Mixing or "Conching" Chocolate Chocolate Shaking Table Girls Covering or Dipping Cremes, etc. The Enrober A Confectionery Room Factory at which Milk is Evaporated for Milk Chocolate Manufacture Cocoa and Chocolate Despatch Deck Boxing Chocolates Packing Chocolates Factory at which Milk is Evaporated for Milk Chocolate Manufacture Cacao Pods, Leaves and Flowers INTRODUCTION In a few short chapters I propose to give a plain account of the production of cocoa and chocolate. I assume that the reader is not a specialist and knows little or nothing of the subject, and hence both the style of writing and the treatment of the subject will be simple. At the same time, I assume that the reader desires a full and accurate account, and not a vague story in which the difficulties are ignored. I hope that, as a result of this method of dealing with my subject, even experts will find much in the book that is of interest and value. After a brief survey of the history of cocoa and chocolate, I shall begin with the growing of the cacao bean, and follow the _cacao_ in its career until it becomes the finished product ready for consumption. _Cacao or Cocoa?_ The reader will have noted above the spelling "cacao," and to those who think it curious, I would say that I do not use this spelling from pedantry. It is an imitation of the word which the Mexicans used for this commodity as early as 1500, and when spoken by Europeans is apt to sound like the howl of a dog. The Mexicans called the tree from which cacao is obtained _cacauatl_. When the great Swedish scientist Linnaeus, the father of botany, was naming and classifying (about 1735) the trees and plants known in his time, he christened it _Theobroma Cacao_, by which name it is called by botanists to this day. Theo-broma is Greek for "Food of the Gods." Why Linnaeus paid this extraordinary compliment to cacao is obscure, but it has been suggested that he was inordinately fond of the beverage prepared from it--the cup which both cheers and satisfies. It will be seen from the above that the species-name is cacao, and one can understand that Englishmen, finding it difficult to get their insular lips round this outlandish word, lazily called it cocoa. [Illustration: CACAO PODS (Amelonado type) in various states of growth and ripeness.] In this book I shall use the words cacao, cocoa, and chocolate as follows: _Cacao_, when I refer to the cacao tree, the cacao pod, or the cacao bean or seed. By the single word, cacao, I imply the raw product, cacao beans, in bulk. _Cocoa_, when I refer to the powder manufactured from the roasted bean by pressing out part of the butter. The word is too well established to be changed, even if one wished it. As we shall see later (in the chapter on adulteration) it has come legally to have a very definite significance. If this method of distinguishing between cacao and cocoa were the accepted practice, the perturbation which occurred in the public mind during the war (in 1916), as to whether manufacturers were exporting "cocoa" to neutral countries, would not have arisen. It should have been spelled "cacao," for the statements referred to the raw beans and not to the manufactured beverage. Had this been done, it would have been unnecessary for the manufacturers to point out that cocoa powder was not being so exported, and that they naturally did not sell the raw cacao bean. _Chocolate._--This word is given a somewhat wider meaning. It signifies any preparation of roasted cacao beans without abstraction of butter. It practically always contains sugar and added cacao butter, and is generally prepared in moulded form. It is used either for eating or drinking. _Cacao Beans and Coconuts._ In old manuscripts the word cacao is spelled in all manner of ways, but _cocoa_ survived them all. This curious inversion, _cocoa_, is to be regretted, for it has led to a confusion which could not otherwise have arisen. But for this spelling no one would have dreamed of confusing the totally unrelated bodies, cacao and the milky coconut. (You note that I spell it "coconut," not "cocoanut," for the name is derived from the Spanish "coco," "grinning face," or bugbear for frightening children, and was given to the nut because the three scars at the broad end of the nut resemble a grotesque face). To make confusion worse confounded the old writers referred to cacao _seeds_ as cocoa _nuts_ (as for example, in _The Humble Memorial of Joseph Fry_, quoted in the chapter on history), but, as in appearance cacao seeds resemble _beans_, they are now usually spoken of as beans. The distinction between cacao and the coconut may be summarised thus: Cacao. Coconut. Botanical Name Theobroma Cacao Cocos nucifera Palm Tree Palm Fruit Cacao pod, containing Coconut, which with outer many seeds (cacao beans) fibre is as large as a man's head Products Cocoa Broken coconut (copra) Chocolate Coconut matting Fatty Constituent Cacao butter Coconut oil CHAPTER I COCOA AND CHOCOLATE--A SKETCH OF THEIR HISTORY Did time and space allow, there is much to be told on the romantic side of chocolate, of its divine origin, of the bloody wars and brave exploits of the Spaniards who conquered Mexico and were the first to introduce cacao into Europe, tales almost too thrilling to be believed, of the intrigues of the Spanish Court, and of celebrities who met and sipped their chocolate in the parlours of the coffee and chocolate houses so fashionable in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. _Cocoa and Chocolate_ (Whymper). On opening a cacao pod, it is seen to be full of beans surrounded by a fruity pulp, and whilst the pulp is very pleasant to taste, the beans themselves are uninviting, so that doubtless the beans were always thrown away until ... someone tried roasting them. One pictures this "someone," a pre-historic Aztec with swart skin, sniffing the aromatic fume coming from the roasting beans, and thinking that beans which smelled so appetising must be good to consume. The name of the man who discovered the use of cacao must be written in some early chapter of the history of man, but it is blurred and unreadable: all we know is that he was an inhabitant of the New World and probably of Central America. _Original Home of Cacao._ The corner of the earth where the cacao tree originally grew, and still grows wild to-day, is the country watered by the mighty Amazon and the Orinoco. This is the very region in which Orellano, the Spanish adventurer, said that he had truly seen El Dorado, which he described as a City of Gold, roofed with gold, and standing by a lake with golden sands. In reality, El Dorado was nothing but a vision, a vision that for a hundred years fascinated all manner of dreamers and adventurers from Sir Walter Raleigh downwards, so that many braved great hardships in search of it, groped through the forests where the cacao tree grew, and returned to Europe feeling they had failed. To our eyes they were not entirely unsuccessful, for whilst they failed to find a city of gold, they discovered the home of the golden pod. [Illustration: OLD DRAWING OF AN AMERICAN INDIAN; AT HIS FEET A CHOCOLATE-CUP, CHOCOLATE-POT, AND CHOCOLATE WHISK OR "MOLINET." (From _Traitez Nouveaux et Curieux du Café, du Thé, et du Chocolate_. Dufour, 1693).] _Montezuma--the First Great Patron of Chocolate._ When Columbus discovered the New World he brought back with him to Europe many new and curious things, one of which was cacao. Some years later, in 1519, the Spanish conquistador, Cortes, landed in Mexico, marched into the interior and discovered to his surprise, not the huts of savages, but a beautiful city, with palaces and museums. This city was the capital of the Aztecs, a remarkable people, notable alike for their ancient civilisation and their wealth. Their national drink was chocolate, and Montezuma, their Emperor, who lived in a state of luxurious magnificence, "took no other beverage than the chocolatl, a potation of chocolate, flavoured with vanilla and other spices, and so prepared as to be reduced to a froth of the consistency of honey, which gradually dissolved in the mouth and was taken cold. This beverage if so it could be called, was served in golden goblets, with spoons of the same metal or tortoise-shell finely wrought. The Emperor was exceedingly fond of it, to judge from the quantity--no less than fifty jars or pitchers being prepared for his own daily consumption: two thousand more were allowed for that of his household."[1] It is curious that Montezuma took no other beverage than chocolate, especially if it be true that the Aztecs also invented that fascinating drink, the cocktail (xoc-tl). How long this ancient people, students of the mysteries of culinary science, had known the art of preparing a drink from cacao, is not known, but it is evident that the cultivation of cacao received great attention in these parts, for if we read down the list of the tributes paid by different cities to the Lords of Mexico, we find "20 chests of ground chocolate, 20 bags of gold dust," again "80 loads of red chocolate, 20 lip-jewels of clear amber," and yet again "200 loads of chocolate." [1] Prescott's _Conquest of Mexico_. Another people that share with the Aztecs the honour of being the first great cultivators of cacao are the Incas of Peru, that wonderful nation that knew not poverty. _The Fascination of Chocolate._ That chocolate charmed the ladies of Mexico in the seventeenth century (even as it charms the ladies of England to-day) is shown by a story which Gage relates in his _New Survey of the West Indias_ (1648). He tells us that at Chiapa, southward from Mexico, the women used to interrupt both sermon and mass by having their maids bring them a cup of hot chocolate; and when the Bishop, after fair warning, excommunicated them for this presumption, they changed their church. The Bishop, he adds, was poisoned for his pains. _Cacao Beans as Money._ Cacao was used by the Aztecs not only for the preparation of a beverage, but also as a circulating medium of exchange. For example, one could purchase a "tolerably good slave" for 100 beans. We read that: "Their currency consisted of transparent quills of gold dust, of bits of tin cut in the form of a T, and of bags of cacao containing a specified number of grains." "Blessed money," exclaims Peter Martyr, "which exempts its possessor from avarice, since it cannot be long hoarded, nor hidden underground!" _Derivation of Chocolate._ The word was derived from the Mexican _chocolatl_. The Mexicans used to froth their chocolatl with curious whisks made specially for the purpose (see page 6). Thomas Gage suggests that _choco, choco, choco_ is a vocal representation of the sound made by stirring chocolate. The suffix _atl_ means water. According to Mr. W.J. Gordon, we owe the name of chocolate to a misprint. He states that Joseph Acosta, who wrote as early as 1604 of chocolatl, was made by the printer to write _chocolaté_, from which the English eliminated the accent, and the French the final letter. [Illustration: NATIVE AMERICAN INDIANS ROASTING AND GRINDING THE BEANS, AND MIXING THE CHOCOLATE IN A JUG WITH A WHISK. (From Ogilvy's _America_, 1671)] _First Cacao in Europe._ The Spanish discoverers of the New World brought home to Spain quantities of cacao, which the curious tasted. We may conclude that they drank the preparation cold, as Montezuma did, _hot_ chocolate being a later invention. The new drink, eagerly sought by some, did not meet with universal approval, and, as was natural, the most diverse opinions existed as to the pleasantness and wholesomeness of the beverage when it was first known. Thus Joseph Acosta (1604) wrote: "The chief use of this cocoa is in a drincke which they call Chocholaté, whereof they make great account, foolishly and without reason; for it is loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a skumme or frothe that is very unpleasant to taste, if they be not well conceited thereof. Yet it is a drincke very much esteemed among the Indians, whereof they feast noble men as they passe through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country are very greedy of this chocholaté." It is not impossible that the English, with the defeat of the Armada fresh in memory, were at first contemptuous of this "Spanish" drink. Certain it is, that when British sea-rovers like Drake and Frobisher, captured Spanish galleons on the high seas, and on searching their holds for treasure, found bags of cacao, they flung them overboard in scorn. In considering this scorn of cacao, shown alike by British buccaneers and Dutch corsairs, together with the critical air of Joseph Acosta, we should remember that the original chocolatl of the Mexicans consisted of a mixture of maize and cacao with hot spices like chillies, and contained no sugar. In this condition few inhabitants of the temperate zone could relish it. It however only needed one thing, the addition of sugar, and the introduction of this marked the beginning of its European popularity. The Spaniards were the first to manufacture and drink chocolate in any quantity. To this day they serve it in the old style--thick as porridge and pungent with spices. They endeavoured to keep secret the method of preparation, and, without success, to retain the manufacture as a monopoly. Chocolate was introduced into Italy by Carletti, who praised it and spread the method of its manufacture abroad. The new drink was introduced by monks from Spain into Germany and France, and when in 1660 Maria Theresa, Infanta of Spain, married Louis XIV, she made chocolate well known at the Court of France. She it was of whom a French historian wrote that Maria Theresa had only two passions--the king and chocolate. Chocolate was advocated by the learned physicians of those times as a cure for many diseases, and it was stated that Cardinal Richelieu had been cured of general atrophy by its use. From France the use of chocolate spread into England, where it began to be drunk as a luxury by the aristocracy about the time of the Commonwealth. It must have made some progress in public favour by 1673, for in that year "a Lover of his Country" wrote in the _Harleian Miscellany_ demanding its prohibition (along with brandy, rum, and tea) on the ground that this imported article did no good and hindered the consumption of English-grown barley and wheat. New things appeal to the imaginative, and the absence of authentic knowledge concerning them allows free play to the imagination--so it happened that in the early days, whilst many writers vied with one another in writing glowing panegyrics on cacao, a few thought it an evil thing. Thus, whilst it was praised by many for its "wonderful faculty of quenching thirst, allaying hectic heats, of nourishing and fattening the body," it was seriously condemned by others as an inflamer of the passions! _Chocolate Houses and Clubs._ "The drinking here of chocolate Can make a fool a sophie." In the spacious days of Queen Elizabeth, tea, coffee, and chocolate were unknown save to travellers and savants, and the handmaidens of the good queen drank beer with their breakfast. When Shakespeare and Ben Jonson forgathered at the Mermaid Tavern, their winged words passed over tankards of ale, but later other drinks became the usual accompaniment of news, story, and discussion. In the sixteen-sixties there were no strident newspapers to destroy one's equanimity, and the gossip of the day began to be circulated and discussed over cups of tea, coffee, or chocolate. The humorists, ever stirred by novelty, tilted, pen in hand, at these new drinks: thus one rhymster described coffee as "Syrrop of soot or essence of old shoes." The first coffee-house in London was started in St. Michael's Alley, Cornhill, in 1652 (when coffee was seven shillings a pound); the first tea-house was opened in Exchange Alley in 1657 (when tea was five sovereigns a pound), and in the same year (with chocolate about ten to fifteen shillings per pound) a Frenchman opened the first chocolate-house in Queen's Head Alley, Bishopsgate Street. The rising popularity of chocolate led to the starting of more of these chocolate houses, at which one could sit and sip chocolate, or purchase the commodity for preparation at home. Pepys' entry in his diary for 24th November, 1664, contains: "To a coffee house to drink jocolatte, very good." It is an artless entry, and yet one can almost hear him smacking his lips. Silbermann says that "After the Restoration there were shops in London for the sale of chocolate at ten shillings or fifteen shillings per pound. Ozinda's chocolate house was full of aristocratic consumers. Comedies, satirical essays, memoirs and private letters of that age frequently mention it. The habit of using chocolate was deemed a token of elegant and fashionable taste, and while the charms of this beverage in the reigns of Queen Anne and George I. were so highly esteemed by courtiers, by lords and ladies and fine gentlemen in the polite world, the learned physicians extolled its medicinal virtues." From the coffee house and its more aristocratic relative the chocolate house, there developed a new feature in English social life--the Club. As the years passed the Chocolate House remained a rendezvous, but the character of its habitués changed from time to time. Thus one, famous in the days of Queen Anne, and well known by its sign of the "Cocoa Tree," was at first the headquarters of the Jacobite party, and the resort of Tories of the strictest school. It became later a noted gambling house ("The gamesters shook their elbows in White's and the chocolate houses round Covent Garden," _National Review_, 1878), and ultimately developed into a literary club, including amongst its members Gibbon, the historian, and Byron, the poet. _Tax on Cacao._ The growing consumption of chocolate did not escape the all-seeing eye of the Chancellors of England. As early as 1660 we find amongst various custom and excise duties granted to Charles II: "For every gallon of chocolate, sherbet, and tea made and sold, to be paid by the maker thereof ..... 8d." Later the raw material was also made a source of revenue. In _The Humble Memorial of Joseph Fry_, of Bristol, Maker of Chocolate, which was addressed to the Lords Commissioners of the Treasury in 1776 (Messrs. Fry and Sons are the oldest English firm of chocolate makers, having been founded in 1728), we read that "Chocolate ... pays two shillings and threepence per pound excise, besides about ten shillings per hundredweight on the Cocoa Nuts from which it is made." In 1784 a preferential customs rate was proposed in favour of our Colonies. This they enjoyed for many years before 1853, when the uniform rate, until recently in force, was introduced. This restrictive tariff on foreign growths rose in 1803 to 5s. 10d. per pound, against 1s. 10d. on cacao grown in British possessions. From this date it gradually diminished. High duties hampered for many years the sale of cocoa, tea and coffee, but in recent times these duties have been brought down to more reasonable figures. For many years before 1915 the import duty was 1d. per pound on the raw cacao beans, 1d. per pound on cacao butter, and 2s. a hundredweight (less than a farthing a pound) on cacao shells or husks. In the Budget of September, 1915, the above duties were increased by fifty per cent. A further and greater increase was made in the Budget of April, 1916, when cacao was made to pay a higher tax in Britain than in any other country in the world. In 1919 Imperial preference was introduced after a break of over sixty years, the duty on cocoa from foreign countries being 3/4d. a pound more than that from British Possessions. _Duty on Cacao._ 1855-1915. 1915. 1916. 1919. Cacao beans per lb. 1d. 1-1/2d. 6d. 4-1/2d. foreign, 3-3/4d. British Cacao butter per lb. 1d. 1-1/2d. 6d. 4-1/2d. foreign, 3-3/4d. British Cacao shells per cwt. 2s. 3s. 12s. 6s. foreign, 5s. British In considering this duty and its effect on the price of the finished article, it should be remembered that there are substantial losses in manufacture. Thus the beans are cleaned, which removes up to 0.5 per cent.; roasted, which causes a loss by volatilisation of 7 per cent.; and shelled, the husks being about 12 per cent. Therefore, the actual yield of usable nib, which has to bear the whole duty, is about 80 per cent. It may be well to add that the yield of cocoa powder is 48 per cent. of the raw beans, or roughly, one pound of the raw product yields half a pound of the finished article. _Introduction of Cocoa Powder._ The drink "cocoa" as we know it to-day was not introduced until 1828. Before this time the ground bean, mixed with sugar, was sold in cakes. The beverage prepared from these chocolate cakes was very rich in butter, and whilst the British Navy has always consumed it in this condition (the sailors generally remove with a spoon the excess of butter which floats to the top) it is a little heavy for less hardy digestions. Van Houten (of the well-known Dutch house of that name) in 1828 invented a method of pressing out part of the butter, and thus obtained a lighter, more appetising, and more easily assimilated preparation. As the butter is useful in chocolate manufacture, this process enabled the manufacturer to produce a less costly cocoa powder, and thus the circle of consumers was widened. Messrs. Cadbury Bros., of Birmingham, first sold their "cocoa essence" in 1866, and Messrs. Fry and Sons, of Bristol, introduced a pure cocoa by pressing out part of the butter in 1868. _Growing Popularity of Cacao Preparations._ The incidence of import duties did not prevent the continuous increase in the amount of cacao consumed in the British Isles. When Queen Victoria came to the throne the cacao cleared for home consumption was about four or five thousand tons, more than half of which was consumed by the Navy. At the time of Queen Victoria's death it had increased to four times this amount, and by 1915 it had reached nearly fifty thousand tons. (For statistics of consumption, see p. 183). * * * * * This brief sketch of the history of cacao owes much to "Cocoa--all about it," by Historicus (the pseudonym of the late Richard Cadbury). This work is out of print, but those who are fortunate enough to be able to consult it will find therein much that is curious and discursive. [Illustration: ANCIENT MEXICAN DRINKING CUPS (British Museum)] CHAPTER II CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION O tree, upraised in far-off Mexico! "_Ode to the Chocolate Tree_," 1664. How seldom do we think, when we drink a cup of cocoa or eat some morsels of chocolate, that our liking for these delicacies has set minds and bodies at work all the world over! Many types of humanity have contributed to their production. Picture in the mind's eye the graceful coolie in the sun-saturated tropics, moving in the shade, cutting the pods from the cacao tree; the deep-chested sailor helping to load from lighters or surf-boats the precious bags of cacao into the hold of the ocean liner; the skilful workman roasting the beans until they fill the room with a fine aroma; and the girl with dexterous fingers packing the cocoa or fashioning the chocolate in curious, and delicate forms. To the black and brown races, the negroes and the East Indians, we owe a debt for their work on tropical plantations, for the harder manual work would be too arduous for Europeans unused to the heat of those regions. _Climate Necessary._ Cacao can only grow at tropical temperatures, and when shielded from the wind and unimpaired by drought. Enthusiasts, as a hobby, have grown the tree under glass in England; it requires a warmer temperature than either tea or coffee, and only after infinite care can one succeed in getting the tree to flower and bear fruit. The mean temperature in the countries in which it thrives is about 80 degrees F. in the shade, and the average of the maximum temperatures is seldom more than 90 degrees F., or the average of the minimum temperatures less than 70 degrees F. The rainfall can be as low as 45 inches per annum, as in the Gold Coast, or as high as 150 inches, as in Java, provided the fall is uniformly distributed. The ideal spot is the secluded vale, and whilst in Venezuela there are plantations up to 2000 feet above sea level, cacao cannot generally be profitably cultivated above 1000 feet. _Factors of Geographical Distribution._ Climate, soil, and manures determine the possible region of cultivation--the extent to which the area is utilised depends on the enterprise of man. The original home of cacao was the rich tropical region, far-famed in Elizabethan days, that lies between the Amazon and the Orinoco, and but for the enterprise of man it is doubtful if it would have ever spread from this region. Monkeys often carry the beans many miles--man, the master-monkey, has carried them round the world. First the Indians spread cacao over the tropical belt of the American continent and cultivated it as far North as Mexico. Then came the Spanish explorers of the New World, who carried it from the mainland to the adjacent West Indian islands. Cacao was planted by them in Trinidad as early as 1525. Since that date it has been successfully introduced into many a tropical island. It was an important day in the history of Ceylon when Sir R. Horton, in 1834, had cacao plants brought to that island from Trinidad. The carefully packed plants survived the ordeal of a voyage of ten thousand miles. The most recent introduction is, however, the most striking. About 1880 a native of the Gold Coast obtained some beans, probably from Fernando Po. In 1891, the first bag of cacao was exported; it weighed 80 pounds. In 1915, 24 years later, the export from the Gold Coast was 120 million pounds. [Illustration: CACAO TREE, WITH PODS AND LEAVES] _The Cacao Tree._ Tropical vegetation appears so bizarre to the visitor from temperate climes that in such surroundings the cacao tree seems almost commonplace. It is in appearance as moderate and unpretentious as an apple tree, though somewhat taller, being, when full grown, about twenty feet high. It begins to bear in its fourth or fifth year. Smooth in its early youth, as it gets older it becomes covered with little bosses (cushions) from which many flowers spring. I saw one fellow, very tall and gnarled, and with many pods on it; turning to the planter I enquired "How old is that tree?" He replied, almost reverentially: "It's a good deal older than I am; must be at least fifty years old." "It's one of the tallest cacao trees I've seen. I wonder--." The planter perceived my thought, and said: "I'll have it measured for you." It was forty feet high. That was a tall one; usually they are not more than half that height. The bark is reddish-grey, and may be partly hidden by brown, grey and green patches of lichen. The bark is both beautiful and quaint, but in the main the tree owes its beauty to its luxuriance of prosperous leaves, and its quaintness to its pods. [Illustration: CACAO TREE, SHOWING PODS GROWING FROM TRUNK.] [Illustration: FLOWERS AND FRUITS ON MAIN BRANCHES OF A CACAO TREE. (Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co.).] _The Flowers, Leaves and Fruit._ Although cacao trees are not unlike the fruit trees of England, there are differences which, when first one sees them, cause expressions of surprise and pleasure to leap to the lips. One sees what one never saw before, the fruit springing from the main trunk, quite close to the ground. An old writer has explained that this is due to a wise providence, because the pod is so heavy that if it hung from the end of the branches it would fall off before it reached maturity. The old writer talks of providence; a modern writer would see in the same facts a simple example of evolution. On the same cacao tree every day of the year may be found flowers, young podkins and mature pods side by side. I say "found" advisedly--at the first glance one does not see the flowers because they are so dainty and so small. The buds are the size of rice grains, and the flowers are not more than half an inch across when the petals are fully out. The flowers are pink or yellow, of wax-like appearance, and have no odour. They were commonly stated to be pollinated by thrips and other insects. Dr. von Faber of Java has recently shown that whilst self-pollination is the rule, cross fertilisation occurs between the flowers on adjacent or interlocking trees. These graceful flowers are so small that one can walk through a plantation without observing them, although an average tree will produce six thousand blossoms in a year. Not more than one per cent. of these will become fruit. Usually it takes six months for the bud to develop into the mature fruit. The lovely mosses that grow on the stems and branches are sometimes so thick that they have to be destroyed, or the fragile cacao flower could not push its way through. Whilst the flowers are small, the leaves are large, being as an average about a foot in length and four inches in breadth. The cacao tree never appears naked, save on the rare occasions when it is stripped by the wind, and the leaves are green all the year round, save when they are red, if the reader will pardon an Hibernianism. And indeed there is something contrary in the crimson tint, for whilst we usually associate this with old leaves about to fall, with the cacao, as with some rose trees, it is the tint of the young leaves. [Illustration: CACAO PODS.] _The Cacao Pod._ The fruit, which hangs on a short thick stalk, may be anything in shape from a melon to a stumpy, irregular cucumber, according to the botanic variety. The intermediate shape is like a lemon, with furrows from end to end. There are pods, called Calabacillo, smooth and ovate like a calabash, and there are others, more rare, so "nobbly" that they are well-named "Alligator." The pods vary in length from five to eleven inches, "with here and there the great pod of all, the blood-red _sangre-tora_." The colours of the pods are as brilliant as they are various. They are rich and strong, and resemble those of the rind of the pomegranate. One pod shows many shades of dull crimson, another grades from gold to the yellow of leather, and yet another is all lack-lustre pea-green. They may be likened to Chinese lanterns hanging in the woods. One does not conclude from the appearance of the pod that the contents are edible, any more than one would surmise that tea-leaves could be used to produce a refreshing drink. I say as much to the planter, who smiles. With one deft cut with his machete or cutlass, which hangs in a leather scabbard by his side, the planter severs the pod from the tree, and with another slash cuts the thick, almost woody rind and breaks open the pod. There is disclosed a mass of some thirty or forty beans, covered with juicy pulp. The inside of the rind and the mass of beans are gleaming white, like melting snow. Sometimes the mass is pale amethyst in colour. I perceive a pleasant odour resembling melon. Like little Jack Horner, I put in my thumb and pull out a snow-white bean. It is slippery to hold, so I put it in my mouth. The taste is sweet, something between grape and melon. Inside this fruity coating is the bean proper. From different pods we take beans and cut them in two, and find that the colour of the bean varies from purple almost to white. [Illustration: CUT POD, REVEALING THE WHITE PULP ROUND THE BEANS (CEYLON.)] [Illustration: CACAO PODS, SHEWING BEANS INSIDE.] _Botanical Description._ Theobroma Cacao belongs to the family of the _Sterculiaceae_, and to the same order as the Limes and Mallows. It is described in Strasburger's admirable _Text-Book of Botany_ as follows: "Family. _Sterculiaceae._ IMPORTANT GENERA. The most important plant is the Cocoa Tree (_Theobroma Cacao_). It is a low tree with short-stalked, firm, brittle, simple leaves of large size, oval shape, and dark green colour. The young leaves are of a bright red colour, and, as in many tropical trees, hang limply downwards. The flowers are borne on the main stem or the older branches, and arise from dormant axillary buds (Cauliflory). Each petal is bulged up at the base, narrows considerably above this, and ends in an expanded tip. The form of the reddish flowers is thus somewhat urn-shaped with five radiating points. The pentalocular ovary has numerous ovules in each loculus. As the fruit develops, the soft tissue of the septa extends between the single seeds; the ripe fruit is thus unilocular and many-seeded. The seed-coat is filled by the embryo, which has two large, folded, brittle cotyledons." The last sentence conveys an erroneous impression. The two cotyledons, which form the seed, are not brittle when found in nature in the pod. They are juicy and fleshy. And it is only after the seed has received special treatment (fermentation and drying) to obtain the bean of commerce, that it becomes brittle. _Varieties of Theobroma Cacao._ As mentioned above, the pods and seeds of Theobroma Cacao trees show a marked variation, and in every country the botanist has studied these variations and classified the trees according to the shape and colour of the pods and seeds. The existence of so many classifications has led to a good deal of confusion, and we are indebted to Van Hall for the simplest way of clearing up these difficulties. He accepts the classification first given by Morris, dividing the trees into two varieties--Criollo and Forastero: [Illustration: DRAWINGS OF TYPICAL PODS, illustrating varieties. CRIOLLO FORASTERO FORASTERO (CALABACILLO VARIETY)] _Extremes of Characteristics._ _Criollo._ _Forastero._ (Old Red, Caracas, etc.) Grading from Cundeamor (bottle-necked) to Calabacillo (smooth). _Pod walls._ Thin and warty. Thick and woody. _Beans._ Large and plump. Small and flat. White. Heliotrope to purple. Sweet. Astringent. The cacao of the criollo variety has pods the walls of which are thin and warty, with ten distinct furrows. The seeds or beans are white as ivory throughout, round and plump, and sweet to taste. The forastero variety includes many sub-varieties, the kind most distinct from the criollo having pods, the walls of which are thick and woody, the surface smooth, the furrows indistinct, and the shape globular. The seeds in these pods are purple in colour, flat in appearance, and bitter to taste. This is a very convenient classification. Personally I believe it would be possible to find pods varying by almost imperceptible gradations from the finest, purest, criollo to the lowest form of forastero (namely, calabacillo). The criollo yields the finest and rarest kind of cacao, but as sometimes happens with refined types in nature, it is a rather delicate tree, especially liable to canker and bark diseases, and this accounts for the predominance of the forastero in the cacao plantations of the world. _The Cacao Plantation._ One can spend happy days on a cacao estate. "Are you going into the cocoa?" they ask, just as in England we might enquire, "Are you going into the corn?" [Illustration: TROPICAL FOREST, TRINIDAD. This has to be cleared before planting begins.] Coconut plantations and sugar estates make a strong appeal to the imagination, but for peaceful beauty they cannot compare with the cacao plantation. True, coconut plantations are very lovely--the palms are so graceful, the leaves against the sky so like a fine etching--but "the slender coco's drooping crown of plumes" is altogether foreign to English eyes. Sugar estates are generally marred by the prosaic factory in the background. They are dead level plains, and the giant grass affords no shade from the relentless sun. Whereas the leaves of the cacao tree are large and numerous, so that even in the heat of the day, it is comparatively cool and pleasant under the cacao. Cacao plantations present in different countries every variety of appearance--from that of a wild forest in which the greater portion of the trees are cacao, to the tidy and orderly plantation. In some of the Trinidad plantations the trees are planted in parallel lines twelve feet apart, with a tree every twelve feet along the line; and as you push your way through the plantation the apparently irregularly scattered trees are seen to flash momentarily into long lines. In other parts of the world, for example, in Grenada and Surinam, the ground may be kept so tidy and free from weeds that they have the appearance of gardens. _Clearing the Land._ When the planter has chosen a suitable site, an exercise requiring skill, the forest has to be cleared. The felling of great trees and the clearing of the wild tangle of undergrowth is arduous work. It is well to leave the trees on the ridges for about sixty feet on either side, and thus form a belt of trees to act as wind screen. Cacao trees are as sensitive to a draught as some human beings, and these "_wind breaks_" are often deliberately grown--Balata, Poui, Mango (Trinidad), Galba (Grenada), Wild Pois Doux (Martinique), and other leafy trees being suitable for this purpose. _Suitable Soil._ It was for many years believed that if a tree were analysed the best soil for its growth could at once be inferred and described, as it was assumed that the best soil would be one containing the same elements in similar proportions. This simple theory ignored the characteristic powers of assimilation of the tree in question and the "digestibility" of the soil constituents. However, it is agreed that soils rich in potash and lime (e.g., those obtained by the decomposition of certain volcanic rocks) are good for cacao. An open sandy or loamy alluvial soil is considered ideal. The physical condition of the soil is equally important: heavy clays or water-logged soils are bad. The depth of soil required depends on its nature. A stiff soil discourages the growth of the "tap" root, which in good porous soils is generally seven or eight feet long. [Illustration: CHARACTERISTIC ROOT SYSTEM OF THE CACAO TREE. Note the long tap root. (Reproduced from the Imperial Institute series of Handbooks to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics, by permission.)] _Manure._ The greater part of the world's cacao is produced without the use of artificial manures. The soil, which is continually washed down by the rains into the rivers, is continually renewed by decomposition of the bed rock, and in the tropics this decomposition is more rapid than in temperate climes. In Guayaquil, "notwithstanding the fact that the same soil has been cropped consecutively for over a hundred years, there is as yet no sign of decadence, nor does a necessity yet arise for artificial manure."[1] However, manures are useful with all soils, and necessary with many. Happy is the planter who is so placed that he can obtain a plentiful supply of farmyard or pen manure, as this gives excellent results. "Mulching" is also recommended. This consists of covering the ground with decaying leaves, grasses, etc., which keep the soil in a moist and open condition during the dry season. If artificial manures are used they should vary according to the soil, and, although he can obtain considerable help from the analyst, the planter's most reliable guide will be experiment on the spot. [1] _Bulletin_, Botanic Dept., Jamaica, February, 1900. _Planting._ In the past insufficient care has been taken in _the selection of seed_. The planter should choose the large plump beans with a pale interior, or he should choose the nearest kind to this that is sufficiently hardy to thrive in the particular environment. He can plant (1) direct from seeds, or (2) from seedlings--plants raised in nurseries in bamboo pots, or (3) by grafting or budding. It is usual to plant two or three seeds in each hole, and destroy the weaker plants when about a foot high. The seeds are planted from twelve to fifteen feet apart. The distance chosen depends chiefly on the richness of the soil; the richer the soil, the more ample room is allowed for the trees to spread without choking each other. Interesting results have been obtained by Hart and others by grafting the fine but tender criollo on to the hardy forastero, but until yesterday the practice had not been tried on a large scale. Experiments were begun in 1913 by Mr. W.G. Freeman in Trinidad which promise interesting results. By 1919 the Department of Agriculture had seven acres in grafted and budded cacao. In a few years it should be possible to say whether it pays to form an estate of budded cacao in preference to using seedlings. [Illustration: NURSERY, WITH THE YOUNG CACAO PLANTS IN BASKETS, JAVA. (Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co.).] [Illustration: PLANTING CACAO, TRINIDAD, FROM YOUNG SEEDLINGS IN BAMBOO POTS.] [Illustration: CACAO IN ITS FOURTH YEAR (SAMOA).] There are no longer any mystic rites performed before planting. In the old days it was the custom to solemnize the planting, for example, by sacrificing a cacao-coloured dog (see Bancroft's _Native Races of the Pacific States_.) _Shade: Temporary and Permanent._ [Illustration: COPY OF AN OLD ENGRAVING SHOWING THE CACAO TREE, AND A TREE SHADING IT. (From _Bontekoe's Works_.)] When the seeds are planted, such small plants as cassava, chillies, pigeon peas and the like are planted with them. The object of planting these is to afford the young cacao plant shelter from the sun, and to keep the ground in good condition. Incidentally the planter obtains cassava (which gives tapioca), red peppers, etc., as a "catch crop" whilst he is waiting for the cacao tree to begin to yield. Bananas and plantains are planted with the same object, and these are allowed to remain for a longer period. Such is the rapidity of plant growth in the tropics that in three or four years the cacao tree is taller than a man, and begins to bear fruit in its fourth or fifth year. Now it is agreed that, as with men, the cacao tree needs protection in its youth, but whether it needs shade trees when it is fully grown is one of the controverted questions. When the planter is sitting after his day's work is done, and no fresh topic comes to his mind, he often re-opens the discussion on the question of shade. The idea that cacao trees need shade is a very ancient one, as is shown in a very old drawing (possibly the oldest drawing of cacao extant) beneath which it is written: "Of the tree which bears cacao, which is money, and how the Indians obtained fire with two pieces of wood." In this drawing you will observe how lovingly the shade tree shelters the cacao. The intention in using shade is to imitate the natural forest conditions in which the wild cacao grew. Sometimes when clearing the forest certain large trees are left standing, but more frequently and with better judgment, chosen kinds are planted. Many trees have been used: the saman, bread fruit, mango, mammet, sand box, pois doux, rubber, etc. In the illustration showing kapok acting as a parasol for cacao in Java, we see that the proportion of shade trees to cacao is high. Leguminous trees are preferred because they conserve the nitrogen in the soil. Hence in Trinidad the favourite shade tree is _Erythrina_ or Bois Immortel (so called, a humourist suggests, because it is short-lived). It is also rather prettily named, "Mother of Cacao." Usually the shade trees are planted about 40 feet apart, but there are cacao plantations which might cause a stranger to enquire, "Is this an Immortel plantation?" so closely are these conspicuous trees planted. When looking down a Trinidad valley, richly planted with cacao, one sees in every direction the silver-grey trunks of the Immortel. In the early months of the year these trees have no leaves, they are a mass of flame-coloured flowers, each "shafted like a scimitar." It well repays the labour of climbing a hill to look down on this vermilion glory. Some Trinidad planters believe that their trees would die without shade, yet in Grenada, only a hundred miles North as the steamer sails, there are whole plantations without a single shade tree. The Grenadians say: "You cannot have pods without flowers, and you cannot have good flowering without light and air." Shade trees are not used on some estates in San Thomé, and in Brazil there are cocoa kings with 200,000 trees without one shade tree. It should be mentioned, however, that in these countries the cacao trees are planted more closely (about eight feet apart) and themselves shade the soil. Professor Carmody, in reporting[2] recently on the result of a four years' experiment with (1) shade, (2) no shade, (3) partial shade, says that so far partial shade has given the best results. No general solution has yet been found to the question of the advantage of shade, and, as Shaw states for morality, so in agriculture, "the golden rule is that there is no golden rule." Not only is there the personal factor, but nature provides an infinite variety of environments, and the best results are obtained by the use of methods appropriate to the local conditions. [2] _Bulletin_ Dept. of Agriculture, Trinidad, 1916. [Illustration: CACAO TREES, SHADED BY KAPOK (_Eriodendron Anfractuosum_) IN JAVA. (reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co.)] [Illustration: CACAO TREES, SHADED BY BOIS IMMORTEL, TRINIDAD.] _Form of Tree-growth Desired: Suckers._ Viscount Mountmorres, in a delightfully clear exposition of cacao cultivation which he gave to the native farmers and chiefs of the Gold Coast in 1906, said: "In pruning, it is necessary always to bear in mind that the best shape for cacao trees is that of an enlarged open umbrella," with a height under the umbrella not exceeding seven feet. With this ideal in his mind, the planter should train up the tree in the way it should go. Viscount Mountmorres also said that everything that grows upwards, except the main stem, must be cut off. This opens a question which is of great interest to planters as to whether it is wise to allow shoots to grow out from the main trunk near the ground. Some hold that the high yield on their plantation is due to letting these upright shoots grow. "Mi Amigo Corsicano said: 'Diavolo, let the cacao-trees grow, let them branch off like any other fruit-tree, say the tamarind, the 'chupon' or sucker will in time bear more than its mother.'"[3] There seems to be some evidence that _old_ trees profit from the "chupons" because they continue to bear when the old trunk is weary, but this is compensated for by the fact that the "chupons" (Portuguese for suckers) were grown at the expense of the tree in its youth. Hence other planters call them "thieves," and "gormandizers," saying that they suck the sap from the tree, turning all to wood. They follow the advice given as early as 1730 by the author of _The Natural History of Chocolate_, when he says: "Cut or lop off the suckers." In Trinidad, experiments have been started, and after a five years' test, Professor Carmody says that the indications are that it is a matter of indifference whether "chupons" are allowed to grow or not. [3] "_How José formed his Cocoa Estate._" [Illustration: CACAO TREE, WITH SUCKERS, TRINIDAD.] After hunting, agriculture is man's oldest industry, and improvements come but slowly, for the proving of a theory often requires work on a huge scale carried out for several decades. The husbandry of the earth goes on from century to century with little change, and the methods followed are the winnowings of experience, tempered with indolence. And even with the bewildering progress of science in other directions, sound improvements in this field are rare discoveries. There is great scope for the application of physical and chemical knowledge to the production of the raw materials of the tropics. In one or two instances notable advances have been made, thus the direct production of a white sugar (as now practised at Java) at the tropical factory will have far-reaching effects, but with many tropical products the methods practised are as ancient as they are haphazard. Like all methods founded on long experience, they suit the environment and the temperament of the people who use them, so that the work of the scientist in introducing improvements requires intimate knowledge of the conditions if his suggestions are to be adopted. The various Departments of Agriculture are doing splendid pioneer work, but the full harvest of their sowing will not be reaped until the number of tropically-educated agriculturists has been increased by the founding of three or four agricultural colleges and research laboratories in equatorial regions. There is much research to be done. As yet, however, many planters are ignorant of all that is already established, the facilities for education in tropical agriculture being few and far between. There are signs, however, of development in this direction. It is pleasant to note that a start was made in Ceylon at the end of 1917 by opening an agricultural school at Peradenija. Trinidad has for a number of years had an agricultural school, and is eager to have a college devoted to agriculture. In 1919, Messrs. Cadbury Bros. gave £5000 to form the nucleus of a special educational fund for the Gold Coast. The scientists attached to the several government agricultural departments in Java, Ceylon, Trinidad, the Philippines, Africa, etc., have done splendid work, but it is desirable that the number of workers should be increased. When the world wakes up to the importance of tropical produce, agricultural colleges will be scattered about the tropics, so that every would-be planter can learn his subject on the spot. [Illustration: CUTLASSING.] _Diseases of the Cacao Tree._ Take, for example, the case of the diseases of plants. Everyone who takes an interest in the garden knows how destructive the insect pests and vegetable parasites can be. In the tropics their power for destruction is very great, and they are a constant menace to economic products like cacao. The importance of understanding their habits, and of studying methods of keeping them in check, is readily appreciated; the planter may be ruined by lacking this knowledge. The cacao tree has been improved and "domesticated" to satisfy human requirements, a process which has rendered it weaker to resist attacks from pests and parasites. It is usual to classify man amongst the pests, as either from ignorance or by careless handling he can do the tree much harm. Other animal pests are the wanton thieves: monkeys, squirrels and rats, who destroy more fruit than they consume. The insect pests include varieties of beetles, thrips, aphides, scale insects and ants, whilst fungi are the cause of the "Canker" in the stem and branches, the "Witch-broom" disease in twigs and leaves, and the "Black Rot" of pods. The subject is too immense to be summarised in a few lines, and I recommend readers who wish to know more of this or other division of the science of cacao cultivation, to consult one or more of the four classics in English on this subject: _Cocoa_, by Herbert Wright (Ceylon), 1907. _Cacao_, by J. Hinchley Hart (Trinidad), 1911. _Cocoa_, by W.H. Johnson (Nigeria), 1912. _Cocoa_, by C.J.J. van Hall (Java), 1914. CHAPTER III HARVESTING AND PREPARATION FOR THE MARKET The picking, gathering, and breaking of the cacao are the easiest jobs on the plantation. "_How José formed his Cocoa Estate._" _Gathering and Heaping._ [Illustration] In the last chapter I gave a brief account of the cultivation of cacao. I did not deal with forking, spraying, cutlassing, weeding, and so forth, as it would lead us too far into purely technical discussions. I propose we assume that the planter has managed his estate well, and that the plantation is before us looking very healthy and full of fruit waiting to be picked. The question arises: How shall we gather it? Shall we shake the tree? Cacao pods do not fall off the tree even when over-ripe. Shall we knock off or pluck the pods? To do so would make a scar on the trunk of the tree, and these wounds are dangerous in tropical climates, as they are often attacked by canker. A sharp machete or cutlass is used to cut off the pods which grow on the lower part of the trunk. As the tree is not often strong enough to bear a man, climbing is out of the question, and a knife on a pole is used for cutting off the pods on the upper branches. Various shaped knives are used by different planters, a common and efficient kind (see drawing), resembles a hand of steel, with the thumb as a hook, so that the pod-stalk can be cut either by a push or a pull. A good deal of ingenuity has been expended in devising a "foolproof" picker which shall render easy the cutting of the pod-stalk and yet not cut or damage the bark of the tree. A good example is the Agostini picker, which was approved by Hart. [Illustration: (1) COMMON TYPE OF CACAO PICKER. (2) AGOSTINI CACAO PICKER.] The gathering of the fruits of one's labour is a pleasant task, which occurs generally only at rare intervals. Cacao is gathered the whole year round. There is, however, in most districts one principal harvest period, and a subsidiary harvest. [Illustration: GATHERING CACAO PODS, TRINIDAD.] With cacao in the tropics, as with corn in England, the gathering of the harvest is a delight to lovers of the beautiful. It is a great charm of the cacao plantation that the trees are so closely planted that nowhere does the sunlight find between the foliage a space larger than a man's hand. After the universal glare outside, it seems dark under the cacao, although the ground is bright with dappled sunshine. You hear a noise of talking, of rustling leaves, and falling pods. You come upon a band of coolies or negroes. One near you carries a long bamboo--as long as a fishing rod--with a knife at the end. With a lithe movement he inserts it between the boughs, and, by giving it a sharp jerk, neatly cuts the stalk of a pod, which falls from the tree to the ground. Only the ripe pods must be picked. To do this, not only must the picker's aim be true, but he must also have a good eye for colour. Whether the pods be red or green, as soon as the colour begins to be tinted with yellow it is ripe for picking. This change occurs first along the furrows in the pod. Fewer unripe pods would be gathered if only one kind of pod were grown on one plantation. The confusion of kinds and colours which is often found makes sound judgment very difficult. That the men generally judge correctly the ripeness of pods high in the trees is something to wonder at. The pickers pass on, strewing the earth with ripe pods. They are followed by the graceful, dark-skinned girls, who gather one by one the fallen pods from the greenery, until their baskets are full. Sometimes a basketful is too heavy and the girl cannot comfortably lift it on to her head, but when one of the men has helped her to place it there, she carries it lightly enough. She trips through the trees, her bracelets jingling, and tumbles the pods on to the heap. Once one has seen a great heap of cacao pods it glows in one's memory: anything more rich, more daring in the way of colour one's eye is unlikely to light on. The artist, seeking only an æsthetic effect would be content with this for the consummation and would wish the pods to remain unbroken. [Illustration: COLLECTING CACAO PODS INTO A HEAP PRIOR TO BREAKING.] _Breaking and Extracting._ There are planters who believe that the product is improved by leaving the gathered pods several days before breaking; and they would follow the practice, but for the risk of losses by theft. Hence the pods are generally broken on the same day as they are gathered. The primitive methods of breaking with a club or by banging on a hard surface are happily little used. Masson of New York made pod-breaking machines, and Sir George Watt has recently invented an ingenious machine for squeezing the beans out of the pod, but at present the extraction is done almost universally by hand, either by men or women. A knife which would cut the husk of the pod and was so constructed that it could not injure the beans within, would be a useful invention. The human extractor has the advantage that he or she can distinguish the diseased, unripe or germinated beans and separate them from the good ones. Picture the men sitting round the heap of pods and, farther out, in a larger circle, twice as many girls with baskets. The man breaks the pod and the girls extract the beans. The man takes the pod in his left hand and gives it a sharp slash with a small cutlass, just cutting through the tough shell of the pod, but not into the beans inside; and then gives the blade, which he has embedded in the shell, a twisting jerk, so that the pod breaks in two with a crisp crack. The girls take the broken pods and scoop out the snow-like beans with a flat wooden spoon or a piece of rib-bone, the beans being pulled off the stringy core (or placenta) which holds them together. The beans are put preferably into baskets or, failing these, on to broad banana leaves, which are used as trays. Practice renders these processes cheerful and easy work, often performed to an accompaniment of laughing and chattering. [Illustration: MEN BREAKING PODS, GIRLS SCOOPING OUT BEANS, AND MULES WAITING WITH BASKETS TO CONVEY THE CACAO TO THE FERMENTARY.] _Fermenting._ I allow myself the pleasure of thinking that I am causing some of my readers a little surprise when I tell them that cacao is fermented, and that the fermentation produces alcohol. As I mentioned above, the cacao bean is covered with a fruity pulp. The bean as it comes from the pod is moist, whilst the pulp is full of juice. It would be impossible to convey it to Europe in this condition; it would decompose, and, when it reached its destination, would be worthless. In order that a product can be handled commercially it is desirable to have it in such a condition that it does not change, and thus with cacao it becomes necessary to get rid of the pulp, and, whilst this may be done by washing or simply by drying, experience has shown that the finest and driest product is obtained when the drying is preceded by fermentation. Just as broken grapes will ferment, so will the fruity pulp of the cacao bean. Present day fermentaries are simply convenient places for storing the cacao whilst the process goes on. In the process of fermentation, Dr. Chittenden says the beans are "stewed in their own juice." This may be expressed less picturesquely but more accurately by saying the beans are warmed by the heat of their own fermenting pulp, from which they absorb liquid. In Trinidad the cacao which the girls have scooped out into the baskets is emptied into larger baskets, two of which are "crooked" on a mule's back, and carried thus to the fermentary. In Surinam it is conveyed by boat, and in San Thomé by trucks, which run on Decauville railways. The period of fermentation and the receptacle to hold the cacao vary from country to country. With cacao of the criollo type only one or two days fermentation is required, and as a result, in Ecuador and Ceylon, the cacao is simply put in heaps on a suitable floor. In Trinidad and the majority of other cacao-producing areas, where the forastero variety predominates, from five to nine days are required. The cacao is put into the "sweat" boxes and covered with banana or plantain leaves to keep in the heat. The boxes may measure four feet each way and be made of sweet-smelling cedar wood. As is usual with fermentation, the temperature begins to rise, and if you thrust your hands into the fermenting beans you find they are as hot and mucilaginous as a poultice. [Illustration: "SWEATING" BOXES, TRINIDAD. The man is holding the wooden spade used for turning the beans.] _Time._ _Temperature._ When put in 25° C. or 77° F. After 1 day 30° C. or 89° F. After 2 days 37° C. or 98° F. After 3 days 47° C. or 115° F. (After the third day the heat is maintained, but the temperature rises very little.) The temperature is the simplest guide to the amount of fermentation taking place, and the uniformity of the temperature in all parts of the mass is desirable, as showing that all parts are fermenting evenly. The cacao is usually shovelled from one box to another every one or two days. The chief object of this operation is to mix the cacao and prevent merely local fermentation. To make mixing easy one ingenious planter uses a cylindrical vessel which can be turned about on its axis. [Illustration: FERMENTING BOXES, JAVA. From the last box the beans are shovelled into the washing basin. (Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co.)] In other places, for example in Java, the boxes are arranged as a series of steps, so that the cacao is transferred with little labour from the higher to the lower. In San Thomé the cacao is placed on the plantation direct into trucks, which are covered with plaintain leaves, and run on rails through the plantation right into the fermentary. Some day some enterprising firm will build a fermentary in portable sections easily erected, and with some simple mechanical mixer to replace the present laborious method of turning the beans by manual labour. The general conditions[1] for a good fermentation are: (1) The mass of beans must be kept warm. (2) The mass of beans must be moist, but not sodden. (3) In the later stages there must be sufficient air. (4) The boxes must be kept clean. [1] For full details see the pamphlet by the author on _The Practice of Fermentation in Trinidad_. _Changes during Fermentation._ No entirely satisfactory theory of the changes in cacao due to fermentation has yet been established. It is known that the sugary pulp outside the beans ferments in a similar way to other fruit pulp, save that for a yeast fermentation the temperature rises unusually high (in three days to 47 degrees C.), and also that there are parallel and more important changes in the interior of the bean. The difficulty of establishing a complete theory of fermentation of cacao has not daunted the scientists, for they know that the roses of philosophy are gathered by just those who can grasp the thorniest problems. Success, however, is so far only partial, as can be seen by consulting the best introduction on the subject, the admirable collection of essays on _The Fermentation of Cacao_, edited by H. Hamel Smith. Here the reader will find the valuable contributions of Fickendey, Loew, Nicholls, Preyer, Schulte im Hofe, and Sack. The obvious changes which occur in the breaking down of the fruity exterior of the bean should be carefully distinguished from the subtle changes in the bean itself. Let us consider them separately:-- (_a_) _Changes in the Pulp._--Just as grape-pulp ferments and changes to wine, and just as weak wine if left exposed becomes sour; so the fruity sugary pulp outside the cacao bean on exposure gives off bubbles of carbon dioxide, becomes alcoholic, and later becomes acid. The acid produced is generally the pleasant vinegar acid (acetic acid), but under some circumstances it may be lactic acid, or the rancid-smelling butyric acid. Kismet! The planter trusts to nature to provide the right kind of fermentation. This fermentation is set up and carried on by the minute organisms (yeasts, bacteria, etc.), which chance to fall on the beans from the air or come from the sides of the receptacle. One yeast-cell does not make a fermentation, and as no yeast is added a day is wasted whilst any yeasts which happen to be present are multiplying to an army large enough to produce a visible effect on the pulp. _Any_ organism which happens to be on the pod, in the air, or on the inside of the fermentary will multiply in the pulp, if the pulp contains suitable nourishment. Each kind of organism produces its own characteristic changes. It would thus appear a miracle if the same substances were always produced. Yet, just as grape-juice left exposed to every micro-organism of the air, generally changes in the direction of wine more or less good, so the pulp of cacao tends, broadly speaking, to ferment in one way. It would, however, be a serious error to assume that exactly the same kind of fermentation takes place in any two fermentaries in the world, and the maximum variation must be considerable. As the pulp ferments, it is destroyed; it gradually changes from white to brown, and a liquid ("sweatings") flows away from it. The "_sweatings_" taste like sweet cider. At present this is allowed to run away through holes in the bottom of the box, and no care is taken to preserve what may yet become a valuable by-product. I found by experiment that in the preparation of one cwt. of dry beans about 1-1/2 gallons of this unstable liquid are produced. In other words, some seven or eight million gallons of "sweatings" run to waste every year. In most cases only small quantities are produced in one place at one time. This, and the lack of knowledge of scientifically controlled fermentation, and the difficulty of bottling, prevent the starting of an industry producing either a new drink or a vinegar. The cacao juice or "sweatings" contains about fifteen per cent. of solids, about half of which consists of sugars. If the fermentation of the cacao were centralised in the various districts, and conducted on a large scale under a chemist's control, the sugars could be obtained, or an alcoholic liquid or a vinegar could easily be prepared. [Illustration: CHARGING THE CACAO ON TO TRUCKS IN THE PLANTATION, SAN THOMÉ.] [Illustration: CACAO IN THE FERMENTING TRUCKS, SAN THOMÉ. The covering of banana leaves keeps the beans warm.] The planter decides when the beans are fermented by simply looking at them; he judges their condition by the colour of the pulp. When they are ready to be removed from the fermentary they are plump, and brown without, and juicy within. (_b_) _Changes in the Interior of the Bean._--What is the relation between the comparatively simple fermentation of the pulp and the changes in the interior of the bean? This important question has not yet been answered, although a number of attempts have been made. As far as is known, the living ferments (micro-organisms) do not penetrate the skin of the bean, so that any fermentation which takes place must be promoted by unorganised ferments (or enzymes). Mr. H.C. Brill[2] found raffinase, invertase, casease and protease in the pulp; oxidase, raffinase, casease and emulsinlike enzymes in the fresh bean; and all these six, together with diastase, in the fermented bean. Dr. Fickendey says: "The object of fermentation is, in the main, to kill the germ of the bean in such a manner that the efficiency of the unorganised ferment is in no way impaired." [2] _Philippine Journal of Science_, 1917. From my own observations I believe that forastero beans are killed at 47 degrees C. (which is commonly reached when they have been fermenting 60 hours), for a remarkable change takes place at this temperature and time. Whilst the micro-organisms remain outside, the juice of the pulp appears to penetrate not only the skin, but the flesh of the bean, and the brilliant violet in the isolated pigment cells becomes diffused more or less evenly throughout the entire bean, including the "germ." It is certain that the bean absorbs liquid from the outside, for it becomes so plump that its skin is stretched to the utmost. The following changes occur: (1) _Taste._ An astringent colourless substance (a tannin or a body possessing many properties of a tannin) changes to a tasteless brown substance. The bean begins to taste less astringent as the "tannin" is destroyed. With white (criollo) beans this change is sufficiently advanced in two days, but with purple (forastero) beans it may take seven days. (2) _Colour._ The change in the tannin results in the white (criollo) beans becoming brown and the purple (forastero) beans becoming tinged with brown. The action resembles the browning of a freshly-cut apple, and has been shown to be due to oxygen (activated by an oxidase, a ferment encouraging combination with oxygen) acting on the astringent colourless substance, which, like the photographic developer, pyrogallic acid, becomes brown on oxidation. (3) _Aroma._ A notable change is that substances are created within the bean, which _on roasting_ produce the fine aromatic odour characteristic of cocoa and chocolate, and which Messrs. Bainbridge and Davies have shown is due to a trace (0.001 per cent.) of an essential oil over half of which consists of linalool.[3] (4) _Stimulating Effect._ It is commonly stated that during fermentation there is generated theobromine, the alkaloid which gives cacao its stimulating properties, but the estimation of theobromine in fermented and unfermented beans does not support this. (5) _Consistency._ Fermented beans become crisp on drying. This development may be due to the "tannins" encountering, in their dispersion through the bean, proteins, which are thus converted into bodies which are brittle solids on drying (compare tanning of hides). The "hide" of the bean may be similarly "tanned"--the shell certainly becomes leathery (unless washed)--but a far more probable explanation, in both cases, is that the gummy bodies in bean and shell set hard on drying. [3] _Journal of the Chemical Society_, 1912. We see, then, that although fermentation was probably originally followed as the best method of getting rid of the pulp, it has other effects which are entirely good. It enables the planter to produce a drier bean, and one which has, when roasted, a finer flavour, colour, and aroma, than the unfermented. Fermentation is generally considered to produce so many desirable results that M. Perrot's suggestion[4] of removing the pulp by treatment with alkali, and thus avoiding fermentation, has not been enthusiastically received. [4] _Comptes Rendus_, 1913. Beans which have been dried direct and those which have been fermented may be distinguished as follows: CACAO BEANS DRIED DIRECT. FERMENTED AND DRIED. _Shape of bean_ Flat Plumper _Shell_ Soft and close fitting Crisp and more or less free. _Interior: colour_ Slate-blue or mud-brown Bright browns and purples " _consistence_ Leather to cheese Crisp " _appearance_ Solid Open-grained " _taste_ More or less bitter Less astringent or astringent Whilst several effects of fermentation have not been satisfactorily accounted for, I think all are agreed that to obtain one of the chief effects of fermentation, namely the brown colour, oxidation is necessary. All recognise that for this oxidation the presence of three substances is essential: (1) The tannin to be oxidised. (2) Oxygen. (3) An enzyme which encourages the oxidation. All these occur in the cacao bean as it comes from the pod, but why oxidation occurs so much better in a fermented bean than in a bean which is simply dried is not very clear. If you cut an apple it goes brown owing to the action of oxygen absorbed from the air, but as long as the apple is uncut and unbruised it remains white. If you take a cacao bean from the pod and cut it, the exposed surface goes brown, but if you ferment the bean the whole of it gradually goes brown without being cut. My observations lead me to believe that the bean does not become oxidised until it is killed, that is, until it is no longer capable of germination. It can be killed by raising the temperature, by fermentation or otherwise, or as Dr. Fickendey has shown, by cooling to almost freezing temperatures. It may be that killing the bean makes its skin and cell walls more permeable to oxygen, but my theory is that when the bean is killed disintegration or weakening of the cell walls, etc., occurs, and, as a result, the enzyme and tannin, _hitherto separate_, become mixed, and hence able actively to absorb oxygen. The action of oxygen on the tannin also accounts for the loss of astringency on fermentation, and it may be well to point out that fermentation increases the internal surface of the bean exposed to air and oxygen. The bean, during fermentation, actually sucks in liquid from the surrounding pulp and becomes plumper and fuller. On drying, however, the skin, which has been expanded to its utmost, wrinkles up as the interior contracts and no longer fits tightly to the bean, and the cotyledons having been thrust apart by the liquid, no longer hold together so closely. This accounts for the open appearance of a fermented bean. As on drying large interspaces are produced, these allow the air to circulate more freely and expose a greater surface of the bean to the action of oxygen. Since the liquids in all living matter presumably contain some dissolved oxygen, the problem is to account for the fact that the tannin in the unfermented bean remains unoxidised, whilst that in the fermented bean is easily oxidised. The above affords a partial explanation, and seems fairly satisfactory when taken with my previous suggestion, namely, that during fermentation the bean is rendered pervious to water, which, on distributing itself throughout the bean, dissolves the isolated masses of tannin and diffuses it evenly, so that it encounters and becomes mixed with the enzymes. From this it will be evident that the major part of the oxidation of the tannin occurs during drying, and hence the importance of this, both from the point of view of the keeping properties of the cacao, and its colour, taste and aroma. It will be realised from the above that there is still a vast amount of work to be done before the chemist will be in a position to obtain the more desirable aromas and flavours. Having found the necessary conditions, scientifically trained overseers will be required to produce them, and for this they will need to have under their direction arrangements for fermentation designed on correct principles and allowing some degree of control. Whilst improvements are always possible in the approach to perfection, it must be admitted that, considering the means at their disposal, the planters produce a remarkably fine product. [Illustration: FOR DRYING SMALL QUANTITIES. A simple tray-barrow, which can be run under the house when rain comes on.] _Loss on Fermenting and Drying._ The fermented cacao is conveyed from the fermentary to the drying trays or floors. The planter often has some rough check-weighing system. Thus, for example, he notes the number of standard baskets of wet cacao put into the fermentary, and he measures the fermented cacao produced with the help of a bottomless barrel. By this means he finds that on fermentation the beans lose weight by the draining away of the "sweatings," according to the amount and juiciness of the pulp round them. The beans are still very wet, and on drying lose a high percentage of their moisture by evaporation before the cacao bean of commerce is obtained. The average losses may be tabulated thus: Weight of wet cacao from pod 100 Loss on fermentation 20 to 25 Loss on drying 40 -------- Cacao beans of commerce obtained 35 to 40 [Illustration: SPREADING THE CACAO BEANS ON MATS TO DRY IN THE SUN, CEYLON.] The drying of cacao is an art. On the one hand it is necessary to get the beans quite dry (that is, in a condition in which they hold only their normal amount of water--5 to 7 per cent.) or they will be liable to go mouldy. On the other hand, the husk or shell of the bean must not be allowed to become burned or brittle. Brittle shells produce waste in packing and handling, and broken shells allow grubs and mould to enter the beans when the cacao is stored. The method of drying varies in different countries according to the climate. José says: "In the wet season when 'Father Sol' chooses to lie low behind the clouds for days and your cocoa house is full, your curing house full, your trees loaded, then is the time to put on his mettle the energetic and practical planter. In such tight corners, _amigo_, I have known a friend to set a fire under his cocoa house to keep the cocoa on the top somewhat warm. Another friend's plan (and he recommended it) was to address his patron saint on such occasions. He never addressed that saint at other times." [Illustration: DRYING TRAYS, GRENADA. The trays slide on rails. The corrugated iron roofs will slide over the whole to protect from rain.] In most producing areas sun-drying is preferred, but in countries where much rain falls, artificial dryers are slowly but surely coming into vogue. These vary in pattern from simple heated rooms, with shelves, to vacuum stoves and revolving drums. The sellers of these machines will agree with me when I say that every progressive planter ought to have one of these artificial aids to use during those depressing periods when the rain continually streams from the sky. On fine days it is difficult to prevent mildew appearing on the cacao, but at such times it is impossible. However, whenever available, the sun's heat is preferable, for it encourages a slow and even drying, which lasts over a period of about three days. As Dr. Paul Preuss says: "II faut éviter une dessiccation trop rapide. Le cacao ne peut être séché en moins de trois jours."[5] Further, most observers agree with Dr. Sack that the valuable changes, which occur during fermentation, continue during drying, especially those in which oxygen assists. The full advantage of these is lost if the temperature used is high enough to kill the enzymes, or if the drying is too rapid, both of which may occur with artificial drying. [5] Dr. Paul Preuss, _Le cacao. Culture et Préparation_. Sun-drying is done on cement or brick floors, on coir mats or trays, or on wooden platforms. In order to dry the cacao uniformly it is raked over and over in the sun. It must be tenderly treated, carefully "watched and caressed," until the interior becomes quite crisp and in colour a beautiful brown. Sometimes the platforms are built on the top of the fermentaries, the cacao being conveyed through a hole in the roof of the fermentary to the drying platform. [Illustration: "HAMEL-SMITH" ROTARY DRYER. (Made by Messrs. David Bridge and Co., Manchester). The receiving cylinders, six in number, are filled approximately three-quarters full with the cacao to be dried. These are then placed in position on the revolving framework, which is enclosed in the casing and slowly revolved. The cylinders are fitted with baffle plates, which gently turn over the cacao beans at each revolution so that even drying throughout is the result. The casing is heated to the requisite temperature by means of a special stove, the arrangement of which is such as to allow the air drawn from the outside to circulate around the stove and to pass into the interior of the casing containing the drying cylinders. The fumes from the fuel do not in any way come in contact with the material during drying.] [Illustration: DRYING PLATFORMS, TRINIDAD, WITH SLIDING ROOFS.] In Trinidad the platform always has a sliding roof, which can be pulled over the cacao in the blaze of noon or when a rainstorm comes on. In other places, sliding platforms are used which can be pushed under cover in wet weather. _The Washing of Cacao._ In Java, Ceylon and Madagascar before the cacao is dried, it is first washed to remove all traces of pulp. This removal of pulp enables the beans to be more rapidly dried, and is considered almost a necessity in Ceylon, where sun-drying is difficult. The practice appears at first sight wholly good and sanitary, but although beans so treated have a very clean and bright appearance, looking not unlike almonds, the practice cannot be recommended. There is a loss of from 2 to 10 per cent. in weight, which is a disadvantage to the planter, whilst from the manufacturer's point of view, washing is objectionable because, according to Dr. Paul Preuss, the aroma suffers. Whilst this may be questioned, there is no doubt that washing renders the shells more brittle and friable, and less able to bear carriage and handling; and when the shell is broken, the cacao is more liable to attack by grubs and mould. Therein lies the chief danger of washing. [Illustration: CACAO DRYING PLATFORMS, SAN THOMÉ. Three tiers of trays on rails. (Reproduced by permission from the Imperial Institute series of Handbooks to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics).] [Illustration: WASHING THE BEANS IN A VAT TO CLEAN OFF THE PULP, CEYLON.] _Claying, Colouring, and Polishing Cacao._ [Illustration: CLAYING CACAO BEANS IN TRINIDAD.] Just as in Java and Ceylon, to assist drying, they wash off the pulp, so in Venezuela and often in Trinidad, with the same object, they put earth or clay on the beans. In Venezuela it is a heavy, rough coat, and in Trinidad a film so thin that usually it is not visible. In Venezuela, where fermentation is often only allowed to proceed for one day, the use of fine red earth may possibly be of value. It certainly gives the beans a very pretty appearance; they look as though they have been moistened and rolled in cocoa powder. But in Trinidad, where the fermentation is a lengthy one, the use of clay, though hallowed by custom, is quite unnecessary. In the report of the Commission of Enquiry (Trinidad, 1915) we read concerning claying that "It is said to prevent the bean from becoming mouldy in wet weather, to improve its marketable value by giving it a bright and uniform appearance, and to help to preserve its aroma." In the appendix to this report the following recommendation occurs: "The claying of cacao ought to be avoided as much as possible, and when necessary only sufficient to give a uniform colour ought to be used." In my opinion manufacturers would do well to discourage entirely the claying of cacao either in Trinidad or Venezuela, for from their point of view it has nothing to recommend it. One per cent. of clay is sufficient to give a uniform colour, but occasionally considerably more than this is used. If we are to believe reports, deliberate adulteration is sometimes practised. Thus in _How José formed his Cocoa Estate_ we read: "A cocoa dealer of our day to give a uniform colour to the miscellaneous brands he has purchased from Pedro, Dick, or Sammy will wash the beans in a heap, with a mixture of starch, sour oranges, gum arabic and red ochre. This mixture is always boiled. I can recommend the 'Chinos' in this dodge, who are all adepts in all sorts of 'adulteration' schemes. They even add some grease to this mixture so as to give the beans that brilliant gloss which you see sometimes." In Trinidad the usual way of obtaining a gloss is by the curious operation known as "dancing," which is performed on the moistened beans after the clay has been sprinkled on them. It is a quaint sight to see a circle of seven or eight coloured folk slowly treading a heap of beans. The dancing may proceed for any period up to an hour, and as they tread they sing some weird native chant. Somewhat impressed, I remarked to the planter that it had all the appearance of an incantation. He replied that the process cost 2d. per cwt. Dancing makes the beans look smooth, shiny, and even, and it separates any beans that may be stuck together in clusters. It may make the beans rounder, and it is said to improve their keeping properties, but this remains to be proved. On the whole, if it is considered desirable to produce a glossy appearance, it is better to use a polishing machine. _The Weight of the Cured Cacao Bean._ [Illustration: SORTING CACAO BEANS IN JAVA. (Reproduced from van Hall's _Cocoa_, by permission of Messrs. Macmillan & Co.).] Planters and others may be interested to know the comparative sizes of the beans from the various producing areas of the world. Some idea of these can be gained by considering the relative weights of the beans as purchased in England. Average weight Number of Beans Kind. of one Bean. to the lb. Grenada 1.0 grammes 450 Parâ 1.0 " 450 Bahia 1.1 " 410 Accra 1.2 " 380 Trinidad 1.2 " 380 Cameroons 1.2 " 380 Ceylon 1.2 " 380 Caracas 1.3 " 350 Machala 1.4 " 330 Arriba 1.5 " 300 Carupano 1.6 " 280 _The Yield of the Cacao Tree._ The average yield of cacao has in the past generally been over-stated. Whether this is because the planter is an optimist or because he wishes others to think his efforts are crowned with exceptional success, or because he takes a simple pride in his district, is hard to tell. Probably the tendency has been to take the finer estates and put their results down as the average. Of the thousands of flowers that bloom on one tree during the year, on an average only about twenty develop into mature pods, and each pod yields about 1-1/3 ounces of dry cured cacao. Taking the healthy trees with the neglected, the average yield is from 1-1/2 to 2 pounds of commercial cacao per tree. This seems very small, and those who hear it for the first time often make a rapid mental calculation of the amazing number of trees that must be needed to produce the world's supply, at least 250 million trees. Or again, taking the average yield per acre as 400 lbs., we find that there must be well over a million acres under cacao cultivation. At the Government station at Aburi (Gold Coast) three plots of cacao gave in 1914 an average yield of over 8 pounds of cacao per tree, and in 1918 some 468 trees (_Amelonado_) gave as an average 7.8 pounds per tree. This suggests what might be done by thorough cultivation. It suggests a great opportunity for the planters--that, without planting one more tree, they might quadruple the world's production. The work which has been started by the Agricultural Department in Trinidad of recording the yield of individual trees has shown that great differences occur. Further, it has generally been observed that the heavy bearing trees of the first year have continued to be heavy bearers, and the poor-yielding trees have remained poor during subsequent years. The report rightly concludes that: "The question of detecting the poor-bearing trees on an estate and having them replaced by trees raised from selected stock, or budded or grafted trees, of known prolific and other good qualities is deserving of the most serious consideration by planters." _The Kind of Cacao that Manufacturers Like._[6] [6] For further information read _The Qualities in Cacao Desired by Manufacturers_, by N.P. Booth and A.W. Knapp, International Congress of Tropical Agriculture, 1914. Planters have suggested to me that if the users and producers of cacao could be brought together it would be to their mutual advantage. Permit me to conceive a meeting and report an imaginary conversation: PLANTER: You know we planters work a little in the dark. We don't know quite what to strive after. Tell me exactly what kind of cacao the manufacturers want? MANUFACTURER: Every buyer and manufacturer has his tastes and preferences and----. PLANTER: Don't hedge! MANUFACTURER: The cacao of each producing area has its special characters, even as the wine from a country, and part of the good manufacturer's art is the art of blending. PLANTER: What--good with bad? MANUFACTURER: No! Good of one type with good of another type. PLANTER: What do you mean exactly by good? MANUFACTURER: By good I mean large, ripe, well-cured beans. By indifferent I mean unripe and unfermented. By abominable I mean germinated, mouldy, and grubby beans. Happily, the last class is quite a small one. PLANTER: You don't mean to tell me that only the good cacao sells? MANUFACTURER: Unfortunately, no! There are users of inferior beans. Practically all the cacao produced--good and indifferent--is bought by someone. Most manufacturers prefer the fine, healthy, well fermented kinds. PLANTER: Well fermented! They have a strange way of showing their preference. Why, they often pay more for Guayaquil than they do for Grenada cacao. Yet Guayaquil is never properly fermented, whilst that from the Grenada estates is perfectly fermented. MANUFACTURER: Agreed. Just as you would pay more for a badly-trained thoroughbred than for a well-trained mongrel. It's breed they pay for. The Guayaquil breed is peculiar; there is nothing else like it in the world. You might think the tree had been grafted on to a spice tree. It has a fine characteristic aroma, which is so powerful that it masks the presence of a high percentage of unfermented beans. However, if Guayaquil cacao was well-fermented it would (subject to the iron laws of Supply and Demand) fetch a still higher price, and there would not be the loss there is in a wet season when the Guayaquil cacao, being unfermented, goes mouldy. I think in Grenada they plant for high yield, and not for quality, for the bean is small and approaches the inferior Calabacillo breed. Its value is maintained by an amazing evenness and an uniform excellence in curing. The way in which it is prepared for the market does great credit to the planters. PLANTER: They don't clay there, do they? MANUFACTURER: No! and yet it is practically impossible to find a mouldy bean in Grenada estates cacao. Evidently claying is not a necessity--in Grenada. PLANTER: Ha! ha! By that I suppose you insinuate that it is not a necessity in Trinidad, where the curing is also excellent. Or in Venezuela? What's the buyer's objection to claying? MANUFACTURER: Simply that claying is camouflage. Actually the buyer doesn't mind so long as the clay is not too generously used. He objects to paying for beans and getting clay. However, it's really too bad to colour up with clay the black cacao from diseased pods; it might deceive even experienced brokers. PLANTER: Ha! ha! Then it's a very sinful practice. I don't think that ever gets beyond the local tropical market. I know the merchants judge largely by "the skin," but I thought the London broker----. MANUFACTURER: You see it's like this. Just as you associate a certain label with a particularly good brand of cigar so the planter's mark on the bag and the external appearance of the beans influence the broker by long association. But just as you cannot truly judge a cigar by the picture on the box, so the broker has to consider what is under the shell of the bean. One or two manufacturers go further, but don't trust merely to "tasting with their eyes"--they only come to a conclusion when they have roasted a sample. PLANTER: But a buyer can get a shrewd idea without roasting, surely? You agree. Well, what exactly does he look for? MANUFACTURER: Depends what nationality the bean is--I mean whether it was grown in Venezuela, Brazil, Trinidad, or the Gold Coast. In general he likes beans with a good "break," that is beans which, under the firm pressure of thumb and forefinger, break into small crisp nibs. Closeness or cheesiness are danger signals, warnings of lack of fermentation,--so is a slate-coloured interior. He prefers a pale, even-coloured interior,--cinnamon, chocolate, or café-au-lait colour and----. PLANTER: One moment! I've heard before of planters being told to ferment and cure until the bean is cinnamon colour. Why, man, you couldn't get a pale brown interior with beans of the Forastero or Calabacillo type if you fermented them to rottenness. MANUFACTURER: True! Well, if the breed on your plantation is purple Forastero, and more than half of the cacao in the world is, you must develop as much brown in the beans as possible. They should have the characteristic refreshing odour of raw cacao, together with a faint vinegary odour. The buyers much dislike any foreign smell, any mouldy, hammy, or cheesy odour. PLANTER: And where do the foreign odours come from? MANUFACTURER: That's debatable. Some come from bad fermentations, due to dirty fermentaries, abnormal temperatures, or unripe cacao.[7] Some come from smoky or imperfect artificial drying. Some come from mould. Unfermented cacao is liable to go mouldy, so is germinated or over-ripe cacao with broken shells. Some cacao unfortunately gets wet with sea water. There always seems to me something pathetic in the thought of finely-cured cacao being drowned in sea water as it goes out in open boats to the steamer. PLANTER: You see, we haven't piers and jetties everywhere, and often it's a long journey to them. Well, you've told me the buyers note break, colour and aroma. Anything else? MANUFACTURER: They like large beans, partly because largeness suggests fineness, and partly because with large beans the percentage of shell is less. Small flat beans are very wasteful and unsatisfactory; they are nearly all shell and very difficult to separate from the shell. PLANTER: When there's a drought we can't help ourselves; we produce quantities of small flat beans. MANUFACTURER: It must be trying to be at the mercy of the weather. However, the weather doesn't prevent the dirt being picked out of the beans. Buyers don't like more than half a per cent. of rubbish; I mean stones, dried twig-like pieces of pulp, dust, etc., left in the cacao, neither do they like to see "cobs," that is, two or more beans stuck together, nor----. PLANTER: How about gloss? MANUFACTURER: The beauty of a polished bean attracts, although they know the beauty is less than skin deep. PLANTER: And washing? MANUFACTURER: In my opinion washing is bad, leaves the shell too fragile. I believe in Hamburg they used to pay more for washed beans; although very little, I suppose less than five per cent., of the world's cacao is washed, but in London many buyers prefer "the great unwashed." However, brokers are conservative, and would probably look on unwashed Ceylon with suspicion. PLANTER: Well, I have been very interested in everything that you have said, and I think every planter should strive to produce the very best he can, but he does not get much encouragement. MANUFACTURER: How is that? PLANTER: There is insufficient difference between the price of the best and the common. MANUFACTURER: Unfortunately that is beyond any individual manufacturer's control. The price is controlled by the European and New York markets. I am afraid that as long as there is so large a demand by the public for cheap cocoas so long will there be keen competition amongst buyers for the commoner kinds of beans. PLANTER: The manufacturer should keep some of his own men on the spot to do his buying. They would discriminate carefully, and the differences in price offered would soon educate the planters! MANUFACTURER: True, but as each manufacturer requires cacao from many countries and districts, this would be a very costly enterprise. Several manufacturers have had their own buyers in certain places in the Tropics for some years, and it is generally agreed that this has acted as an incentive to the growers to improve the quality.[8] But in the main we have to look to the various Government Agricultural Departments to instruct and encourage the planters in the use of the best methods. [7] Cameroon cacao sometimes has an objectionable odour and flavour, which may be due to its being fermented in an unripe condition, for, as Dr. Fickendey says: "Cameroon cacao has to be harvested unripe to save the pods from brown rot." [8] The Director of Agriculture, in a paper on _The Gold Coast Cocoa Industry_, says: "We are indebted to Messrs. Cadbury Bros., of Bournville, for a lead in this direction. They have several agents in the colony who purchase on their behalf only the best qualities at an enhanced price, and reject all that falls below the standard of their requirements." [Illustration: THE WORLD'S CACAO PRODUCTION. (Mean of 5 years, 1914-1918. Average world production 295,600 tons per annum.) Diagram showing relative amounts produced by various countries. The shaded parts show production of British Possessions.] CHAPTER IV CACAO PRODUCTION AND SALE When the English Commander, Thomas Candish, coming into the Haven Guatulco, burnt two hundred thousand tun of cacao, it proved no small loss to all New Spain, the provinces Guatimala and Nicaragua not producing so much in a whole year. John Ogilvy's _America_, 1671. When one starts to discuss, however briefly, the producing areas, one ought first to take off one's hat to Ecuador, for so long the principal producer, and then to Venezuela the land of the original cacao, and producer of the finest criollo type. Having done this, one ought to say words of praise to Trinidad, Grenada and Ceylon for their scientific methods of culture and preparation; and, last but not least, the newest and greatest producer, the Gold Coast, should receive honourable mention. It is interesting to note that in 1918 British Possessions produced nearly half (44 per cent.) of the world's supply. Whilst the war has not very materially hindered the increase of cacao production in the tropics, the shortage of shipping has prevented the amount exported from maintaining a steady rise. The table below, taken mainly from the "Gordian," illustrates this: WORLD PRODUCTION OF CACAO. Total in tons (1 ton = 1000 kilogrammes) 1908 194,000 1914 277,000 1909 206,000 1915 298,000 1910 220,000 1916 297,000 1911 241,000 1917 343,000 1912 234,000 1918 273,000 1913 258,000 1919 431,000 The following table is compiled chiefly from Messrs. Theo. Vasmer & Co.'s reports in the _Confectioners' Union_. CACAO PRODUCTION OF THE CHIEF PRODUCING AREAS OF THE WORLD. (1 ton = 1000 kilogrammes). Country. 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. Gold Coast[1] 53,000 77,300 72,200 91,000 66,300 Brazil 40,800 45,000 43,700 55,600 41,900 Ecuador 47,200 37,000 42,700 47,200 38,000 San Thomé 31,400 29,900 33,200 31,900 26,600 Trinidad[1] 28,400 24,100 24,000 31,800 26,200 San Domingo 20,700 20,200 21,000 23,700 18,800 Venezuela 16,900 18,300 15,200 13,100 13,000 Lagos[1] 4,900 9,100 9,000 15,400 10,200 Grenada[1] 6,100 6,500 5,500 5,500 6,700 Fernando Po 3,100 3,900 3,800 3,700 4,200 Ceylon[1] 2,900 3,900 3,500 3,700 4,000 Jamaica[1] 3,800 3,600 3,400 2,800 3,000 Surinam 1,900 1,700 2,000 1,900 2,500 Cameroons 1,200 2,400 3,000 2,800 1,300 Haiti 2,100 1,800 1,900 1,500 2,300 French Cols. 1,800 1,900 1,600 2,200 1,700 Cuba 1,800 1,700 1,500 1,500 1,000 Java 1,600 1,500 1,500 1,600 800 Samoa 1,100 900 900 1,200 800 Togo 200 300 400 1,600 1,000 St. Lucia[1] 700 800 700 600 500 Belgian Congo 500 600 800 800 900 Dominica[1] 450 550 300 300 300 St. Vincent[1] 100 100 75 50 75 Other countries 3,200 3,000 3,500 3,500 3,500 ------------------------------------------- Total 275,900 296,100 295,400 344,000 275,600 ------------------------------------------- Total British Empire 102,000 128,000 120,000 153,000 119,000 [1] British Possessions. [Illustration: MAP OF THE WORLD, WITH ONLY CACAO-PRODUCING AREAS MARKED.] _SOUTH AMERICAN CACAO._ In the map of South America given on p. 89 the principal cacao producing areas are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows: CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. Percentage of Country. Metric Tons.[2] World's production. Brazil 41,865 15.4 Ecuador 38,000 14.0 (Guayaquil alone 34,973 tons) Venezuela 13,000 5.0 Surinam 2,468 0.9 British Guiana 20 0.01 ------------------------------------------ South American Total 95,353 tons 35.31 per cent. ------------------------------------------ [2] These figures, and others quoted later in this chapter, are estimates given by Messrs. Theo. Vasmer & Co. in their reports. ECUADOR. _Arriba and Machala Cacaos._--In Ecuador, for many years the chief producing area of the world, dwell the cacao kings, men who possess very large and wild cacao forests, each containing several million cacao trees. The method of culture is primitive, and no artificial manures are used, yet for several generations the trees have given good crops and the soil remains as fertile as ever. The two principal cacaos are known as _Arriba_ and _Machala_, or classed together as Guayaquil after the city of that name. Guayaquil, the commercial metropolis of the Republic of Ecuador, is an ancient and picturesque city built almost astride the Equator. Despite the unscientific cultural methods, and the imperfect fermentation, which results in the cacao containing a high percentage of unfermented beans and not infrequently mouldy beans also, this cacao is much appreciated in Europe and America, for the beans are large and possess a fine strong flavour and characteristic scented aroma. The amount of Guayaquil cacao exported in 1919 was 33,209 tons. [Illustration: RAKING CACAO BEANS ON THE DRIERS.] [Illustration: GATHERING CACAO PODS IN ECUADOR. (La Clementina Plantation, Ecuador.)] [Illustration: SORTING CACAO FOR SHIPMENT, GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.] An interesting experiment was made in 1912, when a protective association known as the _Asociacion de Agricultores del Ecuador_ was legalised. This collects half a golden dollar on every hundred pounds of cacao, and by purchasing and storing cacao on its own account whenever prices fall below a reasonable minimum, attempts in the planter's interest to regulate the selling price of cacao. Unfortunately, as cacao tends to go mouldy when stored in a damp tropical climate, the _Asociacion_ is not an unmixed blessing to the manufacturer and consumer. BRAZIL. _Parâ and Bahia Cacaos._--Brazil has made marked progress in recent years, and has now overtaken Ecuador in quantity of produce; the cacao, however, is quite different from, and not as fine as, that from Guayaquil. The principal cacao comes from the State of Bahia, where the climate is ideal for its cultivation. Indeed so perfect are the natural conditions that formerly no care was taken in cacao production, and much of that gathered was wild and uncured. During the last decade there has been an improvement, and this would, doubtless, be more noteworthy if the means of transport were better, for at present the roads are bad and the railways inadequate; hence most of the cacao is brought down to the city of Bahia in canoes. Nevertheless, Bahia cacao is better fermented than the peculiar cacao of Pará, another important cacao from Brazil, which is appreciated by manufacturers on account of its mild flavour. Bahia exported in 1919 about 51,000 tons of cacao. VENEZUELA. _Caracas, Carupano and Maracaibo Cacaos._--Venezuela has been called "the classic home of cacao," and had not the chief occupation of its inhabitants been revolution, it would have retained till now the important position it held a hundred years ago. It is in this enchanted country (it was at La Guayra in Caracas, as readers of _Westward Ho!_ will remember, that Amyas found his long-sought Rose) that the finest cacao in the world is produced: the criollo, the bean with the golden-brown break. The tree which produces this is as delicate as the cacao is fine, and there is some danger that this superb cacao may die out--a tragedy which every connoisseur would wish to avert. The _Gordian_ estimates that Venezuela sent out from her three principal ports in 1919 some 16,226 tons of cacao. _THE WEST INDIES._ In the map of South America the principal West Indian islands producing cacao are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows: CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. Percentage of Metric Tons. World's production. Trinidad (British) 26,177 9.7 San Domingo 18,839 7.0 Grenada (British) 6,704 2.5 Jamaica (British) 3,000 1.1 Haiti 2,272 0.8 St. Lucia (British) 500 0.2 Dominica (British) 300 0.1 St. Vincent (British) 70 0.02 ----------- --------------- West Indies Total 57,862 tons 21.42 per cent. ----------- --------------- Br. West Indies 36,751 tons 13.6 per cent. TRINIDAD AND GRENADA.[3] [3] Cacao production in 1919: Trinidad 27,185 tons; Grenada 4,020 tons. Cacao was grown in the West Indies in the seventeenth century, and the inhabitants, after the destructive "blast," which utterly destroyed the plantations in 1727, bravely replanted cacao, which has flourished there ever since. The cacaos of Trinidad and Grenada have long been known for their excellence, and it is mainly from Trinidad that the knowledge of methods of scientific cultivation and preparation has been spread to planters all round the equator. The cacao from Trinidad (famous alike for its cacao and its pitch lake) has always held a high place in the markets of the world, although a year or two ago the inclusion of inferior cacao and the practice of claying was abused by a few growers and merchants. With the object of stopping these abuses and of producing a uniform cacao, there was formed a Cacao Planters' Association, whose business it is to grade and bulk, and sell on a co-operative basis, the cacao produced by its members. This experiment has proved successful, and in 1918 the Association handled the cacao from over 100 estates. We may expect to see more of these cacao planters' associations formed in various parts of the world, for they are in line with the trend of the times towards large, and ever larger, unions and combinations. Trinidad is also progressive in its system of agricultural education and in its formation of agricultural credit societies. The neighbouring island of Grenada is mountainous, smaller than the Isle of Wight and (if the Irish will forgive me) greener than Erin's Isle. The methods of cacao cultivation in vogue there might seem natural to the British farmer, but they are considered remarkable by cacao planters, for in Grenada the soil on which the trees grow is forked or tilled. Possibly from this follows the equally remarkable corollary that the cacao trees flourish without a single shade tree. The preparation of the bean receives as much care as the cultivation of the tree, and the cacao which comes from the estates has an unvaried constancy of quality, not infrequently giving 100 per cent. of perfectly prepared beans. It is largely due to this that the cacao from this small island occupies such an important position on the London market. [Illustration: MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA AND THE WEST INDIES. Only cacao-producing areas are marked.] [Illustration: WORKERS ON A CACAO PLANTATION. (Messrs. Cadbury's estate in Trinidad.)] The cacao from San Domingo is known commercially as _Samana_ or _Sanchez_. A fair proportion is of inferior quality, and is little appreciated on the European markets. The bulk of it goes to America. The production in 1919 was about 23,000 tons. _AFRICAN CACAO._ In the map of Africa the principal producing areas are marked. Their production in 1918 was as follows: CACAO BEANS EXPORTED. Metric Tons. Percentage of World's production. Gold Coast (British) 66,343 24.5 San Thomé 19,185 7.1 Lagos (British) 10,223 3.8 Fernando Po 4,220 1.6 Cameroons 1,250 0.4 Togo 1,000 0.4 Belgian Congo 875 0.3 ------------ -------------- African Total 103,096 tons 38.1 per cent. ------------ -------------- British Africa 76,566 tons 28.3 per cent. THE GOLD COAST (_Industria floremus_). _Accra Cacao._ The name recalls stories of a romantic and awful past, in which gold and the slave trade played their terrible part. Happily these are things of the past; so is the "deadly climate." We are told that it is now no worse than that of other tropical countries. According to Sir Hugh Clifford, until recently Governor of the Gold Coast, the "West African Climatic Bogie" is a myth, and the "monumental reputation for unhealthiness" undeserved. When De Candolle wrote concerning cacao, "I imagine it would succeed on the Guinea Coast,"[4] as the West African coast is sometimes called, he achieved prophecy, but he little dreamed how wonderful this success would be. The rise and growth of the cacao-growing industry in the Gold Coast is one of the most extraordinary developments of the last few decades. In thirty years it has increased its export of cacao from nothing to 40 per cent. of the total of the world's production. [4] De Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_, quoted by R. Whymper. [Illustration: MAP OF AFRICA--WITH ONLY CACAO-PRODUCING AREAS MARKED.] [Illustration: FORESHORE AT ACCRA, WITH STACKS OF CACAO READY FOR SHIPMENT. Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa".] PRODUCTION OF CACAO ON THE GOLD COAST. Year. Quantity. Value. £ 1891 0 tons (80 lbs.) 4 1896 34 tons 2,276 1901 980 tons 42,837 1906 8,975 tons 336,269 1911 30,798 tons 1,613,468 1916 72,161 tons 3,847,720 1917 90,964 tons 3,146,851 1918 66,343 tons 1,796,985 1919 177,000 tons 8,000,000 The conditions of production in the Gold Coast present a number of features entirely novel. We hear from time to time of concessions being granted in tropical regions to this or that company of enterprising European capitalists, who employ a few Europeans and send them to the area to manage the industry. The inhabitants of the area become the manual wage earners of the company, and too often in the lust for profits, or as an offering to the god of commercial efficiency, the once easy and free life of the native is lost for ever and a form of wage-slavery takes its place with doubtful effects on the life and health of the workers. In defence it is pointed out that yet another portion of the earth has been made productive, which, without the initiative of the European capitalist, must have lain fallow. But in the Gold Coast the "indolent" native has created a new industry entirely native owned, and in thirty years the Gold Coast has outstripped all the areas of the world in quantity of produce. Forty years ago the natives had never seen a cacao tree, now at least fifty million trees flourish in the colony. This could not have happened without the strenuous efforts of the Department of Agriculture. The Gold Coast now stands head and shoulders above any other producing area for quantity. The problem of the future lies in the improvement of quality, and difficult though this problem be, we cannot doubt, given a fair chance, that the far-sighted and energetic Agricultural Department will solve it. Indeed, it must in justice be pointed out that already a very marked improvement has been made, and now fifty to one hundred times as much good fermented cacao is produced as there was ten years ago.[5] However, if a high standard is to be maintained, the work of the Department of Agriculture must be supplemented by the willingness of the cacao buyers to pay a higher price for the better qualities. [5] "Towards this latter result Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd., rendered great assistance. This firm sent representatives into the country, who proved to the natives that they were willing to pay an enhanced price for cocoa prepared in a manner suitable for their requirements. A fair amount of cocoa was purchased by them, and demonstrations were made in some places with regard to the proper mode of fermentation." (The Agricultural and Forest Products of British West Africa. _Imperial Institute Handbook_, by G.C. Dudgeon). [Illustration: CARRIERS CONVEYING BAGS OF CACAO TO SURF BOATS, ACCRA. Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."] The phenomenal growth of this industry is the more remarkable when we consider the lack of roads and beasts of burden. The usual pack animals, horses and oxen, cannot live on the Gold Coast because of the tsetse fly, which spreads amongst them the sleeping sickness. And so the native, used as he is to heavy head-loads, naturally adopted this as his first method of transport, and hundreds of the less affluent natives arrive at the collecting centres with great weights of cacao on their heads. "Women and children, light-hearted, chattering and cheerful, bear their 60 lbs. head-loads with infinite patience. Heavier loads, approaching sometimes two hundredweight, are borne by grave, silent Hausa-men, often a distance of thirty or forty miles." [Illustration: CROSSING THE RIVER AT NSAWAM, GOLD COAST.] [Illustration: DRYING CACAO BEANS AT MRAMRA. Reproduced by permission from the Imperial Institute series of Handbooks to the Commercial Resources of the Tropics.] One day, not so many years ago, some more ingenious native in the hills at the back of the Coast, filled an old palm-oil barrel with cacao and rolled it down the ways to Accra. And now to-day it is a familiar sight to see a man trundling a huge barrel of cacao, weighing half a ton, down to the coast. The sound of a motor horn is heard, and he wildly turns the barrel aside to avoid a disastrous collision with the new, weird transport animal from Europe. Motor lorries have been used with great effect on the coast for some seven years; they have the advantage over pack animals that they do not succumb to the bite of the dreaded tsetse fly, but nevertheless not a few derelicts lie, or stand on their heads, in the ditches, the victims of over-work or accident. [Illustration: SHOOTING CACAO FROM THE ROAD TO THE BEACH, ACCRA.] Having brought the cacao to the coast, there yet remains the lighterage to the ocean liner, which lies anchored some two miles from the shore, rising and falling to the great rollers from the broad Atlantic. A long boat is used, manned by some twenty swarthy natives, who glory--vocally--in their passage through the dangerous surf which roars along the sloping beach. The cacao is piled high on wood racks and covered with tarpaulins and seldom shares the fate of passengers and crew, who are often drenched in the surf before they swing by a crane in the primitive mammy chair, high but not dry, on board the hospitable Elder Dempster liner. [Illustration: ROLLING CACAO, GOLD COAST.] SAN THOMÉ (AND PRINCIPE). We now turn from the Gold Coast and the success of native ownership to another part of West Africa, a scene of singular beauty, where the Portuguese planters have triumphed over savage nature. Two lovely islands, San Thomé and its little sister isle of Principe, lie right on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea, about two hundred miles from the African mainland. A warm, lazy sea, the sea of the doldrums, sapphire or turquoise, or, in deep shaded pools, a radiant green, joyfully foams itself away against these fairy lands of tossing palm, dense vegetation, rushing cascades, and purple, precipitous peaks. A soil of volcanic origin is covered with a rich humus of decaying vegetation, and this, with a soft humid atmosphere, makes an ideal home for cacao. The bean, introduced in 1822, was not cultivated with diligence till fifty years ago. To-day the two islands, which together have not half the area of Surrey, grow 32,000 metric tons of cacao a year, or about one-tenth of the world's production.[6] The income of a single planter, once a poor peasant, has amounted to hundreds of thousands sterling. [6] The _Gordian's_ estimate for the amount exported in 1919 is 40,766 tons. [Illustration: ROLLING CACAO, GOLD COAST. Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."] Dotted over the islands, here nestling on a mountain side, there overlooking some blue inlet of the sea, are more than two hundred plantations, or _rocas_, whose buildings look like islands in a green sea of cacao shrubs, above which rise the grey stems of such forest trees as have been left to afford shade. [Illustration: CARRYING CACAO TO THE RAILWAY STATION, NSAWAM, GOLD COAST.] Here, not only have the cultivation, fermentation and drying of cacao been brought to the highest state of perfection, but the details of organisation--planters' homes, hospitals, cottages, drying sheds and the Decauville railways--are often models of their kind. Intelligent and courteous, the planters make delightful hosts. At their homes, five thousand miles away from Europe, the visitor, who knows what it means to struggle with steaming, virgin forests, rank encroaching vegetation, deadly fevers, and the physical and mental inertia engendered by the tropics, will marvel at the courage and energy that have triumphed over such obstacles. Calculating from various estimates, each labourer in the islands appears to produce about 1,640 pounds of cacao yearly, and the average yield per cultivated acre is 480 pounds, or about 30 pounds more than that of Trinidad in 1898. [Illustration: WAGON LOADS OF CACAO BEING TAKEN FROM MESSRS. CADBURY'S DEPOT TO THE BEACH, ACCRA.] As there is no available labour in San Thomé, the planters get their workers from the mainland of Africa. Prior to the year 1908, the labour system of the islands was responsible for grave abuses. This has now been changed. Natives from the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique now enter freely into contracts ranging from one to five years, two years being the time generally chosen. At the end of their term of work they either re-contract or return to their native land with their savings, with which they generally buy a wife. The readiness with which the natives volunteer for the work on the islands is proof both of the soundness of the system of contract and of the good treatment they receive at the hands of the planters. [Illustration: THE BUILDINGS OF THE BOA ENTRADA CACAO ESTATE, SAN THOMÉ.] Unfortunately, the mortality of the plantation labourers has generally been very heavy, one large and well-managed estate recording on an average of seven years an annual death rate of 148 per thousand, and many _rocas_ have still more appalling records. Against this, other plantations only a few miles away may show a mortality approximating to that of an average European city. In February, 1918, the workers in San Thomé numbered 39,605, and the deaths during the previous year, 1917, were 1,808, thus showing on official figures an annual mortality of 45 per thousand. Comparing this with the 26 per thousand of Trinidad, and remembering that most of the San Thomé labourers are in the prime of life, it will be seen that this death rate represents a heavy loss of life and justifies the continued demand from the British cocoa manufacturers for the appointment and report of a special medical commission. The Portuguese Government is prepared to meet this demand, for it has recently sent a Commissioner, Dr. Joaquim Gouveia, to San Thomé to make a thorough examination of labour conditions, including work, food, housing, hospitals and medical attendance, and to report fully and confidentially to the Portuguese Colonial Secretary. [Illustration: DRYING CACAO AT AGUA IZE, SAN THOMÉ. The trays are on wheels, which run on rails.] If this important step is followed by adequate measures of reform there is every reason to hope that the result will be a material reduction in the death rate, as the good health enjoyed on some of the _rocas_ shows San Thomé to be not more unhealthy than other tropical islands. CAMEROONS. The Cameroons, which we took from the Germans in 1916, is also on the West Coast of Africa. It lags far behind the Gold Coast in output, although both commenced to grow cacao about the same time. The Germans spent great sums in the Cameroons in giving the industry a scientific basis, they adopted the "estate plan," and possibly the fact that they employ contract labour explains why they have not had the same phenomenal success that the natives working for themselves have achieved on the Gold Coast. [Illustration: BARREL ROLLING, GOLD COAST.] Various countries and districts which are responsible for about 97 per cent. of the world's cacao crop have now been named and briefly commented upon. Of other producing areas, the islands, Ceylon and Java, are worthy of mention. In both of these (as also in Venezuela, Samoa[7] and Madagascar) is grown the criollo cacao, which produces the plump, sweet beans with the cinnamon "break." Cacao beans from Ceylon or Java are easily recognised by their appearance, because, being washed, they have beautiful clean shells, but there is a serious objection to washed shells, namely, that they are brittle and as thin as paper, so that many are broken before they reach the manufacturer. Ceylon is justly famous for its fine "old red"; along with this a fair quantity of inferior cacao is produced, which by being called Ceylon (such is the power of a good name), tends to claim a higher price than its quality warrants. [7] Robert Louis Stevenson was one of the pioneers in cacao planting in Samoa, as readers of his _Vailima Letters_ will remember. [Illustration: BAGGING CACAO, GOLD COAST. Reproduced by permission of the Editor of "West Africa."] CACAO MARKETS. _From the Plantation to the European Market._ It is mentioned above that on the Gold Coast cacao is brought down to Accra as head-loads, or in barrels, or in motor-lorries. These methods are exceptional; in other countries it is usually put in sacks at the estate. Every estate has its own characteristic mark, which is stamped on the bags, and this is recognised by the buyers in Europe, and gives a clue to the quality of the contents. There is not as yet a uniform weight for a bag of cacao, although they all vary between one and two cwt., thus the bags from Africa contain 1-1/4 cwts., whilst those from Guayaquil contain 1-3/4 cwts. In these bags the cacao is taken to the port on the backs of mules, in horse or ox carts, in canoes down a stream, or more rarely, by rail. It is then conveyed by lighters or surf boats to the great ocean liners which lie anchored off the shore. In the hold of the liner it is rocked thousands of miles over the azure seas of the tropics to the grey-green seas of the temperate zone. In pre-war days a million bags used to go to Hamburg, three-quarters of a million to New York, half a million to Havre, and only a trifling quarter of a million to London. Now London is the leading cacao market of the world. During the war the supplies were cut off from Hamburg, whilst Liverpool, becoming a chief port for African cacao, in 1916 imported a million bags. Then New York began to gorge cacao, and in 1917 created a record, importing some two and a half million bags, or about 150,000 tons. Whilst everything is in so fluid a condition it is unwise to prophesy; it may, however, be said that there are many who think, now that the consumption of cocoa and chocolate in America has reached such a prodigious figure, that New York may yet oust London and become the central dominating market of the world. [Illustration: SURF BOATS BY THE SIDE OF THE OCEAN LINER, ACCRA.] _Difficulties of Buying._ Every country produces a different kind of cacao, and the cacao from any two plantations in the same country often shows wide variation. It may be said that there are as many kinds of cacao as there are of apples, cacao showing as marked differences as exhibited by crabs and Blenheims, not to mention James Grieves, Russets, Worcester Pearmains, Newton Wonders, Lord Derbys, Belle de Boskoops, and so forth. Further, whilst the bulk of the cacao is good and sound, a little of the cacao grown in any district is liable to have suffered from drought or from attacks by moulds or insect pests. It will be realised from these fragmentary remarks that the buyer must exercise perpetual vigilance. [Illustration: BAGGING CACAO BEANS FOR SHIPMENT, TRINIDAD.] [Illustration: TRANSFERRING BAGS OF CACAO BEANS TO LIGHTERS, TRINIDAD.] _Cacao Sales._ Before the Cocoa Prices Orders were published (March, 1918) the manner of conducting the sale of cacao in London was as follows. Brokers' lists giving the kinds of cacao for sale, and the number of bags of each, were sent, together with samples, to the buyers some days beforehand, so that they were able to decide what they wished to purchase and the price they were willing to pay. The sales always took place at 11 o'clock on Tuesdays in the Commercial Sale Room in Mincing Lane, that narrow street off Fenchurch Street, where the air is so highly charged with expert knowledge of the world's produce, that it would illuminate the prosaic surroundings with brilliant flashes if it could become visible. On the morning of the sale samples of the cacaos are on exhibit at the principal brokers. The man in the street brought into the broker's office would ask what these strange beans might be. "A new kind of almond?" he might ask. And then, on being told they were cacao, he would see nothing to choose between all the various lots and wonder why so much fuss was made over discriminating amongst the similar and distinguishing the identical. He might even marvel a little at the expert knowledge of the buyers; yet, frankly, the pertinent facts concerning quality, known by the buyer, are fewer and no more difficult to learn than the thousand and one facts a lad must have at his finger ends to pass the London Matriculation; they are valued because they are inaccessible to the multitude; only a few people have the opportunity of learning them, and their use may make or mar fortunes. The judgment of quality is, however, only one side of the art of buying. We have to add to these a knowledge of the conditions prevailing in the various markets of the world, a knowledge of stocks and probable supplies, and given this knowledge, an ability to estimate their effect, together with other conditions, agricultural, political and social, on the price of the commodity. The room in which the sales are conducted is not a large one, and usually not more than a hundred people, buyers, pressmen, etc., are present. Not a single cacao bean is visible, and it might be an auction sale of property for all the uninitiated could tell. The cacao is put up in lots. Usually the sales proceed quietly, and it is difficult to realize that many thousands of bags of cacao are changing hands. The buyers have perfect trust in the broker's descriptions; they know the invariable fair-play of the British broker, which is a by-word the world over. The machinery of the proceedings is lubricated by an easy flow of humour. Sometimes a few bags of sea-damaged cacao or of cacao sweepings are put up, and a good deal of keenness is shown by the individuals who buy this stuff. It is curious that a whole crowd of busy people will allow their time to be taken up whilst there is a spirited fight between two or three buyers for a single bag. Whilst the London Auction Sales are of importance as fixing the prices for the various markets, and reflecting to a certain extent the position of supply and demand, only a fraction of the world's cacao changes hands at the Auction Sales, the greater part of it being bought privately for forward delivery. _Prices and Quotations._ [Illustration: DIAGRAM SHOWING VARIATION IN PRICE OF CACAO BEANS FROM 1913 TO 1919.] The price of cacao is liable to fluctuations like every other product, thus in 1907 Trinidad cacao rose to one shilling a pound, whilst there have been periods when it has only fetched sixpence per pound. On April 2nd, 1918, the Food Controller fixed the prices of the finest qualities of the different varieties of raw cacao as follows: British West Africa (Accra) 65s. per cwt. Bahia } Cameroons } San Thomé } 85s. " " Congo } Grenada } Trinidad } Demerara } 90s. " " Guayaquil } Surinam } Ceylon } Java } 100s. " " Samoa } The diagram on p. 113 shows the average market price in the United Kingdom of some of the more important cacaos before, during, and after the war. The most striking change is the sudden rise when the Government control was removed. All cacaos showed a substantial advance varying from 80 to 150 per cent. on pre-war values. Further large advances have taken place in the early months of 1920. _The Call of the Tropics._ Many a young man, reading in some delightful book of travel, has longed to go to the tropics and see the wonders for himself. There can be no doubt that a sojourn in equatorial regions is one of the most educative of experiences. In support of this I cannot do better than quote Grant Allen, who regarded the tropics as the best of all universities. "But above all in educational importance I rank the advantage of seeing human nature in its primitive surroundings, far from the squalid and chilly influences of the tail-end of the Glacial epoch." ... "We must forget all this formal modern life; we must break away from this cramped, cold, northern world; we must find ourselves face to face at last, in Pacific isles or African forests, with the underlying truths of simple naked nature." [Illustration: GROUP OF WORKERS ON CACAO ESTATE. Some are standing on the Drying Platform, which is the roof of the Fermentary.] Many will recall how Charles Kingsley's longing to see the tropics was ultimately satisfied. In his book, in which he describes how he "At Last" visited the West Indies, we read that he encountered a happy Scotchman living a quiet life in the dear little island of Monos. "I looked at the natural beauty and repose; at the human vigour and happiness; and I said to myself, and said it often afterwards in the West Indies: 'Why do not other people copy this wise Scot? Why should not many a young couple, who have education, refinement, resources in themselves, but are, happily or unhappily for them, unable to keep a brougham and go to London balls, retreat to some such paradise as this (and there are hundreds like it to be found in the West Indies), leaving behind them false civilisation, and vain desires, and useless show; and there live in simplicity and content 'The Gentle Life'?" _The Planter's Life._ Few who go to the tropics escape their fascination, and of those that are young, few return to colder climes. Some become overseers, others, more fortunate, own the estates they manage. It is inadvisable for the inexperienced to start on the enterprise of buying and planting an estate with less capital than two or three thousand pounds; but, once established, a cacao plantation may be looked upon as a permanent investment, which will continue to bear and give a good yield as long as it receives proper attention. In the recently published _Letters of Anthony Farley_ the writer tells how Farley encounters in South America an old college friend of his, who in his early days was on the high road to a brilliant political career. Here he is, a planter. He explains: "My mother was Spanish; her brother owned this place. When he died it came to me." "How did your uncle hold it through the various revolutions?" "Nothing simpler. He became an American citizen. When trouble threatened he made a bee-line for the United States Consulate. I'm British, of course. Well, just when I had decided upon a political life, I found it necessary to come here to straighten things out. One month lengthened itself into a year. I grew fascinated. Here I felt a sense of immense usefulness. On the mountain side my coffee-trees flourished; down in the valley grew cacao." "I grow mine on undulations." "You needn't, you know, so long as you drain." "Yes, but draining on the flat is the devil." "Anyhow, I always liked animals--you haven't seen my pigs yet--and horses and mules need careful tending. A cable arrived one morning announcing an impending dissolution. I felt like an unwilling bridegroom called to marry an ugly bride. I invited my soul. Here, thought I to myself, are animals and foodstuffs--good, honest food at that. If I go back it is only to fill people's bellies with political east wind. "To come to the point, I decided to grow coffee and cacao. I cabled infinite regrets. The decision once made, I was happy as a sandboy. _J'y suis, j'y reste_, said I to myself, said I. Nor have I ever cast one longing look behind."[8] [8] Quoted from the _New Age_, where the _Letters of Anthony Farley_ first appeared. This is fiction, but I think it is true that very few, if any, who become planters in the tropics ever return permanently to England. The hospitality of the planters is proverbial: there must be something good and free about the planter's life to produce men so genial and generous. There is a picture that I often recall, and never without pleasure. A young planter and I had, with the help of more or less willing mules, climbed over the hills from one valley to the next. The valley we had left is noted for its beauty, but to me it had become familiar; the other valley I saw now for the first time. The sides were steep and covered with trees, and I could only see one dwelling in the valley. We reached this by a circuitous path through cacao trees. Approaching it as we did, the bungalow seemed completely cut off from the rest of the world. We were welcomed by the planter and his wife, and by those of the children who were not shy. I have never seen more chubby or jolly kiddies, and I know from the sweetness of the children that their mother must have given them unremitting attention. I wondered indeed if she ever left them for a moment. I knew, too, from the situation of the bungalow in the heart of the hills that visitors were not likely to be frequent. The planter's life is splendid for a man who likes open air and nature, but I had sometimes thought that their wives would not find the life so good. I was mistaken. When we came away, after riding some distance, through a gap in the cacao we saw across the valley a group of happy children. They saw us, and all of them, even the shy ones, waved us adieux. [Illustration: CARTING CACAO TO RAILWAY STATION, CEYLON.] [Illustration: THE CARENAGE, GRENADA.] CHAPTER V THE MANUFACTURE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE The Indians, from whom we borrow it, are not very nice in doing it; they roast the kernels in earthen pots, then free them from their skins, and afterwards crush and grind them between two stones, and so form cakes of it with their hands. _Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730. _Early Methods in the Tropics._ As the cacao bean is grown in tropical countries, it is there that we must look for the first attempts at manufacturing from it a drink or a foodstuff. The primitive method of preparation was very simple, consisting in roasting the beans in a pot or on a shovel to develop their flavour, winnowing in the wind, and then rubbing the broken shelled beans between stones until quite fine. The curious thing is that on grinding the cacao bean in the heat of a tropical day we do not produce a powder but a paste. This is because half the cacao bean consists of a fat which is liquid at 90° F., a temperature which is reached in the shade in tropical countries. This paste was then made into small rolls and put in a cool place to set. Thus was produced the primitive unsweetened drinking chocolate. This is the method, which Elizabethans, who ventured into the tangled forests of equatorial America, found in use; and this is the method they brought home to Europe. In the tropics these simple processes are followed to this day, but in Europe they have undergone many elaborations and refinements. If the reader will look at the illustration entitled "Women grinding chocolate," he will see how the brittle roasted bean is reduced to a paste in primitive manufacture. A stone, shaped like a rolling-pin, is being pushed to and fro over a concave slab, on which the smashed beans have already been reduced to a paste of a doughy consistency. [Illustration: EARLY FACTORY METHODS. Fig. 1 is a workman roasting the cacao in an iron kettle over a furnace. He has to stir the beans to keep them from burning. Fig. 2 is a person sifting and freeing the roasted kernels (which when broken into fragments are called "_nibs_") from their husks or shell. Fig. 3 shows a workman pounding the shell-free nibs in an iron mortar. Fig. 4 represents a workman grinding the nibs on a hard smooth stone with an iron roller. The grinding is performed over a chafing-dish of burning charcoal, as it is necessary, for ease of grinding, to keep the paste in a liquid condition.] _Early European Manufacture._ The conversion of these small scale operations into the early factory process is well shown in the plate which I reproduce above from _Arts and Sciences_, published in 1768. [Illustration: WOMEN GRINDING CHOCOLATE. From Squier "Nicaragua"] A certain atmosphere of dreamy intellectuality is associated with coffee, so that the roasting of it is felt to be a romantic occupation. The same poetic atmosphere surrounded the manufacture of drinking chocolate in the early days: the writers who revealed the secrets of its preparation were conscious that they were giving man a new æsthetic delight and the subject is treated lovingly and lingeringly. One, Pietro Metastasio, went so far as to write a "cantata" describing its manufacture. He describes the grinding as being done by a vigorous man, and truly, to grind by hand is a very laborious operation, which happily in more recent times has been performed by the use of power-driven mills. Operations on a large scale followed the founding of Fry and Sons at Bristol in 1728, and of Lombart, "la plus ancienne chocolaterie de France," in Paris in 1760. In Germany the first chocolate factory was erected at Steinhunde in 1756, under the patronage of Prince Wilhelm, whilst in America the well-known firm of Walter Baker and Co. began in a small way in 1765. From the methods adopted in these factories have gradually developed the modern processes which I am about to describe. MODERN PRACTICE. As the early stages in the manufacture of cocoa and of chocolate are often identical, the processes which are common to both are first described, and then some individual consideration is given to each. (_a_) _Arrival at the Factory._ The cacao is largely stored in warehouses, from which it is removed as required. It has remarkable keeping properties, and can be kept in a good store for several years without loss of quality. Samples of cacao beans in glass bottles have been found to be in perfect condition after thirty years. Some factories have stores in which stand thousands of bags of cacao drawn from many ports round the equator. There is something very pleasing about huge stacks of bags of cacao seen against the luminous white walls of a well-lighted store. The symmetry of their construction, and the continued repetition of the same form, are never better shown than when the men, climbing up the sides of a stack against which they look small, unbuild the mighty heap, the bags falling on to a continuous band which carries them jauntily out of the store. [Illustration: PART OF A CACAO BEAN WAREHOUSE, SHOWING ENDLESS BAND CONVEYOR. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros'. Works, Bournville).] (_b_) _Sorting the Beans._ As all cacao is liable to contain a little free shell, dried pulp (often taken for twigs), threads of sacking and other foreign matter, it is very carefully sieved and sorted before passing on to the roasting shop. In this process curios are occasionally separated, such as palm kernels, cowrie shells, shea butter nuts, good luck seeds and "crab's eyes." The essential part of one type of machine (_see illustration_) which accomplishes this sorting is an inclined revolving cylinder of wire gauze along which the beans pass. The cylinder forms a continuous set of sieves of different sized mesh, one sieve allowing only sand to pass, another only very small beans or fragments of beans, and finally one holding back anything larger than single beans (_e.g._, "cobs," that is, a collection of two or more beans stuck together). [Illustration: CACAO BEAN SORTING AND CLEANING MACHINE. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Ltd., Willesden.] Another type of cleaning machine is illustrated by the diagram on the opposite page. This machine with its shaking sieves and blast of air makes a great clatter and fuss. It produces, however, what the manufacturers desire--a clean bean sorted to size. [Illustration: DIAGRAM OF CACAO BEAN CLEANING MACHINE. This is a box fitted with shaking sieves down which the cacao beans pass in a current of air. Having come over some large and very powerful magnets, which take out any nails or fragments of iron, they fall on to a sieve (1/4-inch holes) which the engineer describes as "rapidly reciprocating and arranged on a slight incline and mounted on spring bars." This allows grit to pass through. The beans then roll down a plane on to a sieve (3/8-inch holes) which separates the broken beans, and finally on to a sieve with oblong holes which allows the beans to fall through whilst retaining the clusters. The beans encounter a strong blast of air which brushes from them any shell or dust clinging to them.] (_c_) _Roasting the Beans._ As with coffee so with cacao, the characteristic flavour and aroma are only developed on roasting. Messrs. Bainbridge and Davies (chemists to Messrs. Rowntree) have shown that the aroma of cacao is chiefly due to an amazingly minute quantity (0.0006 per cent.) of linalool, a colourless liquid with a powerful fragrant odour, a modification of which occurs in bergamot, coriander and lavender. Everyone notices the aromatic odour which permeates the atmosphere round a chocolate factory. This odour is a bye-product of the roasting shop; possibly some day an enterprising chemist will prevent its escape or capture it, and sell it in bottles for flavouring confectionery, but for the present it serves only to announce in an appetising way the presence of a cocoa or chocolate works. [Illustration: SECTION THROUGH GAS HEATED CACAO ROASTER.] Roasting is a delicate operation requiring experience and discretion. Even in these days of scientific management it remains as much an art as a science. It is conducted in revolving drums to ensure constant agitation, the drums being heated either over coke fires or by gas. Less frequently the heating is effected by a hot blast of air or by having inside the drum a number of pipes containing super-heated steam. [Illustration: ROASTING CACAO BEANS. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros'. Works, Bournville).] The diagram and photo show one of the types of roasting machines used at Bournville. It resembles an ordinary coffee roaster, the beans being fed in through a hopper and heated by gas in the slowly revolving cylinder. The beans can be heard lightly tumbling one over the other, and the aroma round the roaster increases in fullness as they get hotter and hotter. The temperature which the beans reach in ordinary roasting is not very high, varying round 135° C. (275° F), and the average period of roasting is about one hour. The amount of loss of weight on roasting is considerable (some seven or eight per cent.), and varies with the amount of moisture present in the raw beans. There have been attempts to replace the æsthetic judgment of man, as to the point at which to stop roasting, by scientific machinery. One rather interesting machine was so devised that the cacao roasting drum was fitted with a sort of steelyard, and this, when the loss of weight due to roasting had reached a certain amount, swung over and rang a bell, indicating dramatically that the roasting was finished. As beans vary amongst other things in the percentage of moisture which they contain, the machine has not replaced the experienced operator. He takes samples from the drum from time to time, and when the aroma has the character desired, the beans are rapidly discharged into a trolley with a perforated bottom, which is brought over a cold current of air. The object of this refinement is to stop the roasting instantly and prevent even a suspicion of burning. After roasting, the shell is brittle and quite free from the cotyledons or kernel. The kernel has become glossy and friable and chocolate brown in colour, and it crushes readily between the fingers into small angular fragments (the "nibs" of commerce), giving off during the breaking down a rich warm odour of chocolate. (_d_) _Removing the Shells._ It has been stated (see _Fatty Foods_, by Revis and Bolton) that it was formerly the practice not to remove the shell. This is incorrect, the more usual practice from the earliest times has been to remove the shells, though not so completely as they are removed by the efficient machinery of to-day. [Illustration: CACAO BEAN, SHELL AND GERM.] In _A Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_, by Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma (1685), we read: "And if you peel the cacao, and take it out of its little shell, the drink thereof will be more dainty and delicious." Willoughby, in his _Travels in Spain_, (1664), writes: "They first toast the berries to get off the husk," and R. Brookes, in the _Natural History of Chocolate_ (1730), says: "The Indians ... roast the kernels in earthen pots, then free them from their skins, and afterwards crush and grind them between two stones." He further definitely recommends that the beans "be roasted enough to have their skins come off easily, which should be done one by one, laying them apart ... for these skins being left among the chocolate, will not dissolve in any liquor, nor even in the stomach, and fall to the bottom of the chocolate-cups as if the kernels had not been cleaned." That the "Indian" practice of removing the shells was followed from the commencement of the industry in England, is shown by the old plate which we have reproduced on p. 120 from _Arts and Sciences_. The removal of the shell, which in the raw condition is tough and adheres to the kernel, is greatly facilitated by roasting. If we place a roasted bean in the palm of the hand and press it with the thumb, the whole cracks up into crisp pieces. It is now quite easy to blow away the thin pieces of shell because they offer a greater surface to the air and are lighter than the compact little lumps or "nibs" which are left behind. This illustrates the principle of all shelling or husking machines. (_e_) _Breaking the Bean into Fragments._ The problem is to break down the bean to just the right size. The pieces must be sufficiently small to allow the nib and shell readily to part company, but it is important to remember that the smaller the pieces of shell and nib, the less efficient will the winnowing be, and it is usual to break the beans whilst they are still warm to avoid producing particles of extreme fineness. The breaking down may be accomplished by passing the beans through a pair of rollers at such a distance apart that the bean is cracked without being crushed. Or it may be effected in other ways, _e.g._, by the use of an adjustable serrated cone revolving in a serrated conical case. In the diagram they are called kibbling cones. [Illustration: SECTION THROUGH KIBBLING CONES AND GERM SCREENS.] (_f_) _Separating the Germs._ About one per cent. of the cacao bean fragments consists of "germs." The "germ" is the radicle of the cacao seed, or that part of the cacao seed which on germination forms the root. The germs are small and rod-shaped, and being very hard are generally assumed to be less digestible than the nib. They are separated by being passed through revolving gauze drums, the holes in which are the same size and shape as the germs, so that the germs pass through whilst the nib is retained. If a freakish carpenter were to try separating shop-floor sweepings, consisting of a jumble of chunks of wood (nib), shavings (shell) and nails (germ) by sieving through a grid-iron, he would find that not only the nails passed through but also some sawdust and fine shavings. So in the above machine the finer nib and shell pass through with the germ. This germ mixture, known as "smalls" is dealt with in a special machine, whilst the larger nib and shell are conveyed to the chief winnowing machine. In this machine the mixture is first sorted according to size and then the nib and shell separated from one another. The mixture is passed down long revolving cylindrical sieves and encounters a larger and larger mesh as it proceeds, and thus becomes sieved into various sizes. The separation of the shell from the nib is now effected by a powerful current of air, the large nib falling against the current, whilst the shell is carried with it and drops into another compartment. It is amusing to stand and watch the continuous stream of nibs rushing down, like hail in a storm, into the screw conveyor. [Illustration: SECTION THROUGH WINNOWING MACHINE.] This is the process in essence--to follow the various partially separated mixtures of shell and nib through the several further separating machines would be tedious; it is sufficient for the reader to know that after the most elaborate precautions have been taken the nib still contains about one per cent. of shell, and that the nib obtained is only 78.5 per cent. of the weight of raw beans originally taken. Most of the larger makers of cocoa produce nib containing less than two per cent. of shell, a standard which can only be maintained by continuous vigilance. [Illustration: CACAO GRINDING. A battery of horizontal grinding mills, by which the cacao nibs are ground to paste (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)] The shell, the only waste material of any importance produced in a chocolate factory, goes straight into sacks ready for sale. The pure cacao nibs (once an important article of commerce) proceed to the blenders and thence to the grinding mill. (_g_) _Blending._ We have seen that the beans are roasted separately according to their kind and country so as to develop in each its characteristic flavour. The pure nib is now blended in proportions which are carefully chosen to attain the result desired. (_h_) _Grinding the Cacao Nibs to Produce Mass._ In this process, by the mere act of grinding, the miracle is performed of converting the brittle fragments of the cacao bean into a chocolate-coloured fluid. Half of the cacao bean is fat, and the grinding breaks up the cells and liberates the fat, which at blood heat melts to an oil. Any of the various machines used in the industries for grinding might be used, but a special type of mill has been devised for the purpose. In the grinding room of a cocoa factory one becomes almost hypnotised by a hundred of these circular mill-stones that rotate incessantly day and night. In Messrs. Fry's factory the "giddy motion of the whirling mill" is very much increased by a number of magnificent horizontal driving wheels, each some 20 feet in diameter, which form, as it were, a revolving ceiling to the room. Your fascinated gaze beholds "two or three vast circles, that have their revolving satellites like moons, each on its own axis, and each governed by master wheels. Watch them for any length of time and you might find yourself presently going round and round with them until you whirled yourself out of existence, like the gyrating maiden in the fairy tale." In this type of grinding machine one mill stone rotates on a fixed stone. The cacao nib falls from a hopper through a hole in the centre of the upper stone and, owing to the manner in which grooves are cut in the two surfaces in contact, is gradually dragged between the stones. The grooves are so cut in the two stones that they point in opposite directions, and as the one stone revolves on the other, a slicing or shearing action is produced. The friction, due to the slicing and shearing of the nib, keeps the stones hot, and they become sufficiently warm to melt the fat in the ground nib, so that there oozes from the outer edge of the bottom or fixed stone a more or less viscous liquid or paste. This finely ground nib is known as "mass." It is simply liquified cacao bean, and solidifies on cooling to a chocolate coloured block. [Illustration: SECTION THROUGH GRINDING STONES.] This "mass" may be used for the production of either cocoa or chocolate. When part of the fat (cacao butter) is _taken away_ the residue may be made to yield cocoa. When sugar and cacao butter are _added_ it yields eating chocolate. Thus the two industries are seen to be inter-dependent, the cacao butter which is pressed out of the mass in the manufacture of cocoa being used up in the production of chocolate. The manufacture of cocoa will first be considered. (_i_) _Pressing out the excess of Butter._ The liquified cacao bean or "mass," simply mixed with sugar and cooled until it becomes a hard cake, has been used by the British Navy for a hundred years or more for the preparation of Jack's cup of cocoa. It produces a fine rich drink much appreciated by our hardy seamen, but it is somewhat too fatty to mix evenly with water, and too rich to be suitable for those with delicate digestions. Hence for the ordinary cocoa of commerce it is usual to remove a portion of this fat. [Illustration: A CACAO PRESS. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake, Orr & Co., Ltd.] If "mass" be put into a cloth and pressed, a golden oil (melted cacao butter) oozes through the cloth. In practice this extraction of the butter is done in various types of presses. In one of the most frequently used types, the mass is poured into circular steel pots, the top and bottom of which are loose perforated plates lined with felt pads. A number of such pots are placed one above another, and then rammed together by a powerful hydraulic ram. They look like the parts of a slowly collapsing telescope. The "mass" is only gently pressed at first, but as the butter flows away and the material in the pot becomes stiffer, it is subjected to a gradually increasing pressure. The ram, being under pressure supplied by pumps, pushes up with enormous force. The steel pots have to be sufficiently strong to bear a great strain, as the ram often exerts a pressure of 6,000 pounds per square inch. When the required amount of butter has been pressed out, the pot is found to contain not a paste, but a hard dry cake of compressed cocoa. The liquified cacao bean put into the pots contains 54 to 55 per cent. of butter, whilst the cocoa press-cake taken out usually contains only 25 to 30 per cent. The expressed butter flows away and is filtered and solidified (see page 158). All that it is necessary to do to obtain cocoa from the press cake is to powder it. [Illustration: SECTION THROUGH CACAO PRESS-POT AND RAM-PLATE.] (_j_) _Breaking Down the Press Cake to Cocoa Powder._ The slabs of press-cake are so hard and tough that if one were banged on a man's head it would probably stun him. They are broken down in a crushing mill, the inside of which is as full of terrible teeth as a giant's mouth, until the fragments are small enough to grind on steel rollers. (_k_) _Sieving._ As fineness is a very important quality of cocoa, the powder so obtained is very carefully sieved. This is effected by shaking the powder into an inclined rotating drum which is covered with silk gauze. In the cocoa which passes through this fine silk sieve, the average length of the individual particles is about 0.001 inch, whilst in first-class productions the size of the larger particles in the cocoa does not average more than 0.002 inch. Indeed, the cocoa powder is so fine that in spite of all precautions a certain amount always floats about in the air of sieving rooms, and covers everything with a brown film. (_l_) _Packing._ The cocoa powder is taken to the packing rooms. Here the tedious weighing by hand has been replaced by ingenious machines, which deliver with remarkable accuracy a definite weight of cocoa into the paper bag which lines the tin. The tins are then labelled and packed in cases ready for the grocer. CHAPTER VI THE MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE Since the great improvements of the steam engine, it is astonishing to what a variety of manufactures this useful machine has been applied: yet it does not a little excite our surprise that one is used for the trifling object of grinding chocolate. It is, however, a fact, or at least, we are credibly informed, that Mr. Fry, of Bristol, has in his new manufactory one of these engines for the sole purpose of manufacturing chocolate and cocoa. _Berrow's Worcester Journal,_ June 7th, 1798. What I am about to write under this heading will only be of a general character. Those who require a more detailed exposition are referred to the standard works given at the end of the chapter. In these, full and accurate information will be found. The information published in modern Encyclopædias, etc., concerning the manufacture of chocolate is not always as reliable as one might expect. Thus it states in Jack's excellent _Reference Book_ (1914) that "Chocolate is made by the addition of water and sugar." The use of water in the manufacture of chocolate is contrary to all usual practice, so much so that great interest was aroused in the trade some years ago by the statement that water was being used by a firm in Germany. SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE. Ingredients required for _plain eating-chocolate_. Cacao nib or mass 33 parts. Cacao butter 13 " Sugar 53-3/4 " Flavouring 1/4 " ------------- 100 parts Since eating-chocolate is produced by mixing sugar and cacao nib, with or without flavouring materials, and reducing to a fine homogeneous mass, the principles underlying its manufacture are obviously simple, yet when we come to consider the production of a modern high-class chocolate we find the processes involved are somewhat elaborate. (_a_) _Preparing the Nib or "Mass."_ The nib is obtained in exactly the same way as in the manufacture of cocoa, the beans being cleaned, roasted and shelled. The roasting, however, is generally somewhat lighter for chocolate than for cocoa. The nibs produced may be used as they are, or they may be first ground to "mass" by means of mill-stones as described above. (_b_) _Mixing in the Sugar._ Some makers use clear crystalline granulated sugar, others disintegrate loaf sugar to a beautiful snow-white flour. The nib, coarse or finely ground, is mixed with the sugar in a kind of edge-runner or grinding-mixer, called a _mélangeur_. As is seen in the photo, the _mélangeur_ consists of two heavy mill-stones which are supported on a granite floor. This floor revolves and causes the stationary mill-stones to rotate on their axes, so that although they run rapidly, like a man on a "joy wheel," they make no headway. The material is prevented from accumulating at the sides by curved scrapers, which gracefully deflect the stream of material to the part of the revolving floor which runs under the mill-stones. Thus the sugar and nib are mixed and crushed. As the mixture usually becomes like dough in consistency, it can be neatly removed from the _mélangeur_ with a shovel. The operator rests a shovel lightly on the revolving floor, and the material mounts into a heap upon it. [Illustration: CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Lake. Orr & Coy. Ltd.] [Illustration: PLAN OF CHOCOLATE MELANGEUR.] [Illustration: CHOCOLATE REFINING MACHINE. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden.] (_c_) _Grinding the Mixture._ The mixture is now passed through a mill, which has been described as looking like a multiple mangle. The object of this is to break down the sugar and cacao to smaller particles. The rolls may be made either of granite (more strictly speaking, of quartz diorite) or of polished chilled cast iron. Chilled cast iron rolls have the advantage that they can be kept cool by having water flowing through them. A skilled operator is required to set the rolls in order that they may give a large and satisfactory output. The cylinders in contact run at different speeds, and, as will be seen in the diagram, the chocolate always clings to the roll which is revolving with the greater velocity, and is delivered from the rolls either as a curtain of chocolate or as a spray of chocolate powder. It is very striking to see the soft chocolate-coloured dough become, after merely passing between the rolls, a dry powder--the explanation is that the sugar having been more finely crushed now requires a greater quantity of cacao butter to lubricate it before the mixture can again become plastic. The chocolate in its various stages of manufacture, should be kept warm or it will solidify and much time and heat (and possibly temper) will be absorbed in remelting it; for this and other reasons most chocolate factories have a number of hot rooms, in which the chocolate is stored whilst waiting to pass on to the next operation. The dry powder coming from the rolls is either taken to a hot room, or at once mixed in a warm _mélangeur_, where curiously enough the whole becomes once again of the consistency of dough. The grinding between the rolls and the mixing in the _mélangeur_ are repeated any number of times until the chocolate is of the desired fineness. Whilst there are a few people who like the clean, hard feel of sugar crystals between the teeth, the present-day taste is all for very smooth and highly refined chocolate; hence the grinding operation is one of the most important in the factory, and is checked at the works at Bournville by measuring with a microscope the size of the particles. The cost of fine grinding is considerable, for whilst the first breaking down of the cacao nibs and sugar crystals is comparatively easy, it is found that as the particles of chocolate get finer the cost of further reduction increases by leaps and bounds. The chocolate may now proceed direct to the moulding rooms or it may first be conched. [Illustration: GRINDING CACAO NIB AND SUGAR. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville).] [Illustration: SECTION THROUGH CHOCOLATE GRINDING ROLLS.] (_d_) _Conching._ We now come to an extraordinary process which is said to have been originally introduced to satisfy a fastidious taste that demanded a chocolate which readily melted in the mouth and yet had not the cloying effect which is produced by excess of cacao butter. In this process the chocolate is put in a vessel shaped something like a shell (hence called a _conche_), and a heavy roller is pushed to and fro in the chocolate. Although the conche is considered to have revolutionized the chocolate industry, it will remain to the uninitiated a curious sight to see a room full of machines engaged in pummelling chocolate day and night. There is no general agreement as to exactly how the conche produces its effects--from the scientific point of view the changes are complex and elusive, and too technical to explain here--but it is well known that if this process is continued for periods varying according to the result desired from a few hours to a week, characteristic changes occur which make the chocolate a more mellow and finished confection, having more or less the velvet feel of _chocolat fondant_. (_e_) _Flavouring._ Art is shown not only in the choice of the cacao beans but also in the selection of spices and essences, for, whilst the fundamental flavour of a chocolate is determined by the blend of beans and the method of manufacture, the piquancy and special character are often obtained by the addition of minute quantities of flavourings. The point in the manufacture at which the flavour is added is as late as possible so as to avoid the possible loss of aroma in handling. The flavours used include cardamom, cassia, cinnamon, cloves, coriander, lemon, mace, and last but most popular of all, the vanilla pod or vanillin. Some makers use the choice spices themselves, others prefer their essential oils. Many other nutty, fragrant and aromatic substances have been used; of these we may mention almonds, coffee, musk, ambergris, gum benzoin and balsam of Peru. The English like delicately flavoured confections, whilst the Spanish follow the old custom of heavily spicing the chocolate. In ancient recipes we read of the use of white and red peppers, and the addition of hot spices was defended and even recommended on purely philosophical grounds. It was given, in the strange jargon of the Peripatetics, as a dictum that chocolate is by nature cold and dry and therefore ought to be mixed with things which are hot. [Illustration: "CONCHE" MACHINES. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. J. Baker & Sons, Willesden.] [Illustration: SECTION THROUGH "CONCHE" MACHINE.] [Illustration: MACHINES FOR MIXING OR "CONCHING" CHOCOLATE.] (_f_) _Moulding._ Small quantities of cacao butter will have been added to the chocolate at various stages, and hence the finished product is quite plastic. It is now brought from the hot room (or the _mélangeur_ or the conche) to the moulding rooms. Before moulding, the chocolate is passed through a machine, known as a compressor, which removes air-bubbles. This is a necessary process, as people would not care to purchase chocolate full of holes. As in the previous operations, every effort has been made to produce a chocolate of smooth texture and fine flavour, so in the moulding rooms skill is exercised in converting the plastic mass into hard bars and cakes, which snap when broken and which have a pleasant appearance. Well-moulded chocolate has a good gloss, a rich colour and a correct shape. [Illustration: CHOCOLATE SHAKING TABLE.] The most important factor in obtaining a good appearance is the temperature, and chocolate is frequently passed through a machine (called a tempering machine) merely to give it the desired temperature. A suitable temperature for moulding, according to Zipperer, varies from 28° C. on a hot summer's day to 32° C. on a winter's day. As the melting point of cacao butter is about 32° C, it will be realized that the butter is super-cooled and is ready to crystallize on the slightest provocation. Each mould has to contain the same quantity of chocolate. Weighing by hand has been abandoned in favour of a machine which automatically deposits a definite weight, such as a quarter or half a pound, of the chocolate paste on each mould. The chocolate stands up like a lump of dough and has to be persuaded to lie down and fill the mould. This can be most effectively accomplished by banging the mould up and down on a table. In the factory the method used is to place the moulds on rocking tables which rise gradually and fall with a bump. The diagram will make clear how these vibrating tables are worked by means of ratchet wheels. Rocking tables are made which are silent in action, but the moulds jerkily dancing about on the table make a very lively clatter, such a noise as might be produced by a regiment of mad cavalry crossing a courtyard. During the shaking-up the chocolate fills every crevice of the mould, and any bubbles, which if left in would spoil the appearance of the chocolate, rise to the top. The chocolate then passes on to an endless band which conducts the mould through a chamber in which cold air is moving. As the chocolate cools, it solidifies and contracts so that it comes out of the mould clean and bright. In this way are produced the familiar sticks and cakes of chocolate. A similar method is used in producing "Croquettes" and the small tablets known as "Neapolitans." Other forms require more elaborate moulds; thus the chocolate eggs, which fill the confectioners' windows just before Easter, are generally hollow, unless they are very small, and are made in two halves by pressing chocolate in egg-shaped moulds and then uniting the two halves. Chocolate cremes, caramels, almonds and, in fact, fancy "chocolates" generally, are produced in quite a different manner. For these _chocolats de fantaisie_ a rather liquid chocolate is required known as covering chocolate. SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE. Ingredients required for _chocolate for covering cremes_, etc.: Cacao nib or mass 30 parts Cacao butter 20 " Sugar 49-3/4 " Flavouring 1/4 " ------------- 100 parts It is prepared in exactly the same way as ordinary eating chocolate, save that more butter is added to make it flow readily, so that in the melted condition it has about the same consistency as cream. The operations so far described are conducted by men, but the covering of cremes and the packing of the finished chocolates into boxes are performed by girls. Covering is light work requiring a delicate touch, and if, as is usual, it is done in bright airy rooms, is a pleasant occupation. [Illustration: GIRLS COVERING, OR DIPPING, CREMES, ETC. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville.)] The girl sits with a small bowl of warm liquid chocolate in front of her, and on one side the "centres" (cremes, caramels, ginger, nuts, etc.) ready for covering with chocolate. The chocolate must be at just the right temperature, which is 88 °F., or 31° C. She takes one of the "centres," say a vanilla creme, on her fork and dips it beneath the chocolate. When she draws it out, the white creme is completely covered in brown chocolate and, without touching it with her finger, she deftly places it on a piece of smooth paper. A little twirl of the fork or drawing a prong across the chocolate will give the characteristic marking on the top of the chocolate creme. The chocolate rapidly sets to a crisp film enveloping the soft creme. There are in use in many chocolate factories some very ingenious covering machines, invented in 1903, which, as they clothe cremes in a robe of chocolate, are known as "enrobers"; it is doubtful, however, if the chocolates so produced have even quite so good an appearance as when the covering is done by hand. [Illustration: THE ENROBER. A machine for covering cremes, etc., with chocolate. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Savy Jeanjean & Co., Paris.] It would be agreeable at this point to describe the making of cremes (which, by the way, contrary to the opinion of most writers, contain no cream or butter), and other products of the confectioner's art, but it would take us beyond the scope of the present book. We will only remind our readers of the great variety of comestibles and confections which are covered in chocolate--pistachio nut, roasted almonds, pralines, biscuits, walnuts, nougat, montelimar, fruits, fruit cremes, jellies, Turkish delight, marshmallows, caramels, pine-apple, noisette, and other delicacies. [Illustration: A CONFECTIONERY ROOM AT MESSRS. CADBURY'S WORKS AT BOURNVILLE. Cutting almond paste by hand moulds.] _Milk Chocolate._ We owe the introduction of this excellent food and confection to the researches of M.D. Peter of Vevey, in Switzerland, who produced milk chocolate as early as 1876. Many of our older readers will remember their delight when in the eighteen nineties they first tasted Peter's milk chocolate. Later the then little firm of Cailler, realising the importance of having the factory on the very spot where rich milk was produced in abundance, established a works near Gruyères. This grew rapidly and soon became the largest factory in Switzerland. The sound principle of having your factory in the heart of a milk producing area was adopted by Cadbury's, who built milk condensing factories at the ancient village of Frampton-on-Severn, in Gloucestershire, and at Knighton, near Newport, Salop. Before the war these two factories together condensed from two to three million gallons of milk a year. Whilst the amount of milk used in England for making milk chocolate appears very great when expressed in gallons, it is seen to be very small (being only about one-half of one per cent.) when expressed as a fraction of the total milk production. Milk chocolate is not made from milk produced in the winter, when milk is scarce, but from milk produced in the spring and summer when there is milk in excess of the usual household requirements, and when it is rich and creamy. The importance of not interfering with the normal milk supply to local customers is appreciated by the chocolate makers, who take steps to prevent this. It will interest public analysts and others to know that Cadbury's have had no difficulty in making it a stipulation in their contracts with the vendors that the milk supplied to them shall contain at least 3.5 per cent. of butter fat, a 17 per cent. increase on the minimum fixed by the Government. [Illustration: FACTORY AT FRAMPTON, GLOUCESTERSHIRE, AT WHICH MILK IS EVAPORATED FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.).] SPECIMEN OUTLINE RECIPE. Ingredients required for _milk chocolate_: Cacao nib or mass (from 10 to 20 per cent.), say 10 Cacao Butter 20 Sugar 44-3/4 Milk solids (from 15 to 25 per cent.), say 25=(200 parts of milk.) Flavouring 1/4 -------- 100 Milk chocolate consists of an intimate mixture of cacao nib, sugar and milk, condensed by evaporation. The manner in which the milk is mixed with the cacao nib is a matter of taste, and the art of combining milk with chocolate, so as to retain the full flavour of each, has engaged the attention of many experts. At present there is no general method of manufacture--each maker has his own secret processes, which generally include the use of grinding mills, _mélangeurs_, conches, moulding machines, etc., as with plain chocolate. We cannot do better than refer those who wish to know more of this, or other branch of the chocolate industry, to the following English, French and German standard works on Chocolate Manufacture: _Cocoa and Chocolate, Their Chemistry and Manufacture_, by R. Whymper (Churchill). _Fabrication du Chocolat_, by Fritsch (Scientifique et Industrielle). _The Manufacture of Chocolate_, by Dr. Paul Zipperer (Spon). CHAPTER VII BY-PRODUCTS OF THE COCOA AND CHOCOLATE INDUSTRY Of Cacao Butter.-- It is the best and most natural _Pomatum_ for Ladies to _clear_ and _plump_ the Skin when it is _dry, rough_, or _shrivel'd_, without making it appear either _fat_ or _shining_. The _Spanish Women_ at _Mexico_ use it very much, and it is highly esteem'd by them. _The Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730. Of Cacao Shell.-- In Russia and Belgium many families take Caravello at breakfast. This is nothing but cocoa husk, washed and then boiled in milk. _Chocolate and Confectionery Manufacture_, A. Jacoutot. _Cacao Butter._ In that very able compilation, _Allen's Organic Analysis_, Mr. Leonard Archbutt states (Vol. II, p. 176) that cacao butter "is obtained in large quantities as a by-product in the manufacture of chocolate." This is repeated in the excellent book on _Oils_, by C.A. Mitchell (Common Commodities of Commerce series). These statements are, of course, incorrect. We have seen that cacao butter is obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of cocoa, and is _consumed_ in large quantities in the manufacture of chocolate. When, during the war, the use of sugar for chocolate-making was restricted and little chocolate was produced, the cacao butter formerly used in this industry was freed for other purposes. Thus there was plenty of cacao butter available at a time when other fats were scarce. Cacao butter has a pleasant, bland taste resembling cocoa. The cocoa flavour is very persistent, as many experimenters found to their regret in their efforts to produce a tasteless cacao butter which could be used as margarine or for general purposes in cooking. The scarcity of edible fats during the war forced the confectioners to try cacao butter, which in normal times is too expensive for them to use, and as a result a very large amount was employed in making biscuits and confectionery. Cacao butter runs hot from the presses as an amber-coloured oil, and after nitration, sets to a pale golden yellow wax-like fat. The butter, which the pharmacist sells, is sometimes white and odourless, having been bleached and deodorized. The butter as produced is always pale yellow in colour, with a semi-crystalline or granular fracture and an agreeable taste and odour resembling cocoa or chocolate. Cacao butter has such remarkable keeping properties (which would appear to depend on the aromatic substances which it contains), that a myth has arisen that it will keep for ever. The fable finds many believers even in scientific circles; thus W.H. Johnson, in the _Imperial Institute Handbook_ on _Cocoa_, states that: "When pure, it has the peculiar property of not becoming rancid, however long it may be kept." Whilst this overstates the case, we find that under suitable conditions cacao butter will remain fresh and good for several years. Cacao butter has rather a low melting point (90° F.), so that whilst it is a hard, almost brittle, solid at ordinary temperatures, it melts readily when in contact with the human body (blood heat 98° F). This property, together with its remarkable stability, makes it useful for ointments, pomades, suppositories, pessaries and other pharmaceutical preparations; it also explains why actors have found it convenient for the removal of grease paint. The recognition of the value of cacao butter for cosmetic purposes dates from very early days; thus in Colmenero de Ledesma's _Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_ (printed at the Green Dragon, 1685), we read: "That they draw from the cacao a great quantity of butter, which they use to make their faces shine, which I have seen practised in the Indies by the Spanish women born there." This, evidently, was one way of shining in society. Cacao butter has been put to many other uses, thus it has been employed in the preparation of perfumes, but the great bulk of the cacao butter produced is used up by the chocolate maker. For making chocolate it is ideal, and the demand for it for this purpose is so great that substitutes have been found and offered for sale. Until recently these fats, coconut stearine and others, could be ignored by the reputable chocolate makers as the confection produced by their use was inferior to true chocolate both in taste and in keeping properties. In recent times the oils and fats of tropical nuts and fruits have been thoroughly investigated in the eager search for new fats, and new substitutes, such as illipé butter, have been introduced, the properties of which closely resemble those of cacao butter. For the information of chemists we may state that the analytical figures for genuine cacao butter, as obtained in the cocoa factory, are as follow: ANALYTICAL FIGURES FOR CACAO BUTTER. Specific Gravity (at 99° C. to water at 15.5° C.) .858 to .865 Melting Point 32°C. to 34°C. Titer (fatty acids) 49°C. to 50°C. Iodine Absorbed 34% to 38% Refraction (Butyro-Refractometer) at 40°C. 45.6° to 46.5° Saponification Value 192 to 198 Valenta 94°C. to 96°C. Reichert Meissel Value 1.0 Polenske Value 0.5 Kirschner " 0.5 Shrewsbury and Knapp Value 14 to 15 Unsaponifiable matter 0.3% to 0.8% Mineral matter 0.02% to 0.05% Acidity (as oleic acid) 0.6% to 2.0% Although the trade in cacao butter is considerable, there were, before the war, only two countries that could really be considered as exporters of cacao butter; in other words, there were only two countries, namely, Holland and Germany, pressing out more cacao butter in the production of cocoa than they absorbed in making chocolate: EXPORT OF CACAO BUTTER. Tons (of 1000 kilogrammes) 1911 1912 1913 Holland 4,657 5,472 7,160 Germany 3,611 3,581 1,960 ----- ----- ----- 8,268 9,053 9,120 ----- ----- ----- During the war America appeared for the first time in her history as an exporter of cacao butter. Hitherto she was one of the principal importers, as will be seen in the following table: IMPORTS OF CACAO BUTTER. Tons (of 1000 kilogrammes) 1912 1913 United States 1,842 1,634 Switzerland 1,821 1,634 Belgium 1,127 1,197 Austria-Hungary 1,062 1,190 Russia 955 1,197 England 495 934 The next table shows the imports (expressed in English tons) into the United Kingdom in more recent years: IMPORTS OF CACAO BUTTER. Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 Tons 477 912 1512 599 962 675 The wholesale price of cacao butter has varied in the last six years from 1/3 per pound to 2/11 per pound, and was fixed in 1918 by the Food Controller at 1/6 per pound (retail price 2/- per pound). The control was removed in 1919, and immediately the wholesale price rose to 2/8 per pound. _Cacao Shell._ Although I have described cacao butter as a by-product, the only true by-product of the combined cocoa and chocolate industry is cacao shell. I explained in the previous chapter how it is separated from the roasted bean. As they come from the husking or winnowing machine, the larger fragments of shell resemble the shell of monkey-nuts (ground nuts or pea nuts), except that the cacao shells are thinner, more brittle and of a richer brown colour. The shell has a pleasant odour in which a little true cocoa aroma can be detected. The small pieces of shell look like bran, and, if the shell be powdered, the product is wonderfully like cocoa in appearance, though not in taste or smell. As the raw cacao bean contains on the average about twelve and a half per cent. of shell, it is evident that the world production must be considerable (about 36,000 tons a year), and since it is not legitimately employed in cocoa, the brains of inventors have been busy trying to find a use for it. In some industries the by-product has proved on investigation to be of greater value than the principal product--a good instance of this is glycerine as a by-product in soap manufacture--but no use for the husk or shell of cacao, which gives it any considerable commercial value, has yet been discovered. There are signs, however, that its possible uses are being considered and appreciated. For years small quantities of cacao shell, under the name of "miserables," have been used in Ireland and other countries for producing a dilute infusion for drinking. Although this "cocoa tea" is not unpleasant, and has mild stimulating properties, it has never been popular, and even during the war, when it was widely advertised and sold in England under fancy names at fancy prices, it never had a large or enthusiastic body of consumers. In normal times the cocoa manufacturer has no difficulty in disposing of his shell to cattle-food makers and others, but during 1915 when the train service was so defective, and transport by any other means almost impossible, the manufacturers of cocoa and chocolate were unable to get the shell away from their factories, and had large accumulations of it filling up valuable store space. In these circumstances they attempted to find a use near at hand. It was tried with moderate success as a fuel and a considerable quantity was burned in a special type of gas-producer intended for wood. Cacao shell has a high nitrogenous content, and if burned yields about 67 lbs. of potassium carbonate per ton. In the Annual Report of the Experimental Farms in Canada, (1898, p. 151 and 1899, p. 851,) accounts are given of the use of cacao shell as a manure. The results given are encouraging, and experiments were made at Bournville. At first these were only moderately successful, because the shell is extremely stable and decomposes in the ground very slowly indeed. Then the head gardener tried hastening the decomposition by placing the shell in a heap, soaking with water and turning several times before use. In this way the shell was converted into a decomposing mass before being applied to the ground, and gave excellent results both as a manure and as a lightener of heavy soils. On the Continent the small amount of cacao butter which the shell contains is extracted from it by volatile solvents. The "shell butter" so obtained is very inferior to ordinary cacao butter, and as usually put on the market, has an unpleasant taste, and an odour which reminds one faintly of an old tobacco-pipe. In this unrefined condition it is obviously unsuitable for edible purposes. Shell contains about one per cent. of _theobromine_ (dimethylxanthine). This is a very valuable chemical substance (see remarks in chapter on Food Value of Cocoa and Chocolate), and the extraction of theobromine from shell is already practised on a large scale, and promises to be a profitable industry. Ordinary commercial samples of shell contain from 1.2 to 1.4 per cent. of theobromine. Those interested should study the very ingenious process of Messrs. Grousseau and Vicongne (Patent No. 120,178). Many other uses of cacao shell have been made and suggested; thus it has been used for the production of a good coffee substitute, and also, during the shortage of sawdust, as a packing material, but its most important use at the present time is as cattle food, and its most important abuse as an adulterant of cocoa. The value of cacao shell as cattle food has been known for a long time, and is indicated in the following analysis by Smetham (in the Journal of the Lancashire Agricultural Society, 1914). ANALYSIS OF CACAO SHELL. Water 9.30 Fat 3.83 Mineral Matter 8.20 Albuminoids 18.81 Fibre 13.85 Digestible Carbohydrates 46.01 ------ 100.00 ------ From these figures Smetham calculates the food units as 102, so that it is evident that cacao shell occupies a good position when compared with other fodders: FOOD UNITS. Linseed cake 133 Oatmeal 117 Bran 109 English wheat 106 _Cacao shells_ 102 Maize (new crop) 99 Meadow hay 68 Rice husks 43 Wheat straw 41 Mangels 12 These analytical results have been supported by practical feeding experiments in America and Germany (see full account in Zipperer's book, _The Manufacture of Chocolate_). Prof. Faelli, in Turin, obtained, by giving cacao shell to cows, an increase in both the quantity and quality of the milk. More recent experience seems to indicate that it is unwise to put a very high percentage of cacao shell in a cattle food; in small quantities in compound feeding cakes, etc., as an appetiser it has been used for years with good results. (Further particulars will be found in _Cacao Shells as Fodder_, by A.W. Knapp, _Tropical Life_, 1916, p. 154, and in _The Separation and Uses of Cacao Shell_, Society of Chemical Industry's Journal, 1918, 240). The price of shell has shown great variation. The following figures are for the grade of shell which is almost entirely free from cocoa: CACAO SHELL. AVERAGE PRICE PER TON. Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 Price 65/- 70/- 70/- 70/- 90/- 128/- 284/- 161/- PRICE PER FOOD UNIT. _July_, 1915. _Jan._, 1919. _s._ _d._ _s._ _d._ English Oats 3 1-1/2 3 8 Cotton Seed Cake 2 5 3 11 Linseed Cake 1 7 3 5 Brewers Grains (dried) 1 6-1/2 3 8-1/2 Decorticated Cotton Cake 1 6 3 3-1/2 Cacao Shell 8-1/4 1 4-1/2 The above table speaks for itself; the figures are from the Journal of the Board of Agriculture; I have added cacao shell for comparison. CHAPTER VIII THE COMPOSITION AND FOOD VALUE OF COCOA AND CHOCOLATE Before the Spaniards made themselves Masters of Mexico, no other drink was esteem'd but that of cocoa; none caring for wine, notwithstanding the soil produces vines everywhere in great abundance of itself. John Ogilvy's _America_, 1671. The early writers on chocolate generally became lyrical when they wrote of its value as a food. Thus in the _Natural History of Chocolate_, by R. Brookes (1730), we read that an ounce of chocolate contains as much nourishment as a pound of beef, that a woman and a child, and even a councillor, lived on chocolate alone for a long period, and further: "Before chocolate was known in Europe, good old wine was called the milk of old men; but this title is now applied with greater reason to chocolate, since its use has become so common, that it has been perceived that chocolate is, with respect to them, what milk is to infants." A more temperate tone is shown in the following, from _A Curious Treatise of the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_, by Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma, a Spaniard, Physician and Chyrurgion of the city of Ecija, in Andaluzia (printed at the Green Dragon, 1685): So great is the number of those persons, who at present do drink of Chocolate, that not only in the West Indies, whence this drink has its original and beginning, but also in Spain, Italy, Flanders, &c., it is very much used, and especially in the Court of the King of Spain; where the great ladies drink it in a morning before they rise out of their beds, and lately much used in England, as Diet and Phisick with the Gentry. Yet there are several persons that stand in doubt both of the hurt and of the benefit, which proceeds from the use thereof; some saying, that it obstructs and causes opilations, others and those the most part, that it fattens, several assure us that it fortifies the stomach: some again that it heats and inflames the body. But very many steadfastly affirm, that tho' they shou'd drink it at all hours, and that even in the Dog-days, they find themselves very well after it. So much for the old valuations; let us now attempt by modern methods to estimate the food value of cacao and its preparations. _Food Value of Cacao Beans._ In estimating the worth of a food, it is usual to compare the fuel values. This peculiar method is adopted because the most important requirement in nutrition is that of giving energy for the work of the body, and a food may be thought of as being burnt up (oxidised) in the human machine in the production of heat and energy. The various food constituents serve in varying degrees as fuel to produce energy, and hence to judge of the food value it is necessary to know the chemical composition. Below we give the average composition of cacao beans and the fuel value calculated from these figures: AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF FRESHLY ROASTED CACAO BEANS (NIBS). _Composition._ _Energy-giving power_ _Calories per lb._ Cacao Butter 54.0 = 2,282 Protein (total nitrogen 2.3%) 11.9 = 221 Cacao Starch 6.7 } = 472 Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc. 18.7 } Stimulants { Theobromine 1.0 { Caffein 0.4 Mineral Matter 3.2 Crude Fibre 2.6 Moisture 1.5 ------ ----- 100.0 2,975 ------ ----- [Illustration: COCOA AND CHOCOLATE DESPATCH DECK AT BOURNVILLE.] It will be seen from the above analysis that the cacao bean is rich in fats, carbohydrates and protein, and that it contains small quantities of the two stimulants, theobromine and caffein. In the whole range of animal and vegetable foodstuffs there are only one or two which exceed it in energy-giving power. If expressed in quite another way, namely, as "food units," the value of the cacao bean stands equally high, as is shown by the following figures taken from Smetham's result published in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1914: "FOOD UNITS." Turnips 8 Carrots 12 Potatoes 26 Rice 102 Corn Flour 104 Wheat 106 Peas 113 Oatmeal 117 Coconut 159 Cacao Bean 183 These figures indicate the high food value of the raw material; we will now proceed to consider the various products which are obtained from it. _Food Value of Cocoa._ AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF UNTREATED COCOA. _Composition._ _Energy-giving power_ _Calories per lb._ Cacao Butter 28.0 = 1,183 Protein 18.3 = 340 Cacao Starch 10.2 } = 718 Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc. 28.4 } Stimulants {Theobromine 1.5 {Caffein 0.6 Mineral Matter 5.0 Crude Fibre 4.0 Moisture 4.0 ----- ----- 100.0 2,241 ----- ----- ("Soluble" Cocoa, _i.e._, cocoa which has been treated with alkaline salts, is almost identical in composition, save that the mineral matter is about 7.5 per cent.). As cocoa consists of the cacao bean with some of the butter extracted--a process which increases the percentage of the nitrogenous and carbohydrate constituents--it will be evident that the food value of cocoa powder is high, and that it is a concentrated foodstuff. In this respect it differs from tea and coffee, which have practically no food value; each of them, however, have special qualities of their own. Some of the claims made for these beverages are a little remarkable. The Embassy of the United Provinces in their address to the Emperor of China (Leyden, 1655), in mentioning the good properties of tea, wrote: "More especially it disintoxicates those that are fuddl'd, giving them new forces, and enabling them to go to it again." The Embassy do not state whether they speak from personal experience, but their admiration for tea is undoubted. Tea, coffee, and cocoa are amongst our blessings, each has its devotees, each has its peculiar delight: tea makes for cheerfulness, coffee makes for wit and wakefulness, and cocoa relieves the fatigued, and gives a comfortable feeling of satisfaction and stability. Of these three drinks cocoa alone can be considered as a food, and just as there are people whose digestion is deranged by tea, and some who sleep not a wink after drinking coffee, so there are some who find cocoa too feeding, especially in the summer-time. These sufferers from biliousness will think it curious that cocoa is habitually drunk in many hot climates, thus, in Spanish-speaking countries, it is the custom for the priest, after saying mass, to take a cup of chocolate. The pure cocoa powder is, as we saw above, a very rich foodstuff, but it must always be remembered that in a pint of cocoa only a small quantity, about half an ounce, is usually taken. In this connection the following comparison between tea, coffee and cocoa is not without interest. It is taken from the _Farmer's Bulletin_ 249, an official publication of the United States Department of Agriculture: COMPARISON OF ENERGY-GIVING POWER OF A PINT OF TEA, COFFEE AND COCOA. Fuel value Kind of Beverage Water Protein Fat Carbohydrates per lb. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- % % % % Calories _Tea_ (0.5 oz. to 1 pt. water) 99.5 0.2 0 0.6 15 _Coffee_ (1 oz. to 1 pt. water) 98.9 0.2 0 0.7 16 _Cocoa_ (0.5 oz. to 1 pt. water) 97.1 0.6 0.9 1.1 65 These figures place cocoa, as a food, head and shoulders above tea and coffee. The figures are for the beverages made without the addition of milk and sugar, both of which are almost invariably present. A pint of cocoa made with one-third milk, half an ounce of cocoa, and one ounce of sugar would have a fuel value of 320 calories, and is therefore equivalent in energy-giving power to a quarter of a pound of beef or four eggs. Cocoa is stimulating, but its action is not so marked as that of tea or coffee, and hence it is more suitable for young children. Dr. Hutchison, an authority on dietetics, writes: "Tea and coffee are also harmful to the susceptible nervous system of the child, but cocoa, made with plenty of milk, may be allowed, though it should be regarded, like milk, as a food rather than a beverage properly so called." _How to Make a Cup of Cocoa._ Tea, coffee and cocoa are all so easy to make that it is remarkable anyone should fail to prepare them perfectly. Whilst in France everyone can prepare coffee to perfection, and many fail in making a cup of tea, in England all are adepts in the art of tea-making, and many do not distinguish themselves in the preparation of coffee. Cocoa in either country is not always the delightful beverage it should be. The directions below, if carefully followed, will be found to give the character of cocoa its full expression. The principal conditions to observe are to avoid iron saucepans, to use boiling water or milk, to froth the cocoa before serving, and to serve steaming hot in thick cups. [Illustration] The amount of cocoa required for two large breakfast cups, that is one pint, is as much as will go, when piled up, in a dessert spoon. Take then a heaped dessert-spoonful of pure cocoa and mix dry with one and a half times its bulk of fine sugar. Set this on one side whilst the boiling liquid is prepared. Mix one breakfast cup of water with one breakfast cup of milk, and raise to the boil in an enamelled saucepan. Whilst this is proceeding, warm the jug which is to hold the cocoa, and transfer the dry sugar-cocoa mixture to it. Now pour in the boiling milk and water. Transfer back to saucepan and _boil_ for one minute. Whisk vigorously for a quarter of a minute. Serve without delay. _Digestibility of Cocoa._ We have noted above the high percentage of nutrients which cocoa contains, and the research conducted by J. Forster[1] shows that these nutrients are easily assimilated. Forster found that the fatty and mineral constituents of cocoa are both _completely_ digested, and the nitrogenous constituents are digested in the same proportion as in finest bread, and more completely than in bread of average quality. One very striking fact was revealed by his researches, namely, that the consumption of cocoa increases the digestive power for other foods which are taken at the same time, and that this increase is particularly evident with milk. Dr. R.O. Neumann[2] (who fed himself with cocoa preparations for over twelve weeks), whilst not agreeing with this conclusion, states that: "The consumption of cocoa from the point of view of health leaves nothing to be desired. The taking of large or small quantities of cocoa, either rich or poor in fat, with or without other food, gave rise to no digestive troubles during the 86 days which formed the duration of the experiments." He considers that cocoas containing a high percentage of cacao butter are preferable to those which contain low percentages, and that a 30 per cent. butter content meets all requirements. It is worthy of note that 28 to 30 per cent. is the quantity of butter found in ordinary high-class cocoas. [1] _Hygienische Rundschau_, 1900, p. 305. [2] _Die Bewertung des Kakaos als Nahrungs- und Genussmittel_, 1906. As experts are liable to disagree, and it is almost possible to prove anything by a judicious selection from their writings, it may be well to give an extract from some modern text book as more nearly expressing the standard opinion of the times. In _Second Stage Hygiene_, by Mr. Ikin and Dr. Lyster, a text book written for the Board of Education Syllabus, we read, p. 96: "... in the better cocoas the greater part of the fat is removed by heat and pressure. In this form cocoa may be looked upon as almost an ideal food, as it contains proteids, fats, and carbohydrates in roughly the right proportions. Prepared with milk and sugar it forms a highly nutritious and valuable stimulating beverage." _Stimulating Property of Cocoa._ The mild stimulating property which cocoa possesses is due to the presence of the two substances, theobromine and caffein. The presence of theobromine is peculiar to cocoa, but caffein is a stimulating principle which also occurs in tea and coffee. Whilst in the quantities in which they are present in cocoa (about 1.5 per cent. of theobromine and 0.6 per cent. of caffein) they act only as agreeable stimulants, in the pure condition, as white crystalline powders, they are powerful curative agents. Caffein is well known as a specific for nervous headaches, and as a heart stimulant and diuretic. Theobromine is similar in action, but has the advantage for certain cases, that it has much less effect on the central nervous system, and for this reason it is a very valuable medicine for sufferers from heart dropsy, and as a tonic for senile heart. That its medicinal properties are appreciated is shown by its price: during 1918 the retail price was about 8 shillings an ounce, from which we can calculate that every pound of cocoa contained nearly two shillingsworth of theobromine. _"Soluble" Cocoa._ Whilst Forster states that treated cocoa is the most digestible, experts are not in agreement as to which is the more valuable foodstuff, the pure untouched cocoa, or that which is treated during its manufacture with alkaline salts. The cocoa so treated is generally described as "soluble," although its only claim to this name is that the mineral salts in the cocoa are rendered more soluble by the treatment. It is also sometimes incorrectly described as containing alkali, but actually no alkali is present in the cocoa either in a free state or as carbonate; the potassium exists "in the form of phosphates or combinations of organic acids, that is to say, in the ideal form in which these bodies occur in foods of animal and vegetable origin" (Fritsch, _Fabrication du Chocolat_, p. 216). [Illustration: BOXING CHOCOLATES.] _Food Value of Chocolate._ I ate a little chocolate from my supply, well knowing the miraculous sustaining powers of the simple little block (from _Mr. Isaacs_, by F. Marion Crawford). Whilst the food value of cocoa powder is very high the drink prepared from it can only be regarded as an accessory food, because it is usual to take the powder in small quantities--just as with beef-tea it is usual to take only a small portion of an ox in a tea-cup--but chocolate is often eaten in considerable quantities at a time, and must therefore be regarded as an important foodstuff, and not considered, as it frequently is considered, simply as a luxury. The eating of cacao mixed with sugar dates from very early days, but it is only in recent times that it has become the principal sweetmeat. What would a "sweetshop" be to-day without chocolate, that summit of the confectioner's art, when the rich brown of chocolate is the predominant note in every confectioner's window? What would the lovers in England do without chocolates, which enable them to indulge their delight in giving that which is sure to be well received? As a luxury it is universally appreciated, and because of this appreciation its value as a food is sometimes overlooked. During the war chocolate was valued as a compact foodstuff, which is easily preserved. Dr. Gastineau Earle, lecturing for the Institute of Hygiene in 1915 on "Food Factor in War," said: "Chocolate is a most valuable concentrated food, especially when other foods are not available; it is the chief constituent of the emergency ration." Its importance as a concentrated foodstuff was appreciated in the United States, for every "comfort kit" made up for the American soldiers fighting in the war contained a cake of sweet chocolate. There are a number of records of people whose lives have been preserved by means of chocolate. One of the most recent was the case of Commander Stewart, who was torpedoed in H.M.S. "Cornwallis" in the Mediterranean in 1917. He happened to have in his cabin one of the boxes of chocolate presented to the Army and Navy in 1915 by the colonies of Trinidad, Grenada, and St. Lucia, who gave the cacao and paid English manufacturers to make it into chocolate. He had been treasuring the box as a souvenir, but being the only article of food available, he filled his pockets with the chocolate, which sustained him through many trying hours.[3] [3] See _West India Committee Journal_, p. 55, 1917. We have already seen the high food value of the cacao bean: what of the sugar which chocolate contains? Sugar is consumed in large quantities in England, the consumption per head amounting to 80-90 lbs. per year. It is well known as a giver of heat and energy, and Sir Ernest Shackleton reports that it proved a great life preserver and sustainer in Arctic regions. Our practical acquaintance with sugar commences at birth--milk containing about 5 per cent. of milk sugar--and when one considers the amazing activity of young children one understands their continuous demand for sugar. Dr. Hutchison, in his well-known _Food and the Principles of Dietetics_, says: "The craving for sweets which children show is, no doubt, the natural expression of a physiological need, but they should be taken with, and not between, meals. Chocolate is one of the most wholesome and nutritious forms of such sweets." Both the constituents of chocolate being nourishing, it follows that chocolate itself has a high food value. This is proved by the figures given below. As with cocoa, we have first to know the composition before we can calculate the food value. The relative proportions of nib, butter and sugar, vary considerably in ordinary chocolate, so that it is difficult to give an average composition: there are sticks of eating chocolate which contain as little as 24 per cent. of cacao butter, whilst chocolate used for covering contains about 36 per cent. of butter. As modern high-class eating chocolate contains about 31 per cent. of butter, we will take this for purposes of calculation: AVERAGE COMPOSITION AND FUEL VALUE OF ENGLISH EATING CHOCOLATE. _Composition_ _Energy-giving power_ _Calories per lb._ Cacao Butter 31.4 = 1,327 Protein (total nitrogen 0.78%) 4.1 = 76 Cacao Starch 2.3 } = 162 Other Digestible Carbohydrates, etc. 6.4 } Stimulants { Theobromine 0.3 { Caffein 0.1 Mineral Matter 1.2 Crude Fibre 0.9 Moisture 1.0 Sugar 52.3 = 973 ----- ----- 100.0 2,538 In Snyder's _Human Foods_ (1916) the official analyses of 163 common foods are given. They include practically everything that human beings eat, and only three are greater than chocolate in energy-giving power. The result (2,538 calories per lb.) which we obtain by calculation is lower than the figure (2,768 calories per lb.) for chocolate given by Sherman in his book on _Food and Nutrition_ (1918). Probably his figure is for unsweetened chocolate. The table below shows the energy-giving value of cocoa and chocolate compared with well-known foodstuffs. The figures (save for "eating" chocolate) are taken from Sherman's book, and are calculated from the analyses given in Bulletin 28 of the United States Department of Agriculture: FUEL VALUE OF FOODSTUFFS. _Foodstuff as _Calories Purchased._ per lb._ Cabbage 121 Cod Fish 209 Apples 214 Potatoes 302 Milk 314 Eggs 594 Beef Steak 960 Bread (average white) 1,180 Oatmeal 1,811 Sugar 1,815 Cocoa 2,258 Eating Chocolate 2,538 [Illustration: PACKING CHOCOLATES AT BOURNVILLE.] _Food Value of Milk Chocolate._ The value of milk as a food is so generally recognised as to need no commendation here. When milk is evaporated to a dry solid, about 87.5 per cent. of water is driven off, so that the dry milk left has about eight times the food value of the original milk. Milk chocolate of good quality contains from 15 to 25 per cent. of milk solids. Milk chocolate varies greatly in composition, but for the purpose of calculating the food value, we may assume that about a quarter of a high-class milk chocolate consists of solid milk, and this is combined with about 40 per cent. of cane sugar and 35 per cent. of cacao butter and cacao mass. ANALYSIS AND FUEL VALUE OF MILK CHOCOLATE. _Energy-giving power._ _Calories per lb._ Milk Fat and Cacao Butter 35.0 = 1,480 Milk and Cocoa Proteins 8.0 = 149 Cacao Starch and Digestible Carbohydrates 3.0 = 56 Stimulants (Theobromine and Caffein) 0.2 Mineral Matter 2.0 Crude Fibre 0.3 Moisture 1.5 Milk Sugar and Cane Sugar 50.0 = 930 ----- ----- 100.0 = 2,615 ----- ----- It will be noted that the food value of milk chocolate is even greater than that of plain chocolate. It is highly probable that milk chocolate is the most nutritious of all sweetmeats. It is not generally recognised that when we purchase one pound of high-class milk chocolate we obtain three-quarters of a pound of chocolate and two pounds of milk! CHAPTER IX ADULTERATION AND THE NEED FOR DEFINITIONS Those that mix maize in the Chocolate do very ill, for they beget bilious and melancholy humours. _A Curious Treatise on the Nature and Quality of Chocolate_, Antonio Colmenero de Ledesma, 1685. COCOA. Cocoa might conveniently be defined as consisting exclusively of shelled, roasted, finely-ground cacao beans, partially de-fatted, with or without a minute quantity of flavouring material. The gross adulteration of cocoa is now a thing of the past, and most of the cocoa sold conforms with this definition. Statements, however, get copied from book to book, and hence we continue to read that cocoa usually contains arrowroot or other starch. In the old days this was frequently so, but now, owing to many legal actions by Public Health Authorities, this abuse has been stamped out. Nowadays if a Public Analyst finds flour or arrowroot in a sample bought as cocoa, he describes it as adulterated, and the seller is prosecuted and fined. Hence, save for the presence of cacao shell, the cocoa of the present day is a pure article consisting simply of roasted, finely-ground cacao beans partially de-fatted. The principal factors affecting the quality of the finished cocoa are the difference in the kind of cacao bean used, the amount of cacao butter extracted, the care in preparation, and the amount of cacao shell left in. The presence of more than a small percentage of shell in cocoa is a disadvantage both on the ground of taste and of food value. This has been recognised from the earliest times (see quotations on p. 128). In the Cocoa Powder Order of 1918, the amount of shell which a cocoa powder might contain was defined--_grade A_ not to contain more than two per cent. of shell, and _grade B_ not more than five per cent. of shell. The manufacturers of high-class cocoa welcomed these standards, but unfortunately the known analytical methods are not delicate enough to estimate accurately such small quantities, so that any external check is difficult, and the purchaser has to trust to the honesty of the manufacturer. Hence it is wise to purchase cocoa only from makers of good repute. CHOCOLATE. We have so far no legal definition of chocolate in England. As Mr. N.P. Booth pointed out at the Seventh International Congress of Applied Chemistry: "At the present time a mixture of cocoa with sugar and starch cannot be sold as pure cocoa, but only as 'chocolate powder,' and with a definite declaration that the article is a mixture of cocoa and other ingredients. Prosecutions are constantly occurring where mixtures of foreign starch and sugar with cocoa have been sold as 'cocoa,' and it seems, therefore, a proper step to take to require that a similar declaration shall be made in the case of 'chocolate' which contains other constituents than the products of cocoa nib and sugar." We cannot do better than quote in full the definitions suggested in Mr. Booth's paper. The author refers to the absence of any legal standard for chocolate in England, although in some of the European countries standards are in force, and points out, as a result of this, that articles of which the sale would be prohibited in some other countries, are permitted to come without restriction on to the English market. [Illustration: WHARF AT FACTORY AT KNIGHTON, AT WHICH MILK IS EVAPORATED FOR MILK CHOCOLATE MANUFACTURE. (Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Ltd.)] He suggests that the following definitions for chocolate goods are reasonable, and could be conformed to by makers of the genuine article. These standards are not more stringent than those already enforced in some of the Colonies and European countries: (1) Unsweetened chocolate or _cacao mass_ must be prepared exclusively from roasted, shelled, finely-ground cacao beans, with or without the addition of a small quantity of flavouring matter, and should not contain less than 45 per cent. of cacao butter. (2) Sweetened chocolate or _chocolate_.--A preparation consisting exclusively of the products of roasted, shelled, finely-ground cacao beans, and not more than 65 per cent. of sugar, with or without a small quantity of harmless flavouring matter. (3) _Granulated_, or _Ground Chocolate for Drinking_ purposes.--The same definition as for sweetened chocolate should apply here, except that the proportion of sugar may be raised to not more than 75 per cent. (4) _Chocolate-covered Goods._--Various forms of confectionery covered with chocolate, the composition of the latter agreeing with the definition of sweetened chocolate. (5) _Milk Chocolate._--A preparation composed exclusively of roasted, shelled cacao beans, sugar, and not less than 15 per cent. of the dry solids of full-cream milk, with or without a small quantity of harmless flavouring matter. Mr. Booth further states that starch other than that naturally present in the cacao bean, and cacao shell in powder form, should be absolutely excluded from any article which is to be sold under the name of "chocolate." CHAPTER X THE CONSUMPTION OF CACAO The Kernels that come to us from the Coast of _Caraqua_, are more oily, and less bitter, than those that come from the _French_ Islands, and in _France_ and _Spain_ they prefer them to these latter. But in _Germany_ and in the _North_ (_Fides sit penes autorem_) they have a quite opposite Taste. Several People mix that of _Caraqua_ with that of the Islands, half in half, and pretend by this Mixture to make the Chocolate better. I believe in the bottom, the difference of Chocolates is not considerable, since they are only obliged to increase or diminish the Proportion of Sugar, according as the Bitterness of the Kernels require it. _The Natural History of Chocolate_, R. Brookes, 1730. The war has caused such a disturbance that the statistics for the years of the war are difficult to obtain. For many years the German publication, the _Gordian_, was the most reliable source of cacao statistics, and so far we have nothing in England sufficiently comprehensive to replace it, although useful figures can be obtained from the Board of Trade returns of imports into Great Britain, from Mr. Theo. Vasmer's reports which appear from time to time in _The Confectioners' Union_ and elsewhere, from Mr. Hamel Smith's collated material in _Tropical Life_, and from the reports of important brokers like Messrs. Woodhouse. In 1919 the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_ gave a very complete _résumé_ of cacao production as far as the British Empire is concerned. _Great Britain._ Since 1830 the consumption of cacao in the British Isles has shown a great and continuous increase, and there is every reason to believe that the consumption will easily keep pace with the rapidly growing production. One effect of the war has been to increase the consumption of cocoa and chocolate. Many thousands of men who took no interest in "sweets" learned from the use of their emergency ration that chocolate was a very convenient and concentrated foodstuff. CACAO BEANS CLEARED FOR HOME CONSUMPTION. Year. English Tons. 1830 450 1840 900 1850 1,400 1860 1,450 1870 3,100 1880 4,700 1890 9,000 1900 16,900 1910 24,550 CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. _Total _Retained in _Home Year. Imported_ the country_ Consumption_ tons. tons. tons. 1912 33,600 27,450 24,600 1913 35,000 28,200 23,200 1914 41,750 29,600 24,900 1915 81,800 54,400 40,300 1916 88,800 64,750 29,300 1917 57,900 53,100 41,300 The above figures are compiled from the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_ (No. 1, 1919). The total imports for 1918 were 42,390 tons. This sudden and marked drop in the amount imported was due to shortage of shipping. There were, however, large quantities of cacao in stock, and the amount consumed showed a marked advance on previous years, being 61,252 tons. The Board of Trade Returns for 1919 are as follow: CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. _From_ British West Africa 72,886 tons British West Indies 13,219 tons Ecuador 9,153 tons Brazil 3,665 tons Ceylon 903 tons Other Countries 13,820 tons ------------ Total 113,646 tons ------------ Home Consumption 64,613 tons It will be noted that the import of British cacao is over 75 per cent. of the total. Before the war about half the cacao imported into the United Kingdom was grown in British possessions. During the war more and more British cacao was imported, and now that a preferential duty of seven shillings per hundredweight has been given to British Colonial growths we shall probably see a still higher percentage of British cacao consumed in the United Kingdom. VALUE OF CACAO BEANS IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM (TO NEAREST £1,000). Total value of Cacao From British Possessions. Year. Beans Imported. _Value._ _Per cent._ 1913 £2,199,000 £1,158,000 52.7 1914 £2,439,000 £1,204,000 49.4 1915 £5,747,000 £3,546,000 61.7 1916 £6,498,000 £4,417,000 68.0 1917 £3,498,000 £3,010,000 86.0 1918 £3,040,000 £2,549,000 83.8 1919 £9,207,000 £6,639,000 72.1 That the consumption of cacao is expected to grow greater yet in the immediate future is reflected in the prices of raw cacao, which, as soon as they were no longer fixed by the Government, rose rapidly, thus Accra cacao rose from 65s. per hundredweight to over 90s. per hundredweight in a few weeks, and now (January, 1920) stands at 104s. (See diagram p. 113). _World Consumption._ The world's consumption of cacao is steadily rising. Before the war the United States, Germany, Holland, Great Britain, France, and Switzerland were the principal consumers. Whilst we have increased our consumption, so that Great Britain now occupies second place, the United States has outstripped all the other countries, having doubled its consumption in a few years, and is now taking almost as much as all the rest of the world put together. It is thought that since America has "gone dry" this remarkably large consumption is likely to be maintained. WORLD'S CONSUMPTION OF CACAO BEANS. (to the nearest thousand tons) 1 ton = 1000 kilograms. _Pre-war_ _War Period_ _Post-war_ Average of 1913. 1914, 5, 6,& 7. 1918. 1919. Country. Tons. Tons. Tons. Tons. U.S.A. 68,000 103,000 145,000 145,000 Germany 51,000 28,000 ? 13,000 Holland 30,000 25,000 2,000 39,000 Great Britain 28,000 41,000 62,000 66,000 France 28,000 35,000 39,000 46,000 Switzerland 10,000 14,000 18,000 21,000 Austria 7,000 2,000 ? 2,000 Belgium 6,000 1,000 1,000 8,000 Spain 6,000 7,000 6,000 8,000 Russia 5,000 4,000 ? ? Canada 3,000 4,000 9,000 ? Italy 2,000 5,000 6,000 6,000 Denmark 2,000 2,000 2,000 ? Sweden 1,000 2,000 2,000 ? Norway 1,000 2,000 2,000 ? Other countries (estimated) 5,000 8,000 11,000 26,000 -------------------------------------------- Total 252,000 283,000 305,000 380,000 The above figures are compiled chiefly from Mr. Theo. Vasmer's reports. The _Gordian_ estimates that the world's consumption in 1918 was 314,882 tons. In several of our larger colonies and in at least one European country there is obviously ample room for increase in the consumption. When one considers the great population of Russia, four to five thousand tons per annum is a very small amount to consume. It is pleasant to think of cocoa being drunk in the icebound North of Russia--it brings to mind so picturesque a contrast: cacao, grown amongst the richly-coloured flora of the tropics, consumed in a land that is white with cold. When Russia has reached a more stable condition we shall doubtless see a rapid expansion in the cacao consumption. [Illustration: CACAO PODS, LEAVES AND FLOWERS. Reproduced by permission of Messrs. Fry & Sons, Ltd., Bristol.] BIBLIOGRAPHY BOOKS ON COCOA AND CHOCOLATE ARRANGED IN ORDER OF DATE OF PUBLICATION. 1600-1700 RAUCH, Joan. Franc. DISPUTATIO MEDICO DIOETETICA DE AËRE ET ESCULENTIS, DE NECNON POTU. Vienna 1624 [Condemns cocoa as a violent inflamer of the passions.] COLMENERO, Antonio de Ledesma. [Treatise on Chocolate in Spanish entitled:] CURIOSO TRATADO DE LA NATURALEZA Y CALIDAD DEL CHOCOLATE, DIVIDIDO EN QUATRO PUNTOS. Madrid 1631 Translated into English by Don Diego de Vades-forte 1640 Translated into French by René Moreau 1643 Translated into Latin by J.G. Volckamer 1644 Translated into English by J. Wadsworth 1652 Translated into Italian by A. Vitrioli 1667 Moreau's translation edited by Sylvestre Dufour 1671 and 1685 and translated into English by J. Chamberlaine 1685 [for titles, etc., see under translators] DE VADES-FORTE, Don Diego. [The magnificent pseudonym of J. Wadsworth.] (Translated by.) A CURIOUS TREATISE OF THE NATURE AND QUALITY OF CHOCOLATE by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. London 1640 MOREAU, René. (Translated by.) DU CHOCOLAT DISCOURS CURIEUX by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. pp. 59. Paris 1643 [VOLCKAMER, J.G. Translated by.] CHOCOLATA INDA, OPUSCULUM DE QUALITATE ET NATURA CHOCOLATAE by Antonio de Ledesma Colmenero. pp. 73. Norimbergae 1644 (In same volume with this is "Opobalsamum Orientalae" and "Pisonis Observationes Medicae." Total pp. 224.) WADSWORTH, J. (Translated by.) CHOCOLATE: OR AN INDIAN DRINKE ETC. by Antonio Ledesma Colmenero. London 1652 STUBBE(S), Henry. THE INDIAN NECTAR OR A DISCOURSE CONCERNING CHOCOLATA. pp. 184. London 1662 BRANCATIUS, Franciscus Maria. DE CHOCALATIS POTU DIATRIBE. pp. 36. Rome 1664 PAULLI, Simon. COMMENTARIUS DE ABUSU TABACI THEE. Argentorati (see 1746) 1665 VITRIOLI, A. (Translated by.) DELLA CIOCCOLATA DISCORSO. [From Moreau's translation of Colmenero's book.] Rome 1667 SEBASTUS MELISSENUS, F. Nicephorus. DE CHOCOLATIS POTIONE RESOLUTIO MORALIS. pp. 36. Naples 1671 SYLVESTRE DUFOUR, P. [Edited by.] DE L'USAGE DU CAPHÉ, DU THÉ, ET DU CHOCOLAT. pp. 188. Lyon 1671 [The part on chocolate, pp. 59, is a revision of Moreau's translation of Colmenero's book, plus B. Marradon's dialogue on chocolate.] Translated into English by J. Chamberlaine (which see). 1685 HUGHES, William. THE AMERICAN PHYSITIAN ... WHEREUNTO IS ADDED A DISCOURSE ON THE CACAO-NUT-TREE, AND THE USE OF ITS FRUIT, WITH ALL THE WAYS OF MAKING CHOCOLATE. London 1672 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. DESCRIPTION AND MANAGEMENT OF THE COCOA TREE. Phil. Trans. Abr. II. pp. 59. 1673 BONTEKOE, Willem. Sundry short treatises in Dutch on Cocoa and Chocolate. about 1679 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, TOBACCO AND ALSO THE WAY OF MAKING MUM. pp. 39. Printed for Christopher Wilkinson. London 1682 [Condemns chocolate on account of its containing "such a corrosive salt" as sugar. Mum is a peculiar kind of beer made from wheat malt.] MUNDY, Henry. OPERA OMNIA MEDICO-PHYSICA DE AËRE VITALI, ESCULENTIS ET POTULENTIS CUM APPENDICE DE PARERGIS IN VICTU ET CHOCOLATU, THEA, CAFFEA, TOBACCO. Oxford 1680. Leyden 1685 SYLVESTRE DUFOUR, P. TRAITEZ NOUVEAUX ET CURIEUX DU CAFÉ, DU THÉ ET DU CHOCOLAT. [The treatise on chocolate is compiled from the Spanish of Colmenero and B. Marradon.] pp. 403. à la Haye 1685 (With additions by St. Disdier) pp. 404. à la Haye 1693 Published by Deville. pp. 404. Lyon 1688 The above in Latin (by J. Spon), "TRACTATUS NOVI DE POTU CAPHE, DE CHIENSIUM, THE, ET DE CHOCOLATA." pp. 202. Paris 1685 A further Latin translation of the above, "NOVI TRACTATUS DE POTU CAPHE, DE CHIENSIUM, THE, ET DE CHOCOLATA." pp. 188. Geneva 1699 CHAMBERLAINE, J. (Translated by.) THE MANNER OF MAKING COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE. pp. 116. London 1685 [A translation of Sylvestre Dufour's compilation, the part on Chocolate entitled "A Curious Treatise of the Nature and Quality of Chocolate," being a translation of Colmenero's book.] BLEGNY, Nicholas de. LE BON USAGE DE THÉ, DU CAFFÉ, ET DU CHOCOLAT POUR LA PRESERVATION ET POUR LA GUERISON DES MALADES. pp. 358. Paris 1687 pp. 358. Lyon 1687 MAPPUS, Marcus. DISSERTATIONES MEDICAE TRES DE RECEPTIS HODIE ETIAM IN EUROPA, POTUS CALIDI GENERIBUS THÉE, CAFÉ, CHOCOLATA. pp. 66. Argentorati 1695 1701-1800 DUNCAN, Dr. WHOLESOME ADVICE AGAINST THE ABUSE OF HOT LIQUORS, PARTICULARLY OF COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, ETC. pp. 280. London 1706 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN [by De Chélus.] HISTOIRE NATURELLE DU CACAO ET DU SUCRE. pp. 227. Paris 1719 pp. 228. Amsterdam 1720 pp. 404. Amsterdam 1720 pp. 95. London 1724 BROOKES, R. [the above by De Chélus.] (Translated by.) NATURAL HISTORY OF CHOCOLATE. pp. 95. Printed for J. Roberts, London 1724 pp. 95. Printed for Browne, London 1725 pp. 95. Printed for J. Roberts, London 1730 ACT OF PARLIAMENT, George II, 1723. Relating to "LAYING INLAND DUTIES ON COFFEE, TEA AND CHOCOLATE." London 1724 BRUCKMAN, F.E. RELATIO DE CACAO. Brunswick 1738 BARON, H.T. AN SENIBUS CHOCOLATAE PUTUS? Paris 1739 PAULI, S. [PAULLI.] A TREATISE ON TOBACCO, TEA, COFFEE AND CHOCOLATE. Translated by Dr. James. pp. 171. London (see 1665) 1746 N.N. [pseudonym of D. CONGINA.] MEMORIE STORICHE SOPRA L'USO DELLA CIOCCOLATA IN TEMPO DI DIGIUNO ETC. Historical memoir on the use of chocolate upon fast days. pp. 196. Venice 1748 STAYLEY, G. THE CHOCOLATE MAKERS OR MIMICKRY EXPOSED. An Interlude. Dublin. 1759 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. OBSERVATIONS SUR LE CACAO ET SUR LE CHOCOLAT. pp. 144. Paris 1772 SMITH, Hugh. AN ESSAY ON FOREIGN TEAS, WITH OBSERVATIONS ON MINERAL WATERS, COFFEE, CHOCOLATE, ETC. London 1794 1801-1900 PARMENTIER ON THE COMPOSITION AND USE OF CHOCOLATE. Nicholson's Journal. London 1803 GALLAIS, A. MONOGRAPHIE DU CACAO. pp. 216. Paris 1827 MITSCHERLICH, A. DER KAKAO UND DIE SCHOKOLADE. Berlin 1859 GOSSELIN, A. MANUEL DES CHOCOLATIERS. pp. 53. Paris 1860 MANGIN, A. LE CACAO ET LA CHOCOLAT. Paris 1862 HEWETT, C. (of Messrs. Dunn and Hewett.) CHOCOLATE AND COCOA, GROWTH AND PREPARATION. pp. 88. London 1862 COMPAGNIE COLONIALE. CHOCOLATE: ITS CHARACTER AND HISTORY. pp. 37. Paris 1868 HOLM, J. COCOA AND ITS MANUFACTURE. Rivers, London. SINCLAIR, W.J. BEVERAGES, TEA, COCOA, ETC. (Health Lectures, Vol. 4). Manchester 1881 SALDAU, E. DIE CHOCOLADE-FABRIKATION. pp. 232. Vienna (see 1907) 1881 MORRIS, D. CACAO: HOW TO GROW IT. pp. 45. Jamaica (see 1887) 1882 TRINIDAD Agricultural Association. CURING OF COCOA DISCUSSED. pp. 6. 1885 BARTELINK, E.J. HANDLEIDING VOOR KAKAO-PLANTERS. pp. 68. Amsterdam 1885 English Translation, "THE CACAO PLANTERS' MANUAL." pp. 57. London 1885 BAKER, W., & Co. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. pp. 152. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1891 and 1899) 1886 MORRIS, D. CACAO: HOW TO GROW IT. pp. 42. Jamaica (see 1882) 1886 ZIPPERER, P. DIE CHOCOLADE FABRIKATION. pp. 181. Berlin (see 1902 and 1913) 1889 BANNISTER, R. CANTOR LECTURES ON SUGAR, COFFEE, TEA AND COCOA. pp. 77. London 1890 BAKER, W., & Co. THE CHOCOLATE PLANT AND ITS PRODUCTS. pp. 40. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1886 and 1899) 1891 HART, J.H. CACAO. pp. 77. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1900 and 1911) 1892 HATTON, J. COCOA. pp. 22. London 1892 HISTORICUS. COCOA: ALL ABOUT IT. pp. 114. London (see 1896) 1892 GORDIAN, A. DIE DEUTSCHE SCHOKOLADEN UND ZUCKERWAREN INDUSTRIE. Hartleben's Verlag. Hamburg 1895 ROQUE, L. De Belfort de la. GUIDE PRATIQUE DE LA FABRICATION DU CHOCOLAT. Paris 1895 HISTORICUS. COCOA: ALL ABOUT IT. pp. 99. London (see 1892) 1896 VILLON. MANUEL DU CONFISEUR ET DU CHOCOLAT. Paris 1896 GOLDOS, L. MANNUAL DE FABRICACIÓN INDUSTRIAL DE CHOCOLATE. pp. 261. Madrid 1897 OLIVIERI, F.E. CACAO PLANTING AND ITS CULTIVATION. pp. 34. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1903) 1897 EPPS, James. THE CACAO PLANT. pp. 11. (Transactions Croydon Microscopical and Natural History Club) 1898 BAKER, W., & Co. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE. pp. 71. Dorchester, Mass., U.S.A. (see 1886 and 1891) 1899 HART, J.H. CACAO. pp. 117. Port of Spain, Trinidad (see 1892 and 1911) 1900 JUMELLE, H. LE CACOYER: SA CULTURE ET SON EXPLOITATION. pp. 211. Paris 1900 MENIER. HISTORIQUE DES ÉTABLISSEMENTS MENIER. (Printed for Exposition Universelle.) pp. 44. Paris 1900 MODERN WORKS, 1901-1920. (_a_) _Cacao Cultivation._ SMITH, H. Hamel. SOME NOTES ON COCOA PLANTING IN THE WEST INDIES. pp. 70 1901 WILDEMAN, E. de. LES PLANTES TROPICALES DE GRANDE CULTURE--CAFE, CACAO, ETC. pp. 304. Bruxelles 1902 PREUSS, Paul. EXPEDITION NACH CENTRAL UND SÜD-AMERIKA. Berlin. French translation of part of the above, "LE CACAO, CULTURE ET PREPARATION" (from Bulletin Société d'Etudes Coloniales). pp. 249. 1902 EITLING, C. DER KAKAO, SEINE KULTUR UND BEREITUNG. pp. 39. 1903 OLIVIERI, F.E. TREATISE ON CACAO. pp. 101. Trinidad (see 1897) 1903 KINDT, L. DIE KULTUR DES KAKAOBAUMES UND SEINE SCHÄDLINGE. pp. 157. Hamburg 1904 STEUART, M.E. EVERYDAY LIFE ON A CEYLON COCOA ESTATE. pp. 256. London 1905 CHALOT, C. and LUC, M. LE CACOYER AU CONGO FRANCAIS. pp. 58 1906 FAUCHERE, A. CULTURE PRATIQUE DU CACAOYER ET PREPARATION DU CACAO. pp. 175. Paris 1906 PRUD'HOMME, E. LE COCOTIER. CULTURE, INDUSTRIE ET COMMERCE. pp. 491. 1906 DE MENDONCA, Monteiro. BOA ENTRADA PLANTATIONS, SAN THOMÉ. pp. 63. London 1907 MOUNTMORRES, Viscount. MAIZE, COCOA, RUBBER. pp. 44. Liverpool 1907 SALDAU, E. DIE SCHOKOLADEN FABRIKATION. Vienna (see 1881) 1907 WRIGHT, H. THEOBROMA CACAO OR COCOA. pp. 249. Colombo 1907 RAFAELI, V., and MAXIMILIANO, E. HOW JOSÉ FORMED HIS CACAO ESTATE. pp. 18. Trinidad 1907 TORAILLE, C.F. STOLEN FROM THE FIELDS. A TREATISE ON CACAO AND ITS CULTIVATION. Trinidad 1907 HUGGINS, J.D. HINTS TO THOSE ENGAGING IN THE CULTIVATION OF COCOA. pp. 24. Port of Spain, Trinidad 1908 SMITH, H. Hamel. THE FUTURE OF CACAO PLANTING. pp. 95. London 1908 ATBE. EL CULTIVO LAS DISERSAS INDUSTRIAS DES COCO. pp. 42. Quito 1909 HART, J.H. CACAO. pp. 307. Duckworth, London (see 1892 and 1900) 1911 SMITH, H. Hamel. NOTES ON SOIL AND PLANT SANITATION ON CACAO AND RUBBER ESTATES. pp. 603. Bale, London 1911 CARVATHO, d'Almeida. A ILHA DE S. THOME E A AGRICULTURA PROGRESSIVA. (Includes Culturas de Cacoeiro.) pp. 228. Lisbon 1912 JOHNSON, W.H. COCOA: ITS CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION. pp. 186. (Imperial Institute.) London 1912 AUTHOR NOT GIVEN. CACAO CULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES. pp. 75. Havana. (Published by German Alkali Works, Cuba.) 1912 HENRY, Yves. LE CACAO. pp. 103. Paris 1913 SMITH, H. Hamel. THE FERMENTATION OF CACAO. pp. 318. Bale, London 1913 MALINS-SMITH, W.M. PRACTICAL CACAO PLANTING IN GRENADA. (_West India Committee Circular_, April to December.) 1913 HALL, C.J.J. van. COCOA. pp. 512. Macmillan, London 1914 KNAPP, A.W. THE PRACTICE OF CACAO FERMENTATION. pp. 24. Bale, London 1914 (_b_) _Chocolate Manufacture._ BESSELICH, N. DIE SCHOKOLADE. pp. 74. Trier. ZIPPERER, P. MANUFACTURE OF CHOCOLATE. pp. 277. Berlin, London and New York (see 1889 and 1913) 1902 DUVAL, E. CONFISERIE MODERNE. 1908 BOOTH, N.P., CRIBB, C.H., and ELLIS-RICHARDS, P.A. THE COMPOSITION AND ANALYSIS OF CHOCOLATE. Reprinted from the _Analyst_. pp. 15. London 1909 FRITSCH, F. FABRICATION DU CHOCOLAT. pp. 349. Paris 1910 FRANCOIS, L. LES ALIMENTS SUCRES INDUSTRIELS (Chocolats, Bonbons, etc.) pp. 143. Paris 1912 WHYMPER, R. COCOA AND CHOCOLATE: THEIR CHEMISTRY AND MANUFACTURE. pp. 327. Churchill, London 1912 ZIPPERER, P. DIE SCHOKOLADEN-FABRIKATION. pp. 349. Berlin (see also 1889 and 1902) 1913 JACOUTOT, Auguste. CHOCOLATE AND CONFECTIONERY MANUFACTURE. pp. xv, 211. J. Baker & Sons. London (_c_) _General._ WINTON, A.L., SILVERMAN, M., and BAILEY, E.M. [ANALYSES OF CACAO AND COCOA.] Report Connecticut Agri. Expt. Station, U.S.A. pp. 40. 1902 HEAD, Brandon. THE FOOD OF THE GODS. pp. 109. London 1903 STOLLWERCK, W. DER KAKAO UND DIE SCHOKOLADEN INDUSTRIE. pp. 102. Jena 1907 U.S. CONSULAR REPORT NO. 50 (Dept. of Commerce and Labour.) COCOA PRODUCTION AND TRADE. pp. 51. Washington 1912 CASTILLO, Ledon. EL CHOCOLATE. pp. vi, 30. Mexico 1917 BULLETIN IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. COCOA PRODUCTION IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE. pp. 40-95. London 1919 KNAPP, A.W., and McLELLAN, B.G. THE ESTIMATION OF CACAO SHELL (reprint from _Analyst_). pp. 21. London 1919 * * * * * The bibliography above is made as complete as possible as far as bound books in English are concerned. It also gives the more important continental publications. Should any errors or omissions have been made here or elsewhere, the author will be grateful if readers will point them out. PERIODICALS. Only one or two of the important papers in current literature are mentioned. Much valuable material is to be found in the following: CACAO PRODUCTION The papers published by the various departments of agriculture (especially those of Trinidad, Grenada, Philippines, Java, Ceylon, Gold Coast, Kew, etc.), the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, _The West India Committee Circular_, _Tropical Life_, _West Africa_, _Der Tropenpflanzer_, etc. STATISTICS _The Gordian_, _Tea and Coffee Trade Journal_. MANUFACTURE _The Confectioners' Union_. CHEMISTRY _The Analyst_, the _Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry_, and the _Journal of the Chemical Society_. INDEX _Asterisks denote illustrations._ ACCRA, 74, 91, 114, 185 (_see also_ Gold Coast) Acids produced by fermentation, 57 Adulterants, 163 Adulteration, cocoa, 179 chocolate, 180 Agostini cacao picker, 46, *46 Agricultural colleges, 42 education, 90 Alcohol produced by fermentation, 52, 57 Alkaline treating of cocoa, 173 Allen, Grant, 114 Altitude, cacao cultivation, 18 Alligator cacao, 24 Analytical composition--cacao bean, 166 cacao butter, 159 cacao shell, 163 chocolate, 176 cocoa, 168 milk chocolate, 178 ARRIBA, 74, 84 (_see also_ Guayaquil) Aztec, 5, 7, 8 Bacteria--fermentation, 57 Bagging cacao beans, *107, *110 BAHIA, 74, 87, 114 Bainbridge and Davies, 125 Baker & Co., Walter, 121 Beans, 3, 167, *129 breaking machine, 130 breaking of, into fragments, 130 changes--fermentation, 57 characteristics of, 75 size and weight of, 74 use as money, 8 Bibliography, 191 Blending, 133 Booth, N.P., 75, 180 Botanical description, 25 Bournville, 128, 144, 162 Boxing chocolates, *173 BRAZIL, 38, 82, 84, 87, 185 Breaking cacao pods, 50, *51 Brill, H.C., 59 BRITISH GUIANA, 84 BRITISH WEST AFRICA, 185 (_see also_ Gold Coast) Buying cacao, 109 By-products, 157, 161 Cacao beans, (_see_ beans) Cacao butter, 135, 157, 159, 166, 168, 171, 176, 178 keeping properties, 158 melting point, 149, 158 pressing out of, 135 Cacao, cultivation, 17, 38, 116 definition, 2 explanation name, 1 introduction into Europe, 10 keeping properties, 122 manufacturers' requirements, 75 picker, 46, *46 preparations, popularity of, 15 shell, (_see_ shell) _Cacauatl_, 1 Cadbury Bros., 15, 154 Cadbury, Richard, 16 Caffein, 166, 168, 172, 176, 178 Cailler & Co., 154 _Calabacillo_, 23, *27, 76 CAMEROON'S, 74, 82, 91, 105, 114 CARACAS, 74, 87 Carmody, Professor, 38, 41 CARUPANO, 74, 87 Catch crop, 36 CEYLON, 18, 42, 52, 68, 70, 74, 81, 82, 106, 114, 185 Chittenden, Dr., 52 Claying, 70, *71, 76, 88 Clearing the land, *29, 30 Clifford, Sir Hugh, 91 Climate, cacao cultivation, 17 _Criollo_, *27, 34, 52, 59, 87, 107 Chocolate, 176, 180 Chocolate, ancient usage, 10 covering recipe, 150 covering, suggested legal definition, 182 definition, 3 derivation of word, 8 fascination of, 8 houses and clubs, 12 powder, 180 recipe, 140 suggested legal definitions, 181 sustaining value, 174 _Chocolatl_, 7, 8 Chupons, (_see_ suckers) Cocoa, 168, 169 definition, 2 digestibility of, 171 how to make, 170 origin of word, 3 powder, introduction of, 15 Coconuts, distinction between and cacao, 3 Colouring beans, 72 Colour, cacao bean, 25, 77 cacao butter, 158 cacao flowers, 22 cacao leaves, 22 cacao pods, 24, 48 changes during fermentation, 57, 59, 61 Columbus, 7 Composition, (_see_ analyses) Compressor, chocolate, 148 Conching, 145 Conche machine, *147, *148 CONGO, 82, 91, 114 Consumption, 15, 184 British Isles, 184 World, 186 Contract labour, Cameroons, 106 San Thomé, 103 Cortes, 7 Covering cremes, *151 CUBA, 82 Dancing, cacao beans, 72 De Candolle, 94 Decauville railways, 52 DEMERARA, 114 Diseases, cacao tree, 43 DOMINICA, 82, 88 Drying, 62, *63, 64, *64, *65, *68, *69, *85, *98, *105 Dryers, artificial, 66, *67 Duty, 13, 185 Duty, cacao beans, 14, 185 cacao butter, 14 cacao shell, 14 Earle, Dr. Gastineau, 174 ECUADOR, 52, 81, 82, 84, 185 Enrobing machine, 152, *152 Enzymes, 59, 61, 66 Exports, cacao butter, 160 beans, 84 Extracting beans from pod, 50 Faber, Dr. von, 22 Faelli, Professor, 164 Fat (_see_ cacao butter) Fermentation, 52, 56 changes during, 55 control of, 63 good effects of, 60 loss of weight, during, 64 period of, 52 temperature of, 53, 55, 59, 61 Fermenting boxes, *54, *58 FERNANDO PO, 82, 91 Fickendey, Dr., 55, 59, 61 Flavouring chocolate, 146 Flowers, *21, 22, 74 Flowers, percentage fruiting, 74 Food value, cacao bean, 166 chocolate, 173, 176 cocoa, 168 milk chocolate, 178 old opinions, 165 _Forastero_, *27, 34, 53, 59, 77 Forster, J., 171, 172 Freeman, W.G., 34 FRENCH COLONIES, 82 Fritsch, J., 173 Fruit, cacao, 21 Fry, J.S., & Sons, 14, 15, 122, 134 Fry, Joseph, 3, 13 Fungi, 44 Gage, Thomas, 8, 10 Gathering, 45, *47, *49, *85 Geographical distribution, 18 Germ, cacao, 59, *129, 131 screens, *131 separation of, 131 Germination, prevention of, 61 GOLD COAST, 18, 42, 74, 81, 82, 91, 94, 107 (_see also_ Accra) native industry, 94 Gordon, W.J., 10 Gouveia, Dr., 105 Grafting and budding, 34, 75 GRENADA, 30, 38, 74, 76, 81, 82, 88, 90, 114 Grinding, 120, 134, *143 mill, cocoa, *133, 134, *135 machine, chocolate, 140, *142, *145 Grousseau & Viconge, 163 GUAYAQUIL, 32, 76, 84, 109, 114 (_see also_ Arriba and Machala) HAITI, 82, 88 Hart, J.H., 34 Height, cacao tree, 20, 36 Historicus, 16 History, cocoa and chocolate, 1 Home of cacao, 5 Husk, (_see_ shell) Hutchison, Dr., 170, 175 Illipe butter, 159 _Immortel, Bois_, 37 Imports, cacao butter, 160 cacao bean, 185 Incas, 8 Insect Pests, 44 JAMAICA, 82, 88 JAVA, 18, 37, 42, 54, 68, 70, 82, 106, 114 Knapp, A.W., 75, 164 LAGOS, 82, 91 Leaves, cacao, 22, *187 Linnaeus, 1 Linalool, 60, 125 Loew, Dr. O., 55 MACHALA, 74, 84 (_see also_ Guayaquil) MADAGASCAR, 68, 106 Manufacture, chocolate, 140 cocoa, 134 early methods of, *9, 119, *120, *121, 129 loss on, 14 milk chocolate, *155, *181 Manufacturers' requirements, 75 Manure, 32 cacao shell as, 162 Map, Africa, *92 South America, *89 World, *83 MARACAIBO, 87 Markets, cacao, 107 Mass, 134, 136 Mélangeur, 140, *141, 144 MEXICO, 1, 7, 18 Milk chocolate, 154, 178, 182 suggested legal definition, 182 recipe, 155 Montezuma, 7 Mosses, cacao tree, 22 Moulding chocolate, 146 Mountmorres, Viscount, 40 Mulching, 32 Neumann, Dr. R.O., 171 Nib, 15, 120, 128, *129, 130, 134 Nib, percentage shell, 133 yield of, 15 Nicholls, Dr. L., 55 Nursery, cacao, *33 Odour, cocoa, 77, 146, 161 fermentation, 60 Orellano, 6 Packing chocolates, *177 cocoa, 138 PARA, 74, 87 Perrot, Professor, 60 PERU, 8 Pests (_see_ diseases) Peter, M.D., 154 Picker, cacao, 46, *46 PHILIPPINES, 42 Plantation, cacao, 27, *104 Planting, 32, *34, 37 Pod, *2, 5, 23, *23, *25, *28, *187 picking of, 46 yield of cacao, 74 Polishing beans, 72, 78 Pollination, cacao flowers, 22 Press cake, 138 cocoa, *136, *137 Pressing cocoa, 136 Preuss, Dr. Paul, 66, 70 Preyer, Dr. Axel, 55 Price, cacao, 86, 96, 112, *113, 185 cacao butter, 160 cacao shell, 164 chocolate, 13 theobromine, 172 PRINCIPE, 100 Production of cacao, Africa, 91 British Possessions, 81, 82, 183 British West Africa, 91 British West Indies, 88 Gold Coast, 94 increasing of, 75 San Thomé and Principe, 100 shell, 161 South America, 84 West Indies, 88 World, *80, 81, 82 Pruning, 40 Pulp, cacao, *24, 25, 52, 55, 60 Rainfall, cacao cultivation, 18 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 6 Refining machine, *142 Research Association, _vi_ Revis and Bolton, 128 Richelieu, Cardinal, 11 Roaster, *126, 128 Roasting, 119, 125 loss on, 127 Rocking tables, 149, *149 Root system, *31 Sack, Dr., 55, 66 Sales of cacao, 111 SAMANA, 91 SAMOA, 82, 106, 114 SANCHEZ, 91 SAN DOMINGO, 82, 88, 91 _Sangre-tora_, 24 SAN THOME, 38, 52, 54, 82, 91, 100, 114 Schulte im Hofe, Dr. A., 55 Seed, selection of, 32 Shade, 36, *37, *38, *39, 90, 102 Shaking table, chocolate, 149, *149 Shell, cacao, *129, 161, 163 butter, 162 coffee substitute, 163 as feeding stuff, 162, 163 in finished cocoa, 180 food units, 163 fuel, 162 manure, 162 removal of, 120, 128 separating machine, 132, *132 tea from, 161 Sherman, H.C., 176 Sieving cocoa, 138 Size, bean, 78 cocoa particles, 138 sugar particles, 144 Smalls, 132 Smetham, A., 163, 167 Smith, H. Hamel, 55 Snyder, Harry, 176 Soil, 30 Soluble cocoa, 168, 172 Sorting beans, *73, *86, 123 Sorting-cleaning machine, 124, *124, *125 Stimulating properties, 60, 172 ST. LUCIA, 82, 88 Storing cacao, 122, *123 ST. VINCENT, 82, 88 Suckers, 40, *41 Surf boats, *108 SURINAM, 30, 52, 82, 84, 114 Sweat boxes, 53, *53 Sweatings, 57, 63 Tannin, 59 Tap root, *31, 32 Taste, fermentation, 59 Temperature, cacao cultivation, 18 covering chocolate, 151 fermentation, 53, 55, 59, 61 germination, 61 chocolate moulding, 149 bean roasting, 128 Tempering machine, 149 _Theobroma cacao_, 1, 26 Theobromine, in bean, 166 chocolate, 176 cocoa, 168, 172 fermentation, 60 milk chocolate, 178 shell, 162 TOGO, 82, 91 Transport of cacao, *56, *93, *95, 96, *97, *99, *100, *101, *102, *103, *106, 107, *108, *110 Tree, cacao, 19, *19, *20 growth, 40 yield of, 74 TRINIDAD, 18, 30, 34, 37, 41, 42, 52, 68, 70, 72, 74, 75, 76, 81, 82, 88, 103, 114 Van Houten, C.J., 15 Varieties of cacao, 26 Vasmer, Theo., 183, 186 VENEZUELA, 18, 70, 76, 81, 82, 84, 106 Washing cacao beans, 68, *70, 78, 107 Watt, Sir George, 50 Weight, bag of cacao, 109 loss on drying, 64 loss on fermentation, 64 loss on roasting, 128 WEST INDIES, 88 WEST INDIES, BRITISH, 88, 185 Wind-screen trees, 30 Winnowing machine (_see_ shell separating machine) Whisk, chocolate, *6, *170 Yeasts, fermenting, 57 Yield, cacao pod, 74 cacao tree, 74 per acre, 74, 103 Zipperer, P., 149, 164 THE WESTMINSTER PRESS HARROW ROAD LONDON 
19408	----	[Illustration: "That gardening is best ... which best ministers to man's felicity with least disturbance of nature's freedom." This is my study. The tree in the middle of the picture is Barrie's elm. I once lifted it between my thumb and finger, but I was younger and the tree was smaller. The dark tree in the foreground on the right is Felix Adler's hemlock. [Page 82]] THE AMATEUR GARDEN BY GEORGE W. CABLE ILLUSTRATED CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS NEW YORK: MCMXIV _Copyright, 1914, by_ CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS _Published October, 1914_ CONTENTS PAGE MY OWN ACRE 1 THE AMERICAN GARDEN 41 WHERE TO PLANT WHAT 79 THE COTTAGE GARDENS OF NORTHAMPTON 107 THE PRIVATE GARDEN'S PUBLIC VALUE 129 THE MIDWINTER GARDENS OF NEW ORLEANS 163 ILLUSTRATIONS "That gardening is best ... which best ministers to man's felicity with least disturbance of nature's freedom" _Frontis_ "... that suddenly falling wooded and broken ground where Mill River loiters through Paradise" 6 "On this green of the dryads ... lies My Own Acre" 8 "The beautiful mill-pond behind its high dam keeps the river full back to the rapids just above My Own Acre" 12 "A fountain ... where one,--or two,--can sit and hear it whisper" 22 "The bringing of the grove out on the lawn and the pushing of the lawn in under the grove was one of the early tasks of My Own Acre" 24 "Souvenir trees had from time to time been planted on the lawn by visiting friends" 26 "How the words were said which some of the planters spoke" 28 "'Where are you going?' says the eye. 'Come and see,' says the roaming line" 34 "The lane is open to view from end to end. It has two deep bays on the side nearest the lawn" 36 "... until the house itself seems as naturally ... to grow up out of the garden as the high keynote rises at the end of a lady's song" 48 "Beautiful results may be got on smallest grounds" 52 "Muffle your architectural angles in foliage and bloom" 52 Fences masked by shrubbery 64 After the first frost annual plantings cease to be attractive 72 Shrubbery versus annuals 72 Shrubs are better than annuals for masking right angles. South Hall, Williston Seminary 74 "... a line of shrubbery swinging in and out in strong, graceful undulations" 74 "However enraptured of wild nature you may be, you do and must require of her some subserviency about your own dwelling" 84 "Plant it where it will best enjoy itself" 86 "... climaxes to be got by superiority of stature, by darkness and breadth of foliage and by splendor of bloom belong at its far end" 94 "Some clear disclosure of charm still remote may beckon and lure" 96 "... tall, rectangular, three-story piles ... full of windows all of one size, pigeon-house style" 100 "You can make gardening a concerted public movement" 112 "Plant on all your lot's boundaries, plant out the foundation-lines of all its buildings" 122 "Not chiefly to reward the highest art in gardening, but to procure its widest and most general dissemination" 122 "Having wages bigger than their bodily wants, and having spiritual wants numerous and elastic enough to use up the surplus" 138 "One such competing garden was so beautiful last year that strangers driving by stopped and asked leave to dismount and enjoy a nearer view" 138 "Beauty can be called into life about the most unpretentious domicile" 148 "Those who pay no one to die, plant or prune for them" 148 "In New Orleans the home is bounded by its fences, not by its doors--so they clothe them with shrubberies and vines" 174 "The lawn ... lies clean-breasted, green-breasted, from one shrub-and-flower-planted side to the other, along and across" 174 "There eight distinct encumbrances narrow the sward.... In a half-day's work, the fair scene might be enhanced in lovely dignity by the elimination of these excesses" 176 "The rear walk ... follows the dwelling's ground contour with business precision--being a business path" 178 "Thus may he wonderfully extenuate, even ... where it does not conceal, the house's architectural faults" 180 "... a lovely stage scene without a hint of the stage's unreality" 182 "Back of the building-line the fences ... generally more than head-high ... are _sure_ to be draped" 184 "... from the autumn side of Christmas to the summer side of Easter" 184 "The sleeping beauty of the garden's unlost configuration ... keeping a winter's share of its feminine grace and softness" 186 "It is only there that I see anything so stalwart as a pine or so rigid as a spruce" 192 MY OWN ACRE A lifelong habit of story-telling has much to do with the production of these pages. All the more does it move me because it has always included, as perhaps it does in most story-tellers, a keen preference for true stories, stories of actual occurrence. A flower-garden trying to be beautiful is a charming instance of something which a storyteller can otherwise only dream of. For such a garden is itself a story, one which actually and naturally occurs, yet occurs under its master's guidance and control and with artistic effect. Yet it was this same story-telling bent which long held me back while from time to time I generalized on gardening and on gardens other than my own. A well-designed garden is not only a true story happening artistically but it is one that passes through a new revision each year, "with the former translations diligently compared and revised." Each year my own acre has confessed itself so full of mistranslations of the true text of gardening, has promised, each season, so much fairer a show in its next edition, and has been kept so prolongedly busy teaching and reteaching its master where to plant what, while as to money outlays compelled to live so much more like a poet than like a prince, that the bent for story-telling itself could not help but say wait. Now, however, the company to which this chapter logically belongs is actually showing excellent reasons why a history of their writer's own acre should lead them. Let me, then, begin by explaining that the small city of Northampton, Massachusetts, where I have lived all the latter three-fifths of my adult years, sits on the first rise of ground which from the west overlooks the alluvial meadows of the Connecticut, nine miles above South Hadley Falls. Close at its back a small stream, Mill River, coming out of the Hampshire hills on its way to the Connecticut, winds through a strip of woods so fair as to have been named--from a much earlier day than when Jenny Lind called it so--"Paradise." On its town side this wooded ground a few hundred yards wide drops suddenly a hundred feet or so to the mill stream and is cut into many transverse ravines. In its timber growth, conspicuous by their number, tower white-pines, while among them stand only less loftily a remarkable variety of forest trees imperfectly listed by a certain humble authority as "mostly h-oak, h-ellum, and h-ash, with a little 'ickory." Imperfectly listed, for there one may find also the birch and the beech, the linden, sycamore, chestnut, poplar, hemlock-spruce, butternut, and maple overhanging such pleasant undergrowths as the hornbeam and hop-hornbeam, willows, black-cherry and choke-cherry, dogwood and other cornels, several viburnums, bush maples of two or three kinds, alder, elder, sumach, hazel, witch-hazel, the shadblow and other perennial, fair-blooming, sweet-smelling favorites, beneath which lies a leaf-mould rife with ferns and wild flowers. From its business quarter the town's chief street of residence, Elm Street, begins a gently winding westerly ascent to become an open high-road from one to another of the several farming and manufacturing villages that use the water-power of Mill River. But while it is still a street there runs from it southerly at a right angle a straight bit of avenue some three hundred yards long--an exceptional length of unbent street for Northampton. This short avenue ends at another, still shorter, lying square across its foot within some seventy yards of that suddenly falling wooded and broken ground where Mill River loiters through Paradise. The strip of land between the woods and this last street is taken up by half a dozen dwellings of modest dignity, whose front shade-trees, being on the southerly side, have been placed not on the sidewalk's roadside edge but on the side next the dwellings and close within their line of private ownership: red, white and post-oaks set there by the present writer when he named the street "Dryads' Green." They are now twenty-one years old and give a good shade which actually falls where it is wanted--upon the sidewalk. [Illustration: " ... that suddenly falling wooded and broken ground where Mill River loiters through Paradise." A strong wire fence (invisible in the picture) here divides the _grove_ from the old river road.] On this green of the dryads, where it intercepts the "avenue" that slips over from the Elm Street trolley-cars, lies, such as it is, my own acre; house, lawn, shrubberies and, at the rear, in the edge of the pines, the study. Back there by the study--which sometimes in irony we call the power-house--the lawn merges into my seven other acres, in Paradise. Really the whole possession is a much humbler one than I find myself able to make it appear in the flattering terms of land measure. Those seven acres of Paradise I acquired as "waste land." Nevertheless, if I were selling that "waste," that "hole in the ground," it would not hurt my conscience, such as it is, to declare that the birds on it alone are worth more than it cost: wood-thrushes and robins, golden orioles, scarlet tanagers, blackbirds, bluebirds, oven-birds, cedar-birds, veeries, vireos, song-sparrows, flycatchers, kinglets, the flicker, the cuckoo, the nuthatch, the chickadee and the rose-breasted grosbeak, not to mention jays or kingfishers, swallows, the little green heron or that cock of the walk, the red squirrel. Speaking of walks, it was with them--and one drive--in this grove, that I made my first venture toward the artistic enhancement of my acre,--acre this time in the old sense that ignores feet and rods. I was quite willing to make it a matter of as many years as necessary when pursued as play, not work, on the least possible money outlay and having for its end a garden of joy, not of care. By no inborn sagacity did I discover this to be the true first step, but by the trained eye of an honored and dear friend, that distinguished engineer and famous street commissioner of New York, Colonel George E. Waring, who lost his life in the sanitary regeneration of Havana. [Illustration: "On this green of the dryads ... lies My Own Acre." The two young oaks in the picture are part of the row which gives the street its name.] "Contour paths" was the word he gave me; paths starting from the top of the steep broken ground and bending in and out across and around its ridges and ravines at a uniform decline of, say, six inches to every ten feet, until the desired terminus is reached below; much as, in its larger way, a railway or aqueduct might, or as cattle do when they roam in the hills. Thus, by the slightest possible interference with natural conditions, these paths were given a winding course every step of which was pleasing because justified by the necessities of the case, traversing the main inequalities of the ground with the ease of level land yet without diminishing its superior variety and charm. And so with contour paths I began to find, right at my back door and on my own acre, in nerve-tired hours, an outdoor relaxation which I could begin, leave off and resume at any moment and which has never staled on me. For this was the genesis of all I have learned or done in gardening, such as it is. My appliances for laying out the grades were simple enough: a spirit-level, a stiff ten-foot rod with an eighteen-inch leg nailed firmly on one end of it, a twelve-inch leg on the other, a hatchet, and a basket of short stakes with which to mark the points, ten feet apart, where the longer leg, in front on all down grades, rested when the spirit-level, strapped on the rod, showed the rod to be exactly horizontal. Trivial inequalities of surface were arbitrarily cut down or built up and covered with leaves and pine-straw to disguise the fact, and whenever a tree or anything worth preserving stood in the way here came the loaded barrow and the barrowist, like a piece of artillery sweeping into action, and a fill undistinguishable from nature soon brought the path around the obstacle on what had been its lower side, to meander on at its unvarying rate of rise or fall as though nothing--except the trees and wild flowers--had happened since the vast freshets of the post-glacial period built the landscape. I made the drive first, of steeper grade than the paths; but every new length of way built, whether walk or road, made the next easier to build, by making easier going for the artillery, the construction train. Also each new path has made it easier to bring up, for the lawn garden, sand, clay, or leaf-mould, or for hearth consumption all the wood which the grove's natural mortality each year requires to be disposed of. There is a superior spiritual quality in the warmth of a fire of h-oak, h-ash, and even h-ellum gathered from your own acre, especially if the acre is very small and has contour paths. By a fire of my own acre's "dead and down" I write these lines. I never buy cordwood. Only half the grove has required these paths, the other half being down on the flat margin of the river, traversed by a cart-road at least half a century old, though used by wheels hardly twice a year; but in the three acres where lie the contour paths there is now three-fifths of a mile of them, not a rod of which is superfluous. And then I have two examples of another kind of path: paths with steps; paths which for good and lawful reasons cannot allow you time to go around on the "five per cent" grade but must cut across, taking a single ravine lengthwise, to visit its three fish-pools. These steps, and two short retaining walls elsewhere in the grove, are made of the field stones of the region, uncut. All are laid "dry" like the ordinary stone fences of New England farms, and the walls are built with a smart inward batter so that the winter frosts may heave them year after year, heave and leave but not tumble them down. I got that idea from a book. Everything worth while on my acre is from books except what two or three professional friends have from time to time dropped into my hungry ear. Both my ears have good appetites--for garden lore. About half a mile from me, down Mill River, stands the factory of a prized friend who more than any other man helps by personal daily care to promote Northampton's "People's Institute," of whose home-garden work I have much to say in the chapters that follow this one. For forty years or more this factory has been known far and wide as the "Hoe Shop" because it makes shovels. It has never made hoes. It uses water-power, and the beautiful mill-pond behind its high dam keeps the river full back to the rapids just above my own acre. In winter this is the favorite skating-pond of the town and of Smith College. In the greener seasons of college terms the girls constantly pass upstream and down in their pretty rowboats and canoes, making a charming effect as seen from my lawn's rear edge at the head of the pine and oak shaded ravine whose fish-pools are gay by turns with elder, wild sunflower, sumach, iris, water-lilies, and forget-me-not. [Illustration: "The beautiful mill-pond behind its high dam keeps the river full back to the rapids just above My Own Acre." This is the "Hoe Shop." The tower was ruined by fire many years ago, and because of its unsafety is being taken down at the present writing.] This ravine, the middle one of the grove's three, is about a hundred feet wide. When I first began to venture the human touch in it, it afforded no open spot level enough to hold a camp-stool. From the lawn above to the river road below, the distance is three hundred and thirty feet, and the fall, of fifty-five feet, is mostly at the upper end, which is therefore too steep, as well as too full of varied undergrowth, for any going but climbing. In the next ravine on its left there was a clear, cold spring and in the one on its right ran a natural rivulet that trickled even in August; but this middle ravine was dry or merely moist. Here let me say to any who would try an amateur landscape art on their own acre at the edge of a growing town, that the town's growth tends steadily to diminish the amount of their landscape's natural water supply by catching on street pavements and scores and hundreds of roofs, lawns and walks, and carrying away in sewers, the rain and melting snows which for ages filtered slowly through the soil. Small wonder, I think, that, when in the square quarter-mile between my acre and Elm Street fifty-three dwellings and three short streets took the place of an old farm, my grove, by sheer water famine, lost several of its giant pines. Wonder to me is that the harm seems at length to have ceased. But about that ravine: one day the nature of its growth and soil, especially its alders, elders, and willows and a show of clay and gravel, forced on my notice the likelihood that here, too, had once been a spring, if no more. I scratched at its head with a stick and out came an imprisoned rill like a recollected word from the scratched head of a schoolboy. Happily the spot was just at the bottom of the impassably steep fall of ground next the edge of the lawn and was almost in the centre of those four acres--one of sward, three of woods--which I proposed to hold under more or less discipline, leaving the rest--a wooded strip running up the river shore--wholly wild, as college girls, for example, would count wildness. In both parts the wealth of foliage on timber and underbrush almost everywhere shut the river out of view from the lawn and kept the eye restless for a glint, if no more, of water. And so there I thought at once to give myself what I had all my life most absurdly wished for, a fish-pool. I had never been able to look upon an aquarium and keep the tenth Commandment. I had never caught a fish without wanting to take it home and legally adopt it into the family--a tendency which once led my son to say, "Yes, he would be pleased to go fishing with me if I would only fish in a sportsmanlike manner." What a beautifully marked fish is the sun-perch! Once, in boyhood, I kept six of those "pumpkin-seed" in a cistern, and my smile has never been the same since I lost them--one of my war losses. I resolved to impound the waters of my spring in the ravine and keep fish at last--without salt--to my heart's content. Yet I remembered certain restraining precepts: first, that law of art which condemns incongruity--requires everything to be in keeping with its natural surroundings--and which therefore, for one thing, makes an American garden the best possible sort of garden to have in America; second, that twin art law, against inutility, which demands that everything in an artistic scheme serve the use it pretends to serve; third, a precept of Colonel Waring's: "Don't fool with running water if you haven't money to fool away"; and, fourth, that best of all gardening rules--look before you leap. However, on second thought, and tenth, and twentieth, one thought a day for twenty days, I found that if water was to be impounded anywhere on my acre here was the strategic point. Down this ravine, as I have said, was the lawn's one good glimpse of the river, and a kindred gleam intervening would tend, in effect, to draw those farther waters in under the trees and into the picture. Such relationships are very rewarding to find to whoever would garden well. Hence this mention. One's garden has to do with whatever is in sight from it, fair or otherwise, and it is as feasible and important to plant in the fair as to plant out the otherwise. Also, in making my grove paths, I had noticed that to cross this ravine where at one or two places in its upper half a contour grade would have been pettily circuitous and uninteresting, and to cross it comfortably, there should be either a bridge or a dam; and a dam with water behind it seemed pleasanter every way--showed less incongruity and less inutility--than a bridge with no water under it. As to "fooling with running water," the mere trickle here in question had to be dragged out of its cradle to make it run at all. It remained for me to find out by experience that even that weakling, imprisoned and grown to a pool, though of only three hundred square feet in surface, when aided and abetted by New England frosts and exposed on a southern slope to winter noonday suns, could give its amateur captor as much trouble--proportionately--as any Hebrew babe drawn from the bulrushes of the Nile is said to have given his. Now if there is any value in recording these experiences it can be only in the art principles they reveal. To me in the present small instance the principle illustrated was that of the true profile line for ascent or descent in a garden. You may go into any American town where there is any inequality of ground and in half an hour find a hundred or two private lawns graded--from the house to each boundary line--on a single falling curve, or, in plain English, a hump. The best reason why this curve is not artistic, not pleasing, but stupid, is that it is not natural and gains nothing by being unnatural. All gardening is a certain conquest of Nature, and even when "formal" should interfere with her own manner and custom as slightly as is required by the necessities of the case--the needs of that particular spot's human use and joy. The right profile and surface for a lawn of falling grade, the surface which will permanently best beguile both eye and foot, should follow a double curve, an ogee line. For, more or less emphasized, that is Nature's line in all her affable moods on land or water: a descent or ascent beginning gradually, increasing rapidly, and concluding gently. We see it in the face of any smooth knoll or billow. I believe the artists impute to Praxiteles a certain ownership in this double curve. It is a living line; it suggests Nature conscious and astir as no single curve or straight line can. I admit that even among amateurs this is rather small talk, but it brings me to this point: in the passage of water down a ravine of its own making, this line of Nature astir may repeat itself again and again but is commonly too inaffable, abrupt, angular, to suggest the ogee. In that middle part of it where the descent is swift it may be more or less of a plunge, and after the plunge the water is likely to pause on the third turn, in a natural pool, before resuming its triple action again. And so, in my ravine, some seasons later, I ventured to detain the overflow of my first pool on a second and a third lingering place, augmenting the water supply by new springs developed in the bottoms of the new pools. The second pool has a surface of a thousand square feet, the third spans nineteen hundred, and there are fish in all three, hatched there--"pumpkin-seed" included, but also trout--among spontaneous bulrushes, pond-lilies, flags, and dainty water-weeds; and sometimes at night, when the reflected glory of a ten-o'clock full moon shines up from it to the stone exedra on the lawn, I seem to have taken my Praxitelean curves so directly from Nature that she thinks she took them herself from me and thanks me for the suggestion. Please observe that of great gardens, or of costly gardens whether great or only costly, we here say nothing. Our theme is such a garden as a householder may himself make and keep or for which, at most, he needs professional advice only in its first planning, and for its upkeep one gardener, with one occasional helper in pressing seasons or in constructional work. Constructional work. Dams, for example. In two of my dams I built cores of concrete and thus made acquaintance with that interesting material. Later I pressed the acquaintanceship, made garden and grove seats, a table or two, a very modest fountain for a single jet of water in my highest, smallest fish-pool, and even a flight of steps with a pair of gaîne-shaped pedestals--suggested by a sculptor friend--at their top. The exedra I mentioned just now is of concrete. The stuff is a temptation to be wary of. The ordinary gray sort--I have touched no other--is a humble medium, and pretentious designs in humble materials are one of the worst, and oldest, of garden incongruities. In my ventures with concrete I have studied for grace in form but grace subordinated to stability, and have shunned embellishment. Embellishment for its own sake is the easiest and commonest sin against good art wherever art becomes self-conscious. It is having a riotous time just now in concrete. I have rarely seen a commercial concrete garden-seat which was not more ornate than I should want it for my own acre. I happen to have two or three articles in my garden which are a trifle elaborate but they are of terra-cotta, are not home-made and would be plainer could I have found them so. A garden needs furniture only less than a house, and concrete is a boon to "natural" gardening, being inexpensive, rustic, and imperishable. I fancy a chief reason why there is such inconsiderate dearth of seats and steps in our American amateur gardens is the old fashion--so well got rid of at any cost--of rustic cedar and hickory stairs and benches. "Have none of them," was Colonel Waring's injunction; "they are forever out of repair." But I fear another reason is that so often our gardens are neither for private ease nor social joy, but for public display and are planned mainly for street exhibition. That is the way we commonly treat garden fountains! We make a smug show of unfenced, unhedged, universal hospitality across a sidewalk boundary which nevertheless we hold inviolate--sometimes by means of a painted sign or gas-pipe--and never say "Have a seat" to the dearest friend in any secluded nook of our shrubberies, if there is such a nook. How many of us know a fountain beside an embowered seat where one,--or two,--with or without the book of verses, can sit and hear it whisper or watch the moonlight cover it with silent kisses? In my limited experience I have known of but two. One is by the once favorite thought-promoting summer seat of Augustus Saint-Gaudens on his own home acre in Vermont; the other I need not particularize further than to say that it is one of the things which interlock and unify a certain garden and grove. [Illustration: "A fountain ... where one,--or two,--can sit and hear it whisper." The ravine of the three fish pools. There is a drop of thirty feet between the upper and the lowermost pool.] The bringing of the grove out on the lawn and the pushing of the lawn in under the grove was one of the early tasks of my own acre. When the house was built its lot and others backed up to a hard, straight rear line where the old field had halted at its fence and where the woods began on ground that fell to the river at an angle of from forty to fifty degrees. Here my gifted friend and adviser gave me a precept got from his earlier gifted friend and adviser, Frederick Law Olmsted: that passing from any part of a pleasure-ground to any part next it should be entirely safe and easy or else impossible. By the application of this maxim I brought my lawn and grove together in one of the happiest of marriages. For I proceeded, by filling with earth (and furnace ashes), to carry the lawn in, practically level, beyond the old fence line and under the chestnuts and pines sometimes six feet, sometimes twelve, until the difficult and unsafe forty or fifty degrees of abrupt fall were changed to an impassable sixty and seventy degrees, and every one's instinctive choice of way was the contour paths. At the same time this has preserved, and even enhanced, the place's wildness, especially the wild flowers and the low-nesting birds. Sometimes a few yards of retaining-wall, never cemented, always laid up dry and with a strong inward batter, had to be put in to avoid smothering the roots of some great tree; for, as everybody knows and nearly everybody forgets, roots, like fishes, must have air. In one place, across the filled head of a ravine, the wall, though but a scant yard high, is fifty feet long, and there is another place where there should be one like it. In this work no tree was sacrificed save one noble oak done to death by a youth who knew but forgot that roots must have air. Not to make the work expensive it was pursued slowly, through many successive seasons; yet before even its easy, first half was done the lawn was in under the grove on an apparently natural, irregular crest line. Moreover the grove was out on the lawn with an even more natural haphazard bordering line; for another operation had been carried on meantime. Trees, souvenir trees, had from time to time been planted on the lawn by visiting friends. Most of them are set close enough to the grove to become a part of it, standing in a careful irregularity which has already obliterated, without molesting, the tree line of the ancient fence. [Illustration: "The bringing of the grove out on the lawn and the pushing of the lawn in under the grove was one of the early tasks of My Own Acre." At the point where the party is drinking tea (the site of the Indian mound) the overlap of grove and lawn is eighty-five feet across the old fence line that once sharply divided them.] Young senators among their seniors, they still have much growth to make before they can enter into their full forest dignity, yet Henry Ward Beecher's elm is nearly two feet through and has a spread of fifty; Max O'Rell's white-ash is a foot in diameter and fifty feet high; Edward Atkinson's is something more, and Felix Adler's hemlock-spruce, the maple of Anthony Hope Hawkins, L. Clark Seelye's English ash, Henry van Dyke's white-ash, Sol Smith Russell's linden, and Hamilton Wright Mabie's horse-chestnut are all about thirty-five feet high and cast a goodly shade. Sir James M. Barrie's elm--his and Sir William Robertson Nicoll's, who planted it with him later than the plantings aforementioned--has, by some virtue in the soil or in its own energies, reached a height of nearly sixty-five feet and a diameter of sixteen inches. Other souvenirs are a horse-chestnut planted by Minnie Maddern Fiske, a ginkgo by Alice Freeman Palmer, a beech by Paul van Dyke, a horse-chestnut by Anna Hempstead Branch, another by Sir Sidney Lee, yet another by Mary E. Burt, a catalpa by Madelaine Wynne, a Colorado blue spruce--fitly placed after much labor of mind--by Sir Moses Ezekiel, and a Kentucky coffee-tree by Gerald Stanley Lee and Jennette Lee, of our own town. Among these should also stand the maple of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, but it was killed in its second winter by an undetected mouse at its roots. Except Sir Moses, all the knights here named received the accolade after their tree plantings, but I draw no moral. [Illustration: "Souvenir trees had from time to time been planted on the lawn by visiting friends." The Beecher elm, first of the souvenir trees.] Would it were practicable to transmit to those who may know these trees in later days the scenes of their setting out and to tell just how the words were said which some of the planters spoke. Mr. Beecher, lover of young trees and young children, straightened up after pressing the soil about the roots with hands as well as feet and said: "I cannot wish you to live as long as this tree, but may your children's children and their children sit under its shade." Said Felix Adler to his hemlock-spruce, "Vivat, crescat, floreat"; and a sentiment much like it was implied in Sol Smith Russell's words to the grove's master as they finished putting in his linden together--for he was just then proposing to play Rip Van Winkle, which Joseph Jefferson had finally decided to produce no more: "Here's to your healt', undt der healt' of all your family; may you lif long undt brosper." We--the first person singular grows tiresome--we might have now, on our acre, a tree planted by Joseph Jefferson had we thought in time to be provided with a sapling, growing, in a tub. Have your prospective souvenir tree already tubbed and waiting. This idea I got from Andrew Carnegie, with whom I had the honor to plant an oak at Skibo Castle and from whom I, like so many others, have had other things almost as good as ideas. Have your prospective souvenir tree tubbed and the tub sunk in the ground, of course, to its rim. Then the dear friend can plant it at any time that he may chance along between March and December. But let no souvenir tree, however planted, be treated, after planting, as other than a living thing if you would be just to it, to your friend, or to yourself. Cultivate it; coax it on; and it will grow two or three or four times as fast as if left to fight its daily battle for life unaided. And do not forbear to plant trees because they grow so slowly. They need not. They do not. With a little attention they grow so swiftly! Before you know it you are sitting in their shade. Besides Sir Arthur's maple the only souvenir tree we have lost was a tulip-tree planted by my friend of half a lifetime, the late Franklin H. Head. So much for my grove. I write of it not in self-complacency. My many blunders, some of them yet to be made, are a good insurance against that. I write because of the countless acres as good as mine, in this great, dear America, which might now be giving their owners all the healthful pastime, private solace, or solitary or social delights which this one yields, yet which are only "waste lands" or "holes in the ground" because unavailable for house lots or tillage. [Illustration: "How the words were said which some of the planters spoke." President Seelye of Smith College planting a tree.--A majority of the company present were Smith College students and others engaged in the work of the People's Institute. The tree on the left is Barrie's elm. The tree directly behind the small sapling which is being planted, and on a line with it, is Max O'Rell's. The hemlock-spruce between them is Felix Adler's.] And now as to the single acre by measure, of lawn, shrubs, and plants, close around my house; for the reason that it was and is my school of gardening. There was no garden here--I write this in the midst of it--when I began. Ten steps from where I sit there had been a small Indian mound which some one had carefully excavated. I found stone arrow chips on the spot, and one whole arrow-head. So here no one else's earlier skill was in evidence to point my course or impede it. This was my clean new slate and at that time I had never "done a sum" in gardening and got anything like a right answer. It is emphatically an amateur garden and a book garden: a garden which to me, as to most of us, would have been impossible in any but these days when the whole art of gardening has been printed in books and no amateur is excusable for trying to garden without reading them, or for saying after having read them that he has planned and worked without professional advice. The books _are_ the professional advice, with few drawbacks and with the great advantage that they are ours truly and do not even have to be "'phoned." I should rather have in my library my Bailey's "American Cyclopedia of Horticulture," than any two garden periodicals once a month. These, too, I value, but, for me, they are over-apt to carry too much deckload of the advice and gentle vauntings of other amateurs. I have an amateur's abhorrence of amateurs! The Cyclopedia _knows_, and will always send me to the right books if it cannot thresh a matter out with me itself. Before Bailey my fount of knowledge was Mr. E. J. Canning, late of Smith College Botanic Gardens; a spring still far from dry. As the books enjoin, I began my book-gardening with a plan on paper; not the elaborate thing one pays for when he can give his garden more money than time, but a light sketch, a mere fundamental suggestion. This came professionally from a landscape-architect, Miss Frances Bullard, of Bridgeport, Connecticut, who had just finished plotting the grounds of my neighbor, the college. I tell of my own garden for another reason: that it shows, I think, how much can be done with how little, if for the doing you take time instead of money. All things come to the garden that knows how to wait. Mine has acquired at leisure a group of effects which would have cost from ten to twenty times as much if got in a hurry. Garden for ten-year results and get them for next to nothing, and at the same time you may quicken speed whenever your exchequer smiles broadly enough. Of course this argument is chiefly for those who have the time and not the money; for by time we mean play time, time which is money lost if you don't play. The garden that gives the most joy, "Joyous Gard," as Sir Launcelot named his, is not to be bought, like a Circassian slave; it must be brought up, like a daughter. How much of life they can miss who can buy whatever they want whenever they want it! But I tell first of my own garden also because I believe it summarizes to the eye a number of primary book-rules, authoritative "don'ts," by the observance of which a multitude of amateur gardeners may get better results than it yet shows. Nevertheless, I will hardly do more than note a few exceptions to these ground rules, which may give the rules a more convincing force. First of all, "don't" let any of your planting cut or split your place in two. How many a small house-lot lawn we see split down the middle by a row of ornamental shrubs or fruit-trees which might as easily have been set within a few feet of the property line, whose rigidity, moreover, would have best excused the rigidity of the planted line. But such glaring instances aside, there are many subtler ones quite as unfortunate; "don't" be too sure you are not unwittingly furnishing one. "Don't" destroy the openness of your sward by dotting it with shrubs or pattern flower-beds. To this rule I doubt if a plausible exception could be contrived. It is so sweeping and so primary that we might well withhold it here were we not seeking to state its artistic reason why. Which is, that such plantings are mere eruptions of individual smartness, without dignity and with no part in any general unity; chirping up like pert children in a company presumably trying to be rational. On the other hand, I hope my acre, despite all its unconscious or unconfessed mistakes, shows pleasantly that the best openness of a lawn is not to be got between unclothed, right-angled and parallel bounds. The more its verdure-clad borders swing in and out the longer they look, not merely because they are longer but also because they interest and lure the eye. "Where are you going?" says the eye. "Come and see," says the roaming line. "Don't" plant in stiff lines except in close relation to architectural or legal bounds. A straight horizontal line Nature scarcely knows save in her rocks and on a vaster scale than we here have to do with. Yet straight lines in gardening are often good and fine if only they are lines of real need. Where, when and in what degree it is good to subordinate utility to beauty or beauty to utility depends on time, place and circumstance, but when in doubt "don't" pinch either to pet the other. Oppression is never good art. Yet "don't" cry war, war, where there is no war. A true beauty and a needed utility may bristle on first collision but they soon make friends. Was it not Ruskin himself who wanted to butt the railway-train off the track and paw up the rails--something like that? But even between them and the landscape there is now an entente cordiale. I have seen the hand of Joseph Pennell make beautiful peace with billboards and telegraph-poles and wires. The railway points us to the fact that along the ground Nature is as innocent of parallel lines, however bent, as of straight ones, and that in landscape-gardening parallels should be avoided unless they are lines of utility. "Don't" lay parallel lines, either straight or curved, where Nature would not and utility need not. Yet my own acre has taught me a modification of this rule so marked as to be almost an exception. On each side of me next my nearest neighbor I have a turfed alley between a continuous bed of flowering shrubs and plants next the division line, and a similar bed whose meanderings border my lawn. At first I gave these two alleys a sinuous course in correspondence with the windings of the bed bordering the lawn--for they were purely ways of pleasure among the flowers, and a loitering course seemed only reasonable. But sinuous lines proved as disappointing in the alleys as they were satisfying out on the lawn, and by and by I saw that whereas the bendings of the open lawn's borders lured and rewarded the eye, the same curves in the alleys obstructed and baffled it. The show of floral charms was piecemeal, momentary and therefore trivial. "Don't" be trivial! [Illustration: "'Where are you going?' says the eye. 'Come and see,' says the roaming line." This planting conceals one of the alleys described on page 34. In the alley a concrete bench built into a concrete wall looks across the entire breadth of the garden and into the sunset.] But a cure was easy. I had to straighten but one side of each alley to restore the eye's freedom of perspective, and nothing more was wanting. The American eye's freedom of perspective is one of our great liberties. Oh, say, can you _see_--? I made this change, of course, on the side nearest the straight, property-division bound, where ran an invisible wire fence. Thus the bed on that side was set between two straight parallels, while the bed on the lawn side remained between waving parallels. This gave the best simplicity with the least artificiality. And thus the two lanes are open to view from end to end, yet each has two deep bays on the side nearest the lawn, bays which remain unseen till one actually reaches them in traversing the lane. In such a bay one should always have, I think, some floral revelation of special charm worthy of the seclusion and the surprise. But this thought is only one of a hundred that tell me my garden is not a finished thing. To its true lover a garden never is. Another sort of bay, the sort resulting from a swift retreat of a line of shrubberies pursued by the lawn and then swinging round and returning upon the lawn in a counter pursuit, I thought I had learned from books and Miss Bullard and had established on my own acre, until I saw the college gardens of Oxford, England, and the landscape work in Hyde Park, London. On my return thence I made haste to give my own garden's in-and-out curves twice the boldness they had had. And doubling their boldness I doubled their beauty. "Don't" ever let your acre's, or half or quarter acre's, ground lines relax into feebleness or shrink into pettiness. "Don't" ever plan a layout for whose free swing your limits are cramped. [Illustration: "The lane is open to view from end to end. It has two deep bays on the side nearest the lawn." The straight line of high growth conceals in the midst of its foliage a wire division fence, and makes a perfect background for blooming herbaceous perennials.] "Don't" ever, if you can help it, says another of my old mistakes to me, let your acre lead your guest to any point which can be departed from only by retracing one's steps. Such necessities involve a lapse--not to say collapse--of interest, which makes for dulness and loss of dignity. Lack what my own acre may, I have it now so that by its alleys, lawns and contour paths in garden and grove we can walk and walk through every part of it without once meeting our own tracks, and that is not all because of the pleasant fact that the walks, where not turfed, are covered with pine-straw, of which each new September drops us a fresh harvest. A garden, we say, should never compel us to go back the way we came; but in truth a garden should never compel us to do anything. Its don'ts should be laid solely on itself. Those applicable to its master, mistress, or guests should all be impossibilities, not requests. "Private grounds, no crossing"--take that away, please, wherever you can, and plant your margins so that there can be no crossing. Wire nettings hidden by shrubberies from all but the shameless trespasser you will find far more effective, more promotive to beauty and more courteous. "Don't" make your garden a garden of don'ts. For no garden is quite a garden until it is "Joyous Gard." Let not yours or mine be a garden for display. Then our rhododendrons and like splendors will not be at the front gate, and our grounds be less and less worth seeing the farther into them we go. Nor let yours or mine be a garden of pride. The ways of such a garden are not pleasantness nor its paths peace. And let us not have a garden of tiring care or a user up of precious time. That is not good citizenship. Neither let us have an old-trousers, sun-bonnet, black finger-nails garden--especially if you are a woman. A garden that makes a wife, daughter or sister a dowdy is hardly "Joyous Gard." Neither is one which makes itself a mania to her and an affliction to her family. Let us not even have, you or me, a wonder garden--of arboreal or floral curiosities. Perhaps because I have not travelled enough I have never seen a garden of exotics that was a real garden in any good art sense; in any way, that is, lastingly pleasing to a noble spirit. Let your garden, and let mine, be the garden of joy. For the only way it can be that, on and on, year in, year out, is to be so good in art and so finely human in its purposes that to have it and daily keep it will make us more worth while to ourselves and to mankind than to go without it. THE AMERICAN GARDEN Almost any good American will admit it to be a part of our national social scheme, I think,--if we have a social scheme,--that everybody shall aspire to all the refinements of life. Particularly is it our theory that every one shall propose to give to his home all the joys and graces which are anywhere associated with the name of home. Yet until of late we have neglected the art of gardening. Now and then we see, or more likely we read about, some garden of wonderful beauty; but the very fame of it points the fact that really artistic gardening is not democratically general with us. Our cities and towns, without number, have the architect and the engineer, for house and for landscape, for sky-scrapers and all manner of public works; we have the nurseryman, the florist; we have parks, shaded boulevards and riverside and lakeside drives. Under private ownership we have a vast multitude of exactly rectilinear lawns, extremely bare or else very badly planted; and we have hundreds of thousands of beautiful dames and girls who "love flowers." But our home gardens, our home gardeners, either professional or amateur, where are they? Our smaller cities by scores and our towns by hundreds are full of home-dwellers each privately puzzled to know why every one of his neighbors' houses, however respectable in architecture, stares at him and after him with a vacant, deaf-mute air of having just landed in this country, without friends. What ails these dwellings is largely lack of true gardening. They will never look like homes, never look really human and benign, that is, until they are set in a gardening worthy of them. For a garden which alike in its dignity and in its modesty is worthy of the house around which it is set, is the smile of the place. In the small city of Northampton, Massachusetts, there has been for many years an annual prize competition of amateur flower-gardens. In 1913 there were over a thousand homes, about one-fourth of all the dwellings in the town, in this pretty contest. Not all, not half, these competitors could make a show worthy the name of good gardening, but every one of these households stood pledged to do something during the year for the outdoor improvement of the home, and hundreds of their house lots were florally beautiful. If I seem to hurry into a mention of it here it is partly in the notion that such a recital may be my best credentials as the writer of these pages, and partly in the notion that such a concrete example may possibly have a tendency to help on flower-gardening in the country at large and even to aid us in determining what American flower-gardening had best be. For the reader's better advantage, however, let me first state one or two general ideas which have given this activity and its picturesque results particular aspects and not others. I lately heard a lady ask an amateur gardener, "What is the garden's foundation principle?" There was a certain overgrown pomp in the question's form, but that is how she very modestly asked it, and I will take no liberty with its construction. I thought his reply a good one. "We have all," he said, "come up from wild nature. In wild nature there are innumerable delights, but they are qualified by countless inconveniences. The cave, tent, cabin, cottage and castle have gradually been evolved by an orderly accumulation and combination of defences and conveniences which secure to us a host of advantages over wild nature and wild man. Yet rightly we are loath to lose any more of nature than we must in order to be her masters and her children in one, and to gather from her the largest fund of profit and delight she can be made to yield. Hence around the cottage, the castle or the palace waves and blooms the garden." Was he not right? This is why, in our pleasant Northampton affair, we have accepted it as our first rule of private gardening that _the house is the climacteric note_. This is why the garden should never be more architectural and artificial than the house of which it is the setting, and this is why the garden should grow less and less architectural and artificial as it draws away from the house. To say the same thing in reverse, the garden, as it approaches the house, should accept more and more discipline--domestication--social refinement, until the house itself at length seems as unabruptly and naturally to grow up out of the garden as the high keynote rises at the end of a lady's song. By this understanding of the matter what a fine truce-note is blown between the contending advocates of "natural" and of "formal" gardening! The right choice between these two aspects of the art, and the right degree in either choice, depend on the character of the house. The house is a part of the garden. It is the garden's brow and eyes. In gardening, almost the only thing which costs unduly is for us to try to give our house some other house's garden. One's private garden should never be quite so far removed from a state of nature as his house is. Its leading function should be to delight its house's inmates (and intimates) in things of nature so refined as to inspire and satisfy their happiest moods. Therefore no garden should cost, nor look as if it cost, an outlay of money, time or toil that cramps the house's own ability to minister to the genuine bodily needs and spiritual enlargements of its indwellers; and therefore, also, it should never seem to cost, in its first making or in its daily keeping, so much pains as to lack, itself, a garden's supreme essential--tranquillity. So, then, to those who would incite whole streets of American towns to become florally beautiful, "formal" gardening seems hardly the sort to recommend. About the palatial dwellings of men of princely revenue it may be enchanting. There it appears quite in place. For with all its exquisite artificiality it still is nearer to nature than the stately edifice it surrounds and adorns. But for any less costly homes it costs too much. It is expensive in its first outlay and it demands constantly the greatest care and the highest skill. Our ordinary American life is too busy for it unless the ground is quite handed over to the hired professional and openly betrays itself as that very unsatisfying thing, a "gardener's garden." [Illustration: " ... until the house itself seems as naturally ... to grow up out of the garden as the high keynote rises at the end of a lady's song." On the right of this picture you may see the piers of one of the front gates of My Own Acre standing under Henry Ward Beecher's elm. The urn forms surmounting them are of concrete, and the urns are cast from earlier forms in wood, which were a gift from Henry van Dyke. On the left the tops of the arbor vitæ and a magnolia are bending in the wind.] Our ordinary American life is also too near nature for the formal garden to come in between. Unless our formal gardening is of some inexpensive sort our modest dwelling-houses give us an anticlimax, and there is no inexpensive sort of formal gardening. Except in the far south our American climate expatriates it. A very good practical rule would be for none of us to venture upon such gardening until he is well able to keep up an adequate greenhouse. A formal garden without a greenhouse or two--or three--is a glorious army on a war footing, but without a base of supplies. It is largely his greenhouses which make the public gardener and the commercial florist so misleading an example for the cottager to follow in his private gardening. To be beautiful, formal gardening requires stately proportions. Without these it is almost certain to be petty and frivolous. In the tiny gardens of British and European peasants, it is true, a certain formality of design is often practised with pleasing success; but these gardens are a by-product of peasant toil, and in America we have no joy in contemplating an American home limited to the aspirations of peasant life. In such gardening there is a constraint, a lack of natural freedom, a distance from nature, and a certain contented subserviency, which makes it--however fortunate it may be under other social conditions--wholly unfit to express the buoyant, not to say exuberant, complacencies of the American home. For these we want, what we have not yet quite evolved, the American garden. When this comes it must come, of course, unconsciously; but we may be sure it will not be much like the gardens of any politically shut-in people. No, not even of those supreme artists in gardening, the Japanese. It will express the traits of our American domestic life; our strong individuality and self-assurance, our sense of unguarded security, our affability and unexclusiveness and our dislike to high-walled privacy. If we would hasten its day we must make way for it along the lines of these traits. On the other hand, if in following these lines we can contrive to adhere faithfully to the worldwide laws of all true art, who knows but our very gardening may tend to correct more than one shortcoming or excess in our national character? In our Northampton experiment it has been our conviction from the beginning that for a private garden to be what it should be--to have a happy individuality--a countenance of its own--one worthy to be its own--it must in some practical way be the fruit of its householder's own spirit and not merely of some hired gardener's. If one can employ a landscape-architect, all very well; but the most of us cannot, and after all, the true landscape-architect, the artist gardener, works on this principle and seeks to convey into every garden distinctively the soul of the household for which it springs and flowers. "Since when it grows and smells, I swear, Not of itself but thee." Few American householders, however, have any enthusiasm for this theory, which many would call high-strung, and as we in Northampton cannot undertake to counsel and direct our neighbors' hired helps, we enroll in the main branch of our competition only those who garden for themselves and hire no labor. To such the twenty-one prizes, ranging from two dollars and a half up to fifteen dollars, are a strong incentive, and by such the advice of visiting committees is eagerly sought and followed. The public educative value of the movement is probably largest under these limitations, for in this way we show what beautiful results may be got on smallest grounds and with the least outlay. Its private educative value, too, is probably largest thus, because thus we disseminate as a home delight a practical knowledge of æsthetic principles among those who may at any time find it expedient to become wage-earning gardeners on the home grounds of the well-to-do. [Illustration: "Beautiful results may be got on smallest grounds." This is half of a back yard, the whole of which is equally handsome. The place to which it belongs took a capital prize in the Carnegie Flower Garden Competition.] [Illustration: "Muffle your architectural angles in foliage and bloom." An invisible fault of this planting is that it was set too close to the building and tended to give an impression, probably groundless, of promoting dampness. Also it was an inconvenience to mechanics in painting or repairing.] The competing gardens being kept wholly without hired labor, of course our constant advice to all contestants is to shun formal gardening. It is a pity that in nearly all our cities and towns the most notable examples of gardening are found in the parks, boulevards, and cemeteries. By these flaring displays thousands of modest cottagers who might easily provide, on their small scale, lovely gardens about their dwellings at virtually no cost and with no burdensome care, get a notion that this, and this only, is artistic gardening and hence that a home garden for oneself would be too expensive and troublesome to be thought of. On the other hand, a few are tempted to mimic them on a petty scale, and so spoil their little grass-plots and amuse, without entertaining, their not more tasteful but only less aspiring neighbors. In Northampton, in our Carnegie prize contest--so called for a very sufficient and pleasant reason--our counsel is to avoid all mimicry in gardening as we would avoid it in speech or in gait. Sometimes we do not mind being repetitious. "In gardening" we say--as if we had never said it before--"almost the only thing which costs unduly--in money or in mortification--is for one to try to give himself somebody else's garden!" Often we say this twice to the same person. One of the reasons we give against it is that it leads to toy gardening, and toy gardening is of all sorts the most pitiful and ridiculous. "No true art," we say, "can tolerate any make-believe which is not in some way finer than the reality it simulates. In other words, imitation should always be in the nature of an amiable condescension. Whatever falseness, pretension or even mere frailty or smallness, suggests to the eye the ineffectuality of a toy is out of place in any sort of gardening." We do not actually speak all this, but we imply it, and we often find that the mere utterance of the one word, "toy gardening," has a magical effect to suggest all the rest and to overwhelm with contrition the bad taste and frivolity of many a misguided attempt at adornment. At that word of exorcism joints of cerulean sewer-pipe crested with scarlet geraniums, rows of whited cobbles along the walk or drive like a cannibal's skulls around his hut, purple paint-kegs of petunias on the scanty door-steps, crimson wash-kettles of verbenas, ant-hill rockeries, and well-sweeps and curbs where no wells are, steal modestly and forever into oblivion. Now, when we so preach we try also to make it very plain that there is not one set of rules for gardening on a small scale of expense in a small piece of ground, and another set for gardening on a larger scale. For of course the very thing which makes the small garden different from the large, the rich man's from the poor man's, the Scotch or Italian peasant's from the American mechanic's, or the public garden from the private, is the universal and immutable oneness of the great canons of art. One of our competitors, having honestly purged her soul of every impulse she may ever have had to mimic the gardening of the cemeteries, planted her dooryard with a trueness of art which made it the joy of all beholders. Only then was it that a passing admirer stopped and cried: "Upon me soul, Mrs. Anonyma, yir gyairden looks joost loike a pooblic pairk!" He meant--without knowing it--that the spot was lovely for not trying to look the least bit like a public park, and he was right. She had kept what it would be well for the public gardeners to keep much better than some of them do--the Moral Law of Gardening. * * * * * There is a moral law of gardening. No garden should ever tell a lie. No garden should ever put on any false pretence. No garden should ever break a promise. To the present reader these proclamations may seem very trite; it may seem very trite to say that if anything in or of a garden is meant for adornment, it must adorn; but we have to say such things to many who do not know what trite means--who think it is something you buy from the butcher. A thing meant for adornment, we tell them, must so truly and sufficiently adorn as to be worth all the room and attention it takes up. Thou shalt not let anything in thy garden take away thy guest's attention without repaying him for it; it is stealing. A lady, not in our competition but one of its most valued patronesses, lately proposed to herself to place in the centre of a wide, oval lawn a sun-dial and to have four paths cross the grass and meet there. But on reflection the query came to her-- "In my unformal garden of simplest grove and sward will a sun-dial--posing in an office it never performed there, and will never again be needed for anywhere--a cabinet relic now--will a _posed_ sun-dial be interesting enough when it is arrived at to justify a special journey and four kept-up paths which cut my beautiful grass-plot into quarters?" With that she changed her mind--a thing the good gardener must often do--and appointed the dial to a place where one comes upon it quite incidentally while moving from one main feature of the grounds to another. It is now a pleasing, mild surprise instead of a tame fulfilment of a showy promise; pleasing, after all, it must, however, be admitted, to the toy-loving spirit, since the sun-dial has long been, and henceforth ever will be, an utterly useless thing in a garden, only true to art when it stands in an old garden, a genuine historical survival of its day of true utility. Only in such a case does the sun-dial belong to the good morals of gardening. But maybe this is an overstrict rule for the majority of us who are much too fond of embellishments and display--the rouge and powder of high art. On the other hand, we go to quite as much pains to say that though a garden may not lie nor steal, it may have its concealments; they are as right as they are valuable. One of the first steps in the making of a garden should be to determine what to hide and how most gracefully to hide it. A garden is a house's garments, its fig-leaves, as we may say, and the garden's concealments, like its revelations, ought always to be in the interest of comfort, dignity, and charm. We once had a very bumptious member on our board of judges. "My dear madam!" he exclaimed to an aspirant for the prizes, the underpinning of whose dwelling stood out unconcealed by any sprig of floral growth, "your house is barefooted! Nobody wants to see your house's underpinning, any more than he wants to see your own!" It is not good to be so brusque about non-penitentiary offences, but skilful and lovely concealments in gardening were his hobby. To another he whispered, "My dear sir, tell your pretty house her petticoat shows!" and to yet another, "Take all those shrubs out of the middle of your lawn and 'plant out' with them every feature of your house which would be of no interest to you if the house were not yours. Your house's morals may be all right, but its manners are insufferable, it talks so much about itself and its family." To a fourth he said: "In a gardening sense your house makes too much noise; you can hear its right angles hit the ground. Muffle them! Muffle your architectural angles in foliage and bloom. Up in the air they may be ever so correct and fine, but down in the garden and unclothed they are heinous, heinous!" Another precept we try to inculcate in our rounds among the gardens, another commandment in the moral law of gardening, is that with all a garden's worthy concealments it should never, and need never, be frivolous or be lacking in candor. I know an amateur gardener--and the amateur gardener, like the amateur photographer, sometimes ranks higher than the professional--who is at this moment altering the location of a sidewalk gate which by an earlier owner was architecturally misplaced for the sole purpose of making a path with curves--and such curves!--instead of a straight and honest one, from the street to the kitchen. When a path is sent on a plain business errand it should never loaf. And yet those lines of a garden's layout which are designed not for business but for pleasure, should never behave as though they were on business; they should loiter just enough to make their guests feel at ease, while not enough to waste time. How like a perfect lady, or a perfect gentleman, is--however humble or exalted its rank--a garden with courtly manners! As to manners, our incipient American garden has already developed one trait which distinguishes it from those beyond the Atlantic. It is a habit which reminds one of what somebody has lately said about Americans themselves: that, whoever they are and whatever their manners may be, they have this to their credit, that they unfailingly desire and propose to be polite. The thing we are hinting at is our American gardens' excessive openness. Our people have, or until just now had, almost abolished the fence and the hedge. A gard, yard, garth, garden, used to mean an enclosure, a close, and implied a privacy to its owner superior to any he enjoyed outside of it. But now that we no longer have any military need of privacy we are tempted--are we not?--to overlook its spiritual value. We seem to enjoy publicity better. In our American eagerness to publish everything for everybody and to everybody, we have published our gardens--published them in paper bindings; that is to say, with their boundaries visible only on maps filed with the Registrar of Deeds. Foreigners who travel among us complain that we so overdo our good-natured endurance of every public inconvenience that we have made it a national misfortune and are losing our sense of our public rights. This obliteration of private boundaries is an instance. Our public spirit and out imperturbability are flattered by it, but our gardens, except among the rich, have become American by ceasing to be gardens. I have a neighbor who every year plants a garden of annuals. He has no fence, but two of his neighbors have each a setter dog. These dogs are rarely confined. One morning I saw him put in the seed of his lovely annuals and leave his smoothly raked beds already a pleasant show and a prophecy of delight while yet without a spray of green. An hour later I saw those two setter dogs wrestling and sprawling around in joyous circles all over those garden beds. "Gay, guiltless pair!" What is one to do in such a case, in a land where everybody is expected to take everything good-naturedly, and where a fence is sign of a sour temper? Of course he can do as others do, and have no garden. But to have no garden is a distinct poverty in a householder's life, whether he knows it or not, and--suppose he very much wants a garden? They were the well-to-do who began this abolition movement against enclosures and I have an idea it never would have had a beginning had there prevailed generally, democratically, among us a sentiment for real gardening, and a knowledge of its practical principles; for with this sentiment and knowledge we should have had that sweet experience of outdoor privacy for lack of which we lose one of the noblest charms of home. The well-to-do started the fashion, it cost less money to follow than to withstand it and presently the landlords of the poor utilized it. The poor man--the poor woman--needs the protection of a fence to a degree of which the well-to-do know nothing. In the common interest of the whole community, of any community, the poor man--the poor woman--ought to have a garden; but if they are going to have a garden they ought to have a fence. We in Northampton know scores of poor homes whose tenants strive year after year to establish some floral beauty about them, and fail for want of enclosures. The neighbors' children, their dogs, their cats, geese, ducks, hens--it is useless. Many refuse to make the effort; some, I say, make it and give it up, and now and then some one wins a surprising and delightful success. Two or three such have taken high prizes in our competition. The two chief things which made their triumph possible were, first, an invincible passion for gardening, and, second, poultry-netting. A great new boon to the home gardener they are, these wire fencings and nettings. With them ever so many things may be done now at a quarter or tenth of what they would once have cost. Our old-fashioned fences were sometimes very expensive, sometimes very perishable, sometimes both. Also they were apt to be very ugly. Yet instead of concealing them we made them a display, while the shrubbery which should have masked them in leaf and bloom stood scattered over the lawn, each little new bush by itself, visibly if not audibly saying-- "You'd scarce expect one of my age----" etc.; the shrubs orphaned, the lawn destroyed. If the enclosure was a hedge it had to be a tight one or else it did not enclose. Now wire netting charms away these embarrassments. Your hedge can be as loose as you care to have it, while your enclosure may be rigidly effective yet be hidden from the eye by undulating fence-rows; and as we now have definite bounds and corners to plant out, we do not so often as formerly need to be reminded of Frederick Law Olmsted's favorite maxim, "Take care of the corners, and the centres will take care of themselves." [Illustration: Fences masked by shrubbery. One straight line of Williston Seminary campus, the effect of whose iron fence before it was planted out with barberry may be seen in the two panels of it still bare on the extreme right.] Here there is a word to be added in the interest of home-lovers, whose tastes we properly expect to find more highly trained than those of the average tenant cottager. Our American love of spaciousness leads us to fancy that--not to-day or to-morrow, but somewhere in a near future--we are going to unite our unfenced lawns in a concerted park treatment: a sort of wee horticultural United States comprised within a few city squares; but ever our American individualism stands broadly in the way, and our gardens almost never relate themselves to one another with that intimacy which their absence of boundaries demands in order to take on any special beauty, nobility, delightsomeness, of gardening. The true gardener--who, if he is reading this, must be getting very tired of our insistent triteness--carefully keeps in mind the laws of linear and of aërial perspective, no matter how large or small the garden. The relative stature of things, both actual and prospective; their breadth; the breadth or slenderness, darkness or lightness, openness or density, of their foliage; the splendor or delicacy of their flowers, whether in size or in color; the season of their blooming; the contour of the grounds--all these points must be taken into account in determining where things are to stand and how be grouped. Once the fence or hedge was the frame of the picture; but now our pictures, on almost any street of unpalatial, comfortable homes, touch edge to edge without frames, and the reason they do not mar one another's effects is that they have no particular effects to be marred, but lie side by side as undiscordantly as so many string instruments without strings. Let us hope for a time when they will rise in insurrection, resolved to be either parts of a private park, or each one a whole private garden. In our Carnegie prize contest nothing yields its judges more pleasure than to inculcate the garden rules of perspective to which we have just referred and to see the blissful complacency of those who successfully carry them out. I have now in my mind's eye a garden to which was awarded the capital prize of 1903. A cottage of maybe six small rooms crowns a high bank on a corner where two rural streets cross. There are a few square yards of lawn on its front, and still fewer (scarcely eight or ten) on the side next the cross-street, but on the other two sides there is nearly a quarter of an acre. On these two sides the limits touch other gardens, and all four sides are entirely without fencing. From the front sward have been taken away a number of good shrubs which once broke it into ineffectual bits, and these have been grouped against the inward and outward angles of the house. The front porch is garlanded--not smothered--with vines whose flowers are all white, pink, blue or light purple. About the base of the porch and of all the house's front, bloom flowers of these same delicate tints, the tallest nearest the house, the lesser at their knees and feet. The edges of the beds--gentle waves that never degenerate to straightness--are thickly bordered with mignonette. Not an audacious thing, not a red blossom nor a strong yellow one, nor one broad leaf, nor any mass of dense or dark foliage, comes into view until one reaches a side of the dwelling. But there at once he finds the second phase in a crescendo of floral colors. The base of the house, and especially those empty eye-sockets, the cellar windows, are veiled in exultant bloom, yellows predominating. Then at the back of the place comes the full chorus, and red flowers overmaster the yellow, though the delicate tints with which the scheme began are still present to preserve the dignity and suavity of all--the ladies of the feast. The paths are only one or two and they never turn abruptly and ask you to keep off their corners; they have none. Neither have the flower-beds. They flow wideningly around the hard turnings of the house with the grace of a rivulet. Out on the two wider sides of the lawn nothing breaks the smooth green but a well-situated tree or two until the limits of the premises are reached, and there, in lines that widen and narrow and widen again and hide the surveyor's angles, the flowers rise once more in a final burst of innumerable blossoms and splendid hues--a kind of sunset of the garden's own. When this place, five seasons ago, first entered the competition, it could hardly be called a garden at all. Yet it was already superior to many rivals. In those days it seemed to us as though scarcely one of our working people in a hundred knew that a garden was anything more than a bed of flowers set down anywhere and anyhow. It was a common experience for us to be led by an unkept path and through a patch of weeds or across an ungrassed dooryard full of rubbish, in order to reach a so-called garden which had never spoken a civil word to the house nor got one from it. Now, the understanding is that every part of the premises, every outdoor thing on the premises--path, fence, truck-patch, stable, stable-yard, hen-yard, tennis or croquet-court--everything is either a part of the garden or is so reasonably related to it that from whatever point one views the place he beholds a single satisfactory picture. This, I say, is the understanding. I do not say that even among our prize-winners anybody has yet perfectly attained this, although a few have come very near it. With these the main surviving drawback is that the artistic effect is each season so long coming and passes away so soon--cometh up as a flower and presently has withered. One of our most gifted literary critics a while ago pointed out the poetic charm of evanescence; pointed it out more plainly, I fancy, than it has ever been shown before. But evanescence has this poetic charm chiefly in nature, almost never in art. The transitoriness of a sunset glory, or of human life, is rife with poetic pathos because it is a transitoriness which _cannot be helped_. Therein lay the charm of that poetic wonder and marvel of its day (1893) the Columbian Exposition's "White City"; it was an architectural triumph and glory which we could not have except on condition that it should vanish with the swiftness of an aurora. Even so, there would have been little poetry in its evanescence if, through bad workmanship or any obvious folly, it had failed to fulfil the transient purpose for which it was erected. The only poetic evanescence is the evanescence that is inevitable. An unnecessary evanescence in things we make is bad art. If I remember the story correctly, it was to a Roman lady that Benvenuto Cellini took the exquisite waxen model of some piece of goldsmithing she had commissioned him to execute for her. So delighted was she with this mere model that she longed to keep it and called it the perfection of art, or some such word. But Benvenuto said, No, he could not claim for it the high name of art until he should have reproduced it in gold, that being the most worthy material in which it would endure the use for which it was designed. Unless the great Italian was in error, then, a garden ought not to be so largely made up of plants which perish with the summer as to be, at their death, no longer a garden. Said that harsh-spoken judge whom we have already once or twice quoted--that shepherd's-dog of a judge--at one of the annual bestowals of our Carnegie garden prizes: "Almost any planting about the base of a building, fence or wall is better than none; but for this purpose shrubs are far better than annual flowers. Annuals do not sufficiently mask the hard, offensive right-angles of the structure's corners or of the line whence it starts up from the ground. And even if sometimes they do, they take so long to grow enough to do it, and are so soon gone with the first cold blast, that the things they are to hide are for the most of the year not hidden. Besides which, even at their best moments, when undoubtedly they are very beautiful, they have not a sufficiently substantial look to be good company for the solid structure they are set against. Sweetly, modestly, yet obstinately, they confess to every passer-by that they did not come, but were put there and were put there only last spring. Shrubs, contrariwise, give a feeling that they have sprung and grown there in the course of nature and of the years, and so convey to the house what so many American homes stand in want of--a quiet air of being long married and a mother of growing children. "Flowering shrubs of well-chosen kinds are in leaf two-thirds of the year, and their leafless branches and twigs are a pleasing relief to the structure's cold nakedness even through the winter. I have seen a house, whose mistress was too exclusively fond of annuals, stand waiting for its shoes and stockings from October clear round to August, and then barefooted again in October. In such gardening there is too much of love's labor lost. If one's grounds are so small that there is no better place for the annuals they can be planted against the shrubs, as the shrubs are planted against the building or fence. At any rate they should never be bedded out in the midst of the lawn, and quite as emphatically they should never, alone, be set to mark the boundary lines of a property." [Illustration: After the first frost annual plantings cease to be attractive.] [Illustration: Shrubbery versus annuals. The contrast in these two pictures is between two small street plantings standing in sight of each other, one of annuals with a decorative effect and lasting three months, the other with shrubberies and lasting nine months.] It is hoped these sayings, quoted or otherwise, may seem the more in place here because they contemplate the aspects likely to characterize the American garden whenever that garden fully arrives. We like largeness. There are many other qualities to desire, and to desire even more; but if we give them also the liking we truly owe them it is right for us to like largeness. Certainly it is better to like largeness even for itself, rather than smallness for itself. Especially is it right that we should like our gardens to look as large as we can make them appear. Our countless lawns, naked clear up into their rigid corners and to their dividing lines, are naked in revolt against the earlier fashion of spotting them over with shrubs, the easiest as well as the worst way of making a place look small. But a naked lawn does not make the premises look as large, nor does it look as large itself, as it will if planted in the manner we venture to commend to our Northampton prize-seekers. Between any two points a line of shrubbery swinging in and out in strong, graceful undulations appears much longer than a straight one, because it is longer. But, over and above this, it makes the distance between the two points seem greater. Everybody knows the old boast of the landscape-architects--that they can make one piece of ground look twice as large as another of the same measure, however small, by merely grading and planting the two on contrary schemes. The present writer knows one small street in his town, a street of fair dwellings, on which every lawn is diminished to the eye by faulty grading. [Illustration: Shrubs are better than annuals for masking right angles. South Hall, Williston Seminary. (See "Where to Plant What.")] [Illustration: " ... a line of shrubbery swinging in and out in strong, graceful undulations." The straight planting on this picture's left masks the back yards of three neighbors, and gives them a privacy as well as My Own Acre. The curved planting shows but one of three bends. It was here that I first made the mistake of planting a sinuous alley. (See "My Own Acre," p. 34.)] For this he has no occasion to make himself responsible but there are certain empty lots not far from him for whose aspect he is answerable, having graded them himself (before he knew how). He has repeatedly heard their depth estimated at ninety feet, never at more. In fact it is one hundred and thirty-nine. However, he has somewhat to do also with a garden whose grading was quite as bad--identical, indeed--whose fault has been covered up and its depth made to seem actually greater than it is, entirely by a corrective planting of its shrubbery. One of the happiest things about gardening is that when it is bad you can always--you and time--you and year after next--make it good. It is very easy to think of the plants, beds and paths of a garden as things which, being once placed, must stay where they are; but it is shortsighted and it is fatal to effective gardening. We should look upon the arrangement of things in our garden very much as a housekeeper looks on the arrangement of the furniture in her house. Except buildings, pavements and great trees--and not always excepting the trees--we should regard nothing in it as permanent architecture but only as furnishment and decoration. At favorable moments you will make whatever rearrangement may seem to you good. A shrub's mere being in a certain place is no final reason that it should stay there; a shrub or a dozen shrubs--next spring or fall you may transplant them. A shrub, or even a tree, may belong where it is this season, and the next and the next; and yet in the fourth year, because of its excessive growth, of the more desired growth of something else, or of some rearrangement of other things, that spot may be no longer the best place for it. Very few shrubs are injured by careful and seasonable, even though repeated, transplanting. Many are benefited by one or another effect of the process: by the root pruning they get, by the "division," by the change of soil, by change of exposure or even by backset in growth. Transplanting is part of a garden's good discipline. It is almost as necessary to the best results as pruning--on which grave subject there is no room to speak here. The owner even of an American garden should rule his garden, not be ruled by it. Yet he should rule without oppression, and it will not be truly American if it fails to show at a glance that it is not overgardened. Thus do we propose to exhort our next season's competitors as this fall and winter they gather at our projected indoor garden-talks, or as we go among them to offer counsel concerning their grounds plans for next spring. And we hope not to omit to say, as we had almost omitted to say here, in behalf of the kind of garden we preach, that shrubs, the most of them, require no great enrichment of the soil--an important consideration. And we shall take much care to recommend the perusal of books on gardening. Once this gentle art was largely kept a close secret of craftsmen; but now all that can be put into books is in books, and the books are non-technical, brief and inexpensive; or if voluminous and costly, as some of the best needs must be, are in the public libraries. In their pages are a host of facts (indexed!) which once had to be burdensomely remembered. For one preoccupied with other cares--as every amateur gardener ought to be--these books are no mean part of his equipment; they are as necessary to his best gardening as the dictionary to his best English. What a daily, hourly, unfailing wonder are the modern opportunities and facilities by which we are surrounded! If the present reader and the present writer, and maybe a few others, will but respond to them worthily, who knows but we may ourselves live to see, and to see as democratically common as telephones and electric cars, the American garden? Of course there is ever and ever so much more to be said about it, and the present writer is not at all weary; but he hears his reader's clock telling the hour and feels very sure it is correct. WHERE TO PLANT WHAT Often one's hands are too heavily veneered with garden loam for him to go to his books to verify a quotation. It was the great Jefferson, was it not, who laid into the foundations of American democracy the imperishable maxim that "That gardening is best which gardens the least"? My rendition of it may be more a parody than a quotation but, whatever its inaccuracy, to me it still sounds Jeffersonian--Joseph Jeffersonian. Whether we read it "garden" or "govern," it has this fine mark of a masterful utterance, that it makes no perceptible effort to protect itself against the caviller or the simpleton; from men, for instance, who would interpret it as meaning that the only perfect government, or gardening, is none at all. Speaking from the point of view of a garden-lover, I suppose the true signification is that the best government is the government which procures and preserves the noblest happiness of the community with the least enthralment of the individual. Now, I hope that as world-citizens and even as Americans we may bear in mind that, while this maxim may be wholly true, it is not therefore the whole truth. What maxim is? Let us ever keep a sweet, self-respecting modesty with which to confront and consort with those who see the science of government, or art of gardening, from the standpoint of some other equally true fraction of the whole truth. All we need here maintain for our Jeffersonian maxim is that its wide domination in American sentiment explains the larger part of all the merits and faults of American government--and American gardening. It accounts for nearly all our American laws and ordinances, manners, customs, and whims, and in the great discussion of Where to Plant What (in America) no one need hope to prevail who does not recognize that this high principle of American democracy is the best rule for American gardening. That gardening is best, for most Americans, which best ministers to man's felicity with least disturbance of nature's freedom. Hence the initial question--a question which every amateur gardener must answer for himself. How much subserviency of nature to art and utility is really necessary to my own and my friends' and neighbors' best delight? For--be not deceived--however enraptured of wild nature you may be, you do and must require of her _some_ subserviency close about your own dwelling. You cannot there persistently enjoy the wolf and the panther, the muskrat, buzzard, gopher, rattlesnake, poison-ivy and skunk in full swing, as it were. How much, then, of nature's subserviency does the range of your tastes demand? Also, how much will your purse allow? For it is as true in gardening as in statecraft that, your government being once genuinely established, the more of it you have, the more you must pay for it. In gardening, as in government, the cost of the scheme is not in proportion to the goodness or badness of its art, but to its intensity. This is why the general and very sane inclination of our American preferences is away from that intense sort of gardening called "formal," and toward that rather unfairly termed "informal" method which here, at least, I should like to distinguish as "free-line" gardening. A free people who govern leniently will garden leniently. Their gardening will not be a vexing tax upon themselves, upon others, or upon the garden. Whatever freedom it takes away from themselves or others or the garden will be no more than is required for the noblest delight; and whatever freedom remains untaken, such gardening will help everybody to exercise and enjoy. The garden of free lines, provided only it be a real garden under a real government, is, to my eye, an angel's protest against every species and degree of tyranny and oppression, and such a garden, however small or extensive, will contain a large proportion of flowering shrubbery. Because a garden should not, any more than my lady's face, have all its features--nose, eyes, ears, lips--of one size? No, that is true of all gardening alike; but because with flowering shrubbery our gardening can be more lenient than with annuals alone, or with only herbaceous plants and evergreens. [Illustration: "However enraptured of wild nature you may be, you do and must require of her _some_ subserviency about your own dwelling." A front view of the three older buildings of Williston Seminary.] So, then, our problem, Where to Plant What, may become for a moment, Where to Plant Shrubbery; and the response of the free-line garden will be, of course, "Remember, concerning each separate shrub, that he or she--or it, if you really _prefer_ the neuter--is your guest, and plant him or her or it where it will best enjoy itself, while promoting the whole company's joy." Before it has arrived in the garden, therefore, learn--and carefully consider--its likes and dislikes, habits, manners and accomplishments and its friendly or possibly unfriendly relations with your other guests. This done, determine between whom and whom you will seat it; between what and what you will plant it, that is, so as to "draw it out," as we say of diffident or reticent persons; or to use it for drawing out others of less social address. But how many a lovely shrub has arrived where it was urgently invited, and found that its host or hostess, or both, had actually forgotten its name! Did not know how to introduce it to any fellow guest, or whether it loved sun or shade, loam, peat, clay, leaf-mould or sand, wetness or dryness; and yet should have found all that out in the proper blue-book (horticultural dictionary) before inviting the poor mortified guest at all. "Oh, pray be seated--anywhere. Plant yourself alone in the middle. This is Liberty Garden." "It is no such thing," says the tear-bedewed beauty to herself; "it's Anarchy Garden." Yet, like the lady she is, she stays where she is put, and gets along surprisingly well. New England calls Northampton one of her most beautiful towns. But its beauty lies in the natural landscape in and around it, in the rise, fall, and swing of the seat on which it sits, the graceful curving of its streets, the noble spread of its great elms and maples, the green and blue openness of grounds everywhere about its modest homes and its highly picturesque outlook upon distant hills and mountains and intervening meadows and fields, with the Connecticut winding through. Its architecture is in three or four instances admirable though not extraordinary, and, as in almost every town in our vast America, there are hardly five householders in it who are really skilled flower-gardeners, either professional or amateur. [Illustration: "Plant it where it will best enjoy itself." These wild roses are in two clumps with a six-foot open way between them. They are a wild rose (_Rosa Arkansana_) not much in use but worthy of more attention, as indeed all the wild roses are. The sunlit tree farthest on the right is Sol Smith Russell's linden.] As the present century was coming in, however, the opportunity, through private flower-gardening, to double or quadruple the town's beauty and to do it without great trouble or expense, yet with great individual delight and social pleasure, came to the lively notice of a number of us. It is, then, for the promotion of this object throughout all our bounds, and not for the perfection of the art for its own sake, that we maintain this competition and award these "Carnegie" prizes. Hence certain features of our method the value and necessity of which might not be clear to the casual inquirer without this explanation. May I repeat it? Not to reward two or three persons yearly for reaching some dizzy peak of art unattainable by ordinary taste and skill, nor to reward one part of the town or one element of its people for gardening better than another, nor to promote the production of individual plants or flowers of extraordinary splendor, nor even to incite children to raise patches of flowers, is our design; but to make the modest and democratic art of Where to Plant What (an art, nevertheless, quite beyond the grasp of children) so well known and so valued that its practical adoption shall overrun the whole town. To this end we have divided our field into seven districts, in each of which the number of gardens is about the same. In each of these seven districts only three prizes (out of twenty-one) may be taken in any one season. Consequently three prizes _must_ fall to each district every year. Yet the best garden of all still carries off the capital prize, the second-best may win the second, and cannot take a lower than the third, and the lowest awards go into the district showing the poorest results. Even this plan is so modified as further to stimulate those who strive against odds of location or conditions, for no district is allowed to receive two prizes consecutive in the list. The second prize cannot be bestowed in the same district in which the first is being awarded, though the third can. The third cannot go into the same district as the second, though the fourth may. And so on to the twenty-first. Moreover, a garden showing much improvement over the previous season may take a prize, as against a better garden which shows no such improvement. Also no garden can take the capital prize twice nor ever take a prize not higher than it has taken before. The twenty-one prizes are for those who hire no help in their gardening; two others are for those who reserve the liberty to employ help, and still another two are exclusively for previous winners of the capital prize, competing among themselves. In each of the five districts a committee of ladies visits the competing gardens, inspecting, advising, encouraging, sometimes learning more than they teach, and reporting to headquarters, the People's Institute. At these headquarters, on two acres of ground in the heart of the city, we have brought gradually into shape, on a plan furnished by Frederick Law Olmsted's Sons, Landscape Architects, of Boston (Brookline), a remarkably handsome garden of flowers and shrubbery designed as a model for the guidance of those in the competition who seek to combine artistic beauty with inexpensiveness. From time to time we have given at these headquarters winter courses of lectures on practical flower-gardening. As a result we have improved, and are still improving, the aspect of entire streets and are interesting the whole city. But to return to our discussion. Here is a short story of two ladies. They are not in our competition, though among its most ardent well-wishers. A friend had given one of them a bit of green, woody growth some two feet high and half an inch thick. She had a wee square bit of front grass-plot something larger than a table-cloth, but certainly not large enough for a game of marbles. In the centre of this bit of grass she planted her friend's gift. Then came our other lady, making a call, and with her best smile of humorous commendation, saying: "My dear, you have violated the first rule of gardening. You've planted your bush where you wanted it." The delighted gardener went in the strength of that witticism for forty weeks or at least until some fiend of candor, a brother, like as not, said: "Yes, truly you have violated the first rule of gardening, for you have put your willow-tree--that's what it is--where a minute's real reflection would have told you you'd wish you hadn't." Where to Plant What! Plant it where you--and your friends--your friends of best gardening taste--will be glad you planted it when all your things are planted. Please those who know best, and so best please yourself. Nevertheless, beware! Watch yourself! Do so specially when you think you have mastered the whole art. Watch even those who indisputably know better than you do, for everybody makes mistakes which he never would have dreamed he could make. Only the other day I heard an amateur say to a distinguished professional gardener: "Did you plant those shrubs of gorgeous flower and broad, dark leaf out on your street front purely as a matter of artistic taste?" "I did," he replied. "I wanted to put my best foot foremost. Wouldn't you?" "Why should I?" asked the amateur. "I wouldn't begin a song with my highest note, nor a game with my strongest card, nor an address with my most impassioned declaration, nor a sonnet with its most pregnant line. If I should, where were my climax?" Certainly the amateur had the best of it. A garden is a discourse. A garden is a play. See with what care both the dramatist and the stage-manager avoid putting the best foot foremost. See how warily they hold back the supreme strength of the four or five act piece for the last act but one. There is a charmingly instructive analogy between a garden and a drama. In each you have preparation, progress, climax, and close. And then, also, in each you must have your lesser climaxes leading masterfully up to the supreme one, and a final quiet one to let gratefully down from the giddy height. In Northampton nearly all of our hundreds of gardens contesting for prizes are plays of only one or two acts. I mean they have only one or two buildings to garden up to and between and around and away from. Yet it is among these one-act plays, these one-house gardens, that I find the art truth most gracefully emphasized, that the best foot should not go foremost. In a large garden a false start may be atoned for by better art farther on and in; but in a small garden, for mere want of room and the chance to forget, a bad start spoils all. No, be the garden a prince's or a cottager's, the climaxes to be got by superiority of stature, by darkness and breadth of foliage and by splendor of bloom belong at its far end. Even in the one-house garden I should like to see the climaxes plural to the extent of two; one immediately at the back of the house, the other at the extreme rear of the ground. At the far end of the lot I would have the final storm of passion and riot of disclosure, and then close about the rear of the house there should be the things of supreme richness, exquisiteness and rarity. This soft-voiced echo answering back out of the inmost heart of the whole demesne gives genuineness of sentiment to the entire scheme. To plant a conflagration of color against the back fence and stop there would be worse than melodramatic. It would be to close the play with a bang, and even a worthy one-act play does not close with a bang. The back of the lot is not the absolute end of the garden-play. Like the stage-play, the garden-play brings its beholder back at the very last, by a sweet reversion, to the point from which it started. The true garden-lover gardens not mainly for the passer-by, but rather for himself and the friends who come to see him. Even when he treads his garden paths alone he is a pleased and welcome visitor to himself, and shows his garden to himself as to a visitor. Hence there is always at last a turning back to the house or to the front entrance, and _this_ is the play's final lines, the last grouping of the players, the relief of all tension and the descent of the curtain. [Illustration: " ... climaxes to be got by superiority of stature, by darkness and breadth of foliage and by splendor of bloom belong at its far end." Everything in this photograph was planted by the amateur gardener except the pine-trees in perspective.] One point farther in this direction and we may give our hard-worked analogy a respite. It is this: as those who make and present a play take great pains that, by flashes of revelation to eye and to ear, the secrets most unguessed by the characters in the piece shall be early revealed to the audience and persistently pressed upon its attention, so should the planting of a garden be; that, as if quite without the gardener's or the garden's knowledge, always, to the eye, nostril or ear, some clear disclosure of charm still remote may beckon and lure across easy and tempting distances from nook to nook of the small garden, or from alley to alley and from glade to glade of the large one. Where to Plant What? Plant it as far away as, according to the force of its character or the splendor of its charms, it can stand and beckon back with best advantage for the whole garden. [Illustration: "Some clear disclosure of charm still remote may beckon and lure." From a photograph taken on My Own Acre, showing how I pulled the lawn in under the trees. The big chestnuts in the middle are on the old fence line that stood on the very edge of the precipitously falling ground. All the ground in sight in the picture is a fill.] Thus we generalize. And as long as one may generalize he is comparatively safe from humiliating criticism. It is only when he begins to name things by name and say what is best for just where, that he touches the naked eyeball (or the funny-bone) of others whose crotchets are not identical with his. Yet in Northampton this is what we have to do, and since the competitors for our prizes always have the Where before they are moved to get and place the What, we find our where-and-what problem easiest to handle when we lift it, so to speak, by the tail. Then it is "What to Plant Where," and for answer we have made a short list of familiar flowering shrubs best suited to our immediate geographical locality. We name only fourteen and we so describe each as to indicate clearly enough, without dictating, whereabouts to put it. We begin: "Azalea. Our common wild azalea is the flowering bush best known as 'swamp honeysuckle.' The two azaleas listed here, _A. mollis_ and the Ghent varieties, are of large, beautiful and luxuriant bloom, and except the 'swamp honeysuckle' are the only azaleas hardy in western Massachusetts. Mollis is from two to six feet high, three to six feet broad, and blooms in April and May. Its blossoms are yellow, orange or pink, single or double. Its soil may be sandy or peaty, and moist, but any good garden soil will serve; its position partly shaded or in full sunlight. The Ghents are somewhat taller and not so broad in proportion. They bloom from May to July, and their blossoms are white, yellow, orange, pink, carmine, or red, single or double. Soil and position about the same as for mollis. "Berberis. Berberis is the barberry, so well known by its beautiful pendent berries. It is one of the best shrubs to use where a thorny bush is wanted. _B. vulgaris_, the common sort, and one of the most beautiful, grows from four to eight feet high, with a breadth of from three to six feet. _B. Thunbergii_, or Thunberg's barberry, is the well-known Japanese variety, a dense, drooping bush from two to four feet high and somewhat greater breadth. Its pale-yellow blossoms come in April and May, and its small, slender, bright-red berries remain on the spray until spring. A dry soil is the best for it, though it will grow in any, and needs little shade or none. _B. purpurea_ is a variety of vulgaris and is as handsome as the common. It answers to the same description, except that its foliage is purple, which makes it very tempting to new gardeners, but very hard to relate in good artistic taste among the other shrubs of the garden. Few small gardens can make good use of purple foliage. "_Deutzia gracilis._ The gracilis is one of the most beautiful of all the deutzias. Its delicate foliage of rather light green, its snowy flowers and its somewhat bending form, make it one of the fairest ornaments of the home grounds. Its height is three feet, its breadth from two to four feet. It blooms in May and June. Its soil may be any well-drained sort, and its position any slightly sheltered aspect." So we hurry down the alphabet. The list is short for several good reasons, one being that it is well to give other lists from season to season. No doubt our inaccuracies would distress a botanist or scientific gardener, but we convey the information, such as it is, to our fellow citizens, and they use it. In the last ten years we have furnished to our amateurs thousands of shrubs and plants, at the same reduced rates for a few specimens each which we pay for them by the hundred. But of the really good sorts are there shrubs enough, you ask, to afford new lists year after year? Well, for the campus of a certain preparatory school for boys, with the planting of which the present writer had somewhat to do a few years ago, the list of shrubs set round the bases of four large buildings and several hundred yards of fence numbered seventy-five kinds. To end the chapter, let us say something about that operation. On a pictorial page or two we give ourselves the pleasure of showing the results of this undertaking; but first, both by pictures and by verbal description let me show where we planted what. Of course we made sundry mistakes. Each thing we did may be vulnerable to criticism, and our own largest hope is that our results may not fall entirely beneath that sort of compliment. This campus covers some five acres in the midst of a small town. Along three of its boundaries old maples and elms, in ordinary single-file shade-tree lines, tower and spread. On the fourth line, the rear bound, a board fence divides the ground from the very unattractive back yards, stables and sheds of a number of town residents. The front lies along the main street of the place, facing the usual "shop-row." The entire area has nearly always been grassed. Not what an Englishman would call so, but turfed in a stuttering fashion, impetuous and abashed by turns, and very easy to keep off; most rank up against the granite underpinnings of the buildings, and managing somehow to writhe to all the fences, of which those on the street fronts are of iron. Parallel with the front fence and some fifty feet behind it, three of the institution's buildings stand abreast and about a hundred feet apart. All three are tall, rectangular three-story piles of old red brick, on granite foundations, and full of windows all of one size, pigeon-house style. The middle one has a fairly good Greek-pillared porch, of wood, on the middle half of its front. [Illustration: " ... tall, rectangular, three-story piles ... full of windows all of one size, pigeon-house style." Middle Hall, Williston Seminary, facing the main street of the town.] Among these buildings we began our planting. We had drawn, of course, a ground plan of the whole place, to scale, showing each ground-floor door and window, so that we might respect its customary or projected use. A great point, that, in Where to Plant What. I once heard of a school whose small boys were accused of wantonly trampling down some newly set shrubs on the playground. "Well," demanded one brave urchin, "what made 'em go and plant a lot of bushes right on first base?" And no one was ready with an answer, for there is something morally wrong about any garden that will rob a boy of his rights. With this ground plan before us we decided indoors where to plant what outdoors and calculated arithmetically the number of each sort of shrub we should need for the particular interval we designed that sort to fill. Our scheme of arrangement was a crescendo of foliage and flower effects, beginning on the fronts of the buildings and rising toward their rears, while at all points making more of foliage than of bloom, because the bloom shows for only a month or less, while the leaf remains for seven or more. Beginning thus with our quietest note, the interest of any one looking in, or coming in, from the public front is steadily quickened and progressively rewarded, while the crowning effects at the rear of the buildings are reserved for the crowning moment when the visitor may be said to be fully received. On the other hand, if the approach is a returning one from the rear of the entire campus,--where stands the institution's only other building, a large tall-towered gymnasium, also of red brick,--these superlative effects show out across an open grassy distance of from two hundred to three hundred feet. Wherefore--and here at last we venture to bring names of things and their places together--at the fronts of the northernmost and southernmost of these three "Halls" we set favorite varieties of white-flowering spireas (_Thunbergia, sorbifolia_, _arguta_, _Van Houttei_), the pearl-bush (_exochorda_), pink diervillas, and flowering-almonds. After these, on the southern side of the southernmost building, for example, followed lilacs, white and purple, against the masonry,--the white against the red brick, the lilac tint well away from it,--with tamarisk and kerria outside, abreast of them, and then pink and red spireas (_Bumaldi_ and its dwarf variety, _Anthony Waterer_). On the other side of the same house we set deutzias (_scabra_ against the brick-work and _Lemoynei_ and _gracilis_ outside). In a wing corner, where melting snows crash down from a roof-valley, we placed the purple-flowered _Lespedeza penduliflorum_, which each year dies to the ground before the snow-slides come, yet each September blooms from three to four feet high in drooping profusion. Then from that angle to the rear corner we put in a mass of pink wild roses. Lastly, on the tall, doorless, windowless rear end, we planted the crimson-rambler rose, and under it a good hundred of the red rugosas. In the arrangement of these plantings we found ourselves called upon to deal with a very attractive and, to us, new phase of our question. The rising progression from front to rear was a matter of course, but how about the progression at right angles to it; from building to building, that is, of these three so nearly alike in size and dignity? To the passer-by along their Main Street front--the admiring passer-by, as we hope--should there be no augmentation of charm in the direction of his steps? And if there should be, then where and how ought it to show forth so as to avoid an anticlimax to one passing along the same front from the opposite direction? We promptly saw,--as the reader sees, no doubt, before we can tell it,--that what we wanted was two crescendos meeting somewhere near the middle; a crescendo passing into a diminuendo from whichever end you moved to the other--a swell. We saw that our loud-pedal effect should come upon "Middle Hall." So there, on its lucky bit of Greek porch, we bestowed the purple wistaria for spring, and for late summer that fragrant snowdrift, the clematis paniculata, so adapted as to festoon and chaplet, but never to smother, the Greek columns. On one of this structure's sides we planted forsythia, backed closer against the masonry by althæas, with the low and exquisite mahonia (holly-leafed barberry) under its outer spread. On the other side of the house we placed, first, loniceras (bush honeysuckles); next, azaleas, in variety and profusion; then, toward the rear end, a mass of hardy hydrangeas (_Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_), and at the very back of the pile another mass, of the flowering-quince (_Pyrus japonica_), with the trumpet-creeper (_Tecoma radicans_), to climb out of it. About "North Hall," the third building, we planted more quietly, and most quietly on its outer, its northern, side where our lateral "swell" (rising effect) begins, or ends, according to the direction of your going, beginning with that modest but pretty bloomer the _Ligustrum ibota_, a perfectly hardy privet more graceful than the California (_ovalifolium_) species, which really has little business in icy New England away from the seashore. I might have remarked before that nearly all the walls of these three buildings, as well as the gymnasium on the far side of the campus, were already adorned with the "Boston ivy" (_Ampelopsis Veitchii_). With the plantings thus described, and with the gymnasium surrounded by yet stronger greenery; with the back fence masked by willows, elders and red-stemmed cornus; and with a number of haphazard footpaths reduced to an equally convenient and far more graceful few, our scheme stands complete in its first, but only, please notice, its first, phase. The picture is submitted to your imagination not as it looked the day we ceased planting, but as we expected it to appear after a season or two, and as it does look now. At present, rather tardily, we have begun to introduce herbaceous flowering perennials, which we ignored in the first part of our plan, because herbaceous plants are the flesh and blood and garments of a complete living and breathing garden; the walls, shrubs, trees, walks and drives are its bones. When this secondary phase has been more fully realized and we have placed bush-clumps and tree-clumps out on the open campus, and when our hundreds of cottage gardens are shaking off the prison irons of frost, we hope, if you cannot do us the honor to be with us bodily, your spirit may be near, aiding us on in the conquest of this ever beautiful Where-to-Plant-What problem, which I believe would make us a finer and happier nation if it could be expanded to national proportions. THE COTTAGE GARDENS OF NORTHAMPTON Adam and Eve, it is generally conceded, were precocious. They entered into the cares and joys of adult life at an earlier age than any later human prodigy. We call them the grand old gardener and his wife, but, in fact, they were the youngest gardeners the world has ever seen, and they really did not give entire satisfaction. How could they without tools? Let it pass. The whole allusion is prompted only by the thought that youth does not spontaneously garden. If it was actually necessary that our first parents should begin life as gardeners, that fully explains why they had to begin it also as adults. Youth enjoys the garden, yes! but not its making or tending. Childhood, the abecedarian, may love to plant seeds, to watch them spring, grow, and flower, and to help them do so; but that is the merest a-b-c of gardening, and no more makes him an amateur in the art than spelling words of one letter makes him a poet. One may raise or love flowers for a lifetime, yet never in any art sense become a gardener. In front of the main building of a public institution which we must presently mention again there is a sloping strip of sward a hundred feet long and some fifteen wide. A florist of fully half a century's experience one day halted beside it and exclaimed to the present writer, "Only say the word, and I'll set out the 'ole len'th o' that strip in foliage-plants a-spellin' o' the name: 'People's Hinstitute!'" Yet that gentle enthusiast advertised himself as a landscape-gardener and got clients. For who was there to tell them or him that he was not one? Not only must we confess that youth does not spontaneously garden, but that our whole American civilization is still so lingeringly in its non-gardening youth that only now and then, here and there, does it realize that a florist, whether professional or amateur, or even a nurseryman, is not necessarily a constructive gardener, or that artistic gardening, however informal, is nine-tenths constructive. Yet particularly because such gardening is so, and because some of its finest rewards are so slow-coming and long-abiding, there is no stage of life in which it is so reasonable for man or woman to love and practise the art as when youth is in its first full stature and may garden for itself and not merely for posterity. "John," said his aged father to one of our living poets, "I know now how to transplant full-grown trees successfully. Do it a long time ago." Let the stripling plant the sapling. Youth, however, and especially our American youth, has his or her excuses, such as they are. Of the garden or the place to be gardened, "It's not mine," he or she warmly says; "it's only my father's," or "my mother's." Young man! Young maiden! True, the place, so pathetically begging to be gardened, may not be your future home, may never be your property, and it is right enough that a feeling for ownership should begin to shape your daily life. But let it not misshape it. You know that ownership is not all of life nor the better half of it, and it is quite as good for you to give the fact due recognition by gardening early in life as it was for Adam and Eve. It is better, for you can do so in a much more fortunate manner, having tools and the first pair's warning example. It is better also because you can do what to them was impossible; you can make gardening a concerted public movement. That is what we have made it in Northampton, Massachusetts, whose curving streets and ancient elms you may have heard of as making it very garden-like in its mere layout; many of whose windows, piazzas, and hillside lawns look on across the beautiful Connecticut, winding broadly among its farmed meadows and vanishing southward through the towering gateway made for or by it millenniums ago between Mounts Tom and Holyoke. There Smith College is, as well as that "People's Institute" aforementioned, and it is through that institute, one of whose several branches of work is carried on wholly by Smith College students, that we, the Northampton townspeople, established and maintain another branch, our concerted gardening. [Illustration: "You can make gardening a concerted public movement." A gathering on My Own Acre in the interest of the Flower Garden Competition.] One evening in September a company of several hundred persons gathered in the main hall of the institute's "Carnegie House" to witness and receive the prize awards of their twelfth annual flower-garden competition. The place was filled. A strong majority of those present were men and women who earn their daily bread with their hands. The whole population of Northampton is but twenty thousand or so, and the entire number of its voters hardly exceeds four thousand, yet there were one thousand and thirteen gardens in the competition, the gardens of that many homes; and although children had taken part in the care of many of them, and now were present to see the prizes go to their winners, not one was separately a child's garden. By a rule of the contest, each garden had been required to comprise the entire home lot, with the dwelling for its dominating feature and the family its spiritual unit. The ceremony of award began with the lowest cash prize and moved steadily up to the second and first, these two being accompanied by brilliantly illuminated diplomas, and as each award was bestowed, the whole gathering of winners and non-winners--for no one could be called a loser--sounded their congratulations by a hearty clapping of hands. They had made the matter a public, concerted movement, and were interested in its results and rewards as spiritual proprietors in a common possession much wider than mere personal ownership under the law. This wider sentiment of community, so valuable to the whole public interest, was further promoted by the combining of nearly two hundred of these same gardens in "neighborhood garden clubs" of seven or more gardens each, every garden in each club directly adjoining another, and the clubs competing for prizes of so much a garden to the best and second-best clubs. Yet none the less for all this, but much more, a great majority of the multitude of home gardeners represented by this gathering were enjoying also--each home pair through their own home garden--the pleasures of personal ownership and achievement. Many of the prize-winners were young, but many were gray, and some were even aged, yet all alike would have testified that even for age, and so all the more for youth, artistic flower-gardening is as self-rewarding a form of unselfish work and as promptly rewarding a mode of waiting on the future as can easily be found; that there is no more beautifully rewarding way by which youth may "Learn to labor and to wait." Maybe that is why Adam and Eve were apprenticed to it so very young. It should have been said before that in advance of the award of prizes some very pleasant music and song were given from the platform by a few Smith College girls, and that then the company were shown stereopticon pictures of a number of their own gardens as they looked during the past summer and as they had looked when, a few years ago,--although seemingly but yesterday,--their owners began to plan and to plant. The contrasts were amazing and lent great emphasis to the two or three truths we have here dwelt on probably long enough. To wit: first, that, as a rule, all true gardeners are grown-ups; second, that therein lies the finest value of concerted gardening; third, that the younger the grown-up the better, for the very reason that the crowning recompenses of true gardening come surely, but come late; and fourth, that, nevertheless, gardening yields a lovely amplitude of immediate rewards. For instance, this gathering in our People's Institute also, before the announcement of prizes, took delight in hearing reported the aggregate of the flowers, mostly of that season's planting, distributed by a considerable number of the competitors to the shut-in and the bereaved. This feature of the movement had been begun only the previous year, and its total was no more than some three thousand dozens of flowers; but many grateful acknowledgments, both verbal and written, prove that it gave solace and joy to many hearts and we may call it a good beginning. A garden should be owned not to be monopolized, but to be shared, as a song is owned not to be hushed, but to be sung; and the wide giving of its flowers is but one of several ways in which a garden may sing or be sung--for the garden is both song and singer. At any rate it cannot help but be a public benefaction and a public asset, if only its art be true. Hence one of the values of our gardening in Northampton: making the gardens so many and so artistically true and good, it makes the town, as a whole, more interesting and pleasing to itself, and in corresponding degree the better to live in. Possibly there may be some further value in telling here how we do it. As soon as signs of spring are plain to the general eye the visiting for enrolment begins. A secretary of the institute sets out to canvass such quarters of the field as have not been apportioned among themselves individually by the ladies composing the committee of "volunteer garden visitors." At the same time these ladies begin their calls, some undertaking more, some less, according to each one's willingness or ability. This first round consists merely in enrolling the competitors by name, street, and number and in sending these registrations in to the institute. Later, by the same ladies, the same ground is more or less gone over again in visits of observation, inquiry and counsel, and once a month throughout the season the ladies meet together with the president of the institute to report the conditions and sentiments encountered and to plan further work. The importance of these calls is not confined to the advancement of good gardening. They promote fellowship among neighbors and kind feeling between widely parted elements of society. Last year this committee made nearly eleven hundred such visits. Meanwhile a circular letter has been early mailed to the previous year's competitors, urging them to re-enroll by post-card. Last year hundreds did so. Meanwhile, too, as soon as the enrolment is completed, the institute's general secretary begins a tour of official inspection, and as he is an experienced teacher of his art, his inspections are expert. His errand is known by the time he is in sight, and, as a rule, the householder joins him in a circuit of the place, showing achievements, reciting difficulties and disappointments, confessing errors, and taking tactful advice. And what room he finds for tact! He sees a grave-like bed of verbenas defacing the middle of a small greensward--a dab of rouge on a young cheek; a pert child doing all the talking. Whereupon he shrewdly pleads not for the sward but for the flowers, "You have those there to show off at their best?" "Yes. Don't they do it?" "Not quite." He looks again. "Nine feet long--five wide. If you'll plant them next year in a foot-wide ribbon under that border of stronger things along your side boundary they'll give you at least forty feet of color instead of nine, and they'll illuminate your bit of sward instead of eclipsing it." In another garden he says, "Splendid sunburst of color, that big tub of geraniums!" and the householder is pleased to admit the fact. "If you'd sink the tub into the ground clear down to the rim they'd take up no more room and they'd look natural. Besides, you wouldn't have to water them continually." "That's true!" says the householder, quite in the incredible way of an old-fashioned book. "I'll do it!" "And then," says the caller, "if you will set it away off on that far corner of the lawn it will shine clear across, showing everything between here and there, like a lighthouse across a harbor, or like a mirror, which you hang not in your parlor door, but at the far end of the room." "When you come back you shall see it there," is the reply. Sometimes, yet not often, a contestant is met who does not want advice, and who can hardly hide his scorn for book statements and experts. The present writer came upon one last year who "could not see what beauty there was in John Smith's garden, yet we had given him and his wife the capital prize!" Frequently one finds the house of a competitor fast locked and dumb, its occupants being at work in some mill or shop. Then if the visit is one of official inspection a card stating that fact and dated and signed on the spot is left under the door, and on its reverse side the returning householder finds printed the following: "In marking for merit your whole place is considered your garden. It is marked on four points: (1) Its layout, or ground plan; (2) its harmonies--of arrangement as to color of blooms and as to form and size of trees, shrubs and plants; (3) its condition--as to the neatness and order of everything; and (4) its duration--from how early in the year to how late it will make a pleasing show. "Mow your lawn as often as the mower will cut the grass, but also keep it thoroughly weeded. As a rule, in laying out your plantings avoid straight lines and hard angles; the _double_ curve, or wave line, is the line of grace. Plant all the flowers you wish, few or many, but set shrubs at their back to give stronger and more lasting effects when the flowers are out of season as well as while they are in bloom. "Try to plant so as to make your whole place one single picture of a _home_, with the house the chief element and the boundary-lines of the lot the frame. Plant on all your lot's boundaries, plant out the foundation-lines of all its buildings; but between these plantings keep the space grassed only, and open. In these house and boundary borders let your chief plantings be shrubs, and so have a nine months' instead of a three months' garden." The secretary's tour completed and his score of all the gardens tabulated, a list is drawn from it of the one hundred and fifty best gardens, and a second circuit of counsel and inspection, limited to this greatly reduced number, is made by the president of the institute, who marks them again on the same four points of merit. These two markings, averaged, determine the standing of all prize-winning gardens except the leading four. Then the president calls in one professional and one amateur expert, visits with them as many of the most promising contestants as can be seen in an afternoon's drive, and with them decides the award of the four highest prizes. [Illustration: "Plant on all your lot's boundaries, plant out the foundation-lines of all its buildings." A secluded back corner of a prize-winner's garden which shows how slight a planting may redeem the homeliness of an old fence.] [Illustration: "Not chiefly to reward the highest art in gardening, but to procure its widest and most general dissemination." A cheap apartment row whose landlord had its planting done by the People's Institute.] That is all. When we have given two or three lesser items our story is told--for what it is worth. It is well to say we began small; in our first season, fifteen years ago, our whole roll of competitors numbered but sixty. It is the visiting that makes the difference; last season these visits, volunteer and official, were more than thirty-one hundred. Another source of our success we believe to be the fact that our prizes are many and the leading ones large--fifteen, twelve, nine dollars, and so on down. Prizes and all, the whole movement costs a yearly cash outlay of less than three hundred dollars; without the People's Institute at its back it could still be done for five hundred. And now, this being told in the hope that it may incite others, and especially youth, to make experiments like it elsewhere, to what impulse shall we appeal? Will it not suffice if we invoke that adolescent instinct which moves us to merge our individual life--to consolidate it, as the stock-manipulators say--in the world's one great life, our "celestial selfishness" being intuitively assured that our own priceless individuality will gain, not lose, thereby? Or shall we make our plea to an "art impulse"? No? Is the world already artificial enough? Not by half, although it is full, crammed, with the things the long-vanished dead have done for it in every art, from cameos to shade-trees; done for it because it was already so fair that, live long or die soon, they could not hold themselves back from making it fairer. Yet, all that aside, is not this concerted gardening precisely such a work that young manhood and womanhood, however artificial or unartificial, anywhere, everywhere, Old World or newest frontier, ought to take to naturally? Adam and Eve did, and they--but we have squeezed Adam and Eve dry enough. Patriotism! Can you imagine a young man or woman without it? And if you are young and a lover of your country, do you not love its physical aspects, "its rocks and rills, its woods and templed hills"? And if so, do you love only those parts of it which you never see and the appearance of which you have no power to modify? Or do you love the land only and not the people, the nation, the government? Or, loving these, have you no love for the nearest public fraction of it, your own town and neighbors? Why, then, your love of the Stars and Stripes is the flattest, silliest idolatry; so flat and silly it is hardly worth chiding. Your patriotism is a patriotism for war only, and a country with only that kind is never long without war. You see the difference? Patriotism for war generalizes. A patriotism for peace particularizes, localizes. Ah, you do love, despite all their faults, your nation, your government, your town and townspeople, else you would not so often scold them! Otherwise, why do you let us call them yours? Because they belong to you? No, because you belong to them. Beyond cavil you are your own, but beyond cavil, too, you are theirs; their purchased possession, paid for long, long in advance and sight-unseen. You cannot use a sidewalk, a street-lamp, or a post-box, or slip away into the woods and find them cleared of savages and deadly serpents, without seeing part of the price paid for you before your great-grandfather was born. So, then, loving your town enough to scold it, you will also serve it! Now this we say not so much to be preaching as to bring in a last word descriptive of our Northampton movement. We do not make that work a mere aggregation of private kindnesses, but a public business for the promotion of the town in sanitary upkeep, beauty and civic fellowship. And so our aim is not chiefly to reward the highest art in gardening, but to procure its widest and most general dissemination. The individual is definitely subordinated to the community's undivided interest. Since gardening tends to develop in fortunate sections and to die out in others, we have laid off our town map in seven parts and made a rule that to each of these shall go three of the prizes. Moreover, no two consecutive prizes can be awarded in any one of these districts. Where a competitor takes the capital prize no other can take a higher than the third, and if two in one district win the first and third prizes no one else there can take a higher than the fifth. So on through to prize twenty-one. Still further, a garden taking any of these prizes can never again take any of them but a higher one, and those who attain to the capital prize are thenceforth _hors concours_ except to strive for the "Past Competitors' Prizes," first and second. Thus the seasons come and go, the gardens wake, rise, rejoice and slumber again; and because this arrangement is so evidently for the common weal and fellowship first, and yet leaves personal ownership all its liberties, rights and delights, it is cordially accepted of the whole people. And, lastly, as a certain dear lady whom we may not more closely specify exclaimed when, to her glad surprise, she easily turned the ceremonial golden key which first unlocked the Carnegie House of our People's Institute, "It works!" THE PRIVATE GARDEN'S PUBLIC VALUE What its pages are to a book, a town's private households are to a town. No true home, standing solitarily apart from the town (unbound, as it were) could be the blessed thing it is were there not so many other houses not standing apart but gathered into villages, towns and cities. Whence comes civilization but from _civitas_, the city? And where did _civitas_ get its name, when city and state were one, but from citizen? He is not named for the city but the city for him, and his title meant first the head of a household, the master of a home. To make a civilization, great numbers of men must have homes, must mass them compactly together and must not mass them together on a dead level of equal material equipment but in a confederation of homes of all ranks and conditions. The home is the cornerstone of the state. The town, the organized assemblage of homes, is the keystone of civilization's arch. In order to keep our whole civilization moving on and up, _which is the only way for home and town to pay to each other their endless spiral of reciprocal indebtedness_, every home in a town--or state, for that matter--should be made as truly and fully a home as every wise effort and kind influence of all the other homes can make it. Unless it takes part in this effort and influence, no home, be it ever so favored, can realize, even for itself and in itself, the finest civilization it might attain. Why should it? I believe this is a moral duty, a debt as real as taxes and very much like them. In our People's Institute over in Northampton, Massachusetts, this is the a-b-c of all they seek to do: the individual tutoring, by college girls and town residents, of hundreds of young working men and women in whatever these may choose from among a score or so of light studies calculated to refine their aspirations; the training of young girls, by paid experts, in the arts of the home, from cooking to embroidery; the training of both sexes in all the social amenities; and the enlistment of more than a thousand cottage homes in a yearly prize competition. It is particularly of this happy garden contest that I wish to say a word or two more. In 1914 it completed its sixteenth season, but it is modelled on a much older one in the town of Dunfermline, Scotland, the birthplace of Mr. Andrew Carnegie, and it is from the bountiful spirit of that great citizen of two lands that both affairs draw at least one vital element of their existence. We in Northampton first learned of the Dunfermline movement in 1898. We saw at once how strongly such a scheme might promote the general spiritual enrichment of our working people's homes if made one of the functions of our home-culture clubs, several features of whose work were already from five to ten years old. We proceeded to adopt and adapt the plan, and had our first competition and award of prizes in 1898-'99. Like Dunfermline, we made our prizes large, and to this we attribute no small part of our success. When we saw fit to increase their number we increased the total outlay as well, and at present we award twenty-one prizes a year, the highest being fifteen dollars, and one hundred dollars the sum of the whole twenty-one prizes. So we have gained one of our main purposes: to tempt into the contest the man of the house and thus to stimulate in him that care and pride of his home, the decline of which, in the man of the house, is one of the costliest losses of hard living. One day on their round of inspection our garden judges came to a small house at the edge of the town, near the top of a hill through which the rustic street cuts its way some twelve or fifteen feet below. The air was pure, the surroundings green, the prospect wide and lovely. Here was a rare chance for picturesque gardening. Although the yard was without a fence there had been some planting of flowers in it. Yet it could hardly be called a garden. So destitute was it of any intelligent plan and so uncared for that it seemed almost to have a conscious, awkward self-contempt. In the flecked shade of a rude trellis of grapes that sheltered a side door two children of the household fell to work with great parade at a small machine, setting bristles into tooth-brushes for a neighboring factory, but it was amusingly plain that their labor was spasmodic and capricious. The mother was away on a business errand. The father was present. He had done his day's stint in the cutlery works very early, and with five hours of sunlight yet before him had no use to make of them but to sit on a bowlder on the crest of the pleasant hill and smoke and whittle. Had he been mentally trained he might, without leaving that stone, have turned those hours into real living, communing with nature and his own mind; but he had, as half an eye could see, no developed powers of observation, reflection or imagination, and probably, for sheer want of practice, could not have fixed his attention on a worthy book through five of its pages. The question that arose in the minds of his visitors comes again here: what could have been so good to keep idleness from breeding its swarm of evils in his brain and hands--and home--as for somebody, something, somehow, to put it into his head--well--for example--to make a garden? A garden, we will say, that should win a prize, and--even though it failed to win--should render him and his house and household more interesting to himself, his neighbors and his town. He and his house seemed to be keeping the Ten Commandments in a slouching sort of way and we may even suppose they were out of debt--money debt; yet already they were an unconscious menace to society; their wage-earning powers had outgrown their wants. Outgrown them not because the wages were too high but because their wants were too low; were only wants of the body, wants of the barrenest unculture; _the inelastic wants_. That is "my own invention," that phrase! The bodily wants of a reptile are elastic. If an alligator or a boa-constrictor catches a dog he can swallow him whole and enjoy that one meal in unriotous bliss for weeks. Thereafter if he must put up with no more than a minnow or a mouse he can do that for weeks in unriotous patience. In a spring in one of our Northampton gardens I saw a catfish swallow a frog so big that the hind toes stuck out of the devourer's mouth for four days; but they went in at last, and the fish, in his fishy fashion, from start to finish was happy. He was never demoralized. It is not so with us. We cannot much distend or contract our purely physical needs. Especially is any oversupply of them mischievous. They have not the reptilian elasticity. Day by day they must have just enough. But the civilized man has spiritual wants and they are as elastic as air. A home is a house well filled with these elastic wants. Home-culture is getting such wants into households--not merely into single individuals--that lack them. What makes a man rich? Is the term merely comparative? Not merely. To be rich is to have, beyond the demands of our bodily needs, abundant means to supply our spiritual wants. To possess more material resources than we can or will use or bestow to the spiritual advantage of ourselves and others is to be perilously rich, whether we belong to a grinders' union in the cutlery works or to a royal family. Why is it so often right that a rich college, for example, should, in its money-chest, feel poor? Because it could so easily supply more spiritual wants if it had more money. Not low wages will ever make men harmless, nor high wages make them happy, nor low nor high save them from a spirit of pauperism or of malignant envy; but having wages bigger than their bodily wants, and having spiritual wants numerous and elastic enough to use up the surplus--spiritual wants, that know both how to suffer need and how to abound, and to do either without backsliding toward savagery. Whoever would help this state of things on, let him seek at the same time to increase the home's wage-earning power and its spiritual powers to put to fine use the wages earned: to augment the love of beauty in nature and in art, the love of truth and knowledge, the love of achievement and of service, the love of God and of human society, the ambition to put more into the world than we get out of it. Wages will never be too high, nor the hours of a day's work too many or too few, which follow that "sliding scale." How much our garden contest may do of this sort for that cottage on the hill we have yet to know; last year was its first in the competition. But it has shown the ambition to enter the lists, and a number that promised no more at the outset have since won prizes. One such was so beautiful last year that strangers driving by stopped and asked leave to dismount and enjoy a nearer view. [Illustration: "Having wages bigger than their bodily wants, and having spiritual wants numerous and elastic enough to use up the surplus." The owner of this cottage, who stands on the lawn, spaded and graded it and grassed it herself, and by shrubbery plantings about the house's foundation and on the outer boundaries of the grass has so transformed it since this picture was taken as to win one of the highest prizes awarded among more than a thousand competitors.] [Illustration: "One such competing garden was so beautiful last year that strangers driving by stopped and asked leave to dismount and enjoy a nearer view." A capital prize-winner's back yard which was a sand bank when he entered the competition. His front yard is still handsomer.] A certain garden to which we early awarded a high prize was, and yet remains, among the loveliest in Northampton. Its house stands perhaps seventy feet back from the public way and so nearly at one edge of its broad lot that all its exits and entrances are away from that side and toward the garden. A lawn and front bordered on side by loose hedges of Regel's privet and Thunberg's barberry and with only one or two slim trees of delicate foliage near its street line, rises slightly from the sidewalk to the house in a smooth half wave that never sinks below any level it has attained and yet consists of two curves. (It takes two curves, let us say once more, to make even half of the gentlest wave that can be made, if you take it from the middle of the crest to the middle of the trough, and in our American gardening thousands of lawns, especially small front lawns, are spoiled in their first layout by being sloped in a single curve instead of in two curves bending opposite ways.) Along a side of this greensward farthest from the boundary to which the house is so closely set are the drive and walk, in one, and on the farther side of these, next the sun, is the main flower-garden, half surrounding another and smaller piece of lawn. The dwelling stands endwise to the street and broadside to this expanse of bloom. Against its front foundations lies a bed of flowering shrubs which at the corner farthest from the drive swings away along that side's boundary line and borders it with shrubbery down to the street, the main feature of the group being a luxuriant flowering quince as large as ten ordinary ones and in every springtime a red splendor. But the focus of the gardening scheme is at the southeasterly side entrance of the house. To this the drive comes on unrigorous lines from the street. The walk curves away a few steps earlier to go to the front door but the drive, passing on, swings in under the rear corner windows and to the kitchen steps, veers around by the carriage-house door and so loops back into itself. In this loop, and all about the bases of the dwelling and carriage-house the flowers rise in dense abundance, related to one another with clever taste and with a happy care for a procession of bloom uninterrupted throughout the season. Straightaway from the side door, leaving the drive at a right angle, runs a short arbor of vines. Four or five steps to the left of this bower a clump of shrubbery veils the view from the street and in between shrubs and arbor lies a small pool of water flowers and goldfish. On the arbor's right, in charming privacy, masked by hollyhocks, dahlias and other tall-maidenly things, lie beds of strawberries and lettuce and all the prim ranks and orders of the kitchen garden. Words are poor things to paint with; I wish I could set forth all in one clear picture: lawn, drive, house, loop, lily pond, bower, rose-bordered drive again (as the eye comes back) and flowers crowding before, behind and beside you, some following clear out to the street and beseeching you not to go so soon. Such is the garden, kept without hired labor, of two soft-handed women; not beyond criticism in any of its aspects but bearing witness to their love of nature, of beauty and of home and of their wisdom and skill to exalt and refine them. This competitor early won, I say, a leading prize, and in later seasons easily held--still holds--a fine pre-eminence. Yet the later prizes fell to others, because, while this one had been a beautiful garden for years before the competition began, they, rising from much newer and humbler beginnings, sometimes from very chaos, showed between one season and the next far greater advances _toward_ artistic excellence. In the very next year a high prize fell to a garden in full sight of this one, a garden whose makers had caught their inspiration from this one, and, copying its art, had brought forth a charming result out of what our judges described as "particularly forlorn conditions." Does this seem hardly fair to the first garden? But to spread the gardening contagion and to instigate a wise copying after the right gardeners--these are what our prizes and honors are for. Progress first, perfection afterward, is our maxim. We value and reward originality, nevertheless, and only count it a stronger necessity to see not merely that no talented or happily circumstanced few, but that not even any one or two fortunate neighborhoods, shall presently be capturing all the prizes. Hence the rules already cited, which a prompt discovery of this tendency forced upon us. About this copying: no art is more inoffensively imitated than gardening but unluckily none is more easily, or more absurdly, miscopied. A safe way is to copy the gardener rather than the garden. To copy any performance in a way to do it honor we must discern and adapt its art without mimicking its act. To miscopy is far easier--we have only to mimic the act and murder the art. I once heard a man ask an architect if it would not answer to give his plan to the contractor and let him work it out without the architect's supervision. "My dear sir," the architect replied, "you wouldn't know the corpse." I suppose one reason why even the miscopying of gardens provokes so little offence is that the acts it mimics have no art it can murder. Mrs. Budd sets out her one little "high geraingia" in the middle of her tiny grass-plat (probably trimming it to look like a ballet-dancer on one leg). Whereupon Mrs. Mudd, the situation of whose house and grounds is not in the least like her neighbor's, plants and trims hers the same way and feels sure it has the same effect, for--why shouldn't it? The prize-winning copyist I am telling of copied principles only. To have copied mere performance would have been particularly unlucky, for though his garden stands within fifty yards of the one from which it drew its inspiration the two are so differently located that the same art principles demand of them very different performances. An old-time lover of gardens whom I have to quote at second-hand mentions in contrast "gardens to look in upon" and "gardens to look out from." The garden I have described at length is planned to be looked in upon; most town gardens must be, of course; but its competitor across the street, of which I am about to give account, is an exception. The lot has a very broad front and very little depth--at one side almost none, at the other barely enough for a small house and a few feet of front yard. Why there should be a drive I cannot say, but it is so well taken into the general scheme that to call it to account would be ungenerous. It enters at the narrowest part of the ground, farthest from the house, makes a long parabola, and turns again into the street close beside the dwelling. In the bit of lawn thus marked off, shrubs have place near the street, three or four old apple-trees range down the middle, and along the drive runs a gay border of annual flowers. Along the rear side of the drive lies but a narrow strip of turf beyond which the ground drops all at once to another level some thirty feet below. On the right this fall is so abrupt that the only way down to it is by a steep rustic stair. On the left, behind the house, the face of the bluff is broken into narrow terraces, from top to bottom of which, and well out on the lower level, the entire space is mantled with the richly burdened trellises of a small vineyard. At the right on this lower ground is a kitchen garden; beyond it stretch fair meadows too low to build on, but fruitful in hay and grain; farther away, on higher ground, the town again shows its gables and steeples among its great maples and elms, and still beyond, some three miles distant, the green domes and brown precipices of the Mount Holyoke Range stand across the sky in sharp billows of forest and rock. It seems at times a pity that Mount Holyoke and Mount Tom cannot themselves know how many modest gardens they are a component part of--the high violin note of: gardens, like this one, "to look out from." It stops one's pen for one to find himself using the same phrases for these New England cottage gardens that famous travellers have used in telling of the gardens of Italian princes; yet why should we not, when the one nature and the one art are mother and godmother of them all? It is a laughing wonder what beauty can be called into life about the most unpretentious domicile, out of what ugliness such beauty can be evoked and at how trivial a cost in money. Three years before this "garden to look out from" won its Carnegie prize it was for the most part a rubbish heap. Let me now tell of one other, that sprang from conditions still more unlovely because cramped and shut in. It was on the other side of the town from those I have been telling of. The house stood broadside to the street and flush with the sidewalk. The front of the lot was only broad enough for the house and an alley hardly four feet wide between the house's end and a high, tight board fence. The alley led into a small, square back yard one of whose bounds was the back fence of the house. On a second side was a low, mossy, picturesquely old wing-building set at right angles to the larger house, its doors and windows letting into the yard. A third boundary was the side of one well weathered barn and the back of another, with a scanty glimpse between them of meadows stretching down to the Connecticut River. The fourth was an open fence marking off a field of riotous weeds. When the tenant mistress of this unpromising spot began to occupy it the yard and alley were a free range for the poultry of the neighborhood, and its only greenery was two or three haphazard patches of weedy turf. One-fourth of the ground, in the angle made by the open fence and one of the barns, had been a hen-yard and was still inclosed within a high wire-netting; but outside that space every plant she set out had to be protected from the grubbing fowls by four stakes driven down with a hammer. Three years afterward she bore off our capital prize in a competition of one hundred gardens. Let me tell what the judges found. [Illustration: "Beauty can be called into life about the most unpretentious domicile." One of a great number of competing cottages whose gardens are handsomer in the rear and out of sight than on the street-front, though well kept there also.] [Illustration: "Those who pay no one to dig, plant or prune for them." The aged owner of this place has hired no help for twenty years. Behind her honey-locust hedge a highly kept and handsome flower and shrubbery garden fills the whole house lot. She is a capital prize-winner.] Out in the street, at the off side of the alley-gate, between a rude fence and an electric-railway siding, in about as much space as would give standing room to one horse and cart, bloomed--not by right of lease, but by permission of the railway company--a wealth of annual flowers, the lowest (pansies and such like) at the outer edge, the tallest against the unsightly fence. This was the prelude. In the alley the fence was clothed with vines; the windows--of which there were two--were decked with boxes of plumbago--pink, violet, white and blue, and of lady-ferns and maiden-hair. The back yard was a soft, smooth turf wherever there were not flowers. Along the back doors and windows of the house and the low-roofed wing a rough arbor was covered with a vine whose countless blossoms scented the air and feasted the bees, while its luminous canopy sheltered a rare assemblage of such flowers as bloom and thrive only for those whom they know and trust. But the crowning transformation was out in the open sunlight, in the space which had been the hen-yard. Within it was a holiday throng of the gardening world's best-known and loved gentles and commons, from roses down to forget-me-nots. Its screen of poultry-netting had been kept in place, and no feature on the premises more charmingly showed that this floral profusion came of no mere greed for abundance or diversity, but of a true art instinct recognizing the limits of its resources. The garden had to be made a "garden to look in upon," a veritable imprisoned garden; the question of expense required it to be chiefly of annuals, and all the structural features of the place called for concealment. These wire nettings did so; on their outside, next the grass, two complete groups of herbaceous things were so disposed as to keep them veiled in bloom throughout the whole warm half of the year. Close against them and overpeering their tops were hollyhocks and dahlias; against these stood at lesser height sweet peas, asters, zinnias, coreopsis and others of like stature; in front of these were poppies for summer, marigolds for autumn; beneath these again were verbenas, candytuft--all this is sketched from memory, and I recall the winsome effect rather than species and names; and still below nestled portulaca and periwinkle. I fear the enumeration gives but a harlequin effect; but the fault of that is surely mine, for the result was delightful. I have ventured to make report of these two or three gardens, not as in themselves worthy of a great public's consideration and praise but as happy instances of a fruitage we are gathering among hundreds of homes in a little city where it is proposed to give every home, if possible, its utmost value. Many other pleasing examples could be cited if further turnings of the kaleidoscope were a real need, but this slender discourse is as long now as it should be. It seems droll to call grave attention to such humble things in a world so rightly preoccupied with great sciences and high arts, vast industries, shining discoveries and international rivalries, strifes and projects; yet what are all these for, at last, but the simple citizen, his family and his home, and for him and them in the cottage as well as in the palace? The poor man's home may shine dimly but it is one of the stars by which civilization must guide its onward course. It may well be supposed that those whose office it is to award the twenty-one prizes of our garden competition among our eleven hundred competitors have an intricate task. Yet some of its intricacies add to the pleasure of it. One of these pleasing complications arises from our division of the field of contest into seven parts, in each of which prizes must be given to three contestants. Another comes from our rule that not alone the competitors who show the best gardening are to be rewarded, but also those who have made the most earnest effort and largest progress toward the best gardening. Under this plan one whose work shows a patient and signal progress in the face of many disadvantages may outrank on our prize list a rival whose superior artistic result has been got easily under favoring conditions and reveals no marked advance beyond the season before. After the manner of Dunfermline again, our rules are that no gardener by trade and no one who hires help in his garden may compete. Any friend may help his friend, and any one may use all the advice he can get from amateur or professional. Children may help in the care of the gardens, and many do; but children may not themselves put gardens into the competition. "If the head of the house is the gardener-in-chief," shrewdly argued one of our committee, "the children, oftener than otherwise, will garden with him, or will catch the gardening spirit as they grow up; but if the children are head-gardeners we shall get only children's gardening. We want to dispel the notion that flower-gardening is only woman's work and child's play." Our rule against hired labor sets naturally a maximum limit to the extent of ground a garden may cover. Our minimum is but fifty square yards, including turf, beds, and walks, and it may be of any shape whatever if only it does not leave out any part of the dooryard, front or rear, and give it up to neglect and disorder. To the ear even fifty square yards seems extensive, but really it is very small. It had so formidable a sound when we first named it that one of our most esteemed friends, pastor of a Catholic church in that very pretty and thrifty part of Northampton called for its silk mills Florence, generously added two supplementary prizes for gardens under the limit of size. This happy thought had a good effect, for, although in the first and second years Father Gallon's people took prizes for gardens above the minimum limit in size, while his own two prizes fell to contestants not in his flock, yet only in the third year did it become to all of us quite as plain as a pikestaff that fifty square yards are only the one-fiftieth part of fifty yards square, and that whoever in Northampton had a dooryard at all had fifty square yards. In 1903 more than two hundred and fifty gardens were already in the contest but every one was large enough to compete for the Carnegie prizes, and the kind bestower of the extra ones (withdrawn as superfluous), unselfishly ignoring his own large share of credit, wrote: "Your gardens have altered the aspect of my parish." Such praise is high wages. It is better than to have achieved the very perfection of gardening about any one home. We are not trying to raise the world's standard of the gardening art. Our work is for the home and its indwellers; for the home and the town. Our ideal is a town of homes all taking pleasant care of one another. We want to make all neighbors and all homes esthetically interesting to one another, believing that this will relate them humanely, morally and politically. We began with those who pay no one to dig, plant or prune for them, but soon we went further and ventured to open to gardens kept with hired service an allied competition for a separate list of prizes. In this way we put into motion, between two elements of our people which there are always more than enough influences to hold sufficiently apart, a joint pursuit of the same refining delight and so promoted the fellowship of an unconflicting common interest. In degree some of us who use hired help had already obtained this effect. Last season: "Come," I often heard one of our judges say on his rounds, "see my own garden some afternoon; I'll show you all the mistakes I've made!" And some came, and exchanged seeds and plants with him. "A high civilization," said an old soldier to me only a few days ago, "must always produce great social inequalities. They are needed mainly by and for those who see no need of them." I admitted that the need is as real, though not so stern, as the need of inequalities in military rank. "But," I said, "in the military relation you must also vividly keep up, across all inequalities of rank, a splendid sentiment of common interest and devotion, mutual confidence and affection, or your army will be but a broken weapon, a sword without a hilt." "Yes," he agreed, "and so in civilization; if it would be of the highest it must draw across its lines of social cleavage the bonds of civic fellowship." It was what I had intended to say myself. Social selection raises walls between us which we all help to build, but they need not be Chinese walls. They need not be so high that civic fellowship, even at its most feminine stature, may not look over them every now and then to ask: "How does my neighbor's garden grow?" It is with this end in view as well as for practical convenience that we have divided our field into seven districts and from our "women's council" have appointed residents of each to visit, animate and counsel the contestants of that district. The plan works well. On the other hand, to prevent the movement, in any district, from shrinking into village isolation; in order to keep the whole town comprised, and, as nearly as may be, to win the whole town's sympathy and participation, we have made a rule that in whatever district the capital prize is awarded, the second prize must go to some other district. If we have said this before you may slip it here; a certain repetitiousness is one part of our policy. A competitor in the district where the capital prize is awarded may take the third prize, but no one may take the third in the district where the second has been awarded. He may, however, be given the fourth. In a word, no two consecutive prizes can be won in the same district. Also, not more than three prizes of the fifteen may in one season be awarded in any one district. So each district has three prize-winners each year, and each year the prizes go all over town. Again, no garden may take the same prize two years in succession; it must take a higher one or else wait over. "This prize-garden business is just all right!" said one of the competitors to our general secretary. "It gives us good things to say to one another's face instead of bad things at one another's back, it does!" That is a merit we claim for it; that it operates, in the most inexpensive way that can be, to restore the social bond. Hard poverty minus village neighborship drives the social relation out of the home and starves out of its victims their spiritual powers to interest and entertain one another, or even themselves. If something could keep alive the good aspects of village neighborship without disturbing what is good in that more energetic social assortment which follows the expansion of the village into the town or city, we should have better and fairer towns and cities and a sounder and safer civilization. But it must be something which will give entirely differing social elements "good things to say to one another's face instead of bad things at one another's back." We believe our Northampton garden competition tends to do this. It brings together in neighborly fellowship those whom the discrepancies of social accomplishments would forever hold asunder and it brings them together without forced equality or awkward condescension, civic partners in that common weal to neglect which is one of the "dangers and temptations of the home." Two of our committee called one day at a house whose garden seemed to have fallen into its ill condition after a very happy start. Its mistress came to the door wearing a heart-weary look. The weather had been very dry, she said in a melodious French accent, and she had not felt so very well, and so she had not cared to struggle for a garden, much less for a prize. "But the weather," suggested her visitors, "had been quite as dry for her competitors, and few of them had made so fair a beginning. To say nothing of prizes, was not the garden itself its own reward?" She shook her head drearily; she did not know that she should ever care to garden any more. "Why?" exclaimed one questioner persuasively, "you didn't talk so when I was here last month!" "No," was the reply, "but since three weeks ago--" and all at once up came the stifled tears, filling her great black eyes and coursing down her cheeks unhindered, "I los' my baby." The abashed visitors stammered such apologies as they could. "They would not have come on this untimely errand could they have known." They begged forgiveness for their slowness to perceive. "Yet do not wholly," they presently ventured to urge, "give up your garden. The day may come when the thought that is now so bitter will, as a memory, yield some sweetness as well, and then it may be that the least of bitterness and the most of sweetness will come to you when you are busy among your flowers." "It may be," she sighed, but with an unconvinced shrug. And still, before the summer was gone, the garden sedately, yet very sweetly, smiled again and even the visitors ventured back. That was nearly three years ago. Only a few weeks since those two were in the company of an accomplished man who by some chance--being a Frenchman--had met and talked with this mother and her husband. "We made a sad bungle there," said the visitors. "Do not think it!" he protested. "They are your devoted friends. They speak of you with the tenderest regard. Moreover, I think they told me that last year--" "Yes," rejoined one of the visitors, "last year their garden took one of the prizes." THE MIDWINTER GARDENS OF NEW ORLEANS If the following pages might choose their own time and place they would meet their reader not in the trolley-car or on the suburban train, but in his own home, comfortably seated. For in order to justify the eulogistic tone of the descriptions which must presently occupy them their first word must be a conciliatory protest against hurry. One reason we Americans garden so little is that we are so perpetually in haste. The art of gardening is primarily a leisurely and gentle one. And gentility still has some rights. Our Louisiana Creoles know this, and at times maintain it far beyond the pales of their evergreen gardens. "'Step lively'?" one of them is said to have amazedly retorted in a New York street-car. "No, the lady shall not step lively. At yo' leisure, madame, entrez!" In New Orleans the conductors do not cry "Step lively!" Right or wrong, the cars there are not absolutely democratic. Gentility really enjoys in them a certain right to be treated gently. If democracy could know its own tyrants it would know that one of them is haste--the haste, the hurry of the crowd; that hurry whose cracking whip makes every one a compulsory sharer in it. The street-car conductor, poor lad, is not to blame. The fault is ours, many of us being in such a scramble to buy democracy at any price that, as if we were belatedly buying railway tickets, we forget to wait for our change. Now one of this tyrant's human forms is a man a part of whose tyranny is to call himself a gardener, though he knows he is not one, and the symbol of whose oppression is nothing more or less than that germ enemy of good gardening, the lawn-mower. You, if you know the gardening of our average American home almost anywhere else, would see, yourself, how true this is, were you in New Orleans. But you see it beautifully proved not by the presence but by the absence of the tyranny. The lawn-mower is there, of course; no one is going to propose that the lawn-mower anywhere be abolished. It is one of our modern marvels of convenience, a blessed release of countless human backs from countless hours of crouching, sickle-shaped, over the sickle. It is not the tyrant, but only like so many other instruments of beneficent democratic emancipation, the tyrant's opportunity. A large part of its convenience is expedition, and expedition is the easiest thing in the world to become vulgarized; vulgarized it becomes haste, and haste is the tyrant. Such arguing would sound absurdly subtle aimed against the uncloaked, barefaced tyranny of the street-car conductor, but the tyranny of the man with the lawn-mower is itself subtle, masked, and requires subtlety to unmask it. See how it operates. For so we shall be the better prepared for a generous appreciation of those far Southern gardens whose beauty has singled them out for our admiration. We know, of course, that the "formal garden," by reason of its initial and continuing costliness, is, and must remain, the garden of the wealthy few, and that the gardening for the great democracy of our land, the kind that will make the country at large a gardened land, is "informal," freehand, ungeometrical gardening. In this sort, on whatever scale, whether of the capitalist or of the cottager, the supreme feature is the lawn; the lawn-mower puts this feature within the reach of all, and pretty nearly every American householder has, such as it is, his bit of Eden. But just in that happy moment the Tempter gets in. The garden's mistress or master is beguiled to believe that one may have a garden without the expense of a gardener and at the same time without any gardening knowledge. The stable-boy, or the man-of-all-work, or the cook, or the cottager himself, pushes the lawn-mower, and except for green grass, or changeable brown and green, their bit of Eden is naked and is not ashamed. Or if ashamed, certain other beguilements, other masked democratic tyrannies, entering, reassure it; bliss of publicity, contempt of skill, and joy in machinery and machine results. An itinerant ignoramus comes round with his own lawn-mower, the pushing of which he now makes his sole occupation for the green half of the year, and the entire length, breadth and thickness of whose wisdom is a wisdom not of the lawn but only of the lawn-mower; how to keep its bearings oiled and its knives chewing fine; and the lawn becomes staringly a factory product. Then tyranny turns the screw again, and in the bliss of publicity and a very reasonable desire to make the small home lot look as large as possible, down come the fences, side and front, and the applauding specialist of the lawn-mower begs that those obstructions may never be set up again, because now the householder can have his lawn mowed so much _quicker_, and he, the pusher, can serve more customers. Were he truly a gardener he might know somewhat of the sweet, sunlit, zephyrous, fragrant outdoor privacies possible to a real garden, and more or less of that benign art which, by skilful shrubbery plantings, can make a small place look much larger--as well as incomparably more interesting--than can any mere abolition of fences, and particularly of the street fence. But he has not so much as one eye of a genuine gardener or he would know that he is not keeping your lawn but only keeping it shaven. He is not even a good garden laborer. You might as well ask him how to know the wild flowers as how to know the lawn pests--dandelion, chickweed, summer-grass, heal-all, moneywort and the like--with which you must reckon wearily by and by because he only mows them in his blindness and lets them flatten to the ground and scatter their seed like an infantry firing-line. Inquire of him concerning any one of the few orphan shrubs he has permitted you to set where he least dislikes them, and which he has trimmed clear of the sod--put into short skirts--so that he may run his whirling razors under (and now and then against) them at full speed. Will he know the smallest fact about it or yield any echo of your interest in it? There is a late story of an aged mother, in a darkened room, saying falteringly to the kind son who has brought in some flowers which she caresses with her soft touch, "I was wishing to-day--We used to have them in the yard--before the lawn-mower--" and saying no more. I know it for a fact, that in a certain cemetery the "Sons of the American Revolution" have for years been prevented from setting up their modest marks of commemoration upon the graves of Revolutionary heroes, because they would be in the way of the sexton's lawn-mower. Now in New Orleans the case is so different that really the amateur gardener elsewhere has not all his rights until he knows why it is so different. Let us, therefore, look into it. In that city one day the present writer accosted an Irishman who stood, pruning-shears in hand, at the foot of Clay's statue, Lafayette Square. It was the first week of January, but beside him bloomed abundantly that lovely drooping jasmine called in the books _jasminum multiflorum_. "Can you tell me what shrub this is?" "That, sor, is the _monthly flora!_ Thim as don't know the but-hanical nayum sometimes calls it the stare jismin, but the but-hanical nayum is the _monthly flora_." The inquirer spoke his thanks and passed on, but an eager footfall overtook him, his elbow felt a touch, and the high title came a third time: "The but-hanical nayum is the _monthly flora_." The querist passed on, warmed by a grateful esteem for one who, though doubtless a skilled and frequent tinkler of the lawn-mower within its just limitations, was no mere dragoon of it, but kept a regard for things higher than the bare sod, things of grace in form, in bloom, in odor, and worthy of "but-hanical nayum." No mere chauffeur he, of the little two-wheeled machine whose cult, throughout the most of our land, has all but exterminated ornamental gardening. In New Orleans, where it has not conquered, there is no crowding for room. A ten-story building is called there a sky-scraper. The town has not a dozen in all, and not one of that stature is an apartment or tenement house. Having felled her surrounding forests of cypress and drained the swamps in which they stood, she has at command an open plain capable of housing a population seven times her present three hundred and fifty thousand, if ever she chooses to build skyward as other cities do. But this explains only why New Orleans _might_ have gardens, not why she chooses to have them, and has them by thousands, when hundreds of other towns that have the room--and the lawns--choose not to have the shrubberies, vines and flowers, or have them without arrangement. Why should New Orleans so exceptionally choose to garden, and garden with such exceptional grace? Her house-lots are extraordinarily numerous in proportion to the numbers of her people, and that is a beginning of the explanation; but it is only a beginning. Individually the most of those lots are no roomier than lots elsewhere. Thousands of them, prettily planted, are extremely small. The explanation lies mainly in certain peculiar limitations, already hinted, of her--democracy! That is to say, it lies in her fences. Her fences remain, her democracy is different from the Northern variety. The difference may consist only in faults both there and here which we all hope to see democracy itself one day eliminate; but the difference is palpable. The fences mean that the dwellers behind them have never accorded to each other, as neighbors, that liberty-to-take-liberties of which Northern householders and garden-holders, after a quarter-century's disappointing experiment, are a bit weary. In New Orleans virtually every home, be it ever so proud or poor, has a fence on each of its four sides. As a result the home is bounded by its fences, not by its doors. Unpleasant necessities these barriers are admitted to be, and those who have them are quite right in not liking them in their bare anatomy. So they clothe them with shrubberies and vines and thus on the home's true corporate bound the garden's profile, countenance and character are established in the best way possible; without, that is, any impulse toward embellishment _insulated_ from utility. Compelled by the common frailties of all human nature (even in a democracy) to maintain fortifications, the householder has veiled the militant aspect of his defences in the flowered robes and garlandries of nature's diplomacy and hospitality. Thus reassured, his own inner hospitality can freely overflow into the fragrant open air and out upon the lawn--a lawn whose dimensions are enlarged to both eye and mind, inasmuch as every step around its edges--around its meandering shrubbery borders--is made affable and entertaining by Flora's versatilities. [Illustration: "In New Orleans the home is bounded by its fences, not by its doors--so they clothe them with shrubberies and vines." It is pleasant to notice how entirely the evergreen-vine-covered wall preserves the general air of spaciousness. The forest tree at the front and right (evergreen magnolia) is covered with an evergreen vine from the turf to its branches.] [Illustration: "The lawn ... lies clean-breasted, green-breasted, from one shrub-and-flower-planted side to the other, along and across." A common garden feature in New Orleans is the division fence with front half of wire, rear half of boards, both planted out with shrubs. The overhanging forest tree is the evergreen magnolia (_M. grandiflora_).] At the same time, let us note in passing, this enlargement is partly because the lawn--not always but very much oftener than where lawns go unenclosed--lies clean-breasted, green-breasted, from one shrub-and-flower-planted side to the other, along and across; free of bush, statue, urn, fountain, sun-dial or pattern-bed, an uninterrupted sward. Even where there are lapses from this delightful excellence they often do not spoil, but only discount, more or less, the beauty of the general scheme, as may be noted--if without offence we may offer it the homage of criticism--in one of the gardens we have photographed [page 176] to illustrate these argumentations. There eight distinct encumbrances narrow the sward without in the least adding to the garden's abounding charm. The smallest effort of the reader's eye will show how largely, in a short half-day's work, the fair scene might be enhanced in lovely dignity simply by the elimination of these slight excesses, or by their withdrawal toward the lawn's margins and into closer company with the tall trees. In New Orleans, where, even when there are basements, of which there are many, the domains of the cook and butler are somewhere else, a nearly universal feature of every sort of dwelling--the banker's on two or three lots, the laborer's on half a one--is a paved walk along one side of the house, between the house and the lawn, from a front gate to the kitchen. Generally there is but the one front gate, facing the front door, with a short walk leading directly up to this door. In such case the rear walk, beginning at the front door-steps, turns squarely along the house's front, then at its corner turns again as squarely to the rear as a drill-sergeant and follows the dwelling's ground contour with business precision--being a business path. In fact it is only the same path we see in uncrowded town life everywhere in our land. [Illustration: "There eight distinct encumbrances narrow the sward.... In a half-day's work, the fair scene might be enhanced in lovely dignity by the elimination of these excesses." The sky-line of this beautiful garden becomes a part of the garden itself, a fact of frequent occurrence in New Orleans. The happy contrast of rearmost oak and palm is also worthy of notice.] But down there it shows this peculiarity, that it is altogether likely to be well bordered with blooming shrubs and plants along all that side of it next the lawn. Of course it is a fault that this shrubbery border--and all the more so because it is very apt to be, as in three of our illustrations [pages 174,178, 180], a rose border--should, so often as it is, be pinched in between parallel edges. "No pinching" is as good a rule for the garden as for the kindergarten. Manifestly, on the side next the house the edge between the walk and the planted border should run parallel with the base line of the house, for these are business lines and therefore ever so properly lines of promptitude--of the shortest practicable distance between two points--lines of supply and demand, lines of need. For lines of need, business speed! But for lines of pleasure, grace and leisure. It is the tactful office of this shrubbery border to veil the business path from the lawn--from the pleasure-ground. Therefore its _outside_, lawn-side edge should be a line of pleasure, hence a line of grace, hence not a straight line (dead line), nor yet a line of but one lethargic curve, but a line of suavity and tranquil ongoing, a leisurely undulating line. [Illustration: "The rear walk ... follows the dwelling's ground contour with business precision--being a business path."] Not to have it so is an error, but the error is an inoffensive one easily corrected and the merit is that the dwelling's business path is greenly, bloomingly screened from its pleasure-ground by a lovely natural drapery which at the same time furnishes, as far as the path goes, the house's robes of modesty. Indeed they are furnished farther than the path goes; for no good work gathers momentum more readily than does good gardening, and the householder, having begun so rightly, has now nothing to do to complete the main fabric of his garden but to carry this flow of natural draperies on round the domicile's back and farther side and forward to its front again. Thus may he wonderfully extenuate, even above its reach and where it does not conceal, the house's architectural faults, thus winsomely enhance all its architectural charm; like a sweet human mistress of the place, putting into generous shadow all the ill, and into open sunshine all the best, of a husband's strong character. (See both right and left foreground of illustration on page 178, and right foreground on page 180.) And now if this New Orleans idea--that enough private enclosure to secure good home gardening is not incompatible with public freedom, green lawns, good neighborship, sense of room and fulness of hospitality, and that a house-lot which is a picture is worth more to everybody (and therefore is even more democratic) than one which is little else than a map--if this idea, we say, finds any credence among sister cities and towns that may be able to teach the Creole city much in other realms of art and criticism, let us cast away chalk and charcoal for palette and brush and show in floral, arborescent, redolent detail what is the actual pictorial excellence of these New Orleans gardens. For notwithstanding all their shut-in state, neither their virtues nor their faults are hid from the passing eye. The street fence, oftenest of iron, is rarely more than breast-high and is always an open fence. Against its inner side frequently runs an evergreen hedge never taller than the fence's top. Commonly it is not so tall, is always well clipped and is so civil to strangers that one would wish to see its like on every street front, though he might prefer to find it not so invariably of the one sort of growth--a small, handsome privet, that is, which nevertheless fulfils its office with the perfection of a solid line of palace sentries. Unluckily there still prevails a very old-fashioned tendency to treat the front fence as in itself ornamental and to forget two things: First, that its nakedness is no part of its ornamental value; that it would be much handsomer lightly clothed--underclothed--like, probably, its very next neighbor; clothed with a hedge, either close or loose, and generously kept below the passer's line of sight. And, second, that from the householder's point of view, looking streetward from his garden's inner depth, its fence, when unplanted, is a blank interruption to his whole fair scheme of meandering foliage and bloom which on the other three sides frames in the lawn; as though the garden were a lovely stage scene with the fence for footlights, and some one had left the footlights unlit. [Illustration: "Thus may he wonderfully extenuate, even ... where it does not conceal, the house's architectural faults."] A lovely stage scene, we say, without a hint of the stage's unreality; for the side and rear fences and walls, being frankly unornamental, call for more careful management than the front and are often charmingly treated. (Page 174.) (See, for an example of a side fence with front half of wire and rear half of boards, page 174, and for solid walls, pages 180 and 184.) Where they separate neighbors' front lawns they may be low and open, but back of the building-line, being oftenest tight and generally more than head-high, they are sure to be draped with such climbing floral fineries as honeysuckles, ivies, jasmines white and yellow, lantanas, roses or the Madeira vine. More frequently than not they are planted also, in strong masses, with ever so many beautiful sorts of firmer-stemmed growths, herbaceous next the sod, woody behind, assembled according to stature, from one to twelve feet high, swinging in and out around the lawn until all stiffness of boundaries is waved and smiled away. [Illustration: " ... a lovely stage scene without a hint of the stage's unreality." The beauty of this spot could be enhanced in ten minutes by taking away the planted urns which stand like gazing children in the middle of the background.] In that first week of January already mentioned the present writer saw at every turn, in such borders and in leaf and blossom, the delicate blue-flowered plumbago; two or three kinds of white jasmine, also in bloom; and the broad bush-form of the yellow jasmine, beginning to flower. With them were blooming roses of a dozen kinds; the hibiscus (not althæa but the _H. rosasinensis_ of our Northern greenhouses), slim and tall, flaring its mallow-flowers pink, orange, salmon and deep red; the trailing-lantana, covering broad trellises of ten feet in height and with its drooping masses of delicate foliage turned from green to mingled hues of lilac and rose by a complete mantle of their blossoms. He saw the low, sweet-scented geraniums of lemon, rose and nutmeg odors, persisting through the winter unblighted, and the round-leaved, "zonal" sorts surprisingly large of growth--in one case, on a division fence, trained to the width and height of six feet. There, too, was the poinsettia still bending in its Christmas red, taller than the tallest man's reach, often set too forthpushingly at the front, but at times, with truer art, glowing like a red constellation from the remoter bays of the lawn; and there, taller yet, the evergreen _Magnolia fuscata_, full of its waxen, cream-tinted, inch-long flowers smelling delicately like the banana. He found the sweet olive, of refined leaf and minute axillary flowers yielding their ravishing tonic odor with the reserve of the violet; the pittosporum; the box; the myrtle; the camphor-tree with its neat foliage answering fragrantly the grasp of the hand. The dark camellia was there, as broad and tall as a lilac-bush, its firm, glossy leaves of the deepest green and its splendid red flowers covering it from tip to sod, one specimen showing by count a thousand blossoms open at once and the sod beneath innumerably starred with others already fallen. The night jasmine, in full green, was not yet in blossom but it was visibly thinking of the spring. The Chinese privet, of twenty feet stature, in perennial leaf, was saving its flowers for May. The sea-green oleander, fifteen feet high and wide (see extreme left foreground, page 176), drooped to the sward on four sides but hoarded its floral cascade for June. The evergreen loquat (locally miscalled the mespilus plum) was already faltering into bloom; also the orange, with its flower-buds among its polished leaves, whitening for their own wedding; while high over them towered the date and other palms, spired the cedar and arborvitæ, and with majestic infrequency, where grounds were ample, spread the lofty green, scintillating boughs of the magnolia grandiflora (see left foregrounds on pages 174, 182 and 184), the giant, winter-bare pecan and the wide, mossy arms of the vast live-oak. [Illustration: "Back of the building-line the fences ... generally more than head-high ... are sure to be draped."] [Illustration: " ... from the autumn side of Christmas to the summer side of Easter." In any garden as fair as this there should be some place to sit down. This deficiency is one of the commonest faults in American gardening.] Now while the time of year in which these conditions are visible heightens their lovely wonder, their practical value to Northern home-lovers is not the marvel and delight of something inimitable but their inspiring suggestion of what may be done with ordinary Northern home grounds, to the end that the floral pageantry of the Southern January may be fully rivalled by the glory of the Northern June. For of course the Flora of the North, who in the winter of long white nights puts off all her jewelry and nearly all her robes and "lies down to pleasant dreams," is the blonde sister of, and equal heiress with, this darker one who, in undivested greenery and flowered trappings, persists in open-air revelry through all the months from the autumn side of Christmas to the summer side of Easter. Wherefore it seems to me the Northern householder's first step should be to lay hold upon this New Orleans idea in gardening--which is merely by adoption a New Orleans idea, while through and through, except where now and then its votaries stoop to folly, it is by book a Northern voice, the garden gospel of Frederick Law Olmsted. Wherever American homes are assembled we may have, all winter, for the asking--if we will but ask ourselves instead of the lawn-mower man--an effect of home, of comfort, cheer and grace, of summer and autumn reminiscences and of spring's anticipations, immeasurably better than any ordinary eye or fancy can extort from the rectangular and stiffened-out nakedness of unplanted boundaries; immeasurably better than the month-by-month daily death-stare of shroud-like snow around houses standing barefooted on the frozen ground. It may be by hearty choice that we abide where we must forego outdoor roses in Christmas week and broad-leaved evergreens blooming at New Year's, Twelfth-night or Carnival. Well and good! But we can have even in mid-January, and ought to allow ourselves, the lawn-garden's surviving form and tranced life rather than the shrubless lawn's unmarked grave flattened beneath the void of the snow. We ought to retain the sleeping beauty of the ordered garden's unlost configuration, with the warm house for its bosom, with all its remoter contours--alleys, bays, bushy networks and sky-line--keeping a winter share of their feminine grace and softness. We ought to retain the "frozen music" of its myriad gray, red and yellow stems and twigs and lingering blue and scarlet berries stirring, though leaflessly, for the kiss of spring. And we ought to retain the invincible green of cedars, junipers and box, cypress, laurel, hemlock spruce and cloaking ivy, darkling amid and above these, receiving from and giving to them a cheer which neither could have in their frostbound Eden without mutual contrast. [Illustration: "The sleeping beauty of the garden's unlost configuration ... keeping a winter's share of its feminine grace and softness." This picture was taken in the first flush of spring. The trees in blossom are the wild Japanese cherry.] Eden! If I so recklessly ignore latitude as to borrow the name of the first gardener's garden for such a shivering garden as this it is because I see this one in a dream of hope--a diffident, interrogating hope--really to behold, some day, this dream-garden of Northern winters as I have never with actual open eyes found one kept by any merely well-to-do American citizen. If I describe it I must preface with all the disclaimers of a self-conscious amateur whose most venturesome argument goes no farther than "Why not?" yet whom the evergreen gardens of New Orleans revisited in January impel to protest against every needless submission to the tyrannies of frost and of a gardening art--or non-art, a submission which only in the outdoor embellishment of the home takes winter supinely, abjectly. This garden of a hope's dream covers but three ordinary town lots. Often it shrinks to but one without asking for any notable change of plan. Following all the lines, the hard, law lines, that divide it from its neighbors and the street, there runs, waist-high on its street front, shoulder-high on its side bounds, a close evergreen hedge of hemlock spruce. In its young way this hedge has been handsome from infancy; though still but a few years old it gives, the twelvemonth round, a note both virile and refined in color, texture and form, and if the art that planted it and the care that keeps it do not decay neither need the hedge for a century to come. Against the intensest cold this side of Labrador it is perfectly hardy, is trimmed with a sloping top to shed snows whose weight might mutilate it, and can be kept in repair from generation to generation, like the house's plumbing or roof, or like some green-uniformed pet regiment with ranks yet full after the last of its first members has perished. Furthermore, along the inner side of this green hedge (sometimes close against it, sometimes with a turfed alley between), as well as all round about the house, extend borders of deciduous shrubs, with such meandering boundaries next the broad white lawn as the present writer, for this time, has probably extolled enough. These bare, gray shrub masses are not wholly bare or gray and have other and most pleasingly visible advantages over unplanted, pallid vacancy, others besides the mere lace-work of their twigs and the occasional tenderness of a last summer's bird's nest. Here and there, breaking the cold monotone, a bush of moose maple shows the white-streaked green of its bare stems and sprays, or cornus or willow gives a soft glow of red, purple or yellow. Only here and there, insists my dream, lest when winter at length gives way to the "rosy time of the year" their large and rustic gentleness mar the nuptial revels of summer's returned aristocracy. Because, moreover, there is a far stronger effect of life, home and cheer from the broad-leaved evergreens which, in duly limited numbers, assemble with and behind these, and from the lither sorts of conifers that spire out of the network and haze of living things in winter sleep. The plantings at the garden's and dwelling's front being properly, of course, lower than those farther back, I see among them, in this dream, the evergreen box and several kinds of evergreen ferns. I see two or three species of evergreen barberries, not to speak of Thunberg's leafless one warm red with its all-winter berries, the winter garden's rubric. I see two varieties of euonymus; various low junipers; two sorts of laurel; two of andromeda, and the high-clambering evergreen ivy. Beginning with these in front, infrequent there but multiplying toward the place's rear, are bush and tree forms of evergreen holly, native rhododendrons, the many sorts of foreign cedars and our native ones white and red, their skyward lines modified as the square or pointed architecture of the house may call for contrasts in pointed or broad-topped arborescence. If, at times, I dream behind all this a grove, with now and then one of its broad, steepling or columnar trees pushed forward upon the lawn, it is only there that I see anything so stalwart as a pine or so rigid as a spruce. Such is the vision, and if I never see it with open eyes and in real sunlight, even as a dream it is--like certain other things of less dignity--grateful, comforting. I warrant there are mistakes in it, but you will find mistakes wherever you find achievement, and there is no law against them--in well-meant dreams. Observe, if you please, this vision lays no drawback on the garden's summer beauty and affluence. Twelve months of the year it enhances its dignity and elegance. Both the numerical proportions of evergreens to other greens, and the scheme of their distribution, are quite as correct and effective for contrast and background to the transient foliage and countless flowers of July as amid the bare ramage of January. Summer and winter alike, the gravest items among them all, the conifers, retain their values even in those New Orleans gardens. When we remember that in New England and on all its isotherm it is winter all that half of the year when most of us are at home, why should we not seek to realize this snow-garden dream? Even a partial or faulty achievement of it will surely look lovelier than the naked house left out on its naked white lawn like an unclaimed trunk on a way-station platform. I would not, for anything, offend the reader's dignity, but I must think that this midwinter garden may be made at least as much lovelier than no garden as Alice's Cheshire cat was lovelier--with or without its grin--than the grin without the cat. [Illustration: "It is only there that I see anything so stalwart as a pine or so rigid as a spruce." The blossoming trees in this picture are a Chinese crab blooming ten days later than the Japanese wild cherry (see illustration facing p. 186), which is now in full leaf at their back.] Shall we summarize? Our gist is this: that those gardens of New Orleans are as they are, not by mere advantage of climate but for several other reasons. Their bounds of ownership and privacy are enclosed in hedges, tight or loose, or in vine-clad fences or walls. The lawn is regarded as a ruling feature of the home's visage, but not as its whole countenance--one flat feature never yet made a lovely face. This lawn feature is beautified and magnified by keeping it open from shrub border to shrub border, saving it, above all things, from the gaudy barbarism of pattern-bedding; and by giving it swing and sweep of graceful contours. And lastly, all ground lines of the house are clothed with shrubberies whose deciduous growths are companioned with broad-leafed evergreens and varied conifers, in whatever proportions will secure the best midwinter effects without such abatement to those of summer as would diminish the total of the whole year's joy. These are things that can be done anywhere in our land, and wherever done with due regard to soil as well as to climate will give us gardens worthy to be named with those of New Orleans, if not, in some aspects and at particular times of the year, excelling them. As long as mistakes are made in the architecture of houses they will be made in the architecture of gardening, and New Orleans herself, by a little more care for the fundamentals of art, of all art, could easily surpass her present floral charm. Yet in her gardens there is one further point calling for approval and imitation: the _very_ high trimming of the stems of lofty trees. Here many a reader will feel a start of resentment; but in the name of the exceptional beauty one may there see resulting from the practice let us allow the idea a moment's entertainment, put argument aside and consider a concrete instance whose description shall be our closing word. Across the street in which, that January, we sojourned (we were two), there was a piece of ground of an ordinary town square's length and somewhat less breadth. It had been a private garden. Its owner had given it to the city. Along its broad side, which our windows looked out upon, stood perfectly straight and upright across the sky to the south of them a row of magnolias (grandiflora) at least sixty feet high, with their boles, as smooth as the beach, trimmed bare for two-thirds of their stature. The really decorative marks of the trimming had been so many years, so many decades, healed as to show that no harm had come of it or would come. The soaring, dark-green, glittering foliage stood out against the almost perpetually blue and white sky. Beyond them, a few yards within the place but not in a straight line, rose even higher a number of old cedars similarly treated and offering a pleasing contrast to the magnolias by the feathery texture of their dense sprays and the very different cast of their lack-lustre green. Overtopping all, on the farther line of the grounds, southern line, several pecan-trees of nearly a hundred feet in height, leafless, with a multitude of broad-spreading boughs all high in air by natural habit, gave an effect strongly like that of winter elms, though much enlivened by the near company of the evergreen masses of cedar and magnolia. These made the upper-air half of the garden, the other half being assembled below. For the lofty trim of the wintergreen-trees--the beauty of which may have been learned from the palms--allowed and invited another planting beneath them. Magnolias, when permitted to branch low, are, to undergrowth, among the most inhospitable of trees, but in this garden, where the sunlight and the breezes passed abundantly under such high-lifted arms and among such clean, bare stems, a congregation of shrubs, undershrubs and plants of every stature and breadth, arose, flourished and flowered without stint. Yonder the wind-split, fathom-long leaves of the banana, brightening the background, arched upward, drooped again and faintly oscillated to the air's caress. Here bloomed and smelled the delicate magnolia fuscata, and here, redder with flowers than green with shining leaves, shone the camellia. Here spread the dark oleander, the pittosporum and the Chinese privet; and here were the camphor-tree and the slender sweet olive--we have named them all before and our steps should not take us over the same ground twice in one circuit; that would be bad gardening. But there they were, under those ordinarily so intolerant trees, prospering and singing praises with them, some in full blossom and perfume, some waiting their turn, like parts of a choir. In the midst of all, where a broad path eddied quite round an irregular open space, and that tender quaintness of decay appeared which is the unfailing New Orleans touch, the space was filled with roses. This spot was lovely enough by day and not less so for being a haunt of toddling babes and their nurses; but at night--! Regularly at evening there comes into the New Orleans air, from Heaven knows whither, not a mist, not a fog nor a dampness, but a soft, transparent, poetical dimness that in no wise shortens the range of vision--a counterpart of that condition which so many thousands of favored travellers in other longitudes know as the "Atlantic haze." One night--oh, oftener than that, but let us say one for the value of understatement--returning to our quarters some time before midnight, we stepped out upon the balcony to gaze across into that garden. The sky was clear, the neighborhood silent. A wind stirred, but the shrubberies stood motionless. The moon, nearly full, swung directly before us, pouring its gracious light through the tenuous cross-hatchings of the pecans, nestling it in the dense tops of the cedars and magnolias and sprinkling it to the ground among the lower growths and between their green-black shadows. When in a certain impotence of rapture we cast about in our minds for an adequate comparison--where description in words seemed impossible--the only parallel we could find was the art of Corot and such masters from the lands where the wonderful pictorial value of trees trimmed high has been known for centuries and is still cherished. For without those trees so disciplined the ravishing picture of that garden would have been impossible. Of course our Northern gardens cannot smile like that in winter. But they need not perish, as tens of thousands of lawn-mower, pattern-bed, so-called gardens do. They should but hibernate, as snugly as the bear, the squirrel, the bee; and who that ever in full health of mind and body saw spring come back to a Northern garden of blossoming trees, shrubs and undershrubs has not rejoiced in a year of four clear-cut seasons? Or who that ever saw mating birds, greening swards, starting violets and all the early flowers loved of Shakespeare, Milton, Shelley, Bryant and Tennyson, has not felt that the resurrection of landscape and garden owes at least half its glory to the long trance of winter, and wished that dwellers in Creole lands might see New England's First of June? For what says the brave old song-couplet of New England's mothers? That-- "Spring would be but wintry weather If we had nothing else but spring." Every year, even in Massachusetts--even in Michigan--spring, summer, and autumn are sure to come overladen with their gifts and make us a good, long, merry visit. All the other enlightened and well-to-do nations of the world entertain them with the gardening art and its joys and so make fairer, richer and stronger than can be made indoors alone the individual soul, the family, the social, the civic, the national life. In this small matter we Americans are at the wrong end of the procession. What shall we do about it? 
19728	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE TWELFTH ANNUAL MEETING LANCASTER, PENNSYLVANIA OCTOBER 6 AND 7, 1921 CONTENTS Officers and Committees of the Association 5 State Vice-Presidents 6 Members of the Association 7 Constitution and By-Laws 13 Proceedings of the Twelfth Annual Convention 17 Report of the Treasurer 23 Nut Trees for Public Places, Dr. R. T. Morris 25 Roadside Planting, Prof. A. K. Chittendon 36 Roadside Planting Legislation in Mich., Senator Henry A. Penny 40 Cultivation and Culture of the European Filbert, James S. McGlennon 54 Report of the Committee on Uniform Bill for Roadside Planting, T. P. Littlepage 59 Where May the Northern Pecan Be Expected to Bear, Willard G. Bixby 63 Constitution and By-Laws Amended 71 Report of Nominating Committee, Secretary Olcott 75 Proceedings of The Tree Planting Ceremonies at Long's Park, Lancaster County, Pa 77 A National Program for the Promotion of Nut Culture, Dean Watts 80 Appendix 84 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President_ JAMES S. MCGLENNON Rochester, New York _Vice-President_ J. F. JONES Lancaster, Pennsylvania _Secretary_ WILLIAM C. DEMING Danbury, Conn., R. 2 _Treasurer_ WILLARD G. BIXBY Baldwin, Nassau Co., New York COMMITTEES _Auditing_--C. P. CLOSE, C. A. REED _Executive_--J. RUSSELL SMITH, W. S. LINTON AND THE OFFICERS _Finance_--T. P. LITTLEPAGE, WILLARD G. BIXBY, W. C. DEMING _Hybrids_--R. T. MORRIS, C. P. CLOSE, W. G. BIXBY, HOWARD SPENCE _Membership_--JAMES S. MCGLENNON, H. R. WEBER, R. T. OLCOTT, W. O. POTTER, W. G. BIXBY, W. C. DEMING _Nomenclature_--C. A. REED, R. T. MORRIS, J. F. JONES _Press and Publication_--R. T. OLCOTT, W. G. BIXBY, W. C. DEMING _Programe_--JAMES S. MCGLENNON, W. C. DEMING, R. T. OLCOTT, C. A. REED, R. T. MORRIS, W. G. BIXBY _Promising Seedlings_--C. A. REED, J. F. JONES, W. G. BIXBY STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS Alabama H. M. Robertson 2026 1st Ave., Birmingham Arkansas Prof. N. F. Drake University of Arkansas, Fayetteville California T. C. Tucker 311 California St., San Francisco Canada G. H. Corsan 63 Avenue Road, Toronto China P. W. Wang, Kinsan Arboretum Chuking Kiangsu Province Colorado C. L. Cudebec Boulder, Box 233 Connecticut Ernest M. Ives Sterling Orchards, Meriden Dist of Columbia B. G. Foster 902 G. St., Washington England Howard Spence Eskdale Knutsford Cheshire Georgia A. S. Perry Cuthbert Illinois E. A. Riehl Alton Indiana J. F. Wilkinson Rockport Iowa D. C. Snyder Center Point Kansas James Sharp Council Grove Kentucky Frank M. Livengood Berea Maine Alice D. Leavitt 79 High St., Bridgton Maryland P. J. O'Connor Bowie Massachusetts C. Leroy Cleaver 496 Commonwealth Ave., Boston Michigan Dr. J. H. Kellogg Battle Creek Missouri P. C. Stark Louisiana Nebraska William Caha Wahoo New Hampshire Henry B. Stevens Durham Nevada C. G. Swingle Hazen New Jersey C. S. Ridgway Lumberton New York Dr. G. J. Buist 3 Hancock St., Brooklyn North Carolina Dr. Harvey P. Barrett 211 Vail Ave., Charlotte Ohio Harry R. Weber 123 E. 6th St., Cincinnati Oklahoma Dr. C. E. Beitman Skedee Oregon Knight Pearcy Salem, R. F. D. 3, Box 187 Pennsylvania F. N. Fagan State College South Carolina Prof. A. G. Shanklin Clemson College Texas J. H. Burkett Clyde Vermont F. C. Holbrook Brattleboro Virginia John S. Parish University Washington William Baines Okanogan West Virginia Fred E. Brooks French Creek Wisconsin Dr. G. W. Patchen Manitowoc MEMBERS OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION April, 1, 1922 ALABAMA Robertson, H. M., 2026 1st Ave., Birmingham ARIZONA Heyne, Fred W., Douglas ARKANSAS *Drake, Prof. N. F., Fayetteville, Univ. of Arkansas Dunn, D. K., Wynne CALIFORNIA Cajori, F. A., 1220 Byron St., Palo Alto Cress, B. E., Tehachapi Thorpe, Will J., 1545 Divisadero Street, San Francisco Tucker, T. C., 311 California St., San Francisco CANADA Bell, Alex., Milliken, Ontario Corsan, G. H., 513 Christie St., Toronto Corcoran, William, Port Dalhousie, Box 26, Ontario Haight, P. N., St. Thomas, Canada CHINA Kinsan Arboretum, Chuking, Kiangsu Province, P. W. Wang Secy. COLORADO Bennett, L. E., Cory Butterbaugh, Dr. W. S., Engleburg, Las Animas Co. Cudebec, C. L., Boulder, Box 233 Hartman, Richard, Kremmling CONNECTICUT Barrows, Paul M., Stanford, R. F. D. No. 30 Bartlett, Francis A., Stanford Benedict, Samuel L., 98 South Main St., So. Norwalk Bielefield, F. J., Middleton, South Farms Bradley, Smith T., New Haven, Grand Ave. Craig, Joseph A., 783 Washington Ave., West Haven Deming, Dr. W. C., Hartford, 983 Main St. Glover, James L., Shelton, R. F. D. No. 7 Hilliard, H. J., South View Hungerford, Newman, Torrington, R. F. D. No. 2, Box 76 Ives, E. M., Meriden, Sterling Orchards Lewis, Henry Leroy, Stratford, 1822 Main St. *Morris Dr. R. T. Cos Cob Route 28, Box 95 Pomeroy, Eleazer, 120 Bloomfield Ave., Windsor Sessions, Albert L., Bristol, 25 Bellevue Ave. Southworth, George E., Milford, Box 176 Staunton, Gray, 320 Howard Ave., New Haven White, Gerrard, North Granby DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Beatty, Wilbur M. L., 4027 Georgia Ave., Washington Close, C. P. Prof., Pomologist Dept. of Agriculture, Wash. Foster, B. G., Washington, 902 G. St., N. W. *Littlepage, T. P., Union Trust Building, Washington Reed, C. A., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington **Van Fleet, Walter, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington ENGLAND Spence, Howard, Eskdale, Knutsford, Cheshire GEORGIA Bullard, William P., Albany Patterson, J. M., Putney Perry, A. S., Cuthbert Steele, R. C., Lakemont, Rabun Co. Wight, J. B., Cairo ILLINOIS Buckman, Benj., Farmingdale Casper, O. H., Anna Heide, John F. H., 500 Oakwood Blvd., Chicago Illinois, University of, Urbana (Librarian) Hon. W. A. Potter, Marion Harry J. Rickelman, Weed Bldg., Effingham Reihl, E. A., Godfrey, Route 2 Shaw, James B., Urbana, Box 143, Univ. Sta. Swisher, S. L., Mulkeytown Sundstrand, Mrs. G. D., 916 Garfield Ave., Rockford Wells, Oscar, Farina INDIANA Crain, Donald J., 1313 North St., Logansport Jackson, Francis M., 122 N. Main St., South Bend Reed, W. C., Vincennes Redmon, Felix, Rockport, R. R. 2, Box 32 Rowell, Mrs. George P., 219 North 5th St., Goshen Simpson, H. D., Vincennes Staderman, A. L., 120 South 7th St., Terre Haute Wilkinson, J. F., Rockport IOWA Bricker, C. W., Ladora Finnell, J. F. C., Hamburg Pfeiffer, W. F., Fayette Skromme, L. J. (Skromme Seed Company), Roland Snyder, D. C., Center Point Snyder, S. W., Center Point KANSAS Bishop, S. L., Conway Springs Gray, Dr. Clyde, Horton Sharpe, James, Council Grove KENTUCKY Baker, Sam C., Beaver Dam, R. D. No. 2 Livengood, Frank M., Berea MAINE Leavitt, Mrs. Alice D., 79 High St., Brighton MARYLAND Auchter, E. C., College Park Littlepage, Miss Louise, Bowie Keenan, Dr. John F., Brentwood O'Connor, P. J., Bowie MASSACHUSETTS *Bowditch, James H., 903 Tremont Bldg., Boston Cleaver, C. Leroy, Hingham Center Jackson, Arthur H., 63 Fayerweather St., Cambridge Mass. Agriculture College, Library of, Amherst Scudder, Dr. Charles L., 209 Beacon St., Boston MICHIGAN Beck, J. P., 25 James, Saginaw Charles, Dr. Elmer, Pontiac Cross, John L., 104 Division St., Bangor Graves, Henry B., 2134 Dime Bank Bldg., Detroit Guild, Stacy R., 562 So. 7th St., Ann Arbor Hartig, G. F., Bridgeman, R. F. D. No. 1 Henshall, H., 527 Harper St., Detroit House, George W., Ford Bldg., Detroit Kellogg, Dr. J. H., Battle Creek, 202 Manchester St. *Linton, W. S., Saginaw, Pres. Board of Trade Mac Nab, Dr. Alex B., Cassopolis McKale, H. B., Lansing, Route 6 Olson, A. E., Holton Penny, Harvey A., Saginaw, 425 So. Jefferson Ave. Smith, Edward J., 85 So. Union St., Battle Creek MISSISSIPPI Bechtel, Theo., Ocean Springs MISSOURI Crosby, Miss Jessie M., 4241 Harrison St., Kansas City Hazen, Josiah J., (Neosho Nurseries Co.) Neosho Rhodes, J. I., 224 Maple St., Neosho Spellen, Howard P., 4505a W. Papin St., St. Louis Stark, P. C., Louisiana NEBRASKA Caha, William, Wahoo Thomas, Dr. W. A., Lincoln NEW HAMPSHIRE Stevens, Henry B., N. H. College of Agriculture, Durham NEVADA Swingle, C. G., Hazen NEW JERSEY Brown, Jacob S., Elmer, Salem Co. *Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly St., Jersey City Landmann, Miss M. V. Cranbury, R. D. No. 2 Marshall, S. L., Vineland Marston, Edwin S., Florham Park, Box 72 Phillips, Irving S., 501 Madison St., West New York Price, John R., 36 Ridgdale Ave., Madison Ridgeway, C. S., Lumberton Salvage, W. K., Farmingdale Westcoat Wilmer, 230 Knight Ave., Collingswood NEW YORK Abbott, Frederick B., 1211 Tabor Court, Brooklyn Adams, Sidney I., 418 Powers Bldg., Rochester Ashworth, Fred L., Heuvelton Babcock, H. J., Lockport Bixby, Willard G., 32 Grand Ave., Baldwin, L. I. Borchers, H. Chas., Wenga Farm, Armonk Brown, Ronold K., 320 Broadway, New York City Buist, Dr. G. J., 3 Hancock St., Brooklyn Clark, George H., 131 State St., Rochester Crane, Alfred J., Monroe Coriell, A. S., 120 Broadway, New York City Diprose, Alfred H., 468 Clinton Ave., South, Rochester Ellwanger, Mrs. W. D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Gager, Dr. C. Stewart, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn Gillet, Dr. Henry W., 140 W. 57th St., New York City Goeltz, Mrs. M. H., 2524 Creston Ave., New York City Graham, S. H., R. D. 5, Ithaca Hall, L. W., Jr., 509 Cutler Bldg., Rochester (L. W. Hall Co., Inc.) Harper, George W., Jr., 115 Broadway, New York City Hodge, James, 199 Kingsbridge Road West, Kingsbridge, N. Y. C. Hodgson, Casper W., Yonkers, (World Book Co.) Hoffman, Arthur S., 26 Church St., White Plains Kains, M. G., Pomona Jewett, Edmund G., 16 Elliott Place, Brooklyn Johnson, Harriet, M. B., 15th & 4th Ave., New York City *Huntington, A. M., 15 W. 81st St., New York City MacDaniel, S. H., Dept. of Pomology, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca McGlennon, J. S., 528 Cutler Building, Rochester Meyers, Charles, 316 Adelphi St., Brooklyn Olcott, Ralph T. (Editor American Nut Journal), Ellwanger and Barry Building, Rochester Pomeroy, A. C., Lockport Richardson, J. M., 2 Columbus Circle, New York City Ritchie, John W., Yonkers, 2 A Beach Street Ryder, Clayton, Carmel Stephen, John W., Syracuse, New York State College of Forestry Solley, Dr. John B., 968 Lexington Ave., New York City Teele, Arthur W., 120 Broadway, New York City Vollertsen, Conrad, 375 Gregory St., Rochester Wetmore, W. J., Elmira Whitney, Arthur C., 9 Manila St., Rochester Whitney, Leon F., 65 Barclay St., New York City Wile, M. E., 955 Harvard St., Rochester Williams, Dr. Chas. Mallory, 4 W. 50th St., New York City *Wisman, Mrs. F. de R. Westchester, New York City NORTH CAROLINA Hutchings, Miss L. G., Pine Bluff C. W. Matthews, North Carolina Dept. of Agriculture, Raleigh Van Lindley, J., (J. Van Lindley Nursery Co.), Pomona OHIO Burton, J. Howard, Casstown Dayton, J. H., (Storrs & Harrison), Painesville Fickes, W. R., Wooster, R. No. 6 Jackson, A. V., 3275 Linwood Rd., Cincinnati Ketchem, C. S., Middlefield Box 981 Pomerene Julius, 1914 East 116th St., Cleveland Ramsey, John, 1803 Freeman Ave., Cincinnati Truman, G. G., Perrysville, Box 167 *Weber, Harry R., Cincinnati, 123 East 6th St. Yunck, Edward G., 706 Central Ave., Sandusky OKLAHOMA Beitmen, C. E., Dr., Skedee OREGON Marvin, Cornelia, Oregon State Library, Salem Nelson, W. W., R. 3, Box 652, Portland Pearcy, Knight, 210 Oregon Building, Salem PENNSYLVANIA Althouse, C. Scott, 820 North 5th St., Reading Balthaser, James M., Wernersville, Berks Co. Bohn, Dr. H. W., 34 No. 9th St., Reading Bolton, Charles G., Zieglerville Bomberger, John S., Lebanon, R. F. D. No. 1 Chapin, Irvin, Shickshinny Clark, D. F., 147 N. 13th St., Harrisburg Druckemiller, W. H., Sunbury Fagan, Prof. F. N., State College Fritz, Ammon P., 35 E. Franklin St., Ephrata Heffner, H., Leeper Hess, Elam G., Manhein Hile, Anthony, Curwensville Irwin, Ernest C., 66 St. Nicholas Bldg., Pittsburg Jenkins, Charles Francis, Philadelphia--Farm Journal *Jones, J. F., Lancaster, Box 527 Kaufman, M. M., Clarion Leas, F. C., Merion Station Mellor, Alfred, 152 W. Walnut Lane, Germantown, Philadelphia Minick, C. G., Ridgway Murphy, P. J., Scranton, Vice-Pres. L. & W. R. R. Co. Myers, J. Everitt, R. D. No. 3, York Springs Neagley, C. H., Greencastle, R. D. No. 2 Patterson, J. E., 77 North Franklin St., Wilkes Barre *Rick, John, 438 Pennsylvania Square, Reading Rittenhouse, Dr. J. F. S., Lorane Robinson, W. I., Fort Loudon Rose, William J., 413 Market St., Harrisburg "Personal" Rush, J. G., West Willow Russell, Dr. Andrew L., 729 Wabash Bldg., Pittsburgh Shoemaker, H. C., 1739 Main St., Northampton Smedley, Samuel L., Newton Square, R. F. D. No. 1 Smith Dr. J. Russell, Swarthmore *Sober, C. K. Col., Lewisburg Spencer, L. N., 216 East New St., Lancaster Taylor, Lowndes, West Chester, Box 3, Route 1 Walter, R. G., Willow Grove, Doylestown Pike Weaver, William S., McCungie Wilhelm, Dr. Edward A., Clarion *Wister, John C., Wister St. & Clarkson Ave., Germantown SOUTH CAROLINA Shanklin, A. G., Prof., Clemson College Kendall, Dr. F. D., 1317 Hampton Ave., Columbus TENNESSEE Waite, J. W., Normandy VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., Springfield, R. F. D. No. 3 Holbrook, F. C., Battleboro VIRGINIA Harris, D. C., Capital Landing Road, Williamsburg Jordan, J. H., Bohannon Parrish, John S., Charlottesville, Route No. 4 Roper, W. N., Petersburg WASHINGTON Baines, William, Okanogan Turk, Richard H., Washougal WEST VIRGINIA Brooks, Fred E., French Creek Cannaday, Dr. J. E., Charleston, Box 693 Hartzel, B. F., Shepherdstown Mish, A. F., Inwood WISCONSIN Lang, Robert B., Racine, Box 103 Patchen, Dr. G. W., Manitowoc * Life Member ** Honorary Member CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I _Name._ This society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION. ARTICLE II _Object._ Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III _Membership._ Membership in the society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary and a treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and an executive committee of six persons, of which the president, the two last retiring presidents, the vice-president, the secretary and the treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI _Meetings._ The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. ARTICLE VII _Quorum._ Ten members of the association shall constitute a quorum, but must include two of the four elected officers. ARTICLE VIII _Amendments._ This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or a copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I _Committees._ The association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on nomenclature, on promising seedlings, on hybrids, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II _Fees._ Annual members shall pay two dollars annually, or three dollars and twenty-five cents, including a year's subscription to the American Nut Journal. Contributing members shall pay five dollars annually, this membership including a year's subscription to the American Nut Journal. Life members shall make one payment of fifty dollars, and shall be exempt from further dues. Honorary members shall be exempt from dues. ARTICLE III _Membership._ All annual memberships shall begin either with the first day of the calendar quarter following the date of joining the Association, or with the first day of the calendar quarter preceding that date as may be arranged between the new member and the Treasurer. ARTICLE IV _Amendments._ By-laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present at any annual meeting. PROCEEDINGS AT THE TWELFTH ANNUAL CONVENTION OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION LANCASTER, PA. OCTOBER 6 AND 7, 1921 The Convention was called to order at 10 a. m. Thursday, October 6, 1921, by the President, Hon. William S. Linton, of Saginaw, Michigan, in the convention hall of the Brunswick Hotel, Lancaster, Pa. THE PRESIDENT: It certainly is a pleasure and a privilege for us to meet in the prosperous and historic Pennsylvania City of Lancaster. I am sure that we will have a successful meeting, and I am certain also that during the past year progress has been made in our work which when read into the records will show that we have accomplished material good. Without further preliminary remarks, and with the statement that my address or report will come later during the session, we will proceed immediately with our programme. I have the honor to call upon the representative of the Mayor of Lancaster, Oliver S. Schaeffer, for the welcoming address. OLIVER S. SCHAEFFER, ESQ.: Mr. President, Members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, Friends and Guests: On behalf of the Mayor and the people of Lancaster I extend to you their greetings and bid you a most hearty and cordial welcome. We feel honored that you have selected for the second time this city for the holding of your convention. Your esteemed president referred to Lancaster City as an historic city, and no doubt all of you know that Lancaster is frequently called the garden spot of the world. Historically Lancaster City was the capital of Pennsylvania for thirty-three years, I think from 1779 to 1812. During the Revolutionary War when the British troops occupied Philadelphia the Continental Congress met here for a while in a building that formerly stood at Center Square where you now see the Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument. I was talking to your secretary a few minutes in the hotel lobby this morning and he told me that while some of you were in the nut business with a majority of you it was a hobby. That is the altruistic spirit that counts in these days when most of us look upon things in a materialistic way. There was a time when I thought that most nuts came from Brazil, but I am glad to learn that we grow the nuts we eat here in the good old U. S. A., and some right here in Pennsylvania and in Lancaster County. I cannot help but think of the chestnut blight that has worked havoc throughout our state and some other states. It has occasioned a big material loss. Yet I think too of another side of the loss and that is the spiritual side because our "chestnut parties" are now becoming a past memory. It is up to men like you to retrieve that loss and to bring back to our youth the chance of experiencing that innocent pleasure the gathering of chestnuts. As I look into your faces here this morning (and while you are not numerous you make up in quality what you lack in quantity), I cannot help but congratulate you on showing the spirit that means progress. I cannot help but feel also that you are optimists, and they are what we need at the present time. I will not trespass upon your time any longer. I again bid you a most warm welcome to our city and on behalf of the Mayor hand you the symbolic key of this city to enable you to go where you please. THE PRESIDENT: Working with us unselfishly for the past two or three years has been a Michigan man who has had in mind the benefit of his locality, the State of Michigan and the United States. It was his privilege to introduce the first bill into a state legislature that became a law making it obligatory upon state authorities to plant useful trees along the roadside throughout the entire state that he represented so well in the Senate. I take pleasure in calling upon that member to respond to the eloquent words of the Mayor's representative. I would ask Senator Penney to reply to Mr. Schaeffer. HON. HARVEY A. PENNEY: Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen of this Convention, and Mr. Mayor: We all appreciate this warm and hospitable greeting. Some of us are a long way from home. Mr. Linton, and I come from a town somewhat the size of this. We have about sixty-five thousand people, a large and growing city with a lot of prosperous and very wealthy men in it. We feel that in coming here we are coming to a city something like our own. We have been very much impressed with your city since we have been here. I am glad to see that colonial spirit, the spirit of '76, which permeates your people here. Up in Saginaw, of course, we do not have the same things to remind us of the past that you have. You have your monuments and those things that call your attention continually to it; but I am sure that our people are as patriotic as your people. However, I think that the spirit of '76 which still permeates the East helps to keep the whole country in line for the patriotic upholding of our governmental institutions. While most of the men here are interested especially in the scientific investigation and promotion of the nut industry, my friend Mr. Linton and I have been more particularly interested in road-side planting. Along with the promotion and building of good highways we fell into the idea of beautifying those highways. At the time the people in the East were having their trouble in the colonial days, the revolutionary days, our town was unheard of. It was simply way back in the forest and the wilderness and it was not until very early in this past century that Saginaw was even thought of. Mr. Linton and I talked last night about different things connected with the history of our country and we spoke of De Tocqueville, the great French traveler and explorer who came to America way back in 1831. He wished to go into the wilds of this country and see for himself what was here. He went to Buffalo and crossed the lakes to Detroit. Detroit was then a city of about two thousand inhabitants. And then he had the desire to go up into the wilds where nothing but wild animals and wild people lived; so he went up on a trail that led to what is now Pontiac perhaps thirty or forty miles northwest of Saginaw; that was about the end of the trail. There were one or two settlers who lived there. He picked up a couple of Indian guides and started through the trackless forest, sixty or seventy miles up through the northwest to what is now Saginaw. He had his desire fully satisfied. He was eaten up by mosquitoes and rattlesnakes in the swamps and marshes; he could not sleep nor anything else; so he came back. That was away back in 1831, fifty years or more after your people were fighting and struggling for the liberty of this country. I wish to say in closing that we all highly appreciate the welcome that has been extended to us on behalf of the Mayor of this fine city. THE PRESIDENT: Next on the program will come the report of the secretary. THE SECRETARY: I regret the smallness of the secretary's accomplishment for the past year. Except for the editing of the annual report--which is much a matter of cutting out superfluous words--and the effort to get speakers for this convention, he has attempted very little. This is not, however, for lack of things that could and should have been done. An energetic campaign for new members is the most obvious desideratum. The committee to prepare and issue a bulletin on the roadside planting of nut trees, arranged to give information for every part of the country, has been innocuous as well as useless. Perhaps this meeting will afford stimulus and material enough to get it to work. I think that few of the members realize how the inactivity of the secretary has been more than made up for by the industry of the treasurer. Perhaps they are reciprocally cause and consequence. Not only has the treasurer discharged the usual duties of that office but he has also attended to most of the correspondence and clerical work. He has conducted the nut contests which, under his management, have developed to formidable proportions requiring immense expenditure of time and effort. These nut contests have now become so widely known as to return us a good idea of what we may expect of the native nuts of the country. Undoubtedly we have not yet found the best nuts that this country produces, except perhaps in the case of the pecan. But Mr. Bixby's labors, continuing the work begun by Dr. Morris, have reached such results that I think he will be willing to say that we have nearly reached the limit of natural excellence in the nuts already discovered. In fact it seems to me that we have reached the point where further improvement in nuts for cultivation is to be looked for especially from purposeful hybridizing by man. It should be another of the chief aims of this association to induce self-perpetuating institutions to get together the material necessary for such work. Such material already exists in incomplete form--incomplete, that is, especially in horticultural varieties--as in the Arnold Arboretum and in the Public Park at Rochester. The Arnold Arboretum, through our treasurer's efforts, has agreed to give more attention to nut growing and breeding. The St. Louis Botanical Garden and the Brooklyn Botanical Garden, through the efforts and generosity of Mr. Bixby and Mr. Jones, have made special plantings of horticultural varieties, and this summer the New York Botanical Garden was induced to set out a number of grafted and seedling nut trees given by Mr. Jones, Mr. Bixby, Mr. W. C. Reed, the McCoy Nut Nurseries and others. But unless this association can keep their interest alive it is likely that some of these institutional plantings will be neglected, especially as regards the highest development of their possibilities. In one botanical garden visited this summer the casual nut tree plantings running back thirty years have been entirely neglected and the trees are stunted almost to extinction. I hope that our members will lose no opportunity to visit these institutions and ask to see the nut tree plantings. One or two such visits in a year will help to keep our wards in the institutional mind. We cannot expect from these gardens, at present at least, interest in breeding experiments. That is more properly a function of agricultural experiment stations. These are so short manned and short funded, so absorbed in problems offering quicker results, that it is difficult to get them even to consider nut growing. I do not recall a single experiment station in the country where any nut breeding experiments are being conducted. A few manifest a little interest in planting horticultural varieties but the only breeding experiments that I know of, or at this moment recall, are those of Dr. Morris, Dr. Van Fleet, Mr. Forkert and Mr. Jones. All of these experimenters have produced results that more than indicate great possibilities. Therefore I think that more of the energy of this association should be expended in influencing the self perpetuating horticultural institutions to see the importance of nut culture. Attention should be called also to our treasurer's initiative, perseverance and industry in issuing Bulletin No. 5 on Nut Culture, in improving and reprinting our accredited list of nut nurserymen, in visiting, photographing and describing many of our important parent nut trees, in securing and distributing scions, in promoting experimental topworking of native nut trees in promising localities, in developing a varietal and experimental nut orchard which in time will be second to none in these respects, and in many other promotions of the objects of our association, unsparingly of his energy and his means. It is curious that the biggest development in nut tree planting, for which we are responsible apparently, and practically the only considerable development of the roadside planting of nut trees, about which we have been talking so much, is on the other side of the earth, in China, where Mr. Wang, one of our members, and associated with the Kinsan Arboretum, is planting along the new model highway from Shanghai to Hangkow, a ton of black walnuts bought in this country and shipped to him through Mr. Bixby. Two public horticultural institutions in Canada have written me about making nut plantings. We seem, perhaps, in this land, too busy making what we call wealth, and armaments to protect it, too busy to give attention to the food supply of the future race. To summarise, the association may feel that its purpose as originally stated, and never changed, "The Promotion of Interest in Nut Bearing Plants, their Products and their Culture," has been furthered consistently though results are slow. For the future we should work, 1. For a greater membership. 2. To stimulate interest in horticultural institutions, especially in nut breeding. 3. To give definite information that will encourage nut tree planting for profit by individuals. 4. To promote roadside, memorial and public place planting of nut trees. 5. To discover still more of our valuable native nut trees through our prize contests. Mr. C. A. Reed has made a suggestion which I will lay before you and which may be considered at a later hour. He suggests that it might be better to have our conventions once in two years, every other one to be held in Washington. This is so radical a proposal that it should have prolonged consideration before adoption. The affairs of the association are not getting from the secretary the attention they deserve and he does not foresee better attention in the future. He wishes that some more active person could be found for the place and would be very glad to have the association elect another secretary. THE PRESIDENT: The secretary's report will be received and filed with the proceedings. Are there any remarks in connection therewith? Personally, I wish to endorse emphatically what the secretary has said relative to Treasurer Bixby who has worked early and late and has promoted the affairs of this association to a very great degree. His work is along practical lines and brings results. The secretary finds fault with himself. No member of the association endorses that particular phase of his paper because his work has been good, he has had the best interests of the association at heart at all times--that I personally know--and I sincerely hope that he may change his mind relative to his successor. We will now listen to the report of Treasurer Bixby. NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION In account with WILLARD G. BIXBY, TREASURER RECEIPTS Balance on hand Oct. 1, 1921: | | | | Special Hickory Price, $25.00; Life | | | | Membership, $25.00; for Regular | | | | Expenses, $25.26 | | | |$ 75.26 From Annual members including joint | | | | subscriptions to American Nut | | | | Journal |$199.50|$ 423.58|$ 623.08| Reports | 5.50| 7.50| 13.00| Contribution for prizes | 54.00| 15.00| 69.00| Contribution to meet expenses | | 602.50| 602.50| Bulletin No. 5 | 12.73| 60.94| 73.67| Cash discount on bills paid | .48| | .48| Postage returned | | .10| .10| Advertising in Report | | 5.00| 5.00| Life Membership P. W. Wang | | 20.00| 20.00| Funds Received for transmission to | | | | other parties | | 1.00| 1.00| Salary check returned by Secretary | | 50.00| 50.00| |_______|_________|_________|_________ |$272.21|$1,185.62|$1,457.83|$1,457.83 Deficit October 1, 1921: | | | | Balance Special Hickory prize |$ 25.00| | | Life Membership | 45.00| | | Deficit for regular expenses[A] | 246.07| | | 176.07 |_______| | |_________ Net deficit | | | | 1,709.16 EXPENDITURES American Nut Journal, their portion | | | | of joint subscriptions |$ 64.00|$1 99.65|$ 263.65| 1920 Convention | 85.00| | 85.00| Printing Bulletin No. 5 | | 62.50| 62.50| Stationery, Printing & Supplies | 50.55| 91.01| 141.56| Postage, Express, etc. | 36.60| 75.78| 112.38| Prizes 1919 Nut Contest | 128.00| | 128.00| Advertising 1920 Nut Contest | 52.08| | 52.08| Printing Report 10th Meeting | 69.09| 400.05| 469.14| Printing Report 11th Meeting | | 341.85| 341.85| Funds received for Transmission to | | | | other parties | | 3.00| 3.00| Salary Secretary | 50.00| | 50.00| |_______|_________|_________|_________ |$535.32|$1,173.84|$1,709.16|$1,709.16 Forty-seven new members have joined the Association since the last report, making 523 since organization, of which we have 221, making 302 who have resigned or otherwise dropped out. It will be noticed that the number of members received last year, 47, is less than the number reported a year ago, 66. This in the judgment of the Treasurer is entirely due to the less amount of energy expended for a smaller proportion of members have dropped out than a year ago. While the gaining of members is not particularly easy it can be done and the number gained to quite an extent is in proportion to the energy put on it. The finances of the Association this year are in a more troublesome situation than any year since the undersigned had charge. Two reports each at double normal cost each is quite enough to cause it. An inspection of the Treasurer's accounts have made it evident that during no year in the history of the Association have the dues received been equal to the cost of carrying on the Association. Each year some members interested have contributed in addition to paying dues. During the year past these sums have been considerable. It is believed that with only one report a year there will be only normal difficulty in handling the finances of the Association. The orderly conduct of the finances of the Association makes it very desirable that normal receipts of dues take care of normal expenditures with a little margin for contingencies. The matter of classes of membership would seemingly help on this. The treasurer would not recommend changing the annual membership from its present figures, $2.00, but would suggest that this meeting consider making a class of contributing members at $5.00 per year including the American Nut Journal. This would give the Association double the income from each such member that it now gets for most members accept the combination offer of membership in the Association and subscription to the American Nut Journal at $3.25 for both which nets the Association $1.75 per year. Respectfully submitted, Sept. 30, 1921. WILLARD G. BIXBY. THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Bixby is certainly a first class treasurer. He makes a recommendation in his report. Do you desire to act upon it at this time? I refer to his recommendation relative to a new class of membership. It is a first class suggestion and a motion covering it would be in order. THE SECRETARY: I move that a committee of three be appointed by the president to consider the recommendation of the treasurer relative to different classes of membership and to report at this meeting. MR. A. C. POMEROY: I second the motion. The motion was carried. THE PRESIDENT: I will appoint as that committee the treasurer, Mr. Bixby, the secretary, Dr. Deming, and Mr. R. T. Olcott. Mr. Reed, the chairman of the committee on road-side planting, is in California, and unable to be with us at this session. If a report is to come from that committee it must necessarily come from some other member, so we will defer action on that particular report at this time. We also regret the absence of Dr. Morris the first president of the association. He is unable to be with us at this meeting but he has forwarded a paper and unless there are objections we will receive it at this time and have it read by the secretary. NUT TREES FOR PUBLIC PLACES DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, NEW YORK The question of the planting of nut trees along highways and in parks and other public grounds falls into classification under two separate and distinct heads. First, the abstract proposition of planting useful trees upon ground which is not usefully occupied otherwise. Second, the reaction of human nature to the different phases of the proposition. The latter part is the larger part of the question, otherwise the work would already have been done. Let us take up the smaller part of the question first. Nut trees which are indigenous to any locality, or allied species from other countries having similar soil and climatic conditions, will grow and thrive on public grounds quite as well as upon private property. They will be as beautiful and as useful upon public grounds as they are upon private property, speaking in a large way, although disposal of their products will go along different channels perhaps. Nut trees of various species will be quite as beautiful and distinctly more useful than any of the other trees that are commonly selected for planting upon public grounds. Because of the inclusion of the economic factor the question as to whether nut trees may well supplant the kinds of trees commonly selected is not a debatable question. Let us leave this part of the subject however and take up question number two, relating to the human nature side. A little examination into this phase of the matter will disclose reasons why nut trees are not already along our highways and in parks and other public grounds. The supplying of trees on a large scale for such a purpose is commonly done by contract with nurserymen. Nurserymen find it more profitable to raise certain kinds of trees instead of other kinds. Nurserymen are prone to raise kinds which are most profitable. Public officials who are making contracts sometimes look for perquisites. These include acceptance from nurserymen of bonuses for letting the contract. Here then we have at the very outset of the problem two large obstacles to the purchase of nut trees for public places. The carrying forward of any large project of this sort means reliance upon someone with legislative resources. In my experience legislators are commonly keen to approve of any project which will render public service when they are fully convinced of that fact. If not fully convinced of that fact and reserving the feeling that private interests are being served they wait until somebody who knows how to see the legislator has seen him. Another phase of the question relates to the attitude of the people toward public property in a so-called free country. People are prone to take anything that they please from anything which is so impersonal as a country. Nut trees planted in public places would have their crops carried off by every passer by to such an extent that revenue for the upkeep of the trees would be difficult to obtain. In some of the European countries this obstacle has not been insurmountable. There are many villages in Europe in which privately owned fields are not even fenced and fruit and nut trees growing for the benefit of the village are left untouched by the passer by in this older civilization. A man would no more think of taking what belonged to the town than he would think of taking property from the storehouse of a neighbor. In this country we have not yet arrived at that point in civilization. The distinction between _meum_ and _tuum_ in a free country is sometimes blurred. What are we to do about this whole question? That is the practical point. Change human nature and educate the public. In towns belonging to our system of government there is some question if the public would ever allow nut trees to bring revenue sufficient for their upkeep and to yield a profit for the town. On the other hand, by means of education the public may come to desire the planting of nut trees along the highways and in other public places to the extent that it will submit to taxation for the purpose. The public planting of nut trees belongs to progress. If we are to remain boastful of progress in this country the question will gradually be developed in a practical way. THE PRESIDENT: You have heard the reading of Dr. Morris's paper. Are there any remarks thereon or any discussion? MR. A. C. POMEROY: Some years ago there was objection raised at Los Angeles to the use of sewage water for irrigating purposes in raising tomatoes and other vegetables. The city then bought the property and set out orchards of English walnuts. I understand that they are growing and that the revenue goes to the city of Los Angeles. As to the road-side planting of nut trees in Europe, to which Dr. Morris refers, the very first battle fought in the great world war when the Belgians were resisting the Germans was along where there were thirty miles of English walnut trees on both sides of a highway. I understood that every tree was demolished. I think our secretary or treasurer could find out about the Los Angeles park and the nut trees. As to monument trees, about twelve or fifteen years ago, at my home, I set out a grove in our cemetery in memory of my father and it is doing fine. It seemed quite appropriate for he took such an interest in nut growing. THE SECRETARY: I would like to speak a word in defense of our American civilization, as evidenced by something that Mr. Bixby and I saw this summer at Lockport, New York. We observed that one of the main highways leading from the town of Lockport to one of the principal lakeside resorts, was unfenced, lined with fruit trees on both sides--cherry trees which overhung the sidewalk. The sides of the road also were planted with tomatoes and other vegetables apparently unharmed. The trees certainly did not show any evidence of injury from depredations. Whether the products of the trees were taken or not I do not know but they still had fruit on them. Possibly those who live in that neighborhood--Mr. Olcott and Mr. Pomeroy--could tell us more in defense of American civilization as to depredations on road-side property. MR. POMEROY: There are some people--what do you call them--dung hills--in this world, and I have had a little trouble with them but not much. They run around in automobiles and get out and take fruit. Dr. Deming and Mr. Olcott know how close the school house is to my home. The fact is the children walk under the nut trees when they take the cut through the private driveway, but I have very little trouble with them. I think the greatest object lesson was given last year, when two young men, who were hunting pheasants, took a half bushel of nuts and were caught at it. They did not think it amounted to anything. They came along up to the house and the nuts were taken and put upon the drying rack. While they were arguing an automobile stopped and the nuts were sold. They came to nine dollars and a few cents by the pound. One of these young men--he was in the retail tobacco business,--threw up his hands and said, "I admit it; I would not want you to walk into my store and grab nine or ten dollars' worth of goods; I admit this is all wrong." MR. R. T. OLCOTT: I have been very much surprised in the discussion of road-side planting, of fruit and nut trees at the prominence given to that feature of it which deals with the public taking the crop. That seems to me to be such a minor part of the proposition as to be almost negligible, and while it continues to arouse discussion I cannot see the vital importance of it. In a great many undertakings there are drawbacks but the undertakings go right on and when the difficulties arise they are met in turn. I think the thing for this association, and all others in favor of road-side tree planting to do is to go ahead with the proposition and forget the question of the crop and what is going to be done with it. As a matter of fact farmers are complaining continually of the depredations on their orchards resulting from the increase of automobile parties--perfectly respectable people going out on the road-side and helping themselves. If fine fruit and nut trees were planted along the road-sides and the crops were being picked, it seems to me that, under a general understanding that the public was to let these trees alone, and that any one caught or seen picking the crops would be reported by the one following, it would automatically police itself. The finger of ridicule would be pointed at a person who was so doing by somebody other than a uniformed officer, in other words by an ordinary citizen. I speak of that because in Rochester during the war when it was deemed necessary not to run automobiles on Sunday it was as much as his life was worth for a man to be out with his car on Sunday, not because of any police officer but because of the other fellow who was staying at home. I think that the other travelers along the road will take care of the fellow that violates the understanding about roadside fruit and nut trees. THE VICE-PRESIDENT: I come from Rochester, New York, and I know that in and around Rochester there are fruit-bearing trees planted along the roadside. Out on the road to Honeoye Falls there are a number of apple trees and out through the Webster section there are a number of cherry trees. I do not know what the results have been in the garnering of crops, but the appearance of the trees indicates that they are well cared for and that they are producing abundant crops of fruit. In Albany, Georgia, planted on the street side in front of the court house, are a number of pecan trees. I have seen them loaded to capacity with splendid seedling nuts. I understand that any one walking along the sidewalk under the trees has the right to pick up any nuts that are on the walk but is not permitted (at least it has been suggested that he do not) to reach up into the trees to take the nuts. I understand that the request has been very faithfully regarded and that it is very rare that the nuts are picked from the trees. Just what is done with the crop of nuts from those trees I do not know but I assume that it is harvested and marketed and the returns made to the town. The trees indicate that they are splendidly cared for and the citizens take a great deal of pride in their splendid appearance. I talked with the man who planted them, an employee of the court house, and he himself was simply delighted that he had been responsible for such a splendid monument. And property owners referred to in my home section, before whose premises these cherry trees and apple trees were planted, I feel very sure would not complain at all bitterly, if at all, about any filching that might be indulged in. So that I think, as Mr. Olcott has suggested, that maybe we are trying to cross the bridge before we get to it; that the thing to do is to urge the planting of nut trees on the roadsides and to stimulate a sense of pride in our American citizenship. MR. OLCOTT: We all agree that trees of this kind planted along the sides of city streets would never be touched. I have been at Miami, Florida, and have seen the bearing coconut trees there. No one would think of knocking off one of those coconuts and thousands of people pass under them. THE SECRETARY: I think it is very important to have brought out this optimistic view on the question of depredations on road-side fruit trees. I think it is only a question of time, as Mr. Olcott says, when the public will be educated to respect such products. If they have done it in other countries we can do it in this country. It is a question of the people becoming accustomed to it when we have enough of such products. When the whole country is covered with such products I think there will be no difficulty about maintaining respect for them. You know that sometimes after the loss of a very small amount of property there will be very great reaction. Some people feel that because robins take a few cherries or strawberries all robins ought to be exterminated. There are two other remarks in Dr. Morris's paper which should have consideration. I refer to those bearing upon nurserymen and public officials. MR. OLCOTT: If there is any question relating to nurserymen, we are very fortunate in having one of the most prominent nurserymen in the United States at our meeting today. I refer to Mr. John Watson, of Princeton, New Jersey. THE PRESIDENT: We certainly would be glad to hear from Mr. Watson. If I may be permitted to make a statement from the chair I agree fully with what Mr. Olcott has had to say as to depredations. Possible depredations in connection with the trees that may be planted along the road-side, either fruit or nut, are hardly worthy of consideration. With my good wife in passing through New York State recently I drove through rows of fruit trees on either side of the roads, as did Dr. Deming and Treasurer Bixby, and we were surprised to see that they were loaded with apples. The fact that the trees were loaded with fruit of course proved that the fruit had not been stolen or taken from the trees. They had not been disturbed in any way. A number of years ago while holding the position of postmaster in Saginaw I planted a black walnut. That walnut has produced a fine walnut tree. I selected a nice place on the post office grounds at a corner where two of our prominent streets meet in the business portion of the city. Last fall for the first time that tree bore walnuts--about a bushel and a half; and the employees of the postoffice gathered those walnuts and sent them in a complimentary way to me. Now that tree being in a public place, you would naturally expect the boys to have taken the nuts from it, but they did not do it. So that I know that that particular phase of this question as Mr. Olcott has said is hardly worthy of consideration. Suppose now and then the boys do get a few fallen walnuts or apples. No harm is done. Just that much more food is produced for their benefit by this way of planting. I now take pleasure in calling upon Mr. Watson relative to Dr. Morris's reference to the nursery business. MR. JOHN WATSON: I am afraid that Mr. Olcott's suggestion might possibly have given you the idea that I have something to say on this question or that I wanted to say something on it. I assure you that that is not the case. I am not a member of your association much to my regret. I am just visiting here trying to learn something from your meeting (this is the first one that I have attended) rather than to try to tell you something. The question is whether I have any objection to make to Dr. Morris's two statements. I can say that they are both very reasonable. As a nurseryman I have no objection. Of course, I cannot speak for any other nurseryman. I was rather surprised upon looking at the roll of those in attendance at this convention at the absence of nurserymen. I should think that those who produced the things that you people are trying to interest the country in would be the very men who would be the most interested in being here. It seems to me that you are trying to make a market for the goods that they are producing. I am rather surprised not to see at least half the attendance here made up of nurserymen. It is entirely possible that I have not have understood those two statements made by Dr. Morris and I may be rather careless in saying that I do not object to them. They were, I believe, that nurserymen prefer, naturally, to produce the things that they can produce most easily and at least cost, and, in the second place that they produce the things that they can sell. That is what most manufacturers do. I could not find fault with either statement. The nurseryman as a manufacturer or as a merchant of course produces the things that people want to buy. He may go a certain distance in producing the things that are worth while, that are better than other things; but in the last analysis he must depend upon the buying public and the buying public is always going to get from the nurseryman just exactly what it demands. THE SECRETARY: In regard to the presence of so few nurserymen at our meetings I would like to say that we have long tried to interest the nurserymen in nut growing. We always have had a few nurserymen with us; but I think without exception they have been those who had either previously become interested in nut growing or had become interested in it through some other influence than that of this association. It has been a great disappointment to us that we have never been able to interest the nurserymen generally. Although we have at times sent special communications to a great many nurserymen I think we have universally failed to get any response except from those who were already interested in nut growing. THE PRESIDENT: I do not think there is a movement in the country today that will amount to as much for the nurserymen of America as this particular movement that we have been promoting for a few years back. I know that it is becoming universal. During my short experience as your president I have found that inquiries have come from all over the United States asking how they may procure these trees and especially asking how they may procure the finest varieties. It is along that particular line that the nurserymen certainly could extend their business greatly; because as this movement of road-side planting goes along the man who has a good farm, the general farmer in his business, or any man with a small piece of ground that he can call his own, will want to plant a good nut tree thereon of a most improved variety. Now so many of these trees will be called for in the next few years (I do not think I am over-optimistic in the matter at all) that it will be impossible to supply the demand. So I am sure that any man who is regularly engaged in the nursery business will find that he will be called upon to supply a demand for the better class of trees that really cannot be filled for years to come. In this way his business will be largely benefited. Are there any further remarks on this particular phase of the question? MR. OLCOTT: As editor of the American Nurseryman I am especially interested in this discussion. There is scarcely a catalogue of a southern nurseryman of any consequence but lists nut trees; and yet we have the Northern Nut Growers' Association convention here now, and we will have a National convention in Mobile next week right in the heart of the pecan growing section at neither of which will there be a half dozen nurserymen. I think both of these associations should have more nurserymen members. They list nut trees but do it in a perfunctory way. I do not believe nurserymen know what this northern association is doing nor how near they are to the demand for the trees which will be wanted in the very near future. I think it is up to this association to make special efforts to acquaint them with the facts, and then I think they will come in and be active members. All persons connected with nut culture and all nurserymen ought to be most active members of such an organization as this. The subject should go before the membership committee. MR. SAMUEL L. SMEDLEY: I have had a little experience with black walnuts and have found that they do not mix at all with farm crops nor with fruit. Possibly you folks from Michigan can solve the problem but I would not thank anybody for planting black walnuts along the road in front of my place. I am in favor of road-side planting but I do not think black walnuts would be acceptable in this part of the country, from what my experience has been. THE TREASURER: Let me ask why it is you think they would not be acceptable. MR. SMEDLEY: I had a grand big walnut tree on my place at one side of the road. I tried to get apple trees to grow on the opposite side of the road but could not and it could not be accounted for by any other reason. I know other people have come to the some conclusion that certain things would not grow near a walnut tree. Some grasses will. If you go down through Lancaster County along the Lincoln Highway you will find a quantity of locust trees thriving there. Wheat and things will grow right up to the roots of those trees, but I do not think you will find that they will grow up to a black walnut. THE TREASURER: I had a chance to observe, last summer, a black walnut tree out in the field with a crop planted right under it. It seems to me it is a question of shade. With this walnut tree with branches low down the corn seemed to be stunted where it grew a little way under the branches. On the other hand I saw another one where the branches were high up and cabbages growing almost up to the tree and about as luxuriantly as outside of its branches. It seems to me that it is a matter of shade rather than the tree getting the fertility in the ground. It may be that if the fertility in the ground is not sufficient for both tree and crop the tree will take it and let the crop suffer. But I imagine if there is enough for both, and the crop is not shaded, the crop can be grown much nearer the tree than we have any idea of. MR. J. G. RUSH: I want to say a word about this way-side planting in our neighborhood. I do not think it is the general practice in Lancaster County where land is valued at two or three hundred dollars an acre. If you plant a walnut tree on a public thoroughfare there is temptation for children to go there to gather walnuts, endangering their lives on account of the automobiles. One gentleman said something about a walnut tree damaging the crops. In my experience with black walnut nursery trees some have what is called a very strong top root while others have a deep root. It is the first kind, the surface rooted, that will do your crop damage but not the deep-rooted kind. Now another thing. Suppose one plants a cherry tree. To whom do the cherries belong? To the man who planted the tree practically on his premises. But the limbs extend out on the public highway. If I, the owner, take a ladder out there and pick cherries and an automobile comes running past and throws me down I am practically a trespasser on the public highway. I believe I would not plant along the public highway with the idea of getting any fruit from the trees. I think however when you have a railroad going through your premises it is entirely practicable to plant your nut trees alongside the railroad, especially where there is a fill. Where the roots will grow under it and thrive luxuriantly. Nearly every farmer has a small stream running through his premises. You plant your walnut trees or your filbert trees along that stream, and you will have magnificent results. I do not want to be understood as disparaging nut tree planting. MR. D. F. CLARK: I would like to know if the planting of black walnut trees is discriminated against because of the difficulty of getting the meat out of the nut. I have made a great many experiments and have not been able to get the meat out of the nut in large pieces. Is there some kind of a machine made for that purpose? Black walnut kernels bring a splendid price and if we could get them open right it would be fine. THE SECRETARY: That difficulty is being taken care of by the improved varieties which are being raised and which you can get on grafted trees. I am inclined to agree with Mr. Bixby in regard to its being the shade of black walnut trees that affects the crops growing near them rather than the roots of the trees. I have seen the same thing that Mr. Bixby describes, a high-pruned black walnut tree with wheat growing clear up to the trunk. I have photographs of a number of fields in Europe where the English walnut is grown. The trees are pruned high and the wheat grows up close to the trunks of the trees. I would like to say also that I think it is the purpose of those who advocate the road-side planting of trees not to do it forcibly nor to compel anybody to have trees planted in front of his premises if he does not want them, but to give him a voice in the selection of the kind of trees that should be planted in front of his property. I think that is a necessary thing for the success of the movement, that the co-operation of the property owners should be invited by giving them a voice in the selection of the trees that are planted in their location. DR. RITTENHOUSE: I feel that this matter of the injury caused by a black walnut to surrounding vegetation should be more thoroughly thrashed out. It is doubtful to my mind whether the injury that a black walnut produces on surrounding vegetation is solely due to shade. Seven years ago I planted an apple orchard and some of the young trees began to be injured by a large walnut tree possibly seventy five feet away. The walnut tree happened to be on the line and I got the permission of my neighbor to cut the walnut tree down. The apple trees immediately began to thrive. I thought perhaps it was due to the roots demanding too much moisture from the soil because it was impossible for the shade to do any harm to those young apple trees. There is a superstitious idea among the people of our locality that the black walnut root is injurious to growing vegetation. MR. SMEDLEY: In my case the walnut tree was on the opposite side of a public road thirty feet wide and the influence was shown to the second row of apple trees on the other side. I do not think it was the shade in that case. The limbs were pretty high too. It was a public road. I do not think there were any roots that reached the apple trees at all. MR. MCGLENNON: Mr. Rush's reference to the ownership of the crop on trees planted on the road-side is a thought that has occupied my mind, and I have found some consolation in the belief that the ownership of land applies from the center of the roadway. I am not sure about that and I think it is a point that ought to be clarified. MR. SMEDLEY: I think in Pennsylvania the public just have the right-of-way there; they have no claim to anything that grows. THE PRESIDENT: In Michigan, the law applies that the ownership goes to the middle of the highway. The recent act of the legislature of our state causes the state highway commissioner to plant trees for the maintenance of the roadway. The planting of the trees he claims benefits the roadway, so that under that application he plants the trees for the maintenance of the road. The distance from the fence line varies. The state highway department of Michigan has a department for the planting of trees since the law introduced by Senator Penney some two or three years ago came into effect. The commissioner varies his planting, sometimes in groups and sometimes in a formal way, according to the stretch of road; but the basis of it all, perhaps, would be thirteen feet from the lot line on each side of the road. Our roads, or at least ninety per cent of them, are sixty-six feet in width. Thirteen feet from the lot line on each side would take twenty-six feet, and planting them forty feet apart in the other direction makes those trees forty feet apart each way. A great majority of the trees being planted in Michigan follow that particular plan, so they are thirteen feet from the property holder's fence line. I might say that occasionally the highway commissioner would run across an obstinate individual who would not plant trees in front of his place nor permit such trees to be planted as would conform to the other plantings. But the law passed at the last session of our legislature leaves it entirely in the control of the planting department of the highway department. The law reads that the owner of the adjacent property shall have the privilege of gathering the fruit or nuts or whatever may come from that tree. He has no better right, perhaps, than any other citizen of the State of Michigan, but he is there and can get the first ripe fruit or nuts which come from the tree. THE PRESIDENT: Are there any further remarks upon this subject? If not, I have a paper prepared by Prof. A. K. Chittendon, Professor of Forestry in the Michigan Agricultural College, which I will ask the secretary to read. ROADSIDE PLANTING _Prof. A. K. Chittendon_ The improvement and beautification of our highways is one of the best investments that can be made. Particularly in the Middle West where we do not have the panorama of hills and mountains, much of the beauty of the road depends upon the roadside trees. They frame the long vistas of farmlands, woods, lakes and rivers and lend enchantment to the road. Under recent legislation Michigan has taken a leading place in the care and planting of roadside trees. Provision has been made by the Legislature for the planting of ornamental and food-producing trees along the highways and for their protection. The highways offer an almost limitless field for ornamental planting and they also offer opportunities for raising certain food producing trees of which at present the nut trees are the principal species used. A time may come when we can safely plant fruit trees along the roadside but until provisions can be made for their systematic care and spraying, such trees would be liable to spread disease to nearby orchards. Roadside trees increase the value of adjacent property. They attract birds and thus assist in keeping down insect pests. They may be used to prevent erosion on steep slopes. They increase the life of certain kinds of improved highways by protecting the roadbed from the direct heat of the sun. They serve as a source of food if nut-bearing or sugar-producing trees are used. They invite tourists to travel over the highways. They may serve as a windbreak to prevent the drifting of sand. Roadside trees may, however, be too close together or by their shade injure crop production in adjacent fields. Some species of trees are particularly harmful if planted on the edge of a cultivated field. They send out their roots under the cultivated land and sap the moisture essential to plant growth. This can be avoided by using trees with deep or compact root systems. The desirability of planting trees of any sort along the highways is sometimes questioned. There are places where it is urged that trees are not desirable. On stretches of road where the soil is naturally wet the heavy shade cast by certain species of trees is undoubtedly objectionable; but there are also trees whose shade is very light. Some trees make such a dense mass of foliage that they tend to prevent air currents and thus keep the moisture in the road from drying out. Along such stretches of road the method of planting may affect the matter of light and air, and species of trees can be chosen which will be practically unobjectionable. Most of the highway planting in the past has been a matter of chance and there have been few definite plans for any long stretch of roadway. In selecting trees for planting the probable rate of growth and appearance of the tree at maturity should be borne in mind. What might seem entirely satisfactory in young trees may prove objectionable in the cost of mature ones. The size and shape of the tree at maturity should be considered as it affects the spacing of the trees. Also the amount of care which it will be possible to give the trees should influence the choice of species; for certain trees will produce good results with a small amount of attention while others require a great deal of care. The matter of interference with telephone and electric wires must also be considered. A species should be selected which is relatively free from the attacks of insects and fungi. It would be very difficult to find a tree which is entirely immune but there are some trees which are more resistant than others. The amount of shade cast by the tree is of a great deal of importance in connection with the moisture conditions; trees are often placed too close together which prevents their proper development. Where quick results are desired two species are often used, a fast growing one planted in between slower growing trees; the idea being to cut out the fast growing tree after the slower growing ones have reached good size. This is alright in theory but seldom works well in practice. The fast growing trees are seldom cut at the proper time and the result is often the stunting and injuring of the better and more durable trees. The fast growing trees usually die before many years. The result is seldom satisfactory. The question of litter while of importance with city street trees does not matter so much in the case of highway trees, but the cottony seed from poplars is very objectionable anywhere. The longevity of a tree is important. The desire for quick results often outweighs other considerations. Many of the trees which give results such as silver maple, box elder and Carolina poplar do not last long and the effort spent on them is wasted. More time and money is needed within a short time to remove and replace such trees. It is better to plant well in the first place. Trees do not grow at the same rate throughout their life. They usually grow slowly at first and then fairly rapidly between the tenth and thirteenth years, after which the rate of growth usually falls off gradually. If small trees, about ten feet high are used for planting they should reach the following sizes in twenty years on favorable soil: American elm 18 inches Basswood 15 " Chestnut 12 " Hard maple 11 " Red oak 11 " Pin oak 9 " White ash 9 " Black walnut 8 " Hackberry 7 " Certain trees such as the horse chestnut and the evergreens generally appear to better advantage alone or in groups while others like the elms, maples and box elder show to fine advantage in long rows. It is doubtful if the planting of windbreaks along the highways is advisable. Windbreaks are sometimes planted with the idea of preventing the drifting of snow but the snow will collect and form great drifts on the leeward side of a windbreak and the shade from the windbreak may prevent the snow from melting so rapidly. Hedges may be used, however, to prevent the shifting of sand or the erosion of steep slopes. The highways offer excellent opportunities for nut production and such trees as the black walnut and hickories may often be used to advantage. The presence of birds may be encouraged by planting hackberry and other trees or shrubs of which they are fond. The Michigan Agricultural College was authorized by the Legislature to raise trees for roadside planting. The College is raising red oak, black walnut, oriental sycamore, sugar maple, elm, hackberry, snowdrop tree, Juneberry, hickory, European larch, Norway maple and box elder for this purpose. Other trees may be added to the list from time to time. In addition to the planting of trees we need also the proper care of those already planted or growing naturally along the roads. The commonest source of injury is due to improper pruning for telephone lines. A great many trees are badly injured in this way. We already have a large investment in highway trees and it is only the part of wisdom to protect this investment. Michigan has started active work in highway planting and we hope in a few years to be able to point with pride to our highways, not only because of the good roadbeds but also because of the trees and shrubs that line those roads. THE PRESIDENT: Is there any discussion on Prof. Chittendon's paper? If not, it will be received and filed in the proceedings. It is now near the noon hour and I think it would be well to have Mr. Jones or Mr. Rush state what program has been arranged for this afternoon. MR. J. F. JONES: I believe the plan is to get dinner here, and then to go to our nursery at Willow Street. From there some machines will take the parties who do not have conveyances, around to other points. THE SECRETARY: Mr. President, in accordance with Article V of the Constitution, I move that a committee of five members be elected for the purpose of nominating officers for the ensuing year. (Motion seconded and carried.) THE SECRETARY: Mr. President, I move that Mr. Olcott be named the chairman of that committee. Mr. J. F. Jones, Mr. John Rick, Mr. Ernest M. Ives and Mr. C. S. Ridgeway were nominated as members of said committee. Messrs. Olcott, Jones, Rick, Ives and Ridgeway having been nominated were on motion duly elected members of a committee to nominate officers for the ensuing year in accordance with Article V. of the Constitution. On motion the meeting adjourned until 8 p. m. same day. EVENING SESSION October 6, 1921, 8 p. m. _Hotel Brunswick_ PRESIDENT LINTON: A recess was taken from the morning session until this time for the purpose of considering a roadside planting bill that might be recommended by this association to the authorities of every state in the Union. In order to bring this about we will have presented to you by Senator Penney, who was the introducer of the original bill that became a law in the Michigan legislature, a copy of the laws practically as they exist in our state today. We take a little pride in Michigan in being the first state to work along this particular line. Our agricultural college staffs, the highway department and several other branches of the Michigan government, are heartily and enthusiastically co-operating in this work. I have in my hand a notice that has been sent out by the state highway commissioner of Michigan to every highway commissioner in the state. We have about two thousand of the latter. We have in the neighborhood of two thousand townships six miles square and in each of these townships we have a supervisor, we have a highway commissioner and we have members of what is known as the township board. This notice that I have, and you will see it is quite complete and goes into a number of details, is sent by our state highway commissioner to each one of the township commissioners of north Michigan, and he closes his letter accompanying it with this: Fourth: (President Linton reads). You will see from that that we are well under way in connection with roadside planting in our state of Michigan. I now take pleasure in presenting to you a member of our legislature who introduced the first bill that became a law along these particular lines, Senator Harvey A. Penney of Michigan. SENATOR PENNEY: In the legislature of Michigan several bills have been introduced by its members, but as I stated at the last convention they were not drawn up in such a way that they were fitted for our laws. As Mr. Littlepage said it takes quite a while to figure out a law that fits your own state law. These several laws were introduced but in some way or another the committees of the legislature never took kindly to them and they were not passed. But two years ago I had a bill passed. Since then we have seen some imperfections and we passed another law at the last session of the legislature which provides that the cost of planting trees and caring for them shall come out of the maintenance fund, that is, the maintenance fund that provides for the maintenance of highways. I don't know how the laws are in most of your states but in Michigan the law is that the owner of land owns not only his farm but the land to the center of the highway subject to the right of the public to have the use of it for travel. Then how are you going to plant trees on a man's land if the highway belongs to that man? They did it on the theory that the trees were necessary for the maintenance of the highway. There never has been a test case on this law but the highway department has a very able lawyer who was in the attorney general's office and since then has been elected circuit judge of the county in which Lansing is located. His idea was that the trees should be planted on the highway for the purpose of protecting the highway, and the cost of planting them and taking care of them should be taken out of the maintenance fund. So that is the theory upon which they are working under this bill. +------------------------------------------------------------------+ |Transcribers note: The format in this section has been transcribed| |exactly as in the original. | +------------------------------------------------------------------+ A BILL to provide for and regulate the planting of useful, memorial, ornamental, nut bearing and other food producing trees, shrubs, and plants along the streets, highways and other public thoroughfares and places within the State of (Michigan); and for the maintenance, protection and care of such trees and shrubs as a part of the maintenance of the roads in certain cases; and to provide a penalty for injury thereof, or for stealing the products thereof,-- _The People of the State of (Michigan) enact:_ 1 Section 1. The (State Highway Commissioner) is hereby authorized and empowered 2 and it shall be his duty to select and plant by seeds, 3 scions or otherwise, useful, ornamental, nut bearing and other food producing trees, shrubs and plants 4 suitable for shade, maintenance and protection of the highways 5 along State trunk line and Federal aided roads and for the use and benefit of the public, and to care for and maintain all such trees, shrubs or plants. 6 The care of such trees shall be deemed a part of the road maintenance work. 7 The varieties or species 8 so planted shall be subject to the approval of the 9 (State Department of Agriculture) and may be supplied 10 by the (State Agricultural College) or other State Institution or Department, or elsewhere acquired by the 11 (State Highway Commissioner). The (State Highway Commissioner) 12 shall make and publish rules and regulations for the 13 planting and proper placing of trees, shrubs or plants and for their proper 14 pruning, care and protection under the provisions of this act, and all 15 such planting shall belong to the State, but the owner of 16 the adjacent land shall have the right to take and use the products thereof. 17 All expenses incurred in planting or caring for such trees and shrubs along 18 trunk line and Federal aided roads of the State shall be paid in the same manner as is or may be provided 19 by law for the payment of the cost of maintaining trunk line or Federal aided roads. 1 Sec. 2. Counties, townships, cities and villages of the State are 2 hereby authorized to appropriate money for the purpose of planting, 3 caring for and protecting useful, memorial, ornamental, nut bearing and other 4 food producing trees, shrubs and plants along and within streets, highways, thoroughfares and other public places 5 other than trunk line or Federal aided 6 roads, within the respective limits of such municipalities and 7 subject to the jurisdiction thereof. The expenditure of any such fund 8 raised hereunder in a township shall be vested in the 9 (highway commissioner) of the township subject to the approval of the township board. 10 Any such fund raised by a county shall be expended by and under the 11 direction of the (board of county road commissioners;) and 12 any such fund raised in a city or village shall be expended by the highway or other proper municipal board or authority 13 thereof, in accordance with its charter laws or ordinances or under the direction of the common council 14 or legislative body of such city or village. All such 15 appropriations made under this section by any municipality shall 16 be made in the same manner as is or may be provided by law for 17 the raising of money for highway or park maintenance purposes. Sec. 3. Trees may be planted along the highways or other public places by proper authorities and designated as memorial trees for the purpose of commemorating important military or civic events, or in memory of any person distinguished for noteworthy acts, or for conspicuous service in behalf of the nation, the State of Michigan or any local community thereof. Suitable tablets, boulders or other markers of a permanent character may be contributed by any person, or by any civic or military association and placed in conjunction with such memorial trees subject to the approval and consent of the proper authorities in control or in direct charge of such highways or public places. that 1 Sec. 4. The owner of any real estate in the state of (Michigan) that 2 borders upon a public highway other than a trunk line, Federal aided or 3 county road shall have the right to, plant useful, ornamental, 4 nut bearing and other food producing trees and shrubs along 5 the line of said highway adjoining said land, and within the limits thereof, 6 and shall receive annually a credit of twenty cents upon his 7 highway repair tax for each tree so planted and growing in good order: Provided, however, 8 That all such planting shall be done in accordance with the 9 rules and regulations prescribed by the (State Highway Commissioner) 10 for the planting of trees along trunk line and 11 Federal aided roads. Said trees and shrubs and the products 12 thereof shall be subject to the same incidents as to ownership and use as are 13 provided for in section 1 hereof with respects to trees planted 14 along and within trunk line highways. No bounty shall be paid 15 or deduction allowed under the provisions of this section upon any tree or trees for a longer period than five years. 16 The owner of the adjoining land shall have the care of such 17 trees and shrubs and shall have the duty and responsibility 18 for the trimming, spraying and cultivation thereof unless otherwise provided in the charter, ordinances, or other regulations of incorporated cities and villages. 19 In case any such tree or shrub should become diseased or shall in any manner 20 interfere with the public use of the highway the authorities 21 having jurisdiction over such highway may by written notice 22 require the owner of the adjoining land to cut and remove such trees or shrub. 23 If such notice is not complied with within thirty days after 24 service thereof such authorities may cut and remove such diseased 25 or obnoxious tree or shrub. 1 Sec. 5. The (State Board of Agriculture) and other State Departments having lands and facilities therefore are hereby 2 authorized to acquire and grow suitable seeds, scions, and 3 trees for planting under the provisions of this act and to 4 establish proper rules and regulations for the distribution thereof at 5 nominal cost, or otherwise, to the State, to municipalities of the State, and to 6 private citizens for the purposes hereby contemplated. Sec. 6. It shall be unlawful to cut, destroy or otherwise injure any shade or ornamental tree or shrub growing within the limits of any public highway within the State of Michigan without the consent of the authorities having jurisdiction over such road. In the case of a trunk line of Federal aided road the (State Highway Commissioner) shall be deemed to have such jurisdiction in all cases. It shall also be unlawful to affix to any tree or shrub any picture, announcement, notice or advertisement, or to negligently permit any animal to break down or injure the same. Any person violating any of the provisions of this act shall be deemed to be guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not more than one hundred dollars or by imprisonment in the county jail for a period not exceeding thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment within the discretion of the court. Now some of the farmers along the road say that the trees will be diseased, but I don't think that nut trees as a rule, or shade trees, are affected very much with pests. The elm trees have been troubled somewhat. In the West where we live I don't think there is any trouble of that kind. There may be with apple trees and fruit trees. Our agricultural college at Lansing has at the present time one hundred thousand trees ready to plant under this bill. There are some that they have been raising for a long time and some they have recently planted. They hardly knew what to do with them. Now they have agreed to turn them over to the state to be planted on our highways. One thing that we had trouble with in Michigan was the telephone and telegraph companies stringing wires along the public highway. They have cut the top of the tree right straight off and disfigured the tree and disfigured the appearance of the highway. This bill is supposed to prevent that. Our highway department has been trying to get the telephone and telegraph companies to get the right from private owners to put their poles on private land, or to put a pole and let an arm stick out through the tree without cutting the tree down. I recently came from Detroit. There the telephone companies have started to string lines and to cut trees. The highway commissioner has notified them that they must not cut the trees down or cut them off or disfigure them and he has introduced the state constabulary to enforce this ruling. Undoubtedly sooner or later there will be a test case to determine whether or not the state has this authority. I listened this afternoon to a discussion about walnut trees shading the highway. I have no practical experience to know whether these trees do any damage to crops on account of the shade, but supposing you raised a fine walnut tree along the highway and the tree begins to bear. Would not the products you get from that tree more than offset the damage it does to a crop close to the tree? I once had an aunt, when I was a very small boy, and it seems to me she said that she raised forty bushels of black walnuts on one tree. I saw that big hickory tree today. They claimed they raised fifteen bushels on that tree. I thought forty bushels was a lot to come off of one tree. MR. BIXBY: That was in the husk. There have been records of that kind in the husk. SENATOR PENNEY: This bill has been introduced and passed and Mr. Linton, who is practically the author of this bill, is desirous of having this followed up in the different states. I think it would be a good plan. What better investment could you make to beautify our highways than the planting of good trees? In the southern part of the state of Michigan there are quite a lot of good trees, black walnuts, butternuts, which not only add beauty to your highways but are useful in many ways. During the war we know that the government scoured the whole country to find walnut trees to make stocks for guns, and to use in airplanes for propeller blades. They used the shucks to make gas masks. The trees could be made of further service to man by planting them as memorial trees. And again they furnish food, not only bear leaves but food. I would like to hear a discussion upon this bill from those who are from other states. I would like to hear what their opinion might be as to the different provisions of this bill. PRESIDENT LINTON: The subject is now open for discussion. I am sure that there are those here who would perhaps offer amendments to that bill. They might desire to modify it some. They might desire to add other features to it. For instance, it might be well to recognize the desire at the present time to save useful bird life throughout the country. That might be stated in the title to this bill as one of the purposes of roadside planting. Certainly that would be one of the results of road side planting. SENATOR PENNEY: The bill provides not only for planting trees, but for planting shrubs along the highway. That created quite a fight in the legislature. One fellow thought we were going to buy a whole lot of nursery stock and spend a pile of money. We are not. But here was the idea. Those shrubs are useful not only for furnishing food for birds, that are necessary to farmers, but are useful sometimes to prevent shifting sand, and also snow from covering the highways. You have often noticed that the railroad companies put up fences at different points to prevent snow from drifting on the tracks. Bushes can serve the same purpose. PRESIDENT LINTON: The subject is now before the body for discussion. MR. LITTLEPAGE: To print the newspapers in the United States it requires enough wood each year to make one cord of timber from Boston clear across the American continent and across to the Hawaiian Islands and further. Most of that, perhaps half of it, comes from Canada. There is cut from the forests of the United States every year timber to make wood pulp enough to make one cord of wood from Boston to Liverpool. That is just for newspapers. That has nothing to do with furniture, with houses, with cross ties, with everything else, which are estimated to take four times as much. Now if that be true there is cut every year from the forests of the United States enough timber to make four cords from Boston to Liverpool. That is going on every year. We met here seven years ago. In that seven years there has been enough timber cut from the forests of the United States to make twenty-eight cords of wood from Boston to Liverpool. Now when you begin to contemplate that you see what is happening. Roadside planting furnishes one of the greatest opportunities. There are many details that will have to be worked out. The bill which the Senator and our distinguished President have given much consideration to seems to be working along the right lines. Many difficulties will come up from time to time but this is one of the things that this Association ought to get behind. Here is a great need, a fundamental need, when you think of the figures which I gave you. Here is one of the opportunities to fulfill that need. We, as an organization of tree planters, ought to get busy to help to work out the details and difficulties that cannot be all foreseen in the application of the machinery of roadside planting and the particular laws of each state. Some people think sometimes that because a fellow is a lawyer he knows all the laws. There are forty-eight different states in the Union. I know that every state in the Union has a statute of limitations. It is three years in the District of Columbia. It is six years here. The fundamentals, the machinery of laws, are different in these particular states. Now then, what are the duties and what are the opportunities? A duty and an opportunity are rather more or less synonymous after all. It is for this Association to get actively behind this proposition, and help adapt this legislation to each particular state, keeping in mind that the fundamental thing is to plant trees. We are meeting here in Lancaster, Pa., a city to which I have always turned my thoughts with great pride, because here was the home of the founder of the great common school system of America, Thaddeus Stevens. Do you suppose when he began to originate the system which has made America that he could foresee all the difficulties, that he could foresee the difficulties in Texas, in Indiana, in New York? He started with a principle, and that principle has been adopted and developed and worked out in each particular state, until we have the great forty-eight different big school systems of America. We can take this proposition and by working it out, adapting it to the particular machinery, the particular laws, and meeting the particular difficulties, we can work it out until it becomes a great monument. We must plant trees. MR. MCGLENNON: I want to say a word with regard to Senator Penney's reference to the importance of shrubs as a protection to the roadways from shifting sand. Mr. Volbertsen, my collaborator in my filbert enterprise in Rochester, got his early education in horticulture in Germany when a young man of twenty years of age, and he informed me the other day that along the side of the railroads' right of way, filberts were planted very extensively, in different parts of Germany, for the maintenance of the roadbed, to protect them from shifting sand. Not only that but they garnered wonderful crops of nuts. MR. O'CONNOR: Concerning the planting of trees along the roadside, what enemies have they? I have watched this very closely since I have been connected with Mr. Littlepage's farm and I find that the walnut trees and pecan trees have very few enemies. I think that he has something like four hundred trees, and there were not three of them that were troubled with caterpillars. What better could we have along our road sides than nut trees when from the oak, the elm and other trees there are pesky worms dropping down when you go along with an automobile or carriage. PRESIDENT LINTON: I want to say to the ladies present that the ladies of Michigan are greatly interested in this work. We recently established a state trunk line highway known as the Colgrove Highway, named for the President of our Michigan State Good Roads Association. Senator Penney was the introducer of that bill also and it became a law. That particular road runs across our state in such a way that it is about three hundred miles in length. One county that it crosses is known as Montcalm County. At a meeting we had in their court house we had a committee named in each township through which the highway passed for the purpose of properly planting trees and beautifying that highway. Upon my return home I received a letter from the county judge saying that the people of Montcalm County would not stand for planting and beautifying that one road alone but the whole county has been organized and every township in it and half of the membership of each committee is composed of women, and they want these trees and plants on every township road as well as on that state road. That is the way in which the work is going along in many sections of our state and it will soon cover it all with the same enthusiasm. So that the ladies can be of great good in this organization also. There is not a home or a residence street but desires fine shrubs and fine trees. It is especially so with the farmers. They want these beautiful things that the city people have been having for many years in their front yards. They are going to demand shrubbery and trees beyond any call that ever has been made for them in the past. So you can readily see from our work, although much of it is to be carried on in a public way by our agricultural colleges and state institutions of that kind, that they will be able to furnish only one tree or one plant in a hundred of those that will be demanded. That feature I wish especially to impress upon the minds of any nurserymen that may be present. The call in the next decade is going to be along those lines, for ornamental shrubbery and for useful trees, just as the fruit tree has been called for in the past. MR. FAGAN: I don't know that I have anything constructive to add to the road side planting idea. I know that our landscape gardener at the experimental station in the college has, in the past few years, been giving it serious consideration, and if I am not mistaken he has taken the question up with our forest and state highway commissioners in the state. How far it is going to go I don't know. There is a feature of the roadside planting which has been mentioned indirectly this evening that we must not overlook. Just as soon as we consider a program of roadside planting we must also consider a program for the control of pests. Regardless of whether they be pecan trees or hickories or walnuts we are bound to meet with these pests. Whenever we begin a systematic planting, or collection of plants, it does not make much difference whether oak trees, or catalpas or chestnuts, or what not, we can look forward to the time when we will be confronted with a pest control proposition. As to roadside planting in New England it would not make much difference whether it was a walnut or butternut or pecan. A gipsy or brown tailed moth would just as soon eat the foliage off a butternut tree as off an elm. We have here in New Jersey at the present time the Japanese iris beetle and it will eat anything in sight. As soon as we turn nature upside down, as we have nearly done in many sections of the country, we are bound to bring in these pests. It would be well in any law--and I know in this state we would consider a law, and an experimental station could have charge of work connected therewith--that one of the provisions we would insist on being put in the law would be one to control the pests which may come. Right in our district today the tent caterpillar is playing havoc with our walnuts; the oyster shell scale is going through our timber in Center County; and I can take you into the mountains five miles from any residence and I can show you oyster shell scale on half a dozen of our native species. It is nice to kid ourselves along to think our butternuts and our hickories would never be subject to these pests, but they will be. When the Northwest started to plant apple orchards they said they had no codling moths up there. There were some orchards that didn't but sooner or later they came. The time to nip those things is in the bud, and not let them spread. Lack of foresight has cost New England millions and millions of dollars just because they would not take the advice of one man when he told them that the gipsy moth and brown tail moth had gotten away from him. They laughed at him. I wonder whether this association could not get our federal road department back of this idea of roadside planting. I know that back of the federal aid movement there is an important point of contact in roadside planting. SENATOR PENNEY: Our bill provides that the highway department shall care for and maintain the trees. I think the bill is broad enough to cover that subject. I think we all realize that we cannot stop planting trees for fear of some pest that might come, but we have got to provide the means of fighting it if it does come. Our highway department in Michigan has employed a man, a graduate of Yale College who is an expert in horticulture and all this work of planting and caring for the trees is to be turned over to him. DR. CANADAY: In many parts of Germany the practice of planting trees along the state highways has been in vogue for perhaps half a century. They have used fruit trees and it has been found to be very feasible. The state has found that the proceeds of the trees has gone a long way towards keeping up the highways. Of course they probably have had their population under more rigorous control than ours has been. They have been able to collect the proceeds of the trees better. The question of the railroad rights of way might be taken up. A few of the railroads in the United States have already begun planting trees along their rights of way looking forward to a future supply of cross ties. It seems to me the greatest difficulty that will be encountered in this work will be the conflict with the telephone companies and the power lines. If that can be satisfactorily solved, I think the rest of it will be comparatively easy. MR. SMEDLEY: In Pennsylvania near our large cities, the highway department has become aware that the roads are all too narrow. There was a bill passed in the last legislature giving the commissioner of highways a right to establish the width of roads at thirty-three feet, I think it was, with one hundred and twenty feet as the maximum. The department is now making a survey of all the main highways near the large cities. I happen to live just out of Philadelphia, about fifteen miles, on the line between Philadelphia and West Chester. It is a continuation of Market Street the principal east and west street of Philadelphia. It was laid out sixty feet wide. That was one of the first to claim the attention of the department and it will soon be, I understand, established on the map as one hundred feet wide or probably one hundred and twenty feet. That primarily is to stop the encroachment of the buildings near Philadelphia so that when the question of opening this road to its new width comes up damages will not be excessive. Some of us living along there take great pride in that road and want to see it developed but it is going to be some time before this is opened to its full width and it is needless to plant trees until it is. I don't know how you have things in Michigan but a great many of our Pennsylvania roads are old highways that have worn down with banks ten or fifteen feet high, and it is oftentimes a question where to put the trees. PRESIDENT LINTON: Our highways in Michigan are, ninety per cent of them perhaps, four rods in width. That you will know is a good ample width, sixty-six feet wide. The basis of the planting as adopted by our state highway department, as I understand it, is thirteen feet from each line fence, making trees forty feet apart on opposite sides of the roadways. The main portion of the planting will be forty feet apart but that is simply a detail and the entire matter is left with the state highway commissioner and those who assist him. And, as stated by Senator Penney, they are very competent men in that department. Of course some trees would be placed further apart than others. There is no absolutely fixed distance. I don't know of any movement that will more quickly cause the planting of more trees than the one we are outlining at the present time in undertaking to cover the highways of this country. Michigan alone has six thousand miles of state trunk line highway. That is only a small portion of the highways in our state. These are the important roadways connecting our largest cities and business points. Just as an estimate I would say that we have ten times as many miles of roadway in Michigan as we have trunk line highways. If that average should be maintained throughout the country in each one of the states, and I imagine our state is an average one as to the number of miles of roadway, you would see that there would be three hundred thousand miles of trunk line highways alone, saying nothing about all the other highways and by-ways. So that I believe within the next five or ten years this roadside planting will cause more trees to be planted, and useful and valuable trees too, than all the efforts made in this country up to date in re-forestation. The people are alive to this subject and are asking for this very thing. It is only for us to map out a plan, arrange the details, and provide the sources from which they can obtain their supply and the trees will be planted. It was my lot and good fortune last fall, following our meeting in the City of Washington, to visit Mount Vernon and there meeting the superintendent Mr. Dodge. He said to me that our association could have the products of the black walnut trees at Mount Vernon upon condition that that crop should not be commercialized in any way but used for public purposes. In behalf of the association I accepted the crop of walnuts, and, as I recall it, got in the neighborhood of thirty bushels of fine walnuts. They were selected walnuts the best and larger ones. It so happened that they arrived late in Saginaw, where my home is, and it was simply impossible to distribute them generally throughout the country. When it became known that we had these walnuts, and it became necessary to distribute these nuts and have them planted in our immediate locality, our people were delighted with the fact, and every school in every school district in the country called for them, and every city school called for some of these walnuts. They were planted in every school yard, in many cases with appropriate ceremonies along patriotic lines, and that did a great deal of good. Our citizens as individuals called for them. I was surprised to see the interest in it. They wanted them in their yards and at their city homes. Following all this I had about two thousand of these walnuts left. I wondered just what I could do with these. It was impossible to arrange a program for distribution so I asked the superintendent of parks of our city if he would plant and care for them and he readily agreed to do it. So that what was left of the consignment was placed in our finest and largest park. Shortly after having planted these, and the papers having noticed what had been done, I sent a copy to our honored first president, Dr. Morris. Soon thereafter I received a letter from him saying that he disliked very much to predict disappointment, but disappointment certainly was coming to us for our efforts in Saginaw, because, he said, "Mr. Linton, I have gone through this experience and the squirrels and other rodents will certainly get every one of those nuts. You will be disappointed in the results in the spring and I am telling you this so it won't come to you all at once. I want you to be prepared for the disappointment when it comes." I rather imagined it would come. I knew that the trees in that particular park harbored a good many fox squirrels and others, and I imagined they would get these walnuts. But I was very much astonished this spring to see the entire crop come up through the ground. I imagine it was a ninety-five per cent crop. So that we have about two thousand young walnuts growing about as high as this table from last year's planting. They are thrifty and they will be distributed around the state of Michigan this coming spring, and at other places. To show the interest manifested in that particular movement I will say that I received letters from perhaps half of the states in the country asking if they could not be supplied with some of these walnuts from George Washington's former home at Mount Vernon. I even got letters from the State of Virginia asking that some of them be sent from Saginaw, Michigan, to them in Virginia for planting at their home. So you can see how far reaching a thing of this kind can be. I know that we have started something here that will sweep from one end of the United States to the other, and will do more good along the lines of re-forestation than any organization up to date has been able to do. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I move that a committee be appointed to report at the morning session the best method of getting this bill before the various legislatures. I thought first of attempting to formulate what idea I might have in the form of a resolution, but it appears to me that it is something that may require a little thought. Therefore I move the appointment of a committee of three to report in the morning the best form of a resolution or whatever seems best to adopt by this association to get action. This motion was put by President Linton and unanimously adopted. The President appoints on this committee Mr. Littlepage, Senator Penney and Dr. Canaday. PRESIDENT LINTON: This action will close the discussion relative to the tree planting law. Any other subject that you desire to discuss can be brought before the meeting in any proper manner. MR. BIXBY: As the secretary noted this morning, perhaps the most extensive program of nut tree planting which has yet been carried out has been on the other side of the world, in China. One of the members of the association is Mr. Wang who lives near Shanghai and is secretary of the Kinsan Arboretum there. Some time ago he obtained some American black walnuts from Japan. He planted them and they grew so much faster than he had anticipated, and I think faster than any other tree with which he was familiar, that he conceived the idea of planting the new highway, which was being made from Shanghai to Hankow, with these American black walnuts. In due course he sent a money order to pay for two thousand pounds to the secretary. Last year was not the best year to get black walnuts, and the secretary forwarded the money order to me and asked me if I could get these walnuts for him. There was more trouble in getting them in New York last year than there usually is, but finally I did get them and had them made up in twenty-two bags and shipped to Mr. Wang at Shanghai. In due course they arrived and he is anticipating great things from them. The growth that he reported of this first lot of black walnuts was something astonishing. It seems to me that they grew the second year ten feet high. It was a very astonishing growth, a much more vigorous growth than I ever heard of their making here. At any rate there are two thousand pounds of American black walnuts that have been shipped to China, and if nothing happens to them they will grow and adorn that new road from Shanghai to Hankow. MR. JONES: A matter that will be of interest is that Mr. Wang wrote me a letter in which he says that the black walnut grows three times as fast in China as the Japanese walnut. Here in the nursery we find the Japanese walnut doubles the black walnut in the first two years in growth. PRESIDENT LINTON: We would like to hear from those present who are familiar with trees, as you all are, as to the merits and demerits of the various kinds of trees that we desire to plant. In Michigan the only ones we are considering are the black walnut, the hickory, the butternut and the beech. The beech in our state grows to be a beautiful tree, as it does in most states in our country. In addition to that our state agricultural people are suggesting that we plant the hard maple, which is a fine tree in Michigan, and the basswood, and one or two others, to provide food along certain lines. The hard maple, for instance, produces maple sugar, the basswood the bees draw honey from. The simple and useful trees and shrubs are the only ones in our state that we are giving any consideration to. DR. CANADAY: What would be the best way to start a hickory along the roadside? From the nut? PRESIDENT LINTON: From my experience with the black walnut I would say that would be the proper way to plant these hickories, to plant the nuts where the trees would be. It is far less expensive than any other method. It is easily cared for by the road men who take care of a section of the road. MR. MCGLENNON: I am interested in the cultivation and culture of the European filbert at Rochester and have been for a number of years, and I believe successfully. In different meetings of this association that I have attended and in correspondence with the officers of the association, filbert culture in this country has been referred to as still in the experimental stage. Now when you have been in a thing for ten or twelve years and have not had any set-back but progress along all lines of activity, I believe you have passed out of the zone of experimentation and have gotten down to doing something. That is what we have done in Rochester with our nursery which I believe is the only thing of that particular kind in the country. Mr. Vollertsen, my collaborator, came to me with this idea years ago. He told me what he believed could be done and what had been done in filbert culture where he had been until about twenty years of age, having worked in a nursery from the time he had been able to do manual labor. In this nursery they had given especial attention to the cultivation of filberts and he had learned their method of propagation. He told me about this and believed it could be done in this country. I corresponded with some of the prominent nurserymen in the New England states and they told me it would be folly to attempt anything like that in this country, that I would be wiped out by the blight. They had tried it with some of the European varieties. Nevertheless I went ahead and imported five plants of twenty leading German varieties from Hoag & Schmidt, a prominent firm of nurserymen in Germany. I turned them over to Mr. Vollertsen having rented land for him and furnished the funds for the fertilization and cultivation of the land, paying a wage to him to go ahead and make the experiment. I wanted to know rather than to believe. His method of propagation was from the layer. Now we have fruited these propagated plants and found them true. We started in with half an acre. We now have two and a half acres, probably fifty thousand plants altogether. We have never had the semblance of blight. Our cultivation has been thorough. Our fertilization has been consistent. Mr. Vollertsen has been on the job very steadily and understands his business thoroughly. I think that this talk of blight is something that we should not take so seriously to heart. On half a dozen occasions some of our good friends have said, "What about the blight; don't you think it will wipe you out?" I think it is well to be prepared for the truth but the same thing might be said if I plant a peach orchard, that in a few years it will be wiped out by the yellows. I can't make myself believe that the matter of blight in filbert culture in this country is a serious menace. The consensus of opinion in this association seems to have been that even if it does appear there are remedies for it. Our esteemed first president, Dr. Morris, when he visited our place in Rochester some years ago when the convention met there, said that he thought we should not worry about it. He was satisfied that if blight appeared it could be controlled by the removal of the blighted part. I believe that the same principle applies to the development of filbert nurseries as to any phase of life, that eternal vigilance is the price of safety. I believe that thorough cultivation, keeping the plants strong and healthy, will help them resist disease. But if blight does appear, by watching closely it can be removed and I think controlled, as suggested by Dr. Morris. Maybe it has been all right up to the present time to be on our guard but there is my work that has been going on for ten or twelve years. During these last two or three years we have been sending our plants all over the country, to California, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Canada, and we have been getting fine reports with not a single reference to the appearance of blight. On the contrary they report that our plants are fruiting and they ask for more plants. As a specific instance I can cite a prominent doctor in Louisville, Kentucky, who some years ago got some plants from us and some filbert plants from some other nursery. We had a letter from him the other day in which he spoke in most complimentary terms of the plants he had gotten from us, that they had fruited, were true, and he wanted to know if we could furnish him from fifteen hundred to two thousand plants within the next few years. William Rockefeller on the Hudson, another customer of ours, reports plants doing splendidly and fruiting well. Mrs. Jones of Jones & Laughlin Steel Company reports plants growing splendidly there. Those are just a few of the instances I could cite. As I suggested to some of the gentlemen today at the next meeting it might be well for me to bring specific references from different parts of the country where our plants have been planted and are bearing fruit and are doing well, with no reference whatever to blight having appeared, and I shall be very glad to do that. * * * * * It seems to me, too, that the filbert is one of the best nut producing plants for use here in the North. Usually it is grown in bush form. It is very hearty and begins to bear early and abundantly under proper care. In view of the exceptionally wide range of climates and soils it seems to be one of the good nut producing plants for this association. Now it can be consistently considered that I have an ax to grind as I am producing filbert plants for sale, but I assure you, ladies and gentlemen, that it is not with this thought in mind that I make these references. I have the interests of this association very much at heart. My whole time and attention and money is given to nut culture. I am extensively interested in the culture of paper shell pecans in Georgia. Successfully, I might also add. And I want to be equally successful with the filbert because I believe that it is the one great nut bearing plant that this association can stand back of and urge the people to plant, not because I am producing them but because I am a member of this association, and I want to see this association a success. Three weeks ago last Monday, on account of my interest in pecan culture in the South, and having a good crop at our grove this year, I went to New York and spent the day there conferring with a big commission man down in the Washington Street section who handles large consignments of nuts. The subject of the filbert was discussed and I found a very great interest on the subject. They were one and all, I think I can say, appalled when I told them that there was a nursery in New York State producing filbert plants and filbert nuts. Mr. James, vice-president of the Higgins & James Company, showed me a very fine filbert, a variety with some unpronounceable name, I think Italian, and he said, "Isn't it a beauty?" It was. But when I told him that we had just as fine in Rochester and some finer he looked aghast. I invited him to come to Rochester and be convinced. He told me, as others did, that there was a wonderful future for the filbert in this country. The filbert, too, I think, is especially adapted for waste lands on farms. A great many farms have considerable areas of waste land which, I believe, could be made very profitable by the planting of the filbert, because just ordinary farm soil with ordinary fertilization, according to our experiments, demonstrates that the filbert will make "the desert to bloom as the rose." And it is a beautiful shrub for ornamental purposes. Come to Rochester and go down to Jones Square, and you will see a beautiful border of the purple filbert. Some of our customers are purchasing it, William Rockefeller for instance and Mrs. Jones, for the borders of walks and drives. I think that we should try to reach the gardeners and the agricultural and horticultural societies of the country in our campaign for the furtherance of nut culture. In Dr. Kellogg's recent list of diets, fruit and grain and vegetables, covering two pages of his pamphlet, he gives there as the food value of the pecan in protein, fats, and carbo-hydrates 207.8, and next to them the filbert, 207.5, and next the English walnut at 206.8, and next to that the almond, at 191.1. MR. BIXBY: I really think that Mr. McGlennon has done more than anybody else to get the filbert on a practicable basis. He has also mentioned why the association has been a little bit cautious in saying too much about the filbert. In some of the early plantings the blight made serious inroads. There has been a lot learned about the blight since that time and apparently it can be controlled by cutting out the blighted portions. I have seen filberts in certain sections of the country where the blight went half way around the twig. Apparently that can be controlled by cutting out that blighted portion. Or, if the worst came to the worst, by cutting off the limb. But there have been a number of filbert plantings made the last few years where that blight has not appeared at all. One of the greatest difficulties with the European filberts was that while the bushes would grow all right they would not fruit, or fruit only once in a few years. Mr. McGlennon, when he imported those plants from Germany, apparently took all the varieties the man had. I believe that is one reason why Mr. McGlennon is raising filberts when most of the plantings of one bush, or two bushes of one kind have failed. He has enough varieties to properly pollinate the hazel flowers. That is a thing that must be borne in mind. Any one wanting to plant filberts must not ask what is the best filbert and plant one. He must say, what are the best filberts, and plant several varieties. I believe that is one of the things that has enabled Mr. McGlennon to raise filberts when many previous attempts have failed. MR. MCGLENNON: Replying to Mr. Bixby's remarks they are well taken. I overlooked mentioning in my talk a fact, because I believe it is a fact, that it is due to the number of varieties we have that every variety has fruited. Now they are in the nursery and the principal consideration is wood. We are working every plant for wood. We have not been able to supply the demand for plants and won't be for another year or two. Next year I shall probably have ten to twelve thousand plants. We layered some twenty-five thousand plants last year, and we are layering some twenty-five thousand this year. Mr. Vollertsen has been very persistent with regard to the maintenance of the smaller nut varieties, has insisted upon it, because we have found that they are very much freer bloomers than the larger fruited varieties. We have made up our selection, as catalogued, carefully to that end, including some of the smaller fruit varieties. A party asked me the other day if I would send them a plant this fall. I said, "No, but I will send you three plants," meaning one of the small fruit and two of the larger fruit. It is the larger fruit that the consumer is going to demand. He is going to buy the larger nut, although the smaller nut is really better for eating. Convention adjourned until 9:30 a. m., October 7, 1921. MORNING SESSION Friday, October 7, 1921 The Convention was called to order at ten o'clock by President Linton. THE PRESIDENT: The first on our program this morning will be the report of the Committee on Uniform Bill for Roadside Planting. I will ask the chairman, Mr. Littlepage, to make the report. MR. LITTLEPAGE: The committee met last night after adjournment and considered different methods of getting this bill (a copy of which I now present) before the various states, and after some deliberation it was decided to report, on behalf of the committee, as follows: That the committee,--the same committee which has been appointed,--be authorized by the association to prepare in proper and simple form a sufficient number of copies of this bill, to be accompanied by a letter, formulated by the committee, which letter will set out substantially three things: First: Call the governor's attention to the fact that this bill is the one adopted by the State of Michigan, but that it should, of course, be modified to comply with the special judicial or road machinery of each particular state. Secondly: A short argument in behalf of this character of legislation. Thirdly: A request to each governor that he refer the bill to his attorney general to put it in proper form to fit into the machinery of his particular state, and that he also refer it to his appropriate state board of forestry, agriculture or what-not. We suggest, as I said before, that this committee be authorized to prepare a letter along those lines, to be accompanied by a copy of the bill, and that, after it is prepared and ready, it be sent out by either the president or the secretary of the association. It was also thought by the committee to be desirable, at the same time that this is sent to the governor of each state, to send copies to the various agricultural and horticultural journals of the respective states, that being done with the view of getting some publicity. Then, too, the committee thought that it might be well, at that time, for the respective members of the association in these various states to write to their representatives in the legislature calling attention to this bill. Now that is the report of the committee, and, Mr. President, I move that this report be adopted and the committee instructed to act along those lines. (Motion seconded and carried, and the report of the committee was adopted unanimously.) THE PRESIDENT: Now, ladies and gentlemen, I consider that we have performed a most important task in the pioneer work connected with roadside planting in America. There is no question but that with this association the idea first originated; and the work to date along those lines in the United States has been brought about by the Northern Nut Growers' Association. It is a work in which I, personally as well as officially, as you know, have been greatly interested and the unanimous adoption of the committee's report, endorses that line of work. I wish to thank you, individually and collectively, for your interest and the action which you have taken. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I feel that our president in this instance has hit a high-water mark. He has taken hold of a very important idea and has developed it. After making an observation or two I am going to move a vote of appreciation to our president and accompany it with a vote of thanks to Senator Penney for coming down here from Michigan and lending his aid and enthusiasm. We listened last night to a discussion about this roadside planting. As I observed before it is not without its difficulties the same as everything else; but this proposition extends to the various state boards of horticulture, highway, or what-not, one of the greatest and finest opportunities. Personally I believe in nut trees; but you must first get the public with you. Suppose you had a highway into Lancaster lined on either side for a half mile with pink weigelias in the spring. You would have the whole population going up and down that highway looking at the display. And the pink weigelia is almost a fool-proof shrub. It grows without cultivation and grows very rapidly and blooms in the greatest profusion. Suppose in mid-summer you had another highway lined with hydrangeas. I believe a particular one that is hardy is called paniculata grandiflora. It is a fool-proof shrub also, requires very little care and comes on after the other flowers go. It also can be produced very cheaply. You would have the population looking at and admiring the blooms and it would inspire, in each one of those individuals, a desire to go and do likewise. Suppose you had a half mile of sweet gum trees. If you go down through the counties of Pennsylvania now you will see the sweet gums--some of them a deep dark purple, some of them a bright golden yellow, some of them red, some of them with all the colors and all summer a beautiful foliage--suppose you had a half mile of those leading into a street of any city in America. The population on Sunday would drive out there and admire their beauty. It affords a wonderful opportunity. The individuals who care for those trees and shrubs, while moving up and down the highway caring for them, will be carrying with them a little university of horticultural knowledge. The average farmer thinks it is a terrible thing to spray. It is the simplest thing in the world as you know. This machinery by which these trees and plants and shrubbery would be cared for would be a moving university up and down the highway teaching the farmers how to care for their trees. Mr. Rush's trees which we saw yesterday were the finest examples of well cared for trees. You could not travel over the country and find trees showing a finer degree of care. Nobody could look at those trees without feeling that he would rather give a little more care to his trees. So that, if this idea is carried out, as it will be, it will become popular with the various state boards. They like to do things that are popular or that please the people. As I said at the commencement of my remarks I am going to take the liberty of moving a vote of deep appreciation to the president (Mr. Linton), and also a vote of thanks to Senator Penney. (Motion seconded and carried unanimously.) THE PRESIDENT: I desire to thank you, one and all, for this vote of appreciation. My connection with the Northern Nut Growers' Association has been of a most pleasant character. I have found a group of men and of women who are interested not only in their own welfare but in the welfare of the race. What we have started today--or rather completed so far as organization is concerned--will do as much good in the United States in the next decade as any movement that has been started by any organization or association. It means re-forestation on a larger scale with right trees and right plants, as stated by my friend Mr. Littlepage. A new start will be made along those lines. The poor trees will be cast aside and the next generation will have trees and bushes and plants that not only will be beautiful to the eye but will be beneficial to mankind and to those birds and animals that we desire to have around us. The greatest credit should be given to those of this association who in a scientific way have endeavored to bring about better varieties of nuts, better varieties of the products of trees, and their names certainly should go down in history with that of Burbank, or with those of other men who have devoted their lives to this kind of advancement. I am sure that will be the result. I know that as the message goes down along the line to the various states, their efforts will at least be recognized as having been beneficial and advantageous to all. I want again to thank every one of you for the kindness that you have extended towards me and to my colleague, Senator Penney, who is most actively engaged in this work. Situated as he was--a most prominent member of the Michigan legislature--he was able to promote the very work in our Wolverine State that we today are undertaking to bring about in the United States, and I would call upon Senator Penney to say a word in this connection. SENATOR PENNEY: Mr. President, it seems to me that after all these remarks have been made, this subject has been very well covered. I was very much interested in the remarks of Mr. Littlepage because he spoke of different ornamental trees and shrubs with which I am not familiar and which are not grown in our part of the country. Our esteemed president, Mr. Linton, is doing wonderful work up in Saginaw at the present time in conjunction with our superintendent of public parks. He is helping to lay out some of our parks and to plant trees and shrubs there. One gentleman of Saginaw furnished the means to buy one thousand trees and the matter was put in charge of Mr. Linton to see that they were properly planted. This work and similar work that Mr. Linton and I have undertaken to promote and to push. We have done similar things in regard to the promotion of good highways. We have absolutely no interest in stone quarries or gravel pits or in any kind of contracts for the building of roads; yet we have spent several hundred dollars or more in going about Michigan giving talks at different meetings and promoting roads. One of the things that Mr. Linton tried to promote was this tree planting bill. Inasmuch as I was in the legislature I had the opportunity of helping to put this work across. We have a wonderfully good highway commissioner in our state. He is enthusiastic over this proposition. While our bill was passed just a short time ago, he has already planted eighteen miles of trees in one locality, and, he said, at very little cost. Just think what might be done throughout the United States. Suppose the prominent highways throughout the United States were planted with useful and ornamental trees, beautiful shrubs and things of that kind. Wouldn't it be a wonderfully beautiful and useful thing for the country? In closing I wish to thank Mr. Littlepage and the other members of this association for the very kind treatment we have received here. THE PRESIDENT: We are fortunate in having a paper that was prepared and will be presented by our esteemed treasurer Mr. Bixby, and I take pleasure in calling upon him at this time. WHERE MAY THE NORTHERN PECAN BE EXPECTED TO BEAR _Willard G. Bixby, Baldwin, Nassau Co., N. Y._ In the January 1916 issue of the American Nut Journal is an article by Meredith P. Reed read before the Western Association of Nurserymen at their annual meeting in Kansas City, Mo., December 1915 entitled the Pecan Areas of the United States, describing the limits between which the pecan may be grown. In this paper the matter of the Pecan Belts of the country are discussed and their extent determined pretty largely by the length of the season (in average years), that is by the number of days between the latest spring frosts and the earliest fall frosts. A map was shown on which these areas were marked out, and it has been very useful to the writer in answering inquiries from persons who want to know if pecans can be grown in _a_ given section. Mr. John Garretson, Aspers, Adams Co., Penn., has on his place bearing Stuart and Schley pecans, two of the standard southern varieties. These bear nuts of typical shape but which are only a fraction of the size that these nuts would be if grown in southern Georgia. This clearly shows that some of the standard southern pecans require something which they do not get at Aspers to enable them to properly mature their nuts. The trees stand the cold of winter but the fruit does not properly mature. Mr. Jones has suggested that it is heat that is lacking and has advanced the idea that even though the trees are hardy to winter cold they have not sufficient summer heat at Aspers to enable them to mature their crops. This has brought up the question as to whether there was any method of measuring the summer heat available for causing pecan nuts to grow and mature. Observations on northern pecans (and some southern ones) on my place at Baldwin caused me to note that no pecans started to vegetate at Baldwin before May. May is the first spring month here when the pecan will leave out. May is also the first spring month when the average monthly temperature here will reach 50°F. It occurred to me that if we note the excess average monthly temperatures over 50° and sum these items for a season we would get what might be termed a figure for "pecan growing heat units." This figure of 50° is doubtless capable of some refinement. There is no reason to suppose that further study may not show that it should be somewhat more or less but it is the best we have so far and seemingly it is proving useful. If we calculate these figures for Evansville, Ind., for 1914, for example, and show the method of doing it we will have Average Monthly Average Monthly Temp. 1914 Temperatures in Excess of 50 deg. January 39.6 February 29.9 March 42.0 April 55.4 5.4 May 67.9 17.9 June 80.0 30.0 July 82.2 32.2 August 78.0 28.0 September 69.6 19.6 October 60.8 10.8 November 49.2 December 31.0 _____ Total 143.9 The pecan growing heat units, pecan units they may be called for short, for Evansville, Ind., in 1914 were 143.9. From this we might conclude that a place where the pecan units for 1914 would figure out 143.9 would be likely (as far as climatic conditions are concerned) to grow pecans as well as Evansville, that is, of course if other years should show similar figures. With the idea of seeing if the experience of those who were growing pecans would be anything like what might be calculated from the Weather Bureau Records, letters were written to all members of the National Nut Growers' Association to find out if pecans grew and bore well in their sections and if so which varieties. From the replies received it has been in a number of instances difficult to judge just how well pecans grow in some sections. For this reason I have interpreted the replies somewhat on the basis of my own knowledge and on certain facts told me by Mr. C. A. Reed. Apparently at least 175 pecan units are to be found in most places where the southern pecan is successful commercially. This corresponds to a line through Augusta, Milledgeville, Macon and Columbus, Georgia and Montgomery, Alabama. There seems little question but that pecans can be grown north of this line but until I get more positive information than I now have I shall doubt if the planting of southern varieties of pecans much north of this line is nearly as advisable as it is south of it. When we come to compare this figure with the pecan units for Ocean Springs and Pascagoula, Miss., where a number of the fine southern pecans originated which are now being propagated we find an average of about 222 pecan units. To reduce this to a percentage we find that many of the standard southern pecans grow and bear well when the pecan units are as low as 79% of those of the place of their origin. In other words the adaptability of the southern pecan is 79%, that is it will grow and bear well where the pecan units are as low as 79% of those of the place of its origin or to use rough figures, 80%. When we come to ascertain the pecan units of the locations where the northern pecan grows and bears well we will consider Evansville and Vincennes, Ind., as places where it bears well; Burlington, Ia., as a place where it does quite well, but not as well, as in Evansville; Clinton, Ia., as a place where trees are growing well but where they bear a large crop only once in several years; and Charles City, Ia., as a place where the pecan does not mature its nuts. The pecan units are also shown for several important places outside of the native pecan area. Highest Lowest Average Evansville, Ind. (1919) 147.5 (1917) 116.4 135.7 Vincennes, Ind. (1914) 144.7 (1918) 123.1 130.8 Burlington, Ia. (1914) 125.8 (1917) 90.2 108.4 Clinton, Ia. (1914) 109.2 (1917) 75.3 94.9 Charles City, Ia. (1914) 91.2 (1915) 65.4 78.5 New York City (1914) 101.2 (1917) 85.2 94.3 Lancaster, Penn. (1919) 108.7 (1917) 84.9 98.4 Gettysburg, Penn. (1919) 108.4 (1916) 89.4 100.7 Cincinnati, O. (1914) 131.7 (1917) 88.9 109.5 Baltimore, Md. (1919) 127.2 (1917) 106.7 121.0 Washington, Md. (1918) 126.8 (1917) 104.7 119.3 Hartford, Conn. (1919) 88.9 (1917) 74.8 85.1 If we consider that Evansville and Vincennes are the center of the pecan district near which most varieties have originated and that a place should have 80% as many pecan units as in this Evansville district in order to have the northern pecan do well, a place should have 105 pecan units in order for one to feel reasonably certain that the northern pecan will do well there. It will be both interesting and instructive to see how well the applications that may be made from the conclusions compare with observed facts. We know that there are large numbers of pecan trees at Burlington, Ia., and that the trees grow and bear well. Its pecan units are 108.4. We should conclude that at Baltimore and Washington with pecan units at 121.0 and 119.3 respectively that pecans would grow and bear well. There are pecan trees over 100 years old at Marietta, Md., which is half way between Baltimore and Washington. These trees bear nuts and although it has not been possible to get bearing records it is evident that they bear considerably for on the roads of that vicinity are hundreds of young pecan trees which evidently came up from nuts borne by these old trees. We should expect the pecan to do well at Cincinnati, O. In fact I have been expecting to find it native there, but, so far all inquiries have failed to do so. At Fayetteville, however, which is about 40 miles east of Cincinnati and somewhat north of it, are bearing pecan trees raised from seed brought from Shawneetown, Ill., which is in the Evansville district. Seed from these Fayetteville trees planted at Baldwin have shown nearly 100% germination. There is some question as to how well pecans should bear at Gettysburg, and Lancaster, Penn., and at New York City where the pecan units are much like those at Clinton, Ia., where, on forest pecan trees, we get a fair crop but once in several years. Perhaps with our present knowledge these places should be considered on the borderland between the country where the pecan is likely to do well and that where it will not mature its nuts. We know that pecan trees have borne nuts at Aspers, Pa., near Gettysburg, at Lancaster, Pa., and at Westbury and Glen Cove, Long Island, near New York City but so far it has not been possible to make sufficient observations to form definite conclusions as to what to expect. It seems quite likely that fertilization and care may help materially the maturing of crops in those sections which in our present knowledge we must consider on the borderland. Probably we should not expect pecan nuts to be borne at Charles City, Ia., where pecan units are but 60% of those at Vincennes, and pecan units at Hartford, Conn., are not so very different. There are northern pecan trees at Charles City, Ia., which many years ago were brought there, but the information I have about them is that they have never borne. There is a large pecan tree at Hartford, Conn., but I have never been able to learn of its bearing nuts. As the northern pecan trees now being planted get to bearing age we shall have actual experimental data as to what they will do in the different sections. Until that time by the method outlined herein and with the Weather Bureau Records for several years at hand inquiries regarding its probable adaptability for a given section can be answered with far more confidence than was possible heretofore. * * * * * THE PRESIDENT: Is there any discussion upon the excellent paper just read by our treasurer? MR. JORDAN: May I ask if, according to that theory, the Stuart and the Schley would not be expected to do well in Washington? MR. BIXBY: I should say not. My intention was to indicate roughly a dividing line between where the pecan would be an important commercial crop and where it would not. We know the Stuart pecan bears pretty well at Petersburg, Virginia; it bears at Aspers, Pa., which is near Gettysburg, but the nuts are a fraction of the normal size and not very well filled. THE SECRETARY: We all appreciate the amount of work that is represented by this report of Mr. Bixby and how valuable it is from a scientific as well as from a practical point of view. I wonder if it could be made more useful if Mr. Bixby could make a little map showing the isothermal lines on the basis that he has followed in his investigation. MR. BIXBY: That could be done in a very general way, but altitude makes such a difference that there would be many places included in any belt at which, probably, certain pecans would not grow nor would not mature. It is very evident that local conditions make a great difference. I should say that a map to be useful would probably have a series of dots all over the country indicating what pecans would be best grown in that section; and while that would, to a certain extent, form belts yet there could be selected many places in any one belt where another pecan would be preferable. MR. J. W. RITCHIE: I started in this nut-growing business knowing nothing about it. I found that there were men in it who had been working at it for years who knew many things that I wanted to know. They forgot that I knew nothing and that I might want to know some of the things that they had in their minds which gave them a background. I think there ought to be some way by which all this knowledge that we have can be brought together so that a beginner could pay a dollar or a dollar and a half or, if necessary, two or three dollars and get it all at once. I have visited Washington and have seen Mr. Littlepage. He showed me some Kentucky hickories and Stabler walnuts and I then decided that if I could raise any nuts there would be no trouble about selling them. I can sell just as many of those nuts as I can produce; but yet I do not know a thing about how many nuts will grow on a Kentucky hickory in one year. If you will lay the facts before me and let me judge them I will take the risk myself. I do not want anybody to tell me whether to plant nuts or not to plant them. I will decide that question for myself if you will give me the data to work on. I want a book that will give me the varieties. I want to know what particular nuts can be put out in this region here that would have a chance of commercial success. Then I would like to know as much as I possibly can about those varieties, their respective qualities, what they will produce and especially how to propagate them. I happen to have a place where there are a great many walnuts, butternuts and hickories. I would like to know, in detail, how to propagate those nuts. In a conversation with the secretary he spoke of northern pecans. I have read about the Marquardt, the Burlington and the Witte. I do not know whether the term "northern" included those three or not. TREASURER BIXBY: I would be very useful if I could directly answer a good many of the questions that are asked. A great many people would like to know the pecan they can plant in their sections and be sure of success. That I would like to tell them. I do not have the information. It is frequently more difficult to answer questions than to ask them. Regarding the Burlington and the Witte pecans, they come from the most northern section where good pecans have been found, where the heat units are the lowest. They come from Burlington, Iowa, where the heat units are 180, if I remember correctly. If we assume a place where the heat units are 80 per cent of those at Burlington, those pecans should grow and mature there. They would probably do fairly well in New York City. I think we might feel justified in saying that they would not do well at Charles City, Iowa, because pecans from near that section, or back north of that section, have been growing for twenty-five or thirty years, and have not fruited. There the pecan units are very low, only 78. It would seem reasonable that at places where the pecan units are somewhat over 90, including New York City, Lancaster, southern Pennsylvania, and of course practically all sections south of it, they ought to do well. Those are the safest pecans, the Marquardt, the Burlington, the Witte, and the Green Bay, to plant in the northern section. MR. LITTLEPAGE: The Stuart pecan originally stood within fifty feet of the Gulf of Mexico. There is where it originated. It is one of the leading southern nuts; and yet I saw a Stuart bearing nuts in Mr. Roper's orchard down at Petersburg, Virginia. It has grown beautifully. There is a strictly southern pecan, nurtured by the waters of the Gulf of Mexico, which has the widest latitude. You can find the same thing up north. The fact that the Burlington grows at Burlington, Iowa, means this, that it ought to grow in all similar latitudes, or else violate known laws of horticulture. But it does not mean that some other pecan that grew 250 miles south of that might not grow still further north. The questions asked are important. Why does not the association, just as fast as it gets information, stick a pin there and fasten it down? For example, will pecan trees grow, say, on the thirty-ninth parallel, which runs through my grove down in Maryland. They will. Will they bear? There is one Major there that has this summer fifty pecans on it; another one there with perhaps a dozen. On the 27th day of March of this year, which was Easter Sunday, the temperature dropped sixty-eight degrees in twenty-four hours. It is a wonder it did not kill the forest trees. But with all that the pecan stood there just as hardy as the oak. It destroyed some of the ends of the swelling buds, not the dormant buds but some of those that had begun to swell a little, and that no doubt affected the crop or we would have had, perhaps, all the varieties, the Butterick, the Warrick, the Niblack, the Busseron, the Major, and the Green River fruiting. Do we want to grow a Major? I do not know. But the man that makes the mistake is the man who fails to set nut trees. How about the Stabler walnut bearing? It bore matured nuts at the age of four years on my farm in Maryland this year. The nuts are here. That answers that question. I have very grave doubts about pecan trees thriving in the Lancaster latitude; yet it may be that I am wrong about that. There may be some particular variety that will thrive here. If I lived in this section I would set out the trees so that when the one, two, three or four varieties are found that will thrive here we will have something to work on. There isn't any question about the black walnut or filbert thriving here, or the hickory, because we find them growing. If you go through southern Michigan and northern Indiana, you will see the shagbark hickory by the thousands growing along the railroad. This association should endeavor to get some affirmative data and distribute it among its members. I have a row of Indian hazels. I put them on the side of my garage to make a sort of a screen because they grow those big crinkling pretty leaves. That row is probably fifteen feet long. If I had forty acres of those hazels with the same quantity of nuts on that are on there this year I could buy another farm. MR. OLCOTT: I would like to ask about Evansville, Indiana. MR. LITTLEPAGE: Evansville, Indiana, is almost exactly on the thirty-eighth parallel. The Busseron pecan tree grows almost exactly on the thirty-ninth parallel which is the northern boundary of the District of Columbia. The big orange groves in California are at the Lancaster latitude, which shows just how such things twist and turn, how difficult it is to learn them and why it is going to take a lot of experience to work them out. THE SECRETARY: I knew that Mr. Jones was a very patient and a very courteous gentleman; but I did not suppose that his patience and his courtesy would enable him to sit there for nearly a half hour with, lying in his lap unopened, the new book on nut culture which has just been published by Dr. Morris, probably the first copy that you or I have seen. I see that Mr. Jones has finally yielded to temptation and has uncovered the book. Perhaps that is the book that will supply Mr. Ritchie's needs. I mention it now because I think that you all ought to know that such a book has been published by Dr. Morris and that it can be bought of the MacMillan Company, Publishers, of New York City. MR. MCGLENNON: I think Mr. Jones has overlooked the following on the fly leaf of Dr. Morris's book: "_To J. F. Jones, first authority in the world today on the subject of nut growing. With the compliments of one of his pupils, Robert T. Morris. "New York, October 3, 1921_" (Applause). THE PRESIDENT: If there is no further discussion along this particular line, we will now receive the report of the committee on grades of membership. TREASURER BIXBY: The committee recommends that Article II of the By-Laws be amended so as to read as follows: "Annual members shall pay two dollars annually, or three dollars and twenty-five cents including a year's subscription to the American Nut Journal. Contributing members shall pay five dollars annually, this membership including a year's subscription to the American Nut Journal. Life members shall make one payment of fifty dollars and shall be exempt from further dues. Honorary members shall be exempt from dues." It was moved and seconded that the report of the committee be adopted and the amendment to the by-laws made as therein recommended. (Motion carried unanimously). THE TREASURER: I would like to give notice of our intention, at the next regular meeting, of moving to amend Article III of the Constitution, by adding to the same the following: "There shall be four classes of members: Annual, contributing, life and honorary. Annual, contributing and life members shall be entitled to all rights and privileges of the association. Honorary members shall be entitled to all rights and privileges of the association, excepting those of holding office and voting at meetings." THE PRESIDENT: Notice has been duly made and will be filed in the proceedings of the session. We have with us Prof. F. N. Fagan to whom I am sure you will be glad to listen at this time in connection with the work that is being carried on at State College with which institution he is connected. PROFESSOR FAGAN: At the Rochester meeting we reported on an English walnut survey that was made in Pennsylvania. Since that time we have not done anything except with Mr. Jones's and Mr. Rush's help, to gather information about the parent trees of which we located definitely about three thousand and indefinitely probably two thousand more. All of these trees but one were in bearing. They were seedling trees and as much variation was found in the trees as we would naturally expect to find in seedling trees. Our problem is to determine the trees worthy of propagation. It is necessary also to solve better the propagation problem. We cannot expect to get any large amount of planting of any of our nut trees until we can put the trees to the public at a price at which it will feel that it can afford to invest. To the members of this association, or to other people vitally interested, two or two and a half or three dollars is not anything for a good tree; but to the average planter of home ground or farmstead that is too much money. We all know that it is not an easy task to propagate these trees and we are not condemning the nurserymen. We know that they cannot afford to grow a budded or a grafted tree of known parentage for any less. So the problem of propagation is one of the largest that we have before us, and it is one to which our station and I myself are giving all the thought and time that we can. We realize the importance of the nut industry in the state if for no more than roadside and home planting. Whether commercial planting will extend through the north with our black walnuts, our butternuts, our hickories and our English walnuts, to the extent that it has in the south with the pecan, is a question which time alone can solve. We now have new land at the station suitable for the planting of nut trees. It is going to be the best land that we have on our new farm and we hope next spring to make a collection planting of varieties. We have not much money but we can make a start. It is not going to be at a place that will be set aside and not cared for. It is going to be along the public road, where we will have to take care of it or we will be criticised. Until we solve our problems of selection and propagation we will go along at a fair rate of increase in regard to our plantings; but we will not reach the man who has a piece of ground and who says, "I would like to plant that ground in walnuts, maybe fifteen or twenty trees but I cannot put thirty dollars into those trees, or twenty dollars when I can buy apple trees for twenty cents." Yet the future looks just as bright to me as it did the day I started to make the English walnut survey, just as bright because we will overcome these obstacles. I might close by saying that while we are ready at the college and at the experiment station to go ahead we are not ready to plunge into any extensive experiments. It requires money and the money does not come in such quantities that we can plunge into anything in fact. But we are ready to begin to build a foundation on which we expect later on to experiment, and I hope that in ten more years, or in nine more years, if this association comes back to Pennsylvania, we can invite them to the experiment station to see what foundations we have laid and what progress we have made in the experimental work of nut culture. THE PRESIDENT: Will there be any discussion on the subject so ably covered by Prof. Fagan? Are there any questions that you desire to ask the Professor? THE SECRETARY: I would like to ask Prof. Fagan if he has a good word to say for the English walnut in Pennsylvania and in other parts of the country as a profitable tree to plant, from the result of his inspection of the trees of the state. PROF. FAGAN: We get a letter probably on an average of once a week, from some one in the State of Pennsylvania who wants to plant anywhere from five acres to a hundred acres in English walnuts. We tell him to go slow, to feel his ground out pretty well and to remember that he is planting a tree that is a greater feeder, probably, than any other fruit tree; that it must have food or it won't grow; and instead of planting a hundred acres to plant maybe half an acre and select the best varieties that information at the present time indicates, those that lived through the winter of 1917-1918. We have seedling trees in Pennsylvania, that probably date back to near revolutionary war times; in fact there are some around Germantown that no doubt were growing at the time of the revolutionary war, around the old Germantown Academy. Personally I would not hesitate to plant as good an acre of land as there is in Lancaster County, or ten or twenty or fifty acres, to the better types of English walnuts that we have today. It probably would not be profitable in my time; I do not know; but it certainly would be profitable in the lifetime of my children. I would not, however, want to plant the nuts on cheap and poor mountain land where the most of our larger plantings, even of chestnut, have been made throughout the country, on land that was not worth the attention of other crops. When people write to us that they have certain types of land we always tell them if they can grow an average crop of corn, wheat, clover or potatoes on that land there probably isn't any question but that if they plant English walnuts they will be successful in raising some English walnuts. Whether they will raise them profitably or not is another question. But nothing can take the place of one or two good trees on every farm, especially in southeastern Pennsylvania. There isn't much question but that those trees can be grown successfully from a line through Allentown to the Susquehanna River, and on over to the general range of the Allegheny Mountains, down to the Mainland and West Virginia line. Even in our higher elevations of sixteen or eighteen hundred feet I can show you some good old bearing trees that are ten or twelve inches in diameter. No dwelling houses there. They are out in the country and they are high up. THE SECRETARY: As has been stated the essential thing in the successful growing of Persian walnuts, and probably other nuts, is high fertilization. I believe that many of our failures to grow the Persian walnut are due to lack of sufficient food. THE TREASURER: I do not suppose that any one in the association has made more of an effort to get better records than I have--at least I have made a good deal of effort. I have learned that in 1916, if I remember correctly, the Stabler bore sixteen bushels of hulled nuts and it was estimated that two were washed away by the rains. In another year, I was informed the Weiker tree bore twelve bushels. In following up other trees I found it impossible to get any results. I tried to get information as to the parent Hales hickory and the most I could learn was that the family had gathered as high as two or three bushels in one year. But when I saw that the tree stood on the side of a well traveled road with only a low stone wall to get over, and that the squirrels were plentiful and the children undoubtedly likewise, I thought it a wonder that the Hales got any of the nuts. In the case of most of our fine parent nut trees they are either situated in out-of-the-way places where it is a task to get to them, or else they are situated on the side of a traveled road where the passersby are pretty likely to get a great many of the nuts. Take the case of the Fairbanks hickory in Alamosa, Iowa. It stands on the side of the road on top of a hill outside of the limit of the houses of the town. I do not see how it can help being that a great proportion of the nuts are picked up by passersby. When we have grafted trees planted where they can be protected and the crop can be watched we can get reliable data for our records; but I am afraid that except in a few instances, we cannot get such data for the parent trees. MR. RUSH: California is the leader in the Persian walnut industry and I think it would be better for us to fall in line and adopt some of their varieties. I find that they are perfectly hardy here, just as hardy as are varieties that have been grown here for a hundred years. MR. L. N. SPENCER: Right back of the postoffice are some English walnut trees. They are growing very nicely. They have withstood all kinds of weather. I have not noticed any dead limbs on the trees nor any other indications that the climate here is not adapted to the growing of these trees. We would be glad indeed to show you the trees if you would come to the postoffice. They are not on ground belonging to the United States government but on private ground. I have been very much interested in your discussion. I came here because I expect to set out some more nut trees. THE PRESIDENT: There are two items of business left for the convention. One is, receiving the report of the nominating committee; the other is, to determine upon a place for holding our next convention. If there is nothing further to be brought before the session by the members these two items will now receive our consideration. The first of the two would be the report of the nominating committee. MR. OLCOTT: Your nominating committee respectfully reports the following nominations for officers of the Northern Nut Growers' Association for the coming fiscal year: President--James S. McGlennon, Rochester, N. Y. Vice-President--J. F. Jones, Lancaster, Pa. Secretary--William C. Deming, Wilton, Conn. Treasurer--Willard G. Bixby, Baldwin, N. Y. Your committee begs leave to suggest that as the details of an aggressive campaign to increase the membership of the Association entail a considerable amount of correspondence and other work, the Secretary should be relieved to as great an extent as is practicable, and to that end particular attention should be paid to the selection of a Membership Committee. It is the belief that this is one of the most important committees of the Association and that systematic endeavor upon definite lines should be made to extend the membership; that this work should begin at once and be maintained earnestly throughout the coming fiscal year. RALPH T. OLCOTT, J. F. JONES, JOHN RICK, C. S. RIDGWAY, Committee. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I move the adoption of the report. (Motion seconded and carried, and the officers therein referred to were declared elected.) THE PRESIDENT: The second item is to determine the place of the next meeting. A motion would be in order covering that. THE TREASURER: Inasmuch as we have in Rochester, New York, an orchard of filberts which is beginning to bear real crops--and that is something none of us has ever seen--if Rochester would like to have us come I move that we go there next year. MR. OLCOTT: Rochester would like to have you come. MR. MCGLENNON: I was going to ask that the convention be brought to Rochester next year. I would certainly like to see it there. I second Mr. Bixby's motion. (Motion carried unanimously.) It was moved and seconded that the next annual convention be held on September 7 and 8, 1922. (Motion carried unanimously.) MR. LITTLEPAGE moved (seconded by Mr. McGlennon) that Mr. Harrison H. Dodge, Superintendent of Mount Vernon, be elected an honorary member of this association. (Motion carried unanimously.) THE PRESIDENT: I desire to say that in this package I have four seedlings from the walnuts that were supplied from Mount Vernon. A few of the walnuts left from last year's supply were placed in the hands of a nurseryman or florist in Saginaw too late for planting--the ground had become frozen--and those few nuts be placed in pots in his greenhouse. They grew very vigorously and I have four of those in little earthen pots for planting this afternoon. MR. MCGLENNON: I make a motion that a vote of thanks be extended to Dr. Morris and the others whose papers were read by our secretary yesterday morning and that they be notified accordingly. SENATOR PENNEY: I second the motion. (Motion carried unanimously.) THE SECRETARY: I feel that we should express our appreciation of the efforts of the local committee and the management of this hotel. I therefore move a vote of thanks to Mr. Rush and Mr. Jones for their work in the management of this convention, and to the management of the hotel for the kindness they have shown us. MR. LITTLEPAGE: I second the motion. (Motion carried unanimously.) THE PRESIDENT: We will now adjourn to gather here at two o'clock in order to go on a sight-seeing trip or excursion around the city and county and then to Long's Park at 4:30 o'clock for the tree planting. PROCEEDINGS OF THE TREE PLANTING CEREMONIES AT LONG'S PARK, LANCASTER COUNTY, PA. 4:30 p. m., October 7, 1921 PRESIDENT LINTON: The four young walnut trees that we have before us are grown from walnuts from trees at Mount Vernon near the tomb of General Washington. The trees there were planted unquestionably during the lifetime of Washington, and have grown to be fine specimens of their particular species. Last fall the ladies of the Mount Vernon Association gave to the Northern Nut Growers Association all of the walnuts upon the trees at Washington's home. They divided those nuts into two lots and the best ones were presented to the association for the purpose of public planting. Under no circumstances were the nuts to be commercialized or sold for gain but were to be planted by the school children of the land, if it could be satisfactorily arranged in the short time that we had before the end of the planting season. We found it impossible to distribute these walnuts throughout the country, although the demand kept coming for them from many states, so they were distributed first to the district schools outside of the city of Saginaw in the County of Saginaw and there planted by the school children with appropriate ceremonies. Then our city schools asked for them and in every school yard in the city of Saginaw are some Washington walnuts growing today. Following this distribution to the schools we had still several bushels of the nuts, and one bushel was presented to what is known as Merlin Grotto, a branch or division of the Masonic Order. As General Washington was a member of that organization it seemed fitting that that society should have some of the nuts. So in the beautiful grounds outside of our city that are owned and controlled by Merlin Grotto there were also planted some of these Mount Vernon walnuts. Then we still had about two dozen of them left, and they were planted in what is known as the Ezra Rush Park in Saginaw, our largest city park. They are there in rows to be transplanted this coming spring and will be again distributed to the schools, or to public places desiring them, as long as they may last. The four specimens that you have before you, gentlemen, are from nuts from trees planted during President Washington's time at his home. We trust that they may live in this beautiful park in Lancaster and that they may go down in history showing the source from whence they came. PROF. HERBERT H. BECK: Gentlemen: It is a very great privilege to represent Franklin and Marshall College in extending a word of greeting as well as comradeship to the Northern Nut Growers' Association. I use the word comradeship advisedly because we have interests that are indubitably kindred. Our two institutions are both concerned with the cultivation of something that will contribute to the strength and happiness of each as Americans--your institution in the cultivation of useful trees--our institution in the cultivation of useful men. It may well be said, show me a man who loves and cultivates trees and I will show you a man who loves his fellow men and puts that love into practice. That cannot be said, unfortunately, of every man who graduates from college. It is to be doubted whether the name of John Harvey, considered abroad as worthy of a higher place in the annals of American horticulture, is greater than the name of Johnny Appleseed, the man who took apple trees out into the frontier of the open road. My only regret is that I have never been in a position to do so. I can say, though, with Dr. Holmes, for whose opinion on such things I have a most profound admiration, that I have an intense, passionate fondness for all trees in general and for certain trees in particular. When I go out among the trees I have a kinship there. I am never lonely when I am in a forest and I cannot say that when I am alone in a big city. I like to look upon an old tree as a patriarch with not only an honored past but an interesting story locked up under its bark. As I go to such a place as Valley Forge, I like to lay my hand on the rough bark of an old tree and say, "Oh, but that you might tell your tale; you are the only thing left which looked upon the scene in which a few were crucified that many might live." Such are the thoughts that come to me when I stand by an old tree. I like to let my mind run back to the beginnings of trees, to the pre-historic times when this bed rock was laid down, when all this region was an inlet or bay from the Atlantic Ocean and the upland was treeless as our rock record shows. Then there were the beginnings of low fern-like growth and clotted mass which gradually increased in size until they assumed the enormous proportions which made the coal beds possible. And then I like to follow the growth of trees on to the broad leaf. We have the beginnings of the broad leaf, the sassafras, the poplars, the maples, and the oaks, and then, as the crowning feature of the evolutionary process, the nut tree. I like to let my mind run ahead a bit, particularly at such a time as this when we are setting out new trees. What sort of people will these trees live to see? Will there be a decadence of the taste and fondness for trees, which we hope is growing? Will these trees live to see a race of people who take no interest in such things except a commercial one, who have no thought for the beauty of the trees nor for the rights of posterity? Will these trees perchance live to see an upheaval of the happy affairs which now exist in this country? In one hundred and fifty years many things can happen. There is much in the existing turmoil of war conditions that suggests possible disaster within the next couple of centuries, and possibly that the fair constitution of Franklin and Washington may be submerged in a chaos of something that means nothing. The remote possibility of the invasion of a conquering race to destroy all these things--but banish the thought. God grant, that these young trees may grow up to furnish shade and fruit in proper season to thousands of happy people, that they may always be useful and that they may not live to see the time when disaster may come to this fair land. In closing, gentlemen, I wish to compliment you on what seems to me to be the excellence of your personnel and organization. I am strongly impressed with the fact that your organization has a prime scientific value as well as a profound practical significance. I congratulate you on these excellent qualities and traits of your association, wish you all success and thank you for the privilege you have given me. DEAN R. L. WATTS: This seems to me almost like a sacred moment. As I stand here in this circle, the ground upheaved there and that hole in the ground, I think of something else that we stand around sometimes. In a very large degree, especially in considering the remarks of Professor Beck, it is a sacred occasion. What could be more sacred? What could we regard with greater solemnity than the planting of trees that will help all mankind. Particularly in connection with the planting of young trees I think of my own boyhood experiences. Whenever I think of the boys and girls in the woods picking up nuts it is pretty hard for me to think of those boys and girls going wrong. One of the biggest things we have to look at in this country is the question of maintaining high standards of manhood and womanhood. In that the safety of our country rests. I wonder why I was asked to speak at this meeting of the Nut Growers' Association. I do not know whether my friend Professor Fagan suggested that I be placed on the program or not. Perhaps he had heard about what happens in my own home. I have never gotten away from liking a little manual labor. I do not want too much of it but I do like a little of it, making garden and taking care of the furnace. Mrs. Watts sometimes blames me for wanting to take care of the furnace in the cellar in the winter time from the fact that I have always a bag of nuts down there. When I go down she hears me cracking nuts. From my earliest boyhood days I have been tremendously interested in the whole nut proposition. What I have to say here today I have put in written form. A NATIONAL PROGRAM FOR THE PROMOTION OF NUT CULTURE _Dean Watts_ I am highly honored in being invited to present a paper before the members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. For twelve years your association has stood for all that is good in American nut culture. You have considered the different classes and varieties that are worthy a place in American horticulture. You have discussed how the various classes may best be propagated and cultivated and have disseminated whatever information is available concerning the control of fungous and insect enemies of nut bearing trees. Some of your members have conducted investigations of great value to the industry and others have made a special study of the food value of nuts as compared with other standard foods. The eleven annual reports of the association are indicative of the broad field of study and service which has been covered by a zealous and enthusiastic body of nut specialists. Surely there is no doubt in the mind of any member of this association concerning the importance of nut culture in the United States. From the standpoint of food alone, we are more than justified in waging a vigorous campaign for the planting of millions of trees. Who can mention any article of food that is more nutritious, more wholesome, more delicious than any and all of our native nuts as well as many imported species? And what other class of trees even approaches the nut as a dual purpose tree? In fact, as is well known, nut trees have four distinct values; namely, to furnish food, shade, timber and ornamentation to the landscape. In view of the important place which nut trees should have in American horticulture, can we not manage in some way to plan and carry out a comprehensive national program for the promotion of this proposition? Surely there are thousands of people and hundreds of organizations and institutions of various kinds which would consider it a privilege to have a real part in such a worthy cause. For one who has been a member of this association for only a few hours, it may seem a little presumptuous to even suggest a national program for the promotion of nut culture, to say nothing of what should constitute such a program. But, running the risk of someone hurling a chestnut burr at me, I will venture a few suggestions, though they may be as old as the sweetest of American nuts. RESEARCH The great fundamental need of all American agriculture is research. This statement applies to nut culture more than to any other branch of horticulture because it has received less attention from well trained investigators. Much credit is due the members of this association for their patient and painstaking studies. But instead of having a mere handful of men devoting their time to nut investigations, there ought to be several men in each state engaged in working on the numerous problems of vital importance to the nut industry. Prof. Reed of the United States Department of Agriculture should have a staff of several specialists, in order that he might make greater progress in working out projects of national importance. The State Agricultural Experiment Stations have shown very little interest in this matter. Funds should be made available in each state to undertake nut investigations that promise results of economic value. However, if the United States Department of Agriculture and the State Experiment Stations are to make real expansion in nut investigations, there must be demands and outside pressure from prominent people; as for example, from the members of this association. More and more the farmers of the country are petitioning their Experiment Stations to make certain studies and it is unlikely that these institutions will do very much for the nut industry unless the rural population indicate that they want this line of work included in the experimental program. Mr. President, cannot this association block out at least a tentative nut research program for the whole United States? What are the problems that should have first consideration? What do you think the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station should do for nut culture in this state? As Director of the Pennsylvania Station, I would like to have this question answered by the nut enthusiasts of the state. Dr. Fletcher and Prof. Fagan stand ready to carry out your wishes and I pledge them my heartiest co-operation. Many of you know that the Pennsylvania Station is now working under a great handicap financially, but this situation may change within a few years. TEACHING I have been wondering whether all of the Agricultural Colleges give instruction in nut culture. If they do, just how much consideration is given to this important matter. It is one thing to give a careful, thorough, systematic course, covering a whole term or semester but quite another proposition to give a few disconnected lectures. If a committee of this association could look into the matter and formulate a suggestive program for the Colleges, it would stimulate greater interest in the subject in all of the Agricultural Colleges. In this connection let us not lose sight of the fact that the number of College boys on our farms is increasing very rapidly. Not long ago I attended a Farm Bureau meeting in Washington County, Pennsylvania, at which there were twenty-five to thirty young men who had taken Agricultural courses at The Pennsylvania State College. We can readily see what an opportunity it is to teach these College boys the benefits of planting nut bearing trees on their home places. Again, we should manage in some way or other to permeate our town and rural schools with the nut planting spirit. Thousands and thousands of shade trees are planted where nut trees would be much more desirable. Every country school ground might well serve as a demonstration center of the best nut producing trees for that community. If such a scheme were carried out intelligently, our farmsteads would soon abound with nut trees. Let us not lose sight of the value of the demonstration idea in any nut propaganda work that may be undertaken. EXTENSION SERVICE The United States has the best and most wonderful system of Agricultural Extension of any country in the world. Are we using this system to extend the planting of nut bearing trees. Do we not know of classes and varieties which may be planted under suitable conditions that will be certain to give satisfactory results? If so, why not get this information in definite form before our County Agents and Farm Bureaus and let them pass it along to the soil tillers. Perhaps the time is not far off when the Colleges might appoint Nut Extension Specialists who would work through the County Agents and public schools and handle this matter in a thorough, effective, systematic manner. Surely we have the machinery for the dissemination of whatever knowledge is available relating to the selection, planting and care of nut bearing trees. STATE DEPARTMENTS All of the numerous State Departments of Agriculture, Forestry, Game Conservation, etc., in this and every other state should be vitally interested in the nut proposition. Perhaps some of the officials in these State Departments don't realize the possibilities of nut planting? Is there any way of educating them? For example, our Game Commissioners are worrying over the disappearance of the chestnut as a source of food for squirrels. Do they realize that the bush chinquapin might be substituted with success, in some sections at least? And why not get game and squirrel lovers and tree planters in general to enthuse about the planting of black walnuts with a liberal sprinkling of butternuts? The result would be food for the squirrels, for the kiddies and some for the old folks, besides useful timber trees and also beautiful roadsides and farmsteads. THE PRESS We ought to manage in some way to get more material relating to nuts published in country papers and magazines, especially in the farm papers. Millions of copies of the agricultural papers reach our farm homes every week. They are read largely by the boys and girls who are always very much interested in nuts. STATE LAWS I do not know how much can be accomplished by passing laws that will encourage the planting of nut bearing trees, especially along the roadside. All of us will watch with much interest the Penney Law of Michigan. A very careful study should be made of this phase of the problem and then urge the passage of such laws in each state as will be most favorable to the development of the whole proposition. ASSOCIATIONS For real aggressive work we must rely very largely upon numerous associations, national, state, county and local. This association should take the lead and many others can render tremendous assistance in carrying out a national program. Enthusiasts in every community should see to it that the subject is properly represented at the local meetings of horticultural associations and other organizations which discuss rural problems. In closing this paper may I again urge the importance of a constructive research program, if nut culture is to make any considerable progress in the United States. APPENDIX Members and others present: E. M. Ives, Meriden, Conn.; Jacob E. Brown, Elmer, N. J.; Jacob A. Rife, S. J. Rife, J. S. Rittenhouse, Loraine, Pa.; Christian LeFevre, W. Lampeter, Pa.; John Rick, Mr. and Mrs. Samuel L. Smedley, Prof. H. H. Beck, J. E. Fortney, J. F. Jones, Harvey A. Penney, James M. Balthaser, James S. McGlennon, Ralph T. Olcott, John Watson, J. G. Rush, T. P. Littlepage, Mr. and Mrs. C. S. Ridgway, Prof. F. N. Fagan, A. C. Pomeroy, C. M. Leiter, Ralph W. Leiter, Elam G. Hess, W. N. Roper, Mr. and Mrs. W. G. Bixby, Mrs. N. R. Haines, Wilmer Wescoat, Patrick O'Connor, Postmaster Spencer, Dr. W. C. Deming, W. S. Linton, J. S. Ritchie, Dr. C. A. Cannaday, Dean R. L. Watts, Mr. and Mrs. W. C. Rhodes, Ammon P. Fritz, Mr. and Mrs. Blockhauser, D. F. Clark, Rev. and Mrs. Geo. A. Stauffer, Harry Stuart, Oliver S. Shaefer. Exhibits: Black walnuts, Ohio, Stabler from original tree at Brookville, Md.; Thomas, considered the best of the larger sorts, and perhaps the best cracker among these, tree a very rapid grower and a good and reliable bearer; Persian walnut, Alpine, from Benj. Mylin, Willow St. Pa. grafted tree; Juglans sieboldiana or sieboldi, Japan walnut, rapid grower and beautiful tree; Juglans cordiformis, Japan walnut, tree similar to the sieboldiana but a better nut, grafted trees bearing very early; Indiana pecan from original tree Wabash River bottoms, Oaktown, Ind.; Niblack pecan from original pecan in Indiana; Weiker hickory seedlings, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, from seedlings 60 years old from the parent tree 200 years old at Lampeter, Lancaster Co., Pa., showing marked variation from the type of the parent tree, which is believed to be a cross between the shagbark and the shellbark; Kirtland shagbark from original tree at Yalesville, Ct.; Laney shagbark-bitternut hybrid from original tree in Rochester, N. Y. city park; Fairbanks shagbark-bitternut hybrid from topworked tree, original tree near Cedar Rapids, Iowa; Leaves, burrs and nuts of Morris hybrid chestnut No. 1, American sweet chestnut pollen on chinkapin. High quality, good size, prolific. Tree has not blighted to date after twelve years exposure to blighting chestnuts and chinkapins. Leaves, burrs and nuts of Morris hybrid chestnut No. 2, American sweet chestnut pollen on chinkapin. High quality, bright color, good size, not so prolific as No. 1 and No. 3 as it leaves some of the racemes of burrs unfilled. The tree has not blighted to date after twelve years of exposure to blighting chestnuts and chinkapins. Leaves, burrs and nuts of Morris hybrid chestnut No. 3, American sweet chestnut pollen on chinkapin. Many Japanese and Korean chestnuts were blossoming in the vicinity and this may be an accidental pollination from them instead of from pollen of the American chestnut. Quality not so good as that of No. 1 and No. 2. Nut dull in color instead of bright. Tree prolific, has shown blight but once during twelve years of exposure among blighting chestnuts and chinkapins. Blight took place at a place where the tree was injured by a falling limb from a dying chestnut tree. The blighted spot was cut out and did not reappear. Filberts, Emperor, Du Chilly, Montebello, Noce Lunghe, Italian Red, Des Anglais, Red Aveline, Cornucopia, Imperial Daviana; Nelubium luteum, American lotus, also called water chinkapin, Yonkopin, etc., an aquatic plant; Nelubium speciosum, Egyptian lotus, much cultivated for its large, beautiful flowers. 
20032	----	NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION INCORPORATED REPORT _OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE_ Twenty-first Annual Meeting [Illustration] CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA. SEPTEMBER 17, 18, 19, 1930 NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION _INCORPORATED_ REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE Twenty-first Annual Meeting CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA. _SEPTEMBER 17, 18, 19, 1930_ CONTENTS Officers, Directors and Committees 3 State Vice-Presidents 4 List of Members 5 Constitution 9 By-Laws 11 Proceedings of the Twenty-First Annual Convention 13 Nuts and Nut Growers of the Middle West--S. W. Snyder 14 Address of Professor T. J. Maney 20 Methods in Scoring the Black Walnut--Prof. N. F. Drake 23 Nuts in North Dakota--Prof. A. F. Yeager 27 Report on the 1929 Nut Contest--Dr. W. C. Deming 28 New Members' Experience and Questions 31 Discussion on Chestnut Growing 33 The Paraffin Method in Transplanting Nursery Stock--Prof. J. A. Neilson 37 Some Notes on the Japanese Walnut in North America--Prof. J. A. Neilson 39 Thirty Years Experience in the Care of Scionwood--F. O. Harrington 46 Experiments and Observations in Searching for Best Seedling Nut Trees--J. F. Wilkinson 51 More Nuts--Less Meat--Dr. J. H. Kellogg 57 Induced Immunity to Chestnut Blight--Dr. G. A. Zimmerman 68 Plant Patent Act--Thomas P. Littlepage 73 Banquet 77 President's Address 81 Report of the Secretary 87 Business Session 89 Treasurer's Report 91 Harvesting and Marketing the Native Nut Crop of the North--C. A. Reed 92 Beechnuts--Willard G. Bixby 100 The 1929 Contest--Willard G. Bixby 104 Attendance Record 117 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President_ J. A. NEILSON, HORT. DEPT. M. S. C., EAST LANSING, MICH. _Vice-President_ C. F. WALKER, 2851 E OVERLOOK ROAD, CLEVELAND HEIGHTS, OHIO _Secretary_ W. G. BIXBY, 32 GRAND AVE., BALDWIN, N. Y. _Treasurer_ KARL W. GREENE, RIDGE ROAD, N. W., WASHINGTON, D. C. _DIRECTORS_ J. A. NEILSON, C. F. WALKER, DR. W. C. DEMING, K. W. GREENE, W. G. BIXBY, S. W. SNYDER _COMMITTEES_ _Auditing_--Z. H. ELLIS, L. H. MITCHELL _Executive_--J. A. NEILSON, C. F. WALKER, A. S. COLBY, K. W. GREENE, W. G. BIXBY, S. W. SNYDER _Finance_--T. P. LITTLEPAGE, W. G. BIXBY, W. C. DEMING _Press and Publication_--J. RUSSELL SMITH, R. T. OLCOTT, W. C. DEMING, K. W. GREENE, Z. H. ELLIS, A. S. COLBY _Membership_--F. H. FREY, R. T. OLCOTT, J. W. HERSHEY, Z. H. ELLIS, K. W. GREENE, F. O. HARRINGTON _Program_--W. C. DEMING, A. S. COLBY, S. W. SNYDER, C. A. REED, C. F. WALKER, R. T. OLCOTT _Hybrids and Promising Seedlings_--C. A. REED, W. G. BIXBY, HOWARD SPENCE, J. A. NEILSON, S. W. SNYDER, R. T. MORRIS _Nomenclature_--C. A. REED, R. T. MORRIS, W. G. BIXBY, J. A. NEILSON _Survey_--C. F. WALKER, W. G. BIXBY, F. H. FREY _DEAN OF THE ASSOCIATION_ DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, OF NEW YORK AND CONNECTICUT _FIELD SECRETARY_ ZENAS H. ELLIS, FAIR HAVEN, VERMONT STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS Arkansas Prof. N. F. Drake Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville California Will J. Thorpe 1545 Divisadero St., San Francisco Canada J. U. Gellatly West Bank, P. O. Gellatly, B. C. China P. W. Wang Sec'y Kinsan Arboretum, 147 N. Sechuan Road, Shanghai Connecticut Dr. W. C. Deming 983 Main St., Hartford, Conn. Dist. of Columbia Karl W. Greene Ridge Road, N. W., Washington England Howard Spence The Red House, Ainsdale, Southport Illinois Prof. A. S. Colby University of Illinois, Urbana Indiana J. F. Wilkinson Rockport Iowa S. W. Snyder Center Point Kansas W. P. Orth Route 2, Box 20, Mount Hope Maryland T. P. Littlepage Bowie Massachusetts James H. Bowditch 903 Tremont Building, Boston Michigan Harry Burgardt Union City Michigan Minnesota Carl Weschcke 98 South Wabasha St., St. Paul Missouri P. C. Stark Louisiana Nebraska William Caha Wahoo New Jersey Miss M. V. Landman Cranbury, R. F. D. No. 2 New York Prof. L. H. MacDaniels Cornell University, Ithaca Ohio Harry R. Weber 123 East 6th St., Cincinnati Oregon Stanley C. Walters Mount Hood Pennsylvania John Rick 438 Penn Square, Reading Rhode Island Phillip Allen 178 Dorrance St., Providence Vermont Zenas H. Ellis Fair Haven Virginia Dr. J. Russell Smith Round Hill Washington D. H. Berg Nooksack West Virginia Dr. J. E. Cannaday Box 693, Charleston MEMBERS OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION ARKANSAS * Drake, Prof. N. F., Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville CALIFORNIA Crafts, Dr. J. G., Martinez Thorpe, Will J., 1545 Divisadero St., San Francisco University of California, Berkeley CANADA Gage, J. H., 107 Flatt Ave., Hamilton, Ontario Gellatly, J. U., West Bank, B. C. Ryerse, Arthur C., Simcoe, Ont. Watson, Dr. W. V., 170 St. George St., Toronto CHINA * Kinsan Arboretum, 147 N. Szechuan Road, Shanghai CONNECTICUT Bartlett, Francis A., Stamford Deming, Dr. W. C., 31 Owen St., Hartford Hilliard, H. J., Sound View * Montgomery, Robt. H., Cos Cob * Morris, Dr. Robert T., Route 28, Box No. 95, Cos Cob Pratt, George D., Jr., Bridgewater Williams, Dr. Chas. Mallory, Stonington DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Foster, B. G., 805 G St., N. W., Washington Greene, Karl W., Ridge Road, N. W., Washington * Littlepage, T. P., Union Trust Bldg., Washington Mitchell, Lennard H., 2219 California St. N. W., Washington Reed, C. A., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington Stiebling, Mrs. Anna E., 1458 Monroe St. N. W., Washington Taylor, D. W., The Highlands, Washington Von Ammon, S., Bureau of Standards, Washington ENGLAND Spence, Howard, The Red House, Ainsdale, Southport ILLINOIS Anthony, A. B., Sterling Armstrong, Mrs. Julian, Witchwood Lane and Moffet Rd., Lake Forest Bontz, Mrs. George I., Route 2, Peoria Brown, Roy W., Spring Valley Colby, Arthur S., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana Frey, Frank H., Room 930 Lasalle St., Station, Chicago Gibbens, Geo. W., Route 2, Godfrey Knox, Loy J., First Nat'l Bank, Morrison Morton, Joy, Lisle Meyer, Dr. R. C. J., Hillsdale Riehl, Miss Amelia, Godfrey, Ill. Spencer, Mrs. May R., 275 W. Decatur St., Decatur University of Illinois, Urbana INDIANA Betz, Frank S., (Personal) Betz Bldg., Hammond Isakson, Walter R., Route 1, Hobart Tichenor, P. E., 414 Merchants Bank Bldg., Evansville Wilkinson, J. F., Rockport IOWA Adams, Gerald W., Route 4, Moorehead Boyce, Daniel, Route 4, Winterset Harrington, F. O., Williamsburg Iowa State Horticultural Society, Des Moines Luckenbill, Ben W., Wapello Snyder, D. C., Center Point Snyder, S. W., Center Point Schlagenbusch Bros., Route 3, Fort Madison Van Meter, W. L., Adel Williams, Hugh E., Ladora KANSAS Orth, W. P., Route 2, Mount Hope MARYLAND Close, C. P., College Park Lancaster, S. S., Jr., Rock Point Mehring, Upton F., Keymar Porter, John H., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown Purnell, J. Edgar, Salisbury MASSACHUSETTS Allen, Edward E., Perkins Institute for the Blind, Watertown * Bowditch, James H., 903 Tremont Bldg., Boston Brown, Daniel L., 60 State St., Boston Bryant, Dr. Ward C., Greenfield Hale, Richard W., 60 State St., Boston Russell, Newton H., 12 Burnette Ave., So. Hadley Center Wellman, Sargeant H., Windridge, Topsfield Williams, Moses, 18 Tremont St., Boston MICHIGAN Bradley, Homer, Care Kellogg Farms, Route 1, Augusta Burgardt, H., Route 2, Union City Graves, Henry B., 73 Forest Ave., West, Detroit Healy, Oliver T., Care Mich. Nut Nursery, Route 2, Union City Kellogg, Dr. J. H., 202 Manchester St., Battle Creek Neilson, Prof. James A., Care Mich. State College, East Lansing Stocking Frederick N., 3456 Cadillac Ave., Detroit MINNESOTA Andrews, Miss Frances E., 245 Clifton Ave., Minneapolis Weschcke, Carl, 1048 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul MISSOURI Stark Bros. Nursery, Louisiana Windhorst, Dr. M. R., Univ. Club Bldg., St. Louis NEBRASKA Caha, William, Wahoo NEW JERSEY * Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly St., Jersey City Norton, W. J., 104 Scotland Road, South Orange NEW YORK Abbott, Frederick B., 1211 63rd St., Brooklyn Bixby, Mrs. Willard G., Baldwin Bixby, Willard G., Baldwin Ellwanger, Mrs. W. D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Gager, Dr. C. Stuart, Care Brooklyn Botanic Gardens, Brooklyn Garber, Hugh G., 75 Fulton St., New York Graves, Dr. Arthur H., 1000 Washington Ave., Brooklyn Harman-Brown, Miss Helen, Croton Falls Hodgson, Casper W., Care World Book Co., Yonkers Holden, Frank H., Care R. H. Macy & Co., New York * Huntington, A. M., 1 E. 89th St., New York Lester, Henry, 650 Main St., New Rochelle MacDaniels, L. H., Care Cornell Univ., Ithaca * Olcott, Ralph T., Box 124, Rochester Pickhardt, Dr. O. C., 117 E. 80th St., New York Schlemmer, Claire D., Islip Solley, Dr. John B., 108 E. 66th St., New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva Steffee, John G., 317 Sixth Ave., Brooklyn Tice, David, 55-56 Saving Bank Bldg., Lockport Vanderbilt, George V., Greenville * Wissman, Mrs. F. de R., 9 W. 54th St., New York OHIO Fickes, W. R., Route 7, Wooster Gerber, E. P., Apple Creek Park, J. B., Care Ohio State Univ., Columbus Walker, C. F., 2851 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland Heights * Weber, Harry R., 123 East 6th St., Cincinnati OREGON Walters, Stanley C., Mount Hood PENNSYLVANIA Abbott, Mrs. Laura Woodward, Route 2, Bristol Baum, Dr. F. L., Boyertown Deeben, Fred, Trevorton Gable, Jos. B., Stewartstown Gribbel, Mrs. John, Wyncote, P. O., Box 31 Hershey, John W., Downingtown Hostetter, C. F., Bird-in-Hand Hostetter, L. K., Route 5, Lancaster Kaufmann, M. M., Clarion Leach, Will, Cornell Bldg., Scranton Mathews, George A., Route 1, Cambridge Springs Miller, Herbert Pinecrest Poultry Farm, Richfield Paden, Riley W., Route 2, Enon Valley * Rick, John, 438 Penn. Square, Reading Sauchelli, V., 1628 Koppers Bldg., Pittsburgh Schmidt, A. G., Nazareth Smith, Dr. J. Russell, Swarthmore Theiss, Lewis Edwin, Muncy Wright, Ross Pier, 235 West 1st St., Erie * Wister, John C., Clarkson Ave. and Wister Street, Germantown Zimmerman, Dr. G. A., 32 So. 13th St., Harrisburg RHODE ISLAND Allen, Phillip, 178 Dorrance St., Providence VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., Route 3, Springfield Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven VIRGINIA Stoke, H. F., 1421 Watts Ave., Roanoke Trout, Dr. Hugh H., Care Jefferson Hospital, Roanoke WASHINGTON Berg, D. H., Nooksack Richardson, J. B., Lakeside WEST VIRGINIA Cannaday, Dr. J. E., Care General Hospital, Charleston Hartzell, B. F., Shepherdstown * Life Member CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I _Name._ This society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, INCORPORATED. ARTICLE II _Object._ Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III _Membership._ Membership in the society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary and a treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and an executive committee of six persons, of which the president, the two last retiring presidents, the vice-president, the secretary and the treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI _Meetings._ The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. ARTICLE VII _Quorum._ Ten members of the association shall constitute a quorum, but must include two of the four elected officers. ARTICLE VIII _Amendments._ This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or a copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I _Committees._ The association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on nomenclature, on promising seedlings, on hybrids, on survey, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II _Fees._ Annual members shall pay five dollars annually, to include one year's subscription to the American Nut Journal, or three dollars and fifty cents not including subscription to the Nut Journal. Contributing members shall pay ten dollars annually, this membership including a year's subscription to the American Nut Journal. Life members shall make one payment of fifty dollars, and shall be exempt from further dues. Honorary members shall be exempt from dues. There shall be an annual, non-voting, membership, with privilege of the annual report, for all County Agents, Agricultural College and Experiment Station Officials and Employes, State Foresters, U. S. Department of Agriculture Officials, Editors of Agricultural Periodicals, College and High School Students, Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts or Camp Fire Girls and similar organizations, on payment of one dollar as annual dues. ARTICLE III _Membership._ All annual memberships shall begin either with the first day of the calendar quarter following the date of joining the association, or with the first day of the calendar quarter preceding that date as may be arranged between the new member and the Treasurer. ARTICLE IV _Amendments._ By-laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present at any annual meeting. ARTICLE V Members shall be sent a notification of annual dues at the time they are due, and if not paid within two months, they shall be sent a _second notice_, telling them that they are not in good standing on account of non-payment of dues, and are not entitled to receive the annual report. At the end of thirty days from the sending of the second notice, _a third notice_ shall be sent notifying such members that unless dues are paid within ten days from receipt of this notice, their names will be dropped from the rolls for non-payment of dues. REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS of the TWENTY-FIRST ANNUAL CONVENTION of the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION (Incorporated) September 17, 18 and 19, 1930 CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA The first session convened at 10 o'clock at the Hotel Montrose, President Neilson in the chair. THE PRESIDENT: We have a long and varied program to present, and inasmuch as we have only one day for the discussions it will be necessary to make the best use of our time. First we will read letters and telegrams from members who are not able to come. THE SECRETARY: This letter is from Dr. Morris. "I was counting on getting out to the Nut Growers' Association meeting this year and having the pleasure of seeing all of my old friends once more and getting the inspiration that fills the air at our meetings. I find it absolutely necessary, however, to cut off all distractions until I can get two books finished. Work upon them has been delayed and the line of thought changed so often that it becomes a duty to confine myself to literary work, but I hope to be with you during our next twenty meetings." This telegram is from Mr. Bixby. "Have mailed Mr. Snyder abstract of report on nut contest and paper on beechnuts. Regret I cannot be at convention. Crop of nuts here is better than ever before. Best wishes for success of convention. Willard G. Bixby." THE PRESIDENT: I am going to name two committees. The resolutions committee: Mr. Weber, Mr. Frey, Dr. Deming. The nominating committee: Mr. Frey, Mr. Snyder, Dr. Smith, Dr. Zimmerman, Mr. Hershey. Professor Herrick, Secretary of the Iowa State Horticultural Society, would like to make a few remarks. PROF. HERRICK: I want to extend to you greetings from the Iowa State Horticultural Society. Mr. Snyder knows that at our state fair we had a wonderful exhibit of edible nuts. It has just closed. We had six tables of good length, 16 feet, well filled, in fact crowded. We never in the history of the society have provided enough room for the edible nuts. We hope this year at the Midwest Horticultural Exhibit at Shenandoah it may be possible for you to send your exhibits. There will be $7,000 in cash premiums. Every one of you will receive an official premium list the first of next week. We have in Southern Iowa a great deal of land well adapted for this industry, and I assure you that the Iowa Horticultural Society is very much interested in the spreading of the gospel. THE PRESIDENT: We appreciate the invitation that Professor Herrick has given us. One of the inspiring factors in my interest in nut culture came to me some years ago when I came to the Iowa State College to take graduate work. I went to Des Moines with Professor Maney to see the exhibit staged by Mr. Snyder. Our first paper this morning is by Mr. Snyder, "Nuts and Nut Growers of the Middle West." MR. SNYDER: I will confine my remarks to the newer things that you haven't heard of. I will first note a shagbark hickory that stands in my own neighborhood, an outstanding variety we call Hand. This is very much like the Vest in shape and size and cracking quality. According to my tests, this variety cracks out 50% meat, and since it is a local variety and I know it is hardy and fruitful, I am placing it ahead of the Vest for the Middle West. It is certainly equal to it in every way and hardy and fruitful. While the Vest hasn't yet matured nuts I am rather doubtful whether it will prove of any value here. There is one nut that I have been drawing attention to in the past few years, called Hagen, that I have frequently said was the best nut growing in Iowa. I have found one we call the Elliott that appears to be just as good, so nearly like it that it is hard to separate them when they are mixed up. The Elliott stands near Oxford, a little south of here. The best cracker I have found in Iowa is one called Sande. This stands in Story County, about 20 miles north of Ames. I found this on the tables at our state fair and the superintendent of the nut exhibit called my attention to it in particular. Said it had been appearing there for a couple of years back, and that he thought it was very well worth our attention. I took up correspondence with the parties who were bringing it to the fair and they agreed to give me such information as I wanted about it, so I drove up there. When I got there I found they didn't own the tree. They had been stealing the nuts, putting them on exhibit and getting the premiums. They wouldn't take me to the tree because they didn't own it. They did tell me who owned it and I went to see him. I told him the circumstances. He just got red-headed at once. The idea of someone stealing the nuts and getting the premiums! We got right into it. The up-shot of it was I got some scions and some nuts. Just a lick of the hammer and two halves drop out, don't have to pick them out, just roll out. It is an excellent nut. It was a rather young tree and very fruitful. Very good quality with a little thicker shell than other varieties. We have another one, the Ward. This is another 50% cracker, very excellent flavor. While it appears to be a small nut, after you have cracked it the meats look almost as large it has such a very thin shell. As you might say almost all meat. DR. DEMING: What do you mean by 50% cracker? MR. SNYDER: The shells and the meats when separated and weighed just balance each other. I have looked up another one. At present I haven't any authority for naming this variety. I am just calling it Independence because of the community in which it is found. I will take this up with the parties that own the tree and get authority for naming it if they will consent. This is just a temporary name for a very excellent variety. It is owned by a party named Geisel. They have a well-known nut that has been taking premiums in our midwest. This is another in the same grove that is just as good as the Geisel. It is a very good nut, very fine flavor, good cracker and more than ordinary size. We have another one that stands in sight of my home, that is called DeWees. This is a large tree that possibly is somewhat over a hundred years old, and its common crop is about five bushels of hulled nuts. It is a free cracker, excellent quality and very prominent in the locality in which the tree stands. There is another one that appeared in the midwest exhibition here in Cedar Rapids a few years ago, called the Lynch. It was brought out by the Boys and Girls Club and received a good deal of publicity at that time on that account. It is a thin-shelled nut and very good cracker but not of the highest eating quality. I hunted up the tree and got some scions from it and distributed them. I didn't use any of them myself, didn't think it good enough, the eating quality not good enough to suit me. It is an excellent variety however. DR. SMITH: Something like the Ben Davis? MR. SNYDER: Yes. DR. COLBY: The Ben Davis makes the profit though, Dr. Smith. MR. SNYDER: We have found another one that came out at the Cedar Rapids exposition. I am calling it the Cline. I have no authority to call it that. The tree stands here in Cedar Rapids. I haven't had time to see it since two years ago when it was brought to my attention. If I am any judge of quality this is the finest hickory nut I have ever found. Its eating quality is just ahead of anything I know of in the hickory line, and it's of fair size, a little above medium and a good cracker and a long keeper. I have frequently tested them. I only got a handful to start with. I have tested these time after time to see how long it was going to keep. The last time I tested it was this last spring and it was in excellent condition. There are a good many of our hickory nuts that turn rancid in six months. But a nut that keeps two years, and I don't know but what they are good yet, is going to be a very big item in hickory nut culture. DR. DRAKE: Have you kept these eighteen months in good order? MR. SNYDER: Yes. MR. HERSHEY: Would soil conditions have anything to do with it? MR. SNYDER: Possibly but I don't think so. The Fairbanks, for instance, from different soils; I can see no difference in their keeping. MR. HERSHEY: I know that is true of grapes that are grown in different sections. MR. SNYDER: I can see no difference in the Fairbanks. In a few weeks' time it loses its edible qualities. I wouldn't care for it after it is a few weeks old. After it is thoroughly cured and dried, I don't think the Fairbanks fit to eat. MEMBER: How about the Stratford? MR. SNYDER: The original Stratford was cut for fire wood in 1926. Just before it was cut it bore a heavy crop of nuts. Yesterday I cracked one. I was right hungry and needed something to eat. I could eat them yet. It is a great keeper. I know it was four years old or over. MEMBER: How does it crack? MR. SNYDER: It is a good cracker and very thin shelled. The Stratford is, I think, a hybrid of the shagbark and bitternut. It is very evident that it is a hybrid by the appearance of the nuts. But it doesn't have that property of the Fairbanks of spoiling as it dries. The two nuts are very different in that. You will find a great range of quality in these hybrids. I believe that puts me through the list of hickories of which I have made a list. I have a number of others under observation that may in the future be of importance. I have several black walnuts that have made their appearance since our contest was completed. We now have one called the Finney. This stands in Marshall County right beside the Northwestern Railroad track. I sent this to Professor Drake of Arkansas for testing and he reported it was a little better than Thomas, so I think we have a variety there that is worth taking care of. I received the sample of nuts through a friend, I believe it was three years ago. I didn't see anything particularly attractive in the outside appearance of the nuts, so threw them aside and didn't test them until some months later. I passed it up at that time as not being better than the Thomas, anyway, and some months later I cracked another one of them. I went on that way for the last year until this last fall. I had quite a quantity of them and every time I came across them I would sample them. Finally I sent some of them to Professor Drake, with the results that I have mentioned. So now I have concluded that it is a very worthwhile variety and I have begun propagating them. DR. DRAKE: Did you call it by another name before? MR. SNYDER: Well, I believe I called it Brenton. DR. DRAKE: That is the name I remember. MR. SNYDER: From the extreme north line of our state, a place called Cresco, I received samples of a walnut. This I considered on its first appearance as being a worthwhile variety and I took it up with the party who sent it to me and we agreed to call it Cresco. It is a very thin-shelled walnut, above medium size, excellent eating quality, and coming from so far north, and ripening and being of such excellent quality, I thought it was worth looking after and we began propagating it under that name. We have another one that made its appearance in the Cedar Rapids exposition, that has been named Safely. This is of the Ohio type of walnut and I believe will prove to be just as good, possibly better. The first samples received of this were ripened under unfavorable conditions and were not fully up to their best. I think this will be worth looking after, although I have not yet made an effort to propagate it or get scions. It is owned by a cousin of mine so I could get them. The best thing I have found in the state of Iowa I have authority to call Burrows. This is the finest cracking black walnut I have ever found. Just a crack of the hammer--four quarters. You don't have to pick them out. It stands near the county line of Marshall County, near a little town called Gillman. THE PRESIDENT: Have you specimens of all of these? MR. SNYDER: Yes, specimens on the tables. I believe this puts me through the list of nuts as far as anything new is concerned. I am quite an enthusiast about the black walnut. There is a double purpose in the black walnut here in Iowa because our saw mill men tell me, and we have the largest manufacturing walnut mills here in Iowa, they tell me the Iowa grown walnut is the most valuable black walnut and they will pay the best price for it. This alone makes it valuable to plant black walnuts here in Iowa. Another thing, they are easily and quickly grown. Our millers tell us that anyone who cuts down a walnut tree ought to be compelled to plant two. If we all followed this rule the supply would never be exhausted. We know the demand will not be. MR. HERSHEY: Couldn't we pass a law here, as they have in Germany, that every man has to plant thirty trees before he can get married? THE PRESIDENT: Have you found a first class butternut? MR. SNYDER: None, except those that have been listed for a couple of years. The Buckley is the best in the state. Sherwood is next. Those two are the best. THE PRESIDENT: In Michigan we are interested in getting a good butternut. MR. SNYDER: By the way, we have on the table a hybrid. This hybrid is a cross between the sieboldiana and the American butternut. We call it the Helmick hybrid. We have propagated it for our own use at home. We have it under restrictions. I have six seedlings that I have produced from seed of this Helmick hybrid that are crossed with the Stabler black walnut. In these seedlings are wrapped up three distinct species, the Stabler (Juglans nigra), Japanese heartnut (Juglans sieboldiana cordiformis) and the American butternut (Juglans cinerea). I know this is the result because when the Helmick hybrid bloomed its cluster containing eighteen nutlets would have perished for want of pollen to fertilize them because it had produced no staminate blossoms of its own. There being nothing on the place with ripe catkins shedding pollen, I was watching them very closely for fear there would nothing else bloom in time to fertilize the nutlets, and the first thing to offer ripe pollen that could be used was the Stabler walnut, from which I gathered a handful of catkins and carried to the Helmick hybrid and dusted pollen over the cluster of nutlets and succeeded in saving six out of the cluster of eighteen. These matured into full grown nuts which were saved and each of them grew into a nice young seedling. I know beyond question that these seedlings represent the three distinct species mentioned because there was nothing furnishing pollen with which to fertilize them except the Stabler walnut. THE PRESIDENT: The work that Mr. Snyder and Dr. Drake and Dr. Deming are doing in locating good varieties of nuts is certainly very valuable. If we had the whole country hunting for good nut trees we could tell what the country is producing. We have a great many valuable varieties throughout the United States and Canada. Our next speaker is Professor T. J. Maney of the Iowa Agricultural College at Ames. I am very much pleased that the experiment stations in some of the states are actively interested in the propagating of nut trees. New York, Iowa and Ohio are doing work along this line and no doubt other experiment stations are interested. In quite a number of them there is a great lack of interest, and perhaps I should say of knowledge, about nut culture in general. PROF. MANEY: During the past six or seven years, during our regular annual short course, we have been having a week for a nut short course and we have been very fortunate in having Mr. Harrington and Mr. Snyder there. That work has already resulted in the establishment of a nut project that will continue to grow during the coming year. You recall that Mr. Neilson revived the subject of paraffin. I notice that he always wound up with a plea that someone invent an apparatus to apply the paraffin. What I have here is an answer to the plea. This apparatus consists of a two and one-half inch pipe with a spray nozzle attached. The idea is to put into the tube hot paraffin and apply pressure here, and then with a plumber's blowtorch keep the paraffin heated. The handle is covered with asbestos. I didn't spend much time in working this up but I think it works fairly well. There is one difficulty in perfecting your apparatus to apply hot paraffin, and that is the fact that when it comes out it immediately congeals into a sort of snow. You just can't atomize hot paraffin. The only way is through air pressure. I used this on some dahlia roots quite successfully. This did the work very well in that case and I think for applying it to rose roots and plants of that kind it may work quite successfully. Another thing I thought might be of interest to you is some work in grafting by the use of paraffin. Last year I was interested in grafting some apples. On July 12th I made some regular cleft grafts, using the green wood as the scion after removing the leaves. DR. SMITH: Wood of that year or previous? PROF. MANEY: That year. The entire graft was covered with paraffin. This picture was taken on September 5th, a period of 55 days later, and during that time growth was 25 inches. I am sure it can be worked very successfully with different fruit trees. It is especially valuable in replacing dead grafts. These grafts went through the very severe winter very successfully. I am sure I appreciate this opportunity to appear on the program, and I hope to continue with the work at Ames and perhaps appear at future dates. MR. WEBER: May I ask how hot it got that summer? PROF. MANEY: Oh, the temperature was up to 100, 103 and 104. MR. WEBER: What kind of paraffin did you use? PROF. MANEY: Just ordinary paraffin. MR. WEBER: Did you notice any bad results? PROF. MANEY: No, apparently no ill effects. MR. WEBER: Paraffin has a tendency when it gets extremely hot to run down and kill the graft. DR. SMITH: What would be the effect of putting in some beeswax? PROF. MANEY: I think that would be all right. MR. WEBER: Paraffin this summer killed two nut grafts for me. DR. ZIMMERMAN: Are you sure it was the paraffin? I have finally come to the conclusion that when the sun gets hot enough to melt the wax it will kill the graft anyway. MR. WEBER: I noticed the heat did not kill another one that I did not use the paraffin on. Previous years it simply scorched the tree. DR. ZIMMERMAN: The heavy coating of wax protects a little from the heat, I thought. MR. HARRINGTON: In very hot weather I put heavy paper around the graft and a handful of dirt. That protects it from the sun. MR. WEBER: I have tried that. THE PRESIDENT: I am very much interested in seeing Professor Maney's spraying apparatus. We also tried to spray and got something like snow. We also found that the wax congealed in the nozzle. Last spring I almost blew my head off. I am now experimenting with a material which acts as an emulsifying agent on waxes and resin. I have developed a formula, paraffin 5 pounds and Pick Up Gum one pound. I dissolve the emulsifying agent and heat the wax. This solution can be sprayed on trees without difficulty when it is warm. When it gets cool, however, we have to heat it again. I hope to have some definite reports to make as to the feasibility of this later on, and possibly on conifers as well. We have been up a tree when it came to spraying wax and we have been at a disadvantage in transplanting conifers. Regarding the comments as to paraffin wax melting, I do have a little difficulty on the south side and sloping to the northeast. The sun's rays would be rather direct. I think the suggestion Mr. Weber made was very good. Two-thirds paraffin and one-third beeswax. Possibly we would have to increase the beeswax where trees are growing on a southern slope. DR. ZIMMERMAN: I found the hottest place 2 inches above the soil. I shade grafts with a piece of shingle. THE PRESIDENT: The principle in grafting trees is to regulate the moisture and the temperature factors. As a means of regulating the moisture I use German peat around the graft. MR. HERSHEY: Have any of you had experience in grafting on the north side of the stock? I found that quite a good scheme, so that the heat doesn't kill the grafts. We grafted on the 15th of June this year. THE PRESIDENT: Professor Drake has done a good deal of work in locating good varieties of black walnuts in the southwest and I am sure he will be glad to tell you what he has found. Let me repeat what I said about Mr. Snyder's work, that the most valuable work that is being done is the discovering of new varieties of nuts. PROF. DRAKE: I shall talk about the methods I use in scoring the black walnut in Arkansas. Color of kernel. The way I have determined that is to first make a measuring scale. Get walnuts whose kernels show different color. The lightest I call number one. It is quite easy to divide them into five different groups. I feel that this grading can be pretty well done, except possibly for the flavor, all the way through. Applying this method to different nuts, here is the result that I have obtained with the best ones: I find the Stabler to rank first, with total grade points of 71.66. For making the test with the Stabler I have had Stabler nuts from a number of different places, Snyder, Reed, University of Missouri and nuts I have grown myself. The next two will be a surprise to you and I feel quite sure that after further tests they may grade differently. The next highest is the Ogden. I believe it was found in Kentucky in 1926 or 1927. Score of 70.90. The Ogden nuts that I tested were thoroughly dry and gave an excellent cracking quality, and I expect the test would go down a little bit had they not been dried so long. I am sure, however, the Ogden is an excellent cracker. I don't know just how the flavor of the Ogden will be. I have some feeling that the flavor will not be as good as some. The third is the Adams. This one comes from West Park in the northern part of Iowa. It is one that runs very high in kernel per cent. This gives a total score of 70.87. While I think of it, there is one point about the method that I use for scoring that is better, I think, than some other methods that have been used, that it gives credit for even a part of a per cent. You will notice that I run these out to the third point. I can't say about the Adams color. That nut also had been thoroughly dried and I think the cracking quality shows better than it ordinarily would. I think that is a variety that we should keep in mind and especially that it should be used for crossing because of high percentage of kernel. The fourth comes from Arkansas, that I have called the "Walker." Scored 70. I suppose we can't claim it entirely from Arkansas, although it was planted there about 50 years ago. The owner moved there from Illinois. There are five or six trees, two of them with excellent nuts. The chances are that the score of this would be lowered somewhat if it were more thoroughly tested. Last year when I tested I only got four. He told me that was almost the most complete failure he had ever known for that tree. Of those four only two were good. One of them I tested before it was thoroughly dry and I felt that I couldn't test it properly. The other nut I tested was larger. It weighed about 36 grams. I am sure that size will be cut down when we can get the nuts from a normal crop. This year the tree has a good crop and it can be tested more thoroughly. The next on the list is the Burrows. I think I only had two nuts for testing this variety. So this score may be somewhat altered. I always try to test at least ten nuts, and another year if I can get a sample I will test them again. The score was 69.79. Following that is another one of Mr. Snyder's, the Finney, from Iowa. That scored 68.82. After that comes our old standard variety, the Ohio, 68.30. Thomas 67.93. Following the Thomas is a variety, the Bohanan, with a score of 66.89. After that the Asbury, 66.65; and the Iowa variety from Iowa that John Rohwer sent me, 66.36. The Iowa is a little bit better cracker than the Rohwer. Not quite as high percentage of kernel. Slightly larger nut I believe. The Iowa nut is a little rougher on the outside than the Rohwer. Following the Iowa is the Edgewood from Arkansas. This is another of those trees, the parent tree coming from Illinois, score 66. Ten Eyck, score 65.75. Knapke, score 63.73. Very good producer. Following that is the Arkansas variety from my home with a score of 63.11. The next variety comes from British Columbia, the Attick, 62.02. As I have said, of some of these I have not had sufficient nuts, and some of them are more thoroughly dry than others. I am sure there will be some shifting in place. However, for the better walnuts that I have and the ones I have plenty to test with I feel that there will be little change from where I have placed them. I have made another grouping. For large size the Walker scores the highest with 36.20 points. Now as to cracking quality, the Throp 100%, Ogden 94.43%. MEMBER: What did you crack them with? PROF. DRAKE: With a hammer. DR. COLBY: Do you use any fertilizer in your orchard? PROF. DRAKE: I have some. At first I didn't but afterwards I used some barn yard manure and some nitrate. Of late years I put some bone meal around the roots when I plant them. THE PRESIDENT: Any further discussion of this interesting paper? DR. DEMING: Do you use the hammer in cracking entirely? PROF. DRAKE: Yes, sir. DR. DEMING: Why do you not use the mechanical cracker? Do you not think the commercial value of the black walnut is best tested by using a mechanical cracker? It will never be cracked with a hammer. PROF. DRAKE: That point is well taken. In the first place I didn't have a commercial cracker but plenty of hammers. Another thing, the commercial crackers are being developed. Unless we all try them out in the same way there would be no value in it. I thought it would be more accurate to use a hammer. THE PRESIDENT: Professor A. F. Yeager is unable to be with us. Therefore, Dr. Colby will read his paper. NUTS IN NORTH DAKOTA _By Prof. A. F. Yeager_ The growing of nuts in North Dakota has hardly been considered as a possibility even by the average amateur up to the present time. Nevertheless, evidence is gradually accumulating that some varieties of nuts can be grown as an addition to the home orchard in nearly all parts of the state. We have no native nut plants except the hazel and our native hazel seldom produces nuts in any quantity in the wild state, hence the possibility of growing them for profit undoubtedly lies some distance in the future. Nut bearing plants which have been introduced with success are the butternut and the black walnut. Trees of these two species are to be found in small numbers at various points in the state and have in practically every case been grown from nuts planted where the trees are now standing. In the past many failures have been reported with trees grown from nuts sent up from the South. Such trees as are now standing are the hardy remnants of considerable numbers of seedlings started, most of which have fallen by the wayside because of the rigors of our climate. Black walnut trees raised from seed produced on trees which have reached fruiting age in North Dakota seem to possess the necessary hardiness. As to whether the named varieties of walnuts would be a success in this territory remains a question. Their culture has not been attempted. Butternuts are naturally a more northerly species than black walnuts but have not been so widely planted in North Dakota. Nevertheless there is a sprinkling of bearing butternut trees in some of the pioneer groves. Seed from these was planted at the experiment station in the fall of 1920. The seedlings prospered and some of them bore nuts in 1925, one tree producing 114 nuts that year. Since then there has been a crop each year and the trees have been making a growth of a foot or more per year. This would seem to indicate that the butternut has possibilities, at least as a producer of nuts for home consumption. Both the black walnut and butternut are subject to damage by late spring frosts which kill off the opening blossoms. While it is not likely that North Dakota will be a commercial nut growing state, we can look forward with confidence to the time when a group of nut trees will be included in the grove which will surround each North Dakota home. * * * * * THE PRESIDENT: Butternuts and walnuts grow in Manitoba. I know of 47 trees. MEMBER: Mr. Gall reports that heartnuts have endured the winter in northwestern Manitoba. The black walnut has grown quite well in Swift Current. That part of Canada is much colder. THE PRESIDENT: Our next paper is a report on the nut contest. Mr. Bixby had planned to be here, but was unable to come. Has Dr. Deming anything to offer? DR. DEMING: I have no very definite report to make on the nut contest, because it wasn't finished until about two weeks ago and I haven't had time to work on the results. The important part of the report is the result of Mr. Bixby's scientific calculations on the properties of the nuts, and this will be published in the report. The contest this year cannot rank in extent and value with the contest of 1926. One reason for that is that the nut crop last fall seems to have been everywhere very deficient, and in fact many contestants sent in nuts from the year before. The second reason is that we didn't get good advertising. I don't know exactly why we didn't. At first I didn't think we were going to get any nuts at all. But belated notices in the Fruit Grower, and especially in the Farm Journal, finally waked up a lot of contestants. Possibly a third reason why the contest was not as successful as in 1926 was that there were so many kinds of nuts for which prizes were offered. I think that is rather confusing. I think we had better do as in 1926 and offer a prize for a single nut each year, rather than prizes for all the nuts each year. Take one nut one year and another nut the next year, and so on, and then begin over again. At the same time I think we ought to have a standing prize for nuts of each species, that is for any better than those we already have. We have such a prize for the hickory, the Bowditch. At different times other members have offered prizes for other species. I would be glad to offer another standing prize of $25 for some other nut in addition to Mr. Bowditch's for the hickory. Three hundred eighty-eight people sent in nuts. That was many fewer than in 1926. 138 people wrote letters but never sent any nuts. There were 243 different black walnut specimens this year and 1229 in 1926. We had some very valuable black walnuts. Some fully equal to, if not better than, those we already have. Very few came from the South. More came from the northern states. Wisconsin, Minnesota and Michigan were well represented. We got 94 different specimens of butternuts. Some of these were very good. Most of them were from the North, Vermont and Wisconsin leading. We got 134 specimens of shagbark hickory, 40 shellbarks and 10 others, perhaps hybrids or other species. There was one California black walnut and only 4 beechnuts, very small indeed. Not worthy of propagation at all. There were a few odd nuts. Only 40 chestnuts were sent. I think that was because we did not get our publicity out soon enough. The chestnut crop matures earlier and in many instances the crops were out of the way. Of these chestnuts, 20 were Japanese. When you first tasted them they tasted like potato but later developed a large amount of sweetness. There were 20 American chestnuts. Dr. Zimmerman would call them small because his standards for the American chestnut are larger than my New England ideas. When the chestnuts first came in they were quite green. In a few days they hardened. If I dried them a little and then put them in boxes they began to mold and soon would be a mass of mold. It always seemed to begin at the butt end and would gradually spread over the whole nut and then get inside and spoil it. I washed some in boric acid, others in formaldehyde, and that hardened them. Then I tried packing them in pulverized sugar and in salt. That extracted all the water so that in a few hours you could pour out half a glass of water. I packed them in peat moss and sand and treated them in various ways, and finally packed them in fresh hardwood sawdust. In this they kept in good condition. DR. SMITH: Did you try sphagnum moss? DR. DEMING: No. Another writer says an excellent thing is ground limestone. THE PRESIDENT: Did you get any Japanese walnuts? DR. DEMING: We got only three, of no merit. MEMBER: The value of the nut tree is going to be determined by its vigor and its bearing qualities. If it doesn't produce any nuts it isn't going to be any good. Mr. Bixby and Dr. Deming have allowed nothing for the bearing qualities. DR. ZIMMERMAN: I am wondering whether it might be possible in some way to get these different factors together and judge the nuts from all angles. DR. DEMING: That, I think, is absolutely necessary. That is, to combine these two scales of judging, the tree characteristics and those of the nuts. Ultimately we have got to allow a large factor for adaptation and productiveness. DR. ZIMMERMAN: A nut may crack well at one time and not so well later on. The moisture of the nuts is a factor. DR. DEMING: I don't agree with Dr. Smith that we should not use the mechanical cracker. DR. SMITH: We also want the hammer. We must crack them in the most favorable way. DR. DEMING: I think the hammer is of very little value. I think we should crack them all with a mechanical cracker. If you crack with a mechanical cracker, the two plungers come together by compression, which crushes the ends in and makes the sides burst out, thereby releasing the kernel. MR. HERSHEY: With the mechanical cracker the shells burst away from the kernel. MR. FREY: My experience is that the mechanical cracker outclasses the hammer. The walls of the nut shatter outwards and save the kernel, whereas with a hammer you mash the nut. I can't see the value of the contest in 1929 when the scion wood for those nuts can't be secured until 1931. There is too much delay. I think if we would establish a permanent award for a better nut of any variety that is sent in we will make better progress. One nut that I know was put in the contest last year. The tree was cut down before they could even write for the scion wood. MEMBER: I got a shipment of chestnuts at one time. I took a ten-gallon milk can and put two inches of sawdust in it. I originally had 50 pounds of nuts but sold some of them. I had 8 or 10 pounds left. I sealed them up tight, put the lid on, and a year from the next April I opened the can. The ones on the bottom had started to grow, they had tops of 4 or 5 inches long and they had a network of roots. But on top of those the nuts were in perfect condition. I shipped some of them to Washington. I planted some of them. Perhaps 9 out of 10 were in perfect condition and they grew. DR. SMITH: I would like to suggest another method of keeping chestnuts. Pack them in sphagnum moss, put them in cold storage and freeze them solid. MR. HERSHEY: Mr. Bixby digs a trench, plants the nuts in it, covers them with leaves and then with an inch or two of soil. THE PRESIDENT: One of the officers of the Bureau of Plant Industry, traveling in Asia, took some seeds and dipped them in paraffin wax. I know it is an excellent method of keeping dahlia roots. We have another item on our program, "New Members' Experience and Questions." Possibly we have some new members here who have had experiences and would like to tell us of them. MEMBER: My first experience was with Mr. Snyder at Ames. I saw on the program a nut lecture, so I went. For the past two years I have been attending the short course and heard Mr. Snyder lecture. A year ago this spring I got some scions from Mr. Snyder. Four scions out of 7 grew. It was the first time I had ever done any grafting at all. I used paraffin for grafting. THE PRESIDENT: You got very good results indeed. This year I made a miserable failure. I believe I only got about 12% to grow. I hope you always have the same good luck. DR. SMITH: If he wants to keep his record he better not do any more grafting. DR. ZIMMERMAN: Pretty near everybody this year reports a miserable failure. There must be some reason. DR. SMITH: It may be the drought. PROF. DRAKE: I only got three to grow. We had enough rain in the spring. DR. ZIMMERMAN: My opinion is that last winter was hard on wood. There was an early freeze in the central states. My observation is that the wood was injured through the winter. I think any scion wood was not very good. PROF. DRAKE: In our part of the country the temperature ran from 24 to 26 below zero. MR. HERSHEY: If you notice in making the graft little pin points of black on the scions, you can almost bet on a failure. DR. ZIMMERMAN: Some of the worst looking scions at times grow the best. You put them on and they all grow. Another time you have beautiful scions and they all die. MR. HARRINGTON: There is injury you can't see with the naked eye. The wood was unripened when our winter set in. We had a very severe winter in our section here. My practice has been to store my scion wood in November. MR. FREY: The cold weather in January wouldn't affect that. I am inclined to think the scion wood injury was done before winter set in. MEMBER: When is the best time to gather scion wood? Mr. Harrington says in the fall. I have been getting mine in February. Is it better to cut the wood when entirely dormant, or would it grow better if cut when the sap starts in the spring? MR. HARRINGTON: I want my scions cut early. DR. SMITH: How early can you cut them? MR. HARRINGTON: When the scars from the leaves have dried up thoroughly. I have known them even in December to be still sappy. They didn't grow well that year. I often cut them the last week in November. MR. HERSHEY: I would advise Dr. Smith not to cut too early in the fall. DR. ZIMMERMAN: From my papaws I cut scions in the fall. THE PRESIDENT: From the comments made here this morning I have an opinion that the question certainly needs looking into. We could cut our scions earlier. DR. ZIMMERMAN: I wouldn't cut them at that time if I didn't have to. MR. HERSHEY: I think that is a good admission. Another thing, if you paraffin your scions you need cat's paws to hang on to them. Dr. Morris said last year, "Melt your paraffin off with hot water." We tried it, got paraffin all over ourselves and cooked the wood. So then we scraped the paraffin off. DR. DEMING: Dr. Neilson has said if there are any new members we would like to hear from them. If there are no new members there should be some. Our secretary sits at the table, ready and anxious to receive the dues and names of new members. I have always felt that we never treat new members with sufficient deference. I think we should ask them to talk about their experiences, to tell us what they have done, to tell us what they would like to do, to ask us questions, and that we should make them feel more at home. THE PRESIDENT: That is very much to the point. DR. DEMING: Why isn't the chestnut more appreciated in this country? Why aren't the farmers acquainted with the possibilities of growing chestnuts here in the middle west? Yesterday Dr. Zimmerman and I were at Mr. Harrington's and there we saw chestnut trees that would make your heart warm to look at. Why can't the people of the middle west, where the chestnut is not native, be awakened to the great possibilities of growing the chestnut commercially? It is easy to grow. It bears early, and abundantly. What can we do to make it better known? I would like to ask Dr. Zimmerman. DR. ZIMMERMAN: Chestnut growers say "We can't keep them." Several years ago I got a hundred pounds of chestnuts down in Illinois. I sold them out to friends of mine. In a few weeks those chestnuts were dry enough to use for roller bearings. That is the reason they don't like the chestnut. I think that hurts the chestnut business more than anything else. MR. HERSHEY: I would like to ask why insist on introducing the chestnut when we have the black walnut? I would just as soon eat bran as a chestnut. Now the black walnut you can keep for two years. DR. ZIMMERMAN: In the last few years I have been in intimate contact with chestnuts. I don't see why the people here don't take them up. If you don't do it the people on the west coast are going to plant chestnuts and ship them to the eastern market. You people can raise chestnuts. The eastern markets are full of chestnuts from Europe. What we need is chestnuts like the Riehl's. The large European chestnuts are of poor flavor. Take the varieties you can grow around here and send them to the East and you will get 50 cents a pound for them. Authorities tell us the trees will die off. I tell you you will all die off after a while. You aren't going to quit working because you are going to die off. Within three years you will have trees that will bear. You may get from twelve to fifteen crops off of them before they die. So far as the food quality of the chestnut is concerned it is not a balanced diet, mostly sugar, but it is a splendid food. The difficulty is in keeping it soft. But it is not a difficult thing. Cold storage will keep the chestnut in splendid shape for eating purposes. I would plant chestnuts and plant them now. Sooner or later, if they die off, we in the East will be prepared to replace them, but for the present you will have the whole field east of the Rocky Mountains. I do not know of another opportunity as great as the chestnut. I just wish I could take 20 acres of this land with me back to my rocky Pennsylvania farm. DR. COLBY: In Illinois the chestnut is not native and people don't realize that it can be grown. Some of the speakers have mentioned the Riehls. I want to mention the Endicott place. Mr. Endicott tells me that it is increasingly difficult to supply the demand for his chestnuts. He sells his nuts sometimes a year in advance. Developing of cleaning machinery and sorting machinery is going on apace. Mr. Endicott is interested in a sorting machine such as we use for apples. It is true we are going to get the blight out here sooner or later. Meantime we are going to try to anticipate it by securing hybrids which are resistant and of good quality at the same time. MR. SNYDER: I would like to say a word as to planting chestnuts here in Iowa, and especially here north. What has been said is true of the southern part of the state. We may grow varieties there that it would not do to plant in the northern part of the state. I think I can show you tomorrow if you visit my place that I have had considerable experience in planting chestnuts just as an experiment. The first planting mostly has gone out because of our climatic conditions. We have severe winters. We must be careful what varieties we plant and what stocks they are worked on when we do plant them. A few years ago a nurseryman wrote me he would like to go out of business and he had chestnut seedlings for sale. I bought his seedlings. I lost them all the next winter. Why? Because of their mixed parentage, European and Japanese. They were not hardy, that was all there was to it. If the nurserymen here and farther north will be careful in the selection of the varieties they use, we can grow them. There are two factors, the stocks you graft on and the varieties you want to grow. MR. FREY: In my old home place there are native chestnuts over 60 years old. MR. SNYDER: If we had time I could take you to visit a grove of chestnut trees, planted by one of the oldtimers, possibly seventy years ago. I haven't been able to learn where the seed came from, evidently from some northeastern country. That is where I get my seeds. Any trees that I have grown from seedlings are dependable trees. MR. HERRICK: One point should be carried in mind. While we think of Des Moines as located in central Iowa, as far as temperature is concerned it is really southern Iowa. The weather at Ames, which is 30 miles north of Des Moines, is far more severe. At Des Moines we can raise Grimes Golden apples. At Ames it is almost impossible. I think that the reason more people are not planting more of these good varieties of walnuts and other species is that they cannot get the trees. And then they are very high priced. Mr. Snyder says that it takes a long time to propagate these trees. People don't like to pay $5.00 or $6.00 for a tree and then maybe not have it grow. As I understand, Mr. Snyder is about the only nurseryman in the state that furnishes nut trees, I mean new varieties. MR. BOYCE: Would it be a good plan to plant black walnuts and grow the seedlings right where you want your orchard? MR. SNYDER: I think that is a very good plan. DR. COLBY: An excellent way if you can get a man to do the grafting. MR. BOYCE: What would be a reasonable price for grafting? DR. COLBY: Mr. Wilkinson has done considerable of that kind of work. PROF. DRAKE: I have been more successful in budding. MR. HERSHEY: We can't in Pennsylvania. In the winter the buds kill off. THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Hershey's experience is like mine, about $7.00 a graft. I will say that if I give grafting demonstrations, as I have in Michigan, I always tell my audience a little story. Once upon a time there was a wild west show. An old Indian chief on the outside proclaimed the merits of the show. He always finished by saying, "And now, ladies and gentlemen, if you go into this show I positively will not give you your money back." I generally tell my audience I positively will not guarantee anything. If none of the scions grow they can't come back and say, "I told you so." DR. DEMING: I would like to have our president talk about methods of making the transplanting of nursery grafted trees safer for the purchaser. Dr. Neilson has had a good deal of experience in setting out nursery stock. THE PRESIDENT: Quite naturally in the progress of time we gain some knowledge by experience. Sometimes that experience is very costly. We remember it more clearly. During the past year I made a few observations on transplanting nut trees. Some of you who were at Ontario in 1928 and New York last year, heard me speak of doing it by means of paraffin coating which has been successful in quite a wide area of this country and in Canada. The difficulty was that during very hot weather the wax melted and ran down and did some injury on the south side of the tree. I did notice that if you inclined the tree to the southwest just a little there was very little injury, whereas if they leaned to the northeast there was injury. I would suggest this, that if you are planting on southern slopes and happen to be in localities where there are very high temperatures, you use 1-3 beeswax and 2-3 paraffin. Beeswax has been proven to be quite safe over wounds and trees in general. This treatment has been used over a very wide area, in 18 states and 5 Canadian Provinces. We have information at hand on 130,000 roses, 15,000 pecans, 2,000 apples. We have had very few complaints from the people who have used this treatment. Because of that, I firmly believe that the principle of applying a protective coating to the upper part of the tree and branches is correct. I have made another observation in protecting roots against devitalizing. Certain kinds of trees, hickory, walnut, are very susceptible to injury to the roots. I tried paraffin on the cut roots and got very good healing. I found that wherever I packed moist peat around the roots there was very good response. Last spring I took about 100 seedling black walnuts and put half in good loamy soil, the other half in moist peat. I got very good results from those packed in peat. In the loam in 7 weeks not one scion had grown. I took those pots and took out the dirt. I later planted them in a cold frame in peat and practically every one of those walnut trees grew. I believe that the peat had some beneficial effect. MR. FREY: From the time the nut tree is dug until it is planted the nursery should pack it so it will keep moist. The purchaser should not let the wind or sun strike it. I had some trees sent from Texas to Oklahoma. The fellow who did the work heeled them in improperly. Every tree died. Keeping the roots moist is half the problem. THE PRESIDENT: Very important indeed. Mr. Gellatly shipped heartnut trees to Augusta. These trees were packed in moss and paraffined. They arrived in excellent condition. The trip took six weeks and they travelled 3,000 miles. DR. SMITH: What season? THE PRESIDENT: About the first of April, and arrived about the middle of May. DR. DEMING: Could you make an artificial ball in which the roots of a plant could be packed? Say peat moss, which is light, and send that to the customer and tell him to plant it just as it is. THE PRESIDENT: I think possibly that can be done. The Wedge Nursery of Albert Lea, Minnesota, have a method of packing roses in sphagnum moss. They soak this material very thoroughly, embed the roots in it, and outside this material they apply some water-proof covering. AFTERNOON SESSION, SEPTEMBER 17TH, 1930 THE PRESIDENT: At our last meeting in New York, Dr. Deming suggested that it might be well worth while to make a study of the Japanese walnut. His suggestion appealed to me, for I have been interested in the occurrence and distribution of this species. I have not had an opportunity to travel very widely on this continent, so I have had to depend partly on the observation of other people. I sent out a questionnaire to members of our association and horticultural experiment stations throughout the United States and got a good response. SOME NOTES ON THE JAPANESE WALNUT IN NORTH AMERICA _Dr. J. A. Neilson, Michigan_ The Japanese walnut, Juglans sieboldiana, and its varietal form cordiformis, were said to have been introduced into America from Japan about 1870 by a nurseryman at San Jose, California. From this and other subsequent introductions a considerable number have been grown and distributed in the United States and Canada. A recent inquiry by the writer brought forth some interesting data relative to the occurrence and distribution of this species in North America. This inquiry shows that it has been widely distributed and is reported in the following states: Arkansas, Arizona, Alabama, Connecticut, California, Delaware, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Missouri, Minnesota, Maryland, Maine, Mississippi, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, New Hampshire, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. No reports were received from South Carolina, Louisiana, Montana, North Carolina, North and South Dakota, Idaho, Georgia, Colorado, Kansas, Texas, and Wyoming, and negative reports were received from Florida, New Mexico, Nevada, Oklahoma, and Tennessee. In none of these states is the Japanese walnut abundant in the same degree as other kinds of nut trees, but in some states it was reported more frequently than in others. It occurs more abundantly in Pennsylvania, New York, Connecticut, New Jersey and Delaware than in other states. In Canada it has been reported from Prince Edward Island, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, Alberta and British Columbia. In Ontario it is found occasionally from Windsor to the Quebec boundary and from Lake Erie to North Bay. There are several fine large trees in southern Ontario, some of which are worthy of propagation. Many of the trees in Ontario and other eastern provinces grew from nuts distributed by the writer several years ago. For five years in succession the writer bought the crop from a large heartnut tree near Jordan Station, Ontario, and distributed the nuts all over Canada to those who were interested. More than twelve thousand nuts were thus distributed and I know from observation and reports that seedling trees are now growing from the Atlantic to the Pacific. I am going to tax your credulity to the utmost and tell you that one of my correspondents reports heartnut trees growing in the Peace River area of northern Alberta. I have no recent report from my friend but I know that the trees came through two winters in that far northland. Possibly in the days to come a superior seedling or a hybrid may be found in these numerous seedlings which will be worth propagating. Some of these trees have already borne nuts and many have made very good growth. The Japanese walnut has also been reported from New Zealand and several states in Australia, England, France, Germany and other European countries. _Climatic Adaptation_ From the foregoing it can be seen that this species of walnut has been widely distributed and is now growing in countries with a wide temperature range. Reports are on hand which show that the trees have endured temperatures of 40 below zero F. to 110° above zero. From this it need not be assumed that all Japanese walnut trees will stand great extremes of heat and cold, for experience shows that they will not. It does show, however, that some individuals at least have marked hardiness to cold and heat and have endured temperatures much greater than the English walnut. The best results in growth and fruitfulness have been obtained in those regions of moderate rainfall where the apple and sweet cherry grow successfully. _Soil Requirements_ The Japanese walnut seems to thrive on many soil types ranging from a heavy clay to a light sand, but does best on what is popularly known as a well drained fertile sandy loam with a friable clay subsoil. It will not do well on strongly acid soils and those who have planted trees on such soils should apply lime in liberal quantities. Poorly drained soils or very light soils deficient in humus are also not suitable. _Tree and Nut Characteristics_ The Japanese walnut has several characteristics which make it desirable as an ornamental and as a nut-bearing tree. It grows rapidly, has large numerous luxuriant leaves which give it a tropical effect, and usually has a symmetrical outline. It bears early, sometimes in the second year from the graft, yields heavily and is often reported to yield regularly. A heartnut tree owned by Mr. Sylvestor Kratz of Jordan Station, Ontario, produced nearly seven bushels of husked nuts one season and Mr. J. W. Hershey reports a yield of ten bushels of heartnuts from a tree near Olney, Pennsylvania. He also reports a cash return of $50.00 from one tree grown by Mr. Killen of Felton, Delaware. These were heartnuts and sold for 50 to 75 cents a pound. Mr. J. V. Gellatly, Westbank, B. C., obtained a yield of ten bushels of unhusked nuts from a heartnut tree of medium size. The yields from the common type, J. sieboldiana, have also been heavy, but since no figures are available no definite statements can be made. In the Japanese walnut as in other species of nuts there is marked variation in nut characteristics, such as size, thickness of shell, cracking quality, extraction quality and flavor of kernel. Heartnuts have been found ranging from 1/2 in. to 1-3/4 in. in length. The largest heartnut I have ever seen came from Gellatly Brothers of Westbank, B. C. This nut was 1-3/4 in. long by 1-1/4 in. wide and was fully 1 in. thick. I also located a fine Sieboldiana type which is said to be the largest found up to date. (See specimens in jars). Some of these good kinds possess excellent cracking and extraction quality. Mr. John Hershey of Downingtown, Pa., reports several good easy-cracking strains not yet introduced and Mr. Gellatly has one called O. K. that can easily be cracked with a hand nut cracker. I have also found one that I believe is a hybrid and which has excellent cracking and extraction quality. These specimens came from a seedling heartnut grown by Mr. Claude Mitchell, Scotland, Ontario. The nuts are longer than any heartnut found so far. The kernels in many cases fall out whole or in halves. This strain received the O. K. of Prof. Reed and Dr. Deming and as you know when a nut gets by either of those gentlemen it has to possess some merit. The good result produced by nature without any assistance from man suggests the possibility of getting even better results from parents of superior characters. I believe the Japanese walnut offers interesting possibilities in breeding with the butternut and possibly the black and English walnut. Definite plant breeding work should be done with these species as well as with all other species of nuts. The Japanese walnuts generally grow fast but usually do not attain a large size. In most cases the trees rarely grow more than 35 feet tall with a spread of 30 to 50 feet, but occasionally specimens attain much larger size. The writer saw a heartnut tree on Mr. Kratz's farm near Jordan Station, Ontario, which had a trunk diameter of 2 ft., a height of 35 ft., and a spread of 64 ft. Near St. Thomas, Ontario, there is a large sieboldiana tree which is 75 ft. across the top and is about 45 ft. tall. Mr. Ricks reports a huge tree near Olney, Pennsylvania, that is 80 ft. across the top and 60 ft. tall and Dr. Deming reports a tree with a spread of 100 ft. _Varieties_ Through the efforts of the Northern Nut Growers Association members several good varieties have been found and propagated. These varieties have been widely distributed but have not been extensively planted. The results are variable as might be expected, but generally the reports are satisfactory. In the eastern states the following varieties seem to do reasonably well: Faust, Bates, Ritchie and Stranger. In British Columbia, Messrs. J. U. and David Gellatly have located several very good strains such as Gellatly, O. K., Calendar, Walters and Rosefield. These newer varieties from the West have several good characters and are worthy of a wider trial in the East. _Diseases and Insect Pests_ In common with most other forms of plant life the trees are susceptible to some insects and diseases. Reports of injury by the walnut weevil, Conotrachelus juglandis, and also by codling moth larvae have been received. In some cases the foliage is attacked by rust fungi and some injury is also done by leaf spot. Prof. Reed reports witches broom attacking some trees in the South and one case of this disease was observed by the writer in Ontario on a Siebold-butternut hybrid. Notwithstanding these defects it is believed that the Japanese walnut is less attacked by disease and insects than most other species of nut trees. _Opinion of Observers_ The opinion of a group of people on the merits or defects of a tree species or project is worthy of consideration. In order to get an expression of opinion as to the merits of the Japanese walnut the following question was asked: Do you consider the better strains of Japanese walnut worthy of more extended planting? The answers to this inquiry were numerous and varied. The great majority were in favor of increased plantings but a few were somewhat dubious. Nearly every one agreed that the species possessed marked beauty and was worthy of more extended planting as an ornamental. Some gave preference to the nuts over the black and English but the majority thought the quality was not quite up to the standard of these two species. Some observers reported favorably on the heartnut for culinary purposes and as an ingredient of ice cream and candy. With these latter comments I have had personal experience and can heartily agree. _Summary_ From the evidence furnished by correspondents and from personal observation the good qualities of the Japanese walnut may be summed up as follows: Rapid growth, marked beauty of form and foliage, early bearing, productiveness, and more than average hardiness to winter cold. The nuts from superior trees are easier to crack than the butternut, hickory and black walnut, but not so easy as the pecan and Persian walnut. These superior varieties yield nuts with a mild flavor which appeals to the taste of many people, but others think the flavor is not quite pronounced enough. This species crosses readily with the butternut and offers interesting possibilities for the plant breeder. The trees appear to be somewhat less susceptible to insects and diseases than other walnuts, but this may not always hold good. The defects of the Japanese walnut most frequently mentioned are lack of flavor and pollination deficiencies. Some trees produce staminate flowers too early for proper pollination and thus do not yield a crop unless another good pollinator grows nearby. Susceptibility to sun-scald and to San Jose scale are some other weaknesses. Many of the trees commonly grown are undesirable because of small size of nuts, poor cracking quality and too mild a flavor. A careful consideration of the good and bad characters of Japanese walnuts suggests the following program before the culture of this species can be placed on a sound basis. 1. A systematic and thorough search of the United States and Canada for productive trees yielding nuts of large size, of good cracking and extraction quality and pleasing flavor. 2. The propagation and wide dissemination of these superior strains to members of the Northern Nut Growers Association and particularly to experiment stations where there seems to be a striking lack of information on this and other species of nuts. 3. Systematic improvement by means of hybridization with the butternut and other suitable species. A program such as this would yield information of great value and would probably establish the culture of this species on a sounder basis than it now is. Until this has been done the logical course to follow is to plant the best varieties in limited numbers in areas where the black walnut thrives and even in areas too cold for the black walnut. * * * * * THE PRESIDENT: I have been connected with experiment stations and colleges for the past number of years but I was quite surprised to find such a general lack of knowledge of nut trees, and especially of this species. The members of the experiment stations who are here do not need to feel badly. My remarks wouldn't apply to them. MEMBER: Any varieties of this that bloom late? THE PRESIDENT: Yes, Mr. Gellatly of West Bank, British Columbia, has a variety that blooms rather late. J. U. Gellatly and his brother David have the best collection of Japanese walnuts in Canada, of heartnuts especially. Professor Reed was to give us a paper on harvesting and marketing. We have just heard that his paper will be here tomorrow. The next paper is by Mr. F. O. Harrington. THIRTY YEARS' EXPERIENCE IN THE CARE OF SCIONWOOD _F. O. Harrington, Williamsburg, Iowa_ Prof. Colby wrote me some months ago asking if I would not write a paper for this meeting on "Fifty Years' Experience in Nut Growing." I answered that I had not been particularly interested in nut culture until within a few years, and that I believed I could be of more use to our members by telling them something of the care of scionwood. I am going to tell you of my method used for thirty years constantly with only slight changes from the beginning. Any man who has had any experience knows that it is important that scionwood should be carefully kept, that it should not be kept in air so dry that the bark would shrivel to any appreciable extent, or, on the other hand, a still worse condition, where it is so damp that the bark will loosen and the buds start. It is difficult enough in nut tree grafting to obtain reasonably fair success with the scions in perfect condition, where used in late spring, and it is something of a heart breaking proposition to try it with poor scionwood. To the nurseryman, with his winter grafting of fruit trees, the keeping of the scionwood long enough for his purpose in the cold of the winter season is no problem at all. It can be stacked in a pile in any cool cellar (not too wet) and covered over with leaves and blankets, or what not, and it is all O. K. for that period. It is a far different matter to hold small amounts of wood absolutely dormant through the changing conditions from winter to summer, and perhaps as greatly changed conditions of moisture through several months. And how shall this best be accomplished? Ice house conditions are not, I think, generally very satisfactory. The right cold storage facilities might be satisfactory, but not readily accessible to most of us. I used to use boxes in the cellar, with careful packing with forest leaves and somewhat careful attention to moisture conditions, with penalties for lax attention always enforced. I know one nurseryman who, beside the regular nursery fruit tree grafting scion wood, kept many scions of nut trees. He had a deep outdoor cellar, or cave, which was always cool and not too dry. In this, in large boxes of sawdust, he kept his scions for spring use. Just how much attention as regards moisture conditions he had to give this I do not know, but through his knowledge and experience with it I think his scions were usually in good condition. Now I will quote to you on the care of scions from J. F. Jones' paper on "The Propagation of Nut Trees" in the 1927 Report of the Annual Meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association, page 104: "It is not in the selection of scions that the beginner usually fails to make his grafting a success, but in handling the scions. Scions for grafting need not to be put in cold storage. In fact cold storage at the usual temperatures seems to be injurious to scions. Cool storage, that is temperature maintained below the freezing point, is O. K., but in my experience this is not necessary. We store them in a cellar with a ground floor. This is damp and cool and the cases the scions are stored in are without bottoms and set on the damp cellar floor. The cases are lined with tar paper or light roofing, both the sides and the lid. The latter is hinged for ease of getting out scions as needed. No packing is used around the scions and they draw enough moisture from the damp ground below to hold them plump and in good condition. Good scions stored in this way can be kept for weeks, or even months if need be, in excellent condition. Nut scions for grafting are soon spoiled if packed too damp, even if kept at temperatures considerably below that required to cause the sap to flow in trees outside." Again I quote from Dr. W. C. Deming (1925 Report, page 48), "Top Working Hickory Trees for the Beginner": "Scions packed away for any length of time are apt to go wrong, either by drying too much, by being too moist and starting to grow, or by heating, molding or rotting. A simple way to keep them is to dig a hole about three feet deep in the ground outdoors in a dry and sheltered place where water can never reach them, as under the back porch. Have the scions in convenient lengths of one to two feet. Wrap them in a bundle, or bundles, in a light tar paper, which helps to prevent mold. Leave the ends open for ventilation. Lay the bundles in the bottom of the hole and cover the top of the hole with an old carpet, or several newspapers. This description gives a general idea of the conditions under which scions should be kept. A man may vary it according to his own conditions, bearing in mind the principles. It is of vital importance to the success of grafting that the scions should be in good condition. The usual mistakes are in keeping them too wet and too much wrapped up. They should be examined frequently to see that they are keeping well." I have brought to your attention what have been considered the very best methods of keeping scionwood dormant and in best possible condition, and all agree that this is of vital importance for successful grafting. I will now call your attention to a better method than any of these, equally simple and inexpensive, and so much better in its action that scions may be kept by it two and three years in about the same condition as when severed from the parent tree; and to prove this statement I have here with me for your examination scionwood of several kinds of nut and fruit trees that have been kept in the Harrington graft box one year and two years. At the present time I have no older wood in my graft box, for the simple reason that in the summer of 1928 the cover of the box, which had been in several years, rotted so that the top caved in, leaving it open to too much air, thus in time spoiling what wood was in it; and before putting in new wood in November I had to dig out the old box and replace with a new one. For wood will rot in time in the ground. I have had, at different times in the past, scionwood in my box three years old, much of it seemingly still good. I have not used any of it for grafting at three years, but I have with good success the second year old from cutting. I started experimentally with this method and box thirty years ago and there has not been a year since in which I have not used it, so you may readily understand that it is not an untried theory I am giving you. A much valued member of our society, J. F. Jones of Lancaster, Pa., now deceased, wrote me at one time, "You undoubtedly have the best method of keeping scionwood known at the present day," and Prof. Close, head of the Pomology Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., made the same statement to me. My own box is located in an evergreen grove on dry land, but a shady position to the north of a building might answer fairly well. Until the last eight years my box was for a long period, under and between two large butternut trees growing out in the open, except at the northward. In my opinion it is highly desirable to cut and store all scionwood before severe temperatures of the winter occur, preferably between Thanksgiving and Christmas because very severe freezing is liable to produce some little injury to the cambium layer, at least in some years, and if that injury be even very slight it will usually spell failure when used. The graft box, as I am using it, is about thirty inches long by eighteen inches deep and fifteen inches wide. It has a solid cover but has a six inch square hand hole through on top in front, covered by a loose board lying flat and about ten inches square and butting back against a cross bar nailed across the box two inches back of the doorway opening. No bottom in the box but it has three cross bars nailed across inside to hold all scionwood up two inches from the earth floor. Any scion that touches the earth floor will either begin to grow or begin to rot. The box is entirely buried two to three inches under the ground except over the trap door. The spot must be perfectly drained. Over the box a space about six feet wide by seven feet long is insulated from temperature changes with straw packing to height, in center, of three feet and protected from rain by a wood roof of boards, shingles, or prepared roofing resembling, a little, the old wedge tent. To get into the box burrow in under by pulling out the straw in front, but not too large a tunnel, and far enough back to get at the trap door cover where it can be slipped off and scions put in, the door replaced and all the straw crowded back into place. Thereafter it is easy to slip the straw out and back to get at the box. In any case the packing is always carefully replaced, as the insulation of the earth near the box is of first importance. _Graft Box Air Conditions_ The small amount of moisture coming into the box from sides and earth bottom, in ordinary conditions, seems to be very exactly balanced by the very small amount of dry air that finds ingress to the box from outside through the straw packing and the trap door, although after very long wet spells, at whatever season of the year, it has been my practice to bring all the scions out into the open air and allow both the scions and the interior of box to dry out for as long as seems needful. The reverse condition, that of too little moisture, I have never had to take notice of. Occasionally a little white mold in box and on scions may require a little open air treatment. No other condition seems to require any special care. I do not know how much larger a box than I have used would give equal satisfaction, for I have not demonstrated that feature, but obviously there must be at some point a limiting factor between the desired casualty of moisture and its opposite in the box. I am inclined to think that a box of double that capacity could safely be used, but advise that, where large amounts of scionwood are needed, more than one box be used until a test has been made with less valuable wood to find the size limit. * * * * * DR. SMITH: You speak of airing the scions. How long do you do that? MR. HARRINGTON: It depends on the conditions that require the airing. For instance a thaw in the winter, or a rainy spell. Again in the summer a long rainy spell. In these cases I open up the box, maybe leave it a couple of hours. DR. SMITH: That kills the mold, two hours' exposure? You never sterilize the inside in any way? MR. HARRINGTON: I never have. It might be a good idea. The mold doesn't seem to affect the scions. EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS IN SEARCHING FOR BEST SEEDLING NUT TREES _J. F. Wilkinson, Indiana_ Searching for the best seedling began long before the coming of the white man to America, by Indians and animals and the birds which store nuts for their winter food. This search has always been continued through the nut growing territory by the crows, squirrels and other birds and animals. Go to a pecan grove early in the fall when pecans are ripening and there is no better evidence that a tree is an early ripener and produces a thin shelled nut than to see a bunch of crows feeding from it. The children living near a pecan grove in early fall will go where crows and birds are feeding to gather nuts that are dropped by them, and later, when all trees have ripened their nuts, these children have their favorite trees to gather from. I have seen the little ones around Enterprise, of before school age, that would have a preference and could select from a basket of pecans the ones from their favorite tree. It is surprising how good their judgment is. The hunter also watches this in the early hunting season, going to the earlier ripening hickory and walnut trees, for it is there he will find the squirrels feeding. My own experience in gathering pecans dates back to my first school days, for there were scores of pecans trees near the school building, and as soon as I was large enough to climb a tree I spent many days each fall gathering nuts and soon had a fair knowledge of all trees for a radius of several miles around. The first trees of the now named varieties, the Indiana and Busseron, were located and brought to notice by the late Mason J. Niblack. In the summer of 1910 my life-long friend, Mr. T. P. Littlepage, while on a vacation, was camping on the Ohio river near my home and was then very much interested in superior seedling nut trees. It was at that time, in a talk with him, that I became interested in the propagation of nut trees. At this time he took me with him to locate the "Warrick" tree which stands on Pigeon Creek in Warrick County, Indiana. The next day he, R. L. McCoy and myself went to the Greenriver grove where the Major and Greenriver trees were located. These are now being propagated and are considered outstanding varieties. Also a trip was made to Posey County, Indiana, where the Hoosier tree was located. This variety was soon dropped. From that time on R. L. McCoy and myself kept up a constant search until he left Indiana in 1918. Since then I have done a lot of work along this line myself. This work is carried on by arranging with nut buyers and gatherers in the nut growing localities to be on the watch for any unusually good nut and to send in a sample, with the name of the owner of the tree, or the party gathering the nuts, so the tree may be located later. Hundreds of samples have been received, the most of which were eliminated on examination of the nut itself. In the case of any that seem promising a trip is made to the tree for further information. Each fall I receive word of trees producing a superior quality nut and in most cases from the description given, whether it be by letter or a personal talk with the informer, one would believe that a really worthy tree had been found. But generally on investigation it proves to be only just above a good average tree. A variety to be worthy of propagation must pass a rigid test. First, the nut must be of desirable size, thin shell, plump kernel, good flavor and good cracking quality, and last but not least the tree must be a good and regular bearer. Accurate records on the bearing of these trees are very hard to obtain as they often grow in isolated places and their product is known to all in that neighborhood, and at least a part of the crop is often taken by some one who makes no report on the amount, so the best information to be had on this is often incorrect. When a promising tree is located the surest way is to visit it each fall for several years just before gathering time and see the crop on the tree. In almost every instance the size of a nut is exaggerated by the owner or informer unintentionally. They are honest but their imagination gets the better of their judgment. Then their knowledge is often limited to their own trees and those of their neighbors, and the nut they prize may be the best they know of, but when compared with nuts from a greater territory is found to be of only fair size. The usual way one will describe the size of a pecan is to say it is as large as his thumb and about two thirds the length of his forefinger, and so thin shelled that two of them can easily be cracked in the hand with only a light pressure. I usually carry some sample nuts of the named varieties on these trips for comparison and it is seldom that the owner or informer of a tree believes any of these to be larger than those produced by his favorite tree until a comparison is made, and then he will often declare they are not as large this season as usual. This brings to mind many incidents which are very clear in my memory, one especially, when Mr. McCoy and myself had heard of the Kentucky pecan tree which is opposite Grandview, Ind. We went to Grandview to get first hand information on this tree from one who had gathered the nuts from it and while talking to the party he was trying to tell us how large the nut was. I first took a Busseron pecan from my pocket and he said it was much larger than that. I then resorted to some large southern ones none of which he thought were as large as his favorite. At last I produced a McAllister. After some hesitation he admitted it was larger than the Kentucky. At this Mr. McCoy gave a hearty laugh and told him his imagination had the better of his judgment. Almost every one who owns any number of nut trees has one that is better than the rest, and naturally he prizes this one highly and wishes it propagated. I have traveled many hundreds of miles going to trees on reports of others, only to be disappointed. Where the tree is found to be promising and no bearing record is obtainable, then an annual trip for several years is necessary to determine the bearing record. These trips require time, expense and labor for very often a part of the trip has to be made on foot. Several years ago Claude Luckado, a professional pecan gatherer of Rockport, spent several weeks one fall in a large pecan grove on the Wabash river and brought back several samples of very promising pecans, one especially that I considered very worthy of further consideration. I reported this one to Mr. C. A. Reed, and a year or two later, when on a trip through this section in the fall, he suggested a trip to this tree. I arranged with Mr. Luckado to go with us to show us this tree, which is about seventy miles from Rockport. We left there on the first traction car for Mt. Vernon, Ind. From there we went in a Ford touring car without any top and only one rear fender and drove over nine miles of the worst roads I ever motored over to the Wabash river where we hired a motor driven mussel boat to take us four miles down the river. The remaining three miles we made on foot, reaching this grove about ten a. m., and searched until late in the afternoon without locating the tree. This day and trip I am sure Mr. C. A. Reed well remembers. Two years later when roads and weather were more favorable, Mr. Luckado and myself left Rockport one morning at four a. m. and drove all the way to the grove, arriving there early in the morning and searching until late in the afternoon and again without results. But when one takes into consideration that this tree is standing somewhere near the center of an unbroken forest of hundreds of acres in which it has been estimated there are near 20,000 bearing-size pecan trees, it is some task to locate a certain tree, though the search for this tree will be made again. It is very often that two or more trips are necessary to locate a tree and about nine times out of ten when the tree is found it is not considered worthy of propagation. Many amusing incidents and not a few hardships are remembered in these past experiences. During the past three years I have made four trips into southwestern Missouri and southeast Kansas where there are thousands of native pecan trees growing. Some trees in this section have been brought to notice which seem promising. I now have several promising new varieties under test and observation. The search for new and better varieties must be kept up, for no doubt there are yet unknown as good and possibly better trees than we have yet located. * * * * * DR. ZIMMERMAN: Have you ever known anything about the Marmaton, owned by J. E. Tipke at Rockwell, Missouri? MR. WILKINSON: I have a sample of it. DR. ZIMMERMAN: Mr. Tipke sent that to me. He told me it wasn't as good as others but he said it never missed a crop. THE PRESIDENT: For the benefit of those who have not been down to Mr. Wilkinson's I would like to say you will find it very worth while to go there. In 1925 Mr. Wilkinson invited me to go with him through southern Indiana, to see some of the large pecan trees he had there. When I got there I really had to take two looks to see the top of some of those trees. I found one tree that I would have to make three spans, in this manner, to get around. One tree is said to be 125 feet tall and 16-1/2 feet around. After visiting that section and seeing the very many interesting trees I concluded that Mr. Wilkinson really hadn't told all that was to be told. Mr. Wilkinson is a very modest person. When he tells you a certain thing you can make up your mind he is not exaggerating in the least. MR. WILKINSON: Many times in determining the crop we have to climb the tree. For instance, the Major is 65 feet to the first limb. It is very often necessary to climb the tree to make an estimate of the crop. THE PRESIDENT: Wasn't there one tree there with a spread of 125 feet? MR. WILKINSON: This was in Greenview. That was the largest pecan tree known in Indiana, 70 feet to the first limb, just a straight column. The spread of the top was 140 to 150 feet. The wind blew the tree down. MR. HERSHEY: That tree according to Mr. Wilkinson never missed a crop. While I was there they took me to a tree that had 600 pounds one year. It was on a cheap piece of land that was bought for $425.00. The year we were there it produced 250 pounds, a light crop. Another lady told us of a family that bought a piece of land that had about 50 pecans scattered over it. That kept them in ample supply of money and they didn't have to do much more to make a living. THE PRESIDENT: The next is a report by Dr. J. H. Kellogg. Mr. Kellogg is not able to be with us and Dr. Colby will now read it. MORE NUTS--LESS MEAT _Dr. J. H. Kellogg, Michigan_ The oft reiterated appeals to the American public to "Eat more meat to save the livestock industry" and exploitation of a so-called "all-meat diet experiment" by Stefansson and Anderson, justify the presentation of the special claims of other foodstuffs, so that those who desire to regulate their eating in accordance with their bodily needs, rather than to meet the exigencies of business, even to aid a declining industry, may have a fair opportunity to judge comparative merits and draw sound conclusions based upon scientific facts, rather than misleading statements or the biased dictates of custom. If the American people are really suffering for lack of meat the efforts of the Meat Board of Chicago should be regarded as a noble philanthropic effort to correct a national fault and to avert the dire consequences of the physical collapse which must necessarily result from a deficiency diet. But if it is not true that the average American eats less beefsteaks, chops, sausage, etc., than he needs, but as a matter of fact is actually suffering notable injury because of the great consumption of flesh foods of all sorts, then this persistent appeal to the American stomach to render economic service as well as to do its work of digestion, is not only a most extraordinary business anomaly but a grave menace to the health and welfare of the American people. The discussion of this question is germane to the objects of this convention, since nuts are the vegetable analogues of meats, and hence we cannot reasonably ask nor expect that more nuts will be eaten simultaneously with an increased consumption of meat. And so I shall undertake to give in this paper some of the reasons why we may properly urge the people of this country to eat more nuts and less meat. Nut meats are the real and original meat. Says Prof. Henry C. Sherman, of Columbia University in his admirable textbook, "Food Products": "To speak of nuts as 'meat substitute' is natural under the present conditions and reflects the prominence which has been given to meat and the casual way in which nuts have been regarded for some generations. Looking at the matter in evolutionary perspective, it might be more logical to speak of meats as 'nut substitute' instead." Evidently Professor Sherman believes, as do many other eminent scientists, that nuts were a staple in the diet of primitive man. Professor Elliot, of Oxford University, in his work, "Prehistoric Man," calls attention to the fact that in the early ages of his long career, man was not a flesh eater; and the famous Professor Ami, editor of the Ethnological History of North America, and other paleontologists, hold that man began the use of meat only after the glacial period had destroyed the great forests of nut trees on which he had formerly feasted. This, however, likewise agrees with Holy Writ. We read in Genesis 1:29: "And God said, behold I have given you every herb yielding seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat." So the real meat grew on trees and herbs. Beefsteak and chops are poor substitutes for the real meat, which still constitutes the food of the human race, for with the exception of the Anglo-Saxon race and a few savage tribes, meat forms no substantial part of the human diet. The teeming millions of India and China, which constitute nearly half of the whole human race, eat practically no meat. The thronging millions of Central Africa thrive on corn, nuts, bananas, peanuts, manioc, sweet potatoes and melons. The same is true at the present time of the natives of Mexico, Central and South America, who find in maize, beans, potatoes and various tropical fruits ample and satisfying sustenance. The average American consumes 165 pounds of meat a year; the Japanese, four pounds; the people of South China less--practically none at all. Taking the human race as a whole, meat fills only a very insignificant place in the world's bill of fare. Bread is the staff of life, and nuts, the real meat, are gradually recovering their old prestige. It is only in comparatively recent years that meat has entered so largely into the bill of fare of civilized nations. Major J. B. Paget, a writer in the _English Review_, calls attention to the fact that there has been in England a deterioration in stature and otherwise since the Peninsular War, the reason for which he thinks "is not difficult to discover. We are the same race with the same climate and the same water. The only difference is our diet." According to Wellington's Quartermaster General's Report, the rations of the men who fought the Peninsular War under the Iron Duke, was one pound of wheat per day and a quarter of a pound of goat's flesh. But they had to catch the goats who ran wild in the mountains and so they seldom got that part of their ration. According to General Sir William Butler these soldiers were "splendid men with figures and faces like Greek gods." And he adds with regret, "Such men have passed away." Major Paget tells us that the Spaniards were greatly impressed by the fine teeth of these English soldiers and especially of their wives who accompanied them. Of their diet the Major says: "These men before they enlisted were nearly all agricultural laborers who were brought up on a hard, wholemeal bread, garden produce, and apparently very little meat, as the consumption of meat was then _three pounds per head per annum_." It is to be remembered also that nuts form a substantial part of the diet of that large and interesting family of vertebrates, the primates, represented by the gorilla, the chimpanzee, the orang-utan and the gibbon, animals that do not eat meat, and that man is also a primate. No authority has ever offered any reason why man's diet should differ from that of other primates. Man is not naturally a flesh-eater. Infants usually evince a dislike for flesh when it is first given them. Adults who use flesh foods are attracted by their flavors rather than by the nutritive elements which they supply. As a matter of fact, more and better food material is supplied by plant foods and at a far less cost. Meats are notably deficient in vitamins, while nuts are rich in vitamin B, some, as the hazel nut, containing one-fifth as much as dry yeast. The precious vitamin A, found in only very meager amounts in meats, is found in the almond, the pine nut, coconuts and peanuts. The minerals, too, are found in better proportions and in larger amounts in nuts than in meats. The deficiencies in essential elements in a lean meat diet are so pronounced that when Chalmers Watson fed rats on meat they became deformed and sterile, their mammary and other sex glands degenerated and in three generations they ran out completely. Watson attributes the steady and very pronounced lowering of the birth-rate in Great Britain to the increased consumption of meat in that country, which has risen in a little more than a century from 3 pounds to more than 100 pounds per capita, while the birth-rate has fallen until it closely approximates the mortality rate. The same thing has happened in the older sections of this country, especially the New England states. According to Newburgh, of the University of Michigan, the large consumption of meat in this country may be responsible for the high death rate from Bright's disease, which is mounting higher every year. And the same is true of diseases of the heart and blood vessels, which now claim more lives annually than any other cause. He finds that when rabbits are fed meat meal mixed with flour in bread, they soon become diseased through changes in the bloodvessels and die of old age before they are a year old. Hindhede, of Copenhagen, a physiologist of world-wide renown, and food commissioner for Denmark, in a notable paper read before the Race Betterment Conference at Battle Creek, January, 1928, remarked as follows: "One notices the terrible death toll in America due to Bright's disease. I can no longer doubt that the high meat diet ruins the kidneys, especially in view of Dr. Newburgh's experiments, proving as they do that we may, with mathematical certainty, produce Bright's disease even in rats by placing them on a high meat diet. "I feared that you might doubt my statistics, and might consider me merely another 'crank,' so I placed my figures before Dr. Sundwall, Professor of Hygiene of the University of Michigan, and asked him to check their correctness. Dr. Sundwall and Dr. Newburgh recalculated the data, and authorized the publication." Hindhede found the number of deaths per 100,000 from six causes--alcoholism, apoplexy, disorders of digestion, cirrhosis or hardening of the liver, nephritis (Bright's disease), and diabetes--to be in this country 255 and in Denmark on a low meat diet, 112. He calculates that the adoption in this country of the Danish diet, which would eliminate more than half our meats, would save the lives of not less than 200,000 of our citizens annually. And yet there are vested interests which continually clamor for the increased consumption of meats. Fortunately the American people are becoming enlightened on the subject of diet and are using less meat and more green vegetables, with less bread and cereal breakfast foods and more milk and potatoes. Nutrition researches are daily teaching us new lessons in dietetics, some of which are of commanding importance. One of the most significant of these is the necessity for taking account of the nature of the ash left by a foodstuff in the body. There are basic or alkali-ash foods and acid-ash foods. Foods of the latter class when freely used cause acidosis. Meats are high up in the list of acid-ash foods. It is for this reason that such animals as the lion and flesh-eating men have little endurance. The American team made a poor showing at the last International Olympic meet, in the writer's opinion because of their excessive meat-eating. According to Roosevelt, a vegetarian horse, with a heavy man on his back (Teddy), was able to run down a lion in a mile and a half. Thousands of short-winded, asthmatic people who are tired all the time and take cold at every change of the wind and think they are overworked because they find it so hard to work, are victims of acidosis from a heavy meat diet. If such persons will eliminate meat from their diet and add a pint of milk or buttermilk, they will experience an immediate physical uplift which, in some cases, will seem almost incredible. Meat contains poisons, the natural wastes of the body. By its use, the labor of the kidneys is more than doubled. Besides, fresh meats are always swarming with bacteria, and not the harmless sort that are found in buttermilk but the pernicious germs which have their headquarters in the colons of animals. Meats always become infected with these filthy colon germs in the process of slaughtering and the longer it is kept the more numerous the colon germs become, for they multiply amazingly fast, and this is the reason the meat becomes more tender when "hung" for a long time. I was consulted not long ago by the manager of a large popular hotel who wanted suggestions about feeding his guests. I recommended special care in the selection of meats and the choosing of that which had been most recently killed. "Oh!" said the manager, "my chef is on to that. He is very particular. You know our hotel meat usually has a beard of green mold on it an inch long. My chef is very careful. He never allows the beard to be more than a quarter of an inch long." Another hotel manager told me they often had to cut away nearly half of the meat because it was so green and rotten. This is not pleasant information but it is simply commonplace, every-day fact. Sausage, hamburger steak and "game" with a high flavor, are little if any better than carrion, and the poisons which such foods introduce into the body must all be detoxicated by the liver and eliminated by the kidneys, and thus they are worn out prematurely by overwork. "As sweet as a nut," is an old bon mot which hides no such repulsive picture. The nut, inside its germ-proof shell, is solid nutriment of the purest sort, the very quintessence of nutrient value, sunlight in cold storage. The nut represents food energy in its most delectable and concentrated form. From an economic standpoint, the nut leaves flesh foods so far behind that they are almost out of sight. Experiments to determine the digestibility and nutritive value of nuts were conducted several years ago by the eminent Professor Jaffa of the University of California. His researches conducted over many months, using human volunteers as subjects, showed that nuts were well digested and created no intestinal disturbances. Later experiments confirmed and extended the observations of Professor Jaffa. These experiments, conducted by Professor Cajori of Yale University in the Yale laboratory and in the laboratory of the Battle Creek Sanitarium, have finally definitely settled the question. Says Professor Cajori, with reference to his results: "A few years ago a rather extensive series of digestion experiments were inaugurated at Yale University in an effort to settle the question of the indigestibility of nuts and also to test out some of the commercial nut products to find what effect roasting, boiling, and other processes that nuts are subjected to had on their digestibility. Through the courtesy of Dr. Kellogg of Battle Creek, it was possible to follow up these experiments with a series at Battle Creek. It is of the result of these tests that I wish to speak." * * * * * "Our digestion experiments show the following results: For protein digestion of nuts--almond 89%, pecan 84%, pine nut 89%, English walnut 83%, Brazil nut 88%, and coconut 88%." "How, then, explain the undoubted discomfort that many people experience after eating nuts? I believe the explanation rests on the fact that our common American way of eating nuts is not the rational way. We would not consider topping off a heavy meal with eggs, meat, or cereals, or eating these in large quantities between meals without realizing that we were exposing ourselves to possible digestive discomfort. No more, then, can we expect to eat nuts, which are even more concentrated or "heavy" than meats or eggs, merely as an adjunct, without occasional discomfort. Unpleasant results from so eating does not condemn the nut as indigestible; rather it condemns our mode of using that nut. Further, we must recognize that a nut is a hard compact substance, and that unless completely masticated is not readily penetrated by the digestive juices of the alimentary canal. This was very well brought out in our experiments with dogs. The dog bolts his food and where there were large fragments of the nuts in the food they appear unchanged in the feces, while if the nut was ground fine before feeding it was readily digested. Comparisons of nut butters and nut pastes with the whole nut also brought out this point. The completely comminuted nut butters showed consistently higher degrees of digestion than the whole nut." Nuts should be used as a food staple, a major element in the bill of fare, rather than as a dessert, and special care must be taken as to thorough mastication, which is almost equally true of apples, bananas and numerous other fruits which possess a firm flesh. To overcome the objection that some people are unable to masticate nuts properly on account of defective teeth, and to insure the proper assimilation even if not properly chewed, the writer some forty years ago conceived the idea of converting the nuts by crushing and grinding into a paste, in other words, chewing the nuts by machinery. The peanut was first utilized in this way and rapidly won its way to public favor. Now, many scores of carloads of that nut are eaten under the name of "peanut butter." Almonds were next used, and were found to make a delicious nut paste, or butter, which by the addition of water and a little salt, became a most delicious cream. In the form of almond cream or milk nothing could be conceived in the way of nourishment which the body can more easily appropriate and more fully utilize. As regards the necessity for eating meat, this question was definitely settled by the Inter-allied Scientific Food Commission which met during the war, without doubt the most authoritative body on the subject of food and nutrition that was ever brought together. The question of a minimum meat ration was discussed by the Commission, and it was decided to be unnecessary to fix a minimum meat ration, since, in the words of the commissioners in their report, "no absolute physiological need exists for meat, since the proteins of meat can be replaced by other proteins, such as those contained in milk, cheese and eggs, as well as those of vegetable origin." Quite in line with this official action was an editorial in the _Journal of the American Medical Association_, which states that "man's health and strength are not dependent on the assumed superior virtues of animal flesh as a dietary constituent." A supreme advantage of nuts over meats is that they are absolutely free from any possible taint of disease. Those delectable foods, the walnut, the pecan, the hickory nut and the almond, are never the vehicle for parasites or other infections. Nuts are not subject to tuberculosis or any other disease which may be communicated to human beings. Speaking of his childhood diet, Professor Stephen Mizwa says: "We had chicken, too, but I rarely tasted one unless I was sick and the chicken was sick." The voluntary eating of sick animals may be less common in this country than in Poland, but the eating of the flesh of diseased animals may nevertheless be much more extensive. Within the year 1918 there were slaughtered in the United States a hundred million beeves, sheep, pigs and goats, one whole beast for every man, woman and child in the United States. Of this vast multitude of animals the Federal inspectors examined nearly two-thirds (60,000,000) and found one and a half per cent so badly diseased that the whole or part of the carcass was condemned. In other words, nearly a million (900,000) carcasses were found seriously diseased. But there were 40,000,000 other beasts killed and eaten which were not inspected; and they were without doubt much more badly diseased, a fact which was in many cases, most likely, the reason why no inspection was made. Allowing that three per cent of these were diseased, which is a low estimate, the total number of diseased animals found in the 100,000,000 slaughtered was not less than 2,000,000, or one in fifty of the total number. And most of these were eaten by human beings either wholly or in part. If we should abandon meat eating in favor of nuts we would not have to worry about what our victuals died of. By the substitution of nuts for meats all dangers associated with flesh eating may be avoided; hence their use should be encouraged in every practical way. National and state legislators should make liberal appropriations for the study of the soil and climatic conditions best suited to nut culture, and otherwise encourage this infant but most important industry. * * * * * MR. BRICKER: Have any of you come in contact with a black walnut, seemingly deformed, in which there is only one lobe in the shell? THE PRESIDENT: Dr. Deming, what is your observation of the Stabler with one lobe? DR. DEMING: 50% are one lobe. MR. HERSHEY: Mr. Bixby found, I think, 60%. We don't know why there should be nuts with one lobe. DR. SMITH: In my observation of the Stabler, the percentage of one lobe nuts is very small, not more than 5%. MR. BRICKER: Also there is a large black walnut at Atalissa, with a very thin shell. I have seen some of them, however, that were not very well filled last year. THE PRESIDENT: Is that a little town in Iowa? MR. BRICKER: Yes. Below Iowa City, east of West Liberty. THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Wilkinson has something interesting to tell us about the discovery of a black walnut valued for its lumber. MR. WILKINSON: Possibly Professor Smith knows more about that than I do. The first I knew of it Mr. Lamb wrote that he had found an unusual figured walnut. He had already sent scions to Dr. Morris and Mr. Bixby, and Dr. Morris suggested he send me some. When the log came Mr. Lamb found it unusually highly figured. He traced it to where it was loaded. They went to the fields and chopped into the tops until they found the tree by the figure of the wood. It had been cut two months and the wood was entirely dry. Mr. Bixby sent me two very tiny grafts. The tree sawed out something over 60,000 feet of veneer that sold from 16 to 18 cents per square foot; quite a large tree. It sawed out five logs and the stump sawed out 500 feet. Several thousand dollars for the tree. I saw several pieces of the tree last year. The most beautiful thing I ever saw. Most highly figured log that ever came into the mill at Chicago. DR. ZIMMERMAN: Prof. Lake sent me scions named the Lion. DR. DEMING: The figure is not in the scion wood. DR. ZIMMERMAN: The scion wood I put on was quite curly. DR. SMITH: Does the curly character show in the sap wood or the heart? THE PRESIDENT: You have to go away from home to know what is going on there. It is the first I have known about that very interesting tree. I would like to get some trees of that curly type. Mr. W. K. Kellogg is very much interested in having us propagate that type. DR. ZIMMERMAN: Mr. Link told me Mr. Linton had some. MR. HARRINGTON: It seems to me very strange that the stump didn't sprout. MR. WILKINSON: The stump was used. DR. DEMING: There must have been roots. THE PRESIDENT: Sometimes it is difficult to get them to grow. MR. WEBER: Three miles northwest of Blufftown there is a natural hybrid between the white and chinquapin oaks. There are some samples out on the table. We picked up some of the nuts and found them edible. No trace of any bitterness whatever. You come out of Blufftown on No. 30. About a half mile above the town you turn to the left and go about a mile or more. It is at the intersection of the Erie Quarry road. It has a wire fence around it. DR. SMITH: How do you know it is a hybrid? MR. WEBER: From Richard Leber. It was discovered by a man by the name of Williamson, and he suggested that the state acquire the land in order to preserve the tree. DR. SMITH: It will be another source of carbo-hydrate food. THE PRESIDENT: Dr. Zimmerman is a specialist on chestnut blight, and particularly on inducing immunity. INDUCED IMMUNITY TO CHESTNUT BLIGHT _Dr. G. A. Zimmerman, Piketown, Pa._ Several years ago I started out to get rid of the chestnut blight. On several occasions before this notable body I told of the successes and failures I had encountered, still believing that I was on the right road and insisting that an antigen would be absorbed in sufficient amount to stimulate immunity. Science has since vindicated that assertion and men are now injecting all sorts of chemicals, and even dyes to stain the grain of the wood. I have been very cautious in the past and perhaps should be more so now, in view of the fact that only a comparatively few years have elapsed since I began my work on plants. Still, after having used vaccines on human beings and animals for twenty-one years, and observing that plant life reacts to an antigen in a similar manner, I am at least entitled to the same conclusions. This gives me an opportunity of knowing years in advance just what to expect. While my work is still going on as an experiment I have no hesitancy in saying that I can and have put as much active immunity to the blight into the chestnut in five years as nature has been able to place in perhaps four or five thousand years by her usual method. However it is only fair to state that such results cannot be accomplished by mere oratory. Injections must be made and the antigen must go into the plants, not in single doses, if you please, but by the thousands. In recent years there has been considerable discussion relative to the chestnut coming back. This simply means further delay. The chestnut will come back but not before from 25 to 150 years yet. There are few roots that will stand mutilation for that period, and the few plants that do survive will have taken the shrub form like the chinquapin, and the nuts will likely be as insignificant. I have plants from a tree that holds as much immunity in the natural way as any I know, being rated at 2X, and these plants have inherited an immunity equal to the parent, no more and no less. I have, however, a lot of seedlings from Paragon and Champion trees rated at from 6X to 7X. These seedlings may confidently be expected to perform as their parents and produce many plants of equal resistance. I shall not discuss the antigen or its method of administration. That has been covered rather carefully in former papers. I do want to say a word, however, about root stock. In a blight region it is preferable to have chestnuts on their own roots. The nearest to own-rooted plants is a graft on their own seedlings. The Chinese and Japanese chestnut in my hands has made a very poor root stock for the American chestnut or its hybrids. The European chestnut is only fair, with the chinquapin somewhat better, but having the disadvantage of being troublesome to get from the seed. The American chestnut, or its American hybrids, is by far the best, providing we can get one with immunity. I think the Rochester will shortly fill this need. The chestnut oak has made a rather interesting stock for a few varieties, notably a Chinese and 20 No. 3, a native American chestnut sent to me from Bloomsburg, Pa. I now have a few of these double grafted with other varieties. I might say that I am no longer interested in any chestnut, no matter how resistant it may be, unless the nut is of large size and fine quality, because I can immunize a plant bearing a good size, fine quality chestnut much easier and in a shorter time than one can be developed through hybridization from an inferior nut. I am usually, like most folks, looking for the path of least resistance. My work has been a good deal divided during the past few years because, while I started out with the chestnut alone, now I am carrying a dozen other fruits, nuts and berries. In closing let me state that my principle of induced immunity is sound and the procedure feasible and practical. * * * * * THE PRESIDENT: About the result of grafting the chestnut on a species of oak. How long have these scions been growing? DR. ZIMMERMAN: About three years. MR. HERSHEY: How long? DR. ZIMMERMAN: This is not the oak that I had reference to when you were up there. These are about three years old. I think they grow a little better than on the chestnut. Many of them died. I have another scheme now; that is grafting the scions as high as I can. Get them united and then bend them over and get them to root. Some are doing nicely, others have died. DR. SMITH. I think you complimented us by thinking we could follow you. Do you intend to vaccinate the chestnut and make it immune and then expect it to transmit that immunity in its seed? Have you checked up in the second generation? DR. ZIMMERMAN: I haven't had time yet. DR. SMITH: Thus far you have established immunity in the living tree? DR. ZIMMERMAN: Yes, and I have a bunch of seedlings now from nuts from immunized trees that I planted last spring. I have 200 of those. I expect them to inherit immunization from their parents. DR. SMITH: We vaccinate each generation of youngsters. DR. ZIMMERMAN: I was speaking of the experiments with guinea pigs. DR. SMITH: Isn't smallpox vaccination against your theory? DR. ZIMMERMAN: I don't think so. They are doing it with other things. I found a human being giving the reaction for typhoid for seventeen years after he had been immunized. DR. SMITH: Have you any evidence for or against the decline of immunity in the tree? DR. ZIMMERMAN: I think it will decline. DR. SMITH: Then we have got to keep on immunizing like spraying. I didn't mean necessarily annually. I mean perhaps it is not a permanent achievement. DR. ZIMMERMAN: I imagine that the tree will be sufficiently attacked by blight to keep the immunity up. It is wise to have it attacked once in a while. MR. HERSHEY: Isn't this only carried on until you get natural resistance? DR. ZIMMERMAN: I know that it will be a long time before I can have chestnut trees to produce like Mr. Harrington's. But I am going ahead. I can't wait 17 years. All I need is some time and I will produce chestnuts of the finest varieties, as Mr. Harrington has. DR. SMITH: How long will it take? DR. ZIMMERMAN: They will hold their immunity as well as the Chinese. The ones I have are worth planting right now. I have trees that are standing up better than any Chinese chestnuts are. It takes a long time before the immunizing principle is so disseminated that every part of the tree will have an equal resistance. I can easily see that by cutting off a scion and grafting it I may get hold of one that has not had its immunization distributed as it should be. DR. SMITH: A fairly ignorant man can take machinery and spray an orchard. Can he do the same with immunizing? DR. ZIMMERMAN: No sir, he can not. DR. SMITH: Perhaps I should not have used the word ignorant. A farm hand can spray and make a pretty good crop of apples. DR. ZIMMERMAN: No, he can't do it. It hasn't been easy. I have run into all kinds of obstacles. As soon as I injure the stock a little bit the blight takes it. As soon as I can raise them on their own roots it will be all right. That will come. DR. SMITH: Have you seen chestnut grafts root as the apple does? DR. ZIMMERMAN: Yes, right below the surface. A couple of them were that long. They will send out roots. Then I have noticed on some, that at the place where I grafted the callus got quite large. It got too dry and died off. I have never rooted American chestnut cuttings. I have rooted some Chinese chestnuts. THE PRESIDENT: Some of the Chinese chestnuts root quite readily from those small shoots that come up from the ground. I conducted a little experiment in trying to propagate the Chinese chestnuts by cuttings. I made 144 cuttings. They all dutifully and beautifully died. I don't mean to say that the Chinese chestnut cannot be rooted by cuttings. DR. ZIMMERMAN: I noticed one chestnut that was toppling over and the leaves were withering. The rats had taken it off just below the ground. I couldn't find a root anywhere, but it was callused. I cut it back and planted it again. It must have roots now for it is still green. Otherwise it wouldn't live this long. THE PRESIDENT: Your experiments are of very great interest. If you are successful you will deserve the gratitude of this and future generations. MR. HARRINGTON: Do you remember when we were down at the Riehl nursery that we ran into a chestnut that produces 7 to 9 in a burr? THE PRESIDENT: I remember one tree that had a great many nuts. MR. HARRINGTON: I had one with 7 nuts and they said there were some with 9. Was that the one named Gibbons? DR. COLBY: That has three nuts to the burr. DR. DEMING: Dr. Colby, there have been two instances of blight infection in Illinois. Could you tell us how the eradication was done? DR. COLBY: In each case the tree was burned and the disease entirely eradicated by fire on the spot. THE PRESIDENT: Dr. Colby has a paper from Mr. Littlepage on the plant patent law. "PLANT PATENT ACT" _By Thomas P. Littlepage, District of Columbia Bar, Washington, D. C._ The plant patent act is an effort by Congress, as stated in the Committee reports on this bill, "to afford agriculture, so far as practicable, the same opportunity to participate in the benefits of the patent system as has been given industry, and thus assist in placing agriculture on a basis of economic equality with industry." The act is rather short and is set forth below: [PUBLIC--NO. 245--71ST CONGRESS] [S. 4015] An Act To provide for plant patents. _Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled._ That sections 4884 and 4886 of the Revised Statutes, as amended. (U. S. C., title 35, secs. 40 and 31), are amended to read as follows: "SEC. 4884. Every patent shall contain a short title or description of the invention or discovery, correctly indicating its nature and design, and a grant to the patentee, his heirs or assigns, for the term of seventeen years, of the exclusive right to make, use, and vend the invention or discovery (including in the case of a plant patent the exclusive right to asexually reproduce the plant) throughout the United States and the Territories thereof, referring to the specification for the particulars thereof. A copy of the specification and drawings shall be annexed to the patent and be a part thereof. "SEC. 4886. Any person who has invented or discovered any new and useful art, machine, manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvements thereof, or who has invented or discovered and asexually reproduced any distinct and new variety of plant, other than a tuber-propagated plant, not known or used by others in this country, before his invention or discovery thereof, and not patented or described in any printed publication in this or any foreign country, before his invention or discovery thereof, or more than two years prior to his application, and not in public use or on sale in this country for more than two years prior to his application, unless the same is proved to have been abandoned, may, upon payment of the fees required by law, and other due proceeding had, obtain a patent therefor." SEC. 2, Section 4888 of the Revised Statutes, as amended (U. S. C., title 35, sec. 33), is amended by adding at the end thereof the following sentence: "No plant patent shall be declared invalid on the ground of noncompliance with this section if the description is made as complete as is reasonably possible." SEC. 3. The first sentence of section 4892 of the Revised Statutes, as amended (U. S. C., title 35, sec. 35), is amended to read as follows: "SEC. 4892. The applicant shall make oath that he does verily believe himself to be the original and first inventor or discoverer of the art, machine, manufacture, composition, or improvement, or of the variety of plant, for which he solicits a patent; that he does not know and does not believe that the same was ever before known or used; and shall state of what country he is a citizen." SEC. 4. The President may by Executive order direct the Secretary of Agriculture (1) to furnish the Commissioner of Patents such available information of the Department of Agriculture, or (2) to conduct through the appropriate bureau or division of the department such research upon special problems, or (3) to detail to the Commissioner of Patents such officers and employees of the department, as the commissioner may request for the purposes of carrying this Act into effect. SEC. 5. Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions of this Act, no variety of plant which has been introduced to the public prior to the approval of this Act shall be subject to patent. SEC. 6. If any provision of this Act is declared unconstitutional or the application thereof to any person or circumstance is held invalid, the validity of the remainder of the Act and the application thereof to other persons or circumstances shall not be affected thereby. Approved, May 23, 1930. * * * * * It is admitted by all who understand anything about horticulture that this act is intended to meet a long-felt want. The world owes much to many hard working scientists who have developed many valuable plants, both ornamental and edible, and up to the date of this act such producer had no way of reaping any very material financial benefit from his labors. The man who might invent some new and useful gadget for an automobile or other machinery was protected under the patent law, if he availed himself of it, but the man who developed a beautiful flower, a fine apple or a fine nut was wholly without protection. The term "asexually" as used in the act, is generally understood by horticulturists to mean any method of producing a plant except from seed. It will be observed, in referring again to the act, that the man who discovers some new plant and propagates it by any of the methods covered by the term "asexually" can have such plant patented under the terms of this law, but the patent law is one that is always construed strictly and obviously the application for patent would have to be made in the name of the man who actually discovered the plant. Of course, after securing such patent, he could assign it the same as any other patent is assigned, but the question would constantly arise in this connection as to who actually was the first discoverer. Most of the sporadic fine plants, especially fruit and nut bearing trees, were matters of neighborhood knowledge many years before they actually attracted the attention of some one who recognized their full value and knew how to propagate them, and the question would arise immediately as to who was the real discoverer. Undoubtedly the man who tramped constantly around in the neighborhood of a fine nut or fruit tree and actually saw the tree but did not recognize its value, is like the man the poet describes when he said: "A primrose by the river's brim, A primrose only was to him, And nothing more." This man could not be said to be a discoverer under the terms of this law; but on the other hand the plowman who might be plodding his weary way homeward and see a fruit or nut tree bearing something unusual and who would recognize its unusual and distinct differences would be the real discoverer, but unless he could prove the fact that he had called it to the attention of others in some manner he would have difficulty in complying with the patent law and making a proper showing of originality as required by that law. But he would also, in addition to being the discoverer, have to asexually reproduce it and this he might not be able to do on account of his lack of knowledge of propagating methods. The language of the law presents some very interesting problems to those of us who have tramped the fields and valleys in search of nut trees producing better nuts than those already propagated, and it incidently brings into the patent practice a brand new requirement. The ablest patent lawyer in America might not know the difference between a bud and a graft, a layer or cross-pollination. I have frequently had some very able lawyers who visited my farm and had their attention called to a pecan tree grafted onto a hickory, ask what kind of nuts it would bear. Of course when they ask such questions as that I promptly change the subject and begin to talk about the weather or something else; I certainly do not try to educate them in the fundamentals of tree propagation. It will also require specialists in the patent office who likewise know something of horticulture and reproduction methods of plants. It will also be noted that the law excludes tuber-propagated plants. The Committee report states that: "The bill excepts from the right to a patent the invention or discovery of a distinct and new variety of a tuber-propagated plant. The term "tuber" is used in its narrow horticultural sense as meaning a short, thickened portion of an underground branch. It does not cover, for instance, bulbs, corms, stolons, and rhizomes. Substantially, the only plants covered by the term "tuber-propagated" would be the Irish potato and the Jerusalem artichoke. This exception is made because this group alone, among asexually reproduced plants, is propagated by the same part of the plant that is sold as food." It will be noted that there is quite a spread, however, between the exact language of the law and the Committee report, for example: under the law it would appear that a dahlia might be excluded, and it also raises the question, under the language of the law, as to many of the root plants, such as peonies and others. Obviously, Congress did not intend to exclude plants such as the dahlia, peony and others, as evidenced from the excerpt in the Committee report above quoted, and whether the matter of the production of a new dahlia by cross-pollination and tested out through the growth of the bulbs, can be made to harmonize with the language of the law is the question. The Committee report says that tubers mean only "Irish potatoes and Jerusalem artichokes." It always occurred to me that the sweet-potato is also a tuber, but the Committee report apparently attempts to exclude it. There are any number of interesting questions that occur to those of us who are fortunate enough to have some knowledge of the law as well as a few fundamental principles of horticulture, but in spite of whatever weakness the law may or may not have, it is undoubtedly a step in the right direction, and meets a long-felt want. The Secretary of Agriculture said in his letter to the Committee: "The proposed legislation would appear to be desirable and to lend far-reaching encouragement to agriculture and benefit to the general public." Thomas A. Edison, who is also quoted in the Committee report, said: "Nothing that Congress could do to help farming would be of greater value and permanence than to give to the plant breeder the same status as the mechanical and chemical inventors now have through the patent law. There are but few plant breeders. This (the bill) will, I feel sure, give us many Burbanks." It is certainly to be hoped that many of those interested in northern nut culture, as well as in fruits and ornamentals, will avail themselves of the privileges of this bill to give us something better. We are not satisfied with our varieties today and should not be. The greatest problem in nut culture, as well as fruit and ornamentals, is the question of variety. It will also be the most important question a hundred years from now, but the man who produces these better varieties should do so with the knowledge that under this law the fruits of his labor will be protected and he will at least have the same opportunity to receive remuneration therefrom as the inventor of a gadget. * * * * * DR. COLBY: I have talked with a number of men interested in the law. While they agree that it is a step in the right direction they feel that it will be a rather difficult thing to administer it. Plants differ from other objects or things or "gadgets" and considerable experience will be necessary on the part of the administration before the law will be made workable. * * * * * A banquet was held at the Hotel Montrose on the evening of September 17 at which about forty members and guests were present. The menu follows, and it will be noted that nuts were featured: Canape, Montrose (Dates stuffed with Nuts) Iced Celery Mixed Nuts Queen Olives Soup, Rothschild (Garnished with Chestnuts) Roast Young Capon Stuffed, Hickory Nut Dressing, Jelly Au Gratin Potatoes Puree of Chestnuts, Baked Frozen Fruit & Nut Salad, Cream Nut Dressing Wafers Hot Parkerhouse Rolls Black Walnut Ice Cream Nut Layer Cake Coffee After the banquet the President spoke as follows: Once upon a time I read a poem, which unfortunately I do not have here but in effect it was this: In our progress through life a great deal of injury is wrought by not showing our appreciation of people while they are with us. Let us give them our flowers now. We do want now to say a few things about the founder of our organization. In my history of this association Dr. Deming was the person who first proposed an association of this kind. I believe this was about 21 or 22 years ago, perhaps longer than that. At any rate the association has been going for some time and it was brought into existence through the thought of Dr. Deming. We should be very glad to hear from Dr. Deming. DR. DEMING: Thank you. It is very gratifying indeed but I wish you hadn't. It is very difficult to express gratitude properly. I cannot make a speech like our friend Dr. Smith here, who I hope will make one. I can't tell a good story like our President. In fact, I feel like that man who said, "How happy is the moron, he does not give a damn. I wish I were a moron. My God! perhaps I am." David Fairchild says that it takes the energies, the fortunes and the lives of pioneers, the best people of our country, to build up a new plant industry. I congratulate you all in being included in that class of pioneers, the best people of this country. But we haven't yet built up the great nut industry that we would like to build. I might tell you how the idea of the nut growers association arose. In 1907 I got a little farm of forty acres in Connecticut. In 1908 I read an article by Dr. Morris, "Nut Culture as a Side Line for Physicians." I immediately wrote the doctor and he said in fifteen years I could have an income of $100.00 an acre from nuts alone. That seemed to me exactly what I wanted, $4,000 a year and live very comfortably. So I bought all the nut trees I could find. I bought nut trees from every nursery in this country that offered them in the North. I got pecans from the South. I sent to California and got filberts and English walnuts. I sent to Europe for English walnut seeds. I bought twenty acres of chestnut sprout land and grafted the sprouts. Just as the chestnuts were beginning to bear the blight came along. That ended them. The English walnuts I set around in fence corners and they grew a little smaller every year and, finally disappeared. That was the end of the English walnuts. At that time I couldn't graft hickories. With great labor I collected hickory scions and sent them to nurseries in the South and had them grafted. They arrived in the North after the ground had frozen. I told the hired man to heel them in. He heeled them in but left the top of the roots out. In the spring they were all dead. By that time my dander was up a little. I thought there must be other men who were having the same trouble. If we could have a little organization we could tell each other our troubles and perhaps work them out together. I wrote Dr. Morris, John Craig, Professor Close, Mr. Hales, and one or two others, and we met together in the Botanical Museum in Bronx Park and organized the Northern Nut Growers Association. That is all I had to do with it. Whether we will ever come to the place where they will have bands out and ticker tape flying, when we come to town--that is the thing I used to dream about a little when we first started. But I don't think we are destined to burst wide the gates of fame yet. We may after we have achieved our objects. As Dr. Fairchild has said, all our money, lives and energies must be devoted to them. We then may achieve post-mortem fame. I want to say one thing, however, before I stop. We can't advocate the planting of nut trees if there are no nut trees to be had. Therefore, I think the Northern Nut Growers Association should do all that is possible to encourage the nursery men who are propagating nut trees. We should consider the propagating nursery men as a vital and essential part of the work we are trying to do. THE PRESIDENT: Dr. Deming made some reference to stories. Once in a while a story does flit across my mental horizon. I want to tell you how the word "nut" may have a very humorous interpretation. Once upon a time in Michigan a man died. After he died the local minister went around to console the widow. When he came of course the lady was grieving. This clergyman was a very young man and he attempted to console her thus: "Now, my dear Mrs. Smith; that which you see is just the husk, the nut has gone to heaven." Another time I addressed the Women's Canadian Club. I was invited to address this group on nut culture and the President in introducing me told a story about a minister too. In this case the minister got up in his pulpit and made an announcement: "My dear friends, my sermon is on liars. I am glad to see so many present." This lady said, "Of course, Mr. Neilson cannot say 'I am going to talk today on nuts, I am glad to see so many present'." I would like to give you an outline of the progress made during the past year. In writing this I had to inject into it a great deal of my own activities. I simply couldn't get out of it. I ask you to overlook the frequent references of a personal nature. PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS _Prof. J. A. Neilson, East Lansing, Mich._ This is our twenty-first meeting and the first one to be held in the state of Iowa where tall corn grows, where good nuts thrive and good people live. We are glad to come to the midwest and meet some of its people, and see what our friends the Snyder Brothers and others are doing to extend the culture of nut trees in Iowa and other midwest states. In looking over the records of the past year we find the usual experiences common to the lot of man. We find loss and gain, sorrow and joy. Our sense of loss and sorrow is heightened when we think of the passing of our good friend and efficient secretary Mr. Henry D. Spencer of Decatur, Ill. His sudden death was a shock to us all and we feel that his passing is a distinct loss not only to our association but to his city and state. It is also a loss to us as individuals in the severance of those helpful friendships which do so much to cheer us on our way and make life worth while. In association matters, Mr. Spencer was most active and efficient. He was zealous, original and energetic, and did a lot to create interest in nut culture in his state and other midwest areas. Of him, as of others who have labored faithfully for an ideal and passed to their reward, may it be truly said, "The just die in their turn, but falling as the flowers, they leave on earth their fruit that outlives them." While we have lost a capable secretary and good friend we have been fortunate in securing the services of Dr. A. S. Colby as a successor to Mr. Spencer. The news of Mr. Spencer's passing came just before your president left Lansing to address the Illinois State Horticulture Society on nut culture. In casting about for a new secretary, it occurred to me that Dr. Colby was the logical man for the position. While at Urbana where the Horticultural Society met I broached the matter to Dr. Colby. At first he was unwilling but after some discussion he finally consented to take the position provided the university authorities at Urbana would agree to his taking on new duties. Dr. Blair, head of the Horticultural Department at Urbana, was then approached on the matter and graciously consented to allow Dr. Colby to assume the secretaryship for the balance of the year. Dr. Colby has fulfilled his position in a very capable manner and I am sure the other executives and members are grateful to Dr. Colby and Dr. Blair for their cordial cooperation and help in our time of need. As president I am also deeply grateful to our good and faithful friend Dr. W. C. Deming for taking over the duties of secretary while Dr. Colby was in England attending the World's Horticultural Congress in London, and enjoying a well deserved holiday. I trust Dr. Colby has returned to his duties with renewed zeal and increased knowledge and I hope he will be able to share some of that knowledge with those of us who were not fortunate enough to attend that great congress of horticulturists. At our last meeting our late Secretary, Mr. Spencer, outlined the worthy scheme of staging a nut exhibit at the Chicago Garden and Flower Show, held in the stadium at Chicago. Considerable work was done by Mr. Spencer before he died, and afterward by Dr. Colby when he took over the secretaryship. Your president was able to assist Dr. Colby in various ways, such as staging the exhibit, in helping financially, and in personally attending the exhibit for five days. This exhibit of nuts was made up of entries from Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Ohio, Michigan, Ontario and British Columbia. It attracted a great deal of attention and I am sure was the means of creating interest and disseminating a lot of useful information on nut culture. We were ably assisted in this project by Mr. J. W. Wilkinson of Rockport, Indiana, and Mr. Frank Frey of the Rock Island Railway, Chicago. Both of these gentlemen contributed valuable exhibits and gave generously of their time during the progress of the exhibition. Our past president, Mr. Snyder, also sent very useful exhibits. In the carrying out of his duties as Specialist in Nut Culture for the Michigan State College, your President feels that some progress has been made since April, 1929. During that period arrangements have been definitely made, or are about to be made, by that princely public benefactor, Mr. W. K. Kellogg, which will set aside several hundred acres for nut culture. About thirty acres of this area have already been planted to seedlings and grafted walnuts, chestnuts, hickories, heartnuts, hazels, and filberts. These trees have done as well as could be expected under the hot, dry weather of these past two summers. Arrangements are actively under way for planting 55 acres next spring and a much larger area in the following spring. We expect to assemble a first class collection of the best hardy varieties of native and introduced nut trees and hope as the years roll on that definite progress will be made. In September 1929, a nut contest was drawn up and announced to the public of Michigan and adjoining states. This contest created a great deal of interest and many entries were received. Cash prizes of $50.00 each were offered for walnuts and hickories and awards of merit were given for other species. There were 451 plates composed as follows: black walnuts 313, English walnuts 11, butternuts 7, heartnuts 7, Japanese walnuts 13, hybrid walnuts 4, hickories 85, chestnuts 10, hazels 1. These entries were used in staging what is said to be the largest exhibit of nuts ever displayed in the northern United States. From these numerous entries several selections of value were made. From these selections, six black walnuts, two heartnuts, three hickories and four chestnuts were chosen for propagation. Some of these have been propagated and plans are made to propagate a greater number next year. The writer spent one week in Ontario during March for the purpose of introducing scionwood and trees of promising varieties of English walnuts, heartnuts and hybrid walnuts. Thirty trees of the Carpathian strain of the Persian walnut were introduced and all are now alive on our grounds at Lansing. These Carpathian walnuts have endured several winters at Toronto and Montreal and so far have not shown any winter injury. If further trials show that this strain is hardy it will be a decided improvement over any other Persian strain in the northern states or Canada. Good varieties of heartnuts and filberts were brought in from British Columbia and are now growing nicely at the Kellogg Farm. Grafting demonstrations were given at nine different places throughout the state during the month of May. These demonstrations were attended by fair sized audiences and much interest was shown in the operation. In addition to the address before the Illinois Horticultural Society, your president gave an address on nut culture to the Michigan State Horticultural Society at Grand Rapids in December last, and also had on display a large collection of Michigan nuts. The address on nut culture and the display of nuts created considerable interest. He was also invited to address the Iowa State Horticultural Society on nut culture and the Iowa State Nurserymen's Association on the paraffin treatment of nursery stock, but could not do so because of a previous engagement. Arrangements have been made however to give these addresses at the meeting of the above associations at Shenandoah, Iowa, in November next. The ancient parable of the sower who went forth to sow and who scattered seed on stony ground, by the wayside and on good soil, had a successful manifestation in the president's experience this last year. In March, 1929, I gave an address on nut culture to a small but influential audience in St. Thomas, Ontario. This meeting was due to the enterprise of Dr. C. C. Lumley, the capable secretary of the Chamber of Commerce in St. Thomas and one of our valued members. At this meeting I displayed a collection of Canadian grown nuts and suggested the use of nut trees for roadside and ornamental planting as well as for other purposes. These suggestions fell on rich soil, figuratively speaking, and bore fruit in an astonishing manner. In a short time an Elgin County Nut Tree Growers' Association was organized and a definite plan of operations outlined. One of the projects consisted in planting the Kings Highway, No. 3 in Elgin county, with walnut trees. With the cooperation of horticultural societies, service clubs, schools, etc., over 7000 nut trees were planted in one day last spring, and besides that more than 4000 other nut trees were planted on the home grounds of the people in this county. The encouraging feature of this project was the statement by Dr. Lumley that your president was the inspiration of all this planting. Without a sympathetic and energetic audience I could not possibly have done much by myself, and I am sure Dr. Lumley and his associates deserve great credit for their vision and energy. May their numbers be multiplied and their shadow never grow less. "And some seed fell on rich soil and brought forth a hundred fold." You will very likely be pleased to learn that your president is interested in an advisory capacity in a project having for its object the gift of a good nut tree to every member of the Women's Institute of Ontario. This organization is composed almost entirely of rural women and is one of the most active and helpful societies in the country. The institute gave me hearty support in my efforts to promote the culture of nut trees in Ontario, and on several occasions passed resolutions asking the government to adequately support my work. There are over 40,000 women in this organization and it will take time and money to accomplish the objective, but no worthwhile movement ever progressed without a vision and a plan. In conclusion I would like to read a beautiful little selection entitled "Save the Trees in Portugal." In reading this I am going to ask you to transpose the title to "Save the Trees in the Mid-West," and to think in terms of nut trees. SAVE THE TREES IN PORTUGAL Travellers in Portugal report that in many places where timber trees are to be found, in woods, parks and gardens, one sees the following inscription headed, "To the Wayfarer": "Ye who pass by and would raise your hand against me, hearken ere you harm me. "I am the heat of your hearth on the cold winter night, the friendly shade screening you from the summer sun, and my fruits are refreshing draughts, quenching your thirst as you journey on. "I am the beam that holds your house, the board of your table, the bed on which you lie, and the timber that builds your boat. "I am the handle of your hoe, the door of your homestead, the wood of your cradle, and the shell of your coffin. "I am the bread of kindness and the flower of beauty. "Ye who pass by, listen to my prayer; harm me not." A practical application of this beautiful message would add to the beauty and productive capacity of this country and would give pleasure and profit to its people. Dr. J. Russell Smith was here called upon and gave entertaining and amusing accounts of his early struggles with nut culture and of some of his travels in foreign lands. * * * * * THE PRESIDENT: I would just like to add to what I have said that the Rev. Paul Krath of the United Church of Canada is now about to leave for a five year absence in central Europe. He tells me he would like to sell the balance of those hardy Carpathian walnuts. I have faith in them. I think they are worth the price he asks for them for an experimental purpose alone. DR. SMITH: Do you know where the seed was procured? THE PRESIDENT: On the high slopes of the Carpathian mountains. The winter temperatures go down rather low. In fact lower than in Toronto. MR. HERSHEY: Juglan regia? THE PRESIDENT: Yes. In early September the buds were quite matured, wood was ripened up and favorable for enduring the winter temperatures of Toronto. I have an impression that it gets 15 to 18 below zero. The trees have come through the winter at Montreal where they have even lower temperatures. MEMBER: How would we get them in? Get a permit from Washington? THE PRESIDENT: It can be done. DR. SMITH: An application for the lot can be made. The President then asked for the report of the Secretary. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY The year 1929-30 has been one of growing interest on the part of the public, laying the foundation for a more rapidly increasing membership and wider influence on the part of the association. Following the untimely death of Secretary H. D. Spencer, of Decatur, Illinois, we were asked by your president, Professor Neilson, to carry on the work of the office for the remainder of the year, in view of our previous experience. This we were glad to do because of our interest in the work. The great loss of the association in the death of Mr. Spencer should be here recorded. Mr. Spencer was keenly interested in nut growing in the North. He believed in its future and because of his retirement from active professional work could give his attention to the many details connected with the development of our program. His loss is keenly felt among the membership. Your secretary has attempted to make the public, only more or less awake to the possibilities of our work so far, more nut culture minded. The burden of correspondence has become increasingly heavy. Hundreds of inquiries have been received, many from those mildly curious, but a large share from people anxious to learn of the possibilities of northern nut culture both for pleasure and profit. We have noted an increasing interest among those able to take up our new enterprise and have done what we could to make it an intelligent interest through radio, newspaper, and magazine publicity, speaking engagements at horticultural society and farmers' institute meetings and classroom instruction. The enthusiastic support of officials of these and similar organizations should be noted here. Space has been freely offered for use in fruit growing magazines and state horticultural society publications to supplement the columns of our official organ to spread the information regarding our activities, thus reaching a wider circle of potential members. We are glad to report some membership gains the past season. In these activities we are handicapped by lack of funds. We have been particularly fortunate these past few months in having the co-operation of the University of Illinois in that your secretary has been able to handle hundreds of letters through the Department of Horticulture channels free of cost to the association except for the stationery and postage. One outstanding event of the season in the line of publicity sponsored by the association was the exhibit at the Central States Garden and Flower Show held in the Chicago Stadium April 5-13, 1930. Preliminary arrangements had been made by Mr. Spencer with the manager, Mr. John Servas, insuring us free space. Mr. Servas cooperated with us to the fullest extent and the appreciation of the association was expressed to him by your secretary at the close of the show. We spent considerable time both in the preliminary arrangements and on the ground, being in attendance throughout the week except when President Neilson, Mr. Wilkinson, and Mr. Frey were in charge. To these gentlemen, as well as to Dr. Robert T. Morris, Dr. J. R. Smith, and Mr. S. W. Snyder, who with President Neilson contributed the $30.00 necessary for rental of the glass show case, and to many of our members in the Middle West who sent samples of nuts, we owe a debt of gratitude. Our exhibit also included books and magazines on nut culture, nut-cracking machinery, grafting tools and waxes, and other material of interest to the prospective grower, all contributed by members or others interested in our work. The exhibit attracted much interest as a part of the magnificent show. We were busy from morning until night answering questions, most of them intelligent, and made many friends among a group of people whose intelligence level is high. Two hundred people asked for further information relative to some particular subject and a mimeographed sheet was prepared in the secretary's office after our return which went out to them. We have had the cooperation of the Illinois State Department of Agriculture more than ever this past year, as evidenced by their support of our exhibit at Chicago, through providing funds for the preparation of a case of nut varieties suitable for planting in Illinois and, secondly, through the cooperation of the State Forestry Department. An immense tract of land has been acquired for reforestation in southern Illinois and money was available this past spring for the purchase of nut trees for planting there. Your secretary has been working with R. B. Miller, of the state department, in the selection and planting of the better named varieties of nuts. Additional plantings will be made there and it is believed that a fine beginning has been made toward the establishment of a nut arboretum in that section. There are many new things of interest developing in our field and those relating to it which need further study as a means of developing our usefulness. The plant patent law, new methods of propagation, the variety question, the disease factor, new methods of harvesting, grading and marketing, to mention a few problems, are bringing about a new era in northern nut growing and need our combined efforts in their solution. We believe that the time is fast approaching for the appointment of a paid secretary who can devote more time to the development of our work. We will leave to you the working out of the details. Dr. Colby supplemented his report with a talk about his trip to Europe during the summer where he went primarily to attend the World Horticultural conference in London. After some further informal discussion the meeting adjourned. FIELD TRIPS The second day, September 18, 1930, was given over to a visit to the Snyder Fruit and Nut Orchards at Center Point in the morning, where the group inspected the varieties being grown with great interest, an excellent lunch at noon under the trees, prepared and served by the Snyder brothers and Miss Snyder, their sister, and an afternoon spent in the Snyder nursery where the various nut trees which can be grown in Iowa were observed. BUSINESS SESSION AT SNYDER FARM Meeting called to order by President Neilson. A vote of thanks was extended to Miss Snyder and the Snyder brothers for their hospitality. S. W. Snyder responded briefly. The meeting place for next year was then discussed. Invitations were extended from Rochester, New York, Downingtown, Pennsylvania, Geneva, New York, and other places. It was finally voted to meet in Geneva, New York, in September 1931 during the week of the annual meeting of the New York Fruit Testing Association. The selection of the date was left in the hands of the executive committee. The report of the nominating committee was then called for. The association re-elected Professor J. A. Neilson as president, C. F. Walker as vice-president, and Karl Green as treasurer for the ensuing year. Professor A. S. Colby was unable to continue as secretary and that office was held open. The president and board of directors were instructed to appoint a new secretary.[A] The financial status of the association was next discussed at length. It was voted that a letter be prepared and sent to the membership asking for contributions. The report of the nut survey was then briefly presented by C. F. Walker, chairman of the committee, as a progress report. He stated that 1600 nut trees of various varieties had been recorded and data concerning tree performance and adaptation were being collected. Frank H. Frey reported that he did not feel it advisable at this time to affiliate with the American Fruit & Vegetable Shippers' Association because of the expense to be incurred. The secretary extended greetings of Mr. Ellis of Vermont whom he met at the meetings of the International Horticultural Congress in England last summer, and of Mr. Howard Spence of England to the association. It was a pleasure to report that Mr. Spence had been instrumental in having experimental work with nuts initiated in England. The third day was devoted to a tour of the country round about Burlington where Mr. Snyder and Mr. John Witte showed us many of the most valuable parent trees found in that section. Some of these trees included the Witte and Elmer pecans, the two varieties recommended by Mr. Snyder for planting in that section; the Hill and Iowa shellbark hickories, the two best so far found in Iowa; the Burlington, Tama Queen, and Eureka hickories, the Oberman and Campbell pecans, and the Swartz black walnut. [Footnote A: NOTE: Mr. W. G. Bixby was appointed and accepted the office.] TREASURER'S REPORT RECEIPTS Balance, Sept. 1st, 1929: In bank in Washington, D. C. $194.41 Litchfield Savings Society 15.94 _______ $ 210.35 84 paid in advance memberships @ $3.50 294.00 9 back memberships @ $3.00 27.00 Sub. to American Nut Journal 100.50 Contributions and sale of Annual Reports 70.92 Loan, Merchants Bank and Trust Co., Washington, D. C. 325.00 _________ Total to be accounted for $1,027.77 DISBURSEMENTS American Nut Journal, subscriptions $ 101.75 Hotel Pennsylvania, N. Y., rent for projector 30.00 Reporting New York meeting 122.18 Mimeographing 11.45 Stenographer, Secretary's office 42.85 Printing, Secretary's office 51.38 Expenses, Secretary's office 24.78 Printing, Treasurer's office, two years 98.00 Printing Annual Report 428.88 H. D. Spencer, expenses to New York meeting 122.48 Stamps 3.00 Expressage 3.75 Exchange, Canadian check .15 Curtailment on loan 50.00 Interest on loan 10.40 _________ Total expenses $1,101.05 Deficit 73.28 Balance due on loan 275.00 NOTE--Although the expenses exceeded the receipts, no actual overdraft occurred because certain bills were not paid until funds from the next year came in. However, both overdraft and loan have been taken care of through contributions made during November and December, 1930. Respectfully submitted, KARL W. GREENE, Treasurer. HARVESTING AND MARKETING THE NATIVE NUT CROPS OF THE NORTH _By C. A. Reed, Associate Pomologist, U. S. Department of Agriculture_ The native nut crops in the northern portion of the country, east of the Rocky Mountains, offer a possible source of considerable income, if gathered while in prime condition and properly prepared for market. Thousands of bushels of highly edible nuts annually go to waste in that portion of the country covered by the great Mississippi Valley, the Appalachian region and the Middle Atlantic seaboard. These are chiefly black walnuts, hickory nuts, and butternuts, although it is probable that several hundred tons of beechnuts which annually go ungathered should be included. These last are too small for human consumption in this country, under the existing relations between human labor and the quality of available food. Nevertheless, there are ways by which they can be put to profitable use. The kernels of black walnuts and butternuts are in great demand. The potential supply of the former is usually abundant but the small number of butternut trees in the country automatically makes the possible supply of nuts of that kind very limited. The kernels of both these, walnuts and butternuts, and also of the best northern hickories, particularly the shagbarks and shellbarks, are highly palatable and nutritious. In these respects they compare favorably with any other kinds of nuts on the market. These northern species are singularly free from an impregnation of tannin in the pellicles which leaves a bitter after taste so familiar with certain of their chief competitors in the nut market. Black walnut kernels in particular appear to be firmly entrenched in the markets of this country. They are in keen demand with many classes of manufacturers. This demand is on the increase with no apparent possibility of foreign competition, as the eastern black walnut, _Juglans nigra_, the finest of the American blacks, is grown nowhere outside of the United States except in certain districts of a narrow adjoining fringe of neighboring Canada. The present year may be one of the best likely to occur soon in which to harvest and prepare these nuts for the market or home consumption on the farm. The drought has undoubtedly reduced the crop as a whole, although at this writing the yield appears considerably greater than that of 1929. At harvest time it will probably be found that many of the nuts are below normal size and that the kernels are imperfectly developed. The quantity of the finished product which it would be possible to place on the market would therefore appear likely to be small. On its face, with a light crop of poor grade in prospect, it may be difficult to understand why this should be a propitious year to inaugurate a systematic harvesting and marketing campaign. However, in explanation of this, _first_, there are no carry-overs from last year. So short was the crop of 1929 that manufacturers found the supply exhausted before the end of last January. Many sent out urgent appeals hoping to find some source of supply. They offered the inviting price of 65 cents a pound for good grade kernels, f. o. b. the farmers' shipping point. Yet it was all in vain as the kernels were not forthcoming. _Second_, as a result of the recent extreme drought and the consequent shortage of some of the more staple crops, there will likely be considerable slack time on many farms. Where this is the case and there are nut crops in the field it will likely be found in many cases that they may be gathered and sold to good financial advantage, assuming that right methods are employed in harvesting and preparing for market. _Third_, where there are nuts in quantity too limited to justify gathering and preparing for market, they should still be gathered and as carefully prepared as though for the market and used on the home table. They will be found to be most excellent and pleasing food. To obtain the highest prices for black walnuts or butternuts, certain fundamentals should be kept in mind. 1. They should be sold only in the shelled condition. 2. The kernels must be delivered early. 3. They should present an attractive appearance. 4. They should be in thoroughly sanitary condition. The explanation as to why they should be sold in the shelled condition is simple. The weight of shell is too great to justify shipment in that condition. In the shell, walnuts and butternuts seldom bring more than $1.50 or $2.00 per bushel and the demand is exceedingly limited, especially after the earliest part of the season. Again, the shells are of no value except for fuel. Fuel of this kind by freight or express is exceedingly costly. Again, the nuts must be cracked somewhere and the kernels removed before they can be used, and farm labor is much cheaper than that of the city. Regardless of where the labor is from, the cost of cracking the nuts and picking out the kernels, or "shelling" as the operation is called in the trade, is charged back to the farmer. The shelling of these nuts is something in which the whole family on the farm can join. Delivery should be early as it is then that prices are best. The use of shelled nuts is practically an all-year affair, yet, just as soon as the supply begins to bulk up in the hands of the wholesalers, prices promptly go lower. The condition in which black walnut kernels reach the market is ordinarily very poor. Little attention appears to be paid to the matter of sanitation, and practically no thought is given to their appearance. As a rule, shipment is made in burlap bags of double thickness. Little thought is ever paid to separating the kernels according to shade of color and it is rare that the kernels are properly cured after being removed from the shells. Oil and moisture given off by the kernels are taken up by the burlap bags, and by the time delivery is made to the wholesaler, the kernels are in no sense attractive and are often unsanitary. Fortunately, the kernels are carefully gone over by employees of the wholesaler by whom all spoiled pieces are removed and, in the process of manufacture, the kernels are usually so heated as to dispel any danger from ill effects due to the unsanitary condition. The successive steps essential to harvesting and preparing for market may be grouped as follows: 1. Harvest the nuts as soon as mature. 2. Remove the hulls promptly. 3. Cure the nuts somewhat. 4. Crack the shells and remove the kernels very soon. 5. In cracking, the kernels should be separated into five grades--Lights, darks, intermediates as to color, small pieces and crumbs. 6. Before packing for shipment the kernels must be artificially cured until they no longer feel moist to the hand when it is run through the container. 7. Barrels or boxes of wood, or strawboard lined with water-proof paper, should be used in packing for shipment. These should not be closed until immediately before shipment. 8. As soon as received by the buyer the containers should be opened and the kernels spread out in clean bins where they may receive frequent inspection. _Harvesting_ The nuts should be picked from the ground within three or four days from the time they fall. If possible the limbs should be jarred so as to shake the nuts from the tree. Good nuts will usually be found to mature within a very few days and may readily be shaken down. At this time the hulls will be perfectly sound and not objectionable, in so far as staining the hands is concerned. But if the hulls be broken open the juice which they emit will leave a lasting stain on the hands or garments. But the hulls need not be broken to any great extent. _Hulling_ The ordinary corn sheller on the farm is undoubtedly the most practicable instrument for removing the hulls, generally available at this time. If the hulls are still green enough to be firm, the nuts may be placed in the machine by hand. Otherwise, some arrangement may be worked out by which the nuts may automatically be fed into the machine. After hulling by this method the nuts should be put into a tub or tank of water and thoroughly washed with a broom or stiff brush. When the nuts are hulled promptly and well washed it will be discovered that the natural color of walnuts is light or whitish and not black. The dark color is wholly due to stain from the green hulls. This stain, by the way, loses its effectiveness as soon as the hulls turn dark. Stains from nut hulls which have lost all trace of green color, so that the hulls are black, are readily washed from the hands. After the nuts have come from the sheller they may be handled by shovels or by forks with tines close together. They should then be cured for a few days. For this purpose they should never be placed in piles or deep layers. Preferably they should be spread out in trays with bottoms of wire mesh or narrow cleats so as to be open. These should be put where there will be a free circulation of air all about. Where trays are not available the nuts may be spread on a barn floor and the doors left open during the day. If the weather is bright they may be spread on boards laid on the ground directly in the sun, although it is probable that they should be given partial shade during extremely hot days. Various methods of hulling other than by the corn sheller are in use. Some involve merely stepping on the nuts with a forward movement of the foot, just as the hulls are softening. This is not particularly satisfactory as the nuts must still be picked out of the mashed hulls by hand. Besides leaving a very persistent stain on the hands this method is unsatisfactory for two reasons; it is not at all rapid and very far from perfect in the degree to which it removes the hulls. Other methods involve the use of automobile wheels. Sometimes machines are driven over the nuts as they are thinly spread on the ground. Again a wheel is jacked up and set in motion in a tub of water in which the nuts have been placed. Both methods have their advocates. The writer has had experience with the former only, yet he can conceive of little to commend either method. Still another method is that of pounding off the hulls by hand. Of all common methods this has the fewest conceivable advantages. It is slow, thoroughly inefficient, and extremely objectionable from the standpoint of the stain. What is perhaps far the most satisfactory method of any yet used for removing the hulls, from every standpoint except that of expense, is one evolved by the Department of Agriculture in 1926. It consists merely of running the nuts through large-sized vegetable paring machines. These machines consist of metal containers, circular in form and having a capacity of approximately 1-1/2 bushels. The inner walls are lined with hard abrasive surfaces. A bushel of nuts is placed inside, the lid closed, a stream of water turned into the container, and the machine set in operation. By means of gears attached to the bottom of the container which is separate from the walls, plated and perforated, the bottom spins around several hundred times per minute. The nuts are made to beat violently against the rough walls with the result that, in from 2-1/2 to 5 minutes, depending upon the firmness of the hulls, the nuts are ready to be taken out. They are then perfectly hulled, thoroughly washed and light or whitish in color. With a few days of drying, the nuts should be ready for cracking. _Cracking_ As soon as fit for cracking, and before becoming so dry that the kernels break badly, the nuts should be shelled. The hammer and a solid block of wood, or a piece of metal with a shallow cupped depression in which to place the nuts while held for hitting, is the most common outfit in use. Various handpower machines are appearing on the market, and already designers are at work attempting to devise power machines. The former have been in use for several years. The latter are mostly quite new and untried. About all that can be said regarding such machines is that they are much needed and that it is not improbable that there will soon be several makes of efficient machines in the field. _Grading the Kernels_ As soon as the shells have been cracked, the kernels should be extracted. All large pieces, including chiefly quarters and whatever halves there are, should be separated into three shades: lights, darks and intermediates, as previously mentioned. All sound, small pieces, regardless of shade, should be put into a fourth grade and all unsound kernels and particles too small to separate from minute particles of shell, should be put into a fifth grade and fed to poultry in moderate quantity at one time. Unless given artificial heat before packing for shipment, the kernels are fairly certain to become moldy and even to cake together in a solid mass while in transit. To do this they should be placed in trays or pans and put above or back of a kitchen stove where they will not get hot enough to be injured. The hand should be run through the kernels not infrequently so as to detect any excessive heat and also to determine by experience the proper degree of dryness. After being kept warm and being frequently stirred until the kernels seem properly dry they may be removed and allowed to become cool. They should then be re-examined with the hand so as to determine the apparent dryness. If they feel at all moist, they should be returned to the drying position and the operation repeated. The writer has had no personal experience in this matter and so cannot give precise directions. However, the farm wife can probably work out a very satisfactory system in her kitchen. _Packing and Shipping_ Although previously discussed, the importance of clean, sanitary and attractive containers for shipment can scarcely be overstressed. Without such precaution no one need hope to work up a permanent business, for, regardless of how secure he may feel with the trade he will eventually find his customers turning to others who are willing to go to this trouble. When the time comes for shipping the boxes may be closed up and delivered promptly to the transporting agency. The containers should again be opened as soon as the destination is reached and an examination made as to the moisture condition of the kernels. _Handling Other Nuts_ So far as harvesting and hulling hickory nuts is concerned, the matter is not at all complicated. Good nuts drop with the first sharp frost. Those with good kernels inside become automatically separated from the hulls. Those which do not easily become separated from the hulls should be discarded as they are rarely of any value and should not become mixed with the good nuts. With a moderate amount of curing these nuts should be ready for market. They usually bring better prices in the shell than do walnuts; but on the other hand they are in less demand after being shelled. Perhaps this is because the trade has not been built up but it is a recognized fact that black walnut kernels are practically in a class by themselves among the nuts of the world, in the extent to which they retain an agreeable flavor in cooking. Hickory nut kernels should be given a much greater place than they now occupy in the cooking and baking for the farm table. A few finely chopped kernels mixed with breads, cakes, or cereals will be found highly acceptable to most palates. Butternuts are generally too scarce to justify much attention. They could probably be hulled by vegetable paring machines quite as efficiently as are walnuts but, so far as known to the writer, this has not been tried. Beechnuts make excellent food for poultry and certain kinds of livestock. To convert the crop into cash is largely a matter of using the land under the trees for the right sort of grazing. In European countries beechnuts are highly valued as a source of salad oil. Mr. Bixby of this association is taking steps to procure trees bearing as large sized nuts as possible with a view to subsequent breeding. So far as known to the writer beechnuts in this country are not gathered in quantity. BEECHNUTS _By Willard G. Bixby, Baldwin, N. Y._ Although the association has now been in existence 20 years there has so far been little progress, we might almost say no progress, made in getting an improved beechnut. All have agreed that the flavor of the beechnut was excellent, that it had a shell so thin that it could be opened with a pocket knife, that it was an oily nut and would keep, like the thin shelled hickories, walnuts, etc., and not a starchy one, which would dry out like chestnuts and acorns, that it would grow and bear well in northern sections where the best nuts we have do not grow well, but also that it was so small as to practically nullify the above mentioned excellent qualities. If we ever get a beechnut the size of a chestnut we shall have a most needed addition to our nut bearing trees, but there has been so little hope of finding such that no one has paid much attention to the beech. As a matter of fact not within the last ten years have there been any prizes offered for beechnuts except those provided by the writer at his own expense, neither have there been at any time during the writer's recollection any varieties suggested excepting one or two by Omer R. Abraham, Martinsville, Ind., which nobody has growing, so far as known to the writer. It was thought that there might be a large fruited species of beech growing in some part of the world as is the case with the chestnut, walnut, hickory and hazel, and that it would only be necessary to import it to get what was needed, or at least to make a good start in getting what was needed. Rehder in his wonderfully helpful "Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs" gives seven species of beech, one in America, Fagus grandiflora, one in Europe, F. sylvatica, two in Japan, F. sieboldii and F. japonica, two in China, F. longipetiolata and F. engleriana and one in Asia Minor, F. orientalis. These are growing in the Arnold Arboretum and leaves, buds and fruits are to be seen in the herbarium there. A day spent there, however, half in the arboretum and half in the herbarium, convinced the writer that there is at present no large fruited species of beech known to botanists. There is an incompletely known species of Chinese beech, F. lucida, whose fruit is not in the Arnold Arboretum. While it is of course possible that there may yet be a large fruited species somewhere in the world, still the relatively slight differences in the leaf, bud and fruit of the seven species already known makes this seem improbable and leads us to conclude that the genus "Fagus" is the most uniform in the species that make it up of any genus of nut bearing trees. This seemingly reduces us to the necessity of seeking variation in species already known. Fagus sylvatica has been by all odds longest in cultivation and many varieties are known. Rehder lists 17 principal varieties with many other sub varieties. These have leaves varying in color, purple, copper color, pinkish, yellow and whitish spotted with green, beside the usual green, also in shapes of leaves, some very narrow almost linear, some very small and deeply toothed, others large and roundish up to 3 in. broad and 5 in. long. The varieties vary in bark from the smooth bark typical of the beech to bark like that of the oak. They also vary in habit of growth, being mostly erect but some pendulous and some dwarf with twisted contorted branches. But no one seems to have ever heard of a large fruited beech. It is inconceivable however, that a tree can vary in every particular except in the fruit and it is believed that it only requires sufficient searching to find large fruited varieties. There are difficulties, however, in the way of finding unusual beeches which do not occur with walnuts, chestnuts and hickories, which are trees where the nuts have such merit that they are usually spared even if in the middle of a cultivated field, while the beech is usually a forest tree. A nut contest brings hundreds and thousands of walnuts and hickories but only very few beechnuts. Correspondence with the forestry departments of every state having such departments generally evinced interest in the search for a large fruited beech, but those replying universally disclaimed any knowledge of such. While it is believed that there are such in America, perhaps as many or more than in Europe, and efforts should be made here to find such, there are many reasons for believing that a search in Europe will be more immediately productive of results than will the search here. The beech is much more esteemed in Europe than here and has been extensively planted in forests that for centuries have been operated for constant production of timber. It is believed that the contents of those forests are as a class better known to their keepers, at least the beeches there are better known than in the forests in the United States. The number of propagated ornamental varieties noted in the second paragraph gives evidence of this. The history of one or two of these varieties will make this clearer. Three beeches with red or copper colored leaves as far back as 1680 were recorded as growing in a wood near Zurich, Switzerland. Most of the purple beeches now growing are believed to have been derived from a single tree discovered in the last century in a forest in Thuringia in Germany. There may be or may have been many such in America but they would not have appeared valuable to the woodmen who probably would be the only ones who would see them and then the leaves would not have been visible in the winter when trees are most frequently cut. That the Deming purple black walnut is in existence is due solely to the observation and action of Dr. Deming who gathered scions and got them growing before the original tree had been cut for the purpose of getting space for improving a road. That this tree could be seen from the road was how it came to the attention of Dr. Deming. Had it been in the midst of a large forest it might have been cut in winter for timber without the cutter knowing it was unusual. That we have such a wealth of varieties of the beech valuable as ornamental trees and none valuable for the large nuts they bear, certainly suggests that the tree varies in every way except in the size of the nuts it bears, but this is not believed to be so. The growing of ornamental trees is an old industry. There are hundreds of nurserymen today growing ornamentals and only few in comparison growing nut trees. It is not so many years ago that there were none growing nut trees. A beech with purple leaves appeared valuable 100 years ago and was disseminated by nurserymen while one with nuts 10 times normal size would probably not have been propagated for there would not have been sale for it. It would have only been known locally as unusual and probably the tree would have been cut for timber when it reached the proper size. The search for a large fruited beech is not going to be easy but it is believed that persistent work will eventually triumph, much as the 1929 contest brought more shellbark hickories of value to the attention of the association than all previous contests put together. The shellbark is a tree the best varieties of which it is difficult to learn about. Unlike the shagbark hickory it is not generally found growing near buildings or in fields or pastures. Its natural habitat is the bottom lands of the Mississippi River and its tributaries, lands that are overflowed part of the year. There will have to be a campaign, perhaps for several years, till people begin to look for large fruited beeches; then will come a harvest of them. The relatively few beeches that have come in to the contests suggests that methods used heretofore should be somewhat modified in beechnut search. Probably a campaign of education among foresters might be more productive of results than among farmers, at least it should supplement it. The search for improved beechnuts evidently has more different kinds of difficulties than the search for any other nut and considerable thought on the matter leads me to suggest that a committee be appointed to study the nut and to seek large fruited specimens especially to look into methods for getting them and report to the association a year hence, said committee to finance itself. This suggestion is made because it is believed that efforts made in Europe to find a large fruited beech will be more immediately productive of results than in America for the reasons noted above. Even if the committee consists of but one man correspondence abroad would be better carried on in the name of a committee of the association than in the name of an individual and it is believed would be more productive of results. THE 1929 CONTEST _By Willard G. Bixby, Baldwin, New York_ This has at last been finished. It is a memorable achievement in many ways. It has taken much longer to award the prizes than at any previous contest, which is a matter of deep regret to me. But, if we except the shagbark hickories and the beechnuts, the value of the nuts is so far ahead of those received in any other contest as to make the results of all previous contests commonplace in comparison. The highest award for black walnuts in the 1926 contest was for the Stambaugh 63 points, which recalculated using the present constants would be 62 points, while all the 10 prize winners in the 1929 contest were awarded more points than 62, the nut taking the tenth prize being awarded two points more or 64 and the nut taking first prize being awarded 19 points more or 81, the difference being largely in generally superior cracking quality of the 1929 nuts. The highest awards for butternuts, in print and readily referred to, are in the 1919 report where the butternut taking first prize was awarded 67 points, which after recalculation with present constants would be 65 points, and there were nine prizes awarded this year where the score was higher than 65. The shagbark hickories were disappointing, none equalling several of the best ones reported in the 1919 contest. This is laid to the general poor quality of the shagbark hickory nuts in 1929. One observing contestant sent in nuts from the 1928 crop, as well as nuts of the 1929 crop, to show us how much better they were normally than were those of the 1929 crop, and as a matter of fact the 1928 nuts sent in by him tested out several points higher than those of the 1929 crop. On the other hand, other hickories, Carya laciniosa and Carya ovalis, which never before were awarded prizes in a nut contest, this year came up into the winning class and we had some large laciniosas of real merit this year, a matter which is likely to be of great importance, as it is noted in considerable detail later on. The chestnuts were few in number, yet some very good nuts were received, and as most were from trees which had been growing in sections where the blight has been present for many years, it is believed that they will be of value in getting a blight resistant chestnut of horticultural merit. This work now is really under way. The beechnuts received were but 4 in number and were pretty good although too small to be of horticultural value. Considerable is noted later on the likelihood of getting larger beechnuts and a way is suggested to get them. Under the headings black walnuts, hickories, chestnuts, butternuts and beechnuts will be found an abstract of the awards of prizes awarded each. It is believed that this will be all that there will be time to present to the convention. The results of each test in detail will be typed out for printing in the report for it is believed these are of permanent value. Results of tests on many of the well known nut varieties will also be given. Some of these appeared in the 1919 report but owing to the change in the constants necessitated by the discovery of new and better nuts these figures are somewhat out of date. Some of these also appeared in the 1927 report but there are serious typographical errors there and it is believed that it will be of value to have results of the tests on nuts of the 1929 contest appear in the 1930 report, in connection with tests on well known varieties. The prizes to be awarded are as follows: Black Walnuts--10 Prizes--Amount $100.00 Hickories--25 Prizes--Amount $120.00 Butternuts--12 Prizes--Amount $106.00 Chestnuts--11 Prizes--Amount $103.00 Beechnuts--4 Prizes--Amount $ 21.00 ________ Total $451.00 That there are more than ten prizes, when there were prizes offered but for ten, is due to our custom, when two or more nuts receive the same score and win a prize, to provide an additional prize of equal amount for each one. There have yet to be awarded prizes for those chestnuts of the 1929 contest which show high resistance after being inoculated with blight spores. This cannot be done for two years at least for scions must be gotten growing and have reached a diameter of 3/8" to 1/2" before this can be properly done. The writer intended, when the contest reached the stage just now reached to endeavor to get a meeting of those members best qualified to pass on characteristic "quality and flavor of kernel" of those nuts put down by him as prize winners. This is the only characteristic where personal opinion has not been replaced by the precise methods, but time did not permit. The delay in completing the 1929 contest has been very unsatisfactory. It has been caused by a combination of circumstances which it is not believed will occur again. Instead of a contest limited to one nut, as the 1926 contest was, we had here, as well, butternuts and hickories in large numbers, the hickories in particular being more numerous than the black walnuts, and the nuts came in very late, all of which largely increased the nuts to be gone over and delayed Dr. Deming in the preliminary examination. The nuts did not reach me till the last of April, a time when spring work outside was pressing. It takes a person of some experience before even the weighing methods in force for measuring quantitatively nut characteristics can be properly done and while some work was done on the contest practically every day from April 24th on, only about an hour a day could be put on it, and it went so slowly that after about a month, I set about hiring someone who should devote his or her time to it. It took about six weeks before someone was obtained and properly trained, which brought us into July, since which time the work went on well but the number of nuts was large and I had to personally pass on the final award, which must be carefully done and necessarily a good deal of time was taken, far more than anticipated. The experience of this year's contest has shown me how to better handle another if it falls to my lot to do so. I would get Dr. Deming to send in the nuts, which after the preliminary examination, he thought worthy of carefully testing, instead of waiting till the preliminary examination of all received had been completed. This would get them here in the winter when work is light for the man I have here, who is thoroughly trained for making these tests. Those rejected at first by Dr. Deming he could go over again later, as is his custom, and possibly pick out some good ones which did not show up well when first received. BLACK WALNUTS The black walnuts sent into the 1926 contest were the best that had been seen up to that time, yet those received in the 1929 contest are so far ahead of those as to make us wonder if we shall again find a contest where the black walnuts received equal those received in 1929. Most remarkable was the case of Mrs. E. W. Freel of Pleasantville, Iowa, who sent in black walnuts from four different trees, each one of which took a prize, No. 1 the first, No. 2 the second, No. 3 the eighth, and No. 4 the tenth, the first time in the history of the nut contests that anything approaching this record has occurred. This is also the first contest where a nut of any other black walnut species than Juglans nigra has come anywhere near the prize winners. The score card used in the 1929 contest was the same as that used in the 1926 contest but with the constants recalculated as required because of nuts received in the meantime which made this necessary. The prizes awarded are noted below: Name and Address Species Score Prize Amount Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia., Nut. No. 1 nigra 81 1 $ 50.00 Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia., Nut No. 2 nigra 74 2 15.00 Mrs. J. A. Stillman, Mackeys, N. C. nigra 73 3 10.00 Annie M. Wetzel, New Berlin, Pa. nigra 72 4 5.00 John Rohwer, Grundy Center, Ia., The Iowa nigra 71 5 5.00 Mrs. Irwin Haag, New Castle, Ind. nigra 70 6 3.00 Dane Learn, % Harley Learn, Aylmer, Ont., R. R. No. 6 nigra 69 7 3.00 Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia., Nut No. 3 nigra 68 8 3.00 A. F. Weltner, Point Marion, Pa., R. F. D. 1 nigra 67 9 3.00 Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia., Nut No. 4 nigra 64 10 3.00 _______ $100.00 There are some 32 other black walnuts worthy of honorable mention which were awarded from 55 points to 63 and which it is believed are worthy of experimental propagation. One of these is from A. E. Grobe, Chico, Cal., species, hindsii, total award 61 points, which is the only California black walnut of value sent in to the contests up to this time. Nut notable for size were received from: Mrs. R. F. Frye, Carthage, N. C., R. No. 1, Box 22, Wt, 38.0g, nigra, score 57. C. T. Baker, Grandview, Ind., Wt. 31.8g, nigra, score 57. A. P. Stockman, Lecompte, La., Wt. 36.7g, nigra, score 56. Nuts notable for cracking quality were received from: Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia., CQC 100%, CQA 67.3%, total 38 points, nigra, 81 points total. Mrs. J. A. Stillman, Mackeys, N. C., CQC 100%, CQA 65.3%, total 38 points, nigra, 81 points total. J. U. Gellatly, Gellatly, B. C., Cold Stream No. 14, CQC 100%, CQA 40.0%, total 33 points, nigra, 55 points total. Annie W. Wetzel, New Berlin, Pa., CQC 100%, CQA 37.8%, total 32 points, nigra, 72 points total. A. F. Weltner, Point Marion, Pa., R. F. No. 1, CQC 100%, CQA 38.0%, total 32 points, nigra, 67 points total. Mrs. A. Sim, Rodney, Ont., CQC 100%, CQA 39.3%, total 32 points, nigra, 55 points total. Nut notable for high percentage of kernel: Ferdinand Huber, Cochrane, Wis., 32.8% 12 points, species nigra, total award 49 points. Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia., Nut. No. 1, 31.6% 11 points, species nigra, total award 81 points. Attractive color of kernel: While a number were awarded four points out of a possible 5, none of the black walnuts sent in were especially notable in this respect. HICKORIES This is the first lot of hickories that has come in for a contest conducted by the Association in a number of years. The last contest, that of 1926, was for black walnuts only. It is true that at the meeting of the judges who passed on the black walnuts entered in the 1926 contest there were a number of fine hickories shown which had been received in the contest conducted by the Philadelphia Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, but so far as the writer is aware we have to go back to 1919 to reach the last contest at which prizes were awarded for hickories. The 1926 contest marked a notable change in the method of awarding prizes. As noted at some length under black walnuts, that score card was made simpler, by the judges who passed on the nuts received in the 1926 contest, by awarding points previously given for characteristics that seemed of less importance to others, so the hickory score card was carefully gone over to see if a similar change could not be made to advantage. As it is believed that hickory nuts will be sold in the shell, as are pecans, it was not possible to do this to the same extent as with black walnuts. However, the characteristic "form," which is difficult if not almost impossible to estimate with any kind of precision, it was thought for the present at least might be disregarded. Husking quality is important but it was impossible to properly award points for this characteristic in a nut contest, because the nuts are husked before being sent in. The points allowed for excellence in these qualities were added to others, which gave 10 points to Cracking Quality Absolute instead of 5, and 25 points to Quality and Flavor of Kernel instead of 20. It has been generally considered that a nut which is awarded 55 points, even though it took no prize, was worthy of experimental propagation. There were 40 hickories in the 1929 contest which were awarded 55 points or more. Of those actually awarded prizes for a combination of good qualities, twenty-one in number, thirteen were thought to be shagbarks, or it might be more exact to state that we had not sufficient evidence to think them to be otherwise, although some are suspected not to be pure Carya ovata, four were thought to be Carya Dunbarii (Carya ovata x laciniosa), two were thought to be Carya ovalis, and two Carya laciniosa. In this contest the shagbarks showed up poorly, 68 being the highest score awarded, when from the number of entries one would have expected the highest to have been awarded 71 points or over. On the other hand this is the first contest where a prize has been awarded to a shellbark, Carya laciniosa. Among hickories awarded 54 points or over were five shellbarks, two of them large ones, one weighing 24.3g, 20 per lb. and one weighing 27.6g, 17 per lb. The importance of this will be realized when we consider that, in the 1929 contest, out of 21 prize winning nuts four prizes were awarded to nuts believed to be Carya Dunbarii (Carya ovata x laciniosa) and there were two or three others that may prove to be. While natural hickory hybrids are not particularly rare yet they are far from common. At one time, while on the levees north of Burlington, Iowa, the number of pecan x shellbark hybrids seen impressed the writer, yet a careful count showed these hybrids to be only about 1 hybrid in 100 pure pecans. Considerable experience in making or attempting to make hickory hybrids leads the writer to believe that the proportion of hickory hybrids will be much less than this. If, however, we assume it to be 1 in 100 and the fact that among this years meritorious nuts hybrids are 4 out of 21 or 1 out of 5, we would calculate that the chances of getting meritorious nuts out of hybrids is about 20 times as great as out of pure species. We really have not sufficient data at present to attempt to make such calculations yet the glimpse they give us of the promise of wonderful results from the systematic production of hybrid varieties between selected parents is most alluring. The number of prizes awarded to Carya Dunbarii (Carya ovata x laciniosa) shows a line of work of particular promise. We have plenty of good shagbarks, Carya ovata, and now that he have really good shellbarks, Carya laciniosa, of large size, fair cracking quality and good flavor which we never had before, we have selected material for the production of shagbark x shellbark hybrids, a class which has produced the Weiker hickory, four of the 1929 contest prize hickories and some other hickories of merit which have come to the attention of the writer during the past two or three years. As we have a number of good northern pecans we have also selected material for the production of pecan x shellbark hybrids, a class which has produced the McAllister pecan. If the 1929 contest does nothing more than to bring to light these fine shellbarks it is worth all it cost. The contest also has shown some mockernuts of large size and better quality than ordinary but still not good enough to be in a class with the shellbarks noted above. The number of years that we have been testing hickories without getting good shellbarks leads us to hope that we will eventually get good mockernuts. The prize winning hickories are noted below: Name and Address Species Points Prize Amount Mrs. C. Lake, New Haven, Ind. ovata 68 1 $25.00 Ferdinand Huber, Cochrane, Wis. ovata 67 2 15.00 John D. Bontrager, Middlebury, Ind. ovata 65 3 10.00 John Roddy, Napoleon, Ohio Dunbarii ? 64 4 5.00 Steve Green, Battle Creek, Mich. ovalis ? 63 5 5.00 [A]Mrs. Hamill Goheen, Pennsylvania Furnace, Pa. Dunbarii ? 62 6 3.00 Menno Zurcher Nut No. 1, Apple Creek, Ohio ovata 62 6 3.00 Edgar Fluhr, Kiel, Wis. ovata 61 7 3.00 [A]Elmer T. Sande, Story City, Ia. Dunbarii ? 61 7 3.00 N. E. Comings, Amherst, Mass. ovata 60 8 3.00 Edward Renggenberg, Madison, Wis. ovata 60 8 3.00 C. D. Wright, Nut No. 1, Sumner, Mo. laciniosa 60 8 3.00 Mrs. John Brooks, Ottumwa, Ia. ovata 59 9 3.00 Arlie W. Froman, Bacon, Ind. ovata 59 9 3.00 [A]Mrs. C. E. Hagen, GuttenBerg, Clay Co., Ia. Dunbarii ? 59 9 3.00 L. S. Huff, White Pigeon, Mich. ovalis ? 59 9 3.00 J. K. Seaver, Harvard, Ill. ovata 59 9 3.00 Joseph Sobelewski, Norwich, Conn. ovata 59 9 3.00 Caleb Sprunger, Berne, Ind. laciniosa 59 9 3.00 Grace Peschke, Ripon, Wis. ovata 58 10 3.00 John Muriel Thomas, Henryville, Ind. ovata 58 10 3.00 [A] Means that these varieties were known to the Association before the 1929 contest. There are nearly as many others which came within two or three points of being prize winners and which it is believed should be propagated experimentally. These will be noted on the complete report. There are also the following which are notable for unusual excellence in one characteristic and which it is believed should be propagated experimentally and are here given honorable mention. George S. Homan, Easton, Mo., laciniosa large, Wt. 24.3g, 56 H. M. 3.00 Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia., Shellbark, No. 1, laciniosa large, Wt. 27.6g, 54 H. M. 3.00 W. P. Ritchey, Marietta, Tex., alba large, Wt. 25.7g, 44 H. M. 3.00 J. Droska, Pierce City, Mo., alba large, Wt. 23.7g, 39 H. M. 3.00 _______ $120.00 BUTTERNUTS The last contest where prizes were offered for butternuts was that of 1919 and no nuts of value were entered. The 1929 contest has a number of unusually good ones. The score card for butternuts was revised for this contest on the basis of the one adopted for the black walnut in the 1926 contest and the constants recalculated. The prizes awarded are noted below: L. K. Irvine, Menominee, Wis. cinerea 83 1 $ 50.00 H. J. Thill, Bloomer, Wis., Box 109 cinerea 78 2 15.00 C. F. Hostetter, Bird-In-Hand, Pa. cinerea 75 3 10.00 John F. Kenworthy, Rockton, Wis. cinerea 74 4 5.00 F. E. Devan, Rock Creek, Ohio cinerea 73 5 5.00 E. J. Lingle, Pittsfield, Pa. cinerea 70 6 3.00 John Hergert, St. Peter, Minn., Nut No. 1 cinerea 69 7 3.00 Evert E. Van Der Poppen, Hamilton, Mich. cinerea 66 8 3.00 Mrs. A. B. Simonson, Mondove, Wis. cinerea 66 8 3.00 Mrs. E. Sherman, Montague City, Mass. cinerea 64 9 3.00 W. A. Creitz, Cambridge City, Ind. Bixbyi ? 64 9 3.00 Mrs. Abbie C. Bliss, Bradford, Vt. Nut No. 1 cinerea 61 10 3.00 At first it might be thought that but one species of nuts would be sent in as butternuts, and this was true up to 15 or 20 years ago. The chance hybrids of the Japan walnut and the butternut, named Juglans Bixbyi by Prof. C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum, resemble the butternut so much that as time grows on it is increasingly probable that these will be sent in as butternuts. One came in to the 1919 contest and it is thought that the Creitz of this contest may possibly be such. CHESTNUTS The chestnuts received were relatively few in number but most of them were from sections where the blight had been present many years. Those that were from sections where this condition did not prevail were not allowed to enter. There were a few American chestnuts, some very good ones, from sections where the blight had not destroyed the native chestnut but these were not entered. As it happened all entered were of Japanese or Chinese species, which was somewhat of a disappointment to those who hope that a blight resistant American chestnut will yet be found. It certainly looks so far as if varieties of chestnuts for the blight area, of horticultural value, would be Japanese, Castanea crenata, or Chinese, Castanea mollissima. The chestnuts were judged early and scions sent for in order to get a start on the second part of the chestnut problem, that of testing the resistance of these seemingly resistant varieties to the chestnut blight. The scions received were disappointing in quality and disappointing in the extent to which they were gotten started this year. The writer set scions on Chinese (mollissima) stock, Mr. Hershey set them on American (dentata) stock and the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture set them on Japanese (crenata) stock, but owing to the poor scions only part of them are growing. The writer got eight varieties out of twelve to start but it is questionable how they will do, for mollissima stock is thought to be good only for mollissima varieties and the varieties were all crenata, and so, while a start has been made on the problem of getting blight resistant chestnuts of horticultural value it is only a start and much work remains to be done. The prizes awarded were as follows: Name and Address Species Points Prize Amount Frank B. Austin, Milford, Del. crenata 70 1 $50.00 C. Warren Swayne, West Grove, Pa. crenata 66 2 15.00 Charles V. Stein, Manheim, Pa., R. F. D. No. 1, Nut No. 1 crenata 61 3 10.00 Dr. W. C. Deming, Hartford, Conn. Mollissima 61 [A] ----- Charles V. Stein, Manheim, Pa., R. F. D. No. 1, Nut No. 2 crenata 59 4 5.00 Helen W. Smith, Linden Lodge, Stamford, Conn. crenata 54 5 5.00 May Cline, Route 2, Belvidere Rd., Phillipsburg, N. J., Nut No. 2 crenata 53 6 3.00 May Cline, Route 2, Belvidere Rd., Phillipsburg, N. J., Nut No. 1 crenata 51 7 3.00 Howard A. Folk, Brielle, N. J. crenata 51 7 3.00 W. Russell Parker, Box No. 2, Little Silver, N. J. crenata 47 8 3.00 Ralph P. Atkinson, Setauket, N. Y. crenata 46 9 3.00 Victor Page, Elmsford, N. Y. crenata 41 10 3.00 Frank Atler, Edison, Pa. crenata 40 11 3.00 [A] Not entered in contest. BEECHNUTS Never before, so far as the writer is aware, has there been a score card proposed for beechnuts, but the need of one is apparent and the following is suggested till a better one is found. It is not doubted that one will appear, for our present score cards for hickories, walnuts, etc., are the result of changes made as nuts received in the contests have shown such to be advisable, and work on the beechnut is 10 years or so behind that on other nuts. Size is the most important characteristic in the beechnut, for all are thin shelled and practically all are well flavored. If we had a beechnut the size of a chestnut we should have a most valuable addition to our nuts. The points awarded for size have therefore been on the basis that eventually we would get a beechnut the size of a chestnut, although we are very far from that now. Forty points are allowed for size and it is figured that eventually we will get a beechnut 4 grams in weight which is the weight of a medium size chestnut. The constants used in figuring the number to be awarded for other characteristics require little comment for they are figured on the basis of existing nuts as constants have hitherto been calculated. The suggested score card is as follows: Weight 40 points Color of shell 5 points Percent of kernel 15 points Ease of removing pellicle 15 points Quality and flavor of kernel 25 points Total 100 points The details and methods used in judging beechnuts this year, also the calculations of the constants and the details of the awards, will be typed for the report. The prizes awarded were as follows: Mrs. John M. Pepaw, Johnson, Vt. grandiflora 40 1 $10.00 Mrs. George Marshey, Johnson Vt. grandiflora 39 2 5.00 James Radle, Harbor Springs, Mich. grandiflora 38 3 3.00 Anthony Andreson, Burke, N. Y. grandiflora 35 4 3.00 Fagus sylvatica sylvatica 44 [A] ----- Fagus sylvatica purpurea sylvatica 41 [A] ----- ______ $21.00 [A] Not entered in the contest It is not believed that nuts of Fagus sylvatica (European beech) will test out better, generally, than nuts of Fagus grandiflora (American beech) but the beechnuts were not tested till late, and the European beechnuts had been kept in a refrigerator, while the American beechnuts had not, which very likely may have been the cause for better retaining both the flavor and pellicle-removing quality, which made these nuts receive more points for these characteristics and so be awarded more points than the first four. The meager results in getting beechnuts large enough to be of horticultural value in this contest, as well as in previous contests, and the failures of considerable effort on the part of the writer independently to locate large beechnuts, have caused him to put much thought on the matter and to have come to the conclusion that the search should be conducted in Europe as well as here, for the following reasons: The beech in Europe is much more esteemed as a valuable tree than here, largely because of its value for fuel. It has for many years, if not for centuries, been a tree that has been largely planted in those forests, state and private, which have been managed on the basis of sustained production, and it is not doubted that the men in charge are more familiar with the beech trees in the forests under their jurisdiction than is the case in America. The European beech has shown the most amazing variation in color, size and shape of leaves, color of bark, and habits of growth, which have been perpetuated by grafting as ornamental varieties, and it seems likely that there are equal variations in the nuts which only remain to be discovered. In short, while there may be no more large fruited beeches in Europe than here, it is believed that the chances of finding them are better. ATTENDANCE RECORD James A. Neilson, East Lansing, Michigan. C. F. Walker, Cleveland Heights, Ohio. Mr. and Mrs. John W. Hershey, Downingtown, Pennsylvania. Mr. and Mrs. Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio. Dr. and Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Mr. and Mrs. M. A. Yant, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Mr. and Mrs. Newton H. Russell, Hadley Center, Massachusetts. Mr. and Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa. Mr. and Mrs. W. L. Crissman, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Mr. and Mrs. C. W. Bingham, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Mr. and Mrs. F. O. Harrington, Williamsburg, Iowa. Frank H. Frey, Chicago, Illinois. R. S. Herrick, Des Moines, Iowa. Arthur Huston, Cropsey, Illinois. Dr. W. C. Deming, Hartford, Connecticut. J. K. Hershey, Ronk, Pennsylvania. Hugh E. Williams, Ladora, Iowa. C. W. Bricker, Ladora, Iowa. Millard Harrington, Williamsburg, Iowa. Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. Daniel Boyce, Winterset, Iowa. T. J. Maney, Ames, Iowa. J. F. Wilkinson, Rockport, Indiana. Snyder Brothers, Center Point, Iowa. Dr. R. J. Meyers, Moline, Illinois. Rev. L. D. Stubbs, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Vance McCray, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Ray Anderson, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. A. B. Anthony, Sterling, Illinois. George F. Stoltenberg, Moline, Illinois. John H. Witte, Murlington, Iowa. W. L. Van Meter, Adel, Iowa. Miss Elva Becker, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. N. F. Drake, Fayetteville, Arkansas. Prof. A. S. Colby, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. 
20202	----	produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) [Illustration: WALNUT BLOSSOMS] WALNUT GROWING IN OREGON Edited by J. C. Cooper PUBLISHED BY THE Passenger Department Oregon Railroad and Navigation Co. Southern Pacific Company Lines in Oregon Portland, Oregon COPYRIGHT, 1910. BY WM. McMURRAY. GENERAL PASSENGER AGENT [Illustration: An Oregon Walnut Grove. Prune Trees for Fillers.] [Illustration: _Walnut Confections_] WALNUT GROWING IN OREGON A COMING INDUSTRY OF GREAT NATIONAL IMPORTANCE English walnuts for dessert, walnut confectionery, walnut cake, walnuts in candy bags at Christmas time--thus far has the average person been introduced to this, one of the greatest foods of the earth. But if the food specialists are heard, if the increasing consumption of nuts as recorded by the Government Bureau of Imports is consulted--in short, if one opens his eyes to the tremendous place the walnut is beginning to take among food products the world over, he will realize that the walnut's rank as a table luxury is giving way to that of a necessity; he will acknowledge that the time is rapidly approaching when nuts will be regarded as we now regard beefsteak or wheat products. The demand is already so great that purveyors are beginning to ask, where are the walnuts of the future to come from? In 1902. according to the Department of Commerce and Labor, we imported from Europe 11,927,432 pounds of English walnuts; each year since then these figures have increased, until in 1906 they reached 24,917,023 pounds, valued at $2,193,653. In 1907 we imported 32,590,000 pounds of walnuts and 12,000,000 more were produced in the United States. In Oregon alone there are consumed $400,000 worth of nuts annually. When we consider the limited area suitable to walnut culture in America--California and Oregon practically being the only territory of commercial importance--and the fact that the Old World is no longer planting additional groves to any appreciable extent, there being no more lands available, we begin to realize the important place Oregon is destined to take in the future of the walnut industry: for in Oregon, throughout a strip of the richest land known to man--the great Willamette basin with its tributary valleys and hills, an area of 60 by 150 miles--walnuts thrive and yield abundantly, and at a younger age than in any other locality, not excepting their original home, Persia. In addition, Oregon walnuts are larger, finer flavored, and more uniform in size than those grown elsewhere; they are also free from oiliness and have a full meat that fills the shell well. These advantages are recognized in the most indisputable manner, dealers paying from two to three cents a pound more for Oregon walnuts than for those from other groves. Thus the very last and highest test--what will they bring in the market?--has placed the Oregon walnut at the top. However, in all of Oregon, throughout the vast domain that seems to have been providentially created to furnish the world with its choicest nut fruit, there are, perhaps, not more than 200 acres in bearing at the present time. The test has been accomplished by individual trees found here and there all the way from Washington and Multnomah counties on the north, to Josephine and Jackson counties, bordering California. In a number of counties but two or three handsome old monarchs that have yielded heavy crops year after year, without a failure for the past twenty to forty years, bear witness to the soil's suitability; in other counties, notably Yamhill, sturdy yielding groves attest the soil's fitness. In none of the counties of the walnut belt has but the smallest fraction of available walnut lands been appropriated for this great industry. People are just beginning to realize Oregon's value as a walnut center and her destiny as the source of supply for the choicest markets of the future. Were it practical to plant every unoccupied suitable acre in Oregon this year to walnuts, in eight or ten years the crop would establish Oregon forever as the sovereign walnut center of the world; and the crop, doubling each year thereafter for five years, as is its nature, and then maintaining a steady increase up to the twentieth year, would become a power in the world's markets, equal if not superior to that of North American wheat at the present time. [Illustration: _More Nuts than Leaves. Tree of D. H. Turner._] [Illustration: _Garden Stuff, Melons Pumpkins, Prunes and Children growing among the Walnuts. The Walnuts will in a Few Years put out all but the Children_] The United States Year Book for 1908 estimates the food value of the walnut at nearly double that of wheat, and three times that of beefsteak. Colonel Henry Dosch, the Oregon pioneer of walnut growing, says: "As a business proposition I know of no better in agricultural or horticultural pursuits." Prof. C. I. Lewis, of the Oregon Experiment Station, writes: "In establishing walnut groves we are laying the foundation for prosperity for a great many generations." Mr. H. M. Williamson, secretary of the Oregon Board of Horticulture, writes: "The man who plants a walnut grove in the right place and gives it proper care is making provision not only for his own future welfare, but for that of his children and his children's children." Felix Gillett, the veteran horticulturist of Nevada City, California, wrote shortly before his death: "Oregon is singularly adapted to raising walnuts." Thomas Prince, owner of the largest bearing walnut grove in Oregon, expresses the most enthusiastic satisfaction with the income from his investment, and is planting additional groves on his 800-acre farm in Yamhill county, in many cases uprooting fruit trees to do so. HISTORY IN BRIEF The so-called "English" walnut originated in Persia, where it throve for many centuries before it was carried to Europe--to England, Germany, France, Spain and Italy--different varieties adapting themselves to each country. The name "walnut" is of German origin, meaning "foreign nut." The Greeks called it "the Royal nut," and the Romans, "Jupiter's Acorn," and "Jove's Nut," the gods having been supposed to subsist on it. The great age and size to which the walnut tree will attain has been demonstrated in these European countries: one tree in Norfolk, England, 100 years old, 90 feet high, and with a spread of 120 feet, yields 54,000 nuts a season; another tree, 300 years old, 55 feet high, and having a spread of 125 feet, yields 1,500 pounds each season. In Crimea there is a notable walnut tree 1,000 years old that yields in the neighborhood of 100,000 nuts annually. It is the property of five Tartar families, who subsist largely on its fruit. In European countries walnuts come into bearing from the sixteenth to the twenty-fourth year; in Oregon, from the eighth to the tenth year; grafted trees, sixth year. The first walnut trees were introduced into America a century ago by Spanish friars, who planted them in Southern California. It was not until comparatively recent years that the hardier varieties from France, adapted to commercial use, were planted in California and later in Oregon. They were also tried in other localities, but without success. Since the prolific productiveness of the English walnut on the Pacific Coast has been assured, many commercial groves have been set out. TEST TREES OF OREGON The first walnut trees were planted in Oregon in limited number for purely home use, "just to see if they would grow," and they did. Thus the state can boast of single trees close to sixty years of age, each with admirable records of unfailing crops, demonstrating what a fortune would now be in the grasp of their owners had they planted commercially. In Portland, Oregon, on what is known as the old Dekum place, 13th and Morrison streets, there are two walnut trees, planted in 1869, that have yielded a heavy crop every fall since their eighth year, not a single failure having been experienced. The ground has never been cultivated. The nuts planted were taken at random from a barrel in a grocery store. During the "silver thaw" of 1907, the most severe cold spell in the history of Oregon, one of the trees was wrenched in two, but the dismembered limb, hanging by a shred, bore a full crop of walnuts the following season. N. A. King, at 175 Twenty-first street, has some fine, old trees that have not missed bearing a good crop since their eighth year. Henry Hewitt, living at Mt. Zion, Portland, an elevation of 1,000 feet, has many handsome trees, one, a grafted tree fifteen years old, that has borne since its fifth year. Another tree of his buds out the fourth of July and yields a full crop as early as any of the other varieties. In Salem, there is what is known as the famous old Shannon tree, fully thirty years old, with a record of a heavy crop every season. Mayor Britt, of Jacksonville, has a magnificent tree that has not failed in twenty years. Dr. Finck, of Dallas, has a large tree seventeen years old that bore 70 pounds of nuts in its thirteenth year, and has increased ever since. C. H. Samson, of Grants Pass, has a grove of 250 trees, now ten years old, that bore at seven years. Mr. Tiffany, of Salem, has a fifteen-year-old tree that at thirteen years bore 115 pounds. Mr. E. Terpening, of Eugene, has four acres of walnuts grafted on the American black, which in 1905 produced 700 pounds, in 1906 produced 1200 pounds, in 1907 produced 2000 pounds, and in 1908 produced 3000 pounds. He tried seedlings first, but they were not satisfactory. The Epps and Reece orchard near Eugene produces about 100 pounds per tree, at 12 years of age. Mr. Muecke, of Aurora, planted a dozen walnuts from his father's estate in Germany; they made a splendid growth, and at six years bore from 500 to 800 nuts to a tree. Mr. Stober, of Carson Heights, planted nuts from Germany with satisfactory results. Mrs. Herman Ankeny, of New Era, has seven young trees that in 1907 netted her $15 a tree. [Illustration: Here is a Santa Barbara soft-shell on the lawn of Mr. E. C. Apperson, in McMinnville, which at the age of eight years bore 32 pounds of walnuts. It stood the frosts and winter of 1908-'09 and bears every year; it is now 11 years old, 12 inches in diameter and has a branch spread of 40 feet.] [Illustration: _The "Cozine" Walnut Tree_] Cozine tree on A street, McMinnville. Seedling, 15 years old; bears good crop of nuts every year. At 14 years old the crop was 125 pounds. Is 16 inches in diameter and has a spread of 42 feet. One sixteen-year-old tree near Albany netted its owner $30. A Franquette walnut near Brownsville yielded eight bushels at ten years. The French varieties planted in and around Vancouver commenced bearing at seven years, and have never failed. Prominent growers are A. A. Quarnberg, A. High, Mr. H. J. Biddle, C. G. Shaw. In Yamhill county, Ed. Greer, James Morison, F. W. Myers, D. H. Turner and Bland Herring all won prizes at the first walnut fair held in the state, on nuts from their groves. WOOD OF THE ENGLISH WALNUT The wood of the English walnut is very hard and close grained, and nearly as hard and tough as hickory. It will no doubt be valuable for furniture, finishing lumber and any other use that may require a first-class hard wood. YOUNG GROVES OF OREGON The Prince walnut grove of Dundee, Yamhill county, thrills the soul of the onlooker with its beauty, present fruitfulness, and great promise. Lying on a magnificent hillside, the long rows of evenly set trees--healthy, luxurious in foliage, and filled with nuts--present a picture of ideal horticulture worth going many miles to see. There is not a weed to mar the perfect appearance of the well-tilled soil; not a dead limb, a broken branch, a sign of neglect or decay. In all, 200 acres are now planted to young walnuts, new areas being added each season. From the oldest grove, about forty-five acres, the trees from twelve to fourteen years old, there was marketed in 1905 between two and three tons of walnuts; in 1906 between four and five tons; in 1907 ten tons were harvested, bringing the highest market price, 18 and 20 cents a pound wholesale, two cents more than California nuts. The crop for 1908 was at least one-third heavier than for 1907. One tree on the Prince place, a Mayette, that has received extra cultivation, by way of experiment, now twelve years old, has a spread of thirty-eight feet, and yielded in its eleventh year 125 pounds of excellent nuts. Mr. Woods, the superintendent of the Prince place, considers walnut growing a comparatively simple matter; he advocates planting the nut where the tree is to grow, choosing nuts with care; and then thorough cultivation. The soil is semi-clayey, red, hill land. Near Albany, Linn county, 700 acres are planted; the soil is a rich loam, and seems admirably adapted to walnuts. Near Junction City, in Lane county, there are 200 acres of young trees. Every condition seems present for the best results. Eugene has two small groves. Yamhill county, where the greatest demonstration thus far has been made, has close to 3,000 acres in young trees, the planting having been both on hill and valley lands. At Grants Pass, Josephine county, there is a promising grove of 600 young trees. Near Aurora and Hubbard, Marion county, where the soil is a rich, black loam, rather low, a number of young groves are making a growth of four and five feet a season. J. B. Stump, of Monmouth, Polk county, has a very thrifty young grove. [Illustration: _A Young Willamette Valley Grove_] This is a view of a part of the R. Jacobson orchard one and one-half miles west of McMinnville. The land was bought for $60 per acre and when planted to walnuts sold for $200. The orchard is now five years old and could not be bought for $600 per acre. It is located on a hill 150 feet above the level of the valley. The largest single grafted grove in Oregon is situated one mile from Junction City, the property of A. R. Martin. He has sixty-five acres. Washington county is rapidly acquiring popularity as a walnut center, many fine orchards being now planted. Mr. Fred Groner, near Hillsboro, is now planting 100 acres to grafted trees. The Oregon Nursery Company is establishing large walnut nurseries in Washington county. In Douglas county, vicinity of Drain, little attention has been paid to walnut culture, but a sufficient number of trees are doing well to insure good results from large plantings. In Jackson county, near Medford, a number of young groves have been planted, and individual trees throughout the Rogue River Valley furnish ample evidence of correct soil and climatic conditions in that section. Even when apple trees have been caught by frost the walnuts have escaped uninjured, bearing later a full crop. In Tillamook county only sufficient trees have been planted to demonstrate favorable soil conditions. While western Oregon is universally conceded to be the natural walnut center, eastern Oregon also has its localities where walnuts bear heavily, and will prove a good commercial crop. In Baker county there are thousands of acres of land adapted to walnuts; young groves are being planted, and a number of trees have produced fine crops. When one considers the years of the future when the trees of each of these young groves will lift their symmetrical heads fifty, sixty, ninety feet into the air, laden to full capacity with a plenteous crop, each October dropping their golden-brown nut harvest that falls with the clink of dollars to the commercial-minded, but with an accompaniment of finest sentiment in the hearts of those otherwise inclined, one turns away with a desire to repeat the wisdom of these pioneer planters and start a grove of his own. With what grander monument could one commemorate his little span on earth? LOCATIONS FOR ADDITIONAL GROVES Much is heard, in a general way, of necessary climate and soil conditions for walnut culture, some giving preference to the hillsides, others to valley lands; some contending for a deep, rich loam, others for sandy soil. But a careful examination of the soils of Oregon and the trees now bearing thereon produces convincing evidence that almost any deep, rich, well-drained, western Oregon soil--and some in eastern Oregon--not underlaid by hardpan, will insure a good harvest, providing the right varieties are planted. The whole question resolves itself into a matter of intelligent choice of trees to suit varying conditions. For example, the famous Prince grove is producing magnificent crops on soil decidedly clayey; but the place is thoroughly cultivated and careful selection has been made of hardy trees, the Mayette being preferred. Another young grove is proving that walnuts do well on clayey hill land of buckshot nature, where the drainage is good and there is no rock or hardpan. In contrast with the hill land, young groves are making admirable growth on the rich loam about Aurora and McMinnville. Mr. Henry Hewitt, of Portland, has fine, young seedlings on a hillside, elevation 1,000 feet, that made four feet of growth in one season. [Illustration: _View of a Yamhill Orchard_] In the neighborhood of all these groves, there are hardy, bearing trees that amply foreshadow the future of the larger plantings. Colonel Henry Dosch, the pioneer walnut grower of Oregon, who has experimented rather thoroughly, even goes so far as to claim that rocky soil is not objectionable, providing there is no hardpan. In this, as in all other horticultural pursuits, naturally the richer soils are best; but the industrious horticulturist, by cultivation, fertilization, and proper care, can produce a fairly good grove on unfavorable lands. However, so much of Oregon is favorable by nature that growers will hardly undertake to enrich the few less desirable areas for a good many years to come. Land that on the Atlantic slope would be seized readily enough, in Oregon is passed by, as there is still so much untouched that nature has made ideal. Years hence growers accustomed to the less fertile conditions of the far east will undoubtedly turn their attention to even the few poorer areas in Oregon, and make of them glowing garden spots. It is a simple matter to determine the presence of hardpan; you have but to make a series of tests--four or five to the acre--with a plumber's auger; and this care should be taken in every area where soil conditions have not been fully determined. PLANTING Gather the walnuts during the fall or winter, fall is better, and put them in boxes about the size of ordinary apple boxes, putting in first a layer of sand (the sandy loam along the valley streams is excellent) about four inches deep, then a layer of walnuts about the same depth, then cover these over with three or four inches more of sand. Place these boxes out in the weather on the ground where the water will not rise in them. The reason for putting the walnuts in boxes instead of beds, as advised by some planters, is that the boxes may be taken to the field or nursery and the nuts lifted carefully from the sand and placed where they are to grow. It sometimes happens in a wet and backward spring that the walnuts will sprout before the ground is ready for planting, in which case they must be handled with the tenderest care and not exposed to the atmosphere any longer than can be helped. One grower had a bed of hybrid black walnuts. The season was late and when the ground was ready for planting many had started to grow. He engaged some boys to grabble out the nuts from the sand beds, urging care, but many of the best were broken and injured. Some of them had sent down a taproot nearly or quite three inches in length. These early ones, under proper conditions, are the most vigorous and surest growers, but in the treatment they received many were injured and killed. Black walnuts are slow to germinate, sometimes laying in the ground two years before sprouting. But if kept properly they will start by June or July. For the nursery the ground should be plowed deep and thoroughly pulverized. Plant the nuts 6 to 12 inches apart in rows about 3 feet apart. Put a handful of the sand from the boxes around each walnut. Our soil will appreciate the sand or silt from the drifts along the valley streams, as it has proven to be one of the best fertilizers known. If anyone doubts this let him try a quantity of it on his kitchen garden. [Illustration: _A California Black Walnut near McMinnville_] On the Ford place, near the North Yamhill bridge, is one of the finest trees in the county, 33 inches diameter, height 75 feet, spread of branches 60 feet. Bears an abundance of nuts every year. It is 34 years old. The seeds are much used to raise grafting stock. Nearly all of the black walnut seed produced in the Willamette valley will partake more or less of a mixed or hybrid nature, whether from a California black, Japanese black, or American black. The black walnuts are very susceptible to cross pollinization and the English walnut also, for be it known that With wandering bees and the sweet May breeze, That virile tide goes far and wide. The nut should be planted two or three inches deep. A good authority says to place the nut on its side as it would lay after falling from the tree. If the nut is sprouted make a hole in the well pulverized soil and put the root carefully down into it. The best way for planting in the orchard is to bore a hole with a post or well auger 4 or 5 feet deep where the tree is to grow, put in a stick of dynamite and break up the ground thoroughly. Or, better still, bore down to permanent moisture and fill the lower hole with good soil or other root food, then dynamite 4 or 5 feet of the upper section of the hole. Nothing will produce a vigorous and thrifty tree like a deep and vigorous root system, and no tree responds to cultivation and care as does the walnut, white or black. After bursting up the soil, excavate and put in a half bushel of barn or other mould, well rotted. This will force the tree in the earlier years of its life and can be no hindrance to it later. Cover the manure with a foot or two of soil and plant. Both before and after planting the ground should be ploughed and harrowed until it is as mellow as an ash heap. Plant three or four nuts in a hill 6 to 8 inches apart and at the end of the first season's growth pull out all but the most vigorous one. For transplanting from the nursery the same methods should be followed in the preparation of the hole and the soil as in planting the seed nuts. If one wants to lay the foundation for a fine orchard and a fine fortune as a consequence, these preliminary steps must not be neglected. Because in time you expect this tree to pay you a rental of $8 to $12 a month. If you are building a cottage that would bring in that sum, you would put in much more work and money besides. The wise grower would rather have a man plant six trees for him in one day than sixty. The walnut is usually a very vigorous tree and will fight its way among adverse conditions and surroundings, but its golden showers are much more abundant if it is protected from the scars of battle, especially in its youth. It almost seems to respond to the love and affection given to it by a kind master. Animals respond to kindness, and why not the domestic trees? It will pay you a big salary after a while when your other bank accounts and your health and strength fail. [Illustration: _American Black Walnuts_] A magnificent row of nine American black walnuts, 35 or 40 years old. The tree in the foreground is 20 inches in diameter of trunk. The tallest of the trees is nearly 60 feet and they have a spread of more than 70 feet. They are at the residence of Dave Johnson on the Portland road about 8 miles from McMinnville. Seed from such trees as these would produce the very best trees for grafting upon. There are very few California blacks of pure strain in the country. The hybrids or crosses with the American or eastern black walnut, are better trees for grafting stock than the pure Californias. They are more hardy and better adapted to our climate. WHAT TO PLANT Horticulturists of equal fame and experience take different views on the subject of planting, some contending that the nut should be planted where the tree is to grow; others that seedlings are the thing, and still others that trees should be grafted. And as all three plans have produced good results in Oregon, the individual planter may take his choice, according to the circumstances in which he is situated. The truth is that the walnut is one of the hardiest of trees, and with good attention will not disappoint if the right kinds are properly started. In planting walnuts to raise seedling trees the best available seed nuts should be used. Select the best and most prolific variety and the one most suited to the climate. It is claimed that the nuts from a grafted tree will produce the best seedling trees. This may be true as a rule, as the nut from such a tree will have some of the characteristics of the stock upon which the parent tree was grafted. It may inherit some of the resistant qualities of the black walnut or the rapid growth of the California hybrids. It may have early ripening qualities. It is well to consider all these points as well as the quality of the nut when selecting seed. By careful selection and cross pollination many and better varieties will be produced. No doubt a nut superior to any that has yet appeared in any country will yet be originated in the Willamette Valley, as in the case of the Bing and Lambert cherry and some other fruits. The improvement of the walnut in this section is one of the most fertile fields of investigation to be found anywhere and one that promises big reward to the successful culturist. And the walnut grower need not wait long to find whether he has a prize or not, for just as soon as the little sprout comes from the ground and has hardened sufficient to handle, a skillful grafter can place it in a bearing tree and the second or third year know the result of his experiment by the production of fruit, and this not more than three or four years from the planting of the seed. The advantage of planting walnuts, providing you secure first generation nuts of the right variety for your soil and atmospheric conditions, is in simplicity and inexpensiveness. You merely purchase your nuts of a reliable concern, or from an isolated grove of one variety (many send direct to France, where pure strains can be more readily gotten), and in February plant them on their sides in a shallow box of moist sand; keep in a cool place. In April, or as soon as they sprout, dig a hole 2-1/2 or 3 feet deep, put in surface loam, and plant three or four nuts to a hole about 2 or 3 inches deep. They will come up by June and make a growth of a foot or so the first season. It is contended by many that nothing is gained by planting seedlings in the nursery, as the set-back from transplanting prevents their bearing any earlier than trees of the same age grown from nuts. Grafted trees, on the other hand, are difficult to obtain in large numbers, are expensive, but produce nuts of uniform size and beauty, and the pollination is said to be more sure. The industry is still too young in Oregon for the final word to have been spoken on this point. The future will undoubtedly add much valuable information as larger experience supplants theory with facts. The vital point is to plant good nuts or reliable seedlings from a pure strain. In choosing varieties be governed by your location. If frosts are to be feared get late-blooming varieties, the leading ones established in Oregon being the Mayette and the Franquette. Other varieties will undoubtedly be introduced in the next few years that will withstand frost in regions where walnut planting now seems impractical. Mr. Henry Hewitt's one tree that blooms the fourth of July, at an elevation of 1,000 feet, is evidence of the possibilities in this direction. Air drainage is necessary. The tested varieties in Oregon to date, and the results, are as follows: Mayettes (the famous "Grenoble" of commerce) and Franquettes are first choice for hardiness and for reliable commercial crops, the nuts being of good size, fine flavor and in every way meeting the highest market demands. Praeparturiens bear earlier than other varieties, are very productive and as fine flavored as a hickory nut, but the nuts are small for best commercial prices. The Chaberte is a hardy tree, good for the uplands, and prolific; a delicious nut, small but excellent for confectioners use. The Ford Mammoth, Glady and Bijou are too large to find favor for commercial purposes. [Illustration: _A Fine Japanese Hybrid in Lafayette_] The Parisienne, Meylan and Lanfray are newer varieties that give much promise, but have not been thoroughly tested. H. M. Williamson, Secretary Oregon State Board of Horticulture, in an article says: "The extremely unfavorable weather of the past winter (1908-9) has been one of the best things which could have happened to many heedless persons who planted walnut trees without first taking pains to learn anything about the business. The destruction of many young trees of the Santa Barbara type was a blessing to those who planted them, and the planters deserve no sympathy, for the warnings not to plant trees of that type have been ample for many years past. "The fine condition of suitably located groves of walnut trees of Franquette, Mayette and other French varieties, after a winter which proved the most trying to fruit trees of all kinds which we have known during a long period of years, has given firm confidence to those who are leading in the development of the walnut industry in Oregon. "The varieties which are best adapted to culture in this state are those which produce the finest nuts known to the world." [Illustration: _Walnut Groves, Dundee, Oregon_] SEEDLING WALNUTS The leading commercial orchard in the state is that of Mr. Thomas Prince, of Yamhill county, and is composed almost entirely of seedling trees. The history of this orchard is best told by Mr. Prince in the following very conservative letter: "About 17 years ago the Ladd Stock Farm of Yamhill, Oregon, by the advice of Mr. H. E. Dosch, then Secretary of the Oregon Horticultural Society, purchased from the late Felix Gillett, Nevada City, Cal., and planted quite a number of young walnut trees which are now in bearing. The first few years their cattle received first attention and the young trees were not cultivated as much as they should have been to make good growth. They therefore do not grow the quantity of walnuts they would have produced with better cultivation. Two or three years after this Mr. Z. T. Davis, of Dundee, Oregon, also by advice of Mr. Dosch, purchased of Mr. Gillett some 500 one-year-old seedlings. One year later the writer, who had some land adjoining Mr. Davis, also became interested and set out about 1,500 additional trees, and about two years later purchased the place belonging to Mr. Davis, and became owner of the young trees at Dundee, with the exception of a few purchased by several neighbors. All are now in bearing. "Those who do not know the facts are inclined to give the writer more credit than he is entitled to. Mr. Dosch, the Ladds, Mr. Davis and Mr. Gillett were first to interest themselves and should receive the credit to which they are entitled. "We have now in Oregon and Washington quite a few trees in bearing, and we believe they can be grown here with profit. There is much to learn. We find the young trees should be carefully set out and receive good cultivation for the first few years. That the selection of the trees and the location in which to grow them are very important. The number of trees to the acre, and whether to grow seedling or grafted trees; and if grafted whether root grafting or top grafting is best must be considered. "I think growing of walnuts has the advantage of many other products. The crop is easily grown, harvested and marketed; the labor greatly economized and the net profits a larger per cent of the gross receipts; while sometimes with other crops the results are just the reverse--the net profits but a small per cent of the gross receipts. "The question is often asked how much is land worth that is suitable; how long before trees will bear, and how much will they produce, etc. The price of land depends largely on location; generally it is worth from $50 to $150 per acre. Seedling trees come into bearing from 7 to 9 years of age, quantity from 10 to 50 pounds per tree; number of trees per acre, 20 to 40." [Illustration: _Sixty Year Old Walnut Trees on Derr Place_] These trees are about 60 years old and were planted by I. M. Johns, who took the donation claim two miles southeast of McMinnville, about 1844, now the Derr farm. The trunk of the largest one on the right is 10 feet in circumference, and is probably the largest English walnut tree in Oregon. They have some nuts every year, but are shy bearers, due no doubt to lack of proper pollination. The nut is not large, but is full of good meat and resembles the Parry. The trees are about two hundred yards from the Yamhill river, are hale and hearty and seem good for a few centuries. In fact, all of the seedlings examined in this county are healthy and vigorous. There are half a dozen or more walnut trees growing in the woods and about the garden of Mr. J. T. Jones, seven miles west of McMinnville, which are a valuable study to the walnut grower. They are seedlings from the Casey tree, and they all bear full crops every year. The largest is 21 inches in diameter. One of them has a much larger and finer nut than that grown on the Casey tree. Hardpan is reached about 18 inches below the surface, which would indicate that no tap root were needed were it not for the fact that a tiny brook runs down through the garden not far from the trees. Following is the testimony of Col. Henry E. Dosch, taken from "Better Fruit" of August, 1908: "It is over twenty years since I first experimented with nut culture, more especially English, or, more properly speaking, French walnut culture, and by persistent effort in keeping this matter before the horticulturists am more than gratified to know that this important industry is at last receiving the attention it deserves; and a few who took my advice in the beginning and planted on a commercial basis are now reaping the benefit, as their products command the highest price in the market. "First generation nuts are produced on original trees, or on trees grafted from the original trees. Those nuts when planted produce second generation trees, and the nuts from these second generation trees are a little larger than the original or first generation, which is due to the peculiar soil and climatic conditions of the Pacific Northwest, so well adapted to nut culture. Trees grown from second generation nuts retrograde very rapidly, producing nuts not half so large as even the first generation trees, and finally running out altogether. Hence it is very essential that we plant nuts from the original trees, or trees grown from the original nuts or grafted from the original trees." A tree on John E. Brooks' claim, Casey Place, is one of the earliest and most important trees in the country. It has borne a good crop every year for thirty-five years, and in all that time has led a strenuous life. It was planted first in Portland from a nut supposed to have been brought from the Rhine in Germany by a German sea captain. It was broken down by stock when Amasa Brooks saw it, and with the consent of the owner transplanted it to its present site, on the side of a red hill a few rods above the house and about 100 feet above the level of the valley. There it was much abused by stock, and exposed to other accidents. When it began to bear, the squirrels would gather the nuts as soon as they were big enough to attract them. When the tree was visited in August, 1909, for the purpose of getting a photograph it was found that a squirrel had burrowed under the roots, making an opening large enough to admit a good-sized foxhound, and a quantity of nuts hulls were piled about it and scattered beneath the tree. It is 23 inches in diameter and has a branch spread of nearly 60 feet. Trees of the fourth generation from this tree are in bearing near McMinnville and are producing fairly good nuts, some better than the original tree, demonstrating that the seedling walnut tree can be improved here by seed selection. [Illustration: _A Grafted Walnut_] The above is a two-year-old grafted tree in the orchard of Mr. Prince. It was sent to him by Judge Leib, of San Jose, in order to convince him of the superiority of the grafted tree. You will note that the little bush has two good-sized nuts, and also that it bore one last year, the first year from the nursery. With this ratio of increase at 20 years of age it would produce about three and one-quarter tons of walnuts, counting 42 nuts to the pound, the weight of first-class Oregon walnuts. But this is not probable. GRAFTED TREES The testimony in favor of the grafted tree is not yet very abundant in Oregon, as the grafting business is new; but with the evidence at hand it will surely have a standing in court. Prof. Lewis speaks plainly on this subject. He says: "One of the main points of discussion is, Which are preferable--grafted or seedling trees? Let us consider the seedling tree first. There are men who claim that these are superior to grafted trees, especially in size, prolificness, etc.; that there is something about our wonderful Oregon climate that causes the so-called second generation trees to bear larger and better fruits than the parent plant. And these writers love to dwell on the subject of generation. There is at times a sort of mystery, an uncanny vagueness connected with this subject that is baffling and bewildering to the layman, and causes him to listen with mouth agape. It is the same sweet silly story that we have had to learn by bitter experience with other nuts and fruits, and some of us will evidently pay dearly for it in the case of the walnut. The term 'first generation' is generally applied to the parent tree--some say the original tree, while others put the clause on the original grafted tree. Nuts taken from such trees and planted produce the second generation trees. These may be equal, may be superior, or may be inferior to the original stock. It is this very variation and instability that makes the seedling to a more or less degree a gambling proposition." The following is taken from a paper on walnut culture by Luther Burbank, read before the annual meeting of the California Fruit Growers convention: "In all cases the best results will be obtained by grafting on our native California black walnut or some of its hybrids. No one who grows English walnuts on their own roots need expect to be able to compete with those who grow them on the native black walnut roots, for when grown on these roots the trees will uniformly be larger and longer lived, will hardly be affected by blight and other diseases, and will bear from two to four times as many nuts, which will be of larger size and of much better quality. These are facts, not theories, and walnuts growers should take heed. "Although not popular among nurserymen, yet the best way to produce a paying orchard of walnuts is to plant the nuts from some vigorous black walnut tree, three or four in each place where a tree is to stand. At the end of the first summer remove all but the strongest among them. Let the trees grow as they will, for from three to six years, until they have formed their own natural, vigorous system of roots, then graft to the best variety extant which thrives in your locality, and if on deep, well-drained land you will at once have a grove of walnuts which will pay, at present, or even with very much lower prices, a most princely interest on your investment. By grafting in the nursery, or before the native tree has had time to produce its own system of roots by its own rapid-growing leafy top, you have gained little or nothing over planting trees on their own roots, for the foliage of any tree governs the size, extent and form of the root system. Take heed, as these are facts, not fancies, and are not to be neglected if you would have a walnut grove on a safe foundation. "I hold in my hands a record, and also a photograph, of one of the Santa Rosa walnut trees, grafted, as I recommended, on the black walnut, 1891; this was handed to me by the owner, George C. Payne, of Campbell. The record may be of interest to you: Dimensions (1905)--Spread of top, 66 feet; circumference one foot above ground, 8 feet 9 inches. No record of nuts was kept until 1897, which amounted to 250 pounds; 1898, 302 pounds; 1899, 229 pounds; 1900, 600 pounds; 1901, 237 pounds; 1902, 478 pounds; 1903, 380 pounds; 1904, 481 pounds; 1905, 269 pounds; 1908, 712 pounds. "The walnut has generally been considered a very difficult tree to graft successfully. Mr. Payne has perfected a mode of grafting which in his hands is without doubt the most successful known; by it he is uniformly successful, often making one hundred per cent of the grafts to grow. Who can do better by any method? "When you plant another tree, why not plant a walnut? Then, besides sentiment, shade and leaves, you may have a perennial supply of nuts, the improved kinds of which furnish the most delicious, nutritious and healthful food which has ever been known. The old-fashioned hit-or-miss nuts, which we used to purchase at the grocery store, were generally of a rich, irregular mixture in form, size and color, with meats of varying degrees of unsoundness, bitter, musty, rancid, or with no meat at all. From these early memories, and the usual accompanying after-effects, nuts have not been a very popular food for regular use until lately, when good ones at a moderate price can generally, but not always, be purchased at all first-class stores. "The consumption of nuts is probably increasing among all civilized nations today faster than that of any other food, and we should keep up with this increasing demand and make the increase still more rapid by producing nuts of uniformly good quality. This can be done without extra effort, and with an increase in the health and rapid and permanent increase in the wealth of ourselves and neighbors." [Illustration: _Row of Eleven Year Old Top Grafted Black Walnut Hybrids_] An American black walnut growing on a lot on the east side of Grant street, residence of J. C. Cooper, McMinnville, grafted by Mr. Payne May 14, 1908, grew 7-1/2 feet in 95 days and was still growing when the terminal buds were nipped by the early September frost of that year. The sprouts were pruned back to 12 inches. The tree made a vigorous growth in 1909, making a spread of 13 feet. Some think the American black a better tree for grafting stock that the California black. One of the noblest and grandest trees in any American forest is the American black walnut, and while a little slow at the beginning of its career it is only a question of time when it will overtake all others. It knows no disease or pests, and he who plants it lays a foundation for 20 to 50 generations to come as well as for himself and those of his own household. A four-year-old hybrid, 4 inches in diameter, grafted in by Mr. Payne, grew a sprout as shown, 7 feet 9 inches high in four months from the setting of the graft. It is growing on the east side of D street near the Presbyterian church in front of the residence of Mrs. Sarah Updegraf, McMinnville, Oregon. Three trees there all show the same vigor, with little or no cultivation. John H. Hartog, formerly of Eugene, wrote of the experience of Mr. E. Terpening, one of the most successful walnut growers near that city. "Mr. Terpening is a devotee of the grafted tree. And why? A burnt child spurns the fire, says the proverb. Mr. Terpening set out second generation Mayettes and Franquettes, expecting that these seedlings would produce true, but when they commenced to bear, behold his amazement at finding that he had a variety of almost every kind. This was enough to convince him that in the future he would use grafted trees, and know what he was doing and what kind of nut he was raising. "Counting out trees of other kinds, he has four acres in walnuts, and these produced-- In 1905 700 pounds In 1906 1200 pounds In 1907 2000 pounds In 1908 3000 pounds "This spring he set out 450 more trees and wisely he put them 50 feet apart and will grow peaches in between for a few years. While it is generally said that walnuts come into bearing after 8 years, Mr. Terpening states that the grafted tree will bear commercially in 6 years, which tallies exactly with my experience. "The Terpening walnut trees are grafted on American black and his favorite variety is the Mayette and lately the so-called Improved Mayette." WALNUT GRAFTING Walnut grafting is in a class by itself, and walnut budding is not a success as practiced at the present time, although the ordinary method is shown in the cut. The top grafting method shown is easy and sure if you have "the know-how and skill." One of the important things to remember in tree surgery as well as other kinds, is to work quickly and deftly. Don't let the wounds of the scion or stub remain exposed longer than necessary. Make the cuts smooth with a very sharp knife, kept sharp by frequent "stropping.'" Expert walnut grafters are few, but the ordinary skillful orchardist or amateur can do fairly successful work by a study of the drawings in "Details of Walnut Grafting" on next page, and using common sense methods. [Illustration: Details of Walnut Grafting] Cut off the branch or stock to be grafted with a sharp priming saw at a point where the stump will be from one to two and a half inches in diameter. Split through the center of the stub with a sharp knife as shown in figure 1, using a mallet. Depress the point of the splitting knife and strike with the mallet, cutting the bark and sap down the side of the stub instead of tearing it, then depress the handle and cut down the other side in the same way. Open the split slightly with a hardwood wedge, as in figure 2. Slightly bevel the split, cutting upward, with a sharp knife as in figure 3. Insert the carefully fitted scion as at figure 4, being careful to have the cambium layer, the inner layer of the bark, of both stub and scion come together. When the scion is carefully fitted remove the wedge and fill the split with paper as shown at figure 5. Then cover all wounds over with wax brushed on warm as at figure 6. The melted wax should be about the consistency of thick honey. Tie a paper sack over all as at figure 7. This should remain until scions begin to grow. It keeps them warm and prevents drying out by hot winds. In from ten days to three weeks the scions will have started sufficient to gradually remove the cover as at figure 8. In eight or ten days from the time grafts are set a small opening should be cut or torn in the north side of the paper sack so that the sprouting buds may have air and their growth noted. When the stock is too large to split through the center it should be split to one side of center as shown in figure 9. The method of shaping the scions is shown in figures 10, 11 and 12. Good scions and poor are shown in 13 and 14. Scions with buds not too far apart are best. Prong grafting is shown in figures 15 to 18, and flute budding in 19 and 20. In grafting the stock should not close on the scion with sufficient force to bruise or injure it, but just tight enough to hold. Scions should be of last year's wood and pruned or cut from the trees in late winter, when the tree is dormant, and cut into about 12-inch lengths, long enough to make three or four grafts. Select upright wood. Drooping branches make a sprawling and sometimes a barren tree. The dormant scions should be packed away in a cool, dark cellar in damp sand or moss, or put in cold storage and kept dormant until ready for use. Do not allow the buds to swell. It will be well to look at them occasionally to see that they do not get too dry nor be so damp as to mold. In the spring when the sap is well up and the trees to be grafted have sprouted and are growing during April and May the grafting should be done. Work may be continued even after the catkins are out and the leaves half grown. The methods described are those practiced by Mr. George C. Payne, probably the most successful walnut grafter in the business. [Illustration: _Tools Used in Walnut Grafting_ Plate One. Furnished by Oregon Agricultural College] GRAFTING WAX The following formula is the grafting wax used by Mr. Payne: Rosin, 5 pounds. Beeswax, 1 pound. Finely pulverized charcoal. 1-2 pound. Raw linseed oil, 1 gill Be sure that the charcoal is finely pulverized. First melt the beeswax and rosin, being careful not to have the fire too hot. Add the charcoal, stirring constantly, and then add the oil. Mould into bricks by pouring into greased pans. When desiring to use break off a few lumps and melt in such a contrivance as is shown in the plate of grafting tools. The wax must be quite liquid if applied successfully. Nursery grafting, or root grafting, is not a success as practiced at present. The best grafters do not succeed with more than 10 to 15 per cent. This makes the grafted tree cost from $1.50 to $2.00 per tree, and makes that kind of walnut planting expensive. However, Col. Dosch, in his article, quotes Professor Leckenby, the noted agrostologist, as saying that if directions are religiously followed ninety per cent of the grafts will grow. The directions are as follows: "For walnut grafts on scions use one gallon of water with four teaspoonfuls of sulphate of quinine. Cut scions submerged in the solution, and wash the cut on tree at once, to prevent it from turning black, acting as an antiseptic; then insert, the scion as on other fruit trees." This, from such authority, is worthy of a trial. A great amount of experimenting has been done in walnut grafting and a way to success will be found. BEST STOCK ON WHICH TO GRAFT Mr. Burbank, Judge Leib, and George C. Payne, all of California, think the California black or some of its hybrids make the best stock in California. Mr. Groner prefers the hybrid for Oregon. Mr. A. McGill, of Oregon, thinks that neither the California black nor its hybrid are suited to this climate. Few have had more experience, costly experience at that, than Mr. McGill. He thinks the American black better for Oregon. It is sometimes asked, why not plant seedling walnuts and top work those that are not good bearers? Because the grafts will not do so well on the English stock as on the black; and it is also found that the English stock does not make as good a foundation as the black. Therefore, the best growers in Oregon conclude that the seed from a thrifty American Black, or close hybrid, is best for this state. In three or four years after planting cut off the trunk about as high as a man's waist or shoulder and put in the graft from the best variety available. The third year from setting of the graft you will have a crop of nuts. Mr. Payne can set 250 to 300 grafts in a day. His wages are $8 a day, and he furnishes the wood. So you see that your trees would cost very little. Good black walnut seed can be had very cheap, probably at a cost of 50 cents to $1 per bushel, the Oregon product preferred. Some of the California hybrids make rapid growth, but too rapid growth of wood may not be desirable. It may mean early maturity and early decay, and too few walnut bearing boughs. GOOD PLAN FOR WALNUT ORCHARD (3)---------<1>---------(3)---------<1>---------(3) | \ : / | \ : / | | \ : / | \ : / | | \ : / | \ : / | | \ : / | \ : / | | \ : / | \ : / | <1>.........(2).........<1>.........(2).........<1> | / : \ | / : \ | | / : \ | / : \ | | / : \ | / : \ | | / : \ | / : \ | | / : \ | / : \ | (3)---------<1>---------(3)---------<1>---------(3) | \ : / |\ : / | | \ : / |<.\.......6:0....../..>| | \ : / | \ : / | | \ : / | \ : / | | \ : / | \ : / | <1>.........(2).........<1>.........(2).........<1> | / : \ | / : \ | | / : \ | / : \ | | / : \ | / : \ | | / : \ | / : \ | |/ : \ | / : \ | (3)---------<1>---------(3)--30 _ft_--<1>--30 _ft_--(3) Mr. Prince, of Yamhill county, has modified his views somewhat in regard to the grafted and seedling trees. He thinks that possibly the permanent orchard should be of the grafted variety, possibly on the Royal or California hybrid of rapid growth. He proposes the above form of an orchard. The principal grafted trees should be placed in square form 60 feet apart, represented by figures 3. In the center of these squares at figures 2 he would either plant the same trees or some other seedling variety which will bring the trees about 42 feet apart. Midway between the main grafted trees he would plant other trees, or apple trees, represented by figures 1 in the little squares. This would make trees 30 feet apart. At the end of 15 or 20 years, when the trees possibly become crowded, he would remove the No. 1 trees. If this were an apple tree, it would already have served its best days and no great loss would be had by its removal. At the end of 25 or 30 years we would remove No. 2, if the trees became crowded, leaving a permanent orchard of trees 60 feet apart, 12 trees to the acre. This is an excellent arrangement, and no doubt about the best that has yet been proposed for walnut culture in Oregon. It is best to plant in square form, a tree to the center of each square, forty to sixty feet apart is the rule. Berries, small fruit, potatoes, vetch, peas, beans, etc., can be grown between the trees while they are young, leaving six or eight feet free to be cultivated each side of the trees. Many plant apples, peaches, prunes or cherries between walnut trees, planning to cut them out when the latter are of such size as to need all the space. These crops between the rows produce an income during the eight years' waiting for the walnuts to come into bearing. Each grower must decide this point according to his situation, always avoiding grains and grasses. THE TAP ROOT Some experimenting has been done and much speculation has been indulged regarding the tap root. One writer disposes of the whole subject in this manner: "The cutting of the tap root in planting seedlings has been a question for much discussion, many growers formerly holding that to cut it meant to kill the tree. This has proved a mistake. It has been practically demonstrated that the tree thrives better with the tap root cut if properly done with a sharp instrument, making a clean cut. New growth is thereby induced, the abundance of lateral roots feed the tree more satisfactorily and the trees come into bearing from two to three years earlier than would otherwise be the case." [Illustration: A Well Planted Tree] Before accepting this as final it would be well to make further inquiry. The summers of western Oregon are practically rainless and when the kernel in the formed shell is maturing unless there is irrigation a distress call is sent down to the roots for moisture, if the weather is very dry. The lateral roots cannot supply this dire need and if the main pump is not working away down deep in the moist earth the kernel will not fill well and may perish entirely. For this reason no fibre of the tap root should be disturbed, but rather encouraged by a well auger hole, bored before the tree is planted, down to the reservoir of moisture that will not fail in the dryest season. The moisture in a dry season as a rule is nearer the surface in the valley than in the hills and gives a better filled nut. In a wet season, when the ground everywhere is full of moisture, the hills may produce a more abundant crop than the valley, but in the run of years it will require more time to prove which is most valuable for walnut culture. Trees grow in either place, but he who cuts the tap root in any soil does so at the peril of his crop in dry seasons. Of the taproot, Wm. M. Reece, of the firm of Epps, Reece & Tillmont, Eugene, Oregon, writes: "The peculiar climatic conditions of the Willamette Valley, which at a certain season of the year becomes semi-arid, fully justifies the statement that trees not having a tap root are annually checked in their growth when irrigation is not used; while those that do have a tap root, as do walnuts, continue to grow and thrive even in the driest weather. The walnut should be planted, however, in soil having a subsoil free from any hard substance that will permit the tap root to grow downward into the strata of perpetual moisture. "This has been most thoroughly demonstrated in our walnut orchard this, the driest year in the memory of old settlers in the Valley. "When the growth of our apple, cherry and peach trees ceased because of the dry weather, our walnuts kept on growing as if supplied by continuous rains. It is true that liberal cultivation through the dry season will materially aid the growth of all kinds of trees not having a tap root and is indispensable to the growth of young walnut trees, trees that have not extended their tap root down to perpetual moisture. "Walnut trees, in the opinion of the writer, cease growing upward when they cease growing downward; that is to say, when rock, shale or impenetrable hardpan stops the growth of the tap root, the tree has practically reached its height. "Therefore, in planting a walnut grove, borings should be made to test the depth of the soil and character of the subsoil. "Unquestionably the best variety for this climate is the Franquette and next the Mayette. "Grafted trees are to be preferred to seedlings. Grafted trees bear much sooner and the fruit is more uniform in size, though a seedling that has attained the bearing age will produce as much fruit as a grafted tree of the same age; this we have occasion to observe from comparisons in our own orchard. "We have trees 14 years old that bore 100 pounds at the age of 12 years and the product sold for 25c a pound for planting purposes. "Those who had the misfortune to have the tender shoots of their walnut trees killed by the unusual frost early last May, should not be discouraged. Just examine the limbs now and you will find that three or four more shoots grew out where the one was killed. This makes more fruit buds for next year and the shortage of crop this year will be more than made up next. "The writer believes that walnut growing will prove to be the most profitable industry in the Willamette Valley. "WM. M. REECE." It seems to be a characteristic of the walnut and hickory, and possibly other nut trees, to send down a tap root deep into the earth to draw up the distilled and purified moisture that has been refined and sweetened in the lower depths. The older boys of the Middle Western states can recall the time when they wandered through the woods in late winter time, with a long pole or rail on their shoulders with which they "pulled hickory root." The young sprout was "withed" around near one end of the pole, then all hands put their shoulders under the long end and with an "altogether, heave, oh," draw up a tap root 4, 6 and 8 feet long. The lowest end was the choicest and sweetest. It was delicious and in the division of a day's hunt some of these found their way to "his best girl" at school. Whether the water down in these lower depths possesses these qualities, and that they are necessary to give the Oregon walnut its superiority is yet a matter of speculation, but that these conditions exist is well known and should have fullest consideration by the intelligent walnut culturist. [Illustration: _Tap Root of a Two-year-old Black Walnut showing how the root grows down to permanent water level, thus insuring full crops regardless of weather conditions_] Cut of tap root of a 2-year-old American Black which grew in the lower red hill land of Yamhill County. There is but one lateral root near the surface and this was probably caused by the tap root striking harder soil on its way down to permanent moisture level. This tap root is 3 feet long and nearly 6 inches in circumference. It is one of the best object lessons to be had in walnut culture in Oregon. Though the Willamette Valley has practically four rainless months of sunshine, irrigation is unnecessary. There is no other country comparable to it. Its cool and dewy summer nights, together with its great subterranean reservoir supplied by the winter rains, are the reasons why its crops never fail and why its fruits fill "red, round and luscious," and why the walnut has so persistently shown its preference for this favored region. WALNUT CULTIVATION While the walnut is the hardiest of trees and in many cases has borne heavily in Oregon without cultivation, experience has proved that, like fruit trees, cultivation up to the tenth or twelfth years increases the growth, the yield and the quality of the product. After full maturity no further cultivation is necessary, the tree taking care of itself with the independence of any forest tree. With a young grove it is best to plow between the rows after the rains cease in the spring, and then stir the ground occasionally all through the summer with the harrow or disk; this holds the moisture. When some trees seem backward a trench should be dug some two feet or so away, and a couple of feet deep, filled with fertilizer and closed over. This will encourage hardier and more rapid growth. Lime can also be used with good effect, it being customary in England to haul wagon loads to the walnut lands. Continually hoeing and digging constitute the best treatment, as one tree on the Prince place, a Mayette, has proved. It was given daily cultivation, by way of experiment, and more than doubled the size and yield of other trees of the same age not so treated. PRUNING WALNUTS Walnuts require very little pruning. However, to do well they must have plenty of light and air, and there must be room under the trees to cultivate. To this end, keep all lateral growths removed the first two years, pushing the strong terminal growth. Young trees so treated often make five or six feet in that time. They must be staked and tied with a broad strip of cloth. Cross the cloth between the stake and the twig so as not to bruise the tender wood. As the limbs begin to grow take out an occasional one to prevent the tree becoming too thick. When large limbs are removed, cut on the slant, carefully waxing to prevent decay. Heading-in is often beneficial when the tree does not seem to be fruitful. Train the trees upward as much as possible. In Roumania and some of the eastern countries of Europe, some of the walnut trees have such an enormous spread that a flock of five hundred sheep can lie in comfort beneath the shade of one tree and have ample room. If this vine-like tendency to spread can be obviated by intelligently training the trees upward, and its productiveness maintained or increased, the walnut grower of Oregon will have accomplished much in the conservation of our resources. At present we can make a tree that will produce 500 pounds of walnuts in 25 to 30 years. With 12 trees to the acre, will give 6000 pounds of nuts; two and one-half times that of wheat at 40 bushels per acre, and they will not require the expensive refrigerator cars and rapid transit of perishable fruits. TRAINING THE TREES It will only be necessary to train the limbs in seven or eight feet all round to be able to double the number of trees to the acre. Then train the trees skyward and increase the number of nut-bearing boughs, and the yield will be increased accordingly. If the nuts on the higher branches fill as well as on the lower, the tree can not be made to grow too high, because we have no violent storms to throw down the trees, and the nuts are self-gathering. These and many other valuable and interesting problems in the industry are to be worked out. According to Prof. Lewis, who is good authority, a later and better method is to cut the young tree back to 4 feet and make it throw out three or four laterals. When these laterals are fully grown, bind them up in a bundle one or two feet diameter with soft strands of rope. In the dormant season cut these laterals back to about two feet. This will multiply the branches. Cut back the new growths again the next year, and so on; this will greatly increase the nut-bearing boughs and will train the tree upward. This seems to be the most sensible method of pruning yet proposed. NO DISEASES INJURE OREGON WALNUTS The soft, moist atmosphere of western Oregon, so favorable to the English walnut, seems wholly unfavorable to pests that destroy the crop in other climates. A crop has never been lost or materially injured in Oregon through these sources; in fact, so free are the Oregon trees of such enemies that little thought or attention has been given to this phase of the subject. In a few localities where caterpillars have attacked the foliage they have been quickly eradicated by an arsenic spray. Fumigating will kill insect life. A bacterial disease that has made its appearance in California has not been seen in this state. Winter spray of lime and sulphur will kill moss and lichens, which are about the only parasites that attempt to fasten on Oregon walnut trees. [Illustration: _Old Walnut Trees Planted About 1850 Near McMinnville, on the Yamhill River_] [Illustration: POLLINATION The Walnut] POLLINATION Every fruit and nut grower should know the simple theory of pollination. When a tree appears thrifty but fails to produce, nine times in ten the trouble is with the pollination. The walnut is bi-sexual and self-fertile; the staminate catkins appear first, at the end of the year's growth (see Fig. 1), and the female blossoms, or pistillates, from one to three weeks later at the end of the new growth (see Fig. 2). Thus the staminate catkins sometimes fall before the pistillates form, and naturally there is no pollination and no crop. This should not discourage the grower or cause him to uproot his trees. Often by waiting a few seasons--if the tree is of the correct variety--the trouble may right itself. Many growers have gotten a crop from single trees where there was trouble with the pollination by artificially fertilizing, that is, shaking the pollen from fertile trees, even black walnut, over the barren pistillates. Birds, insects, and the breezes carry pollen from one tree to another. Therefore, if nuts for seed are desired, keep each grove of pure strain separate that there may be no deterioration owing to cross-fertilization. But the mixed orchard may bear best. Some varieties of walnut trees--notably the Los Angeles--are suitable only for shade in Oregon and should not be planted with any other thought in mind. The staminate blossoms of this variety appear six weeks ahead of the pistillates and, there being no pollination, naturally there are no nuts. [Illustration: _Best in the World, Oregon Walnuts_] [Illustration: _Drying the Nuts_] THE HARVEST The harvest comes in October, a convenient season where there are fruit crops to be taken care of. The process is extremely simple, being little more than an old-fashioned "nut gathering." When ripe, the nuts fall to the ground, shedding their hulls on the way. They are picked up by boys, girls, men and women. During the harvest three or four rounds must be made through the grove, perhaps a week elapsing between trips, each time slightly shaking the trees to make the ripe nuts fall. On the last round, a padded mallet with a long handle is used to dislodge the remaining nuts. The expense of harvesting is slight, five or six people being sufficient to care for a fifty-acre grove. WASHING AND DRYING When the nuts are gathered and brought in they are put into a revolving barrel-churn holding about 12 to 16 gallons. Two buckets of water and about the same of walnuts are put in together and the churn revolved for some minutes. Then the nuts are taken out and spread on wire crates and placed in the sun; they should be raked over two or three times a day. Or, if the weather is wet, they may be placed in the dry-house in a good draught at about 70 degrees F. In an artificial drying if the heat becomes too great the nuts will be rancid, as the oil-cells will burst: so better err on the side of underheating than overheating. If left out of doors, cover carefully to protect from dew. The crates for outdoor drying are placed on trestles in some California groves, in order that the air may circulate through the nuts. This is much better than placing them on the ground, where they draw dampness. SORTING AND GRADING After the walnuts are gathered, washed, dried and stored for a week or so to test the correctness of their drying, they are ready to be graded by passing over a sized screen. The choicest ones will sell at top market prices, and the culls a little under. The Prince grove harvest is never graded, as he finds ready sale at highest prices for the entire output just as it runs after sorting out the few imperfect nuts. PACKING AND SHIPPING They are next put into pound cartons, or 50-pound bags, common gunny sacks, ready for the market. Not being perishable none are lost in shipping or by keeping. Walnuts from Oregon groves have been kept two years, tasting as sweet and fresh as those in their first season. Long hauls are not objectionable, as the rough handling is not injurious to the well-sealed varieties grown in Oregon. In this they have an advantage over fruit. WALNUT YIELD PER ACRE While it is generally found that seedling trees properly treated come into bearing the eighth year, this crop is usually light, doubling each successive season for seven or eight years. From then on there is a steady increase in crop and hardiness for many years. Often trees in Oregon bear in their sixth year; while there are instances on record of trees set out in February bearing the following autumn. This is no criterion, however, merely an instance illustrating the unusual richness of Oregon soil, and its perfect adaptability to walnut culture. Thirty-five acres on the Prince place yielded at twelve years, twelve tons of fine nuts, which were sold at 18 and 20 cents a pound, two cents above the market price, making an average of $125 per acre. Another grove of two acres yielded in their ninth year two tons, or a ton to the acre, netting the owner $360 an acre. Mr. A. A. Quarnberg's eleven-year-old trees averaged twenty-five pounds each. Mr. Henry J. Biddle's ten and twelve-year-old trees averaged thirty pounds each. One hundred fifty dollars an acre from twelve-year-old trees is a conservative estimate, though some groves not cultivated may fall under that figure, while others in a high state of cultivation will almost double it. THE WALNUT MARKET The very fact that in 1907 Oregon-grown walnuts commanded several cents a pound higher price than those grown elsewhere indicates their market value. When ordinary nuts sold for 12 and 16 cents a pound Oregon nuts brought 18 and 20 cents. New York dealers who cater to the costliest trade throughout the United States, and who have never handled for this purpose any but the finest types of imported nuts, pronounced the Oregon product satisfactory from every standpoint--finely flavored, nutty, meaty and delicious. They were glad to pay an extra price to secure all that were available. In the home market the leading dealers of Portland and Northwest cities readily dispose of all of the Oregon walnuts obtainable at an advanced price. In fact, the Oregon walnut has commanded a premium in every market into which it has been introduced. California walnuts are largely shipped east, the percentage entering the northern markets being comparatively small. The annual sum expended in Oregon for imported nuts at the present time is $400,000. When the Oregon growers are able to supply the home demand alone, shutting out importations, the population of Oregon will have more than doubled, and the amount expended in this state for walnuts will approach if it does not exceed the million-dollar mark. In addition to this the eastern markets will be clamoring for Oregon walnuts, as they now absorb Hood River apples, Willamette valley cherries and Rogue River valley pears. With eastern buyers always ready to pay an extra price for extra grade products, superior grades of Oregon walnuts will undoubtedly be contracted for, leaving only the culls for home consumption. It has been conservatively estimated that at the rate the population of the United States is increasing, and the rate walnut consumption is increasing, by the time every available acre in Oregon is in full bearing the supply will still fall far short of the demand. Judging by past experience in California this is no chimerical conception. Since 1896 the walnut crop in that state has steadily increased, and in like proportion has the price advanced, from seven cents in 1896 to twenty cents in 1907. COMPARED WITH FRUIT In comparing walnut culture with fruit, one must take into consideration the fact that distance from transportation facilities is not a detriment; that there is very little expense in putting out or maintaining a walnut grove; that insects, blight and disease are unknown to walnut groves of Oregon, thus obviating the cost of spraying; that the expense of harvesting is exceedingly light; that no nut-fruit perishes--that it does not need to be sold at once, but will keep indefinitely, making a lost crop practically impossible. It is estimated by experienced walnut growers that the annual cost of cultivation and pruning should not exceed $10 an acre, while harvesting should not exceed 20 cents per hundred pounds. It is a simple matter to figure the profits. The original investment in a walnut grove may be made a comparatively small amount; thus it appeals particularly to those of limited means. THE POUND PACKAGE It is difficult or impossible to establish a uniform package good for every year. Walnuts are not like other fruits; size is not a sure indication of weight. The pound package used by Mr. Thos. Prince is 3-3/4 x 4-1/2 x 5-1/4 inches, which in 1907 when filled weighed 17 ounces, in 1908 it weighed 16 ounces, and in the dry year of 1909 it weighed but 14 ounces. WALNUT CONFECTIONERY The cut on page 5 shows the best method of cracking walnuts to extract the kernel in halves without breaking. Grasp the nut between the thumb and forefinger at the seam, place on a hard surface of stone or iron and strike sharply with a light hammer only sufficient to crack the shell without crushing the kernel. This method is used by most manufacturers of great varieties of walnut confectionery, some of which are shown in the picture. Walnut chocolates, walnut taffy, walnut log, panoche, nougat and many other articles, as well as walnut sundries to put on dishes of ice cream are among the tasty confections for which the demand is very great. WALNUTS IN COOKING A few of the delightful ways in which walnuts may be used on the table: NUT BREAD 1 pound hard wheat flour. 1 pound whole wheat flour. 1 cup good yeast. 1 cup ground walnuts. 1 tablespoonful Orleans molasses. 2 tablespoonfuls melted lard or butter. Mix with warm water; let it raise quite light, then mould, raise and bake as other bread. GEMS Graham, wheatlet or cornmeal gems are greatly improved by adding a few walnut kernels ground fine. NUT CAKE 3 eggs, yolks and whites beaten separately, 1/2 cup--scant--butter, 3/4 cup milk, 1 cup walnuts ground or chopped, 1-1/2 cups granulated sugar, 1/2 teaspoonful each of lemon and vanilla, 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder, flour to make a moderately stiff batter. CHOCOLATE NUT CAKE 3 eggs, 3/4 cup each of brown and white sugar, 3/4 cup of coffee and milk mixed, 1 cup ground walnuts, 4 tablespoonfuls melted butter, 2 teaspoonfuls ground chocolate or cocoa, most of 1 nutmeg grated, 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder, flour to make moderately stiff batter. More satisfactory results are obtained by baking either of these cakes in two deep layercake tins and putting the two parts together with any good filling. NUT COOKIES 3 cups sugar--Extra C preferred--3/4 pound of butter, 2 or 3 eggs, 1 cup of water, 1 teaspoonful of baking powder, 1/2 a nutmeg, a little ginger and cinnamon, 1 cup walnuts ground fine, 4 cups of flour. Roll thin and bake in a quick oven. APPLE NUT SALAD 4 cups of good tart apples cut in small cubes or chopped not too fine, 1 cup of coarsely ground, or chopped nuts. Stir lightly into these 1 cup of sugar and 1/2 of a nutmeg grated fine. DRESSING FOR SAME 2-3 cup of cold water, 2 tablespoons strong vinegar, 1/2 cup of sugar. Add one egg, well beaten. Put this on the stove and stir constantly until well cooked. If this is done carefully it will not curdle. Take from the stove and add a lump of butter the size of a walnut, grate in a little nutmeg and stir gently until the butter is well melted and mixed. Some whipped cream may be added to this when cool if desired or convenient. BY-PRODUCTS In addition to walnuts as nuts, they pay handsomely as pickles. For this purpose they must be picked green. This could be made a most profitable side industry in connection with large groves. One grower had an inquiry for two carloads of green walnuts to be used for this purpose. Large quantities are imported annually and they sell at very high prices. They are also used for dyeing purposes, giving a beautiful brown shade difficult to obtain except with walnut hulls. Oil which is often substituted for olive oil is manufactured from walnuts, thus suggesting another commercial avenue. One hundred pounds of walnuts produce eighteen pounds of oil. [Illustration: _No. 1, 1 Vrooman Franquette. No. 2, 2 Mayette. No. 3, 3 Mayette Rouge. No. 4, 4 Parisienne. No. 5, 5 Praeparturien. No. 6 6 Chaberte. No. 7. Cluster._ Plate One] [Illustration: _No. 1 1 Franquette. No. 2, 2 Glady. No. 3 3 Payne. No. 4 4 Mayette. No. 5, 5 Meylan. No. 6, 6 Parisienne. No. 7, Cluster. No. 8, Praeparturien._ Plate Two] [Illustration: Plate Three _The "Prince of Yamhill"_] VARIETIES The beautiful nuts shown on Plate 3 are seedlings from the orchard of Mr. Thomas Prince, of Yamhill county. They are probably the handsomest walnut as to size, form and color as well as taste that may be found anywhere. The tree has not had an orchard try-out yet. If it proves to be a good bearer with the other qualities suitable for this climate and soil condition, it will enter the field high up in the standard of excellence. There is some discrepancy in what constitutes standard varieties of walnuts. We have endeavored to get nuts both from Oregon and California to fix a uniform understanding as to the different varieties. The types submitted by Mr. A. McGill of the Oregon Nursery Co., Plate 1, are No. 1, 1 Vrooman Franquette, No. 2, 2 Mayette, No. 3, 3 Mayette Rouge, No. 4, 4 Parisienne, No. 5, 5 Praeparturien, No. 6, 6 Chaberte, No. 7, Cluster. Plate No. 2, by Mr. Ferd Groner, No. 1, 1 Franquette, No. 2, 2 Glady, No. 3, 3 Payne, No. 4, 4 Mayette, No. 5, 5 Meylan, No. 6, 6 Parisienne, No. 7 Cluster, No. 8 Praeparturien, are about as near uniformly correct as we have. The Chaberte nuts, which confectioners use, are a special industry, the kernels being slipped out of the shells without breaking, and sold in this form. All the smaller nuts, the imperfect ones--the culls--find ready sale both shelled and unshelled for the manufacture of walnut candy, walnut cake, etc. WEIGHTS, KERNEL AND TASTE The first Walnut Show was held at McMinnville, November 1, 1907, and was judged by H. M. Williamson, Secretary of the State Board of Horticulture. Most of the following memoranda on weights are taken from his report: James Morrison, Franquette 32 to the pound F. W. Myers, Mayette 34 " " " F. W. Myers, Seedling 35 " " " James Morrison, Seedling Franquette 42 " " " James Morrison, Grafted Mayette 38 " " " D. H. Turner, Seedlings 42 " " " James Morrison, Blanche Mayette 34 " " " James Morrison, Grenoble Mayette 32 " " " D. H. Turner, Parry 48 " " " Mayette Shaped Praeparturiens 64 " " " R. P. Ungerman, Seedlings 50 " " " Bland Herring, Praeparturiens 38 " " " Bland Herring, Bijou 22 " " " Pleasant Cozine, Seedlings 42 " " " Casey tree, Seedling 55 " " " E. Estes, fourth generation from Casey tree 52 " " " Thos. Prince Seedling 40 " " " Derr Tree, Parry 60 " " " The investigations in regard to relative weights of kernel and shell of the different varieties is made up from an article read by Mr. Ferd Groner before the State Horticultural Society, December, 1909. The Vrooman Franquette shell and kernel weighed equal. The Payne Seedling gave slightly more kernel than shell. The Mayette slightly more shell than kernel. The Meylan, shell and kernel equal. The Gladys, shell and kernel equal. Franquette, near Salem, shell weighed two and one-half times that of kernel. Other experiments show that the Praeparturien shell and kernel are about equal. While the weight of the kernel is of great importance to the consumer, the taste and digestibility is still more so. In this is the food value of the walnut. The food value will in time be the commercial value. There is very little variation in the taste of any one variety of wild nuts or fruits, but the cultivated walnut, as well as the cultivated peach and apple, has a great variety of tastes, and it does not require an expert to distinguish the good from the poor qualities. Walnuts should be graded as to variety, the varieties should then be graded as to size, but the paramount duty of the grower is to produce a creamy, delicious walnut of excellent flavor. The soil and climate has proven their excellence, and it is now for the intelligent grower to do his part. WHO SHOULD INVEST Professional men and women, business men and women, those living in cities and towns and confined to offices, stores and factories, will find an investment in forty or fifty acres of walnut land at the present time wholly within their possibilities. Special terms can be arranged and their groves planted and cared for at small cost. While they are working their groves will be growing toward maturity, and in less than a decade they may be free from the demands of daily routine: the grove will furnish an income, increasing each season until the twentieth year, and will prove the most pleasant kind of old age annuity, and the richest inheritance a man could leave his children. The practical farmer, or the inexperienced man who desires to escape the tyranny of city work by way of the soil will find that a walnut grove offers an immediate home, a living from small fruits and vegetables while his trees are maturing, and at the end of eight or ten years, the beginning of an income that will every year thereafter increase, while the labor exacted will gradually lessen until it amounts to practically nothing. Like rearing children, a walnut grower's troubles are over with the trees' infant days. The capitalist can find no better place for his money than safely invested in Oregon walnut lands; the rise is certain and near. [Illustration: _The "Meat" of the Walnut_] Some years ago "Outlook," a most conservative publication, spoke of the English walnut as "a tree of vast commercial importance in the far west." Luther Burbank states: "The consumption of walnuts is increasing among all civilized nations faster than any other food." CONCLUSION B. M. Lelong, Secretary of the California State Board of Horticulture, wrote in 1896: "California growers have had a long and varied experience with many failures, and when they finally began to place their walnuts on the market they were obliged to accept the humiliating price of from 3 to 6 cents a pound less than that paid for imported walnuts." In Oregon the reverse is true. Our walnuts command a price above that paid for walnuts raised anywhere else. The size, cracking-out quantity, delicate flavor and delicious creamy taste, are the qualities that give the Oregon walnut its surpassing excellence. If we have this pre-eminence at the beginning of the industry, what may we expect when intelligent cultivation has produced the best grade of walnuts of which our soil and climate are capable? To Oregon, then, with its vast areas adapted to this industry, must the world look for its great annual walnut harvest in the years to come. The far-seeing man will secure an interest in Oregon walnut lands now, before speculation and a general awakening to their real value have boosted the price to that of walnut lands elsewhere. [Illustration: _View in Prince Walnut Grove Dundee, Oregon_] OREGON WALNUT AREA BY COUNTIES Note: The price of land varies according to location; the cheaper land is not all cleared. Groves now Bearing trees. Available land. Price County. planted. per acre. Washington Many young A number bear Thousands of ones. full crops. acres. $25 to $200. Multnomah Several young Many scattered. Several groves. thousand. $50 to $200. Yamhill 3,000 acres. 5,000 trees. 40,000 acres; every quarter section has suitable land. $50 to $250. Clackamas 100 acres. Many scattered; Several one grove. thousand. $20 to $500. Polk Several hundred 100 trees. Many thousand. $25 to $100. acres. Marion A few A number in Hundreds bearing. of acres. $20 to $500. Benton No record. No record. Many acres $20 to $100. Linn Several young Several Many hundred groves. scattered. acres. $20 to $500. Lane 300 acres. A few scattered; 10,000. $60 to $125. bear heavily. Douglas None. Many; loaded Thousands $25 to $100. with nuts of acres. Josephine No record. A number; Hundreds scattered. of acres. No record? Jackson 30 or 40 acres. Hundreds Several scattered thousand. $25 to $225. through valley loaded with nuts. Baker A few groves. Many producing Thousands of (Eastern Ore.) trees. acres. $25 to $150? GOLD MEDAL WALNUT EXHIBIT (See cut on following page) Last year the Walnut club of McMinnville made an exhibit of home grown walnuts at the A.-Y.-P. Exposition and was awarded a gold medal. They have a very attractive and artistic way of putting up an exhibit, classifying and arranging the different varieties in glass cases in such a manner as to attract universal attention and call forth the heartiest exclamations of admiration. The accompanying cut shows one of their exhibits in position. It is nine feet high and nearly five feet wide and is faced alike on both sides. This club was organized for the purpose of studying the walnut industry in all its details. They employ scientists and experts to tell how and to demonstrate the various methods of walnut culture. There are scores of 5 and 10-acre tracts planted to walnuts in the vicinity, as well as experimental trees on the lots in town and along the streets. They call McMinnville "The Walnut City." [Illustration: _Walnut Exhibit as prepared by the Walnut Club of McMinnville for the display of OREGON GROWN WALNUTS in several of the principal Eastern Offices of the OREGON RAILROAD & NAVIGATION CO. and SOUTHERN PACIFIC CO. (Lines in Oregon)_] RAILROAD REPRESENTATIVES Who will take pleasure in giving all desired information as to rates, routes, train schedules, hotel accommodations, etc., and make advance arrangements for trips. EAST. New York: J. B. DeFriest, Gen. Eastern Agt., U. P. R. R., 287 Broadway New York: L. H. Nutting, Gen. Pass. Agt., S. P. S. S. Co., 366 Broadway Boston, Mass. Willard Massey, N. E. Frt. & Pass. Agt., 176 Wash. St. Philadelphia, Pa.: S. C. Milbourne, G. A., U. P. R. R., 830 Chestnut St. R. J. Smith, Agent, S. P. Co., 632 Chestnut St. Pittsburg, Pa.: G. G. Herring, General Agent, 707 Park Bldg. Cincinnati, Ohio: W. H. Connor, General Agent, 53 East Fourth St. Detroit, Mich.: J. C. Ferguson, General Agent, 11 Fort St., West MIDDLE WEST. Chicago, Ill.: W. G. Neimyer, General Agent, 120 Jackson Boulevard St. Louis, Mo.: J. G. Lowe, General Agent, 903 Olive St. Kansas City, Mo.: H. G. Kaill, Asst. Gen. Frt. & Pass. Agt., U. P. R. R., 901 Walnut St. St. Joseph, Mo.: S. E. Stohr, Gen. Frt. & Pass. Agt., St. J. & G. I. R. R. Leavenworth, Kan.: J. J. Hartnett, Gen. Agt., Rooms 9-11 Nat. Bank Bldg. Council Bluffs, Iowa: J. C. Mitchell, City Ticket Agent, 522 Broadway Des Moines, Iowa: J. W. Turtle, Trav. Pass. Agt., 313 W. Fifth St. Minneapolis, Minn.: H. F. Carter, Dist. Pass. Agent, 21 South Third St. Lincoln., Neb.: E. B. Slosson, General Agent, 1044 O St. Omaha, Neb.: E. L. Lomax, General Passenger Agent, U. P. R. R. Pueblo, Colo.: L. M. Tudor, Commercial Agent, 312 N. Main St. Denver, Colo.: Francis B. Choate, General Agent, 941 Seventeenth St. Wm. K. McAllister, Gen. Agt., S. P. Co., Suite 313 Railway Exc. Bldg. CANADA. Toronto: J. O. Goodsell, Traveling Pass. Agt., Room 14 Janes Bldg. SOUTH AND SOUTHWEST. Atlanta, Ga.: A. J. Dutcher, General Agent, 121 Peachtree St. New Orleans, La.: J. H. R. Parsons, Gen. Pass. Agt., M. L. & T. R. R., 227 St. Charles St. Houston, Tex.: T. J. Anderson, Gen. Pass. Agent, G. H. & S. A. R. R. EUROPE. London, England: Rudolph Falck, General European Agent No. 49 Leadenhall St., E. C. No. 22 Cockspur St., N. W. Liverpool, England: No. 25 Water St. Antwerp, Belgium: 11 Rue Chapelle de Grace Hamburg, Germany: Amerika Haus, 23-27, Ferdinand Strasse PACIFIC COAST. San Francisco, Cal.: Chas. S. Fee, Pass. Traffic Mgr., S. P. Co., Flood Bldg. Lewiston, Ida.: C. W. Mount, District Freight & Passenger Agent Los Angeles, Cal.: H. O. Wilson, Gen. Agt., U. P. R. R., 557 Spring St. T. A. Graham, Asst. Gen. Pass. Agt., S. P Co., 600 S. Spring St Olympia, Wash.: J. C. Percival, Agent, Percival's Dock Salt Lake City, Utah: D. E. Burley, Gen. Pass. Agt., O. S. L. R. R. Seattle, Wash.: W. D. Skinner, Gen. Frt. & Pass. Agent, O. & W. R. R. E. E. Ellis, General Agent, 608 First Ave. Tacoma, Wash.: Robt. Lee, Gen'l Agt., Berlin Bldg., Eleventh and Pacific Ave. Walla Wala, Wash.: R. Burns, District Freight and Passenger Agent Wallace, Ida.: G. A. Marshall, Commercial Agent Astoria, Ore.: G. W. Roberts, Commercial Agent, O. R. & N. Dock Portland, Ore.: C. W. Stinger, City Ticket Agent, 3d and Washington Sts. R. B. MILLER, Traffic Manager ... WM. McMURRAY, Gen. Pass. Agt. JOHN M. SCOTT, Assistant General Passenger Agent Portland, Oregon [Illustration: THE OREGON RAILROAD & NAVIGATION CO. OREGON & WASHINGTON R.R. UNION PACIFIC OREGON SHORT LINE SOUTHERN PACIFIC CO.] 
20221	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ _Northern Nut Growers_ _Association_ _INCORPORATED_ _Affiliated with_ _THE AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY_ =REPORT= _of the proceedings of the_ =Twenty-fourth Annual Meeting= =DOWNINGTOWN, PA.= _SEPTEMBER 11 and 12, 1933_ INDEX Officers, Directors and Committees 3 State Vice-Presidents 4 List of Members 5 Constitution 8 By-Laws 9 My Butternut, A Poem, by J. H. Helmick 10 Proceedings of the Twenty-fourth Annual Convention 11 Address of Rev. G. Paul Musselman 11 Report of the Treasurer 13 J. F. Jones' Experimental Work in Hybridizing Filberts and Hazels--Miss Mildred Jones 14 Commercial Cracking of the Black Walnut--H. F. Stoke 16 Walnut Notes for 1933--C. A. Reed 20 Is Information of General Orchard Fertility of Value in the Nut Grove--Prof. F. N. Fagan 25 Forward March of the Nut Cultural Project in Michigan--Prof. James A. Neilson 28 Notes on the Filbert Orchard at Geneva, N. Y.--Prof. G. L. Slate 34 Developing a Walnut Grove as a Side Line by a Bee-keeper--L. K. Hostetter 37 Nut Trees as Used in Landscaping--Dr. Lewis E. Theiss 39 My Experience in Growing Nut Trees on the Home Lawn--M. Glen Kirkpatrick 42 Developing a Thousand Tree Improved Black Walnut Grove--C. F. Hostetter 43 Tribute to Mr. Bixby 45 Message to Dr. Morris 46 A Black Walnut Grove and Why--Dr. Frank L. Baum 47 Nut Contests 48 Filbert Pollinization 48 Green Shoot Grafting of Trees--Dr. R. T. Morris 49 Communications from: Robert T. Morris, M.D. 49 Prof. A. S. Colby 53 J. U. Gellatly 54 Notes on the "Tour," Tuesday, September 12, 1933 55 Notes on the Banquet, Tuesday evening, September 12, 1933 56 Address of Al. Bergstrom 57 Reports of Standing Committees 57 Reports of the Resolutions Committee 57 List of member nurserymen having budded and grafted stock 58 Exhibits at the Convention 59 Attendance 60 Books and Bulletins on Northern Nut Growing 62 Advertisements--"Hobbies Magazine" 63 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President._ FRANK H. FREY, ROOM 930, LA SALLE ST. STATION, CHICAGO, ILL. _Vice-President._ DR. G. A. ZIMMERMAN, 32 SOUTH 13TH ST., HARRISBURG, PA. _Secretary._ GEO. L. SLATE, STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, GENEVA, N. Y. _Treasurer._ NEWTON H. RUSSELL, 12 BURNETT AVE., SOUTH HADLEY, MASS. _DIRECTORS_ FRANK H. FREY, DR. G. A. ZIMMERMAN, GEO. L. SLATE, NEWTON H. RUSSELL, CARL F. WALKER, PROF. J. A. NEILSON. _EDITOR OF PUBLICATIONS_ DR. W. C. DEMING. _COMMITTEES_ _Executive._ FRANK H. FREY, DR. G. A. ZIMMERMAN, GEO. L. SLATE, NEWTON H. RUSSELL, CARL F. WALKER, PROF. J. A. NEILSON. _Auditing._ ZENAS H. ELLIS, CARL F. WALKER. _Finance._ T. P. LITTLEPAGE, DR. W. C. DEMING, H. R. WEBER. _Press and Publication._ DR. W. C. DEMING, KARL W. GREENE, DR. J. RUSSELL SMITH, ZENAS H. ELLIS, GEO. L. SLATE. _Membership._ NEWTON H. RUSSELL, MISS DOROTHY C. SAWYER, J. U. GELLATLY, JOHN W. HERSHEY, D. C. SNYDER. _Program._ PROF. J. A. NEILSON, DR. W. C. DEMING, C. A. REED, H. BURGART, KARL W. GREENE. _Hybrids and Promising Seedlings._ DR. G. A. ZIMMERMAN, PROF. N. F. DRAKE, MISS AMELIA RIEHL, H. F. STOKE, J. F. WILKINSON. _Survey._ CARL F. WALKER, DR. A. S. COLBY, H. F. STOKE, J. F. WILKINSON. _Exhibits._ J. W. HERSHEY, MISS MILDRED JONES, H. BURGART, PROF. A. S. COLBY. _DEAN OF THE ASSOCIATION_ DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, OF NEW YORK AND CONNECTICUT. _FIELD SECRETARY_ ZENAS H. ELLIS, FAIR HAVEN, VERMONT. _OFFICIAL JOURNAL_ NATIONAL NUT NEWS, 2810 S. MICHIGAN AVE., CHICAGO, ILLINOIS. STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS Arkansas Prof. N. F. Drake California Will J. Thorpe Canada J. U. Gellatly China P. W. Wang Connecticut Dr. W. C. Deming Dist. of Columbia L. H. Mitchell England Howard Spence Illinois Prof. A. S. Colby Indiana J. F. Wilkinson Iowa D. C. Snyder Maryland T. P. Littlepage Massachusetts James H. Bowditch Michigan Harry Burgart Minnesota Carl Weschcke Missouri P. C. Stark Nebraska William Caha New York Prof. L. H. MacDaniels New Jersey Lee W. Jaques Ohio Harry R. Weber Pennsylvania John Rick Rhode Island Philip Allen Vermont Zenas H. Ellis Virginia Dr. Russel J. Smith Washington D. H. Berg West Virginia Dr. J. E. Cannaday Wisconsin Lt. G. H. Turner NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION List of Members as of January 1, 1934 Abbott, Mrs. Laura W., Route No. 2, Bristol, Pennsylvania. Adams, Gerald W., R. F. D. 4, Moorehead, Iowa. Aldrich, A. W., Route 3, Springfield, Vermont. Allen, Edward E., Hotel Ambassador, Cambridge, Mass. Allen, Philip, 178 Dorance St., Providence, R. I. Andrews, Miss Frances E., 245 Clifton Ave., Minneapolis, Minn. Anthony, A. B., Sterling, Illinois. Ballock, J. S., 1559 Main Street, Springfield, Mass. Bartlett, Frances A., Stamford, Connecticut. Baum, Dr. F. L., Boyertown, Pennsylvania. Bennett, F. H., 19 East 92nd St., New York, N. Y. Berg, D. H., Nooksack, Washington. Betz, Frank S. (Personal), Betz Bldg., Hammond, Indiana. Bixby, Mrs. Willard G., 32 Grand Ave., Baldwin, N. Y. Bontz, Mrs. Geo. I., Route No. 2, Peoria, Illinois. * Bowditch, James H., 903 Tremont St., Boston, Mass. Boyce, Daniel, Rt. 4, Winterset, Iowa. Bradley, Homer, c/o Kellogg Farms, Rt. 1, Augusta, Mich. Brown, Daniel L., 60 State Street, Boston, Mass. Brown, Roy W., Spring Valley, Illinois. Bryant, Dr. Ward C., 31 Federal St., Greenfield, Mass. Buckwalter, Alan R., Flemington, New Jersey. Burgart H., c/o Mich. Nut Nursery, Rt. 2, Union City, Michigan. Caha, William, Wahoo, Nebraska. Canaday, Ward M., Home Bank Building, Toledo, Ohio. Cannaday, Dr. J. E., c/o Charleston Gen. Hosp., Charleston, West Virginia. Chipman, G. F., "The Country Guide," Winnipeg, Man., Canada. Close, Prof. C. P., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Colby, Arthur S., University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. Collins, Joseph N., 335 W. 87th St., New York, N. Y. Cooley, Ralph B., Hotel Kimbal, Springfield, Mass. Crysdale, Stanley A., R. D. 5, Auburn, N. Y. Curtis, Elroy, Brookfield, Conn. Deeben, Fred, Trevorton, Pennsylvania. Deming, Dr. W. C, 31 Owen Street, Hartford, Conn. * Drake, Prof. N. F., Fayetteville, Arkansas. Elfgren, Ivan P., 11 Sheldon Place, Rutland, Vermont. * Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven, Vermont. Ellwanger, Mrs. W. D., 510 East Ave., Rochester, New York. Ettari, Oscar A., 71 North Ave., New Rochelle, N. Y. Ferris, Major Hiram B., P. O. Box 74, Spokane, Wash. Fickes, W. R., Route 7, Wooster, Ohio. Fontaine, Arthur, 21 Highland Ave., Ludlow, Mass. Frey, Frank H., Room 930 La Salle St. Station, Chicago, Ill. Gable, Jas. B., Jr., Stewartstown, Pennsylvania. Gage, J. H., 107 Flatt Ave., Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Galbreath, R. S., Huntington, Indiana. Garber, Hugh G., 75 Fulton St., New York City, N. Y. Gellatly, J. U., Box 19, West Bank P. O., Gellatly, British Columbia. Gerber, E. P., Route No. 1, Apple Creek, Ohio. Graham, J. W., Walnut Orchard Farm, Ithaca, N. Y. Greene, Mrs. Avice M., 2203 Ridge Rd., N. W., Washington, D. C. Greene, Karl W., 2203 Ridge Rd., N. W., Washington, D. C. Gribbel, Mrs. John, Box 31, Wyncote, Pennsylvania. Hahn, Albert G., Rural Route No. 6, Bethesda, Md. Hale, Richard W., 60 State Street, Boston, Mass. Hammond, Julian T., 3rd, D.D.S., Newtown, Pa. Harman-Brown, Miss Helen, Croton Falls, New York. Harrington, F. O., Williamsburg, Iowa. Hartzell, B. F., Shepardstown, West Virginia. Healey, Scott, R. F. D. No. 219. Otsego, Mich. Healy, Oliver T., c/o Michigan Nut Nursery, Rt. 2, Union City, Michigan. Helmick, James H., Columbus Junction, Iowa. Hershey, John W., Downington, Pennsylvania. Hilliard, H. J., Sound View, Connecticut. Holden, Frank H., 56 West 45th St., New York City, N. Y. Hostetter, C. F., Bird-in-Hand, Pennsylvania. Hostetter, L. K., Route No. 5, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. * Huntington, A. M., 3 East 89th St., New York City, N. Y. Hutchinson, Galen Otis, 691 Main Ave., Passaic, N. J. Iowa State Horticultural Society, Des Moines, Iowa. Isakson, Walter R., Route No. 1, Hobart, Indiana. Jacob, C. M., Stockbridge, Mass. Jacobs, Homer L., c/o Davey Tree Exp. Co., Kent, Ohio. * Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly Place, Jersey City, N. J. Jones Nurseries, J. F., Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Kaan, Helen W., Wellesley, Mass. Kaufman, M. M., Clarion, Pennsylvania. Kellogg, Dr. J. H., 202 Manchester St., Battle Creek, Mich. Kelly, Mortimer B., 21 West St., New York City. Kendrick, Mrs. Jay G., 44 Main St., Shelburne Falls, Mass. * Kinsan Arboretum, Lang Terrace, North Szechuan Rd., Shanghai, China. Knox, Loy J., c/o First National Bank, Morrison, Ill. Lamb, Gilbert D., Woolworth Bldg., New York, N. Y. Lancaster, S. S., Jr., Rock Point, Maryland. Leach, Will, Cornell Building, Scranton, Pa. Lester, Henry, 35 Pintard Ave., New Rochelle, N. Y. * Lewis, Clarence, 1000 Park Ave., New York City, N. Y. Little, Norman B., Rocky Hill, Conn. * Littlepage, Thos. P., Union Trust Bldg., Washington, D. C. MacDaniels, L. H., c/o Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. McIntyre, A. C., Dep't of Forestry, State College, Pa. Mehring, Upton F., Keymar, Maryland. Meyer, Dr. R. C. J., 1815 Third Ave., Moline, Ill. Middleton, M. S., District Horticulturist, Vernon, British Columbia. Miller, Herbert, Pinecrest Poultry Farms, Richfield, Pa. Mitchell, Lennard H., 2219 California St., N. W., Washington, D. C. * Montgomery, Robert H., 385 Madison Ave., New York City, N. Y. * Morris, Dr. Robert T., R. F. D., Stamford, Connecticut. Morton, Joy, Lisle, Illinois. Neilson, Jas. A., c/o Michigan State College, East Lansing, Michigan. New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y. Orner, George D., 751 Ridgewood Road, Maplewood, N. J. Otto, Arnold G., 4150 Three Mile Drive, Detroit, Michigan. Paden, Riley W., Rte. 2, Enon Valley, Penna. Park, J. B., c/o Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Peters, E. S., 4241 Folsom Ave., St. Louis, Mo. Pickhardt, Dr. O. C, 117 East 80th St., New York City, N. Y. Porter, John J., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown, Md. Pratt, Geo. D., Jr, Bridgewater, Connecticut. Purnell, J. Eiger, Box 24, Salisbury, Maryland. Putnam, Mrs. Ellen M., 129 Babson St., Mattapan, Mass. Reed, C. A., Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Richardson, J. B., Lakeside, Washington. * Rick, John, 438 Pennsylvania Square, Reading, Pa. Riehl, Miss Amelia, Godfrey, Illinois. Rowley, Dr. John C., 1046 Ashburn Ave., Hartford, Conn. Russell, Newton H., 12 Burnett Ave., So. Hadley Falls, Mass. Ryan, Henry E., Sunderland, Mass. Sawyer, Dorothy C., c/o Living Tree Guild, 468 4th Ave., New York. Sefton, Pennington, 94 Lake Ave., Auburn, N. Y. Schlagenbusch Bros., Rt. 3, Fort Madison, Iowa. Schlemmer, Claire D., Rt. 2, Fredericksburg, Virginia. Schmidt, A. G., Nazareth, Pennsylvania. Schuster, C. E., Horticulturist, Corvallis, Oregon. Scott, Harry E., P. O. Box 191, Petersburg, N. Y. Sherer, J. F., c/o C. T. Sherer Co., Worcester, Mass. Slate, George L., State Agri. Exper. Station, Geneva, N. Y. Smith, Dr. J. Russell, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. Smith, Leon C., 60 Day Ave., Westfield, Mass. Snyder, D. C., Center Point, Iowa. Spence, Howard, The Red House, Ainsdale, near Southport, England. Spencer, Mrs. May R., 275 West Decatur St., Decatur, Ill. Stark Bros., Nurseries, Louisiana, Missouri. Steffee, Jno. G., 317 6th Ave., New York City, N. Y. Stiebeling, Mrs. Anna E., 1458 Monroe St., Washington, D. C. Stocking, Frederick N., 3456 Cadillac St., Detroit, Michigan. Stoke, H. F., 1421 Watts Ave., Roanoke, Virginia. Stover, Jacob E., Springwood Farms, York, Pa. Strickland, C. H., Snow Hill, Maryland. Taylor, C. W., 1723 Eye St., Eureka, California. Theiss, Lewis Edwin, Muncy, Pennsylvania. Thorpe, Will J., 1545 Divisarero St., San Francisco, Calif. Tice, David, Savings Bank Building, Lockport, N. Y. Turner, Lt. G. H., 932 Prospect Ave., Portage, Wisconsin. University of Illinois Library, Urbana, Illinois. Van Meter, W. L., Adel, Iowa. Von Ammon S., c/o Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. Walker, C. F., 2851 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland Heights, Ohio. Watson, John F., 16 Dumont Apart, Lynchburg, Va. * Weber, Harry R., 123 East 6th St., Cincinnati, Ohio. Weidhass, William H., Gaston St., Easthampton, Mass. Wellman, Sargeant, Windridge, Topsfield, Mass. Went, Robert E., 551 McDonough St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Weschcke, Carl, 1048 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul, Minn. Wigglesworth, Alfred. Wilkinson, J. F., Rockport, Indiana. Williams, Dr. Chas. Mallory, Stonington, Connecticut. Williams, Moses, 18 Tremont St., Boston, Mass. Windhorst, Dr. M. R., University Club Bldg., St. Louis, Mo. * Wissman, Mrs. F. de R., 9 W. 54th St., New York City, N. Y. * Wister, John C., Clarkson Ave. and Wister St., Germantown, Pa. Wright, Ross Pier, 235 West 6th St., Erie, Pa. Zimmerman, Dr. G. A., 32 So. 13th St., Harrisburg, Pa. * Life Member. CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I _Name._ This Society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, INCORPORATED. ARTICLE II _Object._ Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III _Membership._ Membership in this society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary and a treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and an executive committee of six persons, of which the president, the two last retiring presidents, the vice-president, the secretary and the treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI _Meetings._ The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. ARTICLE VII _Quorum._ Ten members of the association shall constitute a quorum, but must include two of the four elected officers. ARTICLE VIII _Amendments._ This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or a copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I _Committees._ The Association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on exhibits, on hybrids, on survey, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the Association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II _Fees._ Annual members shall pay two dollars annually. Contributing members shall pay ten dollars annually. Life members shall make one payment of fifty dollars, and shall be exempt from further dues and will be entitled to same benefits as annual members. Honorary members shall be exempt from dues. "Perpetual" membership is eligible to any one who leaves at least five hundred dollars to the Association and such membership on payment of said sum to the Association will entitle the name of the deceased to be forever enrolled in the list of members as "Perpetual" with the words "In Memoriam" added thereto. Funds received therefor shall be invested by the Treasurer in interest bearing securities legal for trust funds in the District of Columbia. Only the interest shall be expended by the Association. When such funds are in the treasury the Treasurer shall be bonded. Provided; that in the event the Association becomes defunct or dissolves then, in that event, the Treasurer shall turn over any funds held in his hands for this purpose for such uses, individuals or companies that the donor may designate at the time he makes the bequest or the donation. ARTICLE III _Membership._ All annual memberships shall begin either with the first day of the calendar quarter following the date of joining the Association, or with the first day of the calendar quarter preceding that date as may be arranged between the new member and the Treasurer. ARTICLE IV _Amendments._ By-laws may be amended by a two-third vote of members present at any annual meeting. ARTICLE V Members shall be sent a notification of annual dues at the time they are due, and if not paid within two months, they shall be sent a second notice, telling them that they are not in good standing on account of non-payment of dues, and are not entitled to receive the annual report. At the end of thirty days from the sending of the second notice, a third notice shall be sent notifying such members that unless dues are paid within ten days from the receipt of this notice, their names will be dropped from the rolls for non-payment of dues. MY BUTTERNUT The butternut crop is always sure And raised at easy cost, There is nothing it will not endure, It is never harmed by frost. The hopper and the cabbage worm Care not to chew its leaves, Comes weather hot or wet or cold, This sturdy tree ne'er grieves. It has no fear of 'tater bugs, Or cultivation's errors, The measly scale from San Jose, And Green bug bring no terrors. No squash bug races o'er its frame, Nor caterpillar weaving, It is never doped with Paris Green, Yet never found a grieving. It has no use for bumblebees, No nodules on its feet, But when the frost is on the pumpkin Oft has the hay crop beat. If you wish a crop that always comes Without an "if" or "but," The surest thing in all the list, Just plant a butternut. JAMES H. HELMICK Columbus Junction, Iowa [Illustration: Grand-pa come out to the butter nut tree, And crack some nuts for Nicodemus and me.] =Report of the Proceedings= _at the_ Twenty-fourth Annual Convention _of the_ =Northern Nut Growers Association= _Incorporated_ _SEPTEMBER 11, 12, 1933_ _DOWNINGTOWN, PENNSYLVANIA_ The first session convened at 9:00 A. M., September 11th at Minquas Fire Hall, with President Walker in the chair. The President: "This is the opening of the 24th annual convention and I will introduce at once for his address of welcome, Rev. G. Paul Musselman." Rev. G. Paul Musselman: "Thank you, Mr. Walker. It is my most pleasant duty to welcome you to Downingtown. Downingtown is quite an appropriate place for a convention because it is a place where we try to prepare beforehand for things we believe are going to happen, and try to get ready to prevent other things from happening." Less than a mile from here to the north are stretches through the woods of infantry breastworks. Occupying that woods and those breastworks was the regiment under the command of Col. Stewart. The British were down by the Brandywine to the south, and it was supposed the British would do the logical thing, which they never do, and come up to take Downingtown, which was at that time the most important industrial area in the United States. It was the arsenal of the Revolutionary War. It has continued to grow in its industrial manufacturing until it is now important in paper manufacturing. That we are still trying to prevent nasty things from happening is strikingly evident in the fact that we have not had to call for help to take care of the people suffering from the depression. The Community Chest had, in the beginning, adopted a policy of preparing for an emergency by creating a fund for this purpose and has been able to do its work without any other than the usual annual drive for funds. The first paper mill in America was established by Mr. Rittenhouse and after that paper mills began to be built in this valley. We have gone through a great cycle. The farms in this community used to be farmed for money, later interest was shown in the mills and the farmer farmed without money. Again they are being farmed with money by the industrialists and bankers and city men who are coming out and buying up these old farms for country places. I am happy to state that the farms are coming into their own again. It is this class of people that are interested in such things as nut trees as something new and different. It is Downingtown's faculty of being prepared for what is to come that makes it a particularly appropriate place for your convention. It is always a little ahead of the parade. We are proud of our local nut nursery which, in line with the spirit of the town, is just a little ahead of the parade. You too are a little ahead of the parade, so in that spirit I welcome you. The Burgess has directed me to welcome you to Downingtown. I trust your stay will be interesting and helpful and we shall count it a privilege for you to call upon us for any further services you may require. I hope I shall be able to go on the bus trip with you but I am very busy and cannot make any promises for the moment. So, welcome! Dr. Zimmerman: Fellow members of the convention! I am sure that it has been a pleasure to receive the fine welcome that Rev. Musselman has given us and I wish to assure him that it is a pleasure to be here. We are particularly glad to be in this district which is a land of plenty compared with other parts of the country which have suffered greatly from the depression. I am sorry that I do not live here. We nut growers have been in the habit of thinking of growing nut trees on land which is good for nothing else, so that it is interesting to find nurseries using this good land and making a success of nut tree growing. In fact nut culture had its beginning in this district through Mr. Rush, and Mr. Jones and then Mr. Hershey. I do not wish to take any more of your time as we have a heavy program and a lot of good speakers, and if they can add anything to nut culture, I shall be happy indeed. Dr. Zimmerman: We welcome members of the Penna. Nut Growers Association. It is their field day tomorrow in connection with ours and we welcome them to this convention. The President appointed the resolutions and the nominating committees. TREASURER'S REPORT Balance September 1, 1932 as reported to Washington Convention $ 8.79 Stamps and Canadian money redeemed by Treasurer 3.42 Balance in Litchfield Savings Society 15.94 ______ Receipts $28.15 $ 28.15 Profit on Bus Trip at Washington 15.00 Memberships @ $3.50 old rate. No Nut News 21 @ $3.50 73.50 Memberships @ $4.00 new rate. No Nut News 3 @ $4.00 12.00 Memberships @ $4.50--$3.50 to Assn. $1.00 to Nut News 2 @ $4.50 9.00 Memberships @ $5.00--$4.00 to Assn. $1.00 to Nut News 43 @ $5.00 215.00 Memberships @ $5.00 without Nut News 3 @ $5.00 15.00 Membership @ $10.00--Mr. Ellis 10.00 Membership @ $10.00 with Nut News--Mr. Neilson 10.00 Miscellaneous Receipts 9.00 _______ Total Receipts $396.65 $396.65 DISBURSEMENTS Refund to D. C. Snyder $ 2.00 Programs Washington Convention 25.00 Paid National Nut News 38.00 Membership American Horticultural Society 3.00 C. A. Reed. Expense Washington Convention 6.70 Total $ 74.70 $ 74.70 Balance to account for $321.95 Litchfield Savings Society $ 15.94 Cash on hand or in bank 306.01 _______ Total $321.95 $321.95 J. F. Jones' Experimental Work in Hybridizing Filberts and Hazels _By_ MILDRED JONES _Lancaster, Pennsylvania_ The first crosses of the hybrid filberts were made in the year 1919. The small plants when taken from the nursery row were set 5 x 8 feet with the thought in mind of taking out every other bush in the rows when they began to crowd, and in case they were of value they could be transplanted to a permanent place. It was not thought that many of the plants would bear superior nuts promising enough to keep longer than to observe the type of nuts the bushes bore. The first lot of plants, which were mostly of the Barcelona cross, bore in the fall of 1924. The object in view mainly was to produce, if possible, a variety or varieties that could be made a commercial proposition here or elsewhere in the eastern U. S. Not very much was thought at the time about the flavor or the quality of the kernel. The main thought was to get away from the corky substance adhering to the kernel of the most of the filberts. Barcelona, the main commercial nut in the West, has a lot of this, which makes the kernel unattractive and is probably more or less injurious to the digestive system because of the tannin content. After this fault was eliminated it was going to be necessary to work for size and quality of the nut. The filbert blight has not been found on our place, so not much stress was put on the point of producing a blight-resistant or blight-free filbert. Probably if we had the filbert blight we would consider it more seriously. The method used in crossing these hybrids was to remove the catkins on the pistillate plant at any time before they developed and scattered their pollen. The wood containing the catkins to be used for pollinating was observed closely in order to bring it in at the same time with the Rush pistillates by cutting and holding back in a cold cellar after the catkins were swelling well. This was the Barcelona which blooms very early. The Italian Red, Cosford and Giant De Halles bloom later than the Rush so this was another problem. These were forced by cutting and putting in a sunny window. In cutting wood for pollinating, the cuttings should be large. The stored up starch in the wood then gives the catkins more to draw on. Apparently the filbert catkins and pistillates develop entirely from the stored up starch in the wood and do not draw on the roots at all. This being so it was figured they would develop just as well off the bush. The last pollinating on the Rush was done in the spring of 1921. The catkins appeared to be all right and the limbs were cut and stored in the cellar. These were taken from the DuChilly. Finding they did not respond promptly to warmth it was seen that the catkins were drying up and getting stiff. As Father was very anxious to use this variety he tried soaking the limbs in water and then exposed them to the sun. Some of the catkins only swelled and then appeared to stop. The soaking was then repeated making it several hours and again they were exposed to the sun and warmth. Most of them developed nicely after this treatment. As those on the bush dried up and turned black it was thought probably the pollen used after treated as just mentioned was not good, but the pistillates developed promptly after being pollinated and the bush produced a large crop of nuts. I suppose these had been injured in the winter, but it would seem surprising that they could be made to develop artificially and the pollen be good. It was found that Rush crossed Cosford made the largest nuts but the kernels of these nuts were not of the best quality. On our eastern market I think it will be found that the longer type nuts will bring the premium in price. I find in selling the nuts that people mostly desire the longer nuts, but will take the other nuts if they cannot get the longer ones. This past spring we tried to graft several of the most promising hybrids in the older block of trees. We used the modified cleft graft method and we set the grafts on layered plants of the Barcelona filbert which were lined out in April. We grafted them in May after the layers had started to grow. Out of 200 plants grafted we have growing 16 nice plants from 18 to 24 inches tall, an 8% stand. The roots of the Barcelona layers died also on the grafts that failed to live. I believe the main trouble in this experiment was that there was not enough root system to carry the graft rather than the fault of the grafting, as most of the grafts started to grow. We should have tried grafting on layers established one year and we will try this next spring. We have several very promising filberts in the older block of bearing plants. The Buchanan, No. 92, was named for President Buchanan, the only President of the U. S. from Pennsylvania, whose home is in Lancaster. No. 200 is also an excellent plant and was classed by my Father as one of the best in the collection. This plant has not been given a name as yet. I would like to have a name suggested that would be suitable. These two plants just mentioned bear nuts very much the shape of Italian Red. The kernels come out with little or no corky substance on the kernel. The flavor is very good and the plants have borne very well. We have a plant called "B." Letters were given to the plants where mice got in the seed beds and mixed the nuts. The nut of this plant is more the shape of Barcelona and is very good. It also bears well. In the younger block of plants we have quite a few promising plants but these must be tested further before we can say anything definite for or against them. I notice considerable leaf burn in the block of hybrids since the severe storm we had two weeks ago. Quite a few of the nuts were knocked off too but there is still a good crop which you will see tomorrow. Since my Father died we have not done any hybridizing. We hope to do so in the future as the work is very interesting. Mr. Stoke: Year before last I bought 2 lbs. of supposedly stratified nuts. I planted them but only one or two came up. This year they have made a pretty fair start so I know it takes two years to germinate. It seems as though it sometimes takes three years because these were stratified for a year and it took them two years to come up after I had them planted. I think you could probably get some stratified nuts from Carlton Nursery Co., Carlton, Oregon. I sent to Carlton for mine but they were shipped by someone else. It is my belief that the Carlton Nursery Co. controls the supply, so you will have to write to them for them. I have three or four dozen trees out of the first planting. They were planted in a very crowded position among walnut trees but are doing surprisingly well. The trees are now three years old and are shoulder high. Prof. Slate: I planted some Turkish hazel nuts. They have been planted two years and have not yet come up, but I believe they will next year, as they take two years to germinate. The following is a list of houses where seed of different species can be obtained. Submitted by the courtesy of Miss Jones: Sources of CORYLUS CHINENSIS Hillier Bros., Winchester, England. Vilmorin & Co., Paris, France. CORYLUS COLURNA Carlton Nursery Co., Carlton, Ore. C. TIBITICA Forest Experiment Station, Dehra Dun, British India. Notes on the Commercial Cracking of Black Walnuts _By_ H. F. STOKE, _Roanoke, Virginia_ A year ago I reported to this body an experiment in the commercial production of black walnut kernels by factory methods, including the use of a power-driven cracking device. During the past year the experiment was continued, with the variation that the shelling was done as a home industry rather than as a factory operation. Ten families were furnished with hand-power cracking devices and the whole nuts were delivered to their homes. The workers received 10c per pound for cracking and picking out the kernels and in addition retained the shells for fuel. Forty-five thousand pounds of nuts were used in the experiment for which a uniform price of $1 per hundred weight was paid. The more efficient and conscientious workers produced as high as 15% of kernels per unit of whole nuts, which was slightly better than the production by factory methods. The general average, however, was around 12-1/2%, or about the same for both methods. As to quality of product there was no appreciable difference. It is necessary to exercise greater care in the selection of workers where the work is done in homes without supervision than in the factory. By actual experience it was found that some workers would produce less than half the percentage made by the more efficient workers. Such workers were dropped. Where relatively small quantities of nuts are to be shelled there is little to be chosen between the home-industry method and such factory method as was used by me. The cost of delivering the nuts to the homes may be roughly set over against the cost of operating a factory. Based on the hours of work required to produce a given quantity of kernels, the factory method is more efficient. On the other hand, the home worker will work for a smaller wage per hour. Where large quantities of nuts are available, commercial cracking by machine methods will be increasingly used in the future, especially if economic conditions so far improve that people will no longer work for starvation wages. Point is given to this observation by the fact that local buyers paid from 8 to 15c for country-produced kernels last season, while my bare cost, without overhead or profit, was 20c per pound. * * * * * The most notable advance that has come to my attention during the past year in the way of commercial production of black walnut kernels is that contributed by Mr. C. E. Werner, President of the Forest Park Nut Company, of Ottawa, Kansas. Mr. Werner, who is 84 years of age and a veteran inventor with several notable inventions to his credit, has designed and built a machine that seems to mark a new era in black walnut kernel production. This machine, which is mounted on a truck, is not only used for the local operations of the company, but is moved from place to place in the performance of custom work, after the manner of a grain threshing outfit. Mention is made in company correspondence of cracking twenty thousand bushels of nuts for one customer in southwest Missouri. The following details were supplied by the manager of the company. The machine has a capacity of from 75 to 100 pounds of kernels per hour. As they come from the machine they carry not more than 10% shells, and run from 28 to 30% full quarters. After being hand cleaned the net recovery of kernels represents from 10 to 11-1/2% of the weight of the whole nuts. Custom work is charged for at the rate of from 3 to 5c per pound for the kernels produced. The cost of the final hand cleaning and packaging is given as 2c per pound, which makes a total production cost of from 5 to 7c per pound. The operation of the machine may be briefly described as follows: The nuts are run through a revolving screen which separates and cleans them from all adhering husk and grades them into three sizes. They then pass through the cracker and thence, by conveyor belt, to the picker. This ingenious device holds the broken nuts with soft rubber rolls while a set of fingers literally pick the kernels from the shells. Careful sifting is the last step as the kernels leave the machine, after which they are hand-picked to remove any remaining pieces of shell. The owners advise that the machine has been built primarily for their own use, and has not yet been offered for sale. They would, however, consider building the machines for sale. While the subject assigned me did not include the marketing of kernels, I cannot refrain from stating that no commodity is in greater need of orderly, organized marketing. In the meantime I would urge the small producer to cultivate his own local market as far as possible and refuse to produce at unprofitable prices. Cracked black walnuts make an excellent supplementary feed for growing chicks and laying hens. I advertised in the Rural New Yorker, The American Magazine and Better Homes and Gardens. Mr. Hershey advised me I would go broke advertising but I wanted to see what would happen. The Rural New Yorker gave the best results. I got $1.25 for a 2-lb. package. The kernels were in clean, first-class condition. I noticed some were advertised as low as 95c for two pounds. Some people in answering my advertisement said they had bought others that were not in first-class condition. I had no complaints about mine. In Better Homes and Gardens I did not get enough orders to pay for my advertising. I would not advise anyone to advertise there or in the American Magazine, as I got very poor results. I even got a bad check. The Rural New Yorker was very satisfactory. The prices I paid locally were from .05 to .08 and sometimes .10 to .15 to old customers. Twelve and a half cents was the average price. I think maybe I should have advertised in a confectioners' journal in order to reach a large consumer source, but I felt at the time that I was using the only way I had of reaching a market. This carton (showing a mailing container) is a 2-pound carton which I used in shipping in response to mail orders. It makes a very nice package that is received in good condition. I might add that the contents are 50 cubic inches. Question: Do you use a paper bag inside? Mr. Stoke: I line it with wax paper. I made a form and fold the wax paper around it to get the size. This makes a neat lining and then I just pour in the nuts and fold the top down. Mr. Graham: Do you notice much difference in the kernels? Mr. Stoke: Not in black walnuts. I found a few nuts which I could not use. The best nuts I found this year were in and about our locality. Mr. Smith: Did you try offering prizes? Mr. Hershey and I once got almost tipsy testing a lot of walnuts in a prize contest. Mr. Stoke: No. The best nuts I got would score not higher than the Thomas. They were brought in by different people and mixed together so that I was unable to tell their source. The President: Do you do your separating of kernel and shell by hand? Mr. Stoke: Yes. I use sieves, too. I use first a 3/8 x 3/4 inch mesh. It will take out most of the shell. Then for a minimum size, the best is 8 mesh to an inch, as used by the Forest Park Nut Co., Ottawa, Kans. This is smaller mesh and eliminates the smaller bits of shell. Mr. Hershey: Did you have any correspondence with those people? Mr. Stoke: I was interested in their machine for cracking nuts and I wrote the company a letter. Two or three months later I received a letter from Mr. Werner, a son of Mr. C. E. Werner, and who signed himself as Len Werner of the Werner Steel Products Co., and I received details and facts about the machine. He asked me if I would be interested in buying a machine or renting on a basis of kernel production. The younger Mr. Werner said they built the machine for themselves but could supply orders if they came in. Miss Sawyer: Did you get any information on the price? Mr. Stoke: No, none whatever. It seems to be taken from place to place mounted on a truck and cracks the nuts right on the job. Mr. Reed: Do you have any difficulty in cracking nuts when they are dry? Mr. Stoke: The nut cracks best when not too wet or too dry but just right. If too dry, they are too brittle and you break up the kernels too much, also get too many spalls of shells. If wet you have other troubles. In the South and Southwest the summers get hot and so some nuts get rancid. The sweet type that have less oil seem to stand up better. Question: Do you ever steam nuts before cracking? Mr. Stoke: No, I haven't. To keep them in a damp atmosphere is also not good. Nuts should be kept dry while in storage. Kernels should also be kept in a dry place. I put them in trays of wire mesh and if the nuts are too green or I am in a hurry for them, I turn on the electric fan. Last Fall I put some in cold storage in December. I also put some in cold storage in May and I found that I would not have needed to put any in cold storage until May as they have kept just as nicely as those stored earlier. But I find it is essential to have the kernels thoroughly dried before they are put away. If thoroughly dried they will not mold, but if kept in too warm a place they will turn rancid. To keep them in a damp atmosphere is also not good. If they are treated right they will keep indefinitely. Dr. Zimmerman: Mr. Stoke, how many nuts did you crack? Mr. Stoke: About 40,000 or 50,000 lbs. Mr. Reed: What did you do with screenings? Mr. Stoke: I fed them to the chickens. Some said that they would keep the chickens from laying but I found that by mixing about 25% with ordinary mash it worked fine. Mr. Hershey: Did you find that it made the egg shells hard? Mr. Stoke: No, the chickens had too much sense. Question: What percent do you lose in sieving? Mr. Stoke: When I did my fine sieving, I used a 4-inch screen. The shells were taken out entirely. I lost, maybe, 4%. Prof. Reed: Do you people in Virginia have local names for different types of walnuts? What is the swamp black walnut? Mr. Stoke: My own opinion is that there is only one black walnut in the East. We have a butternut that some people call the English walnut and some the white walnut. The Japanese walnut is sometimes called an English walnut. We also have the English or Persian walnut. Prof. Reed: I believe the botanists recognize only the one black walnut. Prof. Slate: I do not think there is more than one kind. Mr. Stoke: It is interesting to know that while the black walnut has been higher in price than the English walnut, so that manufacturers have been substituting the English walnut for the black walnut, this year the black walnut has dropped as much as 10c per pound under the English and is now about 5c, I believe. Consequently the black walnut has come into its own and is now being substituted for the English walnut. Mr. Frey: I would like to mention alternate years in bearing. If apple trees can be made to give a fair crop each year by good care, feeding and spraying, it is my thought that walnut trees will do the same thing under the same conditions. But we must remember that forming the hard shell is a most difficult thing for a tree to do. Prof. Neilson: I should like to draw your attention to a drawing sent me by J. U. Gellatly. (The paper was held up for all to see.) Just look at the size of the leaves. That is a tracing of the leaf of a hybrid English walnut and heartnut. He sent it along as evidence of its vigor of growth. This large compound hybrid leaf measured 27 inches from tip of the leaf to the bottom of the last leaflet, exclusive of the stem which was 5 inches long. Many of the larger leaflets measured 5 � 9 inches, shape, oblong ovate, edges of leaf, serrate, total width of compound leaf, 17 inches. Dr. Smith: I should like to suggest to Mr. Frey that the theory he suggested might be supported if the tree were placed in a particularly favorable location. Mr. Hershey: I should like to remind the audience of Judge Potter who told me some years ago that on his farm in Southern Illinois he got three doubles of his meadow grove of about 50 hickory trees, by using plenty of good horse manure, phosphoric acid, and potash. The increases were that he doubled the amount of growth and the size of the nut and changed the trees from alternate bearing to yearly bearing. Black Walnut Notes for 1933 _By_ C. A. REED, _Associate Pomologist Fruit and Vegetable Crops and Diseases U. S. Department of Agriculture_ A number of developments in connection with the black walnut industry of the East have taken place during the last 12 months which appear to be of such importance as to justify special record at this time. Some of these have to do with the production and marketing of and prices received for, the wild product, others with certain features in connection with orchard and nursery management, and still others with walnut relationships both inside and outside of the genus. The Black Walnut Kernel Industry Production of black walnut kernels in this country is fully 99 per cent from seedling trees of the fields, forests, roadsides and dooryards. That from orchard and top-worked trees, while now considerably on the increase, due to recent activity in planting and top-working, will hardly become of relative importance for some years to come. The wild crop is actually on the increase each year, due partly to greater care now taken of old bearing trees and partly to the large number of young trees coming into bearing each year but more largely to the greater extent to which nuts are now being gathered and not allowed to decay on the ground. This increase in production is working both for and against the permanent welfare of the industry, and by this use of the term "industry", it is meant to include the cultivated as well as the uncultivated phases. Consumption has increased tremendously. No figures are available as to either total production or percentage of total crop which is still allowed each year to remain on the ground until it becomes decomposed. However, it is the opinion of Baltimore merchants who have long handled this product that in certain large districts the wild nuts are now gathered closely and that very few are allowed to decay on the ground. There is no available information upon which to base a curve as to the probable increase in production which may be expected from young trees just beginning to bear or the thousands still too young to bear or yet the other thousands to be planted by squirrels each year. Whether or not the increase in consumption and its coincident change in eating habits of the American people will prove permanent after the return of normal times, remains to be seen, but it may be accepted as fact that the future of this country is likely to see greater competition in the home markets among foods than has been the case in the past and that, eventually, only those having the greatest values in nutrition and palatability will survive. Salesmanship may defeat this for a while but ultimately, palatability assumed, cash values and human tastes will most certainly arrive at pretty much the same point. The ultimate future of the walnut would therefore appear to depend largely upon its ability to become one of the fittest survivers. One of the most important developments during the past year is of very recent occurrence. It is the fact that the 1933 season is opening with the highest prices received during the last two years. This may in part be due to reports that the outlook in the Tennessee--Kentucky--Virginia and North Carolina district is for a light crop. According to Baltimore merchants who have recently been consulted, consumption last year was the greatest in history and, while prices reached the lowest level since the depression began, relatively speaking, the total drop has probably not been as great as for other food products during the same period. These merchants look forward with confidence to a continuance of increased consumption. This forecast is encouraging, but it is based on the assumption that there will be continued improvement in the manner of handling and packing the kernels for delivery. At present, considerable overhead is usually charged back to the farmers because of labor involved in cleaning, grading, and sometimes curing, after the kernels reach the city merchants. This handling is necessary with much of the output in order that it may be made acceptable to the manufacturers. One of the most desirable characteristics in connection with the sale of black walnut kernels is brightness of color. This is a matter largely due to the manner of handling during the process of harvesting, curing, and cracking. Once the kernels become dark, they cannot be brightened except by bleaching and removing the pellicles. However, the importance of prompt gathering as soon as the nuts fall from the trees, removing the hulls, and curing the nuts cannot be overestimated. These are matters easily within the ability of the producers to adjust. The Orchard Industry On the orchard side of the industry, several developments may be listed, although the majority are merely old developments newly emphasized. Black walnut trees, seedlings and grafted trees alike tend to bear full crops not oftener than during alternate years, and with conditions at all unfavorable, full crops may be delayed for several years. Grafted trees of many varieties begin to bear their first fruits quite as promptly as with apples. Not infrequently walnuts appear by the end of the second year after grafting. This is especially true with top-worked trees. Recent Adverse Weather Conditions The spring and summer season of 1933 made an adverse combination in some localities. In the Ohio and Mississippi River Sections, the result was disastrous to a large part of the crop. In those sections, May was an exceedingly rainy month. June was equally hot and dry. It is in May that the blossoming periods of most varieties of walnut occur, also it is then that most of the nursery grafting is performed. Insofar as pollination was concerned, there were probably enough hours of sunshine during the blossoming period for the distribution of pollen to have been adequate and effective. On some of the trees the rains came at just the right time to wash practically all of the pollen to the ground. Had it not been for later pollinating trees either of the same variety, or of other varieties, or even of seedlings in the neighborhood, it is probable that no nuts would have set. However the actual set was about normal, but the heat and drouth which followed resulted in a drop which took the greater part of the crop. A pecan grower in southwestern Indiana, with between 300 and 400 grafted trees now of bearing age, recently reported that in August he was unable to find a single nut in his entire orchard. The result has not been quite as serious with the walnuts. Nevertheless, the crop prospects are reported to be not at all bright. Nursery grafting in southern Indiana had literally to be performed between showers. Sap flow was excessive and the resulting stand below normal. The heat and drouth which followed killed outright many of the scions which had begun to grow. Thus, in that section the orchardists lost most of their crops and the nurserymen most of their grafts. Walnut Relationships In regard to walnut relationships within the genus, continued studies have led to certain conclusions which would appear to bear mentioning. One of these is to the effect that not all so-called "butterjaps" appear to owe their origin to staminate parentage of butternut but that they may be due to chance crosses of either Japanese walnut with Persian or possibly black walnut, or quite as often to reversion to the true Manchurian walnut, _Juglans mandschurica_. Hybrids and Intermediate Forms It is generally known that natural hybridity occurs so frequently between almost any two species of _Juglans_ when growing together and blossoming simultaneously that it is unwise to plant the seed of either if pure types are desired. Intermediate forms, evidently between Persian (English) and black are fairly common throughout the East. The James River and O'Connor hybrids are well known typical examples. Such hybrids are most apt to occur in vicinities of Persian walnut trees. Crosses in which the Persian walnut is the staminate or pollen producing parent may sometimes occur but if so, they have never come to the attention of the writer. Crosses between these two species commonly have the Persian walnut as the pistillate or nut producing parent. The most commonly seen forms which appear to be due to hybridity are in the case of certain Japanese walnut seedlings in the East. The offspring of these trees frequently takes on much of the character of the American butternut. Nuts of this type have been recognized by this Association and other authorities as "butterjaps." In his Manual of American Trees, Dr. Albert H. Rehder of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plains, Mass., recognizes crosses between the Japanese walnut and American butternut under the technical name of _Juglans bixbyi_ after the late Willard G. Bixby of the Association by whom the matter was called to his attention. However, it is not certain that nuts definitely known to represent a cross between these two species have yet been brought to notice. Butterjaps It has been commonly assumed that nuts of the butternut type, from trees grown from Japanese walnut seed are due to butternut hybridity, but the theory is clearly open to reasonable doubt. Nuts of this identical type are common in the orient where the butternut does not occur and also they sometimes occur in this country on trees grown from imported Japanese walnut seed. The late Luther Burbank wrote the Department of Agriculture in 1899 that in California where he had grown many thousands of seedlings from both imported and California grown seed, he was unable to detect the slightest differences in foliage, yet the trees were apt to produce nuts of any one of three types then known as _Juglans sieboldiana_, _J. cordiformis_ or _J. mandschurica_. He wrote that "They all run together and are evidently all from the butternut family." An authentic case of butterjaps from imported seed was made public during the first annual meeting of the Pennsylvania Nut Growers' Association which was held in Harrisburg on January 11 of this year. Butterjaps were on display during that meeting which had been grown by Mr. Ross Pier Wright of Erie, Pa., from seed which he had imported directly from Japan. His trees are growing in the outskirts of Westfield, Chautauqua County, N. Y., and within a mile of Lake Erie. In July of this year, Dr. E. A. Scott of Galena, Md., called the attention of the writer to a number of fine trees in his small town, all of which had been grown by him from _J. sieboldiana_ seed obtained from a tree nearby and "every one" of which was bearing "butternuts," as he and his neighbors call them. The American butternut does not occur in that part of Maryland which is on the upper end of the Chesapeake Peninsula, probably 10 miles from Chesapeake Bay. Both black and Persian walnut trees are very common in that region. The tree which bore the original seed is a typical Japanese walnut. It stands at the end of a row of Persian walnut trees along the driveway of a private country lane. There are several black walnut trees, perhaps 500 yards to the southwest, but no butternuts for many miles. As the Persian and Japanese walnuts blossom at about the same time and the black walnut considerably later, it would seem altogether probable that if any cross had taken place it would have been Japanese x Persian, rather than Japanese x black. The chances of a Japanese x butternut cross would have been so remote as to be altogether improbable. Many years ago, Judge F. P. Andrus of Almont, Mich., planted one tree each of Persian and Japanese walnuts in his dooryard. Both soon came into bearing. Squirrels planted nuts in the ground and presently the yard was filled with offspring, the majority of which were of the type now called butterjaps. The trees were extremely vigorous but the nuts were of so little value that all were finally cut down. Butternut trees are common in Michigan and butternut pollen may have been responsible for these crosses but circumstantially the evidence pointed much more strongly to Japanese � Persian crosses than to Japanese � butternut crosses. Other cases of these sorts might be cited, but the evidence which the writer has been able to bring together up to the present month, September, 1933, strongly indicates that butterjaps may be due to either an actual cross with a Persian or black walnut and possibly with butternut or to reversion to a parent oriental type. So far, it has been out of the question to hazard a reasonably safe assumption as to the staminate parent of all particular crosses by merely studying the botanical characteristics of the butterjap offspring. Several years ago Mr. Bixby planted a number of butterjap seed nuts, hoping that under the Mendelian law, the characteristics of the two parents would segregate themselves. The trunk and bark of some of the trees resembled black walnut quite distinctly, while none resembled the butternut. So far as is known to the writer, none of the trees have yet fruited. One of the several butterjap trees in Galena, Md., previously referred to, produced nuts rather more like black walnuts than butternuts. These two instances therefore, would suggest Japanese � black walnut parentage. Black Walnut Root Toxicity On several occasions discussions of root toxicity between the black walnut and certain of its neighbors have taken place at Association meetings. The theory that black walnut trees give off toxic properties from their roots, which are fatal to other plants, is therefore not new. Some years ago the Virginia Experiment Station definitely isolated a toxic substance which was held responsible for the death of tomatoes, potatoes, alfalfa, blackberry plants and apple trees when these other plants were grown in close enough proximity for their roots to come in contact with those of the black walnut. This work was reported in various publications and was written up by several different authors. Since then, as well as before, the writer has looked for similar evidence, but, so far, in vain. Each of these crops, including tomatoes, potatoes, alfalfa, blackberries and apples, have been seen growing in as close contact with black walnut as they could possibly be placed. Oftentimes they have been found much nearer to black walnut trees than would have been wise to place them to oak, hickory, ash or other species of large growing trees. This does not mean that when the roots are in actual contact the toxic agent of the black walnut roots would not prove fatal to the other plants but it does indicate that in the great majority of cases there is no practical danger. Anyone who has doubt about the healthy condition of these other species when grown close together with black walnut trees, may obtain evidence for himself by noting the frequent combination of this sort easily found in fields and gardens of the country and small towns. It is surprising how often these combinations of black walnut and other species are to be seen. Any unprejudiced person could hardly fail to become convinced that, in the great majority of cases, the danger is of small practical consequence. The roots of the black walnut run deeply under ground and it is entirely conceivable that in deep soil they do not ordinarily come up to the shallower levels of the roots of most other species. Summary A summary of the year's developments might be arranged about as follows: (1) More black walnut kernels were harvested and consumed during the year than ever before. (2) Prices to the farmer reached about the same low level of the year preceding, but the total drop during recent years was probably not in proportion to the drop of most other food products. (3) Crop prospects in 1933 are unfavorable for another large crop. Prices are starting out considerably higher than for several years. (4) Production of black walnuts from grafted trees under cultivation is altogether insignificant in comparison with that from chance seedlings receiving no special cultivation. (5) Grafting and planting are taking place at too moderate a rate to materially alter the ratio of production from seedling to that of grafted trees in the near future. (6) There has been considerable improvement during recent years in the manner of preparing and packing black walnut kernels for market, but there is need for further advance along this line. (7) Merchants engaged in handling black walnut kernels predict that there will continue to be a normal steady increase in consumption, now that the market has become established, trade channels opened up, and consumers habits somewhat established. (8) Walnut hybrids occur frequently in nature. So far, none have appeared which were of special value because of the character of nuts which they produce. So-called butterjaps appear to be possible from either certain crosses or from reversion to parent oriental types. (9) Ordinarily, other crops may be interplanted with black walnuts with as great safety as with most other equally large growing and deep-rooted trees. Is the Information We Have on Orchard Fertility of Value in the Nut Grove? _BY_ PROF. F. N. FAGAN, _PROFESSOR OF POMOLOGY THE PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE_ Many of the association members present are also general fruit orchard owners of this state. I am glad to meet with you and must confess that it has been many years since I have had the pleasure of attending the annual meeting of this association. To be exact, the last meeting I attended was the annual meeting held in Lancaster some seven years ago. It is not that the Pennsylvania Agricultural Experiment Station lacks interest in nut culture that keeps it from doing work along nut investigational lines, but because the older and more extensive apple, peach, cherry, grape and berry industries have called upon the resources of the station to its working capacity. When Mr. Hershey wrote asking me to speak before this meeting I felt that the only information we had at the station that would fit into the picture was the information we have regarding orchard fertility. I therefore gave him the subject, "Is the information we now have on general orchard fertility of value in the nut grove?" First, let me touch upon some of the papers given this morning. I think it would be well for the nut meat industry to look into the department of health's requirements governing the health inspection of workers handling food products. I also suggest looking into the possibility of the selling of nuts and nut meats by interested high school boys and girls in our many towns and cities. The question of annual bearing of nut trees is a subject needing investigation. I rather expect we shall find that this factor is closely connected with over-production of a tree one year, fertility and moisture supply, or, in other words, the nuts may be much like apples. While the nature of tree growth may tend to cause trees to be alternate producers, man may upset this natural habit to some extent by proper cultural practices and thus cause the tree to produce, not a full crop in the off year but at least some fruits that will be on the profit side. As to the toxic effect of some of our nut trees upon growth of other plants growing near by, I rather expect we shall find as time goes on that instead of the trees having a toxic effect they have a robbing effect upon soil moisture and food. One thing that leads me to this belief is that years ago we taught that one reason for seeding a cover crop in the orchard was to have the cover take the moisture from the soil in the fall of the year and in that way check tree growth. We now know that a mature apple or peach tree will reverse this during the growing season and will take its full share of moisture and food from the soil and really take these away from the cover crop. We saw this occur during the dry years of 1929 and 1930 with covers that had been seeded in June. During both these years, in our orchard blocks where the water holding capacity of the soil was low, the cover died over the tree root feeding spaces. Some may have said that the trees were having a toxic effect upon the soil. This was not the case for, in 1932 and 1933, both years of plenty of moisture supply, the covers have grown well around the trees in these blocks. I shall now ask you to refer to the conclusions on page 3 of our Bulletin No. 294, issued by The Pennsylvania State College, which has just been distributed to you. These conclusions are, of course, based upon our work in an apple orchard but I believe they will apply closely to the management of nut orchards. Lessons from Fertility Studies in the Experiment Orchard Most of the experiments in this orchard have now completed 25 years; there have been few changes and these minor ones. Certain lessons may be drawn from this quarter century of research: 1. The fertility of an orchard soil is more than its plant food content. It involves the nature of the soil, its depth and topography, its previous treatment, the use of fertilizers and manures, the amount and nature of the cultivation and the covers or sods grown. Fertilizers are only part of the problem of soil fertility. 2. In this orchard any treatment that has influenced the trees at all has done so in the following order: first, the cover crops; perhaps several years later, leaf color; shortly after, branch growth and circumference increase; and last of all, yield. 3. The reason for this sequence of results is that the treatments, whether chemical fertilizers, manure, or cover crops, have influenced yields chiefly by changing the organic matter content of the soil; that is, those treatments which have resulted in the production of larger cover crops have ultimately resulted in the production of more fruit. 4. The organic content of the soil has been a considerable factor in determining the amount of water in this soil. Those treatments which have built up the organic content have kept the soil in condition to soak up rainfall rather than to lose it by surface run-off. A larger water supply, in turn, has produced more cover crops. 5. The site of this orchard seems nearly level to the casual eye; yet slope, with its accompanying erosion, together with differences in depth of soil, have created nearly as large differences in growth and yield as any treatment. Good treatments have nearly offset the initial disadvantage of poor soil; but it is more economical to plant the orchard on good soil than to attempt the improvement of a poor soil. 6. A short, non-legume sod rotation is an efficient means of building up a depleted orchard soil. After a sod of any kind becomes thick tree growth is checked and yields decline. Orchard sods should be turned under or partially broken, frequently. 7. Moisture conditions often are more favorable in the sod orchard than in the cultivated orchard. Runoff is checked by a sod and less water is used by a sod in mid-summer, after it has been mowed, than by a heavy cover crop. 8. Under a non-legume sod the soil nitrate supply becomes very low in late May or early June, necessitating early applications of nitrogenous fertilizers. Annual applications of 10 pounds of nitrate of soda per tree, or its equivalent in sulphate of ammonia or other forms, have proved profitable in this orchard. Superphosphate, in light applications, has increased sod and cover crop growth. 9. Trees receiving annual tillage with July seeding of cover crops have not done as well as those under sod rotations. If the cover crops are seeded in early June, as has been practiced since 1929, the difference may not be marked. 10. To maintain equal yields, Stayman and Baldwin must make longer branch growth than York. In addition to these conclusions I will say that any grower who will keep his orchard soil in a state of fertility (by use of manure, proper farm crop fertilizers--nitrate, phosphate or potash alone or in combination with each other--liming and, if necessary, drainage) which will permit growing clovers, alfalfa, soy beans, cow peas, vetch, or any of the legumes, and who really does grow them as covers in his grove or orchard, turning them back into the soil with a minimum period of spring cultivation--just enough to prepare a seed bed--will never need to worry about his soil fertility or water holding capacity. You note that I say a minimum of cultivation. We taught twenty years ago that cultivation should continue during June, July, and August. We now feel that this teaching was wrong. We can see no benefit from this long summer cultivation but do see some harm. Cultivation during the hot weather of June, July, and August will only aid in burning out the organic matter in the soil, just the very thing we plant a cover for. Many of the covers such as alfalfa, sweet clover and non-legume grasses can be harrowed very heavily in early spring after the frost is out of the ground, thus checking their growth for several weeks, and it is in early spring before the first flowers open, and while open, that the tree needs its nitrogen to aid in the set of fruit, and season's tree growth; the checking of the cover's growth in early spring gives the tree the chance to get its food. * * * * * Dr. Zimmerman: I am very grateful for the address of Prof. Fagan. * * * * * Dr. Smith: I want to express my appreciation of Prof. Fagan's paper. I want to call to the attention of this convention of people that this young man has actually admitted his hard headedness, that he has been willing to let a tree compel him to change his thinking. Progress Report on Kellogg Nut Cultural Project of the Michigan State College _By_ J. A. NEILSON, _M. S. C., East Lansing_ The Nut Cultural Project so generously supported by Mr. W. K. Kellogg of Battle Creek made good progress during the season of 1933. The various phases of this project are briefly discussed under their separate headings as follows: Search for Superior Trees This feature of our nut cultural programme is of the utmost importance and will continue to be so until the entire state has been thoroughly explored. In our search we have been greatly helped by interested people throughout the state and elsewhere who report the existence of good trees or who send specimens of nuts from superior trees. This voluntary help is very useful and is much appreciated. Of the various methods of searching for good trees, nut contests are the most efficient and economical. Through the medium of national contests this Association has discovered many good varieties, and several of these new varieties are now being propagated. In view of the discoveries resulting from the Association contest in 1929 and our state contest in the same year, it was deemed advisable to stage another contest in 1932. An article setting forth the terms of the contest was sent to all the daily, weekly, and agricultural and horticultural journals and was given very wide publicity by these press agencies. A great deal of interest was shown in our contest and more than 1600 exhibits were entered by approximately 700 exhibitors. Several good strains were brought to light by this contest, most of which were unknown before the contest was staged. The prize winners and the awards are as follows: =Black Walnuts= Daniel Beck, Hamilton, Mich. 1st $15.00 Harry Webber, Cincinnati, Ohio 2nd $10.00 E. Gray, Williamston, Mich. 3rd $ 5.00 =Hickories= Mrs. Ray D. Mann, Davison, Michigan 1st $15.00 D. Miller, North Branch, Mich. 2nd $10.00 Lyle Hause, Fowlerville, Mich. 3rd $ 5.00 =English Walnuts= Harry Larsen, Ionia, Mich. 1st $10.00 D. B. Lewis, Vassar, Mich. 2nd $ 5.00 J. W. Jockett, Hart Mich. 3rd $ 3.00 =Butternuts= Claude Mitchell, Scotland, Ont. 1st $10.00 M. E. Alverson, Howard City, Mich. 2nd $ 5.00 Frank Luther, Fairgrove, Mich. 3rd $ 3.00 =Heartnuts= Claude Mitchell, Scotland, Ont. 1st $10.00 Fred Bourne, Milford, Mich. 2nd $ 5.00 J. U. Gellatly, Gellatly, B. C. 3rd $ 3.00 =Chestnuts (Hybrids)= John Dunbar, Oshtemo, Mich. 1st $10.00 D. N. Dean, Shelbyville, Mich. 2nd $ 5.00 J. W. Jockett, Hart, Mich. 3rd $ 3.00 =Jap. Walnuts= Harold English, Chatham, Ont. 1st $10.00 Harold Evers, Petoskey, Mich. 2nd $ 5.00 Bob Cardinell 3rd $ 3.00 If and when another contest is held a larger number of prizes will be given provided sufficient funds are available. The experience gained in the 1929 and 1932 contests indicates the desirability of holding at least three contests and five would be better, and to have the contests held annually. It is very difficult to advertise a nut contest so that every person in rural sections knows of it and moreover, even if it were thoroughly advertised in any one year, it would not be possible to get nuts from all good trees because of the irregularity in fruiting habit of nut trees. The experience of others who stage contests will substantiate this opinion. It is a great satisfaction to record the discovery of some promising pecan trees near Vandalia on the farm of Clyde Westphal. These trees were reported to me by Mr. Harry Burgart of Union City, and at the first opportunity I went with Mr. Burgart to examine the trees. There are 19 trees in the grove and the largest and best fruited tree is about 45 feet tall and nearly one foot in diameter at the base. The nuts are of medium size, crack easily, and contain kernels of good quality. A good crop was borne last year and other satisfactory crops have been secured for several years. It is quite likely that this tree would not mature nuts in a short growing season or in a season of low heat units, but the fact that it has done so well in recent years in growth and nut production is very encouraging, indeed. Plans are being made to propagate this strain. Another good pecan sample was received from Mr. B. B. Dowell of Paulding, Ohio. This tree is hardy and produces nuts slightly larger than the Westphal tree. The nuts have good cracking quality and flavor of kernel and are worth propagating for northern regions. Propagation The propagation of selected strains of nut trees is not primarily the function of an Experiment Station, with the exception of such work as may be necessary to establish on Station property a sufficient number of trees to furnish scionwood for experimental purposes and to supply interested parties with what they require. We believe that nut tree nurserymen should undertake the propagation of new varieties of proven merit and we have endeavored to furnish our local nurserymen and others with scionwood of our best native selections or introductions. Such propagation as we have done is with established trees and can properly be considered as top-working. This feature of our project is discussed under that heading. Topworking Our programme of top-working was carried on in 1933 to the full extent of time and funds available and a special effort was made to top-work some of the worthless pignuts and bitternuts with scions of hicans and hybrid hickories. In a former report, reference was made to the difficulty in grafting shagbark and shellbark scions onto pignuts; and here again I want to say my first observation still holds especially with the shagbarks. I do not have a single shagbark scion left on pignuts out of several hundred set during the last four seasons. Our results with hybrid hickories and with hicans have been much more encouraging in so far as the set of scions and growth is concerned. The following varieties have done well on the pignut or bitternut--Burlington, Beaver, Cedar Rapids, Creager, Dennis, Des Moines, Fairbanks, Kirtland, Laney, Lingenfelter, McCallister, Stratford, and Shinnerling. It is definitely known that most of these varieties are of hybrid origin with the exception of Cedar Rapids and Kirtland. The buds of the variety I have labelled as Cedar Rapids do not look like pure shagbarks and it is possible that a mix up has occurred in the labels. A satisfactory start was made in propagating the prize-winning shagbark hickories of our 1932 contest and further work will be done with these kinds in the present season. Good progress has been made in propagating our best varieties of black walnuts, English walnuts, and Chinese walnuts. We now have several trees some of which are quite large that have been top-worked to scions of Wiard, Allen, Grundy, Rowher, Ohio, Creitz, Carpenter, and Stambaugh black walnuts. In English walnuts we have Carpathian No. 1, 2, and 5--Crath, McDermid, and Broadview. This latter variety is above the average in size, cracks easily and has a good kernel. Still more important it is believed to be hardy and is definitely known to have endured 25° below zero F. This variety was sent by Mr. J. U. Gellatly, our enthusiastic nut tree hunter from British Columbia. Mr. Gellatly has brought to light a considerable number of heartnuts and a few English walnuts. One of his latest finds is an English walnut that produces very large almost round thin shelled nuts. This tree grows on high bench land near Okanogun, B. C. and is a seedling of a tree growing in the high altitudes of Kashmir in Northern India. Some of the heartnuts sent by Mr. Gellatly are amongst the largest I have ever seen and possess good cracking and extraction qualities. Scions of these varieties have been ordered from Mr. Gellatly and we hope to establish at least one good tree of each kind as a source of propagating material. We also have several grafts of an excellent Chinese walnut which we obtained from Mr. George Corsan of Islington, Ontario. This variety bears a large nut with a thin well sealed shell and a first-class kernel, and has been named Corsan. New Plantings The planting programme for 1933 included the planting of about 40 acres on the Collver part of the Kellogg Farm near Augusta, but this had to be reduced by 50% because of financial troubles caused by the closing of the banks in which Mr. Kellogg was a depositor. In addition to the new plantings a considerable number of replacements had to be made particularly in the chestnut groves. The following table shows the number of each species and variety planted: (a) Black Walnuts Variety Number Allen 2 Wessell 5 Thomas 20 Beck 2 Bohamin 2 Edras 3 Grundy 3 Homeland 3 Howell 2 Grabill 2 Hauber 1 Heplar 3 Mintle 2 Patuxent 7 Ruddick 1 Stanley 1 Tasterite 1 Stover 1 Worthington 1 McMillen 1 Hunter 1 Birds Eye 15 Carpenter 10 Miller 5 Ten Ecyk 10 Ohio 10 Stabler 15 (b) Chinese Walnut Seedlings 20 (c) English Walnut Seedlings (Crath) 21 Alpine 10 Mayette 10 (d) Butternuts Seedlings 50 Hickories (a) Hybrids Stratford 5 (b) Shagbark Glover 5 Romig 3 (c) Shellbark Stephens 2 (d) Pecans Indiana 1 Niblack 4 Greenriver 5 Kentucky 5 Butterick 6 Posey 5 Carlyle 3 Jeffrey 3 Seedlings 50 (e) Hicans Des Moines 7 Gerrardi 5 Burlington 4 Wright 3 Burton 2 Norton 2 Hazels (a) Turkish Hazels Seedlings 40 (b) Jones Hybrids Seedlings 14 (c) Corylus Vilmorinii Seedlings 1 Chestnuts (a) Chinese Seedlings 251 (b) Japanese Seedlings 20 Good results were secured with all of the above mentioned kinds except the Chinese and Japanese chestnuts. The reason for this failure is given elsewhere in this report. Demonstration Work on Grafting This feature of our programme has not received as much attention as should be given to it owing to lack of scionwood of local origin and to a desire to work over nearly all the trees on the Kellogg Farm before attempting much outside work. We now have a fair supply of scionwood on our station trees and are in a position to proceed with a modest top-working programme out in the state. * * * * * The principal object of this scheme will be to establish sources of scionwood at various places in the state and to instruct interested parties in the art of grafting. A total of 25 demonstrations have already been given and in nearly every case improved varieties were established and local interest was aroused. It is a matter of satisfaction to report that at least four men have made a commendable start in top-working ordinary seedling trees with scions of superior sorts and one of these men, Mr. Charles Pepper of Berlamont, proposes to establish a small nursery of Allen black walnuts. * * * * * For some time the writer has planned to interest the Future Farmers of America in planting nut trees, but was too busy with other duties to make the proper contact. Just recently arrangements were made with Dr. Gallup, the State Supervisor of Vocational Agricultural Education, for a presentation of the scheme of nut tree planting to these enterprising and energetic young men. My object is to interest at least one member of each group in either top-working local seedlings with the best hardy varieties or in planting good nut tree varieties. Plans are also made to interest the members of the State Horticultural Society in planting some of the best varieties of Michigan origin. Educational Work This feature of our project has not been given a great deal of emphasis because it was believed we did not have enough information of local nature to justify us in conducting an extensive educational programme. We now believe we have enough information to make a start and I have arranged a series of meetings with county agents at their regional conferences in the southern part of the lower peninsula. Each regional conference includes the county agents and associated workers in several counties and affords one an opportunity to present our programme to State officials who can give us most effective cooperation. This project along with a similar one for the Future Farmers of America should create more interest in nut culture. General Notes The establishment of hardy blight resistant chestnuts of good quality is an important objective in our nut cultural project, and one in which only partial success can be reported. Approximately 700 Chinese and Japanese Chestnut trees have been planted but only about 260 of these trees are living. Some of these casualties were due to dry weather, rabbits and woodchucks, but the major part were due to unsuitable soil conditions. Our observations show that the Asiatic chestnuts will not thrive in an alkaline soil, as nearly all the losses occurred on an area that had a heavy application of marl. On the area where the trees are now growing well the soil is acid and supports several acid tolerant plants. A superior strain of Chinese Chestnut was found in a lot of about 60 trees which the writer sent to Mr. W. R. Reek of the Experiment Station at Ridgetown, Ontario, in 1927. The best tree has made a good growth, and bears large nuts of good quality. Scions of this tree were obtained last spring and grafted onto several Chinese seedlings at the Kellogg Farm. An attempt will also be made to graft a few large--unfruitful Japanese chestnuts at various places in the State with scions of this good Chinese strain. * * * * * An interesting bit of information on the hardiness of the black walnut and butternut has just come to hand from Col. B. D. Wallace of Portage, La Prairie, Manitoba. Col. Wallace reports the occurrence of a seedling black walnut in his nursery that is quite hardy and which bore fully matured nuts at an early age. He also has a fine grove of butternuts that are entirely hardy and which bear good crops of nuts. These butternut trees grew from nuts secured from France about twenty years ago. The trees are quite hardy but other butternut seedlings from Ontario seemed to lack hardiness. No data are at hand to show where the French butternut trees came from, but inasmuch as the butternut is not a native of France it is almost certain that the trees came from North America and probably Quebec Province. In any case the trees are hardy and are reported to give satisfaction to the people in the Prairie Provinces. Mr. Kroodsma, Extension Forester, reports the occurrence of a moderately large black walnut which bears nuts of good quality and fair size at Houghton in the extreme northern part of the Upper Peninsula. These accessions to our knowledge of the hardiness of the walnut and butternut are valuable and would suggest that these species can be grown much farther north than their native range. In a former report reference was made to an attempt while in the service of the Ontario Department of Agriculture to interest the members of the Womens' Institute in Ontario in planting nut trees, but not much progress was made until last spring. The writer had in Ontario about 800 fine seedling heartnuts which he was unable to sell and which had to be moved. It seemed regrettable to destroy them and finally the trees were given to Mr. Geo. Putnam, Supt. of Institutes for distribution in my old home county and in another county where I worked for some time. The trees were readily accepted and much interest was aroused. So much in fact that I was kept busy writing letters to people who wanted to share in the distribution. Unfortunately, I did not have enough trees to meet all demands and so had to refuse many an Institute member who was anxious to try these heartnut seedlings. Notes on the Filbert Orchard at Geneva _By_ G. L. SLATE _Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y._ Winter killing of the wood and catkins is probably the limiting factor in growing filberts in Western New York. Satisfactory varieties must possess catkins hardy enough to provide sufficient pollen for pollination purposes. There must also be very little killing of the wood or the crop will be reduced in proportion to the amount of wood that is winter injured. Several years observations in the Station filbert orchard at Geneva have shown a great variation in hardiness of filbert varieties. With some varieties the catkins are severely injured each winter, with others, very little injury occurs. Because of this great variation in hardiness we must accumulate as much data as possible concerning the ability of varieties to withstand our winters, especially the mild winters, before we are in a position to make definite variety recommendations. Last winter, 1932-33 was especially hard on filberts, in fact, much more winter injury was experienced than at any time since the Station orchard was set in 1925. It was a good season to separate the hardy and tender sorts. Throughout the winter the weather was exceptionally mild and favorable for that type of winter injury due to early growth activity. In a normally cold winter catkin killing as a rule is not very serious, except on a few tender varieties. Although catkin killing was so serious at Geneva, S. H. Graham of Ithaca, who is growing a number of varieties on an exposed location where winters are more severe than at Geneva, reports that his trees suffered less catkin injury than at any time since he has been growing them. Catkin killing does not seem to be due to extreme cold during the winter and rarely are the catkins injured before late February or early March. Injury may be severe even though the temperatures are not lower than the catkins are thought to endure when in bloom. Apparently the injury may be due to the cumulative effect of dessication throughout the winter months, this effect becoming apparent shortly before the catkins bloom. Catkins forced into bloom prior to late February bloom normally and without apparent injury. The data on winter injury of catkins is being accumulated for two purposes. First, it is being used as a basis for recommending varieties as pollinators; and second, it is being used in selecting parents for breeding hardy varieties. The amount of winter killed catkins is determined by observation during the blooming season in late March. All catkins that fail to open, or open weakly and shed no pollen, are considered winter killed and the proportion that are killed is expressed in per cent. Based on the amount of winter injury of catkins during the winter 1932-33, I am making four groups. First, those varieties in which all, or practically all the catkins were killed. In the varieties suffering such severe catkin injuries, much of the wood was killed, but this will be treated separately. The varieties in this group are Nottingham, Early Prolific, Garibaldi, Kentish filbert, Pearson's Prolific, Princess Royal, the Shah, Webb's Prize Cobb, Bandnuss, Barr's Zellernuss, Berger's Zellernuss, Grosse Kugelnuss, Heynicks Zellernuss, Lange von Downton, Multiflora, Sickler's Zellernuss, and a Corylus rostrata brought into cultivation from a glen a few miles away. The planting of varieties in this list is not recommended. The second group includes those sorts in which 50 to 90 per cent of the catkins were killed. The varieties are Barcelona, Daviana, Fertile de Coutard, Montebello, Cannon Ball, Duke of Edinburgh, Duchess of Edinboro, Prolific Closehead, Red Skinned, Kadetten Zellernuss, Kaiserin Eugenie, Kunzemuller's Zellernuss, Liegel's Zellernuss, Prolifique a coque serree, Romische Nuss, Schlesierin, Truchsess Zellernuss, Voile Zellernuss, Kruse, and Littlepage, a variety of Corylus americana from Indiana. Some wood killing occurred among the varieties in this group. None of these varieties should be depended upon for pollination purposes. The third group includes those varieties experiencing 20 to 50 per cent winter injury. The varieties are Kentish Cob, Italian Red, Bollwiller, Red Aveline, White Aveline, and Vollkugel. These varieties may be planted with caution if too much dependence is not placed upon them as pollinators. In the fourth group are those with less than 20 per cent of catkin injury. These are Clackamas, Cosford, Minna, Early Globe, English Cluster, Medium Long, Oregon, Purple Aveline, Red Lambert, White Lambert, D'Alger, Althaldensleber, Ludolph's Zellernuss, Luisen's Zellernuss, Neue Riesennuss, Eickige Barcelonaer, and Winkler and Rush, the latter two being varieties of Corylus americana. Varieties from this group and the third group should be used as pollinators and as parents in breeding work to develop catkin hardy varieties. Winter killing of the wood has not been as extensive nor as serious as catkin killing. It is usually slight and confined to a few varieties but during the past winter 1932-33, many varieties killed back severely. The varieties are grouped according to the amount of winter injury of wood. Varieties in which more than 50 per cent of the wood was killed are Nottingham, Early Prolific, Garibaldi, Princess Royal, Webb's Prize Cob, Bandnuss, Grosse Kugelnuss, Jeeves Samling, Kaiserin Eugenie, Multiflora, Kurzhullige Zellernuss, Lange von Downton, and the Corylus rostrata previously mentioned. Varieties experiencing from 20 to 50 per cent of wood killing were Barcelona, Red Aveline, Montebello, Berger's Zellernuss, Einzeltragende Kegelformige, Heynick's Zellernuss, Prolifique a Coque serre, Sickler's Zellernuss, Voile Zellernuss, and Russ. In the following varieties from 5 to 20 per cent of the wood was winter-killed: Minna, Bollwiller, Duchess of Edinboro, Pearson's Prolific, The Shah, Barr's Zellernuss, Kunzemuller's Zellernuss, Liegel's Zellernuss, Romische Nuss, Schlesierin, Truchsess Zellernuss, Vollkugel and Littlepage. Varieties which are not injured at all or less than five per cent were Clackamas, Cosford, Daviana, Early Globe, English Cluster, Kentish Cob, Fertile de Coutard, Italian Red, Medium Long, Oregon, Purple Aveline, Red Lambert, White Aveline, White Lambert, D'Alger, Cannon Ball, Duke of Edinburgh, Kentish filbert, Prolific Closehead, Red Skinned, Eckige Barcelonaer, Kadetten Zellernuss, Ludolph's Zellernuss, Luisen's Zellernuss, Kruse, Neue Riesennuss and Rush and Winkler. It is evident from this data that although many filbert varieties are subject to serious winter injury, there are still a number to choose from that are sufficiently hardy under western New York conditions. Variety Notes The Station variety collection has grown considerably since I discussed filberts before you in 1929. At that time the collection consisted of 28 varieties; today there are under test at Geneva 99 varieties of Corylus avellana, five varieties of Corylus americana, five Jones seedlings, and six species of Corylus, or a total of 115 forms. Later observations on the original orchard have indicated that the original variety recommendations should be modified. Certain varieties imported from Europe and renamed, or were misnamed when imported, and that have been disseminated by nurseries are apparently identical with certain German varieties recently imported by the Geneva Station. Preliminary observations indicate that some of these recently imported German sorts are worthy of further attention. Barcelona which was the most productive variety during the first few years has been falling behind in yields the past two seasons. This, coupled with the winter killing of wood and catkins last winter, makes Barcelona a doubtful variety to plant. Italian Red in 1932 averaged nearly eight pounds of nuts to the tree, the heaviest yield of any variety in the orchard. The crop this year promises to be satisfactory and one of the largest in the orchard, in a season when varieties generally are very light. S. H. Graham of Ithaca reports that "Italian Red has been the best and most regular bearer of any of the European filberts" that he has tried. Kentish Cob averaged five pounds per tree last year and Cosford over four pounds. The latter variety is catkin hardy and should be in every planting. White Lambert and Red Lambert, still light croppers, possess very hardy catkins and for that reason deserve trial. Oregon, Purple Aveline, and English Cluster bear heavy crops, but are difficult to husk and the nuts too small for market. For home use they should be very satisfactory. Among the newer nuts fruiting last year for the first time, Neue Riesennuss, originating in Germany in 1871, is promising. It is one of the largest in the Station collection, is a bright light brown in color with slightly darker stripes, and last winter experienced very little catkin injury and no wood injury. As yet nothing is known of its productiveness in this country, but in Germany it is said to be productive. Some of the nuts distributed in this country by Mr. Vollertsen of Rochester are proving identical with some of the German sorts recently imported by the Station. I do not intend to suggest now that the name of the varieties in this country be changed to those of the varieties with which they are identical. Later when all of these imported varieties are in full bearing the matter of changing names will be brought to your attention again. Red Lambert (of Vollertsen) is identical with Beethe's Zeller, and Italian Red (of Vollertsen) is identical with Gustav's Zeller. Minna (of Vollertsen) is not the Minna of German descriptions. Filbert Breeding The breeding work with filberts is following two lines. Hardiness of wood and catkin is of prime importance and to develop varieties satisfactorily in these respects those varieties that have proved hardy are being crossed with different sorts that have desirable nut and tree characters. Hardiness is also being sought by crossing the Rush native hazel with varieties of Corylus avellana. 535 trees from this cross, made by Mr. Reed, are now growing in a fruiting plantation at the Station, and several hundred more from other crosses are in the nursery row. With this wealth of material coming along, it is reasonable to assume that the day is not far distant when satisfactory varieties will be available for northern planting. Developing a Walnut Grove as a Side Line Job as a Bee Keeper L. K. HOSTETTER _Lancaster, Pennsylvania_ In discussing this topic I shall give you some of my doings in my bee business and nut growing. About 30 years ago, I started out in the bee business with three colonies of bees. This number increased gradually until I had 170 colonies. During these 80 years I would sometimes have a bumper crop of honey and then again sometimes a total failure. This past summer happened to be one of those off years. It is, however, the income from this bee business that started me off in the growing of a grove of 800 black walnut trees, also a few shellbarks, pecans, heartnuts, English walnuts, hicans, hardshell almonds and filberts. In the spring of 1926, I had a nurseryman graft 6 small black walnut trees to the Thomas and Stabler varieties with 5 catches, 4 Thomas and 1 Stabler. In the spring of 1927, I bought the homestead farm and planted 2 Thomas, 2 Stabler, and 2 Ohio black walnuts, 2 shellbarks, 2 hardshell almonds and 6 filberts. This spring I also planted about a bushel of seedling black walnuts and, as it happened we had an exceptionally wet summer, these seedlings made a wonderful growth. In the spring of 1928 I transplanted about 15 acres to these seedlings. In 1929 I planted another 20 acres, and in 1930 another 10 acres. Some of these trees were planted 60 feet each way and some 30 feet apart. Some of these trees were grafted the same year they were planted but most of them were grafted two years later. At this time I had little experience in grafting and, naturally, my 2 acres in getting catches were accordingly. When I started out I thought it would be cheaper to plant seedlings and graft them, as explained above. I have gotten along fairly well in getting my grove started but I found it to be far more work than I expected it would be and I would not do it that way again. Because of some failures each year I still have many trees that have not yet been successfully grafted. I am not in a great hurry to get my grove on a paying basis as I am getting a lot of fun playing with the developing of it and I don't believe there will be so very much difference in the size of these trees 25 years from now. I would say, however, that for the man who wants to get a nut grove developed as soon as possible, he should buy his trees from the expert nut tree nurseryman. My entire grove is now seeded to blue grass for a permanent pasture. About 25 acres is pastured by 160 head of sheep and the balance is cut for hay to feed the sheep in the winter time. My reason for seeding to blue grass is to prevent erosion. Possibly if I should keep my trees cultivated during the summer they would make a better growth. But then my sheep will make quite a bit of manure and I spread much of this manure under the trees every winter and, as it is, my trees are making a very good growth every year. I now have a grove of about 800 black walnut trees. These are mostly of the Thomas, also quite a few Ohio and Stabler and a few Ten Eycks. The Stablers, Ohios, and Ten Eycks seem to fill the shell so full of meats with me that they are hard to remove in large pieces. I think I shall regraft most of these to the Thomas and some of the later varieties. About 600 of my trees are now 7 years old from seed. These trees had about 1/2 bushel of hulled walnuts last summer and I expect to have about 2 bushels this summer. Last summer I also had about a peck of hard shell almonds from my two trees that were planted in 1927. In 1931 my 6 filberts had about 1/2 peck of nuts. These trees are now big enough to have at least a bushel or two of nuts if the catkins had not frozen this past winter. Dr. Zimmerman: Mr. Hostetter, I would like to suggest, from the fact that we know so little about pollinization of nut trees, that you do not be in too big a hurry to cut out your odd varieties. Instead why not do this, let them come into bearing and then each year cut the variety out and note if there is any change in the bearing of the Thomas, of which you say your orchard is mostly made up? Should you happen to note a lack of pollinization or bearing in the Thomas the year after a certain variety is cut out, you can then start checking and may find that variety the best pollinator for the Thomas. I certainly would not be in too big a hurry to eliminate all my test varieties if I were you. The President: Last year Prof. Reed gave us a very valuable paper on pollinization. Dr. Zimmerman: I have a Taylor hickory at my place and every year it has several nutlets but as soon as they get any size they tumble off. I have never seen any catkins on that tree. I have been fooling around for several years with persimmons. I have particular reference to the Kawakmi which is supposed to be a hybrid of Munson. I have never had any fruit from that particular tree. I wrote to Munson's and told them and they sent me some of the fruit. I wanted to get the seeds. My tree blooms heavily but has no pistillate flowers. Nut Trees as Used in Landscaping DR. LEWIS EDWIN THEISS _Muncy, Pennsylvania_ I was asked to speak on the subject of "Planting Nut Trees for Those Who Have Space for Only a Few," but I am going to speak on using nut trees in landscaping. We should know what is meant by the term landscaping. It may mean planting blue spruce or junipers around the house in a pleasing way, or you may use plants. The object is to make a picture which gives a certain impression of our home. We can just as well use nut trees in such a way as to make a beautiful picture, so that when one looks out any window of his home he gets a beautiful picture or vista, or when one goes by and sees your home, he sees a beautiful picture. We tend to follow too stereotyped ways of doing things. There is no reason why we should make a liability of our property. We can just as well have nuts to help make an asset. Trees are very much like words. We have two words in the English language that express more than any others. They are "home" and "mother." We also have trees that connote much. Of course, it depends on what picture we wish our homes to convey. I want mine to have a cozy yet prosperous look. Now you ask, "How are you going to produce that look?" It is by the materials you use and how you use them. And you can use any you wish. We might divide plants into two groups, cultivated plants and wild plants. In trees we have some fruit trees which are never worth a cent. Apple trees suggest home. If you are driving through the woods and come upon an apple tree, you immediately think, "Someone had a home here once." Of course, it might have grown from a chance seed but that is the thought you have at once. The apple tree connotes the thought of home. I happen to be a fruit tree as well as a nut tree grower. The difference between them is that you have to spray the fruit trees. Longfellow said, "Under the spreading chestnut tree the village smithy stands." That was probably very true as there were lots of chestnut trees at that time. So we have nut trees that give us this connotation of domesticity. They make us think of home. We must also consider the foliage. A tree with fine foliage such as the walnut is preferable for the lawn. The walnut gives a fine shade but does not interfere with the growth of grass. The English walnut makes a dense shade, nothing grows under it. Hickory also gives a dense shade. All these things we have to consider when choosing trees to plant about our yards. In my own grounds I have black walnut, Persian walnuts, pecans, filberts, hicans and some others. I feel we might as well have something around our places to help pay the taxes. We might as well get a little pleasure out of our property. Some of us have vegetable gardens. Nut trees can be an asset to your property in the same way if you will plant the proper kinds. You all know the black walnut. It grows to be a large spreading tree but it needs good soil. Another nice tree is the Japanese walnut. This tree is quite beautiful. A sport of this tree is the heartnut. It also is a very beautiful tree and a rapid grower. I have a little group of these trees and I have never seen trees grow so fast. I have a Japanese walnut, a grafted heartnut, and a Japanese seedling. They look exactly alike but bear different kinds of nuts. I have one tree which is a seedling. It is eight years old, beginning on the ninth year and is 20 to 25 feet high. I have a heartnut which is a little bit older which I bought from Mr. Jones. That tree has suffered a lot at my hands. I dug it up twice and changed its position, cutting it back, and still it is growing fine and a big tree for ten years. It has a spread close to 40 feet and reaches to the house top. It certainly looks more than 10 years old. I think a tree like that is very useful planted by a house because of its rapid growth. The foliage is very lovely. I have measured some of the leaves and some are a yard long. Another tree I have growing near the house is a Potomac English walnut. It is a very vigorous tree, has a dense shade and a very good grower. A very lovely tree to have in the yard. I have also, the Butterick, Busseron and Indiana pecans in the side yard. They bear quite well, particularly the Butterick but I like the Busseron better. I think they are going to be very large trees. I think they will be like the elms in New England. The foliage is not so large and coarse and is a little different from the black walnut. They have been very successful for us. We do not know much about getting revenue from our trees as we use all our nuts in the family. A pound of nuts I raise myself is worth much more to me than a pound I would buy in the grocery store because of the fun I get in growing them. I have chestnuts that have escaped the blight so far. They say the Japanese variety is very hardy and very resistant to blight. As to the nuts, I do not know much about them. Another nut tree that we do not often think of is the beech tree. I have never seen a beech tree that had nuts on big enough to amount to anything. We have heard a lot about filberts this morning. Filberts make beautiful hedges. I shouldn't advise anybody to grow a filbert hedge along the road or where it would be a temptation to people to steal. But where you wish to erect a screen to shut out an undesirable view, they make a very nice hedge. They are very pleasing as to foliage. We have a very nice crop of filberts this fall. If you have a little place that you want to screen in, why not do it with a hedge that is both beautiful and productive. We also have a peach almond. That is worth growing just for its blossom. People go to Washington to see the Japanese cheery blossoms but they are no more beautiful than the Ridenhower almond when in bloom. The blossom is 2 inches in diameter. The hull dries and parts through the middle leaving the nut easy to get out. My farmer calls my tree "the dried peach tree." The fruit looks more like a peach seed than an almond. It is more difficult to crack than the usual almond but it certainly is interesting in the springtime. I hope in your landscaping you will make use of nut trees, and when you want a hedge you do not have to have a privet or a barberry one. You can make a hedge of roses or of filberts. Dr. Deming: Will your pecans have a good crop? Are they well filled? Dr. Theiss: Yes, they are well filled and have a very delicious flavor. In the market you could not offer them in competition with the paper-shell variety, but we are quite well pleased with them. Dr. Deming: Isn't that rather a record for distance north? Dr. Theiss: I do not know. Mr. Reed, how far north do pecans grow well? Mr. Reed: I believe our best authorities are Dr. Deming and Dr. Theiss. I am surprised as we have some pecans in Washington with which we were discouraged, although they are now developing. Dr. Theiss: I must say we have very satisfactory trees and lots of nuts. Mr. Hershey: About six weeks ago I saw a tree which had been bearing for 40 years. It was at Schuylkill Haven near Pottsville, in the mountainous country where it gets very cold. An old man told me the tree was 60 years old. Imagine my utter amazement since we believed that the pecan would not bear that far north. I showed the old man some Busseron nuts and he stated that his were slightly smaller but very thin shelled. The seed of this tree came from the Wabash in Illinois. He had another tree there about 30 years old which has been bearing for quite a few years. Prof. Neilson: Have you had any experience with Turkish hazels? Dr. Theiss: No, I have Barcelona, Du Chilly, Red Aveline, White Aveline, and Jones-Rush hybrids. Prof. Neilson: It appears that they are very ornamental and very symmetrical and hardy trees. There is a possibility of using nuts in a new confection made of honey. There is a new method of drying honey perfected by Dr. Philips and Dr. Dyke, and when this is mixed with nuts it forms a really good confection. My wife has worked out several good recipes. Mrs. Neilson: The new method of drying the honey allows it to be wrapped in wax paper without sticking to the paper. This is quite an advantage in marketing it. Prof. Neilson: The Broadview Persian walnut is a very ornamental tree and can be grown by those who live very far north. My Experience in Growing Nut Trees on the House Lawn _By_ M. GLEN KIRKPATRICK _Orchard Editor, Farm Journal, Philadelphia, Pa._ Coming at the end of a program such as you have had here today, I am reminded of a story my father used to tell me as a boy. "There was once a mouse that lived in a cellar. One day he was attracted by some moisture on the floor that was seeping from a barrel of cider. The cider was in the stage of becoming vinegar. The mouse took two or three helpings and then said, 'Now bring on the cat!'" I would be just as foolish as the mouse if I tried to contribute any technical matter. Ten minutes will be ample to tell you of my experiences. My interest in nut trees is due to Mr. John W. Hershey. I wish now that some of my apple trees were replaced by walnuts. I planted my trees about 8 years ago. The pecan is about 18 feet high, the English walnut about 12 feet high. The English walnut has blossomed but has never borne fruit. The pecan has blossomed this year for the first time. My Barcelona has about a pound of nuts on this year. It is from 12 to 14 feet high. My Du Chilly has produced fruit one year. The thing I like about nut trees is their cleanness. My English walnut has never been troubled by pests, neither has the pecan, except there is one thing I hold against the pecans and that is the borers on the branches. It is ten times as bad as English walnuts. But the trees are clean and nice to have, and I really prefer them to apple trees. With apple trees you are at all times troubled with apples on the lawn and it is a job to keep them cleaned up. You have nothing of that sort to contend with in nut trees. My trees have not been given special advantages. The pecan is in with a lot of shrubs and the English walnut is surrounded by roses. The filbert has just taken pot luck with the rest. That is my experience and if I can tell you anything further I shall be glad to do it. Dr. Zimmerman: I would like to ask you a question about the Japanese beetle. Have you had any trouble with your black walnuts? Mr. Kirkpatrick: I have had one black walnut die. Dr. Zimmerman: Do you know if the Japanese beetle attacks the chestnut or chinquapin? Mr. Shaw: Maybe I can answer that question. In New Jersey the Japanese beetle attacks the chestnut but I do not know about the chinquapin. Developing a Thousand Tree Nut Grove _By_ C. F. HOSTETTER _Bird-in-Hand, Pennsylvania_ The natural title of this paper should be "Why I Planted a Nut Grove." Some years ago, especially when we were in the war, it occurred to me that with all the modern machinery and scientific methods on the farm it wouldn't be long before we would be producing much more food than could be consumed, hence the prices for farm commodities would fall so low there would be no profit in them. The last few years have proven my contention was right. So I got to looking around for something to specialize in and became interested in the new improved thin shelled black walnuts that the late J. F. Jones was introducing. I know there is danger in specializing in any one thing but, in summing up the following regarding black walnuts, it looked to me like as good or better a bet than any thing else. First, we know that the demand for the high black walnut flavor has caused it to be profitable for carloads of kernels to be cracked and shipped to the cities from the natural black walnut belt. Although this seedling product has been somewhat improved in quality the last few years I still feel that the demand for this high flavored nut for home use, in confections and baking and ice cream making, will make a high demand for an improved and uniform meat such as can be produced with the grafted trees. With the growing interest in natural foods, and less animal meat, I believe the demand will increase as our groves come into bearing. In 1926 I hazarded a planting of 150 trees, the next year I was steamed up to the place where I decided I should plant more, and then each year following, until my last planting this year, gives me one thousand thrifty growing black walnuts, mostly Thomas variety which I think is the best from what I have observed in my own grove. In planting I set the first ones 50 x 50 ft. Some thought it was too close but I couldn't see it. The next planting I made 50 x 50 feet and then at the next planting I started to wake up after seeing how rapidly the first ones were growing, and I decided to make them 60 x 60 feet. The last planting I made this year 60 x 60 feet and I would advise 60 x 70 feet to any one who asks me how far apart to plant. To me it seems queer just why more people don't plant them. On the basis of 60 x 70 feet you could farm indefinitely, with the tree crop coming on and even bearing for many years, while you are contenting your heart growing annual crops to lose money on. As to bearing, two years ago I had the older planting and many of the younger trees loaded. One five year Thomas had about 400 nuts. Three to five year trees had 50 to 250 and 300 nuts. My crop that year was fourteen bushels which I sold for 15c per lb or $5.00 and $6.00 per bushel. Last year I didn't have so many but this year I first said I would have 50 bushels. I'm starting to believe now I was a little high in my guess but many trees are nicely loaded. Now regarding cost of carrying the grove, as I'm a sweet corn drier I have the most of my farm in corn. I farmed the grove in corn the first five years and hardly missed the space used for trees. I proved what I stated above that one can plant trees and keep on farming and hardly miss the tree space. If planted 70 feet apart one can farm still more land. In cultivating the corn the trees are cultivated, which cuts down the extra cost of caring for them, although of course one must cultivate them if he expects to have them grow and develop rapidly. I now have my oldest trees in sod, mostly weeds this year, but I intend to sow it to grass. I expect then to mow it early in June and use it for a mulch and then mow it maybe a couple of times more for looks sake and let the grass lie. Now another interesting point I want to present to the intending planter of a nut grove is the error of following the foolish advice given out by some of planting seedlings and then grafting them. I say this not for the benefit of the nurserymen but for the financial benefit of the planter. First, the grafting of nut trees is a highly technical job and requires an enormous number of moves, from the first thing of cutting the grafting wood at the proper time in the winter and carefully storing it, until the cutting off of the stocks and knowing how long to let them bleed, and then grafting at the proper time, the proper shading of the graft, sprouting, staking, and tying up of the rapidly growing graft until the end of the growing season, so that the average man will have fallen down long before the season is over. And even if he has the time to do this, which the busy man hasn't, it will take him several years to learn to graft. By the time he has his legs run off over a period of five or seven years going from tree to tree set 60 or 70 feet apart doing more duties than he ever thought were needed, he will have a spotty grove of trees from one year old to bearing age, and then he will wake up and find that the first grafted ones are bearing so well, that should he have bought grafted trees and set them all out at one time the crop would have paid for the complete planting and he would have saved the long agony of trying to get a grove started. Even then he might not have one started, for grafting nut trees is a job every body does not seem able to grasp. At the same time I feel that everybody who has a planting should learn the art of grafting. The few nurserymen now growing grafted nut trees are very willing to teach you and it is nice to be able to turn the fence row seedlings into profitable trees, it's nice to have the kick of feeling you can develop a wonderful tree with your own hand. And again, although I have had, I would say 95 per cent of my planted trees to grow, still here and there a top will die and suckers come up. As the tree roots are established it's nice to be able to stick a graft on these and save waiting a year to replant them with nursery trees. In closing I wish also to suggest that, in making a large planting of black walnuts, plant a few pecans, hicans, hickories and any other good trees recommended by the nurserymen. They are all ornamental and bear fine nuts for home use and maybe local trade. If any wish to ask questions I will attempt to answer them now. And don't forget to come up to see my place on the bus tour tomorrow as I shall be very glad to welcome all and have you learn anything you can from what I have done and mistakes I have made. Please bear in mind that in every move we must remember that this is a new industry of the soil and, although we believe it has a great future, all groving procedure must be felt out and experimented with as we have no guide to go by, just ideas, and you can expect to make some mistakes. But that is life. * * * * * The President asked Dr. Deming to speak of the death of Mr. Bixby. Dr. Deming: On August 16th not a single member of this association, so far as I know, was aware that Mr. Bixby was even ill, and yet on that day he was dead. Mrs. Bixby has written me an account of his illness and his life. He had pneumonia in March from which he never fully recovered. The cause of his death was not known until after his death. I knew Mr. Bixby very well and came to appreciate his very sterling qualities. He was always willing to take any amount of trouble and spend any amount of money on his nut culture experiments. I will now read Mrs. Bixby's account of his life. Willard G. Bixby was born July 13, 1868 at Salem, Massachusetts, the son of Henry M. and Eliza (Symonds) Bixby. In 1898, he married Genevieve Cole who died in 1901. He married second, Ida Elise Tieleke who survives him. His early education was received in the public schools in Salem and, after graduation from high school, he entered Massachusetts Institute of Technology from which he was graduated in 1889 with the degree of S.B. and the highest honors. After receiving this degree, he remained at the institute as an instructor in mechanical engineering, later becoming associated with the Pneumatic Dynamite Gun Company of New York, following which he became connected with the American Bell Telephone Company of Boston. In 1891, he entered the employ of S. M. Bixby and Company, manufacturers of shoe blacking. The firm became involved financially in 1895 and until 1898 was conducted by a receiver. Mr. Bixby interested capitalists and organized a corporation to take over the business of the old company. Mr. Bixby was elected treasurer and held that position until 1911, when he was chosen vice-president. He paid special attention to the manufacturing department. Under the new management the company met modern trade conditions and the business which developed was one of the largest and most prosperous in this line in the country. Following the merging of the Bixby firm with the makers of the 2 in 1 shoe polish, Mr. Bixby retired from that business, and devoted his time to the propagation and cultivation of nut trees. On his Grand Avenue property in Baldwin, where he resided, he had gathered approximately 1,000 trees of almost every variety from all over the world. His experiments in grafting and in crossing varieties, were subject of several articles in national magazines and newspapers. One article, under the title of "Growing Timber for Profit," appeared in a recent issue of the American Forests. He was also interested in curly black walnut and birdseye maple woods. His latest experiment on which he was working at the time of his death was rooting hazels from leaf cuttings, and at this he was partly successful. Mr. Bixby was deeply interested in civic affairs. He was a charter member of the Baldwin United Civic Association, trustee of the Baldwin Public Library, director of the Baldwin Savings and Loan Association, former Fire Commissioner, chairman of the Baldwin Lighting Commission, member of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Baldwin, and organist of the Men's Bible Class, as well as a teacher of the Sunday School. Mr. Bixby's conservative New England training made him a valuable worker for any cause he espoused. He never sought honor and publicity, rather preferring to do his share quietly and modestly. Besides his wife, three children survive him, Willard F., a student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Katherine E., just recently graduated from the Baldwin High School, and Ida T., still at the Baldwin High School. The President: I will also call on Dr. Smith. Dr. Smith: Mr. Bixby had a great many fine qualities, but first of all he had that great characteristic, intelligent inquiry. He had great persistency and great industry, and a wide-awake mind. Now the average American has no interest in anything but his job and his own particular pleasures. In other words, he has no avocation. We are here because we have the avocation of nut growing. One of the most interested members of this association was Mr. Bixby. He had applied to it his great brain and statistical equipment. He might have had a yacht or spent his money on race horses, but instead of that he picked out something new. It is a great pity that his life had to be snuffed out just when he was needed most. He used his spare time in having a useful avocation. On motion of Prof. Neilson the organization expressed its appreciation of Mr. Bixby by rising and standing one minute in tribute to his memory. At the suggestion of Mr. Reed the following night letter was sent to Dr. Morris who has been confined to his home for a long time and has not been able to attend the conventions. Downingtown, Penn. Sept. 11, 1933 Dr. Robert T. Morris Merribrooke Farm Stamford Conn. The Northern Nut Growers Association in convention at Downingtown, Pa., sends you its affectionate greetings. Your long years of association with us and your priceless service to the association and to nut growing and the gracious charm of your presence have so endeared you to us that our meetings are quite incomplete without you. We pray for your speedy restoration to health and return to our councils. Northern Nut Growers Association The meeting was then adjourned to Mr. Hershey's nursery and nut grove and the members and visitors were privileged to inspect his large stock of nut trees and plants and the specimen plantings, some of which are very rare varieties. A delicious supper was then served by Mr. and Mrs. Hershey on the lawn of the Hershey home. Those present expressing their appreciation by a rising vote of thanks. A Black Walnut Grove and Why _By_ DR. F. L. BAUM _Boyertown, Pennsylvania_ I will give you the "why" first. Early in 1923, we realized the need of a diversion, something which would take us out into the open every day of the year and bring us closer to nature, which would be a source of pleasure with prospects of a material return in the future when I wish to retire from the active practice of medicine. After investigating several projects, we finally decided that a black walnut grove would best meet our needs. In the December issue, 1925, of the American Nut Journal, I read "Eventually, why not now?" In that article, Mr. T. P. Littlepage said: "The time will come when the northern states will produce big groves of nut trees." The Journal's comment was "What are we waiting for?" I too wondered because, long before the trees had leaves, I had visions of them bearing to the extent of breaking the limbs from the weight of nuts. When this picture was taken, I asked myself this question, "Was it a venture of fools rushing in where angels fear to tread?" Also I began to think that the quotations in the article I read were sales propaganda put forth by high-pressure salesmen. Encouragements came later when we discovered thirteen nuts on this tree and when my grafts grew on seedlings. About this time pests came such as caterpillars, rose chafers, leaf hoppers, bud worms and, now my worst enemy, a borer which I believe is a cherry tree borer. I have placed a section of a tree on the table which was attacked by this insect. The question has been asked if it were not a blight canker which killed this tree. When I noticed the tree in distress the leaves were drooping and the bark was intact and smooth, with a wet spot the size of a pin point about three feet above the ground. A stab wound revealed the bark loose and full of holes which extended into the sapwood. All of our trees have been treated for the destruction of this pest. Next Spring they will receive a second treatment. By this method we will overcome our difficulty. In July of this year my men who were picking caterpillars came with this information, "There is no necessity for hunting caterpillars as there is a fly stinging them." The insect, the size of a wasp, is part black and part yellow. In the evening they said that if some of the trees in the backfield were not propped, they would break down due to the pressure of so many nuts on them. (Lantern slide pictures of individual trees were then shown and described by Dr. Baum.) The vision I had a few years ago is becoming a reality. I now wonder if it might not have been a case of angels rushing in and other fellows staying out. We may conclude "Now, not eventually." Question: Do caterpillars give you any trouble? Dr. Baum: Yes, they give me considerable trouble. I sprayed this year with arsenate of lead. For a few years I burned them off but last year I sprayed. Question: Do seedlings come up? Dr. Baum: A few, I mow them down. * * * * * Dr. Smith: I want to talk to you about the possibility of making some small cash contributions next summer for a nut contest. We have not had any contributions for a nut contest for some time and it is the only way we can get any new varieties. I would like to start this nut contest next September. It will be necessary to get a lot of people interested and a lot of publicity in the newspapers. We could give a first prize of $25.00, some $5.00 and some $3.00 prizes. It means we would have to have $60.00 or $75.00. Perhaps we can make a more definite call next September. Dr. Theiss: I would like to get any information that is available on the pollinization of filberts. The difficulty seems to be in getting pollinators. The President: There is full information on that subject in the bulletin issued of Prof. Slate of the Geneva Experiment Station. Prof. Slate, what can you tell us about it? Have you any information other than what was published in that bulletin? Prof. Slate: We have this difficulty, that the pollen bearing catkins seem to ripen very early and then the first cold snap freezes them. Dr. Smith: I would like to know something about the market for shagbarks and if the market is for cracked nuts. The President: There is a very small market for them in Cleveland, Ohio. Is there any information about hickory nuts? Prof. Neilson: Hickory nuts frequently sell for about 10c a pound, sometimes as low as three pounds for a quarter. After the discussion closed three telegrams were read, from the Kellogg Hotel, The Agard Hotel and The Chamber of Commerce of Battle Creek, Mich. inviting the association to hold its next meeting in that city. A motion was unanimously adopted to hold the next convention there September 10th and 11th, 1934. Motion was made to give Mr. Z. H. Ellis a life membership in return for his contribution of $50.00. The motion carried. Miss Sawyer: Is the mollissima chestnut blight proof? The President: I should like to have Dr. Smith answer that question. Dr. Smith: The mollissima chestnut came from China where it has been exposed to the blight for ages. It is blight resistant but not blight proof. An occasional tree gets the blight and dies; an occasional tree gets the blight and recovers. It is the opinion of Mr. G. F. Gravatt, of the United States Department of Agriculture, that the physical prosperity of the tree has much to do with its ability to throw off this disease. For example, some of the trees at Bell, Maryland, got to be a foot in diameter and bore crops, without any sign of blight until the terrible drought year of 1930 when some of them developed blight and then later recovered from it. I think mollissima chestnuts are less likely to die than cherries or peaches, and probably less likely than apples. While the subject of blight resistance in chestnuts is up, I should like to call attention to the fact that there are many Japanese chestnuts in the eastern part of the United States that have survived the blight. Some of them bear good nuts, very good nuts, although most of the Japanese have a properly bad reputation for flavor. Doubtless an experimenter has a chance of producing something very valuable by breeding from the best blight resistant Japanese chestnuts now surviving in the eastern United States. Green Shoot Grafting of Trees _By_ ROBERT T. MORRIS, _M. D. New York_ In the course of experimental work with trees I grafted scions of several species and varieties into stocks of their respective genera at times of the year when grafting is not commonly done. Scions were taken directly from one tree and placed at once in another tree. To this method I gave the name of "immediate grafting" in order to distinguish it from grafting with stored scions which might be called "mediate grafting" indicating the intermediate step of storage. Immediate grafting was successful in mid-winter in Connecticut but I had no thought of making it a practical feature of our work beyond the recording of a research fact. Immediate grafting was successful in mid-summer in Connecticut. The procedure was very different from that of winter grafting. In summer the new green growth of the year was cut away completely from a scion and the remaining wood of one or more previous year's growth was depended upon for sending out shoots from latent buds. That is what happens after accidents to limbs or to trunks of trees and it occurred in the same way with my scions. Furthermore, it seemed to offer new hope for the propagation of walnuts, maples, and grapes, for example, because the free flowing sap of such species in the spring and early summer has led to attacks upon the sap by bacteria and fungi which ruin repair cells. I have already published elsewhere the statement that immediate grafting may be done in the way described in any month of the year with many kinds of plants. Exceptions to this rule will doubtless appear here and there. For example, the grafting of trees in August would not be safe in Connecticut because the new young shoots would be killed by September frosts. That is the reason for August cutting of brush by farmers. The tender new shoots that are sent out from latent stump buds become frosted and the entire plant may die. On account of an illness that had kept me confined to the house most of the time for some months, I had allowed the spring grafting season to pass this year. Stored scions of many kinds lay under a heap of leaves at the rear of my garage. The drying-out process had been intensified by an employee who made a spring clean-up of the yard and who looked upon this heap of leaves as something upon which creditable showing for his work might be made. A month or so later I kicked over the few remaining broken remnants of scions for no reason in particular. Down near the ground I observed that two hybrid chestnut scions which had been trampled into the ground had retained some moisture. Each one had sent out a pale canary-colored shoot of the sort with which we are painfully familiar. The shoot on one scion was about an inch and a third in length with well-formed unfolding sickly yellow leaves. The other scion had a shoot of the same kind but only about one-third of an inch in length and with yellow leaves barely out of bud-bursting form. It occurred to me that my old method of waxing the entire scion, leaves and all in this case, might be done as an experiment in order to see how long these greatly started shoots would hold up if desiccation was prevented and always with the possibility of a surprise. Some years ago I had waxed some hazel scions from the West that had burst their buds and they all grew but the test was by no means so severe as it was with these yellow chestnut upstarts. The rule of discarding scions that are not wholly dormant was about to be rudely broken; waxing changed the whole situation. A miser does not scrutinize his treasure more acutely than we horticulturists do when getting out scions that have been stored during the winter and the voice of Demeter is calling us to the side of our own wards. How sadly a million nurserymen have thrown away a billion started scions of valuable kinds. My two chestnut scions had gone far beyond the hopeless stage but now perhaps I could be a doctor to them. If my two canary birds could be made to sing then would I also sing. They were dipped in a dish of melted parafin wax for an instant and then quickly shaken in the air before scorching could occur. The scions were then grafted into a small chinquapin stock. A few days later one of the larger leaves of the larger shoot had cleared itself from the wax coating and had begun to expand widely, turning to a natural green color. The stem of the shoot turned to a normal brownish red. Two tiny shoots then broke through the wax of the larger shoot, looking like axillary bud shoots until closer examination showed them to be scale bud shoots. That should interest plant physiologists. Eventually the cramped leaves remaining under wax coating that was unnecessarily dense finally dropped away useless. The single green leaf and the two scale bud shoots went on to natural development. The smaller shoot of the other scion managed to burst through the wax completely and made normal growth. After these scions were well under way I went out and searched in the loose dirt and leaves of the old heap and found another hybrid chestnut scion that presented the allusive emblem of a canary bird. This one had a shoot of about half of one inch in length and it burst completely through the wax, to make a fine little twig. So much for an experiment that led immediately to one of far greater importance. If canary bird shoots could be made to break rules of horticultural theory and of recorded fact perhaps we might note the principle and apply it to the experimental grafting of green shoots of the year in tree propagation. This is what lawyers might call a _non sequitur_. Such grafting had always been a failure so far as I knew, and certainly my own attempts had failed in former years. Grafting of new growth of the year upon new growth of the year in the growing season is an established feature of horticultural experiment with certain annual plants. Why had it so signally failed with perennial plants and most impressively with trees? Doubtless plants produce in their leaves a hormone which directs certain enzymes that conduct wound repair by cell division. If plants which do not lignify for winter manage to direct successful wound repair after grafting and if plants which do lignify for winter do not conduct successful repair of grafted new growth it occurred to me in a speculative way that the reason might perhaps be sought in the nature of the two different kinds of hormones or of enzymes belonging to annuals and to perennials respectively. The difference might possibly depend upon the arrangement of ions, anions and cations upon two sides of the permeable membrane of a repair cell. The cell is an electrolyte and therefore division of the cell in course of preparation for multiplication might perhaps depend upon an electric impulse so delicately in balance that Nature for some cryptic reason might prefer not to allow the necessary balance to go toward cell division in grafts consisting of green growth of the year in perennials. Perhaps I might defeat natural processes by leaving a leaf or part of one at the distal part of a green graft shoot. This leaf might perhaps elaborate the necessary hormones or enzymes for wound repair purposes--and also for conducting polarity of sap movement toward maintenance of that scion and leaf. We need not speculate further upon the philosophy of the subject because I took it up at this point for pragmatic tests experimentally. The horticulturist does not have to go to the theatre for thrills. My advance report at this moment comes at a time when a scientist would demand more works along with faith and my only reason for presenting incomplete notes at this time is that they seem to be fascinating in their outlook and no one knows how much experiment may be permitted me for next year at Merribrooke. The summer was well along when my canary bird shoots opened a vista. The vista appeared at a time of drought when plant propagators wait for better days. It seemed to be necessary to get in a part of the work at least on July 28th and we then had the drought intensified by five more days of great heat, temperatures ranged above 90 degrees F. in the shade and above 140 degrees F. in the sun. After this period of heat and drought we had abundant rains. All grafts were wax treated in these experiments. In no case was an entire leaf left at the distal end of a graft because it was felt that even one-fourth of one leaf would attend to the required functions. Exp. No. 1. A growing persimmon shoot about two feet long was cut up into scions with a few buds each, and about one-fourth of a leaf allowed to remain at the distal end of each scion, other leaves on each scion being snipped off. Each scion including its remnant of leaf was dipped in melted parapin wax. Two of these were grafted upon green shoots of another persimmon, the latter cut back to make stubs for reception of cleft grafts. Three of the scions were inserted in bark slots in older wood. Note, Sept. 9th, Green leaf part including its petiole had dropped off from all five scions. A small slit in the bark of each graft for investigation showed that the cambium was green in four grafts, the fifth graft was completely dead. Exp. No. 2. On July 28th three persimmon scions consisting of last year's wood and each one carrying a couple of inches of new growth with a terminal trimmed leaf were grafted into last year's wood on another persimmon tree. Note. Sept. 9th. All three grafts dead including both old and new wood. Exp. No. 3. July 28th. One green persimmon scion with terminal leaf inserted in bark slot of branch one inch in diameter cut back for purpose. Note Sept. 9th. Dead. On August 2nd the drought had been broken. All trees seemed to have put up top buds on account of drought and heat. The following experiments were made with green growth of the year but with new top buds much to my regret at having no actively unfolding shoots for furnishing scions. Exp. No. 4. Aug 2nd. Persimmon tree (a) One graft, green on green; one green graft on old wood. Note. Sept. 9th. Terminal leaves remained green several days after grafting but by Sept. 9th all had fallen off. Small slit in bark showed cambium of grafts still green. Persimmon tree (b) Two green grafts on green. One green graft in bark slot of older wood. Note Sept. 9th. Terminal leaves had finally died but two of the buds of green graft on green have burst forth into leaf. These will probably winterkill. Green in old wood has green cambium but no swelling bud. Exp. No. 5 Aug 2nd. Persimmon tree (c) One green on old wood. Sept. 9th. Leaf dead, cambium of stem green. Exp. No. 6. Aug 2nd. Persimmon tree (d) One green on old wood. Sept. 9th. Leaf dead, cambium of stem green. Exp. No. 7. Aug. 2nd. Persimmon tree (e) Three greens on old wood. Sept. 9th. Leaves dead, one stem dead, cambium of two stems green. Exp. No. 8. Aug. 2nd. Papaw tree. Two greens on green, two greens on old wood. Sept. 9th. Two greens on green have buds enlarged and ready to burst. One green on old wood is not enlarging its buds. One green on old wood is dead. Exp. No. 9. Aug. 2nd. English walnut. Four greens on green. Sept. 9th. Leaflets dead on all. Petiole dead on one, stem cambium green. Petioles bright green on three and the cambium green on these. Comment. I could not take daily notes which would have been very important. A general statement will cover the point that the terminal leaf on a scion seldom died until it had functioned for at least a week. Some of them functioned for more than two weeks and one of them for at least four weeks, failing only a day or two ago. This would seem to mean that the terminal leaves in scions conducted or helped to conduct repair in green graft wounds to a point where buds are now bursting on two persimmon scions. Two pawpaw scions have enlarged buds to the point of bursting. The terminal leaves on scions seemed to conduct repair up to a point where lignifying for the winter is now going on. This cannot be determined until winter passes but I have never obtained anything like this effect until experimenting with the terminal leaf theory for the first time this year. The most striking effect so far as appearance goes is with the English walnut grafts with their bright green stems. If I may have opportunity for conducting experiments next summer I shall begin earlier by pinching off the buds of growing shoots, giving them a week of rest and then cutting these shoots up into scions. If buds then start off like those of two persimmons and two papaws they will have time for lignifying. My whole lesson of this season would seem to mean that after properly checked experiments we may perhaps add what I call "green grafting" to the other form of immediate grafting. The practical feature of this whole new phase in grafting method is an extension of the grafting season to include every month of the year. Scion grafting of perennials in the latitude and longitude of Connecticut had formerly been confined to about two month's in the farmer's rush season, and with general failure in the grafting of some species which may now be grafted successfully. * * * * * _Letter from Prof. Colby_ _Agricultural Experiment Station Urbana, Illinois_ I regret very much indeed that I cannot attend the meeting of the Nut Growers Association this year. This letter bears my very best wishes and hopes for a successful meeting. We shall miss Mr. Bixby's pleasing and helpful personality. Some time ago I promised to give you a report on some of our activities here and if you think it is worth while, I would appreciate your reading it to the group. There is an increasing interest in nut culture in Illinois. Wholly aside from the commercial aspects which have been so profitably developed in southern Illinois is a project of recent development, one in Extension work in top working seedling walnuts and pecans with improved varieties. This project is sponsored by the Department of Horticulture, University of Illinois, and the Extension Forester of the State Natural History Survey, with the cooperation of the County Farm Advisers. Last fall in Gallatin County native pecans of the best grades sold for 18 cents per pound on the market, while the average tree run stock was bringing six cents. With a native pecan crop from one county in Illinois, more or less ungraded, selling for $100,000 in a recent year, thinking horticulturists in the state are beginning to feel that there are potential profits in nut culture where better varieties are planted or top worked. Seedling trees for top working are already growing in abundance in many sections of the state with an ideal climate and soil for northern nut production. Last year seven counties in Illinois carried on the top working project. This year approximately three times that number have been enrolled. In addition, groups from neighboring counties have been present at the demonstrations. Growers from Iowa and Indiana have also attended. The total attendance has run into the hundreds, both men and women, most of them actual growers. All the meetings are held out of doors in the orchard or nursery and the group is instructed in the propagation of nut trees through grafting and budding. Nut growers of the immediate locality are glad to assist with the work. After the discussion and demonstration, all present are invited to learn how to do the work by actual participation and many become sufficiently skilled to top work their own trees upon their return home. Possibilities of this type of extension work are almost unlimited. * * * * * _Letter from J. U. Gellatly_ I enclose a short chart or graph of the flowering habits of some of my leading walnut trees. I started in 1930 to keep a record of some of the trees and have added a number since till this year when I kept a record of 17 different trees. The ones shown cover the full time from May 12th to June 25th. Some new ideas in budding procedure that may be of value and interest I also include herein that others may test them out as I am doing. But even if they fail with me it will not prove that they have no value, for the generally approved methods have failed to give commercial results here. My main idea was to try to find a new system of handling the budding operations that would give more definite results and if possible to eliminate the use of a wax melter and the waxing of buds. My first trial consisted in the use of florist's tin foil. Cutting bud from bud stick with my new style bud cutter, I cut out the patch from stalk and placed bud in place and with two or three turns of raffia, or rubber bands, secured bud in place, then put 2 wraps of tinfoil around the bud and stalk extending from one inch below to one inch above bud, then with hand pressed tinfoil tightly to shape of bud and stalk, then completely wrapped with raffia and tied securely. This makes a neat job and is pleasant and convenient to work with. I have today examined some buds so treated and put on the 13th of August and they appear to be in prime shape, no apparent flooding or souring of the bud patch. As this tin foil cost me 25c per pound, I had a happy thought of using cellophane which is much cheaper and is equally easy to use, on the whole, as the tinfoil as, while it is in the first operation of actually applying to stalk not just as easily put on, it has an important advantage that offsets this, which is the ease with which one can see that the bud is in the exact place, while the tying is taking place. My present method of using the cellophane is to apply a double wrapping of cellophane directly over the bud then to securely wrap from one-half inch below bud to one-half inch above bud. This makes a good air and moisture proof job. Experience may modify or eliminate some parts of this procedure, and it is with this in view that I pass this on that others may take it up and work out the best procedure from a wider experience than one can give. From my experience I would suggest that if one is marking or cutting the patch on the stalk 8 or 10 days ahead of placing the bud thereon, that one be very careful not to cut too deeply as a large percentage of those I so cut were so badly discolored that I had to cut a new place when placing the bud, as those done 10 days previous showed a one-eighth inch dead and discolored portion around the cut that extend one-sixteenth inch into the trunk of the tree, and no union could possibly take place on such a spoiled cambium surface. Bus Tour September 12th _By_ J. W. HERSHEY _Downington, Pennsylvania_ Leaving the Hotel Swan at 8:45 A.M. with a bus load and 8 cars the tour proceeded to Dr. Truman W. Jones' grove of 800 trees, 4 and 6 years old, 6 miles west of Coatesville on the Lincoln Highway. Dr. Jones has continually farmed his land which has helped greatly to carry the planting. The next stop was at the nursery of the late J. F. Jones, now operated by his daughter Mildred, south of Lancaster. Here we saw the interesting test orchard of English walnuts, pecans and black walnuts. Most interesting was the test block of hybrid filbert-hazels started by Mr. Jones some years ago. The next stop was at C. F. Hostetter's 1,000 tree grove at Bird-in-Hand, east of Lancaster, where we saw what Mr. Hostetter told about in his paper yesterday. His trees all looked nice and many trees were well loaded with nuts. Next stop was at L. K. Hostetter's grove of 800 trees near Oregon. Here very interesting observations were made in tree and grove procedure. Part of the grove is now in blue grass and sheep, making a very beautiful setting. Part is interplanted with locust trees, the idea being to feed the ground with a legume tree and get something in return from the wood. As the locusts crowd the walnuts they will be cut. Demonstrations were given in hulling walnuts with a Ford car which was done by jacking up one rear wheel. A trough is inserted under the wheel lined with a piece of truck tire. A mud chain is put on the wheel and as the wheel revolves, nuts are poured in via a metal chute and the nuts fly out the other end very well hulled. The jack is used to adjust the wheel to different sizes of nuts. Lem's next eye-opener was a brand new method of separating the hulls from the nuts. Two 2-inch pipes are laid on an incline the thickness of a walnut hull, about a half inch, apart. The pipes revolve and the hulls and nuts are poured on at the top. As they roll down the incline, and the rolls revolve, the hulls are caught by the rolls or pipes and pulled through the crack between them. A most remarkable and simple method solving one of the major problems in commercial walnut growing. The last stop was made at Dr. Frank Baum's grove at Yellow House, 8 miles east of Reading on the Boyertown highway. Here luncheon was served by Dr. and Mrs. Baum, the outstanding feature being walnut ice cream and walnut kisses. After the luncheon at Dr. Baum's the following business was transacted: Dr. Deming, Chairman Nominating Committee, presented the following nominations: President Frank H. Frey Vice-President Dr. G. A. Zimmerman Secretary George L. Slate Treasurer Newton H. Russell On motion duly made and carried these officers were elected by acclamation. Motion was made, seconded and carried that the annual dues be $2.00 same not to include a subscription to our official journal the National Nut News. Motion by Mr. Reed was seconded and carried that where the member wished to do so one check could be submitted to our treasurer to cover both dues and subscription to the official journal and the treasurer will remit the subscription to the National Nut News. Mr. Reed then explained for the benefit of those present the arrangement whereby our association is affiliated with the American Horticultural Society and by maintaining its membership in that society each member of our association may secure a membership in the American Horticultural Society on payment of $2.00 dues per annum instead of the customary dues of $3.00. Each member of the society receives the National Horticultural Magazine of which Mr. Reed is the nut editor. The magazine is issued quarterly, at present, and it is the intention to have one or more articles on nut trees in each issue. On motion by Dr. Smith, duly seconded and carried the board of directors are required to authorize a budget of expenditures for each year and this was fixed at $350.00 for expenses for year ending September 10th, 1934. The President to advise the officers each year of the sums appropriated for certain expenses. On motion by Mr. Russell, seconded by Dr. Weber and carried, article two of the by-laws was revised to cover the proper dues for various memberships and will be so recorded in the by-laws on page 9. On motion by Mr. Hershey, seconded by Dr. Weber and carried it was agreed that five copies of each annual bulletin be mailed by the secretary or the person in charge of printing the bulletin to each officer for distribution as he sees fit; and that one copy of the bulletin be sent gratis to each non-member who participates in the program at our annual conventions. A rising vote of thanks was given Dr. and Mrs. Baum for the delectable luncheon served by them. An inspection was then made of Dr. Baum's 1,200 tree grove. Many trees were loaded and all looking good. Here two cultural problems were discussed. Relative to the walnut blight, he showed us one tree that was afflicted near the ground and he started to mound soil around it. After three years of increasing the mound it is now 2-1/2 feet high and the tree is thriving and bearing, with every indication that it has overcome the disease. Opinion was expressed that it threw out new roots above the wound to save itself. The experiment is of immense value to orchard procedure. In observing a few of such trees opinion was expressed that in walnut orcharding, as in fruit orcharding, there will be a few trees that will have to be replaced the first few years and is something not to be worried about. Dr. G. A. Zimmerman said, "Why worry about the blight? The wild ones have always had it to a small extent. Spread is so slow it isn't perceptible, damage being almost nil, so let's forget it." Banquet Tuesday Evening September 12th The convention closed with a banquet held in the private dining room of the Swan Hotel. On request of the President Mr. John W. Hershey introduced the speakers of the evening. Rev. G. Paul Musselman spoke briefly and was followed by the after-dinner speaker, Mr. Al Bergstrom, Superintendent of Police of Coatesville, Pa. His subject was "Nuts--I Crack Them as You Like Them," and with many interesting jokes and humorous stories he portrayed an interesting picture of the many problems that have to be met and solved by police officers. Each one privileged to hear this forceful speaker was deeply impressed with the responsibility that goes with citizenship. Business Session The President: We will now hear the report of the committee on Hybrids and Promising Seedlings. Dr. Zimmerman, Chairman, gave an oral report calling attention to some of the more important hybrids and new seedlings described by other members during the sessions of the convention and concluded by stating that the most important step in testing hybrids was to have interested people plant a number of promising hybrids of hickories and black walnuts and keep accurate records of these seedlings (second generation hybrids). There was some discussion as to whether the Norton was a pure pecan or a hybrid. Mr. C. A. Reed stated he had seen the parent tree himself and believed it to be a pure pecan. Mr. J. W. Hershey stated that he believed it to be a hican, basing his opinion in part on its showing hybridity as it is such a strong grower. He said he had a number of Norton trees in the nursery and would be glad to sell them at a nominal price to those who would be interested in testing them further. The President: We will now have the report of the resolutions committee. Report of the Resolutions Committee Be it Resolved: That we express our appreciation of the generosity and public spirit of Mr. W. K. Kellogg in making possible one of the largest experimental projects in nut culture in the northern United States. That we express our sincere thanks to Mr. and Mrs. Hershey and Dr. and Mrs. Baum for the delicious luncheons served our members and guests. That we express our sincere thanks to the Swan Hotel management and to the citizens and business men of Downingtown for accommodations and services rendered: to the program committee and committee on local arrangements for the very complete plans and their efficient execution; to the speakers who have taken part in the program; to the exhibitors and to the officers and members who have provided a most interesting and educational program and to Messrs. Hershey, L. K. Hostetter, C. F. Hostetter, the Jones Nurseries and Drs. Baum and Jones for the privilege of inspecting their nut tree plantings. And we again express our regrets that Dr. Morris could not be with us and trust his health will improve. That we express our sincere thanks to Mr. O. C. Lightner for the efficient manner in which articles and papers submitted by our members were published in our official journal, the "NATIONAL NUT NEWS," and for the excellent printing of our annual report. We wish to express our deep sorrow over the loss of our faithful member, Past President and Secretary, Mr. Willard G. Bixby whose passing was so touchingly referred to in our business meeting. Resolutions Committee, Prof. James A. Neilson, Chairman Dr. Harry R. Weber Frank H. Frey A motion was made and seconded to accept the report of the Resolutions Committee. (Carried unanimously.) Professor A. C. McIntyre of the Pennsylvania State Forestry Service was then called upon and discussed the black walnut as a timber tree. He called attention to the fact that the black locust is a legume of high value and acts as a stimulant to the growth of other trees and are themselves excellent for use later as fence posts. In considering the relative value of various nut trees as shade trees he stressed the fact that the time of leafing out in the spring and the dropping of the leaves in the fall are important factors. Motion was carried that the board of directors should formulate requirements for Honorary membership and have a proposition ready for discussion at the 1934 convention. List of officers and committee members was then read. Same are recorded on pages 3 and 4. The President: Attention is called to the fact that the annual dues are now only $2.00 and surely there are a large number of people interested in nut tree growing who will wish to join our association. I am sure each member will wish to subscribe for our official journal, the NATIONAL NUT NEWS, the subscription price of which is only $1.00 per year (in the United States) and remittance may be made through our Treasurer or direct to the News at 2810 South Michigan Ave., Chicago. Those who desire to secure budded or grafted nut bearing trees will have their orders given proper attention by any of the following who are members of our association: W. R. Fickes, Route 7, Wooster, Ohio. Gerardi Nurseries, O'Fallon, Ill. John W. Hershey, Downingtown, Pa. Indiana Nut Nursery (J. W. Wilkinson, Prop.), Rockport, Ind. J. F. Jones Nurseries, Box N. 356, Lancaster, Pa. Michigan Nut Nursery (H. Burgart), Rt. 2, Union City, Mich. E. A. Riehl Farm and Nursery, Godfrey, Ill. Snyder Bros., Inc., Center Point, Iowa. Sunny Ridge Nursery (Dr. J. Russell Smith), Round Hill, Va. W. G. Bixby Nursery, 32 Grand Ave., Baldwin, N. Y. J. U. Gellatly, West Bank, B. C., Canada. The Living Tree Guild, 468 Fourth Ave., New York. The latter has distributed a great deal of information on northern nut culture and I think a paper at our next convention outlining its work and accomplishments would be most valuable. Each one present is cordially invited to attend our convention next year, September 10 and 11, 1934 at Battle Creek, Michigan. As there is no further business, this the 24th Annual Convention of the Northern Nut Growers Association will be adjourned. The Convention adjourned at 9:00 P.M. EXHIBITS =By Clermont Co., Ohio= Hill hickories. =By Dr. Deming= Metal tree labels. =By W. R. Dunlap= Japanese walnut. Heartnut � butternut cross. Seedling English walnut. =By F. H. Frey= Black walnuts: Hillabolt, from Mrs. C. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia. Marion, from Mrs. C. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia. Metcalf, from Mrs. C. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia. Wheeling, from Mrs. C. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia. Worthington, from Mrs. C. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Ia. Kettler, from Fred Kettler, Plattesville, Wisc. Oklahoma Seedling (J. Rupestris, pp. 60 1932 report). Rohwer, from J. Rohwer, Grundy Center, Ia. Grundy, from J. Rohwer, Grundy Center, Ia. Stabler (one lobe), from O. H. Casper, Anna, Ill. Sample package of new method selling black walnuts, sliced shell and meats together. Mat made of cross sections of black walnuts fastened together with copper wire. =By J. U. Gellatly= Leaf tracing of bitternut � English walnut hybrid. =By Samuel Graham= Collection of black walnuts and hickory nuts from Ithaca, N. Y. =By J. R. Hershey= Little Giant nut cracker. Little Giant walnut huller. =By John W. Hershey= Collection of black walnuts, hickory nuts and pecans. One Thomas black walnut tree four feet tall, one year from graft bearing a Thomas walnut. John W. Hershey nut cracker. =By L. K. Hostetter= Monterey black walnut. =By F. F. Jones Nurseries= Ohio black walnut. Thomas black walnut. Ten Eyck black walnut. Pleas hicans. Buchanan filberts. Jones hybrid hazels and filberts. Alpine English walnuts. Hall English walnuts. Wiltz-mayette English walnuts. =By H. F. Stoke= Homeland black walnut. Exhibit of commercial 2-lb. package of black walnut kernels. =By Harry R. Weber= Weber walnut. =By Dr. G. A. Zimmerman= Collection of nuts. ATTENDANCE--1933 CONVENTION Mrs. Laura Woodward Abbott, R. D. No. 2, Bristol, Pa. John Alcorn, Paoli, Pa. Dr. Frank L. Baum, Boyertown, Pa. Mrs. Frank L. Baum, Boyertown, Pa. Miss Dorothy Baum, Boyertown, Pa. H. K. Beard, Schaefferstown, Pa. Mrs. H. K. Beard, Schaefferstown, Pa. Miss Elizabeth Beitler, Downingtown, Pa. Al. Bergstrom, Coatesville, Pa. Carl P. Birkinbine, Cynwyd, Pa. A. R. Buckwalter, Flemington, N. J. G. Y. Clement, West Chester, Pa. Mrs. G. Y. Clement, West Chester, Pa. Oliver Croshaw, Hightstown, Pa. Elroy Curtis, Brookfield, Conn. Wm. Curtis, New York, N. Y. Dr. W. C. Deming, 31 Owen St., Hartford, Conn. Milton Dull, Schaefferstown, Pa. Mrs. Milton Dull, Schaefferstown, Pa. C. E. Endy, Yellow House, Pa. Mrs. C. E. Endy, Yellow House, Pa. Prof. F. N. Fagan, State College, Pa. Frank H. Frey, Chicago, Ill. Joseph B. Gable, Stewartstown, Pa. S. H. Graham, Ithaca, N. Y. Paul W. Hafer, Lorane, Pa. J. W. Hartman, Sligo, Pa. Dr. Julian T. Hammond, Newtown, Pa. John K. Hershey, Ronks, Pa. J. R. Hershey, Kinzers, Pa. John W. Hershey, Downingtown, Pa. Mrs. John W. Hershey, Downingtown, Pa. C. F. Hostetter, Bird-in-Hand, Pa. Mrs. C. F. Hostetter, Bird-in-Hand, Pa. L. K. Hostetter, Lancaster, Pa. Mrs. J. F. Jones, Lancaster, Pa. Miss Mildred Jones, Lancaster, Pa. M. M. Kaufman, Clarion, Pa. Mortimer B. Kelly, Morristown, N. J. M. Glen Kirkpatrick, c/o Farm Journal, Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. Mary Laudermilch, Lebanan, Pa. E. J. Leitenberger, 3747 W. Park Ave., Philadelphia, Pa. Wm. S. B. McCaleb, St. Davids, Pa. A. C. McIntyre, State College, Pa. Mrs. William McPherson, Downingtown, Pa. Upton Mehring, Keymar, Md. Mrs. Upton Mehring, Keymar, Md. F. K. Miller, Clarion, Pa. Lennard H. Mitchell, Washington, D. C. Mrs. Lennard H. Mitchell, Washington, D. C. Mrs. I. E. Murray, Downingtown, Pa. Rev. Paul Musselman, Downingtown, Pa. Prof. J. A. Neilson, East Lansing, Mich. Mrs. J. A. Neilson, East Lansing, Mich. Charles S. Phillips, Parkersville, Pa. Prof. C. A. Reed, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. John Rick, Reading, Pa. J. S. Rittenhouse, Lorane, Pa. Newton H. Russell, South Hadley, Mass. Mrs. N. H. Russell, South Hadley, Mass. Miss Dorothy C. Sawyer, New York, N. Y. Adam S. Schultz, Hereford, Pa. George L. Slate, Geneva, N. Y. Samuel M. Smedlet, West Chester, Pa. Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa. Ella H. Snavely, R. D. No. 2, Manheim, Pa. H. R. Snavely, R. D. No. 2, Manheim, Pa. J. M. Somerville, Rimersburg, Pa. J. W. Sparks, R. D., Williamstown, N. J. C. D. Setler, Yellow House, Pa. H. F. Stokes, Roanoke, Va. Miss Ruth Stokes, Roanoke, Va. Jacob E. Stover, Springwood Farms, York, Pa. Mrs. Jacob E. Stover, Springwood Farms, York, Pa. C. A. Tenney, Clear Spring, Md. Dr. R. E. Theiss, Lewisburg, Pa. Mrs. R. E. Theiss, Lewisburg, Pa. Carl F. Walker, Cleveland Heights, Ohio. Robert Wallace, Paoli, Pa. Wm. S. Weaver, Macungie, Pa. Dr. Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio. Mrs. Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio. Dr. G. A. Zimmerman, Harrisburg, Pa. Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman, Harrisburg, Pa. BOOKS AND BULLETINS ON NORTHERN NUT GROWING 1. Nut Culture in the United States, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1896. Out of print and out of date but of great interest. 2. The Nut Culturist, Fuller, pub. Orange Judd Co., N. Y., 1906. Out of print and out of date but a systematic and well written treatise. These two books are the classics of American nut growing. 3. Nut Growing, Dr. Robert T. Morris, pub. MacMillan, N. Y. 2nd edition 1931, price $2.50. The modern authority, written in the author's entertaining and stimulating style. 4. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1501, 1926, Nut Tree Propagation, C. A. Reed, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. A very full bulletin with many illustrations. 5. Tree Crops, Dr. J. Russell Smith, pub. Harcourt, Brace & Co., N. Y., 1929, price $4.00. Includes the nut crop. 6. Annual reports of the Northern Nut Growers' Association from 1911 to date. To be had from the secretary. Prices on request. 7. Bulletin No. 5, Northern Nut Growers' Association, by W. G. Bixby. 2nd edition, 1920. To be had from the secretary. Price fifty cents. 8. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1392, Black Walnut Culture for both Timber and Nut Production. To be had from the Supt. of Documents, Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price 5 cents. 9. Year Book Separate No. 1004, 1927, a brief article on northern nut growing, by C. A. Reed, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 10. Filberts--G. A. Slate--Bulletin No. 588, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y., December, 1930. 11. Leaflet No. 84, 1932, Planting Black Walnut, W. R. Mattoon and C. A. Reed, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 12. Harvesting and Marketing the Native Nut Crops of the North, by C. A. Reed, 1932, mimeographed bulletin, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 13. Dealers in Black Walnut Kernels, mimeographed bulletin by C. A. Reed, 1931, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 14. Eastern Nursery Catalogues Listing Nut Trees, mimeographed leaflet to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 15. Twenty Years Progress in Northern Nut Culture. A 48-page booklet of valuable information and instruction by John W. Hershey, Nuticulturist, Downingtown, Penna. Price 25 cents. 16. The National Nut News, official organ of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, 2810 South Michigan Ave., Chicago, Illinois. Monthly, One Dollar a year. 17. Files of The American Nut Journal, to be had from the publishers, American Nurseryman Publishing Co., 39 State St., Rochester, N. Y. _______________________________________________________________________ | | | "Happy Is the Man Who Has | | a Hobby" | | | | [Illustration] | | | | "_HAPPY is the man who has a hobby_," runs the old saying. | | And still happier is the hobbyist who regularly receives and | | reads "HOBBIES--THE MAGAZINE FOR COLLECTORS." | | | | Here, in this interesting, profusely illustrated, 170-page monthly | | you will find news, pictures, and information, as well as buying, | | selling and swapping ads, in all branches of collecting. | | | | HOBBIES has a particularly fine and complete Stamp Collector's | | Department--40 or more pages each month devoted to stamp club | | news, notes, articles on stamps and stamp issuing countries, | | department on precancels, new issues, and airmails, and general | | information. (HOBBIES, by the way, is the Official Organ of the great | | Society of Philatelic Americans.) | | | | HOBBIES is also the outstanding medium for the exchange of | | information, news, and advertising of interest to collectors of | | Antiques, Autographs, Coins, Indian Relics, Books, Firearms, Prints, | | Minerals, Shells, Glassware, and many other collected articles. | | | | It's fun to have a hobby, and to know what others who share | | your interests are doing and thinking! Let HOBBIES keep you | | posted! And if you haven't a hobby as yet, but would like to have | | one, let HOBBIES help you to find it! | | | | _Subscribe to HOBBIES! Sample Copy, 10c | | Year's Subscription, only $1.00_ | | | | Lightner Publishing Corp. | | | | 2810 S. Michigan Ave. Chicago, Illinois | |_______________________________________________________________________| 
17514	----	THE GARDEN, YOU, AND I [Illustration: A SEASIDE GARDEN.] THE GARDEN, YOU, AND I BY BARBARA AUTHOR OF "THE GARDEN OF A COMMUTER'S WIFE," "PEOPLE OF THE WHIRLPOOL," "AT THE SIGN OF THE FOX," ETC. New York THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON: MACMILLAN & CO., LTD. 1906 _All rights reserved_ COPYRIGHT, 1906. BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published June, 1906. Norwood Press J.S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. ~Dedicated~ TO J.L.G. I.M.T. AND A.B.P. THE LITERARY GARDENERS OF REDDING GREETING This book is for those who in treading the garden path have no thought of material gain; rather must they give,--from the pocket as they may,--from the brain much,--and from the heart all,--if they would drink in full measure this pure joy of living. "Allons! the road is before us! It is safe--I have tried it--my own feet have tried it well--be not detained." --WALT WHITMAN. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE WAYS OF THE WIND 1 II. THE BOOK OF THE GARDEN, YOU, AND I 7 III. CONCERNING HARDY PLANTS 29 IV. THEIR GARDEN VACATION 48 V. ANNUALS--WORTHY AND UNWORTHY 70 VI. THEIR FORTUNATE ESCAPE 92 VII. A SIMPLE ROSE GARDEN 117 VIII. A MIDNIGHT ADVENTURE 155 IX. FERNS, FENCES, AND WHITE BIRCHES 183 X. FRANKNESS--GARDENING AND OTHERWISE 202 LIST OF FLOWER COMBINATIONS FOR THE TABLE FROM BARBARA'S _Garden Boke_ 230 XI. A SEASIDE GARDEN 233 XII. THE TRANSPLANTING OF EVERGREENS 246 XIII. LILIES AND THEIR WHIMS 262 XIV. FRAGRANT FLOWERS AND LEAVES 281 XV. THE PINK FAMILY OUTDOORS 305 XVI. THE FRAME OF THE PICTURE 320 XVII. THE INS AND OUTS OF THE MATTER 336 XVIII. THE VALUE OF WHITE FLOWERS 352 XIX. PANDORA'S CHEST 365 XX. EPILOGUE 374 APPENDIX FOR THE HARDY SEED BED 375 SOME WORTHY ANNUALS 387 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A SEASIDE GARDEN (see p. 243) _Frontispiece_ "THE MAGNOLIAS BELOW AT THE ROAD-BEND" 8 ENGLISH LARKSPUR SEVEN FEET HIGH 32 FRAXINELLA--GERMAN IRIS AND CANDY-TUFT 44 LONGFELLOW'S GARDEN 81 THE SUMMER GARDEN--VERBENAS 86 ASTERS 90 THE PICTORIAL VALUE OF EVERGREENS 102 "MY ROSES ARE SCATTERED HERE, THERE, AND EVERYWHERE" 119 MADAME PLANTIER AT VAN CORTLAND MANOR 128 A CONVENIENT ROSE-BED 138 "THE LAST OF THE OLD ORCHARD" 156 THE SCREEN OF WHITE BIRCHES 166 "AN ENDLESS SHELTER FOR EVERY SORT OF WILD THING" 184 SPECIOSUM LILIES IN THE SHADE 270 THE POET'S NARCISSUS 278 A BED OF JAPAN PINKS 296 SINGLE AND DOUBLE PINKS 314 "THE SILVER MAPLE BY THE LANE GATE" 326 "A CURTAIN TO THE SIDE PORCH" 328 AN IRIS HEDGE 358 DAPHNE CNEORUM 360 A TERRIBLE EXAMPLE 362 "THE LOW SNOW-COVERED MEADOW" 372 "PUNCH ... HAS A CACHE UNDER THE SYRINGA BUSHES" 374 THE GARDEN, YOU, AND I I THE WAYS OF THE WIND "Out of the veins of the world comes the blood of me; The heart that beats in my side is the heart of the sea; The hills have known me of old, and they do not forget; Long ago was I friends with the wind; I am friends with it yet." --GERALD GOULD. Whenever a piece of the land is to be set apart for a garden, two mighty rulers must be consulted as to the boundaries. When this earth child is born and flower garnished for the christening, the same two must be also bidden as sponsors. These rulers are the Sun and the Wind. The sun, if the matter in hand is once fairly spread before him and put in his charge, is a faithful guardian, meeting frankness frankly and sending his penetrating and vitalizing messengers through well-nigh inviolable shade. But of the wind, who shall answer for it or trust it? Do we really ever learn all of its vagaries and impossible possibilities? If frankness best suits the sun, diplomacy must be our shield of defence windward, for the wind is not one but a composite of many moods, and to lure one on, and skilfully but not insultingly bar out another, is our portion. To shut out the wind of summer, the bearer of vitality, the uplifter of stifling vapours, the disperser of moulds, would indeed be an error; therefore, the great art of the planters of a garden is to learn the ways of the wind and to make friends with it. If the soil is sodden and sour, it may be drained and sweetened; if it is poor, it may be nourished; but when all this is done, if the garden lies where the winds of winter and spring in passing swiftly to and fro whet their steel-edged tempers upon it, what avails? What does it matter if violet or pansy frames are set in a sunny nook, if it be one of the wind's winter playgrounds, where he drifts the snow deep for his pastime, so that after each storm of snow or sleet a serious bit of engineering must be undergone before the sashes can be lifted and the plants saved from dampness; or if the daffodils and tulips lie well bedded all the winter through, if, when the sun has called them forth, the winds of March blight their sap-tender foliage? Yet the lands that send the north winds also send us the means to deter them--the cold-loving evergreens, low growing, high growing, medium, woven dense in warp and woof, to be windbreaks, also the shrubs of tough, twisted fibre and stubborn thorns lying close to the earth for windbuffers. Therefore, before the planting of rose or hardy herbs, bulbs or tenderer flowers, go out, compass in hand, face the four quarters of heaven, and, considering well, set your windbreaks of sweeping hemlocks, pines, spruces, not in fortress-like walls barring all the horizon, but in alternate groups that flank, without appearing to do so heavily, the north and northwest. Even a barberry hedge on two sides of a garden, wedge point to north, like the wild-goose squadrons of springtime, will make that spot an oasis in the winter valley of death. A wise gardener it is who thinks of the winter in springtime and plants for it as surely as he thinks of spring in the winter season and longs for it! If, in the many ways by which the affairs of daily life are re-enforced, the saying is true that "forethought is coin in the pocket, quiet in the brain, and content in the heart," doubly does it apply to the pleasures of living, of which the outdoor life of working side by side with nature, called gardening, is one of the chief. When a garden is inherited, the traditions of the soil or reverence for those who planned and toiled in it may make one blind to certain defects in its conception, and beginning with _a priori_ set by another one does as one can. But in those choosing site, and breaking soil for themselves, inconsistency is inexcusable. Follow the lay of the land and let it lead. Nature does not attempt placid lowland pictures on a steep hillside, nor dramatic landscape effects in a horizonless meadow, therefore why should you? For one great garden principle you will learn from nature's close companionship--consistency! You who have a bit of abrupt hillside of impoverished soil, yet where the sky-line is divided in a picture of many panels by the trees, you should not try to perch thereon a prim Dutch garden of formal lines; neither should you, to whom a portion of fertile level plain has fallen, seek to make it picturesque by a tortuous maze of walks, curving about nothing in particular and leading nowhere, for of such is not nature. Either situation will develop the skill, though in different directions, and do not forget that in spite of better soil it takes greater individuality to make a truly good and harmonious garden on the flat than on the rolling ground. I always tremble for the lowlander who, down in the depth of his nature, has a prenatal hankering for rocks, because he is apt to build an undigested rockery! These sort of rockeries are wholly separate from the rock gardens, often majestic, that nowadays supplement a bit of natural rocky woodland, bringing it within the garden pale. The awful rockery of the flat garden is like unto a nest of prehistoric eggs that have been turned to stone, from the interstices of which a few wan vines and ferns protrude somewhat, suggesting the garnishing for an omelet. Also, if you follow Nature and study her devices, you will alone learn the ways of the winds and how to prepare for them. Where does Spring set her first flag of truce--out in the windswept open? No! the arbutus and hepatica lie bedded not alone in the fallen leaves of the forest but amid their own enduring foliage. The skunk cabbage raises his hooded head first in sheltered hollows. The marsh marigold lies in the protection of bog tussocks and stream banks. The first bloodroot is always found at the foot of some natural windbreak, while the shad-bush, that ventures farther afield and higher in air than any, is usually set in a protecting hedge, like his golden forerunner the spice-bush. If Nature looks to the ways of the wind when she plants, why should not we? A bed of the hardiest roses set on a hill crest is a folly. Much more likely would they be to thrive wholly on the north side of it. A garden set in a cut between hills that form a natural blowpipe can at best do no more than hold its own, without advancing. But there are some things that belong to the never-never land and may not be done here. You may plant roses and carnations in the shade or in dry sea sand, but they will not thrive; you cannot keep upland lilies cheerful with their feet in wet clay; you cannot have a garden all the year in our northern latitudes, for nature does not; and you cannot afford to ignore the ways of the wind, for according as it is kind or cruel does it mean garden life or death! "Men, they say, know many things; But lo, they have taken wings,-- The arts and sciences, And a thousand appliances; The wind that blows Is all that anybody knows." --THOREAU. II THE BOOK OF THE GARDEN, YOU, AND I _April 30._ Gray dawn, into which father and Evan vanished with their fishing rods; then sunrise, curtained by a slant of rain, during which the birds sang on with undamped ardour, a catbird making his début for the season as soloist. It must not be thought that I was up and out at dawn. At twenty I did so frequently, at thirty sometimes, now at thirty-five I _can_ do it _perfectly well_, if necessary, otherwise, save at the change of seasons, to keep in touch with earth and sky, I raise myself comfortably, elbow on pillow, and through the window scan garden, wild walk, and the old orchard at leisure, and then let my arm slip and the impression deepen through the magic of one more chance for dreams. _9 o'clock._ The warm throb of spring in the earth, rising in a potent mist, sap pervaded and tangible, having a clinging, unctuous softness like the touch of unfolding beech leaves, lured me out to finish the transplanting of the pansies among the hardy roses, while the first brown thrasher, high in the bare top of an ash, eyes fixed on the sky, proclaimed with many turns and changes the exact spot where he did not intend to locate his nest. This is an early spring, of a truth. Presently pale sunbeams thread the mist, gathering colour as they filter through the pollen-meshed catkins of the black birches; an oriole bugling in the Yulan magnolias below at the road-bend, fire amid snow; a high-hole laughing his courtship in the old orchard. Then Lavinia Cortright coming up to exchange Dahlia bulbs and discuss annuals and aster bugs. She and Martin browse about the country, visiting from door to door like veritable natives, while their garden, at first so prim and genteel, like one of Lavinia's own frocks, has broken bounds and taken on brocade, embroidery, and all sorts of lace frills, overflowed the south meadow, and only pauses at the stile in the wall of our old crab-apple orchard, rivalling in beauty and refined attraction any garden at the Bluffs. Martin's purse is fuller than of yore, owing to the rise in Whirlpool real estate, and nothing is too good for Lavinia's garden. Even more, he has of late let the dust rest peacefully on human genealogy and is collecting quaint garden books and herbals, flower catalogues and lists, with the solemn intent of writing a book on Historic Flowers. At least so he declares; but when Lavinia is in the garden, there too is Martin. To-day, however, he joined my men before noon at the lower brook. Fancy a house-reared man a convert to fishing when past threescore! Evan insists that it is because, being above all things consistent, he wishes to appear at home in the company of father's cherished collection of Walton's and other fishing books. Father says, "Nonsense! no man can help liking to fish!" [Illustration: "THE MAGNOLIAS BELOW AT THE ROAD-BEND."] Toward evening came home a creel lined with bog moss; within, a rainbow glimmer of brook trout, a posy of shad-bush, marsh marigolds, anemones, and rosy spring beauties from the river woods,--with three cheerfully tired men, who gathered by the den hearth fire with coffee cup and pipe, inside an admiring but sleepy circle of beagle hounds, who had run free the livelong day and who could doubtless impart the latest rabbit news with thrilling detail. All this and much more made up to-day, one of red letters. Yesterday, Monday, was quite different, and if not absolutely black, was decidedly slate coloured. It is only when some one of the household is positively ill that the record must be set down in black characters, for what else really counts? Why is it that the city folk persist in judging all rural days alike, that is until they have once really _lived_ in the country, not merely boarded and tried to kill time and their own digestions at one and the same moment. Such exceptional days as yesterday should only be chronicled now and then to give an added halo to happy to-morrows,--disagreeables are remembered quite long enough by perverse human nature. Yesterday began with the pipe from the water-back bursting, thereby doing away with hot water for shaving and the range fire at the same time. The coffee resented hurry, and the contact with an oil stove developed the peanutty side of its disposition, something that is latent in the best and most equable of brands. The spring timetable having changed at midnight Sunday, unobserved by Evan, he missed the early train, which it was especially important that he should take. Three other men found themselves in the same predicament, two being Bluffers and one a Plotter. (These are the names given hereabout to our two colonies of non-natives. The Bluffers are the people of the Bluffs, who always drive to the station; the Plotters, living on a pretty tract of land near the village that was "plotted" into house-lots a few years ago, have the usual newcomer's hallucination about making money from raising chickens, and always walk.) After a hasty consultation, one of the Bluffers telephoned for his automobile and invited the others to make the trip to town with him. In order to reach the north turnpike that runs fairly straight to the city, the chauffeur, a novice in local byways, proposed to take a short cut through our wood road, instead of wheeling into the pike below Wakeleigh. This wood road holds the frost very late, in spite of an innocent appearance to the contrary; this fact Evan stated tersely. Would a chauffeur of the Bluffs listen to advice from a man living halfway down the hill, who not only was autoless but frequently walked to the station, and therefore to be classed with the Plotters? Certainly not; while at the same moment the owner of the car decided the matter by pulling out his watch and murmuring to his neighbour something about an important committee meeting, and it being the one day in the month when time meant money! Into the road they plunged, and after several hair-breadth lurches, for the cut is deep and in places the rocks parallel with the roadway, the turnpike was visible; then a sudden jolt, a sort of groan from the motor, and it ceased to breathe, the heavy wheels having settled in a treacherous spot not wholly free from frost, its great stomach, or whatever they call the part that holds its insides, wallowed hopelessly in the mud! The gentlemen from the Bluffs deciding that, after all, there was no real need of going to town, as they had only moved into the country the week previous, and the auto owner challenged to a game of billiards by his friend, they returned home, while the Plotter and Evan walked back two miles to the depot and caught the third train! At home things still sizzled. Father had an important consultation at the hospital at ten; ringing the stable call for the horses, he found that Tim, evidently forgetting the hour, had taken them, Evan's also being of the trio, to the shoer half an hour before. There was a moment's consternation and Bertel left the digging over of my hardy beds to speed down to the village on his bicycle, and when the stanhope finally came up, father was as nearly irritable as I have ever seen him, while Tim Saunders's eyes looked extra small and pointed. Evidently Bertel had said things on his own account. Was an explosion coming at last to end twelve years of out-of-door peace, also involving my neighbour and domestic standby, Martha Corkle Saunders? No; the two elderly men glanced at each other; there was nothing of the domineering or resentful attitude that so often renders difficult the relation of master and man--"I must be getting old and forgetful," quoth father, stepping into the gig. "Nae, it's mair like I'm growin' deef in the nigh ear," said Tim, and without further argument they drove away. I was still pondering upon the real inwardness of the matter, when the boys came home to luncheon. Two hungry, happy boys are a tonic at any time, and for a time I buttered bread--though alack, the real necessity for so doing has long since passed--when, on explaining father's absence from the meal, Ian said abruptly, "Jinks! grandpa's gone the day before! he told Tim _Tuesday_ at 'leven, I heard him!" But, as it chanced, it was a slip of tongue, not memory, and I blessed Timothy Saunders for his Scotch forbearance, which Evan insists upon calling prudence. My own time of trial came in the early afternoon. During the more than ten years that I have been a gardener on my own account, I have naturally tried many experiments and have gradually come to the conclusion that it is a mistake to grow too many species of flowers,--better to have more of a kind and thus avoid spinkiness. The pink family in general is one of those that has stood the test, and this year a cousin of Evan's sent me over a quantity of Margaret carnation seed from prize stock, together with that of some exhibition single Dahlias. Late in February I sowed the seed in two of the most protected hotbeds, muffled them in mats and old carpets every night, almost turned myself into a patent ventilator in order to give the carnations enough air during that critical teething period of pinks, when the first grasslike leaves emerge from the oval seed leaves and the little plants are apt to weaken at the ground level, damp off, and disappear, thinned them out with the greatest care, and had (day before yesterday) full five hundred lusty little plants, ready to go out into the deeply dug cool bed and there wax strong according to the need of pinks before summer heat gains the upper hand. The Dahlias had also thriven, but then they are less particular, and if they live well will put up with more snubs than will a carnation. Weather and Bertel being propitious, I prepared to plant out my pets, though of course they must be sheltered of nights for another half month. As I was about to remove one of the props that held the sash aloft, to let in air to the Dahlias, and still constitute it a windbreak, I heard a violent whistling in our grass road north of the barn that divides the home acres from the upper pastures and Martha's chicken farm. At first I thought but little of it, as many people use it as a short cut from the back road from the Bluffs down to the village. Soon a shout came from the same direction, and going toward the wall, I saw Mr. Vandeveer struggling along, his great St. Bernard Jupiter, prize winner in a recent show and but lately released from winter confinement, bounding around and over him to such an extent that the spruce New Yorker, who had the reputation of always being on dress parade from the moment that he left bed until he returned to it in hand-embroidered pink silk pajamas, was not only covered with abundant April mud, but could hardly keep his footing. At the moment I spied the pair, a great brindled cat, who sometimes ventures on the place, in spite of all the attentions paid her by the beagles, and who had been watching sparrows in the barnyard, sprang to the wall. Zip! There was a rush, a snarl, a hiss, and a smash! Dog and what had been cat crashed through the sash of my Dahlia frame, and in the rebound ploughed into the soft earth that held the carnations. The next minute Mr. Vandeveer absolutely leaped over the wall, and seeing the dog, apparently in the midst of the broken glass, turned almost apoplectic, shouting, "Ah, his legs will be cut; he'll be ruined, and Julie will never forgive me! He's her best dog and cost $3000 spot cash! Get him out, somebody, why don't you? What business have people to put such dangerous skylights near a public road?" Meanwhile, as wrath arose in my throat and formed ugly words, Jupiter, a great friend of ours, who has had more comfortable meals in our kitchen during the winter than the careless kennel men would have wished to be known, sprang toward me with well-meant, if rough, caresses,--evidently the few scratches he had amounted to nothing. I forgave him the cat cheerfully, but my poor carnations! They do not belong to the grovelling tribe of herbs that bend and refuse to break like portulaca, chickweed, and pusley the accursed. Fortunately, just then, a scene of the past year, which had come to me by report, floated across my vision. Our young hounds, Bob and Pete, in the heat of undisciplined rat-catching (for these dogs when young and unbroken will chase anything that runs), completely undermined the Vandeveers' mushroom bed, the door of the pit having been left open! When Mr. Vandeveer recovered himself, he began profuse apologies. Would "send the glazier down immediately"--"so sorry to spoil such lovely young onions and spinach!" "What! not early vegetables, but flowers?" Oh, then he should not feel so badly. Really, he had quite forgotten himself, but the truth was Julie thought more of her dogs and horses than even of himself, he sometimes thought,--almost, but not quite; "ha! ha! really, don't you know!" While, judging by the comparative behaviour of dog and man, the balance was decidedly in favour of Jupiter. But you see I never like men who dress like ladies, I had lost my young plants, and I love dogs from mongrel all up the ladder (lap dogs excepted), so I may be prejudiced. After Bertel had carefully removed the splintered glass from the earth, so that I could take account of my damaged stock, about half seemed to be redeemable; but even those poor seedlings looked like soldiers after battle, a limb gone here and an eye missing there. At supper father, Evan, and I were silent and ceremoniously polite, neither referring to the day's disasters, and I could see that the boys were regarding us with open-eyed wonder. When the meal was almost finished, the bell of the front door rang and Effie returned, bearing a large, ornamental basket, almost of the proportions of a hamper, with a card fastened conspicuously to the handle, upon which was printed "With apologies from Jupiter!" Inside was a daintily arranged assortment of hothouse vegetables,--cucumbers, tomatoes, eggplant eggs, artichokes,--with a separate basket in one corner brimming with strawberries, and in the other a pink tissue-paper parcel, tied with ribbon, containing mushrooms, proving that, after all, fussy Mr. Vandeveer has the saving grace of humour. My righteous garden-indignation dwindled; laughter caught me by the throat and quenched the remainder. Evan, knowing nothing of the concatenation, but scenting something from the card, joined sympathetically. Glancing at father, I saw that his nose was twitching, and in a moment his shoulders began to shake and he led the general confession that followed. It seems that he arrived at the hospital really the day of the consultation, but found that the patient, in need of surgical care, had been seized with nervous panic and gone home! After such a thoroughly vulgar day there is really nothing to do but laugh and plan something pleasant for to-morrow, unless you prefer crying, which, though frequently a relief to the spirit, is particularly bad for eye wrinkles in the middle-aged. _May-day._ I always take this as a holiday, and give myself up to any sort of outdoor folly that comes into my head. There is nothing more rejuvenating than to let one's self thoroughly go now and then. Then, besides, to an American, May-day is usually a surprise in itself. You never can tell what it will bring, for it is by no means the amiable and guileless child of the poets, breathing perfumed south wind and followed by young lambs through meadows knee deep in grass and flowers. In the course of fifteen years I have seen four May-days when there was enough grass to blow in the wind and frost had wholly left for the season; to balance this there have been two brief snow squalls, three deluges that washed even big beans out of ground, and a scorching drought that reduced the brooks, unsheltered by leafage, to August shallowness. But to-day has been entirely lovable and full of the promise that after all makes May the garden month of the year, the time of perfect faith, hope, and charity when we may believe all things! This morning I took a stroll in the woods, partly to please the dogs, for though they always run free, they smile and wag furiously when they see the symptoms that tell that I am going beyond the garden. What a difference there is between the north and south side of things! On the south slope the hepaticas have gone and the columbines show a trace of red blood, while on the north, one is in perfection and the other only as yet making leaves. This is a point to be remembered in the garden, by which the season of blooming can be lengthened for almost all plants that do not demand full, unalloyed sun, like the rose and pink families. Every year I am more and more surprised at the hints that can be carried from the wild to the cultivated. For instance, the local soil in which the native plants of a given family nourish is almost always sure to agree better with its cultivated, and perhaps tropical, cousin than the most elaborately and scientifically prepared compost. This is a matter that both simplifies and guarantees better success to the woman who is her own gardener and lives in a country sufficiently open for her to be able to collect soil of various qualities for special purposes. Lilies were always a very uncertain quantity with me, until the idea occurred of filling my bed with earth from a meadow edge where _Lilium Canadense_, year after year, mounted her chimes of gold and copper bells on leafy standards often four feet high. We may read and listen to cultural ways and methods, but when all is said and done, one who has not a fat purse for experiments and failures must live the outdoor life of her own locality to get the best results in the garden. Then to have a woman friend to compare notes with and prove rules by is a comforting necessity. No living being can say positively, "I _will_ do so and so;" or "I _know_," when coming in contact with the wise old earth! Lavinia Cortright has only had a garden for half a dozen summers, and consults me as a veteran, yet I'm discovering quite as much from her experiments as she from mine. Last winter, when seed-catalogue time came round, and we met daily and scorched our shoes before the fire, drinking a great deal too much tea in the excitement of making out our lists, we resolved to form a horticulture society of only three members, of which she elected me the recording secretary, to be called "The Garden, You, and I." We expect to have a variety of experiences this season, and frequent meetings both actual and by pen, for Lavinia, in combination with Horace and Sylvia Bradford, last year built a tiny shore cottage, three miles up the coast, at Gray Rocks, where they are going for alternate weeks or days as the mood seizes them, and they mean to try experiments with real seashore gardening, while Evan proposes that we should combine pleasure with business in a way to make frequent vacations possible and take driving trips together to many lovely gardens both large and small, to our mutual benefit, his eyes being open to construction and landscape effect, and mine to the soul of the garden, as it were; for he is pleased to say that a woman can grasp and translate this more easily and fully than a man. What if the records of The Garden, You, and I should turn into a real book, an humble shadow of "Six of Spades" of jovial memory! Is it possible that I am about to be seized with Agamemnon Peterkin's ambition to write a book to make the world wise? Alas, poor Agamemnon! When he had searched the woods for an oak gall to make ink, gone to the post-office, after hours, to buy a sheet of paper, and caused a commotion in the neighbourhood and rumour of thieves by going to the poultry yard with a lantern to pluck a fresh goose quill for a pen, he found that he had nothing to say, and paused--thereby, at least, proving his own wisdom. I'm afraid I ramble too much to be a good recording secretary, but this habit belongs to my very own garden books that no critical eyes can see. That reminds me! Father says that he met Bartram Penrose in town last week and that he seemed rather nervous and tired, and worried about nothing, and wanted advice. After looking him over a bit, father told him that all he needed was a long vacation from keeping train, as well as many other kinds of time, for it seems during the six years of his marriage he has had no real vacation but his honeymoon. Mary Penrose's mother, my mother, and Lavinia Cortright were all school friends together, and since Mary married Bartram and moved to Woodridge we've exchanged many little visits, for our husbands agree, and now that she has time she is becoming an enthusiastic gardener, after my own heart, having last season become convinced of the ugliness of cannas and coleus beds about a restored colonial farmhouse. Why might they not join us on our driving trips, by way of their vacation? Immediately I started to telephone the invitation, and then paused. I will write instead. Mary Penrose is on the long-distance line,--toll thirty cents in the daytime! In spring I am very stingy; thirty cents means six papers of flower seeds, or three heliotropes. Whereas in winter it is simply thirty cents, and it must be a very vapid conversation indeed that is not worth so much on a dark winter day of the quality when neither driving nor walking is pleasant, and if you get sufficiently close to the window to see to read, you develop a stiff neck. Also, the difficulty is that thirty cents is only the beginning of a conversation betwixt Mary Penrose and myself, for whoever begins it usually has to pay for overtime, which provokes quarterly discussion. Is it not strange that very generous men often have such serious objections to the long-distance tails to their telephone bills, and insist upon investigating them with vigour, when they pay a speculator an extra dollar for a theatre ticket without a murmur? They must remember that telephones, whatever may be said to the contrary, are one of the modern aids to domesticity and preventives of gadding, while still keeping one not only in touch with a friend but within range of the voice. Surely there can be no woman so self-sufficient that she does not in silent moments yearn for a spoken word with one of her kind. When I had finished sowing my first planting of mignonette and growled at the prospective labour entailed by thinning out the fall-sown Shirley poppies (I have quite resolved to plant everything in the vegetable-garden seed beds and then transplant to the flowering beds as the easier task), Lavinia Cortright came up, note-book in hand, inviting herself comfortably to spend the day, and thoroughly inspect the hardy seed bed, to see what I had for exchange, as well as perfect her plan of starting one of her own. By noon the sun had made the south corner, where the Russian violets grow, quite warm enough to make lunching out-of-doors possible, and promising to protect Lavinia's rather thinly shod feet from the ground with one of the rubber mats whereon I kneel when I transplant, she consented to thus celebrate the coming of the season of liberty, doors open to the air and sun, the soul to every whisper of Heart of Nature himself, the steward of the plan and eternal messenger of God. "Hard is the heart that loveth naught in May!" Yes, so hard that it is no longer flesh and blood, for under the spell of renewal every grass blade has new beauty, every trifle becomes of importance, and the humble song sparrow a nightingale. The stars that blazed of winter nights have fallen and turned to dandelions in the grass; the Forsythias are decked in gold, a colour that is carried up and down the garden borders in narcissus, dwarf tulips, and pansies, peach blossoms giving a rosy tinge to the snow fall of cherry bloom. To-day there are two catbirds, Elle et Lui, and the first Johnny Wren is inspecting the particular row of cottages that top the long screen of honeysuckles back of the walk named by Richard _Wren Street_. Why is the song sparrow calling "Dick, Dick!" so lustily and scratching so testily in the leaves that have drifted under an old rose shrub? The birds' bath and drinking basin is still empty; I pour out the libation to the day by filling it. The seed bed is reached at last. It has wintered fairly well, and the lines of plants all show new growth. As I started to point out and explain, Lavinia Cortright began to jot down name and quantity, and then, stopping, said: "No, you must write it out as the first record for The Garden, You, and I. I make a motion to that effect." As I was about to protest, the postman brought some letters, one being from Mary Penrose, to whom Mrs. Cortright stands as aunt by courtesy. I opened it, and spreading it between us we began to read, so that afterward Lavinia declared that her motion was passed by default. "WOODRIDGE, _April_ 30. "MY DEAR MRS. EVAN, "I am going into gardening in earnest this spring, and I want you and Aunt Lavinia to tell me things,--things that you have done yourselves and succeeded or failed in. Especially about the failures. It is a great mistake for garden books and papers to insist that there is no such word in horticulture as fail, that every flower bed can be kept in full flower six months of the year, in addition to listing things that will bloom outdoors in winter in the Middle States, and give all floral measurements as if seen through a telephoto lens. It makes one feel the exceptional fool. It's discouraging and not stimulating in the least. Doesn't even nature meet with disaster once in a while as if by way of encouragement to us? And doesn't nature's garden have on and off seasons? So why shouldn't ours? "There is a quantity of _Garden Goozle_ going about nowadays that is as unbelievable, and quite as bad for the constitution and pocket, as the guarantees of patent medicines. No, _Garden Goozle_ is not my word, you must understand; it was invented by a clever professor of agriculture, whom Bart met not long ago, and we loved the word so much that we have adopted it. The mental quality of _Garden Goozle_ seems to be compounded of summer squash and milkweed milk, and it would be quite harmless were it not for the strong catbriers grafted in the mass for impaling the purses of the trusting. "Ah, if we only lived a little nearer together, near enough to talk over the garden fence! It seems cruel to ask you to write answers to all my questions, but after listing the hardy plants I want for putting the garden on a consistent old-time footing, I find the amount runs quite to the impossible three figures, aside from everything else we need, so I've decided on beginning with a seed bed, and I want to know before we locate the new asparagus bed how much ground I shall need for a seed bed, what and how to plant, and everything else! "I like all the hardy things you have, especially those that are mice, lice, and water proof! If you will send me ever so rough a list, I shall be grateful. Would I better begin at once or wait until July or August, as some of the catalogues suggest? "Bart has just come in and evidently has something on his mind of which he wishes to relieve himself via speech. "Your little sister of the garden, "MARY P." "She must join The Garden, You, and I," said Lavinia Cortright, almost before I had finished the letter. "She will be entertainer in chief, for she never fails to be amusing!" "I thought there were to be but three members," I protested, thinking of the possible complications of a three-cornered correspondence. "Ah, well," Lavinia Cortright replied quickly, "make the Garden an _Honorary_ member; it is usual so to rank people of importance from whom much is expected, and then we shall still be but three--with privilege of adding your husband as councillor and mine as librarian and custodian of deeds!" So I have promised to write to Mary Penrose this evening. III CONCERNING HARDY PLANTS THE SEED BED FOR HARDY FLOWERS When the Cortrights first came to Oaklands, expecting to remain here but a few months each summer, their garden consisted of some borders of old-fashioned, hardy flowers, back of the house. These bounded a straight walk that, beginning at the porch, went through an arched grape arbour, divided the vegetable garden, and finally ended under a tree in the orchard at the barrier made by a high-backed green wooden seat, that looked as if it might have been a pew taken from some primitive church on its rebuilding. There were, at intervals, along this walk, some bushes of lilacs, bridal-wreath spirea, flowering almond, snowball, syringa, and scarlet flowering quince; for roses, Mme. Plantier, the half double Boursault, and some great clumps of the little cinnamon rose and Harrison's yellow brier, whose flat opening flowers are things of a day, these two varieties having the habit of travelling all over a garden by means of their root suckers. Here and there were groups of tiger and lemon lilies growing out of the ragged turf, bunches of scarlet bee balm, or Oswego tea, as it is locally called, while plantain lilies, with deeply ribbed heart-shaped leaves, catnip, southernwood, and mats of grass pinks. Single hollyhocks of a few colours followed the fence line; tall phlox of two colours, white and a dreary dull purple, rambled into the grass and was scattered through the orchard, in company with New England asters and various golden rods that had crept up from the waste pasture-land below; and a straggling line of button chrysanthemums, yellow, white, maroon, and a sort of medicinal rhubarb-pink, had backed up against the woodhouse as if seeking shelter. Lilies-of-the-valley planted in the shade and consequently anæmic and scant of bells, blended with the blue periwinkle until their mingled foliage made a great shield of deep, cool green that glistened against its setting of faded, untrimmed grass. This garden, such as it was, could be truly called hardy, insomuch as all the care it had received for several years was an annual cutting of the longest grass. The fittest had survived, and, among herbaceous things, whatsoever came of seed, self-sown, had reverted nearly to the original type, as in the case of hollyhocks, phlox, and a few common annuals. The long grass, topped by the leaves that had drifted in and been left undisturbed, made a better winter blanket than many people furnish to their hardy plants,--the word _hardy_ as applied to the infinite variety of modern herbaceous plants as produced by selection and hybridization not being perfectly understood. While a wise selection of flowering shrubs and truly hardy roses will, if properly planted, pruned, and fertilized, live for many years, certain varieties even outlasting more than one human generation, the modern hardy perennial and biennial of many species and sumptuous effects must be watched and treated with almost as much attention as the so-called bedding-plants demand in order to bring about the best results. The common idea, fostered by inexperience, and also, I'm sorry to say, by what Mary Penrose dubs _Garden Goozle_, that a hardy garden once planted is a thing accomplished for life, is an error tending to bitter disappointment. If we would have a satisfactory garden of any sort, we must in our turn follow Nature, who never rests in her processes, never even sleeping without a purpose. But if fairly understood, looked squarely in the face, and treated intelligently, the hardy garden, supplemented here and there with annual flowers, is more than worth while and a perpetual source of joy. If money is not an object to the planter, she may begin by buying plants to stock her beds, always remembering that if these thrive, they must be thinned out or the clumps subdivided every few years, as in the case of hybrid phloxes, chrysanthemums, etc., or else dug up bodily and reset; for if this is not done, smaller flowers with poorer colours will be the result. The foxglove, one of the easily raised and very hardy plants, of majestic mien and great landscape value, will go on growing in one location for many years; but if you watch closely, you will find that it is rarely the original plant that has survived, but a seedling from it that has sprung up unobserved under the sheltering leaves of its parent. The old plant grows thick at the juncture of root stock and leaf, the action of the frost furrows and splits it, water or slugs gain an entrance, and it disappears, the younger growth taking its place. Especially true is this also of hollyhocks. The larkspurs have different roots and more underground vigour, and all tap-rooted herbs hold their own well, the difficulty being to curb their spreading and undermining their border companions. [Illustration: ENGLISH LARKSPUR SEVEN FEET HIGH.] It is conditions like these that keep the gardener of hardy things ever on the alert. Beds for annuals or florists' plants are thoroughly dug and graded each spring, so that the weeds that must be combated are of new and comparatively shallow growth. The hardy bed, on the contrary, in certain places must be stirred with a fork only and that with the greatest care, for, if well-planned, plants of low growth will carpet the ground between tall standing things, so that in many spots the fingers, with a small weeding hoe only, are admissible. Thus a blade of grass here, some chickweed there, the seed ball of a composite dropping in its aerial flight, and lo! presently weedlings and seedlings are wrestling together, and you hesitate to deal roughly with one for fear of injuring the constitution of the other. To go to the other extreme and keep the hardy garden or border as spick and span clean as a row of onions or carrots in the vegetable garden, is to do away with the informality and a certain gracious blending of form and colour that is one of its greatest charms. Thus it comes about, with the most successful of hardy mixed borders, that, at the end of the third season, things will become a little confused and the relations between certain border-brothers slightly strained; the central flowers of the clumps of phloxes, etc., grow small, because the newer growth of the outside circle saps their vitality. Personally, I believe in drastic measures and every third or fourth year, in late September, or else April, according to season and other contingencies, I have all the plants carefully removed from the beds and ranged in rows of a kind upon the broad central walk. Then, after the bed is thoroughly worked, manured, and graded, the plants are divided and reset, the leavings often serving as a sort of horticultural wampum, the medium of exchange among neighbours with gardens, or else going as a freewill offering to found a garden for one of the "plotters" who needs encouragement. The limitations of the soil of my garden and surroundings serve as the basis of an experience that, however, I have found carried out practically in the same way in the larger gardens of the Bluffs and in many other places that Evan and I have visited. So that any one thinking that a hardy garden, at least of herbaceous plants, is a thing that, once established, will, if not molested, go on forever, after the manner of the fern banks of the woods or the wild flowers of marsh and meadow, will be grievously disappointed. Of course, where hardy plants are massed, as in nurseries, horticultural gardens, or the large estates, each in a bed or plot of its kind, this resetting is far simpler, as each variety can receive the culture best suited to it, and there is no mixing of species. Another common error in regard to the hardy garden, aided and abetted by _Garden Goozle_, is that it is easy or even practicable to have every bed in a blooming and decorative condition during the whole season. It is perfectly possible always to have colour and fragrance in some part of the garden during the entire season, after the manner of the natural sequence of bloom that passes over the land, each bed in bloom some of the time, but not every bed all of the time. Artifice and not nature alone can produce this, and artifice is too costly a thing for the woman who is her own gardener, even if otherwise desirable. For it should appeal to every one having a grain of garden sense that, if the plants of May and June are to grow and bloom abundantly, those that come to perfection in July and August, if planted in their immediate vicinity, must be overshadowed and dwarfed. The best that can be done is to leave little gaps or lines between the hardy plants, so that gladioli, or some of the quick-growing and really worthy annuals, can be introduced to lend colour to what becomes too severely of the past. There is one hardy garden, not far from Boston, one of those where the landscape architect lingers to study the possibilities of the formal side of his art in skilful adjustment of pillar, urn, pergola, and basin,--this garden is never out of flower. At many seasons Evan and I had visited it, early and late, only to find it one unbroken sheet of bloom. How was it possible, we queried? Comes a day when the complex secret of the apparent simple abundance was revealed. It was as the foxgloves, that flanked a long alley, were decidedly waning when, quite early one morning, we chanced to behold a small regiment of men remove the plants, root and branch, and swiftly substitute for them immense pot-grown plants of the tall flower snapdragon (_Antirrhinum_), perfectly symmetrical in shape, with buds well open and showing colour. These would continue in bloom quite through August and into September. So rapidly was the change made that, in a couple of hours at most, all traces were obliterated, and the casual passer-by would have been unaware that the plants had not grown on the spot. This sort of thing is a permissible luxury to those who can afford and desire an exhibition garden, but it is not watching the garden growing and quivering and responding to all its vicissitudes and escapes as does the humble owner. Hardy gardening of this kind is both more difficult and costly, even if more satisfactory, than filling a bed with a rotation of florists' flowers, after the custom as seen in the parks and about club-houses: to wit, first tulips, then pansies and daisies, next foliage plants or geraniums, and finally, when frost threatens, potted plants of hardy chrysanthemums are brought into play. No, The Garden, You, and I know that hardy plants, native and acclimated, may be had in bloom from hepatica time until ice crowns the last button chrysanthemum and chance pansy, but to have every bed in continuous bloom all the season is not for us, any more than it is to be expected that every individual plant in a row should survive the frost upheavals and thaws of winter. If a garden is so small that half a dozen each of the ten or twelve best-known species of hardy herbs will suffice, they may be bought of one of the many reliable dealers who now offer such things; but if the place is large and rambling, affording nooks for hardy plants of many kinds and in large quantities, then a permanent seed bed is a positive necessity. This advice is especially for those who are now so rapidly taking up old farmsteads, bringing light again to the eyes of the window-panes that have looked out on the world of nature so long that they were growing dim from human neglect. In these places, where land is reckoned by the acre, not by the foot, there is no excuse for the lack of seed beds for both hardy and annual flowers (though these latter belong to another record), in addition to space for cuttings of shrubs, hardy roses, and other woody things that may be thus rooted. If there is a bit of land that has been used for a vegetable garden and is not wholly worn out, so much the better. The best seed bed I have ever seen belongs to Jane Crandon at the Jenks-Smith place on the Bluffs. It was an old asparagus bed belonging to the farm, thoroughly well drained and fertilized, but the original crop had grown thin and spindling from being neglected and allowed to drop its seed. In the birth of this bed the wind and sun, as in all happy gardens, had been duly consulted, and the wind promised to keep well behind a thick wall of hemlocks that bounded it on the north and east whenever he was in a cruel mood. The sun, casting his rays about to get the points of compass, promised that he would fix his eye upon the bed as soon as he had bathed his face in mist on rising and turned the corner of the house, and then, after watching it until past noon, turn his back, so no wonder that the bed throve. Any well-located bit of fairly good ground can be made into a hardy seed bed, provided only that it is not where frozen water covers it in winter, or in the way of the wind, coming through a cut or sweeping over the brow of a hill, for flowers are like birds in this respect,--they can endure cold and many other hardships, but they quail before the blight of wind. For all gardens of ordinary size a bit of ground ten feet by thirty feet will be sufficient. If the earth is heavy loam and inclined to cake or mould, add a little sifted sand and a thin sprinkling of either nitrate of soda or one of the "complete" commercial manures. Barn-yard manure, unless very well rotted and thoroughly worked under, is apt to develop fungi destructive to seedlings. This will be sufficient preparation if the soil is in average condition; but if the earth is old and worn out, it must be either sub-soiled or dug and enriched with barnyard (not stable) manure to the depth of a foot, or more if yellow loam is not met below that depth. If the bed is on a slight slope, so much the better. Dig a shallow trench of six or eight inches around it to carry off the wash. An abrupt hillside is a poor place for such a bed, as the finer seeds will inevitably be washed out in the heavy rains of early summer. If the surface soil is lumpy or full of small stones that escape fine raking, it must be shovelled through a sand-screen, as it is impossible for the most ambitious seed to grow if its first attempt is met by the pressure of what would be the equivalent of a hundred-ton boulder to a man. It is to details such as these that success or failure in seed raising is due, and when people say, "I prefer to buy plants; I am very unlucky with seeds," I smile to myself, and the picture of something I once observed done by one of the so-called gardeners of my early married days flits before me. The man scraped a groove half an inch deep in hard-baked soil, with a pointed stick, scattered therein the dustlike seeds of the dwarf blue lobelia as thickly as if he had been sprinkling sugar on some very sour article, then proceeded to trample them into the earth with all the force of very heavy feet. Of course the seeds thus treated found themselves sealed in a cement vault, somewhat after the manner of treating victims of the Inquisition, the trickle of moisture that could possibly reach them from a careless watering only serving to prolong their death from suffocation. The woman gardener, I believe, is never so stupid as this; rather is she tempted to kill by kindness in overfertilizing and overwatering, but too lavish of seed in the sowing she certainly is, and I speak from the conviction born of my own experience. When the earth is all ready for the planting, and the sweet, moist odour rises when you open the seed papers with fingers almost trembling with eagerness, it seems second nature to be lavish. If a few seeds will produce a few plants, why not the more the merrier? If they come up too thick, they can be thinned out, you argue, and thick sowing is being on the safe side. But is it? Quite the contrary. When the seedlings appear, you delay, waiting for them to gain a good start before jarring their roots by thinning. All of a sudden they make such strides that when you begin, you are appalled by the task, and after a while cease pulling the individual plants, but recklessly attack whole "chunks" at once, or else give up in a despair that results in a row of anæmic, drawn-out starvelings that are certainly not to be called a success. After having tried and duly weighed the labour connected with both methods, I find it best to sow thinly and to rely on filling gaps by taking a plant here and there from a crowded spot. For this reason, as well as that of uniformity also, it is always better to sow seeds of hardy or annual flowers in a seed bed, and then remove, when half a dozen leaves appear, to the permanent position in the ornamental part of the garden. With annuals, of course, there are some exceptions to this rule,--in the case of sweet peas, nasturtiums, mignonette, portulaca, poppies, and the like, where great quantities are massed. When you have prepared a hardy seed bed of the dimensions of ten by thirty feet, which will allow of thirty rows, ten feet long and a foot apart (though you must double the thirty feet if you intend to cultivate between the rows with any sort of weeding machine, and if you have room there should be two feet or even three between the rows), draw a garden line taut across the narrow way of the plot at the top, snap it, and you will have the drill for your first planting, which you may deepen if the seeds be large. Before beginning, make a list of your seeds, with the heights marked against each, and put the tallest at the top of the bed. "Why bother with this, when they are to be transplanted as soon as they are fist up?" I hear Mary Penrose exclaim quickly, her head tipped to one side like an inquisitive bird. Because this seed bed, if well planned, will serve the double purpose of being also the "house supply bed." If, when the transplanting is done, the seedlings are taken at regular intervals, instead of all from one spot, those that remain, if not needed as emergency fillers, will bloom as they stand and be the flowers to be utilized by cutting for house decoration, without depriving the garden beds of too much of their colour. At the commercial florists, and in many of the large private gardens, rows upon rows of flowers are grown on the vegetable-garden plan, solely for gathering for the house, and while those with limited labour and room cannot do this extensively, they can gain the same end by an intelligent use of their seed beds. Many men (and more especially many women), many minds, but however much tastes may differ I think that a list of thirty species of herbaceous perennials should be enough to satisfy the ambition of an amateur, at least in the climate of the middle and eastern United States. I have tried many more, and I could be satisfied with a few less. Of course by buying the seeds in separate colours, as in the single case of pansies, one may use the entire bed for a single species, but the calculation of size is based upon either a ten-foot row of a mixture of one species, or else that amount of ground subdivided among several colours. Of the seeds for the hardy beds themselves, the enticing catalogues offer a bewildering array. The maker of the new garden would try them all, and thereby often brings on a bit of horticultural indigestion in which gardener and garden suffer equally, and the resulting plants frequently perish from pernicious anæmia. Of the number of plants needed, each gardener must be the judge; also, in spite of many warnings and directions, each one must finally work on the lines of personally won experience. What is acceptable to the soil and protected by certain shelter in my garden on one side of hill crest or road may not flourish in a different soil and exposure only a mile away. One thing is very certain, however,--it is time wasted to plant a hardy garden of herbaceous plants in shallow soil. In starting the hardy seed bed it is always safe to plant columbines, Canterbury bells, coreopsis, larkspur, pinks in variety, foxgloves, hollyhocks, gaillardia, the cheerful evergreen candy-tuft, bee balm and its cousin wild bergamot, forget-me-nots, evening primroses, and the day-flowering sundrops, Iceland and Oriental poppies, hybrid phlox, the primrose and cowslips of both English fields and gardens, that are quite hardy here (at least in the coastwise New England and Middle states), double feverfew, lupins, honesty, with its profusion of lilac and white bloom and seed vessels that glisten like mother-of-pearl, the tall snapdragons, decorative alike in garden or house, fraxinella or gas plant, with its spikes of odd white flowers, and pansies, always pansies, for the open in spring and autumn, in rich, shady nooks all summer, and even at midwinter a few tufts left in a sunny spot, at the bottom of a wall by the snowdrops, will surprise you with round, cheerful faces with the snow coverlet tucked quite under their chins. [Illustration: FRAXINELLA,--GERMAN IRIS AND CANDY-TUFT.] It is well to keep a tabulated list of these old-time perennials in the _Garden Boke_, so that in the feverish haste and excitement of the planting season a mere glance will be a reminder of height, colour, and time of bloom. I lend you mine, not as containing anything new or original, but simply as a suggestion, a hint of what one garden has found good and writ on its honour list. Newer things and hybrids are now endless, and may be tested and added, one by one, but it takes at least three seasons of this adorably unmonotonous climate of alternate drought, damp, open or cold winter, to prove a plant hardy and worthy a place on the honour roll. (See p. 376.) Before you plant, sit down by yourself with the packages spread before you and examine the seeds at your leisure. This is the first uplifting of the veil that you may see into the real life of a garden, a personal knowledge of the seed that mothers the perfect plant. It may seem a trivial matter, but it is not so; each seed, be it seemingly but a dust grain, bears its own type and identity. Also, from its shape, size, and the hardness or thinness of its covering, you may learn the necessities of its planting and development, for nowhere more than in the seed is shown the miraculous in nature and the forethought and economy of it all. The smaller the seed, the greater the yield to a flower, as if to guard against chances of loss. The stately foxglove springs from a dust grain, and fading holds aloft a seed spike of prolific invention; the lupin has stout, podded, countable seeds that must of necessity fall to the ground by force of weight. Also in fingering the seeds, you will know why some are slow in germinating: these are either hard and gritty, sandlike, like those of the English primrose, smooth as if coated with varnish, like the pansy, violet, columbine, and many others, or enclosed in a rigid shell like the iris-hued Japanese morning-glories and other ipomeas. Heart of Nature is never in a hurry, for him time is not. What matters it if a seed lies one or two years in the ground? With us of seed beds and gardens, it is different. We wish present visible growth, and so we must be willing to lend aid, and first aid to such seeds is to give them a whiff of moist heat to soften what has become more hard than desirable through man's intervention. For in wild nature the seed is sown as soon as it ripens, and falls to the care of the ground before the vitality of the parent plant has quite passed from it. That is why the seed of a hardy plant, self-sown at midsummer, grows with so much more vigour than kindred seed that has been lodged in a packet since the previous, season. My way of "first aiding" these seeds is to tie them loosely in a wisp of fine cheese-cloth or muslin, leaving a length of string for a handle (as tea is sometimes prepared for the pot by those who do not like mussy tea leaves). Dip the bag in hot (not boiling) water, and leave it there at least an hour, oftentimes all night. In this way the seed is softened and germination awakened. I have left pansy seeds in soak for twenty-four hours with good results. Of course the seed should be planted before it dries, and rubbing it in a little earth (after the manner of flouring currants for cake) will keep the seeds from sticking either to the fingers or to each other. What a contrast it all is, our economy and nature's lavishness; our impatience, nature's calm assurance! In the garden the sower feels a responsibility, the sweat beads stand on the brow in the sowing. With nature undisturbed it may be the blind flower of the wild violet perfecting its moist seed under the soil, a nod of a stalk to the wind, a ball of fluff sailing by, or the hunger of a bird, and the sowing is done. IV THEIR GARDEN VACATION (From Mary Penrose to Barbara Campbell) WOODRIDGE, _May_ 10. "DEAR MRS. EVAN, "For the past week I have been delving in the seed bed, and until it was an accomplished fact, that is as far as putting on the top sheet of finely sifted dirt over the seeds sleeping in rows and rounding the edges after the most approved methods of bed-making, praying the while for a speedy awakening, I had neither fingers for pen, ink, and paper, nor the head to properly think out the answer to your May-day invitation. "So you have heard that we are to take a long vacation this summer, and therefore ask us to join your driving and tramping trip in search of garden and sylvan adventure; in short to become your fellow-strollers in the Forest of Arden, now transported to the Berkshires. "It was certainly a kind and gracious thought of yours to admit outsiders into the intimacies of such a journey, and on the moment we both cried, 'Yes, we will go!' and then appeared _but_--that little word of three letters, and yet the condensation of whole volumes, that is so often the stumbling-block to enthusiasm. "The translation of this particular _but_ will take a quire of paper, much ink, and double postage on my part, and a deal of perusive patience on yours, so to proceed. Like much else that is hearable the report is partly true, insomuch that your father, Dr. Russell, thinks it necessary for Bart to take a real vacation, as he put it, 'An entire change in a place where time is not beaten insistently at the usual sixty-seconds-a-minute rate, day in and out,' where he shall have no train-catching or appointments either business or social hanging over him. At the same time he must not hibernate physically, but be where he will feel impelled to take plenty of open-air exercise, as a matter of course! For you see, as a lawyer, Bart breathes in a great deal of bad air, and his tongue and pen hand get much more exercise than do his legs, while all the spring he has 'gone back on his vittles that reckless it would break your heart,' as Anastasia, our devoted, if outspoken, Celtic cook puts it. "The exact location of this desired valley of perfection, the ways and means of reaching it, as well as what shall become of the house and Infant during our absence, have formed a daily dialogue for the past fortnight, or I should say triologue, for Anastasia has decided opinions, and has turned into a brooding raven, informing us constantly of the disasters that have overtaken various residents of the place who have taken vacations, the head of one family having acquired typhoid in the Catskills, a second injured his spine at the seaside by diving in shallow water, while the third was mistaken for a moose in Canada and shot. However, her interest is comforting from the fact that she evidently does not wish to part with us at present. "It must be considered that if we take a really comfortable trip of a couple of months' duration, and Bart's chief is willing to allow him a three months' absence, as it will be his first real vacation since we were married six years ago, it will devour the entire sum that we have saved for improving the farm and garden. "You live on the place where you were born, which has developed by degrees like yourselves, yet you probably know that rescuing, not an abandoned farm but the abode of ancient and decayed gentility, even though the house is oak-ribbed Colonial, and making it a tangible home for a commuter, is not a cheap bit of work. "As to the Infant--to take a human four-and-a-half-year-old travelling, for the best part of a summer, is an imposition upon herself, her parents, and the public at large. To leave her with Bart's mother, whose forte is Scotch crossed with Pennsylvania Dutch discipline, will probably be to find on her return that she has developed a quaking fear of the dark; while, if she goes to my mother, bless her! who has the beautiful and soothing Southern genius for doing the most comfortable thing for the moment, regardless of consequences, the Infant for months after will expect to be sung to sleep, my hand cuddled against her cheek, until I develop laryngitis from continued vocal struggles with 'Ole Uncle Ned,' 'Down in de Cane Brake,' and 'De Possum and de Coon.' "This mental and verbal struggle was brought to an end yesterday by _The Man from Everywhere_. Do you remember, that was the title that we gave Ross Blake, the engineer, two summers ago, when you and Evan visited us, because he was continually turning up and always from some new quarter? Just now he has been put in charge of the construction of the reservoir that is to do away with our beloved piece of wild-flower river woods in the valley below Three Brothers Hills. "As usual he turned up unexpectedly with Bartram Saturday afternoon and 'made camp,' as a matter of course. A most soothing sort of person is this same _Man from Everywhere_, and a special dispensation to any woman whose husband's best friend he chances to be, as in my case, for a man who is as well satisfied with crackers, cheese, and ale as with your very best company spread, praises the daintiness of your guest chamber, but sleeps equally sound in a hammock swung in the Infant's attic play-room, is not to be met every day in this age of finnickiness. Then again he has the gift of saying the right thing at difficult moments, and meaning it too, and though a born rover, has an almost feminine sympathy for the little dilemmas of housekeeping that are so vital to us and yet are of no moment to the masculine mind. Yes, I do admire him immensely, and only wish I saw an opportunity of marrying him either into the family or the immediate neighbourhood, for though he is nearly forty, he is neither a misanthrope nor a woman hater, but rather seems to have set himself a difficult ideal and had limited opportunities. Once, not long ago, I asked him why he did not marry. 'Because,' he answered, 'I can only marry a perfectly frank woman, and the few of that clan I have met, since there has been anything in my pocket to back my wish, have always been married!' "'I have noticed that too,' said Bart, whom I did not know was listening; 'then there is nothing for us to do but find you a widow!' "'No, that will not do, either; I want born, not acquired, frankness, for that is only another term for expediency,' he replied with emphasis. "So you see this _Man_ is not only somewhat difficult, but he has observed! "Last night after dinner, when the men drew their chairs toward the fire,--for we still have one, though the windows are open,--and the fragrance from the bed of double English violets, that you sent me, mingled with the wood smoke, we all began to croon comfortably. As soon as _he_ had settled back in the big chair, with closed eyes and finger tips nicely matched, we propounded our conundrum of taking three from two and having four remain. "A brief summary of the five years we have lived here will make the needs of the place more clear. "The first year, settling ourselves in the house and the arrival of the Infant completely absorbed ourselves, income, and a good bit of savings. Repairing the home filled the second year. The outdoor time and money of the third year was eaten up by an expensive and obliterative process called 'grading,' a trap for newly fledged landowners. This meant taking all the kinks and little original attitudes out of the soil and reproving its occasional shoulder shrugs, so to speak,--Delsarte methods applied to the earth,--and you know that Evan actually laughed at us for doing it. "Even in the beginning we didn't care much for this grading, but it was in the plan that father Penrose had made for us by a landscape gardener, renowned about Philadelphia at the time he gave us the place as a 'start in life,' so we felt in some way mysteriously bound by it. And I may as well assert right here that, though it is well to have a clear idea of what you mean to do in making a garden, or ever so small pleasure grounds, that every bit of labour, however trivial, may go toward one end and not have to be undone, a conventional plan unsympathetically made and blindly followed often becomes a cross between Fetish and Juggernaut. It has taken me exactly four years of blundering to find that you must live your garden life, find out and study its peculiarities and necessities yourself, just as you do that of your indoor home, if success is to be the result! "As it was, the grading began behind the lilac bushes inside the front fence and proceeded in fairly graceful sweeps, dividing each side of the level bit where the old garden had been, the still remaining boxwood bushes and outlines of walks and beds, saving this from obliteration, and meeting again at the drying yard. "Here the proceeding stopped abruptly, as if it had received a shock, which it had, as at this point the family purse wholly collapsed with a shudder, for the next requirement of the plan was the turning of a long crest of rocky woodland, shaped like a three-humped camel, that bounded us on the northwest, into a series of terraces, to render the assent from a somewhat trim residential section to the pastures of the real farming country next door less abrupt. "In its original state this spur of woodland had undoubtedly been very beautiful, with hemlocks making a windbreak, and all manner of shrubs, wild herbs, and ferns filling in the leaf-mould pockets between the boulders. Now it is bare of everything except a few old hemlocks that sweep the pasture and the rocks, wandering cattle and excursionists from the village, during the 'abandoned' period of the place, having caused havoc among the shrubs and ferns. "Various estimates have been given, but $1000 seemed to be the average for carrying out the terrace plan even partially, as much blasting is involved, and $1000 is exactly one-fourth of the spendable part of Bart's yearly earnings! "The flower garden also cries for proper raiment, for though the original lines have been preserved and the soil put in a satisfactory shape, in lieu of the hardy plants and old-time favourites that belong to such a place, in emergency we were reduced, last summer, to the quick-growing but monotonous bedding plants for fillers. Can you imagine anything more jarring and inconsistent than cannas, castor-oil beans, coleus, and nasturtiums in a prim setting of box? "Then, too, last Christmas, Bart's parents sent us a dear old sundial, with a very good fluted column for a base. The motto reads 'Never consult me at night,' which Bart insists is an admonition for us to keep, chickenlike, early hours! Be this as it may, in order to live up to the dial, the beds that form its court must be consistently clothed--for cannas, coleus, and beans, read peonies, Madonna lilies, sweet-william, clove-pinks, and hollyhocks, which latter the seed bed I hope will duly furnish. "All these details, and more too, I poured into the ears of _The Man from Everywhere_, while Bart kept rather silent, but I could tell by the way his pipe breathed, short and quick, that he was thinking hard. One has to be a little careful in talking over plans and wishes with Bart; his spirit is generous beyond his pocket-power and he is a bit sensitive. He wants to do so much for the Infant, the home, and me, that when desire outruns the purse, he seems to feel that the limit lies somewhere within the range of his own incapacity, and that bare, camel-backed knoll outlining the horizon, as seen from the dining-room window, showing the roof of the abandoned barn and hen yards, and the difficulty of wrestling with it, is an especially tender spot. "'If it was anything possible, I'd hump my back and do it, but it isn't!' he jerked, knocking his pipe against the chimney-side before it was half empty and then refilling it; 'it's either a vacation _or_ the knoll--which shall it be? "'I don't hanker after leaving home, but that's what a complete change means, I suppose, though I confess I should enjoy a rest for a time from travelling to and fro, like a weaver's shuttle! Mary hates to leave home too; she's a regular sit-by-the-fire! Come, which shall it be? This indecision makes the cure worse than the disease!' and Bart fingered a penny prior to giving it the decisive flip--'head, a vacation; tail, an attack on the knoll!' The penny spun, and then taking a queer backward leap fell into the ashes, where it lay buried. "'That reads like neither!' said Bart, sitting up with a start. "'No, both!' replied _The Man from Everywhere_, opening his eyes and gazing first at Bart and then at me with a quizzical expression. "Instantly curiosity was piqued, for compared to this most domestic of travelled bachelors, the Lady from Philadelphia was without either foresight or resources. "'You said that your riddle was to take three from two and have four. My plan is very simple; just add three to two and you have not only four but five! Take a vacation from business, but stay at home; do your own garden improvements with your head and a horse and cart and a pair of strong hands with a pick and spade to help you out, for you can't, with impunity, turn an office man, all of a sudden, into a day labourer. As to hewing the knoll into terraces up and down again, tear up that confounded plan. Restore the ground on nature's lines, and you'll have a better windbreak for your house and garden in winter than the best engineer could construct, besides having a retreat for hot weather where you can sit in your bones without being observed by the neighbours!' "He spoke very slowly, letting the smoke wreaths float before his eyes, as if in them he sought the solution he was voicing. "'A terrace implies closely shorn turf and formal surroundings, out of keeping with this place; besides, young people with only a general maid and a useful man can't afford to be formal,--if they would, the game isn't worth the strain.' (Did I not tell you that he observes?) "'Let us take a look at the knoll to-morrow and see what has grown there and guess at what may be coaxed to grow, and then you can spend a couple of months during this summer and autumn searching the woods and byways for native plants for the restoration. This reservoir building is your opportunity; you can rob the river valley with impunity, for the clearing will begin in October, consequently anything you take will be in the line of a rescue. So there you are--living in the fresh air, improving your place, and saving money at both ends.' "'By George! It sounds well, as far as I'm concerned!' ejaculated Bart, 'but how will such a scheme give Mary a vacation from housekeeping and the everlasting three meals a day? She seldom growls, but the last month she too has confessed to feeling tired.' "'I think it's a perfectly fascinating idea, but how will it give Bart a "complete change, away from the sound of the beat of time," as the doctor puts it?' I asked with more eagerness than I realized, for I always dislike to be far away from home at night, and you see there has been whooping cough in the neighbourhood and there are also green apples to be reckoned with in season, even though the Infant has long ago passed safely through the mysteries of the second summer. "_The Man from Everywhere_ did not answer Bart at all, but, turning to me with the air of a paternal sage and pointing an authoritative forefinger, said, somewhat sarcastically, I thought, 'What greater change can an American have than leisure in which to enjoy his own home? For giving Time the slip, all you have to do is to stop the clocks and follow the sun and your own inclinations. As to living out of doors, the old open-sided hay barn on the pasture side of the knoll, that you have not decided whether to rebuild or tear down, will make an excellent camp. Aside from the roof, it is as open as a hawk's nest. Don't hurry your decision; incubate the idea over Sunday, Madam Penrose, and I'll warrant by Monday you will have hatched a really tangible plan, if not a brood of them.' "I looked at Bart, he nodded back approvingly, so I slipped out, first to see that the Infant was sleeping properly, head up, and not down under the clothes, as I had once found her, and then to walk to and fro under the budding stars for inspiration, leaving the pair to talk the men's talk that is so good and nourishing for a married man like Bart, no matter how much he cares for the Infant and me. "Jumbled up as the garden is, the spring twilight veils all deficiencies and releases persuasive odours from every corner, while the knoll, with its gnarled trees outlined against the sky, appealed to me as never before, a thing desirable and to be restored and preserved even at a cost rather than obliterated. "'Oh, Mrs. Evan, I wish I could tell you how _The Man's_ plan touches me and seems made for me especially this spring. I seem fairly to have a passion for home and the bit of earth about and sky above it that is all our own. And unlike other times when I loved to have my friends come and visit me, and share and return the hospitality of neighbours, I want to be alone with myself and Bart, to spend long days under the sky and trees and have nothing come between our real selves and God, not even the ticking and dictation of a clock! There is so much that I want to tell my husband just now, that cannot be put in words, and that he may only read by intuition. When I was younger and first married, I did not feel this need so much, but now life seems to take on so much deeper a meaning! Do you understand? Ah, yes, I know you do! But I am wandering from the point, just as I yearn to wander from all the stringencies of life this summer. "Evidently seeing me, the Rural Delivery man whistled from his cart, instead of leaving the evening mail in its wren box, as usual. I went to the gate rather reluctantly, I was so absorbed in garden dreams, took the letters from the carrier, and, as the men were still sitting in the dark, carried them up to the lamp in my own sitting room, little realizing that even at that moment I was holding the key to the 'really tangible plan' in my hand. * * * * * "_The next morning._ Two of the letters I received on Saturday night would have been of great importance if we were still planning to go away for a vacation, instead of hoping to stay at home for it. The first, from mother, told me that she and my brother expect to spend the summer in taking a journey, in which Alaska is to be the turning-point. She begs us to go with them and offers to give me her right-hand-reliable, Jane McElroy, who cared for me when a baby, to stay here with the Infant. The second letter was from Maria Maxwell, a distant cousin of Bart's. She has also heard of our intended vacation,--indeed the rapidity with which the news travels and the interest it causes are good proofs of our stay-at-home tendencies and the general sobriety of our six years of matrimony! "Maria is a very bright, adaptable woman of about thirty-five, who teaches music in the New York public schools, is alone in the world, and manages to keep an attractive home in a mere scrap of a flat. When she comes to visit us, we like her as well the last day of her stay as the first, which fact speaks volumes for her character! Though forced by circumstances to live in town, she has a deep love for the country, and wishes, if we intend to leave the house open, to come and care for it in our absence, even offering to cook for herself if we do not care to have the expense of a maid, saying, 'to cook a real meal, with a real fire instead of gas, will be a great and refreshing change for me, so you need feel under no obligation whatever!' "Thinking of the pity of wasting such tempting offers as these, I went to church with my body only, my mind staying outside under a horse-chestnut tree, and instead of listening as I should, I looked sidewise out of the window at my double in the shade and wondered if, after all, the stay-at-home vacation was not a wild scheme. There being a Puritan streak in me, via my father, I sometimes question the right of what I wish to do simply because I like to do it. "At dinner I was so grumpy, answering in monosyllables, that sensitive Bart looked anxious, and as if he thought I was disappointed at the possible turn of affairs, but _The Man from Everywhere_ laughed, saying, 'Let her alone; she is not through incubating the plan, and you know the best of setting hens merely cluck and growl when disturbed.' "Immediately after dinner Bart and _The Man_ went for a walk up the river valley, and I, going to the living room, seated myself by the window, where I could watch the Infant playing on the gravel outside, it being the afternoon out of both the general maid Anastasia and Barney the man, between whom I suspect matrimonial intentions. "The singing of the birds, the hum of bees in the opening lilacs, and the garden fragrance blending with the Infant's prattle, as she babbled to her dolls, floated through the open door and made me drowsy, and I turned from the light toward the now empty fireplace. "A snap! and the air seemed suddenly exhilarating! Was it an electric spark from the telephone? No, simply the clarifying of the thoughts that had been puzzling me. "Maria Maxwell shall come during our vacations,--at that moment I decided to separate the time into several periods,--she shall take entire charge of all within doors. "Bart and I will divide off a portion of the old hay-barn with screens, and camp out there (unless in case of very bad thunder or one of the cold July storms that we sometimes have). Anastasia shall serve us a very simple hot dinner at noon in the summer kitchen, and keep a supply of cooked food in the pantry, from which we can arrange our breakfasts and suppers in the opposite side of the barn from our sleeping place, and there we can have a table, chairs, and a little oil stove for making tea and coffee. "Maria, besides attending to domestic details, must also inspect the mail and only show us letters when absolutely necessary, as well as to say 'not at home,' with the impenetrable New York butler manner to every one who calls. "Thus Bart and I will be equally free without the rending of heart strings--free to love and enjoy home from without, for it is really strange when one comes to think of it, we learn of the outside world by looking out the windows, but we so seldom have time to stand in another view-point and look in. Thus it occurred to me, instead of taking one long vacation, we can break the time into three or four in order to follow the garden seasons and the work they suggest. A bit at the end of May for both planning and locating the spring wild flowers before they have wholly shed their petals, and so on through the season, ending in October by the transplanting of trees and shrubs that we have marked and in setting out the hardy roses, for which we shall have made a garden according to the plan that Aunt Lavinia says is to be among the early Garden, You, and I records. "_May 15._ Maria Maxwell has joyfully agreed to come the twenty-first, having obtained a substitute for her final week of teaching, as well as rented her 'parlor car,' as she calls her flat, to a couple of students who come from the South for change of air and to attend summer school at Columbia College. It seems that many people look upon New York as a summer watering place. Strange that a difference in climate can be merely a matter of point of view. "Now that we have decided to camp out at home, we are beginning to realize the positive economy of the arrangement, for as we are not going among people,--neither are they coming to us,--we shall need no new clothes! "We, a pair of natural spendthrifts, are actually turning miserly for the garden's sake. "Last night Bart went to the attic with a lantern and dragged from obscurity two frightful misfit suits of the first bicycle cuff-on-the-pants period, that were ripening in the camphor chest for future missionary purposes, announcing that these, together with some flannel shirts, would be his summer outfit, while this morning I went into town and did battle at a sale of substantial, dollar shirt-waists, and turning my back upon all the fascinations of little girls' frills and fur-belows, bought stout gingham for aprons and overalls, into which I shall presently pop the Infant, and thus save both stitches and laundry work. "Mother has sent a note expressing her pleasure in our plan and enclosing a cheque for $50, suggesting that it should be put into a birthday rose bed--my birthday is in two days--in miniature like the old garden at her home on the north Virginia border. I'm sending you the list of such roses as she remembered that were in it, but I'm sure many, like Gloire de Dijon, would be winter killed here. Will you revise the list for me? "Bart has arranged to shut off the back hall and stairs, so that when we wish, we can get to our indoor bedroom and bath at any hour without going through the house or disturbing its routine. "Anastasia has been heard to express doubts as to our entire sanity confidentially to Barney, on his return from the removal of two cots from the attic to the part of the barn enclosed by some old piazza screens, thereby publicly declaring our intention of sleeping out in all seasonable weather. "_May 20._ The Blakes, next door below, are going to Europe, and have offered us their comfortable family horse, the buggy, and a light-work wagon, if we will feed, shoe, pet, and otherwise care for him (his name, it seems, is Romeo). Could anything be more in keeping with both our desires and needs? "To-day, half as a joke, I've sent out P.P.C. cards to all our formal friends in the county. Bart frowns, saying that they may be taken seriously and produce like results! "_May 22._ Maria has arrived, taken possession of the market-book, housekeeping box, and had a satisfactory conference with Anastasia. "Hurrah for Liberty and outdoors! _It_ begins to-morrow. You may label it Their Garden Vacation, and admit it to the records of The Garden, You, and I, at your own risk and peril; but as you say that if you are to boil down the practical part of your garden-boke experiences for the benefit of Aunt Lavinia and me and I must send you my summer doings, I shall take this way of accomplishing it, at intervals, the only regular task, if gossiping to you can be so called, that I shall set myself this summer. "A new moon to-night. Will it prove a second honeymoon, think you, or end in a total eclipse of our venture? I'm poppy sleepy! "_May 23._ 10 A.M. (A postal.) Starting on vacation; stopped bedroom clock and put away watches last night, and so overslept. It seems quite easy to get away from Time! Please tell me what annuals I can plant as late in the season as this, while we are locating the rose bed. "MARY PENROSE." V ANNUALS--WORTHY AND UNWORTHY THE MIDSUMMER GARDEN _Oaklands, May 25._ A garden vacation! Fifty dollars to spend for roses! What annuals may be planted now to tide you easily over the summer? Really, Mary Penrose, the rush of your astonishing letter completely took away my breath, and while I was recovering it by pacing up and down the wild walk, and trying to decide whether I should answer your questions first, and if I did which one, or ask you others instead, Scotch fashion, about your unique summer plans, Evan came home a train earlier than usual, with a pair of horticultural problems for which he needed an immediate solution. Last evening, in the working out of these schemes, we found that we were really travelling on lines parallel with your needs, and so in due course you shall have Evan's prescription and design for A Simple Rose Garden (if it isn't simple enough, you can begin with half, as the proportions will be the same), while I now send you my plans for an inexpensive midsummer garden, which will be useful to you only as a part of the whole chain, but for which Evan has a separate need. Over at East Meadow, a suburb of Bridgeton that lies toward the shore and is therefore attractive to summer people, a friend of Evan's has put up a dozen tasteful, but inexpensive, Colonial cottages, and Evan has planned the grounds that surround them, about an acre being allotted to each house, for lawn and garden of summer vegetables, though no arbitrary boundaries separate the plots. The houses are intended for people of refined taste and moderate means who, only being able to leave town during the school vacation, from middle June to late September, yet desire to have a bit of garden to tend and to have flowers about them other than the decorative but limited piazza boxes or row of geraniums around the porch. The vegetable gardens consist of four squares, conveniently intersected by paths, these squares to be edged by annuals or bulbs of rapid growth, things that, planted in May, will begin to be interesting when the tenants come a month later. But here am I, on the verge of rushing into another theme, without having expressed our disappointment that you cannot bear us company this summer, yet I must say that the edge of regret is somewhat dulled by my interest in the progress and result of your garden vacation, which to us at least is a perfectly unique idea, and quite worthy of the inventive genius of _The Man from Everywhere_. Plainly do I see by the scope of this same letter of yours that the records of The Garden, You, and I, instead of being a confection of undistinguishable ingredients blended by a chef of artistic soul, will be a home-made strawberry shortcake, for which I am to furnish the necessary but uninspired crust, while you will supply the filling of fragrant berries. With the beginning of your vacation begin my questions domestic that threaten to overbalance your questions horticultural. If the Infant should wail at night, do you expect to stay quietly out "in camp" and not steal on tiptoe to the house, and at least peep in at the window? Also, you have put a match-making thought in a head swept clean of all such clinging cobwebs since Sukey Crandon married Carthy Latham and, turning their backs on his ranch experiment, they decided to settle near the Bradfords at the Ridge, where presently there will be another garden growing. If you have no one either in the family or neighbourhood likely to attract _The Man from Everywhere_, why may we not have him? Jane Crandon is quite unexpectedly bright, as frank as society allows, this being one of his requirements, besides having grown very pretty since she has virtually become daughter to Mrs. Jenks-Smith and had sufficient material in her gowns to allow her chest to develop. But more of this later; to return to the annuals, I understand that you have had your hardy beds prepared and that you want something to brighten them, as summer tenants, until early autumn, when the permanent residents may be transplanted from the hardy seed bed. Annuals make a text fit for a very long sermon. Verily there are many kinds, and the topic forms easily about a preachment, for they may be divided summarily into two classes, the worthy and the unworthy, though the worth or lack of it in annuals, as with most of us humans, is a matter of climate, food, and environment, rather than inherent original sin. The truth is, nature, though eternally patient and good-natured, will not be hurried beyond a certain point, and the life of a flower that is born under the light cloud shelter of English skies, fed by nourishing mist through long days that have enough sunlight to stimulate and not scorch, has a different consummation than with us, where the climate of extremes makes the perfection of flowers most uncertain, at least in the months of July and August when the immature bud of one day is the open, but often imperfect, flower of the next. As no one may change climatic conditions, the only thing to be done is to give to this class of flowers of the summer garden room for individual development, all the air they need to breathe both below ground, by frequent stirring of the soil, and above, by avoidance of over-crowding, and then select only those varieties that are really worth while. This qualification can best be settled by pausing and asking three questions, when confronting the alluring portrait of an above-the-average specimen of annual in a catalogue, for _Garden Goozle_ applies not only to the literature of the subject, but to the pictures as well, and a measurement of, for instance, a flower stalk of Drummond phlox, taken from a specimen pot-grown plant, raised at least partly under glass, is sure to cause disappointment when the average border plant is compared with it. First--is the species of a colour and length of flowering season to be used in jungle-like masses for summer colour? Second--has it fragrance or decorative quality for house decoration? Thirdly, has it the backbone to stand alone or will the plant flop and flatten shapelessly at the first hard shower and so render an array of conspicuous stakes necessary? Stakes, next to unsightly insecticides and malodorous fertilizers, are the bane of gardening, but that subject is big enough for a separate chronicle. By ability to stand alone, I do not mean is every branchlet stiff as if galvanized, like a balsam, for this is by no means pretty, but is the plant so constructed that it can languish gracefully, petunia fashion, and not fall over stark and prone like an uprooted castor bean. Hybridization, like physical culture in the human, has evidently infused grace in the plant races, for many things that in my youth seemed the embodiment of stiffness, like the gladiolus, have developed suppleness, and instead of the stiff bayonet spike of florets, this useful and indefatigable bulb, if left to itself and not bound to a stake like a martyr, now produces flower sprays that start out at right angles, curve, and almost droop, with striking, orchid-like effect. For making patches of colour, without paying special heed to the size of flower or development of individual plants, annuals may be sown thinly broadcast, raked in lightly, and, if the beds or borders are not too wide for reaching, thinned out as soon as four or five leaves appear. Portulaca, sweet alyssum, Shirley poppies, and the annual gaillardias belong to this class, as well as single petunias of the inexpensive varieties used to edge shrubberies, and dwarf nasturtiums. Sweet peas, of course, are to be sown early and deep, where they are to stand half an inch apart, like garden peas, and then thinned out so that there is not less than an inch between (two is better, but it is usually heartbreaking to pull up so many sturdy pealets) and reënforced by brush or wire trellising. Otherwise I plant the really worthy, or what might be called major annuals, in a seed bed much like that used for the hardy plants, at intervals during the month of May, according to the earliness of the season, and the time they are wanted to bloom. Later, I transplant them to their summer resting places, leaving those that are not needed, for it is difficult to calculate too closely without scrimping, in the seed bed, to cut for house decoration, as with the perennials. Of course if annuals are desired for very early flowering, many species may be started in a hotbed and taken from thence to the borders. Biennials that it is desired shall flower the first season are best hurried in this way, yet for the gardenerless garden of a woman this makes o'er muckle work. The occasional help of the "general useful" is not very efficient when it comes to tending hotbeds, giving the exact quantity of water necessary to quench the thirst of seedlings without producing dropsy, and the consequent "damping off" which, when it suddenly appears, seems as intangible and makes one feel as helpless as trying to check a backing horse by helpless force of bit. A frame for Margaret carnations, early asters, and experiments in seedling Dahlias and chrysanthemums will be quite enough. The woman who lives all the year in the country can so manage that her spring bulbs and hardy borders, together with the roses, last well into July. After this the annuals must be depended upon for ground colour, and to supplement the phloxes, gladioli, Dahlias, and the like. By the raising of these seeds in hotbeds they are apt to reach their high tide of bloom during the most intense heat of August, when they quickly mature and dry away; while, on the other hand, if they are reared in an open-air seed bed, they are not only stronger but they last longer, owing to more deliberate growth. Asters sown out-of-doors in May bloom well into October, when the forced plants barely outlast August. Of many annuals it is writ in the catalogues, "sow at intervals of two weeks or a month for succession." This sounds very plausible, for are not vegetables so dealt with, the green string-beans in our garden being always sown every two weeks from early April until September first? Yes, but to vegetables is usually given fresher and deeper soil for the crop succession than falls to flower seeds, and in addition the seeds are of a more rugged quality. My garden does not take kindly to this successive sowing, and I have gradually learned to control the flower-bearing period by difference in location. Spring, and in our latitude May, is the time of universal seed vitality, and seeds germinating then seem to possess the maximum of strength; in June this is lessened, while a July-sown seed of a common plant, such as a nasturtium or zinnia, seems to be impressed by the lateness of the season and often flowers when but a few inches high, the whole plant having a weazened, precocious look, akin to the progeny of people, or higher animals, who are either born out of due season or of elderly parents. On the other hand, the plant retarded in its growth by a less stimulating location, when it blooms, is quite as perfect and of equal quality with its seed-bed fellows who were transplanted at once into full sunlight. Take, for example, mignonette, which in the larger gardens is always treated by successive sowings. A row sown early in April, in a sunny spot in the open garden and thinned out, will flower profusely before very hot weather, bloom itself out, and then leave room for some late, flowering biennial. That sown in the regular seed bed early in May may be transplanted (for this is the way by which large trusses of bloom may be obtained) early in June into three locations, using it as a border for taller plants, except in the bed of sweet odours, where it may be set in bunches of a dozen plants, for in this bed individuality may be allowed to blend in a universal mass of fragrance. In order to judge accurately of the exact capabilities for shade or sunlight of the different portions of a garden, one must live with it, follow the shadows traced by the tree fingers on the ground the year through, and know its moods as the expressions that pass over a familiar face. For you must not transplant any of these annuals, that only live to see their sun father for one brief season, into the shade of any tree or overhanging roof, but at most in the travelling umbra of a distant object, such as a tall spruce, the northeastern side of a hedge, or such like. In my garden one planting of mignonette in full sun goes in front of the March-planted sweet peas; of the two transplantings from the seed, one goes on the southwest side of the rose arbour and the other on the upper or northeast side, where it blooms until it is literally turned into green ice where it stands. This manipulation of annuals belongs to the realm of the permanent resident; the summer cottager must be content to either accept the conditions of the garden as arranged by his landlord, or in a brief visit or two made before taking possession, do his own sowing where the plants are to stand. In this case let him choose his varieties carefully and spare his hand in thickness of sowing, and he may have as many flowers for his table and as happy an experience with the summer garden, even though it is brief, as his wealthy neighbour who spends many dollars for bedding plants and foliage effects that may be neither smelled, gathered nor familiarized. Among all the numerous birds that flit through the trees as visitors, or else stay with us and nest in secluded places, how comparatively few do we really depend upon for the aerial colour and the song that opens a glimpse of Eden to our eager eyes and ears each year, for our eternal solace and encouragement? There are some, like the wood thrush, song-sparrow, oriole, robin, barn-swallow, catbird, and wren, without which June would not be June, but an imperfect harmony lacking the dominant note. [Illustration: LONGFELLOW'S GARDEN.] Down close to the earth, yes, in the earth, the same obtains. Upon how few of all the species of annuals listed does the real success of the summer garden rest? This is more and more apparent each year, when the fittest are still further developed by hybridization for survival and the indifferent species drop out of sight. We often think erroneously of the beauty of old-time gardens. This beauty was largely that of consistency of form with the architecture of the dwelling and simplicity, rather than the variety, of flowers grown. Maeterlinck brings this before us with forcible charm in his essay on Old-Fashioned Flowers, and even now Martin Cortright is making a little biography of the flowers of our forefathers, as a birthday surprise for Lavinia. These flowers depended more upon individuality and association than upon their great variety. First among the worthy annuals come sweet peas, mignonette, nasturtiums, and asters, each one of the four having two out of the three necessary qualifications, and the sweet pea all of them,--fragrance and decorative value for both garden and house. To be sure, the sweet pea, though an annual, must be planted before May if a satisfactory, well-grown hedge with flowers held on long stems well above the foliage is to be expected, and in certain warm, well-drained soils it is practicable to sow seed the autumn before. This puts the sweet pea a little out of the running for the hirer of a summer cottage, unless he can have access to the place early in the season, but sown thinly and once fairly rooted and kept free from dead flowers and pods, the vines will go on yielding quite through September, though on the coming of hot weather the flower stems shorten. I often plant seeds of the climbing nasturtium in the row with the sweet peas at a distance of one seed to the fist, the planting not being done until late May. The peas mature first, and after the best of their season has passed they are supplanted by the nasturtiums, which cover the dry vines and festoon the supporting brush with gorgeous colour in early autumn, keeping in the same colour scheme with salvia, sunflowers, gaillardias, and tritomas. This is excellent where space is of account, and also where more sweet peas are planted for their early yield than can be kept in good shape the whole season. Centaurea or cornflower, the bachelor's button or ragged sailor of old gardens, is in the front rank of the worthies. The flowers have almost the keeping qualities of everlastings, and are of easy culture, while the sweet sultan, also of this family, adds fragrance to its other qualities. The blue cornflower is best sown in a long border or bed of unconventional shape, and may be treated like a biennial, one sowing being made in September so that the seedlings will make sturdy tufts before cold weather. These, if lightly covered with salt hay or rough litter (not leaves), will bloom in May and June, and if then replaced by a second sowing, flowers may be had from September first until freezing weather, so hardy is this true, blue _Kaiser-blumen_. All the poppies are worthy, from the lovely Shirley, with its butterfly-winged petals, to the Eschscholtzia, the state flower of California. One thing to be remembered about poppies is not to rely greatly upon their durability and make the mistake of expecting them to fill too conspicuous a place, or keep long in the marching line of the garden pageant. They have a disappointing way, especially the great, long-stemmed double varieties, of suddenly turning to impossible party-coloured mush after a bit of damp weather that is most discouraging. Treated as mere garden episodes and massed here and there where a sudden disappearance will not leave a gap, they will yield a feast of unsurpassed colour. To me the Shirley is the only really satisfactory annual poppy, and I sow it in autumn and cover it after the fashion of the cornflower, as it will survive anything but an open, rainy winter, and in the resulting display that lasts the whole month of June it rivals the roses in everything but perfume. Godetia is a good flower for half-shady places that it is difficult to fill, and rings the colour change from white through pink to crimson and carmine. Marigolds hold their own for garden colour, but not for gathering or bringing near the nose, and zinnias meet them on the same plane. The morning-glory tribe of _ipomæa_ is both useful and decorative for rapid-growing screens, but heed should be taken that the common varieties be not allowed to scatter their seeds at random, or the next season, before you know it, every plant in the garden will be held tight in their insinuating grasp. Especially beautiful are the new Imperial Japanese morning glories that are exquisitely margined and fringed, and of the size and pattern of rare glass wine cups. Petunias, if judiciously used, and of good colour, belong in the second grade of the first rank. They have their uses, but the family has a morbid tendency to run to sad, half-mourning hues, and I have put a black mark against it as far as my own garden is concerned. Drummond phlox deserves especial mention, for so wide a colour range has it, and so easy is its growth (if only you give it plenty of water and elbow room, and remember that a crowded Drummond phlox is an unhappy plant of short life), that a very tasteful group of beds could be made of this flower alone by a careful selection of colours, while by constant cutting for the house the length of the blooming season is prolonged. The dwarf salvias, too, grow readily from seed, and balsams, if one has room, line up finely along straight walks, the firm blossoms of the camelia-flowered variety, with their delicate rosettes of pink, salmon, and lavender, also serving to make novel table decorations when arranged in many ways with leaves of the laurel, English ivy, or fern fronds. Portulaca, though cousin to the objectionable "pusley," is most useful where mere colour is wanted to cover the ground in beds that have held early tulips or other spring bulbs, as well as for covering dry, sandy spots where little else will grow. It should not be planted until really warm weather, and therefore may be scattered between the rows of narcissi and late tulips when their tops are cut off, and by the time they are quite withered and done away with, the cheerful portulaca, feeding upon the hottest sunbeams, will begin to cover the ground, a pleasure to the eye as well as a decorative screen to the bulbs beneath, sucking the fiercest sun rays before they penetrate. Chief among the low-growing worthies comes the verbena, good for bedding, good for cutting, and in some of the mammoth varieties subtly fragrant. Verbenas may be raised to advantage in a hotbed, but if the seed be soaked overnight in warm water, it will germinate freely out of doors in May and be a mass of bloom from July until late October. For beds grouped around a sundial or any other garden centre, the verbena has no peer; its trailing habit gives it grace, the flowers are borne erect, yet it requires no staking and it is easily controlled by pinching or pinning to the soil with stout hair-pins. One little fragrant flower, fraught with meaning and remembrance, belongs to the annuals, though its family is much better known among the half-hardy perennials that require winter protection here. This is the gold and brown annual wall-flower, slender sister of _die gelbe violet_, and having that same subtle violet odour in perfect degree. It cannot be called a decorative plant, but it should have plenty of room given it in the bed of sweet odours and be used as a border on the sunny side of wall or fence, where, protected from the wind and absorbing every ray of autumn sunlight, it will often give you at least a buttonhole bouquet on Christmas morning. [Illustration: THE SUMMER GARDEN--VERBENAS.] The cosmos is counted by catalogues and culturists one of the most worthy of the newer annuals, and so it is when it takes heed to its ways and behaves its best, but otherwise it has all the terrible uncertainty of action common to human and garden parvenues. From the very beginning of its career it is a conspicuous person, demanding room and abundance of food. Thinking that its failure to bloom until frost threatened was because I had sown the seed out of doors in May, I gave it a front room in my very best hotbed early in March, where, long before the other occupants of the place were big enough to be transplanted, Mrs. Cosmos and family pushed their heads against the sash and insisted upon seeing the world. Once in the garden, they throve mightily, and early in July, at a time when I had more flowers than I needed, the entire row threatened to bloom. After two weeks of coquettish showing of colour here and there, up and down the line, they concluded that midsummer sun did not agree with any of the shades of pink, carmine, or crimson of which their clothes were fashioned, and as for white, the memory of recent acres of field daisies made it too common, so they changed their minds and proceeded to grow steadily for two months. When they were pinched in on top, they simply expanded sidewise; ordinary and inconspicuous staking failed to restrain them, and they even pulled away at different angles from poles of silver birch with stout rope between, like a festive company of bacchantes eluding the embraces of the police. A heavy wind storm in late September snapped and twisted their hollow trunks and branches. Were they discouraged? Not a particle; they simply rested comfortably upon whatever they had chanced to fall and grew again from this new basis. Meanwhile the plants in front of them and on the opposite side of the way began to feel discouraged, and a fine lot of asters, now within the shadow, were attacked by facial paralysis and developed their blossoms only on one side. The middle of October, the week before the coming of Black Frost, the garden executioner, the cosmos, now heavy with buds, settled down to bloom. Two large jars were filled with them, after much difficulty in the gathering, and then the axe fell. Sometimes, of course, they behave quite differently, and those who can spare ground for a great hedge backed by wall or fence and supported in front by pea brush deftly insinuated betwixt and between ground and plants, so that it restrains, but is at the same time invisible, may feast their eyes upon a spectacle of billows of white and pink that, at a little distance, are reminiscent of the orchards of May. But if you, Mary Penrose, are leaning toward cosmos and reading in the seed catalogue of their size and wonderful dawn-like tints, remember that the best of highly hybridized things revert unexpectedly to the commonest type, and somewhere in this family of lofty Mexicans there must have been a totally irresponsible wayside weed. Then turn backward toward the front of the catalogue, find the letter A, and buy, in place of cosmos, aster seeds of every variety and colour that your pocket will allow. Of course the black golden-rod beetle may try to dwell among the aster flowers, and the aphis that are nursery maids to the ants infest their roots; you must pick off the one and dig sulphur and unslaked lime deeply into the soil to discourage the other, but whatever labour you spend will not be lost. Other annuals there are, and their name is legion, that are pretty enough, perhaps, and well adapted to special purposes, like the decorative and curious tassel flower, cockscombs, gourds, four o'clocks, etc., and the great tribe of "everlastings" for those people, if such there be, who still prefer dried things for winter bouquets, when an ivy-wreathed window filled with a succession of bulbs, ferns, or oxalis is so easily achieved! It is too harsh, perhaps, to call these minor annuals unworthy, but as they are unimportant and increase the labour rather than add to the pleasure, they are really unworthy of admission to the woman's garden where there is only time and room for the best results. But here I am rambling at large instead of plainly answering your question, "What annuals can we plant as late as this (May 25) while we are locating the rose bed?" You may plant any or all of them up to the first of June, the success of course depending upon a long autumn and late frosts. No, not quite all; the tall-growing sweet peas should be in the ground not later than May 1 in this south New England latitude, though in the northern states and Canada they are planted in June as a matter of course. Blanche Ferry, of the brilliant pink-and-white complexion, however, will do very nicely in the light of a labour-saving afterthought, as, only reaching a foot and a half high, little, if any, brush is needed. [Illustration: ASTERS WELL MASSED.] We found your rose list replete with charming varieties, but most of them too delicate for positive success hereabouts. I'm sending you presently the list for a fifty-dollar rose garden, which it seems is much in demand, so that I've adapted my own experience to the simple plan that Evan drew to enlighten amateur rose lovers and turn them from coveting their wealthy neighbours' goods to spending their energy in producing covetable roses of their own! By the way, I send you my own particular list of Worthy Annuals to match the hardy plants and keep heights and colours easily before you until your own Garden Book is formulated and we can compare notes. (See page 387.) You forgot to tell me whether you have decided to keep hens or not! I know that the matter has been discussed every spring since you have lived at Woodridge. If you are planning a hennery, I shall not encourage the rosary, for the days of a commuter's wife are not long enough for both without encountering nervous prostration on the immediate premises. Some problems are ably solved by coöperation. As I am a devotee of the ornamental and comfortable, Martha Saunders _née_ Corkle runs a coöperative hen-yard in our north pasture for the benefit of the Cortrights and ourselves to our mutual joy! VI THEIR FORTUNATE ESCAPE CONCERNING EVERGREENS AND HENS (Mary Penrose to Barbara Campbell) _June 5._ I have not dipped pen in ink for an entire week, which has been one of stirring events, for not only have we wholly emerged from indoor life, but we have had a hair-breadth escape from something that not only threatened to mar the present summer, but to cast so heavy a shadow over the garden that no self-respecting flowers could flourish even under the thought of it. You cannot possibly guess with what we were threatened, but I am running ahead of myself. The day that we began _it_--the vacation--by stopping the clocks, we overslept until nine o'clock. When we came downstairs, the house was in a condition of cheerful good order unknown to that hour of the day. There is such a temperamental difference in this mere setting things to rights. It can be done so that every chair has a stiffly repellent look, and the conspicuous absence of dust makes one painfully conscious that it has not always been thus, while the fingers inadvertently stray over one's attire, plucking a shred here and a thread there. Even flowers can be arranged in a vase so as to look thoroughly and reproachfully uncomfortable, and all the grace and meaning crushed out of them. But Maria Maxwell has the touch gracious that makes even a plainly furnished room hold out detaining hands as you go through, and the flowers on the greeting table in the hall (yes, Lavinia Cortright taught me that little fancy of yours during her first visit), though much the same as I had been gathering for a week past, wore an air of novelty! For a moment we stood at the foot of the stairs looking about and getting our bearings, as guests in an unfamiliar place rather than householders. It flitted through my body that I was hungry, and one of the "must be's" of the vacation country was that we were to forage for breakfast. At the same time Bart sauntered unconsciously toward the mail-box under the hat-rack and then, suddenly putting his hands behind him, turned to me with a quizzical expression, saying: "Letters are forbidden, I know, but how about the paper? Even the 'Weekly Tribune' would be something; you know that sheet was devised for farmers!" "If this vacation isn't to be a punishment, but a pleasure, I think we had both better 'have what we want when we want it'!" I replied, for at that moment I spied the Infant out on the porch, and to hug her ladyship was a swiftly accomplished desire. For some reason she seemed rather astonished at this very usual performance, and putting her hands, boy-fashion, into the pockets of her checked overalls, surveyed herself deliberately, and then looking up at me rather reproachfully remarked, "Tousin Maria says that now you and father are tumpany!" "And what is company?" I asked, rather anxious to know from what new point we were to be regarded. "Tumpany is people that comes to stay in the pink room wif trunks, and we play wif them and make them do somfing to amuse 'em all the time hard, and give 'em nicer things than we have to eat, and father shaves too much and tuts him and wears his little dinky coat to dinner. And by and by when they've gone away Ann-stasia says, 'Glory be!' and muvver goes to sleep. But muvver, if you are the tumpany, you can't go to sleep when you've gone away, can you?" A voice joined me in laughter, Maria Maxwell's, from inside the open window of the dining room. Looking toward the sound, I saw that, though the dining table itself had been cleared, a side table drawn close to the window was set with places for two, a posy of poets' narcissus and the last lilies-of-the-valley between, while a folded napkin at one place rested on a newspaper! "I thought we were to get our own breakfasts," I said, in a tone of very feeble expostulation, which plainly told that, at that particular moment, it was the last thing I wished to do. "You are, the very minute you feel like it, and not before! You must let yourselves down gradually, and not bolt out of the house as if you had been evicted. If Bart went paperless and letterless this very first morning, until he has met something that interests him more, he would think about the lack of the news and the mail all day until they became more than usually important!" So saying, Maria swept the stems and litter of the flowers she had been arranging into her apron, and annexing the Infant to one capable finger, all the other nine being occupied, she went down the path toward the garden for fresh supplies, leaving Ann-stasia, as the Infant calls her, to serve the coffee, a prerogative of which she would not consent to be bereft, not even upon the plea of lightening her labours! "Isn't this perfect!" I exclaimed, looking toward a gap in the hills that was framed by the debatable knoll on one side and reached by a short cut across the old orchard and abandoned meadows of the farm above, the lack of cultivation resulting in a wealth of field flowers. "Entirely!" assented Bart, his spoon in the coffee cup stirring vigorously and his head enveloped in the newspaper. But what did the point of view matter: he was content and unhurried--what better beginning for a vacation? In fact in those two words lies the real vacation essence. Meanwhile, as I munched and sipped, with luxurious irresponsibility, I watched Maria moving to and fro between the shrubs that bounded the east alley of the old garden. In her compressed city surroundings she had always seemed to me a very big sort of person, with an efficiency that was at times overpowering, whose brown eyes had a "charge bayonet" way of fixing one, as if commanding the attention of her pupils by force of eye had become a habit. But here, her most cherished belongings given room to breathe in the spare room that rambles across one end of the house, while her wardrobe has a chance to realize itself in the deep closet, Maria in two short days had become another person. She does not seem large, but merely well built. The black gowns and straight white collars that she always wore, as a sort of professional garb, have vanished before a shirtwaist with an openwork neck and half sleeves, while the flesh exposed thereby is pink and wholesome. Hair not secured for the wear and tear of the daily rounds of school, but allowed to air itself, requires only a few hair-pins, and, if it is naturally wavy, follows its own will with good effect. While as to her eyes, what in them seemed piercing at short range melted to an engaging frankness in the soft light under the trees. In short, if she had been any other than Maria Maxwell, music teacher, Bart's staid cousin and the avowed family spinster, I should have thought of her as a fine-looking woman who only needed a magic touch of some sort to become positively handsome. Coffee and paper finished, I became aware that Bart was gazing at me. "Well," I said, extending my hand, "what next?" I had speedily made up my mind that Bart should take the initiative in our camping-out arrangement, and I therefore did not suggest that the first thing to be done was to set our camp itself in order. "Come out," he said, taking my hand in the same way that the Infant does when she wishes to lead the way to the discovery of the fairyland that lies beyond the meadows of the farm. So we sauntered out. Once under the sun, the same delicious thought occurred to each that, certain prudences having been seen to, we were for the time without responsibilities, and the fact made us laugh for the very freedom of it and pull one another hither and thither like a couple of children. Meanwhile the word _knoll_ had not been uttered, but our feet were at once drawn in its direction by an irresistible force, and presently we found ourselves standing at the lower end of the ridge and looking up the slope! "I wish we had a picture of it as it must have been before the land was cleared,--it would be a great help in replanting," I said; "it needs something dense and bold for a background to the rocks." "The skeleton of the old barn on the other side spoils it; it ought to come down," was Bart's rejoinder. "It seems as if everything we wish to do hinges on some other thing." This barn had been set back against the knoll so that from the house the hayloft window seemed like a part of a low shed. Certainly our forbears knew the ways of the New England wind very thoroughly, judging by the way they huddled their houses and outbuildings in hollows or under hillsides to avoid its stress. And when they couldn't do that, they turned sloping, humpbacked roofs toward the northeast to shed the snow and tempt the wind in its wild moods to play leapfrog and thus pass over. Such a roof as this has the house at the next farm, and judging by the location of the old hay barn, and the lay of the road, it must have once belonged to this adjoining property rather than to ours. Slowly we circled the knoll, dropped into the hollow, and stood upon the uneven floor of wide chestnut planks that was to be our camp. Other lodgers had this barn besides ourselves and, unlike ourselves, hereditary tenants. Swallows of steel-blue wings hung their nests in a whispering colony against the beams, a pair of gray squirrels arched their tails at us and chattering whisked up aloft, where they evidently have a family in the dilapidated pigeon cote, while among some cornstalks and other litter in the low earth cellar beneath we could hear the rustling doubtless born of the swift little feet of mice. (Yes, I know that it is a feminine quality lacking in me, but I have never yet been able to conjure up any species of fear in connection with these playful little rodents.) The cots, table, chairs, and screens were as I had placed them several days ago; but it was not the interior that held us but the view looking eastward across the sunlit meadows. In fact this side of the barn had the wide openings of an observatory. The gnarled apple trees of the orchard still bore pink-and-white wreaths on the shady side, and the purling of bluebirds blended with the voice of the river that ran between the hills afar off--the same stream that further up country was to be pent between walls and prisoned to make a reservoir. Sitting there, we gazed upon the soft yet glowing beauty of it all, with never a thought of pick and spade, grub axe or crowbar, to pry between the rocks of the knoll to find the depth or quality of its soil or test the planting possibilities. "Let us go up to the woods and see Blake; he wrote me that he is to be there to-day, and suggested we should both meet him and see the treasure-trove to be found there before the spring blossoms are quite shed," said Bart, suddenly, fumbling among the letters in his pocket; "and by the way, he said he would come back with us. He evidently forgets that we are not 'at home' to company!" "But _The Man from Everywhere_ is not company. He is simply a permanent institution and can go on dropping in as usual all summer if he likes. Ann-stasia adores him, for did he not bring her a beautiful sandalwood rosary of carved beads from somewhere and a pair of real tortoise-shell combs not two months ago? And of course Maria Maxwell will not object; why should she? he will come and go as usual, and she will hardly know that he is in the house." Barney harnessed the mild-faced horse of our neighbour's lending to that most comfortable of all vehicles, a buggy with an ample box behind and a top that can be dropped and made into a deep pocket to hold gleanings, or raised as a shield from sun and rain. Ah! dear Mrs. Evan, is there anything that turns a sober, settled married couple backward to the enchanted "engaged" region like driving away through the spring lanes in a buggy pulled by a horse who has had nature-loving owners, so that he seems to know by intuition when to pause and when it would be most acceptable to his passengers to have him wander from the beaten track and browse among the tender wayside grasses that always seem so much more tempting than any pasture grazing? As you will infer from this, Romeo is not only of a gentle, meditative disposition, but his harness is destitute of a check rein, overdraw, or otherwise. "Have you put in the trowels?" I asked, as we drove out the gate, the reins hanging so loosely from between Bart's knees, as he lit his pipe, that it was by mere chance that Romeo took the right turn. "No, I never thought of them; this is merely a prospecting trip. Did you put in the lunch?" I was obliged to confess that I had not, but later on a box of sandwiches was found under the seat in company with Romeo's nose-bag of oats, this indication being that, as Barney alone knew directly of our destination, he must have informed Anastasia, who took pity, regarding us, as she does, as a cross between lunatics and the babes in the woods. We chose byways, and only crossed the macadamized highroad, that haunt of automobiles, once, and after an hour's sauntering crossed the river and drove into the woodlots to the north of it, now the property of the water company, who have already posted warning to trespassers. We straightway began to trespass, seeing _The Man from Everywhere_ on horseback coming down to meet us. Without an apparent change of soil or altitude, the scenery at once grew more bold and dramatic. "What is it?" I said. "We have been driving through lanes lined by dogwood and yet that little tree below and the scrubby bit of hillside make a more perfect picture than any we have seen!" [Illustration: THE PICTORIAL VALUE OF EVERGREENS.] Bart, who had left the buggy and was walking beside it with _The Man_, who had dismounted and led his nag, turned and looked backward, but did not answer. "It is the evergreens that give it the quality," said _The Man_, "even though they are only those stiff little Noah's-ark cedars. I notice it far and wide, wherever I go; a landscape is never monotonous so long as there is a pine, spruce, hemlock, or bit of a cedar to bind it together. I believe that is why I am never content for long in the land of palms!" "I love evergreens in winter, but I've never thought much about them in the growing leafy season; they seem unimportant then," I said. "Unimportant or not, they are still there. Look at that wall of trees rising across the river! Every conceivable tint of green is there, besides shades of pink and lavender in leaf case and catkin, but what dominates and translates the whole? The great hemlocks on the crest and the dark pointed cedars off on the horizon where the woodland thins toward the pastures. Whether you separate them or not, they are there. People are only just beginning to understand the value of evergreens in their home gardens, both as windbreaks and backgrounds. No, I don't mean stark, isolated specimens, stiff as Christmas trees. You have a magnificent chance to use them on that knoll of yours that you are going to restore!" As he was speaking I thought Bart paid very scant attention, but following his pointing finger I at once saw what had absorbed him. On the opposite side of the river, extending into the brush lots, was a knoll the size and counterpart of ours, even in the way that it lay by the compass, only this was untouched, as nature planned it, and the model for our restoration. "Do you clear the land as far back as this?" Bart asked of _The Man_, eagerly. "Yes, not for the sake of the land, but for the boulders and loose rock on those ledges; all the rock hereabout will be little enough for our masonry!" "Then," said Bart, "I'm going to transplant the growth on this knoll, root and branch, herb and shrub, moss and fern, to our own, if it takes me until Christmas! It isn't often that a man finds an illustrated plan with all the materials for carrying it out under his hand for merely the taking. There are enough young hemlocks up there to windbreak our whole garden. The thing I'm not sure about is just when it will do to begin the transplanting. Meanwhile I'll make a list of the plants we know that we can add to as others develop and blossom." So he set to work on his list then and there, _The Man from Everywhere_ helping, because he can name a plant from its leaves or even the twigs. I said that I would write to you _at once_ and ask you or Evan to tell us about the best way to transplant all the wild things, except woody shrubs and trees, because we know it's best to wait for those until leaf fall. But as it turns out, I've waited six days--oh! such aggravating days when there is so much to decide and do! That afternoon _The Man_ rode home with us, as a matter of course, we quite forgetting that instead of late dinner, as usual, the meal would be tea, as the Infant and Maria Maxwell are to dine now at one! As a shower threatened, it seemed much more natural for us to turn into the house than the camp, and before I knew how it happened I was sitting at the head of my own table serving soup instead of tea! I dared not look at Maria, but as the meal was nearly ended she remarked demurely, looking out of the west window to where the shower was passing off slantwise, leaving a glorious sunset trail in its wake, "Wouldn't you like to have your coffee in camp, as the rain forced you to take dinner indoors?" by which I knew that Maria would not allow us to lose sight of our outdoor intentions. Bart laughed, and _The Man_, gazing around the table innocently said, "Oh, has _it_ begun, and am I intruding and breaking up plans? Why didn't you tell me?" So we went out through the sweet-smelling twilight, or rather the glow that comes before it, and as we idly sipped the coffee, lo and behold, the old farm lay before us--a dream picture painted by the twilight! The little window-panes, iridescent with age and bulged into odd shapes by yielding sashes, caught the sunset hues and turned to fire opals; the light mist rising over the green meadows where the flowers now slept with heads bent and eyes closed lent the green and pearl tints of those mysterious gems to which drops of rain or dew strung everywhere made diamond settings. "By Jove!" exclaimed Bart, "how beautiful the Opie farm looks to-night! If a real-estate agent could only get a photograph of what we see, we should soon have a neighbour to rescue the place!" "You mustn't call it the Opie farm any more; it is Opal Farm from to-night!" I cried, "and no one shall buy it unless they promise to leave in the old windows and let the meadow and crab orchard stay as they are, besides giving me right of way through it quite down to the river woods!" But to get back by this circuitous route to the threatened danger with which I opened this letter-- The postman whistled, as he has an alluring way of doing when he brings the evening mail, always hoping that some one will come out for a bit of evening gossip, in which he is rarely disappointed. We all started to our feet, but Maria, whose special duty it had become to look over the mail, distanced us all by taking a short cut, regardless of wet grass. Talk branched into divers pleasant ways, and we had almost forgotten her errand when she returned and, breaking abruptly into the conversation, said to Bart, "Sorry to interrupt, but the postman reports that there are three large crates of live stock down at the station, and the agent says will you please send for them to-night, as he doesn't dare leave them out, there are so many strangers about, and they will surely stifle if he crowds them into the office!" "Live stock!" exclaimed Bart, "I'm sure I've bought nothing!" Then, as light broke in his brain,--"Maybe it's that setter pup that Truesdale promised me as soon as it was weaned, which would be about now!" "Would a setter pup come in three crates?" inquired _The Man_, solemnly. "It must be live plants and not live stock!" I said, coming to Bart's rescue, "for Aunt Lavinia Cortright wrote me last week that she was sending me some of her prize pink Dahlias, and some gladioli bulbs!" "Possibly these might fill three large cases!" laughed Bart, in his turn. "Why not see if any of those letters throw light upon the mystery, and then I'll help 'hook up,' as I suppose Barney has gone home, and we will bring up the crates even if they contain crocodiles!" said _The Man_, cheerfully. Complications always have an especially cheering effect upon him, I've often noticed. The beams of a quarter moon were picturesque, but not a satisfactory light by which to read letters, especially when under excitement, so Bart brought out a carriage lantern with which we had equipped our camp, and proceeded to sort the mail, tossing the rejected letters into my lap. Suddenly he paused at one, extra bulky and bearing the handwriting of his mother, weighed it on the palm of his hand, and opened it slowly. From it fell three of the yellow-brown papers upon which receipts for expressage are commonly written; I picked them up while Bart read slowly-- "MY DEAR SON, "We were most glad to hear through daughter Mary of your eminently sensible and frugal plan for passing your summer vacation in the improvement of your land without the expense of travel. "Wishing to give you some solid mark of our approval, as well as to contribute what must be a material aid to your income, father and I send you to-day, by express, three crates of Hens--one of White Leghorns, one of Plymouth Rocks, and one of Brown Dorkings, a male companion accompanying each crate, as I am told is usual. We did not select an incubator, thinking you might have some preference in the matter, but it will be forthcoming when your decision is made. "Of course I know that you cannot usually spare the time for the care of these fowls, but it will be a good outdoor vocation for Mary, amusing and lucrative, besides being thoroughly feminine, for such poultry raising was considered even in my younger days. "A book, _The Complete Guide to Poultry Farming_, which I sent Mary a year ago on her birthday, as a mere suggestion, will tell her all she need know in the beginning, and the responsibility and occupation itself will be a good corrective for giving too much time to the beauties of the flower garden, which are merely pleasurable. "I need not remind you that the different breeds should be housed separately, but you who always had a gift for carpentry can easily arrange this. Indeed it was only yesterday that in opening a chest of drawers I came across a small lead saw bought for sixpence, with which you succeeded in quite cutting through the large Wisteria vine on Grandma Bartram's porch! I wished to punish you, but she said--'No, Susanna, rather preserve the tool as a memento of his industry and patience.' "I wish that I could be near to witness your natural surprise on receiving this token of our approval, but I must trust Mary to write us of it. "Your mother, "SUSAN BARTRAM PENROSE." With something between a groan and a laugh Bart dropped this letter into my lap, with the others. "So, after a successful struggle all these five years of our country life against the fatal magnetism of _Hens_ that has run epidemic up and down the population of commuting householders, bringing financial prostration to some and the purely nervous article to others; after avoiding 'The Wars of the Chickens, or Who scratched up those Early Peas,'--events as celebrated in local history as the Revolution or War of the Rebellion,--we are to be forced into the chicken business for the good of Bart's health and pocket, and my mental discipline, and also that a thrifty Pennsylvania air may be thrown about our altogether too delightful and altruistic summer arrangements! It's t-o-o bad!" I wailed. Of course I know, Mrs. Evan, that I was in a temper, and that my "in-laws" mean well, but since comfortable setting hens have gone out of fashion, and incubators and brooders taken their place, there is no more pleasure or sentiment about raising poultry than in manufacturing any other article by rule. It's a business, and a very pernickety one to boot, and it's to keep Bart away from business that we are striving. Besides, that chicken book tells how many square feet per hen must be allowed for the exercising yards, and how the pens for the little chicks must be built on wheels and moved daily to fresh pasture. All the vegetable garden and flower beds and the bit of side lawn which I want for mother's rose garden would not be too much! But I seem to be leaving the track again. Bart didn't say a word, except that "At any rate we must bring the fowls up from the station," and as the stable door was locked and the key in Barney's pocket, Bart and _The Man_ started to walk down to the village to look him up in some of his haunts, or failing in this to get the express wagon from the stable. Maria and I sat and talked for some time about _The_ _Man from Everywhere_, the chickens, and the location of the rose beds. She is surprisingly keen about flowers, considering that it is quite ten years since her own home in the country was broken up, but then I think this is the sort of knowledge that stays by one the longest of all. I hope that I have succeeded in convincing her that _The Man_ is not company to be bothered about, but a comfortable family institution to come and go as he likes, to be taken easily and not too seriously. When the moon disappeared beyond the river woods, we went to the southwest porch, and there decided that the piece of lawn where we had some uninteresting foliage beds one summer was the best place for the roses and we might possibly have a trellis across the north wall for climbers. Would you plant roses in rows or small separate beds? And how about the soil? But perhaps the plan you are sending me will explain all this. It was more than an hour before the men returned, and, not having found Barney, Bart had signed for the poultry in order to leave the express agent free to go home, and had left word at the stable for them to send the crates up as soon as the long wagon returned from Leighton, whither it had gone with trunks. After much discussion we decided that the fowls should be housed for the night in the small yard back of the stable, where the Infant's cow (a present from _my_ mother) spends her nights under the shed. "Did you find any signs of a chicken house on the place when you first came?" asked Maria, in a matter-of-fact tone, as if its location was the only thing now to be considered. "Yes, there was one directly in the fence line at the eastern gap where we see the Three Brothers Hills," said Bart, "and I've always intended to plant a flower bed of some sort there both to hide the gap in the wall and that something may be benefited by the hen manure of decades that must have accumulated there!" "How would the place do for the new hen-house?" pursued Maria, relentlessly. "Not at all!" I snapped very decidedly: "it is directly in the path the cool summer winds take on their way to the dining room, and you know at best fowl houses are not bushes of lemon balm!" "Then why not locate your bed of good-smelling things in the gap, and sup on nectar and distilled perfume," said _The Man from Everywhere_, soothingly. "The very thing! and I will write Mrs. Evan at once for a list of the plants in her 'bed of sweet odours,' as she calls it." Then presently, as the men sat talking, Maria having gone into the house, our summer work seemed to lie accomplished and complete before me, even as you once saw your garden of dreams before its making,--the knoll restored to its wildness, ending not too abruptly at the garden in some loose rock; the bed of sweet odours filling the gap between it and the gate of the little pasture in the rear; straight beds of hardy plants bordering the vegetable squares; the two seed beds topping the furthest bit, then a space of lawn with the straight walk of the old garden running through, to the sundial amid some beds of summer flowers at the orchard end, while the open lawn below the side porch is given up to roses! I even crossed the fence in imagination, and took in the possibilities of Opal Farm. If only I could have some one there to talk flowers and other perplexities to, as you have Lavinia Cortright, without going through the front gate! Two hours must have passed in pleasant chat, for the hall clock, the only one in the front part of the house we had not stopped, was chiming eleven when wheels paused before the house and the latch of the gate that swung both ways gave its double click! "The hens have come!" I cried in dismay, the dream garden vanishing before an equally imaginary chorus of clucks and crows. Mr. Hale himself, the stable keeper, appeared at the house corner at the same moment that Bart and _The Man_ reached it. Consternation sat upon his features, and his voice was fairly husky as he jerked out,--"They've gone,--clean gone,--Mr. Penrose, all three crates! and the dust is so kicked up about that depot that you can't read out no tracks. Some loafers must hev seen them come and laid to get in ahead o' you, as hevin' signed the company ain't liable! What! don't you want to drive down to the sheriff's?" and Mr. Hale's lips hung loose with dismay at Bart's apparent apathy. "Mr. Hale," said Bart, in mock heroic tones, "I thank you for your sympathy, but because some troubles fall upon us unawares, it does not follow that we should set bait for others!" Whereupon Mr. Hale the next day remarked that he didn't know whether or not Penrose was taking action in the matter, because you could never judge a good lawyer's meanings by his speech. However, if the hens escaped, so did we, and the next morning Bart forgot his paper until afternoon, so eager was he to test the depth of soil in the knoll. I'm sending you a list of the wild things at hand. Will you tell me in due course which of the ferns are best for our purpose? I've noticed some of the larger ones turn quite shabby early in August. VII A SIMPLE ROSE GARDEN (Barbara Campbell to Mary Penrose) _Oaklands, June 5._ Yesterday my roses began to bloom. The very old bush of thorny, half-double brier roses with petals of soft yellow crêpe, in which the sunbeams caught and glinted, took the lead as usual. Before night enough Jacqueminot buds showed rich colour to justify my filling the bowl on the greeting table, fringing it with sprays of the yellow brier buds and wands of copper beech now in its velvety perfection of youth. This morning, the moment that I crossed my bedroom threshold, the Jacqueminot odour wafted up. Is there anything more like the incense of praise to the flower lover? Not less individual than the voice of friends, or the song of familiar birds, is the perfume of flowers to those who live with them, and among roses none impress this characteristic more poignantly than the crimson Jacqueminot and the silver-pink La France, equally delicious and absolutely different. As one who has learned by long and sometimes disastrous experience, to one who is now really plunging headlong into the sea of garden mysteries and undercurrents for the first time, I give you warning! if you have a real rose garden, or, merely what Lavinia Cortright calls hers, a rosary of assorted beads, try as far as possible to have all your seed sowing and transplanting done before the June rose season begins, that you may give yourself up to this one flower, heart, soul, yes, and body also! It was no haphazard symbolist that, in troubadour days, gave Love the rose for his own flower, for to be its real self the rose demands all and must be all in all to its possessor. As for you, Mary Penrose, who eschewed hen-keeping as a deceitful masquerade of labour, under the name of rural employment, ponder deeply before you have spade put to turf in your south lawn, and invest your birthday dollars in the list of roses that at this very moment I am preparing to send you, with all possible allurement of description to egg you on. For unless you have very poor luck, which the slope of your land, depth of soil, and your own pertinacity and staying qualities discount, many more dollars in quarters, halves, or entire will follow the first large outlay, and I may even hear of your substituting the perpetual breakfast prune of boarding-houses for your grapefruit in winter, or being overcome in summer by the prevailing health-food epidemic, in order that you may plunder the housekeeping purse successfully. [Illustration: MY ROSES ARE SCATTERED HERE, THERE, AND EVERYWHERE.] But this is the time and hour that one gardener, on a very modest scale, may be excused if she overrates the charms of rose possessing, for it is a June morning, both bright and overcast by turns. A wood thrush is practising his arpegios in the little cedar copse on one side, and a catbird is hurling every sort of vocal challenge and bedevilment from his ancestral syringa bush on the other, and all between is a gap filled with a vista of rose-bushes--not marshalled in a garden together, but scattered here, there, and everywhere that a good exposure and deep foothold could be found. As far as the arrangement of my roses is concerned, "do as I say, not as I do" is a most convenient motto. I have tried to formalize my roses these ten years past, but how can I, for my yellow brier (Harrison's) has followed its own sweet will so long that it makes almost a hedge. The Madame Plantiers of mother's garden are stalwart shrubs, like many other nameless bushes collected from old gardens hereabout, one declining so persistently to be uprooted from a particularly cheerful corner that it finds itself in the modern company of Japanese iris, and inadvertently sheds its petals to make rose-water of the birds' bath. An English sweetbrier of delicious leafage hobnobs with honeysuckle and clematis on one of the wren arbours, while a great nameless bush of exquisite blush buds, quite destitute of thorns (one of the many cuttings sent "the Doctor's wife" in the long ago), stands an unconscious chaperone between Marshall P. Wilder and Mrs. John Lang. I must at once confess that it is much better to keep the roses apart in long borders of a kind than to scatter them at random. By so doing the plants can be easily reached from either side, more care being taken not to overshadow the dwarf varieties by the more vigorous. Lavinia Cortright has left the old-fashioned June roses that belonged to her garden where they were, but is now gathering the new hybrids after the manner of Evan's little plan. In this way, without venturing into roses from a collector's standpoint, she can have representatives of the best groups and a continuous supply of buds of some sort both outdoors and for the house from the first week in June until winter. To begin with, roses need plenty of air. This does not mean that they flourish in a draught made by the rushing of north or east wind between buildings or down a cut or roadway. If roses are set in a mixed border, the tendency is inevitably to crowd or flank them by some succulent annual that overgrows the limit we mentally set for it, thereby stopping the circulation of air about the rose roots, and lo! the harm is done! If you want good roses, you must be content to see a little bare, brown earth between the bushes, only allowing a narrow outside border of pansies, the horned bedding violets (_cornuta_), or some equally compact and clean-growing flower. To plant anything thickly between the roses themselves prevents stirring the soil and the necessary seasonal mulchings, for if the ground-covering plants flourish you will dislike to disturb them. The first thing to secure for your rosary is sun--sun for all the morning. If the shadow of house, barn, or of distant trees breaks the direct afternoon rays in July and August, so much the better, but no overhead shade at any time or season. This does not prevent your protecting a particularly fine quantity of buds, needed for some special occasion, with a tentlike umbrella, such as one sees fastened to the seat in pedlers' wagons. A pair of these same umbrellas are almost a horticultural necessity for the gardener's comfort as well, when she sits on her rubber mat to transplant and weed. Given your location, consideration of soil comes next, for this can be controlled in a way in which the sun may not be, though if the ground chosen is in the bottom of a hollow or in a place where surface water is likely to settle in winter, you had better shift the location without more ado. It was a remark pertinent to all such places that Dean Hole made to the titled lady who showed him an elaborately planned rose garden, in a hollow, and waited for his praise. She heard only the remark that it was an admirable spot for _ferns_! If your soil is clayey, and holds water for this reason, it can be drained by porous tiles, sunk at intervals in the same way as meadow or hay land would be drained, that is if the size of your garden and the lay of the land warrants it. If, however, the roses are to be in separate beds or long borders, the earth can be dug out to the depth of two and a half or three feet, the good fertile portion being put on one side and the clay or yellow loam, if any there be, removed. Then fill the hole with cobblestones, rubbish of old plaster, etc., for a foot in depth (never tin cans); mix the good earth thoroughly with one-third its bulk of well-rotted cow dung, a generous sprinkling of unslaked lime and sulphur, and replace, leaving it to settle for a few days and watering it thoroughly, if it does not rain, before planting. One of the advantages of planting roses by themselves is that the stirring of the soil and giving of special fertilizers when needful may be unhampered. In the ordinary planting of roses by the novice, the most necessary rules are usually the first violated. The roses are generally purchased in pots, with a certain amount of foliage and a few buds produced by forcing. A hole is excavated, we will suppose, in a hardened border of hardy plants that, owing to the tangle of roots, can be at best but superficially dug and must rely upon top dressing for its nutriment. Owing to the difficulty of digging the hole, it is likely to be a tight fit for the pot-bound ball of calloused roots that is to fill it. Hence, instead of the woody roots and delicate fibres being carefully spread out and covered, so that each one is surrounded by fresh earth, they are jammed just as they are (or often with an additional squeeze) into a rigid socket, and small wonder if the conjunction of the two results in blighting and a lingering death rather than the renewal of vitality and increase. Evan, who has had a wide experience in watching the development of his plans, both by professional gardeners and amateurs, says that he is convinced more and more each day that, where transplanting of any sort fails, it is due to carelessness in the securing of the root anchors, rather than any fault of the dealer who supplies the plants, this of course applying particularly to all growths having woody roots, where breakage and wastage cannot be rapidly restored. When a rose is once established, its persistent roots may find means of boring through soil that in its first nonresistant state is impossible. While stiff, impervious clay is undesirable, a soil too loose with sand, that allows the bush to shift with the wind, instead of holding it firmly, is quite as undesirable. In planting all hardy or half-hardy roses,--whether they are of the type that flower once in early summer, the hybrid perpetuals that bloom freely in June and again at intervals during late summer and autumn, or the hybrid teas that, if wisely selected and protected, combine the wintering ability of their hardy parents with the monthly blooming cross of the teas,--it is best to plant dormant field-grown plants in October, or else as early in April as the ground is sufficiently dry and frost free. These field-grown roses have better roots, and though, when planted in the spring, for the first few months the growth is apparently slower than that of the pot-grown bushes, it is much more normal and satisfactory, at least in the Middle and New England states of which I have knowledge. All roses, even the sturdy, old-fashioned damasks, Madame Plantier, and the like, should have some covering in winter, such as stable litter of coarse manure with the straw left in. Hybrid perpetuals I hill up well with earth after the manner of celery banked for bleaching, the trenches between making good water courses for snow water, while in spring cow manure and nitrate of soda is scattered in these ruts before the soil is restored to its level by forking. The hybrid teas, of which La France is the best exponent, should be hilled up and then filled in between with evergreen branches, upland sedge grass, straw or corn stalks, and if you have the wherewithal, they may be capped with straw. I do not care for leaves as a covering, unless something coarse underlies them, for in wet seasons they form a cold and discouraging poultice to everything but the bob-tailed meadow mice, who love to bed and burrow under them. Such tea roses as it is possible to winter in the north should be treated in the same way, but there is something else to be suggested about their culture in another place. The climbing roses of arbours, if in very exposed situations, in addition to the mulch of straw and manure, may have corn stalks stacked against the slats, which makes a windbreak well worth the trouble. But the more tender species of climbing roses should be grown upon pillars, English fashion. These can be snugly strawed up after the fashion of wine bottles, and then a conical cap of the waterproof tar paper used by builders drawn over the whole, the manure being banked up to hold the base firmly in place. With this device it is possible to grow the lovely Gloire de Dijon, in the open, that festoons the eaves of English cottages, but is our despair. [Illustration: PILLAR FOR CORNERS OF ROSE BED.] Not long ago we invented an inexpensive "pillar" trellis for roses and vines which, standing seven feet high and built about a cedar clothes-pole, the end well coated with tar before setting, is both symmetrical and durable, not burning tender shoots, as do the metal affairs, and costing, if the material is bought and a carpenter hired by the day, the moderate price of two dollars and a half each, including paint, which should be dark green. [Illustration: ROSE GARDEN WITH OUTSIDE BORDER OF GRAVEL AND GRASS.] Evan has made a sketch of it for you. He finds it useful in many ways, and in laying out a new garden these pillars, set at corners or at intervals along the walks, serve to break the hot look of a wide expanse and give a certain formality that draws together without being too stiff and artificial. For little gardens, like yours and mine, I think deep-green paint the best colour for pergola, pillars, seats, plant tubs, and the like. White paint is clean and cheerful, but stains easily. If one has the surroundings and money for marble columns and garden furniture, it must form part of a well-planned whole and not be pitched in at random, but the imitation article, compounded of cement or whitewashed wood, belongs in the region of stage properties or beer gardens! The little plan I'm sending you needs a bit of ground not less than fifty feet by seventy-five for its development, and that, I think, is well within the limits of your southwest lawn. The pergola can be made of rough cedar posts with the bark left on. Evan says that there are any quantity of cedar trees in your river woods that are to be cleared for the reservoir, and you can probably get them for a song. The border enclosing the grass plots is four feet in width, which allows you to reach into the centre from either side. Two rows of hybrid perpetuals or three of hybrid tea or summer roses can be planted in these beds, according to their size, thus allowing, at the minimum, for one hundred hybrid perpetuals, fifty hybrid teas, fifty summer roses, and eighteen climbers, nine on either side of the pergola, with four additional for the corner pillars. The irregular beds in the small lawns should not be planted in set rows, but after the manner of shrubberies. Rugosa roses, if their colours be well chosen, are best for the centre of these beds. They are striking when in flower and decorative in fruit, while the handsome leaves, that are very free from insects, I find most useful as green in arranging other roses the foliage of which is scanty. The pink-and-white damask roses belong here, and the dear, profuse, and graceful Madame Plantier,--a dozen bushes of this hybrid China rose of seven leaflets are not too many. For seventy years it has held undisputed sway among hardy white roses and has become so much a part of old gardens that we are inclined to place its origin too far back in the past among historic roses, because we cannot imagine a time when it was not. This is a rose to pick by the armful, and grown in masses it lends an air of luxury to the simplest garden. [Illustration: MADAME PLANTIER AT VAN CORTLAND MANOR.] Personally, I object to the rambler tribe of roses for any but large gardens, where in a certain sense the personality of flowers must sometimes be lost in decorative effect. A scentless rose has no right to intrude on the tender intimacies of the woman's garden, but pruned back to a tall standard it may be cautiously mingled with Madame Plantier with good effect, lending the pale lady the reflected touch of the colour that gives life. For the pergola a few ramblers may be used for rapid effect, while the slower growing varieties are making wood, but sooner or later I'm sure that they will disappear before more friendly roses, and even to-day the old-fashioned Gem of the Prairies, Felicité Perpetual, and Baltimore Belle seem to me worthier. Colour and profusion the rambler has, but equally so has the torrent of coloured paper flowers that pours out of the juggler's hat, and they are much bigger. No, I'm apt to be emphatic (Evan calls it pertinacious), but I'm sure the time will come when at least the crimson rambler, trained over a gas-pipe arch, except for purely decorative purposes, will be as much disliked by the real rose lover as the tripod with the iron pot painted red and filled with red geraniums! The English sweetbrier is a climbing or pillar rose, capable of being pruned into a bush or hedge that not only gives fragrance in June but every time the rain falls or dew condenses upon its magic leaves. This you must have as well as some of its kin, the Penzance hybrid-sweetbriers, either against the pergola or trained to the corner pillars, where you will become more intimate with them. You may be fairly sure of success in wintering well-chosen hybrid perpetual roses and the hybrid teas. If, for any reason, certain varieties that succeed in Lavinia Cortright's garden and ours do not thrive with you, they must be replaced by a gradual process of elimination. You alone may judge of this. I'm simply giving you a list of varieties that have thriven in my garden; others may not find them the best. Only let me advise you to begin with roses that have stood a test of not less than half a dozen years, for it really takes that long to know the influence of heredity in this highly specialized race. After the rose garden has shown you all its colours, it is easy to supplement a needed tint here or a proven newcomer there without speculating, as it were, in garden stock in a bull market. Too much of spending money for something that two years hence will be known no more is a financial side of the _Garden-Goozle_ question that saddens the commuter, as well as his wife. It is a continual proof of man's, and particularly woman's, innocency that such pictures as horticultural pedlers show when extolling their wares do not deter instead of encouraging purchasers. If the fruits and flowers were believable, as depicted, still they should be unattractive to eye and palate. The hybrid perpetuals give their great yield in June, followed by a more or less scattering autumn blooming. It is foolish to expect a rose specialized and proven by the tests climatic and otherwise of Holland, England, or France, and pronounced a perpetual bloomer, to live up to its reputation in this country of sudden extremes: unveiled summer heat, that forces the bud open before it has developed quality, causing certain shades of pink and crimson to fade and flatten before the flower is really fit for gathering. Americans in general must be content with the half loaf, as far as garden roses are concerned, for in the cooler parts of the country, where the development of the flower is slower and more satisfactory, the winter lends added dangers. Good roses--not, however, the perfect flowers of the connoisseur or even of the cottage exhibitions of England--may be had from early June until the first week of July, but the hybrid tea roses that brave the latter part of that month and August are but short lived, even when gathered in the bud. Those known as summer bedders of the Bourbon class, chiefly scentless, of which Appoline is a well-known example, are simply bits of decorative colour without the endearing attributes of roses, and garden colour may be obtained with far less labour. In July and August you may safely let your eyes wander from the rosary to the beds of summer annuals, the gladioli, Japan lilies, and Dahlias, and depend for fragrance on your bed of sweet odours. But as the nights begin to lengthen, at the end of August, you may prepare for a tea-rose festival, if you have a little forethought and a very little money. You have, I think, a florist in your neighbourhood who raises roses for the market. This is my method, practised for many years with comforting success. Instead of buying pot-grown tea roses in April or May, that, unless a good price (from twenty-five cents up) is paid for them, will be so small that they can only be called bushes at the season's end, I go to our florist and buy fifty of the bushes that he has forced during the winter and being considered spent are cast out about June first, in order to fill in the new stock. All such roses are not discarded each season, but the process is carried on in alternate benches and years, so that there are always some to be obtained. These plants, big, tired-looking, and weak in the branches, I buy for the nominal sum of ten dollars per hundred, five dollars' worth filling a long border when set out in alternating rows. On taking these home, I thin out the woodiest shoots, or those that interfere, and plant deep in the border, into which nitrate of soda has been dug in the proportion of about two ounces to a plant. After spreading out the roots as carefully as possible, I plant firmly and water thoroughly, but do not as yet prune off the long branches. In ten days, having given meanwhile two waterings of liquid manure, I prune the bushes back sharply. By this time they will have probably dropped the greater part of their leaves, and having had a short but sufficient nap, are ready to grow, which they proceed to do freely. I do not encourage bloom in July, but as soon as we have dew-heavy August nights it begins and goes on, increasing in quality until hard frost. Many of these bushes have wintered comfortably and on being pruned to within three inches of the ground have lasted many years. As to the varieties so treated, that is a secondary consideration, for under these circumstances you must take what the florist has to offer, which will of course be those most suitable to the winter market. I have used Perle des Jardins, Catherine Mermet, Bride and Bridesmaid, Safrano, Souvenir d'un Ami, and Bon Silene (the rose for button-hole buds) with equal success, though a very intelligent grower affirms that both Bride and Bridesmaid are unsatisfactory as outdoor roses. I do not say that the individual flowers from these bushes bear relation to the perfect specimens of greenhouse growth in anything but fragrance, but in this way I have roses all the autumn, "by the fistful," as Timothy Saunders's Scotch appreciation of values puts it, though his spouse, Martha Corkle, whose home memories are usually expanded by the perspective of time and absence, in this case speaks truly when she says on receiving a handful, "Yes, Mrs. Evan, they're nice and sweetish and I thank you kindly, but, ma'am, they couldn't stand in it with those that grows as free as corn poppies round the four-shillin'-a-week cottages out Gloucester way, and _no_ disrespec' intended." The working season of the rose garden begins the first of April with the cutting out of dead wood and the shortening and shaping of last year's growth. With hardy roses the flowers come from fresh twigs on old growth. I never prune in the autumn, because winter always kills a bit of the top and cutting opens the tubular stem to the weather and induces decay. Pruning is a science in itself, to be learned by experience. This is the formula that I once wrote on a slate and kept in my attic desk with my first _Boke of the Garden_. _April 1._ Uncover bushes, prune, and have the winter mulch thoroughly dug in. Place stakes in the centre of bushes that you know from experience will need them. Re-tie climbers that have broken away from supports, but not too tightly; let some sprays swing and arch in their own way. _May._ As soon as the foliage begins to appear, spray with whale-oil soap lotion mixed hot and let cool: strength--a bit the size of a walnut to a gallon of water. Do this every two weeks until the rosebuds show decided colour, then stop. This is to keep the rose Aphis at bay, the little soft green fly that is as succulent as the sap upon which it feeds. If the spring is damp and mildew appears, dust with sulphur flower in a small bellows. _June._ The Rose Hopper or Thrip, an active little pale yellow, transparent-winged insect that clings to the under side of the leaf, will now come if the weather is dry; dislodged easily by shaking, it immediately returns. _Remedy_, spraying leaves from underneath with water and applying powdered helebore with a bellows. If _Black Spot_, a rather recent nuisance, appears on the leaves, spray with Bordeaux Mixture, bought of a horticultural dealer, directions accompanying. Meanwhile the leaf worm is sure to put in appearance. This is also transparent and either brownish green, or yellow, seemingly according to the leaves upon which it feeds. _Remedy_, if they won't yield to helebore (and they seldom do unless very sickly), brush them off into a cup. An old shaving brush is good for this purpose, as it is close set but too soft to scrape the leaf. _June 15._ When the roses are in bloom, stop all insecticides. There is such a thing as the cure being worse than the disease, and a rose garden redolent of whale-oil soap and phosphates and encrusted with helebore and Bordeaux Mixture has a painful suggestion of a horticultural hospital. Now is the time for the Rose Chafer, a dull brownish beetle about half an inch long, who times his coming up out of the ground to feast upon the most fragrant and luscious roses. These hunt in couples and are wholly obnoxious. Picking into a fruit jar with a little kerosene in the bottom is the only way to kill them. In one day last season Evan came to my rescue and filled a quart jar in two hours; they are so fat and spunky they may be considered as the big game among garden bugs, and their catching, if not carried to an extreme, in the light of sport. _July._ See that all dead flowers are cut off and no petals allowed to mould on the ground. Mulch with short grass during hot, dry weather, and use liquid manure upon hybrid teas and teas every two weeks, immediately after watering or a rain. Never, at any season, allow a rose to wither on the bush! _August._ The same, keeping on the watch for all previous insects but the rose beetle; this will have left. Mulch hybrid perpetuals if a dry season, and give liquid manure for the second blooming. _September._ Stir the ground after heavy rains, and watch for tendencies of mould. _October._ The same. _November._ Begin to draw the soil about roots soon after black frost, and bank up before the ground freezes, but do not add straw, litter, or manure in the trenches until the ground is actually frozen, which will be from December first onward, except in the case of teas, which should be covered gradually until the top is reached. By this you will judge, Mary Penrose, that a rosary has its labours, as well as pleasures, and that like all other joys it is accompanied by difficulties. Yet you can grow good roses if you _will_, but the difficulty is that most people _won't_. I think, by the way, that remark belongs to Dean Hole of fragrant rose-garden memory, and of a truth he has said all that is likely to be spoken or written about the rose on the side of both knowledge and human fancy for many a day. Modern roses of the hybrid-perpetual and hybrid-tea types may be bought of several reliable dealers for twenty-five dollars per hundred, in two conditions, either grown on their own roots or budded on Manette or brier stock. Personally I prefer the first or natural condition, if the constitution of the plant is sufficiently vigorous to warrant it. There are, however, many indispensable varieties that do better for the infusion of vigorous brier blood. A budded rose will show the junction by a little knob where the bud was inserted; this must be planted at least three inches below ground so that new shoots will be encouraged to spring from _above_ the bud, as those below are merely wild, worthless suckers, to be removed as soon as they appear. [Illustration: A CONVENIENT ROSE BED.] How can you tell wild suckers from the desired growth? At first by following them back to the root until you have taken their measure, but as soon as experience has enlightened you they will be as easily recognized at sight as the mongrel dog by a connoisseur. Many admirable varieties, like Jacqueminot, Anne de Diesbach, Alfred Colomb, Madame Plantier, and all the climbers, do so well on their own roots that it is foolish to take the risk of budded plants, the worse side of which is a tendency to decay at the point of juncture. Tea roses, being of rapid growth and flowering wholly upon new wood, are perfectly satisfactory when rooted from cuttings. Of many well-attested varieties of hybrid perpetuals, hybrid China, or other so-called June roses, you may at the start safely select from the following twenty. _Pink, of various shades_ 1. Anne de Diesbach. One of the most fragrant, hardy, and altogether satisfactory of hybrid perpetual roses. Forms a large bush, covered with large deep carmine-pink flowers. Should be grown on own root. 2. Paul Neyron. Rose pink, of large size, handsome even when fully open. Fragrant and hardy. 3. Cabbage, or Rose The Provence rose of history and old of 100 Leaves. gardens, supposed to have been known to Pliny. Rich pink, full, fragrant, and hardy. Own roots. 4. Magna Charta. A fine fragrant pink rose of the hybrid China type. Not seen as often as it should be. Own roots. 5. Clio. A vigorous grower with flesh-coloured and pink-shaded blossoms. 6. Oakmont. Exquisite deep rose, fragrant, vigorous, and with a long blooming season. _White_ 7. Marchioness of Free, full, and fragrant. Immense Londonderry. cream-white flowers, carried on long stems. Very beautiful. 8. Madame Plantier A medium-sized, pure white rose, (Hybrid China). with creamy centre; flowers so profusely as to appear to be in clusters. Delicately fragrant, leaves deep green and remarkably free from blights. Perfectly hardy; forms so large a bush in time that it should be placed in the rose shrubbery rather than amid smaller species. 9. Margaret Dickson. A splendid, finely formed, fragrant white rose, with deep green foliage. 10. Coquette des Blanches. One of the very hardy white roses, an occasional pink streak tinting the outside petals. Cup-shaped and a profuse bloomer. 11. Coquette des Alps. A very hardy bush, coming into bloom rather later than the former and lasting well. Satisfactory. _Red and Crimson_ 12. General Jacqueminot. Bright velvety crimson. The established favourite of its colour and class, though fashion has in some measure pushed it aside for newer varieties. May be grown to a large shrub. Fragrant and hardy. Best when in bud, as it opens rather flat. 13. Alfred Colomb. Bright crimson. Full, sweet. A vigorous grower and entirely satisfactory. If you can grow but one red rose, take this. 14. Fisher Holmes. A seedling of Jacqueminot, but of the darkest velvety crimson; fragrant, and blooms very early. 15. Marshal P. Wilder. Also a seedling of Jacqueminot. Vigorous and of well-set foliage. Full, large flowers of a bright cherry red. Very fragrant. 16. Marie Bauman. A crimson rose of delicious fragrance and lovely shape. This does best when budded on brier or Manette stock, and needs petting and a diet of liquid manure, but it will repay the trouble. 17. Jules Margottin. A fine, old-fashioned, rich red rose, fragrant, and while humble in its demands, well repays liberal feeding. 18. John Hopper. A splendid, early crimson rose, fragrant and easily cared for. 19. Prince Camille de Rohan. The peer of dark red roses, not large, but rich in fragrance and of deep colour. 20. Ulrich Brunner. One of the best out-of-door roses, hardy, carries its bright cerise flowers well, which are of good shape and substance; has few diseases. _Moss Roses_ 1. Blanch Moreau (Perpetual). A pure, rich white; the buds, which are heavily mossed, borne in clusters. 2. White Bath. The most familiar white moss rose, sometimes tinged with pink. Open flowers are attractive as well as buds. 3. Crested Moss. Rich pink, deeply mossed, each bud having a fringed crest; fragrant and full. 4. Gracilis. An exquisite moss rose of fairylike construction, the deep pink buds being wrapped and fringed with moss. 5. Common Moss. A hardy pink variety, good only in the bud. The moss roses as a whole only bloom satisfactorily in June. _Climbers_ 1. 1. English Sweetbrier. Single pink flowers of the wild-rose type. Foliage of delicious fragrance, perfuming the garden after rain the season through. _Penzance Hybrid Sweetbriers, Having Fragrant Foliage and Flowers of Many Beautiful Colours_ 2. Amy Robsart. Pink. 3. Anne of Geierstein. Crimson. 4. Minna. White. 5. Rose Bradwardine. Deep rose. 2. 1. Climbing Jules Margottin. Rosy carmine, very fragrant and full, satisfactory for the pergola, but more so for a pillar, where in winter it can be protected from wind by branches or straw. 2. Baltimore Belle. The old-fashioned blush rose, with clean leaves and solid flowers of good shape. Blooms after other varieties are over. Trustworthy and satisfactory, though not fragrant in flower or leaf. 3. Gem of the Prairie. Red flowers of large size, but rather flat when open. A seedling from Queen of the Prairie, and though not as free as its parent, it has the desirable quality of fragrance. 4. Climbing Belle Siebrecht Fragrant, vigorous, and of (Hybrid Tea). the same deep pink as the standard variety. Grow on pillars. 5. Gloire de Dijon. Colour an indescribable blending of rose, buff, and yellow, deliciously fragrant, double to the heart of crumpled, crêpelike petals. A tea rose and, as an outdoor climber, tender north of Washington, yet it can be grown on a pillar by covering as described on page 126. _Hybrid Tea Roses_ 1. La France. The fragrant silver-pink rose, with full, heavy flowers,--the combination of all a rose should be. In the open garden the sun changes its delicate colour quickly. Should be gathered in the bud at evening or, better yet, early morning. Very hardy if properly covered, and grows to a good-sized bush. 2. Kaiserin Augusta White, with a lemon tint in the Victoria. folds; the fragrance is peculiar to itself, faintly suggesting the Gardenia. 3. Gruss an Teplitz. One of the newer crimson roses, vigorous, with well-cupped flowers. Good for decorative value in the garden, but not a rose of sentiment. 4. Killarney. One of the newer roses that has made good. Beautiful pointed buds of shell-pink, full and at the same time delicate. The foliage is very handsome. If well fed, will amply repay labour. 5. Souvenir de Malmaison. A Bourbon rose that should be treated like a hybrid tea. Shell-pink, fragrant flowers, that have much the same way of opening as Gloire de Dijon. A constant bloomer. 6. Clothilde Soupert. A polyantha or cluster rose of vigorous growth and glistening foliage, quite as hardy as the hybrid tea. It is of dwarf growth and suitable for edging beds of larger roses. The shell-pink flowers are of good form and very double; as they cluster very thickly on the ends of the stems, the buds should be thinned out, as they have an aggravating tendency to mildew before opening. 7. Souvenir de President A charming rose with shadows of all Carnot. the flesh tints, from white through blush to rose; sturdy and free. 8. Caroline Testout. Very large, round flowers, of a delicate shell-pink, flushed with salmon; sturdy. _Teas_ 1. Bon Silene. The old favourite, unsurpassed for fragrance as a button-hole flower, or table decoration when blended with ferns or fragrant foliage plants. Colour "Bon Silene," tints of shaded pink and carmine, all its own. 2. Papa Gontier. A rose as vigorous as the hybrid teas, and one that may be easily wintered. Pointed buds of deep rose shading to crimson and as fragrant as Bon Silene, of which it is a hybrid. Flowers should be gathered in the bud. 3. Safrano. A true "tea" rose of characteristic shades of buff and yellow, with the tea fragrance in all its perfection. Best in the bud. Vigorous and a fit companion for Papa Gontier and Bon Silene. 4. Perle des Jardins. An exquisite, fragrant double rose of light clear yellow, suggesting the Marechal Niel in form, but of paler colour. Difficult to winter out of doors, but worth the trouble of lifting to cold pit or light cellar, or the expense of renewing annually. One of the lovable roses. 5. Bride. The clear white rose, sometimes with lemon shadings used for forcing; clean, handsome foliage and good fragrance. Very satisfactory in my garden when old plants are used, as described. 6. Bridesmaid. The pink companion of the above with similar attributes. 7. Etoille de Lyon. A vigorous, deep yellow rose, full and sweet. Almost as hardy as a hybrid tea and very satisfactory. 8. Souvenir d'un Ami. A deliciously fragrant light pink rose, with salmon shadings. Very satisfactory and as hardy as some of the hybrid teas. _Miscellaneous Roses for the Shrubbery_ 1. Harrison's Yellow. An Austrian brier rose with clear yellow semi-double flowers. Early and very hardy. Should be grown on its own roots, as it will then spread into a thicket and make the rosary a mass of shimmering gold in early June. _Damask Roses_ Should be grown on own root, when they will form shrubs five feet high. 2. Madame Hardy. Pure white. Very fragrant, well-cupped flower, Time tried and sturdy. 3. Rosa Damascena Rose colour. Triginitipela. _Rugosa_ The tribe of Japanese origin, conspicuous as bushes of fine foliage and handsome shape, as well as for the large single blossoms that are followed by seed vessels of brilliant scarlet hues. 4. Agnes Emily Carman. Flowers in clusters, "Jacqueminot" red, with long-fringed golden stamens. Continuous bloomer. Hardy and perfect. 5. Rugosa alba. Pure white, highly scented. 6. Rugosa rubra. Single crimson flowers of great beauty. 7. Chedane Guinoisseau. Flowers, satin pink and very large. Blooms all the summer. Now, Mary Penrose, having made up your mind to have a rosary, cause garden line and shovel to be set in that side lawn of yours without hesitation. Do not wait until autumn, because you cannot plant the hardy roses until then and do not wish to contemplate bare ground. This sight is frequently wholesome and provocative of good horticultural digestion. You need only begin with one-half of Evan's plan, letting the pergola enclose the walk back of the house, and later on you can add the other wing. If the pergola itself is built during the summer, you can sit under it, and by going over your list and colour scheme locate each rose finally before its arrival. By the way, until the climbers are well started you may safely alternate them with vines of the white panicled clematis, that will be in bloom in August and can be easily kept from clutching its rose neighbours! By and by, when you have planted your roses, tucked them in their winter covers, and can sit down with a calm mind, I will lend you three precious rose books of mine. These are Dean Hole's _Book about Roses_, for both the wit and wisdom o't; _The Amateur Gardener's Rose Book_, rescued from the German by John Weathers, F.R.H.S., for its common sense, well-arranged list of roses, and beautiful coloured plates, and H.B. Ellwanger's little treatise on _The Rose_, a competent chronology of the flower queen up to 1901, written concisely and from the American standpoint. If I should send them now, you would be so bewildered by the enumeration of varieties, many unsuited to this climate, intoxicated by the descriptions of Rose-garden possibilities, and carried away by the literary and horticultural enthusiasm of the one-time master of the Deanery Garden, Rochester, that, like the child turned loose in the toy shop, you would lose the power of choosing. Lavinia Cortright lost nearly a year in beginning her rosary, owing to a similar condition of mind, and Evan and I long ago decided that when we read we cannot work, and _vice versa_, so when the Garden of Outdoors is abed and asleep each year, we enter the Garden of Books with fresh delight. Have you a man with quick wit and a straight eye to be the spade hand during the Garden Vacation? If not, make haste to find him, for, as you have had Barney for five years, he is probably too set in his ways to work at innovations cheerfully! VIII A MIDNIGHT ADVENTURE (Mary Penrose to Barbara Campbell) _June 21._ The rosary has been duly surveyed, staked according to the plan, and the border lines fixed with the garden line dipped in whitewash, so that if we only plant a bed at a time, our ambition will always be before us. But as yet no man cometh to dig. This process is of greater import than it may seem, because with the vigorous three-year-old sod thus obtained do we purpose to turf the edges of the beds for hardy and summer flowers that border the squares of the vegetable garden. These strips now crumble earth into the walks, and the slightest footfall is followed by a landslide. We had intended to use narrow boards for edging, but Bart objects, like the old retainer in Kipling's story of _An Habitation Enforced_, on the ground that they will deteriorate from the beginning and have to be renewed every few years, whereas the turf will improve, even if it is more trouble to care for. At present the necessity of permanence is one of the things that is impressing us both, for after us--the Infant! Until a year ago I had a positive dread of being so firmly fixed anywhere that to spread wings and fly here and there would be difficult, but now it seems the most delightful thing to be rooted like the old apple tree on the side hill, the last of the old orchard, that has leaned against the upland winds so many years that it is well-nigh bent double, yet the root anchors hold and it is still a thing of beauty, like rosy-cheeked old folk with snowy hair. I do not think that I ever realized this in its fulness until I left the house and came out, though but a short way, to live with and in it all. You were right in thinking that Barney would not encourage innovations,--he does not! He says that turf lifted in summer always lies uneasy and breeds worms. This seems to be an age for the defiance of horticultural tradition, for we are finding out every day that you can "lift" almost anything of herbaceous growth at any time and make it live, if you are willing to take pains enough, though of course transplanting is done with less trouble and risk at the prescribed seasons. The man-with-the-shovel question is quite a serious one hereabouts at present, for the Water Company has engaged all the rough-and-ready labourers for a long season and that has raised both the prices and the noses of the wandering accommodators in the air. Something will probably turn up. Now we are transplanting hardy ferns; for though the tender tops break, there is yet plenty of time for a second growth and rooting before winter. [Illustration: THE LAST OF THE OLD ORCHARD. Copyright, 1903, H. Hendrickson.] Meanwhile there is a leisurely old carpenter who recently turned up as heir of the Opal Farm, Amos Opie by name, who is thinking of living there, and has signified his willingness to undertake the pergola by hour's work, "if he is not hustled," as soon as the posts arrive. The past ten days have been full of marvellous discoveries for the "peculiar Penroses," as Maria Maxwell heard us called down at the Golf Club, where she represented me at the mid-June tea, which I had wholly forgotten that I had promised to manage when I sent out those P.P.C. cards and stopped the clocks! It seems that the first impression was that financial disaster had overtaken us, when instead of vanishing in a touring car preceded by tooting and followed by a cloud of oil-soaked steam, we took to our own woods, followed by Barney with our effects in a wheelbarrow. It is a very curious fact--this attributing of every action a bit out of the common to the stress of pocket hunger. It certainly proves that advanced as we are supposed to be to-day as links in the evolutionary chain, we have partially relapsed and certainly show strong evidences of sheep ancestry. Haven't you noticed, Mrs. Evan, how seldom people are content to accept one's individual tastes or desire to do a thing without a good and sufficient reason therefor? It seems incomprehensible to them that any one should wish to do differently from his neighbour unless from financial incapacity; the frequency with which one is suspected of being in this condition strongly points to the likelihood that the critics themselves chronically live beyond their means and in constant danger of collapse. If this was thought of us a few weeks ago, it seems to have been sidetracked by Maria Maxwell's contribution to, and management of, the golf tea. She is said not only to have compounded viands that are ordinarily sold in exchange for many dollars by New York confectioners, but she certainly made more than a presentable appearance as "matron" of the receiving committee of young girls. Certainly Maria with a music roll, a plain dark suit, every hair tethered fast, and common-sense shoes, plodding about her vocation in snow and mud, and Maria "let loose," as Bart calls it, are a decided contrast. Except that she has not parted with her sunny common-sense, she is quite a new person. Of course I could not have objected to it, but I was afraid that she might take it into her head to instruct the Infant in vocal music after the manner of the locustlike sounds that you hear coming over the lowered tops of school windows as soon as the weather grows warm, or else take to practising scales herself, for we had only known the technical part of her calling. In short, we feared that we should be do-re-mi-ou'd past endurance. Instead of which, scraps of the gayest of ballads float over the knoll in the evening, and the Infant's little shrill pipe is being inoculated with real music, _via_ Mother Goose melodies sung in a delightfully subdued contralto. From the third day after her arrival people began to call upon Maria. I made such a positive declaration of surrender of all matters pertaining to the household, including curiosity, when Maria took charge,--and she in return promised that we should not be bothered with anything not "of vital importance to our interests,"--that, unless she runs through the housekeeping money before the time, I haven't a ghost of an excuse for asking questions,--but I do wonder how she manages! Also, to whom the shadows belong that cross the south piazza at night or intercept the rays of the dining-room lamp, our home beacon of dark nights. In addition to the usual and convenient modern shirt-waist-and-skirt endowment, Maria had when she came but two gowns, one of black muslin and the other white, with improvised hats to match,--simple, graceful gowns, yet oversombre. But lo! she has blossomed forth like a spring seed catalogue, and Bart insists that I watched the gate with his field-glass an hour the afternoon of the tea, to see her go out. I did no such thing; I was looking at an oriole's nest that hangs in the elm over the road, but I could not help seeing the lovely pink flower hat that she wore atilt, with just enough pink at the neck and streamers at the waist of her dress to harmonize. I visited the larder that evening for supper supplies,--yes, we have become so addicted to the freedom of outdoors that for the last few days Bart has brought even the dinner up to camp, waiting upon me beautifully, for now we have entirely outgrown the feeling of the first few days that we were taking part in a comedy, and have found ourselves, as it were--in some ways, I think, for the first time. Anastasia seemed consumed with a desire for a dish of gossip, but was not willing to take the initiative. She chuckled to herself and tried several perfectly transparent ways of attracting my attention, until I took pity on her, a very one-sided pity too, for, between ourselves, Anastasia is the domestic salt and pepper that gives the Garden Vacation a flavour that I should sadly miss. "Miss Marie," she exclaimed, "do be the tastiest creaytur ever I set me eyes on." (She refused absolutely to call her Maria; that name, she holds, is only fit for a settled old maid, "and that same it's not sure and fair to mark any woman wid being this side the grave.") Then I knew that I only had to sit down and raise my eyes to Anastasia's face in an attitude of attention, to open the word gates, and this I did. "Well, fust off win she got the invite ter sing at the swarry that tops off the day's doings down to that Golf Club, she was that worried about hats you never seen the like! She wus over ter Bridgeton, and Barney swore he drove her ter every milliner in the place, and says she ter me, pleasant like, that evenin', when returned, in excuse fer havin' nothin' to show, 'Oh, Annie, Annie, it would break yer heart to see the little whisp of flowers they ask five dollars for; to fix me hats a trifle would part me from a tin-dollar bill!'" (The sentiments I at once perceived might be Maria's, but their translation Anastasia's.) "Now Miss Marie, she's savin' like,--not through meanness, but because she's got the good Irish heart that boils against payin' rint, and she's hoardin' crown by shillin' till she kin buy her a cabin and to say a pertaty patch for a garden, somewhere out where it's green! Faith! but she'll do it too; she's a manager! Yez had orter see the illigant boned turkey she made out o' veal, stuck through with shrivelled black ground apples, she called 'puffles'! an glued it up foine wid jelly. Sez I, 'They'll never know the difference,' but off she goes and lets it out and tells the makin' uv it ter every woman on the hill,--that's all I hev agin her. She's got a disease o' truth-telling when there's no need that would anguish the saints o' Hiven theirselves! "'I kin make better 'n naturaler-lookin' hats fer nothin', here at home, than they keep in N' York,' she says after looking out the back window a piece. 'And who'll help yer?' says I, 'and where'll yer git the posies and what all?' "'I bought some bolts o' ribbon to-day,' says she, smilin'; 'and fer the rest, the garden, you, and I will manage it together, if you'll lend me a shelf all to meself in the cold closet whenever I need it!' Sure fer a moment I wuz oneasy, fer I thought a wild streak run branchin' through all the boss's family!" (At the words Garden, You, and I, there flashed through me the thought of some telepathic influence at work.) "'The garden's full o' growin' posies that outshames the flower-makers; watch out and see, Anastasia!' "Well and I did!! This mornin' early she picks a lot o' them sticky pink flowers by the stoop, the colour o' chiny shells, wid spokes in them like umbrellas, and the thick green leaves, and after leavin' 'em in water a spell, puts 'em in me cold closet, a small bit o' wet moss tied to each stem end wid green sewin' silk! A piece after dinner out she comes wid the hat that's covered with strong white lace, and she cocks it this way and pinches it that and sews the flowers to it quick wid a big thread and a great splashin' bow on behind, and into the cold box agin! "'That's fer this afternoon,' says she, and before she wore it off (a hat that Eve, mother o' sin, and us all would envy), she'd another ready for the night! 'Will it spoil now and give yer away, I wonder?' says I, anxious like. "'Not fer two hours, at least; and it'll keep me from stayin' too long; if I do, it'll wither away and leave me all forlorn, like Cinderella and her pumpkin coach!' she said a-smilin' kind uv to herself in me kitchen mirror, when she put the hat on. 'But I'm not insultin' God's flowers tryin' to pass them off for French ones, Annie,' says she. 'I'm settin' a new garden fashion; let them follow who will!' and away wid her! That same other is in here now, and it's no sin to let yer peep, gin it's ye own posies and ye chest they're in." So, throwing open the door Anastasia revealed the slate shelf covered by a sheet of white paper, while resting on an empty pickle jar, for a support, was the second hat, of loosely woven black straw braid, an ornamental wire edging the brim that would allow it to take a dozen shapes at will. It was garlanded by a close-set wreath of crimson peonies grading down to blush, all in half bud except one full-blown beauty high in front and one under the brim set well against the hair, while covering the wire, caught firm and close, were glossy, fragrant leaves of the wild sweetbrier made into a vine. Ah, well, this is an unexpected development born of our experiment and a human sort of chronicle for The Garden, You, and I. One of the most puzzling things in this living out-of-doors on our own place is the reversal of our ordinary viewpoints. Never before did I realize how we look at the outdoor world from inside the house, where inanimate things force themselves into comparison. Now we are seeing from outside and looking in at ourselves, so to speak, very much like the robin, who has his third nest, lop-sided disaster having overtaken the other two, in the old white lilac tree over my window. Some of our doings, judged from the vantage point of the knoll, are very inconsistent. The spot occupied by the drying yard is the most suitable place for the new strawberry bed, and is in a direct line between the fence gap, where my fragrant things are to be, and the Rose Garden. Several of the walks that have been laid out according to the plan, when seen from this height, curve around nothing and reach nowhere. We shall presently satisfy their empty embraces with shrubs and locate various other conspicuous objects at the terminals. Also, the house is kept too much shut up; it looks inhospitable, seen through the trees, with branches always tossing wide to the breeze and sun. Even if a room is unoccupied by people, it is no reason why the sun should be barred out, and at best we ourselves surely spend too much time in our houses in the season when every tree is a roof. We have decided not to move indoors again this summer, but to lodge here in the time between vacations and to annex the Infant. Oh, Mrs. Evan, dear! there is one thing in which _The Man from Everywhere_ reckoned without his host! Stopping the clocks when we went in camp did not dislodge Time from the premises; rather did it open the door to his entrance hours earlier than usual, when one of the chiefest luxuries we promised ourselves was late sleeping. Stretched on our wire-springed, downy cots (there is positively no virtue in sleeping on hard beds, and Bart considers it an absolute vice), there is a delicious period before sleep comes. Bats flit about the rafters, and an occasional swallow twitters and shifts among the beams as the particular nest it guarded grew high and difficult to mount from the growth of the lusty brood within. The scuffle of little feet over the rough floor brings indolent, half-indifferent guessing as to which of the lesser four-foots they belonged. The whippoorwills down in the river woods call until they drop off, one by one, and the timid ditty of a singing mouse that lives under the floor by my cot is the last message the sandman sends to close our eyes before sleep. And such sleep! That first steel-blue starlit night in the open we said that we meant to sleep and sleep it out, even if we lost a whole day by it. It seemed but a moment after sleep had claimed us, when, struggling through the heavy darkness, came far-away light strands groping for our eyes, and soft, half-uttered music questioning the ear. Returning I opened my eyes, and there was the sun struggling slowly through the screen of white birches in Opie's wood lot, and scattering the night mists that bound down the Opal Farm with heavy strands; the air was tense with flitting wings, bird music rose, fell, and drifted with the mist, and it was only half-past four! You cannot kill time, you see, by stopping clocks--with nature day _Is_, beyond all dispute. In two days, by obeying instead of opposing natural sun time, we had swung half round the clock, only now and then imitating the habits of our four-footed brothers that steal abroad in the security of twilight. [Illustration: THE SCREEN OF WHITE BIRCHES. Copyright, 1901, H. Hendrickson.] _June 24._ Amos Opie, the carpenter, owner of Opal Farm, is now keeping widower's hall in the summer kitchen thereof. A thin thread of smoke comes idly from the chimney of the lean-to in the early morning, and at evening the old man sits in the well-house porch reading his paper so long as the light lasts, a hound of the ancient blue-spotted variety, with heavy black and tan markings, keeping him company. These two figures give the finishing touch to the picture that lies beyond us as we look from the sheltered corner of the camp, and strangely enough, though old Opie is not of the direct line and has never lived in this part of New England before, he goes about with a sort of half-reminiscent air, as if picking up a clew long lost, while Dave, the hound, at once assumed proprietary rights and shows an uncanny wisdom about the well-nigh fenceless boundaries. After his master has gone to bed, Dave will often come over to visit us, after the calm fashion of a neighbour who esteems it a duty. At least that was his attitude at first; but after a while, when I had told him what a fine, melancholy face he had, that it was a mistake not to have christened him Hamlet, and that altogether he was a good fellow, following up the conversation with a comforting plate of meat scraps (Opie being evidently a vegetarian), Dave began to develop a more youthful disposition. A week ago Bart's long-promised, red setter pup arrived, a spirit of mischief on four clumsy legs. Hardly had I taken him from his box (I wished to be the one to "first foot" him from captivity into the family, for that is a courtesy a dog never forgets) when we saw that Dave was sitting just outside the doorless threshold watching solemnly. The puppy, with a gleeful bark, licked the veteran on the nose, whereat the expression of his face changed from one of uncertainty to a smile of indulgent if mature pleasure, and now he takes his young friend on a daily ramble down the pasture through the bit of marshy ground to the river, always bringing him back within a reasonable length of time, with an air of pride. Evidently the hound was lonely. _The Man from Everywhere_, who prowls about even more than usual, using Bart's den for his own meanwhile, says that the setter will be ruined, for the hound will be sure to trail him on fox and rabbit, and that in consequence he will never after keep true to birds, but somehow we do not care, this dog-friendship between the stranger and the pup is so interesting. By the way, we have financially persuaded Opie to leave his straggling meadow, that carpets our vista to the river, for a wild garden this summer, instead of selling it as "standing grass," which the purchasers had usually mown carelessly and tossed into poor-grade hay, giving a pittance in exchange that went for taxes. So many flowers and vines have sprung up under shelter of the tumble-down fences that I was very anxious to see what pictures would paint themselves if the canvas, colour, and brushes were left free for the season through. Already we have had our money's worth, so that everything beyond will be an extra dividend. The bit of marshy ground has been for weeks a lake of iris, its curving brink foamed with meadow rue and Osmundas that have all the dignity of palms. Now all the pasture edge is set with wild roses and wax-white blueberry flowers. Sundrops are grouped here and there, with yellow thistles; the native sweetbrier arches over gray boulders that are tumbled together like the relic of some old dwelling; and the purple red calopogon of the orchid tribe adds a new colour to the tapestry, the cross-stitch filling being all of field daisies. Truly this old farm is a well-nigh perfect wild garden, the strawberries dyeing the undergrass red, and the hedges bound together with grape-vines. It does not need rescuing, but letting alone, to be the delight of every one who wishes to enjoy. On being approached as to his future plans, Amos Opie merely sets his lips, brings his finger-tips together, and says, "I'm open to offers, but I'm not bound to set a price or hurry my decisions." Meanwhile I am living in a double tremor, of delight at the present and fear lest some one may snap up the place and give us what the comic paper called a Queen Mary Anne cottage and a stiff lawn surrounded by a gas-pipe fence to gaze upon. O for a pair of neighbours who would join us in comfortable vagabondage, leave the white birches to frame the meadows and the wild flowers in the grass! _June 25._ We have been having some astonishing thunder-storms of nights lately, and I must say that upon one occasion I fled to the house. Two nights ago, however, the sun set in an even sky of lead, there was no wind, no grumblings of thunder. We had passed a very active day and finished placing the stakes on the knoll in the locations to be occupied by shrubs and trees, all numbered according to the tagged specimens over in the reservoir woods. _The Man from Everywhere_ suggested this system, an adaptation, he says, from the usual one of numbering stones for a bit of masonry. It will prevent confusion, for the perspective will be different when the leaves have fallen, and as we lift the bushes, each one will go to its place, and we shall not lose a year's growth, or perhaps the shrub itself, by a second moving. Our one serious handicap is the lack of a pair of extra hands, in this work as in the making of the rose bed, for our transplanting has developed upon a wholesale plan. Barney does not approve of our passion for the wild; besides, between potatoes and corn to hoe, celery seedlings to have their first transplanting, vegetables to pick, turf grass to mow, and edges to keep trim, with a horse and cow to tend in addition, nothing more can be expected of him. I was half dozing, half listening, as usual, to the various little night sounds that constantly pique my curiosity, for no matter how long you may have lived in the country you are not wholly in touch with it until you have slept at least a few nights in the open,--when rain began to fall softly, an even, persevering, growing rain, entirely different from the lashing thunder-showers, and though making but half the fuss, was doubly penetrating. Thinking how good it was for the ferns, and venturing remarks to Bart about them, which, however, fell on sleep-deaf ears, I made sure that the pup was in his chosen place by my cot and drifted away to shadow land, glad that something more substantial than boughs covered me! I do not know how long it was before I wakened, but the first sound that formulated itself was the baying of Dave, the hound, from the well-house porch, where he slept when his evening rambles kept him out until after Amos Opie had gone to bed. Having freed his mind, Dave presently stopped, but other nearer-by sounds made me again on the alert. The rain, that was falling with increasing power, held one key; the drip from the eaves and the irregular gush from a broken waterspout played separate tunes. I am well used to the night-time bravado of mice, who fight duels and sometimes pull shoes about, of the pranks of squirrels and other little wood beasts about the floor, but the noise that made me sit up in the cot and reach over until I could clutch Bart by the arm belonged to neither of these. There was a swishing sound, as of water being wrung from something and dropping on the floor, and then a human exclamation, blended of a sigh, a wheeze, and a cough, at which the pup wakened with a growl entirely out of proportion to his age and inexperience. "I wonder, now, is that a dog or only uts growl ter sind me back in the wet fer luv av the laugh at me?" chirped a voice as hoarse as a buttery brogue would allow it to be. My clutch had brought Bart to himself instantly, and at the words he turned the electric flashlight, that lodged under his pillow, full in the direction of the sound, where it developed a strange picture and printed it clearly on the opposite wall. In the middle of the circle of light was a little barefoot man, in trousers and shirt; a pair of sodden shoes lay at different angles where they had been kicked off, probably making the sound that had wakened me, and at the moment of the flash he was occupied in the wringing out of a coat that seemed strangely long for the short frame upon which it had hung. The face turned toward us was unmistakably Irish, comical even, entirely unalarming, and with the expression, blended of terror and doubt, that it now wore, he might have slipped from the pages of a volume of Lever that lay face down on the table. The nose turned up at the tip, as if asking questions of the eyes, that hid themselves between the half-shut lids in order to avoid answering. The skin was tanned, and yet you had a certain conviction that minus the tan the man would be very pale, while the iron-gray hair that topped the head crept down to form small mutton-chop whiskers and an Old Country throat thatch that was barely half an inch long. Bart touched me to caution silence, and I, seeing at once that there was nothing to fear, waited developments. As soon as he could keep his eyes open against the sudden glare, the little man tried to grasp the column of light in his fingers, then darted out of it, and I thought he had bolted from the barn; but no, he was instantly back again, and dilapidated as he was, he did not look like a professional tramp. "No, yez don't fool Larry McManus agin! Yez are a mane, cold light with all yer blinkin', and no fire beneath to give 'im the good uv a cup o' tay or put a warm heart in 'im! Two nights agone 'twas suspicion o' rats kep' me from shlapin', yesternight 'twas thought o' what wud become of poor Oireland (Mary rest her) had we schnakes there ter fill the drames o' nights loike they do here whin a man's a drap o'er full o' comfort. 'Tis a good roof above! Heth, thin, had I a whisp o' straw and a bite, wid this moonlight fer company, I'd not shog from out this the night to be King! "Saints! but there's a dog beyant the bark!" he cried a minute after, as the pup crept over to him and began to be friendly,--"I wonder is a mon sinsible to go to trustin' the loight o' any moon that shines full on a pitch-black noight whin 'tis rainin'? Och hone! but me stomach's that empty, gin I don't put on me shoes me lungs'll lake trou the soles o' me fate, and gin I do, me shoes they're that sopped, I'll cough them up--o-whurra-r-a! whurra-a! but will I iver see Old Oireland agin,--I don't know!" Bart shut off the light, slipped on his shoes, and drawing a coat over his pajamas lighted the oil stable lantern, hung it with its back toward me, on a long hook that reached down from one of the rafters, and bore down upon Larry, whose face was instantly wreathed in puckered smiles at the sight of a fellow-human who, though big, evidently had no intention of being aggressive. "Well, Larry McManus," said Bart, cheerfully, "how came you in this barn so far away from Oireland a night like this?" "Seein' as yer another gintleman o' the road in the same ploice, what more loike than the misfortune's the same?" replied he, lengthening his lower lip and stretching his stubby chin, which he scratched cautiously. Then, as he raised his eyes to Bart's, he evidently read something in his general air, touselled and tanned as he was, that shifted his opinion at least one notch. "Maybe, sor, you're an actor mon, sor, that didn't suit the folks in the town beyant, sor, but I'd take it as praise, so I would, for shure they're but pigs there,--I couldn't stop wid thim meself! Thin agin, mayhap yer jest a plain gintleman, a bit belated, as it were,--a little belated on the way home, sor,--loike me, sor, that wus moinded to be in Kildare, sor, come May-day, and blessed Peter's day's nigh come about an' I'm here yit!" "You are getting on the right scent, Larry," said Bart, struggling with laughter, and yet, as he said after, not wishing possibly to huff this curious person. "I hope I'm a gentleman, but I'm not tramping about; this is my barn, in which my wife and I are sleeping, so if I were you, I wouldn't take off that shirt until I can find you a dry one!" The change that came over the man was comical. In a lightning flash he had fastened the few buttons in his blouse that it had taken his fumbling fingers several moments to unloose, and dropping one hand to his side, he held it there rigid as he saluted with two fingers at the brim of an imaginary hat; while his roving eye quickly took in the various motley articles of furniture of our camp,--a small kitchen table with oil-stove and tea outfit of plain white ware, some plates and bowls, a few saucepans, half a dozen chairs, no two alike, and the two cots huddled in the shadows,--his voice, that had been pitched in a confidential key, arose to a wail:-- "The Saints luv yer honor, but do they be afther havin' bad landlords in Meriky too, that evicted yer honor from yer house, sor? I thought here nigh every poor body owned their own bit, ground and roof, sor, let alone a foine man loike yerself that shows the breedin' down to his tin toes, sor. Oi feel fer yer honor, fer there wuz I meself set out wid pig and cow both, sor (for thim bein' given Kathy by her aunt fer her fortin could not be took), six years ago Patrick's tide, sor, and hadn't she married Mulqueen that same week, sor (he bein' gardener a long time to his Riverence over in England, sor, and meetin' Kathy only at his mother's wakin'), I'd maybe been lodged in a barn meself, sor! Sure, hev ye the cow below ud let me down a drap o' milk?" Then did Bart laugh long and heartily, for this new point of view in regard to our doings amused him immensely. Of all the local motives attributed to our garden vacation, none had been quite so naïve and unexpected as this! "But we haven't been evicted," said Bart, unconsciously beginning to apologize to an unknown straggler. "I own this place and my home is yonder; we are camping here for our health and pleasure. Come, it's time you gave an account of yourself, as you are trespassing." That the situation suddenly began to annoy Bart was plain. Ignoring the tail of the speech, Larry saluted anew: "Sure, sor, I knew ye at first fer gintleman and leddy, which this same last proves; a rale gintleman and his leddy can cut about doin' the loikes of which poor folks ud be damned fer! I mind well how Lord Kilmartin's youngest--she wid the wild red hair an' eyes that wud shame a doe--used to go barefoot through the dew down to Biddie Macks's cabin to drink fresh buttermilk, whin they turned gallons o' it from their own dairy. Some said, underbreath, she was touched, and some wild loike, but none spoke loud but to wish her speed, fer that's what it is to be a leddy! "Meself, is it? Och, it's soon told. Six years lived I there wid Kathy and Mulqueen, workin' in the garden, he keepin' before me, until one day his Riverence come face agin me thruble. Oh, yis, sor, that same, that bit sup that's too much for the stomick, sor, and so gets into the toes and tongue, sor! Four times a year the spell's put on me, sor, and gin I shlape it over, I'm a good man in between, sor, but that one time, sor, Mulqueen was sint to Lunnon, sor, and I missed me shlape fer mischief. "Well, thinks I, I'll go to Meriky and see me Johnny, me youngest; most loike they're more used to the shlapin' spells out there where all is free; but they wasn't! Johnny's a sheriff and got money wid his woman, and she's no place in her house fit fer the old man resting the drap off. So he gives me money to go home first class, and says he'll sind another bit along to Kathy fer me keepin'. "This was come Easter, and bad cess, one o' me shlapes was due, and so I've footed it to get a job to take me back to Kathy. If I could strike a port just right, Hiven might get me home between times in a cattle boat. "I'm that well risted now I could do good work if I had full feed, maybe till Michaelmas. Hiven rest ye, sor, but have ye ever a job o' garden work now on yer estate, sor, that would kape me until I got the bit to cross to Kathy?" As Bart hesitated, I burst forth, "Have you ever tended flowers, Larry?" "Flowers, me leddy?--that's what I did fer his Riverence, indoors and out, and dressed them fer the shows, mem, and not few's the prize money we took. His Riverence, he called a rose for Kathy, that is to say Kathleen; 'twas that big 'twould hide yer face. Flowers, is it? Well, I don't know!" Bart, meanwhile, had made a plan, telling Larry that he would draw a cup of tea and give him something to eat, while he thought the matter over. He soon had the poor fellow wrapped in an old blanket and snoring comfortably in the straw, while, as the rain had stopped and dawn began to show the outlines of Opal Farm, Bart suggested that I had best go indoors and finish my broken sleep, while he had a chance to scrutinize Larry by daylight before committing himself. When he rejoined me several hours later for an indoor breakfast, for it had turned to rain again and promised several days of the saturate weather that makes even a mountain camp utterly dreary, he brought me the news that Larry was to work for me especially, beginning on the rose bed,--that he would lodge with Amos Opie and take his meals with Anastasia, who thinks it likely that they are cousins on the mothers' side, as they are both of the same parish and name. The _exact_ way of our meeting with him need not be dwelt upon domestically, for the sake of discipline, as he will have more self-respect among his fellows in the combination clothes we provided, "until his baggage arrives." He is to be paid no money, and allowed to "shlape" if a spell unhappily arrives. When the season is over, Bart agrees to see him on board ship with a prepaid passage straight to Kathy, and whatever else is his due sent to her! Meanwhile he promised to "fit the leddy with the tastiest garden off the old sod!" So here we are! This chronicle should have a penny-dreadful title, "Their Midnight Adventure, or How it Rained a Rose Gardener!" Tell me about the ferns next time; we have only moved the glossy Christmas and evergreen-crested wood ferns as yet, being sure of these. How about our fencing? Ask Evan. You remember that we have a picket-fence toward the road, but on three sides the boundary is only a tumble-down stone wall in which bird cherries have here and there found footing. We have a chance to sell the stones, and Bart is thinking of it, as it will be too costly to rebuild on a good foundation. The old wall was merely a rough-laid pile. IX FERNS, FENCES, AND WHITE BIRCHES (Barbara Campbell to Mary Penrose) _Hemlock Hills, July 3._ For nearly a week we have been sauntering through this most entrancing hill country, practically a pedestrian trip, except that the feet that have taken the steps have been shod with steel instead of leather. Your last chronicle has followed me, and was read in a region so pervaded by ferns that your questions concerning their transplanting would have answered themselves if you could have only perched on the rock beside me. There is a fern-lined ravine below, a fern-bordered road in front; and above a log cottage, set in a clearing in the hemlocks which has for its boundaries the tumble-down fence piled by the settlers a century or two ago, its crevices now filled by leaf-mould, has become at once a natural fernery and a barrier. Why do you not use your old wall in a like manner? Of course your stones may be too closely piled and lack the time-gathered leaf-mould, but a little discretion in removing or tipping a stone here and there, and a crowbar for making pockets, would work wonders. You might even exchange the surplus rocks for leaf-mould, load by load; at any rate large quantities of fern soil must be obtainable for the carting at the reservoir woods. Imagine the effect, if you please, of that irregular line of rocks swathed in vines and sheltering great clumps of ferns, while it will afford an endless shelter for every sort of wild thing that you may pick up in your rambles. Of course you need not plant it all at once, but having made the plan, develop it at leisure. You should never quite finish a country place unless you expect to leave it. The something more in garden life is the bale of hay before the horse's nose on the uphill road. Last year, for almost a week, we thought our garden quite as finished as the material and surroundings would allow,--it was a strange, dismal, hollow sort of feeling. However, it was soon displaced by the desire that I have to collect my best roses in one spot, add to them, and gradually form a rosary where the Garden Queen and all her family may have the best of air, food, and lodgings. You see I feared that the knoll, hardy beds, and rose garden were not sufficient food for your mind to ruminate, so I add the fern fence as a sort of dessert! [Illustration: AN ENDLESS SHELTER FOR EVERY SORT OF WILD THING.] "Where is the shade that ferns need?" I hear you ask, "for except under some old apple trees and where the bird cherries grow (and they, though beautiful at blooming time and leaf fall, attract tent caterpillars), the stone wall lies in the sun!" Yes, but in one of the woodland homes of this region I have seen a screen placed by such a rustic stone fence that it not only served the purpose of giving light shade, but was a thing of beauty in itself, dividing the vista into many landscapes, the frame being long or upright according to the planter's fancy. Do you remember the old saying "When away keep open thine eyes, and so pack thy trunk for the home-going?" On this drive of ours I've been cramming my trunk to overflowing, and yet the ideas are often the simplest possible, for the people of this region, with more inventive art than money, have the perfect gift of adapting that which lies nearest to hand. You spoke in your last chronicle of the screen of white birches through which you saw the sun rise over the meadows of Opal Farm. This birch springs up in waste lands almost everywhere. We have it in abundance in the wood lot on the side of our hill, and it is scattered through the wet woods below our wild walk, showing that all it needs is a foothold. Because it is common and the wood rather weak and soft, landscape gardening has rather passed it by, turning a cold shoulder, yet the slender tree is very beautiful. True, it has not the length of life, the girth and strength of limb, of the silver-barked canoe birch, but the white birch will grow in a climate that fevers its northern cousin. In spite of its delicate qualities, it is not a trivial tree, for I have seen it with a bole of more than forty feet in length, measuring eighteen inches through at the ground. When you set it, you are not planting for posterity, perhaps, but will gain a speedy result; and the fertility of the tree, when once established, will take care of the future. What is more charming after a summer shower than a natural cluster of these picturesque birches, as they often chance to group themselves in threes, like the Graces--the soft white of the trunks, with dark hieroglyphic shadows here and there disappearing in a drapery of glossy leaves, green above and reflecting the bark colour underneath, all a-quiver and more like live things poised upon the russet twigs than delicate pointed leaves! Then, when the autumn comes, how they stand out in company with cedar bushes and sheep laurel on the hillsides to make beautiful the winter garden, and we stand in mute admiration when these white birches reach from a snowbank and pencil their frosty tracery against a wall of hemlocks. This is the simple material that has been used with such wonderful effect. In the gardens hereabout they have flanked their alleys with the birches, for even when fully grown their habit is more poplar-like than spreading, and many plants, like lilies, requiring partial shade flourish under them; while for fences and screens the trees are planted in small groups, with either stones and ferns, or shrubs set thick between, and the most beautiful winter fence that Evan says he has ever seen in all his wanderings amid costly beauty was when, last winter, in being here to measure for some plans, he came suddenly upon an informal boundary and screen combined, over fifty feet in length, made of white birches,--the groups of twos and threes set eight or ten feet apart, the gaps being filled by Japanese barberries laden with their scarlet fruit. Even now this same screen is beautiful enough with its shaded greens, while the barberries in their blooming time, and the crimson leaf glow of autumn, give it four distinct seasons. The branches of the white birch being small and thickly set, they may be trimmed at will, and windows thus opened here and there without the look of artifice or stiffness. Fences are always a moot question to the gardener, for if she has a pleasant neighbour, she does not like to raise an aggressive barrier or perhaps cut off the view, yet to a certain extent I like being walled in at least on two sides. A total lack of boundaries is too impersonal,--the eye travels on and on: there is nothing to rest it by comparison. Also, where there are no fences or hedges,--and what are hedges but living fences,--there is nothing to break the ground draught in winter and early springtime. The ocean is much more beautiful and full of meaning when brought in contact with a slender bit of coast. The moon has far more majesty when but distancing the tree-tops than when rolling apparently at random through an empty sky. A vast estate may well boast of wide sweeps and open places, but the same effect is not gained, present fashion to the contrary, by throwing down the barriers between a dozen homes occupying only half as many acres. Preferable is the cosey English walled villa of the middle class, even though it be a bit stuffy and suggestive of earwigs. The question should not be to fence or not to fence, but rather _how_ to fence usefully and artistically, and any one who has an old stone wall, such as you have, moss grown and tumble-down, with the beginnings of wildness already achieved, has no excuse for failure. We have seen other fences here where bushes, wire, and vines all take part, but they cannot compete with an old wall. With ferns, a topic opens as long and broad and deep as the glen below us, and of almost as uncertain climbing, for it is not so much what ferns may be dug up and, as individual plants, continue to grow in new surroundings, but how much of their haunt may be transplanted with them, that the fern may keep its characteristics. Many people do not think of this, nor would they care if reminded. Water lilies, floating among their pads in the still margin of a stream, with jewelled dragon-flies darting over, soft clouds above and the odour of wild grapes or swamp azalea wafting from the banks, are no more to them than half a dozen such lilies grown in a sunken tub or whitewashed basin in a backyard; rather are they less desirable because less easily controlled and encompassed. Such people, and they are not a few, belong to the tribe of Peter Bell, who saw nothing more in the primrose by the river's brim than that it was a primrose, and consequently yellow. Doubtless it would have looked precisely the same to him, or even more yellow, if it had bloomed in a tin can! We do not treat our native ferns with sufficient respect. Homage is paid in literature to the palm, and it is an emblem of honour, but our New England ferns, many of them equally majestic, are tossed into heaps for hay and mown down by the ruthless scythe of the farmer every autumn when he shows his greatest agricultural energy by stripping the waysides of their beauty prior to the coming of the roadmender with his awful "turn-piking" process. If, by the way, the automobilists succeed in stopping this piking practice, we will print a nice little prayer for them and send it to Saint Peter, so that, though it won't help them in this world,--that would be dangerous,--it will by and by! In the woods the farmer allows the ferns to stand, for are they not one of the usual attributes of a picnic? Stuck in the horses' bridle, they keep off flies; they serve to deck the tablecloth upon which the food is spread; gathered in armfuls, they somewhat ease the contact of the rheumatic with the rocks, upon which they must often sit on such occasions. They provide the young folks with a motive to seek something further in the woods, and give the acquisitive ladies who "press things" much loot to take home, and all without cost. This may not be respectful treatment, but it is not martyrdom; the fern is a generous plant, a thing of wiry root-stock and prehistoric tenacity; it has not forgotten that tree ferns are among its ancestors; when it is discouraged, it rests and grows again. But imagine the feelings of a mat of exquisite maidenhair rent from a shady slope with moss and partridge vine at its feet, and quivering elusive woodland shade above, on finding itself unceremoniously crowded into a bed, between cannas or red geraniums! Or fancy the despair of either of the wide-spreading Osmundas, lovers of stream borders opulent with leaf-mould, or wood hollows deep with moist richness, on finding themselves ranged in a row about the porch of a summer cottage, each one tied firmly to a stake like so many green parasols stuck in the dry loam point downward! It is not so much a question of how many species of native ferns can be domesticated, for given sufficient time and patience all things are possible, but how many varieties are either decorative, interesting, or useful away from their native haunts. For any one taking what may be called a botanical interest in ferns, a semi-artificial rockery, with one end in wet ground and the other reaching dry-wood conditions, is extremely interesting. In such a place, by obtaining some of the earth with each specimen and tagging it carefully, an out-of-door herbarium may be formed and something added to it every time an excursion is made into a new region. Otherwise the ferns that are worth the trouble of transplanting and supplying with soil akin to that from which they came, are comparatively few. Of decorative species the Osmundas easily lead; being natives of swampy or at least moist ground, they should have a like situation, and yet so strong are their roots and crown of leaves that they will flourish for years after the moisture that has fed them has been drained and the shading overgrowth cut away, even though dwarfed in growth and coarsened in texture. Thus people seeing them growing under these conditions in open fields and roadside banks mistake their necessities. The Royal fern (_Osmunda regalis_) positively demands moisture; it will waive the matter of shade in a great degree, but water it must have. The Cinnamon fern, that encloses the spongelike, brown, fertile fronds in the circle of green ones, gains its greatest size of five feet in roadside runnels or in springy places between boulders in the river woods; yet so accommodating is it that you can use it at the base of your knoll if a convenient rock promises both reasonable dampness and shelter. The third of the family (_Osmunda Claytonia_) is known as the Interrupted fern, because in May the fertile black leaflets appear in the middle of the fronds and interrupt the even greenness. This fern will thrive in merely moist soil and is very charming early in the season, but like the other two, out of its haunts, cannot be relied upon after August. As a fern for deep soil, where walking room can be allowed it, the common brake, or bracken (_Pteris aquilina_) is unsurpassed. It will grow either in sandy woods or moist, and should have a certain amount of high shade, else its broad fronds, held high above the ground umbrella-wise, will curl, grow coarse, and lose the fernlike quality altogether. You can plant this safely in the bit of old orchard that you are giving over to wild asters, black-eyed Susan, and sundrops, but mind you, be sure to take both Larry and Barney, together with a long post-hole spade, when you go out to dig brakes,--they are not things of shallow superficial roots, I can assure you. A few years ago Evan, Timothy Saunders, and I went brake-hunting, I selecting the groups and the menkind digging great solid turfs a foot or more in depth, in order to be sure the things had native earth enough along to mother them into comfortable growth. Proudly we loaded the big box wagon, for we had taken so much black peat (as the soil happened to be) that not a root hung below and success was certain. When, on reaching home, in unloading, one turf fell from the cart and crumbled into fragments, to my dismay I found that the long, tough stalk ran quite through the clod and we had no roots at all, but that (if inanimate things can laugh) they were all laughing at us back in the meadow and probably another foot underground. Yet brakes are well worth the trouble of deep digging, for if once established, a waste bit, where little else will flourish, is given a graceful undergrowth that is able to stand erect even though the breeze plays with the little forest as it does with a field of grain. Then, too, the brake patch is a treasury to be drawn from when arranging tall flowers like foxgloves, larkspurs, hollyhocks, and others that have little foliage of their own. The fact that the brake does not mature its seeds that lie under the leaf margin until late summer also insures it a long season of sightliness, and when ripeness finally draws nigh, it comes in a series of beautiful mellow shades, varying from straw through deep gold to russet, such as the beech tree chooses for its autumn cloak. Another plant there is, a low-growing shrub, having long leaves with scalloped edges, giving a spicy odour when crushed or after rain, that I must beg you to plant with these brakes. It is called Sweet-fern, merely by courtesy, from its fernlike appearance, for it is of the bayberry family and first cousin to sweet gale and waxberry. The digging of this also is a process quite as elusive as mining for brakes; but when once it sets foot in your orchard, and it will enjoy the drier places, you will have a liberal annex to your bed of sweet odours, and it may worthily join lemon balm, mignonette, southernwood, and lavender in the house, though in the garden it would be rather too pushing a companion. Next, both decorative and useful, comes the Silvery Spleenwort, that is content with shade and good soil of any sort, so long as it is not rank with manure. It has a slender creeping root, but when it once takes hold, it flourishes mightily and after a year or so will wave silver-lined fronds three feet long proudly before you, a rival of Osmunda! A sister spleenwort is the beautiful Lady fern, whose lacelike fronds have party-coloured stems, varying from straw through pink and reddish to brown, giving an unusual touch of life and warmth to one of the cool green fern tribe. In autumn the entire leaf of this fern, in dying, oftentimes takes these same hues; it is decorative when growing and useful to blend with cut flowers. It naturally prefers woods, but will settle down comfortably in the angle of a house or under a fence, and will be a standby in your wall rockery. The ferns that seem really to prefer the open, one taking to dry and two to moist ground, are the hay-scented fern (_Dicksonia punctilobula_), the New York fern (_Dryopteris Noveboracencis_), and the Marsh Shield-fern. Dicksonia has a pretty leaf of fretwork, and will grow three feet in length, though it is usually much shorter. It is the fern universal here with us, it makes great swales running out from wood edges to pastures, and it rivals the bayberry in covering hillsides; it will grow in dense beds under tall laurels or rhododendrons, border your wild walk, or make a setting of cheerful light green to the stone wall; while if cut for house decoration, it keeps in condition for several days and almost rivals the Maidenhair as a combination with sweet peas or roses. The New York fern, when of low stature, is one of the many bits of growing carpet of rich cool woods. If it is grown in deep shade, the leaves become too long and spindling for beauty. When in moist ground, quite in the open, or in reflected shade, the fresh young leaves of a foot and under add great variety to the grass and are a perfect setting for table decorations of small flowers. We have these ferns all through the dell. If they are mown down in June, July sees a fresh crop, and their spring green is held perpetual until frost. The Marsh Shield-fern of gentian meadows is the perfect small fern for a bit of wet ground, and is the green to be used with all wild flowers of like places. One day last autumn I had a bouquet of grass-of-Parnassus, ladies' tresses, and gentian massed thickly with these ferns, and the posey lived for days on the sunny window shelf of the den (for gentians close their eyes in shade),--a bit of the September marshland brought indoors. The two Beech-ferns, the long and the broad, you may grow on the knoll; give the long the dampest spots, and place the broad where it is quite dry. As the rootstocks of both these are somewhat frail, I would advise you to peg them down with hairpins and cover well with earth. By the way, I always use wire hairpins to hold down creeping rootstocks of every kind; it keeps them from springing up and drying before the rootlets have a chance to grasp the soil. The roots of Maidenhair should always be treated in this way, as they dry out very quickly. This most distinctive of our New England ferns will grow between the rocks of your knoll, as well as in deep nooks in the fence. It seems to love rich side-hill woods and craves a rock behind its back, and if you are only careful about the soil, you can have miniature forests of it with little trouble. As for maidenhair, all its uses are beauty! Give me a bouquet of perfect wild rosebuds within a deep fringe of maidenhair to set in a crystal jar where I may watch the deep pink petals unfold and show the golden stars within; let me breathe their first breath of perfume, and you may keep all the greenhouse orchids that are grown. Though you can have a variety of ferns in other locations, those that will thrive best on the knoll and keep it ever green and in touch with laurel and hemlock, are but five,--the Christmas fern, the Marginal Shield-fern, the common Rock Polypody, the Ebony Spleenwort, and the Spinulose Wood-fern. Of the first pair it is impossible to have too many. The Christmas fern, with its glistening leaves of holly green, has a stout, creeping rootstock, which must be firmly secured, a few stones being added temporarily to the hairpins to give weight. The Evergreen Wood-fern and Ebony Spleenwort, having short rootstocks, can be tucked into sufficiently deep holes between rocks or in the hollows left by small decayed stumps, while the transplanting of the Rock Polypody is an act where luck, recklessness, and a pinch of magic must all be combined. You will find vast mats of these leathery little Polypodys growing with rock-selaginella on the great boulders of the river woods. As these are to be split up for masonry, the experiment of transferring the polypody is no sin, though it savours somewhat of the process of skin-grafting. Evan and I have tried the experiment successfully, so that it is no fable. We had a bit of shady bank at home that proved by the mosses that grew on it that it was moistened from beneath the year through. The protecting shade was of tall hickories, and a rock ledge some twenty feet high shielded it from the south and east. We scraped the moss from a circle of about six feet and loosened the surface of the earth only, and very carefully. Then we spread some moist leaf-mould on the rough but flat surface of a partly exposed rock. Going to a near-by bit of woods that was being despoiled, as in your valley, we chose two great mats of polypody and moss that had no piercing twigs to break the fabric, and carefully peeled them from the rocks, as you would bark from a tree, the matted rootstocks weaving all together. Moistening these thoroughly, we wrapped them in a horse blanket and hurried home. The earth and rock already prepared were sprinkled with water and the fern fabric applied and gently but firmly pressed down, that resting on the earth being held by the ever useful hairpin! The rock graft was more difficult, but after many failures by way of stones that rolled off, a coarse network of cords was put across and fastened to whatever twigs or roots came in the way. Naturally a period of constant sprinkling followed, and for that season the rock graft seemed decidedly homesick, but the next spring resignation had set in, and two years later the polypodys had completely adopted the new location and were prepared to appropriate the whole of it. So you see that there are comparatively only a few ferns, after all, that are of great value to The Garden, You, and I, and likewise there are but a few rules for their transplanting, viz.:-- Don't bother about the tops, for new ones will grow, but look to the roots, and do not let them be exposed to the air or become dry in travel. Examine the quality of soil from which you have taken the ferns, and if you have none like it nearer home, take some with you for a starter! Never dig up more on one day than you can plant during the next, and above all remember that if a fern is worth tramping the countryside for, it is worth careful planting, and that the moral remarks made about the care in setting out of roses apply with double force to the handling of delicate wild flowers and ferns. Good luck to your knoll, Mary Penrose, and to your fern fence, if that fancy pleases you. May the magic of fern seed fill your eyes and let you see visions, the goodly things of heart's desire, when, all being accomplished, you pause and look at the work of your hands. "And nimble fay and pranksome elf Flash vaguely past at every turn, Or, weird and wee, sits Puck himself, With legs akimbo, on a fern!" X FRANKNESS,--GARDENING AND OTHERWISE (Mary Penrose to Barbara Campbell) _July 15._--_Midsummer Night._ Since the month came in, vacation time has been suspended, insomuch that Bart goes to the office every day, Saturdays excepted; but we have not returned to our indoor bedroom. Once it seemed the definition of airy coolness, with its three wide windows, white matting, and muslin draperies, but now--I fully understand the relative feelings of a bird in a cage and a bird in the open. The air blows through the bars and the sun shines through them, but it is still a cage. In these warm, still nights we take down the slat screens that hang between the hand-hewn chestnut beams of the old barn, and with the open rafters of what was a hay-loft above us, we look out of the door-frame straight up at the stars and sometimes drag our cots out on the wide bank that tops the wall, overlooking the Opal Farm, and sleep wholly under the sky. These two weeks past we have had the Infant with us at night, clad in a light woollen monkey-suit nighty with feet, her crib being, however, under cover. Her open-eyed wonder has been a new phase of the vacation. Knowing no fear, she has begun to develop a feeling of kinship with all the small animals, not only of the barn but dwellers on Opal Farm as well, and when she discovered a nest of small mice in an old tool-box under the eaves and proposed to take them, in their improvised house, to her very own room at the opposite end, this "room" being a square marked around her bed by small flower-pots, set upside down, I protested, as a matter of course, saying that mice were not things to handle, and besides they would die without their mother. The Infant, still clutching the box, looked at me in round-eyed wonder: "I had Dinah and the kittens to play with in the nursery, didn't I, mother?" "Certainly!" "And when Ann-stasia brought them up in her ap'n, Dinah walked behind, didn't she?" "Yes, I think so!" "Ver-r-y well, the mouse mother will walk behind too, and I love mice better'n cats, for they have nicer hands; 'sides, mother, don't you know who mice really and truly are, and why they have to hide away? They are the horses that fairlies drive, and I'm going to have these for the fairlies in my village!" making a sweep of her arm toward the encampment of flower-pots; "if you want fairlies to stay close beside your bed, you must give them horses to drive, 'cause when it gets cold weather cobwebs gets too sharp for them to ride on and there isn't always fireflies 'n candle worms to show 'em the way,--'n it's true, 'cause Larry says so!" she added, probably seeing the look of incredulity on my face. "Larry knows fairlies and they're really trulies; if you're bad to them, you'll see the road and it won't be there, and so you'll get into Hen'sy's bog! Larry did,--and if you make houses for them like mine (pointing to the flower-pots) and give 'em drinks of milk and flower wine, they'll bring you _lots_ of childrens! They did to Larry, so I'm trying to please 'em wif my houses, so's to have some to play wif!" Larry's harmless folklore (for when he is quite himself, as he is in these days, he has a certain refinement and an endless fund of marvellous legends and stories), birds and little beasts for friends, dolls cut from paper with pansies fastened on for faces, morning-glories for cups in which to give the fairies drink, what could make a more blissful childhood for our little maid? That is the everlasting pity of a city childhood. Creature comforts may be had and human friends, but where is the vista that reaches under the trees and through the long meadow-grass where the red-gold lily bells tinkle, up the brook bed to the great flat mossy rock, beneath which is the door to fairyland, the spotted turtle being warder. Fairyland, the country of eternal youth and possibility! I wouldn't give up the fairies that I once knew and peopled the solemn woods with down in grandfather's Virginia home for a fortune, and even now, any day, I can put my ear to the earth, like Tommy-Anne, and hear the grass grow. It occurred to me yesterday that the Infant, in age, temperament, and heredity, is suited to be a companion for your Richard. Could you not bring him down with you before the summer is over? Though, as the unlike sometimes agree best, Ian and she might be more compatible, so bring them both and we will turn the trio loose in the meadows of Opal Farm with a mite of a Shetland pony that _The Man from Everywhere_ has recently bestowed upon the Infant--crazy, extravagant man! What we shall do with it in winter I do not know, as we cannot yet run into the expense of keeping such live stock. But why bother? it is only midsummer now, grazing is plentiful and seems to suit the needs of this spunky little beast, and the Infant riding him "across country," as Bart calls her wanderings about Opal Farm, is a spectacle too pretty to be denied us. Yes, I know I'm silly, and that you have the twins to rhapsodize about, but girls are so much more picturesque in the clothes! What! thought she wore gingham bloomers! Yes, but not all the time, for Maria will frill her up and run her with ribbons of afternoons! * * * * * Back to the house and garden! I'm wandering, but then I'm Lady Lazy this summer, as _The Man from Everywhere_ calls me, and naturally a bit inconsequent! As I said, Bart is at the office daily, and will be for another week, but Lady Lazy has not returned to what Maria Maxwell calls "The Tyranny of the Three M's,"--the mending basket, the market book, and the money-box! I was willing, quite willing; in fact it is only fair that Maria should have her time of irresponsibility, for I know that she has half a dozen invitations to go to pleasant places and meet people, one being from Lavinia Cortright to visit her shore cottage. I'm always hoping that Maria may meet the "right man" some summer day, but that she surely will never do if she stays here. "I've everything systematized, and it's easier for me to go on than drop the needles for a fortnight or so and then find, on coming back, that you have been knitting a mitten when I had started the frame of a sock," Maria said, laughing; "make flower hay while the crop is to be had for the gathering, my lady! Another year you may not have such free hands!" Then my protests grew weaker and weaker, for the establishment had thriven marvellously well without my daily interference. The jam closet shows rows of everything that might be made of strawberries, cherries, currants, and raspberries, and it suddenly struck me that possibly if domestic machinery is set going on a consistent basis, whether it is not a mistake to do too much oiling and tightening of a screw here and there, unless distinct symptoms of a halt render it absolutely necessary. "Very well," I said, with a show of spunk, "give me one single task, that I may not feel as if I had no part in the homemaking. Something as ornamental and frivolous as you choose, but that shall occupy me at least two hours a day!" Maria paused a moment; we were then standing in front of the fireplace, where a jar of bayberry filled the place of logs between the andirons. First, casting her eyes through the doors of dining room, living room, and den, she fixed them on me with rather a mischievous twinkle, as she said, "You shall gather and arrange the flowers for the house; and always have plenty of them, but never a withered or dropsical blossom among them all. You shall also invent new ways for arranging them, new combinations, new effects, the only restriction being that you shall not put vases where the water will drip on books, or make the house look like the show window of a wholesale florist. I will give you a fresh mop, and you can have the back porch and table for your workshop, and if I'm not mistaken, you will find two hours a day little enough for the work!" she added with very much the air of some one engaging a new housemaid and presenting her with a broom! It has never taken me two hours to gather and arrange the flowers, and though of course we are only beginning to have much of a garden, we've always had flowers in the house,--quantities of sweet peas and such things, besides wild flowers. I began to protest, an injured feeling rising in my throat, that she, Maria Maxwell, music teacher, city bound for ten years, should think to instruct _me_ of recent outdoor experience. "Yes, you've always had flowers, but did you pick the sweet peas or did Barney? Did you cram them haphazard into the first thing that came handy (probably that awful bowl decorated in ten discordant colours and evidently a wedding present, for such atrocities never find any other medium of circulation)? Or did you separate them nicely, and arrange the pink and salmon peas with the lavender in that plain-coloured Sevres vase that is unusually accommodating in the matter of water, then putting the gay colours in the blue-and-white Delft bowl and the duller ones in cut glass to give them life? Having plenty, did you change them every other day, or the moment the water began to look milky, or did you leave them until the flowers clung together in the first stages of mould? Meanwhile, the ungathered flowers on the vines were seriously developing peas and shortening their stems to be better able to bear their weight. And, Mary Penrose,"--here Maria positively glared at me as if I had been a primary pupil in the most undesirable school of her route who was both stone deaf and afflicted with catarrh, "did you wash out your jars and vases with a mop every time you changed the flowers, and wipe them on a towel separate from the ones used for the pantry glass? No, you never did! You tipped the water out over there at the end of the piazza by the honeysuckles, because you couldn't quite bring yourself to pouring it down the pantry sink, refilled the vases, and that was all!" In spite of a certain sense of annoyance that I felt at the way in which Maria was giving me a lecture, and somehow when a person has taught for ten years she (particularly _she_) inevitably acquires a rather unpleasant way of imparting the truth that makes one wish to deny it, I stood convicted in my own eyes as well as in Maria's. It had so often happened that when either Barney had brought in the sweet peas and left them on the porch table, or Bart had gathered a particularly beautiful wild bouquet in one of his tramps, I had lingered over a book or some bit of work upstairs until almost the time for the next meal, and then, seeing the half-withered look of reproach that flowers wear when they have been long out of water, I have jammed them helter-skelter into the first receptacle at hand. Sometimes a little rough verbal handling stirs up the blood under a too-complacent cuticle. Maria's preachment did me good, the more probably because the time was ripe for it, and therefore the past two weeks have been filled with new pleasures, for another thing that the month spent in the open has shown me is the wonderful setting the natural environment and foliage gives to a flower. At first the completeness appeals insensibly, and unless one is of the temperament that seeks the cause behind the effect, it might never be realized. The Japanese have long since arrived at a method of arranging flowers which is quality and intrinsic value as opposed to miscellaneous quantity. The way of nature, however, it seems to me, is twofold, for there are flowers that depend for beauty, and this with nature that seems only another word for perpetuity, upon the strength of numbers, as well as those that make a more individual appeal. The composite flowers--daisies, asters, goldenrod--belong to the class that take naturally to massing, while the blue flag, meadow and wood lilies, together with the spiked orchises, are typical of the second. By the same process of comparison I have decided that jars and vases having floral decorations themselves are wholly unsuitable for holding flowers. They should be cherished as bric-a-brac, when they are worthy specimens of the art of potter and painter, but as receptacles for flowers they have no use beyond holding sprays of beautiful foliage or silver-green masses of ferns. Porcelain, plain in tint and of carefully chosen colours, such as beef-blood, the old rose, and peach-blow hues, in which so many simple forms and inexpensive bits of Japanese pottery may be bought, a peculiar creamy yellow, a dull green, gobelin, and Delft blue and white, sacred to the jugs and bowls of our grandmothers, all do well. Cut glass is a fine setting for flowers of strong colour, but kills the paler hues, and above and beyond all is the dark moss-green glass of substantial texture that is fashioned in an endless variety of shapes. By chance, gift, and purchase we have gathered about a dozen pieces of this, ranging from a cylinder almost the size of an umbrella-stand down through fluted, hat-shaped dishes, for roses or sweet peas, to some little troughs of conventional shapes in which pansies or other short-stemmed flowers may be arranged so as to give the look of an old-fashioned parterre to the dining table. I had always found these useful, but never quite realized to the full that green or brown is the only consistent undercolour for all field and grass-growing flowers until this summer. But during days that I have spent browsing in the river woods, while Bart and Barney, and more recently Larry, have been digging the herbs that we have marked, I have realized the necessity of a certain combination of earth, bark, and dead-leaf browns in the receptacles for holding wood flowers and the vines that in their natural ascent clasp and cling to the trunks and limbs of trees. Several years ago mother sent me some pretty flower-holders made of bamboos of different lengths, intended evidently to hang against door-jambs or in hallways. The pith was hollowed out here and there, and the hole plugged from beneath to make little water pockets. These did admirably for a season, but when the wood dried, it invariably split, and treacherous dripping followed, most ruinous to furniture. A few weeks back, when looking at some mossed and gnarled branches in the woods, an idea occurred to Bart and me at the same moment. Why could we not use such pieces as these, together with some trunks of your beloved white birch, to which I, _via_ the screen at Opal Farm, was becoming insensibly devoted at the very time that you wrote me? Augur holes could be bored in them at various distances and angles, if not too acute; the thing was to find glass, in bottle or other forms, to fit in the openings. This difficulty was solved by _The Man from Everywhere_ on his reappearance the night before the Fourth, after an absence of a whole week, laden with every manner of noise and fire making arrangement for the Infant, though I presently found that Bart had partly instigated the outfit, and the two overgrown boys revelled in fire-balloons and rockets under cover of the Infant's enthusiasm, much as the grandpa goes to the circus as an apparent martyr to little Tommy's desire! A large package that, from the extreme care of its handling, I judged must hold something highly explosive, on being opened divulged many dozens of the slender glass tubes, with a slight lip for holding cord or wire, such as, filled with roses or orchids, are hung in the garlands of asparagus vines and smilax in floral decorations of either houses or florists' windows. These tubes varied in length from four to six inches, the larger being three inches in diameter. "Behold your leak-proof interiors!" he cried, holding one up. "Now set your wits and Bart's tool-box to work and we shall have some speedy results!" Dear _Man from Everywhere_, he had bought a gross of the glasses, thereby reminding me of a generous but eccentric great-uncle of ours who had a passion for attending auctions, and once, by error, in buying, as he supposed, twelve yellow earthenware bowls, found himself confronted by twelve _dozen_. Thus grandmother's storeroom literally had a golden lining, and my entire childhood was pervaded with these bowls, several finally falling into my possession for the mixing of mud pies! But between the durability of yellow bowls and blown-glass tubes there is little parallel, and already I have found the advantage of having a good supply in stock. Our first natural flower-holder is a great success. Having found a four-pronged silver birch, with a broken top, over in the abandoned gravel-pit (where, by the way, are a score of others to be had for the digging, and such easy digging too), Larry sawed it off a bit below the ground, so as to give it an even base. The diameter of the four uprights was not quite a foot, all told, and these were sawn of unequal lengths of four, six, seven, and nine inches, care being taken not to "haggle," as Larry calls it, the clean white bark in the process. Then Bart went to work with augur and round chisel, and bored and chipped out the holes for the glass tubes, incidentally breaking two glasses before we had comfortably settled the four, for they must fit snugly enough not to wiggle and tip, and yet not so tight as to bind and prevent removal for cleaning purposes. This little stand of natural wood was no sooner finished and mounted on the camp table than its possibilities began to crowd around it. Ferns being the nearest at hand, I crawled over the crumbling bank wall into the Opal Farm meadow and gathered hay-scented, wood, and lady ferns from along the fence line and grouped them loosely in the stand. The effect was magical, a bit of its haunt following the fern indoors. Next day I gathered in the hemlock woods a basket of the waxy, spotted-leaved pipsissewa, together with spikes and garlands of club moss. I had thought these perfect when steadied by bog moss in a flat, cut-glass dish, but in the birch stump they were entirely at home. If these midsummer wood flowers harmonize so well, how much more charming will be the blossoms of early spring, a season when the white birch is quite the most conspicuous tree in the landscape! Picture dog-tooth violets, spring beauties, bellwort, Quaker-ladies, and great tufts of violets, shading from white to deepest blue, in such a setting! Or, of garden things, poets' narcissus and lilies-of-the-valley! Other receptacles of a like kind we have in different stages of progress, made of the wood of sassafras, oak, beech, and hackberry, together with several irregular stumps of lichen-covered cedar. Two long limbs with several short side branches Bart has flattened on the back and arranged with picture-hooks, so that they can be bracketed against the frame of the living-room door, opposite the flower-greeting table that I have fashioned after yours. These are to be used for vines, and I shall try to keep this wide, open portal cheerfully garlanded. The first week of my flower wardenship was a most strenuous one. I use the word reluctantly, but having tried half a dozen others, no equivalent seemed to fit. I had flowers in every room in the house, bedchambers included, using in this connection the cleanest-breathed and longest-lived blossoms possible. Late as was the sowing, the annuals remaining in the seed bed have begun to yield a glorious crop. The fireplaces were filled with black-eyed Susans from the fields and hollyhocks from an old self-seeded colony at Opal Farm, and every available vase, bowl, and pitcher had something in it. How I laboured! I washed jars, sorted colours, and freshened still passable arrangements of the day before, and all the while I felt sure that Maria was watching me, with an amused twinkle in the tail of her eye! One day, the middle of last week, the temperature dropped suddenly, and we fled from camp to the house for twenty-four hours, lighted the logs in the hall, and actually settled down to a serious game of whist in the evening, Maria Maxwell, _The Man_, Bart, and I. Yes, I know how you detest the game, but I--though I am not exactly amused by it--rather like it, for it gives occupation at once for the hands and thoughts and a cover for studying the faces and moods of friends without the reproach of staring. By the way, _The Man_ has hired half the house from Amos Opie--it was divided several years ago--and established helter-skelter bachelor quarters at Opal Farm. Bart has told him, over and over again, how welcome he is to stay here, under any and all conditions, while he works in the vicinity, but he says that he needs a lot of room for his traps, muddy boots, etc., while Opie, a curious Jack-at-all-trades, gives him his breakfast. I'm wondering if _The Man_ felt that he was intruding upon Maria by staying here, or if she has any Mrs. Grundy ideas and was humpy to him, or even suggested that he would better move up the road. She is quite capable of it! However, he seems glad enough to drop in to dinner of an evening now, and the two are so delightfully cordial and unembarrassed in their talk, neither yielding a jot to the other, in the resolute spinster and bachelor fashion, that I must conclude that his going was probably a natural happening. This evening, while Maria and I were waiting together for the men to finish toying with their coffee cups and match-boxes and emerge refreshed from the delightful indolence of the after-dinner smoke, the odour of the flowers--intensified both by dampness and the woodsmoke--was very manifest. "How do you like your employment?" asked Maria. "I like the decorative and inventive part of it," I said, thinking into the fire, "but I believe"--and here I hesitated as a chain of peculiar green flame curled about the log and held my attention. "That it is quite as possible to overdo the house decoration with flowers as it is to spoil a nice bit of lawn with too many fantastic flower beds!" Bart broke in quite unexpectedly, coming behind me and raising my face, one hand beneath my chin. "Isn't that what you were thinking, my Lady Lazy?" "Truly it was, only I never meant to let it pop out so suddenly and rudely," I was forced to confess. "In one way it would seem impossible to have too many flowers about, and yet in another it is unnatural, for are not nature's unconscious effects made by using colour as a central point, a focus that draws the eye from a more sombre and soothing setting?" "How could we enjoy a sunset that held the whole circle of the horizon at once?" chimed in _The Man_, suddenly, as if reading my thoughts. "Or twelve moons?" added Bart, laughing. No, Mrs. Evan, I am convinced by so short a trial as two weeks that the art of arranging flowers for the house is first, your plan of having some to greet the guest as he enters, a bit of colour or coolness in each room where we pause to read or work or chat, and a table garnishing to render æsthetic the aspect and surroundings of the human animal at his feeding time; otherwise, except at special seasons of festivity, a surplus of flowers in the house makes for restlessness, not peace. Two days ago I had thirty-odd vases and jars filled with flowers, and I felt, as I sat down to sew, as if I was trespassing in a bazaar! Also, if there are too many jars of various flowers in one room, it is impossible that each should have its own individuality. To-day I began my new plan. I put away a part of my jars and vases and deliberately thought out what flowers I would use before gathering them. The day being overcast though not threatening, merely the trail, as it were, of the storm that had passed, and the den being on the north side of the house and finished in dark woodwork and furniture, I gathered nasturtiums in three shades for it, the deep crimson, orange-scarlet, and canary-yellow, but not too many--a blue-and-white jar of the Chinese "ginger" pattern for one corner of the mantel-shelf, and for the Japanese well buckets, that are suspended from the central hanging lamp by cords, a cascade of blossoms of the same colour still attached to their own fleshy vines and interspersed with the foliage. Strange as it may seem, this little bit of pottery, though of a peculiar deep pink, harmonizes wonderfully well with the barbaric nasturtium colours. There seems to be a kind of magic blended with the form and colour of these buckets, plain and severe in shape, that swing so gracefully from their silken cords, for they give grace to every flower that touches them. When filled with stiff stalks of lilies-of-the-valley or tulips, they have an equally distinguished air as when hung with the bells of columbines or garlands of flowering honeysuckles twisted about the cords climbing quite up to the lamp. In the hall I placed my tallest green-glass jar upon the greeting table and filled it with long stalks of red and gold Canada lilies from the very bottom of Amos Opie's field, where the damp meadow-grass begins to make way for tussocks and the marshy ground begins. The field now is as beautiful as a dream; the early grasses have ripened, and above them, literally by the hundreds,--rank, file, regiment, and platoon,--stand these lilies, some stalks holding twenty bells, ranged as regularly as if the will of man had set them there, and yet poised so gracefully that we know at once that no human touch has placed them. I wish that you could have stood with me in the doorway of the camp and looked across that field this morning. Bart declared the sight to be the first extra dividend upon our payment to Amos Opie for leaving the grass uncut. I left the stalks of the lilies full three feet long and used only their own foliage, together with some broad-leaved grasses, to break the too abrupt edge of the glass. This is a point that must be remembered in arranging flowers, the keeping the relative height and habit of the plant in the mind's eye. These lilies, gathered with short stems and massed in a crowded bunch, at once lose their individuality and become mere little freckled yellow gamins of the flower world. A rather slender jar or vase also gives an added sense of height; long-stemmed flowers should never be put in a flat receptacle, no matter how adroitly they may be held in place. Only last month I was called upon to admire a fine array of long-stemmed roses that were held in a flat dish by being stuck in wet sand, and even though this was covered by green moss, the whole thing had a painfully artificial and embalmed look, impossible to overcome. For the living room, which is in quiet green tones and chintz-upholstered wicker furniture, I gathered Shirley poppies. They are not as large and perfectly developed as those I once saw in your garden from fall-sown seed, but they are so delicately tinted and the petals so gracefully winged that it seemed like picking handfuls of butterflies. Maria Maxwell has shown me how, by looking at the stamens, I can tell if the flower is newly opened, for by picking only such they will last two full days. How lasting are youthful impressions! She remembers all these things, though she has had no very own garden these ten years and more. Will the Infant remember creeping into my cot in these summer mornings, cuddling and being crooned to like a veritable nestling, until her father gains sufficient consciousness to take his turn and delight her by the whistled imitation of a few simple bird songs? Yes, I think so, and I would rather give her this sort of safeguard to keep off harmful thoughts and influences than any worldly wisdom. The poppies I arranged in my smallest frosted-white and cut-glass vases in two rows on the mantel-shelf, before the quaint old oblong mirror, making it look like a miniature shrine. Celia Thaxter had this way of using them, if I remember rightly, the reflection in the glass doubling the beauty and making the frail things seem alive! For the library, where oak and blue are the prevailing tints, I filled a silver tankard with a big bunch of blue cornflowers, encircled by the leaves of "dusty miller," and placed it on the desk. The dining-room walls are of deep dark red that must be kept cool in summer. At all seasons I try to have the table decorations low enough not to oblige us to peer at one another through a green mist, and to-day I made a wreath of hay-scented ferns and ruby-spotted Japan lilies (_Speciosum rubrum_, the tag says--they were sent as extras with my seeds), by combining two half-moon dishes, and in the middle set a slender, finely cut, flaring vase holding two perfect stems, each bearing half a dozen lily buds and blossoms. These random bulbs are the first lilies of my own planting. There are a few stalks of the white Madonna lilies in the grass of the old garden and a colony of tiger lilies and an upright red lily with different sort of leaves, all clustered at the root, following the tumble-down wall, the rockery to be. I am fascinated by these Japanese lilies and desire more, each stalk is so sturdy, each flower so beautifully finished and set with jewels and then powdered with gold, as it were. Pray tell me something about the rest of the family! Do they come within my range and pocket, think you? The first cost of a fair-sized bed would be considerable, but if they are things that by care will endure, it is something to save up for, _when the rose bed is completed_--take note of that! When Bart came home this afternoon, he walked through the rooms before going out and commented on the different flowers, entirely simple in arrangement, and lingered over them, touching and taking pleasure in them in a way wholly different from last week, when each room was a jungle and I was fairly suffering from flower surfeit. Now I find myself taking note of happy combinations of colour in other people's gardens and along the highways for further experiments. I seem to remember looking over a list of flower combinations and suggestions in your garden book. Will you lend it to me? By the way, opal effects seem to circle about the place this season--the sunsets, the farm-house windows, and finally that rainy night when we were playing whist, when _The Man_, taking a pencil from his pocket, pulled out a little chamois bag that, being loose at one end, shed a shower of the unset stones upon the green cloth, where they lay winking and blinking like so many fiery coals. "Are you a travelling jeweler's shop?" quizzed Bart. "No," replied _The Man_, watching the stones where they lay, but not attempting to pick them up; "the opal is my birth stone, and I've always had a fancy for picking them up at odd times and carrying them with me for luck!" "I thought that they are considered unlucky," said Maria, holding one in the palm of her hand and watching the light play upon it. "That is as one reads them," said _The Man_; "to me they are occasionally contradictory, that is all; otherwise they represent adaptation to circumstances, and inexpensive beauty, which must always be a consolation." Then he gave us each one, "to start a collection," he said. I shall have mine set as a talisman for the Infant. I like this new interpretation of the stone, for to divine beauty in simple things is a gift equal to genius. Maria, however, insisted upon giving an old-fashioned threepenny bit, kept as a luck penny in the centre of her purse, in exchange. How can any woman be so devoid of even the little sentiment of gifts as she is? A moment later _The Man from Everywhere_ electrified us by saying, in the most casual manner, "Now that we are on the subject of opals, did I tell you that, being in some strange manner drawn to the place, I have made Opie an offer for the Opal Farm?" "Good enough! but what for?" exclaimed Bart, nearly exposing a very poor hand. "How splendid!" I cried, checking an impulse to throw my arms around his neck so suddenly that I shied my cards across the room--"Then the meadow need never be cut again!" "What a preposterous idea! Did he accept the offer?" jerked Maria Maxwell, with a certain eagerness. _The Man's_ face, already of a healthy outdoor hue, took a deeper colour above the outline of his closely cropped black beard, which he declined to shave, in spite of prevailing custom. "I'm afraid my popularity as a neighbour is a minor quality, when even my Lady Lazy makes it evident that her enthusiasm is for meadow weeds and not myself!" "When would you live there?" asked practical Bart. "All the time, when I'm not elsewhere!" said _The Man_. "No, seriously, I want permanent headquarters, a house to keep my traps in, and it can easily be somewhat remodelled and made comfortable. I want to own a resting-place for the soles of my feet when they are tired, and is it strange that I should pitch my tent near two good friends?" It was a good deal for _The Man_ to say, and instantly there was hand-shaking and back-clapping between Bart and himself, and the game became hopelessly mixed. As for Maria, she as nearly sniffed audibly at the idea as a well-bred woman could. It is strange, I had almost fancied during the course of the past month, and especially this evening, that _The Man's_ glance, when toward her, held a special approval of a different variety than it carried to Bart and me! If Maria is going to worry him, she shall go back to her flat! I've often heard Bart say that men's feelings are very woundable at forty, while at twenty-five a hurt closes up like water after a pebble has been dropped in it. * * * * * Yes, Maria _has_ been rude to _The Man_, and in my house, too, where she represents me! Anastasia told me! I suppose I really ought not to have listened, but it was all over before I realized what she was saying. "Yes, mem, for all Miss Marie do be fixed out, so tasty and pleasant like to everybody, and so much chicked up by the country air, she's no notion o' beaus or of troubling wid the men!" "What do you mean, Anastasia?" said I, in perfect innocence. "Of course Miss Maria is not a young girl to go gadding about!" "It's not gadding I mean, mem, but here on the porch, one foine night, jest before the last time Mister Blake went off fer good, they was sat there some toime, so still that, says I to meself, 'When they do foind spach, it'll be something worth hearing!' "'Do I annoy you by staying here? Would you prefer I went elsewhere?' says he, and well I moind the words, for Oi thought an offer was on the road, and as 'twas the nearest I'd been to wan, small wonder I got excoited! Then Miss Marie spoke up, smooth as a knife cutting ice cream,--'To speak frankly,' says she, 'you do not exactly annoy me, but I'd much rather you went elsewhere!' Och, but it broke me heart, the sound of it!" * * * * * LIST OF FLOWER COMBINATIONS FOR THE TABLE FROM BARBARA'S _GARDEN BOKE_ HEAVILY SCENTED FLOWERS, SUCH AS HYACINTHS, LEMON AND AURATUM LILIES, POLYANTHUS NARCISSUS, MAGNOLIAS, LILACS, AND THE LIKE, SHOULD BE AVOIDED. Snowdrops and pussy-willows. Hepaticas and moss. Spice-bush and shad-bush sprays. Trailing arbutus and sweet, white garden violets. Double daffodils and willow sprays. Crocus buds and moss. Blue garden scillas and wild white saxifrage. Black-birch catkins and wind-flowers. Plants of the various wild violets, according to season, arranged in an earthen pan with a moss or bark covering. Old-fashioned myrtle, with its glossy leaves, and single narcissus, or English primroses. Bleeding-heart and young ferns. English border primroses in small rose bowls. Lilies-of-the-valley, with plenty of their own leaves, and poets' narcissus. Tulip-tree flowers and leaves. The wild red-and-gold columbine with young white-birch sprays. Pinxter flower and the New York or wood fern. Jack-in-the-pulpit with its own leaves, in a bark or moss covered jar. Pink moccasin-flowers with ferns, in bark-covered jar. Pansies with ivy or laurel leaves, arranged in narrow dishes to form a parterre about a central mirror. Iceland poppies with small ferns or grasses. May pinks and forget-me-nots. Blue larkspurs and deutzia (always put white with blue flowers). Peonies with evergreen ferns, in a central jar. Sweet-william, arranged in separate colours for parterre effect or in a large blue-and-white bowl, with graceful sprays of honeysuckle flowers. Wild roses with plenty of buds and foliage, in blue-and-white bowls. Roses in large sprays with branches of the young leaves of copper beech--or masses of Chinese honeysuckle. Roses with short stems arranged with their own or _rugosa_ foliage in blue-and-white dishes that have coarse wire netting fitted to the top to keep the flowers in place. White field daisies, clover, and flowering grasses, in a large bowl or jar. Mountain laurel with its own leaves, in central jar and parterre dishes. Nasturtiums, in cut-glass bowl or vase, with the foliage of lemon verbena. Sweet peas of five colours with a fringe of maiden-hair ferns, the deepest colour in a central jar, with other smaller bowls at corners, and small ferns laid around mirror and on cloth between. Japan lilies, single flowers, in parterre dishes with ivy leaves, and sprays in central vase. Balsams arranged in effect of set borders. Asters in separate colours. Spotted-leaved pipsissewa of the woods with fern border, in bark-covered dish. Red and gold bell meadow lilies, in large jar, with field grasses. Gladioli--the flowers separated from the stalks and arranged with various leaves for parterre effect, or stalks laid upon the cloth with evergreen ferns to separate the places at a formal meal. Sweet sultan, in separate colours, in rose bowls, with fragrant geranium or lemon-verbena foliage. Shirly poppies with grasses or green rye, in four slender vases about a larger centrepiece. Margaret or picotee carnations with mignonette, arranged loosely in a cut-glass vase or bowl. Green rye, wheat, or oats with the blue garden cornflower--or wild blue chickory. Wild asters with heavy tasselled marsh-grasses. Goldenrods with purple iron weed and vines of wild white clematis, arranged about a flat dish of peaches and pears. All through autumn place your central mirror on a mat made by laying freshly gathered coloured leaves upon the cloth. Wallflowers and late pansies. White Japanese anemonies and ferns. Grass of Parnassus, ladies tresses, and marsh shield ferns. Garden chrysanthemums, in blue-and-white jars and bowls, on a large mat of brown magnolia leaves. Sprays of yellow witch-hazel flowers and leaves of red oak. Sprays of coral winterberry, from which leaves have been removed, and white-pine tassels. Club-mosses, small evergreen ferns, and partridge vine with its red berries, in a bark-covered dish of earth. XI A SEASIDE GARDEN (Barbara Campbell to Mary Penrose) _Gray Rocks, July 19._ Your epistle upon the evils of an excess of flowers in the house found us here with the Cortrights and Bradfords, and I read it with Lavinia and Sylvia on either side, as the theme had many notes in it familiar to us all! There are certainly times and seasons when the impulse is overpowering to lay hold of every flower that comes in the way and gather it to one's self, to cram every possible nook and corner with this portable form of beauty and fairly indulge in a flower orgie. Then sets in a reaction that shows, as in so many things, the middle path is the best for every day. Also there are many enthusiastic gardeners, both among those who grow their own flowers and those who cause them to be grown, who spare neither pains nor money until the flowers are gathered; then their grip relaxes, and the house arrangement of the fruit of their labour is left to chance. In many cases, where a professional gardener is in charge, several baskets, containing a confused mass of blossoms, are deposited daily in porch or pantry, often at a time when the mistress is busy, and they are either overlooked or at the last moment crammed into the first receptacle that comes to hand, from their very inopportuneness creating almost a feeling of dislike. When once lodged, they are frequently left to their fate until they become fairly noisome, for is there anything more offensive to æsthetic taste than blackened and decaying flowers soaking in stagnant water? Was it not Auerbach, in his _Poet and Merchant_, who said, "The lovelier a thing is in its perfection, the more terrible it becomes through its corruption"? and certainly this applies to flowers. Flowers, like all of the best and lasting pleasures, must be taken a little seriously from the sowing of the seed to the placing in the vase, that they may become the incense of home, and the most satisfactory way of choosing them for this use is to make a daily tour about the garden, or, if a change is desired, through the fields and highways, and, with the particular nook you wish to fill in mind, gather them yourself. Even the woman with too wide a selection to gather from personally can in this way indicate what she wishes. In the vegetable garden the wise man thinks out his crop and arranges a variety for the table; no one wishes every vegetable known to the season every day, and why should not the eye be educated and nourished by an equal variety? We are all very much interested in your flower-holders of natural wood, and I will offer you an idea in exchange, after the truly coöperative Garden, You, and I plan. In the flower season, instead of using your embroidered centrepieces for the table, which become easily stained and defaced by having flowers laid upon them, make several artistic table centres of looking-glass, bark, moss, or a combination of all three. Lavinia Cortright and I, as a beginning, have oval mirrors of about eighteen inches in length, with invisibly narrow nickel bindings. Sometimes we use these with merely an edge of flowers or leaves and a crystal basket or other low arrangement of flowers in the centre. The glass is only a beginning, other combinations being a birch-bark mat, several inches wider than the glass, that may be used under it so that a wide border shows, or the mat by itself as a background for delicate wood flowers and ferns. A third mat I have made of stout cardboard and covered with lichens, reindeer moss, and bits of mossy bark, and I never go to the woods but what I see a score of things that fairly thrust themselves before me and offer to blend with one of these backgrounds, and by holding the eye help to render meal-times less "foody," as Sukey Latham puts it, though none the less nourishing. Last night when we gathered at dinner, a few moments after our arrival and our first meeting at this cottage, I at once became aware that though host and hostess were the same delightful couple, we were not dining at Meadow's End, their Oaklands cottage, but at Gray Rocks, with silver sea instead of green grass below the windows. While the sea surroundings were brought indoors and on the centre of the dinner table the mirror was edged by a border of sea-sand, glistening pebbles and little shells were arranged as a background instead of mosses and lichens, and rich brown seaweeds still moist with the astringent tonic sea breath edged this frame, and the more delicate rose-coloured and pale green weeds seemed floating upon the glass, that held a giant periwinkle shell filled with the pink star-shaped sabbatia, or sea pink, of the near-by salt marshes. There was no effort, no strain after effect, but a consistent preparation of the eye for the simple meal of sea food that followed. In front of the cottage the rocks slope quickly to the beach, but on either side there is a stretch of sand pocketed among the rocks, and in the back a dune stops abruptly at the margin of wide salt meadows, creek-fed and unctuous, as befits the natural gardens of the sea. The other cottages lying to the eastward are gay in red-and-white striped awnings, and porch and window boxes painted red or green are filled with geraniums, nasturtiums, petunias,--any flowers, in short, that will thrive in the broiling sun, while some of the owners have planted buoy-like barrels at the four corners of their enclosures and filled them with the same assortment of foliage plants with which they would decorate a village lawn. This use of flowers seemed at once to draw the coolness from the easterly breeze and intensify the heat that vibrates from the sand. Have you ever noticed that the sea in these latitudes has no affinity for the brightest colours, save as it is a mirror for the fleeting flames of sunrise and sunset? The sea-birds are blended tints of rock, sand, sky, and water, save the dash of coral in bill and foot of a few, just as the coral of the wild-rose hips blends with the tawny marsh-grasses. Scarlet is a colour abhorred even by the marshes, until late in autumn the blaze of samphire consumes them with long spreading tongues of flame. How can people be so senseless as to come seaward to cool their bodies, and yet so surround themselves with scarlet that it is never out of range of the eye? Lavinia Cortright and the botanical Bradfords, as Evan calls them, because though equally lovers of flowers, they go further than some for the reason why that lies hid beneath the colour and perfume, have laid out and are still developing a sand garden that, while giving the cottage home the restful air that is a garden's first claim, has still the distinct identity of the sand and sea! To begin, with one single exception, they have drawn upon the wild for this garden, even as you are doing in the restoration of your knoll. Back of the cottage a dozen yards is a sand ridge covering some fairly good, though mongrel, loam, for here, as along most of the coasts of sounds and bays, the sea, year by year, has bitten into the soil and at the same time strewn it with sand. Considering this as the garden boundary, a windbreak of good-sized bayberry bushes has been placed there, not in a stiff line, but in blended groups, enclosing three sides, these bays being taken from a thicket of them farther toward the marshes. An alley from the back porch into this enclosure is bordered on either side by bushes of beach plum, that, when covered with feathery white bloom in May, before the leaves appear, gives the sandy shore the only orchard touch it knows. Of course the flowering period is over when the usual shore season begins, though nowadays there is no off time--people go to shore and country when they are moved; yet the beach plum is a picturesque bush at any time, especially when, in September, it is loaded with the red purple fruit. In the two spaces on either side the alley the sand is filled with massed plants that, when a little more time has been given them for stretching and anchoring their roots, will straightway weave a flower mat upon the sand. Down beyond the next point, one day last autumn, Horace and Sylvia found a plantation of our one New England cactus, the prickly pear (_Opuntia opuntia_). We have it here and there in our rocky pasture; but in greater heat and with better underfeeding it seemed a bit of a tropical plain dropped on the eastern coast. Do you know the thing? The leaves are shaped like the fans of a lobster's tail and sometimes are several-jointed, smooth except for occasional tufts of very treacherous spikes, and of a peculiar semitranslucent green; the half-double flowers set on the leaf edges are three inches across and of a brilliant sulphur-yellow, with tasselled stamens; the fruit is fleshy, somewhat fig-shaped, and of a dark red when ripe--altogether a very decorative plant, though extremely difficult to handle. After surveying the plantation on all sides, the tongs used by the oyster dredges suggested themselves to Horace, and thus grasped, the prickly pears were safely moved and pegged in their new quarters with long pieces of bent wire, the giant equivalents of the useful hairpins that I recommended for pegging down your ferns. Now the entire plot of several yards square, apparently untroubled by the removal, is in full bloom, and has been for well-nigh a month, they say, though the individual blossoms are but things of a day. Close by, another yellow flower, smaller but more pickable, is just now waving, the rock rose or frostweed, bearing two sorts of flowers: the conspicuous yellow ones, somewhat resembling small evening primroses, while all the ground between is covered with an humble member of the rock rose family--the tufted beach heather with its intricate branches, reminding one more of a club-moss than a true flowering plant. Not a scrap of sand in the enclosure is left uncovered, and the various plants are set closely, like the grasses and wild flowers of a meadow, the sand pinweed that we gather, together with sea lavender, for winter bouquets much resembling a flowering grass. The rabbit-foot clover takes kindly to the sandy soil, and, as it flowers from late May well into September, and holds its little furry tails like autumn pussy-willows until freezing weather, makes a very interesting sort of bed all by itself, and massed close to it, as if recognizing the family relationship, is the little creeping bush clover with its purplish flowers. Next, set thickly in a mass representing a stout bush, comes the fleshy beach pea with rosy purple flowers. When it straggles along according to its sweet will, it has a poor and weedy look, but massed so that the somewhat difficult colour is concentrated, it is very decorative, and it serves as a trellis for the trailing wild bean, a sand lover that has a longer flowering season. A patch of a light lustrous purple, on closer view, proves to be a mass of the feathered spikes of blazing star or colic-root, first cousin of the gay-feather of the West, that sometimes grows six feet high and has been welcomed to our gardens. On the opposite side of the beach-plum alley, the Bradfords have made preparations for autumn glory, such as we always drive down to the marsh lands from Oaklands not only to see but to gather and take home. Masses of the fleshy tufted seaside goldenrod, now just beginning to throw up its stout flowerstalks, flank a bed of wild asters twenty feet across. Here are gathered all the asters that either love or will tolerate dry soil, a certain bid for their favour having been made by mixing several barrels of stiff loam with the top sand, as an encouragement until the roots find the hospitable mixture below. The late purple aster (_patens_) with its broad clasping leaves, the smooth aster (_lævis_) with its violet-blue flowers, are making good bushes and preparing for the pageant. Here is the stiff white-heath aster, the familiar Michaelmas daisy, that is so completely covered with snowy flowers that the foliage is obliterated, and proves its hold upon the affections by its long string of names,--frostweed, white rosemary, and farewell summer being among them,--and also the white-wreath aster, with the flowers ranged garland-wise among the rigid leaves, and the stiff little savory-leaved aster or sand starwort with pale violet rays. Forming a broad, irregular border about the asters are stout dwarf bushes of the common wild rose (_humilis_), that bears its deep pink flowers in late spring and early summer and then wears large round hips that change slowly from green to deep glowing red, in time to make a frame of coral beads for the asters. Outside the hedge of bays, where a trodden pathway leads to the boat landing, the weathered rocks, washed with soft tints blended of the breath of sea mist and sunset rays, break through the sand. In the lee of these, held in place by a line of stones, is a long, low bed of large-flowered portulaca, borrowed from inland gardens, and yet so in keeping with its surroundings as to seem a native flower of sea sands. The fleshy leaves at a little distance suggest the form of many plants of brackish marsh and creek edges, and even the glasswort itself. When the day is gray, the flowers furl close and disappear, as it were, but when the sun beats full upon the sand, a myriad upraised fleshy little arms stretch out, each holding a coloured bowl to catch the sunbeams, as if the heat made molten the sand of quartz and turned it into pottery in tints of rose, yellow, amber, scarlet, and carnation striped. It was a bold experiment, this garden in the sand, but already it is making good. Then, too, what a refreshment to the eyes is it, when the unbroken expanse of sky and sea before the house tires, to turn them landward over the piece of flowers toward the cool green marshes ribboned with the pale pink camphor-scented fleabane, the almost intangible sea lavender, the great rose mallows and cat-tail flags of the wet ground, the false indigo that, in the distance, reminds one of the broom of Scottish hills, the orange-fringed orchis, pink sabbatia, purple maritime gerardia, milkwort, the groundsel tree, that covers itself with feathers in autumn, until, far away beyond the upland meadows, the silver birches stand as outposts to the cool oak woods, in whose shade the splendid yellow gerardia, or downy false foxglove, nourishes. Truly, while the land garden excels in length of season and profusion, the gardens of the sea appeal to the lighter fancies and add the charmed spice of variety to out-of-door life. One of the most interesting features of this cottage and its surroundings is the further transplanting of Martin Cortright from his city haunts. At Meadow's End, though he works in the garden in a dilettante sort of way with Lavinia, takes long walks with father, and occasionally ventures out for a day's fishing with either or both of my men, he is still the bookworm who dives into his library upon every opportunity and has never yet adapted his spine comfortably to the curves of a hammock! In short he seems to love flowers historically--more for the sake of those in the past who have loved and written of them than for their own sake. But here, even as I began to write to you, Mary Penrose, entrenched in a nook among the steep rocks between the cottage and the sea, a figure coming up the sand bar, that runs northward and at low water shows a smooth stretch a mile in length, caught my eye. Laboriously but persistently it came along; next I saw by the legs that it was a man, a moment later that he was lugging a large basket and that a potato fork protruded from under one arm, and finally that it was none other than Martin Cortright, who had been hoeing diligently in the sand and mud for a couple of hours, that his guests might have the most delectable of all suppers,--steamed clams, fresh from the water, the condition alone under which they may be eaten _sans peur et sans reproche_! XII THE TRANSPLANTING OF EVERGREENS (Mary Penrose to Barbara Campbell) _Woodridge, August 8._ Back again in our camp, we thought to pause awhile, rest on our oars, and drift comfortably with the gentle summer tide of things. We have transplanted all the ferns and wild herbs for which we have room, and as a matter of course trees and shrubs must wait until they have shed their leaves in October. That is, all the trees that _do_ shed. The exceptions are the evergreens, of which the river woods contain any number in the shape of hemlocks, spruces, and young white pines, the offspring, I take it, of a plantation back of the Windom farm, for we have not found them anywhere else. The best authorities upon the subject of evergreens say that trees of small size should be transplanted either in April, before they have begun to put on their dressy spring plumes, or, if the season be not too hot and dry, or the distance considerable, in August, after this growth has matured, time thus being given for them to become settled in the ground before winter. We weighed the matter well. The _pros_ in favour of spring planting lay in the fact that rain is very likely to be plentiful in April, and given but half a chance, everything grows best in spring; the _cons_ being that the spring rush is usually overpowering, that in a late season the frost would not be fairly out of the knoll and ground by the fence, where we need a windbreak, before garden planting time, and that during the winter clearing that will take place in the river valley, leaf fires may be started by the workmen that will run up the banks and menace our treasure-trove of evergreens. The _pros_ for August consisted mainly of the pith of a proverb and a bit of mad Ophelia's sanity: "There is no time like the present" and "We know what we are, but know not what we may be!" At present we have a good horse, Larry, and plenty of time, the _con_ being, suppose we have a dry, hot autumn. The fact that we have a new water-barrel on wheels and several long-necked water-pots is only a partial solution of the difficulty, for the nearest well is an old-fashioned arrangement with a sweep, located above the bank wall at Opal Farm. This well is an extremely picturesque object in the landscape, but as a water-producer as inadequate as the shaving-mug with which the nervous gentleman, disturbed at his morning task, rushed out to aid in extinguishing a fire! Various predictions as to the weather for the month have been lavished upon us, the first week having produced but one passing shower. Amos Opie foresees a muggy, rainless period. Larry declares for much rain, as it rained at new moon and again at first quarter; but, as he says, as if to release himself from responsibility, "That's the way we read it in Oireland, but maybe, as this is t'other side of the warld, it's all the other way round wid rain!" Barney was noncommittal, but then his temperament is of the kind that usually regrets whatever is. For three or four days we remained undecided, and then _The Man from Everywhere_ brought about a swift decision for August transplanting, by the information that the general clearing of the woodlands would begin November first, the time for fulfilling the contract having been shortened by six months at the final settlement. We covet about fifty specimen pines and hemlocks for the knoll and fully two hundred little hemlocks for the windbreaks, so we at once began the work and are giving two days a week to the digging and transporting and the other four to watering. That is, Bart and Larry are doing this; I am looking on, making suggestions as to which side of a tree should be in front, nipping off broken twigs, and doing other equally light and pleasant trifles. Our system of transplanting is this: we have any number of old burlap feed bags, which, having become frayed and past their usefulness, we bought at the village store for a song. These Larry filled with the soft, elastic moss that florists use, of which there is any quantity in the low backwater meadows of the river. A good-sized tree (and we are not moving any of more than four or five feet in height; larger ones, it seems, are better moved in early winter with a ball of frozen earth) has a bag to itself, the roots, with some earth, being enveloped in the moss, the bag as securely bound about them as possible with heavy cord, and the whole thing left to soak at the river edge while the next one is being wrapped. Of the small hemlocks for the windbreak,--and we are using none over two or three feet for this purpose, as we want to pinch them in and make them stocky,--the roots of three or four will often go into a bag. When enough for a day's planting is thus collected, we go home, stack them in the shade, and the next morning the resetting begins! The bags are not opened until they are by the hole in which the trees are to be placed, which, by the way, is always made and used after the directions you gave us for rose planting; and I'm coming to agree with you that the success in gardening lies more than half in the putting under ground, and that the proper spreading and securing of roots in earth thoroughly loosened to allow new roots to feel and find their way is one of the secrets of what is usually termed "luck"! This may sound like a very easy way of acquiring trees, but it sometimes takes an hour to loosen a sturdy pine of four feet. Of course a relentless hand that stops at nothing, with a grub-axe and spade, could do it in fifteen minutes, but the roots would be cut or bruised and the pulling and tugging be so violent that not a bit of earth would cleave, and thus the fatal drying process set in almost before the digging was completed. Larry first loosens the soil all about the tree with a crowbar, dislodging any binding surface stones in the meantime; then the roots are followed to the end and secured entire when possible, a bit of detective work more difficult than it sounds in a bank where forest trees of old growth have knit roots with saplings for mutual protection. Setting-out day sees a procession of three water-carriers going Indian file up one side of the knoll and down the other. Bart declares that by the time his vacation is over he will be sufficiently trained to become captain of the local fire company, which consists of an antique engine, of about the capacity of one water-barrel, and a bucket brigade. This profuse use of water, upon the principle of imitation, has brought about another demand for it on the premises. The state of particularly clay-and-leaf-mouldy perspiration in which Bart finds himself these days cries aloud for a shower-bath, nor is he or his boots and clothing in a suitable condition for tramping through the house and turning the family bath-tub into a trough wherein one would think flower-pots had been washed. With the aid of Amos Opie an oil-barrel has been trussed up like a miniature windmill tank in the end of the camp barn, one end of which rests on the ground, and being cellarless has an earth floor. Around the supports of this tank is fastened an unbleached cotton curtain, and when standing within and pulling a cord attached to an improvised spray, the contents of the barrel descend upon Bart's person with hygienic thoroughness, the only drawback being that twelve pails of water have to be carried up the short ladder that leads from floor to barrel top each time the shower is used. Bart, however, seems to enjoy the process immensely, and Larry, by the way in which he lingers about the place and grins, evidently has a secret desire to experiment with it himself. Larry has been a great comfort up to now, but we both have an undefined idea that one of his periods of "rest" is approaching. He works with feverish haste, alternating with times of sitting and looking at the ground, that I fear bodes no good. He also seems to take a diabolic pleasure in tormenting Amos Opie as regards the general make-up and pedigree of his beloved hound David. David has human intelligence in a setting that it would be difficult to classify for a dog-show; a melancholy bloodhound strain certainly percolates thoroughly through him, and his long ears, dewlaps, and front legs, tending to bow, separate him from the fox "'ounds" of Larry's experience. To Amos Opie David is the only type of hound worthy of the name; consequently there has been no little language upon the subject. That is, Larry has done the talking, punctuated by contemptuous "huhs" and sniffs from Amos, until day before yesterday. On this day David went on a hunting trip extending from five o'clock in the afternoon until the next morning, during which his voice, blending with two immature cries, told that he was ranging miles of country in company with a pair of thoroughbred fox-hound pups, owned by the postmaster, the training of which Amos Opie was superintending, and owing to an attack of rheumatism had delegated to David, whose reliability for this purpose could not be overestimated according to his master's way of thinking. For a place in some ways so near to civilization, the hills beyond the river woods abound in fox holes, and David has conducted some good runs on his own account, it seems; but this time alack! alack! he came limping slowly home, footsore and bedraggled, followed by his pupils and bearing a huge dead cat of the half-wild tribe that, born in a barn and having no owner, takes to a prowling life in the woods. I cannot quite appreciate the enormity of the offence, but doubtless Dr. Russell and your husband can, as they live in a fox-hunting country. It seems that a rabbit would have been bad enough, something however, to be condoned,--but not a cat! Instantly Amos fixed upon Larry as the responsible cause of the calamity,--Larry, who is so soaked in a species of folk-lore, blended of tradition, imagination, and high spirits that, after hearing him talk, it is easy to believe that he deals in magic by the aid of a black cat, and unfortunately the cat brought in by David was of this colour! Then Amos spoke, for David's honour was as his own, and Larry heard a pronounced Yankee's opinion, not only of all the inhabitants of the Emerald Isle, but of one in particular! After freeing his mind, he threatened to free his house of Larry as a lodger, this being particularly unfortunate considering the near approach of one of that gentleman's times of retirement. Last night I thought the sky had again cleared, for Amos discovered that the postmaster did not suspect the cat episode, and as Larry had no friends in the village through which it might leak out, the old man seemed much relieved; also, Larry apparently is not a harbourer of grievances. Within an hour, however, a second episode has further strained the relationship of lodger and host, and it has snapped. Though still quite stiff in the joints, Amos came over this morning to do some little tinkering in the barn camp, especially in strengthening the stays of the shower-bath tank, when, as he was on his knees fastening a brace to a post, in some inexplicable manner the string was pulled and the contents of the entire barrel of cold well-water were released, the first sprinkle so astonishing and bewildering poor Amos that he remained where he was, and so received a complete drenching. Bart and Larry were up in the woods getting the day's load of hemlocks, and I, hearing the spluttering and groans, went to Amos's rescue as well as I could, and together with Maria Maxwell got him to the kitchen, where hot tea and dry clothes should have completely revived him in spite of age. As, however, to-day, it seems, is the anniversary of a famous illness he acquired back in '64, on his return from the Civil War, the peculiarities of which he has not yet ceased proclaiming, he is evidently determined to celebrate it forthwith, so he has taken to his bed, groaning with a stitch in his side. The doctor has been telephoned, and Maria Maxwell, as usual bursting with energy, which on this occasion takes a form between that of a dutiful daughter and a genuine country neighbour, has gone over to Opal Farm to tidy up a bit until the doctor gives his decision and some native woman, agreeable to Amos's taste, can be found to look after the interesting yet aggravating crank. But this is not all. Amos declines to allow Larry to lodge in the house for another night, attributing the ducking to him, in spite of the fact that he was at least six miles away. In this both Bart and I think Amos right, for Larry's eye had a most inquiring expression on his return, and I detected him slipping into the old barn at the first opportunity to see if the tank was empty, while Bart says that he has been talking to himself in a gleeful mood all the morning, and so he has decided that, as Larry has worked long enough to justify it, he will buy him a prepaid passage home to his daughter and see him off personally by to-morrow's steamer. As Amos will have none of Larry, to send the man into village lodgings would probably hasten his downfall. I did hope to keep him until autumn, for he has taught me not a little gardening in a genial and irresponsible sort of way, and the rose garden is laid out in a manner that would do credit to a trained man, Larry having the rare combination of seeing a straight line and yet being able to turn a graceful curve. But even if Amos had been willing to allow him to sleep over one of his attacks, it would have been a dubious example for Barney, and in spite of the comfort he has been I now fully realize the limitations of so many of his race, at once witty, warm-hearted, soothing, and impossible; it is difficult not to believe what they say, even when you know they are lying, and this condition is equally demoralizing both to master and man. _August 11._ Anastasia wept behind her apron when Larry left, but Barney assumed a cheerfulness and interest in his work that he has never shown before. Bart says that in spite of a discrepancy of twenty-odd years he thinks that Larry, by his fund of stories and really wonderful jig dancing, was diverting Anastasia's thoughts, and the comfortable savings attached, from Barney, who, though doubtless a sober man and far more durable in many ways, is much less interesting an object for the daily contemplation of an emotional Irishwoman. While Bart was in town yesterday seeing Larry started on his journey, Maria and I, with the Infant tucked between in the buggy, went for an outing under the gentle guidance of Romeo, who through constant practice has become the most expert standing horse in the county. I'm only afraid that his owners on their return may not appreciate this accomplishment. Being on what Maria calls "a hunt for antiques," we drove in the direction of Newham village, which you know is away from railroads and has any number of old-time farms. We were not looking for spinning-wheels and andirons, but old-fashioned roses and peonies, especially the early double deep crimson variety that looks like a great Jack rose. We located a number of these in June and promised to return for our plunder in due season. Last year I bought some peony roots in August, and they throve so well, blooming this spring, that I think it is the best time for moving them. In one of the houses where we bought pink-and-white peonies the woman said she had a bed, as big as the barn-door, of "June" lilies, and that, as they were going to build a hen-house next autumn on the spot where they grew, she was going to lift some into one of her raised mounds (an awful construction, being a cross between a gigantic dirt pie and a grave), and said that I might have all the spare lily bulbs that I wanted if I would give her what she termed a "hatching" of gladiolus bulbs. Just at present the lilies have entirely disappeared, and nothing but bare earth is visible, but I think from the description that they must be the lovely Madonna lilies of grandmother's Virginia garden that made a procession from the tea-house quite down to the rose garden, like a bevy of slender young girls in confirmation array. If so, they do not take kindly to handling, and I have an indistinct remembrance of some rather unusual time of year when it must be done if necessary. Please let me know about this, for I can be of little use in the moving of the evergreens and I want something to potter about in the garden. There are two places for a lily bed, but I am uncertain which is best until I hear from you. Either will have to be thoroughly renovated in the matter of soil, so that I am anxious to start upon the right basis. One of these spots is in full sun, with a slope toward the orchard; in the other the sun is cut off after one o'clock, though there are no overhanging branches; there is also a third place, a squashy spot down in the bend of the old wall. On our return, toward evening, we met _The Man from Everywhere_ driving down from the reservoir ground toward Opal Farm, a pink-cheeked young fellow of about twenty sharing the road wagon with him. As he has again been away for a few days, we drew up to exchange greetings and _The Man_ said, rather aside, "I'm almost sorry that Larry fell from the skies to help out your gardening, for here is a young German who has come from a distance, with a note from a man I know well, applying for work at the quarry; but there will be nothing suitable for him there for several months, for he's rather above the average. He would have done very well for you, as, though he speaks little English, I make out that his father was an under-forester in the fatherland. As it is, I'm taking him to the farm with me for the night and will try to think of how I may help him on in the morning." Instantly both Maria and I began to tell of Larry's defection in different keys, the young man meanwhile keeping up a deferential and most astonishing bowing and smiling. Having secured the seal of Bart's approval, Meyer has been engaged, and after to-day we must accustom our ears to a change from Larry's rich brogue to the juicy explosiveness of German; and worse yet, I must rack my brains for the mostly forgotten dialect of the schoolroom language that is learned with such pain and so quickly forgotten. I'm wondering very much about _The Man's_ sudden return to Opal Farm and if it will interfere with Maria Maxwell's daily care of Amos Opie; for, as it turns out, he is really ill, the chill resulting from Larry's prank having been the final straw, and no suitable woman having been found, who has volunteered to tend the old man in the emergency, but Maria! That is, to the extent of taking him food and giving him medicines, for though in pain he is able to sit in an easy-chair. Maria certainly is capable, but so stupid about _The Man_. However, as the farm-house is now arranged as two dwellings, with the connecting door opening in the back hall and usually kept locked on Amos's side, she cannot possibly feel that she is putting herself in _The Man's_ way! XIII LILIES AND THEIR WHIMS (Barbara Campbell to Mary Penrose) _Oaklands, August 18._ As a suitable text for this chronicle, as well as an unanswerable argument for its carrying out, combined with a sort of premium, I'm sending you to-day, freight paid, a barrel of lily-of-the-valley roots, all vigorous and with many next year's flowering pips attached. No,--I hear your decorous protest,--I have not robbed myself, neither am I giving up the growing of this most exquisite of spring flowers, whose fragrance penetrates the innermost fastnesses of the memory, yet is never obtrusive. Simply my long border was full to overflowing and last season some of the lily bells were growing smaller. When this happens, as it does every half a dozen years, I dig two eight-inch trenches down the bed's entire length, and taking out the matted roots, fill the gap with rich soil, adding the plants thus dispossessed to my purse of garden wampum, which this time falls into your lap entire. Of the treatment of the little flower, that is erroneously supposed to feast only upon leaf-mould in the deep shade, you shall hear later. By all means begin your lily bed now, for the one season at which the Madonna lily resents removal the least is during the August resting time. Then, if you lift her gently while she sleeps, do not let the cool earth breath that surrounds her dry away, and bed her suitably, she will awaken and in a month put forth a leafy crown of promise to be fulfilled next June. Madonna does not like the shifting and lifting that falls to the lot of so many garden bulbs owing to the modern requirements that make a single flower bed often a thing of three seasonal changes. Many bulbs, many moods and whims. Hyacinths and early tulips blossom their best the first spring after their autumn planting (always supposing that the bob-tailed meadow-mice, who travel in the mole tunnels, thereby giving them a bad reputation, have not feasted on the tender heart buds in the interval). The auratum lily of the gorgeous gold-banded and ruby-studded flower exults smilingly for a season or two and then degenerates sadly. Madonna, if she be healthy on her coming, and is given healthy soil free from hot taint of manure, will live with you for years and love you and give you every season increasing yield of silver-white-crowned stalks, at the very time that you need them to blend with your royal blue delphiniums. But this will be only if you obey the warning of "hands and spade off." The three species of the well-known recurved Japan lily--_speciosum roseum_, _s. rubrum_, and _s. album_--have the same love of permanence; likewise the lily-of-the-valley and all the tribe of border narcissi and daffodils; so if you wish to keep them at their best, you must not only give them bits of ground all of their own, but study their individual needs and idiosyncrasies. Lilies as a comprehensive term,--the Biblical grass of the field,--as far as concerns a novice or the Garden, You, and I, may be made to cover the typical lilies themselves, tulips, narcissi (which are of the amaryllis flock), and lilies-of-the-valley, a tribe by itself. You will wish to include all of them in your garden, but you must limit yourself to the least whimsical varieties on account of your purse, the labor entailed, and the climate. Of the pieces of ground that you describe, take that in partial shade for your Madonna lilies and their kin, and that in the open sun for your lilies-of-the-valley, while I would keep an earth border free from silver birches, on the sunny side of your tumble-down stone-wall rockery, for late tulips and narcissi; and grape hyacinths, scillas, trilliums, the various Solomon's seals, bellworts, etc., can be introduced in earth pockets between the rocks if, in case of the deeper-rooted kinds, connection be had with the earth below. It is much more satisfactory to plant spring bulbs in this way,--in groups, or irregular lines and masses, where they may bloom according to their own sweet will, and when they vanish for the summer rest, scatter a little portulaca or sweet alyssum seed upon the soil to prevent too great bareness,--than to set them in formal beds, from which they must either be removed when their blooming time is past, or else one runs the risk of spoiling them by planting deep-rooted plants among them. The piece of sunny ground in the angled dip of the old wall, which you call "decidedly squashy," interests me greatly, for it seems the very place for Iris of the Japanese type,--lilies that are not lilies in the exact sense, except by virtue of being built on the rule of three and having grasslike or parallel-veined leaves. But these closely allied plant families and their differences are a complex subject that we need not discuss, the whole matter being something akin to one of the dear old Punch stories that adorn Evan's patriotic scrap-book. A railway porter, puzzled as in what class of freight an immense tortoise shall be placed, as dogs are the only recognized standard, pauses, gazing at it as he scratches his head, and mutters, "Cats is dogs and rabbits is dogs, but this 'ere hanimal's a hinsect!" The Iris may be, in this respect, a "hinsect," but we will reckon it in with the lilies. The culture of this Japan Iris is very simple and well worth while, for the species comes into bloom in late June and early July, when the German and other kinds are through. I should dig the wet soil from the spot of which you speak, for all muck is not good for this Iris, and after mixing it with some good loam and well-rotted cow manure replace it and plant the clumps of Iris two feet apart, for they will spread wonderfully. In late autumn they should have a top dressing of manure and a covering of corn stalks, but, mind, water must not stand on your Iris bed in winter; treating them as hardy plants does not warrant their being plunged into water ice. It is almost impossible, however, to give them too much water in June and July, when the great flowers of rainbow hues, spreading to a size that covers two open hands, cry for drink to sustain the exhaustion of their marvellous growth. So if your "squashy spot" is made so by spring rains, all is well; if not, it must be drained in some easy way, like running a length of clay pipe beneath, so that the overplus of water will flow off when the Iris growth cannot absorb it. Ah me! the very mention of this flower calls up endless visions of beauty. Iris--the flower of mythology, history, and one might almost say science as well, since its outline points to the north on the face of the mariner's compass; the flower that in the dawn of recorded beauty antedates the rose, the fragments of the scattered rainbow of creation that rests upon the garden, not for a single hour or day or week, but for a long season. The early bulbous _Iris histriodes_ begins the season in March, and the Persian Iris follows in April. In May comes the sturdy German Iris of old gardens, of few species but every one worthy, and to be relied upon in mass of bloom and sturdy leafage to rival even the peony in decorative effect. Next the meadows are ribboned by our own blue flags; and the English Iris follows and in June and July meets the sumptuous Iris of Japan at its blooming season, for there seems to be no country so poor as to be without an Iris. There are joyous flowers of gold and royal blue, the Flower de Luce (Flower of Louis) of regal France, and sombre flowers draped in deep green and black and dusky purple, "The widow" (_Iris tuberosa_) and the Chalcedonian Iris (_Iris Susiana_), taking its name from the Persian Susa. _Iris Florentina_ by its powdered root yields the delicate violet perfume orris, a corruption doubtless of Iris. Many forms of root as well as blossom has the Iris, tuberous, bulbous, fibrous, and if the rose may have a garden to itself, why may not the Iris in combination with its sister lilies have one also? And when my eyes rest upon a bed of these flowers or upon a single blossom, I long to be a poet. * * * * * Now to begin: will your shady place yield you a bed four feet in width by at least twenty in length? If so, set Barney to work with pick and spade. The top, I take it, is old turf not good enough to use for edging, so after removing this have it broken into bits and put in a heap by itself. When the earth beneath is loosened, examine it carefully. If it is good old mellow loam without the pale yellow colour that denotes the sterile, undigested soil unworked by roots or earthworms, have it taken out to eighteen inches in depth and shovelled to one side. When the bad soil is reached, which will be soon, have it removed so that the pit will be three feet below the level. Next, let Barney collect any old broken bits of flower-pots, cobbles, or small stones of any kind, and fill up the hole for a foot, and let the broken turf come on top of this. If possible, beg or buy of Amos Opie a couple of good loads of the soil from the meadow bottom where the red bell-lilies grow, and mix this with the good loam, together with a scattering of bone, before replacing it. The bed should not only be full, but well rounded. Grade it nicely with a rake and wait a week or until rain has settled it before planting. When setting these lilies, let there be six inches of soil above the bulb, and sprinkle the hole into which it goes with fresh-water sand mixed with powdered sulphur. This bed will be quite large enough for a beginning and will allow you four rows of twenty bulbs in a row, with room for them to spread naturally into a close mass, if so desired. Or better yet, do not put them in stiff rows, but in groups, alternating the early-flowering with the late varieties. A row of German Iris at the back of this bed will give solidity and the sturdy foliage make an excellent windbreak in the blooming season. If your friendly woman in the back country will give you two dozen of the Madonna lily bulbs, group them in fours, leaving a short stake in the middle of each group that you may know its exact location, for the other lilies you cannot obtain before October, unless you chance to find them in the garden of some near-by florist or friend. These are-- _Lilium speciosum album_--white recurved. _Lilium speciosum rubrum_--spotted with ruby-red. _Lilium speciosum roseum_--spotted with rose-pink. All three flower in August and September, _rubrum_ being the latest, and barring accidents increase in size and beauty with each year. In spite of the fact of their fickleness, I would buy a dozen or two of the auratum lilies, for even if they last but for a single year, they are so splendid that we can almost afford to treat them as a fleeting spectacle. As the _speciosum_ lilies (I wish some one would give them a more gracious name--we call them curved-shell lilies here among ourselves) do not finish flowering sometimes until late in September, the bulbs are not ripe in time to be sold through the stores, until there is danger of the ground being frozen at night. [Illustration: SPECIOSUM LILIES IN THE SHADE.] On the other hand, if purchased in spring, unless the bulbs have been wintered with the greatest care in damp, not wet, peat moss, or sand, they become so withered that their vitality is seriously impaired. There are several dealers who make a specialty of thus wintering lily bulbs,[A] and if you buy from one of these, I advise spring planting. If, however, for any reason you wish to finish your bed this fall, after planting and covering each bulb, press a four or five inch flower-pot lightly into the soil above it. This will act as a partial watershed to keep the drip of rain or snow water from settling in the crown of the bulb and decaying the bud. Or if you have plenty of old boards about the place, they may be put on the bed and slightly raised in the centre, like a pitched roof, so as to form a more complete watershed, and the winter covering of leaves, salt, hay, or litter, free of manure, can be built upon this. Crocuses, snowdrops, and scillas make a charming border for a lily bed and may be also put between the lilies themselves to lend colour early in the season. To cover your bed thoroughly, so that it will keep out cold and damp and not shut it in, is a _must be_ of successful lily culture. Have you ever tried to grow our hardiest native lilies like the red-wood, Turk's cap, and Canada bell-lily in an open border where the porous earth, filled by ice crystal, was raised by the frost to the consistency of bread sponge? I did this not many years ago and the poor dears looked pinched and woebegone and wholly unlike their sturdy sisters of meadow and upland wood edges. Afterward, in trying to dig some of these lilies from their native soil, I discovered why they were uncomfortable in the open borders; the Garden, You, and I would have to work mighty hard to find a winter blanket for the lily bed to match the turf of wild grasses sometimes half a century old. Many other beautiful and possible lilies there are besides these four, but these are to be taken as first steps in lily lore, as it were; for to make anything like a general collection of this flower is a matter of more serious expense and difficulty than to collect roses, owing to the frailness of the material and the different climatic conditions under which the rarer species, especially those from India and the sea islands, originated; but given anything Japanese and a certain cosmopolitan intelligence seems bred in it that carries a reasonable hope of success under new conditions. We have half a dozen species of beautiful native lilies, but like some of our most exquisite ferns they depend much for their attractiveness upon the setting their natural haunts offer, and I do not like to see them caged, as it were, within strict garden boundaries. The red wood-lily should be met among the great brakes of a sandy wood edge, where white leafless wands of its cousin, star-grass, or colic root, wave above it, and the tall late meadow-rue and white angelica fringe the background. The Canada bell-lily needs the setting of meadow grasses to veil its long, stiff stalks, while the Turk's-cap lily seems the most at home of all in garden surroundings, but it only gains its greatest size in the deep meadows, where, without being wet, there is a certain moisture beneath the deep old turf, and this turf itself not only keeps out frost, but moderates the sun's rays in their transit to the ground. Two lilies there are that, escaping from gardens, in many places have become half wild--the brick-red, black-spotted tiger lily with recurved flowerets, after the shape of the Japanese _roseum_, _rubrum_, and _album_, being also a native of Japan and China, and the tawny orange day lily, that is found in masses about old cellars and waysides, with its tubular flowers, held on leafless stems, springing from a matted bed of leaves. This day lily (_hemerocallis fulva_) is sister to the familiar and showy lemon lily of old gardens (_hemerocallis flava_). If you have plenty of room by your wall, I should lodge a few good bunches by it when you find some in a location where digging is possible. It is a decorative flower, but hardly worthy of good garden soil. The same may be said of the tiger lily, on account of the very inharmonious shade of red it wears; yet if you have a half-wild nook, somewhere that a dozen bulbs of it may be tucked in company with a bunch of the common tall white phlox that flowers at the same time, you will have a bit of colour that will care for itself. The lemon lily should have a place in the hardy border well toward the front row and be given enough room to spread into a comfortable circle after the manner of the white plantain lily (_Funkia subcordata_). This last lily, another of Japan's contributions to the hardy garden, blooms from August until frost and unlike most of the lily tribe is pleased if well-rotted manure is deeply dug into its resting-place. As with humanity the high and lowly born are subject to the same diseases, so is it with the lily tribe, and because you choose the sturdiest and consequently least expensive species for your garden, do not think that you may relax your vigilance. There is a form of fungous mould that attacks the bulbs of lilies without rhyme or reason and is the insidious tuberculosis of the race. _Botrytis cinerea_ is its name and it seizes upon stalk and leaves in the form of spots that are at first yellow and then deepen in colour, until finally, having sapped the vitality of the plant, it succumbs. Cold, damp, insufficient protection in winter, all serve to render the lily liable to its attacks, but the general opinion among the wise is that the universal overstimulation of lilies by fertilizers during late years, especially of the white lilies used for church and other decorative purposes, has undermined the racial constitution and made it prone to attacks of the enemy. Therefore, if you please, Mary Penrose, sweet soil, sulphur, sand, and good winter covering, if you would not have your lily bed a consumptives' hospital! Some lilies are also susceptible to sunstroke. When growing in the full light and heat of the sun, and the buds are ready to open, suddenly the flowers, leaves, and entire stalk will wither, as when in spring a tulip collapses and we find that a meadow-mouse has nipped it in the core. But with the lily the blight comes from above, and the only remedy is to plant in half shade. On the other hand the whims of the flower require that this be done carefully, for if the scorching sun is an evil, a soaking, sopping rain, coming at the height of the blooming season and dripping from overhanging boughs, is equally so. The gold-and-copper pollen turns to rusty tears that mar the petals of satin ivory or inlaid enamel, and a sickly transparency that bodes death comes to the crisp, translucent flower! "What a pother for a bed of flowers!" I hear you say, "draining, subsoiling, sulphuring, sanding, covering, humouring, and then sunstroke or consumption at the end!" So be it, but when success does come, it is something worth while, for to be successful with these lilies is "aiming the star" in garden experience. The plantain lilies and hemerocallis seem free from all of these whims and diseases, but it is when we come to the lily-of-the-valley that we have the compensation for our tribulations with the royal lilies of pure blood. The lily-of-the-valley asks deep, very rich soil in the open sun; if a wall or hedge protects it from the north, so much the better. I do not know why people preach dense shade for this flower; possibly because they prefer leaves to flowers, or else that they are of the sheeplike followers of tradition instead of practical gardeners of personal experience. One thing grows to perfection in the garden of this commuter's wife, and that is lilies-of-the-valley, and shade knows them not between eight in the morning and five at night, and we pick and pick steadily for two weeks, for as the main bed gives out, there are strips here and there in cooler locations that retard the early growth, but never any overhanging branches. In starting a wholly new bed, as you are doing, it is best to separate the tangled roots into small bunches, seeing to it that a few buds or "pips" remain with each, and plant in long rows a foot apart, three rows to a four-foot bed. Be sure to bury a well-tarred plank a foot in width edgewise at the outer side of the bed, unless you wish, in a couple of years' time, to have this enterprising flower walk out and about the surrounding garden and take it for its own. Be sure to press the roots in thoroughly and cover with three inches of soil. In December cover the bed with rotten _cow_ manure for several inches and rake off the coarser part in April, taking care not to break the pointed "pips" that will be starting, and you will have a forest of cool green leaves and such flowers as it takes much money to buy. Not the first season, of course, but after that--forever, if you thin out and fertilize properly. In the back part of your lily-of-the-valley bed plant two or three rows of the lovely poets' narcissus (_poeticus_). It opens its white flowers of the "pheasant's eye" cup at the same time as the lilies bloom, it grows sufficiently tall to make a good upward gradation, and it likes to be let severely alone. But do not forget in covering in the fall to put leaves over the narcissi instead of manure. Of other daffodils and narcissi that I have found very satisfactory, besides the good mixtures offered by reliable houses at only a dollar or a dollar and a quarter a hundred (the poets' narcissi only costing eighty cents a hundred for good bulbs), are Trumpet Major, Incomparabilis, the old-fashioned "daffy," and the monster yellow trumpet narcissus, Van Sion. The polyanthus narcissi, carrying their many flowers in heads at the top of the stalk, are what is termed half hardy and they are more frequently seen in florists' windows than in gardens. I have found them hardy if planted in a sheltered spot, covered with slanted boards and leaves, which should not be removed before April, as the spring rain and winds, I am convinced, do more to kill the species than winter cold. The flowers are heavily fragrant, like gardenias, and are almost too sweet for the house; but they, together with violets, give the garden the opulence of odour before the lilacs are open, or the heliotropes that are to be perfumers-in-chief in summer have graduated from thumb pots in the forcing houses. [Illustration: THE POET'S NARCISSUS.] Unless one has a large garden and a gardener who can plant and tend parterres of spring colour, I do not set much value upon outdoor hyacinths; they must be lifted each year and often replaced, as the large bulbs soon divide into several smaller ones with the flowers proportionately diminished. To me their mission is, to be grown in pots, shallow pans, or glasses on the window ledge, for winter and spring comforters, and I use the early tulips much in the same way, except for a cheerful line of them, planted about the foundation of the house, that when in bloom seems literally to lift home upon the spring wings of resurrection! All my tulip enthusiasm is centred in the late varieties, and chief among these come the fascinating and fantastic "parrots." When next I have my garden savings-bank well filled, I am going to make a collection of these tulips and guard them in a bed underlaid with stout-meshed wire netting, so that no mole may leave a tunnel for the wicked tulip-eating meadow-mouse. It is these late May-flowering tulips of long stalks, like wands of tall perennials, that you can gather in your arms and arrange in your largest jars with a sense at once combined of luxury and artistic joy. Better begin as I did by buying them in mixture; the species you must choose are the bizarre, bybloems, parrots, breeders, Darwin tulips, and the rose and white, together with a general mixture of late singles. Five dollars will buy you fifty of each of the seven kinds, three hundred and fifty bulbs all told and enough for a fine display. The Darwin tulips yield beautiful shades of violet, carmine, scarlet, and brown; the bizarres, many curious effects in stripes and flakes; the rose and white, delicate frettings and margins of pink on a white ground; but the parrots have petals fringed, twisted, beaked, poised curiously upon the stalks, splashed with reds, yellows, and green, and to come suddenly upon a mass of them in the garden is to think for a brief moment that a group of unknown birds blown from the tropics in a forced migration have alighted for rest upon the bending tulip stalks. [A] F.H. Horsford of Charlotte, Vt., is very reliable in this matter. XIV FRAGRANT FLOWERS AND LEAVES (Mary Penrose to Barbara Campbell) _Woodridge, August 26._ The heliotrope is in the perfection of bloom and seems to draw perfume from the intense heat of the August days only to release it again as the sun sets, while as long as daylight lasts butterflies of all sizes, shapes, and colours are fluttering about the flowers until the bed is like the transformation scene of a veritable dance of fairies! Possibly you did not know that I have a heliotrope bed planted at the very last moment. I had never before seen a great mass of heliotrope growing all by itself until I visited your garden, and ever since I have wondered why more people have not discovered it. I think that I wrote you anent _hens_ that the ancient fowl-house of the place had been at the point where there was a gap in the old wall below the knoll, and that the wind swept up through it from the river, across the Opal Farm meadows, and into the windows of the dining room? The most impossible place for a fowl-house, but exactly the location, as _The Man from Everywhere_ suggested, for a bed of sweet odours. I expected to do nothing with it this season until one day Larry, the departed, in a desire to use some of the domestic guano with which the rough cellar of the old building was filled, carted away part of it, and supplying its place with loam, dug over and straightened out the irregular space, which is quite six feet wide by thirty long. The same day, on going to a near-by florist's for celery plants, I found that he had a quantity of little heliotropes in excess of his needs, that had remained unpotted in the sand of the cutting house, where they had spindled into sickly-looking weeds. In a moment of the horticultural gambling that will seize one, I offered him a dollar for the lot, which he accepted readily, for it was the last of June and the poor things would probably have been thrown out in a day or two. I took them home and spent a whole morning in separating and cutting off the spindling tops to an even length of six inches. Literally there seemed to be no end to the plants, and when I counted them I found that I had nearly a hundred and fifty heliotropes, which, after rejecting the absolutely hopeless, gave me six rows for the bed. For several weeks my speculation in heliotropes was a subject of much mirth between Bart and myself, and the place was anything but a bed of sweet odours! The poor things lost the few leaves they had possessed and really looked as if they had been haunted by the ghosts of all the departed chickens that had gone from the fowl-house to the block. Then we had some wet weather, followed by growing summer heat, and I did not visit the bed for perhaps a week or more, when I rubbed my eyes and pinched myself; for it was completely covered with a mass of vigorous green, riotous in its profusion, here and there showing flower buds, and ever since it is one of the places to which I go to feast my eyes and nose when in need of garden encouragement! Another year I shall plant the heliotrope in one of the short cross-walk borders of the old garden, where we may also see it from the dining room, and use the larger bed for the more hardy sweet things, as I shall probably never be able to buy so many heliotrope plants again for so little money. Now also I have a definite plan for a large border of fragrant flowers and leaves. I have been on a journey, and, having spent three whole days from home, I am able for once to tell you something instead of endlessly stringing questions together. We also have been to the Cortrights' at Gray Rocks, and through a whiff of salt air, a touch of friendly hands, much conversation, and a drive to Coningsby (a village back from the shore peopled by the descendants of seafarers who, having a little property, have turned mildly to farming), we have received fresh inspiration. You did not overestimate the originality of the Cortrights' seaside garden, and even after your intimate description, it contained several surprises in the shape of masses of the milkweeds that flourish in sandy soil, especially the dull pink, and the orange, about which the brick-red monarch butterflies were hovering in great flocks. Neither did you tell me of the thistles that flank the bayberry hedge. I never realized what a thing of beauty a thistle might be when encouraged and allowed room to develop. Some of the plants of the common deep purple thistle, that one associates with the stunted growths of dusty roadsides, stood full five feet high, each bush as clear cut and erect as a candelabrum of fine metal work, while another group was composed of a pale yellow species with a tinge of pink in the centre set in very handsome silvery leaves. I had never before seen these yellow thistles, but Lavinia Cortright says that they are very plentiful in the dry ground back of the marshes, where the sand has been carried in drifts both by wind and tide. The table and house decorations the day that we arrived were of thistles blended with the deep yellow blossoms of the downy false foxglove or Gerardia and the yellow false indigo that looks at a short distance like a dwarf bush pea. We drove to Coningsby, as I supposed to see some gay little gardens, fantastic to the verge of awfulness, that had caught Aunt Lavinia's eye. In one the earth for the chief bed was contained in a surf-boat that had become unseaworthy from age, and not only was it filled to the brim, but vines of every description trailed over the sides. A neighbour opposite, probably a garden rival of the owner of the boat but lacking aquatic furniture, had utilized a single-seated cutter which, painted blue of the unmerciful shade that fights with everything it approaches, was set on an especially green bit of side lawn, surrounded by a heavy row of conch shells, and the box into which the seat had been turned, as well as the bottom of the sleigh itself, was filled with a jumble of magenta petunias and flame-coloured nasturtiums. After we had passed down a village street a quarter of a mile long, bordered on either side by floral combinations of this description, the sight began to pall, and I wondered how it was possible that any flowers well watered and cared for could produce such a feeling of positive aversion as well as eye-strained fatigue; also, if this was all that the Cortrights had driven us many miles to see, when it was so much more interesting to lounge on either of the porches of their own cottage, the one commanding the sea and the other the sand garden, the low dunes, and the marsh meadows. "It is only half a mile farther on," said Aunt Lavinia, quick to feel that we were becoming bored, without our having apparently given any sign to that effect. "It! What is _it_?" asked Bart, while I, without shame it is confessed, having a ravenous appetite, through outdoor living, hoped that _it_ was some quaint and neat little inn that "refreshed travellers," as it was expressed in old-time wording. "How singular!" ejaculated Aunt Lavinia; "I thought I told you last night when we were in the garden--well, it must have been in a dream instead. _It_ is the garden of Mrs. Marchant, wholly of fragrant things; it is on the little cross-road, beyond that strip of woods up there," and she waved toward a slight rise in the land that was regarded as a hill of considerable importance in this flat country. "It does not contain merely a single bed of sweet odours like Barbara's and mine, but is a garden an acre in extent, where everything admitted has fragrance, either in flower or leaf. We chanced upon it quite by accident, Martin and I, when driving ourselves down from Oaklands, across country, as it were, to Gray Rocks, by keeping to shady lanes, byways, and pent roads, where it was often necessary to take down bars and sometimes verge on trespassing by going through farmyards in order to continue our way. "After traversing a wood road of unusual beauty, where everything broken and unsightly had been carefully removed that ferns and wild shrubs might have full chance of life, we came suddenly upon a white picket gate covered by an arched trellis, beyond which in the vista could be seen a modest house of the real colonial time, set in the midst of a garden. "At once we realized the fact that the lane was also a part of the garden in that it was evidently the daily walk of some one who loved nature, and we looked about for a way of retracing our steps. At the same moment two female figures approached the gate from the other side. At the distance at which we were I could only see that one was tall and slender, was dressed all in pure white, and crowned by a mass of hair to match, while the other woman was short and stocky, and the way in which she opened the gate and held it back told that whatever her age might be she was an attendant, though probably an intimate one. "In another moment they discovered us, and as Martin alighted from the vehicle to apologize for our intrusion the tall figure immediately retreated to the garden, so quickly and without apparent motion that we were both startled, for the way of moving is peculiar to those whose feet do not really tread the earth after the manner of their fellows; and before we had quite recovered ourselves the stout woman had advanced and we saw by the pleasant smile her round face wore that she was not aggrieved at the intrusion but seemed pleased to meet human beings in that out-of-the-way place rather than rabbits, many of which had scampered away as we came down the lane. "Martin explained our dilemma and asked if we might gain the highway without retracing our steps. The woman hesitated a moment, and then said, 'If you come through the gate and turn sharp to the right, you can go out across the apple orchard by taking down a single set of bars, only you'll have to lead your horse, sir, for the trees are set thick and are heavy laden. I'd let you cross the bit of grass to the drive by the back gate yonder but that it would grieve Mrs. Marchant to see the turf so much as pressed with a wheel; she'd feel and know it somehow, even if she didn't see it.' "'Mrs. Marchant! Not Mrs. Chester Marchant?' cried Martin, while the far-away echo of something recalled by the name troubled the ears of my memory. "'Yes, sir, the very same! Did you know Dr. Marchant, sir? The minute I laid eyes on you two I thought you were of her kind!' replied the woman, pointing backward over her shoulder and settling herself against the shaft and side of Brown Tom, the horse, as if expecting and making ready for a comfortable chat. "As she stood thus I could take a full look at her without intrusiveness. Apparently well over sixty years old, and her face lines telling of many troubles, yet she had not a gray hair in her head and her poise was of an independent landowner rather than an occupier of another's home. I also saw at a glance that whatever her present position might be, she had not been born in service, but was probably a native of local importance, who, for some reason perfectly satisfactory to herself, was 'accommodating.' "'Dr. Marchant, Dr. Russell, and I were college mates,' said Martin, briefly, 'and after he and his son died so suddenly I was told that his widow was mentally ill and that none could see her, and later that she had died, or else the wording was so that I inferred as much,' and the very recollection seemed to set Martin dreaming. And I did not wonder, for there had never been a more brilliant and devoted couple than Abbie and Chester Marchant, and I still remember the shock of it when word came that both father and son had been killed by the same runaway accident, though it was nearly twenty years ago. "'She was ill, sir, was Mrs. Marchant; too ill to see anybody. For a long time she wouldn't believe that the accident had happened, and when she really sensed it, she was as good as dead for nigh five years. One day some of her people came to me--'twas the year after my own husband died--and asked if I would take a lady and her nurse here to live with me for the summer. They told me of her sickness and how she was always talking of some cottage in a garden of sweet-smelling flowers where she had lived one happy summer with her husband and her boy, and they placed the house as mine. "'Her folks said the doctors thought if she could get back here for a time that it might help her. Then I recollected that ten years before, when I went up to Maine to visit my sister, I'd rented the place, just as it stood, to folks of the name of Marchant, a fine couple that didn't look beyond each other unless 'twas at their son. In past times my grandmother had an old-country knack of raising healing herbs and all sorts of sweet-smelling things, along with farm truck, so that folks came from all about to buy them and doctors too, for such things weren't sold so much in shops in those days as they are now, and so this place came to be called the Herb Farm. After that it was sold off, little by little, until the garden, wood lane, and orchard is about all that's left. "'I was lonesome and liked the idea of company, and besides I was none too well fixed; yet I dreaded a mournful widow that wasn't all there anyway, according to what they said, but I thought I'd try. Well, sir, she come, and that first week I thought I'd never stand it, she talked and wrung her hands so continual. But one day what do you think happened? I chanced to pick a nosegay, not so much fine flowers perhaps as good-smelling leaves and twigs, and put it in a little pitcher in her room. "'It was like witchcraft the way it worked; the smell of those things seemed to creep over her like some drugs might and she changed. She stopped moaning and went out into the garden and touched all the posies with her fingers, as if she was shaking hands, and all of a sudden it seemed, by her talk, as if her dead were back with her again; and on every other point she's been as clear and ladylike as possible ever since, and from that day she cast off her black clothes as if wearing 'em was all through a mistake. "'The doctors say it's something to do with the 'sociation of smells, for that season they spent in my cottage was the only vacation Dr. Marchant had taken in years, and they say it was the happiest time in her life, fussing about among my old-fashioned posies with him; and somehow in her mind he's got fixed there among those posies, and every year she plants more and more of them, and what friends of hers she ever speaks of she remembers by some flowers they wore or liked. "'Well, as it turned out, her trustees have bought my place out and fixed it over, and here we live together, I may say, both fairly content! "'Come in and see her, won't you? It'll do no harm. Cortright, did you say your name was?' and before we could retreat, throwing Brown Tom's loose check-rein across the pickets of the gate, she led us to where the tall woman, dressed in pure white, stood under the trees, a look of perfectly calm expectancy in the wonderful dark eyes that made such a contrast to her coils of snow-white hair. "'Cortright! Martin Cortright, is it not?' she said immediately, as her companion spoke the surname. 'And your wife? I had not heard that you were married, but I remember you well, Lavinia Dorman, and your city garden, and the musk-rose bush that ailed because of having too little sun. Chester will be so sorry to miss you; he is seldom at home in the mornings, for he takes long walks with our son. He is having the first entire half year's vacation he has allowed himself since our marriage. But you will always find him in the garden in the afternoon; he is so fond of fragrant flowers, and he is making new studies of herbs and such things, for he believes that in spite of some great discoveries it will be proven that the old simples are the most enduring medicines.' "As she spoke she was leading the way, with that peculiar undulating progress, like a cloud blown over the earth's surface, that I had noticed at first. Then we came out from under the shade of the trees into the garden enclosure and I saw borders and beds, but chiefly borders, stretching and curving everywhere, screening all the fences, approaching the house, and when almost there retreating in graceful lines into the shelter of the trees. The growth had the luxuriance of a jungle, and yet there was nothing weedy or awry about it, and as the breeze blew toward us the combination of many odours, both pungent and sweet, was almost overpowering. "'You very seldom wore a buttonhole flower, but when you did it was a safrano bud or else a white jasmine,' Mrs. Marchant said, wheeling suddenly and looking at Martin with a gaze that did not stop where he stood, but went through and beyond him; 'it was Dr. Russell who always wore a pink! See! I have both here!' and going up to a tea-rose bush, grown to the size of a shrub and lightly fastened to the side of the house, she gathered a few shell-like buds and a moment later pulled down a spray of the jasmine vine that festooned a window, as we see it in England but never here, and carefully cut off a cluster of its white stars by aid of a pair of the long, slender flower-picking scissors that hung from her belt by a ribbon, twisted the stems together, and placed them in Martin's buttonhole almost without touching it. "Having done this, she seemed to forget us and drifted away among the flowers, touching some gently as she passed, snipping a dead leaf here and arranging a misplaced branch there. "We left almost immediately, but have been there many times since, and though as a whole the garden is too heavily fragrant, I thought that it might suggest possibilities to you." As Aunt Lavinia paused we were turning from the main road into the narrow but beautifully kept lane upon which the Herb Farm, as it was still called, was located, by one of those strange freaks that sometimes induces people to build in a strangely inaccessible spot, though quite near civilization. I know that you must have come upon many such places in your wanderings. Of course my curiosity was piqued, and I felt, besides, as if I was about to step into the page of some strange psychological romance, nor was I disappointed. The first thing that I saw when we entered was a great strip of heliotrope that rivalled my own, and opposite it an equal mass of silvery lavender crowned by its own flowers, of the colour that we so frequently use as a term, but seldom correctly. There were no flagged or gravel walks, but closely shorn grass paths, the width of a lawn-mower, that followed the outline of the borders and made grateful footing. Bounding the heliotrope and lavender on one side was a large bed of what I at first thought were Margaret carnations, of every colour combination known to the flower, but a closer view showed that while those in the centre were Margarets, those of the wide border were of a heavier quality both in build of plant, texture of leaf, and flower, which was like a compact greenhouse carnation, the edges of the petals being very smooth and round, while in addition to many rich, solid colours there were flowers of white-and-yellow ground, edged and striped and flaked with colour, and the fragrance delicious and reminiscent of the clove pinks of May. Mrs. Puffin, the companion, could tell us little about them except that the seed from which they were raised came from England and that, as she put it, they were fussy, troublesome things, as those sown one season had to be lifted and wintered in the cold pit and get just so much air every day, and be planted out in the border again in April. Aunt Lavinia recognized them as the same border carnations over which she had raved when she first saw them in the trim gardens of Hampton Court. Can either you or Evan tell me more of them and why we do not see them here? Before long I shall go garden mad, I fear; for after grooming the place into a generally decorative and floriferous condition of trees, shrubs, vines, ferns, etc., will come the hunger for specialties that if completely satisfied will necessitate not only a rosary, a lily and wild garden, a garden--rather than simply a bed--of sweet odours, and lastly a garden wholly for the family of pinks or carnations, whichever is the senior title. I never thought of these last except as a garden incident until I saw their possibilities in Mrs. Marchant's space of fragrant leaves and flowers. [Illustration: A BED OF JAPAN PINKS.] The surrounding fences were entirely concealed by lilacs and syringas, interspersed with gigantic bushes of the fragrant, brown-flowered strawberry shrub; the four gates, two toward the road, one to the barn-yard, and one entering the wood lane, were arched high and covered by vines of Wisteria, while similar arches seemed to bring certain beds together that would have looked scattered and meaningless without them. In fact next to the presence of fragrant things, the artistic use of vines as draperies appealed to me most. The border following the fence was divided, back of the house, by a vine-covered arbour, on the one side of which the medicinal herbs and simples were massed; on the other what might be classed as decorative or garden flowers, though some of the simples, such as tansy with its clusters of golden buttons, must be counted decorative. The plants were never set in straight lines, but in irregular groups that blended comfortably together. Mrs. Marchant was not feeling well, Mrs. Puffin said, and could not come out, greatly to my disappointment; but the latter was only too glad to do the honours, and the plant names slipped from her tongue with the ease of long familiarity. This patch of low growth with small heads of purple flowers was broad-leaved English thyme; that next, summer savory, used in cooking, she said. Then followed common sage and its scarlet-flowered cousin that we know as salvia; next came rue and rosemary, Ophelia's flower of remembrance, with stiff leaves. Little known or grown, or rather capricious and tender here, I take it, for I find plants of it offered for sale in only one catalogue. Marigolds were here also, why I do not know, as I should think they belonged with the more showy flowers; then inconspicuous pennyroyal and several kinds of mints--spearmint, peppermint, and some great plants of velvet-leaved catnip. Borage I saw for the first time, also coriander of the aromatic seeds, and a companion of dill of vinegar fame; and strangely enough, in rotation of Bible quotation, cumin and rue came next. Caraway and a feathery mass of fennel took me back to grandmother's Virginia garden; balm and arnica, especially when I bruised a leaf of the latter between my fingers, recalled the bottle from which I soothe the Infant's childish bumps, the odour of it being also strongly reminiscent of my own childhood. Angelica spoke of the sweet candied stalks, but when we reached a spot of basil, Martin Cortright's tongue was loosed and he began to recite from Keats; and all at once I seemed to see Isabella sitting among the shadows holding between her knees the flower-pot from which the strangely nourished plant of basil grew as she watered it with her tears. A hedge of tall sunflowers, from whose seeds, Mrs. Puffin said, a soothing and nourishing cough syrup may be made, antedating cod-liver oil, replaced the lilacs on this side, and with them blended boneset and horehound; while in a springy spot back toward the barn-yard the long leaves of sweet flag or calamus introduced a different class of foliage. On the garden side the border was broken every ten feet or so with great shrubs of our lemon verbena, called lemon balm by Mrs. Puffin. It seemed impossible that such large, heavily wooded plants could be lifted for winter protection in the cellar, yet such Mrs. Puffin assured us was the case. So I shall grow mine to this size if possible, for what one can do may be accomplished by another,--that is the tonic of seeing other gardens than one's own. Between the lemon verbenas were fragrant-leaved geraniums of many flavours--rose, nutmeg, lemon, and one with a sharp peppermint odour, also a skeleton-leaved variety; while a low-growing plant with oval leaves and half-trailing habit and odd odour, Mrs. Puffin called apple geranium, though it does not seem to favour the family. Do you know it? Bee balm in a blaze of scarlet made glowing colour amid so much green, and strangely enough the bluish lavender of the taller-growing sister, wild bergamot, seems to harmonize with it; while farther down the line grew another member of this brave family of horsemints with almost pink, irregular flowers of great beauty. Southernwood formed fernlike masses here and there; dwarf tansy made the edging, together with the low, yellow-flowered musk, which Aunt Lavinia, now quite up in such things, declared to be a "musk-scented mimulus!" whatever that may be! Stocks, sweet sultan, and tall wands of evening primrose graded this border up to another shrubbery. Of mignonette the garden boasts a half dozen species, running from one not more than six inches in height with cinnamon-red flowers to a tall variety with pointed flower spikes, something of the shape of the white flowers of the clethra bush or wands of Culver's root that grow along the fence at Opal Farm. It is not so fragrant as the common mignonette, but would be most graceful to arrange with roses or sweet peas. Aunt Lavinia says that she thinks that it is sold under the name of Miles spiral mignonette. Close to the road, where the fence angle allows for a deep bed and the lilacs grade from the tall white of the height of trees down to the compact bushes of newer French varieties, lies the violet bed, now a mass of green leaves only, but by these Aunt Lavinia's eye read them out and found here the English sweet wild violet, as well as the deep purple double garden variety, the tiny white scented that comes with pussy-willows, the great single pansy violet of California, and the violets grown from the Russian steppes that carpeted the ground under your "mother tree." From this bed the lilies-of-the-valley start and follow the entire length of the front fence, as you preach on the sunny side, the fence itself being hidden by a drapery of straw-coloured and pink Chinese honeysuckle that we called at home June honeysuckle, though this is covered with flower sprays in late August, and must be therefore a sort of monthly-minded hybrid, after the fashion of the hybrid tea-rose. If I were to tell of the tea-roses grown here, they would fill a chronicle by itself, though only a few of the older kinds, such as safrano, bon silene, and perle, are favourites. Mrs. Puffin says that some of them, the great shrubs, are wintered out-of-doors, and others are lifted, like the lemon balms, and kept in the dry, light cellar in tubs. But oh! Mrs. Evan, you must go and see Mrs. Marchant's lilies! They are growing as freely as weeds among the uncut grass, and blooming as profusely as the bell-lilies in Opal Farm meadows! And all the spring bulbs are also grown in this grass that lies between the shorn grass paths, and in autumn when the tops are dead and gone it is carefully burned over and the turf is all the winter covering they have. Does the grass look ragged and unsightly? No, because I think that it is cut lightly with a scythe after the spring bulbs are gone and that the patient woman, whose life the garden is, keeps the tallest seeded grasses hand trimmed from between the lily stalks! Ah, but how that garden lingers with me, and the single glimpse I caught of the deep dark eyes of its mistress as they looked out of a vine-clad window toward the sky! I have made a list of the plants that are possible for my own permanent bed of fragrant flowers and leaves, that I may enjoy them, and that the Infant may have fragrant memories to surround all her youth and bind her still more closely to the things of outdoor life. I chanced upon a verse of Bourdillon's the other day. Do you know it? "Ah! full of purest influence On human mind and mood, Of holiest joy to human sense Are river, field, and wood; And better must all childhood be That knows a garden and a tree!" XV THE PINK FAMILY OUTDOORS (Barbara Campbell to Mary Penrose) _Oaklands, September 1._ So you have been away and in going discovered the possibilities of growing certain pinks and carnations out-of-doors that, in America at least, are usually considered the winter specialties of a cool greenhouse! We too have been afield somewhat, having but now returned from a driving trip of ten days, nicely timed as to gardens and resting-places until the last night, when, making a false turn, ten o'clock found us we did not know where and with no prospect of getting our bearings. We had ample provisions for supper with us, including two bottles of ginger ale; no one knew that we were lost but ourselves and no one was expecting us anywhere, as we travel quite _con amore_ on these little near-by journeys of ours. The August moon was big and hot and late in rising; there was a rick of old hay in a clean-looking field by the roadside that had evidently been used as winter fodder for young cattle, for what remained of it was nibbled about the base, leaving a protruding, umbrella-like thatch, not very substantial, but sufficient shelter for a still night. Then and there we decided to play gypsy and camp out, literally under the sky. Evan unharnessed the horse, watered him at a convenient roadside puddle, and tethered him at the rear of the stack, where he could nibble the hay, but not us! Then spreading the horse-blanket on some loose hay for a bed, with the well-tufted seat of the buggy for a pillow, and utilizing the lap robe for a cover against dew, we fell heavily asleep, though I had all the time a half-conscious feeling as if little creatures were scrambling about in the hay beneath the blanket and occasionally brushing my face or ears with a batlike wing, tiny paws, or whisking tail. When I awoke, and of course immediately stirred up Evan, the moon was low on the opposite side of the stack, the stars were hidden, and there was a dull red glow among the heavy clouds of the eastern horizon like the reflection of a distant fire, while an owl hooted close by from a tree and then flew with a lurch across the meadow, evidently to the destruction of some small creature, for a squeal accompanied the swoop. A mysterious thing, this flight of the owl: the wings did not flap, there was no sound, merely the consciousness of displaced air. We were not, as it afterward proved, ten miles from home, and yet, as far as trace of humanity was concerned, we might have been the only created man and woman. Do you remember the old gypsy song?--Ben Jonson's, I think-- "The owl is abroad, the bat, the toad, And so is the cat-a-mountain; The ant and the mole both sit in a hole, And frog peeps out o' the fountain; The dogs they bay and the timbrels play And the spindle now is turning; The moon it is red, and the stars are fled But all the sky is a-burning." But we were still more remote, for of beaters of timbrels and turners of spindles were there none! * * * * * Your last chronicle interested us all. In the first place father remembers Mrs. Marchant perfectly, for he and the doctor used to exchange visits constantly during that long-ago summer when they lived on the old Herb Farm at Coningsby. Father had heard that she was hopelessly deranged, but nothing further, and the fact that she is living within driving distance in the midst of her garden of fragrance is a striking illustration both of the littleness of the earth and the social remoteness of its inhabitants. Father says that Mrs. Marchant was always a very intellectual woman, and he remembers that in the old days she had almost a passion for fragrant flowers, and once wrote an essay upon the psychology of perfumes that attracted some attention in the medical journal in which it was published by her husband. That the perfume of flowers should now have drawn the shattered fragments of her mind together for their comfort and given her the foretaste of immortality, by the sign of the consciousness of personal presence and peace, is beautiful indeed. Your declaration that henceforth one garden is not enough for your ambition, but that you crave several, amuses me greatly. For a mere novice I must say that you are making strides in seven-league horticultural boots, wherein you have arrived at the heart of the matter, viz.:--one may grow many beautiful and satisfactory flowers in a mixed garden such as falls to the lot of the average woman sufficiently lucky to own a garden at all, but to develop the best possibilities of any one family, like the rose, carnation, or lily, that is a bit whimsical about food and lodging, each one must have a garden of its own, so to speak, which, for the amateur, may be made to read as a special bed in a special location, and not necessarily a vast area. This need is always recognized in the English garden books, and the chapter headings, The Rose Garden,--Hardy Garden,--Wall Garden,--Lily Garden,--Alpine Garden, etc., lead one at first sight to think that it is a great estate alone that can be so treated; but it is merely a horticultural protest, born of long experience, against mixing races to their mutual hurt, and this precaution, together with the climate, makes of all England a gardener's paradise! What you say of the expansiveness of the list of fragrant flowers and leaves is also true, for taken in the literal sense there are really few plants without an individual odour of some sort in bark, leaf, or flower usually sufficient to identify them. In a recent book giving what purports to be a list of fragrant flowers and leaves, the chrysanthemum is included, as it gives out an aromatic perfume from its leaves! This is true, but so also does the garden marigold, and yet we should not include either among fragrant leaves in the real sense. Hence to make the right selection of plants for the bed of sweet odours it is best, as in the case of choosing annuals, to adhere to a few tried and true worthies. But at your rhapsody on the bed of carnations, I am also tempted to launch forth in praise of all pinks in general and the annual flowering garden carnation, early Marguerite, and picotee varieties in particular, especially when I think what results might be had from the same bits of ground that are often left to be overrun with straggling and unworthy annuals. For to have pinks to cut for the house, pinks for colour masses out-of-doors, and pinks to give away, is but a matter of understanding, a little patience, and the possession of a cold pit (which is but a deeper sort of frame like that used for a hotbed and sunken in the ground) against a sunny wall, for the safe wintering of a few of the tenderer species. In touching upon this numerous family, second only to the rose in importance, the embarrassment is, where to begin. Is a carnation a pink, or a pink a carnation? I have often been asked. You may settle that as you please, since the family name of all, even the bearded Sweet-William, is _Dianthus_, the decisive title of Linnæus, a word from the Greek meaning "flower of Jove," while the highly scented species and varieties of the more or less pungent clove breath remain under the old subtitle--_Caryophyllus_. To go minutely into the differences and distinctions of the race would require a book all to itself, for in 1597, more than three hundred years ago, Gerarde wrote: "There are, under the name of _Caryophyllus_, comprehended diuers and sundrie sorts of plants, of such variable colours and also severall shapes that a great and large volume would not suffice to write of euery one in particular." And when we realize that the pink was probably the first flower upon which, early in the eighteenth century, experiments in hybridization were tried, the intricacy will be fully understood. For the Garden, You, and I, three superficial groups only are necessary: the truly hardy perennial pinks, that when once established remain for years; the half-hardy perennials that flower the second year after planting, and require protection; and the biennials that will flower the first year and may be treated as annuals. The Margaret carnations, though biennials, are best treated as annuals, for they may be had in flower in three to four months after the sowing of the seed, and the English perennial border carnations, bizarres, and picotees will live for several years, but in this climate must be wintered in a _dry wooden_ cold pit, after the manner of the perennial varieties of wallflowers, tender roses, and the like. I emphasize the words _dry wooden_ in connection with a cold pit from my experience in seeking to make mine permanent by replacing the planks, with which it was built and which often decayed, by stone work, with most disastrous results, causing me to lose a fine lot of plants by mildew. The truly hardy pinks (_dianthus plumarius_), the fringed and clove-scented species both double and single of old-time gardens, that bloom in late spring and early summer, are called variously May and grass pinks. Her Majesty is a fine double white variety of this class, and if, in the case of double varieties, you wish to avoid the risk of getting single flowers, you would better start your stock with a few plants and subdivide. For myself, every three or four years, I sow the seed of these pinks in spring in the hardy seed bed, and transplant to their permanent bed early in September, covering the plants lightly in winter with evergreen boughs or corn stalks. Leaf litter or any sort of covering that packs and holds water is deadly to pinks, so prone is the crown to decay. In the catalogues you will find these listed under the names of Pheasant's Eye, Double Scotch pinks (_Scotius_), and Perpetual Pink (_semperflorens_). With this class belongs the Sweet-William (_dianthus barbatus_), which should be sown and treated in a like manner. It is also a hardy perennial, but I find it best to renew it every few years, as the flowers of young plants are larger, and in spite of care, the most beautiful hybrids will often decay at the ground. There is no garden flower, excepting the Dahlia, that gives us such a wealth of velvet bloom, and if you mean to make a specialty of pinks, I should advise you to buy a collection of Sweet-Williams in the separate colours, which range from white to deepest crimson with varied markings. Directions for sowing the biennial Chinese and Japanese pinks were given in the chronicle concerning the hardy seed bed. These pinks are not really fragrant, though most of them have a pleasant apple odour that, together with their wonderful range of colour, makes them particularly suitable for table decoration. In addition to the mixed colours recommended for the general seed bed, the following Japanese varieties are of special beauty, among the single pinks: Queen of Holland, pure white; Eastern Queen, enormous rose-pink flowers, Crimson Belle, dark red. Among the double, Fireball, an intense scarlet; the Diadem pink, Salmon Queen, and the lovely Oriental Beauty with diversely marked petals of a crêpy texture. The double varieties of course are more solid and lasting, if they do not insist upon swelling so mightily that they burst the calyx and so have a dishevelled and one sided look; but for intrinsic beauty of colour and marking the single Chinese and Japanese pinks, particularly the latter, reign supreme. They have a quality of holding one akin to that of the human eye and possess much of the power of individual expression that belongs to pansies and single violets. By careful management and close clipping of withered flowers, a bed of these pinks may be had in bloom from June until December, the first flowers coming from the autumn-sown plants, which may be replaced in August by those sown in the seed bed in late May, which by this time will be well budded. "August is a kittle time for transplanting border things," I hear you say. To be sure; but with your water-barrel, the long-necked water-pots, and a judicious use of inverted flower-pots between ten A.M. and four P.M., there is no such word as fail in this as in many other cases. [Illustration: SINGLE AND DOUBLE PINKS.] Upon the second and third classes you must depend for pinks of the taller growth ranging from one to two feet in height and flourishing long-stemmed clusters of deliciously clove-scented flowers. The hardy Margarets might be wintered in the pit, if it were worth the while, but they are so easily raised from seed, and so prone literally to bloom themselves to death in the three months between midsummer and hard frost, that I prefer to sow them each year in late March and April and plant them out in May, as soon as their real leaves appear, and pull them up at the general autumnal garden clearance. Upon the highly scented perpetual and picotee pinks or carnations (make your own choice of terms) you must depend for fragrance between the going of the May pinks and the coming of the Margarets; not that they of necessity cease blooming when their more easily perfected sisters begin; quite the contrary, for the necessity of lifting them in the winter gives them a spring set-back that they do not have in England, where they are the universal hardy pink, alike of the gardens of great estates and the brick-edged cottage border. These are the carnations of Mrs. Marchant's garden that filled you with such admiration, and also awoke the spirit of emulation. Lavinia Cortright was correct in associating them with the lavish bloom of the gardens of Hampton Court, for if anything could make me permanently unpatriotic (which is impossible), it would be the roses and picotee pinks of the dear old stupid (human middle-class, and cold bedroom-wise), but florally adorable mother country! The method by which you may possess yourself of these crowning flowers of the garden, for _coro_nations is one of the words from which _car_nation is supposed but to be derived, is as follows:-- Be sure of your seed. Not long ago it was necessary to import it direct, but not now. You may buy from the oldest of American seed houses fifty varieties of carnations and picotees, in separate packets, for three dollars, or twenty-five sorts for one dollar and seventy-five cents, or twelve (enough for a novice) for one dollar, the same being undoubtedly English or Holland grown, while a good English house asks five shillings, or a dollar and a quarter, for a single packet of mixed varieties! Moral--it is not necessary that "made in England" should be stamped upon flower seeds to prove them of English origin! If you can spare hotbed room, the seeds may be sown in April, like the early Margarets, and transplanted into some inconspicuous part of the vegetable garden, where the soil is deep and firm and there is a free circulation of air (not between tall peas and sweet corn), as for the first summer these pinks have no ornamental value, other than the pleasurable spectacle made by a healthy plant of any kind, by virtue of its future promise. Before frost or not later than the second week in October the pinks should be put in long, narrow boxes or pots sufficiently large to hold all the roots comfortably, but with little space to spare, watered, and partly shaded, until they have recovered themselves, when they should be set in the lightest part of the cold pit. During the winter months they should have only enough water to keep the earth from going to dust, and as much light and air as possible without absolutely freezing hard, after the manner of treating lemon verbenas, geraniums, and wall-flowers. By the middle of April they may be planted in the bed where they are to bloom, and all the further care they need will be judicious watering and the careful staking of the flower stalks if they are weak and the buds top-heavy,--and by the way, as to the staking of flowers in general, a word with you later on. In the greenhouse, pinks are liable to many ailments, and several of these follow them out-of-doors, three having given me some trouble, the most fatal being of a fungoid order, due usually to unhealthy root conditions or an excess of moisture. _Rust_ is one of these, its Latin name being too long for the simple vocabulary of The Garden, You, and I. It first shows itself in a brown spot that seems to have worked out from the inner part of the leaf. Sometimes it can be conquered by snipping the infected leaves, but if it seizes an entire bed, the necessary evil of spraying with Bordeaux mixture must be resorted to, as in the case of fungus-spotted hollyhocks. _Thrip_, the little transparent, whitish fly, will sometimes bother border carnations in the same way as it does roses. If the flowers are only in bud, I sprinkle them with my brass rose-atomizer and powder slightly with helebore. But if the flowers are open, sprinkling and shaking alone may be resorted to. For the several kinds of underground worms that trouble pinks, of which the wireworm is the chief, I have found a liberal use of unslaked lime and bone-dust in the preparation of the soil before planting the best preventive. Other ailments have appeared only occasionally. Sometimes an apparently healthy, full-grown plant will suddenly wither away, or else swell up close to the ground and finally burst so that the sap leaks out and it dies like a punctured or girdled tree. The first trouble may come from the too close contact of fresh manure, which should be kept away from the main roots of carnations, as from contact with lily bulbs. As to the swelling called _gout_, there is no cure, so do not temporize. Pull up the plant at once and disinfect the spot with unslaked lime and sulphur. Thus, Mary Penrose, may you have either pinks in your garden or a garden of pinks, whichever way you may care to develop your idea. "A deal of trouble?" Y-e-s; but then only think of the flowers that crown the work, and you might spend an equal amount of time in pricking cloth with a steel splinter and embroidering something, in the often taken-in-vain name of decorative art, that in the end is only an elaborated rag--without even the bone and the hank of hair! XVI THE FRAME OF THE PICTURE VINES AND SHRUBS (Mary Penrose to Barbara Campbell) _Woodridge, September 10._ Your chronicle of the Pink Family found me by myself in camp, dreaming away as vigorously as if it was a necessary and practical occupation. After all, are we sure that it is not, in a way, both of these? This season my dreams of night have been so long that they have lingered into the things of day and _vice versa_, and yet neither the one nor the other have whispered of idleness, but the endless hope of work. Bart's third instalment of vacation ends to-morrow, though we shall continue to sleep out of doors so long as good weather lasts; the remaining ten days we are saving until October, when the final transplanting of trees and shrubs is to be made; and in addition to those for the knoll we have marked some shapely dogwoods, hornbeams, and tulip trees for grouping in other parts of the home acres. There are also to be had for the digging good bushes of the early pink and clammy white azalea, mountain-laurel, several of the blueberry tribe, that have white flowers in summer and glorious crimson foliage in autumn, white-flowered elder, button-bush, groundsel tree, witchhazel, bayberry, the shining-leaved sumach, the white meadow-sweet, and pink steeplebush, besides a number of cornels and viburnums suitable for shrubberies. As I glance over the list of what the river and quarry woods have yielded us, it is like reading from the catalogue of a general dealer in hardy plants, and yet I suppose hundreds of people have as much almost at their doors, if they did but know it. The commercial side of a matter of this kind is not the one upon which to dwell the most, except upon the principle of the old black woman who said, "Chillun, count yer marcies arter every spell o' pain!" and to-day, in assaying our mercies and the various advantages of our garden vacation, I computed that the trees, shrubs, ferns, herbaceous wild flowers, and vines (yes, we have included vines, of which I must tell you), if bought of the most reasonable of dealers, would have cost us at least three hundred dollars, without express or freight charges. The reason for my being by myself at this particular moment is that Bart, mounted on solemn Romeo, has taken the Infant, astride her diminutive pony, by a long leader, for a long-promised ride up the river road, the same being the _finale_ of the celebration of his birthday, that began shortly after daylight. The Infant, in order to be early enough to give him the first of his thirty-three kisses, came the night before, and though she has camped out with us at intervals all summer, the novelty has not worn off. She has a happy family of pets that, without being caged or in any way coerced or confined, linger about the old barn, seem to watch for her coming, and expect their daily rations, even though they do not care to be handled. Punch and Judy, the gray squirrels of the dovecote, perch upon her shoulders and pry into the pockets of her overalls for nuts or kernels of corn, all the while keeping a bright eye upon Reddy, the setter pup, who, though he lies ever so sedately, nose between paws, they well know is not to be trusted. While as for birds, all the season we have had chipping-sparrows, catbirds, robins, and even a wood-thrush, leader of the twilight orchestra, all of whom the little witch has tempted in turn by a bark saucer spread with leaves and various grains and small fruits, from strawberries to mulberries, for which she has had a daily hunt through the Opal Farm land the season through. Toward the English sparrow she positively declines to harden her heart, in spite of my having repeated the story of its encroachments and crimes. She listens and merely shakes her head, saying, "We 'vited them to come, didn't we, mother? When we 'vites people, we always feed 'em; 'sides, they're the only ones'll let me put them in my pocket," which is perfectly true, for having learned this warm abiding-place of much oats and cracked corn, they follow her in a flock, and a few confiding spirits allow themselves to be handled. At the birthday dinner party, arranged by the Infant, a number of these guests were present. We must have looked a motley crew, in whose company Old King Cole himself would have been embarrassed, for Bart wore a wreath of pink asters, while a gigantic sunflower made my head-dress, and the cake, made and garnished with red and white peppermints, an American and an Irish flag, by Anastasia, was mounted firmly upon a miscellaneous mass of flowers, with a superstructure of small yellow tomatoes, parsley, young carrots, and beets, the colour of these vegetables having caught the Infant's eye. The pony, Ginger, had a basket of second-crop clover flowers provided for him; Reddy some corned-beef hash, his favourite dish, coaxed from Anastasia; while for Punch, Judy, and as many of their children as would venture down from the rafters, the Infant had compounded a wonderful salad of mixed nuts and corn. As the Infant ordained that "the childrens shan't tum in 'til d'sert," we had the substantial part of our meal in peace; but the candles were no sooner blown out and the cake cut than Ginger left his clover to nibble the young carrots, the squirrels got into the nut dish bodily and began sorting over the nuts to find those they liked best, with such vigour that the others flew in our faces, and Reddy fell off the box upon which the Infant had balanced him with difficulty, nearly carrying the table-cloth with him, while at this moment, the feast becoming decidedly crumby, we were surrounded by the entire flock of English sparrows! * * * * * Now this is not at all what I started to tell you; quite the contrary. Please forgive this domestic excursion into the land of maternal pride and happenings. What I meant to write of was my conviction, that came through sitting on the hay rafters and looking down upon the garden, that as a beautiful painting is improved by proper framing, so should the garden be enclosed at different points by frames, to focus the eye upon some central object. Though the greater part of the garden is as yet only planned and merely enough set out in each part to fix special boundaries, as in the case of the rose bed, I realize that as a whole it is too open and lacks perspective. You see it all at once; there are no breaks. No matter in what corner scarlet salvia and vermilion nasturtiums may be planted, they are sure to get in range with the pink verbenas and magenta phlox in a teeth-on-edge way. From other viewpoints the result is no better. Looking from the piazza that skirts two sides of the house, where we usually spend much time, three portions of the garden are in sight at once, and all on different planes, without proper separating frames; the rose garden is near at hand, the old borders leading to the sundial being at right angles with it. At the right, the lower end of the knoll and the gap with its bed of heliotrope are prominent, while between, at a third distance, is the proposed location of the white-birch screen, the old wall rockery, etc. The rockery and rose garden are in their proper relation, but the other portions should be given perspective by framing, and the result of my day-dreams is that this, according to nature, should be done by the grouping of shrubs and the drapery of vines. I now for the first time fully understand the uses of the pergola in landscape gardening, the open sides of which form a series of vine-draped frames. I had always before thought it a stiff and artificial sort of arrangement, as well as the tall clipped yews, laurel trees in tubs, and marble vases and columns that are parts of the usual framework of the more formal gardens. And while these things would be decidedly out of place in gardens of our class, and at best could only be indulged in via white-painted wooden imitations, the woman who is her own gardener may exercise endless skill in bringing about equally good results with the rustic material at hand and by following wild nature, who, after all, is the first model. [Illustration: THE SILVER MAPLE BY THE LANE GATE.] I think I hear Evan laughing at my preachment concerning his special art, but the comprehension of it has all come through looking at the natural landscape effects that have happened at Opal Farm owing to the fact that the hand of man has there been stayed these many years. On either side of the rough bars leading between our boundary wall and the meadow stands a dead cedar tree, from which the dry, moss-covered branches have been broken by the loads of hay that used to be gathered up at random and carted out this way. Wild birds doubtless used these branches as perches of vantage from which they might view the country, both during feeding excursions and in migration, and thus have sown the seed of their provender, for lo and behold, around the old trees have grown vines of wild grapes, with flowers that perfume the entire meadow in June. Here the woody, spiral-climbing waxwork holds aloft its clusters of berries that look like bunches of miniature lemons until on being ripe they open and show the coral fruit; Virginia creeper of the five-pointed fingers, clinging tendrils, glorious autumn colour, and spreading clusters of purple blackberries, and wild white clematis, the "traveller's joy" of moist roadside copses, all blending together and stretching out hands, until this season being undisturbed, they have clasped to form a natural arch of surpassing beauty. Having a great pile of cedar poles, in excess of the needs of all our other projects, my present problem is to place a series of simple arches constructed on this natural idea, that shall frame the different garden vistas from the best vantage-point. Rustic pillars, after the plan of Evan's that you sent me for the corners of the rose garden, will give the necessary formal touch, while groups of shrubs can be so placed as not only to screen colours that should not be seen in combination, but to make reasons for turns that would otherwise seem arbitrary. Aunt Lavinia has promised me any number of Chinese honeysuckle vines from the little nursery bed of rooted cuttings that is Martin Cortright's special province, for she writes me that they began with this before having seed beds for either hardy plants or annuals, as they wished to have hedges of flowering shrubs in lieu of fences, and some fine old bushes on the place furnished ample cuttings of the old-fashioned varieties, which they have supplemented. Aunt Lavinia also says that the purple Wisteria grows easily from the beanlike seed and blossoms in three years, and that she has a dozen of these two-year-old seedlings that she will send me as soon as I have place for them. Remembering your habit of giving every old tree a vine to comfort its old age, and in particular the silver maple by the lane gate of your garden, with its woodpecker hole and swinging garniture of Wisteria bloom, I have promised a similar cloak to a gnarled bird cherry that stands midway in the fence rockery, and yet another to an attenuated poplar, so stripped of branches as to be little more than a pole and still keeping a certain dignity. [Illustration: A CURTAIN TO THE SIDE PORCH.] The honeysuckles I shall keep for panelling the piazza, they are such clean vines and easily controlled; while on the two-story portion under the guest-room windows some Virginia creepers can be added to make a curtain to the side porch. As for other vines, we have many resources. Festooned across the front stoop at Opal Farm is an old and gigantic vine of the scarlet-and-orange trumpet creeper, that has overrun the shed, climbed the side of the house, and followed round the rough edges of the eaves, while all through the grass of the front yard are seedling plants of the vine that, in spring, are blended with tufts of the white star of Bethlehem and yellow daffies. In the river woods, brush and swamp lots, near by, we have found and marked for our own the mountain fringe with its feathery foliage and white flowers shaded with purple pink, that suggest both the bleeding heart of gardens and the woodland Dutchman's breeches. It grows in great strings fourteen or fifteen feet in length and seems as trainable as smilax or the asparagus vine. Here are also woody trailers of moonseed, with its minute white flowers in the axils of leaves that might pass at first glance for one of the many varieties of wild grapes; the hyacinth bean, with its deliciously fragrant chocolate flowers tinged with violet, that is so kind in covering the unsightly underbrush of damp places. And here, first, last, and always, come the wild grapes, showing so many types of leaf and fruit, from the early ripening summer grape of the high-climbing habit, having the most typical leaf and thin-skinned, purple berries, that have fathered so many cultivated varieties; the frost grape, with its coarsely-toothed, rather heart-shaped, pointed leaf and small black berries, that are uneatable until after frost (and rather horrid even then); to the riverside grape of the glossy leaf, fragrant blossoms and fruit. One thing must be remembered concerning wild grapes: they should be planted, if in the open sunlight, where they will be conspicuous up to late summer only, as soon after this time the leaves begin to grow rusty, while those in moist and partly-shady places hold their own. I think this contrast was borne in upon me by watching a mass of grape-vines upon a tumble-down wall that we pass on our way to the river woods. In August the leaves began to brown and curl at the edges, while similar vines in the cool lane shade were still green and growing. So you see, Mrs. Evan, that, in addition to our other treasure-trove, we are prepared to start a free vinery as well, and as our lucky star seems to be both of morning and evening and hangs a long while in the sky, Meyer, Larry's successor, we find, has enough of a labourer's skill at post setting and a carpenter's eye and hand at making an angled arch (this isn't the right term, but you know what I mean), so that we have not had to pause in our improvements owing to Amos Opie's rheumatic illness. Not that I think the old man _very_ ill, and I believe he could get about more if he wished, for when I went down to see him this morning, he seemed to have something on his mind, and with but little urging he told me his dilemma. Both _The Man from Everywhere_ and Maria Maxwell have made him good offers for his farm, _The Man's_ being the first! Now he had fully determined to sell to _The Man_, when Maria's kindness during his illness not only turned him in her favour, but gave him an attachment for the place, so that now he doesn't really wish to sell at all! It is this mental perturbation, in his very slow nature, that is, I believe, keeping him an invalid! _What_ Maria wants of the farm neither Bart nor I can imagine. She has a little property, a few thousand dollars, enough probably to buy the farm and put it in livable repair, but this money we thought she was saving for the so-called rainy day (which is much more apt to be a very dry period) of spinsterhood! Of course she has some definite plan, but whether it is bees or boarders, jam or a kindergarten, we do not know, but we may be very sure that she is not jumping at random. Only I'm a little afraid, much as I should like her for a next-door neighbour, that, with her practical head, she would insist upon making hay of the lily meadow! "Straying away again from the horticultural to the domestic things," I hear you say. Yes; but now that the days are shortening a bit, it seems natural to think more about people again. If I only knew whether Maria means to give up her teaching this winter, I would ask her to stay with us and begin to train the Infant's mind in the way it should think, for my head and hands will be full and my heart overflowing, I imagine. Ah! this happy, blessed summer! Yes, I know that you know, though I have never told you. That's what it means to have real friends. But to the shrubs. Will you do me one more favour before even the suspicion of frost touches my enthusiasm, that I may have everything in order in my _Garden Boke_ against a planting season when Time may again hold his remorseless sway. This list of eighteen or more shrubs is made from those I know and like, with selections from that Aunt Lavinia sent me. Is it comprehensive, think you? Of course we cannot go into novelties in this direction, any more than we may with the roses. There is the little pale pink, Daphne Mezereum, that flowers before its leaves come in April. I saw it at Aunt Lavinia's and Mrs. Marchant had a great circle of the bushes. Then Forsythias, with yellow flowers, the red and pink varieties of Japanese quince, double-flowering almond and plum, the white spireas (they all have strange new names in the catalogue), the earliest being what mother used to call bridal-wreath (_prunifolia_), with its long wands covered with double flowers, like tiny white daisies, the St. Peter's wreath (_Van Houttei_) with the clustered flowers like small white wild roses, two pink species, Billardii and Anthony Waterer, beautiful if gathered before the flowers open, as the colour fades quickly, and a little dwarf bush, Fortune's white spirea, that I have seen at the florist's. Next the old-fashioned purple lilac, that seems to hold its own against all newcomers for garden use, the white tree lilac, the fragrant white mock orange or syringa (_Coronarius_), the Japanese barberry of yellow flowers and coral berries, the three deutzias, two being the tall _crenata_ and _scabra_ and the third the charming low-growing _gracilis_, the old-fashioned snowball or Guelder rose (_viburnum opulus sterilis_), the weigelias, rose-pink and white, the white summer-flowering hydrangea (_paniculata grandiflora_), and the brown-flowered, sweet-scented strawberry shrub (_calycanthus floridus_). "Truly a small slice from the loaf the catalogues offer," you say. Yes; but you must remember that our wild nursery has a long chain to add to these. In looking over the list of shrubs, it seems to me that the majority of them, like the early wild flowers, are white, but then it is almost as impossible to have too many white flowers as too many green leaves. _September 15._ I was prevented from finishing this until to-day, when I have a new domestic event to relate. Maria, no longer a music mistress, has leased the Opal Farm, it seems, and will remain with me this winter pending the repairing of the house, which Amos Opie himself is to superintend. I wish I could fathom the ins and outs of the matter, which are not at present clear, but probably I shall know in time. Meanwhile, I have Maria for a winter companion, and a mystery to solve and puzzle about; is not this truly feminine bliss? XVII THE INS AND OUTS OF THE MATTER Chronicled by the rays of light and sound waves upon the walls of the house at Opal Farm. PEOPLE INVOLVED _The Man from Everywhere_, keeping bachelor's hall in the eastern half of the farm home. _Amos Opie_, living in the western half of the house, the separating door being locked on his side. _Maria Maxwell_, who, upon hearing Opie is again ill, has dropped in to give him hot soup and medicine. Amos Opie was more than usually uncomfortable this particular September evening. It may have been either a rather sudden change in the weather or the fact that now that he was sufficiently well to get about the kitchen and sit in the well-house porch, of a sunny morning, Maria Maxwell had given up the habit of running over several times a day to give him his medicine and be sure that the kettle boiled and his tea was freshly drawn, instead of being what she called "stewed bitterness" that had stood on the leaves all day. Whichever it was, he felt wretched in body and mind, and began to think himself neglected and was consequently aggrieved. He hesitated a few minutes before he opened the door leading to _The Man's_ part of the house, took a few steps into the square hall, and called "Mr. Blake" in a quavering voice; but no answer came, as the bachelor had not yet returned from the reservoir. Going back, he settled heavily into the rocking-chair and groaned,--it was not from real pain, simply he had relaxed his grip and was making himself miserable,--then he began to talk to himself. "_She_ doesn't come in so often now _he's_ come home, and _he_ fights shy o' the place, thinkin' mebbe _she's_ around, and they both wants to buy. _He's_ offered me thirty-five hundred cash, and _she's_ offered me thirty hundred cash, which is all the place's worth, for it'll take another ten hundred to straighten out the house, with new winder frames, floorin' 'nd plaster 'nd shingles, beams and sills all bein' sound,--when the truth is I don't wish ter sell nohow, yet can't afford to hold! I don't see light noway 'nd I'm feelin' another turn comin' when I was nigh ready ter git about agin to Miss'ss Penrose flower poles. O lordy! lordy! I wish I had some more o' that settling medicine Maria Maxwell brought me" (people very seldom spoke of that young woman except by her complete name). "If I had my wind, I'd yell over to her to come up! Yes, I vow I would!" David, the hound, who had been lying asleep before the stove, in which the fire had died away, got up, stretched himself, and, going to his master, after gazing in his face for several minutes, licked his hands thoroughly and solemnly, in a way totally different from the careless and irresponsible licks of a joyous dog; then raising his head gave a long-drawn bay that finally broke from its melancholy music and degenerated into a howl. Amos must have dozed in his chair, for it seemed only a moment when a knock sounded on the side door and, without waiting for a reply, Maria Maxwell entered, a cape thrown about her shoulders, a lantern in one hand, and in the other a covered pitcher from which steam was curling. "I heard David howling and I went to our gate to look; I saw that there wasn't a light in the farm-house and so knew that something was the matter. No fire in the stove and the room quite chilly! Where is that neighbour of yours in the other half of the house? Couldn't he have brought you in a few sticks?" "He isn't ter hum just now," replied Amos, in tones that were unnecessarily feeble, while at the same time an idea entered his brain that almost made him chuckle; but the sound which was quenched in his throat only came to Maria as an uncomfortable struggle for breath that hastened her exit to the woodpile by the side fence for the material to revive the fire. In going round the house, her arms laden with logs, she bumped into the figure of _The Man_ leading his bicycle across the grass, which deadened his footfall, as the lantern she carried blinded her to all objects not within its direct rays. "Maria Maxwell! Is Opie ill again? You must not carry such a heavy load!" he exclaimed all in one breath, as he very quickly transferred the logs to his own arms, and was making the fire in the open stove almost before she had regained the porch, so that when she had lighted a lamp and drawn the turkey-red curtains, the reflections of the flames began to dance on the wall and cheerfulness suddenly replaced gloom. Still Amos sat in an attitude of dejection. Thanking _The Man_ for his aid, but taking no further notice of him, Maria began to heat the broth which was contained in the pitcher, asking Amos at the same time if he did not think that he would feel better in bed. "I dunno's place has much to do with it," he grumbled; "this can't go on no longer, it's doing for me, that it is!" Maria, thinking that he referred to bodily illness, hastened the preparations for bed, and _The Man_, feeling helpless as all men do when something active is being done in which they have no part, rose to go, and, with his hand on the latch of the porch door, said in a low voice: "If I might help you in any way, I should be very glad; I do not quite like leaving you alone with this old fellow,--you may need help in getting him to bed. Tell me frankly, would you like me to stay?" "Frankly I would rather you would not," said Maria, yet in so cordial a tone that no offence could be gathered from it in any way. So the door opened and closed again and Maria began the rather laborious task of coaxing the old man to bed. When once there, the medicine given, and the soup taken, which she could not but notice that he swallowed greedily, she seated herself before the fire, resolving that, if Amos did not feel better by nine o'clock, she would have Barney come over for the night, as of course she must return to be near the Infant. As she sat there she pictured for the hundredth time how she would invest her little capital and rearrange her life, if Amos consented to sell her the farm,--how best to restore the home without elaborating the care of it, and take one or two people to live with her who had been ill or needed rest in cheerful surroundings. Not always the same two, for that is paralyzing after a time when the freshness of energetic influence wears off; but her experience among her friends told her that in a city's social life there was an endless supply of overwrought nerves and bodies. The having a home was the motive, the guests the necessity. Then she closed her eyes again and saw the upper portion of the rich meadow land that had lain fallow so long turned into a flower farm wherein she would raise blossoms for a well-known city dealer who had, owing to his artistic skill, a market for his wares and decorative skill in all the cities of the eastern coast. She had consulted him and he approved her plan. The meadow was so sheltered that it would easily have a two weeks' lead over the surrounding country, and the desirability of her crop should lie in its perfection rather than rarity. Single violets in frames, lilies-of-the-valley for Easter and spring weddings, sweet peas, in separate colours, peonies, Iris, Gladioli, asters, and Dahlias: three acres in all. Upon these was her hope built, for with a market waiting, what lay between her and success but work? Yes, work and the farm. Then came the vision of human companionship, such as her cousin Bartram and Mary Penrose shared. Could flowers and a home make up for it? After all, what is home? Her thoughts tangled and snapped abruptly, but of one thing she was sure. She could no longer endure teaching singing to assorted tone-deaf children, many of whom could no more keep on the key than a cow on the tight rope; and when she found a talented child and gave it appreciative attention, she was oftentimes officially accused of favouritism by some disgruntled parent with a political pull, for that was what contact with the public schools of a large city had taught her to expect. A log snapped--she looked at the clock. It was exactly nine! Going to the window, she pulled back the curtain; the old moon, that has a fashion of working northward at this time, was rising from a location wholly new to her. She looked at Amos; he was very still, evidently asleep, yet unnaturally so, for the regular breathing of unconsciousness was not there and the firelight shadows made him look pinched and strange. Suddenly she felt alone and panic stricken; she forgot the tests so well known to her of pulse taking, and all the countryside tales of strokes and seizures came back to her. She did not hesitate a moment; a man was in the same house and she felt entirely outside of the strength of her own will. Going to the separating door, she found it locked, on which side she could not be sure; but seeing a long key hanging by the clock she tried it, on general principles. It turned hard, and the lock finally yielded with a percussive snap. Stepping into the hall, she saw a light in the front of the house, toward which she hurried. _The Man_ was seated by a table that was strewn with books, papers, and draughting instruments; he was not working, but in his turn gazing at the flames from a smouldering hearth fire, though his coat was off and the window open, for it was not cold but merely chilly. Hearing her step, he started, turned, and, as he saw her upon the threshold, made a grab for his coat and swung it into place. It is strange, this instinct in civilized man of not appearing coatless before a woman he respects. "Amos Opie is very ill, I'm afraid," she said gravely, without the least self-consciousness or thought of intrusion. "Shall I go for the doctor?" said _The Man_, reaching for his hat and at the same time opening the long cupboard by the chimney, from which he took a leather-covered flask. "No, not yet; please come and look at him. Yes, I want you very much!" This in answer to a questioning look in his eyes. Standing together by the bed, they saw the old man's eyelids quiver and then open narrowly. _The Man_ poured whiskey from his flask into a glass, added water, and held it to Amos's lips, where it was quickly and completely absorbed! Next he put a finger on Amos's pulse and after a minute closed his watch with a snap, but without comment. "You feel better now, Opie?" he questioned presently in a tone that, to the old man at least, was significant. "What gave you this turn? Is there anything on your mind? You might as well tell now, as you will have to sooner or later, and Miss Maxwell must go home presently. You'll have to put up with me for the rest of the night and a man isn't as cheerful a companion as a woman--is he, Amos?" "No, yer right there, Mr. Blake, and it's the idee o' loneliness that's upsettin' me! Come down ter facts, Mr. Blake, it's the offers I've had fer the farm--yourn and hern--and my wishin' ter favour both and yet not give it up myself, and the whole's too much fer me!" "Hers! Has Miss Maxwell made a bid for the farm? What do you want it for?" he said, turning quickly to Maria, who coloured and then replied quietly--"To live in! which is exactly what you said when I asked you a similar question a couple of months ago!" "The p'int is," continued Amos, quickly growing more wide awake, and addressing the ceiling as a neutral and impartial listener, "that Mr. Blake has offered me five hundred more than Maria Maxwell, and though I want ter favour her (in buyin', property goes to the highest bidder; it's only contract work that's fetched by the lowest, and I never did work by contract--it's too darned frettin'), I can't throw away good money, and neither of 'em yet knows that whichsomever of 'em buys it has got ter give me a life right ter live in the summer kitchen and fetch my drinkin' water from the well in the porch! A lone widder man's a sight helplesser 'n a widder, but yet he don't get no sympathy!" _The Man from Everywhere_ began to laugh, and catching Maria's eye she joined him heartily. "How do you mean to manage?" he asked in a way that barred all thought of intrusion. "I'm going to have a flower farm and take in two invalids--no, not cranks or lunatics, but merely tired people," she added, a little catch coming in her voice. "Then you had better begin with me, for I'm precious tired of taking care of myself, and here is Amos also applying, so I do not see but what your establishment is already complete!" Then, as he saw by her face that the subject was not one for jest, he said, in his hearty way that Mary Penrose likes, "Why not let me buy the place, as mine was the first offer, put it in order, and then lease it to you for three years, with the privilege of buying if you find that your scheme succeeds? If the house is too small to allow two lone men a room each, I can add a lean-to to match Opie's summer kitchen, for you know sometimes a woman finds it comfortable to have a man in the house!" Maria did not answer at first, but was looking at the one uncurtained window, where the firelight again made opals of the panes. Then turning, she said, "I will think over your offer, Mr. Blake, if everything may be upon a strictly business basis. But how about Amos? He seems better, and I ought to be going. I do not know why I should have been so foolish, but for a moment he did not seem to breathe, and I thought it was a stroke." "I'm comin' too all in good time, now my mind's relieved," replied the old man, with a chuckle, "and I think I'll weather to-night fer the sake o' fixin' that deed termorrow, Mr. Blake, if you'll kindly give me jest a thimbleful more o' that old liquor o' yourn--I kin manage it fust rate without the water, thank 'ee!" _The Man_ followed Maria to the door and out into the night. He did not ask her if he might go with her--he simply walked by her side for once unquestioned. Maria spoke first, and rather more quickly and nervously than usual: "I suppose you think that my scheme in wishing the farm is a madcap one, but I'm sure I could not see why you should wish to own it!" "Yes and no! I can well understand why you should desire a broader, freer life than your vocation allows, but--well, as for reading women's motives, I have given that up long since; it often leads to trouble though I have never lost my interest in them. "I think Amos Opie will revive, now that his mind is settled" (if it had been sufficiently light, Maria would have seen an expression upon _The Man's_ face indicative of his belief that the recent attack of illness was not quite motiveless, even though he forgave the ruse). "In a few days, when the deeds are drawn, will you not, as my prospective tenant, come and look over the house by daylight and tell me what changes would best suit your purpose, so that I may make some plans? I imagine that Amos revived will be able to do much of the work himself with a good assistant. "When would you like the lease to begin? In May? It is a pity that you could not be here in the interval to overlook it all, for the pasture should be ploughed at once for next year's gardening." "May will be late; best put it at the first of March. As to overseeing, I shall not be far away. I'm thinking of accepting cousin Mary's offer to stay with her and teach the Infant and a couple of other children this winter, which may be well for superintending the work, as I suppose you are off again with the swallows, as usual." "Oh, no, you forget the reservoir and the tunnelling of Three Brothers for the aqueduct to Bridgeton!" "Then let it be March first!" said Maria, after hesitating a moment, during which she stood looking back at Opal Farm lying at peace in the moonlight; "only, in making the improvements, please do them as if for any one else, and remember that it is to be a strictly business affair!" "And why should you think that I would deal otherwise by you?" _The Man_ said quickly, stepping close, where he could see the expression of her face. Maria, feeling herself cornered, did not answer immediately, and half turned her face away,--only for a moment, however. Facing him, she said, "Because men of your stamp are always good to women,--always doing them kindnesses both big and little (ask Mary Penrose),--and sometimes kindness hurts!" "Well, then, the lease and all pertaining to it shall be strictly in the line of business until you yourself ask for a modification,--but be careful, I may be a hard landlord!" Then, dropping his guard, he said suddenly, "Why is it that you and I--man and woman--temperamentally alike, both interested in the same things, and of an age to know what in life is worth while, should stand so aloof? Is there no more human basis upon which I can persuade you to come to Opal Farm when it is mine? Give me a month, three months,--lessen the distance you always keep between us, and give me leave to convince you! Why will you insist upon deliberately keeping up a barrier raised in the beginning when I was too stupidly at home in your cousin's house to see that I might embarrass you? Frankly, do you dislike me?" Maria began two different sentences, stumbled, and stopped short; then drawing herself up and looking _The Man_ straight in the face, she said, "I have kept a barrier between us, and deliberately, as you say, but--" here she faltered--"it was because I found you too interesting; the barrier was to protect my own peace of mind more than to rebuff you." "Then I may try to convince you that my plan is best?" "Yes," said Maria, with a glint of her mischievous smile, "if you have plenty of time to spare." "And you will give me no more encouragement than this? No good wish or omen?" "Yes," said Maria again, "I wish that you may succeed--" here she slipped her hand in the belt of her gown and drew out a little chamois bag attached to her watch, "and for an omen, here is the opal you gave me--you give it a happy interpretation and one is very apt to lose an unset stone, you know!" But as neither walls nor leaves have tongues, Mary Penrose never learned the real ins and outs of this matter. XVIII THE VALUE OF WHITE FLOWERS (Barbara Campbell to Mary Penrose) _Oaklands, September 29._ Michaelmas. The birthdays of our commuters are not far apart. This being Evan's festival, we have eaten the annual goose in his honour, together with several highly indigestible old-country dishes of Martha Corkle's construction, for she comes down from the cottage to preside over this annual feast. Now the boys have challenged Evan to a "golf walk" over the Bluffs and back again, the rough-and-ready course extending that distance, and I, being "o'er weel dined," have curled up in the garden-overlook window of my room to write to you. It has been a good gardener's year, and I am sorry that the fall anemones and the blooming of the earliest chrysanthemums insist upon telling me that it is nearly over,--that is, as far as the reign of complete garden colour is concerned. And amid our vagrant summer wanderings among gardens of high or low degree, no one point has been so recurrent or interesting as the distribution of colour, and especially the dominance of white flowers in any landscape or garden in which they appear. In your last letter you speak of the preponderance of white among the flowering shrubs as well as the early blossoms of spring. That this is the case is one of the strong points in the decorative value of shrubs, and in listing seeds for the hardy or summer beds or sorting the bushes for the rosary, great care should be taken to have a liberal sprinkling of white, for the white in the flower kingdom is what the diamond is in the mineral world, necessary as a setting for all other colours, as well as for its own intrinsic worth. Look at a well-cut sapphire of flawless tint. It is beautiful surely, but in some way its depth of colour needs illumination. Surround it with evenly matched diamonds and at once life enters into it. Fill a tall jar with spires of larkspur of the purest blue known to garden flowers. Unless the sun shines fully on them they seem to swallow light; mingle with them some stalks of white foxgloves, Canterbury bells, or surround them with Madonna lilies, a fringe of spirea, or the slender _Deutzia gracilis_, more frequently seen in florists' windows than in the garden, and a new meaning is given the blue flower; the black shadows disappear from its depth and sky reflections replace them. The blue-fringed gentian, growing deep among the dark grasses of low meadows, may be passed over without enthusiasm as a dull purplish flower by one to whom its possibilities are unknown; but come upon it backgrounded by Michaelmas daisies or standing alone in a meadow thick strewn with the white stars of grass of Parnassus or wands of crystal ladies' tresses, and all at once it becomes,-- "Blue, blue, as if the sky let fall A flower from its cerulean wall!" The same white setting enhances the brighter colours, though in a less degree than blue, which is, next to magenta, one of the most difficult colours to place in the garden. In view of this fact it is not strange that it is a comparatively unusual hue in the flower world and a very rare one among our neighbourly eastern birds, the only three that wear it conspicuously being the bluebird, indigo bird, and the bluejay. It is this useful quality as a setting that gives value to many white flowers lacking intrinsic beauty, like sweet alyssum, candy-tuft, the yarrows, and the double feverfew. In buying seeds of flowers in mixed varieties, such as asters, verbenas, Sweet-William, pansies, or any flower in short that has a white variety, it is always safe to buy a single packet of the latter, because I have often noticed that the usual mixtures, for some reason, are generally shy not only of the white but often of the very lightest tints as well. In selecting asters the average woman gardener may not be prepared to buy the eight or ten different types that please her fancy in as many separate colours; a mixture of each must suffice, but a packet of white of each type should be added if the best results are to be achieved. The same applies to sweet peas when planted in mixture; at least six ounces of either pure white or very light, and therefore quasi-neutral tints harmonizing with all darker colours, should be added. For it is in the lighter tints of this flower that its butterfly characteristics are developed. Keats had not the heavy deep-hued or striped varieties in mind when he wrote of "... Sweet Peas on tiptoe for a flight, With wings of gentle flush: o'er delicate white, And taper fingers catching at all things To bind them all about with tiny rings." If you examine carefully the "flats" of pansies growing from mixed seed and sold in the market-places or at local florists', you will notice that in eight out of ten the majority of plants are of the darker colours. There are white varieties of almost every garden flower that blooms between the last frost of spring and winter ice. The snowdrop of course is white and the tiny little single English violet of brief though unsurpassing fragrance; we have white crocuses, white hyacinths, narcissus, lilies-of-the-valley, Iris, white rock phlox, or moss-pink, Madonna and Japan lilies, gladiolus, white campanulas of many species, besides the well-known Canterbury bells, white hollyhocks, larkspurs, sweet Sultan, poppies, phloxes, and white annual as well as hardy chrysanthemums. Almost all the bedding plants, like the geranium, begonia, ageratum, lobelia, etc., have white species. There are white pinks of all types, white roses, and wherever crimson rambler is seen Madame Plantier should be his bride; white stocks, hollyhocks, verbenas, zinnias, Japanese anemones, Arabis or rock cress, and white fraxinella; white Lupins, nicotiana, evening primroses, pentstemons, portulaca, primulas, vincas, and even a whitish nasturtium, though its flame-coloured partner salvia declines to have her ardour so modified. Among vines we have the white wisteria, several white clematis, the moon-flower, and other Ipomeas, many climbing and trailing roses, the English polygonum, the star cucumber, etc., so that there is no lack of this harmonizing and modifying colour (that is not a colour after all) if we will but use it intelligently. Aside from the setting of flower to flower, white has another and wider function. As applied to the broader landscape it is not only a maker of perspective, but it often indicates a picture and fairly pulls it from obscurity, giving the same lifelike roundness that the single white dot lends in portraiture to the correctly tinted but still lifeless eye. Take for instance a wide field without groups of trees to divide and let it be covered only with grass, no matter how green and luxuriant, and there is a monotonous flatness, that disappears the moment the field is blooming with daisies or snowy wild asters. Follow the meandering line of a brook through April meadows. Where does the eye pause with the greatest sense of pleasure and restfulness? On the gold of the marsh marigolds edging the water? or on the silver-white plumes of shad-bush that wave and beckon across the marshes, as they stray from moist ground toward the light woods? Could any gay colour whatsoever compete with the snow of May apple orchards?--the fact that the snow is often rose tinged only serving to accentuate the contrasting white. In the landscape all light tints that at a distance have the value of white are equally to the purpose, and can be used for hedges, boundaries, or what may be called punctuation points. German or English Iris and peonies are two very useful plants for this purpose, flowering in May and June and for the rest of the season holding their substantial, well-set-up foliage. These two plants, if they receive even ordinary good treatment, may also be relied upon for masses of uniform bloom held well above the leaves; and while pure white peonies are a trifle monotonous and glaring unless blended with the blush, rose, salmon, and cream tints, there are any number of white iris both tall and dwarf with either self-toned flowers, or pencilled, feathered, or bordered with a variety of delicate tints, and others equally valuable of pale shades of lilac or yellow, the recurved falls being of a different tint. Thus does Nature paint her pictures and give us hints to follow, and yet a certain art phase proclaims Nature's colour combinations crude and rudimentary forsooth! [Illustration: AN IRIS HEDGE.] Nature is never crude except through an unsuccessful human attempt to reproduce the uncopyable. Give one of these critics all the colour combinations of the evening sky and let him manipulate them with wires and what a scorched omelet he would make of the most simple and natural sunset! While Nature does not locate the different colours on the palette to please the eye of man, but to carry out the various steps in the great plan of perpetuation, yet on that score it is all done with a sense of colour value, else why are the blossoms of deep woods, as well as the night-blooming flowers that must lure the moth and insect seekers through the gloom, white or light-coloured? In speaking of white or pale flowers there is one low shrub with evergreen leaves and bluish-white flowers that I saw blooming in masses for the first time not far from Boston in early May. There was a slight hollow where the sun lay, that was well protected from the wind. This sloped gently upward toward some birches that margined a pond. The birches themselves were as yet but in tassel, the near-by grass was green in spots only, and yet here in the midst of the chill, reluctant promise of early spring was firmness of leaf and clustered flowers of almost hothouse texture and fragrance. Not a single spray or a dozen, but hundreds of them, covered the bushes. This shrub is _Daphne cneorum_, a sturdier evergreen cousin of _Daphne mezereum_, that brave-hearted shrub that often by the south wall of my garden hangs its little pink flower clusters upon bare twigs as early as the tenth of March. Put it on your list of desirables, for aside from any other situation it will do admirably to edge laurels or rhododendrons and so bring early colour of the rosy family hue to brighten their dark glossy leaves, for the sight and the scent thereof made me resolve to cover a certain nook with it, where the sun lodges first every spring. I am planting mine this autumn, which is necessary with things of such early spring vitality. Another garden point akin to colour value in that it makes or mars has, I may say, run itself into my vision quite sharply and painfully this summer, and many a time have I rubbed my eyes and looked again in wonder that such things could be. This is the spoiling of a well-thought-out garden by the obtrusive staking of its plants. Of course there are many tall and bushy flowers--hollyhocks, golden glow, cosmos--that have not sufficient strength of stem to stand alone when the weight of soaking rain is added to their flowers and the wind comes whirling to challenge them to a dizzy dance, which they cannot refuse, and it inevitably turns their heavy heads and leaves them prone. [Illustration: DAPHNE CNEORUM.] Besides these there are the lower, slender, but top-heavy lilies, gladioli, carnations, and the like, that must not be allowed to soil their pretty faces in the mud. A little thinking must be done and stakes suitable to the height and girth of each plant chosen. If the purse allows, green-painted stakes of sizes varying from eighteen inches for carnations to six feet for Dahlias are the most convenient; but lacking these, the natural bamboos, that may be bought in bundles by the hundred, in canes of eight feet or more, and afterward cut in lengths to suit, are very useful, being light, tough, and inconspicuous. In supporting a plant, remember that the object is as nearly as possible to supplement its natural stem. Therefore cut the stake a little shorter than the top of the foliage and drive it firmly at the back of the plant, fastening the main stem to the stake by loosely woven florist's string. If, on the other hand, the plant to be supported is a maze of side branches, like the cosmos, or individual bushes blended so as to form a hedge, a row of stout poles, also a little lower than the bushes, should be set firmly behind them, the twine being woven carefully in and out among the larger branches, and then tightened carefully, so that the whole plant is gradually drawn back and yet the binding string is concealed. If it is possible to locate cosmos, hollyhocks, and Dahlias (especially Dahlias) in the same place for several successive years, a flanking trellis fence of light posts, with a single top and bottom rail and poultry wire of a three inch mesh between, will be found a good investment. Against this the plants may be tethered in several places, and thus not only separate branches can be supported naturally, but individual flowers as well, in the case of the large exhibition Dahlias. [Illustration: A TERRIBLE EXAMPLE!] Practicable as is the proper carrying out of the matter, in a score of otherwise admirable gardens we have seen the results of weeks and months of preparation either throttled and bound martyrlike to a stake or twisted and tethered, until the natural, habit of growth was wholly changed. In some cases the plants were so meshed in twine and choked that it seemed as if a spiteful fairy had woven a "cat's cradle" over them or that they had followed out the old proverb and, having been given enough rope, literally hanged themselves. In other gardens green stakes were set at intervals (I noticed it in the case of gladioli and carnations especially) and strings carried from one stake to the other, leaving each plant in the centre of a twine square, like chessmen imprisoned on the board. But the most terrible example of all was where either the owner or the gardener, for they were not one and the same, had purchased a quantity of half-inch pine strips at a lumber yard and proceeded to scatter them about his beds at random, regardless of height or suitability, very much as if some neighbouring Fourth of July celebration had showered the place with rocket sticks. If your young German has time in the intervals of tree-planting and trellis-making, get him to trim some of the cedars of a diameter of two or three inches and stack them away for Dahlia poles. Next season you will become a victim of these gorgeous velvet flowers, I foresee, especially as I have fully a barrel of the "potatoes" of some very handsome varieties to bestow upon you. Make the most of Meyer, for he will probably grow melancholy as soon as cool weather sets in and he thinks of winter evenings and a sweetheart he has left in the fatherland! We have had several Germans and they all had _lieber schatz_, for jealousy or the scorn of whom they had left home, were for the same reason loath to stay away from it, and at the same time, owing to contending emotions, were unable to work so that they might return. Are you not thinking about returning to your indoor bed and board again? With warm weather I fly out of the door as a second nature, but with a smart promise of frost I turn about again and everything--furniture, pictures, books, and the dear people themselves--seems refreshingly new and wholly lovable! If you are thinking of making out a book list of your needs as an answer to your mother's or your "in-law's" query, "What do you want for Christmas?" write at the beginning--Bailey's _Cyclopædia of American Horticulture_, in red ink. Lavinia and Martin Cortright gave it to us last Christmas, the clearly printed first edition on substantial paper in four thick volumes, mind you, and it is the referee and court of appeals of the Garden, You, and I in general and myself in particular. Not only will it tell you everything that you wish or ought to know, but do it completely and truthfully. In short it is the perfect antidote to _Garden Goozle_! XIX PANDORA'S CHEST (Mary Penrose to Barbara Campbell) _Woodridge, October 10_. Nearly a month of pen silence on my part, during which I have felt many times as if I must go from one to another of our chosen trees in the river woods and shake the leaves down so that the transplanting might proceed forthwith, lest the early winter that Amos Opie predicts both by a goose bone and certain symptoms of his own shall overtake us. Be this as it may, the leaves thus far prefer their airy quarters to huddling upon the damp ground. However, there is another reason for haste more urgent than the fear of frost--the melancholy vein that you predicted we should find in Meyer is fast developing, and as we wish to have him leave us in a perfectly natural way, we think it best that his stay shall not be prolonged. At first he seemed not only absorbed by his work and to enjoy the garden and especially the river woods, but the trees and water rushing by. A week ago a change came over him; he became morose and silent, and yesterday when I was admiring, half aloud, the reflection of a beautiful scarlet oak mirrored in the still backwater of the river, he paused in the kneeling position in which he was loosening the grasp of a white flowering dogwood, and first throwing out his arms and then beating his chest with them, exclaimed--"Other good have trees and water than for the eye to see; they can surely hang and drown the man the heart of whom holds much sorrow, and that man is I!" Of course I knew that it was something a little out of the ordinary state of affairs that had sent a man of his capability to tramp about as a vagrant sort of labourer, but I had no previous idea that melancholy had taken such a grip upon him. Much do I prefer Larry, with periods of hilarity ending in peaceful "shlape." Certain peoples have their peculiar racial characteristics, but after all, love of an occasional drink seems a more natural proposition than a tendency to suicide, while as to the relative value of the labour itself, that is always an individual not a racial matter. I too am feeling the domestic lure of cooler weather. All the day I wish to be in the open, but when the earlier twilight closes in, the house, with its lamps, hearth fires, and voices, weaves a new spell about me, though having once opened wide the door of outdoors it can never be closed. Do you remember the _Masque of Pandora_, and the mysterious chest? "_Pandora_ Hast thou never Lifted the lid? _Epimetheus_ The oracle forbids. Safely concealed there from all mortal eyes Forever sleeps the secret of the Gods. Seek not to know what they have hidden from thee Till they themselves reveal it." Bart was reading it aloud to me last night. Prose read aloud always frets me, because one's mind travels so much faster than the spoken words and arrives at the conclusion, even if not always the right one, long before the printed climax is reached; but with good poetry it is different--the thoughts are so crystallized that the sound of a melodious voice liberates them more swiftly. Verily Pandora's Chest has been opened this season here in the garden; the gods were evidently not unwilling and turned the lock for me, though perhaps I have thrown back the cover too rashly, for out has flown, instead of dire disaster, ambition in a flock of winged ideals, hopes, and wishes masquerading cleverly as necessities, that will keep me alert in trying to overtake and capture them all my life long. Last night, once again comfortably settled in the den, we took inventory of the season's doings, and unlike most ventures, find there is nothing to write upon the nether page that records loss. Of the money set aside for the improvement of the knoll half yet remains, allowing for the finishing of the tree transplanting. Into this remainder we are preparing to tuck the filling for the rose bed, a goodly store of lily bulbs, some flowering shrubs, an openwork wire fence to be a vine-covered screen betwixt us and the road, instead of the broken rattling pickets, a new harness for Romeo to wear when he returns home, as a thank offering for his comfortable services (really the bridle of the old one is quite scratched to bits upon the various trees and rough fence rails to which he has been tethered), and last of all, what do you think? Three guesses may be easily wasted without hitting the mark, for instead of, as we expected, tearing down the old barn, our summer camp, we are going to remodel it to be a permanent outdoor shelter. It is to have a wide chimney and fireplace at one end, before which our beds may be drawn campfire fashion if it is too cool, and adjustable shutters so that it may be either merely a roof or a fairly substantial cabin and at all possible seasons a study and playroom for us all. Then too we shall overlook "Maria Maxwell's Experiment," as Bart calls her scheme of running the Opal Farm. We were heartily glad to know that she had leased and not bought it, but we were much surprised to learn, first through the village paper, and not the man and woman concerned, that "Mr. Ross Blake, the engineer in charge of the construction of the new reservoir, believing in the future of the real-estate boom in Woodridge (we didn't know there was one), has recently purchased the Amos Opie farm as an investment, the deed being to-day recorded in the town house. He has already leased it for a young ladies' seminary, pending its remodelling, for which he himself is drawing the plans." Dear _Man from Everywhere!_ much as I like Maria, I think he would be the more restful neighbour of the two. What a complete couple they might have made, but that is a bit of drift thought that I have put out of my head, for if any two people ever had a chance this summer to fall in love if they had the capacity, it was Maria and _The Man_, and the strange part of it is that as far as may be known neither is nourishing the sentiment of a melancholy past and no other present man or woman stands between; perhaps it is some uncanny Opal spell that stays them. Yet even as it is, in this farm restoration both are unconsciously preparing to take a peep into Pandora's Chest full of the unknown, so let us hope the gods are willing. _Hallowe'en._ The Infant and Anastasia, her memories revived by Larry's voluble and personally adapted folk-lore, are preparing all sorts of traps and feasts for good luck and fairies, while Lady Lazy is content to look at the log fire and plan for putting the garden to sleep. Yesterday I finished taking up my collection of peonies, Iris, and hardy chrysanthemums that had been "promised" at various farm gardens beyond the river woods, and duly cleared off my indebtednesses for the same with a varied assortment of articles ranging from gladioli bulbs, which seem to multiply by cube root here, to a pair of curling tongs, an article long coveted by a simple-minded woman of more than middle age, for the resuscitation of her Sunday front locks, and which though willing to acquire by barter she, as a deacon's wife, had a prejudice against buying openly over the counter. Meyer has gone, having relapsed into comparative cheerfulness a few days before his departure on the receipt of a bulky letter which, in spite of the wear and tear of travel, remained heavily scented, coupled with Bart's assurance that he could remain in America another four weeks and still be at a certain Baltic town of an unpronounceable name in time for Christmas. In spite of heavy frosts my pansies are a daily cheer, but it is really of no use for even the flowers of very hardy plants to struggle on against nature's decree of a winter sleeping time; the wild animals all come more or less under its spell, and the dogs, the nearest creatures of all to man, as soon as snow covers the ground and they have their experience of ice-cut feet, drowse as near the fire as possible and in case of a stove almost under it. I wonder if nature did not intend that we also should have at least a half-drowsy brooding time, instead of making the cold season so often a period of stress and strain and short days stretched into long nights. If so, we have taken the responsibility of acting for ourselves, of flying in nature's face in this as in many other ways. Does it ever seem to you strange that our contrariness began within the year of our legendary creation, when Eve came to misery not by gazing in a bonnet shop, but when innocently wandering in her garden, the most beautiful of earth? By which we women gardeners should all take warning, for though the Tree of Life may be found in every garden, "Yet sin and sorrow's pedigree Spring from a garden and a tree." _December 10._ Snow a month earlier than last year, but we rejoice in it, for it will keep the winds from the roots of the trees not yet wholly settled and comfortable in their new homes. The young hemlocks are bewitching in their wreaths and garlands, and one or two older trees give warmth to the woods beyond the Opal Farm and sweep the low, snow-covered meadow, that looks like a crystal lake, with their feathery branches. The cedars were beautiful in the May woods and so are they now, where I see them through the gap standing sentinels against the white of the brush lot. It seems to me that we cannot have too many evergreens any more than we can have too much cheerfulness. [Illustration: THE LOW, SNOW-COVERED MEADOW THAT LOOKS LIKE A CRYSTAL LAKE. Copyright, 1902, H. Hendrickson] There are no paths in the garden now, a hint that our feet must travel elsewhere for a time, and I confess that Lady Lazy has not yet redeemed herself, and at present likes her feet to fall upon soft rugs. The Infant's gray squirrels, Punch and Judy, and the persistent sparrows have found their way to the house, taking their daily rations from the roof of the shed. Punch, stuffed to repletion, has a _cache_ under the old syringa bushes, the sparrows seeming to escort him in his travels to and fro, but whether for companionship or in hope of gain, who can say? The plans for the remodelling of Opal Farm-house are really very attractive and yet it will be delightfully simple to care for. Maria and _The Man_ have agreed better about them than over anything I have ever heard them discuss; but then, as it is purely a business arrangement, I suppose that Maria feels free from her usual pernickety restraint. We surmise that either she has much more laid by than we supposed or she is waxing extravagant, for she has had the opal, that _The Man_ gave her once in exchange for an old coin, surrounded with very good diamonds and set as a ring! Really I never before noticed what fine strong white hands she has. I shall ask Father Penrose for the _Cyclopædia_--it has a substantial sound that may soften his suspicion that we are not practical and were not properly grieved over the loss of the hens! XX EPILOGUE (DICTATED) _Woodridge, January 3._ In the face of circumstances that prevent my holding the pen in my own hand, I am resolved that the first chronicle of the New Year shall be mine,--for by me it has sent The Garden, You, and I a new member and our own garden a new tree, an oak we hope. The Infant is exultant at the evident and direct result of her dealings with the fairies, and keeps a plate of astonishing goodies by the nursery hearth fire; these, if the fairies do not feast upon personally, are appreciated by their horses, the mice. His name is John Bartram Penrose, a good one to conjure with gardenwise, though he is no kin to the original. He has fresh-air lungs, and if he does not wax strong of limb and develop into a naturalist of some sort, he cannot blame his parents or their garden vacation. MARY PENROSE, her [Illustration: ROSE MOTIF.] mark. [Illustration: PUNCH ... HAS A CACHE UNDER THE OLD SYRINGA BUSHES.] FOR THE HARDY SEED BED ====================+=========+========+=======+=======+==================== NAME |TENDER | | | | |OR HARDY | COLOUR |HEIGHT |SEASON |REMARKS --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Aquilegia-COLUMBINE | H.P.* | | 3 ft. |June |Columbines are among | | | | |the most graceful Chrysantha | |Golden | | |and easily raised | |yellow | | |of hardy plants. Coerulea | |Rich | | |They will thrive in | |Blue | | |open borders, but do Glandulosa vera | |Blue and| | |better in partial | |white | | |shade, after the | | | | |habit of our local | | | | |species, the "Red | | | | |Bells" of hillsides | | | | |and rocky wood. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- CANTERBURY-BELL | H.B.** | | 2 ft. |June |Old-fashioned plants Campanula media | |Blue, | | |of decorative value. | |white, | | |As with all | |pink | | |biennials, the plant | | | | |dies soon after | | | | |maturing seed; a new | | | | |sowing should be | | | | |made each spring and | | | | |seedlings | | | | |transplanted as soon | | | | |as the old plant | | | | |dies; this secures | | | | |strong growth before | | | | |winter. CHIMNEY BELL-FLOWER | H.P. |Blue |3-4 ft.|Aug. |Desirable because of | | | |to |of its late blooming Campanula | | | |Oct. |combined with its pyramadalis | | | | |striking appearance. | | | | |Should be planted in | | | | |connection with the | | | | |tall white hardy | | | | |phlox. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Coreopsis | H.P. |Yellow |1-2 ft.|Summer |A sturdy plant lanceolata | | | | |either for massing | | | | |or as a border to | | | | |sunny shrubberies. | | | | |Flowers carried on | | | | |long stems suitable | | | | |for cutting. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- CANDYTUFT--Iberis | H.P. | |1 ft. |Summer |When transplanted | | | | |from seed bed, Sempervirens | |White | | |plants should be | | | | |set eight inches | | | | |apart to make the | | | | |best effect, given | | | | |room, they make fine | | | | |compact bushes. The | | | | |foliage is | | | | |evergreen. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Delphinium-- | H.P. |Blue, |3-7 ft.|June, |Our most satisfactory LARKSPUR |Flowering|all | |July, |blue flower, but |first |shades | |and |like all of this |year | |Oct. |colour should have | | | | |a setting of white. | | | | |If plants are cut | | | | |down to the ground | | | | |as soon as the | | | | |blossoms fade, they | | | | |will give a second | | | | |crop in October. D. Grandiflorum | |White |1-2 ft.|Summer |These flowers have Chinensis | |and blue| | |a peculiar | | | | |brilliancy, and if SIBERIAN LARKSPUR | | | | |set in a bed edged | | | | |by sweet alyssum, | | | | |are very | | | | |satisfactory. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Dianthus | H.P. | |1 ft. |May |There is nothing plumarius | | | |and |more suggestive of SCOTCH CLOVE PINK | |Various | |June |the old time gardens Her Majesty | |White | | " |of sweet flowers Lord Lyon | |Pink | | " |than these fringed | | | | |pinks. If once | | | | |established in a | | | | |well-drained spot, | | | | |and not harassed, | | | | |they will sow | | | | |themselves and last | | | | |for years. Her | | | | |Majesty and Lord | | | | |Lyon are new | | | | |varieties, and as | | | | |double as | | | | |carnations. Dianthus | H.P. |Var. |6 in.- |Summer |Excellent for either Chinensis | | | 1 ft. | |bedding or edging. CHINA PINK |first | | | |Have an apple | year | | | |fragrance. Dianthus | H.P. |Var. |9 in.- |Summer |These summer pinks Heddewigii | | | 1 ft. | |are not grown in JAPAN PINK |first | | | |masses as freely as | year | | | |as they deserve. | | | | |They bloom with all | | | | |the profusion of | | | | |annuals without | | | | |their frailty. For a | | | | |succession the seed | | | | |should be sown every | | | | |year, as the old | | | | |plants bloom | | | | |earliest and the new | | | | |follow them. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Dianthus barbatus | H.P. |Var. | 1 ft. |June |An old-time SWEET-WILLIAM | | | | |favourite with | | | | |slightly fragrant | | | | |blossoms that will | | | | |keep a week in water | | | | |when cut. A bed when | | | | |once established | | | | |will last a long | | | | |time if a few of the | | | | |finest heads of | | | | |flowers are allowed | | | | |to go to seed, as | | | | |with many perennials | | | | |the younger plants | | | | |bloom more | | | | |vigorously than the | | | | |old. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Digitalis--FOXGLOVE | H.P. | |3 ft. |June |A dignified as well Variety | |White, | | |as a poetic flower gloxinoides | |pink, | | |if given its | |purple, | | |natural, half-wild | |light | | |surroundings. It | |yellow | | |will thrive best | | | | |in partial shade if | | | | |the soil be good. | | | | |While if the stalks | | | | |of seeds are saved | | | | |and the contents | | | | |scattered along wild | | | | |walks or at the edge | | | | |of woods, surprising | | | | |results will follow. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- FEVERFEW | H.P. | |1-3 ft.|Summer |A very useful, Chrysanthemum |first |White | | |double-flowered parthenium, | year | | | |white composite, double | | | | |resembling a small | | | | |chrysanthemum. It | | | | |should be used | | | | |freely as a setting | | | | |for blue, pink, or | | | | |magenta flowers. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- FORGET-ME-NOT | H.P. | |1 ft. |Spring |Well-known flowers Myosotis alpestris | |Blue | |and |that do best in Victoria | | | |autumn |moist borders or | | | | |places where they | | | | |can be watered | | | | |freely. If cut down | | | | |after first | | | | |flowering, will | | | | |bloom again in | | | | |autumn. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Gaillardia | H.P. |Yellow |1 ft. |Until |Brilliant and hardy cristata | first |and | |frost |plants for edging BLANKET FLOWER | year |red | | |shrubbery or in | | | | |separate beds. | | | | |Sprawl too much for | | | | |the mixed border. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- HOLLYHOCKS | H.P. | | |Summer |Of late years these Double and single | |All |4-7 ft.| |decorative plants | |colors | | |have suffered from a New Hybrid Hollyhock| |All |4 ft. | |blight that turns flowers first year | |colors | | |the leaves yellow from seed | | | | |and soon spreads to | | | | |the stalks. Use | | | | |great care that the | | | | |soil be new and | | | | |well drained, | | | | |sprinkle powdered | | | | |sulphur and unslaked | | | | |lime on surface and | | | | |dig it in shortly | | | | |before setting out | | | | |the seedlings. | | | | |Also spray young | | | | |plants well with | | | | |diluted Bordeaux | | | | |mixture at intervals | | | | |before the flowers | | | | |show colour. | | | | |A large bed should | | | | |be given to this | | | | |flower, with either | | | | |a wall or hedge as a | | | | |background, and they | | | | |should be allowed to | | | | |seed themselves from | | | | |the best flowers. | | | | |Thus a natural and | | | | |artistic effect is | | | | |produced unlike the | | | | |stiff lines of | | | | |tightly staked | | | | |plants. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- HONESTY | H.B. | | | |The old English Lunaria biennis | |White |2 ft. |June |flower of colonial | | to | | |gardens. Should be | | lilac | | |massed. The silvery | | | | |moons of its seed | | | | |vessels make unusual | | | | |winter bouquets. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- LUPINS | H.P. | | | |Good for planting Lupinus polyphyllus | |Rich |3 ft. |June |before the white | | blue | | |flowering June | | | | |shrubs. Flowers borne | | | | |erect upon long | | | | |spikes. Very | | | | |difficult to | | | | |transplant unless | | | | |the long root is | | | | |kept intact. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- HORSEMINT | H.P. | |2-3 ft.|Summer |Sturdy and somewhat Monada didyma-Bee | |Deep red| | |coarse plants, their balm or Oswego tea | | | | |square stems telling Monada fistulosa | | | | |the kinship with the WILD BERGAMOT | H.P. |Lavender|3-6 ft.|Summer |familiar mints. Of | | | | |good decorative | | | | |effect, should be | | | | |used as a background | | | | |in the bed of sweet | | | | |odours, as | | | | |especially after a | | | | |rain they yield the | | | | |garden a clean | | | | |fragrance of tonic | | | | |quality. The bergamot | | | | |grows wild in many | | | | |places and is easily | | | | |transplanted. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Primula | H.P. | |6 in. |May |The beautiful tufted ENGLISH FIELD | |Primrose| | |primrose of the PRIMROSE | |yellow | | |English poets. Grows | | | | |in this country best | | | | |on moist, grassy | | | | |banks under high or | | | | |in partial shade. | | | | |It has, during the | | | | |ten years that I | | | | |have grown it, | | | | |proved entirely | | | | |hardy. The seed may | | | | |be in the ground a | | | | |year before | | | | |germinating, but | | | | |once established the | | | | |plant cares for | | | | |itself. Primula Japonica | H.P. |Yellows |6 in.- |May |The border primrose mixed border | |and reds| 1 ft. | |so freely used in | | | | |England but rarely | | | | |seen in everyday | | | | |gardens here, where | | | | |I have found it | | | | |perfectly hardy. | | | | |Makes a border of | | | | |rich colour for the | | | | |May garden. Must be | | | | |watered freely in | | | | |hot, dry seasons. Primula Officinalis | H.P. |Yellow |1 ft. |May |The English cowslip, COWSLIP | | | | |a charming garden | | | | |flower, but more at | | | | |home in nooks of | | | | |grassy banks, like | | | | |the primrose, or in | | | | |the open. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- POPPY | H.P. |Yellow |1 ft. |Early |Poppies are very { Iceland poppy | |and | |Summer |difficult to { P. nudicale | |white | | |transplant, owing to | | | | |their long, | | | | |sensitive roots, | | | | |though it can be | | | | |done. It is easier, | | | | |therefore, to sow | | | | |them thinly where | | | | |they are to remain | | | | |and weed them out. P. orientale | H.P. |Dazzling|2-3 ft.|June |A gorgeous flower, | | scarlet| | |subject to damping | | | | |off if heavy rains | | | | |come when it is in | | | | |full bloom. Should | | | | |be used to fill in | | | | |between white | | | | |shrubs, as its | | | | |colour is impossible | | | | |near any of the | | | | |pink, purple, or | | | | |magenta June | | | | |flowers, and a | | | | |single plant | | | | |misplaced will ruin | | | | |your garden. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- PHLOX | H.P. |In |3-4 ft.|July- |Offshoots of these P. paniculata | |variety,| | Oct. |hardy phloxes may be | |crimson,| |Miss |usually obtained by | |purple, | |Lingard|exchange from some | |salmon, | |in June|friend, as they | |carmine,| | |increase rapidly. | |and | | |But there is a charm | |white | | |in raising seedlings | |with | | |on the chance of | |colored | | |growing a new | |eye | | |species. These | | | | |phloxes are the | | | | |backbone of the | | | | |hardy garden from | | | | |July until frost, | | | | |while Miss Lingard, | | | | |a fine white | | | | |variety, blooms in | | | | |June to be a setting | | | | |for the blue | | | | |larkspurs. Phlox subulata | H.P. |Pink and|6 in. | |The dwarf phlox that MOSS PINK | |white | | |hides its foliage | | | | |under sheets of pink | | | | |or white bloom and | | | | |makes the great mats | | | | |of colour seen among | | | | |rock work and on dry | | | | |banks in parks and | | | | |public gardens. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- PENTSTEMON | H.P. | |3 ft. |Summer |Very fine border European | |Many | | |plants, almost as varieties. Mixed | | rich | | |decorative as | | colours| | |foxgloves, showing | | | | |tints of reds | | | | |through pink, white, | | | | |blue and white | | | | |cream, etc. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- PANSIES | H.B. |Many |1 ft. |April |It is usual to sow in varieties | flowers | rich | | to |pansies in frames | first | colours| |Dec. |during September | year | | | |and October, winter | | | | |them under cover, | | | | |and transplant to | | | | |beds the following | | | | |spring. | | | | |If pansies (well | | | | |soaked previously) | | | | |are sown in the seed | | | | |bed in late August | | | | |or early September, | | | | |they will be compact | | | | |little plants by | | | | |November, when they | | | | |may be transplanted | | | | |to their permanent | | | | |bed or else covered | | | | |where they stand, | | | | |protected by leaves | | | | |between the rows and | | | | |a few evergreen | | | | |boughs or a little | | | | |salt hay over them. | | | | |If an entire bed is | | | | |set apart set apart | | | | |for pansies and only | | | | |the finest flowers | | | | |allowed to seed, the | | | | |bed will keep itself | | | | |going for several | | | | |years by merely | | | | |thinning and | | | | |adjusting the | | | | |seedlings. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- DAY PRIMROSE | H.P. |Golden |1 ft. |Early |A day-flowering Oenothera fruticosa | |yellow | |summer |member of the | | | | |evening-primrose | | | | |family, resembling | | | | |the golden sundrops | | | | |of our June meadows. | | | | |Very fragrant, and | | | | |if once established, | | | | |will sow itself. EVENING PRIMROSE | H.B. |Yellow |3 ft. |All |The exquisitely Oenothera biennis | | | |summer |scented silver-gold | | | | |flower that unfurls | | | | |at twilight to give | | | | |a supper to the hawk | | | | |moths, upon whom it | | | | |depends for | | | | |fertilization. Grows | | | | |in dry soil and | | | | |should be used in | | | | |masses to fill in | | | | |odd corners. --------------------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-------------------- Violas | H.P. |Purple, |6 in. |April |A race of plants TUFTED PANSY-VIOLETS| |yellow, | |to Oct.|closely resembling for bedding | |rose, | | |pansies, that fill | |mauve, | | |an important place | |white | | |in the gardens of | | | | |Europe, but are as | | | | |yet little known | | | | |here, though they | | | | |are as hardy as the | | | | |primulas. As a | | | | |border for shrubs or | | | | |rose beds they are | | | | |excellent, but when | | | | |planted as a bed, | | | | |should be in partial | | | | |shade. ====================+=========+========+=======+=======+==================== *: Hardy Perennial. **: Hardy Biennial. SOME WORTHY ANNUALS ====================+========+==========+========+========================== | TENDER | | | NAME |OR HARDY| COLOUR | HEIGHT | REMARKS --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- ASTER | H.A. |All shades|18 in. |Asters are the standby of Most reliable | |of blues, |- 2 ft. |the late summer and autumn varieties-- | |purples, | |garden, and for this Truffants | |and pink | |reason it is better to sow Victoria | |up to deep| |them in the outdoor seed QUEEN OF MARKET | |blue, also| |bed than to attempt (very early) | |white. | |forcing. They require Comet | | | |light, rich soil, mixed (quaint and | | | |with old manure, as fresh artistic) | | | |manure breeds many aster EMPEROR FREDERICK | | | |ills. Two enemies--lice at (best white) | | | |the root and black HOHENZOLLERN | | | |goldenrod beetles on the (new large | | | |flowers--must be guarded flowers.) | | | |against--the first by | | | |digging sulphur powder, | | | |unslaked lime, nitrate of | | | |soda, or wood ashes into | | | |the soil both before | | | |sowing the seed and again | | | |into the place where they | | | |are transplanted; the | | | |beetle must be dislodged | | | |by careful hand picking. | | | |Cover the seeds with half | | | |an inch of soil, and in | | | |transplanting set the | | | |plants from a foot to | | | |eighteen inches apart, | | | |according to variety. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- SWEET ALYSSUM, | H.A. |White, | 1 ft. |A cheerful little Variety | | fragrant | |mustard-shaped flower Maritimum | | | |borne in short, thick | | | |spikes, useful for edgings | | | |or to supply the white | | | |setting necessary to | | | |groups of party-coloured | | | |flowers. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- BALSAM | T.A. |White, | 18 in. |A rapid-growing, tender Camellia flowered | |peach, | |annual from India, and | |carmine, | |while rather stiff in form | |lavender, | |of growth, very decorative | |rose, | |for the summer borders | |scarlet, | |surrounding a sundial. | |spotted, | |The flowers, like | |and straw | |compact, double roses, are | | | |very useful for set table | | | |decorations and may be | | | |used in many ways. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- Calendula--POT | H.A. |Yellow | 1 ft. |Showy flowers for summer MARIGOLD | |and orange| |beds, not good for Calendula | |White | |cutting, as they grow officinalis | | | |sleepy indoors and in grandiflora | | | |cloudy weather. Calendula Pongei. | | | | fl. pl. | | | | --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- CANDYTUFT | H.A. |White, | 1 ft. |A sturdy white flower Iberis Coronaria | |fine | |useful for edgings in the Rocket Candytuft | |erect form| |same way as sweet alyssum. | | | |May be sown in fall for | | | |early flowering. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- CORNFLOWER | H.A. | | 1-2 ft.|One of the most Centaurea | | | |satisfactory of the taller Centaurea Margaritæ,| | | |growing annuals, the fragrant | |White | |flowers having some of the SWEET SULTAN | | | |qualities of an Suaveolens | |Yellow | |everlasting, and making Moschata | |Purple | |fine buttonhole flowers CYANUS--EMPEROR | | | |or house bouquets. The WILLIAM | |Deep blue | |Sweet Sultans are (Rich blue | | | |delightfully fragrant, and cornflower) | | | |the Cornflower one of the | | | |finest of our blue | | | |flowers. They should be | | | |sown in borders or large | | | |beds where they are to | | | |bloom and while the Sweet | | | |Sultans must be spring | | | |sown, the Cornflower if | | | |sown in October will bloom | | | |in May. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- COSMOS | H.A. |White |4-8 ft. |A beautiful autumn flower Giant fancy | |Pink | |if they are on their best | |Maroon | |behaviour and bloom on | | | |time, but like the little | | | |girl with the curl--when | | | |they are bad, they are | | | |horrid.--They take a | | | |great deal of room during | | | |a long season which can be | | | |often used to better | | | |advantage--planted with | | | |asters. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- Dahlia | H.H.P. |Various |3-6 ft. |If sown either indoors or Single and cactus, | | | |in a frame, these Dahlias mixed varieties | | | |may be as cheaply raised | | | |as any common annual--with | | | |the chance of growing | | | |many beautiful and new | | | |varieties. The roots may | | | |be stored in sand in the | | | |cellar during winter like | | | |other bulbs. | | | |I class this seed with | | | |annuals from the fact that | | | |it must be sown in spring | | | |and cannot be left over | | | |winter in the hardy bed | | | |though it is a _half_ | | | |hardy perennial. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- Gaillardia, called | H.A. |Red and |1 ft. |Fine daisy-shaped flower BLANKET FLOWER from| |yellow | |for colour-masses or its habit of | | | |picking. May be sown in covering the ground| | | |in the borders after bulbs with bloom | | | |have died away, and will Gaillardia, picta | | | |and will bloom until hard Lorenziania | | | |frost. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- Ipomæa | T.A. | |10-15 |Our most beautiful annual | | | ft. |vines. The common morning | | | |glories should be kept | | | |from seeding in flower or | | | |vegetable gardens, because | | | |before you know it the | | | |strong tendrils will have | | | |twined about vegetables | | | |and flowers alike and | | | |strangled them. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- Ipomæa | T.A. | | |An early variety of the | | | |of the popular moonflower Ipomæa, Mexicana | |Satiny | 15 ft. | grandiflora | | white | | alba--Large white | | | | moonflower | | | | Ipomæa, Northern | T.A. |Pinkish | 15 ft. | Light | |heliotrope| | --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- Imperial Japanese | T.A. |White, |30-40 |One of the most artistic morning-glories | |rose, | ft. |flowers of the modern | |crimson, | |garden, the seed must be | |all | |must be sown early, | |shades of | |preferably in a hotbed, | |purple | |and extra precautions | | | |taken to insure its | | | |germination, as the | | | |coverings are exceedingly | | | |hard. It is best to soak | | | |them over night in several | | | |changes of warm water or | | | |else very carefully notch | | | |the shell of the seed with | | | |a knife. This last | | | |performance is rather | | | |risky, if the knife slip | | | |ever so little, and it is | | | |best to trust to the | | | |soaking. For those who are | | | |in the country only from | | | |June to October and have | | | |little room for vines, | | | |these morning-glories | | | |will prove a new | | | |experience, for in flower | | | |and leaf they present an | | | |infinite variety of shape | | | |and marking. The flowers | | | |are both self-coloured as | | | |well as marbled, spotted, | | | |striped, margined, and | | | |fringed. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- MIGNONETTE | H.A. | |1-2 ft. |These three species of Miles Spiral | |Green | |mignonette I have found | | and white| |perfectly satisfactory. Giant Pyramidal | |Green, | 18 in. |If quantity is desired | | deep | |rather than quality, the Parson's White | |White and | 9 in. |seed may be sown thinly | | buff | |where it is to remain. But | | | |for specimen stalks to | | | |come up to catalogue | | | |descriptions, each plant | | | |must have individual | | | |treatment, like the | | | |asters. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- NASTURTIUMS | H.A. |All shades| |A showy climbing or Tall | |of reds | |trailing plant, useful for Make your own | |and | |outdoor decorations and mixture by buying | |yellows, | |the clean-smelling flowers the twenty named | |chocolate,| |being equally valuable for colours offered and| |pink, and | |table decorations. blending them. | |salmon | |Should be either planted | | | |on a bank, wall, or in | | | |front of a fence, stone or | | | |otherwise. If stone, a | | | |thick support of peabrush | | | |should be given, set | | | |slantwise toward the wall. | | | |Be careful not to place | | | |nasturtiums where you will | | | |look over them toward beds | | | |containing pink or magenta | | | |flowers or where they will | | | |form a background for the | | | |same, as in spite of some | | | |beautiful tints of | | | |straw-colour and maroon, | | | |the general nasturtium | | | |colour is dazzling, | | | |uncompromising | | | |vermilion-orange. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- PHLOX DRUMMONDII | H.A. | |1½ ft. |A thoroughly satisfactory Best colours in | | | |flower for the summer tall flowering class| | | |garden, whether sown | | | |broadcast to cover beds Alba | |White | |left empty by spring bulbs Coccinea | |Scarlet | |or sown in a seed bed and Isabellina | |Light | |transplanted eight inches | | yellow | |to a foot apart, when if Rosea | |Pink | |the dead flowers are kept Stella Splendens | |Crimson | |well picked off, they will Atropurpurea | |Purple | |make sturdy, compact | | | |bushes. DRUMMOND PHLOX | | |6-8 ft. |The dwarf varieties make Snowball | |White | |charming edges for hardy Chamois Rose | |Pink | |rose beds or shrubberies. Fireball | |Flame | | Surprise | |Scarlet | | | |edged with| | | |white | | --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- POPPIES | H.A. | |1 ft. - |Poppies are gorgeous | | | 18 in. |flowers, but in our SHIRLEY, the most | |All shades| |changeable climate, as a satisfactory reds | |class, are too short-lived of poppies for | | | |to pay their way, except outdoor decoration | | | |in summer gardens where a or cutting | | | |brief period of bloom | | | |suffices, or in a garden | | | |so large that there need | | | |be no economy of space. | | | |Shirley is sown in May and | | | |again in August for spring | | | |flowering. | | | |Even under adverse | | | |conditions the Shirley is | | | |always dainty and never | | | |makes a disagreeable, | | | |soppy exhibition after a | | | |rainy period like the | | | |carnation and peony | | | |flowered varieties. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- PORTULACA | T.A. |Red, |6-8 in. |A most useful "filler" for Buy the separate | |white, | |sunny nooks,--rockwork,-- colours and mix | |pink, | |for covering bulb beds, them yourself, as | |crimson, | |and concealing mishaps in the commercial | |yellow | |and disappointments. mixtures both | | | |Its fat, uninteresting scarlet and pink | | | |foliage, that makes mats appear in tints | | | |a foot broad and proclaims that set the teeth | | | |it first cousin to on edge | | | |"pusley," is covered | | | |during bright sunshine by | | | |a wealth of gay flowers | | | |two inches across and of | | | |satiny texture. | | | |Heat, and plenty of it, is | | | |what Portulaca craves, | | | |backyards agree with it, | | | |also dry banks, and even | | | |seashore sand if there is | | | |a foothold of loam | | | |beneath. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- Salvia Splendens-- | H.A. | |2-2½ ft.|The familiar flower that FLOWERING SAGE | | | |sends up its spikes of Bonfire | |Intense | |flame from August until | | flame | |frost--should be sown in | | | |seed beds and set out from | | | |one to two feet apart. | | | |Watch out and do not put | | | |your salvia where it will | | | |come in competition with | | | |the crimson-hued hardy | | | |phlox tribe. Scarlet | | | |geraniums and the crimson | | | |rambler rose in | | | |conjunction are not more | | | |painful. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- SWEET PEAS, twelve | H.A. |Various |6 ft. |If sweet peas are to be good colours | | | |grown in any quantity, | | | |they should be sown after Apple blossom | |Pink | |the manner of tall garden Black knight | |Maroon | |peas and the colours kept Boreatton | |Deep | |separate. This is a great | | Crimson | |aid both to their Coquette | |Primrose | |gathering and artistic Crown jewel | |Cream, | |arrangement. | | violet | | | | veins | | Duke of Clarence | |Claret | | Firefly | |Dazzling | | | | scarlet | | Gorgeous | |Orange and| | | | rose | | Mrs. Kenyon (very | |Primrose- | | large) | | yellow | | King Edward VII | |Very fine | | | | crimson | | Mrs. Dugdale | |Best | | | | rose-pink| | Navy blue | |Rich dark | | | | blue | | Primrose | |Light | | | | yellow | | Senator | |White, | | | | purple, | | | | and | | | | maroon | | | | striped | | Mont Blanc, very | |White | 2 ft. | early | | | | Stella Morse | |Primrose | | | | flushed | | | | with pink| | --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- SUNFLOWERS | H.A. |All shades|4-8 ft. |Cheerful flowers to line Henry Wilde | |of yellow | |up against fences or at Primrose-coloured | | | |the back of shrubberies, Cucumerifolius | | | |whose seeds, if left to hybridus fl. pl., | | | |ripen, will secure the a fine mixture of | | | |company of many birds for new varieties, | | | |your garden through the decorative and | | | |autumn and early winter. good for cutting | | | | Single Russian (The | | | 8 ft. | Henyard Sunflower),| | | | large head heavy | | | | with seeds | | | | --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- VERBENA | H.A. | |1½ ft. |The best summer-bedding Defiance, scarlet | | | |plant that is raised from bedder | | | |seed, which must be well Candidissima | | | |soaked before sowing. The Auriculæflora, | | | |mammoth varieties are the various, with | | | |most satisfactory, and white eye | | | |among them are to be Mammoth, mixed, | |Red, | |found shaded tints of rose large flowers, often| |white, | |and lavender that have fragrant, of many | |blue, | |decided perfume. beautiful colours. | |purple, | | | |crimson, | | | |pink, | | | |striped | | --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- WALLFLOWER | H.A. |Gold and |1½ ft. |While the most beautiful Paris single annual | | Brown | |species of wallflowers are | | | |in this climate so tender | | | |that they must be wintered | | | |in pits or cold frames, | | | |this single species, if | | | |sown in spring and | | | |transplanted, will bloom | | | |until Christmas. | | | |It is one of the most | | | |valuable and | | | |characteristic plants of | | | |the bed of sweet odours | | | |and can be used to fill | | | |odd nooks, against stone | | | |walls, or the foundation | | | |of buildings. --------------------+--------+----------+--------+-------------------------- ZINNIA (Crabbed age | H.A. | |1-16 in.|Bedding annual, of and Youth) | | | |brilliant colours and Salmon | | | |vigorous growth. If room Snowball | | | |is lacking, the dwarf Sulphur | | | |varieties are best unless Golden | | | |the soil is very poor. It Fireball | | | |is best to buy the seed in Rose | | | |separate colours, and when | | | |transplanting from the | | | |seed bed, combine as | | | |required. | | | |Avoid the purple and | | | |magenta shades, they are | | | |quite impossible. ====================+========+==========+========+========================== 
19373	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE TENTH ANNUAL MEETING BATTLE CREEK, MICHIGAN DECEMBER 9 AND 10, 1919 CONTENTS Page Officers and Committees of the Association 4 Members of the Association 5 Constitution and By-Laws 9 Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Convention 11 President's Address, Mr W. C. Reed, Indiana 11 Report of the Secretary-Treasurer 14 Business Sessions 15, 133 The Farms by the Side of the Road, Matthew Henry Hoover, New York 23 Native Nut Tree Plantations in Michigan, Prof. A. K. Chittenden, Michigan 33 Pecans Other Than Those of the Well Known Sections, J. F. Jones, Pennsylvania 44 Hazel Nuts and Filberts, Conrad Vollertsen, New York 53 Disease Resistance in the American Chestnut, Arthur H. Graves, Connecticut 60 Notes on the Hickories, Dr. Robert T. Morris, New York 68 The Nutritive Value of Nuts, F. A. Cajorie, Connecticut 80 Nut Trees and Bushes in Landscape Work, O. C. Simonds, Illinois 88 Nut Culture in Michigan, C. A. Reed, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 98 Nut Trees for Highways and Public Places, Hon. William S. Linton, Michigan 108 Legislation Regarding the Planting of Nut and Other Food Producing Trees, Senator Harvey A. Penney, Michigan 112 Michigan Law Regarding Roadside Planting of Nut Trees 116 The Soy Bean, Dr. J. H. Kellogg, Michigan 118 Judging Nuts, Willard G. Bixby, New York 122 The 1919 Nut Contest, Willard G. Bixby, New York 146 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President_ W. S. LINTON Saginaw, Michigan _Vice-President_ JAMES S. MCGLENNON Rochester, New York _Secretary and Treasurer_ WILLARD G. BIXBY Baldwin, Nassau Co., New York _Acting Secretary_ W. C. DEMING Wilton, Connecticut COMMITTEES _Auditing_--C. P. CLOSE, C. A. REED _Executive_--J. RUSSELL SMITH, W. C. REED AND THE OFFICERS _Federal Aid_--J. M. PATTERSON, R. T. MORRIS, J. H. KELLOGG, T. P. LITTLEPAGE, WILLARD G. BIXBY, J. F. JONES, J. S. MCGLENNON _Finance_--T. P. LITTLEPAGE, WILLARD G. BIXBY, W. C. DEMING _Hybrids_--R. T. MORRIS, C. P. CLOSE, W. C. DEMING, J. G. RUSH Membership--HARRY R. WEBER, R. T. OLCOTT, F. N. FAGAN. W. O. POTTER, W. C. DEMING, J. RUSSELL SMITH _Nomenclature_--C. A. REED, R. T. MORRIS, J. F. JONES _Press and Publication_--RALPH T. OLCOTT, J. RUSSELL SMITH, W. C. DEMING _Programme_--W. C. DEMING, J. RUSSELL SMITH, C. A. REED, R. T. MORRIS _Promising Seedlings_--C. A. REED, J. F. JONES STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS California T. C. Tucker 311 California St., San Francisco Canada G. H. Corsan 17 Rusholme Park Crescent, Toronto Connecticut Henry Leroy Lewis Stratford Georgia J. B. Wight Cairo Illinois E. A. Riehl Godfrey Indiana M. P. Reed Vincennes Maryland C. P. Close College Park Massachusetts James H. Bowditch 903 Tremont Building, Boston Michigan Dr. J. H. Kellogg Battle Creek Missouri P. C. Stark Louisiana New Jersey C. S. Ridgway Lumberton New York M. E. Wile 37 Calumet St., Rochester Ohio Harry R. Weber 601 Gerke Building, Cincinnati Pennsylvania J. G. Rush West Willow Texas R. S. Trumbull M. S. R. R. Co., El Paso West Virginia B. F. Hartzell Shepherdstown MEMBERS OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION ARKANSAS * Drake, Prof. N. F., University of Arkansas, Fayetteville CALIFORNIA Cress, B. E., Tehachapi Tucker, T. C, Manager California Almond Growers Exchange, 311 California St., San Francisco CANADA Corsan, G. H., 17 Rusholme Park Crescent, Toronto Sager, Dr. D. S., Brantford CONNECTICUT Barrows, Paul M., May Apple Farm, High Ridge, Stamford Bartlett, Francis A., Stamford Deming, Dr. W. C, Wilton Filley, W. O., State Forester, Drawer 1, New Haven Glover, James L., Shelton, R. F. D. 7 Hungerford, Newman, Torrington, R. F. D. 2, Box 76 Ives, Ernest M., Sterling Orchards, Meriden Lewis, Henry Leroy, Stratford McGlashan, Archibald, Kent * Morris, Dr. Robert T., Cos Cob, Route 28, Box 95 Pomeroy, Eleazer, 120 Bloomfield Ave., Windsor Sessions, Albert L., 25 Bellevue Ave., Bristol Southworth, George E., Milford, Box 172 Staunton, Gray, 98 Park St., New Haven White, Gerrard, North Granby DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Close, Prof. C. P., Pomologist, Department of Agriculture, Washington Foster, B. G., 902 G Street, N. W. Washington * Littlepage, T. P., Union Trust Building, Washington Reed, C. A., Nut Culturist, Department of Agriculture, Washington Taylor, Dr. Lewis H., The Cecil, Washington ** Van Fleet, Walter, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington ENGLAND Spence, Howard, Eskdale, Knutsford, Cheshire GEORGIA Bullard, William P., Albany Van Duzee, C. A., Judson Orchard Farm, Cairo Wight, J. B., Cairo ILLINOIS Casper, O. H., Anna Librarian, University of Illinois, Urbana Poll, Carl J., 1009 Maple St., Danville Potter, Hon. W. O., Marion Riehl, E. A., Godfrey, Route 2 Uran, B. F., Mattoon INDIANA Crain, Donald J., 1313 North St., Logansport Reed, M. P., Vincennes Reed, W. C., Vincennes Simpson, H. D., Vincennes Staderman, A. L., 120 S. Seventh St., Terre Haute Wilkinson, J. F., Rockport IOWA Snyder, D. C., Center Point (Linn Co. Nurseries) KANSAS Sharpe, James, Council Grove, (Morris Co. Nurseries) KENTUCKY Baker, Sam C., Beaver Dam, R. D. 2 Livengood, Frank M., Berea MARYLAND Hoopes, Wilmer P., Forest Hill Keenan, Dr. John F., Brentwood Littlepage, Miss Louise, Bowie MASSACHUSETTS * Bowditch, James H., 903 Tremont Building, Boston Cleaver, C. Leroy, 496 Commonwealth Ave., Boston MICHIGAN House, George W., Ford Building, Detroit Kellogg, Dr. J. H., 202 Manchester St., Battle Creek Linton, W. S., President Board of Trade Saginaw McKale, H. B., Lansing, Route 6 Schram, Mrs. O. E., Galesburg, Box 662 MISSOURI Mosnat, H. R., 3883 East 62 St., Kansas City Stark, P. C., Louisiana Ward, Miss Daisy, 2019 Allen Ave., St. Louis NEBRASKA Caha, Wm., Wahoo NEVADA Swingle, C. G., Hazen NEW JERSEY * Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly St., Jersey City Heights Landmann, Miss M. V., Cranbury, R. D. 2 Marston, Edwin S., Florham Park, Box 72 Price, John R., 36 Ridgedale Ave., Madison Ridgeway, C. S., Floralia, Lumberton NEW YORK Abbott, Frederick B., 419 Ninth Street, Brooklyn Ashworth, Fred L., Heuvelton Atwater, C. G., The Barrett Co., 17 Battery Place, New York City Bixby, Willard G., 32 Grand Ave., Baldwin, Nassau Co. Brown, Ronald J., 320 Broadway, New York City Buist, Dr. George J., 2 Hancock St., Brooklyn Crane, Alfred J., Monroe, Box 342 Ellwanger, Mrs. W. D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Goeltz, Mrs. M. H., 2524 Creston Ave., New York City Harper, G. W., Jr., 115 Broadway, New York City Hicks, Henry, Westbury, Long Island Hodgson, Casper W., World Book Co., Yonkers * Huntington, A. M., 15 West 81st St., New York City McGlennon, James S., 528 Cutler Building, Rochester Olcott, Ralph T., Editor American Nut Journal, Ellwanger and Barry Building, Rochester Pomeroy, A. C., Lockport Stephen, John W., New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse Tallinger, J. F., Barnard Teele, A. W., 120 Broadway, New York City Ulman, Dr. Ira, 213 W. 147th St., New York City Vollertsen, Conrad, 375 Gregory St., Rochester Wile, M. E., 955 Harvard St., Rochester Williams, Dr. Charles Mallory, 48 E. 49th St., New York City * Wissman, Mrs. F. deR., Westchester, New York City NORTH CAROLINA Barrett, Dr. Harvey P., 211 Vail Ave., Charlotte Hutchings, Miss Lida G., Pine Bluff North Carolina Dept. of Agriculture, Raleigh Van Lindley, J., J. Van Lindley Nursery Co., Pomona OHIO Burton, J. Howard, Casstown Dayton, J. H., Storrs & Harrison Co., Painesville Ketchum, C. S., Middlefield Truman, G. G., Perrysville, Box 167 Weber, Harry R., 123 East 6th St., Cincinnati Yunck, E. G., 706 Central Ave., Sandusky OREGON Pearcy, Knight, Salem, R. F. D. 3, Box 187 PENNSYLVANIA Druckemiller, W. H., Sunbury Fagan, Prof. F. N., Department of Horticulture, State College Heffner, H., Highland Chestnut Grove, Leeper Hile, Anthony, Curwensville National Bank, Curwensville Jenkins, Charles Francis, Farm Journal, Philadelphia * Jones, J. F., Lancaster, Box 527 Kaufman, M. M., Clarion Leas, F. C., Merion Station Murphy, P. J., Vice President L. & W. R. R. Co., Scranton O'Neill, William C., 328 Walnut St., Philadelphia Patterson, J. E., 77 N. Franklin St., Wilkes-Barre * Rick, John, 438 Pennsylvania Square, Reading Rife, Jacob A., Camp Hill Rush, J. G., West Willow Smedley, Samuel L., Newtown Square, R. F. D. 1 * Sober, Col. C. K., Lewisburg Weaver, William S., McCungie Wilhelm, Dr. Edward A., Clarion * Wister, John C., Wister St. & Clarkson Ave., Germantown SOUTH CAROLINA Shanklin, Prof. A. G., Clemson College TEXAS Burkett, J. H., Nut Specialist, State Department of Agriculture, Clyde. Trumbull, R. S., Agricultural Agent, El Paso & S. W., System Morenci Southern R. R. Co., El Paso VIRGINIA Parish, John S., University Smith, Dr. J. Russell, Roundhill WEST VIRGINIA Brooks, Fred E., French Creek Cannaday, Dr. John Egerton, Charleston, Box 693 Hartzell, B. F., Shepherdstown Jenkins, Miss, The Green Bottom Homestead, Glenwood P. O. * Life member. ** Honorary member. CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I _Name._ This society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION. ARTICLE II _Object._ Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III _Membership._ Membership in the society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president and a secretary-treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and an executive committee of five persons, of which the president, two last retiring presidents, vice-president and secretary-treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI _Meetings._--The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. ARTICLE VII _Quorum._ Ten members of the association shall constitute a quorum, but must include a majority of the executive committee or two of the three elected officers. ARTICLE VIII _Amendments._ This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or a copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I _Committees._ The association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on nomenclature, on promising seedlings, on hybrids, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II _Fees._ The fees shall be of two kinds, annual and life. The former shall be two dollars, the latter twenty dollars. ARTICLE III _Membership._ All annual memberships shall begin with the first day of the calendar quarter following the date of joining the association. ARTICLE IV _Amendments._ By-laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present at any annual meeting. Northern Nut Growers Association TENTH ANNUAL MEETING DECEMBER 9 AND 10, 1919 BATTLE CREEK, MICHIGAN The tenth annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers' Association was called to order at 11:00 A. M., Tuesday, December 9, 1919, in the Annex Parlor of the Battle Creek Sanitarium, Battle Creek, Michigan, with the President, W. C. Reed, presiding. The meeting was opened with a short business session beginning with the President's report as follows: PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS W. C. REED, VINCENNES, IND. FELLOW MEMBERS, NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: Our Association meets today under the most favorable surroundings. We have this splendid building in which to hold our meetings, furnished gratuitously also have with us in this wonderful Institution several thousand guests, men and women of ability and prominence in their respective communities, from all parts of the United States. Dr. Kellogg has been very kind and generous in extending an invitation several times to this association, and your speaker has thought there was no place quite so well suited for a winter meeting. It gives me great pleasure to be able to be with you and preside over a meeting as the guests of Dr. Kellogg. There is probably no man in America who has done so much to further the use of nuts, to show their benefits, and to explain their uses, as a food for mankind. Conditions have changed greatly since our last meeting, September 1917, at Stamford, Connecticut. At that time the greater part of the world was at war, and owing to conditions prevailing during 1918, it was impossible for this association to hold its annual meeting. Your speaker is still holding the office of President because you have had no meeting at which new officers could be elected. It is to be regretted that the past three years have been crowded so full of events, that it was impossible to give the association matters the attention they deserved, and devote the time to them I would have liked to have done. With the armistice came a cessation of war, and we are all happy that the terrible struggle is over, but with it have come conditions that are almost as terrible as war. Famine and want stare millions of people in the face on the continent of Europe. Our own country is at present in the grip of strikes for higher wages, the like of which has never been known. Yet we are prosperous beyond the greatest dreams of any nation on earth, but with this prosperity comes many duties. Our yields of food crops have been great, but to us has fallen the lot of feeding the world, and this will continue until industrial and agricultural conditions of Europe, have been reestablished on a pre-war condition. There never was a time when meats of all kinds were so expensive, and to many almost prohibitive. Many have learned the use of nut meats in varied ways until all kinds of edible nuts are quoted on the markets today at prices undreamed of in former years. These conditions will not always last; crop failures will come; and production will be curtailed. Land values are advancing so rapidly that the production of cheap meats will be impossible. To help supply this deficiency, there will be an increased demand for nuts of all kinds. To help meet this demand, much can be done by road side planting. On our main market highways, such trees as the grafted black walnuts could be planted profitably, in many sections of the country; the English walnut in some parts where they succeed the best; and the pecan and chestnut in other parts of the country where they are specially adapted. While commercial planting of nut trees may not be attractive to the average man, home planting of a few nut trees can be recommended for every where space is available. They will make beautiful shade trees, and produce crops that will eventually be of great value. To land owners who are planting private parks, avenues and pastures, we would recommend nut trees. The production of nut trees is very difficult, and the development and testing of new varieties, a slow and expensive process. We need the Government's helping hand, and are very glad that there has been set aside by Congress an appropriation to help develop this industry. We have with us, the Nut Culturist from the Department of Agriculture, who is devoting his entire time along these lines. On the programme that is to be presented here, today and tomorrow, are men of national reputation in their respective lines, who stand at the head of their profession. To our friends and visitors here, we extend an urgent invitation, that you attend all the meetings possible, and we trust that you may learn much that will be of interest, and that this information may be taken home to your different communities. Our sincere thanks should be extended to the Programme Committee and our very efficient Secretary who have given so much time to this work. For an association to stand still, is usually to go backward. Owing to war conditions, and missing one meeting, we have had little chance to increase our membership. I sincerely trust that the Membership Committee will be active while here, and extend an invitation to all to become members, and to help advance an industry that will be for the good of posterity, and should give us much pleasure during our own lifetime. We are told, the good we do unto others lives after us. May the Nut Trees planted and fostered by the members of this association, live long to wave their leafy branches under Heaven's purple dome, and may weary pilgrims of future generations rest beneath their shade, and enjoy their fruits, thanking us with a silent prayer that these trees were planted for their benefit. PRESIDENT REED: I believe the next thing in order will be the reading of the secretary's and treasurer's reports. Does any one have anything to present while we are waiting for the secretary, who is busy? DR. MORRIS: How many members have we, Mr. President? PRESIDENT REED: I don't know. Several have written me asking about members, and Mr. Olcott probably knows something about it. MR. OLCOTT: I don't know how many there are now; but I think there were 150 or 200 at the time of the Stamford meeting. I think there were that many enrolled. I presume that two-thirds of those renewed--probably something over 100 members. PRESIDENT REED: There were 138 paid members. DR. MORRIS: Dr. Kellogg says there may be a thousand men in the audience this evening, and if there are we ought to do some propaganda work. PRESIDENT REED: I don't remember who the membership committee was. Mr. Weber was chairman, I believe, and he is not here. Olcott is next on the committee. MR. OLCOTT: I didn't know I was on that committee. PRESIDENT REED: Fagan was on that committee, Potter, Deming, Williams, J. Russell Smith. I guess you are the only member of the committee who is here. We are ready for the report of the secretary and treasurer, Mr. Bixby. * * * * * REPORT OF THE SECRETARY-TREASURER SEPT. 1, 1917-NOV. 30, 1919 Key: A: Sep. 1. '17 to Dec. 31, '17 B: Jan. 1, '18 to May 20, '18 C: May 21, '18 to Dec. 31, '18 D: Jan. 1, '19 to Nov. 30, '19 RECEIPTS A B C D Total Balance Balance on hand date of last report, August 31, 1917. $ 15.93 Received from annual members including joint subscriptions to American Nut Journal $69.50 $123.54 $ 73.75 $247.35 $514.14 Received in payment of life membership 20.00 25.00 45.00 Sale of reports, brochures and leaflets 2.25 4.00 9.95 4.85 21.05 Advertising in report of Stamford meetings 8th, 1917 21.00 21.00 Sales of sundry material. 1.58 1.58 Contributions for 1917 Contest 25.00 125.00 150.00 Contribution for special hickory prizes 25.00 25.00 ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- $112.75 $145.12 $108.70 $427.20 $793.77 $793.77 ------- $809.70 EXPENDITURES American Nut Journal, their portion of joint subscriptions $ 6.75 $ 14.00 $ 59.00 $ 79.75 Stationary, printing and Supplies .69 44.05 49.50 94.24 Postage, Express, etc. 4.82 13.95 9.66 9.24 37.67 Prizes 1917 Nut Contest 15.00 15.00 Prize 1918 Nut Contest 107.00 107.00 Advertising 1917 Nut Contest $10.21; expenses 1917 contest $2.90 13.11 13.11 Advertising 1918 Nut Contest 51.50 51.50 Stamford Meeting 1917 expenses 65.55 65.55 Printing Report of Stamford Meeting 162.00 162.00 Errors in remittance corrected 3.85 3.50 7.35 Litchfield Savings Bank. Life membership of John Rick Balance on hand Dec. 1, 1919. 20.00 20.00 ------ ------ ------- ------- ------- ------- $97.81 $30.91 $244.71 $279.74 $653.17 $653.17 Balance on hand Dec. 1, 1919. Special hickory prize 25.00 Life membership Lee W. Jaques 25.00 For regular expenses. 106.53 ------- $809.70 I have carefully been over the above statement and found it to be correct. C. A. REED, for Auditing Committee. The above are records of receipts and expenditures for two years and three months and are approximately double those noted in the report of of the Stamford meeting. The activities of the Association were necessarily at a low ebb in war time, and, although a joint meeting with the National Association was planned for the fall of 1918, it was never held. The list of members printed in this report numbers 128 while that in the last one shows 166, apparently a very large decrease. The last report showed 138 paid up members. Following the methods of Secretary Deming, members who have not responded to notices and letters have been dropped. In no case has a member been dropped until a letter with return postage has been sent. In a number of instances members thus written to have resigned giving various reasons, the most common of which are change of occupation or residence, which prevented their doing anything in the line of nut growing or lack of success in their attempts to grow nuts. Two members have died since the last meeting, Mr. Wendell P. Williams and Mr. Mahlon Hutchinson; the former was in the U. S. Service at the time of his death. 57 new members have been added to our rolls since 1917 making a total of 410 joining since organization of whom we now have 128, 282 having dropped out. Of the 52 who have joined since last meeting, 21 joined before Oct. 1, 1919 the date of the proposed meeting in Albany, Ga., which was never held, and 31 since that date. The holding of members is a difficult problem and one that has not been worked out at all satisfactorily. Most members join in the hope of thereby learning how to successfully grow nut trees. They find out that so much is still experimental that most do not remain. This is bound to continue till we can show grafted or budded nut trees bearing satisfactory crops, and, until that time, there seems nothing to do but to keep on going after new members and by means of bulletins, reports, letters and otherwise making the membership more valuable than ever. There has been a greater interest in nut growing during the past fall than at any time since your Secretary-Treasurer has held office. Respectfully submitted, WILLARD G. BIXBY, Secretary-Treasurer. * * * * * PRESIDENT REED: You have heard the report. What is your pleasure? I believe that is usually referred to an auditing committee. C. A. Reed was chairman of that committee. MR. BIXBY: Mr. Reed spoke to me about this yesterday. He said he would be glad to audit it, but there has not been time to give it to him. It was ready for him this morning, but he was busy on other things. PRESIDENT REED: What is the next thing on the program, Mr. Secretary? MR. BIXBY: The reports of committees. I do not know how much report the standing committees have. PRESIDENT REED: There is the executive committee, the finance committee, the hybrids committee--maybe Dr. Morris has something on that. DR. MORRIS: No, I have no report to make on that. I shall talk on the subject this afternoon or in the course of my paper incidentally. I didn't see any occasion for action in that direction since the last meeting, so I have not acted except incidentally in the course of my work. PRESIDENT REED: The committee on nomenclature--of course they wouldn't have any report until after this meeting. MR. BIXBY: Who is on that committee?--C. A. Reed, Dr. Morris, and J. F. Jones. Two members of the committee are here. There is one matter which perhaps I better bring up to the committee first,--one matter I think they should take some action on. PRESIDENT REED: I think it would be best to have that come up at a later time. DR. MORRIS: I would like to bring in something incidentally in relation to nomenclature in my paper. Perhaps we could have the question discussed after I have brought up that point. PRESIDENT REED: There is a committee on promising seedlings C. A. Reed, and J. F. Jones. I think that covers all the standing committees. Wasn't there a committee on nominations for officers to be elected, this morning? MR. BIXBY: That nominating committee has to be elected. PRESIDENT REED: How many members? MR. BIXBY: There were four or five last time, I think. PRESIDENT REED: (Reading by-laws calling for five members). MR. BIXBY: I move Mr. Olcott be on the committee. VOICE: I second the motion. PRESIDENT REED: It has been moved and seconded that Mr. Olcott be elected as a member of the nominating committee. All in favor say, Aye. It is so ordered. Who else shall we have, for a second member? MR. LINTON: I move Mr. Bixby be a member of the committee. MR. BIXBY: There is a precedent that the secretary has never been a member of the nominating committee. He has sometimes given them information. I move Dr. Morris, Mr. Jones, and Mr. Linton be members of the nominating committee, and Mr. McGlennon. MR. MCGLENNON: I second the motion. MR. OLCOTT: The committee as you suggested it is Dr. Morris, Mr. J. F. Jones, Mr. Linton, Mr. McGlennon and myself? PRESIDENT REED: You have heard the motion. All in favor say Aye. The committee stands elected as named. They report at tomorrow morning's meeting. I think there is one matter it would be well to bring up, and that is the membership committee. MR. OLCOTT: I was going to suggest that is an important matter, and I think that committee should be filled out with those who are present, inasmuch as the regular members are not here. It looks as though a comparatively small membership would have to double up on membership committee. PRESIDENT REED: Have you any suggestions as to whom you want on that committee? MR. BIXBY: Those committees, with the exception of the nominating committee, are appointed by the president. I think myself that the new president appoints them. PRESIDENT REED: My idea was to appoint for this meeting and help Mr. Olcott out. MR. OLCOTT: I suggest Mr. McGlennon and Mr. Jones as two of the members. PRESIDENT REED: Let it stand as it is with the three and give the chairman power to appoint two more later. MR. MCGLENNON: Can the secretary tell us how many members there are? MR. BIXBY: One hundred sixty-four notices of this meeting were sent out. There are 128 paid up members. MR. OLCOTT: On the matter of membership, I wonder if the association could suggest some inducement for membership, or summarize the inducements. As you know, the American Association of Nurserymen has been desirous of more members, and they found it very advisable to outline definitely the benefits of membership in that association. I am wondering if that has been done recently and could not be emphasized in some way to the advantage of larger membership. You have got to do something more than say that there is in existence an association devoted to these purposes and everybody is invited to come in. Maybe the secretary has something on that line. MR. BIXBY: I have no suggestion. It is very evident that there is a greatly increased interest in nut growing over what there was when I first took up the office. That is very clearly brought out by the amount of mail received. You may know that Capt. Deming, when in the service, took the position of editing the nut department of the American Fruit Grower. I saw him recently and it looks to me as if, as editor of that department, he is answering about as many correspondents on nuts and trying to boost the association in that way as he did when he was secretary before. And that would appear to be in addition to the communications that are coming to me now. MR. OLCOTT: There is interest. We get at the Journal office a great quantity of inquiries but only a small per cent of them result in memberships and subscriptions, and while this interest is so strong, ought not this association to study that which is something of a problem--perhaps something that ought to be taken up in view of the interests and the benefits of the association shown. PRESIDENT REED: I think that is a good suggestion. I think they need something along that line. Is there anything else we want to bring up at this morning session? MR. MCGLENNON: Is this not a very good field to open up operations along that line, right here at Battle Creek? A large number of people who come here are people who eat nuts, and I believe that condition would resolve itself into a material advance of membership. I think we ought to get busy right here and see if we can not enlist the membership of a great number of the patrons of this institution. MR. OLCOTT: That was the principal object of the membership committee I suppose. My idea was to get the ideas of the individual members, put them together and present a broadside of benefits in this organization rather than have one man attempt to outline them. DR. MORRIS: There is an immense amount of interest. The question is how to get it together and formulate it in such a way that men will join. There is an enormous, large loose majority, and we must have a small compact minority to swing it as the Senators do down at Washington, you know. Prof. Murrill of the New York Botanical Garden told me that wherever he went (he is interested in mushrooms, that is his special subject) he had had no idea in the world there was so much interest of the public in mushrooms; yet when it comes to getting together members to form the base of an association to study the subject, he finds very few members. It is simply because men haven't got the habit, and we have got in some way to give direction to that in such a way that it will be focused and concentrated on some one objective point. How to do it, I don't know. MR. BIXBY: Dr. Kellogg suggested that at the meeting this evening there will be the largest number of people, not members, that there has been at any meeting; and he said he had had requests from people that they wanted to hear Dr. Morris, and they wanted to hear Prof. Cajori who used to be here, and he asked me to change those from this afternoon to this evening in order to accomplish that, and I said we would switch the program. That was for that very purpose. MR. OLCOTT: Mr. President, it just occurred to me that in view of the number of inquiries we get, and I am sure the secretary gets, and I am also sure Dr. Deming gets from his articles, there is no doubt of the interest, yet the joining of this Northern Association, and the attendance of its single annual meeting, does not appeal to many. They do not find it convenient to attend the convention; they do not see any great amount of benefit in the membership. It occurs to me that if we had a list of state vice-presidents and each of those could provide for some local gathering of people interested in nut culture in the various communities; rather, I would say that if our members, as fast as we can increase our membership, wherever they are located, would form a nucleus of a little circle in their neighborhood, and have them affiliated with the Northern Association; it would accomplish this result. And afterward it occurred to me that perhaps that could be done through state vice-presidents. But what is really needed is to get them together in meetings. They won't come yet. They will when you get a larger membership, but they won't come to the annual meeting of this association where I think they would go to a community affair and talk over matters and refer difficult problems to the Northern Association of which they were affiliated members. In some way, a wheel within a wheel could work at it that way, and we could increase membership in that way. DR. MORRIS: It is a rule in psychology that you have got to have personal interest first. If Mr. Olcott's idea of having a local vice-president offer prizes, no matter how small, for nuts in the vicinity, and would also state that any one finding some remarkable nut would have that nut named after him to go down to all time, you would have two points there in self-interest. First, a five dollar prize to the best nut; next the name going rattling down through time in association with it. There are two points of personal interest. We may as well take it back to the basic principles and begin with the psychology of the situation. MR. KETCHUM: Mr. President, in regard to these vice-presidents, that point looks to me very good for this reason. I saw it work out in the Minnesota State Horticultural Society. They had a vice-president in each congressional district. I was vice-president in the third district one year myself From them reports were sent from their district by people who were interested. They were asked to fill out blanks about conditions as they found them in their neighborhood and we got great good from it. Then this vice-president was to make a general district report from the reports sent him, and hand it in at the annual meeting. It was quite a success. DR. MORRIS: There you have civic pride brought into your psychology. MR. KETCHUM: That was in the third district which included the northeast part of the state. It was quite a large district geographically, and I sent out something like seventy of these blank reports, and while the interest was very slight, I think I got 23 field reports in return, and out of those 23 were some nine or ten that were of some considerable importance; but it was a great big help to me in making out my report together with what I knew in my own location. The percentage of reports that came back showed that there was great interest taken by those persons. DR. MORRIS: You can arouse local pride in any locality. PRESIDENT REED: I have tried that in our own state in the last two or three years, at county fairs and local district horticultural meetings. Several times I have offered prizes out of my own pocket individually; then I have gotten other parties to help in some cases, and some exhibits even at county farmers' institutes, even very creditable exhibits and they seemed to attract as much interest even as the school exhibits. I know of one case at Martinsville two years ago this winter where the nut exhibit was almost as large as the fruit exhibit, and I think it attracted more attention; and I think there was only something like ten dollars spent in order to get it out. I think that work along that line, missionary work of that kind, is going to do us more good than almost any other endeavor. MR. OLCOTT: I do not think that the industry is old enough or strong enough yet, perhaps, to operate that state vice-president plan as it would be perhaps later on, for this reason, that if you have a state vice-president, you narrow the activity in that state to that immediate locality. But it would probably be much better, instead of that, to endeavor to get each member to form the nucleus of a local circle, and so have ten or a dozen in a state, instead of one. PRESIDENT REED: I think that suggestion is better. MR. OLCOTT: That was my original idea, and the state vice-president idea came in afterwards. MR. MCGLENNON: How many states are included in the northern association territory? MR. BIXBY: There is no limit. DR. MORRIS: Northern is a relative term. PRESIDENT REED: I don't think there is any clearly defined line where the Northern Association is. MR. OLCOTT: For the reason that men live in the North are interested in lands in the South, and _vice versa_. PRESIDENT REED: There are twenty-three vice-presidents on the list here, in the last published report. Is there anything else that should come up at the morning session? Mr. Secretary, do you know of anything else? MR. BIXBY: I would really like to see something definite on this line of increasing the membership. I can think of several things that will help; but to get something that is going to have action right away is not so clear. Recently I have had a good many people come down to my place to look at the small orchard I have there. I aim to have varieties of every nut tree that is being propagated, and I think if I keep at it a few years longer I will pretty nearly have them; and in most cases, when people have come down that way, they have become members afterwards. Two or three of them have. I am only twenty miles from New York City, and it is not difficult, if I find someone interested, to invite them down to look over the trees growing there, and usually when they come they join afterwards. MR. OLCOTT: Pardon me for speaking again, but I am on the membership committee and I am anxious to draw out anything that may be of use. Why could not some plan be devised by the secretary or by this committee and sent out tentatively in the way of suggestion and perhaps some other suggestions will be made to add to it. Perhaps also in addition to this local community plan that I suggested, there might be formed, all of it within the Northern Association, a subsidiary thereto--the walnut society--people particularly interested in the walnut, but do not care for the hickory, pecan or any other nut. You will find people particularly interested in the black walnut, some in the Persian walnut, some in the filbert--form a filbert society as the American Nut Journal has suggested, and let all the enthusiasts of the filbert get together, and if they are scattered, let them keep together by correspondence and increased activity in that way. The same for the butternut. Get at it from that way. MR. KETCHUM: Another thing to further our society here today, we can make those small organizations auxiliary thereto. DR. MORRIS: Any one who is interested in one nut becomes interested in all eventually. MR. BIXBY: I received more inquiries regarding the Persian walnut and the pecan than any other nuts--probably more regarding the Persian walnut. Nearly everybody who writes wants to grow Persian walnuts; and in the great majority of instances, I have to try to switch them onto black walnuts with the suggestion that they plant a few Persian walnuts because we have no experimental data of the Persian walnut succeeding in their section. In some instances they will turn to the black walnuts; in other instances I hear nothing further from them. The Persian walnut is the most popular with people who have not tried to grow any nuts. Mr. Jones perhaps can tell us how his inquiries run. Don't they run very largely for Persian walnuts? MR. JONES: Yes, they do. I was thinking possibly you could make a combination--take, for instance, the membership, the nut journal, and some nut trees. The nurserymen could make considerable concession. DR. MORRIS: That combination is right well. MR. JONES: You could give a coupon good for so much on an order for trees or something of that sort. MR. BIXBY: That suggestion was made and I referred it to the executive committee. I have not had any reply. PRESIDENT REED: I didn't have time to answer the communication and get it back to you before I came here; so I thought we would decide on that here. If there is nothing further to come up this morning, a motion to adjourn will be in order until the afternoon session. MR. BIXBY: I might repeat that at the request of Dr. Kellogg, in order to get the papers which he had been particularly requested to have given so that people could hear them, Dr. Morris and Prof. Cajori who were scheduled this afternoon, will come this evening, and Mr. Hoover's and Mr. Graves' papers, which were scheduled for this evening, will have to come this afternoon. Neither of the writers are present, but the papers are here. Mr. Graves expected to be here but I had a telegram yesterday that he could not get away. I have the paper, though and the photographs. MR. MCGLENNON: Has there been provision made for a paper on filberts by Mr. Vollertsen? If not, I should like to have it. MR. BIXBY: Certainly, there can be. It ought to come in this afternoon. I wrote Mr. Vollertsen asking if he could deliver it. MR. MCGLENNON: He has the paper prepared, and I want to hear it. I have been closely associated with Mr. Vollertsen for some ten years, and I know that his whole heart and soul are in the development of the filbert; and I know what he has done and that he is a rare character in the nut world today, that he possesses a fund of information. I am sure you will find intensely interesting; and furthermore I would suggest, and I believe I speak for him when I say I hope you will feel free to ask him questions. As I said before, he has a fund of information that I think we nut people ought to have, and the general public as well. We have a very good exhibit of the nuts. Mr. Vollertsen is the practical man in the enterprise we are interested in. I look after the business end of it. We are equally interested in it and feel that we have made some progress. DR. MORRIS: Put Mr. McGlennon on too. MR. MCGLENNON: I have said all I can say. MR. VOLLERTSEN: You have said too much. PRESIDENT REED: If there is nothing else, we will stand adjourned until 2:30 p. m. * * * * * TUESDAY AFTERNOON, DECEMBER 9, 1919, 2:30 P. M. PRESIDENT W. C. REED, IN THE CHAIR PRESIDENT REED: The first paper is by Mr. Hoover, Matthew Henry Hoover, of Lockport, N. Y., president of the New York State Conservation Association. Mr. Hoover is not here, and the Secretary will read his paper. THE FARMS BY THE SIDE OF THE ROAD BY MATTHEW HENRY HOOVER, LOCKPORT, N. Y. FORMERLY NEW YORK CONSERVATION COMMISSIONER PRESIDENT NEW YORK STATE CONSERVATION ASSOCIATION Horace Greeley is best known for his contribution to the abolition of human slavery in the United States. Yet his service to mankind is not fully appraised by the average American, because many of the younger generation are unaware of his aid to agriculture. His maxim about farmers' failing to till the most valuable part of their farms underneath, opening the eyes of agriculturists to the efficacy of sub-soil plowing, was the preamble to freeing American husbandry from the slavery of antiquated and unscientific methods. Following the application of science to the cultivation of the soil, came the students of Conservation. They were teaching the farmer the relation of conservation of natural resources to agriculture, the effects of forests on rainfall, moisture, erosion of soil, minimization of floods that annually bury thousands of acres of arable lands in the valleys, under rocky debris and so on. Greeley discovered the Farm Below. The Conservationists are saving the Farm Above. Now, in these days of reclamation and reconstruction, it is high time to pay more attention to the Farm by the Side of the Road. The Northern Nut Growers' Association is to be congratulated upon the fact that it is blazing the trail through the forest of popular ignorance on this vitally important conservation question; leading public thought in the right direction; and providing both the seed and the stock for practical efforts in behalf of the Farm by the Side of the Road. I am going to claim a bond of brotherhood with you in this great work, basing my claim not upon my small activities in nut cultivation, but rather upon the fact that I was one of the conservation pioneers in New York State in the advocacy of planting profitable trees--nut trees and fruit trees--along the public highways. That eminent conservationist, Gifford Pinchot, addressing the National Council of Farmers' Co-operative Associations in 1915, defined "Conservation" as "the wise use of the earth for the benefit of the people who live on it." That would be a perfect definition, if it did not invite the query: Should it not be enjoined upon the people who live upon the earth today, while enjoying its benefits, to keep faithful stewardship of the interests of the inhabitants of tomorrow? About the time Mr. Pinchot enunciated this famous definition, the New York State Conservation Department summed up the purposes of practical Conservation as: "The correction of past indiscretion, the perfection of present utilization, and the formation of future accumulation with respect to natural resources." Conservation activities must repair errors of the past which have left denuded forest lands and empty game covers and waters; they must afford and direct the present use of the forests and the streams; they must safeguard the future supply, if they would meet the requirements of a conservation which shall raise the standards of life and lower the cost of living. That is a conservation embracing both the aesthetic and the economic, the only kind worth while. It is a conservation wherein the arable areas and the so-called waste lands and waters have a very intimate interrelation of interests. And, I submit, Gentlemen, that the American people too long have failed to recognize and to account as in the class of waste lands, "The Farms by the Side of the Road." The reclamation of waste lands is a compromise between the activities of the Conservationists, who claim that in the more thickly inhabited portions of the United States the cultivated or semi-cultivated areas are out of sane and safe proportion to the wild forest sections, and the advocates of intensive and extensive agriculture. It is not the purpose of this article to take sides in that controversy, but rather to invite attention of both sides to a safe and practical field for their endeavors, namely, the reclamation of the "wasted lands" along the roadsides, the farms along the highways. During the War Garden campaigns of the past two years, these heretofore largely unused strips of tillable land, forming in the aggregate thousands of along-the-road acres in every state, received considerable attention from the thrifty plow and hoe. But in the main, the results were not encouraging. The public will trespass, unintentionally or otherwise, upon the land cropped along the highway. Then, if the farms by the side of the road are to be conserved--used by present as well as future generations--there remains but one practical recourse: productive trees. The American people love beautiful trees, possibly the expression of a reaction from the sentiment of the pioneers who regarded trees as their enemies, handicaps to agriculture to be removed as thoroughly and expeditiously as possible. But with virgin soil producing enormous crops, they naturally centered their interest on ornamental trees without reference to their fruits. Hence the horse-chestnut, buck-eye, maple, locust, oak, poplar, along the highways and byways of America, instead of the native nut trees and the Persian or English walnut. And, speaking of highways, this is the age of concrete. Taking the hint, I am selecting one concrete example of which I have intimate and personal knowledge, well aware that there are numerous others that I might cite were my acquaintance with practical nut culture more extensive than it is. The one that I know about of my own personal knowledge is, a very good example of the plain common sense of productive trees which combine the useful with the ornamental. IT READS LIKE A FAIRY TALE In 1876 two Niagara County farmers, Norman Pomeroy and Matthew O'Connor, neighbors, decided to go to the Centennial. They packed one carpet-bag in common for their baggage and boarded the train for Philadelphia. Although well to do farmers, their economic instincts warned them to beware the profiteering hotel keepers. So they sought a humble boarding house in the suburbs of the city. Returning one evening from sight-seeing at the exposition, the travelers were so weary that they retired immediately after supper. During the night Pomeroy was awakened by a tapping on the window. Assuring himself that the wallet under his pillow was still there, he investigated the cause of the disturbance of his slumbers. The noise had ceased and he decided that the overstrain of the day had worked an hallucination. Pomeroy dropped off to sleep, but presently was aroused by sounds which were unmistakably caused by a gentle tapping on the window pane. Exasperated, the man arose, picked up a boot, slipped to the window and raised it gently ready to give the joker or would-be burglar a rousing whack on the head if within reach. He stuck his head out of the window for a better view of the exterior world, and his curiosity was rewarded with a stinging blow on the cheek. The pain aroused all the Pomeroy French Huguenot fighting blood in his veins. Viciously he swung the boot at the unseen foe, only to hear it crash through tree branches. Laughing softly, in his enlightenment, he reached out into the night, grasped a branch, broke it off and turned on the gas and lit it. On the twig were two curious nuts. Pomeroy was a lover of nature, as I learned by many an interesting talk with him. He found time in his regular farming pursuits to study native trees and shrubs, and had forbidden his hired men to cut down any of the native nut trees on his 500 acre farm. But the nuts on the branch retrieved from darkness were specimens new to him and he could hardly wait for daylight to come to enable him to get acquainted with the tree which had invited his attention so rudely. Next morning Pomeroy learned that his new found arboreal friend was a Persian walnut. It was loaded and the wind storm of the night had covered the ground with shucked and unshucked nuts. By permission of the landlord, he gathered a peck of the Persian walnuts, wrapped O'Connor's and his own belongings in a newspaper and filled the carpet-bag with the nut treasures. Arriving home, the tourists stopped first at O'Connor's house. There they had to relate the experience of their great trip to an assemblage of the two families. The recounting of the Centennial wonders took until midnight. When Pomeroy picked up his carpet-bag to go home, it was empty! The children had made a discrete retirement after having consumed the entire peck of English walnuts, as the shells in the kitchen disclosed. Luckily for the youngsters, they were safe in bed and asleep. The next day, according to the elder Pomeroy, little Albert who had not been at the O'Connor home the night before, heard the dolorous tale of the wonderful tree in Philadelphia, the gift of nuts and their weird disappearance. To confirm the sad story he picked up the carpet-bag, turned it inside out. Within a torn lining, he triumphantly extracted ten nuts. Child-like, he proceeded to sample them and had eaten three when his father rescued the remainder. Seven Philadelphia walnuts were planted in the yard, and, in due time there were seven slender, silver-grayish seedling trees. These were carefully staked, guarded and cultivated by Norman Pomeroy. Despite the caviling of the neighbors, who declared that a Persian walnut tree would not thrive and bear so far north, twelve years after planting the "lucky seven" reproduced their kind--from a dozen to two dozen large, handsome Persian or English walnuts. Today the seven Centennial trees are about two feet in diameter and about 60 feet high. And as to the value of the crop, one tree alone produced nuts which sold four years ago for $142.50. Now as to the application of this romance in real life. I must return to the more prosaic generalizations of conservation and its relation to the products of cultivation with which this article began. In 1913 Governor Martin H. Glynn invited me to outline for him a program of "Practical and Progressive Conservation", applicable to the needs of New York State. In the effort to meet the request, I drew a little from my personal experience and observations as a sportsman, a farmer and a newspaper man, and a great deal from what I had learned from others among the organized sportsmen, agricultural societies, hydro-electric engineers, forest products men, foresters, and nature lovers in general. We then set forth the following as necessary to the realization of the purposes of a Conservation which should meet all conditions imposed by the past, the present and the future, as hereinbefore stated: "PRACTICAL AND PROGRESSIVE CONSERVATION" 1. Protect the birds and save the crops. 2. Develop the unutilized water powers, now going to waste with destructive effects in freshet periods to arable lands and thickly populated communities, through public ownership and distribution; thereby use "The People's White Coal," save coal and cussin' the ash-sifter, giving the public cheaper light and power for the homes, the farms, the factories, and public highways. 3. Amend the constitution to permit the use of dead and down timber in the state forest preserves, worth at least $10,000,000 annually. 4. Provide free forest trees furnished by the state for all who will plant them. (Note--The present N. Y. Conservation Commission in a special report to be made to the Legislature of 1920 has at last adopted that progressive policy). 5. Plant productive trees along the highways--nut and fruit trees. 6. Restock waters and covers more extensively and intelligently. 7. Stop pollution of private and public waters. 8. Harmonize the interrelated interests of farmers and sportsmen. 9. Establish game and bird refuges in every county in the state. 10. Sane and practical game laws, eliminating prosecutions on petty technicalities, educate the public to co-operate in fish and game protection, enact legislation to encourage rather than handicap the propagation of fish and game by private enterprise. It will be noted that plank 5 in our progressive conservation platform is urging the planting of producing trees along the highways. By that we meant not only the native nut trees, all of which are beautiful and ornamental, but also fruit trees, according to the wishes of the abutting owners. In the State of New York, taking into account only improved roads coming under the head of State or County Improved Highways, disregarding the mileage of the rural roads several times as large, there are about 8,000 miles of "Good Roads". There are many stretches of the highways which nature has generously adorned with trees. Some portions of the roads have witnessed the spoliation of the contractor's indiscriminating ax, but in the main the workmen were as careful as possible to retain natural shade trees along the routes. A few miles comparatively, were planted by state agencies. Farmers, especially in the Lake Ontario Fruit Belt of New York State, have worked wonders in ornamentation and economy by planting cherry, apple, plum and other beautiful and productive trees on the strip of land, "The Farms by the Side of the Road." At a very small additional expense, the State could have planted every rod of improved highway with productive trees, putting that forethoughtful specification into the contracts. Get out your pencil for a moment. Suppose the state had English walnuts on the 8,000 miles, placing the trees 40 feet apart. We should have growing then over one million productive trees and some of them would be old enough to be bearing today. Within ten years from now, their product would be worth at a conservative estimate $25 per tree, representing a sum sufficient to carry one-third of the State's entire cost of government. The war just won for the cause of World Democracy has opened the eyes of the American people to many things they had not before apprehended or realized. One is the value of productive land space. Another is the importance of our forests, and especially the value of the native nut-bearing trees. It was discovered, when Uncle Sam scurried around to procure a supply of black walnut for gun stocks, that the German agents had been ahead of him. Although thickly settled, Germany finds it profitable to employ one-fourth of its entire area in growing forest trees. Yet it seems the Kaiser's forests were short on this valuable timber, so they picked up all the procurable black walnut in the United States. This set the New York State Conservation Commissioner thinking and last year he advised farmers to propagate and cultivate the black walnut--a little late for the emergency; but better late than never, especially in this case. On my little farm near Lockport, N. Y., there is a large black walnut tree, perhaps 90 to 100 years old. It bears a nut of unusual size, of excellent taste and good keeping qualities. This tree has produced as high as ten bushels of shucked nuts in a season. Twenty-two years ago, when the importance of growing native nut trees had impressed but few people, I did have the good sense to plant several dozen nuts from the "Niagara King Walnut." I must confess I gave the trees little attention, and a farm hand zealously cut down all but one of the black walnuts, mistaking them for sumac. The survivor last year bore about three bushels of nuts. Most interesting of all is the result of observations as to the product, and its bearing on the question of whether or not nut trees will reproduce "true to variety." The walnuts from the young tree differ in shape, being almost round, while the fruit of the parent tree is almost chestnut in form. But the flavor, thickness of shell and the keeping qualities seem identical. Six years ago I started a small black walnut and butternut tree nursery for home use and from it have set out about four hundred trees along the ditches and fences on the farm. The early plantings have attained a height of from 12 to 15 feet. If every farmer would do likewise, he would make a considerable addition to the country's food supply, to say nothing of the value of the timber for coming generations when the frees approach maturity. It has afforded me pleasure to send nut trees to friends in various counties of the state and we shall watch with interest, the reports on their growth and development under the many variations of soil and climate. The butternut in many parts of the country is rapidly disappearing. To save this beautiful tree with its delicately flavored nuts, it will undoubtedly be necessary to take it into extensive cultivation. Although apart from the subject perhaps, it may be interesting to refer to the application of forestry to a woodlot containing native nut trees. Like many farmers who regard every tree as just a tree, useful for timber or fire wood, I found several years ago that indiscriminate cutting on my woodlot was destroying walnuts, along with the commoner species of the stand. My first step was to halt the cutting of all black walnuts, hickories, butternuts, oaks and beeches on the seven-acre woodlot. I took an inventory of these trees and found there were 160 shagbark hickories from 10 to 25 years old, five butternuts about 20 years old, and four black walnuts about 25 years old. These, of course, were not "tolerant trees" like the evergreens, and most of them were rapidly deteriorating from being overcrowded by more rapidly growing and less desirable neighbors. All _of_ them had been retarded in growth by the crowded condition of the stand. Inaugurating a process of judicious thinning with a view to giving the nut trees the advantage, the result in a single season was surprising. Under the beneficent influence of ample sun, air and root sustenance, the butternuts and black walnuts bore fine crops for the first time, in the season following the winter thinning process. The young hickories contented themselves with making their first annual growth in years. And, Oh joy of realized hopes, in this the third season since letting the sun into the native nut grove, nearly all of the older shagbark hickories bore their first crops! And now I have a nut plantation, that might have been ere this, burned up as fire-wood, at no expense whatever, since the thinning out process produced a very welcome supply of fire wood in these days of high-priced coal. In a recent bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture, "Value to Farm Families of Food, Fuel and use of House," there are some illuminating statistics on "The Farmer's Income" and "The Farmer's Living." It is stated that "the total average of the three items of food, fuel and use of the house for the 950 families (selected from all parts of the United States) is $642, and 66% of $424 of this is furnished by the farm." The Seven Pomeroy Centennial. Trees in one year produced a food product worth and actually sold for about $800 in one year! The average annual production of those seven trees has been over $600 for the last ten years. And what about the labor involved in raising and harvesting the English walnut crop in question? Picking the nuts from the ground, children gladly doing it and earning five cents per basket. Horace Greeley's undiscovered farm under the first twelve inches was a gold mine when turned up finally; Mr. Pinchot's farm on top rescued from flood and other devastations is worth more money than before. But how about the strip of land along the roadside, an aggregate waste of at least one per cent of the acreages of eastern farms? Well worth reclaiming, and no expensive ditching, irrigation and lumbering involved in the process either. In addition, credit must be given also to this enterprise for the value of ornamentation of the highways and their protection from the elements all seasons of the year. And strange to relate, in the long list of items under the head of "Classes of Food," given in the Federal Bulletin referred to, no mention is made of nut foods, either native or imported nut trees. Fruits, vegetables, meats, store groceries, everything is there but nuts. "Nutty," do we hear someone suggest? Probably not in this audience of enlightened nut growers, but speaking to the general public we shall say, "Well, mebbe," like Uncle Lige of Niagara. Two bad years on the farm, four acres of tomatoes that didn't pay for the plants, nothing but soft corn and no potatoes compelled Uncle and Aunt Tompkins to open an account at the corner grocery. The first month the bill came in, Aunt Sally was all in a flutter when she audited the items: Sugar, 60; coffee, 40; oatmeal, 50; sugar, 75; ditto, 80. "Lige, you go right back to the store and tell that cunnin' clerk that he's charged us fer what we never got. We ain't had no 'ditto' in this house." Lige went to the store and returned, apparently a sadder but a wiser man. "Well, Lige," inquired the thrifty spouse, "Did you find out 'bout that 'ditto' we didn't get? What did you find?" Lige picked up his pipe, remarking, "Well Sally, I found I was a durned fool, and you _ditto_." We are all waking up to the fact that we did not become "nutty" soon enough. We have found that our public agencies of conservation have been "durn fools" and farmers and other land owners "ditto", for not having inaugurated the systematic planting of productive trees along the highways and farm hedgerows and ditches, many years ago. Norman Pomeroy used to say with becoming modesty that he took no credit for planting the trees that have made such a substantial income for his family, because "I had to be slapped in the face in the dark before I became wise, and then the natural improvidence of mankind came near spoiling Nature's tip when the children gratified their little stomachs in preference to planting for the future. Men are but children of an older growth, a wise man said. That is a true but sad doctrine. We all live too much in the present and for the present, forgetting that the future will soon be the present, if not for ourselves, for our children and our children's children. It takes time to realize on trees, for the stomach or the pocketbook. It requires sacrifice to get anything worth while and, waiting is the hardest kind of sacrifice, especially for people of small means. But it pays in the end." The Northern Nut Growers' Association, is doing valuable work not only in the study and planting of nut trees, but in its propaganda. But I have discovered that the results of practical work and the worth of propaganda, are hard to bring home to public agencies, like Governors and Legislatures. The construction and maintenance _of_ public highways are a state function. But that duty must be incomplete in our opinion until the state finishes its job by planting productive trees along the highways and public roads. How shall we bring this about? Adopt resolutions? Very good. But did the Anti-Saloon League, for example, content itself with resolutions when it wanted real results in the halls of legislation? Not much. Our prohibition friends were very practical. They employed trained agents to present their cause everywhere and in every way calculated to do the most good. Let me repeat to you tree planters the late Norman Pomeroy's favorite lines, as I recall them: "_The dead are eternized in stone,_ _The living, by living shafts are known._ _Plant thou a tree and each recurring spring_ _The stirring leaves thy lasting praise shall sing._" PRESIDENT REED: Prof. Chittenden, of Michigan Agricultural College will address you on "Native Nut Tree Plantations for Michigan." NATIVE NUT TREE PLANTATIONS IN MICHIGAN PROFESSOR A. K. CHITTENDEN, MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN I am very glad of this opportunity to tell you what the Michigan Agricultural College is doing, and what it thinks, about nut tree plantations in this State. I want to say first, that there is a very general interest in nut trees among the farmers and land owners of the State. A considerable number of the letters that the Forestry Department of the College receives from farmers are about nut culture. They seem to be particularly interested in pecans, English walnuts, and chestnuts. A few years ago the State was flooded with literature urging people to plant these trees and we are still feeling the aftermath of this campaign. Much of this state is too far north for the successful growth of these particular trees and we therefore have advised waiting before investing heavily in young trees, until experiments have shown where they would succeed and what kinds it would be safe to plant. At the same time, we suggested the planting of one or two trees of certain varieties as an experiment. We have for the most part recommended only our native nut trees for planting on a large scale. We have tried many varieties of nut trees, grafted on hardy stock, at the College, and only a few of them are alive today. All of the pecan trees have been lost and nearly all of the English walnuts. About two years ago, we got some of Burbank's Royal walnuts from California. All of these trees except one, were killed back of the graft the first winter. One of them, however, is doing well although growing very slowly. It will doubtless succeed now, as it has pulled through two winters, one an exceptionally cold one. About three years ago, we bought some Sober Paragon chestnuts from an eastern nursery which had been advertising them widely in this State. They were all infected with the Chestnut Blight disease. Now this disease has at the present time not appeared in Michigan, except on imported nursery stock. We have a considerable number of chestnut plantations in the State, and if the disease can be kept out, there is no reason why chestnuts cannot be raised more profitably. But our experience has shown that the trees must be raised in this State and not brought in from outside. We have some very nice chestnut trees in our nursery at the College which are now thirteen years old and which have been bearing nuts for four years. This fall we are planting them all along the drives so as to open up the crowns and induce a greater production of nuts. We also have some Japanese walnuts that are doing well indeed. One of these trees on the campus is 35 years old and produces a large quantity of nuts. There are a number of English walnuts at various places along Lake Michigan in the fruit belt. Individual trees will often succeed, but the chances for success are not great enough to warrant a man putting very much money into a plantation. There are two Sober Paragon chestnuts near Niles which are now 12 years old and are growing and bearing well. At the College farm, near Grand Rapids, there are some pecan trees, but their history shows that they have been repeatedly frosted back. I could mention a great many cases of success with individual imported trees, but I do not know of any extensive plantations that have so far succeeded. There is, however, a different story to tell of our native nut trees of which there are many successful plantations. Our native edible nuts are black walnut, hickories and chestnut. They will grow anywhere in the southern part of the State and along Lake Michigan. Using these trees as a basis, I believe we can develop, if it has not already been done, a tree that will bear an improved quality of nuts and that will be perfectly hardy. The black walnut is the tree that did perhaps more than any other tree to help win the war, and, while timber raising and nut culture do not perhaps go hand in hand, probably more black walnuts are being planted as individual trees than any other tree in the State. The black walnut was an invaluable tree for gun stocks and airplane propellers. The War Department scoured the country to find trees for these purposes and every black walnut that is now planted, may be of service to the country in the future. The College raises thousands of black walnuts and Japanese walnuts each year, and the demand for them is very great. When we have in planting, a choice between two trees, one choice being a tree suitable for shade only and the other a nut producing tree, I would say plant the nut tree. Our trees will have a double appeal if they furnish not only shade, but edible nuts as well. At the last session of the State Legislature, an act was passed providing for the planting of nut and shade trees along our highways. As a result of this act, we hope sometime to see the highways in the southern part of the State lined with walnut and other nut bearing trees. A tree that will serve a double purpose should be planted wherever possible. Tree planting is a thing in which we are all interested. Those of you who have been abroad remember the long rows of trees, often fruit trees, that lined the roads. In this country we cannot plant fruit trees along our roads as there is nobody to care for them and disease would quickly start and spread to our orchards. But nut trees can be safely planted. We have, on certain soils in the southern part of the State, recommended planting black walnuts for fence posts. The heart wood is very durable and the tree grows quite rapidly under favorable conditions. Then, perhaps when the trees are large enough for posts, the owner will decide to keep them for the nuts and for timber production. During the past summer the College made a study of native nut tree plantations in the State with a view to determining the profitableness of such plantations. Among the older plantations studied was one in Berrien County. It was planted 45 years ago and covers four acres. The soil is clay and loam with a clay sub-soil. Three year old seedlings were used with an average spacing of about 28 by 32 feet. The grove was cultivated for about 8 years after planting. The trees are now in fairly good condition but many are affected with heart-rot. They are quite spreading and bushy in form and are not suitable for lumber. There is now about 30 cords of wood per acre. The average diameter is 20 inches with an average height of 60 feet. The ground is sodded over and the grove is used for grazing sheep. The owner says that about half the trees bear and that the June bugs are the principal source of trouble, eating the blossoms. The yield in nuts varies from practically nothing to 25 or 30 bushels for the entire plantation. About six years ago, the owner reports a crop of 36 bushels, and two years ago a crop of 27 bushels. From these figures I should say the plantation is a success. A chestnut plantation in Van Buren County was set 37 years ago and covers one acre of sandy soil. The plantation was cultivated for about ten years and corn was grown between the trees. The average tree is 14 inches in diameter and 65 feet tall. The returns have been small because the trees were planted too close together, but some years the plantation has yielded 15 bushels of nuts. There are 67 trees on the acre, which is too many for good nut production. The grove will produce about 20 cords of wood or about 550 split fence posts per acre. One of the oldest plantations in the State is 56 years old and covers 1-1/2 acres in Montcalm County. It consists of black walnuts and chestnuts mixed together. The average black walnut is 14 inches in diameter and 67 feet tall. The average chestnut is 20 inches in diameter and 60 feet tall. The spacing is about 40 by 30 feet and the soil is a gravelly sand. The yield in nuts has been quite small, six to eight bushels a year. There are a number of such mixed plantations in the State and it would seem that the two trees do not do very well together. In this case, I should say that the soil is not well suited for either tree. There is a plantation of Japanese walnuts in Oakland County. It is five years old and on sandy soil. About 500 trees were planted at the cost of 60 cents per tree. The stock came from Pennsylvania and was budded to English walnut. The scions died back, however, and the plantation stock came along so it is now a Japanese walnut grove. The average tree is about 2 inches in diameter and 10 feet tall. The trees are very healthy and vigorous and are beginning to bear a few nuts. A chestnut plantation in Van Buren County is 12 years old. Two foot transplants were used and the trees were planted at the rate of 100 to the acre. They were cultivated for two years. The average tree is 4 inches in diameter and 20 feet high. The trees are healthy and in good condition. The grove is yielding from one to two bushels of nuts a year and should be thinned so as to open it up and encourage nut production. A black walnut plantation in Ingham County, planted about 20 years ago for timber purposes and underplanted with white cedar to force the trees to grow straight and tall, is in excellent condition. The average tree is 5 inches in diameter and 34 feet tall. The plantation has not yet borne nuts but if it were opened up, would doubtless produce a large number in a few years. I could give more instances of nut tree plantations in the State, but I think I have mentioned enough to show that our native nut trees can be profitably raised. During the last few years, a great many black walnut plantations have been established but most of them are yet too young to be in a bearing condition. If it were not for the difficulty of getting healthy chestnut stock, I believe Michigan would be a large producer of these nuts. A study has been made of the volume of the wood that could be obtained from these chestnut plantations. Owing to the open nature of the groves, the trees are mostly not suitable for lumber and the yield of cordwood and posts is less than in a forest plantation where the trees are closer together and force each other to grow straight and tall. It was found, however, that a chestnut grove planted for nuts, would yield on the average 13 standard cords of wood per acre at 20 years of age, 20 cords at 30 years, and 25 cords at 40 years of age. Placing the value of this wood at present prices of $7 per cord, would give a value of $91 per acre at 20 years and $140 per acre at 30 years for the wood alone. Probably most of the chestnut plantations have been planted for the nut and the black walnuts for timber with the nuts as a side issue. Black walnuts should be planted on fairly fertile, moist soil. We do not recommend planting the nuts as squirrels are liable to dig them out. It is better to use small trees. The cost of establishing black walnut plantations is quite small. Native trees can be bought for $15 per thousand one year old seedlings. We prefer to plant these small trees as the black walnut develops a strong tap root early in life, making it difficult to transplant large trees. Only a comparatively small number of hickories have been planted in this state. This is a tree that, while it grows slowly, is very valuable for its wood and it is becoming very scarce. It should be planted more extensively. It may well be planted in openings in the woodlot. Every farmer knows the value of hickory and the trees can be utilized when quite small. It is needless to say anything about the value of black walnut wood. High prices have been paid for standing trees and for saw logs. Many individual trees have sold for $500 apiece and even more. Prices as high as $120 per M board feet have been paid for standing timber. At the present rate of cutting, it is only a question of a few years before all of the merchantable black walnut will have been removed, and, unless trees are planted, the black walnut will be a thing of the past. It cannot be depended upon to reproduce itself in our forests as do the maples, the ash, and many other trees with nonedible seed. For every black walnut tree in our woods and along the roads, there are innumerable small boys and squirrels who are after the nuts and the seed have little chance of germinating even if they do get into the soil. If there are to be black walnuts in our future forests, the trees must be planted or the nuts planted and properly safeguarded. From a forestry viewpoint, the black walnut is a good tree to plant. It has a high value and the demand for the wood is very great. And, for planting, trees should be chosen that will give a good quality nut as far as possible. For ornamental planting, too, nut trees may often be chosen to advantage. For the farm yard they are often the best choice. Hickories or black walnut are long lived trees and the hickory is very ornamental. A great many trees have been planted by the school children of the State; and right here is a good field for planting, around our school houses. The average country school ground is a forlorn place, usually barren of both grass and shade. While we perhaps cannot have a lawn, we can certainly have shade trees, and the children will take care of them and watch their development with interest, particularly if they have a part in planting them. A few years ago the College distributed about 6000 trees to the schools of the state for Arbor Day and many of these trees were black walnuts. During the last few years, the Collage has not raised enough of these trees to meet the demand. As memorial trees, also, nut trees are being quite extensively planted. A great many black walnuts have been planted in the honor of our soldiers who gave their lives in the war and it is a very suitable tree to plant for this purpose. Now that our forests are becoming more scarce, we are beginning to appreciate more fully the value of their products. Nuts, extracts, maple syrup and many minor products are obtained from our native trees. If man could be surrounded with the right assortment of trees, he would need little else. He would have food in the nuts and fruit; fire wood and building material in the stems, as well as paper and clothing from the wood pulp. He would have sugar from the sap, medicine from the bark, and he would have wood distillates, turpentine and resin. He could live long and well on the products of our forests. Our forests are, however, disappearing. Our native nut trees are being cut off. Our sugar maple orchards are being put into farm land, and forest products are increasing rapidly in price. We have got to keep a certain part of the country in forests in order to have the country prosperous, and to do this we must either plant trees or so manage the existing forests that they will renew themselves naturally. In planting trees, we should not overlook the by-products of the trees, nuts and syrup and bark. These products are often the main crop in themselves and in any case, they will increase the receipts and make our forestry work more profitable. There are many acres in southern Michigan and along the Lake, that will give larger returns from nut tree plantations than from any other source. We want first to be sure that the trees are hardy to the locality before we recommend them. I believe there is a very big future for such plantations. The history of southern plantations has been one of remarkable success. We must be particularly careful in advising the establishment of nut tree plantations. We ought to be particularly careful in not encouraging people to buy trees that we are not sure will succeed. For every plantation that fails means a loss of money and an obstacle to future progress. But every tree that succeeds means an advertisement for years to come. I do not see any reason why southern Michigan cannot raise many improved varieties of black walnut and perhaps some other nut trees as well. Our study of native nut tree plantations this summer, shows that with proper care they may be very profitable and we hope to see a great extension of such plantations in this State. PROF. CHITTENDEN: I would like to say that the College has been very favorably impressed with the work that this Association has been doing and the care that is used in recommending nut trees. It is a thing the people need a lot of advice about. I thank you. (Applause). MR. J. F. JONES: I would like to ask if the pecans that were tender were northern or southern pecans. PROF. CHITTENDEN: We got them from a nursery in New York State and I could not say as to the source of the stock beyond that. MR. JONES: Naturally the southern source is the cheapest tree. PROF. CHITTENDEN: We got the trees from a nursery that had been advertising them very extensively in Michigan. It was about five years ago, at a time when this State had been flooded with literature from this nursery and other nurseries about particularly pecans and chestnuts. We were doubtful about the trees they were recommending, and we got a considerable number and planted them out, but we took pretty good care of them; but they all died in winter. DR. MORRIS: It is a pity that people who do the most advertising have to. Certain firms are not allowed to advertise in nut journals at all. I think the public ought to be made aware of that fact. It is a pity too, because the ones who spend the largest amount of money in advertising are the ones of whom we ask the most questions. In regard to Prof. Chittenden's paper, it is a very important matter to impress upon children and others who are setting out trees the idea that a tree is not able to care for itself as a rule. It is quite the exception for a tree set out by itself to thrive and enter into competition with other trees and bushes and shade, in the early years, and insects later. I suppose the number of ordinary trees including maples that make their way to a successful old age would not represent one in many hundred thousands that make a start in the sprouting seed. That fact ought to be impressed on every school child who is setting out a tree--he really should adopt that tree and make that its own child. And if you can inculcate the maternal and the paternal instinct along with the setting out of from one to six children of these other children, you will then get trees on your roadsides and your waste lands, and without a great amount of difficulty. But you have got to go back to first principles there and realize that very few trees are able to succeed after they have been set out unless they receive a great deal of care subsequently. Those of us who give a great deal of attention to trees, who pretend to care for our trees, will lose a percentage so large that I would hardly dare state what it probably is. Among the hundreds and thousands of trees I have set out, all from reputable nurserymen or raised by myself; I doubt if 25% are alive today, and I have pretty good success too. This is not to discourage anyone; it is to encourage people, and they are to be encouraged by knowing the facts; and when all the final facts are known about the values of trees that are given proper attention, then people will be willing to give them that degree of attention. Not until then are we to have success in filling our waste lands with nut trees. Prof. Chittenden brought up one point of a great deal of consequence. In any locality plant the species which belong to that locality. The species which, by natural selection and adaptation have fitted themselves to the environment are, as a rule, the trees which will do best in that locality. That is a principle I think which ought to be thoroughly well fixed in mind. One may experiment with any number of trees from a distance, but the trees which naturally have adapted themselves to a locality, the species which have done that are the species upon which we can expend our efforts to the best advantage. In the matter of chestnut blight, we assume that the chestnut blight will act like measles blight, scarlet fever blight, or any other epidemic. In other words, it is due to a microbe, it is due to a peculiar microbic group, a peculiar family group which happened to start out in northern China on its invasion and got to this country where it found trees which were not resistant. The American and European trees are not resistant. Wherever it has gone from northern China, from the place where blight, the tree host and enemy grew up side by side, and represented the survival of the fittest; wherever it has gone away from the place where we have the survival of the fittest, at any rate as a result of struggle, there it has found susceptible individuals that it has destroyed. When a blight of any sort sets out, chestnut blight, measles, scarlet fever--any blight you please, you are talking natural history, you are taking biology, about an animal or a plant, about a microbe, a living thing. All of these living things run out of their vital energy in time. Each microbe runs out of its energy just as a breed of horses or of strawberries runs out of its energy. All varieties, varietal types, run out of their natural energy, so that it is simply a question of length of time before this family microbe or family group of this microbe will lose its energy. We do not know how many years that will be. It may be a great many years, and by that time, our chestnuts may practically have disappeared. We can find here and there a tree which resists better than others do, and we may find some with enough resistance to be worthy of propagation as of that resistant kind. We know that several species resist the blight very well. I found four species that resist the blight very well among six kinds I have tried out on my place. But some chestnuts bear so early and heavily that we may afford to set them out, even in the presence of blight, trimming them back and looking after them carefully: For instance, a number of Sober Paragon chestnuts that I planted all died but one that is near the house. It bears so heavily that it is well worth while, and it simply means that one must give a great deal of attention to it. Some people can afford even to set out the Paragon because of its high bearing power. I have a number of hybrids which resist the blight very well. The cross between the American chestnut and the Japanese, or between the common American chestnut and the chinquapins showed the resistance very largely of the resistant parent. But curiously enough, the ones which look most like the American chestnut also carry that parent's weakness in regard to blight, so that all of my hybrids between the American chestnut and the resistant kinds which look like the American chestnut and act like it also catch the same microbe for the most part. But one of the hybrids does not. No. 2 which I have given Mr. Jones, is very much like the American chestnut. It grows vigorously, acts like it, and looks like it, and it has not blighted up to the ninth year of age, beginning to bear about the fourth year. Most of those that are like the chinquapin or like the Chinese chestnut resist blight very well. About Japanese walnuts. If Prof. Chittenden has a large number of Japanese walnuts about the state, he may very well select one or two of the very best and advise the owners to top work the others with the one or two which happen to be particularly good. Most of the Japanese walnuts are small. Most of them are Siebold type instead of the heart nut variety, but a few very large ones will be found here and there and of high quality, and they graft almost as easily as peaches. In regard to Persian walnuts. If there are a few trees here and there about the state, we need not fear the question of introducing others because it is too far north. If you simply have one tree that is a good one, that is enough, because you can graft over all sorts of black walnuts, Japanese walnut and Persian walnut stocks with the one or two trees which are known to be good in Michigan. One good tree in the state which is bearing good nuts of desirable qualities is enough. Graft all of your other walnuts back from it. And in setting out the native black walnuts, chestnuts and the hickories of different species, it is important always to distinguish in regard to intention--whether they are to be for forest purposes or for nut purposes. That is not always clear in the minds of a number of people whom I have seen setting out groves of these trees. They talk about getting timber and nuts. You can not get both profitably. I think people ought to be impressed with the fact that if they are setting out apple trees for timber they would set them five or six feet apart. If they are setting them out for apples, they would set them sixty feet apart. Precisely the same thing is true of nut trees. (Applause). MR. JONES: I would like to ask Dr. Morris how he protects grafts the first year. Grafts growing the first year are very tender, put in late, and they will often winter kill in the tree that is perfectly hardy otherwise. DR. MORRIS: Mr. Jones is quite right about that, and that is a matter requiring more experience than I have at the present time. What I have done in the way of protection fairly well is this: For instance, if I graft Persian walnut on black walnut and it makes a late start and then in September has a very sappy growth, or in October has a sappy growth of three or four or five feet (they grow tremendously fast, like weeds) if the bark at the base of the graft is brown or has two or three buds that are brown or partially ripened, I cut off four or five of the first leaves and let them harden. Then in the fall I cut off all but those four or five buds and put wax over the end. That is the way I avoid the winter killing of the sappy growth. As soon as the part nearest the grafted place begins to turn brown, looks like hardening up and two or three buds are pretty hard, I cut off four or five of those leaves right there and let the buds ripen, and those buds will ripen very well. I will sacrifice five or six buds for the sake of saving three or four buds. The next year they grow all right. That is not a nice way, but when you see you are going to lose a thing on account of sappiness, that will sometimes work. MR. JONES: I generally wrap the base of the limb in burlap. DR. MORRIS: If the sappy tip dies, it poisons the rest. There are poisonous enzymes that poison the rest of it. MR. BIXBY: I was going to ask Prof. Chittenden if he could give any experience with the named varieties of black walnuts. PROF. CHITTENDEN: I don't think I could distinguish between the varieties of black walnut that have been planted in this state. That is not a thing that I feel able to discuss. I know that a number of different varieties of black walnut have been planted. At the College we have done a good deal of grafting on the black walnuts, and we have not had very good success. MR. BIXBY: I had in mind improved varieties of black walnut grafted on the black walnut stock. PROF. CHITTENDEN: I don't think we have had any experience of that. We always get a good deal of wood from Pennsylvania in the spring and do the grafting in class. We can not expect a very high grade of work when the students do it as a part of their work of instruction. There are some black walnuts in the state that have very good nuts, and some that have not. I have tried to get for our nursery good nuts from trees that had a good native nut. We have had so much difficulty getting black walnuts at all the last few years that we have taken just what we could get. We get nuts from all over the central part of the state and plant in the nursery to get our seedling trees. MR. BIXBY: I have found some of the named varieties of black walnuts bearing in quite a number of sections of this state and other states. They seem to bear quite young. PRESIDENT REED: Mr. Jones has partly prepared a paper on "Pecans other than those of the well known sections," but as it has been impossible to complete it, it will be handed to the secretary later, and inserted in the proceedings. PECANS OTHER THAN THOSE OF THE WELL KNOWN SECTIONS J. F. JONES, LANCASTER, PENNSYLVANIA Pecans have been grown in the South for a good many years, and, with the advent of budded and grafted trees of superior varieties in more recent years, the industry made great strides and now that the product of some of these grafted orchards is coming on the market and selling readily at high prices, the economic value and importance of the pecan is becoming to be more fully appreciated. The success of the pecan in the South, led some planters in the northern states to make experimental plantings of these southern varieties but they have proven disappointing, as might be expected, since our seasons are too short for the nuts to mature, even where the trees are hardy. I have seen the Stuart, one of the largest southern pecans, when grown in Lancaster and Adams Counties, Pa., not half as large as the Indiana sorts and with little or no kernel. The Schley, one of the finest southern pecans, when grown in Adams Co., Pa., is so small that no one would recognize it and it has no kernel at all. In very recent years, largely through the efforts of a few progressive men in Indiana, fine varieties of the pecan have been discovered in Indiana and Kentucky, and these varieties are being propagated and planted over the northern states generally. While the discovery of these varieties and their propagation marked a big step forward in extending the cultural range of the pecan and making it possible to grow this nut several hundred miles north of the southern pecan belt, not unlike the southern varieties, the Indiana and Kentucky varieties are necessarily limited in their range of adaptability, and it is perhaps not safe to recommend them for planting, except possibly in the more favored localities, north of the 40th parallel and south thereof and possibly in the elevated or mountain sections they should not be recommended for planting north of latitude 38 degrees. The advantages of securing varieties for propagation therefore from as far north as possible is obvious. I have examined a good many sample pecans from Missouri and Kansas, some of which are excellent, but, aside from possibly being a little hardier in tree, they have no advantage over the fine Indiana and Kentucky varieties that we already have, unless of course, they should be better adapted to planting in the western states. In its natural range, the pecan is found growing farther north along the Mississippi River, in Iowa and Illinois, than anywhere else in the country, and naturally we turned to these pecan forests hoping to find a variety bearing nuts of a size and quality to merit propagation and dissemination north of the belt where it is safe to recommend the planting of the Indiana varieties. As a result of correspondence with an Iowa nurseryman in the fall of 1914, I engaged the services of a competent man to gather pecans for me at Muscatine, Iowa. Following my instructions, this man searched the woods in that locality to find what I wanted for propagation and as a result, nuts were sent me from several trees which were carefully marked so that in case scions were wanted from any of the trees, they would be readily identified. This man seemed to be very enthusiastic about the nuts he sent me, and, as he had made a business of gathering pecans, and he knew the pecans in that section well, I felt that he had sent me the best that he had there. None of the pecans sent had sufficient size and merit to propagate however, and I gave the matter up. Fortunately, Mr. G. H. Corsan, Toronto, Canada, was endeavoring the same fall or winter to get pecans to grow trees that would succeed in Canada and he bought pecans from a dealer in Burlington, Iowa. Upon receiving this lot of nuts, Mr. Corsan was astonished at their large size, as he expected that pecans from the northern limit of the pecan to be of small size. Thinking that this party had sent him southern pecans, Mr. Corsan wrote him at once that he did not want southern pecans, explaining that he wanted them for planting. This party replied that the nuts sent him were genuine Iowa pecans. Knowing my interest in the matter, Mr. Corsan wrote me during the spring of 1915, giving me the facts in the case and urged that I go to Burlington the next fall and look up a variety for propagation. Fall came on, but with it, so much to do and with short help, due to war conditions, that I had to give up the trip, but, at Mr. Corsan's suggestion, I took the matter up with Mr. Ed. G. Marquardt, Burlington, Iowa, with the result that the matter was placed in his hands, with the assurance from Mr. Marquardt that he would do the very best he could for us. Mr. Marquardt employed a man who had made a business of gathering pecans there and who knew the trees bearing the largest nuts, and with the help of this man, finally located a tree 20 miles north of Burlington bearing very large pecans of thin shell and splendid quality. Although most of the nuts had been gathered, the husks on the ground indicated it had been bearing good crops. This tree was marked and some of the nuts sent to me. These pecans I considered remarkably fine for so far north. They were fully as large as the Indiana, with even a thinner shell and a full kernel of excellent quality. With the help of Mr. Marquardt, scions were secured from this tree the following spring, and grafting proved very successful, which we consider very fortunate, as this land was cleared during the war and this tree met the fate of others, being turned into lumber and it is no more. This variety has been given Mr. Marquardt's name. Coming from 20 miles north of Burlington, Iowa, in north latitude 41 degrees, I shall expect the Marquardt to succeed any where south of the Great Lakes. The Indiana and Busseron pecans originated farther north than any others of the Indiana group, the original trees of which are growing in the Wabash River bottom, west of Oaktown, Ind., about 10 miles south of latitude 39. Most of the Indiana and Kentucky varieties are from latitude 38 degrees, or approximately 200 miles south of where the Marquardt originated. The climate of Iowa is also considerably colder than is the same latitude farther east, due to the more open character of the country west and to the influence of the Great Lakes farther east. The pecans there are not only necessarily hardier, but have to mature their fruit in a shorter season, which is all important in a variety for northern planting, as it has been shown that the pecan is hardy in tree considerably north of where it will mature its fruit properly. Realizing the importance of the Iowa pecans for northern planting and realizing the building of the big power dam on the Mississippi River at Keokuk, Iowa, and the consequent raising of the water level for considerable distance up the river together with building of levees and clearing of the forests, threatened the destruction of many of the pecan trees and pecan forests, Mr. Bixby spent nearly a week during the past fall in the pecan forests and groves along the Mississippi River around Clinton, Ia., and Burlington, Ia. The facts of the following paragraphs (except the last two) I have taken from his notes: These pecan trees at Clinton, Iowa, are the most northerly growing of the native pecans so far discovered. They are on the islands in the river and on the bottom lands, where the land at low water is only a few feet above the water level, and at high water, several feet under water. The trees certainly are not suffering from lack of moisture. The soil is alluvial, seemingly of unknown depths and must be very fertile, enriched as it is by the deposits left by the high waters each year, or sometimes, several times a year. No pecan trees under six inches in diameter were seen here, and they ranged from that size up to 24 inches in trunk diameter 85 feet tall. No trees bearing large pecan nuts were seen, although the flavor of the kernels of practically all of the trees was good. Crops of nuts were irregular and seemingly not so good as they were some years. None of the trees near Clinton were deemed worthy of propagation. The pecans at Burlington are growing under similar conditions to those at Clinton, but they are much more numerous, there being thousands of them, some being larger than any seen at Clinton. Four trees, including the Marquardt, have been discovered and brought to the attention of the association by Mr. Ed. G. Marquardt and Mr. John H. Witte of Burlington. Cuts of these nuts, natural size, are shown opposite page 48. The Marquardt is being propagated by me and the other three varieties by Snyder Bros., Center Point, Iowa. From the appearance of the leaves, buds and habit of growth of the Marquardt pecan, it seemed to me that the tree had hickory blood in it, although the nut did not suggest it; and I intended to look into this matter fully, on a trip to Iowa the past fall, but finding I could not go, I gave Mr. Bixby samples of the nuts, leaves and twigs and told him what I expected, and he had this in mind during his trip. He never found young pecan trees growing in the woods but did find them growing in large numbers on the levees and on the edges of cultivated fields. A careful examination showed a very considerable variation in leaf, bud and habit of growth and there seemed little question but that there were among them many hybrids between the pecan and the big bottom shellbark, _Carya laciniosa_, which is found growing on the bottom lands and the islands along with the pecan. As a matter of fact, two of the four Iowa pecans selected for propagation, the Burlington and the Greenbay, show unmistakable evidence of hybrid parentage in the nut, in the leaves and buds. The Marquardt gives no hint of such parentage in the nut, but the leaves and buds do suggest that it has hickory blood in its make up, and it is believed that this is so. The Witte is seemingly a pure pecan. There has recently been much done near Burlington in reclaiming valuable, cultivatable lands from the river which formerly overflowed them each year so that people were afraid to plant crops and they were therefore abandoned to the forests. Levees have recently been built to keep the water off these lands in time of high water. Drainage ditches have been made behind them and pumping plants put in to pump the water out of them. The cost of these improvements, which has given to cultivation much very fertile land, has been assessed on the owners of the lands benefited, as is also the upkeep expense. Many owners had not the money to pay the assessments and have sold the land to those who are clearing off the timber. This means the clearing of thousands of acres of bottom land and the pecan is one of the principle trees on these bottom lands. This condition makes it necessary to locate and propagate at once, the best and most promising of these Iowa pecans and hybrids and observe their behavior afterwards in the young trees, instead of depending on the watching of the behavior of the original trees as has been the case in Indiana. I feel reluctant to close this address without mentioning the good work done by Secretaries Deming and Bixby and other members of this Association in searching for varieties of nuts that may be superior to what we already have. Those of us who are propagating these trees, while we may feel the inspiration that comes from doing a work that benefits mankind, nevertheless, we hope and expect to make dollars and cents out of growing these trees, while this is not the case with some of the members of this Association who are not nurserymen and who do not expect to enter this field. Dr. Deming, former Secretary of this Association, did much good work and secured some fine nuts worthy of propagation, through advertising and the offering of premiums, and Mr. Bixby, who very kindly took up this work when Dr. Deming was called to the colors, has been active and is doing a great work for northern nut culture. PRESIDENT REED: We will now have a grafting demonstration by Mr. Jones. Mr. Jones had brought with him specimens of stock, scions and all the materials and tools needed for the demonstration, and performed the various operations of grafting and budding before the audience. MR. JONES: We often use scions half or three-fourths of an inch in diameter, for grafting, but they are rather hard to get. In top working, we generally take limbs two to four inches in diameter, cut them off, and split the bark. The nut grafting must all be done late when the sap is up in the trees. Cut the scions all on one side. Split the bark, slip in the scion, tie up and wax the whole scion over with grafting wax, put it on hot and seal it up tight. Sometimes for winter protection of the English walnut as far north as Michigan your tip might kill back because it grows so very fast and is sappy. I have never [Illustration: PECANS FROM BURLINGTON, IA] had trees kill in that way, but I do have many people write me that they have trees killed in that way. In nursery grafting, we usually use just the cleft method. You should cut the cleft on one side and don't split it, but keep it smooth all the way through. PRESIDENT REED: You get better results, Mr. Jones, from waxing the entire scion? MR. JONES: Yes, we get better results that way. In the South we have no success at all that way; we have to cover them with sacks. VOICE: About what degree of heat is best for the wax? MR. JONES: Don't have it too hot and it can't burn. You can tell that by the wax smoking. PRESIDENT REED: As long as the wax does not smoke, it is pretty safe. MR. JONES: This illustrates what we call a side graft. Put the scion in the side and leave the top on. You can also do it in bark grafting. Cut your bark, split it, and stick your scion straight down as it is here. VOICE: How do you apply the hot wax? MR. JONES: With a swab or brush. We use a carbon heater and that makes it about the right temperature. VOICE: How large black walnut trees could be top worked to English walnuts? MR. JONES: You can work almost any sized tree, but it is quite a job in the large tree. Take a tree larger than six inches in diameter, or eight, and it would not be very satisfactory. In cutting the scions be careful to make a straight surface on the cut bevel. To do that the knife should be held at an angle lengthwise to the scion. In our grafting in the South we leave the scion dry and cover it with a bag. That was in Florida. DR. MORRIS: That is a very interesting question about the limits of our using the method of covering the scion and all with the wax. I shall speak of that in my own grafting demonstration which is short. I got the point from Mr. Jones, and Mr. Jones tells me he got it from Mr. Riehl. They use black wax and hard, strong wax. MR. JONES: Mr. Riehl uses a liquid wax, resin and beeswax without the coloring matter. We use the coloring matter to toughen the wax. DR. MORRIS: Still, that is amber. Amber will cut out light, and it seems to me that it is a matter of a good deal of consequence, the black or amber wax covering the graft completely, buds and all, wound, scion, stock. It succeeds in the North, succeeds better than any other method in grafting, and yet in the South it does not succeed. It is possible that as you get further south the longer sun, the hotter sun scalds the cambium layer of bark beneath when it would not do so in the North. That is at least worth thinking about. In my own work during the past year I have used transparent paraffin alone, nothing else. I have tried different kinds of paraffin, the Parowax, the common one that the women put up preserves with is the one that will stay on best, will not crack and is perfectly transparent, allowing the light of the sun to act upon the chlorophyl, in the bark and the bud and intensify the activity of that part of the plant that depends upon light transformation by means of chlorophyl. I am very much interested to know if this will not succeed in the South. Paraffin would not attract the heat of the sun, and it is possible that this will allow us to carry the method of Mr. Jones, the best method to date, still farther south. MR. JONES: I think, Doctor, it is a matter of heat, because in the shade you can graft them almost any way. Do you cover the scion with paraffin or only the union? DR. MORRIS: I cover the entire thing with paraffin, scions, buds and all including the wrapping. I don't leave anything exposed to the air. There are several principles involved there. In the first place you have the effect of light upon chlorophyl which is important; in the second place, the melted paraffin fills all interstices in which sap would collect and ferment. If those interstices are filled with melted paraffin, sap will not collect there and ferment. The microbes of bacterial and fungus origin, that prevent union and break down the products of repair that are thrown out for the purpose of repair, can not do it if they can not collect in quantity, and the paraffin fills the space in which they would collect in quantity; so that does away with another one of the dangers. In the third place, you have the same sap tension maintained in the scion as in the stock. The difference between the negative and positive pressures, day and night, is very great in spring time, and as the sap responds between day and night in the stock, it puts a strain upon the scion. The scion can not follow the stock with its sap movement ordinarily. But if scion and stock are covered completely with paraffin, the tension remains the same, so that you do away with the shock of varying negative and positive pressures. That is an important point, it seems to me, in principle in the matter of using the paraffin. Another point is this. You prevent evaporation from scion that goes on ordinarily through the little breathing lenticels, the little apertures between the cells of the bark which allow moisture to escape as well as to enter. One would naturally believe the paraffin would fill these and smother the scion, and I presume it is that fear which has prevented the world from trying this for the past ten thousand years, because they were skilful grafters in Egypt, both in the tree world and the financial world, in the days of Hammurabi there were skilful grafters in both worlds two or three thousand years before Christ. I suppose that fear of closing the breathing apertures in the stock has prevented people from adopting this method; but it is not justified, because those bold, brave nurserymen who are not afraid to smother a scion find that all the scions live. It is a venture into the unknown, that dramatic book, in the way of dramatically constructive progress. Another point: When you protect your graft in the ordinary way with ordinary wrapping, ordinary wax, the scion becomes timid, the stock becomes timid. It is not quite sure of itself in many cases, and when it is not sure of itself, when it has a fear, what does it do? It resorts to the protection method. What is the first? Suberization, cork layer formation. So the frightened stock throws cork cells over its cut surface between that and the graft, and the suberization goes on as a result of fear on the part of the timid stock. When you have taken away the fear by covering the whole area with melted paraffin and it feels safe, then suberization does not go on in this way, your stock is not frightened, you have not a scared tree at all, and it will go on kindly and gently as a Jersey heifer to do its work. PRESIDENT REED: I would like to ask Dr. Morris about that myself. I am very much interested in the line of grafting, as we graft 50,000 to 100,000 every spring, using this same method. I feel as Mr. Jones does, that the losses from grafting are largely due to heat and the fermentation of sap. We find perhaps, that the first week of grafting in cherry, we can almost invariably secure a fairly good stand. Following that it tapers as the warmth and air increase, although the scions are kept in cold storage, perfectly dormant, the sap is coming up, and the increased rays of the sun--we get a very small percentage, and it seems to become less every day, and we have always used the dark wax. While I have been using paraffin wax a good deal of the time, I put lampblack in it for coloring. DR. MORRIS: I have until this year. In order to get Mr. Jones' points, I tried to work out the philosophy of the subject and see what values there are, what meanings in the methods which led to his success. Then following that line of investigation, I stopped into another line of observation, and arrived at the transparent paraffin method, so that this is the first year in which I have tried it, but the results are perfectly remarkable. I have only done it for a year, but you will see 100% of catches on almost everything, hickories, walnuts, hazels. I must tell you of one very remarkable incident. Mrs. Morris had some dwarf trees set out on the slope of the lawn, dwarf pear trees. One of my men cut one of them off with a lawn mower the latter part of August. The top kicked around under foot for three or four days, wilted in the sun. We were walking past it along in August. I think Mr. Bixby said, "Why don't you try grafting on that kind of material?" I said, "I will, blessed if I don't." So I cut three pear scions from this wilted top that had been cut by the lawnmower in August, and I put them on a scrub pear tree under the fence near the house. And I tried this paraffin method, and in about six days one of them started out a shoot, and I said to one of my men, "We will transplant this. This is no place for it." I meant in the spring, or in a year or so. He transplanted it the next day. And it grew I think about half an inch after that, made good wood to last through the winter. So I don't know what the limitations of this paraffin method are. But that is a thing I would hardly dare tell about unless there were men here in this room who had seen it. That little pear top, cut off by mistake, kicked about under foot a few days in August, no sort of scion that any one would ever think of using as a graft, put it in as a joke, and with the further abuse of being transplanted; but it started growth, and now it is going to be a good pear tree. MR. JONES: The kicking around only made it good for grafting. PRESIDENT REED: Perhaps it ripened up to a certain extent by that drying out, like it would in the fall. DR. MORRIS: Maybe, but I have never heard of horticulturists propagating trees in that way and transplanting them in the same year, and having the new wood from the graft harden for the winter. MR. JONES: Mr. Reed spoke of grafting a cherry. You cut the top off didn't you? PRESIDENT REED: Yes. MR. JONES: We graft filberts by leaving the top on and cut the graft in on the side and wax it over. We leave it there two weeks, maybe, and cut it off, and we get perfect stands that way, and you would on the cherry. PRESIDENT REED: We use the side grafting, but we cut the top off. MR. VOLLERTSEN: I would like to ask Dr. Morris with regard to the stock. Don't you think the fact that that tree was moved at the time it was, so soon after grafting, had something to do with the retarding of the sap and causing the tree to mature the wood it did in place of making more growth? DR. MORRIS: That might be. All of the expert horticultural opinions brought to bear on this are valuable. Every suggestion that has been made has had a meaning. It requires explanation. PRESIDENT REED: If there is nothing further along that line, we have with us Mr. Conrad Vollertsen, of Rochester, who has been asked to prepare a paper; and we would like to hear from him. He is an expert in the filbert, and I believe can give us some valuable information. (Applause). HAZEL NUTS AND FILBERTS CONRAD VOLLERTSEN, ROCHESTER, N. Y. Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen of this Convention: I have been approached by a member of the Northern Nut Growers' Association to prepare a paper to be read at this convention on the growing, cultivating, and propagating of the European hazel, together with such other topics on the subject, as would be of interest to the members of this association, particularly my experience and observations during the last three or four seasons in my hazel orchard and nursery. Now, Ladies and Gentlemen, I am not a public speaker nor a public writer; my business is nursery and garden work; I can use spade and pick more freely than pen and ink, and, therefore, fear that I am not the right party called upon, knowing as I do, that we have members in this association far more capable and experienced, and who possess more knowledge about the European hazel than ever I had. Nevertheless as the growing and planting of the European hazel in the eastern and middle states of our country so far, both for ornamental or commercial purposes, has been more or less experimental, I think all practical information on the subject should be welcomed, and therefore I have consented to prepare this paper and hope it will be accepted for what it stands. A number of years ago, after leaving school, I entered a large nursery and garden establishment in Germany, as an apprentice boy, to learn the garden business, to become a gardener and horticulturist, to learn how to raise trees and other plants, to learn how to graft, to prune and cultivate, and, in general, to take care of all kinds of growing plants. One of the first duties bestowed upon me in my new place was the charge of a large plot of young hazel or filbert plants. To prune or graft them? Not at all. At that time I did not know anything about such skilled labor. I was merely told to weed and hoe them and to keep them clean. It was not just very elegant work, but, ladies and gentlemen, I enjoyed very much indeed, every minute so employed among those young filbert bushes. I became really attached to them and knew practically every plant in the plot, and almost believe they knew me, too. Now what was the reason for this immense pleasure I found in working among those plants? Was it perhaps from the commercial or financial point of view, the future income from them for fruit or when the plants reached a saleable age? Not at all. I was then too much of a boy and did not comprehend such a thing as that. It was merely the fond and pleasant recollection of my childhood, of my boyhood, when, together with other children, in the proper season, we went hunting for the common hazel nuts, the _Corylus avellana_, as the gathering of these nuts is one of the greatest pleasures of the German country child, and to roam through fields and woods in late summer in those beautiful September days, when the foliage of trees and bushes begin to color, when the birds of the garden, field and forest begin to assemble for future migration, when goldenrod, asters and other field flowers are reaching their greatest beauty, then, ladies and gentlemen, the hazelnut has reached maturity. The nut itself is a very beautiful brown color, the outer bark a golden yellow, the leaves of the plants slightly colored with bronze, pink or yellow, a most beautiful combination, a pleasure to look upon, and a sight never to be forgotten. Whoever has had an opportunity to see and admire a well fruited hazel plant, at the time of maturity, will agree with me that it is a thing of beauty, not only during the fruit bearing season, but in fact throughout the whole winter, with the handsome staminate flowers or catkins appearing very abundantly in early fall, and remaining throughout the winter, until late spring. Of all these pleasures, these beautiful sights, etc., of which a vivid and fond recollection caused all the pleasures in cultivating the above mentioned hazel lot, we need not be deprived in our otherwise so richly blest country. It is true that, at the present time, we have no American native hazel, that can fully compete with the better European varieties, but we hope that in time not far off, through scientific hybridization, such will be produced. For the time being, we have some very fine European varieties as a substitute, which for years have stood the test very well, and should be planted wherever a place can be spared for a few of them, and great pleasure and enjoyment will be the result. So much for the pleasure of raising hazel nuts. I have related the foregoing merely to show the lasting pleasure and enjoyments derived from the planting, cultivating and gathering of a few European hazel nuts. But to raise hazel nuts for the pleasure of it only, would be a very poor business proposition, and certainly not a paying one. What we should do is to raise them in large quantities, for commercial purposes, but here it seems to me the question should be asked: Have we had experience enough as to recommend the planting of them in the middle and eastern states for commercial purposes? In other words, is it worth while to plant them with that point in view? Now, gentlemen, I do not suppose that any one of us, at the present time, would be fully capable or prepared to answer this question intelligently or positively, as the planting of the hazel, for commercial purposes, has not been tried long enough, at least not in the eastern or middle states, to warrant a positive opinion on the subject. A great deal depends upon the variety planted, also the location where the planting is done. Much observation and experimenting is still required. I have growing on my ground in western New York, near Rochester, several hundred trees or bushes, 6 to 8 years old, about 20 varieties, most of them German varieties, a few from France, and a few from England. They have been bearing nuts the last four seasons, and all have reached maturity perfectly. The smaller and medium sized nuts appeared to bear a little better than the larger varieties. The varieties received from France have, so far, not done well with me, as the German varieties. They are poor bearers. In the fall of 1917, I gathered from each 5 to 6 year old tree, of the German variety, about a pound and a quarter of the medium sized nuts, while hardly a pound from the larger fruited varieties (same sized plants) ripened well. I was then under the impression that the hazel not only could but should be planted in large numbers for commercial purpose. In the fall of 1918 my crop of nuts was very much less, and I had expected even a better harvest than in 1917, which certainly was discouraging to me. The plants themselves were growing beautifully, but most of the staminate blossoms or catkins were frozen, and, consequently, very little pollenizing was accomplished, and very little fruit the result. Such and possibly other occurrences, from time to time we may expect and look for, and should be ready to investigate thoroughly, before we can advocate or recommend the planting of the hazel extensively. It really seems strange that while the hazel generally is at home in the northern latitudes, it should partly freeze when the thermometer reaches say about 12 to 18 degrees below zero, and, as I had never noticed that before, it then occurred to me that possibly another reason could be found, why so many of the catkins were frozen. Through my investigation in the spring of 1918, I have come to the conclusion that the unusually wet season in our vicinity of western New York throughout 1917 caused the hazel plants to grow until the real cold weather was upon them, which gave the wood a very poor chance to ripen, particularly the terminal buds, where a great many of the catkins had formed, and caused not only them to freeze but also a certain part of the wood. Only the lower and more protected catkins came through the winter alright and caused what little pollenizing was done, hence the very light harvest in the fall of 1918. Should the results of my investigation prove true, and the continuance of the wet weather prove the main cause of freezing so many catkins, then it seems to me there is nothing to be alarmed about, and the planting of the European hazel, at least in this vicinity, for commercial purposes could be conscientiously recommended, and should be done, the sooner the better. We do not expect our apple or pear orchards to bear an abundant crop every year, and we should not expect it of our hazel orchards. Something will occasionally happen to them as well as to other crops, otherwise we run no risk whatever. My trees or bushes, several hundred in number, planted in 1912 and later, have stood all kinds of weather, extreme cold, very hot, continuous wet, and still are growing most beautifully at the present time. They gave a very satisfactory crop of nuts this last fall, 1919, in spite of severe freezing weather on April 25th and 26th when the mercury dropped to 12 to 15 degrees, and all hazel bushes in full bloom. At the present time the prospect for a good crop of nuts next season is certainly very bright. Neither fungus, blight, or other diseases of any kind, or troublesome insects have so far been detected. In planting the hazel for commercial purposes, I should recommend 12 feet distance between the plants each way, as they require abundant sun and air. At the same time, there is an opportunity to use the land between the rows for several years to come, as low growing crops like potatoes, strawberries, beans, beets, carrots, etc., could be grown there to great advantage, and the cultivation of these crops would be amply sufficient for the hazel plants. Now the selection of varieties to be planted for the commercial hazel orchard is a very important part of the undertaking, and should be well considered. To plant several varieties is absolutely necessary on account of pollenizing, as staminate and pistillate flowers, though on the same plant, do not always appear together in proper condition on all plants; in fact it has been proven in my orchard that sometimes plants bring forth a great many pistillate blossoms and not a single staminate one on them, and still a good crop of nuts were grown on them. Here the pollination must have taken place with the pollen from other nearby plants conveyed to them by wind or insects. One particular plant of the zellernut type grown in one of my city lots during the last season was very well filled with pistillate blossoms and not one catkin on it, and still it ripened a fairly good crop of perfect nuts, where the nearest plants filled with staminate blossoms was at least 30 feet from it. Here it is shown and proven that a number of varieties is a necessity. But what varieties we shall choose, will undoubtedly be an open question for some time to come, and, no doubt, a great deal of experimental work will have to be done to finally select the right varieties for the different localities, the variation of temperature and location has very much to do with the proper selection of varieties. I have among my varieties some I could recommend and again others that are not at all satisfactory, at least not so far, and it requires more close observation before the very best of them can be picked out or selected. Our next operation in the hazel will be the pruning. Here I should say above all things: "_Keep the suckers away._" Hazel bushes are naturally inclined to produce a great many suckers, which should be thoroughly removed as soon as they appear; it will stop when the plants grow older. Besides the suckers, all weak and unnecessary wood should be removed entirely, not cut back. Our aim should be to try and get as near as possible low standard trees, with trunk say 10 to 15 inches high and the tree itself not to exceed 15 to 18 feet in height with the center kept open all the time. To accomplish this, I should suggest the removing of all crowding limbs from the center, regardless of their being fruit-bearing limbs, which to determine is mostly guess-work at the best. In order to keep the plants within 15 to 18 feet in height, the terminal shoots also should be removed or reduced as the case may be, beginning at the time of planting until the desired height is reached. After that, one or more of the old limbs may from time to time be removed, as there always will be enough young branches to take their places. Such pruning in my orchard, so far, has proved sufficient, as blight has never made its appearance in my nursery. I will not be able to say much about blight. I have known trees in our city, 4 or 5 varieties, for more than 30 years, bearing more or less fruit year after year, and have never noticed any blight or anything wrong with them. Should blight appear, I should remove all affected limbs to the sound and healthy wood, as we would do to our pear and quince trees when blight appears among them. I do not believe that properly treated hazel bushes will ever suffer much from blight, at least not in our vicinity. Neither do I believe that any more pruning than I have outlined is required or necessary to our hazel plants. The next subject about which I wish to say a few words is the propagation of hazel plants. There seems to be quite a difference of opinion as to the mode of propagating them; some advocate grafting, others layering, again others from suckers only. Grafting I believe myself, will produce a finer plant and the operation of doing so seems quite successful, but a great many varieties produce so many suckers that the graft is liable to be choked or crowded out if not constantly watched, and it should not be expected of the average person to know the difference between the graft and the wild shoot, and consequently, in a comparative short time, he would have a wild or common hazel. For that reason grafted plants should not be used for the trade until our people get better acquainted with hazel plants. I, therefore, should recommend layering, thereby having the plants on their own roots, which would prove more satisfactory everywhere. That grafted plants bear fruit sooner than layers, does not always hold good; it may be so with some varieties, but not with all of them. I have some three year old grafted plants and no fruit as yet, where I had plenty of layers in the nursery rows two years old well fruited. It is true that plants grafted on seedlings of the _Corylus avellana_ will not produce as many suckers, as plants grafted on layers of the avellana type, but they will produce enough to confuse the average person, as the foliage of some varieties are so nearly alike, that it actually requires an expert to tell the difference. I, therefore, under the existing circumstances, should advise the propagating of hazel plants by layers only, until our people get better acquainted with the hazel proposition in general. Why propagation by suckers only should be preferred by some people, I fail to see, as they are practically the same as layers, plants on their own roots from a parent plant, only that layers are produced a little more scientifically and suckers more naturally; otherwise they are identically the same thing. When I referred to propagating, I should perhaps have mentioned the growing of hazel plants from seeds, that is from the nut, but I did not think it necessary. I will, however, say that plants raised from seed should never be planted for fruit bearing unless they are grafted or budded, as it has been fully and positively proven that plants raised from seed, even if the very finest nuts of our European hybrids are planted, will not produce nuts as good as those planted, but will almost invariably go back to the original type, the _Corylus avellana_. It is alright to raise plants from seeds for the sake of getting stock to graft or bud on, but, as to variety, the seedlings are unreliable. Before coming to a close, I would like to say a few words about the fertilizing of the ground for hazel orchards and what experience I have had in this matter, as I believe this would be of interest to all. It is a well-known fact that hazel plants grow well and will thrive in almost any kind of soil, as long as it is not too wet or too heavy, but from time to time a little manure worked in is very beneficial both to old and young plants, but care and judgment should be exercised, so as not to overdo it. I have growing in one of my city lots with very fertile soil, several bearing hazel plants, 7 to 8 years old, different varieties. These plants grow so immensely that it plainly shows, they are growing at the expense of the fruit, not only that the quantity of nuts gathered from a plant there is considerably less than of same sized plants grown on ordinary farmland, but the quality also is very much below. My best nuts are all grown on ordinary farmland and the greatest quantity has always been obtained from the farm where only very little fertilizing or manuring had been done. For the growing of young plants for commercial purposes, for the trade, I should recommend liberal manuring at all times. (Applause.) QUESTION: Is the hazel a long lived tree? MR. VOLLERTSEN: I have known trees for almost forty years that are bearing good fruit year after year, although not always a good crop. They don't seem to grow so rapidly at that age as when younger. DR. MORRIS: Hazels seem to graft pretty well on each other. I think the tree hazel is going to be our most successful stock for grafting. However, I have grafted on the _Corylus avellana_. The tree hazel does not put out any suckers. QUESTION: Does the hazel find its way into the market commercially? MR. VOLLERTSEN: I would almost think so. I have had lots of inquiries for them from storekeepers. It seems to me there are a great many imported around here. Our American hazels are not so very good. There may be here and there a fairly good one, but I have not found any really good ones worth propagating. I think if we would do more scientific work we could get very good nuts. There is no question that they are perfectly hardy and will stand almost any climate. MR. JONES: Some of your varieties are hybrids aren't they? MR. VOLLERTSEN: They are all hybrids. I have a few of the real, original _avellana_ type I think got there by accident. PRESIDENT REED: I believe the next paper is one the secretary has from Mr. A. H. Graves. DISEASE RESISTANCE IN THE AMERICAN CHESTNUT[1] ARTHUR H. GRAVES (Read by the Secretary) Your secretary, Mr. Bixby, has asked me to tell you about the native chestnut trees in the vicinity of New York City which I have found to be resistant to the destructive bark disease. I commenced the search for such trees in the summer of 1918, at the suggestion of Dr. Haven Metcalf, of the laboratory of Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry. During the campaign in Pennsylvania against the bark disease, scouts had been on the lookout for immune or resistant trees, but without result. As far as I am aware, no systematic organized search had been made for such individuals. It was our plan to commence the search in the region of New York City, because this area is probably the oldest center of infection in the United States. Apparently this is the port of entry where the undesirable immigrants (Japanese or Chinese chestnuts) passed through quarantine and were allowed to disembark carrying their terrible scourge with them unnoticed. According to Metcalf and Collins,[2] this was probably as early as 1893. This was why we selected this area to begin on, for here the disease has had a longer opportunity to run its course than anywhere else, and, consequently, has had ample time (more than a quarter of a century) to call out the non-resistant trees. Those remaining, if any could be found, might be suspected, _a priori_, of being resistant. As the work progressed, I soon realized that it would be most difficult, or perhaps impossible, to locate resistant or immune trees in a region not so long exposed to infection; for, in such a region, one would have to inoculate all individuals suspected of possessing resistant qualities, in order to ascertain whether their healthy condition was actually due to resistant qualities or simply the result of a chance escape of infection. We therefore decided to restrict the work, for the present at least, entirely to a definite area about New York City. This area includes all of the territory within a radius of about 16 miles from New York City Hall, and therefore comprised in a general way, Greater New York and the adjacent parts of New Jersey. RESULTS OF THE SURVEY First I made a thorough canvas of Staten Island, doing the work on foot, aided by the trolley and the Staten Island R. R., and often guided by that genial naturalist and lover of Staten Island, Dr. Arthur Hollick of the Staten Island Institute of Arts and Sciences, I made a careful survey of the whole 64 square miles of which the island is composed. After two weeks of this kind of work, I began to get fairly well discouraged, not so much because of lack of results which, it is true, were entirely negative, but more on account of the appearance of the dead chestnuts. For where it was not entirely cut out, the bare, weathered poles showed that they had been dead for many years. The only encouraging feature was the finding of large quantities of healthy seedlings, from 7 years of age upward, to which I will refer later. The Palisade region along the Hudson has been notable in the past for its chestnut forests. I next attacked this, making as thorough a search as possible from Hoboken to a little north of Alpine, N. J., which is a small place on the Hudson opposite Yonkers. Here also the vast forests of dead poles weathered gray with time, bore silent witness to the completeness of the destruction. About the middle of July while ferrying across the Hudson, I noticed north of the landing at Dyckman St., what appeared to be chestnut trees in bloom. On investigation, I found these to be living native chestnuts, of the peculiar strip type I shall describe later, and proceeding further north from this, where the Harlem enters the Hudson. I was led into a forest where I found at least 40 living chestnuts, some of which were in good condition, and one particularly was leafy nearly to the top. (Fig. 1) Naturally, one would immediately suspect that somehow these trees had escaped infection, but this could not possibly be the case, for mixed in with them on all sides were bare, weathered trunks showing signs of old worn cankers, proving incontestibly that the fungus had been present here also for a long period. Shortly afterward, Dr. Olive, of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, informed me that he had seen living chestnuts near Hollis, L. I., and at Valley Stream, L. I., and at each of these places I found a group similar to that near the Harlem. These, in brief, are the high spots of the survey from the point of view of the scientist. In addition, I covered adjacent region of New Jersey to the west, including the Watchung Mt. range about Plainfield and the Oranges; the Bronx and Van Cortland Park and the country to Yonkers and the north, and to the northeast of New Rochelle. Long Island, as far as Hempstead, was also included. Altogether I travelled about 1200 miles on foot, not counting the distance traversed on trolleys and railroads. Always armed with opera glasses, I was careful not to use them when anyone was looking, for on the second day of the survey I had been arrested on the charge of being a German spy! I was also arrested on board a train in New Jersey for looking earnestly at a topographic map, then sharply out of the car window and noting what I had seen (dead chestnut trees) on said map. The carrying of a botanist's tin can (containing fungi, not bombs) was also an additional implicating circumstance on the latter occasion. What then were the results of the survey? They may be stated briefly as follows: 1. No immune trees were found. 2. For the most part the older trees (from 20 years upward) were entirely dead, and had been so for a long period, as attested by the bare trunks, weathered a characteristic gray color which only time can produce. 3. However, large numbers of seedlings and young saplings were located, both healthy and diseased. 4. _The most important result was the finding of three well defined colonies of living mature trees; all of which, by virtue of characters to be presently described, are offering more or less resistance to the disease._ SEEDLING TREES It is well known that seedlings and young saplings are naturally immune for a certain period, which varies in extent from 8 to 15 years beyond germination of the seed beginning, of course with the first formation of the seedling. Such immunity depends, however, not on any inherent characteristic, but on the fact that at this period the bark is usually smooth, sound, and free from wounds of any sort where Endothia spores and mycelium might enter. Of course, when wounded from any cause whatever during this period of youth, this immunity ends, so that the condition might perhaps be termed physical, in contrast to physiological immunity. As I have already said, large numbers of seedlings, for the most part still unattacked, were found in many places in the area surveyed. There are of course no grounds for believing that such seedlings, descended as they are from non-resistant trees, are physiologically immune. Where they are free from disease, this exemption is due merely to the physical immunity I have just mentioned. Since they therefore represent non-resistant stock, they were used for comparative inoculation work, which will be referred to later. I may as well say here as anywhere, that by resistance, I do not mean total resistance, for that would be immunity. There are, of course, degrees of resistance, in the plant world just as in the animal world. One person may resist a cold germ or the influenza bacillus better than another, that is, it will cause him only a little discomfort. Another person may not be affected at all, that is, he is totally resistant or immune. I say this because I have misunderstood when I have used the term resistance. The trees in the New York region show all grades of resistance, from individuals where the fungus makes very little headway in the bark, to cases where it grows almost as fast as in the average non-resistant tree. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESISTANT TREES What now are the characteristics of these resistant trees? How are we going to know one when we see it? I have outlined the leading features as follows: 1. BARK. In the case of this particular disease, it is obvious that the character of the bark is the most important feature since this fungus is primarily parasitic in the living cortex. In other words, the character of resistance must necessarily depend on the living cells of the cortex. Now, careful observation of the resistant trees reveals a most striking feature of the bark, namely its tendency to heal, by means of a callus growth around the margins of the lesions, whether large or small; and it is very apparent that this callus growth wards off the advance of the fungus for a time at least. When the callus growth is once formed, the fungus of the original canker encroaches on it very slowly, or often not at all. Inoculations in the callused margins of cankers showed usually only slight growth of the fungus after two months' time in the summer, or in some cases no growth at all. Several layers of wood could be counted underneath these callused margins--often 6 or 7--before reaching the annual ring exposed at the surface of the canker. This of course, shows unquestionably that the callus had remained healthy at that location for that period of time. 2. EXTENSION OF THE CALLUS TISSUE.--In many cases the callus tissue is of considerably greater extent than the normal area one would expect around a wound. It may even occur that the whole inner bark around the trunk is of a callused nature, without any open cankers showing at all. For example in a tree of which I have a photograph here (Figs. 2 and 4), the outer bark is sloughing off, revealing callused bark underneath of entirely different appearance, which no one would recognize as chestnut bark. This particular tree photographed represents an extreme in this respect. It seemed as if the whole tree was getting a new kind of bark, and yet this same character appears in all of the highly resistant trees. On cutting into this new callused inner bark it was found plentifully dotted with tiny _Endothia_ lesions, which however, never penetrated deeply. (Fig 4). Close to the cambium the white inner bark is quite healthy, generally for a thickness of 5-7 mm. That the mycelium in the small lesions was unquestionably the _Endothia_ mycelium, was shown by the appearance of the mycelium, and the presence of the _Endothia_ pustules in many of the spots. That these were not late infections, but only slowly growing small lesions, was shown by inoculations in such bark, which revealed scarcely any growth after two months. [Illustration: FIG. 1 One of the most resistant trees, the smaller tree near the center of the photograph, near the Harlem River, Boro of Manhattan, New York City.] [Illustration: FIG. 2 A very strikingly resistant tree at Valley Stream, Long Island, showing peculiar inner bark. The outer bark is sloughing off.] [Illustration: FIG. 3 One of the "strip" trees in the forest in the Boro of Manhattan, New York City.] [Illustration: FIG. 4 Showing the character of the inner bark of the Valley Stream tree (Fig. 2). At one place, near the center of the photograph, the bark has been shaved showing the small lesions caused by the fungus.] 3. THE WHITE SECRETION.--The most striking peculiarity of the callus tissue, is its abundant content of a thickish, milky, white substance. This came to light immediately when I cut into the callus, and it showed up very clearly when I shaved off the outer layers of dead cork tissue. The white material is not evenly distributed through the irregular grain of the wound tissue, but is particularly abundant in small spots or pockets which are especially conspicuous in the callused margin of the lesion. Soon after exposure to the air the cut bark, and particularly the white substance, redden rapidly, indicating oxidation. This peculiarity is of course true of all chestnut bark, yet here the reddening seems to be deeper and more rapid than the normal. No chemical analysis has yet been made of this substance, but there is sufficient other evidence at hand to warrant a tentative statement that it is very rich in tannin or tannin compounds, and that possibly the quality of resistance is bound up with the nature of this material. 4. THE STRIP CONDITION.--Some of the trees showed the living bark restricted to a narrow, flattened, rope-like strip running up the trunk to one or a very few branches (Plate 1, Fig. 3). In these cases all of the bark was of the callus nature, rich in the resistant substance, and plentifully besprinkled with small Endothia lesions, while underneath were a number of layers of functioning wood. The rest of the trunk was bare, weathered gray, with traces on its surface of old cankers, and evidently dead for a long period. This type of tree was so commonly found that I have called it the strip tree. INOCULATIONS The very fact that these trees are now alive in this New York region is pretty good proof of their resistance. But of course the most conclusive test is by inoculation with the fungus in question. If the fungus grows slowly in these trees as compared with its growth on non-resistant stock, then no one can deny that they are resistant. I will not bore you with figures of tables, I will only give you the results. The average growth of the fungus in 289 inoculations on the resistant trees was about 1/3 as fast as on non-resistant stock, and taking the rate of growth on those trees which are especially resistant it is about 1/4 as fast as on the non-resistant stock. For non-resistant stock the seedlings on Staten Island were inoculated, and the growth on these tallied very closely with growth in non-resistant trees inoculated by Anderson and Rankin.[3] Another very striking result brought out by the inoculation work was that of the 158 inoculations on branches and basal shoots of the resistant trees, only nine had been girdled after one month's growth, while in the same time 16 out of the 32 non-resistant Staten Island trees were girdled. At the end of the second month, the results were still more striking. Then, in the Staten Island trees, 22 out of 32 were girdled, while in the inoculations on the basal shoots and branches of resistant stock only 22 out of the 153 resulted in girdling. This striking difference was not due to smaller diameters of the Staten Island trees, for particular pains were taken to have them approximately equal to the branches and shoots inoculated in the resistant trees. SUMMARY OF EVIDENCES OF RESISTANCE We may summarize the evidences of resistance as follows: 1. The results of the inoculation tests show that the fungus grows in these trees on the average from 1/4 to 1/3 as fast as in ordinary chestnut. 2. The occurrence of the trees in a neighborhood long subjected to the disease, and their presence among the trees of individuals long since dead. 3. Indications of the long period the disease has been present in the trees themselves; such as bare weathered tops, and healed cankers. 4. Peculiarities of the bark; such as extensive development of the callus tissue, and the presence of a peculiar substance or white secretion which is particularly conspicuous in cases of marked resistance. IS THE DISEASE RESISTANCE HERE AN HEREDITARY CHARACTER? As to whether this disease resistance is an inherent character and will be transmitted from generation to generation, or is only the result of particularly favorable environmental conditions such as soil, light or moisture, is a point of great practical importance. I believe that further work will prove that the resistance is heritable, for the following reasons: 1. The resistance is not due to a particularly favorable environment of the trees, for the three groups grow in very different soils and under varying conditions of light and moisture. 2. The finding of the trees in colonies points to a genetic variation. At first I was unable to account for the grouping of the trees, for I had expected to find immune or resistant trees singly, here and there. But if we adopt the hypothesis of a heritable protoplasmic variation--something in their "blood," so to speak, the explanation is easy. We know that chestnut fruits or nuts do not travel far, like the seeds of willow, poplar, maple or ash, and therefore, in any given stand of chestnut, if we could go back from generation to generation into earlier time, most probably the majority of the trees would be found to have arisen from a common ancestor, although of course a few outsiders would have found their way into the group, carried by squirrels or other animals. 3. In a considerable number of cases all the members of the same group of coppice trunks from an old stump show a similar degree of resistance. To attribute such a condition as due merely to chance, occurring as often as it does, would be placing a pretty large burden on chance; and since the coppice trunks are all off-shoots of the same plant, the condition is what one would expect were the resistant quality in inherent character. A correspondence of degree of resistance was also noted, in the inoculations made on branches, trunk, and basal shoots of the same individual tree. Experimental work is being carried on at Washington to test out the truth of this hypothesis, i. e. to see whether or not the disease resistance is really heritable. The work is being carried on in connection with the propagation of other resistant stock, Chinese, Japanese, etc.; and, as soon as the department is sure of the product, the results will be distributed to nut growers and others who are interested. In the meantime we can all help by being on the lookout for resistant native trees. I believe they will be found in many places besides the New York region. FOOTNOTES: [1] Illustration for this paper will be found opposite page 64. [2] Metcalf, Haven & Collins, J. Franklin. The Control of the Chestnut Bark Disease. Farmer's Bulletin--467, 1911, P. 5. [3] Anderson, P. J. & Rankin, W. H., Endothia canker of chestnut. Cornell Univ. Agri. Expt. Sta. Bulletin 347, 1914. EVENING SESSION SANITARIUM GYMNASIUM, at 8:00 P.M. President Reed in Chair DR. J. H. KELLOGG: Ladies and Gentlemen: Battle Creek has the honor today and tomorrow to entertain the Northern Nut Growers' Association. This association with other associations having similar purposes, is undertaking to do, it seems to me, one of the most important things that can be done for the American people--to show us how we can get our nitrogen, our protein, and our fats without the livestock industry which is wasting at least nine-tenths of the grain, or in fact at least nineteen-twentieths of all our foodstuffs. The great cause of the high cost of living at the present time is that the pigs and the cattle are eating up our corn and other good things that we ought to eat ourselves. If we had a sufficient area of land, perhaps even the sides of our roadways and railways planted out to black walnuts and other good nut trees, we would have all the protein and fat we needed, perhaps as much as we are getting now, and more, and the cattle industry might be entirely dismissed from consideration, and a great deal of labor would be saved. I am sure that there is no place in the whole United States where this Association could have a heartier welcome than here in Battle Creek, or where people could be found who would appreciate its labors any more. You are going to have a very interesting program tonight. We are favored with visits from very distinguished gentlemen from all over the United States, among others Dr. Robert T. Morris, the nestor of American surgeons has come all the way from New York to tell us about some wonderful discoveries he has made, and a fatherless walnut tree he is cultivating, and other things that will be of great interest to us all I am sure. I take pleasure in introducing to you the president of this Association, Mr. W. C. Reed, of Vincennes, Indiana. Mr. Reed. PRESIDENT REED: We are simply continuing our program. This afternoon we were in session at the Annex and moved over here this evening so as to be able to present what we have here so we could entertain more of you than we could over there to advantage. You know that most all men have a hobby along some line or other, and those who constitute our leaders, whom we have to look to, and along the line of nut trees of different species and so on, we have learned to look to Dr. Morris as one of the leaders. I have great pleasure in introducing to you Dr. Robert T. Morris, of New York, who will address you on the hickory. NOTES ON THE HICKORIES ROBERT T. MORRIS, M. D., NEW YORK CITY, N. Y. When people speak of the "hickory" without qualification, they are apt to have in mind some one kind of hickory which belonged to their boyhood environment. All other kinds which they happened to know, were qualified in some way, very much as the word "fish" in Boston stands for the codfish only, other kinds of fish in the world being described by qualifying names. In the northeast the hickory means the shagbark. In Missouri it means the shellbark. Elsewhere the pignut and the mockernut are called "hickory." Interest in the subject has increased so rapidly of late years that we must all of us be more particular in our descriptions and add qualifying names, speaking always of the shagbark hickory, pecan hickory, or bitternut hickory as the case may be. Sargent describes fifteen species of hickory and in addition a large number of varieties by environment and by hybridization. There is a Mexican hickory, making sixteen species for the North American continent, and the late Mr. F. N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer from Washington, has found a hickory in China. Previous to this discovery, it was believed that the hickories belonged to the North American continent only. Botanists divide the hickories into two groups, Apocarya and Eucarya. For convenience in every day conversation, it might be well for us to speak of the "open-bud" group and the "closed bud" group. _Apocarya_ or the "open bud" group, includes the pecan hickory, _Carya pecan_, the bitternut hickory, _Carya cordiformis_, the bitter pecan, _Carya texana_, the water hickory, _Carya aquatica_, the nutmeg hickory, _Carya myristicaeformis_, and the Chinese hickory, _Carya cathayensis_. The winter buds of this group will be seen on examination to show the minute, snugly curled-up leaves which are ready to burst forth when the springtime sun opens the fronds of the ferns which have forced their way through the hard ground with clenched fists. The scale buds in the open-bud group do not cover the tiny leaf forms completely. In _Eucarya_, or the "closed-bud" group, stout scales close the bud completely against the snow and ice of wintry days, so that we see scales only when looking at the bud. The closed-bud hickories include the shagbark, _Carya ovata_, the Carolina hickory, _Carya Carolinae-septentrionalis_, the shellbark, _Carya laciniosa_, the mockernut, _Carya alba_, the smooth-bark hickory, _Carya leiodermis_, the pallid hickory, _Carya pallida_, the close-bark pignut, _Carya glabra_, the loose-bark pignut, _Carya ovalis_, the Florida hickory, _Carya Floridana_, the Buckley hickory, _Carya Buckleyi_, and the Mexican hickory, _Carya Mexicana_. Hickories which have nuts with a bitter pellicle, all belong to the open-bud group. These are the bitternut, Texas hickory, and water hickory. Hickories with scaly bark are found in both groups. In the open-bud group, the trunk of the water hickory carries long loose bark strips attached by one end, and in the closed-bud group, we find this characteristic belonging to the shagbark, shellbark, Carolina hickory, and to one of the pignuts, Carya ovalis. That takes us to another occasion for a note. What do we mean by "pignut?" In the North, this term is applied to Carya glabra and Carya ovalis. In the South, it is applied to Carya cordiformis. A name so well established, will have to be retained, but in our Association it will perhaps be best to have an understanding about which one of the hickories the common name pignut should belong. So long as it already covers two species in the North as opposed to one in the South, there are already two votes to one in favor of retaining the name pignut for Carya glabra and Carya ovalis. We may describe these in plain language as the smooth-bark pignut and the loose-bark pignut. The reason for choosing the name "loose" instead of "scaly" is because we are pretty well agreed upon applying the name "scalybark" to the Carolina hickory, the name "shagbark" to Carya ovata, and the name shellbark to Carya laciniosa. The name bitternut may safely be allowed to remain with Carya cordiformis because the other two nuts with bitter pellicle already have distinctive names, Carya aquatica being called water hickory and Carya texana being called bitter pecan. By making fixed points in nomenclature in this way we may head off the confusion which will become worse confounded as the interest in hickories becomes rapidly enlarged, if our committee on nomenclature does not take some decisive step. Concerning Latin nomenclature, we have further troubles for settlement. Hicoria is the oldest generic name and naturally should have priority but the Vienna Congress of Botanists adopted Carya. So far so good (or bad). Now comes our trouble in giving specific and varietal names. The binomial is clearly applicable enough for species, Carya pecan, for example, but when we come to varieties of the pecan there are two kinds of varieties to be considered, those by environment and those by hybridization. In cases of natural variation we are still within accepted resources in nomenclature by saying for example, Carya pecan, var, Stuartii. When naming hybrid varieties, however, I would suggest that in advance of the abbreviation "var", we place the abbreviation "hyb." thus reading for Brown's pecan, "Carya pecan, hyb. var. Brownii," instead of "Carya Brownii," which latter binomial would throw it among the species. In view of the fact that we are to have in the future hundreds of named hybrids, it seems to me that we must adopt some such definite method for convenience promptly. This method of naming, relates to convenience and is applied to the most evident parent. As a matter of fact, in horticultural circles we are doing precisely that sort of thing, speaking, for example, of "Brown's pecan" meaning a nut which we recognize as being a hybrid, brought to attention by Brown but with the pecan as parent most strongly in evidence. When I was a boy, the only hickory nuts of any sort available, were those collected from wild trees. The popular boy was one who knew of some trees which furnished the best nuts and who did not keep the news to himself. The squirrels knew the best nuts as well as the boys did and they would go past many hickory trees along fences and groves in order to congregate in the ones which had the nuts with the thinnest shells and plumpest meats of best quality. In the early morning hours I have seen several squirrels in one particularly good hickory nut tree and not a single squirrel in a tree completely filled with nuts, though its branches touches those of the first one. Men are quite as intelligent as squirrels in some respects. Here and there attempts were made at propagating fine hickory trees of various species by planting nuts. It was not generally known at that time that the hickories were so thoroughly crossed like the apples, that they would not reproduce true to type from seed. Attempts were then made at grafting which were mostly failures for many years. We are now on the verge of a great development in hybridization or crossing of choice kinds of hickories and in determining upon which stocks the different kinds of selected hickories may be grown to best advantage. Hybrids between varieties of hickories occur frequently in nature and hybrids between species of hickories occur occasionally. A number of these accidental hybrids have been discovered and some of them are now being propagated. For the most part they do not represent the best quality of the best parent but it is a notable fact that the bitterness of kinds with the bitter pellicle appears to be a recessive character and disappears usually from hybrids between species in which one parent has a bitter nut. Unfortunately, the finer extractive which give character to the nut of the better parent are prone to disappear also. This is in line with our experience in mixing of characters along Mendelian lines. Given a sufficient number of hybrids and we shall have here and there one with spectacular characteristics of special value. Now that horticulturists at the present moment are turning so freely toward the idea of producing quantities of hybrids artificially, the next generation will see hickory nuts which were not dreamed of in the days when I was a boy. The crossing of hickories is not difficult work. We simply remove the male flowers from branches carrying female flowers before the male flowers have begun to shed their pollen. The female flowers are then covered with oiled paper bags tied over them for protection and when the danger from self pollination has passed, we take off the bags and add a little pollen which we have kept for the purpose--pollen from some trees bearing remarkably valuable nuts. Nuts resulting from this cross pollination when planted, give us new varieties of trees which never have been seen before by anybody and that is so interesting that very many people will probably take up hybridization as an incident in recreation. Some of the hybrids will bear very early in their history and others very late. If one is impatient to determine at once which ones are to be valuable, he can hurry the process by grafting a number of cuttings from young seedling trees into the tops of larger trees which are already bearing--labeling each graft, so that he may keep track of the seedling stock from which it came. It is possible to put one hundred or more seedlings in the top of some stock tree at one time. One reason for delay in propagation by grafting is because the hickories like many other trees are slow in making repair of wounds. Grafts usually perished before being accepted by the stock under grafting methods that were in common use. The best step forward in grafting method for hickories is one that I obtained from Mr. J. F. Jones, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He tells me that he obtained the method from its originator, Mr. E. A. Riehl, Godfrey, Illinois. This consisted in covering the entire graft, buds and all, with melted grafting wax and including also all of the wound and wrapping of the stock. The buds make their way through this grafting wax without any difficulty, but the grafting wax used by Mr. Jones contained lamp black and that used by Mr. Riehl consisted of a beeswax and rosin mixture. It was found that these seemed to be applicable in the North but not farther south in the hotter sun. Examining into the reasons for this, it seemed to me that in all probability the black grafting wax used by Mr. Jones and the brown or amber grafting wax used by Mr. Riehl, would naturally allow the heat rays of the sun to pass through to the graft while halting the actinic ray of light. The latter is extremely valuable for promoting the activity of chlorophyl, which acts only in the presence of light and in the best way in the best light. The heat rays might have certain destructive qualities. With this theoretical idea of the situation in mind, I employed melted paraffin in place of the grafting wax, covering the scions completely as well as the wound in the stock and the wrappings. This immediately proved to be a success. In fact, it appears to have changed the entire subject of grafting nut trees in such a way that any intelligent boy employing this method can now do better hickory nut grafting than would have been possible at the hands of an expert two years ago. The melted paraffin fills the interstices in which sap might collect and ferment, but at the same time, hardening so quickly that it does not introduce the danger of extension between points of contact with scion and stock. The second point of value consists in allowing the actinic ray in the sunlight to act upon the chlorophyl in bud and bark of the scion and it does not attract the destructive heat ray. This is perhaps the most important single point of value and due to the transparency of the paraffin. Third, the paraffin coating, impervious to air, maintains the sap tension equally in the course of fluctuation between negative and positive pressures occurring between night and day, and under varying conditions of light and temperature. This maintenance of equalised sap tension, I believe to be important. The paraffin is waterproof and prevents evaporation from the scion, which otherwise is prone to dry out before granulation of the wound has taken place in the hickories, as in other species which callus slowly. Fifth, under the paraffin coating of stock and scion, the plant apparently does not have that anxiety which would otherwise lead it to introduce the protective feature of superization, the spreading of a corky layer over the wound surface between stock and scion, thus introducing a mechanical obstacle to union. This method of grafting has extended the grafting season for nearly two months, apparently. Formerly, I hurried to get all of the grafts in while buds were bursting, in early May. During the season of 1919 I grafted hickories up to August sixth experimentally. The last grafts which caught well in a practical way were put in on July twenty-first. After that the proportion of catches was small and the growth feeble. Incidentally, it may be remarked that filberts grafted as late as August sixth, did perfectly well. The scions employed were cut in late winter and kept in the sawdust of my icehouse. I formerly supposed that ice beneath the sawdust was important, but this year I could not get ice and the scions kept just as well. In July, experiments were tried with grafting directly from one tree to another, using wood of the season's growth. This worked well with hazels, but not with hickories or walnuts, only one out of many hickory grafts catching. That one, however, is significant and I hope to work out principles which will allow of direct grafting of hickories as readily as may be done with the hazels. When a hickory graft is to be inserted into a small stock or branch, the ordinary cleft graft does well. In stock recipients much larger than the graft a side cleft of the width of the scion only is desirable, or better yet the "split bark" method devised by Mr. E. A. Riehl. A straight split is made in the bark of the end of the stock, and the graft crowded down into this split so that it remains between bark and wood finally. My own method for large stocks, is what I have called "the slot bark method." This consists in turning down a width of stock bark measuring the same as the scion in width. When the scion has been inserted into this slot so made, the bark is turned up over it again and fastened there. By this method I have put scions in the trunks of trees nearly a foot in diameter and at any chosen point, sometimes several feet below the ends of cut branches. One may cut off the top of a large hickory tree and then peg the trunk full of scions by means of bark slots. Another important point in hickory propagation work consists in the employment of the Spanish windlass for fastening graft and stock together. The old time wrapping of twine or of raffia had to be released in order to allow growth at the point of union of scion and stock. When cord is used it cuts deeply into the new growth, and raffia, which is placed on flat, will be burst open. In either case new wrapping is required at a precarious time, according to old methods. The Spanish windlass, which is used in surgery for controlling haemorrage, seemed to me to be applicable for fastening scions in place. It consists in a paraffined cord with ends tied in a firm knot but hanging loosely about the graft and wound. A wooden skewer or any small lever, is then inserted into the loose loop of cord and twisted about until the part of the cord about the graft wound is so snug that it holds the scion in place more firmly than it can be held by any other sort of wrapping. In order to prevent the cord from cutting into the bark, two shields of wood or metal an inch in length, are interposed between cord and bark. The lever of the Spanish windlass is fastened with a cord or with a galvanized nail in order to prevent the windlass from unwinding and the whole covered with melted paraffin. This may remain in place for two seasons without change, holding the scion firmly in place all of that time and requiring no attention. The growing stock separates the two shields very much as it might separate two stones in the field and automatically unwinds the Spanish windlass by sheer force, just enough to allow growth without any unloosening of its holding apparatus. In hickory grafting, much experimental work remains to be done in the choice of stocks for grafts of different species. Almost all of the hickories that have been grafted upon the pecan hickory stock, seem to do pretty well upon that stock, but the converse is not true. The pecan apparently does not do well as a rule when grafted upon other hickory stocks, even upon those of its cousins in the open-bud group. The shagbark hickory, in my experience, has done best upon stocks of the shagbark or mockernut or pignut. A number of years, however, are required in some cases for determining that point. Shagbarks which I have grafted upon bitternuts have sometimes made a remarkably good start. Then at the end of three or four years they begin to slow up, while shagbarks on shagbark stock, starting slowly at first, surpassed the ones on bitternut stock finally. In the spring of 1919, I topworked two trees standing near together and of about the same size (thirty feet) with Beaver hybrid (a cross between the bitternut and the shagbark). One of the trees was a bitternut and the other a pignut. Almost everyone of the grafts of the Beaver grew thriftily on the bitternut. Those on the pignut stock practically all caught and made short growth and then began to wilt back. Finally, only one shoot remained alive. This very striking object lesson will have bearing in varying degrees in all of our hickory grafting. According to my experience to date, hybrid hickories are grafted more readily than are straight species or varieties. They seem to have lost family pride and seem to take up with any friend offering economic support. In the case just quoted, however, caprice was shown by the Beaver hybrid which took eagerly to a host of the species of one of its parents. It refused to thrive on the pignut which did not represent either one of its parents although that same pignut stock would have been accepted by shagbark scions--the shagbark representing the other parent of the Beaver. This sort of experience throws open the entire subject in such a large way as to show what possibilities of success and failure lie before us in experimental work. The same method of grafting, the paraffin windlass method, was employed for these two trees which were neighbors. Interesting experimental work is to be done in finding the extent to which different species and varieties of hickories may be grown out of their indigenous range. At Stamford, the bitter pecan from Texas, appears to be perfectly hardy but it makes very slow growth--sometimes less than an inch in a year. The Buckley hickory also from Texas, grows thriftly at Stamford and so does the Carolina hickory Pecans from the northern belt thrive at Merribrooke, but those from the southern belt have such a long growing season, that their new wood is not yet sufficiently well lignified to stand the winter well. Some of them pull through a mild winter in fairly good order, but on the whole they do not thrive. The commercial side of hickory raising, is being worked out for the pecan only at the present time. We may assume that several of the other species of hickory adapted to growing in the north, will equal pecans in importance, eventually. The reason for that is because some of the other hickories stand quite as high as the pecan in food value and general excellence. At the time of writing, low grade seedling shellbark nuts from the West are selling in the retail market in New York for forty cents a pound. I have seen better nuts of this species being loaded on the cars in Ohio at fifty cents a bushel. The present New York price, to be sure, represents a profiteering war price. Fine grades of shagbark hickories and some of the hybrids will command prices equally high with prices for best pecans in the market of to-morrow. VOICE: Will it be practical to plant nuts, get young plants, and then bud or graft them? DR. MORRIS: Yes, that is what we do. It is practical to plant nuts for the purpose of getting a stock, but not for the purpose of getting nuts. But we plant them in the nursery rows, and then when they are two years old, preferably (some like three-year-old trees), we graft them over to good kinds in the nursery row; then they remain there for a year or two, and are transferred or sold. We now have members of this association who are experts in grafting nut trees who make that a business. It is not generally known that we have in this country three journals devoted wholly to the subject of nut culture. We have nurserymen who make a specialty of grafted nut trees of the very best sorts, so that one may perhaps take up this mode of farming more profitably today than almost any other sort of farming. One gentleman in Pennsylvania told me he made thirty thousand dollars on one crop of chestnuts two years ago, cultivated chestnuts. He had thirty acres, and no tree was yet fourteen years of age. His net profit beyond all expenses was thirty thousand dollars that year. There are probably very few professional men who make more than that a year. Many men are making good, comfortable incomes out of their nut orchards. It is the best insurance against the needs of old age, the best sort of life insurance. VOICE: Do you use anything besides the hickory as stock for grafting on? DR. MORRIS: Yes, we have some experimenting to do in order to learn which stock will best serve for a certain variety. We find that one species or variety of hickory will accept other varieties of that species well, but perhaps it will not accept another species. We do know that certain kinds do remarkably well on certain stocks; but the entire range of that subject has not as yet been worked out. QUESTION: Does the stock you graft on have any effect on the quality of the fruit? DR. MORRIS: The stock on which you graft is supposed to have no effect at all on the quality of the fruit. But there are some exceptions. We learned that in orange grafting. A naval orange grafted on the wild orange stock might be raggy, not full of juice; while when grafted on the trifoliate orange stock might be heavy and full of juice. So in that case the stock did have some influence upon the graft; and there are other instances. But as a rule we assume that the stock has no influence upon the graft in regard to the validity of character. QUESTION: Are pecans a variety of hickory? DR. MORRIS: Yes, pecans are hickories. The Indians gave it the name of pekan. The French spelled it pecanne, so that has been spelled as the pecan, without the necessary other part of its name, hickory. We should always say pecan hickory--always. DR. KELLOGG: Dr. Morris, how old hickories may be used for grafting? DR. MORRIS: I have experimented with trees up to fifty years of age; but the most satisfactory work, perhaps, is done with trees that are not more than fifteen or twenty years of age and three or four or five inches in diameter. Those are the best trees to work with. If we cut off the limbs of a very old tree and try to top work it, it means an enormous amount of work on the part of the orchardist, more work than my employees like to give it. But one may topwork a tree of almost any age, preferably a tree less than twenty-five years of age; and by choice I should say trees not more than ten years of age. We have experts in the audience better qualified to speak on that subject than I am. QUESTION: Do you prefer the melted paraffin to the old-fashioned way of using bees wax? DR. MORRIS: The old-fashioned beeswax had a certain color, and the black wax with charcoal, with lampblack, both turned the light ray and allowed the heat ray to enter so that the amber of the old resin wax, and the black of the black wax both allowed damage to occur to the tree, in the South particularly, in a hot climate early in the summer, prevented our grafting in the summer because of the turning away of the light ray that was wanted and the absorption of the heat ray that was not wanted. The melted paraffin being perfectly transparent, allows the light ray to set the chlorophyl into activity. All the life processes of the tree are carried on under the influence of the green chlorophyl grains, and these work only in the presence of light. QUESTION: Can you successfully graft a pecan on the pignut? QUESTION: What is the best stock to graft pecan on? DR.MORRIS: Pecan stock, I think. I do not think we have anything better. Mr. Reed and Mr. Jones are both experts in that field. They have grafted hundreds of thousands of trees. PRESIDENT REED: I think the pecan is the best. The hickory will grow on the pecan very well, the shagbark hickory, but it will not do to change it with any degree of success. DR. MORRIS: The shagbarks will grow fairly well on pecans, but the pecan not well on the shagbark. It is best I think to put shagbarks on shagbark or shellbark. But they do well on pignut. I have got some very good shagbarks on mockernut. On bitternut they grow fast, but at the end of eight or ten years are inclined to slow up. Shagbark can be put on, I suppose, ten other kinds of hickory, but the pecan can not. QUESTION: How many grafts would be necessary on a nut tree twelve inches in diameter? DR. MORRIS: I should say you would probably have to put in fifty. I would cut off the branches down to about two inches or an inch and a half in diameter, and that might leave fifty stubs to graft. Graft all of them, is one way to do it. Having done one that way, you will then become familiar with the entire subject. QUESTION: What is the best time of year? DR. MORRIS: I don't know. Some time ago the American Agriculturist said to its readers that there is disagreement about the best time for pruning peach trees. Let us hear from all our readers. So all of the readers wrote expressing their opinions, and the editor said, "Summing up all of the opinions, the entire testimony in the case, we have decided that the time to prune your peach tree is when your knife is sharp." I had always supposed that the best time for grafting was when the buds were first bursting in the spring, always held rigidly to that, and at that time of the year was in a great hurry. I dropped professional work and lost hundreds and even thousands of dollars in order to see this work go ahead; it is more interesting than professional work. And now this year, with this new method, I have grafted right straight on up to the first of August, and everything growing--deliberately, all through the summer. So that now, at the present moment I do not know. A year ago I could have told you. When I first graduated in medicine, I could answer any question in medicine. After forty years of surgery, I am puzzled over a great many questions. It is the same way regarding grafting. QUESTION: In summer grafting do you remove the leaves from scions? DR. MORRIS: In summer grafting I have used for the most part scions I have kept in the icebox in sawdust. I have formerly put in twenty or thirty tons in my icehouse for my family to use during the summer. Last winter we could not get any ice, and my scions were just as good kept in the sawdust as if we had had ice; and I grafted those scions in August and the grafts are living. I have also cut off the leaves in grafting, but that is new and you can not depend on it,--stop at one tree, cut off a piece of it, and put it on another tree and have it grow. I have never done that until this year, and it does not succeed in a very large percentage. It is not practical. It can be done--I have proven that; but it is not practical. The best way is to use your scions from last year that have been kept in cold storage in sawdust or leaves. DR. KELLOGG: When should the scions be cut? DR. MORRIS: There is some disagreement about that. Almost all scions may suffer a little winter injury. Some men prefer to cut in the early part of December before we have had any hard winter, then keep them in cold storage during the entire year, moderately moist, or protected in sand, leaves, or stratification. But I have always preferred February myself, cutting them the last of February before the buds begin to start, then put them in sawdust in the icehouse or cold storage, or bury them under a thick layer of leaves. For budding you transfer immediately. In fact, budding technically comes under the same physiologic principles as grafting. In budding I do that work in my place at Stamford, Conn., about the latter part of July or early August. DR. KELLOGG: Do you use the same method in transferring buds? DR. MORRIS: Yes, I fix them the same way as I do the graft and cover everything with paraffin. I have even had a little short side graft grow using this paraffin method, a graft two or three inches long. DR. KELLOGG: Tell us about those fatherless walnuts. DR. MORRIS: In the course of crossing the nut trees, we supposed, as a matter of course, that we must always have the pollen from one tree, or from a tree which bore the staminate or fertilizing flowers, in order to develop nuts or fruit of any sort; but on one occasion I covered a lot of Chinkapin female flowers with paper bags; I didn't have pollen enough to go around and left the bags on because I happened to be too lazy or too busy to pull them off. About a month later when I did take them off I found a full set of chinkapin nuts under those bags. They had received no pollen. That was an observation of a good deal of interest. It may have been that they had gone on by what we call parthenogenesis, and we had the children without the father, had the female parent only, the fatherless chinkapin. It sounds sad. I followed up the experiment with other nut trees, and found that not infrequently we may develop fatherless nuts. The effect will be, according to natural law, to intensify the characteristics of one parent. The female which bears this fruit, this child, without a father, will give to that child an intensification of her own characteristics. That will be the effect of parthenogenesis. That may be continued through several generations perhaps; we do not know. It is new, quite new. (Applause). PRESIDENT REED: The next topic is the Digestibility of Nuts, by Mr. Cajorie, of Yale University. THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF NUTS F. A. CAJORIE, YALE UNIVERSITY, NEW HAVEN, CONN. Mr. President and members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association: It was with great pleasure that I accepted the invitation of your Association to be present at this convention and give a discussion of nuts and nut production, from the point of view of their nutritive or food value. During the last few years our knowledge of nutrition and the parts that individual foods may play in the diet has been greatly increased and in the light of the new discoveries, it is interesting and valuable to view the place that nuts hold. As you are well aware, nuts have been used as foods by the peoples of the world. In many places nut products have made up a very appreciable part of the diet. Chestnut flour is extensively used in Southern Europe. Among the peasants of Tuscany, chestnut flour forms a considerable part of the total diet. In this region, also ground acorns are made into bread with cereal flours and in this form is a common food. The hazel or filbert nut is also seen in the form of flour on the shores of the Black Sea. Races living in the tropics have utilized the many varieties of nuts indigenous to tropical climes such as the coconut, Brazil nuts, Java almond, Paradise nut, candle nut and African cream nut. In the Orient, the lichi, ginko and water chestnut, and in Italy and India the varieties of the pine nut are used to considerable extent. In America, with the exception of a few localities and among a limited class of people, nuts have never made up a staple part of our dietaries, rather they have been used as tasty supplements to otherwise complete menus. That they are prized as adjuncts and are sought after is strikingly shown when we see in our markets not only the products of our native American nut trees, the hickory, walnut, butternut, chestnut, pecan, beechnut and pinion, but the Brazil nut, filbert, English walnut, peanut, coconut, all of which are derived from foreign countries or from trees originally imported to America from other lands. Analysis of nuts have shown them to be of two types, one rich in fats and protein, the nitrogen containing component of our foods and the other relatively rich in carbohydrates, or starches. With the exception of the chestnut, and the coconut, most of our more common nuts belong to this first class, and chemists have pointed out that in these nuts we have a concentration of protein and fat seen in no other class of foodstuffs. For example, the protein-fat rich nuts have a percentage of protein varying between 15 and 30% and a fat content of 50-70%; compare this with other foods that we think of as being concentrated; eggs, 12% protein and 10% fat; cheese 28% protein, 37% fat; round steak, 20% protein, 14% fat; and bread, 10% protein. This nutritive concentration in nuts places them in a unique position among our natural food products. Our cereals, meats, fruit and vegetables all contain more or less water or refuse that reduces their concentration, while in nuts we find a compact form of almost pure food. We are dependent on foods for the source of energy that is necessary to perform our work and maintain our body temperature much in the same way that a steam engine is dependent on the fuel supplied it to perform the mechanical tasks assigned to it, and this fuel value of foods in turn, depends on the amount of protein, carbohydrate and fat, particularly the latter, that are present in the foods. At once we see, in our concentrated nuts, a tremendous source of energy, provided that we can digest these nuts and make this energy available. Despite the fact, as revealed by chemical analysis, that in nuts we have a source of protein and fat in a concentration rarely seen in foods, there have been relatively few experiments to actually determine the digestibility. Prof Jaffa at the California Experiment Station was the first to make a comprehensive investigation along these lines. He made extensive digestion tests on men using most of the more common American nuts. His results, as reported in a bulletin of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, indicated that nuts when they made up a substantial portion of the diet, were well digested by those who ate them and gave no intestinal disturbance or discomfort. Nuts have had a reputation for indigestibility that was wide spread, not only among people in general, but also among physicians and dieticians, and even Prof Jaffa's clear cut experiments failed to dispell this idea of indigestibility that had been empirically assigned to nuts. A few years ago, a rather extensive series of digestion experiments were inaugurated at Yale University in an effort to settle this question of the indigestibility of nuts and also to test out some of the commercial nut products to find what effect roasting, boiling, and other processes that nuts are subjected to, had to do with the digestibility. Through the courtesy of Dr Kellogg of Battle Creek, it was possible to follow up these experiments with a series here at Battle Creek. It is the result of these tests that I wish to speak of today. One word regarding the method which is the conventional one for such experiments. The amount of food eaten by the individual or animal is weighed at each meal and the composition determined by chemical analysis. The intestinal output is collected, weighed and analysed. From the difference in any substance such as protein in the food and the protein which appears in the body refuse, the amount digested and absorbed or utilized by the body is easily determined. For example; if 10gms. of nitrogen were eaten in the food and one gm appears in the feces, we say that the coefficient of digestibility of that nitrogen is 90%, that is 9 of the 10 gms. eaten were absorbed by the body. The average of a great many such tests on mixed diets has the following standard coefficient: protein 93%, fat 95%, and carbohydrates 98%. Our digestion experiments show the following results: for protein digestion of nuts, almond 89%, peanut 84%, pine nut 89%, Eng. walnut, 83%, Brazil 88%, and coconut 88%. In all cases the carbohydrate coefficients are 98 or 99%, and in the case of the carbohydrate rich chestnut, normal digestion took place after the nut was heated so as to rupture the starch granules. In all of these cases the nut made up a substantial part of each meal and was eaten in large amounts. The experimental subject, experienced no digestive troubles or discomforture whatsoever except in the case of the English walnut, which evidently contains some irritating substance that causes diarrhea. Except for the pecan which gave rather low utilization, the protein of nuts was digested to a high degree that compares most favorably with our ordinary foodstuffs. How then explain the undoubted discomforture that many people experience after eating nuts? I believe that the explanation rests on the fact that our common American way of eating nuts, is not the rational way. We would not consider topping off a heavy meal with eggs, meats or cereals or to eat these in large quantities between meals realizing that we are exposing ourselves to possible digestive discomfort. No more then, can we expect to so eat nuts which are even more concentrated or "heavy" than meat or eggs without occasional discomfort. Unpleasant results from so eating does not condemn the nuts as indigestible, rather it condemns our mode of using that nut. Further, we must recognize that the nut is a hard, compact substance and that unless completely masticated, is not readily penetrated by the digestive juices of the alimentary canal. This was very well brought out in our experiment with dogs. The dog bolts his food and where there were large fragments of the nut in the food, they appeared almost unchanged in the feces, while if the nut is ground fine before feeding, it was readily digested. Comparisons of nut butters and nut pastes with the whole nut also brought out this point. The completely commuted nut butters showed consistently higher degrees of digestion than the whole nut. With the exception of the starch rich chestnut, the heating of the nut did not seem to effect the digestibility whether this heat was boiling, steaming or roasting. The raw nut apparently is as well digested as the heated products. No differences were found between nut butters whether the process involved steaming or roasting of the nut. I am not speaking of the enhancing of the flavor that heating may bring about, but only of the digestibility. Dr. Longworthy and his co-workers in the Dept. of Agriculture have investigated in recent years the digestibility of many vegetable oils, among them nut oils, and have found as high a percent of utilization with these as with butter and our other common animal food fats. I believe that we are fully justified in the conclusion that nuts and nut products, if rationally used in our diets, are as digestible and fully as valuable from a nutritional point of view as our other foodstuffs. While we can now definitely speak of the high digestibility of nuts, it is necessary to consider other phases of the part played by foods in nutrition. The fact that a food after being taken into the body can be broken up by the digestive juices of the alimentary tract, and the products absorbed, as we have found, to be the case with the nuts, is not the end of the story of the function of that food. About fifteen years ago, it was discovered that during the progress of digestion, the protein materials are reduced by the digestive juices of our stomachs and intestines to smaller chemical compounds, and that it is these smaller fragments of the protein molecule that are absorbed into the blood and are used to build up our muscles and tissues. These fragments or "building stones" as they have been fancifully called, are all of a distant class of chemical compounds known to chemists as amino acids. Eighteen of these acids have been found as the products of protein digestion. We may conceive of our bodies as being continually supplied with a mass of these 18 building stones from which it selects the kind and number that it needs to repair the everyday wear and tear of the tissues and in the case of the growing child builds new structures. Since the date of this important discovery regarding the fate of indigested protein, it has been found that with few exceptions, the body is not able to manufacture these amino acids or to change one kind into another, and must depend on the protein eaten, for a supply of the various kinds that go to make up the body protein. Further it has been found, that many of our commonly used food proteins do not contain all 18 of these amino acids components. In some foods one, two, and sometimes more are lacking, or if present are in very small amounts. If our diet contained only proteins of an inferior grade, we can picture our body requiring building stones of various kinds to maintain the structure of the body and unable to obtain them due to the poor quality of the food, protein. Nutritional failure would be the result. The proteins then must be of the right quality as well as present in the proper quantities, to prevent mal-nutrition. Bearing in mind these facts, it is necessary in studying a food such as our nuts, to determine the kind of protein the individual nut contains as well as to know whether or not it can be digested by the body. During the past few years, it has been found that we must have in our foods a certain amount of substances whose chemical nature is at present unknown and to which the name of vitamines has been given. It is not my purpose to discuss with you the many phases of vitamines and their relation to nutrition, but I only wish to impress upon you the fact that it is of the utmost importance for a dietary to contain these substances; fully as important as that the protein, fat, carbohydrate, and inorganic salt content shall be satisfactory. Lack of these vitamines brings on various evidences of mal-nutrition. One vitamine which is found in animal fats and the leaves of plants and is soluble in, and associated with fats, is, for that reason, called fat soluble vitamine. Another called the water soluble vitamine is widely distributed in cereal seeds, vegetables, and legumes. The third, the so-called antiscorbutic vitamine because of its action as preventative and cure for scurvy, is found in certain fruits and vegetables. We then ask the next question: Are nuts adequate as far as their proteins contain these essential amino acids, and do nuts contain vitamines? That is, is their biological value as satisfactory as their digestibility? Dr. Hoobler of Detroit, in a study of the diets of lactating mothers and wet nurses, a year or so ago, compared the value of proteins from animal and vegetable sources for the elaboration of milk. He found that a mixture of the almond, English walnut, peanut and pecan, furnished proteins that were equal to the animal food tried, and far superior to other vegetable proteins. Here then is evidence that nuts provide the necessary building stones to form milk that food par excellence for the newly born individual. Drs. Mendel and Osborn, experimenting on white rats have shown that the principle proteins of the Brazil nut will maintain animals through the growing period. Bureau of Chemistry workers and others have found similar results with the coconut and the peanut. I have now, experiments underway at New Haven, on the biological value of the filbert, English walnut, pine nut, almond, and pecan. While these tests are yet incompleted, it can at least be said that to date there is no evidence that the proteins of these nuts are in any way less satisfactory than those of the peanut or Brazil nut that have been thoroughly tested out. As to the vitamine content, abundant quantities of water soluble vitamine have been found in the peanut and the coconut. Experiments that we have in progress as well as a series conducted here at Battle Creek under Dr. Kellogg's direction give promise to increase this list of vitamine containing nuts to include at least many of our common nuts. Along with our vegetable oils in general, coconut oil and peanut oil contain insufficient quantities of the fat soluble vitamine to maintain growth in young animals. Whether the other nut oils will prove more efficacious in this respect, is now under investigation. As far as I am aware, the antiscorbutic properties of nuts have not been studied. With the population of the world on a steady increase, it continually becomes necessary for mankind to seek out new sources of food, and utilize products that formerly had received little attention as possible foods. Conditions that disturb normal food production and distribution, such for example as were brought about by the world war, produce serious food shortages in the world, and emphasize how close is the margin that determines whether the peoples of the world have adequate quantities of food or whether they are faced by shortages, and, in many cases, by starvation. In this continual development of our food resources, nuts stand out prominently as offering possibilities which are very great. Not only do they represent a very concentrated form of food which is highly digestible, but they possess a number of characteristic and highly pleasing flavors that recommends them for use in all manner of culinary procedures. The variety of uses to which nuts can be put in the kitchen is amply demonstrated right here in Dr. Kellogg's sanitarium and I feel sure that even he has not exhausted the possibilities of nuts in the dietary. The forms of nut products on the market are steadily increasing. The nut butters, nut pastes, nut margarines, meat substitutes, and so forth, all point to the variety of ways that nuts can be handled as foods. The tremendous increase in the use of nut oils in the form of the oil itself and as nut margarines within the last few years is a striking example of the utilization on a large scale of relatively new food products. The press cake which remains as a by-product of this oil industry finds ready use as concentrates for cattle feeds. Many of our ideas in the feeding of our domestic animals are undergoing development along with the idea of human nutrition. Just recently, investigators at the Wisconsin Experiment Station, reported that the well known "home grown ration" for dairy cows that consist of cereals, silage and hay, is not a large milk producing diet. Their recommendation is to supplement this ration with protein concentrates. Nut meals recommend themselves most highly as protein concentrates. It certainly is safe to say that the day when the fruits of our nut bearing trees will be allowed to fall ungathered from the trees, is at an end. There are many problems that still call for an answer by the chemist and dietitian. The nutritive value of the individual nuts should be firmly established in all its phases. The causes that have made the use of certain nuts unprofitable commercially, should be studied with the view of correcting these stumbling blocks. For example, the freeing of the horse-chestnut from its poisonous saponins and enable us to use this starch rich nut as food is well within the range of possibility as indicated by experiments conducted in Austria during the war. Why do nut oils tend to become rancid easily and can this tendency be remedied? Is the freeing of the acorn and its tannin and other objectionable substances a practical consideration? What is the irritating principle of the English walnut? All these problems and many others wait solution. Research on nuts is in progress in many places. It involves time consuming experiments that are often times expensive. As a result, progress is slow, the amount of research being limited by the financial factor. The value of the pecan nut crop alone of the year 1918, was over 91 million dollars and the value of the imports and exports of nuts and nut products during the same year amounted to over 51 million dollars. If one one-hundredth of one per cent of this sum should be devoted by those interested in the development of our nut industry in this country for the study of the nutritional and chemical properties of nuts, I feel sure that they would be amply repaid for their investment. PRESIDENT REED: I believe this will complete our program for tonight. We have quite a full program for tomorrow morning. Mr. C. A. Reed, nut culturist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, is with us and was to have been on the program tonight, but he has been busy all day and was hardly ready for tonight's program, as he has been busy getting the exhibit in order, and he will be on the program tomorrow morning, and three or four others, among them Dr Kellogg, I believe, so that there will be quite a full morning's program, and we will be glad to have all of you come who can. We meet in the parlor of the Annex at ten o'clock tomorrow morning. If any one desires to join the Association and will speak to the secretary, he will give yow the necessary information. END OF TUESDAY EVENING SESSION * * * * * WEDNESDAY, DECEMBER 10, 1919, 10:00 A.M. PRESIDENT W. C. REED IN THE CHAIR PRESIDENT REED: Mr. O. C. Simonds of Chicago will talk to you on "Nut Trees in Landscape work." NUT TREES AND BUSHES IN LANDSCAPE WORK O. C. SIMONDS, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS In considering material for landscape work the places that come to mind where such work would be required are home grounds, highways, parks, cemeteries, school grounds, city squares and woods. The highways would include city streets, parkways, usually called boulevards, and country roads. All trees are beautiful and should serve in some place in landscape work. Some_are more beautiful than others and where but few trees can be used the more beautiful would naturally be chosen. BLACK WALNUTS Not long ago, a lawyer was talking to me about the beauty of black walnuts. To his mind there is no tree more beautiful and from what he said, he would use it almost to the exclusion of other trees. My own judgment does not fully coincide with his although I consider a black walnut a very attractive tree. It grows to a large size and is generally healthy. Its shape is good and the foliage attractive in summer. The leaves drop early and they are not especially attractive in autumn coloring. Black walnuts are strong in appearance. They lack the gracefulness of the elm and if I were making a list of trees in the order of their appearance, placing the most beautiful first and the least attractive last, I should place several trees ahead of the black walnut, among them sugar maples, elms and several of the oaks. Perhaps the black walnut would come about in the center of the list for most locations. The list itself would vary for different situations and climates. I should advise using black walnuts plentifully along the highways, especially country roads, and somewhat sparingly in home grounds and the other locations which I have named. By plentifully, I do not mean to the exclusion of other trees, for, in some places, there should be more elms and maples than black walnuts, but highways are so extensive that many kinds of trees could be used in abundance to give shade. In woods there are places where black walnuts could be used in profusion. The objections that one might raise to the use of black walnuts would be, first, the comparatively short season of the leaves. These come out rather late in the spring and drop early, probably these trees can not be improved very much in this respect. Second, boys will sometimes throw sticks at the trees to bring down the nuts. If a boy comes in home grounds to do this, he will be considered a nuisance. Branches are sometimes broken and the trees disfigured from this cause. Along highways this objection might perhaps be lessened somewhat by planting enough trees so that there would be more nuts than the boy would want, or by improving the manner of the boy. Third, the trees are often attacked by caterpillars. This objection can usually be obviated by spraying or destroying the pests in other ways. BUTTERNUTS The remarks made about the black walnut would apply in many ways to the butternut, its nearest relative. Butternuts have a range extending further north and they are more subject to disease than the black walnuts. Like the walnut, their leaves come out late and drop early. They are subject to the attacks of boys. When healthy, they are attractive in appearance and they deserve to be planted in most places where trees are used for landscape effect, but in the list I suggested, they would come below the black walnut. HICKORIES There is a time of the year when the shagbark, which produces such sweet nuts, would be more attractive than any neighboring tree. It is when the big buds swell and send out yellowish green leaves surrounded by large, red bracts. At this time they are as showy and as beautiful as any flowers. The bracts soon fall, but the leaves turn a rich green and are attractive until early fall, when they are sometimes yellow, and sometimes drop without any marked coloring. The trunk of the hickory is unique in appearance as the bark separates from the tree in long platelike strips which hang on at one end and give the scraggly appearance from which the tree derives its name. All of the hickories are attractive in appearance, but some of them drop their leaves early. The hickories are difficult to transplant but this is nothing against the beauty of the tree. An established tree is more valuable on this account. In some places hickories are quite subject to disease or to the attacks of borers. Like the walnuts, hickories which produce edible nuts are subject to the attacks of boys, but, on account of the toughness of the wood and the roughness of the bark, they are usually quite able to withstand these attacks. Hickories are suitable for use in all landscape work so far as their appearance is concerned. The fact that they are not so used is due to the difficulty of transplanting them. In the fall when a maple tree has colored up beautifully and a hickory near it has dropped its leaves, we are apt to compare the two unfavorably to the latter, but we should remember the appearance in summer and especially when the leaves first unfold. Hickory trees are beautiful also when the leaves are off, their branches making beautiful etchings against the sky in winter. The pecan, which is the largest of all hickories, is an exception to the general rule because it is planted quite extensively, especially in the South. It is a beautiful tree and where it is hardy there is no reason why it should not be used as a street tree, a tree in home grounds, in parks, or any other place where deciduous trees are needed. It is raised extensively in some nurseries, while the other hickories are raised very sparingly, and some not at all. THE BEECH Some would consider the beech the most beautiful of all nut trees. Its comparatively smooth, bluish-gray bark makes it a distinctive tree at all seasons. Its branches, spreading straight out from the trunk, give it an appearance of strength. Its fine branches form a specially pleasing skyline, its sharp buds are trim and neat in appearance, its leaves are beautiful in shape and texture. Their fall coloring, while not as brilliant as that of the maples, is really beautiful, being either yellow or a rich brown. The leaves are apt to hang on all winter, especially on the younger growth, and then they often turn a straw color. If a list of beautiful trees for February were to be made, I am rather inclined to think that the beech would stand at the head of the list. A young beech with its bluish-gray bark, its straw colored leaves, and flecks of snow here and there, seems to me the most beautiful of all deciduous trees in winter. The young leaves also are especially attractive when they first appear and the blossoms are sometimes objects of interest, although not showy in color. HAZELNUTS Often in old pastures one finds forlorn, scraggly looking bushes and is told they are hazelnut bushes. One would not pick out bushes like these to plant in his front yard, and yet, when given a chance, there is scarcely a more attractive shrub than the hazel. It is one of the first shrubs to blossom, the staminate flowers hanging in slender, graceful yellowish-brown catkins, while the pistillate flowers are little points of purplish-red protruding from the buds. These blossoms appear long before the leaves. The latter, when fully developed, are beautiful in outline and soft in texture and they have a rich coloring in the fall including various shades of yellow and red. The hazel should certainly be used extensively in landscape work. The nuts, with their leaflike involucres, are attractive in appearance in August and September. In connection with our own hazel one would naturally think of the filbert, which is a European relative. The filbert is often planted for ornament. There is a variety with purple leaves which some people admire. THE OAKS Of all our native trees, I think the oak excels in beauty of foliage. By many oaks might not be considered nut trees, but nearly all of the acorns are eaten by squirrels or other wild animals and so I think it would be proper to mention oaks when speaking of nut trees in the landscape. In the northern states we have two groups known as the white oak group and the red oak group. The trees of the former have soft, dull green leaves with rounded lobes, while those of the latter have shiny leaves with lobes ending in points of filaments. The former mature their acorns in one year, while the latter require two years to bring them to maturity. The acorns of the white group are sweet, while those of the red group are more or less bitter. The foliage of all oaks is attractive when it first appears, the small leaves varying in color from almost white through pink, yellow, and red to the deepest purple. Perhaps the red oak excels all other trees in the beauty of its summer foliage and its leaves are also richly colored in autumn. The Bur Oak, in addition to having attractive foliage, has a rough, dark bark that gives it an attractive appearance in winter. The white oak, especially when young, holds many of its leaves in spring and these with their brown color, give a warmth to the snowy landscape. One could make a most beautiful park by planting nothing but oaks and they should rank with maples and elms as street trees. CHESTNUTS There is a tree which a few years ago would have been considered along with the oak in landscape work, but which now would not be thought of in certain regions on account of a disease which has practically destroyed it. This tree is the American chestnut. It grows to a large size, and if it were not for this disease, would be worthy of a place in any park. Hundreds of thousands of dollars have been spent without success in endeavoring to exterminate the disease. Some of the introduced varieties are apparently exempt from this disease, but only the future can tell whether the chestnut will again become valuable in landscape work as well as in the raising of food and lumber. In designing landscapes, we think first of open spaces and then bound these spaces with trees and shrubs having pleasing shapes and foliage. The tops of these trees form the skyline and the lower growth a margin of lawns, or perhaps of walks and drives. For these purposes the beeches, hickories, hazels, walnuts and butternuts are all valuable, their value being approximately in the order named. HORSE CHESTNUTS AND BUCKEYES There may be some question about including these in a list of nut trees. I understand, however, that the seeds of all of these trees have been used for feeding stock and perhaps some way may be found for making them available as food for men and women. There is no question about their usefulness for ornamental trees. In Europe, the horse chestnut has been used extensively for park and boulevard planting and it is also largely used in the United States. There are several varieties. The leaves appear early, the blossoms coming out later. Our own buckeyes are handsome in appearance and all are adapted for use in landscape work. The arguments for and against the use of nut trees in landscape work would be somewhat similar to such arguments regarding fruit trees. A luscious fruit tree like the snow apple, would be omitted from the list of trees for the park, not because it lacks beauty, but because its fruit would lead to its destruction. Apple trees might, however, be very appropriate for private grounds. They have sometimes given a name to a home, as "The Orchard". The same is true of certain nut trees, "Walnut Hill," and "Hickory Grove" being not uncommon. The hazel, too, is frequently used in naming home grounds, streets or localities. A name would not be used in this way unless the object bearing it was held in esteem. I am glad there is an association to encourage the raising of nut trees and I hope to see such trees used in this way extensively, for the purpose of developing attractive scenery as well as for food production. MR SIMONDS: When Mr. Bixby asked me to prepare a paper and come here and read it, I wrote back I would prepare a paper and send to him to read; and afterwards Mr. Reed came to see me, and knowing that he would be here, I concluded I would come. I dictated a paper and afterwards I found I had left out a few nut trees, and I want to speak just a word regarding those before I read my paper. One of those is the coconut palm. I was thinking more particularly of trees in this locality when I dictated the paper; but the coconut tree aside from raising the coconuts, I think is the most magnificent palm that we have. There are other trees that some like better, but I think the coconut palm is the most picturesque, the finest tree to plant. I prefer it to the other large palms. It has great spreading leaves, sometimes fifteen or twenty feet long, a feathery top, and the trunk is not quite straight, and I like it a little better because it is not. Then here is the English walnut. I did not speak in my paper about the English walnut, but there is a tree that is a beautiful tree, and where it is hardy it should of course be planted for ornament as well as for the nuts. And then there is the almond which we do not have here as a nut tree, but which they have in California, which has some attractions, and might be planted, although it is really not so ornamental as some of the nut trees; still it is worth planting. (Applause). PRESIDENT REED: Are there any questions you would like to ask Mr. Simonds while he is with us, or is there any discussion? DR. MORRIS: There are two or three points for discussion. Mr. Simonds does not think highly of the almond. I do for decorative purposes. When I drive in my driveway at Stamford and face that magnificent blaze of blazing clouds of almonds in the springtime, I think it is something worth while; it is the hard shelled almond. It will grow as far north as the peach does. The only trouble is they are a little more subject to leaf blight and need a little more attention. But where the peach will grow you can raise the almond profitably. Among the hazel nuts the most beautiful of the entire series is the tree hazel that grows about as large as the smaller oaks, and that is said to bear twenty-five or thirty bushels of hazelnuts a year,--enormous crops. That is perfectly hardy here, and the beauty of the tree is such that I believe it to be a very important addition. I would like to hear Mr. Jones' opinion on that point. I use it for grafting purposes for other hazels. The Japanese walnuts, almost tropical in their rapid growth, sometimes grow six feet in a year in rich ground, and with their great sprays of leaves sometimes a yard in length, and the seedballs of the heart nut variety give really a tropical appearance to the grounds where the ground is rich enough. They will grow almost any place, but in rich ground they are certainly very wonderful. Among the chestnuts, of course, we have a number of hybrids now that resist blight very well; and the little chinkapins for lawn bushes are very attractive. One of our most beautiful chestnuts is splendid for a lawn specimen and is evergreen in the South. When I was a boy I never had plums enough; so one of my ambitions was to have plums enough so I could see some of them rot on the ground. We can do the same thing with nut trees--have nuts enough so the boys will be full and have nuts enough. It seems to me it ought to be one of our ambitions to have so many nut trees along the roadsides in the parks, etc., that the boys and the squirrels can not use them all up. MR. SIMONDS: I think the Doctor is right in some of his criticisms. In fact, the almond is something like a peach, and I had not prized it for use in landscape work so very much on account of certain diseases which would be apt to affect it here if it were not taken care of as we would take care of trees in an orchard. The hazel tree, of course, would be attractive if it is hardy here. I have had doubts about its being hardy because of its coming from southern Europe. DR. MORRIS: It is hardy in all Canada. They have fine tree hazels in the park at Rochester. They have there probably the largest tree hazels in the country. MR. C. A. REED: I would like to have more questions asked. I feel as though I had accomplished a real achievement in getting Mr. Simonds here. I was under him a short time a number of years ago and learned something of his skill as a landscape gardener and the reputation that he has; and I felt that we could not hope to have a better authority on these points that he has discussed than we could in Mr. Simonds; and it is something that is constantly coming up. The Department of Agriculture have to consider that people want to know what trees they can plant in the landscape; and I feel particularly glad to have Mr. Simonds here. DR. MORRIS: It seems to me we ought to talk more about the nut-bearing pines in the landscape, because where you are planting pine trees, you might as well plant the nut-bearing kind as the others; they are just as beautiful, and you combine the Greek idea of beauty and utility. MR. SIMONDS: Certainly, that is a tree I have omitted, because in this region we have not had any nuts. DR. MORRIS: There are four pines that will bear nuts here--the Korean pine, the pignolia or stone pine, the Italian stone pine and the Swiss both. There are five nut bearing pine trees that are all market trees for nuts, that I know will grow and bear here, including the lace bark pine. MR. SIMONDS: Are they raising nuts in Michigan on pines? DR. MORRIS: No, but they might. Those five kinds would grow here and bear nuts here, so they have a double value. MR. SIMONDS: I think we ought to raise them. Of course they are beautiful in the landscape. DR. MORRIS: The whole idea of your paper is to approach the Greek ideal--add utility to beauty. MR. SIMONDS: That is what nature does. It makes beautiful leaves, then uses the leaves for plant food. MR. C. A. REED: I wonder, Dr. Morris, if you can tell where these pines can be had. DR. MORRIS: The Korean pine is from northeast Asia, and you can get those from the original pine seed; the lace bark pine is from northeastern Asia where the climate is like ours. The Swiss stone pine and the Italian stone pine are from Switzerland and Italy and closely related--both excellent trees. The fruit now you buy as the pignolia in the markets. Both those are sold as pignolia nuts. It is a commercial nut of Europe. The white barked pine you would get from the West. It has a beautiful fine large nut, and you would get that from any Pacific coast dealers in nut trees. MR. SIMMONDS: Has that another name? DR. MORRIS: I do not know of any other name for it. Wait: The single leaved pine is one. That grows so far north on the Pacific, but we do not know whether it will ripen its nuts here or not. It is perfectly hardy here and would be a beautiful nut tree, grows well. The single-leaved pine--that is _monophylla_. There are four or five pinons that will live, but they do not grow fast enough to make it worth while to raise them in Michigan. The Jeffrey bull pine is another one that will grow here and bear fruit, with a beautiful blue-green foliage. The Jeffrey bull pine is one of the most beautiful and thrifty pines. That is the Jeffrey variety of ponderosa. The nut is very much larger than the nut of the ordinary ponderosa. The nut of the ponderosa is small, but the Indians use them and eat them, shell and all. When we come to using the pines more freely for food purposes, we are going to do what they do in Europe with some of the small seeded pines--crush them and make a mass, squeeze the cream out from the nuts, dry it a little, and that makes very fine rich cream; then the residue is given to the chickens and pigs. There are in all about thirty pine trees now that are used for market purposes where they fruit, and we will undoubtedly increase that number. I do not doubt that fifty species of pine trees will be planted for their fruit by two generations from now when we feel the need more. PRESIDENT REED: We will be glad to have questions from any one. I think we get more from the discussions than we do from the papers. VOICE: In regard to the hickory nut, the shagbark, back in northeastern Ohio, four years ago we had quite serious trouble with our hickories there along in the month of June, about the time we get the common June bug, there was a large bug that looked like the June bug that seemed to work at night mostly. We did not see them active in the day time, but they ate the foliage entirely off the lower branches and those limbs from which they ate the foliage died. In some cases, the tree died. I would like to know if anyone knows anything about those. That was new to me. I have had opportunity to answer all sorts of questions about that. I have been asked I guess by a thousand different people about that insect, and I have not been able to learn anything about it. MR. SIMONDS: I can not tell you. SAME VOICE: One man told me when he knew I was coming here, "For goodness sakes find out something about that if you can." DR. MORRIS: It probably is the June bug, and turkeys and ducks would solve the problem. MR. C. A. REED: The only suggestion I would make is that in Ohio you have one of the best posted authorities on nut insects there is in the country. That is Prof. H. A. Gossard, at Wooster. If he can not tell you about it, no one can. MR. J. F. JONES: I think it is no doubt it is the ordinary May beetle that is doing the mischief. PRESIDENT REED: I might say we had quite a deluge of beetles along that line in the nursery a year ago this last June, the first time we have ever been bothered with them. They finally became so thick we had to go through and shake the trees and shake them off. They looked something like the May beetle, only smaller, hard shelled, and seemed to come by the millions; but they only lasted a few days, and it was all over, and we have never seen them since. MR. C. A. REED: There is one more question I would like to ask Mr. Simonds, and that is in regard to the proper distance for spacing nut trees along avenues and in parks. MR. SIMONDS: I think that in both of those situations it is well to give the trees a natural appearance by grouping, and sometimes they can be far apart, and sometimes I think there might be a group of two or three close together, so that they would grow in one group. That will give a more natural arrangement in parks, and we have room enough along the sides of most of our highways to have the same effect there. The policy to be pursued with regard to spacing nut trees along highways would be the same that we would follow in planting any other trees, and one of the most attractive streets I know is now in the city of Grand Rapids; it used to be in the country when I lived there years ago; but along the sides of that street there are native trees, mostly burr oaks, and they have grown just as nature planted them. There will be a group of two or three, then a space, may be a single tree, then there may be a group of five or six; and that natural arrangement is really beautiful, to me far more beautiful than a straight row of trees, uniform spaced. On that same street sixty or seventy years ago my uncle planted where there were no trees--it is a continuation of this street--rows of sugar maples, and they grew and finally made splendid trees, and a great storm came along and broke down two or three, and that was a source of great regret to my uncle; but his son thinks, perhaps, it was a good thing, because it opened a beautiful view out into the country. Now by grouping trees we can save beautiful views. If we plant uniformly, we get monotony. With this belt of burr oaks spaced as I have described, you have variety on your sky line. Some trees are a little farther up than others and catch the sunlight, and we get shade and light. That is the way I should plant nut trees. If I were planting black walnuts or butternuts I would group them, but see that the tree has in some directions space enough to develop as far as it wishes. MR. C. A. REED: Mr. Simonds is about to go. That is the reason I precipitated this question at this point. It was asked with reference to the law which these gentlemen, sitting at my right here, were responsible in putting through in the legislature of this State--provision for planting food trees along the highways; and it may be before Mr. Simonds goes, they have something further to ask. PRESIDENT REED: These questions are very important to draw out information. Is there anything else you wish to ask before we leave this topic? If not, we will call on C. A. Reed to present his paper next. It was carried over from last night, I believe. NUT CULTURE IN MICHIGAN C. A. REED, WASHINGTON, D. C. There is evidence on all sides that the people of Michigan are deeply interested in nut culture. Some have invested in pecan lands in the Far South; no doubt some own Persian (English) walnut, almond or filbert orchards on the Pacific Coast; and others are at the point of planting nut trees in Michigan. Everybody would go nutting in fall if he could. Michigan leads all other northern states in what its institutions and some of its people have done toward developing the nut industry. Some thirty years ago the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad Company showed its interest in nut production, when it planted many miles of chestnut trees along its tracks running north from Adrian. Between 1888 and 1892 there were planted on the grounds of the sub-experiment station at South Haven, a number of pecan trees of Iowa and Missouri seed, Japanese walnuts, a number of filbert plants and a collection of almond varieties. At about the same time, Prof L. H. Bailey set out half dozen pecans and Japanese walnut trees on the campus of the Michigan Agricultural College. Later, Professor L. R. Taft added several seedling Persian (English) walnut trees to the group. In traveling over the southern part of Michigan, one cannot go far without seeing signs of interest in nut trees. Everywhere the black walnut has been spared or planted. In certain sections it is to be found about practically every farm house or at least near enough by to furnish the winter supply of the family nuts. The chestnut is less common in any part of the state than is the black walnut, not appearing to any considerable extent except in the lower southeastern corner. It has not fared well in the state either as a native or planted tree. The Persian or so-called English walnut has attracted considerable attention from time to time, and under especially favorable surroundings one occasionally finds thrifty specimen trees. The pecan, the Japanese walnut, European hazel or more popularly called the "filbert" have all been given limited trials at various times. Even the almond has had a day in Michigan. Quite possibly the pistache has been through the same experience; but if so, the fact is not generally known. That species is from arid Asia and wholly unlikely to succeed in the latitude of Michigan although a young tree of a Chinese species ornamental because of its fine feathery foliage, green in summer but which takes on a brilliant hue in fall is, or was the last we know, doing well on the private grounds of Dr. Robert T. Morris, near Stamford, Conn. Among the kinds of nut trees from which we can select varieties for planting in Michigan, there are eleven or more distinct species. With such a range as this, one might ask, why not go into nut growing in Michigan on the same scale as in the growing of apples and peaches. There are probably better reasons why this is not being done, but two very good ones are that there are not enough available trees of good varieties to plant more than a single orchard of respectable size in the state; and the other; it would not pay to put good Michigan land to nut trees of such varieties as are now available even though they could be had. If nut trees can't be had and wouldn't pay if they could then why publish an article on "Nuts for Michigan Planting," is probably what will run through the minds of most readers of these lines. It is certainly a logical question, but there are at least ten reasons why nut trees should be planted in Michigan. 1. The forests of Michigan have reached the point of depletion such that for the sake of future generations, trees of some kind other than fruit must be planted. 2. While planting, we may as well select those capable of performing more than a single service; in other words, trees of maximum possible use. Oaks, poplars, ashes, pines, elms, etc., all have their places, but not one in the group can produce anything of food value to humankind. 3. Nut trees of most kinds, rightly used, are valuable for timber purposes and are very effective in the landscape. 4. Members of the walnut family including the hickories are especially appropriate along the highways and city streets. They are sturdy, long-lived and not easily damaged by storms or neighbor's boys. 5. Nuts are among the very best of the meat substitutes. They contain much of the same food elements as do meats, although in different proportions. Some contain starch and to that extent can be used as are the cereals and Irish potatoes. Nuts are the only vegetable product grown in Michigan, which in raw condition afford a complete and fairly well balanced food for human beings. Every pound of nut food that can be raised from a tree along the street or in the fence corner on the farm is clear gain, and that much added to our national food supply. 6. Nuts are rapidly assuming importance as factors in the lists of American foods. 7. Many species of nut trees are adapted to some parts of Michigan. By planting the best that are now available, and by constantly being on the lookout for better sorts, superior varieties will be certain to develop in a short while, the same as has been the case with all older orchard fruits and farm crops. 8. Whoever intelligently plants nut trees performs a distinct public service. He will receive the gratitude of more than the present generation. 9. Among all kinds of trees, none are more appropriate for memorial purposes to the men who did not come back from France, than is the black walnut. That species itself took a valiant part in warfare. It furnished material for gunstocks the same as in previous wars, but in the World War it rendered what was considered by eminent authority, a greater service in supplying propellors for aeroplanes. The shells of the nuts contributed their part toward the making of carbon for gas masks, and no one knows the extent to which walnut kernels made up the delicacies sent from home to the boys in the trenches. With such a service record as this, the black walnut is entitled to a memorial of its own. Its value as a timber tree, as an ornamental, and as a food producer, together with its great range of adaptability from North to South and East to West, should justly entitle it to recognition as a National tree. 10. Michigan has a law providing for the planting of nut trees along its highways. Thus, the state has officially put its approval on the idea and has become a leader in the encouragement of this great kind of economy and thrift. It has taken a step toward conservation in a direction which is highly developed in certain parts of Europe. The product is sold to the highest bidder and the income used in the upkeep of the road system. In that manner the roadways of those sections take care of themselves. In this country millions of dollars of state and federal moneys are being used this year, (ending June 30, 1921), in the construction and upkeep of public roads. Desirable as it would be to accomplish these ends, it could not all be done at once. Even though there were an abundance of available trees of tried kinds, it would take a long time to plant them and to care for them until they might become of profitable bearing age, also public opinion would need to be remolded in order to insure their care and protection. Still it can and will be done. The movement is already on; the Michigan law began to operate soon after being passed, and the Division of Forestry at the Agricultural College is raising the trees for planting. Public opinion regarding the care of the trees and their product will take care of itself when the value of the trees and their products becomes apparent. Both in California and in Oregon not only nut but fruit orchards and vineyards, grow beside the roadways with no protection other than that of public opinion; and what has been done in one part of the country can be done in others as well. The eleven species referred to as being available for Michigan use are as follows: The almond, beechnut, butternut, chestnut, filbert, (hazel), pecan, shagbark hickory, shellbark hickory, black walnut, Japanese walnut, and the Persian or so-called English walnut. Taking these up in order we will consider first the ALMOND Except as an ornamental, the almond does not offer a great deal for use in Michigan. It is sometimes said to be as hardy as the peach, but only as this refers to the tree and not to the fruit, is it true. Certain hardshell almonds edible, yet so inferior to the improved varieties as to have practically no market value, do sometimes succeed in lower Michigan but their value is limited to their beauty when in bloom and to the production of a low grade product. In form and general appearance these almonds are much like peach pits. Very often they contain much of the same bitter taste of Prussic acid common to the kernel of the ordinary peach. They are interesting to observe while growing especially as they begin to ripen. The covering outside the seed is thin and leathery and while ripening, splits and peels outward in curious fashion. Perhaps the only recognized variety of almond of this class which is known to have fruited in the East is the Ridenhower from southern Illinois. Trees can be had from some of the nurserymen. THE BEECH One of Michigan's noblest, hardiest, and most often abused trees is the American beech. It is common from north to south. No tree is more handsome and none, unless possibly it be the white birch, is so often defaced. Dr. Robt. T. Morris, of New York City, reminds us that according to the scriptures, man, genus _Homo_, is a finished product made by and in the image of the Creator. A safe assumption is that the scriptural reference is not to the creature whose initials appear on the trunk of a beech or whose knife has removed bark from white birch. His genus is not _Homo_, and he is not scripturally recorded. The beech is not directly important as a nut bearing tree, but indirectly it is as the nuts are rarely harvested. Indirectly it is of great value. No food is better for turkeys and hogs than are beechnuts. A bushel of beechnuts that can be used in this way replace at least a bushel of corn. The difference in cost of production should make beechnuts worth several times as much as corn. In Europe a valuable oil used as a drug and for salads is expressed from beechnuts. Possibly individual trees could be found somewhere in Michigan which produce nuts large enough, good enough, and in quantity enough to justify their recognition and propagation as named varieties. No matter whether distinct varieties appear or not, the beech is well worthy of planting in many places about both the farm and the city lot. BUTTERNUT A member of the walnut family known also as "long walnut" and as "white walnut" is the true butternut. It has a smaller range of adaptability than does the black walnut but is found considerably farther north. On the Atlantic coast, its native range extends into Nova Scotia. In parts of New York State and New England, it is one of the most common species. It is well known in Michigan where, to many people it is the favorite of all nuts. The tree is less durable and long-lived than is the black walnut. It is less well suited for use in the landscape and its timber value is probably the least of any native walnut. Within very recent years one or two promising varieties have been introduced by the nurserymen. The first and only one now available is the Aiken from New Hampshire. The nut cracks well and the kernels are of pleasant flavor, but as a variety it has not been tested long enough to determine its adaptability to conditions in other states nor the extent to which budded trees will be productive. CHESTNUT Perhaps the greatest, of all tree tragedies is represented by the chestnut. Once a dominant species in many parts of the East, it is now merely a wreck of its former self. In whole states along the Atlantic Seaboard, it has been wiped out by a fungus disease introduced from Japan some 25 years ago. Pennsylvania allows no chestnut trees to be shipped outside its limits for fear of further spreading this disease. So far as known chestnut trees from west of the Wabash River are free from infection. From Illinois, there have recently been introduced several varieties of chestnut supposedly of pure American parentage which are quite the equal in size of the European sorts but which have the sweet flavor of true American strains. In protected places in the southern part of the Lower Peninsula these chestnuts should be well worthy of trial. They are, indeed, splendid chestnuts. The principal varieties are the Rochester, Progress, Fuller and Boone. The last is not related to the others; but is the result of an artificial cross between the American sweet chestnut and the Japan Giant. HICKORY Next to, or perhaps equal to the black walnut, the hickories are among the best known of Michigan's nut trees. Belonging to the same family as do the walnuts, they require much the same soil for their best development. They are slower of growth and even harder to bud and graft or to successfully transplant. Nevertheless, some of hickories bear splendid nuts in liberal quantities. Quite a number of good varieties have been named and a few propagated. They are mainly of the shagbark species although some are shellbarks, some pignuts, and a few hybrids. The true shellbark is not found in Michigan and would probably not succeed there as well as do others. In character of growth, the shellbark is much like the shagbark but the nuts are much larger, and the shells extremely thick. Among the good shagbarks there are the Swaim, Weiker, Kentucky, Manahan, Taylor and Vest. True hickories ordinarily do not attain important habits of bearing until from 15 to 25 years of age. PECAN The pecan is easily the favorite and most important nut of American origin. Contrary to current ideas, it is not an introduced species nor are the best pecans grown in California. The pecan has become one of the leading nuts of this country by rapid but natural processes. In the forests, it is indigenous as far north as the southern part of Indiana, and in western Illinois it is found at the latitude of Chicago. Seedling trees at South Haven and on the campus of Michigan Agricultural College have borne occasional crops but the climate of Michigan is too severe for pecans to bear regularly. The trees of northern origin should do well enough over much of lower Michigan to be worthy of planting. Good varieties are the Major, Greenriver, Niblack, Indiana, Busseron and Posey. BLACK WALNUT Already the black walnut had been referred to in this article. In its further behalf may be said that like the pecan it is one of America's most rapid growing valuable trees. It does not grow with the speed of a poplar, a willow, or a linden. Neither does any other tree of value or longevity. Two 6-year-old trees of the eastern black walnut grown in the Wiliamette Valley of Western Oregon, bore approximately a peck of nuts apiece, in 1919, when they were photographed by the writer. In good soil and under favorable conditions of growth, it will be seen that the black walnut is not always slow in developing but that it is sometimes a rapid grower. Three varieties of black walnut are now available from the nurserymen. They are the Thomas from Pennsylvania, the Ohio from some 20 miles south of Toledo, and the Stabler from Howard County, Maryland 15 or 20 miles outside the District of Columbia. All are prolific, precocious and of superior cracking quality. The Thomas was discovered and first propagated some 30 years ago. The young grafted trees show a tendency to begin bearing in the nursery rows. At the present time, the black walnut is regarded as being of greater promise for planting in the northern states than is any other species either native or introduced. THE JAPANESE WALNUT To a considerable extent this species has been confused with the Persian walnut, although the two are quite unlike. This is a dwarfish species with dull green rough leaflets often as many as 15 or 17 per leaf, which often bears nuts in clusters of a dozen or more. While green the outer hulls of the nuts are rough, and somewhat sticky. The Persian walnut is a standard-sized upright growing tree with bright green leaflets, usually 5 to 7 per leaf, and smooth, round nut hulls which split open and shed the nuts automatically. The Japanese walnuts hybridize freely with other species of walnuts and produce nuts of all types; not infrequently crosses of this kind resemble butternuts so closely as to be practically indistinguishable from them. True Japanese walnuts have a range in form of two distinct types. The better known is of guinea egg shape; the other, often known as the heartnut, is of distinct heart shape. Neither is large; the former is of about the size of a guinea egg or smaller; the latter is still smaller. Both are like the black walnut in being encased in a rough outer husk, which upon maturing shrivels and adheres to the surface of the nut. The shells are thinner than are those of the black walnut, but thicker than are those of the Persian walnut. When well matured, the shell of the heartnut tends to open slightly at the apex, after which it can be readily split in half with a knife blade. The flavor of the kernel is much like that of the American butternut. The Japanese walnut is ordinarily hardy wherever the black succeeds. It is by no means uncommon in Michigan where it is especially appropriate for family planting. For the present, seedling trees will have to be relied upon almost wholly, as very few varieties have been propagated. So far as the writer is informed, the only named variety available from a northern nursery is the Lancaster introduced by J. F. Jones, a nurseryman at Lancaster, Pa. PERSIAN WALNUT Perhaps no species of nut tree has attracted as great attention in Michigan as has the Persian walnut. Under some conditions it does well for a time in the eastern or northeastern states, but on the whole its performance is distinctly erratic. Commercially speaking, it is of importance in this country only on the Pacific coast. Trees on the campus at Michigan Agricultural College and at many private places in the central part of the state, have come to little. Usually they grow well in summer only to freeze back nearly as much in winter. In Saranac County, eastern Michigan, close to Lake Huron there are a few young orchards that are in good condition, but a half mile back from the lake the results are discouraging. The same is true next to Lake Michigan from Grand Rapids south to the Indiana line. The only recommendations that can be made relative to planting the Persian walnut in Michigan are, that it be planted very cautiously in any part of the state and except under very favored circumstances it be not at all in the middle of the state. Do not undertake to grow the trees by planting the nuts or by buying seedlings. The most desirable trees are those of hardy varieties, budded on the black walnut as a stock a foot or more above ground. THE FILBERT The filbert has been one of our tantalizing species of nut trees. In England, trees grow to ages of from one to two hundred years, bearing profusely meanwhile. There, for many years, they are grown under apple trees with currants below them. In Germany, we are told that strawberries are grown below the currants and gooseberries. We are waiting for the Yankee who will be first to grow peanuts or potatoes below strawberries. In the eastern part of this country, plants of the European kinds are disappointing in two ways. First, they are uncertain as to their ability to bear; and second, they are highly susceptible to a fungus disease found everywhere that the native hazels abound. The native species is quite able to resist this disease, but the introductions ordinarily succumb to it quickly. In the Pacific Northwest, where by many filbert culture is believed destined to become a successful and paying industry within the next few years, not infrequently some varieties begin to blossom as early as in December. The blooming is largely responsible for the failure of eastern trees to set and mature crops of nuts. Several nurserymen are now endeavoring to find varieties of commercial value in the eastern part of the country. Apparently they are meeting with some success as far as their work has gone. Many of the varieties they are testing are proving inferior, but a few have borne good nuts in gratifying quantity for several years. During the past winter, a good many froze severely, although they are commonly hardy under severe weather. Wherever they are planted, they should have fertile soil, from 20 to 25 feet of space each way and should be trained to tree form. After 10 years or so, they should be headed back severely, unless regular pruning has been practiced in the meantime. Filberts fruit only on new wood. To those who have read this article to this point, it is now apparent that the nut industry of Michigan lies almost wholly in the future. The native varieties form an excellent ground work for that future, but to properly take advantage of that base, it will be necessary for practically every nut lover in the state to lend a helping hand. The first great movement necessary is to examine the nuts in the fall as ripen in order to find the best of the walnuts, hickories, native hazels, beeches and introduced chestnuts, walnuts and filberts. In this everyone can help. Whoever finds a tree of any kind bearing superior nuts will render a great service by sending specimens, together with his or her address and that of the owner of the tree to the Federal Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., or to Willard G. Bixby, Treasurer of the Association, Baldwin, Nassau County, N. Y. Be sure to carefully note the exact tree, from which the nuts were obtained and if specimens are sent from more than one tree, they should be kept separate and each carefully labeled. Such nuts will be examined and if found to be the equal or superior to the varieties already being grown, they will be named and arrangements made for this propagation and test. No prizes are given by the Government but good nuts sent the Government will be eligible to entry in the contest of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. If enough specimens are sent the Department, some will be forwarded to the Treasurer of that Association who has charge of awards. According to very recent reports, the outlook for a nut crop during the coming year was never better. This should, therefore, be an excellent year for finding the trees bearing the best nuts. PRESIDENT REED: I believe Mr. Reed expects to give an additional talk tonight with lantern slides. MR. C. A. REED: There will be an informal talk, a question box this evening for the benefit of any interested in the general discussion of nut culture in the United States. I notice the guests of the institution are deeply interested in nut growing in their particular states; so the arrangement for this evening is to give those persons an opportunity to come out and ask questions. MR. OLCOTT: While Mr. Reed is on that subject, I would like to ask if there is a chestnut as large as the Boone or other chestnuts grown by Mr. Riehl of as good flavor as the American Sweet chestnut. A good many people are asking me from time to time what the merit is in those large chestnuts. Invariably they have found that the quality is not as good as in the American sweet chestnut. I have been assured and Mr. Reed says that the kernel of these is very good. I wonder if there, are some of them better than others--of the very large chestnuts. MR. C. A. REED: There is a difference. The Boone that Mr. Olcott refers to is a cross between the American species and the Japanese. The Japanese has not a good flavor; it is considerably below that of the American; but the Boone is quite good; but there are some of Mr. Riehl's chestnuts that are better. Mr. Riehl's are believed to be the pure American sweet chestnuts and some of them are very good, perhaps not quite as sweet as our American sweet, but they are exceedingly satisfactory and very popular in the Chicago markets where Mr. Riehl's chestnuts are going. MR. BIXBY: This fall I received a chestnut which I am satisfied was Japanese, which is very large, and seemingly about as sweet as the American. I did not have the American there to test it by, but it was very interesting to me, and I am planning to get scions in the spring to follow it up further. It was seemingly a Japanese chestnut, and pretty nearly as large as the Boone. MR. J. F. JONES: I might say that so far as I have tested them, some of the Japanese are quite sweet, but the meat is generally tough, not brittle and sweet like the American. PRESIDENT REED: I believe Mr. Linton is with us, and we shall be glad to hear from him. NUT TREES FOR HIGHWAYS AND PUBLIC PLACES WILLIAM S. LINTON, SAGINAW, MICHIGAN For a number of years it has been a source of gratification and pleasure to me to be identified with the membership of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. True, "a long distance membership only," but nevertheless a connection that all must admit has borne fruit, or nuts, as you may prefer to state it. To this association and its official journal must be given full credit for the pioneer work in a great and good movement that will sweep, not only over the United States, but over every clime and county in the world's Western hemisphere as well. Your seed sown in the peninsular state of Michigan, was the first to sprout in a substantial way in so far as public planting of nut trees by a sovereign state is concerned, and it was our good fortune to have as staunch supporters for the plan such able and persistent workers as my good friend, Senator Harvey A. Penney of Saginaw, Professor A. K. Chittenden of the Michigan Agricultural College, and last, but not least, Honorable Frank F. Rogers, Michigan's excellent State Highway Commissioner. Upon the latter will largely devolve the duty of carrying out the law's provisions, as provided in Senator Penney's bill passed at the last session of the Legislature, and that it will be well and practically done, goes without saying. And now to my theme, "Should the Country Roadsides be Planted and Why." The present high cost of living, and in fact the cost of living at any time is a fruitful and serious problem. Our vast natural resources during the century gone, of forests, of game, and of grazing lands, have almost to the point of extinction been rapidly passing away, and it behooves us, who have profited thereby and now owe a duty to our race to artificially provide wherever and whenever we can for the future of humankind. In what better way can this be done than in utilizing the immense acreage of America's vast system of highways, (now absolutely wasted except for the sole purpose of travel), to reproduce the very finest of our country's magnificent trees, to again afford beauty, grateful shade, valuable timber and the choicest of food in great abundance for the generations to come. Were this not a convention devoted to the advancement of nut growing alone, I would be glad to extol also for road planting fruit trees of every kind of adequate size and character, and free or nearly so, from the ravages of disease or insect pest, would be glad to praise the stately, hard maple, with its clear, sweet sap, producing the syrup and sugar that are the delight of childhood and age, and would be glad to recommend the useful basswood with its valuable lumber and its fragrant yellow flowers, producing that nectar from which our most delicious honey is made, and would be glad to recommend for our highways, certain other majestic trees needed by man and beautiful in the landscape. But the object of this association and convention is a specialized one, as undoubtedly it should be, owing to the important field it covers, and therefore the nut trees and it alone for planting on highways and in public places should be the subject of this paper. If we were to confine ourselves to one native variety or species for our Northern territory, the great majority of people would unhesitatingly say, let it be the Black Walnut (_Juglans nigra_). Attaining as it does a height of 100 feet and more, and a trunk of four feet and over in diameter, with a symmetrical top of splendid foliage, bearing the richest of nuts and its timber the most valuable in the country, with a natural range extending from Michigan to Mississippi and from Delaware to the Dakotas, it should be universally planted throughout the United States along thousands of miles of our great trunk line roads. Its nearest American relative, the butternut (_Juglans cinerea_) preferring lower lands along river bottoms, attaining an average height of 60 feet with a trunk of 3 feet, its wood suitable for cabinet work, its bark with medicinal properties, and its nuts of splendid flavor, should be planted where soil conditions call for it. For their rich, delicious nuts, alone, saying nothing about their clean, handsome foliage, their rough, strong wood--the best of any grown for many purposes--the hickories, among which are the Shagbark (_Carya ovata_) and the big shellbark (_Carya laciniosa_), should be planted in many places. They both frequently attain 100 feet in height with straight sturdy trunks averaging from three to four feet in diameter. The other nut trees suitable for roadside planting, are not specially attractive to mankind for their fruits, as heretofore used or utilized, but may eventually become so under modern methods of cooking or proper treatment. In their raw state, however, all are edible and also palatable to most people, but their chief food value today, is to provide rich provender to domestic animals and birds, or the desirable wild life of the woodlands, all of which devour them eagerly, adding quickly to their weight and greatly to their quality and flavor of their flesh. I refer to the three magnificent oaks producing sweet acorns, viz., the White Oak (_Quercus albaq_), the Bur Oak (_Quercus macrocarpa_) and the Swamp White Oak (_Quercus plantanoides_). They are all emblematic of great strength and grandeur, reaching the majestic height of 100 feet, with trunks four or five feet in diameter; the leaf coloring at times is indescribably beautiful and the timber owing to its great solidity and strength is of the utmost value. Last, but not least, the American beech, with a three or four foot trunk and almost 100 feet in height, distinct and beautiful, will demand the attention of those who plant our highways. Its nuts, feasted upon by many forest denizens, may be classed with the sweet acorns heretofore referred to, but the tree has a grace and charm all its own and it thrives from the warm waters of the Gulf to the icy shores of Lake Superior. At this time we cannot recommend what has been a noble, almost fascinating tree, 100 feet its usual height and sometimes spreading 100 feet almost in extent, with a trunk that in some cases reached a diameter of 10 feet, with clusters of golden catkins fragrant in midsummer, resulting in great quantities of delicious nuts in autumn. Such was the chestnut, _Castanea dentata_, of the past, the fate of which, and almost extinction, has been a tragedy in the ranks of our native trees that has brought bitter regrets to all lovers of this partician of the forest. Good news comes from the far East, however, to the effect that some specimens of this famous tree have escaped or proven immune to the blight, and if the latter, it means the saving of the species and its replanting in soil and territory where it may thrive as of yore. Having now enumerated the varieties of trees that should be selected in the main for the planting of highways and in public places, the question now arises as to the best method of carrying on the work in a practical way throughout the country. Individuals or small communities certainly can not be depended upon to do it, as the result would be of a patchwork character that would not be pleasing to the eye or beneficial in its results. Only federal, state and municipal governments can take charge of this great work and carry it forward to completion. The State of Michigan, now as you know, by legal enactment, causes state authorities to plant the trunk line, highways, the county to plant the roads of the county systems, and the cities and villages and townships those minor roads that are within their borders. In case of individual effort, where an owner of land plants food-producing trees along the highways in front of his property, he is reimbursed by stated amounts covering each tree so planted, the returns coming to him by a reduction in the amount of his own taxation. This so-called Michigan plan carried on throughout the entire country, would call for a supply of trees of the character named far beyond the ability of the commercial growers to supply, and in my opinion can be worked out only by seed or seedlings of the various varieties. And why not? The cost would be much less than of any other method, and only a few years would pass before substantial returns would commence to come. It has been stated and it is true, that the seeds of the trees named do not always produce superior nuts, but in a great majority only those of a common or inferior kind. However, choice specimens will appear also, and from these of the better class grafting may be done to enrich all. Then again, it is a question as to whether the important tap roots of the important nut species should be disturbed or destroyed in transplanting. It would seem to be the proper plan, therefore, in order to avoid too great an expense, that the nuts or seed should be used in a great majority of highway planting, the trees to remain where first placed on approved roadside lines, and the proper distance apart. It may be said that too great a time would elapse between the planting of the seed and the maturity of the tree, but as time goes nowadays, it would not be an unreasonable period, and there are those within the sound of my voice now, who will witness in their maturity the magnificent trees producing their valuable products and adding to the beauty of the landscape and to the welfare of mankind. This Association has been the pioneer in this great movement, and it will be the credit to those connected therewith in the generations to come, in that they have all contributed in a very marked degree to the everlasting benefit of mankind. PRESIDENT REED: Is there any discussion? MR. C. A. REED: I believe Senator Penney is to discuss a topic very closely affiliated with this one and perhaps it would be well to defer the discussion until we hear his address. PRESIDENT REED: We will be glad to have Senator Penney present his paper next, then. It is along the same lines--legislation in regard to tree planting. SENATOR PENNEY: When my friend, Mr. Linton, started off to discuss his paper, he said he was a long distance member, and you can see the effect in the fruits he has borne or the nuts he has borne. Ever since I was taken sick up north, he has been trying to tell me I was a nut. I was taken sick up there in the deer hunting camp, and my friend, Mr. Linton, assisted in getting me out and rushing me to the nearest hospital, and it happened to be an insane asylum in northern Michigan. LEGISLATION REGARDING THE PLANTING OF NUT AND OTHER FOOD PRODUCING TREES SENATOR HARVEY A. PENNEY, SAGINAW, MICHIGAN I wish to express my hearty appreciation to your Association for the distinct honor of being invited to address your meeting upon the subject of "Legislation Regarding the Planting of Nut and Other Food Trees." I believe that my invitation came as a result of having been responsible for introducing a tree-planting bill in the Senate of the 1919 session of the Michigan State Legislature, and later in securing its passage. This bill purported "to regulate the planting of ornamental, nut-bearing and other food-producing trees along the highways of the State of Michigan, or in public places, and for the maintenance, protection and care of such trees, and to provide a penalty for injury thereof, or for stealing the products thereof." For several sessions of the Michigan Legislature prior to 1919, bills had been introduced intending to accomplish this result, but each time heretofore they have regularly failed to pass. This fate included one introduced by the writer during the session of 1917. I am now fully convinced that none of these bills, although a step in the right direction, seemed to provide the proper working machinery or necessary features to put them into practical operation, and hence did not appeal to the legislative committees, nor to the members of the several legislatures. During the regular session of 1919, with the valuable assistance of Hon. W. S. Linton of Saginaw, a new bill was prepared providing an entirely new method of supplying and planting such trees, and for putting such a law into effective operation under the jurisdiction of the state. It was made to work in harmony with the rights of the property owner adjoining the highway, and with the duties of those state officials whose departments were perfectly adapted and equipped for putting the law into active operation. I am going to attach an enrolled copy of the tree planting bill at the end of this paper, so that it may be made a part of the permanent records of the Association. It will therefore be unnecessary to give a detailed account of all the provisions contained therein. I will, however, mention a few of the principal points so that you may understand its purpose. It provides that the Public Domain Commission which has charge of the state forest reserve lands and parks, together with the Michigan Agricultural College, are given authority to grow and acquire suitable seeds, scions or trees for planting under the provisions of this act. A department of the Agricultural College determines the kind of trees which are adapted or suitable for planting in different soils or places. In order to insure a uniform system of planting, this duty is left to the State Highway Commission and the State Board of Agriculture, acting jointly. The trees belong to the state, but the nuts or other products belong to the owner of the land adjoining the highway. A penalty is imposed if these trees are defaced with advertisements or signs, and neither can they be cut down or destroyed. But just as you find legislatures differing in their opinions upon public matters, so you must expect them to differ more or less upon the feasibility of most any bill that is presented for their consideration. All kinds of arguments are made for and against any bill. I remember that one Senator in the committee thought that trees planted along the highways bearing nuts or fruit would constantly be subject to a lot of tampering and molestation by the traveling public. But another Senator came back with a reply that seemed to be very convincing, when he stated that he had a fine row of cherry trees growing along the front of his farm, and had never experienced any trouble of that kind from such a source. I have always felt that if the merits of a good bill were properly explained to a legislature committee, there will be no hesitancy in having it favorably reported out and finally passed. I believe the legislature of 1919 took this view of the tree planting bill introduced by myself, as it was passed by both the Senate and the House, and later received the signature of Governor Sleeper, thus making it an established law of Michigan. I must not forget to mention the fact that after this bill had been passed by the legislature and still needed the signature of the Governor to make it a law, a number of Michigan's representative and influential citizens wrote to Governor Sleeper, urging him to affix his signature thereto. Among those was Dr. J. H. Kellogg of Battle Creek, who has more than a nation-wide reputation in his profession and is at present a strong factor in the success of this association. This law is intended not only to ornament the public highways of Michigan, but also to furnish nut bearing and other food-producing trees that should assist materially in the problems incident to the high cost of living. It would seem that such a law should be duplicated in every state where practicable, and also be promoted by the National Government upon National Highways. The people of Michigan recently voted to amend the State Constitution so as to permit the issuance of $50,000,000.00 worth of bonds for the improvement of public highways. By the time that this large sum has been apportioned over a period of say ten years, and the road moneys furnished and expended during this time, as federal aid by the federal government, local counties and townships are added thereto, it has been estimated that the vast sum of nearly $200,000,000.00 will have been used solely for the improvement of our state highways. With a wonderful highway system thus established, beautifully adorned by the state with nut-bearing and other trees, the roads of Michigan should become a great attraction in which our citizens would not only have a just pride, but serve as a model of excellence for the whole nation to imitate. MR. C. A. REED: Mr. President, I would like to ask the Senator what danger there is likely to be in the protection of these trees when they are once planted. Is the tree going to have right of way, or is the telephone company going to have right of way in cutting out the top; or is a new bred consciousness going to have authority. If it is possible that the trees will be destroyed as many have been, perhaps the legislation may be changed in some way. Suppose we want to give them good care, what are we going to do? SENATOR PENNEY: The law has a section in it providing for defacing and damaging the trees or cutting them down. I have a copy of the bill there. As my throat is in bad shape perhaps it might be well to have the secretary read the bill. It is not very long. MR. LINTON: In this connection I would also ask for the reading of the bill by the secretary. This is a bill that may be copied by other states throughout the Union, and if there is any criticism that is just, in reason, for changing any of the features in the bill, they should be decided upon at this meeting or by a committee. Because a uniform bill throughout the country is really something desirable, I think, in connection with this legislation. And I would add further: Michigan does not have an entire monopoly of Highway legislation at the present time, but is in a prominent position in connection therewith. The chairman of the committee on post offices and post roads of the United States Senate is Senator Townsend, of this State. It is his bill that will cause the national highways to be constructed from ocean to ocean. Senator Townsend is one of our best beloved citizens; his heart is in this work; and I am sure from what I know of him (and he is a close friend of mine) that he will enter heartily into the spirit of embodying in national legislation something of the character that we have in state legislation in Michigan so that it may apply to the whole country as well. And for that reason I would like to have the bill read. It is a short one, and any additions or any amendments thereto I know will be gladly received by Senator Penny or myself. MR. OLCOTT: Mr. President, I think that is one of the most important subjects that can come before this Association; not only that, but the interest of every member should be enlisted particularly in this subject. The possibilities of the extension of that work are almost unlimited and directly in line with the objects of this organization. PRESIDENT REED: I am just wondering whether we would have time to have it read now, or postpone it to a little later. Dr. Kellogg is with us now. MR. BIXBY: This bill is very short. (Read bill.) Senate Bill No. 59 Introduced by Senator Penney (File No. 150) STATE OF MICHIGAN 50th Legislature Regular Session of 1919 SENATE ENROLLED ACT NO. 18 An act to regulate the planting of ornamental, nut bearing or other food producing trees along the highways of the State of Michigan, or in public places, and for the maintenance, protection and care of such trees and to provide a penalty for injury thereof, or for stealing the products thereof. The People of the State of Michigan enact Section 1. The State Highway Commissioner and the State Board of Agriculture, acting jointly hereunder, shall have authority and it shall be their duty to select and plant by seed, scions or otherwise, ornamental, nut bearing, or other food producing trees, (to be supplied by the Public Domain Commission, or the Michigan Agricultural College, as may be recommended or approved by the Division of Agriculture of said college,) suitable for shade trees, along the State trunk line highways and all other highways of the State of Michigan, upon which State reward has been paid or earned: Provided, that in no case shall such trees be planted except by and with the consent of the owner of the property adjoining such highway. The State Highway Commissioner shall establish rules and regulations for uniform planting or proper placing of all trees under the provisions of this act, and all such trees shall belong to the State, but the products thereof shall belong to the owners of the adjacent land. Nothing herein contained shall authorize the State Highway Commissioner, or the State Board of Agriculture to cut down or interfere with shade trees now growing along any such highway, without permission in writing from the owner of the adjoining property. All expenses incurred in carrying out the provisions of this section shall be paid out of any moneys in the State highway fund that may be available therefor. Section 2. Counties, townships, cities and villages may annually appropriate money to be used in planting, pruning and protecting, and whenever necessary in acquiring shade, nut bearing and ornamental trees to be placed along and within the respective limits of said municipalities. The expenditure of any such fund shall be vested in the highway commissioner in the case of county roads, and in the proper highway authorities of the city or village as the case may be. Section 3. The owner of any real estate in the State of Michigan that borders upon a legal highway upon which State reward has not been paid, shall have the right to plant said approved ornamental, nut bearing, or other food producing trees along the line of said highway adjoining said land, and shall receive annually a credit of five cents upon his highway repair tax for each tree so planted by him and growing in good order, not less than six feet in height when planted and not less than twenty and not more than forty feet apart. All of said trees and their products shall belong to the owner of said land: Provided, that no bounty shall be paid or deduction allowed under the provision of this section upon any one tree or row of trees for a longer period than five years. The owner of such trees shall have the care thereof and shall have the duty and responsibility for the trimming, spraying and cultivation thereof. Section 4. The Michigan Agricultural College and Public Domain Commission are hereby authorized to grow and acquire suitable seeds, scions or trees for planting under the provisions of this act, and to establish proper rules and regulations for distributing the same at nominal cost, or otherwise, to counties, townships, cities, villages, and citizens of the State for the aforesaid purpose, and also for State parks or other public places. Section 5. It shall be unlawful to cut, destroy, injure, deface or break any ornamental, nut bearing, food producing or shade tree upon any public highway or place, except where such trees shall interfere with the proper construction or maintenance of such highways. It shall be unlawful to affix to any such tree any picture, announcement, play-bill, notice or advertisement, or to paint or mark such tree, except for the purpose of protecting it, or to negligently permit any animal to break down, injure or destroy any such tree within the limits of any public highway. Any person violating any of the provisions of this act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and on conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than one dollar or more than twenty-five dollars, and in default of payment of any such fine may be imprisoned in the county jail for a period not exceeding thirty days. Such person shall be liable to the owner of the trees for treble the amount of damages sustained. LUREN D. DICKINSON, Lieutenant Governor, President of the Senate. TOM REED, Speaker of the House of Representatives. Approved, March 28, 1919. ALBERT E. SLEEPER, Governor. MR. C. A. REED: Mr. Chairman, I _move_ that before adjournment the chairman appoint a committee of three members of this association to carefully review this bill and either report in favor of any suggestions that they may wish to make in regard to its amendment or give approval of the bill as it stands. MR. LINTON: I support the motion. PRESIDENT REED: It is moved and seconded that the chairman appoint a committee of three to carry out the recommendations. All in favor say Aye; contrary, No. It is CARRIED. SENATOR PENNEY: That law is adjusted to the laws of Michigan and any other state proposed would have to adjust it to fit their laws. PRESIDENT REED: I would like to have Mr. C. A. Reed on that committee, Mr. Olcott and Dr. Morris. C. A. REED: Then, Mr. President, in addition to that we are going to take the liberty of adding an _ex officio_ member, Mr. Littlepage, an ex-president and also a good thoroughgoing nut. MR. JONES: My understanding is the provision for six-ft. trees. Six foot nut trees unless they have been transplanted several times will hardly succeed. I would say use small trees along the highway. PRESIDENT REED: I think that would need to be worked out. I think a six foot tree is a little dangerous in some varieties. The committee might find it wise to offer some suggestions in that line. VOICE: If you plant a tree six feet high, you are sure of having a tree there. PRESIDENT REED: I believe Dr. Kellogg is about ready now, and we will hear from Dr. Kellogg whom you are all acquainted with. THE SOY BEAN DR. J. H. KELLOGG, BATTLE CREEK, MICHIGAN It is evident that the live stock industry is shriveling up. The livestock inhabitants of the country--the pigs, sheep and cattle--are much smaller in population at the present time than they were twenty-five or thirty years ago, and are getting smaller all the time. The price of meat is high and is going to continue to climb. It is away out of reach of the average laboring man even at the present time. I heard Dr. Charley Mayo say at a clinic not long ago that meat is so high he could not afford to eat it and he didn't see how anybody could; and as a matter of fact, he didn't need it anyhow, and so we could easily get along without it. As a matter of fact, as Mr. Bill said some years ago it is not really so much the high cost of living as it is the cost of high living; and the use of meat is such an extravagant and expensive thing it is very important that people should know how to get along without meat. The experimenters of the agricultural experiment stations have shown us that it takes thirty-three pounds of dry digestible food substance to make one pound of beef--31 or 32 pounds to make a pound of beef, and 33 or 34 pounds to make a pound of mutton. Seven pounds of digestible food substance will make a pound of dry milk. So we can readily see that there is an enormous waste of foodstuff. Only about ten per cent of the corn raised is used for feeding human beings. The rest is fed to animals and a large part of it is wasted. So it is exceedingly important, it seems to me, that this nut industry should be encouraged in every way. A half million acres of nut trees well advanced and producing would produce all of the fat and more digestible fat, and all the protein and more digestible protein, than we are now using in the entire country. We are producing more than enough food in corn and other foodstuffs to feed nearly three times our present population, and most of it is wasted in the energy which the hog, the steer and other animals use up in running around and keeping warm. That is where the great loss comes. In nuts we have a choice foodstuff as digestible as any other foodstuff, and Prof. Torrey and Prof. Mendel and others who have recently made experiments have shown that the protein of the nut and the protein of vegetables in general is not so putrescible as the protein of meats. There are good reasons for it. It does not undergo putrefaction so readily any way, and besides meat carries along with it the bacteria which produce putrefaction. Meat is the filthiest thing that goes upon our tables. If the number of bacteria in milk was as great as the number of bacteria in meat, nobody would think of eating it. If the bacteria in water were as numerous as in milk, no one would be willing to drink the water. It is a very curious thing that we permit in milk and in meat a condition of things we would not tolerate in air or water for a moment. Every morsel of meat a person eats contains some billions of the bacteria of the very worst sort. Bacteria found in meat are those which produce colitis, appendicitis, abscesses of the teeth and diseased conditions of the tonsils. They predispose to a good many infectious diseases of the intestine, and no doubt predispose to cancer. It is pretty well established at the present time that cancer is a disease of meat eating men and animals. About one cow in fifty has cancer, whereas every seventh dog taken to a hospital sick is found to have cancer. Dr. Mayo recently gathered some statistics on this matter, and he told me and some other doctors that dogs under eight years of age, every fourth one has cancer; every third one of dogs ten years of age has cancer, and half of all the dogs over twelve years of age have cancer and would die of it if left to themselves. These statements were based on laboratory animals that were killed when they were well and not sick, so the observation ought to be fairly reliable. I was to say particularly a few words about the soy bean. I am not going to try to tell you very much about it, because I do not know very much about it. If you want to learn all about it, you can easily do so by writing to Mr. W. J. Morse, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Farmers' Bulletin 973, one of the very best on this subject, tells all about the culture of this exceedingly useful legume. The soy bean is really the beefsteak of China and Japan. In those oriental countries, soy beans have been used for centuries. It is more nearly like a nut than a bean. Perhaps I better show you the pictures first, and then have the curtains raised so we can get a better inspection of the beans. The composition of the soy bean is very remarkably different from that of the ordinary bean. It contains forty per cent of fat, on the average and about forty per cent of protein--sometimes more than forty per cent. The protein is sixty per cent more than in our best ordinary foods; and the fat is five or six times as much as that found in the ordinary bean. A thousand different varieties of the soy bean have been gathered by the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Department of Agriculture at Washington. Five hundred of these varieties have been tested, and thirty or forty of them have been found to be adapted to this country, and very useful. You can see in this picture the great mass of pods to be found growing on the plant. This slide shows how unusually well they grow in the field. You can see the pods scattered all through the plant. A large part of the foliage is made up of pods. This is one of our own fields of the beans that we raised this year. It is rather difficult to raise the bean in this latitude, because it requires a long time to mature. It requires about 110 days for some varieties. We have, however, a variety we raised here that we got from the agricultural department of Ontario. We found it matured very well indeed in 120 days. We planted the bean here the first week in May and harvested it the first week in September; so its season was about 120 days. I found this particular bean was new to the agricultural department at Washington, and have sent them some of the seed, and I think they are going to make some trial of it. This is a view of a field of the Hahto variety which is a particularly fine variety for use as a shelled bean. In China the soy bean is very little used as we use beans. They do not cook the bean and eat it as we do; but instead they make it into a cheese which they call tofu, and this cheese is made by soaking the beans, grinding them into a pulp, then boiling for ten or fifteen minutes with about five volumes of water; then the milky mass is precipitated with sulphate of magnesia or citric acid, a very small amount because they use it as a curd. I have here a sample of the curd which I will pass around in a moment for you to see. This picture shows this curd pressed in large cakes. The soy bean curd is stored on wooden trays in a dark room. It is also stored in large earthen jars. They cure it and make cheese out of it which very closely resembles our American milk cheese. They also use the beans for sprouting. The bean lacks only two things. It lacks lime and the fat-soluble vitamines. It contains a considerable amount of the fat-soluble vitamines. It is one of the very few seeds that is found to contain a sufficient amount of the fat-soluble vitamine to promote growth, so that animals will grow and develop normally on the bean alone without any other sort of fat-soluble vitamine. If the bean is sprouted, a large amount of this fat-soluble vitamine is produced by the plant itself. This is also found to be a valuable means of preventing scurvy--by sprouting the beans in this way and using the sprouts as a salad. The sprouts are used as a green vegetable. It is an easy way of getting green vegetables at any season of the year. It takes the place of ordinary greens. Here is a courtyard full of pots in which the fermented soy beans are placed. This is a very interesting scheme they have for making a substitute for meat extract. By this means they prepare an extract which closely resembles extract of beef. In fact, it is rather a finer flavored product than meat extracts. It is made by first cooking the beans, spreading them out in the yard on trays and allowing a fungus to grow, and after two or three weeks the whole mass is put into pots of brine in the yard and allowed to remain there for a year or more, and at the end of that time the brine has become soy sauce. This shows a mass of soy roots. It has been suggested it might be very useful to nut growers as a means of fertilizing the soil, a crop which will fertilize the soil for the trees and at the same time give a valuable return for the labor and expense. The little nodules on the roots are very numerous and show well here. They produce nitrogen, concentrated nitrogen from the air as do the nodules on the roots of alfalfa. The _Scientific American_ recently stated that the soy bean is one of the most promising of vegetables. It provides food for man and beast. Given enough soy beans and granted the art of preparing them so that they might be served as food having sufficient diversity and palatableness, neither meat nor fish nor fat would be needed. In this respect the Germans did not prepare for war. If they had had the soy bean industry well developed it might have helped them through, and the map of the world might have been seriously changed from what it now is. I think one of the finest of the soy beans is the Hahto variety. They grow one or two in a pod. I saw some of these beans in the market in Jerusalem forty years ago. When about three quarters grown and used as shelled beans they are exceedingly palatable. If at the dinner table today you will call for a soy bean omelet, you will be quite surprised. Dr. Morris tried it this morning and was kind enough to say it was the finest he ever ate. The soy bean is the best of a large part of the cookery of the orient. We have been introducing it here the last few months, and it is very palatable, very digestible, and our patients like it very much. If you are interested in the soy bean, write, to W. J. Morse, or to the Agricultural Department, Bureau of Plant Industry, and they will give you a lot of interesting information about it. In starting the planting of the bean, it is necessary to inoculate the soil as in the starting of a planting of alfalfa. PRESIDENT REED: Mr. Bixby has prepared a paper on "Judging Nuts" which there is not now time for him to read. It will be inserted in the proceedings at this point. JUDGING NUTS WILLARD G. BIXBY, BALDWIN, NASSAU CO., N. Y. That there are differences in nuts is apparent to everybody. The selecting of the best nuts out of a lot of two or three usually presents no difficulty, and, when the number of nuts to be judged amounts to a dozen or so, it is generally possible to pick out the best, but, when one has before him nuts from several hundred trees, the problem becomes a very different one, and the person who tries to pick out the best from such a lot soon becomes aware of his own limitations. If, in addition, he has sufficient respect for consistency to try to be so exact in his judgment as to be able to go over a large lot of nuts today, we will say, and several months hence go over the same lot again and render the same verdict on each one of them, he will doubtless give the matter up as an impossibility, and yet that is just what is wanted and expected of those who judge the nuts which are sent in to the annual contests, which contests have resulted in bringing to the attention of the nut growing world the nuts of so many fine trees. The experience of the last two or three years in being one of the judges who passed on the nuts which were sent in to the contests convinced me, almost at the start, of the desirability of getting methods where it would be possible to go over a large lot of nuts now and several months hence, and render the same verdict on each one of them, but now how to do it was not at first apparent, and the methods for doing it which will be outlined are the results of much work, many attempts, and the discarding of many of the methods tried. Considering the methods used in judging fruit, animals and fowl has helped to some extent, but this assistance did not go far. The beginning of improved methods of judging any of the above, is the establishment of a score card, as it is called, which is nothing more than an enumeration of the characteristics and a decision as to the relative value of each one. Usually the values assigned to each characteristic are such that when added up the total will be 100 points. Score cards of this character are in general use. The first attempt to make a score card for use in judging the nuts to which the Northern Nut Growers' Association gives its attention, so so far as I am aware, was that of a committee of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, which reported at the Fifth Annual Meeting at Evansville, Ind., 1914, and which report will be found on page 20 of the report of that meeting. Prof. E. R. Lake was chairman of the committee. The score card for butternuts, black walnuts and hickories which it recommended is noted below: General Values Points Size 10 Form 5 Color 5 Shell Values Thinness 15 Cracking 20 Kernel Values Color 10 Plumpness 5 Flavor 10 Quality 20 ___ Total 100 This score card has served as a basis for all the work that has been done in judging nuts since that work has largely fallen to me. It was early found desirable, however, to change the score card in one or two respects, and it has since been changed two or three times as the experience gained in judging nuts saw it was desirable. The score card now in use is noted below: General Values Weight 10 Form 5 Color 5 Shell Values Husking Quality 5 Thinness 10 Cracking Quality 20 Kernel Values Color 5 Proportion of kernel 20 Quality and Flavor 20 ___ Total 100 The first time one attempts to judge a large number of nuts whether with the aid of such a score card as that proposed by Prof. Lake's Committee or without it, he gets into practical difficulties at once. These difficulties are not with the score card but in its use. Take for example the characteristic, size, the first one on Prof. Lake's score card. How can a person tell from the nuts of a hundred hickory trees which is the largest and which is the smallest and which are intermediate; in short how can he arrange them in order of size, the largest at one end of the line and the smallest at the other with a uniform graduation in between. Anyone who tries to do such a thing quickly finds that it is impossible to do this correctly if one has only his eye to aid him in determining size. The inability to do so quickly becomes apparent if a person tries to arrange such a lot of nuts in order of size at one time and then several days later tries to arrange the same lot of nuts in order of size again. It is almost certain that they will not get arranged the same both times. The differences between the nuts are usually so minute, and, what is more important, the difficulties of correctly estimating size by the eye alone are so great that it is practically impossible to do it. An expert on this point can do it of course much better than one who is not, but even the expert is only too well aware of his limitations and of the impossibility of properly doing the above. The same difficulty is apparent with every characteristic on the list and while judging by experts with the aid of a score card, is, so far as I am aware, the method used in judging fruit, farm animals, poultry, etc., the crudeness of this method is only too evident to the experts themselves. Two or three years ago it seemed very far inferior to what actually measuring these characteristics would be, although such measurement at first seemed difficult, not to say almost impossible. Much work has been done on this, and it is very gratifying to say that this measurement has been found possible to an extent that was not dreamed of before the work was started. Before outlining the methods worked out to do this a little discussion will be given on Prof. Lake's score card, the characteristics which it pointed out, and the reason shown for changing some of them. Size is a characteristic which is apparent to everyone, yet the actual measurement of size in the case of a large lot of nuts presents difficulties which seem practically insurmountable. A serious attempt was made to measure the length, breadth and height of the nuts examined and gauges were made which should do this exactly and quickly. These were finely discarded and the characteristic "weight" adopted in place of size. This has to quite an extent replaced size in considering farm products. When we used to buy potatoes by the bushel we used to get a bushel basket full, now we get the legal weight of a bushel of potatoes and instances of this kind might be multiplied almost indefinitely. While weight and size are not exactly the same thing, yet they are so to a large extent in the case of a given commodity, such as nuts of one species, and weight can be accurately and rapidly determined. Plumpness is another characteristic which we all understand as far as the difference between a nut with a plump well filled kernel is concerned, and one with a shriveled up kernel, but when it comes to arranging the kernels of a lot of nuts in order of their plumpness, the one who tries to do it becomes ready to give up before he really gets started. It was found that the ratio of the weight of kernel to the weight of the entire nut which is termed "proportion of kernel" was never large in the case of a nut with shriveled kernel. It was small in the case of a nut with a thick shell and a plump well filled kernel, but, as stated above it was never large in the case of a nut with a shriveled kernel and a good deal of work on the subject convinced me that the characteristic "proportion of kernel" could be very well substituted for plumpness. There seemed at the present time little use for separating flavor and quality as there seemed to be some question as to what was intended by the terms separately and so they were considered together. I would like to state here that little consideration has so far been given as to whether the number of points awarded for each characteristic are such as to cause the nut that will ultimately be considered of most value commercially to get the first prize or not. The score card of Prof. Lake's seemed so good that it was thought far more important at present to develop methods of measuring these characteristics. A careful study of the nuts sent in to the contests, it was thought, would point out most parts of the score card where improvement could be made, and this has already proved to be so to a considerable extent. The methods of quantitatively measuring the different characteristics and determining the number of points to be awarded for each will be outlined one at a time. WEIGHT: This is determined by an accurate scale, one weighing to 1/10 gram was used, and the same scale was used directly or indirectly for determining six out of the nine characteristics considered. In determining weight, five average nuts (as far as could be determined by appearance) were weighed and the average weight determined. Having at hand the weights of the largest and smallest nuts of the species under examination, the largest nut was awarded 10 points and the smallest 0 and the nuts of intermediate weight were awarded intermediate figures. The method of doing this will best be seen by taking a specific instance e. g. the Lutz black walnut, the average weight of which is 26.4g. The Alley black walnut, the average weight of which is 10.0g is the smallest good black walnut which has come to our attention, while the Armknecht black walnut which weighs 28.9g is the largest one of which we know. The Armknecht black walnut would be awarded 10 points for weight and the Alley 0 points and a table would be made up for use in determining the number of points to be awarded for intermediate weights as noted below: BLACK WALNUTS--WEIGHT Heaviest Armknecht 28.9 grams; Lightest Alley 10.0 grams. Weight of nut. Points. 28 grams and less than 30 grams 10 26 " " " " 28 " 9 24 " " " " 26 " 8 22 " " " " 24 " 6 20 " " " " 22 " 5 18 " " " " 20 " 4 16 " " " " 18 " 3 14 " " " " 16 " 2 12 " " " " 14 " 1 10 " " " " 12 " 0 After the average weight of five nuts of a given variety has been determined, an inspection of the table shows at a glance the number of points to be awarded for weight, which, in the case of the Lutz Black walnut, is 9. In case a nut should be entered which was very much larger or smaller than provided for, the table can be extended for use temporarily. The table, however, should be revised before being used the next year. For example, had a nut come in weighing 30.5 grams this might have been awarded 11 points, and had one weighing 8.5 grams come in this would have been awarded-1 point in order to give each nut full credit, for excellence in size or to penalize it for lack of it. It will be noticed that by the method outlined the size of a nut is determined exactly and the same number of points for size (or weight) would be awarded today, next week, next month, or next year, barring of course real changes, e. g. those caused by actual loss of moisture, etc. FORM: It was only recently that a method of measuring this characteristic has been suggested and this has been tried out only experimentally. By form is meant attractive appearing shape which has been held to be absence of hollows, ridges, angles, etc. A round, smooth nut would be held to have perfect form in distinction from nuts that are rough and full of ridges or edges. The only method of measuring that has been suggested and which it is believed will work out satisfactorily is to first select an average nut and weigh, then fill up the hollows in the surface of the nut with wax just covering the ridges till the surface is smooth, and weigh. This will give the weight of the nut plus the weight of the wax needed to fill up the hollows on the surface. As the specific gravity of the wax is 4/5 that of the nut the figure actually used is weight of nut plus 5/4 weight of the wax, which gives the weight of a nut of the size of the sample with the hollows in the shell filled up or the weight of a nut of perfect form of the size of the sample. The measurement of form is then the weight of the average nut divided by the weight of a nut of the same size of perfect shape, that is without hollows or ridges. A measurement of form of a black walnut gave the following: Weight of nut 22.5 grams Weight of nut and wax 24.6 " Weight of wax 2.1 " Weight of 5-4 wax 2.6 " Weight of nut and 5-4 wax 25.1 " Form 22.5÷25.1=89.7% When a nut has perfect form there will be no hollows to fill and no wax will be needed and the weight of nut and 5/4 of the wax will be the same as the weight of the nut and therefore its form figure will be 100%. The number of points to be awarded for any measurement of form would be determined by making up a table as was made up for awarding points for weight, but such a table cannot be made up till after an examination of form values for a large number of nuts. This will be done later. COLOR: The color of shell was measured by making up samples of water colors of all gradations of color between the lightest shell and the darkest. From these, five were selected as showing in five steps the differences noted, the lightest being marked 5, the next 4 and so on down to the darkest which was marked 0. With these color standards in front of the one judging, it was only necessary to take the nut to be judged and lay it on the standards of color and the figure on the shade which the nut most nearly matched was the figure awarded for color. HUSKING QUALITY: This represents the ease with which the husk can be removed. In view of the well known fact that husks of all nuts do not come off with equal facility the need of such is apparent. Its measurement will be the proportion of husk removed by a standard husking operation. THINNESS OF SHELL: This was measured by providing a means for bringing two metal surfaces together, keeping them always parallel. The nut to be cracked was placed between these surfaces and an arrangement of scale levers provided so that the pressure exerted on the nut could be weighed. The surfaces were brought together till the nut was cracked and the pressure required was noted. This measures the thinness of the shell or more properly the strength of the shell, the weakest shell of course being the one that takes the least pressure to crack. This pressure was measured in kilograms for by doing so it was possible to utilize some stock apparatus. After the pressure required to crack has been noted a reference to the table below will tell the number of points to be awarded. We will take for an example the the same nut as taken to illustrate weight e. g. the Lutz black walnut whose average cracking pressure is 312kg and which therefore would be awarded 2 points for thinness of shell. In this connection it should be stated that this table would seem not to be made out on the plan followed heretofore by taking the thinnest shelled nut of which we know, the Alley, as the low limit of the table. While the Alley black walnut takes the least cracking pressure of any we know which we can identify as from a particular tree, one black walnut was cracked which I believe came from the Ten Eyck tree which had a cracking pressure below 80kg and hence the table was made of sufficient extent to include this. It is my intention to get additional Ten Eyck nuts this year and check the matter up. BLACK WALNUTS--THINNESS OF SHELL Weight required to crack: Thinnest, Alley 110kg; thickest, Triplett 348kg. Weight in kg. Points 50 and less than 80 10 80 and less than 110 9 110 and less than 140 8 170 and less than 200 6 200 and less than 230 5 230 and less than 260 4 260 and less than 290 3 290 and less than 320 2 320 and less than 350 1 350 and less than 380 0 +-------------------------------------------------------+ |Transcribers note: point 7 was missing in the original.| +-------------------------------------------------------+ CRACKING QUALITY: This characteristic is perhaps the one which seems to most people the most difficult to measure, but, while it was some time before methods of measuring it did occur to anyone, its measurement is effected very easily. In cracking nuts a part of the kernel will usually drop right out, some times it is a large part, occasionally all, and sometimes it is but a small portion. A perfect cracker is one where the entire kernel drops out after cracking. This would have 100% cracking quality. When 4/5 of the kernel drops out after cracking and the remaining 1/5 can be extracted only by recracking or by picking out, the nut is said to have 80% cracking quality. In other words, the cracking quality is the ratio of the weight of the kernel which drops out after cracking to the entire kernel. The operations of determining cracking quality in practice are first, selecting five average nuts; second, cracking them and weighing the part of the kernels which drop out after cracking; third, extracting the balance of the kernels and getting the weight of all the kernels; fourth, dividing the weight of the part of the kernels which drop out after cracking by the total weight of the kernels, and the result is the cracking quality. After an examination of the figures of a large number of nuts, the table below was made up from which the number of points to be awarded for any given cracking quality is readily obtained. Taking the Lutz black walnut as an example again we find that the weight of the kernels which dropped out after cracking was 24 grams while the total weight of kernels was 32.5 grams which gives a cracking quality of 73.8% which would be awarded 13 points for cracking quality. BLACK WALNUTS--CRACKING QUALITY Percentage of kernel that drops out after cracking. Highest, Alley[4], 100%; Lowest, Butler, 22.9%. Cracking Quality. Points. 100% 20 96% and all higher percentages under 100% 19 92% and all higher percentages under 96% 18 88% and all higher percentages under 92% 17 84% and all higher percentages under 88% 16 80% and all higher percentages under 84% 15 76% and all higher percentages under 80% 14 72% and all higher percentages under 76% 13 68% and all higher percentages under 72% 12 64% and all higher percentages under 68% 11 60% and all higher percentages under 64% 10 56% and all higher percentages under 60% 9 52% and all higher percentages under 56% 8 48% and all higher percentages under 52% 7 44% and all higher percentages under 48% 6 40% and all higher percentages under 44% 5 36% and all higher percentages under 40% 4 32% and all higher percentages under 36% 3 28% and all higher percentages under 32% 2 24% and all higher percentages under 28% 1 20% and all higher percentages under 24% 0 COLOR OF KERNEL: This is determined in the same way as the color of the shell by comparing with a standard color scale, and the step of the scale whose color most nearly matches the color of the kernel being examined gives the figure to be awarded. PROPORTION OF KERNEL: This is the ratio of the weight of the kernels of five average nuts to the entire weight of such average nuts. After this has been determined a comparison with the table below which was made up after an examination of the proportion of kernel of a large number of nuts, the number of points to be awarded is readily determined. If we take for example the Lutz black walnuts again we find the weight of five average nuts 132.0 grams and the weight of the kernels of these nuts 32.5 grams which gives for the proportion of kernel 24.0% which would be awarded 8 points. BLACK WALNUTS--PROPORTION OF KERNEL Ratio of weight of kernel to weight of entire nut (without husk) Highest, Ten Eyck 36.4%; Lowest, Seefeldt, 16%. Percent of Kernel. Points 36% and less than 37% 20 35% and less than 36% 19 34% and less than 35% 18 33% and less than 34% 17 32% and less than 33% 16 31% and less than 32% 15 30% and less than 31% 14 29% and less than 30% 13 28% and less than 29% 12 27% and less than 28% 11 26% and less than 27% 10 25% and less than 26% 9 24% and less than 25% 8 23% and less than 24% 7 22% and less than 23% 6 21% and less than 22% 5 20% and less than 21% 4 19% and less than 20% 3 18% and less than 19% 2 17% and less than 18% 1 16% and less than 17% 0 QUALITY AND FLAVOR: Absolutely no progress has so far been made in measuring this characteristic or more correctly these characteristics for, strictly speaking, there are a number of them instead of one and the only method available at present is tasting by experts. It is very much to be desired that methods for measuring this be worked out and several lines on which to work in order to accomplish it have been thought of but as yet no definite progress has been made. While the characteristic as yet unmeasured is one of the most important and most difficult even for experts to estimate correctly when there are large numbers of nuts to be examined, the fact that it is possible to measure the other eight is a matter of a good deal of satisfaction and this satisfaction is the greater because with the methods that have been worked out it is possible for any ordinarily careful person to do the work about as well as it is for an expert and, as the work of judging a large number of nuts is very considerable, the elimination of a large part of the need for expert services is very gratifying. The services for example of such experts as Dr. Morris and Capt. Deming are obtainable only occasionally and for a short period. Now that the nuts sent in are rapidly increasing, it would have been impossible to have handled the contests without some improvements in the methods used. While the same score card has been used for butternuts, black walnuts, and hickories it seemingly can be used quite well for English walnuts, Japan walnuts and pecans also, in short, for all nuts belonging to the botanical family Juglandaceae and perhaps for hazels. Separate ones will evidently be required for beechnuts, and chestnuts. The tables for determining the number of points to be awarded for a given value of any characteristic are likely to vary for each species. Inasmuch as there are fourteen species of hickories exclusive of the pecan that have to be considered and apparently even more species of walnuts not to mention beechnuts, chestnuts and hazels, one might think that nearly 100 tables would be required. A study of the matter, however, has shown that the number really needed is very much less, and the more that nuts are examined the more it seems possible to make one table answer for a number of species and have the number of points a nut receives indicate to a certain extent its value as a nut to grow, and not simply the value of a given variety of a certain species. The hickories and the walnuts require a word in passing. There are at least nine species of hickory either native in the northeastern United States or that will grow there and it is quite possible that further study of the hickories will add to this number. Seven of these belong to the scale bud class, _Eucarya_, the shagbark, _Carya ovata_, the shellbark, _Carya laciniosa_, the scaly bark, _Carya Carolinae-septentrionalis_, the mockernut, _Carya alba_, and the close-bark pignut, _Carya glabra_, the loose-bark pignut, _Carya-ovalis_, and the pallid hickory, _Carya pallida_; while two belong to the open bud class, _Apocarya_, the pecan, _Carya pecan_, and the bitternut, _Carya cordiformis_. Hybrids between many of these species are found occurring naturally and seemingly hybrids between any two are possible, and the fact of many of them being hybrids is not evident on an inspection of the nuts. It is a noteworthy fact that quite a proportion of fine hickories that are being propagated are evidently hybrids and the number of our fine hickories which are evidently hybrids increases as they are studied more carefully. In many ways it would be desirable in the contest to offer prizes for the best nuts of each species of hickories, but the difficulty of determining the species from the nut alone, and the fact of such a proportion of our finest nuts being hybrids is sufficient to discourage the attempt. What was done in the 1918 contest, and what would seem to be the best thing that can be done is to offer the prizes for hickory nuts simply. Most of the prizes are taken by shagbarks but when a nut not a shagbark gets into the prize winning class, we make a class that would include it. For example, in the 1918 Contest, three shellbarks and one mockernut came into the prize winning class, whereupon a special lot of prizes for shellbarks and mockernuts were given. This enables us to do what would be accomplished in offering prizes for best nuts of each species of hickories. The same score card and tables therefore are used for each of these species. It is convenient, in judging nuts, to differentiate between the pecan on the one hand and the other hickories on the other, although study recently put on the matter would seem to show that this distinction is not exact and that some nuts, for example, which apparently are pure pecans are really pecan hickory hybrids. The differences between the structure of the shell of the nuts of certain of the walnuts is greater than between the shell structure of the hickories and the walnuts may be divided into three classes. Hybrids between a number of species are found which have been formed naturally, and seemingly hybrids between all species are possible. It is convenient in judging nuts to differentiate between English walnuts, black walnuts, and butternuts, which nuts are representative of the three walnut classes and to include with the butternuts, the Japan walnuts. This will strike many people as a strange classification, i. e. to include the butternut and Japan walnut, but I feel sure that no one who has given the matter much study will so consider it. Whenever the two grow in proximity they hybridize so freely that one may be almost certain of not getting pure species if he plants nuts and raises seedlings. Indeed I have received many such hybrids which have been called either butternuts or Japan walnuts. As a matter of fact the same difficulty exists in distinguishing butternuts and Japan walnuts that exists in distinguishing hickories. There is no name which includes the butternut and Japan walnut as there is to include the various species of hickories, and, as such a name is urgently needed, I have used the word "butterjaps." This includes butternuts, Japan walnuts and hybrids between them. While it doubtless will be convenient to continue the names butternut and Japan walnut it should be understood that usually they will mean simply nuts which, as far as appearance is concerned, would seem to be one or the other, but very likely may be hybrids between the two species and might be more properly called by some name e. g. "butterjaps," which would include the two species and hybrids between them. At this point the Convention took a recess to enable a photograph to be taken and immediately after reassembled for a business session. FOOTNOTE: [4] An additional lot of Alley Black Walnuts received several months after the one entered in the 1918 contest did not show 100% cracking quality. BUSINESS SESSION PRESIDENT W. C. REED IN THE CHAIR PRESIDENT REED: If Mr. Patterson is in the room, we will be glad to hear from him at this time. He has a matter he wants to bring before us. MR. PATTERSON: Mr. President and Gentlemen: The National Nut Growers Association for some three years have had a standing committee on federal aid for the nut industry. Two years ago through the instrumentality of that committee, the appropriation for investigational work was increased by some fifteen thousand dollars from the previous appropriation. The total appropriation along this line now is thirty thousand to thirty-five thousand dollars. During the past year the almond growers felt the need of some encouragement and help from the Department of Agriculture, and the last appropriation was increased but was not made specific for the pecan industry, but for the nut industry in general in the United States which was entirely agreeable to the pecan people. And now I appear before you especially to call your attention to this movement and to suggest that this association should appoint a committee to co-operate with a committee from the National Nut Growers' Association and the Almond Growers' Association, and the nut growers of Washington and Oregon in an effort to secure an appropriation from the Department of Agriculture which would commensurate with the needs of the great nut industry in the United States. As we all know, it is entirely in its infancy as a commercial proposition and I doubt not we all agree as to its wonderful possibilities. The recommendation from the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture has gone to the House committee this year without any increase over the appropriation of last year; so that it will be necessary if any increased allowance is made, that pressure shall be brought to bear upon the House committee of agriculture, or the Senate committee (the bill is before the House committee at present), to get them to appreciate the importance of this appropriation. I might say I am on my way to Washington now to see if I can do anything in co-operation with the California Almond Growers Association and such other co-operation as we can get to see if we can get an increase in the appropriation over and above the appropriation recommended by the Secretary of Agriculture. The Secretary is not opposed to a higher appropriation, but he has had orders from higher up not to recommend any increase. I thank you for the privilege of bringing this matter to the attention of the Association with the suggestion that, if it meets with your approval you appoint a committee to co-operate with the other committees already appointed by these other associations. PRESIDENT REED: You have heard the suggestion by Mr. Patterson. Are there any remarks? MR. BIXBY: I move, Mr President, that a committee on Federal Aid be appointed for that purpose, to co-operate with the other associations for the purpose of securing for the nut industry an appropriation sufficient or at least somewhere near sufficient for the work in hand. There is much work to be done that should be done now. MR. OLCOTT: I second the motion, Mr. President. PRESIDENT REED: You have heard the motion. It is moved that a committee be appointed for this work, as suggested. All in favor of the motion say Aye. Contrary same sign. It is CARRIED. I think it would be well to leave that committee to the incoming president. That was your idea, Mr. Bixby, was it? MR. BIXBY: I didn't think that far. PRESIDENT REED: That won't be far off, and I think it would be well to leave the appointment of that committee to the incoming president. I think also, it would be well, before appointing that committee, to confer a little bit to see who could possibly attend, could go to Washington, and would have the time to give to it. PRESIDENT REED: We will now have the report of the nominating committee. REPORT OF THE NOMINATING COMMITTEE Your committee on Nominations, having in mind the rapidly expanding interest in Nut Culture and the need of the Northern Nut Growers Association for a board of officers especially equipped for extending development on broad lines, respectfully submit the following nominations: _For President_--WILLIAM S. LINTON, Saginaw, Michigan. _For Vice-President_--JAMES S. MCGLENNON, Rochester, New York. _For Secretary-Treasurer_--WILLARD G. BIXBY, Baldwin, New York. _For Acting Secretary_--DR. W. C. DEMING, Wilton, Connecticut. _For Executive Committee_--MESSRS. LINTON, MCGLENNON, BIXBY, W. C. REED, AND J. RUSSELL SMITH. (Signed) Ralph T Olcott James S. McGlennon Robert T Morris William S. Linton J. F. Jones MR. OLCOTT: Secretary-Treasurer Bixby has suggested that the work of his office be divided, he to look after the financial affairs and the nut contests, Dr. Deming to assume the work of the Secretary proper. The constitution provides that the three principal officers and the last two retiring presidents be the executive committee. As the constitution specifically provides regarding this matter, the committee suggests the position of acting secretary for Dr. Deming until such action may be taken as will conform to the constitution. PRESIDENT REED: You have heard the report of the committee. What is your pleasure? MR. C. A. REED: I move that this report of the committee be unanimously adopted and the officers be elected, and the secretary so cast the ballot. MR. SMEDLEY: I second the motion. PRESIDENT REED: All in favor of that vote say Aye. Opposed, No. CARRIED. I hereby instruct the secretary to cast the unanimous ballot of the Association for the list of officers as read. The Secretary then cast a ballot for the persons on the report of the Nominating Committee, and declared the following elected: _President_--WILLIAM S. LINTON, Saginaw, Mich. _Vice-President_--JAMES S. MCGLENNON, Rochester, N. Y. _Secretary-Treasurer_--WILLARD G. BIXBY, Baldwin, New York. _Executive Committee_--The above three and W. C. REED, Vincennes, Ind., and J. RUSSELL SMITH, Swarthmore, Penn. _Acting Secretary_--DR. W. C. DEMING, Wilton, Conn. PRESIDENT REED: In regard to the change in the constitution, that will have to go over until next year. MR. OLCOTT: The constitution provides that notice be given to this convention for action to be taken a year from now; or that thirty days before action is taken, the notice be sent to the members. It seems to me that inasmuch as the action proposed is fully understood, that Dr. Deming is available, and Mr. Bixby kindly consented while Dr. Deming was tied up in the war work to look after this work, that there really is enough for two, and as both are agreeable, this is the time to take that action to become effective a year from now unless you can bring it about quicker. PRESIDENT REED: I should think it is only necessary to take the action on that. If there is some one better posted on parliamentary law, who thinks entire action better be taken at this time, I will entertain a motion. If not, we will let it stand as it is at present. MR. OLCOTT: I move that it is the sentiment of this convention, and that the members should be notified through the annual report and the regular proceedings, that that action is contemplated--to divide the office of Secretary-Treasurer at the next annual meeting, and that the constitution be changed as follows: That Article IV, _Officers_, be changed as follows: There shall be a president, a vice-president, a treasurer and a secretary, who shall be elected at the annual meeting; and an executive committee of six persons of which the president, two last retiring presidents, vice-president, treasurer and secretary shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or county represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. That Article VII, _Quorum_, be changed as follows: Ten members of the association shall constitution a quorum, but must include a majority of the executive committee, or two of the four elected officers. VOICE: I second the motion. PRESIDENT REED: It is moved and seconded that this matter come up at the next annual meeting to be voted on as presented by Mr. Olcott. All in favor say Aye; opposed, No. CARRIED. I believe we have a report of the auditing committee that should come up. MR. C. A. REED: Mr. Chairman, I believe I am the sole member of the Auditing Committee who is present. I have to report that the committee has not acted, but I think we can do this if agreeable: If you will leave it to the committee to audit the account, and if the committee finds the account is not accurate, to report to that effect next year and bring Mr. Bixby to time, then; otherwise say nothing about it. PRESIDENT REED: I think we are willing to do it on that basis. Mr. Secretary, are there any other things that ought to come up that you think of? MR. BIXBY: I have a resolution here if this is in order now. This resolution is sent from Mr. Littlepage. "Whereas this Association is justly jealous of its character and standing among the nut-growing public of this western continent and especially among the northern nut culturists, amateur or professional; and "Whereas this Association views with distrust and some alarm the growing and questionable practice of selling seedling pecan trees to the general public; and "Whereas it developed at a recent meeting of the Southern Nurserymen's Association held at Atlanta, Georgia, that seedling pecan trees from the gulf states were being distributed in the territory north of the Ohio River; and "Whereas this practice, if continued, will work a distinct disadvantage to the industry in general as well as to the planters in particular; "Therefore be it RESOLVED, That this Association now and here vigorously record its view on this question as follows: That we protest against the above named practice and urge upon the nurserymen of the United States the importance of discouraging the practice of planting seedling pecan trees for orchard purposes in particular; and further that especially shall extreme caution be used to prevent the shipment of southern seedling pecan trees for planting in the territory north of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers, and further be it "RESOLVED, That the secretary communicate a _copy_ of these resolutions to the President of the American Association of Nurserymen with the request that his organization take cognizance of this condition and take such steps as are compatible with its authority and sentiment to repress such reprehensible practice on the part of the American nursery trade." I will introduce this as a resolution. VOICE: I second the motion. PRESIDENT REED: You have heard the resolution which has been seconded. Are there any remarks? MR. C. A. REED: I would like to add a word of explanation. There are only two or three nurserymen in the South engaged in that practice. There are several northern men who are in the nursery business in the South who have raised the question as to the propriety of that practice, and the question has been discussed at the meetings of this southern association with a good deal of heat and vigor. The southern people will not plant seedling pecan trees at all, but these few nurserymen do a few hundred dollars' worth of business every year by sending their product to big nurseries here in the North, general fruit-tree nurseries and they in turn distribute these trees through the North. These northern friends of ours who are now in the South, put through a resolution asking that the matter be discussed at their meeting this year at Atlanta, the meeting held in August, by myself representing the Department of Agriculture. I was unable to be present, but I sent down a paper which was read by my associate in the office, and he tells us that ninety per cent of the southern nurserymen were with us in opposing that practice; that it is only those two or three and their associates who practice it. And it is as a result of that situation that this resolution has been proposed. Prof. Lake, secretary of the American Pomological Society, has been in the South working on pecans and is quite familiar with the situation, and he drew up this resolution. It is something that by all means should be stopped if possible. The southern pecan does not succeed in the North anyhow, and even it did, we do not want the kind of pecan tree up here that the southerners would not plant themselves. PRESIDENT REED: Are you ready for the question? All in favor of adopting the resolution as read, say Aye. Contrary, same sign. It is so CARRIED. MR. C. A. REED: I would like to suggest that a copy of these resolutions be sent to the secretary of the Southern Nurserymen's Association, Mr. O. Joe Howard, Hickory, N. C. MR. BIXBY: I have a telegram from Mr. Littlepage which I will read. "I regret exceedingly it is impossible to attend the meeting this year. Signed, T. P. Littlepage." MR. J. F. JONES: I make a motion that Dr. Walter Van Fleet be made an honorary member of this Association for his valuable work in nut culture and hybridizing. MR. OLCOTT: I second the motion. PRESIDENT REED: It has been moved and seconded that Dr. Walter Van Fleet be made an honorary member of this Association for his valuable work in nut culture. All in favor say Aye. Contrary, No. It is CARRIED. MR. BIXBY: The place of the next meeting is decided before the meeting adjourns, I think, or else provision made for it. PRESIDENT REED: As I understand it, it is either decided or you vote to put it in the hands of the executive committee. MR. BIXBY: Provision in some way is made for it. On that subject I would like to say a word. We have an invitation from Mr. Littlepage, and in considering the place of the 1919 meeting there were really three different locations spoken of--one Washington, D. C., one New York City or some point near there, and one Lancaster, Pa. Heretofore we have practically decided the place of the meeting on consideration of being able to see near there nut trees of interest. I think every meeting has been decided with that idea in mind. This year each of the three places offered promise of being very attractive in a year or two, but not in 1919. In the case of the meeting at Washington, we could see Mr. Littlepage's orchard of pecans, thirty acres in extent, which year before last put out a few flowers, and this year quite a number, and he expects nuts next year. There are also the many things to be seen around Washington,--the Department of Agriculture, and Dr. Van Fleet's work besides a number of other things. And at Lancaster, Pa., there has been a chance the past year to see some remarkable work on top worked hickories, that is, the early bearing of crops of fine nuts. Then again very soon on Capt. Deming's place at Georgetown, Conn., is going to be the greatest opportunity for topworked hickories anywhere to be seen. He has more young seedling hickories top worked to fine varieties than any one else that I know of. As a matter of suggestion it would seem to me well--this is only a suggestion, of course--that the matter be left with the executive committee, and next spring or summer when it is possible to get an idea as to which of these three places offers the most to see in the line of nut trees, then they could decide where it is best to go. That would be the suggestion that I would make. MR. MCGLENNON: One of the suggestions was Rochester, N. Y. I think there are things worth while there in nut culture to be seen, and I know that we who are interested in nut culture would like to have the convention there; and I know also our Chamber of Commerce in the city would be very happy to have it there. So that in considering the place for the next meeting, I hope Rochester, N Y., will be incorporated in the thought. MR. POMEROY: Mr. President, I would also suggest you might come to Lockport, N. Y. Out northeast of Buffalo there were shipped eighteen hundred pounds of walnuts to the Buffalo market this fall. North of Lockport is a man who supplies the country stores with English walnuts. As long as there are any of these walnuts in the baskets exposed for sale, those which were purchased from the wholesalers from California are left unsold. I went into one store and the store-keeper had some home grown English walnuts out in the back room. I said, "Why do you keep them out here?" He said, "I have three bushels of California walnuts, and I keep these here until the others are sold. If I put these out in front, I would not sell the others at all." MR. BIXBY: I would be glad to include Rochester, or Lockport, or any other place suggested, and leave it to the executive committee with the power to act. MR. C. A. REED: Mr. President, we know pretty nearly what could be seen at most of these places next year. There is not going to be a great change in what there has been this year, and it seems to me the sooner we can definitely decide upon this thing and get it a matter of record, and plan for it, the better it will be. We can go around from one place to another. We want to go to all these places during the next three or four years, and we have a definite invitation from Mr. Littlepage; and while he didn't so state in his telegram, in conversation with him on Friday by telephone, he said he would like to have them come there the latter part of August or first of September; and to make the matter definite and know where we stand early in the game, I move we accept Mr. Littlepage's invitation for a meeting about the first of September. MR. OLCOTT: I second that motion, and add that at the Stamford convention, that is the very argument I made. Before that meeting it had always been left to the executive committee. It had been the custom of Dr. Deming, the secretary, to defer the matter of the place of meeting until a few weeks before the date for it. Nobody knew, and the committee decided, and the time was too short to get anything like the attendance we should have. If we should publish in the American Nut Journal for a year where the meeting is to be, you would get a year's advertising of that matter, and could plan better thereby. PRESIDENT REED: You have heard the motion. MR. BIXBY: The only reason I had in making the suggestion I did, was the possibility of one place or the other showing more importance but as Mr. Reed said, we want to do all these places mentioned at some time. It does not make much difference which we do first. We should like to take first the place where there is most to be seen, of course. PRESIDENT REED: If there is no further discussion, all in favor of accepting Mr. Littlepage's invitation for Washington for the next meeting say Aye. Contrary, No. It is CARRIED. J. F. JONES: The reason I did not push Lancaster is that some experiments on spraying are being conducted there and it will be a year before that will show up. The nut growers could see that better the year following. PRESIDENT REED: If there is nothing else, I believe we are ready to turn over the gavel to our new president. MR. C. A. REED: Mr. President, there is an important committee you have not appointed. I was out of the room when Mr. Patterson suggested this morning that a committee be appointed. Has that been attended to? PRESIDENT REED: I expected to let the incoming president appoint that committee before we adjourn. MR. SMEDLEY: I will make a motion that Mr. Patterson represent us and have the endorsement of this Association as to demanding more appropriations for the work in hand. J. F. JONES: I second the motion. PRESIDENT REED: It is moved and seconded that Mr. Patterson be appointed to represent us before congress in connection with the appropriation. MR. PATTERSON: If everyone on the committee could go to Washington as soon as we can get at the House committee for a hearing, that would be the way to get action on the matter. Of course, the endorsement of the Association is good, and if you could get a committee of some one who could go down and help re-enforce it, there, we would appreciate it very much. PRESIDENT REED: I think the incoming president will be one who will be going down. If he will come forward, I am ready to turn over the gavel. At this point, Mr. Linton, the newly elected president, took the chair. PRESIDENT LINTON: Ladies and Gentlemen I am sure that you will all concede that I have not sought official position, and no one could have been more surprised than I, when I was presented with the report of your committee. I have been much interested in the work that is being carried on by this association; and of course if I can be of any value to the association or to the cause in the position of president during this particular year, why I accept that duty. But I would like to impose one or two conditions. I know that your hearty co-operation will be given. That would be one condition. But I am sure that each and every one of you can assist in adding greatly to the membership of this organization. We should at least have fifty members in each state within our jurisdiction. That would mean, perhaps one-half of the states in the Union. That would mean one thousand members. Now, in accepting this position, I am going to ask each and every active member through his friends and acquaintances to solicit and secure twenty-five members. Now, I will double that amount, and agree during the year, to add fifty good members to the association. That means over one thousand during the year, and that is one goal that I hope we can reach during this particular year, 1920. So far as the growing of nuts is concerned, so far as the details connected with the work that you have been engaged in is concerned, I propose leaving those things to those whom I consider experts, Dr. Morris, our friend Reed from Washington, and others that I might name; but the particular lines that I would like to follow this year, gentlemen, and what I hope to receive your earnest support in is an addition to your membership so that it may exceed a thousand; and assistance in legislation throughout the country along the line that we have worked out in our peninsular state of Michigan. I am glad that you decided upon Washington as the place of the next meeting, and as I have intimated in my remarks heretofore, I believe we have there a Michigan Senator who will assist in national legislation along the lines that we desire, because they are right ones; and in his position as chairman of the committee on post offices and post roads of the country, being at the head of the highway legislation, there is no man in the United States as competent to help us along that line, and I feel sure that we will get that assistance and support. With these few lines I will close, and I sincerely hope you have not made any mistake at this session; and when we have rounded up our year's work, that we can all say it has been a successful one. I thank you. (Applause). The committee on Federal Aid that the incoming president was to appoint, I will name as follows: J. M. Patterson, Dr. Morris, Dr. Kellogg, Mr. Littlepage, Mr. Bixby, Mr. Jones and Mr. McGlennon. MR. BIXBY: Senator Penney would like to say a word. SENATOR PENNEY: I hadn't any intention of saying a word. But I am particularly pleased that you elected my friend, Mr. Linton, as president of the organization. I have known him a good many years, and I know he is an industrious worker. In anything that he undertakes to do, you will always see results. I am sure that in the lines which he has expressed himself as being anxious to cover, your membership, the matter of legislation, I am sure that you will see some results that will be very gratifying to the Association. I do not know as there is anything further I wish to say. But I have been very interested in these meetings. I am not a nut grower, and I hardly know one nut from another, excepting that I am like the squirrel, if I get hold of a good nut I like to eat it; but I have certainly learned a lot of things from this association, and I am very pleased to be present. PRESIDENT LINTON: I am going to ask Senator Penney to become a member of this association. MR. BIXBY: He is a member. SENATOR PENNEY: I have gotten two since I have been here, so I am going to pledge myself for two or three more for the next year. MR. OLCOTT: I think one subject should not be overlooked, and that is the matter of resolutions. There is Dr. Kellogg's very courteous offer and treatment to be remembered, and perhaps some other things. If there is not such a committee, I think some one ought to be appointed on it to report very soon before we close. I move that a committee on resolutions be appointed. C. A. REED: I second the motion. PRESIDENT LINTON: Gentlemen, you have heard the motion made by Mr. Olcott. Are you ready for the question? Those who favor the motion say Aye; opposed, No. The resolution is ADOPTED. I appoint Mr. Olcott, Mr. Bixby, Senator Penney, Mr. Jones and Mr. Patterson. C. A. REED: There is a little bit of news I would like to tell the members of the association. Yesterday afternoon, a gentleman who is a patient across the street at the sanitarium, came down to the nut exhibit in a wheelchair and looked on with interest at what was shown there, and presently he called Mrs. Reed over to talk with her a little and ask something about who was connected with that exhibit; and the next thing he asked me to sit down by him. He was not able to get around, to stand, and he told me this: that four years ago he met a Mr. Page from Tulsa, Oklahoma, a man who is evidently a man of a good deal of means in the oil business there, who is very philanthropic in his activities, a man who has adopted two hundred children, I believe it is; and he proposed to this gentleman, who was Mr. Dow of Jamestown, N. Y., that he go to Oklahoma to establish a nut arboretum. He was willing to set aside two hundred acres of land and to endow it with $200,000 if this Mr. Dow would go and take charge of it. He also offered to build a $23,000 house on the place. But Mr. Dow is director of the Leadsworth Forest Arboretum, some sixty miles up the Genesee River from Rochester, and of course he did not feel that he could leave the work he was doing there and devote his energies to a new work. I thought that was something that we northerners would be very much interested in, and I think we ought to see if that offer could not be taken advantage of. MR. BIXBY: Can any one here tell me where seedlings of the big western shellback, Carya laciniosa, can be obtained? I would like to get 100 of them. C. A. REED: Probably the best place to get that information would be from the U. S. Forest Service. That bureau keeps in touch with such information. They have catalogs and they have lists of nurserymen having various trees including nut trees; the U. S. Forest Service, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. PRESIDENT LINTON: Mr. Reed informs me that it is the intention to close this session at this time. J. F. JONES: I don't think we ought to close without passing a resolution of thanks to Dr. Kellogg for the nice entertainment here, the free service, the rooms, etc. VOICE: I support the motion. PRESIDENT LINTON: You have heard the motion offered by Mr. Jones. We can take a recess and adjourn after we take the trip through the buildings. C. A. REED: If there is no one there but the president, officers and the committee, they would still have the authority to adopt these resolutions, and then properly adjourn. PRESIDENT LINTON: If that is the consensus of opinion, we will take a recess until called to order again by the chair following the trip through the buildings. C. A. REED: The idea was to take a recess until after our trip this afternoon and adjourn then. At that time this committee will be prepared with its resolutions. PRESIDENT LINTON: We can not fix a definite time. It will be following the afternoon session with Dr. Kellogg. If there is nothing more to come before us at this time, a recess will be taken until after that time. The convention then took a recess and reassembled at 2 p. m. at which time an old fashioned straw sleigh ride was taken to the buildings of the Kellogg Pure Food Company. Here Dr. Kellogg met the party and conducted them through, explaining the various products made and the processes by which they were made, and also that the large plant of the company was a growth from a very humble beginning, started originally for the purpose of providing food for the Sanitarium that was impossible to procure any other way. Persons who had been guests of the Sanitarium, after leaving it, have wished to get some of the food products they had had when there, and in that way, a demand was made which had grown, till many of them were supplied to the jobbing trade. A most enjoyable lunch enabled the party to sample many of the products. From the Kellogg Pure Food Company, the sleigh took the party back to the Sanitarium through which they were conducted and shown the remarkable facilities for providing the guests with every kind of medical treatment that had proved valuable. It would be difficult to find a place where apparatus for treating every form of disease is equal to that of the Battle Creek Sanitarium or where such facilities exist for providing patients with all means for their comfort and for the recovery of their health. A most interesting talk illustrated with lantern slides, showed the growth of this institution from a modest beginning in a dwelling house, 54 years ago. After this the convention reassembled and adjourned at 5 p. m. THE 1919 NUT CONTEST WILLARD G. BIXBY, BALDWIN, NASSAU CO., N. Y. The nuts sent in to the 1919 contest have been finished at last but the date is only a few days ahead of the date last year when the 1918 contest was finished, which is to me a matter of a good deal of chagrin as it was last year. No attempt was made to examine the nuts received till after the first of the year as the experience of last year showed this to be a waste of time. Several things seemed, this year, to conspire to prevent getting started on the examination. The number of nuts received was large and the time taken for examination quite considerable for no attempt as yet has been made to have but one person work on it. But the thing that has caused the greater part of the delay was the wide variation between the results in the tests of those nuts which were sent into both the 1918 and 1919 contests, and my unwillingness to have these results appear in print until the reasons for these discrepancies could be stated with certainty. Had the methods used been those in use for some time and whose correctness had been proven, these differences would have caused little concern, but inasmuch as the methods for measuring most of the nut characteristics were used for the first time in 1918, and their had been devised by me, I could not help feeling that there was a possibility of the discrepancies being due to imperfections in methods for, at first, it would seem likely that nuts borne by a given tree one year would be like those borne the next year. I considered therefore that it was for me to prove beyond question that the methods used were sound and that the differences noted were real. The amount of time needed to do this at a period when my time was well occupied with other things has been more than I wish it had been. While many efforts were made to see if there were imperfections in the methods used for measuring the various characteristics, no such imperfections were found, and, for a considerable period, all efforts made to explain the differences in tests made on nuts borne by the same trees in different years were unproductive of results. Finally the matter was settled to my satisfaction as is noted in the next paragraph. The Clark hickory received 79 points last year when it took the first prize. It tested out 11 points less this year when first tested which put it entirely out of the prize winning class. Repetition of this year's tests gave results agreeing fairly well with the first ones made but still not all comparable to those of last year. This was decidedly disconcerting when one of the principal results expected of the adoption of methods of measuring nut characteristics was the possibility of testing a given nut now and several months hence and obtaining the same verdict. After much work designed to see if the methods of measuring nut characteristics were faulty and nothing wrong had been found with them, a visit was made to the tree. Mr. Clark said that it bore a good crop every other year and but few nuts in the intervening years, and that the nuts were much better the years when a good crop was borne than they were in the other years. This was interesting information but I could not help realizing the difficulty of carrying in one's mind, from one year to the next, the merits of hickory nuts, and felt that, unless the matter could be proven, I had not as yet done very much to solve the problem at hand. Mr. Clark, however, gave me practically all the nuts of the 1919 crop which he had and I returned feeling that this trip had not done much to solve the problem as to why the tests on the 1918 nuts and 1919 nuts should be so different. Very careful examination was made of the few Clark hickory nuts remaining in my possession of the 1918 crop and they were compared with those of the 1919 crop. Slight differences in shape were noted and finally one nut was found seemingly just like the nuts that won the prize in 1918. When this nut was tested it gave substantially the same results as those tested in 1918. Another like it was afterward found where the result was repeated. This proved definitely that the trouble was not with the methods, and that, in off years, with the Clark hickory at least, some few nuts were borne that would test out as well as those borne in good years. The results of the tests on these good nuts borne in 1919 were substituted for those on the inferior nuts previously tested for in contests it is always the intention of those sending in nuts to send in the best. It will be noted that the number of points finally awarded the Clark hickory for example this year is less than awarded last year. This difference is due to the method of scoring. In a matter as new as methods for measuring nut characteristics, the constants which have to be determined by experience must change somewhat at first. The method used this year in testing nuts sent in to the contest was to judge them on the basis used in 1918, redetermine the constants that required it, and work out the results again. An example will help to make this clear. Take the matter of proportion of kernel, the highest award for which was 15 points in 1918 and also in 1919. Up to the time the 1918 contest was decided the hickory with the largest proportion of kernel was the Beam, Nut No. 3, of the 1918 contest with over 50% of kernel and the lowest was the Brown mockernut of the 1918 contest with 18% of kernel. On the basis of the difference between the highest and lowest the number of points to be awarded each was worked out. On this basis the Clark hickory was awarded, in 1918, 10 points for a proportion of kernel of 40.8%. In the case of the 1919 contest nuts with larger proportion of kernel were found, the Hatch bitternut with 65%, and the Halesite bitternuts with 69% kernel. A mockernut from Sliding Hill, Jackson, S. C. with only 14% kernel was also found and the figures for awarding points for proportion of kernel were recalculated as follows: Points Points 69% and over 15 65.3% to 68.9% inclusive 14 61.7% to 65.2% inclusive 13 58.0% to 61.6% inclusive 12 54.3% to 57.9% inclusive 11 50.7% to 54.2% inclusive 10 47.0% to 50.6% inclusive 9 43.3% to 46.9% inclusive 8 39.7% to 43.2% inclusive 7 36.0% to 39.6% inclusive 6 32.3% to 35.9% inclusive 5 28.7% to 32.2% inclusive 4 25.0% to 28.6% inclusive 3 21.3% to 24.9% inclusive 2 17.7% to 21.2% inclusive 1 14.0% to 17.6% inclusive 0 On this basis the Clark hickory was awarded but 7 points for the same proportion of kernel in 1919 instead of 10 as in 1918. This accounts for 3 out of the 5 points difference between the 79 points awarded in 1918 and the 74% in 1919. The other two points can be similarly explained. There are bound to be similar changes in the tables for awarding points from year to year, but they will be less and less as time goes on. For example, the Wasson butternut of the 1915 contest which weighed 18.8g was the largest butternut received until 1919 when two larger came in, one weighing 19.5g and the other weighing 22.6g. The Mott shellbark hickory which weighs 29.6g which was discovered by Dr. Morris before the founding of the Association is still the largest hickory of which we know. On the other hand the black walnut record for size was exceeded in 1918 and also in 1919. The nuts received were gone over carefully and all characteristics measured where this was possible, then the other characteristics were passed on by me. Then the best nuts were brought to the attention of Dr. Morris and Dr. Deming and the three of us passed on those characteristics where methods of measurement had not been worked out. The results of this contest are noted in considerable detail as it is believed that they may have value as matters of record. While an attempt has been made to give the species of each nut tested as such information is useful, it must be understood that the notations of species are tentative and subject to change should further knowledge require it. It is, frequently, difficult to positively identify a nut as to species without having leaves, buds, bark and husk for examination and in most instances the judges did not have these. No nut is noted as a hybrid unless it has been proven so by evidence which it is believed is beyond question, yet there are a number of nuts noted as pure species which later may be proved to be hybrids. This is particularly so in the case of the hickories. In explanation of the tables it should be noted that weights of nuts and kernels are expressed in grams, while cracking pressures are expressed in kilograms. The methods used for measuring the various characteristics are noted in detail in the article "Judging Nuts" on pages 122 to 132 inclusive. The two items cracking quality need a little explanation. Last year 20 points were awarded for cracking quality and 5 points for plumpness of kernel. Plumpness was very difficult of estimation. It means the reverse of shrivelled. To assign values for this can only be done by appearance and it seemed impossible of measurement. A study of the nuts of the 1918 contest which were awarded high values for plumpness and those which were awarded low values showed that in no case was a nut which had a shrivelled kernel awarded a high value for proportion of kernel. Sometimes a nut with a plump kernel had a very thick shell and a low proportion of kernel but in no instance did a nut with a shrivelled kernel have a high proportion of kernel, so it was thought that for practical purposes the figure for proportion of kernel would answer very well to represent excellence in both characteristics. It was also evident that the ratio of the weight of the portion of the kernel which, after cracking, could be easily picked out with the fingers to the total weight of the kernel, which was taken to represent cracking quality last year, was capable of more refinement for it was noticed that of those nuts where the entire kernel could be easily picked out with the fingers after cracking that some were better crackers than others, for, in some instances, the entire kernel fell out. As the proportion of the kernel which could be picked out easily with the fingers is seemingly the most important this was still given 20 points and called "cracking quality commercial," and the figure representing the proportion of kernel which dropped out after cracking was called "cracking quality absolute," and awarded the 5 points formerly awarded to plumpness. In the case of the hazel which generally has a cracking quality both absolute and commercial of 100% the item "freedom from fibre" was substituted for "cracking quality absolute." The hazel seems to be the only nut where this characteristic must be considered. It is too bad that while practically all characteristics are determined with exactness to a single point and could be even more precisely determined, that the item quality and flavor of kernel to which 20 points are justly awarded has to be determined in so crude a manner as it is at present. It is true that formerly all characteristics were determined in equally crude manner and we should be glad that all others can be determined with precision but still having one quality not precisely determined, to a certain extent prevents exact determination of the others having the value it otherwise would. We can make only about five graduations in quality which would be differences of five points except at the top of the scale where it is 2 and an error in one gradation would make a difference of 5 points generally. When it is seen how close some of the nuts run, particularly the hickories, where the differences in total points awarded are generally only 1 point, with several of the same score, this crudeness of determination of one of the most important characteristics is the more regrettable. The results of the 1919 contest on nuts of the various species are as noted below: HICKORIES--128 ENTRIES The results of the tests on the prize winning hickories are shown in the table on page 151. What is said of the difficulty of identification as to species is particularly applicable to the hickory where it is known that many of the fine nuts that we have are hybrids. While no nut is noted as a hybrid unless it has been so proven by evidence which it is believed is beyond question, there is considerable question as to whether a number of the nuts noted as shagbarks are really pure shagbarks. It will take more observation and study than it has as yet been possible to give them to determine this point. It is to be noted, however, that the more study we put on the hickories notable for the excellence of the nuts they bear, the more we find that give suggestion of hybrid parentage. Beside the hickories noted above which received a sufficient number of points to entitle them to one of the eight prizes awarded the measurements are given of the Hatch and Halesite bitternuts because they have the thinnest shell and highest proportion of kernel of any hickories yet discovered and of the Stanley hickory because it is the best shellbark of which we yet know. HICKORIES KEY: A: Species B: Prize awarded C: Average weight of nut D: Average weight of kernel E: Average weight of kernel that dropped out after cracking F: Average weight of kernel that could be easily picked out with fingers after cracking G: Average cracking pressure H: Proportion of kernel I: Cracking quality absolute J: Cracking quality commercial K: Size (10) K: Form (5) M: Color of shell (5) N: Husking quality (5) O: Thinness of shell (10) P: Cracking quality commercial (20) Q: Cracking quality absolute (5) R: Color of kernel (5) S: Proportion of kernel (15) T: Quality of kernel (20) U: Total points awarded (100) |NAME |ADDRESS |DESIGNATION | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | ==================================================================== |Luther W. Vest | | | | | | | | | | |Blacksburg, Va. | G | 1 | 5.0g|2.5g|0.0g|2.5g| 46kg| 49.6| 0.0| |Vest hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |G. W. Manahan | | | | | | | | | | |Sabillasville. Md. | G | 1 | 7.8g|3.8g|2.3g|3.4g| 99kg| 48.5| 61.2| |Manahan hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Eugene J. Clark | | | | | | | | | | |Ludlow, Mass. | G | 2 | 6.5g|2.6g|0.0g|2.6g| 83kg| 40.8| 0.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Ralph T. Olcott | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |GxB| 2 | 6.9g|4.0g| .7g|3.6g| 46kg| 57.5| 17.6| |Laney hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Snyder Bros. | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. |GxB| 2 | 7.6g|3.6g|1.8g|3.6g| 64kg| 48.1| 49.5| |Fairbanks hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mort Sturts | | | | | | | | | | |Hazel Dell, Ill. | G | 3 | 4.7g|2.2g|1.2g|2.2g| 49kg| 46.1| 55.6| |Hickory No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Howard G. Barnes | | | | | | | | | | |Fayetteville, O. | G | 4 | 5.0g|2.6g|2.6g|2.6g| 79kg| 51.4|100.0| |Hickory No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. C. Beam | | | | | | | | | | |Mt. Oreb, O. | G | 4 | 3.7g|1.9g| .6g|1.9g| 43kg| 50.0| 33.3| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Charles Swaim | | | | | | | | | | |South Bend, Ind. | G | 4 | 5.1g|2.4g|2.3g|2.4g| 42kg| 47.5| 97.2| |Swaim hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- G. E. Beaver | | | | | | | | | | |Millerstown, Pa. |GxB| 5 | 6.7g|3.4g|0.0g|3.4g| 29kg| 50.3| 0.0| |Beaver hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mrs. Augusta Patton| | | | | | | | | | |Walnut Hill. Ill. | G | 5 | 6.5g|2.7g|2.2g|2.5g| 77kg| 40.5| 81.6| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. C. Beam | | | | | | | | | | |Mt. Oreb, O. | G | 6 | 4.6g|1.9g|1.2g|1.7g| 33kg| 41.9| 61.8| |Hickory No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. C. Beam | | | | | | | | | | |Mt. Oreb, O. | G | 6 | 4.8g|1.6g| .8g|1.6g| 68kg| 33.4| 46.9| |Hickory No. 7 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |James L. Glover | | | | | | | | | | |Shelton, Conn. | G | 6 | 5.0g|1.9g|1.8g|1.9g|106kg| 38.6| 94.7| |Hickory No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |James L. Glover | | | | | | | | | | |Shelton, Conn. | G | 6 | 4.7g|1.9g| .9g|1.9g| 68kg| 40.0| 50.0| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. |GxL| C | 8.8g|3.1g|1.5g|3.1g|102kg| 35.3| 48.1| |Weiker hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Sarah Kronk | | | | | | | | | | |Minford. O. | G | 6 | 4.2g|1.6g|1.3g|1.6g|140kg| 37.6| 83.6| |Hickory No. 3 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mort Sturts | | | | | | | | | | |Hazel Dell, Ill. | G | 6 | 5.6g|2.3g|1.4g|2.3g| 52kg| 41.0| 61.4| |Hickory No. 3 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |W. C. Deming | | | | | | | | | | |Wilton. Conn. | G | 7 | 5.5g|2.9g|1.4g|2.9g| 63kg| 52.8| 48.3| |Terpenny hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |William Gobble | | | | | | | | | | |Holston, Va. | G | 7 | 9.7g|3.9g| .2g|3.9g|142kg| 40.6| 5.1| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |W. P. Griffin | | | | | | | | | | |Creal Spring, Ill. | G | 7 | 5.2g|2.0g|1.5g|2.0g|113kg| 38.5| 75.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Kate Yawger | | | | | | | | | | |Port Byron, N. Y. | G | 7 | 4.9g|1.9g| .2g|1.9g| 95kg| 39.0| 11.4| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Kate Yawger | | | | | | | | | | |Port Byron, N. Y. | G | 7 | 6.0g|2.4g|1.8g|2.0g|121kg| 39.1| 76.3| |Hickory No. 4 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. C. Beam | | | | | | | | | | |Mt. Oreb, O. | G | 8 | 3.6g|1.5g| .5g|1.5g| 45kg| 43.2| 34.4| |Hickory No. 4 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Sarah Kronk | | | | | | | | | | |Minford, O. | G | 8 | 3.1g|1.3g| .6g|1.3g| 82kg| 41.3| 4.7| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Reuben J. Kurtz | | | | | | | | | | |Holly, Mich. | G | 8 | 4.4g|1.7g|1.1g|1.6g|111kg| 39.4| 64.0| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. Pomeroy | | | | | | | | | | |Windsor, Conn. | G | 8 | 6.8g|2.4g|1.2g|2.2g| 78kg| 35.9| 50.0| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |R. C. Hatch | | | | | | | | | | |Central City, Ia. | B | | 4.7g|3.1g| .2g|3.1g| 19kg| 65.0| 6.5| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |Willard G. Bixby | | | | | | | | | | |Baldwin, N. Y. | B | | 2.3g|1.6g| .0g|1.3g| 13kg| 69.0| 0.0| |Halesite bitternut | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |S. A. Sipe | | | | | | | | | | |Carthage, Ind. | L | |19.2g|5.9g|1.2g|2.9g|138kg| 30.7| 20.5| |Stanley hickory | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------- |NAME |ADDRESS |DESIGNATION | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | ======================================================================= |Luther W. Vest | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Blacksburg, Va. |100.0| 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 20| 0 | 4 | 9 | 20| 75| |Vest hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |G. W. Manahan | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Sabillasville. Md. | 90.5| 5 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 17| 3 | 4 | 9 | 20| 75| |Manahan hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Eugene J. Clark | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Ludlow, Mass. |100.0| 4 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 20| 0 | 4 | 7 | 20| 74| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Ralph T. Olcott | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | 90.4| 5 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 17| 0 | 3 | 11| 18| 74| |Laney hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Snyder Bros. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. |100.0| 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 20| 2 | 3 | 9 | 15| 74| |Fairbanks hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mort Sturts | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hazel Dell, Ill. |100.0| 3 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 20| 2 | 3 | 8 | 18| 73| |Hickory No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |Howard G. Barnes | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Fayetteville, O. |100.0| 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 20| 5 | 2 | 10| 15| 72| |Hickory No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. C. Beam | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Mt. Oreb, O. |100.0| 2 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 20| 1 | 2 | 9 | 20| 72| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Charles Swaim | | | | | | | | | | | | | |South Bend, Ind. |100.0| 4 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 20| 4 | 3 | 9 | 15| 72| |Swaim hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- G. E. Beaver | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Millerstown, Pa. |100.0| 4 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 2 | 9 | 15| 71| |Beaver hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mrs. Augusta Patton| | | | | | | | | | | | | |Walnut Hill. Ill. | 92.8| 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 18| 4 | 2 | 7 | 18| 71| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. C. Beam | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Mt. Oreb, O. | 87.8| 3 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 16| 3 | 2 | 7 | 20| 70| |Hickory No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. C. Beam | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Mt. Oreb, O. |100.0| 3 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 20| 2 | 3 | 5 | 20| 70| |Hickory No. 7 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |James L. Glover | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Shelton, Conn. |100.0| 3 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 20| 4 | 3 | 6 | 20| 70| |Hickory No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |James L. Glover | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Shelton, Conn. |100.0| 3 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 20| 2 | 2 | 7 | 20| 70| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. |100.0| 5 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 20| 2 | 3 | 5 | 18| 70| |Weiker hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Sarah Kronk | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Minford. O. |100.0| 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 20| 4 | 3 | 6 | 18| 70| |Hickory No. 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mort Sturts | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Hazel Dell, Ill. |100.0| 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 20| 3 | 2 | 7 | 15| 70| |Hickory No. 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |W. C. Deming | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Wilton. Conn. |100.0| 4 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 20| 2 | 1 | 10| 15| 69| |Terpenny hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |William Gobble | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Holston, Va. |100.0| 6 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 3 | 20| 0 | 2 | 7 | 20| 69| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- W. P. Griffin | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Creal Spring, Ill. |100.0| 4 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 20| 3 | 3 | 6 | 20| 69| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Kate Yawger | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Port Byron, N. Y. |100.0| 3 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 20| 0 | 3 | 6 | 20| 69| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Kate Yawger | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Port Byron, N. Y. | 82.6| 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 15| 3 | 4 | 6 | 20| 69| |Hickory No. 4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. C. Beam | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Mt. Oreb, O. |100.0| 2 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 20| 1 | 1 | 7 | 20| 68| |Hickory No. 4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Sarah Kronk | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Minford, O. |100.0| 2 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 20| 0 | 4 | 7 | 18| 68| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Reuben J. Kurtz | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Holly, Mich. | 93.0| 2 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 18| 3 | 3 | 6 | 18| 68| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. Pomeroy | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Windsor, Conn. | 88.6| 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 17| 2 | 3 | 5 | 20| 68| |Hickory No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |R. C. Hatch | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Central City, Ia. |100.0| 3 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 9 | 20| 0 | 2 | 13| 0| 58| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |Willard G. Bixby | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Baldwin, N. Y. | 80.1| 1 | 5 | 3 | 3 | 10| 15| 0 | 2 | 15| 0| 54| |Halesite bitternut | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- |S. A. Sipe | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Carthage, Ind. | 49.5| 8 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 7| 1 | 3 | 4 | 15| 54| |Stanley hickory | | | | | | | | | | | | | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- The abbreviations used under the species column are G for shagbark (Carya ovata), L for shellbark (Carya laciniosa), and B for bitternut (Carya cordiformis). Where two letters appear with an x between it means that the nut in question is a hybrid between the two species. Following out the plan adopted last year (when no prizes were offered for specific species of hickories) when a nut other than a shagbark sent judged by the hickory standard received sufficient points to put it among the prize winners, a special class was made for that. Some of the nuts in the above list are disqualified for receiving prizes as they are being "propagated." This term has been somewhat difficult of definition and in default of action of the Association or of some committee appointed for the purpose I have held it to mean those nuts which are listed in the catalog of any nurseryman. That is to say, a nut is eligible for prizes more than one year, and the mere growing a few grafted or budded trees of a variety and distributing them privately does not constitute "propagation" in the sense that the word is used in the nut contests. As soon, however, as any nurseryman considers a variety of sufficient merit so that he lists it is his catalog or in any printed supplement to a catalog and states that he can furnish grafted or budded trees of this variety, from that time on it is debarred from receiving the prizes offered annually. Other hickories were received from: D. S. Bassett, Fisherville, Mass. E. C. Beam, Mt. Orab, Ohio. (Nuts No. 5, No. 6). W. F. Cook, Moscow, Ky. W. E. Cornell, 302 Stewart Ave., Ithaca, N. Y. F. N. Decker, Syracuse, N. Y. (Nuts No. 1, No. 2). Joan Deming, Danbury, Conn., Route 2. F. Earland Gilson, Groton, Mass. Wm. H. Kuhne, Woodbury, Conn. Reuben J. Kurtz, Holly, Mich., R. No. 3, Box 32. Harvey Losee, Upper Red Hook, N. Y. Mrs. F. A. Patch, West Townsend, Mass, Box 77. E. Pomeroy, Windsor, Conn. (Nut No. 1). Ruth A. Reeves, Newark, N. Y. Snyder Bros., Center Point, Ia. (Nut No. 1, seedling). Mort Stuarts, Hazel Dell, Ill. (Nuts No. 4, No. 5, No. 6). Walter K. Wilson, Watertown, Conn., Lock Box 2. Kate Yawger, Port Bryon, N. Y. (Nut No. 1). Grant Yeagley, Jamestown, Penn., R. R. No. I. BLACK WALNUTS--51 ENTRIES The prize winning black walnuts exhibited and the prizes awarded are noted in the table of page 154. There is but one species of walnuts of the black walnut class native in the north eastern United States, the eastern black walnut, _Juglans nigra_. In this contest specimens of the Texas black walnut, _Juglans rupestris_, and of the California black walnut, _Juglans hindsii_ were entered. Tests on these two black walnuts are noted for the purpose of record although no characteristics of value were noted. The California black walnut has a smoother shell than the eastern black walnut. The Texas black walnut has beautiful willowy foliage and grows very late in the fall and holds its leaves much longer than the other walnuts and it is of dwarf habit of growth. Tests on the Werner black walnut are noted because it is the largest black walnut we have. The black walnuts sent in this year were much poorer on the whole than those exhibited in some years. Some well known trees bore scarcely a nut. Some well known propagated black walnuts were tested but only two of them tested out high enough to get into the prize winning class, the Thomas and Ten Eyck. From what we know of the variation of nuts particularly of black walnuts, it is evident that we must test black walnuts more than one year to get a good idea of their value. The nut sent in by John S. Bomberges is particularly noticeable on account of the unusually fine flavor of the kernel and would seem to be a standard of excellence for black walnut kernels. Other black walnuts received from: William A. Agner, Rockport, Ind., R. F. D. No. 1. George A. Ede, Cobden, Ill. M. H. Hoover, Lockport, N. Y. C. S. Ketchum, Middlefield, Ohio. (Nuts No. 1, 3, 5, 11, 12). A. H. Lang, 1628 Collingwood Ave., Toledo, Ohio, (Nut No. 1). James E. Ripley, Tippecanoe, O., R. F. D. No. 2. (Nut No. 2). S. A. Toy, Freeman, W. Va. (Nut No. 1). G. G. Truman, Perrysville, Ohio. Box 167. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Peanut black walnut. Ira C. Wilson, New Truxton, Mo. BLACK WALNUTS KEY: A: Species B: Prize awarded C: Average weight of nut D: Average weight of kernel E: Average weight of kernel that dropped out after cracking F: Average weight of kernel that could be easily picked out with fingers after cracking G: Average cracking pressure H: Proportion of kernel I: Cracking quality absolute J: Cracking quality commercial K: Size (10) K: Form (5) M: Color of shell (5) N: Husking quality (5) O: Thinness of shell (10) P: Cracking quality commercial (20) Q: Cracking quality absolute (5) R: Color of kernel (5) S: Proportion of kernel (15) T: Quality of kernel (20) U: Total points awarded (100) |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | ======================================================================== |C. S. Ketchum | | | | | | | | | | |Middlefield, O. | B | 1 |14.1g|3.6g|2.9g|3.6g|185kg| 25.5| 80.5| |Nut No. 10 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |John S. Bomberges | | | | | | | | | | |Lebanon, Pa. | B | 2 |16.4g|3.9g|2.5g|3.4g|208kg| 23.8| 64.1| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Henry Hicks | | | | | | | | | | |Westbury, N. Y. | B | 3 |13.6g|3.1g|1.6g|3.1g|222kg| 22.8| 51.6| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Amy A. Alley | | | | | | | | | | |Lagrangeville, N.Y. | B | 4 |15.8g|3.3g|2.1g|3.3g|177kg| 20.9| 53.7| |Not the 1918 prize nut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |James E. Ripley | | | | | | | | | | |Tippecanoe, O. | B | 4 |26.7g|6.3g|3.7g|6.3g|247kg| 23.6| 58.8| |Nut No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Snyder Bros. | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. | B | |19.7g|4.7g|3.6g|3.9g|247kg| 23.9| 76.6| |Thomas black walnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |A. H. Lang | | | | | | | | | | |Toledo, O. | B | 5 |20.5g|4.6g|2.9g|4.1g|313kg| 22.4| 63.1| |Nut No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Kate Yawger | | | | | | | | | | |Port Byron, N. Y. | B | 5 |20.3g|4.5g|2.4g|3.8g|291kg| 22.2| 53.4| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |E. M. Ten Eyck | | | | | | | | | | |So. Plainfield, N. J. | B | |16.7g|3.5g|1.8g|3.1g|154kg| 21.0| 51.5| |Ten Eyck black walnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |C. S. Ketchum | | | | | | | | | | |Middlefield, O. | B | 6 |20.1g|4.7g|2.4g|3.5g|297kg| 23.4| 51.2| |Nut No. 9 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |S. A. Toy | | | | | | | | | | |Freeman, W. Va. | B | 7 |21.9g|5.5g|1.6g|3.9g|225kg| 20.5| 29.1| |Nut No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Arnold Arboretum | | | | | | | | | | |Jamaica Pl'n., Mass. | R | | 6.1g|0.9g|0.7g|0.8g|357kg| 14.8| 67.8| |From Rochester, N. Y. | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |G. Hunger | | | | | | | | | | |Tolhouse, Calif. | C | |22.3g|5.0g|1.9g|3.1g|407kg| 22.4| 38.0| |California black walnut| | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Edward A. Werner | | | | | | | | | | |Marion, Ia. R5 | B | |30.4g|6.5g|1.4g|2.5g|353kg| 21.4| 21.5| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | =========================================================================== |C. S. Ketchum | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Middlefield, O. |100.0| 2 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 7 | 20| 4 | 4 | 7 | 18| 71| |Nut No. 10 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |John S. Bomberges | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lebanon, Pa. | 87.1| 3 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 16| 3 | 4 | 5 | 23| 69| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Henry Hicks | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Westbury, N. Y. |100.0| 1 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 6 | 20| 2 | 4 | 5 | 20| 68| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Amy A. Alley | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lagrangeville, N.Y. |100.0| 2 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 7 | 20| 3 | 4 | 3 | 18| 67| |Not the 1918 prize nut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |James E. Ripley | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Tippecanoe, O. |100.0| 8 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 20| 2 | 3 | 5 | 15| 67| |Nut No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Snyder Bros. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. | 83.0| 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 15| 3 | 3 | 5 | 20| 67| |Thomas black walnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |A. H. Lang | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Toledo, O. | 89.2| 5 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 17| 3 | 2 | 4 | 20| 64| |Nut No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Kate Yawger | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Port Byron, N. Y. | 84.5| 5 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 16| 2 | 4 | 4 | 20| 64| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. M. Ten Eyck | | | | | | | | | | | | | |So. Plainfield, N. J. | 88.6| 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 8 | 17| 2 | 2 | 4 | 15| 62| |Ten Eyck black walnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |C. S. Ketchum | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Middlefield, O. | 74.5| 5 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 13| 2 | 3 | 5 | 18| 61| |Nut No. 9 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |S. A. Toy | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Freeman, W. Va. | 71.0| 5 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 12| 1 | 2 | 3 | 20| 60| |Nut No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Arnold Arboretum | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Jamaica Pl'n., Mass. | 89.0| 1 | 4 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 17| 3 | 1 | 0 | 15| 51| |From Rochester, N. Y. | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |G. Hunger | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Tolhouse, Calif. | 62.0| 6 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 0 | 10| 1 | 2 | 4 | 20| 57| |California black walnut| | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Edward A. Werner | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Marion, Ia. R5 | 38.4|10 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 4| 1 | 4 | 4 | 20| 51| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The abbreviations used under the species column are: B for Black walnut (Juglans nigra), C for California black walnut (Juglans hindsii), R for (Juglans rupestris). [TN: last column in row 11 corrected to 51 from 49] BUTTERJAPS--BUTTERNUTS, JAPAN WALNUTS, AND HYBRIDS--33 ENTRIES The butternut and Japan walnuts and hybrids between them are grouped together as they were last year although but one hybrid appeared this year. The need of a name to include these is apparent and the name butterjaps to include butternuts, Japan walnuts, and hybrids between them is used this year following out last year's suggestion. It was a very poor year for these nuts, many well known trees bearing no crop at all. The one hybrid exhibited which was sent in as a curiosity not for the purpose of being entered in the contest but it is interesting to note that it took a prize, although not a high one. The prize winning nuts and prizes awarded are noted in the table on page 156. Other butternuts received from: C. Delp, Morrison, Ohio. (Nut No. 4). Snyder Bros., Center Point, Ia. (Fairbanks butternut). G. G. Truman, Perrysville, Ohio. (Nuts No. 2, 3). Other Japan walnuts received from: L. H. & P. J. Jr. Berckmans, 1213 Lamar Bldg., Augusta, Ga. BUTTERNUTS KEY: A: Species B: Prize awarded C: Average weight of nut D: Average weight of kernel E: Average weight of kernel that dropped out after cracking F: Average weight of kernel that could be easily picked out with fingers after cracking G: Average cracking pressure H: Proportion of kernel I: Cracking quality absolute J: Cracking quality commercial K: Size (10) K: Form (5) M: Color of shell (5) N: Husking quality (5) O: Thinness of shell (10) P: Cracking quality commercial (20) Q: Cracking quality absolute (5) R: Color of kernel (5) S: Proportion of kernel (15) T: Quality of kernel (20) U: Total points awarded (100) |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | ======================================================================== |G. G. Truman | | | | | | | | | | |Perrysville, O. | B | 1 | 9.6g|1.6g|1.1g|1.6g|280kg| 16.8| 67.8| |Nut No. 5 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |C. Delp | | | | | | | | | | |Morrison, O. | B | 2 |17.2g|2.7g|2.7g|2.7g|320kg| 15.7|100.0| |Nut No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |S. W. Snyder | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. | B | 2 |19.5g|3.4g|2.6g|3.4g|348kg| 17.4| 76.5| |Pumfrey 2nd | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |C. Delp | | | | | | | | | | |Morrison, O. | B | 3 |13.3g|2.4g|2.4g|2.4g|326kg| 18.0|100.0| |Nut No. 3 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |C. Delp | | | | | | | | | | |Morrison, O. | B | 4 |12.6g|2.1g|2.1g|2.1g|308kg| 16.7|100.0| |Nut No. 5 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Joe P. Wilson | | | | | | | | | | |Landon, Miss. |SxB| 5 |12.4g|2.4g|0.7g|1.8g|244kg| 19.4| 28.1| |Butterjap | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Wm. H. Kuhne | | | | | | | | | | |Woodbury, Conn. | B | 6 | 8.7g|1.7g|1.0g|1.6g|232kg| 19.0| 59.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |C. Delp | | | | | | | | | | |Morrison, O. | B | 7 |10.7g|2.1g| .0g|1.5g|250kg| 19.6| 0.0| |Nut No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |S. W. Snyder | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. | B | 7 |17.5g|3.1g|1.3g|1.8g|300kg| 17.7| 42.0| |Pumfrey 1st | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Postmaster | | | | | | | | | | |Balsam, N. C. | B | 8 |13.9g|2.2g|0.6g|1.6g|249kg| 16.0| 27.2| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |G. G. Truman | | | | | | | | | | |Perrysville, O. | B | |22.6g|3.3g|0.2g|1.9g|320kg| 14.6| 6.0| |Nut No. 4 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |G. G. Truman | | | | | | | | | | |Perrysville, O. | B | |14.4g|2.3g|0.5g|1.1g|293kg| 15.7| 22.1| |Nut No. 1, Round shape | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | =========================================================================== |G. G. Truman | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Perrysville, O. |100.0| 4| 1 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 20| 3 | 4 | 3 | 20| 67| |Nut No. 5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |C. Delp | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Morrison, O. |100.0| 8| 0 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 20| 5 | 3 | 3 | 18| 63| |Nut No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |S. W. Snyder | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. |100.0| 10| 0 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 20| 3 | 2 | 3 | 20| 63| |Pumfrey 2nd | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |C. Delp | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Morrison, O. |100.0| 6| 1 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 20| 5 | 3 | 4 | 15| 61| |Nut No. 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |C. Delp | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Morrison, O. |100.0| 5| 0 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 20| 5 | 2 | 3 | 18| 60| |Nut No. 5 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Joe P. Wilson | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Landon, Miss. | 72.7| 6| 1 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 9| 1 | 4 | 5 | 20| 57| |Butterjap | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Wm. H. Kuhne | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Woodbury, Conn. | 94.3| 3| 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 18| 2 | 2 | 5 | 15| 55| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |C. Delp | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Morrison, O. | 71.5| 4| 1 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 11| 0 | 3 | 5 | 18| 52| |Nut No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |S. W. Snyder | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. | 58.0| 9| 0 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 8| 2 | 2 | 4 | 20| 52| |Pumfrey 1st | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Postmaster | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Balsam, N. C. | 73.9| 7| 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 9| 1 | 3 | 3 | 18| 50| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |G. G. Truman | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Perrysville, O. | 57.5| 12| 0 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 7| 0 | 3 | 2 | 18| 47| |Nut No. 4 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |G. G. Truman | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Perrysville, O. | 47.7| 7| 1 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 0| 1 | 2 | 3 | 15| 37| |Nut No. 1, Round shape | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The abbreviations used under the species column are: B for butternut (Juglans cinerea), SxB for Siebold walnut, x butternut hybrid (Juglans Sieboldiana x cinerea). JAPAN WALNUTS KEY: A: Species B: Prize awarded C: Average weight of nut D: Average weight of kernel E: Average weight of kernel that dropped out after cracking F: Average weight of kernel that could be easily picked out with fingers after cracking G: Average cracking pressure H: Proportion of kernel I: Cracking quality absolute J: Cracking quality commercial K: Size (10) K: Form (5) M: Color of shell (5) N: Husking quality (5) O: Thinness of shell (10) P: Cracking quality commercial (20) Q: Cracking quality absolute (5) R: Color of kernel (5) S: Proportion of kernel (15) T: Quality of kernel (20) U: Total points awarded (100) |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | ======================================================================== |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. | H | 1 | 7.6g|2.2g|1.8g|2.2g| 79kg| 28.3| 83.8| |Stranger Heartnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. | H | 2 | 4.8g|1.4g|0.8g|1.4g| 79kg| 29.7| 52.7| |Tokio Heartnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |O. F. Witte | | | | | | | | | | |Amherst, O. | H | 3 | 5.1g|1.5g|1.5g|1.5g|178kg| 29.6|100.0| |Heartnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. | H | 4 | 7.2g|1.8g|1.5g|1.8g|172kg| 25.2| 80.2| |Heartnut near Mobile | | | | | | | | | | | pecan | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |O. F. Witte | | | | | | | | | | |Amherst, O. | S | 4 | 8.5g|2.2g|1.8g|2.2g|260kg| 25.9| 81.9| |Siebold walnut No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Joe P. Wilson | | | | | | | | | | |Landon, Miss. | ? | 4 | 9.8g|2.7g|0.9g|1.9g| 75kg| 27.6| 31.1| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |O. F. Witte | | | | | | | | | | |Amherst, O. | S | 5 | 5.7g|1.5g|1.1g|1.5g|215kg| 26.3| 73.3| |Siebold walnut No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |O. D. Faust | | | | | | | | | | |Bamberg, S. C. | H | 6 | 9.0g|2.8g|0.5g|2.4g|234kg| 31.1| 17.8| |Heartnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |L. J. Bryant & Son | | | | | | | | | | |Newark, N. Y. | S | 7 | 6.8g|1.7g|0.9g|1.1g|138kg| 26.1| 55.8| |Siebold walnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |O. D. Faust | | | | | | | | | | |Bamberg, S. C. | S | 8 | 8.7g|1.9g|0.0g|1.7g|142kg| 22.5| 0.0| |Siebold walnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. |HxP| |12.2g|2.8g|1.3g|2.2g|419kg| 22.6| 46.4| |Cording walnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. |PxS| |13.0g|2.2g|0.0g|0.5g|370kg| 16.9| 0.0| |Siebosian walnut | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | =========================================================================== |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. |100.0| 2 | 4 | 2 | 5 | 9| 20| 4 | 3 | 11| 18| 78| |Stranger Heartnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. | 97.2| 0 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 9| 19| 4 | 3 | 12| 18| 76| |Tokio Heartnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |O. F. Witte | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Amherst, O. |100.0| 1 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 6| 20| 5 | 4 | 12| 15| 74| |Heartnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. |100.0| 2 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 8| 20| 4 | 3 | 9| 15| 72| |Heartnut near Mobile | | | | | | | | | | | | | | pecan | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |O. F. Witte | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Amherst, O. |100.0| 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 3| 20| 4 | 4 | 10| 18| 72| |Siebold walnut No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Joe P. Wilson | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Landon, Miss. | 72.6| 4 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 10| 12| 1 | 3 | 11| 20| 72| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |O. F. Witte | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Amherst, O. |100.0| 1 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 5| 20| 3 | 4 | 10| 15| 69| |Siebold walnut No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |O. D. Faust | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Bamberg, S. C. | 85.6| 3 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 4| 15| 0 | 3 | 13| 18| 68| |Heartnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |L. J. Bryant & Son | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Newark, N. Y. | 66.3| 2 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 7| 10| 2 | 3 | 10| 18| 64| |Siebold walnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |O. D. Faust | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Bamberg, S. C. | 88.8| 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 7| 16| 0 | 1 | 7| 18| 63| |Siebold walnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. | 78.2| 5 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 0| 13| 2 | 2 | 8| 20| 60| |Cording walnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |R. Bates | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Jackson, S. C. | 22.7| 1 | 0 | 3 | 4 | 0| 0| 0 | 1 | 3| 15| 27| |Siebosian walnut | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The abbreviations under the species column are: H for heartnut (Juglans cordifornis), S for Siebold walnut (Juglans Sieboldiana), HxP for heartnut x Persian walnut hybrid (Juglans cordifornis x regia), PxS for Persian walnut x Siebold walnut hybrid (Juglans regia x Sieboldiana). In the case of hybrids the species first named is the pistillate parent. PECANS--13 VARIETIES Some very good northern pecans were sent in to the 1918 contest and two of them are deemed worthy of experimental propagation. One of these Dunn No. 1, had a particularly delicious flavor and the other the Koontz, was also a desirable nut. They are not large but are almost exactly the size of the Moore pecan, a southern variety now attracting a good deal of attention. Specimens of three nuts of larger size were received, the Norton, McCallister and Kline, but not in sufficient quantity to test. The weights are given for reference. Tests of nine standard southern pecans are also shown. It will be noticed that the best pecans sent to the 1919 contest compare very favorably with these fine southern pecans, only the Schley being shown superior. The northern pecans are generally smaller than the southern, have lighter colored shell and lighter colored kernel, flavor every bit as good, and shell just as thin. The prize winning nuts and the prizes awarded are shown in the table on page 158. The results of tests of southern pecans is inserted with some hesitation. These pecans are judged by the same score cards as are the northern pecans which is the one used for hickories. Inasmuch as the pecans, both northern and southern, are judged by the same standards, it is hoped that the figures may be of some value. The writer makes no claim to being an expert on the southern pecan and does not wish these figures taken as his opinion on the relative merits of southern pecans, which have been grown in orchard form long enough so that regularity of bearing, size of crops, resistance to disease, etc., have been determined to a considerable extent. These are of such importance to the practical pecan grower as to overbalance to quite an extent the merits of the nut itself which are the only qualities that can be considered in a nut contest. Other pecans received from: G. M. Brown, Van Buren, Ark. J. H. Burkett, Clyde, Texas. (Young grafted tree). Mrs. W. W. Evans, Blackwell, Okla. Mr. J. B. Shultz, Fulton, Ark. Snyder Bros., Center Point, Ia. (Pumfrey 1st, 2nd). PECANS KEY: A: Species B: Prize awarded C: Average weight of nut D: Average weight of kernel E: Average weight of kernel that dropped out after cracking F: Average weight of kernel that could be easily picked out with fingers after cracking G: Average cracking pressure H: Proportion of kernel I: Cracking quality absolute J: Cracking quality commercial K: Size (10) K: Form (5) M: Color of shell (5) N: Husking quality (5) O: Thinness of shell (10) P: Cracking quality commercial (20) Q: Cracking quality absolute (5) R: Color of kernel (5) S: Proportion of kernel (15) T: Quality of kernel (20) U: Total points awarded (100) |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | ======================================================================== |D. K. Dunn | | | | | | | | | | |Wynne, Ark. | P | 1 | 5.8g|3.2g|0.0g|3.2g| 34kg| 55.1| 0.0| |Pecan No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |E. J. Koontz | | | | | | | | | | |Richards, Mo. | P | 2 | 5.6g|3.1g|0.0g|3.1g| 35Kg| 55.4| 0.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |J. F. Clifford | | | | | | | | | | |Crossville, Ill. | P | 3 | 5.0g|2.4g|1.1g|1.7g| 53kg| 48.0| 45.8| |Prolific | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |J. F. Clifford | | | | | | | | | | |Crossville, Ill. | P | 4 | 4.4g|2.6g|1.3g|2.6g| 61kg| 59.1| 50.0| |Sweetmeat | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |D. K. Dunn | | | | | | | | | | |Wynne, Ark. | P | 5 | 6.3g|3.1g|0.0g|3.1g| 38kg| 49.3| 0.0| |Pecan No. 3 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Mrs. Maida R. Wears | | | | | | | | | | |Rich Hill, Mo. | P | 5 | 3.1g|1.5g|1.4g|1.4g| 21kg| 45.3| 93.2| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |S. W. Snyder | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. | P | 5 | 3.6g|2.0g|0.0g|2.0g| 34kg| 55.5| 0.0| |Oberman | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |D. K. Dunn | | | | | | | | | | |Wynne, Ark. | P | 6 | 5.4g|2.7g|0.0g|2.7g| 31kg| 50.0| 0.0| |Pecan No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |A. G. Shanklin | | | | | | | | | | |Clemson College, S. C. | P | 7 | 5.1g|2.6g|0.4g|2.6g| 64kg| 51.0| 15.4| |---- | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |Mrs. Addie G. Evans | | | | | | | | | | |Blackwell, Okla. | P | 8 | 5.0g|2.0g|0.0g|2.0g| 35kg| 40.0| 0.0| | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 8.1g| | | | | | | |Norton | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- |PxL| |17.7g| | | | | | | |McCallister | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- |PxL| |22.0g| | | | | | | |Klein | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | =========================================================================== |D. K. Dunn | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Wynne, Ark. |100.0| 4 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 4 | 11| 20| 79| |Pecan No. 1 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |E. J. Koontz | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Richards, Mo. |100.0| 4 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 5 | 11| 17| 78| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Clifford | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Crossville, Ill. | 70.8| 4 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 12| 2 | 5 | 9| 17| 77| |Prolific | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Clifford | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Crossville, Ill. |100.0| 3 | 5 | 2 | 5 | 5 | 20| 2 | 4 | 12| 17| 75| |Sweetmeat | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |D. K. Dunn | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Wynne, Ark. |100.0| 4 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 4 | 9| 18| 74| |Pecan No. 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mrs. Maida R. Wears | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rich Hill, Mo. | 93.2| 2 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 8 | 18| 4 | 5 | 8| 17| 74| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |S. W. Snyder | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Center Point, Ia. |100.0| 2 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 5 | 11| 15| 74| |Oberman | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |D. K. Dunn | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Wynne, Ark. |100.0| 4 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 4 | 9| 15| 72| |Pecan No. 2 | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |A. G. Shanklin | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Clemson College, S. C. |100.0| 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 20| 0 | 4 | 10| 15| 71| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mrs. Addie G. Evans | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Blackwell, Okla. |100.0| 4 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 5 | 7| 15| 70| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Norton | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |McCallister | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Klein | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Standard Southern Varieties KEY: A: Species B: Prize awarded C: Average weight of nut D: Average weight of kernel E: Average weight of kernel that dropped out after cracking F: Average weight of kernel that could be easily picked out with fingers after cracking G: Average cracking pressure H: Proportion of kernel I: Cracking quality absolute J: Cracking quality commercial K: Size (10) K: Form (5) M: Color of shell (5) N: Husking quality (5) O: Thinness of shell (10) P: Cracking quality commercial (20) Q: Cracking quality absolute (5) R: Color of kernel (5) S: Proportion of kernel (15) T: Quality of kernel (20) U: Total points awarded (100) |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | ====================================================================== |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 9.5g|5.9g|0.0g|5.9g| 29kg| 62.1| 0.0 | |Schley | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 8.6g|4.8g|0.0g|4.8g| 28kg| 55.8| 0.0 | |Burkett | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 5.8g|2.9g|0.0g|2.9g| 25kg| 50.0| 0.0 | |Moore | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 8.3g|5.4g|0.0g|5.4g| 39kg| 54.3| 0.0 | |Alley | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | |10.1g|4.9g|0.0g|4.9g| 98kg| 48.5| 0.0 | |Delmas | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 7.8g|3.5g|0.0g|3.5g| 20kg| 44.9| 0.0 | |Moneymaker | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 8.7g|3.9g|0.0g|3.9g| 59kg| 44.8| 0.0 | |Pabst | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 8.8g|4.1g|0.0g|4.1g| 56kg| 46.6| 0.0 | |Stuart | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | |---- | P | | 8.1g|3.9g|0.0g|8.9g| 96kg| 48.2| 0.0 | |Vandeman | | | | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | ========================================================================= |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 6 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 3 | 13| 20| 82| |Schley | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 5 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 20| 0 | 4 | 11| 18| 78| |Burkett | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 4 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 8 | 20| 0 | 4 | 9| 18| 78| |Moore | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 5 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 20| 0 | 3 | 11| 19| 77| |Alley | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 6 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 20| 0 | 4 | 9| 20| 76| |Delmas | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 5 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 8 | 20| 0 | 3 | 8| 18| 76| |Moneymaker | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 5 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 20| 0 | 3 | 8| 19| 74| |Pabst | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 5 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 20| 0 | 3 | 8| 18| 72| |Stuart | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | |---- |100.0| 5 | 5 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 20| 0 | 3 | 9| 18| 72| |Vandeman | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- The abbreviations used under the species column are: P for pecan (Carya pecan), PxL for pecan x shellbark hybrid (Carya pecan x laciniosa). HAZELS--6 ENTRIES This is the first time I have had opportunity of testing Rush hazel which was found by Mr. Rush 35 years ago, but which, so far as I know, has never been propagated in the sense in which the word is used in the contests where it means listed in the catalog of some nurseryman who is prepared to furnish grafted or budded or layered plants. The value of this hazel is now being recognized and doubtless it will not be long that this will be the case for it is by far the best American hazel now known. The prize winning nuts and the prizes awarded are shown in the table on page 160. Following the list of American hazels are 9 varieties of Mr. Conrad Vollertsen's, Rochester, N. Y., most of them of German origin. These are given with their German names. These names are given here for convenience for readers and only for that, for they violate one of the rules followed in naming nuts. They will be referred to the nomenclature committee at its next session. Following Mr. Vollertsen's hazels are five standard market hazels grown on the Pacific coast which are noted as matters of record. It will be noted that the White Aveline hazel has been placed higher than the Barcelona when judged by the score card used. Inasmuch as orchards of White Aveline hazels in the Pacific northwest are being replaced by Barcelona and Duchilly because White Aveline nuts are too small to be saleable commercially, it was questioned as to whether the score card was not at fault and whether much more emphasis should not be put on size and less on quality than is the case with the score card used. Inasmuch as the same score card has been used for all nuts except where it seemed entirely unadapted (because when this was done the figures have a value they otherwise would not in expressing the relative value of each species) it seems very desirable this common score card be retained for as many nuts as possible. There are some notable instances where fruits commercially important do not rank highest in quality, e. g., the Elberta peach, Ben Davis apple, and Kiefer pear, therefore it is thought better not to emphasize size too strongly in the case of hazels. It is only fair to state, however, that much less work has been put on judging hazels than on some other nuts and perhaps our ideas will have to be revised later. HAZELS KEY: A: Species B: Prize awarded C: Average weight of nut D: Average weight of kernel E: Average weight of kernel that dropped out after cracking F: Average weight of kernel that could be easily picked out with fingers after cracking G: Average cracking pressure H: Proportion of kernel I: Cracking quality absolute J: Cracking quality commercial K: Size (10) K: Form (5) M: Color of shell (5) N: Husking quality (5) O: Thinness of shell (10) P: Cracking quality commercial (20) Q: Cracking quality absolute (5) R: Color of kernel (5) S: Proportion of kernel (15) T: Quality of kernel (20) U: Total points awarded (100) |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | ========================================================================== |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. | Am | 1 | 2.1g|1.0g|1.0g|1.0g| 39kg| 45.7| 100.0| |Rush hazel | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Miss Louise Littlepage | | | | | | | | | | |Bowie, Md | Am | 2 | 2.7g| .8g| .8g| .8g| 59kg| 28.3| 100.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. W. Strassel | | | | | | | | | | |Rockport, Ind | Am | 2 | 1.9g| .7g| .7g| .7g| 36kg| 36.5| 100.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mrs. Priscilla Randall | | | | | | | | | | |Freeport, O. | Am | 3 | 1.8g| .4g| .4g| .4g| 51kg| 22.7| 100.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Luther W. Vest | | | | | | | | | | |Blacksburg, Va. | Am | 4 | 1.8g| .6g| .6g| .6g| 49kg| 31.8| 100.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |William H. Kuhne | | | | | | | | | | |Woodbury, Conn. | Am | 5 | 1.4g| .4g| .4g| .4g| 50kg| 27.9| 100.0| |---- | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | ? | | 2.2g| .9g| .9g| .9g| 46kg| 41.4| 100.0| |Medium Long | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | P | | 2.8g|1.1g|1.1g|1.1g| 57kg| 40.4| 100.0| |Italienische Rothe | | | | | | | | | | | Zeller | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | M | | 2.3g| .8g| .8g| .8g| 42kg| 35.6| 100.0| |Lambertnuss Rothe | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | M | | 2.5g| .9g| .9g| .9g| 49kg| 37.4| 100.0| |Merveille de Bollwiller| | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | M | | 2.2g| .9g| .9g| .9g| 60kg| 40.5| 100.0| |Lambertnuss Weisse | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | P | | 1.7g| .8g| .8g| .8g| 58kg| 20.4| 100.0| |Gunzelebener Zeller | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | Av | | 1.8g| .7g| .7g| .7g| 63kg| 37.7| 100.0| |Althaldensleben | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | Av | | 1.9g| .8g| .8g| .8g| 70kg| 41.6| 100.0| |Grosse Kugelnuss | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. | P | | 2.1g| .7g| .7g| .7g| 49kg| 32.6| 100.0| |Minna's Zeller | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. | | | 3.1g|1.6g|1.6g|1.6g| 33kg| 51.0| 100.0| |Daviana | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. | | | 2.1g|1.1g|1.1g|1.1g| 26kg| 49.3| 100.0| |White Aveline | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. | | | 4.8g|2.1g|2.1g|2.1g| 79kg| 42.5| 100.0| |Noce Lunghe | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. | | | 3.5g|1.2g|1.2g|1.2g| 51kg| 33.1| 100.0| |Imperial | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. | | | 4.8g|1.8g|1.8g|1.8g| 42kg| 41.8| 100.0| |Barcelona | | | | | | | | | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- |NAME |ADDRESS |DESCRIPTION | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | =========================================================================== |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. |100.0| 3| 4 | 3 | 5 | 7| 20| 2 | 4 | 12| 18| 78| |Rush hazel | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Miss Louise Littlepage | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Bowie, Md |100.0| 4| 3 | 2 | 5 | 3| 20| 4 | 4 | 2| 15| 62| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. W. Strassel | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rockport, Ind |100.0| 2| 3 | 1 | 5 | 8| 20| 3 | 1 | 7| 12| 62| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Mrs. Priscilla Randall | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Freeport, O. |100.0| 2| 3 | 2 | 5 | 5| 20| 4 | 5 | 0| 15| 61| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Luther W. Vest | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Blacksburg, Va. |100.0| 2| 3 | 0 | 5 | 5| 20| 2 | 2 | 4| 15| 58| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |William H. Kuhne | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Woodbury, Conn. |100.0| 1| 3 | 3 | 5 | 5| 20| 1 | 3 | 2| 10| 53| |---- | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 3| 5 | 5 | 5 | 6| 20| 3 | 5 | 9| 20| 81| |Medium Long | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 4| 5 | 5 | 5 | 4| 20| 3 | 4 | 9| 20| 79| |Italienische Rothe | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Zeller | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 3| 5 | 5 | 5 | 7| 20| 4 | 4 | 6| 18| 77| |Lambertnuss Rothe | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 3| 5 | 4 | 5 | 5| 20| 4 | 4 | 7| 18| 75| |Merveille de Bollwiller| | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 3| 5 | 5 | 5 | 3| 20| 3 | 3 | 9| 18| 74| |Lambertnuss Weisse | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 1| 5 | 4 | 5 | 4| 20| 1 | 3 | 9| 20| 72| |Gunzelebener Zeller | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 2| 5 | 5 | 5 | 3| 20| 4 | 5 | 7| 15| 71| |Althaldensleben | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 2| 5 | 4 | 5 | 1| 20| 2 | 3 | 10| 15| 67| |Grosse Kugelnuss | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |Conrad Vollertsen | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Rochester, N. Y. |100.0| 3| 5 | 5 | 5 | 5| 20| 1 | 3 | 5| 15| 67| |Minna's Zeller | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. |100.0| 5| 5 | 4 | 5 | 8| 20| 4 | 3 | 15| 20| 89| |Daviana | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. |100.0| 3| 5 | 3 | 5 | 10| 20| 5 | 3 | 14| 20| 88| |White Aveline | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. |100.0| 10| 5 | 4 | 5 | 0| 20| 4 | 3 | 10| 18| 79| |Noce Lunghe | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. |100.0| 6| 5 | 4 | 5 | 5| 20| 2 | 3 | 5| 18| 78| |Imperial | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |J. F. Jones | | | | | | | | | | | | | |Lancaster, Pa. |100.0| 8| 5 | 3 | 5 | 7| 20| 2 | 0 | 10| 20| 70| |Barcelona | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- The abbreviations used under the species column are: Am for American hazel (Corylus Americana), Av for Corylus Avellana, a European, species, M for Corylus maxima, a European species, P for Corylus pontica, a European species. It seems quite probable that many of the European varieties noted above are hybrids and not pure species. The species identification of the European varieties are those of Mr. Conrad Vollertsen. PERSIAN WALNUTS--5 ENTRIES The prize winning nuts and the prizes awarded are shown in the table on page 154. This is the first time that I have had opportunity to test some of the propagated Persian walnuts. The results shown are given for what they are worth. A sufficient number of Persian walnuts have not as yet been examined to enable us to determine the constants so that they are as valuable as they will be later, and as they are on the hickories, black walnuts, and butternuts where hundreds of nuts have been examined. Consequently, conclusions based on the figures in the table should be conservatively drawn. The position of the Franquette at the bottom of the list of the propagated nuts it is believed will be materially changed with the redetermination of the constants that an examination of a large number of nuts would require. OBSERVATIONS The number of entries in the 1919 contest was about 50% greater than in 1918. No hickories, no black walnuts or butternuts deemed worthy of experimental propagation appeared as was the case in 1918, but on the other hand, two pecans, the Dunn No. 1 and Koontz, it is believed, are well worth while propagating experimentally even though the Dunn nut comes from a somewhat more southern section than the other northern pecans now being propagated. The need for additional heartnuts makes it seem advisable to propagate experimentally the Stranger heartnut, even though it comes from Jackson, S. C., a section so far south that the southern pecan grows and bears well. The contest has helped to bring out the value of the Rush hazel, which has been propagated experimentally for a long time but which, so far as I know, has never been offered to the public by nurserymen. The following standards for hickories have been established: The largest nut found so far is still the Mott shellbark, which Dr. Morris found a number of years ago and which weighs 29.6g. The Vest hickory, which among the seemingly pure shagbarks, had the record of the thinnest shell up to the 1918 contest, has been surpassed by the Beam No. 1 of the 1919 contest, which takes but 33kg to crack the shell. The figure is surpassed by one bitternut hybrid the Beaver 29kg, and by the Hatch bitternut 19kg, and the Halesite bitternut 13kg. The Vest of the 1914 crop is still the seemingly pure shagbark with the largest percentage of kernel 57.7%. This is surpassed by the Hatch bitternut 65.0%, and the Halesite bitternut 69.0%. No hickory has been found to surpass the Vest in the excellence of flavor of the kernel. One hickory, the Barnes, 1919 contest, showed 100% cracking quality. The following standards for black walnuts have been established. The Armknecht No. 2 which held the record last year has been surpassed by the Werner with a weight of 30.4g. The thinnest shelled one is still the Alley of the 1918 contest, with a cracking pressure of 110kg, although the Ten Eyck of the 1918 contest was only slightly higher, 120kg. The record for the greatest proportion of kernel is still with the Ten Eyck of the 1918 contest 36.4%. The Ten Eyck black walnut exhibited in 1919 had no such records of thinness of shell or proportion of kernel. The Stabler is believed to be the best cracker but the Alley of the 1918 contest showed 100%. The Bomberges black walnut of the 1919 contest showed unusually fine quality of kernel and is believed to hold the record for quality of kernel so far. The following standards for butterjaps (i. e., butternuts, Japan walnuts and their hybrids) have been established. The Wasson butternut which held the record for size heretofore 18.8g has been surpassed by two nuts Pumfrey No. 2, 19.5g and Truman No. 4, 22.6g. The same high cracking quality among the pure butternuts noted last year still continues. The Ritchie heartnut of the 1918 contest still holds the record for percentage of kernel, 32.7%. One pure butternut, the Kuhne of the 1919 contest, with 19% kernel has been found. The Aiken butternut 200kg cracking pressure is the thinnest shelled pure butternut yet found. The thinnest shelled Japan walnut yet found is the Wilson Seibold walnut of the 1919 contest, 75kg cracking pressure. The following standards for pecans have been established (including the pecan x shellbark hybrids which generally resemble pecans in flavor and appearance and would be classed with them). Largest, the Klein, 22.0g in weight. Of the pure northern pecans the Norton, 8.1g in weight is the largest. Of the pure southern pecans tested the Delmas 10.1g in weight is the largest. Of the northern pecans the greatest percentage of kernel yet found is the Clifford "Sweetmeat" of the 1919 contest, 57.6% of kernel, followed closely by the Koontz, 56.1% and the Dunn, 55.5%. Of the southern pecans the Schley, 62%, leads. The thinnest shelled northern pecan yet tested is the Wears of the 1919 contest, 21kg cracking pressure; the thinnest southern pecan is the Burkett, 27kg followed closely by the Schley 29kg. The finest flavored among the northern pecans is Dunn No. 1, which has a kernel which is exceptionally delicious. The finest flavored among the southern pecans is the Schley. The following standards for hazels have been established. The largest American hazel yet found is the Littlepage 2.7g but the Rush, although a smaller nut has a larger kernel 1.0g against .8g for the Littlepage. The Rush also has a greater proportion of kernel, 45.7%, than any other native hazel yet tested or any foreign one excepting the White Aveline which has 49.3%. The thinnest shelled American hazel is the Rush 39kg and the thinnest shelled foreign one, the White Aveline 26kg. Those who have given the matter consideration are thoroughly convinced of the great possibilities of systematic hybridization of nut trees. Work of this kind will have to be carried on according to carefully thought out plans, the details of which are not yet quite clear in all particulars. The facts brought out by this contest have added to our knowledge of what may be expected from our work. Take the hickory for example; we have shellbark hickory nuts nearly three times the size of the best southern pecans; we have bitternut hickory nuts with a proportion of kernel greater than that of any pecan and with shell so thin, that they can be cracked with less pressure than any pecans I have ever seen; we have in the best shagbarks, flavor of kernel unsurpassed in any nut. Theoretically, it should be possible to produce nuts in which these qualities are combined to a large degree. Similar possibilities exist with the butternut and the Japan walnut where it is seemingly possible to produce nuts in which the qualities of both will be combined and get smooth, thin-shelled butternuts or well flavored Japan walnuts or desirable butterjaps, as I am inclined to call them. An inspection of the table of hickories show that 4 out of the 28 receiving 68 points or over, are certainly hybrids. There are a number of others where it seems very probable that they are hybrids. There are a number of facts to suggest that some of our very thin shelled hickories, which at first sight seem to be shagbarks, are hybrids of which the shellbark or mockernut is one parent. Why the offspring of such thick shelled nuts as the shellbark or the mockernut and the shagbark should be thin shelled, is more than I can imagine. We have two occurrences however which are significant. On the list of Japan walnuts two hybrids of the Persian and Japan walnut, Cording and Siebosian are noted. I have never tested a Persian walnut where the cracking pressure runs much over 40kg and it is rather unusual for a Japan walnut to run much over 200kg, yet Cording is 419kg, a strength of shell greater than that of any other nut sent into the contest this year and which is only found among black walnuts and shellbark hickories. Siebosian is not very much less. If two comparatively thin shelled nuts will produce an offspring with a shell so much thicker than either parent, it does not seem more impossible for two thick shelled nuts to produce thin shelled offsprings. 
20770	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) * * * * * +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the original | | document have been preserved. | | | | Obvious typographical errors have been corrected in this | | text. For a complete list, please see the end of this | | document. | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * APPLE GROWING APPLE GROWING BY M.C. BURRITT NEW YORK OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY MCMXII COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY. All rights reserved. PREFACE In the preparation of this book I have tried to keep constantly before me the conditions of the average farm in the Northeastern States with its small apple orchard. It has been my aim to set down only such facts as would be of practical value to an owner of such a farm and to state these facts in the plain language of experience. This book is in no sense intended as a final scientific treatment of the subject, and if it is of any value in helping to make the fruit department of the general farm more profitable the author will be entirely satisfied. The facts herein set down were first learned in the school of practical experience on the writer's own farm in Western New York. They were afterwards supplemented by some theoretical training and by a rather wide observation of farm orchard conditions and methods in New York, Pennsylvania, the New England States and other contiguous territory. These facts were first put together in something like their present form in the winter of 1909-10, when the writer gave a series of lectures on Commercial Fruit Growing to the Short Courses in Horticulture at Cornell University. These lectures were revised and repeated in 1910-11 and are now put in their present form. The author's sincere thanks are due to Professor C.S. Wilson, of the Department of Pomology at Cornell University, for many valuable facts and suggestions used in this book, and for a careful reading of the manuscript. He is also under obligations to Mr. Roy D. Anthony of the same Department for corrections and suggestions on the chapters on Insects and Diseases and on Spraying. M.C. BURRITT. Hilton, N.Y. February, 1912. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES 11 II. PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD 18 III. PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD 30 IV. PRUNING THE TREES 48 V. CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING 62 VI. MANURING AND FERTILIZING 78 VII. INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE 92 VIII. THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING 108 IX. HARVESTING AND STORING 127 X. MARKETS AND MARKETING 142 XI. SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS 153 XII. THE COST OF GROWING APPLES 164 APPLE GROWING CHAPTER I THE OUTLOOK FOR THE GROWING OF APPLES The apple has long been the most popular of our tree fruits, but the last few years have seen a steady growth in its appreciation and use. This is probably due in a large measure to a better knowledge of its value and to the development of new methods of preparation for consumption. Few fruits can be utilized in as many ways as can the apple. In addition to the common use of the fresh fruit out of hand and of the fresh, sweet juice as cider, this "King of Fruits" can be cooked, baked, dried, canned, and made into jellies and other appetizing dishes, to enumerate all of which would be to prepare a list pages long. Few who have tasted once want to be without their apple sauce and apple pies in season, not to mention the crisp, juicy specimens to eat out of hand by the open fireplace in the long winter evenings. Apples thus served call up pleasant memories to most of us, but only recently have the culinary possibilities of the apple, especially as a dessert fruit, been fully realized. It is doubtless this realization of its great adaptability, together with its long season, which have brought the apple into so great demand of late. It is possible to have apples on the table in some form the year round. The first summer apples are almost always with us before the bottom of the Russet barrel is reached. Or, should the fresh fruit be too expensive or for some reason fail altogether, the housewife can fall back on the canned and dried fruit which are almost as good. The tendency in the price of this staple fruit has been constantly upward during the last decade. Many people are greatly surprised when the fact that apples cost more than oranges is called to their attention. The increase in consumption, due to the greater variety of ways of preparing the apple for use, has undoubtedly been an important factor in this higher price. But at least an equally important factor is the marked decrease in the supply of this fruit. To those who are not familiar with the facts, the great falling off in production which the figures show will be no less than startling. PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN BARRELS IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1896 TO 1910 1896 69,070,000 1897 41,530,000 1898 28,570,000 1899 37,460,000 1900 56,820,000 ----------- Total crop for five years 233,450,000 Average crop for five years 46,690,000 1901 26,970,000 1902 46,625,000 1903 42,626,000 1904 45,360,000 1905 24,310,000 ------------ Total crop for five years 185,891,000 Average crop for five years 37,178,200 1906 38,280,000 1907 29,540,000 1908 25,850,000 1909 25,415,000 1910 23,825,000 Total crop for five years 142,910,000 ------------ Average crop for five years 28,582,000 Estimates of 1896, 1897, and 1898 from "Better Fruit," Vol. 5, No. 5. All other years from the estimates of the "American Agriculturist." It will thus be seen that the apple crop of 1910 was 45,245,000 barrels less than that of 1896, and that during the whole period of fifteen years the decline has been regular. The average annual crop of the five year period ending with 1905 was 9,511,800 barrels less than the average annual crop of the preceding five years ending with 1900, and correspondingly the annual average crop of the last five years, ending with 1910, was 8,596,200 barrels less than that of the second five year period. Comparing the first and the last five year periods, we find that the crop of the last was 18,108,000 barrels less than that of the first. These facts alone are enough to explain the higher price of this fruit during the last ten years. HEAVY PLANTINGS.--Moreover, it should be further noted that this falling off in the apple crop has been in the face of the heaviest plantings ever known in this country. During the last ten years old fruit growing regions like western New York have practically doubled their orchard plantings. Careful figures gathered by the New York State Agricultural College in an orchard survey of Monroe County show that 4,972 more trees (21,289 in all) were planted in one representative township during the five year period from 1904 to 1908 inclusive than were ever planted in any other equal period in its history. New fruit regions like the Northwestern States and a large part of the Shenandoah valley of Virginia have been developed by heavy plantings. These three are all great commercial sections. To them we might add thousands of orchards which are scattered all over the Northern and Eastern States, from Michigan to Maine and from Maine to north Georgia. It is doubtful, however, if these scattered plantings have made good the older trees which have died out. Scarcely a season passes that hundreds of these old veteran trees are not blown down or badly broken. Every wind takes its toll. After one of these windstorms in Southern New York the writer estimated that at least twenty per cent of all the standing old apple trees had been destroyed or badly broken. In the commercial regions only a small part of the new plantings have yet come to bearing and even here these probably do not much more than make good the losses of old trees. So that on the whole, heavy as our plantings have been, it is extremely doubtful if they have very much more than made good the losses of the older trees throughout the country. It is a fact worthy of note that this talk of over-planting the apple has been going on for over thirty years, and while the timid ones talked those who had faith in the business and the courage of their convictions planted apples and reaped golden harvests while their neighbors still talked of over-planting. Whether or not it is true that we have over-planted the apple, it must be admitted that at the present time the demand is so much greater than the supply that the poorer of our people cannot afford to use apples commonly, and that no class of farmer in the Northeastern States is more prosperous than the fruit growers. The new plantings must of necessity begin to bear and become factors in the market very slowly. Meanwhile the great opportunity of the present lies in making the most possible out of the older orchards which are already in bearing. Practically all of these old farm orchards which can present a fairly clean bill of health, and in which the varieties are desirable, can with a small amount of well directed effort be put to work at once and during the next ten years or more of their life time, they may be made to add a substantial income to that of the general farm. Now is a time of opportunity for the owner of the small farm apple orchard. FUTURE OF APPLE GROWING.--In the writer's opinion the future of apple growing in the United States is likely to shape itself largely in the great commercial regions. As these become more and more developed and as the industry becomes more specialized the farmer who is merely growing apples as a side line, except where he is delivering directly to a special or a local market, will be crowded out. Here as elsewhere it will be a case of the survival of the fittest. In the production of apples commercially those growers who can produce the best article the most cheaply are bound to win out in the end. It would, therefore, seem to be advisable for the general farmer to plant apples only under two conditions; first, when he has a very favorable location and site and plants heavily enough to make it worth while to have the equipment and skilled labor necessary to make the enterprise a success, and second, when he can market his fruit directly in a local market. It would appear that the immediate future of apple growing in the United States lies in the small farm orchard as well as in the commercial orchards, but that the more distant future lies in the commercial orchard except where special conditions surround the farm. CHAPTER II PLANNING FOR THE ORCHARD LOCATION.--Having decided that under certain conditions the planting of an apple orchard will prove a profitable venture, and having ascertained that those conditions prevail on your farm, the next step will be to determine the best location on the farm for the orchard. In choosing this location it will be well to keep in mind the relative importance of the orchard in the scheme of farm management. If the orchard is merely a source of home supply, naturally it will not require as important a position on the farm as will be the case if it is expected to yield a larger share of the farm income. If the relatively large net income per acre which it is possible to obtain from an apple orchard is to be secured, the best possible location is demanded. Contrary to the common ideas and practice of the past, the orchard should not be put upon the poorest soil on the farm. The best orchards occupy the best soils, although fairly good results are often obtained on poor or medium soils. The relative importance which is attached to the orchard enterprise must also govern the choice of soil. If apples are to be a prominent crop they should be given the preference as to soil; if not, they may be given a place in accordance with what is expected of them. SOILS.--In general, the apple prefers a rather strong soil, neither very heavy nor very light. Subsoil is rather more important than surface soil, although the latter should be friable and easily worked. The apple follows good timber successfully. Heavy clay soils are apt to be too cold, compact, and wet; light sandy soils too loose and dry. A medium clay loam or a gravelly clay loam, underlaid by a somewhat heavier but fairly open clay subsoil is thought to be the best soil for apples. Broadly considered, medium loams are best. The lighter the soil the better will be the color of the fruit as a rule, and so, also, the heavier the soil and the more nitrogen and moisture it holds the greater the tendency to poorly colored fruit. In the same way light soils give poorer wood and foliage growth as compared with the large rank leaves and wood of trees on heavy, rich soils. VARIETAL SOIL PREFERENCES are beginning to be recognized. We cannot go into these in detail in this brief discussion. A few suggestions regarding standard varieties must suffice. Medium to light loams or heavy sandy loams, underlaid by slightly heavier loams or clay loams, are preferred by the Baldwin, which has a wider soil adaptation than practically any other variety. Baldwin soils should dry quickly after a rain. Rhode Island Greening requires a rather rich, moist, but well drained soil, containing an abundance of organic matter. A light to heavy silty loam, underlaid by a silty clay loam, is considered best. Northern Spy is very exacting in its soil requirements. A medium loam, underlaid by a heavy loam or a light clay loam, is excellent. Heavy soils give the Spy a greasy skin. Light soils cause the tree to grow upright and to bear fruit of poor flavor. The King likes a soil slightly lighter than the best Greening soils, but retentive of moisture. Hubbardson will utilize the sandiest soil of any northern variety, preferring rich, fine, sandy loams. The particular location of the apple orchard is largely a matter of convenience. It should be remembered, however, that the apple requires much and constant attention, therefore the orchard should be convenient of access. The product is rather bulky, so that the haul to the highway should be as short as possible. Other conditions being equally good there, the common location near the buildings and highway is best. THE SITE OF THE ORCHARD is a more important matter. Two essentials should be kept in mind, good air drainage and a considerable elevation. Although it is not so apparent and therefore less thought about, cold air runs down hill the same as water. Being heavier, it falls to the surface of the land, flowing out through the water channels and settling in pockets and depressions. Warm air, being lighter, rises. It is desirable to avoid conditions of stagnant air or cold air pockets where frost and fogs are liable to occur. A free movement of air, especially a draining away of cold air, is best secured by an elevation. Fifty to one hundred feet, or sometimes less, is usually sufficient, especially where there is good outlet below. Frosts occur in still, clear air and these conditions occur most frequently in the lower areas. Aspect or slope requires less attention. Southern exposures are warm and hasten bud development and opening in spring. Northern exposures are cold and retard the blossoming period. It is usually advisable to plant the apple on the colder slopes which hold it back in spring until all danger of late frosts is past. Northeast exposures are best as a general rule. Choose a slope away from the prevailing wind if possible. If this is impracticable it is often advisable to plant a wind break of pine, spruce, or a quick, thick growing native tree to protect the orchard from heavy winds. A large body of water is an important modifier of climate. Warming up more slowly in the spring, it retards vegetation by slowly giving up its cold. Vice versa, cooling more slowly in the fall giving up its heat wards off the early frosts. It is therefore desirable to locate near such bodies of water if possible. Their influence varies according to their size and depth, and the distance of the orchard from them. Good examples of this influence are the Chautauqua Grape Belt on the eastern shore of Lake Erie and the Western New York Apple Belt on the south shore of Lake Ontario. Professor Brackett has well summed up the whole question: "The selection of the soil and site for the apple orchard is not governed by any arbitrary rule," he says. "All farms do not afford the best soils or exposures for orchards. The owners of such as do not are unfortunate, yet they should not feel discouraged to the extent of not planting trees and caring for them afterward." There are a number of factors which influence not only a person who wishes to locate, but one already located, either favorably or unfavorably. About these even the most intelligent orchardists often differ. We have only laid down general principles and given opinions. Here as elsewhere application is a matter of judgment. VARIETIES.--A proper soil and a good location and site having been selected, the next important question to be decided is the varieties to be planted. So much and so variable advice is given on this question that many persons are at a loss as to what to plant and too often decide the matter by planting the wrong varieties. Rightly viewed, the question of varieties is a comparatively simple one. Personal preference, tempered by careful study of certain factors and good judgment, are all that are required. Beginners, especially, are too apt to rely entirely on another's opinion. The only safe way is to learn the facts and then decide for yourself. We have already indicated that soil is a determinant in the choice of varieties. This should be absolute. It is very unwise to try to grow any variety on a soil where experience has shown that it does not do well. The experience of your neighbors is the best guide in this respect. The limitations of climate should also be carefully heeded. An apple may be at its best in one latitude or one situation and at its worst in another. Find out from experienced growers in your region, or from your State Experiment Station what varieties are best adapted climatically to the place where you live. It is an excellent rule never to plant a variety that you cannot grow at least as well as any one else, or still better, to plant a variety that you can grow better than anyone else. Grow something that not everyone can grow. Do not try to produce more of a variety of which there is already an over supply. A few examples may make this more clear. Western New York is the home of the Baldwin, the Twenty Ounce and the King. Albemarle Pippins grown on the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge are famous. The Spitzenburg appears at its best in the Northwest. The Northern Spy, the McIntosh, and the Fameuse are not to be excelled as they are grown in the Champlain Valley, in Vermont, or in Maine. To attempt to compete with these sections in the growing of these varieties, except under equally favorable conditions, would be foolish. Your section probably grows some varieties to perfection. Find out what these varieties are and plant them. All these are general factors to be observed which cannot be specifically settled without knowing the soil and particular locality. Certain other factors governing the choice of varieties can be more definitely outlined. If the prospective orchardist will get these factors thoroughly in mind and apply them with judgment mistakes in planting should be much more rare. The more important ones are: The purpose for which the fruit is intended to be used, whether for the general market, a dessert or fancy trade, or for culinary and general table use; whether the trees are to be permanent and long lived, or temporary and used as fillers; whether the earliest possible income is desired or whether this is to be secondary to the future development of the orchard; whether the stock of the particular variety is strong or weak growing; whether the variety is high, medium, or low as to quality; and whether the market is to be local, distant, or export. The following tables were originally compiled by Professor C.S. Wilson of Cornell University. They have been slightly revised and modified for our purpose. We believe that they are essentially correct and that they will be a safe guide for the reader to follow in his selection of varieties: GENERAL MARKET APPLES DESSERT OR FANCY TRADE COMMERCIAL BOX WELL Baldwin McIntosh Ben Davis Northern Spy Hubbardson Fameuse Northern Spy Wagener King Grimes Golden Rome Beauty Yellow Newton Oldenburg Red Canada Alexander King Twenty Ounce Sutton Winesap Hubbardson York Imperial Esopus Spitzenburg CULINARY AND GENERAL TABLE USE Rhode Island Greening Grimes Golden Gravenstein Twenty Ounce Newtown Yellow Bellflower Alexander Oldenburg Tolman Sweet Sweet Winesap GOOD PERMANENT GOOD TEMPORARY TREES TREES--FILLERS Baldwin McIntosh Rhode Island Greening Wealthy Northern Spy Wagener McIntosh Rome Beauty *King Oldenburg *Twenty Ounce Jonathan *Hubbardson Alexander Alexander Twenty Ounce Rome Beauty Hubbardson * When this variety is set as a permanent tree it should be top worked on a hardier stock, such as Northern Spy. Age at which variety may be expected to begin to fruit. (Add two years for a paying crop). FIVE YEARS OR UNDER EIGHT YEARS AND UP Rome Beauty Esopus Spitzenburg Oldenburg Fall Pippin Maiden Blush Golden Russet Wagener Northern Spy Yellow Newton Baldwin McIntosh Gravenstein Fameuse Tolman Sweet King Rhode Island Gr. Twenty Ounce Winesap ESPECIALLY HARDY STOCKS POOR RATHER WEAK GROWERS* Northern Spy King Tolman Sweet Twenty Ounce Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg Baldwin Hubbardson Fameuse Grimes Golden Winter Banana Sutton Canada Red * Other varieties are medium. HIGH IN QUALITY LOCAL OR PEDDLER'S VARIETIES McIntosh Rhode Island Greening Esopus Spitzenburg Wealthy Northern Spy McIntosh Newtown Fameuse Gravenstein Tolman Sweet Red Canada Grimes Golden Fameuse Jonathan Grimes Golden Hubbardson GOOD GENERAL MARKET VARIETIES Rhode Island Greening Baldwin MEDIUM TO POOR QUALITY Rhode Island King Ben Davis Twenty Ounce Oldenburg McIntosh Rome Beauty Hubbardson Roxbury Russet Northern Spy GOOD EXPORT VARIETIES Baldwin Newtown Ben Davis Esopus Spitzenburg Northern Spy Jonathan Only the best and most common varieties for the more northern latitudes have been included in this list as it would make it too cumbersome to classify all our known varieties. It must be remembered that this is not an arbitrary classification and that it is made as a guide to indicate to the reader the general characteristics of the variety. It should be used as such and not taken literally. The characters of the different varieties grade into each other. For example, the McIntosh is very high and the Ben Davis is very low in quality but the King and the Twenty Ounce are neither very good nor very poor, but midway between. We must again remind the reader that the choice of varieties is a matter of judgment, tempered by the facts regarding them. One who is not capable of rendering such judgment after studying his conditions and the characteristics and requirements of leading varieties had better stay out of the apple business entirely, as he will often be called on for the exercise of good judgment in caring for the orchard. The facts here given are intended as suggestive. The reader who desires to know more of a particular variety will do well to consult Beach's "Apples of New York," published by the Geneva Experiment Station. CHAPTER III PLANTING AND GROWING THE ORCHARD The proper soil, site, and location having been selected, the solution of the problems of orchard management is only just begun, although a good start has certainly been made. Farm management brings constantly to one's attention new problems and new phases of old problems, whatever the type of farming. The skill with which these problems are met and a solution found for them determines the success or failure of the farm manager. To some men the details of the orchard business offer the greatest obstacles, while to others it is the general relationship of one detail to another which is difficult. Both are essentials of good management. If we are able in this chapter to remove some of these minor difficulties and at the same time indicate the correct relationships we will have accomplished our purpose. As we come now to the actual plans for planting our orchard many questions come up for answer. When shall I plant? Where and of whom shall I purchase my trees? How old should they be? Is it wise to use fillers or temporary trees, and if so, what kind? How far apart should the trees be planted and how many are required for an acre? What arrangement of the trees is most advisable? How should the ground be prepared? What is the best method of setting? When the trees are planted should they be inter-cropped, and if so, with what? How should the young trees be handled and cared for? He who would be a successful orchardist must endeavor to answer these questions. WHEN TO PLANT.--The question of fall or spring planting is a less important one with a comparatively hardy fruit like the apple than it is with a more tender fruit like the peach. Apples may safely be planted in the fall when soils are well drained and when the young trees are well matured, both of which are very important if winter injury is to be avoided. Fall planting has several distinct advantages. During the winter fall planted trees become well established in the soil which enables them to start root growth earlier in the spring. Consequently the young trees are better able to endure droughts. In the fall the weather is usually more settled and there is better opportunity to plant under favorable conditions than in the unsettled weather of spring. It is usually possible, too, to get a better selection of trees at the nursery in the fall because most of the trees are not sold until midwinter. Still the fact remains that the common practice of spring planting is the more conservative course. There is always danger of getting immature trees in the fall, and of winter injury to fall planted trees. Trees may be set in the fall any time after the buds are mature which is usually after October 1st to 18th in the latitude of New York. They should not be pruned back in the fall, as this invites winter killing of the uppermost buds. The question of available time must also be considered. On some farms fall offers more time; on others, spring. To sum up the matter, plant at the most convenient time, providing the conditions are favorable. WHERE TO BUY.--But one rule as to where to buy trees can be laid down. Buy where you can secure the best trees and where you can be sure of the most reliable and honest dealers. Beware of the tree agent, who has been guilty of more dishonesty and misrepresentation than almost any other traveling agent. Buy of a salesman under one condition only, that he prove to you that he is the bona fide representative of a well-known and reputable nursery firm, and then make your order subject to investigation of the firm's standing and finding it as represented. The safest course is usually to purchase of your home nurseryman with whose standing and honesty you are familiar, and whose trees you can personally inspect. Such a man has a reputation at stake and will have an object in keeping your trade. Moreover, you will save freight, secure fresher stock with less liability of injury in handling, and get trees grown under your own conditions. If stock is purchased away from home it is better to get it at a nursery in a more southern latitude in order to secure trees of better growth. All trees should be purchased in the late summer or early fall when the nurseryman has a full list of varieties and you can get the pick of his stock. Select a well grown mature tree two years old from the bud. One year old trees are preferred by many and if well grown and at least five feet high they are probably best. But a one year old tree is rather more delicate, requiring careful handling and intelligent training. Unless a person buys from a southern nursery and is an expert in handling trees, the two year old tree is to be preferred, but a skilful grower can make a more satisfactory tree from a one year old seedling. The average buyer must depend largely on his nurseryman for getting trees true to name, which is the reason for laying so much emphasis on purchasing from an honest dealer. Some nurserymen guarantee their varieties to be true to name, and all ought to do so. Buyers should demand it. The seeds of the apple rarely come true to the variety planted. They are therefore usually budded on one year old seedlings imported from France. Sometimes they are whole or piece root grafted which is equally as good a method of propagation. It is possible for a man to grow and bud or graft his own seedlings, but hardly advisable for the average small grower or general farmer, as it is usually expensive when done on a small scale and requires considerable skill. Always buy a high grade tree. Seconds are often equally as good as firsts when they are simply smaller as a result of crowding in the nursery row. A tree which is second grade because of being stunted, crooked, or poorly grown should never be set. Thirds are seldom worth considering at any price. FILLERS.--Whether or not the planter of an apple orchard should use fillers is a question which he alone must decide. In the writer's opinion there are more advantages than disadvantages in so doing, but we must state both sides of the question and let the reader judge for himself. The term "filler" is one used to designate a tree planted in the orchard for the temporary purpose of profitably occupying the space between the permanent trees while these are growing and not yet in bearing. Fillers make a more complete use of the land, bringing in larger as well as quicker returns from it, three distinct advantages. (See Chapter XII, The Cost of Growing Apples.) On the other hand, objections to their use are that they are often left in so long that they crowd and seriously injure the permanent trees, and that their care often requires different operations and at different times from the other trees, such as spraying, which may result in injury to the permanent trees in the orchard. Trees used as fillers for apples should have two important characteristics; they should be rapid, vigorous growers and should come into bearing at a very early age. Two kinds of fillers are available, those of the same species, which may be either dwarf or standard trees, and those of a different species, of which peaches and plums, and possibly pears, are the best adapted. Dwarf trees may be dismissed from our plans with the statement that they have rarely proved profitable under ordinary conditions, as they are much more difficult to grow than standards and when grown they have but few advantages over them. The varieties of standard apples which are advisable as fillers have been indicated in Chapter II. The use of peaches and the Japanese plums, both of which make excellent fillers because they grow rapidly and come to heavy bearing quickly, is limited to their soil and climatic adaptation. They are adapted to the lighter phases of soil and the more moderate climates and under other conditions are impracticable. On heavier soils and in more rigorous climates the European plums and the more rapid and early bearing pears, such as the Keiffer, make fairly good fillers. On the whole, the writer is inclined to advise the use of fillers in the general farm orchard. Quicker returns from an investment of this nature, which is usually heavy and which at best must be put off several years, are very important. Under careful and intelligent management the objections to their use are easily overcome. SPACING AND ARRANGEMENT OF TREES.--The distance apart of planting depends on the variety planted. Close headed, upright growing trees may be planted closer together than spreading varieties. Some varieties grow larger than others, and the same variety may vary in size on different soils. It is seldom advisable to plant standard apple trees in the latitude of New York closer than thirty feet, or farther apart than fifty feet. Trees of the nature of Twenty Ounce and Oldenburg (Dutchess) should be planted from thirty-two to thirty-six feet apart, while Baldwins, Rhode Island Greenings, and Northern Spies represent the other extreme and will require forty, and sometimes fifty feet of space. The method and thoroughness of pruning influences the size of trees greatly, and hence the distance at which It is necessary to set them. Varieties top worked on other stocks have a tendency to grow more upright and may be set closer together. It should be remembered in this connection that the roots of a tree extend considerably beyond the spread of the branches. From thirty-five to forty feet is a good average distance and trees should be trained so as to occupy this space and no more. Where fillers are used the latter distance is best, as the twenty feet apart at which the trees will then stand is close enough for any standard variety. RECTANGULAR.--The method of setting or the arrangement of the trees will greatly influence the number of trees which may be put upon an acre and the distance apart of the trees in the row. The most common method in the past has been the regular square or rectangular method, e.g., trees forty by forty feet, or forty by fifty feet, and rows at right angles, and this is still preferred by many. It is easy to lay out an orchard on this plan and there is less liability of making mistakes. It is best adapted to regular fields with right angle corners, especially where the orchard is to be cropped with a regular rotation. All tillage operations are most easily performed in orchards set on this plan. A slight modification of this arrangement which is often advisable, especially where fillers are used, is to set a tree in the center of the square. The trees then stand like the five spots of a domino, and the shortest distance between trees will be about twenty-seven feet when the trees in the regular rows are forty by forty feet apart. This plan practically doubles the number of trees which can be set on an acre. HEXAGONAL OR TRIANGULAR.--Another method of arrangement of the trees which is becoming more and more popular is the hexagonal or triangular system. More trees can be planted on an acre by this plan than by any other, it being very economical of space. It makes all adjacent trees equally distant from each other and is really a system of equilateral triangles. This plan is better adapted to small areas and especially to irregular ones, and should be employed where land is expensive and culture very intensive. It is more difficult to set an orchard after this method without error, and it is open to the objection of inconvenience in cultural operations. Most people forget that while the rows running cornerwise in a rectangular or square field set after this plan may be a standard distance apart, yet the right angle rows (not trees) in which it may be more convenient to work are actually much closer together. The best plan to follow to get the rows of trees straight on a level field is what is known as the outside stake method. This plan requires the placing of a row of stakes on each of the four sides of the field where the trees are to be set and usually about two rows each way through the middle. For this purpose ordinary building laths are best, about one hundred and fifty laths, or three bundles, being required for five acres, which is as large a unit as can be set at once by this plan. _First_, determine the distance from the road or fence to the first tree row, which would be at least eighteen feet to allow for turning the teams, and establish base lines on each side of the field at right angles to each other. _Second_, beginning at the given distance from the side of the field, set up a row of stakes along these base lines at the exact distance apart at which the trees are to be set and about half way between the fence and the first right angle row. Do the same on all sides of the field. _Third_, by sighting across the field from one end stake to the other the cross rows of stakes can be set through the middle of the field. These should be about six or eight rods apart, and care should be used to avoid setting them where they will interfere with the sighting of the right angle rows. This plan has the great merit of enabling the entire orchard to be set without moving a stake, as no stake stands where a tree is to be set. If the trees are set exactly where the sight lines cross at right angles and if all rows are an equal distance apart, the rows will be perfectly straight. On rough or rolling land this plan does not work well. Here more simple methods, though requiring more time, must be used. Lines drawn with a cord or marked across the field with a corn planter answer well for small areas. Poles of the right length are often used to good advantage. In setting trees after the hexagonal plan an equilateral triangle made of light poles or wire is probably best, especially on small rough areas, as it is very accurate, simple, and quite rapid. Some men prefer to make measurements and set a stake at every point where a tree is to be placed. In these cases a simple device locates the original stakes after the hole has been dug. A light board about six feet long with a notch in the center and holes with pegs in them at each end is placed with the notch at the stake. One end is then swung round and the hole dug. When the end is replaced on its peg the tree set in the hole should rest in the notch where the original stake did. The following table shows the number of trees required per acre at different distances for the square or rectangular method and for the hexagonal method. Sq. Hex. Sq. Hex. 12 � 12 302 344 24 � 24 75 80 12 � 15 242 ... 24 � 30 60 .. 15 � 15 193 224 30 � 30 48 56 15 � 18 161 ... 30 � 36 40 .. 15 � 20 145 ... 33 � 33 40 46 15 � 30 96 ... 30 � 48 30 .. 18 � 18 134 156 30 � 60 24 .. 18 � 20 121 ... 36 � 36 33 39 20 � 20 108 124 40 � 40 27 31 20 � 30 72 ... 40 � 50 21 .. It will be noted that the hexagonal plan allows the setting of from four to forty trees more per acre than the square plan, even when the trees are set the same distance apart. This is the great advantage of this plan over the square. Filling an orchard one way, i.e., between the permanent row, in one direction only, practically doubles the trees which can be set on an acre; filling both ways quadruples the number. PREPARATION OF SOIL.--The previous condition and treatment of a soil for an orchard are important. If the soil has been in a good rotation of field crops, including some cultivated crops, it should be in prime condition for the trees. Old pastures and meadows should be plowed up, cropped, and cultivated for a year or two before setting to obtain the best and quickest results. If one is in a hurry, however, this may be done after setting the trees. Good results are sometimes obtained by setting trees right among the stumps on recently cleared timberland. Where no stiff sod has formed the trees start quickly in the rich soil. The best immediate treatment of land preparatory to setting the trees should be such as to place the soil in good tilth. Deep plowing, thorough cultivation, and the application of liberal amounts of manure--twelve to fifteen loads per acre--are the most effective means of doing this. The best crop immediately to precede trees is clover. Sometimes an application of one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of lime will help to insure a stand of clover and at the same time improve the physical condition of the soil. Fall plowing is a good practice on the medium loams and more open soils, but on the heavy clays spring plowing is to be preferred, as when plowed in the fall these soils puddle and become hard to handle. Care should always be taken to keep the orchard well furrowed out as standing water is decidedly inimical to satisfactory tree-growth. Tile draining is frequently advisable. INTERCROPPING.--The question of intercropping a young orchard is one to be carefully considered. As it is often practiced it is very injurious to the orchard, but it is possible to manage crops so as to be of very little harm to the trees. While the practice may be inadvisable in many commercial orchards, yet on a general farm we should by all means think that it was the right thing to do. Certain facts must be remembered, however, which have a bearing on the subject. Trees are a crop, as much as corn or grass. If we grow a crop between the tree rows we must remember that we are double cropping the land and that it must be fed and cared for accordingly. There is absolutely no use in setting an apple orchard, expecting it to take care of itself, "just growing," like Topsy, as numerous dilapidated and broken down orchards bear ample testimony. If orchards are to be cropped this must be judiciously done with the trees primarily in mind. The best crops to grow in a young apple orchard are those requiring cultivation, or which permit the cultivation of the land early in the season. Field beans, potatoes, and garden truck of all kinds, as small vegetables, melons, etc., are among the very best crops to grow in the young orchard. Corn will do if it does not shade the trees too much. Small grain and grass should not be used, especially where they come up close to the trees. These crops form too stiff a sod and use up too much moisture. A mulch of straw, cut grass, or coarse manure will help to correct this condition somewhat when these crops must be used. After cultivation until midsummer buckwheat makes a satisfactory orchard crop in some cases. A regular rotation may be used in the young orchard to advantage when a space is left next the trees to receive cultivation. This space should be at least two feet on each side of the tree the first year and should be widened each year as the tree grows older and larger, to four, six, and eight feet. This method has been used by the author very successfully for a number of years. Some good rotations to use in a growing orchard are: (1) Wheat or rye one year, clover one year, beans or potatoes one year; (2) oats one year, clover one year, potatoes one year; (3) beans one year, rye plowed under in spring, followed by any cultivated crop one or two years. The essentials of a good rotation for an orchard are: A humus and fertility supplying crop, preferably clover, in the north, and cow peas in the south, and at least two crops in four requiring cultivation up to the middle of the summer. Most of the points regarding the management of young trees have already been mentioned, but a few others should have attention directed to them. Fall planted trees should not be cut back until spring. In the spring all newly planted trees should have their tops cut back rather severely to correspond with the injury to the roots in transplanting, thus preserving the balance between root and top. This will usually be about half to two-thirds the previous season's growth. From three to five well distributed branches should be left with which to form the top. During the first few years of their lives the young apple trees will need little or no pruning, except to shape them and remove crossing or interfering branches. Constant cultivation at frequent intervals until midsummer should be the rule with young growing trees, with which this is even more important than with older trees. It is a good plan to plow the orchard in fall where possible, always turning the furrows toward the trees, leaving the dead furrows as drainage ditches between the rows. At Beechwood Farm we have always banked the trees with earth in the fall, using a shovel. This not only firms the soil about the tree, holding it straight and strong through the winter, but it affords good protection against rodents, especially mice. Where rabbits are prevalent it is well to place a fine mesh wire netting around the trees in addition to this. CHAPTER IV PRUNING THE TREES Pruning is not an entirely artificial operation as one might at first thought suppose. It is one of nature's most common processes. Nature accomplishes this result through the principle of competition, by starting many more trees on a given area than can possibly survive. In the same way there is a surplus of buds and branches on each individual tree. It is only by the crowding out and the perishing of many buds, branches, and trees that others are enabled to reach maturity and fulfill their purpose. This being too slow and too expensive a process for him, man accomplishes in a day with the knife and saw what nature is years in doing by crowding, shading, and competition. Proper pruning is really an improvement on nature's method. Neither is it true, as some claim, that pruning is a devitalizing process. On the contrary it is often stimulating and may actually increase the vigor of a weak or declining tree. All practical experience teaches us that pruning is a reasonable, necessary, and advantageous process. True, it is often overdone, and improperly done. As in many other things, certain fundamental principles underlie and should govern practice. When these are known and observed, pruning becomes a more simple matter. Heavy pruning during the dormant or winter season stimulates the growth and tends to increase the production of wood. In the same way pruning during the summer or growing season stimulates the growth and tends to induce fruitfulness, if the tree remains healthy. But this fruitfulness is apt to be at the expense of the vigor of the tree. On the other hand, the pruning of the roots of a tree tends to check the growth of wood, the same as poor feeding. As above noted heading back a tree when dormant tends to stimulate it to a more vigorous growth. The habit of growth of a variety has much to do with its pruning. Some varieties of apples are upright, others are spreading growers. Climate and locality greatly affect these habits of growth. So also the habit of a young tree often differs from the habit of the same tree in old age. The tendency is for a tree to continue its growth from its uppermost or terminal buds. Although the heading in of new growth checks this upward tendency and throws the energy of the tree into the development of lateral and dormant buds, nevertheless the pruned tree soon resumes its natural upward growing habit. Plant food is taken up by the minute tree rootlets in solution and carried to the leaves where it is elaborated and then returned for use to the growing tissues of the tree. Whenever there is any obstruction above a bud the tendency is to throw the energy of the branch into a lateral bud, but if the obstruction is below the bud the branch merely thickens and growth is checked. When too heavy pruning is practiced the balance between the roots and top is disturbed. This usually results in what are commonly known as "suckers." These are caused by an abnormal condition and while they may be the result of disease or injury to the tree, they are often of great value in restoring or readjusting the proper balance between the roots and top. Pruning a tree is a way of thinning the fruit and a good one. It may sometimes be used to influence the bearing year of trees like the Baldwin, which have an alternate bearing habit, but this is a more theoretical than practical method. Fruit bearing is determined more by the habitual performance of the tree than by any method of pruning, and this is especially true of old trees. It is easier to influence young trees. Conditions which tend to produce heavy wood growth are unfavorable for the formation and development of fruit buds. A quiescent state is a better condition for this. REASONS FOR PRUNING.--With these fundamental principles in mind we may safely outline a method of pruning an apple tree. As the desired end is different so will the method of pruning a young tree differ from that of an old one. There are five important things for which to prune a young tree, namely: 1. To preserve a proper balance between the top and root at the time of setting out. This usually means cutting off the broken and the very long roots to a reasonable length and cutting back from one-half to two-thirds of the growth of the previous season. 2. To make the top open in order to admit the sunlight freely. In the humid climate of the Northeastern States, it is usually advisable to prune a tree so as to have a rather open top. This is necessary in order properly to color and mature the fruit. 3. To regulate the number of limbs composing the top. Probably three branches well distributed on the trunk would make most nearly the ideal head, but as these cannot always be obtained the best practice is to leave from three to five branches from which to form the top. 4. To fix the branches at the proper height from the ground. This is more or less a matter of opinion, some growers preferring a low and others a high head. The character of the tree growth, the method of culture, and the purpose of the tree whether temporary or permanent greatly influence the height of the head. An upright growing variety should be headed lower than a spreading one. Trees kept in sod or under extensive methods can well be headed lower than those under more intensive culture where it is desirable to carry on cultural operations close around them. Permanent trees should be headed higher than temporary trees. Apple trees should seldom be headed lower than a foot from the ground, nor more than four feet above it. For upright growing varieties intended as permanents, the writer prefers three to three and one-half feet and for more spreading varieties four feet; while for temporary trees eighteen inches should be a good height. 5. To do away with weak crotches and to remove crossing or interfering branches. A crotch formed by two branches of equal size, especially when the split is deep, is a weak crotch and should be avoided. Strong crotches are formed by forcing the development of lateral buds and making almost a right angle branch from the parent one. All branches which rub each other, which tend to occupy the same space with another, or which generally seem out of place, are better removed as soon as any of these tendencies are found to exist. IDEALS IN PRUNING.--The general method of pruning the old trees and the ideal in mind for it will also influence the pruning of the young tree, especially the shaping of it. Once determined upon, the ideal should be consistently followed out in the pruning of the tree as it becomes older. As the tree comes to bearing age it will be necessary to prune somewhat differently and for other purposes. These we can conveniently consider under six heads: 1. Every tree should be pruned with a definite ideal as to size, shape, and degree of openness in mind. To have such an ideal is very important. It is only by industriously and consistently carrying it out that the ideal tree in these respects can be ever obtained. Haphazard cutting and sawing without a definite purpose in mind are really worse than no pruning at all. 2. It almost goes without saying that to remove all dead, diseased, or injured wood is a prime purpose of pruning. Dead and injured branches open the way for rot and decay of contiguous branches, and disease spreads through the tree. The removal of all such branches is as essential to the health of the tree as it is to its good appearance. In removing them the cut should be made well behind the diseased or injured part to insure the checking of rot and disease. 3. All mature apple trees should be so pruned as to keep them in the most easily manageable shape and to facilitate in every possible way the operations of tillage, spraying, and harvesting. It is most important to have the tree low enough down so that spraying and picking can be easily done. It is difficult to spray properly a tree which is more than twenty-five feet in height. Even this height necessitates a tower on the spray rig and the use of an extension pole. An apple tree should be so pruned that all the fruit can be readily picked from ladders not longer than eighteen to twenty-two feet. Of course, if the tree has been allowed to get higher than this under previous management, sometimes we have to make the best of a bad situation. If the trees are too high head them back by cutting off the leaders, but it is not always wise to lower all trees to twenty-two feet. Heading back of old trees will be more fully discussed in the chapter on "Renovating Old Orchards." Ladders longer than twenty-two feet are heavy and clumsy to handle. If cultivation is to be carried on close up under the tree the lower limbs must be pruned so as to allow this. It is not necessary, however, to drive a team closer than twelve or fifteen feet from a mature tree, contrary to the common belief and practice. Cultivation is least important in the first few feet of space around a mature tree. By the use of set-over tools, all that is necessary can be well cultivated without crowding the team under or against the branches. 4. As has been pointed out in the discussion of the pruning of young trees, in humid regions where the sunlight is none too abundant through the growing season, the open head is most desirable. Sunlight on the leaves as well as on the fruit is essential to good color of the fruit, and good color is a very important factor in the flavor and attractive appearance of the fruit. An open center with upright growing leaders removed gives the greatest opportunity for sunlight to penetrate through the tree. 5. As we have seen, pruning in the dormant season tends to increase the vigor of the tree. Thus winter pruning serves to secure a normal and vigorous wood growth, which is most essential to a healthy fruit-bearing tree. On the other hand, such pruning may be excessive and produce wood growth at the expense of fruit buds, throwing the tree out of bearing. 6. The sixth and last reason for pruning is to regulate the number and distribution of the wood and the fruit bearing buds. The proper balance between these is greatly affected by pruning and can be best regulated by experience with the particular tree or variety. A perfect balance is hard to get, but with study and skill it can be closely approximated. Pruning, too, may thin the fruit, as removing branches removes fruit buds. This is best done by removing small branches near the ends of larger ones. It is a much cheaper method of thinning than picking off individual fruits, but not as effective. TIME OF PRUNING.--The particular time of the year for pruning is not vital. As between summer and winter pruning, winter is to be preferred because of the physical effect on the tree. Summer pruning is an unnatural process and should only be practiced as a last resort to check growth or induce fruitfulness, as it may result in injury to the tree. It is essential that a tree mature its foliage, which it frequently does not do after summer pruning. Diseased, dead, or injured wood should be removed when first observed, summer or winter. Spring is the logical and usually the most convenient time to prune on the general farm. While dormant season pruning may be done at any time between November 1st and June 1st, the cuts heal more rapidly in the spring when the sap begins to flow. In regions subject to severe and drying winds in the winter, pruning should be deferred at least to late winter. Considered from every standpoint, March and April are quite the best months in which to prune. After the removal of useless branches, the normal amount of food material is delivered to fewer buds under greater sap pressure and the remaining buds are made more strong and vigorous. In removing small branches with a knife or other cutting tool, the cut should be made upward from below and opposite a bud. On upright growing varieties the last bud left should be an outside one to induce the tree to spread as much as possible, while on spreading trees leaving as the last bud an inside one has a tendency to make the tree grow more upright. Always cut close to the parent branch, never leaving a stub no matter how young or old the tree. Cuts of lateral branches should be made just at the shoulder of the branch where it joins the parent. A cut behind the shoulder will not heal, neither will one too far ahead of it. A stub left on a trunk or large branch does not heal, but soon begins to rot at the end where the heartwood is exposed. This gradually works back into the main branch and the tree finally becomes "rotten at the heart." All that is needed to complete the destruction is a heavy wind, an ice or a snow storm, or a heavy load of fruit. All wounds more than two inches in diameter should be painted either with a heavy lead paint, which is preferable, or with some gas tar preparation. These things do not in themselves heal a cut, but they keep out the decaying elements, air and moisture, thus helping to preserve the branch and by protecting it to promote healing in nature's way. A little lamp black will serve to deaden the color of the paint. PRUNING TOOLS.--The best tool to use in pruning is one which brings you nearest to your work and over which you have the greatest control to make all kinds of cuts. In the writer's experience no tool does this so smoothly and conveniently as a properly shaped saw. A good saw should be quite rigid, rather heavy at the butt, where its depth should be about six inches, tapering down to about two inches at the point. It should have a full, firm grip, be not more than thirty inches long, and should always be kept sharp. Two-edged saws should not be used because of the injury done to the tree when sawing in crotches. Cutting shears are often very useful, especially the smaller, one-handed type which is almost indispensable in pruning young trees. The larger, two-handled shears are useful in thinning out the ends of branches or in heading back new growth. They should not be too heavy, as they are tiresome to use. The extension handled types are too cumbersome, too slow to work with, and the operator is of necessity too far away from his work for the best results. FRUIT THINNING.--A matter which is quite nearly related to pruning is thinning the fruit, and may properly be treated here. That this is not as common a practice with most fruit-growers as it should be, the great lack of uniformity in our ordinary market apples is ample evidence. Many persons will at once raise the question as to whether or not it is practicable to thin the fruit on large apple trees. The answer is that many growers find it not only practicable, but most profitable to do so. Wherever fruit of a uniform size and color is desired, thinning is a practical necessity, especially when the crop of fruit is heavy. The proper time to thin the fruit is just after what is commonly known as the "June drop," i.e., the falling off of those fruits not well enough pollinated or set to hold on to maturity. In thinning the fruit should be taken off until they are not closer than from four to six inches apart on the same branch, although the distance apart on any branch will depend somewhat on the amount of the crop on other parts of the tree. Never leave clusters of fruit on any branches, as some of them are sure to be small and out of shape. Furthermore two apples lying together afford a fine place for worms to get from one apple to another and they seldom fail to improve the opportunity. Step ladders and ordinary rung ladders are used to get at the fruit for thinning. The cost of the operation is not nearly as large as might appear at first thought and in practically all cases is a paying investment. CHAPTER V CULTIVATION AND COVER CROPPING In its broad sense cultivation is the treatment of the soil. Thus understood orchard cultivation includes the sod mulch system as well as the stirring of the soil with various implements. In its more common and restricted meaning, however, cultivation is the stirring of the soil about plants to encourage growth and productivity. To have the apple tree in sod was once the commonly accepted method of orchard treatment--a method of neglect and of "letting well enough alone." With the advent of more scientific apple culture the stirring of the soil has come to be the more popular method. But within the last few years an improved modification of the old sod method, known as the sod "mulch" system, has attracted much attention because of the success with which a few men have practiced it. For a correct understanding of these practices and of the relative desirability of these systems we must again turn to underlying principles and purposes. It may be said on first thought that tillage is a practice contrary to nature. But it accomplishes what nature does in another way. Tillage has been practiced on other crops than trees for so long that we think of it almost as a custom. There are, however, scientific and practical reasons for tillage. THE EFFECTS OF TILLAGE on the soil are three fold, physical, chemical, and increasing of water holding capacity. Tillage affects the soil physically by fining and deepening it, thus increasing the feeding area of roots, and by bringing about the more free admission of air warms and dries the soil, thus reducing extremes of temperature and moisture. Chemical activities are augmented by tillage in setting free plant food, promoting nutrification, hastening the decomposition of organic matter, and the extending of these agencies to greater depth. Tillage conserves moisture by increasing the water holding capacity of the soil and by checking evaporation. Of all these things which tillage accomplishes in a soil, two should be especially emphasized for the apple orchard, namely, soil moisture and soil texture. That moisture is a very important consideration in the apple orchard the effects of our frequent droughts are ample evidence. The amount of rainfall in the Eastern States when it is properly distributed is fully sufficient for the needs of an apple tree. By enlarging the reservoir or water holding capacity of the soil and by preventing the loss of water by evaporation, an excess of rainfall in the spring may be held for later distribution and use. As a rule, the improvement of a poor soil texture is as effective as the supplying of plant food and much cheaper. The latter is of no consequence unless the plant can use it. Scientists tell us that there is an abundance of plant food in most soils. The problem is to make it available. Plant food must be in solution and in the form of a film moisture surrounding the smallest soil particles in order to be available to the fine plant rootlets which seek it. Good tillage supplies these conditions. Can they be obtained equally well in another way? It is claimed by the advocates of the sod mulch system of orchard culture that it also supplies these conditions. Humus or decayed vegetable matter holds moisture. Grass or other mulch decaying in the soil increases its humus content and hence its water holding capacity. By forming a mulch over the soil evaporation may be checked to some extent, although probably not as effectively in a practical way, as by cultivation. If there is a good grass sod in the orchard, moisture and plant food made available by that moisture are utilized, and if the grass is allowed to go back into the soil it continues to furnish these elements to the tree. But there is a rapid evaporation of moisture from the surface of the leaves of grass. In fact, grass may well serve to remove an excess of moisture in wet seasons, or from wet lands. Laying aside theoretical considerations, let us see what practical experience teaches on this subject. We have the accurate data on a large number of western New York orchards showing the results of cultivation and other methods of soil management. These data are overwhelmingly in the favor of cultivation. In Wayne County the average yield of orchards tilled for five years or more was 271 bushels per acre, as compared with 200 bushels per acre for those in sod five years or more but otherwise well cared for,--an increase of thirty-five per cent. in favor of good tillage. In Orleans County, under the same conditions, the increase in yield due to cultivation was forty-five per cent. and in Niagara County it was twenty-two per cent. Records were made on hundreds of orchards and the results should be given great weight in determining the system to be practiced, as intelligent consideration of trustworthy records is to be encouraged. These results were obtained in one region under its conditions and it is quite possible, although not probable, that other conditions might give different results. There are, however, special conditions as will be pointed out later, under which the sod mulch method might be more advisable than tillage. It is cheaper, makes a cleaner cover for the drop fruit, avoids the damage from tillage implements to which tilled trees are liable, and can be practiced on lands too steep to till. It often happens, too, that it fits into the scheme of management on a general farm better than the more intensive and specialized system of cultivation. And it must be remembered that we are dealing with this question from the point of view of the home farm rather than of the commercial orchardist. So that where the sod mulch gives equally good results it would be preferred under these conditions. LATE FALL AND EARLY SPRING PLOWING.--The common tillage practice in the sections where it is most followed is to plow either in late fall or as early as possible in the spring. Whether fall or spring plowing is best depends on two things: the character of the soil and convenience. On heavy clay soils where drainage is poor it is not advisable to plow in the fall as the soil is apt to puddle and then to bake when it dries, making it hard to handle. On gravel loams, medium loams, and all well drained soils which are fairly open in texture either fall or spring plowing is practiced depending on which period affords the most time. On the general farm where there are several crops for which the land must be prepared in spring, it would seem best to get as much of the plowing as possible done in the fall. But a large crop of apples or a large and late corn husking or potato digging may interfere with this on some farms and make spring plowing more desirable. Always plan this work in connection with the other farm work so as to give the best distribution of labor. After fall plowing either the spring-tooth harrow or the disk harrow is best to use to work up the soil and no time should be lost in getting at this as soon as the land is dry enough in the spring. Sometimes the disk harrow can be used to work up the soil in the orchard in the spring without any plowing at all, especially on loose loams where there are few stones. But on newly plowed land a disk cuts too deep and there is too great danger of injuring the roots. On spring plowed land the spring-tooth harrow usually gives the best results. After the soil is thoroughly fined and worked into a mellow bed and as soon as the period of excessive moisture in spring is passed, a lighter implement like the smoothing harrow or a light shallow digging cultivator should be used to stir the surface of the soil only. The growing period for an apple tree begins as early as growth starts in the spring and continues up to about midsummer. If cultivation is to stimulate growth as much as possible, it should be done during this period. The first object of cultivation in the early spring is to loosen up, aerate, and dry out the soil, which is usually too wet at that time. As cultivation is continued the soil will become fined and firmed again by the time drier weather comes on. A fairly deep digging and lump crushing tool is the best implement to use up to this time, and a disk or spring-tooth harrow meets these requirements. After this period is passed and during drier weather, cultivation is carried on for a different purpose, namely, to conserve moisture by making a thin dust mulch of soil over the surface. This is best accomplished by shallow-going implements of which the spike-tooth harrow, the acme harrow, or a light wheel cultivator are best. As the season and the amount of rainfall vary, so must tillage operations be varied. In an early dry season begin with the lighter implements earlier. In a late wet season keep the digging tools at work later. As soon as the soil is in good physical condition the principal object of tillage is to modify moisture conditions. As a matter of practice three to four harrowings at intervals of a week to ten days are necessary. Sometimes more, sometimes less are required, according to the character and condition of the soil and the season. The later moisture-conserving tillage should also be carried on every week or ten days, according to weather conditions. It is good practice to stir the soil after every heavy or moderately heavy rain. Use the smoothing tools after light to medium rains and the heavier tools after packing or beating rains. In practice from five to eight or ten of these cultivations are necessary. The drier the season the more necessary does frequent cultivation become. A COVER CROP is so closely associated with tillage that it is usually considered a part of the system. It should be sown in midsummer as soon as tillage ceases. This time will vary from July first to August fifteenth, depending on the locality, the rainfall, the crop of fruit on the trees, and on how favorable the conditions for securing a good stand of the cover crop are. The farther south the locality, or the earlier the fruit, the sooner the crop should be sown. Absence of sufficient rainfall necessitates a continuation of the cultivation, both because it is necessary to conserve all the moisture possible and because it is difficult to get a good stand of a cover crop--especially of one having small seeds--at a dry time in midsummer. In a year when there is a full crop of fruit on the trees cultivation should be continued as late as possible as all the stimulus that can thus be secured will be necessary to help the fruit attain good size and maturity, and at the same time enable the tree properly to mature its fruit and leaf buds for the following year. On the other hand, in a year when there is not a full crop of fruit cultivation should be stopped early so as to avoid forcing a too rank growth of wood and foliage and continuing the growth of the next season's buds so late that they may not mature and therefore may be in danger of winter killing. The different kinds of cover crops which may be used in the apple orchard will be considered in the next chapter as they are so closely associated with fertilization. Strictly speaking, however, a cover crop is used principally to secure its mulching and physical effects on the soil in the intervals between the seasons of tillage. In addition to its physical and feeding effects the cover crop serves to check the growth of trees in the latter part of the season by taking up the nitrates and a part of the moisture, thus helping to ripen the wood. SOD MULCH.--The ordinary sod culture which is practiced in so many orchards should not be confused with the sod mulch system. The one is a system of neglect, the other of intention. In the sod mulch system the grass sod is stimulated and encouraged and when the grass dies or is cut, it is left on the ground to decay, forming a soil mulch meanwhile. The removal of grass from the orchard as hay is poor practice and should be discouraged. The grass mulch may well be supplemented by the addition of other grass, straw, leaves, coarse manure, or other similar materials. Sometimes this mulch is put on to the depth of six inches or even a foot around the tree. Thus practiced it is very effective in conserving moisture and in adding the humus which is so necessary to the soil. Sod and tillage have somewhat different effects on the tree and on the fruit. Let us see what these effects are. It is common knowledge that fruit is more highly colored when grown in sod than when grown under a tillage system. This is probably largely due to the fact that tillage keeps the fruit growing so late that it does not mature so well or so early. Fruit is usually two or three weeks later in tilled than in sod orchards. It has been shown that fruit grown under tillage keeps from two to four weeks longer than that grown in sod. It is claimed also--but this is a disputed point--that tilled fruit has a better quality and flavor. Certain it is that fruit grown in sod is drier and less crisp and juicy. The effect of tillage on the trees is more marked and better known. Tilled trees have a darker, richer green foliage, indicating a better and more vigorous health. The leaves are also larger and more numerous. They come out three or four days earlier in the spring and stay on the trees two weeks later in the fall than the leaves on trees kept in sod. Tilled trees make nearly twice the growth in a season that those in sod do, in fact there is danger of their making wood growth at the expense of fruit buds. Tillage also gives a deeper, better distributed root system. Despite the advantages and the disadvantages of each system, there are times, places, and circumstances under which one is more advisable than the other. On lands rich in humus and in plant food and level so as to be easily tillable, cultivation is without doubt the best system. But it should be practiced in connection with cover crops, and the orchard should be given occasional periods of rest in sod--say one year in from three to five. The sod mulch system of orchard culture is probably better adapted to rather wet good grass land and where mulching material is cheap and readily available. It is undoubtedly at its best on lands too steep or rough to till, or otherwise unsuitable to cultivation. Tillage is the more intensive method and where labor is scarce and high sod culture might be more advisable for this reason, other conditions being not too unfavorable. In order to illustrate a method of management under the tillage system we may suggest the following as a good one for level to gently rolling land: 1912. Early plowing in spring, cultivation to July first to fifteenth. Then sow red clover as a cover crop. 1913. Repeat previous year's treatment, varying the time of sowing cover crop according to conditions. 1914. Let the clover grow, mowing and leaving on the ground as a mulch, June fifteenth to twentieth, and again in August. 1915. Plow early in spring, cultivate to midsummer, and then sow rye or buckwheat as a cover crop July fifteenth to August fifteenth. 1916. Repeat 1915 treatment and if trees are not growing too fast, sow clover or hairy vetch as a cover crop. 1917. Same as 1912, etc. PASTURING THE ORCHARD.--The sod mulch system explains itself and does not need illustration. Sod orchards are often managed as pasture for animals, however, and this practice should be discussed. An orchard is considered as pastured when a considerable number of animals are turned into it for a greater or less portion of the year. Results in orchards where pasturage has been thoroughly tried out show that it is never advisable to pasture an orchard with horses or cattle, but that fairly good results may be expected where sheep or hogs are used. The evidence of yield of fruit and appearance of trees both indicate, that pasturing an orchard with horses or cattle is about the worst possible practice. These animals rub against the trees, break the branches, browse the limbs and leaves, and destroy the fruit as high as they can reach. All experience is against this practice which cannot be too strongly deprecated. Pasturing an orchard with sheep, although a somewhat doubtful practice, often gives good results. Sheep crop the grass close to the ground and to some extent prevent the extensive evaporation which usually takes place from the leaves of grass. Their well distributed manure is worth considerable. They also browse the branches to some extent and should not be allowed to run in the orchard late in the season as they will destroy considerable fruit. Pasturing an orchard with swine gives better results than any other pasture treatment of the orchard. Hogs do considerable rooting which prevents the formation of a stiff sod and itself may often amount almost to cultivation in well stocked orchards. A good deal of manure is added to the soil, especially when the hogs are fed outside the orchard. Hogs also destroy many insects by eating the wormy fruit. Pasturage of orchards has its advantages. It gives a double utilization of the land. It is a cheap method of management. When the animals are fed outside the orchard, as should always be the case, it adds considerable plant food to the soil. When plenty of outside food can be given and when the orchard is not overstocked--the animals should never be hungry--hogs and sheep may be used to advantage in pasturing orchards. In very rough fields incapable of tillage, this is undoubtedly the very best system of orchard management. Pasturage has the disadvantage of exposing young trees to injury from the animals, but this may be at least partly avoided by protecting them with stakes or a heavy wire meshed screen. Hogs especially soil the fruit and make the land rough and difficult to drive over. Under the proper conditions pasturage may be practiced to advantage, especially on small areas and on the general farm where it is more advantageous than it would be commercially. CHAPTER VI MANURING AND FERTILIZING Cover crops may be said to be supplementary to tillage. In the previous chapter this function has been discussed. It now remains to point out another important function--that of a green manure crop adding humus and plant food to the soil. Not only do some cover crops add plant food and all humus to the soil, but they tend to conserve these by preventing leaching, especially of nitrates, and they help to render plant food more available by reworking it and leaving it in a form more available for the tree. They sometimes act as a protection against winter injury by holding snow and by their own bulk. They also help to dry out the soil in spring, thus making the land tillable earlier. There are two great classes of cover or green manure crops, leguminous and non-leguminous. A non-leguminous crop merely adds humus and improves the physical condition of the soil. In itself it adds no plant food, although it may take up, utilize, and leave behind plant food in a more available form for the tree's use. But in addition to these benefits, leguminous crops actually add to the soil plant food in the form of nitrogen which they have the ability to assimilate from the air by means of bacterial organisms on their roots. NON-LEGUMINOUS CROPS.--The most important of the non-leguminous crops are rye, buckwheat, turnips or rape, barley, oats, and millet. The first mentioned are the most commonly used. Also in order of importance the following are the usual leguminous cover and green manure crops to be used: clovers, winter vetch, soy beans, alfalfa, cow peas (first in the South). In order to determine the relative advisability of the use of these various crops let us now look at some of their characteristics and requirements. Rye is one of the best non-leguminous cover crops, especially in the young orchard, as it does not grow as well in shade as in the open. A particularly strong point about rye is that it grows rapidly quite late in the fall and starts early in the spring. Starting earlier than most crops in the spring, it makes a considerable amount of growth before the land is fit to plow. Especially in warmer climates rye should not be sown too early in the fall--not usually before September 1st--because of this too heavy growth. Rye is also adapted to a great variety of soils and hence will often grow where other crops will not do well. About two bushels of seed are required per acre. Buckwheat is probably about equally as good as rye for an orchard cover crop, although it does not produce quite as much organic matter. It will germinate at almost any season of the year even if it is very dry. It is a great soil improver because of its ability to feed and thrive on soils too poor for other crops, due to its numerous shallow feeding rootlets. It grows rapidly and covers the ground well, but like rye does not thrive as well in shade. Buckwheat should not be used to excess on the heavier types of soil as it is rather hard on the land. One bushel of seed to an acre makes a good seeding. Turnips or rape often make good pioneer cover or green manure crops. They are great soil improvement crops and it is comparatively easy to secure a good stand of them even in dry weather. Sown in late July in the North they will produce a great bulk of humus and add much moisture to the soil, especially if they cover the ground well. Their broad, abundant leaves and high tops also hold the snow well in winter. Cow Horn is the best variety of turnips to use, as it is a large, rank grower. Use one to two pounds of seed to the acre. Rape makes an excellent pasture crop in an orchard both for sheep and hogs, but especially for the former. Eight or nine pounds of seed are necessary to the acre. Barley, oats, and millet are not as good crops as the foregoing, because, with the possible exception of millet, they make their best growth early in the season. Moreover they take up too much moisture from the soil at a time when the tree most needs this moisture. In fact they are sometimes used for this specific purpose on wet land in too wet seasons. Two to two and one half bushels of oats or barley and one to one and one half bushels of millet to the acre are necessary for a good seeding. Although weeds can hardly be classified as cover crops, they are often valuable ones. They grow rapidly and rank, making a large bulk of humus, without the expense of seeding. If they are not allowed to go to seed so as to scatter the seed about the farm, they often make the best of cover crops. This necessitates a mowing in September. Weeds are plants out of place, and when these plants are in place they are not necessarily weeds, as they have then become serviceable. LEGUMES.--In general, legumes are more valuable as cover and green manure crops than non-leguminous plants, because as a rule they are more rank growers and more deeply rooted, as well as because they add nitrogen to the soil. But it is rather more difficult to secure a good stand of most legumes than it is of the crops previously mentioned for several reasons. As a rule the seeds are smaller and a large seed usually has greater germinating power than a small one. This often means much at the time of the year when the cover crop is sown. Then legumes are more difficult to grow, requiring better soil conditions. Still these should be present in good orchard soils. Drainage must be good, the soil must be at least average in fertility and physical condition, it must not be sour--hence it is often necessary to use lime--and soils frequently require inoculation before they will grow legumes satisfactorily. Where the clovers grow well they make excellent cover crops as well as green manure crops. The chief difficulty with them is that of obtaining a good stand in a dry midsummer. The mammoth red and the medium red clovers are probably the best of their genus on the heavier soils, while crimson clover is best on sandy soils and where it will grow, on the lighter gravel loams. The latter is especially well adapted to building up run down sandy soils. Although it is somewhat easier to secure a stand of this clover, alsike does not grow rank enough to make a good cover or green manure crop. Most clovers are deep rooted plants and therefore great soil improvers physically as well as being great nitrogen gatherers. The amounts of seed required per acre for the different kinds are about as follows: mammoth fifteen to twenty pounds; red (medium) twelve to fifteen pounds; crimson twelve to fifteen pounds; and alsike ten to twelve pounds. Where it can be readily and successfully grown alfalfa is really a better cover and green manure crop than the clovers. It is deeper rooted, makes a better top growth, and therefore adds more nitrogen and more humus to the soil than the clovers. It cannot be recommended for common use, however, as it is so difficult to grow except under favorable conditions. It requires a more fertile soil than clover, a soil with little or no acidity, good drainage, and usually the soil must be inoculated. Only where these conditions prevail can alfalfa be generally recommended. Vetch is an excellent cover and green manure crop, forming a thick, close mat of herbage which makes a good cover for the soil. It is very quick to start growing and a rapid grower in the spring. It also adds larger quantities of nitrogen. The hairy or winter vetch lives through the hard freezing winters. Summer vetch, although an equally good grower, is killed by freezing. One bushel of seed is required per acre and the seed is expensive, which is the greatest objection to the use of this excellent crop. Two other less well known and used leguminous crops are well worth trial as cover crops--soy beans in the North and cow peas in the South. Both are great nitrogen gatherers and as they are rank and rapid growers add large quantities of humus to the soil. Under favorable conditions they will cover the ground with a perfect mat of vegetation in a very short time. Being larger seeded, it is considerably easier to obtain a stand on dry soils and in dry seasons than it is of the smaller seeded clovers. It is usually best to sow in drills the ordinary width, seven inches, apart. Cow peas are universally used as a cover and green manure crop in the South, but they do not thrive so well in the North. One and one half to two bushels of seed are required per acre. In the North the earlier maturing varieties of soy beans are almost equally good. One to one and one half bushels of seed are sown per acre. Leguminous cover crops are also the best and the cheapest source of nitrogen for the apple orchard, after they are well established. Their use may be overdone, however. Too much nitrogen results in a growth of wood at the expense of fruit buds. To avoid this it is often advisable to use non-leguminous and leguminous crops alternately, when the orchard is making a satisfactory growth. Sometimes also these two kinds of crops, as buckwheat and clover for example, may be combined with good results. When this is done one half the usual amount of seed of each should be used. EARLY PLOWING.--Many people make the common mistake of thinking that a green manure crop must be allowed to grow until late in June in order to secure the maximum amount of growth. There are several reasons why this is not good practice. In the first place cultivation is most essential in the early spring as has been pointed out. Then moisture is better conserved by plowing under the crop early and a better physical condition of the soil secured. Plowing early in the spring warms up the soil and sets plants to work more quickly. Lastly, material rots much more quickly in the early spring when moisture is more abundant, which is very important. An apple tree is as much a crop as anything grown on the farm and must be so regarded by those who would become successful orchardists. When it is not properly fed and cared for, good yields of fruit may not justly be expected. Especially is this true of an orchard which is being intercropped. But because of the fact that an apple tree is not an annual crop but the product of many years' growth, because its root system is deeper and more widely spread out than those of other crops, and because the amount of plant food removed in a crop of fruit is comparatively small, fertilization is less important than many persons would have us think. It is a fact that where orchards receive good cultivation and a liberal supply of humus commercial fertilizers give but medium results. ELEMENTS OF FERTILITY.--Three elements are necessary for the growth of apple trees, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. To these lime may be added, although its benefit is indirect rather than direct as a plant food. How badly any of these elements may be needed depends on the soil, its previous treatment, and on the system of management. By learning what are the effects of these elements on the tree and fruit we may determine under what conditions, if any, their use is advisable. Nitrogen promotes the growth of new wood and leaves, giving the latter a dark green color. In fact the color of the leaves and the amount of the wood growth are usually good indicators of the need of nitrogen. Nitrogen in excess develops over vigorous growth and prevents the maturity of wood and buds. It always has a tendency to delay the maturity of the fruit by keeping it growing late. On many varieties it tends to produce poorly colored fruits. When trees are making a normal amount of growth in a year--say a foot to three feet or more--and when the leaves are of good size and a dark green in color, there is little need of nitrogen. But when trees are not growing satisfactorily and the leaves have a sickly yellow color, then the need of nitrogen is evident. On early soils and in long growing seasons nitrogen may be more freely and safely used than under other conditions. The effect of phosphoric acid and potash on the tree and fruit is much more uncertain. They are supposed to influence the quality and the flavor of the fruit, giving better color and flavor, and this they undoubtedly do to some extent. Potash probably gives the leaves a darker green color. The precise effect of these two elements is at present a subject of much discussion, one set of investigators maintaining after a long and careful investigation that these effects are too small to be worth while, and the other claiming that they have a marked effect in the ways above indicated. The only safe guide is the actual local result. If the fruit is satisfactory in every way it will be of little use to try fertilizers. On the other hand, if it is not, then it will pay to experiment with them. The needs of and the results on different soils are so variable that it is always wise to experiment on a small scale before using fertilizers extensively. STABLE MANURE.--The necessary plant food is best supplied by stable manure applied at the rate of ten loads per acre for a light application to twenty loads per acre for a heavy application. This amounts to a load for from two to five mature trees. Such an application will not only go far toward supplying the necessary nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but especially if coarse will add considerable humus and improve the physical condition of the soil. Except on land which washes badly, manure should be applied in the fall and winter. It should not be piled near the trunk of the tree but spread uniformly over the entire surface of the ground. It is particularly important to spread the manure under and beyond the farthest extent of the branches as this is the most important feeding root area of the tree. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.--Where manure is not available or where it cannot be applied in sufficient amounts, commercial fertilizers may be resorted to, after they have been experimentally tested out. Leguminous cover crops are the best source of nitrogen, as has been indicated, but where these do not grow well, or in seasons when they have for some reason failed, nitrate of soda or dried blood are good substitutes. From two hundred to three hundred pounds of one or the other of these may be applied broadcast in the spring soon after growth is well started and all danger of its being checked by frost or cold weather is past. It is well to apply the nitrate of soda in two applications a few weeks apart, especially on soils which are leachy and in wet seasons, as part of the nitrogen may leach away if all is applied at once. These should be thoroughly worked into the soil with a spring-tooth harrow. To supply the other two elements, from two hundred to four hundred pounds of treated rock phosphate or basic slag for the phosphoric acid, and the same amount of sulphate of potash for the potash, should be applied at any time in the early part of the season, preferably just before a light rain, and worked into the soil as before. Home-made wood ashes are a good source of both these elements, and especially of the potash. They cannot be purchased economically in any quantity, but on the general farm there could be no better way to utilize the wood ashes made around the place than by applying them two or three bushels to a full grown tree every year or two. Wood ashes are also a good source of lime, being about one-third calcium oxide. Thus a large amount of available plant food will be supplied to the tree, and where it is needed should result not only in better wood growth but in the formation of vigorous leaf and fruit buds for the following year. Lime is not usually considered as a fertilizer except on soils actually deficient in it. But it will usually be advisable to apply from one thousand five hundred to two thousand pounds of fresh burned lime or its equivalent, in order to correct any natural soil acidity, to hasten the decay of organic material, to increase the activity of the soil bacteria, and to improve the physical condition of the soil by floculating the soil particles and helping to break up lumpy soils. Lime also helps to liberate plant food by recombining it with certain other elements in the soil. All these effects make a more congenial medium for the leguminous crops to grow in, and it is frequently advisable to use lime for this purpose alone. After this first heavy application about 800 pounds of lime should be applied per acre every four or five years. CHAPTER VII INSECTS AND DISEASES AFFECTING THE APPLE It is a common saying among farmers who have grown apples on their farms for many years that there are many more pests to fight than there used to be. How often we have heard a farmer tell of the perfect apples that grew on a certain tree "when he was a boy," before people had generally heard of codling moth, San José scale, apple scab, or other troubles now only too common. "We never sprayed, but the apples were fine," he says. Is this the usual glorification of the mythical past or is it true? In all probability it is a little of both, but it is undoubtedly true that insects and fungous diseases have increased rapidly of late years. REASONS FOR PEST INCREASE.--When there is an abundance of food and conditions are otherwise favorable, any animal or plant will thrive better than when the food supply is scarce and conditions unfavorable. As long as apple trees were scattered and few in number there was not the opportunity for the development of apple pests, but as soon as they became numerous the prosperity of bugs and minute plant parasites was wonderful to see. Another factor which has been at least partly responsible for the great increase in our insect life is that man has upset nature's balance by destroying so many birds, and, by interfering with their natural surroundings, driven them away. Birds are great destroyers of insects, and their presence in the orchard should be encouraged in every possible way. Add to these facts the marvelous fecundity of the insect tribe, and the increase is less remarkable. Loss from these orchard pests has now run up into the millions. It has been estimated that the loss in the United States from wormy apples alone is over $11,000,000 annually. Thus has the necessity for fighting these enemies of good fruit arisen. In order successfully to combat an insect or a disease it is very necessary to have a somewhat detailed knowledge of its life history and to know its most vulnerable point of attack. It is impossible to work most intelligently and effectively without this knowledge, which should include the several stages of the insect or disease, the point of attack, the time of making it, and when and with what it can be most easily destroyed. The number of insects and diseases which affect the apple is so great that it is simply out of the question to treat them all in detail here. We have therefore selected nine insects and three diseases as those pests of the apple which are most common and whose effects are usually most serious. The essential facts in their life histories and their vulnerable points will now be pointed out. The method of study may be taken as applicable to any other pests which it may be necessary to combat. INSECT PESTS.--Of the many insects which affect either the tree or the fruit of the apple, the nine selected probably inflict the most damage and are the most difficult to control of all those in the Northeastern States. According to their method of attack all insects may be divided into two classes: biting and sucking. Biting insects are those which actually eat parts of the tree, as the leaves or fruit. These are combated by the use of stomach poisons as we shall see in the following chapter. Sucking insects are those which do not eat the tree or fruit directly, but by means of a tubelike proboscis suck the juices or sap from the limbs, leaves or fruit. Of the biting insects the five which we shall discuss are: (1) codling moth, (2) apple maggot, (3) bud moth, (4) cigar case bearer, (5) curculio. The four sucking insects discussed are: (6) San José scale, (7) oyster shell scale, (8) blister mite, and (9) aphis or plant louse. 1. THE CODLING MOTH, the most insidious of all apple pests, is mainly responsible for wormy apples. The adult is a night flying moth with a wing expanse of from one-half to three-quarters of an inch. The moths appear about the time the apple trees are in bloom. Each female is supposed to lay about fifty eggs which are deposited on both the leaves and fruit, but mostly on the calyx end of the young apples. The eggs hatch in about a week and the young larvae or caterpillars begin at once to gnaw their way into the core of the fruit. Three-fourths of them enter the apple through its blow end. After twenty to thirty days of eating in the apple, during which time they become full grown and about three-quarters of an inch long, they leave the apple, usually through its side. The full grown caterpillar now secretes itself in the crevices in the bark of the tree or in rubbish beneath the tree and spins a tough but slight silken cocoon in which the pupal period is passed. This lasts about a fortnight, when the process is sometimes repeated, so that in the Eastern States there are often two broods each season. The most vulnerable point in the career of this little animal is when it is entering the fruit. If a fine poison spray covers the surface of the fruit, and especially if it covers the calyx end of the apple inside and out, when the young larvae begin to eat they will surely be killed. It is estimated that birds destroy eighty-five per cent. of the cocoons on the bark of trees. 2. APPLE MAGGOT.--It is fortunate that the apple maggot, often called the railroad worm because of its winding tunnels all through the fruit, is not as serious a pest as the codling moth for it is much more difficult to control with a poison. A two-winged fly appears in early summer and deposits her eggs in a puncture of the skin of the apple. In a few days the eggs hatch and the maggots begin to burrow indiscriminately through the fruit. The full grown larvae are a greenish white in color and about a quarter of an inch long. From the fruit this insect goes to the ground where the pupal stage is passed in the soil. The next summer the fly again emerges and lays its eggs. Spraying is not effective against this insect as the poison cannot be placed where it will be eaten by the maggots. The best known remedy is to destroy the fruit which drops to the ground and for this purpose hogs in the orchard are very effective. The distribution of this insect in the orchard is limited and it has shown a marked preference for summer and autumn varieties. 3. THE BUD MOTH closely resembles the codling moth in form and size, but differs from it in color and life history. The larvae, after hibernating through the winter, appear as little brown caterpillars about May first or as soon as the buds begin to open, and a week or two later begin their work of destruction. They inflict great damage on the young leaf and fruit buds by feeding on them. When full grown the larvae, cinnamon brown in color with a shining black head, are about one-half inch long. They then roll themselves up in a tube made from a leaf or parts of leaves securely fastened together with silken threads. In this cocoon pupation, which lasts about ten days, takes place. Early in June the moths appear. There is but one brood in the North. These insects can be successfully combated with a poison spray applied early before the buds open. 4. THE CIGAR CASE BEARER winters in its case attached to a twig. When the buds begin to open in the spring it moves to them, carrying its case with it, and begins to feed on the young and tender buds. By the time the leaves are well open, it has fed a good deal on the tender buds and young leaves and is ready to make a new and larger case. This it does by cutting a leaf to suit and then rolling it up in the form of a cigar, whence its name. In this case the larvae continue feeding about a month, causing much injury to the leaves, although this is not as serious as the mutilation of the young buds in the spring, before the tree is fully leafed out. About the last of June pupation takes place and in about ten days the moth emerges. The eggs are then layed along the midribs of the leaves and hatch in about fifteen days. The newly hatched larvae become leaf miners during August, and migrate to the branches again in the fall where they pass the winter. These leaf and bud eating insects can be destroyed by applying a poison to the buds before they open and again later to the opening leaf and flower buds. 5. CURCULIO BEETLES pass the winter under leaves and grass. In the spring they feed on the blossoms and the tender leaves. As soon as the young fruits are formed the female deposits her eggs in a puncture made just inside a short, crescent-shaped cut in the little apple. The eggs soon hatch and the young grubs burrow into the fruit to the core where they remain two or three weeks, or until full grown. The larvae then bore their way out of the fruit and drop to the soil where they pupate. The earliest of the beetles to emerge again feed on the fruit. The principal damage from this pest comes from the feeding of the beetles and the work of the larvae, although the latter is not as bad in the apple as in the stone fruits. A poison on the young foliage as soon as the beetles begin to feed is the best method of combating curculio. Jarring the tree is not as practicable with the apple as it is with the plum. 6. THE SAN JOS� SCALE, one of our worst apple tree pests, is a sucking insect extracting the juices of the tree from the trunk, limbs or branches, or even from the leaves and fruit when it is very abundant. At first the growth is checked only, but as the insects develop their work finally results in the death of the part, unless they are destroyed. The insect winters in an immature condition on the bark under a grayish, circular, somewhat convex scale about the size of a pinhead. The young, of which a great many broods are produced, are soft bodied but soon form a scale. In the early spring small two-winged insects issue from these scales. After mating the males die, but the females continue to grow and in about a month begin the production of living young--minute, yellow, oval creatures. These young settle on the bark and push their slender beaks into the plant from which they begin to suck out the sap. In about twelve days the insects molt and in eight to ten more they change to pupae, and in from thirty-three to forty days are themselves bearing young. A single female may give birth to four hundred young in one season and there are several generations in a season. This great prolificacy is what makes the scale so serious a pest. In fighting it every scale must be destroyed or thousands more are soon born. In order to be able to use a strong enough mixture of lime and sulphur to destroy them by smothering or choking the spray must be applied on the dormant wood in the spring or fall or both. Thoroughness is most essential. 7. THE OYSTER SHELL SCALE, although it is essentially the same in its habits and in its methods of sucking the sap from the tree is not as bad a pest as the San José scale because it is less prolific, there being but one brood a year. Still this scale often destroys a branch and sometimes a whole tree. The "lice" winter as eggs under the scale and hatch in late May or early June. After crawling about the bark for two or three days, the young fix their beaks into it and remain fastened there for life, sucking out the sap. By the end of the season they have matured and secreted a scaly covering under which their eggs for the next season's crop winter. A smothering spray like lime and sulphur applied strong when the trees are dormant will practically control this scale. But the young may be destroyed in summer by a contact spray such as tobacco leaf extract or whale oil soap. 8. THE LEAF BLISTER MITE is a small, four-legged animal, so small as hardly to be visible to the naked eye. It passes the winter in the bud scales and as soon as these begin to open in the spring it passes to the tender leaves which it punctures, producing light green or reddish pimples according to the variety of apple. These later develop into galls or blisters of a blackish or reddish brown color and finally result in the destruction of the leaf. Trees are sometimes practically defoliated by this pest, and this at a time when a good foliage is most needed. Inside of the galls eggs are deposited and when the young hatch they burrow in all directions. In October the mites abandon the leaves to hibernate in the bud scales again. A strong contact spray of lime sulphur when the trees are dormant destroys the young mites while they are yet on the bud scales, which is practically the only time when they are vulnerable. 9. APHIDES, or plant lice, are of seasonal importance. Although nearly always present, it is only occasionally that they become so numerous as seriously to damage mature apple trees. But they are more often serious pests on young trees where they should be carefully watched. Their presence is determined by the curled and distorted condition of the terminal leaves on the under side of which the green or pinkish lice will be found. Eggs deposited in autumn pass the winter in this condition, hatching in the spring about the time of the beginning of the growth of vegetation. From these winter eggs females are hatched which bear living young, which may also bear living young and so on for several generations until autumn, when eggs are again deposited for the winter stage. Fortunately weather conditions together with parasitic and predaceous insects hold them more or less in check. Because of the difficulty of getting at the underside of the curled leaves where these lice mostly work they are extremely hard to control. Lime and sulphur when the trees are dormant destroy as many of the eggs as it comes in contact with. A tobacco extract is quite effective as a contact spray in the growing season. The trees must be closely watched and if the lice appear in any considerable number they must be promptly attended to or serious damage is likely to result. These are by no means all the insect pests which the fruit grower has to combat, but they are usually the most important. Canker worm and tent caterpillars often do great damage in unsprayed orchards, but they are easily controlled by an application of a poison as soon as they appear. The same is true of other caterpillars and leaf eating worms. Apple tree borers are frequently serious, especially in young orchards, where the trees should be regularly "grubbed" and the borers dug out or killed with a piece of wire. They may be prevented to some extent by painting the tree trunks with a heavy lime and sulphur or some gas tar preparation. DISEASES.--Although not as numerous as insects, the diseases which attack the apple inflict great damage and are fully as difficult to control. They are caused by bacteria and by fungi which may be compared to weeds growing on or in the tree instead of the soil. If either of these works within the plant, as is sometimes the case, it must be attacked before it enters. It is very necessary to be thorough in order to control these diseases. Weather conditions influence nearly all of them materially. Of those which attack the apple tree or fruit we have selected three as the most serious and the most necessary for the grower to combat, namely, (1) apple scab, (2) New York apple tree canker, and (3) fire blight. To these should be added in the South and middle latitudes, sooty blotch and bitter rot. Baldwin spot is also frequently serious in some seasons and localities. (1) THE APPLE SCAB, commonly known among growers as "the fungus," is the most important of our common apple diseases and is most evident on the fruit, although it attacks the leaves as well. In some seasons the fruit is made almost unsalable. This disease lives through the winter on old leaves. In the spring about blossoming time the spores are scattered by the wind and other agencies, and reaching the tender shoots germinate and enter the tissues of the plant. Their development is greatly dependent on the weather. In a season in which there is little fog or continued damp or humid weather, they may not develop at all, but where these conditions are present they frequently become very virulent. Spraying will be governed by the weather conditions, but the mixture must be applied very promptly as soon as it is evident that it is likely to be necessary and must cover every part of the tree to be effective. The object is to prevent the spores from germinating, the spray being entirely a preventive and in no sense a cure. The disease most frequently first manifests itself on the tender new growth and on the blossoms. Two mixtures have been found to control it, namely, Bordeaux and a weak solution of lime and sulphur. One or other of these should be applied just before the blossoms open, just before they fall, and when necessary two and nine weeks later. (2) NEW YORK APPLE TREE CANKER is usually found mainly on the trunks of old trees, but it also affects the smaller branches. Practically every old or uncared for orchard has more or less of this canker, and where it is not checked it eventually destroys the tree. This fungus is the cause of most of the dead wood found in old orchards. The surface of the canker is black and rough and covered with minute black pimples. It lives over winter and spreads from one branch or tree to another. As it most frequently enters a branch through wounds made in pruning, these should be promptly painted over with a heavy lead and oil paint. All diseased parts should be cut out and removed as soon as observed. The value of spraying for this disease is not definitely known, but it is seldom very troublesome in well sprayed and well cared for orchards. (3) BLIGHT appears on apple trees in three forms, as blossom blight, as twig blight, and as blight cankers. It is a bacterial disease which is distributed by flies, bees, birds, etc., and cannot be controlled by spraying. The bacteria are carried over the winter in cankers on the main limbs and bodies of the trees, oozing out in a sticky mass in the spring. These cankers should be cut out with a sharp knife cutting well into the healthy bark and then washing the wound with corrosive sublimate, one part to one thousand of water. Cutting out and destroying are also the chief remedies to be used when the blight appears in the twigs and blossoms. It is not usually as serious on apples as on pears. Some varieties, like Alexander, are more subject to it than others. CHAPTER VIII THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF SPRAYING The spraying of fruit trees in the United States is of comparatively recent origin, having been a general commercial practice for less than two decades. It involves the principle of applying with force and in the form of a fine rain or mist, water in which a poison or a substance which kills by contact is suspended. The first application of the principle was against chewing insects with hellebore. Pure arsenic was early used and soon led to the use of other arsenicals. Our greatest fungicide, Bordeaux mixture, was discovered by accident in 1882 when it was found to control mildew in France. Up until about five years ago Bordeaux mixture as the fungicide and paris green as the poison were almost universally used. Within the last few years, however, there have been developed two substitutes which, although known and used to some extent for twenty years, have only recently come into such general use as practically to replace the old sprays. These are lime and sulphur as the fungicide and partial insecticide and arsenate of lead as a partial insecticide. The necessity for and the advisability of spraying have already been pointed out. There is an increasing demand for fine fruit the supplying of which is possible only with thorough spraying. In the humid East especially the competition of more progressive sections in the West is demanding more and better spraying. There is no cure-all in this process. It does not make a tree more fruitful except as it improves its general health, but it does bring a larger percentage of the fruit to perfection. Certain knowledge is fundamental; the grower must know what he is spraying for, when and with what to combat it and how to accomplish the desired result most effectively. Spraying is an insurance against anticipated troubles with the fruit, and the best and most successful growers are those most completely insured. It has many general advantages also. It stimulates the grower to a greater interest in his business because of the extra knowledge and skill required. It compels thoroughness. It necessitates spending money, therefore a return is looked for. To be sure, it is only one of the operations necessary to success, but it enables us to grow a quality of fruit which we could not obtain without it. SPRAY MATERIALS are conveniently divided into two classes, insecticides and fungicides. An insecticide is a poison by which the insect is killed either directly by eating it, or indirectly by the caustic, smothering, or stifling effects resulting from closing its breathing pores. Direct poisons are used for insects which eat some part of the tree or fruit and are called stomach poisons. Sprays which kill indirectly are used for insects which suck the sap or juice from the tree or fruit and are called contact sprays. Arsenical compounds have supplanted practically all other substances used to combat external biting insects. Two stomach poisons are commonly used, namely, arsenate of lead and paris green, but the former is rapidly replacing the latter. ARSENATE OF LEAD is prepared by mixing three parts of crystallized arsenate of soda with seven parts of crystallized white sugar (acetate) of lead in water, but it will not as a rule pay the grower to mix his own material, as arsenate of lead can be purchased in convenient commercial form at a reasonable price. The preparation on the market is a finely pulverized precipitate in two forms, one a powder and the other a paste. These are probably about equally good and are readily kept suspended in water. Less free arsenic is contained in this form than in any other compound of arsenic, making it safer to use, especially in heavy applications. Arsenate of lead may be used without danger of burning the foliage as strong as five or six pounds to fifty gallons of water, but three pounds is the usual and a sufficient amount for the control of any apple insect for which it is efficacious. PARIS GREEN is being rapidly displaced by arsenate of lead for several reasons. It is a compound of white arsenic, copper oxide, and acetic acid. The commercial form is a crystal which in suspension settles rapidly, a serious fault. It is more soluble than arsenate of lead and hence there is greater danger of burning the foliage with it. Moreover, it costs from twenty to twenty-five cents a pound, and the arsenate of lead can be purchased for from eight to ten cents a pound. The amount which it is safe to use in fifty gallons of water is from one-half to three-quarters of a pound. When paris green is used alone as a poison lime should be added. Both these arsenicals should be thoroughly wet up by stirring in a smaller receptacle before they are put into the spray tank, in order to get them in as complete suspension as possible. They may be used in the same mixture with Bordeaux or lime sulphur. CONTACT SPRAYS.--Four compounds are used as contact sprays in combating sucking insects, namely, lime sulphur, soaps such as whale oil soap, kerosene emulsion, and tobacco extract. Of these lime sulphur is the most used and for winter spraying is probably the best. This preparation is made by boiling together for one hour or until they unite, twenty pounds of quick lime, fifteen pounds of flower of sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. Although the home made mixture is much cheaper than the commercial form which may be purchased on the market, many people prefer the latter because of the inconvenience and trouble of preparing the mixture, although there is nothing difficult about it. This contact spray is used chiefly for the San José scale and the blister mite, and in order to control these must be applied strong on the dormant wood. The strength necessary will vary from one part of the mixture above mentioned or of the commercial preparation, to from seven to ten parts of water, according to the density test of the material, which should be around twenty-eight per cent. Beaumé (a scale for measuring the density of a liquid) for home made, and thirty-two per cent. for the commercial mixture. Any good soap is effective in destroying soft bodied insects such as plant lice. The fish oil soaps, although variable in composition, are often valuable, especially the one known in the trade as whale oil soap. This soap dissolved in water by boiling at the rate of two pounds of soap to one gallon of water, makes a good winter spray for scale but should be applied before it gets cold as it is then apt to become gelatinous. For a summer contact spray against lice, one pound of soap to seven gallons of water is strong enough to be effective. It is objectionable because of its odor and because it is disagreeable to make and handle. Lime sulphur is to be preferred as a winter spray, but the soap spray is often necessary and valuable for summer sucking insects. Kerosene emulsion was formerly more commonly used than now against the scale and plant lice. It is a mixture of one-half pound of soap and two gallons of kerosene in one gallon of water--preferably in hot water. For dormant trees one gallon of this mixture should be diluted with six gallons of water. While this spray is effective it is no more so than lime-sulphur and is quite difficult and disagreeable to handle. As a summer spray, however, it is often necessary. Several preparations of petroleum known as the miscible oils are sometimes used. Their use is the same as that of lime-sulphur and they are not as good. Within the last few years a tobacco concoction known as black leaf tobacco extract (nicotine sulphate) has come into quite common use. It can be purchased commercially under various brand names, and should be diluted according to its strength, but usually about one part to fifty of water. It may be made by boiling one pound of good tobacco stems in two gallons of water for one-half-hour. Objections to it are that it evaporates very quickly, although it is supposed to be non-volatile, and that it is expensive, but it is very convenient to use, can be readily mixed with other summer sprays, and is very effective against plant lice and mites. BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Fungicides are mixtures of chemical compounds made up for the purpose of controlling plant diseases caused by a class of plant weeds known as fungi. There are three commonly well known and used fungicides, Bordeaux mixture, commercial lime sulphur, and the self-boiled lime-sulphur. The Bordeaux mixture is the best all-around fungicide known. It is a mixture of three pounds of copper sulphate (blue vitriol or bluestone) with three or more pounds of fresh burned stone lime in fifty gallons of water. The two compounds should be put together as fruit growers say "with water between," that is each should be diluted with the water separately before the two are mixed. The best plan is to have stock mixtures of each in barrels, fifty gallon cider or vinegar barrels making good receptacles for the purpose. Place the bluestone in an old fertilizer or meal sack and suspend it about midway in the barrel of water. In a few hours it will all be dissolved and will remain in suspension for some length of time very well. If say fifty pounds of the copper sulphate are dissolved in fifty gallons of water, each gallon of water will contain one pound of the bluestone, which makes a very convenient way to measure it. So also fifty pounds of fresh burned stone lime should be placed in a barrel--in this case in the bottom of the barrel rather than in a sack--just covered with water and allowed to slake, more water being added as required up to fifty gallons. If too much water is added to the lime at the first it will be "drowned" and its slaking checked. These two stock mixtures, each gallon containing one pound of the copper sulphate or one pound of the lime, are then mixed together. It is well to fill the tank about half full of water, then put in the required amount of the copper sulphate, and after stirring well add the lime milk. It is a good plan to add an excess of lime as it minimizes the danger of burning and aids the mixture in sticking to the leaves well. If one is sure that he has at least as much lime, or an excess of lime, it will not be necessary to test the mixture, but if he is not, a simple test may be made with ferro-cyanide of potassium, obtained at a drug store. A few drops of this mixture will disappear if the lime is equal or in excess of the copper sulphate, that is, it will be neutralized, but if it is not, they will remain a bright purplish red. Bordeaux mixture is used in strengths varying from three to five pounds each of bluestone and lime in fifty gallons of water, but the former is usually sufficient. LIME-SULPHUR.--The more important fungicides, the commercial lime sulphur and the self-boiled lime-sulphur, are practically superseding Bordeaux as a fungicide, not because they are necessarily better, but because there is frequently much burning of the foliage and russeting of the fruit from the use of the Bordeaux. This is unfortunate as the latter is a rather more effective fungicide as well as more convenient and pleasant to use. The self-boiled lime sulphur is a combination of lime and sulphur which is boiled by the heat of the slaking lime alone, and makes a pretty good substitute for the Bordeaux when it injures foliage or fruit. This preparation of lime and sulphur differs from the commercial form used as a winter wash in that it is wholly a mechanical mixture and not partly chemical like the latter. It may therefore be used on the foliage in summer at a greater strength, there being only a very small percentage of sulphur in solution when the mixture is properly made. Equal amounts of lime and sulphur are used, these being from eight to ten pounds each to fifty gallons of water. The mixture is best prepared in larger quantities so as to get heat enough from the slaking lime to produce a violent boiling for a few minutes. First, place say forty pounds of lime in a barrel and pour on just water enough to start it slaking nicely--about a gallon to each three or four pounds of lime is usually sufficient. Then add the sulphur and enough more water to slake the paste, keeping it well stirred meanwhile. The violent boiling of the lime in slaking will cook the mixture in from five to fifteen minutes, depending on the quality of the lime and how fast it is slaked. Just as soon as the violent boiling is over add enough cold water to stop all action. If this is not done, some sulphur will unite with the lime and burning may be the result. This self-boiled mixture is entirely harmless to apple foliage and even appears to have a stimulating effect upon it. Against the apple scab, however, it is not as effective as the boiled wash, or the commercial preparations. For this disease a strength of from one to thirty to one to forty (that is about one and one-half gallons of the prepared mixture testing 31 to 33 Beaumé to fifty gallons of water) of the commercial lime-sulphur is most effective. SPRAY PUMPS.--The application of the foregoing spray mixtures is fully as important as the sprays themselves, for on the right application at the right time depends the efficacy of the spray. For this purpose a considerable amount of special machinery has been devised. Lack of space prevents us from going into much detail on this question, so we must be content with merely outlining the different types of machines and mentioning their accessories. Sprays are forced through single, double or triple acting pumps, either by hand or power. The three types of power available are traction, compressed air, and gasoline, the last being the most used. Steam power is practically obsolete. The knapsack is the simplest type of hand pump, but it is of no practical use in the mature apple orchard. For small orchards and small trees several types of hand pumps are quite effective. The lever type of pump, where the handle is pushed from and pulled toward the operator, probably gives the most power with the least tiring effect, because it enables one to use the weight of the body to some extent. It is best not to have the pump attached to the spray barrel or tank, but set on a movable base of its own, as then it can be used for any one of a number of barrels. Such an outfit may be obtained for from twenty-five to forty dollars. It is well to buy a standard make of pump, preferably from a nearby dealer, so that repairs may be readily secured. For all orchards up to three or four acres in size, and for larger orchards where the trees are not over twelve or fifteen feet in height, this kind of spray rig is the most practicable and advisable, when the expense is taken into consideration. This applies especially to the general farm. The power of a traction sprayer is developed from the wheels. There is much discussion as to whether sufficient power to throw an effective spray can be supplied by this method. By accumulating considerable pressure by extra driving at the ends of the rows and then skipping every other tree in order to keep up the pressure, going over the rows twice, a very satisfactory pressure can be obtained for trees which are not too large. The argument for this type of machine, and it is especially applicable on the general farm, is that it can be used for other spraying on the farm as well as for the apple orchard, especially for potatoes and small fruits. It is a comparatively cheap type of power, particularly when it can be used for several purposes. The compressed air gas sprayer comes next in point of simplicity and cost for a power sprayer. Its most economic use is found where orcharding is carried on extensively enough to pay to compress the air or gas right in the orchard. This is of course impracticable on the general farm. Therefore the air or gas must be purchased and shipped to the farm in steel tubes. This often causes delay at critical times and is rather expensive. Moreover, the gas is open to the objection of interfering with the lime-sulphur compound by precipitating some of the sulphur. The gasoline engine is the most useful and popular type of power for the orchard sprayer, as well as for general use on the farm. Many makes are now so perfected that they give little or no trouble. One and a half or two horsepower are fully sufficient for spraying, but most farmers prefer from three to five horsepower in order to be able to use the engine more for other purposes. The latter power is open to objection for spraying purposes on account of its weight, as especially in early spring it is very difficult to haul so heavy a rig over the soft ground. Such an outfit is also rather expensive. Standard makes of gasoline engines of sufficient power for spraying cost from $75.00 to $150.00 according to horsepower and efficiency. For very large trees, for mature orchards, and for all orchards larger than four or five acres, the gasoline engine is the best source of power for spraying, particularly where it can be used for other purposes on the farm. A double acting or two cylinder pump is most desirable. If there is plenty of power a triplex or three cylinder pump is still better. The requirements of a good pump are: sufficient power for the work desired of it; strong but not too heavy; fewest possible number of parts consistent with efficiency; brass parts and valves; and a good sized air chamber. A number of standard makes of pumps answer these conditions very well. Pumps should always be washed out with clean water when the operator is through with them and the metal parts coated with vaseline. Never leave water in a pump chamber or in the engine jacket in cold weather. The ordinary hand pump and barrel give satisfactory use when placed on a wagon, unless the trees are very high. But for large orchards, high trees, and where larger tanks and power pumps are used it is desirable to have a special truck for the outfit. The front wheel should be made low so as to turn under the tank to enable the driver to make short turns around the trees. A tower is desirable where high old trees are to be sprayed. This should be substantial but as small as is consistent with the purpose so as not to catch on the limbs and make it difficult to get close up around the trees. The height of the platform must be regulated by the need and by the roughness of the ground. On steep side hills the wagon body on which the tank rests should be underslung. In order to get as near to the work as possible get a long hose--from twenty to thirty feet according to circumstances. The best quality, three to five ply, is none too good. Hose should be three-eighths to one-half inch in diameter, one inch being too heavy. Extension rods are a practical necessity. They should be ten to twelve feet long and made of bamboo lined with brass, that is, as light as possible. Nozzles are very important in thorough and effective spraying. There is no best nozzle, nor one with which all the work can be done. Several things should be considered in selecting a nozzle. First of all, it must be of convenient form so as not to catch in trees and so constructed that it will not clog easily. Second, for apple trees it should have good capacity and deliver as spreading a spray as possible. Third, the nature of the spray is very important. Insecticides should usually be applied with force in a comparatively coarse driving spray, but fungicides should be applied in a fine mist or fog so that they will settle on every part of the tree. Therein lies the difficulty of applying insecticides and fungicides together. TIME OF SPRAYING.--Fortunately it is not necessary to make a separate application for each insect and disease, but they may be treated together to some extent. In most cases expediency demands that the arsenicals be used with the fungicides. Many growers are finding the most satisfactory results, however, from applying the arsenical spray separately, just after the blossoms fall, because of the physical impossibility of properly applying the two sprays--the driving and the mist spray--together. For most practical purposes on the general farm, three sprayings are necessary in order to secure clean fruit and four, sometimes five, are often advisable. These may be summarized as follows: 1. With lime-sulphur, winter strength, on the dormant wood in early spring. 2. With lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead just before the blossoms open (may sometimes be omitted). 3. With the same (or Bordeaux for scab) just after the blossoms fall. 4. With the same two or three weeks later. 5. With arsenate of lead eight or nine weeks later (may sometimes be omitted). (In the south and middle latitudes where bitter rot and apple blotch occur two other sprayings may be necessary.) 6. With Bordeaux about eight or ten weeks after the blossoms fall. 7. Again with the same about two weeks later. A Calendar for Spraying Apples --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- INSECTS | Nature | Before | Before | After | In 2 | In 8 | Materials | of | Leaf | Flower | Petals | to 3 | to 9 | to | Injury | Buds | Buds | Fall | Weeks | Weeks | Use | | Open | Open | | | | --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Codling | Eating | | | x | x | x | Lead Moth | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate | | | | | | | or | | | | | | | Par. Gr. --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- San José|Sucking | x | | | | | Lime Scale | Insect | | | | | | Sulphur --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Oyster | Sucking| x | | | | | Lime Shell | Insect | | | | | | Sulphur Scale | | | | | | | --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Blister | Leaf | x | | | | | Lime Mite | Miner | | | | | | Sulphur --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Plant | Sucking| | when seen | | | Whale Oil Louse | Insect | | | | | | Soap or | | | | | | | Tobacco --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Cigar | Eating | | x | x | x | | Lead Case | Insect | | | | | | Arsenate Bearer | | | | | | | or | | | | | | | Par. Gr. --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Apple | Eating | x | x | | destroy fruit | Lead Maggot | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate | | | | | | | or | | | | | | | Par. Gr. --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Bud | Eating | x | x | x | | | Lead Moth | Worm | | | | | | Arsenate | | | | | | | or | | | | | | | Par. Gr. --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Curculio| Eating | | x | x | | | Lead | Worm & | | | | | | Arsenate | Beetle | | | | | | or Par. Gr. --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- =Diseases=| | | | | | | --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Apple | Fungus | x | x | x | x | if | Lime Scab | | | | | |necessary| Sulphur | | | | | | | or | | | | | | | Bordeaux | | | | | | | 3-3.50 --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- | | | | | | | New York| Fungus | x? | cut out | | | Lime Apple | | | infections | | | Sulphur Tree | | | | | | | Canker | | | | | | | --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Leaf | Fungus | x | x | x | | | Lime Spot | | | | | | | Sulphur --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- Sooty | | | | x | x | x | Bordeaux Blotch | | | | | | | Mixture | | | | | | | and Lime | | | | | | | Sulphur --------+--------+--------+--------+--------+-------+---------+---------- CHAPTER IX HARVESTING AND STORING Apples are practically never allowed to ripen on the trees but are picked and shipped green. By "green" we mean not fully ripe, not ripe enough to eat out of hand. This is necessary for all fruit which is to be shipped any considerable distance or which is to be stored. Used in this sense green has no reference to color, but as a matter of fact, much of our fruit is picked too green, before it has even reached its full size and is well colored. There is no exact time at which apples must be picked, but this depends on many factors such as the variety, the distance to be shipped, the soil, the climate, and various other conditions, to say nothing of seasonal differences. The time at which any variety should be picked in a particular section will be learned by experience. In general, apples should be left on the tree as long as possible in order to get the best size and color. When the apples begin to drop badly it is a pretty sure indication that it is time to pick. If the fruit is to be sold in the local market or for immediate consumption, it may be allowed to get riper than would otherwise be the case. With most varieties one picking is sufficient, but in the case of varieties like the Wealthy which does not ripen uniformly, or like the Twenty Ounce, which does not always color evenly, two or three pickings should be made. Two or three pickings are practically always necessary where fancy fruit is desired, in order to get the ideal size, color, and uniformity. LADDERS.--There are two general types of picking ladders, the rung and the step ladders. For large trees the rung ladders are the best. They may be obtained in lengths to suit the height of the tree. Lengths of more than twenty-two or twenty-four feet become too heavy and clumsy to handle, even when made of pine, which is the best material as it is light and strong for its weight. In very old, high trees extension rung ladders are sometimes used. They are also useful for interior work but are heavy to handle. Rung ladders cost from ten to twenty cents a running foot. Step ladders are useful only on young and small trees. The two styles, the three (Japanese) and four legged, are both quite satisfactory where one can reach the fruit from them. Receptacles for picking usually hold about half a bushel. Both baskets and bags are used, some preferring one and some the other, and a choice between them is merely a matter of personal preference. There is a little less liability of bruising the apples in bags than in baskets, but the latter are more convenient in some ways. Fruit should never be thrown or dropped into a basket but always handled carefully. Some varieties, as McIntosh, show almost every finger mark and literally require handling with gloves. HANDLING.--The old custom of picking and laying on the ground in the orchard is a poor one and should not be followed, as it causes unnecessary handling and bruising. Moreover, fruit should be packed and hauled to storage as soon after picking as possible. Picking and placing directly on the packing table from which the apples are immediately packed is the best plan where it is practicable, but as the weather at picking time in the Eastern States is frequently quite uncertain, it is not always possible to follow this plan as closely as can be done in the West, where dry air and sunshine prevail. Still, wherever there is a considerable quantity of fruit and several pickers, the plan of packing directly from the table is best. Many growers pick in boxes and barrels and haul the apples to a packing shed to be packed later. Convenience and expediency must govern the general farmer who is not always at liberty to choose the best plan, often having to do as he can. PACKING TABLES enable the grower to pack his fruit better because he can see better what he is doing, and to handle the fruit more cheaply and quickly and with less injury. They should be portable so that they can be moved about the orchard. A convenient type has one end mounted on wheels so that it can be pushed from one place to another. The top of the table should be made of two strong layers of canvas, one tacked firmly to the framework of the table with about three or four inches of dip and the other laid loosely over it. This plan provides a soft resting place for the fruit and the table can be easily cleaned off by simply throwing back the upper layer of canvas. Three feet six inches is about the right width for the table, and the same sloping to three feet four inches at one end, is the correct height from the ground. Most packers like to have this gradual slope to one end so that the apples will naturally feed toward that end. The length may be anything up to eight or ten feet, beyond which the table becomes heavy and unmanageable. BARRELS.--The standard apple barrel adopted by the National Apple Shippers' Association and made law in New York State has a length of stave of twenty-eight and one-half inches and a diameter of head of seventeen and one-eighth inches. The outside circumference of the bilge is sixty-four inches and the distance between the heads is twenty-six inches. It contains one hundred quarts dry measure. The staves are mostly made of elm, pine, and red gum, and the heads principally of pine with some beech and maple. In most apple growing sections barrels are made in regular cooper shops where their manufacture is a business by itself. Only the largest growers set up their own barrels. Practically all barrels are purchased "knocked down" and it costs from four to six cents each to set them up. Barrels can ordinarily be purchased for about thirty-five cents each, but the cost varies somewhat with the season and the region. Apple packages should always present a neat, clean, and attractive appearance. Never use flour barrels, soiled or ununiform barrels of any kind. If a head cushion is used a good deal of waste from the crushing and bruising of the fruit will be saved. A head lining of plain or fringed paper also adds much to the attractiveness of the package. The wrapping of apples for barrel packing is hardly advisable. The fruit is pressed into the barrel tightly with one of two types of presses, both of which are good. The lever press is more responsive and the pressure is more easily changed, but it is harder to operate. The screw press distributes the pressure more evenly with less injury to the fruit and is more powerful. The steps in properly packing a barrel of apples are: First, see that the middle and closed end hoops are tight, if necessary, nailing them and clinching the nails; second, mark the head plainly with the grade and variety and the name of the packer or owner; then place the barrel on a solid floor or plank and lay in the facing papers (the face end being packed first); select the "facers," which should be the best representatives of the grade being packed, and _no others_, and place them in two courses in regular order stems down; with a drop handle basket fill the barrel, using care not to bruise the fruit, and jarring the barrel back and forth on the plank as each basket is put into it in order to settle the fruit firmly in place; lastly, arrange a layer of apples stems up and apply the press, using a hatchet to get the head in place and to drive on and tighten the hoops. THE BOX PACKAGE is rapidly growing in favor, especially as a carrier of fancy fruit. There is no standard box the size of which is fixed by law unless it be a box labeled a bushel. But two sizes of boxes are in common use, both probably being necessary on account of the variation in the size of different varieties. The "Standard" box is 10½ by 11½ by 18 inches inside measurement and contains 2,173.5 cubic inches (the lawful stricken bushel is 2,150.4 cubic inches). The "Special" box is 10 by 11 by 20 inches inside measurement and contains 2,200 cubic inches. The bulge when properly made will add about 150 cubic inches more, making the two boxes hold 2,323.5 cubic inches and 2,350 cubic inches respectively. Spruce is the most reliable and in general the best material. Fir is sometimes used, but is likely to split. Pine is good if strong enough. The ends should be of three-quarter-inch material; the sides of three-eighth-inch, and the tops and bottoms--two pieces each--of one-quarter-inch material. There should also be two cleats each for top and bottom. The sides of the box should be nailed with four, preferably five-penny cement-coated nails, at each end. The cleats should be put neatly on each end and four nails put into them, going through into the top and bottom. Boxes commonly come "knocked down" or in the flat and are usually put together by the grower. They cost from ten to thirteen cents each in the flat. There are several kinds of packs, depending on the size of the apples and the choice of the grower. The diagonal pack with each apple resting over the spaces between others is preferable, but on account of the size of the apples one is often forced to use the straight pack with the apples in regular right angle rows for some sizes. The offset pack, first three (or four) on one side and then on the other, is very much like the diagonal, but not much used on account of its accommodating too few apples in a box. The following table gives the packs, number of rows, number of apples in the row, box to use, and number of apples used to the box, as used at Hood River, Oregon: No. Size expressed apples No. in No. apples in layers in Box per box Tier Pack row depth used -------------------------------------------------------------------- 45 3 3 St. 5-5 3 Standard 54 3 3 St. 6-6 3 Special 63 3 3 St. 7-7 3 Special 64 3½ 2-2 Diag. 4-4 4 Standard 72 3½ 2-2 Diag. 4-5 4 Standard 80 3½ 2-2 Diag. 5-5 4 Standard 88 3½ 2-2 Diag. 5-6 4 Standard 96 3½ 2-2 Diag. 6-6 4 Special 104 3½ 2-2 Diag. 6-7 4 Special 112 3½ 2-2 Diag. 7-7 4 Special 120 3½ 2-2 Diag. 7-8 4 Special 128 4 4 St. 8-8 4 Special 144 4 4 St. 9-9 4 Special 150 4½ 3-2 Diag. 6-6 5 Standard 163 4½ 3-2 Diag. 6-7 5 Standard 175 4½ 3-2 Diag. 7-7 5 Standard 185 4¼ 3-2 Diag. 7-8 5 Special 200 4½ 3-2 Diag. 8-8 5 Special It is good practice to wrap apples packed in boxes. For this purpose a heavy-weight tissue paper in two sizes, 8 by 10 and 10 by 10, according to the size of the apple, is used. A lining paper 18 by 24 in size and "white news" in grade is first placed in the box. Between the layers of apples a colored "tagboard" paper, size 17¼ by 11 or 20 by 9¾, according to the box used, is laid so as to make the layers come out right at the top. In packing the box is inclined toward the packer for convenience in placing the fruit. After laying in the lining paper each apple is wrapped and put in place. As an aid to picking up the thin wrapping paper a rubber "finger" is used on the forefinger. When the box is packed the layers should stand a quarter to a half inch higher in the middle than at the ends, in order to give a bulge or spring to the top and bottom which holds the fruit firmly in place without bruising. There has been much discussion as to whether the box or the barrel is the better package for apples. This is needless, for as a matter of fact each is best for its own particular purpose. The barrel is best adapted as a package for large commercial quantities of fruit and where labor could not be had to pack apples in boxes even if the trade wanted them. The barrel permits the packing of a greater variety in size and shape than does the box, and these can be more easily and cheaply handled in packing. On the other hand, the box is the ideal package for small amounts of fancy fruit, to be used for a family-or fruit-stand trade. It presents a neater and more fancy appearance and is a more convenient package to handle, as well as one which is more open to inspection. It already has a better reputation as a quality container than the barrel. As a fancy package for a limited private trade from the small general farm orchard with high-class varieties like the Northern Spy, McIntosh, and others there is no comparison of the box with the barrel. STORAGE.--Car refrigeration and cold storage of fruit are comparatively modern developments. Few persons who have not been affected directly realize what a tremendous influence they have had upon the fruit, and particularly the apple industry. Apples could not be shipped any very great distance. Crops had to be marketed immediately and when they were large the markets were soon glutted and the fruit became almost valueless. The first hot spell would demoralize the trade altogether. Then later in the season the supply would become exhausted and famine would ensue where but a few weeks before there had been a feast. Under such conditions it is not surprising that the apple industry did not develop very rapidly and that apple growing was mostly confined to areas near the larger markets. The coming of the refrigerator car extended fruit-growing over a much wider area. Refrigeration on shipboard opened up and enlarged the export trade. Cold storage warehouses lengthened the season by holding over the surplus of fruit, thus relieving fall gluts in the market and providing a winter supply of apples. These conditions created a more stable market with more uniform prices, extending the business from a side issue to one of chief importance. Marketing has become almost a business by itself, inducing the formation of growers' associations and creating a profitable occupation for large dealers and commission men. These conditions, too, have led to speculation. Two kinds of storage are used, common or cellar storage and cold storage. Both are about equally available, but the latter is too expensive for the small grower. There is always a question as to the advisability of the small grower storing his fruit. Storage means a degree of speculation. "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush," especially when the bird is a good one. So far as rules can be laid down, the following are pretty safe ones to keep in mind: It is safest to store apples when they are of the highest quality; in a season most unfavorable to common storage; when the fewest are being stored; when the price in the fall is medium to low, never when high; and when one can afford to lose the whole crop. Successful storage requires several things: good fruit, stored immediately after picking, careful sorting and handling, subsequent rest, and a reasonable control of the temperature. The functions of storage are to arrest ripening, retard the development of disease, and furnish a uniform, cold temperature. Storage of apples does not remedy over-ripeness nor prevent deterioration of already diseased, bruised, or partly rotted fruit. There are three general methods of storage: (1) by ventilation, (2) by the use of ice and (3) by mechanical means. Cooling by ventilation offers the most practical system for a farm storage. It requires that there be perfect insulation against outside temperature changes, adequate ventilation, and careful watching of temperatures. To provide for good insulation a dead air space is necessary. This can be secured by a course of good two-inch boards with one or two layers of building paper inside and out, over a framework of two-by-fours. Over the building paper tight, well matched siding should be laid also inside and out. Two of the dead air spaces will make insulation doubly sure. To provide for proper ventilation construct an intake for cold air at the bottom, and an outlet for warm air at the top of the room. These should serve all parts of the room, one being necessary for this purpose every twelve to sixteen feet. Do not depend too much on windows. Warm-air flues should be twelve inches square and six to twelve feet long. The attention to such a house is most important. Keep it closed tightly early in the fall with blinded windows. When nights get cool open the doors and windows to let in cold air, closing them again during the day. On hot days close the ventilators also. In this way a temperature of 36 to 40 degrees Fahr. can be secured in early fall and one of 32 to 33 degrees Fahr. later. This is probably the cheapest as well as the most practical method of farm storage. Ice storage is quite practical in the North, but more expensive. The principle of such a storage is to keep ice above the fruit, allowing the cold air to flow down the sides of the room. A shaft in the middle of the room will serve to remove the warm air. This method is open to the objection of difficulty in storing the ice above the fruit. Moreover the uniformity of its cold air supply is questionable. Mechanical storage in which cold temperatures are secured by the compression or absorption of gases is altogether impracticable for individual growers, as it costs from $1.50 to $2.00 a barrel of capacity to construct such a storage. Rents of this kind of storage range from 10 to 25 cents a barrel per month, or 25 to 50 cents a barrel for the season of from four to six months. CHAPTER X MARKETS AND MARKETING Having produced a good product, there remains the problem of making a profitable and satisfactory disposition of it. In many ways marketing is the measure of successful fruit growing. Of what use is it to prune well, cultivate well, spray thoroughly, or even pack well the finest kind of product, if after the expense of these operations is paid and the railroad and commission agents have had their share, no profit remains to the producer? Many growers find it easier to produce good fruit than to market it at a good price, and this is especially true of the general farmer. Failure to market well spells failure in the business of fruit growing. Successful marketing presupposes a knowledge of the requirements of different markets as to quality, varieties, and supply demanded in those markets. Methods of distribution are also one of the great factors in this problem of marketing. TYPES OF MARKETS.--There are two general types of markets, the local, which is a special market and the general or wholesale market, both of which have different but definite requirements. The local market handles fruit in small quantities, but usually with a larger margin of profit per unit to the producer. As a rule delivery is direct in a local market, and thus commissions are saved. Competition is also more or less limited to one's neighbors. More varieties, including less well known ones, are called for. Appearance does not count for as much as quality, which is of first importance. Fruit may be riper as it is consumed more quickly and meets with less rough handling. Packages are usually returned to the grower. Special markets are often willing to pay extra for fruit out of season, and they always require special study and adaptation to meet their needs. The general or wholesale market handles fruit in larger quantities, usually with a smaller margin of profit. A selling agent or commission man is the means of disposing of fruit in such a market, where competition is open to the whole country and sometimes to the world. Only standard well-known varieties find a ready and profitable sale. Great attention is paid to appearance and comparatively little to quality. Fruit shipped to a wholesale market must be packed in a standard package, which is not returned, but goes with the fruit, and must be packed so as to endure rough treatment. Out of season fruit is not in demand, but even the general market sometimes has special preferences. Almost every market has favorite varieties for which it is willing to pay a larger price than other markets. Just as Boston wants a brown egg and New York a white one, so these and other cities have their favorite varieties of apples. Some markets prefer a red apple, others a green one, although the former is most generally popular. In the mining and manufacturing towns working people want smaller green apples, or "seconds," because they are cheaper. Many second-class hotels prefer small apples, if they are well colored, as they go farther. The fashionable restaurant and the fruit stand are the markets for large, perfect, and highly colored specimens. Housewives demand cooking apples like Greenings, hotels want a good out-of-hand apple like the McIntosh, while private families have their own special favorites. As will readily be seen, the producer's problem is to find the special market for what he grows. It has been said that different markets have special varietal preferences, paying a better price for these than do other markets for the same quality. We can only take the space here to point out a few of these preferences. The Baldwin is by all odds our best general market and export variety. It is the workingman's apple and finds its best sale in our largest cities, particularly in New York and Chicago. The Rhode Island Greening is a better seller in the northern markets than it is in the southern, finding its best sale in Boston and in New York. The Northern Spy is highly regarded by all our large northern and eastern markets, is fairly well liked by the middle latitude markets, but not popular south of Baltimore and Pittsburgh or west of Milwaukee. Central western markets appear to prefer the Hubbardson, but this apple is fairly good in all markets. King is well thought of nearly everywhere. Ben Davis is a favorite in the South, New Orleans especially preferring it on account of its keeping quality. Jonathan has a good reputation everywhere. Dutchess of Oldenburg is regarded as excellent in Buffalo and Chicago. Wealthy, although generally a local market apple, is well known and liked in all markets. Twenty Ounce is spoken well of nearly everywhere. The Fameuse is not well liked in the South, but popular in the North, etc. These particular facts as to varieties are best learned by experience and by observation of the market quotations. THE COMMISSION MAN.--The present system of marketing fruit products makes the commission man almost a necessity in the general market. Neither the grower nor the local dealer can ship directly to the consumer or even to the retailer, except in a very limited way. It may be impracticable to devise any other workable system, but it must be remembered that every man who touches a barrel of apples on its journey from producer to consumer must be paid for doing so, and this pay must come either out of the seller's price or be added to the buyer's price. But so long as present conditions of marketing and distribution prevail, so long will a selling agent in the general market be necessary, and the evil cannot be ameliorated by ranting against it. An unfortunate impression prevails that all commission men are dishonest. This is not true, although undoubtedly there are many scoundrels among them, as they have shippers almost completely at their mercy. The best method under our present system is to choose an honest commission man in the city where you sell, to get acquainted with him, to let him know that your trade will be in his hands only so long as he treats you fairly, and then supply him with as good quality of stuff as you can produce. This plan has worked out well with many successful growers and marketers. Perhaps the greatest difficulty to be overcome in successfully finding good markets is that of proper distribution. As has been pointed out in the previous chapter, there has been a great increase in the production of apples and hence in competition, accompanied by speculation and more intensive methods in all phases of the business. A necessity has arisen for the production of the best at a minimum cost, as well as for finding the best market for that product. In the rush for the best market every seller is apt to be guided only by his own immediate interest without due regard for the fact that others are acting in the same way or that there is a future. The result is the piling up of fruit in a market of high quotations, and a subsequent drop in the price. Then all turn from such a market to a better one with the result that a famine often results where but a few weeks or even days before there had been a feast. Thus it often happens that one market may have more fruit than it can possibly dispose of at the time, while another, perhaps equally good, goes begging. Such conditions are ruinous to trade. Growers are disappointed and ascribe the cause to the commission man. Consumers are unable many times to profit by a glut in the market but promptly blame the middleman or the grower when the supply is small and the price high. Other difficulties with our system of marketing are non-uniformity of the grades, the packages, or the fruit itself. There should be a clear definition of just what "firsts" and "seconds" are and this definition rigidly adhered to. Transportation is too frequently insufficient, not rapid enough, especially when perishable fruit is shipped in small lots, and usually at a too high rate. There are undoubtedly too many middlemen between producer and consumer. Growers sell to local dealers who sell to wholesalers at the receiving end. These sell to wholesalers at the consuming end, who may sell to jobbers, who sell to retailers. Each man must have his profits, all of which greatly increases costs. CO-OPERATION.--Individuals have practically no power to remedy such a state of affairs. So long as producers act independently they will have little power either to bring about favorable legislation or to better such market conditions. Acting together as a unit growers have accomplished great things which can be repeated. The co-operative principle has been well tried out in California, where it was first put into operation with citrous fruits, in several other Western States with apples, and in Michigan and the Province of Ontario. Co-operative associations study carefully the law of supply and demand and take steps to adapt their shipments to it. They standardize the grade, the package, and the fruit, and govern their shipments to given markets by the needs and the demands of those markets. Their unity of effort enables them to make great savings in the purchase of supplies, such as packages, spraying material, fertilizers, etc., and in obtaining and distributing frequently knowledge of markets and market conditions. They also advertise their products, making them better known, creating a demand for them, and by means of correspondence or traveling agents seek out the best markets. There are now several large fruit exchanges operating over wide sections of country. But the local associations are the vital units in any co-operative movement. Such associations should be incorporated under State laws so that they can do all sorts of business when necessary. Six simple objects should be kept in mind, namely, (1) to prevent unnecessary competition, and to supervise and control distribution of products; (2) to provide for uniformity in the grade, package, and fruit; (3) to build up a high standard of excellence and to create a demand for it; (4) to economize in buying supplies and selling products; (5) to promote education regarding all phases of the fruit business; and (6) when necessary to act as a buying and selling agent for the community. Such an association requires a board of directors, a treasurer, and an active and well-paid manager. The latter is most important, as upon his honesty, ability, and energy will largely depend the success or failure of the organization. Sometimes where fruit is packed in a central packing house or under an association brand or guarantee, a foreman packer is also necessary. The capitalization required for such an enterprise is not necessarily large, unless warehouses or packing houses are built. These are usually better rented until the organization becomes well established. The shares should be small so that every member may be financially well represented, and members should be prohibited from holding more than a small percentage of the total shares, in order to prevent possible monopoly. Dividends on stock held should only be expected from business done outside the association membership, interest on money invested being obtained in the handling of members' products at cost. Receipts should be given growers for just what they bring in, and they should then be paid according to the grade of fruit which they contribute, prices for the same grade being pooled. The charge to growers for handling should be actual cost, but outsiders' products should be handled at a small profit in order to induce them to come into the association. The same method should be followed in purchasing supplies. The general result of such co-operation is that the consumer gets a better product for his money and the grower receives a better price for his product. It is very essential to the success of the organization that growers stick together, even through low prices and discouragement which so often come, until they are firmly established. Substantial reduction in the cost of the product to consumers can only come by similar co-operation among them at the buying end and by the co-operation of both consumers and producers for distribution and handling in market. If a neighborhood does not feel yet ready to attack this problem in this thorough and businesslike way, it will be advantageous and a step in the right direction if they simply agree on certain standards of quality and packing and then pool their product for marketing. This method has also been followed with success. CHAPTER XI SOME HINTS ON RENOVATING OLD ORCHARDS Nearly every general farm in the humid part of the United States has its small, old apple orchard. For the most part these orchards were planted in order to have a home source of supply of this popular fruit. In fact, but few orchards have been planted on a commercial scale with a view of selling the fruit, until recently and outside of a few sections. Therefore, as a rule we find these old farm orchards to consist of a few acres containing from twenty-five to two hundred trees. These trees are usually good standard varieties which have been the source of much apple "sass," many an apple pie, and many a barrel of cider-vinegar. Not having been set for profit, these trees received little care. Orchards were cropped in the regular rotation, or with hay, or pastured. Farmers then knew little of modern methods of orchard management. The orchard was regarded as an incumbrance to the land, which had to be farmed to as good advantage as possible under the circumstances, and if the apple trees by any chance yielded a crop, the owner regarded himself as fortunate indeed. But conditions have now changed. Both local and foreign markets have been opened up and developed so that the demand for good fruit is great. It will be some time before the thousands of acres of orchards which have been and are being planted to meet this demand will be able to do so in any adequate way. It has been shown in Chapter I how heavy has been the falling off in the supply, even in the face of these heavy plantings. Meanwhile we must turn to the old neglected farm orchards for our supply of apples. Just at this particular time the renovation of these old orchards offers a splendid opportunity to increase the farm income. The question is a live one on nearly every general farm in the East. Will it pay to try to renovate my old apple trees? If so, what should I do to make them profitable? What will it cost and what returns may be expected? The latter question will be taken up in the following chapter, but here we must try to indicate under what conditions it may pay to renovate an old orchard, as well as those under which it may not pay, and also how to go about the problem. NECESSARY QUALITIES.--An apple orchard must have certain qualifications in order to make it worth while to spend the time and money necessary to accomplish the desired results. These we may take up briefly under five heads: (1) varieties, (2) age, (3) number or "stand" of trees, (4) vigor and health of the trees, and (5) soil, site, and location. The discussion of these subjects in Chapters II and III has equal application here, but we may perhaps point out their specific application more definitely in the case of the old neglected farm orchard. (1) Varieties should be desirable sorts. If they are the best standard market varieties, as is often the case, so much the better. Otherwise little is gained by improving the tree and fruit. Poor or unknown varieties have little or no market value, except perhaps a very local one. If the trees are not too old and are fairly vigorous, poor varieties may sometimes be worked over by top grafting to better varieties. Characteristics which may make, a variety undesirable are: inferior quality; unattractiveness in color, shape, or size; lack of hardiness in the tree or keeping quality in the fruit; low yield; or being unknown in the market with its consequent small demand. Summer varieties are worth renovating only when they are in good demand in a nearby local market. (2) Vigor is more important than age in the tree, but is closely correlated with it. Ordinarily one should hesitate to try to renovate a tree more than forty or fifty years old, but this must always depend almost wholly on its condition and other characteristics. (3) In order to make a business of renovation and to do thorough work which means expense, there must be enough of the orchard to justify the expenditure of the time and money. This affects the results not only in expense, but in economy in management, equipment, and marketing. There should be at least an acre of say thirty trees, and better, more than that number to justify the expense of time and money necessary for renovation. One hundred trees would certainly justify it, other conditions being favorable. Then, too, the trees should be in such shape that they can be properly treated without too great trouble and expense, i.e., not too scattered or isolated or in the midst of regular fields better adapted for other crops. (4) Vigor and good general health are of great importance. Many old trees are too far gone with neglect, having been too long starved or having their vitality too much weakened by disease to make an effort for their rehabilitation worth while. Good vigor, even though it be dormant, is absolutely essential. Disease weakens the tree, making the expense of renovation greater. Moreover, all diseased branches must be removed, requiring severe cutting and often seriously injuring the tree. Disease too often stunts the tree to such an extent as to make stimulation practically impossible. Such matters should be carefully looked into before attempting renovation. (5) If the soil, site, and location are all unfavorable or even if two of these are not good, time and money are likely to be wasted on renovation. What constitutes unfavorable conditions in these respects has already been pointed out in Chapter III. Practically the same principles of pruning, cultivation, fertilization and spraying apply in the management of the old orchard as in any other orchard. It may be well, however, to restate these, briefly pointing out their special value and application to the old neglected orchard together with the few modifications of practice necessary. The steps to be taken are four: (1) pruning, (2) fertilizing, (3) cultivating, and (4) spraying. (1) PRUNING.--Old and long-neglected apple orchards usually have a large amount of dead wood in them. This may be removed at any time of the year, but fall and winter are good times to begin the work. If the trees are high and the limbs scattered and sprawling so that the middle of the trees is not well filled out, the trees should be headed back rather severely. Such trees may safely have their highest limbs cut back from five to ten feet. It is best not to remove too many branches in one year, but to spread severe cutting back over at least two years, as so much pruning at one time weakens the tree and causes an excessive growth of "suckers." Each limb should be cut back to a rather strong and vigorous lateral branch which may then take up the growth of the upright one. The effect of such heading back will be to stimulate the branches lower down and probably to bring in more or less "suckers." The following year the best of these suckers should be selected at proper points about the tree, headed in so as to develop their lateral buds, and encouraged by the removal of all other suckers to fill in the top and center of the tree in the way desired. All such severe heading in should best be done in the early spring. (2) FERTILIZING.--At some time during the late fall or winter twelve to fifteen loads of stable manure should be applied broadcast on each acre, scattering it well out under the ends of the branches. This will amount to a load to from three to five trees. In case manure is not available, or sometimes even supplementary to it in cases where quick results are wanted 100 to 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, 300 to 500 pounds of acid phosphate, and 150 to 200 pounds of sulphate or muriate of potash should be applied in two applications as a top dressing in spring, as soon as growth starts, and thoroughly worked into the soil. This will give the trees an abundance of available plant food, which is usually badly needed, and help to stimulate them to a vigorous growth. Such heavy feeding may easily be overdone and should be adjusted according to conditions and the needs of the orchard. (3) CULTIVATING.--If the orchard has been in sod for a number of years, as is often the case, it is usually best to plow it in the fall about four inches deep, just deep enough to turn under the sod. By so doing a large number of roots will probably be broken, but such injury will be much more than offset by the stimulus to the trees the next season. It is a good plan to apply the stable manure on the top of this plowed ground early in the winter. Fall plowing gives a better opportunity for rotting the sod and exposes to the winter action of the elements the soil, which is usually stale and inactive after lying so long unturned. In the spring the regular treatment with springtooth and spiketooth harrows should be followed as outlined in Chapter V. (4) SPRAYING in the old orchard is essentially the same as elsewhere. It is necessary, however, to emphasize the first spray, the dormant one, winter strength on the wood. This is the most important spray for a neglected orchard and it should be very thoroughly applied. It is a sort of cleaning-up spray for scale, fungus, and insects which winter on the bark. In orchards where the San José scale is bad a strong lime-sulphur spray should also be used in the late fall in order to make doubly sure a thorough cleaning up. It is usually a pretty good plan to scrape old trees as high up as the rough, shaggy bark extends, destroying the scrapings. For this purpose an old and dull hoe does very well. This treatment will get rid of many insects by destroying them and their winter quarters. PATCHING OLD TREES.--A few suggestions on patching up the weak places in an old tree may not be entirely out of place. The question is often asked, will it pay to fill up the decayed centers or sides of old trees? If the tree is otherwise desirable to save, it usually will. Scrape out all the dead and rotten material, cleaning down to the sound heart wood. Then fill up the cavity with a rough cement, being careful to exclude all air and finishing with a smooth, sloping surface so as to drain away all moisture. This treatment will probably prevent further decay and often acts as a substantial mechanical support. Trees which are badly split or which have so grown that a heavy crop is likely to break them over should be braced with wires or bolts. Where the limbs are close together a bolt driven right through them with wide, strong washers at the ends is very effective in strengthening the tree. Where limbs must be braced from one side of the tree across to the other wires are the best to use. They may be fastened to bolts through the limbs with wide washers on the outside hooks on the inside, or by passing the wire around the branches. In the latter case some wide, fairly rigid material such as tin, pieces of wood, or heavy leather should be used to protect the tree from the wire which would otherwise cut into the bark and perhaps girdle the limb. COST.--For the benefit of those who would like to get some idea of the probable cost of renovating old apple orchards, the following estimate made by the writer in a recent government publication on this subject is given. This estimate has been carefully made up from actual records kept on several New York farms. Because these costs are very variable according to the condition of the orchard, both maximum and minimum amounts are given per acre for the first year only. Minimum Maximum cost cost Plowing $2.00 $3.00 Manure, 10 to 20 loads at $1, or their equivalent in commercial fertilizer 10.00 20.00 Hauling manure 5.00 10.00 Pruning and hauling brush 5.00 10.00 Disking or harrowing twice 1.00 1.50 Disking or harrowing 3d or 4th time .50 1.00 Cultivating two to four times .50 1.00 Spraying once with L.S. dilution 1 to 9--material 2.00 4.00 Spraying once, L.S., labor 1.00 1.50 Spraying second time with L.S. dilution 1 to 40, labor and material 1.50 2.50 Spraying third time with same 1.50 2.50 ------ ------ Total cost $30.00 $57.00 CHAPTER XII THE COST OF GROWING APPLES Two factors have always operated to deter many persons from taking up fruit growing as a business or even as a side issue on the farm, and they will probably continue to be an obstacle for more time to come. These are the comparatively large investment required and the necessarily long period of waiting before paying returns can be obtained. Farmers who have not gone into the business of fruit growing because they could not afford this heavy investment or to wait so long for returns have been wise. Others who, though lacking the necessary capital, still have planted heavily have learned to their sorrow the importance of capital in the business both for the original investment and to carry the enterprise. And yet with sufficient capital and the proper conditions there is no more attractive or profitable line of agriculture than fruit growing. Who knows what it costs to grow an orchard to bearing age? Or what it costs to produce a barrel of apples? We venture to say that very few persons do. Because of the large investment both in fixed and in working capital it is most important to know these costs. Moreover an accurate knowledge of the financial conditions and facts in any business is of first importance to intelligent management. For these reasons every grower ought to keep careful records of the cost and income from each field or orchard every year in order to determine as accurately as possible what his crops have cost him per unit and per acre and what rate of interest he has realized on his investment. As farming becomes more intensive competition increases, costs multiply, and the margin of profit on any given unit becomes smaller. It therefore becomes increasingly necessary to have accurate records on the cost of production. FACTORS IN THE COST OF PRODUCTION.--The value of records depends on their accuracy and on their completeness. There are a great many factors which enter into the cost of production. For convenience these may be classified as cash costs and labor costs. Labor charges should include the work of both men and teams at a rate determined by their actual cost or by a careful estimate. Man labor costs are easily reckoned, as they are either simple cash or cash plus board and certain privileges, the value of which should be estimated in cash. The value of horse labor is more difficult to determine. It is made up of interest on valuation, depreciation, stable rental, feed, care, etc. A fair estimate of this cost is $10 a month or $120 a year for a horse. Cash costs are interest on the investment and on the equipment in machinery, etc., or rental of the same, taxes, a proper share of the general farm expenses such as insurance and repairs of buildings, telephone, etc., the cost of spraying material, packages, fertilizers, etc. There are many ways of keeping such a record. Any method which accomplishes the result in a convenient and accurate manner is a good one. It will usually be found necessary to keep a cash account or day book, entering all items in enough detail to make possible their later distribution to the proper field or crop, and also to keep a diary of all labor. Any form of diary will answer the purpose, but one which has ruled columns at the right side of the page in which to indicate the crop or field worked upon, and the number of hours worked is more convenient and therefore more desirable. AN EXAMPLE.--For a number of years the author has kept such records on his farm in western New York. As an illustration of the method and in order to give the reader a general idea as to what the costs above referred to are likely to be we venture to give the following tables. It must be remembered, however, that practically everyone of the above mentioned factors varies with the conditions under which the orchard is managed and that these figures are not _an_ average but _one_ average and on one farm. True averages are arrived at only by bringing together a large number of figures. In any case, the question of cost is essentially an individual problem on every farm. These figures are of value only as an example of the method and the cost on one farm under its own special conditions. The orchard for which the following figures were given was set in the spring of 1903, and the records begin with that year and end with 1910, covering a period of eight years in all. Throughout this period other crops have been grown between the tree rows, thereby offsetting to a large extent the cost of growing the orchard. Forty trees at the north end of the orchard are pears, but they have received substantially the same treatment as the apples and have not affected the cost. In 1904, 211 plum trees were set as fillers one way. The apple trees were set 36 by 36 feet apart, so that, filled one way, the trees stand 18 by 36 feet apart. The orchard is ten rows wide and forty-seven long, containing in all 467 trees. BRINGING TO BEARING AGE.--The first of the following tables is given as a sample of one year's records, that of 1907, on this orchard in order to show both the manner in which the costs were made up and what the items amounted to in one year: FIELD A--1907. FIFTH YEAR Total Hours Cost Cost hours Total per acre per per Operation Man Horse cost Man Horse acre 100 Mulching 3 6 $1.05 .455 .91 $0.16 $0.22 Pruning 11 ... 1.65 1.67 ... .25 .35 Cultivating 1 7 7 1.75 1.06 1.06 .26 .38 Cultivating 2 10 10 2.50 1.51 1.51 .38 .54 Cultivating 3 6 6 1.50 .91 .91 .23 .32 Plowing in fall 47 94 16.45 7.12 14.25 2.50 3.52 Banking trees 12 ... 1.80 1.82 ... .27 .39 Harrowing 21 42 7.35 3.18 6.36 1.11 1.58 --- --- ------ ----- ----- ----- ----- Total lab. cost. 117 165 $34.05 17.73 25.00 $5.16 $7.30 4 loads manure at $1.50 6.00 .91 1.29 Equipment charge 1.15 .174 .25 Taxes 5.29 .801 1.13 Interest 38.48 5.83 8.23 ------ ------- ------ Total cost $84.97 $12.875 $18.20 INCOME, COST AND PROFIT ON BEANS--FIELD A--1907 Income Cost Profit 75 bushels at $1.50 $112.50 3½ tons pods at $6 21.00 $133.65 $94.50 $38.85 LOSS ON FIELD A--1907 Total Per acre Net income from beans $38.85 $5.89 Cost of orchard 84.97 12.87 ------ ------ Loss $46.12 $6.98 A summary of the cost of the orchard, the net income from the crop, the income from the orchard and the profit and loss by years for the eight years follows: SUMMARY OF COSTS FOR EIGHT YEARS, FIELD A Net Income Crop income from Cost of 6.6 acres Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss 1903 Corn $ 15.17 ... $109.87 ... $ 94.70 1904 Beans 42.57 ... 216.16 ... 173.59 1905 Beans 43.13 ... 83.78 ... 40.65 1906 Beans 120.90 ... 80.14 $40.76 ... 1907 Beans 38.85 ... 84.97 ... 46.12 1908 Corn 37.68 ... 64.22 ... 26.54 1909 Oats and strawberries 100.61 $27.88 84.73 43.76 ... 1910 Wheat 60.70 38.65 96.35 3.00 ... ------- ------ ------- ------ ------- Totals $459.61 $66.53 $620.22 $87.52 $381.60 Net loss on field for eight years $294.08 Average annual loss 38.76 Total cost an acre, exclusive of income 124.27 Total cost an acre, including income 44.55 Total net cost a hundred trees 62.97 Total net cost an apple tree 1.37 Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income 3.80 Total labor cost an acre 35.09 Total cash cost an acre 89.19 We find that this orchard has cost $124.27 an acre during the eight years of its life, but that the $79.72 an acre of crops grown in the orchard has brought this cost down to $44.55 an acre. It is safe to say that the orchard would have cost even more than it did had it not been for the crops, for many operations charged directly to the crops would of necessity have been charged to the trees. The cost a hundred trees does not mean much, as it often happens that not all the trees are covered by an operation and as the number of trees an acre greatly affects these costs. We have another and younger orchard upon which a record has been kept. This orchard of five acres contains 126 standard apple trees, "filled" both ways with 375 peach trees. It was set in the spring of 1908, so that the trees have grown four seasons. The permanents (apples) are set 36 by 40 feet apart, so that, with the peaches between, the trees stand 18 by 20 feet apart. A crop of beans has been grown between the tree rows each season. The first season a full seven rows, twenty-eight inches apart, were planted in the wider space; the second and third season six rows, and the last season only four rows. The crop has been very good each year until the last. One application of manure, one crop of clover and one seeding of rye have been plowed under, and in addition a liberal amount of commercial fertilizer has been used with each crop. This year the peach trees bore their first crop. The record of the four years is as follows: SUMMARY OF THE COST OF A FOUR-YEAR-OLD APPLE AND PEACH ORCHARD Net Income Crop income from Cost of Year grown from crop orchard orchard Profit Loss 1908 Beans $63.37 ... $130.12 ... $62.75 1909 Beans 66.70 ... $85.03 ... 18.33 1910 Beans 79.81 ... 83.39 ... 3.58 1911 Beans 53.20 $46.05 61.95 $37.30 ... ------- ------ ------- ------ ------ Totals $267.08 $46.05 $360.49 $37.30 $84.66 Total cost an acre, exclusive of income $72.10 Total cost an acre, including income 9.47 Total net cost a hundred trees 4.73 Total net cost an apple tree .376 Total net cost an apple tree, exclusive of income 2.86 These figures show a still lower cost of growing trees to bearing age. After paying all expenses connected with the growing of the trees, including the interest on the land at $150 an acre, and deducting the net profit from the crops of beans and the sales from the first crop of peaches we find that the growing of the trees has cost us $9.47 an acre, or 37½ cents an apple tree at four years old. Had no crop been grown in the orchard it would have cost us at least $62.89 an acre after deducting the income from the first peach crop. The peach trees are now at full bearing age, and should show a good profit from this time on. Possibly at five and certainly at six years of age this orchard will entirely have paid for itself. The only possible further charge which could be made against this orchard is the crop income which might have been obtained from the land had the trees not been there. We estimated that the presence of the trees cut down the crop of beans from the land 30 per cent. As the average net income from beans was $13.35 an acre this would amount to $4 an acre a year--an insignificant sum. IN BEARING.--Having given the reader an idea of the probable cost of bringing an orchard to bearing age, it may be well also to give the cost of producing apples in a mature apple orchard. Our bearing apple orchard consists of 6.1 acres containing 234 trees. About one-half of the trees, or 110, are 36 years old. The remainder are nearly 50 years of age. As they are all in one block and handled together, the charges cannot well be separated. One hundred and thirty-four of the trees are Baldwins, 44 Twenty Ounce, 40 Tompkins County Kings, and the remainder odd varieties. For the whole period of ten years the orchard has had very good care and attention. A cover crop was not sown every year, but when it was used the charge was made against the orchard. The manure charge, omitted because of uncertainty as to the exact amount applied and as to its real value, is the only thing lacking in this table. Two or three sprayings have been made every year. Until 1909, Bordeaux mixture and Paris green were used, but since then the commercial brands of lime sulphur and arsenate of lead have taken their place, nearly doubling the cost of the spray material. The average cost of the material for spraying has been $2.50 per acre, or nearly three and one-half cents per barrel of apples harvested. In 1910 this cost was $3.92 per acre and seven cents a barrel. TABLE SHOWING THE ITEMS OF EXPENSE IN PRODUCING APPLES IN A SIX ACRE ORCHARD -------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- | | | | 5% | | | | | Cover|Spraying| | int. | Equip.| O'vh'd| Labor | Total Year | crop |mat. | Bar. |on inv.|charge |charge | cost | cost -------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- 1902 | |$6.64 |$117.88|$27.45 |$25.00 |$2.97 |$339.45 |$519.39 1903 | |11.22 | 164.92| 28.88 | 25.00 | 2.88 | 249.55 | 482.56 1904 | |10.50 | 109.90| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.93 | 180.55 | 360.38 1905 |$6.10 |12.45 | 88.80| 30.50 | 25.00 | 3.40 | 158.06 | 324.31 1906 | |14.85 | 112.35| 33.06 | 25.00 | 4.78 | 211.76 | 401.80 1907 |10.00 |16.85 | 79.80| 35.56 | 25.00 | 4.89 | 192.30 | 364.40 1908 | | 9.75 | 205.45| 37.76 | 30.09 | 5.09 | 293.50 | 583.55 1909 | 8.68 |19.26 | 196.35| 41.97 | 38.98 | 5.91 | 280.78 | 591.93 1910 | |23.89 | 116.90| 45.75 | 32.39 | 5.58 | 175.26 | 399.77 1911 |10.50 |27.08 | 206.38| 45.75 | 32.39*| 5.53* | 275.00*| 602.63 -------+------+--------+-------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- 10 yr. av. $15.25 $139.87 $35.73 $28.37 $4.78 $235.62 $463.07 Av. per acre 2.50 22.93 5.86 4.65 .78 38.63 75.92 Av. per bbl .036 .327 .084 .066 .011 .552 -1.08 * Partly estimated, records not yet complete. ------------------------------------------------------------------------- The cost of the package has varied from 28 to 38 cents and has averaged about 32½ cents, or $22.93 per acre. Of course the latter amount varies greatly with the crop. Interest has in all cases been figured at five per cent., but as the price of the land has varied from $90 an acre at the beginning of the period to its present valuation of $160,00 an acre, due both to its improvement and to a general increase in the price of land, the amount of interest has also varied. The same is true of the equipment charge which has steadily increased each year. The average valuation of the land for the ten-year period was $117.15 an acre. This means an annual interest charge of $5.86 per acre, or 8½ cents a barrel. The equipment charge, which is interest, repairs, and depreciation on the machinery used in the orchard, amounts to more than 6½ cents a barrel, or $4.65 per acre. Taxes and insurance on the buildings distributed per acre for the farm average $.78 per acre, or a trifle over one cent per barrel. These costs have also increased in the last few years. Labor is the largest single item. For the first four years this was estimated on the basis of the cost for the last six years, for which more careful records were kept. It is computed at its actual cost to us on the farm, which was 15½ cents an hour for men and 13½ cents an hour for horses. This amounts to $4.25 per day for man and team. The cost of the labor to grow, pick, pack, and market a barrel of apples was 55 cents, or $38.63 per acre with an average yield of 70 barrels per acre. To sum up these items of cost we find that taking the average of ten years with an annual crop of 427 barrels, or 70 per acre, on 6.1 acres of old apple orchard that the costs per barrel have been as follows: spray material, $.036; packages, $.327; interest on the land, $.084; use of equipment, $.066; taxes, $.011; labor, $.552; and a total of $1.08 per barrel. If the estimated cost of manure, six cents a barrel be added, the total will be $1.14. As we have said, these costs per barrel vary with the crop. When our yield was 100 barrels per acre the cost per barrel was only $.99, but when it was 34 barrels per acre this cost rose to $1.73 per barrel. In 1910 we grew a crop of 55 barrels per acre for $1.20 per barrel. It may be of interest to some to know what the income and profit were on this orchard. For this purpose we give the following table showing the yield, income, cost, and net profit for each of the ten years, and the average: Yield in Income Income Cost Net Profit bbls. bbls. inc. culls per bbls. inc. culls Year per A. only and drops bbl. alone and drops 1902 103 $1.96* $1.46* $.83 $1.13 $.63 1903 71 1.90 2.23 1.11 .79 1.12 1904 51 1.66 1.78 1.15 .51 .63 1905 49 2.30 2.68 1.10 1.20 1.58 1906 53 1.96 2.25 1.25 .71 1.30 1907 34 3.49 4.10 1.73 1.76 2.37 1908 96 2.03 2.32 .99 1.04 1.33 1909 92 3.00 3.38 1.06 1.94 2.32 1910 55 2.69 3.03 1.20 1.49 1.83 1911 100 2.06 2.32 .99¤ 1.07¤ 1.33¤ ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 10 yr. av. 70 2.15 2.47 1.08 1.07 1.39 * In arriving at these incomes different divisors were used. Two hundred barrels of the crop were sold in bulk and these were not used in getting the average income from barrels only, but were used in getting the average income including culls and drops. ¤ Partly estimated, records not yet being complete for the season. THE END OUTING HANDBOOKS ¶ Each book deals with a separate subject and deals with it thoroughly. If you want to know anything about Airedales an OUTING HANDBOOK gives you all you want. If it's Apple Growing, another OUTING HANDBOOK meets your need. The Fisherman, the Camper, the Poultry-raiser, the Automobilist, the Horseman, all varieties of outdoor enthusiasts, will find separate volumes for their separate interests. There is no waste space. ¶ The series is based on the plan of one subject to a book and each book complete. The authors are experts. Each book has been specially prepared for this series and all are published in uniform style, flexible cloth binding, selling at the fixed price of seventy cents per copy. ¶ Two hundred titles are projected. The series covers all phases of outdoor life, from bee-keeping to big game shooting. Among the books now ready are those described on the following pages. OUTING PUBLISHING COMPANY OUTING MAGAZINE Yachting OUTING HANDBOOKS 141-145 WEST 36th ST. NEW YORK 122 S. MICHIGAN AVE. CHICAGO =THE AIREDALE. By Williams Haynes.= The book opens with a short chapter on the origin and development of the Airedale, as a distinctive breed. The author then takes up the problems of type as bearing on the selection of the dog, breeding, training and use. The book is designed for the non-professional dog fancier, who wishes common sense advice which does not involve elaborate preparation or expenditure. Chapters are included on the care of the dog in the kennel and simple remedies for ordinary diseases. "_A splendid book on the breed and should be in the hands of every owner of an Airedale whether novice or breeder._"--_The Kennel Review._ "_It ought to be read and studied by every Airedale owner and admirer._"--_Howard Keeler, Airedale Farm Kennels._ =APPLE GROWING. By M.C. Burritt.= Mr. Burritt takes up the question of the profit in apple growing, the various kinds best suited to different parts of the country and different conditions of soil, topography, and so on. He discusses also the most approved methods of planning a new orchard and takes up in detail the problems connected with the cultivation, fertilization, and pruning. The book contains chapters on the restoration of old orchards, the care of the trees, their protection against various insect-enemies and blight, and the most approved method of harvesting, handling and storing the fruit. =THE AUTOMOBILE--Its Selection, Care and Use. By Robert Sloss.= This is a plain, practical discussion of the things that every man needs to know if he is to buy the right car and get the most out of it. The various details of operation and care are given in simple, intelligent terms. From it the car owner can easily learn the mechanism of his motor and the art of locating motor trouble, as well as how to use his car for the greatest pleasure. A chapter is included on building garages. "_It is the one book dealing with autos, that gives reliable information._"--_The Grand Rapids (Mich.) Herald._ =BACKWOODS SURGERY AND MEDICINE. By Charles S. Moody, M.D.= A handy book for the prudent lover of the woods who doesn't expect to be ill but believes in being on the safe side. Common-sense methods for the treatment of the ordinary wounds and accidents are described--setting a broken limb, reducing a dislocation, caring for burns, cuts, etc. Practical remedies for camp diseases are recommended, as well as the ordinary indications of the most probable ailments. Includes a list of the necessary medical and surgical supplies. _The manager of a mine in Nome, Alaska, writes as follows: "I have been on the trail for years (twelve in the Klondike and Alaska) and have always wanted just such a book as Dr. Moody's Backwoods Surgery and Medicine."_ =CAMP COOKERY. By Horace Kephart.= "The less a man carries in his pack, the more he must carry in his head," says Mr. Kephart. This book tells what a man should carry in both pack and head. Every step is traced--the selection of provisions and utensils, with the kind and quantity of each, the preparation of game, the building of fires the cooking of every conceivable kind of food that the camp outfit or woods, fields, or streams may provide--even to the making of desserts. Every receipt is the result of hard practice and long experience. Every recipe has been carefully tested. It is the book for the man who wants to dine well and wholesomely, but in true wilderness fashion without reliance on grocery stores or elaborate camp outfits. It is adapted equally well to the trips of every length and to all conditions of climate, season or country; the best possible companion for one who wants to travel light and live well. The chapter headings tell their own story. Provisions--Utensils--Fires--Dressing and Keeping Game and Fish--Meat--Game--Fish and Shell Fish--Cured Meats, etc.--Eggs--Bread-stuffs and Cereals--Vegetables--Soups--Beverages and Desserts. "_Scores of new hints may be obtained by the housekeeper as well as the camper from Camp Cookery._"--_Portland Oregonian._ "_I am inclined to think that the advice contained in Mr. Kephart's book is to be relied on. I had to stop reading his receipts for cooking wild fowl--they made me hungry._"--_New York Herald._ "_The most useful and valuable book to the camper yet published._"--_Grand Rapids Herald._ "_Camp Cookery is destined to be in the kit of every tent dweller in the country._"--_Edwin Markham in the San Francisco Examiner._ =CAMPS AND CABINS. By Oliver Kemp.= A working guide for the man who wants to know how to make a temporary shelter in the woods against the storm or cold. This describes the making of lean-tos, brush shelters, snow shelters, the utilization of the canoe, and so forth. Practically the only tools required are a stout knife or a pocket axe, and Mr. Kemp shows how one may make shift even without these implements. More elaborate camps and log cabins, also, are described and detailed plans reproduced. Illustrated with drawings by the author. =EXERCISE AND HEALTH. By Dr. Woods Hutchinson.= Dr. Hutchinson takes the common-sense view that the greatest problem in exercise for most of us is to get enough of the right kind. The greatest error in exercise is not to take enough, and the greatest danger in athletics is in giving them up. The Chapter heads are illuminating. Errors in Exercise--Exercise and the Heart--Muscle Maketh Man--The Danger of Stopping Athletics--Exercise that Rests. It is written in a direct matter-of-fact manner with an avoidance of medical terms, and a strong emphasis on the rational, all-round manner of living that is best calculated to bring a man to a ripe old age with little illness or consciousness of body weakness. "_It contains good physiology as well as good common sense, written by an acute observer and a logical reasoner, who has the courage of his convictions and is a master of English style._"--_D.A. Sargent, M.D., Sargent School for Physical Education._ "_One of the most readable books ever written on physical exercise._"--_Luther H. Gulick, M.D., Department of Child Hygiene, Russell Sage Foundation._ "_A little book for the busy man written in brilliant style._"--_Kansas City Star._ =THE FINE ART OF FISHING. By Samuel G. Camp.= Combines the pleasure of catching fish with the gratification of following the sport in the most approved manner. The suggestions offered are helpful to beginner and expert anglers. The range of fish and fishing conditions covered is wide and includes such subjects as "Casting Fine and Far Off," "Strip-Casting for Bass," "Fishing For Mountain Trout" and "Autumn Fishing for Lake Trout." The book is pervaded with a spirit of love for the streamside and the out-doors generally which the genuine angler will appreciate. A companion book to "Fishing Kits and Equipment." The advice on outfitting so capably given in that book is supplemented in this later work by equally valuable information on how to use the equipment. "_Will encourage the beginner and give pleasure to the expert fisherman._"--_N.Y. Sun._ "_A vein of catching enthusiasm runs through every chapter._"--_Scientific American._ =FISHING KITS AND EQUIPMENT. By Samuel G. Camp.= A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit. Every detail of fishing kit of the freshwater angler is described, from rodtip to creel and clothing. Special emphasis is laid on outfitting for fly fishing, but full instruction is also given to the man who wants to catch pickerel, pike, muskellunge, lake-trout, bass and other fresh-water game fishes. Prices are quoted for all articles recommended and the approved method of selecting and testing the various rods, lines, leaders, etc., is described. "_A complete guide to the angler buying a new outfit._"--_Peoria Herald._ "_The man advised by Mr. Camp will catch his fish._"--_Seattle P.I._ "_Even the seasoned angler will read this hook with profit._"--_Chicago Tribune._ =THE HORSE--Its Breeding, Care and Use. By David Buffum.= Mr. Buffum takes up the common, every-day problems of the ordinary horse-user, such as feeding, shoeing, simple home remedies, breaking and the cure for various equine vices. An important chapter is that tracing the influx of Arabian blood into the English and American horses and its value and limitations. Chapters are included on draft-horses, carriage horses, and the development of the two-minute trotter. It is distinctly a sensible book for the sensible man who wishes to know how he can improve his horses and his horsemanship at the same time. "_I am recommending it to our students as a useful reference book for both the practical farmer and the student._"--_T. R. Arkell, Animal Husbandman, N.H. Agricultural Experiment Station._ "_Has a great deal of merit from a practical standpoint and is valuable for reference work._"--_Prof. E.L. Jordon, Professor of Animal Industry, Louisiana State University._ =MAKING AND KEEPING SOIL. By David Buffum.= This deals with the various kinds of soil and their adaptibility to different crops, common sense tests as to the use of soils, and also the common sense methods of cultivation and fertilization in order to restore worn-out soil and keep it at its highest productivity under constant use. =THE MOTOR BOAT--Its Selection, Care and Use. By H.W. Slauson.= The intending purchaser of a motor boat is advised as to the type of boat best suited to his particular needs, the power required for the desired speeds, and the equipment necessary for the varying uses. The care of the engine receives special attention and chapters are included on the use of the boat in camping and cruising expeditions, its care through the winter, and its efficiency in the summer. =NAVIGATION FOR THE AMATEUR. By Capt. E.T. Morton.= A short treatise on the simpler methods of finding position at sea by the observation of the sun's altitude and the use of the sextant and chronometer. It is arranged especially for yachtsmen and amateurs who wish to know the simpler formulae for the necessary navigation involved in taking a boat anywhere off shore. Illustrated with drawings. =OUTDOOR SIGNALLING. By Elbert Wells.= Mr. Wells has perfected a method of signalling by means of wig-wag, light, smoke, or whistle which is as simple as it is effective. The fundamental principle can be learnt in ten minutes and its application is far easier than that of any other code now in use. It permits also the use of cipher and can be adapted to almost any imaginable conditions of weather, light, or topography. "_I find it to be the simplest and most practical book on signalling published._"--_Frank H. Schrenk, Director of Camp Belgrade._ "_One of the finest things of the kind I have ever seen. I believe my seven year old boy can learn to use this system, and I know that we will find it very useful here in our Boy Scout work._"--_Lyman G. Haskell, Physical Director, Y.M.C.A., Jacksonville, Fla._ =PRACTICAL POULTRY KEEPING. By R.B. Sando.= The chapters outlined in this book are poultry keeping and keepers, housing and yarding, fixtures and equipment, choosing and buying stock, foods and feeding, hatching and raising chicks. Inbreeding, caponizing, etc., What to do at different seasons. The merits of "secrets and systems", The truth about common poultry fallacies and get-rich-quick schemes. Poultry parasites and diseases. A complete list of the breeds and subjects is attached. It is in effect a comprehensive manual for the instruction of the man who desires to begin poultry raising on a large or small scale and to avoid the ordinary mistakes to which the beginner is prone. All the statements are based on the authors own experience and special care has been taken to avoid sensationalism or exaggeration. =PROFITABLE BREEDS OF POULTRY. By Arthur S. Wheeler.= Mr. Wheeler has chapters on some of the best known general purpose birds such as Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes, Mediterraneans, Orpingtons, and Cornish, describing the peculiarities and possibilities of each. There are additional chapters on the method of handling a poultry farm on a small scale with some instructions as to housing the birds, and so forth, and also a chapter on the market side of poultry growing. =RIFLES AND RIFLE SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= Part I describes the various makes and mechanisms taking up such points as range and adaptibility of the various calibers, the relative merits of lever, bolt and pump action, the claims of the automatic, and so forth. Part II deals with rifle shooting, giving full instruction for target practice, snap shooting, and wing shooting. =SCOTTISH AND IRISH TERRIERS. By Williams Haynes.= This is a companion book to The Airedale and deals with the origin of the breeds, the standard types, approved methods of breeding, kenneling, training, care and so forth, with chapters on showing and also on the ordinary diseases and simple remedies. =SPORTING FIREARMS. By Horace Kephart.= This book is devided into two parts, Part I dealing with the Rifle and Part II with the Shotgun. Mr. Kephart goes at some length into the questions of range, trajectory and killing power of the different types of rifles and charges and also has chapters on rifle mechanisms, sights, barrels, and so forth. In the part dealing with shotguns he takes up the question of range, the effectiveness of various loads, suitability of the different types of boring, the testing of the shotguns by pattern, and so forth. =TRACKS AND TRACKING. By Josef Brunner.= After twenty years of patient study and practical experience, Mr. Brunner can, from his intimate knowledge, speak with authority on this subject. "Tracks and Tracking" shows how to follow intelligently even the most intricate animal or bird tracks. It teaches how to interpret tracks of wild game and decipher the many tell-tale signs of the chase that would otherwise pass unnoticed. It proves how it is possible to tell from the footprints the name, sex, speed, direction, whether and how wounded, and many other things about wild animals and birds. All material has been gathered first hand; the drawings and half-tones from photographs form an important part of the work, as the author has made faithful pictures of the tracks and signs of the game followed. The list is: The White-Tailed or Virginia Deer--The Fan-Tailed Deer--The Mule-Deer--The Wapiti or Elk--The Moose--The Mountain Sheep--The Antelope--The Bear--The Cougar--The Lynx--The Domestic Cat--The Wolf--The Coyote--The Fox--The Jack Rabbit--The Varying Hare--The Cottontail Rabbit--The Squirrel--The Marten and the Black-Footed Ferret--The Otter--The Mink--The Ermine--The Beaver--The Badger--The Porcupine--The Skunk--Feathered Game--Upland Birds--Waterfowl--Predatory Birds--This book is invaluable to the novice as well as the experienced hunter. "_This book studied carefully, will enable the reader to become as well versed in tracking lore as he could by years of actual experience._"--_Lewiston Journal._ =WING AND TRAP-SHOOTING. By Charles Askins.= The only practical manual in existance dealing with the modern gun. It contains a full discussion of the various methods, such as snap-shooting, swing and half-swing, discusses the flight of birds with reference to the gunner's problem of lead and range and makes special application of the various points to the different birds commonly shot in this country. A chapter is included on trap shooting and the book closes with a forceful and common-sense presentation of the etiquette of the field. "_It is difficult to understand how anyone who takes a delight in hunting can afford to be without this valuable book._"--_Chamber of Commerce Bulletin, Portland, Ore._ "_This book will prove an invaluable manual to the true sportsman, whether he be a tyro or expert._"--_Book News Monthly._ "_Its closing chapter on field etiquette deserves careful reading._"--_N.Y. Times._ =THE YACHTSMAN'S HANDBOOK. By Commander C.S. Stanworth, U.S.N. and Others.= Deals with the practical handling of sail boats, with some light on the operation of the gasoline motor. It includes such subjects as handling ground tackle, handling lines and taking soundings, and use of the lead line; handling sails, engine troubles that may be avoided, care of the gasoline motor and yachting etiquette. * * * * * +-----------------------------------------------------------+ | Typographical errors corrected in text: | | | | Page 12: 'together with is long season' replaced with | | 'together with its long season' | | Page 32: prunned replaced with pruned | | Page 36: profiable replaced with profitable | | Page 65: humous replaced with humus | | Page 82: 'it must be sour' corrected to | | 'it must not be sour' In sentence referring | | to lime which is used to reduce acidity | | (sourness). | | Page 88: prsent replaced with present | | Page 105: tisses replaced with tissues | | Page 107: 'carried over the winter cankers' corrected to | | 'carried over the winter in cankers' | | Page 126: Jose replaced with José | | Page 163: (table) Syraying replaced with Spraying | | Page 163: (table) Syraping replaced with Spraying | | Page 164: 'The factors have always operated to deter' | | corrected to 'Two factors have always operated | | to deter' | | | +-----------------------------------------------------------+ * * * * * 
20917	----	produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) THE CULTIVATION OF THE NATIVE GRAPE, AND MANUFACTURE OF AMERICAN WINES. By GEORGE HUSMANN, OF HERMANN, MISSOURI. GEO. E. WOODWARD, PUBLISHER AND IMPORTER, Art, Architectural and Rural Books, 136 CHAMBERS STREET, NEW YORK. ORANGE JUDD CO., 245 Broadway. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by GEO. E. & F. W. WOODWARD, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern District of New York. TO THE GRAPE GROWERS OF "OUR COUNTRY, ONE AND INDIVISIBLE," THIS VOLUME IS DEDICATED BY THEIR FRIEND AND FELLOW-LABORER, THE AUTHOR. INDEX. PAGE. INTRODUCTION 9 GRAPE CULTURE. Remarks on its History in America, especially at the West; its Progress and its Future, 13 PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. I.--From Seed 27 II.--By Single Eyes 30 The Propagating House 31 Mode of Operating 32 III.--By Cuttings in Open Air 37 IV.--By Layering 39 V.--By Grafting 40 THE VINEYARD. Location and Soil 43 Preparing the Soil 45 WHAT SHALL WE PLANT? Choice of Varieties 47 The Concord 48 Norton's Virginia 48 Herbemont 49 Delaware 49 Hartford Prolific 49 Clinton 50 PLANTING. Planting. 51 Treatment of the Vine the First Summer 56 Treatment of the Vine the Second Summer 57 Treatment of the Vine the Third Summer 63 Treatment of the Vine the Fourth Summer 69 Training the Vines on Arbors and Walls 71 Other Methods of Training the Vine 75 Diseases of the Vine 78 Insects Injurious to the Grape 80 Birds 84 Frosts 85 Girdling the Vine to Hasten Maturity 86 Manuring the Vine 91 Thinning of the Fruit 91 Renewing Old Vines 92 Pruning Saws 93 Preserving the Fruit 95 Gathering the Fruit to Make Wine 96 VARIETIES OF GRAPES. CLASS I.--VARIETIES MOST GENERALLY USED. Concord (Description) 97 Concord (Plate) 111 Norton's Virginia (Description) 98 Norton's Virginia (Plate) 87 Herbemont (Plate) 99 Herbemont (Description) 101 Hartford Prolific (Description) 101 Hartford Prolific (Plate) 105 Clinton 102 Delaware (Description) 102 Delaware (Plate) 81 CLASS II.--HEALTHY VARIETIES PROMISING WELL. Cynthiana 103 Arkansas 104 Taylor 104 Martha 107 Maxatawney (Description) 107 Maxatawney (Plate) 177 Rogers' Hybrid, No. 1 107 Creveling (Description) 108 Creveling (Plate) 117 North Carolina Seedling 108 Cunningham 109 Rulander 109 Louisiana 110 Alvey 110 Cassady 110 Blood's Black 113 Union Village (Description) 113 Union Village (Plate) 167 Perkins 113 Clara (Description) 114 Clara (Plate) 127 Ive's Seedling 114 CLASS III.--HEALTHY VARIETIES--BUT INFERIOR IN QUALITY. Minor Seedling 116 Mary Ann 119 Northern Muscadine 119 Logan 119 Brown 119 Hyde's Eliza 119 Marion Port 120 Poeschel's Mammoth 120 Cape 120 Dracut Amber 120 Elsinburgh 120 Garber's Albino 121 Franklin 121 Lenoir 121 North America 121 CLASS IV.--VARIETIES OF GOOD QUALITY, BUT SUBJECT TO DISEASE. Catawba 121 Diana 122 Isabella 122 Garrigues 123 Tokalon 123 Anna 123 Allen's Hybrid 123 Cuyahoga 123 Devereux 124 Kingsessing 124 Rogers' Hybrid, No. 15 124 CLASS V.--VARIETIES UNWORTHY OF CULTIVATION. Oporto 124 Massachusetts White 125 WINE MAKING. Gathering the Grapes 131 The Wine Cellar 133 Apparatus for Wine Making.--The Grape Mill and Press 136 Fermenting Vats 137 The Wine Casks 138 Making the Wine 140 After Treatment of the Wine 146 Diseases of the Wine and their Remedies 147 Treatment of flat and Turbid Wine 147 Use of the Husks and Lees 148 Dr. Gall's and Petoil's Method of Wine Making 148 The Must Scale or Saccharometer 150 The Acidimeter and Its Use 151 The Change of the Must, by Fermentation, into Wine 157 Normal Must 161 The Must of American Grapes 162 Wine Making Made Easy 173 STATISTICS. Cost of Establishing A Vineyard 179 Cost of an acre of Concord 179 Cost of an acre of Herbemont 179 Cost of an acre of Norton's Virginia 180 Cost of an acre of Delaware 180 Cost of an acre of Catawba 180 Product 181 Produce Fifth Year 182 Yield of Mr. MICHAEL POESCHEL'S Vineyard 184 New Vineyard of Mr. M. POESCHEL, Planted in 1861; First Partial Crop, 1863; Second Crop, 1864; Third Crop, 1865, 184, 185 Yield of Vineyard of Mr. WILLIAM POESCHEL, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1860 185 Yield of Vineyard of Mr. WILLIAM POESCHEL 1861, 1862, 1863, 1864 186 Yield of Vineyard of Mr. WILLIAM POESCHEL 1865 187 Yield of Delaware Vineyard of JOHN E. MOTTIER 189 INTRODUCTION It is with a great deal of hesitation I undertake to write a book about Grapes, a subject which has been, and still is, elucidated every day; and about which we have already several works, which no doubt are more learned, more elaborate, than anything I may produce. But the subject is of such vast importance, and the area suitable for grape culture so large, the diversity of soil and climate so great, that I may be pardoned if I still think that I could be of some use to the beginner; it is for them, and not for my brethren of the craft more learned than I am, that I write. If they can learn anything from the plain talk of a practical worker, to help them along in the good work, I am well repaid. Another object I have in view is to make grape growing as easy as possible; and I may be pardoned if I say that, in my opinion, it is a defect in all books we have on grape culture, that the manner of preparing the soil, training, etc., are on too costly a plan to be followed by men of little means. If we are first to trench and prepare the soil, at a cost of about $300 per acre, and then pay $200 more for trellis, labor, etc., the poor man, he who must work for a living, can not afford to raise grapes. And yet it is from the ranks of these sturdy sons of toil that I would gain my recruits for that peaceful army whose sword is the pruning-hook; it is from their honest, hard-working hands I expect the grandest results. He who has already wealth enough at command can of course afford to raise grapes with bone-dust, ashes, and all the fertilizers. He can walk around and give his orders, making grape culture an elegant pastime for his leisure hours, as well as a source of profit. But, being one of the first class myself, I had to fight my way up through untold difficulties from the lowest round of the ladder; had to gain what knowledge I possess from dear experience, and can therefore sympathize with those who must commence without means. It is my earnest desire to save _them_ some of the losses which _I_ had to suffer, to lighten their toil by a little plain advice. If I can succeed in this, my object is accomplished. In nearly all our books on grape culture I notice another defect, especially in those published in the East; it is, that they contain a great deal of good advice about grape culture, but very little about wine-making, and the treatment of wine in the cellar. For us here at the West this is an all-important point, and even our Eastern friends, if they continue to plant grapes at the rate they have done for the last few years, will soon glut the market, and will be forced to make them into wine. I shall therefore try to give such simple instructions about wine-making and its management as will enable every one to make a good saleable and drinkable wine, better than nine-tenths of the foreign wines, which are now sold at two to three dollars per bottle. I firmly believe that this continent is destined to be the greatest wine-producing country in the world; and that the time is not far distant when wine, the most wholesome and purest of all stimulating drinks, will be within the reach of the common laborer, and take the place of the noxious and poisonous liquors which are now the curse of so many of our laboring men, and have blighted the happiness of so many homes. Pure light wine I consider the best temperance agent; but as long as bad whisky and brandy continue to be the common drink of its citizens we can not hope to accomplish a thorough reform; for human nature seems to crave and need a stimulant. Let us then try to supply the most innocent and healthy one, the exhilarating juice of the grape. I have also endeavored throughout to give plain facts, to substantiate with plain figures all I assert; and in no case have I allowed fancy to roam in idle speculations which cannot be demonstrated in practice. I do not pretend that my effort is "the most comprehensive and practical essay on the grape," as some of our friends call their productions, but I can claim for it strict adherence to truth and actual results. I have not thought it necessary to give the botanical description of the grape-vine, and the process of hybridizing, etc.; this has already been so well and thoroughly done by my friend FULLER, that I can do no better than refer the scientific reader to his book. I am writing more for the practical farmer, and would rather fill what I think a vacancy, than repeat what has been so well said by others. With these few remarks, which I thought due to the public and myself, I leave it to you, brother-winegrowers, to say whether or not I have accomplished my task. To all and every one who plants a single vine I would extend the hand of good fellowship, for he is a laborer in the great work to cover this glorious land of the free with smiling vineyards, and to make its barren spots flow with noble grape juice, one of the best gifts of an all-bountiful Creator. All hail to you, I greet you from _Free_ Missouri. GRAPE CULTURE REMARKS ON ITS HISTORY IN AMERICA, ESPECIALLY AT THE WEST--ITS PROGRESS AND ITS FUTURE. In an old chronicle, entitled, "The Discovery of America in the Tenth Century," by CHARLES C. PRASTA, published at Stralsund, we find the following legend: "LEIF, son of ERIC the Red, bought BYARNES' vessel, and manned it with thirty-five men, among whom was also a German, TYRKER by name, who had lived a long time with LEIF'S father, who had become very much attached to him in youth. And they left port at Iceland, in the year of our Lord 1000. But, when they had been at sea several days, a tremendous storm arose, whose wild fury made the waves swell mountain high, and threatened to destroy the frail vessel. And the storm continued for several days, and increased in fury, so that even the stoutest heart quaked with fear; they believed that their hour had come, and drifted along at the mercy of wind and waves. Only LEIF, who had lately been converted to CHRIST our Lord, stood calmly at the helm and did not fear; but called on Him who had walked the water and quieted the billows, with firm faith, that He also had power to deliver them, if they but trusted in Him. And, behold! while he still spoke to them of the wonderful deeds of the Lord, the clouds cleared away, the storm lulled; and after a few hours the sea, calmed down, and rocked the tired and exhausted men into a deep and calm sleep. And when they awoke, the next morning, they could hardly trust their eyes. A beautiful country lay before them, green hills, covered with beautiful forests--a majestic stream rolled its billows into the ocean; and they cast the anchor, and thanked the Lord, who had delivered them from death. A delightful country it seemed, full of game, and birds of beautiful plumage; and when they went ashore, they could not resist the temptation to explore it. When they returned, after several hours, TYRKER alone was missing. After waiting some time for his return, LEIF, with twelve of his men, went in search of him. But they had not gone far, when they met him, laden down with grapes. Upon their enquiry, where he had stayed so long, he answered: "I did not go far, when I found the trees all covered with grapes; and as I was born in a country, whose hills are covered with vineyards, it seemed so much like home to me, that I stayed a while and gathered them." They had now a twofold occupation, to cut timber, and gather grapes; with the latter, they loaded the boat. And Leif gave a name to the country, and called it Vinland, or Wineland." So far the tradition. It is said that coming events cast their shadows before them. If this is so, may we not recognize one of those shadows in the old Norman legend of events which transpired more than eight hundred years ago? Is it not the foreshadowing of the destiny of this great continent, to become, in truth and verity, a _Wineland_. Truly, the results of to-day would certainly justify us in the assertion, that there is as much, nay more, truth than fiction in it. Let us take a glance at the first commencement of grape culture, and see what has been the progress in this comparatively new branch of horticulture. From the very first settlement of America, the vine seems to have attracted the attention of the colonists, and it is said that as early as 1564, wine was made from the native grape in Florida. The earliest attempt to establish a vineyard in the British North American Colonies was by the London Company in Virginia, about the year 1620; and by 1630, the prospect seems to have been encouraging enough to warrant the importation of several French vine-dressers, who, it is said, ruined the vines by bad treatment. Wine was also made in Virginia in 1647, and in 1651 premiums were offered for its production. BEVERLY even mentions, that prior to 1722, there were vineyards in that colony, producing seven hundred and fifty gallons per year. In 1664, Colonel RICHARD NICOLL, Governor of New York, granted to PAUL RICHARDS, a privilege of making and selling wine free of all duty, he having been the first to enter upon the cultivation of the vine on a large scale. BEAUCHAMP PLANTAGENET, in his description of the province of New Albion, published in London, in 1648, states "that the English settlers in Uvedale, now Delaware, had vines running on mulberry and sassafras trees; and enumerates four kinds of grapes, namely: Thoulouse Muscat, Sweet Scented, Great Fox, and Thick Grape; the first two, after five months, being boiled and salted and well fined, make a strong red Xeres; the third, a light claret; the fourth, a white grape which creeps on the land, makes a pure, gold colored wine. TENNIS PALE, a Frenchman, out of these four, made eight sorts of excellent wine; and says of the Muscat, after it had been long boiled, that the second draught will intoxicate after four months old; and that here may be gathered and made two hundred tuns in the vintage months, and that the vines with good cultivation will mend." In 1633, WILLIAM PENN attempted to establish a vineyard near Philadelphia, but without success. After some years, however, Mr. TASKER, of Maryland, and Mr. ANTIL, of Shrewsbury, N.J., seem to have succeeded to a certain extent. It seems, however, from an article which Mr. ANTIL wrote of the culture of the grape, and the manufacture of wine, that he cultivated only foreign varieties. In 1796, the French settlers in Illinois made one hundred and ten hogsheads of strong wine from native grapes. At Harmony, near Pittsburgh, a vineyard of ten acres was planted by FREDERIC RAPP, and his associates from Germany; and they continued to cultivate grapes and silk, after their removal to another Harmony in Indiana. In 1790, a Swiss colony was founded, and a fund of ten thousand dollars raised in Jessamine county, Kentucky, for the purpose of establishing a vineyard, but failed, as they attempted to plant the foreign vine. In 1801, they removed to a spot, which they called Vevay, in Switzerland County, Indiana, on the Ohio, forty-five miles below Cincinnati. Here they planted native vines, especially the Cape, or Schuylkill Muscadel, and met with better success. But, after about forty years' experience, they seem to have become discouraged, and their vineyards have now almost disappeared. These were the first crude experiments in American grape culture; and from some cause or another, they seem not to have been encouraging enough to warrant their continuation. But a new impetus was given to this branch of industry, by the introduction of the Catawba, by Major ADLUM, of Georgetown, D.C., who thought, that by so doing, he conferred a greater benefit upon the nation than he would have done, had he paid the national debt. It seems to have been planted first on an extensive scale by NICHOLAS LONGWORTH, near Cincinnati, whom we may justly call one of the founders of American grape culture. He adopted the system of leasing parcels of unimproved land to poor Germans, to plant with vines; for a share, I believe, of one-half of the proceeds. It was his ambition to make the Ohio the Rhine of America, and he has certainly done a good deal to effect it. In 1858, the whole number of acres planted in grapes around Cincinnati, was estimated, by a committee appointed for that purpose, at twelve hundred acres, of which Mr. LONGWORTH owned one hundred and twenty-two and a half acres, under charge of twenty-seven tenants. The annual produce was estimated by the committee at no less than two hundred and forty thousand gallons, worth about as many dollars then. We may safely estimate the number of acres in cultivation there now, at two thousand. Among the principal grape growers there, I will mention Messrs. ROBERT BUCHANAN, author of an excellent work on grape culture, MOTTIER, BOGEN, WERK, REHFUSS, DR. MOSHER, etc. Well do I remember, when I was a boy, some fourteen years old, how often my father would enter into conversation with vintners from the old country, about the feasibility of grape culture in Missouri. He always contended that grapes should succeed well here, as the woods were full of wild grapes, some of very fair quality, and that this would indicate a soil and climate favorable to the vine. They would ridicule the idea, and assert that labor was too high here, even if the vines would succeed, to make it pay; but they could not shake his faith in the ultimate success of grape culture. Alas! he lived only long enough to see the first dawnings of that glorious future which he had so often anticipated, and none entered with more genuine zeal upon the occupation than he, when an untimely death took him from the labor he loved so well, and did not even allow him to taste the first fruits of the vines he had planted and fostered. Had he been spared until now, his most sanguine hopes would be verified. I also well remember the first cultivated grape vine which produced fruit in Hermann. It was an Isabella, planted by a Mr. FUGGER, on the corner of Main and Schiller streets, and trained over an arbor. It produced the first crop in 1845, twenty years ago, and so plentifully did it bear, that several persons were encouraged by this apparent success, to plant vines. In 1846, the first wine was made here, and agreeably surprised all who tried it, by its good quality. The Catawba had during that time, been imported from Cincinnati, and the first partial crop from it, in 1848, was so plentiful, that every body, almost, commenced planting vines, and often in very unfavorable localities. This, of course, had a bad influence on so capricious a variety as the Catawba; rot and mildew appeared, and many became discouraged, because they did not realize what they had anticipated. A number of unfavorable seasons brought grape growing almost to a stand still here. Some of our most enterprising grape growers still persevered, and succeeded by careful treatment, in making even the Catawba pay very handsome returns. It was about this time, that the attention of some of our grape-growers was drawn towards a small, insignificant looking grape, which had been obtained by a Mr. WIEDERSPRECKER from Mr. HEINRICHS, who had brought it from Cincinnati, and, almost at the same time, by Dr. KEHR, who had brought it with him from Virginia. The vine seemed a rough customer, and its fruit very insignificant when compared with the large bunch and berry of the Catawba, but we soon observed that it kept its foliage bright and green when that of the Catawba became sickly and dropped; and also, that no rot or mildew damaged the fruit, when that of the Catawba was nearly destroyed by it. A few tried to propagate it by cuttings, but generally failed to make it grow. They then resorted to grafting and layering, with much better success. After a few years a few bottles of wine were made from it, and found to be very good. But at this time it almost received its death-blow, by a very unfavorable letter from Mr. LONGWORTH, who had been asked his opinion of it, and pronounced it worthless. Of course, with the majority, the fiat of Mr. LONGWORTH, the father of American grape-culture, was conclusive evidence, and they abandoned it. Not all, however; a few persevered, among them Messrs. JACOB ROMMEL, POESCHEL, LANGENDOERFER, GREIN, and myself. We thought Mr. LONGWORTH was human, and might be mistaken; and trusted as much to the evidence of our senses as to his verdict, therefore increased it as fast as we could, and the sequel proved that we were right. After a few years more wine was made from it in larger quantities, found to be much better than the first imperfect samples; and now that despised and condemned grape is _the_ great variety for red wine, equal, if not superior to, the best Burgundy and Port; a wine of which good judges, heavy importers of the best European wines too, will tell you that it has not its equal among all the foreign red wines; which has already saved the lives of thousands of suffering children, men, and women, and therefore one of the greatest blessings an all-merciful God has ever bestowed upon suffering humanity. This despised grape is now the rage, and 500,000 of the plants could have been sold from this place alone the last fall, if they could have been obtained. Need I name it? it is the Norton's Virginia. Truly, "great oaks from little acorns grow!" and I boldly prophecy to-day that the time is not far distant when thousands upon thousands of our hillsides will be covered with its luxuriant foliage, and its purple juice become one of the exports to Europe; provided, always, that we do not grow so fond of it as to drink it all. I think that this is pre-eminently a Missouri grape. Here it seems to have found the soil in which it flourishes best. I have seen it in Ohio, but it does not look there as if it was the same grape. And why should it? They drove it from them and discarded it in its youth; we fostered it, and do you not think, dear reader, there sometimes is gratitude in plants as well as in men? Other States may plant it and succeed with it, too, to a certain extent, but it will cling with the truest devotion to those localities where it was cared for in its youth. Have we not also found, during the late war, that the Germans, the adopted citizens of this great country, clung with a heartier devotion to our noble flag, and shed their blood more freely for it, than thousands upon thousands of native-born Americans? And why? Because here they found protection, equal rights for all, and that freedom which had been the idol of their hearts, and haunted their dreams by night; because they had been oppressed so long they more fully appreciated the blessings of a free government than those who had enjoyed it from their birth. But you may call me fantastical for comparing plants to human beings, and will say, plants have no appreciation of such things. Brother Skeptic, have you, or has any body, divined _all_ the secrets of Nature's workshop? Truly we may say that we have not, and we meet with facts every day which are stranger than fiction. The Concord had as small a beginning with us. In the winter of 1855 a few eyes of its wood were sent me by Mr. JAS. G. SOULARD, of Galena, Ill. I grafted them upon old Catawba vines, and one of them grew. The next year I distributed some of the scions to our vine-growers, who grafted them also. When my vine commenced to bear I was astonished, after what I had heard of the poor quality of the fruit from the East, to find it so fine, and so luxurious and healthy; and we propagated it as fast as possible. Now, scarcely nine years from the time when I received the first scions, hundreds of acres are being planted with it here, and one-third of an acre of it, planted five years ago, has produced for me, in fruit, wine, layers, cuttings, and plants, the round sum of ten thousand dollars during that time. Its wine, if pressed as soon as the grapes are mashed, is eminently one of those which "maketh glad the heart of man," and is evidently destined to become one of the common drinks of our laboring classes. It is light, agreeable to the palate, has a very enlivening and invigorating effect, and can be grown as cheap as good cider. I am satisfied that an acre will, with good cultivation, produce from 1,000 to 1,500 gallons per year. My vines produced this season at the rate of 2,500 gallons to the acre, but this may be called an extra-large crop. I have cited the history of these two varieties in our neighborhood merely as examples of progress. It would lead too far here, to follow the history of all our leading varieties, though many a goodly story might be told of them. Our friends in the East claim as much for the Delaware and others, with which we have not been able to succeed. And here let me say that the sooner we divest ourselves of the idea that one grape should be _the_ grape for this immense country of ours; the sooner we try to adapt the variety to the locality--not the locality to the variety--the sooner we will succeed. The idea is absurd, and unworthy of a thinking people, that one variety should succeed equally well or ill in such a diversity of soil and climate as we have in this broad land of ours. It is in direct conflict with the laws of vegetable physiology, as well as with common sense and experience. In planting our vineyards we should first go to one already established, which we think has the same soil and location, or nearly so, as the one we are going to plant. Of those varieties which succeed there we should plant the largest number, and plant a limited number also of all those varieties which come recommended by good authority. A few seasons will show which variety suits our soil, and what we ought to plant in preference to all others. Thus the Herbemont, the Cynthiana, Delaware, Taylor, Cunningham, Rulander, Martha, and even the Iona, may all find their proper location, where each will richly reward their cultivator; and certainly they are all too good not to be tried. Now, let us see what progress the country at large has made in grape-growing during, say, the last ten years. _Then_, I think I may safely assert, that the vineyards throughout the whole country did not comprise more than three to four thousand acres. _Now_ I think I may safely call them over two millions of acres. _Then_, our whole list embraced about ten varieties, all told, of which only the Catawba and Isabella were considered worthy of general cultivation; _now_ we count our native varieties by the hundreds, and the Catawba and Isabella will soon number among the things which have been. Public taste has become educated, and they are laid aside in disgust, when such varieties as the Herbemont, Delaware, Clara, Allen's Hybrid, Iona, Adirondac, and others can be had. _Then_, grape-growing was confined to only a few small settlements; _now_ there is not a State in the Union, from Maine to California, but has its vineyards; and especially our Western States have entered upon a race which shall excel the other in the good work. Our brethren in Illinois bid fair to outdo us, and vineyards spring up as if by magic, even on the prairies. Nay, grape-culture bids fair to extend into Minnesota, a country which was considered too cold for almost anything except oats, pines, wolves, bears, and specimens of daring humanity encased in triple wool. We begin to find out that we have varieties which will stand almost anything if they are only somewhat protected in winter. It was formerly believed that only certain favored locations and soils in each State would produce good grapes--for instance, sunny hillsides along large streams; now we begin to see that we can grow some varieties of grape on almost any soil. One of the most flourishing vineyards I have ever seen is on one of the islands in the Missouri river, where all the varieties planted there--some six or seven--seemed perfectly at home in the rich, sandy mould, where it needs no trenching to loosen the soil. _Then_, grape-growing, with the varieties then in cultivation, was a problem to be solved; _now_, with the varieties we have proved, it is a certainty that it is one of the most profitable branches of horticulture, paying thousands of dollars to the acre every year. _Then_, wine went begging at a dollar a gallon; _now_ it sells as fast as made at from two dollars to six dollars a gallon. Instead of the only wine then considered fit to drink, we number our wine-producing varieties by the dozen, all better than the Catawba; among the most prominent of which I will name--of varieties producing white wine, the Herbemont, Delaware, Cassidy, Taylor, Rulander, Cunningham, and Louisiana; of light-red wines, the Concord; of dark-red wines, the Norton's Virginia, Cynthiana, Arkansas and Clinton; so that every palate can be suited. And California bids fair to outdo us all; for there, I am told, several kinds of wine are made from the same grape, in the same vineyard, and in fabulous quantities. To cite an example of the increase in planting: in 1854 the whole number of vines grown and sold in Hermann did not exceed two thousand. This season two millions of plants have been grown and sold, and not half enough to meet the demand. It is said that the tone of the press is a fair indication of public sentiment. If this is true what does it prove? Take one of our horticultural periodicals, and nine-tenths of the advertisements will be "Grape-vines for sale," in any quantity and at any price, from five dollars to one hundred dollars per 100, raised North, East, South, and West. Turn to the reading matter, and you can hardly turn over a leaf but the subject of grapes stares you in the face, with a quiet impunity, which plainly says, "The nation is affected with grape fever; and while our readers have grape on the brain there is no fear of overdosing." Why, the best proof I can give my readers that grape fever does exist to an alarming degree, is this very book itself. Were not I and they affected with the disease, I should never have presumed to try their patience. But, fortunately, the remedy is within easy reach. Plant grapes, every one of you who is thus afflicted, until our hillsides are covered with them, and we have made our barren spots blossom as the rose. Truly, the results we have already obtained, are cheering enough. And yet all this has been principally achieved in the last few years, while the nation was involved in one of the most stupendous struggles the world ever saw, while its very existence was endangered, and thousands upon thousands of her patriotic sons poured out their blood like water, and the husbandman left his home; the vintner his vineyard, to fight the battles of his country. What then shall we become now, when peace has smiled once more upon our beloved country; and the thousands of brave arms, who brandished the sword, sabre, or musket, have come home once more; and their weapons have been turned into ploughshares, and their swords into pruning hooks? When all the strong and willing hands will clear our hillsides, and God's sun shines upon _one_ great and united people; greater and more glorious than ever; because now they are _truly free_. Truly the future lies before us, rich in glorious promise; and ere long the words and the prophecy contained in the old legend will become sober truth, and America will be, from the Atlantic to the Pacific _one_ smiling and happy _Wineland_; where each laborer shall sit under his own vine, and none will be too poor to enjoy the purest and most wholesome of all stimulants, good, cheap, native _wine_. Then drunkenness, now the curse of the nation, will disappear, and peace and good will towards all will rule our actions. And we, brother grape growers? Ours is this great and glorious task; let us work unceasingly, with hand, heart, and mind; truly the object is worthy of our best endeavors. Let those who begin to-day, remember how easy their task with the achievements and experiments of others before them, compared with the labors of those who were the pioneers in the cultivation of the vine. PROPAGATION OF THE VINE. I.--FROM SEED. This would seem to be the most natural mode, were not the grape even more liable to sport than almost any other fruit. It is, however, the only method upon which we can depend for obtaining new and more valuable varieties than we already possess, and to which we are already indebted for all the progress made in varieties, a progress which is, indeed, very encouraging; for who would deny that we are to-day immeasurably in advance of what we were ten years ago. Among the innumerable varieties which spring up every day, and which find ready purchasers, just because they _are new_, there are certainly some of decided merit. But those who grow seedlings, should bear in mind, that the list of our varieties is already too large; that it would be better if three-fourths of them were stricken off, and that no new variety should be brought before the public, unless it has some decided superiority over any of the varieties we already have, in quality, productiveness and exemption from disease. It is poor encouragement to the grape growing public, to pay from two to five dollars a vine for a new variety, with some high-sounding name, if, after several years of superior cultivation and faithful trial, they find their costly pet inferior to some variety they already possessed, and of which the plants could be obtained at a cost of from ten to fifty cents each. The grapes from which the seed is to be used, should be fully ripe, and none but well developed, large berries, should be taken. Keep these during the winter, either in the pulp, or in cool, moist sand, so that their vitality may remain unimpaired. The soil upon which your seed-bed is made, should be light, deep and rich, and if it is not so naturally, should be made so with well decomposed leaf-mould. As soon as the weather in spring will permit, dig up the soil to the depth of at least eighteen inches, pulverising it well; then sow the seed in drills, about a foot apart, and about one inch apart in the rows, covering them about three-quarters of an inch deep. It will often be found necessary to shade the young plants when they come up, to prevent the sun from scalding them, but this should not be continued too long, as the plants will become too tender, if protected too long. When the young plants have grown about six inches, they may be supplied with small sticks, to which they will cling readily; the ground should be kept clean and mellow, and a light mulch should be applied, which will keep the soil loose and moist. The young plants should be closely watched, and if any of them show signs of disease, they should at once be pulled up; also those which show a very feeble and delicate growth; for we should only try to grow varieties with good, healthy constitutions. In the Fall, the young plants should be either taken up, and carefully heeled in, or they should be protected by earth, straw, or litter thrown over them. In the Spring, they may be transplanted to their permanent locations; the tops shortened in to six inches, and the roots shortened in to about six inches from the stem. The soil for their reception should be moderately light and rich, and loosened up to the depth of at least eighteen inches. Make a hole about eight inches deep, then throw in soil so as to raise a small mound in the centre of the hole, about two inches high; on this place the young vine, and carefully spread the roots in all directions; then fill up with well pulverized soil, so that the upper eye or bud is even with the surface of the ground; then press the soil down lightly; place a good stake, of about four feet high, with the plant, and allow but one shoot to grow, which should be neatly tied to the stake as it grows. The vines may be planted in rows six feet apart, and three feet apart in the rows, as many of them will prove worthless, and have to be taken out. Allow all the laterals to grow on the young cane, as this will make it short-jointed and stocky. Cultivate the ground well, stirring it freely with plough, cultivator, hoe, and rake, which generally is the best mulch that can be applied. With the proper care and attention, our seedlings will generally grow from three to four feet, and make stout, short-jointed wood this second season. Should any of them look particularly promising, fruit may be obtained a year sooner by taking the wood of it, and grafting strong old vines with it. These grafts will generally bear fruit the next season. The method to be followed will be given in another place. At the end of the second season the vines should be pruned to about three eyes or buds, and the soil hilled up around them so as to cover them up completely. The next spring take off the covering, and when the young shoots appear allow only two to grow. After they have grown about eighteen inches, pinch off the top of the weakest, so as to throw the growth into the strongest shoot, which keep neatly tied to the stake, treating it as the summer before, allowing all the laterals to grow. Cultivate the soil well. At the end of this season's growth the vines should be strong enough to bear the following summer. If they have made from eight to ten feet of stocky growth, the leading cane may be pruned to ten or twelve eyes, and the smaller one to a spur of two eyes. If they will fruit at all, they will show it next summer, when only those promising well should be kept, and the barren and worthless ones discarded. II.--BY SINGLE EYES. As this method is mostly followed only by those who propagate the vine for sale in large quantities, and but to a limited extent by the practical vineyardist, I will give only an outline of the most simple manner, and on the cheapest plan. Those wishing further information will do well to consult "The Grape Culturist," by Mr. A. S. FULLER, in which excellent work they will find full instructions. The principal advantages of this mode of propagation are the following: 1st. The facility with which new and rare kinds can be multiplied, as every well ripened bud almost can be transformed into a plant. 2d. As the plants are started under glass, by bottom heat, it lengthens the season of their growth from one to two months. 3d. Every variety of grape can be propagated by this method with the greatest ease, even those which only grow with the greatest difficulty, or not at all, from cuttings in open ground. As to the merits or demerits of plants grown under glass from single eyes, to those grown from cuttings or layers in open ground, opinions differ very much, and both have their advocates. For my part, I do not see why a plant grown carefully from a single eye should not be as good as one propagated by any other method; a poor plant is not worth having, whether propagated by this or any other method, and, unfortunately, we have too many of them. THE PROPAGATING HOUSE. I will only give a description of a lean-to of the cheapest kind, for which any common hot-bed sash, six feet long, can be used. Choose for a location the south side of a hill, as, by making the house almost entirely underground, a great deal of building material can be saved. Excavate the ground as for a cellar--say five feet deep on the upper side, seven feet wide, and of any length to suit convenience, and the number of plants you wish to grow. Inside of the excavation set posts or scantlings, the upper row to be seven feet long above the ground, and two feet below the ground; the lower row four and one-half feet above the ground, so that the roof will have about two and one-half feet pitch. Upon these nail the rafters, of two-inch planks. Then take boards, say common inch-plank, and set them up behind the posts, one above the other, to prevent the earth from falling in. This will make all the wall that is needed on both sides. On the ends, boards can be nailed to both sides of the posts, and the intervening space tilled with spent tan or saw-dust. Upon the rafters place the sash on the lower side; the upper side may be covered with boards or shingles, where also the ventilating holes can be left, to be closed with trap-doors. The house is to be divided into two compartments--the furnace-room on one end, about eight feet long, and the propagating house, The furnace is below the ground, say four feet long, the flue to be made of brick, and to extend under the whole length of the bench. To make the flue, lay a row of bricks flat and crosswise; on the ends of these place two others on their edges, and across the top lay a row flat, in the same way as the bottom ones were placed. This gives the flue four inches by eight in the clear. The flue should rise rather abruptly from the furnace, say about a foot; it can then be carried fifty feet with, say six to nine inches rise, and still have sufficient draft. Inside of the propagating room we have again two compartments--the propagating bench, nearest to the furnace, and a shelf for the reception of the young plants, after their first transplanting from the cutting-pots or boxes. Make a shelf or table along the whole length of the house; at the lower end it should be about eighteen inches from the glass, and five feet wide. To a house of, say fifty feet, the propagating bench may be, say twelve feet long, and the room below it and around the flue should be inclosed with boards, as it will keep the heat better. MODE OF OPERATING. The wood should be cut from the vines in the fall, as soon as the leaves have dropped. For propagating, use only firm, well-ripened wood of the last season's growth, and about medium thickness. These are to be preferred to either very large or very small ones. The time to commence operating will vary according to climate; here it should be the early part of February. The wood to be used for propagating can be kept in a cool cellar, in sand, or buried in the ground out doors. Take out the cuttings, and cut them up into pieces as represented in Figure 1. [Illustration: FIG. 1.] Throw these into water as they are cut; it will prevent them from becoming dry. It will be found of benefit with hard-wooded varieties to pack them in damp moss for a week or so before they are put into the propagating pots or boxes; it will soften the alburnous matter, and make them strike root more readily. They should then be put into, say six-inch pots, filled to about an inch of the top with pure coarse sand, firmly packed. Place the cuttings, the buds up, about an inch apart, all over the surface of the pot; press down firmly with thumb and forefinger until the bud is even with the surface; sift on sand enough to cover the upper point of the bud about a quarter of an inch deep; press down evenly, using the bottom of another pot for the purpose, and apply water enough to moisten the whole contents of the pot. Instead of the pots, shallow boxes of about six inches deep, can also be used, with a few holes bored in the bottom for drainage. After the pots have been filled with cuttings they are placed in a temperature of from 40° to 45°, where they remain from two to three weeks, water being applied only enough to keep them moist, not wet. As roots are formed at a much lower degree of temperature than leaves, they should not be forced too much at the beginning, or the leaves will appear before we have any roots to support them. But when the cutting has formed its roots first, the foliage, when it does appear, will grow much more rapidly, and without any check. Then remove them to another position, plunging the pots into sand to the depth of, say three inches, and raise the temperature at first to 60° for the first few days, then gradually raise it to 80°. When the buds begin to push, raise the temperature to 90° or 95°, and keep the air moist by frequent waterings, say once a day. The best for this purpose is pure rain-water, but it should be of nearly the same temperature as the air in the house, for, if applied cold, it would surely check the growth of the plants. The young growth should be examined every day, to see if there is any sign of rotting; should this be the case, give a little more air, but admit no sudden cold currents, as they are often fatal. The glass should be whitewashed, to avoid the direct rays of the sun. When the young vines have made a growth of two or three inches shift them into three-inch pots. So far we have used only pure sand, which did not contain much plant food, because the growth was produced from the food stored up in the bud and wood, and what little they obtained from the sand, water, and air. Now, however, our young vines want more substantial food. They should therefore be potted into soil, mixed from rotten sod, leaf-mould, and well-decomposed old barnyard manure. This should be mixed together six months before using; add, before using, one-quarter sand, then mix thoroughly, and sift all through a coarse sieve. In operating, put a quantity of soil on the potting bench, provide a quantity of broken bricks or potsherds for drainage, loosen the plants from the pots by laying them on their side, giving them a sudden jar with the hand, to loosen the sand around them; draw out the plant carefully, holding it with one hand, while with the other you place a piece of the drainage material into the pot; cover it with soil about an inch; then put in the plant, holding it so that the roots spread out naturally; fill in soil around them until the pot is full; press the soil down firmly, but not hard enough to break the roots. When the plants are potted give them water to settle the earth around the roots, and keep the air somewhat confined for a few days, until they have become established, when more air may be given them. Keep the temperature at 85° to 95° during the day, and 70° to 80° during the night. When the plants have made about six inches of growth they can either be placed in another house, or in hot-bed frames, if they are to be kept under glass. The usual manner of keeping them in pots during summer, shifting them into larger and larger sizes, I consider injurious to the free development of the plants, as the roots are distorted and cramped against the sides of the pots, and cannot spread naturally. I prefer shifting them into cold frames, in which beds have been prepared of light, rich soil, into which the young plants can be planted, and kept under whitewashed hot-bed sashes for a while, which, after several weeks, may be removed, and only a light shading substituted in their place, which, after several weeks more, can also be removed. Thus the young plants are gradually hardened, their roots have a chance to spread evenly and naturally, without any cramping; and such plants, although they may not make as tall a growth as those kept under glass all the season, will really stand transplanting into the vineyard much better than those hot-house pets, which may look well enough, but really are, like spoiled and pampered children, but poorly fitted to stand the rough vicissitudes of every-day life. The young plants should be lightly tied to small sticks provided for the purpose, as it will allow free circulation of air, and admit the sun more freely to the roots. In the fall, after their leaves have dropped, they should be carefully taken up, shortened to about a foot of their growth, and they are then ready either to sell, if they are to be disposed of in that way, or for planting into the vineyard. They should, however, be carefully assorted, making three classes of them--the strongest, medium, and the smallest--each to be put separate. The latter generally are not fit to transplant into the vineyard, but they may be heeled in, and grown in beds another year, when they will often make very good plants. Heeling in may be done as shown in Figure 2, laying the vines as close in the rows as they can conveniently be laid, and then fill the trench with well-pulverized soil. They can thus be safely kept during the winter. [Illustration: FIG. 2.] I have only given an outline of the most simple and cheapest mode of growing plants from single eyes, such as even the vineyardist may follow. For descriptions of more extensive and costly buildings, if they desire them, they had better apply to an architect. I have also not given the mode of propagating from green wood, as I do not think, plants thus propagated are desirable. They are apt to be feeble and diseased, and I think, the country at large would be much better off, had not a single plant ever been produced by that method. Plants from single eyes may also be grown in a common hot-bed; but as in this the heat can not be as well regulated at will, I think it, upon the whole, not desirable, as the expense of a propagating house on the cheap plan I have indicated, is but very little more, and will certainly in the long run, pay much better. Of course, close attention and careful watching is the first requisite in all the operations. III.--BY CUTTINGS IN OPEN AIR. This is certainly the easiest and most simple method for the vineyardist; can be followed successfully with the majority of varieties, which have moderately soft wood, and even a part of the hard wood varieties will generally grow, if managed carefully. MODE OF OPERATING. There are several methods, which are followed with more or less success. I will first describe that which I have found most successful, namely, short cuttings, of two or three eyes each, which are made of any sound, well ripened wood, of last season's growth. Prune the vines in the fall or early winter, and make the cuttings as soon as convenient; for if the wood is not kept perfectly fresh and green, the cuttings will fail to grow. Now, cut up all the sound, well-ripened wood into lengths of from two to four eyes each, making them of a uniform length of say eight inches, and prepare them as shown in Figure 3. [Illustration: FIG. 3.] These should be tied into convenient bundles, from 100 to 250 in each, taking care to even the lower ends, and then buried in the ground, making a hole somewhat deeper than the cuttings are long, into which the bundles are set on their lower ends, and soil thrown in between and over them. In spring, as soon as the ground is dry enough, the cutting-bed should be prepared. Choose for this a light, rich soil, which should be well pulverized, to the depth of at least a foot, and if not light enough, it should be made so by adding some leaf mould. Now draw a line along the whole length of the bed; then take a spade and put it down perpendicular along the line or nearly so, moving it a little backwards and forwards, so as to open the cut. Now take the cutting and press it down into the cut thus made, until the upper bud is even with the surface of the soil. The cuttings may be put close in the rows, say an inch apart, and the rows made two feet apart. Press the ground firmly down with your foot along the line of cuttings, so as to pack it closely around the cutting. After the bed is finished, mulch them with straw, or litter, spent tan or saw-dust, say about an inch thick, and if none of these can be had, leaves from the forest may be used for the purpose. This will serve to protect the young leaves from the sun, and will also keep an even moisture during the heat of summer, at the same time keeping the soil loose and porous. If weeds appear, they should be pulled up, and the cuttings, kept clean through the summer. They will generally make a firm, hardy growth of from one to four feet, have become used to all the hardships and changes of the weather; and as they have formed their roots just where they ought to be, about eight inches below the ground, will not suffer so much from transplanting, as either a single eye or a layer, whose roots have to be put much deeper in transplanting, than they were before, and thus, as it were, become acclimated to the lower regions. For these reasons, I think, that a good plant grown from a cutting is preferable to that propagated by any other method. In the Fall, the vines are carefully taken up, assorted and heeled in, in the same manner as described, with single eyes, and cut back to about three inches of their growth. They are then ready for transplanting into the vineyard. IV.--BY LAYERING. This is a very convenient method of increasing such varieties as will not grow readily from cuttings; and vines thus propagated will, if treated right, make very good plants. To layer a vine, shorten in its last season's growth to about one-half; then prepare the ground thoroughly, pulverizing it well; then, early in spring make a small furrow, about an inch deep, then bend the cane down and fasten it firmly in the bottom of the trench, by wooden hooks or pegs, made for the purpose. They may thus be left, until the young shoots have grown, say six inches; then fill up with finely pulverized soil or leaf-mould. The vines will thus strike root generally at every joint. The young shoots may be tied to small sticks, provided for the purpose, and when they have grown about a foot, their tips should be pinched off to make them grow more stocky. In the Fall they are taken up carefully, commencing to dig at the end furthest removed from the vine, and separate each plant between the joints, so that every shoot has a system of roots by itself. They are then either planted immediately, or heeled in as described before. V.--BY GRAFTING. The principal advantages to be gained by this method are: 1st. The facility by which new and rare kinds may be increased, by grafting them on strong stocks of healthy varieties, when they will often grow from ten to twenty feet the first season, producing an abundance of wood to propagate. 2d. The short time in which fruit can be obtained from new and untried varieties, as their grafts will generally bear the next season. 3d. In every vineyard there are, in these days of many varieties, vines which have proved inferior, yet by grafting into them some superior variety, they may be made very valuable. 4th. The facility by which vines can be forced under glass, by grafting on small pieces of roots, and the certainty with which every bud can thus be made to grow. [Illustration: FIG. 4.] The vine, however, does not unite with the same facility as the pear and apple, and, to ensure success, must be grafted under ground, which makes the operation a difficult and disagreeable one. It will therefore hardly become a general practice; but, for the purposes above named, is of sufficient importance, to make it desirable that every vineyardist should be able to perform it. I have generally had the best success in grafting here about the middle of March, in the following manner: Dig away the ground around the vine you wish to graft, until you come to a smooth place to insert your scion; then cut off the vine with a sharp knife, and insert one or two scions, as in common cleft-grafting, taking care to cut the wedge on the scion very thin, with shoulders on both sides, as shown in Figure 4, cutting your scion to two eyes, to better insure success. Great care must be taken to insert the scion properly, as the inner bark or liber of the vine is very thin, and the success of the operation depends upon a perfect junction of the stock and scion. If the vine is strong enough to hold the scion firmly, no further bandage is necessary; if not, it should be wound firmly and evenly with bass bark. Then press the soil firmly on the cut, and fill up the hole with well pulverized earth, to the top of the scion. Examine the stock from time to time, and remove all wild shoots and suckers, which it may throw up, as they will rob the graft of nourishment and enfeeble it. Others prefer to graft in May, when the leaves have expanded, and the most rapid flow of sap has ceased, keeping the scions in a cool place, to prevent the buds from starting. The operation is performed in precisely the same manner, and will be just as successful, I think, but the grafts that have been put in early, have the advantage of several weeks over the others, and the latter will seldom make as strong a growth, or ripen their wood as well as those put in early. Mr. A. S. FULLER performs the operation in the fall, preventing the graft from freezing by inverting a flower-pot over it, and then covering with straw or litter. He claims for this method--1st. That it can be performed at a time when the ground is more dry, and in better condition, and business not so pressing as in spring.--2d. That the scion and stock have more time to unite, and will form their junction completely during the winter, and will therefore start sooner, and make a more rapid growth than in spring. It certainly looks feasible enough, and is well worth trying, as, when the operation succeeds, it must evidently have advantages over any of the other modes. Vines I had grafted in March have sometimes made twenty to thirty feet of growth, and produced a full crop the next season. This will show one the advantage to be derived from it in propagating new and scarce varieties, and in hastening the fruiting of them. Should a seedling, for instance, look very promising in foliage and general appearance, fruit may be obtained from it from one to two seasons sooner by grafting some of the wood on strong stocks, than from the original plant. Hence the vast importance of grafting, even to the practical vineyardist. THE VINEYARD. LOCATION AND SOIL. As the selection of a proper location is of vast importance, and one of the main conditions of success, great care and judgment should be exercised in the choice. Some varieties of grapes may be grown on almost any soil, it is true; but even they will show a vast difference in the quality of the fruit, even if the quantity were satisfactory; on indifferent soil, and in an inferior location. Everybody should grow grapes enough for his own use, who owns an acre of ground, but every one cannot grow them and make the most delicious wine. The best locations are generally on the hillsides, along our larger rivers, water-courses, and lakes, sloping to the East, South, and Southwest, as they are generally more exempt from late spring frosts and early frosts in fall. The location should be sheltered from the cold winds from the north and northwest, but fully exposed to the prevailing winds in summer from the south and southwest. If a hill is chosen at any distance from a large body of water, it should be high and airy, with as gentle a slope as can be obtained. The locations along creeks and smaller water-courses should be particularly avoided, as they are subject to late spring frosts, and are generally damp and moist. The soil should be a dry, calcareous loam, sufficiently deep, say three feet; if possible, draining itself readily. Should this not be the case naturally, it should be done with tiles. I was much struck by the force of a remark made by medical friend last summer, when, in consequence of the continual rains, the ague was very prevalent. It was this: wherever you will find the ague an habitual guest with the inhabitants you need not look for healthy grapevines. Wherever we find stagnant water let us avoid the neighboring hillsides, for they would not be congenial to our grape-vines. But on the bluffs overhanging the banks of our large streams, especially on the northern and western sides, where the vines are sheltered from the north and west winds, and fully exposed to the warm southern winds of our summer days, and where the fogs arising from the water yet give sufficient humidity to the atmosphere, even in the hottest summer days, to refresh the leaf during the night and morning hours; where the soil on the southern and eastern slopes is a mixture of decomposed stone and leaf-mould, and feels like velvet to the feet--there is the paradise for the grape; and the soil is already better prepared for it than the hand of man can ever do. Such locations should be cheap to the grape-grower at _any_ price. We find them very frequently along the northern banks of the Missouri and Mississippi rivers, and they will no doubt become the favored grape regions of the country. The grape grows there with a luxuriance and health which is almost incredible to those living in less favored locations. But the question may be asked here, what shall be done by those who do not live in these favored regions, and yet would like to grow grapes? I answer, let them choose the best location they have, the most free and airy, and let them choose only those sturdy varieties that withstand everything. They cannot grow the most delicate varieties--the Herbemont, the Delaware, the Clara, are not for them; but they can grow the Concord, Hartford Prolific, and Norton's Virginia, and they at least are "very good," although they may not be the "best." There is no excuse for any one in this country why he should not grow his own grapes, for the use of his family at least, if he has any ground to grow them on. PREPARING THE SOIL. In this, the foundation of all grape-growing, the vineyardist must also look to the condition in which he finds the soil. Should it be free of stones, stumps, and other obstructions, the plough and sub-soil plough will be all-sufficient. Should your soil be new, perhaps a piece of wild forest land, have it carefully grubbed, and every tree and stump taken out by the roots. After the ground is cleared take a large breaking-plough, with three yoke of sturdy oxen, and plough as deep as you can, say twelve to fourteen inches. Now follow in the same furrow with an implement we call here a sub-soil stirrer, and which is simply a plough-share of wedge shape, running in the bottom of the furrow, and a strong coulter, running up from it through the beam of the plough, sharp in front, to cut the roots; the depth of the furrow is regulated by a movable wheel running in front, which can be set by a screw. With two yoke of oxen this will loosen the soil to the depth of, say twenty inches, which is sufficient, unless the sub-soil is very tenacious. In land already cultivated, where there are no roots to obstruct, two yoke of oxen or four horses attached to the plough, and one yoke of oxen or a pair of horses or mules to the sub-soil plough, will be sufficient. In stony soil the pick and shovel must take the place of the plough, as it would be impossible to work it thoroughly with the latter; but I think there is no advantage in the common method of trenching or inverting the soil, as is now practiced to a very great extent. If we examine the growth of our native vines we will generally find their roots extending along the surface of the soil. It is unnatural to suppose that the grape, the most sun-loving of all our plants, should be buried with its roots several feet below the surface of the soil, far beyond the reach of sun and air. Therefore, if you can afford it, work your soil deep and thoroughly; it will be labor well invested; is the best preventive against drouth, and also the best drainage in wet weather; but have it in its natural position--not invert it; and do not plant too deep. Should the soil be very poor it may be enriched by manure, ashes, bone-dust, etc.; but it will seldom be found necessary, as most of our soil is rich enough; and it is not advisable to stimulate the growth too much, as it will be rank and unhealthy, and injurious to the quality and flavor of the fruit. Wet spots may be drained by gutters filled with loose stones, or tiles, and then covered with earth. Surface-draining can be done by running a small ditch or furrow every sixth or eighth row, parallel with the hillside, and leading into a main ditch at the end or the middle of the vineyard. Steep hillsides should be terraced or benched; but, as this is very expensive, they should be avoided. WHAT SHALL WE PLANT? CHOICE OF VARIETIES. It is a very difficult matter, in a vast country like ours, where the soil and climate differ so much, to recommend any thing; and I think it a mistake, into which many of our prominent grape-growers have fallen, to recommend _any_ variety, simply because it succeeded well _with them_, for _general_ cultivation. Grape-growing is, perhaps, more than any other branch of horticulture or pomology, dependent upon soil, location and climate, and it will not do to dictate to the inhabitants of a country, in which the "extremes meet," that they should _all_ plant one variety. Yet this has been done by some who _pretend_ to be authorities, and it shows, more than any thing else, that they have more arrogance than knowledge. I, for my part, have seen such widely different results, from the same varieties, under the same treatment, and in vineyards only a few miles apart, but with a different soil and different aspect, that I am reluctant to recommend to my next neighbor, what he shall plant. But, while the task is a difficult one, yet we may lay down certain rules, which can govern us in selection of varieties to a certain extent. We should choose--1st. The variety which has given the most general satisfaction in the State or county in which we live, or the nearest locality to us. 2d--Visit the nearest accessible vineyard in the month of August and September, observe closely which variety has the healthiest foliage and fruit; ripens the most uniformly and perfectly; and either sells best in market, or makes the best wine, and which, at the same time, is of good quality, and productive enough. Your observations, thus taken, will be a better guide than the opinion of the most skillful grape grower a thousand miles off. I will now name a few of the most prominent varieties which should at least be tried by every grape grower. THE CONCORD. This grape seems to have given the most general satisfaction all over the country, and seems to be _the_ "grape for the million." Wherever heard from, it seems to be uniformly healthy and productive. Our Eastern friends complain of its inferior quality; this may be owing partly to their short seasons, and partly to the too early gathering of the fruit. It is one of those varieties which color early, but should hang a long time after coloring, to attain its full perfection. Here it is at least _very_ good; makes an excellent wine, and, if we take into consideration its enormous productiveness, its vigor and adaptability to all soils and climates, we must acknowledge that as yet it stands without a rival, and will be a safe investment almost anywhere. Our long summers bring it to a perfection of which our Eastern friends have no idea, until they try it here. It will do well in almost any soil. NORTON'S VIRGINIA. This, so far, is the leading grape for red wine, and its reputation here and in the entire West is now so fully established, that it would be difficult indeed to persuade our people into the belief, that any other grape could make a better red wine. It is healthy and uniformly productive, and will be safe to plant, I think, in nearly all the Western States. I rather doubt that our Eastern friends will succeed in making a first class wine from it, as I think their summers are too short, to develop all its good qualities. Will succeed in almost any soil, but attains its greatest perfection in southern slopes with somewhat strong soil. HERBEMONT. This is a truly delicious grape, but somewhat tender, and wants a long season to fully ripen its fruit and bring out all its good qualities. Will hardly do much further north than we are here, in Missouri, but is, I think, destined to be one of the leading grapes for the Southern States. If you have a warm, southern exposure, somewhat stony, with limestone foundation, plant the Herbemont, and you will not be disappointed. It is healthy and very productive; more refreshing than the Delaware, and makes an excellent wine. DELAWARE. Is much recommended by Eastern authorities, and where it succeeds, is certainly a fine grape and makes a delicious wine. Here at the West, it has proved a failure in most locations, being subject to leaf-blight, and a feeble grower. There are some locations, however, where it will flourish; and whoever is the fortunate possessor of such a one should not forget to plant it. It seems to flourish best in light, warm, somewhat sandy soil. HARTFORD PROLIFIC. This is immensely productive; of very fair quality here; hardy and healthy; and if planted for early marketing, will give general satisfaction. It hangs well to the bunch, and even makes a very fair wine. Will flourish in almost every soil. CLINTON. Hardy, healthy and productive; will make a fair wine, but is here not equal even to the Concord, and far behind the Norton's Virginia in quality. May be desirable further north. PLANTING. The distance at which the vines may be planted will of course vary somewhat with the growth of the different varieties. The rows may all be six feet apart, as this is the most convenient distance for cultivating, and gives ample space for a horse and man to pass through with plough or cultivator. Slow-growing varieties, such as the Delaware and Catawba, may be planted six feet apart in the rows, making the distance six feet each way; but the Concord, Norton's Virginia, Herbemont, Hartford Prolific, Cunningham, and all the strong growers, will need more room, say ten feet in the rows, so as to give the vines ample room to spread, and allow free circulation of air--one of the first conditions of health in the vines, and quality of the fruit. The next question to be considered is: Shall we plant cuttings or rooted plants? My preference is decidedly for the latter, for the following reasons: Cuttings are uncertain, even of those varieties which grow the most readily; and we cannot expect to have anything like an even growth, such as we can have if the plants are carefully assorted. Some of the cuttings will always fail, and there will be gaps and vacancies which are hard to fill, even if the strongest plants are taken for replanting. Therefore, let us choose plants. But we should not only choose rooted plants, but the best we can get; and these are good one year old, whether grown from cuttings, layers or single eyes. A good plant should have plenty of strong, well-ripened roots; not covered with excrescences and warts, which is always a sign of ill health; but smooth and firm; with well-ripened, short-jointed wood. They should be of uniform size, as they will then make an even stand in the vineyard, when not forced by the propagator into an unnaturally rank growth by artificial manures. This latter consideration, I think, is very important, as we can hardly expect such plants, which have been petted and pampered, and fed on rich diet, to thrive on the every-day fare they will find in the vineyard. Do not take second or third rate plants, if you can help it; they may live and grow, but they will never make the growth which a plant of better quality would make. We may hear of good results sometimes, obtained by planting second-rate plants, but certainly the results would be better if better plants had been chosen. Especially important is the selection of good plants with those varieties which do not propagate and transplant readily, such as the Norton's Virginia, Delaware, and other hard-wood varieties. Better pay double the price you would have to give for inferior plants; the best are the cheapest in the end, as they will make the healthiest vines, and bear sooner. But I would also caution my readers against those who will sell you "extra large layers, for _immediate_ bearing," and whose "plants are better than those whom anybody else may grow," as their advertisements will term it. It is time that this humbug should cease; time that the public in general should know, that they cannot, in nature and reason, expect any fruit from a plant transplanted the same season; and that those who pretend it can be done, without vital injury to the plant, are only seeking to fill their pockets at the cost of their customers. They know well enough themselves that it cannot be done without killing or fatally injuring the plant, yet they will impose upon the credulity of their confiding customers; make them pay from $3 to $5 a piece for a plant, which these good souls will buy, with a vision of a fine crop of grapes before their eyes, plant them, with long tops, on which they may obtain a few sickly bunches of fruit the first season; but if they do the vines will make a feeble growth, not ripen their fruit, and perhaps be winter-killed the next season. It is like laying the burden of a full grown man on the shoulders of a child; what was perhaps no burden at all to the one, will kill the other. Then, again, these "plants, superior to those of every one else." It is the duty of every propagator and nursery-man to raise good plants; he can do it if he tries; it is for his interest as much as for the interest of his customers to raise plants of the best quality; and we have no reason to suppose that we are infinitely superior to our neighbors. While the first is a downright swindle, the latter is the height of arrogance. If we had a good deal less of bombast and self laudation, and more of honesty and fair dealing in the profession, the public would have more confidence in professional men, and would be more likely to practice what we preach. Therefore, if you look around for plants, do not go to those who advertise, "layers for immediate bearing," or "plants of superior quality to all others grown;" but go to men who have honesty and modesty enough to send you a sample of their best plants, if required, and who are not averse to let you see how they grow them. Choose their good, strong healthy, one year old plants, with strong, firm, healthy roots, and let those who wish to be humbugged buy the layers for _immediate_ bearing. You must be content to wait until the third year for the first crop; but, then, if you have treated your plants as you ought to do, you can look for a crop that will make your heart glad to see and gather it. You cannot, in reason and nature expect it sooner. If your ground has been prepared in the Fall, so much the better, and if thrown into ridges, so as to elevate the ground somewhat, where the row is to be, they may be planted in the Fall. The advantages of Fall planting are as follows: The ground will generally work better, as we have better weather in the Fall; and generally more time to spare; the ground can settle among the roots; the roots will have healed and callused over, and the young plant be ready to start with full vigor in spring. [Illustration: FIG. 5.] Mark your ground, laying it off with a line, and put down a small stick or peg, eighteen inches long, wherever a plant is to stand. Dig a hole, about eight to ten inches deep, as shown in Figure 5, in a slanting direction, raising a small mound in the bottom, of well-pulverized, mellow earth; then, having pruned your plant as shown in Figure 6, with its roots and tops shortened in, as shown by the dotted lines, lay it in, resting the lower end on the mound of earth, spread out its roots evenly to all sides, and then fill in among the roots with rich, well-pulverized earth, the upper bud being left above the ground. When planted in the fall, raise a small mound around your vine, so that the water will drain off, and throw a handful of straw or any other mulch on top, to protect it. Of course, the operation should be performed when the ground is dry enough to be light and mellow, and will readily work in among the roots. [Illustration: FIG. 6.] TREATMENT OF THE VINE THE FIRST SUMMER. The first summer after planting nothing is necessary but to keep the ground free from weeds, and mellow, stirring freely with hoe, rake, plough, and cultivator, whenever necessary. Should the vines grow strong they may be tied to the stakes provided in planting, to elevate them somewhat above the ground. Allow all the laterals to grow, as it will make the wood stronger and more stocky. They may even be summer-layered in July, laying down the young cane, and covering the main stem about an inch deep with mellow soil, leaving the ends of the laterals out of the ground. With free-growing kinds, such as the Concord and Hartford Prolific, these will generally root readily, and make very good plants, the laterals making the stems of the layers. With varieties that do not root so readily, as the Delaware and Norton's Virginia, it will seldom be successful, and should not be practiced. The vineyard may thus be made to pay expenses, and furnish the vines for further plantations the first year. They are taken up and divided in the fall, as directed in the chapter for layers. In the fall, prune the vine to three buds, if strong enough, to one or two if it has only made a weak growth. A fair growth is from four to five feet the first summer. During the winter, trellis should be provided for the vines, as we may expect them to grow from twelve to fifteen feet the coming summer. The cheapest and most economical are those of strong upright posts, say four inches in diameter, made of red cedar if it can be had, if not, of any good, durable timber--mulberry, locust, or white oak--and seven feet long, along which No. 10 wire is stretched horizontally. Make the holes for the posts with a post-hole auger, two feet deep; set in the posts, charred on one end, to make them durable. If wire is to be used, one post every sixteen feet will be enough, with a smaller stake between, to serve as a support for the wires. Now stretch your wire, the lowest one about two feet from the ground, the second one eighteen inches above it, and the third eighteen inches above the second. The wires may be fastened to the posts by nails, around which they can be twisted, or by loops of wire driven into the post. Where timber is plenty, laths made of black oak may be made to serve the same purpose; but the posts must then be set much closer, and the wire will be the cheapest and neatest in the end. A good many grape-growers train their vines to stakes, believing it to be cheaper, but I have found it more expensive than trellis made in the above manner, and it is certainly a very slovenly method, compared with the latter. Trellis is much more convenient for tying the vines, the canes can be distributed much more evenly, and the fruit and young wood, not being huddled and crowded together as on stakes, will ripen much more evenly, and be of better quality, as the air and sun have free access to it. TREATMENT OF THE VINE THE SECOND SUMMER. We find the young vine at the commencement of this season pruned to three buds of the last season's growth. From these we may expect from two to three strong shoots or canes. Our first work will be to cultivate the whole ground, say from four to six inches deep, ploughing between the rows, and hoeing around the vines with a two-pronged German hoe, or _karst_. Figure 7 shows one of these implements, of the best form for that purpose. The ground should be completely inverted, but never do it in wet weather, as this will make the ground hard and cloggy. [Illustration: FIG. 7.] Of the young shoots, if there are three, leave only the two strongest, tying the best of them neatly to the trellis with bass, or pawpaw bark, or rye straw. If a Catawba or Delaware, you may let them grow unchecked, tying them along the uppermost wire, when they have grown above it. The Concord, Herbemont, Norton's Virginia, and other strong-growing varieties, I treat in the following manner: When the young shoot has reached the second wire I pinch off its leader. This has the tendency to force the laterals into stronger growth, each forming a medium-sized cane. On these we intend to grow our fruit the coming season, as the buds on these laterals will generally produce more and finer fruit than the buds on the strong canes. Figure 8 will show the manner of training the second summer, with one cane layered, for the purpose of raising plants. This is done as described before; only, as the vine will make a much stronger growth this season than the first, the layering maybe done in June, as soon as the young shoots are strong enough. Figure 9 shows the vine pruned and tied, at the end of the second season. Figure 10 illustrates the manner of training and tying the Catawba or Delaware. [Illustration: FIG. 8. FIG. 9.] [Illustration: FIG. 10.] The above is a combination of the single cane and bow system, and the horizontal arm training, which I first tried on the Concord from sheer necessity; when the results pleased me so much that I have adopted it with all strong-growing varieties. The circumstances which led me to the trial of this method were as follows: In the summer of 1862, when my Concord vines were making their second season's growth, we had, in the beginning of June, the most destructive hail storm I have ever seen here. Every leaf was cut from the vines, and the young succulent shoots were all cut off to about three to three and a half feet above the ground. The vines, being young and vigorous, pushed out the laterals vigorously, each of them making a fair-sized cane. In the fall, when I came to prune them, the main cane was not long enough, and I merely shortened in the laterals to from four to six buds each. On these I had as fine a crop of grapes as I ever saw, fine, large, well-developed bunches and berries, and a great many of them, as each had produced its fruit-bearing shoot. Since that time I have followed this method altogether, and obtained the most satisfactory results. The ground should be kept even and mellow during the summer, and the vines neatly tied to the trellis with bast or straw. There are many other methods of training; for instance, the old bow and stake training, which is followed to a great extent around Cincinnati, and was followed to some extent here. But it crowds the whole mass of fruit and leaves together so closely that mildew and rot will follow almost as a natural consequence, and those who follow it are almost ready to give up grape-culture in despair. Nor is this surprising. With their tenacious adherence to so fickle a variety as the Catawba, and to practices and methods of which experience ought to have taught them the utter impracticability long ago, we need not be surprised that grape-culture is with them a failure. We have a class of grape-growers who never learn, nor ever forget, anything; these we cannot expect should prosper. The grape-grower, of all others, should be a close observer of nature in her various moods, a thinking and a reasoning being; he should be trying and experimenting all the time, and be ready always to throw aside his old methods, should he find that another will more fully meet the wants of his plants. Only thus can he expect to prosper. There is also the arm system, of which we hear so much now-a-days, and which certainly looks very pretty _on paper_. But paper is patient, and while it cannot be denied that it has its advantages, if every spur and shoot could be made to grow just as represented in drawings, with three fine bunches to each shoot; yet, upon applying it practically, we find that vines are stubborn, and some shoots will outgrow others; and before we hardly know how, the whole beautiful system is out of order. It may do to follow in gardens, on arbors and walls, with a few vines, but I do not think that it will ever be successfully followed in vineyard culture for a number of years, as it involves too much labor in tying up, pruning, etc. I think the method described above will more fully meet the wants of the vinyardist than any I have yet seen tried; it is so simple that every intelligent person can soon become familiar with it, and it gives us new, healthy wood for bearing every season. Pruning may be done in the fall, as soon as the leaves have dropped. TREATMENT OF THE VINE THE THIRD SEASON. At the commencement of the third season, we find our vine pruned to two spurs of two eyes each, and four lateral canes, of from four to six eyes each. These are tied firmly to the trellis as shown in Figure 12, for which purpose small twigs of willows (especially the golden willow, of which every grape-grower should plant a supply) are the most convenient. The ground is ploughed and hoed deeply, as described before, taking care, however, not to plough so deep as to cut or tear the roots of the vine. Our vines being tied, ploughed, and hoed, we come to one of the most important and delicate operations to be performed; one of as great--nay, greater--importance than pruning. I mean summer-pruning, or pinching, _i.e._ thumb or finger pruning. Fall-pruning, or cutting back, is but the beginning of the discipline under which we intend to keep our vines; summer-pruning is the continuation, and one is useless, and cannot be followed systematically without the other. Let us look at our vine well, before we begin, and commence near the ground. The time to perform the first summer-pruning is when the young shoots are about six to eight inches long, and when you can see plainly all the small bunches or buttons--the embryo fruit. We commence on the lower two spurs, having two buds each. From these two shoots have started. One of them we intend for a bearing cane next summer; therefore allow it to grow unchecked for the present, tying it, if long enough, to the lowest wire. The other, which we intend for a spur again next fall, we pinch with thumb and finger to just beyond the last bunch or button, taking out the leader between the last bunch and the next leaf, as shown in Figure 11, the cross line indicating where the leader is to be pinched off. We now come to the next spur, on the opposite side, where we also leave one cane to grow unchecked, and pinch off the other. We now go over all the shoots coming from the arms or laterals tied to the trellis, and also pinch them beyond the last bunch. Should any of the buds have pushed out two shoots, we rub off the weakest; we also take off all barren or weak shoots. If any of them are not sufficiently developed we pass them over, and go over the vines again, in a few days after the first pinching. [Illustration: FIG. 11.] This early pinching of the shoot has a tendency to throw all the vigor into the development of the young bunch, and the leaves remaining on the shoot, which now grow with astonishing rapidity. It is a gentle checking, and leading the sap into other channels; not the violent process which is often followed long after the bloom, when the wood has become so hardened that it must be cut with a knife, and by which the plant is robbed of a large quantity of its leaves, to the injury of both fruit and vine. Let any of my readers, who wish to satisfy themselves, summer-prune a vine, according to the method described here, and leave the next vine until after the bloom, and he will plainly perceive the difference. The merit of first having practised this method here, which I consider one of vast importance in grape-culture, belongs to Mr. WILLIAM POESCHEL, of this place, who was led to do so, by observing the rapid development of the young bunches on a shoot which had accidentally been broken beyond the last bunch. Now, there is hardly an intelligent grape-grower here, who does not follow it; and I think it has added more than one-third to the quantity and quality of my crop. It also gives a chance to destroy the small, white worm, a species of leaf-folder, which is very troublesome just at this time, eating the young fruit and leaves, and which makes its web among the tender leaves at the end of the shoot. The bearing branches having all been pinched back, we can leave our vines alone until after the bloom, only tying up the young canes from the spurs, should it become necessary. But do not tie them over the bearing canes, but lead them to the empty space on both sides of the vine; as our object must be to give the fruit all the air and light we can. By the time the grapes have bloomed, the laterals will have pushed from the axils of the leaves on the bearing shoots. Now go over these again, and pinch each lateral back to one leaf, as shown in Figure 12. This will make the leaf which remains grow and expand rapidly, serving at the same time as a conductor of sap to the young bunch opposite, and shading it when it becomes fully developed. The canes from the spurs, which we left unchecked, and which we design to bear fruit the next season, may now also be stopped or pinched, when they are about three feet long, to start their laterals into stronger growth. Pinch off all the tendrils; this is a very busy time for the vine-dresser, and upon his close attendance and diligence now, depends, in a great measure, the value of his crop. Besides, "a stitch in time saves nine," and he can save an incredible amount of labor by doing everything at the proper time. [Illustration: FIG. 12.] In a short time, the laterals on the fruit-bearing branches which have been pinched will throw out suckers again. These are stopped again, leaving one leaf of the young growth. Leave the laterals on the canes intended for next years' fruiting to grow unchecked, tying them neatly with bass, or pawpaw bark, or with rye straw. This is about all that is necessary for this summer, except an occasional tying up of a fruiting branch, should its burden become more than it can bear. But the majority of the branches will be able to sustain their fruit without tying, and the young growth which may yet start from the laterals may be left unchecked, as it will serve to shade the fruit when ripening. Of course, the soil must be kept clean and mellow, as in the former summer. This short pruning is also a partial preventative against mildew and rot, and the last extremely wet season has again shown the importance of letting in light and air to all parts of the vine; as those vineyards, where a strict system of early summer pruning had been followed, did not suffer half as much from rot and mildew as those where the old slovenly method still prevailed. My readers will perceive, that Fall-pruning, or shortening-in the ripened wood of the vine, and summer-pruning, shortening in and thinning out the young growth, have one and all the same object in view, namely, to keep the vine within proper bounds, and concentrate all its energies for a two-fold object, namely, the production and ripening of the most perfect fruit, and the production of strong, healthy wood for the coming season's crop. Both operations are, in fact, only different parts of one and the same system, of which summer-pruning is the preparatory, and fall pruning the finishing part. If we think that a vine is setting more fruit than it is able to bear and ripen perfectly, we have it in our power to thin it, by taking away all imperfect bunches, and feeble shoots. We should allow no more wood to grow than we need for next season's bearing; if we allow three canes to grow where only two are needed, we waste the energies of the vine, which should all be concentrated upon ripening its fruit in the most perfect condition, and producing the necessary wood for next season's bearing, and that of the best and most vigorous quality, but no more. If we prune the vine too long, we over-tax its energies; making it bear more fruit than it can perfect, and the result will be poor, badly-ripened fruit, and small and imperfect wood. If, on the contrary, we prune the vine too short, we will have a rank, excessive growth of wood and leaves, and encourage rot and mildew. Only practice and experience will teach us the exact medium, and the observing vintner will soon find out where he has been wrong, better than he can be taught by a hundred pages of elaborate advice. Different varieties will require different treatment, and it would be foolishness to suppose that two varieties so entirely different, as for instance, the Concord and the Delaware, could be pruned, trained and pinched in the same manner. The first, being a rank and vigorous grower, with long joints, will require much longer pruning than the latter, which is a slow-growing, short-jointed vine. Some varieties, the Taylor for instance, also the Norton, will fruit better if pruned to spurs on old wood, than on the young canes; it will therefore be the best policy for the vintner in pruning these, to retain the old arms or canes, pruning all the healthy, strong shoots they have to two buds, as long as the old arms remain healthy; always, however, growing a young cane to fall back upon, should the old arm become diseased; whereas, the Catawba and Delaware, being only moderate growers, will flourish and bear best when pruned short, and to a cane of last season's growth. The Concord and Herbemont, again, will bear best on the laterals of last season's growth, and should be trained accordingly. Therefore it is, because only a few of the common laborers will take the pains to think and observe closely, that we find among them but few good vine-dressers. At the end of this season, we find our Concords or Herbemonts, with the old fruit-bearing cane, and a spur on each side, from which have grown two canes; one of which was stopped, like all other fruit-bearing branches, and which we now prune to a spur of two eyes; and another, which was stopped at about three feet, and on which the laterals were allowed to grow unchecked. We therefore have one of these canes, with its laterals, on each side of the vine. These laterals are now pruned precisely as the last season, each being cut back to from four to six eyes, and the old cane, which has borne fruit, is cut away altogether. With Norton's Virginia, Taylor, and some others, which will bear more readily on spurs from old wood, the old cane is retained, provided the shoots on it are sound and healthy, with well developed buds; the weak ones are cut away altogether, and the others cut back to two eyes each. One of the canes is pruned, as in the Concord, to be tied to one side of the trellis, the next spring. This closes our summer and fall pruning for the third year. Of the gathering of the fruit, as well for market as for wine, I shall speak in another chapter. TREATMENT OF THE VINE THE FOURTH SUMMER. We may now consider the vine as established, able to bear a full crop, and when tied to the trellis in spring, to present the appearance, as shown in Fig. 13. The operations to be performed are precisely the same as in its third year. [Illustration: FIG. 13.] In addition, I will here remark, that in wet seasons the soil of the vineyard should be stirred as little as possible, as it will bake and clog, and in dry seasons it should be deeply worked and stirred, as this loose surface-soil will retain moisture much better than a hard surface. Should the vines show a decrease in vigor, they may be manured with ashes or compost, or still better, with surface-soil from the woods. This will serve to replenish the soil which may have been washed off and is much more beneficial than stable manure. When the latter is applied, a small trench should be dug just above the vine, the manure laid in, and covered with soil. But an abundance of fresh soil, drawn up well around the vine, is certainly the best of all manures. Where a vine has failed to grow the first season, replant with extra strong vines, as they will find it difficult to catch up with the others; or the vacancy can be filled up the next season, by a layer from a neighboring vine, made in the following manner: Dig a trench from the vine to the empty place, about eight to ten inches deep, and bend into it one of the canes of the vine, left to grow unchecked for that purpose, and pruned to the proper length. Let the end of it come out to the surface of the ground with one or two eyes above it, at the place where the vine is to be, and fill up with good, well pulverized earth. It will strike roots at almost every joint, and grow rapidly, but, as it takes a good deal of nourishment from the parent vine, that must be pruned much shorter the first year. When the layer has become well established, it is cut from the parent vine; generally the second season. Pruning is best done in the fall, but it can be done on mild days all through the winter months, even as late as the middle of March. Fall-pruning will prevent all flow of sap, and the cuttings are also better if made in the fall, and buried in the ground during winter. All the sound, well-ripened wood of last season's growth may be made into cuttings, which may be either planted, as directed in a former chapter, or sold; and are an accession to the product of the vineyard not to be despised, for they will generally defray all expenses of cultivation. TRAINING THE VINES ON ARBORS AND WALLS. This is altogether different from the treatment in vineyards; the first has for its object to grow the most perfect fruit, and to bring the vine, with all its parts, within the easy reach and control of the operator; in the latter, our object is to cover a large space with foliage, for ornament and shade, fruit being but a secondary consideration. However, if the vine is treated judiciously, it will also produce a large quantity of fruit, although not of as good quality as in the vineyard. [Illustration: FIG. 14. FIG. 15.] Our first object must be to grow very strong plants, to cover a very large space. Prepare a border by digging a trench two feet deep and four feet wide. Fill with rich soil, decomposed leaves, burnt bones, ashes, etc. Into this plant the strongest plants you have, pruned as for vineyard planting. Leave but one shoot to grow on them during the first summer, which, if properly treated, will get very strong. Cut back to three buds the coming fall. These will each throw out a strong shoot, which should be tied to the arbor they are designed to cover, as shown in Figure 14, and allowed to grow unchecked. In the fall following cut each shoot back to three buds, as our first object must be to get a good basis for our vines. These will give us nine canes the third summer; and as the vine is now thoroughly established and strong, we can begin to work in good earnest. It will be perceived that the vine has three different sections or principal branches, each with three canes. Cut one of these back to two eyes, and the other two to six or eight buds each, according to the strength of the vine, as shown in Figure 15. The next spring tie these neatly to the trellis, and when the young shoots appear thin out the weakest, and leave the others to grow unchecked. The next fall cut back as indicated by the black cross lines, the weakest to be cut back to one or two eyes, and the stronger ones to three or four, the spurs at the bottom to come in as a reserve, should any of the branches become diseased. Figure 16 shows the manner of pruning. [Illustration: FIG. 16.] In this manner a vine can be made, in course of time, to cover a large space, and get very old. The great vine at Windsor Palace was planted more than sixty years ago, and in 1850 it produced two thousand large bunches of magnificent grapes. The space covered by the branches was one hundred and thirty-eight feet long, and sixteen feet wide, and it had a stem two feet nine inches in circumference. This is one of the largest vines on record. They should, however, be strongly manured to come to full perfection. Other authorities prefer the Thomery system of training, but I think it much more complicated and difficult to follow. Those wishing to follow it will find full directions in DR. GRANT'S and FULLER'S books, which are very explicit on this method. OTHER METHODS OF TRAINING THE VINE. There are many other systems in vogue among vine-dressers in Germany and France, but as our native grapes are so much stronger in growth, and are in this climate so much more subject to mildew and rot, I think these methods, upon the whole, but poorly adapted to the wants of our native grapes, however judicious they may be there. I will only mention a few of them here; one because it is to a great extent followed in Mexico and California, and seems to suit that dry climate and arid soil very well; and the other, because it will often serve as a pretty border to beds in gardens. The first is the so-called buck or stool method of training. The vine is made to form its head--_i.e._, the part from which the branches start--about a foot above the ground, and all the young shoots are allowed to grow, but summer-pruned or checked just beyond the last bunch of grapes. The next spring all of the young shoots are cut back to two eyes, and this system of "spurring in" is kept up, and the vine will in time present the appearance of a bush or miniature tree, producing all its fruit within a foot from the head, and without further support than its own stem. Very old vines trained in this manner often have twenty to twenty-five spurs, and present, with their fruit all hanging in masses around the main trunk, a pleasing but rather odd aspect. This method could not be applied here with any chance of success only to those varieties which are slow growers, and at the same time very hardy. The Delaware would perhaps be the most suitable of all varieties I know for a trial of this method; such strong growers as the Concord and Norton's Virginia could never be kept within the proper bounds, and it would be useless to try it on them. It might be of advantage on poor soil, where there is at the same time a scarcity of timber. Figure 17 shows an old vine pruned after this method. [Illustration: FIG. 17.] The other method of dwarfing the grape is practiced to make a pretty border along walks in gardens, and is as follows: Plant your vines about eight feet apart; treat them the first season as in common vineyard planting, but at the end of the first season cut back to two eyes. Now provide posts, three to three and a half feet long; drive them into the ground about eighteen inches to two feet, which can be easily done if they are pointed at one end, and nail a lath on top of them. This is your trellis for the vines, and should be about eighteen inches above the ground when ready. Now allow both shoots which will start from the two buds to grow unchecked; and when they have grown above the trellis, tie one down to the right, the other to the left, allowing them to ramble at will along it. The next fall they are each cut back to the proper length, to meet the next vine, and in spring tied firmly to the lath, as shown in Figure 18. When the young shoots appear, all below the trellis are rubbed off, but all those above the trellis are summer-pruned or pinched immediately beyond the last bunch of grapes, as in vineyard culture, and the trellis, with its garland of fruit, will present a very pretty appearance throughout the summer. In the fall all of these shoots are pruned to one bud, from which will grow the fruit-bearing shoot for the next season, as shown in Figure 19; and the same treatment is repeated during the summer and fall. [Illustration: FIG. 18. FIG. 19.] DISEASES OF THE VINE. I cannot agree with Mr. FULLER that the diseases of the vine are not formidable in this country. They are so formidable that they threaten to destroy some varieties altogether; and the Catawba, once the glory and pride of the Ohio vineyards, has for the last fifteen years suffered so much from them, that many of the grape-growers who are too narrow-minded to try anything else are about giving up grape-growing in despair. It is very fortunate, therefore, that we have varieties which do not suffer from these diseases, or only in a very slight degree; and my advice to the beginner in grape-culture would be, "not to plant largely of any variety which is subject to disease." Men may talk about sulphuring, and dusting their vines with sulphur through bellows; but I would rather have vines which will bear a good crop without these windy appliances. We can certainly find some varieties for _every_ locality which do not need them, and these we should plant. The mildew is our most formidable disease, and will very often sweep away two-thirds of a crop of Catawbas in a few days. It generally appears here from the first to the fifteenth of June, after abundant rains, and damp, warm weather. It seems to be a parasitic fungus, and sulphur applied by means of a bellows, or dusted over the fruit and vine is said to be a partial remedy. Close and early summer-pruning will do much to prevent it, throwing, as it does, all the strength of the vine into the young fruit, developing it rapidly, and also allowing free circulation of air. In some varieties--for instance, the Delaware--it will only affect the leaves, causing them to blight and drop off, after which the fruit, although it may attain full size, will not ripen nor become sweet, but wither and drop off prematurely. In seasons when the weather is dry and the air pure, it will not appear. It is most prevalent in locations which have a tenacious subsoil, and under-draining will very likely prove a partial preventive, as excess of moisture about the roots is no doubt one of its causes. The gray rot, or so-called grape cholera, generally follows the mildew, and I think that the latter is the principal cause of it, as I have generally found it on berries whose stems have been injured by the mildew. The berry first shows a sort of gray marbling; in a day or two it turns to a grayish-blue color, and finally withers and drops from the bunch. It will continue to affect berries until they begin to color, but only attack a few varieties--the Catawba, To Kalon, Kingsessing, and sometimes the Diana. The spotted, or brown rot, will also attack many of our varieties; it is very destructive to the Isabella and Catawba, and even the Concord is not quite free from it. But it is, after all, not very destructive, and not half as dangerous as the mildew or gray rot. Early and close summer-pruning is a partial preventative against all these diseases, as it will hasten the development of the fruit, allow free circulation of air, and the young leaves which appear on the laterals after pinching seem to be better able to withstand the effects of the mildew, often remaining fresh and green, and shading the fruit, when the first growth of leaves have already dropped. But "an ounce of prevention is better than a pound of cure," and our best preventive is to plant none but healthy varieties. A grape, however good it may be in quality, is not fit for general cultivation if seriously affected with any of these diseases. Nothing can be more discouraging to the grape-grower than to see his vines one day rich in the promise of an abundant crop, and a few days afterwards see two-thirds or three-fourths swept away by disease. It is because I have so often felt this bitter disappointment, that I would warn my readers against planting varieties subject to them. I would save _them_ from the discouragement and bitter losses which I have experienced, when it was out of my power to prevent it. They _can_ prevent it, for the grape-growing of to-day is no longer the same uncertain occupation it was ten years ago. We of to-day have our choice of varieties not subject to disease; let us make it judiciously, and we may be sure of a paying crop every year. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE GRAPE. The grape has many enemies of this kind, but if they are closely watched from the beginning their ravages are easily kept within proper bounds. The common gray cut-worm will often eat the young tender shoots of the vine, and draw them into the ground below. Wherever this is perceived the rascal can easily be found by digging for him under some of the loose clods of ground below the vine, and should be destroyed without mercy. [Illustration: FIG. 20. DELAWARE.--_Berries 1/2 diameter_.] Small worms, belonging to the family of leaf-folders, some of them whitish gray, some bluish green, will in spring make their webs among the young, downy leaves at the end of the shoots, eating the young bunches or buttons, and the leaves. These can be destroyed when summer pruning for the first time. Look close for them, as they are very small; yet very destructive if let alone. A small, gray beetle, of about the size and color of a hemp-seed, will often eat a hole into the bud, when it is just swelling, and thus destroy it. He is very shy, and will drop from the vine as soon as you come near him. It is a good plan to spread a newspaper under the vine, and then shake it, when he will drop on the paper and can be caught. Another bug, of about the size of a fly, gray, with round black specks, will sometimes pay us a visit. They will come in swarms, and eat the upper side of the leaves, leaving only the skeletons. They are very destructive, devouring every leaf, as far as they go; they can also be shaken off on a paper or sheet spread under the vine. The thrip, a small, rather three-cornered, whitish-green insect, has of late been very troublesome, as they eat the under side of the leaves of some varieties, especially the Delaware and Norton's Virginia, when the leaf will show rusty specks on the surface, and finally drop off. It has been recommended to go through the vineyard at night, one man carrying a lighted torch, and the other beating the vines, when they will fly into the flame, and be burnt. They are a great annoyance, and have defoliated whole vineyards here last fall. Another leaf-folder makes his appearance about mid-summer, making its web on the leaf, drawing it together, and then devouring his own house. It is a small, greenish, and very active worm, who, if he "smells a rat," will drop out of his web, and descend to the ground in double-quick time. I know of no other plan, than to catch him and crush his web between the finger and thumb. The aphis, or plant louse, often covers the young shoots of the vine, sucking its juices. When a shoot is attacked by them, it will be best to take it off and crush them under your feet, as the shoot is apt to be sickly afterwards, any way. The grape vine sphynx will be found occasionally. It is a large, green worm, with black dots, and very voracious. Fortunately, it is not numerous, and can easily be found and destroyed. There are also several caterpillars--the yellow bear, the hog caterpillar, and the blue caterpillar, which will feed upon the leaves. The only remedy I know against them is hand picking, but they have not as yet been very numerous, nor very destructive. Wasps are sometimes very troublesome when the fruit ripens, stinging the berries and sucking the juice. A great many can be caught by hanging up bottles, with a little molasses, which they will enter, and get stuck in the molasses. BIRDS. These are sometimes very troublesome at the time of ripening, and especially the oriole is a "hard customer," as he will generally dip his bill into every berry; often ruining a fine bunch, or a number of them, in a short time. I have therefore been compelled to wage a war upon some of the feathered tribe, although they are my especial favorites, and I cannot see a bird's nest robbed. However, there are some who do not visit the vineyard, except for the purpose of destroying our grapes, and these can not complain if we "won't stand it any longer," but take the gun, and retaliate on them. The oriole, the red bird, thrush, and cat bird are among the number, and although I would like to spare the latter three, in thankful remembrance of many a gratuitous concert, the first must take his chance of powder and lead, for the little rascal is too aggravating. A few dry bushes, raised above the trellis will serve as their resting place before they commence their work of destruction, where they can be easily killed. FROSTS. Although our winters are seldom severe enough to destroy the hardy varieties, yet they will often fatally injure such half hardy varieties as the Herbemont and Cunningham, and the severe winter of 1863,-'64, killed even the Catawba, down to the snow line, and severely injured the Norton's Virginia, and even the Concord. Fortunately, such winters occur but rarely, and even in localities where the vines are often destroyed by the severe cold in winter, this should deter no one from growing grapes, as, with very little extra labor he can protect them, and bring them safely through the winter. I always cover my tender varieties, in fact, all that I feel not quite safe to leave out, even in severe winters, in the following manner: The vines are properly pruned in the fall; then select a somewhat rainy day, when the canes will bend more easily. One man goes through the rows, and bends the canes to the ground along the trellis, while another follows with the spade, and throws earth enough on them to hold them in their places. Afterwards, I run a plough through the rows, and cover them up completely. In the spring when all danger from frost is over, I take a so-called spading fork, and lift the vines. The entire cost of covering an acre of grape vines and taking them up again in spring, will not exceed $10; surely a trifling expense, if we can thereby ensure a full crop. We have thus a protection against the cold in winter, but I know none against early frosts, in fall, and late spring frosts; and the grape grower should therefore avoid all localities where they are prevalent. The immediate neighborhood of large streams, or lakes, will generally save the grape grower from their disastrous influence; and our summers, here, along the banks of the Missouri river, are in reality full two months longer than they are in the low, small valleys, only four to six miles off. Let the grape grower, in choosing a locality, look well to this, and avoid the hills along these narrow valleys. Either choose a location sufficiently elevated, to be beyond their influence, or, what is better still, choose it on the bluffs above our large streams; where the atmosphere, even in the heat of summer, will never become too dry for the health of the vine. It is a sad spectacle to see the hopes of a whole summer frustrated by one cold night; to see the vines which promised an abundant crop but the day before, browned and wilted beyond all hopes of recovery, and the cheerless prospect before you, that it may occur every spring; or to see the finest crop of grapes, when just ripening, scorched and wilted by just one night's frost, fit for nothing but vinegar. Therefore, look well to this, when you choose the site of your vineyard, and rather pay five times the price for a location free from frost, than for the richest farm along the so-called creek bottoms, or worse still, sloughs of stagnant water. GIRDLING THE VINE TO HASTEN MATURITY. The practice of girdling to induce early ripening is supposed to have been invented by Col. BUCHATT, of Metz, in 1745. He claimed for it that it would also greatly improve the quality of the fruit, as well as hasten maturity. That it accomplishes the latter, cannot be denied; it also seems to increase the size of the berries, but I hardly think the fruit can compare in flavor with a well developed bunch, ripened in the natural way. As it may be of practical value to those who grow grapes for the market, enabling them to supply their customers a week earlier at least, and also make the fruit look better, and be of interest to the amateur cultivator, I will describe the operation for their benefit. [Illustration: FIG. 21 NORTON'S VIRGINIA--_Berries 1/3 diameter._] It can be performed either on wood of the same season's growth, or on that of last year, but in any case only upon such as can be pruned away the next fall. If you desire to affect the fruit of a whole arm or cane, cut away a ring of bark by passing your knife all around it, and making another incision from a quarter to half an inch above the first, taking out the intermediate piece of bark clean, down to the wood. It should be performed immediately after the fruit is set. The bunches of fruit above the incision will become larger, and the fruit ripen and color finely, from a week to ten days before the fruit on the other canes. Of course, the cane thus girdled, cannot be used for the next season, and must be cut away entirely. The result seems to be the consequence of an obstruction to the downward flow of the sap, which then develops the fruit much faster. Ripening can also be hastened by planting against the south side of a wall or board fence, when the reflection of the rays of the sun will create a greater degree of warmth. But nothing can be so absurd and unnatural than the practice of some, who will take away the leaves from the fruit, to hasten its ripening. The leaves are the lungs of the plants; the conductors and elevators of sap; and nothing can be more injurious than to take them away from the fruit at the very time when they are most needed. The consequence of such an unwise course will be the wilting and withering of the bunches, and, should they ripen at all, they will be deficient in flavor. Good fruit must ripen _in the shade_, only thus will it attain its full perfection. Another practice very injurious to the vines is still in practice in some vineyards, and cannot be too strongly condemned. It is the so-called "cutting in" of the young growth in August. Those who practice it, seem to labor under the misapprehension that the young canes, after they have reached the top of the trellis, and are of the proper length and strength for their next year's crop, do not need that part of the young growth beyond these limits any more, and that all the surplus growth is "of evil." Under the influence of this idea they arm themselves with a villainous looking thing called a bill-hook, and cut and slash away at the young growth unmercifully, taking away one-half of the leaves and young wood at one fell swoop. The consequence is a stagnation of sap: the wood they have left, cannot, and ought not to ripen perfectly, and if anything like a cold winter follows, the vines will either be killed entirely, or very much injured at least. The intelligent vine dresser will tie his young canes, away from the bearing wood as much as he can, to give the fruit the fullest ventilation; but when they have reached the top of the trellis, tie them along it and let them ramble as they please. They will thus form a natural roof over the fruit, keep off all injurious dews, and shade the grapes from above. There is nothing more pleasing to the eye than a vineyard in September, with its wealth of dark green foliage above, and its purple clusters of fruit beneath, coyly peeping from under their leafy covering. Such grapes will have an exquisite bloom, and color, as well as thin skin and rich flavor, which those hanging in the scorching rays of the sun can never attain. MANURING THE VINE. As remarked before, this will seldom be necessary, if the vintner is careful enough to guard against washing of the top-soil, and to turn under all leaves, etc., with the plow in the Fall. The best manure is undoubtedly fresh surface soil from the woods. Should the vines, however, show a material decrease in vigor, it may become necessary to use a top-dressing of decomposed leaves, ashes, bone-dust, charcoal, etc. Fresh stable-yard manure I would consider the last, and only to be used when nothing better can be obtained. Turn under with the plow, as soon as the manure is spread. Nothing, I think, is more injurious than the continual drenching with slops, dish-water, etc., which some good souls of housewives are fond of bestowing on their pet grape vines in the garden. It creates a rank, unwholesome growth, and will cause mildew and rot, if anything can. THINNING OF THE FRUIT. This will sometimes be necessary, to more fully develop the bunches. The best thinning is the reduction of the number of bunches at the time of the first summer pruning. If a vine shows more fruit, than the vine dresser thinks it can well ripen, take away all weak and imperfect shoots, and also all the small and imperfect bunches. If the number of bunches on the fruit bearing branches is reduced to two on each, it will be no injury, but make the remaining number of bunches so much more perfect. Thinning out the berries on the bunches, although it will serve to make the remaining berries more perfect and larger, is still a very laborious process, and will hardly be followed to any extent in vineyards, although it can well be practised on the few pet vines of the amateur, and will certainly heighten the beauty of the bunches and berries. RENEWING OLD VINES. Should a vine become old and feeble, it can be renewed by layering. The vine is prepared in the following manner: Prune all the old wood away, leaving but one of the most vigorous of your canes; then dig a trench from the vine along the trellis, say three feet long, eight inches deep; into this bend down the old vine, stump, head and all, fastening it down with a strong hook, if necessary, letting the end of the young cane come out about three eyes above the ground, and fill up with rich, well pulverized soil. The vine will make new roots at every joint, and become vigorous, and, so to say, young, again. Some recommend this process for young vines, the first year after planting; but if good plants have been chosen and planted, it will not be necessary. Feeble and poor plants may need this process, but if plants have good strong roots when planted, (and _only_ such should be planted when they can be obtained), they will not be benefited by it. A FEW NECESSARY IMPROVEMENTS. _Pruning Shears._ These are very handy, and with them the work can be done quicker, and with less labor, as but a slight pressure of the hand will cut a strong vine. Fig. 22 will show the shape of one for heavy pruning. They are made by J. T. HENRY, Hampden, Connecticut, and can be had in almost all hardware stores. The springs should be of brass, as steel springs are very apt to break. A much lighter and smaller kind, with but one spring, is very convenient for gathering grapes, as it will cut the stem easily and smoothly, and not shake the vine, as cutting with the knife will do. They are also handy to clip out unripe and rotten berries, and should be generally used instead of knives. [Illustration: FIG. 22] _Pruning Saws._ It will sometimes be necessary to use these, to cut out old stumps, etc., although, if a vine is well managed, it will seldom be necessary. Fig. 23 will show a kind which is very convenient for the purpose, and will also serve for orchard pruning; the blade is narrow, connected with the handle, and can be turned in any direction. [Illustration: FIG. 23.] GATHERING THE FRUIT FOR MARKET. In this, the vineyardist, of course, only aims at profit, and for that purpose the grapes are often gathered when they are hardly colored--long before they are really ripe--because the public will generally buy them at a high price. Let us hope, however, that better taste will in time prevail, and that even a majority of the public will learn to appreciate the difference between ripe and unripe fruit. I would advise my readers at least to wait until the fruit is fully and evenly colored; for it is our duty to do all we can to correct this vicious leaning towards swallowing unripe fruit, which is so prevalent in this nation, and the producer will not lose anything either, because his fruit will look much better, it will therefore bring the same price which half ripened fruit would have brought, even a week sooner, and will weigh heavier. Every grape will generally color full two weeks before it is fully ripe; and as they are one of the fruits that will not ripen _after_ they are gathered, they will shrivel and look indifferent if gathered before. To ship them to market any distance, they should be packed in low, shallow boxes, say six inches high, so that they will hold about two layers of grapes. Cut the branches carefully, with as long a stem as possible, for more convenient handling, taking care to preserve all the bloom, and clipping out all the unripe berries. They are generally weighed in the basket before packing. Now put a layer of vine leaves on the bottom of the box; then make a layer of grapes, laying them as close as possible; then put a layer of leaves over them; on them put another layer of grapes, filling up evenly; then spread leaves rather thickly over them, and nail on the cover. The box should be perforated with holes, to admit some air. The grapes must be perfectly dry when gathered, and the box should be well filled to prevent shaking and bruising. PRESERVING THE FRUIT. For this purpose, the fruit must be thoroughly ripe. When fully ripe, the stem will turn brown, and shrivel somewhat. The fruit is then carefully gathered, and laid upon a dry floor, or shelves, for a day or two, so that some of the moisture will evaporate. They can then be packed in boxes, in about the same manner as described before, but paper will be better than leaves for this purpose. They are then put away on shelves, in an airy room, which must, however, be free from frost, in an even temperature of from 30° to 40°. They should be examined from time to time, and the decayed berries taken out. They may thus be kept for several months. GATHERING THE FRUIT TO MAKE WINE. For this purpose, the grapes should hang as long as it is safe to allow them; for it will make a very material difference in the quality of the wine, as the water will evaporate, and only the sugar remain; and the flavor or the bouquet will only be fully developed in fully ripened fruit. For gathering, use clean tin or wooden pails; cut the stems as short as possible, and clip or pinch out all unripe or rotten berries, leaving none but fully ripe berries on the bunch. The further process will be described under "wine making." VARIETIES OF GRAPES. I would here, again remark, that I consider the question of "what to plant" as chiefly a local one, for which I do not presume to lay down fixed rules; but which every one must, to a certain extent, determine for himself, by visiting vineyards as nearly similar in soil and location to the one he intends to plant, and then closely observing the habits of the varieties after planting. Only thus can we obtain certain results; not by following blindly in the footsteps of so-called authorities, who may live a hundred, or a thousand miles from us, and whose success with certain varieties, on soil entirely different from ours, under different atmospheric influences, can by no means be taken by us as evidence of our success under other circumstances. CLASS 1.--_Varieties most generally used._ CONCORD. Originated with Mr. E. BULL, of Concord, Mass. This variety seems to be the choice of the majority throughout the country, and however much opinions may differ about its quality, nobody seems to question its hardiness, productiveness, health and value as a market fruit. Here it is of very good quality--and our Eastern brethren have no idea what a really well ripened Missouri grown Concord grape is. It seems to become better the further it is grown West and South; an observation which I think applies with equal force to the Hartford Prolific, Norton's Virginia, Herbemont and others. Bunch large, heavy shouldered--somewhat compact; berries large, round, black, with blue bloom; buttery, sweet and rich _here_, when well ripened; with very thin skin and tender pulp. A strong and vigorous grower; with healthy, hardy foliage; free from mildew, and but slightly subject to rot; succeeds well in almost any soil; and is, so far, the most profitable grape we grow. A fine market fruit, and also makes a fine, light red wine, which is generally preferred to the Catawba. Can be easily grown from cuttings. NORTON'S VIRGINIA, (NORTON'S SEEDLING, VIRGINIA SEEDLING). Originated by DR. N. NORTON, of Richmond, Virginia. This grape has opened a new era in American grape culture, and every successive year but adds to its reputation. While the wine of the Catawba is often compared to Hock, in the wine of Norton's Virginia, we have one of an entirely different character; and it is a conceded fact that the best red wines of Europe are surpassed by the Norton as an astringent, dark red wine, of great body, fine flavor, and superior medical quality. Vine vigorous and hardy, productive; starting a week later in the Spring than the Catawba, yet coloring a week sooner; and will succeed in almost any soil, although producing the richest wine in warm, southern aspects. Bunches medium, compact; berries small, black, sweet and rich; with dark bluish red juice; only moderately juicy. Healthy in all locations, as far as I know, but I doubt its utility in the East, as I do not think the summers warm and long enough. Seems to attain its greatest perfection in Missouri, but is universally esteemed in the West. Very difficult to propagate, as it will hardly grow from cuttings in open air. [Illustration: FIG. 24. HERBEMONT.--_Berries 1/3 diameter._] HERBEMONT (HERBEMONT MADEIRA, WARREN). Origin uncertain. Wherever this noble grape will succeed and fully ripen, it is hard to find a better, for table, as well as for wine. Its home seems to be the South; and I think it will become one of the leading varieties, as soon as the new order of things has been fully established, and free, intelligent labor has taken the place of the drudging, dull toil of the slave. It is particularly fond of warm, southern exposures, with light limestone soil, and it would be useless to plant it on soil retentive of moisture. Bunch long, large shouldered and compact; berry medium, black, with blue bloom--"bags of wine," as Downing fitly calls them; skin thin, sweet flesh, without pulp, juicy and high flavored, never clogs the palate; fine for the table, and makes an excellent wine, which should be pressed immediately after mashing the grapes, when it will be white, and of an exquisite flavor; generally ripens about same time as Catawba. A very vigorous and healthy grower, but tender in rich soils, and should be protected in winter. Extremely productive. HARTFORD PROLIFIC. Raised by Mr. STEEL, of Hartford, Conn.: hardy, vigorous and productive; bunch large, shouldered, rather compact; berry full medium, globular, with a perceptible foxy flavor; skin thick, black, covered with blue bloom; flesh sweet, juicy; much better here than at the East; of very fair quality for its time of ripening; hangs well to the bunch here, although said to drop at the East. For market, this is perhaps as profitable as any variety known, as it ripens very early and uniformly, producing immense crops. I have made wine from it, which, although not of very high character, yet ranks as fair. CLINTON. Origin uncertain; from Western New York; vigorous, hardy and productive; free from disease; bunch medium, long and narrow, generally shouldered, compact; berry medium, roundish oblong, black, covered with bloom; juicy; somewhat acid; colors early, but should hang late to become thoroughly ripe; brisk vinous flavor, but somewhat of the aroma of the frost grape; makes a dark red wine, of good body, and much resembling claret, but not equal to Norton's Virginia, or even the Concord, in my estimation. Although safe and reliable, I think it has lately been over praised as a wine grape, and as it is a very long, straggling grower, it is one of the hardest vines to keep under control. Propagates with the greatest ease. DELAWARE. First disseminated and made known to the public by Mr. A. THOMPSON, of Delaware, Ohio. This is claimed by many to be the best American grape; and although I am inclined to doubt this, and prefer, for my taste, a well ripened Herbemont, it is certainly a very fine fruit. Unfortunately, it is very particular in its choice of soil and location, and it seems as if there are very few locations at the West where it will succeed. Whoever has a location, however, where it will grow vigorously and hold its leaves, will do well to plant it almost exclusively, as it makes a wine of very high character, and is very productive. A light, warm soil seems to be the first requisite, and the bluffs on the north side of the Missouri river seem to be peculiarly adapted to it, while it will not flourish on those on the south side. Bunch small, compact, and generally shouldered; berry below medium, round; skin thin, of a beautiful flesh-color, covered with a lilac bloom; very translucent; pulp sweet and tender, vinous and delicious; wood very firm; short-jointed; somewhat difficult to propagate, though not so much so as Norton's Virginia. Subject in many locations, to leaf-blight, and is _there_ a very slow grower. Fine for the table, and makes an excellent white wine, equal to, if not superior, to the best Rhenish wines, which sells readily at from five to six dollars per gallon. Although I cannot recommend it for general cultivation, it should be tried every where, and planted extensively where it will succeed. Ripens about five days later than Hartford Prolific. CLASS 2.--_Healthy varieties promising well_. CYNTHIANA (RED RIVER). Origin unknown--said to come from Arkansas. This grape promises fair to become a dangerous rival to Norton's Virginia, which variety it resembles so closely in wood and foliage, that it is difficult if not impossible to distinguish it from that variety. The bunch and berry are of the same color as Norton's Virginia, but somewhat larger, and more juicy; sweeter, with not quite as much astringency, and perhaps a few days earlier. Makes an excellent dark red wine, with not as much astringency, but even more delicate aroma, and was pronounced the "best red wine on exhibition," at the last meeting of the State Horticultural Society, where it was in competition with eight samples of the Norton's Virginia. A strong grower, and productive; as difficult to propagate as the Norton. Mr. FULLER evidently has not the true variety, when he calls it worthless, and identical with the Chippewa and Missouri, from both of which it is entirely distinct. ARKANSAS. Closely resembles the foregoing, and will also make an excellent wine of a similar character. I consider both of these varieties as great acquisitions, as they are perfectly healthy, very productive, and will make a wine unsurpassed in merit by any of their class. TAYLOR (BULLITT.) This grape, under proper treatment, has proved very productive with me, and will make a wine of very high quality. The bunches and berries are small, it is true; but not much more so than the Delaware; it also sets its fruit well, and as it is hardy, healthy, and a strong grower, it promises to be one of our leading wine grapes. Bunches small, but compact, shouldered; berry small; white at the East; pale flesh-color here; round, sweet, and without pulp; skin very thin. Requires long pruning on spurs, to bring out its fruitfulness. [Illustration: FIG. 25. HARTFORD PROLIFIC.--_Berries 1/2 diameter._] MARTHA. This new grape, grown from the seed of the Concord, by that enthusiastic and warm-hearted horticulturist, SAMUEL MILLER, of Lebanon, Pa., promises to be one of the greatest acquisitions to our list of really hardy and good grapes, which have lately come before the public. It has fruited with me the last extremely unfavorable season, and has stood the hardest test any grape could be put to, without flinching. Bunch medium, but compact and heavy, shouldered; berry pale yellow, covered with a white bloom; perhaps a trifle smaller than the Concord; round; pulpy, but sweet as honey, with only enough of the foxy aroma to give it character; juicy--very good. I esteem it more highly than any other white grape I have, as it has the healthy habit and vigorous growth of its parent, and promises to make an excellent white wine. Hangs to the bunch well, and will ripen some days before the Concord. MAXATAWNEY. Another very promising white grape--a strong grower, and healthy; may be somewhat too late in the east, but will, I think, be valuable at the West and South. Bunch medium to large---not shouldered; berry above medium; oval; pale yellow, with a slight amber tint on one side; pulp tender, sweet and sprightly; few seeds; fine aroma; quality, best. Ripens about same time as Catawba; seems to be productive. ROGERS' HYBRID, NO. 1. This variety, which is also too late in ripening for the East, to be much esteemed there, fruited with me last season, and more than fulfilled all the expectations I entertained of it. It is the best of Mr. ROGERS' Hybrids, which I have yet tasted; and its productiveness, healthy habit, large berry, and good quality, makes it one of the most desirable of all the grapes we raise here, for the table and market. Bunch medium, loose, shouldered; berry very large, oblong, pale flesh-color; skin thin; pulp tender; few seeds, separating freely from the pulp; sweet, vinous and juicy; quality very good. Ripens about same time as Catawba. It is to be regretted that Mr. ROGERS has not named some of the best of his hybrids, as the numbers give rise to many mistakes, and a great deal of confusion. It would be in the interest of grape-growing if this was avoided, by naming at least the best of them. CREVELING, (CATAWISSA) (BLOOM). This grape, although not quite perhaps so early as has been claimed for it--ripening about five days after Hartford Prolific--is yet of much better quality; and if it only should prove productive enough, will no doubt make an excellent wine. Bunch long, loose, shouldered; berry full medium, black, round, with little bloom; pulp tender; dark juice, sweet and very good--seems to be hardy and healthy. NORTH CAROLINA SEEDLING. Bunch large, shouldered, compact; berry large, oblong, black, with blue bloom; pulpy, but sweet and good; ripens only a few days after Hartford Prolific--very productive, hardy and healthy; strong grower. One of the most showy market grapes we have--not much smaller than Union Village--and as it ripens evenly, and is of very fair quality, is quite a favorite in the market. Makes also a wine of very fair quality. CUNNINGHAM. For the West, and very likely further South, this is a very desirable grape for wine, of the Herbemont class. Bunch compact and heavy, sometimes shouldered; berry rather small, black, without pulp, juicy sweet and good; productive, but somewhat tender; strong grower; should be covered in Winter; makes a very delicious wine, of the Madeira class, which very often remains sweet for a whole year. Ripens late, about a week after the Catawba. RULANDER. Mr. FULLER evidently does not know this grape, as he says it is the same as Logan. The Rulander we have here, is claimed to be a true foreign variety. I am inclined to think, however, that it is either a seedling from foreign seed, raised in the country, or one of the Southern grapes of the Herbemont class. Be this as it may however, it certainly bears no resemblance to the Logan, which is a true Fox, of the Labrusca family. Vine a strong, vigorous, short-jointed grower, with heart-shaped, light green, smooth leaves; very healthy, and more hardy than either the Herbemont or Cunningham. Bunch rather small, very compact, shouldered; berry small, black, without pulp, juicy sweet and delicious; not subject to rot or mildew: makes a delicious, high flavored wine, but not a great deal of it. The wine of this variety is certainly one of the most delicate and valuable ones we have yet made here and on the soil around Hermann, it will, I think, take preference over the Delaware. Ripens a few days later than Concord. LOUISIANA (BURGUNDER). Introduced here by Mr. F. MUENCH, who received it from Mr. THEARD, of Louisiana, where it has been cultivated for some time. Some claim that it is the grape which makes the famous white Burgundy wine of Europe. I am inclined to think it is also a native, grown from foreign seed, like the foregoing, which it closely resembles in foliage and wood; but will, I think, make a wine of still higher quality, perhaps the most delicate white wine we yet have. It can hardly be distinguished from the Rulander in appearance, but has a more sprightly flavor. Ripens at the same time. ALVEY (HAGAR). This nice little grape will certainly make one of the most delicious red wines we have, if it can only be raised in sufficient quantity. It is healthy and moderately productive, but a slow grower. Bunch loose, small, shouldered; berry small, black, without pulp, juicy, sweet and delicious; quality best. Ripens about the same time as the Concord. CASSADY. Bunch medium, very compact, shouldered; berry medium, round, greenish-white, covered with white bloom; thick skin, pulpy, but very sweet, and of fine flavor; makes an excellent white wine; very productive, but somewhat subject to leaf-blight in wet seasons; does not rot or mildew. [Illustration: FIG. 26. CONCORD.--_Berries 1/2 diameter._] BLOOD'S BLACK. Has often been confounded with Mary Ann, as both varieties were disseminated here, by different persons, under the same name. The true Blood's Black is a few days later than Hartford Prolific; bunch heavy and compact, shouldered; berry round, black, full medium, of very fair quality, and an excellent early market grape. The vine is healthy, hardy, and enormously productive. UNION VILLAGE. Perhaps the largest native grape, of fair quality; bunch large, heavy and compact, shouldered; berry very large, oval, black, with blue bloom, pulpy, but juicy, sweet and good. Of better quality here than Isabella; tolerably free from disease, and a splendid market and table fruit. Ripens rather late. PERKINS. For those who do not object to a good deal of foxy flavor, this will be a valuable market grape, on account of its earliness, beautiful color, and great productiveness. Mr. FULLER has evidently not the true variety, as he describes it as a "black grape, sour and worthless." Bunch medium, compact, shouldered; berry full medium, oval, flesh-color, with a beautiful lilac bloom; very sweet, pulpy and foxy. Ripens at same time with Hartford Prolific. Vine a strong grower, healthy and hardy. CLARA. For family use, there is at present no grape here at the West, which is superior to this in quality; and although it will not pay to plant largely, either for market or wine, yet no one who can appreciate a really good grape, should be without a few vines of it at least. Bunch long, rather loose, shouldered; berry medium, pale yellow, translucent, without pulp, sweet, juicy, and of excellent flavor; vine moderately productive and healthy. Ripens with Catawba. IVES' SEEDLING, (IVES' MADEIRA). This variety is recommended so much lately, as a superior grape for red wine, that I will mention it here, although I have not yet fruited it. It was first introduced by Col. WARING, of Hamilton County, Ohio, and is said to be free from rot, healthy and vigorous, and to make an excellent red wine, the must having sold from the press at $4 to $5 per gallon. The following description is from bunches sent me from Ohio last fall: Bunch medium, compact, shouldered; berry rather below medium, black, oblong, juicy, sweet and well flavored; ripens about the time of the Concord. Vine vigorous and healthy; said to propagate with the greatest ease; evidently belonging to the Labrusca species. We have a seedling here of the Norton's Virginia, raised by Mr. F. LANGENDORFER, of this neighborhood, which promises to be a valuable wine grape for this location. It has not yet been named, and the owner says will never receive a name, unless it proves, in some respect, superior to anything we have yet. He has fruited it twice, and made wine from it the last season, which is of a very high character, resembling Madeira, of a brownish-yellow color; splendid flavor, and of great body. The vine is a strong grower, healthy and very productive; bunch long, seldom shouldered, very compact; berry small, black, with blue bloom; only moderately juicy, and ripens a week later than its parent. I am inclined to think that it will be of great value here and further south as a wine grape, although it would ripen too late to suit the climate further north. It may be expected here that I should speak of the Iona, Israella, and Adirondac, as many, and good authorities too, think they will be very valuable. The Iona and Israella have fruited but once with me, last summer, and my experience, therefore, has not been long enough to warrant a decided opinion. As far as it goes, however, it has been decidedly unfavorable. My Iona vine set about twenty five bunches, but mildewed and rotted so badly, that I hardly saved as many berries. It may improve in time, but I hardly think it will do for our soil; whatever it may do for others--and I cannot put it down as "promising well." It is a grape of fine quality, _where it will succeed_. The Israella stood the climate and bad weather bravely, but ripened at least five days later than the Hartford Prolific close by, and was not as good in quality as that grape; in fact, the most insipid and tasteless grape I ever tried. They may both improve, however, upon closer acquaintance, or be better in other locations. Here, I do not feel warranted in praising them, and a description will hardly be needed, as their originator has taken good care to so fully bring their merits, real or imaginary, before the grape-growing community, that it would be superfluous for me to describe them. The Adirondac I saw and much admired at the East, in 1863; and if its originator, Mr. BAILEY, had only been liberal enough to furnish me with a scion of two eyes, for which I offered to pay him at the rate of a dollar per eye, I would, perhaps, be able to report about it. Instead of the scion, he sent me a dried up vine, which had no life in it when I received it, and in consequence of these disadvantages, I have not been able to fruit it yet. It seems to be healthy and vigorous, however; and should the quality of the fruit be the same as at the East, may be a valuable acquisition. On this list I have only mentioned those which have fruited here from four to five years, with very few exceptions, and which have generally, during that time, proved successful. To fully warrant the recommendation of a grape for general cultivation I think, we should have fruited it at least five or six years; and although there are many on this list which I should not hesitate to plant largely, yet I have preferred to be rather a little over cautious than too sanguine. CLASS 3.--_Healthy varieties, but inferior in quality._ MINOR SEEDLING, (VENANGO). This grape has attracted some attention lately--some persons claiming for it superior qualities as a _wine_ grape, even classing it with the Delaware, a statement which I cannot believe. It is a rank Fox, and I can therefore hardly think it will make a wine to suit a fastidious palate. Bunch medium, very compact, sometimes shouldered; berry full medium, pale red, round, sweet, but very pulpy and foxy. Ripens later than Catawba; is very productive, vigorous and healthy--not subject to rot. [Illustration: FIG. 27. CREVELING.--_Berries 1/2 diameter._] MARY ANN. The earliest grape we have--healthy, hardy and productive--but in point of quality, a rather poor Isabella, which it much resembles. Bunch full medium, moderately compact, shouldered; berry medium, oval, black, pulpy, with a good deal of acidity, and strong flavor. Ripens about four to five days before the Hartford Prolific, but is much inferior to that variety in quality. NORTHERN MUSCADINE. Very productive and healthy, but too foxy, and liable to drop from the bunch when ripe. Bunch medium, compact, sometimes shouldered; berry round, brown, sweet, very foxy--pulpy. Ripens about five days later than Hartford Prolific. LOGAN. Ripens about same time with Hartford Prolific--but rather inferior in quality. Bunch long, loose, shouldered; berry medium, oval; resembling Isabella. BROWN. Resembling Isabella, but more free from disease; good grower and productive; will suit those who like the Isabella. HYDE'S ELIZA, (CANBY'S AUGUST). Bunch medium, compact; berry medium, round, black, juicy; rather pleasant, but unproductive, and of little value, where better varieties can be had. MARION PORT. Resembles the foregoing; may, perhaps, make a better wine, but cannot be recommended. POESCHEL'S MAMMOTH. Grown here, from seed of the Mammoth Catawba, by Mr. MICHAEL POESCHEL. Bunch medium, compact, sometimes shouldered; berry very large, round, pale red, pulpy; rather deficient in flavor, but very large; free from disease. Ripens a week later than Catawba. CAPE (ALEXANDER, SCHUYLKILL MUSCADELL). Bunch rather small, compact; berry medium, black, round, pulpy, rather sweet, dark juice. Said to make a good red wine, but my experience has not been favorable. Ripens late--a week after the Catawba. DRACUT AMBER. A Fox Grape, pale red, pulpy, inferior in quality and color to Perkins, which it closely resembles; ripens about same time. ELSINBURGH, (MISSOURI BIRD'S EYE). This old variety was largely disseminated under the latter name, by NICHOLAS LONGWORTH, of Cincinnati. It is a nice little grape; but too unproductive to be of any value here, although it makes a very superior wine. Bunch long and loose, shouldered; berry small, round, black, moderately juicy, with little pulp, sweet and good. Ripens a week before the Catawba. GARBER'S ALBINO. A grape of very fair quality, and rather early, but a shy bearer. Bunch small, rather loose; berry medium, pale yellow, sweet and good. FRANKLIN. A strong grower; said to be very productive; resembling Clinton in foliage and general habit. Bunch small, compact; berry below medium, black, juicy, with a marked frost grape flavor, and hardly worthy of cultivation. LENOIR. Of the Herbemont class, but about a week earlier; of good quality, but too unproductive to be recommended. Bunch medium, compact, shouldered; berry small, round, black, sweet and good. NORTH AMERICA. Early and hardy, but too unproductive, and bunch too small. Bunch small, shouldered; berry round; of very good quality for its season; black, juicy. Ripens as early as Hartford Prolific. CLASS 4.--_Varieties of good quality, but subject to disease._ CATAWBA. This well known grape was brought into notice by Major ADLUM, of Georgetown, D.C., who thought he had, by its introduction, conferred a greater boon upon the American people, than if he had paid the national debt. For the last ten years, it has been so much subject to disease, that it cannot be recommended any longer, except for some peculiar locations. It is said to be healthy in northern Illinois and Iowa, where it will not stand the winter, however, without protection. Bunch large, moderately compact, shouldered; berry medium, red, covered with lilac bloom; juicy, pulpy, sweet, somewhat astringent, of good flavor. A fair grape for the table, and makes a good wine, resembling Hock, but subject to mildew, rot and leaf-blight. DIANA. A seedling of the foregoing, raised by Mrs. DIANA CREHORE. Perhaps one of the most variable of all the grapes, being very fine one season, and very indifferent the next. Bunch large and long, compact, shouldered; berry pale red, round, somewhat pulpy; thick skin; juicy and sweet, with a peculiar flavor, which DR. WARDER very aptly calls "feline;" others call it "delicate." Very productive, but subject to leaf-blight, mildew and rot; although perhaps not so much as the Catawba. Ripens about a week earlier. ISABELLA. Unworthy of cultivation here, but said to be better at the North. Bunch long, loose, shouldered; berry medium, oval, black; tough pulp, with a good deal of acidity, juicy, and a peculiar flavor. Ripens irregularly. Subject to rot and leaf-blight. GARRIGUES. Closely resembling the Isabella, but ripens more evenly, and is of somewhat better quality. TOKALON. Bunch large, loose, shouldered; berry black, large, sweet and buttery; of very good quality, but very much subject to disease. Ripens somewhat later than Catawba. ANNA. Bunch large and loose; berry pale amber, covered with white bloom; sweet, tolerable flavor, but poor bearer, and subject to mildew. Ripens about same time as Catawba. ALLEN'S HYBRID, (ALLEN'S WHITE HYBRID). Bunch large and loose, shouldered; berry medium, nearly round; white, without pulp, juicy and delicious; quality very good, but variable; sometimes best. Said to be a hybrid of Vitis Labrusca and a foreign grape, raised by J. F. ALLEN, Salem, Massachusetts, and is really a fine grape, although too tender and variable for extensive vineyard culture. Ripens about two weeks before Catawba. CUYAHOGA (COLEMAN'S WHITE). Much recommended in Ohio, where it originated, but unworthy of culture here, being a poor grower, a shy bearer and very much subject to leaf-blight. Bunch medium, compact; berry dirty greenish-white; thick skin; pulpy, and insipid. DEVEREAUX. This is, in dry seasons, a really fine grape, but subject to leaf-blight and mildew in hot seasons. Bunch often a foot long, loose, shouldered; berry below medium, round, black, juicy; without pulp, sweet and vinous. Belonging to the Herbemont family; is a strong grower; very productive, and rather tender. May be valuable in well drained soils, and southern climate, as it undoubtedly will make a fine wine. KINGSESSING. Bunch long and loose, large, shouldered; berry medium, round, pale red, with fine lilac bloom; pulpy; of fair quality, but subject to leaf-blight, and mildew. ROGERS' HYBRID, NO. 15. Bunch large, loose, shouldered; berry above medium, red with blue bloom, roundish-oblong, pulpy, with peculiar flavor, sweet and juicy. A showy grape, but not very good in quality, and much subject to mildew and rot. Ripens at the same time with Catawba. CLASS 5.--_Varieties unworthy of cultivation._ OPORTO. Of all the humbugs ever perpetrated upon the grape-growing public, this is one of the most glaring. The vine, although a rank and healthy grower, is unproductive; seldom setting more than half a dozen berries on a bunch, and these are so sour, have such a hard pulp, with such a decided frost-grape taste and flavor, and are so deficient in juice, that no sensible man should think of making them into wine, much less call it, as its disseminator did, "the true port wine grape." MASSACHUSETTS WHITE. This was sent me some eight years ago, by B. M. WATSON, as "the best and hardiest white grape in cultivation," and he charged me the moderate sum of $5 each, for small pot plants, with hardly two eyes of ripened wood. After careful nursing of three years, I had the pleasure of seeing my labors rewarded by a moderate crop of the vilest _red_ Fox Grapes it has ever been my ill luck to try. The foregoing have all been tried by me, and have been characterized and classified as I have found them _here_. The following are varieties I have not fruited yet, although I have them on trial. Varieties highly recommended by good authorities: Telegraph, Black Hawk, Rogers' Hybrids, Nos. 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 19, 22, 33, Hettie, Lydia, Charlotte, Mottled, Pauline, Wilmington, Cotaction and Miles. There are innumerable other varieties, for which their originators all claim peculiar merits, and some of whom may prove valuable. But all who bring new varieties before the public, should consider that we have already names enough, nay, more than are good for us, and that it is useless to swell the list still more, unless we can do so with a variety, superior in some respects to our best varieties. A new grape, to claim favor at the hands of the public, should be healthy, hardy, a good grower, and productive; and of superior quality, either for the table or for wine. There are some varieties circulated throughout the country as natives, which are really nothing but foreign varieties, or, perhaps, raised from foreign seed. They will not succeed in open air, although now and then they will ripen a bunch. The Brinkle, Canadian Chief, Child's Superb, and El Paso belong to this class. A really good _table_ grape should have a large amount of sugar, but tempered and made more agreeable by a due proportion of acid, as, if the acid is wanting, it will taste insipid; a tender pulp, agreeable flavor, a large amount of juice, a good sized bunch, large berry, small seeds, thin skin, and hang well to the bunch. A good _wine_ grape should have a large amount of sugar, with the acid in due proportion, a distinctive flavor or aroma; though not so strong as to become disagreeable, and for red wines a certain amount of astringency. It is an old vintner's rule, that the varieties with small berries will generally make the best wine, as they are generally richer in sugar, and have more character than varieties with larger berries. [Illustration: FIG. 28. CLARA.--_Berries 1/2 diameter._] WINE-MAKING. GATHERING THE GRAPES. Although I have described the process already, I will here again reiterate that the grapes should be thoroughly _ripe_. This does not simply mean that they are well colored. The Concord generally begins to color here the 5th of August, and we could gather the majority of our grapes, of that variety, for market, by the 15th or 20th of that month; but for wine-making we allow them to hang until the 15th or 20th of September, and sometimes into October. Thus only do we get the full amount of sugar and delicacy of aroma which that grape is capable of developing, as the water evaporates, and the sugar remains; it also loses nearly all the acidity from its pulp; and the latter, which is so tough and hard immediately after coloring, nearly all dissolves and becomes tender. The best evidences of a grape being thoroughly ripe are: 1st. The stem turns brown, and begins to shrivel; 2nd, the berry begins to shrivel around the stem; 3d, thin and transparent skin; 4th, the juice becomes very sweet, and sticks to the finger like honey or molasses, after handling the grapes for some time. It is often the case that some bunches ripen much later on the vines. In such a case, the ripest should be gathered first, and those that are not fully ripe remain on the vines until mature. They will ripen much quicker if the ripest bunches have been removed first. The first implements needed for the gathering are clean wooden and tin pails and sharp knives, or better still, the small shears spoken of in a former part of this work. Each gatherer is provided with a pail, or two may go together, having a pail each, so that one can empty and the other keep filling during the time. If there are a good many unripe berries on the bunches, they may be put into a separate pail, and all that are soft will give an inferior wine. The bunch is cut with as short a stem as possible, as the stem contains a great deal of acid and astringency; every unripe or decayed berry is picked out, so that nothing but perfectly sound, ripe berries remain. [Illustration: FIG. 29.] The next implement that we need is a wooden tub or vat, to carry the grapes to the mill; or the wagon, if the vineyard is any distance from the cellar. This is made of thin boards, half-inch pine lumber generally; 3 feet high inside, 10 inches wide at the bottom, 20 inches wide at the top, being flat on one side, where it is carried on the back, and bound with thin iron hoops. It is carried by two leather-straps running over the shoulders, as shown in Fig. 29, and should contain about eight to ten pails, or a little over two bushels of grapes. The carrier can pass easily through the rows with it to any part of the vineyard, and lean it against a post until full. If the vineyard is close to the cellar or press-house, the grapes can be carried to it directly; if too far, we must provide a long tub or vat, to place on the wagon, into which the grapes are emptied. I will here again repeat that the utmost cleanliness should be observed in _all_ the apparatus; and no tub or vat should be used that is in the least degree mouldy. Everything should be perfectly sweet and clean, and a strict supervision kept up, that the laborers do not drop any crumbs of bread, &c., among the grapes, as this will immediately cause acetous fermentation. The weather should be dry and fair, and the grapes dry when gathered. THE WINE-CELLAR. As the wine-cellar and press-house are generally built together, I will also describe them together. A good cellar should keep about an even temperature in cold and warm weather, and should, therefore, be built sufficiently deep, arched over with stone, well ventilated, and kept dry. Where the ground is hilly, a northern or northwestern slope should be chosen, as it is a great convenience, if the entrance can be made even with the ground. Its size depends, of course, upon the quantity of wine to be stored. I will here give the dimensions of one I am constructing at present, and which is calculated to store from 15,000 to 20,000 gallons of wine. The principal cellar will be 100 feet long, by 18-1/2 feet wide inside, and 12 feet high under the middle of the arch. This will be divided into two compartments; the back one, at the farthest end of the cellar, to be 40 feet, which is destined to keep old wine of former vintages; as it is the deepest below the ground, it will keep the coolest temperature. It is divided from the front compartment by a wall and doors, so that it can be shut off should it become necessary to heat the other, while the must is fermenting. The other compartment will be 60 feet long, and is intended for the new wine, as the temperature will be somewhat higher, and, therefore, better adapted to the fermentation of the must. This will be provided with a stove, so that the air can be warmed, if necessary, during fermentation. This will also be closed by folding doors, 5-1/2 feet wide. There will be about six ventilators, or air-flues, on each side of these two cellars, built in the wall, constructed somewhat like chimneys, commencing at the bottom, whose upper terminus is about two feet above the arch, and closed with a grate and trap-doors, so that they can be closed and opened at will, to admit air and light. Before this principal cellar is an arched entrance, twenty feet long inside, also closed by folding doors, and as wide as the principal cellar. This will be very convenient to store empty casks, and can also be used as a fermenting room in Fall, should it be needed. The arch of the principal cellar will be covered with about six feet of earth; the walls of the cellar to be two feet thick. The press-house will be built above the cellar, over its entire length, and will also be divided into two rooms. The part farthest from the entrance of the cellar, to be 60 feet by 18, will be the press-house proper, with folding doors on both sides, about the middle of the building, and even with the surface ground, so that a wagon can pass in on one side and out on the other. This will contain the grape-mill, wine-presses, apparatus for stemming, and fermenting vats for white or light-colored wine. The other part, 40 feet long, will contain an apparatus for distilling, the casks and vats to store the husks for distilling, and the vats to ferment very dark colored wines on the husks, should it be necessary. It will also be used as a shop, contain a stove, and be floored, so that it will be convenient, in wet and cold weather, to cut cuttings, &c. A large cistern, to be built on one side of the building, so that the necessary water for cleaning casks, &c., will be handy; with a force-pump, will complete the arrangement. I need hardly add here, that the whole cellar should be paved with flags or brick, and well drained, so that it will be perfectly dry. This cellar is destined to hold two rows of casks, five feet long, on each side. For this purpose layers of strong beams are provided, upon which the casks are laid in such a manner that they are about two feet from the ground, fronting to the middle, and at least a foot or eighteen inches of space allowed between them and the wall, so that a man can conveniently pass and examine them. This will leave five and a-half to six feet of space between the two rows, to draw off the wine, move casks, _&c_. This cellar will, at the present rates of work, cost about $6,000. Of course, the cellar, as before remarked, can be built according to the wants of the grape-grower. For merely keeping wine during the first winter, a common house cellar will do; but during the hot days of summer wine will not keep well in it. APPARATUS FOR WINE-MAKING.--THE GRAPE MILL AND PRESS. This mill can be made very simple, of two wooden rollers, fastened in a square frame, running against each other, and turned with a crank and cog-wheel. The rollers should be about nine inches in diameter, and set far enough apart to mash the berries, but not the seeds and stems. A very convenient apparatus, mill and press, is manufactured by Geiss & Brosius, Belleville, Ill., and where the quantity to be made does not exceed 2,000 gallons, it will answer every purpose. The mill has stone rollers, which can be set by screws to the proper distance, with a cutting apparatus on top, for apples in making cider, which can be taken off at will. The press is by itself, and consists of an iron screw, coming up through the platform, with a zinc tube around it to prevent the must from coming in contact with it. The platform has a double bottom, the lower one with grooves; the upper consists simply of boards, with grooves through it to allow the must to run through. These boards are held in their places by wooden pegs, and can be taken off at will. A circular hopper, about a foot in diameter, and made of laths screwed to iron rings, with about a quarter of an inch space between them, encloses the zinc tube. The outer frame is constructed in the same way, is about 2-1/2 feet in diameter, and bound with strong wooden and iron hoops. The mashed grapes are poured into the frame, a close-fitting cover is put on, which is held down by a strong block, and the power is applied by an iron nut just on the top of the screw, with holes in each end to apply strong wooden levers. The apparatus is strong, simple, and convenient, and presses remarkably fast and clean, as the must can run off below, on the outside and also on the inside. The cost of mill and press is about $90, but each can be had separately for $45. If a large amount of grapes are to be pressed, the press should be of much larger dimensions, but may be constructed on the same principle--a strong, large platform, with a strong screw coming through the middle, and a frame made of laths, screwed to a strong wooden frame, through which the must can run off freely, with another frame around the outside of the platform. The must runs off through grooves to the lower side, where it is let off by a spout. It may be large enough to contain a hundred bushels of grapes at a single pressing, for a great deal depends upon the ability of the vintner to press a large amount just at the proper time, when the must has fermented on the husks just as long as he desires it to do. FERMENTING VATS. These should correspond somewhat with the size of the casks we intend to fill; but they are somewhat unhandy if they hold more than, say four hundred gallons. They are made of oak or white pine boards, 1-1/2 inch thick, bound securely by iron hoops, about three feet high, and, say, five feet wide. The bottom and inside must be worked clean and smooth, to facilitate washing. When the must is to ferment a longer time on the husks, as is often the case in red wines, a false bottom should be provided, for the purpose of holding the husks down below the surface of the must. It is made to fit the size of the vat, and perforated with holes, and held in its place by sticks of two inches square, let into the bottom of the vat, and which go through the false bottom. A hole is bored through them, and the bottom held down by means of a peg passed through this hole. The vat is closed by a tight-fitting cover, through which a hole is bored, large enough to admit a tin tube of about an inch in diameter, to let off the gas. The vats are set high enough above the ground to admit drawing off the must through a faucet near the bottom of the vat. For those grapes which are to be pressed immediately we need no false bottoms or covers for the vats. As fermentation generally progresses very rapidly here, and it is not desirable with most of our wines to ferment them on the husks very long, as they generally have astringency enough, operations here are much more simple than in Europe. The must is generally allowed to run into a large funnel, filled with oat straw, and passes through a hose into the casks in the cellar. A hole can be left through the arch for that purpose, as it is much more convenient than to carry the must in buckets from the press into the casks. It is sometimes desirable to stem the grapes, although it is seldom practiced in this country. This can be easily done by passing the bunches rapidly over a grooved board, made somewhat in the form of a common washboard, only the grooves should be round at the bottom and the edges on top. It is seldom desirable here. THE WINE CASKS. These should be made of well-seasoned white oak staves, and can, of course, be of various sizes to meet the wants of the vintner. The best and most convenient size for cellar use I have found to be about 500 gallons. These are sufficiently large to develop the wine fully, and yet can be filled quick enough to not interrupt fermentation. Of course, the vintner must have some of all sizes, even down to the five-gallon keg; but for keeping wine, a cask of 500 gallons takes less room comparatively, and the wine will attain a higher degree of perfection than in smaller casks. The staves to make such a cask should be about 5 feet long, and 1-1/2 to 2 inches thick, and be the very best wood to be had. The cask will, when ready, be about as high as it is long, should be carefully worked and planed inside, to facilitate washing and have a so-called door on one end, 12 inches wide and 18 inches high, which is fastened by means of an iron bolt and screw, and a strong bar of wood. This is to facilitate cleaning; when a cask is empty, the door is taken out, and a man slips into the cask with a broom and brush, and carefully washes off all remnants of lees, etc., which, as the lees of the wine are very slimy and tenacious, cannot be removed by merely pouring in water and shaking it about. It is also much more convenient to let these large casks remain in their places, than to move them about. The casks are bound with strong iron hoops. To prepare the new casks, and also the vats, etc., for the reception of the must, they should be either filled with pure water, and allowed to soak for several days, to draw out the tannin; then emptied, scalded with hot water, and afterwards steamed with, say two or three gallons of boiling wine; or they can be made "wine-green," by putting in about half a bushel of unslaked lime, and pouring in about the same quantity of hot water. After the lime has fallen apart, add about two quarts of water to each pound of lime, put in the bung, and turn the cask about; leaving it lie sometimes on one side, sometimes on the other, so that the lime will come in contact with every part of the cask. Then pour out the lime-water; wash once or twice with warm water, and rinse with a decoction of vine leaves, or with warm wine. Then rinse once more with cold water, and it will be fully prepared to receive the must. This is also to be observed with old casks, which have become, by neglect or otherwise, mouldy, or have a peculiar tang. MAKING THE WINE. As we have our apparatus all prepared now, we can commence the operation itself. This can be done in different ways, according to the class of wine we are about to make. To make white, or light-colored wine, the grapes which were gathered and mashed during the day, can be pressed and put into the cask the following night. To mash them, we place the mill above one of the fermenting vats, mashing them as quick as they are carried or hauled to the press-house. The vat is simply covered with a cloth during the day. If the season has been good, the must will make good wine without the addition of anything else. In poor seasons it will be necessary to add water and sugar, to improve its quality, but I will speak of this method in a separate chapter. In the evening, the must which will run off, is first drawn from the vat, and by some kept separate; but I think, it makes, upon the whole, a better wine, if the pressing is added to it. The husks, or mashed grapes, are then poured upon the press, and pressed until fully dry. To accomplish this the press is opened several times, and the edges of the cake, or "cheese," as some call it, are cut off with an axe or cleaver and put on top, after which they are pressed down again. The casks are then filled with the must; either completely, if it is intended that the must should ferment _above_, as it is called, or _under_, when the cask is not completely filled, so that the husks, which the must will throw up, will remain in the cask. Both methods have their advantages, but I prefer the former, with a very simple contrivance, to exclude the air, and also prevent waste. This is a siphon or tin tube, bent in the form of a double elbow, of which one end fits tightly in the bung hole, and the other empties into a dish of water, to be set on one end of the cask, through which the gas escapes, as shown in Fig. 30. We should, however in pressing, be guided somewhat by the weather. In warm weather fermentation will commence much sooner, and be more violent, than when the weather is cold. Consequently we should press much sooner in warm weather, than when the air is cool. Late in the fall, it is sometimes advisable to leave the must a day longer on the husks, than indicated below. The cellar should be kept at an even temperature of about 60° during the first few weeks, and if it does not naturally attain this temperature, then it should be warmed by a stove, as much of the quality of the wine depends upon a thorough fermentation during the first ten days. [Illustration: FIG. 30.] When violent fermentation has ceased, say after about ten or twelve days, and the must has become quiet, the cask should be closed with a tight bung, and the wine is left until it is clear. In about two to three months it ought to be perfectly clear and fine--is then racked, _i.e._, drawn from the lees, by means of a faucet, and put into clean, sweet casks. It is very important that the casks are "wine-seasoned," that is, have no other tang than of wine. For must, fresh brandy or whiskey casks may be used, but after the wine has fermented, it will not do to use such, as the wine will acquire the smell and taste of the liquor. When a cask has been emptied, it should be carefully cleaned, as before described, by entering at the door, or with smaller casks, by taking out the head. After it is thoroughly cleansed, it may be fumigated slightly, by burning a small piece of sulphured paper, or a nutmeg in it, and then filled. To keep empty casks in good condition they should, after cleaning, be allowed to become thoroughly dry, when they are sulphured, closed tightly, and laid away in the cellar. The operation of sulphuring should be repeated every six weeks. If wanted for use, they are simply rinsed with cold water. [Illustration: FIG. 31.] For racking the wine, we should have: 1st a large brass faucet. 2d. Pails of a peculiar shape, wider at the top, to prevent wastage. 3d. A wooden funnel, as shown in Fig. 31, to hold about six gallons. In racking--first carefully lift the bung of the cask, as the exclusion of air from above would cause a gurgling motion in the cask, if tapped below, which would stir up the lees in the bottom. Then, after having loosened with a hammer the wooden peg, closing the tap hole, let your assistant hold the pail opposite the hole, hold the faucet in your right hand, and with the left, withdraw the plug, inserting the faucet quickly. Drive it in firmly with a hammer, and you are ready for the work. Do not fully open the faucet at first, because the first pailful is generally not quite clear, and should run slowly. You can keep this by itself; and this, and the last from the lees, is generally put into a cask together and allowed to settle again. It will make a good, clear wine after a few weeks. As soon as the wine runs quite clear and limpid, it can be put into the cask destined to receive it, and you can let it run as fast as it can be emptied. When the wine has run off down to the tap hole, the cask may be carefully raised on the other end, one inserting a brick or piece of board under it, while the other lifts gently and slowly. This may be repeated several times, as long as the wine runs clear; and even the somewhat cloudy wine may be put with the first pailful into a separate cask. As soon as it comes thick or muddy, it is time to stop. The lees are emptied out, and will, if distilled, make a fine flavored and very strong brandy. This treatment can be applied to all white and light-colored wines, when it is not desirable to have a certain astringency in the wine. The Catawba, Concord, Herbemont, Delaware, Rulander, Cassady, Taylor, Louisiana, Hartford Prolific, and Cunningham should all be treated in a similar manner. The Concord, although it will, under this treatment, make only a light red wine, of which the color can be changed to dark red by fermenting on the husks, is not desirable if treated in the latter manner; as the peculiar foxy aroma of the grape will be imparted to the must to such a degree, as to make the flavor disagreeable, I shall recur to the subject of flavor in wines in another chapter. To make red wine, the must should be fermented on the husks, as generally the darkest color is desired, and also, a certain astringency, which the wine will acquire principally from the seeds, skins, and stems of the grapes, which contain the tannin. The grapes are mashed, and put into the fermenting vat, of the kind described before, with false bottoms. After the vat is filled about three-fourths the false bottom is put on, the husks are pressed down by it, until they are covered about six inches by the must, and the cover put on. It is seldom desirable here to ferment longer than three days on the husks, if the weather is warm--in a temperature of 60°--two days will often be enough, as the wine will become too rough and astringent by an excessively long fermentation. Only experience will be the proper guide here, and also the individual taste. It will be generally time to press, when the must has changed its sweet taste, and acquired a somewhat rough and bitter one. Where it is desired to make a very dark colored wine, without too much astringency, the grapes should be stemmed, as most of the rough and bitter taste is in the stems; and it can then be fermented on the husks for six or eight days. In this manner the celebrated Burgundy wines are made; also most of the red wines of France and Germany. Many of them are even allowed to go through the whole process of fermentation, and the husks are filled into the cask with the must, through a door, made in the upper side of the cask; and it there remains, until the clear wine is drawn off. This is seldom desirable here, however, as our red wine grapes have sufficient astringency and color without this process. The treatment during fermentation, racking, etc., is precisely the same as with white wine, with only this difference, that the red wine is generally allowed to stay longer on the lees; for our object in making this class of wine is different than in making white, or so-called Schiller or light red wine. In white and light colored wines we desire smoothness and delicacy of bouquet and taste; in dark red wines, we desire astringency and body, as they are to be the so-called stomach or medical wines. It is therefore generally racked but once, in the latter part of February or March, and the white and light colored wines are racked in December or January, as soon as they have become clear--and again in March. We also use no sulphur in fumigating the casks, as it takes away the color to a certain extent. We generally do not use anything, but simply clean the casks well, in racking red wine. I will say a few words in regard to _under_ fermentation. If this method is to be followed, the casks are not filled, but enough space left to allow the wine to ferment, without throwing out lees and husks at the bung. The bung is then covered, by laying a sack filled with sand over it, and when fermentation is over--as well by this as by the other method--the casks are filled with must or wine, kept in a separate cask for the purpose. The casks should always be kept well filled, and must be looked over and filled every two or three weeks, as the wine will continually lose in quantity, by evaporation through the wood of the casks. The casks should be varnished or brushed over with linseed oil, as this will prevent evaporation to some extent. In wine making, and giving the wine its character, we can only be guided by practice and individual taste, as well as the prevailing taste of the consuming public. If the prevailing taste is for light colored, smooth and delicate wines, we can make them so, by pressing immediately, and racking soon, and frequently. If a dark colored, astringent wine is desired, we can ferment on the husks, and leave it on the lees a longer period. There is a medium course, in this as in everything else; and the intelligent vintner will soon find the rules which should guide him, by practice with different varieties. Among the wines to be treated as dark red, I will name Norton's Virginia, Cynthiana, Arkansas, and Clinton, and, I suppose, Ives' Seedling. It would be insulting to these noble wines to class with them the Oporto, which may make a very dark colored liquid, but no _wine_ worth the name, unless an immense quantity of sugar is added, and enough of water to dilute the peculiar vile aroma of that grape. AFTER TREATMENT OF THE WINE. Even if the wine was perfectly fine and clear, when drawn off, it will go through a second fermentation as soon as warm weather sets it--say in May or June. If the wine is clear and fine, however, the fermentation will be less violent, than if it is not so clear, as the lees, which the wine has never entirely deposited; act as they ferment. It is not safe or judicious, therefore, to bottle the wine _before_ this second fermentation is over. As soon as the wine has become perfectly clear and fine again--generally in August or September--it can be bottled. For bottling wine we need: 1st. clean bottles. 2d. good corks, which must first be scalded with hot water, to soften them, and draw out all impurities, and then soaked in cold water. 3d. a small funnel. 4th. a small faucet. 5th. a cork-press, of iron or wood. 6th. a light wooden mallet to drive in the corks. After the faucet has been inserted in the cask, fill your bottles so that there will be about an inch of room between the cork and the wine. Let them stand about five minutes before you drive in the cork, which should always be of rather full size, and made to fit by compressing it with the press at one end. Then drive in the cork with the mallet, and lay the bottles, either in sand on the cellar floor, or on a rack made for that purpose. They should be laid so that the wine covers the cork, to exclude all air. The greater bulk of the wine, however, if yet on hand; can be kept in casks. All the wine to be kept thus, should be racked once in about six months, and the casks kept well filled. Most of our native wines, however, are generally sold after the second racking in March, and a great many even as soon as clear--in January. DISEASES OF THE WINE AND THEIR REMEDIES. These will seldom occur, if the wine has been properly treated. Cases may arise, however, when it will become necessary to rack the wine, or fine it by artificial means. TREATMENT OF FLAT AND TURBID WINE. The cause of this is generally a want of Tannin. If the wine has a peculiar, flat, soft taste, and looks cloudy, this is generally the case. Draw the wine into another cask, which has been well sulphured, and add some pulverized tannin, which can be had in every drug store. The tannin may be dissolved in water--about an ounce to every two hundred gallons of wine--and the wine well stirred, by inserting a stick at the bung. Should it not have become clear after about three weeks, it should be fined. This can be done, by adding about an ounce of powdered gum-arabic to each forty gallons, and stirring the wine well when it has been poured in. Or, take some wine out of the casks--add to each forty gallons which it contains the whites of ten eggs, whipped to foam with the wine taken out--pour in the mixture again--stir up well, and bung up tight. After a week the wine will generally be clear, and should then be drawn off. USE OF THE HUSKS AND LEES. These should be distilled, and will make a very strong, fine flavored brandy. The husks are put into empty barrels or vats--stamped down close, and a cover of clay made over them, to exclude the air. They will thus undergo a fermentation, and be ready for distillation in about a month. They should be taken fresh from the press, however; for if they come into contact with the air, they will soon become sour and mouldy. The lees can be distilled immediately. Good fresh lees, from rather astringent wines are also an excellent remedy when the wine becomes flat, as before described. DR. GALL'S AND PETIOL'S METHOD OF WINE MAKING. The process of wine making before described, however, can only be applied in such seasons, and with such varieties of grapes, that contain all the necessary elements for a good wine in due proportion. For unfavorable seasons, with such varieties of grapes as are deficient in some of the principal ingredients, we must take a different course--follow a different method. To see our way clearly before us in this, let us first examine which are the constituent parts of must or grape juice. A chemical analysis of must, shows the following result: Grape juice contains sugar, water, free acids, tannin, gummy and mucous substances, coloring matter, fragrant or flavoring substances, (aroma bouquet). A good wine should contain all these ingredients in due proportion. If there is an excess of one, and a want of the other, the wine will lose in quality. Must, which contains all of these, in due proportion, we call _normal_ must, and only by determining the amount of sugar and acids in this so-called normal must, can we gain the knowledge how to improve such must, which does not contain the necessary proportion of each. The frequent occurrence of unfavorable seasons in Europe, when the grapes did not ripen fully, and were sadly deficient in sugar, set intelligent men to thinking how this defect could be remedied; and a grape crop, which was almost worthless, from its want of sugar, and its excess of acids, could be made to yield at least a fair article, instead of the sour and unsaleable article generally produced in such seasons. Among the foremost who experimented with this object in view I will here name CHAPTAL, PETIOL; but especially DR. LUDWIG GALL, who has at last reduced the whole science of wine-making to such a mathematical certainty, that we stand amazed only, that so simple a process should not have been discovered long ago. It is the old story of the egg of Columbus; but the poor vintners of Germany, and France, and we here, are none the less deeply indebted to those intelligent and persevering men for the incalculable benefits they have conferred upon us. The production of good wine is thus reduced to a mathematical certainty; although we cannot in a bad season, produce as high flavored and delicate wines, as in the best years, we can now always make a fair article, by following the simple rules laid down by DR. GALL. When this method was first introduced, it was calumniated and despised--called adulteration of wine, and even prohibited by the governments of Europe; but, DR. GALL fearlessly challenged his opponents to have his wines analyzed by the most eminent chemists; which was repeatedly done, and the results showed that they contained nothing but such ingredients which pure wine should contain; and since men like VON BABO, DOBEREINER and others have openly endorsed and recommended gallizing, prejudice is giving way before the light of scientific knowledge. [Illustration: FIG. 32.] But to determine the amount of sugar and acids contained in the must we need a few necessary implements. These are: THE MUST SCALE OR SACCHAROMETER. The most suitable one now in use is the _Oechsle's_ must scale, constructed on the principle that the instrument sinks the deeper into any fluid, the thinner it is, or the less sugar it contains. Fig. 32 shows this instrument, "which is generally made of silver, or German silver, although they are also made of glass. A, represents a hollow cylinder--best made of glass, filled with must to the brim, into which place the must scale B. It is composed of the hollow float _a_, which keeps it suspended in the fluid; of the weight _c_, for holding in a perpendicular position; and of the scale _e_ divided by small lines into from fifty to one hundred degrees. Before the gauge is placed in the must, draw it several times through the mouth, to moisten it--but allow no saliva to adhere to it. When the guage ceases to descend, note the degree to which it has sunk; after which press it down with the finger a few degrees further, and on its standing still again, the line to which the must reaches, indicates its so-called weight, expressed by degrees." The must should be weighed in an entirely fresh state, before it shows any sign of fermentation, and should be free from husks, and pure. This instrument, which is indispensable to every one who intends to make wine, can be obtained in nearly every large town, from the prominent opticians. JACOB BLATTNER, at St. Louis keeps them for sale. The saccharometer will indicate the amount of sugar in the must, and its use is so simple, that every one can soon become familiar with it. The next step in the improvement of wines was to determine the amount of acids the must contained, and this problem has also been successfully solved by the invention of the acidimeter: THE ACIDIMETER AND ITS USE. "The first instrument of this kind which came into general use, was one invented by DR. OTTO, and consists of a glass tube, from ten to twelve inches in length, half an inch in width, and closed at the lower end. Fig. 33 shows OTTO'S Acidimeter. "The tube is filled to the partition line _a_, with tincture of litmus. The must to be examined, before it has begun to ferment is then poured into the tube, until it reaches the line 0. The blue tincture of litmus, which would still be blue, if water had been added, is turned into rose-color by the action of the acids contained in the must. "If a solution of 1,369 per cent, of caustic ammonia is added to this red fluid, and the tube is turned around to effect the necessary mixture, keeping its mouth closed with the thumb, after the addition of more or less of the ammonical fluid, it will change into violet. This tinge indicates the saturation of the acids, and the height of the fluid in the tube now shows the quantity of acid in the must, by whole, half and fourth parts per cent. The lines marked 1, 2, 3, 4, indicate whole per cents.; the short intermediate lines, one-fourth per cents." [Illustration: FIG. 33.] When DR. GALL, shortly before the vintage of 1850, first publicly recommended the dilution of the acids, he was obliged to refer to this instrument, as already known, and everywhere at hand, which was at the same time cheap, and simple in its use. "It is true, however, that if must is examined by this instrument, the quantity of acids contained in it, is really somewhat larger than indicated by the instrument; because the acids contained in the must require for their saturation a weaker solution of ammonia than acetic acid." As however, OTTO'S acidimeter shows about one eighth of the acids less than the must actually contains, and about as much acids combined with earths is removed during fermentation, DR. GALL recommends that the quantity of acids be reduced to 6-1/2, or at most 7 thousandths of OTTO'S acidimeter, and the results have shown that this was about the right proportion; as the wines in which the acids were thus diluted were in favor with all consumers. "The acidimeter referred to was afterwards improved, by making the tube longer and more narrow, and dividing it into tenths of per cents, instead of fourths; thus dividing the whole above 0 into thousandths. But although by this improved acidimeter the quantity of acids could be ascertained with more nicety, there remained one defect, that in often turning the glass tube for mixing the fluids, some of the contents adhered to the thumb in closing its mouth. This defect was remedied in a new acidimeter, invented by Mr. GEISLER, who also invented the new vaporimeter for the determination of the quantity of alcohol contained in wine. It is based on the same principle as OTTO'S, but differs altogether in its construction. It is composed of three parts, all made of glass; the mixing bottle, Fig. 34; the Pipette, Fig. 35; and the burette, Fig 36. Besides, there should be ready three small glasses--one filled with tincture of litmus, the second with a solution of 1,369 per ammonia, and the third with the must or wine to be tested; also, a taller glass, or vessel, having its bottom covered with cotton, in which glass the burette, after it has been filled with the solution of ammonia, is to be placed in an upright position until wanted. [Illustration: FIG. 34.] [Illustration: FIG. 35.] [Illustration: FIG. 36.] "To use this instrument the must and the tincture of litmus, having first received the normal temperature of 14° Reaumer, are brought into the mixing bottle by means of the pipette, which is a hollow tube of glass, open on both ends. To fill it, place its lower end into the tincture or must, apply the mouth to the upper end, and by means of suction fill it with the tincture of litmus to above the line indicated at A. The opening of the top is then quickly closed with the thumb; by alternately raising the thumb, and pressing it down again, so much of the tincture is then allowed to flow back into the glass so as to lower the fluid to the line indicated at A. The remainder is then brought into the bottle, and the last drops forced out by blowing into the pipette. "In filling it with must, raise the fluid in the same way, until it comes up to the line indicated at B, and then empty into the mixing bottle. "The burette consists of two hollow tubes of glass. In filling it, hold the smaller tube with the right hand into the glass containing the solution of ammonia, apply the mouth to the larger one, and by drawing in the fluid the tube is filled exactly to the line indicated at 0 of the tube. "Holding the mixing bottle by the neck between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, place the smaller tube of the burette into the mouth of the mixing bottle, which must be constantly shaken; let enough of the solution of ammonia be brought drop by drop, into the mixture in the bottle, till the red has been changed into the deep reddish blue of the purple onion. This is the sign of the proper saturation of the acids. To distinguish still better, turn the mixing bottle upside down, by closing its mouth with the thumb, and examine the color of the fluid in the tube-shaped neck of the bottle, and afterwards, should it be required, add another drop of the ammonia. Repeat this until the proper tone of color has been reached, neither red nor blue. After thus fixing the precise point of the saturation of the acids, the burette is held upright, and the quantity of the solution of ammonia consumed is accurately determined,--that is, to what line on the scale the burette has been emptied. The quantity of the solution so used corresponds with the quantity of acids contained in the must--the larger division lines opposite the numbers indicating the thousandths part, and the smaller lines or dots the ten thousandths part. "Until the eye has learned by practice to recognize the points of saturation by the tone of color, it can be proven by means of litmus paper. When the mixture in the bottle begins to turn blue, put in the end of a slip of litmus paper about half an inch deep, and then draw this end through your fingers, moistened with water. So long as the ends of the blue litmus paper become more or less reddened, the acids have not been completely saturated. Only when it remains blue, has the point of saturation been reached. "In examining _red_ must, the method should be modified as follows:--Instead of first filling the pipette with tincture of litmus, fill it with water to the line A, and transfer it into the bottle. After the quantity of must has been added, drop six-thousandths of the solution of ammonia into the mixture, constantly shaking it while dropping, then test it, and so on, until, after every further addition required with litmus paper, it is no longer reddened after having been wiped off." DR. GALL further gives the following directions, as a guide, to distinguish and determine the proportion of acids which a must should contain, to be still agreeable to the palate, and good: "Chemists distinguish the acid contained in the grape as the vinous, malic, grape, citric, tannic, gelatinous and para-citric acids. Whether all these are contained in the must, or which of them, is of small moment for us to know. For the practical wine-maker, it is sufficient to know, with full certainty, that, as the grape ripens, while the proportion of sugar increases, the quantity of acids continually diminishes; and hence, by leaving the grapes on the vines as long as possible, we have a double means of improving their products--the must or wine. "All wines, without exception, to be of good and of agreeable taste, must contain from 4-1/2 to 7 thousandths parts of free acids, and each must containing more than seven thousandths parts of free acids may be considered as having too little water and sugar in proportion to its quantity of acids. "In all wine-growing countries of Germany, for a number of years past, experience has proved that a corresponding addition of sugar and water is the means of converting the sourest must, not only into a good drinkable wine, but also into as good a wine as can be produced in favorable years, _except_ in that peculiar and delicate aroma found only in the must of well-ripened grapes, and which must and will always distinguish the wines made in the best seasons from those made in poor seasons. "The saccharometer and acidimeter, properly used, will give us the exact knowledge of what the must contains, and what it lacks; and we have the means at hand, by adding water, to reduce the acids to their proper proportion; and by adding sugar, to increase the amount of sugar the must should contain; in other words, we can change the poor must of indifferent seasons into the normal must of the best seasons in _everything_, _except_ its bouquet or aroma, thereby converting an unwholesome and disagreeable drink into an agreeable and healthy one." THE CHANGE OF THE MUST, BY FERMENTATION, INTO WINE. Let us glance for a few moments at this wonderful, simple, and yet so complicated process, to give a clearer insight into the functions which man has to perform to assist Nature, and have her work for him, to attain the desired end. I cannot put the matter in a better light for my readers than to quote again from DR. GALL. He says:--"To form a correct opinion of what may and can be done in the manufacture of wine, we must be thoroughly convinced that Nature, in her operations, has other objects in view than merely to serve man as his careful cook and butler. Had the highest object of the Creator, in the creation of the grape, been simply to combine in the juice of the fruit nothing but what is indispensable to the formation of that delicious beverage for the accommodation of man, it might have been still easier done for him by at once filling the berries with wine already made. But in the production of fruits, the first object of all is to provide for the propagation and preservation of the species. Each fruit contains the germ of a new plant, and a quantity of nutritious matter surrounding and developing that germ. The general belief is, that this nutritious matter, and even the peculiar combination in which it is found in the fruit, has been made directly for the immediate use of man. This, however, is a mistake. The nutritious matter of the grape, as in the apple, pear, or any similar product, is designed by Nature only to serve as the first nourishment of the future plant, the germ of which lies in it. There are thousands of fruits of no use whatever, and are even noxious to man, and there are thousands more which, before they can be used, must be divested of certain parts, necessary, indeed, to the nutrition of the future plant, but unfit, in its present state, for the use or nourishment of man. For instance, barley contains starch, mucilaginous sugar, gum, adhesive matter, vegetable albumen, phosphate of lime, oil, fibre and water. All these are necessary to the formation of roots, stalks, leaves, flowers and the new grain; but for the manufacture of beer, the brewer needs only the first three substances. The same rule applies to the grape. "In this use of the grape, all depends upon the judgment of man to select such of its parts as he wishes, and by his skill he adapts and applies them in the best manner for his purposes. In eating the grapes, he throws away the skins and seeds; for raisins, he evaporates the water, retaining only the solid parts, from which, when he uses them, he rejects their seeds. If he manufactures must, he lets the skins remain. In making wine, he sets free the carbonic acid contained in the must, and removes the lees, gum, tartar, and, in short, everything deposited during, and immediately after fermentation, as well as when it is put into casks and bottles. He not only removes from the wine its sediments, but watches the fermentation, and checks it as soon as its vinous fermentation is over, and the formation of vinegar about to begin. He refines his wine by an addition of foreign substances if necessary; he sulphurizes it; and, by one means or another, remedies its distempers. "The manufacture of wine is thus a many-sided art; and he who does not understand it, or knows not how to guide and direct the powers of Nature to his own purposes, may as well give up all hopes of success in it." So far DR. GALL; and to the intelligent and unbiased mind, the truth and force of these remarks will be apparent, without further extending or explaining them. How absurd, then, the blind ravings of those who talk about "natural" wines, and would condemn every addition of sugar and water to the must by man, when Nature has not fully done her part, as adulteration and fraud. Why, there is no such thing as a "natural wine;" for wine--good wine--is the product of art, and a manufacture from beginning to end. Would we not think that parent extremely cruel, as well as foolish, who would have her child without clothing, simply because Nature had allowed it to be born without it? Would not the child suffer and die, because its mother failed to aid Nature in her work, by clothing and feeding it when it is yet unable to feed and clothe itself? And yet, would not that wine-maker act equally foolish who has it within his power to remedy the deficiencies of Nature with such means as she herself supplies in good season, and which ought and would be in the must but for unfavorable circumstances, over which we have no control? Wine thus improved is just as pure as if the sugar and water had naturally been in the grapes in right proportions; just as beneficial to health; and only the fanatical "know-nothing" can call it adulterated. But the prejudices will disappear before the light of science and truth, however much ignorance may clamor against it. GALILEO, when forced to abjure publicly his great discovery of the motion of the earth around the sun as a heresy and lie, murmured between his teeth the celebrated words, "And yet it moves." It _did_ move; and the theory is now an acknowledged truth, with which every schoolboy is familiar. Thus will it be with improved wine-making. It will yet be followed, generally and universally, as sure as the public will learn to distinguish between good and poor wine. Let us now observe for a moment the change which fermentation makes in converting the must into wine. The nitrogeneous compounds--vegetable albumen, gluten--which are contained in the grape, and which are dissolved in the must as completely as the sugar, under certain circumstances turn into the fermenting principle, and so change the must into wine. This change is brought about by the fermenting substance coming into contact with the air, and receiving oxygen from it, in consequence of which it coagulates, and shows itself in the turbid state of must, or young wine. The coagulation of the lees takes place but gradually, and just in the degree the exhausted lees settle. The sugar gradually turns into alcohol. The acids partly remain as tartaric acid, are partly turned into ether, or settle with the lees, chrystallize, and adhere to the bottom of the casks. The etheric oil, or aroma, remains, and develops into bouquet; also the tannin, to a certain degree. The albumen and gluten principally settle, although a small portion of them remains in the wine. The coloring matter and extractive principle remain, but change somewhat by fermentation. Thus it is the must containing a large amount of sugar needs a longer time to become clear than that containing but a small portion of it; therefore, many southern wines retain a certain amount of sugar undecomposed, and they are called _sweet_, or liqueur wines; whereas, wines in which the whole of the sugar has been decomposed are called _sour_ or _dry_ wines. I have thought it necessary to be thus explicit to give my readers an insight into the general principles which should govern us in wine-making. I have quoted freely from the excellent work of DR. GALL. We will now see whether and how we can reduce it to practice. I will try and illustrate this by an example. NORMAL MUST. "Experiments continued for a number of years have proved that, in favorable seasons, grape juice contains, on the average, in 1,000 lbs.: Sugar, 240 lbs. Acids, 6 " Water, 754 " ----- 1,000 " This proportion would constitute what I call a normal must. But now we have an inferior season, and the must contains, instead of the above proportions, as follows: Sugar, 150 lbs. Acids, 9 " Water, 841 " ----- 1,000 " What must we do to bring such must to the condition of a normal must? This is the question thus arising. To solve it, we calculate thus: If, in six pounds of acids in a normal wine, 240 pounds of sugar appear, how much sugar is wanted for nine pounds of acids? Answer, 360 pounds. Our next question is: If, in six pounds of acids in a normal must, 754 pounds of water appear, how much water is required for nine pounds of acids? Answer, 1,131 pounds. As, therefore, the must which we intend to improve by neutralizing its acids, should contain 360 pounds of sugar, nine pounds of acids, and 1,131 pounds of water, but contains already 150 pounds of sugar, 9 pounds of acids, and 841 pounds of water, there remain to be added, 210 pounds of sugar, no acids, and 290 pounds of water. By ameliorating a quantity of 1,000 pounds must by 210 pounds sugar, and 290 pounds water, we obtain 1,500 pounds of must, consisting of the same properties as the normal must, which makes a first-class wine." This is wine-making, according to GALL'S method, in Europe. Now, let us see what we can do with it on American soil, and with American grapes. THE MUST OF AMERICAN GRAPES. If we examine the must of most of our American wine grapes closely, we find that they not only contain an excess of acids in inferior seasons, but also a superabundance of flavor or aroma, and of tannin and coloring matter. Especially of flavor, there is such an abundance that, were the quantity doubled by addition of sugar and water, there would still be an abundance; and with some varieties, such as the Concord, if fermented on the husks, it is so strong as to be disagreeable. We must, therefore, not only ameliorate the acid, but also the flavor and the astringency, of which the tannin is the principal cause. Therefore it is, that to us the knowledge of how to properly gallize our wines is still more important than to the European vintner, and the results which we can realize are yet more important. By a proper management, we can change must, which would otherwise make a disagreeable wine, into one in which everything is in its proper proportion, and which will delight the consumer, to whose fastidious taste if would otherwise have been repugnant. True, we have here a more congenial climate, and the grapes will generally ripen better, so that we can in most seasons produce a drinkable wine. But if we can increase the quantity, and at the same time improve the quality, there is certainly an inducement, which the practical business sense of our people will not fail to appreciate and make use of. There is, however, one difficulty in the way. I do not believe that the acidimeter can yet be obtained in the country, and we must import them direct from the manufacturers, DR. L. C. MARQUART, of Bonn, on the Rhine; or J. DIEHN, Frankfort-on-the-Main. However, this difficulty will soon be overcome; and, indeed, although it is impossible to practice gallizing without a saccharometer, we may get at the surplus of acids with tolerable certainty by the results shown by the saccharometer. To illustrate this, I will give an example: Last year was one of the most unfavorable seasons for the ripening of grapes we have ever had here, and especially the Catawba lost almost nine-tenths of its crop by mildew and rot; it also lost its leaves, and the result was, that the grapes did not ripen well. When gathering my grapes, upon weighing the must, I found that it ranged from 52° to 70°; whereas, in good seasons, Catawba must weighs from 80° to 95°. I now calculated thus: if normal must of Catawba should weigh at least 80°, and the must I have to deal with this season will weigh on an average only 60°, I must add to this must about 1/2 lb. of sugar to bring it up to 80°. But now I had the surplus acid to neutralize yet. To do this, I calculated thus: If, even in a normal Catawba must, or a must of the best seasons, there is yet an excess of acid, I can safely count on there being at least one-third too much acid in a must that weighs but 60°. I, therefore, added to every 100 gallons of must 40 gallons of soft water, in which I had first dissolved 80 lbs. of crushed sugar, which brought the water, when weighed after dissolving the sugar in it, up to 80°. Now, I had yet to add 50 lbs., or half a pound to each gallon of the original must, to bring _this_ up to 80°. I thus pressed, instead of 100 gallons, 150 gallons, from the same quantity of grapes; and the result was a wine, which every one who has tasted it has declared to be excellent Catawba. It has a brilliant pale yellow color, was perfectly clear 1st of January, and sold by me to the first one to whom I offered it, at a price which I have seldom realized for Catawba wine made in the best seasons, without addition of sugar or water. True, it has not as strong an aroma as the Catawba of our best seasons, nor has it as much astringency; but this latter I consider an advantage, and it still has abundant aroma to give it character. Another experiment I made with the Concord satisfied me, without question, that the must of this grape will always gain by an addition of water and sugar. I pressed several casks of the pure juice, which, as the Concord had held its leaves and ripened its fruit very well, contained sugar enough to make a fair wine, namely, 75°. This I generally pressed the day after gathering, and put into separate casks. I then took some must of the same weight, but to which I had added, to every 100 gallons, 50 gallons of water, in which I had diluted sugar until the water weighed 75°, or not quite two pounds of sugar to the gallon of water, pressed also after the expiration of the same time, and otherwise treated in the same manner. Both were treated exactly alike, racked at the same time; and the result is, that every one who tries the two wines, without knowing how they have been treated, prefers the gallized wine to the other--the pure juice of the grape. It is more delicate in flavor, has less acidity, and a more brilliant color than the first, the ungallized must. They are both excellent, but there is a difference in favor of the gallized wine. DR. GALL recommends grape sugar as the best to be used for the purpose. This is made from potato starch; but it is hard to obtain here, and I have found crushed loaf sugar answer every purpose. I think this sugar has the advantage over grape sugar, that it dissolves more readily, and can even be dissolved in cold water, thus simplifying the process very much. It will take about two pounds to the gallon of water to bring this up to 80°, which will make a wine of sufficient body. The average price of sugar was about 22 cents per pound, and the cost of thus producing an additional gallon of wine, counting in labor, interest on capital, etc., will be about 60 cents. When the wine can be sold at from $2 to $3 per gallon, the reader will easily perceive of what immense advantage this method is to the grape-grower, if he can thereby not only improve the quality, but also increase the quantity of the yield. The efforts made by the Commissioner of Patents, and the contributors to the annual reports from the Patent Office, to diffuse a general knowledge of this process, can therefore not be commended too highly. It will help much to bring into general use, among all classes, good, pure, native wines; and as soon as ever the poorer classes can obtain cheap agreeable wines, the use of bad whiskey and brandy will be abandoned more and more, and this nation will become a more temperate people. But this is only the first step. There is a way to still further increase the quantity. DR. GALL and others found, by analyzing the husks of the grape after the juice had been extracted by powerful presses, that they not only still contained a considerable amount of juice, but also a great amount of extracts, or wine-making principles, in many instances sufficient for three times the bulk of the juice already expressed. This fact suggested the question: As there are so many of these valuable properties left, and only sugar and water exhausted, why cannot these be substituted until the others are completely exhausted? It was found that the husks still contained sufficient of acids, tannin, aroma, coloring matter, and gluten. All that remained to be added was water and sugar. It was found that this could be easily done; and the results showed that wine made in this manner was equal, if not superior, to some of that made from the original juice, and was often, by the best judges, preferred to that made from the original must. I have also practiced this method extensively the last season; and the result is, that I have fully doubled the amount of wine of the Norton's Virginia and Concord. I have thus made 2,500 gallons of Concord, where I had but 1,030 gallons of original must; and 2,600 gallons of Norton's Virginia, where I had but 1,300 gallons of must. The wines thus made were kept strictly separate from those made from the original juice, and the result is, that many of them are better, and none inferior, to the original must; and although I have kept a careful diary of wine-making, in which I have noted the process how each cask was made, period of fermentation on the husks, quantity of sugar used, etc., and have not hesitated to show this to every purchaser after he had tasted of the wine, they generally, and with very few exceptions, chose those which had either been gallized in part, or entirely. [Illustration: FIG. 37. UNION VILLAGE.--_Berries 1/3 diameter._] My method in making such wines was very simple. I generally took the same quantity of water, the husks had given original must, or in other words, when I had pressed 100 gallons of juice, I took about 80 gallons of water. To make Concord wine, I added 1-3/4 lbs. of sugar to the gallon, as I calculated upon some sugar remaining in the husks, which were not pressed entirely dry. This increased the quantity, with the juice yet contained in the husks to 100 gallons, and brought the water to 70; calculating that from 5° to 10° still remained in the husks, it would give us a must of about 80°. The grapes, as before remarked, had been gathered during the foregoing day, and were generally pressed in the morning. As soon as possible the husks were turned into the fermenting vat again, all pulled apart and broken, and the water added to them. As the fermentation had been very strong before, it immediately commenced again. I generally allowed them to ferment for twenty-four hours, and then pressed again, but pressed as dry as possible this time. The whole treatment of this must was precisely similar to that of the original. In making Norton's Virginia, I would take, instead of 1-3/4 lbs., 2 lbs. of sugar to the gallon--as it is naturally a wine of greater body than the Concord--and I aimed to come as near to the natural must as possible. I generally fermented this somewhat longer, as a darker color was desired. The time of fermentation must vary, of course, with the state of the atmosphere; in cooler weather, both pressings should remain longer on the husks. The results, in both varieties were wines of excellent flavor, good body, a brilliant color, with enough of tannin or astringency, and sufficient acid--therefore, in every way satisfactory. The experiments, however, were not confined to these alone, but extended over a number of varieties, with good results in every case. Of all varieties tried, however, I found that the Concord would bear the most of gallizing, without losing its own peculiar flavor; and I satisfied myself, that the quantity in this grape can safely be increased _here_, from 100 gallons of must to 250 gallons of wine, and the quality yet be better, than if the must had been left in its normal condition. And it is here again where only experience can teach us _how far_ we can go with a certain variety. It must be clear and apparent to any one who is ever so slightly acquainted with wine-making, how widely different the varieties are in their characteristics and ingredients. We may lay it down as a general rule, however, that our native grapes, with their strong and peculiar flavors, and their superabundance of tannin and coloring matter, will admit of much more gallizing, than the more delicately flavored European kinds. I have thus tried only to give an outline of the necessary operations, as well as the principles lying at the foundation of them. I have also spoken only of facts as I have found them, as I am well aware that this is a field in which I have much to learn yet, and where it but poorly becomes me to act the part of teacher. Those desiring more detailed information, I would refer to the Patent Office Reports of 1859-60, where they will find valuable extracts from the works of DR. GALL; and also to the original works. If we look at the probable effect these methods of improving wines are likely to have upon grape-culture, it is but natural that we should ask the question: Is there anything reprehensible in the practice--any reason why it should not become general? The answer to this is very simple. They contain nothing which the fermented grape juice, in its purest and most perfect state does not also contain. Therefore, they are as pure as any grape juice can be, with the consideration in their favor, that everything is in the right proportion. Therefore, if wine made from pure grape juice can be recommended for general use, surely, the gallized wines can also be recommended. DR. GALL has repeatedly offered to pay a fine for the benefit of the poor, if the most critical chemical analysis could detect anything in them, which was injurious to health, or which pure wines ought not to contain, and his opponents have always failed to show anything of the kind. I know that some of my wine-making friends will blame me for thus "letting the cat out of the bag." They seem to think that it would be better to keep the knowledge we have gained, to ourselves, carefully even hiding the fact that any of our wines have been gallized. But it has always been a deep-seated conviction with me, that knowledge and truth, like God's sun should be the common property of all His children--and that it is the duty of every one not to "hide his light under a bushel," but seek to impart it to all, who could, perhaps, be benefitted by it. And why, in reality, should we seek to keep as a secret a practice which is perfectly right and justifiable? If there is a prejudice against it, (and we know there is), this is not the way to combat it. Only by meeting it openly, and showing the fallacy of it, can we hope to convince the public, that there is nothing wrong about it. Truth and justice need never fear the light--they can only gain additional force from it. I do not even attempt to sell a cask of gallized wine, before the purchaser is made fully acquainted with the fact, that it has been gallized. It is a matter of course, that many, who go to work carelessly and slovenly, will fail to make good wine, in this or any other way. To make a good article, the nature of each variety and its peculiarities must be closely studied--we must have as ripe grapes as we can get, carefully gathered; and we need not think that water and sugar will accomplish _everything_. There is a limit to everything, and to gallizing as well as to anything else. As soon as we pass beyond that limit, an inferior product will be the result. But let us glance a moment at the probable influence this discovery will have on American grape culture. It cannot be otherwise than in the highest degree beneficial; for when we simply look at grape-culture as it was ten years ago, with the simple product of the Catawba as its basis; a variety which would only yield an average of, say 200 gallons to the acre--often very inferior wine--and look at it to-day, with such varieties as the Concord, yielding an average of from 1,000 to 1,500 gallons to the acre, which we can yet easily double by gallizing, thus in reality yielding an average of 2,500 gallons to the acre of uniformly good wine; can we be surprised if everybody talks and thinks of raising grapes? Truly, the time is not far distant--of which we hardly dared to dream ten years ago--and which we _then_ thought we would never live to see; when _every_ American citizen can indulge in a daily glass of that glorious gift of God to man, pure, light wine; and the American nation shall become a really _temperate_ people. And there is room for all. Let every one further the cause of grape-culture. The laborer by producing the grapes and wine; the mechanic by inventions; the law-giver by making laws furthering its culture, and the consumption of it; and _all_ by drinking wine, in wise moderation of course. WINE MAKING MADE EASY. Some of my readers may think I did not look much to this, which I told them was one of the objects of this little work. To vindicate it and myself I will here state, that our object should always be to attain the highest perfection in everything. But, while I am aware that I have generally given the outline of operations on a large scale, I have never for a moment lost sight of the interests of those, who, like myself, are compelled, by bitter necessity, to commence at the lowest round of the ladder. And how could I forget the bitter experience of my first years, when hindered by want of means; but also the feelings of sincere joy, of glad triumph, when I had surmounted one more obstacle, and saw the path open wider before me at every step; and I can, therefore, fully sympathize with the poor laborer, who has nothing but his industrious hands and honest will to commence with. While, therefore, it is most advantageous to follow grape-growing and wine-making with all the conveniences of well prepared soil, substantial trellis, a commodious wine cellar and all its appurtenances; yet, it is also possible to do without most of these conveniencies in the beginning, and yet succeed. If the grape-grower has not capital to spare to buy wire, he can, if he has timber on his land, split laths and nail them to the posts instead of wire. He can layer his plants even the first summer, and thus raise a stock for further planting; or dispose of them, as already mentioned in the beginning of this work. Or he can lease a piece of land from some one who wishes to have a vineyard planted on it, and who will furnish the plants to him, besides the necessary capital for the first year or so. I have contracted with several men without means in this manner, furnished them a small house, the necessary plants, and paid them $150 the first two years, they giving me half the returns of the vineyards, in plants and grapes; and they have become wealthy by such means. One of my tenants has realized over $8,000 for his share the last season, and will very likely realize the same amount next season. And if he cannot afford to build a large cellar in the beginning, he can also do with a small one, even the most common house cellar will do through the winter, if it is only kept free from frost. One of our most successful wine-growers here, commenced his operations with a simple hole in the ground, dug under his house, and his first wine press was merely a large beam, let into a tree, which acted as a lever upon the grapes, with a press-bed, also of his own making. A few weeks ago the same man sold his last year's crop of wine for over $9,000 in cash, and has raised some $2,000 worth more in vines, cuttings, etc. Of course, it is not advisable to keep the wine over summer in an indifferent cellar, but during fermentation and the greater part of winter, it will answer very well, and he can easily dispose of his wine, if good, as soon as clear. Or he can dispose of his grapes at a fair price, to one of his neighbors, or take them to market. But there is another consideration, which I cannot urge too strongly upon my readers, and which will do much to make grape-growing and wine-making easy. It is the forming of grape colonies, of grape-growers' villages. The advantages of such a colony will be easily seen. If each one has a small piece of suitable land, (and he does not need a large one to follow grape-growing), the neighbors can easily assist each other in ploughing and sub-soiling; they will be able to do with fewer work animals, as they can hitch together, and first prepare the soil for one and then for the other; the ravages of birds and insects will hardly be felt; they can join together, and build a large cellar in common, where each one can deliver and store his wine, and of which one perhaps better acquainted with the management of wine than the others, and whom all are willing to trust, can have the management. If there should be no such man among them, an experienced cooper can be hired by all, who can also manufacture the necessary casks. An association of that kind has also, generally, the preference in the market over a single individual, and they are able to obtain a higher price for their products, if they are of good quality. There are thousands upon thousands of acres of the best grape lands yet to be had in the West, especially in Missouri, at a merely nominal price, which would be well adapted for settlements of that kind; where the virgin soil yet waits only the bidding of intelligent labor--of enterprising and industrious men--to bring forth the richest fruits. There is room for all--may it soon be filled with willing hearts to undertake the task. And how much easier for you to-day, men with the active hand and intelligent brain, to commence--with the certainty of success before you--with varieties which will yield a large and sure return _every_ year; with the market open before you, and the experience of those who have commenced, to guide you; with the reputation of American wines established; with double the price per gallon--and ten times the yield--compared with the beginner of only ten years ago, with nothing but uncertainty; uncertainty of yield, uncertainty of quality, of price, and of effecting a sale. It took a brave heart _then_, and an iron will; the determination to succeed,--succeed against _all_ obstacles. And yet, hundreds have commenced thus, and have succeeded. Can _you_ hesitate, when the future is all bright before you, and the thousand and one obstacles have been overcome? If you do, you are not fit to be a grape-grower. Go toil and drudge for so many cents per day, in some factory, and end life as you have begun it. God's free air, the cultivation of one of His noblest gifts, destined to "make glad the heart in this rugged world of ours," is not for you. I may pity you, but I cannot sympathize with nor assist you, except by raising a cheap glass of wine to gladden even _your_ cheerless lot. [Illustration: FIG. 38. MAXATAWNY.--_Berries 1/2 diameter._] STATISTICS. COST OF ESTABLISHING A VINEYARD. In this, of course, allowances must be made for soil, locality, cost of plants, cost of timber, etc., which will vary with the locality. The estimation given here is about what it would cost _here_, with the leading varieties. COST OF AN ACRE OF CONCORD. Preparing ground by ploughing, laying off, etc., $ 50 00 700 first-class yearling plants, to be planted 6�10, $12 per hundred, 84 00 450 posts, 15 feet apart, 10 cents each, 45 00 450 intermediate stakes, 3 " 13 50 600 lbs. No. 12 wire, 16 cents per lb., 96 00 Cost of erecting trellis, 50 00 Attendance, labor, etc., during first year, 50 00 Interest on capital, 20 00 ------ $408 50 The following year the vineyard can be made to pay all expenses, by layering, etc. COST OF AN ACRE OF HERBEMONT. Preparing ground, 50 00 700 first class plants, 6�10, $25 per hundred, 175 00 450 posts, 10 cents each, 45 00 450 stakes, 3 " 13 50 600 lbs. wire, 16 cents per lb., 96 00 Cost of erecting trellis, 50 00 Attendance, labor, during first two years, 125 00 Interest on capital during first two years, 66 00 ------ $620 50 COST OF AN ACRE OF NORTON'S VIRGINIA. Preparation of soil, etc., 50 00 850 plants, first class, to be planted 6�8, $25 per hundred, 212 50 450 posts, 10 cents each, 45 00 450 stakes, 3 " 13 50 600 lbs. No. 12 wire, 16 cents per lb., 96 00 Cost of erecting trellis, 50 00 Attendance, labor, etc., during first two years, 125 00 Interest on capital during first two years, at 6 per cent. per annum, 70 00 ------ $662 00 COST OF AN ACRE OF DELAWARE. Cost of preparing ground, 50 00 1,200 first-class plants, planted 6�6, 400 00 450 posts, 10 cents each, 45 00 450 stakes, 3 " 13 50 600 lbs. No. 12 wire, 16 cents per lb. 96 00 Cost of erecting trellis, 50 00 Cost of cultivation two first years, 125 00 Interest on capital two years, 92 00 ------ $871 50 COST OF AN ACRE OF CATAWBA. Preparing ground, 50 00 Cost of 1,200 plants, 6�6, 45 00 450 posts, 10 cents each, 45 00 450 stakes, 3 " 13 50 600 lbs. wire, 16 cents per lb., 96 00 Cost of erecting trellis, 50 00 Attendance during two years, 125 00 Interest on capital two years, 39 00 ------ $463 50 PRODUCT. The following has been the produce of a vineyard of Catawba, now under my management, since 1849: Bearing Vines Gallons of Yield per season. bearing. Wine. Price. acre. 1849, 1st year, 1,500 750 $1.25 $600 00 1850, 2d " 2,000 150 1.25 95 00 1851, 3d " 2,000 500 1.25 300 00 1852, 4th " 1,800 210 1.25 120 00 1853. 5th " 1,500 580 1.25 500 00 1854, 6th " 2,500 750 1.50 600 00 1855, 7th " 3,000 230 2.00 150 00 1856 8th " 4,000 150 2.00 75 00 1857 9th " 4,000 2,000 1.20 600 00 1858, 10th " 4,000 210 1.20 60 00 1859, 11th " 4,200 1,200 1.20 360 00 1860, 12th " 4,200 1,300 1.25 405 00 1861, 13th " 4,200 150 1.00 37 50 1862, 14th " 4,200 20 2.00 10 00 1863, 15th " 4,200 150 2.00 75 00 1864, 16th " 4,200 150 2.00 75 00 1865, 17th " 4,200 500 2.00 250 00 Which will show the average yield per acre, to have been somewhat over 250 00 Deduct from this cost of labor per year, per acre, 50 00 Interest on capital, 40 00-90 00 Would leave a clear profit, per acre, of 160 00 The poor returns were nearly all occasioned by mildew and rot, with the exception of 1862, when a very destructive hail-storm swept away almost the entire crop; and in 1864, when the vines were all killed down to the snow line by frost the preceding winter. The following is the cost of a vineyard planted by me in May, 1861, containing about 3,000 vines, on 2-1/2 acres of ground. The ground could not be made ready until late in the season, consequently many of the vines failed to grow, and had to be replanted the second season: 1700 Norton's Virginia, $20.00 per hundred, 340 00 400 Concord (small), 25 " 100 00 350 Delaware, 50 " 175 00 150 Herbemont, 25 " 37 50 50 Cunningham, 50 " 25 00 Other varieties assorted, 100 00 Cost of clearing, ploughing, and planting, $50 per acre, 125 00 Putting up trellis, $150 per acre, 375 00 Interest on capital, 100 00 -------- $1,377 50 PRODUCT. For layers and cuttings made 1st year, 339 00 " " 2d " 1200 00 " " 3d " 2500 00 Concord grapes sold, 2,000 lbs., net 16 cents, 320 00 Plants and cuttings fourth year, 4000 00 2,040 lbs. of grapes (Concord), marketed at 24 cents per lb., net 489 60 -------- $8,848 60 PRODUCE FIFTH YEAR. 1,030 gallons Concord at $2.50 $2,575 00 1,300 " Norton's Virginia 4.00 5,200 00 125 " Herbemont 3.00 375 00 30 " Cunningham 4.00 120 00 40 " Delaware 6.00 240 00 10 " Clinton 3.00 30 00 50 " Other Varieties 3.00 150 00 336 " Hartford Prolific Grapes 20 cts. per lb. 67 20 57,000 Plants from cuttings and layers, average price $100 per thousand 5,700 00 --------- $14,457 20 Leaving the product of the first five years $23,305 80 From which deduct expenses for plants, trellis, etc., 1,277 Interest on capital at 5 per cent. 500 Cost of labor 1st. year, 150 2d. " 300 3d. " 400 4th. " 500 5th. " 500 ----- Total Cost $3,627 --------- Leaves clear profit for first five years of $19,679 80 The fourth year, nearly all the fruit buds of the vines had been killed above the snow line, but I made, besides the grapes sold, about $1,500 worth of wine, which was emptied by the rebels in their raid that fall, and consequently lost. The vines were not all in bearing this last season, for reasons already given; and the whole amount of vines bearing, was not more than 2,200--hardly two acres. If my readers will contrast this with the yield of the Catawba vineyard, they will see the difference in yield between varieties suited to the climate and soil, and those unused to it. The last season--although unfavorable to the Catawba--produced an enormous yield of Concord and Norton's Virginia, and cannot be taken as an average crop. I think about 700 gallons of Norton's Virginia, and 1,200 gallons of Concord would be a fair average estimate per year--which the vines can easily produce, and remain healthy and vigorous. YIELD OF MR. MICHAEL POESCHEL's VINEYARD.--CATAWBA. Year after planting. Acres in Vines. Yield. Price. 1847, 2d 5-6 24 gallons 2.00 1848, 3d 3-6 1,000 " 2.00 1849, 4th 2 600 " 1.50 1850, 5th 2 350 " 1.25 1851, 6th 2-1/2 450 " 1.75 1852, 7th 2-1/2 500 " 1.50 1853, 8th 2-1/2 350 " 2.00 1854, 9th 3-1/2 800 " 2.00 1855, 10th 3-1/2 50 " 1.50 1856, 11th 3-1/2 1,000 " 1.25 1857, 12th 6 4,500 " 1.50 1858, 13th 6 1,100 " 1.75 1859, 14th 6 1,500 " 1.50 1860, 15th 6 2,000 " 1.25 1861, 16th 6 250 " 1.00 1862, 17th 6 300 " 1.50 1863, 18th 8 2,000 " 1.15 NEW VINEYARD OF MR. MICHAEL POESCHEL, PLANTED IN 1861, 1863--FIRST PARTIAL CROP. 500 Gallons Norton's Virginia--2 acres, at $3 per gallon $1,500 00 Grapes sold from 1/2 acre of Concords 400 00 Plants from cuttings and layers sold 2,000 00 -------- $3,900 00 1864.--SECOND CROP.--VINES BADLY FROSTED IN WINTER. 2 Acres of Norton's Virginia produced 600 gallons, at $4 50 $2,700 00 2-1/2 Acres of Catawba, produced 400 gallons, at $2 15 850 00 Grapes sold from 1/2 acre of Concord 400 00 Plants sold 1,500 00 -------- $5,450 00 1865--THIRD CROP. 2-3/4 Acres of Norton's Virginia, produced 2,000 gallons at $4 8,000 00 2-1/2 Acres Catawba, produced 450 gallons at $1 75 787 50 1-1/4 Acres Concord, produced 1,000 gallons, at $250 2,500 00 1/2 acre Herbemont produced 400 gallons, at $3 per gallon, 1,200 00 1/2 acre Rulander produced 50 gallons, at $5 250 00 Plants sold, 1,500 00 --------- $14,237 50 This vineyard was trenched at an average cost of $120 dollars to the acre, and most of the vines are planted 5�5, evidently too close. They are trained to wire trellis, as described in a former part of this work, and receive close attention, and the very best cultivation. YIELD OF VINEYARD OF MR. WILLIAM POESCHEL--1857. 1-1/2 acres of Catawba produced 1,050 gallons of wine; sold at 1,402 50 1858. 1-3/4 acres of Catawba produced 250 gallons; sold at $1.10 per gallon, 275 00 1859. 1-3/4 acres Catawba produced 300 gallons; sold at $1.25 per gallon, 375 00 1860. 2 acres of Catawba produced 8,843 lbs. of grapes; sold at 10c. per lb., 884 30 120 gallons of wine, at $1.20 per gallon, 144 00 230 " 0.95 " 218 50 Plants sold, 600 00 -------- $1,846 80 1861. 2 acres of Catawba produced 270 gallons, at $1.05 per gallon, 283 50 Plants sold, 500 00 ------ $783 50 1862. 2 acres Catawba produced 6,718 lbs. of grapes; sold at 9 cents per lb., 604 62 225 gallons of wine, sold at $1.25 per gallon, 281 25 75 " of Norton's Virginia, from about 1-10th of an acre, at $2.75 per gallon, 206 25 Plants sold, 650 00 -------- $1,742 12 1863--2-1/4 ACRES IN ALL. 720 gallons of Catawba, at $1.85 per gallon, 1,332 00 60 " Concord, at $2.00 " 120 00 70 " Herbemont, at $2 " 140 00 40 " Norton's Virginia, $3 " 120 00 Plants sold, 800 00 -------- $2,512 00 1864--2-1/4 ACRES IN BEARING; VINES BADLY FROSTED. 45 gallons Catawba, $2.00 per gallon, 90 00 42 " Concord, 2.50 " 105 00 20 " Norton's Virginia and Delaware mixed, at $5.25 per gallon, 105 00 10 " Norton's Virginia, second class, at $3 30 00 Plants sold, 300 00 ------ $630 00 1865--5 ACRES IN BEARING. 2-1/2 acre Catawba produced 900 galls., at $1.75, 1,575 00 1/2 " Concord " 700 " 2.50, 1,750 00 1 " Norton's Vir. " 600 " 4.00, 2,400 00 1/3 " Delaware " 120 " 5.00, 600 00 1/2 " Herbemont " 350 " 2.50, 875 00 Balance in other varieties, 150 00 Plants sold, 940 00 -------- $8,290 00 This vineyard has one of the best locations for Catawba and Delaware in the neighborhood, and its proprietor one of the most intelligent and industrious cultivators and wine-manufacturers in the vicinity. The following are copied from the report of a special committee appointed by the Cincinnati Horticultural Society, to inquire into the condition of vineyards, and report whether or not grape-growing was still profitable. I regret to say that our Cincinnati friends have not, generally speaking, paid as much attention to the introduction and testing of better varieties--and there are but few vineyards in that neighborhood--where any other variety than the Catawba has been planted to any extent. It is to be hoped that the signal failure of that variety last season will do much to open their eyes to the full importance of the subject, and to abandon the Catawba, which evidently will not pay any longer. But, as we have already said, there are other varieties of grapes being successfully grown in this vicinity, and we have extended our researches to some of those vineyards, and give the results as follows:-- Ives' Seedling is a grape of much promise, not addicted to mildew and rot. Col. WAHRING, of Indian Hill, in this county, has a small vineyard, only two acres in bearing, which made, the past season, 650 gallons of wine. The season previous, only one acre in bearing, yielded 560 gallons. The Colonel makes his account for the past season's business stand as follows:-- 650 gallons of wine, sold at $4.10 per gallon, $2,665 00 Sale of cuttings, 1,500 00 -------- $4,165 00 Deduct cost of taking care of vineyard, 100 00 -------- Leaving net product of vineyard, $4,065 00 Or over $2,000 per acre. Norton's Virginia is another promising grape that is being grown considerably hereabouts. The Messrs. BOGEN have given us their figures for the product of this grape, as follows: 1863--From 1-1/2 acres, first year in bearing, they made 500 gallons, sold at $3 per gallon, $1,500 00 Sale of cuttings, 400 00 Sale of roots from layers, 800 00 -------- $2,700 00 Deduct from this, for cost of culture, 100 00 -------- Leaves net, $2,600 00 Or $1,733 per acre. 1864--Yield of same in wine and cuttings, 2,300 00 Or about $1,500 per acre. Delaware is another grape of very great promise and profit, now being extensively grown throughout the country. The Messrs. BOGEN, from one-third of an acre, first bearing year, give us the following figures for the past season: 87 gallons of wine, sold at $6 per gallon, 522 00 Sold cuttings, 450 00 Sold roots from layers, 2,050 00 -------- $3,022 00 Deduct cost of culture, 22 00 -------- $3,000 00 Or $9,000 per acre. Mr. J. E. MOTTIER gives us, as the result of his Delaware vineyard for the past two years, as follows: 1863--FROM 1-1/2 ACRES. 165 gallons of wine, sold at $5 per gallon, $825 00 Sale of cuttings, 1,630 00 -------- 2,455 00 Deduct expenses, 200 00 -------- Leaving net, $2,255 00 Or $1,504 per acre. 1864--FROM SAME VINEYARD. 200 gallons of wine, at $6 per gallon, $1,200 00 Sold roots from layers, 1,835 00 Sales of cuttings, 2,360 00 --------- 5,395 00 Deduct expenses, 200 00 -------- Leaves net, $5,195 00 Or $3,562 per acre Mr. MOTTIER says he might have obtained a larger yield of wine, but his vineyard being young, he would not allow it to overbear. Your committee, therefore, take pleasure in submitting the foregoing facts, in refutation, in part, of the loose and reckless statements of Mr. YEATMAN, and take this method of entering their protest against the same. (Signed), E. A. THOMPSON. JOHN E. MOTTIER. The foregoing contains some valuable facts, but it would seem to me that our Cincinnati friends have hardly estimated labor and expenses high enough. We cannot begin to cultivate our vineyards at as low an estimate. The following is a rough estimate of the last season's crop around Hermann. It may be rather inaccurate, but it is about as near as I could come to the result. There are now, I suppose, something like 1,000 acres planted in grapes, of which about 400 may be in bearing. Unfortunately, nearly all the old vineyards are planted with the Catawba, which was almost an entire failure this season, the average crop being only about 75 gallons to the acre. Most of the later planting has been done with the Concord and Norton's Virginia, but these vineyards are not bearing yet. Of the Norton's Virginia, the average crop the last season may have been about 600 gallons to the acre; of the Concord, 1,000 gallons per acre. The Herbemont may have yielded about 800 gallons to the acre. Grapes marketed, mostly Concord, 20,000 lbs. average price, 15c. per lb., $3,000 00 Catawba wine made, about 25,000 gallons; average value, $1.50 per gallon, 37,500 00 Norton's Virginia wine made, about 10,000 gallons; average value, $4 per gallon, 40,000 00 Concord wine made, about 5,000 gallons; average value, $2.50 per gallon, 12,500 00 Herbemont wine made, about 1,500 gallons; average value, $3 per gallon, 4,500 00 Other varieties made, about 1,000 gallons; average value, $3 per gallons, 3,000 00 Grape roots, cuttings, etc., grown and sold, 50,000 00 ---------- $150,500 00 I think the above is rather below the real amount; and the value of the crop may come up even as high as $200,000. Although grape culture is followed to a larger extent around Hermann than anywhere in the State, yet there are also a great many grapes grown and wine made around Boonville, in Cooper County; and Augusta, St. Charles County; also, Hannibal, on the Mississippi river; and St. Joseph, on the Missouri; and there is hardly a county in the State now but has some flourishing vineyards. The above facts may serve to give my readers a clearer insight into the cost and profits of grape-growing, and also the comparative varieties. In every case, the figures given can be relied on as actual facts. In our neighboring States, Illinois and Iowa, grape-growing is progressing rapidly. There are already a number of vineyards established in the neighborhood of Alton, Belleville, Mascoutah, Warsaw, and Nauvoo, in Illinois; and in the neighborhood of Burlington and Davenport, in Iowa. I am told that in the neighborhood of Makanda alone, in Jackson County, Illinois, at least 70,000 vines of the Concord will be planted the coming spring. Our sister State, Kansas, is also progressing bravely in the good work; and I do not think that, although our propagators throughout the country have done their best, there will be half the number of vines for sale that are wanted to meet the demand. But, while I am fully aware of the importance of grape-culture _everywhere_, I cannot help but believe that the southwest will take the preference in grape-growing over the eastern and northern States. We have the advantages of longer seasons and a warmer climate, generally of richer soil, of cheaper lands; we can cultivate varieties which cannot be grown by our eastern brethren, and therefore all the chances are on our side. The mountainous regions of Tennessee, Georgia, Arkansas, Texas, and Alabama may, perhaps, rival and even surpass us in the future, but their inhabitants at present are not of the clay from which grape-growers are formed. They still cling to the demon of slavery, and their hatred of northern industrious _freemen_ seems to be stronger than their love of prosperity. Let us hope that a better spirit may prevail, that they will in time begin to see their own interest, and welcome with open arms every one who can assist them in developing the natural advantages of their lands. The grape can only flourish on _free_ soil, and by _free_ intelligent labor. 
21414	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) CULINARY HERBS Their Cultivation, Harvesting, Curing and Uses By M. G. KAINS _Associate Editor American Agriculturist_ Ah, Zephyrus! art here, and Flora too! Ye tender bibbers of the rain and dew, Young playmates of the rose and daffodil, Be careful, ere ye enter in, to fill Your baskets high With fennel green, and balm, and golden pines, Savory, latter-mint, and columbines, Cool parsley, basil sweet, and sunny thyme; Yea, every flower and leaf of every clime, All gather'd in the dewy morn: hie Away! fly, fly! --_Keats, "Endymion"_ [Illustration: Herbs and Children, a Happy Harmony] NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO., Limited 1912 Copyright, 1912 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY _All Rights Reserved_ ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON, ENGLAND Printed in U. S. A. * * * * * PREFACE A small boy who wanted to make a good impression once took his little sweetheart to an ice cream parlor. After he had vainly searched the list of edibles for something within his means, he whispered to the waiter, "Say, Mister, what you got that looks tony an' tastes nice for nineteen cents?" This is precisely the predicament in which many thousand people are today. Like the boy, they have skinny purses, voracious appetites and mighty yearnings to make the best possible impression within their means. Perhaps having been "invited out," they learn by actual demonstration that the herbs are culinary magicians which convert cheap cuts and "scraps" into toothsome dainties. They are thus aroused to the fact that by using herbs they can afford to play host and hostess to a larger number of hungry and envious friends than ever before. Maybe it is mainly due to these yearnings and to the memories of mother's and grandmother's famous dishes that so many inquiries concerning the propagation, cultivation, curing and uses of culinary herbs are asked of authorities on gardening and cookery; and maybe it is because no one has really loved the herbs enough to publish a book on the subject. That herbs are easy to grow I can abundantly attest, for I have grown them all. I can also bear ample witness to the fact that they reduce the cost of high living, if by that phrase is meant pleasing the palate without offending the purse. For instance, a few days ago a friend paid twenty cents for soup beef, and five cents for "soup greens." The addition of salt, pepper and other ingredients brought the initial cost up to twenty-nine cents. This made enough soup for ten or twelve liberal servings. The lean meat removed from the soup was minced and mixed with not more than ten cents' worth of diced potatoes, stale bread crumbs, milk, seasoning and herbs before being baked as a supper dish for five people, who by their bland smiles and "scotch plates" attested that the viands both looked "tony" and tasted nice. I am glad to acknowledge my thanks to Mr. N. R. Graves of Rochester, N. Y., and Prof. R. L. Watts of the Pennsylvania State Agricultural College, for the photographic illustrations, and to Mr. B. F. Williamson, the Orange Judd Co.'s artist, for the pen and ink drawings which add so much to the value, attractiveness and interest of these pages. If this book shall instill or awaken in its readers the wholesome though "cupboard" love that the culinary herbs deserve both as permanent residents of the garden and as masters of the kitchen, it will have accomplished the object for which it was written. M. G. KAINS. New York, 1912. CONTENTS Page Preface v A Dinner of Herbs 7 Culinary Herbs Defined 11 History 12 Production of New Varieties 15 Status and Uses 19 Notable Instance of Uses 21 Methods of Curing 22 Drying and Storing 25 Herbs as Garnishes 30 Propagation, Seeds 32 Cuttings 34 Layers 36 Division 37 Transplanting 39 Implements 41 Location of Herb Garden 44 The Soil and Its Preparation 45 Cultivation 47 Double Cropping 48 Herb Relationships 49 The Herb List: Angelica 55 Anise 59 Balm 63 Basil 65 Borage 71 Caraway 73 Catnip 77 Chervil 79 Chives 80 Clary 81 Coriander 82 Cumin 84 Dill 87 Fennel 89 Finocchio 93 Fennel Flower 94 Hoarhound 95 Hyssop 96 Lavender 97 Lovage 99 Marigold 100 Marjoram 101 Mint 105 Parsley 109 Pennyroyal 119 Peppermint 119 Rosemary 120 Rue 122 Sage 125 Samphire 129 Savory, Summer 131 Savory, Winter 132 Southernwood 133 Tansy 134 Tarragon 134 Thyme 137 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Herbs and Children, a Happy Harmony _Frontispiece_ Spading Fork 1 Barrel Culture of Herbs 2 Transplanting Board and Dibble 5 Assortment of Favorite Weeders 8 Popular Adjustable Row Marker 10 Popular Spades 13 Lath Screen for Shading Beds 16 Harvesting Thyme Grown on a Commercial Scale 18 Garden Hoes of Various Styles 20 Dried Herbs in Paper and Tin 22 Herb Solution Bottle 24 Paper Sacks of Dried Herbs for Home Use 26 Hand Cultivator and Scarifier 27 Flat of Seedlings Ready to Be Transplanted 32 Glass Covered Propagating Box 34 Flower Pot Propagating Bed 35 Holt's Mammoth and Common Sage 38 Marker for Hotbeds and Cold Frames 39 Leading Forms of Trowels 40 Wooden Dibbles 43 Combination Hand Plow 45 Surface Paring Cultivator 47 Thinning Scheme for Harvesting 48 Center Row Hand Cultivator 50 Hand Plow 52 Prophecy of Many Toothsome Dishes 56 Anise in Flower and in Fruit 60 Sweet Basil 66 Borage, Famous for "Cool Tankard" 70 Caraway for Comfits and Birthday Cakes 74 Catnip, Pussy's Delight 78 Coriander, for Old-Fashioned Candies 82 Dill, of Pickle Fame 86 Sweet Fennel 90 Sweet Marjoram 102 Mint, Best Friend of Roast Lamb 106 Curled Parsley 110 Rue, Sour Herb of Grace 124 Sage, The Leading Herb for Duck and Goose Dressing 126 Holt's Mammoth and Common Sage Leaves 129 Dainty Summer Savory 130 Tarragon, French Chef's Delight 135 Thyme for Sausage 137 CULINARY HERBS In these days of jaded appetites, condiments and canned goods, how fondly we turn from the dreary monotony of the "dainty" menu to the memory of the satisfying dishes of our mothers! What made us, like Oliver Twist, ask for more? Were those flavors real, or was it association and natural, youthful hunger that enticed us? Can we ever forget them; or, what is more practical, can we again realize them? We may find the secret and the answer in mother's garden. Let's peep in. The garden, as in memory we view it, is not remarkable except for its neatness and perhaps the mixing of flowers, fruits and vegetables as we never see them jumbled on the table. Strawberries and onions, carrots and currants, potatoes and poppies, apples and sweet corn and many other as strange comrades, all grow together in mother's garden in the utmost harmony. [Illustration: Spading Fork] All these are familiar friends; but what are those plants near the kitchen? They are "mother's sweet herbs." We have never seen them on the table. They never played leading roles such as those of the cabbage and the potato. They are merely members of "the cast" which performed the small but important parts in the production of the pleasing _tout ensemble_--soup, stew, sauce, or salad--the remembrance of which, like that of a well-staged and well-acted drama, lingers in the memory long after the actors are forgotten. [Illustration: Barrel Culture of Herbs] Probably no culinary plants have during the last 50 years been so neglected. Especially during the "ready-to-serve" food campaign of the closed quarter century did they suffer most. But they are again coming into their own. Few plants are so easily cultivated and prepared for use. With the exception of the onion, none may be so effectively employed and none may so completely transform the "left-over" as to tempt an otherwise balky appetite to indulge in a second serving without being urged to perform the homely duty of "eating it to save it." Indeed, sweet herbs are, or should be the boon of the housewife, since they make for both pleasure and economy. The soup may be made of the most wholesome, nutritious and even costly materials; the fish may be boiled or baked to perfection; the joint or the roast and the salad may be otherwise faultless, but if they lack flavor they will surely fail in their mission, and none of the neighbors will plot to steal the cook, as they otherwise might did she merit the reputation that she otherwise might, by using culinary herbs. This doleful condition may be prevented and the cook enjoy an enviable esteem by the judicious use of herbs, singly or in combination. It is greatly to be regretted that the uses of these humble plants, which seem to fall lower than the dignity of the title "vegetable," should be so little understood by intelligent American housewives. In the flavoring of prepared dishes we Americans--people, as the French say, "of one sauce"--might well learn a lesson from the example of the English matron who usually considers her kitchen incomplete without a dozen or more sweet herbs, either powdered, or in decoction, or preserved in both ways. A glance into a French or a German culinary department would probably show more than a score; but a careful search in an American kitchen would rarely reveal as many as half a dozen, and in the great majority probably only parsley and sage would be brought to light. Yet these humble plants possess the power of rendering even unpalatable and insipid dishes piquant and appetizing, and this, too, at a surprisingly low cost. Indeed, most of them may be grown in an out-of-the-way corner of the garden, or if no garden be available, in a box of soil upon a sunny windowsill--a method adopted by many foreigners living in tenement houses in New York and Jersey City. Certainly they may be made to add to the pleasure of living and, as Solomon declares, "better is a dinner of herbs where love is, than a stalled ox with contention." It is to be regretted that the moving picture show and the soda water fountain have such an influence in breaking up old-fashioned family evenings at home when everyone gathered around the evening lamp to enjoy homemade dainties. In those good old days the young man was expected to become acquainted with the young woman in the home. The girl took pride in serving solid and liquid culinary goodies of her own construction. Her mother, her all-sufficient guide, mapped out the sure, safe, and orthodox highway to a man's heart and saw to it that she learned how to play her cards with skill and precision. Those were the days when a larger proportion "lived happy ever after" than in modern times, when recreation and refreshment are sought more frequently outside than inside the walls of home. But it is not too late to learn the good old ways over again and enjoy the good old culinary dainties. Whoever relishes the summer cups that cheer but do not inebriate may add considerably to his enjoyment by using some of the sweet herbs. Spearmint adds to lemonade the pleasing pungency it as readily imparts to a less harmful but more notorious beverage. The blue or pink flowers of borage have long been famous for the same purpose, though they are perhaps oftener added to a mixture of honey and water, to grape juice, raspberry vinegar or strawberry acid. All that is needed is an awakened desire to re-establish home comforts and customs, then a little later experimentation will soon fix the herb habit. [Illustration: Transplanting Board and Dibble] The list of home confections may be very pleasingly extended by candying the aromatic roots of lovage, and thus raising up a rival to the candied ginger said to be imported from the Orient. If anyone likes coriander and caraway--I confess that I don't--he can sugar the seeds to make those little "comfits," the candies of our childhood which our mothers tried to make us think we liked to crunch either separately or sprinkled on our birthday cakes. Those were before the days when somebody's name was "stamped on every piece" to aid digestion. Can we ever forget the picnic when we had certain kinds of sandwiches? Our mothers minced sweet fennel, the tender leaves of sage, marjoram or several other herbs, mixed them with cream cheese, and spread a layer between two thin slices of bread. Perhaps it was the swimming, or the three-legged racing, or the swinging, or all put together, that put a razor edge on our appetites and made us relish those sandwiches more than was perhaps polite; but will we not, all of us who ate them, stand ready to dispute with all comers that it was the flavors that made us forget "our manners"? But sweet herbs may be made to serve another pleasing, an æsthetic purpose. Many of them may be used for ornament. A bouquet of the pale pink blossoms of thyme and the delicate flowers of marjoram, the fragrant sprigs of lemon balm mixed with the bright yellow umbels of sweet fennel, the finely divided leaves of rue and the long glassy ones of bergamot, is not only novel in appearance but in odor. In sweetness it excels even sweet peas and roses. Mixed with the brilliant red berries of barberry and multiflora rose, and the dark-green branches of the hardy thyme, which continues fresh and sweet through the year, a handsome and lasting bouquet may be made for a midwinter table decoration, a fragrant reminder of Shakespeare's lines in "A Winter's Tale": "Here's flowers for you; Hot lavender, mints, savory, marjoram; The marigold, that goes to bed wi' the sun And with him rises weeping." The rare aroma of sweet marjoram reminds so many city people of their mother's and their grandmother's country gardens, that countless muslin bags of the dried leaves sent to town ostensibly for stuffing poultry never reach the kitchen at all, but are accorded more honored places in the living room. They are placed in the sunlight of a bay window where Old Sol may coax forth their prisoned odors and perfume the air with memories of childhood summers on the farm. Other memories cling to the delicate little lavender, not so much because the owner of a well-filled linen closet perfumed her spotless hoard with its fragrant flowers, but because of more tender remembrances. Would any country wedding chest be complete without its little silk bags filled with dried lavender buds and blooms to add the finishing touch of romance to the dainty trousseau of linen and lace? What can recall the bridal year so surely as this same kindly lavender? A DINNER OF HERBS In an article published in _American Agriculturist_, Dora M. Morrell says: "There is an inference that a dinner of herbs is rather a poor thing, one not to be chosen as a pleasure. Perhaps it might be if it came daily, but, for once in a while, try this which I am going to tell you. "To prepare a dinner of herbs in its best estate you should have a bed of seasonings such as our grandmothers had in their gardens, rows of sage, of spicy mint, sweet marjoram, summer savory, fragrant thyme, tarragon, chives and parsley. To these we may add, if we take herbs in the Scriptural sense, nasturtium, and that toothsome esculent, the onion, as well as lettuce. If you wish a dinner of herbs and have not the fresh, the dried will serve, but parsley and mint you can get at most times in the markets, or in country gardens, where they often grow wild. "Do you know, my sister housewife, that if you were to have a barrel sawed in half, filled with good soil, some holes made in the side and then placed the prepared half barrel in the sun, you could have an herb garden of your own the year through, even if you live in a city flat? In the holes at the sides you can plant parsley, and it will grow to cover the barrel, so that you have a bank of green to look upon. On the top of the half barrel plant your mint, sage, thyme and tarragon. Thyme is so pleasing a plant in appearance and fragrance that you may acceptably give it a place among those you have in your window for ornament. [Illustration: Assortment of Favorite Weeders] "The Belgians make a parsley soup that might begin your dinner, or rather your luncheon. For the soup, thicken flour and butter together as for drawn butter sauce, and when properly cooked thin to soup consistency with milk. Flavor with onion juice, salt and pepper. Just before serving add enough parsley cut in tiny bits to color the soup green. Serve croutons with this. "For the next course choose an omelette with fine herbs. Any cookbook will give the directions for making the omelette, and all that will be necessary more than the book directs is to have added to it minced thyme, tarragon and chives before folding, or they may be stirred into the omelette before cooking. "Instead of an omelette you may have eggs stuffed with fine herbs and served in cream sauce. Cut hard-boiled eggs in half the long way and remove the yolks. Mash and season these, adding the herbs, as finely minced as possible. Shape again like yolks and return to the whites. Cover with a hot cream sauce and serve before it cools. Both of these dishes may be garnished with shredded parsley over the top. "With this serve a dish of potatoes scalloped with onion. Prepare by placing in alternate layers the two vegetables; season well with salt, pepper and butter, and then add milk even with the top layer. This dish is quite hearty and makes a good supper dish of itself. "Of course you will not have a meal of this kind without salad. For this try a mixture of nasturtium leaves and blossoms, tarragon, chives, mint, thyme and the small leaves of the lettuce, adding any other green leaves of the spicy kind which you find to taste good. Then dress these with a simple oil and vinegar dressing, omitting sugar, mustard or any such flavoring, for there is spice enough in the leaves themselves. "Pass with these, if you will, sandwiches made with lettuce or nasturtium dressed with mayonnaise. You may make quite a different thing of them by adding minced chives or tarragon, or thyme, to the mayonnaise. The French are very partial to this manner of compounding new sauces from the base of the old one. After you do it a few times you also will find it worth while. [Illustration: Popular Adjustable Row Marker] "When it comes to a dessert I am afraid you will have to go outside of herbs. You can take a cream cheese and work into it with a silver knife any of these herbs, or any two of them that agree with it well, and serve it with toasted crackers, or you can toast your crackers with common cheese, grating above it sage and thyme." Whether this "dinner of herbs" appeals to the reader or not, I venture to say that no housewife who has ever stuffed a Thanksgiving turkey, a Christmas goose or ducks or chickens with home-grown, home-prepared herbs, either fresh or dried, will ever after be willing to buy the paper packages or tin cans of semi-inodorous, prehistoric dust which masquerades equally well as "fresh" sage, summer savory, thyme or something else, the only apparent difference being the label. To learn to value herbs at their true worth one should grow them. Then every visitor to the garden will be reminded of some quotation from the Bible, or Shakespeare or some other repository of interesting thoughts; for since herbs have been loved as long as the race has lived on the earth, literature is full of references to facts and fancies concerning them. Thus the herb garden will become the nucleus around which cluster hoary legends, gems of verse and lilts of song, and where one almost stoops to remove his shoes, for "The wisdom of the ages Blooms anew among the sages." CULINARY HERBS DEFINED It may be said that sweet or culinary herbs are those annual, biennial or perennial plants whose green parts, tender roots or ripe seeds have an aromatic flavor and fragrance, due either to a volatile oil or to other chemically named substances peculiar to the individual species. Since many of them have pleasing odors they have been called sweet, and since they have been long used in cookery to add their characteristic flavors to soups, stews, dressings, sauces and salads, they are popularly called culinary. This last designation is less happy than the former, since many other herbs, such as cabbage, spinach, kale, dandelion and collards, are also culinary herbs. These vegetables are, however, probably more widely known as potherbs or greens. HISTORY It seems probable that many of the flavoring herbs now in use were similarly employed before the erection of the pyramids and also that many then popular no longer appear in modern lists of esculents. Of course, this statement is based largely upon imperfect records, perhaps, in many cases only hints more or less doubtful as to the various species. But it seems safe to conclude that a goodly number of the herbs discussed in this volume, especially those said to be natives of the Mediterranean region, overhung and perfumed the cradle of the human race in the Orient and marked the footsteps of our rude progenitors as they strode more and more sturdily toward the horizon of promise. This idea seems to gain support also from the fact that certain Eastern peoples, whom modern civilization declares to have uneducated tastes, still employ many herbs which have dropped by the wayside of progress, or like the caraway and the redoubtable "pusley," an anciently popular potherb, are but known in western lands as troublesome weeds. Relying upon Biblical records alone, several herbs were highly esteemed prior to our era; in the gospels of Matthew and Luke reference is made to tithes of mint, anise, rue, cummin and other "herbs"; and, more than 700 years previously, Isaiah speaks of the sowing and threshing of cummin which, since the same passage (Isaiah xxviii, 25) also speaks of "fitches" (vetches), wheat, barley and "rie" (rye), seems then to have been a valued crop. [Illustration: Popular Spades] The development of the herb crops contrasts strongly with that of the other crops to which reference has just been made. Whereas these latter have continued to be staples, and to judge by their behavior during the last century may be considered to have improved in quality and yield since that ancient time, the former have dropped to the most subordinate position of all food plants. They have lost in number of species, and have shown less improvement than perhaps any other groups of plants cultivated for economic purposes. During the century just closed only one species, parsley, may be said to have developed more than an occasional improved variety. And even during this period the list of species seems to have been somewhat curtailed--tansy, hyssop, horehound, rue and several others being considered of too pronounced and even unpleasant flavor to suit cultivated palates. With the exception of these few species, the loss of which seems not to be serious, this absence of improvement is to be regretted, because with improved quality would come increased consumption and consequent beneficial results in the appetizing flavor of the foods to which herbs are added. But greatly improved varieties of most species can hardly be expected until a just appreciation has been awakened in individual cultivators, who, probably in a majority of cases, will be lovers of plants rather than men who earn their living by market gardening. Until the public better appreciates the culinary herbs there will be a comparatively small commercial demand; until the demand is sufficient to make growing herbs profitable upon an extensive scale, market gardeners will devote their land to crops which are sure to pay well; hence the opportunity to grow herbs as an adjunct to gardening is the most likely way that they can be made profitable. And yet there is still another; namely, growing them for sale in the various prepared forms and selling them in glass or tin receptacles in the neighborhood or by advertising in the household magazines. There surely is a market, and a profitable one if rightly managed. And with right management and profit is to come desire to have improved varieties. Such varieties can be developed at least as readily as the wonderful modern chrysanthemum has been developed from an insignificant little wild flower not half as interesting or promising originally as our common oxeye daisy, a well-known field weed. Not the least object of this volume is, therefore, to arouse just appreciation of the opportunities awaiting the herb grower. Besides the very large and increasing number of people who take pleasure in the growing of attractive flowering and foliage plants, fine vegetables and choice fruits, there are many who would find positive delight in the breeding of plants for improvement--the origination of new varieties--and who would devote much of their leisure time to this work--make it a hobby--did they know the simple underlying principles. For their benefit, therefore, the following paragraphs are given. PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES Besides the gratification that always accompanies the growing of plants, there is in plant breeding the promise that the progeny will in some way be better than the parent, and there is the certainty that when a stable variety of undoubted merit has been produced it can be sold to an enterprising seedsman for general distribution. In this way the amateur may become a public benefactor, reap the just reward of his labors and keep his memory green! The production of new varieties of plants is a much simpler process than is commonly supposed. It consists far more in selecting and propagating the best specimens than in any so-called "breeding." With the majority of the herbs this is the most likely direction in which to seek success. Suppose we have sown a packet of parsley seed and we have five thousand seedlings. Among these a lot will be so weak that we will naturally pass them by when we are choosing plantlets to put in our garden beds. Here is the first and simplest kind of selection. By this means, and by not having space for a great number of plants in the garden, we probably get rid of 80 per cent of the seedlings--almost surely the least desirable ones. [Illustration: Lath Screen for Shading Beds] Suppose we have transplanted 1,000 seedlings where they are to grow and produce leaves for sale or home use. Among these, provided the seed has been good and true, at least 90 per cent will be about alike in appearance, productivity and otherwise. The remaining plants may show variations so striking as to attract attention. Some may be tall and scraggly, some may be small and puny; others may be light green, still others dark green; and so on. But there may be one or two plants that stand out conspicuously as the best of the whole lot. These are the ones to mark with a stake so they will not be molested when the crop is being gathered and so they will attain their fullest development. These best plants, and only these, should then be chosen as the seed bearers. No others should be allowed even to produce flowers. When the seed has ripened, that from each plant should be kept separate during the curing process described elsewhere. And when spring comes again, each lot of seed should be sown by itself. When the seedlings are transplanted, they should be kept apart and labeled No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, etc., so the progeny of each parent plant can be known and its history kept. The process of selecting the seedlings the second year is the same as in the first; the best are given preference, when being transplanted. In the beds all sorts of variations even more pronounced than the first year may be expected. The effort with the seedlings derived from each parent plant should be to find the plants that most closely resemble their own parents, and to manage these just as the parents were managed. No other should be allowed to flower. This process is to be continued from year to year. If the selection is carefully made, the grower will soon rejoice, because he will observe a larger and a larger number of plants approaching the type of plant he has been selecting for. In time practically the whole plantation will be coming "true to type," and he will have developed a new variety. If his ideal is such as to appeal to the practical man--the man who grows parsley for money--and if the variety is superior to varieties already grown, the originator will have no difficulty in disposing of his stock of seed and plants, if he so desires, to a seedsman, who will gladly pay a round price in order to have exclusive control of the "new creation." Or he may contract with a seedsman to grow seed of the new variety for sale to the trade. [Illustration: Harvesting Thyme Grown on a Commercial Scale] It may be said, further, that new varieties may be produced by placing the pollen from the flowers of one plant upon the pistils in the flowers of another and then covering the plant with fine gauze to keep insects out. With the herbs, however, this method seems hardly worth while, because the flowers are as a rule very small and the work necessarily finicky, and because there are already so few varieties of most species that the operation may be left to the activities of insects. It is for this reason, however, that none but the choicest plants should be allowed to bloom, so none but desirable pollen may reach and fertilize the flowers of the plants to be used as seed producers. STATUS AND USES Some readers of a statistical turn of mind may be disappointed to learn that figures as to the value of the annual crops of individual herbs, the acreage devoted to each, the average cost, yield and profit an acre, etc., are not obtainable and that the only way of determining the approximate standing of the various species is the apparent demand for each in the large markets and stores. Unquestionably the greatest call is for parsley, which is used in restaurants and hotels more extensively as a garnish than any other herb. In this capacity it ranks about equal with watercress and lettuce, which both find their chief uses as salads. As a flavoring agent it is probably less used than sage, but more than any of the other herbs. It is chiefly employed in dressings with mild meats such as chicken, turkey, venison, veal, with baked fish; and for soups, stews, and sauces, especially those used with boiled meats, fish and fricassees of the meats mentioned. Thus it has a wider application than any other of the culinary herbs. Sage, which is a strongly flavored plant, is used chiefly with such fat meats as pork, goose, duck, and various kinds of game. Large quantities are mixed with sausage meat and, in some countries, with certain kinds of cheese. Throughout the United States it is probably the most frequently called into requisition of all herbs, probably outranking any two of the others, with the exception of parsley. [Illustration: Garden Hoes of Various Styles] Thyme and savory stand about equal, and are chiefly used like parsley, though both, especially the former, are used in certain kinds of sausage. Marjoram, which is similarly employed, comes next, then follow balm, fennel, and basil. These milder herbs are often mixed for much the same reason that certain simple perfumes are blended--to produce a new odor--combinations of herbs resulting in a new compound flavor. Such compounds are utilized in the same way that the elementary herbs are. In classes by themselves are tarragon and spearmint, the former of which is chiefly used as a decoction in the flavoring of fish sauces, and the latter as the universal dressing with spring lamb. Mint has also a more convivial use, but this seems more the province of the W. C. T. U. than of this book to discuss. Dill is probably the most important of the herbs whose seeds, rather than their leaves, are used in flavoring food other than confectionery. It plays its chief role in the pickle barrel. Immense quantities of cucumber pickles flavored principally with dill are used in the restaurants of the larger cities and also by families, the foreign-born citizens and their descendants being the chief consumers. The demand for these pickles is met by the leading pickle manufacturers who prepare special brands, generally according to German recipes, and sell them to the delicatessen and the grocery stores. If they were to rely upon me for business, they would soon go bankrupt. To my palate the dill pickle appeals as almost the acme of disagreeableness. NOTABLE INSTANCE OF USES The flavors of the various herbs cover a wide range, commencing with fennel and ending with sage, and are capable of wide application. In one case which came under my observation, the cook made a celery-flavored stew of some meat scraps. Not being wholly consumed, the surviving debris appeared a day or two later, in company with other odds and ends, as the chief actor in a meat pie flavored with parsley. Alas, a left-over again! "Never mind," mused the cook; and no one who partook of the succeeding stew discovered the lurking parsley and its overpowered progenitor, the celery, under the effectual disguise of summer savory. By an unforeseen circumstance the fragments remaining from this last stew did not continue the cycle and disappear in another pie. Had this been their fate, however, their presence could have been completely obscured by sage. This problem in perpetual progression or culinary homeopathy can be practiced in any kitchen. But hush, tell it not in the dining-room! [Illustration: Dried Herbs in Paper and Tin] METHODS OF CURING Culinary herbs may be divided into three groups; those whose foliage furnishes the flavor, those whose seed is used and those few whose roots are prepared. In the kitchen, foliage herbs are employed either green or as decoctions or dried, each way with its special advocates, advantages and applications. Green herbs, if freshly and properly gathered, are richest in flavoring substances and when added to sauces, fricassees, stews, etc., reveal their freshness by their particles as well as by their decidedly finer flavor. In salads they almost entirely supplant both the dried and the decocted herbs, since their fresh colors are pleasing to the eye and their crispness to the palate; whereas the specks of the dried herbs would be objectionable, and both these and the decoctions impart a somewhat inferior flavor to such dishes. Since herbs cannot, however, always be obtained throughout the year, unless they are grown in window boxes, they are infused or dried. Both infusing and drying are similar processes in themselves, but for best results they are dependent upon the observance of a few simple rules. No matter in what condition or for what purpose they are to be used the flavors of foliage herbs are invariably best in well-developed leaves and shoots still in full vigor of growth. With respect to the plant as a whole, these flavors are most abundant and pleasant just before the flowers appear. And since they are generally due to essential oils, which are quickly dissipated by heat, they are more abundant in the morning than after the sun has reached the zenith. As a general rule, therefore, best results with foliage herbs, especially those to be used for drying and infusing, may be secured when the plants seem ready to flower, the harvest being made as soon as the dew has dried and before the day has become very warm. The leaves of parsley, however, may be gathered as soon as they attain that deep green characteristic of the mature leaf; and since the leaves are produced continuously for many weeks, the mature ones may be removed every week or so, a process which encourages the further production of foliage and postpones the appearance of the flowering stem. To make good infusions the freshly gathered, clean foliage should be liberally packed in stoppered jars, covered with the choicest vinegar, and the jars kept closed. In a week or two the fluid will be ready for use, but in using it, trials must be made to ascertain its strength and the quantity necessary to use. Usually only the clear liquid is employed; sometimes, however, as with mint, the leaves are very finely minced before being bottled and both liquid and particles employed. [Illustration: Herb Solution Bottle] Tarragon, mint and the seed herbs, such as dill, are perhaps more often used in ordinary cookery as infusions than otherwise. An objection to decoctions is that the flavor of vinegar is not always desired in a culinary preparation, and neither is that of alcohol or wine, which are sometimes used in the same way as vinegar. DRYING AND STORING When only a small quantity of an herb is to be dried, the old plan of hanging loose bunches from the ceiling of a warm, dry attic or a kitchen will answer. Better, perhaps, is the use of trays covered with clean, stout manilla paper upon which thin layers of the leaves are spread. These are placed either in hot sunlight or in the warm kitchen where warm air circulates freely. They must be turned once a day until all the moisture has been evaporated from the leaves and the softer, more delicate parts have become crisp. Then they may be crunched and crumbled between the hands, the stalks and the hard parts rejected and the powder placed in air-tight glass or earthenware jars or metal cans, and stored in a cool place. If there be the slightest trace of moisture in the powder, it should be still further dried to insure against mold. Prior to any drying process the cut leaves and stems should be thoroughly washed, to get rid of any trace of dirt. Before being dried as noted above, the water should all be allowed to evaporate. Evaporation may be hastened by exposing the herbs to a breeze in a shallow, loose basket, a wire tray or upon a table. While damp there is little danger of their being blown away. As they dry, however, the current of air should be more gentle. The practice of storing powdered herbs in paper or pasteboard packages is bad, since the delicate oils readily diffuse through the paper and sooner or later the material becomes as valueless for flavoring purposes as ordinary hay or straw. This loss of flavor is particularly noticeable with sage, which is one of the easiest herbs to spoil by bad management. Even when kept in air-tight glass or tin receptacles, as recommended, it generally becomes useless before the end of two years. [Illustration: Paper Sacks of Dried Herbs for Home Use] When large quantities of herbs are to be cured a fruit evaporator may be employed, the herbs being spread thinly upon wire-bottomed trays so that an ample current of air may pass through them. Care must be taken to keep the temperature inside the machine below 120 degrees. The greatest efficiency can be secured by placing the trays of most recently gathered herbs at the top, the partially dried ones being lowered to positions nearer the source of heat. In this way the fresh, dry, warm air comes in contact first with the herbs most nearly dried, removes the last vestige of moisture from them and after passing through the intervening trays comes to those most recently gathered. [Illustration: Hand Cultivator and Scarifier] Unless the evaporator be fitted with some mechanism which will permit all the trays to be lowered simultaneously, the work of changing the trays may seem too irksome to be warranted. But where no changes of trays are made, greater care must be given to the bottom trays because they will dry out faster than those at the top. Indeed in such cases, after the apparatus is full, it becomes almost essential to move the trays lower, because if fresh green herbs, particularly those which are somewhat wet, be placed at the bottom of the series, the air will become so charged with moisture from them that the upper layers may for a time actually absorb this moisture and thus take longer to dry. Besides this, they will surely lose some of their flavoring ingredients--the very things which it is desired to save. No effort should be made to hasten the drying process by increasing the temperature, since this is likely to result as just mentioned. A personal experience may teach the reader a lesson. I once had a large amount of parsley to cure and thought to expedite matters by using the oven of a gas stove. Suffice it to tell that the whole quantity was ruined, not a pinch was saved. In spite of the closest regulation the heat grew too great and the flavor was literally cooked out of the leaves. The delicate oil saturated everything in the house, and for a week or more the whole place smelled as if chicken fricassee was being made upon a wholesale plan. Except as garnishes, herbs are probably more frequently used in a dry state than in all other ways put together. Perhaps this is because the method of preparing them seems simpler than that of infusion, because large quantities may be kept in small spaces, and because they can be used for every purpose that the fresh plants or the decoctions can be employed. In general, however, they are called into requisition principally in dressings, soups, stews and sauces in which their particles are not considered objectionable. If clear sauces or soups are desired, the dried herbs may still be used to impart the flavor, their particles being removed by straining. The method of preparing dill, anise, caraway and other herbs whose seed is used, differs from that employed with the foliage herbs mainly in the ripeness of the plants. These must be gathered as soon as they show signs of maturity but before the seeds are ready to drop from them. In all this work especial care must be paid to the details of cleaning. For a pleasing appearance the seed heads must be gathered before they become the least bit weather-beaten. This is as essential as to have the seed ripe. Next, the seed must be perfectly clean, free from chaff, bits of broken stems and other debris. Much depends upon the manner of handling as well as upon harvesting. Care must be taken in threshing to avoid bruising the seeds, particularly the oily ones, by pounding too hard or by tramping upon them. Threshing should never be done in damp weather; always when the air is very dry. In clear weather after the dew has disappeared the approximately ripe plants or seed heads must be harvested and spread thinly--never packed firmly--upon stout cloth such as ticking, sailcloth, or factory cotton. A warm, open shed where the air circulates freely is an admirable place, since the natural temperature of the air is sufficient in the case of seeds to bring about good results. Usually in less than a week the tops will have become dry enough to be beaten out with a light flail or a rod. In this operation great care must be taken to avoid bruising or otherwise injuring the seed. The beating should therefore be done in a sheet spread upon a lawn or at least upon short grass. The force of the blows will thus be lessened and bruising avoided. For cleaning herb seeds sieves in all sizes from No. 2 to No. 40 are needed. The sizes represent various finenesses of mesh. All above No. 8 should be of brass wire, because brass is considerably more durable and less likely to rust than iron. The cloths upon which the herbs are spread should be as large as the floor upon which the threshing is to be done except when the floor is without cracks, but it is more convenient to use cloths always, because they facilitate handling and temporary storing. Light cotton duck is perhaps best, but the weave must be close. A convenient size is 10 x 10 feet. After the stalks have been removed the seed should be allowed to remain for several days longer in a very thin layer--the thinner the better--and turned every day to remove the last vestige of moisture. It will be even better still to have the drying sheet suspended so air may circulate below as well as above the seed. Not less than a week for the smallest seeds and double that time for the larger ones is necessary. To avoid loss or injury it is imperative that the seed be dry before it is put in the storage packages. Of course, if infusions are to be made all this is unnecessary; the seed may be put in the liquor as soon as the broken stems, etc. are removed subsequent to threshing. HERBS AS GARNISHES As garnishes several of the culinary herbs are especially valuable. This is particularly true of parsley, which is probably more widely used than any other plant, its only close rivals being watercress and lettuce, which, however, are generally inferior to it in delicacy of tint and form of foliage, the two cardinal virtues of a garnish. Parsley varieties belong to three principal groups, based upon the form of the foliage: (1) Plain varieties, in which the leaves are nearly as they are in nature; (2) moss-curled varieties in which they are curiously and pleasingly contorted; and (3) fern leaved, in which the foliage is not curled, but much divided into threadlike parts. The moss-curled varieties are far more popular than the other two groups put together and are the only ones used especially as garnishes with meat dishes in the hotels and restaurants of the large cities. The plain-leaved sorts cannot be compared in any way except in flavor with the varieties of the other groups. But the fern-leaved kinds, which unfortunately have not become commercially well known, surpass even the finest varieties of the moss-curled group, not only in their exquisite and delicate form, but in their remarkably rich, dark-green coloring and blending of light and shade. But the mere fact that these varieties are not known in the cities should not preclude their popularity in suburban and town gardens and in the country, where every householder is monarch of his own soil and can satisfy very many æsthetic and gustatory desires without reference to market dictum, that bane alike of the market gardener and his customer. Several other herbs--tansy, savory, thyme, marjoram, basil, and balm--make pretty garnishes, but since they are not usually considered so pleasant to nibble at, they are rarely used. The pleasing effect of any garnish may be heightened by adding here and there a few herb flowers such as thyme or savory. Other flowers may be used in the same way; for instance, nasturtium. There is no reason why herbs so used should not be employed several times over, and afterwards dried or bottled in vinegar if they be free from gravy, oils, fats, etc., and if in sufficient quantity to make such a use worth while. Other pretty garnishes which are easily obtained are corn salad, peppergrass, mustard, fennel, and young leaves of carrot. But surpassing all these in pleasing and novel effects are the curled, pink, red and white-leaved varieties of chicory and nasturtium flowers alone or resting upon parsley or other delicate foliage. So much by way of digression. PROPAGATION SEEDS [Illustration: Flat of Seedlings Ready to Be Transplanted] Most herbs may be readily propagated by means of seeds. Some, however, such as tarragon, which does not produce seed, and several other perennial kinds, are propagated by division, layers, or cuttings. In general, propagation by means of seed is considered most satisfactory. Since the seeds in many instances are small or are slow to germinate, they are usually sown in shallow boxes or seed pans. When the seedlings are large enough to be handled they are transplanted to small pots or somewhat deeper flats or boxes, a couple of inches being allowed between the plants. When conditions are favorable in the garden; that is, when the soil is moist and warm and the season has become settled, the plantlets may be removed to permanent quarters. If the seed be sown out of doors, it is a good practice to sow a few radish seeds in the same row with the herb seeds, particularly if these latter take a long time to germinate or are very small, as marjoram, savory and thyme. The variety of radish chosen should be a turnip-rooted sort of exceedingly rapid growth, and with few and small leaves. The radishes serve to mark the rows and thus enable cultivation to commence much earlier than if the herbs were sown alone. They should be pulled early--the earlier the better after the herb plantlets appear. Never should the radishes be allowed to crowd the herbs. By the narration of a little incident, I may illustrate the necessity of sowing these radish seeds thinly. Having explained to some juvenile gardeners that the radish seeds should be dropped so far apart among the other seeds that they would look lonesome in the bottoms of the rows--not more than six seeds to the foot--and having illustrated my meaning by sowing a row myself, I let each one take his turn at sowing. While I watched them all went well. But, alas, for precept and example! To judge by the general result after the plants were up, the seedsman might justifiably have guaranteed the seed to germinate about 500 per cent, because each boy declared that _he_ sowed _his_ rows thinly. Nevertheless, there was a stand of radishes that would have gladdened the heart of a lawn maker! The rows looked like regiments drawn up in close order and not, as was desired, merely lines of scattered skirmishers. In many places there were more than 100 to the foot! Fortunately the variety was a quick-maturing kind and the crop, for such it became, was harvested before any damage was done the slow-appearing seedlings, whose positions the radishes were intended to indicate. CUTTINGS [Illustration: Glass-Covered Propagating Box] No herbs are so easy to propagate by means of cuttings as spearmint, peppermint, and their relatives which have underground stems. Every joint of these stems will produce a new plant if placed in somewhat moist soil. Often, however, this ability is a disadvantage, because the plants are prone to spread and become a nuisance unless watched. Hence such plants should be placed where they will not have their roots cut by tools used close to them. When they seem to be extending, their borders should be trimmed with a sharp spade pushed vertically full depth into the soil and all the earth beyond the clump thus restricted should be shaken out with a garden fork and the cut pieces of mint removed. Further, the forked-over ground should be hoed every week during the remainder of the season, to destroy lurking plantlets. The other perennial and biennial herbs may be readily propagated by means of stem cuttings or "slips," which are generally as easy to manage as verbenas, geraniums and other "house plants." The cuttings may be made of either fully ripened wood of the preceding or the current season, or they may be of firm, not succulent green stems. After trimming off all but a few of the upper leaves, which should be clipped to reduce transpiration, the cuttings--never more than 4 or 5 inches long--should be plunged nearly full depth in well-shaded, rather light, porous, well-drained loam where they should remain undisturbed until they show evidences of growth. Then they may be transplanted. While in the cutting bed they must never be allowed to become dry. This is especially true of greenwood cuttings made during the summer. These should always have the coolest, shadiest corner in the garden. The cuttings taken in the spring should be set in the garden as soon as rooted; but the summer cuttings, especially if taken late, should generally be left in their beds until the following spring. They may, however, be removed for winter use to window boxes or the greenhouse benches. [Illustration: Flower Pot Propagating Bed] Often the plants grown in window boxes may supply the early cuttings, which may be rooted in the house. Where a greenhouse is available, a few plants may be transplanted in autumn either from the garden or from the bed of summer cuttings just mentioned, kept in a rather cool temperature during the winter and drawn upon for cuttings as the stems become sufficiently mature. The rooting may take place in a regular cutting bench, or it may occur in the soil out of doors, the plantlets being transplanted to pots as soon as they have rooted well. If a large number of plants is desired, a hotbed may be called into requisition in early spring and the plants hardened off in cold frames as the season advances. Hardening off is essential with all plants grown under glass for outdoor planting, because unless the plants be inured to outside temperatures before being placed in the open ground, they will probably suffer a check, if they do not succumb wholly to the unaccustomed conditions. If well managed they should be injured not at all. LAYERS Several of the perennial herbs, such as sage, savory, and thyme, may be easily propagated by means of layers, the stems being pegged down and covered lightly with earth. If the moisture and the temperature be favorable, roots should be formed in three or four weeks and the stem separated from the parent and planted. Often there may be several branches upon the stem, and each of these may be used as a new plantlet provided it has some roots or a rooted part of the main stem attached to it. By this method I have obtained nearly 100 rooted plants from a single specimen of Holt's Mammoth sage grown in a greenhouse. And from the same plant at the same time I have taken more than 100 cuttings. This is not an exceptional feat with this variety, the plants of which are very branchy and often exceed a yard in diameter. Layering is probably the simplest and most satisfactory method of artificial propagation under ordinary conditions, since the stems are almost sure to take root if undisturbed long enough; and since rooted plants can hardly fail to grow if properly transplanted. Then, too, less apparent time is taken than with plants grown from cuttings and far less than with those grown from seed. In other words, they generally produce a crop sooner than the plants obtained by the other methods set in operation at the same time. DIVISION Division of the clumps of such herbs as mint is often practiced, a sharp spade or a lawn edger being used to cut the clump into pieces about 6 inches square. The squares are then placed in new quarters and packed firmly in place with soil. This method is, however, the least satisfactory of all mentioned, because it too frequently deprives the plants of a large amount of roots, thus impairs the growth, and during the first season or two may result in unsymmetrical clumps. If done in early spring before growth starts, least damage is done to the plants. [Illustration: Holt's Mammoth and Common Sage About Half Natural Size] Artificial methods of propagation, especially those of cuttage and layerage, have the further advantage over propagation by means of seeds, in the perpetuation of desired characters of individual plants, one or more of which may appear in any plantation. These, particularly if more productive than the others, should always be utilized as stock, not merely because their progeny artificially obtained are likely to retain the character and thus probably increase the yield of the plantation, but principally because they may form the nucleus of a choice strain. [Illustration: Marker for Hotbeds and Cold Frames] Except in the respects mentioned, these methods of propagation are not notably superior to propagation by means of good seed, which, by the way, is not overabundant. By the consumption of a little extra time, any desired number of plants may be obtained from seed. At any rate, seed is what one must start with in nearly every case. TRANSPLANTING No more care is required in transplanting herbs than in resetting other plants, but unless a few essentials are realized in practice the results are sure to be unsatisfactory. Of course, the ideal way is to grow the plants in small flower pots and when they have formed a ball of roots, to set them in the garden. The next best is to grow them in seed pans or flats (shallow boxes) in which they should be set several inches apart as soon as large enough to handle, and in which they should be allowed to grow for a few weeks, to form a mass of roots. When these plants are to be set in the garden they should be broken apart by hand with as little loss of roots as possible. [Illustration: Leading Forms of Trowels] But where neither of these plans can be practiced, as in the growing of the plants in little nursery beds, either in hotbeds, cold frames or in the garden border, the plants should be "pricked out," that is, transplanted while very small to a second nursery bed, in order to make them "stocky" or sturdy and better able to take care of themselves when removed to final quarters. If this be done there should be no need of clipping back the tops to balance an excessive loss of roots, a necessity in case the plants are not so treated, or in case they become large or lanky in the second bed. In all cases it is best to transplant when the ground is moist, as it is immediately after being dug or plowed. But this cannot always be arranged, neither can one always count upon a shower to moisten the soil just after the plants have been set. If advantage can be taken of an approaching rainfall, it should be done, because this is the ideal time for transplanting. It is much better than immediately after, which is perhaps next best. Transplanting in cloudy weather and toward evening is better than in sunny weather and in the morning. Since the weather is prone to be coy, if not fickle, the manual part of transplanting should always be properly done. The plants should always be taken up with as little loss of roots as possible, be kept exposed to the air as short a time as possible, and when set in the ground have the soil packed firmly about their roots, so firmly that the operator may think it is almost too firm. After setting, the surface soil should be made loose, so as to act as a mulch and prevent the loss of moisture from the packed lower layer. If the ground be dry a hole may be made beside the plant and filled with water--LOTS OF WATER--and when it has soaked away and the soil seems to be drying, the surface should be made smooth and loose as already mentioned. If possible such times should be avoided, because of the extra work entailed and the probable increased loss due to the unfavorable conditions. IMPLEMENTS When herbs are grown upon a commercial scale the implements needed will be the same as for general trucking--plows, harrows, weeder, etc.--to fit the soil for the hand tools. Much labor can be saved by using hand-wheel drills, cultivators, weeders and the other tools that have become so wonderfully popular within the past decade or two. Some typical kinds are shown in these pages. These implements are indispensable in keeping the surface soil loose and free from weeds, especially between the rows and even fairly close to the plants. In doing this they save an immense amount of labor and time, since they can be used with both hands and the muscles of the body with less exertion than the hoe and the rake require. Nothing, however, can take the place of the hand tools for getting among and around the plants. The work that weeding entails is tiresome, but must be done if success is to crown ones efforts. While the plants are little some of the weeders may be used. Those with a blade or a series of blades are adapted for cutting weeds off close to the surface; those with prongs are useful only for making the soil loose closer to the plants than the rake dare be run by the average man. Hoes of various types are useful when the plants become somewhat larger or when one does not have the wheel cultivators. In all well-regulated gardens there should be a little liberal selection of the various wheel and hand tools. Only one of the hand tools demands any special comment. Many gardeners like to use a dibble for transplanting. With this tool it is so easy to make a hole, and to press the soil against the plant dropped in that hole! But I believe that many of the failures in transplanting result from the improper use of this tool. Unless the dibble be properly operated the plant may be left suspended in a hole, the sides of which are more or less hard and impervious to the tiny, tender rootlets that strive to penetrate them. From my own observation of the use of this tool, I believe that the proper place for the dibble in the novices garden is in the attic, side by side with the "unloaded" shotgun, where it may be viewed with apprehension. [Illustration: Wooden Dibbles] In spite of this warning, if anyone is hardy enough to use a dibble, let him choose the flat style, not the round one. The proper way is to thrust the tool straight down, at right angles to the direction of the row, and press the soil back and forth with the flat side of the blade until a hole, say 2 or 3 inches across and 5 or 6 inches deep, has been formed. In the hole the plantlet should then be suspended so all the roots and a little of the stem beneath the surface will be covered when the soil is replaced. Replacing the soil is the important part of the operation. The dibble must now be thrust in the soil again, parallel and close to the hole, and the soil pushed over so the hole will be completely closed from bottom to top. Firming the soil completes the operation. There is much less danger of leaving a hole with the flat than with the round dibble, which is almost sure to leave a hole beneath the plant. I remember having trouble with some lily plants which were not thriving. Supposing that insects were at the roots, I carefully drew the earth away from one side, and found that the earth had not been brought up carefully beneath the bulbs and that the roots were hanging 4 or 5 inches beneath the bulbs in the hole left by the dibble and not properly closed by the careless gardener. I therefore warn every dibble user to be sure to crowd over the soil well, especially at the lower end of the hole. For my own part, I rely upon my hands. Digits existed long before dibbles and they are much more reliable. What matter if some soil sticks to them; it is not unresponsive to the wooing of water! LOCATION OF HERB GARDEN In general, the most favorable exposure for an herb garden is toward the south, but lacking such an exposure should not deter one from planting herbs on a northern slope if this be the only site available. Indeed, such sites often prove remarkably good if other conditions are propitious and proper attention is given the plants. Similarly, a smooth, gently sloping surface is especially desirable, but even in gardens in which the ground is almost billowy the gardener may often take advantage of the irregularities by planting the moisture-loving plants in the hollows and those that like dry situations upon the ridges. Nothing like turning disadvantages to account! No matter what the nature of the surface and the exposure, it is always advisable to give the herbs the most sunny spots in the garden, places where shade from trees, barns, other buildings and from fences cannot reach them. This is suggested because the development of the oils, upon which the flavoring of most of the herbs mainly depends, is best in full sunshine and the plants have more substance than when grown in the shade. [Illustration: Combination Hand Plow, Harrow, Cultivator and Seed Drill] THE SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION As to the kind of soil, Hobson's choice ranks first! It is not necessary to move into the next county just to have an herb garden. This is one of the cases in which the gardener may well make the best of however bad a bargain he has. But supposing that a selection be possible, a light sandy loam, underlaid by a porous subsoil so as to be well drained, should be given the preference, since it is warmed quickly, easily worked, and may be stirred early in the season and after a rain. Clay loams are less desirable upon every one of the points mentioned, and very sandy soils also. But if Hobson has one of these, there will be an excellent opportunity to cultivate philosophy as well as herbs. And the gardener may be agreeably surprised at the results obtained. No harm in trying! Whatever the quality of the soil, it should not be very rich, because in such soils the growth is apt to be rank and the quantity of oil small in proportion to the leafage. The preparation of the soil should commence as soon as the grass in the neighborhood is seen to be sprouting. Well-decayed manure should be spread at the rate of not less than a bushel nor more than double that quantity to the square yard, and as soon as the soil is dry enough to crumble readily it should be dug or plowed as deeply as possible without bringing up the subsoil. This operation of turning over the soil should be thoroughly performed, the earth being pulverized as much as possible. To accomplish this no hand tool surpasses the spading fork. One other method is, however, superior especially when practiced upon the heavier soils--fall plowing or digging. In practicing this method care should be taken to plow late when the soil, moistened by autumn rains, will naturally come up in big lumps. These lumps must be left undisturbed during the winter for frost to act upon. All that will be necessary in the spring will be to rake or harrow the ground. The clods will crumble. [Illustration: Surface Paring Cultivator] I once had occasion to try this method upon about 25 acres of land which had been made by pumping mud from a river bottom upon a marsh thus converted into dry ground by the sedimentation. Three sturdy horses were needed to do the plowing. The earth turned up in chunks as large as a man's body. Contrary to my plowman's doubts and predictions, Jack Frost did a grand milling business that winter! Clods that could hardly be broken in the autumn with a sledge hammer crumbled down in the spring at the touch of a garden rake! CULTIVATION Having thoroughly fined the surface of the garden by harrowing and raking, the seeds may be sown or the plants transplanted as already noted. From this time forward the surface must be kept loose and open by surface cultivation every week or 10 days and after every shower that forms a crust, until the plants cover the whole ground. This frequent cultivation is not merely for the purpose of keeping the weeds in check; it is a necessary operation to keep the immediate surface layer powdery, in which condition it will act as a mulch to prevent the loss of water from the lower soil layers. When kept in perfect condition by frequent stirring the immediate surface should be powdery. Yes, _powdery_! Within 1 inch of the surface, however, the color will be darker from the presence of moisture. When supplied with such conditions, failures must be attributed to other causes than lack of water. DOUBLE CROPPING When desired, herbs may be used as secondary crops to follow such early vegetables as early cabbage and peas; or, if likely to be needed still earlier, after radishes, transplanted lettuce and onions grown from sets. These primary crops, having reached marketable size, are removed, the ground stirred and the herb plants transplanted from nursery beds or cold frames. [Illustration: Thinning Scheme for Harvesting] Often the principal herbs--sage, savory, marjoram and thyme--are set close together, both the rows and the plants in them being nearer than recommended further on. The object of such practice is to get several crops in the following way: When the plants in the rows commence to crowd one another each alternate plant is removed and sold or cured. This may perhaps be done a second time. Then when the rows begin to crowd, each alternate row is removed and the remainder allowed to develop more fully. The chief advantages of this practice are not only that several crops may be gathered, but each plant, being supplied with plenty of room and light, will have fewer yellow or dead leaves than when crowded. In the diagram the numbers show which plants are removed first, second, third and last. HERB RELATIONSHIPS Those readers who delight to delve among pedigrees, genealogies and family connections, may perhaps be a little disappointed to learn that, in spite of the odorous nature of the herbs, there are none whose history reveals a skeleton in the closet. They are all harmless. Now and then, to be sure, there occur records of a seemingly compromising nature, such as the effects attributed to the eating or even the handling of celery; but such accounts, harrowing as they may appear, are insufficient to warrant a bar sinister. Indeed, not only is the mass of evidence in favor of the defendant, but it casts a reflection upon the credibility of the plaintiff, who may usually be shown to have indulged immoderately, to have been frightened by hallucinations or even to have arraigned the innocent for his own guilt. Certain it is that there is not one of the sweet herbs mentioned in this volumes that has not long enjoyed a more or less honored place in the cuisine of all the continents, and this in spite of the occasional tootings of some would-be detractor. Like those classes of society that cannot move with "the four hundred," the herbs are very exclusive, more exclusive indeed, than their superiors, the other vegetables. Very few members have they admitted that do not belong to two approved families, and such unrelated ones as do reach the charmed circles must first prove their worthiness and then hold their places by intrinsic merit. [Illustration: Center Row Hand Cultivator] These two coteries are known as the Labiatæ and the Umbelliferæ, the former including the sages, mints and their connections; the latter the parsleys and their relatives. With the exception of tarragon, which belongs to the Compositæ, parsley and a few of its relatives which have deserted their own ranks, all the important leaf herbs belong to the Labiatæ; and without a notable exception all the herbs whose seeds are used for flavoring belong to the Umbelliferæ. Fennel-flower, which belongs to the natural order Ranunculaceæ, or crowfoot family, is a candidate for admission to the seed sodality; costmary and southernwood of the Compositæ seek membership with the leaf faction; rue of the Rutaceæ and tansy of the Compositæ, in spite of suspension for their boldness and ill-breeding, occasionally force their way back into the domain of the leaf herbs. Marigold, a composite, forms a clique by itself, the most exclusive club of all. It has admitted no members! And there seem to be no candidates. The important members of the Labiatæ are: Sage (_Salvia officinalis_, Linn.). Savory (_Satureia hortensis_, Linn.). Savory, winter (_Satureia montana_, Linn.). Thyme (_Thymus vulgaris_, Linn.). Marjoram (_Origanum Marjoram_; _O. Onites_, Linn.; and _M. vulgare_, Linn.). Balm (_Melissa officinalis_, Linn.). Basil (_Ocimum Basilicum_, Linn., and _O. minimum_, Linn.). Spearmint (_Mentha spicata_, Linn., or _M. viridis_, Linn.). Peppermint (_Mentha Piperita_, Linn.). Rosemary (_Rosmarinus officinalis_, Linn.). Clary (_Salvia Sclarea_, Linn.). Pennyroyal (_Mentha Pulegium_, Linn.). Horehound (_Marrubium vulgare_, Linn.). Hyssop (_Hyssopus vulgaris_, Linn.). Catnip (_Nepeta Cataria_, Linn.). Lavender (_Lavandula vera_, D. C.; _L. spica_, D. C.). These plants, which are mostly natives of mild climates of the old world, are characterized by having square stems; opposite, simple leaves and branches; and more or less two-lipped flowers which appear in the axils of the leaves, occasionally alone, but usually several together, forming little whorls, which often compose loose or compact spikes or racemes. Each fertile blossom is followed by four little seedlike fruits in the bottom of the calyx, which remains attached to the plant. The foliage is generally plentifully dotted with minute glands that contain a volatile oil, upon which depends the aroma and piquancy peculiar to the individual species. The leading species of the Umbelliferæ are: Parsley (_Carum Petroselinum_, Benth. and Hook.). Dill (_Anethum graveolens_, Linn.). Fennel (_Foeniculum officinale_, Linn.). Angelica (_Archangelica officinalis_, Hoofm.). Anise (_Pimpinella anisum_, Linn.). Caraway (_Carum Carui_, Linn.). Coriander (_Coriandrum sativum_, Linn.). Chervil (_Scandix Cerefolium_, Linn.). Cumin or Cummin (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn.). Lovage (_Levisticum officinale_, Koch.). Samphire (_Crithmum maritimum_, Linn.). [Illustration: Hand Plow] Like the members of the preceding group, the species of the Umbelliferæ are principally natives of mild climates of the old world, but many of them extend farther north into the cold parts of the continent, even beyond the Arctic Circle in some cases. They have cylindrical, usually hollow stems; alternate, generally compound leaves the basis of whose stalks ensheath the branches or stems; and small flowers almost always arranged in compound terminal umbels. The fruits are composed of two seedlike dry carpels, each containing a single seed, and usually separating when ripe. Each carpel bears five longitudinal prominent ribs and several, often four, lesser intermediate ones, in the intervals between which numerous oil ducts have their openings from the interior of the fruit. The oil is generally found in more or less abundance also in other parts of the plant, but is usually most plentiful in the fruits. The members of the Compositæ used as sweet herbs are, with the exception of tarragon, comparatively unimportant, and except for having their flowers in close heads "on a common receptacle, surrounded by an involucre," have few conspicuous characters in common. No further space except that required for their enumeration need here be devoted to them. And this remark will apply also to the other two herbs mentioned further below. COMPOSITÆ Marigold, Pot (_Calendula officinalis_, Linn.). Tansy (_Tanacetum vulgaris_, Linn.). Tarragon (_Artemisia Dracunculus_, Linn.). Southernwood (_Artemisia Abrotanum_, Linn.). RUTACEÆ Rue (_Ruta graveolens_, Linn.). BORAGINACEÆ Borage (_Borago officinalis_, Linn.). RANUNCULACEÆ Fennel-flower (_Nigella sativa_, Linn.). Before dismissing this section of the subject, it may be interesting to glance over the list of names once more. Seven of these plants were formerly so prominent in medicine that they were designated "official" and nearly all the others were extensively used by physicians. At the present day there are very few that have not passed entirely out of official medicine and even out of domestic practice, at least so far as their intrinsic qualities are concerned. Some, to be sure, are still employed because of their pleasant flavors, which disguise the disagreeable taste of other drugs. But this is a very different matter. One of the most notable of these is fennel. What wonders could that plant not perform 300 years ago! In Parkinson's "Theatricum Botanicum" (1640) its "vertues" are recorded. Apart from its use as food, for which, then, as now, it was highly esteemed, without the attachment of any medicinal qualities as an esculent, it was considered efficacious in cases of gout, jaundice, cramps, shortness of breath, wheezing of the lungs; for cleansing of the blood and improving the complexion; to use as an eye-water or to increase the flow of milk; as a remedy for serpent bites or an antidote for poisonous herbs and mushrooms; and for people who "are growen fat to abate their unwieldinesse and make them more gaunt and lanke." But let us peep into the 19th edition of the United States Dispensatory. Can this be the same fennel which "is one of our most grateful aromatics," and which, because of "the absence of any highly excitant property," is recommended for mixing with unpleasant medicines? Ask any druggist, and he will say it is used for little else nowadays than for making a tea to give babies for wind on their stomachs. Strange, but true it is! Similar statements if not more remarkable ones could be made about many of the other herbs herein discussed. Many of these are spoken of as "formerly considered specific" for such and such troubles but "now known to be inert." The cause is not far to seek. An imaginative and superstitious people attached fanciful powers to these and hundreds of other plants which the intervening centuries have been unable wholly to eradicate, for among the more ignorant classes, especially of Europe, many of these relics of a dark age still persist. But let us not gloat over our superior knowledge. After a similar lapse of time, may not our vaunted wisdom concerning the properties of plants look as ridiculous to the delver among our musty volumes? Indeed, it may, if we may judge by the discoveries and investigations of only the past fifty years. During this time a surprisingly large number of plants have been proved to be not merely innocuous instead of poisonous, as they were reputed, but fit for human food and even of superior excellence! THE HERB LIST =Angelica= (_Archangelica officinalis_, Hoffm.), a biennial or perennial herb of the natural order Umbelliferæ, so called from its supposed medicinal qualities. It is believed to be a native of Syria, from whence it has spread to many cool European climates, especially Lapland and the Alps, where it has become naturalized. [Illustration: Prophecy of Many Toothsome Dishes] _Description._ Its roots are long, spindle-shaped, fleshy, and sometimes weigh three pounds; its stems stout, herbaceous, fluted, often more than 4 feet tall, and hollow; its leaves long-stalked, frequently 3 feet in length, reddish purple at the clasping bases, and composed, in the larger ones, of numerous small leaflets, in three principal groups, which are each subdivided into three lesser groups; its flowers yellowish or greenish, small and numerous, in large roundish umbels; its seeds pale yellow, membranous-edged, oblong flattened on one side, convex on the other, which is marked with three conspicuous ribs. _Cultivation._ Since the seeds lose their vitality rapidly, rarely being viable after the first year, they should be sown as soon as ripe in late summer or early autumn, or not later than the following spring after having been kept during the winter in a cold storeroom. The soil should be moderately rich, rather light, deep, well drained, but moist and well supplied with humus. It should be deeply prepared and kept loose and open as long as tools can be used among the plants, which may be left to care for themselves as soon as they shade the ground well. In the autumn, the seeds may be sown where the plants are to remain or preferably in a nursery bed, which usually does not need protection during the winter. In the spring a mild hotbed, a cold frame or a nursery bed in the garden may be used, according to the earliness of planting. Half an inch is deep enough to cover the seeds. The seedlings should be transplanted when still small for their first summer's growth, a space of about 18 inches being allowed between them. In the autumn they should be removed to permanent quarters, the plants being set 3 feet apart. If well grown, the leaves may be cut for use during the summer after transplanting; the plants may not, however, produce seed until the following season. Unless seed is desired, the tops should be cut and destroyed at or before flowering time, because, if this be not done, the garden is apt to become overrun with angelica seedlings. If the seeds are wanted, they should be gathered and treated as indicated on page 28. After producing seed, the plants frequently die; but by cutting down the tops when the flower heads first appear, and thus preventing the formation of seed, the plants may continue for several years longer. _Uses._ The stems and leaf stalks, while still succulent, are eaten as a salad or are roasted or boiled like potatoes. In Europe, they are frequently employed as a garnish or as an adjunct to dishes of meat and fish. They are also largely used for making candied angelica. (See below.) Formerly the stems were blanched like celery and were very popular as a vegetable; now they are little used in the United States. The tender leaves are often boiled and eaten as a substitute for spinach. Less in America than in Europe, the seeds, which, like other parts of the plant, are aromatic and bitterish, are used for flavoring various beverages, cakes, and candies, especially "comfits." Oil of angelica is obtained from the seeds by distillation with steam or boiling water, the vapor being condensed and the oil separated by gravity. It is also obtained in smaller quantity from the roots, 200 pounds of which, it is said, yield only about one pound of the oil. Like the seeds, the oil is used for flavoring. _Angelica candied._ Green says: The fresh roots, the tender stems, the leaf stalks and the midribs of the leaves make a pleasing aromatic candy. When fresh gathered the plant is rather too bitter for use. This flavor may be reduced by boiling. The parts should first be sliced lengthwise, to remove the pith. The length of time will depend somewhat upon the thickness of the pieces. A few minutes is usually sufficient. After removal and draining the pieces are put in a syrup of granulated sugar and boiled till full candy density is reached. The kettle is then removed from the fire and the contents allowed to cool. When almost cold the pieces are to be taken out and allowed to dry. =Anise= (_Pimpinella Anisum_, Linn.), an annual herb of the natural order Umbelliferæ. It is a native of southwestern Asia, northern Africa and south-eastern Europe, whence it has been introduced by man throughout the Mediterranean region, into Germany, and to some extent into other temperate regions of both hemispheres, but seems not to be known anywhere in the wild state or as an escape from gardens. To judge from its mention in the Scriptures (Matthew xxiii, 23), it was highly valued as a cultivated crop prior to our era, not only in Palestine, but elsewhere in the East. Many Greek and Roman authors, especially Dioscorides, Theophrastus, Pliny and Paladius, wrote more or less fully of its cultivation and uses. [Illustration: Anise in Flower and in Fruit] From their days to the present it seems to have enjoyed general popularity. In the ninth century, Charlemagne commanded that it be grown upon the imperial farms; in the thirteenth, Albertus Magnus speaks highly of it; and since then many agricultural writers have devoted attention to it. But though it has been cultivated for at least two thousand years and is now extensively grown in Malta, Spain, southern France, Russia, Germany and India, which mainly supply the market, it seems not to have developed any improved varieties. _Description._--Its roots are white, spindle-shaped and rather fibrous; its stems about 18 inches tall, branchy, erect, slender, cylindrical; its root leaves lobed somewhat like those of celery; its stem leaves more and more finely cut toward the upper part of the stem, near the top of which they resemble fennel leaves in their finely divided segments; its flowers yellowish white, small, rather large, in loose umbels consisting of many umbellets; its fruits ("seeds") greenish-gray, small, ovoid or oblong in outline, longitudinally furrowed and ridged on the convex side, very aromatic, sweetish and pleasantly piquant. _Cultivation._--The seeds, which should be as fresh as possible, never more than two years old, should be sown in permanent quarters as soon as the weather becomes settled in early spring. They should be planted 1/2 inch deep, about 1/2 inch asunder, in drills 15 or 18 inches apart, and the plants thinned when about 2 inches tall to stand 6 inches asunder. An ounce of seed should plant about 150 feet of drill. The plants, which do not transplant readily, thrive best in well-drained, light, rich, rather dry, loamy soils well exposed to the sun. A light application of well-rotted manure, careful preparation of the ground, clean and frequent cultivation, are the only requisites in the management of this crop. In about four months from the sowing of the seed, and in about one month from the appearance of the flowers, the plants may be pulled, or preferably cut, for drying. (See page 25.) The climate and the soils in the warmer parts of the northern states appear to be favorable to the commercial cultivation of anise, which it seems should prove a profitable crop under proper management. _Uses._--The leaves are frequently employed as a garnish, for flavoring salads, and to a small extent as potherbs. Far more general, however, is the use of the seeds, which enter as a flavoring into various condiments, especially curry powders, many kinds of cake, pastry, and confectionery and into some kinds of cheese and bread. Anise oil is extensively employed for flavoring many beverages both alcoholic and non-spirituous and for disguising the unpleasant flavors of various drugs. The seeds are also ground and compounded with other fragrant materials for making sachet powders, and the oil mixed with other fluids for liquid perfumes. Various similar anise combinations are largely used in perfuming soaps, pomatums and other toilet articles. The very volatile, nearly colorless oil is usually obtained by distillation with water, about 50 pounds of seed being required to produce one pound of oil. At Erfurt, Germany, where much of the commercial oil is made, the "hay" and the seeds are both used for distilling. =Balm= (_Melissa officinalis_, Linn.), a perennial herb of the natural order Labiatæ. The popular name is a contraction of _balsam_, the plant having formerly been considered a specific for a host of ailments. The generic name, _Melissa_, is the Greek for _bee_ and is an allusion to the fondness of bees for the abundant nectar of the flowers. Balm is a native of southern Europe, where it was cultivated as a source of honey and as a sweet herb more than 2,000 years ago. It is frequently mentioned in Greek and Latin poetry and prose. Because of its use for anointing, Shakespeare referred to it in the glorious lines (King Richard II., act iii, scene 2): "Not all the water in the rough, rude sea Can wash the balm from an anointed king." As a useful plant it received attention from the pen of Pliny. From its home it has been introduced by man as a garden plant into nearly all temperate climates throughout the world, and is often found as an escape from gardens where introduced--occasionally in this role in the earliest settled of the United States. Very few well-marked varieties have been produced. A variegated one, now grown for ornament as well as for culinary purposes, is probably the same as that mentioned by Mawe in 1778. _Description._--The roots are small and fibrous; the stems, about 18 inches tall, very numerous, erect or spreading, square; the leaves, green (except as mentioned), broadly ovate with toothed margins, opposite, rather succulent, highly scented; the flowers, few, whitish, or purplish, in small, loose, axillary, one-sided clusters borne from midsummer until late autumn; the seeds very small--more than 50,000 to the ounce. _Cultivation._--Balm is readily propagated by means of divisions, layers, cuttings, and by its seeds, which germinate fairly well even when four years old. Owing to its small size, the seed should be planted in a seedpan or flat in a greenhouse or hotbed, where all conditions can be controlled. The soil should be made very fine and friable, the thinly scattered seeds merely pressed upon the surface with a block or a brick, and water applied preferably through the bottom of the seedpan, which may be set in a shallow dish of water until the surface of the soil _begins_ to appear moist. When an inch tall the seedlings should be pricked out 2 inches apart in other, deeper flats and when about 4 inches tall set in the garden about 1 foot asunder in rows about 18 inches apart. When once established they may be increased readily by the artificial means mentioned. (See page 34.) Ordinary clean cultivation throughout the season, the removal of dead parts, and care to prevent the plants from spreading unduly, are the only requisites of cultivation. Preferably the soil should be poor, rather dry, little if at all enriched and in a sunny place. The foliage of seedling plants or plants newly spring-set should be ready for use by midsummer; that of established plants from early spring until late autumn. For home use and market it should be cured as recommended on page 25, the leaves being very thinly spread and plentifully supplied with air because of their succulence. The temperature should be rather low. _Uses._--The foliage is widely used for flavoring soups, stews, sauces, and dressings, and, when fresh, to a small extent with salads. Otto or oil of balm, obtained by aqueous distillation from the "hay," is a pale yellow, essential and volatile oil highly prized in perfumery for its lemon-like odor, and is extensively employed for flavoring various beverages. =Basil= (_Ocymum basilicum_, Linn.), an annual herb of the order Labiatæ. The popular name, derived from the specific, signifies royal or kingly, probably because of the plant's use in feasts. In France it is known as herb royale, royal herb. The generic name is derived from _Oza_, a Greek word signifying odor. The plant is a native of tropical Asia, where for centuries, especially in India, it has been highly esteemed as a condiment. Probably the early Greek and Roman writers were well acquainted with it, but commentators are not decided. They suppose that the _Okimon_ of Hippocrates, Dioscorides and Theophrastus is the same as _Ocimum hortense_ of Columella and Varro. The plant's introduction into England was about 1548, or perhaps a little earlier, but probably not prior to 1538, because Turner does not mention it in his "Libellus," published in that year. It seems to have grown rapidly in popularity, for in 1586 Lyte speaks of it as if well known. In America it has been cultivated somewhat for about a century partly because of its fragrant leaves which are employed in bouquets, but mainly for flavoring culinary concoctions. In Australia it is also more or less grown, and in countries where French commerce or other interests have penetrated it is well known. [Illustration: Sweet Basil] There are several related species which, in America less than in Europe or the East, have attracted attention. The most important of these is dwarf or bush basil (_O. minimum_, Linn.), a small Chilian species also reported from Cochin China. It was introduced into cultivation in Europe in 1573. On account of its compact form it is popular in gardens as an edging as well as a culinary herb, for more than a century it has been grown in America. Sacred basil (_O. sanctum_), an oriental species, is cultivated near temples in India and its odoriferous oil extracted for religious uses. Formerly the common species was considered sacred by the Brahmins who used it especially in honor of Vishnu and in funeral rites. An African species, _O. fruticosum_, is highly valued at the Cape of Good Hope for its perfume. _Description._--From the small, fibrous roots the square stems stand erect about 1 foot tall. They are very branching and leafy. The leaves are green, except as noted below, ovate, pointed, opposite, somewhat toothed, rather succulent and highly fragrant. The little white flowers which appear in midsummer are racemed in leafy whorls, followed by small black fruits, popularly called seeds. These, like flaxseed, emit a mucilaginous substance when soaked in water. About 23,000 weigh an ounce, and 10 ounces fill a pint. Their vitality lasts about eight years. Like most of the other culinary herbs, basil has varied little in several centuries; there are no well-marked varieties of modern origin. Only three varieties of common basil are listed in America; Vilmorin lists only five French ones. Purple basil has lilac flowers, and when grown in the sun also purple leaf stems and young branches. Lettuce-leaved basil has large, pale-green blistered and wrinkled leaves like those of lettuce. Its closely set clusters of flowers appear somewhat late. The leaves are larger and fewer than in the common variety. The dwarf species is more compact, branching and dainty than the common species. It has three varieties; one with deep violet foliage and stems and lilac white flowers, and two with green leaves, one very dense and compact. East Indian, or Tree Basil (_O. gratissimum_, Linn.), a well-known species in the Orient, seems to have a substitute in _O. suave_, also known by the same popular name, and presumably the species cultivated in Europe and to some extent in America. It is an upright, branching annual, which forms a pyramidal bush about 20 inches tall and often 15 inches in diameter. It favors very warm situations and tropical countries. _Cultivation._--Basil is propagated by seeds. Because these are very small, they are best sown in flats under glass, covered lightly with finely sifted soil and moistened by standing in a shallow pan of water until the surface shows a wet spot. When about an inch tall, the seedlings must be pricked out 2 inches apart each way in larger-sized flats. When 3 inches tall they will be large enough for the garden, where they should be set 1 foot asunder in rows 15 to 18 inches apart. Often the seed is sown in the mellow border as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. This method demands perhaps more attention than the former, because of weeds and because the rows cannot be easily seen. When transplanting, preference should be given to a sunny situation in a mellow, light, fertile, rather dry soil thoroughly well prepared and as free from weeds as possible. From the start the ground must be kept loose, open and clean. When the plants meet in the rows cultivation may stop. First gatherings of foliage should begin by midsummer when the plants start to blossom. Then they may be cut to within a few inches of the ground. The stumps should develop a second and even a third crop if care is exercised to keep the surface clean and open. A little dressing of quickly available fertilizer applied at this time is helpful. For seed some of the best plants should be left uncut. The seed should ripen by mid-autumn. For winter use plants may be transplanted from the garden, or seedlings may be started in September. The seeds should be sown two to the inch and the seedlings transplanted to pots or boxes. A handy pot is the 4-inch standard; this is large enough for one plant. In flats the plants should be 5 or 6 inches apart each way. _Uses._--Basil is one of the most popular herbs in the French cuisine. It is especially relished in mock turtle soup, which, when correctly made, derives its peculiar taste chiefly from the clovelike flavor of basil. In other highly seasoned dishes, such as stews and dressings, basil is also highly prized. It is less used in salads. A golden yellow essential oil, which reddens with age, is extracted from the leaves for uses in perfumery more than in the kitchen. The original and famous Fetter Lane sausages, formerly popular with Cockney epicures, owed their reputation mainly to basil. During the reigns of Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth farmers grew basil in pots and presented them with compliments to their landladies when these paid their visits. [Illustration: Borage, Famous for "Cool Tankard"] =Borage= (_Borago officinalis_, Linn.), a coarse, hardy, annual herb of the natural order Boraginaceæ. Its popular name, derived from the generic, is supposed by some to have come from a corruption of _cor_, the heart, and _ago_, to affect, because of its former use as a cordial or heart-fortifying medicine. _Courage_ is from the same source. The Standard Dictionary, however, points to _burrago_, rough, and relates it indirectly by cross references to _birrus_, a thick, coarse woolen cloth worn by the poor during the thirteenth century. The roughness of the full-grown leaves suggests flannel. Whichever derivation be correct, each is interesting as implying qualities, intrinsic or attributed, to the plant. The specific name indicates its obsolete use in medicine. It is one of the numerous plants which have shaken off the superstitions which a credulous populace wreathed around them. Almost none but the least enlightened people now attribute any medicinal virtues whatever to it. The plant is said to come originally from Aleppo, but for centuries has been considered a native of Mediterranean Europe and Africa, whence it has become naturalized throughout the world by Europeans, who grew it probably more for medicinal than for culinary purposes. According to Ainslie, it was among the species listed by Peter Martyr as planted on Isabella Island by Columbus's companions. The probability is that it was also brought to America by the colonists during Queen Elizabeth's time. It has been listed in American seedsmen's catalogues since 1806, but the demand has always been small and the extent to which it is cultivated very limited. _Description._--Borage is of somewhat spreading habit, branchy, about 20 inches tall. Its oval or oblong-lanceolate leaves and other green parts are covered with whitish, rather sharp, spreading hairs. The flowers, generally blue, sometimes pink, violet-red, or white, are loosely racemed at the extremities of the branches and main stems. "The flaming rose glooms swarthy red; The borage gleams more blue; And low white flowers, with starry head, Glimmer the rich dusk through." --_George MacDonald_ _"Songs of the Summer Night," Part III_ The seeds are rather large, oblong, slightly curved, and a ridged and streaked grayish-brown. They retain their vitality for about eight years. _Cultivation._--No plant is more easily grown. The seed need only be dropped and covered in any soil, from poor to rich, and the plants will grow like weeds, and even become such if allowed to have sway. Borage seems, however, to prefer rather light, dry soils, waste places and steep banks. Upon such the flavor of the flowers is declared to be superior to that produced upon richer ground, which develops a ranker growth of foliage. In the garden the seeds are sown about 1/2 inch asunder and in rows 15 inches apart. Shortly after the plants appear they are thinned to stand 3 inches apart, the thinnings being cooked like spinach, or, if small and delicate, they may be made into salads. Two other thinnings may be given for similar purposes as the plants grow, so that at the final thinning the specimens will stand about a foot asunder. Up to this time the ground is kept open and clean by cultivation; afterwards the borage will usually have possession. _Uses._--More popular than the use of the foliage as a potherb and a salad is the employment of borage blossoms and the tender upper leaves, in company or not with those of nasturtium, as a garnish or an ornament to salads, and still more as an addition to various cooling drinks. The best known of these beverages is cool tankard, composed of wine, water, lemon juice, sugar and borage flowers. To this "they seem to give additional coolness." They are often used similarly in lemonade, negus, claret-cup and fruit juice drinks. The plant has possibly a still more important though undeveloped use as a bee forage. It is so easily grown and flowers so freely that it should be popular with apiarists, especially those who own or live near waste land, dry and stony tracts which they could sow to it. For such places it has an advantage over the many weeds which generally dispute possession in that it may be readily controlled by simple cultivation. It generally can hold its own against the plant populace of such places. =Caraway= (_Carum carui_, Linn.), a biennial or an annual herb of the natural order Umbelliferæ. Its names, both popular and botanical, are supposed to be derived from Caria, in Asia Minor, where the plant is believed first to have attracted attention. From very early ages the caraway has been esteemed by cooks and doctors, between which a friendly rivalry might seem to exist, each vying to give it prominence. At the present time the cooks seem to be in the ascendancy; the seeds or their oil are rarely used in modern medicine, except to disguise the flavor of repulsive drugs. [Illustration: Caraway for Comfits and Birthday Cakes] Since caraway seeds were found by O'Heer in the debris of the lake habitations of Switzerland, the fact seems well established that the plant is a native of Europe and the probability is increased that the _Careum_ of Pliny is this same plant, as its use by Apicus would also indicate. It is mentioned in the twelfth-century writings as grown in Morocco, and in the thirteenth by the Arabs. As a spice, its use in England seems to have begun at the close of the fourteenth century. From its Asiatic home it spread first with Phoenician commerce to western Europe, whence by later voyageurs it has been carried throughout the civilized world. So widely has it been distributed that the traveler may find it in the wilds of Iceland and Scandinavia, the slopes of sunny Spain, the steeps of the Himalayas, the veldt of southern Africa, the bush of Australia, the prairies and the pampas of America. Caraway is largely cultivated in Morocco, and is an important article of export from Russia, Prussia, and Holland. It has developed no clearly marked varieties; some specimens, however, seem to be more distinctly annual than others, though attempts to isolate these and thus secure a quick-maturing variety seem not to have been made. _Description._--The fleshy root, about 1/2 inch in diameter, is yellowish externally, whitish within, and has a slight carroty taste. From it a rosette of finely pinnated leaves is developed, and later the sparsely leaved, channeled, hollow, branching flower stem which rises from 18 to 30 inches and during early summer bears umbels of little white flowers followed by oblong, pointed, somewhat curved, light brown aromatic fruits--the caraway "seeds" of commerce. These retain their germinating power for about three years, require about 10,000 seeds to make an ounce and fifteen ounces to the quart. _Cultivation._--Frequently, if not usually, caraway is sown together with coriander in the same drills on heavy lands during May or early June. The coriander, being a quick-maturing plant, may be harvested before the caraway throws up a flowering stem. Thus two crops may be secured from the same land in the same time occupied by the caraway alone. Ordinary thinning to 6 or 8 inches between plants is done when the seedlings are established. Other requirements of the crop are all embraced in the practices of clean cultivation. Harvest occurs in July of the year following the seeding. The plants are cut about 12 inches above ground with sickles, spread on sheets to dry for a few days, and later beaten with a light flail. After threshing, the seed must be spread thinly and turned daily until the last vestige of moisture has evaporated. From 400 to 800 pounds is the usual range of yield. If seed be sown as soon as ripe, plants may be secured which mature earlier than the main crop. Thus six or eight weeks may be saved in the growing season, and by continuing such selection a quick-maturing strain may be secured with little effort. This would also obviate the trouble of keeping seed from one year to the next, for the strain would be practically a winter annual. _Uses._--Occasionally the leaves and young shoots are eaten either cooked or as an ingredient in salads. The roots, too, have been esteemed in some countries, even more highly than the parsnip, which, however, largely because of its size, has supplanted it for this purpose. But the seeds are the important part. They find popular use in bread, cheese, liquors, salads, sauces, soups, candy, and especially in seed cakes, cookies and comfits. The colorless or pale yellow essential oil distilled with water from the seeds, which contain between 5% and 7-1/2% of it, has the characteristic flavor and odor of the fruit. It is extensively employed in the manufacture of toilet articles, such as perfumery, and especially soaps. =Catnip=, or =cat mint= (_Nepeta cataria_, Linn.), a perennial herb of the natural order Labiatæ. The popular name is in allusion to the attraction the plant has for cats. They not only eat it, but rub themselves upon it purring with delight. The generic name is derived from the Etrurian city Neptic, in the neighborhood of which various species of the genus formerly became prominent. Like several of its relatives catnip is a well-known weed. It has become naturalized in America, and is most frequently observed in dry, waste places, especially in the East, though it is also often found in gardens and around dwellings throughout the United States and Canada. _Description._--Its erect, square, branching stems, from 18 to 36 inches tall, bear notched oval or heartshaped leaves, whitish below, and during late summer terminal clusters of white flowers in small heads, far apart below, but crowded close above. The fruits are small, brown, ovoid, smooth and with three clearly defined angles. An ounce contains about 3,400 seeds. Viability lasts for five years. [Illustration: Catnip, Pussy's Delight] _Cultivation._ Catnip will grow with the most ordinary attention on any fairly dry soil. The seed need only be sown in autumn or spring where the plants are to remain or in a nursery bed for subsequent transplanting. If to be kept in a garden bed they should stand 18 to 24 inches apart each way. Nothing is needful except to keep down weeds in order to have them succeed for several years on the same spot. _Uses._--The most important use of the plant is as a bee forage; for this purpose waste places are often planted to catnip. As a condiment the leaves were formerly in popular use, especially in the form of sauces; but milder flavors are now more highly esteemed. Still, the French use catnip to a considerable extent. Like many of its relatives, catnip was a popular medicinal remedy for many fleshly ills; now it is practically relegated to domestic medicine. Even in this it is a moribund remedy for infant flatulence, and is clung to only by unlettered nurses of a passing generation. =Chervil= (_Scandix Cerefolium_, Linn.), a southern Europe annual, with stems about 18 inches tall and bearing few divided leaves composed of oval, much-cut leaflets. The small white flowers, borne in umbels, are followed by long, pointed, black seeds with a conspicuous furrow from end to end. These seeds, which retain their germinability about three years, but are rather difficult to keep, may be sown where the plants are to stay, at any season, about eight weeks before a crop is desired; cultivation is like that of parsley. During summer and in warm climates, cool, shady situations should be chosen, otherwise any situation and soil are suitable. The leaves, which are highly aromatic, are used, especially in France and England, for seasoning and for mixed salads. Chervil is rarely used alone, but is the chief ingredient in what the French call _fines herbes_, a mixture which finds its way into a host of culinary concoctions. The best variety is the Curled, which, though it has the same flavor as the plain, is a prettier garnish. =Chives= (_Allium Schoenoprasum_, Linn.), a bulbous, onion-like perennial belonging to the Liliaceæ. Naturally the plants form thick tufts of abundant, hollow, grasslike leaves from their little oval bulbs and mat of fibrous roots. The short flower stems bear terminal clusters of generally sterile flowers. Hence the plants are propagated by planting the individual bulbs or by division of clumps in early spring. Frequently chives are planted in flower borders as an edging, for which purpose the compact growth and dainty flowers particularly recommend them. They should not be allowed to grow in the same place more than three years. Strictly speaking, chives do not belong with the herbs, but their leaves are so frequently used instead of onions for flavoring salads, stews and other dishes, and reference has been so often made to them in these pages, that a brief description has been included. For market the clumps are cut in squares and the whole plant sold. Treated in this way the greengrocers can keep them in good condition by watering until sold. For use the leaves are cut with shears close to the ground. If allowed to stand in the garden, cuttings may be made at intervals of two or three weeks all through the season. =Clary= (_Salvia sclarea_, Linn.), a perennial herb of the natural order Labiatæ. The popular name is a corruption of the specific. In the discussion on sage will be found the significance of the generic name. Syria is said to be the original home of clary, but Italy is also mentioned. The presumption is in favor of the former country, as it is the older, and the plant was probably carried westward from it by soldiers or merchants. In England clary was known prior to 1538, when Turner published his garden lore, but in America, except in foreigners' gardens, it is rarely seen. It has been listed in seedsmen's catalogs since 1806. _Description._--The large, very broad, oblong, obtuse, toothed, woolly haired, radical leaves are grayish green and somewhat rumpled like those of Savoy cabbage. From among them rise the 2-foot tall, square, branching, sparsely leaved stems, which during the second year bear small clusters of lilac or white showy flowers in long spikes. The smooth brown or marbled shining seeds retain their germinating power for three years. _Cultivation._--The plants thrive in any well-drained soil. Seed may be sown during March in drills 18 inches apart where the plants are to remain or in a seedbed for transplanting 18 inches asunder in May. Clean cultivation is needed throughout the summer until the plants have full possession of the ground. In August the leaves may be gathered, and if this harvest be judiciously done the production of foliage should continue until midsummer of the second year, when the plants will probably insist upon flowering. After this it is best to rely upon new plants for supplies of leaves, the old plants being pulled. _Uses._--In America, the leaves are little used in cookery, and even in Europe they seem to be less popular than formerly, sage having taken their place. Wine is sometimes made from the plant when in flower. As an ornamental, clary is worth a place in the hardy flower border. [Illustration: Coriander, for Old-Fashioned Candies] =Coriander= (_Coriandrum sativum_, Linn.), "a plant of little beauty and of easiest culture," is a hardy annual herb of the natural order Umbelliferæ. The popular name is derived from the generic, which comes from the ancient Greek Koris, a kind of bug, in allusion to the disagreeable odor of the foliage and other green parts. The specific name refers to its cultivation in gardens. Hence the scientific name declares it to be the cultivated buggy-smelling plant. Coriander has been cultivated from such ancient times that its land of nativity is unknown, though it is said to be a native of southern Europe and of China. It has been used in cookery and of course, too, in medicine; for, according to ancient reasoning, anything with so pronounced and unpleasant an odor must necessarily possess powerful curative or preventive attributes! Its seeds have been found in Egyptian tombs of the 21st dynasty. Many centuries later Pliny wrote that the best quality of seed still came to Italy from Egypt. Prior to the Norman conquest in 1066, the plant was well known in Great Britain, probably having been taken there by the early Roman conquerors. Before 1670 it was introduced into Massachusetts. During this long period of cultivation there seems to be no record or even indication of varieties. In many temperate and tropical countries it has become a frequent weed in cultivated fields. _Description._--From a cluster of slightly divided radical leaves branching stems rise to heights of 2 to 2-1/2 feet. Toward their summits they bear much divided leaves, with linear segments and umbels of small whitish flowers, followed by pairs of united, hemispherical, brownish-yellow, deeply furrowed "seeds," about the size of a sweet pea seed. These retain their vitality for five or six years. The seeds do not have the unpleasant odor of the plant, but have a rather agreeable smell and a moderately warm, pungent taste. _Cultivation._--Coriander, a plant of the easiest culture, does best in a rather light, warm, friable soil. In Europe it is often sown with caraway, which, being a biennial and producing only a rosette of leaves at the surface of the ground the first year, is not injured when the annual coriander is cut. The seed is often sown in the autumn, though spring sowing is perhaps in more favor. The rows are made about 15 inches apart, the seeds dropped 1 inch asunder and 1/2 inch deep and the plantlets thinned to 6 or 8 inches. Since the plants run to seed quickly, they must be watched and cut early to prevent loss and consequent seeding of the ground. After curing in the shade the seed is threshed as already described (see page 28). On favorable land the yield may reach or even exceed 1,500 pounds to the acre. _Uses._--Some writers say the young leaves of the plant are used in salads and for seasoning soups, dressings, etc. If this is so, I can only remark that there is no accounting for tastes. I am inclined to think, however, that these writers are drawing upon their imagination or have been "stuffed" by people who take pleasure in supplying misinformation. The odor is such as to suggest the flavor of "buggy" raspberries we sometimes gather in the fence rows. Any person who relishes buggy berries may perhaps enjoy coriander salad or soup. Only the seed is of commercial importance. It is used largely in making comfits and other kinds of confectionery, for adding to bread, and, especially in the East, as an ingredient in curry powder and other condiments. In medicine its chief use now is to disguise the taste of disagreeable drugs. Distillers use it for flavoring various kinds of liquors. =Cumin= (_Cuminum Cyminum_, Linn.), a low-growing annual herb of the Nile valley, but cultivated in the Mediterranean region, Arabia, Egypt, Morocco, India, China, and Palestine from very early times, (See Isaiah xviii, 25-27 and Matthew xxiii, 23.) Pliny is said to have considered it the best appetizer of all condiments. During the middle ages it was in very common use. All the old herbals of the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries figure and describe and extol it. In Europe it is extensively cultivated in Malta and Sicily, and will mature seed as far north as Norway; in America, today, the seed is cataloged by some seedsmen, but very little is grown. _Description._--The plant is very diminutive, rarely exceeding a height of 6 inches. Its stems, which branch freely from the base, bear mere linear leaves and small lilac flowers, in little umbels of 10 to 20 blossoms each. The six-ribbed, elongated "seeds" in appearance resemble caraway seeds, but are straighter, lighter and larger, and in formation are like the double seeds of coriander, convex on one side and concave on the other. They bear long hairs, which fold up when the seed is dry. After the seed has been kept for two years it begins to lose its germinating power, but will sprout reasonably well when three years old. It is characterized by a peculiar, strong aromatic odor, and a hot taste. _Culture._--As soon as the ground has become warm the seed is sown in drills about 15 inches apart where the plants are to remain. Except for keeping down the weeds no further attention is necessary. The plants mature in about two months, when the stems are cut and dried in the shade. (See page 28.) The seeds are used in India as an ingredient in curry powder, in France for flavoring pickles, pastry and soups. [Illustration: Dill, of Pickle Fame] =Dill= (_Anethum graveolens_, Linn.), a hardy annual, native of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea regions, smaller than common fennel, which it somewhat resembles both in appearance and in the flavor of the green parts, which are, however, less agreeable. In ancient times it was grown in Palestine. The word translated, "anise" in Matthew xxiii, 23, is said to have been "dill" in the original Greek. It was well known in Pliny's time, and is often discussed by writers in the middle ages. According to American writings, it has been grown in this country for more than 100 years and has become spontaneous in many places. _Description._--Ordinarily the plants grow 2 to 2-1/2 feet tall. The glaucous, smooth, hollow, branching stems bear very threadlike leaves and in midsummer compound umbels with numerous yellow flowers, whose small petals are rolled inward. Very flat, pungent, bitter seeds are freely produced, and unless gathered early are sure to stock the garden with volunteer seedlings for the following year. Under fair storage conditions, the seeds continue viable for three years. They are rather light; a quart of them weighs about 11 ounces, and an ounce is said to contain over 25,000 seeds. _Cultivation._--Where dill has not already been grown seed may be sown in early spring, preferably in a warm sandy soil, where the plants are to remain. Any well-drained soil will do. The drills should be 1 foot apart, the seeds scattered thinly and covered very shallow; a bed 12 feet square should supply abundance of seed for any ordinary family. To sow this area 1/4 to 1/2 ounce of seed is ample. For field use the rows may be 15 inches apart and the seed sown more thinly. It should not be covered much more than 1/4 inch. Some growers favor fall sowing, because they claim the seed is more likely to germinate than in the spring, and also to produce better plants than spring-sown seed. At all times the plants must be kept free from weeds and the soil loose and open. When three or four weeks old the seedlings are thinned to 9 inches, or even a foot apart. As soon as the seed is ripe, shortly after midsummer, it must be gathered with the least possible shaking and handling, so as to prevent loss. It is well to place the stems as cut directly in a tight-bottomed cart or a wheelbarrow, with a canvas receptacle for the purpose, and to haul direct to the shade where drying is to occur. A good place for this is a barn, upon the floor of which a large canvas sheet is spread, and where a free circulation of air can be secured. (See page 28.) _Uses._--The French use dill for flavoring preserves, cakes and pastry. For these purposes it is of too strong and pronounced a character to be relished by American palates. The seeds perhaps more often appear in soups, sauces and stews, but even here they are relished more by our European residents than by native Americans. Probably they are most used in pickles, especially in preserving cucumbers according to German recipes. Thousands of barrels of such pickles are sold annually, more especially in the larger cities and to the poorer people; but as this pickle is procurable at all delicatessen stores, it has gained great popularity among even the well-to-do. An oil is distilled from the seeds and used in perfuming soap. The young leaves are said to be used in pickles, soups and sauces, and even in salads. For the last purpose they are rather strong to suit most people, and for the others the seeds are far more popular. Dill vinegar is a popular household condiment. It is made by soaking the seed in good vinegar for a few days before using. The quantity of ingredients to use is immaterial. Only a certain amount of the flavor can be dissolved by the vinegar, and as few samples of vinegar are alike, the quantities both to mix and of the decoction to use must be left to the housewife. This may be said, however, that after one lot of seed has been treated the vinegar may be poured off and the seeds steeped a second time to get a weaker infusion. The two infusions may then be mixed and kept in a dark cupboard for use as needed. =Fennel= (_Foeniculum officinale_, All.), a biennial or perennial herb, generally considered a native of southern Europe, though common on all Mediterranean shores. The old Latin name _Foeniculum_ is derived from _foenum_ or hay. It has spread with civilization, especially where Italians have colonized, and may be found growing wild in many parts of the world, upon dry soils near the sea coast and upon river banks. [Illustration: Sweet Fennel] It seems to be partial to limestone soils, such as the chalky lands of England and the shelly formation of Bermuda. In this latter community I have seen it thriving upon cliffs where there seemed to be only a pinch of soil, and where the rock was so dry and porous that it would crumble to coarse dust when crushed in the hand. The plant was cultivated by the ancient Romans for its aromatic fruits and succulent, edible shoots. Whether cultivated in northern Europe at that time is not certain, but it is frequently mentioned in Anglo-Saxon cookery prior to the Norman conquest. Charlemagne ordered its culture upon the imperial farms. At present it is most popular in Italy, and France. In America it is in most demand among French and Italians. Like many other plants, fennel has had a highly interesting career from a medical point of view. But it no longer plays even a "small part" in the drama. Hints as to its history may be found on page 54. _Description._--Common garden or long, sweet fennel is distinguished from its wild or better relative (_F. vulgare_) by having much stouter, taller (5 to 6 feet) tubular and larger stems, less divided, more glaucous leaves. But a still more striking difference is seen in the leaf stalks which form a curved sheath around the stem even as far up as the base of the leaf above. Then, too, the green flowers are borne on more sturdy pedicels in the broader umbels, lastly the seeds are double the size of the wild fennel seeds, 1/4 or 1/2 inch long. They are convex on one side, flat on the other, and are marked by five yellowish ribs. Though a French writer says the seed degenerates "promptly," and recommends the use of fresh seed annually, it will not be wise to throw away any where it is not wanted to germinate, unless it is over four years old, as seed as old even as that is said to be satisfactory for planting. _Cultivation._--In usual garden practice fennel is propagated by seeds, and is grown as an annual instead of as a biennial or a perennial. The plants will flourish in almost any well-drained soil, but seem to prefer light loams of a limy nature. It is not particular as to exposure. The seed may be sown in nursery beds or where the plants are to remain. In the beds, the drills may be 6 inches apart, and not more than 1-3 inch deep, or the seed may be scattered broadcast. An ounce will be enough for a bed 10 feet square. When the plants are about 3 inches tall they should be transplanted 15 or 18 inches asunder in rows 2 to 2-1/2 feet apart. Some growers sow in late summer and in autumn so as to have early crops the following season; they also make several successional sowings at intervals of one or two weeks, in order to supply the demands of their customers for fresh fennel stalks from midsummer to December or even later. The plants will grow more or less in very cold, that is, not actually freezing weather. If sown in place, the rows should be the suggested 2 to 2-1/2 feet apart, and the plants thinned several times until the required distance is reached. Thinnings may be used for culinary purposes. For family use half an ounce of seed, if fairly fresh, will produce an ample supply of plants, and for several years, either from the established roots or by reseeding. Unless seed is needed for household or sowing purposes, the flower stems should be cut as soon as they appear. _Uses._--Fennel is considered indispensable in French and Italian cookery. The young plants and the tender leaves are often used for garnishes and to add flavor to salads. They are also minced and added to sauces usually served with puddings. The tender stems and the leaves are employed in soups and fish sauces, though more frequently they are eaten raw as a salad with or without dressing. The famous "Carosella" of Naples consists of the stems cut when the plant is about to bloom. These stems are considered a great delicacy served raw with the leaf stalks still around them. Oil, vinegar and pepper are eaten with them. By sowing at intervals of a week or 10 days Italian gardeners manage to have a supply almost all the year. The seeds are used in cookery, confectionery and for flavoring liquors. Oil of fennel, a pale yellow liquid, with a sweetish aromatic odor and flavor, is distilled with water. It is used in perfumery and for scenting soaps. A pound of oil is the usual yield of 500 pounds of the plant. =Finocchio=, or =Florence fennel= (_F. dulce_, D. C.), deserves special mention here. It appears to be a native of Italy, a distinct dwarf annual, very thick-set herb. The stem joints are so close together and their bases so swelled as to suggest malformation. Even when full grown and producing seed, the plant rarely exceeds 2 feet. The large, finely cut, light green leaves are borne on very broad, pale green or almost whitish stalks, which overlap at their bases, somewhat like celery, but much more swelled at edible maturity, to form a sort of head or irregular ball, the "apple," as it is called, sometimes as large as a man's fist. The seeds are a peculiar oblong, much broader than long, convex on one side and flat on the other, with five conspicuous ribs. Cultivation is much the same as for common fennel, though owing to the dwarf nature of the plant the rows and the plants may be closer together. The seedlings should be 5 or 6 inches asunder. They are very thirsty things and require water frequently. When the "apple" attains the size of an egg, earth may be drawn up slightly to the base, which may be about half covered; cutting may begin about 10 days later. Florence fennel is generally boiled and served with either a butter or a cream dressing. It suggests celery in flavor, but is sweeter and is even more pleasingly fragrant. In Italy it is one of the commonest and most popular of vegetables. In other European countries it is also well known, but in America its cultivation is almost confined to Italian gardens or to such as supply Italian demands in the large cities. In New York it is commonly sold by greengrocers and pushcart men in the Italian sections. =Fennel Flower= (_Nigella sativa_, Linn.), an Asiatic annual, belonging to the Ranunculaceæ, grown to a limited extent in southern Europe, but scarcely known in America. Among the Romans it was esteemed in cookery, hence one of its common names, Roman coriander. The plant has a rather stiff, erect, branching stem, bears deeply cut grayish-green leaves and terminal grayish-blue flowers, which precede odd, toothed, seed vessels filled with small, triangular, black, highly aromatic seeds. For garden use the seed is sown in spring after the ground gets warm. The drills may be 15 to 18 inches apart and the plants thinned to 10 or 12 inches asunder. No special attention is necessary until midsummer, when the seed ripens. These are easily threshed and cleaned. After drying they should be stored in sacks in a cool, dry place. They are used just as they are or like dill in cookery. =Hoarhound=, or =horehound= (_Marrubium vulgare_, Linn.), a perennial plant of the natural order Labiatæ, formerly widely esteemed in cookery and medicine, but now almost out of use except for making candy which some people still eat in the belief that it relieves tickling in the throat due to coughing. In many parts of the world hoarhound has become naturalized on dry, poor soils, and is even a troublesome weed in such situations. Bees are very partial to hoarhound nectar, and make a pleasing honey from the flowers where these are abundant. This honey has been almost as popular as hoarhound candy, and formerly was obtainable at druggists. Except in isolated sections, it has ceased to be sold in the drug stores. The generic name _Marrubium_ is derived from a Hebrew word meaning bitter. The flavor is so strong and lasting that the modern palate wonders how the ancient mouth could stand such a thing in cookery. The numerous branching, erect stems and the almost square, toothed, grayish-green leaves are covered with a down from which the common name hoarhound is derived. The white flowers, borne in axillary clusters forming whorls and spikes, are followed by small, brown, oblong seeds pointed at one end. These may be sown up to the third year after ripening with the expectation that they will grow. Spring is the usual time for sowing. A dry, poor soil, preferably exposed to the south, should be chosen. The plants may stand 12 to 15 inches apart. After once becoming established no further attention need be given except to prevent seed forming, thus giving the plant less chance to become a nuisance. Often the clumps may be divided or layers or cuttings may be used for propagation. No protection need be given, as the plants are hardy. An old author gives the following recipe for hoarhound candy: To one pint of a strong decoction of the leaves and stems or the roots add 8 or 10 pounds of sugar. Boil to candy height and pour into molds or small paper cases previously well dusted with finely powdered lump sugar, or pour on dusted marble slabs and cut in squares. =Hyssop= (_Hyssopus officinalis_, Linn.), a perennial evergreen undershrub of the Labiatæ, native of the Mediterranean region. Though well known in ancient times, this plant is probably not the one known as hyssop in Biblical writings. According to the Standard Dictionary the Biblical "hyssop" is "an unidentified plant ... thought by some to have been a species of marjoram (_Origanum maru_); by others, the caper-bush (_Capparis spinosa_); and by the author of the 'History of Bible Plants,' to have been the name of any common article in the form of a brush or a broom." In ancient and medieval times hyssop was grown for its fancied medicinal qualities, for ornament and for cookery. Except for ornament, it is now very little cultivated. Occasionally it is found growing wild in other than Mediterranean countries. _Description._--The smooth, simple stems, which grow about 2 feet tall, bear lanceolate-linear, entire leaves and small clusters of usually blue, though sometimes pink or white flowers, crowded in terminal spikes. The small, brown, glistening three-angled seeds, which have a little white hilum near their apices, retain their viability three years. Leaves, stems and flowers possess a highly aromatic odor and a hot, bitter flavor. _Cultivation._--Hyssop succeeds best in rather warm, limy soil. It may be readily propagated by division, cuttings, and seed. In cold climates the last way is the most common. Seed is sown in early spring, either in a cold frame or in the open ground, and the seedlings transplanted in early summer. Even where the plants survive the winters, it is advisable to renew them every three or four years. When grown in too rich soil, the growth will be very lush and will lack aroma. Plants should stand not closer than 6 inches in the rows, which should be at least 18 inches apart. They do best in partial shade. _Uses._--Hyssop has almost entirely disappeared from culinary practice because it is too strong-flavored. Its tender leaves and shoots are, however, occasionally added to salads, to supply a bitter taste. The colorless oil distilled from the leaves has a peculiar odor and an acrid, camphorescent taste. Upon contact with the air it turns yellow and changes to a resin. From 400 to 500 pounds of the fresh plant yield a pound of oil. The oil is used to some extent in the preparation of toilet articles. =Lavender=, (_Lavendula vera_, D. C.; _L. Angustifolia_, Moench.; _L. spica_, Linn.), a half-hardy perennial undershrub, native of dry, calcareous uplands in southern Europe. Its name is derived from the Latin word _Lavo_, to wash, a distillation of the flowers being anciently used in perfuming water for washing the body. The plant forms a compact clump 2 to 2-1/2 feet tall, has numerous erect stems, bearing small, linear gray leaves, above which the slender, square, flower stems arise. The small violet-blue flowers are arranged in a short, terminal spike, and are followed by little brown, oblong, shiny seeds, with white dots at the ends, attached to the plant. The seeds remain viable for about five years. _Cultivation._--Lavender succeeds best on light, limy or chalky soil, but will do well in any good loam. In gardens it is usually employed as an edging for flower beds, and is most frequently propagated by division or cuttings, seed being used only to get a start where plants cannot be secured in the other ways mentioned. In cold climates the plants must either be protected or removed to a greenhouse, or at least a cold frame, which can be covered in severe weather. The seed is sown indoors during March, and if crowding, pricked out 2 inches asunder. When the ground has become warm, the plants are set in the open 15 to 20 inches asunder. It delights in a sunny situation, and is most fragrant on poor soil. Rich soil makes the plant larger but the flowers poorer in perfume. _Uses._--The plant is sometimes grown for a condiment and an addition to salads, dressings, etc., but its chief use is in perfumery, the flowers being gathered and either dried for use in sachet bags or distilled for their content of oil. In former years no girl was supposed to be ready for marriage until, with her own hands, she had made her own linen and stored it with lavender. And in some sections the lavender is still used, though the linen is nowadays purchased. In southern France and in England considerable areas are devoted to lavender for the perfumery business. The flower stems are cut in August, covered at once with bast matting to protect them from the sun and taken to the stills to obtain the thin, pale yellow, fragrant oil. Four-year-old plants yield the greatest amount of oil, but the product is greater from a two-year plantation than from an older one, the plants then being most vigorous. Two grades of oil are made, the best being used for lavender water, the poorer for soap making. In a good season about one pound of oil is obtained from 150 to 200 pounds of the cut plants. =Lovage= (_Levisticum officinale_, Koch.), a perennial, native of the Mediterranean region. The large, dark-green, shining radical leaves are usually divided into two or three segments. Toward the top the thick, hollow, erect stems divide to form opposite, whorled branches which bear umbels of yellow flowers, followed by highly aromatic, hollowed fruits ("seeds") with three prominent ribs. Propagation is by division or by seeds not over three years old. In late summer when the seed ripens, it is sown and the seedlings transplanted either in the fall or as early in spring as possible to their permanent places. Rich, moist soil is needed. Root division is performed in early spring. With cultivation and alternation like that given to Angelica, the plants should last for several years. Formerly lovage was used for a great variety of purposes, but nowadays it is restricted almost wholly to confectionery, the young stems being handled like those of Angelica. So far as I have been able to learn, the leaf stalks and stem bases, which were formerly blanched like celery, are no longer used in this way. =Marigold= (_Calendula officinalis_, Linn.), an annual herb of the natural order Compositæ, native of southern Europe. Its Latin name, suggestive of its flowering habit, signifies blooming through the months. Our word calendar is of the same derivation. Its short stems, about 12 inches tall, branch near their bases, bear lanceolate, oblong, unpleasantly scented leaves, and showy yellow or orange flowers in heads. The curved, gray seeds, which are rough, wrinkled and somewhat spiny, retain their germinating power for about three years. _Cultivation._--For the garden the seed is usually started in a hotbed during March or April and the plants pricked out in flats 2 inches apart and hardened off in the usual way. When the weather becomes settled they are set a foot or 15 inches apart in rather poor soil, preferably light and sandy, with sunny exposure. Often the seed is sown in the open and the seedlings thinned and transplanted when about 2 inches tall. _Uses._--The flower heads are sometimes dried and used in broths, soups, stews, etc., but the flavor is too pronounced for American palates. One gardener remarked that "only a few plants are needed by a family." I think that two would produce about twice as much as I would care to use in a century. For culinary use the flowers are gathered when in full bloom, dried in the shade and stored in glass jars. The fresh flowers have often been used to color butter. The marigold, "homely forgotten flower, under the rose's bower, plain as a weed," to quote Bayard Taylor, is a general favorite flowering plant, especially in country gardens. It is so easily grown, is so free a bloomer, and under ordinary management continues from early summer until even hard frosts arrive, that busy farmers wives and daughters love it. Then, too, it is one of the old-fashioned flowers, about which so many happy thoughts cling. What more beautiful and suggestive lines could one wish than these: "The marigold, whose courtier's face Echoes the sun, and doth unlace Her at his rise, at his full stop Packs up and shuts her gaudy shop." --_John Cleveland_ "_On Phillis Walking before Sunrise_" "Youth! Youth! how buoyant are thy hopes! They turn Like marigolds toward the sunny side," --_Jean Ingelow_ "_The Four Bridges_" =Marjoram.=--Two species of marjoram now grown for culinary purposes (several others were formerly popular) are members of the Labiatæ or mint family--pot or perennial marjoram (_Origanum vulgare_, Linn.) and sweet or annual (_O. Marjorana_). Really, both plants are perennials, but sweet marjoram, because of its liability to be killed by frost, is so commonly cultivated in cold countries as an annual that it has acquired this name, which readily distinguishes it from its hardy relative. Perennial marjoram is a native of Europe, but has become naturalized in many cool and even cold temperate climates. It is often found wild in the Atlantic states in the borders of woods. [Illustration: Sweet Marjoram] The general name _origanum_, meaning delight of the mountain, is derived from two Greek words, _oros_, mountain; and _ganos_, joy, some of the species being found commonly upon mountain sides. Under cultivation it has developed a few varieties the most popular of which are a variegated form used for ornamental purposes, and a dwarf variety noted for its ability to come true to seed. Both varieties are used in cookery. The perennial species seems to have had the longer association with civilization; at least it is the one identified in the writings of Pliny, Albertus Magnus and the English herbalists of the middle ages. Annual marjoram is thought to be the species considered sacred in India to Vishnu and Siva. _Description._--Perennial marjoram rises even 2 feet high, in branchy clumps, bears numerous short-stemmed, ovate leaves about 1 inch long, and terminal clusters or short spikes of little, pale lilac or pink blossoms and purple bracts. The oval, brown seeds are very minute. They are, however, heavy for their size, since a quart of them weighs about 24 ounces. I am told that an ounce contains more than 340,000, and would rather believe than be forced to prove it. Annual marjoram is much more erect, more bush-like, has smaller, narrower leaves, whiter flowers, green bracts and larger, but lighter seeds--only 113,000 to the ounce and only 20 ounces to the quart! _Cultivation._--Perennial marjoram when once established may be readily propagated by cuttings, division or layers, but it is so easy to grow from seed that this method is usually employed. There is little danger of its becoming a weed, because the seedlings are easily destroyed while small. The seed should be sown during March or April in flats or beds that can be protected from rain. It is merely dusted on the surface, the soil being pressed down slightly with a board or a brick. Until the seedlings appear, the bed should be shaded to check evaporation. When the plants are 2 or 3 inches tall they may be transplanted to the places where they are to remain, as they are not so easy to transplant as lettuce and geraniums. The work should be done while the plants are very small, and larger numbers should be set than will ultimately be allowed to grow. I have had no difficulty in transplanting, but some people who have had prefer to sow the seed where the plants are to stand. If to be used for edging, the dwarf plants may be set 3 or 6 inches apart; the larger kinds require a foot or 15 inches in which to develop. In field cultivation the greater distance is the more desirable. From the very start the plants must be kept free from weeds and the soil loose and open. Handwork is essential until they become established. The plants will last for years. Annual marjoram is managed in the same kind of way as to seeding and cultivation; but as the plant is tender, fresh sowings must be made annually. To be sure, plants may be taken up in the fall and used for making cuttings or layers towards spring for the following seasons beds. As annual marjoram is somewhat smaller than the perennial kind (except the dwarf perennial variety), the distances may be somewhat less, say 9 or 10 inches. Annual marjoram is a quick-growing plant--so quick, in fact, that leaves may be secured within six or eight weeks of sowing. The flowers appear in 10 to 12 weeks, and the seed ripens soon after. When it is desired to cure the leaves for winter use, the stems should be cut just as the flowers begin to appear, and dried in the usual manner. (See page 25.) If seed is wanted, they should be cut soon after the flowers fall or even before all have fallen--when the scales around the seeds begin to look as if drying. The cut stems must be dried on sheets of very fine weave, to prevent loss of seed. When the leaves are thoroughly dry they must be thrashed and rubbed before being placed in sieves, first of coarse, and then of finer mesh. _Uses._--The leaves and the flower and tender stem tips of both species have a pleasant odor, and are used for seasoning soups, stews, dressings and sauces. They are specially favored in France and Italy, but are popular also in England and America. In France marjoram is cultivated commercially for its oil, a thin, light yellow or greenish liquid, with the concentrated odor of marjoram and peppermint. It has a warm, and slightly bitter taste. About 200 pounds of stems and leaves are needed to get a pound of oil. Some distillation is done in England, where 70 pounds of the plant yield about one ounce of oil. This oil is used for perfuming toilet articles, especially soap, but is perhaps less popular than the essential oil of thyme. =Mint= (_Mentha viridis_, Linn.)--Spearmint, a member of the Labiatæ, is a very hardy perennial, native to Mediterranean countries. Its generic name is derived from the mythological origin ascribed to it. Poets declared that Proserpine became jealous of Cocytus's daughter, Minthe, whom she transformed into the plant. The specific name means green, hence the common name, green mint, often applied to it. The old Jewish law did not require that tithes of "mint, anise and cumin" should be paid in to the treasury, but the Pharisees paid them while omitting the weightier matters, justice, mercy, and faith (Matthew xxiii, 23). From this and many other references in old writings it is evident that mint has been highly esteemed for many centuries. In the seventeenth century John Gerarde wrote concerning it that "the smelle rejoyceth the heart of man." Indeed, it has been so universally esteemed that it is found wild in nearly all countries to which civilization has extended. It has been known as an escape from American gardens for about 200 years, and is sometimes troublesome as a weed in moist soil. [Illustration: Mint, Best Friend of Roast Lamb] _Description._--From creeping rootstocks erect square stems rise to a height of about 2 feet, and near their summits bear spreading branches with very short-stemmed, acute-pointed, lance-shaped, wrinkled leaves with toothed edges, and cylindrical spikes of small pink or lilac flowers, followed by very few, roundish, minute, brown seeds. _Cultivation._--The plant may be easily propagated by means of cuttings, offsets and division in spring. They may be expected to yield somewhat of a crop the first season, but much more the second. In field culture they will continue profitable for several years, provided that each autumn the tops are cut off near the ground and a liberal dressing of manure, compost or even rich soil is given. In ordinary garden practice it is well also to observe this plan, but usually mint is there allowed to shift for itself, along with the horseradish and the Jerusalem artichoke when such plants are grown. So treated, it is likely to give trouble, because, having utilized the food in one spot, its stems seek to migrate to better quarters. Hence, if the idea is to neglect the plants, a corner of the garden should be chosen where there is no danger of their becoming a nuisance. It is best to avoid all such trouble by renewing or changing the beds every 5 or 6 years. Mint will grow anywhere but does best in a moist, rich loam and partial shade. If in a sheltered spot, it will start earlier in the spring than if exposed. Upon an extensive scale the drills should be 2 inches deep and 12 to 15 inches apart. Bits of the rootstocks are dropped at intervals of 6 to 12 inches in the rows and covered with a wheel hoe. For a new plantation the rootstocks should be secured when the stems have grown 2 or 3 inches tall. For forcing, the clumps are lifted in solid masses, with the soil attached, and placed in hotbeds or forcing house benches. Three or four inches of moist soil is worked in among and over them and watered freely as soon as growth starts. Cuttings may be made in two or three weeks. Often mint is so grown in lettuce and violet houses both upon and under the benches. During winter and spring there is enough of a demand for the young tender stems and leaves to make the plants pay. It is said that the returns from an ordinary 3 x 6-foot hotbed sash should be $10 to $15 for the winter. For drying, the stems should be cut on a dry day when the plants are approaching full bloom and after the dew has disappeared in the morning. They should be spread out very thinly in the shade or in an airy shed. (See page 25.) If cut during damp weather, there is danger of the leaves turning black. _Uses._--In both the green and the dried state mint is widely used in Europe for flavoring soups, stews and sauces for meats of unpronounced character. Among the Germans pulverized mint is commonly upon the table in cruets for dusting upon gravies and soups, especially pea and bean purees. In England and America the most universal use of mint is for making mint sauce, _the_ sauce _par excellence_ with roast spring lamb. Nothing can be simpler than to mince the tender tops and leaves very, very finely, add to vinegar and sweeten to taste. Many people fancy they don't like roast lamb. The chances are that they have never eaten it with wellmade mint sauce. In recent years mint jelly has been taking the place of the sauce, and perhaps justly, because it can not only be kept indefinitely without deterioration, but because it looks and is more tempting. It may be made by steeping mint leaves in apple jelly or in one of the various kinds of commercial gelatins so popular for making cold fruit puddings. The jelly should be a delicate shade of green. Of course, before pouring into the jelly glasses, the liquid is strained through a jelly bag to remove all particles of mint. A handful of leaves should color and flavor four to six glasses full. =Parsley= (_Carum Petroselinum_, Linn.), a hardy biennial herb of the natural order Umbelliferæ, native to Mediterranean shores, and cultivated for at least 2,000 years. The specific name is derived from the habitat of the plant, which naturally grows among rocks, the Greek word for which is _petros_. Many of the ancient writings contain references to it, and some give directions for its cultivation. The writings of the old herbalists of the 15th century show that in their times it had already developed several well-defined forms and numerous varieties, always a sure sign that a plant is popular. Throughout the world today it is unquestionably the most widely grown of all garden herbs, and has the largest number of varieties. In moist, moderately cool climates, it may be found wild as a weed, but nowhere has it become a pest. "Ah! the green parsley, the thriving tufts of dill; These again shall rise, shall live the coming year." --_Moschus_ [Illustration: Curled Parsley] _Description._--Like most biennials, parsley develops only a rosette of leaves during the first year. These leaves are dark green, long stalked and divided two or three times into ovate, wedge-shaped segments, and each division either entire, as in parsnip, or more or less finely cut or "curled." During the second season the erect, branched, channeled flower stems rise 2 feet or more high, and at their extremities bear umbels of little greenish flowers. The fruits or "seeds" are light brown or gray, convex on one side and flat on the other two, the convex side marked with fine ribs. They retain their germinating power for three years. An interesting fact, observed by Palladius in 210 A. D., is that old seed germinates more freely than freshly gathered seed. _Cultivation._--Parsley is so easily grown that no garden, and indeed no household, need be without it. After once passing the infant stage no difficulty need be experienced. It will thrive in any ordinary soil and will do well in a window box with only a moderate amount of light, and that not even direct sunshine. Gardeners often grow it beneath benches in greenhouses, where it gets only small amounts of light. No one need hesitate to plant it. The seed is very slow in germinating, often requiring four to six weeks unless soaked before sowing. A full day's soaking in tepid water is none too long to wake up the germs. The drills may be made in a cold frame during March or in the open ground during April. It is essential that parsley be sown very early in order to germinate at all. If sown late, it may possibly not get enough moisture to sprout, and if so it will fail completely. When sown in cold frames or beds for transplanting, the rows may be only 3 or 4 inches apart, though it is perhaps better, when such distances are chosen, to sow each alternate row to forcing radishes, which will have been marketed by the time the parsley seedlings appear. In the open ground the drills should be 12 to 15 inches apart, and the seed planted somewhat deeper and farther apart than in the presumably better-prepared seedbed or cold frame. One inch between seeds is none too little. In field culture and at the distances mentioned six or seven pounds of seed will be needed for the acre. For cultivation on a smaller scale an ounce may be found sufficient for 50 to 100 feet of drill. This quantity should be enough for any ordinary-sized family. In all open ground culture the radish is the parsley's best friend, because it not only marks the rows, and thus helps early cultivation, but the radishes break, loosen and shade the soil and thus aid the parsley plants. When the first thinning is done during May, the parsley plants may be allowed to stand 2 inches asunder. When they begin to crowd at this distance each second plant may be removed and sold. Four to six little plants make a bunch. The roots are left on. This thinning will not only aid the remaining plants, but should bring enough revenue to pay the cost, perhaps even a little more. The first cutting of leaves from plants of field-sown seed should be ready by midsummer, but as noted below it is usually best to practice the method that will hasten maturity and thus catch the best price. A "bunch" is about the amount that can be grasped between the thumb and the first finger, 10 to 15 stalks. It is usual to divide the field into three parts so as to have a succession of cuttings. About three weeks are required for a new crop of leaves to grow and mature after the plants have been cut. Larger yields can be secured by cutting only the fully matured leaves, allowing the others to remain and develop for later cuttings. Three or four times as much can be gathered from a given area in this way. All plain leaves of such plants injure the appearance and reduce the price of the bunches when offered for sale. If protected from frost, the plants will yield all winter. They may be easily transplanted in cold frames. These should be placed in some warm, sheltered spot and the plants set in them 4 by 6 inches. Mats or shutters will be needed in only the coldest weather. Half a dozen to a dozen stalks make the usual bunch and retail for 2 or 3 cents. In the home garden, parsley may be sown as an edging for flower beds and borders. For such purpose it is best to sow the seed thickly during late October or November in double rows close together, say 3 or 4 inches. Sown at that time, the plants may be expected to appear earlier than if spring sown and to form a ribbon of verdure which will remain green not only all the growing season, but well into winter if desired. It is best, however, to dig them up in the fall and resow for the year succeeding. For window culture, all that is needed is a box filled with rich soil. The roots may be dug in the fall and planted in the box. A sunny window is best, but any window will do. If space is at a premium, a nail keg may be made to yield a large amount of leaves. Not only may the tops be filled with plants, but the sides also. Holes should be bored in the staves about 4 inches apart. (See illustration, page 2.) A layer of earth is placed in the bottom as deep as the lowest tier of holes. Then roots are pushed through these holes and a second layer of earth put in. The process is repeated till the keg is full. Then plants are set on the top. As the keg is being filled the earth should be packed very firmly, both around the plants and in the keg. When full the soil should be thoroughly soaked and allowed to drain before being taken to the window. To insure a supply of water for all the plants, a short piece of pipe should be placed in the center of the keg so as to reach about half way toward the bottom. This will enable water to reach the plants placed in the lower tiers of holes. If the leaves look yellow at any time, they may need water or a little manure water. As parsley is grown for its leaves, it can scarcely be over fertilized. Like cabbage, but, of course, upon a smaller scale, it is a gross feeder. It demands that plenty of nitrogenous food be in the soil. That is, the soil should be well supplied with humus, preferably derived from decaying leguminous crops or from stable manure. A favorite commercial fertilizer for parsley consists of 3 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent potash and 9 per cent phosphoric acid applied in the drills at the rate of 600 to 900 pounds to the acre in two or three applications--especially the nitrogen, to supply which nitrate of soda is the most popular material. A common practice among market gardeners in the neighborhood of New York has been to sow the seed in their cold frames between rows of lettuce transplanted during March or early April. The lettuce is cut in May, by which time the parsley is getting up. When grown by this plan the crop may be secured four or five weeks earlier than if the seed is sown in the open ground. The first cutting may be made during June. After this first cutting has been made the market usually becomes overstocked and the price falls, so many growers do not cut again until early September when they cut and destroy the leaves preparatory to securing an autumn and winter supply. When the weather becomes cool and when the plants have developed a new and sturdy rosette of leaves, they are transplanted in shallow trenches either in cold frames, in cool greenhouses (lettuce and violet houses), under the benches of greenhouses, or, in fact, any convenient place that is not likely to prove satisfactory for growing plants that require more heat and light. This method, it must be said, is not now as popular near the large cities as before the development of the great trucking fields in the Atlantic coast states; but it is a thoroughly practical plan and well worth practicing in the neighborhood of smaller cities and towns not adequately supplied with this garnishing and flavoring herb. A fair return from a cold frame to which the plants have been transplanted ranges from $3 to $7 during the winter months. Since many sashes are stored during this season, such a possible return deserves to be considered. The total annual yield from an acre by this method may vary from $500 to $800 or even more--gross. By the ordinary field method from $150 to $300 is the usual range. Instead of throwing away the leaves cut in September, it should be profitable to dry these leaves and sell them in tins or jars for flavoring. When it is desired to supply the demand for American seed, which is preferred to European, the plants may be managed in any of the ways already mentioned, either allowed to remain in the field or transplanted to cold frames, or greenhouses. If left in the field, they should be partially buried with litter or coarse manure. As the ground will not be occupied more than a third of the second season, a crop of early beets, forcing carrots, radishes, lettuce or some other quick-maturing crop may be sown between the rows of parsley plants. Such crops will mature by the time the parsley seed is harvested in late May or early June, and the ground can then be plowed and fitted for some late crop such as early maturing but late-sown sweet corn, celery, dwarf peas, late beets or string beans. When seed is desired, every imperfect or undesirable plant should be rooted out and destroyed, so that none but the best can fertilize each other. In early spring the litter must be either removed from the plants and the ground between the rows given a cultivation to loosen the surface, or it may be raked between the rows and allowed to remain until after seed harvest. In this latter case, of course, no other crop can be grown. Like celery seed, parsley seed ripens very irregularly, some umbels being ready to cut from one to three weeks earlier than others. This quality of the plant may be bred out by keeping the earliest maturing seed separate from the later maturing and choosing this for producing subsequent seed crops. By such selection one to three weeks may be saved in later seasons, a saving of time not to be ignored in gardening operations. In ordinary seed production the heads are cut when the bulk of the seed is brown or at least dark colored. The stalks are cut carefully, to avoid shattering the seed off. They are laid upon sheets of duck or canvas and threshed very lightly, at once, to remove only the ripest seed. Then the stalks are spread thinly on shutters or sheets in the sun for two days and threshed again. At that time all seed ripe enough to germinate will fall off. Both lots of seed must be spread thinly on the sheets in an airy shed or loft and turned daily for 10 days or two weeks to make sure they are thoroughly dry before being screened in a fanning mill and stored in sacks hung in a loft. _Varieties._--There are four well-defined groups of parsley varieties; common or plain, curled or moss-leaved, fern-leaved, and Hamburg. The last is also known as turnip-rooted or large-rooted. The objections to plain parsley are that it is not as ornamental as moss-leaved or fern-leaved sorts, and because it may be mistaken for fools parsley, a plant reputed to be more or less poisonous. In the curled varieties the leaves are more or less deeply cut and the segments reflexed to a greater or less extent, sometimes even to the extent of showing the lighter green undersides. In this group are several subvarieties, distinguished by minor differences, such as extent of reflexing and size of the plants. In the fern-leaved group the very dark green leaves are not curled but divided into numerous threadlike segments which give the plant a very delicate and dainty appearance. Hamburg, turnip-rooted or large-rooted parsley, is little grown in America. It is not used as a garnish or an herb, but the root is cooked as a vegetable like carrots or beets. These roots resemble those of parsnips. They are often 6 inches long and 2 inches in diameter. Their cultivation is like that of parsnips. They are cooked and served like carrots. In flavor, they resemble celeriac or turnip-rooted celery, but are not so pleasing. In Germany the plant is rather popular, but, except by our German gardeners, it has been little cultivated in this country. _Uses._--The Germans use both roots and tops for cooking; the former as a boiled vegetable, the latter as a potherb. In English cookery the leaves are more extensively used for seasoning fricassees and dressings for mild meats, such as chicken and veal, than perhaps anything else. In American cookery parsley is also popular for this purpose, but is most extensively used as a garnish. In many countries the green leaves are mixed with salads to add flavor. Often, especially among the Germans, the minced green leaves are mixed with other vegetables just before being served. For instance, if a liberal dusting of finely minced parsley be added to peeled, boiled potatoes, immediately after draining, this vegetable will seem like a new dish of unusual delicacy. The potatoes may be either served whole or mashed with a little butter, milk and pepper. =Pennyroyal= (_Mentha Pulegium_, Linn.), a perennial herb of the natural order Labiatæ, native of Europe and parts of Asia, found wild and naturalized throughout the civilized world in strong, moist soil on the borders of ponds and streams. Its square, prostrate stems, which readily take root at the nodes, bear roundish-oval, grayish-green, slightly hairy leaves and small lilac-blue flowers in whorled clusters of ten or a dozen, rising in tiers, one above another, at the nodes. The seed is light brown, oval and very small. Like most of its near relatives, pennyroyal is highly aromatic, perhaps even more so than any other mint. The flavor is more pungent and acrid and less agreeable than that of spearmint or peppermint. Ordinarily the plant is propagated by division like mint, or more rarely by cuttings. Cultivation is the same as that of mint. Plantations generally last for four or five years, and even longer, when well managed and on favorable soil. In England it is more extensively cultivated than in America for drying and for its oil, of which latter a yield of 12 pounds to the acre is considered good. The leaves, green or dried, are used abroad to flavor puddings and other culinary preparations, but the taste and odor are usually not pleasant to American and English palates and noses. =Peppermint= (_Mentha piperita_, Linn.) is much the same in habit of growth as spearmint. It is a native of northern Europe, where it may be found in moist situations along stream banks and in waste lands. In America it is probably even more common as an escape than spearmint. Like its relative, it has long been known and grown in gardens and fields, especially in Europe, Asia and the United States. _Description._--Like spearmint, the plant has creeping rootstocks, which rapidly extend it, and often make it a troublesome weed in moist ground. The stems are smaller than those of spearmint, not so tall, and are more purplish. They bear ovate, smooth leaves upon longer stalks than those of spearmint. The whorled clusters of little, reddish-violet flowers form loose, interrupted spikes. No seed is borne. _Cultivation._--Although peppermint prefers wet, even swampy, soil, it will do well on moist loam. It is cultivated like spearmint. In Michigan, western New York and other parts of the country it is grown commercially upon muck lands for the oil distilled from its leaves and stems. Among essential oils, peppermint ranks first in importance. It is a colorless, yellowish or greenish liquid, with a peculiar, highly penetrating odor and a burning, camphorescent taste. An interesting use is made of it by sanitary engineers, who test the tightness of pipe joints by its aid. It has the faculty of making its escape and betraying the presence of leaks. It is largely employed in the manufacture of soaps and perfumery, but probably its best known use is for flavoring confectionery. =Rosemary= (_Rosemarinus officinalis_, Linn.)--As its generic name implies, rosemary is a native of sea-coasts, "rose" coming from _Ros_, dew, and "Mary" from _marinus_, ocean. It is one of the many Labiatæ found wild in limy situations along the Mediterranean coast. In ancient times many and varied virtues were ascribed to the plant, hence its "officinalis" or medical name, perhaps also the belief that "where rosemary flourishes, the lady rules!" Pliny, Dioscorides and Galin all write about it. It was cultivated by the Spaniards in the 13th century, and from the 15th to the 18th century was popular as a condiment with salt meats, but has since declined in popularity, until now it is used for seasoning almost exclusively in Italian, French, Spanish and German cookery. _Description._--The plant is a half-hardy evergreen, 2 feet or more tall. The erect, branching, woody stems bear a profusion of little obtuse, linear leaves, green above and hoary white beneath. On their upper parts they bear pale blue, axillary flowers in leafy clusters. The light-brown seeds, white where they were attached to the plant, will germinate even when four years old. All parts of the plant are fragrant--"the humble rosemary whose sweets so thanklessly are shed to scent the desert" (Thomas Moore). One of the pleasing superstitions connected with this plant is that it strengthens the memory. Thus it has become the emblem of remembrance and fidelity. Hence the origin of the old custom of wearing it at weddings in many parts of Europe. "There's rosemary, that's for remembrance; pray, love, remember: And there is pansies, that's for thoughts." --_Hamlet, Act iv, Scene 5._ _Cultivation._--Rosemary is easily propagated by means of cuttings, root division and layers in early spring, but is most frequently multiplied by seed. It does best in rather poor, light soil, especially if limy. The seed is either sown in drills 18 to 24 inches apart or in checks 2 feet asunder each way, half a dozen seeds being dropped in each "hill." Sometimes the seedbed method is employed, the seed being sown either under glass or in the open ground and the seedlings transplanted. Cultivation consists in keeping the soil loose and open and free from weeds. No special directions are necessary as to curing. In frostless sections, and even where protected by buildings, fences, etc., in moderate climates, the plants will continue to thrive for years. _Uses._--The tender leaves and stems and the flowers are used for flavoring stews, fish and meat sauces, but are not widely popular in America. Our foreign-born population, however, uses it somewhat. In France large quantities, both cultivated and wild, are used for distilling the oil of rosemary, a colorless or yellowish liquid suggesting camphor, but even more pleasant. This oil is extensively used in perfuming soaps, but more especially in the manufacture of eau de cologne, Hungary water and other perfumes. =Rue= (_Ruta graveolens_, Linn.), a hardy perennial herb of roundish, bushy habit, native of southern Europe. It is a member of the same botanical family as the orange, Rutaceæ. In olden times it was highly reputed for seasoning and for medicine among the Greeks and the Romans. In Pliny's time it was considered to be effectual for 84 maladies! Today it "hangs only by its eyelids" to our pharmacopoeia. Apicus notes it among the condiments in the third century, and Magnus eleven centuries later praises it among the garden esculents. At present it is little used for seasoning, even by the Italians and the Germans, and almost not at all by English and American cooks. Probably because of its acridity and its ability to blister the skin when much handled, rue has been chosen by poets to express disdain. Shakespeare speaks of it as the "sour herb of grace," and Theudobach says: "When a rose is too haughty for heaven's dew She becometh a spider's gray lair; And a bosom, that never devotion knew Or affection divine, shall be filled with rue And with darkness, and end with despair." _Description._--The much branched stems, woody below, rise 18 to 24 inches and bear small oblong or obovate, stalked, bluish-green glaucous leaves, two or three times divided, the terminal one broader and notched at the end. The rather large, greenish-yellow flowers, borne in corymbs or short terminal clusters, appear all summer. In the round, four or five-lobed seed vessels are black kidney-shaped seeds, which retain their vitality two years or even longer. The whole plant has a very acrid, bitter taste and a pungent smell. _Cultivation._--The plant may be readily propagated by means of seed, by cuttings, by layers, and by division of the tufts. No special directions are needed, except to say that when in the place they are to remain the plants should be at least 18 inches apart--21 or 24 inches each way would be even better. Rue does well on almost any well-drained soil, but prefers a rather poor clayey loam. It is well, then, to plant it in the most barren part of the garden. As the flowers are rather attractive, rue is often used among shrubbery for ornamental purposes. When so grown it is well to cut the stems close to the ground every two or three years. [Illustration: Rue, Sour Herb of Grace] _Uses._--Because of the exceedingly strong smell of the leaves, rue is disagreeable to most Americans, and could not become popular as a seasoning. Yet it is used to a small extent by people who like bitter flavors, not only in culinary preparations, but in beverages. The whole plant is used in distilling a colorless oil which is used in making aromatic vinegars and other toilet preparations. A pound of oil may be secured from 150 to 200 pounds of the plant. =Sage= (_Salvia officinalis_, Linn.), a perennial member of the Labiatæ, found naturally on dry, calcareous hills in southern Europe, and northern Africa. In ancient times, it was one of the most highly esteemed of all plants because of its reputed health-insuring properties. An old adage reads, "How can a man die in whose garden sage is growing?" Its very names betoken the high regard in which it was held; salvia is derived from _salvus_, to be safe, or _salveo_, to be in good health or to heal; (hence also salvation!) and _officinalis_ stamps its authority or indicates its recognized official standing. The name sage, meaning wisdom, appears to have had a different origin, but as the plant was reputed to strengthen the memory, there seems to be ground for believing that those who ate the plant would be wise. _Description._--The almost woody stems rise usually 15 to 18 inches high, though in Holt's Mammoth double these sizes is not uncommon. The leaves are oblong, pale green, finely toothed, lance-shaped, wrinkled and rough. The usually bluish-lilac, sometimes pink or white flowers, borne in the axils of the upper leaves in whorls of three or four, form loose terminal spikes or clusters. Over 7,000 of the small globular, almost black seeds, which retain their vitality about three years, are required to weigh an ounce, and nearly 20 ounces to the quart. _Cultivation._--Sage does best upon mellow well-drained soil of moderate fertility. For cultivation on a large scale the soil should be plowed deeply and allowed to remain in the rough furrows during the winter, to be broken up as much as possible by the frost. In the spring it should be fined for the crop. Sage is easily propagated by division, layers and cuttings, but these ways are practiced on an extensive scale only with the Holt's Mammoth variety, which produces no seed. For other varieties seed is most popular. This is sown in drills at the rate of two seeds to the inch and covered about 1/4 inch deep. At this rate and in rows 15 inches apart about 8 pounds of seed will be needed to the acre. [Illustration: Sage, the Leading Herb for Duck and Goose Dressing] Usually market gardeners prefer to grow sage as a second crop. They therefore raise the plants in nursery beds. The seed is sown in very early spring, not thicker than already mentioned, but in rows closer together, 6 to 9 inches usually. From the start the seedlings are kept clean cultivated and encouraged to grow stocky. By late May or early June the first sowings of summer vegetables will have been marketed and the ground ready for the sage. The ground is then put in good condition and the sage seedlings transplanted 6 or 8 inches apart usually. Clean cultivation is maintained until the sage has possession. When the plants meet, usually during late August, the alternate ones are cut, bunched and sold. At this time one plant should make a good bunch. When the rows meet in mid-September, the alternate rows are marketed, a plant then making about two bunches. By the middle of October the final cutting may be started, when the remaining plants should be large enough to make about three bunches each. This last cutting may continue well into November without serious loss of lower leaves. If the plants are not thinned, but are allowed to crowd, the lower leaves will turn yellow and drop off, thus entailing loss. For cultivation with hand-wheel hoes the plants in the rows should not stand closer than 2 inches at first. As soon as they touch, each second one should be removed and this process repeated till, when growing in a commercial way, each alternate row has been removed. Finally, the plants should be 12 to 15 inches apart. For cultivation by horse the rows will need to be farther apart than already noted; 18 to 24 inches is the usual range of distances. When grown on a large scale, sage usually follows field-grown lettuce, early peas or early cabbage. If not cut too closely or too late in the season sage plants stand a fair chance to survive moderate winters. The specimens which succeed in doing so may be divided and transplanted to new soil with little trouble. This is the common practice in home gardens, and is usually more satisfactory than growing a new lot of plants from seed each spring. For drying or for decocting the leaves are cut when the flowers appear. They are dried in the shade. If a second cutting is to be made, and if it is desired that the plants shall live over winter, this second cutting must not be made later than September in the North, because the new stems will not have time to mature before frost, and the plants will probably winterkill. Sage seed is produced in open cups on slender branches, which grow well above the leaves. It turns black when ripe. The stems which bear it should be cut during a dry afternoon as soon as the seeds are ripe and placed on sheets to cure; and several cuttings are necessary, because the seed ripens unevenly. When any one lot of stems on a sheet is dry a light flail or a rod will serve to beat the seed loose. Then small sieves and a gentle breeze will separate the seed from the trash. After screening the seed should be spread on a sheet in a warm, airy place for a week or so to dry still more before being stored in cloth sacks. A fair yield of leaves may be secured after seed has been gathered. [Illustration: Relative Sizes of Holt's Mammoth and Common Sage Leaves] _Uses._--Because of their highly aromatic odor sage leaves have long been used for seasoning dressings, especially to disguise the too great lusciousness of strong meats, such as pork, goose and duck. It is one of the most important flavoring ingredients in certain kinds of sausage and cheese. In France the whole herb is used to distill with water in order to secure essential oil of sage, a greenish-yellow liquid employed in perfumery. About 300 pounds of the stems and leaves yield one pound of oil. =Samphire= (_Crithmum maritimum_, Linn.), a European perennial of the Umbelliferæ, common along rocky sea coasts and cliffs beyond the reach of the tide. From its creeping rootstocks short, sturdy, more or less widely branched stems arise. These bear two or three thick, fleshy segmented leaves and umbels of small whitish flowers, followed by yellow, elliptical, convex, ribbed, very light seeds, which rarely retain their germinating power more than a year. In gardens the seed is therefore generally sown in the autumn as soon as mature in fairly rich, light, well-drained loam. The seedlings should be protected with a mulch of straw, leaves or other material during winter. After the removal of the mulch in the spring no special care is needed in cultivation. The young, tender, aromatic and saline leaves and shoots are pickled in vinegar, either alone or with other vegetables. [Illustration: Dainty Summer Savory] =Savory, Summer= (_Satureia hortensis_, Linn.), a little annual plant of the natural order Labiatæ indigenous to Mediterranean countries and known as an escape from gardens in various parts of the world. In America, it is occasionally found wild on dry, poor soils in Ohio, Illinois, and some of the western states. The generic name is derived from an old Arabic name, _Ssattar_, by which the whole mint family was known. Among the Romans both summer and winter savory were popular 2,000 years ago, not only for flavoring, but as potherbs. During the middle ages and until the 18th century it still maintained this popularity. Up to about 100 years ago it was used in cakes, puddings and confections, but these uses have declined. _Description._--The plant, which rarely exceeds 12 inches in height, has erect, branching, herbaceous stems, with oblong-linear leaves, tapering at their bases, and small pink or white flowers clustered in the axils of the upper leaves, forming penciled spikes. The small, brown, ovoid seeds retain their viability about three years. An ounce contains about 42,500 of them, and a quart 18 ounces. _Cultivation._--For earliest use the seed may be sown in a spent hotbed or a cold frame in late March, and the plants set in the open during May. Usually, however, it is sown in the garden or the field where the plants are to remain. In the hotbed the rows may be 3 or 4 inches apart; in the field they should be not less than 9 inches, and only this distance when hand wheel-hoes are to be used, and each alternate row is to be removed as soon as the plants begin to touch across the rows. Half a dozen seeds dropped to the inch is fairly thick sowing. As the seed is small, it must not be covered deeply; 1/4 inch is ample. When the rows are 15 inches apart about 4 pounds of seed will be needed to the acre. For horse cultivation the drills should be 20 inches apart. Both summer and winter savory do well on rather poor dry soils. If started in hotbeds, the first plants may be gathered during May. Garden-sown seed will produce plants by June. For drying, the nearly mature stems should be cut just as the blossoms begin to appear. No special directions are needed as to drying. (See page 25.) _Uses._--Both summer and winter savory are used in flavoring salads, dressings, gravies, and sauces used with meats such as veal, pork, duck, and goose and for increasing the palatability of such preparations as croquettes, rissoles and stews. Summer savory is the better plant of the two and should be in every home garden. =Savory, Winter= (_Satureia montana_, Linn.), a semi-hardy, perennial, very branching herb, native of southern Europe and northern Africa. Like summer savory, it has been used for flavoring for many centuries, but is not now as popular as formerly, nor is it as popular as summer savory. _Description._--The numerous woody, slender, spreading stems, often more than 15 inches tall, bear very acute, narrow, linear leaves and pale lilac, pink, or white flowers in axillary clusters. The brown, rather triangular seeds, which retain their vitality about three years, are smaller than those of summer savory. Over 70,000 are in an ounce, and it takes 15 ounces to fill a quart. _Cultivation._--Winter savory is readily propagated by means of cuttings, layers and division as well as seeds. No directions different from those relating to summer savory are necessary, except that seed of winter savory should be sown where the plants are to remain, because the seedlings do not stand transplanting very well. Seed is often sown in late summer where the climate is not severe or where winter protection is to be given. The plant is fairly hardy on dry soils. When once established it will live for several years. To increase the yield the stems may be cut to within 4 or 5 inches of the ground when about ready to flower. New shoots will appear and may be cut in turn. For drying, the first cutting may be secured during July, the second in late August or September. In all respects winter savory is used like summer savory, but is considered inferior in flavor. =Southernwood= (_Artemisia Abrotanum_, Linn.), a woody-stemmed perennial belonging to the Compositæ and a native of southern Europe. It grows from 2 to 4 feet tall, bears hairlike, highly aromatic leaves and heads of small yellow flowers. The plant is often found in old-fashioned gardens as an ornamental under the name of Old Man. In some countries the young shoots are used for flavoring cakes and other culinary preparations. =Tansy= (_Tanacetum vulgare_, Linn.), a perennial of the Compositæ, native of Europe, whence it has spread with civilization as a weed almost all over the world. From the very persistent underground parts annual, usually unbranched stems, sometimes 3 feet tall, are produced in more or less abundance. They bear much-divided, oval, oblong leaves and numerous small, yellow flower-heads in usually crowded corymbs. The small, nearly conical seeds have five gray ribs and retain their germinability for about two years. Tansy is easily propagated by division of the clumps or by seed sown in a hotbed for the transplanting of seedlings. It does well in any moderately fertile garden soil, but why anyone should grow it except for ornament, either in the garden or as an inedible garnish, is more than I can understand. While its odor is not exactly repulsive, its acrid, bitter taste is such that a nibble, certainly a single leaf, would last most people a lifetime. Yet some people use it to flavor puddings, omelettes, salads, stews and other culinary dishes. Surely a peculiar order of gustatory preference! It is said that donkeys will eat thistles, but I have never known them to eat tansy, and I am free to confess that I rather admire their preference for the thistles. =Tarragon= (_Artemisia Dracunculus_, Linn.), a fairly hardy, herbaceous rather shrubby perennial of the Compositæ, supposed to be a native of southern Russia, Siberia, and Tartary, cultivated for scarcely more than 500 years for its leaves and tender shoots. In all civilized countries its popular name, like its specific name, means dragon, though why it should be so called is not clear. [Illustration: Tarragon, the French Chef's Delight] _Description._--The plant has numerous branching stems, which bear lance-shaped leaves and nowadays white, sterile flowers. Formerly the flowers were said to be fertile. No one should buy the seed offered as tarragon. It is probably that of a related plant which resembles tarragon in everything except flavor--which is absent! _Tagetes lucida_, which may be used as a substitute for true tarragon, is easily propagated by seed and can be procured from seedsmen under its own name. As tarragon flowers appear to be perfect, it is possible that some plants may produce a few seeds, and that plants raised from these seeds may repeat the wonder. Indeed, a variety which naturally produces seed may thus be developed and disseminated. Here is one of the possible opportunities for the herb grower to benefit his fellow-men. _Cultivation._--At present tarragon is propagated only by cuttings, layers and division. There is no difficulty in either process. The plant prefers dry, rather poor soil, in a warm situation. In cold climates it should be partially protected during the winter to prevent alternate freezing and thawing of both the soil and the plant. In moist and heavy soil it will winterkill. Strawy litter or conifer boughs will serve the purpose well. Half a dozen to a dozen plants will supply the needs of a family. As the plants spread a good deal and as they grow 15 to 18 inches tall, or even more, they should be set in rows 18 to 24 inches apart each way. In a short time they will take possession of the ground. _Uses._--The tender shoots and the young leaves are often used in salads, and with steaks, chops, etc., especially by the French. They are often used as an ingredient in pickles. Stews, soups, croquettes, and other meat preparations are also flavored with tarragon, and for flavoring fish sauces it is especially esteemed. Probably the most popular way it is employed, however, is as a decoction in vinegar. For this purpose, the green parts are gathered preferably in the morning and after washing are placed in jars and covered with the best quality vinegar for a few days. The vinegar is then drawn off as needed. In France, the famous vinegar of Maille is made in this way. The leaves may be dried in the usual way if desired. For this purpose they are gathered in midsummer. A second cutting may be made in late September or early October. Tarragon oil, which is used for perfuming toilet articles, is secured by distilling the green parts, from 300 to 500 pounds of which yield one pound of oil. [Illustration: Thyme for Sausage] =Thyme= (_Thymus vulgaris_, Linn.), a very diminutive perennial shrub, of the natural order Labiatæ, native of dry, stony places on Mediterranean coasts, but found occasionally naturalized as an escape from gardens in civilized countries, both warm and cold. From early days it has been popularly grown for culinary purposes. The name is from the Greek word _thyo_, or sacrifice, because of its use as incense to perfume the temples. With the Romans it was very popular both in cookery and as a bee forage. Like its relatives sage and marjoram, it has practically disappeared from medicine, though formerly it was very popular because of its reputed properties. _Description._--The procumbent, branched, slender, woody stems, which seldom reach 12 inches, bear oblong, triangular, tapering leaves from 1/4 to 1/2 inch long, green above and gray beneath. In the axils of the upper leaves are little pink or lilac flowers, which form whorls and loose, leafy spikes. The seeds, of which there are 170,000 to the ounce, and 24 ounces to the quart, retain their germinating power for three years. _Cultivation._--Thyme does best in a rather dry, moderately fertile, light soil well exposed to the sun. Cuttings, layers and divisions may be made, but the popular way to propagate is by seed. Because the seed is very small, it should be sown very shallow or only pressed upon the surface and then sprinkled with finely sifted soil. A small seedbed should be used in preference to sowing in the open ground first, because better attention can be given such little beds; second, because the area where the plants are ultimately to be can be used for an early-maturing crop. In the seedbed made out of doors in early spring, the drills may be made 4 to 6 inches apart and the seeds sown at the rate of 5 or 6 to the inch. A pound should produce enough plants for an acre. In hand sowing direct in the field, a fine dry sand is often thoroughly mixed with the seed to prevent too close planting. The proportion chosen is sometimes as great as four times as much sand as seed. Whether sown direct in the field or transplanted the plants should finally not stand closer than 8 inches--10 is preferred. When first set they may be half this distance. In a small way one plant to the square foot is a good rate to follow. The young plants may be set in the field during June, or even as late as July, preferably just before or just after a shower. The alternate plants may be removed in late August or early September, the alternate rows about three weeks later and the final crop in October. Thyme will winter well. In home garden practice it may be treated like sage. In the coldest climates it may be mulched with leaves or litter to prevent undue thawing and freezing and consequent heaving of the soil. In the spring the plants should be dug, divided and reset in a new situation. When seed is desired, the ripening tops must be cut frequently, because the plants mature very unevenly. But this method is often more wasteful than spreading cloths or sheets of paper beneath the plants and allowing the seed to drop in them as it ripens. Twice a day, preferably about noon, and in the late afternoon the plants should be gently jarred to make the ripe seeds fall into the sheets. What falls should then be collected and spread in a warm, airy room to dry thoroughly. When this method is practiced the stems are cut finally; that is, when the bulk of the seed has been gathered. They are dried, threshed or rubbed and the trash removed, by sifting. During damp weather the seed will not separate readily from the plants. Of the common thyme there are two varieties: narrow-leaved and broad-leaved. The former, which has small grayish-green leaves, is more aromatic and pleasing than the latter, which, however, is much more popular, mainly because of its size, and not because of its superiority to the narrow-leaved kind. It is also known as winter or German thyme. The plant is taller and larger and has bigger leaves, flowers and seeds than the narrow-leaved variety and is decidedly more bitter. _Uses._--The green parts, either fresh, dried or in decoction, are used very extensively for flavoring soups, gravies, stews, sauces, forcemeats, sausages, dressings, etc. For drying, the tender stems are gathered after the dew is off and exposed to warm air in the shade. When crisp they are rubbed, the trash removed and the powder placed in stoppered bottles or tins. All parts of the plant are fragrant because of the volatile oil, which is commercially distilled mainly in France. About one per cent of the green parts is oil, which after distillation is at first a reddish-brown fluid. It loses its color on redistillation and becomes slightly less fragrant. Both grades of oil are used commercially in perfumery. In the oil are also crystals (thymol), which resemble camphor and because of their pleasant odor are used as a disinfectant where the strong-smelling carbolic acid would be objectionable. Besides common thyme two other related species are cultivated to some extent for culinary purposes. Lemon thyme (_T. citriodorus_, Pers.), like its common relative, is a little undershrub, with procumbent stems and with a particularly pleasing fragrance. Wild thyme, or mother-of-thyme (_T. serpyllum_, Linn.), is a less grown perennial, with violet or pink flowers. It is occasionally seen in country home gardens, and is also used somewhat for seasoning. INDEX Page Angelica, 56 candied, 59 Anise, 59 in Bible, 13 Bags of herbs, 6 Balm, 63 demand for, 20 Barrel of herbs, 8 Basil, 65 demand for, 20 tree, 68 Bible, herbs mentioned in, 12 Borage, 71 Bouquet of herbs, 6 Bride's trousseau, 7 Caraway, 73 Catnip, 77 Chervil, 79 Chives, 80 Clary, 81 Cleveland, John, quoted, 101 Coriander, 82 Cultivation, 47 Cumin, 84 in Bible, 13 Curing, 22 Cuttings, propagation by, 34 Dibbles tabooed, 42 Dill, 87 demand for, 21 for pickles, 21 Dinner of herbs, 7 Division, propagation by, 37 Double cropping, 48 Drying, 25 Drying seeds, 28 Eggs, stuffed, 9 Evaporator, 26 Fennel, 89 demand for, 20 Florence, 93 Fennel Flower, 94 Finocchio, 93 Garnishes, 19, 30 Herb history, 12 History of herbs, 12 Hoarhound, 95 Hyssop, 96 Ingelow, Jean quoted, 101 Lavender, 97 and linen, 7 Layers, propagation by, 36 Lovage, 99 Lunch, herb, 8 MacDonald, George, quoted, 72 Marigold, 100 Marjoram, 101 demand for, 20 Market gardening, herb, 14 Medicine, herbs in, 53 Mint, 105 demand for, 21 in Bible, 13 Moschus quoted, 109 Moving pictures, 4 Omelette, herb, 9 Packages for selling, 14 Parsley, 109 in most demand, 19 Peppermint, 119 Pictures, moving, 4 Pillows full of herbs, 6 Propagation, 32 Rosemary, 120 Rue, 122 in Bible, 13 Sage, 125 in demand, 20 Salad, herb, 9 Samphire, 129 Sandwiches, herb and cheese, 5 lettuce and nasturtium, 10 Savory, demand for, 20 summer, 131 winter, 132 Seeds, propagation by, 32 Selection for variety, 15 Shakespeare quoted, 6, 63, 121 Sieves, sizes to use, 29 Soda water, 4 Soil preparation, 45 Solomon's herb dinner, 3 Soup, parsley, 8 Southernwood, 133 Storing, 25 Superstitions about herbs, 54 Tagetes lucida, 135 Tansy, 134 Tarragon, 134 Theudobach quoted, 123 Thyme, 137 demand for, 20 lemon, 141 Transplanting, 39 Varieties, production of, 15 Water, importance of, 41 
20903	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ _Northern Nut Growers Association_ _INCORPORATED_ _Affiliated with THE AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY_ REPORT _of the proceedings of the_ Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting BATTLE CREEK, MICH. _SEPTEMBER 10 and 11, 1934_ INDEX Officers, Directors and Committees 3 State Vice-Presidents 4 List of Members 5 Constitution 8 By-Laws 9 The President 10 Proceedings of the Twenty-fifth Annual Convention 11 Address of Welcome by W. K. Kellogg 11 Report of Secretary 13 Report of Treasurer 15 Reports of Standing Committees 16 Business Session 18 The Dietetic Importance of Nuts--Dr. John Harvey Kellogg 20 Nut Culture Work of the Living Tree Guild--Miss Dorothy Sawyer 28 Progress report on Nut Growing in the Ithaca, N. Y. region--Dr. L. H. MacDaniels 31 Some Random Notes on Nut Culture--D. C. Snyder 34 Winter Injury of Filberts at Geneva, 1933-34--Prof. G. L. Slate 36 Notes on Hickories--A. B. Anthony 41 Letter from Rev. Paul C. Crath--Poland 45 The Chestnut Situation in Illinois--Dr. A. S. Colby 47 Report on Commercial Cracking and Merchandising of Black Walnuts--H. F. Stokes 50 Nut Culture in Ontario--George Corsan 53 Nut Growing on a Commercial Basis--Miss Amelia Riehl 54 Some Notes on the Hardiness of the English Walnut in Michigan and Ontario--Prof. J. A. Neilson 55 Nut Tree Prospects in the Tennessee Valley--John W. Hershey 61 Some New Hicans and Pecans--J. G. Duis 62 Some Old Friends--Dr. W. C. Deming 64 Nut Growing in Vermont--Zenas H. Ellis 66 A Roll Call of the Nuts--Dr. W. C. Deming 69 Nut Culture in the North--J. F. Wilkinson 84 Varieties of Nut Trees for the Northernmost Zone--C. A. Reed 87 Notes on the TOUR, Tuesday September 11, 1934 104 Address of Prof. V. R. Gardner, Director, Experiment Station at Michigan State College, East Lansing 104 The 1934 Ohio Black Walnut Contest--Carl F. Walker 107 Mr. Ellis' Report as Delegate to Paris Horticultural Exposition 109 Report of Resolutions Committee 110 Communications from: J. U. Gellatley 111 B. D. Wallace 113 Vera Nekiassena 114 Divisional Forest Officer--Kashmir 115 John W. Hershey 116 Mrs. E. W. Freel 117 Geo. W. Gibbens 117 Fred Kettler 118 Telegram to Dr. Morris 119 Catalogue of Nut trees in Kellogg Plantings 120 Exhibits at Convention 122 Attendance 124 Books and Bulletins on Northern Nut Growing 126 Advertisement--"Hobbies Magazine" 127 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President._ FRANK H. FREY, ROOM 930, LA SALLE ST. STATION, CHICAGO, ILL. _Vice-President._ DR. G. A. ZIMMERMAN, 32 SOUTH 13TH ST., HARRISBURG, PA. _Secretary._ GEO. L. SLATE, STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, GENEVA, N. Y. _Treasurer._. CARL F. WALKER, 2851 E. OVERLOOK ROAD, CLEVELAND HEIGHTS, OHIO _DIRECTORS_ FRANK H. FREY, DR. G. A. ZIMMERMAN, GEO. L. SLATE, CARL F. WALKER, PROF. J. A. NEILSON, D. C. SNYDER. _EDITOR OF PUBLICATIONS_ DR. W. C. DEMING _COMMITTEES_ _Executive._ FRANK H. FREY, DR. G. A. ZIMMERMAN, GEO. L. SLATE, CARL F. WALKER, PROF. J. A. NEILSON, D. C. SNYDER. _Auditing._ ZENAS H. ELLIS, H. BURGART. _Finance._ T. P. LITTLEPAGE, DR. W. C. DEMING, H. R. WEBER. _Press and Publication_. DR. W. C. DEMING, KARL W. GREENE, DR. J. RUSSELL SMITH, ZENAS H. ELLIS, GEO. L. SLATE. _Membership._ COL. L. H. MITCHELL, MISS DOROTHY C. SAWYER, J. U. GELLATLY, D. C. SNYDER, CARL F. WALKER. _Program._ J. F. WILKINSON, DR. W. C. DEMING, C. A. REED, KARL W. GREENE, H. R. WEBER. _Hybrids and Promising Seedlings._ DR. G. A. ZIMMERMAN, PROF. N. F. DRAKE, MISS AMELIA RIEHL, H. F. STOKE, J. F. WILKINSON, C. A. REED. _Survey._ C. A. REED, CARL F. WALKER, DR. A. S. COLBY, H. F. STOKE, DR. L. H. MAC DANIELS, DR. W. C. DEMING. _Exhibits._ H. R. WEBER, MISS MILDRED JONES, PROF. A. S. COLBY. _DEAN OF THE ASSOCIATION_ DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, OF NEW YORK AND CONNECTICUT. _FIELD SECRETARY_ ZENAS H. ELLIS, FAIR HAVEN, VERMONT. _OFFICIAL JOURNAL_ AMERICAN FRUIT GROWER, 1370 ONTARIO ST., CLEVELAND, OHIO. STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS Argentina, S. A. Francisco M. Croce Arkansas Prof. N. F. Drake California Will J. Thorpe Canada J. U. Gellatly Canal Zone L. C. Leighton Connecticut Dr. W. C. Deming Dist. of Columbia L. H. Mitchell Illinois Dr. A. S. Colby Indiana J. F. Wilkinson Iowa D. C. Snyder Kansas W. P. Orth Kentucky E. C. Rice Maryland T. P. Littlepage Massachusetts James H. Bowditch Michigan Harry Burgart Minnesota Carl Weschcke Missouri J. W. Schmid Nebraska William Caha New Jersey Lee W. Jaques New York Prof. L. H. MacDaniels Ohio Harry R. Weber Oregon C. E. Schuster Pennsylvania John Rick Rhode Island Philip Allen Vermont Zenas H. Ellis Virginia Dr. J. Russel Smith Washington Major H. B. Ferris West Virginia Andrew Cross Wisconsin Lt. G. H. Turner NORTHERN NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION List of Members as of January 1, 1935 ARGENTINA, S. A. Croce, Francisco M., Mendoza ARKANSAS * Drake, Prof. N. F., Fayetteville CALIFORNIA Thorpe, William J., 1545 Divisadero St., San Francisco CANADA Chipman, G. F., "The Country Guide," Winnipeg, Manitoba Gage, J. H., 107 Flatt Ave., Hamilton, Ont. Gellatly, J. U., West Bank, B. C. Middleton, M. S., Esq., District Horticulturist, Vernon, B. C. CANAL ZONE Leighton, L. C., Box 1452, Cristobal CONNECTICUT Bartlett, F. A., F. A. Bartlett Tree Expert Co., Stamford Beeman, Henry W., New Preston Deming, Dr. W. C., 31 Owen St., Hartford Little, Norman B., Rocky Hill * Morris, Dr. Robert T., Merribrooke, R. F. D., Stamford Pratt, George D., Jr., Bridgewater Rowley, Dr. John C., 1046 Asylum St., Hartford Southworth, Geo. F., Milford DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Gravatt, Dr. G. F., Forest Pathology, Plant Industry, U. S. D. A., Wash. Greene, Karl W., 2203 Foxhall Rd., N. W., Washington * Littlepage, Thomas P., Union Trust Bldg., Washington Mitchell, Col. Lennard H., 2219 California St., N. W., Washington Reed, C. A., Dep't of Agriculture, Washington ILLINOIS Anthony, A. B., R. F. D. No. 3, Sterling Bontz, Mrs. Lillian, General Delivery, Peoria Colby, Dr. Arthur S., University of Illinois, Urbana Frey, Frank H., Room 930, LaSalle St. Station, Chicago Oakes Royal, Bluffs Ramsdell, T. A., Hotel Galt, Sterling Riehl, Miss Amelia, Evergreen Heights, Godfrey Spencer, Mrs. May R., 275 W. Decatur St., Decatur INDIANA Galbreath, Dr. R. S., 16 W. Washington St., Huntington Minton, Charles F., 825 South Jefferson St., Huntington Wilkinson, J. F., Indiana Nut Nursery, Rockport IOWA Helmick, J. K., Columbus Junction Iowa State Horticultural Society, State House, Des Moines Johnson, Mrs. R. T., Knoxville Rohrbacher, Wm., 811 East College St., Iowa City Schlagenbusch Bros., Route No. 3, Ft. Madison Snyder, D. C., Center Point Van Meter, W. L., Adel KANSAS Orth, W. P., Mt. Hope KENTUCKY Horine, Dr. Emmet F., 523 Breslin Medical Bldg., Louisville Rice, E. C., Absher MARYLAND Close, Dr. C. P., College Park Hahn, Albert G., Route No. 6, Bethesda Porter, John J., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown Mehring, Upton F., Keymar Purnell, J. Edgar, Box 24, Salisbury MASSACHUSETTS Allen, Edward E., Hotel Ambassador, Cambridge * Bowditch, James H., 903 Tremont St., Boston Brown, Daniel L., 60 State St., Boston Hale, Richard W., 60 State St., Boston Kaan, Dr. Helen W., Wellesley College, Wellesley Putnam, Mrs. Ellen M., 129 Babson St., Mattapan Russell, Mrs. Newton H., 12 Burnett Ave., South Hadley Ryan, Henry E., Sunderland Smith, Leon C., 60 Day Ave., Westfield Wellman, Sargeant H., Windridge, Topsfield MICHIGAN Bradley, Homer L., 56 Manchester St., Battle Creek Burgart, Harry, Michigan Nut Nursery, Route No. 2, Union City Healey, Scott, Route No. 2, Otsego Healy, Oliver T., Michigan Nut Nursery, Route No. 2, Union City ** Kellogg, Dr. John Harvey, 202 Manchester St., Battle Creek ** Kellogg, W. K., Battle Creek Morrison, J. Robert, Paw Paw Neilson, Prof. J. A., Michigan State College, E. Lansing Otto, Arnold G., 4150 Three Mile Drive, Detroit Stocking, Frederick N., 3456 Cadillac St., Detroit Wieber, Frank A., Fowler MINNESOTA Andrews, Miss Frances E., 245 Clifton Ave., Minneapolis Weschcke, Carl, 98 Wabasha St., St. Paul MISSOURI Schmid, J. W., 615 S. Holland, Springfield NEBRASKA Caha, Wm., Wahoo NEW JERSEY Buckwalter, Alan R., Flemington * Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly Place, Jersey City Orner, George D., 751 Ridgewood Rd., Maplewood NEW YORK Bennett, F. H., 19 East 92nd St., New York Bixby, Mrs. Willard G., 32 Grand Ave., Baldwin Collins, Joseph N., 335 W. 87th St., New York Cooke, Frank S., 341 Bowery, New York Crysdale, Stanley A., Route No. 5, Auburn Curtis, Elroy, 58 Worth St., New York Ellwanger, Mrs. Wm. D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Graham, S. H., Route No. 5, Ithaca * Huntington, A. M., 3 East 89th St., New York Kelly, Mortimer B., 17 Battery Place, New York * Lewis, Clarence, 1000 Park Ave., New York MacDaniels, Dr. L. H., c/o Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. * Montgomery, Robert H., 385 Madison Ave., New York Pickhardt, Dr. Otto C., 117 East 80th St., New York Sawyer, Miss Dorothy C., Living Tree Guild, 468 Fourth Ave., N. Y. Sefton, Pennington, 94 Lake Ave., Auburn Slate, Geo. L., State Agricultural Exp. Station, Geneva Smith, Gilbert L., State School, Wassaic Tice, David, Lockport Tukey, Dr. Harold B., State Agricultural Exp. Station, Geneva * Wissman, Mrs. F. de R., 9 W. 54th St., New York OHIO Canaday, Ward M., Home Bank Bldg., Toledo Cranz, Eugene F., Mount Tom Farm, Ira Fickes, W. R., Route No. 7, Wooster Gerber, E. P., Route No. 1, Apple Creek Park, Dr. J. B., Ohio State University, Columbus Tabor, Rollin H., Mount Vernon Thorton, Willis, Fenway Hall Hotel, Cleveland Walker, Carl F., 2851 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland Heights * Weber, Harry R., 123 East 6th St., Cincinnati OREGON Schuster, C. E., Horticulturist, Corvallis PENNSYLVANIA Baum, Dr. F. L., Yellow House Gebhardt, F. C., 140 East 29th St., Erie Hershey, John W., Downingtown Hostetter, C. F., Bird-In-Hand Hostetter, L. K., Route No. 5, Lancaster Jones Nurseries, J. F., Lancaster, Box 356 Kaufman, M. M., Clarion Leach, Will, Cornell Bldg., Scranton McIntyre, A. C., Dep't of Forestry, State College Miller, Herbert, Pinecrest Poultry Farms, Richfield * Rick, John, 438 Pennsylvania Square, Reading Ruhl, A. W., Langhorne Terrace, Langhorne Smith, Dr. J. Russell, Swarthmore, Pa., 550 Elm Ave. Theiss, Dr. Lewis E., Muncy * Wister, John C., Clarkson Ave. & Wister Sts., Germantown Wright, Ross Pier, 235 West 6th St., Erie Zimmerman, Dr. G. A., 32 So. 13th St., Harrisburg RHODE ISLAND ** Allen, Phillip, 178 Dorance St., Providence VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., Route No. 3, Springfield Elfgren, Ivar P., 11 Sheldon Place, Rutland * Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven VIRGINIA Ricketts, E. T., Box 168-D, Route No. 5, Alexandria Stoke, H. F., 1421 Watts Ave., Roanoke WASHINGTON Ferris, Major Hiram B., P. O. Box 74, Spokane WEST VIRGINIA Cross, Andrew, Ripley WISCONSIN Turner, Lieut. G. H., 932 Prospect Ave., Portage * Life Member ** Contributing Member CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I _Name._ This Society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, INCORPORATED. ARTICLE II _Object._ Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III _Membership._ Membership in this society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary and a treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and an executive committee of six persons, of which the president, the two last retiring presidents, the vice-president, the secretary and the treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI _Meetings._ The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. ARTICLE VII _Quorum._ Ten members of the association shall constitute a quorum, but must include two of the four elected officers. ARTICLE VIII _Amendments._ This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or a copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I _Committees._ The Association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on exhibits, on hybrids, on survey, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the Association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II _Fees._ Annual members shall pay two dollars annually. Contributing members shall pay ten dollars annually. Life members shall make one payment of fifty dollars, and shall be exempt from further dues and will be entitled to same benefits as annual members. Honorary members shall be exempt from dues. "Perpetual" membership is eligible to any one who leaves at least five hundred dollars to the Association and such membership on payment of said sum to the Association will entitle the name of the deceased to be forever enrolled in the list of members as "Perpetual" with the words "In Memoriam" added thereto. Funds received therefor shall be invested by the Treasurer in interest bearing securities legal for trust funds in the District of Columbia. Only the interest shall be expended by the Association. When such funds are in the treasury the Treasurer shall be bonded. Provided; that in the event the Association becomes defunct or dissolves then, in that event, the Treasurer shall turn over any funds held in his hands for this purpose for such uses, individuals or companies that the donor may designate at the time he makes the bequest or the donation. ARTICLE III _Membership._ All annual memberships shall begin either with the first day of the calendar quarter following the date of joining the Association, or with the first day of the calendar quarter preceding that date as may be arranged between the new member and the Treasurer. ARTICLE IV _Amendments._ By-laws may be amended by a two-third vote of members present at any annual meeting. ARTICLE V Members shall be sent a notification of annual dues at the time they are due, and if not paid within two months, they shall be sent a second notice, telling them that they are not in good standing on account of non-payment of dues, and are not entitled to receive the annual report. At the end of thirty days from the sending of the second notice, a third notice shall be sent notifying such members that unless dues are paid within ten days from the receipt of this notice, their names will be dropped from the rolls for non-payment of dues. [Illustration: THE PRESIDENT--Frank H. Frey] Report of the Proceedings at the Twenty-fifth Annual Convention _of the_ Northern Nut Growers Association (INCORPORATED) _September 10, 11, 1934_ BATTLE CREEK, MICHIGAN The first session convened at 9:30 A. M., September 10, at the Kellogg Hotel with President Frey in the chair. _The President:_ This is the twenty-fifth annual convention of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, our silver anniversary. Fifteen years ago the convention was held in this city. We are glad to be back again and happy to have with us Mr. W. K. Kellogg who has consented to extend a welcome. MR. KELLOGG: I am glad to welcome this association, and you as individuals, to Battle Creek. A year ago when an invitation was sent you thru Professor Neilson to make this your meeting place for 1934, we were very much pleased to have the invitation accepted. Now that we have the pleasure of your presence we hope you may have an enjoyable and profitable time. Battle Creek was undoubtedly put on the map many years ago by the Battle Creek Sanitarium and has since been kept prominently before the public by the extensive advertising that has been done by the companies located here which manufacture ready-to-eat foods. The records indicate that more than 15,000 carloads of these foods are shipped every year to almost every country on the globe. More than 4,500 people are given employment. So much for the magic words, "Battle Creek." My interest in nuts dates from my earliest recollection when my father took the children nutting. In the evening we often gathered around the kerosene lamp, the kitchen stove and father with an inverted flat iron in his lap and a pan of Ohio hickory nuts near by. These, accompanied by some red-cheeked apples, entertained us royally. No movies in those days. About ten or twelve years ago Mrs. Kellogg and I had the opportunity of listening to a talk by Mr. George Hebden Corsan, Sr. He devoted considerable time to the subject of nut culture, mentioning his own experiences in Canada and also the work of Mr. John F. Jones of Lancaster, Pennsylvania. A few years later Mr. Corsan became associated with the Bird Sanctuary enterprise, a few miles west of Battle Creek, and very shortly thereafter was talking nut culture. The result was we began to order nut trees by the carloads. With this beginning it was only a year or two when Mr. Corsan told me of the wonderful experience, as well as the ability, of Professor Neilson of Toronto in nut culture. As you are doubtless aware Professor Neilson decided to locate in Michigan and he made a connection with the Michigan Agricultural College at Lansing. Professor Neilson is present and better prepared to tell you of the work that has been accomplished thru his efforts during the last five years. He may also have an opportunity of showing you the results of some of his work in nut grafting. Now just a word furthermore with reference to this wonderful town of Battle Creek which in 1932 celebrated its centennial. With the exception of Detroit, Chicago and New York, there is probably no city so well known the world over as Battle Creek, this having been accomplished thru the advertising of the sanitarium since its establishment in 1865, and the advertising of ready-to-eat cereal foods for more than forty years, during which time the magic words "Battle Creek" have appeared on packages of cereals, in newspapers, magazines and other advertising more than six billion times. One of the food factories located in Battle Creek frequently prints, fills and ships more than 1,500,000 packages per day, or the equivalent of 40 carloads. This same factory gives employment to more than 2,200 people, none of whom work more than six hours per day. This six hour plan has been established more than 3-1/2 years and the minimum wage paid per hour to the men is 67 cents. In conclusion, I must admit that most of my interest in nut culture has been by proxy. Professor Neilson and Mr. Corsan are both with us today and no doubt will have an opportunity of showing you some of the progress that has been made in the vicinity of Wintergreen and Gull Lakes, the State Agricultural Farm and the Kellogg Ranch. We assure you it has been a pleasure to have you with us on this occasion and we should be glad to have your convention meet with us annually. You have my best wishes for the continued success and prosperity of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. * * * * * _The Vice-President_, DR. ZIMMERMAN: It will be rather a difficult task to respond to an address of welcome of such a notable character as Mr. Kellogg's. However, I want to express my sincere appreciation for being commissioned to respond to such a hearty welcome. I'm glad to be here for several other reasons. First, because this association represents a number of people who in themselves represent different lines of action. We have first the men and women who are in this association from an experimental standpoint. We have also a number who are here with a commercial planting standpoint. Then we have another group that represents the growing and selling of nut trees. But, in addition to that and most important of all, we have another set that represents the consuming public, notably Mr. Kellogg and his brother. About their work there need not be a great deal said. I remember, when I first began to become interested in nut culture, I wrote to Dr. J. H. Kellogg. I don't remember at the present time where he said his plantings were, but I wrote to him in connection with pecans, and he said he had a grove of them planted. He said they were quite large but they hadn't borne and he believed that they would not bear in this section because it was so far north. He advised me to get in communication with Mr. J. H. Jones. That was practically the information I got from everybody I wrote to, so I went to see Mr. Jones. Dr. Kellogg has advanced the idea of nuts as food. Not only that but he has continuously stood for the belief that they are more suitable for human food than many of the proteins of animal nature. In addition to that he publishes one of the best health magazines in the country. Dr. Kellogg is putting out a health magazine that is further advanced than any other magazine that I know of. It gives me great pleasure to respond to the address of welcome and I wish to thank Mr. Kellogg on the part of the association and myself. Report of the Secretary for 1934 The present secretary assumed office in September 1933 without the benefit of previous membership in the association and knowledge of its affairs. Considerable time has been spent in getting acquainted with these affairs. President Frey, Mr. Reed, and Dr. Deming have been especially helpful in orienting the secretary and assisting in answering correspondence. The late Mr. Russell, and his successor, Mr. Walker, have handled all matters referred to them in a prompt and efficient manner. Much credit is due to Mrs. Russell for the efficient manner in which she attended to the treasurer's duties during Mr. Russell's illness. One of the chief duties of the secretary is the answering of correspondence pertaining to association affairs and inquiries regarding nut culture. A total of 175 letters were written for the association. Fifty-three were to the officers and Mr. Reed regarding association affairs, while 122 concerned nut cultural problems and memberships. A number of letters were referred to Mr. Reed and a few to Prof. MacDaniels for reply. In addition to the correspondence addressed to the association regarding nuts, an equal or larger number of inquiries concerning nuts addressed to the station were also answered. A list of names of people interested in nuts, but not members of the association, is being accumulated from this correspondence. The circular describing the association and its work was reprinted and a list of nut nurseries and tree seedsmen prepared by Mr. Reed was mimeographed. These were enclosed in all association and station letters sent to non-members in answer to nut inquiries. Their effect in bringing in new members and their influence on the sale of nut trees is of course unknown. Dr. MacDaniels and Dr. Colby also used these circulars in correspondence. A list of available publications on nut culture has also been prepared and will be mimeographed shortly. A campaign to sell many of the surplus reports of the association was planned, but owing to unforeseen obstacles the reports were not available and the plans for selling them were shelved until after this meeting. If the reports are soon assembled at Geneva it is planned to circularize agricultural and horticultural libraries and attempt to place complete or nearly complete sets in as many as possible. Attractive prices will be made on sets of those reports of which we have an oversupply. A mimeographed list of cions available from the Bixby collection was prepared at Mr. Reed's suggestion and sent to all members and other interested persons. Mrs. Bixby received as many copies as she needed. Mr. J. T. Bregger, editor of the American Fruit Grower, has cooperated with the secretary in publishing notes pertaining to association activities. He is desirous of publishing articles on nut culture. It is to be hoped that contributions may be received from members interested in various phases of nut growing. Other publications are eager for articles on all phases of horticulture. If nut culture is to receive its due publicity more than a few must take their pens in hand. It is with great regret and sadness that the death on April 27, 1934, of our treasurer, Newton H. Russell, is recorded. His enthusiasm, interest and kindly personality will be greatly missed. He was very active in promoting nut culture in Massachusetts. We have lost a valuable member. The discontinuance of the National Nut News leaves us without an official organ. This is a serious handicap to our work. The stimulation of interest provided by the regular arrival of a publication containing the latest news and newest developments in our field, is a valuable aid in nut culture and association activities. The provision of such a medium is one of our most pressing problems. Our membership is at a low point and should be doubled. The secretary is desirous of cooperating with the membership committee in a campaign to increase the membership. With our dues at their present low figure it should not be difficult to interest many in the association. Such a campaign should follow several lines. First: Every member should attempt to secure additional members. Second: Many who dropped out when dues were high should be invited to return. Third: Attempts should be made to contact certain groups. All of the northern experiment stations and agricultural colleges should have a member of their horticultural department in the association. Groups such as doctors, lawyers, nurserymen, farmers and others should be informed of the association and what it offers to each. Fourth: The agricultural college and experiment station libraries should be induced to take out memberships and bring their sets of reports up to date. Such a campaign is more than one person can handle, and several should participate in it. Treasurer's Report Year Ending August 31, 1934 RECEIPTS Annual Memberships $266.75 Contributing Memberships 10.00 Sale of Reports 29.00 Sale of Bulletins 2.25 For Subscriptions to National Nut News 8.00 _______ Total $316.00 $316.00 DISBURSEMENTS Reprints, K. W. Greene (for Mr. Bixby) $ 21.10 Printing 1931 Report, Balance, American Fruits Pub. Co. 50.00 Subscriptions, National Nut News 18.00 Printing 1932 Report, Lightner Pub. Corp. 200.00 Expenses Downingtown Convention, J. W. Hershey 13.82 Membership Dues, American Horticultural Society 2.00 Expense Handling Surplus Reports, C. A. Reed 9.69 Advertising, Lightner Pub. Corp. 4.00 Printing 1933 Report, Lightner Pub. Corp. 125.32 Release Expense of Account with Litchfield Savings Society 1.68 Loss on Check 2.00 Postage, F. H. Frey 12.10 Postage and Miscl. Expense for 1933 Report, F. H. Frey 19.92 Mimeographing, G. L. Slate 2.25 Printing, Postage and Supplies, C. F. Walker 12.45 Check Charges & Taxes .68 _______ Total $495.01 $495.01 Excess of Disbursements over Receipts $179.01 CASH ACCOUNT Cash on hand or in bank as reported as of Aug. 31, 1933 $306.01 Account in Litchfield Savings Society as of Aug. 31, 1933 15.94 _______ Total cash on hand or in bank as of Aug. 31, 1933 $321.95 $321.95 Excess of Disbursements over Receipts 179.01 _______ Balance, Cash in bank, August 31, 1934 $142.94 Accounts, Due or Payable None _Press and Publication Committee_ DR. DEMING: We have had one or two articles in each issue of the National Horticultural Magazine, published by the American Horticultural Society in Washington. The editor has promised to have in each issue of his magazine something relating to nuts. He is particularly anxious to get short articles with a single illustration, articles about a page long which will attract attention, be easy to read and stimulate interest in nuts. I would be glad to receive articles of that nature for submission to the editor. It is unfortunate that we no longer have an official journal, the National Nut News having gone out of existence. We have an opportunity to make the American Fruit Grower, with which we have been acquainted a good many years, our official journal, and that will come up in the course of this meeting. _Membership Committee_ MR. WALKER: From our increase in membership--forty new members--and from their addresses, one is able to judge of the work of Prof. Neilson, he being very active in obtaining new members. There are others of our members who also have been active and to whom credit is due for the increase in membership. An analysis of the membership of the past six years indicates that we are on the increase again. We have retained over 90% of those who were members last year. I feel as though we need not try to get everybody in the world to plant nut trees. But there is no reason why we should not greatly increase our membership. _Program Committee_ PROF. NEILSON: At nine o'clock tomorrow morning busses will be at the hotel to take us to the Kellogg plant. About 10:30 we will proceed to the sanitarium. We will try and meet at the Kellogg Hotel at 12:00 P.M. where we are to be the guest of Mr. W. K. Kellogg for luncheon. After lunch, at one o'clock, we will board the busses and proceed to the Kellogg farm. At the farm we will look over the buildings for a few minutes, call at the Kellogg School, and then stop for a few moments and look over our bittersweet plantation. Then we will go on to the Kellogg Bird Sanctuary and see what is being done there in conserving wild fowl. After we leave the sanctuary we will visit a block of about fifteen acres of hickory trees, where I have been doing top working experiments for the last three or four years. Then we will inspect our variety plantation of nut trees and proceed to Mr. Kellogg's estate. At 5:30 the Kellogg Company will provide motor boats to take us for a cruise on Gull Lake. At 6:30 we will have our dinner at Bunbury Inn on Gull Lake and then have a few addresses and a business session. _Report of Committee on Hybrids and Promising Seedlings_ DR. ZIMMERMAN: One or two interesting seedlings have come to our attention during the past year. One a hickory nut that was drawn to the attention of the Pennsylvania Nut Growers' Association January last. It is a rather good nut and bears very well. I think Mr. Hershey has some of the trees for sale. The other, a very interesting shellbark, came to my attention. The nut is large, the best cracker for a shellbark that I have seen, the tree itself is beautiful and, although the party who owns it says it bears every other year, it seems to me to produce a good many nuts every year that I have seen it. Another, probably worthless, but interesting, seems to me to be an English walnut x butternut hybrid. The party insists she planted walnuts from a typical English walnut tree, but the trees from these nuts, of which there are a number bearing small nuts, certainly have the earmarks of the butternut. These plants will be kept under observation and a later report given concerning them. We have a number of first generation hybrids, but so far as I am aware we have no second or following generation hybrids in the nut line. It seems to me that if we plant a lot of the nuts from these first generation hybrids and, when the plants are large enough, distribute them to parties who will give them space and care for them until they come into bearing, somebody sooner or later will get hold of some valuable material. Work along this line I expect to advance through our committee as rapidly as practical. It seems to me that the seedlings of our first generation hybrids should not be destroyed as has frequently been done in the past. PROF. NEILSON: I have seen quite a few hybrids between the heartnut and the butternut. I believe the Mitchel is about the best. DR. MACDANIELS: We found that the tree had stood the winter very well and that it was bearing a good crop. We brought along a few samples labeled the Mitchel hybrid heartnut. It looked to me to be a promising nut. PROF. NEILSON: Mr. Mitchel thought it was a worthless butternut. I told Mr. Mitchel that I thought it was well worth saving and I hope that one of these days we shall succeed in propagating it. THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Stokes, in Virginia, has located some black walnuts that will be excellent. Mr. Hershey's name and work have been mentioned. He writes me that the territory of the Tennessee Valley is a wonderful lay-out and he is putting on a contest for different kinds of nuts. He may have some desirable nuts to present later on. MR. SLATE: If Mr. Reed is not planning to discuss those Jones hybrids in his paper I wish he, or someone else who is acquainted with them, would make some remarks to be placed on record. MR. REED: We think that the two most promising of the Jones hybrids are numbers 92 and 200. Those were Mr. Jones' own numbers. About three years ago we began making an intensive study of them. Ninety-two seemed to bear better and be a little more promising than 200, and so it was named first. It was named Buchanan in honor of the only president of the United States who came from Pennsylvania. Last year number 200 showed up so favorably that it seemed well to name that one also, so just about a year ago the name of Bixby was suggested and it met with universal approval. That, I think, is all that I have to say about the hybrids. We are watching them very closely. From here east we had a very severe winter last year. Apple orchards very, very old were killed all through the east and with them thousands and thousands of English walnut trees. In Washington we have practically no crop of filberts and our English walnuts were affected generally. We have yet to find a single hybrid between black walnut and English walnut which appears to be promising. There is a record, but I think we should have brought to our attention from time to time what was known as the James River hybrid. It was an enormous black walnut tree that grew on the James River near Jamestown. It was visited in 1928 by Mr. Karl Greene and Mr. Hershey. Mr. Greene said that the tree measured thirteen feet in circumference. You don't often see trees as large as that in any part of the country. That is in a part of the country where the English walnut has not done well. The tree must have been somewhere around 200 years old when it died. It was probably grown from a hybrid between an English walnut and a black walnut. Our American colonists brought the English walnut with them about the same time they brought our first apples and peaches and plums and everything else. This tree throws some light on the question as to when the first English walnut first came to this country. A week ago yesterday I was riding along a country road down in Maryland. I saw a row of trees. One tree in the middle of that row was as big as any other three there. I slowed up and looked at them more closely. The large tree was a hybrid and the others were not. _Committee on Exhibits_: On the tables Prof. Neilson has a number of plates of the northern pecan at its best. Besides that he has two remarkable specimens of hybrid hickories. One is a McCallister, and the other is of unknown origin. There are also on the tables other remarkable nuts grown in this part of the United States, in Ontario and in British Columbia. There are chestnuts, English walnuts, Japanese heartnuts and others. MR. REED: You will recall that one year ago I was made custodian of the back records of the association. Within two weeks of the time of last year's meeting I personally procured the reports which were stacked away in Mr. Bixby's barn, and took them to Washington. A little later Dr. Deming and the late Mr. Russell made a trip to Redding, Connecticut, and sent me 500 pounds of back reports. Still later Mr. Karl Greene brought to me about another 500 pounds of reports. I had then about 1900 pounds. We put them in the basement of the building where our office was and then we began to move around. It began to cost something to move them. I communicated with Mr. Slate and found that there was abundant space at Geneva, and the authorities were willing that they should be housed there. So I had the reports tied up and arranged with a truck man to move them to Geneva. I made the arrangements with a man who agreed to move them for $25. Then he backed out. I didn't feel like incurring a greater expense by sending them by railroad, so I waited until last week and took a bundle from each year in my own car. They are in the secretary's care at Geneva at the present time. The rest of the reports will presently be stored in Mr. Littlepage's packing shed out in his apple orchard. There are still a few reports in the Bixby's barn and Dr. Deming can tell how many more he has. THE PRESIDENT: Each current report will be sold at $1.00 per copy and old reports at 50c a copy. If someone wanted an entire set we would sell all eighteen or nineteen numbers now for $6.00. The American Fruit Grower, published in Cleveland, Ohio, has agreed to have the magazine appear as the official journal of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. MR. J. T. BREGGER: We will deem it a privilege, and I'm sure an obligation, to take on this responsibility of acting as official journal of your society and give to you at least a column each month. We are already acting as official organ of other horticultural societies and it seems to work out very well. In addition to the column that your secretary would have each month you could run further articles on nut growing, which would be of additional interest to your members. You would have some 150,000 of our readers who are interested in fruit growing, and who would be interested in nut growing, as possible new members for your organization. They would receive your announcements and articles each month and you could get in touch with them, through that column, for additional membership. MR. WALKER: I move that the American Fruit Grower be made the official organ of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, that the secretary be the official correspondent with the American Fruit Grower, that the subscription price be paid by the treasurer direct to the American Fruit Grower, that the present membership fee remain the same, two dollars, to all members, with the privilege of receiving the American Fruit Grower. The motion was seconded by Prof. Neilson. THE PRESIDENT: Mr. Ellis has offered to donate $10.00 this year, if it is necessary, to apply on subscriptions for the membership. I don't know that we will have to call on him for this but it is certainly a display of fine spirit. DR. DEMING: I want to express my great satisfaction that the American Fruit Grower has offered to act as our official organ on such advantageous terms. Fourteen years ago, before Mr. Bregger's career as an editor began, I edited a nut column in the Fruit Grower. The motion was carried. The following named were elected as committee to nominate officers for next year: Dr. Deming, Colonel Mitchell, Professor Neilson, Mr. Weber, and Dr. Colby. Resolutions Committee: Professor Slate, Mr. C. A. Reed, and Dr. Colby. Motion was duly made, seconded and carried that; honorary membership in this association may be conferred upon any person by a majority vote of members present at any business session or by letter ballot of members in good standing and honorary membership should be conferred only on individuals who have rendered outstanding or meritorious service in connection with the promotion of interest in nut bearing plants, their products and their culture. Mr. W. K. Kellogg and Dr. John H. Kellogg were nominated for honorary members of the Association and unanimously elected. The Dietetic Importance of Nuts _By_ DR. JOHN HARVEY KELLOGG, _Michigan_ Nuts, which supply the finest edible fats and proteins which science has discovered, occupy the smallest place in the nation's food budget of any of our substantial native foods. This is a remarkable situation well worthy of consideration in view of the fact that, according to Prof. Elliot of Oxford University and the eminent Prof. Ami of Montreal, and many other paleontologists, nuts were the chief diet of the earliest representatives of the race who appeared in the Eocene period of geologic time. At that time, according to Prof. Elliot, the regions inhabited by man bore great forests of walnut, hickory, and other nut trees, the fossil relics of which are found in great abundance in association with the remains of prehistoric man. It is significant, also, that man's nearest relatives, the gorilla, orangutan, and chimpanzee still stick to the original bill of fare. I once made an ape so angry by offering him a bit of meat that he threatened to attack me and finally, as I persisted in offering him the meat, seized it and flung it as far away as possible, then scrubbed his soiled hand with dust and wiped it on the grass to get rid of the taint of the meat. He gave every evidence of feeling deeply insulted. Biology classifies man as a primate along with the great apes and, according to the great Cuvier, assigns to him along with other primates, a diet consisting of nuts, fruits, soft grains, tender shoots and succulent roots. The great ice sheet which crept down over the greater part of the northern hemisphere during the glacial period destroyed the nut forests. The greater part of the primate family, including man, moved South and survive today in Central Africa, where, along with their furry cousins, the gorilla and the chimpanzee, they still adhere to a dietary almost wholly of plant foods. Those who remained behind were compelled to resort to a flesh diet to avoid starvation. Flesh eating naturally led to cannibalism, and the historians tell us that only a few thousand years ago, the survivors of the glacial terrors who roamed the British Isles, from which the ancestors of most Americans emigrated, roamed the forests clad in the skins of animals and feasted upon their enemies. When the grain-eating Romans conquered and civilized our barbarian ancestors and taught them agriculture, plant foods again became the chief sources of nutriment, but a meat appetite had been developed and is still characteristic of the Anglo-Saxon race, while most of the rest of the world are almost exclusively plant feeders. Four hundred millions of Chinese eat so little meat that it is, in the case of south China, not even mentioned in the national food budget. Sixty millions of Japanese eat an average of 4 pounds per capita. Two hundred millions of East Indians never taste meat. As a matter of fact, only Americans, English, Germans and Scandinavians are large meat eaters. Evidently, the American meat appetite as well as the American sugar tooth is enormously exaggerated. It is somewhat encouraging, however, to note that the eating habits of the American people are changing. Within a generation, and especially since the World War, there has been a notable change in the national bill of fare. More cereals are consumed than formerly, but the greatest per capita increase is shown in the consumption of fruits and vegetables, and especially greenstuffs, such as lettuce, spinach, kale, and other greens. This increase in the use of certain foods is not due to the fact that the American appetite is increasing or the American stomach enlarging, but to the spread among the people of scientific information concerning nutrition. Through experiments upon rats and various other animals, including man himself, fundamental principles have been discovered and a real science of nutrition has been developed, the axioms, formulae, and basic ideas of which are as clearly established as are those of geometry and chemistry. We are no longer left to be led astray by guess-work or fancy in supplying our nutritive needs, and have verified the truth so aptly expressed by that shrewd old Roman philosopher, Seneca, who said, "There is nothing against which we ought to be more on our guard than, like a flock of sheep, following the crowd of those who preceded us." This change in the eating habits of the American people has been brought about by disillusionment respecting the importance of meats. Fifty years ago, every physiologist taught that the liberal consumption of meat was essential. This idea was based, first, upon the supposition that protein, the chief constituent of lean meat, is the most important source of energy; and, second, the belief that food of animal origin is better adapted to human sustenance than plant foods, through having undergone a process of refinement and concentration in the transformation from plant to animal. Modern studies of nutrition have shown that both these ideas are without scientific basis. Unfortunately for the nut-growing industry, and still more unfortunately for the American people, the claims of nuts to consideration in this re-adjustment of the bill of fare have been generally overlooked, and it seems evident that the only hope for the nut industry lies in the creation of a larger demand for these nutrients from the plant world by acquainting the public with their superlative merits. Of course, room must be made for the increased intake of nuts by lessened consumption of something which nuts may advantageously replace in the bill of fare. Most nuts consist almost exclusively of proteins and fat. Proteins and fats likewise are almost the sole constituents of meat. Nuts are thus the vegetable analogues of meat and are competitors for a place on the bill of fare. Physiologists are agreed that the American people are eating too much meat, and it is the general spread of this conviction that has lessened the consumption of flesh foods in this country and has crippled the packing industry. A few years ago, the meat packers, finding that the consumption of meat had fallen off nearly one-fourth since the beginning of the century, began a vigorous campaign of publicity to increase the demand for their products. A special board was established for the purpose and through the activities of this board an enormous amount of misinformation has been broadcasted which has influenced a number of people to "eat more meat to save the live stock industry," to use the packers' appealing slogan and incidentally to help the packing industry, and there has been some increase in the use of pork, although the falling off in the consumption of beef has continued in spite of unscrupulous efforts to deceive and mislead the people, to their injury. The two greatest obstacles in the way of the nut growing industry are the ignorance of the people with respect to the value of nuts as staple foods and the frantic efforts being made by those interested in the meat industry to increase the demand for their products. A counter campaign of education is needed to set before the people the true facts as revealed by modern chemical and bacteriological research, by the discoveries of nutrition laboratories and by the clinical observations of thousands of eminent clinicians. The false claims for meat must be met, for it is only by lessening the consumption of meat that room can be made for the dietetic use of nuts. Here are some of the errors that should be corrected. Claim 1 That meat is an essential food staple, and that without it there would result loss of vitality and of individual and racial stamina. No respectable physiologist will support this claim today, although half a century ago all physiologists held these now obsolete views. Claim 2 That flesh foods are necessary for blood building, especially red meats, because of their iron content. This claim is wholly without scientific support. Modern experiments have shown that anemic animals recover most quickly on a diet rich in plant iron. Green foods have been proven to be sources of the best iron, which is associated with chlorophyl. The iron of meat has been once used and is of the same sort as that which the body throws away. It is inferior to the iron of green plants, from which the ox makes his red blood. Nuts contain a rich store of this precious plant iron, as do also beans. Claim 3 That beef and other flesh meats are muscle and strength builders par excellence. This claim no longer has scientific support. Sugar is fuel of the body engine. When the butcher's daughter, Gertrude Ederle, failed in her first attempt to swim the English Channel, she very justly charged her collapse before reaching the English shore to the mutton stew her trainer gave her before starting. When in a second attempt, she adopted my suggestion through a mutual acquaintance, to eat sugar instead of meat, she made a world record. This practice is, I believe, now adopted by all successful channel swimmers. Non-flesh eaters are far superior to meat-eaters in endurance under special strains. When Dempsey defeated the Argentinean giant, he had trained on modest allowances of meat and his last meal had consisted of vitamin-rich fresh vegetables, while Firpo loaded himself up with steaks and chops. When Battling Nelson lost his championship, he explained to a newspaper reporter, "'Twas the beefsteak that done it. I swiped an extra beefsteak when my trainer was not looking, and it made me tired." De Lesseps, the famous French engineer, became a confirmed and enthusiastic flesh abstainer when he found his sturdy beef-fed Englishmen could not compete in work on the Suez Canal with the Arab laborers, who subsisted on wheat bread and onions, as did the builders of the pyramids, according to Herodotus, 5,000 years before. He declared, in fact, that without the hardy Arabs, he could not have done the work. Theodore Roosevelt, in his story of his East Africa hunting expedition, said in Scribners Magazine that a horse with a heavy man on his back could always run down a lion fleeing for his life in a mile and a half. Claim 4 That a man can live on a flesh or muscle meat diet such as chops and steaks. The famous pedestrian, Weston, informed me that on his long walks, he never ate meat and on his walk across the continent lived on corn flakes and milk. Carl Mann, a grocer's clerk not professionally trained, competing in a government supervised walking race from Dresden to Berlin, 123 miles, against the picked pedestrians of the German army and several professionals, won easily on a fleshless diet consisting of nuts and fresh vegetables which he pulled out of the vegetable gardens as he hurried by. The only protein he ate was derived from nuts. The Tarahumari Indians of Mexico are the most tireless runners in the world. Their ancestors were the dispatch runners of Montezuma in pre-Colombian days, and they still adhere to the simple plant regimen of their forbears. At the time of the Boxer uprising in China some years ago, the rice-fed Japanese were the first to arrive of the military representatives of numerous nations who raced to the rescue of the foreign embassies besieged by the fanatical and bloodthirsty Boxers. Claim 5 That a man can live and enjoy good health for a year or many years on a purely flesh or muscle-meat diet. The packers' much heralded Stefansson stunt of living a year on an exclusive meat diet was a discreditable fake. Stefansson did not live on a meat diet, but on a diet consisting of one-fifth protein and four-fifths fat (caloric intake). When compelled against his protest to eat steaks and chops, he was made very ill with acidosis within two days, vomiting and purging so violently that he was compelled to make a complete and immediate change. Prof. Newburgh of our State University stated that Stefansson ate no more real muscle meat than the average man usually eats. The Stefansson experiment proved but one thing, namely, that a man even when accustomed to a meat diet, cannot live on lean meat alone for more than two days without becoming ill. Dr. Newburgh produced nephritis, or acute inflammation of the kidneys, in rats by feeding them exclusively on meat for a few weeks. Claim 6 That Eskimos thrive on a meat diet. Captain McMillan who accompanied Peary on his discovery of the North Pole, a year or two ago informed me that the Eskimo is short lived. That he becomes at 50 years very old and useless and at 55 infirm and helpless, and rarely lives to the age of 60 years. The Arctic traveler Stefansson said to me, "I do not claim to have proven that a man can live better or longer on a flesh diet, but only that he can live. Of course the scientific argument is against such a diet." Prof. Irving Fisher of Yale University some years ago made a series of endurance tests in which the endurance of the athletes of the Yale gymnasium was compared with that of physicians and men nurses of the Battle Creek Sanitarium. As Prof. Fisher said in his report, which was published in the Yale Scientific Review, the endurance of the Battle Creek flesh-abstainers was found to be not only "greater" in all the tests, but far greater. In the arm holding (arms extended sidewise) tests, the Battle Creek men held their arms out longer than any Yale man and nine times as long as the same number of Yale men. Vegetarian bicyclists have for many years held all the championships in endurance riding tests from Land's End to John O'Groats. Through Finland's minister to the United States I have learned that Nurmi, the Finnish runner whose record stands unequalled, was trained on a non-flesh dietary. The Great War taught the world among many other important lessons, the fact that meat may be dispensed with not only without injury, but with great and very definite benefits. During the World War, Denmark sold her cattle to Germany and reduced her meat ration to a very low minimum, with the result that her death rate was reduced one-third. In Germany, where at the beginning of the war the cattle were killed to save food and a practically meatless ration was maintained for more than three years, diabetes, Bright's disease, and many other chronic maladies were reduced in frequency to an extraordinary degree. After the war, as I was informed by the medical director of one of the largest life insurance companies in this country, it was discovered that the death losses among the company's German policy holders, not excepting war casualties, were far below the prewar average. The Chittenden standard now universally accepted, fixes the protein intake at 10 per cent of the total ration. This leaves little room for meat, and not a few authorities reduce the protein to a still lower level. For some years, McCollum of Johns Hopkins has been calling attention to the evils of the "meat and bread" diet, which he declares to be about the worst diet one can adopt, and adds, "We could entirely dispense with meats without suffering any ill effects whatever." Chalmers Watson of Edinburgh found that rats on a lean meat diet deteriorated so rapidly that after two or three generations they became deformed and dwarfed and ceased to reproduce. The International Scientific Food Commission appointed by the Allies at the time of the Great War and charged with the duty of fixing the minimum ration of different food essentials, declared it to be unnecessary to fix a minimum meat ration, "in view of the fact that no absolute physiological need exists for meat, since the proteins of meat can be replaced by other proteins of animal origin, such as those contained in milk, cheese and eggs, as well as by proteins of vegetable origin." It is evident from the above facts that an effort to induce the American people to eat less meat and more nuts would do no harm and should prove substantially beneficial. A leading textbook on "Nutrition and Clinical Dietetics" by Carter, Howe and Mason of Columbia University, calls attention to the encouraging fact that "Of late there has been a distinct reaction in the meat-eating of the wealthier classes, and one sees less meat and more vegetable habits as they progress upward in the scale of civilization. Also, on account of their sedentary habits, people find that the ingestion of considerable quantities of animal protein, with the consequent increase in intestinal putrefaction, gives rise to symptoms of toxemia, which have assumed a very definite place in the pathology of disease." That meat enormously increases intestinal putrefaction cannot be questioned. It is this fact which makes the difference between the excreta of a dog or lion and that of a cow or horse. All carnivorous animals suffer from autointoxication. The eminent pathologist of the Philadelphia Zoo states that all dogs over three years of age have hardened arteries, while horses practically never show arterial changes even when very old. Dr. Charles Mayo states that three out of four dogs over 12 years have cancer. I quote the following paragraphs from a poster prepared some years ago as a reply to "Meat Is Wholesome" poster distributed by the packers through the post office department which presents ample evidence that meat is by no means always wholesome: A bacteriological examination made in the laboratory of the Battle Creek Sanitarium of fresh meats purchased at seven different markets, all in apparently fresh condition, showed the following number of bacteria per ounce: Bacteria Per Ounce Beefsteak 37,500,000- 45,000,000 Pork Chops 5,100,000- 87,000,000 Beef Liver 3,000,000- 945,000,000 Corned Beef 300,000- 910,000,000 Hamburger Steak 5,100,000-2,250,000,000 Pork Liver 3,000,000-2,862,000,000 The above figures agree with the findings of Tissier, Distaso, Weinzirl, Farger, Walpole, and other bacteriological authorities. The Fresh Droppings of Animals Bacteria Per Ounce Calf 450,000,000 Horse 750,000,000 Goat 2,070,000,000 Cow 2,400,000,000 Oyster Juice 102,000,000 The bacteria in meats are identical in character with those of manure, and are more numerous in some meats than in fresh manure. All meats become infected with manure germs in the process of slaughtering, and the number increases the longer the meat is kept in storage. Ordinary cooking does not destroy all of the germs of meat. The importance of suppressing this intestinal putrefaction is becoming more and more evident as medical investigation and discoveries are continually bringing out new facts which show an intimate relation between intestinal poisons and many chronic maladies, including gall bladder disease, high blood pressure, heart disease which kills 300,000 Americans annually, Bright's disease, insanity and premature senility. Many physicians are on this account saying daily to patients, "Eat less meat." "Cut out beefsteak and chops," and "Change your intestinal flora so as to clear your coated tongue and eliminate the poison that taints your breath." Nuts have the great advantage that although richer in protein than is meat, they are much less putrescible. Fresh meats are practically always in a state of putrefaction when eaten while nuts are delivered to us by the generous hand of Nature in aseptic packages, ready to eat, and presenting pure nutriment in the most condensed and refined form known to science. Fresh meats are always contaminated with colon and putrefactive germs with which they become contaminated in the slaughtering process. If flesh is to be used as food, animals should be killed with the same antiseptic precautions which are employed in modern surgery. This is never done, and within a few days after killing, the flesh of a slaughtered animal is swarming with colon germs, and when long kept for use of hotels and many restaurants, is covered with a beard of green mold. Such food is fit only for scavengers. Hamburger steak and pork liver often contain more manure germs than the fresh droppings of animals. The liberal substitution of nuts for meats would save billions annually. According to Prof. Baker, of the Department of Agriculture, fully 80 per cent of the total feed and food products in the United States is consumed by live stock. Most of these animals are consumed as food. The enormous loss involved is shown by the fact that 100 pounds of digestible foodstuffs are required to produce 3 pounds of beef. According to an announcement by the United States Bureau of Statistics, the per capita annual cost of meat in the United States is more than $80.00, which totals for the whole population nearly $10,000,000,000 per annum. Prof. Baker suggests that the annual per capita consumption of meat might without injury be reduced from the present 170 pounds to fifty pounds, which would make a saving of $6,000,000,000 at least, for $1,000,000,000 would easily supply from nuts and other plant sources more than enough food to replace the discarded meats. The general belief that nuts are an expensive food is an error. When a man pays a dollar for three pounds of steak, he is probably not aware of the fact that three-fourths of what he buys is simply water, so that the actual solid nutriment purchased amounts to not more than three-quarters of a pound, making the actual cost of the water-free food $1.33 per pound. Two pounds of almonds or other nut meats which might be purchased at the same cost, would yield twice as much and better food. If the whole beef industry were wiped out, the country would be the gainer. What the nut industry needs most is a campaign of education to tell the American public about the superior values of nuts and to correct the errors broadcasted by the Meat Board. The public must not only be taught the value of nuts as set forth in Mr. Russell's admirable book, but should be encouraged by government aid to plant nut trees on barren mountain sides and areas devastated by lumbering operations. If every lumberman had been required by law to plant a nut tree for every ten timber trees cut down during the last 50 years, a food source would have been provided which would insure more than an ample supply of precious protein and satisfying fat to feed 120,000,000 of Americans if the cereal food crops were destroyed by a drouth or predatory insects. If nut trees were planted along all our highways and railway thoroughfares, a food crop would be produced of greater nutrient value than that yielded at the present time by the entire live stock industry. That an educational campaign may be made to succeed was shown by the experience of the raisin producers of California. Some years ago, when the raisin industry was prostrate, I received a letter from the secretary of an association organized for the purpose of trying to revive the industry, asking for information concerning the food value of raisins. I called attention to the fact that the raisin is rich in food iron and a good source for this food mineral and suggested that if the people were made acquainted with this fact through a broad advertising campaign, the demand for this delectable fruit might be greatly increased. "Have you eaten your iron?" soon appeared in the newspapers throughout the land, and the raisin farmers of California found it necessary to enlarge their vineyards. A discouraging feature of the nut industry to beginners is the long time required to bring trees to bearing. On this account, it seems to me that state and federal governments should lend the industry a helping hand. I would suggest that this association should instruct its president and secretary to make an earnest effort to persuade state and federal governments to give more attention to the planting of nut trees in their reforesting operations. A broad belt of nut trees running the length of the great timberline which is to be created for the protection of the western states from a recurrence of drouth, might prove a more dependable protection to our food supply than the possible effect of a narrow strip of woodland upon the country's climate. I append a table which shows the high food value of nuts as compared with other common foods. One pound of walnut meats equals in food value each of the following: Pounds Beef loin, lean 4.00 Beef ribs, lean 6.50 Beef neck, lean 9.50 Veal 5.50 Mutton leg, lean 4.20 Ham, lean 3.00 Fowls 4.00 Chicken, broilers 10.00 Red Bass 25.00 Trout 4.80 Frog's legs 15.00 Oysters 13.50 Lobsters 22.00 Eggs 5.00 Milk 9.50 Evaporated cream 4.00 DR. DEMING: I am sure everyone feels that the trip here would be worth while if we didn't receive another bit of information but your paper, and they would really like to develop some kind of an ailment so that they could place themselves under your care. MR. REED: About five years ago I spent a few hours here in Battle Creek, largely as a guest of Dr. Kellogg over at his home. While I was there he introduced me to quite a variety of soy bean products and he rather disturbed me by telling me that beans had much the same food values as nuts. He reminded me that you could grow a crop of beans every year. You can't be sure of doing that with nut trees. He gave me an economic idea to think about. I wonder if he has anything to say about beans now. Are beans going to supplant nuts? DR. KELLOGG: I confess that it seems to me, from a practical and economic standpoint, that the soy bean is a very strong rival of the nut industry. I would like to inquire how many acres are at the present time planted in nuts. How many acres have been added in the last twenty years? There are, at the present time, more than 3,000,000 acres of soy beans being planted every year. It has only been a short time since they were first introduced and there are more being planted every year. I believe that the government ought to take an interest in this matter of nut tree planting, for I believe that is the best way in which it can be promoted. I have for several years been trying to find someone who has made a fortune out of raising nuts but I have not yet found such a man. I believe, however, that it is a veritable gold mine of value but will have to have governmental aid. I think the government should require all of these slaughtering lumbermen to plant nut trees in the place of the trees they are cutting down. MR. CORSAN: The nut tree is one of the things that will make the boys and girls of the farm love their homes. In a few years boys and girls will be going back to a beautiful farm, not to pig pens, but where there are beautiful trees. Nut Culture Work of the Living Tree Guild _By_ MISS DOROTHY C. SAWYER, _New York_ The Living Tree Guild appreciates the privilege of presenting a paper at the silver anniversary convention of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. We feel in a humble mood when talking to you. We are new comers in the field and the work we have done in furthering interest in the subject of northern nut culture is only taking what you have created and endeavoring to make it intelligible and useful to the public. It is something which arouses our enthusiasm. We have great faith in the value of planting grafted nut trees in the North. This new resource for beautifying and making idle land productive is no longer restricted to this small group of nut culturists, but it is now practical, for anyone with a little land and the urge to grow things, to enjoy the planting of nut trees. Our function is in educating more people to an appreciation of what improved nut trees are and what they can do as they are at present developed. Nut growing is just beginning to come into its own and the nut tree should take its place as a valuable shade tree, should be included in the home orchard and used as a paying crop by the farmer in the North. The Guild is especially interested in introducing and popularizing new horticultural developments. It publishes a new type of tree as a publisher does a book. We serve as a connecting link between the horticulturist and the layman, aiming to coordinate the work of horticulturists and to interpret the meaning of this work to prospective planters of trees. We act as a sort of educational sieve, our aim being to extend the number of tree planters. This is a sales job and the Living Tree Guild is a sales organization. We work through the press by means of conservative advertising and publicity articles, through personal contact by means of exhibits and individual interviews and through the mails by means of carefully prepared bulletins of information and well selected photographs. We work to gather all the authentic information and offer this to our customers as a unique service. Frankly we believe that there is no other organization in the country that is as closely associated as we are with the authorities on tree planting. Dr. Morris, whom we all know as the dean of northern nut culture, is a member of our Board of Advisors. In order to symbolize the grafted nut tree the Guild has adopted a brand name, Guild Pedigree, based on the fact that the mother trees have been carefully selected and are well known for their quality. Experiments have shown that they represent a selected family line and develop true to its characteristics. We have been in touch with northern nut tree planting for a good many years, but our sales work has been limited to the past three years which, of course, means that we have never tried to sell nut trees in so-called normal times. Yet Guild Pedigrees have bucked these economic obstacles and they are becoming recognized as offering a remarkable opportunity to the business man who has property and to the busy farmer to make their idle land productive with a minimum amount of care and attention. They realize that the difficult operation of grafting has been successfully accomplished and that they need only prepare the ground for planting according to the character of the soil and with a little pruning and cultivation within a few years may be assured of a new type of crop for which there is a growing demand. They recognize the value of these trees over ordinary fruit trees which require numerous sprayings a year and whose extremely perishable crop must be carefully picked from the trees. Everyone knows that a certain amount of effort is required to get good returns from farming, but comparatively speaking improved nut trees have a decided advantage in their facility of growth, which means that they can be planted by a much wider range of growers than almost any other kind of crop. In all of this we speak primarily of the black walnut which we recognize as the best nut tree for extensive planting in the North. We believe the hazel hybrids and filberts are of value as a secondary nut crop, as fillers-in between the black walnuts or used as ornamental bushes for screening around the grounds. Where local conditions justify it we recommend that the home orchard include a variety of nut trees, the English walnut, the northern pecan, certain hybrid hickories and a highly blight-resistant chestnut. The Guild has realized from the start that most laymen know little or nothing about the planting of nut trees. We, therefore, work with them individually, advising them in detail on their particular plantings. We keep a record of all Guild Pedigree nut trees, particularly of the black walnut, each one of which bears a tag with a serial number. We keep a record of this number and are gradually building up a case history of each tree, in so far as possible, in some instances complete with photographs. We include the conditions under which the tree was planted, whether as an orchard or as an ornamental tree, the amount of care and attention given it and its gradual development and increase in bearing. This is also being done with every tree that is included in the experimental orchard the Guild is operating in the Connecticut River valley. The data that we are obtaining in this way is aiding us in publishing the latest authentic information on what happens when nut trees are planted by laymen under varying conditions. We believe these records will be a unique contribution of the Guild to northern nut culture. By this means we can already point to certain Guild Pedigrees as having made unusual growth or only average development, together with the probable explanation, and of course to some that have died from natural causes or from attacks by woodchucks or the like. We can offer records of plantings of Pedigrees that have been made in practically all the leading states, Canada and even abroad. Perhaps one of the most interesting case histories is that of Pedigree No. 1527 which was planted in the spring of 1932 as a Washington Bicentennial tree. This tree, set as a single specimen, came into full leaf immediately after planting and a year later was all of seven feet tall and had three mature black walnuts for its first crop. It is the proud possession of two small boys. Young as we are in the field we have given authentic information on the planting of northern nut trees to several thousands of tree lovers. We have found a definite demand for detailed knowledge, and recognition of our work has been shown by the great interests in exhibits we have staged and from several awards which we have received from such organizations as the Horticultural Society of New York. An analysis shows that Guild nut tree plantings range from the true farmer to the gentleman farmer, from the small lot owner to the owner of hundreds of acres of non-dividend paying land, from the keen horticulturist to the youth who is taking his first step in following a fascinating new hobby. The selling of nut trees is a very special problem. It is not like selling other kinds of trees. We recognize the fact that those who plant Pedigree nut trees are in a class by themselves and we, therefore, set up a separate department for them, making a special study of the subject. We feel certain that there is a great future ahead for nut growing in the North with our associations cooperating in the distribution of information and stock developed from actual experimentation over a period of years. Above all it is important to understand what others are doing, and appreciate that the commercial side should go hand in hand with the purely horticultural. Progress Report on Nut Growing in the Ithaca, N. Y. Region _By_ DR. L. H. MACDANIELS _New York_ The status of nut growing in the Ithaca region was reported at the Washington, D. C. meeting of this association in 1932. Since that time there has been little change in the situation except that a few more of the varieties have come into bearing, and the severe winter of 1933-34 has injured the trees of many varieties. The plantings in the vicinity of Ithaca are confined chiefly to those of the Department of Pomology at Cornell University, and those of Mr. S. H. Graham who is a member of this association and has been planting nut trees for many years. Other than these there are only scattered trees either native or planted around the dooryards by amateurs without any very keen interest in northern nut growing. The purpose of the plantings at Cornell University is primarily to test out varieties for their suitability for growing in the rather rigorous climate of the region. Farmers and others throughout New York state look to the experiment stations for information regarding the possibilities of nut culture and the varieties which might be planted to advantage. As has been pointed out previously, the number of varieties adapted to the region is distinctly limited because of unfavorable climatic conditions. These climatic conditions are more fully described in Bulletin 573 of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station at Cornell entitled "Nut Growing in New York State." The breeding of new varieties and other investigational work is being carried on at the Geneva Experiment Station where, as you know, Prof. G. L. Slate has been growing many varieties of filberts for some years. The university plantings at Ithaca consist of about an acre set about 20 years ago, including a number of varieties of different nuts recommended for planting at that time. There is also about an acre of "butterjaps" which are growing vigorously but have shown little promise of value because of a lack of hardiness and generally poor cracking quality. The most important planting is about 5 acres of cleared woodland in which many hickories have come up naturally. These have been top worked to many of the leading hickory varieties. A considerable number of walnut stocks have also been planted in this area and top-worked to walnut varieties. Plans are under way to acquire 10 or 15 additional acres to be used for further variety tests as new varieties are brought to light in the various nut variety contests which are being carried on. Up to and including 1934 the black walnuts that have fruited are the Thomas, the Ohio, and the Stabler. Of these the Thomas is the only one which is at all satisfactory. This variety has fruited 3 years in succession and has matured well-filled nuts every year. The Ohio and Stabler have been shy bearers and in addition the nuts have been small and not well filled. Both are evidently adapted to a longer growing season than that at Ithaca. In 1934 one Stambaugh graft matured about 40 nuts. This variety appears promising but needs further testing. In another year or two at least a dozen more of the promising varieties of black walnuts should come into bearing. Among the hickories the Barnes, of which there are 3 trees, has fruited several times but in no case have the nuts been filled. The Brooks, the Stanley, and the Weiker have also fruited sparingly but the nuts have not been filled. During the past season, 1934, a few nuts were borne on the Taylor, Kentucky, and Vest hickory trees, which were well filled. It may be that these varieties will prove suitable for the region. The Kentucky looks particularly promising. The Beaver and the Fairbanks have borne a few nuts but the quality is not sufficiently good to make them worth growing. The Burlington hybrid pecan makes a very beautiful tree and has set nuts in several seasons, but they are not well filled. About half a dozen varieties of northern pecans have been fairly hardy but the seasons are too short to mature the nuts. They have always been frozen on the trees while still very green. During the past winter the temperature went down to -35° F. at the University orchard. This killed most of the Persian walnuts outright. Even the hardy varieties, Rush and Hall, were killed back to a few buds on the trunks and larger branches. This experience has been quite general throughout New York where the temperature went down below -25° F. It is to be hoped that some of the new sorts being introduced from the Ukraine will be better able to stand the low temperatures experienced in New York. The low temperature very seriously damaged the 60 Chinese chestnuts growing in the University orchard, killing the terminals back for several feet and the sapwood all the way out to the combium and down to the snow line. The trees so injured made only fair recovery and it is doubtful if they are worth saving. Some Chinese chestnut trees nearer Cayuga Lake where the temperature only reached -27° F. were only slightly injured. It would seem, therefore, that around -30° F. was the critical temperature for the Chinese chestnut. The Japanese walnuts were not injured seriously by the cold weather of the winter. Many of the more tender seedlings had already been eliminated by the cold winters of the past. The Japanese walnuts were, however, badly damaged by the late spring frost which froze off the catkins and new shoots. This has occurred several times in the last ten years and is a serious drawback to the bearing of this species. Hickories and black walnuts for the most part showed no injury except in the case of rapidly growing grafts. All of the McCallister hican grafts were killed outright as were a number of grafts of the shellbark hickory (Carya laciniosa). At Enfield Park where the probable temperature was about -27° F. one McCallister pecan graft survived. The filberts were quite generally damaged both in wood and catkins, except the Rush, which fruited heavily. Northern pecans had their terminals killed back about 6 inches but were otherwise uninjured. In my judgment the greatest need of northern nut growing is the discovery and testing of new varieties adapted to the different northern regions. To find and test these varieties is probably the greatest service that the Northern Nut Growers' Association can perform. We cannot expect that nurserymen will propagate commercially the new nuts which are discovered until they are sufficiently tested to establish the value of the variety for different regions. As has been pointed out, the Northern Nut Growers' Association is in much the same position as was the American Pomological Society 100 or more years ago when information regarding new varieties was the main interest of the fruit industry. In this connection it would seem to me well worth while to carry out the idea proposed by Dr. Deming last year which he called the Roll Call of Nut Varieties. The older sorts have now been planted sufficiently widely by members of the association to make it possible to get some adequate idea of their suitability for growing in various localities. Those who have the interest of the association at heart should do all they can to obtain and grow any new varieties that offer any promise of being adapted to their locality. It is only by carrying out such a program that we shall have any real basis for making recommendations as to varieties adapted to different regions. I must confess that I am still skeptical about a commercial nut industry in New York on the basis of our present varieties. After more than 20 years of variety testing in Ithaca only the Thomas black walnut has shown any real merit. All the other sorts that were propagated and recommended have shown themselves to be quite unsuitable to the climate. A grower setting out a commercial orchard 20 years ago on the basis of our knowledge of varieties at that time would now have practically nothing to show, except as he happened to have the Thomas black walnut, or possibly some of the hickories of northern origin. At the present time the number of promising varieties known has been greatly increased. They are, however, not available in the trade, nor will they be until they have been adequately tested to establish their merit. Fortunately some of the nurserymen growing nut trees are willing to run test orchards as well. They are few in number and of course their work must be augmented by the work of others in the association. What we need more than anything else are test orchards in different localities in which the relative yield of the different varieties over a period of years will be kept. On the basis of such data recommendations as to varieties to plant can be made with some degree of assurance that the information given is sound. MR. C. A. REED: Prof. MacDaniels may have told you of a number of promising varieties which he personally has been responsible for bringing to light during the last year. If he didn't I hope that he will tell as a matter of record how he came to get them and just what they are. PROF. MACDANIELS: Prof. O. F. Curtis of Cornell University and I made a pilgrimage of about a thousand miles back to the stamping ground of our youth with the avowed purpose of hunting down some of the best black walnuts of the region. The trip, though a hurried one, was packed with interest. In all, four walnuts were located which seemed well worth testing. Probably the best of these is the Albert Todd. The nut is thin hulled, a little smaller than the Thomas but with a thicker kernel. The tree was about dead when found but scions were procured and are now growing at Ithaca and Geneva. Another variety is the Emerson, located at Madison, Ohio. This is a large round nut with a rather tough shell and high proportion of kernel. Mr. Emerson has a good stand of native walnut growing on bottom land. A few years ago he sold 25 trees to a furniture company for $1000. The third nut Dr. Curtis found on a previous journey to Ohio. It is a large nut of rather unusual shape being higher than it is long. It has good cracking quality and deserves further testing. The fourth walnut, the Chase, is growing in a dooryard at Oberlin, Ohio. It is larger than any of the others, with good shell conformation. It has the reputation of not always filling out the kernels, a condition which may be seasonal or possibly an inherent defect. Grafts of all four of these walnuts are growing at Ithaca and at Geneva and will be available after a year or two. We had one disappointment in that a tree that we particularly wanted was found to have died only two years before. It was the old story of being too late. Certainly such experiences ought to spur this association to new efforts in trying to locate the best nut trees before they are destroyed. Some Random Notes on Nut Culture _By_ D. C. SNYDER, _Iowa_ Any notes concerning the behavior of nut trees in Iowa this year necessarily recall the trying weather conditions and these must be referred to again and again. Although winter temperatures were quite mild, catkins on the filberts and hazels were so badly injured that none bloomed on the filberts and very few on the Jones hybrids which had previously been hardy. The native hazels bloomed but set very few nuts, apparently because of their repeatedly freezing during the blooming period. The Winkler hazel seems to be a phenomenal individual and a poor parent, not reproducing anywhere nearly true. Thus far all its seedlings have produced nuts inferior to the parent variety even when they were from seed which was cross-pollinated by other choice hazels or filberts. They do, however, show much variation in foliage, bushes and fruit and what the second generation may bring forth is yet to be determined. Established hazel plants endured the extreme heat and drought splendidly, but newly planted bushes did not. Well-rooted layers and divisions planted out early made a splendid start, then backed up and were a total failure before the July rains came. That you may know how dry it was in Iowa the first six months of 1934, let me tell you that only about two-thirds of the oats sown in April in well prepared soil got moisture enough to germinate then, and about the same part of the corn planted in May germinated. Well, along in June a shower furnished enough moisture to germinate the remaining part, so we had corn 2 to 3 feet high and in adjacent hills only 2 or 3 inches high, and oats which were headed out mixed with others of the same sowing which were just up. The walnuts endured these extremely dry conditions better than any fruit or nut bearing trees. Young seedlings made quite a satisfactory growth and year old seedlings lined out for future grafting made almost a perfect stand, as did the grafted trees which were unsold and lined out at the end of the selling season. The heavy loss in walnuts was in the grafts set in May. This will be mentioned later. The shortage of moisture in 1933 apparently was responsible for considerable winter killing of young hickories which were in sod. There was no loss in cultivated ground. The hickories were like the apples this year in that they did not bloom much, and unlike them in that the apples ripened ahead of their normal season, while the hickories ripened later. Stratford nuts are usually ready to gather September 1 but this year are still clinging to the trees. Fairbanks is our most prolific kind. Nuts closely resembling Fairbanks, yet somewhat different from it, keep bobbing up on different sides of us when there is a good crop of hickory nuts. None of them have yet been superior to Fairbanks. Perhaps one should give each a good testing and keep up a search for one with better quality than Fairbanks. Certainly there is no reason for calling Stratford a hybrid. It is one of a group of shagbarks with smaller leaves and buds, and thinner husks than are found in what we would call a typical shagbark. The shagbarks might be divided into several species and be as distinct as some of the species of other trees, such as the ash for example. Vest and Hand represent another group with thin, wavy shells and thereby are quite distinct from the typical shagbarks. On account of extremely hot weather coming so early the nut trees were grafted earlier than usual and in this order: chestnuts, bitternuts, hickory stocks, shagbark stocks and, after a few days, the walnuts and pecans. The grafting was successful in the order worked. Immediately after the walnuts and pecans were worked the temperature began mounting, reaching 114° F. in the shade at one time, and of course much more in the sun and just above the bare dry ground. The chestnuts and bitternuts had time to knit together before the extreme heat and gave a splendid stand. The shagbarks also made a good stand. But the walnuts and pecan stocks were near a total failure. Apparently what occurred was that the grafting wax and paraffin which was coated over the scion melted and penetrated the union, like that much kerosene or penetrating oil, and prevented callusing. The cions remained plump and green for a long time except for a thin layer at the cut surfaces. The usual resin, beeswax, linseed oil and lamp black grafting wax was used. Can anyone suggest a wax which will remain absolutely dry under the conditions described above? What happened, as near as I can tell, is that the extremely hot weather and the continuation of it melted the grafting wax and the paraffin. They fused and made a new combination which looked like grease and absolutely prevented any growth. The shagbark hickories gave a good stand, about as perfect a stand as you could expect in hickories. Last of all the pecan stocks were worked. They should have been the easiest to work but they were a total failure. That is because the hot weather set in less than a week after they were set, while the others had more time. The problem I would like to see solved is one of a wax which will remain absolutely dry during such times, and I think then we will have solved one of the big problems of propagation. PROF. NEILSON: I've had more or less trouble with grafting waxes since I began to graft nut trees, and I have therefore been looking for a wax that would stand up under extremely hot weather and which could be applied cold and was not too costly. I think I have found one that comes nearest to the ideal. It is an asphalt tree emulsion made by the Flintkote Co. of New York City. This emulsion can be purchased in five gallon drums at 60c a gallon in Detroit. It can be diluted with water and applied in a thin or heavy coating. I used this wax last summer and I am better pleased with it than any other wax I have ever tried. MR. WEBER: I thought a few years ago that I had eliminated wax trouble, but finally I came to the conclusion that when you have a temperature that runs beyond the place that will melt ordinary paraffin the heat will kill the grafts. MR. WALKER: This question is an old one. Last winter and the winter before I did a little work on the old reports. You will find some mighty good winter reading there. I find things hashed and rehashed over and over again. The subject of grafting wax, of course, was discussed years ago. I might caution you on the asphalt. It will have to be the highest, purest grade. MEMBER: You can easily prevent wax from getting in between the scion and the stock by using a paper or cellophane. MR. SNYDER: These grafts were tied with tape. I'm sure that this oil would penetrate anything which was not absolutely air tight. Winter Injury of Filberts at Geneva 1933-34[A] _By_ G. L. SLATE _New York Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y._ Last year I reported to you the winter injury to the Geneva filbert collection resulting from a very mild winter. This year I am reporting the damage resulting from the coldest winter on record in western New York. Varieties that have withstood both winters may be considered sufficiently hardy for anything western New York and regions with a similar climate have to offer in climate. A brief summary of the winter and its effects on other fruit plants in the vicinity of Geneva will serve as a background for the data on filberts. The first severe cold occurred on December 29 when the temperature dropped to -21° F. This equalled the previous low record established in February, 1896. On February 9 the minimum temperature recorded was -31° F. or ten degrees lower than anything previously recorded in the history of the Station. The minimum on February 8 was -16° F. and on February 10, -18° F. Fruit trees suffered severe injury from these extreme temperatures. Nearly all the older Baldwin apple trees in the vicinity were killed or so severely injured as to be of no further value for fruit production. Peach fruit buds were all killed and many of the trees succumbed, even in well cared for orchards. Very few sweet cherry buds survived, and many trees were injured or killed. Delaware, Catawba and Niagara grapes were also killed to the ground or lost most of their buds. Japanese plums failed to bloom, and the trees were severely injured. Nearly all climbing roses were killed to the ground. Even the native elderberry, Sambucus canadensis, was killed back in many cases. Such was the winter experienced by the filberts. Before classifying the filbert varieties as to their hardiness, some general statements regarding the effect of the cold on the filberts may be of interest. The injury to the wood seemed to be due to a gradual drying out and the clear cut distinction between winter killed wood and live wood so evident in peaches, apples, and pears did not show in the filberts. The wood of the filberts had a dried out appearance with a few brown streaks so that one could not predict definitely in February the amount of injury. It was not until midsummer that a true picture of the injury to the wood could be obtained. This gradual drying out of the wood without the clear cut distinctions between dead and live wood also characterized the winter killing of the wood of grapes and raspberries. In the spring new growth on the injured filbert wood started late. If the injury was slight the foliage soon reached normal size. In some cases the early leaves were very small, but later attained normal size. With trees that were severely injured the leaves remained small until midsummer and then gradually turned yellow and died. Many branches were killed outright and failed to start or only a bud here and there would start. On the trees of a few varieties that were injured the least, a few small leaves were the chief evidence of winter injury. The recuperative power of the filbert seems to be nearly as great as that of the peach and pear insofar as this may be determined by observation in the orchard. In spite of the past winter the station filbert orchards present a fairly good appearance except for a few varieties. It is probably safe to consider filberts as hardy as peaches and sweet cherries. The flowers of the filbert show a greater range in hardiness than those of peaches and sweet cherries. The staminate flowers or catkins of a few varieties are definitely hardier than peach flowers. Not a single peach blossom survived but three filberts bloomed with only slightly more than the usual amount of catkin killing. The pistillate or female flowers are much hardier than peach flowers. The pistillate flowers are also hardier than the wood as flowers were observed on trees the wood of which was nearly dead by midsummer. In the older orchard about 16 varieties bore a number of pistillate flowers that were recorded as medium or greater. These did not all set nuts, however, owing to the scarcity of pollen, but the crop on seven varieties was about medium. It should be emphasized at this point that there were no peaches, practically no Japanese plums, very few sweet cherries, and very few grapes in the Station orchards and vineyards this year. Trees in the partially protected orchard fared somewhat better in regard to catkin injury than those in the more exposed orchard. That full exposure to the wind has much to do with winter killing of catkins is shown by the following. After the severe freeze of December 29 and 30 when -21° F. was experienced, catkins of several varieties were forced in the office. These all opened and shed pollen normally. January 29 and 30 near zero temperatures were experienced with very strong winds. Catkins forced in the office immediately after this were nearly all killed. Since zero temperatures are not uncommon at Geneva in winter, but are rare with strong winds, much of the injury may be attributed to the combination of wind and cold. Young trees were injured less in wood than old trees. This is well shown by a comparison of two lots of Kentish Cob of different ages. Nine 9-year-old trees were killed back from 50 to 80 percent in addition to considerable weakening of the remaining wood. Eleven two-year-old trees in the same orchard were uninjured. The importance of exposure to winds as a factor in causing catkin killing is further shown by a comparison of catkin killing in the two filbert orchards at Geneva. In the younger orchard which is exposed to the full sweep of the west wind not a catkin survived on any of the 66 varieties in that orchard. In the other older orchard which is protected on the west and north by buildings and spruce trees, sufficient catkins survived on three varieties to provide for proper pollination. In discussing the effects of winter injury on the different varieties it will be necessary to make a distinction between the two orchards. Orchard 6 is the partially protected planting while Orchard 16 is fully exposed. Most of the trees in Orchard 6 were nine years old, while those in Orchard 16 are six years old or less. Wood injury, catkin injury, and pistil injury will be treated separately. In the first group are those varieties which suffered very severe wood injury. They are Clackamas, Early Globe, English Cluster, and Oregon. The latter two are very similar and may be identical. These were all nine year old trees located in Orchard 6. The trees were so severely injured that their recovery is doubtful and the development of new trees from suckers will be necessary. Clackamas evidently suffered root killing as only one of the six trees is producing suckers. In this group the trees leaved out, but the foliage was small, usually less than one-fifth the size of normal foliage, and growth weak. By August the leaves were yellow and many were shrivelling. Varieties moderately to severely injured in Orchard 6 were Barcelona, Kentish Cob (Du Chilly), Fertile de Coutard, Minna, Purple Aveline, Red Aveline, White Aveline, White Lambert, D'Alger, and Montebello. In Orchard 16 the severely injured varieties were Garibaldi, Kentish Filbert, Marquis of Lorne, Princess Royal, Red Skinned, The Shah, Webbs Prize Cob, Bandnuss, Einzeltragende Kegelformige, Liegels Zellernuss, Multiflora, Schlesierin, Sicklers Zellernuss, Truchsess Zellernuss, Vollkugel, Volle Zellernuss, Romische Nuss, Kruse and Rush. The trees of varieties in this group were severely injured, but have a fair chance of recovering. In many cases from 50 to 90 percent of the top was killed outright, and new growth was weak. Most of the trees have a few fairly strong shoots from the trunk or larger branches from which a new top may be developed. Four out of 22 trees of Barcelona were killed entirely, indicating root as well as top killing. The last group includes those varieties of which less than 20 percent of the wood was killed. The new growth was weakened slightly or not at all. In many cases the tree is apparently uninjured and occasionally a single tree of a variety may be severely injured while the others are unhurt. Varieties in Orchard 6 belonging in this group are Alpha, Buttner Zeller, Cosford, Daviana, Gubener Zeller, Gunzlebener Zeller, Gustav Zeller, Lange Landsberger, Fichtwerdersche Zeller, Noce Lunghe, Italian Red, Large Globe, Medium Long, Bollwiller, Nottingham, Halle, Red Lambert, Gasaway, Guebener Barcelloner, Blumberger Zeller, Bixby, Jones Nos. 83, 207, 269, 310, and Corylus colurna. In Orchard 16 varieties in this group include Cannon Ball, Duke of Edinburgh, Pearson's Prolific, Barr's Zellernuss, Berger's Zellernuss, Beethe's Zellernuss, Eckige Barcelloner, Grosse Kugelnuss, Heynicks Zellernuss, Jeeves Samling, Kadetten Zellernuss, Kaiserin Eugenie, Kurzhullige Zellernuss, Longe von Downton, Ludolph's Zellernuss, Luisen's Zellernuss, Mogulnuss, Neue Riesennuss, Northamptonshire, Prolifique a coque serree, Imperial de Trebizond, and Russ. Native sorts in this group are Winkler, Littlepage, Wilder, a Corylus americana variety from the east end of Lake Ontario, and a Corylus rostrata from Rhode Island. Seventeen 3-year old French varieties were also uninjured, but in view of the general lack of wood killing, on young filberts, they are not included in this list. It is evident then that we have a number of varieties of which the wood is fairly hardy. Catkin killing was very severe in both orchards and only those varieties which had a few live catkins are listed. In Orchard 6 the catkin killing on five trees of Italian Red ranged from 20 to 50 percent and on six trees of Red Lambert from 10 to 20 percent. A few catkins on Alpha also survived. The remaining 35 filbert varieties in this orchard lost all their catkins. Several Jones hybrids in this orchard fared somewhat better. A few catkins survived on Bixby. Jones 269 lost 10 percent, Jones 310 lost 30 percent, and Jones 207 lost none of its catkins. All the catkins were killed on Jones 83. In Orchard 16, the story is soon told. Not a single live catkin was found in the spring on the 66 filbert varieties in this orchard. Of the native hazels Bush lost all its catkins, and Winkler none. All catkins were dead on the Corylus rostrata from Rhode Island. As stated earlier, the pistillate flowers were hardier than the catkins and nearly all varieties in both orchards had at least an occasional female flower. However, only those in which the number of pistillate flowers was described as medium or numerous will be recorded here. In Orchard 6 these varieties were Alpha, Cosford, Fichtwerdersche, Gubener Zeller, Gunzlebener Zeller, Gustav's Zeller, Longe Landsberger, Noce Lunghe, Italian Red, Medium Long, Bollwiller, White Lambert, Gasaway, Gubener Barcelloner, Blumberger Zeller, and Unknown. Five Jones hybrids including Bixby had a full pistillate bloom. Due to wood injury and possibly to a scarcity of pollen only a few of these varieties bore more than a few nuts. Varieties bearing a medium crop are Cosford, Italian Red, Medium Long, Gubener Zeller, Gunzlebener Zeller, Bollwiller, and Unknown. Four of Jones hybrids including Bixby, are bearing fair crops. The other varieties in this orchard are bearing only an occasional nut or none. In Orchard 16 the pistillate flowers were described as medium or numerous on the following varieties: Barr's Zellernuss and the Winkler hazel. The other 65 varieties bore only an occasional flower. No filbert pollen was available in this orchard, consequently Winkler is the only variety fruiting. In Orchard 16 were 534 two-year-old trees from crosses between Rush and various filbert varieties. The cross was made by Mr. Reed and the seedlings were sent to Geneva by the late Mr. Bixby. Of these 534 seedlings, 62 bore catkins. The catkins on 14 of these were uninjured, 19 had varying amounts of injury, and 29 suffered 100 percent killing. Three hundred and ninety-two bore pistillate flowers and 74 of these would probably have had full crops had they been pollinated. In view of the complete loss of catkins on the filbert varieties in this orchard, the survival of catkins on about half of the blooming seedlings is of considerable interest to the filbert breeder. In addition, none of these hybrids experienced any wood killing. If the list of varieties which passed through the very severe winter of 1933-34 is compared with the list of varieties which were not seriously injured by the very mild winter of 1932-33, only two sorts, Italian Red and Red Lambert are found to be satisfactorily hardy in wood and catkin. Red Lambert is too unproductive to be used except as a pollenizer. Italian Red may therefore be considered the most promising variety now available for western New York conditions. The nut is satisfactory and the tree is one of the most productive. Cosford and Medium Long may also be considered among the hardiest in spite of the complete loss of catkins last winter. In all previous winters they have been among the hardiest in wood and catkins. No variety should be eliminated because of a lack of hardiness during the coldest winter on record in the region where it is being grown, if it possesses other desirable characters. I think considerable encouragement may be derived from the previous winter's experience. We are at last down to rock bottom and know what is hardy and what is not. It is evident from the behavior of the Jones hybrids and Mr. Reed's hybrids involving a similar parentage that sufficiently hardy varieties will result from this line of breeding work to make filbert culture possible in those sections of the country that are not too cold for peaches. [Footnote A: Approved by the Director of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station for publication as Journal Paper No. 49.] Notes on Hickories _By_ A. B. ANTHONY _Sterling, Illinois_ I am satisfied only when I am trying for the best, and the best to me in nuts is the hickory. For the past nine years in the nut season, and sometimes out of it, for nut shucks tell their story, I have been combing my own territory with hopes of finding some hickories more worth while. About twenty miles westward from my home brings one to the Mississippi River. One hundred years ago most of this twenty mile land tract was covered with timber, more or less interspersed with hickories, most of which have been cut down. Along the Mississippi there were then shellbarks and shagbarks, together with pecans, the latter of which I understand are all gone now. My own location was originally prairie land out of which one could not go in any direction without passing through a woodland tract. These nearer woods held in nut trees more shagbarks than of any other nut variety, with the bitter hickory nut coming in second place. As I thought about it, given a good enough tree, it seemed to me the hickory was the greatest one we could grow. Grandfather had let pass his opportunity to save any choice ones. So had my father. And if the neighborhood zest was overfreighted with purpose to find such trees I had not found it out. It looked to me like a worthwhile endeavor not to let this neglect go further, even though chance finds were much lessened from what they probably once were. Having three or four kinds of hickories is no doubt a fine thing for us. Nature cannot manage nearly so well with them as can man, but she makes something of a hit once in a while. More than we think for, perhaps, in the hickories we are using to graft from, there is quite likely, in the sizeable shagbarks, something besides shagbark. Their distinctiveness, for which we selected them, is due to a fortunate, unlike cross bringing out their exceptional characteristics. What most hinders progress is quite conceivably a sort of swamped unchangeableness. That is very possibly the likely ailment we've got in our hazelnuts. There were no three or four kinds of them scattered more or less everywhere about the country with which nature could make chance crosses as with hickories. Seemingly my locality ought to yield as many, perhaps more, exceptional hickory specimens than many could. Here, or near here, the pecan of the south had reached its northernmost trek. Here also was the shagbark, shellbark, bitternut. And uniformity here should have more chance of a knockout. A riddance of sameness. Hazelnuts conceded no such diversity to help nature make freaks. In the hickory field was alteration, hope, and chance. In the assemblage of varieties there is given opportunity for crosses that nature occasionally delves into, and in the additional eccentric types getting mixed, tending to offer in rare instances special merit. We have then through mixture, not that fixedness that usually stands in the way, but a getting away from set types where once in thousands of offerings a more useful specimen is made, one nature herself cannot handle to our advantage, but for which we should have our eyes open, and make use of when chance comes our way. Just two years ago tomorrow I came upon what to me was an eye feast. A half grown hickory tree whose top-most limbs bent as in rare instances do limbs when heavily laden with sleet. And the nuts were of good size for shagbarks. With the shucks off there were forty-two pounds of them. They proved to be quite good crackers. I sent a sample to Dr. Deming and he very considerately gave them the name Anthony. From the shape of the nut, I believe it has a trace of the bitternut hickory in its make-up. Mr. Reed has likewise expressed such an opinion in writing me regarding it. This foreign blood tinge gives it, I believe, its jump in size and its rather attractive form, also I think, a bit lessening in quality. While we would like the very highest quality in our nuts, it is conceivable that it may be advisable to do with them as is done with peaches. Take the Elberta, with its many good traits, even though it does fail somewhat in quality. Having found this nut tree just two years ago hardly gives time enough for adequate judgement of its merits. With something like three-fourths of an inch of rain this year, from sometime in March to the seventeenth of June, none of our crops can be judged by their performance. Skipping last year, except for a very few nuts, this hickory came out this season heavy with bloom. I was watching it at blooming time. On May 23 I brought home from it a bit of bloom, laid it on a paper and the next morning it had shed its pollen. The next morning after that we had a frost on low ground. This tree is near such ground. With frost, and two dry seasons, this year's crop has amounted to but one and one-half quarts. Most hickories have done little since 1932. Another hickory tree found last year that I call No. 2 did have four and one-half pounds on it last season. It is hardly half grown, is a shagbark, my best find toward cracking out in halves, and the earliest in maturing nuts of any hickory I have found. It has no crop this year but is worth keeping an eye on the coming seasons. No. 3 is my best find in quality, quite good of cracking, good in size for a shagbark and has possibly a trace of shellbark in its make-up. While bearing light crops, it has been very consistent in doing so every year for at least three years. It is an old tree, medium early in maturing its nuts and doubtless could do better if freed from the under and surrounding smaller trees. Its crop, shucks on this year, is sixty-five pounds, or above eighteen pounds shucks off but not dried. To the best of my present knowledge, and with such conveniences as I had, and to aid in grafting, I should have been told to make a long narrow box, put a wire screen bottom on it, make a cover for it, fasten a wire at each end, put my scion wood in and let it down deep in a cistern, and let it hang two or three inches over the water for scion keeping. When grafting I should have been told to carry my Merribrooke melter around in an empty pail to keep the wind from blowing it out and to be able to better hold the blaze down and keep the wax at the right temperature. And when and if the blaze does go out, do not try taking the thing apart for relighting. Instead, split a small stick, put a match in the split, take out the wax cup, strike the match and reach down from the top for relighting. Talk to people about better hickories and you discern first that the subject has never been brought to their attention. On further discussion, when they are made to understand that worthwhile hickories can be grown, you come to the balking point. It's the crop! It's too far off! People do not let the time question bother them when they set out the usual dooryard trees because expectancy goes no further than trees. In our latitude grafted hickories, first of all trees, rightly should be in everyone's dooryard. It takes about as much time to grow the best ornamental and shade trees as to make a hickory tree. And the latter furnishes quite as much ornament, just as much shade as were it some other kind of tree. Even if one cannot live long enough to eat nuts from his own planting, plant grafted hickories anyway. Left to their own, and most people's council, their lesser tree selections would approach the eventual worth of a good hickory. Why not make the choice a good one? No one knows, so far as I have ascertained, the age of a hickory. It is much beyond that of an apple tree, at least in my locality. Of its close relation, the pecan of the south, it has been said there are pecan trees there now bearing nuts that were here when Christopher Columbus discovered America. Not long ago I read that there are something like five thousand telescope nuts in the country. (You know we here are all interested in nuts.) I can understand that it is interesting to search off in vast spaces to ascertain facts, but it is hard to understand why more people cannot find interest in rare and useful nut sports that can be strived for and, in addition to that enthusiasm, help give to future mankind that first of all essentials, food. Whether we can get a helpful clue with experiences of the past I do not know. But I often cannot help but recall a bit of the blindness of man when I think of the potato. It was once said that they were fit only for hogs to eat. Many years back when they were having war in Ireland, soldiers would go through people's home and take all they had to eat. It was found, however, where there was a potato patch soldiers would run right over them, giving no thought of there finding food. There then was a chance for home dwellers to better hold their own and it gave the impetus, the beginning of potato growing, to the Caucasian race and the name we have to this day, Irish potato. Years later, when they still had kings in France, their ruler realized his poor subjects could help themselves so much if they would only grow potatoes. There seemed no way of getting them to do so. One day, however, the king went and had a plat of ground planted to potatoes, set guards around it day and night, and let it be known they were the king's potatoes and no one was going to be allowed to steal them. That awoke the people. If potatoes were that good the king would have them, they would have them also. Franklin Roosevelt likes trees. Do you suppose we could get him to be a king to lead for the finest in tree planting, grafted hickory-nut trees? Another thing. Every bit we can add to the feeling and knowledge of our securing is a help to us. We have many people whose make-up is not one that enables them to provide for their later years, not even if they earned ten dollars a day over a long period of time. Planting grafted hickories would be something of a standby, extend away into the years, and helping too when physical strength is no more ours. So too, we can count too much sometimes on what we have in a bank. We may do likewise with an insurance company. And there have been people whose governments went back on them. Ours has, on gold promises! All one's hickory trees, had he such, are not likely to treat him like that, at least won't all die in a bunch! They won't even refuse a crop because of a depression! And if one couldn't eat all of his nuts or even any of them, they are something to offer in trade for that which can be used. Again, if I am not mistaken, there is nothing that we of this latitude do grow or can grow in field or garden that so equally takes the place of meat as do nuts. Speaking of gardens, it has been said "gardening is an occupation for which no man is too high or too low." Likewise could the truth be so said for so clean a pursuit as nut growing. History has spoken of "the age of acorns." We hope we can look into a not too distant future and rightly see additional help, food, leisure, income for everybody made so partially, in a little way at least, in an age with nuts. DR. DEMING: Mr. Anthony sent me quite a generous sample of his hickory and I got to be quite familiar with it. I consider the Anthony one of our best hickories. It is quite evident from his paper that he is a thinking man, and I noticed that he has found out in two or three years things which I have found out only after twenty-five or thirty years of study and which I thought were exclusively possessions of my own. MR. REED: The shellbarks and shagbarks are among the finest looking trees in Washington. They are symmetrical, erect and have dark green or light green foliage. At this time of year they are taking on a superb golden yellow. The landscape gardeners use the hickories for the golden effect of the foliage. Before we get through with this meeting I would like to get some reports from the people from the North as to which species grow the farthest north. Is it the black walnut or the shagbark? Does the bitternut grow farther north than either one of them? MR. CORSAN: Yes. The bitternut grows 150 miles north of Ottawa. The hickory is much farther north than the black walnut. MR. SNYDER: It has always been my impression that the butternut reached farther north than the black walnut. MR. ELLIS: The hickories go as far north as Lake Champlain. The butternuts go up as far as the line of Canada. MR. CORSAN: Butternuts go way above the Canadian line. MR. REED: In New England the shagbark grows considerably farther north than the black walnut and west of the Great Lakes the black walnut grows farther north than the hickory. MR. WALKER: I believe the bitternut grows farther north than the butternut. I think the rivers have an influence on them. Getting away from the rivers you don't have to go so far before they run out. THE PRESIDENT: With the exhibits is a picture of a Wisconsin black walnut I grafted myself. Dr. Zimmerman also has one growing. The meat of this black walnut is as white and sweet as an English walnut. I think it is quite promising for northern territory. Mr. Reed, did you have an opportunity to test them. MR. REED: They impressed me as being very promising. I tried to get cions but was not able to at that time. DR. ZIMMERMAN: I don't think I have ever seen a hickory nut tree so loaded with nuts as a Manahan which I have grafted on bitternut. The Taylor every year sets a bunch of young nutlets, but I have never yet seen a catkin on it. I don't know anything that will pollinate it. Until we select buds for hickory nuts and walnuts as they do for citrus and other fruit, I don't believe we can get very far. MR. REED: I have some hickories growing and fruiting well on bitternut. I've also seen enough of them not growing well so that I prefer shagbark to bitternut. I prefer shagbark on shagbark. Motion was made and carried that the next annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers' Association be held at Rockport, Indiana, Monday and Tuesday, September 9 and 10, 1935. Letter from Rev. Paul C. Crath Kosseev, Poland (_Read by Title_) Being eager to get on time to the walnut harvest in the Carpathian region and personally select walnuts for planting in Canada and the U.S.A. I borrowed $400 and--now I am here. On October 11 I sent to Toronto eight boxes of selected walnuts, about 50,000 in all, and I hope they will arrive in Toronto in time for the Royal Winter Fair. There are 43 varieties and amongst them some of very high quality are on the way to our Acadia. But it was no easy task to find out here good walnuts. I bought 1400 kilograms of different nuts before I picked out of them 600 kg. for Canada. Besides me three men were busy searching for the best walnuts in the orchards of Kosseev and Kooty. Inclosed please find a description of 45 walnut trees and their nuts. A collection of these nuts I am sending you separately. I found here that: 1. Every walnut tree bears nuts of different variety. The nuts differ from nuts of other trees in shape, hardness of shell, size, texture and flavor of kernels. 2. On every tree walnuts are of three sizes, large, medium and small. It depends how much sunshine they receive. Those nearer to the trunk and on the northern side of the tree are the smallest. 3. According to flavor the walnut trees may be divided into three different groups. Those which bear nuts of sweet kernel are the best. Those nuts which have some bitter flavor are not bad, but those which are languid or tasteless are no good at all. 4. Giants have kernels smaller than the cavity of their shell. But I was told that in this country somewhere are Giants with sweet, hard kernels which fill up their paper-thin shell fully. Some gentleman pointed to the city of Tchernievtjee as a source of good Giants. It is not far from Kosseev, but on the other side of Rumanian frontier. It means that I should go to the province of Bookovina if we wish to find those perfect Giants. I sent to Canada some good Giants, but not perfect ones yet. A physician who resides in Kooty told me that in the mountaineers villages of Rozhen (500 meters above sea level) there is a tree bearing awfully sweet walnuts. He ate those nuts but he does not know the name of the owner. Now it is my task to find those nuts. In the village of Twedeev (400 meters above sea level) is a tree bearing one year large nuts and next year small nuts. But those small nuts are awfully oily. I failed to secure nuts from that tree but I know its whereabouts. There in the mountains about 600 meters above the sea level comes the line beyond which no walnut tree grows. That line is stretched from the east to the west along the northern slope of the Carpathian region. I have seen some nuts from that colder belt. In shape they are rough, but one variety has papershell and sweet flavor. It seems to me that among these (as natives call them Hutzoolian walnuts) we could find some good variety for northern Ontario and maybe Manitoba. My nearest task will be to go along the cold line and select some walnut trees there. Kooty and Kooseev district are really walnut country. This district produces papershell walnuts for other parts of Poland. But walnut trees could be found five degrees to the north. Too, I wish to investigate walnuts north of the Dniester River and then proceed farther north to find the northern limit beyond which no walnut grows. I am going to publish 3000 questionnaires, one for each walnut tree. I or my friends would examine these questionnaires when filled out. Maybe we'll come across some extra good walnut through this inquiry. But the easiest way to locate the best walnut is to organize a walnut contest as you did in Michigan, with the help of Mr. Kellogg. With the help of the local agricultural papers we could have such a contest and I am sure we'll have an amazing success. Do your best to get some funds for the prizes. Then please go to the Royal Winter Fair which starts this fall November 21 and inspect my walnuts I shipped there recently. Create a judging committee of Prof. Neilson, Mr. Corsan, Dr. Currelly and others. Open a couple nuts of each variety and judge which walnuts are the best. Then write me from what trees I should cut scions. You see, I am waiting now for winter to cut scions from trees bearing the best walnuts I found. Then after Xmas I'll ship to Canada a large box containing about 10,000 walnut scions. I expect to cut every scion personally and that way secure the best stuff for the spring grafting. I am told that there are in Latvia filberts of very good type. Latvian filberts have grown eight inches thick in diameter. In that country the ground is frozen in October, like in Manitolia. It seems to me that the Latvian filbert will be ideal for the northern part of the North America. I wish to go there too while I am in Europe. I would bring the Latvian filbert to Canada and the U.S.A. if a small financial support could be given to me to accomplish this task. To assure bringing of the best walnut into Canada and the U.S.A. I made an agreement with a local gardener to graft for us 500 walnut seedlings with the scions I would secure for him. Thus grafted seedlings could be brought to Canada the next fall. Furthermore, I have an idea to create the largest and the best walnut which ever grew on the globe. For this purpose I selected several walnut trees bearing Giant nuts and I wish to pollenize them next spring with pollen of a tree which yields the hardest and the sweetest kernel. Such a tree is in the city of Stanislav. And here in Kosseev is a tree bearing Giants which before they are dried weigh ten nuts to one kilogram (2.204 pounds). I hope that combination could give us a desirable type. It is also desirable for me to stay in this country until the fall of 1935. Then I am sure that we'd have some desirable walnuts and filberts. I hope that my friends in Canada and the U.S.A. would come with financial help to give me a chance to accomplish my task. To assure the shipment of scions I need one hundred dollars. For my existence in this country I need $240 for next twelve months, and for traveling expenses about $100. All together I need $500. I hope that some Canadian or American would understand the importance of my expedition and will come with the help. Please put my case before some people who would back me in my enterprise. MR. CORSAN: Mr. Crath is a Presbyterian minister, he is out of a job and he is a man of extraordinary practical skill in agriculture. Now he informs me that, up in the Carpathian mountain region, in the valleys they don't have the English walnut, but the estates up in the mountains for hundreds of years have cultivated and selected it. The estates are being divided up and the trees cut down. He has gone up there to select these trees to have the nuts sent to him before the dealers get them and kill-dry to insure them against spoiling. The Chestnut Situation in Illinois _By_ DR. A. S. COLBY, _Illinois_ Illinois claims prominence as a state where the commercial chestnut crop has been a profitable one for many years, beginning nearly three decades ago. Before chestnut blight, Endothia parasitica (Murrill), killed the trees in the East, tons of nuts were gathered there and a considerable quantity marketed; these, however, were chiefly of the smaller native species and little attention was paid to the trees, most of which were wild. During the past few years some consideration has been given chestnut culture in the far West; this development, however, is quite recent. Two men stand out as pioneers in Illinois nut growing: the late George W. Endicott of Villa Ridge, who crossed the native American with the Giant Japanese chestnut in 1895, his work resulting in the origination of the Boone, Blair, and Riehl varieties, the fruit of which combines the size of the Japanese with the quality of the American parent; and the late E. A. Riehl of Godfrey, who for over 30 years, until his death in 1925, carried on experimental work in nut culture, originating, among others, the Fuller and Gibbens chestnuts, superior late and early varieties. Both Mr. Endicott and Mr. Riehl planted the better varieties in orchard form and found the undertaking a very profitable one. The third large orchard planting in Illinois is located at Farina and owned by the Whitford family. Here the soil type is less favorable for chestnuts and the water drainage is not of the best, but in spite of these disadvantages, the trees are productive. These orchards, with other smaller plantings in the state, came into full bearing at about the time of the gradual failure of the eastern crops and have made money for their owners, especially where attention was paid to sizing the nuts and to other advanced marketing practices. During the past twenty years, interest in chestnut culture in Illinois has been increasing gradually. Many plantings of the improved varieties have been made in widely scattered localities. Through the co-operation of Mr. P. A. Glenn, of the State Nursery Inspection Service, a survey of Illinois has been begun to locate all the chestnut trees in the state. By the fall of 1934, with about one-third of the counties surveyed, a total of 7,601 chestnut trees has been found, approximately one-half of which are of bearing and one-half non-bearing age. This latter group includes nursery stock and newly planted young trees mostly of named varieties. In a preliminary study of the approximately 3,700 trees of bearing age, a number of facts of interest were noted. Nearly all these chestnuts were of the named varieties, the plantings ranging in size from 1 to 800 individuals and in age from 5 to 40 years. Most of them were planted in orchard form and given some attention as to cultural needs. However, there were over 400 older trees averaging from 50 to 60 years with five, 80 years of age and three reported to be 130 years old. These older trees are in poor condition as a rule, with many dead tops and branches and hollow trunks, but still struggling for life and producing some nuts. Very little care had been given them. They were found along the roadside, in pastures, in the yard about the home, in rows bordering an orchard. Some of these older trees were known to be seedlings from seeds brought in from the East; others had been planted, the trees coming from eastern sections. Very few of these trees are infected with blight. They indicate ages at which chestnut trees may be productive in Illinois if blight is controlled. Satisfactory soil and climatic conditions for chestnut culture are found in most sections of Illinois, since plantings are reported from Pulaski County in the extreme south to Lee in the north, and in the central sections from Champaign west to Hancock County. As the survey progresses, it is probable that these limits will be extended. One of the reasons for the state survey was to make a careful inspection of the trees found for evidence of chestnut blight and to have the necessary steps taken for its prompt eradication. Blight was found in Illinois in 1926, and efforts have been made since that time to eradicate it. Only a few infected trees were located prior to 1934. Most of them have been destroyed. In this year's (1934) survey, 123 diseased trees were found, and these are being handled in the most effective way to check further spread of the blight. These trees were found in nine counties, mostly scattered over the southern third of the state, with one infection center in central Illinois in Logan County. Such is the present status of the chestnut in Illinois. What of the future? We believe that chestnut blight will continue to spread. The disease has been reported in several of the near-by states, including Michigan, Indiana and Iowa. With the scattered centers of infection in Illinois, it is probable that other diseased trees will continue to appear. Only the most determined efforts to check it, based upon a thorough understanding of the life cycle of its causal fungus, can be of any possible value in keeping it in control for any considerable time. Continuous inspection of the trees, with prompt removal of diseased material, such as cankers and infected branches, following methods recognized as sanitary, and immediate burning will be very helpful in checking the trouble. When the entire tree is infected, necessitating its removal, the stump should be treated by peeling back the bark and building a hot fire around the trunk in order that all bark tissues shall be destroyed. It is advisable, also, that all chestnut trees be given good care, especially as regards their needs for plant nutrients. Beginning with the young trees, newly planted, bark injuries of any kind should be guarded against. Extreme care is necessary in the training of the scaffold branches, as the tree grows, in order that the mature tree shall be well formed with as few large wounds as possible through the removal of large branches. The application of fungicidal sprays, such as Bordeaux, at intervals throughout the growing season, may be helpful. The trunk and the main branches, especially, of young trees should be protected from sun scald. Borers and other insects must be kept out. Injury from tools used about the trees must be guarded against. Any break in the bark offers easy entrance to the fungus spores. Wrapping the trunk with burlap or paper may be very helpful in preventing such injuries. Probably the best time of year to make necessary pruning cuts is in early spring. Pruning should be followed by the painting of the wounds with shellac, later covering this with a good grade of paint. The tree should be well fed to aid in the growth of callus formation to cover the wound quickly. Other methods of attack in solving the problem include the immunization of the chestnut against the blight and the breeding of resistant varieties. Experimental work along these lines is being carried on by individuals and Federal and State agencies, but the work has not as yet progressed sufficiently to give results of commercial value. If careful cultural methods are followed in every locality, with special emphasis on the prompt and thorough disposal of diseased material, by removal and burning, we can look forward to a number of years of profitable chestnut production in Illinois. DR. DEMING: Is the Riehl orchard free from blight? DR. COLBY: One of the same gentlemen who visited Ithaca the other day, by authority, is making a very careful survey for disease of the nut trees in the eastern and northern United States. The Riehl orchard that we visited last year about this time had considerably over 100 trees badly diseased. We'll have to do the best we can with the old trees but watch the young ones carefully. DR. DEMING: Don't you think that one of the commonest causes of the blight of chestnut trees is through the wounds and the inoculations made by the claws of squirrels? DR. COLBY: Yes, and also woodpeckers. The old trees can be preserved for a longer or shorter time, depending on the care that is given to them. We found the disease down in the Endicott orchard, even in plantings of mature standing. There have been several trees located at Lincoln where the disease has been found. Any of those old trees where there are any injuries to the bark will be subject to the trouble. Report on Commercial Cracking and Merchandising of Black Walnuts _By_ H. F. STOKE, _Virginia_ (_Read by Title_) The 1933 black walnut crop of southwestern Virginia was light and exceedingly spotted. Some districts reported a complete failure, a most unusual condition. The volume of shelled nuts offered on the local market was smaller than usual, due partly to scarcity of the nuts and partly because the mountain folk who produce most of the kernels were not so keen at cracking walnuts for a pittance when once they had tasted the sweets of 40 cents per hour on road work offered as part of the Federal recovery program. This, apparently, will become a factor in the development of commercial cracking plants. The price was better than for several years past. Home-cracked nuts sold at an average price of 25 cents per pound to local consumers, who took most of the season's production. Sales to northern concerns were mostly at from 30 to 35 cents for hand-picked goods, ranging up to 38 cents per pound by midsummer. I do not know present prices. The writer knows of no new development in mechanical cracking and separating processes. At the present time he is completing the construction of a power driven cracker of new design, but any report must await successful operation. In the marketing of kernels five channels may be considered: 1. The local consumer market, which should be cultivated as far as possible. 2. Mail order consumer, usually reached by advertising. A two-pound carton lined with wax paper makes a most satisfactory unit for sales of this kind. This package has been selling generally at $1.25, postpaid. 3. Commercial consumers, who are usually manufacturers of food products, such as bakeries, ice cream manufacturers, confectioners, etc. Usually these people buy from wholesale supply houses. In order to hold this trade the producer should be in a position to fill orders throughout the year. An "In-and-outer" cannot hope to hold this excellent class of customers. 4. Wholesale supply houses, who specialize on supplying commercial consumers and nut stores. These people depend on buying their season's supply as cheaply as possible during the flush period and distributing later at a profit. It is to their interest to demoralize the market early, so they can buy cheaply, and later proclaim a scarcity so the market will advance to profitable levels. They seem fully alive to their interests. At the opening of the past season one very prominent New York buyer was offering from 16 to 18 cents per pound for hand-picked kernels, though I knew of none selling at anywhere near that figure. This class of customer is rather unsatisfactory, though they will pay fair prices late in the season if a real shortage exists, and they are out of supplies. 5. A good, honest broker or commission merchant is probably the most satisfactory channel for handling large quantities of kernels. He is acquainted with actual prices and market conditions, as well as a large list of possible customers. His customers are usually commercial consumers, though he also sells wholesale supply houses. His commission is usually 3 per cent. As a note of warning, be sure your broker is honest, then stick to him. Some concerns masquerading as brokers or commission merchants are really wholesale buyers on their own account. They will charge the shipper a commission on sales to themselves at a low figure. The Baltimore market seems especially cursed with this sort of thing, though it is now, I believe, forbidden by a code. As a whole, Baltimore is not a very satisfactory market for black walnut kernels, though the largest in the East. I find Philadelphia and New York more satisfactory. The outlook for the 1934 black walnut crop in this section is most promising. A dry spring was favorable to a good set of nuts, while plenty of rain during the summer guarantees good size. Prices will probably be satisfactory, due to the extreme drought in the West and the labor situation already referred to. At this point I shall digress from the subject assigned me. The following matter may be left off the record, at your discretion. a. In my 1932 report I made mention of several promising black walnut seedlings found in this locality. Samples of the nuts of the parent trees of the 1931 crop have been kept to the present time. All have deteriorated to a greater or lesser degree except the Stanley, which is as sweet and good as when gathered. The Stanley and Caldwell are precocious as grafted trees. The Bowman seedling tree, which was reported as most precocious, is continuing its record of not having missed a crop since its third season from seed. It must be reported, however, that a two-year-old graft of this tree has not borne, as yet. b. One thing of interest concerning the black walnut that has been observed is the scarcity of the walnut web worm this season, none having been observed by the writer up to September 1st. Is this a general or a local condition? The year of the Geneva convention, 1931, was the worst ever observed by the writer in this respect. Do web worms occur in cycles, or do other conditions govern their appearance? c. The injury caused by the melting of grafting and coating waxes by the hot sun is well known. Last spring an attempt was made to overcome the difficulty by painting the waxed surface with aluminum bronze paint. The experiment was a complete success, as even straight paraffine failed to melt beneath the aluminum coating during the hottest summer here on record. English walnut grafts so protected were more than usually successful. Reflection of the sun's rays by the bright surface undoubtedly lowered the temperature to below the melting point of the paraffine. This lowered temperature was also doubtless beneficial to the life processes of the graft union. Direct coating of the trunks of newly set trees with the aluminum paint, without the use of wax, was also tried with satisfactory results. Applied direct to the dormant buds of the sweet cherry, however, it proved toxic, as the buds never developed. This was no doubt due to the bronzing liquid rather than to the aluminum. The material is very easily applied, either with a brush or spray, and makes a silvery, impervious and very durable coating. It should be completely effective as a preventative of sun-burn of the bark of tender species, especially to cover the creosote applications sometimes used by tree surgeons. Such black coverings often defeat their purpose in the hot sun by killing the living tissues by the absorption of the sun's heat. At the present time manufacturers are being corresponded with looking to the development of a bronzing liquid that shall be non-toxic to buds. Now if some investigator will come forward with a non-toxic, water soluble coating material for the roots of nursery stock, Professor Neilson's dream will be fully realized. Last year Mr. Homer Jacobs of the Davey Tree Expert Company gave us a very excellent report of his company's experiments with various coatings used in connection with the moving of large trees. It is to be hoped that they will add aluminum bronze paint to the list of materials tested, and give us the benefit of their findings at our next convention. In the meantime, the private experiments mentioned will be continued. d. A publicity stunt for the furtherance of nut culture is being tried in the way of vases filled with sprays of Oriental chestnut, with opening burrs, displayed in the windows of our leading department store, with a showing of fall goods. A card gives credit for the display. Judging from the enthusiasm with which the store manager and the window dresser received the suggestion, it would appear that the idea could be used almost anywhere. If living sprays were not available, a display of nuts hardy to the locality could doubtless be used in the same manner. Cards identifying the nuts and stating they were grown (or could be grown) locally would add to the interest. It is a matter of deepest personal regret that, due to a combination of New Deal, raw deal and general lack of a great deal, I am unable to be with you other than in spirit. I salute you. Nut Culture in Ontario _By_ GEORGE H. CORSAN _Islington, Ontario_ As most of you know, I was away from my place for six years, but in the meantime my nut trees grew and yielded. The past season has been most severe on nut trees and plants. Last winter the winds came straight across the land without any apparent obstruction, and it blew all winter long and we had no snow. Then a dry summer with a little moisture in the fall has created a situation that was never known before. Last year I gathered nine large baskets of filberts but this year I secured only about three baskets of filberts and these from bushes that were in a protected place. Most of the male catkins had frozen. The filberts in the unprotected places died. A Burlington Hican (purchased as a Marquardt) lived under circumstances that hardly any other tree could withstand. One Stanley shellbark lived and one died. It is strange how hardy the pecans are. Not a bud was killed last winter. It is seldom that the pecans mature a crop as the summer season is too short in Ontario, but they grow well and make a beautiful tree. We find that hickories grafted on pecan stocks do well, putting on two and one-half to three feet of new growth in a year. The butternut is so common around certain parts of Ontario and Quebec that the people do not even bring it to market, but they do appreciate it. I am carrying on a program over the air as I am the "Nut" man of station CFRB and follow the farm report on prices at 1:45 o'clock each afternoon. We are trying to influence the farmers to plant nut trees along the lanes, around the barns and in the pastures and thus beautify the farms and bring the boys and girls back from the cities. None of the work that has been done in the research line of agriculture has approached the value of the work that Prof. Neilson has done here in Michigan in the last few years. The surface of the farms can be planted to grains and vegetables and yield practically nothing, but you can plant a nut tree and it will reach down into the sub-soil with its long roots and bring up the finest food in the form of nut meats. Nut Growing on a Commercial Basis _By_ AMELIA RIEHL, _Illinois_ (_Read by Title_) I have several times given figures stating the size of our chestnut crop and the income from year to year. To this I might add that the crop last year amounted to 6,423 pounds and was sold at wholesale for $1,082.76. Because we do a good part of the work ourselves, it is hard to figure the cost of harvesting. But the amount we paid out in cash comes away below $100.00. We still think it pays to grow chestnuts, though things look pretty bad around here now. This was the third very dry season we have had in succession, and the very worst of all. We had no rain at all for over seventy days, and the heat was terrible. Everything suffered from drought. Even forest trees on the island below us died from lack of moisture. You can imagine what happened to the nut trees on the steep hillsides. All were more or less scorched, and many of them actually died. These are the old trees that father planted years ago. The young trees, which were planted after he was gone, on fairly level ground, are heavy with burrs, and I know will produce a fair crop of nuts as usual. For the first time in several years we will have no hazels. They bloomed very early this year and were caught by late frost. There are a few walnuts on some of the trees, but I doubt if they will be well filled. For forty years father tried to grow English walnuts, but never succeeded in getting any of them to bear nuts. Finally gave it up in disgust. After he was gone we started out all over again, planting several varieties that were thought to be hardy. Now for the first time one of them has set eight nuts. It is the Alpine variety, scions of which were given me by Mr. J. F. Jones. Of course, it is yet to be seen whether or not there is anything in these nuts. But it is encouraging anyway. We all send greetings to our many friends at the convention. Will be with you in thought and wish you all a happy time. Some Notes on the Hardiness of the English Walnut in Michigan and Ontario _By_ J. A. NEILSON, _Michigan_ In a study of the desirable characters of nut trees for planting in the northern part of the United States and in southern Canada, one is forced to place hardiness first. Rapid growth, high yield and excellent quality of nuts are of little value if hardiness is lacking. Hardiness, of course, is a relative term and may be applied to disease and insect resistance, adaptability to diverse soils and capacity to withstand extremes of winter and summer temperatures. In the present paper emphasis will be placed on resistance to winter cold and to unusual weather conditions, such as occurred during the autumn of 1933 and the winter of 1933 and 1934. In order to properly understand the effect of the past winter on the English walnut, it will be necessary to devote some attention to the weather conditions that prevailed in the southern half of Michigan in the autumn of 1933. A perusal of the meteorological records shows that the average maximum and minimum temperatures in September and October were unusually high and that there was a heavy rainfall in these two months. The following table shows the precipitation and temperatures recorded at the Kellogg Farm where most of our nut cultural experiments are conducted. September--The average maximum temperature, 79.1; average minimum temperature, 55.7; precipitation, 4.55 inches. October--The average maximum temperature, 60.1; average minimum temperature, 38.4; precipitation, 6.81 inches. The unusually high temperatures and heavy rainfall caused growth to continue much later than normally and thus prevented the wood from ripening properly before winter set in. English walnuts are found at several places throughout the lower peninsula and more particularly in the southern half of the state. In no place, however, are the trees numerous with the exception of a small area around Lexington, where there are approximately 100 trees. Inasmuch as this paper deals with the effect of low temperatures on the English walnut, the minimum temperatures of the weather station nearest to the places mentioned in the following text are given hereunder. Lowest Place Mo.--Date Temp. Allegan Feb. 9 -19 Bay City Feb. 9 -20 Caro Feb. 9 -30 Croswell Feb. 9 -26 Fennville Feb. 9 -20 Flint Feb. 9 -15 Grand Rapids Feb. 9 -16 Gull Lake--Kellogg Farm Feb. 9 -18 Hart Feb. 9 -22 Lansing Feb. 9 -18 Mount Pleasant Feb. 9 -21 Muskegon Feb. 9 -16 Owosso Feb. 9 -20 Saranac Feb. 20 -25 Sparta Feb. 9 -22[A] Leamington, Ont. Feb. 9 -18 Guelph Feb. 9 -30 Simcoe Feb. 9 -30 [Footnote A: Unofficial.] The extreme cold of the past winter following a warm, wet autumn caused a great deal of injury to English walnut trees in this state and elsewhere. The data presented herein were obtained by a careful examination of several plantations or individual trees scattered over the southern half of the lower peninsula in Michigan and in southwestern Ontario. To properly present this information it seems desirable to group the varieties or strains according to their place of origin. Group 1. _Cultivated Varieties from the Pacific Coast._ In this group we have Mayette, Franquette and Seeando. The Mayette has been considered one of the hardiest of the cultivated varieties and was therefore included in the plantings at the Kellogg Farm. More than twenty trees were planted and every one died last winter or in the preceding winter. Seeando, a new and supposedly hardy variety from Washington state, was planted in limited numbers in the spring of 1933, but every tree perished last winter. Franquette was not planted as a nursery tree, but was top-grafted on several large black walnuts at the Kellogg Farm and at East Lansing, Michigan. The grafts made a vigorous growth but only two out of eleven lived through the winter. In Simcoe, Ontario, where the minimum temperature was -30F, a six-year-old tree was so badly injured that it will likely die this winter, but should it not perish, the degree of injury is so severe that it will be of very little value. In the Niagara district the Franquette top-grafted in 1926 on black walnut came through in moderately good condition, but in this part of Ontario the minimum temperature was only 10 below zero F. Group 2. _New Varieties of Canadian Origin._ This group contains Broadview and McDermid. Broadview scions were secured from Mr. J. J. Gellatly of Westbank, B. C., who discovered the variety near Broadview, B. C. These scions were grafted on a medium-sized black walnut in 1931 and have since made a remarkable growth, but notwithstanding the vigorous growth there was no killing back during the past winter or in preceding winters. This variety was also grown as a top-graft by Mr. Carl Walker of Cleveland Heights, Ohio, where the minimum temperature last winter was -26 degrees F. Some killing back was reported on this tree, but the injury was not severe enough to be serious. The Broadview is reported to have endured without injury -25 degrees F. in British Columbia and in Russia, where the parent tree originated, equally low temperatures are said to prevail. The McDermid was obtained from Mr. Peter McDermid of St. Catherines, Ontario. This tree is a third generation tree in Ontario and is descended from a tree brought out from Germany more than 100 years ago. The nuts are large with a moderately thick shell and contain a kernel of excellent quality. McDermid has been grown as a top graft at Simcoe, Ontario, East Lansing, the Kellogg Farm and Estate near Augusta and at South Haven, Michigan. All of the trees of this Variety grown in Michigan came through without injury, but the tree at Simcoe, Ontario, suffered somewhat by killing back of the past season's growth. The larger branches and trunk, however, were uninjured and have since made a rank growth. The McDermid top-grafted on a black walnut on Mr. G. Tolles' farm at South Haven proved hardy and was one of the few English walnut trees in Michigan to bear nuts this year. At the Michigan State College where the temperature went to -18 degrees F. vigorous McDermid grafts on a thrifty black walnut were uninjured whereas all the Franquette grafts on the same tree were killed outright. Similar results were noted on several trees at the Kellogg Farm near Augusta, Michigan. Group 3. _Carpathian Walnuts._ This strain of Juglans regia was introduced into Canada by Rev. P. C. Crath of 48 Peterboro Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, from the Carpathian mountains in southeastern Poland. In this part of Europe the winter temperatures are reported to go to -20 degrees F., and occasionally lower. In the winter of 1928-29 a vast amount of injury was done to fruit trees and the less hardy English walnut trees in Poland, but a number of English walnuts came through without serious injury. Scion wood of some hardy selections was sent in 1932 to the writer by Mr. Crath, who was then in Poland. This material was grafted on vigorous growing black walnuts in the spring of 1932 and good results were secured with two varieties. These varieties made a vigorous growth, but notwithstanding this they showed not the slightest injury in the spring of 1934. The growth made during the summer of 1934 has been remarkable and if this unusually vigorous growth survives the coming winter it would seem as though we have an exceptionally hardy strain. The nut characters and productiveness of these varieties have not yet been determined in Michigan, but if they are equal to some of the trees of the same origin, then we will have very valuable trees. These strains have been named Crath and are distinguished by Nos. 2 and 5. About 100 small seedlings of Polish origin were purchased from Mr. Landega of Toronto, Ontario, an associate of Mr. Crath, and planted at the Kellogg Farm in 1932. These trees have been subjected to trying conditions through drouth, competition with alfalfa, late growth and severe winter temperatures. As a result some have died, but a number are growing nicely, and it is expected that some of these will eventually become established. Seedlings of this lot suffered only slight injury near Sparta, Michigan, but grafts from these same seedling trees set on a vigorous young black walnut were very severely injured. Another tree from this group endured the severe cold at Madison, Wisconsin, during the past winter and made a rapid growth this season. Scions from another fine tree of Polish origin growing at Mr. Crath's place in Toronto were set on several trees in this state in the spring of 1933 and in every case endured the lowest temperature without much injury to the new growth. A very unusual condition was noted, though on three young black walnut trees top-grafted to scions of this tree. On these trees the vigorous grafts appeared to be uninjured in the wood, but the bark at the point of union on both stock and scion was so severely injured that the grafts died. An examination showed evidences of bark splitting and this was undoubtedly caused by a severe and sudden cold spell following a very late and extremely vigorous growth. Scions of this strain were grafted on a medium sized black walnut at Caro, Michigan, and these endured -30 degrees F. without serious injury. A small black walnut tree at the Kellogg Farm top-grafted to scions of another Crath seedling showed bark injury on the lower half of the stock, but fortunately the extent of the injury was not great and the graft was saved. It also made a vigorous growth this season notwithstanding the hot dry weather and injury to the bark on the stock. Scions of this strain were grafted on a vigorous black walnut on the farm of F. Wilde at Wayland in 1933. These scions made an extraordinary growth that season and were subjected to a temperature of -20 degrees F. last winter. Some killing back occurred but no permanent injury was done as the grafts have made a good growth this season. _Pomeroy Seedlings_ This strain of walnuts originated on the farm of Mr. Norman Pomeroy of Lockport, New York. Trees from this plantation, or seedlings of these trees, are grown at various places throughout Michigan with the heaviest concentration near Lexington. There are also a number of Pomeroy seedlings on the farm of Mr. Grant Fox at Leamington, Ontario. All of the trees in the Lexington district were more or less severely injured by killing back of the branches and occasionally by bark splitting or bark killing. At St. Louis one very fine tree was nearly girdled by bark injury and will undoubtedly die. Near Ithaca another tree showed moderate killing back and in the city two trees were killed to the ground and one other so severely injured as to be useless. The trees at Leamington, Ontario, were also severely injured, especially those that bore thin-shelled nuts. Some of the larger trees in this plantation which bore nuts with moderate thick shells were not as severely injured, and this would seem to indicate that there may be a relationship between thickness of shell and resistance to winter cold. In this plantation it was also found on another occasion that the trees which bore thin-shelled nuts produced long vigorous succulent shoots with a large pith and loose, spongy buds. On the other trees that bore thick-shelled nuts the shoot growth was shorter and firmer than on the trees with thin-shelled nuts. In contrast to these trees the buds on the Crath trees Nos. 2 and 5 were short, rather broad and very solid. The wood also was very hard and well matured with a small pith even on vigorous shoots. This seems to indicate that there may be a relationship between density and maturity of wood and buds and winter hardiness. _Other Seedlings_ At various places in Michigan there are English walnut trees that originated in England or which are seedlings of trees that came from England. An exceptionally good tree of English origin grows near Ionia and is called Larson after the owner of the farm on which it grew. The Larson tree is at least 50 years old and bears nuts of large size and excellent quality in favorable seasons. This variety was propagated for the college by the Michigan Nut Nursery and some of these trees were planted at the Kellogg Farm in 1933. Unfortunately the past winter killed all the young trees and so severely injured the parent tree that its recovery is doubtful. Beck is another good variety of English origin that grows near Allegan on the Monterey road. The original tree of this variety was very severely injured and much greater injury was noted on seven-year-old grafts of this variety which had been set on a black walnut. At Vassar there is a tree of English origin that yields very fine nuts, but this one was also severely injured. Near Conklin there is an old tree of German origin and this was likewise severely injured, but not so much as the trees from England. _Chinese Walnuts_ The Chinese walnut is a geographic form of the so-called English walnut. It occurs over a large area of central and northern China, and it is believed that trees from the northernmost range of this species in China are somewhat hardier than the average English walnut from western Europe. The number of trees of this species under observation is very limited, but those that have been seen appear to be promising. The largest and best tree observed grows on the property of Mr. Geo. Corsan at Islington, Ontario. This tree was subjected to -26 degrees F. last winter and was somewhat injured. The growth this spring was delayed longer than normally and some killing back was noted. Eventually the tree started to grow and made a normal amount of growth. Scions from this tree were grafted on two black walnut trees at the Kellogg Farm in 1933 and a vigorous growth was made in that season. These grafts were carefully examined in the spring of 1934 and were found uninjured. Subsequently a very large graft on one medium sized black walnut tree died, but this was due to injury at the point of union rather than to the graft above. The remaining scions made a good growth this season. Seedling trees of another strain of Chinese walnut showed some variation in their hardiness. Some came through in good condition and made a vigorous growth but others were more or less injured. The limited number of trees under observation scarcely justifies definite conclusion, but it would seem as though this form of Juglans regia is worthy of a wider trial in southern Michigan. _Types of Winter Injury_ The following forms of winter injury which have been referred to in the preceding notes are given special attention hereunder. (1) Killing back of branches. This type was found on every tree except the hardy varieties of Polish and Russian origin. In some cases the large branches were killed outright, but usually the injury was confined to small branches, and the degree of injury varied from slight to very severe killing. Branches so injured were attacked by fungus diseases and some were beginning to decay and fall off when examined in October. Killing back of the branches was also noted on one excellent heartnut at Scotland, Ontario. This tree was subjected to -30 degrees F. but was less severely injured than many of the English walnuts noted above, and when examined in September showed a vigorous new growth throughout most of the top. There were also several vigorous seedlings from this tree growing near by which were only slightly injured in the bark or which were uninjured. It was interesting to observe that the seedlings of the old heartnut tree that were apparently of hybrid origin were not injured in the least and bore good crops of nuts this year, but the seedlings that were pure heartnuts were injured slightly. This point suggests the desirability of crossing the finest heartnuts with the best butternuts to get a combination of the hardiness of the butternut with the good qualities of the heartnut. _Bark Killing_ Bark injury is often found on fruit trees following a severe winter and is occasionally found on nut trees. It may be due to bark splitting or to desiccation or both. In severe cases of bark splitting the bark splits vertically and laterally from the ground up for several feet, but in milder cases the bark is only split away for a short distance. Where the bark is loosened for some distance around the tree or vertically it dies shortly thereafter, but where only a small amount of splitting occurs, the tree may recover if given attention. In such cases the bark should be cut back to the living tissue and all particles of dead or injured bark scraped off. The exposed area should then be coated with a good tree paint or asphaltic emulsion. The severest case of bark splitting observed was on a vigorous young heartnut seedling at Guelph, Ontario. On this tree the bark was completely split away entirely around the trunk from the ground up for several feet and the injury was so great that the tree died early in the summer. Within a short distance of this tree was another tree of the same origin that was quite uninjured, but this tree, however, was a hybrid between the butternut and the heartnut. On this hardy tree there was a heavy crop of nuts that were intermediate in form between the heartnut and the butternut, this indicating its hybrid origin. Practically all of these hybrids escaped injury even though the temperature was -30 degrees F. Bark injury was also noticed at the Kellogg Farm on several black walnut trees that had been grafted in the nursery and which were planted in 1932 and 1933. On these trees the scion variety was uninjured but the bark on the stock was more or less affected from the ground up to the point of union. All trees thus affected came out into leaf, but shortly afterward the leaves withered and the top died. Bark injury from splitting or desiccation was more prevalent on young vigorous growing trees, and on older trees that had been stimulated into a strong growth by fertilizers or late cultivation. _Suggested Means of Control_ Since it is impossible to control temperatures and precipitation, it is perhaps a vain hope to expect complete immunity from winter injury to the English walnut. It is possible, however, to lessen the degree of injury by certain measures of precaution. These are as follows: (1) Plant only the hardiest varieties. The past winter showed very clearly that the commercial varieties of English walnut or seedlings as grown in this state are not hardy enough to endure the severe cold that periodically occurs in Michigan. This limits the choice of varieties to those from central Europe or north China where rigorous climatic conditions prevail. As already pointed out, the varieties that endured the past winter were from the Carpathian region in Poland or western Russia and north China. These varieties have not been widely distributed in this state and it may be found that even these will have a limited range in Michigan. Their behavior, however, shows that they are somewhat hardier than varieties from western Europe or England. Unfortunately the supply of trees of these apparently hardy kinds is limited and it will take some time to work up a stock of the best strains. In the meantime, those who desire to plant the English walnut had better wait until a supply of the hardier kind is available or plant some other hardy species such as the black walnut. (2) Thoroughly drain all soils intended for nut trees. Well drained soils favor good root development and seem to lessen late growth, thus reducing to a slight extent at least the severe killing back that is noticeable on such growth. (3) Use nitrogenous fertilizers in moderation. Fertilizers rich in nitrogen may stimulate the late growth and predispose the tree to killing back. (4) Do not cultivate the soil around nut trees late in the summer. Late cultivation stimulates late growth and prevents the trees from properly ripening their buds and wood. This late growth invariably suffers more severely from winter cold than growth that is well matured. Nut Tree Prospects in the Tennessee Valley _By_ JOHN W. HERSHEY _Tree Crop Specialist, Division of Forestry._ _Tennessee Valley Authority._ This is a vital question to discuss in the economic welfare of any community, but the sooner the value of tree crops is recognized, the sooner will the agriculturists be on a more simple economic basis and I feel that the members of this association agree with me when I say that the Tennessee Valley Authority Board of Directors should be complimented by this body for their foresight in making tree crops a part of their economic scheme. In my five months of work the points that I believe are of most interest to this body are that I have actually made a cursory tree crop survey of the whole Valley--fifteen hundred miles long and seventy-five miles wide. This is the first time this kind of work has ever been attempted in the world on an extensive scale. The results of this survey have been approximately the following: (1) A keen interest by all the County Agents in the tree crops question. (2) I was astonished at the surprising number of County Agents that had been advocating nut trees as a farm asset. It gave me considerable pleasure to note the number who had nuts sticking around their offices they had gathered up because of their interest in trying to find a good cracker of either hickory or walnut. As we all know it would be impossible for me to attempt to fine-tooth-comb an area as large as the Tennessee Valley basin for thin shelled nuts, but with the enthusiasm shown by the County Agents we will have excellent co-operation with them in getting publicity in local papers for the contests that we have run to date on all the tree crops. The announcement of this association's prize contest is going to have an outstanding influence in getting a lot of samples of nuts and you can easily see the stimulant to get two prizes in the place of one is going to make a lot of men and women and children scour the country for the nut that will possibly take the prize in both contests. I want to say that I feel that these nuts, from the few samples and reports I have at hand, are going to give the balance of the United States a run for their money in the contest. My work, when developed along the lines as recommended, will not only comprise the development of nuts but of all tree crops in general. Not only in introducing selected tree crops to the farmers but in the breeding of superior crops. The tree crops idea like the Authority's power idea will have, in the words of Dr. Kellogg, in a recent letter to me, "It will not only influence the welfare of the farmers in the Valley but over the whole United States." First in showing the farmers on a worth while scale the value of tree crops and second in introducing this health food into the diet of the American people. Some New Hicans and Pecans in Illinois _From_ J. G. DUIS, _Shattuc, Illinois_ (_Read by Title_) I am writing a short account of the new nuts I have discovered in this vicinity, all in the Kaskaskia River Valley and not one fifty miles away. The Duis, Swagler, Joffrey and Carlyle pecans. The Duis black walnut. The Gerardi and Nussbaumer hicans. And the Dintleman hybrid. The Duis pecan grows about four miles up the river from Carlyle. I claim it as the largest northern pecan in existence, with the Swagler not far second in size. Both have been bearing the two years I have known them, the Duis rather prolifically. However, it was so severely whipped last fall, and the season so dry this year, that I do not expect a crop off either tree, though I have not visited them as they are rather inaccessible. Both graft fairly well, especially the Swagler. The Joffrey pecan grows alone in a corn field south of Pelican Pouch, a glacial moraine south of Carlyle about six miles. It is the plumpest, thinnest shelled nut of northern variety, and above average size. Fair bearer to the best of my knowledge, but a severe hail storm and a season of severe walnut caterpillars ruined two years' prospects. The Carlyle pecan grows in the State Fish Hatchery and Park at Carlyle, and I have only the word of the "game warden" and caretaker for size and quality. The same hail and caterpillar pest hit that tree. The Duis black walnut is from a scrub tree on Shoal Creek, about five miles northwest of Carlyle and is about crowded out by other trees. My oldest grafted tree from it is about seven years old and has been bearing consistently since two years old. Even this year, after two severe dry seasons, and a late frost that nipped the early shoots, it has a fine crop even though other trees, grafted and seedlings, are mostly barren. The nuts are medium to rather large and readily crack out in halves comparable to the Stabler when properly prepared for cracking. There are so many new walnuts I know nothing about that I presume there are better ones. I claim only secondary credit for "resurrecting" the Nussbaumer hican and the Dintleman hybrid, presumably king hickory and bitternut. The Nussbaumer is the hybrid mentioned in Fuller's Nut Culturist some fifty years ago. I thought of this for several months and corresponded regarding this nut and finally made a couple of trips down the river to Mascoutah and vicinity. I could hardly find a man old enough to know Mr. Nussbaumer, who was a druggist there. Later he removed to Okawville and from there to Texas, where he died a number of years ago. I was advised to see an old nurseryman by the name of Jacob Leibrock, now deceased. I was told he had two of the trees from seed. He had, but both bore bitternuts and he had cut them down. I did not think till later that they probably were not from the Nussbaumer tree and when I wrote for more information he had passed away. He advised me to see two men toward Fayetteville down the river. The first one did not know where the tree was. The second one did but was too busy to go to it, so I hired him to go as soon as possible and advise me and if possible send me some samples and I would return later. From what he told me I was sure I was off the track of the Nussbaumer, but on the trail of a new and better nut. He said the tree bore "sacks full" and the nuts were so thin shelled you could crack them in your hand. I went farther down the river to Fayetteville, not far from which place east the tree was located, but was there informed the tree was dead. However, the informer told me he had a seedling from it, but upon investigation found he had a fullblood pecan, probably planted by a jaybird from a number of bearing trees in close proximity, for I was satisfied by this time the nut was not even part pecan. The two original nuts probably never grew. The innkeeper advised me that Mr. Dintleman, a nurseryman of Belleville, Ill., had been much interested in the nuts and might have a tree. So I wrote him asking about it and also wrote Mr. C. A. Reed, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Mr. Dintleman wrote me that our well known Mr. J. F. Wilkinson, had a seven-year-old budded tree from buds he sent. And Mr. Reed advised me to write a farm advisor in Missouri. Through him I was informed a Mr. George Miller, near Bluffton, son of Judge Miller, mentioned in Fuller's book, had a tree thirty years old. In short, I found not only the one tree I was after but a second king hickory and bitternut cross with a shell so thin you could "crack it with your hands." Shall we call it a Hickbit? Mr. Wilkinson sent me graftwood and stated he expected we call it the Dintleman. The Nussbaumer, Mr. Miller informed me, is not a good bearer, but it may be due to location or lack of pollinization. I now have several trees of each from spring grafts. All the above trees grow in overflow ground, sometimes in water for weeks, called slashes. The Stabler walnut also seems to like that, but the Thomas does not and is outgrown by the three-year-old Stablers. I will know more about that in a year or two. However, nearly all grow very well on the prairie land around here and some seem to bear better. May I add another observation. Cultivation will produce bigger, better and more nuts, same as for corn. * * * * * Evening session. DR. DEMING: I'd like to speak for a moment about some old friends, one of whom we shall never see any more, Mr. Bixby. If you will take the trouble to go back through our annual reports and see the number of articles he has written and the diversity of subjects he has written on, and see what an important part he has taken in our discussions, you will get a good idea of the ability and broad-mindedness, the scientific knowledge and the honesty of Mr. Bixby. There is one thing that perhaps you don't all know, and that is that his collection of nuts has been sold to the United States Government. There is something fewer of you know and that is that this sale was brought about by the persistent energy, mental and physical, of Mr. Reed. The other old friend, whom we shall perhaps never see again at a meeting, is Dr. Morris. I've seen him twice this summer, had several letters from him, and lunched with him once. He has with him his devoted wife and his little daughter and he appears to be fairly well. He doesn't look very different from what he has when he attended our meetings. He is up and around and he walked about the place for fifteen or twenty minutes with Mrs. Morris and me looking at his trees. Some other old friends that I would like to call to your attention are our past reports. I suppose that I have read those reports more times than anybody else, since I have edited nearly all of them. I go back over them occasionally even now and I have been astonished to find the value of the papers and discussions that are contained there. I recommend to all of you who have these reports to make a review of them and see how many things were known during the early years of our association, as Mr. Walker has said, that we are now rehashing. When you go over the names of the men who made up the membership of the association in its early days, men whom many of you perhaps have never seen, or have seen very seldom, you can understand how these pioneers in nut growing would have had something interesting to say. I've made a little list of names of these men, some of whom are gone, and the rest of whom we seldom see. Dr. Morris, Prof. Craig, Henry Hales, Prof. Close, Prof. Hutt, W. N. Roper, W. C. Reed, Prof. Collins, E. A. Riehl, Dr. Van Fleet, Prof. Van Deman, J. G. Rush, Mr. Jones, Mr. Littlepage, Mr. Bixby, Dr. Smith, Prof. E. R. Lake, S. W. Snyder, Mrs. Erlanger, Col. Sober, Prof. Drake and many others. I think it will pay you all to look back through those annual reports and see what the pioneer nut growers of this country have recorded. Mr. Reed, I was saying that Mr. Bixby's collection of nut trees had been sold to the Government and that it was through your help that this sale was made. Now I'd like to ask you if there is any information that you could properly release to the meeting about the sale of those trees. I am sure everyone of us would be interested to know where they are going. MR. REED: The trees have been bought by the Interior Department with funds placed at their disposal for the purpose of planting trees for the national forests. Their attitude has been rather liberal in this case. They have felt that if they could get trees planted, regardless of whether they were planted on Interior Department land or not, it would be justified expense. When the matter was laid before them, they at once thought of the arboretum which is now being developed within the District of Columbia. The final purchase was made largely in order that the arboretum might be able to start off with the Bixby collection as a nucleus. A complete list of all varieties that are in the collection will go there. Another part of the purchase comes to the branch of the Agricultural Department which I represent, and practically all of the varieties in the Bixby collection which are not now in the plant at Beltsville will be sent there. It was the original plan of the Interior Department that all of the trees which neither the arboretum nor the branch of the department which I represent needed, should go to the Shenandoah National Park in Virginia, and it was with that understanding that the deal was closed. After the deal was closed and a notice was sent to the authorities in charge at the park that a certain number of seedlings of different species and a certain number of grafted trees would be delivered there sometime this fall, the Shenandoah authorities took the strange attitude that they couldn't use grafted trees. In other words, they preferred mongrels to thoroughbreds. We chuckled in our sleeves. But nevertheless they threw back upon us several grafted trees to find some place for. We immediately took it up with the Forest Service. They have land in North Carolina where all of the trees can be planted fifty feet apart, not cultivated, but nursed and cared for, and available for study by our own department and the state of North Carolina and any individuals. I have omitted mentioning that there are certain limitations on the ability of the Interior officials to buy trees for Interior Department planting. It is a definite policy of the Interior Department that in all national parks they plant only American species. That automatically eliminated many trees of the Bixby collection. But the arboretum wanted a good many of those trees and so did we. There are still in the Bixby collection several fine Persian walnut trees. We haven't been able to trace their source, but it is my impression that they are of Chinese origin. DR. DEMING: He had a row of Pomeroy trees. PROF. SLATE: He also had some trees from Chinese seed, because he sent some of them to Geneva. MR. REED: We have the Bixby correspondence. By the terms of the purchase Mrs. Bixby was to deliver to the Interior Department all of Mr. Bixby's records pertaining to those trees, and as far as she has been able to get things together they have been turned over to me. DR. DEMING: In addition to our annual reports I want to say a word about the reports of the National Pecan Growers' Association. Twenty-five years ago I took out a life membership in that association for $10.00, and I have been getting annual reports ever since. While they relate almost exclusively to the southern pecan they have also many scientific articles on the development of twigs, blossoms and fruit, on pruning and grafting and on fertilizing and cultivating, which are of importance to all nut growers. I think perhaps I won't go into the subject which has been talked of so much today, the severe winter and summer we have had. But J. G. Rush in our third annual report has a paper which is entitled, "The Persian Walnut, Its Disaster, Etc.," which describes events twenty-two years ago very similar to those that have taken place in the last winter. Nut Growing in Vermont _By_ ZENAS H. ELLIS, _Fair Haven_ In all my life of over seventy years I have never seen a time like the present. We have passed through the coldest winter and the dryest summer ever known. I raise on my place in old Vermont every kind of tree that will grow there, and try many that will not, or only with more or less protection. I have apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches and figs, with berries of all kinds. I have nut trees of many different varieties, hickories, black and English walnuts, filberts, hazel-filberts, pecans, almonds and butternuts. Which have stood the cold and drought the best? Strange as it may seem, my nut trees have stood the extreme temperatures the best. My hardiest apples like the Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, Wolf River, and Pewaukee have gone down to their death, or so near thereto that I never expect to see any fruit from them again. Whereas, on the other hand, my hickories, black walnuts, butternuts and hazel-filberts have not even lost a leaf. Wonderful to relate and almost unbelievable my large pecan tree, over forty feet in height, and a foot in diameter, is as hale and hearty as ever. August 15th last I picked and cracked some of my improved butternuts and hazel-filberts, and found the kernels large, full grown and normal in every way. Whereas I have not an apple or pear fit to eat, no, not even a berry either. I set out my butternut years ago in the position of honor in front of my house, and it has merited it ever since. The kernels came out in halves and often times whole. I have given away many of the nuts for planting, even as far away as Kew Gardens, England. Money could not buy the parent tree. I would not exchange it for the best cattle ranch in Colorado, the best wheat farm in Kansas, or the best cotton plantation in both the Carolinas. It is self-sustaining, does not require any subsidy from Uncle Sam, or any twenty-five thousand dollars a year official to regulate it. It is better than any dollar nowadays, always worth 100 per cent in gold instead of 61 cents, as is our government kind. The reason is, God rules it, instead of a mere man with any combination of the alphabet you can make. It is the same with my improved hazel-filberts which grow tall and rank and bend down to the ground with their branches heavily laden with large, well-filled nuts. My Thomas black walnuts are doing well, as also my Sier's hybrid hickories; both are perfectly hardy but not bearing this year as it is the off year for them. The butternut and hazel-filberts have never an off year but, like the "brook," go on forever. My English walnuts with some protection passed the winter in perfect safety. But the almonds, though protected as well, fared very poorly, showing that they are not near so hardy as the former. The other kinds of nut trees that I have mentioned, even to the pecan, withstood the rigors of the winter with no protection whatever. My true filberts fared rather poorly but are coming up lustily from below the snow line and will, I think, be as good as ever if the past winter does not repeat itself. What does this all mean? It means that we should plant more nut trees instead of so many fruit trees, especially the apple, which has proven more liable to cold injury than even the pear, if we would have any of the delectable valuable products of the tree kind. Why, just think of it, a few nut trees planted around every home in the country would do more to relieve the present depression than all the other agencies and remedies put together. Frost does not impair their fruit. Nuts will keep through the year or longer. Insects do not injure them as they do the soft, unprotected fruits. Squirrels may take their toll but they are far easier to destroy than a bug. To hunt them is grand sport for young people, whereas to chase a bug is no fun at all. The workman, the professional man, the merchant, should especially raise them as they would take no time from their business. Their children would think it no work at all to gather them, that is if they were like the children of my youth who looked forward to gathering nuts as one of the pleasantest pastimes of the year. If all our city parks, public squares, playgrounds, roadsides, waste places and other like areas were planted with them, all children even to the poorest could have a sufficiency of the healthiest food that would build up their bodies into strong healthy adults who could go out into the country and build it up again as it was years ago, instead of the vast, desolate region it is now. What makes children so puny and so unwilling to do any real work today? It is because emigration from nut-eating countries being shut off, and our native nut trees cut down or uncared for, there is nothing to keep up the supply of the best food for the body today. The remedy is to raise more nuts so the children and adults as well can again be fed on the most valuable, healthy and strength-giving food God ever made. Then, too, crime would be greatly reduced, especially of the juvenile kind. The spare time of our youth would be taken up for about three months in a year with a clean, pure, pleasant, agreeable occupation instead of searching for mischief and quasi-vicious adventures. Have no juvenile crime and the adult crime is reduced to a minimum, or obliterated entirely. God started man on a nut eating diet and kept him thereon for centuries. As long as he stuck to it he was all right. We do not hear much about that era, for happy is the nation that has no history. Then he had no diseases to speak of except extreme old age, no wars and hardly any troubles. But when, in the Garden of Eden, the Devil tempted him to switch off onto some other diet, he has been wrong ever since. So then, let us return to our old diet as far as possible and have something of an Eden again about us today. Perhaps you people of Michigan would like to know what my town of Fair Haven is. It gave you James Witherell who, while congressman from Vermont, resigned to accept the supreme judgeship of the great territory of Michigan. In the war of 1812 he had command of the troops thereof and, when ordered by the cowardly General Hull to surrender them to the British, absolutely refused. After that war he laid out anew the war stricken city of Detroit. His grandson, Thomas Witherell Palmer, the son of a native born Fair Haven girl, became your United States Senator, Minister to Spain and, in 1893, President of the World Fair commission at Chicago. He gave to Detroit that large and beautiful park named after him. So you see Henry Ford is not the whole architect of that great city, as good Vermont blood had to relay its foundations and get it well under way for that great auto magnate to make it the fourth city in the Union. A Roll Call of the Nuts _By_ DR. W. C. DEMING _Connecticut_ In the report of the proceedings at the eighth annual meeting of this association, held at Stamford, Conn., September 5 and 6, 1917, is an address by the Vice President, Prof. W. N. Hutt of North Carolina, entitled "Reasons for Our Limited Knowledge as to What Varieties of Nut Trees to Plant." I quote from that address: "In 1847 the American Pomological Society was formed as a national clearing house of horticultural ideas. The first work the society undertook was to determine the varieties of the different classes of fruits suitable for planting in different sections of the country. Patrick Barry of Rochester, one of the pioneers of American horticulture, was for years the chairman of the committee on varietal adaptation and did an immense amount of work on that line. At the meetings of the society he went alphabetically over the variety lists of fruits and called for reports on each one from growers all over the country. This practice was kept up for years and the resulting data were collected and compiled in the society's reports. A similar systematic roll call of classes and varieties of nuts grown by the members of this association would be of immense value to intending planters of nut trees. In northern nut growing, however, it may be questioned if we have yet arrived at the Patrick Barry stage." These were the words of Prof. Hutt in 1917, seventeen years ago. I believe that nut growing has now arrived at the Patrick Barry stage. It seems right, therefore, that we should begin to have an annual roll call of the nuts. To this end I have prepared a list of nuts of the different genera, species and varieties grown in the northeastern United States. This list is long but by no means complete and this, by the nature of things, it can never be. It is evident that there will not be time enough to go over more than a small part of this list. It is, therefore, proposed to have the list mimeographed and sent to all members for their reports. Members are asked particularly to add to the list the names and performances of any varieties not listed of which they may have knowledge. In this way we shall soon be able to make our lists as nearly complete as possible. In order to reduce bulk and expense it will be necessary to print the names in compact form. It is suggested that the lists be kept for reference and that any report be made on a separate sheet under the proper heading. I will go as far in it now as you want me to. As I call the names of the nuts on this list I will ask the members present to report, as briefly as possible, any knowledge they may have as to the performance of each nut, such as the earliness of its fruiting, size and regularity of crops, growth and vigor of tree and character of nuts. HICKORIES THE ANTHONY: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE BARNES (Shag. x Mock.): Dr. MacDaniels: There are some at Itaca which bear. Dr. Deming: This is undoubtedly a Shagbark--mockernut hybrid. It is entirely at home when grafted on the mockernut. This makes it of value for there are few of our named hickories that will do well when grafted on the mockernut. In 1933 I top-worked a mockernut with ten grafts of the Barnes. In 1934 it bore 30 fine nuts. It appears to be an excellent nut. There are three other nuts that I know do well on the mockernut. One is the Wampler from Indiana introduced by W. C. Reed. Another is the Minnie raised by Mr. S. W. Snyder. The fourth nut is the Gobble. The Barnes is mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 23, 1932 proceedings. Carl Weschcke has it growing at River Falls, Wis. THE BATES (pecan x Mock.): Mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 23, 1932. THE BEAM: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE BEAVER (Shag. x Bitter.): Dr. Deming: It grows rapidly. The nuts are not of very good quality, like most bitternut hybrids. The Beaver is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek and is mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. Carl Weschcke has it growing at River Falls, Wis. E. C. Rice, Absher, Ky., has one one-year graft on bitternut, height 5 feet. J. H. Gage, Hamilton, Ont., has one Beaver tree planted in 1924 and moved in 1925 growing in light sandy soil on north shore at west end Lake Ontario. Diameter of the trunk is about three inches, tree fifteen feet high, bore first time in 1934. It is growing at the Riehl Farm, Godfrey, Ill., and in the Jones Nursery, Lancaster, Pa. THE BEAM: Is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE BILLAU: Is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE BONTRAGER (Shag.): Won third prize in 1929 contest, page 53, 1931. Tree owned by John D. Bontrager, Middlebury, Ind. THE BROOKS (Shag.): Is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. It won ninth prize in 1929 contest, page 53, 1931, to Mrs. John Brooks, Ottumwa, Iowa. Carl Weschcke has it growing at River Falls, Wis. THE BURLINGTON (Pecan x shell.): Dr. Deming: The true name of the nut we call Marquardt. The Michigan Nut Nursery have trees bearing. Miss Jones: A characteristic of all shellbark x pecan hybrids is that they don't fill well. Mr. Corsan: Are they in exceedingly rich soil or just ordinary? I find that nuts respond to rich soil. Miss Jones: They are in ordinary soil. Dr. MacDaniels: We have two trees at Ithaca about ten years old which have borne but the nuts have not filled very well. Dr. Deming: Is the Burlington worth growing? Does it fill so badly that it is not a success? Miss Jones: The kernel fills out about three-fourths of the way. It fills better than the McCallister. Mr. Corsan: I have never seen such a fine nut in my life. Mr. Wilkinson: It is a good hybrid and a wonderful bearer. Dr. Deming: Every year? Mr. Wilkinson: Yes, and matures unusually early. The Burlington is in the Riehl plantings at Godfrey, Ill. It is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Carl Weschcke has young trees growing at River Falls, Wis. Sargeant H. Wellman has some young trees at Topsfield, Mass. F. H. Frey has young tree in yard at Chicago, but it has not borne nuts as yet. Foliage is beautiful, leaves being rather broad but some kind of blight seems to turn them dark and they curl up about middle of the summer. J. W. Hershey: Of the hybrid hickories the Burlington should be eliminated from the list and a great many others of the hickories should be thrown out as rapidly as possible. THE BURTON (pecan x shell.): Mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. It is growing in Riehl plantings at Godfrey, Ill., and on Kellogg farm, Michigan. THE CALDWELL: It is growing in the Riehl plantings at Godfrey, Ill. THE CASPER: Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Parent tree in Illinois. THE CEDAR RAPIDS: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report, also Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. It is growing on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill., the Kellogg farm at Battle Creek, Mich., and in the Carl Weschcke plantings at River Falls, Wis. THE CLARK (shag.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's in 1931 report. This hickory is growing on the Carl Weschcke place at River Falls, Wis., and in Sargeant H. Wellman's nut orchard at Topsfield, Mass. THE COMINS: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE COOK (shag.): See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE CREAGER: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. This hickory is growing in the Kellogg farm plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE DENNIS (shag.): See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. This hickory is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., and in Carl Weschcke nut orchard at River Falls, Wis. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports the Dennis promises to be a heavy, early bearer of fairly good quality. THE DES MOINES (pecan x shell.): Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and by Dr. Zimmerman, page 20, 1932. Is growing in the Riehl and Kellogg farms plantings. THE DREW (shag.): See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and his paper in 1931 report. THE EDABURN: Mentioned by Mr. Bixby in his paper in 1926 report. Carl Weschcke has it growing in his orchard at River Falls, Wis. THE EMERICK: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE EUREKA (shell.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE EVERSMAN (shell.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE FAIRBANKS (shag. x bitter.): Mr. Corsan: I had eleven nuts on my tree last year. They are very small trees. Dr. Neilson: A Fairbanks grafted on a pignut in the spring of 1931 at the Kellogg estate has quite a few nuts on it this season. Miss Jones: They bear well and regularly. Dr. Deming: Yes, they do at my place, too. Mr. Corsan: What kind of a flavor has it? Dr. Deming: It is bitter when you keep it but not when fresh. Mr. Snyder: Don't judge them by one nut. They get better as you eat them. The more you eat the better you like them. Miss Jones: People that try them at our place don't notice much difference between those hybrids and the shellbarks. I give them to people any time during the winter, and they don't notice the difference. Mr. Reed: Mr. Bixby said at one of the conventions that the Fairbanks was a good grower, easy to propagate, bore well, not so good as to size, thin shelled and had all the desirable characteristics of a good nut except that it wasn't good to eat. See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. The Fairbanks is mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. It is growing in the Riehl orchard at Godfrey, Ill., the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., in the Carl Weschcke orchard at River Falls, Wis., and in the E. C. Rice plantings at Absher, Ky. Sargeant H. Wellman has some young Fairbanks trees at Topsfield, Mass. Mr. W. R. Fickes reports it is a very poor quality hickory at Wooster, Ohio, but may be valuable for double working. THE FLUHR (shag. x shell.): Awarded seventh prize in 1929 contest, page 53, 1931 report, to Edgar Fluhr, Kiel, Wis. THE FREEL (shag.): Entered in 1929 contest by Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa. THE FROMAN (shag.): Awarded ninth prize in 1929 contest to Arlie W. Froman, Bacon, Ind. THE GALLOWAY: H. R. Weber: I notice the Galloway is not listed among the hickory hybrids. The parent tree is growing in Hamilton County, Ohio, and, is supposed to be a pecan x bitternut hybrid. THE GERARDI (pecan x shell.): A Member: It is like the Nussbaumer. This hybrid is mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. Also see description by Joseph Gerardi, page 45, 1932 report. It is growing in the Riehl plantings at Godfrey, Ill., and the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE GISSEL: It is growing in the Riehl plantings at Godfrey, Ill., and in orchard of Carl Weschcke at River Falls, Wis. THE GLOVER (shag.): It is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. It is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., the Carl Weschcke orchard at River Falls, Wis., and the Sargeant H. Wellman orchard at Topsfield, Mass. E. C. Rice, Absher, Ky., has two-year grafts on shellbark and bitternut stocks. It seems to do better on the shellbark stocks. THE GOBBLE (shag.): Mentioned on page 54, 1931 report. Tree owned by William Gobble, Holsten, Va. THE GOHEEN (shag.): Awarded sixth prize in 1929 contest to Mrs. Hamill Goheen, Pennsylvania Furnace, Penna. Sargeant H. Wellman has young trees growing at Topsfield, Mass. THE GREEN: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE GREENBAY (pecan x shell.): Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. THE GRIFFIN: Mr. Bixby, page 15, 1928, report, states it is an early bearer. Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa., reports the Griffin is precocious when grafted on pecan but cracking test by Mr. C. A. Reed shows it to have a very low cracking value. THE GRUPE: Is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. It is growing in the Jones Nursery at Lancaster, Pa. THE HAGEN (shag. x shell.): Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. It was awarded ninth prize in 1929 contest. Parent tree owned by Mrs. C. E. Hagen, Guttenberg, Iowa. It is growing in the Snyder Bros.' plantings at Center Point, Iowa, the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., and in the Carl Weschcke orchard at River Falls, Wis. THE HALES (shag.): Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE HAND: Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. It is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., and in the orchard of Carl Weschcke at River Falls., Wis. THE HILL (shell.): Introduced by S. W. Snyder, Center Point, Iowa, and mentioned by Mr. Bixby in his paper in 1926 report. THE HUBER: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE HUFF: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE IOWA (shell.): Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE KELSEY: Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Carl Weschcke has it growing in his orchard at River Falls, Wis. THE KENTUCKY (shag. x mock.): Dr. Deming: This is said to be a shagbark x mockernut hybrid but I see no reason for the belief. It is a vigorous grower. One year my trees were liberally sprinkled with nuts. I know that they bear from year to year, but the squirrels get the nuts. I think it is a shy bearer. Dr. Zimmerman: It bears regularly at my place but at Mr. Littlepage's it isn't bearing. This hickory is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 23, 1932. THE KIRTLAND (shag.): Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and in Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. It is growing in the Jones Nursery at Lancaster, Pa., and in the orchards of Carl Weschcke, River Falls, Wis., and of Sargeant H. Wellman at Topsfield, Mass. THE LAKE (shag.): Awarded first prize in 1929 contest to Mrs. C. Lake, New Haven, Ind., R. R. 1. THE LEONARD (shell.): Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE LANEY (shag. x bitter.): See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Dr. Deming: I have never known them to bear anything yet at my place in Connecticut. Dr. Zimmerman: They haven't borne at my place, either. See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. The Laney hickory is growing in the Jones Nursery at Lancaster, Pa., the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., and the Carl Weschcke orchard at River Falls, Wis. THE LINGENFELTER (shag.): Mentioned in Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. It is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE MANAHAN (shag.): Mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and in Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. It is growing in the Riehl orchard at Godfrey, Ill., and the Carl Weschcke orchard at River Falls, Wis. THE MANN (of Michigan shag.): See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE MANN (of Ohio, shag. x shell.): Awarded ninth prize in 1929 contest to Howard Mann, Delta, Ohio. THE McCALLISTER (pecan x shell.): Dr. Deming: Has anyone any new information about the filling or bearing of the McCallister? Mr. Wilkinson: It fills well but not heavily. Mr. Reed: I have watched the McCallister for years and years and the nuts have failed to fill. But there is a tree that has the reputation of bearing a very considerable quantity of nuts. We went over to see the tree and we found that it stood where the soil was very rich. I have wanted ever since then to try some McCallisters and give them all of the plant food that they could possibly consume. I believe that that has a good deal to do with filling. Dr. Deming: Heavy fertilization influences the filling of nuts. The McCallister is mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. It is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., the orchards of Carl Weschcke at River Falls, Wis., E. C. Rice at Absher, Ky., of Sargeant H. Wellman at Topsfield, Mass., and in the Government plantings at Beltsville, Md. It is also growing and doing well in the Waite Orchard at Normandy, Tenn., see page 34, 1932 report. THE MILFORD (shag.): It is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. It is growing in the Jones Nursery at Lancaster. THE MINNIE (shag.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Parent tree is growing in the yard of the Snyder farm at Center Point, Iowa. This hickory is growing in the Riehl orchard at Godfrey, Ill. THE MORTON (pecan x shell.): Mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. Is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE PESCHKE (shag.): Awarded tenth prize in 1929 contest to Grace Peschke, Ripon, Wis. THE PLEAS (pecan x bitter.): Miss Jones: It has a very thin shell. You can crack it with your hand. Mr. Reed: Miss Riehl has said that it is worth growing for ornamental effect. It has great long catkins that make it really a beautiful thing, and yet it is like all of the others as far as I know, it has that bitter principle. It is very much the same as the other bitternut hybrids. The Pleas is mentioned in Mr. Bixby's paper in the 1926 report and is listed in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. It is being grown on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill., in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., in the Carl Weschcke orchard at River Falls, Wis., and Sargeant H. Wellman has young trees doing well at Topsfield, Mass. THE RENGGENBERG (shag.): Awarded eighth prize in 1929 contest to Edward Renggenberg, Madison, Wis., R. 1, Box 142. THE ROCKVILLE (pecan x shell.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Also mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. Is growing at the Riehl farm, Godfrey, Ill., the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., and in orchard of Carl Weschcke at River Falls, Wis., and in the Jones Nursery at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. THE RODDY (shag. x shell.): Awarded fourth prize in 1929 contest to John Roddy, Napoleon, Ohio. THE ROMIG: Is in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., and Sargeant H. Wellman has some young trees in his orchard at Topsfield, Mass. THE SANDE (shag. x shell.): See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE SAYER (shell.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE SCHOENBERGER (shag.): Awarded tenth prize in 1929 contest to Roy Schoenberger, Nevada, Ohio. THE SEAVER (shag.): Awarded ninth prize in 1929 contest to J. K. Seaver, Harvard, Ill. THE SCHINNERLING: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Is growing in Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., and in orchard of Carl Weschcke at River Falls, Wis. THE SHAUL: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE SIERS (mock. x bitter.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Mentioned in Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. Is growing on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill., in orchard of Carl Weschcke at River Falls, Wis., and in the Jones Nursery at Lancaster, Pa. THE SOBOLEWSKI (shag.): Awarded ninth prize in 1929 contest to Jos. Sobolewski, Norwich, Conn., R. 5, Box 56A. THE SPRUNGER (shell): Awarded ninth prize in 1929 contest to Caleb Sprunger, Berne, Ind. THE STANLEY (shell.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Is growing in plantings on Kellogg farm at Battle Creek, Mich. THE STRATFORD (shag. x bitter.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. It is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich., and the orchard of Carl Weschcke at River Falls, Wis. Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa., reports it is one of the most precocious and productive nuts he has when grafted on pignut. It has not missed bearing some nuts in the last four seasons. THE SWAIN (shag.): See Mr. Reed's paper in this report; Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE SWARTZ (shag.): See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE TAMA QUEEN (shell.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE TAYLOR (shag.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report; Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report, and Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. This hickory is growing in orchard of Carl Weschcke at River Falls, Wis., and Sargeant H. Wellman at Topsfield, Mass. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports the Taylor is a light bearer but good in quality. The Tiedke (pecan x shell.): See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. THE VEST (shag.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE WAMPLER: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE WEED (shag. x bitter.): See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 23, 1932. THE WEIKER (shag. x shell.): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report; Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report and Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. Is growing in the Jones Nursery at Lancaster, Pa., and the orchards of Carl Weschcke at River Falls, Wis., and Sargeant H. Wellman at Topsfield, Mass. THE WESCHCKE: A hybrid hickory at Fayette, Iowa, owned by Carl Weschcke of St. Paul, Minn., who has grafted many bitternut seedlings at River Falls, Wis., with cions from this tree. THE WESTPHAL: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE WRIGHT (pecan x shell): Awarded eighth prize in 1929 contest to C. D. Wright, Sumner, Mo. See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932. This hickory is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE WOODS (shag. x shell.): See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. THE ZIMMERMAN (shag. x shell.): See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 19, 1932. THE ZURCHER: Awarded sixth prize in 1929 contest to Menno Zurcher, Apple Creek, Ohio. NORTHERN PECANS THE BUSSERON: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. This pecan has been generally propagated by nurserymen and is widely distributed. E. C. Rice, Absher, Ky., reports it does better on shellbark stock than on pignut stock. Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa., reports the Busseron pecan has proved to be much the most precocious bearer, that ripened well filled nuts on top of the Blue Ridge mountains, elevation 1,300 feet, fifty miles from Washington, D. C., in a climate distinctly colder than Philadelphia. THE BUTTERICK: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. This pecan has been generally propagated and distributed by nurserymen. THE GREENRIVER: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. This pecan is also well distributed. E. C. Rice, Absher, Ky., reports Greenriver graft on shagbark stock grew eight feet tall in two years. THE INDIANA: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. This pecan also generally distributed. THE KENTUCKY: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE MAJOR: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa., reports the major has ripened nuts on top of Blue Ridge Mountain, elevation 1,300 feet, fifty miles from Washington, D. C., in a climate distinctly colder than Philadelphia. The nuts are small. THE NIBLACK: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Mr. Hershey reports it should be put on the obsolete list. THE NORTON: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Sargeant H. Wellman, Topsfield, Mass., has some fine young trees but they are not yet bearing. THE POSEY: Is growing in the Jones and Riehl nurseries and in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE UPTON: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE WARRICK (Warwick): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa., reports that on the Piedmont plateau, elevation 500 feet, forty miles from Washington, D. C., in a climate approximating that of Philadelphia, the Warrick has often not ripened its nuts although some seasons it does. John W. Hershey states the Warrick should be put on the obsolete list. THE WITTE: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. The nut is very small but of good quality. Mr. John W. Hershey states the pecan should be put on the obsolete list. BLACK WALNUTS THE ADAMS: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report, also Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report, and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. The Adams is growing in the Kellogg planting at Battle Creek, Mich. THE ALLEN: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report, also his paper in 1931 report. The Allen is growing on the Kellogg farm at Battle Creek, Mich. J. H. Gage of Hamilton, Ontario, has some young trees which have not yet borne nuts. THE ALLEY: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report, also Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE ANGLIN: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill. THE ASBURY: Was in the 1926 contest. See Mr. Reed's paper in the 1931 report. It is growing in the Riehl plantings at Godfrey, Ill. THE ATKINS: See Mr. Reed's paper in the 1931 report. THE AYGARN: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE BARLEE: Is in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE BECK: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report, also his paper in the 1931 report. This walnut is growing in the plantings on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill., and the Kellogg farm at Battle Creek, Mich. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, states the Beck walnut is not promising there. THE BECHTOLD: Is growing in the Riehl planting at Godfrey, Ill. BENGE: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. BLOSS: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE BOHANAN: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. This walnut is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE BONTZ: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE BOOTH: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932. This walnut is growing at the Riehl farm. THE BOWMAN: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932. THE BOMBERGER: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE BROUGHAM: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932. THE BRUER: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE BURROUGHS: This walnut is growing on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill. THE BURTON: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. This walnut is growing on the Riehl farm. It was entered in 1926 contest by Herbert Burton, Hartford, Kentucky. THE CARPER: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932. THE COOPER: This walnut is growing on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill. THE CREITZ: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. This walnut is growing on the Riehl and Kellogg farms. THE CRESCO: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and his paper in 1931 report. THE DEMING (Ornamental): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE DEPENDAHL: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE EDRAS: Parent tree owned by Gerald W. Adams, Morehead, Iowa, see page 51 of 1931 report. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing in the Riehl plantings at Godfrey, Ill., and the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE FAYETTE: Is growing on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill. THE FREEL: Awarded first prize in 1929 contest to Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE FRITZ: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE GALLOWAY: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing in the Jones Nursery at Lancaster, Pa. THE GERMAINE: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and his paper in 1931 report. THE GLORY (curly wood): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE GRAHAM: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing in the Riehl and Kellogg plantings. THE GRAYBILL: See Mr. Stokes' paper with test record, page 108 of 1932 report, and Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932 report. Is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE GREGORY: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932 report. THE GRUNDY: Awarded fifth prize in 1929 contest to Mr. Rohwer, Grundy Center, Iowa. See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and his paper in 1931 report. Is growing in the Riehl and Kellogg orchards. THE HARRIS: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE HANCOCK: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE HARE: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing on Riehl farm. Was entered in 1926 contest by Frank H. Hare, Rushville, Schuyler County, Ill., and is mentioned on page 51, 1931 report. THE HEPIER: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932. Is growing on the Riehl and Kellogg farms. THE HERMAN (Rush): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE HILTON: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE HINE: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE HOBBS: Was entered in 1926 contest by C. T. S. Hobbs, Fort Blackmore, Va., R. 1. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE HOMELAND: Parent tree owned by Clinton Thomas, Troutville, Va. See Mr. Stokes' paper with tests, pages 108 and 109, 1932 report. THE HOPWOOD: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE HOWELL: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE HUBER: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE IMPIT: Given eleventh place in 1929 contest. Submitted by J. U. Gellatly, West Bank, B. C. THE JUMBO: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE KETTLER (Wisconsin No. 1): Parent tree owned by Fred Kettler, Platteville, Wis. Has taken first prize in state fair contests. Dr. Zimmerman and Mr. Frey have young trees which have not yet borne nuts. See Mr. Kettler's letter in this report. THE KINDER: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE KNAPBE: Submitted in 1926 contest by J. J. Knapbe, New Weston, Ohio. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE KURTZ: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE LAMB (curly wood): See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Grafts from this tree are growing in several eastern orchards, including the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. It is not as yet definitely known if the propagated trees will reproduce the curly texture of the wood of the parent tree. THE LEE: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932, and Mr. Reed's paper, page 151, 1932 report; also tests recorded in Mr. Stokes' paper, page 109, 1932 report. THE LEWIS: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Is growing in the Kellogg plantings at Battle Creek, Mich. THE LUCAS: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE LUTZ: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE MARION: Awarded second prize in 1929 contest to Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa. THE MARK: Entered in 1929 contest by C. E. Mark, Washington Court House, Ohio. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE MATTINGLY: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE McCOY: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE McMILLEN: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932. Is growing in the Riehl and Kellogg plantings. THE METCALF: Awarded eighth prize in the 1929 contest to Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa. In fair seasons has borne heavy crops each year. Is supposed to be the mother tree of the Freel and Marion. THE MILLER: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing in the Kellogg plantings. THE MINTLE: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing in the Riehl and Kellogg plantings. THE MONTEREY: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report and Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932 report. Is growing in the Riehl plantings at Godfrey, Ill. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports it is not promising there. THE MORRIS: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. THE MYERS: Entered in 1926 contest by Elmer R. Myers, Bellefontaine, Ohio, R. 2. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE NICHOLS: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE OGDEN: Entered in 1926 contest by Mrs. Joe Ogden, Bedford, Ky. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing at Riehl farm. THE OHIO: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Has been generally planted in all nut tree orchards. E. C. Rice, Absher, Ky., has few young trees doing fine and bore a few nuts in 1934; largest in hull he had ever seen. J. H. Gage, Hamilton, Ontario, planted one Ohio walnut in 1924, moved it in 1925. It started to bear in 1928 and has borne every year since except one. Tree now 25 feet in height, trunk six inches in diameter, is growing in light, sandy soil near west end of north shore of Lake Ontario. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports the Ohio as not promising there. THE PARADOX (hybrid): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 20, 1932 report. Is supposed to be a rapid grower but has not proved satisfactory in the east. THE PATTERSON: Submitted in 1926 contest by Mrs. William Patterson, Wever, Iowa. THE PATUXENT: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. Is growing in the Riehl and Kellogg orchards. THE PEANUT: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE PEARL: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE PINECREST: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932, and Mr. Reed's paper, page 151, 1932 report; also Mr. Stokes' paper and tests, page 110, 1932 report. THE POWERS: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE ROHWER: Took second prize in 1926 contest. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. J. H. Gage, Hamilton, Ontario, has young grafts of this walnut growing but not old enough to bear. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports that the Rohwer there is probably next to the Thomas in quality. THE ROYAL (hybrid): See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report. Is reported to be a rapid grower but has not proved satisfactory in the east. THE RUDDICK: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE SCHIMMOLLER: Entered in 1926 contest by Will T. Schimmoller, Fort Jennings, Ohio. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE STABLER: Parent tree in Howard County, Maryland. Has been generally planted in nut orchards but has not proved satisfactory. It is a fine cracker. E. C. Rice, Absher, Ky., reports it does fine there, better than Ohio. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports it is not promising there. J. H. Gage, Hamilton, Ontario, has one tree four years of age, which bore a few nuts in 1934. Stood last winter's weather (-30 degrees F.) with no damage whatever. THE STAMBAUGH: Took first prize in 1926 contest. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. It is being generally tested in nut orchards. J. H. Gage, Hamilton, Ontario, has some young trees growing which are not old enough to bear. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports the Stambaugh there is heavily veined, is oily, soon shrivels and is not very good quality. THE STANLEY: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932, and Mr. Stokes' paper with tests, pages 108 and 110, 1932 report. THE STEVENS: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932, and Mr. Reed's paper, page 151, and Mr. Stokes' paper with tests, pages 109 and 110, in 1932 report. THE STILLMAN: Awarded third prize in 1929 contest to Mrs. J. A. Stillman, Mackeys, North Carolina. THE STOUT: Entered in 1926 contest by W. F. Stout, Hammersville, Ohio. THE TASTERITE: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report and his paper in 1931 report. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports the Tasterite is not promising there. THE TEN EYCK: One of the standards in past years. See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE THOMAS: Considered the leading walnut in past years and still preferred to all others by many growers. See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. The Thomas walnut seems to produce the same quality nuts from Oklahoma to New York. E. C. Rice, Absher, Ky., has young trees doing fine but not old enough to bear. J. H. Gage, Hamilton, Ontario, has two Thomas trees planted in 1924 and moved in 1925 which started to bear in 1928 and have borne every year since except one. Trunks of trees are 6 to 7 inches in diameter, trees are 25 feet high and growing in light sandy soil near west end of north shore of Lake Ontario. Temperature last winter reached -30 F. but no damage to the Thomas trees. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports at the present time he considers the Thomas the best all-round walnut, good in quality, self-pollinating and a heavy early bearer. THE THORP: See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE TILLEY: Submitted in 1926 contest by B. J. Tilley, Murfreesboro, N. C. Is growing in the Riehl orchard. THE VANDERSLOOT: Submitted in 1926 contest by C. E. Vandersloot, Muddy Creek Forks, Pa. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE WASSON: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE WETZEL: Awarded fourth prize in 1929 contest to Annie W. Wetzel, New Berlin, Pa. See Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE WHEELING: A new excellent walnut located by Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa, in 1932. THE WEIDENHAMMER: See Dr. Zimmerman's report, page 22, 1932. THE WIARD: See Mr. Reed's paper in this report. THE WOODALL: See Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report and Mr. Reed's paper in 1931 report. THE WORTHINGTON: An excellent walnut located by Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa. See Mr. Reed's paper, page 151, 1932 report. Mr. H. R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio, calls attention to the fact that he has a parent black walnut tree on his place, the nuts of which took second prize in the 1932 Michigan nut contest. He will later give more information concerning it. PERSIAN WALNUTS The following Persian walnuts are listed in Mr. Bixby's paper in the 1926 report: Alpine Anderson Boston Eureka Franquette Hall Holden Lancaster Mayette Meylan Rush Prof. Neilson's paper in this report covers the following: Beck Broadview Crath Franquette Larson Mayette McDermid Pomeroy Seeando In addition the Jones Nursery has growing the following: Nebo Potomac Sinclair Mr. John W. Hershey reports the Alpine and Lancaster are the same and that the Franquette, Hall, Nebo and Rush should be listed as obsolete for northern planting, and that the use of the Eureka in the north is questionable. W. R. Fickes, Wooster, Ohio, reports that the Franquette, Lancaster, Mayette, Pomeroy and Rush winter kill at his place. BUTTERNUTS The following butternuts are listed in Mr. Reed's paper in the 1931 report, pages 98 and 99: Aiken Bliss Buckley Creitz Deming Devon Helmick Hergert Hostetter Irvine Lingle Mandeville Saugatuck Sherman Sherwood Simonson Thill Utterbock The Alverson, Deming, Irvine, Love, Luther and Sherman are covered in Mr. Reed's paper in this report. HEART NUTS Mr. Bixby's paper in 1926 report covers the following Heart nuts: Bates, Faust, Lancaster, Ritchie and Stranger. Mr. John W. Hershey reports the Lancaster should be classed as obsolete as it is practically a hopeless tree, and that the Stranger is a rather common-place nut and should be classed as such. Mr. Hershey reports a new Heart nut, the Hershey, a seedling grown on his grounds at Downington, Pa. It is growing in a severe frost pocket but has never winter-killed or frost-killed. The nut is excellent. Bearing has been light due to crowding, which has been remedied by cutting down the trees around it. CHESTNUTS Most of the named Chestnuts are listed in Mr. Bixby's paper in the 1926 report and are growing on the Riehl farm at Godfrey, Ill. Experiments are still being carried on with hope of producing a blight resistant chestnut. Anyone desiring to plant chestnut trees should consult their local nurseryman or farm advisor. HAZELS AND FILBERTS The filberts have not proved entirely hardy for northern territory, but the native hazels and hybrids appear to be entirely satisfactory. The lists are too long to publish. Full and reliable information is contained in Prof. Slate's paper in this report. Nut Culture in the North _By_ J. F. WILKINSON _Rockport, Indiana_ There being other papers on the subject of nut culture I will confine this to Indiana and surrounding territory where nut trees of several kinds are native, and flourished before the coming of the white man. Walnut and hickory trees are to be found growing on most kinds of soil, chestnut and hazels mostly on hill land, the pecan as a rule in the lowlands along the streams where vast groves of them are yet producing splendid crops of nuts. One mile from my nursery, around Enterprise (which was the boyhood home of our worthy member Mr. T. P. Littlepage), are hundreds of these trees, including one of the largest in Indiana. This tree measures 16 feet in circumference at waist height and is estimated to be 125 feet high. It has produced more than 500 pounds of nuts in a season and other trees near here have produced as much as 600 pounds. One of these has a spread of over 100 feet. It is not unusual for a large size tree to produce from 300 to 400 pounds of a good season. One of the largest groves near here is known as the Major grove near the mouth of Green River, containing about 300 acres, most of the trees on which are pecan trees. Some are of immense size and probably as large as can be found north of the cotton belt. A few trees in this grove are estimated to be more than 150 feet tall. Along the Wabash River is probably the largest native northern pecan grove consisting of several hundred acres in which it is estimated there are more than 20,000 bearing-size pecan trees. At gathering time in the fall this is a very busy place. It is a source of revenue to many besides the owners. I was at this grove two weeks ago and was told there that each year school begins the first of August so they can dismiss during October and November to allow the school children to gather pecans during those two months. School teachers in that territory are required to sign a contract to that effect. This grove lies between Shawneetown and New Haven, which are eighteen miles apart. The town of New Haven has a population of about 400. I was told last fall by one of the three pecan buyers there that, in one day a few years ago, the three of them paid more than $15,000 for pecans for one day's delivery. This of course did not represent the total day's sales for this territory as many of them were sold at Shawneetown. So one can easily see why the people there are anxious for their children to help in this harvest, it being the chief source of fall income to many poor people, who are given one-half of all the pecans they gather. Often on or after a windy day the amount gathered by each one makes a splendid day's wages. Many make a practice of coming a distance each fall for this harvest. One party from St. Louis told me last fall that was his twenty-sixth year at that grove. This grove is surrounded by smaller ones and many single trees growing on cultivated land. None of the native nut trees in this section have ever had any care whatever, except the ones growing in cultivated fields, and those only farm crop cultivation. Many of the native seedlings seldom bear and some others are shy or irregular bearers. But it is noticeable how much better as a rule those produce that have farm crop cultivation or stand in favorable locations. This is plainly evident in many instances where trees in the last few years have been cleared around and cultivated, or where an individual tree is standing alone without cultivation, but has plenty of space, food and moisture. An excellent example of this is the Littlepage tree in Enterprise that is probably 35 years old, has never been cultivated but stands in a well used stock lot and has been an annual bearer since a small tree. On the other hand, near here are a number of trees around which the land had been cultivated in farm crops until about ten years ago, and these trees produced well, but since that time the land has been abandoned and has grown up in a thicket and the production of these trees has been greatly reduced. About twenty years ago propagation of the better varieties of northern nut trees was begun in southern Indiana. At that time I believe that most of us overlooked the needs of nut trees as we had been used to their taking care of themselves. Our attention to them was mostly at nut harvest time. We failed to take into consideration the conditions under which the best bearing trees were growing and too strongly condemned those not bearing so well, when it was often due to conditions instead of to the trees themselves. The walnut and hickory will succeed and bear with less moisture than the pecan, though they will do better with plenty of moisture if on well drained land and having good cultivation. We failed to take in consideration that the best bearing pecan trees were growing on low land that was usually overflowed one or more times each season, leaving plenty of moisture and a deposit of plant food. Many articles have been written by nut tree enthusiasts in which the planting of nut trees on unproductive or waste land has been advised. In this the writers were sincere in their statements. This advice has been taken by many, causing more or less disappointment to the planter and no encouragement to his neighbor. No successful fruit grower would plant an orchard of peach or apple trees on poor or waste land, forget about them for a few years and expect to go back and harvest a crop of fruit, and neither need the nut grower expect to. Since many trees of the named varieties have been in bearing for a number of years it gives a broad field for studying them, and their habits are very similar to the native trees, I do not know of a single tree that is not a testimonial to the care and attention it has been given. In my first nursery planting trees were left growing to supply bud and graftwood for future use. These were left entirely too close together to remain until large trees, but I have never yet had nerve enough to remove all that should be taken out, with the result that they are now crowding and robbing each other of food and moisture retarding both growth and bearing. These are now from 15 to 19 years old and not producing as many nuts as they did several years ago, or as many as trees several years younger that have more space. My observations convince me that plenty of space, food and moisture are most essential for best results. The past four years has been a splendid time to study this as our weather conditions have been unusual in that we have in this section had both wet and dry seasons. I am firmly convinced that weather conditions have a great deal to do with the nut crop not only with the quantity of nuts but quality as well. Moisture conditions in spring and early summer determine the size of the nut, and later in the season the quality of the kernel. Plenty of moisture in spring and early summer will make a large size nut. After the shell once forms the growth of nut is done. Then the plumpness of the kernel depends on the amount of moisture after the shell is formed. Lack of moisture the entire season spells a small, poorly filled nut. Trees growing in a crowded position, or on hard, dry ground, seldom ever have all the moisture they need to produce a good crop of well filled nuts. This has been plainly demonstrated with my own and my neighbors' trees in the past few years. The weather of the previous season also may have much to do with the crop the following season, especially with trees growing under adverse conditions. These conditions can often be largely overcome by the owner, with fertilizers and cultivation. In planting a tree be sure to give it plenty of space. If the soil is lacking in plant food feed the tree, remembering it can draw food only from a given space. No one would expect to grow the same farm crop on a plot of ground for many years without fertilizer. Prepare to conserve moisture for the hot, dry season either by cultivation or mulching. One of the thriftiest best bearing nut tree plantings I know of is on very sharp, hilly clay ground in Rockport, but the owner fertilizes these trees annually and gives splendid cultivation. A non-bearing nut tree is no better than any other kind of a tree, so it is not a question of how many nut trees you have, but how many good bearing nut trees you have. To get the best results provide your trees with space, food and moisture. Varieties of Nut Trees for the Northernmost Zone _By_ C. A. REED, _Bureau of Plant Industry United States Department of Agriculture_ The northernmost zone of the eastern part of the United States, within which conditions appear at all encouraging for the planting of the hardiest varieties of nut trees now available, may be outlined as covering the milder portions of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and South Dakota. Beyond the Canadian border this zone should perhaps include the fruit belt of Ontario known as the "Niagara Peninsula," which skirts Lake Ontario from the City of Hamilton to the Niagara river. No doubt it should also include considerable Canadian territory immediately adjacent to Lakes Erie and St. Clair, and north to the lower end of Lake Huron. In each American state within this general zone there are numerous localities to which several species of edible nuts are indigenous, others where the butternut alone is found, and still others to which none of the common kinds appear to be adapted. Climate and soil are both limiting factors within this general section. No nut trees are likely to prove hardy to the extent of bearing heavily where winter temperatures are extremely trying or where soils are not of high grade. A fundamental principle involving plant ecology, which with reference to planted nut trees is too often lost sight of, is that, regardless of species, plants are unlikely to be altogether hardy in any locality where minimum temperatures of winter are appreciably lower, or growing periods much shorter, than at the place where the variety in question originated. For example, it is often assumed that a pecan tree native to southern Texas, the lowest point of the range of this species in the United States, should do well in southeastern Iowa, the northernmost point within the range. Likewise, it is also sometimes assumed that a black walnut variety originating in Arkansas, Texas or Tennessee should be hardy in the black walnut belts of New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, or wherever the species is indigenous or has been successfully transplanted. There are definite degrees of hardiness which must not be overlooked. A species or variety may be hardy enough to grow thriftily for many years, and to make a splendid tree, hundreds of miles north of the latitude at which it will mature occasional crops; or it may be able to produce crops that are frequent in occurrence yet indifferent as to character; or there may be occasional crops of first-class nuts; but good crops of good nuts are exceedingly rare when the minimum temperatures of winter or the length of the growing period are appreciably more adverse than in the locality where the variety originated. A few illustrations may help to make these points clearer. On the Experimental Farm of the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Arlington, Va., directly opposite Washington, on the Potomac, there are five pecan trees of the Schley variety which originated on the Gulf coast of Mississippi. These trees have grown splendidly since being planted more than 20 years ago. They blossomed and set nuts more or less regularly after they were about eight or ten years of age, but it was only in the eighteenth year that a season was late enough in fall for a single nut to mature. Another case is afforded by a pecan seedling, probably from Texas, called to the writer's attention by Dr. W. C. Deming, Hartford, Conn., which stands near the outskirts of that city. This is a large, beautiful tree. It rarely sets crops of nuts, and when it does the nuts fail to become more than half or two-thirds normal size by the time of autumn frosts. The kernels are then quite undeveloped and the nuts therefore worthless each year. In another case, near Ithaca, New York, the Stabler walnut from Maryland and the Ohio from Toledo, of the state after which it was named, all appear to be congenially situated insofar as environment is concerned until the nuts are actually harvested and cured. The nuts of each variety appear normal when they drop from the trees, but during the process of curing, the kernels wither up too badly to be marketable. The Thomas from southeastern Pennsylvania is somewhat better able to adjust itself to Ithaca conditions, but it is far from being a commercial success in that region. Kinds of Nuts The kinds of nuts suitable for this northern zone naturally divide themselves into three main groups, viz., native, foreign and hybrid. The last might well be divided into three sub-groups, as native hybrids, foreign hybrids, and hybrids between native and foreign species. It is perhaps true that there should also be a fourth subgroup to which chance hybrids should be assigned when there is uncertainty as to which of these three others a given variety may belong. The Native Group Of these three main groups that of the native species is at present by far the most important. It includes the black walnut, _Juglans nigra_; the butternut, _J. cinerea_; the shagbark hickory, _Hicoria ovata_; the sweet hickory, _H. ovalis_; the pignut hickory, _H. glabra_; the American sweet chestnut, _Castanea dentata_; the American beech, _Fagus americana_; and two species of native hazelnut, _Corylus americana_; and the beaked hazelnut, _C. rostrata_. Black Walnut The black walnut is placed at the head of the native group because of its great all round usefulness. Wherever it grows well its timber is of leading value among all American species. It is a splendid ornamental and the nuts are highly edible. The black walnut range does not extend as far north as does that of the butternut, yet wherever it grows well it is much more useful as a tree, and is successful under a greater variety of conditions. It is probably a more dependable bearer and, upon the average, the nuts yield a higher percentage of kernel. Many more varieties of black walnut than of butternut have been brought to light and more trees have been propagated. Enough varieties of promise have originated in Michigan alone (largely as a result of the work of Prof. James A. Neilson of East Lansing) to preclude any obvious need, at present at least, of bringing varieties from farther south into this zone. In addition to these, a number of other varieties have been recognized from equal latitudes, as in New York and, west of Lake Michigan, in Wisconsin, southeastern Minnesota and northern Iowa. ADAMS--The Adams black walnut is a rather small variety with an approximate size range of from 34 to 48 nuts per pound, and an average of 39. In a cracking test of the 1930 crop, conducted after the kernels had become too dry for most satisfactory cracking, the yield of quarters was 16.75 per cent; that of small pieces 7.81 per cent, and the total 24.56 per cent. The nuts are much elongated in form, being sharply pointed at each end. Many are quite symmetrical, thin-shelled and, when not too dry, of excellent cracking quality. The kernels examined have been notably bright in color, firm in texture, very sweet and highly pleasing to the palate. The quarters are long and slender. The Adams was first called to public attention in 1920, when the late Henry Adams of Scotts, Kalamazoo County, Michigan, was awarded first prize for an entry of nuts from the original tree which he made in a contest held that year by the Northern Nut Growers Association. In an article published in the Michigan farmer of Detroit, on July 7, 1922, he stated that this tree grew as a sprout in a corn row on land which he cleared in the spring of 1869. When the tree was seen by the writer in 1929, and again in 1932, it gave the impression of having been a moderate or slow grower. Such facts as have been obtainable from time to time indicate that it is but a moderate bearer. However, the character of the soil in which it stands is not of the best, although it is far from being poor. In better soil it would doubtless produce heavier and more uniform crops. As nearly as it can be ascertained, the Adams was first propagated by the late W. G. Bixby of Baldwin, Long Island, who procured scions in 1922. It was again grafted six years later by J. F. Wilkinson of Rockport, Ind., with scions procured by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. In April, 1930, one of the resulting trees was shipped by the Department to the Kellogg Experimental and Demonstration Farm, Augusta, Mich. Trees are now growing on the grounds of the United States Department of Agriculture Horticultural Field Station at Beltsville, Md., and records in the Bixby file show that a tree was shipped by him to Mr. Harry R. Weber, Cleveland, Ohio, probably about 1930. No doubt the variety is growing in other plantings. An entry of Adams black walnut won third prize in the Michigan contest conducted under the direction of Professor Neilson of East Lansing at the end of the 1929 crop year. During the same year Dr. W. C. Deming, Chairman of the Contest Committee for the Northern Nut Growers Association, made the following comments regarding the Adams: "Shell thin, cracking quality good to perfect, color of kernel light, condition plump, texture tender, quality rich, flavor high." His summary was put tersely, "An excellent nut." In the event that this variety would do better in a richer soil than that where the parent tree stands, it might prove to be one of the most desirable of all kinds now known for use in the northernmost zone. The parent tree is now owned by a son of the late Henry Adams, Mr. H. R. Adams of Scotts, who now lives on the old homestead. ALLEN--The Allen black walnut is another Michigan variety which appears to be of considerable promise. It has been under observation by the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Washington since the summer of 1923, when it was called to the attention by the Honorable Charles W. Garfield of Grand Rapids. The parent is a healthy double tree standing some twenty rods from Thornapple Creek on the farm of Mr. Glenn W. Allen, R. F. D. 1, Middleville, Barry County. The local conditions of soil and moisture are highly favorable. The tree frequently bears heavy crops, although, like most others of the species, it tends more to alternate rather than to annual bearing. Five pounds of the 1931 crop tested in Washington showed a range of from 31 to 37 nuts per pound and an average of 34. The percentage of quarter kernels was 22.45, that of small parts 1.10, and that of bad, O.31 per cent, making a total kernel yield of 23.86 per cent. The cracking quality was good, the kernels were plump, the quality of the kernel rich and the flavor medium sweet. The Allen was awarded first prize by Professor Neilson in the Michigan contest of 1929. It should be well worthy of test planting in the northern zone. It has been disseminated to a very considerable extent for use in small plantings. ALLEY--The Alley is a New York variety from the farm of Miss Amy A. Alley, Lagrangeville, Duchess County. This farm is within fifteen miles of the Connecticut line and some 50 to 75 miles above New York City. The Alley was first brought to attention by Miss Alley in 1918, when she was awarded first prize in the contest for that year of the Northern Nut Growers Association. The late W. G. Bixby, in reporting for the committee in charge, said that the Alley had a shell thinner than that of Stabler and that the cracking quality was "100 per cent." In none of the tests conducted by the department has this variety ranked with the best of the more recent kinds, yet because of its latitude of origin and the fact that in general merit it is well above the average seedling, it is believed that it should be included in northern trial plantings. Three pounds of the 1931 crop tested by the department counted 39, 41 and 42 nuts each, respectively. The range was 36 to 45. The percentage yield of quarter kernels was but 13.96, for out of 122 nuts cracked 15, or 12.29 per cent, were bad. The total yield of kernel amounted to 25.57 per cent. The kernels that year were neither particularly plump nor especially well filled. BECK--The Beck is another Michigan variety of black walnut which in many respects has compared favorably with the best varieties yet brought to light from any source. The parent tree was called to the attention of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in March, 1929, by Mr. Howard Harris, R. F. D. 7, Allegan, Allegan County, Michigan. It was on a farm then owned by Mr. Daniel Beck, R. F. D. 2, Hamilton, also of Allegan County. It is a double tree standing in an open field some 20 rods back of the barn. Like many other northern varieties of black walnut, the nuts are rather small, ranging in 1930 from 28 to 49 per pound, and having an average of 37. In that year it had the high percentage of quarter kernels of 25.36, and a total percentage of kernel of 33.08. The shell was thinner than that of the average black walnut, the cracking quality very good, and the kernel bright-colored, plump, rich and sweet. The Beck has been successfully grafted in the Bixby nursery at Baldwin, Long Island, and at the E. A. Riehl Farm and Nursery at Godfrey, Illinois; by J. W. Arata, Mishawka, Ind.; by Professor Neilson, and probably by others. It is growing in the government test orchard at Beltsville, Md. BLOSS--The Bloss black walnut was called to the attention of this department in January of 1934 by Mr. Joe Bloss, R. F. D. 2, Box 65, Bristol, Indiana, who at that time forwarded 23 specimen nuts to Washington. These averaged 33 per pound and had a range of from 29 to 36. In the test which followed they yielded 21.05 per cent of quarters and 3.35 per cent of small pieces, making a total of 24.40 per cent of kernel. The cracking quality was very good, the kernel bright, medium sweet, and fairly rich. On the whole this appeared to be a very good nut. Because of the very creditable showing made by these nuts, it is believed that the Bloss should be investigated further. It may prove valuable in the general locality of its origin, and as Bristol is but a few miles below the Michigan state line, it would seem that the variety should be given careful consideration in plantings throughout the milder portions of the northern zone. BRUER--The Bruer black walnut first came to attention in 1926 when Mr. Milo Bruer of East Main Street, Sleepy Eye, Minn., sent specimen nuts to Dr. W. C. Deming, Hartford, Conn., for entry in the contest being conducted that year by the Northern Nut Growers Association. Dr. Deming reported that he found the shell thin, the cracking quality good, the kernel white, plump, medium rich in quality, and of mild, nutty "pecan-like" flavor. Later examination in Washington of 20 specimens of the same crop showed that the nuts averaged 37 per pound. By that time they were dried beyond the most satisfactory point for cracking, and, consequently, in this respect, the quality was medium only. The kernels were then but medium plump. In other respects they appeared to be about as had been observed by Dr. Deming. As this is the best variety yet brought to attention from Minnesota, it is believed that it should be used in all northern plantings until superseded by others of superior merit. CRESCO--The parent tree of the Cresco black walnut stands in a creek bottom, on what is known as the Patterson farm, two miles southwest of Cresco, Howard County, Iowa. It is probably within ten miles of the Minnesota state line. So far as known, with the exception of Bruer (of Minnesota), the latitude of its place of origin is greater than that of any other variety originating west of Chicago. It was discovered by Mr. W. A. Bents, proprietor of Cresco Nurseries, Cresco, Iowa, by whom, in 1929, specimen nuts of the 1928 crop were sent to the late S. W. Snyder, of Snyder Bros., Inc., of Center Point, Iowa. Scions of this variety were also sent to Mr. Snyder, by whom it was first grafted in 1929. The Cresco has since been disseminated to a considerable extent and is now growing in a number of widely remote plantings, including those of the E. A. Riehl Farm and Nursery, Godfrey, Ill., and the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Beltsville, Md. Seventy-three nuts of the 1930 crop examined in Washington averaged 35 per pound and yielded 24.55 per cent of quarter kernels, 4.09 per cent small pieces and 0.73 per cent bad, making a total kernel percentage of 29.18. The latitude of origin, together with the apparent general merit of the Cresco black walnut, makes this variety appear to be of special promise in the northernmost zone. EDRAS--This is a particularly promising variety, brought to light by Mr. Gerald W. Adams, of Moorhead, Iowa, in connection with the 1926 Association contest; when it was No. 3 of three entries made by Mr. Adams. (It was No. 1 that was designated by the Association as "Adams" at that time and awarded twelfth prize. This variety received no prize.) The variety was first called "Adams" in his honor, but as a Michigan variety had previously been so designated, the name was changed to Edras, after the first name of Mrs. Adams. The Edras was rated as being "Outstanding" by the late S. W. Snyder of Iowa (Iowa State Hort. Soc. Ann. Rep. 1924, p. 49). Prof. N. F. Drake, of Fayetteville, Ark., in the Proceedings of the Northern Nut Growers Association (p. 24) for 1930, stated: "I think this variety should be kept in mind, especially for breeding purposes where it is desired to develop a strain with a high percentage of kernel." In a test of nuts from the 1930 crop, the Department of Agriculture obtained a percentage yield of 20.98 for quarters and a total kernel yield of 34.31. That year, 0.43 per cent of the kernels were found bad, and 12.91 per cent were of small parts. It is not improbable that another test would result in an even higher total yield and appreciable improvement in the yield of quarters. This variety has been quite widely disseminated. It is known to be growing on the Riehl Farm and Nursery grounds at Godfrey, Ill.; at the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Ill.; on the Kellogg Experimental and Demonstration Farm, Augusta, Michigan; on the farm of Mr. Harry W. Weber, Cleves, Ohio; and on the governmental test orchard at Beltsville, Md. The latitude of Moorhead is somewhat below that of the southern boundary of the northern zone, yet climatic conditions of extreme western Iowa are probably no less severe than those of southern Michigan. For this reason, and because of the excellent rating that this variety has received, it is believed that the Edras should be included in further test plantings of the northernmost zone. GERMAINE--The Germaine black walnut, named in honor of Mr. John W. Germaine, R. 6, Allegan, Mich., owner of the original tree, was called to the attention of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in March of 1929 by Mr. Howard Harris, R. F. D. 7, also of Allegan, when he forwarded a few specimen nuts of the 1928 crop to Washington. These were found to have very good cracking quality and plump kernels of rich quality and pleasing flavor. Scions have been placed in the hands of various individuals and agencies. Trees of this variety are now growing at Beltsville, Md., and at Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Ill. GRUNDY--The Grundy black walnut originated with a thrifty young seedling owned by Mr. John Rohwer, Grundy Center, Iowa. It was brought to light in 1927, when it received first prize in a private contest conducted by Prof. N. F. Drake, Fayetteville, Ark., and by him given the temporary designation of "Iowa." According to President F. H. Frey of the Northern Nut Growers Association, in a statement appearing in the Proceedings for 1932 (p. 158), Mr. Rohwer exhibited this variety during the Missouri State Fair of 1928 and was given first prize. The same year, according to this statement, the Grundy was awarded second prize during the meeting of the Mid-West Horticultural Show held in Cedar Rapids. In the opinion of Mr. Frey, the Grundy is superior to Rohwer in flavor of kernel and its equal in cracking quality. An entry of Grundy made in the 1929 contest of the Association was awarded fifth prize. Little is known of the bearing habits of this variety, although Mr. D. C. Snyder, the surviving member of Snyder Bros., Inc., of Center Point, wrote to Washington on July 31, 1933, that he was "afraid" that both this variety and Rohwer might not prove to be "reliable bearers." An opinion of Ex-President of the Association, C. F. Walker, expressed July 16, 1933, by letter to the writer, was to the effect that the Grundy walnut was "fair" only. Three pounds of the 1931 Grundy walnuts tested by the Department at Washington yielded 27.74 per cent quarters, 1.57 per cent bad, and 2.35 per cent small pieces, making a total of 31.66 per cent kernel. The nuts averaged 35 per pound and had a range of from 28 to 36. The cracking quality was very good, the kernels bright, plump, rich in quality and of agreeable flavor. Considering the good points in favor of this variety, even though its latitude of origin is somewhat below that of the south Michigan border, it would seem that until worthier nuts are found, this should be included in test plantings of the northernmost zone. HARRIS--The Harris walnut first became known to the department in December of 1924, when Mr. Howard Harris, R. F. D. 7, Allegan, Mich., owner of the original tree, submitted specimens for examination. The feature which attracted immediate attention was the superior cracking quality, due to the largeness and openness of its kernel chambers. The kernels were not as plump as might have been desired, but this is assumed to have been due to the light, sandy soil where the parent tree grows. In examining specimens of the 1927 crop, Dr. Deming noted that the nuts were "small, clean," the shell "thick," the cracking quality "good to perfect," and the kernel "not plump, light (in weight) and texture hard." He placed the flavor at "fair to sweet," yet felt that the variety should be given further consideration. Many of the kernels of the nuts which he examined, like those from this tree during most years, were "shrunken." Two pounds of the 1930 crop tested in Washington yielded 10.91 per cent of quarters, 3.30 per cent of bad kernels, and 4.41 per cent of small pieces, making a total of but 18.63 per cent. This is a much lower rating than that of any other variety included in this list, and were it not for the superiority of its cracking quality and the latitude of its origin, it would hardly now be included. However, it should probably be included in all test plantings in the northernmost zone, especially if breeding is contemplated. The soil where this original tree stands is of a light, sandy nature. Allowance for this should be made in evaluating the merits of the variety. HILTON--The Hilton black walnut came to the attention of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in early March of 1933, when specimens were received through the courtesy of Prof. L. H. MacDaniels of Ithaca, New York, by whom its propagation had already been successfully begun. Professor MacDaniels wrote that he did not feel that it was "outstanding," except that "apparently it does succeed rather far north and is much above the average in general merit." The nuts sent to Washington averaged 25 per pound, had a range of from 21 to 28 per pound, and were therefore quite large, especially for that latitude. The yield of quarters was 20.46 per cent, that of small kernel parts O.66 per cent, and the total 21.12 per cent. The cracking quality was very good, the kernel quality rich and the flavor very good. The original tree, according to Professor MacDaniels, is tall and difficult to climb. It stands on the lot of a next-door neighbor of Mr. D. C. Wright of Hilton, through whom it came to the attention of Professor MacDaniels. As the town of Hilton is within ten miles of the shore of Lake Ontario, the origin of the variety was practically on the extreme northern edge of western New York. In view of this, it is felt that the Hilton variety should be carefully considered in connection with any planting in the northernmost zone. HUBER--The Huber black walnut was brought to light by Mr. Ferdinand Huber, Cochrane, Wis., in 1929, when he made an entry in the Association contest. Although the nuts were awarded no prize, the Bixby report made special mention of these nuts as being "notable for the high percentage of kernel (1930 Proc. N. N. G. A., p. 108), having yielded 32.8 per cent of total kernel." The variety has not been tested by the department, although several attempts have been made to procure specimens for the purpose, but each such effort has been coincident with a crop failure by this particular tree. LAMB--The Lamb black walnut is a variety propagated and grown for its wood only. The parent tree stood on a farm one-quarter mile east of Ada, Kent County, Michigan, perhaps ten miles due east of Grand Rapids. After the log had been cut and shipped to a mill, discovery was made that the wood of the original tree had a highly figured grain. Mr. George Lamb, then Secretary of the American Walnut Manufacturers Association, 616 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago, traced the origin of the log back to its source, where the top was found to be still green, although the tree had been cut two months previous. Scions were cut and sent by Mr. Lamb to the Department of Agriculture in Washington, and also to Dr. Robert T. Morris, Merribrooke Farm, Stamford, Conn. At the suggestion of Dr. Morris, Mr. Lamb also sent scions to Mr. Ford Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind. Some of the scions received by the Department were placed in the hands of others, including the late Messrs. Jones, Bixby and Snyder, also Prof. V. R. Gardner, Director of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station at East Lansing, and Dr. G. A. Zimmerman, Piketown, Pa. Drs. Morris and Zimmerman, Professor Gardner, and Messrs. Wilkinson and Bixby, were all successful in their efforts at grafting. Mr. Bixby made new grafts as soon as the original could be cut for scions, and also made some distributions of scions. At the time of his death in August, 1933, there were a dozen or more nursery trees of various sizes and degrees of condition among his stock at Baldwin. From these, scions were sold to a number of Association members during the spring of 1934. While it has not yet been established that the character of figured grain is transmissible with scions, the value of such wood is so great that anyone interested in producing walnut trees of outstanding value would do well to investigate this variety to the extent of growing a few trees. In all likelihood the combined results from tests made by a large number of persons would be of great value to science. TASTERITE--The parent tree of the Tasterite walnut, owned by Everl Church, R. F. D. 3, Ithaca, New York, was discovered and named by Mr. S. H. Graham, a neighbor, living on Route 5, also out of Ithaca. The latter submitted specimens to the department in Washington in 1929, where they made a highly favorable showing. Tasterite nuts entered that year in the contest of the Northern Nut Growers Association, although receiving no award by the committee were given the rating of "excellent" by Dr. Deming. In 1930, Prof. N. F. Drake of Fayetteville, Ark., gave Tasterite nuts a rating of "100 per cent on cracking quality." He obtained a total of 28.05 per cent of kernel. Nuts of the 1930 crop examined in Washington averaged 36 per pound, ranged from 34 to 38, and yielded 20.92 per cent of quarters and 7.22 per cent of small pieces, making a total of 28.14 per cent. The shell of the nut is thinner than the average and the cracking quality distinctly superior. The kernels of nuts promptly harvested, hulled and cured have been bright, plump, rich in quality, and especially pleasing in flavor. The one weak point of the Tasterite appears to be in the matter of size, but this smallness is well offset by superiority in the points just mentioned, and also in what is perhaps more important, the latitude and altitude of the place of origin. Any variety which will yield heavy crops of nuts distinctly superior to the average black walnut in cracking quality and kernel merit at a 42-degree latitude plus, and a 2,000-foot altitude, should be potentially very valuable in the northernmost zone. WIARD--This is another Michigan variety, apparently of much merit. Vague bits of information regarding it have reached the department at Washington from time to time since June, 1926, when Greening Bros., of Monroe, stated to the writer that Mr. Everett Wiard, a fruit grower near the eastern outskirts of Ypsilanti, was grafting a promising seedling of his own origin. This clue was not successfully followed up until 1932, when a few specimen nuts were obtained. These were found to be of medium size and of excellent cracking quality. The kernels were plump, bright, rich in quality, and of pleasing flavor. On February 12, 1934, Professor Neilson wrote the department that this seedling had come to his attention during Farmers' Week, held shortly before, at East Lansing. He stated that to him this appeared to be one of the best seedlings thus far discovered and that he was recommending it for propagation. He added that the nut was "of medium size, somewhat diamond-shaped, thin-shelled, easy to crack and of excellent extractive quality." Very likely more will be learned of this variety in the future. Butternut Varieties The American butternut, Juglans cinerea, although commonly held to be a slow grower, a tardy and light bearer, and a producer of thick-shelled nuts hard or impossible to crack without extreme difficulty, is frequently quite the opposite in one or more, or all, of these respects. Under favorable environment the trees grow rapidly, bear early, and oftentimes the nuts may be easily cracked and the kernels extracted in perfect halves. Probably more than a dozen varieties from various portions of the North have been named. A few of these appear to be of considerable promise. The northern range of the butternut extends from Nova Scotia over Maine, across New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, the upper peninsula of Michigan, and through Wisconsin and southeastern Minnesota to South Dakota south to Georgia and Arkansas. Butternut flavor is preferred by many people to that of any other nut. Throughout New England the kernels are used to no inconsiderable extent in the making of highly pleasing food products. Oftentimes the ground kernels are used in the home manufacture of pastries and confections which are either consumed at home or sold on roadside markets at good profit. The butternut is not without certain weak points which must not be forgotten. The timber is less valuable than that of black walnut, the trees grow to smaller size and seldom live more than 75 or 100 years; outside of the best growing sections of the North, it is possible that the majority succumb under 40 years. Being less symmetrical, butternut trees are not as suitable for ornamental planting as are nut trees of many other kinds. Nevertheless, a tree or two of each of the best varieties now available should be included in all nut planting as far south as the species is indigenous, and perhaps farther down. ALVERSON--The parent tree of this variety is owned by Mr. M. E. Alverson, Howard City, Montcalm County, Michigan. It was first called to public attention when it was awarded third prize in the 1932 State contest held at East Lansing under the direction of Prof. James A. Neilson, of Michigan Agricultural College. A one-pound lot tested in Washington during April of the same year counted 47 specimens. It yielded 14.44 per cent of quarters and 1.11 per cent of small pieces, making a total of 15.55 per cent kernel. The cracking quality was found to be good. The kernels were large, long, plump, medium bright, and the flavor distinctly pleasing. DEMING--This variety was called to attention by Olcott Deming, a son of Dr. W. C. Deming, Hartford, Conn., to whom it was awarded first prize in the 1918 contest of the Northern Nut Growers Association. Dr. Deming sought to have this variety called Olcott, but the name became fixed when it appeared in the Jones catalogue of 1920, and later in various reports of the Association. The Deming butternut is probably an early bearer, as in notes prepared by the late J. F. Jones for use during the 1926 convention held at Lancaster, reference was made to two trees (Nos. 88 and 89), which were in "bearing while still quite young," the latter of which "bore two nuts the next year after being grafted," and which was then "bearing its third consecutive crop." Mr. Jones began its propagation in 1920, commenting to the writer at the time that it was "larger and had a thinner shell than Aiken." IRVINE--This variety was awarded first prize ($50.00) in the Northern Nut Growers Association contest of 1929. The parent tree is owned by Mrs. L. K. Irvine, Menominee, Dunn County, Wis. In a Washington test of three pounds, conducted in 1931, the nuts averaged 53 per pound and had a range of from 44 to 59. The kernel yield was 22.13 per cent quarters, 3.90 per cent small pieces, and 0.38 per cent bad. The cracking quality was excellent, the kernels large and highly attractive, the quality good, and the flavor mild. This is apparently one of the finest although not the richest or sweetest, of any variety of butternut yet discovered. It is known to have been successfully propagated but to a limited extent only. LOVE--This butternut originated on the farm of Mr. Frank Love, R. F. D. 2, Howell, Livingston County, Mich. It was discovered by chance, when the large size and generally sound condition of the parent tree caught the attention of the writer in 1931. In a cracking test conducted later that year the nuts averaged 53 per pound, had a range of from 44 to 71, and yielded a total of 27.32 per cent kernel. The yield of quarters was 24.68 per cent, and that of small pieces 2.64 per cent. The Love butternuts are considerably smaller than those of some other varieties, and in comparison with Irvine of that year the kernels were much less attractive in appearance, but richer in quality and of more pleasing flavor. On the whole, these nuts now stand among the very best yet called to attention, although during a test made a year later of nuts also from the parent tree, the result was but 17.19 per cent of kernel, composed of 16.86 per cent quarters and 0.33 per cent of small pieces. These nuts have not appeared in any contest, and in all probability they would have received no award during any but the most favorable years. However, their record of 1931 placed the variety in a class at that time quite by itself. Scions from the original tree, purchased by the department in 1933, and placed in the hands of several commercial propagators, have resulted in at least one living grafted tree. This is being carefully guarded, and as soon as possible others will be grafted from it. As Mr. Love is quite averse to having the tree cut for scions, it may not be possible to obtain new scions from the original source. LUTHER--This butternut came to light as a result of the contest held by Professor Neilson at the end of the 1932 crop year, when it received second prize. The entry was made by Mr. F. Luther of Fairgrove, Tuscola County, Mich. In Washington, nuts of the 1932 crop averaged 52 per pound and yielded 15.45 per cent of quarters and 2.21 per cent of small pieces, making a total of 17.66 per cent of kernel. This test was made in April, after the nuts were rather too dry to crack to the best advantage. At that time the cracking quality was fair only. SHERMAN--The Sherman butternut first became known in 1929, when Mrs. E. Sherman, Montague City, Mass., was awarded ninth prize in the Northern Nut Growers Association contest of that year. Tested twice in Washington, it has at neither time rated with the best in so far as cracking quality is concerned. In 1931 it made the high kernel yield of 29.41 per cent. However, only 11.76 per cent was of quarters. Exactly the same percentage was of small pieces, and 5.88 per cent of kernels were bad. In 1932, the total per cent of kernel dropped to 15.31, that of quarters to 4.78, and that of kernels to 0.96, while that of small pieces rose to 9.57. Further studies will be made to see if under optimum conditions of handling after proper harvesting and curing the record of cracking quality cannot be improved upon. Hickories According to Alfred Rehder, of Harvard, in the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, six species of hickory are indigenous to that region east of the Rocky Mountains here discussed under the term of the northernmost nut zone. These are the shagbark, the shellbark, the sweet hickory, the pignut, the mockernut and the bitternut. The shagbark hickory, Hicoria ovata, and the sweet hickory, H. ovalis, are the principal ones among this group offering promise as sources of varieties fit for cultivation in this zone. The former is well known as a rich-land species, having shaggy bark and a more or less sharply angled sweet nut; the latter, often called pignut, has recently been listed as "sweet hickory" to distinguish it from H. glabra, also called pignut, yet which is sometimes better. The sweet hickory is less exacting in soil requirements than the shagbark, although often nearly or quite as good a nut, popular prejudice notwithstanding. When shelled the kernels can be distinguished only with difficulty. Of the other hickories indigenous to this zone, all are omitted from the discussion for definite reasons, chief of which is the fact that few or no seedlings of promise have been found. The shellbark, H. laciniosa, which is much like the shagbark in many respects, occurs in this zone sparingly and only in the southernmost part. Nuts of this species, while very large, are thick-shelled and commonly more or less objectionable because of the frequency with which the kernels are imperfectly developed or entirely wanting. The pignut hickory, H. glabra, already mentioned, is omitted from further discussion because of being no better than the sweet hickory in any known respect, and because of the frequent bitterness of its kernel. The mockernut, H. alba, while indigenous practically everywhere that any other hickory grows, and producing a sweet, agreeable kernel, has too thick a shell to justify particular attention at this time. The bitternut hickory, H. cordiformis, is rarely palatable. The tree makes an attractive ornamental, but is relatively unimportant in so far as timber production is concerned. Intermediate forms of hickory and hybrids originated from chance crosses under purely natural conditions are fairly common. Quite a good many belonging to one or the other of these groups have been brought to light during the last two decades, largely as a result of discovery by the Northern Nut Growers Association. Several of these will be discussed in alphabetical order along with varieties of pure species. ANTHONY--The Anthony shagbark originated with a seedling tree discovered by Mr. A. B. Anthony, R. F. D. 6, Sterling, Whiteside County, Ill. It appears to be a particularly choice variety, and as the latitude of Sterling is practically the same as that of Chicago, it might do very well in the lower portion of the northernmost zone. In a cracking test of the 1932 crop the yield of quarters was 41.66, that of small pieces 0.60, making a total of 42.26 per cent. The nuts were large, averaging 74 per pound; attractive in appearance, clean, and of nearly white color. The cracking quality was good, the kernel plump, bright, rich in quality and medium sweet in flavor, but not being equal to some others in this last respect. This is believed to be one of the choicest hickory nuts yet brought to light. CEDAR RAPIDS--This shagbark is from Cedar Rapids, Linn County, Iowa, where the latitude is about 42 degrees north, or about the same as that of Chicago, Ill., Tecumseh, Mich., and the boundary line between Pennsylvania and New York. Like Anthony (of Sterling, Ill.) the merit of this variety is believed such as to justify its trial planting in the southern portion of the northernmost zone. The Cedar Rapids shagbark was discovered and brought to light by the late S. W. Snyder, senior member of Snyder Bros., Inc., nurserymen at Center Point, Iowa. The exact or even approximate year of discovery and first propagation is not known to the writer, but a remark made by Mr. Snyder during the 1930 convention, and passed on to him by Dr. Deming, would indicate that grafts were made as early as 1914. It was, "a Cedar Rapids shagbark grafted on a hickory (probably meaning shagbark), bore in its third year and has borne every year since, but the same variety grafted 16 years ago on a bitternut has not borne." In various comments made by Mr. Snyder from time to time, especially in connection with the Iowa meetings of the State Horticultural Society and of the Mid-West Horticultural Exposition, he continued to rate this as one of the best varieties within his acquaintance. There are a number of grafted trees of this variety in various parts of the country, but very few yet in bearing. The department at Washington has had no opportunity to test the nuts in detail. (There is also a variety of bitternut from Iowa known as Cedar Rapids, but the two are quite unlike and should not be confused.) COMINS--The original tree of the Comins shagbark hickory, awarded eighth prize in the 1929 contest, is owned by Mrs. Nancy E. Comins, Amherst, Hampshire County, Mass. This variety is probably worthy of further investigation, although specimens of the 1929 crop examined at Washington did not appear to as good advantage as did many others. CREAGER--The Creager hickory is a supposed shagbark and bitternut hybrid known since about 1925, when it was given a high rating, named, propagated and disseminated to a limited extent by Snyder Bros., Inc., of Center Point, Iowa. It was called to their attention by Mr. W. O. Creager, Sumner, Bremer County, Iowa, discoverer of the original tree. The nuts are quite small, averaging in a test made in Washington of the 1930 crop 149 per pound. The yield of kernel was 30.27 per cent quarters, 8.76 per cent small pieces, and the total 39.04 per cent. As this test was made in February, 1932, the nuts were more than a year old, and allowance should be made for this fact. The parent tree had been cut down in the meantime and nuts were not obtainable later. The shells of the nut are quite thin, easy to crack, and the kernels fairly sweet. Like most others when their parentage involves a cross with the bitternut, a distinct bitterness of flavor hangs over in the mouth as an after-taste. The grafted tree is said to be a rapid grower and so highly ornamental as to be well worth growing for its beauty alone. A few trees of such a hybrid as this should be in any variety test planting wherever they will succeed. As the latitude of Sumner is 43 degrees, this hybrid should be of interest as far north as Milwaukee, Wis.; Grand Rapids, Mich.; Buffalo, N. Y., and the northern boundary line of Massachusetts. Being primarily an ornamental, the Creager might be grown with safety even farther north. DENNIS--The Dennis shagbark hickory is another variety brought to light by Snyder Bros., Inc., of Center Point, Ia. The original tree was found near the City of Cedar Rapids and called to their attention by the late Dr. A. B. Dennis of that city. Information is lacking as to the exact year, but according to Mr. Bixby's address before the 1920 convention of the Association, Snyder Bros. used Dennis in 1916 in top-working. No test of the nuts by the department has yet been possible. However, Mr. S. W. Snyder wrote in 1926 that he then considered the Dennis "... the best shagbark yet discovered in Iowa." He added further that "where the nuts are gathered and hulled promptly after ripening, the color of the shell is usually highly attractive." He also stated that the shell was quite thin, and owing to its inner structure the kernels could be extracted easily. He regarded the quality of the kernel as rich and the flavor sweet and pleasing. This variety is represented in several known plantings and abundant nuts for testing should soon be procurable. Meanwhile, the variety should be included in further test plantings of the northernmost zone. DREW--The Drew hickory is a shagbark named in honor of Mr. Arthur Drew of Howell, Livingston County, Mich., by whom it was called to attention in 1916. The parent tree stands on the Lyman Beach farm, Marion township, about six miles southwest from the post office. It was then one of many young seedlings less than forty feet tall standing in a cattle pasture. When first examined the nuts were unimpressive, but later specimens received high rating. The tree is difficult to reach and its exact identity probably known only to Mr. Drew. The latitude of origin, the early age of bearing, and the superiority of nut, both with reference to cracking quality and merit of kernel, seem to call for further study. EMERICK--This shagbark was discovered by Prof. L. H. MacDaniels of Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Specimens of the 1932 crop were submitted to him by Miss Etta Emerick, West Camp, Ulster County, New York. In Washington seven of these nuts averaged 67 per pound and yielded 33.33 per cent quarters, 2.22 per cent small pieces, and a total of 35.55 per cent kernel. The cracking quality was very good and the nuts otherwise appeared to be of considerable promise. FAIRBANKS--This is a hybrid hickory, apparently the result of a chance cross between shagbark and bitternut. The parent tree was discovered by the late S. W. Snyder, of Center Point, Iowa, probably about 1912. It then stood near a line fence on the farm of Mr. C. A. Fairbanks, nine miles northwest of Anamosa, Jones County, Iowa. With reference to the merit of this variety, the late Mr. Bixby once commented, "A heavy bearer, nuts attractive, large, smooth and thin-shelled. The variety has about all the good points desirable except that its palatability is too low. It is the Ben Davis of the hickories." The latitude of Anamosa is such that the Fairbanks should be hardy in the south three or four tiers of counties of Wisconsin, Michigan, New York, and over much of Massachusetts. It has been widely disseminated, and because of the popular feeling in its favor, will likely continue to be planted in experimental orchards. GREEN--The parent tree of the Green sweet hickory is owned by Mr. Steve Green, R. F. D. 9, Battle Creek, Calhoun County, Mich. It was brought to attention in 1929, when it was awarded fifth prize by the Association among the hickory entries that year. This variety is the first of its species (Hicoria ovalis) to have received a prize from the Association. HUBER--The Huber shagbark hickory originated with a seedling tree owned by Mr. Ferdinand Huber, Cochrane, Buffalo County, Wisconsin. It came to light in 1929, when it was awarded second prize in the Association contest. HUFF--Like Green, this variety is a sweet hickory, Hicoria ovalis. The parent tree is owned by L. S. Huff, White Pigeon, St. Joseph County, Michigan. Aside from the fact that it was awarded ninth prize in the Association contest of 1929, little is known as to its merits. LANEY--This variety was brought to light by the late John Dunbar, First Assistant Superintendent of Parks in Rochester, New York, who wrote the department in Washington on March 13, 1916, that the original tree was on a farm owned by Mr. R. J. Sheard, superintendent of a cemetery in Webster County, New York. It appears to be the result of a natural cross between the shagbark and the bitternut hickories. It was given the species name Laneyi by Sargent in his Manual of the Trees of North America, in honor of Mr. C. C. Laney, Superintendent of Parks, in Rochester, by whom it had been called to his attention. This variety is probably of chief value for ornamental and breeding purposes. The nuts are large, like those of Fairbanks, attractive, thin-shelled, easy to crack and of pleasing palatability to some people. Upon becoming thoroughly cured, especially after a few months, the disagreeable taste characteristic of bitternut usually becomes quite pronounced. MANN--This shagbark hickory came to light when awarded first prize in the Michigan contest of 1932, held under the direction of Prof. James A. Neilson, East Lansing. The parent tree is owned by Mrs. Rae D. Mann, R. F. D. 3, Davison, Genesee County, Mich. In a cracking test of nuts from the crop of 1932, conducted in Washington, the average was 75 per pound; the yield of quarters was 43.52 per cent, that of small pieces 3.53 per cent, making a total of 47.06 per cent. The cracking quality was excellent, the kernels large, plump, of rich quality and particularly sweet flavor. The kernels were a trifle dark, but otherwise this hickory appears to be one of the most promising kinds yet discovered. MILLER--This shagbark hickory is another apparently highly promising variety, brought to light as a result of Professor Neilson's efforts. It was awarded second prize in the 1932 state contest held under his direction. The parent tree is owned by Mr. D. P. Miller, Route 3, North Branch, Lapeer County, Mich. It and Mann are from adjoining counties, and the parent trees are probably not over twenty miles apart. The two are of about equal merit and much alike, although Miller nuts are somewhat smaller. In the cracking test of the 1932 contest, fifty nuts weighed one-half pound. Of these, two were spoiled, yet the percentage of quarters was 48.02, that of small pieces 1.32, thus making a total of 49.34 per cent kernel. The cracking quality was excellent, the kernel a trifle dark, yet very plump, rich and sweet. SANDE--The Sande shagbark hickory is from the farm of Elmer T. Sande, Story City, Story County, Iowa, about sixteen miles north of Ames. It was brought to light by the late S. W. Snyder as early as November, 1928, when he became responsible for having it mentioned (p. 24) in the premium list of the Seventh Mid-West Horticultural Exposition held in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, November 14 to 17. It received seventh prize in the 1929 contest of the Northern Nut Growers Association. Mr. Snyder commented on this variety, as recorded in the 1930 proceedings of the Northern Nut Growers Association (p. 15), to the effect that the cracking quality of the Sande excelled that of any other variety of Iowa origin known to him at that time. The variety has twice received awards during the State Fair of Iowa. Mr. Snyder stated that the parent tree was then rather young but bearing well. As the latitude of Story City is slightly greater than 42 degrees, this variety should do well throughout much of the northernmost zone. SWAIM--The parent tree of the Swaim shagbark hickory stands on Maplewood farm, R. F. D. 1, South Bend, St. Joseph County, Ind., and is now owned by Mr. I. H. Swaim. It is one of a number of seedlings growing from local nuts planted during the early sixties by the late J. M. Swaim, grandfather of the present Mr. Swaim. It was called to the attention of the department in 1912 by Mr. H. H. Swaim, father of the present owner of the tree, who is still living near by on the same mail route. The Swaim was first propagated about 1914 by W. C. Reed of Vincennes, Ind., who has found it a highly satisfactory variety, with reference to regularity and size of crops and general merit of nuts. The Swaim is one of three varieties to tie for fourth place in the contest of the Association held in 1919. In a cracking test conducted in Washington with one pound of the 1930 crop, the nuts averaged 84 per pound and yielded 44.73 per cent of quarters, 4.62 per cent small pieces, and 0.44 per cent of bad kernels, thus making a total of 49.78 per cent of kernel. The cracking quality that year was excellent, the kernels large, plump, and bright. The quality was rich and the flavor sweet and pleasing. As the city of South Bend is but a few miles below the Michigan state line, this variety should be well worth considering for use in test plantings throughout the lower fringe of the northernmost zone. WESTPHAL--The Westphal is a shagbark hickory from Mr. Otto Westphal, R. F. D. 2, Kendall, Monroe County, Wis. It was awarded fourth place in the 1926 contest of the Philadelphia Society of Agriculture. So far as known, no other examination has been made of the nuts. However, the place they received in this contest, together with its latitude of origin, which is nearly 44 degrees, should commend the Westphal to the consideration of all who are interested in hickories for the northernmost region. The Filbert The filbert situation in the north is difficult to characterize. Repeated plantings have been established in this part of the country, probably since colonial days, only to perish in due time. Filbert blight was responsible for much of this loss, but so also were destructively low temperatures. Western New York now seems to be particularly favored, as trees there, notably at Geneva, bear regularly. Mr. Bixby's trees at Baldwin, Long Island, failed significantly during practically the whole of their life. Similarly, a comprehensive collection of varieties in the orchard of Dr. F. L. Baum, Boyertown, Pa., fruits practically not at all. Trees at Arlington, Va., on the government experimental farm, suffer sufficient winter injury each late winter or early spring to be quite regular in non-bearing. The varieties of all these plantings are much the same, and failure is not due to winter killing of the trees, as there is normally very little of this. It appears to be due to destruction of the flowers wrought by low temperatures following weather in January, February or March mild enough to start the flowers into bloom. At the present moment it looks as though European varieties of filbert might do much better where the trees bloom in April, as in western New York, than where flowers come out in February, as at Arlington, or in March, as on Long Island. For the present not a great deal of encouragement can be offered regarding the European varieties of filbert in the east, except in the most suitable sections. Certain hybrid varieties are now being developed, but they are not yet available for planting. The Chestnut No species of chestnut now available through the usual nursery channels can be recommended at the present time for planting in the northernmost zone except for experimentation along somewhat doubtful lines. The American sweet chestnut appears likely soon to be wiped out by blight. No chestnuts from the Old World, either European, Japanese or Chinese, have yet been found which are entirely hardy and otherwise satisfactory at this latitude. The European chestnut is quite as fatally subject to blight as is the American. The Japanese is mostly of too low degree of palatability to offer much promise, and horticultural varieties of Chinese chestnut are not yet available. Varieties of the Chinese hairy chestnut, Castanea mollissima, apparently of much promise, are now being developed, but trees are unlikely to become available for foundation stock to nurserymen for several years. Other Species The Persian (English) walnut, Juglans regia, and the Japanese walnut, J. sieboldiana, are both planted to some extent throughout the entire east and north, but neither promise to assume special prominence in this zone. Fine appearing trees in small numbers or occasional orchards of the former may be seen in many places. These are usually near large bodies of water, as within a mile or so, or two or three at most, of the shores of the lower Great Lakes, the Finger Lakes of New York, Long Island Sound, and various rivers and other smaller bodies of water within this general section. They are also to be found near buildings, especially in villages and small towns, but as orchard trees, or even single specimens out in the open, they are almost never met with except possibly while very young. The Japanese walnut is likewise little more than a novelty in this region. It is probably somewhat more hardy than is the foregoing, but it is not its equal in desirability. It grows rapidly under favorable environment, often becomes a handsome ornamental, comes into fruit while young, and bears freely but seldom heavily. The nuts are small, variable in character, and not particularly popular on the market. In flavor the kernels resemble butternut, but are much more mild. The nuts of this species are of two distinct types, the larger being shaped like a guinea egg, having a rather thick shell, and of doubtful merit. The other, known as the heartnut, is small as a rule, distinctly heartshaped, and easily opened with a knife by splitting the shell in half. A number of varieties are available through nurserymen. Between these two distinct types of Japanese walnut there are numerous intermediate forms hard to classify but invariably less desirable than heartnuts. There are also numerous offspring of marked vigor, producing nuts distinctly butternut-like in form but having even thicker shells. These last do not commend themselves for any purpose other than that of genetic use. Summary The black walnut, the shagbark hickory, the sweet hickory, the butternut and certain hybrid hickories are now believed to offer greater inducement to prospective planters of nut trees in the northernmost zone east of the Rocky Mountains than do other species. Varieties of strictly northern origin are now available to those who are capable of doing their own grafting. Many of these are of considerable promise, apparently, at least, equal in merit to any of the older varieties now being offered by nurserymen. The Tour--September 11th On Tuesday forenoon, September 11, the convention visited the Kellogg Factory and the Battle Creek Sanitarium and at noon returned to the W. K. Kellogg Hotel, where a delicious luncheon was served to the members and guests. Miss Mary I. Barber, Director of Home Economics of the Kellogg Company, in behalf of Mr. W. K. Kellogg, graciously acted as hostess at the luncheon. On Tuesday afternoon the convention went to the Kellogg Company farm by motor bus and auto to visit the nut trees. They then proceeded to the Bird Sanctuary and the Kellogg estate. This was followed by a motor boat trip around beautiful Gull Lake and dinner at Bunbury Inn. A session followed the dinner. THE PRESIDENT: I wish to present Professor V. R. Gardner, the Director of the Experiment Station at Michigan State College, East Lansing, who has kindly consented to address us this evening. PROF. GARDNER: In the field of horticulture we have many problems and these problems may be classified in different ways. From one standpoint, at least, there is a typical group or class of problems that arises in connection with a crop like the peach or apple or pear. If you knew that tomorrow or next week or next month you were to attend a meeting of peach or pear growers, you would have a pretty good idea of the type of questions that would be raised. They concern variety, insect and disease control, fertilization, and many questions relating to harvesting, packing and marketing the crop. On the other hand, suppose you were to attend a meeting of peony, delphinium, or dahlia growers. You would find not only an entirely different type of question under discussion, but an entirely different atmosphere. Now, are the problems of those who are interested in nuts more like those of the peach or the delphinium grower? You probably have your own answer to that question. At least, answers are coming to your mind. To my way of thinking--though of course I may be wrong--the kind of problem that presents itself to the person who is interested in growing nuts is more like the type that presents itself to those who are interested in dahlias or delphiniums or sweet peas than the problems that present themselves to the pear or cherry grower. In other words, it seems to me as though the problems of the nut grower are essentially the problems of the amateur. That does not mean they are less important or less interesting than they would be were the industry on more of a commercial basis like peach growing. About a year ago I was talking with Dr. Magness of the U. S. Bureau of Plant Industry and the discussion happened to turn to nuts. I knew that within the preceding six months Dr. Magness had covered most of the southern states where the pecan is grown commercially and had occasion to give considerable attention to the problems of the pecan industry. I asked, "What percentage of the commercial pecan growers at the present time are producing 1,000 pounds of cured nuts to the acre?" He replied, "Don't ask me what percentage. We can't talk about it in those terms. You can probably list on the fingers of one hand the growers who, year in and year out, are producing pecans at the rate of a thousand pounds to the acre, and certainly you can on the fingers of two hands." To me that was a rather striking statement. Dr. Magness may not have been entirely correct in his answer, but he was probably not far off. Anyway, the percentage of commercial pecan growers obtaining really large yields is extremely small. In the Pacific Coast States, a larger number and a larger percentage of the walnut growers regularly produce a thousand pounds of cured walnuts to the acre, though there are more who average 500 or 600 pounds. As yet, in any of our retail markets you may purchase first class named varieties of pecans at from 25c to 40c a pound. The same thing is true of English walnuts. If the cultivated varieties of the black walnut, hickory and the chestnut are to be put on the market in quantity, they will come into competition with the pecan, English walnut, almond and Brazil nut. This means that they must sell at comparable prices. Therefore, one of the principal problems of the nut industry, as I see it, just as with delphiniums or the peony or the dahlia or iris or in others that I might mention, is the problem of plant materials, more specifically, the breeding or discovery of varieties that are superior and that consequently can really compete with the English walnut and pecan and that likewise are productive and that can be produced at a low cost. As a matter of fact, in all of your meetings up to the present time the finding, testing, and the evaluating of chance seedlings that appear to be of promise has constituted not only an essential but one of the larger features to claim attention. Furthermore, I believe it will continue to claim attention for many years to come. Practically all of your present materials, from the Fairbanks hickory to the Thomas or Stabler walnut, have just happened--that is, occurred as chance seedlings. They have been found and recognized as something a little better than the general run. Someone has brought them to the attention of the public, your Association placed approval on them, and they have been propagated and finally become more or less disseminated. I presume that by a more thorough combing of the territory more good material will be found and brought to the front. However, after you do a certain amount of combing, you eventually exhaust the resources. Nevertheless, when that time comes in a matter of this kind, a good deal more can be done. If the plum or grape grower had stopped when he had scouted all of the territory where vines are native and had introduced into cultivation the best of the chance seedlings that nature had given us, we wouldn't have the grapes or plums or other fruits that we have today. At this point I wish to make a suggestion as to one thing that this association, as an association, and perhaps some of its members as individuals, can give some attention to as a part of your program in the years to come. It is the job of breeding superior varieties of nuts, because much improvement is called for in walnuts, hickories, and the other kinds before they are all that you or the consuming public wants of them. The situation is essentially the same with nuts as with other fruit and ornamental plants. We have some pretty good peaches, but ten years from now the producers in Michigan will be growing very few of the varieties that they are growing today, and I dare say that twenty-five years from now they will be growing hardly any of them. We have some very attractive delphiniums and dahlias, but in 1950 few of today's favorites will be in cultivation. They will be superseded by new and superior varieties. In 1950, or 1975, we should be growing nut varieties that are far superior to what is available at the present time. To say that there is room for much improvement sounds all right, but who is going to effect it? Nut trees are not the easiest things in the world to grow. They require a long time to come into bearing, and it is almost out of the question for a person of middle age to undertake a breeding project with a crop like the black walnut or northern hickory and expect to get anywhere. Even if an Experiment Station undertakes a problem of this kind, there is the likelihood that it may be dropped before much will have been accomplished, for the person who starts it may go somewhere else or be compelled to divert his attention to something else, while the person who succeeds him has no interest in the project. That has happened time and time again with investigations of many kinds, but it has been particularly true of breeding projects. If we are ever to make any real progress in the breeding of nuts, one of the first things we need to know is the value of the different materials with which we have to work and the varieties that are used as parents. The Stabler, Thomas and Ohio are relatively superior black walnuts, but we do not know which is the best of these for breeding for size or vigor of tree or productivity or quality of nut or any other quality. We haven't the slightest idea. Yet before really scientific plant breeding work can be initiated, there is need of information as to which of these can be depended on for transmitting to its offspring certain specific qualities. Through experiment and experience we have learned some of these things with regard to some of the other fruit and ornamental crops. For instance, we know that the J. H. Hale is not only a wonderful variety in itself, but that it has the ability to produce superior progeny. Certain other varieties lack this ability. So, doubtless, it is with nuts. How are we to obtain this information? If your Association could get two or three growers, say here in Michigan, to inbreed the Stabler walnut and grow the resulting seedlings--perhaps a thousand in number--to fruiting age and someone somewhere else to do the same with the Thomas and with the Ohio and other varieties, it would not be long before a body of information would be collected that would furnish a definite basis for the scientific breeding of nuts. Incidentally, the chances are that some of this first group of seedlings would be superior and I believe that the chances are better than 50-50 that the resulting nut orchard would be a fairly good one. Where are you going to get these inbred seeds? That probably is what you can put up to your experiment stations. For instance, I am inclined to think that Mr. Neilson, if he found out that there is a member of this organization that is willing to grow a hundred inbred seedlings of the Stabler or Thomas to maturity, would undertake to hand-pollenize the flowers for that number of seeds, you would have a start in the direction of developing superior varieties of nuts. I don't mean to say that by undertaking a thing like this you should pay less attention to looking for native trees that are superior, but your problem now, and for the next thirty years, with northern nuts, is one of materials and the method of procedure that I have suggested would put it on a basis of a fairly definite breeding project. THE PRESIDENT: I think it is self-evident that this association came here to Battle Creek for its convention this year principally because of the work that has been started by the Michigan State College. We think that the states and the national government ought to do just what you are doing here, and the power of the association is going to be back of those projects in the future. To our sorrow, and I'd say to the loss of the entire nation, several very valuable plantings have been started and the passing of the owner has made it necessary that they be abandoned, and in some cases lost entirely; in others a few of the trees have been transplanted. We feel that if these specimen trees can be maintained on state and national property, it will serve to call attention to this nation's potential resources, which are not appreciated at present. The 1934 Ohio Black Walnut Contest _By_ CARL F. WALKER, _Cleveland Heights, Ohio_ The first prize contest confined to the state of Ohio to discover superior seedling black walnuts was conducted in the fall of 1933 by the Ohio members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association in co-operation with the farm paper, the Ohio Farmer. The original announcement was made in mid-September and several follow-up articles were published, including some illustrations. Further publicity was obtained by mailing press copy to the rural newspapers throughout the state. The response was generous with 303 persons mailing in 423 samples of black walnuts. These came from all sections of the state, indicating a universal interest over the entire area. The first package of nuts arrived on September 25th and for the next six weeks few further sample lots were received. During the latter part of November and up to the date of close of the contest, December 15, the entries were mailed to the judges in quantity. This period coincided with inclement weather when outdoor farm work could not be carried on. The growing season had been abnormal due to a lack of precipitation and it is believed that the nuts were not as large nor as well filled as could be expected in a normal season. Defoliation through caterpillar attack had been severe, especially in the northern third of the state, and this condition may also have affected the normal development. The kernels of many lots were shrunken and since these included some nuts which would otherwise be given a high score, the method of judging by points, partly mathematically determined, was used as a guide only, rather than an exact means of choosing prize winners. Shell structure, together with the shape and relative size of kernel cavity, was the determining factor in choosing the prize winners. No differential for kernel color was made, for it was recognized that this was dependent in part upon the method used in harvesting and in handling the nuts. The varieties that were poorly sealed were discarded. All of the prize winners, on the basis of the merits of the nuts, are considered worthy of propagation for home or experimental orchard planting. The locations of the parent trees give a sufficiently general coverage for the entire state for the selection of a variety to propagate for almost all climatic and soil conditions in any part of the state. This, in itself, is considered the advantage and the justification of a contest confined to a single state or a limited region. Also, when residents of a state, through a contest, discover promising seedlings within their own state, it is believed that there is created in the sponsors more incentive to compile continuous data about the new kinds than would exist when the prize winners are chosen from regions quite removed. That so many examples were submitted was the result of excellent publicity by the Ohio Farmer. The first prize was ten dollars, the second five dollars, the third three dollars and the remaining seven prizes were subscriptions to the Ohio Farmer of from five years to one year in length. The prize winners were as follows: First--Mrs. Willard Brown, Rock Bridge, O. Second--Sam Tritten, Lisbon, O. Third--B. A. Cowle, Defiance, O., Rt. 8. Fourth--W. W. Janson, Jefferson, Ohio. Fifth--Harmon Barnhart, Mt. Vernon, O., Rt. 6. Sixth--R. E. Havice, Bellevue, Ohio, Rt. 1. Seventh--C. H. Markey, Beallsville, Ohio. Eighth--Kermit C. Hoover, Glenford, O. Ninth--Ralph H. Miller, 300 Monroe St., Delta, O. Tenth--F. C. Murphey, Sunbury, Ohio. The final judging was done at the Ohio State Experimental Station by Dr. J. H. Gourley, Chief of Horticultural Department, Walter H. Lloyd, Editor of the Ohio Farmer, and Carl F. Walker, assisted by Homer L. Jacobs of the Davey Tree Expert Co., John T. Bregger, Editor of the American Fruit Grower, and Ray T. Kelsey of the Ohio Farmer. THE PRESIDENT: That concludes the program. There is just a little business to handle now. Before we go on to that I would like to call attention to Dr. Deming's remarks about some of the old timers, which I thought very touching, interesting and instructive. There are two foreign members of the association whom I have never met. One is Mr. Spence, an Englishman, and the other Mr. Wang of China. Mr. Wang was a life member. The reports that I sent to him came back. All letters came back. I took it upon myself to write the Commissioner General of the United States at Shanghai, China, and call his attention to the fact that some twelve years ago Mr. Wang secured through this association some black walnuts, wanting to plant them along a certain highway in China. The Commissioner General answered, saying they could find nothing about him, and that the trees had not been planted where Mr. Wang had planned. I think Mr. Wang must have died or moved away. There is one item of business I think we should have, and that is a brief report from Mr. Ellis who was our delegate to the horticultural exposition at Paris. MR. ELLIS: In 1930 I was appointed your delegate to represent you at the Paris Horticultural Congress. I sent on the delegate's sheet. I received a reply making me a member of that congress. It went along about a month or two, then the terrible depression came on and before going I thought it better to investigate. So I wrote to Washington and found out that no one was going from there. I wrote to Canada and no one was going from there. They could not afford it. I said, "It's going to cost me $800 if I go." Then I found out that there was to be a similar congress in New York, so I switched off and went to the congress at Ithaca, New York, and I was very glad of it because I met a great many more men that I liked to meet than if I had gone to Paris. I wrote over to the congress at Paris and sent another fee of the same amount, because I knew they needed it, saying that I'd decided not to go. They had the congress. The President was shot at about that time, and that kind of broke it up. I received accounts of all the proceedings. They treated me very fairly, in as much as they put me down as a delegate from the United States of America, and I was the only delegate from the whole United States. I don't suppose anyone else could afford to go, so if I had gone over, I should have been there all alone. I said to myself, "It only cost me a hundred dollars to go out to Ithaca, so I saved $700. I'm not going to make anything out of this." So I took that $700 and I gave it away for charitable purposes. You know I gave you some. I got a letter from one person privileged, and I never had a more grateful and appreciative letter in my life. The balance of that $800 and more I gave to this purpose. I gave some to the Catholic Daughters of America, I gave some to the Parent-Teachers' Association, I gave some to the schools, and lots to the poor in one way or another. I've sent five girls to different summer schools of religious education, and a girl scout to a summer camp. I helped them all out all around, not only in my own district, but in other places in different parts of the country. So you got everything. You got your delegate over there duly enrolled, and you got some money when you most needed it, and so did all those other people. Not only to the amount of $800, but to a good deal more. I feel better satisfied and I think that you all ought to be better satisfied. If there is anyone that isn't satisfied, let him get up and I'll argue it out with him. THE PRESIDENT: I might state at this time that there will be another contest this year, at least for black walnuts and hickories. The prizes will be as follows: first prize $10, second prize $5, third prize $3, fourth prize $2, fifth prize $1, and honorary mention for others. Instructions will be issued and anyone desiring to enter this contest should write the secretary for instructions. It's understood, I might say, that the nuts will be sent to Mr. C. A. Reed of the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, who has kindly consented to look after that work and report to a contest committee which will be named later. THE PRESIDENT: We will now have the report of the resolutions committee. RESOLUTION The Northern Nut Growers Association assembled in convention at the W. K. Kellogg Hotel, Battle Creek, Michigan, September 10 and 11, 1934, expresses its sincere appreciation of the courteous hospitality of the local committee on arrangements, headed by Prof. James A. Neilson. It would mention in particular Mr. W. K. Kellogg, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, and the W. K. Kellogg Hotel management. It appreciates the use of the splendid auditorium and is grateful for the attractive bouquets arranged about the room. The association heartily commends the nut work being done in the state of Michigan with the aid of Mr. W. K. Kellogg and under the direction of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station and actively under the lead of Prof. Neilson. The association records its pride in the establishment and maintenance of 115 acres of nut trees for purposes of experimentation and variety testing. In so far as known to the association there is no other tract of equal area in existence for this purpose. Be it resolved, that a copy of this resolution be spread upon the minutes of this meeting and that the secretary be instructed to send copies to Mr. W. K. Kellogg, Dr. John Harvey Kellogg, the Kellogg Hotel management, Director V. R. Gardner and Prof. James A. Neilson. The Northern Nut Growers Association records its extreme sorrow at the death of its active and able, although but recently elected, treasurer, Newton H. Russell of South Hadley, Massachusetts, on April 27, 1934. For many years Mr. Russell was a very active member of the association, a regular attendant at its conventions, and a loyal supporter of its various activities. The genial personalities of both Mr. and Mrs. Russell are greatly missed at this convention. Our deep sympathy is expressed to Mrs. Russell and her children in their bereavement. Be it resolved, that a copy of this resolution be spread upon the minutes of this meeting, and that the secretary be instructed to send a copy to Mrs. Newton H. Russell. Resolutions Committee, G. L. Slate, Chairman C. A. Reed A. S. Colby. DR. DEMING: I think that the thanks of the association are especially due to our president, Mr. Frey, for having so successfully stepped into the breach for the completion of the arrangements for this meeting, and for the very excellent program which he completed. I think he should also be thanked for the separate notices which he sent out, directing the attention of the persons coming to and going from this meeting to the nut orchards and other things of interest that may be seen on the way. THE PRESIDENT: I thank you. I might say that the suggestion for visiting interesting trees and nut plantings came from Mr. Reed. I want to call to your attention again that next year's meeting will be held at Rockport, Indiana, on September 9 and 10, 1935. The dues of this association are now only $2.00, and action taken at this convention will result in your receiving without additional charge the American Fruit Grower Magazine, which has been adopted as our official journal and included with the dues. You also have the privilege of joining the American Horticultural Society for the fee of $2 instead of $3.00. We are affiliated with that society and they allow to their affiliated associations the privileges of the members. Secure a membership and get the quarterly journal for the price of $2.00. We certainly recommend this association. We think that you get your money's worth many times over and it does a great deal of good. The only other item of business is a report from the nominating committee. DR. DEMING: Your nominating committee reports through the chairman the nomination of the following members as officers for the ensuing year: President--Mr. Frank H. Frey, Chicago, Illinois. Vice President--Dr. G. A. Zimmerman, of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Secretary--Mr. George L. Slate, of Geneva, New York. Treasurer--Mr. Carl F. Walker, of Cleveland Heights, Ohio. For Members of the Executive Committee--Mr. Frank H. Frey, Dr. G. A. Zimmerman, Mr. George L. Slate, Mr. Carl F. Walker, Professor J. A. Neilson and Mr. D. C. Snyder. As Dean of the Association--Dr. Robert T. Morris, of Connecticut. As Field Secretary--Mr. Zenas H. Ellis, of Vermont. I move that the secretary be authorized to cast one ballot for the election of the ticket nominated. The motion was unanimously carried, and the officers nominated by the committee were elected for the ensuing year. THE PRESIDENT: I might say that I won't, at least, have to sing a "swan song," and I'm not going to take the time to make any speech of acceptance. I appreciate your confidence in re-electing me and I am sure the other officers feel the same way. We'll all do what we can for your interest and what we are all interested in. Sometimes we may be a little slow in getting results but with your help I think we can make progress. The twenty-fifth annual convention of the Northern Nut Growers' Association adjourned at 9:30 P. M. Tuesday, September 11, 1934. Letter from J. U. Gellatly _British Columbia_ I have just returned from a six weeks' trip to the B. C. Coast scouting for new nut trees and selling nut tree nursery stock. The outstanding discovery of the trip is the Rapier walnut tree. This young giant was planted 24 years ago by Mr. Rapier on Texada Isl. I estimate this tree to be 60 to 70 feet in height, the measured spread is 60 feet one way and 70 at widest point, and other measurements as follows: from ground to first limbs there is 8 feet of straight trunk with a girth of 7 feet one inch taken one foot above ground, and at 6 feet above ground girth is 69 inches. The tree has cropped regularly since it was about 6 years old. The largest crop to date was produced in 1931 totaling 500 pounds. The shape of nut is long oval, size medium. The flavor of those I tasted of the 1933 crop certainly was the sweetest I have tasted to date for this class of nut. I have no definite information as to source of this tree, but judge it to be a Franquette seedling as that was the class of trees sold by the nursery from which the tree was purchased. I have made arrangements for sample nuts from this year's crop and will send you some later. This tree is well worth testing for hardiness as it is evidently self-fertile, there being no other nut trees of the same age near by. Another discovery of interest from the nut breeding angle is the McDonald walnut. This is a hybrid English X. J. Sieboldiana, growing at West Vancouver, B. C. Nut large and heavy shell, but the best kernel cavity I have seen in any of these crosses. The tree is a nice tree and leaves show distinct crossing. This is the first year it has borne and it had 2 nuts. One shell I am sending you with other samples of new nuts. The Watt English walnut at Penticton, B. C., is proving a regular cropper of uniform large round nuts of good flavor. This tree is a seedling from my own nursery. I do not know from what tree it grew, but it is worthy of testing for hardiness in districts north of present location as there is some evidence of hardiness. I know this tree to be a good cropper but have no definite record of any one year's crop as the tree is located where many persons help themselves to the nuts. The Lindy walnut from the beaches at Kelowna, B. C., continues to make good tree growth and produce good crops of large round nuts with thin shells and well developed kernels of good flavor. This tree is a seedling grown from a nut brought from Kulu Hills, India, in 1912. This tree is also worthy of trial for hardiness in districts north of present locations. I do not know how this tree is as a self-pollenizer as there are two other trees near by of the same stock and planting. I do know that seedlings grown from this tree make a good growth and look alike in the nursery row and are very uniform as to color and growth of leaf, in striking contrast to seedlings from some other trees which vary a lot in every feature. In heartnuts the newest I have of outstanding promise are from my own nursery. Two are now growing at Peachland, B. C. One, the MacKenzie, is a vigorous, well grown tree and bears regularly heavy crops of large, rough-shelled heartnuts that are easily cracked. The kernels are light in color and of good flavor. The other, the Rover heartnut, is a young tree just carrying a record crop. Tree is in a poor location on the edge of wild timber competing for soil space. The nut is a big step in the elimination of the central division, so pronounced in most heartnuts. This is the outstanding feature of this nut. Cracking and other features are still undetermined but promising. I have a number of others that are promising. One is the Flavo Heart, a heartnut and butternut cross. This is a seedling of Callender heart and butternut. The outstanding features are the shape of nut, flavor of kernel and ease of extraction. This is its first crop. From B. D. Wallace _Portage la Prairie, Manitoba_ I will endeavor to give you a short account of our progress in the culture of butternuts and black walnuts. Our success with butternuts has been due, very largely, to the method we adopted some twenty years ago and might be summed up in the following report. From one hundred pounds of butternut seed, which we secured in the fall of 1914, and which we planted the same season in October, we got in the following year a splendid stand of seedlings which gave great promise the first summer. During the winter of 1915 a great number of those seedlings were partially or altogether destroyed, through the climatic conditions of the country. But quite a number of them stood up in splendid condition. After about three years we eliminated everything that did not stand up 100 per cent and show a splendid growth. We had in the neighborhood of fifty trees and thus, through a survival of the fittest, the foundation of this industry became established. We distributed perhaps twenty or more trees to the Experimental Farm and other places. These have all stood up, as far as I can learn, with splendid success. This left about thirty of the original trees in our nurseries. These thirty have never shown any sign of frost killing nor are they in any other way affected. Our trees commenced to bear in their sixth year, in 1920 and have increased in size and fruiting year by year, until today they are about thirty feet high with a spread of about thirty-six feet and are without question the most beautiful row of trees west of the Great Lakes. We have grown at least one hundred thousand trees from the nuts taken from these trees, which have been distributed over a very wide territory, reaching from the northern part of Ontario to the Rocky Mountains. Many of our customers have now their own trees bearing. In addition to our selling the trees, we offer to our customers one two-year-old butternut or horse chestnut with each ten dollar order sent in. We took this method to get our nut trees into the hands of a great number of the people. We have followed practically the same line with black walnuts, but with less success than with butternuts, as a very much greater percentage of the black walnuts went down. Notwithstanding that we have a number of trees which have survived in splendid condition. One of these is bearing for its second year and one other is just bearing for the first time. However, we have a good deal of hardy wood, as our trees are growing bushy and we intend to use the butternut seedlings for stocks on which to graft the black walnut. By this method we will not have to wait so long to get a good supply of trees. There is no question whatever about the future success of the butternut, as we have this year the third generation of them bearing, which is ample proof that they have become entirely acclimated. The butternuts grow fully as large as in eastern Canada, as do also the black walnuts, and as far as I can see the quality is equal if not better. In addition to the butternut and black walnut, we have made a complete success of the horse chestnut. Ours were planted in 1914, and commenced bearing about the same time as the butternut, and we have grown great crops of nuts continually from that date to the present. We are also trying out the heartnut, both from young trees and from seed. Out of three different plantings that is planted the same year but in different sections, one planting of six trees has stood up completely for the last three years, whereas the other two freeze back a little. In addition to these we are growing from seed the filbert, which seems to be hardy, but is not old enough to fruit yet. However, there is no question in my mind whatever that we shall succeed with all those different trees, following our own method of only using wood and seed from those trees which are proof against the most severe climatic conditions. We used this same method thirty-five years ago in laying the foundation for fruit growing. Out of twelve thousand of the hardiest fruit trees that we could buy from Dakota and Minnesota, after three years we eliminated all but fourteen trees. These were divided between standard apples, crab-apples, plums and plum hybrids. By using northern Russia plum seed and Siberian crab seed for roots, we have been able to lay a foundation for fruit growing in this western country that will live long after we are forgotten. From Vera Nekiassena _Turkestan_ My opinion is there are two kin species growing in Turkestan--Juglans regia L and J fallasc Dode; the first in the Kopet-Dag, the second in the Fansha mountains, in guissar and Darwas. The J. regia is further cultivated in Turkestan gardens and in the Lowawschan Valley. The J. Kamaonia Dode is occasionally to be observed likewise in gardens. I did not chance to see it personally and am in possession of only one of its nuts. Both species (the J. regia and the J. fallasc) produce a great variety of nuts as to shape, thickness of shell and size of kernel. Both these species have been united by some authors (Mr. M. Popof in Bull. of Applied Botany of Genetics and plant breeding XXII N3 (1929), p. 294) into one--that of J. regia but always distinguishing the Kopet-dog nuts in the jsp. turcomanica Popof; difference between them being certainly esctant. The number of leaflets of the J. fallasc amounts to 2-4, they are rounder and more obtuse, the shell of the nut is thicker and also rounder and smaller. The number of J. regia leaflets is 3-5, they are narrower and more pointed (lance shaped), the nuts more elongated, larger and their shell thinner. Having been for my part mainly occupied with the geographical distribution of nuts without regard to the variation of the fruit shape, I would recommend you to apply for a choice of nuts to Mr. Gursey, (Caucasus, Pjabigorsx), who is making a special study of the problem. For cultivation in the north you will be interested in J. Manshurica originating in the Far East and very hardy. It is cultivated and produces fruit in Leningrad, young specimens of it were planted on the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea and there outlived excellently. Concerning the list of trees appended to your letter, I can give you the following information. _J. Regia_ grows well in the park of Botanic Institute in Leningrad, attaining 8-10 M.; in the southern part of Smolensk district the tree produces fruit as far as Minsk. There is a considerable number of fruit producing specimens in the Masir district in the north of White Russia. _J. Sieboldiana_ freezes up in cold winters in Leningrad. _J. cinerea_ is very hardy and effects self-polinasation in White Russia; near Kasan there is one specimen producing about 100 fruits yearly. _J. rigra_ produces fruits in Koslon. _Corylus Colurna_--a large old specimen esctant in Leningrad rather frequently observed in many parks of European U. S. S. R. _C. Acellana_ is widely spread in a wild state attaining Ladoga-laxe. _C. Mascima_ frequently in the Crimea and the Caucasus. _Castanea Sabiva_ grows in the Caucasus only, and cultivated in Urraina. Castanea Henryii Corylus chinensis. C. Lacquement and Cticstica I do not know in U. S. S. R. _C. Seguinu, C. Crensta_ and _C. Mollissima, separate_ strains probably to be had in Suchum. From Divisional Forest Officer _Utilization Division, Baramulla Kashmir_ There are two distinct species of of walnut growing here. One which grows from 3,500 to 7,000 feet above sea level near about habitations and on rich fertile soil has got good big sized nuts which are very easy to break even with the pressure of hand, and about which you probably seem interested. The other species grows higher in the forest up to about 11,000 feet elevation. It has hard nuts which cannot be broken easily and have moreover very little kernel as compared to former species. Even the timber of both the species is distinctly different, in as much as the former has dark gray color and the latter has reddish gray. Regarding nomenclature the botanists differ. The former species is named Juglans regia hin. The latter species which is wild may be called Juglans fallax, Dode or Juglans Kamaonia, Dode, but actually it is a bit different from either and is something midway between the two and so is yet to be determined properly. Corylus colurna is the only species of Corylus found here out of your list. B. The altitudes of walnut zone has been stated above. Corylus Colurna also grows between 8,000 and 11,000 feet. Both the walnut species are confined to Kashmir and Chamba states, while Corylus Colurna grows all over the Himalayas. C. The maximum height and girth of a tree I have felled was 100 ft. and 15 ft. respectively. This tree grew in a forest at 9,000 foot altitude amongst firs. Trees growing outside in the fields in the open are sometimes bigger in girth but their bole is very short and the height also is small compared with forest grown trees. The trees growing in the fields in the open are of soft rind species. D. The trees growing in the fields and of soft rind species are generally fast grown and they have about 8 to 10 rings to an inch. The trees growing in the forest have about 16 to 20 rings to an inch. E. The length of frost-free season depends upon the situation and locality, generally from May to September there is no frost, the rest of the season has frost. F. The maximum temperature is 92 degrees, while the minimum is many points below zero when the country is snow-bound all over. There is snow in the forests for about six months. G. The average annual rainfall is between 54 and 34 inches in the year, according to the locality. H. All the walnut trees are grown for extraction of oil from their nuts. This oil is used for cooking purposes, in place of fats and butter. When the tree gets old or gets diseased, it is felled and timber is used for making furniture and carving. Kashmir walnut carving is well known. I. Hazel trees grow wild in the forest, the hazel nuts are collected and are eaten. Sometimes these nuts are exported to British India, where kernels are used chiefly to adulterate almond kernels. Corylus has not been grown here as a garden tree and so I do not know its requirements of germination. I will however be thankful to you if you could kindly send me a little fresh seed, C. Colema, to grow it here in Kashmir. Some years ago I had sent for the seeds of Rhamnus Purshiana from U. S. A. This was sown here but it did not germinate. I shall feel obliged if you could let me know the requirements of this species, that is, the situation, soil, et cetera, which this species demands. Rhamnus dahuricus grows wild here as a small shrub. Do you think I can get American species by grafting my species with Rhamnus Purshiana scions? Communication from John W. Hershey, 1934 I called at the experimental nut planting place of the late J. W. Waite, at Normandy, Tennessee, on June 1st and found he had been dead about eight months. I talked with a native who told me he was one of the most plucky men he had ever seen, having had, because of some disease, both legs amputated, was all crippled up otherwise, and traveled in a wheel chair. He even use to milk cows and drive around in an old buggy. This setting at the Waite place is going to be of immense value to the T. V. A. tree crop program. I met the daughter who knew very little about the trees, but the first thing she mentioned was the wonderful nuts they got off the McCalister tree. I could identify a few of the trees but will not make much progress at it until this fall, when the nuts are ripe. They are heavily set with bloom now. To assist me in this work, I am wondering if the Association has anything in its files pertaining to the varieties that he has. As you know, one can identify a tree quicker if he knows what he is looking for. Letter From Mrs. E. W. Freel _Pleasantville, Iowa, September 5, 1934_ Yesterday, when coming home, we drove around (which was not out of our way) to see those walnut trees about which you made inquiry. The Freel tree has been topped and it has made a wonderful growth this year and is going to make a very pretty tree. The Marion has a few walnuts on this year, but they are falling off due to the dry weather this year. Last year it was loaded. The Metcalf tree has some on but, like the others, most all of them have fallen off. It was also full last year. The Worthington tree also had some on this year, but have all fallen off. It also had walnuts on last year. I have never known any of these trees to be a complete failure unless it would be this year due to the drought which has been pretty severe with us. We have had no garden to speak of and the crops in this section have almost been a complete failure. The Wheeling tree had walnuts on last year but I have been unable to get out there this year. It is off the gravel road and it has been raining here for the last two days. I have not been able to get out to the hickory nut trees. They had some nuts on last year but not very plentiful. I have noticed along the highways, as we would be driving along, that some of the hickory nut trees were full and others would not have any on, but do not know as yet how the drought will affect them. I wish we could attend the convention, but it will be impossible for us this year. Letter From Geo. W. Gibbens _Godfrey, Illinois, September 6, 1934_ The Mid-West Nut Growers' Association is not functioning. There will be a normal crop of black walnuts in this section of the state. The hickory and pecan crop is very light. The chestnut crop will be light. Many of our chestnut trees were killed by the drought this summer. Some young trees on cultivated land will develop nuts, and a few of the older trees may do so. For many years here (E. A. Riehl Farm) we have been trying to grow the English walnut to bearing size. This year we have a young tree that is bearing. It is the Alpine. I wish we could attend the convention. Letter From Fred Kettler _Platteville, Wisconsin_ In regard to the Kettler walnut tree here: It seems to be gradually dying; has many dead branches, which is caused by the drought we have had the last few years. We should get 25 to 30 inches rainfall a year and we had only 8 or 10 last year and about that same amount this year. The ground is wet down only about 15 inches on top. Below that it is dry. The old tree had quite a few nuts on this year. However, most of them were blown off by a cyclone six weeks ago. There is about a peck of nuts on the tree now. All walnuts here are only half a crop on account of the June beetle and the weather conditions, and they are quite small nuts, the weather being so dry. I grafted 150 of the Wisconsin No 1, or Kettler walnut. It was boiling hot here in April and May and it again spoiled it for me. We watered them every day and shaded them, but the heat and dry, hot dirt was too much. All were grafted on young yearling trees close to the ground where I covered them with dirt. Many started, but died later; anyway, I succeeded in getting six more nice trees started (one to three feet tall now). My tree from last year is about five feet tall and made some side branches; so you see I am getting started. I doubt if I can get any graft wood from the old tree next spring. We are in the nursery business just in a small way. We have only the best of varieties. I have discovered also a thin-shell hickory nut with a wonderful meat. I don't know if I will get any of the nuts this year as they have been stealing them every year, I am told by the man who owns it. I succeeded in getting one growing on a young pecan tree I had. I think it is even better than my walnut. I enclose one with a this year walnut sample. The hickory is a last year sample. What our country needs is timber on every farm from one acre to ten acres, according to size of farm, all over the United States. Then we will get more rain. That would be a real crop control--instead of destroying crops like the New Deal is doing. Planting a strip of timber from Canada to the Gulf will not help anyone. We believe the "brain-trusters" need a doctor. Telegram Sept. 11, 1934. Dear Dr. Morris: The Northern Nut Growers' Association is in session in the W. K. Kellogg Hotel, Battle Creek, Michigan. The members present are reminded that this is the twenty-fifth anniversary of the Association. It recalls with interest the first meeting held in New York City, which was called to order by Dr. Deming, at which you became charter President, Mr. T. P. Littlepage of Washington, charter Vice President, Dr. Deming, charter Secretary. It is the unanimous feeling of the present membership that the society for which you and the others so ably laid the foundation at that time has been abundantly justified by the accomplishments of the organization. We are especially indebted to you for the able leadership from you which the Association enjoyed, not only while you served in an executive capacity, but during the many years which followed while you were an active leading member, and now for approximately ten years during which you have been Dean. We regret that impaired health makes it impossible for you to attend meetings at present, but we assure you that your name is not being forgotten nor is the work which you inaugurated being allowed to lapse. (Signed by the members present.) Catalogue of Top-Grafted Nut Trees on the Kellogg Farm, Kellogg School Grounds, and Kellogg Estate. Place and Variety Species Stock Year Grafted Kellogg School-- 1. Fairbanks Hybrid Hickory Pignut 1933 2. Pleas, Des Hicans Pignut 1934 Moines and McCallister Kellogg Farm (Farm Lane) 1. Broadview English Walnut Black Walnut 1931 Crath English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 2. Allen Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 Wiard Black Walnut Black Walnut 1933 3. Dennis Shagbark Pignut 1934 4. Creager Hybrid Hickory Pignut 1934 (Hickory Block) 1. Fairbanks Hybrid Hickory Pignut 1931 2. Rohwer Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 3. Crath English Walnut Black Walnut 1933 (McIntyre) 4. Haviland Shellbark Pignut 1931 5. McCallister Hican Pignut 1931 6. Burlington Hican Pignut 1932 7. Des Moines Hican Pignut 1932 8. Creager Hybrid Hickory Pignut 1932 9. Dennis Shagbark Pignut 1932 10. Stanley Shellbark Pignut 1931 11. Wiard Black Walnut Black Walnut 1933 12. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1931 13. Des Moines Hican Pignut 1932 14. Pleas Hican Pignut 1934 15. Cedar Rapids Shagbark Pignut 1931 16. McDermid English Black Walnut 1933 17. Shinnerling Shagbark Pignut 1932 18. Stratford Shagbark Pignut 1932 19. Hand Shagbark Pignut 1932 20. Rockville Hican Pignut 1931 21. Rohwer Black Walnut Black Walnut 1933 22. Des Moines Hican Pignut 1932 23. Stratford Shagbark Pignut 1932 24. Beaver Hybrid Hickory Pignut 1932 25. Gerardi Hican Pignut 1934 26. Creitz Black Walnut Black Walnut 1931 27. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1930 28. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1930 Howell Black Walnut Kellogg Farm (55 acre field) 1. Creitz Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 2. Rohwer Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 Stambaugh Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 Wiard Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 McDermid English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 Crath English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 3. Crath English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 4. Wilkinson English Walnut Black Walnut 1933 5. Wiard Black Walnut Black Walnut 1933 6. Adams Black Walnut Black Walnut 1934 7. Beck Black Walnut Black Walnut 1934 8. Wiard Black Walnut Black Walnut 1933 9. Franquette English Walnut Black Walnut 1933 10. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1931 Rohwer Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 Pasture Field-- 1. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1930 2. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1930 3. Des Moines Hican Bitternut 1933 and Pleas Hican 1934 4. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1931 5. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1931 6. Wiard Black Walnut Black Walnut 1933 7. Ohio Black Walnut Black Walnut 1930 8. Crath English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 9. Crath No. 2 English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 10. McDermid English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 11. Corsan Chinese Walnut Black Walnut 1932 12. Carpenter Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 Beck Black Walnut Black Walnut 1933 13. Grundy Black Walnut Black Walnut 1932 Franquette English Walnut Black Walnut 1933 Kellogg Estate-- 1. Fairbanks Hickory Hybrid Pignut 1931 2. Crath No. 5 English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 3. Burlington Hican Pignut 1932 4. Stratford Shagbark Nursery Tree 1932 5. Faust Heartnut Japanese Walnut 1932 6. Crath English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 7. Crath English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 8. Alpine English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 9. Turkish Hazel Tree Hazel (colurna) Seedling 1932 10. McDermid English Walnut Black Walnut 1932 11. Burlington Hicans Pignut 1932 Des Moines 1933 12. Fairbanks Hickory Hybrid Pignut 1931 Dennis Shagbark 1931 Des Moines Hicans 1933 13. Fairbanks Hybrid Hickory Pignut 1931 Burlington Hican 1931 Des Moines Hican 1932 Stratford Shagbark 1931 EXHIBITS Mr. A. B. Anthony, Sterling, Ill. Bitternut No. 1 Bitternut No. 2 Shagbark--Shellbark cross No. 1 Shagbark--Shellbark cross No. 2 Shagbark--Shellbark cross No. 3 Shagbark--Shellbark cross No. 4 Mr. J. F. Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind Busseron pecan Indiana pecan Kentucky pecan Major pecan Greenriver pecan Butterick pecan Posey pecan McCallister Hican Hican variety Mr. Wilkinson suggests calling Bixby in honor of the late Willard G. Bixby. Ohio black walnut Stabler black walnut Thomas black walnut Mr. F. H. Frey, Chicago, Ill. Wheeling black walnut, new find by Mrs. E. W. Freel, 1932 Worthington black walnut, from Mrs. E. W. Freel, 1932 Marion black walnut, Mrs. E. W. Freel, 1932 Freel black walnut, Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa Metcalf black walnut, from Mrs. E. W. Freel Stabler walnut, "one lobe," O. H. Casper, Anna, Ill. Oklahoma seedling, black walnut, evidently J. rupestris (per Dr. Waite, pg. 61--1932) Rohwer black walnut, from John Rohwer, Grundy Center, Iowa Grundy black walnut, from John Rohwer, Grundy Center, Iowa Kettler or Wisconsin No. 1, from Fred Kettler, Platteville, Wisc. Shellbark hickory, seedling No. 1, Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa Shellbark hickory, seedling No. 2, Mrs. E. W. Freel, Pleasantville, Iowa Cedar Rapids shagbark hickory, from S. W. Snyder, Center Point, Iowa Shinnerling shagbark hickory, from Chas. Shinnerling, Amana, Iowa Hagen shagbark hickory, from S. W. Snyder, Center Point, Iowa G. H. Corsan, Echo Valley, Islington, Ontario, Canada DuChilly and other European filberts grown on his place in Canada Jones hybrid filberts, corylus americana--corylus avellana Photograph of Corsan nut exhibit at Canadian National Exhibition Craxezy, butternut, from Union City, Mich. From Harry Burgart, Michigan Nut Tree Nursery Mitchel hybrid heartnut, from Scotland, Ontario Stratford hickory, exhibited by Mr. Snyder, Center Point, Iowa. Mr. Snyder says this is the best bearing hickory for his section in Iowa. Prof. J. A. Neilson, Michigan State College, E. Lansing, Mich. Harris black walnut, Allegan, Mich. Thomas black walnut Everett Wiard black walnut, Ypsilanti, Mich. Glen Allen black walnut, Middleville, Mich. Dan Beck black walnut, Hamilton, Mich. Ten Eyck black walnut Adams black walnut, Scotts, Mich. M. S. C. Campus heartnut, East Lansing, Mich. Crawford heartnut Mrs. Henry Hanel, heartnut, Williamsburg, Mich. Gellatly heartnut, Westbank, B. C. Lancaster heartnut, Graham Station McKenzie heartnut, B. C. Mitchell heartnut, Scotland, Ont. Fred Bourne, heartnut, Milford, Mich. W. S. Thompson heartnut, R. 2, St. Catherines, Ont. English, Chatham, Ont. Mitchell butternut, Scotland, Ont. Col. B. D. Wallace butternut, Portage La Prairie, Manitoba, Can. Korean pine nuts, Abbotsford, P. Q. W. S. Thompson filbert, R. 2, St. Catherines, Ont. Harry Weber hazel, R. 2, Cleves, Ohio Beck English walnut, Allegan, Mich. W. S. Thompson English walnut, R. 2, St. Catherines, Ont. Larsen English walnut, Ionia, Mich. English walnut, from Broadview, B. C. McDermid English walnut, St. Catherines, Ont. Clyde Westphal pecan, Marcellus, Mich. Fairbanks hickory, grown at Grand Rapids, Mich. Haviland hickory, Bath, Mich. Green hickory, Battle Creek, Mich. Mrs. Ray D. Mann hickory, Davison, Mich. Hill hickory, Davison, Mich. Lyle House hickory, Fowlerville, Mich. Miller hickory, North Branch, Mich. Pleas pecan and bitternut hybrid hickory Burlington hican Rowley chestnut, Orleans, Mich. John E. Dunham, chestnut, Oshtemo, Mich. Chinese chestnuts, Ridgetown, Ont. REGISTRATION Frank H. Frey, Chicago, Illinois A. S. Colby, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois A. B. Anthony, Sterling, Illinois Mr. Harry Burgart, Union City, Michigan Mrs. Harry Burgart, Union City, Michigan Mrs. Charles Halder, Ceresco, Michigan Mrs. Anton Burgart, Union City, Michigan Mr. Gilbert Becker, Climax, Michigan Mrs. Gilbert Becker, Climax, Michigan Carl F. Walker, Cleveland Heights, Ohio Lennard H. Mitchell, Washington, D. C. Mrs. Lennard H. Mitchell, Washington, D. C. Homer L. Bradley, Kellogg Farm, Augusta, Michigan J. F. Wilkinson, Rockport, Indiana G. H. Corsan, Echo Valley, Islington, Ontario Dr. G. A. Zimmerman, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Oliver T. Healy, Union City, Michigan Mrs. Anna H. Bregger, Bangor, Michigan John T. Bregger, Bangor, Michigan Mrs. John T. Bregger, Bangor, Michigan S. E. Monroe, Chicago, Illinois J. A. Neilson, East Lansing, Michigan Mrs. J. A. Neilson, East Lansing, Michigan Mrs. C. M. McCrary, Augusta, Michigan C. M. McCrary, Augusta, Michigan Mildred M. Jones, Jones Nurseries, Lancaster, Pennsylvania Mr. Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio Mrs. Harry Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio D. C. Snyder, Center Point, Iowa W. K. Kellogg, Battle Creek, Michigan Dr. J. H. Kellogg, Battle Creek, Michigan Rollin H. Tabor, Mt. Vernon, Ohio George L. Slate, Geneva, N. Y. L. H. MacDaniels, Ithaca, New York. L. Housser, Cloverdale, Ontario Fae Noverr, Enquirer and News, Battle Creek, Michigan Zenas H. Ellis, Fair Haven, Vermont Joan Deming, Hartford, Connecticut Mrs. Oliver Healy, Union City, Michigan Mr. Howard W. Harris, Allegan, Michigan. R. D. No. 7 Mr. Scott Healy, Otsego, Michigan. R. F. D. No. 2 Mrs. Scott Healy, Otsego, Michigan. R. F. D. No. 2 Glen Grunner, Coldwater, Michigan. R. D. No. 3 Leon Ford, Battle Creek, Michigan Marshall Moon, Battle Creek, Michigan Dean Phillips, Battle Creek, Michigan Lawrence Poole, Battle Creek, Michigan Evelyn Alwood, Battle Creek, Michigan Martha Richmond, Battle Creek, Michigan Irene VaVn De Bogart, Vicksburg, Michigan Cleone Wells, Battle Creek, Michigan Herbert Bush, Battle Creek, Michigan Dorothy Jenney, Battle Creek, Michigan Cecelia Plushnik, Battle Creek, Michigan Vernice Fox, Battle Creek, Michigan Edward A. Malasky, Battle Creek, Michigan C. A. Reed, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. T. V. Hicks, Battle Creek, Michigan. R. 3 Norman Crittenden, Galesburg, Michigan Arnold G. Otto, Detroit, Michigan Miss Mary Barber, Kellogg Co., Battle Creek, Michigan Professor V. R. Gardner, M. S. C., East Lansing, Michigan H. A. Cardinell, M. S. C., East Lansing, Michigan E. P. Gerber, Apple Creek, Ohio Lila M. Gerber, Apple Creek, Ohio Dora E. Gerber, Apple Creek, Ohio H. W. Kaan, Wellesley, Massachusetts R. S. Galbreath, Huntington, Indiana Mrs. R. S. Galbreath, Huntington, Indiana Dr. W. C. Deming, Hartford, Connecticut Everett Wiard, Ypsilanti, Michigan Mrs. E. Wiard, Ypsilanti, Michigan BOOKS AND BULLETINS ON NORTHERN NUT GROWING 1. Nut Culture in the United States, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1896. Out of print and out of date but of great interest. 2. The Nut Culturist, Fuller, pub. Orange Judd Co., N. Y., 1906. Out of print and out of date, but a systematic and well written treatise. These two books are the classics of American nut growing. 3. Nut Growing, Dr. Robert T. Morris, pub. MacMillan, N. Y. 2nd edition 1931, price $2.50. The modern authority, written in the author's entertaining and stimulating style. 4. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1501, 1926, Nut Tree Propagation, C. A. Reed, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. A very full bulletin with many illustrations. 5. Tree Crops, Dr. J. Russell Smith, pub. Harcourt, Brace & Co., N. Y., 1929, price $4.00. Includes the nut crop. 6. Annual reports of the Northern Nut Growers' Association from 1911 to date. To be had from the secretary. Prices on request. 7. Bulletin No. 5, Northern Nut Growers' Association, by W. G. Bixby. 2nd edition, 1920. To be had from the secretary. Price 50 cents. 8. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1392, Black Walnut Culture for both Timber and Nut Production. To be had from the Supt. of Documents, Gov. Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price 5 cents. 9. Year Book Separate No. 1004, 1927, a brief article on northern nut growing, by C. A. Reed, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 10. Filberts--G. A. Slate--Bulletin No. 588, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y., December, 1930. 11. Leaflet No. 84, 1932, Planting Black Walnut, W. R. Mattoon and C. A. Reed, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 12. Harvesting and Marketing the Native Nut Crops of the North, by C. A. Reed, 1932, mimeographed bulletin, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 13. Dealers in Black Walnut Kernels, mimeographed bulletin by C. A. Reed, 1931, to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 14. Eastern Nursery Catalogues Listing Nut Trees, mimeographed leaflet to be had free from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 15. Twenty Years Progress in Northern Nut Culture. A 48-page booklet of valuable information and instruction by John W. Hershey. Nuticulturist, Downingtown, Penna. Price 25 cents. 16. Files of The American Nut Journal, to be had from the publishers, American Nurseryman Publishing Co., 39 State St., Rochester, N. Y. * * * * * ="Happy Is the Man Who Has= =a Hobby"= "_HAPPY is the man who has a hobby_," runs the old saying. And still happier is the hobbyist who regularly receives and reads "HOBBIES--THE MAGAZINE FOR COLLECTORS." Here, in this interesting, profusely illustrated, 170-page monthly you will find news, pictures, and information, as well as buying, selling and swapping ads, in all branches of collecting. HOBBIES has a particularly fine and complete Stamp Collector's Department--40 or more pages each month devoted to stamp club news, notes, articles on stamps and stamp issuing countries, department on precancels, new issues, and airmails, and general information. (HOBBIES, by the way, is the Official Organ of the great Society of Philatelic Americans.) HOBBIES is also the outstanding medium for the exchange of information, news, and advertising of interest to collectors of Antiques, Autographs, Coins, Indian Relics, Books, Firearms, Prints, Minerals, Shells, Glassware, and many other collected articles. It's fun to have a hobby, and to know what others who share your interests are doing and thinking! Let HOBBIES keep you posted! And if you haven't a hobby as yet, but would like to have one, let HOBBIES help you to find it! _Subscribe to HOBBIES! Sample Copy, 10c_ _Year's Subscription, only $1.00_ =Lightner Publishing Corp.= =2810 S. Michigan Ave. Chicago, Illinois= 
21442	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) YOUR PLANTS. PLAIN AND PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE TREATMENT OF TENDER AND HARDY PLANTS IN THE HOUSE AND IN THE GARDEN. BY JAMES SHEEHAN. NEW YORK: ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 1919 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by the ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. * * * * * CONTENTS. PAGE. CHAPTER I. How to Make a Lawn 7 CHAPTER II. Soil for Potting--Artificial Fertilizers 10 CHAPTER III. Selecting and Sowing Seeds 12 CHAPTER IV. Making and Planting Flower Beds 14 CHAPTER V. Watering Plants--Is Cold Water Injurious? 16 CHAPTER VI. Atmosphere and Temperature.--Insects 19 CHAPTER VII. Wintering Plants in Cellars 21 CHAPTER VIII. The Law of Color in Flowers 22 CHAPTER IX. The Relation of Plants to Health 23 CHAPTER X. Layering 25 CHAPTER XI. Propagation of Plants from Cuttings 26 CHAPTER XII. Grafting 29 CHAPTER XIII. Hanging Baskets, Wardian Cases and Jardinieres 31 CHAPTER XIV. Aquatics--Water Lilies 35 CHAPTER XV. Hardy Climbing Vines.--Ivies 37 CHAPTER XVI. Annual Flowering Plants--Pansy Culture 39 CHAPTER XVII. Fall or Holland Bulbs 42 CHAPTER XVIII. Tropical Bulbs.--Tuberoses 44 CHAPTER XIX. Roses, Cultivation, and Propagating 46 CHAPTER XX. Japan and other Lilies.--Calla Lilies 50 CHAPTER XXI. Geraniums, the Best Twelve Sorts 53 CHAPTER XXII. Azaleas; How to Cultivate Them 53 CHAPTER XXIII. Camellias.--Orange and Lemon Trees 55 CHAPTER XXIV. Fuchsias, Training and Management 57 CHAPTER XXV. Cactuses--Night Blooming Cereus.--Rex Begonias 59 CHAPTER XXVI. Rockeries--How to Make Them 62 CHAPTER XXVII. Budding 64 CHAPTER XXVIII. Pruning 68 CHAPTER XXIX. Miscellaneous Notes 72 CHAPTER XXX. Sentiment and Language of Flowers 76 INTRODUCTION. In the winter of the year 1880, while the author was in attendance upon a large horticultural meeting in a neighboring city, which was attended by nearly all the leading florists and nurserymen in Western New York, the idea of writing this work was first suggested to him. An intelligent lady, present at that meeting, widely known for her skill and success as an amateur florist, in conversation with the writer made the following remarks: "I have in my library at least a dozen different works on floriculture, some of them costly, all of which I have read over and over again, often having to pore over a large volume of almost useless matter, in order to find information on some points I was looking for. "It has occurred to me that some one ought to write a work on flowers, for the use of amateurs, that would contain in a brief space all the requisite information ordinarily needed by those who cultivate flowers in and about their homes. I predict that such a work could not fail to meet and merit a general demand." In writing this little volume, I have earnestly endeavored to carry out, as near as I could, the above suggestions. How far I have succeeded in accomplishing this end, my readers must judge. I trust that "Your Plants" will be useful and instructive in the field it was designed to occupy--that of a help to amateurs in the successful cultivation of plants and flowers in the house and garden. JAMES SHEEHAN. _Geneva, N. Y., October, 1884._ YOUR PLANTS. CHAPTER I. HOW TO MAKE A LAWN. A smooth lawn is a great attraction of itself, even if there is not a tree or shrub upon it. When it is once made, a lawn is easily kept in order, yet we seldom see a good one. There are three things to be taken into consideration in securing a fine lawn. First, location; Second, quality of the soil; Third, the kinds of seed to be sown. LOCATION. This is the most important matter relating to a good lawn. In selecting a site upon which to build, not the least consideration should be the possibility of having a fine lawn, one that will cost as little as possible to keep in a nice and attractive condition. The nearer level the land is, the better. If a house is built on an elevation back from the road, a sloping lawn has a good effect. Where the land is rolling and hilly, it should be graded into successive terraces, which, though rather expensive, will look well. Low lands should be avoided as much as possible in selecting a site on which it is intended to make a good lawn. Low land can be improved by thorough under-drainage. If the land is wet on which we design making a lawn, we should first thoroughly underdrain it by laying tiles two rods apart, and two feet below the surface. Large-growing trees should never be planted on the lawn, grass will not thrive under them. Fruit trees, like the apple, cherry, and peach, are exceedingly out of place on a fine lawn. The finest yard we ever saw had not a tree on it that exceeded ten feet in hight. Flowering shrubs, low-growing evergreens, a few weeping and deciduous trees of moderate size, with flower-beds neatly planted, make an attractive door-yard. SOIL. This is the mother of all vegetation. Nothing, not even grass, will flourish on a poor soil. The quality of the soil varies in different localities. We often find a fine sward on a stiff clay soil, and also on a light gravelly one. The soil best adapted to the growth of a good sward, is a sandy loam with a gravelly bottom. In making new lawns, there is sometimes more or less grading to be done, and often where a knoll has been cut off the sub-soil is exposed, and it will not do to sow the seed upon these patches until the spots have been thoroughly covered with manure which is to be worked in. If a new lawn of any extent is to be made, it should first be plowed deep, and if uneven and hilly, grade it to a level surface. The surface should have a heavy dressing of manure, which should be lightly plowed under, and then the surface should be dragged several times until fine, and then rolled with a heavy roller. The seed may now be sown, after which it should be rolled again. The spring is the best time to do this work, although if the fall be dry, it will answer nearly as well to do it at that time. The dryer the ground in preparing it for the seed, and for the sowing of the same, the better. In preparing a small plot of ground for a lawn, the spade, hand-rake, and small roller may be used in place of the larger implements. SEED. Much difficulty is often experienced in obtaining a good mixture of grass seed for the lawn, and different mixtures are recommended and sold for sowing lawns, some of which are entirely worthless. Great pains should be taken to have nothing but first-class seeds, which should be obtained direct of some responsible dealer. The finest sward we ever saw was made from the following mixture: 10 quarts Rhode Island Bent-grass. 4 " White Clover. 8 " Kentucky Blue-grass. 6 " Red-top Grass. Sow at the rate of six bushels to the acre. Grass seed can be sown in the fall any time from the first of October to the first of December. If the seed be sound, a good sward may be expected the following summer, and a good turf may be expected from spring sown seeds if the season is not too dry. The dryer the ground is when the seeds are sown, the better. To keep the lawn in a flourishing condition, fresh and green all summer, it will need a top-dressing of well-rotted manure applied in the fall, at least once every two years. Grass roots derive their nourishment close to the surface, hence the great advantage of top-dressing. In some localities where the frost "heaves" the sod to any extent during the winter, it will be advantageous to roll it down in the spring with a heavy roller, doing it just after a heavy rain. When the ground is soft and pliable, this will make the surface smooth, and in proper condition for the lawn-mower to pass over it. Frequent mowing will thicken the sward. It is not necessary to sow oats, as some do, to shade the ground until the seeds have started, that is an "old fogy" notion, and is now obsolete. CHAPTER II. SOIL FOR POTTING.--ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZERS. Good, fresh, rich soil, is an element that is indispensable to the growth of healthy, vigorous plants. A plant cannot be thrifty if grown in soil that has become musty and stale with long continued use; it must have fresh soil, at least once a year. Perhaps the best soil for general potting purposes, and the kind most extensively used by florists, is a mixture of equal parts of decayed sods, and well-rotted stable manure, and occasionally, especially if the sod is clayey, a little sand is added. The sods for this purpose may be obtained from along the road-side, almost anywhere, while good stable manure is always readily obtainable. Select some out-of-the-way place in the lot, or garden, and gather the sods in quantity proportioned to the amount of potting to be done. Lay down a course of the sods, and on top of this, an equal course of well-rotted manure, and so on, alternately, until the heap is finished; the last layer being sod. This heap should be turned over carefully, two or three times a year, breaking up the sods finely with a spade, or fork. The whole mass will become thoroughly mixed, rotted, and fit for use in a year from the time the heap was made. For those who have a large number of plants, we think it will pay to adopt this method of preparing soil for them, instead of purchasing it of the florist at twenty-five cents or more per bushel. Some florists sport a great variety of different soils, which are used in the growing of plants of different natures, requiring, as they claim, particular kinds of soil. Whatever of truth, if any, there is in this view, it has never been demonstrated to our mind. All kinds of plants have a common requirement in respect to soil, and the differences in growth of various species is attributable to climate and other causes than that of soil. At least that has been our experience. ARTIFICIAL FERTILIZERS. This question is frequently asked! Do you recommend the use of artificial fertilizers for house plants, and does it benefit them? I invariably answer yes, if used judiciously. The use of good special fertilizers will help the growth of some kinds of plants, which, without such aid, would scarcely meet our expectations. The term artificial fertilizers, applies to all manurial applications, save those produced by domestic animals. I have always believed, however, that when any fertilizer is needed, good, well-rotted stable-manure should have the preference over all artificial fertilizers. Where this manure cannot be readily obtained, or used conveniently, then special fertilizers can be employed as substitutes with good results. In applying manure in the liquid form to plants, use an ounce of guano to every gallon of water, and apply it to those plants that are in a healthy growing condition, about once every two weeks. It is a mistake to try to stimulate into growth, by the use of fertilizers, those plants which give every indication of being sickly or stunted; they will make such a plant sicker, if they do not kill it outright. If guano is used in potting soil, it should be in the proportion of one pound to every bushel of soil. CHAPTER III. SELECTING AND SOWING SEEDS. All individuals of the vegetable world are so created as to reproduce themselves from seed or its equivalent. Every plant that grows seems to possess the power to perpetuate its kind. All kinds of flowering plants can be grown from the seed, providing good, sound seeds are obtained, and they are placed under the proper influences to make them germinate and grow. The amateur cultivator has many difficulties to contend with in raising plants from seed. Some times it is difficult to obtain pure, sound seeds, but these should always be secured if possible, taking great pains in selecting varieties, and in obtaining them of some reliable dealer. If we sow seeds, and they fail to germinate, our first thought is to censure the dealer or raiser of the seed for lack of integrity in his business, while in reality the fault may be our own, and due to careless sowing. Those who raise seed for the market take great pains to produce none but good, sound seeds, and in nine cases out of ten, where seeds fail to germinate and grow, the fault is with those who sow them, and not on account of poor quality of seed. This we know from experience. Three things are absolutely essential in the sowing of seeds, in order to have that success which we all desire to attain: First; care should be taken to obtain fresh, pure seeds, without which all our after work with them will be in vain. Second; the soil in which to sow them should be a fine, mellow loam, free from stones and other coarse materials. Thirdly; sowing the seed. The general custom is to sow in drills. The depth at which seeds should be sown must of course be regulated according to their fineness, or coarseness. Seeds that are exceptionally fine, like those of Lobelias, Petunias, Ferns, and other very tiny seeds, ought never to be covered deeper than the sixteenth of an inch, with very fine soil sifted on them through a fine sieve; the soil should then be lightly patted down with the back of a shovel. This will prevent the seeds from shriveling before they start to germinate. Seeds like those of the Pansy, Verbena, etc., require a covering of a quarter to a half inch of soil, while those like the Nasturtium, Ricinus, etc., may be covered to the depth of an inch. The regular florist has facilities for raising plants from seed that most amateurs do not possess, but we will give a few suggestions that will enable those who desire to start their own plants, to do it successfully by the aid of the directions here given. A cheap and simple method is, to take four plain boards, of an equal length, say three feet long, and ten inches deep, and nail together to form a square frame. Then place this frame upon a bed of rich soil, prepared for the purpose in some sheltered, warm spot. The bed should be just wide enough to be enclosed within the frame. Within this enclosure sow your seeds, and cover with a glass sash. Seeds can be started in March in this frame, and afford plants for setting out in April and May. A bank of earth, or manure, may be thrown around the outside of the frame to keep it snug and warm. After sowing the seed in this frame, shade it for four or five days by placing a cloth over the sash, this will prevent too much heat and light until the seeds have commenced to germinate, after which it can be removed without injury. CHAPTER IV. MAKING AND PLANTING FLOWER-BEDS. People of the present day can scarcely be contented with tall, waving timothy in the front door-yard, and the rickety board-fence that enclosed a scene of almost primitive rusticity--the state of things in our "forefathers' days." In place of the timothy growing to hay in the front yard, we now see fine, smoothly-cut lawns of refreshing greenness; and fences of pickets, wire, and rustic iron, have supplanted the ancient board fences. In place of the tall-growing Sunflower and Hollyhock that sprung up here and there at random, we now see beds of choice and beautiful flowers artistically arranged and carefully cultivated by loving hands. All is system now about the door-yard and premises, where once were neglect and confusion. Every home should have one or more beds planted with attractive flowers. It would be a difficult matter to give specific instructions as to planting these beds, as every one has his own peculiar tastes in such matters, which is sometimes governed by surroundings, locality, etc. There are some general rules however, observed by gardeners in planting flower-beds that it would be well to observe. The following notes on planting flower-beds were handed us some time ago. We do not know the name of the writer, but have strong reason to believe them to be from the pen of the late James Vick. "There are a great variety of opinions as regards the most effective way of planting flower-beds. Some prefer to mix plants of different colors and varieties, others prefer the ribbon-style of planting, now so generally in use in Europe. If the promiscuous style is adopted, care should be taken to dispose the plants in the beds, so that the tallest will be at the back of the bed; if the leader is against a wall or background of shrubbery, the others should graduate to the front, according to the hight. In open beds, on the lawn, the tallest plants should be in the centre, the others grading down to the front, on all sides, interspersing the colors so as to form the most effective contrast in shades. "But for grand effect, nothing, in our estimation, can ever be obtained in promiscuous planting, to equal that resulting from planting in masses, or ribbon lines. In Europe lawns are cut so as to resemble rich, green velvet; on these the flower-beds are laid out in every style one can conceive of; some are planted in masses of blue, yellow, crimson, white, etc., separate beds of each harmoniously blended on the carpeting of green. "Then again, the ribbon-style is used in large beds, in forms so various that allusion can here be made to only a few of the most conspicuous. In a circular bed, say twenty feet in diameter, the bordering can be made of blue Lobelia, attaining a hight of six inches; next plant Mrs. Pollock Geranium, or Bijou Zonal Geraniums, growing about nine inches high. If you plant Mrs. Pollock, on the next row to it plant Mountain of Snow (silvered-leaved geranium), next a circle of Red Achyranthes; there are several varieties of this plant. Next Centaurea candidissima (Dusty Miller); the centre being a mound of Scarlet Salvias. "Narrow beds along the margins of walks can be formed of low-growing plants, such as the White Lobelia, Gypsophila, or Silvered Alyssum, for the front line, followed next by the Tom Thumb Tropæolum; then as a centre, or third line, Fuchsia Golden Fleece; as a second margined-line on the other side, Silver-leaved Geraniums with scarlet flowers, followed by a line of blue Lobelia. "Shaded stars have a fine effect on a lawn; cut a star and plant it with either Verbenas, Petunias, Phlox Drummondii, or Portulaca. The ends of the stars should be white, and shaded to the centre." A whole volume might be written on the subject of gardening, without exhausting its variety or interest, but we take it for granted that our readers will exercise their own tastes, or call on some competent gardener to give advice in the premises. CHAPTER V. WATERING PLANTS.--IS COLD WATER INJURIOUS? Probably the most important matter to be observed in growing house-plants is that of watering them. The cultivator should know just when to water, and to give it where it will do the most good. Amateur florists often exhibit much poor judgment in watering. It is the habit of some to keep the soil about their plants constantly soaked with water, and they wonder why they are not thrifty or healthy. These cultivators do not stop to consider that such treatment is unnatural, and will have an effect contrary to what is desired. There are those who resort to the opposite extreme, and keep their plants all the time in a perishing condition of dryness, which is even worse than if they were watered to death. If we will observe how judiciously Nature distributes the sunshine and shadow, the periodical rains, and the refreshing dews, we will learn an important lesson. A pot, or other receptacle in which plants are grown, should be porous; glazed, or painted pots, ought never to be used, where plain, unglazed pots can be obtained; all non-porous pots of tin and similar material, should be discarded. Plants growing in them can never compare in health with those that have the advantage of plain porous pots. There should be a hole of sufficient size in the bottom of each pot, to allow the water to drain off, and to pass away as soon as possible. Placing a few pieces of broken crocks, or charcoal, in the bottom of the pots will facilitate a rapid drainage, as good drainage is essential to the growth of strong, and healthy plants. When plants require water, it will be indicated by a light, dry appearance of the top of the soil, and if watered when in this condition, it will do the most good. Give water only when in this condition, and then copiously, giving them all they will soak up at the time, then withhold water until the same indication of their want of it again appears, then apply it freely. Unless plants are in a very dry atmosphere, as in a warm parlor in winter, they will seldom require watering. In summer they should be closely watched, and if exposed to wind and sun, they will require daily watering, to keep them in a flourishing state. When plants are suffering from drouth, it will be indicated by the drooping of the leaves, and they will frequently turn yellow, and drop off prematurely; this can be avoided by timely attention each day. In summer, watering in the cool of the evening will be followed by the best results, for it will give the plants time to take up and assimilate the moisture necessary to their life, and being completely charged with water, they will be prepared for the hot sun and drying winds of the following day. IS COLD WATER INJURIOUS TO PLANTS? Those who study works on horticulture by different writers, will discover many opposing views in respect to the modes of caring for, and the treatment of plants. The proper temperature for water when applied to plants, has been frequently discussed by different writers; some contend that cool water, just drawn from a well or cistern, should never be showered upon plants, but that it should first be heated to the temperature of the room in which the plants are standing. Others, with equal zeal, claim that cold water will not injure the plants in the least, contending that the water will assume the right temperature before injury is done the plant. Now which is right? We have experimented in this matter to a considerable extent, in order to satisfy ourselves as to which of these two views is correct. In the month of December I took from my collection twelve large geraniums and placed them by themselves in the conservatory; six of these I watered with cold water, drawn from a hydrant pipe at the temperature of 45°, and the other six were supplied with water from a barrel standing in the conservatory, and was of the same temperature of the house, that is from 60° to 80°. The plants watered with the cold water gave little if any bloom throughout the winter, while the six watered from the barrel grew finely, and bloomed profusely. Always water your plants in winter time with lukewarm water, if you would have a profusion of flowers, and thrifty-growing plants. The water should be of the same temperature as the room or place where the plants are. There is no theory about it, it is a practical fact, all talk to the contrary notwithstanding. CHAPTER VI. ATMOSPHERE AND TEMPERATURE.--INSECTS. The proper regulation of the atmosphere as to moisture and temperature, is one of the most important points to be observed in cultivating plants in the parlor, or window-garden. Plants will not flourish, bloom, and be healthy, in a dry, dusty atmosphere, even though the best of care otherwise may be bestowed upon them; hence it is that those who attempt to raise plants in their dwellings meet with so little success. There is an immense contrast between the atmosphere of a well regulated green-house and that of an ordinary dwelling. In the green-house, the atmosphere is moist and well-tempered to the healthful growth of plants; while that of the parlor or sitting-room is invariably dry and dusty, and plants will not flourish in it as they would in the conservatory. If the dwelling be heated by coal, there is more or less gas constantly discharged into the air of the room, which is of itself enough to destroy vegetation, or make it sickly. Houses heated by steam, are better adapted to the cultivation of plants. All plants will not flourish in the common temperature of a living-room; some require a low temperature, and others need a warmer one. The following plants require a temperature of from 70° to 80° in the day-time, and 55° to 60° at night Begonias, Coleuses, Calceolarias, Bouvardias, Ferns (tropical), Hibiscuses, Poinsettias, Tuberoses, Heliotropes, Crotons, Hoyas, Cactuses, all kinds, Caladiums, Cannas, Palms, Orange and Lemon Trees, Geraniums, etc. The following will do well in an atmosphere ranging from 50° to 60° by day, and 40° to 45° by night: Camellias, Azaleas, Oleanders, Roses, Carnations, Callas, Ivies, Abutilons, Jessamines, Holland-bulbs, Lily-of-the-Valley, Primroses, Violets, Verbenas, Chrysanthemums, etc. Plants will flourish better in the kitchen, where the steam and moisture from cooking are constantly arising, and tempering the atmosphere, than in a dry, dusty sitting-room; hence it is that we find "Bridget" sometimes cultivating a few plants in her kitchen window, that are envied by the mistress of the house, because they are so much finer than those in her parlor or sitting-room. If a pan of water is set upon a stove in a room where plants are growing, it will help to materially relieve the dryness of the atmosphere. But most all kinds of house-plants will do fairly in a uniform temperature, from 70° by day to 55° by night. Careful observation of the habits and requirements of different kinds of plants, as they come under our care, will greatly assist the cultivator, and in a short time he will be so conversant with their various habits as to know just how to properly treat each and every plant in his collection. INSECTS UPON PLANTS. The little green insects so frequently seen on house-plants, are called aphis (plural aphides), plant-lice, or green-fly. They feed upon the tender growth of plants, especially the new leaves, and will rapidly sap and destroy the life of any plant if allowed to remain undisturbed. In the spring these insects abound in great numbers on the plants in green-houses and parlors, or wherever they may be growing, and the remedy should be promptly applied. The greatest enemy to the green-fly is tobacco smoke, made by burning the stems, the refuse of the cigar-maker's shops; allowing the smoke to circulate among the leaves to which the insects are attached, will readily exterminate them. Place the infested plant under a barrel, an ordinary cracker barrel will do, and put under it a pan of burning tobacco, slightly moistened with water. Leave the plant in the smoke for fifteen or twenty minutes, after which remove it. If one "smoking" fails to destroy the insects, repeat the dose three or four times, once each day, until they are completely exterminated. A strong solution, or "tea," made from soaking tobacco stems in water, and syringing the same over the plants, will effectually destroy the little pests, and not injure the plant in the operation. CHAPTER VII. WINTERING PLANTS IN CELLARS. Many plants, such as Agaves (Century Plants), Oleanders, large Cactuses, etc., that have grown too large to be accommodated in the sitting-room or conservatory; can be successfully wintered in any moderately dry, frost-proof cellar. After placing these large plants in the cellar, it will not be necessary to give them any water, the object being to keep them dormant all winter, which can be done by keeping the soil as dry as possible, but not so dry as to allow the plants to shrivel, or become withered. Large plants of the kinds mentioned, often form desirable ornaments during the summer time, but it is impracticable, in most cases, to bring them into the house in winter, but they can be kept for years by cellaring through the winter as stated. Large Geraniums, Salvia and Heliotrope roots, and even Tea Roses, and Carnations, can be kept moderately well in the cellar by trenching them in dry, or moderately moist sand. Thus many choice specimens of these plants that we are loth to pull up and threw away when winter approaches, can be successfully kept over until the next season. It is a needless expense to purchase a stock of new plants for the garden every year, when we can winter many of the old ones in this simple and inexpensive manner. The leaves of all deciduous plants should be removed before they are put away in this manner. The foliage should remain on the Oleanders and Carnations. CHAPTER VIII. THE LAW OF COLOR IN FLOWERS. The public are so often duped by a set of travelling frauds, who make it their business to represent themselves as being the sole proprietor or agent of some "wonderful" kinds of plants, bulbs, or seeds, which possess the virtue of being remarkably distinct from anything ever seen or heard of before, that many over-credulous ladies or gentlemen fall victims to the unprincipled sharks. Did you ever see any one who could sell rose bushes that would certainly bear blue roses, or plants of the Verbena that produce yellow blossoms, or Tuberose bulbs bearing scarlet flowers? If you have not, you have something to learn, and many have paid dearly for experiences of this kind. There is a natural law of color in flowers, that the varieties of a species invariably present a certain range of colors. To attempt to introduce a new and distinct color, as for example a blue rose, into a family where the colors are always white, red, and yellow, is an impossibility, and any one who claims to do this, may be set down as a swindler. Much credit is due Mr. Peter Henderson, an eminent florist and seedsman of New York City, for the vigorous methods employed by him in exposing frauds of this kind, whenever his attention has been called to them. We quote from an article written by Mr. Henderson on this subject, some years ago: "It has long been known among the best observers of such matters, that in certain families of plants, particular colors prevail, and that in no single instance can we ever expect to see blue, yellow, and scarlet colors in varieties of the same species. If any one at all conversant with plants, will bring any family of them to mind, it will at once be seen how undeviating is this law. In the Dahlia we have scarlet and yellow, but no approach to the blue, so in the Rose, Hollyhock, etc. Again in the Verbena and Salvia, we have scarlet and blue, but no yellow. If we reflect, it will be seen that there is nothing out of the order of nature in this arrangement; why then should we expect nature to step outside of what seems to be her fixed laws, and give us a blue rose, etc." A word to the wise, we take it, is sufficient in view of the foregoing facts. CHAPTER IX. THE RELATION OF PLANTS TO HEALTH. Plants at present are more generally cultivated in-doors than formerly, and they may be seen in almost every home. The cultivation of plants in dwellings is decidedly a modern custom--at least to the extent to which it is now practised. One who now contemplates building a dwelling house, plans to have included with the other conveniences of a first-class home, a suitable window for house plants. As the cultivation of plants in dwelling houses increases, the question is raised by some: "Are not plants injurious to health, if growing in the apartments in which we live and sleep?" We know of persons who would not sleep in a room in which a number of plants were growing, giving as the reason that the amount of carbonic acid gas given off by the plants, is detrimental to health. Now this view is either true or it is not true. We have made a particular study of this matter, and speak from experience. Over ten years of my life had been spent in the green-house, among all kinds of plants; I have frequently slept all night among them, and I have never observed it to be in any way detrimental to my health, but, on the contrary, I have never felt better than when among plants. Gardeners, as a class, those who have spent their lives among plants, show, so far as we have observed, a longevity equal to, if not exceeding that of any other class who are engaged in any of the vocations usually regarded as healthy. We must admit, however, that we have never known of a case of chronic rheumatism to be benefited in the least by working in hot-houses, on account of the perpetual dampness of the air. On the other hand, we know of a number of persons afflicted with various other diseases, who have been noticeably benefited by working among plants: perhaps it was owing to the health-giving bodily exercise required by the work, rather than the supposed health-giving effects of the plants themselves; we think the result was due to both. An eminent physician cites a case in which his sister, aged fifty years, was afflicted with tubercular consumption, her death, as the natural result of such a terrible disease being expected at any time, but being an ardent lover of plants and flowers, she was daily accustomed to move among her plants, of which she possessed a large number, in her sleeping room as well as many others in beds outside. Her friends reproved her for sleeping in the same room with her plants; but the years came and went, and she was still found moving among her flowers in her eightieth year, surviving those, who many years before predicted her immediate demise, as the result of her imprudence. Who will say but what the exhalation from her numerous plants increasing the humidity of the atmosphere in which she lived, prolonged her life? The above is but one of many cases, in which tubercular consumption has been arrested and sometimes wholly cured by the sanitary effects produced by working among plants for a considerable time. We know of cases in which druggists, ministers, and students from school, compelled to relinquish their chosen vocations on account of failing health, have resorted to the nursery or hot-house. In almost every case restoration to vigorous health was the result. We contend, therefore, that this old superstition that house plants are injurious to health, is nothing but a myth. The amount of carbonic acid gas at night discharged from two dozen large plants, will not equal that exhaled by one infant sleeper, as has been demonstrated by scientific men. Because a few old cronies stick to the absurdity that "plants are awful sickenin' things," it is no reason why sensible people should be at all alarmed by it. CHAPTER X. LAYERING. Layering is a simple method by which plants may be multiplied. Moss Roses, nearly all kinds of hardy vines, like the Wistaria, Clematis, Honeysuckle, Ivy, and many others, are easily multiplied in this manner, together with most of our hardy shrubs. Many of our tenderer plants like Chrysanthemums, Verbenas, Heliotropes, etc., layer finely, by first bending the branches down to the ground, and partially covering them with sand or soil. Pots may be plunged in the ground so that the limbs will not require to be bent much in layering them. In layering hard-wooded plants like the Rose or Clematis, it is customary to cut a slight gash on the underside of each limb to be laid down, just cutting inside of the bark; this will arrest the flow of sap, and new roots will form at this point. Where vines are layered, such as the Grape, a simple twisting of the vine until the bark is cracked, will answer in place of cutting, and we believe it is just as well. It should be understood, however, that in layering, the entire shoot is not to be covered; a good portion of the tip of the shoot should be in sight, and only the middle of the branch be under ground, and securely fastened down by means of a peg. All layering should be done while the wood is young; just ripe enough to bend without snapping off, and all hardy vines and shrubs are in condition to layer from the first to the middle of June. For tender plants any month during the summer will answer for the operation. Most tender plants will root in a month or six weeks. Examine the layers in the fall, and if rooted, remove them; if not, they should remain undisturbed for another season. CHAPTER XI. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS FROM CUTTINGS. In the propagation of plants from cuttings or otherwise, the amateur, with limited facilities, of course cannot compete with the trained and experienced propagator, who makes the rearing of plants his business, devoting his whole attention to that special branch. Many men have devoted the greater part of a lifetime to experiment and study, as to the best and most practicable methods for the successful propagation of plants. There are, however, common and ordinary methods for propagating plants from cuttings, that the most inexperienced can practice with a measure of success. All florists root their cuttings in sand, and that obtained from the beach of some fresh water lake is the best for the purpose, being free from gravel and clay, and will not hold water long. If lake sand cannot be easily obtained, common building sand will answer by thoroughly washing it with several waters to free it from clay, etc. I can recommend to the reader no more simple and practical method of propagating plants on a small scale, than the following, from the pen of an experienced florist, which expresses my own views exactly: "Take a pan, or dish, at least three inches deep--the circumference of which may be as large as you wish, fill to within one half inch of the top with sand. The cuttings are to be inserted in the sand, which is made very wet, of the consistency of mud. The pan should then be placed on the window case, where it will receive the full light of the sun, which will not injure the cuttings in the least, providing the sand is kept constantly wet, being careful to never allow it to become dry for a moment, otherwise the plants will be lost. "'Is there no drainage from the pan necessary?' none, the atmosphere will evaporate the water fast enough to prevent any stagnation during the brief time required for the cuttings to take root." Success in propagating in this way, depends altogether upon keeping the sand wet like mud until the cuttings in it are "struck" or rooted, and this may be easily determined--with the hand gently try to lift the cutting, you will know if it is rooted by the hold maintained on the sand, if not, it will come out. A little experience in feeling with the hand in this way, will enable you to readily determine whether the cutting is rooted or not. I have no doubt that the following table, which I have carefully prepared from my own extensive experience in regard to length of time required by different plants to take root from cuttings, will be of interest to all who desire to propagate plants in this manner. I am supposing now, in the following table, that all the conditions and facilities are such as are generally found in a first-class propagating house, with bottom heat, etc.: _Days._ Ageratums 6 to 8 Amaranthus 6 " 8 Alyssum 10 " 12 Abutilon 12 " 15 Azalea 60 " 90 Begonias 12 " 15 Bouvardias 20 " 30 Clematis 30 " 40 Carnations 20 " 30 Cuphea (cigar plant) 6 " 8 Chrysanthemums 12 " 15 Centaurea 30 " 40 Coleus (all kinds) 6 " 8 Dahlias 15 " 20 Eupatoriums 15 " 20 Echeverias 30 " 40 Geraniums 12 " 15 Hibiscus 20 " 30 Heliotrope 12 " 15 Lobelia 12 " 15 Lantanas 12 " 15 Lavender 20 " 30 Mignonette 15 " 20 Myosotis 12 " 20 Nasturtium 10 " 12 Primroses 30 " 40 Pyrethrums 15 " 20 Poinsettia 30 " 40 Petunias 20 " 30 Roses 30 " 40 Oleander 30 " 40 Verbenas 6 " 8 Vinca 12 " 15 All hardy shrubs, taken when the wood is green and young, may be propagated in like manner. The summer is the time to take off the wood for such cuttings. CHAPTER XII. GRAFTING. Grafting is a simple art, that both old and young should become acquainted with and be able to perform. In my garden there had stood, for a number of years, away in a corner by itself, a wild apple tree, which had sprung up from the seed; it always bore fruit, but of a worthless character, so sour and insipid that even the swine refused to devour it when it was thrown to them. I became tired of seeing this tree, and resolved to change its nature. I went to work, being a nurseryman, and procured cions of ten or a dozen different sorts of apple trees, and took the first favorable opportunity in the spring to graft my old and useless apple tree. When I had finished grafting, I found that I had inserted here and there on the different branches, fifty cions, all of which, with the exception of three, lived, grew, bore fruit, each "after its own kind," Baldwins, Greenings, Gravensteins, Spitzenbergs, etc., and it is now the most desirable tree in the garden; I completely transformed the nature of the tree. Any one who understands grafting can do the same thing. Apple, Pear, Plum, and Cherry trees can be successfully top-grafted in the manner spoken of above, and the month of April is the best time to perform the operation. The outfit necessary to perform the operation of grafting is a small hand-saw, a hatchet, a wedge, grafting-knife, and wax to cover the wound. If the tree be a large one, and you wish to change the sort entirely, begin by sawing off all those limbs that, being removed, will leave enough to graft upon, and not spoil the symmetry of the tree. With the hand-saw saw off the limbs to be grafted about midway, then with the hatchet or wedge, cleave an opening in the remaining end of the limb, and entirely across, and deep enough to receive the cion; insert an iron in the cut to hold it open until the cion is placed, then withdraw the iron, and the graft will be held fast. The cions to be inserted should be cut before ascending the tree to graft, and, together with the wax, can be carried in a small basket for the purpose. If the diameter of the limb to be grafted is more than an inch, it is best to insert two grafts, placed so that each cion will stand near the edge of the cut, in juxtaposition with the bark of the limb. Immediately after setting the graft, plaster the cut over with a heavy coat of wax, being careful to leave no crack or crevice open through which it would be possible for air or water to enter. Each cion, in wedge-grafting, is cut in the shape of a wedge; the whole cion need not be over three to four inches in length. The following is a good receipe for making grafting-wax: One and a half pound of bees-wax, six pounds of resin, and one and a half pound rough beef tallow; put all into a pot, and boil one half hour, keeping it stirred; pour it out into a tub of cold water, and when it is sufficiently stiff it should be gathered into balls. When wanted for use the balls should be laid in warm water, which will readily soften the wax; work the wax with the hands thoroughly before using. Wedge-grafting is by no means the only way to graft, although it is about the only method of grafting large trees. There are from ten to twenty other modes of grafting, the difference being in the manner of cutting the cion, and in fitting it to the stock. To go into detail in regard to them would occupy too much space in these limited pages. Any one, with a little practice, can learn to cut a cion, and to graft with success. CHAPTER XIII. HANGING BASKETS.--WARDIAN CASES AND JARDINIERES. Hanging Baskets for plants are made of different materials, and in a great variety of forms. Some are made of wire, others of clay, and ornamented with fancy mouldings, etc. Very pretty baskets in rustic style are made by covering the outside of a wooden bowl with fantastic knots and roots; this makes a pleasing basket, but we know of none so desirable as the old style semi-globular wire basket, when properly filled. DIRECTIONS FOR FILLING HANGING BASKETS. To fill a wire basket, first obtain some of the green moss to be found on the lower portion of the trunks of trees in almost any shady piece of woods. This is to be used as a lining to the basket, turning the green side out, and entirely covering the inside of the wire form with the moss. Before filling the basket with soil, place a handful of charcoal or gravel in the bottom, which will hold the moisture. Fill the basket with rich, loose loam, such as will not harden by frequent waterings. Plants that are peculiarly suitable for hanging baskets are quite numerous, and from them a selection may be made that will please the most exacting taste. It is a mistake to crowd too many plants into a basket, if they grow they will soon become root-bound, stunted, and look sickly. If the hanging basket be of the ordinary size, one large and choice plant placed in the centre with a few graceful vines to droop over the edges, will have a better effect when established and growing, than if it were crowded with plants at the time of filling. Hanging baskets being constantly suspended, they are exposed to draughts of air from all sides, and the soil is soon dried out, hence careful watching is necessary in order to prevent the contents from becoming too dry. If the moss appears to be dry, take the basket down and dip it once or twice in a pail of water, this is better than sprinkling from a watering-pot. In filling hanging baskets, or vases of any kind, we invariably cover the surface of the soil with the same green moss used for lining, which, while it adds materially to the pleasing appearance of the whole, at the same time prevents the soil from drying out or becoming baked on the surface. The following is a list of choice plants suitable for hanging-baskets. Those marked thus (+) are fine for the centre, those marked thus (*) have handsome foliage, and this mark (**) indicates that the plants have flowers in addition to handsome foliage: **Begonia glaucophylla scandens. +Oxalis. **Begonia Rex, very fine. *Fittonia +Cuphea platycentra (Cigar Plant). +Pandanus (Screw Pine). +Dracæna (Young's). +Neirembergia. +Centaurea gymnocarpa. **Geraniums, Mrs. Pollock and Happy Thought. *Tradescantia discolor. *Peperomias. **Gloxinias. *Fancy Ferns. +Ageratum (John Douglass, blue). +Achyranthes. **Variegated Hydrangea. *Ficus Parcelli. **Gesnerias. *Variegated Grasses, etc., etc. TRAILING PLANTS. **Fuchsia, microphylla. Sedum (Stone Crop). **Ivy-leaved Geraniums. German Ivy. Indian Strawberry Vine. Kenilworth Ivy. Lycopodium. Moneywort. **Trailing Blue Lobelia. *Cissus discolor. **Lysimachia (Moneywort). **Tropæolums. **Torrenia Asiatica. **Mesembryanthemums (Ice Plant). **Cobæa scandens. **Pilogyne suavis. +Lygodium scandens (Climbing Fern). WARDIAN CASES--JARDINIERES, ETC. A Wardian Case consists of a base, which is generally an oblong box, covered with a square glass frame, under which certain plants can be successfully grown. This is now considered by many to be a desirable ornament in the window-garden during the winter months. When neatly and artistically filled with suitable plants, a Wardian Case becomes a thing of beauty. These cases can be easily and cheaply made by any one possessed of ordinary mechanical skill. The base or box should be oblong in shape, at least eight inches deep, and lined inside with zinc or tin-plate, securely soldered to prevent the water and soil from staining the wood. A case made in this manner will endure a number of years without decaying. Over the case a square glass frame should be made to fit snugly; it should be from eighteen inches to two feet high, so as to allow the plants that are to grow under it plenty of room. When the case and frame are finished, the whole should be mounted upon a stand, or legs can be made with the case, under which are casters, by which to move it about easily. Before planting, make a small funnel hole through the bottom of the box, to allow the surplus water to escape rapidly, and before putting in the soil, cover the bottom of the box two inches deep with broken crocks or charcoal, or even gravel, to facilitate a rapid drainage, a matter absolutely essential to the healthy growth of the plants. Fill the box within an inch of the top with fine, rich, peaty loam, and all will be ready to receive the plants. Those suitable for growing in a case of this kind, should be such as will live and thrive in a moist, still atmosphere, and are of slow growth; all rampant, rank-growers must be discarded as being wholly unsuitable, as they would soon become of such proportions that they could not be confined in so limited a space. The following plants are eminently suited for Wardian Cases, Jardinieres, etc.; Fittonias (Gymnostachyum), Fancy Caladiums, Tradescantias, Cissus discolor, Gesnerias, some varieties of Crotons, Dwarf-growing Begonias, Fancy Ferns, Lycopods, etc., etc., are very suitable for this purpose. In arranging the plants in the case, particular care should be taken to have them so placed that the tallest-growing ones will be in the centre, and grading downward, according to size, the Lycopods being on the bottom. The whole surface of the soil may be covered with the trailing Lycopodium; by placing small pieces here and there, it will soon spread over the entire surface, making a beautiful ground work of purplish-green. Small, highly-colored sea-shells, and beautifully-colored pebbles, are scattered about among the plants, to enhance the beauty of the whole. After the case has been filled the soil should be thoroughly soaked with lukewarm water. Remove the case to a shady place for three or four days, to allow the plants to recuperate, after which it can be placed in the full light with safety. The lid or top should be lifted whenever there is excessive moisture on the inside, which will be indicated by the moisture trickling down on the inside of the glass. As a rule the plants should have fresh air, by lifting the lid for a few minutes each day, but beware of all cold draughts, or too much exposure to chilly atmospheres. Ordinarily, once a month is often enough to water, this must be governed by the circumstances, but they should never be allowed to become dry, remembering that as warmth, moisture, and a still atmosphere are secured, success will be certain. CHAPTER XIV. AQUATICS--WATER LILIES. The native Water Lilies that abound in many of our lakes, ponds, and rivers, are more or less familiar to all. They grow up year after year through the placid waters, unfolding their blossoms of spotless purity to the silent stars, and after a short while, disappear, to return at another favorable season. The American Water Lily, _Nymphæa odorata_, has flowers of a yellowish-white, and an odor that is peculiar and pleasant. The size of the flowers averages three to four inches across. This is by no means the only aquatic lily, for we have in cultivation quite a number of other choice and striking species quite different in leaf and flower from _N. odorata_. Among the most noticeable of these is, _N. rubra_, a native of India, which has flowers of a rosy-red, measuring from eight to ten inches in diameter, with scarlet stamens; the large leaves of this Water Lily turn to a gorgeous crimson color in the fall. There are also _N. Devonensis_, bearing flowers of a brilliant red, which often measure from twelve to fourteen inches across, are star-shaped, and very beautiful. _N. cærulea_, a native of Egypt, has light blue flowers, and light green leaves; the flowers are very fragrant. _N. flava_ has yellowish flowers, sometimes beautifully variegated with brown. There is quite a number of other interesting species, but those already mentioned are the best. The cultivation of Water Lilies is very simple, they can be grown with success in tubs or tanks, or in little artificial ponds, constructed to accommodate them. A hogshead sunk in the ground in the open air, in some sunny location, will answer to grow them in. Fill a hogshead half full of the compost recommended for aquatics, then set the plants in the compost, press down firmly, and fill the cask with pure water. If possible connect a flow and waste pipe with the barrel, to keep the water fresh, as this is highly essential in growing these plants in this manner. A Mr. Sturtevant, we believe, now of Burlington Co., N. J., is an enthusiast on the cultivation of Water Lilies, and no doubt an excellent authority, He has written some valuable hints on the culture of aquatics, from which we are tempted to quote. He says, "I will add here a few words on the possibilities of aquatic gardening. One argument in favor of cultivating tropical lilies in the open air is, that larger leaves and flowers are obtained, and in case of the colored kinds, greater depth of color than when under glass." And again, "Let us suppose that you wish to have an aquatic garden, fifty, sixty, or a hundred feet in diameter. We will not build it in the stiff form of a circle or oval. There is a small bay, across which we will throw a rustic bridge to a peninsula: somewhere on the margin we will build a rustic summer-house." * * * * * "Now let us suppose that all has been planted, and come to mid-summer perfection. Some morning, before the night-blooming lilies (there are varieties that bloom only in the night), have taken their mid-day sleep, let us ascend the tower, and take a view of the picture." He graphically describes the beauty of this miniature Eden, with all its rare and beautiful tropical plants, which certainly must be enchanting for any who love the beautiful. It is surprising that many people of ample means, and with good facilities for growing aquatics, and who have a taste for flowers, do not take more interest in domesticating these plants. Any one who keeps a gardener can have a very fine show of these beautiful flowers, and a comparatively small outlay will bring good results in a short time. Let those who can, try it. SOIL FOR GROWING AQUATIC PLANTS. The best soil for growing aquatics, is that obtained from the bed of a pond, or a slow, swampy stream, but when this is not readily obtainable, a mixture of equal parts of good, rich garden loam and stable manure will be almost as good. Some use a mixture of muck and bog peat, from which they claim very satisfactory results in growing aquatics; either we think can be used with good success. CHAPTER XV. HARDY CLIMBING VINES.--IVIES. Hardy Climbing Vines seem to be in large demand in different sections of the country, either for training upon trellises as single specimens, or for training upon the side of the building, piazza, portico, or to screen unsightly places, etc. We select from a large number of hardy climbing vines the following sorts, which we think are the most desirable: Wistaria, Chinese (blue and white). Honeysuckles, Belgian. Clematis Jackman's (purple). Clematis Henry's (pure white). Clematis, _viticella rubra grandiflora_ (red). Virginia Creeper, _Ampelopsis quinquefolia_ (strong grower). Japan Creeper, _Ampelopsis tricuspidata_, or _Veitchii_, of most catalogues. Bignonia, Trumpet-Flower. Rose, Baltimore Belle (white). Rose, Queen of the Prairies (pink). All of the above named vines are strong, vigorous growers, perfectly hardy, and with the exception of the two Creepers, are handsome bloomers. IVIES--GROWING AND TRAINING. "A dainty plant is the Ivy green, That creepeth o'er ruins old."--Boz. The Ivy is one of the oldest and most venerable of all climbing shrubs, and is preëminently the poet's vine. In some of the older countries, especially in England, where the climate is particularly favorable to its growth, the Ivy is very attractive, and is said to reach the greatest perfection there. Travellers who have journeyed through that country, describe the old Ivy as clinging closely to, and completely covering the walls of ancient castles, and churches, and often it runs rampant over the fields, mounting stone walls, clinging to trees, etc. The Ivy in our climate is entirely hardy, enduring the severest winters without any protection. If the vine is allowed to grow over the walls of a dwelling, either on the inside, in a living-room, or on the outer walls of the building, is not only beautiful as an ornament of the home, but beneficial; in a sanitary point of view it is regarded as useful. Some plants of Ivy growing in the living and sleeping rooms, will do more to keep the atmosphere of the apartments pure and wholesome, than anything we can possibly imagine, and I recommend their more extensive cultivation in malarial localities. The Ivy may be easily cultivated from slips or layers. In soil, sand, or even in pure water, cuttings will root, and they will take up with almost any kind of soil, but that which can be easily kept loose, is preferable. The Ivy is partial to shade, and if it never saw the sun it would make no difference, as it would grow and flourish just the same. There is no sight more attractive in a window-garden than a fine Ivy vine trained up the casement, over the wall and ceiling; its dark, rich, glossy leaves, and thrifty look, make it an object to be admired. If grown in pots in the house, the soil will soon become exhausted, if the plant is growing rapidly, and it should be changed or enriched with decayed manure at least once each year, care being taken not to disturb the roots to a great extent. It is a mistake to allow Ivies too much pot-room, they will do better if the roots are considerably confined. Soap-suds or liquid manure if applied once a mouth when the plants are growing, will promote a luxuriant growth. When dust accumulates on the leaves, as it will, if grown in-doors, wash it off with a damp cloth or sponge; if this is long neglected, you need not be surprised if you soon discover the leaves to be covered with red-spider or scale-lice. Cold water is the best wash, when washing be sure and treat the underside of the leaves as well as the upper surface. I would recommend the "English Ivy" as being the best sort for general cultivation. CHAPTER XVI. ANNUAL FLOWERING PLANTS.--PANSY CULTURE. Annuals flower the same season the seeds are sown, perfect their seeds, and then die. "There is," says James Vick, "No forgotten spot in the garden, none which early flowering bulbs or other spring flowers have left unoccupied, that need remain bare during the summer. No bed but what can be made brilliant with these favorites, for there is no situation or soil in which some of these favorites will not flourish. Some delight in shade, others in sunshine; some are pleased with a cool, clay bed, while others are never so comfortable as in a sandy soil, or burning sun. The seed, too, is so cheap as to be within the reach of all, while a good collection of bedding plants would not come within the resources of many, and yet very few beds filled with expensive bedding plants look as well as a good bed of our best annuals, like Phlox, Petunia, or Portulaca, and for a vase or basket many of our annuals are unsurpassed. To annuals, also, we are indebted mainly for our brightest and best flowers in the late summer and autumn months. "Without the Phlox and Petunia, and Portulaca and Aster, and Stock, our autumn gardens would be poor indeed, and how we would miss the sweet fragrance of the Alyssum, Mignonette, and Sweet Pea, if any ill-luck should befall them, or deprive us of these sweet favorites!" Annuals are divided into three classes, hardy, half-hardy, and tender. The hardy annuals are those that, like the Larkspur, Candytuft, etc., may be sown in the autumn, or very early in the spring in the open ground. The half-hardy annuals should not be sown in the open ground until all danger of frost is over. The Balsams and Marigolds belong to this class. The tender annuals generally require starting in a green-house, or hot-bed, to bring them to perfection, and should not be set in the open ground until the weather is fine and warm, some time in June. From a perplexing number to be found in plant catalogues, we select the following twelve sorts of annuals as being the most desirable for the garden; they are a galaxy of gems, indeed: Asters, Balsams, Phlox Drummondii, Double Petunias, Pansies, Double Sweet Alyssum, Double White Pyrethrum, Dwarf Ageratum, Verbenas, Salvias, Double Stocks, Celosias (Coxcomb). Sow the seed in the open ground the latter part of May, and the first of July most of the sorts will be in bloom, and they will continue to bloom until arrested by frosts. PANSY CULTURE. Pansies are old and popular favorites, they embrace varieties with variously-colored flowers, from almost jet black, to pure white and yellow. They are easily grown from seed. The general custom is to sow Pansy seed in the fall, but we are in favor of spring sowing. We have tried sowing seed at both seasons, and find that plants grown from spring-sown seed bloom more freely throughout the hot months of summer, while plants raised by fall sowing become exhausted, and cease flowering much sooner. Seed sown in March, in light, rich soil, will make fine blooming plants the same season. Pansies are hardy, if they have good protection with a litter of leaves or straw, or any light covering, which should be removed very early in the spring, or as soon as danger of heavy frosts is over. Plants remaining in ground through the winter, if proper care is given them, will bloom very early in the spring, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. We have even seen the frail blossoms peeping up through the snow, but the plants become exhausted and cease flowering before mid-summer. It is possible to have them bloom throughout the entire winter by taking up old plants from the open ground in October, and carefully planting them in a tight, cold frame in a sheltered location, covering the frame with glazed sash. This is often done by florists whose trade demands the flowers at that season of the year, and especially early in spring. Treated thus, they flower abundantly. The same can be done with Violets. Pansies require a partial shade and a good, rich, loamy soil, and an occasional watering through the dry season will help them. CHAPTER XVII. FALL OR HOLLAND BULBS. That class of bulbs known as Fall, or Holland Bulbs, includes Hyacinths, Crocuses, Jonquils, Tulips, Narcissuses, Snow-drops, and several less known kinds. These bulbs are grown in Holland in immense quantities, the soil and climate of that country being peculiarly favorable to them, and they are annually imported into this country in great numbers. The fall is the time to set them out; any time from the first of October, to the middle of December. Tulips, Jonquils, Narcissuses, and Hyacinths, should be planted four inches deep, and eight inches apart each way; the Snow-drops and Crocuses two inches deep, and six inches apart. All of the above named bulbs are entirely hardy, and will stand in the ground without any surface protection through the severest winters. Some go to the trouble of covering the surface with leaves or other litter for protection, but this is entirely unnecessary. A very pretty effect may be had, where one has a large number of bulbs, by selecting the different colors and planting each color in a row by itself, so that when they blossom, it will be in ribbon-lines of red, white, blue, or yellow, as the case may be. Or, if one has a large number of beds of different shapes, cut so as to form a design of some kind, each section may be planted with a different color (Hyacinths are the best for this work), and when all come into bloom in April, the effect will be most charming. We tried this "massing" of the differently colored bulbs one year, in a "design" of one hundred different sections of all conceivable shapes. Planting the bulbs so that, when in blossom, the whole would present a harmonious effect. It would be hard to conceive of a more attractive sight than that presented by all those bulbs in full bloom in early April, when every thing else looked barren and cheerless. They were admired by every one who saw them. Bulbs of this character bloom and pass away in season to allow room for other plants to be set out. These may be set between the rows of bulbs, and not disturb them in the least. Any of the above named bulbs are especially desirable for house culture in winter. Make an oblong box, say four feet in length, fifteen inches wide, and twelve deep, fill this with fine, rich loam, then plant a row of Hyacinths in the centre, and on each side of this plant a row of either Snow-drops or Crocuses, water thoroughly, and set away in a dark, cool place. In three weeks remove the box into the full light, and water freely, they will grow and bloom throughout the winter. If the box can be set near a front window, it will make a pretty display while the bulbs are in bloom. These bulbs can be started in pots, or glasses filled with water, and treated in the same manner as stated above. Place a single bulb of Hyacinth in each pot or glass. Four-inch pots filled nearly to the top with soil, and the bulbs set in and pressed down, so that nothing but the crown is above ground, are all that is necessary. The same bulbs can be used a number of years, but they are not so good as fresh ones, which should be obtained each year if possible. After the bulbs are through blooming, they may be left in the soil in which they grew through the winter, and removed to a dry place to rest, in preparation for starting them another fall. If fresh bulbs are desired for this purpose, the old ones may be planted out in the open ground, where they will again renew their strength, and bloom annually for a number of years. They are multiplied from the seed and from offshoots. CHAPTER XVIII. TROPICAL BULBS.--TUBEROSES. Gladioluses, Tuberoses, Cannas, and Caladiums, come under this head, and are the best known of this class of bulbs. They are not hardy, and the slightest frost will injure them more or less. It is customary to allow tender bulbs of this kind to rest during the winter, the same as one would an onion. They can be safely kept through the winter under the staging of the green-house, in a dry, frost-proof cellar, where there is plenty of light, or in any other place where potatoes can be safely stored. Tropical bulbs of all kinds are much benefited by planting them in good, light, loamy soil, well enriched with well-rotted stable manure. They may be planted out in the open ground as soon as it can be worked in the spring, and all danger from heavy frosts is over. Any of the above named bulbs of ordinary size, should be planted at least from three to four inches deep, and from six to eight inches deep when the bulbs are of extra size. I am in favor of planting these bulbs in the open ground much earlier than most gardeners are in the habit of doing. Experience has shown me that the earlier in spring those summer bulbs are set out in the open ground, the better. Just as soon as the ground is in good condition to work, spade it up deeply, and plant the bulbs; the roots will soon begin to develop in the cool ground, before the tops start to grow, which is the true principle in growing all plants. They will thus receive a fine start before hot weather sets in. We have had Tuberoses and Gladioluses to bloom much earlier than usual, and much more continuously throughout the summer and fall, as the result of planting them as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring. If a continuation of bloom is desired, the bulbs should be planted at successive intervals of not less then three weeks; this will give a sucession of bloom throughout the entire season. In the fall remove the bulbs from the ground as soon as the tops have been touched by frost, cutting the stalk off to within a couple of inches of the base, and setting the bulbs away to rest for the winter. TUBEROSES. No collection of garden flowers is complete without the Tuberose. For the spotless purity of its flowers, and for incomparable fragrance, it has no superior. It is very easy to grow them successfully. Bulbs intended for fall blooming, should be planted in the open ground from the first to the middle of May; plant them about two inches deep. They will do well in any good, rich garden soil, if the soil is occasionally moved around them with the rake or hoe, after they are up and growing. Such treatment will cause the bulbs to grow rapidly, and the flower trusses, when they come into bloom, will consequently be much larger and finer. As the Tuberose is not hardy in our Northern climates, the bulbs should be dug up in the fall, the tops or stalks removed to within two or three inches of the bulbs, which should then be laid away in some dry, warm place, a dry and frost-proof cellar will do, or better yet, store them if possible, under the staging of a green-house. In the spring, before planting, remove all the young offsets from around the parent bulb; there are usually a number of young shoots clinging to it, and as the old bulb blooms but once, and only once, it is henceforth good for nothing, save for the production of more bulbs, if desired. The young offshoots of the first season's growth will not become blooming bulbs until the third year, but if you have quite a number of young bulbs, say twenty-five or fifty, there will naturally be a number that will bloom in rotation, from year to year, and give some bloom each season. Some enterprising florists have Tuberoses nearly the whole year round. In order to do this, the bulbs must be "started" in pots; the bulbs are potted in the usual manner, so that the top, or crown of the bulb, when potted, will just show above the soil, and they should be kept rather dry until they show signs of growing, when they can be watered freely and set in a warm place. Of course bulbs intended for winter blooming must rest, or be kept from growing during the summer, and bulbs to be in bloom in April or May, must be started in January or February in pots. Tuberoses are rapidly productive; ten old bulbs having been known to produce one hundred young offshoots in one season. There are many "fine points" in growing Tuberoses, but the instruction here given will enable any one to grow them successfully. CHAPTER XIX. ROSES--CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATING. The Rose is preëminently the Queen of Flowers. It has no rival in the floral kingdom, and will always stand at the head in the catalogue of Flora's choicest gems. To it alone belongs that subtle perfume that captivates the sense of smell, and that beauty of form and color so pleasing to the eye. Add to all this, it is one of the easiest plants to cultivate, as it will grow and flower in almost any soil or climate, requiring but little care and attention as compared with many other favorites of the garden. There has been great improvement made in Roses in the last twenty years by skillful cultivators in this country and in Europe, and from a few common sorts formerly grown, many hundred choice and desirable varieties have been produced, and to-day the choice cultivated varieties are very numerous. These differ in respect to hardiness, habit of growth, and peculiar characteristics of blooming, and for these reasons cultivators have grouped them into several distinct classes, each class differing in certain characteristics from the others. TEA ROSES. The Roses best adapted for in-door culture belong to the class known as Tea Roses; these are tender, of a bushy growth, and if properly treated, will bloom the year round; the flowers have a strong tea-scent. Tea Roses can be cultivated out-of-doors with success, but they must be taken up in the fall and removed in-doors. We know it is the custom of some gardeners to lay the bushes down in the fall, and cover them with earth and leaves; while in some cases this may preserve them, it cannot be depended on as a rule. To keep up a steady bloom, pinch off all flowers as soon as they begin to fade. It is best to not let the buds open fully while on the bush, but they should be cut in the bud, and placed in a vase of water, where they will expand and keep for a long while. All dead leaves and flower stems should be carefully removed, and the surface of the soil in the pots should be stirred up occasionally with a stick, this will keep the plants in a growing condition, and if they can be kept growing, they will bloom continuously. The following varieties of Tea Roses are in every respect among the best for house culture: _Bon Silene._--Flowers purplish-carmine; highly scented. _Niphetos._--Pure white, magnificent long buds; an incessant bloomer. _Perle de Jardins._--Sulphur-yellow, full and double; a splendid rose. _La France_ (Bourbon).--Bright lilac-rose, fine form; perpetual bloomer, half hardy. _Hermosa_ (Bourbon).--Light rose-color, cupped-shaped; a most perpetual bloomer. HYBRID PERPETUAL, AND MOSS ROSES. Both of the above classes are entirely distinct from either the Tea, Noisette, or Bourbon Roses; they are entirely hardy, exceedingly free-bloomers in their season--from June to July; their flowers have a delightful perfume, and are noted for the richness and variety of their colors. They require to be closely pruned annually. The spring is the most desirable time to prune. They should have a top-dressing of manure every fall. The ground should be kept well shaded around their roots in summer. They require a strong, rich soil to make them flower well. These roses are not desirable for house culture. The following are among the best varieties of the Hybrid Perpetual, or Remontant Roses: _Gen. Jacqueminot._--Brilliant crimson-scarlet; magnificent buds. _La Reine._--Deep rosy-pink; an ideal rose. _Coquette des Alps._--White; blooms in clusters. _Black Prince._--Blackish-crimson; large, full, and globular. _Victor Verdier._--Rich deep-rose; elegant buds. MOSS ROSES. Of this class we need not speak in detail to any who have ever seen its delicate moss-covered buds, and inhaled their delightful odor. They are perfectly hardy, and can be wintered without any protection. They are called perpetual, but this is a misnomer, for we know but one variety of Moss Rose that approaches it, that is the _Salet_ Moss. The rest are no more so than are the so-called Hybrid Perpetuals. Moss Roses should be severely pruned in spring, removing all the old wood. _Salet_, deep pink; _White Perpetual_, pure white; and _Crested_, rose-color, are the most desirable sorts. PROPAGATING THE ROSE. The Rose is somewhat difficult to propagate from cuttings, and it takes from three to four weeks for them to root under the best conditions. Moss Roses are generally multiplied by layering (see "Layering"), and by budding on the common Manetti or Multiflora stocks. The following will be found to be a very practicable and simple method of propagating roses on a small scale, and is attended with very little trouble or expense: In the fall place sand in a box, or cold frame, to the depth of eight inches. Take from the bushes the number of cuttings it is desired to propagate, making them with two or three points or eyes; insert them in the sand (which should be previously packed as solid as can be), then water thoroughly. As the cuttings are to remain in this frame all winter, it should be provided with a glass sash, and the whole covered with leaves and manure. It need not be banked up until freezing weather. If rightly done, we may expect at the least fifty per cent of the cuttings to come from their winter bed finely rooted. They should then be potted, and after growing awhile, planted out, and some of them will bloom the first season. CHAPTER XX. JAPAN AND OTHER LILIES.--CALLA LILIES. If we call the rose the "Queen of Flowers," what royal title shall we bestow upon the beautiful Japan Lilies? We sometimes think it would be proper to name the Rose the King, for its commanding aspect, and the grandly beautiful Lily, the Queen of the floral kingdom. But, be this as it may, we have only to gaze upon a collection of Japan Lilies when in full bloom, and inhale their delicious odor, that perfumes the whole atmosphere, to be convinced of their superiority over all other flowers. Surely Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. There are many different species and varieties of Lilies, but none approach those known as Japan Lilies in the beauty and variety of their flowers, and their exquisite fragrance. They are perfectly hardy, and the fall is the proper time to plant them. If good strong bulbs are set out in the ground in October or November, planted about eight inches deep, they will throw up strong shoots the following summer, and bloom freely. The flowers increase in size and beauty with the age of the bulb, and this should be left to grow undisturbed in the same spot for five or six years; afterwards, if desired, the bulbs can be dug up, the offshoots removed, and the old bulbs reset, and they will do better than ever. Any of the young bulbs that have been removed can be planted out in the ground, and in a few years will form good blooming bulbs. The time to perform this work is in the fall. Although entirely hardy without protection, it will benefit these lilies very much, if during the winter, they are covered with a coarse litter, leaves or any other good covering. This should be raked off early in the spring, as manure of any kind seems to injure them when they come in contact with it. The soil in which they do best is a light, sandy loam, well drained. The lily flourishes best in sunny locations. The following is a description of the leading varieties: LILIUM AURATUM.--This is the well-known Gold-banded Lily, and most decidedly the finest of all the Japan Lilies. L. CANDIDUM.--The old White Lily (not Japan) of the gardens; a splendid sort; elegant, large, pure white flowers, in clusters; blooms earlier than the others, but not the first year; it is one of the most beautiful Lilies. L. CITRINUM.--Very rare and beautiful; large, elegantly formed flowers; color, pale yellow, exquisitely tinged with blush. L. LONGIFLORUM.--Exceedingly beautiful; very long trumpet-shaped flowers, pure snow white. L. SPECIOSUM RUBRUM.--One of the finest of Japan Lilies; bright crimson and white spotted; splendid large flower, borne in clusters, stem two to three feet. L. TIGRINUM--SINGLE TIGER LILY.--This splendid Lily is one of the best in the list; the stem is tall; the flowers large and elegantly formed; blooms in large clusters; color, brilliant orange scarlet with intense black spots; remains in bloom a long time. L. UMBELATUM.--Very showy, brilliant red, variegated flowers in clusters. THE CALLA LILY. The Calla Lily, or "The Lily of the Nile," is an old and popular favorite, and is found in window-garden collections everywhere. It is a native of the tropics, where it is said it grows to an enormous size; a single flower often measuring one to two feet in diameter. The Calla will attain its highest perfection if planted in a rich, mucky soil, obtained from a swamp or bog. It also requires an abundance of water during the growing season. Callas, like all other bulbous plants, must have a season of rest. If required to bloom during the winter or spring months, they must be rested in the summer season, if this is not done we must not expect to have any success in flowering them. The blooming season can be reversed if desired, by resting in winter. Without allowing them at least three months of rest, it is useless to expect to flower them successfully. By "resting," we mean to withhold water, and allow the leaves and stalks to die down completely to the bulb. Then turn the pot on its side under a tree or grape-arbor, and let the soil dry up completely; this will kill the stalk but not injure the bulb. HOW TO PREPARE CALLAS FOR WINTER BLOOMING. After three months of this rest; or about the first of October, we "dump" out the plant, shake off all the old soil from the bulb or bulbs, and re-pot in fine, rich soil, using pots one size larger than those used the previous year; place the plants in a cool, shady spot, and water freely. Let them remain for two or three weeks, until new roots have formed, after which all danger is passed, and they can be removed into full light and heat. When growing, water freely. An application of strong liquid-manure once a week will add greatly to the growth of the plants, and to the number of blossoms produced. A very pretty effect can be obtained by arranging the plants about a fountain or pond where they will bloom freely throughout the summer season, presenting a tropical appearance. They will also grow well by standing the pots completely in the water. CHAPTER XXI. GERANIUMS--THE BEST TWELVE SORTS. There is no flower that can surpass the Geranium for profusion of bloom, brilliancy and variety of color, and general adaptability for house culture. The following are the best twelve sorts: DOUBLE VARIETIES. Madam Ballet, pure white; Jewel, dark crimson; Asa Gray, salmon, very free bloomer; Madam Lemoine, light pink, large trusses; Bishop Wood, rich scarlet, approaching to carmine; Charmieux, scarlet; Casimer Perrier, a very near approach to yellow SINGLE VARIETIES. New Life, variegated, crimson, and white; Gen. Grant, dazzling scarlet; Pauline Lucca, pure white, with pink-eye; Chief Justice, the darkest of all Geraniums, immense trusses; Pinafore, salmon, with white eye; La Vienne, pure white, pale stamens, splendid; Master Christine, light pink, elegant for bedding. CHAPTER XXII. AZALEAS; HOW TO CULTIVATE THEM. Comparatively few of these charming plants are to be seen outside of green-houses and private conservatories, we know not for what reasons, unless it be the erroneous idea that they cannot be successfully grown unless one has the facilities of the florist. I think there is no class of plants more easy of culture, when the manner of treating them is once understood, than Azaleas. As they are decidedly winter-flowering plants, generally coming into bloom from December to March and April, they must be treated as such. They should have the same kind of treatment during the summer as recommended for Camellias, allowing them to rest in some cool, shady spot out-of-doors, during which period the flowering shoots will grow that are to give the bloom through the winter months. They can be taken into the house any time in the fall before freezing weather, and they will thrive well in an atmosphere suited to the generality of plants, although to bring the bloom out to the best, an atmosphere of 55° is needed. There are over one hundred distinct varieties, ranging from pure white to lilac-purple, scarlet and pink, and when in full bloom the entire plant might be easily mistaken for a large bouquet, so literally covered is it with dazzling blossoms. One or two varieties of Azaleas should grace every collection; almost every florist keeps them in stock, and the price asked is but a small consideration compared with the amount of pleasure one will derive by having them in full bloom himself. Florists hardly ever attempt to multiply the Azaleas from cuttings, on account of the hardness of the wood, but the common mode of multiplying them is by grafting on the stock of the Wild Azalea, plants being easily and quickly obtained through this method. The Azalea will flourish best with a rich, mucky loam, a rather shady locality, and an abundance of water. CHAPTER XXIII. CAMELLIAS.--ORANGE AND LEMON TREES. Dear reader, did you ever see a large Camellia plant in full blossom? If you have not, I will risk my reputation by saying that all other flowers within my knowledge, barring the rose, dwindle into insignificance when compared with it. It excels the finest rose in doubleness and form of its flowers, and puts the virgin lily to shame for spotless purity and whiteness; if it only possessed fragrance, it would be unquestionably the Queen of the floral world. What I shall have to say in regard to this plant, I hope will have the effect of introducing it into many homes where it has hitherto been little known. Few outside of professional florists have undertaken to cultivate the Camellia, for the reason, we suppose, that it is thought to be quite an impossibility to raise and bloom it successfully outside of a green-house; this is a mistake, although many believe it otherwise. I contend that Camellias can be as easily and as successfully grown in the window-garden as the Rose or Geranium. Camellias bloom in the winter, and at no other season of the year. Plants should be purchased of the florist in the fall or early in winter, and such plants as have flower-buds already formed; those plants, if kept in the right atmosphere, will bloom profusely, but they must have an atmosphere of 50° until the buds are all expanded, after which there will be no danger of the flowers blasting. As soon as the bloom has all passed off, the plants should be taken from their cool quarters, and placed with the other plants in a warm temperature, and watered freely, to encourage a vigorous growth previous to removing them out-of-doors in the spring. As soon as all danger of heavy frosts is over in the spring, the plants should be taken from the house and removed to some shady location, under a grape-arbor, in a pit or frame covered with shades; here leave them standing in the pots "plunging" the pots in earth or sand to prevent too rapid drying out. The summer is the period in which the flower-buds are formed that bloom in winter; the plants should be kept growing, and watered freely throughout the summer. They must be left out-of-doors as long as the weather will permit, but, on the approach of frost, take the plants into the house, and let them stand in a cool room, where the temperature is not over 50°. This is the critical time, for if they are removed into a warm temperature of 70° or 80°, the buds will all blast and drop off, and no flowers will be produced. If the plants are large and well-budded, a succession of bloom will be yielded throughout the entire winter. There are a number of varieties, embracing colors from red, pink, variegated, etc., to the purest waxy-white. The Double White Camellia Japonica, the white sort, is the most valuable for its bloom, the flowers being sometimes four to five inches in diameter, exceedingly double, with the petals imbricated, and of a waxy texture, and are highly prized by florists, who often charge as high as one dollar per flower for them. They are invaluable for funeral occasions, when pure white flowers are required. Plants are multiplied by either grafting or budding them on the common stock; it is almost impossible to raise plants from cuttings; they are slower than the Azalea to take root. ORANGE AND LEMON TREES. Both Orange and Lemon trees can be easily raised by sowing the seeds in good, rich soil, and after the seedlings become of sufficient size, a foot to fifteen inches high, they should be budded or grafted, otherwise blossoms and fruit cannot be expected. In the tropical climes, where these fruits are grown, there are varieties that spring up from the seeds of sweet oranges, called naturals; these yield a fruit that is edible, but is of an insipid taste. In no case can we obtain edible fruit of either Oranges or Lemons, budded or unbudded, in northern climates. The best time to bud these trees is when the seedlings are about a year old. They can be budded in the same manner as other trees, and as a rule, the buds take readily if the stock is in the right condition. Some graft them, but buds take better than grafts, and grow more rapidly. If the budding is successful, and the bud looks fresh and green in two weeks after it has been inserted, the union has taken place. The stock may then be cut off within two inches of the bud, and after the bud has started to grow, cut the stub still lower down, close to the bud. One bud in each stock is better than three or four. The soil best adapted to these trees is a rich, mucky loam. They should have plenty of pot room when growing, and, if possible, a warm, moist atmosphere. CHAPTER XXIV. FUCHSIAS--TRAINING AND MANAGEMENT We confess to have a special liking for the Fuchsias, and think no assortment of house plants is complete without one or two varieties of these beautiful flowers. They are easily propagated, either from cuttings or by layers, and the amount of bloom one strong, healthy plant is capable of producing under favorable circumstances, is truly wonderful. Upon one plant of Fuchsia speciosa, started from a cutting of a single eye in March, we counted at one time, in the December following, one hundred and fifty perfect blossoms. The plant stood in an eight-inch pot, and measured four feet in hight. Some kinds do better as house plants than others, among the best are _F. speciosa_, _F. fulgens_, and the Rose of Castile, and I would particularly recommend these sorts as superior to all others for the window-garden. The right kind of soil has everything to do with success in growing fine Fuchsias; it should be of a light peaty quality, with one-third cow manure, and thoroughly mixed together until well decayed. They also relish an abundance of water; and if they have, while growing, an application of liquid manure once or twice a week, it will be beneficial; never allow the roots to become potbound, but when the roots begin to form a mat on the outside of the ball of earth, it is time to shift the plant into a pot of the next larger size, and so on as the plant requires it. This is a very important point, and should not be overlooked if strong, healthy plants are expected. Fuchsias are especially desirable for training on trellises. They can be trained over an upright trellis, and have a very pretty effect, but the best form is that of an umbrella. Secure a strong, vigorous plant, and allow one shoot to grow upright until about two feet high, then pinch off the top of the shoot. It will branch out and form a head, each shoot of which, when sufficiently long, may have a fine thread or hair-wire attached to the tip, by which to draw it downward; fasten the other end of the wire or thread to the stem of the plant, and all the shoots will then be pendent. When each of these branches has attained a length of eight inches, pinch off the tip, and the whole will form a dense head, resembling an umbrella in shape, and the graceful flowers pendent from each shoot will be handsome indeed. Remember to keep the stock clear of side-shoots, in order to throw the growth into the head. If properly taken care of, most Fuchsias will bloom the year round, but some kinds can be especially recommended for winter blooming, among them are _F. speciosa_, flesh-colored, with scarlet corolla; _F. serratifolia_, orange-scarlet corolla, greenish sepals; Meteor, deep-red corolla, light-pink sepals. The following are the finest in every respect that the market affords: Mrs. Bennett, pink; Sir Cohn Campbell, double blue; Rose of Castile, single violet; Elm City, double scarlet; Carl Holt, crimson; Tower of London, double blue; Wave of Life, foliage yellow, corolla violet; _F. speciosa_, single, flesh-colored, and _F. fulgens_, long red corolla. CHAPTER XXV. CACTUSES.--NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUS.--REX BEGONIAS. For singularity and grotesqueness of form, as well as for the exceptional conditions under which they grow to the best advantage, no class of plants is more remarkable than the _Cactaceæ_. Of these, about a thousand species have been described by botanists; nearly all are indigenous to the New World, though but a small proportion are in cultivation. Cactuses delight in a dry, barren, sandy soil. They are naturally children of the desert. It is said by travellers that many of the species bear edible fruit, resembling somewhat in taste the gooseberry. So much for the peculiarities of the Cactus family in its native localities, but how can we succeed in cultivating the plants with satisfactory results in the window-garden? There are two simple methods of treatment that Cactuses should receive, namely: First, keep the soil about them constantly dry, and keep them in a warm place. Secondly, the soil should be of a poor quality, mixed with a little brick dust, and they should never be allowed too much pot room. If either of these two points are observed in the treatment of Cactuses, there will be no difficulty in keeping them in a flourishing condition all the time. THE NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUS. The Night-blooming Cereus is an interesting plant, and excites much admiration when in flower, as it blooms at night-time only, the flowers closing up when exposed to the day-light. They are magnificent flowers when in full blow, but, unhappily, are short-lived, a flower never opening a second time. The plant belongs to the Cactus Family, and requires the same general treatment. There are a number of night-flowering species and varieties, but the one especially known as the Night-blooming Cereus is _Cereus grandiflorus_, which, when in full bloom, presents a rare sight. Some of the flowers of the night-blooming kinds are exceedingly fragrant, notably _Cereus triangularis_, a single flower of which, when in fall bloom, will fill the air of a room with its pleasant odor. These plants can be made to bloom freely by keeping the soil quite dry, and allowing them very little pot-room, as they depend more upon the atmosphere than the soil for their growth. We have known large plants of _Cereus grandiflorus_, to produce as many as twenty-five fine blossoms each in the course of a season. We have found that liquid manure, if applied to these plants about once a month, and when the soil about them is very dry, will work wonders in their growth, and when a rapid growth can be obtained, there will be no trouble in having an abundance of flowers at regular intervals. Care must be taken not to have the liquid too strong. A small quantity of brick dust, mixed with the soil in which they are growing, will be beneficial. These species of Cereus are easily propagated by cuttings, which will root readily in sand of any kind. Being of a slender habit of growth, and rather rampant, they should have some sort of support, and it is advisable to either train them to a trellis, or upon wires, or a string stretched over and along the window sash. We have had a number of flowers of a pure feathery white, _C. grandiflorus_, that were over fifteen inches in diameter; this is the best of the night-flowering species. PROPAGATING REX BEGONIAS. Those Begonias, known as belonging to the Rex division, are very beautiful, and also very distinct in both leaf and flower from all other species and varieties. The leaves are noted for their peculiar shape and markings, making them very valuable as ornamental house plants. They are easily multiplied from the leaf with its stalk. To propagate these, the leaf, or leaves, including the stalk, should be taken off close to the plant. Insert the stem of the leaf in sand, and deep enough to allow the leaf to lie flat upon the surface of the sand. It will take them about from two to three weeks to root, after which they should be potted in good, rich soil. It will take sometime to start them into a growth, but they grow very rapidly when they begin, and in two years will make large plants. CHAPTER XXVI. ROCKERIES--HOW TO MAKE THEM. Many have a taste for forming grotesque pieces of rock work, selecting therefor such oddly-shaped and variously-colored rocks as may be gathered near the locality; these are generally piled in the form of a pyramid in a conspicuous place on the lawn, and if nicely arranged, cannot be surpassed in attractiveness, and are in pleasing contrast with the flower-beds and shrubbery. Some prefer to have merely the bare rocks heaped into a pile, which will appear grotesque and rugged; others set out suitable plants, and train vines to creep over them. We think the latter the best method, where common rocks are used, but if one is fortunate enough to live in a locality where a large number of variously-colored rocks can be obtained, their natural colors when arranged will make them highly attractive. One of the finest pieces of work of this kind we ever saw, was formed of a number of rocks gathered from almost every country on the globe, each stone having a peculiar tint of its own. On the top of this valuable pile was a rare specimen of Red Rock obtained from Siberia, in the region of eternal frost. HOW TO MAKE A ROCKERY. Having selected a site in a partly shaded spot, we will then proceed to form a mound of earth which may be drawn to the spot for the purpose if necessary. Upon and around this mound the rocks are to be placed, one layer thick, leaving here and there between them a small crevice in which to plant vines, or to drop a few seeds. The top of the heap may be left open, to allow of setting out, either in a pot or planted out in the earth, a choice specimen plant. Among the plants the most appropriate for the centre are: _Eulalia Japonica variegata_, and _Zebrina_. A variegated Agave may appropriately occupy the place, or some of the tall native wild ferns. A narrow circle may be cut around the base of the rockery, six or eight inches wide; after this is spaded up a row of blue Lobelia may be planted around the whole circle. Instead of the Lobelia, a row of _Echeveria secunda glauca_, or of the Mountain-of-Snow Geranium would look very finely. It may be well to mention here a number of the plants most appropriate for rockeries. Who is not familiar with the Moneywort, with its low-trailing habit and small yellow flowers? It is peculiarly adapted for rockeries. Portulaca, Paris Daisy (_Chrysanthemum frutescens_), _Myosotis_ (Forget-me-not), are among the most popular plants for rockeries. The small Sedum or Stone Crop (_Sedum acre_), is an interesting and useful little plant, growing freely on rock or rustic work. As vines are much used for such places, we will mention as the best hardy vines for this purpose Veitch's _Ampelopsis_ (_A. tricuspidata_), English or Irish Ivy, and the so-called running Myrtle. The above are entirely hardy and will stand any amount of freezing without injury. The following vines, although not hardy, are much used for rockeries: Thunbergias, Tropæolums, Kenilworth Ivy, and the German Ivy (_Senecio scandens_). Where a rockery is formed in the midst of a pond of water, as is often done, plants of the kind mentioned will not flourish so well as those of a semi-aquatic nature, such as Caladiums, Callas, some Ferns, Cannas, and Lycopodiums, all of which will flourish in moist places. CHAPTER XXVII. BUDDING. Budding as an art is simple, useful, and easily acquired by any one with a little practice. More can be learned practically about budding in a few hours spent with a skillful nurseryman while he is performing the operation, than could be derived from anything we might write on the subject. We are aware that we shall not be able to state in this brief chapter what will be new or instructive to experienced gardeners or nurserymen. This is not our aim, what may be old to them is likely to be new to thousands of amateur gardeners. In another part of this book will be found a chapter on grafting; this, though differently performed, is analogous in its results to budding, and many amateurs not infrequently speak of them in the same terms. To graft a cion, one end is carefully cut in the shape of a wedge, and inserted in a cleft where it is to grow; on the other hand, in budding, we use but a single eye, taken from a small branch, and insert it inside of the bark of the stock or tree we wish to bud. From this one eye, we may in time look for a tree laden with precious fruit. To be more explicit, and by way of illustration, we will imagine a seedling apple tree, a "natural," to have grown up in our garden. If left alone, the fruit of that seedling tree would probably be worthless, but we don't propose to risk that, and will proceed to bud it with some kind more worthy of room in a garden. When the proper season for budding fruit arrives, generally from the first to the latter part of July, will be the time to bud, if the stock is growing thriftily. A keen-bladed budding knife made for the purpose, a "cion" or "stick" of the variety to be budded, some twine (basswood bark is the best), make up the needed outfit for this operation. If the seedling is large, say five or six feet high, it should be top-budded, putting in a bud or two in each of the thriftiest branches. If the stock is not over one to two feet high, a single bud a few inches from the ground will be the best way to make a good tree of it. At the spot where we have decided to insert the bud, we will make a short, horizontal cut, then downwards a short, perpendicular "slit," not over an inch long, and just penetrating through the bark; open the slit, care being taken not to scratch the wood within, then insert the bud at the top of the cut, and slide it down to its proper place inside of the bark, the top of the bud being in juxtaposition with the horizontal cut above. Considerable skill is required to cut a bud properly, and two methods are practised, known as "budding with the wood in," and "budding with the wood out." The former consists in cutting a very little wood with the bud, a little deeper than the bark itself, and in the latter the wood is removed from the bud, leaving nothing but the bare bark. Unquestionably the surest way for a young budder is to remove the wood, cutting a pretty deep bud, and then in making the cross cut let it be only as deep as the bark, and by giving it a twitch the bud will readily leave the wood. I will say, however, that most nurserymen insist on budding with the wood, which it is claimed is the surest and best way to bud. We have tried both ways for years, and have been able to discover no difference, excepting where the buds are quite green at the time of budding, when it is best to have a little wood with the bud to sustain it. Plums should invariably be budded with the wood out. After the bud has been properly set, it should be firmly tied with a broad string, making the laps close enough to entirely cover the slip, leaving the eye of the bud uncovered. Various kinds of strings for tying buds are used by nurserymen, but the basswood bark, which is made into broad, ribbon-like strips, seems peculiarly adapted for the purpose, and we advise its use where one has any considerable amount of budding to do. It usually takes from three to four weeks for a bud to callous and form a union with the stock; at the expiration of this time the strings should be taken off; we would except only those cases where the stock is growing, when if the strings pinch the stock too closely, they can be removed some time sooner. The stock or stocks can now be left until the following spring, when the top should be cut away to within an inch or less of the bud; this will assist the roots to throw all their energy into the bud. TOP-BUDDING TREES. The top-budding of fruit and ornamental trees is much practised now-a-days by orchardists and fruit-growers generally, and sometimes with marked success. A famous horticulturist of Geneva, N. Y., some years ago planted a large number of Lombard plum trees, which he fondly expected to see come into bearing while quite young, and be early compensated for his labor and expense in planting them. He waited a number of years without seeing his hopes realized; his patience at last became exhausted, and starting, lie top-budded them all with the Bradshaw plum, which grew rapidly, and bore abundantly in a couple of years, and last season he received eight dollars per bushel for the fruit in the Philadelphia market. It is a well known fact among fruit-growers that some rank-growing varieties of fruit trees, as for instance the Keiffer Hybrid Pear, do not produce fruit so early, or in such abundance as some less thrifty-growing varieties, such as the _Beurre Clairgeau_, but by top-budding the latter-named sort on to a thrifty specimen of the former, we have a tree that will bear fruit almost every year. Nothing will take better from the bud than the rose; some elegant tree roses can be grown by simply training up a shoot of any common or wild rose to a sufficient hight, about five feet, and then top-budding it with three or four choice hybrids, as the _Gen. Jacqueminot_, _La Reine_, _Coquette des Alps_, and _Black Prince_, and those gems of the floral kingdom, when in blossom, will form a variety of dazzling beauties, the effect of which will not only be charming to the eye, but novel as well. I once removed from the door-yard a large rose bush of the _Crimson Boursault_ variety, which had a number of large limbs on, into a corner of the conservatory, and there budded into it fifty different choice varieties of Roses of all classes: Hybrids, Teas, Noisettes, Bourbons, China, and Bengal varieties. The effect of all these different Roses, when in full blow the following summer was amazing; a perfect galaxy of the "Queen of Flowers." A similar operation is possible for any skillful amateur florist to perform who has the facilities of a hot-house. Budding can only be done when, ripe buds can be obtained, and when the stock to be budded is in a growing and thrifty condition, so that when opening the bark of the stock, the same peels freely, and opens readily at the touch of the knife. We will append here a brief table showing at what months of the summer different trees may be budded: Apples July 10th to 12th. Pears July 10th to 12th. Plums July 10th to 12th. Cherries July 20th to Aug. 1st. Quinces July 20th to Aug. 1st. Peaches July 20th to Aug. 1st. Nectarines Aug. 10th to 20th. Apricots Aug. 10th to 20th. Most all sorts of ornamental trees, including Roses, in the ordinary season; namely, from July to August 1st. CHAPTER XXVIII. PRUNING. If we plant trees or shrubs upon our grounds with the hope of making them more attractive, and at the same time indulge in the common and mistaken idea that, if we only plant them that nature will take care of their future, and grow them into handsome and shapely trees and shrubs--we labor in vain. It is not uncommon to see in the centre of refinement and culture every where, sadly neglected door-yards; these are filled with rampant bushes, and wide-spreading evergreens; such yards have more of a "cemetery look" than should belong to the surroundings of a cheerful home. With a little pruning in the proper season, these unshapely bushes might become things of beauty, and not only look better, but will do better, if given a severe trimming in the spring. Hedges of Privet, Purple Barberry, and Japan Quince, look much prettier along the walk than the old-fashioned fences, which are now being rapidly done away with. They should be kept pruned low as to not allow them to grow over two feet high. The proper time for trimming hedges of all kinds is in mid-summer, after the shrubs have made a thrifty growth; we would advise an annual pruning in order to have the hedge looking finely. It is a bad plan to allow a hedge of any kind, especially an evergreen one, to run a number of years without trimming. If a hedge is neglected so long, and then severely pruned, it will look stubby and shabby for a year or two after. With a pair of sharp hedge-shears, a person having a straight eye will make a good job of the trimming every time. The spring is the time of the year in which to do the pruning of all kinds of plants, vines, and shrubs, that are out of doors, as they are then dormant. Some prefer to prune grape vines in the fall, just after they have ripened and shed their leaves. We think it unsafe to prune anything too severely in the fall, especially the grape vine. Much experience has taught us to select the month of March as the time of the year most suitable for performing the operation. Every one who has a garden should possess a pruning knife with a long blade, curved at the end, for the operation. Armed with this implement, let us take a walk upon the lawn, and down into the garden, while the snow is still white upon the ground. The first thing that we meet as we enter the garden, is the large grape trellis, with its mass of tangled brown canes, a perfect mat of long vines and curling tendrils. How are we to attack this formidable network of vines in order to do anything with them? The first thing to be done is to sever all the cords and ties that fasten the vines to the trellis, and allow them to fall to the ground for convenience in trimming them. Spread the vines out full length upon the ground, and beginning at one of its arms, cut each shoot of the previous season's growth back to two eyes; if the canes are too numerous some may be cut out entirely. After all the "arms" of each vine have been pruned in this manner, the vine can be returned to the arbor and tied up as before. If there is a prospect of cold weather let the vines lie upon the ground, as they will be less liable to "bleed," or to suffer from the cold. This is the simplest way we know of to trim grape vines, and any amateur gardener can do it if he tries this manner. Walking a little further, we come upon some rose bushes: there are too many branches among them, and too much old wood, and some that is entirely dead. With our knife we will remove at least one half of this excess of wood, leaving as much young wood of the previous season's growth as possible by thinning out the old limbs and dead wood severely. Here is one Moss Rose bush, the stems appear as brown and looking as seared as a berry; it is apparently winter killed, and by cutting into it we find that to be the case; the roots are in all probability sound, and we will cut the stems down to the ground and cover the place with a forkful of stable manure; if the roots are alive it will grow and bloom the coming summer. Here is a large standard Rose with a fine top, we will head this back short, cutting each stem to an eye or two of the bottom. Proceeding to the lawn we run across some weeping deciduous trees, among them is a large Kilmarnock Weeping Willow, its beautiful pendant branches fairly reach the ground, and switch the snow as they sway to and fro. Nothing more beautiful could be imagined. We would head this back close, and it should be done every spring and most of the old wood thinned out. This large climbing Rose that clings so close to the piazza, should be trimmed about in the same way as we did the grape vine, and also this large Clematis Jackmanii should be cut to the ground and allowed to start up anew in the spring. Here is a clump of shrubbery among which we see the _Weigela_, _Spiræas_, _Purple Fringe_, _Deutzia crenata_, _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_, the Syringa, and a number of other favorite shrubs. These will all need more or less cutting back and trimming, and now is a good time to do it. We know one gentleman who boasted the finest display of Roses in his county, who was in the habit of cutting his Rose bushes down to the ground every spring, and when they began to grow he had dug in around each one an abundance of well rotted compost, "and," said he, "I have never seen the day, from June to October, that I could not pluck a large bouquet of the choicest Hybrid Perpetual roses, while my next door neighbor, who also had rose bushes, could find no flower after June." I will say that this gentleman was in the habit of cutting his roses once a day, and never allowing the flowers to fade on the bush, which is an excellent plan to keep up a perpetuity of bloom. CHAPTER XXIX. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. TREE ROSES. In planting tree roses received from the nursery or elsewhere, be sure and set them deep; the stem, for six or eight inches above the collar, should be under ground. If wet moss be tied about the stem and head of the tree after it has been planted, and the moss kept wet for a week or two after planting, or until the buds begin to start, it will, in nine cases out of ten, save the tree. The moss maybe removed after the growth begins. If planted in the fall, the body and top should be well wrapped up in straw. THE LAWN. If one has a fine lawn and desires to keep it so, he should never work upon or mow it when the turf is wet or soggy. The impression made by the feet in walking over the sod while in this state, will leave the surface rough and uneven afterwards. Do not water the grass or plants while the sun is shining hot, as it will scorch the leaves and make them turn yellow. All weeds, such as dandelions, plantain, etc., growing up through the grass, should be carefully and thoroughly dug out by the roots with a knife or pointed spade; if allowed to remain, they will soon become so numerous as eventually to kill out the grass and give to the lawn an appearance of neglect. LAWN VASES. The earth in vases of plants that stand out in exposed places, will rapidly dry out; if shells or fine gravel is laid over the surface of the soil, they will prevent it from "baking" after watering, and hold the moisture much longer than without. Try it. PLANTING TREES. The spring is preferable to the fall for setting out trees and shrubs of all kinds. In the Northern States they should be set out about the first of April, to give the roots time enough to become established before warm weather starts the leaves. Of thousands of trees and shrubs that we have planted at this season, comparatively few failed to live and grow, providing they were in good condition at the time of planting. Young trees should not be headed back the year they are set out, but the roots may be trimmed a little, cutting off all that are bruised and broken. The hole in which a tree or shrub is to be set, should be ample enough to receive all the roots without cramping them into a ball, as is the habit of some who plant trees, the soil filled in about the roots should be fine, but not the sub-soil, which should be replaced by richer earth. Never allow manure to come in direct contact with the roots at the time of planting. It is very injurious, but it may be applied on the surface as a mulch, with safety. BOTANICAL NAMES. All species of plants belong to some particular genus, and bear a botanical, as well as a common name, by which they are distinguished. Those who have studied botany will know the exact botanical name of the plants in most collections. We sometimes see persons making themselves ridiculous by a pretended display of knowledge on matters of horticulture and botany, giving or pretending to give the botanical name of every plant one may happen to mention. The following anecdote will apply to such: Mr. Sidney Smith, the famous English writer, was once visiting the conservatory of a young lady who was proud of her plants and flowers, and used (not very accurately) a profusion of botanical names. "Madam," he said, "have you the _Psoriasis septennis_?" "No," she said, very innocently, "I had it last winter, and I gave it to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and it came out beautifully in the spring." _Psoriasis septennis_, is the medical name for the "Seven year Itch!" FROZEN PLANTS. Tender plants that have become frozen, or but slightly touched by frost, can be saved, if taken before they commence to thaw out; sprinkle or dip the affected part in cold water, and then remove the plant or plants into a dark place to remain for a day, then bring them to the light. We have saved whole beds of tender plants from death by early frosts in the autumn, by getting up long before sunrise, drenching the leaves with water, and then covering the plants with a sheet or blanket. CUTTING GRASS. It is so easy to mow the lawn with the light-running modern lawn-mower, that many fine lawns are injured by too frequent mowings. We should not follow any set time for mowing, but be governed by the growth of the grass and the weather. When hot weather approaches, the grass should be cut less often, for too close cutting will expose the roots, and if the weather be dry and hot for a considerable period, the grass as a consequence will wither prematurely. AN ARCH. A very simple thing sometimes will look the most attractive. By driving two limber poles into the ground by the side of each of two gate posts, and bringing the two ends of the poles together, and fasten them securely, a respectable arch can be made. At the foot of each pole plant a _Clematis Jackmanii_, and train them to run up their poles; they will grow rapidly, and in a short time the arch will be covered with beautiful purple stars. This Clematis is entirely hardy, and can be used for the same purpose every year by cutting it close to the ground in the fall when done growing. BLOOM. When watering plants avoid wetting the foliage as much as possible, as they will not bloom as freely as if the leaves were dry. Geraniums are known to bloom a great deal more freely where the roots are confined to a small space, and the soil about them kept rather dry; especially is this so with the double sorts. Geraniums may be grafted successfully; the short growers, like Mrs. Pollock, Mountain of Snow, and Happy Thought, can be top-grafted on to the strong-growing kinds, like Gen. Grant, Madam Lemoine, and other strong-growers. If half a dozen sorts are grafted on a single stock, they will, when in bloom, appear as a curiosity. MILDEW. Mildew is a microscopic fungus, that is parasitic upon cultivated plants. Roses, Bouvardias, and especially grape vines, are subject to its attacks. If not arrested, mildew will soon strip a plant of its foliage. Whenever a whitish dust, as if flour had been sprinkled upon them, appears upon the leaves, particularly those of the Rose, and its leaves curl up, it is evident that the plant is attacked by mildew, and some remedy must be at once applied to prevent the spread of the trouble. Several excellent remedies are used by florists and gardeners for the prevention and cure of mildew. None of these are more effective than the following, which, if applied in time, before the disease has become so bad as to be beyond help, will very surely arrest it. Take three pounds each, of Flowers of Sulphur and Quick-lime, put these together and add sufficient hot water to slake the lime. When the lime is slaked, add six gallons of water, and boil down to two gallons. Allow the lime to settle, and pour off the clear liquid and bottle it for use. To treat plants affected by mildew, add one gill of the liquid, prepared as above, to six gallons of water, and mix well together. This is to be freely syringed upon the plants every other day. It will not only arrest mildew, but prevent it. Sudden changes of temperature, as cool nights following warm days, tend to the production of mildew, and with house plants, these sudden changes should be carefully guarded against. CHAPTER XXX. SENTIMENT AND LANGUAGE OF FLOWERS. Amaranth Immortality. Amaryllis Beautiful, but timid. Aster, double Variety. Aster, German Afterthought. Arbutus Thee only do I love. Acacia Friendship. Apple Blossom Preference. Asphodel Remembered after death. Arbor Vitæ Unchanging friendship. Alyssum Worth beyond beauty. Anemone Your love changes. Azalea Pleasant recollections. Argeratum Worth beyond beauty. Balsam Impatience. Blue Bell Constancy. Balm Pleasantry. Bay-leaf I change but in death. Bachelor's Button Hope. Begonia Deformed. Bitter Sweet Truth. Buttercup Memories of childhood. Brier, Sweet Envy. Calla Feminine Modesty. Carnation Pride. Clematis Mental Excellence. Cypress Disappointment, Despair Crocus Happiness. Columbine I cannot give thee up. Cresses Always cheerful. Canterbury Bell Constancy. Cereus, Night-blooming Transient beauty. Candytuft Indifference. Chrysanthemum Heart left desolate. Clover, White I promise. Clover, Four-leaved Be mine. Crown Imperial Authority. Camellia Spotless purity. Cissus Changeable. Centaurea Your looks deceive me. Cineraria Singleness of heart. Daisy, Field I will think of it. Dahlia Dignity. Daffodil Unrequited love. Dandelion Coquetry. Everlasting Always remembered. Everlasting Pea Wilt thou go with me. Ebony Blackness. Fuchsia Humble love. Foxglove Insincerity. Fern Sincerity. Fennel Strength. Forget-me-not For ever remembered. Fraxinella Fire. Geranium, Ivy Fond of dancing. Geranium, Oak A melancholy mind. Geranium, Rose I prefer you. Geranium, Scarlet Stillness. Gladiolus Ready armed. Golden Rod Encouragement. Gillyflower Promptness. Hyacinth Benevolence. Honeysuckle Devoted love. House Leek Domestic economy. Heliotrope I adore you. Hibiscus Delicate beauty. Hollyhock Ambition. Hydrangea Vain glory. Ice Plant Your looks freeze me. Ivy Friendship. Iris, German Flame. Iris, Common Garden A message for thee. Jonquil Affection returned. Jessamine, White Amiability. Jessamine, Yellow Gracefulness. Larkspur Fickleness. Lantana Rigor. Laurel Words though sweet may deceive. Lavender Mistrust. Lemon Blossom Discretion. Lady Slipper Capricious beauty. Lily of the Valley Return of happiness. Lilac, White Youth. " Blue First emotions of love. Lily, Water Eloquence. May Flower Welcome. Marigold Sacred affection. Marigold and Cypress Despair. Mandrake Rarity. Mignonette Your qualities surpass your charms. Morning Glory Coquetry, Affectation. Mock Orange Counterfeit. Myrtle Love in absence. Mistletoe Insurmountable. Narcissus Egotism. Nasturtium Patriotism. Oxalis Reverie. Orange Blossom Purity. Olive Peace. Oleander Beware. Primrose Modest worth. Pink, White Pure love. " Red Devoted love. Phlox Our hearts are united. Periwinkle Sweet memories. Pæony Ostentation. Pansy You occupy my thoughts. Poppy Oblivion. Rhododendron Agitation. Rose, Bud Confession of love. " " White Too young to love. " Austrian Thou art all that is lovely. " Leaf I never trouble. " Monthly Beauty ever new. " Moss Superior merit. " Red I love you. " Yellow Infidelity. Rosemary Remembrance. Sensitive Plant Modesty. Snow-Ball Thoughts in heaven. Snow-Drop Consolation. Sumach Pride and poverty. Sweet William Gallantry. Syringa Memory. Sunflower Lofty thought. Tuberose Purity of mind. Thyme Activity. Tulip, var Beautiful eyes. Tulip, Red Declaration of love. Tritoma Fiery temper. Verbena Sensibility. " Purple I weep for you. " White Pray for me. Violet, Blue Faithfulness. " White Purity, candor. Woodbine Fraternal love. Wall Flower Fidelity in misfortune. Wistaria Close friendship. Wax Plant Artificial beauty. Yucca Your looks pierce me. Yew Sadness. 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A treatise on the propagation, planting and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to the climate of the United States, with the scientific and common names of the fruits known in commerce as edible or otherwise useful nuts. Intended to aid the farmer to increase his income without adding to his expenses or labor. Cloth, 12mo. $1.50 =Cranberry Culture= By JOSEPH J. WHITE. Contents: Natural history, history of cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground, planting the vines, management of meadows, flooding, enemies and difficulties overcome, picking, keeping, profit and loss. Illustrated. 132 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 =Ornamental Gardening for Americans= By ELIAS A. LONG, landscape architect. A treatise on beautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A plain and practical work with numerous illustrations and instructions so plain that they may be readily followed. Illustrated. 390 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 =Grape Culturist= By A. S. FULLER. This is one of the very best of works on the culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions for all departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 150 excellent engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc. 282 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 =Gardening for Young and Old= By JOSEPH HARRIS. A work intended to interest farmers' boys in farm gardening, which means a better and more profitable form of agriculture. The teachings are given in the familiar manner so well known in the author's "Walks and Talks on the Farm." Illustrated. 191 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 =Money in the Garden= By P. T. QUINN. The author gives in a plain, practical style instructions on three distinct, although closely connected, branches of gardening--the kitchen garden, market garden and field culture, from successful practical experience for a term of years. Illustrated. 268 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 =Greenhouse Construction= By PROF. L. R. TAFT. A complete treatise on green-house structures and arrangements of the various forms and styles of plant houses for professional florists as well as amateurs. All the best and most approved structures are so fully and clearly described that any one who desires to build a green-house will have no difficulty in determining the kind best suited to his purpose. The modern and most successful methods of heating and ventilating are fully treated upon. Special chapters are devoted to houses used for the growing of one kind of plants exclusively. The construction of hotbeds and frames receives appropriate attention. Over 100 excellent illustrations, especially engraved for this work, make every point clear to the reader and add considerably to the artistic appearance of the book. 210 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 =Greenhouse Management= By L. R. TAFT. This book forms an almost indispensable companion volume to Greenhouse Construction. In it the author gives the results of his many years' experience, together with that of the most successful florists and gardeners, in the management of growing plants under glass. So minute and practical are the various systems and methods of growing and forcing roses, violets, carnations, and all the most important florists' plants, as well as fruits and vegetables described, that by a careful study of this work and the following of its teachings, failure is almost impossible. Illustrated. 382 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 =Fungi and Fungicides= By PROF. CLARENCE M. WEED A practical manual concerning the fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the means of preventing their ravages. The author has endeavored to give such a concise account of the most important facts relating to these as will enable the cultivator to combat them intelligently. 90 illustrations. 222 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Paper, 50 cents; cloth, $1.00 =Mushrooms. How to Grow Them= By WILLIAM FALCONER. This is the most practical work on the subject ever written, and the only book on growing mushrooms published in America. The author describes how he grows mushrooms, and how they are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and for home use by the most successful private growers. Engravings drawn from nature expressly for this work. 170 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 =Rural School Agriculture= By CHARLES W. DAVIS. A book intended for the use of both teachers and pupils. Its aim is to enlist the interest of the boys of the farm and awaken in their minds the fact that the problems of the farm are great enough to command all the brain power they can summon. The book is a manual of exercises covering many phases of agriculture, and it may be used with any text-book of agriculture, or without a text-book. The exercises will enable the student to think, and to work out the scientific principles underlying some of the most important agricultural operations. The author feels that in the teaching of agriculture in the rural schools, the laboratory phase is almost entirely neglected. If an experiment helps the pupil to think, or makes his conceptions clearer, it fills a useful purpose, and eventually prepares for successful work upon the farm. The successful farmer of the future must be an experimenter in a small way. Following many of the exercises are a number of questions which prepare the way for further research work. The material needed for performing the experiments is simple, and can be devised by the teacher and pupils, or brought from the homes. Illustrated. 300 pages. Cloth. 5 x 7 inches. $1.00 =Agriculture Through the Laboratory and School Garden= By C. R. JACKSON and Mrs. L. S. DAUGHERTY. As its name implies, this book gives explicit directions for actual work in the laboratory and the school garden, through which agricultural principles may be taught. The author's aim has been to present actual experimental work in every phase of the subject possible, and to state the directions for such work so that the student can perform it independently of the teacher, and to state them in such a way that the results will not be suggested by these directions. One must perform the experiment to ascertain the result. It embodies in the text a comprehensive, practical, scientific, yet simple discussion of such facts as are necessary to the understanding of many of the agricultural principles involved in every-day life. The book, although primarily intended for use in schools, is equally valuable to any one desiring to obtain in an easy and pleasing manner a general knowledge of elementary agriculture. Fully illustrated. 5-1/2 x 8 inches. 462 pages. Cloth. Net $1.50 =Soil Physics Laboratory Guide= By W. G. STEVENSON and I. O. SCHAUB. A carefully outlined series of experiments in soil physics. A portion of the experiments outlined in this guide have been used quite generally in recent years. The exercises (of which there are 40) are listed in a logical order with reference to their relation to each other and the skill required on the part of the student. Illustrated. About 100 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 =The New Egg Farm= By H. H. STODDARD. A practical, reliable manual on producing eggs and poultry for market as a profitable business enterprise, either by itself or connected with other branches of agriculture. It tells all about how to feed and manager, how to breed and select, incubators and brooders, its labor-saving devices, etc., etc. Illustrated. 331 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 =Poultry Feeding and Fattening= Compiled by G. B. FISKE. A handbook for poultry keepers on the standard and improved methods of feeding and marketing all kinds of poultry. The subject of feeding and fattening poultry is prepared largely from the side of the best practice and experience here and abroad, although the underlying science of feeding is explained as fully as needful. The subject covers all branches, including chickens, broilers, capons, turkeys and waterfowl; how to feed under various conditions and for different purposes. The whole subject of capons and caponizing is treated in detail. A great mass of practical information and experience not readily obtainable elsewhere is given with full and explicit directions for fattening and preparing for market. This book will meet the needs of amateurs as well as commercial poultry raisers. Profusely illustrated. 160 pages. 5 x 7-1/2 inches. Cloth. $0.50 =Poultry Architecture= Compiled by G. B. FISKE. A treatise on poultry buildings of all grades, styles and classes, and their proper location, coops, additions and special construction; all practical in design, and reasonable in cost. 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19905	----	images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) [Illustration: Alsike Clover in Northern Wisconsin] CLOVERS AND HOW TO GROW THEM BY THOMAS SHAW Author of "Forage Crops Other than Grasses," "The Study of Breeds," "Soiling Crops and the Silo," "Animal Breeding," "Grasses and How to Grow Them," etc. NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1906 COPYRIGHT, 1906 By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY TO ALL PERSONS WHO ARE OR MAY BE INTERESTED IN THE GROWING OF CLOVERS THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR _St. Anthony Park, Minn._ _1906_ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In preparing this work, the chief sources of information beyond the author's experience and observation have been the bulletins issued by the various experiment stations in the United States and discussions in the Agricultural Press. For the illustrations the author is indebted to Professor A. M. Soule of the experiment station of Tennessee, Professor H. H. Hume of the experiment station of Louisiana and Mr. W. T. Shaw of the experiment station of Oregon. THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE Some books have been written on Clover in the United States, and as far as they go they serve a good purpose. Many references and discussions have also appeared in various bulletins and reports issued by the experiment stations. These have proved helpful not only in the States in which they have been issued, but also in other States where the conditions are similar. But no book or bulletin has yet appeared which discusses the growth of clovers as applicable to all parts of the United States and Canada. Nor has any been issued which takes up the subject in orderly and consecutive sequence. It is evident, therefore, that there is not only room for a book which will cover the ground with at least measureable fulness, but also in concise and orderly succession, but there is great need for it. It has been the aim of the author to write such a book. Only those varieties of clover are discussed at length which are possessed of economic value. The treatment of the subjects is virtually the same as was adopted in writing the book on "Grasses and How to Grow Them." Some references are made to the history, characteristics and distribution of each variety. These are followed by discussions with reference to soil adaptation; place in the rotation; preparing the soil; sowing; pasturing; harvesting for hay; securing seed; and renewing the stand. The book is intended, in some measure at least, to meet the needs of the students of agriculture, with reference to the plants discussed and also of all who are concerned in the tilling of the soil. _St. Anthony Park, Minn._ _1906_ TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE. Introductory 1 CHAPTER II. General Principles for Growing Clovers 6 CHAPTER III. Medium Red Clover 57 CHAPTER IV. Alfalfa 114 CHAPTER V. Alsike Clover 194 CHAPTER VI. Mammoth Clover 218 CHAPTER VII. Crimson Clover 238 CHAPTER VIII. White Clover 258 CHAPTER IX. Japan Clover 279 CHAPTER X. Burr Clover 291 CHAPTER XI. Sweet Clover 300 CHAPTER XII. Miscellaneous Clovers 316 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FIG. PAGE. 1 Alsike Clover--_Frontispiece_. 2 Medium Red 61 3 Alfalfa 115 4 Field of Alfalfa 171 5 Alsike 195 6 Crimson 239 7 White 259 8 Japan 281 9 Sweet 301 10 Sainfoin 318 11 Beggar Weed (Flower and Seed Stems) 339 12 Beggar Weed (Root System) 341 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY In this book all the varieties of clover will be discussed that have hitherto been found of any considerable value to the agriculture of America. Varieties that are of but little value to the farmer will be discussed briefly, if discussed at all. The discussions will be conducted from the standpoint of the practical agriculturist rather than from that of the botanist. It is proposed to point out the varieties of clover worthy of cultivation, where and how they ought to be cultivated, and for what uses. =Definition of Clover.=--According to Johnson's Encyclopædia, clover or trefoil is a plant of the genus _Trifolium_ and the family _Leguminosæ_. The Standard Dictionary defines it as any one of several species of plants of the genus _Trifolium_ of the bean family _Leguminosæ_. Viewed from the standpoint of the American farmer it may be defined in the collective sense as a family of plants leguminous in character, which are unexcelled in furnishing forage and fodder to domestic animals, and unequaled in the renovating influences which they exert upon land. The term _Trefoil_ is given because the leaves are divided into three leaflets. It is also applied to plants not included in the genus, but belonging to the same order. The true clovers have their flowers collected into roundish or oblong heads and in some instances into cone-shaped spikes. The flowers are small and of several colors in the different varieties, as crimson, scarlet, pink, blue, yellow and white, according to the variety, and some are variously tinted. The stems are herbaceous and not twining. The seeds are inclosed in pods or seed sacks, each of which contains one, two and sometimes, but not often, three or four seeds. The plants have tap roots, and in some varieties these go far down into the subsoil. The roots are also in some varieties considerably branched. =Varieties.=--At least twenty varieties, native or naturalized, are found in Great Britain; more than twelve varieties belong to the United States. The more valuable varieties found in this country have been introduced from Europe, unless it be the small white clover (_Trifolium repens_). Viewed from the standpoint of the agriculturist the varieties that are most generally useful include medium red clover (_Trifolium pratense_), alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), alsike (_Trifolium hybridum_), mammoth (_Trifolium magnum_), crimson (_Trifolium incarnatum_) and small white (_Trifolium repens_). The varieties which flourish only in the South include the Japan (_Lespedeza striata_) and the burr clover (_Medicago denticulata_). Sweet clover (_Melilotus alba_), sometimes called Bokhara, which will grow equally well North and South, is worthy of attention because of its power to grow under hard conditions, in order to provide honey for bees and to renovate soils. Other varieties may render some service to agriculture, but their value will not compare with that of the varieties named. The most valuable of the varieties named in providing pasture, include the medium red, the mammoth, the alsike and the small white. The most valuable in providing hay are the medium red, alfalfa and alsike. The most valuable, viewed from the standpoint only of soil renovation, are the medium red, mammoth, alsike, crimson, Japan and sweet. The most valuable in producing honey accessible to tame bees, are the small white, alsike and sweet. =Distinguishing Characteristics.=--Clovers differ from one another in duration, habit of growth, persistence in growth, their power to endure low or warm temperatures, and ability to maintain a hold upon the soil. Of the varieties named, alfalfa, the small white and alsike varieties are perennial. That most intensely so is the first variety named. The medium red and mammoth varieties are biennial, but sometimes they assume the perennial quality. Sweet clover is biennial. The crimson, Japan and burr varieties are annual. Some varieties, as alfalfa, crimson and sweet clover, are upright in their habit of growth. Others, as the small white and the burr, are recumbent. Others again, as the medium red, alsike and mammoth, are spreading and upright. The alfalfa and medium red varieties grow most persistently through the whole season. The sweet, small white and alsike varieties can best endure cold, and the sweet, Japan and burr varieties can best endure heat. The small white, Japan, burr and sweet clovers stand highest in ability to maintain a hold upon the soil. The minor points of difference are such as relate to the shape and color of the leaves, the tints of shade that characterize the leaflets, the shape and size of the heads and the distinguishing shades of color in the blossoms. The characteristics which they possess in common are the high protein content found in them, the marked palatability of the pasture and hay, unless in the sweet and burr varieties, the power which they have to enrich and otherwise improve soils, and the honey which they furnish. =Plan of Discussion.=--Chapter I., that is, the present chapter, as already indicated, is introductory, and outlines the nature, scope and plan of the work. Chapter II. deals with the general principles and facts which relate to the growing of clovers. A close study of these will, in the judgment of the author, prove helpful to those who engage in growing any of the varieties of clover discussed in the book. Chapters III. to XI. inclusive treat of individual varieties, a chapter being devoted to each variety. It has been the aim of the author to discuss them in the order of the relative importance which they bear to the whole country and to devote space to them accordingly. The following varieties are discussed and in the order named: Medium Red clover, Alfalfa, Alsike, Mammoth, Crimson, Small White, Japan, Burr and Sweet. All of these varieties will be found worthy of more or less attention on the part of the husbandmen in the various parts of this continent. Chapter XII. is devoted to a brief discussion of miscellaneous varieties which have as yet been but little grown in this country, or of varieties of but local interest. The former are Sainfoin (_Onobrychis sativa_), Egyptian clover (_Trifolium Alexandrianum_), yellow clover (_Medicago lupulina_), Sand Lucerne (_Medicago media_), and a newly introduced variety of Japanese clover (_Lespedeza bicolor_). These may prove more or less valuable to the agriculture of the United States when they have been duly tested, a work which as yet has been done only in the most limited way. The latter include Florida clover (_Desmodium tortuosum_), more frequently called Beggar Weed, Buffalo clover (_Trifolium reflexum_), and Seaside clover (_Trifolium invulneratum_). These may be worthy of some attention in limited areas where the conditions are favorable, but it is not likely that they will ever be very generally grown. They are dwelt upon rather to show their small economic importance and with a view to prevent needless experimentation with plants possessed of so little real merit. CHAPTER II SOME GENERAL PRINCIPLES WHICH APPLY TO THE GROWING OF CLOVERS In growing clovers, as in growing other crops of the same species, which embrace several varieties, certain features of management will apply more or less to all of these in common. It will be the aim to point out the chief of these in the present chapter. =Adaptation in Clovers.=--Adaptation in the varieties of clover considered will be more fully given when discussing these individually, but enough will be said here to facilitate comparisons. Clover in one or the other of its varieties can be grown in almost all parts of the United States and Canada. Speaking in a general way, the medium and mammoth varieties can be grown at their best between parallels 37° and 49° north latitude. Alfalfa has special adaptation for mountain valleys of the entire West, but it will also grow in good form in parts of all, or nearly all, the other States. Alsike clover grows in about the same areas as the common and mammoth varieties, but it may also be grown further North, owing to its greater hardihood. Crimson clover has highest adaptation to the States east of the Allegheny Mountains and west of the Cascades, but will also grow in the more Central States south, in which moisture is abundant. Small white clover will grow in any part of the United States or Canada in which moisture is sufficiently present. Japan and burr clover grow best south of parallel 37° and east of longitude 98°. Sweet clover will grow in all the States and provinces of the United States and Canada, but has highest adaptation for the Central and Southern States. With reference to adaptation to soils, medium and mammoth clover grow best on upland clay loam soils, such as have sustained a growth of hardwood timber, and on the volcanic ash soils of the Western mountain valley. Alfalfa flourishes best on those mountain valley soils when irrigated, or when these are so underlaid with water as to furnish the plants with moisture. Alsike clover has much the same adaptation to soils as the medium and mammoth varieties, but will grow better than these on low-lying soils well stored with humus. Crimson clover has highest adaptation for sandy loam soils into which the roots can penetrate easily. Small, white clover has adaptation for soils very similar to that of alsike clover. Japan clover and burr clover will grow on almost any kind of soil, but on good soils the growth will, of course, be much more vigorous than on poor soils. Sweet clover seems to grow about equally well on sandy loams and clay loams, but it has also much power to grow in stiff clays and even in infertile sands. =Place in the Rotation.=--All the varieties of clover discussed in this volume may be grown in certain rotations. Their adaptation for this use, however, differs much. This increases as the natural period of the life of the plant lessens and _vice versa_. Consequently, the medium red variety, the mammoth, the crimson, the Japan and the burr varieties stand high in such adaptation. The alsike, living longer, is lower in its adaptation, and alfalfa, because of its long life, stands lowest in this respect. The small, white variety is almost invariably grown or found growing spontaneously along with grasses, hence no definite place has been or can be assigned to it in the rotation. Sweet clover being regarded by many as a weed has not had any place assigned to it in a regular rotation, although in certain localities it may yet be grown for purposes of soil renovation. (See page 306.) All these crops are leguminous without any exception. This fact is of great significance where crops can be rotated. They have power to gather nitrogen from the air and store it in the soil in tubercles which form on their roots, in all soils in which they produce a vigorous growth. This fact indicates where they should come in the rotation. They should be grown with a view to gather food for other crops made to follow them, which have not the same power. They should, therefore, be made to precede such crops as the small cereals, corn, the sorghums, the millets and cotton. But since these clover plants have the power to bring nitrogen from the air, it must not be supposed that they will grow with sufficient vigor in soils destitute of this element. They must be able to appropriate enough from the seed soil to give them a good start before they can draw nitrogen from the air, hence, though they may be made to follow almost any kind of crop, it may sometimes be necessary to apply some nitrogenous fertilizer before they will make a vigorous growth. The clovers, unless in the case of some of the smaller varieties, are more commonly sown to provide hay than pasture in the first crops obtained from them. The value of the hay is increased or lessened in proportion as weeds are present. To insure cleanliness in the hay crop, therefore, the system which aims to sow clover seed on land to which clean cultivation has been given while growing on them a cultivated crop, as corn or field roots, meets with much favor. The mechanical condition of the soil immediately after growing these crops also favors the vigorous growth of the young clover plants, more especially when they are sown upon the surface of the land after some form of surface cultivation, rather than upon a surface made by plowing the land after cultivation has been given to it, but to this there may be some exceptions. Clover in some of its varieties is frequently grown from year to year in orchards and for the two-fold purpose of gathering food for the trees and providing for them a cover crop in winter. The medium red and crimson varieties are preferred for such a use. The latter is the more suitable of the two, since it does not draw on soil moisture needed by the trees, owing to the season at which it is grown. Enough of the seed of these crops may be allowed to mature to re-seed the land from year to year, and thus keep it producing. The clover plants not only gather nitrogen for the fruit trees, but in their decay they increase the power of the soil to retain moisture for the benefit of the trees. Some varieties of clover may be grown as catch crops, that is, as crops which are grown in addition to some other crop produced the same season. When thus grown, it is usually for purposes of soil improvement rather than to furnish food. The varieties best adapted for this purpose in the Northern States and Canada are the medium red and the crimson, the latter being much more circumscribed in the area where it will grow successfully than the former. When medium red clover is thus grown, it is commonly sown along with one of the small cereal grains, and is buried in the autumn or in the following spring. (See page 75.) The extent of the advantage is dependent chiefly on the amount of the growth made, and this in turn is influenced by the character of the soil, the season, and the nurse crop. In certain areas favorable to the growth of clover some good farmers sow clover along with all the small cereal grains which they grow. Crimson clover is usually sown in the late summer after some crop has been reaped and it is plowed under the following spring. (See page 250.) In the Southern States Japan clover and burr clover will serve the purpose of catch crops better than the other varieties. The former will follow a winter crop (see page 284), and the latter a summer crop. (See page 294.) Although alfalfa is not usually looked upon as a rotation crop in the Rocky Mountain valleys, it may be made such a crop. In these it grows so vigorously as to fill the soil with its roots in one or two seasons, hence it may be made to rotate profitably with other crops. (See page 135.) In such instances, however, medium red clover would probably answer the purpose quite as well, and possibly better, since the labor of burying it with the plow would be less difficult. While some varieties of clover may be grown in various rotations and with profit, one of the best of these, where the conditions are favorable, is a three years' rotation. The first year some small cereal grain is grown and clover is sown along with it or, at least, on the same land. The next year the clover is grown for hay or pasture. The third year a crop of corn, potatoes or vegetables is grown, and the following year small cereal grain and clover. The clover may thus be made to furnish nitrogen indefinitely for the other crops, but in some instances it may be necessary to add phosphoric acid and potash. =Preparing the Soil.=--Clovers are usually sown with a nurse crop. The exceptions are crimson clover, and in many instances alfalfa. When thus grown, the preparation of soil for the nurse crop will usually suffice for the clovers also. But there may be instances in which it would be proper to give more attention to cleaning and pulverizing the soil to properly fit it for receiving the clover seed. The leading essentials in a seed-bed for clover are fineness, cleanness, moistness and firmness. Ordinarily black loam soils, sandy loam soils, sandy soils, humus soils and the volcanic ash soils of the West are made sufficiently fine without great labor. Clay soils may call for the free use of the harrow and roller used in some sort of alternation before they are sufficiently pulverized. Excessive fineness in pulverization of these soils is also to be guarded against in rainy climates, lest they run together, but this condition is present far less frequently than the opposite. Cleanness can usually be secured when clovers follow cultivated crops by the labor given to these when the land is not plowed in preparing it for the clovers. In other instances the longer the land is plowed before putting in the seed and the more frequently the surface is stirred during the growing part of the season, the cleaner will the seed-bed be. In the spring the land is usually sufficiently moist for receiving the seed. In the autumn moisture is frequently deficient. Stirring the surface of the soil occasionally with the harrow will materially increase the moisture content in the soil near the surface, even in the absence of rain. As crimson clover is usually sown in the late summer and alfalfa is frequently sown in the autumn, it may sometimes be necessary to give much attention to securing sufficient moisture to insure germination in the seed. When clovers are sown in the spring on land which is also growing a winter crop, no preparation is necessary in preparing the land for receiving the seed. On some soils the ground becomes sufficiently honeycombed through the agency of water and frost to put it in a fine condition for receiving the seed. When this condition is not present, the seed will usually grow if sown amid the grain and covered with the harrow. When clovers are sown on sod land for the purpose of renewing pastures, disking them will prepare them for receiving the seed. The extent of the disking will depend on such conditions as the toughness of the sod and the nature of the soil. Usually disking once when the frost is out a little way from the surface, and then disking across at an angle will suffice, and in some instances disking one way only will be sufficient. On newly cleared lands the clovers will usually grow without any stirring of the land before sowing, or any harrowing after sowing. Clovers that are grown chiefly for pasture, as the small white, the Japan and the burr, will usually obtain a hold upon the soil if scattered upon the surface which is not soon to be cultivated. =Fertilizers.=--On certain soils low in fertility and much deficient in humus, it may be necessary to apply fertilizers in some form before clovers will grow vigorously. Such are sandy soils that have been much worn by cropping, and also stiff clays in which the humus has become practically exhausted. In such instances green crops that can be grown on such lands, as rye, for instance, plowed under when the ear begins to shoot, will be found helpful. If this can be followed on the sandy soil with some crop to be fed off upon the land, as corn, for instance, and the clover is sown, successful growth is likely to follow. On clays in the condition named it may not be necessary to grow a second crop before sowing clover, since in these soils the lack is more one of humus than of plant food. The application of farmyard manure will answer the same purpose, if it can be spared for such a use. Other soils are so acid that clovers will not grow on them until the acidity is corrected, notwithstanding that plant food may be present in sufficient quantities. Such are soils, in some instances at least, that have been newly drained, also soils that grow such plants as sorrels. This condition will be improved if not entirely corrected by the application of lime. On such soils this is most cheaply applied in the air-slaked form, such as is used in plastering and in quantities to effect the end sought. These will vary, and can only be ascertained positively by experiment. Usually it is not necessary to apply much farmyard manure in order to induce growth in nearly all varieties of clover, and after free growth is obtained, it is not usually necessary to supply any subsequently for the specific purpose named. In some soils, however, alfalfa is an exception. It may be necessary to enrich these with a liberal dressing of farmyard manure to insure a sufficiently strong growth in the plants when they are young. Having passed the first winter, further dressings are not absolutely essential, though they may prove helpful. Farmyard manure applied on the surface will always stimulate the growth of clovers, but it is not common to apply manure thus, as the need for it is greater in growing the other crops of the farm. When thus applied, it should be in a form somewhat reduced, otherwise the coarse parts may rake up in the hay. It is better applied in the autumn or early winter than in the spring, as then more of the plant food in it has reached the roots of the clover plants, and they have also received benefit from the protection which it has furnished them in winter. In a great majority of instances, soils are sufficiently well supplied with the more essential elements of fertility to grow reasonably good crops of clover, hence it has not usually been found necessary to apply commercial fertilizers to stimulate growth, as in the growing of grasses. In some instances, however, these are not sufficiently available, especially is this true of potash. Gypsum or land plaster has been often used to correct this condition, and frequently with excellent results. It also aids in fixing volatile and escaping carbonates of ammonia, and conveys them to the roots of the clover plants. It is applied in the ground form by sowing it over the land, and more commonly just when the clover is beginning to grow. The application of 50 to 200 pounds per acre has in many instances greatly increased the growth, whether as pasture, hay or seed. The following indications almost certainly point to the need of dressings of land plaster: 1. When the plants assume a bluish-green tint, rather than a pea-green, while they are growing. 2. When the plants fail to yield as they once did. 3. When young plants die after they have begun to grow in the presence of sufficient moisture. 4. When good crops can only be grown at long intervals, as, say, 5 to 8 years. It has also been noticed that on some soils where gypsum has long been used in growing clover the response to applications of the plaster is a waning one, due doubtless to the too rapid depletion of the potash in the soil. Potassic fertilizers give the best results when applied to clovers, but dressings of phosphoric acid may also be helpful. Applications of muriate or sulphate of potash or kainit may prove profitable, but on many soils they are not necessary in growing clover. Wood ashes are also excellent. They furnish potash finely divided and soluble, especially when applied in the unleached form. When applied unleached at the rate of 50 bushels per acre and leached at the rate of 200 bushels, the results are usually very marked in stimulating growth in clover. =Seasons for Sowing.=--Clovers are more commonly sown in the springtime in the Northern States and Canada than at any other season and they are usually sown early in the spring, rather than late. On land producing a winter crop, as rye or wheat, they can be sown in a majority of instances as soon as the snow has melted. That condition of soil known as honeycombed furnishes a peculiarly opportune time for sowing these seeds, as it provides a covering for them while the land is moist, and thus puts them in a position to germinate as soon as growth begins. Such a condition, caused by alternate freezing and thawing, does not occur on sandy soils. Where it does not so occur, sowing ought to be deferred until the surface of the ground has become dry enough to admit of covering with a harrow. As in sowing the seeds of certain grasses good results usually follow sowing just after a light fall of snow, which, as it melts, carries the seed down into the little openings in the soil. But there are areas, especially in the American and Canadian northwest, where in some seasons the young clover plants would be injured from sowing the seed quite early. This, however, does not occur very frequently. When sown on spring crops, as spring wheat, barley and oats, the seed cannot, of course, be sown until these crops are sown. The earlier that these crops are sown the more likely are the clovers sown to make a stand, as they have more time to become rooted before the dry weather of summer begins. In a moist season the seed could be safely sown any time from spring until mid-summer, but since the weather cannot be forecast, it is considered more or less hazardous to sow clovers in these northern areas at any other season than that of early spring. If sown later, the seed will more certainly make a stand without a nurse crop, since it will get more moisture. If sown later than August, the young plants are much more liable to perish in the winter. In the States which lie between parallels 40° and 35° north, and between the Atlantic and the 100th meridian west, clover seeds may be sown in one form or another from early spring until the early autumn without incurring much hazard from winter killing in the young plants, but here also early spring sowing will prove the most satisfactory. The hazard from sowing in the summer comes chiefly from want of sufficient moisture to germinate the seed. In the Southern States the seed is sown in the early spring or in the autumn. If sown late, the heat of summer is much against the plants. Seeds sown in the early autumn as soon as the rains come will make a good stand before the winter, but there are some soils in the South in which alternate freezing and thawing in winter, much more frequent than in the North, would injure and in some instances destroy the plants. In the Western valleys where irrigation is practiced, clover seeds may be sown at any time that may be desired, from the early spring until the early autumn. The ability to apply water when it is needed insures proper germination in the seed and vigor in the young plants. =Methods of Sowing.=--Clover seed may be sown by hand, by hand machines, and by the grain drill, with or without a grass-seed sowing attachment. These respective methods of sowing will be discussed briefly here, but since they are practically the same as the methods to be followed in sowing grass seeds, and since they are discussed more fully in the book "Grasses and How to Grow Them" by the author, readers who wish to pursue the subject further are referred to the book just named. When clovers are sown by hand, usually but one hand is used. Enough seed is lifted between the thumb and two forefingers of the right hand to suffice for scattering by one swing of the same. On the return trip across the field the seed should be made to overlap somewhat the seed sown when going in the opposite direction. In other words, the seed is sown in strips or bands, as it were, each strip being finished in one round. Some sowers, more expert at their work, sow with both hands and complete the strip each time they walk over the field. When the ground is plowed in lands of moderate width the furrows will serve to enable the sower to sow in straight lines. Where the sowing is done on land sown to grain by the drill, the drill marks may be made to effect the same result. When sown on light snows, the foot-marks will serve as guides. In the absence of marks it will be necessary to use stakes to guide the sower. Four stakes are used, two of which are set at each end of the field, and these are moved as each cast is made. At each round made over the field, from 12 feet to 15 feet may be sown by the sower who sows only with one hand. The sower with two hands will accomplish twice as much. A comparatively still time should be chosen for sowing the seed by hand, more especially when grass seeds, which are usually lighter, are sown at the same time. In hand sowing much care is necessary in scattering the seed, so that each cast of the seed will spread evenly as it falls, leaving no bare spaces between the cast from the hand or between the strips sown at one time. Hand sowing, especially in the Western States, is in a sense a lost art, owing to the extent to which machine sowing is practised; nevertheless, it is an accomplishment which every farmer should possess, since it will oftentimes be found very convenient when sowing small quantities of seed, and in sowing seeds in mixtures which cannot be so well sown by machines. Hand machines are of various kinds. Those most in favor for ordinary sowing consist of a seeder wheeled over the ground on a frame resembling that of a wheelbarrow. It sows about 12 feet in width at each cast of the seed. It enables the sower to sow the seed while considerable wind is blowing and to sow it quite evenly, but it is not adapted to the sowing of all kinds of grass and clover mixtures, which it may be desirable to sow together, since they do not always feed out evenly, owing to a difference in size, in weight, in shape and in the character of the covering. When clover seed is sown with the grain drill, it is sometimes sown separately from grain; that is, without a nurse crop, and is deposited in the soil by the same tubes. But it is only some makes of drills that will do this. Clover seed, and especially alfalfa, may be thus sown with much advantage on certain of the Western and Southern soils, especially on those that are light and open in character, and when the seed is to be put in without a nurse crop. Eastern soils are usually too heavy to admit of depositing the seed thus deeply, but to this there are some exceptions. When sown with a nurse crop, the seed is in some instances mixed with the grain before it is sown. In some instances it is mixed before it is brought to the field. At other times it is added when the grain has been put in the seed-box of the drill. This method of sowing is adapted to certain soils of the Western prairies and to very open soils in some other localities, but under average conditions it buries seeds too deeply. There is the further objection that they all grow in the line of the grain plants and are more shaded than they would be otherwise. Nevertheless, under some conditions this method of sowing the plants is usually satisfactory. One of the most satisfactory methods of sowing clover seeds along with a nurse crop is to sow the clover with a "seeder attachment;" that is, an attachment for sowing small seeds, which will deposit the same before or behind the grain tubes as may be desired. The seed is thus sown at the same time as the grain, and in the process is scattered evenly over the surface of the ground. These seeder attachments, however, will not sow all kinds of clover and grass mixtures any more than will hand-sowing machines do the same. =Depth to Bury the Seed.=--The depth to bury the seed varies with the conditions of soil, climate and season. Clover seeds, like those of grasses, are buried most deeply in the light soils of the prairie so light that they sink, so as to make walking over them unusually tiresome when working on newly plowed land, and in other instances so light as to lift with the wind. On such soils the seeds may be buried to the depth of 2 to 3 inches. On loam soils, a covering of 1 inch or less would be ample, and on stiff clays the covering may even be lighter under normal conditions. Clover seeds are buried more deeply in dry than in moist climates, and also more deeply in dry portions of the year than when moisture is sufficient. While it may be proper in some instances to scatter the seeds on the surface without any covering other than is furnished by rain or frost, it will be very necessary at other seasons to provide a covering to insure a stand of the seed. When clover seed is sown on ground honeycombed with frost, no covering is necessary. When sown on winter grain in the spring, the ground not being so honeycombed, covering with the harrow is usually advantageous. When sown on spring crops and early in the season, it may not be necessary to cover the seed, except by using the roller, even though the seed should fall behind the grain tubes while the grain crop is being sown, or should be sown subsequently by hand. In other instances the harrow should be used, and sometimes both the roller and the harrow. Under conditions such as appertain to New England and the adjacent States to Ontario and the provinces east and to the land west of the Cascade Mountains, clover and also grass seeds do not require so much of a covering as when sown on the prairie soils of the central portion of the continent. =Sowing Alone or in Combinations.=--Whether clover seed should be sown alone or in combination with the seeds of other grasses will depend upon the object sought in sowing it. When sown to produce seed, it is usually sown without admixture, but not in every instance; when sown to produce hay, it is nearly always sown in mixtures, but to this there are some exceptions; when sown to produce pasture, it is almost invariably sown with something else; and when sown to enrich the land, it is, in all, or nearly all, instances, sown without admixture. When sown primarily to produce seed, there are no good reasons why timothy and probably some other grasses may not be sown with medium red and mammoth clover, when pasture is wanted from the land in the season or seasons immediately following the production of seed. The presence of these grasses may not seriously retard the growth of the clover plants until after they have produced seed, and subsequently they will grow more assertively and produce pasture as the clover fails. Moreover, should they mature any seed at the same time that the clover seeds mature, they may usually be separated in the winnowing process, owing to a difference in the size of the seeds. But timothy should not be sown with alsike clover that is being grown for seed, since the seeds of these are so nearly alike in size that they cannot be separated. When hay is wanted, the practice is very common of sowing timothy along with the medium red, mammoth and alsike varieties of clover. Timothy grows well with each of these; supports them to some extent when likely to lodge; matures at the same time as the mammoth and alsike clovers; comes on more assertively as the clovers begin to fail, thus prolonging the period of cropping or pasturing; and feeds upon the roots of the clovers in their decay. Next to timothy, redtop is probably the most useful grass to sow with these clovers, and may in some instances be added to timothy in the mixtures. Some other grasses may also be added under certain conditions, or substituted for timothy or redtop. In certain instances, it has also been found profitable to mix certain of the clovers in addition to adding grass seeds when hay is wanted. The more important of these mixtures will be referred to when treating of growing the different varieties in subsequent chapters. When growing them, the aim should be to sow those varieties together which mature about the same time. The advantages from growing them together for hay include larger yields, a finer quality of hay, and a more palatable fodder. In the past it has been the almost uniform practice to sow alfalfa alone, but this practice is becoming modified to some extent, and is likely to become more so in the future, especially when grown for pasture. When sown to produce pasture, unless for one or two seasons, clover seed is sown in various mixtures of grasses in all or nearly all instances. The grasses add to the permanency of the pastures, while the clovers usually furnish abundant grazing more quickly than the grasses. Several of them, however, are more short-lived than grasses usually are, hence the latter are relied upon to furnish grazing after the clovers have begun to fail. In laying down permanent pastures, the seed of several varieties is usually sown, but in moderate quantities. The larger the number of the varieties sown that are adapted to the conditions, the more varied, the more prolonged and the more ample is the grazing likely to be. When clovers, except the crimson variety, are sown for the exclusive purpose of adding to the fertility of the land, they are usually sown along with some other crop that is to be harvested, the clover being plowed under the following autumn or the next spring. These are usually sown without being mixed with other varieties, and the two kinds most frequently sown primarily to enrich the land are the medium red and crimson varieties. The former grows more quickly than other varieties, and the latter, usually sown alone, comes after some crop already harvested, and is buried in time to sow some other crop on the same land the following spring. =Sowing with or without a Nurse Crop.=--Nearly all varieties of clover are usually sown with a nurse crop; that is, a crop which provides shade for the plants when they are young and delicate. But the object in sowing with a nurse crop is not so much to secure protection to the young plants as to get them established in the soil, so that they will produce a full crop the following season. Two varieties, however, are more commonly sown alone. These are alfalfa and crimson clover. Alfalfa is more commonly sown alone because the young plants are somewhat delicate and easily crowded out by other plants amid which they are growing. Because of the several years during which alfalfa will produce crops when once established, it is deemed proper to sacrifice a nurse crop in order to get a good stand of the young plants. The other clovers are usually able to make a sufficient stand, though grown along with a nurse crop. In some situations alfalfa will also do similarly, as, for instance, where the conditions are very favorable to its growth. Crimson clover is more commonly sown alone for the reason, first, that it is frequently sown at a season when other crops are not being sown; second, that it grows better without a nurse crop; and third, that if grown with a nurse crop the latter would have to be used in the same way as the clover. Some have advocated sowing clovers without a nurse crop under any conditions. Such advocacy in the judgment of the author is not wise. It is true that in some instances a stand of the various clovers is more certainly assured when they are sown without a nurse crop, but in such situations it is at least questionable if it would not be better to sow some other crop as a substitute for clover. But there may be instances, as where clover will make a good crop of hay the year that it is sown, when sowing it thus would be justifiable. In a majority of instances, however, it will not make such a crop, because of the presence of weeds, which, in the first place, would hinder growth, and in the second, would injure the quality of the hay. The nurse crops with which clovers may be sown are the small cereal grains, as rye, barley, wheat and oats. Sometimes they are sown with flax, rape and millet. They usually succeed best when sown along with rye and barley, since these shade them less and are cut earlier, thus making less draft on moisture in the soil and admitting sunlight at an earlier period. Oats make the least advantageous nurse crop, because of the denseness of the shade, but if they are sown thinly and cut for hay soon after they come into head, they are then a very suitable nurse crop. One chief objection to flax as a nurse crop is that it is commonly sown late. The chief virtue in rape as a nurse crop is that the shade is removed early through pasturing. The millets are objectionable as nurse crops through the denseness of the shade which they furnish and also because of the heavy draught which they make on soil moisture. Peas and vetches should not be used as nurse crops, since they smother the young clover plants through lodging in the advanced stages of their growth. =Amounts of Seed to Sow.=--The amounts of clover seed to sow are influenced by the object sought in sowing; by combinations with which the seeds are sown, and by the relative size of the seeds. The soil and climate should also be considered, although these influences are probably less important than those first named. When clovers are sown for pasture only, or to fertilize the soil speedily and to supply it with humus, the largest amounts of seed are sown. But for these purposes it is seldom necessary to use more than 12 pounds of seed per acre. These amounts refer to the medium red and mammoth varieties, which are more frequently used than the other varieties for the purposes named. They also include the crimson sown usually to fertilize the soil. When sown to provide seed only, 12 pounds per acre of the medium red, mammoth and crimson varieties will usually suffice. Half the quantity of alsike will be enough, and one-third the quantity of the small white, or a little more than that. Whether alfalfa is grown for seed, for hay or for pasture, about the same amounts of seed are used; that is, 15 to 20 pounds per acre. When sown with nurse crops and simply to improve the soil, it is customary to sow small rather than large quantities of seed, and for the reason that the hazard of failure to secure a stand every season is too considerable to justify the outlay. From 4 to 5 pounds per acre are frequently sown and of the medium or mammoth variety. When the mammoth and medium varieties of clover are sown for hay with one or two kinds of grass only, it is not common to sow more than 6 to 8 pounds of either per acre. The maximum amount of the seed of the alsike required when thus sown with grasses may be set down at 5 pounds per acre. These three varieties are chiefly used for such mixtures. With more varieties of grass in the mixtures, the quantities of clover seed used will decrease. When clovers are sown with mixtures intended for permanent pastures, it would not be possible to name the amounts of seed to sow without knowing the grasses used also, but it may be said that, as a rule, in those mixtures, the clovers combined seldom form more than one-third of the seed used. The seeds of some varieties of clover are less than one-third of the size of other varieties. This, therefore, affects proportionately, or at least approximately so, the amounts of seed required. For instance, while it might be proper to sow 12 pounds of medium or mammoth clover to accomplish a certain result, less than one-third of the quantity of the small white variety would suffice for the same end. The influences of climate and soil on the quantities of seed required are various, so various that to consider them fully here would unduly prolong the discussion. But it may be said that the harder the conditions in both respects, the more the quantity of seed required and _vice versa_. =Pasturing.=--When clover seed is sown in nurse crops that are matured before being harvested, the pasturing of the stand secured the autumn following is usually to be avoided. Removing the covering which the plants have provided for themselves is against their passing through the winter in the best form. In some instances the injury proves so serious as to result in a loss of all, or nearly all, the plants. The colder the winters, the less the normal snowfall and the more the deficiency of moisture, the greater is the hazard. But in some instances so great is the growth of the clover plants that not to graze them down in part at least would incur the danger of smothering many of the plants, especially in regions where the snowfall is at all considerable. But when the seed is sown alone or in mixtures of grain and even of other grasses in the spring, grazing the same season will have the effect of strengthening the plants. This result is due chiefly to the removal of the shade that weeds and other plants would furnish were they not thus eaten down, but it is also due in part to the larger share of soil moisture that is thus left for the clover plants. Pasturing clover sown thus should be avoided when the ground is so wet as to poach or become impact in consequence. Unless on light, spongy soils which readily lose their moisture, such grazing should not begin until the plants have made considerable growth, nor should it be too close, or root development in the pastures will be hindered. It would not be possible to fix the stage of growth when the grazing should begin on clover fields kept for pasture subsequent to the season of sowing. The largest amount of food would be furnished if grazing were deferred until the blossoming stage were reached and the crop were then grazed down quickly. But this is not usually practicable, hence the grazing usually begins at a period considerably earlier. In general, however, the plants should not be grazed down very closely, or growth will be more or less hindered. Grazing clover in the spring and somewhat closely for several weeks after growth begins, has been thought conducive to abundant seed production. This result is due probably to the greater increase in the seed heads that follow such grazing. This would seem to explain why clover that has been judiciously grazed produces even more seed than that clipped off by the mower after it has begun to grow freely. In nearly all localities the grazing of medium red clover, and even of mammoth clover, somewhat closely in the autumn of the second year, is to be practised rather than avoided. These two varieties being essentially biennial in their habit of growth will not usually survive the second winter, even though not grazed, hence not to graze them would result in a loss of the pasture. With nearly all kinds of clover there is some danger from bloat in grazing them with cattle or sheep while yet quite succulent, and the danger is intensified when the animals are turned in to graze with empty stomachs or when the clover is wet with dew or rain. When such bloating occurs, for the method of procedure see page 95. The danger that bloat will be produced is lessened in proportion as other grasses abound in the pastures. =Harvesting.=--All the varieties of clover, except alfalfa, are best cut for hay when in full bloom. Here and there a head may have turned brown. If cut earlier, the crop is difficult to cure, nor will it contain a maximum of nutriment. If cut later it loses much in palatability. Alfalfa should be cut a little earlier, or just when it is nicely coming into bloom, as if cut later the shedding of the leaves in the curing is likely to be large. All clovers are much injured by exposure to rain or dew. They will also lose much if cured in the swath, without being frequently stirred with the tedder; that is, it will take serious injury if cured in the swath as it fell from the mower. If cured thus, it will lose in aroma and palatability, through the breaking of leaves and, consequently, in feeding value. To avoid these losses, clover is more frequently cured in the cock. When cured thus, it preserves the bright green color, the aroma and the tint of the blossoms, it is less liable to heat in the mow or stack and is greatly relished by live stock when fed to them. To cure it thus, it is usually tedded once or twice after it has lost some of its moisture. It is then raked as soon as it is dried enough to rake easily, and put up into cocks. When the quantity to be cured is not large caps are sometimes used to cover the cocks to shed the rain when the weather is showery. These are simply square strips of some kind of material that will shed rain, weighted at the corners to keep them from blowing away. The clover remains in the cocks for two or three days, or until it has gone through the "sweating" process. Exposure to two or three showers of rain falling at intervals while partially cured in the swath or winrow will greatly injure clover hay. When the area to be harvested is large, clover is sometimes cured in the swath. When thus cured it is stirred with the tedder often enough to aid in curing the hay quickly. It is then raked into winrows and drawn from these to the place of storage. In good weather clover may be cured thus so as to make fairly good hay, but not so good as is made by the other method of curing. It is much more expeditiously made, but there is some loss in leaves, in color and in palatability. Some farmers cure clover by allowing it to wilt a little after it is cut, and then drawing and storing it in a large mow. They claim that it must be entirely free from rain or dew when thus stored. This plan of curing clover has been successfully practised by some farmers for many years; others who have tried it have failed, which makes it evident that when stored thus, close attention must be given to all the details essential to success. Clover may also be cured in the silo. While some have succeeded in making good ensilage, in many cases it has not proved satisfactory. The time may come when the conditions to be observed in making good silage from clover will be such that the element of hazard in making the same will be removed. In the meantime, it will usually be more satisfactory to cure clover in the ordinary way. Grasses cure more easily and more quickly than clovers. Consequently, when these are grown together so that the grasses form a considerable proportion of the hay, the methods followed in curing the grasses will answer also for the clovers. For these methods the reader is referred to the book "Grasses and How to Grow Them" by the author. The influence that grasses thus exert on the growing of clovers furnishes a weighty reason for growing them together. =Storing.=--Clovers are ready to store when enough moisture has left the stems to prevent excessive fermentation when put into the place of storage. Hay that has been cured in the cock is much less liable to heat when stored so as to produce mould, than hay cured in the swath or winrow. The former has already gone through the heating process or, at least, partially so. Some experience is necessary to enable one to be quite sure as to the measure of the fitness of hay for being stored. When it can be pitched without excessive labor it is ready for being stored, but the unskilled will not likely be able to judge of this accurately. If a wisp is taken some distance from the top of the winrow or cock and twisted between the hands, if moisture exudes it is too damp, and if the hay breaks asunder readily it is too dry. When no moisture is perceptible and yet the wisp does not break asunder, the hay is ready to be drawn. Care must be taken that the wisp chosen be representative of the mass of the hay. To make sure of this, the test should be applied several times. Where practicable the aim should be to store clover hay under cover, owing to the little power which it has to shed rain in the stack. This is only necessary, however, in climates with considerable rainfall during the year and where irrigation is practised, as in the mountain States clover hay may be kept in the stack without any loss from rain, and it can be cured exactly as the ranchman may desire, since he is never embarrassed when making hay by bad weather. When storing clovers, the time of the day at which it is stored influences the keeping qualities of the hay. Hay stored at noontide may keep properly, whereas, if the same were stored while dew is falling it might be too damp for being thus stored. Much care should be taken in stacking clover hay that it may shed rain properly. The following should be observed among other rules of less importance that may be given: 1. Make a foundation of rails, poles or old straw or hay that will prevent the hay near the ground from taking injury from the ground moisture. 2. Keep the heart of the stack highest from the first and the slope gradual and even from the center toward the sides. 3. Keep the stack evenly trodden, or it will settle unevenly, and the stack will lean to one side accordingly. 4. Increase the diameter from the ground upward until ready to draw in or narrow to form the top. 5. Aim to form the top by gradual rather than abrupt narrowing. 6. Top out by using some other kind of hay or grass that sheds the rain better than clover. 7. Suspend weights to some kind of ropes, stretching over the top of the stack to prevent the wind from removing the material put on to protect the clover from rain. =Feeding.=--The clovers furnish a ration more nearly in balance than almost any other kind of food. If the animals to which they are fed could consume enough of them to produce the desired end, concentrated foods would not be wanted. They are so bulky, however, relatively, that to horses and mules at work, to dairy cows in milk and cattle that are being fattened, to sheep under similar conditions, and to swine, it is necessary to add the concentrated grain foods, more or less, according to the precise object. But for horses, mules, cattle, sheep and goats that are growing subsequent to the weaning stage, and for mature animals of these respective classes not producing, that is, not yielding returns, a good quality of clover hay will suffice for a considerable time at least without the necessity of adding any other food. It is considered inferior to timothy as a fodder for horses. This preference is doubtless owing largely to the fact, first, that clover breaks up more and loses more leaves when being handled, especially when being transported; and second, that clover is frequently cured so imperfectly as to create dust from over-fermentation or through breaking of the leaves, because of being over-dried, and the dust thus created is prejudicial to the health of these animals. It tends to produce "heaves." This may in part be obviated by sprinkling the hay before it is fed. When clover is properly cured, it is a more nutritious hay than timothy, and is so far preferable for horses, but since timothy transports in much better form, it is always likely to be more popular in the general market than clover. The possibility of feeding clover to horses for successive years without any evils resulting is made very apparent from feeding alfalfa thus in certain areas of the West. Clover hay is specially useful as a fodder for milk-producing animals, owing to the high protein content which it contains. Dairymen prefer it to nearly all kinds of fodders grown, and the same is true of shepherds. When very coarse, however, a considerable proportion of the stems is likely to be left uneaten, especially by sheep. Because of this it should be the aim to grow it so that this coarseness of stem will not be present. This is accomplished, first, by growing it thickly, and second, by growing the clovers in combination with one another and also with certain of the grasses. Clovers are especially helpful in balancing the ration where corn is the principal food crop grown. The protein of the clover crop aids greatly in balancing the excess of carbo-hydrates in the corn crop, hence much attention should be given to the production of clovers in such areas. =Renewing.=--Because of the comparatively short life of several of the most useful of the varieties of clover, no attempt is usually made to renew them when they fail, unless when growing in pasture somewhat permanent in character. To this, however, there may be some exceptions. On certain porous soils it has been found possible to maintain medium red clover and also the mammoth and alsike varieties for several years by simply allowing some of the seed to ripen in the autumn, and in this way to re-seed the land, a result made possible through moderate grazing of the meadow in the autumn, and in some instances through the absence of grazing altogether, as when the conditions may not be specially favorable to the growth of clover. It is not uncommon, however, to renew alfalfa, by adding more seed when it is disked in the spring, as it sometimes is to aid in removing weeds from the land. The results vary much with the favorableness of the conditions for growing alfalfa or the opposite. In pastures more or less permanent in character, clovers may be renewed by disking the ground, adding more clover seed, and then smoothing the surface by running over it the harrow, and in some instances also the roller. This work is best done when the frost has just left the ground for a short distance below the surface. Some kinds of clover are so persistent in their habit of growth that when once in the soil they remain, and therefore do not usually require renewal. These include the small white, the yellow, the Japan, burr clover and sweet clover. In soils congenial to these respective varieties, the seeds usually remain in the soil in sufficient quantities to restock the land with plants when it is again laid down to grass. Nearly all of these varieties are persistent seed producers; hence, even though grazed, enough seed is formed to produce another crop of plants. =Clovers as Soil Improvers.=--All things considered, no class of plants grown upon the farm are so beneficent in the influence which they exert upon the land as clovers. They improve it by enriching it; they improve it mechanically; and they aid plant growth by gathering and assimilating, as it were, food for other plants. All clovers have the power of drawing nitrogen from the air and depositing the same in the tubercles formed on the roots of the plants. These tubercles are small, warty-like substances, which appear during the growing season. They are more commonly formed on the roots within the cultivable area, and therefore are easily accessible to the roots of the plants which immediately follow. Clovers are not equally capable of thus drawing nitrogen from the air, nor are the same varieties equally capable of doing this under varying conditions. The relative capabilities of varieties to thus deposit nitrogen in the soil is by no means equal, but up to the present time it would seem correct to say that relative capability in all of these has not yet been definitely ascertained. With reference to the whole question much has yet to be learned, but it is now certain that in all, or nearly all, instances in which clovers are grown on land, they leave it much richer in nitrogen than it was when they were sown upon the same. They also add to the fertility of the surface soil by gathering plant food in the subsoil below where many plants feed. They have much power to do this, because they are deep rooted and they are strong feeders; that is, they have much power to take up food in the soil or subsoil. Part of the food thus gathered in the subsoil helps to form roots in the cultivable area and part aids in forming top growth for pasture or for hay. If grazed down or if made into hay and fed so that the manure goes back upon the land the fertility of the same is increased in all leading essentials. This increase is partly made at the expense of the fertility in the subsoil. But the stores of fertility in the subsoil are such usually as to admit of thus being drawn upon indefinitely. Clovers improve soils mechanically by rendering them more friable, by giving them increased power to hold moisture, and by improving drainage in the subsoil. Of course, they have not the power to do this equally, but they all have this power in degree and in all the ways that have been named. Clovers send down a tap root into the soil and subsoil as they grow. From the tap roots branch off lateral roots in an outward and downward direction. From these laterals many rootlets penetrate through the soil. When the plants are numerous, these roots and rootlets fill the soil. When it is broken up, therefore, particles of soil are so separated that they tend to fall apart, hence the soil is always made more or less friable, even when it consists of the stiffest clays. The shade furnished by the clover also furthers friability. This friability makes the land easier to work, and it is also more easily penetrated by the roots of plants. The influence on aeration is also marked. The air can more readily penetrate through the interstices in the soil, and, in consequence, chemical changes in the soil favorable to plant growth are facilitated. The roots of clovers are usually so numerous that they literally fill the soil with vegetable matter. This matter, in process of decay, greatly increases the power of the soil to hold moisture, whether it falls from the clouds or ascends from the subsoil through capillary attraction. The moisture thus held is greatly beneficial to the plants that immediately follow, especially in a dry season and in open soils, and the influence thus exerted frequently goes on, though with decreasing potency, for two, three or four seasons. Reference has already been made to the tap root which clover sends down into the soil and subsoil. In the strong varieties this tap root goes down deeply. When the crop is plowed up, the roots decay, and when they do, for a time at least, they furnish channels down which the surface water percolates, if present in excess. Thus it is that clover aids in draining lands under the conditions named. The channels thus opened do not close immediately with the decay of the clover roots, hence the downward movement of water in the soil is facilitated for some time subsequently. It has been stated that clovers have more power than some other plants to gather plant food in the soil. In some instances they literally fill the soil with their roots. When other plants are sown after the clover has been broken up they feed richly on the decaying roots of the clover. Thus it is that clover gathers food for other plants which they would not be so well able to gather for themselves, and puts it in a form in which it can be easily appropriated by these. The nitrogen in clover is yielded up more gradually and continuously as nitrates than it could be obtained from any form of top dressings that can be given to the land. In this fact is found one important reason why cereal grains thrive so well after clover. Since the roots of clovers act so beneficently on soils, it is highly important that they be increased to the greatest extent practicable. Owing to the relation between the growth of the roots of plants and the parts produced above ground, development in root growth is promoted much more when the clover is cut for hay than when it is fed off by grazing. Experiments have also demonstrated that the development of root growth is much enhanced in medium red clover by taking a second cutting for hay or seed. They have also demonstrated that more nitrogen is left in the soil by clover roots after a seed crop than after a crop of hay. From what has been said, it will be apparent that the extent to which clovers enrich the soil will depend upon the strength of the growth of the plants and certain other conditions. It will not be possible to reduce to figures the additions in plant food which clovers add to the soil other than in a comparative way. Dr. Voelker has stated that there is fully three times as much nitrogen in a crop of clover as in the average produce of the grain and straw of wheat per acre. Dr. Kedzie is on record as having said that in the hay or sod furnished by a good crop of clover, there is enough nitrogen for more than four average crops of wheat, enough phosphoric acid for more than two average crops and enough of potash for more than six average crops. He has said, moreover, that the roots and stubble contain fully as much of these elements as hay. It will also be apparent that where clover grows in good form no cheaper or better way can be adopted in manuring land, and that in certain areas the judicious use of land plaster on the clover hastens the renovating process. It is thought that in some instances the mere loading and spreading of barnyard manure costs more than the clover and plaster. Especially will this be true of fields distant from the farm steading. It is specially important, therefore, that in enriching these, clover will be utilized to the fullest extent practicable. =Clover as a Weed Destroyer.=--Where clover is much grown, at least in some of its varieties, it becomes an aid in reducing the prevalence of many forms of weed growth. It is thus helpful in some instances, because of the number of the cuttings secured; in others because of its smothering tendencies, and in yet others because of the season of the year when it is sown and harvested or plowed under, as the case may be. Alfalfa and medium red clover are cut more frequently than the other varieties and, therefore, because of this, render more service than these in checking weed growth. The former is cut so frequently as to make it practically impossible for most forms of annual weed life to mature seed in the crop. The same is true of biennials and also perennials. But there are some forms of perennial weeds which multiply through the medium of their rootstocks that may eventually crowd alfalfa. Medium red clover is usually cut twice a year, hence, in it annuals and biennials cannot mature seed, except in exceptional instances, and because of the short duration of its life, perennials have not time to spread so as to do much harm. The clovers that are most helpful in smothering weeds are the mammoth, the medium and the alsike varieties. These are thus helpful in the order named. To accomplish such an end they must grow vigorously, and the plants must be numerous on the ground. When grown thus, but few forms of weed life can make any material headway in the clover crop. Even perennials may be greatly weakened, and in some instances virtually smothered by such growth of clover. To insure a sufficient growth of clover it may be advantageous to top dress the crop with farmyard manure sufficiently decayed, and in the case of medium red clover to dress the second cutting with land plaster. If the second growth is plowed under, subsequent cultivation of the surface will further aid in completing the work of destruction. The crimson variety is sown and also harvested at such a time that the influence on weed eradication is very marked. The ground is usually prepared in the summer and so late that weeds which sprout after the clover has been sown cannot mature the same autumn. In the spring it is harvested before any weeds can ripen. When plowed under, rather than harvested, the result is the same. When clover is grown in short rotations, its power to destroy weeds is increased. For instance, when the medium red or mammoth varieties are grown in the three years' rotation of corn or some root crop, followed by grain seeded with clover, the effects upon weed eradication are very marked, if the cultivation given to the corn or roots is ample. Under such a system weeds could be virtually prevented from maturing seeds at any time, especially if the medium variety of clover were sown, and if the stubbles were mown some time subsequent to the harvesting of the grain crop. Such a system of rotation faithfully carried out for a number of years should practically eradicate all, or nearly all, the noxious forms of weed life. =Clover Sickness.=--On certain of the soils of Great Britain and probably on those of other countries in Europe, where clover has been grown quite frequently and for a long period, as good crops cannot be grown as previously, and in some instances the crop is virtually a failure. The plants will start from seed in the early spring and grow with sufficient vigor for a time, after which they will show signs of wilting and finally they die. Various theories were advanced for a time as to the cause before it was ascertained by experiment what produced these results. Some thought they arose from lack of water in the soil, others claimed that they were due to the presence of parasites, which in some way preyed upon the roots, others again attributed them to improper soil conditions. It is now just about certain that they arose from a deficiency of soluble potash in the subsoil. Such, at least, was the conclusion reached by Kutzleb as the result of experiments conducted with a view to ascertain the cause of clover wilt. The cause being known, the remedy is not difficult. It is to grow clover less frequently on such soils. Sufficient time must be given to enable more of the inert potash in the subsoil to become available. Another way would be to apply potash somewhat freely to these soils, and subsoil them where this may be necessary. It is thought that clover sickness is as yet unknown in the United States and Canada, although its presence had sometimes been suspected in some sections where clover has been much grown. This does not mean that it may not yet come to this country. Should the symptoms given above appear on soils on which clover has been grown frequently and for a long period, it would be the part of wisdom to take such indications as a hint to grow clover less frequently in the rotation. =Possible Improvement in Clovers.=--Some close observers have noticed that there is much lack of uniformity in the plants found growing in an ordinary field of clover, especially of the medium red and mammoth varieties. Many of the plants vary in characteristics of stem, leaf, flower and seed; in the size and vigor of the plants; in the rapidity with which they grow; and in earliness or lateness in maturing. So great are these differences that it may be said they run all the way from almost valueless to high excellence. Here, then, is a wide-open door of opportunity for improving clover plants through selection. This question has not been given that attention in the past which its importance demands. There may be a difference in view as to all the essential features of improvement that are to be sought for, but there will probably be agreement with reference to the following in desirable varieties: 1. They will have the power to grow quickly and continuously under average conditions. This power will render them valuable as pasture plants in proportion as they possess it. 2. They will produce many stems not too coarse in character. This will affect favorably the character of the hay and will also have a bearing on increase in the production of seed. 3. There should be an abundance of leaves. Such production will affect favorably palatability in the pasture and also in the hay. 4. The blossoms should be so short that the honey which they contain may be accessible to the ordinary honey bee. The importance of this characteristic cannot be easily overestimated. It would not only tend to a great increase in seed production through the favorable influence which it would have on fertilization, but it would greatly increase the honey harvest that would be gathered every year, and 5. They should be possessed of much vigor and hardihood; that is, they should have much power to grow under adverse conditions, as of drought and cold. The person who will furnish a variety of red clover possessed of these characteristics will confer a boon on American agriculture. =Bacteria and Clovers.=--The fact has long been known, even as long ago as the days of Pliny, and probably much before those days, that clover, when grown in the rotation, had the power to bring fertility to the soil. This fact was generally recognized in modern agriculture and to the extent, in some instances, of giving it a place even in the short rotations. But until recent decades, it was only partially known how clover accomplished such fertilization. It was thought it thus gathered fertility by feeding deeply in the subsoil, and through the plant food thus gathered, the root system of the plants were so strengthened in the cultivated surface section of soil as to account for the increased production in the plants that followed clover. According to this view, the stems and leaves of the plants were thus equally benefited and, consequently, when these were plowed under where they had grown these also added plant food to the cultivated portion of the soil, in addition to what it possessed when the clover seed which produced the plants was sown upon it. In brief, this theory claimed that fertility was added by the clover plants gathering fertility in the subsoil and depositing it so near the surface that it became easily accessible to the roots of other plants sown after the clover and which had not the same power of feeding so deeply. This theory was true in part. The three important elements of plant food, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, were and are thus increased in the soil, but this does not account for the source from which the greater portion of the nitrogen thus deposited in the soil was drawn, as will be shown below. It was also noticed that when the seed of any variety of clover was sown on certain soils, the plants would grow with more or less vigor for a time and then they would fail to make progress, and in some instances would perish. It was further noticed that if farmyard manure was applied freely to such land, the growth made was more vigorous. Yet, again, it was noticed that by sowing clover at short intervals on such soils, the improvement in the growth of the plants was constant. But it was not understood why clover plants behaved thus under the conditions named. It is now known that ill success at the first was owing to the lack of certain micro-organisms, more commonly termed bacteria, in the soil, the presence of which are essential to enable clover plants to secure additional nitrogen to that found in the soil and subsoil on which to feed. When manure was applied, as stated above, the clover plants secured much or all of their nitrogen from the manure. Bacteria were introduced in very limited numbers at first, it may be through the medium of the seed or in some other way, and because of an inherent power which they possess to increase rapidly in connection with continued sowing of clover at short intervals, they came at length to be so numerous in the soil as to make possible the growth of good crops of clover where these could not be thus grown a few years previously. Careful observers had noticed that certain warty-like substances were found attached to the roots of clover plants, and that the more vigorously the plants grew, the larger and more numerous were these substances, as a rule. It was thought by many that these warty substances, now spoken of as nodules, were caused by worms biting the roots or because of some unfavorable climatic influence or abnormal condition of soil. It is now known that they are owing to the presence of bacteria, whose special function is the assimilation of free nitrogen obtained in the air found in the interstices; that is, the air spaces between the particles of soil. This they store up in the nodules for the use of the clover plants and also the crops that shall follow them. The nodules in clover plants vary in size, from a pin head to that of a pea, and they are frequently present in large numbers. Bacteria are present within them in countless myriads. They gain an entrance into the plant through the root hairs. The exact way in which benefit thus comes to the clover plants is not fully understood, but it is now quite generally conceded that the nitrogen taken in by these minute forms of life is converted into soluble compounds, which are stored in the tissues of the roots, stems and leaves of the plants, thus furnishing an explanation to the increased vigor. It cannot be definitely ascertained at present, if, indeed, ever, what proportion of the nitrogen in clover is taken from the air and from the soil, respectively, since it will vary with conditions, but when these are normal, it is almost certain that by far the larger proportion comes from the air. But it has been noticed that when soil is freely supplied with nitrogen, as in liberal applications of farmyard manure, the plants do not form nodules so freely as when nitrogen is less plentiful in the soil. The inference would, therefore, seem to be correct, that when plants are well supplied with nitrogen in the soil they are less diligent, so to speak, in gathering it from the air. In other words, clover plants will take more nitrogen from the air when the soil is more or less nitrogen hungry than when nitrogen abounds in the soil. And yet the plants should be able to get some nitrogen from the soil in addition to what the seed furnishes to give them a vigorous start. This power to form tubercles, and thus to store up nitrogen, is by no means confined to clovers. It is possessed by all legumes, as peas, beans and vetches. It is claimed that some of these, as soy beans, cow peas and velvet beans, have even greater power to gather nitrogen from the air and store it in the soil than clover, since the nodules formed on the roots of these are frequently larger. In some instances, on the roots of the velvet bean they grow in clusters as large as an ordinary potato. With reference to all these leguminous plants it has been demonstrated that under proper conditions good crops may be grown and removed from the soil and leave it much richer in nitrogen than when the seed was sown. It is thus possible by sowing these crops at suitable intervals to keep the soil sufficiently supplied with nitrogen to grow good crops other than legumes, adapted to the locality, without the necessity for purchasing the nitrogen of commerce in any of its forms. They may be made to more than maintain the supply of nitrogen, notwithstanding the constant loss of the same by leeching down into the subsoil in the form of nitrates, and through the more or less constant escape of the same into the air in the form of ammonia, during those portions of the year when the ground is not frozen. They will do this in addition to the food supplies which they furnish, hence they may be made to supply this most important element of fertility, and by far the most costly when purchased in the market, virtually without cost. The favorable influences which these plants thus exert upon crop production is invaluable to the farmer. They make it possible for him to be almost entirely independent of the nitrogen of commerce, which, at the rate of consumption during recent years, will soon be so far reduced as to be a comparatively insignificant factor in its relation to crop production. It is possible, however, and not altogether improbable, that by the aid of electricity a manufactured nitrate of soda or of potash may be put upon the market at a price which will put it within reach of the farmer. The power of legumes to increase the nitrogen content in the soil should allay apprehension with reference to the possible exhaustion of the world's supply of nitrogen, notwithstanding the enormous waste of the same in various ways. The more common sources of loss in nitrogen are, first, through the leeching of nitrates into the drainage water; second, through oxidation; third, through the use of explosives in war; and fourth, through the waste of the sewerage of cities. When plant and animal products are changed into soluble nitrates, they are usually soon lost to the soil, unless taken up by the roots of plants. When vegetable matter on or near the surface of the ground is broken down and decomposed, in the process of oxidation, there is frequently much loss of nitrogen, as in the rapid decomposition of farmyard manure in the absence of some material, as land plaster, to arrest and hold the escaping ammonia. Through explosives used in war there is an enormous vegetable loss of nitrogen, as nitrate salts, which should rather be used to preserve and sustain life than to destroy it. The waste of nitrogen through the loss of sewerage is enormous, nor does there seem to be any practicable way of saving the bulk of it. In many soils the germs which produce nodules are present when clovers are first grown on them. But where they are not present, the clover plants have no more power to gather nitrogen than wheat or other non-leguminous crops. But since in other soils they are almost entirely absent, how shall they be introduced? The process of introducing them is generally referred to as a process of inoculation, and soils when treated successfully are said to be inoculated. Three methods have been adopted. By the first, as previously indicated, the grower perseveres in sowing clover at short intervals in the rotation. He may also add farmyard manure occasionally, and thus, through the inherent power of multiplication in the bacteria, they increase sufficiently to enable the land to grow good crops. By the second method, inoculating is effected through soil which is possessed of the requisite bacteria; and by the third, it is effected through the aid of a prepared product named nitragin. When fields are to be inoculated by using soil it is obtained from areas which have grown clovers successfully quite recently, and which are, therefore, likely to be well filled with the desired bacteria. In some instances the seed is mixed with the soil and these are sown together. To thus mix the seed with the soil and then sow both together broadcast or with a seed drill is usually effective, and it is practicable when minimum quantities of soil well laden with germs are used. In other instances the soil containing germs is scattered broadcast before or soon after the seed is sown. Considerable quantities of earth must needs be applied by this method. It should be remembered that each class of legumes has its own proper bacteria. Because of this, inoculation can only, or at least chiefly, be effected through the use of soils on which that particular class of legumes have grown, or which are possessed of bacteria proper to that particular species. In other words, bacteria necessary to the growth of vetches will not answer for the growth of clovers, and _vice versa_. Nor will the bacteria requisite to grow medium red clover answer for growing alfalfa. In other words, the bacteria proper to the growth of one member of even a family of plants will not always answer for the growth of another member of the same. But in some instances it is thought that it will answer. The study of this phase of the question has not yet progressed far enough to reflect as much light upon it as could be desired. It is certainly known, however, that alfalfa will grow on soils that grow burr clover (_Medicago maculata_) and sweet clover (_Melilotus alba_), hence the inference that soil from fields of either will inoculate for alfalfa. Nitragin is the name given by certain German investigators to a commercial product put upon the market, which claims to be a pure culture of the root tubercle organism. These cultures were sold in the liquid form, and it was customary when using them to treat the seed with them before it was planted. Their use has been largely abandoned, because of the few successes which followed their use compared with the many failures. But it is now believed that these cultures can be prepared and used so as to be generally effective and without excessive cost to the grower. In preparing cultures it has been found that by gradually reducing the amount of nitrogen in the culture of media, it is possible to increase the nitrogen fixing power in these germs from five to ten times as much as usually occurs in nature. It is now known that the bacteria thus grown upon nitrogen free media retain high activity if carefully dried and then revived in liquid media at the end of the varying lengths of time. Some absorbent is used to soak up the tubercle-forming organisms. The cultures are then allowed to dry, and when in that condition they can be safely sent to any part of the country without losing their efficacy. It is necessary to revive the dry germs by immersing them in water. By adding certain nutrient salts the bacteria are greatly increased if allowed to stand for a limited time--as short, in some instances, as 24 hours. The culture thus sent out in a dry form, and no larger than a yeast cake, may thus be made to furnish bacteria sufficient to inoculate not less than an acre of land. It is stated that the amount of inoculating material thus obtained is only limited by the quantity of the nutrient water solution used in increasing the germs, so that the cost of inoculating land by this process is not large. The culture may be applied by simply soaking the seed in it, by spraying the soil, or by first mixing the culture into earth, spreading it over the field and then harrowing it. Inoculations thus tried under the supervision of the United States Department of Agriculture have proved quite successful. Where any legume is extensively grown surrounding soils come to be inoculated through the agency of winds and water. The increase brought to the yield of plants on various soils runs all the way from a slight gain to 1000-fold. And when soil is once inoculated it remains so for a long time, even though the proper legume should not be grown again on the same soil. The amount of nitrogen that may thus be brought to many soils by growing clover and other legumes upon them is only hedged in practically by the nature of the rotation fixed upon. An acre of clover when matured will sometimes add 200 to 300 pounds of nitrogen to the soil under favorable conditions. Where the soil contains the requisite bacteria, the young plants begin to form tubercles when but a few weeks old, and continue to do so while the plant is active until mature. That the plants use much of the nitrogen while growing would seem to be clear, from the fact that toward the close of the growing season the tubercles become more or less broken down and shrunken. CHAPTER III MEDIUM RED CLOVER Medium Red Clover (_Trifolium pratense_) is also known by the names Common Red Clover, Broad-Leaved Clover and Meadow Trefoil. The term medium has doubtless come to be applied to it because the plants are in size intermediate between the Mammoth variety (_Trifolium magnum_) and the smaller varieties, as the Alsike (_Trifolium hybridum_) and the small white (_Trifolium repens_). But by no designation is it so frequently referred to as that of Red Clover. This plant is spreading and upright in its habit of growth. Several branches rise up from the crown of each plant, and these in turn frequently become branched more or less in their upward growth. The heads which produce the flowers are nearly globular in shape, inclining to ovate, and average about one inch in diameter. Each plant contains several heads, and frequently a large number when the growth is not too crowded. When in full flower these are of a beautiful purple crimson, hence, a field of luxuriant red clover is beautiful to look upon. The stems of the plants are slightly hairy, and ordinarily they stand at least fairly erect and reach the height of about one foot or more; but when the growth is rank, they will grow much higher, even as high as 4 feet in some instances, but when they grow much higher than the average given, the crop usually lodges. The leaves are numerous, and many of them have very frequently, if not, indeed, always, a whitish mark in the center, resembling a horseshoe. The tap roots go down deeply into the soil. Usually they penetrate the same to about 2 feet, but in some instances, as when subsoils are open and well stored with accessible food, they go down to the depth of 5 or 6 feet. The tap roots are numerously branched, and the branches extend in all directions. When they are short, as they must needs be in very stiff subsoils and on thin land underlaid with hard soil, the branches become about as large as the tap roots. It has been computed that the weight of the roots in the soil is about equal to the weight of the stem and leaves. Medium red clover is ordinarily biennial in its habit of growth, but under some conditions it is perennial. Usually in much of the Mississippi basin it is biennial, especially on prairie soils. On the clay loam soils of Ontario, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, Indiana and some other States, it is essentially biennial, but many of the plants will survive for a longer period. In the mountain valleys in the Northwestern States, and on the Pacific slope west of the Cascade Mountains, it is perennial. Medium red clover meadows in these have been cut for several successive years without re-seeding the crop. The duration of this plant is also more or less influenced by pasturing as compared with cutting for seed. Grazing the plants has the effect of prolonging the period of their growth, while maturing seed from them has the opposite effect. Medium red clover is characterized by a rapid growth. Seed sown in the spring has in certain climates produced a crop of hay in 120 days from the date of sowing. It is also most persistent in its growth from spring until fall when sufficient moisture is present. In this property it far outranks any of the other varieties of clover. It comes into bloom in the South during the latter half of May and in the North during the month of June, early or later, according to location, and in about sixty days from the time that it is cut for hay. Ordinarily, a second cutting of hay may be taken from it and still later some pasture. It furnishes excellent pasture, soiling food and hay for nearly all classes of live stock. While it is much relished by the stock, it is probably not exceeded in its capacity for quick and prolonged growth throughout the growing season by any pasture plant, except alfalfa. For a similar reason it stands high as a soiling food. No other variety of clover grown in America will furnish as much of either pasture or soiling food. For animals producing milk and for young animals, the pasture is particularly excellent. It is also the standard pasture for swine where it can be grown, and where alfalfa is not a staple crop. When the hay is well cured, it makes a ration in even balance for cattle and sheep, and for horses it is equally good. The prejudice which exists in some quarters against feeding it to horses has arisen, in part, at least, from feeding it when improperly harvested, when over-ripe, when damaged by rain, or by overcuring in the sun, or when it may have been stored so green as to induce molding. It may also be fed with much advantage to brood sows and other swine in winter. As a soil improver, medium red clover is probably without a rival, unless it be in mammoth clover, and in one respect it exceeds the mammoth variety; that is, in the more prolonged season, during which it may be plowed under as a green manure. Its quick growth peculiarly adapts it to soil enrichment. For this reason, it is more sown than any of the other varieties in the spring of the year, along with the small cereal grains to be plowed under in the late autumn or in the following spring, after the clover has made a vigorous start, since it produces two crops in one season, the first crop may be harvested and the second plowed under after having made a full growth. This can be said of no other variety of clover. More enrichment is also obtained from the falling of the leaves when two crops are grown than from the other varieties. The influence of this plant on weed destruction when grown for hay is greater than with the other varieties of clover. This is owing in part to the shade resulting from its rapid growth and in part to the two cuttings which are usually made of the crop. These two cuttings prevent the maturing of the seeds in nearly all annual weeds, and to a very great extent in all classes of biennials. The power of this crop to smother out perennials is also considerable, and when this is linked with the weakening caused by the two cuttings, it sometimes proves effective in completely eradicating for the time being this class of weeds. [Illustration: Fig. 2. Medium Red Clover (_Trifolium pratense_) Oregon Experiment Station] =Distribution.=--Medium red clover is thought to be native to Europe. It was probably introduced into England some time early in the seventeenth century. That it was attracting attention about the middle of the century or a little later, is rendered probable by the fact that it is discussed at considerable length in the third edition of Blyth's "Improver Improved," published in 1662, while it is not mentioned in the first edition, published in 1650. It was doubtless introduced into the United States by the early colonists and at sundry times. Medium red clover will grow in good form only in the temperate zone, since it cannot stand excessive heat or excessive cold. The northerly limit of its successful growth in North America is somewhere about 50° north latitude on the wind-swept prairies, but on suitable soils, and protected somewhat by trees and winter snows, it will probably grow 10 degrees further to the north. In British Columbia, on the Pacific slope, it will probably grow as far north as Alaska. But on prairies eastward from the Rocky Mountains, it has not been grown with much success much further north than 48°, unless under the eastern shadow of the Rocky Mountains. Low temperatures in winter, where there is only a moderate covering of snow, are far less fatal to clover plants than exposure to the sweep of the cold winds. Even where the thermometer is not so low as in the areas just referred to, such winds are particularly damaging to the plants when they blow fiercely just after a thaw which has removed a previous covering of snow. In some instances, one cold wave under the conditions named has proved fatal to promising crops of clover over extended areas. In a general way, the southerly limit of vigorous and reliable growth may be put at about 37°. But in some localities good crops may be grown further South, especially in some parts of Tennessee. Nor would it be correct to say that medium red clover grows at its best in many localities much south of 38°. On the plateaus it can be grown further South, where the soil is suitable. This plant flourishes best in a moist climate. In fact, the abundance and continuance of the growth for the season are largely dependent on the amount of the precipitation, and on the distribution of the same throughout the season. In climates in which it is usual for a long spell of dry weather to occur in mid-summer, the plants will not make rapid growth after the first cutting of the season; but under conditions the opposite, they will grow continuously from spring until fall. Continuous growth may be secured through all the season on irrigated land. Although the plants root deeply, they will succumb under drought beyond a certain degree, and in some soils the end comes much more quickly than on others; on porous and sandy soils, it comes much sooner than on clays. On the latter, drought must be excessive to destroy clover plants that have been well rooted. White clover can withstand much heat when supplied with moisture. Moderate temperatures are much more favorable to its growth. Spring weather, characterized by prolonged periods of alternate freezing and thawing, is disastrous to the plants on dry soils, possessed of an excess of moisture, when not covered with snow. They are gradually drawn up out of the soil and left to die on the surface. In some instances, the destruction of an otherwise fine stand is complete. In other instances, it is partial, and when it is, a heavy roller run over the land is helpful in firming the soil around the roots that have been thus disturbed. Medium red clover can be grown with some success in certain parts of almost every State in the Union. But in paying crops it is not much grown south of parallel 37°. With irrigation it grows most vigorously in the mountain valleys between the Rocky and Cascade mountains, and between about 37° and 50° north latitude. In these valleys its habit of growth is perennial. Without irrigation, the highest adaptation, all things considered, is found in Washington and Oregon, west of the Cascades, except where shallow soils lying on gravels exist. East of the mountains, the best crops are in the States of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin and Minnesota. The soils of Northern Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan, that have produced hardwood timber, have unusually high adaptation to the growth of this plant, and as the snow usually covers the ground in these areas in winter, the crop may be relied upon with much certainty. But on the sandy soils, which more or less abound in these areas, it does not succeed so well. It has not yet proved a marked success in Western Minnesota or in the Dakotas, owing in part probably to the lack of the proper bacteria in the soil. Its growth in these localities, however, is extending from year to year. Indiana and Ohio are great clover States, and the same is true of much of Illinois and Iowa; but southward in these States there is some hazard to the young plants from drought and heat in summer, and to an occasional frost in winter when the ground is bare. East of the States named, it would probably be correct to say that the highest adaptation is found in New York and Pennsylvania, particularly the former, in many parts of which excellent crops are grown. In various parts of the New England States good crops may also be grown. Much of the soil in these is not sufficiently fertile to grow clover as it can be grown in the more Central States. The same is true of the States of Delaware, Maryland and Eastern Virginia, east of the Rocky Mountains, south from the Canadian boundary and west from Minnesota, Iowa and Missouri, but little success has heretofore attended the efforts to grow medium red clover. This statement does not apply equally to Eastern Nebraska and Kansas. Usually the climate is not moist enough in summer, the sweep of the cold winds is too great in winter, the snowfall is usually insufficient to protect the plants, and it may be also that the requisite bacteria is lacking in the soil. Sometime, however, these adverse conditions may in part be overcome by man's resourcefulness. In parts of States that lie south of the 37th parallel, it may be found profitable to grow crops of medium red clover; but in these, other legumes, as crimson clover, cow peas and soy beans, will probably furnish food more reliably and more cheaply. In Canada the highest all-round adaptation for clover is in Ontario and Quebec, unless it be the mountain valleys and tide lands of British Columbia. Because of the high adaptation in the soil of the two provinces first named, and the plentifulness of the snowfall, clover in these is one of the surest of the crops grown. The maritime provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward's Island, particularly the former, have soils a little too hungry to produce the highest returns in clover. On the open prairies between Ontario and the Rocky Mountains, not much success has attended the attempts to grow any kind of clover, owing probably to present uncongeniality in soils and more especially in climatic conditions. However, there are good reasons for believing that with the introduction of hardy varieties and through the use of Northern grown seed, an inoculated soil, where inoculation may be necessary, that medium red clover will yet be grown over wide areas in all the provinces of Northwestern Canada, south of and including the Saskatchewan valley. =Soils.=--Fortunately, this most useful plant will grow in a considerable variety of soils, though, of course, not equally well. Highest in general suitability, probably, are clay loams underlaid with a moderately porous clay subsoil. They should at the same time be moist and reasonably well stored with humus. On such a soil, in a climate with sufficient rainfall and properly distributed, a stand of clover should be looked upon as reasonably certain any season when properly sown. It would also be correct to say that on the volcanic soils of the mountain States in the West, clover will grow equally well when supplied with moisture, and in these it is also very tenacious of life. Next in adaptation are what may be termed loam soils, also underlaid with clay. The proportion of the clay in them will exercise an important influence on the growth of the clover. Loamy sands will grow clover better than sandy loams, although both are very suitable, the other conditions being right. It would seem to be correct to assign third place to stiff clays, whether of the white or red cast. The better that these are supplied with vegetable matter, and the more moist the season, the better is the stand of the clover likely to be. In seasons that are generally favorable, excellent crops of clover may be obtained from such soils, but in dry seasons it is easy to secure a good stand of the plants. They are also considerably liable to heave in these soils in the spring of the year from the action of the frost. The more perfectly they are drained, the less will be the injury from this source, but it is scarcely possible to drain such lands so perfectly that there will be no loss of clover plants in these from the source named in the winters, characterized by frequent rains, accompanied by frequent alternations of freezing and thawing. The loss from this source in such lands varies from nothing at all to 100 per cent. Nearly, if not equal to the former, are dark loam soils with a gravel or sand drainage underneath, providing, first, that the sand and gravel do not come too near the surface, and second, that the normal rainfall is sufficient. On such soils it seldom fails to grow, is not liable to heave in the winter or spring, and usually produces excellent crops when these soils are properly tilled. It has special adaptation for being grown on calcareous or limy soils. It also, usually, grows well on soils underlaid with yellow clay of more or less tenacity. The black humus soils of the prairie vary much in their suitability for growing medium red clover. Much depends on the clay content in such soils. The more of this element in them and the nearer an underlying clay subsoil is to the surface, the better will this clover grow on them. In large areas of the prairie, red clover will grow more successfully on the subsoil when laid bare than when on the surface soil. It has been the experience in many instances that when the humus soils of the prairie, porous and spongy in character, were first tilled, clover grew on them so shyly that it was difficult to get a good stand of the same until it had been sown for several seasons successively or at intervals. Eventually, good crops were grown on these lands, and are now being grown on them. This was the experience that faced a majority of the first settlers on the prairie where excellent crops are now being grown, and it is the experience which faces many to-day, who are located on sections of the prairie but newly broken. Two reasons may be given by way of explanation, but these may not furnish all the reasons for the experience just referred to. First, much of the land was so porous in its nature that in dry seasons the young plants perished for want of moisture. As such lands become worn through cropping, they lie more firmly and compactly; hence, there is less loss of moisture through the free penetration of the soil within a short distance of the surface of the dry atmosphere. And second, the requisite bacteria is not in these soils until it is brought to them by sowing seed repeatedly, more or less of which grows, and in growing increases the bacteria in the soil until that point is reached when good crops of clover can be grown with the usual regularity. The suitability of sandy and gravelly lands for growing clover depends much on the amount of plant food which they contain, on the character of the climate, and on the subsoil. Such soils when possessed of some loam when underlaid with clay, and in a climate with 20 inches and more per annum of rainfall, usually grow good crops of clover; but when conditions the opposite prevail, the growth of this plant is precarious. However, when sandy or gravelly soils low in fertility are underlaid with the same and the rainfall is sufficient, good crops of clover may be grown if these soils are first sufficiently supplied with vegetable matter and then sufficiently fertilized. Muck soils do not seem to have the proper elements for growing clover in the best form. But when these have in them some clay, and especially when they are underlaid with clay not distant from the surface, they will grow good crops of clover, especially of the alsike variety. Thus it is that lands which have grown black ash and tamarack generally make good clover lands also. But clover will not succeed well on unreduced peaty soils, since it is not able in these to gather food supplies. But when sufficiently reduced, some kinds of clover will succeed better on these than on some other soils. Deposit soils, such as are found in the bottom lands of rivers and streams, vary much in the suitability for growing clover, owing to the great differences in the compositions; but since they are usually possessed of sufficient friability, fertility and moisture, good crops of clover may generally be grown upon them where the climatic conditions are suitable. The injury from overflow on such soils will depend on the depth of the same and its duration, also the season of the year when it occurs. Overflow in the spring season before growth has begun, or when it is about starting, will be helpful rather than harmful, especially if some deposit is left on the land by the subsiding waters. But if the overflow should be deep and of any considerable duration, and, moreover, if it should occur when the clover was somewhat advanced in growth, and in hot weather, the submergence of the clover would probably be fatal to it. It may be proper to state here that the lands which grow hardwood timber will usually grow clover. By hardwood timber is meant such trees as maple, beech, birch, oak, elm, basswood, butternut and walnut. Where forests are found comprising one or more varieties of these trees anywhere on this continent, and especially comprising several of them, the conclusion is safe that medium red clover will grow, or, at least, can be grown, on such soils. If a considerable sprinkling of pine trees is found in the same, the indications are not changed in consequence. Where the forest is largely composed of maple and birch, excellent crops of clover may be looked for when the land has been cleared. But because of what has been said, the conclusion must not be reached that clover will not grow well under some conditions where soft woods abound, but rather that where the former abound the indications of suitability for clover production are more certain than where soft timbers abound. =Place in the Rotation.=--Medium red clover may be made to precede or to follow almost any crop that is grown upon the farm. Notwithstanding, there are certain crops which it precedes or follows with much more advantage than others. Since it brings nitrogen to the soil from the air and deposits the same for the benefit of the crops that immediately follow, it is advantageous to plant such crops after it as require much nitrogen to make them productive, as, for instance, wheat. Since, through the medium of its roots, it stores the ground with humus, such crops should come after it as feed generously on humus, as, for instance, corn and potatoes. And since it tends to lessen weed growth through smothering, it may with advantage be followed by crops for which a clean seed bed is specially advantageous, as flax. It may, therefore, be followed with much advantage by wheat, oats or barley, corn and sorghum in all their varieties, flax, potatoes, field roots, vegetables and such small fruits as strawberries. Where wheat is a success it is usually first grown among the small cereal grains after clover, since it is less able to flourish under the conditions which become decreasingly favorable in the years that follow the breaking up of the clover. Whether wheat or flax, corn or potatoes should immediately follow the growing of clover, should be determined in great part by the immediate necessity for growing one or the other of these crops, but also to some extent by the crops that are to follow them. Clover may follow such crops as require cultivation while they are growing, and of a character that will clean the soil. This means that it may with advantage be made to follow corn, sorghum, potatoes or field roots. It may also follow the summer fallow bare, or producing crops for being plowed under where these come into the rotation. Of course, since clover can to a considerable extent supply its own nitrogen, it may be successfully grown on lands that are not clean, and that may not possess high fertility, but when thus sown the nurse crop with which it is usually sown is not likely to succeed well, because of the presence of weeds in it, and from the same cause the quality of the first of the clover is likely to be much impaired. The conditions of the time of sowing are also less favorable for getting a stand of the seed. There is probably no rotation in which clover may be grown with more advantage than when it is made to alternate with corn or potatoes and some small cereal grains, as wheat or oats, growing each crop for but one season. Of course the clover must be sown with the grain and harvested the following year, taking from it two cuttings. In no other form of rotation, perhaps, can clover be used to better advantage, nor would there seem to be any other way in which land may be made to produce abundantly for so large a term of years without fertilization other than that given to the soil by the clover. It would fully supply the needs of the crops alternating with it in the line of humus, and also in that of nitrogen. In time the supply of phosphoric acid and potash might run low, but not for a long term of years. The cultivation given to the corn and potatoes would keep the land clean. Fortunate is the neighborhood in which a rotation may be practised, and fortunate are the tillers of the soil who are in a position to adopt it. Medium red clover may be followed with much advantage by certain catch crops sown at various times through the season of growth. It may be pastured in the spring for several weeks, and the land then plowed and sowed with millet or rape, or planted with corn, sorghum, late potatoes, or certain vegetables, or it may be allowed to grow for several weeks and then plowed, to be followed by one or the other of these crops. It may also be harvested for hay in time to follow it with millet or rape for pasture, and under some conditions with fodder corn. But when the stand of clover is good, it would usually be profitable to utilize the clover for food rather than the crops mentioned, since doing so would involve but little labor and outlay. After the second cutting for the season, winter rye may be grown as a catch crop by growing it as a pasture crop. =Preparing the Soil.=--Speaking in a general way, it would be correct to say that it would not be easy to get soil in too friable a condition for the advantageous reception of medium red clover seed. In other words, it does not often happen that soils are in too fine tilth to sow seed upon them without such fineness resulting in positive benefit to the plants. The exceptions would be clays of fine texture in climates subject to rainfalls so heavy as to produce impaction. On the other hand, the hazard would be even greater to sow clover on these soils when in a cloddy condition. The rootlets would not then be able to penetrate the soil with sufficient ease to find enough food and moisture to properly nourish them. Some soils are naturally friable, and in these a tilth sufficiently fine can be realized ordinarily with but little labor. Other soils, as stiff clays, frequently require much labor to bring them into the condition required. Usually, however, if sufficient time elapses between the plowing of the land and the sowing of the seed, this work may be materially lessened by using the harrow and roller judiciously soon after rainfall. When preparing prairie soils so open that they will lift with the wind, the aim should be to firm them rather than to render them more open and porous; otherwise they will not retain sufficient moisture to properly sustain the young plants, if prolonged dry weather follows the sowing of the seed. Plowing such land in the autumn aids in securing such density. The same result follows summerfallowing the land or growing upon it a cultivated crop after the bare fallow, or after the cultivated crop has been harvested prior to the sowing of the clover seed, otherwise the desired firmness of the land will be lessened, and weed seeds will be brought to the surface, which will produce plants to the detriment of the clover. In preparing such lands for the seed, cultivation near the surface is preferable to plowing. When the clover is sown late in the season, as is sometimes the case, in locations where the winters are comparatively mild, the ground may be made reasonably clean before the seed is sown, by stirring it occasionally at intervals before sowing the seed. This is done with some form of harrow or weeder, and, of course, subsequently to the plowing of the land. =Sowing.=--The time for sowing clover seed is influenced considerably by the climatic conditions. Under some conditions it may be sown in the early autumn. It may be thus sown in the Southern States and with much likelihood that a stand will be secured, yet in some instances an inauspicious winter proves disastrous to the plants: all things considered, it is probably safer to sow clover in the South at that season than the spring, when vegetation is beginning to start. It may also succeed in some instances in areas well to the North when sown in the early autumn, providing snow covers the ground all the winter, but should the snow fail to come the subsequent winter, or fail to lie when it does come, the clover plants would perish. The element of hazard, therefore, is too great in northerly areas to justify sowing the seed thus. But on the bench lands of the mountain valleys there may be instances in which the seed may be sown so late in the autumn that it will not sprout before winter sets in, but lies in the soil ready to utilize the moisture, so all important in those areas, as soon as the earliest growth begins in the spring. The seed may be sown with no little assurance of success in the late summer. But this can only be done where moisture is reasonably plentiful from the time of sowing onward, and where the winters are not really severe. In some of the Central States this method of sowing may succeed reasonably well. Clover and timothy sown thus without any nurse crop will produce a full crop the next season. When the seed is sown thus, it may, of course, be made to follow a crop grown on the land the same season. It may also insure a crop the following season, when the clover seed sown the spring previously may for some reason have failed. While medium red clover is frequently sown in the South and in some areas of the far West in the months of January and February on the snow, in the North it is usually sown in the early spring. This also is in a great majority of instances the best time for sowing. In many locations it may be sown with safety as soon as the winter snows have gone. On the whole, the earlier that it is sown in the spring the better, that the young plants may have all the benefit possible from the moisture, which is more abundant than later. But there are certain areas, as, for instance, in the northerly limits of the Mississippi basin, in which young clover plants perish by frost after they have germinated. This, however, does not happen very frequently. When the seed is sown on the snow, or while the ground is yet in a honeycombed condition from early frost, it must of necessity be sown early. But where the hazard is present that the young plants will be killed by frost, it will be safer to defer sowing the seed until it can be covered with the harrow when sown. Whether it will be more advisable to sow the seed on bare ground earlier than the season when growth begins, or to sow later and cover with the harrow, will depend to a considerable degree upon the soil and the condition in which it happens to be. On timber soils newly cleaned the early sowing would be quite safe where the young plants are not liable to be killed after germination, because of the abundance of humus in them. On the same soils, early sowing would probably be preferable, even when much reduced in humus, providing they were in a honeycombed condition at the time of sowing. This condition is far more characteristic of clay and clay loam soils, than of those sandy in texture. To sow the seed on clay soils that are worn would be to throw it away, unless in a most favorable season for growth. The same would prove true of the sandy soils low in humus, since these do not honeycomb at any season. Seed sown on honeycombed ground falls into openings made in the soil, and is covered by the action of the frost and the sun on the same. The rule should be to defer sowing the seed where the ground does not honeycomb until it can be covered with the harrow. In some instances the seed is sown successfully just after a light fall of snow in the spring. The seed is carried down into little crevices or fissures in the soil when these are present, but the seed should not be thus sown. Usually it is not quite safe to sow clover seed where the winter snow still lingers to any considerable depth, lest much of it should be carried down to the lower lands by the sudden melting of the snows. The chief advantage of sowing before the ground can be harrowed arises from the benefit which the young plants derive from the plentiful supply of moisture in the soil at that season. They are more firmly rooted than plants sown later, and, therefore, can better withstand the dry weather that frequently characterizes the later months of the summer. There is also the further advantage that the labor of harrowing at a season that is usually a busy one is dispensed with. Various modes of sowing clover seed have been adopted. Sometimes it is sown by hand. In other instances a sower is used which is strapped to the shoulder and turned with a crank. Sometimes the seed is sown by a distributor, which is wheeled over the ground on a frame resembling that of a wheelbarrow. Again, it is sown with a seeder attachment to the ordinary grain drill or to the broadcast seeder, and yet again with the grain in the ordinary drill tubes, or scattered with the same by the broadcast seeder; which of these methods should be adopted will depend on such conditions as relate to season, climate and soil. The seed may be sown by hand at almost any time desired, whether it is covered or not. The advantages of hand sowing are that it may be done under some conditions when no other method will answer as well, as, for instance, when it is sown upon snow or upon the ground honeycombed. The disadvantages are that it takes more time than some of the other methods, especially when the sower only scatters the seed with one hand, that it cannot be thus sown when the wind blows stiffly or fitfully, and most of all, only a limited number of persons who sow seed are thus able to sow it with complete regularity. A still time should, if possible, be chosen for hand sowing; such a time is usually found in the early morning. When one hand is used, the seed may be sown from a light dish or pail or sowing-bag, but when both hands are used a sowing-box or a sowing-sack suspended in front of the breast is necessary. Clover seed may be sown when a considerable breeze is blowing by having a due regard to the wind. When facing it, the cast of seed should be low; when going before the wind it should be high. But when the wind is blowing at right angles, much care must be observed by the sower as to where he walks, in relation to the cast that is being sown. When the seed is sown on grain that has been drilled, the rows of grain will suffice to serve as a guide to the sower, and when the grain is not up, the drill marks may be made to serve the same end. The advantages of the hand seeder held in place by straps are that the sowing may be done by an individual who cannot sow by hand, that the seed may be easily distributed and that it may be used with advantage in sowing seed among brush. The disadvantages are that it cannot be used when much wind is stirring, and when using it stakes are sometimes necessary for the guidance of the sower. The advantages from using the seeder wheeled over the ground are that the work may be done by any one able to wheel the seeder, that the seed is distributed evenly, that it may be sown when a fairly stiff wind is blowing, and that stakes are not necessary for the guidance of the sower, as the distance of the cast may be gauged at least fairly well by the wheel marks made. One disadvantage is that it cannot be used with much satisfaction on certain soils when the ground is cloddy or frozen, or when it is wet. There is also the disadvantage to all three methods of sowing by hand, that it is frequently necessary to provide a covering for the seed by subsequently using the harrow. The advantages from sowing with the seeder attachment to the grain drill are that the seed may be made to fall before or behind the tubes as may be desired, or it may be sown with the seed along with the grain, and that when sown by any of these methods there is much saving of time as compared with sowing by hand. In some sections of the prairie the seed is sown with the grain drill by driving the same across the newly sown grain rows. If necessary to insure sufficiently thin sowing, the seed should be first mixed with some substance such as common salt. In the moist areas of the upper Atlantic coast, Ontario and the Puget Sound region, the seed is frequently made to fall behind the grain tubes on clay and clay loam soils, and is covered by running the roller over the ground subsequently; but in States more inland the seed is usually made to fall before the drill tubes, when, in some instances, the sowing of the grain will provide a sufficient covering; but in others the harrow is used in addition, and sometimes both the harrow and the roller. When clover seed is sown along with grain and by the same tubes, it will in some soils be buried too deeply, but in others the objection does not hold good. The young plants are also injured more by shade from the grain, since they grow only in the line of the row along with the grain, and yet this method of sowing clover seed in some localities seems to answer reasonably well. When the broadcast seeder is used in sowing clover seed, time is also saved as compared with hand sowing, but the seed can only fall before the seeder, and must, therefore, be given the same covering as the grain, as, when the seed is sown with the grain drill, it will in some instances be buried too deeply. In other instances it is not so. The depth to which the seed of medium and other clovers ought to be buried should vary with soil and climatic conditions, and with the season of sowing. The more stiff the soil, the more moist the climate, and the earlier that the seed is sown, the less the covering required, and _vice versa_. As has been shown, under certain conditions (see page 22), early sown clover seed does not require any covering artificially given, and sometimes when sown later, a reasonably copious rain will provide sufficient covering, providing it falls quite soon after the sowing of the seed. But in certain of the soft, open, spongy soils of the prairie, it may sometimes be buried to the depth of at least 3 inches, with apparent benefit. Lower than 5 or 6 inches in any soil, clover seed will not germinate till brought nearer the surface. On all soils that lift with the wind, the seed should, as a rule, be buried deeply. Ordinarily, from half an inch to an inch, or an approximation to these distances, is considered a proper depth to bury clover seed. Some authorities recommend sowing medium and other clovers without any nurse crop. The advantages claimed are that more or less of a crop may be obtained the same season, and that a stand of clover is more certain when the seed is sown thus. The first claim is correct in the main. In some localities favored with long seasons for growth, as in certain areas of Missouri, for instance, good yields may be obtained from sowing the seed thus. This has happened even in Minnesota. But in other areas and under other conditions, the yield would be light. In some localities, as, for instance, the Willamette Valley, Oregon, satisfactory returns have been obtained by sowing clover seed and rape seed in May and then pasturing both. The chief objections to sowing clover seed thus are, first, that in a great majority of instances a sufficient stand of the plants may be obtained when the seed is sown with a nurse crop; and second, that when it is not thus sown, the first cutting of the hay will contain more or less of weeds. That a stand is more assured when clover seed is sown alone in areas where adverse weather conditions prevail cannot be disputed. Nevertheless, the fact remains that whenever in order to get a stand of a short-lived crop, like clover, it is necessary to sow it alone, and in many instances get but little return the same season, it will be well to consider if there is not some more satisfactory way of securing a crop that will prove an equivalent. In northerly areas the stubbles of the nurse crop frequently render substantial service to the clover by holding the snow on the crop, and also by protecting it more or less from the effect of the cold winds. The old-time practice of sowing clover with a nurse crop is likely to be continued, notwithstanding that it has some disadvantages. These disadvantages include the following: 1. The young plants are liable to be weakened by the crowding and by overmuch shading from the grain when it grows rankly and thickly, and to such an extent that they perish; 2. When the grain lodges, as it frequently does, on rich ground, the clover plants underneath the lodged portions succumb from want of light; 3. Where the supply of moisture is low, in the struggle for the same between the stronger plants of the nurse crop and the weaker plants of the clover, the former secures the larger share. As a result, when the nurse crop is harvested, should the weather prove hot and dry beyond a certain degree, the clover plants will die. This is an experience not at all uncommon on the loose prairie soils of the upper Mississippi basin. Injury from crowding and overshading may be prevented, or at least lessened, by pasturing the nurse crop with sheep for a time, at an early stage in its growth. The lodging of the grain may also be prevented by the same means. Injury from drought may also be lessened by cutting the crop at the proper stage of advancement, and making it into hay, as in the ripening stage of growth it draws most heavily on the moisture in the soil. The oat crop is the most suitable for being thus dealt with. Clover seed may be sown with any of the small cereal grains as a nurse crop, but not with equal advantage. Rye, barley, wheat and oats are probably suitable in the order named. Rye shades less than wheat and oats and is harvested early; hence, its suitability for a nurse crop. Winter rye and winter wheat are more suitable than spring varieties of the same, since, on these the crop may usually be sown earlier, and the soil is likely to lose less moisture from surface evaporation. The marked suitability of barley as a nurse crop arises chiefly from the short period which it occupies the ground. Nor is the shade so dense as from grains that grow taller. Oats are the least suitable of all the crops named as a nurse crop, since they are characterized by a dense growth of leaves, which shut out the sunlight too much when the growth is rank. Notwithstanding, the oat crop may well serve such an end when sown thinly and cut for hay. Mixed grains grown together, as, for instance, wheat and oats, or a mixture of the three, answer quite as well for a nurse crop as clover and oats. The objection to them for such use arises from the fact that they are frequently sown more thickly than grain sown alone. Clover may also be sown with flax or millet or mixed grains grown to provide soiling food. When the weather is moist, it is likely to succeed well with flax, as the latter does not form so dense a shade when it is growing as some other crops. But flax is usually sown so much later than these crops, that in some climates the dry weather following injures and in some instances destroys the young plants. The dense shade furnished by millet is also detrimental to the clover plants; nevertheless, owing to the short period which the former occupies the ground, under favorable conditions a stand of clover may be secured. But since millet is sown later than flax, it frequently happens that there is not sufficient moisture in the soil to sustain both crops. Mixed grains sown as soiling food are usually sown reasonably early, and as they are cut before maturity, the danger is so far lessened that the young plants will perish from want of moisture, but since these crops are usually grown thickly and on rich land, owing to the dense character of the growth, the plants are much more likely to be injured by the dense shade thus provided. Clover seed may also be sown with corn and certain other crops that are usually grazed down, as rape and mixed grains. When sown with corn, the seed is usually scattered over the ground just before the last cultivation given to the corn. Attention is now being given to the introduction of cultivators which scatter such seeds as clover and rape in front of them, and so preclude the necessity for hand sowing. From Central Ohio southward, this method of securing a stand of clover will succeed in corn-growing areas, the other conditions being right. North from the areas named, the young clover plants may be winter killed when the seed is sown thus. The less dense the shade furnished by the corn, and the less dry the weather subsequently to sowing the seed, the better will be the stand of the plants secured. When sown with rape that has been broadcast, clover usually makes a good stand, providing the rape crop is not sown too late in the season. When the rape is grazed down, the grazing does not appear to materially injure the clover, and when the shade has been removed by such grazing, the clover plants may be expected to make a vigorous growth on such land. In northerly areas, clover seed may be sown along with rape seed as late as the end of May. If sown later than that time, the season may prove too short subsequently to the grazing of the rape to allow the plants to gather sufficient strength to carry them safely through northern winters. When clover seed is sown with rape, the seeds may be mixed and sown together. Clover seed in several of the varieties may be successfully sown on certain grain crops grown to provide grazing, especially when these are sown early. Such pastures may consist of any one of the small cereal grains, or more than one, or of all of them. The seed may be sown in these the same as with any crop sown to furnish grain. A stand of clover may thus be secured under some conditions in which the clover would perish if sown along with the grain to be harvested; under other conditions it would not succeed so well. The former include soils so open as to readily lose moisture by surface evaporation. The tramping of the animals on these increases their power to hold moisture, the grazing down of the grain lessens its demands upon the same, thus leaving more for the clover plants, and they are further strengthened by the freer access of sunlight. The latter include firm, stiff clays in rainy climates. To pasture these when thus sown, if moist beyond a certain degree, would result in so impacting them that the yield of the pasture would be greatly decreased in consequence. Medium red clover is quite frequently sown alone; that is, without admixture with clovers or grasses. It is always sown thus when it is to be plowed under, as green manure. It is also usually sown alone in rotations where it is to be cropped or grazed for one year. But when grown for meadow, which is to remain longer than one season, it is commonly sown along with timothy. The first year after sowing, the crop is chiefly clover, and subsequently it is chiefly timothy. Orchard grass or tall oat grass, or both, may also be sown along with medium red clover, since these are ready for being cut at the same time as the clover. When medium red clover is sown to provide pasture for periods of limited duration, it is frequently sown along with alsike clover and timothy. Sometimes a moderate amount of alfalfa seed is added. But in arable soils in the semi-arid West, these will provide pastures for many years in succession, if supplied with moisture. The same is true of much of the land west of the Cascades, and without irrigation. East from the Mississippi and for some distance west from it, much of the medium red clover will disappear after being grazed for one season, but the alsike, timothy and alfalfa will endure for a longer period. In permanent pastures, whether few or many varieties of seed are sown, medium red clover is usually included in the mixture. It is sown because of the amount of the grazing which it furnishes the season after sowing, and with the expectation that it will virtually entirely disappear in the pastures in two or three seasons after it has been sown. When medium red clover is sown for being plowed under as green manure, it is always sown with a nurse crop. Some farmers, in localities well adapted to the growth of clover, sow more or less of the medium red variety on all, or nearly all, of the land devoted to the growth of such cereals as rye, wheat, barley and oats, when the land is to be plowed the autumn or spring following. Reduced quantities of seed are used. They believe that the benefit from the young clover plants to the land will more than pay for the cost of the seed and the sowing of the same. The amount of seed to sow will depend on the degree of suitability in the conditions for growing medium red clover. The more favorable these are, the less the necessity for using maximum quantities of seed, and _vice versa_. More seed is required when the clover is not grown with other grasses or clovers than when it is grown with these. When grown without admixture, 16 pounds of seed per acre may be named as the maximum quantity to sow and 8 pounds as the minimum, with 12 pounds as an average. With all the conditions quite favorable, 10 pounds should suffice. In New England and some of the Atlantic States, many growers sow much more seed than the quantities named, and it may be that the necessities of the land call for more. In Great Britain also, considerably larger quantities are sown. When sown in grass or clover mixtures, the amount of the seed required will vary with the other factors of the mixture, and the amount of each that is sown; that is, with the character of the hay or pasture that is sought. The seed is much more frequently sown with timothy than with any other kind of grass, and the average amount of each of these to sow per acre may be put at 8 pounds of clover and 6 pounds of timothy. When other clovers are added, as the mammoth or the alsike, for every pound of the seed of the former added, the seed of the medium red may be reduced by one pound, and for every pound of the alsike added it may be reduced by 1-1/2 pounds. In mixtures for permanent pastures, 6 pounds may be fixed upon as the maximum quantity of medium red clover seed to sow, and 3 pounds as the average quantity. When sown to provide green manure, maximum quantities of seed are used when it is desired to improve the soil quickly. Usually not less than 12 pounds per acre are sown, and quite frequently more. But when the gradual improvement of the land is sought, by sowing the seed on all land devoted to the small cereal grains, not more than 6 pounds per acre are used, and frequently even less than 4 pounds. The greater the hazard to the plants in sowing the seed thus, the less the quantities of the seed that are usually sown, with a view to reduce the loss in case of failure to secure a stand of the clover. A stand of medium red clover is sometimes secured by what may be termed self-sowing. For instance, where clover has been cut for hay and then allowed to mature even but a portion of the seed before being plowed under the same autumn, the seed thus buried remains in the ground without sprouting. When the land is again plowed to the same depth and sown with some kind of grain, the clover seed thus brought to the surface will germinate. If the plowing last referred to is done in the autumn, it ought to be done late rather than early, lest the seed should sprout in the autumn and perish in the winter, or be destroyed by the cultivation given in sowing the grain crop that follows. The same result may be obtained from clover pastured after the first cutting for the season, when the pasturing is not close. When medium red clover is much grown for seed, many of the ripe heads are not cut by the mower, since they lie near the ground, and many break off in the curing process. The seed thus becomes so distributed in the ground, that many plants come up and grow amid the grain every season. These may, of course, be grazed or plowed under for the enrichment of the land, as desired. Seed thus buried is, therefore, not lost by any means. The plants which grow will render much assistance in keeping the land in a good condition of tilth, as well as in enhancing its fertility. When clover seed is much grown, therefore, on any piece of land, the quantity of seed sown may be reduced materially. In fact, it may be so much reduced that it has been found possible to grow clover in rotation for many years without adding seed. The first growth of the clover was taken as hay, and the second growth as seed. The ground was then plowed and a crop of corn was taken. The corn land was then plowed and sown with some cereal, such as wheat, oats or barley. =Pasturing.=--Medium red clover will furnish grazing very suitable for any kind of live stock kept upon the farm. All farm animals relish it, but not so highly as blue grass, when the latter is tender and succulent. No plant is equally suitable in providing pasture for swine, unless it be alfalfa; hence, for that class of stock, it has come to be the staple pasture outside of areas where alfalfa may be readily grown. When desired, the grazing may begin even at a reasonably early stage in the growth of the plants, and it may continue to the end of the pasturing season. Usually it is considered unwise to pasture medium red clover the same season in which it has been sown when sown with a nurse crop. It has been noticed that when so pastured, it does not winter so well, and that the later and more close the pasturing and the colder the winter following, the greater is the hazard from pasturing the clover. This hazard arises chiefly from the exposure of the roots to the sweep of the cold winds. It should be the rule, therefore, not only to refrain from pasturing clover thus, but also to leave the stubbles high when pasturing the grain. Where the snowfall is light and the cold is intense, to leave the stubbles thus high is important, since they aid in holding the snow. But there may be instances when the clover plants grow so vigorously that in places of heavy snowfall, smothering may result unless the mass of vegetation is in some way removed. In such instances, pasturing may be in order; but when practised, the grazing should be with cattle rather than sheep or horses, and it should cease before the covering is removed. There may also be locations where much benefit follows in several ways close, or reasonably close, cutting of the stubbles quite soon after the nurse crop has been harvested. When clover is sown without a nurse crop, it may be not only proper, but advantageous, to pasture it. The grazing should not, however, be continued so late that the plants will not have time to make a sufficiency of growth to protect them in winter. Such grazing is better adapted to areas in which the season of growth is long, rather than short; where weed growth is abundant, as on certain of the soils of the prairie, it may be necessary to call in the aid of the mower once or even twice during the season of growth. When a crop of medium red clover is desired, the surest way to obtain it in good form is to pasture the field during the early part of the season, and closely enough to have the clover eaten down on every part of the field. When it is not so eaten, the mower should be so used that the growth and maturing of the seed crop may be even and uniform. The season for removing the live stock will depend upon latitude and altitude, but it will be correct to say that it ought to be from two to three weeks earlier than the proper season for cutting clover for hay. When clover is not grazed the year that it is sown, in some seasons the stronger plants will bear seed, if allowed. To such an extent does this follow under certain conditions and in certain areas, that a considerable crop of seed could be obtained if this were desired, even as many as 4 or 5 bushels per acre in some instances. But it has been noticed that if thus allowed to produce seed, the effect upon the growth of the crop the next season is decidedly injurious. To prevent such a result the mower should be run over the field as soon as much hazard is certainly apparent, and the earlier in the season that this can be done the better, for the reason that all weeds growing are clipped off, and the clover has also a better chance to provide protection for the winter by growth subsequently made. When there is an over-luxuriant growth in the plants, it may be well to thus mow the field, even though seed should not be produced. The growth made by the plants and the mulch provided by the portion cut make an excellent preparation for entering the cold season. But few pasture crops grown will furnish as much grazing in one season as medium red clover. It will probably furnish the most grazing if allowed to grow up before it is grazed until the stage of bloom is approached or reached, but since it is seldom practicable to graze it down quickly enough after that stage has been reached, and since there is frequently waste from tramping, grazing usually begins, and properly so, at an earlier period. When cattle and sheep graze upon young clover, there is some danger that hoven or bloating may result to the extent of proving quickly fatal if not promptly relieved. The danger is greater if the animals are hungry when turned in upon the clover, and when it is wet with dew or rain, or in a more than ordinarily succulent condition. Such danger may be lessened, if not, indeed, entirely eliminated, by giving the animals access to other food, as dry clover hay, for instance, before turning them in on the pasture, and the danger is always less in proportion as grasses are abundant in the pasture. Should bloating occur, relief must usually be prompt to be effective. In mild cases, certain medicines may bring relief. One of the most potent is the following: Give spirits of turpentine in doses of 1 to 5 tablespoonfuls, according to the size of the animal. Dilute with milk before administering. In bad cases, the paunch should be at once punctured. The best instruments are the trocar and canula, but in the absence of these a pocket knife and goose quill may be made to answer. The puncture is made on the left side, at a point midway between the last rib and hook point, and but a few inches from the backbone. The thrusting instrument should point downward and slightly inward going into the paunch. With much promptness the canula or the quill should be pushed down into the paunch and held there till the gas escapes. Before the tube is withdrawn the contents of the paunch that have risen in the same should be first pushed down. =Harvesting for Hay.=--Medium red clover is at its best for cutting for hay when in full bloom, and when a few of the heads which first bloomed are beginning to turn brown; that is to say, in the later rather than in the earlier stage of full bloom. If cut sooner, the curing of the crop is tedious. If cut later the stalks lose in palatability. But when the weather is showery it may be better to defer cutting even for several days after the clover has reached the proper stage for harvesting, as the injury from rain while the crop is being cured may be greater than the injury from overmaturity in the same before it is mown. When curing the crop, the aim should be to preserve to the greatest extent practicable the loss of the leaves. To accomplish such a result, the clover ought to be protected as far as possible from exposure to dew or rain, and also from excessive exposure to sunshine. Dew injures more or less the color of the hay and detracts from its palatability. Rain intensifies such injury in proportion as the crop being harvested is exposed to it. It also washes out certain substances, which, when present, affect favorably its aroma. The injury from such exposure increases with the interval between cutting and storing the crop. Exposure to successive showers may so seriously injure the hay as to render it almost valueless for feeding. After the mown clover has been exposed in the swath to the sunlight beyond a certain time, it turns brown, and if exposed thus long enough the aroma will be lost. The aim should be, therefore, to cure the clover to the greatest extent practicable by the aid of the wind rather than by that of the sun. The method of procedure to be followed is in outline as given below: Mow as far as possible when the meadow is not wet with rain or dew. Mow in the afternoon rather than the forenoon, as the injury from dew the night following will be less. Stir with the tedder as soon as the clover has wilted somewhat. The tedder should be used once, twice or oftener as the circumstances may require. The heavier the crop and the less drying the weather, the more the tedding that should be given. Sometimes tedding once, and in nearly all instances twice, will be sufficient. The hay should then be raked. It is ready for being raked as soon as the work can be done easily and in an efficient manner. When clover is not dry enough for being raked, the draught on the rake will be unnecessarily heavy, the dumping of the hay will be laborious, and it does not rake as clean as it would if the hay were in a fit condition for being raked. The aim should be to have the crop put up in heaps, usually called "cocks," but sometimes called "coils," before the second night arrives after the mowing of the clover; and in order to accomplish this, it may be necessary to work on until the shades of evening are drawing near. When there is a reasonable certainty that the weather shall continue dry, it is quite practicable to cure clover in the winrow, but in showery weather to attempt to do so would mean ruin to the clover. In no form does it take injury so quickly from rain as in the winrow, and when rain saturates it, much labor is involved in spreading it out again. Nor is it possible to make hay quite so good in quantity when clover is cured in the winrow, as the surface exposed to the sunshine is much greater than when it is mixed with timothy or some other grass that purpose, nevertheless, to cure it thus, especially when it is mixed with timothy or some other grass that cures more easily and readily than clover. It may also be taken up with the hay-loader when cured thus, which very much facilitates easy storing. But when it is to be lifted with the hay-loader, the winrows should be made small rather than large. When the clover is to be put up into cocks, these should be small rather than large, if quick curing is desired. In making these, skilled labor counts for much. The cocks are simply little miniature stacks. The part next to the ground has less diameter than the center of the cock. As each forkful is put on after the first, the fork is turned over so that the hay spreads out over the surface of the heap as it is being deposited. Smaller forkfuls are put on as the top is being reached. The center is kept highest when making the cock. Each one may be made to contain about 100 pounds and upward of cured hay, but in some instances they should not contain more than half the amount to facilitate drying. When the heap has become large enough, the inverted fork should be made to draw down on every side the loose portions, which in turn are put upon the top of the cock. Such trimming is an important aid to the shedding of rain. An expert hand will put up one of these cocks of hay in less time than it takes to read about how it is done. A light rain will not very much injure a crop of clover after it has been put up into cocks, but a soaking rain will probably penetrate them to the bottom. To guard against this, in localities where the rainfall may be considerable in harvest time, hay caps are frequently used. These may be made from a good quality of unbleached muslin or strong cotton, or they may be obtained from some of those who deal in tent awnings and stack covers. When of good quality and well cared for they should last for 10 to 20 years. Care should be taken in putting them on lest the wind which frequently precedes a thunder storm should blow them away. The pins used at the corners of the caps should be carefully and firmly inserted in the hay or the ground, or the caps should have sufficiently heavy weights attached to them at the corners to prevent their lifting with the wind. In putting up the hay the size of the cocks should be adjusted to the size of the covers used. One person should apply the covers as quickly as two will put up the hay. When clover hay is put up into cocks, it undergoes what is termed the "heating" process; that is, it becomes warm in the center of the heaps up to a certain point, after which the heat gradually leaves it. The heat thus generated is proportionate to the size of the cocks and the amount of moisture in the clover. The sweating process usually covers two or three days, after which the hay is ready for being stored. When clover is cured in the winrow, it does not go through the sweating process to the same extent as when cured in the cock; hence, it is liable to sweat in the mow, and to such an extent as to induce mold, if it has been stored away with moisture in it beyond a certain degree. If a wisp of clover is taken from the least cured portion of the winrow or cock, and twisted between the hands, it is considered ready for being stored if no liquid is discernible. If overcured, when thus twisted it will break asunder. A skilled workman can also judge fairly well of the degree of the curing by the weight when lifted with the fork. Under some conditions, it may be advisable to "open out" the cocks two or three hours before drawing them, that the hot sunshine may remove undue moisture. When this is done, if the cocks are taken down in distinct forkfuls, as it were, each being given a place distinct from the others, the lifting of these will be much easier than if the clover in each cock had been strewn carelessly over the ground. The lowest forkful in the cock should be turned over, since the hay in it will have imbibed more or less of dampness from the ground. But in some instances the weather for harvesting is so favorable that the precaution is unnecessary of thus opening out the cocks or even of making them at all. =Storing.=--Storing clover under cover is far preferable to putting it up in stacks, except in rainless climates. With the aid of the hay-loader in lifting it from winrows in the field, and of the hay fork in unloading, the hand labor in storing is greatly reduced, but when it is unloaded with the horse fork, the aim should be to dump the hay from the fork on different parts of the mow or stack, lest it should become too solidly pressed together under the dump, and heat and mold in consequence. When the hay is stacked, especially in climates of considerable rainfall, a bottom should be prepared on which to stack it. This may be made of poles or rails. A few of these should first be laid one way on the ground and parallel, and others across them. Where such material cannot be had, old straw or hay of but little value should be spread over the stack bottom to a considerable depth. Where these precautions are not taken, the hay in the bottom of the stack will be spoiled for some distance upward by moisture ascending from the ground. In building the stack, the center should be kept considerably higher than the outer edges, that rain may be shed, and the width of the same should increase up to at least two-thirds of the height, the better to protect the hay underneath. The tramping should be even, or the hay in settling will draw to one side, and the topping out should be gradual rather than abrupt. In topping out a clover stack some hay should be used not easily penetrated by rain, as, for instance, blue grass obtained from fence corners, or slough hay obtained from marshes. The last-named is better put on green. If the clover is not thus protected, a considerable quantity will spoil on the top of the stacks. It is not a good hay to turn rain. The shape of the stack should in a considerable degree be determined by its size. It is probably preferable to make small stacks round, since they are more easily kept in shape, but large stacks should be long rather than round, as large, round stacks call for undue height in bringing them to a top. Because of the ease with which rain penetrates clover, it is very desirable to have it put under a roof. Where it cannot be protected by the roof of a barn or stable, the aim should be to store it in a hay shed; that is to say, a frame structure, open on all sides and covered with a roof. Such sheds may be constructed in a timber country without great cost. Should the clover hay be stored a little undercured, some growers favor sowing salt, say, from 4 to 8 quarts over each load when spread over the mow. They do so under the conviction that its preservative qualities will be to some extent efficacious in preventing the hay from molding, and that it adds to the palatability of the hay. While it may render some service in both of these respects, it would seem probable that the benefits claimed have been overrated. The more frequently clover hay is handled, the more is its feeding value impaired, because of the loss of heads and leaves which attend each handling of the crop. Because of this, it is not so good a crop for baling as timothy, and also for other reasons. It should be the aim when storing it for home feeding to place it where it can be fed as far as possible directly from the place of storage. In the location of hay sheds, therefore, due attention should be given to this matter. In climates that are moist, some growers store clover in a mow when it has only reached the wilting stage in the curing process. When thus stored it is preserved on the principle which preserves silage. The aim is when storing to exclude the air as far as possible by impacting the mass of green clover through its own weight, aided by tramping. It should be more or less wilted before being stored, according to the succulence in it, and it is considered highly important that it shall also be free from external moisture. When thus stored it should be in large mows, and it should be well tramped, otherwise the impaction may not be sufficient. To this method of storage there are the following objections: 1. The hay has to be handled while it is yet green and wet. 2. There is hazard that much of the hay will be spoiled in unskilled hands. 3. Under the most favorable conditions more or less of the clover is pretty certain to mold near the edges of the mass. Where clover can be made into hay in the ordinary way without incurring much hazard of spoiling, the practice of storing it away in the green form, except in a silo, would seem of questionable propriety. The making of clover into ensilage is discussed in the book "Soiling Crops and the Silo" by the author. =Securing Seed.=--As a rule, seed is not produced from the first cutting for the season of medium red clover. It is claimed that this is due to lack of pollenization in the blossoms, and because they are in advance of the active period of working in bumble bees, the medium through which fertilization is chiefly effected. This would seem to be a sufficient explanation as to why medium red clover plants will frequently bear seed the first year, if allowed to, though the first cutting from older plants will have little or no seed. But it is claimed that the ordinary honey bee may be and is the medium for fertilizing alsike and small white clover, but not that through which the mammoth variety is fertilized. Experience has shown, further, that, as a rule, better crops of clover seed may be obtained from clover that has been pastured off than from that which has been mown for hay, although to this rule there are some exceptions. This arises, in part, from the fact that the energies of the plant have been less drawn upon in producing growth, and, therefore, can produce superior seed heads and seed, and in part from the further fact that there is usually more moisture in the soil at the season when the plants which have been pastured off are growing. There would seem to be some relation between the growing of good crops of clover seed and pasturing the same with sheep. It has been claimed that so great is the increase of seed in some instances from pasturing with sheep till about June 1st, say, in the latitude of Ohio, that the farmer who has no sheep could afford to give the grazing to one who has, because of the extra return in seed resulting. The best crops of seed are obtained when the growth is what may be termed medium or normal. Summers, therefore, that are unusually wet or dry are not favorable to the production of clover seed. If weeds are growing amid the clover plants that are likely to mature seed, they should, where practicable, be removed. The Canada thistle, ragweed, plantain and burdock are among the weeds that may thus ripen seeds in medium clover. When not too numerous they can be cut with the spud. When too numerous to be thus cut, where practicable, they should be kept from seeding with the aid of the scythe. To prevent them from maturing is important, as the seeds of certain weeds cannot be separated from those of clover with the fanning mill, they are so alike in size. The crop is ready for being cut when the heads have all turned brown, except a few of the smaller and later ones. It may be cut by the mower as ordinarily used, by the mower, with a board or zinc platform attachment to the cutter bar, by the self-rake reaper, or by the grain binder. The objection to the first method is that the seed has to be raked and that the raking results in the loss of much seed; to the second, that it calls for an additional man to rake off the clover; and to the third, that the binder is heavier than the self-rake reaper. The latter lays the clover off in loose sheaves. These may be made large or small, as desired, and if care is taken to lay them off in rows, the lifting of the crop is rendered much easier. When the clover is cut with the mower, it should be raked into winrows while it is a little damp, as, for instance, in the evening. If raked in the heat of the day many of the heads will break off and will thus be lost. From the winrows it is lifted with large forks. When the crop is laid off in sheaves it may be necessary to turn them once, even in the absence of rain, but frequently this is not necessary. In the turning process gentle handling is important, lest much of the seed should be lost. The seed heads of a mature crop break off very easily in the hours of bright sunshine. Rather than turn the sheaves over, it may be better, in many instances, just to lift them with a fork with many tines, and set them down easily again on ground which is not damp under them, like unto that from which they have been removed. Clover seed may be stored in the barn or stack, or it may be threshed directly in the field or from the same. The labor involved in handling the crop is less when it is threshed at once than by any other method, but frequently at such a busy season it is not easily possible to secure the labor required for this work. It is usually ready for being threshed in two or three days after the crop has been cut, but when the weather is fair it may remain in the field for as many weeks after being harvested without any serious damage to the seed. If, however, the straw, or "haulm," as it is more commonly called, is to be fed to live stock, the more quickly that the threshing is done after harvesting, the more valuable will the haulm be for such a use. When stored in the barn or stack, it is common to defer threshing until the advent of frosty weather, for the reason, first, that the seed is then more easily separated from the chaff which encases it; and second, that farm work is not then so pressing. When threshed in or directly from the field, bright weather ought to be chosen for doing the work, otherwise more or less of the seed will remain in the chaff. In lifting the crop for threshing or for storage, much care should be exercised, as the heads break off easily. The fork used in lifting it, whether with iron or with wooden prongs, should have these long and so numerous that in lifting the tines would go under rather than down through the bunch to be lifted. The wagon rack should also be covered with canvas, if all the seed is to be saved. If stored in stacks much care should be used in making these, as the seed crop in the stack is even more easily injured by rain than the hay crop. The covering of old hay of some kind that will shed rain easily should be most carefully put on. Years ago the idea prevailed that clover seed could not be successfully threshed until the straw had, in a sense, rotted in the field by lying exposed in the same for several weeks. The introduction of improved machinery has dispelled this idea. The seed is more commonly threshed by a machine made purposely for threshing clover called a "clover huller." The cylinder teeth used in it are much closer than in the ordinary grain separator. The sieves are also different, and the work is less rapidly done than if done by the former. During recent years, however, the seed is successfully threshed with an ordinary grain threshing machine, and the work of threshing is thus more expeditiously done. Certain attachments are necessary, but it is claimed that not more than an hour is necessary to put these in place, or to prepare the machine again for threshing grain. Since the seed is not deemed sufficiently clean for market as it comes from the machine, it should be carefully winnowed by running it through a fanning mill with the requisite equipment of sieves. It is important that this work should be carefully done if the seed is to grade as No. 1 in the market. If it does not, the price will be discounted in proportion as it falls below the standard. A certain proportion of the seed thus separated will be small and light. This, if sold at all, must be sold at a discount. If mixed with weed seeds it should be ground and fed to some kind of stock. The haulm, when the seed crop has been well saved, has some feeding value, especially for cattle. If not well saved it is only fit for litter, but even when thus used its fertilizing value is about two-thirds that of clover hay. More or less seed remains in the chaff, and because of this the latter is sometimes drawn and strewn over pastures, or in certain by places where clover plants are wanted. Seed sown in the chaff has much power to grow, owing, it is thought, to the ability of the hull enclosing the seed to hold moisture. The yields in the seed crops of medium red clover vary all the way from 1 to 8 bushels per acre. The average yields under certain conditions are from 3 to 4 bushels per acre. Under conditions less favorable, from 2 to 3 bushels. Within the past two decades the seed crop has been seriously injured by an insect commonly spoken of as the clover midge (_Cecidomyia leguminicola_) which preys upon the heads so that they fail to produce. A field thus affected will not come properly into bloom. The remedy consists in so grazing or cutting the clover that the bloom will come at that season of the summer when the insects do not work upon the heads. This season can only be determined by actual test. In Northern areas it can usually be accomplished by pushing the period of bloom usual for the second crop two to four weeks forward. =Renewing.=--When clover is grown for hay, it is not usual to try to renew the crop, because of the short-lived period of the plant. But in some instances it has been found advantageous. On light prairie soils sandy in texture, located in the upper Mississippi basin, it has been found possible to grow timothy meadow for several years in succession with a goodly sprinkling of clover in it without re-seeding. In such instances, the land is not pastured at all, except in seasons quite favorable to growth, and in these the pasturing is not close. The clover plants that grow after the crop has been cut for hay produce seed. The heads in due time break off and are scattered more or less over the soil by the winds. In time they disintegrate, and more or less of the seed germinates, thus forming new plants, some of which, especially in favorable seasons, retain their hold upon the soil. This method may be worthy of imitation in localities where it has been found difficult to get a stand in dry seasons on this class of soils. When the stand of clover secured is variable, that is to say, partial, as when the clover is abundant in the lower portions of the land and entirely absent on the higher ground, it may be worth while to re-sow the seed on the latter early the following spring. But before doing so, the land should be carefully disked in the fall, and the clover seed harrowed or otherwise covered in the spring. Should the summer following prove favorable, the seed thus sown may produce hay, but not likely in time to be harvested with the other portions of the field. But though it should not produce much hay the seed is likely to be benefited to an extent that will far more than repay the outlay involved in labor and seed. If the clover has been sown for pasture, the renewal of the same on higher ground may be made as stated above, but with the difference that the same kind or kinds of grain may also be sown at the same time as the clover is becoming rooted. In pastures, medium red clover may be renewed whenever the attempt is made to renew the pastures, as by disking them and then sowing upon them the seeds of certain grasses or clovers or both. The disking is usually done in the spring and while the frost is out for only a short distance below the surface. The amount of seed to sow need not be large, usually not more than 2 or 3 pounds per acre, especially when seed of other varieties is sown at the same time. One stroke of the harrow following will provide a sufficient covering for the seed. =Clover as a Fertilizer.=--It would probably be correct to say that no plant has yet been introduced into American agriculture that has been found so generally useful as clover in fertilizing land and in improving the mechanical condition. Some who have investigated claim that there is more nitrogen in a clover sod after the removal of a good crop of clover than will suffice for four average farm crops, more phosphoric acid than will suffice for two, and more potash than will suffice for six. It begins to draw nitrogen from the air as soon as the tubercles commence to form and continues to add thus to the enrichment of the land during all the succeeding period of active growth. As previously stated, the nitrogen is drawn in great part from the air; consequently, soil from which a bountiful crop of clover has been removed will be considerably richer in nitrogen than before it grew the same, and this will hold true as intimated above, even though the crop should be removed and sold. Under the same conditions it will also be true in available phosphoric acid and potash. But the latter are gathered from the soil and subsoil while the plants were growing. Consequently, if crops of clover are grown in short rotation periods and if no fertilizer is given to the land other than the clover brings to it, while it will be abundantly supplied with nitrogen, a time will come when the supply of phosphoric acid and potash may be so reduced that the soil will not grow even good crops of clover. When this point is reached the soil is spoken of as "clover sick." Happily, however, nearly all soils are so well stored with phosphoric acid and potash that this result is not likely to follow for many years. But lest it should, attention should be given to fertilizing the land occasionally with farmyard manure, or with phosphoric acid and potash applied as commercial fertilizers. Because of this, and also for other reasons, it is usually considered more profitable in the end to feed clover on the farm and return it to the land in the form of manure. But clover may cease to grow on land where once it grew well, because of other reasons, such as changes in the mechanical condition of the soil caused by the depletion of its humus and changes in its chemical condition, such as increased acidity. The remedy is the removal of the cause. The roots also put large quantities of humus in the soil. Where crops are regularly grown in short rotations they will suffice to keep it amply supplied for ordinary production. Because of this it is usually considered more profitable to cut both the crops which medium red clover produces in one season, or to pasture off one or both, than to plow under either as green manure. But when soils are too stiff or too open in character it may be advantageous to bury clover to restore the equilibrium. It may also be necessary to bury an occasional crop in order to put the land quickly in a condition to produce some desired crop, the growth of which calls for large supplies of humus. When clover is plowed under it will usually be found more profitable to bury the second growth of the season than the first. The crop is in the best condition for being plowed under when the plants are coming into bloom. If left until the stems lose their succulence the slow decay following in conjunction with the bulkiness of the mass plowed under might prove harmful to the crop following the clover. The influence of the roots upon the mechanical condition of the soil is most beneficial. The roots go down deep into the subsoil and also abound in fibrous growth. The tap roots in their decay furnish openings through which the superfluous water may go down into the subsoil. The fibers adhering to the main roots so ramify through the soil that when even stiff land is filled with them it is rendered friable, and is consequently brought into a good mechanical condition. While all varieties of clover may be utilized in producing food and in enriching land, none is equal to the medium red for the two purposes combined. This arises from the fact that none save the medium red grows two crops in one season under ordinary conditions. Though the first crop should be taken for food, as it generally is, there is still ample time for a second crop to grow for plowing under the same season. This second growth is ready for being plowed under when time is less valuable than it would be when the mammoth or alsike varieties would be in season for being thus covered. And yet the work may be done sufficiently early to admit of sowing fall or winter crops on the land which produced the clover. CHAPTER IV ALFALFA Alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_) previous to its introduction into California, from Chili, about the middle of the last century, was usually known by the French name Lucerne. The name Alfalfa is probably Arabic in its origin, and the term Lucerne has probably been given to it from the Canton Lucerne in Switzerland. It has followed the plant into Spain and South America, and now it seems probable that soon it will be known by no other name over all the United States and Canada. It has also been known by names applied to it from various countries for which it has shown high adaptation, as, for instance, Sicilian Clover, Mexican Clover, Chilian Clover, Brazilian Clover, Styrian Clover and Burgundy Clover. In yet other instances, names have been applied to it indicative of some peculiarity of growth, as, for instance, Branching Clover, Perennial Clover, Stem Clover and Monthly Clover. Alfalfa is upright and branching in its habit of growth, more so than the common varieties of clover. It usually grows to the height of 2 to 3 feet, but it has been known to reach a much greater height. Although possessed of a single stem when the plants are young, the number of the stems increases up to a certain limit, with the age of the plants and the number of the cuttings. Forty to fifty stalks frequently grow up from the crown of a single plant where the conditions are quite favorable to growth, and in some instances as many as a hundred. The leaves are not large, but numerous, and in the curing of the plants they drop off much more easily than those of the more valuable of the clovers. The flowers are borne toward the top of the stems and branches, and they are in a long cluster, rather than in a compact head. They are usually of a bluish tint, but the shades of the color vary with the strain from blue to pink and yellow. The seeds are borne in spirally coiled pods. They resemble those of red clover in size, but are less uniform in shape. The color should be a light olive green. The tap roots go down deeply into the soil and subsoil where the conditions as to texture and moisture are favorable. It has been claimed that alfalfa roots have gone down into congenial subsoils 40 to 50 feet, but usually less, probably, than one-fourth of the distances mentioned would measure the depths to which the roots go. And with decreasing porosity in the subsoil, there will be decrease in root penetration until it will reach in some instances not more than 3 to 4 feet. But where the roots are thus hindered from going deeper, they branch out more in their search for food. [Illustration: Fig. 3. Alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_) Oregon Experiment Station] Alfalfa is perennial. In the duration of its growth, no fodder plant grown under domestication will equal it. It has been known, it is claimed, to produce profitable crops for half a century. In some of the Western States are meadows from 25 to 40 years old. Ordinarily, however, the season of profitable growth is not more than, say, 6 to 12 years when grown on upland soils. The meadows usually become more or less weedy or possessed by various grasses, and some of the plants die. The plants at first send up a single stem. When this matures or is cut back the uncut portion of the stem dies down to the crown of the plant, which then sends out other stems. This is repeated as often as the stems are cut down until many stems grow up from one plant as indicated above, unless the plants are so crowded that such multiplication is more or less hindered. The plants grow rapidly as soon as spring arrives, and as often as cut off they at once spring again into vigorous life, where the conditions are favorable to such growth; hence, from one to twelve cuttings of soiling may be obtained in a single season, the former result being obtained in arid climates, where the conditions are unpropitious, and the latter being possible only in congenial soils, where the winters are very mild and where the soils are irrigated. Usually, however, even on upland soils and in the absence of irrigation, not fewer than 3 to 5 cuttings of soiling food are obtained each year and not fewer than 2 to 4 crops of hay. A number of varieties so called are grown in this country. They differ from each other more, however, in their adaptation in essential properties relating to the quality of the pasture and fodder produced, than in the quality of food product obtained from them. The variety commonly grown from seed produced in the West is usually spoken of simply as alfalfa, while that grown from seed European in origin has been more commonly called Lucerne. The former of these has a tendency to grow taller than the latter and to send its roots down to a greater depth. In addition to these, such strains as the Turkestan, the Rhenish, the Minnesota and Sand Lucerne have been introduced. The Turkestan variety was introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture during recent years. It was brought from provinces beyond the Caspian in Russia, Asia. The object sought was to introduce a variety that would better withstand the rigors of a climate dry in summer and cold in winter than the variety commonly grown. Some strains of this variety have proved drought resistant to a remarkable degree. It has also shown itself capable of enduring without injury temperatures so low as to result in the destruction of plants of the common variety. In trials made by growers in North Dakota and Northern Minnesota, it has been found able to endure the winter's cold in these areas. But it has also been found that while the plants produced some seed in the Central Mountain States, they did not produce much seed when grown in the Northern States. Unless seed can be secured from plants grown in the latter in sufficient quantities to meet the needs of growers, it is feared that in time some of the hardy characteristics of this variety will be lost if the Central and Southern Mountain States must be relied upon as the American sources of seed supplies. The Rhenish strain comes from Central Europe. It has been highly commended by some European seedsmen for its hardihood, but it has been as yet grown to only a limited extent in America. The Minnesota strain was doubtless brought to Carver County by German farmers, by whom it has been grown in the neighborhood of Lake Waconia for nearly 20 years. It has been found much hardier than the common variety when grown in that neighborhood, and the endurance of plants grown from seed of this strain far northward has been very pronounced. As this variety produces reasonably good seed crops in Central Minnesota, it would seem reasonable to expect that it will become popular in Northern areas. Sand Lucerne, which comes from Central Europe, has considerable adaptation for poor and light soils, and in trials made at the Michigan experiment station was found possessed of distinctive merit for such soils. Where alfalfa can be grown freely, it is unexcelled as a pasture for swine, and is in favor also as a pasture for horses. While cattle and sheep grazed upon it are exceedingly fond of it, the danger that it will produce bloat in them is so frequently present as to greatly neutralize its value for such a use. It is a favorite pasture for fowls. In furnishing soiling food where it produces freely, it is without an equal in all the United States. It is highly relished by all kinds of farm animals, not excluding rabbits and goats, and when fed judiciously may be fed in this form with perfect safety. Its high value in producing such food rests on its productiveness, its high palatability and the abundant nutrition which it contains. As a hay crop, it is greatly prized. Even swine may be wintered in a large measure on cured alfalfa hay. As a fertilizer, the value of alfalfa will be largely dependent on the use that is made of the plants. When pastured or fed upon the farm, the fertility resulting being put back upon the land, it ranks highly as a producer of fertility. But this question is further discussed on page 191. As a destroyer of weeds much will depend upon the way in which it is grown. This question also is discussed again. (See page 185.) =Distribution.=--It is thought that alfalfa is more widely distributed over the earth's surface, furnishes more food for live stock, and has been widely cultivated for a longer period than any other legume. It is grown over wide areas of Asia, Europe, North and South America, and its cultivation is constantly extending. It was grown on the irrigated plains of Babylon long before the days of Nebuchadnezzar. It was the principal fodder used in the stables of the kings of Persia. From Persia, it is thought, it was brought to Greece about 470 B. C., and that its cultivation in Italy began at least two centuries before the Christian era. Several Roman writers, as Virgil, Columella and Varro, mention it. From Italy it was introduced into Spain and from Spain it was doubtless carried by missionaries of the Roman Catholic Church to Mexico and the South American States which lie west of the Andes, as Peru and Chili. In the arid and semi-arid regions of the Andes, the conditions were found so favorable to the growth of alfalfa that it is now the principal forage crop grown. It is almost certain that it was brought from Chili to California, from which it has spread over much of the cultivated portion of the arid and semi-arid west. Western grown seed is also the chief source of supply at the present time for all the States of the Union. Fully a century ago attempts were made by Chancellor Livingstone and others to introduce it into the Eastern States, but without much success, owing, probably, to the lack of knowledge on the part of the people as to how it should be grown. The seed at that time was doubtless brought from European sources, probably France. It has been noticed by more recent growers in these States that the results from sowing such seed do not prove as satisfactory as those from American grown seed, but that alone should not sufficiently explain why the attempts to grow alfalfa just referred to were not successful. But it is not alone in the areas named that alfalfa has proved so helpful to agriculture. In Central Asia and northward it has for long centuries furnished the Tartars with the principal forage crop grown. In Turkestan and other places it will grow under conditions so dry as to forbid the vigorous growth of many hardy grasses. In Southern Asia, from India to Arabia, it has lost none of the popular favor accorded to it long centuries ago. In Southern Russia it is extensively grown, and up and down the basin of the Danube. In the Mediterranean provinces of Southern Europe it is still one of the leading forage crops. In France it stands high in the popular estimate, and also in some parts of Germany. And even in humid England it is grown more or less freely on dry, calcareous soils. And the day is doubtless near when in many parts of Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Eastern South America this great fodder plant will be found capable of yielding abundant harvests. In some parts of Argentina it has been claimed that it grows like a weed. It is believed by many that alfalfa if exposed to very low temperatures will perish and that it cannot stand as much winter exposure as medium red or alsike clover. This is only true of some varieties. Other varieties, as the Turkestan, for instance, will endure lower temperatures and more exposure than the clovers named. Alfalfa has been grown with some success at the government experiment station, Indian Head, Sask, Canada, and yet it sometimes winter kills in Texas. As with clover, it is injured most by exposure to sweeping winds blowing over it in winter when the mercury is low, and the injury is more fatal just after the removal of a snow covering and when the plants are young. Ice forming over the fields after a sudden thaw and remaining for a time is very liable to kill the plants. It can stand considerably more summer heat than any of the clovers grown northward, as witnessed in the good crops grown in some parts of Louisiana during the hottest weather of summer. Nevertheless, with reference to temperatures, what may be termed a mild climate, such as characterizes Southern France in Europe and Western California in the United States, is best adapted to its growth. It is better adapted to climates that are dry, where the plants can be irrigated, as then rains do not interfere with the harvesting of the hay. Even in the absence of irrigation, a climate that is reasonably dry is preferable to one where drenching rains frequently fall, which wash away the soil when sandy, or which fill it full of water when composed of clay. But where rains fall frequently and in moderation, as in the northern Puget Sound region, the effect is helpful to the growth of the alfalfa plants, although it may add somewhat to the labor of making alfalfa hay, and to the hazard in curing it. Alfalfa will maintain its hold for years on some portions of the table lands of the mountain States under conditions so dry that the plants can only furnish one cutting of hay in a season. It is safe to assume, therefore, that alfalfa can be grown under a wider range of climatic conditions than any other legume grown in the United States. But the influence which climate should be allowed to exercise on the use that is to be made of it should not be lost from view. In climates much subject to frequent rains in summer, it should be grown rather for soiling food and pasture than for hay, whereas in dry climates, and especially where it can be irrigated, it should be grown for hay, soiling food and pasture, but especially the former. While alfalfa can be successfully grown in one or the other of its varieties in some portion of every State in the Union, it has its favorite feeding grounds. The best conditions for growing it are found in the valleys of all the Rocky Mountain States, where the growth can be regulated by the application of irrigating waters. In these the conditions southward are superior to those northward, because of the milder climate, which precludes the danger of winter killing by exposure, which occasionally happens in the more northerly of the mountain States, and because of the more prolonged season for growth, which adds to the number of the cuttings. This does not mean that the river bottoms in other parts of the United States will not be found good for growing alfalfa. It can be grown in many of these; in fact, in nearly all of them, and to some extent by the aid of irrigation, if the waste waters were stored, but the deposit soil in these valleys being of much closer texture than that in the western valleys, is, on the whole, lower in adaptation than the soil in the latter. In the western valleys of the mountain States, alfalfa is the crop around which it may be said that agricultural production centers. It is the principal hay crop of those States. The extent to which it may be grown there is revolutionizing the production of live stock on the ranges, as it is providing food for them in winter, which is fast removing, and will probably soon entirely remove, the element of hazard from live stock dependent on the range pastures for support in that season. The dairy and swine industries in those valleys must largely depend upon it. Fruit orchards must ultimately grow on buried alfalfa meadows, and the rotation of all crops in the same will be largely dependent upon the growing of alfalfa. Next in adaptation to the mountain States are, it is thought, certain soils that lie between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi, especially such as are in proximity to rivers, or are underlaid with sheet water not far distant from the surface. But an unusually large proportion of the upland soil in these States, from Central Minnesota southward, have high adaptation for the growth of this plant. Particularly is this true of the soils of Nebraska and Kansas and of considerable portions of Missouri, Arkansas and Louisiana. In States east of the Mississippi, the adaptation is not so general, and is more dependent on soil conditions than on those that are climatic. In nearly all of the river bottoms of these States it will grow with more or less success. On nearly all upland soils it will also grow well, where the subsoil furnishes naturally good drainage. For the exception, see page 132. But in no State east of the Mississippi, is such a proportion of the area so highly adapted to growing alfalfa as in many of the States west of that river. In other States areas are found in which alfalfa will produce excellent crops, but usually these do not embrace the larger portion of the entire area in any State. In a considerable number of the States such areas are more or less limited, and usually they are distributed variously in the different States; that is, they do not lie side by side. The favorite soil conditions in these are a good loam, preferably more or less sandy and resting upon a porous subsoil. A more exact idea will be given of relative adaptation in various States in what is now submitted. In California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and New Mexico, alfalfa is now grown chiefly by the aid of irrigation, and all of these States have highest adaptation for its growth. In some parts of California 6 to 10 tons of cured hay are obtained in one year, with pasture in winter additional. In Utah, good crops have been grown successively on the same land for more than a quarter of a century. In Colorado two cuttings are obtained the first season, and it is said that there the plants are not easily destroyed. It yields enormously in the irrigated valleys of New Mexico and Arizona. In Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Montana and Wyoming, it is grown with and without irrigation. In large areas in all these States, excellent crops are and may be grown, but the season of growth being shorter, not so many cuttings are obtained per year as in the mountain States further south. In Northern Idaho two cuttings may be obtained per year, even on high, dry land. In North Dakota, especially westward, alfalfa gives promise of successful growth. It will grow well in much of South Dakota, especially on sandy soils not too distant from water. In Minnesota it has been grown successfully in Carver County since 1886. Good success is being obtained from growing it in other parts of the State, even in some parts of the Red River valley. In Western Iowa it is being grown with much success, and in some portions of Eastern Iowa. In Missouri, the two important centers for growing it are the northwest and the southeast, but in other areas it has also done well. In Kansas it will grow well in all parts of the State where the subsoil is porous. It has been cut for hay in that State in less than 60 days from the date of sowing. It grows equally well over at least two-thirds of Nebraska, especially the eastern half, and its growth in Nebraska is rapidly extending. In the Arkansas valley it luxuriates, and it is also being grown in Oklahoma. In Louisiana immense fields are being grown along the Red River and in other parts of the State. In Texas it is being grown more or less north, east and south, and especially in the valley of the Brazos. In the Southern States alfalfa has not in many instances been given a good chance where tried. The plants have too frequently had to contend there as elsewhere with ill-prepared and weedy soils and imprudent pasturing. Yet it is being grown with considerable success, though as yet in limited areas, in all the Southern States. It has done well in parts of Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi and Alabama, and in Georgia are some alfalfa meadows 25 years old. In the other Southeastern States, viz., Virginia, the Carolinas and Florida, it does well only in areas more or less circumscribed, but it has been grown with some success even in the rainy climate of Southern Florida. In the States northward from the Ohio River, that is, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan and Wisconsin, the necessity for growing alfalfa has not been so much felt as in some other States, because of the excellence of the crops of clover grown in these. Its growth, however, is extending in all of these States. Much of the soil in Illinois, it is said, must first be inoculated with the bacteria proper to alfalfa before vigorous crops can be grown, and this is probably true of sections of Indiana soil. Some sections of Ohio are becoming noted for the crops of alfalfa which they have grown, and in Wisconsin Hon. W. D. Hoard succeeded in securing 5.7 tons of alfalfa hay in one season from four cuttings made on three-fifths of an acre. In all the Eastern and New England States, alfalfa is being grown to some extent. In some counties of New York, as Onondaga and Madison, it is becoming the leading soiling and hay crop. In Massachusetts it has borne cuttings year after year on sandy loam soil. On Long Island three to four cuttings each season have been obtained for a series of years. It is believed that it will grow over nearly the whole of Southern Maryland and also in much of the eastern part of that State, and its growth has been quite successful in parts of Delaware and Pennsylvania. Alfalfa will grow well in considerable areas in Canada. The statement would seem safe that at the present time profitable crops could be grown in some parts of every province of Canada in which the land is tilled. In Quebec, even on high land, it usually endures the winters. Near Montreal it has been cut for soiling food at the height of 30 inches as early as May 15th. In some parts of Eastern Ontario good crops can be grown, and also over considerable areas of Western Ontario. The author grew it with much success at the experiment station at Guelph in 1890 and subsequently, and during recent years considerable areas are being grown in several of the Lake Erie counties and in those that lie north from them. But in no part of Ontario are the conditions for growing alfalfa better than in some of the mountain valleys of British Columbia. But few crops, if, indeed, any, are being experimented with at the present time to so great an extent as alfalfa; hence, the expectation is reasonable that there will be an enormous increase in the area grown in the future that is near. The two chief causes of failure in the past were want of knowledge in growing and caring for it on the part of the growers, and the absence of the proper bacteria in the soil. Acidity in some soils and want of drainage in others are also responsible for many of the failures referred to. But even where it does grow reasonably well, some trouble is found from the alfalfa failing in spots. In some instances the cause can be traced, as when coated with ice in winter, or where the soil is not uniform, but in other instances the precise causes have not been determined. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, however, greatly increased areas will be grown in the future, especially in States in which the dairy interest is paramount or even important. =Soils.=--It was formerly thought by many that alfalfa would only grow vigorously on soils and subsoils sandy in character, and underlaid at some distance from the surface with water. It is now being ascertained that it will grow on a great variety of soils, providing they are reasonably fertile, free from acidity, sufficiently porous below to carry away water with reasonable quickness, and not underlaid with hard pan or a subsoil so tenacious that it is almost impervious to water. The best soils for alfalfa are those of the Western mountain States, and in these the deposit soils of the river valleys stand among the foremost. These soils are usually of much depth. Many of them have water underneath, and the subsoil is usually so porous that the roots can go far down in them, such is the character of nearly all the bottom land west of the Mississippi. But in nearly all of the mountain region of the West, from Banff in British Columbia to Mexico, alfalfa will grow well under irrigation, or in the absence of irrigation, if ground water is not too distant from the surface. In this region alfalfa grows more vigorously and more persistently than in almost any other portion of the United States. In regions where alfalfa is not dependent upon irrigation, the best soils probably are deep, rich calcareous loams, clay or sandy, and underlaid with what may be termed a mild or reasonably porous clay subsoil. With such soils the plants may be in no way influenced by sheet water below, as on some of these in Nebraska, for instance, such water is fully 150 feet below the surface. These soils are usually possessed of abundant food supplies to nourish the plants, and the roots can go far down into the subsoils to gather food and moisture. Such lands are found more or less in nearly all the States of the Union east from the Rocky Mountains; hence, when the requisite bacteria are present, good crops can be grown on them in every State in the Union. On the ordinary black soils of the prairie, alfalfa will usually grow reasonably well if underlaid with clay not too distant nor too tenacious. When the roots get down into the subsoil, they can usually find much food in the same, and unless in very dry areas a sufficiency of moisture, but in many instances it may be necessary to introduce the requisite bacteria, and to apply farmyard manure to encourage sufficient growth to carry the roots down quickly to the subsoil. In some prairie soils the growth will be vigorous from the start, but usually these are lands that have grown hardwood timber, and that have in them more or less clay. In climates where the rainfall is considerable, alfalfa will frequently grow well on gravelly soils and on those that are stony. Some of the best alfalfa soils in the State of New York, New England States, and in the Canadian provinces of Quebec and Ontario are of this character. Alfalfa will frequently grow fairly well even on stiff clays, and in some instances on gumbo soils. But these soils must not be so retentive as to collect and hold water for any considerable time within a few feet of the surface. Such lands have usually much staying power; hence, alfalfa grown on them frequently improves for years after it has been sown. On the reddish soils that cover much of the South, it has been found, as in growing alfalfa on stiff clays in the North, that where deep subsoiling is practiced alfalfa is not only more easily established, but it also grows with added vigor. On upland soils sandy or gravelly in character where the rainfall is much less than normal and where the subsoil is not underlaid with sheet water, alfalfa will not usually succeed, notwithstanding that it may grow well on these soils where the rainfall is normal. On such soils it is not easy to get a stand of the plants, as they are much apt to perish in the dry weather of the first season, but if once established on such soils the plants have much power to grow even where the rainfall is considerably less than normal. Alfalfa will not grow well in soils naturally wet until they are drained. And when drained it will not grow with normal vigor, on what may be termed slough soils, where the subsoil is far down and covered with a deep covering of vegetable mold. What are termed slough soils in the Western prairies, therefore, are not well fitted for the growth of alfalfa. On these it may not succeed well, when it may grow with much vigor on the adjoining upland. When some wet soils are drained, alfalfa may not succeed well on them for a time and later may grow luxuriantly. This may arise from the lack of time for proper aeration after being drained, or from the want of lime to further correct acidity in the soil, or from the want of the proper bacteria. Notwithstanding that alfalfa will not grow well on undrained lands that are naturally wet, and notwithstanding that it will perish if the roots reach standing water at a distance too near the surface, the best crops by far are usually grown on irrigated lands. This arises, first, from the ability to adjust the supplies of water to meet the needs of the plants, and second, from the congenial character of the soil and subsoil. Next to these the best crops are grown where congenial soils are underlaid with ground water, not too near nor too distant from the surface. On these soils the plants are largely supplied with moisture from the water below ascending on the principle of capillary attraction. How near or how distant such water should be will depend somewhat on subsoil conditions. It would seem correct to say that it ought never to come nearer to the surface than 3 feet, nor should it be more than 20 feet down. The most suitable distance would be, say, 8 to 16 feet. When the roots of alfalfa reach water at too short a depth they will die. Alfalfa may sometimes be grown satisfactorily on soils subject to overflow, but usually there is hazard in growing it on these. If the overflow occurs comparatively early in the season, if it is not of great depth, if it is of short duration, and if the waters quickly drain out of the subsoil possessed by the alfalfa, it may receive little or no harm from such overflow. Instances are on record wherein ice has formed on alfalfa and yet the plants survived, but such a condition will usually prove fatal to them. But should the overflow take place in hot weather, usually it will injure the plants seriously, and may, indeed, completely destroy them. So great is such hazard, that care must be taken against the application of an excess of irrigating waters under such conditions. Overflow waters that are stagnant are more injurious probably than those that are in motion, owing, it may be, to the less supply of dissolved oxygen in the former. Soils suitable in themselves, but lying on stiff clay bottoms or underlaid with hard pan within two or three feet of the surface, will not maintain a good stand of alfalfa. The plants in these may grow well for a time, probably a year or two, after which they will fail. The roots are not able to go down to gather food. When the subsoils are simply stiff clays, deep subsoiling, as already intimated, may render much service, but when composed of hard pan this may not be practicable. In moist climates, however, reasonably good crops have been obtained from soils with underlying rock not more than four feet below the surface. The fact should not be overlooked that soils may have the requisite physical conditions for growing alfalfa, and they may possess in fair supply the essential elements of plant food, and yet alfalfa will not succeed at the first when sown on these, because of the absence of the soil bacteria, the presence of which is essential to the vigorous growth of the plants. Because of this, growers should be slow to conclude that alfalfa will not flourish on the soils on which they sow it until they have first tried to grow it on those soils that have been inoculated with the requisite alfalfa bacteria. For the methods of procedure in such cases see page 53. Some persons claim that soils which will grow medium red clover in good form will also grow alfalfa in good form. This does not necessarily follow. While there is much of similarity in the soils suitable for the growth of both, alfalfa may fail on lands that grow red clover luxuriantly until the bacteria proper to alfalfa have been introduced. Soils may be tested for bacteria, and even in winter, by sowing some seed in pots and treating them like well-cared-for house plants. When the plants are 2 to 3 months old, if tubercles are found on the roots, the conclusion would seem safe that such soil does not require inoculation. =Place in the Rotation.=--In a certain sense it can scarcely be said of alfalfa that it is a rotation plant, because of the long term of years for which it is grown in an unbroken succession. Nevertheless, in all places it cannot always be maintained for a long term of successive years without renewal. In the Eastern States it is frequently, though not always so crowded by various grasses, that the fields in which it grows are broken up at some period short of ten years, and not infrequently at the end of five or six years. When thus grown, it becomes a rotation plant, though grown in what may be termed long rotations. But even in the West, where, under irrigation, it may be grown for a quarter of a century or even for a longer period without renewal, it may be used when desired in short rotations. In such situations it grows so readily and becomes established so quickly, that the fields may be broken with a view to alternate with other crops at the end of the second year, or of any year subsequently from the sowing of the seed that may be desired. Alfalfa in these soils will serve even better than medium red clover in such situations, since while it is growing, it will produce more hay or soiling food, and consequently should excel the former in the fertility which it makes available. East of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio River, alfalfa will frequently follow cultivated crops, as corn, potatoes and field roots, and when the fields are broken, it will be followed by crops other than legumes. On many soils the influence which this crop has on relieving the surface soil from excessive moisture, through channels opened into the subsoil by the decaying roots, is so helpful as to considerably stimulate production in addition to the fertilizing influence which it exerts directly. Particularly good crops of corn, the small cereal grains, and even field roots may be grown after alfalfa. On soils east of the Mississippi and south of the Ohio, the rotation will be somewhat similar. But on Southern soils alfalfa will frequently follow immediately crops especially grown to be plowed under as green manures for the benefit of the alfalfa. These crops include cow peas, soy beans, crimson clover, and to a limited extent, burr clover. It will also be followed frequently by crops of cotton and other non-leguminous plants, the growth of which in the United States is confined to the area now being considered. In the area west of the Mississippi and east of the semi-arid region beside the mountains, alfalfa may follow the small cereal grains, and may in turn be followed by them and also by millets. It may also follow and precede corn, or the non-saccharine sorghums, where the climatic conditions are suitable for growing the latter. In the irrigated regions of the West, alfalfa may be made to serve almost any purpose in the rotation that may be desired. By growing it as a rotation crop in these valleys it may be made to furnish the soil indefinitely with supplies of nitrogen and humus. In these soils it may be made to follow directly almost any crop grown on them, and similarly it may be made to precede the growth of almost any crop for which the locality has marked adaptation. Small cereal grains, timothy, vegetables, field roots, potatoes, corn, small fruits and orchards may be profitably grown on buried alfalfa meadows. This does not imply, however, that alfalfa meadows should not, as a rule, be maintained for a long term of years. =Preparing the Soil.=--In preparing the soil for alfalfa the aim should be to make a seed-bed clean, rich, fine, moist, even, and sufficiently firm or friable, according to the conditions. The subsoil should also be made sufficiently dry and open. From what has just been said, it will be apparent that in properly preparing the seed-bed, it will be necessary to study closely the requisite conditions. The advantage from having a clean seed-bed will be apparent when it is called to mind that alfalfa is a somewhat delicate plant when young, and that because of this, it is ill able to overcome in the fight with weeds. Cleanness in the surface soil may be obtained by summerfallowing the land, by growing a root crop or a crop of corn or any of the non-saccharine sorghums. When the seed is spring sown, this preparation must be given the year previously, but when autumn sown, it may be given the same season. In preparing the land thus, the aim should be to make the surface as clean as possible, rather than to get weed seeds out of the lower strata of the cultivated soil, in which they will likely perish before the field sown to alfalfa is broken up again. Summerfallowing makes an excellent preparation for the land, because of the fine opportunity which it furnishes for cleaning the same perfectly and leveling it off properly. The excellent condition in which it puts the seed-bed, viewed from the standpoint of the duration of the years of cropping that are likely to follow, would seem to more than justify such preparation of the land. The outcome may more than justify the loss of the crop for one season when thus summerfallowing the land. But it may not be necessary to lose the production of one season whether the seed is sown spring or autumn, as the summerfallowing in the North may follow the pasturing off of some crop, and in the South the interval for fallowing the land may be sufficiently long after the harvesting of an early winter grain crop, before sowing the seed in the autumn. (See page 136.) When sowing the seed autumn or spring, on land that is filled with weed seeds near the surface, it is frequently better to defer sowing the seed for some weeks to give time for sprouting many of these than to sow at once. This suggestion is specially applicable to spring sowing. It should also be mentioned that when the weeds infesting the soil are annual or even biennial in character, the harm done to the alfalfa by these will be much less than when the land is infested with perennials at the time of sowing. The former may be prevented from seeding by clipping back frequently, while the latter remain in the soil, increase from year to year, and injure the plants by crowding. Where crab grass grows abundantly, as in some parts of the South, unless the alfalfa is sown and cultivated, spring sowing ought to be avoided. But it is less objectionable to sow alfalfa on land that is weedy when the adaptation of the land for the crop is high than when it is low, as the alfalfa in the former instance has so much more power to fight its own battle. On good alfalfa soils, therefore, it may be wiser in some instances to sow alfalfa in weed-infested land than to defer sowing for a whole year in order to clean the land. It is greatly important that the land shall be rich in available plant food on which the seed is sown. If naturally poor, it should be well fertilized before sowing. When this cannot be done, it is better not to sow. A vast preponderance of the land in the Rocky Mountain region, when first broken, would seem to possess abundantly all the essential foods required by alfalfa; hence, for a time, at least, it is not necessary to enrich these before sowing the seed. The sandy and hungry gravelly soils, which are considerable in the South, in the Atlantic States, and in some of the Central and Northern States, should be fertilized before laying them down to alfalfa. Such fertilization usually calls for both humus and readily available plant food, and these are most cheaply supplied by growing certain green crops and plowing them under, or by applying farmyard manure. These may be supplemented when necessary by commercial fertilizers. Some precede alfalfa on such soils by growing cow peas or soy beans, followed by crimson clover, both crops being plowed in, and shortly before sowing the alfalfa they apply more or less of phosphoric acid and potash, which is usually incorporated in the surface soil by the harrow. On some soils, as in some parts of Florida, two successive crops of cow peas should be plowed under before sowing alfalfa. When farmyard manure can be used in fertilizing those leechy soils it is well when it can be applied on the surface in a somewhat decomposed form and also kept near the surface during the subsequent cultivation given when preparing the seed-bed. In the North it is best applied in the autumn or winter, and in the South in the summer. But on loam soils with a reasonably retentive subsoil, the better way to apply farmyard manure is to make a heavy application of the same to the crop preceding the alfalfa. It has thus become incorporated with the soil, and many weed seeds in it will have sprouted before sowing the alfalfa. The results from applying manure on soil somewhat stiff and not highly productive have been noticeably marked. This may have been owing in part to the mechanical influence of the manure on the land. The relation between the free application of farmyard manure and abundant growth in alfalfa is so marked in all, or nearly all, soils west of the Mississippi River that in many instances better crops will be obtained from poor soils well manured than from good soils unmanured. The relation between abundant manuring and soil inoculation is worthy of more careful study, in the judgment of the author, than has yet been accorded to it. Fine pulverization of the surface soil is advantageous when sowing alfalfa, because of the influence which it has upon the retention of moisture near the surface, and upon the exclusion from the soil of an overabundance of light. It is in clay soils, of course, that this condition is most difficult to secure. The agencies in securing it are the cultivator, the harrow and the roller, and in many instances the influences of weather, after the land has been plowed, especially when plowed in the autumn prior to spring seeding. Moistness in the seed-bed sufficient to promptly sprout the seed is a prime essential, but it is very much more important where the seasons are dry than where the lack of rain is but little feared. When the seed is sown after summerfallow or cultivated crops, it is usually considered preferable to make the seed-bed without using the plow, but to this there may be some exceptions. If sowing is deferred for a few weeks in the spring on such lands, or on other lands autumn plowed or early spring plowed, a free use of the harrow ought to be made in the interval, because of the favorable influence which this will have on the retention of moisture. In preparing some soils for autumn sowing after a grain crop, as in some parts of Nebraska and Kansas, it is only necessary to use the harrow; in preparing others the disk and harrow; and in yet others the disk and harrow and roller. In preparing other soils, as the clays of the South, it may be necessary first to plow and subsoil, and subsequently to use sufficiently the harrow and roller. Evenness in the soil on the surface is important when it is so retentive that water may collect in the depressions after heavy rain. In such places the plants are much liable to fail, especially in the early winter, or even shortly after they may have begun to grow, if moisture is excessive. In order to smooth and even the land sufficiently, it may be necessary to run over it some form of leveller. This does not mean, however, that it will not be necessary sometimes to plow the land in ridges, or "lands," as they are sometimes called, but it does mean that the slope from the center of the lands toward the furrows shall be even and gradual, in order that an excess of surface water, as in rainy climates, shall be carried away by the latter. Firmness in the seed-bed is necessary chiefly to prevent too much drying out near the surface in dry weather, and the holding of too much water in the spaces between the particles near the surface in wet weather, followed by freezing of the soil. The less deep the stirring of the cultivated portion when preparing it, the longer the interval between such stirring and the sowing of the seed, and the heavier the pressure when rolling, the more firm will the seed-bed be. The deeper the land is plowed, therefore, the longer should be the interval before it is sowed, but ample rainfall will shorten this period. Firmness in the seed-bed is more important, relatively, in summer or early autumn when evaporation from the surface soil is the most rapid. On some soils of the Middle States which border on the Mississippi, the early sown autumn crop will sometimes perish after the plants have grown some distance above the ground, because of want of firmness in the soil; hence, in such locations harrowing the surface of the ground thoroughly may sometimes be a more suitable preparation than plowing and harrowing. Friability in the seed-bed is important when the soils are heavy. The influences which promote it are the presence of humus, liberal cultivation, and sometimes weather influences, as rain and frost. Unless heavy clay soils are brought into this condition, the roots of the alfalfa will not be able to penetrate the soil quickly enough or deeply enough in search of food. As has been intimated, it will not avail to sow alfalfa in soils not sufficiently drained naturally or otherwise. Usually, good alfalfa soils have sufficient drainage naturally, the subsoil being sufficiently open to admit of the percolation of water down into the subsoil with sufficient quickness. But good crops of alfalfa may be grown on subsoils so retentive that underdrainage is necessary to facilitate the escape of an excess of moisture with sufficient quickness. The question has been raised as to whether the roots of the plants will be much liable to enter and choke the drains at the joints between the tiles. While it would not be safe to say that this would never happen, it is not likely to happen, owing to the character of the root growth. Where too much water is held near the surface, in climates characterized by alternate freezing and thawing in winter, the young plants will certainly be thrown out through the heaving of the soil. The subsoiling of lands not sufficiently open below will be greatly helpful to the growth of alfalfa. This may also be true of lands not over-retentive naturally, but made so by the treading of the animals for successive years on the soil under the furrow when plowing the land. In some conditions, without subsoiling thus, the growing of alfalfa will not be successful, but in doing this work, care should be taken not to bring up raw subsoil to the surface. In subsoiling for alfalfa, usually the more deeply the ground can be stirred by the subsoiler, the better will be the results that will follow. Subsoiling is particularly helpful to the growing of alfalfa on many of the clay soils of the South. In the far West, toward the mountains, and probably within the same, are areas in which excellent stands of alfalfa may be obtained by simply sowing the seed on surfaces stirred with a disk or with a heavy harrow weighted while it is being driven over the land. The implements should be driven first one way and then the other, and, of course, the seed is harrowed after it has been sown. Where the soil is sufficiently level, this plan of preparing will prove satisfactory, more especially where water can be put upon the land, but it will also succeed frequently in the absence of irrigating waters. In some instances the disking and sowing are both done by the same implement, which is driven both ways across the field. Alfalfa is sometimes sown, and with profit, on steep hill sides which are inclined to wash. When set on these it tends to prevent the washing of the land. In such situations it is better to sow with a nurse crop, which will help to hold the soil until the alfalfa becomes rooted. Where land is so loose as to blow and irrigation cannot be practiced, only as much should be sown each season as can be covered with stable litter and well-rotted straw drawn out at the proper season. =Sowing.=--The best season for sowing alfalfa will depend upon such conditions as relate to soil, moisture and climate. On rather stiff clay soils, the other conditions being right, the most satisfactory results are obtained from sowing the seed in the spring, and on land that has been plowed in the autumn and exposed to the mellowing influences of winter. But to this there may be some exceptions. On lands so light as to lift with the wind, that season should be avoided in sowing, if possible, when lifting winds prevail. Such winds are common in some localities in the spring, and may uncover the seed in some places and bury it too deeply in others. Where moisture is deficient the seed must be sown at those times when it is most plentiful. This may be in the autumn, but more commonly it is in the quite early spring. In some of the mountain States the best results have been obtained under semi-arid conditions from sowing the seed in the late autumn, so that it would be ready for germination at the first commencement of the period of growth in the spring. Under some conditions the too dry character of the weather may preclude the sowing of alfalfa in the summer and autumn months. Where moisture is plentiful all the season of growth, alfalfa may be sown almost any time, except the early spring or late autumn. Where irrigating waters are plentiful, the only hindrances to sowing alfalfa at any season of the year are such as may arise from climate. Far South in very mild areas it may be sown almost any time. Where the temperatures are low in winter, the best results are obtained from sowing alfalfa in the spring and early summer, otherwise the plants do not become sufficiently well established to withstand the rigors of the winter following. Under some conditions, sufficiently satisfactory results follow sowing in the early summer, even in Northern latitudes. Where the winters are sufficiently mild and the moisture is sufficiently plentiful, early autumn sowing, as in August or September, according to the locality, is, all things considered, the most satisfactory, for the reason, first, that it follows, or may follow, a crop grown the same season; second, that the plants are less hindered in their growth by weeds when they are young; and third, that they produce crops of soiling food or hay the first season after sowing. Many weeds do not grow in autumn and winter; hence, the less injury done by them to alfalfa plants, since the latter are so strong by spring that they overshadow the weeds in their effort to grow. When alfalfa is sown at such a time, the growth of one year virtually is gained by the process. North of parallel 40°, that is, north of the latitude of Columbus, Ohio, and Denver, Colorado, speaking in a general way, alfalfa is more commonly sown in the spring, but not usually so early as clover, lest the young plants, which are more tender than clover plants, should be nipped by spring frosts. This danger is frequently present in the region of the upper Missouri. East of the Mississippi it may usually be advisable to sow in the spring some distance south from the latitude named. West from the same are areas where early autumn sowing is frequently the best. In much of the Southern and Southwestern States, early autumn sowing is considered better practice than spring sowing, but to this there are exceptions. Under some conditions alternate freezing and thawing of the land near the surface tend to throw out young plants, as, for instance, those autumn sown, more readily than plants from spring-sown seed. Alfalfa is usually sown much the same as medium red clover (see page 75), but there are the following points of difference: 1. Since alfalfa is more commonly sown in dry areas, it is more important, relatively, that the seed shall be buried more uniformly and deeply in the soil in such areas. 2. Since it is liable to be more injured, relatively, by a nurse crop than the clovers, it is more frequently sown without one. And 3. Since it is expected to furnish food for a much longer term of years than any of the clovers, it is relatively more important that the seed shall be sown with a view to seek a uniform and sufficient stand of the plants. Whether the seed is sown by hand, or by any of the hand machines in use, the results will usually prove satisfactory, but in climates where moisture is deficient, decidedly better results are obtained from sowing the seed with some form of seed drill. A press drill is preferred in soils so light and open as to dry out easily or to lift easily with the wind. Under conditions of ample moisture, a light covering with a harrow will suffice, but under conditions the opposite, more covering is necessary. In areas where spring and early autumn showers are frequent, the roller will provide a sufficient covering, especially where the soils are well charged with a clay content. On other soils, as those which cover much of the prairie, the seed should be buried from 1 to 2 inches deep. Where alfalfa is much sown on soils well supplied with humus, and on the soils which prevail in the Rocky Mountain region, many growers sow the seed with the grain drill, and before sowing they first mix the seed with some material, as earth, some kind of coarse meal, bran or other substance to make it feed out more regularly. In some instances one-half of the seed is sown the first time the drill is driven over the land, and the balance is sown by driving again over the same at right angles to the drill marks previously made. When thus sown, the plants are more evenly distributed over the soil, and produce, it is thought, a more uniform quality of stalk. This method meets, in part, at least, the objection sometimes made to drill sowing, that it does not distribute the plants sufficiently in the soil. In the Northern and Atlantic States, also west of the Cascade Mountains, and in some parts of the South, alfalfa is frequently sown with a nurse crop, and under favorable conditions the results are usually satisfactory, if the nurse crop is not sown too thickly. The best nurse crops in the areas named are barley and winter rye, but oats will answer also, if sown thinly and cut for hay. It has also been sown quite successfully along with winter wheat in the spring and also with spring wheat. When sown with winter wheat or winter rye, it is usually advantageous to cover the seed well with the harrow. In many instances, however, even in these areas, it is thought better to sow the seed without a nurse crop, in order that the plants may have all the benefit from moisture and sunlight which it is possible to give them. This is specially desirable when the fear is present that they may succumb the first winter to the severity of the weather. As weeds grow rapidly along with the plants, the mower should be run over the field from one to three times during the season. If the mowing is done at the proper time, it will not be necessary to remove what has been cut off by the mower. It may be allowed to lie as a mulch on the land. But should the growth of weeds be excessive before the mowing is done, it would then be necessary to remove them, in order to avoid smothering the plants. The clipping back of the alfalfa plants is helpful, rather than hurtful. When not thus clipped back the leaves frequently assume a yellowish tint on the top of the plants, which gradually extends downward until the greater portion of the leaves may be thus affected. Such condition frequently betokens a lack of nitrogen, but it may also be induced by other causes. When it does appear, the mower should at once be used and also as often as it appears. As soon as mowed off the plants usually stool out, sending up fresh shoots more numerously. They thus form a crown, somewhat like the crown in clover plants. Root growth is also strengthened, and the plants are thus made much stronger for going into the winter. Each clipping during the season, of course, cuts down weeds and prevents them from making seed. If not thus clipped, they would frequently injure the crop more by shade and crowding than would a nurse crop. The mulch thus made through clipping back the plants is in many instances quite helpful to them, because of the check which it gives to the escape of ground moisture. There is some difference in the view held as to whether close clipping is preferable, but the balance of authority is in favor of reasonably close clipping. Alfalfa is usually sown alone, but in some instances it maybe advantageous to sow more or less of some other kind or kinds of grass or clover along with it. When grown for hay it is usually preferable to sow the seed without admixture. But there may be instances in which medium red or alsike clover may improve the crop the first year or two that it is mown for hay. But where red clover grows much more vigorously than alfalfa the first season, it should not be thus sown in any considerable quantities, or the clover plants will injure the alfalfa plants by crowding and overshading. Nevertheless, alfalfa may frequently with profit form a considerable factor in clover grown as pasture. Where the main purpose of sowing alfalfa is to provide pasture, various grasses and clovers may be sown along with it, and in varying quantities, according to the attendant conditions. The choice of the variety or varieties to sow along with the alfalfa should be based on the needs of the stock to be pastured, and on the degree of the vigor with which these grow and maintain themselves in the locality. In the Northern States and Eastern Canada timothy and Russian brome grass (_Bromus inermis_) may be chosen. In areas with Southern Illinois as a center, red top and timothy should be satisfactory. In the Southern States, the claims of orchard grass and tall oat grass would probably be paramount. In areas with Iowa as a center, nothing would be more suitable, probably, than Russian brome grass. In the mountain States, with Wyoming as a center, timothy and alsike clover would be suitable. In the dry upland country in Washington and Oregon, Russian brome grass or tall oat grass would answer the purpose. In many areas the plan of sowing clover chiefly with the alfalfa is a good one, providing the alfalfa is cut for a year or two, and is then grazed, as by that time grasses indigenous to the locality, or which grow well in the same, come in to such an extent as to form a very considerable proportion of the pasture. Blue grass frequently behaves thus in the North, and crab grass in the South. The amounts of seed to sow will vary with the character of the soil and climate, with the use that is to be made of the alfalfa, and with the manner in which it is sown. On soils and in climates quite favorable to the growth of alfalfa it is common to sow more seed than in those with less adaptation, and with a view, probably, to check coarseness in the growth of the stems. If sown thinly in such areas, the rank growth which follows would be coarse. This explains why in the Western and mountain States more seed is usually sown than in the Eastern and Northern States. Averaging the whole country, 20 pounds of seed per acre is more frequently mentioned as the proper amount to sow than any other quantity. In the Northern States many growers sow 15 pounds per acre, and judging by the yield obtained, this amount of seed has proved satisfactory. Some growers even mention 10 to 12 pounds as satisfactory. The amounts last named are certainly too small for average conditions. Fifteen to 20 pounds may be fixed upon as the proper amounts to sow on soil in good condition for speedy germination. But many growers claim satisfactory results from sowing larger amounts of seed than those named. Under semi-arid conditions, where irrigation cannot be given, a moderate amount of seed will be more satisfactory than very thick seeding, as when sown too thickly the plants would suffer more from want of moisture than if sown more thinly. The aim should be to obtain a stand that will cover the ground evenly and as thickly as will admit of the vigorous growing of the plants. Because of the relatively long duration of the period of the growth of alfalfa fields, it is specially important that good stands shall be obtained at the first, and for the further reason that the plants will then be better able to contend with intruding weeds, the great bane of alfalfa meadows. When alfalfa is grown mainly for seed, it should be more thinly sown than when it is grown for hay or soiling food. It has been noticed that when the plants stand thickly beyond a certain degree, they do not seed well. Twelve to 16 pounds have been mentioned as quite enough to sow for such production in the mountain States. Where both objects are important, medium thick sowing would be the most suitable. When sown in combinations such as have been named above, it will be necessary to modify somewhat the amounts of alfalfa seed sown, according to the proportion of the other seeds sown with the alfalfa. But since many grasses are more aggressive than alfalfa, it is not necessary to reduce the amount of alfalfa seed sown proportionately to the amounts of the other seeds that may be sown along with it. In many instances it may be proper not to reduce the amount of the alfalfa seed at all, as some of these grasses will soon crowd the alfalfa plants, to their injury, even though the usual amount of seed should be sown. The amount of the grasses sown with the alfalfa will, of course, vary. It will seldom be necessary in any instance to sow more than 6 or 7 pounds per acre, and under many conditions not more than 5 pounds. When alfalfa is sown with timothy and clover in temporary meadows or pastures, it is seldom necessary to sow more than 3 to 5 pounds per acre, and the same is true of it when sown in a permanent pasture. The crop is so little grown for hay in mixtures, that it is scarcely necessary to dwell upon the nature of these, or the respective amounts of seed to sow in making them. When alfalfa is sown with the grain, there will be a saving of seed to the extent of at least 20 per cent., as compared with broadcast sowing. This arises from the more general sprouting of all the seeds, since they are planted at a more uniform depth, and from the subsequent loss of a smaller percentage of the plants through drought, and it may be other causes. But when sowing broadcast, it will in many instances prove more satisfactory to add 20 per cent. to the amounts mentioned above, as suitable for being sown without admixture with other grasses and clovers, rather than to deduct 20 per cent. from these amounts when sowing the seed with the drill. =Cultivating.=--Under some conditions, it is, in a sense, necessary to sow alfalfa in rows, and to give it cultivation during the first season and sometimes for a longer period. In some parts of Florida, for instance, the most satisfactory results have been obtained from sowing in rows with 12 to 24 inches between the rows, and then to cultivate between these as may be necessary to keep down the growth of weeds. Under some conditions also in the Atlantic States, the most satisfactory results have been obtained from sowing alfalfa in rows 14 to 16 inches apart and cultivating between them. Even hand hoeing the first season may be justifiable along the line of the rows for small areas, but with the price of labor as at present, would be too costly for large areas. When grown in rows as indicated in the Atlantic States and westward from these, the yields of seed have been more satisfactory than when sown broadcast, but the crop is less satisfactory for hay, owing to the coarse and uneven character of the stems. The amounts of seed wanted for such sowing will, of course, vary chiefly with the distance between the rows. As small an amount as 6 pounds or even less will in some instances suffice per acre. =Pasturing.=--The practice of pasturing alfalfa the first season, especially where it cannot be irrigated, is usually condemned, lest it should weaken the plants unduly for entering the winter. It would seem probable, however, that under some conditions such grazing would be helpful rather than hurtful. The cropping of the plants by stock, in the influence which it exerts upon the plants, is akin to that which arises from cutting them back frequently during the summer. The animals thus grazed will also crop down weeds. This, at least, is true of sheep. The author has succeeded in getting a good stand of alfalfa by sowing seed at the rate of 15 pounds per acre, along with 2 to 4 pounds of Dwarf Essex rape seed, and grazing the same with sheep. Other growers, during recent years, have succeeded similarly. The grazing should not begin until the plants have made a good start, but it should not be deferred so long that the rape and the weeds will unduly shade the alfalfa plants. The pasturing should not be too close, nor should it be so long continued that the alfalfa plants will not be able to provide a good growth in the early autumn before the advent of winter. The management of the spring-sown crop the first season requires careful attention in areas where the hazard exists in any considerable degree that the plants may take serious harm at that season, or, indeed, fail altogether. In Western areas, from Canada to Kentucky and Missouri, it is important that the stubbles of the grain shall be cut high, amid which alfalfa grows when it is sown with a nurse crop. When not thus sown, it is of prime importance that the plants shall stand up several inches above the surface of the ground before the advent of winter. This is specially important in States west of the Mississippi River. The objects effected are three-fold. First, the snow is arrested and held for the protection of the plants, and to furnish them with moisture when the snow melts. The extent to which the stubbles and the erect young alfalfa plants will hold snow is simply surprising. On the exposed prairies, the snow usually drifts so completely from unprotected lands, that during almost any winter a large proportion of the area will be quite bare. The melting of the snow thus held is also of much value to the crop in the moisture which it brings to it, especially in areas where the rainfall is less than normal. Second, the plants are thus protected from the sweep of the cold winds which blow so much of the season in the unprotected prairie, and which are frequently fatal to various winter crops. Third, they are also protected from the intensity of the frost, which may in some instances kill young alfalfa plants in areas northward. In the Northern States east of Minnesota, the New England States, and the provinces of Canada east of Lake Huron, the considerable covering on the ground is not so important, relatively, to protect the plants against the coming winter, but it is also of considerable importance, as sometimes the early snows melt so completely that the fields are left bare in midwinter. The warm temperatures which melt the snow may be followed by a cold wave, which may be greatly injurious to the plants. There may be instances, as where the snow usually falls very deeply, in which the covering left would prove excessive, and so tend to smother the plants; hence, sometimes it may be necessary to guard against too much covering. If the plants should lack age or vigor on entering the first winter, a top-dressing of farmyard manure will render great service in protecting them. This, however, is only practicable with comparatively limited areas. It is sometimes practiced in the North Atlantic States, where the manure thus applied will prove greatly helpful to the growth of the alfalfa during the following season. These precautions to guard against the severity of winter weather are not nearly so necessary in the Rocky Mountain States where irrigation is practiced. In these, alfalfa spring sown is sometimes pastured during the following winter, and without any great harm to the crop. Thus greatly do conditions vary. It may also be well to remember that where rainfall is usually plentiful and sometimes excessive, that a better stand of the young plants can be obtained when the rainfall is moderate than when it is copious. Saturated ground is hurtful to the young plants. They will not grow properly under such conditions and are likely to assume a sickly appearance. Mildew may appear and the plants may fail in patches. And this may happen on land which will ordinarily produce reasonably good crops of alfalfa after they have once been established. The value of alfalfa in providing pasture is more restricted than in providing hay. This arises in part from the injury which may come to the plants from grazing too closely at certain times, and in a greater degree from injury which may result to certain animals which may feed upon the plants, more especially cattle and sheep, through bloating, to which it frequently gives rise. This plant is pre-eminently a pasture for swine. They may be grazed upon it with profit all the season, from spring until fall. No plant now grown in the United States will furnish so much grazing from a given area in localities well adapted to its growth. Swine are very fond of it. Some growers do not feed any grain supplement to their swine when grazing on alfalfa, but it is generally believed that, under average conditions, it is wise to supplement the alfalfa pasture daily with a light feed of grain, carbonaceous in character, as of rye, corn or barley, and that this should be gradually increased with the advancement of the grazing season. One acre of alfalfa will provide pasture for 5 to 15 head of swine, through all the grazing season, dependent upon the degree of the favorable character of the conditions for growth in the alfalfa, the age of the swine, and the extent to which the pasture is supplemented with grain. But in some instances the area named will graze at least 15 hogs through all the growing season without a grain supplement. Swine may be turned in to graze on alfalfa when well set, as soon as it begins to grow freely in the spring. It should be so managed that the grazing will be kept reasonably tender and succulent. For swine pasture the plants should never be allowed to reach the blossoming stage. This can be managed by running the field mower over the pasture occasionally when the stems are growing long and coarse. Close and prolonged grazing by swine will tend to shorten the period of the life of the alfalfa. The extent to which this result will follow will depend upon soil and climatic conditions and the closeness of the grazing. To avoid such a result and also to secure the utilization of the food to the utmost, some growers advocate cutting the alfalfa and feeding it to swine as soiling. The advisability of handling it thus will be dependent to some extent on the relative price of labor. The best results, relatively, from growing alfalfa to provide pasture will be found in the Western valleys, where alfalfa grows with much vigor, and in certain areas of the South, where it grows freely and can be pastured during much of the year. In areas eminently adapted to the growth of clover, it is not so necessary to grow alfalfa for such a use. In Western areas, where Canada field peas are a success, and especially where artichokes are not hidden from swine by frost, pork can be grown very cheaply, and without the necessity of harvesting any very large portion of these crops, except through grazing them down by swine. Such conditions would be highly favorable to the maintenance of health in the swine, and the quality of the pork made would be of the best. In some instances a small stack of Canada field peas is put up in the swine pasture that the swine may help themselves from the same the following year, as in rainless or nearly rainless climates, where such grain will keep long without injury. Alfalfa furnishes excellent grazing for horses, more especially when they are not at work. Like other succulent pastures, it tends too much to induce laxness in the bowels with horses which graze it, without any dry fodder supplement. But it has high adaptation for providing pasture for brood mares, colts, and horses that are idle or working but little. While it induces abundant milk production in brood mares, and induces quick and large growth in colts until matured, it is thought by some practical horsemen that horses grown chiefly on alfalfa have not the staying power and endurance of those, for instance, that are grazed chiefly on Kentucky blue grass and some other grasses. There is probably some truth in the surmise, and if so, the objection raised could be met by dividing the grazing either through alternating the same with other pastures or by growing some other grass or grasses along with the alfalfa. The alfalfa furnishes excellent grazing for cattle, whether they are grown as stockers, are kept for milk producing, or are being fattened for beef. For the two purposes first named it has high excellence, and it will also produce good beef, but alfalfa grazing alone will not finish animals for the block quite so well without a grain supplement as with one. But the danger is usually present to a greater or less degree that cattle thus grazed may suffer from bloat, induced by eating the green alfalfa. This danger increases with the humidity of the atmosphere, with the succulence of the alfalfa, and with the degree of the moisture resting on it, as from dew or rain. This explains why in some sections the losses from this source are much greater than in others. It also explains why such losses are greater in some areas than in others. It is considered that grazing alfalfa with cattle in the mountain valleys is less hazardous than in areas East and Southeast, as the atmosphere is less humid, the danger from the succulence can be better controlled by the amount of irrigating water supplied, and because of the infrequency of the rainfall. Nevertheless, the losses from bloat are sometimes severe in both cattle and sheep in the mountain States, notwithstanding that some seasons large herds are grazed upon alfalfa through the entire season without any loss. Cattle grazed upon alfalfa may be so managed that the extent of this hazard will be very much lessened, if not entirely obviated, but with large herds some of the precautionary methods now to be submitted may not always be practicable. They should never be turned in to graze upon alfalfa when hungry. Some grazers adopt the plan of leaving them on the grazing continuously when once put in to graze. Others leave them in for a limited time each day at the first, increasing the duration of the pasturing period from day to day. After managing them thus for a week or two, the animals are only removed from the pasture for such purposes as milking. Others, again, feed some alfalfa or other food in the morning before turning them on to alfalfa pastures. Another plan adopted is to graze them on a field of other grazing, located, if possible, beside the alfalfa field, until after the dew has lifted, and then to open the gate into the alfalfa pasture. This is readily practicable with a herd of cows, but not to anything like the same extent with a large herd being grown for beef. The danger from bloat in pasturing sheep upon alfalfa is at least as great as in pasturing cattle on the same, and the methods of managing them while thus being grazed are not far different. So, too, the experiences in such grazing are very similar. The losses from such grazing some seasons have been slight. Other seasons they have proved so heavy as to make such grazing unprofitable. When sheep are being grazed on alfalfa, a light feed of grain given in the early morning reduces materially the danger from bloat. It also enables the flock-master to finish his sheep or lambs for the market cheaply and in fine form, since this small grain factor, not necessarily more than half a pound a day, whether given as wheat, rye, barley, oats or corn, puts the ration practically in balance for the purpose named, and it may be given to the sheep daily in troughs without taking them out of the pasture. It is thought that there is more danger to cattle and sheep from grazing on alfalfa than on any of the clovers, and probably such is the case. But whether this is true or not, the danger is very considerable, and is enhanced by the presence of frost as well as the presence of moisture, from much succulence in the plants, from rain and from dew. So great is the danger that the inexperienced should proceed with much caution in such grazing. When bloat does occur, the method of dealing with it is given on page 95. The tendency to produce bloat in alfalfa pastures decreases with the extent to which other grasses are present in the pastures. Should alfalfa be grown, therefore, for the purpose of providing pasture, some other grass or grasses should be sown along with it. Which of these should be thus sown ought to depend chiefly on the adaptation of the grasses for producing vigorous growth under the conditions present. In the States east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio, and in all of Canada east from Lake Huron, alfalfa may be made an important feature in pastures variously composed. For instance, on suitable soils alfalfa may be made an important feature in pastures composed otherwise of medium red and alsike clover and timothy. The author can speak from experience as to the slightness of the danger from grazing cattle and sheep on such pastures. In the Southern States tall oat grass could be sown with the alfalfa, and probably orchard grass. In some areas alfalfa will maintain its hold on lands smitten with Johnson grass, both producing freely. In much of Kansas meadow fescue would answer the purpose, northward brome grass would probably answer, and in some places timothy. In Idaho and the States adjoining, tall oat grass, meadow fescue and orchard grass will all be helpful, and in some of the mountain States it has been found that when alsike clover is grown freely in alfalfa pastures, the tendency to bloat is not only lessened in the animals grazing, but the value of the pasture, especially for winter grazing, is greatly improved. Some grazers, especially in the mountain States, have adopted the plan of sowing other pastures, as wheat or barley, beside the alfalfa pastures, and these are made accessible at will to the animals that are being grazed. The plan has some commendable features, but grazing animals thus does not reduce the danger as much as when they are grazed on pastures in which other grasses grow up amid alfalfa. In some of the Western States pure alfalfa meadows are grazed through successive seasons with but little loss, but in such instances the grazing began in the spring and was continuous. Judicious care should be exercised in grazing alfalfa lest the stand of the plants shall be injured. The liability to injury in the plants from injudicious grazing increases with the lack of adaptation in the soil and climate for abundant and prolonged growth in the alfalfa. In a large majority of instances, as previously intimated, it is not wise to graze down alfalfa at all closely the season of sowing, and in some instances it should not then be grazed to any extent, lest the plants be unduly weakened for entering the winter. In cold areas the hazard is much greater from such grazing than in those that are mild, and likewise, it is greater when the growth is only moderately vigorous than in areas where alfalfa grows with the vigor of a weed, as in Western mountain valleys. In areas where the winters are cold, and especially where the snowfall is light and the winds have a wide sweep, the animals which graze upon alfalfa should be removed in time to allow the plants to grow up to the height of several inches before the advent of winter. The growth thus secured will catch and hold the snow, and the protection thus furnished is greatly helpful to the preservation and vigor of the plants. Experience has shown that in Northern areas pasturing alfalfa in winter, especially when the ground is bare and frozen, brings imminent hazard to the plants. On the other hand, grazing in winter in the mountain valleys, when as far north as Central Montana, may be practiced with little or no hazard to the stand of plants when these have become well established. In such areas alfalfa may be grazed practically as may be desired, providing this grazing is not too close. Cattle injure alfalfa less than other animals when they graze upon it, as they do not crop it too closely; swine injure it more, if the grazing is constant. Horses do even greater injury, through biting the crowns of the plants too closely; but sheep injure alfalfa pastures more than any of these animals, when the grazing is close, owing to the extent to which they trim off the leaves. =As Soiling Food.=--For being fed as soiling food, alfalfa has the very highest adaptation, owing, 1. To the long period covered by the growth. 2. To the rapidity of the growth resulting in large relative production. 3. To the palatability of the green food produced. 4. To the entire safety to the animals fed. And 5. To its high feeding value. In Louisiana, for instance, alfalfa may be made to furnish soiling food for nine months in the year. In the North, of course, the duration of production is much less, but it is seldom less than five months. The growth is so rapid that cuttings for soiling food may usually be made at intervals of four to six weeks, according to season and climate; hence, the cuttings for soiling food will run all the way from two to eight or nine each season. It is so palatable that horses, mules, cattle, sheep and swine relish it highly. When wilted a little before being fed, the danger of producing bloat is eliminated. Its feeding value is nearly the same as that of the medium red clover, thus making it in itself what may be termed a balanced or perfect food for horses, mules, cattle and sheep until development is completed and subsequently when they are at rest; that is, when they are not producing, as in the form of labor or milk. The highest use, probably, from feeding alfalfa when green will arise from feeding it to milch cows. Its high protein content in combination with its succulence pre-eminently adapts it to such a use. Wherever alfalfa can be grown and will produce even two cuttings a year, it will serve a good purpose in producing milk. Every dairyman dependent more or less on soiling food will find it to his advantage to grow alfalfa where it may be grown in good form. When fed to milch cows, some meal added, carbonaceous in character, as corn or non-saccharine sorghum seed, may prove a paying investment, and it may also be advisable to alternate the green alfalfa, morning or evening, with such other green crops as oats and peas, millet, rape, corn or sorghum when in season, to provide variety. But even though alfalfa alone should be thus made to supplement the pastures, the outcome should be at least fairly satisfactory. When fed to horses that are working, some care must be exercised in feeding it, lest too lax a condition of the bowels should be induced, and a grain factor should be fed at the same time. It has frequently been given to sheep that were being fitted for show purposes, but may also be fed green to the entire flock, with a view to supplement the pastures. It has special adaptation for promoting large growth in lambs, and, indeed, in any kind of young stock to which it may be fed. When fed to swine, a small grain supplement properly chosen and fed will insure more satisfactory growth. It is thought that more satisfactory results will be obtained from allowing the alfalfa to get fairly well on toward the blossoming stage before beginning to feed, and to continue to feed until in full bloom. This in practice may not always be possible, but usually an approximation to it may be reached, especially when the production of the alfalfa will more than supply the needs in soiling food. The ideal plan is to commence cutting the alfalfa as soon as a good growth is made, cutting enough daily or every other day to supply the needs of the animals. If the growth becomes too much advanced before the field is gone over thus, the balance should be made into hay, and the cutting should begin again where it began previously. There is no question but that considerably more food can be obtained from a given area when green alfalfa is fed in the soiling form, instead of being grazed. The difference in such production would not be easy to determine, but of the fact stated there cannot be any doubt. Ordinarily, each cutting of green alfalfa for soiling should not produce less than 4 tons; hence, where 8 cuttings can be secured, not fewer than 32 tons of soiling food could be obtained per season. But whether the increase from soiling alfalfa, as compared with pasturing the same, would repay the cost of the extra labor, will depend upon conditions that vary with time and place. Alfalfa fields thus managed or cut for hay will also produce for a longer period than when the fields are grazed. Continuity in the production of soiling food may not be possible some seasons in the absence of irrigation; hence, under such conditions provision should always be made for a supply of such other soiling foods as may be needed, and of a character that will make it practical to turn them into dry fodder when not wanted as soiling food. But where irrigating waters are unfailing, it is quite possible to furnish soiling food from alfalfa soils through practically all the growing season. Dairymen thus located are in a dairyman's paradise. Alfalfa, like clover, may be made into silage. In dry climates this would seem to be unnecessary, but in rainy climates it may be wise in some instances to make alfalfa ensilage, the better to insure the curing of the crop. What has been said with reference to clover ensilage will apply almost equally to alfalfa. (See page 103.) It would be more desirable, usually, to make the first cutting from alfalfa into ensilage than later cuttings, because of the showery character of the weather at that season, but the strong objection stands in the way of doing so, that no carbonaceous food, as corn, sorghum or soy beans, is ready for going into the silo then as they are later, with a view of aiding in the better preservation of the ensilage and of making a better balanced ration. Good alfalfa silage is more easily made when the alfalfa has been run through a cutting-box than when in the uncut forms. =Harvesting for Hay.=--The best time to harvest alfalfa for hay is just after the blossoms begin to appear. Ordinarily, not more than one-third of the blossoms are out when the harvesting should begin, but when the hay is to be fed to horses the cutting may be deferred until more than half the blooms are out. If cut earlier, the loss of weight in the crop will be considerable, as much as 30 to 45 per cent., as compared with cutting when in full bloom. If cut later, the stems become over-woody, and the loss of leaves in curing will be much greater. When the cutting is delayed beyond the period of early bloom, the growth of the next cutting is retarded, and when it is deferred until some of the leaves turn yellow or until some seed is formed, in many situations the influence on the succeeding crop is seriously adverse, and in some instances this influence would seem to react against the vigorous growth of the plant during the remainder of the season. In other instances, as where the conditions are quite favorable to the growth of the plant, these results are not present in so marked a degree. When large areas of alfalfa are to be harvested, the importance of beginning early cannot easily be overestimated. It would be much better to sacrifice something in loss of weight in the hay, through cutting too early, than to meet with greater loss in weight in the next crop or crops by cutting too long deferred. Much that has been said about the harvesting of medium, red clover will apply equally to alfalfa. (See page 95.) The mowing should begin as soon as the dew has lifted in the morning. The tedder should follow after the hay has wilted somewhat, and later, the horse rake, the aim being to get the crop made into winrows, preferably small, before nightfall, and when the weather is uncertain, the aim should be also to put the hay up into small cocks the same evening. This may not always be practicable. If the loss of leaves is likely to be considerable when raking the hay, raking should be deferred until the influence of evening dews begins to be felt. After the hay has become wilted it should not be stirred or handled any more than is really necessary, that loss of leaves and of the tips of the stems and branches may be avoided, and the handling during the curing process should be done to the greatest extent practicable before or after the sunshine has waxed strong. In showery weather, when small areas are being harvested, hay caps can be used with profit. Where large areas are to be harvested and where there is no danger of rain, the crop when nicely wilted is drawn into winrows, and in these the curing is completed without further stirring or handling. From the winrows it is drawn usually on rakes of a certain make, and the rake loads thus slid over the ground are lifted bodily onto the stack by the use of the "rickers." (See page 100.) [Illustration: Fig. 4. Field of Alfalfa in California] =Storing.=--When cured in cocks, these are preferably made small to facilitate quick curing, but usually from two to four days are necessary to complete the curing. If the cocks require opening out before being drawn, the work should be done with care. Ordinary stacking and storing may be done in practically the same way as in handling medium red clover, and the same care is necessary in protecting the stacks. In areas where considerable rain falls in the autumn, hay sheds will prove a great convenience in storing alfalfa in the absence of better facilities. In the Eastern States alfalfa is sometimes stored in mows undercured, by putting it into the mow in alternate layers with straw. The straw not only aids in preserving the alfalfa in good condition, but the alfalfa imparts an aroma to the straw which induces live stock to eat it readily. In showery weather this method of curing alfalfa merits careful attention where straw can be had near at hand and in sufficient quantities. The method is sometimes adopted of cutting alfalfa even for hay by using the self-rake reaper. The sheaves thus made are allowed to lie on the ground undisturbed until they are ready for being drawn. By this method of cutting, the loss of leaves is almost entirely avoided, but there are these objections to it: that it exposes unduly to sunlight during the curing process, and in case of rain the sheaves are easily saturated and do not dry readily unless turned over. Rain falling on alfalfa will injure it quite as much as it does red clover. (See page 96.) In climates with much rainfall in May or June, when the first cutting of alfalfa is ready for being harvested, according to locality, in instances not a few much difficulty is found in curing alfalfa without loss. Sometimes the entire cutting will be rendered practically useless by rain. Because of this, as previously intimated, it may be well to arrange, where practicable, to cut the first crop of the season for soiling food. The number of cuttings during the year depends on such conditions as relate to the length of the season, the character of the soil, the abundance of moisture present, and the use to which the alfalfa is put. In some of the river bottoms southward in the Rocky Mountains, where irrigating waters are plentiful, it is claimed that alfalfa may be made to furnish one cutting for soiling food every month in the year. Even in the Northern western valleys, as many as five or six cuttings for the use named may be obtained. North from the Ohio and Potomac rivers three to five cuttings of soiling food may be looked for each season, and south of these rivers even a larger number. North of the same rivers the hay crops run from two to four, and southward from the same they are seldom less than three. In the western valleys they range from three to five or six, according to location. In States bordering on the semi-arid States eastward and some distance south of the Canadian boundary, from three to four cuttings may usually be expected. In Colorado and States north and south from the same, two good crops of alfalfa may be cut from spring-sown seed the same season, but where irrigation is not practiced it is seldom that one crop of hay is harvested under similar conditions of sowing. But in the semi-arid belt not more than one cutting is usually obtained each season in the absence of water. But the number of cuttings will be reduced when one of these is a seed crop. When a seed crop is taken, the vitality of the plants is apparently so much reduced for the season that the subsequent growth is much less vigorous than if seed had not been thus taken. The yield of hay from each cutting will, of course, vary much with conditions, but it is seldom less than a ton. An approximate average would place the average cutting at about 1-1/4 tons, but as much as 2 tons have been obtained per acre at a cutting, and, again, not more than 1/2 ton. In New Jersey an average of 4.57 tons per acre was obtained under good conditions of management, but without irrigation, at the experiment station for three years in succession. In Kansas, 4 to 6 tons per acre may usually be expected from good soils. In Tulare County, California, as much as 6 to 10 tons have been secured under irrigation. The yields from the various cuttings are by no means uniform, especially in the absence of irrigation. They are much influenced by rainfall. In such areas, the second cutting is usually the best for the season, the subsequent cuttings being considerably less. Where irrigation is practiced, the crops are much more uniform, but even in mild climates, as the season advances, there is a tendency to lesser yields, indicative of the necessity of at least partial rest for plants during a portion of the year. The yields of alfalfa are usually exceeded by those of no other crop, where the conditions are quite favorable to its growth, even in the absence of irrigation. At the New Jersey Experiment Station, as stated in Bulletin No. 148, one acre of alfalfa produced 36,540 pounds of green food; of corn, 24,000; of red clover, 14,000; of crimson clover, 14,000; of millet, 16,000; of cow peas, 16,000; and of oats and peas, 14,000 pounds. But where only two, or even three, cuttings can be obtained per year, some crops may produce larger yields than alfalfa. In the distinctive alfalfa belt in the West, no forage crop can be grown that will compare with it in the yields obtained. The protein in alfalfa is also relatively high. At the station quoted above it was found one ton of alfalfa contained 265 pounds of protein; hence, its high relative value as a food; red clover, 246 pounds; timothy, 118 pounds; and wheat bran, 118 pounds. At the Delaware Experiment Station, in Bulletin No. 55, it is stated that maximum crops of cow peas and of crimson clover gave 720 pounds of protein, while a maximum crop of alfalfa gave 1230 pounds. Where alfalfa is irrigated, it is usual to apply irrigating waters just after each cutting of the crop. It is a matter of some importance that the water shall be applied at once as soon as the previous crop has been harvested, otherwise time will be lost in growing the next crop. There are instances where it is necessary to apply water before the first crop is grown, but usually the moisture which falls in the winter and spring will suffice to produce the first crop of the season. Some irrigators apply water some time previous to harvesting the crop, but not so late as to leave the ground in a soft condition when mowing is begun. The amount of water required will vary with the soil, the season of the year, the distance of the ground water from the surface, and the precipitation. The more porous the soil and subsoil, the hotter the weather, the less the precipitation and the farther below the surface, up to a certain limit, the greater will be the amount of water needed. There are situations, as in some of the islands in the Yellowstone River, in which ground water is so near the surface that alfalfa grown on these is able to get enough of water from this subterranean source to produce good crops. Care should be taken not to apply water in excess of the needs of the crop, or the yields will be proportionately reduced. The amounts that will best serve the end sought can only be ascertained by actual test. Caution is also necessary where the winters are cold not to apply water late or in excessive quantities, lest a sappy condition of the plants shall be induced, which will make them succumb to the cold of the winter following. Moreover, on some soils alfalfa fields will produce good crops, if irrigated only the first season, until the roots get down to moisture, the irrigating waters being utilized when more needed. Alfalfa hay is fed freely to all kinds of domestic animals on the farm, and with results that should prove highly satisfactory. Properly fed, it is an excellent food for horses and mules. It not only serves to maintain flesh, but it is favorable to glossiness in the coat. Horses that are working hard should be accustomed to it gradually. When it is fed to them too freely at the first, it induces too much of a laxity in the bowels, too free urination, and profuse sweating. When fed to such horses or mules, some authorities claim that several weeks should be covered in getting them on to what is termed a "full feed" of alfalfa. When fed to milch cows, free lactation results. Alfalfa fine in character is now manufactured into food suitable for calves and other young stock. Cattle and sheep are now fattened for slaughter on alfalfa hay fed alone, but when thus fattened the finish made is not equal to that resulting from adding grain to the alfalfa. To meet the needs of the best markets, alfalfa alone does not produce enough of fat or of firmness in the flesh, but it has been claimed, and probably it is true, that one-half the amount of grain required for finishing along with carbonaceous fodder, such as corn stalks or timothy, will give equally good and quick increase when fed with alfalfa hay. It is most excellent fodder on which to grow cattle and sheep, even in the absence of a grain supplement. The later cuttings of the season are thought to be the most suitable for calves and also for sheep and lambs, because of the greater fineness of the fodder and the greater abundance of leaves on it. Alfalfa hay is used with much advantage in wintering swine, especially brood sows. Swine have been wintered on alfalfa hay without any grain supplement where the winters are mild, but they will fare much better with a grain supplement. It is thought that half the usual amount of grain fed will produce equal results when fed with alfalfa, to those obtained from feeding a full allowance of grain in its absence. Alfalfa and sorghum properly grown make an excellent food for swine, and the two may be profitably fed thus where the conditions may be over-dry for corn, but not for sorghum. When feeding alfalfa, the aim should be to use it in conjunction with a carbonaceous food, as corn. Fortunate is the country which grows good crops of corn and alfalfa. =Securing Seed.=--Localities differ much in their capacity to produce alfalfa seed. The best crops of seed are now grown west and southwest of the Mississippi River. Certain areas in the semi-arid country east of and between the ranges of the Western mountains seem to have special adaptation for growing seed. At the present time the greatest seed-producing States are Kansas, Colorado, Utah, Arizona and California. But in some areas east of that river paying crops can be grown. It has also been noticed that when the crop is sown less thickly than it is usually sown for hay, the plants seed more freely, when sown with sufficient distance between the rows to admit of cultivating the crop, and when such cultivation is given, the influence on seed production is also markedly favorable; such treatment given to the varieties of recent introduction may possibly result in the production of seed from the same, notwithstanding that they bear seed very shyly when grown in the ordinary way. Nearly all the seed now grown in the United States is produced by fields that have been sown in the usual way, and primarily to produce hay, but in some areas, especially where irrigation is practiced, it is sometimes grown mainly for seed. On the irrigated lands of the West it is customary to grow the first cutting of the season for hay and the second for seed. But in many instances the second cutting also is made into hay, and the seed is taken from the third cutting; even in the States east of the Mississippi, and also in Ontario and Quebec, seed is usually taken from the second cutting. But in Montana, Washington and Idaho, on the higher altitudes, seed is not unfrequently taken from the first cutting for the season, since, in the short season for growth of those uplands, seed from cuttings later than the first does not always mature so well. In a large majority of instances seed does not form so profusely from plants of the first cutting as from those of later growths. This is thought to arise, in part, at least, from the fact that bees, and it may be other insects, are then less active in searching for food, and because of this do not aid in the fertilization of the plants as they do later. Nor does seed of the first cutting ripen so evenly. An important justification is also found for taking seed from the later cuttings, in the fact that when a crop has produced seed, it grows less vigorously during the subsequent period of growth that same season. So pronounced is this habit of growth in alfalfa, that in many localities, if the first growth is allowed to produce seed, but little subsequent growth will be made again the same season. The second cutting, all things considered, is the most favorable to seed production, as, unless on irrigated lands, the third cutting is not usually possessed of that vigor necessary to induce abundant seeding in the plants. The yields of seed are also much influenced by moisture. An excess of moisture is more unfavorable to the production of seed than a shortage in the same. Hence, in areas where the rainfall for the season is very abundant, but little seed will be produced. Where irrigation is practiced, the excessive application of water would have a similar effect, though less pronounced in degree; hence, the apportionment of the water to the prospective needs of the seed crop calls for careful adjustment. Where the first crop is grown for seed, where irrigation is practiced, in many instances no water is applied until after the seed crop has been harvested. The seed is ready for being harvested when a majority of the seed-pods assume a dark brown tint. The pods of later formation will still possess a yellow tint, and some of them may still possess the green color. These do not produce seed nearly equal in quality to the pods which ripen earlier. To wait for all the later maturing pods to ripen before harvesting the crop would mean the loss of much of the best seed through shattering. Another test of maturity is made by shelling the pods in the hand. When the seed can be thus shelled in a majority of the pods in a single plant, it is ready for being harvested. Alfalfa seed shatters easily; hence, it is important to harvest the seed crop with promptness when it is ready, to handle it with due carefulness, and in some instances to refrain from handling during the hottest hours of sunshine. The seed crop is sometimes cut with the mower and raked into winrows, and in some instances put up into cocks. When it is handled thus, the aim should be to do the work, as far as this may be practicable, in the early and late hours of the day, but not, of course, while much dew is on the crop. Sometimes the seed is drawn from the winrows to the thresher; in other instances from the cocks, and in yet other instances it is stacked before being threshed, a work that calls for the exercise of much care in the storing of the crop, lest the seed should be injured by heating in the stack. This method of harvesting is usually attended with much loss of seed. There is probably no better way of harvesting alfalfa than to cut it with the self-rake reaper or the binder. The loose sheaves dry quickly, and when lifted, the aim is to carry them directly to the thresher. Less seed, it is considered, will be lost in this way than by the other mode of harvesting given above, and the work is more expeditiously done. But owing to the difficulty in securing a thresher to thresh the seed, it is sometimes found necessary to stack the crop, but in areas where irrigation is practiced such stacking is seldom necessary. The seed is frequently threshed with the ordinary threshing machine, but in many instances it is also threshed with a clover huller. The huller does the work less quickly, but probably, on the whole, more perfectly. Threshing machines, with or even without certain adjustments in the arrangement of the teeth in the cylinder and concave, and with extra screens, are now doing the work with much despatch, and with a fair measure of satisfaction. But the opinion is held by competent judges that a machine that would more completely combine the qualities of the thresher and the huller would be still more satisfactory. It is easily possible to have the crop too dry to thresh in the best condition, and care should be taken to regulate the feed in threshing so that the alfalfa will not enter the cylinder in bunches. More than 200 bushels of seed have been threshed in a day from crops which yielded abundantly. The seed should be carefully winnowed before putting it on the market. The seed crops, as would naturally be expected, vary much; crops are harvested which run all the way from 1 to 20 bushels per acre. From irrigated lands the yields are, of course, much more uniform than from unirrigated lands, since in the former the supply of moisture may be controlled. Fair to good average yields on these may be stated at from 4 to 6 bushels, good yields at from 6 to 8 bushels per acre, and specially good yields at from 10 to 12 bushels. The bushel weighs 60 pounds. Growing alfalfa seed under irrigation has frequently proved very profitable. The seed grown in such areas is larger and more attractive to the eye than that ordinarily grown in the absence of irrigation, and because of this many are lured into sowing it on unirrigated land when the former would better serve their purpose. The seed is frequently adulterated with that of yellow clover (_Medicago lupulina_), which resembles it closely, but this is more likely to be true of imported than of American grown seed. =Renewing.=--Alfalfa may be renewed and also renovated where the stand secured at the first has been insufficient, where it may have been injured from various causes, where it is being crowded with weeds, and even with useful grasses, and where the land requires enriching. The stand of alfalfa secured is sometimes thin and uneven. This may arise from such causes as sowing too little seed; whether over-dry or through the crowding of the young plants. When this happens, in many situations it is quite practicable to thicken the stand by disking the ground more or less, adding fresh seed, according to the need of the crop, and then covering the seed thus added with the harrow. Such renovation would be comparatively easy on clean land, were it not for fact that the alfalfa plants already rooted overshadow the young plants, always to their injury, and sometimes to their total destruction. The spring will probably be the best season to attempt such renovation, but there may be instances where the winters are not severe, in which autumn seeding will succeed as well or better than spring seeding. Because of the uncertainty of the results of such renovation, the aim should be so to prepare the land and sow the seed that a good, thick stand will be secured at the first. Should the alfalfa fields be spotted, because in places the nurse crop lodged and smothered the plants, or because excessive moisture destroyed them on the lower portions of the field in an abnormally wet season, the renewing process is simple indeed. It consists in disking those parts so thoroughly as to destroy all vegetation that may have become rooted on them, and sowing seed in the usual way without a nurse crop. But should the low places be such as to hold an excess of water at any time of the year under normal conditions for days in succession, even though it should not rise to the surface, the attempts to make alfalfa grow successfully on these will prove abortive. When weeds and grasses crowd the crop, the plan of disking the fields to destroy these is becoming quite common, especially in the West. The work is usually done in the early spring. In doing it, disk harrows are driven over the field, usually two ways, the second disking being done at right angles to the first. The disks are set at that angle which will do the least injury to the plants, and that will at the same time do the work effectively. This can only be determined by actual test in each instance. Some of the crowns of the plants will be split open by the disk, which some authorities claim is an advantage in that it tends to an increase in the number of the stems produced, an opinion which is by no means held in common at the present time, and yet there are localities where it has certainly proved advantageous. Occasionally, a plant will be cut off. There can be no doubt, however, that such disking, when necessary, does tend to clean the land and also to strengthen growth in the alfalfa crop, on the principle that cultivation which does not seriously disturb growing plants is always helpful to them. The frequency of such diskings will depend on the needs of the crop. Some advocate disking every spring, some every other spring, and some not at all. That plan which disks the ground only when it is necessary to keep the weeds at bay would seem to be the most sensible. This would mean that sometimes, as where crab grass has a firm hold, disking may be necessary at least for a time every spring. In other instances it would be necessary only every second or third season, and in yet other instances not at all. However, some growers in dry areas advocate disking frequently, as, for instance, after some of the cuttings of the hay, and with a view to retain moisture. It is at least questionable, however, if disking so frequently would not soon tend to thin the plants too much, to say nothing of the labor while the work is being done. The idea of stirring the surface soil in alfalfa fields is by no means new. In England the plan prevailed to some extent years ago of harrowing the fields in the autumn with heavy harrows until, when the process was completed, they would take on the appearance of the bare fallow for a time. In the Eastern States and in some parts of Canada the harrow is used instead of the disk, but usually the latter will do the work more effectively and with less cost. Frequently, when the disk has been used on alfalfa, it may also be advantageous to run a light harrow over the ground to smoothen the surface. With a view to renovate the crop and increase the yields, in some sections, as in the Atlantic States, it has been recommended to top-dress alfalfa fields with farmyard manure every autumn. This, no doubt, would prove very effective, but it would also be very expensive, unless in the neighborhood of large cities. It would be impracticable without neglecting the needs of the other crops of the farm. In the mountain areas of the West, it has been found that the cost of fertilizing with farmyard manure is in the meantime greater than the increased production in the alfalfa is worth, but it may not be always thus, even on these rich lands. Some Eastern growers also apply more or less gypsum. This is generally sown over the fields after the crop has begun to grow in the spring. Renovating alfalfa fields is much more easily and effectively done, as would naturally be expected, in areas where conditions are highly favorable to its growth than where these are only moderately favorable. In some of the mountain valleys instances have occurred in which alfalfa fields have been plowed and sown with oats, with a result, first that a good crop of oats was reaped, and second, that fairly good crops of alfalfa were harvested the following season without re-sowing the field. =Sources of Injury to Alfalfa.=--Chief among the sources of injury to alfalfa, after the plants have become established, are frost in saturated ground, ice, floods, grasshoppers, gophers, dodder, and pasturing by live stock in the late autumn or winter. When it happens that two or three of these act in conjunction, the injury following is just so much more rapid and complete. As has been intimated, where water is excessive, in a climate which in winter or spring is characterized by alternations of freezing and thawing, the plants will either have the roots snapped asunder, or they will be gradually raised out of the ground. This will only happen in soil with a subsoil more retentive than is compatible with well-doing of the highest order in the plants. The danger from this source is greatest during the first winter after sowing the plants, as then the roots are not really established. The only remedy for such a contingency is the draining of the land. Some reference has also been made to injury done through ice, where it collects in low places in land. The destructiveness of the ice depends on its thickness and its nearness to the ground. When it rests upon the ground for any considerable time the plants die. If, however, water intervenes, the plants may live when the submergence is for a limited time. One instance is on record in Onondaga County in New York State, in which alfalfa survived submergence for a considerable period under a thin sheet of water covered by three inches of ice, but when growth came it was for a time less vigorous than normal. Floods in warm weather are greatly injurious to alfalfa. The extent of the injury done increases with increase of depth in the waters of submergence, increase in stagnation in the waters, and increase in the duration of the period of overflow. Stagnant water sooner loses its dissolved nitrogen; hence, the plants cannot breathe normally. The harm done, therefore, by floods in each case can only be known by waiting to see the results. These summer floods always harm the crops temporarily, and in many instances kill them outright. Occasional periods of overflow should not prevent the sowing of alfalfa on such lands, since on these it is usually not difficult to start a new crop, but the seed should not be sown on such lands when overflow occurs at such a season. When it occurs in cool weather and quickly subsides, it may be possible to grow paying crops of alfalfa. In some areas grasshoppers are a real scourge in alfalfa fields. Because of the shade provided by the ground and the influence which this exerts in softening it, they are encouraged to deposit their eggs and remain so as to prove a source of trouble the following year. It has been found that through disking of the land both ways after sharp frosts have come is greatly effective in destroying the grasshopper eggs deposited in the soil. They are thus exposed to the action of the subsequent frosts and so perish. The disking has also tended to stimulate growth in the crop the following year. The eggs will not, of course, be all destroyed by such disking, but so large a percentage will, that the crop should be practically protected from serious injury, unless when grasshoppers come from elsewhere. It would seem correct to say that gophers do more injury to alfalfa fields in certain areas of the West than comes to them from all other sources combined. They not only destroy the plants by feeding upon them, but they fill the soil with mounds, which greatly interfere with the harvesting of the crops. They are destroyed by giving them poisoned food, trapping, shooting, and suffocating through the use of bisulphide of carbon. Poison is frequently administered by soaking grain in strychnine or dropping it on pieces of potato and putting the same in or near the burrows. Bisulphide of carbon is put upon a rag or other substance, which is put into the burrow and the opening closed. Dodder is a parasitical plant introduced, probably, in seed from Europe, which feeds upon alfalfa plants, to their destruction. The seeds of alfalfa sometimes become so impregnated with the seeds of dodder that the latter will grow where the seed is sown, thus introducing it to new centers. The dodder starts in the soil and soon throws up its golden-colored thread-like stems, which reach out and fasten on the alfalfa plants that grow sufficiently near. The dodder then loses its hold upon the soil and gets its food entirely from the alfalfa plants, which it ultimately destroys. But since the seeds of the dodder remain at least for a time in the soil, and the adjacent soil becomes infected with them, the circles in which the dodder feeds continually widen. In certain parts of New York State some fields have become so seriously affected as to lead to investigations conducted through officials from the State experiment station. Pending these investigations, the exercise of great care in the purchase of seed and the immediate plowing of the infested areas are recommended. Some reference has already been made to injurious results from pasturing close in the autumn or winter, except in the most favored alfalfa regions. In addition to what has been already said, the wisdom of not grazing alfalfa the first year is here emphasized, and also the mistake of grazing at any time when the ground is frozen, at least in areas east of and, generally speaking, adjacent to the Mississippi River. =Alfalfa as a Fertilizer.=--Alfalfa is not considered equal to medium red clover as a direct means of fertilizing and otherwise improving the land on which it grows. This does not arise from less inherent power on the part of alfalfa to draw nitrogen from the air and deposit it in the soil, but rather from the fact that clover establishes itself more quickly, and is much more frequently grown in the rotation. Several crops of medium red clover can be grown in short rotations, each one being a source of much benefit to the crops that follow, while one crop of alfalfa occupies the land. But when the alfalfa is all fed upon the farm on which it grew, where the plants grow freely, it then becomes a source of fertilization without a rival, probably, among plants grown upon the farm. The fertility thus furnished does not consist so much in the plant food deposited in the soil directly as in that furnished in the successive crops that are grown and fed every year. In Farmers' Bulletin No. 133, published by the United States Department of Agriculture, it is stated that the Wyoming Experiment Station found 44 pounds of nitrogen, 8.27 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 50.95 pounds of potash in one ton of alfalfa. This would mean that in the yield of alfalfa hay from a given area, estimated at four tons per acre for the season, alfalfa would furnish 176 pounds of nitrogen, 33.08 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 203.8 pounds of potash. If this alfalfa were fed upon the farm, it would not only prove a cheap source of protein for feeding, but it would furnish fertility, as stated above, without seriously diminishing the supply of the same in the surface soil, since much of the fertilizing material produced would come from the air and subsoil. The manure thus made, if carefully saved and applied, would thus add materially to the fertility of the land. If, however, the alfalfa were sold, the mineral matter drawn from the cultivable area of the soil and from the subsoil lying under it would be reduced to the extent of the draft made upon these in growing the alfalfa. The direct influence of alfalfa upon the fertility of the land on which it grows is shown in the greatly increased production in the crops which follow alfalfa. This increase is not only marked, but it is frequently discernible for several successive years. But as has been intimated, the benefit that would otherwise accrue from growing alfalfa as a direct means of fertilizing the land is much circumscribed by the long term of years for which it is usually grown. The mechanical effects of alfalfa upon the land are beneficent. It improves the tilth by means of the shade furnished, and the extent to which the roots fill the soil. These in their decay further influence favorably that friability which is so desirable in soils that are cultivated, and as previously stated, the long, deep roots in their decay exercise a salutary influence on drainage. The work of breaking alfalfa fields is frequently laborious, owing to the number and size of the roots. If, however, a plow is used, the share of which has a serrated edge, the roots will be cut or broken off more easily and more effectively. CHAPTER V ALSIKE CLOVER Alsike Clover (_Trifolium hybridum_) takes its name from a parish in the south of Sweden. From there it is probable that it was introduced into England. Linnæus gave it the name of _hybridum_, imagining it to be a cross between the red and the white varieties. Botanists do not generally hold this view. It is known by various names, as Swedish, White Swedish, Alsace, Hybrid, Perennial Hybrid, Elegant and Pod Clover, but more commonly in America it is spoken of as alsike. The plants of this variety are more slender than those of the medium red variety, although they grow in some instances to a greater height. The slender stems are much branched. The leaves are numerous and oblong in shape, the flowers are of a pinkish tint, the heads are globular and are about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and the pods, like those in white clover, contain more than one seed. The roots are in no small degree fibrous, and yet the slender tap root goes down to a considerable distance. Alsike clover is a perennial. In favorable situations it will live for many years. Ordinarily, it grows to the height of 18 to 24 inches, but in slough lands it sometimes grows to the height of 5 feet. The plants do not reach their full size until the second year, and in some instances until a period even later. They grow less rapidly than those of medium red clover, are several weeks later coming into flower, and grow much less vigorously in the autumn. Ordinarily, they furnish but one cutting of hay each year. Because of the more fibrous character of the root growth, the plants do not heave so readily as those of red clover. In moist situations they are much given to lodge; hence, the importance of growing this crop, when grown for hay, along with some kind of grass that will help to keep the stems erect. [Illustration: Fig. 5. Alsike Clover (_Trifolium hybridum_) Oregon Experiment Station] Alsike clover furnishes a large amount of pasture. It is relished, at least, fairly well. The leaves are slightly bitter, but not enough to seriously interfere with their palatability. The quality of the hay is excellent. This arises from its fineness, from the number of the small branches and leaves on the stems, and from its fragrance when well cured. While it makes a very suitable hay for horses and cattle, it has peculiar adaptation for sheep, owing to its fineness. As a fertilizer it is probably not equal to medium red clover, since the root growth is not so bulky. Nor does it produce a second cutting anything like so vigorous as the former. Nevertheless, the roots possess even stiff soils to such an extent that they not only furnish them with much plant food, but they also tend to disintegrate them and to render them more easy to pulverize. As a honey plant, alsike clover is without a rival among clovers, unless it be in the small white variety. It is a great favorite with bee-keepers. Many of them sow it to enable them to furnish pastures for their bees. The bloom remains for a relatively long period. The honey is also accessible to the common honey bee, since the branches are numerous on the stems, and since each branch bears a head, the flower heads are relatively quite numerous. Since the honey is accessible to the common bee, pollination in the plants is assured; hence, the failures in the seed crop are few, and when other conditions are favorable, seed production is abundant. Because of the many good qualities of this clover it is deservedly a favorite wherever it can be successfully grown. When in full bloom, a field of alsike clover is a very beautiful sight. The flowers are a pale white at first, but gradually they deepen into a beautiful pink of tinted shades, and their fragrance is fully equal to their beauty. =Distribution.=--Alsike clover is found in Europe, Northern Africa and Western Asia. In these it has been cultivated for a long time, but its favorite home in the Old World would seem to be in Northern Europe. It would doubtless be correct to say that it is indigenous to Europe, and probably that it is indigenous to each of the three continents named. It is not indigenous to America, but was introduced into the same probably from Great Britain or Scandinavia. In some parts of North America it grows with a luxuriance equal to, if not, indeed, greater, than that shown by this plant when grown under the most favorable conditions which Europe furnishes. This plant is better adapted to a cool and humid climate than to one hot and dry. It is even more hardy than medium red clover, in the sense of enduring cold, and will live under conditions of climate so austere as to be fatal to red clover. It may, therefore, be grown further north than medium red clover, and under conditions so exposed as to cause medium red clover to fail. But it does not succeed quite so well as the former toward the southerly limit of the successful production of medium red clover; hence, the limit of production in the semi-arid belt ceases sooner than in the case of the other variety. The best climatic conditions for growing it are found not far from the boundary line between the United States and Canada, and in the vicinity of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and the Great Lakes. In the United States the best crops are grown in the States which border on Canada, and in these the highest adaptation, climate and soil considered, is found in Michigan, Wisconsin and Northeastern Minnesota. But in New York the adaptation is also high, and also in certain parts of Montana, Idaho and Washington. Good crops may also be grown in nearly all the second tier of States that lie southward from the Canadian boundary. The exceptions are those embraced in the semi-arid belt. Further south than the second tier of States to which reference has just been made, the successful growth of alsike generally lessens, and yet in parts of these States, as, for instance, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, good crops are grown. Some of the Rocky Mountain valleys, more especially those that can be irrigated, and that are also sufficiently elevated, grow excellent crops of alsike. Much of the province of Ontario has very high adaptation to the growth of alsike clover, and in several counties of that province large quantities are grown, not only for hay, but also for seed. In Ontario County in the said province, are certain clay soils rich in lime; in fact, almost marley in character, which have been found especially well adapted to growing alsike clover seed, and in certain areas in proximity to the Georgian Bay, adaptation exists about equally high. In some parts of Quebec good crops are also grown. But this variety of clover has not been grown as yet with much success in Manitoba, Assiniboia, Alberta or Saskatchewan. Both soil and climate, however, in these provinces should not be uncongenial to it in the main. In the cultivable lands of British Columbia, as in those of Washington, it grows remarkably well. Especially in the river bottoms and on the tide lands can immense crops be grown, as also on the tide lands of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but not on the upland sandy soils of these provinces. =Soils.=--The most suitable soil for alsike clover is a moist clay loam, not too friable nor too dense, and moist and deep. A goodly impregnation of lime in the same is favorable to maximum production. Abundant moisture conduces to the same end. This plant will, however, produce good crops, and in a moist season, excellent crops, on the stiffest clays, whether white or red, after a good stand has once been secured, providing hard pan is not found near the surface, but in dry seasons it is not easy to secure a stand on such soils. The plants send their fibrous roots down into the soil in all directions, and in this way render it much more friable when it is broken up. Next in adaptation, probably, come slough soils, even though covered with humus to a considerable depth, providing that clay lies under the humus. Enormous crops of hay or pasture can be grown on such soils, but the crops of seed are not usually so large as on the moist clays referred to above. On these also the hay is much more liable to lodge, unless supported by some kind of grass growing along with it. After slough soils come those that have been deposited by the action of water, as in river beds and on lake bottoms, when the waters have subsided, providing the clay element so necessary to the successful growth of this clover is plentifully present. In some instances the very best crops of alsike can be grown on such lands, but in many other instances these deposit soils have in them too much sand to produce these. Good crops can be grown on sandy loam soils, if well stored with vegetable matter, and at the same time fairly well impregnated with clay, but if one or both of these elements is lacking, adaptation in these soils will be correspondingly reduced. On the average upland prairie soil, alsike clover does not grow so vigorously as the medium red. The less of density that these possess under ordinary conditions, the less suitable are they to the needs of this plant, but when ample moisture is present, good crops may be grown on much of the soil in prairie areas. Soils lowest in adaptation to the growth of alsike include infertile sands and gravels, and the vegetable soils of the prairie so light that when cultivated they lift more or less with the wind. On such soils the growth of alsike is short and feeble, and any lack of moisture renders it increasingly so. This plant not only requires much moisture to insure the most vigorous growth, but it is also able to thrive under conditions of soil saturation such as some of the useful forage plants could not endure. When the weather is cool, it may be covered with shallow water for several days in succession without apparent injury. The possession of this characteristic makes it possible to grow alsike clover in sloughs not yet drained, but which are dry certain portions of the year. =Place in the Rotation.=--Much of what has been said about the place for medium red clover in the rotation may also apply to alsike clover. (See page 70.) On upland soils its place in the rotation will be very similar to that of the other variety, but with the difference that the rotations will be longer, because of the perennial habit of growth in the alsike. It will be best sown, therefore, on clean land which has produced a crop that has been cultivated the previous year. Consequently, it may follow such crops as corn, potatoes, field roots and beans in the North, and the same crops in the South, with the addition of cow peas, soy beans and the non-saccharine sorghums. But it may be sown after other crops when necessary, especially when it is to be pastured. One chief objection to sowing it thus for hay is that the hay will be less free from weeds. On upland this crop may be followed with any kind of a crop requiring much nitrogen. No crops can be made to follow it with more advantage, however, than corn and the sorghums, or potatoes. Rape will feed ravenously on the overturned sod, and wheat and the other small grains will also feed similarly. On low lands, especially when they partake of the nature of sloughs, the rotation is different. In some instances alsike may follow the natural grasses produced by the slough in the drained or undrained form, as the case may be, and may be made to supersede them without breaking the land, but more commonly on these it is sown after the natural sod has been broken and has decayed somewhat, by growing on it some such crop as rape or flax. On these lands it is usually grown in long rotations for pasture and also for hay, and when the sod is again plowed, it is followed by corn, potatoes, rape, and grains grown for soiling uses, since such land has naturally high adaptation for these. Flax also is a favorite crop to sow in such situations after alsike clover. =Preparing the Soil.=--The preparation of the land for alsike clover on ordinary soils is the same as for medium red clover. (See page 74.) Usually, that degree of fineness in the pulverization which best prepares the soil for the nurse crop with which alsike clover is sown, will also best prepare it for the alsike. But there may be some instances, as in strong clays, when a fine pulverization that would suffice for the needs of the nurse crop would be advantageous to the alsike. This finer pulverization can only be secured by the judicious use of the roller and the harrow. In loose-lying soils, more especially in areas where the precipitation in winter comes in the form of snow, and, therefore, does not wash the land as it does when it falls as rain, if the land on which alsike is to be sown is plowed in the fall, and only harrowed in the spring, or cultivated and harrowed when preparing it, the moisture will be better conserved than if it were plowed in the spring. When thus managed, strong clays in the area under consideration will usually have a much finer pulverization than can be obtained from spring plowing. When the preceding crop has been given clean cultivation, to plow land subsequently before sowing to alsike would bring up many weed seeds to the surface, where they would at once begin to grow. On slough lands, where water saturation is present during a portion of the year, even to the extent of appearing for a short interval over more or less of the surface, the seed may be sown without any previous preparation of the land, and in some instances successfully. In other instances it will fail should the following summer prove adverse. The stand is rendered much more certain in such instances by first burning off the grass, sowing the seed upon it, covering it more or less with the harrow and running the mower over the ground, say, twice in the season, to let in sunlight to the young plants. The grass thus mown may be left as a mulch. Pasturing, but not too early in the season, will in some instances give results equally good. In such situations the sowing should be done, and also the harrowing, before the frost has left the ground, except for a short distance from the surface, or the horses may sink too deeply when doing the work. The success is dependent in no small degree on the denseness or want of denseness of the root growth of the grass plants already covering the soil. The more dense these are, the less easy is it to obtain a stand, and the more peaty the soil immediately underneath the surface, the greater is the danger that the young plants will perish in a time of drought. When alsike seed is sown on drained sloughs, the aim should be to reduce the excess of coarse vegetable matter, if present, and to secure a smooth surface, such as will facilitate the easy mowing of the crop. More especially should this be the aim if the alsike is sown to produce hay. This can be most easily and speedily done by growing on it some reducing crop, as flax or rape, and then smoothing the surface by implements best suited to such work, as, for instance, some form of plow leveler. =Sowing.=--The time at which alsike clover may best be sown is the same as that for sowing the medium red variety; that is to say, the early spring. (See page 75.) Since it is hardier than the medium red variety, the danger is less that spring frosts will destroy the plants after they begin to grow. As with medium red clover, it may also be sown at sundry times, from the opening of spring until the late summer when the opportunity offers, and when the conditions for growth are favorable. For instance, there may be seasons when alsike clover, and, indeed, any kind of clover, will succeed along with a catch crop sown for pasture or to provide soiling food. But it should not be sown in the autumn unless where the winters are mild, or the young plants will not survive their rigors. Alsike clover is more commonly sown with a nurse crop. As with medium red, the crops with which it may be best sown are the small cereal grains, as winter rye, barley, wheat and oats, favorable in the order named. But it may also be sown with flax, with rape, and with grain crops that are to be cut for soiling or to be grazed down. The method of sowing alsike clover is virtually the same as that followed in sowing medium red clover (see page 78); that is to say, it may be sown by hand machines, with a grass-seeder attachment to the grain drill, or with the ordinary tubes of the grain drill and along with the grain. The seed is very small, and, consequently, may not admit of being buried so deeply as medium red clover, but in the open soils of the prairie it will sometimes succeed as well sown along with the grain as when buried less deeply, but in many soils the roller will provide a sufficient covering. Especially is this true in climates that are moist. Alsike clover has special adaptation for being sown along with timothy and red top on slough soils, and soils made up of rich deposit. It matures about the same time as these grasses. They support the slender stems of the alsike, and in doing so prevent lodging more or less. This greatly improves the quality of the hay. The more numerous the plants in those mixtures, the finer also will be the quality of the hay. If but two varieties are wanted in the mixture, ordinarily these two should be alsike clover and timothy. Both furnish hay of excellent quality; hence, when the proportion of alsike is not too large, such hay sells readily to dairymen who have to purchase fodder. Although this clover does not mature until three to four weeks later than the medium red, nevertheless, it may be well to add the latter to the timothy and alsike clover mixture. When these are thus sown in due balance, the first cutting will be mainly red clover, after which there will be but little of the red present. But the medium red clover will add much to the pasture after the first cutting for hay. Subsequently, the hay crop will usually consist of alsike and timothy. Alsike clover along with timothy may also be sown with mammoth clover, since the two mature about the same time. But the mammoth variety will monopolize the ground while the first hay crop is being produced. The advantage from sowing the seed thus lies chiefly in prolonging the period of clover production along with timothy grown chiefly for hay. It is not wise, usually, to sow alsike clover alone for hay, owing to its tendency to lodge. In the South it is frequently sown with red top and orchard grass, especially the latter. It fills in the spaces between the plants in the orchard grass, and in so doing adds much to the hay or to the pasture. There may be conditions in which it would be advisable to sow alsike clover alone, as when it is wanted for seed, and subsequently for pasture. But ordinarily to provide pasture, it is better to sow it along with some other grass or clover, or with a number of these. It greatly improves a timothy pasture in the upland or in the valley. It has also been used with much advantage in strengthening alfalfa pastures for horses in winter in certain of the Rocky Mountain valleys. It would probably be correct to say that with the area of adaptation for this plant, no kind of pasture can be grown on reasonably moist land that would not be benefited by having alsike in it. Among the clovers it has, relatively, high adaptation for permanent pastures, because of its enduring character. The seeds of alsike clover are small. They are considered to be less than half the size of those of medium red clover, consequently, the amounts of seed are relatively much less. When alsike clover is sown alone and for seed, from 3 to 5 pounds of seed should suffice per acre, according to the soil conditions. Four pounds are frequently sown. In the various mixtures given above, the amounts of seed will vary with local and other conditions, but the following amounts may be given as averages: Alsike and timothy, 4 and 6 pounds, respectively, per acre; alsike, timothy and red top, 3, 4 and 3 pounds; alsike, timothy and red clover, 3, 4 and 3 pounds; alsike, timothy and mammoth clover, 3, 4 and 3 pounds. When sown with other grasses for pasture, it would not be possible to give the amounts to sow that would best meet the needs of the grower under all conditions. But it may be said that 1 to 2 pounds of alsike seed per acre, sown under almost any circumstances in moist soils and within the alsike clover area, will be a good investment when laying down pastures of any considerable permanency. This clover is also sometimes added to the seed sown in making lawns, more especially on farms where the lawn cannot be given that close attention which is necessary to keep it in the most presentable form. Because of its permanence, it is helpful in giving variety to the sward, and when mown but two or three times in the season, as is frequently the case with such lawns, it provides considerable bloom in the same, which is very attractive. The amount of seed to use on these lawns may vary to suit the desires of the owner. It is not usual, however, to sow in these more than maximum amounts for field crops. At the rate of 3 to 4 pounds of seed per acre should be ample. =Pasturing.=--Alsike clover has by some authorities been assigned to a high place as a pasture plant. For such a use it has no little merit, but in the judgment of the author it is not nearly equal to medium red clover as a pasture plant, under average conditions, since it does not grow so well, relatively, on average upland soils, and because the aftermath is usually light, after the crop has been cut for hay or for seed. Nor is it thought to be relished quite as highly by stock as the medium red clover. Nevertheless, domestic animals eat it freely, and under suitable conditions it will furnish for them a considerable amount of grazing. This feature has been finely illustrated by an experiment in grazing conducted at the Agricultural Experiment Station of Montana, on irrigated land, at Bozeman, in the Gallatin valley. Full particulars relating to this unique experiment are given in Bulletin No. 31, issued by the afore-mentioned station. In the summer of 1900, 18 cattle, one and two years old, were pastured on 5.04 acres of alsike clover for 102 days, beginning with June 9th. The increase in the weight obtained from the pasture in the time stated was 4560 pounds. This gain was valued at the very moderate price of 4 cents per pound live weight; hence, the net return per acre for the pasture for the season was $36.19. It would scarcely be possible under any conditions, howsoever favorable, to obtain such results without irrigation. Ordinarily, the results from pasturing alsike clover will be more satisfactory when one or two other plants are grown along with it, as, for instance, medium red clover or medium red clover and orchard grass, since both of these plants tend to prolong the period of grazing. In slough lands, red top and timothy add considerably to the value of the grazing. When grazing alsike clover, much more pasture will be obtained if it can be allowed to make a good start in the spring, and if it is then kept grazed so short that the plants do not come into flower. Such treatment tends very much to prolong the period of grazing for the season. Should the grazing be so uneven as to admit of certain areas in the pasture pushing on into the flower stage, the mower may sometimes be profitably used to prevent such a result. Weeds should also be kept from going to seed in the pastures by using the mower or the scythe, or both. Nor should the fact be lost sight of that the tendency to produce bloat in alsike clover is much the same as in medium red clover. =Harvesting for Hay.=--Alsike clover is ready to harvest for hay when the plants are just beginning to pass beyond the meridian of full bloom. Some of the first blossoms will then have turned brown and some of the smaller ones will still be deepening their tints, since the season of bloom is about the same as for timothy, and since alsike for hay is more commonly grown with timothy than with any other grass, both may be cut when at their best, especially when intended for cows and sheep. But when the hay is intended for horses, it should stand a few days longer than the stage indicated above, in order to have the timothy in the condition best suited to feeding horses. But the alsike, in the meantime, would lose something in digestibility. If grown alone for hay, the process of harvesting would be much the same as in harvesting medium red clover. (See page 95.) But since the stems of alsike clover are finer than those of the medium red, less time will suffice for curing it. It will also cure more quickly along with some other grass than if alone, since it does not then lie so closely in the winrow or in the cock. Grasses, as a rule, cure more quickly than clovers, and this also has a bearing on hastening curing in clover when the two are grown together; and also in lessening the degree of the fermentation after the crop has been stored. Ordinarily, when the weather is bright, alsike clover along with timothy may be cut in the forenoon, tedded once or twice soon after cutting, raked into small winrows the same evening and stored away the following afternoon. When thus managed, the hay loader may be used in lifting the hay from the winrows. Alsike clover growing alone could not be cured thus quickly. Nor would it be wise in showery weather to try and cure the crop without putting it into cocks, whether grown alone or with some other crop. When properly cured, the heads retain much of their bloom and the stems much of their greenness. The yields of hay vary greatly with the soil. On dry, sandy uplands the yields of cured hay may not exceed 1/2 ton, while on rich loam soils it may exceed 3 tons. Ordinarily, on good soils a combined crop of alsike clover should yield from 1-1/2 to 2 tons per acre of very excellent hay. Some authorities speak of getting two cuttings per year, but this is not usual. Under quite favorable conditions it would be possible to get two cuttings for soiling uses, providing the first was taken when the plants were coming into bloom. Usually, the growth of the aftermath, when the hay has been removed, is very moderate. =Securing Seed.=--Alsike is a great producer of seed. This arises in part from the relatively large number of the heads on the plants, and in part from the completeness of the pollinations, through the action of the honey bee. These are relatively much more numerous than the bumble bees, which alone among bees, it has been claimed, aid in the pollination of medium red and mammoth clover. Although the seeds are considerably less than half the size of those of medium red clover, as much as 8 bushels of seed have been secured from an acre. Frequently, however, the yields are less than 2 bushels. Good average yields may be stated as running from 3 to 4 bushels per acre. The best yields are usually obtained from the first crop, but under favorable conditions this clover may be cut for seed for two and even three years in succession. Better yields are usually obtained from crops of medium vigor than from those of excessive rankness. The latter lodge to such an extent as to reduce materially the yields of the seed, since the heads do not fill well. The cost of harvesting and threshing such crops is also greater, relatively, than of those of medium growth. To prevent such excessive growth in the seed crop, pasturing for a time is frequently resorted to. The grazing should begin reasonably early in the season before growth anywhere becomes so rank that the animals do not eat it in certain portions of the field, whereas, at the same time, they graze other portions of the field too closely. Rather close grazing, from the time that grazing begins, is preferable to grazing that leaves the crop uneven. When certain portions of the field are left ungrazed, or only partially grazed, the mower should be run over such portions about the time that the grazing ceases. If this is done a few days before the removal of the stock, they will eat much of the clover thus mown. Unless the mower is thus used, under such conditions the seed will ripen unevenly in the grazed and ungrazed portions of the same. The duration of the grazing is much dependent on the soil and the season. The more moist and rich the soil and the more moist the season, the more prolonged should the grazing be. In Northern areas it seldom begins earlier than May 1st, and seldom extends beyond June 1st. If prolonged unduly and dry weather follows, the growth of the plants will not be enough to produce average crops of seed. Quite frequently on upland soils, the grazing should cease before the end of May. Either cattle or sheep, or both, may be used in the grazing. Cattle do not graze quite so closely as sheep, which is so far favorable to subsequent growth. But sheep will glean weeds to a much greater extent than cattle. When the field is made to carry so much stock that the grazing is quickly and thoroughly done, the results are usually more satisfactory than when the opposite method is practiced. It is important that weeds shall be prevented from maturing seeds in the clover. To prevent this, it may be necessary to run the mower over the whole field at the close of the grazing season. In crops that are not grazed, it may be necessary to use the scythe in clipping back weeds and in cutting off any stray heads of timothy that may be pushing up toward maturity. In some instances it may even be found profitable to use the spud in destroying weeds of more dwarfish growth than those which can be clipped with the scythe. It is more important, relatively, that weeds shall be thus dealt with in growing alsike clover than in growing clover of the larger varieties, since, owing to the small size of the seeds of alsike, it is more difficult to remove foul seeds with the winnowing mill. No kind of seed, probably, is more difficult to separate from alsike seed than timothy; hence, when the former is grown for market, these plants should not be grown together. If, perchance, they should be so grown and the crop cut for seed, it would be well not to try to separate the seeds, but to sow them thus, as even when thus mixed the seed has a considerable market value. The crop is ready for being harvested when nearly all the heads are fully matured. The bloom will then have left them and they will be characterized by a reddish cast. The earlier heads will have turned a dark color, almost black. Some bloom may yet linger on the later and smaller heads, but harvesting should not be delayed until these mature. The seed crop can best be cut with the self-rake reaper, which throws off the sheaves unbound. If cut with the grain binder, the sheaves should not be bound. A sort of box attachment may be fastened to the cutter-bar of the mower, which will enable the workmen to leave the hay in sheaves, but to do this an additional hand is wanted to rake or pitch off the sheaves. The sheaves should be laid off in rows, and by system, rather than at random, for convenience in storing. Usually, the sheaves are not disturbed until ready for being stored, but in case of very heavy rain it may be necessary to turn the sheaves, to prevent the seeds which come in contact with the ground from sprouting. The sheaves should be carefully lifted, otherwise many of the heads will break off and be lost. Because of this, it may be wise, frequently, to refrain from lifting the sheaves for loading in the middle of the day. Large forks, which may be run under the bunches, are more suitable than ordinary forks. When absolutely necessary, the seed crop may be harvested with the field mower, as ordinarily used, but when it is thus harvested, the crop should be cut with all promptness as soon as it is ready. It must then be raked into winrows and lifted as hay is usually lifted. All the work of harvesting should be done in those portions of the day when the heads will break off less freely, and when at the same time the dew is not resting on the seed plants in any considerable degree. When, however, a crop of alsike is thus harvested for seed, many heads will break off, howsoever careful the workmen may be. The seed may be threshed at once or stored. Storing under a roof is preferable to storing in the stack, but the latter method will suffice, if the tops of the stacks are well protected with a covering of marsh hay or of some other suitable material. When the seed is not threshed at once it is usual to defer threshing until cold weather, as with medium red clover, as then the seed is much more easily removed from the seed pod. Ordinarily, the work can best be done by clover hullers, the same as are used in threshing medium red and mammoth clover, but grain separators, with certain attachments, will now do this work in good form. Much care should be exercised in winnowing the seed. It ought to be so cleaned that it will grade as No. 1, and so bring the highest current price. Due care in this matter will make the major part of even ordinary seed bring the best price. =Renewing.=--When the stand of the alsike is but partial, as, for instance, when young plants have failed, or partially so, on the high land, and are sufficiently plentiful on the lower land, a full stand may sometimes be secured by simply scattering seed where it is needed so late in the fall that it will not sprout before winter, covering with the harrow and then top dressing with farmyard manure well decomposed. But where the winters are so mild that the clover might be sprouted during some warm spell followed by severe weather, the seed should not be sown then. On certain soils, as those naturally moist and porous, it may be possible so to renew alsike clover that it will produce hay or pasture crops almost indefinitely, by simply allowing some heads to seed every year and fall to the ground. In meadows, this may be done by not grazing after the hay has been harvested until other heads have formed and ripened. A limited number of these will thus form after the crop has been mown for hay. If the crop has been cut for seed, many heads will in any event be left upon the ground. The same result will follow when grazing the crop, if grazing is made to cease at the right time, and for a period long enough to allow a considerable number of heads to mature. This method of renewal will not prove a complete success on all soils, as, for instance, on those very stiff and very light. Natural meadows that lie low may be changed in whole or in part into alsike meadows or pastures in some of the States, as has been previously intimated, by sowing seed on them in the early spring. (See page 202.) In some instances such change has been effected by sowing seed but once, and at the rate of from 3 to 4 pounds per acre. In other instances it has been found preferable to sow a less quantity for two successive seasons, lest one of the two should prove adverse to successful growth in the plants. But on some slough soils a stand cannot be secured by this method of sowing, more especially when they are composed of raw peat. CHAPTER VI MAMMOTH CLOVER Mammoth Clover (_Trifolium magnum_) was long ago named _Trifolium medium_ by Linnæus. However appropriate the designation may have been at the time, it is not so now, at least under American conditions, as in this country there is no other variety of clover so large, unless sweet clover (_Melilotus alba_). To apply to it the distinguishing term medium, therefore, is positively misleading, since the smaller variety of red clover commonly grown occupies such middle ground, as the term medium would indicate. Because of this, the author has ventured to designate it _Trifolium magnum_. It has also been classified, and with no little appropriateness, _Trifolium pratense perenne_, which has reference to the mildly perennial habit of growth in this plant. In common phrase it is known by such names as Large, Tall, Saplin or Sapling, Giant, Meadow, Perennial Red, Red Perennial Meadow, Pea Vine, Zigzag, Wavy Stemmed, Soiling, and Cow clover or Cow grass. Each of these names has reference to some peculiarity of growth in the plant. For instance, the terms Large, Tall, Saplin and Giant have reference to the size of the plant; and the terms Pea Vine, Zigzag and Wavy Stemmed to the somewhat irregular and trailing habit of growth in the stems, and so of the others. The designation Cow grass is an English term. Mammoth clover is a large variety of red clover; in fact, the largest variety of red clover in America. The plants are strong, stronger than those of the medium red variety, and the stems are much larger. They are softer than those of the medium red, which to some extent may account for the less erect habit of growth which characterizes it. The leaves are usually destitute of the white spot found on those of the other variety. The heads are also probably larger and somewhat more open, but there is no appreciable difference in the size of the seed. The plants, notwithstanding, bear so much resemblance to those of the common red variety that it is not easy to distinguish them unless by the large size of the plants of the former. The roots are larger and stronger than those of the medium red variety, and as a result have more power to gather plant food in the soil. Mammoth clover is biennial under some conditions and under others it is perennial, although it is not usually a long-lived perennial. It has a stronger habit of growth than the medium red, and is, therefore, rather better fitted to thrive under adverse conditions, more especially when it has once obtained a hold upon the soil. It grows chiefly in the first half of the season, and makes but little growth, relatively, in the autumn, or, indeed, any time the same season after the crop has been harvested for hay. In the Northern States it comes into flower about the middle of July, and in those of the South correspondingly earlier. It is relished by all kinds of domestic animals kept upon the farm, but the hay is relatively better adapted to cows and other cattle than to horses and sheep. If cut too late, or much injured in the curing, it is too dusty for horses, and the growth is too coarse to make first-class hay for sheep. It makes excellent soiling food, because of the abundance of the growth and the considerable season during which it may be fed in the green form. It is peculiarly valuable as a fertilizer and as an improver of soils. In addition to the nitrogen which it draws from the air and deposits in the soil, it brings up plant food from the subsoil and stores it in the leaves and stems, so that when fed it can be returned to the land. It also fills the soil with an abundance of roots and rootlets. These render stiff soils more friable, and sandy soils less porous; they increase the power of all soils to hold moisture, and in their decay yield up a supply of plant food already prepared for the crops that are next grown upon the ground. Mammoth clover may also be utilized with advantage in lessening the numbers of certain noxious weeds, and in some instances of eradicating them altogether. This it does in some instances by smothering them, through the rankness of the growth. In other instances it is brought about through the setback which is given to the weeds by first pasturing the crop and then cutting it later for seed. =Distribution.=--Mammoth clover has long been grown in several of the countries of Europe and Western Asia. It is also grown in certain parts of Siberia. It was doubtless introduced into the United States from Europe by emigrants from that continent, but when exactly is not known. It has probably been many years since its introduction into America, but it is only within the more recent of the decades that it has attracted general notice. In some areas in this country it grows with great luxuriance, fully equaling, if not exceeding, the crops grown in any part of Europe. Mammoth clover calls for climatic conditions about the same as those for medium red clover. (See page 61.) It flourishes best in moist climates of moderate temperature, and it will endure more drought than the medium red variety and possibly more cold. The distribution of mammoth clover covers nearly all the States of the Union, but as with medium red clover the adaptation for it is relatively higher in the Northern than in the Southern States of the Union. The highest adaptation for mammoth clover is probably found in certain parts of Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, the northern valleys of the Rocky Mountain States, the elevated portions of those further south and the country around Puget Sound. The adaptation is also high in much of New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska. In the Southern States that lie northward, good crops may be grown in some locations, but not in all. As the semi-arid belt is approached, mammoth clover will grow further west than the medium red, but in the greater portion of this region it will not succeed. The adaptation of the North Atlantic States, including those of New England, is not of a high order, but rather more so, probably, than for the medium red. In Canada also the adaptation of medium and mammoth clover is much the same as for the medium red. In some parts of Ontario, especially Western Ontario, it grows remarkably well; but in the maritime provinces it does not grow so well; nor does it thrive in the provinces of the Canadian Northwest as it does in Ontario. As with medium red clover, the distribution of this variety has not been fully determined in either the United States or Canada, more especially on soils of the prairie, where it does not succeed well at present. It is probable that under some conditions on these soils, and also in the South, the absence of the requisite bacteria in the soil may account, in part, at least, for failure in attempts made to grow it. With the introduction of these, the area of successful cultivation may be considerably extended. =Soils.=--Mammoth clover may usually be successfully grown in soils well adapted to the growth of the medium red variety. (See page 65.) This means that it will usually grow with much luxuriance in all areas which produce hardwood timber, and are usually covered with a clay or muddy loam soil underlaid with clay. It will also grow with great luxuriance in the volcanic ash soils of the irrigated valley lands of the Rocky Mountain States, and in the loam and light loam soils of the Puget Sound country. It has greater power than the common red variety to grow in stiff clays, in sandy soils underlaid with clay, and in areas where moisture is insufficient near the surface soil. In stiff clays the roots penetrate to a greater distance than those of the medium red variety and gather more food. Consequently, a stiff clay soil that would only furnish a light crop of the medium red variety in a dry season may furnish an excellent crop of the mammoth. The quality of the hay is likely to be superior to that grown on soils altogether congenial, since it is not likely to be over-rank or coarse. On sandy soils underlaid with clay, and especially where the clay is some distance from the surface, this clover is more certain to make a stand, since the vigor of the plants enables them to gather food until the roots go down into the clay. In areas where the moisture is more or less deficient, the other conditions being favorable, this clover can send its roots down into the subsoil, where moisture is more abundant than on the surface. Because of this power, it is better adapted than the medium red to much of the area of Southwestern Minnesota, Western Iowa, Western Kansas and Nebraska, and, in fact, much of the area bordering on the semi-arid country. On clay soils that are so saturated with water that in the winter or spring the clover is much liable to heave, there is conflict in opinion as to whether the mammoth or the common red variety will heave the more readily, but the preponderance of the evidence favors the view that the roots of the mammoth variety can better resist such influences than those of the common red. This clover, like the common red, is not well adapted to hungry, sandy soils, to the blow soils of the prairie, to the muck soils of the watery slough, or to the peaty soils of the drained muskeg. =Place in the Rotation.=--The place for mammoth clover in the rotation is much the same as for the medium red variety. (See page 70.) It may, therefore, be best sown on a clean soil; that is to say, on a soil which has grown a crop the previous season that has called for clean cultivation, as, for instance, corn, potatoes, sorghum, or one or the other of the non-saccharine sorghums, field beans, soy beans, cow peas and field roots. But it is not so necessary that it shall be made to follow either kind of beans or cow peas as the other crops named, since these have already gathered nitrogen, which is more needed by leguminous crops. This clover should rather be grown in rotations where more nitrogen is wanted, when the soil will profit by increased supplies of humus, and where strong plants are wanted, the root growth of which will have the effect of rendering the cultivated portion of the soil more friable when stiff and more retentive when sandy, and that will have the effect of opening up many little channels in the subsoil when the roots decay, through which an excess of surface water may percolate into the subsoil. It may precede such crops as revel in humus and that feed ravenously on nitrogen. These include all the small cereals, corn and all the sorghums, rape, and all kinds of garden vegetables and strawberries. It is, of course, better adapted to short than to long rotations, because of the limited duration of the life of the plants. The length of the rotation will, of course, depend upon various contingencies. Frequently, the clover is cropped or pastured but one season following the year on which the seed was sown, whatsoever the character of the crops that precede or follow it, but in more instances, probably, it is used as crop or pasture for two years. When timothy is sown along with this clover the pasturing or cropping may continue for one or more seasons longer before the ground is broken, but in such instances the timothy will have consumed much or all of the nitrogen put into the soil by the clover, save what has escaped in the drainage water. One of the best rotations in which to sow mammoth clover, as also the medium red, is the following: Sow in a nurse crop of rye, wheat, oats or barley, as the case may be, in order that it may be pastured or cut for hay the following season, and then follow with a crop of corn or potatoes. This in turn is followed by one or another of the small grains. This constitutes a three years' rotation, but in the case of mammoth clover it is frequently lengthened to four years. The year following the sowing of the clover, it is cut for hay or for seed, and the next year it is pastured with or without a top-dressing of farmyard manure. This rotation meets with considerable favor in certain areas of Wisconsin, well adapted to the growth of the plant. =Preparing the Soil.=--The preparation of the soil called for by the mammoth clover is virtually the same as that required when preparing a seed-bed for the medium red variety. (See page 74.) Clay loam soils, whatsoever their color, cannot easily be made too fine and smooth, and the same is true of sandy loams. Stiff clays should be made so fine as to contain ample loose mold to germinate the seed readily, and yet they ought not to be made so fine that they will readily run together under the influence of a soaking rain. Usually, such soils are seldom made too fine, but sometimes they are. The aim should be to firm sandy soils, especially when light enough to lift with the wind, and to leave them more or less uneven on the surface when the seed is sown. In many States the ground should be plowed in the fall for spring sowing, and in yet others it should be plowed in the spring. Conditions of soil and climate govern this feature of the work. Usually, however, the longer the soil is plowed and then properly worked on the surface before receiving the seed, the finer, cleaner, firmer and moister it is likely to be, and the larger the store of the available fertility to promote the growth of the young plants. Because of this, after cultivated crops, the ground is not usually plowed or otherwise stirred on the surface. When the soil is low in fertility, it may be necessary to fertilize it before a crop of mammoth clover can be successfully grown. For such fertilization, farmyard manure is very suitable. When soils are low in the content of humus, before a good crop of clover can be grown, it may be necessary to supply humus. But few soils are so deficient in fertility that they will not grow clover if supplied with humus. Farmyard manure supplies both humus and fertility, but in its absence, a crop of rye buried in the soil will insure a stand of clover. In other instances it may be necessary to follow with some kind of a crop that has much power to gather plant food, as corn of some hardy variety, and to graze or otherwise feed it from the land. =Sowing.=--Much of what has been said about the sowing of medium red clover will apply also to the sowing of mammoth clover. East of the Mississippi and north of the Potomac and Ohio rivers, mammoth clover is usually sown in the spring, and for the reason that the young plants are frequently killed by the severity of the winter weather when sown in the autumn. But when sown at that season, the seed being mixed with winter rye and being deposited by the drill as early as September 1st, the plants frequently survive the winter as far north as Marquette County in Wisconsin. The rye in the line of the drill marks provides a sufficient protection for the clover. But this only occurs where the conditions are eminently favorable to the growth of the clover. Around Puget Sound it may also be sown with advantage in the early autumn, as then it should produce a full crop the next season, and the same is true of nearly all the Rocky Mountain valley region, but in these areas it may also be sown in the spring. Between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains and Oklahoma and Canada, spring sowing is usually preferable, and in much of the area is an absolute necessity to insure a stand. In the South the seed may be sown fall or spring; which season is to be preferred should be determined chiefly by the character of the soil. On soil much given to heaving in the winter it is usually preferable to sow in the spring. In all, or nearly all, parts of Canada spring sowing only is admissible. When the seed is sown in the early spring, it should usually be sown quite early, as early, in fact, as the ground is in condition to receive the seed when the nurse crop has been sown the previous autumn. When the ground is smooth and impacted on the surface, it is considered preferable to defer sowing until the ground is dry enough to admit of covering the seed with the harrow. When deposited at the same time as spring-sown nurse crops, and with these, the time of sowing will be determined by the most suitable time for sowing the nurse crop. This plant may be sown under certain conditions as late in the spring as moisture exists in the soil sufficient to produce vigorous germination in the seed. This means that it may be sown as late as June, if sown alone, and even later. When sown thus late it should be on soil that has been well cleaned near the surface. When sown in the autumn, as with medium red clover, the aim should be to put the seed in as early as the arrival of the autumn rains, that the plants may be well rooted before the arrival of freezing weather. Ordinarily, mammoth clover, like the medium red, is sown with a nurse crop, whether sown fall or spring. (See page 84.) The nurse crops in the North include winter rye, winter wheat, barley, spring wheat and oats, suitable, probably, in the order named, also such pasture crops as rape, vetches, and various mixtures of grain sown on certain soils to provide pasture for cattle, sheep or swine. The best nurse crops in the South include winter rye, winter barley and winter oats, even though the seed should not be sown on them until the spring. On certain sandy loam soils a stand of mammoth clover is more assured if sown with a pasture crop than if sown with a grain crop which is to mature. (See page 82.) Under certain conditions of soil and climate, this crop may be sown on plowed or disked land in certain of the States, after a crop of grain, and in other instances by sowing amid the stubbles and covering with the harrow. But there is more of hazard in growing thus than by other methods. Sometimes this clover is sown amid standing corn, at the last cultivation, but too much shade or too little moisture may cause only partial success, or even failure, whereas at other times the plan may succeed. The modes of sowing the clover are virtually the same as those to be followed in sowing medium red clover. (See page 78.) It will be sown by hand, by hand machines, and by the grain drill, with or without attachments. The seed of this variety, however, will, on the whole, be more frequently mixed in with the grain than the seed of the medium red clover, because of the stronger growth that it makes. This will frequently be found the preferable mode of sowing it when sown in the autumn. When sown to provide hay, mammoth clover and timothy make an excellent combination for the reasons, first, that they mature about the same time; second, that more of this clover is likely to survive the first year of cutting than of the common red; and third, that more food, it is believed, will be furnished to the timothy in the dead roots of this clover than of the medium red. The first year of cutting, the hay crop is likely to be nearly all clover; the second year, clover and timothy mixed, and the third year, timothy. But if alsike is sown in the mixture, though it may be little in evidence the first year, it will show itself the second year and probably the third year. When sown for pasture in short rotations, this clover may be sown alone or with other varieties of clover, timothy or tall oat grass being added. When sown for seed, it is probably better to sow it alone, but there is no very strong objection to sowing timothy alone with the clover, since the latter may aid in sustaining the clover, and it is not difficult to separate mammoth clover seed and timothy seed. When mammoth clover is sown alone for hay or for seed, not fewer than 12 pounds per acre of seed should be used. When sown with timothy, 6 and 8 pounds, respectively, would be an average seeding. If alsike clover is added, the seed of the mammoth may be reduced by one pound, and the same amount of alsike added to the mixture. When sown with the medium red variety to provide short rotation pastures, about 6 pounds of each may be sown. The pasture furnished will be more continuous than where only one kind is sown. If timothy or tall oat grass is added, a pound of one or the other of these should be added for every pound of the clover withheld from the mixture. For permanent pastures 6 pounds of the mammoth clover may be set down as the maximum to sow per acre, varying the quantity with varying conditions. And when the clover is sown with small grain to be plowed under in the fall or early in the spring, usually only very moderate amounts of seed ought to be used, especially where the hazard is considerable that the dry weather may cause failure in the catch of the seed. =Pasturing.=--Mammoth clover furnishes much pasture when it is grazed, on into July and sometimes even into August, because of the vigorous character of the growth, but after that season the growth is usually light. Nor is there generally much growth after the crop has been cut for hay. The palatability of the pasture is much the same as that of the medium red variety. More grazing is furnished where the crop is fairly well grown before the pasturing begins, but it is not so palatable, and when unduly rank, to defer pasturing thus long would result in a considerable waste of pasture, which the stock would tread under foot. When the crop is wanted for hay, there may be instances in which it may be advantageous to pasture it for a time to prevent the growth from becoming overly luxuriant. There have been instances in which the clover has grown so rankly that the lodged clover killed nearly all the plants by excluding the air from the roots. When grown on soils that in a normal season produce a rank growth, the quality of the hay will, in nearly all instances, be improved by grazing. This, however, should be done soon after the growth begins and should not be long continued, and it should be close, in order to promote evenness and uniformity in the growth of the hay crop. When grown for seed, mammoth clover is quite frequently pastured. In fact, in a majority of instances it is either pastured or cut with the mower when a seed crop is wanted. The pasturing usually continues until June 1st, but in some instances it is prolonged far on into June. The duration of the pasturing season should be gauged largely by the character of the soil and weather. The better the conditions for growth in the plants, the longer may the pasturing be continued, and _vice versa_. There are also conditions in which such pasturing may not be necessary. But when the grazing is not close, the mower should be run over the field, otherwise the seeds will not ripen evenly. There is the same danger from bloating that is present when pasturing medium red clover. (See page 94.) To avoid this danger, cattle that are being thus pastured are in some instances given access to cured clover hay. In other instances the haulm of the seed is left in the field so that the cattle have access to it. But the second season of grazing, the danger from bloat is not so great as the first season, as usually more of other pasture plants grow amid the clover. Horses, cattle, sheep or swine may be used in grazing off the clover for seed. All of these may be used at the same time. Horses bite the crowns of the plants so closely as to somewhat injure subsequent growth; sheep also crop rather closely; cattle do not crop the plants so closely; consequently, they are so far preferable to horses or sheep for such grazing. On the other hand, sheep will prove far more destructive to weed growth in the pasture. =Harvesting for Hay.=--Ordinarily, the methods of making the hay crop are the same as those followed in curing medium red clover. The mammoth variety, however, frequently requires a longer season in which to cure, owing, first, to the heavier character of the growth, and second, to the larger stems of the latter. After it has been mown there is greater reason for using the tedder in getting it ready for being raked, and it calls for more curing before it is put into cocks. The larger the proportion of the timothy in the crop, the more easily it is cured. It is ready for cutting when in full bloom, and loses more than the medium red when cutting is too long deferred, because of the larger proportion of coarse stems in the crop. It is also relatively more injured by rain in the cocks, since it sheds rain even less readily than the medium red clover, and the same is true of it in the stack. Some farmers cure mammoth clover in its green form in the mow as they also cure the medium red variety, but the same objections apply to curing it thus that apply to the similar curing of the medium red. (See page 102.) Others cure it in the mow by storing good bright straw, preferably oat straw, in alternate layers along with the clover. From one-third to one-half the quantity of the straw as compared with the hay will suffice for such curing, varying with the degree of the wilting in the hay. Clover cut in the morning after the dew has lifted may be thus stored the same day. Where the facilities are present such a method of curing mammoth clover may be eminently wise in showery weather. The natural color of the hay and blossoms is thus preserved and the straw is eaten with avidity, because of what it has imbibed from the clover. =Securing Seed.=--It has been already intimated more seed will be obtained when the clover has been pastured or cut back with the mower. (See page 233.) When the mower is used, it should not be set to cut quite low, or the subsequent growth will not be so vigorous as it would otherwise be. The state of growth at which the clover ought to be cut will be influenced by the luxuriance of the growth, but ordinarily clover seed should not be more than 6 to 8 inches high when the mower is used. What is thus cut by the mower is left on the ground as a mulch. Mowing the crop thus will also be helpful in destroying weeds, but some weeds will sprout again and mature seed as quickly as the clover. When mammoth clover is neither pastured nor mown early in the season, when grown for seed some kinds of weeds may be prevented from going to seed in it by cutting them off with the scythe. When not too plentiful they may be removed with the spud. Among the more troublesome weeds that infest mammoth clover are the Canada thistle (_Cirsium arvense_), the plantain (_Plantago lanceolata_), and in some instances the horse nettle (_Solanum Carolinense_) and spring nightshade (_Solanum_). The yields of the clover seed will be much influenced by the character of the weather. Excessive rankness in the crop and excessive rainfall during the blossoming season are adverse to abundant seed production. But the seed crop is more injured by drought than by too much rain. When injured by drought the growth will not be sufficiently strong, or, if it is, the blossoms will be of a pale red tint. Warm winds while the seed is forming are also adverse to seed production, since they cause the crop to mature too quickly. Some experience will enable the capable observer to forecast with no little certainty the probable yield of the seed. If the indications point to a yield of seed less than 2 bushels per acre, it is deemed more profitable, as a rule, to cut the crop for hay. Large heads of a rich dark purple shade accompanied by vigor in the entire plant are indicative of abundant seed production. The crop is ready for being harvested when a majority of the heads have ripened so far that the bloom on them is all gone and the shade of color in the head has not yet become brown. If left until a majority of the heads are brown many of them will break off while being harvested. The crop is usually cut with a self-rake reaper, but it may be cut with a mower. When cut by either method the sheaves should be made small, so that they will dry out quickly. It is important that the crop shall be threshed before it is rained on, as one thorough wetting will so far bedim the attractive brightness as compared with seed that has not been rained on that it will considerably discount the price that would otherwise be obtained for it. It is usually threshed with a huller, but may also be threshed like the medium red variety by a grain separator with a suitable attachment. The yields of the seed vary much. Instances are on record where as much as 11 or 12 bushels per acre have been reaped, but ordinarily even on good producing soils the yields are not more than 4 to 5 bushels per acre, and under ordinary conditions for the production of mammoth clover they are even less than the amount named. Notwithstanding the greater strength of the plants, the seeds are apparently no larger than those of the medium red variety, nor can they be distinguished from them unless by an expert. =Renewing.=--Much that has been said with reference to the renewing of medium red clover will apply equally to the renewing of the mammoth. (See page 109.) Where seed crops are much grown, the soil becomes so impregnated with the seed that more or less of the plants will appear any season. Renewal in the South is more important, relatively, than in the North, as under some conditions the plants survive for a longer period in Southern soils. =Compared with Medium Red Clover.=--1. The mammoth is larger and coarser than the medium red and is considerably less erect in its habit of growth. It has larger and longer roots; hence, it goes down more deeply into the subsoil in search of food. 2. It is, on the whole, longer lived than the medium red variety and has greater power to grow in a sandy soil and under conditions in which moisture is not plentiful. 3. It provides more pasture than the medium red variety during the early part of the season, but not so much after harvest, the season of growth being less continuous then than with the former. 4. The hay which it furnishes is usually considerably more bulky and coarse, and because of this it is not so highly prized by stock. 5. It blooms about three weeks later than the medium red variety and remains a little longer in bloom and seeds more freely, but can only be cut once in a season. 6. It furnishes more green food for plowing under than the medium red; hence, it is, on the whole, a better improver of the soil. CHAPTER VII CRIMSON CLOVER Crimson Clover (_Trifolium incarnatum_) is also known by the names French, German, German Mammoth, Italian, Egyptian and Carnation clover. In America it is common in certain areas to speak of it as winter clover, from the greater powers of growth which it possesses at that season as compared with other clovers. The plants have an erect habit of growth, and yet they are soft and hairy, and they have much power to stool. More than 100 stems have been produced by one plant, but under conditions the most favorable. The leaves are numerous. The heads are oblong, cylindrical, and considerably cone-shaped, and are from 1 to 2 inches long, and much larger than those of medium red clover. The bloom is scarlet or crimson and of the richest dye; hence, a more beautiful sight is seldom seen than that of a vigorous crop of crimson clover in full bloom. The average height of the plants may be put at about 18 inches, but they have been grown to the height of 3 and even 4 feet. The root growth is fully twice that of the stems. The roots are strong, go down straight into the soil, and are to some extent branched. Crimson clover is an annual, although usually the growth covers a part of two years. Sown in the summer or early autumn, growth is completed by the advent of the following summer. It is, therefore, pre-eminently a catch crop, and because of this, when conditions admit of it, serves a purpose in American agriculture, which can be served by none of the other varieties of clover that are now grown. It has much power to grow in cool weather, when the clovers are practically dormant. It does not cease to grow until the ground has become frozen, and as soon as the frost leaves the soil growth begins at once; hence, the greater relative value this plant has for areas in which the winters are mild. [Illustration: Fig. 6. Crimson Clover (_Trifolium incarnatum_) Tennessee Experiment Station] Crimson clover is much relished by farm animals, whether used as pasture, soiling food, silage or hay. Under some conditions it may be pastured autumn and spring, and even through much of the winter. As a soiling plant, its value is high, not only because it is a legume, but because it comes in season at a time when it may be fed with winter rye used as soiling. But the period is short during which it furnishes soiling food. Its value as hay will always be lessened by the difficulty in curing it so early in the season, and because of the danger from feeding it to horses when cut at a too advanced stage of growth. It is much in favor for furnishing chicken pasture in winter. As a catch crop crimson clover may be made to do duty in seasons in which other clover crops may have failed. As a cover crop or a mulch for orchards, it is in high favor, as the growth which it produces protects the roots of the same. But its greatest use lies in the beneficial influence which it exerts upon soils by enriching them and also improving their mechanical condition. It is likely, therefore, to be grown more for this purpose than for any other. While growing it in many instances will not render unnecessary the use of commercial fertilizers, it will greatly reduce the quantity of these that would otherwise be necessary. Owing to the season at which it is grown, it will be found quite helpful in destroying weeds. The behavior of crimson clover has thus far been somewhat erratic, even in areas where the conditions are looked upon as generally favorable to its growth. The opinions of practical men differ much with reference to its value. There have been many instances of success and failure in the same locality, and even in the experience of the same individual. These varied experiences are doubtless due in a considerable degree to a difference in seasons, to want of acclimation in the seed sown, to a difference in varieties and to want of knowledge on the part of the growers, whose work, heretofore, has been largely tentative. Five different varieties have been grown, and these have not shown equal degrees of hardiness. But the rapidly increasing sales of seed point to the conclusion that larger areas are being sown every year. The increase referred to may be expected to grow greater for many years to come; since, when the needs of the plant are better understood, the failures will be fewer. =Distribution.=--Crimson clover is probably indigenous to certain parts of Europe, especially to the countries that lie southwest and south. It has been grown to a considerable extent in France, Germany and Italy. The name Egyptian would seem also to imply that it is grown in Egypt. It is not grown to any considerable extent north and west in Europe, owing, probably, to the too severe conditions of climate which characterize these. It is not indigenous to America, but was probably introduced from Europe two or three decades ago. Its late introduction accounts for the fact that its adaptation in some parts of the United States is as yet controverted. This plant needs a climate rather mild and decidedly moist. It cannot withstand severe freezing when the ground is bare; hence, its uniformly successful growth cannot be relied on very far north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. True, in certain winters of much snowfall it has come through in good form considerably north of the rivers mentioned, but in more instances it has failed. On the other hand, while it grows best in warm climates, the growth in these is made chiefly when the weather is cool, as in the autumn and spring, and in some instances in the winter. It would be about correct to say that the climatic adaptation of this plant is nearly the same as that of the peach. Climates too cold for fruitage in the latter would be too cold for the uniformly safe wintering of crimson clover. It would also seem correct to state that on suitable soils and with sufficient precipitation, this clover will do best in the United States when the climate is too warm for the medium red clover to grow at its best. In the United States, soil and climatic conditions taken together, would probably give Delaware, New Jersey, Maryland, Virginia and Tennessee highest adaptation for the growth of this plant. Taking in a wide area, highest adaptation would lie in the States south of the Potomac and Ohio rivers and east of the Mississippi. Washington and Oregon, west to the Cascade Mountains, would probably furnish exceptions, but in these the necessity for growing crimson clover is not likely to be so great as in the area just referred to, owing to the ease with which other varieties of clover may be grown. In some parts of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Michigan many farmers have succeeded well in growing crimson clover, but a larger number have failed. The failures have arisen largely through dry weather in the autumn, want of plant food in the soil and the severity of the winter weather. Westward from these States to the Mississippi, the adaptation is still lower, and the same is true of the New England States. In fact, it is so low in these that it is far more likely that it will fail than that it will succeed. Between the Mississippi and the Cascade Mountains, crimson clover is not likely to be much grown. It will not grow well in any part of the semi-arid belt. In the mountain valleys it would probably succeed, but in these alfalfa and some other varieties of clover will give far better returns. Crimson clover will not grow well in any part of Canada, except in that narrow strip of land between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific. The winter climate is too cold for it. Some crops have been grown successfully in the peach-producing areas of Ontario contiguous to Lakes Erie and Ontario, but even in these it is an uncertain crop. The attempt has been made to grow it in some of the provinces of Canada, and in several of the States, by sowing the seed in the spring. Some fairly good crops have been thus obtained, but usually not so good as can be grown by sowing certain other varieties of clover at the same season. It is but reasonable to expect, however, that adaptation in growing crimson clover will widen with the acclimation of the plant, and with increasing knowledge as to its needs on the part of those who grow it. =Soils.=--Crimson clover though usually grown for the enrichment of soils will not, as a rule, make satisfactory growth on soils very low in the elements of fertility, whatsoever may be their composition or texture. On orchard lands liberally fertilized, in the Middle Atlantic States, excellent crops have been obtained, whereas on adjacent soils precisely similar they have failed. In the Southern States, however, better results, relatively, will be obtained from sowing this clover on comparatively infertile lands, owing to the longer season which it has for continuous growth. Where the winters are possessed of considerable severity and when the protection of snow is more or less wanting, unless the plants are strong when they enter the winter, they are almost certain to perish. Loam soils with reasonably porous subsoils are best adapted to its growth. Of these, sandy loams have a higher adaptation than clay loams, when equal to the former in fertility, as in the latter the plants can more quickly gather the needed food supplies, since the roots and rootlets can penetrate them more readily. Such soils are well adapted to the growth of orchards, especially peach orchards, and it is in such areas that crimson clover has been grown with highest success. In the alfalfa soils of the Rocky Mountain valleys it should also grow well, but on these it would be less profitable to grow than alfalfa, because of the permanency of the alfalfa. Even on sandy soils a good growth will be obtained when these have been fertilized and sufficient moisture is present. On stiff clays the growth is too slow to produce crops highly satisfactory either North or South, and in dry weather it is also difficult to obtain a stand of the plants. The alluvial soils of river bottoms in the South produce good crops. The vegetable soils of the prairie do not grow the plants very well, and the adaptation in slough or swamp soils is even lower. Good crops will not be obtained on soils underlaid with hardpan which comes up near the surface, whatsoever the nature of the top soil may be, since the roots cannot penetrate these. =Place in the Rotation.=--It cannot be said of crimson clover, in the ordinary usage of the word, that it is a rotation plant. It has probably no fixed place in any regular rotation, and yet it can be used almost anywhere in the rotation that may be desired, and in any rotation whether long or short, regular or irregular. As previously intimated, it is usually grown as a catch crop, and primarily to fertilize the land; and since its growth is chiefly or entirely made in the late summer, autumn, winter and early spring, that is to say, when the land is not otherwise occupied, the only hindrances to using it anywhere in the rotation are such as arise from the nature of the weather, the mechanical condition of the land and the needs of the crops that are to follow. For instance, at the usual season for sowing it, the weather may be so dry as to preclude the hope of successful germination in the seed. This influence may also make it impossible to bring the land into that mechanical condition which makes a good seed-bed without undue labor, and ordinarily it would not be necessary to have crimson clover precede another leguminous crop; since the latter, under many conditions, can secure its own supply of nitrogen. To this there may be some exceptions. There may be instances, as on light, porous and leechy soils, when it might be proper to grow crimson clover as an aid in securing a stand of the medium red variety, or in growing a crop of peas for the summer market. Ordinarily, however, this crop is grown to increase the supply of plant food in the soil for crops which require nitrogen, and to give soils more or less porous, increased power to hold moisture and applied fertilizers. It is probably seldom grown to improve the mechanical condition of stiff soils, since on these it grows slowly. Some other plants can do this more effectively. It is pre-eminently the catch crop for the orchardist and the market gardener, and yet it may be made the catch crop also of the farmer, under certain conditions. Crimson clover may be made to follow any crop, but it is seldom necessary to have it follow another leguminous crop which has brought nitrogen to the soil. Nor is it usually sown after a grass crop which has brought humus to the land. It is frequently sown after small cereal grain crops that have been harvested. It may be made to follow any of these. Sometimes it is sown in standing corn. But oftener than anywhere else probably, it is sown in orchards and on soils from which early potatoes and garden vegetables have been removed. It is peculiarly fitted for being grown in orchards. In these it may be grown from year to year. It may be thus grown not only to gather nitrogen for the trees, but to make them more clean than they would otherwise be when the fruit is being gathered, to protect the roots of the trees in winter and to aid in the retention of moisture when plowed under. But this plant may also, with peculiar fitness, be made to precede late garden crops. It may be plowed under sufficiently early to admit of this, and when so buried it aids in making a fine seed-bed, since the roots promote friability in the land. When grown under what may be termed strictly farm conditions, it usually precedes a cultivated crop, as potatoes, corn, or one of the sorghums. It is equally suitable in fitting the soil for the growth of vine crops, such as melons, squashes and pumpkins. But in some localities this crop may be grown so as to break down the lines of old-time rotations, since in some instances it may be successfully grown from year to year for several years without change. Potatoes and sweet corn, for instance, may be thus grown. =Preparing the Soil.=--In preparing the seed-bed for crimson clover, the aim should be to secure fineness of pulverization near the surface and moistness in the same. The former is greatly important, because of the aid which it renders in securing the latter at a season when moisture is often lacking in the soil. As it is rather grown on soils deficient in humus than on those plentifully supplied with the same, fineness in the seed-bed is not so important as it is with some classes of prairie soils. In starting the seed, drought is the chief hindrance to be overcome in the North, owing to the season at which the seed must be sown; hence, the aim should be to begin preparing the seed-bed as long as possible before the sowing of the seed. The preparation called for will be influenced by the kind of soil, the crop last grown upon it and also the weather; hence, the process of preparing the seed-bed will vary. The judgment must determine whether the land should be plowed, or disked and pulverized, or simply harrowed. After potatoes and other garden crops, harrowing may suffice; after certain grain crops on soils not too stiff, disking may suffice; but where much trash is to be buried, plowing would be necessary, and when the ground is at all cloddy, the roller should be freely used. In corn fields the last cultivation will make a suitable seed-bed, and the same is sometimes true in cotton fields. To grow good crops of crimson clover, it is necessary that there shall be a considerable amount of plant food in the soil that is readily available. Farmyard manure when it can be spared or secured will supply the need. But the results will probably be more satisfactory where the manure has been applied to the previous crop, as, for instance, to potatoes or corn, and for the reason, probably, that in the relatively dry season at which the seed of this plant is sown, the residue of the manure still in the soil is more readily available than freshly applied manure would be. Good crops have been grown on land thus manured, when at the same time seed sown on land under similar conditions and similar in other respects failed to give satisfactory yields. In a majority of instances farmyard manure cannot be spared for such a use. When it cannot, if necessary, commercial fertilizers may be applied. Those rich in phosphoric acid and potash are usually most needed, but sometimes nitrogen also is necessary. When nitrogen is used, it may be best applied on the growing crop and while it is young. Phosphoric acid and potash may be fitly applied when the land is being prepared, and in a way that will incorporate them with the surface soil. These may be used in the form of wood ashes, bone meal, Thomas' slag, Kainit, sulphate or muriate of potash, South Carolina rock and acid phosphate. Acid phosphate and muriate of potash stand high in favor with some growers when applied in the proportions of 9 and 1 parts and at the rate of, say, 200 pounds more or less per acre. =Sowing.=--The date for sowing crimson clover would seem to depend more upon latitude than upon any other influence. North of the Ohio River it should seldom be sown later than September 1st, lest the growth of the plants should not be strong enough to endure the winter weather. Nor should it be sown earlier than July 1st, lest the plants should reach the blooming stage without having made a sufficient growth, an objection which applies to sowing earlier than July 1st in any part of the United States. All things considered, August is the most favorable month for sowing the seed north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. In the South, sowing at a later period is preferable. In the latitude of Tennessee, September would usually prove more suitable for sowing than an earlier date, and near the Gulf, October. But it may be sown earlier and later in these respective latitudes. It is a good time to sow the seed in much of the South when the autumn rains begin to come, and the same is true of the Puget Sound country. The seed may be sown by hand, by the aid of hand machines, by some makes of grain drills in the same way as grain is sown, and by others with a grass-seeder attachment. When sown by the latter, the seed should usually be allowed to fall before the grain tubes to aid in securing a covering for it; the covering thus provided should be supplemented by additional harrowing and in some instances rolling. When sown by hand or by hand machines on soils East and South, the roller should in many instances follow and then the harrow, but on cloddy surfaces the harrow should be used first and then the roller. No method of sowing the seed is more satisfactory than that which sows it by grain drills, which can deposit it in the soil as grain is sown, as it is then buried at an even depth. Sowing to a medium depth, say, 1/2 to 1-1/2 inches, is preferable to either extreme. Whether it is advisable to sow a nurse crop will depend upon conditions. When the seed is sown early, in hot weather the young plants are helped by more or less of shade. Such shade is usually provided by the other factor or factors of the mixture. But when shade only is wanted from the nurse crop, a thin seeding of buckwheat has been found to answer. Melons and tomatoes have in some instances furnished shade satisfactorily, and in others upright growing varieties of cow peas or soy beans. The less complete the preparation of the seed-bed, the greater also is the necessity for shade. In orchards the shade of the trees is usually ample, and in some instances excessive. The same is true of vigorous corn and cotton crops. Whether this clover should be sown alone or in mixtures will also depend upon conditions. If the crop is wanted solely for the enrichment of the land, it will usually be better to sow it alone, as crops other than legumes do not bring as much fertility to the land. As a rule, therefore, it should be sown alone in orchards. It should also, usually, be sown alone for soiling crops and for hay, but in some instances for both uses it may be sown with such crops as winter oats or winter vetches. On some soils, however, these will too much crowd the clover plants. On others the reverse will be true. For seed the crop should, of course, always be sown alone. For pasture, crimson clover is sometimes sown with rape, winter rye, winter oats, the common vetch or the sand vetch. When sown with rape, the date of the sowing should be early. With the other crops named the most suitable date for sowing the clover will usually prove the most suitable also for sowing these. When sown alone, from 10 to 20 pounds of seed are used per acre. With all the conditions favorable, 12 to 15 pounds should suffice. When sown with rape for pasture, 3 pounds of rape and 10 of the clover, or even a less quantity, should be enough. When sown with winter rye or winter oats, about 1 bushel of each and 10 pounds of clover should suffice, and when sown with the common or the sand vetch, 1/2 bushel of either and 10 pounds of the clover should be enough. When sown in the chaff, from 2 to 3 bushels ought to suffice, but the amount required will be much affected by the character of the seed crop. =Pasturing.=--Crimson clover may be pastured in the autumn or in the spring or at both seasons, either when sown alone, or in conjunction with some other pasture crops, as winter rye, oats, barley or vetches. But it is not probable that it will ever become so popular as some other pasture plants that grow during the same seasons of the year; since, first, when it is grown, it is usually wanted for green manure; second, it does not under some conditions grow satisfactorily with other crops; and third, when grazed down in the autumn the covering thus removed renders the plants much more liable to perish in the winter. When, however, it is sown early in the season, as in July, along with Dwarf Essex rape, or even alone, much grazing may be furnished, even though the clover should not survive the winter. It may be grazed by horses, mules, cattle, sheep or swine, but when grazed with cattle and sheep, it is probable that some danger from hoven or bloat will be present, as when grazing other kinds of clover. (See page 94.) This danger, however, will be lessened, if not entirely removed, when nurse crops are grown with the clover, except in the case of rape. The grazing should not begin when the plants are small, lest the growth should be too much hindered at a season when growth is critical. =Harvesting for Hay.=--Crimson clover is ready to be cut for hay when coming into, and a little before it is in, fullest bloom. Some authorities claim that it should be harvested when the blooms begin to appear. It should certainly not be allowed to pass the stage of full bloom, lest the hay when cured should prove hurtful to horses and possibly to other live stock, because of the presence of hair balls, which are then liable to form from the hairs so numerously found on this plant. These balls produce death by forming an impermeable wedge in the intestines of horses, thereby impeding and in some instances totally arresting the process of digestion. These balls, almost circular in form, are composed of minute and rather stiff hairs, and several have been found in one animal. These hairs, numerous on the heads; do not stiffen sooner than the period of full bloom; hence, until that stage is reached in the growth of the plants, the danger from feeding cured hay made from them does not occur. In New Jersey and the neighboring States, crimson clover is ready for being cut sometimes in May earlier or later, as the season is early or late. Further South it is fit to harvest earlier. At that season it is not easily cured, since then rains are more frequent than in the ordinary harvest season and the weather is less drying. Consequently, hay caps may frequently be used with much advantage by the growers of this hay. (See page 98.) It is harvested as other clover; that is, it is cut with the field mower, raked when wilted, put up into cocks, and left to stand in these until it has gone through the sweating process, when the cocks are opened out again on a bright day for a few hours prior to drawing them. The tedder should be used freely in getting the hay ready to rake, as at that season of the year it dries slowly. =Securing Seed.=--Crimson clover does not ripen quite so quickly after flowering as common red clover, owing, in part, at least, to the less intense character of the heat and drying influences at the season when it matures. Nevertheless, when it is ripe, unless it is cut with much promptness, the seed will shed much from the heads, and the heads will break off much during the curing process. If cut even two or three days too soon, the seeds will not be large and plump. Moreover, showery or muggy weather will soon greatly injure the crop. One or two days of such weather after the crop has been cut will stain the seed; two or three days of the same will cause much of the seed to sprout, and three or four days will practically ruin the crop. Because of the ease with which the seed sheds off the heads, it is better to cut the seed crop while it is a little damp, or at least to refrain from cutting during the greatest heat of the day. In some instances it is cut with the mower and raked early or late in the day, put up in small cocks and threshed from these in four or five days after being cut. But this method of harvesting, however carefully done, is attended with much loss of seed. It is better to harvest with the self-rake reaper, the rakes being so adjusted that the hay will be dropped off in small gavels or sheaves, so small that in two or three days they may be lifted without being turned over; Much care should be exercised in lifting the sheaves to avoid shedding in the seed, and it should be drawn on wagons with tight racks. While it is not absolutely necessary to thresh the seed crop at once, the work can usually be done at that time with less outlay and with less loss of seed. It is threshed with a huller or with a grain separator with suitable attachments. Some attention must be given to the arrangement of the teeth used in the machine, lest many of the seeds, which are large; should be split; and as it is not easy to separate the seeds from the haulms, specially made riddles and sieves must needs be used. The seed crop is usually harvested in June north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers, and southward from these in the month of May. The yield of seed runs all the way from 10 bushels per acre downwards. The average crop is 4 to 5 bushels. =Renewing.=--Since crimson clover is an annual, but little can be done in the sense of renewing it on the same land without breaking the ground. But in orchards, it is sometimes grown from year to year by what may be termed a process of self-seeding. When the seed is not quite ripe in the heads, or even somewhat earlier, the orchard is plowed so as to leave some of the heads standing up along the line of the furrow. When these have matured, the land is harrowed, which scatters the seeds in the chaff, and from these another crop is produced. But to this plan there is the objection that it allows the clover to draw too heavily on the moisture in the soil before it is plowed under. =Facts Regarding Crimson Clover.=--1. When crimson clover is sown so early in the season that it has at least three to four months in which to grow before winter sets in, the benefits to the land from sowing the seed will usually more than pay for the seed and labor, even though it should not survive the winter. 2. Prominent among the causes of failure where crimson clover does not succeed are: (_a_) The seed fails to germinate because of the want of moisture, or having germinated the young plants are killed by heat or drought; (_b_) they perish in the winter from exposure to cold winds or frosts, or by alternate freezing and thawing in the soil; or (_c_) the land is too low in fertility to produce a sufficiently vigorous growth in the plants. 3. The mechanical effects upon the soil from growing crimson clover on it are very marked, especially when it inclines to stiffness, owing to the strong development of the root growth. 4. When crimson clover has been sown in the spring, a reasonably good growth is usually obtained before midsummer, even as far north as the Canadian boundary line, but since hot weather checks further growth and frequently causes wilting in the plants, this variety is not equal to some of the other varieties of clover for being sown at that season. 5. In the Southern States, crimson clover has been found to render considerable service by aiding in preventing land from washing in the winter season. 6. When plowed under in orchards, the work should be done at an early rather than a late stage in the growth of the plants, lest it should rob the trees of their rightful share of the moisture. Because of this, in some instances, if not in all, the plants should be buried before the season of full bloom and sometimes before the blooms begin to open. 7. The seed is more certain to germinate while yet enclosed in the chaff scales, and because of this, where home-grown seed is used, it may be worth while to secure it in this form by flailing out the seed or treading it out with horses. CHAPTER VIII WHITE CLOVER White Clover (_Trifolium repens_) is also called Dutch, White Dutch, White Trefoil, Creeping Trifolium and Honeysuckle clover. The name Dutch clover has doubtless been applied to it because of the extent to which it is in evidence in the pastures and meadows of Holland; the name Creeping Trifolium, because of the creeping character of the stems, which, under favorable conditions, send roots down into the soil; and Honeysuckle clover, because of the honey supplies which it furnishes for bees. It is one of the plants known as Shamrock, the national emblem of Ireland. White clover is perennial, the stems of which creep along the ground and, as above intimated, root at the joints; so that from this source plants are indefinitely multiplied. They also come from the seed. The leaves are small and very numerous, and with the exception of the flower stems and flowers, furnish all the forage obtained. The flowers are very numerous, especially when showery weather precedes and accompanies the flowering season. They are large for the size of the plant, are supported by a leafless stem of considerable length, and are white or tinted with a delicate rose color. The roots are numerous and fibrous. They cannot go down into the soil so deeply as the larger clovers; hence, the dwarfing effect of dry seasons upon the growth. [Illustration: Fig. 7. White Clover (_Trifolium repens_) Oregon Experiment Station] This plant is exceedingly hardy. It comes out from under the snow with a green tint, and the leaves are not easily injured by the frosts of autumn. The growth is not rapid until the general late rains of spring fall freely. It then pushes on rapidly, and, sending up innumerable flower stems, turns the pastures in which it abounds into immense flower gardens in the months of May and June, according to the latitude of the locality. The bloom remains out for a considerable time, and free grazing has the effect of prolonging the period of bloom. Under such conditions, blossoms continue to form and mature seeds during much of the summer. When these escape being grazed, they fall down upon the land and aid in forming additional plants. Hence it is that when white clover has once possessed a soil, it so stores the land with seed possessed of so much vitality that subsequently white clover plants grow, as it were, spontaneously on these lands when they have been thus grazed even for a limited term of years. The power of this useful plant to travel and possess the land is only equalled by that of blue grass. When timber lands are cleared, white clover plants soon appear, and in a few years will spread over the whole surface of the land. But the amount of grazing furnished by it varies greatly with the character of the season. Some seasons its bloom is scarcely in evidence; other seasons it overspreads the pastures. While it is an excellent pasture plant for stock, they do not relish it so highly as some other pasture plants; when forming seed, it is least valuable for horses, owing to the extent to which it salivates them. Its diminutive habit of growth unfits it for making meadows, unless in conjunction with other hay plants. In nutritive properties, it is placed ahead of medium red clover. Some growers have spoken highly of it as a pasture plant for swine. Being a legume, it has the power of enriching soils with nitrogen, but probably not to so great an extent as the larger varieties of clover. Its rootlets, however, have a beneficent influence on the texture of soils, because of their number, and because of the power of the stems to produce fresh plants, which occupy the soil when other plants die. The latter furnish a continued source of food to other grasses, which grow along with white clover in permanent pastures. Along with blue grass, white clover plants aid in choking out weeds. This result follows largely as the outcome of the close sod formed by the two. But in some soils, plants of large growth and bushes and young trees will not thus be crowded out. =Distribution.=--White clover is certainly indigenous to Europe and to the Northern States, and probably Western Asia. It grows in every country in Europe, but with greatest luxuriance in those countries which border on the North Sea, the climates of which are very humid, and more especially in the Netherlands and Great Britain. It stands in high favor in Holland, but is not regarded so highly in England, owing, probably, to the great variety of grasses grown there in permanent pastures. It is generally thought that it was not indigenous to the Southern States, but has reached these from those farther north. It would seem to be capable of growing in all countries well adapted to the keeping of cattle; hence, it follows in the wake of successful live-stock husbandry. White clover seems able to adapt itself to a great variety of climatic conditions. Nevertheless, it is certainly better adapted to a moderately cool climate than to one that is hot, and to a moist, humid climate than to one that is dry. It has much power to live through dry seasons, but it will not thrive in a climate in which the rainfall is too little for the successful growth of small cereal grains. Where snow covers it in winter, this clover will grow on timber soils as far north as any kind of cereal can be made to mature; and it will also grow as far south as the Mexican boundary on the higher grounds, when there is enough moisture present to sustain it. It would probably be correct to say that this plant is found in every State in the Union, and that it succeeds well in nearly all the Northern States, from sea to sea. Although it grows well in certain parts of the Southern States, especially in those that lie northward, the general adaptation in these is not so high as in those further north. The highest adaptation in the United States is probably found in the Puget Sound region and in the hardwood timber producing areas of the States which lie south from the Great Lakes and in proximity to them, as Northeastern Minnesota, Northern Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio and New York. But the adaptation is also high in the more elevated of the mountain valleys of the Northwestern States when irrigated waters may be led on to these lands. The areas lowest in adaptation are those that lie within the semi-arid belt. The low-lying lands of the South, where hot weather is prolonged in summer, are likewise low in their adaptation, but not so low as the former. The prairie areas of the Northern Mississippi basin have an adaptation for growing white clover that may be termed intermediate, but where hardwood forests grow naturally on these the adaptation is high. In New England the climatic conditions are very favorable, much more so than the soil conditions. In Canada, conditions are found highly favorable to the growth of this plant in the country lying eastward from Lake Huron, north of Lakes Erie and Ontario and also on both sides of the St. Lawrence River. Adaptation is also high along the Pacific and in the mountain valleys not distant from the Pacific. In all the areas of Canada, which once produced forests, this plant will grow well. But north from Lakes Huron and Superior, the soil conditions are against it, because of their rocky character. Certain forest areas west from Lake Superior, and also in other parts, the sandy soils of which sustain a growth of Jack Pine (_Pinus murrayana_) trees, do not grow white clover with much vigor. The prairie areas of Canada, westward from Lake Superior to the mountains, do not grow white clover with much success, and the adaptation for its growth would seem to lessen gradually until the Rocky Mountains are approached. =Soils.=--Small white clover will grow on almost any kind of soil, but by no means equally well. Highest, probably, in adaptation, especially when climatic conditions are considered along with those of soil, are the clay loams west of the Cascade Mountains and northward from California to Alaska. During the moist months of early summer, this plant turns the pastures in these areas into a flower garden. Almost equally high in adaptation are the volcanic ash soils of the Rocky Mountain valleys. When amply supplied with water, the finest crops of white clover can be grown even superior to those grown on the lands described above. Almost the same may be said of what are termed the hardwood timber soils, which are usually made up of clay loam lying upon clay. Such areas abound in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ontario and some States further south. In these soils it grows with much luxuriance, more especially when lime and potash are abundant. Similar luxuriance may be looked for in the deposit soils of river basins in which the clay element predominates, but not in those that are largely made up of sand. It will also grow well on the stiffest clays, whether white or red, when moisture is present. On prairie soils, the success attending it is dependent largely on their texture, composition and the moisture which they contain under normal conditions. The more firm these soils are, the better will the clover grow in them, and _vice versa_. This is equivalent to saying that the more clay they contain, the better will the white clover grow in them. Where the humus soils of the prairies are deep and are underlaid with clay, white clover will grow much better in the subsoil, if laid bare, than in the surface soil. Prairie soils which lift with the wind are ill adapted to the growth of this plant, whatsoever may be their composition. Much of the soil in the semi-arid belt would grow this plant in fine form, but want of moisture, where irrigation is absent makes its growth prohibitory in a large portion of this area. On ordinary slough soils, this clover finds a congenial home, but it will not grow quite so well, relatively, in these as alsike clover. On sandy soils, such as those on which Jack pine and Norway pine (_Pinus resinosa_) grow, this plant will maintain itself, and in wet seasons will make considerable showing on these; but in very dry seasons the plants will die, the growth the following season coming from seeds already in the soil. In the soils of the extreme South, the inability of white clover to make a good showing is probably more the result of summer heat than of want of power in the plants to gather food. In those of the Southwest, want of moisture and excessive heat render its growth, in a sense, prohibitory. =Place in the Rotation.=--Since white clover is usually not sown for meadow, but is rather sown for pasture, it can scarcely be called a rotation plant in the strict sense of the term; and yet, because of the extent to which it grows when it has once obtained a footing in soils, it is more or less frequent in all rotations in which grass or clover is one of the factors. As it usually comes into the grass pastures, when these have become established, it will occupy about the same place as blue grass in rotations; that is to say, whatever would be proper to sow after the blue grass would be proper to sow after this plant; since the two usually unite in making the same sod. It will, therefore, be in order to follow this plant with corn to feed upon the nitrogen furnished by the clover. The same will be true of any small cereal that has special adaptation for being grown on overturned sod, as for instance, flax or oats, or of any crop that revels in the decay of vegetable matter, more especially in the early stages of such decay, as, for instance, potatoes and rape. When white clover is sown on land that is cultivated, though only sown as a factor in a pasture crop, as with all other clovers it may best be sown on land that is clean; that is, on land on which the preceding crop has been cultivated to the extent of securing a clean surface on the same. If, however, this crop must needs be sown on land that has not been thus cleaned, its great inherent hardihood will enable it to establish itself where some clovers and grasses would fail. It is common to sow white clover on land from which the forest has recently been removed, also on natural prairie, where it has not previously grown. In these instances it simply follows the crop of forest in the one case and of native prairie in the other. But it will not take possession of the land in either case to the exclusion of other grasses. =Preparing the Soil.=--The preparation of the soil for growing this plant is much the same as for growing other plants of the clover or grass family. Fineness, firmness, cleanness and moistness are the chief essentials to be looked for in making the seed-bed. For the same reason that it has much power to grow among weeds for so small a plant, it has also much power to grow on surfaces not in the best condition of preparation for receiving so small a seed. But when sown to provide a seed crop, it is specially necessary to make the land thoroughly clean before sowing the seed. This is necessary for the reason, first, that small white clover, because of its tardiness in growing in the spring, and because of its comparatively small growth has not much power to crowd weeds; and second, because of the labor involved in preventing weed seeds from maturing in a crop that ripens its seeds somewhat late in the season. While it is advantageous to burn off the grass from a natural meadow where white clover, is to be sown, it is not so essential, nevertheless, as when preparing such land for being sown with some other varieties of grass or clover. The young plants will endure under conditions which would cause those of many other varieties to fail. =Sowing.=--White clover is sown by much the same methods as the medium red variety. (See page 75.) But it will stand more hardship than the other variety; hence, it may be sown earlier. This means that it may be sown in northerly latitudes any time, from the melting of the winter snows until early summer, and in southern latitudes almost any season, except during the hot summer months. In either latitude, however, the early spring is usually the most suitable season for sowing. The seed may be sown by hand, by hand machines, or by the seeder attachment of grain drills. It is more commonly sown along with other clovers and grasses, and the methods of sowing these will also be suitable for the sowing of white clover. (See page 18.) But when the seed is sown alone, as for producing seed crops, the nurse crop need not of necessity be sown thinly, from the fear that the young plants should be smothered by an undue density of shade. There is no mixture of clovers and grasses grown for pasture to which this plant may not be added with profit, providing the seed is not already in the land in sufficient supply. But it is seldom sown with either clovers or grasses, or with these combined, for the production of hay. It is the judgment of the author, however, that in localities which have special adaptation for the growth of this plant, it should render excellent service in providing hay for sheep, if sown along with alsike clover, and a little timothy; the latter being sown mainly to support the clovers so that they will not lodge. The white clover would furnish hay considerably finer even than the alsike; hence, such hay should be peculiarly adapted to the needs of sheep. Some authorities object to the presence of white clover in hay intended for horses or cattle, lest it should induce in them more or less salivation. The author leans to the opinion that in cured hay injury from the source named will in no instance prove serious, owing to the small amount, relatively, of white clover in average hay crops. The amount of seed to sow will vary with such conditions as soil, climate and the nature of the pasture, but in any event it need not be large. The seeds of white clover are small, considerably smaller than those of alsike. For ordinary grazing along with other grasses, or grasses and clovers, it will seldom be necessary to sow more than 1 pound of seed per acre. Sometimes a less quantity will suffice, as when there is more or less of seed in the land, and, as already intimated, because of the store of seed in the land in many instances, it is not necessary to sow it at all. Especially is this true of sections which have been tilled for some time. When sown with alsike clover to provide hay, 2 pounds of seed per acre would be a maximum amount, and 4 pounds when sown alone to provide seed. When sown in newly cleared forest lands or on prairie sod, the methods to be followed will depend upon circumstances. More commonly when thus sown the seed is not covered artificially; consequently, much of it in dry seasons may not grow. The plan, therefore, of sowing small amounts of the seed on such lands two years in succession would be safer than to sow twice the amount of the same in one year. In time this clover would find its way into such areas. It comes through such agencies as birds, hay fed to teams engaged in lumbering, and the overflow of streams; and as soon as it gets a foothold its distribution is further accelerated by the droppings of cattle which contain the seeds, and by the winds. The power of this plant to increase is simply wonderful. This is owing to: 1. The relatively large number of seedheads produced from the plants. 2. The power which these have to multiply by means of rootlets from the incumbent stems, which fasten into the soil. 3. The prolonged season during which the heads form. 4. The habit of growth in many of the heads, because of which they are not grazed off. 5. The strong vitality of the seed. And 6. The great hardihood of the plants. =Pasturing.=--White clover ranks next to blue grass as a pasture plant within the area of its adaptation (see page 261), when its productiveness, continuity in growth, ability to remain in the land, palatability and nutritive properties are considered together. In palatability it ranks as medium only. In the early part of the season while it is still tender and juicy, it will be eaten by stock with avidity, but as the seed-maturing season is approached, it is not so highly relished. In nutrition it ranks higher than medium red clover. It does not make much of a showing in the early part of the season, but in favorable seasons, about the time that blue grass begins to fail, it grows rapidly and furnishes much pasture. It is pre-eminently the complement of a blue-grass pasture. When these grow together, the two will furnish grazing in a moist year through all the season of grazing. Both have the property of retaining their hold indefinitely in many soils and of soon making a sward on the same without being re-sown, when the cultivation of the ground ceases. The blue grass grows quickly quite early and late in the season, and the clover grows likewise during much of the summer. As the older plants of the clover fail, fresh ones appear, and the blue grass feeds on the former in their decay. They thus furnish humus and nitrogen for the sustenance of the blue grass. But much moisture is necessary in order to insure good blue grass pastures, and they are more luxuriant when the moisture comes early in the season, rather than when the plants are nearing the season of bloom. To such an extent is white clover influenced in growth by such weather, that in some seasons it will abound in certain pastures, while in others it will scarcely appear in the same. Those favorable seasons are frequently spoken of as being "white-clover years." While this plant furnishes good grazing for all kinds of domestic animals kept upon the farm, as a pasture for horses and mules, there is the objection to it that it will in a considerable degree so salivate them that much "slobbering" follows. This is sometimes produced to such an extent as to be seriously harmful. The trouble from this cause increases as the seed-forming season is approached. It has been known thus to salivate cattle, but the danger of injury to them from this source is slight. These injurious results to horses will be obviated in proportion as the other grasses are allowed to grow up amid the clover; in other words, in proportion as the pasture is not grazed closely early in the season. The animals which then graze on these pastures must take other food with the clover. =Harvesting for Hay.=--Since white clover is seldom grown alone for hay, and since it seldom forms the most bulky factor in a hay crop, the methods of harvesting will be similar to those practiced in harvesting the more bulky factor or factors of the crop. The want of bulk in this clover is against it as a hay crop, owing to the smallness of the yields, compared with the other hay crops that may be usually grown on the same land. As a factor of a hay crop, however, this little plant will add much to its weight and also to its palatability, especially for sheep and dairy cows. When it is grown for hay in mixtures in which the large clovers or timothy predominates, the white clover should, of course, be cut at the most suitable season for cutting these clovers or the timothy, as one is present in excess. When the larger clovers predominate, the method of curing will be the same as for curing these (see page 234), that is to say, it can best be cured in cocks. When timothy predominates, the method of curing will be the same as for timothy; that is to say, it may be cured in the cock or in the winrow, according to circumstances. Owing to the fineness of the stems, it may be cured more quickly than red clover; hence, its presence in a crop of timothy will not delay much the curing of the latter unless when present in great abundance. Under some conditions it would be easily possible to grow white clover for hay alone, and in some instances with profit, more especially in providing what would be a matchless fodder for young lambs and young calves. It might be so grown in the clover lands that lie immediately southward from Lakes Superior and Huron, in the northern Rocky Mountain valleys and on the valley lands around Puget Sound. On these lands in a favorable season, it would be quite possible to cut not less than 2 tons per acre, while on average land white clover alone would not yield more, probably, than 1/2 ton per acre. But even when grown for the purpose named, some alsike clover sown along with the white clover would add to the yield of hay, and without in any considerable degree lessening its value for the use named. =Securing Seed.=--White clover is a great seed-producing plant. The season for bloom covers a period relatively long, and the number of blossoms produced under favorable conditions on a given area is very large. But when seed crops are to be produced with regularity, it is necessary that moisture can be depended upon in sufficient supply in the spring months to produce a vigorous growth in the plants. Such a climate is found in the Puget Sound country and in a less degree for some distance south from Lakes Huron and Superior. In areas which can be irrigated, it is not imperative that the climate shall be thus moist. Such areas, therefore, may be looked upon as possessed of superior adaptation for the growth of seed crops of white clover. The areas are limited, however, in which seed crops are grown in the United States; so limited are they that it has been found very difficult to locate them. Wood County in Central Wisconsin grows a considerable quantity, and some counties northward in the same State, and probably also some parts of Northern Michigan, will grow seed equally well. Where a seed crop is grown every care should be exercised to have it free from foul weeds. The aim should be to grow it on clean land. Sometimes, however, the seed is self-sown; that is, it comes into the land without being sown, but even in such areas it is safer to sow 3 pounds of seed per acre in the early spring along with a nurse crop. The best seed crops in Wisconsin and Michigan are grown on a reasonably stiff clay soil. To get a full crop of seed, it should be pastured for a time in the spring, or the crop should be run over with the mower about June 1st, setting the mower bar so as to cut 3 or 4 inches high. No harm will follow if some of the tops of the clover should be cut off. The grass and weeds thus cut are usually left on the ground, but sometimes it may be necessary to remove them. In a short time the field should be one mass of bloom. The crop is ready for being harvested when the bulk of the heads have turned a dark brown and when the bulk of them have assumed a reddish brown tint, notwithstanding that some of the later heads may still be in full flower. Vigorous crops may be cut with the self-rake reaper set to cut low, otherwise many of the heads will not be gathered. To facilitate this process, the ground should be made quite smooth even before sowing the seed. But the seed crop is more commonly cut with the field mower, to the cutter bar of which a galvanized platform is bolted, the sides of which are about 6 inches high. From this the clover is raked off into bunches with a rake. These bunches should not be large, and since nearly all the heads in them will point upward, they should not be turned over if rained on, but simply lifted up with a suitable fork and moved on to other ground. The seed crop cures quickly. It may be drawn and threshed at once, or it may be stacked and threshed when convenient. If stacked, a goodly supply of old hay or straw should be put next the ground, and much care should be taken to protect the clover by finishing off the stack carefully with some kind of grass or hay that will shed the rain easily. Since the heads are very small and numerous, and since, as with all clovers, they break off easily when ripe, much promptness and care should be exercised in harvesting the seed crop. The best machine for threshing a seed so small is the clover huller. The yields of seed will run all the way from less than 3 bushels per acre to 5 bushels, and some crops have been harvested in Wisconsin which gave 7 bushels per acre. Four bushels would probably be about an average yield. As the price is usually relatively high compared with other clovers, the seed from white clover would be quite remunerative were it not that in a dry season the yield is disappointing. In some instances two crops are grown in succession; in others, one crop is reaped. The land is then sown to barley the next year, and the following year clover seed may be reaped again without sowing a second time. Usually, after two successive crops of seed have been cut, blue grass crowds the clover. It should be possible to grow prodigious crops of white clover in certain of the northern Rocky Mountain valleys, as, for instance, in Montana and Washington, where the conditions for the application of water to grow the plants and of withholding the same when ripening the seed are completely under the control of the husbandman. The soils in these valleys, as previously intimated, have high adaptation for growing white clover. =Renewing.=--White clover is probably more easily renewed than any plant of the clover family. In fact, it seldom requires renewal in a pasture in which it has obtained a footing as long as it remains a pasture. This arises from the abundance of the seed production and from the power of the same to retain germinating properties for a long period. Nevertheless, there may be instances when it may be wise to scatter more seed in the early spring in a pasture in which white clover may not be sufficiently abundant. It is also renewed, in a sense, when suitable fertilizer is applied on the pastures. A dressing of potash will greatly stimulate the growth of any kind of clover on nearly all soils; hence, the marked increase in the growth of the clover that usually follows the application of a dressing of wood ashes, especially in the unleached form. Top-dressings of farmyard manure are also quite helpful to such growth. The conclusion must not be reached that because white clover is not much in evidence in a permanent pasture for one or two, or even three dry seasons, if these should follow each other, that it will not come again and with great vigor and in much abundance when a wet season arrives again. =For Lawns.=--No other plant of the clover family is so frequently sown when making lawns. For such a use it is not sown alone, but is always the complement of Kentucky blue grass or of a mixture of grasses. No two plants can be singled out that are more suitable for lawn making than white clover and Kentucky blue grass. Both are fine in their habit of growth. The two in conjunction usually make a more dense sward than either alone, and the clover will grow and produce many flowers, if not kept clipped too closely when the blue grass is resting in midsummer. As lawns are usually small, and a dense sward is desired as quickly as it can be obtained; the seed should be sown thickly on lawns, at the rate of not less than 5 pounds of seed to the acre. The early spring is the best time for sowing the seed, but in mild climates it may be sown at almost any season that may be convenient, providing the ground is moist enough to germinate the seed. In cold climates, the seed should be sown not later than August, unless when sown too late for autumn germination. This in some instances may not only be proper, but commendable. =As a Honey Plant.=--White clover is proverbial for its ability to furnish honey. There is probably no single plant which furnishes more or better honey. But its value for such a use varies greatly in different years. In seasons that are quite dry in the spring, it makes but little growth and produces but few blossoms; hence, in such seasons bees can obtain but little honey, relatively, from such a source. It would doubtless be good policy, therefore, for the growers to encourage the sowing of alsike clover where bees are much kept, since the growth of this clover is less hindered by dry weather at the season named. Less close pasturing than is commonly practiced would favorably influence the production of honey from white clover, and would also result in considerably greater yields of pasture. CHAPTER IX JAPAN CLOVER Japan Clover (_Lespedeza striata_) was introduced from China or Japan, or from both countries, into South Carolina in 1849, under the name Japan clover. It is thought the seed came in connection with the tea trade with these countries. According to Phares, the generic term _Lespedeza_, borne by the one-seeded pods of the plants of this family, was assigned to them in honor of Lespedez, a governor of Florida under Spanish rule. It is sometimes called Bush clover, from the bush-shaped habit of growth in the plants when grown on good soils, but is to be carefully distinguished from the Bush clovers proper, which are of little value as food plants. Japan clover is an annual, but owing to its remarkable power to retain its hold upon the soil, through the shedding of the seed and the growing of the same, it has equal ability with many perennials to retain its hold upon the soil. It does not start until late in the spring, nor can it endure much frost; but its ability to grow in and retain its hold upon poor soils is remarkable, while its powers of self-propagation in the South would seem to be nearly equal to those of small white clover (_Trifolum repens_) in the North. It is, therefore, one of the hardiest plants of the clover family. Where it has once obtained a foothold, in some soils, at least, it has been known to crowd out Bermuda grass and even broom sage. The form of the plants is much affected by the character of the soil in which they grow. On poor soils, the habit of growth is low and spreading; on good soils, it is more upright. But it is always more or less branched, and the stems are relatively stiffer than those of other clovers. They rise but a few inches above the ground in poor soils, not more than 2 to 4; but in good rich soils it will attain to the height of 2 feet. About 1 foot may be named as the average height. The leaves are trifoliate. The flower produced in the axils of the leaves are numerous, but quite small. They appear from July onward, according to locality, but are probably more numerous in September, and vary from a pink to a rose-colored or purplish tint. The seed pods are small, flattish oval in shape and contain but one seed. The tap roots are strong in proportion to the size of the plant and are relatively deep feeding; hence, the ability of the plant to survive severe drought. The roots have much power to penetrate stiff subsoils. Japan clover is not usually relished by stock at first, but they soon come to like it, and are then fond of it. Close grazing does not readily injure it; it also furnishes a good quality of hay, but except on reasonably good soils, the yields of the hay are not very large. The chemical analysis compares well with that of red clover. Japan clover is also an excellent soil renovator. In the Southern States, it is credited with the renovation of soils so poor that the return was not worth the labor of tillage. Throughout much of the South, it has rendered much service in thus improving soils. It also grows so thickly on many soils as to lessen and, in many instances, entirely prevent washing, that great bane of Southern soils. It will even grow and produce some pasture under the shade of grass or Southern pines. [Illustration: Fig. 8. Japan Clover (_Lespedeza striata_) Tennessee Experiment Station] =Distribution.=--Japan clover is said to be native to China and other countries in Eastern Asia. When introduced into Japan, the soil and climatic conditions proved so favorable that before long it spread out over the whole island. Since its introduction into the United States it has spread very rapidly. Since it does not grow early in the season, it needs a warm climate. It grows much better in moist weather than in a time of drought, but it will also continue to grow in the absence of rain until the drought becomes excessive. It will then wilt down on poor soils, but grows again as soon as rain falls. Since the introduction of Japan clover into the United States in 1849, or, as some think, somewhat earlier, it has spread over the entire South, from the Ohio River to the Gulf, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, and also to the States of Arkansas, Louisiana and Texas beyond the Mississippi. It was early introduced into Georgia, and came into much favor there. It reached Tennessee in 1870, and soon spread over many counties. It came later into Louisiana, but soon became very popular there, largely through the efforts of Colonel J. Burgess McGhee of West Feliciana, who gave much attention to cultivating it and placing it before the public. While it will grow readily in any part of the South, it renders better service in the Gulf States than in those farther north, owing to the longer season for growth. North of the Ohio River it is not likely to be cultivated, since in the Northern States it is not needed, because of the abundance of the red clovers and also the small white. It is a less abundant producer than the red clovers, and is also less palatable. Moreover, the season for growing it is much shorter in these States than in those south; a fact which greatly lessens its adaptation to northern conditions. Japan clover has no mission for any of the provinces of Canada, and for the reason that it has no mission for the Northern States. =Soils.=--Japan clover is adapted to a wide range of soils. There would seem to be a concensus of opinion in the Southern States that it will grow on almost any kind of soil. It has grown well on hard, stiff clays, both white and red; on sandy levels; on gravelly undulations and slopes; on the banks and in the bottom of gullies; on soils too poor to produce other crops, as on denuded hills and also in groves. But it will grow much better, of course, on good, rich land, as on moist loams and rich alluvial soils. While it prefers moist situations, it is not well adapted to saturated lands. There is no useful pasture plant in the South that would seem so well able to fight its own battle unaided on poor soils as Japan clover, nor is there any which has brought so much of renovation to these for the labor involved. =Place in the Rotation.=--Japan clover can scarcely be classed as a rotation plant in the strict sense of the term, since it more frequently comes into the fields, as it were, spontaneously, and owing to the uncommon degree to which it has the power of re-seeding itself, it is frequently grown and grazed for successive years on the land upon which it has been allowed thus to grow. Nevertheless, since it is a nitrogen gatherer, when it has fertilized the land sufficiently by bringing to it a supply of nitrogen and by putting humus into it, crops should follow such as require much of growth to grow them in best form. Such are cotton, corn and the small cereal grains. Owing to its power to grow on worn and even on abandoned soils, and to crowd weeds that grow on them, on such soils it comes in between the cessation of cultivation and the resumption of the same. It frequently grows as a volunteer crop along with Johnson grass, and where it comes, it tends to crowd grasses of but little value, as brown sage. Where pasture is desired winter and summer, it should be quite possible in some localities to obtain it by sowing such crops annually, as winter oats and sand vetches (_Vicia villosa_) every autumn, and the seed of Japan clover on the same. The crops first named would provide winter and spring grazing, and the clover, summer and autumn grazing. The clovers and the vetches would both aid in fertilizing the land. =Preparing the Soil.=--While careful preparation of the land will result in more certain and uniform germination in the seed, and more rapid growth in the plants, careful preparation of the seed is not so necessary with Japan clover as with many other pasture and hay plants. The seeds are strong in germinating power and the plants are much able to grow, even under adverse conditions, when they do germinate. Usually, the preparation which is suited to nurse crops, amid which this clover is sown, will be suited also to the clover when it is sown thus. In many instances, however, it is allowed to re-seed itself where it has been once sown, or even where it may have come into the soil without sowing. In this way successive pasture crops have been obtained. But usually where hay crops are wanted, it will prove more satisfactory, all things considered, to sow the seed. In many instances, simply scarifying the ground has been found a sufficient preparation for the seed. Any implement that will pulverize the surface for a few inches downward will answer for such work. In very many instances, seed, of course, self-sown has become rooted and grown vigorously on unplowed land. =Sowing.=--Japan clover is more commonly sown in the spring, but it is sometimes sown in the autumn. There is more or less of hazard in sowing it in the autumn north of the Gulf States, since when the plants are young they will not stand much frost. For the same reason, there is the element of hazard in sowing it too early in the spring. Spring sowing stands highest in favor, taking the whole area into account, in which the clover is grown. While it is possible to sow the seed too early in the spring, it will be readily apparent that the earlier it may be sown without hazard to the young plants, the better will be the returns, because of the growth secured before the advent of dry weather. The seed may be sown by any of the methods adopted when sowing medium red clover. (See page 78.) The method which is most labor-saving, however, when sown with a nurse crop, is that which sows it with an attachment to the grain drill used in sowing the nurse crop. If allowed to fall in front of the drill tubes, it will not usually need any other covering than that furnished by the drill tubes followed by the roller. It may be sown with any of the small cereals, whether these are grown for pasture, for hay, or for grain. When these are fall sown and the clover seed is not sown until the spring, it will be well worth while, when the weather and soil will admit of it, to cover the seed with the harrow. It may also be advisable to sow the seed in pastures, as, for instance, along with orchard grass, or with tall oat grass, as it would tend to fill the vacancies in the land. When sown alone, 10 pounds of seed per acre will usually suffice. But where there is much seed in the land that has been self-sown, a less quantity will suffice. Where hay crops are wanted from year to year on the same land, it may be obtained by simply disking the land and re-sowing. If the hay is allowed to approach maturity before being cut, sufficient seed will fall to re-sow the land for the next year's crop, but the quality of hay so ripe is not so good as if cut earlier. In pastures, the grazing must not be too close when self-seeding is wanted. =Pasturing.=--Japan clover is much used in providing grazing in the South. Some writers have spoken of it as being the most valuable grazing plant that grows in the South. Viewed from the standpoint of productiveness, this would be assigning it too high a place, since Bermuda grass produces more grazing, but taking productiveness and the probable influence exerted on soil fertility together, the estimate may be correct. The ease with which Japan clover may be propagated is also a strong point in its favor. Since it starts late in the spring, it only provides grazing during the summer and autumn months, from May, June or July onward, according to the locality, and it fails with the appearance of the first heavy frosts. In moist situations, it will furnish grazing during all the summer and autumn, if not allowed to seed, but in time of drought, it may wither on dry, thin soils and come on again when the rains of autumn begin to fall. In order to keep the grazing tender and palatable, it should be reasonably close. If allowed to mature much seed before grazing begins, the plants will then die, to the great injury of the grazing. That stock do not take kindly to it at first, as they do to alfalfa and some other plants, cannot be doubted. But they can soon learn to relish it. It has been praised both for milk and meat production; hence, the aim should be to have it in all permanent pastures. In some of these it may be necessary to sow a few pounds of seed per acre at the first. If the grazing is not too close, the plants thereafter will sufficiently re-seed the land. It has been found quite possible in short rotations to secure pasture from Japan clover without sowing it on land on which it has once grown. But to accomplish this effectively, the grazing must not be so close as to preclude a self-seeding. By growing such plants for winter and spring grazing, as turf oats and sand vetches, and then grazing the Japan clover, which will grow later on lands thus managed, grazing may be furnished indefinitely from year to year. =Harvesting for Hay.=--Japan clover is a good hay plant when grown on strong soils. The quality is good also when grown under adverse conditions, but the quantity is deficient. On good soils, the yield is from 1 to 2 tons per acre, the average being about 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 tons. The hay is also quite merchantable in Southern markets. It is considered superior to baled timothy--timothy brought in from the North--especially when fed to cows producing milk. Japan clover is best cut when the plants are in full bloom. But harvesting is frequently deferred to a period somewhat later where self-seeding of the land is desirable. Late cutting, however, lowers the quality of the hay, both as regards palatability and digestibility. Much that has been said as to the curing of medium red clover will also apply to Japan clover. Successive crops of hay may be grown from year to year on the same land, as already intimated. (See page 285.) But where other crops are wanted on the same farm, it would be wiser to grow these in some sort of alternation or succession with the clover crops, so that the former could feed upon the nitrogen brought to the land by the clover. =Securing Seed.=--Japan clover is ready for being harvested when the major portion of the seeds are ripe. This is late in the season. The seed crop is more easily gathered when grown on good land, owing to the more upright habit of growth. The self-rake reaper is probably the best implement for cutting, since it lays it off in loose sheaves, and on well-prepared land it may be made to cut so low as to gather the bulk of the seed. But it may also be cut with the field mower as small white clover is frequently cut. (See page 275.) Owing to the lateness of the season at which the seed matures, careful and prompt attention may be necessary to secure the seed crop without loss, owing to the moistness which characterizes the weather at that season. When Japan clover is to be harvested for seed, care should be taken to prevent weeds from ripening their seeds in the same. With a view to prevent this, it will be found helpful in many instances to run the mower over the field some time after the clover has begun to grow freely in the late spring or early summer. Such clipping will also have the effect of securing more uniformity in the ripening of the seed. The seed may be threshed in much the same way as other clover seed. (See page 107.) The yields per acre should run from 3 to 8 bushels. It weighs 20 pounds per bushel. =Renewing.=--Since Japan clover is an annual, it is not necessary to renew it, in the sense in which more long-lived clovers are renewed, as, for instance, the alsike variety. (See page 216.) About the only renewal practicable is that which insures successive crops of pasture, hay or seed from the same land where the crop has once been grown. (See page 285.) But the growth may, of course, be stimulated by the application of dressings of fertilizer, such as gypsum, or those that may be termed potassic in character. CHAPTER X BURR CLOVER Burr Clover (_Medicago maculata_) is sometimes called Spotted Medick and sometimes California clover, also Yellow clover. The name burr clover has doubtless arisen from the closely coiled seed pod, which, being covered with curved prickles, adhere to wool more or less as burrs do. The name Spotted Medick has been given because of the dark spot found in the middle of the leaflets, in conjunction with the family of plants to which it belongs. The name California clover is given because of the claim that it was much grown in California after having been introduced there from Chili, and the name yellow clover, from the color of the blossoms. After its introduction into the United States, seedsmen sell California and Southern burr clover as two varieties, but the correctness of the distinction thus made has been questioned. Many persons were wont to confuse it with alfalfa, or, as it is frequently called, lucerne, but the latter is much more upright in its habit of growth, grows to a greater height, has more blossoms, blue in color, and seed pods more loosely coiled. It is also to be distinguished from a variety (_Medicago denticulata_) which bears much resemblance to it, and which, growing wild over portions of the plains and foothills of the West, affords considerable pasture. Burr clover may properly be termed a winter annual, since the seed comes up in the autumn, furnishes grazing in the winter and spring, and dies with the advent of summer. It is procumbent or spreading and branched. On good soil some of the plants radiate to the distance of several feet from the parent root. They have been known to overlap, and thus accumulate until the ground was covered 2 feet deep with this clover, thus making it very difficult to plow them under. It is only under the most favorable conditions, however, that the plants produce such a mass of foliage. The leaves are composed of three somewhat large leaflets. The flowers, as previously intimated, are yellow, and there are but two or three in each cluster, but the clusters are numerous; hence, also the pods are numerous. They are about 1/4 of an inch broad, and when mature are possessed of considerable food value. Burr clover grows chiefly during the winter, and is at its best for pasture during the months of March and April, and in the Gulf States dies down after having produced seed in May. Though it is frequently sown, it has the power of self-propagation to a marked degree, which makes it possible to grow many crops in succession without re-seeding by hand. It is not considered a good hay plant, but its value for pasture is considerable, although, as a rule, animals do not take kindly to it at first, as they do to alfalfa or medium red clover, but later they become fond of it, but less so, probably, in the case of horses than of other animals. Being a legume, it is helpful in enriching the land, and being a free grower, it improves the soil mechanically through its root growth, and also through the stems and leaves, when these are plowed under. =Distribution.=--Burr clover is said to be native to Europe and North Africa, but not to North America, although it has shown high adaptation in adapting itself to conditions as found in the latter. Although this plant is hardy in the South, and, as previously stated, makes most of its growth in the winter, it is not sufficiently hardy to endure the winters far northward. Its highest adaptation is found in States around the Gulf of Mexico. It also grows with more or less vigor as far north as North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. For these States its adaptation is, on the whole, higher than crimson clover, although where the latter will grow readily it is considered the valuable plant of the two. For Canada, burr clover has no mission, owing to the sternness of the winter climate in that country. =Soils.=--While burr clover will grow with more or less success on almost any kind of soil possessed of a reasonable amount of fertility and moisture, it is much better adapted to soils alluvial in character and moist, as, for instance, the deposit soils in the bottom of rivers. Its power to fight the battle of existence on poor lands is much less than that of Japan clover, but on soils that grow crops, such as corn or cotton, it may be made to render a service which the other cannot, since it grows chiefly in winter and early spring, whereas Japan clover grows in the summer and early autumn, when cultivated crops occupy the land. =Place in the Rotation.=--Burr clover is grown more in the sense of a catch crop and for pasture than in that of a crop to be marketed directly. Since it is grown in the winter and spring, it may be made to come in between various crops. On good producing lands of the South it has given satisfaction as a pasture plant for winter for many successive years without re-sowing by hand, when sown in conjunction with crab grass (_Panicum sanguinale_) for hay. Dr. Phares grew it thus in Mississippi for about 20 years. In June crab grass sprang up on the ground, and being cut when in blossom, produced a good crop of hay in August. A lighter cutting was again taken in October. The clover then took possession of the land and was grazed until spring, but not so closely as to prevent re-seeding in May, after which the plants died down. By thus allowing the plants to mature seed, any crop may follow that can be grown after May. By following burr clover with cow peas, land may be much fertilized in one year. By reversing the process on land low in fertility, that is, sowing the peas first and the clover later, a much better growth of the clover will be secured. The seed may also be sown in corn and cotton crops, with a view to enriching the land. But it is only in the Gulf States that much attention is given to growing burr clover thus, and for the reason, probably, that the winters are too cold to admit of the plants furnishing a sufficiency of grazing at that season. Burr clover is sometimes grown with Bermuda grass. The latter furnishes summer grazing. There is some merit in the plan, if the seed of the burr clover were sown from year to year. When the re-seeding of the plants is depended on from season to season there is difficulty in adjusting the grazing so as to admit of the plants properly re-seeding for the growth that is to follow. If the Bermuda grass is not closely grazed many of the burrs which contain the seeds may not reach the ground in time to germinate. =Preparing the Soil.=--Since burr clover has much power to re-seed the land without preparation, it is more commonly reproduced thus. But, as with all other plants, it will grow more quickly and more luxuriantly on a well-prepared seed-bed, where it may be thought worth while to thus prepare the land. The cultivation given to such crops as corn, cotton or cow peas makes an excellent preparation of the soil on which to sow burr clover. =Sowing.=--Usually, burr clover is allowed to re-seed itself after it has once become established in the soil. In this respect it is not unlike small white clover and Japan clover, but it does not grow so well as these on poor soil. Where not yet established, it must, of course, be sown where it is desired to grow it. The seed is commonly sown in September or early October, but some growers recommend sowing in the burrs as early as June or July, that the tough surrounding which encloses the seed may have time to decay. When seed separate from the burr is used, it is sown in the months named. When sown on well-prepared soil, grazing should be plentiful from February onward. Burr clover is more commonly sown in the burr. The burrs are usually scattered by hand and on land that has been pulverized, but it is easily possible, when the conditions are favorable, to obtain a stand on land that has not been plowed. Where seed is scarce, the burrs are sometimes planted in squares 3 feet apart each way, a limited number of burrs being dropped at one time. When thus planted, 1 bushel of burrs will plant several acres. The plants will soon possess all the ground, but to enable them to do so, pasturing must be deferred for one season. Whether sown in the burr or otherwise, it is better to cover the seed with the harrow. One bushel of burrs weighs from 10 to 12 pounds. It has been stated 1 bushel of clean seed weighs 60 pounds. When sown in the burr, it is usual to sow 3 to 5 bushels per acre, but in some instances less is sown and in some more. When seed apart from the burr is sown 12 pounds per acre should suffice. In some instances it is sown on Bermuda sod, but the attempts to grow it thus have not always proved satisfactory. At the Louisiana Experiment Station it was found that the burr clover remained long enough and grew large enough to injure the Bermuda. Possibly closer grazing would have prevented such injury. When sown on Bermuda grass, June, July or August are the months chosen for scattering the seed. Burr clover is also sometimes sown in corn and cotton to provide winter grazing, but when thus sown the object more frequently sought is to enrich the land. Both ends may be accomplished in some degree. =Pasturing.=--Opinions differ as to the palatability of this grass. All are agreed that stock do not take kindly to it at first, but that they come to relish it at least reasonably well when accustomed to it. It is said to be relished less by horses and mules than by other domestic animals. It has been praised as a pasture for swine. It is more palatable in the early stages of its growth, and will bear close grazing, and also severe tramping. It will provide pasture for six months, but not so bountifully in the first months of growing as later. =Harvesting for Hay.=--Burr clover is not a good hay plant. Owing to the recumbent character of the growth it is not easily mowed, nor has it much palatability in the cured form. The yield is said to be from 1/2 to 1 ton per acre. =Securing Seed.=--In the Gulf States the seed matures in April and May. The plants grow seed profusely. Sown in October, stock may usually be allowed free access to it until March, and if then removed, it will spring up quickly and mature seed so profusely that when the plants die and partially decay seed may sometimes be collected in hollows, into which it has been driven by the wind. It is more commonly sown in the burr form, the form in which it is usually gathered. The more common method of saving the seed, as given by Mr. A. H. Beattie of Starkville, Mississippi, is to first rake off the dead vines so as to leave the burrs on the ground and then sweep them together with a suitable wire or street broom. It is then lifted and run through two sets of sifters of suitable mesh by hand to remove the trash swept up in gathering the seed. It is probable that other methods more economical of labor are yet to be devised when harvesting the seed crop. As much as 100 bushels of burrs have been obtained from an acre, but that is considerably more than the average yield of seed. =Renewing.=--Since this plant is an annual, it cannot be renewed in the sense in which renewal is possible with a perennial. But as has been shown above (see page 294), it may be grown annually for an indefinite period in the same land and without re-sowing by hand. It has also been shown that by sowing the seed in certain crops at the proper season, from year to year, it may be made to grow from year to year where the rotation will admit of this. (See page 295.) When the ground is well stored with seed, the plants will continue to come up freely in the soil for at least two or three years, even without any re-seeding of the land. =As a Fertilizer.=--The growing of burr clover exercises a beneficial influence on the land. Its value for this purpose, since it can be grown as a catch crop, is probably greater than its value in providing food for stock. Like all plants that are more or less creeping in their habit of growth, it shades the soil and keeps it moist, which, in conjunction with the influence of the roots, puts it in a friable condition. When the plants grow rankly, it is not easy to bury them properly with the ordinary plow, but in such instances, if cut up with a disk harrow, the work is facilitated. The plants quickly die down so as to make plowing easily possible, but the aim should be to have such decay take place within the soil rather than above it. CHAPTER XI SWEET CLOVER Sweet clover is so named from the sweet odor which emanates from the living plants. It is of two species. These are designated, respectively, _Melilotus alba_ and _Melilotus officinalis_. The former is also called Bokhara clover, White Melilot and Tree clover. It is possibly more widely known by the name Bokhara than by any other designation. The latter is sometimes called Yellow clover. The difference between these in appearance and habits of growth does not seem to be very marked, except that the blossoms of the former are white and those of the latter are yellow. Sweet clover is upright and branched in its habit of growth. It attains to a height of from 2 to 8 feet, according to the soil in which the plants grow. The somewhat small and truncate leaves are not so numerous, relatively, as with some other varieties of clover, and the stems are woody in character, especially as they grow older. The blossoms are small and white or yellow, according to the variety, and the seed pods are black when ripe. The roots are large and more or less branched, and go down to a great depth in the soil; especially is this true of the main, or tap root. The plants, according to Beale, are annual or biennial, but more commonly they are biennial. They do not usually blossom the year that they are sown, but may blossom within a year from the date of sowing. For instance, when sown in the early autumn, they may bloom the following summer. They are exceedingly hardy, having much power to endure extremes of heat and cold, and to grow in poor soils and under adverse conditions. In some soils they take possession of road sides and vacant lands, and continue to grow in these for successive years. The impaction of such soils by stock treading on them seems rather to advance than to hinder the growth. They start growing early in the spring and grow quickly, especially the second year. They come into bloom in June, early or later, according to the latitude, and ordinarily only in the year following that in which they were sown. Because of the fragrant odor which is emitted from the plants as they grow, they are sometimes introduced into gardens and ornamental grounds. [Illustration: Fig. 9. Sweet Clover (_Melilotus alba_) Tennessee Experiment Station] The uses of the plants are at least three. It has some value as a food for live stock. It has much value as a fertilizer. It has probably even more value as a food for bees. It has also been used in binding soils. Its value as a food for stock has probably been overestimated. It is bitter, notwithstanding the fragrant odor that emanates from it; hence, it is not relished by stock, insomuch that they will not eat it when they can get other food that is more palatable. As hay, it is hard to cure and of doubtful palatability when cured. As a fertilizer, its value does not seem to have been sufficiently recognized, and the same is probably true of it as bee pasture, although many bee-keepers are alive to its great merit for such a use. This plant does not seem to find much favor with many. The United States Department of Agriculture has spoken of it as a "weedy biennial, concerning which extravagant claims have been made." The laws of some States proscribe it as a weed, and impose penalties directed against any who allow it to grow. Legislatures should be slow to class a legume as a weed, especially one that has much power to enrich soils. The author cherishes the opinion that this plant has a mission in the economy of agriculture and of considerable importance to farmers, especially in soils that are poor and worn, as soon as they come to understand it properly. =Distribution.=--Sweet clover is probably indigenous to the semi-arid regions of Asia. The name Bokhara would seem to indicate as much, but it is also found in many parts of Europe, and if the facts were known, was doubtless brought from Europe to North America by the first settlers. For many decades it has been represented in many flower gardens in all parts of the country. The plant will endure almost any amount of cold when it is once established. It has stood well the winters of Manitoba. It can also endure extreme summer heat, since it thrives well in some parts of Texas. It grows most vigorously where the rainfall is abundant, as in Western Oregon, and it makes a strong growth in the dry areas of Western Kansas and Nebraska. Sweet clover will grow vigorously in some part or parts of every State in the Union. Of course, it has higher adaptation for some conditions than others. In some of the Central and Southern States, it has multiplied to such an extent without cultivation as to have assumed the character of a weed; hence, the legislation against it. When it is called to mind that this plant is a legume, and when the further fact is recognized that it may be used not only in enriching soils, but at the same time improving them mechanically, in addition to other benefits that it may be made to render, surely the enactments which prohibit its growth should be repealed in any State where these exist. In the Northern States, with a normal rainfall, the mission of this plant is likely to be circumscribed, for the reason that other legumes possessed of a much higher food value may be grown in these. In the Southern States, its mission will be more important, since it may be used in some of these with decided advantage in binding soils and in renovating them, even when too poor to produce a vigorous growth of cow peas. It is likely also that it may yet be made to render good service in the semi-arid country west of the Mississippi River, where other clovers cannot be grown. Sweet clover will grow in all the provinces of Canada. For economic uses, however, it is not likely to grow to any great extent east of Lake Superior, or west of the Rocky Mountains. Other legumes more useful may be grown in these areas. But in the intervening wheat-growing region it is possible that it may come to be used for purposes of soil renovation. =Soils.=--But little can be gleaned from American sources on this subject. Notwithstanding, it may be said with safety that it has greater power to grow on poor, worn and hard soils than any forage plant that has yet been introduced into America for economic uses. It will probably be found true of it, as of other clovers, that it will thrive best on soils that have produced timber, and more especially timber of the hardwood varieties. This means, therefore, that it will grow well in probably all kinds of clay soils and also in loam soils underlaid with clay. It has high adaptation for soils abounding in lime. It can be made to succeed on hard clay subsoils from which the surface soil has been removed. But it will also grow well on sandy soils and even on gravels when a reasonable amount of moisture is present. The author succeeded in growing it in good form in 1897 and 1898 in a vacant lot in St. Paul, from which 6 to 8 feet of surface soil had been removed a short time previously. The subsoil was so sandy that it would almost have answered for building uses. This clover will probably grow with least success on soils of the prairie so light in texture as to lift with the winds, and in which the underlying clay is several feet from the surface, also in slough soils that are much saturated with water. Since it grows vigorously on road sides, in rocky waste places and even in brick yards when sown without a covering, the idea has gained currency that the harder the soil, the better the plants will grow, and the more surely will they be established in the soil; but this view does not seem to be in accord with the principles which usually govern plant growth. It will, however, send its roots down into hard subsoils so deeply that in certain seasons the plants could not be dug up without the aid of a pick. =Place in the Rotation.=--Since sweet clover seed is more commonly scattered in byplaces, or is self-sown from plants that have run wild, it can scarcely be said that it has ever been grown as a regular crop and in a regular rotation. Nor is it ever likely to become a factor in such a rotation unless its properties shall be so modified that it can be grown acceptably as a pasture plant. In such an event it would have the same place in the rotation as other clovers; that is, it would naturally follow a cultivated, that is, a cleaning crop, and precede some crop or a succession of crops that would profit from the nitrogen and humus which it had brought to the soil, and also from the influence which the roots would exercise mechanically upon the same. But the necessity for sowing it on clean ground would not be so great as with the other clovers, since it has greater power than these to overshadow weeds when the two grow together. In the meantime, this plant will probably continue to be grown as in the past; that is, if sown, it will be sown: 1. In byplaces to provide pasture for bees, in which case in time it will be superseded by other plants. 2. On worn lands so poor that they refuse to grow valuable food products sown, partly, at least, with a view to renovate them. And 3. In cuttings made by railroads and in gullies that have been made in fields, with a view to prevent soil movement. It may also come to be sown in grain crops in localities where other varieties of clover will not grow, to be plowed under the following spring. =Preparing the Soil.=--Since sweet clover will grow on the firmest and most forbidding soils, even when self-sown, it would not seem necessary, ordinarily, to spend much time in specially preparing a seed-bed for it. The fact stated is proof of its ability to grow on a firm surface. It does not follow, however, that such a condition of the seed-bed will give a better stand of the plants than a pulverized condition of the same, as some have contended. It may be that on soils that are quite loose near the surface, and under conditions that incline to dry a seed-bed firm and even hard, may be more conductive to growth in the plants than one in which the conditions are the opposite. Much rolling of loose soils has been recommended when preparing the seed-bed with a view to firm them. When the seed is sown along with grain, the preparation of the soil needed for grain would be ample preparation also for the clover. When sown on stubble land, in many instances no preparation by way of stirring the soil would seem necessary. And when sown on railroad embankments, road sides, rocky situations and byplaces generally no preparation of the soil would be possible. =Sowing.=--In the North sweet clover is best sown in the spring. In fact, it can only be sown then with the assurance that it will survive the winter north of a certain limit. That limit will vary with altitude, but it will probably run irregularly across the Middle States, from the Atlantic westward to the Cascade Mountains, beyond which it will veer away to the North. In the Southern States, it may be sown fall or spring, but if sown late in the fall the young plants will in some instances succumb to the frost of winter. Early fall sowing, therefore, is much to be preferred to sowing late. The method of sowing may be the same as in sowing medium red clover (see page 78); that is, when the seed is sown with grain crops. When sown in byplaces, it will ordinarily be sown by hand. In such places it will re-seed itself and will likely grow in these for successive seasons. On railroad embankments, the seed is scattered more commonly on the upper portion, and from the plants which grow there the seeds produced scatter downward. The plants not only lessen washing in the soil, but they prepare the same for the growth of grasses. They also aid thus in the introduction of grasses into rocky and very hard soils. Sweet clover may be sown with almost any kind of a nurse crop desired, which does not destroy it with an over-abundant shade. Or it may be sown alone where such a necessity exists. But the instances are not numerous in which it would be desirable or necessary to sow it alone on arable soils. There may be conditions when it could be sown successfully at the time of the last cultivation given to corn and with a view to soil enrichment. Since sweet clover is seldom sown for the purpose of providing food for live stock, it is not sown in mixtures, nor is it well adapted for being sown thus, because of the large and luxuriant character of the growth, which would tend to smother other plants sown along with it. The amount of seed to sow has been variously stated at from 15 to 20 pounds per acre. The smaller amount should be enough for almost any purpose, and a much smaller amount should suffice for sowing in byplaces and along road sides, where the plants retain possession of the ground through self-seeding. =Pasturing.=--Because of the bitter aromatic principle which it contains, known as commarin, stock dislike it, especially at the first. And it is questionable if they can be educated to like it in areas where other food, which is more palatable, grows abundantly. In an experiment directed by the author at the Minnesota University Experiment Station, sheep pastured upon it, and did not take kindly to it; but by turning them in to graze upon it in the morning, they cropped it down. In localities where good grazing is not plentiful, if live stock have access to it, especially when the plants are young, they will so crop it down that in a few years it will entirely disappear. But where other pastures are abundant, it will continue to grow indefinitely. It would not seem wise to sow it for the purpose of providing grazing, unless where the conditions for growing other and better grazing are unfavorable. Some have spoken favorably of sweet clover for soiling uses. It makes a very rapid growth quite early in the season, and when cut and wilted more or less before being fed, the palatability is thereby considerably increased. Small plots of this plant near the outbuildings may in this way be utilized with some advantage in the absence of better soiling plants. =Harvesting for Hay.=--Sweet clover is not a really good hay plant under any conditions, and if not cut until it becomes woody, is practically valueless for hay. It ought to be cut for hay a little before the stage of bloom. If cutting is longer deferred, the plants become woody. Such early cutting, however, adds much to the difficulty of curing the crop, since, while naturally succulent, its succulence is then, of course, considerably more than at a later period. It should be cured like medium red clover. (See page 96.) If not cut sufficiently early, and cured with as much care as is exercised in curing alfalfa, there will be considerable loss from the shedding of the leaves. More commonly the plants are not cut for hay the year that they are sown, but some seasons such harvesting is entirely practicable in certain situations. The hay crop or crops are usually taken the second year. Sometimes the crop is cut twice. It is entirely practicable to obtain two cuttings under ordinary conditions, because of the vigor in the growth, and because of the early season at which it must be harvested for hay. From 3 to 4 or 5 tons may thus be obtained in many instances from the two cuttings. =Securing Seed.=--Nearly all of the seed sown in this country is imported. The author has not been able to obtain information with reference to growing seed within the United States; hence, the inference is fair that but little of it has been grown for that purpose up to the present time. Since, however, it seeds freely, and since the price of seed is high, seed crops, more especially when the plants are also utilized as bee pasture, ought to prove remunerative in the hands of judicious growers. The seed crop is obtained usually, if not always, the second year after the sowing. If cut for hay before coming into bloom, it will grow up again and bear seed profusely. This would seem preferable on strong soils, as it would prevent that rankness in growth which would militate against abundant seed production, and which would add much to the labor of handling the crop. The seed crop may be cut and handled in substantially the same way as medium red clover when grown for seed. It may also be cured and thrashed essentially in the same way. (See page 105.) The author has not been able to obtain information with reference to the average yield of the seed crop under American conditions. The seed, like that of the medium red variety, should weigh 60 pounds per bushel. =Renewing.=--In the sense of a pasture or hay crop, it would not seem necessary to try to renew this crop, because of the relatively low value which it possesses for these uses. When grown for bee pasture, it will renew itself for an indefinite period when the plants are not cut for seed and where the conditions are favorable to growth. When grown to keep soils from washing or railroad embankments from breaking down, it will, of course, renew itself in the same way. In time, however, it is usually superseded by some kind of grass, for which it has prepared the way by the ameliorating and renewing influence which it exerts upon the soil. =Value for Bee Pasture.=--All authorities are agreed as to the high value of this plant as a honey producer. The claim has been made for it that for such a use it is more valuable acre for acre than any ordinary grain crop. By cutting a part of the crop before it comes into bloom, the season of honey production may be prolonged from, say, July 1st until some time in the autumn, as the part thus cut will come into bloom after the blooms have left the plants that were cut. When not disturbed, sweet clover yields honey in the interval between the blooming of the basswood and the golden rod. The honey is of excellent quality. There should be no good reasons, therefore, why bee-keepers should not sow the seed in by and waste places. But the wisdom of growing it as a honey-producing crop on valuable land where other honey crops, as alsike and white clover, can be grown in good form may be questioned. =Value as a Fertilizer.=--The high value of this plant as a fertilizer and soil improver cannot be questioned. But whether it should ever be sown for such a use will depend on the capacity of the soil to produce other crops valuable for fertilizing and also more valuable for producing forage or fodder. Where other clovers more useful can be grown, also cow peas, soy beans and other legumes valuable for food uses, it would seem unwise to sow sweet clover. This would restrict its use, therefore, as a soil renovator; first, to soils too poor to grow those useful legumes; second, to areas where the climate conditions will not admit of the growth of these; and third, to areas from which the surface soil has been removed, and which it is desirable to so ameliorate and improve the soil thus laid bare that it could later be covered with some more valuable cover crop. Under present conditions this would restrict its growth for the purpose named to sandy and gravelly soils, to certain areas in the semi-arid region east of the Rocky Mountains, and to such small areas as the surface soil had been removed from. In the semi-arid region where crops of grain and also some varieties of field corn can be grown successfully, but where the clovers are not successful; it would seem practicable to sow a few pounds of sweet clover seed per acre at the same time as the grains, and to plow under the plants produced some time in the month of May the next season. The clover thus buried could be at once followed by corn or potatoes, or, indeed, by any kind of a cleaning crop. The high price of seed at present practically forbids growing clover thus. Whether sweet clover grown for renovating uses should be turned under the season in which it has been sown will depend largely on the growth that has been made. In many instances, the growth made is so rank as to justify plowing it under the following autumn. In other instances, better results will follow plowing it under the next season. It frequently happens that the growth made is so rank that a strong plow and also a strong team are necessary to do the work properly. =Value on Alkali soils.=--This plant has been grown to some extent to aid in removing alkali from soils superabundantly impregnated with the same. It will grow, it is claimed, under certain conditions on such soils so surcharged with alkali as to prohibit almost every other form of vegetable growth. The extent to which it may be thus used profitably had not yet been fully demonstrated. But where it can be grown on such soils, the fact that it takes up and removes relatively large quantities of alkali would appear to be well established. =Destroying the Plants.=--Should the conditions be found so favorable to the growth of the plant that it persists in growing where it is not wanted, it will soon cease to appear, if prevented from going to seed. Ordinarily, the blossoms appear only during the second year of growth. If, therefore, the plants are cut off when in bloom, seed forming will not only be prevented, but since sweet clover is a biennial, the plants will die. When thus dealt with, the only source from which other plants may come while extermination is being thus sought is from seed lodged in the soil and still capable of germinating. CHAPTER XII MISCELLANEOUS VARIETIES OF CLOVER In addition to the varieties of clover that have been discussed at some length in previous chapters are a number the value of which may be considerable to areas more or less local and limited. These include Sainfoin, Egyptian clover, Yellow clover, Sand lucerne, Japanese clover, Beggarweed and Seaside clover. Some of these, as Sainfoin and Buffalo clover, have been in the country for several years, and yet but little is known as to their behavior, except in very limited areas. Others, as Buffalo clover, native to the country are thought to have merit, and yet the degree of such merit does not appear to have been yet proved under cultivation. The three varieties but recently introduced are thought to have considerable promise for certain soils and climates to which they have special adaptation, but sufficient trial has not been given them to determine even approximately the measure of their worth to this country. These varieties will now be discussed, but for the reasons stated above it will be manifest that the discussion will of necessity be imperfect and fragmentary in character. SAINFOIN Sainfoin (_Onobrychis sativa_) is a perennial, leguminous, clover-like forage plant of the bean family. The word Sainfoin is equivalent to the French words for sound or wholesome hay. It is also frequently called Esparcette or Asperset, more especially in Germany. It is further known in England by the name Cock's Head, French Grass and Medick Vetchling. In some parts of France and Switzerland the name has been and probably is yet applied to lucerne (_Medicago sativa_). In its habit of growth it is more woody in the rootstock than clover and more branched. It also grows to a greater average height. The stems, which are covered with fine hairs, bear numerous leaves long and pinnate. The blossoms are numerous and of an attractive, pinkish color, brightening into a crimson tint. The seed pods are flattened from side to side and wrinkled, and are also sickle-shaped. They bear but one seed. The roots are strong and more or less branched. Sainfoin, as already intimated, is perennial in its habit of growth. When a field is once well set with the plants, it should continue to produce crops for a decade, but will eventually be crowded out with weeds or other grasses. It grows very early in the season, quite as early, if not earlier, than alfalfa, and continues to grow until autumn. The feeding value of sainfoin is much the same as that of alfalfa. It is much esteemed where it can be grown for the production of pasture, of soiling food, and also hay, valuable for enriching the land, through the medium of the roots, and also when the tops are plowed under as green manure. Sainfoin is native throughout the whole of Central Europe and over much of Siberia. Although native to the southern counties of England, it does not appear to have been cultivated there before the year 1651, at which time it is said to have been introduced from Flanders. From what has been said with reference to the distribution of sainfoin in Europe and Asia, it will be apparent that it is a hardy plant, which has highest adaptation for climates temperate and mild to moderately cool. Its hardihood has been shown by its surviving the winters in the latitude of the St. Lawrence River, but the abundant snow covering then provided should not be lost sight of. [Illustration: Fig. 10. Sainfoin (_Onobrychis sativa_) Oregon Experiment Station] Its adaptation to the United States does not appear to have been proved yet, except in limited areas. In some of the Montana valleys good crops have been grown with much success in many of those western valleys, and even on the bench lands at the base of foothills. Nor would there seem to be any good reasons for supposing that good crops could not be grown in various parts of the United States where the soil is suitable. In Canada, sainfoin has succeeded in Quebec. In trials made by the author at the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph success was only partial, but the trials were limited. There would seem to be no good reasons why this plant should not succeed in many places in Canada where limestone soils prevail. This plant is best adapted to dry soils calcareous in their composition and somewhat porous in character. This explains its great affinity for the chalk soils which abound in the south of England. On the dry, limestone soils of this country it ought to succeed. It has shown much adaptation for the volcanic soils of the Western mountain region, where it has been tried. On stiff clays it grows too slowly to be entirely satisfactory. It ought not to be sown on soils wet or swampy in character. Since sainfoin is perennial in its habit of growth, and since, when once well set, it will retain its hold upon the soil for several years, it is not in the strict sense of the term a rotation plant. When it is grown, however, it should be followed by crops which require large quantities of nitrogen easily accessible, to enable them to complete their growth. If this plant should ever be grown to any considerable extent in the mountain States, much that has been said with reference to the place for alfalfa in the rotation will also apply to sainfoin. (See page 135.) It has been found more difficult to get a good stand of sainfoin plants than of other varieties of the clover family. This is owing to the low germinating power frequently found in the seed. The stand of plants is frequently found to be too thin and scattering. Weeds, therefore, and sometimes grasses are much liable to come into the soil occupied by the sainfoin and to crowd the same. Because of this it is specially important that sainfoin shall be sown on a clean seed-bed. The seed is very frequently sown in the hull, and usually in the early spring. But there would seem to be no reasons why the seed should not be sown in the early autumn in localities where alfalfa can be sown thus. (See page 145.) In the rough form, it is usually broadcasted by hand, but would probably also feed through a seed drill. When sown apart from the hull, the seed may be sown by the same methods as alfalfa. (See page 147.) In the rough form, from 3 to 5 bushels per acre are sown. In the clean form, it is claimed that 40 pounds of seed should be sown, but that amount of clean and good seed would seem to be excessive on well-prepared land. The seed in the hull weighs 26 pounds per bushel. The plan of sowing 2 to 3 pounds per acre of the seed of alsike clover along with the sainfoin would doubtless be found helpful under some conditions, as it would tend to thicken the crop, more especially the first season. Sainfoin is a good pasture plant when properly grazed. It does not produce bloat in cattle or sheep as alfalfa does. In this fact is found one of the strongest reason why it should be grown in areas where alfalfa is wanted for pasture. It will furnish grazing about as early as alfalfa, and considerably earlier than medium red clover. This plant is more frequently grown for soiling food than for hay. For the former use it has high adaptation, since it will furnish several cuttings of soiling food per season. It will also furnish two cuttings of hay, or one of hay and one of seed, and under some conditions more than two cuttings can be obtained. In the latitude of Montreal it is ready to be cut for hay during the early days of June. It is ready for being cut when the blossoms begin to expand. Much care is necessary in curing the hay, in order to prevent the too free shedding of the leaves. The methods for making alfalfa hay will apply also to sainfoin. Seed may be obtained from the first or second cutting of the crop. It is usually obtained from the second cutting, as the yield is much larger than that obtained from the first cutting. The author has not been able to obtain any facts based on experience regarding the harvesting of the seed crop under American field conditions. But the methods followed in obtaining seed from alfalfa would probably also answer equally well for sainfoin. Great care is necessary in handling the seed crop, owing to the ease with which the seed shatters. Special pains are also necessary to keep the germinating power of the seed from injury from overheating. Nor does the seed seem able to retain germinating power as long as the seeds of some other varieties of clover. In experiments conducted by Professor C. A. Zavitz at the Ontario Experiment Station at Guelph in 1902 and 1903, the average yield per acre was 426.1 pounds. EGYPTIAN CLOVER Egyptian clover (_Trifolium Alexandrianum_) is more commonly known in the Nile valley as Berseem. It is of at least three varieties. These are the Muscowi, Fachl and Saida, all of which are more or less closely related to medium red clover. The term _Alexandrianum_ as applied above is somewhat misleading, as its growth is not specially identified with Alexandria, nor is its growth in Egypt supposed to be of great antiquity, since no trace of it is found upon the ancient monuments. The Muscowi variety, which is commonly grown more especially in lower Egypt, sometimes grows to the height of 5 feet and over, but usually it is not more than half the height named. In its habit of growth it is rather upright, like alfalfa, but the hollow stems are softer and more succulent, and the blossoms occur on heads resembling those of clover, but not so compactly formed, and they are white in color. The seeds bear a close resemblance to those of crimson clover. The roots are much shorter, but more spreading in their habit of growth than those of alfalfa, and in Egyptian soils they bear small tubercles abundantly. This variety, which is usually grown on land that can be irrigated at any season, produces in some instances 5 cuttings in a season. The Fachl variety is usually grown on land irrigated by the basin system; that is, the system which covers the land with water but once a year, and for a period more or less prolonged. But one crop a year is taken from such land. The hay from this variety is heavier for the bulk than that of the Muscowi. The Saida variety is of a lower habit of growth than the Muscowi and has a longer tap root, which enables it to stand drought better than the Muscowi. It is more commonly sown in Egypt southward from Cairo. All these varieties are annual. The period of growth covered by any one of them is never more than 9 months, and usually not more than 6 months; that is to say, from October to March. The Muscowi variety especially grows very rapidly. Egyptian clover in all its varieties is pre-eminently a soiling plant. It is sometimes pastured and is also made into hay. It is practically the one fodder crop of Egypt, and is more commonly fed in the green form. All kinds of stock are fond of it, and it is fed freely to horses, donkeys and camels at labor, to cows in milk, and to cattle that are being fattened. It also serves to keep Egyptian soils supplied with nitrogen, for the support of crops grown on them in summer, especially cotton, and various kinds of grain. Moreover, because of the frequency of the cuttings, with the Muscowi variety, its growth tends very much to check the growth of weeds. Egyptian clover is not native to Egypt, but was introduced from some country outside of Egypt, yet bordering on the Mediterranean. This, at least, is the view presented in Bulletin No. 23, issued by the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, from which source much of what is written with reference to this plant has been obtained. In Egypt more than 1,000,000 acres are grown annually. It is also being tried, with much promise, in other portions of Northern Africa, as Tunis and Algiers. It is also now being experimented with in various parts of the Southern and Southwestern States. Egyptian clover is only adapted to a warm climate. In those parts of the United States which have a climate not unlike that of Egypt, in many respects, as Florida, Southern Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, it may have an important mission. It may yet be grown in these areas, or some of them, where irrigation is practiced in conjunction with cotton, or with certain of the cereals. If it can be thus grown, it will prove of much value, as it would only occupy the land when not occupied by the crops usually grown in summer, and it would bring much fertility to the same, in addition to the forage provided. Since in Tunis it has been found that the plants have not been killed by cold 2° below zero and in Algiers 9° below that point, the hope would seem to be justifiable that this clover may yet be grown much further north than the States named. If grown thus, however, it should not be as a substitute for alfalfa, but rather to occupy the ground in winter when not producing otherwise. It may yet be found that the Saida variety may have adaptation for some localities in the West where irrigation cannot be practiced. This clover is not likely to render any considerable service to any part of Canada, because of the lack of adaptation in the climate. Egyptian clover has highest adaptation for deposit soils, such as are made by the settling of silt held in solution by waters that overflow. In these it will grow with vigor, though they rest upon coarse sand or even upon gravel not too near the surface. Irrigating waters to some extent are necessary to grow the plants in best form, although, as previously intimated, the Saida variety may yet be grown without the aid of such waters. It is the first crop sown on reclaimed alkaline lands, and growing it on these tends to remove the alkali and to sweeten and otherwise improve the soils. The place for this plant in the rotation is readily apparent. Like crimson clover, it is clearly a catch crop, as it were, and a winter plant, but with the difference that it grows much more rapidly under suitable conditions and furnishes much more food. The advantage of growing it northward in the Western mountain valleys when sown in spring, as intimated by the writer of the bulletin already referred to, would seem to be at least problematical, since it could not be sown early enough in the spring to produce a crop as early as alfalfa already established. It would then be grown also as the crop of the season, rather than as a catch crop. The place for Egyptian clover in the rotation is clearly that of a winter crop, to provide soiling food for stock and plant food for the land, which may be utilized by the summer crop that follows. In Egypt the seed is frequently sown on the silt deposited by the waters that have subsided and before it would be dry enough to plow. At other times, it is sowed on land stirred on the surface to a greater or less depth, and sprouted through the aid of irrigating waters. In the valleys of the West that preparation of the soil found suitable for alfalfa would also, doubtless, be found suitable for this clover. The seed is sown in the autumn in Egypt, usually in October, but the season of sowing lasts from September to January, and some crops have been obtained sown as late as April 1st, but when sown late, the number of the cuttings is reduced and the occupancy of the soil by the clover interferes with the growing of other crops. Under American conditions, it will doubtless be found that the best season for sowing Egyptian clover will be just after the removal of the crop that occupied the land in summer. The seed is usually sowed by hand and without admixture, but the Fachl variety is sown in some instances with wheat or barley when seed is wanted. The methods of sowing found suitable for alfalfa would also seem to be proper for sowing Egyptian clover. (See page 78.) As much as one bushel of seed is sown per acre, but it is thought that a less amount will suffice under good methods of tillage. Egyptian clover is sometimes pastured, but it has higher adaptation to soiling, because of the softness of the stems. When pastured reasonably close, cropping would probably be preferable, as there would then be less waste from the treading of the plants. Nevertheless, in Egypt considerable quantities of the hay are stored for feeding in the summer months when green fodder is scarce. Egyptian clover is sometimes made into hay, but it is not essentially a hay plant. Much care is necessary when it is being cured to prevent loss in the leaves, and when cured the stems are so brittle that it is difficult to prevent waste in handling the hay. It is pre-eminently a soiling crop, and the greater portion is fed in the green form. From 4 cuttings of the Muscowi variety as much as 25 to 30 tons of green fodder are harvested, and about 10 tons are produced by 2 cuttings of the Saida variety. Egyptian clover has not been grown sufficiently long in this country to justify giving information based upon American experience that could be taken as authoritative, with reference to the best methods of harvesting the seed crop. There would seem to be no reasons, however, to suppose that the methods followed in harvesting alfalfa could not be followed with equal advantage in harvesting Egyptian clover. Nor can anything be said as yet with reference to which cutting of the series will furnish the best seed crop. The best service, probably, which this crop can render to the United States is the enrichment of the soils on which the plants are grown. As the same bacteria which inoculate alfalfa soils will not answer for Egyptian clover, and as the requisite bacteria may not be found in soils where it is desirable to grow this clover, the conclusion that it will not grow sufficiently well in certain soils on which it is being tried should not be reached until the question relating to the presence or absence of the proper bacteria has been settled. If necessary to introduce bacteria from Egypt, the obstacles in the way of such introduction would not be at all serious, if undertaken by the Department of Agriculture. YELLOW CLOVER Yellow clover (_Medicago lupulina_) is to be carefully distinguished from Hop clover (_Medicago procumbens_), which it resembles so closely in the form of the leaves and the color of the bloom as to have given rise in some instances to the interchangeable use of the names. The latter is so named from the resemblance of the withered head when ripe to a bunch of hops. Its growth has been almost entirely superseded by _Medicago lupulina_, since the other variety was low in production and also in nutrition. _Medicago lupulina_ is also called Black Medick, Nonesuch, Black Nonesuch and Hop Trefoil. In both England and Germany it is now more commonly grown than white clover. It is more or less recumbent in its habit of growth, but the stems do not root as do the runners in the small white variety. The stems, though tender in the early spring, become woody as the season advances. The flowers, as the name would indicate, are yellow, and the plants produce seed numerously. The roots, like those of the small white variety, are more fibrous than in some of the larger varieties. Yellow clover is perennial. Owing to the power which the plants have to multiply through rooting and re-seeding, they can stay indefinitely in congenial soils. The growth is vigorous in the early part of the season, but less so later, and with the advance of the season the herbage produced becomes more woody in character. This plant furnishes considerable pasture during the spring months, but in the summer and autumn it makes but little growth. Though palatable early in the season, it is less so later. Nevertheless, it may be made to add materially to the produce of pastures in which it grows. It also aids in fertilizing the soil, though probably not quite to the same extent as white clover. Yellow clover is indigenous to Europe. It is grown to a considerable extent in pastures in certain areas in Great Britain, France, Germany and other countries. It has highest adaptation for climates that are moist and temperate. Although this plant is not extensively grown in the United States, it would seem probable that it will grow at least reasonably well in a majority of the States. The exceptions will be those lacking in moisture in the absence of irrigation. It will grow best in those that more properly lie within the clover belt; that is, in those that lie northward. It grows with much vigor in Oregon and Washington west of the Cascade Mountains. In Canada, yellow clover will grow with much vigor in all areas susceptible of cultivation, unless on certain of the western prairies. Yellow clover has highest adaptation for calcareous soils. In certain parts of England it has grown so vigorously on soils rich in lime as almost to assume the character of a troublesome weed. It will grow well on all clay loam soils, and reasonably well on stiff clays, the climatic conditions being suitable. It has greater power to grow on dry soils than the small white variety. Since yellow clover is usually grown as an adjunct to permanent pastures, it can scarcely be called a rotation plant. But, like other clovers, it enriches the soil, and, therefore, should be followed by crops that are specially benefited by such enrichment, as, for instance, the small cereal grains. Yellow clover when sown is usually sown with other grass mixtures, and along with grain as a nurse crop; hence, that preparation of the soil suitable for the nurse crop will also be found suitable for the clover. It is, moreover, a hardy plant, insomuch that in some instances, if the seed is scattered over unplowed surfaces, as those of pastures, in the early spring, a sufficient number of plants will be obtained to eventually establish the clover through self-seeding. The seed is usually sown in the early spring, but in mild latitudes it may also be sown in the early autumn. It may be sown by the same methods as other clovers. (See page 267.) It is usually sown to provide pasture, the seed being mixed with that of other pasture plants before being sown. As the plants, like those of the small white variety, have much power to increase rather than decrease in pastures, it is not necessary to sow large quantities of seed, not more usually than 1 pound to the acre. But should the crops be wanted for seed, then not fewer than 3 to 5 pounds per acre should be sown and without admixture with other grasses or clovers. When the plants once obtain a footing on congenial soils, there is usually enough of seed in the soil to make a sufficient stand of the plants in pastures without sowing any seed, but since the seed is usually relatively cheap, where an insufficient supply in the soil is suspected, more or less seed should be sown. Since the stems of yellow clover plants become tough as the season of growth becomes considerably advanced, where it forms a considerable proportion of the pasture the aim should be to graze most heavily during the early part of the season. The plants do not make much growth during the autumn. It would probably be correct to say that it can grow under conditions more dry than are suitable for white clover, and, consequently, it is more uniformly prominent in evidence in permanent pastures when it has become established. Yellow clover is not a really good hay plant, owing to its lack of bulkiness. But in some soils its presence may add considerably to the weight of a crop of hay, of which it is a factor. This plant produces seed freely. The seeds are dark in color and weigh 60 pounds to the bushel. The seed matures early, usually in June or July, according to locality. The methods of harvesting, threshing and preparing the seed for market are substantially the same as those adapted in handling small white clover. (See page 272.) While yellow clover is not the equal of the small white clover in adaptation to our conditions, it would seem that there are no reasons why it should not be sown to a greater extent than it is sown under American conditions. A plant that is so hardy, that provides a considerable quantity of reasonably good pasture, that stores nitrogen in the soil, and that, moreover, does not stay in the soil to the extent of injuring crops that follow the breaking up of the pastures, should certainly be encouraged to grow. SAND LUCERNE Sand Lucerne (_Medicago media_), sometimes designated _Medicago falcata_, is probably simply a variety of the common alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_). Some botanists, however, look upon these as two distinct species. Others believe that _Medicago sativa_, with blossoms ranging from blue to violet purple, and _Medicago falcata_, with yellow blossoms, are two distinct species, while _Medicago media_, with blossoms ranging from bluish and purple to lemon yellow, is a hybrid between these. The name Sand Lucerne has doubtless been given to this plant because of the power which it has to grow in sandy soils. Sand lucerne is so nearly like common alfalfa in appearance and habits of growth, that until the blossoming season, careless observers cannot distinguish between the plants. (See page 114.) Sand lucerne, however, has a more spreading habit of growth than common alfalfa, the seed-pods are less coiled and the seeds are lighter. The root system is strong and the roots are probably more branched than those of ordinary alfalfa. Under Michigan experience, given in Bulletin No. 198 of the Michigan Experiment Station, it has shown considerably higher adaptation to light, sandy and gravelly soils than the former. The feeding properties of sand lucerne would not seem to be far different from those of common alfalfa (see page 119), but it is claimed that the former is considerably less liable to produce bloat in cattle and sheep than the latter. Sand lucerne is probably native to Europe and Asia. Some attention is given to growing it in Germany, the principal source from which comes supplies of seed at the present time. It was introduced into Michigan by the experiment station of that State in 1897, and its behavior in several trials made to grow it on sandy and gravelly soils in various places, has, on the whole, been encouraging. Since this variety, like the Turkestan, being considerably hardier than common alfalfa, can undoubtedly be grown further north than the latter, there would seem to be no reasons at the same time why sand lucerne would not grow satisfactorily on sandy soils that lie far south, but this does not seem as yet to have been proved by actual demonstration. It is possible, therefore, that this plant may render considerable service to areas scattered over considerable portions of the United States and Canada, in which the soil is light. While sand lucerne has higher adaptation than common alfalfa for sandy and gravelly soils, it does not follow that it has equal adaptation for being grown on ordinary alfalfa soils. No advantage, however, would result from growing sand lucerne where common alfalfa will grow equally well, as it is not superior to the latter as a food, if, indeed, it is equal to the same, and there would be a distinct disadvantage in the greater cost of the seed of sand lucerne. Sand lucerne is not any more a rotation plant than the common variety. In fact, it is even less so, since it would not be practicable to introduce it into short rotations when grown in northerly latitudes, as it does not reach a maximum growth for several years after the seed has been sown. But in mild latitudes, it may be found practicable to introduce it into short rotations, like other alfalfa (see page 135), and on land that is too sandy to grow the common variety in the best form. Much of what has been said about the preparation of the soil for common alfalfa will equally apply to the preparation of the same for sand lucerne. (See page 137.) But when the latter is sown on sandy or gravelly land, a moist condition of the seed-bed at the time of sowing is even more important than when sowing common alfalfa under ordinary conditions. The same methods of sowing the seed will be in order as are suitable for sowing common alfalfa in any particular locality. (See page 147.) This will mean that in Northern areas sand lucerne can best be sown in the spring and as early as the danger from frost is over, that the plants may get as much benefit as possible from the moisture in the soil before dry weather begins. It will also mean that if sown southward in the autumn, it may in some instances be necessary to wait longer for the sandy soils on which the seed is sown to become sufficiently moist to sprout the seed than for such a condition in soils on which common alfalfa is usually sown. The amounts of seed to sow will also be practically the same. (See page 152.) The adaptation of sand lucerne for providing pasture is as high, if not, indeed, higher, than that of common alfalfa, since it is said that it has less tendency to produce bloat in cattle and sheep, and it is not so easily destroyed, at least in Northern areas, by grazing. In providing pasture, its higher adaptation is in furnishing the same for cattle, swine and horses. With ample moisture, even as far north as Lansing, Michigan, three crops of hay may ordinarily be looked for. At the Michigan Experiment Station, sand lucerne sown in 1897 yielded cured: In 1898, at the rate of 6800 pounds per acre; in 1899, 10,580 pounds; in 1900, 12,310 pounds; and in 1901, 13,839 pounds. The methods of cutting and curing are the same as for other varieties of alfalfa. (See page 170.) The quality of the hay is not far different from that of common alfalfa. If there is a difference, it would, perhaps, be a little against the sand lucerne, owing to the nature of the land producing it. For soiling food, it may be handled in the same way as common alfalfa. (See page 166.) No further information would seem to be available with reference to the production of seed in the United States than the statement that the efforts to grow it in Michigan had not been altogether successful. The question thus raised has an important bearing on the future growth of the plant, as, if seed is to be imported from Europe when sand lucerne is to be sown, the expense of securing seed is likely to militate against extending its growth. It is probable, however, that this difficulty will be overcome through the more perfect acclimation of the plants in the North, or by growing seed from the same in Western areas which have shown higher adaptation to the production of alfalfa seed. The value of sand lucerne in fertilizing sandy and gravelly soils in this country may yet be very considerable. Its value in putting humus into the same may prove equally high. This value will arise chiefly from its greater ability to grow on such soils than various other legumes. When sown primarily for such a use, heavy seeding would seem to be preferable to ordinary seeding. JAPANESE CLOVER The United States Department of Agriculture has quite recently introduced a variety of clover known botanically as _Lespedeza bicolor_. In 1902 small lots of seed were distributed to ascertain the value of the plant grown under American conditions. Sufficient time has not yet elapsed to prove its value, but the indications encourage the belief that it will be of some agricultural value under certain conditions. This variety of clover is more erect and less branched in its habit of growth than the Japanese variety _Lespedeza striata_. Under Michigan conditions it was found to grow to the height of 3 feet on sandy soil and to about half that height on clay soil, the seed having been sown about the middle of May. The stalks are about the same in structure as those of alfalfa, and like alfalfa they do not lodge readily. The leaves are ovate in form and of a pea-green tint. The seed is formed in pods resembling those of lentils, only smaller. The seeds are larger than those of crimson clover and are oblong in shape. In color they are mottled brown, yellow and green. The roots in the Michigan test produced nodules freely and without inoculating the soil by any artificial means. The plants in the same tests were killed to the ground by early October frosts. This variety, like that grown so freely in the Southern States, is an annual. In the absence of experience in growing it under varied conditions, it would be premature to dwell upon its value. If it should grow readily on sandy land, as the Michigan test would seem to indicate, it would render substantial service in fertilizing such soils. In the grass garden of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., its behavior has been such as to encourage making further tests. FLORIDA CLOVER Florida clover (_Desmodium tortuosum_) is sometimes grown both for hay and pasture, more especially in the Gulf States. It has been designated botanically _Desmodium molle_, and is also known by the common names Beggar Weed, Giant Beggar Weed, Beggar Ticks and Tickweed. The name Florida Clover has been given to it because of its prevalence on the light soils of Florida. The name "beggar" has probably been applied to this plant because of its relation to poverty in soils, in which it is more commonly grown, and the name "ticks" from the clinging habit of the seed-pods to surfaces with which they come in contact. Beggar Weed is an erect and branching plant, which grows from 2 to 10 feet high. The branches are woody in character, especially in the lower parts, which prevents close cropping by animals grazing on the plants. The trifoliate leaves are numerous, especially on the upper portions. The panicle is erect and is considerably branched. The pods are prickly and have many joints. These break asunder when matured, and are frequently distributed by adhering to the covering of animals and the clothing of men. The strong, spreading roots have much power to gather food in the soil and also to enrich the same by means of the tubercles formed on the roots. [Illustration: Fig. 11. Beggar Weed or Florida Clover (_Desmodium tortuosum_) (Flower and Seed Stems) North Carolina Experiment Station] This plant grows only in warm weather, and it is able to withstand much drought. Its value for pasture and hay would seem to depend considerably on the stage of growth at which it is grazed or harvested for hay. When nearing maturity, stock do not relish it much, either as pasture or hay. It is frequently classed as a weed, but in certain poor soils it has been deemed worthy of cultivation. Beggar weed is native to the West India Islands and also, it is thought, to Southern Florida. In 1879 seeds were distributed by the Department of Agriculture. It is now grown more or less in the wild or cultivated form in all the Gulf States. While it may be successfully grown as far north as the Ohio River, it is not probable that it will be sown far north of any of the Gulf States, since other fodder plants more valuable in producing food can be grown to supply the wants of live stock. At the Minnesota University Experiment Farm, the author sowed seed in May. The plants came into bloom in September, but did not mature any seed. [Illustration: Fig. 12. Beggar Weed (_Desmodium tortuosum_) (Root System) North Carolina Experiment Station] Beggar weed will grow on almost any kind of soil reasonably free from an excess of ground moisture. Its power to grow on poor and light soils, even light enough to lift with the wind, is very considerable. Its highest use will probably be found on soils so light and sterile that better forms of useful vegetation are not easily grown on them. It can scarcely be called a rotation plant, since it more commonly grows in the wild form, and on lands so poor as to be considered unprofitable for regular cropping. But when cultivated, it should be followed by some crop that can make a good use of the nitrogen left in the soil in the tubercles formed on the roots of the beggar weed plants. The soil does not, as a rule, require deep stirring when preparing it for beggar weed. This fact finds demonstration in the ability of the plants to re-seed the ground when grown for grazing. The seed is usually sown in the Gulf States late in March or early in April. It germinates slowly, and the plants make the most vigorous growth after the weather becomes warm. The seed is more commonly scattered broadcast, but may be drilled in, and at distances that will or will not admit of cultivation as may be desired. Thick seeding is preferable to prevent coarseness and woodiness in the growth of the plants. Not less than 10 pounds of hulled seed per acre should be sown in the broadcast form when sown for hay. When sown in drills, less seed is required, but usually the seed is sown broadcast. In the hulled form, in which the seed is more commonly sold, according to Professor H. H. Hume, the measured bushel weighs 60 to 64 pounds, and with the hulls on, from 10 to 40 pounds, the average weight, as purchased by dealers, being about 20 pounds. The cleaned seed bears considerable resemblance to clover seed. All kinds of farm stock, as cattle, horses, mules, sheep and even swine, are said to do well when grazing on beggar-weed pastures in the summer and autumn. They do not usually graze it closely after it has been well started, owing to the woody character of the stems. When thus cropped back, it starts out afresh, and thus continues to produce grazing until the arrival of frost. It is said that the pasture is of but little value in winter. One strong point, however, in favor of such pastures, is the ability of the plants to re-seed the land when not grazed too closely, and thus to perpetuate the grazing from year to year. No little diversity of opinion exists as to the value of this plant for producing hay. Some growers speak highly of its palatability and nutrition. Others speak of it as being of very little value as a hay plant. This difference in opinion is doubtless due largely to cutting the crop at different stages of growth. If allowed to become too advanced before it is cut, the woody character of the hay would doubtless make it unpalatable, whereas, if cut early, at least as early as the showing of the first blooms, if not, indeed, earlier, it would be eaten with a much greater relish. The yields of hay are said to usually exceed 2 tons per acre. The seed matures in September and October. The methods of saving the seed have usually been of a somewhat primitive character, as by hand when saved in small quantities. But there would seem to be no reason why the seed crop could not be harvested by the binder. Where alfalfa or cow peas can be successfully grown, either crop would be preferable. But on some soils these are not a success, especially when the first attempts are made to grow crops. The choice of hay may be one between a crop of beggar weed and no crop at all. All are agreed as to the renovation which it brings to soils; hence, when grown or allowed to grow on unproductive soil for a few years and then plowed under, the soil becomes productive. Since it grows late rather than early in the season where the seed is in the land, it will not interfere with the growth of the corn, but will come on later, and thus exert a beneficial influence on the soil. But the fact should not be overlooked that beggar weed once in the land has considerable power to stay there. In other words, like sweet clover, it has some of the characteristics of a weed. BUFFALO CLOVER Buffalo clover (_Trifolium stoloniferum_) is a native species procumbent in its habit of growth. The leaves are most abundant at the base of the plants. The flower heads, about an inch in diameter, are rose colored, and rise to the height of about one foot from the ground. This variety, said to be perennial in its habit of growth, is probably the same as _Trifolium reflexum_, said to be biennial in Kansas. Plants are found growing wild in prairies, between forests, and in open woodlands, from Kentucky on the east, to Kansas on the west. It is thought that this clover would repay cultivation, but the author has not been able to get any information bearing upon its behavior under cultivation. SEASIDE CLOVER Seaside clover (_Trifolium invulneratum_) has rendered some service to agriculture in what is known as the "Great Basin," which includes parts of Oregon and Nevada. In Bulletin No. 15, Bureau of Plant Industry, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture, it is referred to as one of the most promising species for cultivation in that area. Under the influence of irrigation it has spread, in one instance cited, into sage brush soil, and there, along with timothy and red top, has aided in producing fine crops. In, low, swampy, non-alkaline areas, it often yields from 1/2 to 1-1/4 tons of hay per acre. It has been estimated that with correct conditions it would be found about equal in producing power and feeding value to alsike clover. It is at least questionable, however, if it is likely to supersede to any considerable degree the varieties already under general cultivation. INDEX Alfalfa discussion of 114-193 described 114 distribution 120 soils 129 place in rotation 135 preparing the soil 137 sowing 145 cultivating 154 pasturing 155 as soiling food 166 harvesting for hay 170 storing 172 securing seed 179 renewing 184 sources of injury 187 as a fertilizer 191 Alsike clover discussion of 194-217 described 194 distribution 197 soils 199 place in rotation 201 preparing the soil 202 sowing 204 pasturing 208 harvesting for hay 210 securing seed 212 renewing 216 Bloating 94 Buffalo clover discussion of 344 Burr clover discussion of 291-299 described 291 distribution 293 soils 293 place in the rotation 294 preparing the soil 295 sowing 295 pasturing 297 harvesting for hay 297 securing seed 297 renewing 298 as a fertilizer 298 Clover introduction 1-5 definition 1 varieties 2 distinguishing characteristics 3 plan of discussion 4 Clover, general principles for growing discussion of 6-56 adaptation in 6 place in the rotation 7 preparing the soil 11 fertilizers 13 seasons for sowing 16 methods of sowing 18 depth to bury the seed 21 sowing alone or in combinations 22 with or without a nurse crop 25 amounts of seed to sow 27 pasturing 29 harvesting 31 storing 33 feeding 35 renewing 37 as soil improvers 38 as a weed destroyer 43 clover sickness 45 possible improvement in 46 bacteria and clovers 47 Clovers, synonyms Alexandrian 322 Alsace 194 Aspercet 317 Berseem 322 Beggar ticks 338 Beggar weed 338 Black Medic 329 Black Nonesuch 329 Bokhara 300 Branching 114 Broad-leaved 57 Burgundy 114 California 291 Chilian 114 Cocks head 317 Cow clover 218 Cow grass 218 Creeping Trifolium 258 Dutch 258 Elegant 194 Esparcette 317 Fachl 323 French clover 338 French grass 317 German 238 German mammoth 238 Giant beggar weed 338 Giant 218 Honeysuckle 258 Hop 328 Hop trefoil 329 Hybrid 194 Italian 238 Large 218 Lucerne (Alfalfa) 114 Mammoth 57 Meadow 218 Meadow trefoil 57 Medick vetchling 317 Mexican 114 Minnesota 118 Monthly 114 Muscowi 323 Nonesuch 329 Pea vine 218 Perennial 114 Perennial hybrid 194 Perennial red 218 Pod 194 Red perennial meadow 118 Rhenish 218 Saida 323 Sand Lucerne 118 Saplin 218 Shamrock 258 Sicilian 114 Soiling 218 Spotted Medick 291 Stem 114 Swedish 194 Styrian 114 Tall 218 Tickweed 338 Tree 300 Turkestan 118 Wavy stemmed 218 White Dutch 258 White Melilot 300 White Swedish 194 White trefoil 258 Winter 238 Yellow 291 Zigzag 218 Crimson clover discussion of 238-257 described 238 distribution 241 soils 244 place in the rotation 245 preparing the soil 248 sowing 250 pasturing 252 harvesting for hay 253 securing seed 254 renewing 256 facts regarding 256 Dodder 190 Egyptian clover discussion of 322-328 Florida clover discussion of 338-344 Grasshoppers 189 Hoven 94 Inoculation, soil 53 Japan clover discussion of 279-290 described 279 distribution 282 soils 283 place in the rotation 284 preparing the soil 285 sowing 285 pasturing 287 harvesting for hay 288 securing seed 289 renewing 290 new variety 337 Mammoth clover discussion of 218-237 described 218 distribution 220 soils 222 place in the rotation 224 preparing the soil 226 sowing 227 pasturing 231 harvesting for hay 233 securing seed 234 renewing 236 compared with medium red 237 Medium red clover discussion of 57-113 described 57 distribution 61 soils 65 place in the rotation 70 preparing the soil 74 sowing 75 pasturing 91 harvesting for hay 95 storing 100 securing seed 103 renewing 109 as a fertilizer 110 Micro-organisms 48 Nitragin 53 Nodules in clover plants 49 Root tubercles 50 Sand Lucerne discussion of 333-337 Sainfoin discussion of 316-322 Seaside clover discussion of 345 Sweet clover discussion of 300-315 described 300 distribution 303 soils 305 place in the rotation 306 preparing the soil 307 sowing 308 pasturing 309 harvesting for hay 310 securing seed 311 renewing 311 value for bee pasture 312 as a fertilizer 313 value on alkali soils 314 destroying the plants 314 Tubercles, root 50 Weeds troublesome 235 White clover discussion of 258-278 described 258 distribution 261 soils 264 place in the rotation 265 preparing the soil 267 pasturing 270 harvesting for hay 271 securing seed 273 renewing 276 for lawns 277 as a honey plant 278 Yellow clover discussion of 328-332 =Alfalfa= By F. D. COBURN. Its growth, uses, and feeding value. The fact that alfalfa thrives in almost any soil; that without reseeding, it goes on yielding two, three, four, and sometimes five cuttings annually for five, ten, or perhaps 100 years; and that either green or cured it is one of the most nutritious forage plants known, makes reliable information upon its production and uses of unusual interest. Such information is given in this volume for every part of America, by the highest authority. Illustrated. 164 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 =Ginseng, Its Cultivation, Harvesting, Marketing and Market Value= By MAURICE G. KAINS, with a short account of its history and botany. It discusses in a practical way how to begin with either seed or roots, soil, climate and location, preparation, planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial propagation, manures, enemies, selection for market and for improvement, preparation for sale, and the profits that may be expected. This booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illustrated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and profitable industry to their farms and gardens, without interfering with the regular work. New edition. Revised and enlarged. Illustrated. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 =Landscape Gardening= By F. A. WAUGH, professor of horticulture, university of Vermont. A treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art; with sundry suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of gardening. Every paragraph is short, terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the discussions at all points. In spite of the natural difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. Illustrated. 152 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 =Hedges, Windbreaks, Shelters and Live Fences= By E. P. POWELL. A treatise on the planting, growth and management of hedge plants for country and suburban homes. It gives accurate directions concerning hedges; how to plant and how to treat them; and especially concerning windbreaks and shelters. It includes the whole art of making a delightful home, giving directions for nooks and balconies, for bird culture and for human comfort. Illustrated. 140 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 =Animal Breeding= By THOMAS SHAW. This book is the most complete and comprehensive work ever published on the subject of which it treats. It is the first book which has systematized the subject of animal breeding. The leading laws which govern this most intricate question the author has boldly defined and authoritatively arranged. The chapters which he has written on the more involved features of the subject, as sex and the relative influence of parents, should go far toward setting at rest the wildly speculative views cherished with reference to these questions. The striking originality in the treatment of the subject is no less conspicuous than the superb order and regular sequence of thought from the beginning to the end of the book. The book is intended to meet the needs of all persons interested in the breeding and rearing of live stock. Illustrated. 405 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth $1.50 =Forage Crops Other Than Grasses= By THOMAS SHAW. How to cultivate, harvest and use them. Indian corn, sorghum, clover, leguminous plants, crops of the brassica genus, the cereals, millet, field roots, etc. Intensely practical and reliable. Illustrated. 287 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 =Soiling Crops and the Silo= By THOMAS SHAW. The growing and feeding of all kinds of soiling crops, conditions to which they are adapted, their plan in the rotation, etc. Not a line is repeated from the Forage Crops book. Best methods of building the silo, filling it and feeding ensilage. Illustrated. 364 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 =The Study of Breeds= By THOMAS SHAW. Origin, history, distribution, characteristics, adaptability, uses, and standards of excellence of all pedigreed breeds of cattle, sheep and swine in America. The accepted text book in colleges, and the authority for farmers and breeders. Illustrated. 371 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 =Profits in Poultry= Useful and ornamental breeds and their profitable management. This excellent work contains the combined experience of a number of practical men in all departments of poultry raising. It forms a unique and important addition to our poultry literature. Profusely illustrated. 352 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 =Land Draining= A handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of draining, by MANLY MILES, giving the results of his extended experience in laying tile drains. The directions for the laying out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and the disappointment that must necessarily follow. This manual for practical farmers will also be found convenient for reference in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing, aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats. Illustrated. 200 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.00 =Barn Plans and Outbuildings= Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most valuable work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers. 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A treatise on the care of woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands on plains and mountains. The author has fully described those European methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the superb forests of the old world. This experience has been adapted to the different climates and trees of America, full instructions being given for forest planting of our various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on mountain or valley. Illustrated. 250 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 =Coburn's Swine Husbandry= By F. D. COBURN. New, revised and enlarged edition. The breeding, rearing and management of swine, and the prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the fullest and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet offered. Illustrated. 312 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $1.50 =Home Pork Making= The art of raising and curing pork on the farm. By A. W. FULTON. 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This handbook for students and stockmen constitutes a compendium of practical and useful knowledge on plant growth and animal nutrition, feeding stuffs, feeding animals and every detail pertaining to this important subject. It is thorough, accurate and reliable, and is the most valuable contribution to live stock literature in many years. All the latest and best information is clearly and systematically presented, making the work indispensable to every owner of live stock. 658 pages. 6 x 9 inches. Cloth. $2.00 =Farmer's Cyclopedia of Agriculture= _A Compendium of Agricultural Science and Practice on Farm, Orchard and Garden Crops, and the Feeding and Diseases of Farm Animals_ _By_ =EARLEY VERNON WILCOX, Ph.D.= _and_ =CLARENCE BEAMAN SMITH, M.S.= _Associate Editors in the Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture_ This is a new, practical, and complete presentation of the whole subject of agriculture in its broadest sense. It is designed for the use of agriculturists who desire up-to-date, reliable information on all matters pertaining to crops and stock, but more particularly for the actual farmer. The volume contains =_Detailed directions for the culture of every important field, orchard, and garden crop_= grown in America, together with descriptions of their chief insect pests and fungous diseases, and remedies for their control. It contains an account of modern methods in feeding and handling all farm stock, including poultry. The diseases which affect different farm animals and poultry are described, and the most recent remedies suggested for controlling them. Every bit of this vast mass of new and useful information is authoritative, practical, and easily found, and no effort has been spared to include all desirable details. There are between 6,000 and 7,000 topics covered in these references, and it contains 700 royal 8vo pages and nearly 500 superb half-tone and other original illustrations, making the most perfect Cyclopedia of Agriculture ever attempted. _Handsomely bound in cloth, $3.50; half morocco (very sumptuous), $4.50, postpaid_ =ORANGE JUDD COMPANY=, 52 Lafayette Place, New York, N.Y. Marquette Building, Chicago, Ill. Transcriber's Notes: List of Illustrations: The number '2' was missing before 'Medium Red'. Changed. Page 53: The term 'nitragin' though an odd spelling and is capitalized elsewhere, as it is a commercial name. Unchanged. Page 60: The term 'adap s' is a typo for 'adapts'. Changed. Page 69: The term 'throgh cropping' is a typo for 'through cropping'. Changed. Page 100: The phrase 'skilled workmen' is a typo for 'skilled workman'. Changed. Page 103: The term 'pollenization' may be a substitute for 'pollenation' or 'pollination'. Unchanged. Page 122: The term 'Sask' is apparently a substitute or abbreviation here for the province of 'Saskatchewan'. Page 124: The phrase 'western alleys' is a typo for western valleys. Changed. Page 124: The phrase 'largely de-depend' is a typo for 'largely depend'. Changed. Page 189: The phrase 'many instance' is a typo for 'many instances'. Changed. Page 197: The phrase 'with beekeepers' changed to 'with bee-keepers' to be consistent with two other occurrences. Page 229: The term 'Seee page 78' is a typo for 'See page 78'. Changed. Page 309: The phrase 'ground through self-feeding' is a typo for 'ground through self-seeding'. Changed. Page 317: The term 'Asperset' is spelled 'Aspercet' in the index. Unchanged. Couldn't determine correct spelling. Page 326: The phrase 'it it clearly a catch crop' is a typo for 'it is clearly a catch crop'. Changed. Index Page 349: Although the term 'Sanfoin' is an acceptable alternate spelling for 'Sainfoin', it doesn't match other occurrences in this text. Changed. Several instances of comma and periods either missing or interchanged in original text have been fixed without listing each. They are obvious errors. Various: The term 'midsummer' is also spelled 'mid-summer' in this book. Unchanged. End of Transcriber's Notes. 
18913	----	[Illustration: A CORNER OF THE AUTHOR'S GARDEN AT KIRKSTALL.] HARDY PERENNIALS AND Old-Fashioned Garden Flowers: DESCRIBING THE MOST DESIRABLE PLANTS FOR BORDERS, ROCKERIES, AND SHRUBBERIES, INCLUDING FOLIAGE AS WELL AS FLOWERING PLANTS. * * * * * BY JOHN WOOD. * * * * * ILLUSTRATED. * * * * * LONDON: L. UPCOTT GILL, 170, STRAND, W. C. 1884. LONDON: PRINTED BY A. BRADLEY, 170, STRAND, W. C. PREFACE. At the present time there is a growing desire to patronise perennial plants, more especially the many and beautiful varieties known as "old-fashioned flowers." Not only do they deserve to be cultivated on their individual merits, but for other very important reasons; they afford great variety of form, foliage, and flower, and compared with annual and tender plants, they are found to give much less trouble. If a right selection is made and properly planted, the plants may be relied upon to appear with perennial vigour and produce flowers more or less throughout the year. I would not say bouquets may be gathered in the depth of winter, but what will be equally cheering may be had in blow, such as the Bluet, Violet, Primrose, Christmas Rose, Crocus, Hepatica, Squills, Snowdrops, and other less known winter bloomers. It does not seem to be generally understood that warm nooks and corners, under trees or walls, serve to produce in winter flowers which usually appear in spring when otherwise placed. There are many subjects which, from fine habit and foliage, even when flowerless, claim notice, and they, too, are described. Many gardens are very small, but these, if properly managed, have their advantages. The smaller the garden the more choice should be the collection, and the more highly should it be cultivated. I shall be glad if anything I say tends in this direction. From my notes of plants useful memoranda may be made, with the object of adding a few of the freest bloomers in each month, thus avoiding the error often committed of growing such subjects as mostly flower at one time, after which the garden has a forlorn appearance. The plants should not be blamed for this; the selection is at fault. No amount of time and care can make a garden what it should be if untidy and weedy plants prevail. On the other hand, the most beautiful species, both as regards foliage and flowers, can be just as easily cultivated. The object of this small work is to furnish the names and descriptions of really useful and reliable Hardy and Perennial Plants, suitable for all kinds of flower gardens, together with definite cultural hints on each plant. Perhaps flowers were never cultivated of more diversified kinds than at the present time; and it is a legitimate and not uncommon question to ask, "What do you grow?" Not only have we now the lovers of the distinct and showy, but numerous admirers of such species as need to be closely examined, that their beautiful and interesting features may gladden and stir the mind. The latter class of plants, without doubt, is capable of giving most pleasure; and to meet the growing taste for these, books on flowers must necessarily treat upon the species or varieties in a more detailed manner, in order to get at their peculiarities and requirements. The more we learn about our flowers the more we enjoy them; to simply see bright colours and pretty forms is far from all the pleasure we may reap in our gardens. If I have not been able to give scientific information, possibly that of a practical kind may be of some use, as for many years, and never more than now, I have enjoyed the cultivation of flowers with my own hands. To be able to grow a plant well is of the highest importance, and the first step towards a full enjoyment of it. I have had more especially in view the wants of the less experienced Amateur; and as all descriptions and modes of culture are given from specimens successfully grown in my own garden, I hope I may have at least a claim to being practical. I have largely to thank several correspondents of many years' standing for hints and information incorporated in these pages. J. WOOD. WOODVILLE, KIRKSTALL, _November, 1883._ ERRATA. For the placing of capital letters uniformly throughout this Volume to the specific names at the cross-headings, and for the omission of many capitals in the body of the type, the printer is alone responsible. Numerous oversights fall to my lot, but in many of the descriptions other than strictly proper botanical terms have been employed, where it seemed desirable to use more intelligible ones; as, for instance, the flowers of the Composites have not always been termed "heads," perianths have sometimes been called corollas, and their divisions at times petals, and so on; this is hardly worthy of the times, perhaps, but it was thought that the terms would be more generally understood. Page 7, line 8. For "lupin" read "Lupine." Page 39, line 31. For "calyx" read "involucre." Page 40, line 27. For "calyx" read "involucre." Page 46, line 1. For "corolla" read "perianth." Page 47, lines 3 and 6. For "corolla" read "perianth." Page 48, last line. For "lupin" read "Lupine." Page 60, line 16. For "pompon" read "pompone." Page 64, line 36. For "corolla" read "perianth." Page 102, line 27. For "Fritillaries" read "Fritillarias." Page 114, cross-heading. For "Ice-cold Gentian" read "Ice-cold Loving Gentian." Page 213. For "_Tirolensis_" read "_Tyrolensis_." Page 214, cross-heading. For "_Cashmerianum_" read "_Cashmeriana_." Page 215, cross-heading. For "_Cashmerianum_" read "_Cashmeriana_." Page 275, line 26. For "corolla" read "perianth." Page 284, line 25. For "calyx" read "involucre." Page 285, line 1. For "calyx" read "involucre." JOHN WOOD. _November 14th, 1883._ HARDY PERENNIALS AND OLD-FASHIONED GARDEN FLOWERS. Acæna Novæ Zealandiæ. _Otherwise_ A. MICROPHYLLA; _Nat. Ord._ SANGUISORBEÆ, _or_ ROSE FAMILY. The plant, as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 1), is small, and its flowers are microscopic, hardly having the appearance of flowers, even when minutely examined, but when the bloom has faded there is a rapid growth, the calyces forming a stout set of long spines; these, springing from the globular head in considerable numbers, soon become pleasingly conspicuous, and this is by far the more ornamental stage of the plant. It is hardy, evergreen, and creeping. It seldom rises more than one or two inches from the ground, and only when it approaches a wall, stones, or some such fixed body, does it show an inclination to climb; it is, therefore, a capital rock plant. As implied by its specific name, it comes from New Zealand, and has not long been acclimatised in this country. The flowers are produced on fine wiry stems an inch or more long, being nearly erect; they are arranged in round heads, at first about the size of a small pea; these, when bruised, have an ammoniacal smell. Each minute flower has four green petals and brownish seed organs, which cause the knob of flowers to have a rather grimy look, and a calyx which is very hard and stout, having two scales and four sepals. These sepals are the parts which, after the seed organs have performed their functions, become elongated and of a fine rosy-crimson colour; they form stiff and rather stout spines, often ¾in. long; they bristle evenly from every part of the little globe of seed vessels, and are very pretty. The spines are produced in great abundance, and they may be cut freely; their effect is unique when used for table decoration, stuck in tufts of dark green selaginella. On the plant they keep in good form for two months. The leaves are 1in. to 2in. long, pinnate; the leaflets are of a dark bronzy colour on the upper side and a pale green underneath, like maidenhair, which they also resemble in form, being nearly round and toothed. They are in pairs, with a terminal odd one; they are largest at the extremity, and gradually lessen to rudimentary leaflets; the foliage is but sparingly produced on the creeping stems, which root as they creep on the surface. [Illustration: FIG. 1. ACÆNA NOVÆ ZEALANDIÆ. (One half natural size.)] The habit of the plant is compact and cushion-like, and the brilliant spiny balls are well set off on the bed of fern-like but sombre foliage. During August it is one of the most effective plants in the rock garden, where I find it to do well in either moist or dry situations; it grows fast, and, being evergreen, it is one of the more useful creepers for all-the-year-round effect; for covering dormant bulbs or bare places it is at once efficient and beautiful. It requires light soil, and seems to enjoy grit; nowhere does it appear in better health or more at home than when carpeting the walk or track of the rock garden. It is self-propagating, but when it is desirable to move a tuft of it, it should be done during the growing season, so that it may begin to root at once and get established, otherwise the wind and frosts will displace it. It blooms from June to September, more or less, but only the earliest flowers produce well-coloured spines. Achillea Ægyptica. EGYPTIAN YARROW; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This is an evergreen (though herb-like) species. It has been grown for more than 200 years in English gardens, and originally came, as its name implies, from Egypt. Notwithstanding the much warmer climate of its native country, it proves to be one of the hardiest plants in our gardens. I dare say many will think the Yarrows are not worthy of a place in the garden; but it should not be forgotten that not only are fine and useful flowers included in this work, but also the good "old-fashioned" kinds, and that a few such are to be found amongst the Yarrows is without doubt. Could the reader see the collection now before me, cut with a good piece of stem and some foliage, and pushed into a deep vase, he would not only own that they were a pleasing contrast, but quaintly grand for indoor decoration. _A. Ægyptica_ not only produces a rich yellow flower, but the whole plant is ornamental, having an abundance of finely-cut foliage, which, from a downy or nappy covering, has a pleasing grey or silvery appearance. The flowers are produced on long stems nearly 2ft. high, furnished at the nodes with clean grey tufts of smaller-sized leaves; near the top the stems are all but naked, and are terminated by the flat heads or corymbs of closely-packed flowers. They are individually small, but the corymbs will be from 2in. to 3in. across. Their form is that of the common Yarrow, but the colour is a bright light yellow. The leaves are 6in. to 8in. long, narrow and pinnate, the leaflets of irregular form, variously toothed and lobed; the whole foliage is soft to the touch, from the nappy covering, as already mentioned. Its flowers, from their extra fine colour, are very telling in a cut state. The plant is suitable for the borders, more especially amongst other old kinds. Ordinary garden loam suits it, and its propagation may be carried out at any time by root division. Flowering period, June to September. Achillea Filipendula. _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This grows 4ft. high, and the foliage, though fern-like, has an untidy appearance, from the irregular way in which it is disposed. It is herbaceous, and comes from the Caucasus. The flowers are somewhat singular, arranged in corymbs of a multiplex character; they are very large, often 5in. across. The smaller corymbs are arched or convex, causing the cluster or compound corymb to present an uneven surface; the small flowers are of rich old gold colour, and have the appearance of knotted gold cord; they are very rigid, almost hard. The leaves are linear, pinnate, lobed and serrated, hairy, rough, and numerously produced. From the untidy and tall habit of this subject, it should be planted in the background; its flowers, however, will claim a prominent position in a cut state; they are truly rich, the undulating corymbs have the appearance of embossed gold plate, and their antique colour and form are compared to gold braid by a lady who admires "old-fashioned" flowers. It will last for several weeks after being cut, and even out of water for many days. A few heads placed in an old vase, without any other flowers, are rich and characteristic, whilst on bronze figures and ewers in a dry state, and more especially on ebony or other black decorations, it may be placed with a more than floral effect. In short, rough as the plant is, it is worth growing for its quaint and rich flowers alone; it is seldom met with. Soil and propagation, the same as for _A. Ægyptica_. Flowering period, June to September. Achillea Millefolium. COMMON MILFOIL; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This is the well-known wild Yarrow; it is, however, the typical form of a fine variety, called _A. m. roseum_, having very bright rose-coloured flowers, which in all other respects resembles the wild form. Both as a border subject and for cutting purposes, I have found it useful; it flowers for several months, but the individual blooms fade in four or six days; these should be regularly removed. The freshly-opened corymbs are much admired. Soil and mode of propagation, the same as for previous kinds. Flowering period, June to November. Achillea Ptarmica. _Syns._ A. SYLVESTRIS _and_ PTARMICA VULGARIS; _Common Names_, WILD YARROW, SNEEZEWORT, GOOSE-TONGUE, _and_ WILD PELLITORY; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. A very common British plant, or, I may say, weed, which can live in the most reeky towns, only mentioned here to introduce _A. P. fl.-pl._, which is one of the most useful of border flowers. I am bound to add, however, that only when in flower is it more presentable than the weedy and typical form; but the grand masses of pure white bachelors'-button-like flowers, which are produced for many weeks in succession, render this plant deserving of a place in every garden. It is a very old flower in English gardens. Some 250 years ago Parkinson referred to the double flowering kind, in his "Paradise of Pleasant Flowers," as a then common plant; and I may as well produce Gerarde's description of the typical form, which answers, in all respects, for the double one, with the exception of the flowers themselves: "The small Sneesewoort hath many rounde and brittle braunches, beset with long and narrowe leaues, hackt about the edges like a sawe; at the top of the stalkes do grow smal single flowers like the fielde Daisie. The roote is tender and full of strings, creeping farre abroade in the earth, and in short time occupieth very much grounde." The flowers of this plant are often, but wrongly, called "bachelors' buttons," which they much resemble. For cutting purposes, this plant is one of the most useful; not only are the blooms a good white, but they have the quality of keeping clean, and are produced in greater numbers than ever I saw them on the single form. Those requiring large quantities of white flowers could not do better than give the plant a few square yards in some unfrequented part of the garden; any kind of soil will suit it, but if enriched the bloom will be all the better for it. The roots run freely just under the surface, so that a large stock may soon be had; yet, fine as are its flowers, hardy and spreading as the plant proves, it is but seldom met with. Even in small gardens this fine old flower should be allowed a little space. Transplant any time. Flowering period, June to August. Aconitum Autumnale. AUTUMN MONK'S-HOOD; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. Hardy, perennial, and herbaceous. This is one of the finest subjects for autumn flowering. The whole plant, which stands nearly 3ft. high, is stately and distinct (Fig. 2); the leaves are dark green, large, deeply cut and veined, of good substance, and slightly drooping. The flowers are a fine blue (a colour somewhat scarce in our gardens at that season), irregularly arranged on very stout stems; in form they exactly resemble a monk's hood, and the manner in which they are held from the stems further accords with that likeness. These rich flowers are numerously produced; a three-year-old plant will have as many as six stout stems all well furnished, rendering the specimen very conspicuous. This is one form of the Monk's-hood long grown in English gardens, and is called "old-fashioned." _A. japonicum_, according to some, is identical with it, but whether that is so or not, there is but a slight difference, and both, of course, are good. I find it likes a rich deep soil. It is propagated by division of the roots after the tops have turned yellow in autumn or winter. It flowers from August until cut down by frosts. [Illustration: FIG. 2. ACONITUM AUTUMNALE. (About one-tenth natural size.)] Allium Moly. LARGE YELLOW GARLIC; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. A hardy bulbous perennial, of neat habit, with bright golden flowers, produced in large heads; they endure a long time and are very effective; it is by far the best yellow species. Where bold clumps of yellow are desirable, especially if somewhat in the background, there can be few subjects more suitable for the purpose than this plant; both leaves and flowers, however, have a disagreeable odour, if in the least bruised. It is a very old plant in English gardens, and is a native of the South of Europe. Its chief merits are fine colour, large head, neat habit, and easy culture. The flowers are 1in. across, borne in close heads, having stalks over an inch long springing from stout scapes; the six long oval petals are of a shining yellow colour; the seed organs also are all yellow and half the length of petals; the scape is about a foot high, naked, round, and very stout; the leaves are nearly as broad as tulip leaves, and otherwise much resemble them. Flowering period, June to August. Allium Neapolitanum. NEAPOLITAN ALLIUM; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This has pure white flowers arranged in neat and effective umbels, and though not so useful in colour as the flowers of _A. Moly_, they are much superior to those of many of the genus. Flowering period, June to August. Both of the above Alliums may be grown in any odd parts which need decorating with subjects requiring little care; any kind of soil will do for them, but if planted too near the walks the flowers are liable to be cut by persons who may not be aware of their evil odour. The bulbs may be divided every three years with advantage, and may be usefully planted in lines in front of shrubs, or mixed with other strong-growing flowers, such as alkanets, lupins, and foxgloves. Alyssum Saxatile. ROCK MADWORT, _or_ GOLDEN TUFT; _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 3. ALYSSUM SAXATILE. (One-third natural size.)] This pleasing and well-known hardy, evergreen, half-woody shrub is always a welcome flower. From its quantity of bloom all its other parts are literally smothered (see Fig. 3). When passing large pieces of it in full blow, its fragrant honey smell reminds one of summer clover fields. Its golden yellow flowers are densely produced in panicles on procumbent stems, 12in. to 18in. long. The little flowers, from distinct notches in the petals, have a different appearance from many of the order _Cruciferæ_, as, unless they are well expanded, there seem to be eight instead of four petals. The leaves are inversely ovate, lanceolate, villose, and slightly toothed. A specimen will continue in good form during average weather for about three weeks. It is not only seen to most advantage on rockwork, where its prostrate stems can fall over the stones, but the dry situation is in accordance with its requirements; still, it is not at all particular, but does well in any sunny situation, in any soil that is not over moist or ill drained. It is easily and quickly propagated by cuttings in early summer. Flowering period, April and May. Anchusa Italica. ITALIAN ALKANET; _Nat. Ord._ BORAGINACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 4. ANCHUSA ITALICA (Flower Spray). (One-third natural size.)] A hardy herbaceous perennial of first-class merit for gardens where there is plenty of room; amongst shrubs it will not only prove worthy of the situation, but, being a ceaseless bloomer, its tall and leafy stems decked with brilliant flowers may always be relied upon for cutting purposes; and let me add, as, perhaps, many have never tried this fine but common flower in a large vase, the stems, if cut to the length of 18in., and loosely placed in an old-fashioned vase, without any other flowers, are more than ornamental--they are fine. Its main features are seen in its bold leafy stems, furnished with large, dark blue, forget-me-not-like flowers, nearly all their length. The little white eyes of the blossoms are very telling (see Fig. 4). The flowers are held well out from the large leaves of the main stem by smaller ones (from 1in. to 8in. long), at the ends of which the buds and flowers are clustered, backed by a pair of small leaflets, like wings. Just before the buds open they are of a bright rose colour, and when the flowers fade the leafy calyx completely hides the withered parts, and other blooms take their places between the wing-like pair of leaflets; so the succession of bloom is kept up through the whole summer. The leaves of the root are very large when fully grown during summer--over a foot long--those of the stems are much less; all are lance-shaped and pointed, plain at the edges, very hairy, and of a dark green colour. The stems are numerous, upright, and, as before hinted, branched; also, like the leaves, they are covered with stiff hairs, a characteristic common to the order. Well-established plants will grow to the height of 3ft. to 5ft. Flowering period, May to September. Anchusa Sempervirens. _Nat. Ord._ BORAGINACEÆ. This is a British species, and, as its name denotes, is evergreen; not, let me add, as a tall plant, for the stems wither or at least become very sere, only the large leaves of the root remaining fresh; and though it has many points of difference from _A. Italica_, such as shorter growth, darker flowers and foliage, and more oval leaves--these form the distinctions most observable. By its evergreen quality it is easily identified in winter. There is also an important difference from the axillary character of the flower stems. With these exceptions the description of _A. Italica_ will fairly hold good for this native species. This Alkanet has various other names, as _Borago sempervirens_, _Buglossum s._, and with old writers it, together with allied species, was much esteemed, not only for the flowers, but for its reputed medicinal properties. To those who care to grow these good old plants I would say, well enrich the soil; when so treated, the results are very different from those where the plants have been put in hungry and otherwise neglected situations; this favourable condition may be easily afforded, and will be more than repaid. Strong roots may be transplanted at any time, and propagation is more quickly carried out by division of the woody roots, which should be cut or split so that each piece has a share of bark and a crown. Just before new growth has begun, as in January, is the best time for this operation, so that there is no chance of rot from dormancy. Flowering period, May to September. Andromeda Tetragona. _Syn._ CASSIOPE TETRAGONA; _Nat. Ord._ ERICACEÆ. A dwarf hardy evergreen shrub, which comes to us from Lapland and North America; though a very beautiful subject for either rockwork or border, it is rarely seen. It is not one of the easiest plants to grow, which may, to some extent, account for its rarity. Still, when it can have its requirements, it not only thrives well, but its handsome form and flowers repay any extra trouble it may have given. In the culture of this, as of most plants of the order _Ericaceæ_, there is decidedly a right way and a wrong one, and if the species now under consideration has one or two special requirements it deserves them. [Illustration: FIG. 5. ANDROMEDA TETRAGONA. (One-half natural size.)] With me it never exceeds a height of 6in. or 7in., is much branched, and of a fine apple green colour; the flowers are small but very beautiful, bell-shaped, pendent, and springing from the leafy stems of the previous year's growth. The leaves are small as well as curious, both in form and arrangement, completely hiding their stems; their roundish grain-shaped forms are evenly arranged in four rows extending throughout the whole length of the branches (whence the name _tetragona_), giving them a square appearance resembling an ear of wheat, but much less stout (see Fig. 5); the little leaves, too, are frosted somewhat in the way of many of the saxifrages. It is next to impossible to describe this pretty shrub; fortunately, the cut will convey a proper idea at a glance. All who possess more select collections of hardy plants and shrubs should not fail to include this; it is fit for any collection of fifty choice species. I struggled long before finding out the right treatment, as presumably I now have, yet it is very simple, in fact, only such as many other plants should have; but, unlike them, _A. tetragona_ will take no alternative; it must have partial shade, sandy peat or leaf soil, and be planted in a moist or semi-bog situation. On the raised parts of rockwork it became burnt up; planted in loam, though light, it was dormant as a stone; in pots, it withered at the tips; but, with the above treatment, I have flowers and numerous branchlets. Many little schemes may be improvised for the accommodation of this and similar subjects. Something of the bog character would appear to be the difficulty here; a miniature one may be made in less than half an hour. Next the walk dig a hole 18in. all ways, fill in with sandy peat, make it firm; so form the surface of the walk that the water from it will eddy or turn in. In a week it will have settled; do not fill it up, but leave it dished and put in the plant. Gentians, _pyrolas_, calthas, and even the bog pimpernel I have long grown so. _A. tetragona_ can be propagated by division of the roots, but such division should not be attempted with other than a perfectly healthy plant. It should be done in spring, just as it begins to push, which may be readily seen by the bright green tips of the branchlets; and it is desirable, when replanting, to put the parts a little deeper, so as to cover the dead but persistent leaves about the bottoms of the stems which occur on the parts four or more years old. After a year, when so planted, I have found good roots emitted from these parts, and, doubtless, such deeper planting will, in some way, meet its requirements, as in this respect they are provided for in its habitats by the annual and heavy fall of leaves from other trees which shade it. Flowering period, April and May. Anemone Alpina. ALPINE WINDFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. From Austria, the foliage closely resembling that of _A. sulphurea_, but the flowers are larger and of various colours. It is said to be the parent of _A. sulphurea_. It flowers in June. See _A. sulphurea_. Anemone Apennina. MOUNTAIN WINDFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is one of the "old-fashioned" flowers of our gardens--in fact, a native species, having a black tuberous root, which forms a distinct, though invisible characteristic of the species. As the old names are somewhat descriptive, I give them--viz., Geranium-leaved Anemone, and Stork's-bill Windflower. The appearance of a bold piece of this plant when in flower is exceedingly cheerful; the soft-looking feathery foliage forms a rich groundwork for the lavish number of flowers, which vary much in colour, from sky-blue to nearly white, according to the number of days they may have been in blow, blue being the opening colour. The flowers are produced singly on stems, 6in. high, and ornamented with a whorl of finely-cut leaflets, stalked, lobed, and toothed; above this whorl the ruddy flower stem is much more slender. During sunshine the flowers are 1½in. across the tips of sepals, becoming reflexed. The foliage, as before hinted, is in the form of a whorl, there being no root leaf, and the soft appearance of the whole plant is due to its downiness, which extends to and includes the calyx. The lobes of the leaves are cupped, but the leaves themselves reflex until their tips touch the ground, whence their distinct and pleasing form. This plant is most at home in the half shade of trees, where its flowers retain their blue colour longer. It should be grown in bold patches, and in free or sandy soil. The tubers may be transplanted soon after the tops have died off in late summer. Flowering period, April and May. Anemone Blanda. FAIR WINDFLOWER, _or_ BLUE GRECIAN ANEMONE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is a lovely winter flower, of great value in our gardens, from its showiness. It is a recent introduction from the warmer climes of the South of Europe and Asia Minor; and though it is not so vigorous under cultivation in our climate as most Windflowers, it proves perfectly hardy. A little extra care should be taken in planting it as regards soil and position, in order to grow it well. It belongs to that section of its numerous genus having an involucrum of stalked leaflets. The flowers are produced on stalks, 4in. to 6in. high; they are nearly 2in. across, of a fine deep blue colour; the sepals are numerous and narrow, in the way of _A. stellata_, or star anemone. The leaves are triternate, divisions deeply cut and acute; the leaves of the involucrum are stalked, trifid, and deeply cut. The whole plant much resembles _A. Apennina_. Where it can be established, it must prove one of the most useful flowers, and to possess such charming winter blossom is worth much effort in affording it suitable conditions. The soil should be rich, light, and well drained, as sandy loam, and if mixed with plenty of leaf soil all the better. The position should be sheltered, otherwise this native of warm countries will have its early leaves and flowers damaged by the wintry blast, and the evil does not stop there, for the check at such a period interferes with the root development, and repetitions of such damage drive the plants into a state of "dwindling," and I may add, this is the condition in which this plant may frequently be seen. Many of the Anemones may be planted without much care, other than that of giving them a little shade from sunshine. The present subject, however, being so early, is not likely to obtain too much bright weather, but rather the reverse. If, then, it is planted in warm quarters, it may be expected to yield its desirable flowers in average quantity compared with other Windflowers, and in such proportion will its roots increase. The latter may be divided (providing they are of good size and healthy) when the leaves have died off. Flowering period, February and March. Anemone Coronaria. POPPY-LIKE WINDFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. Hardy and tuberous. The illustration (Fig. 6) is of the double form, in which it may frequently be seen; also in many colours, as blue, purple, white, scarlet, and striped; the same colours may be found in the single and semi-double forms. There are many shades or half colours, which are anything but pleasing, and where such have established themselves, either as seedlings or otherwise, they should be weeded out, as there are numerous distinct hues, which may just as easily be cultivated. The great variety in colour and form of this Anemone is perhaps its most peculiar characteristic; for nearly 300 years it has had a place in English gardens, and came originally from the Levant. Its habit is neat; seldom does it reach a foot in height, the flowers being produced terminally; they are poppy-like, and 2in. to 3in. across, having six sepals. The leaves are ternate, segments numerous; each leaf springs from the tuber, with the exception of those of the involucre. In planting this species, it should be kept in mind that it neither likes too much sunshine nor a light soil; under such conditions it may exist, but it will not thrive and scarcely ever flower. When the tuberous roots have become devoid of foliage they may be lifted, and if they have grown to a size exceeding 3in. long and 1in. in diameter, they may be broken in halves with advantage; the sooner they are put back into the ground the better; slight shade from the mid-day sun and good loam will be found to suit them best. When the various colours are kept separate, bold clumps of a score or so of each are very effective; mixed beds are gay, almost gaudy; but the grouping plan is so much better, that, during the blooming period, it is worth the trouble to mark the different colours, with a view to sorting them at the proper time. [Illustration: FIG. 6. ANEMONE CORONARIA FLORE-PLENO. (One-third natural size.)] The nutty roots are often eaten by earth vermin, especially wireworm. Whenever there is occasion to lift the roots it is a good plan to dress them, by repeated dips in a mixture of clay and soot, until they are well coated; they should be allowed to dry for a short time between each dip; this will not only be found useful in keeping off wireworm and similar pests, but will otherwise benefit the plants as a manure. Flowering period, May and June. Anemone Decapetala. _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. New, from North America; has a deteriorated resemblance to _A. alpina_ and _A. sulphurea_ (which see). The foliage is much less; the flower stems are numerous, close together, stout, and 9in. to 12in. high; they are also branched, but not spreading. The flowers have seven to ten sepals, are an inch across, and of a creamy white colour. The heads of seed are more interesting than their flowers; they form cotton-like globes, 1½in. diameter, and endure in that state for a fortnight. I was inclined to discard this species when I first saw its dumpy and badly-coloured flowers, but the specimen was left in the ground, and time, which has allowed the plant to become more naturally established, has also caused it to produce finer bloom, and it is now a pleasing and distinct species of an interesting character. The same treatment will answer for this species as for _A. sulphurea_. All the Anemones may be propagated by seeds or division of the roots. The latter method should only be adopted in the case of strong roots, and their division will be more safely effected in early spring, when they can start into growth at once. Flowering period, May to June. Anemone Fulgens. SHINING WINDFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 7. ANEMONE FULGENS. (Plant, one-eighth natural size.)] This is a variety of _A. hortensis_ or _A. pavonina_, all of which much resemble each other. This very showy flower is much and deservedly admired. In sheltered quarters or during mild seasons it will flower at Christmas and continue to bloom for several months. It will be seen by the illustration (Fig. 7) to be a plant of neat habit, and for effect and usefulness it is one of the very best flowers that can be introduced into the garden, especially the spring garden, as there is scarcely another of its colour, and certainly not one so floriferous and durable. Though it has been in English gardens over fifty years, it seems as if only recently its real worth has been discovered. It is now fast becoming a universal favourite. The flowers are 2in. across, and of a most brilliant scarlet colour, produced singly on tall naked stems, nearly a foot high. They vary in number of sepals, some being semi-double. The foliage is bright and compact, more freely produced than that of most Windflowers; it is also richly cut. It may be grown in pots for conservatory or indoor decoration. It needs no forcing for such purposes; a cold frame will prove sufficient to bring out the flowers in winter. Borders or the moist parts of rockwork are suitable for it; but perhaps it is seen to greatest advantage in irregular masses in the half shade of trees in front of a shrubbery, and, after all, it is impossible to plant this flower wrong, as regards effect. To grow it well, however, it must have a moist situation, and good loam to grow in. It is easily propagated by division of strong healthy roots in autumn. Flowering period, January to June, according to position and time of planting. Anemone Japonica. JAPAN WINDFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This and its varieties are hardy perennials of the most reliable kinds; the typical form has flowers of a clear rose colour. _A. j. vitifolia_ has larger flowers of a fine bluish tint, and seems to be the hybrid between the type and the most popular variety, viz., _A. j. alba_--Honorine Jobert--(see Fig. 8). So much has this grown in favour that it has nearly monopolised the name of the species, of which it is but a variety; hence the necessity of pointing out the distinctions. Frequently the beautiful white kind is sought for by the typical name only, so that if a plant were supplied accordingly there would be disappointment at seeing a somewhat coarse specimen, with small rosy flowers, instead of a bold and beautiful plant with a base of large vine-shaped foliage and strong stems, numerously furnished with large white flowers, quite 2in. across, and centered by a dense arrangement of lemon-coloured stamens, somewhat like a large single white rose. This more desirable white variety sometimes grows 3ft. high, and is eminently a plant for the border in front of shrubs, though it is very effective in any position. I grow it in the border, on rockwork, and in a half shady place, and it seems at home in all. It will continue in bloom until stopped by frosts. The flowers are among the most useful in a cut state, especially when mingled with the now fashionable and handsome leaves of heucheras and tiarellas; they form a chaste embellishment for the table or fruit dishes. The plant is sometimes much eaten by caterpillars; for this the remedy is soapy water syringed on the under side of the leaves. Earwigs also attack the flowers; they should be trapped by a similar plan to that usually adopted for dahlias. To those wishing to grow this choice Anemone, let me say, begin with the young underground runners; plant them in the autumn anywhere you like, but see that the soil is deep, and if it is not rich, make it so with well-decayed leaves or manure, and you will have your reward. [Illustration: FIG. 8. ANEMONE JAPONICA ALBA (A. HONORINE JOBERT). (About one-twelfth natural size.)] Flowering period, August to November. Anemone Nemorosa Flore-pleno. DOUBLE WOOD ANEMONE, _or_ WINDFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is the double form of the common British species; in every part but the flower it resembles the type. The flower, from being double, and perhaps from being grown in more exposed situations than the common form in the shaded woods, is much more durable; an established clump has kept in good form for three weeks. The petals (if they may be so called), which render this flower so pleasingly distinct, are arranged in an even tuft, being much shorter than the outer or normal sepals, the size and form of which remain true to the type. The pure white flower--more than an inch across--is somewhat distant from the handsome three-leaved involucrum, and is supported by a wiry flower stalk, 3in. to 5in. long; it is about the same length from the root, otherwise the plant is stemless. The flowers are produced singly, and have six to eight petal-like sepals; the leaves are ternately cut; leaflets or segments three-cut, lanceolate, and deeply toothed; petioles channelled; the roots are long and round, of about the thickness of a pen-holder. This plant grown in bold clumps is indispensable for the choice spring garden; its quiet beauty is much admired. It enjoys a strongish loam, and a slightly shaded situation will conduce to its lengthened flowering, and also tend to luxuriance. Soon after the flowers fade the foliage begins to dry up; care should, therefore, be taken to have some other suitable flower growing near it, so as to avoid dead or blank spaces. Pentstemons, rooted cuttings of which are very handy at this season for transplanting, are well adapted for such use and situations, and as their flowers cannot endure hot sunshine without suffering more or less, such half-shady quarters will be just the places for them. The double white Wood Anemone may be propagated by divisions of the tubers, after the foliage has completely withered. Flowering period, May. Anemone Pulsatilla. PASQUE FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. A British species. This beautiful flower has long been cultivated in our gardens, and is deservedly a great favourite. It may not be uninteresting to give the other common and ancient names of the Easter Flower, as in every way this is not only an old plant, but an old-fashioned flower. "Passe Flower" and "Flaw Flower" come from the above common names, being only derivations, but in Cambridgeshire, where it grows wild, it is called "Coventry Bells" and "Hill Tulip." Three hundred years ago Gerarde gave the following description of it, which, together with the illustration (Fig. 9), will, I trust, be found ample: "These Passe flowers hath many small leaues, finely cut or iagged, like those of carrots, among which rise up naked stalks, rough and hairie; whereupon do growe beautiful flowers bell fashion, of a bright delaied purple colour; in the bottome whereof groweth a tuft of yellow thrums, and in the middle of the thrums thrusteth foorth a small purple pointell; when the whole flower is past, there succeedeth an head or knoppe, compact of many graie hairie lockes, and in the solide parts of the knops lieth the seede flat and hoarie, euery seed having his own small haire hanging at it. The roote is thick and knobbie of a finger long, and like vnto those of the anemones (as it doth in all other parts verie notablie resemble) whereof no doubt this is a kinde." [Illustration: FIG. 9. ANEMONE PULSATILLA. (One-half natural size.)] This flower in olden times was used for making garlands, and even now there are few flowers more suitable for such purpose; it varies much in colour, being also sometimes double. It may be grown in pots for window decoration or in the open garden; it likes a dry situation and well-drained soil of a calcareous nature. In these respects it differs widely from many of the other species of Windflower, yet I find it to do well in a collection bed where nearly twenty other species are grown, and where there are both shade and more moisture than in the open parts of the garden. It may be propagated by division of the strong root-limbs, each of which should have a portion of the smaller roots on them. Soon after flowering is a good time to divide it. Flowering period, March to May. Anemone Stellata. STAR WINDFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 10. ANEMONE STELLATA. (One-half natural size.)] This gay spring flower (Fig. 10) comes to us from Italy, but that it loves our dull climate is beyond doubt, as it not only flowers early, but continues for a long time in beauty. _A. hortensis_ is another name for it, and there are several varieties of the species, which mostly vary only in the colours of the flowers, as striped, white and purple. The typical form, as illustrated, is seen to be a quaint little plant; its flowers are large, of a shining light purple colour, and star-shaped; the dwarf foliage is of the well-known crowfoot kind. When grown in bold clumps it is richly effective, and, like most other Anemones, is sure to be admired. It thrives well in a light loam and in slight shade; I have tried it in pots kept in cold frames, where it flowers in mid-winter. It would doubtless make a showy appearance in a cool greenhouse. To propagate it, the roots should be divided after the tops have died down in summer. Flowering period, February to June, according to position and time of planting. Anemone Sulphurea. SULPHUR-COLOURED WINDFLOWER; _Syn._ A. APIIFOLIA; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 11. ANEMONE SULPHUREA. (One-fourth natural size.)] This is a grandly beautiful Windflower from Central Europe. The names, combined with the illustration (Fig. 11), must fail to give the reader a proper idea of its beauty; the specific name in reference to the colour falls far short, and cannot give a hint of its handsome form and numerous finely-coloured stamens; and the drawing can in no way illustrate the hues and shell-like substance of the sepals; there is also a softness and graceful habit about the foliage, that the name, _apiifolia_ (parsley-leaved), does not much help the reader to realise. It may be parsley-like foliage in the comparative sense and in relation to that of other Anemones, but otherwise it can hardly be said to be like parsley. It is said by some to be only a variety of _A. alpina_; if so, it is not only a distinct but an unvarying form, so much so that by others it is held to be a species; the line of difference in many respects seems so far removed, even granting it to be a variety (as in hundreds of similar cases), as to warrant a specific title. It may be more interesting to state that it is a lovely and showy flower, and that the shortest cut to an enjoyment of its beauties is to grow it. The flowers are 2in. to 2½in. across when expanded, but usually they are cup-shaped. The six sepals are egg-shaped but pointed, of much substance, and covered with a silky down on the outside, causing them to have changeable hues according to the play of wind and light. The stamens are very numerous, the anthers being closely arranged and of a rich golden colour; the flower stems grow from 9in. to 18in. high, being terminated by one flower; it carries a large and handsome involucre of three leaves, a little higher than the middle of the stem, and just overtopping the radical leaves, umbrella fashion; the leaves of the involucre are like those of the root, but stalkless. The radical leaves are stalked, well thrown out, drooping, and over 1ft. long, ternate and villous; the leaflets are pinnatifid and deeply toothed. This desirable plant is of the easiest culture, thriving in common garden soil, but it prefers that of a rich vegetable character and a situation not over dry. The flowers are persistent under any conditions, and they are further preserved when grown under a little shade, but it should only be a little. For propagation see _A. decapetala_. Flowering period, May and June. There are two other allied kinds which not only much resemble this, but which flower at or near the same time--viz., _A. alpina_ and _A. decapetala_, which see. Anemone Sylvestris. SNOWDROP A.; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This hardy herbaceous species comes from Germany, but it has been grown nearly 300 years in this country, It is distinct, showy, and beautiful; it ranks with "old-fashioned" flowers. Of late this Windflower has come into great favour, as if for a time it had been forgotten; still, it is hard to make out how such a fine border plant could be overlooked. However, it is well and deservedly esteemed at the present time; and, although many have proved the plant and flowers to be contrary to their expectations in reference to its common name, "Snowdrop Anemone," the disappointment has been, otherwise, an agreeable one. It only resembles the snowdrop as regards the purity and drooping habit of its flowers. Well-grown specimens have an exceedingly neat habit--the foliage spreads and touches the ground, rounding up to the flower stems (which are about a foot high) in a pleasing manner. The earliest flowers are very large--when fully open quite 1½in. across--but they are more often seen in the unopen state, when they resemble a nutmeg in shape. Whether open or shut, they are a pure white, and their pendent habit adds not a little to their beauty, as also does the leafy involucre. The leaves are three-parted, the two lower lobes being deeply divided, so that at a first glance the leaves appear to be five-parted; each of the five lobes are three-cleft, and also dentate, downy, and veined; the leaf stalks are radical, red, long, slightly channelled, and wiry; in all respects the leaves of the involucre resemble those of the root, excepting the size, which is smaller, and the stalks are green, like the flower stems. In a cut state, the pure satin-white blossoms are fit for the most delicate wreath or bouquet; they have, morever, a delicious clover-scent. It enjoys a light vegetable soil in a slightly shaded and moist situation; if it could be allowed to ramble in the small openings of a front shrubbery, such positions would answer admirably. The roots are underground-creeping, which renders this species somewhat awkward to manage when grown with others in a collection of less rampant habit. On the other hand, the disposition it has to spread might very well be taken advantage of by providing it with a good broad space, than which nothing could be more lovely for two months of the year. It is needless to give directions for its propagation, as the runners spring up all round the parent plant. Slugs are very fond of it, and in early spring, especially when the new growths are appearing, they should be kept in check, otherwise they will eat down into the heart of the strongest plant; a dose of clear lime water will be found effective and will not hurt the new leaves; if this is followed up with a few sprinklings of sand, the slugs will not care to occupy such unpleasant quarters. Flowering period, May and June. Anemone Vernalis. SHAGGY WINDFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. A curious but pretty alpine species, from the Swiss Alps, consequently very hardy. It is not a showy subject, but its distinctions are really beautiful, and commend it to those who love to grow plants of a _recherché_ character. The illustration (Fig. 12) will give some idea of it, but no description can convey even an approximate notion of its flowers, which are produced singly, on short, stout, hairy stems, about 5in. high. For so small a plant the flower is large, more than an inch across when expanded, but usually it keeps of a roundish, bell-shaped form. Its colour is a bluish-white inside, the outside being much darker. It would be violet, were not the hairs so long and numerous that they form a brownish coat which is, perhaps, the most remarkable trait of this species. The leaves, too, are very hairy--twice, and sometimes thrice, divided, rather small, and also few. [Illustration: FIG. 12. ANEMONE VERNALIS (SHAGGY ANEMONE). (One-half natural size.)] This little plant is most enjoyed when grown in pots. It may be plunged in sand or ashes in an open space, but it should never be allowed to suffer for moisture. When so grown, and just before the flowers open, it should be removed to a cool, airy frame, where it should also be plunged to keep its roots cool and moist; it will require to be very near the glass, so as to get perfect flowers. Such a method of growing this flower affords the best opportunity for its close examination; besides, it is so preserved in finer and more enduring form. It thrives well in lumpy peat and loam, but I have found charcoal, in very small lumps, to improve it, as it does most plants grown in pots, especially such as require frequent supplies of water. The slugs are very fond of it; a look-out for them should be kept when the plants are growing, and frequent sprinklings of sharp ashes will be found useful. Flowering period, April and May. Anthericum Liliago. ST. BERNARD'S LILY; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This may be grown as a companion to St. Bruno's Lily, though not so neat in habit or rich in bloom. In all respects it is very different. It is taller, the flowers not half the size, and more star-shaped, foliage more grassy, and the roots creeping and jointed. All the Anthericums named by me will do in ordinary soil, but prefer a fat loam of considerable depth. If, therefore, such conditions do not exist, there should be a good dressing of well-rotted stable manure turned in, and a mulching given in early spring. Anthericums are propagated by division of the roots, which should be carefully performed during the autumn. After such mutilation they should not be disturbed again for three years, or they will deteriorate in vigour and beauty. Flowering period, June and July. Anthericum Liliastrum. ST. BRUNO'S LILY; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This charming plant is a native of Alpine meadows, and is known by other names, as _Paradisia_ and _Cyackia_, but is more commonly called St. Bruno's Lily. It is emphatically one of the most useful and handsome flowers that can be grown in English gardens, where, as yet, it is anything but as plentiful as it ought to be. Not only is it perfectly hardy in our climate, but it seems to thrive and flower abundantly. It is fast becoming a favourite, and it is probable that before long it will be very common, from the facts, firstly, of its own value and beauty, and, secondly, because the Dutch bulb-growers have taken it in hand. Not long ago they were said to be buying stock wherever they could find it. The illustration (Fig. 13) shows it in a small-sized clump. Three or four such specimens are very effective when grown near together; the satin-like or shining pure white flowers show to greater advantage when there is plenty of foliage. A number planted in strong single roots, but near together, forming a clump several feet in diameter, represent also a good style; but a single massive specimen, with at least fifty crowns, and nearly as many spikes of bloom just beginning to unfold, is one of the most lovely objects in my own garden. The chaste flowers are 2in. long, six sepalled, lily-shaped, of a transparent whiteness, and sweetly perfumed; filaments white, and long as the sepals; anthers large, and thickly furnished with bright orange-yellow pollen; the stems are round, stout, 18in. high, and produce from six to twelve flowers, two or three of which are open at one and the same time. The leaves are long, thick, with membranous sheaths, alternate and stem-clasping, or semi-cylindrical; the upper parts are lanceolate, dilated, subulate, and of a pale green colour. The roots are long, fleshy, brittle, and fasciculate. [Illustration: FIG. 13. ANTHERICUM LILIASTRUM. (Plant, one-sixth natural size; blossom, one-fourth natural size.)] This plant for three or four weeks is one of the most decorative; no matter whether in partial shade or full sunshine, it not only flowers well, but adorns its situation most richly; the flowers, in a cut state, are amongst the most useful and effective of hardy kinds--indeed, they vie with the tender exotics. Flowering period, June and July. _A. l. major_ is a new variety in all its parts like the type, with the exception of size, the flowers being larger by nearly an inch. The variety is said to grow to the height of 8ft. Anthyllis Montana. MOUNTAIN KIDNEY VETCH; _Nat. Ord._ LEGUMINOSÆ. For rockwork this is one of the most lovely subjects. It is seldom seen, though easy to grow, perfectly hardy, and perennial. It is classed as an herbaceous plant, but it is shrubby, and on old specimens there is more wood than on many dwarf shrubs. It is of a procumbent habit, and only 4in. to 6in. high in this climate. It comes from the South of Europe, where it probably grows larger. In early spring the woody tips begin to send out the hoary leaves; they are 3in. to 6in. long, and from their dense habit, and the way in which they intersect each other, they present a pleasing and distinct mass of woolly foliage. The leaves are pinnatifid, leaflets numerous, oval, oblong, and very grey, nearly white, with long silky hairs. The flowers are of a purple-pink colour, very small, and in close drumstick-like heads. The long and numerous hairs of the involucre and calyx almost cover over the flowers and render them inconspicuous; still, they are a pretty feature of the plant; the bloom stands well above the foliage on very downy, but otherwise naked stalks. When planted in such a position that it can rest on the edge of or droop over a stone, strong specimens are very effective. It seems to enjoy soil of a vegetable character, with its roots near large stones. I have heard that it has been found difficult to grow, but that I cannot understand. I fear the fault has been in having badly-rooted plants to start with, as cuttings are very slow in making an ample set of roots for safe transplanting. Its increase by division is no easy matter, as the woody stems are all joined in one, and the roots are of a tap character. Seed seldom ripens; by cuttings appears to be the readier mode of propagation; if these are taken off in early spring, put in a shady position, and in leaf soil, they will probably root as the seasons get warmer. Flowering period, June and July. Apios Tuberosa. _Syn._ GLYCINE APIOS; _Nat. Ord._ LEGUMINOSÆ. This is a pretty climber, or, more strictly speaking, a twiner; it is hardy, tuberous, and perennial. The tubers resemble potatoes, but incline to pear-shape, as implied by the generic name. 240 years ago it was introduced from North America; still, it is seldom met with, notwithstanding its good habit and colour. It is one of those happy subjects which most conduce to the freshness and wild beauty of our gardens; the dark and glossy verdure is charmingly disposed in embowerments by means of the delicate twining stems; and though it grows apace, there is never an unsightly dense or dark mass, so commonly seen in many climbers, but, instead, it elegantly adorns its station, and the outlines of its pretty pinnate leaves may easily be traced against the light. [Illustration: FIG. 14. APIOS TUBEROSA. (One-twelfth natural size; _a_, flower, natural size.)] As may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 14), it is in the way of a climbing bean. The flowers are purple and borne in small clusters from the axils of the leaves, and, of course, as indicated by the order to which it belongs, they are like pea flowers; they are produced a long time in succession, providing the frosts do not occur; they have the scent of violets. The leaves are distantly produced on fine wiry stems, which grow to the length of 12ft.; they are pinnate, the leaflets being of various sizes, oval, smooth, and of a dark shining green colour. The roots are not only peculiar in the way already mentioned, but the tubers have the appearance of being strung together by their ends. They are edible, and where they grow wild they are called "ground nuts." From the description given it will be easy to decide how and where it should be planted. There should be provision made for its twining habit, and it may have the liberty of mixing its foliage with that of less beautiful things during autumn, such, for instance, as the bare _Jasmine nudiflora_; its spare but effective leaves and flowers will do little or no harm to such trees, and after the frosts come the jasmine will be clear again. It may also be grown with happy results as shown in the illustration, needing only a well-secured twiggy bush. Cut as sprays it is very serviceable for hanging or twining purposes. It most enjoys a light soil, also a sunny situation. Sometimes it has been found slow at starting into growth when newly planted; this, however, can hardly be the case with newly lifted tubers. I may add that it is no uncommon thing for these to be out of the ground for weeks and months together, when they not only become hard and woody, but when suddenly brought in contact with the damp earth rot overtakes them. There is no difficulty whatever with fresh tubers, which may be lifted after the tops have died off. Beyond securing fresh roots, there is nothing special about the culture of this desirable climber. Flowering period, August to October. Arabis Lucida. SHINING ROCK CRESS; _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. This member of a well-known family of early spring flowers is desirable, for its neat habit and verdancy. There is not a particle of sere foliage to be seen, and it has, moreover, a glossy appearance, whence the specific name. The flowers are not of much effect, though, from their earliness, not without value; they are in the way of the flowers of the more common species, _A. alpina_, but less in size; they are also more straggling in the raceme; these two features render it inferior as a flower; the stalks are 3in. to 6in. high. The leaves are arranged in lax flattened rosettes, are 1in. to 3in. long, somewhat spathulate, notched, fleshy, of a very dark green colour, and shining. The habit is dense and spreading, established tufts having a fresh effect. Though an Hungarian species, it can hardly have a more happy home in its habitat than in our climate. Where verdant dwarf subjects are in request, either for edgings, borders, or rockwork, this is to be commended as one of the most reliable, both for effect and vigour. In the last-named situation it proves useful all the year round, but care should be taken that it does not overgrow less rampant rock plants. _A. l. variegata_ is a variety with finely-marked leaves. The bloom resembles that of the type, but is rather weaker. It is better to remove the flowers of this kind, as then the rather slow habit of growth is much improved, as also is the colour of the foliage. The leaves being more serviceable and effective than the bloom, the uses should be made of it accordingly. They are broadly edged with yellow, the green being lighter than that of the type, but equally bright; the ends of the leaves are curled backwards, but, with the exception of being a little smaller, they are similar in shape to the parent form. This is a gem for rockwork, and, if it did not belong to a rather ordinary race of plants, it would, perhaps, be more often seen in choice collections. This, however, does not alter its worth. Seen in crevices of dark stone on rockwork, or in bold tufts near the walks, or planted with judgment near other dwarf foliaged subjects, it ever proves attractive. It is much less rampant, and, perhaps, less hardy than the type. It has only been during the recent very severe winters, however, that it has been killed. The Arabis is easily propagated by slips or rootlets, which should be taken after flowering. The variegated form is better for being so propagated every year. If bold patches are desired, they should be formed by planting a number together, 3in. or 4in. apart. Flowering period, February to June. Aralia Sieboldi. SIEBOLD'S ARALIA; _Nat. Ord._ ARALIACEÆ. The present subject (see Fig. 15)--beautiful, hardy, and evergreen--is a species of recent introduction; still, it has already become well known and distributed, so much so that it scarcely needs description; but there are facts in reference to it which would seem to be less known. It is seldom seen in the open garden, and many amateurs, who otherwise are well acquainted with it, when they see it fresh and glossy in the open garden in the earliest months of the year, ask, "Is it really hardy?" Not only is such the case, but the foliage, and especially the deep green colour, are rarely so fine when the specimens have indoor treatment, and, on this account, the shrub is eminently suitable for notice here. [Illustration: FIG. 15. ARALIA SIEBOLDI. (One-tenth natural size.)] The order _Araliaceæ_ is nearly related to _Umbelliferæ_, from which fact an idea may be had of the kind and arrangement of the flowers. Many of the genera of the order _Araliaceæ_ are little known; perhaps the genus _Hedera_ (ivy) is the only one that is popular, and it so happens to immediately follow the genus _Aralia_. To remember this will further assist in gleaning an idea of the form of blossom, as that of ivy is well known. _Aralia Sieboldi_, however, seldom flowers in this climate, either in or out of doors. When it does, the white flowers are not of much value; they are small, like ivy blossom in form, but more spread in the arrangement. There are five sepals, five petals, five styles, and five cells in the berries. The flowers are produced on specimens 2ft. to 5ft. high during winter, when favourable. The leaves, when well grown, are the main feature of the shrub, and are 12in. or more across. This size is not usual, but a leaf now before me, and taken from an outside specimen, measures over a foot, with a stout round stalk, 13in. long; the form of leaf is fan-shaped, having generally seven lobes, each supported by a strong mid-rib; the lobes are formed by divisions rather more than half the diameter of the leaf; they are slightly distant, broadly lance-shaped, waved at the edges, toothed near the ends, the teeth being somewhat spiny; the substance is very stout and leather-like to the touch; the upper surface is a dark shining bronzy-green, beautifully netted or veined; the under surface is a pale green, and richly ornamented by the risen mid-ribs and nerves of the whole leaf; the leaf-stalks are thick, round, bending downwards, and 6in. to 18in. long, springing from the half woody stem. The habit of the shrub is bushy, somewhat spreading, causing the specimens to have a fine effect from their roundness, the leaf arrangement also being perfect. Without doubt this is one of the most distinct and charming evergreens for the ornamental garden, sub-tropical in appearance, and only inferior to palms as regards size; it is effective anywhere. It need not be stated that as a vase or table decoration it ranks with the best for effect and service, as it is already well-known as such. In planting this subject outside, young but well-rooted examples should be selected and gradually hardened off. At the latter end of May they should be turned out of the pots into a rich but sandy loam. The position should be sunny, and sheltered from the north. Some have advised that it should be grown under trees, but I have proved that when so treated the less ripened foliage has suffered with frost, whilst the specimens fully exposed to the sun have not suffered in the least; they would droop and shrivel as long as the frost remained, but as soon as the temperature rose they became normal, without a trace of injury. When planted as above, young specimens will soon become so established and inured to open-air conditions, that little concern need be felt as regards winter; even such as were under trees, where they continued to grow too long, and whose tender tops were cut away by frost, have, the following summer, made a number of fresh growths lower down the stems. I should like to say that on rockwork this shrub has a superb effect, and I imagine the better drained condition of such a structure is greatly in favour of its health and hardiness. The propagation is by means of cuttings; slips of half-ripened wood, taken during the warmest months, if put in sandy loam in a cucumber frame, will root like willow. As soon as roots have formed, pot them separately and plunge the pots in the same frame for a week or two, then harden off. For the first winter the young stock ought to be kept either in a greenhouse or a cold frame, and by the end of the following May they will be ready to plant out. A well-drained position is important. Flowering period, November to March, in favourable or mild seasons. Arisæma Triphyllum. _Syns._ A. ZEBRINUM _and_ ARUM TRIPHYLLUM; _Common Names_, THREE-LEAVED ARUM _and_ JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT; _Nat. Ord._ ARACEÆ. A hardy tuberous-rooted perennial from North America. I will at once explain that the above leading name is not the one generally used here, but in America, where the species is common, botanists have adopted it; besides, it is, as will be seen from the following description, very distinct from other Arums. The Syn. _Arisæma zebrinum_, as given, belongs really to a variety of _A. triphyllum_, but the type is marked in its flowers zebra-like, and there are many shades and colours of it, therefore both or either of the names may be used for the different forms, with a fair degree of propriety, as in fact they are. There is a doubt with some as to the hardiness of this plant; in my mind there is none whatever. It is no stranger to frosts in its habitats, but I do not found my conviction on anything but my experience of it. It has been grown fully exposed for two winters, and sometimes the frosts must have gone as far down as the roots. There is nothing showy about this plant, but there is something which stamps it as a fitting subject for a garden of choice plants; its bold, dark green foliage and quaint-looking flowers render it desirable on the score of distinctness. It has, moreover, a freshness upon which the eye can always linger. The flowers are in general form like the calla-lily; the upper part of the spathe, or sheathing leaf, which is really the calyx, is, however, more elongated, pointed, and hooked; otherwise the spathe is erect, slightly reflexed just above the folded part, giving the appearance of a pair of small lobes; this--the calyx--is really the most conspicuous part of the flower; in the belly it is beautifully striped with broad lines of a purplish-brown colour, which shade off to an inch of green in the middle, when they form again, and continue to the tip of the spathe, which will be 4in. to 6in. long, and nearly 2in. broad at the widest part; these lines run between the ribs, and, as before hinted, they are of various colours, such as brown, purple, pink, and green. The ribs are nearly white, and the green parts are very pale. The spadix is over 3in. long, club-shaped, spotted with brown, very much so near the end. The anthers at the base of the spadix are curious, and should be examined. They are invisible until the folded part of the spathe is opened; they are numerous, arranged in a dense broad ring, sessile, and nearly black. This curious flower is produced on a stout, round scape, a foot or more in height. The leaves are radical, having a stalk a foot long. They are, as the specific name implies, divided into three parts, each being of equal length, entire, wavy, and pointed. The whole plant has a somewhat top-heavy appearance (see Fig. 16), but I never saw it broken down by the weather. It makes quick growth in spring, the scape appearing with the leaves; in late summer it dies down. It looks well in quiet nooks, but it also forms a good companion to showy flowers in more open situations; in a cut state, for dressing "old-fashioned" vases, nothing could be in better character, a few leaves of yarrow, day lily, flag, or similar foliage being all it will require. [Illustration: FIG. 16. ARISÆMA TRIPHYLLUM. (One-fourth natural size.)] It may be transplanted, any time from September to the end of January, into good light loam or leaf soil, 4in. or 6in. deep; if there should be a dry season during the period of growth, the plant should be well watered. To increase it, the tubers may be divided every third year, providing the growth has been of a vigorous tone. I may add, that, from its tall and not over-dense habit, there may with advantage, both to it and the plants used, be a carpet grown underneath--ivy, vincas, or sweet woodruff for some situations, and brighter subjects for more conspicuous parts of the garden, such as the finer kinds of mimulus, ourisia, alpine aster, and dwarf iris. Flowering period, June and July. Arum Crinitum. HAIRY ARUM, _or_ DRAGON'S MOUTH; _Nat. Ord._ ARACEÆ. As may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 17), this is a most singular plant. It proves hardy in this climate if its position is selected; in other words, it is not hardy in all kinds of soils and situations, but if planted four or five inches deep, in sandy or half decayed vegetable mould, facing the south, there is little to fear either as regards hardiness or its thriving. I think, therefore, it may be called hardy. It is far more interesting than handsome, but there is at the present time an evident desire amongst amateurs to grow the various Arums, and more especially has this one been sought after; I have, therefore, introduced it amongst more beautiful flowers, and given an enlarged drawing of the entire plant, together with the spathe in its unopened state. The plant is a native of Minorca, and was imported in 1777. In this climate it grows to the height of 18in., developing the flower with the foliage. It is produced on a stout scape nearly 1ft. high, of a pale green colour, marked with dark short lines and spotted with delicate pink dots. The folded spathe is of leather-like substance, rough, almost corky in texture; also variously marked and tinted. At the base there are a number of green lines arranged evenly and longitudinally on a nearly white ground. A little higher--the belly part--the lines are less frequent, irregular, and mixed with pink dots. Still higher, the ground colour becomes pale green, the lines dark green, and the pink spots are changed to clouded tints; the remainder of the folded spathe--to the tip--is a mixture of brown and green dots, the total length being fully 9in. When the spathe opens, it does so quickly, bending more than half its length outwards, the division looking upwards. To those who have not before seen the plant at this stage, it will prove an interesting surprise; the odour, however, is repulsive. The spathe at its widest part is 6in. broad, and tapers off to a blunt point. It is of a dark purple colour and covered with long bent dark hairs, whence the specific name. They are curiously disposed, and remind one of some hairy animal that has been lifted out of the water the wrong way as regards the direction of the hair. The spadix is comparatively small, black, and also covered with hairs. The flower should be closely watched if its peculiarities are to be fully noted, as it not only opens quickly but soon begins to wither. During the short period that the flower is open the lower part of the spathe or belly becomes filled with all kinds of flies, being held by the spear-like hairs. [Illustration: FIG. 17. ARUM CRINITUM. (One-fourth natural size.)] The leaves have long stalks, marked and tinted in a similar manner to that of the scape. They are curiously formed and twisted, pedate or bird-foot shaped, the outer segments twice cut, lance-shaped, and turned inwards or over the main part of the leaf; the leaves are of a deep green colour, and of good substance; they seldom exceed four in number to each plant or tuber. This curious species should, as above indicated, have a warm situation, where it will also be comparatively dry in winter. Its propagation may be effected by division of the roots of strong specimens. Flowering period, June and July. Asters. MICHAELMAS DAISIES, _or_ STARWORTS; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. Hardy, perennial, and herbaceous. These are a numerous family, and many of them have an ungainly habit and insignificant flowers--in fact, are not worth growing, save as wild flowers in unfrequented places. I will mention a few of the finer sorts, which are mostly species: _A. diversifolius_, _A. ericoides_, _A. grandiflorus_, _A. pendulus_, and _A. Dumosus_, these are all good, both in habit and flowers; _ericoides_ and _pendulus_ make really handsome bushes, but the very beautiful _A. amellus_, and its more dwarf variety (_A. Mdme. Soyance_), have tempted me to write of these old-fashioned plants, which may be said to be wholly distinct, as their flowers are so very much brighter (dark purple, with a clear yellow centre), and the rays so much more evenly and compactly furnished. Their stems are 2ft. to 3ft. high, and flowered half their length with clusters of bloom about the size and form of full-grown field daisies. These wand-like spikes in a cut state are bright and appropriate decorations. In vases they are very effective, even when used alone. The flowers are very lasting, either cut or otherwise; the plants will bloom six or eight weeks. These subjects will thrive in almost any kind of soil or position, opening their flowers during the dullest weather, and though they like sunshine, they will not wait for it. It is scarcely needful to further describe these well-known flowers, but, as well as the species, there are some bright and beautiful varieties which merit further notice. All the Starworts are easily increased by root division any time. Flowering period, August to November. Aster Alpinus. ALPINE STARWORT, _or_ BLUE DAISY; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. An exceedingly beautiful and very much admired alpine plant, which does not die down like most of the Starworts, but has woody stems; it is seldom seen more than a foot high, and its large bright purple flowers seem disproportionate. This is one of the plants which should have a place in every garden, and more especially in rock gardens. There cannot well be a more neat and telling subject; the form and size of its flowers are not often seen on such dwarf plants, and it also has the merit of being a "tidy" subject when not in bloom. The illustration (Fig. 18) will give a fair idea of its main features. Its purple flowers, which are fully 2in. across, have for many days an even and well-expanded ray, when the florets curl or reflex; the disk is large, and numerously set with lemon-yellow florets; the flowers are well lifted up on stout round stems, covered with short stiff hairs, and furnished with five or six small leaves; the main foliage is of compact growth, lance-shaped, entire, spathulate and covered with short hairs. [Illustration: FIG 18 ASTER ALPINUS. (One-third natural size.)] Considering that this plant has been in English gardens for 220 years, and that its merits must be seen by anyone at a glance, it is hard to say why it is not better known; even in choice and large collections it always proves attractive when in flower. The blooms in a cut state are very durable; they not only hold together, but also keep a good colour. Under cultivation it is in no way particular; it will endure anything but being deprived of light; from its dwarf, stout, and shrubby character, it would form a useful and a handsome edging to the larger walks; and by growing it so extensively an enviable supply of flowers for cutting would be at hand. A stock of young plants may soon be got up by division of strong roots after the flowering season; such pieces as have roots may be planted at once in their permanent quarters; the rootless parts should be dibbled into light sandy loam and shaded with branches for a week or two. Flowering period, June and July. _A. a. albus_ is a white-flowered variety, blooming about the same time. There does not appear to be that vigour about it which characterises the type; this, however, is not the only shortcoming; when compared with the rich purple flower, the white one, with its large yellow disk, appears, to say the least, a questionable improvement. Aster Ptarmicoides. BOUQUET STARWORT; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This Starwort is a very recently-imported species from North America. Like many other things which have proved worthless as decorative flowers, this was highly praised, but for a while its weedy-looking foliage caused suspicion; after becoming well established, it flowered, and, I am glad to say, proves a most distinct and useful Starwort. Its small white flowers much resemble the field daisy, but they are borne on densely-branched stems in hundreds; in fact, the plant, which grows nearly 2ft. high, seems to be nearly all flowers. Each one has a single ray of shining white florets, narrow and separate. Those of the disk are of a canary-yellow colour; the imbricated calyx is pear-shaped; pedicels slender, bent, wiry, and furnished with very small leaves; main stems hispid, woody, and brittle. The leaves of the root are 2in. to 4in. long, smooth, entire, linear, almost grass-like; those of the stems much less, becoming smaller as they near the flowers; they are somewhat rough, partaking of the quality of the stems. The habit of the plant is much branched, the spreading clusters of flowers being six or ten times the size of the plant, so that it becomes top-heavy; it blooms for many weeks, and is not damaged by coarse weather. Amongst other Asters it shows to advantage, flowering earlier than most of them, but lasting well into their period of bloom. It is sure to prove a useful white autumnal flower; small sprays when cut look better than on the plant, as they are then seen to be well spread and rigidly held by means of their wiry stalks; they have the scent of Southernwood. It grows well with me in ordinary garden loam, the situation being well exposed to the sun. It may be readily propagated by root division. Flowering period, August to October. Bellis Perennis. COMMON PERENNIAL DAISY; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This native plant, the commonest flower of the field and wayside, and the weed of our grass-plots, is the parent form of the handsome and popular double kinds seen in almost every garden. Well known as these flowers are, it may prove interesting to learn a little more about the fine large double crimson and white kinds--their treatment, for instance--in order to have abundance of flowers during the earliest months of the year; and the uses to which they may be most advantageously put; for, common as are the Daisies, they are, without doubt, amongst the most useful flowers we possess. First, I will briefly give the names and descriptions of the more distinct varieties. _B. p. aucubifolia_ is the Double Daisy, having a beautifully variegated foliage, mottled with golden-yellow in the way of the aucuba. _B. p. fistulosa._--This is the double crimson or pink Daisy, having its florets piped or quilled (see Fig. 19). _B. p. hortensis_ embraces all the double forms raised and cultivated in gardens, no matter what colour, and so distinguished from the typical form of the fields. _B. p. prolifera_ is that curious and favourite kind called "Hen and Chickens." The flowers are double, and from the imbricate calyx of the normal flower there issue a number of smaller Daisies having straggling florets; the whole on one main stalk presenting a bouquet-like effect. These kinds, the specific names of which are not only descriptive, but amply embrace the group, are much added to by flowers having other names and minor distinctions, the latter, for the most part, being only shades or mixtures of colour--as crimson, pink, white, and bicolours. The florets in many kinds are exceedingly pretty, from the way in which they are tipped and shaded; notably, a new variety that was sent me under the name of Dresden China. These sorts having different tints are usefully named with "florists'" names--as Pearl, Snowball, Rob Roy, Sweep, Bride, &c. I may say that I have long grown the Daisy largely, Bride and Sweep being the favourite kinds; both are robust growers, very hardy and early. Bride is the purest white, with florets full, shining, and well reflexed; rather larger than a florin, and when fully developed has a half globular appearance; another good point is its flower stalks being 4in. to 5in. long, which renders it serviceable as cut bloom. Sweep is not quite so large, though a good-sized Daisy, it also opens more flat; its colour, however, is first rate, it is the darkest crimson Daisy I ever saw, is of a quilled form and very full. Its chief point is its constant colour; if the florets are examined, they are the same deep crimson underneath as on the face of the flower; this, together with its long stalks, renders it useful, too, in a cut state. [Illustration: FIG. 19. BELLIS PERENNIS FISTULOSA. (One-third natural size.)] To grow this useful flower well and render it doubly valuable by having it in bloom in mid-winter, requires three things: First, timely transplanting; secondly, rich soil; thirdly, partial shade; these conditions will be more briefly and, perhaps, clearly explained, if I state my method. At the end of May or fore part of June, plenty of good rotten stable manure is wheeled into the bush-fruit quarters; it is worked in with a fork, so as to do as little damage as possible to the bush roots. A line is drawn, and the old Daisy roots which have just been taken up are trimmed by shortening both tops and roots. They are severely divided, and the pieces planted 6in. apart in rows 8in. asunder. In such a cool, moist situation they soon form good tufts, and I need scarcely say that the dressing of manure has also a marked effect on the fruit crop. A planting so made is not only a cheerful carpet of greenery during winter, but is well dotted over with bloom. The plants being well established in rich soil, and having the shelter of the bushes during summer and winter, are the conditions which have conduced to such early flowers. This is the method I have adopted for years, and both Daisies and fruit have been invariably good crops. I ought, however, to say that beds more exposed, together with the fact that the Daisy roots have to be transplanted in October or November, never flower so early, from which it will be seen that the treatment explained hardly applies to such bedding; but where a breadth of bloom is required, say, for cutting purposes, I know no better plan. As cut bloom the daisy is charming in glass trays on a bed of moss, or even in small bouquets, mixed with the foliage of pinks, carnations, and rosemary. Such an arrangement has at least the merit of sweet simplicity, and somehow has also the effect of carrying our thoughts with a bound to spring-time. The ancient names for this "old-fashioned" flower were "Little Daisies" and "Bruisewoorte." The latter name, according to Gerarde, was applied for the following reasons: "The leaues stamped, taketh away bruses and swellings proceeding of some stroke, if they be stamped and laide thereon, whereupon it was called in olde time Bruisewoorte. The iuice put into the eies cleereth them, and taketh away the watering;" and here is a dog note: "The same given to little dogs with milke, keepeth them from growing great." Flowering period, February to July. Bocconia Cordata. _Syn._ MACLEAYA CORDATA; _Nat. Ord._ PAPAVERACEÆ. A hardy herbaceous perennial from China. It is a tall and handsome plant; its fine features are its stately habit, finely-cut foliage, and noble panicles of buds and flowers; during the whole progress of its growth it is a pleasing object, but in the autumn, when at the height of 7ft. it has become topped with lax clusters of flowers, over 2ft. long, it is simply grand. There are other names in trade lists, as _B. japonica_ and _B. alba_, but they are identical with _B. cordata_; possibly there may be a little difference in the shades of the flowers, but nothing to warrant another name. Having grown the so-called species or varieties, I have hitherto found no difference whatever; and of the hardy species of this genus, I believe _B. cordata_ is the only one at present grown in English gardens. During spring and early summer this subject makes rapid growth, pushing forth its thick leafy stems, which are attractive, not only by reason of their somewhat unusual form, but also because of their tender and unseasonable appearance, especially during spring; it is rare, however, that the late frosts do any damage to its foliage. It continues to grow with remarkable vigour until, at the height of 5ft. or more, the flower panicles begin to develop; these usually add 2ft. or more to its tallness. The flowers are very small but numerous, of an ivory-white colour; they are more beautiful in the unopened state, when the two-sepalled calyx for many days compresses the tassel-like cluster of stamens. Each half of the calyx is boat-shaped, and before they burst they have the form and colour of clean plump groats; as already hinted, the stamens are numerous, and the anthers large for so small a flower, being spathulate. As soon as the stamens become exposed, the calyx falls, and in a short time--a few hours--the fugacious anthers disappear, to be followed only a little later by the fall of the filaments; there is then left a naked but headed capsule, half the size of the buds, and of the same colour; they may be traced on the panicle in the illustration (Fig. 20). From the fading quality of the above-named parts, the buds and capsules chiefly form the ornamental portion of the compound racemes. [Illustration: FIG. 20. BOCCONIA CORDATA. (About one-twentieth natural size; blossom, one-half natural size.)] The leaves are from 8in. to 10in. in diameter, the largest being at the base of the tall stems; their outline, as the specific name implies, is heart-shaped, but they are deeply lobed and dentate, in the way of the fig leaf, but more profusely so; they are stalked, of good substance, glaucous, nearly white underneath, which part is also furnished with short stiff hairs. The glaucous hue or farina which covers the leaf-stalks and main stems has a metallic appearance, and is one of its pleasing features as a decorative plant. For many weeks the flowers continue to be developed, and from the deciduous quality of the fading parts, the panicles have a neat appearance to the last. In a cut state the long side branches of flowers, more than a foot long, are very effective, either alone or when mixed with other kinds, the little clusters of white drop-like buds being suitable for combination with the choicest flowers. As a decorative specimen for the more ornamental parts of the garden, and where bold subjects are desired, there are few herbaceous things that can be named as more suitable; from the day it appears above the ground, to and throughout its fading days in the autumn, when it has pleasing tints, it is not only a handsome but distinct form of plant; as an isolated specimen on the lawn, or by frequented walks, it may be grown with marked effect; if too nearly surrounded with other tall things, its beauty is somewhat marred; but wherever it is planted it should have a good fat loam of considerable depth. I ought not to omit saying that it forms a capital subject for pot culture; plants so treated, when 12in. or 18in. high, no matter if not then in flower, are very useful as window or table plants; but of course, being herbaceous, they are serviceable only during their growing season; they need not, however, be a source of care during winter, for they may with safety be plunged outside in a bed of ashes or sand, where they will take care of themselves during the severest weather. It may be propagated by cuttings taken from the axils of the larger leaves during early summer; if this method is followed, the cuttings should be pushed on, so that there are plenty of roots before the winter sets in. I have found it by far the better plan to take young suckers from established plants; in good rich soil these are freely produced from the slightly running roots; they may be separated and transplanted any time, but if it is done during summer they will flower the following season. Tall as this subject grows, it needs no supports; neither have I noticed it to be troubled by any of the garden pests. Flowering period, September to August. Bulbocodium Trigynum. _Syns._ COLCHICUM CAUCASICUM _and_ MERENDERA CAUCASICUM; _Nat. Ord._ MELANTHACEÆ. This pretty miniature bulbous plant is very hardy, flowering in winter. It is a scarce flower, and has recently been represented as a new plant. As a matter of fact, it is not new, but has been known under the above synonymous names since 1823, when it was brought from the Caucasus. In general appearance it is very different from the _Colchicum_ (Sprengle), as may be seen by the drawing (Fig. 21), and _Merendera_ (Bieberstein) is only another Spanish name for _Colchicum_. The new name, authorised by Adams, may have been the cause, all or in part, of its being taken for a new species. The specific name may be presumed to be in reference to either its deeply-channelled, almost keeled leaves, which have the appearance of three corners, or in allusion to the triangular way in which they are disposed. It is a desirable flower for several reasons--its earliness, durability, rich perfume, and intrinsic beauty. [Illustration: FIG. 21. BULBOCODIUM TRIGYNUM. (Full size.)] The little plant, at the height of 2in., produces its rather large flowers in ones and twos in February, and they last for many days in perfect form. The scent reminds one of the sweet honey smell of a white clover field during summer. The colour is very pale lilac, nearly white; the tube takes on a little greenness; it is also divided, though the slits are invisible until the bloom begins to fade. The corolla, of irregular segments, is 1½in. across when expanded; the stamens are half the length of the petal-like segments, and carry anthers of exquisite beauty, especially when young, then they are orange colour, divided like a pair of half-opened shells, and edged with chocolate; the styles are a delicate pale green, and rather longer than the stamens. The leaves, as already stated, are channelled, broadest at the base, tapering to a point, which is rather twisted; they are 2in. long during the blooming period, of a deep green colour, stiff, but spreading, forming a pretty accurate triangle. This description, together with the cut, will suggest both the uses and positions in which it should be planted; if a single blossom, when brought indoors, proves strongly fragrant, it is easy to imagine what a clump must be in the garden. Like those of the colchicum, its flowers are quickly developed; the leaves grow longer afterwards, and die off in summer. It thrives in a sandy loam or leaf soil, in a sunny part, and increases itself at the roots like the saffrons. Flowering period, February and March. Bulbocodium Vernum. SPRING BULBOCODIUM, _or_ SPRING SAFFRON; _Nat. Ord._ MELANTHACEÆ. In mild winters, sheltered positions, and light vegetable soil, this bulbous plant may be seen in blossom from January to March. The flowers appear before the leaves, and may, at the first glance, be taken for lilac-coloured croci. Up to a certain stage, however, the colour gradually improves in the direction of purple, and where there are established patches it is no inconsiderable part of the effect caused by this desirable winter flower to see it a mass of bloom in many shades, ranging from white (as in the bud state) to a lively purple. It is an old plant in English gardens, and is largely found wild in mid-Europe. It came from Spain as early as 1629. Still, it is not generally known or grown; but within the last few years it has come to the fore, with a host of other hardy and early-flowering subjects. The natural order in which it is classed includes many beautiful genera, both as regards their floral effect and anatomical structures. _Veratrum_, _Uvularia_, and _Colchicum_ are, perhaps, the more familiar, and the last-mentioned genus is a very nearly allied one. A feature of the genus _Bulbocodium_ is implied by the name itself, which means "a wool-covered bulb." This quality, however, will be more observable when the bulb is in a dormant state; it exists under the envelope. The crocus or saffron-like flowers are aptly named "Spring Saffron," though there is a great botanical difference to be seen between this genus and that of _Colchicum_ when the flower is dissected. The bloom is produced from the midst of an ample sheath, and overlapping leaves, which are only just visible in the early season of this year; the corolla of six petal-like divisions is 2in. to 3in. across when expanded, and of various shades and colours, as already stated; the segments are completely divided, being continued from the throat of the corolla to the ovary by long tapering bases, called nails, claws, or ungues. The leaves are stout, broadly strap-shaped, channelled, and of a deep green colour. The bulb is rather small; its form resembles that of the autumn crocus, as also does its mode of growth and reproduction. The early blossoms of this bulb soon disappear, and though the roots are all the better for being well ripened, a thin patch of some of the finer annuals sown in spring amongst their withering leaves will not do much harm, and will prove useful as gap-stoppers. Another good way is to grow these dwarf bulbous flowers with a carpet of creepers, of which there are scores in every way suitable; and where nothing else is available or to be grown with success, the small-leaved ivy will answer well. The dwarf phloxes, however, are more useful; their browned spreading branches form a neutral but warm-looking ground to the purple blossoms; besides, by the time all trace of the Bulbocodium has shrivelled up, they begin to produce their sheets of bloom. All such prostrate forms not only preserve dwarf winter flowers from the mud, but otherwise give effect to the borders. This bulb thrives best in light soil, well drained; in sheltered nooks it may be had in flower a month earlier than in exposed parts. Under such conditions it increases very fast, and the bulbs may be transplanted with advantage every other year after the tops have died off. In stiff or clay-like soil it dwindles and dies. Flowering period, January to March. Calthus Palustris Flore-pleno. DOUBLE MARSH MARIGOLD; _Old Common Name_, "MEADOW BOOTES"; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. The typical, or single-flowering variety of this plant is a British species, and a rather common one; but the pleasing habit and bright, finely-formed, orange-yellow flower of this double kind renders it a suitable plant for any garden. It is herbaceous and perennial, and loves boggy situations. It is, however, very accommodating, and will be found to do well in ordinary garden soil, especially if it be a stiffish loam; clayey land is well adapted for it. No matter what kind of weather prevails, it has always a neat and fresh appearance. By the illustration (Fig. 22) the reader will doubtless recognise its familiar form. As already stated, its flowers are orange-yellow, very full, with petals evenly arranged; they are 1in. across, and produced on round, short, hollow stems, seldom more than 9in. high. The forked flower stalks are furnished with embracing leaves, differing very much from the others, which are stalked, heart-shaped, nearly round, and evenly-toothed. All the foliage is of a rich dark shining green colour. Strong specimens produce flowers for a long time, fully two months, and frequently they burst into blossom again in the autumn. Individual flowers are very lasting, and, moreover, are very effective in a cut state. It is a robust grower, providing it is not in light dry soil; it seems with me to do equally well fully exposed to sunshine and in partial shade, but both positions are of a moist character. [Illustration: FIG. 22. CALTHUS PALUSTRIS FLORE-PLENO. (One-half natural size.)] It has long fleshy roots, which allows of its being transplanted at any time, early spring being the best, to increase it. The crowns should be divided every three years, when there will be found to be ample roots to each one. Flowering period, April to June. Calystegia Pubescens Flore-pleno. _Nat. Ord._ CONVOLVULACEÆ. This double Convolvulus is a somewhat recent introduction from China; it is hardy and perennial. So distinct are its large flesh-coloured flowers that they are often taken at the first glance, when cut, for double pyrethrums or chrysanthemums, but, seen in connection with the plant, the form of foliage and climbing or twining habit of the bindweed soon enable the most casual observer of flowers to recognise its genus. The flowers are 2in. to 3in. across, petals long, narrow, wavy, and reflexed; these are well held together by the five-parted calyx, further supported by a bract of two small but stout leaves. The flower stalks are round and wiry, 3in. or 4in. long; they are produced all along the twining stems, which are only of the moderate length of 5ft. or 6ft. The leaves are of the well-known Convolvulus form. I find it a good plan to grow this subject amongst tall and early flowering plants, such as lupins, foxgloves, and lilies, the old stems of which form ample supports for the climber; moreover, they are rendered less unsightly from being thus furnished anew with leaf and flower, even though not their own. Another method is in early summer to place a short twiggy branch over the pushing growths; it will soon become covered, and if not too large, the ends of the shoots will slightly outgrow the twigs and hang down in a pleasing manner. The plant should be started in light sandy loam and have a warm situation, otherwise flowers will be scarce and the whole specimen have a weedy appearance. When once it becomes established, it will be found to spread rapidly by means of its running roots, which, unless checked, will soon become a pest. I simply pull out all growths except such as shoot up in the desired position, and so continue to treat them as weeds throughout the growing season. Stems furnished with flowers a yard or more long, in a cut state, make rich festoons; single blooms (the smaller ones) look well as "buttonholes," being neat and effective, without gaudiness. I ought to state that a succession of flowers is kept up for fully three months; this fact adds not a little to the value of this handsome flesh-coloured bloomer. Roots may be transplanted at any time; the smallest piece will produce a blooming plant the first season, if put into a proper soil and situation. Flowering period, July to September. Campanula Grandis. GREAT BELLFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ CAMPANULACEÆ. A hardy herbaceous perennial from Siberia, growing to a height of 3ft. Its flowers are large, bright, and numerous; well-established clumps will present masses of bloom for more than a month with average weather. As a large showy subject there are few plants more reliable, or that can in any way excel it, more especially for town gardens. It is a rampant grower, quickly covering large spaces by means of its progressive roots; in gardens or collections where it can only be allowed a limited space, the running habit of the roots will doubtless prove troublesome, and often such free growers, however handsome they may be otherwise, are esteemed common, which should not be. The proper thing to do would be to give these vigorous and fine flowering subjects such quarters as will allow them their natural and unrestrained development. The flowers of _C. grandis_ are more than 1in. across the corolla, the five segments being large and bluntly pointed, of a transparent purple-blue colour, and very enduring; they are arranged on short stalks, which issue from the strong upright stems. They form little tufts of bloom at every joint for a length of nearly 2ft.; the succession, too, is well kept up. Buds continue to form long after the earliest have opened. The leaves are 4in. to 8in. long and ¾in. wide, lance-shaped, stalkless, and finely toothed. They are arranged in round tufts on the unproductive crowns, and they remain green throughout the winter. As regards soil, any kind will do; neither is the question of position of any moment beyond the precaution which should be taken against its encroachments on smaller subjects. In the partial shade of shrubs it not only flowers well but proves very effective. Useful as this plant is in the garden, it becomes far more so in a cut state. When it is needful to make up a bold vase or basket of flowers for room decoration, it can be quickly and effectively done by a liberal use of its long, leafy, but well-bloomed spikes; five or six of them, 2ft. to 3ft. long, based with a few large roses, pæonies, or sprays of thalictrum, make a noble ornament for the table, hall, or sideboard, and it is not one of the least useful flowers for trays or dishes when cut short. Propagated by division at any time, the parts may be planted at once in their blooming quarters. Flowering period, June and July. Campanula Latifolia. BROAD-LEAVED BELLFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ CAMPANULACEÆ. A British species, very much resembling _C. grandis_, but somewhat taller, and flowering a little earlier; the latter quality has induced me to mention it, as it offers a fine spike for cutting purposes before the above is ready. Culture, uses, and propagation, the same as for _C. grandis_. Flowering period, June and July. Campanula Persicifolia. PEACH-LEAVED BELLFLOWER; _Old Common Names_, "PEACH-BELS" _and_ "STEEPLE-BELS"; _Nat. Ord._ CAMPANULACEÆ. This good "old-fashioned" perennial has had a place in English gardens for several hundred years; it is still justly and highly esteemed. It is a well-known plant, and as the specific name is descriptive of the leaves, I will only add a few words of Gerarde's respecting the flowers: "Alongst the stalke growe many flowers like bels, sometime white, and for the most part, of a faire blewe colour; but the bels are nothing so deepe as they of the other kindes, and these also are more delated and spred abroade then any of the reste." The varieties include single blue (type) and white, double blue, and different forms of double white. In all cases the corolla is cup or broad bell shaped, and the flowers are sparingly produced on slightly foliaged stems, 18in. to 3ft. high; there are, however, such marked distinctions belonging to _C. p. alba fl.-pl._ in two forms that they deserve special notice; they are very desirable flowers, on the score of both quaintness and beauty. I will first notice the kind with two corollas, the inner bell of which will be more than an inch deep, and about the same in diameter. The outer corolla is much shorter, crumpled, rolled back, and somewhat marked with green, as if intermediate in its nature between the larger corolla and the calyx. The whole flower has a droll but pleasing form, and I have heard it not inaptly called "Grandmother's Frilled Cap." The other kind has five or more corollas, which are neatly arranged, each growing less as they approach the centre. In all, the segments are but slightly divided, though neatly formed; this flower is of the purest white and very beautiful, resembling a small double rose. It is one of the best flowers to be found at its season in the borders, and for cutting purposes I know none to surpass it; it is clean and durable. So much are the flowers esteemed, that the plant is often grown in pots for forcing and conservatory decoration, to which treatment it takes kindly. In the open all the above varieties grow freely in any kind of garden soil, but if transplanted in the autumn into newly-dug quarters they will in every way prove more satisfactory; this is not necessary, but if cultivation means anything, it means we should adopt the best-known methods of treatment towards all the plants we grow, and certainly some of the above Bellflowers are deserving of all the care that flowers are worth. Flowering period, July to September. Campanula Pyramidalis. PYRAMIDAL _or_ CHIMNEY CAMPANULA; _Nat. Ord._ CAMPANULACEÆ. This herbaceous perennial is a very old flower in this country; it came from Carniola in the year 1594. It is very hardy, and for several months together it continues to produce its large lively blue flowers, beginning in July and lasting until stopped by frosts. At no time is it in finer form than in September; at the height of from 5ft. to 7ft. it proves richly effective amongst the blooming hollyhocks, where, as regards colour, it supplies the "missing link" (see Fig. 23). The flowers are a light bright blue colour, and 1in. to 1½in. across. The corolla is bell-shaped, the five divisions being deeply cut, which allows the flower to expand well; the calyx is neat and smooth, the segments long and awl-shaped; the flower stalks are short, causing the numerous erect branches to be closely furnished with bloom during favourable weather. The leaves of the root are very large and stalked, of irregular shape, but for the most part broadly oval or lance-shaped. The edges are slightly toothed, having minute glands; those of the stems are much smaller, sessile, and long egg-shaped; all the foliage is smooth, and of a dark green colour; the main stems are very stout, and sometimes grow to the height of 7ft. Vigorous plants will send up several of these, from which a great number of small ones issue, all assuming an erect habit; blooming specimens are hardly anything else than a wand-like set of flowered stems, and though it is advisable to stake them, I have seen them bend and wave during high winds without damage. [Illustration: FIG. 23. CAMPANULA PYRAMIDALIS. (One-twentieth natural size; _a_, one-half natural size.)] In the borders and shrubbery this is a very effective subject; it is amongst herbaceous plants what the Lombardy poplar is amongst forest trees--tall, elegant, and distinct. Its use, however, is somewhat limited, owing to the stiffness of the stems and the shortness of the flower stalks; but when grown in pots--as it often is--for indoor decoration, it proves useful for standing amongst orange and camellia trees. It has very strong tap roots, and enjoys a deep rich loam. Not only does it look well among trees, but otherwise the partial shade of such quarters seems conducive to finer bloom. Flowering period, July to October. _C. p. alba_ is a white flowering variety of the above species; its other points of distinction are its smaller-sized leaves and much paler green colour, by which alone the plants may be easily recognised from the type. This variety may be grown with good effect in pots or the border; it scarcely gets so tall as the blue form, but looks well by the side of it. The readiest way to increase these plants is to take the young and dwarf growths from the woody crown of the roots, paring off a little of the bark with each. If these are put in sandy loam during the warm growing season and kept shaded for a few days, they will very soon make plenty of roots; this method in no way damages the flowers. Another way is by seed, but seedlings are two years before they bloom. Campanula Speciosa. SHOWY HAREBELL; _Nat. Ord._ CAMPANULACEÆ. A comparatively new species, brought from Siberia in 1825, and sometimes called _C. glomerata dahurica_. It is a good hardy plant, perennial and herbaceous, and one of the earliest to flower. It has a distinct appearance; it nearly resembles _C. aggregata_, but the latter does not flower until several weeks later. Apart from its likeness to other species of the genus, it is a first-class border flower, having large bells of a fine deep purple colour, and, unlike many of the Harebells, is not over tall, but usually about a foot high, having a neat habit. The flowers are arranged in dense heads, whorl fashion, having very short stalks; they are nearly 2in. long and bell shaped. The leaves (radical) are oval heart-shaped and stalked; those of the stems are sessile; the whole plant is hairy and robust. This is one of the flowers which can hardly be planted out of place in any garden, excepting amongst the rare and very dwarf alpines; it is not only true to its name, "showy," but handsome. It will grow and flower well in the worst soil and needs no sort of care; it would be fine in lines by a shrubbery, and is effective in bold clumps; and though a new kind, it belongs to a race of "old-fashioned" flowers, amongst which it would mix appropriately. Increased by division in autumn. Flowering period, June and July. Campanula Waldsteiniana. _Nat. Ord._ CAMPANULACEÆ. A rare and distinct alpine species from Carinthia. It proves perfectly hardy in this climate. For the rock garden it is a gem of the first water, its habit being dwarf, dense, and rigid; floriferous as many of the Bellflowers are, I know none to excel this one. As may be observed in the following description, there are not a few distinctive traits about it, which, more or less, go to make it a desirable subject for rare and choice collections. The flowers are a glistening bluish-lilac, erect, and ¾in. across when fully expanded. The corolla can hardly be said to be bell-shaped, as the five divisions are two-thirds of its depth, which allows it, when full blown, to become nearly flat, and as the segments are equal, sharply cut, and pointed, the flower has a star-like appearance. The little calyx is cup-shaped, angular, and has small, stout, horn-like segments, which are bent downwards. Each flower has a pedicel about 1in. long, which springs from the axils of the main stem leaves; the stems seldom exceed the height of 4in. or 5in., and they are exceedingly fine, thready, as also are the pedicels; they are, moreover, of zigzag form, from node to node. The leaves are ¾in. long, and less than ½in. wide, ovate or nearly cordate, partially folded, and sometimes reflexed at the ends, nearly stalkless, slightly toothed, smooth, of good substance and a peculiar grey-green colour. The foliage for two or three weeks is completely hidden by the large number of flowers, during which time it is a most attractive subject. I grow it with other dwarf Campanulas in a collection bed, where it compares well with the finest, such as _C. pulla_, _C. muralis_, and _C. Zoysii_, for effectiveness. Having proved it to thrive well in light sandy soil of a vegetable character, I have not tried it otherwise; it enjoys a sunny situation. The site should be well drained; it will endure nothing like stagnant moisture--its peculiar roots would indicate this fact, they are not only tender and fleshy, but thick and of a pith-like nature, and, as I have never been able to gather any seed, and the propagation has to be carried out by root division, there requires to be a careful manipulation of these parts, for not only do they split and break with the least strain, but when so mutilated they are very liable to rot. I have found it by far the better plan to divide this plant after it has begun to grow in March or April, when its fine shining black shoots, which resemble horse hairs in appearance, are about ½in. high. Slugs are fond of this plant; a dressing once a week of sand and soot, when it begins to grow, will keep them off. Flowering period, July and August. Centaurea Montana. MOUNTAIN KNAPWEED; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This is an "old-fashioned" and favourite flower. Every one must be familiar with its thistle-like formed flowers; it is sometimes called the large or perennial Cornflower and also the Large Bluebottle. The blue variety has been grown in English gardens since 1596. There are now white and pink coloured varieties, all rampant growers, very hardy and perennial. They are in every way superior to the annual kind, which is so largely grown, the flowers being more than twice the size, and produced two months earlier; the blooming period is maintained until late autumn. The flowers, as before hinted, are thistle-shaped; the pericline or knob just under the florets is cone-shaped, covered with evenly set and pointed scales, green, edged with a brown margin, set round with short bristle-like teeth. The florets of the outer ring are 1½in. long, tubular half their length, the wider portion being five to seven cut; the centre florets are short and irregular, richly tinted with pink at their bases; the whole flower or ray, when expanded, is 3in. across. They are produced on stems over 2ft. long and of a somewhat procumbent habit, angular and branched near the tops; the leaves are 3in. to 6in. long, lance-shaped, entire and decurrent, giving the stems a winged appearance. They are of a greyish colour--nappy--whence the name Knapweed. This vigorous species, with its white and pink varieties, may be grown in any kind of soil. It requires plenty of room; a two-year-old plant will form a specimen a yard in diameter under favourable conditions. The effect is good when all the three colours are grown near each other in bold pieces. They yield an unfailing supply of flowers, which are of a very useful type; in fact, the more they are cut the more they seem to bloom, and it is a good plan to cut short half the stems about June. They will (in a week or two) produce new shoots and large flowers in abundance, the gain being flowers of extra size during autumn. Propagated by division of the roots any time. Flowering period, June to September. Centranthus Ruber. _Syn._ VALERIANA RUBER--RED VALERIAN; _Nat. Ord._ VALERIANACEÆ. This is a strong and vigorous garden plant, with a somewhat shrubby appearance; it is herbaceous, perennial, and sometimes classed as a British species, therefore hardy; but though its classification among British plants is justifiable, it is only so on the ground of its being a naturalised subject, its original habitats being in the South of Europe. It is a favourite and "old-fashioned" flower, and it fully justifies the estimation in which it is held, the flowers being produced in large bunches of a fine rich colour, which are very durable. Its shrubby habit is not one of its least recommendations; seen at a distance--which it easily can be--it might be taken for a ruby-coloured rhododendron, to which, of course, it has no resemblance when closely inspected. It grows 2ft. high or more. The flowers are a bright ruby colour, very small, but closely massed in great numbers, borne in corymbs, terminal and much branched; "the calyx-limb, at first revolute, afterwards expanded into a feather-like pappus;" the corolla is tubular, long, slender, and spurred; the segments or petals are small and uneven, both in form and arrangement; the germen is long; anther prominent and large for so small a flower, viz., ¾in. long and hardly ¼in. in diameter. The stems are stout, round, hollow, and glaucous; they are furnished with leaves of various shapes at the nodes, as lance-shaped, long oval, heart-shaped and plain, elliptical and pointed, wavy and notched, and arrow-shaped, lobed, and toothed. The root leaves are mostly ovate, lanceolate, and entire. The whole plant is smooth and glaucous. From the description given, it may readily be seen that when in flower it will be effective--massive heads of ruby flowers topping a shrub-like plant of shining foliage and glaucous hue. It is eminently fitted for lines or borders where other strong growers are admitted. In a cut state the flowers are very useful; they are strongly scented, something like the lilac, with just a suspicion of Valerian in it. I ought not to omit mention of its extra brightness as seen by gaslight--this fact adds much to its value for indoor decoration. It may be grown in any kind of garden soil, needing nothing at any time in the way of special treatment; but if it is supplied with a little manure it will pay back with interest, in the form of extra-sized bunches and brighter flowers. _C. r. albus_ is a white-flowering kind of the above; its main points of difference are its paler green foliage, smaller sized corymbs, shorter growth, and rather later season of bloom. _C. r. coccinea_ is another kind; the specific name is misleading. It is not scarlet, but nearer a rose colour, and when compared with the typical colour it appears much inferior; still, it is a good variety. All the three colours, when grown side by side, are very showy when in bloom. This species, with its varieties, may be easily propagated by root divisions at any time from late summer to spring; the long fleshy roots should not be broken more than can be helped; every piece with a crown on it will make a flowering plant the first season. Flowering period, June to September. Cheiranthus Cheiri. COMMON WALLFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. This well-known evergreen shrub (see Fig. 24) is more or less hardy in our climate, according to the conditions under which it is grown. Although a native of the South of Europe, it rarely happens, however severe the winter may be in this country, that we are totally deprived of the favourite bouquet of Wallflowers in winter or early spring, while it is equally true that, during the hard weather of one or two recent winters, in numerous gardens every plant was killed. In favourable seasons its blooms are produced throughout winter, but the full blow comes in April. Three hundred years ago it was known by its present name; in this respect it is a rare exception, as most flowers have many and widely different names, especially the "old-fashioned" sorts, so that often the varied nomenclature hinders the identification of the species. At one time the Wallflower was called the "Gillyflower," but the name is now only applied to a biennial and single-flowered variety of the stock--a near relation of the Wallflower. More than 200 years ago Parkinson wrote, "Those Wallflowers that, carrying beautiful flowers, are the delights and ornaments of a garden of pleasure." [Illustration: FIG. 24. CHIERANTHUS CHEIRI. (One-fourth natural size.)] Of its well-known beauties, as regards its form, colour, varieties, and delicious perfume, description is needless, though I may say, in passing, that its fragrance renders it of value to those whose olfactory nerve is dead to the scent of most other flowers. Two errors are frequently committed in planting the Wallflower; first, at the wrong time, when it is nearly a full-grown specimen and showing its flowers; next, in the wrong way, as in rows or dotted about. It should be transplanted from the seed beds when small, in summer or early autumn, and not in ones and twos, but in bold and irregular groups of scores together; anything like lines or designs seems out of harmony with this semi-wildling. There is another and very easy method which I should like to mention, as a suggestion--that of naturalisation; let those near ruins, quarries, and railway embankments and cuttings, generously scatter some seed thereon during the spring showers, when the air is still; in such dry situations this flower proves more hardy than in many gardens. Moreover, they serve to show it to advantage, either alone or in connection with other shrubs, as the whin, which flowers at the same time; here, too, it would be comparatively safe from being "grubbed up." Flowering period, January to June. Cheiranthus Marshallii. MARSHALL'S WALLFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. A distinct and very hardy hybrid, being shrubby and tree-like in shape, but withal very dwarf. From the compact habit, abundance and long duration of its flowers, it is well suited for showy borders or lines. It is not yet well known, but its qualities are such that there can be no wonder at its quickly coming to the front where known. It differs from the common Wallflower in being more dwarf and horizontally branched, while the leaves are more bent back, hairy, and toothed; immediately below the floriferous part of the stem the leaves are more crowded, the stems more angular, the flowers much less, not so straggling, and of a dark orange colour. Other hybrids in the same way are being produced, differing mostly in the colour of the flowers, as lemon, greenish-yellow, copper, and so on. Plants a year old are so easily raised from cuttings, and form such neat specimens, that a stock cannot be otherwise than very useful in any garden; besides, they lift so well that transplanting may be done at any time. My finest specimens have been grown from their cutting state, on a bed of sifted ashes liberally mixed with well-rotted stable manure; in such light material they have not only done well, but, when a few roots were required, they lifted large balls without leaving any fibre in the ground. To have good stout stock before winter sets in, slips should be taken from the old plants as soon as they have done flowering; dibble them into light but well enriched soil, and give water in droughty weather only. I ought to mention that this dwarf Wallflower, and also its allied kinds, are capital subjects for very dry situations; on old walls and the tops of outhouses they not only do well, but prove decorative throughout the year. In such places plants will live to a great age, and sow their own seed freely besides. Flowering period, May and June. Chionodoxa Luciliæ. SNOW GLORY; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. A hardy bulbous perennial, from Asia Minor. It has only been cultivated about four years in English gardens; still it has been proved to be as hardy as the squills, which it very much resembles. Mr. Maw, who discovered and introduced it, found it "near the summit of the mountain," which (though it is a native of a much warmer climate than ours) may account for its hardy character. That it is a most beautiful flower is beyond doubt, but there are those who think it has been overpraised. It should not, however, be forgotten that Mr. Maw's description of it was from a sight of it in masses, a state in which it can hardly have been judged yet in this country, as until very recently the bulbs were very expensive. It has, however, taken kindly to our climate, and is likely to increase fast, when it may be seen to greater advantage. It grows to the height of 6in. or 8in.; the flower scapes, which are rather slender, are somewhat shorter than the foliage, the flowers being longer in the petals than the squills, almost star-shaped, and nearly 1in. across; later on they reflex. Their colour is an intense blue, shading to white in the centre of the flower. The flowers are produced in numbers, from three to six on a stem, having slender pedicels, which cause the flowers to hang slightly bell fashion. The leaves, from their flaccidness and narrowness, compared with the squills, may be described as grassy. The bulbs are a little larger than the kernel of a cob nut, nearly round, having satiny skins or coats. It may be grown in pots, and forces well if allowed first to make good roots, by being treated like the hyacinth. It should be kept very near the glass. It has also flowered fairly well in the open border fully exposed, but in a cold frame, plunged in sand and near the glass, it has been perfection. Single bulbs so grown in "sixties" pots have done the best by far. All the bulbs hitherto experimented with have been newly imported; very different results may possibly be realised from "home-grown" bulbs. It is also probable that there may be varieties of this species, as not only have I noticed a great difference in the bulbs, but also in the flowers and the habit of plant. This I have mentioned to a keen observer, and he is of the same opinion; be that as it may, we have in this new plant a lovely companion to the later snowdrops, and though it much resembles the squills, it is not only sufficiently distinct from them, but an early bloomer, which we gladly welcome to our gardens. It seems to do well in equal parts of peat, loam, and sand, also in leaf soil and sand. Flowering period, March and April. Chrysanthemum. _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. The flowers to which I would now refer the reader are of no particular species, but, like several other genera, this genus has been considerably drawn upon or utilised by the hybridiser, and the species, looked upon from a florist's point of view, have been much improved upon by their offspring. Not only are Japan and China the homes of the finer flowering species, but in these countries the Chrysanthemum has been esteemed and highly cultivated for centuries; in fact, such a favourite is this flower with the Chinese, that they have treated it with many forms of their well-known art in matters horticultural, and when the flower was brought to this country it would doubtless be in a form improved by them. It reached this country nearly 100 years ago, and was known by the names _C. indicum_ and _C. sinense_; about the same time a species from the East Indies was called _C. indicum_. This flower, from the time of its introduction, has been justly appreciated; and by the skill of several cultivators we have a largely increased number of forms and colours. Still, there are certain distinctions kept up amongst the varieties, and they are commonly known by such names as "large-flowering," "pompon, or small-flowered," "early flowering," "anemone-flowered," and "Japanese." These names, besides being somewhat descriptive, are otherwise useful to the amateur who may wish to grow a representative collection, and where there is convenience it is desirable to do so in order to observe their widely different forms and colours, as well as to enjoy a long succession of bloom. So well is the Chrysanthemum known that little could be usefully said of it by way of description; but well as it is known and easy as its culture is, there are few things in our gardens that show to greater disadvantage. This should not be with a subject which offers such range of habit, colour, and period of blooming; and when such is the case, there must be some radical mistake made. The mistake I believe to be in the selection, and that alone. If so, the remedy is an easy matter. Let me ask the reader to remember three facts: (1) Many sorts grown in pots and flowered under glass are unfitted for the borders or open garden. (2) The later flowering varieties are of no use whatever for outside bloom. (3) Of the early blooming section, not only may the finest varieties be grown with marked effect, but they, as a rule, are of more dwarf habit, and will afford abundance of bloom for cutting purposes for nearly two months. Selections are too often made from seeing the fine sorts in pots; let it be understood that all are perfectly hardy, but owing to their lateness, their utility can only be realised under artificial conditions. I am not now considering pot, but garden kinds, and no matter what other rules may be observed, if this is overlooked it will be found that though the plant may grow finely and set buds in plenty, they will be so late as to perish in their greenness by the early frosts; on the other hand, of the early section, some will begin to bloom in August, and others later, each kind, after being covered with flowers for several weeks, seeming to finish naturally with our season of flowers. There is nothing special about the culture of this very hardy and rampant-growing plant, but I may add that, though it will stand for many years in one place, and flower well too, it is vastly improved by division of the roots in autumn or early spring every second year. The earth of its new site should be deeply dug and well enriched with stable manure; it will not then matter much what sort of soil it is--the more open the situation the better. How grandly these decorate the borders when in masses! and as a cut flower I need hardly say that there are few to excel the Chrysanthemum, either as an individual bloom or for bouquet and other work. I do not frequently make mention of many florists' flowers by name, but in this case I think I may usefully name a few varieties: Andromeda, cream coloured, Sept.; Captain Nemo, rosy purple, Aug.; Cassy, pink and white, Oct.; Cromatella, orange and brown, Sept.; Delphine Caboche, reddish mauve, Aug.; Golden Button, small canary yellow, Aug.; Illustration, soft pink to white, Aug.; Jardin des Plantes, white, Sept.; La Petite Marie, white, good, Aug.; Madame Pecoul, large, light rose, Aug.; Mexico, white, Oct.; Nanum, large, creamy blush, Aug.; Précocité, large, orange, Sept.; Soeur Melaine, French white, Oct.; St. Mary, very beautiful, white, Sept. These, it will be seen, are likely to afford a variety and succession of bloom. Flowering period, August to November. Cichorium Intybus. _Syns._ C. PERENNE _and_ C. SYLVESTRE--WILD SUCCORY _or_ CHICORY; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This herbaceous perennial is a native plant, in many parts being very common. Not only, however, do many not know it as a wild flower, but we have the facts that under cultivation it is a distinct and showy plant, and that of late it has come into great request. Its flowers are a pleasing blue, and produced on ample branches, and for mixing with other "old-fashioned" kinds, either in the borders or as cut blooms, they are decidedly telling; for blending with other Composites it has its value mainly from the fact that blues are rare in September; the China asters are too short in the stalk for cutting purposes, and many of the tall perennial starworts are neither bright nor well disposed. I may also mention another proof of its decorative quality--it is not common (_i.e._, wild) in my district, and a plant being cultivated in my garden for its flowers has been so much admired that it is likely to have other patrons, and in many instances it is being introduced into gardens where the choicest flowers are cultivated. I am bound, however, to say that when not in flower it has the appearance of the commonest weed. Its flowers are produced when 2ft. to 6ft. high. They are of a fine glistening blue colour, 1in. to 1½in. across, and in the way of a dandelion flower, but stalkless individually, being disposed in ones, twos, and threes, somewhat distantly in the axils of the leaves, and all over the numerous and straggling branches. The leaves are rough, of a dingy green colour, and variously shaped, Gerarde's description being as follows: "Wilde Succori hath long leaues, somewhat snipt about the edges like the leaues of sow thistle, with a stalke growing to the height of two cubits, which is deuided towarde the top into many braunches. The flowers grow at the top blewe of colour; the roote is tough and woodie, with many strings fastened thereto." I find this plant not only enjoys a half shady place, but if it is so placed that its quick growing branches can mix with those of other subjects in a trellis or other supports, its coarser parts will not only be partially hidden, but the rich coloured flowers will show to advantage. I may mention that mine is mixed with Virginian creeper on wires, and the effect may easily be imagined. It will do in any kind of garden soil, but if deeply dug and well manured the flowers are vastly improved. Propagated by seed or division of the stout tap roots. Flowering period, August to September. Clethra Alnifolia. ALDER-LEAVED CLETHRA; _Nat. Ord._ ERICACEÆ. A hardy deciduous shrub, and mentioned in connection with herbaceous perennials because of its rich flowers and dwarf habit. It is a native of North America, having been grown in this country for 150 years; it is not so often met with as it ought to be, though much esteemed. It becomes very productive of flowers when only 2ft. high, but grows somewhat taller when well established; it is more valuable than common from its floriferousness, during late summer to the end of the season. Let me at once state that its winning point is the delicious scent of its pure white flowers; it is very powerful, and like that of the lilac and alder combined; the racemes are 2in. or 3in. long, and compactly formed of short-stalked flowers less than ½in. across; they are of good substance, and in form resemble the lilac flower minus the tube; the flower stems are somewhat woody, and foliaged to the base of the spike or raceme. The leaves are of varying sizes, oval, lance-shaped, and short-stalked, distinctly veined and slightly wrinkled, sharp but finely toothed, of a dark shining green colour on the upper and a greyish-green on the under side. The whole shrub is somewhat rough to the touch; the habit is bushy and branching, increasing in size from suckers; the numerous twiggy side shoots of the previous year's growth produce the flowers. It enjoys a light soil and sunny situation, and it may be planted anywhere in the shrubbery or borders as a first-class flowering subject. Its scent loads the air for some distance around, and pleasantly reminds one of spring flowers. Such sweet-smelling flowers are not too plentiful in September, and I know not a better one than this amongst hardy flowers for the late season. Its odour is fine and full; a single sprig now by me proves almost too much for the confinement of a room. This quality is invaluable in small flowers that can be freely cut, which, moreover, as in this case, are otherwise suitable for bouquet work. Propagated by cuttings and division of the suckers, taken when growth has ceased; if put in sandy loam and a warm situation, they will become rooted during the following spring. Flowering period, August and September. Colchicum Autumnale. MEADOW SAFFRON; _Common Name_, AUTUMNAL CROCUS; _Nat. Ord._ MELANTHACEÆ. A native bulbous perennial (see Fig. 25). The Colchicums are often confounded with the autumn-flowering species of croci, which they much resemble when in bloom; the similarity is the more marked by the absence, from both, of their leaves in that season, otherwise the leaves would prove to be the clearest mark of difference. Botanically they are far removed from each other, being of different orders, but there is no need to go into such distinctions, not, at any rate, in this case. [Illustration: FIG. 25. COLCHICUM AUTUMNALE (about one-sixth natural size.)] The flowers are well known and they need not be described further than by saying they are in form crocus-like, but much longer in the tubes and of a bright mauve-purple colour. The bulbs have no resemblance to the crocus whatever, being often four times the size of the crocus corms. Moreover, they are pear-shaped and covered with flaky wrappers of a chestnut brown colour; if examined, these coverings will be found, near the neck of the bulb, to be very numerous and slack fitting, extending above the ground, where they have the form of decayed or blackened foliage; a singular fact in connection with the roots is, they are not emitted from the base of the bulb, but from the side of the thickened or ovate part, and are short and tufty. In early spring the leaves, which are somewhat like the daffodil, but much broader and sheathed, are quickly grown; at the same time the fruit appears. In summer the foliage suddenly turns brown, and in the autumn nothing is seen but blackened foliage, which is very persistent, and which, a little later, acts as sheaths for the long-tubed flowers. Unless the weather be very unfavourable, these flowers last a long time--fully two weeks. The double variety, which is somewhat scarce, is even more lasting, and I may add, it is a form and colour so softly and richly shaded that it is nothing short of exquisite; but the single variety, now more especially under notice, is also capable of agreeably surprising its friends when used in certain ways, for instance, as follows: A tray of the bright green and nearly transparent selaginella, so common in all greenhouses, should form the ground for twos or threes of these simple but elegant Saffron flowers; no other should be placed near--their simplicity forms their charm. It will be seen that the robust but soft-coloured flower of the meadows harmonises finely with the more delicately grown moss. In other ways this fine autumnal flower may be used with pleasing effect in a cut state, and it blends well with the more choice exotics. This is more than can be said of many hardy flowers, and it is fortunate that during dull weather, when we are driven from our gardens, there are still some flowers which may be hastily gathered and so arranged indoors as to give us all the pleasure which only such flowers can yield at such a season. I find this subject to do well in any situation, but I think the blooms are a richer colour if grown under partial shade. The bulbs should not be disturbed if abundance of flowers are wanted; but if it is found desirable to propagate them, the bulbs may be lifted every two or three years, when the tops have withered, and when there will probably be found a goodly crop of young tubers. Flowering period, September and October. Colchicum Variegatum. _Nat. Ord._ MELANTHACEÆ. This comes from Greece, nevertheless it is perfectly hardy; it is not only peculiarly pretty when closely examined, but a truly handsome flower, either as cut bloom or seen in groups in a growing state. Compared with _C. autumnale_, it is shorter in the tube, or more dwarf; still, it is a larger flower, and its rosy purple petals, or divisions of the corolla, are more spear-shaped, and each from 2in. to 3in. long; they have a stout and almost white mid-rib, the other parts of the segments being distinctly and beautifully chequered with white and rosy purple; the tube is stout, and of transparent whiteness; the foliage less than that of the British species, and more wavy. The habit of the flowers is erect, and during sunshine they become flatly expanded, when they will be 4in. to 5in. across, being 3in. to 4in. high. It is a very durable flower, lasting at least a fortnight, and many are produced from one bulb, appearing in succession, so that the blooming period is well extended; it braves the worst weather with little or no damage. Unlike the longer-tubed varieties, it is never seen in a broken state, and it is this which mainly renders it superior. Either as a cut flower, or a decorative subject for the borders or rockwork, it is a first-rate plant, being neat and showy. It enjoys a sandy loam in a moist but warm situation; at the base of a small rockwork having a southern aspect it flourishes to perfection; it can hardly be planted wrongly provided there is no stagnant moisture. Propagated like _C. autumnale_, than which it is of slower increase. Flowering period, September and October. Coreopsis Auriculata. EAR-LEAVED COREOPSIS; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 26. COREOPSIS AURICULATA. (One-fourth natural size.)] The oldest species of the genus grown in English gardens; its flowers are yellow, but dotted at the base of the ray florets. The leaves, as implied by the name, are dissimilar to other species, being lobed and having ear-like appendages; but this feature is far from constant, and otherwise the leaves differ, being sub-sessile and oval-lance-shaped (see Fig. 26). It came from North America as long ago as 1699. Slugs are very fond of these plants, and in winter more especially, when the dormant eyes are not only in a green, but exposed state; they should be watched after, or during one mild night the whole may be grazed off, to the great injury of the plant. Its habit, uses, culture, and propagation are the same as for _C. tenuifolia_. Coreopsis Grandiflora. LARGE-FLOWERED COREOPSIS; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. In many parts this resembles _C. lanceolata_, its main distinction being implied by its name. The flowers are larger and the ray florets more deeply cut; it is also bolder in the foliage, and the stems grow nearly as strong as willows. It is an abundant bloomer, and a good specimen is a glorious object during the autumn. It comes from North America, but my experience of it is that it is not so hardy as _C. lanceolata_ and _C. auriculata_. Habit, uses, culture, and propagation, as for _C. lanceolata_. Coreopsis Lanceolata. SPEAR-LEAVED COREOPSIS; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This form of bright yellow flower is in great favour during August, but that is not all. The various kinds of this genus are plants of the easiest culture, and their rich flowers are produced in great quantities from midsummer to the time the frosts begin. This species has been said to be only of a biennial character; it is, however, understood generally to be perennial, though not quite so hardy as others which come from the colder climates of America. It was imported from Carolina in 1724, and in this country proves hardy in selected situations, where its roots are comparatively dry in winter, and I may add that it proves a true perennial. When the plant has attained the height of a foot it begins to flower; each bloom has a long pedicel, nearly naked, also round and smooth. The flowers are a shining yellow colour, and nearly 3in. across; the florets of the ray are flatly arranged, shield-shaped, pleated, and four-toothed, the teeth being sometimes jagged; the disk is small for so large a flower; the florets brown and yellow. The double involucrum, common to the genus, has its upper set of bracteoles rolled outward; they are of a brownish colour; the lower set are green and wheel-shaped during the period of a perfect ray, and they alternate with the upper ones. The leaves, as may be inferred from the specific name, are lance-shaped, 2in. to 6in. long, smooth and entire; they are attenuated to the stems, which they more or less clasp. The habit of the plant is much branched, but only slightly at base; it becomes top-heavy from the numerous shoots near the top, which cause it to be procumbent; otherwise this subject would rank with tall growers. It is one of the most useful flowers, both, in the garden and when cut, the long stalks in both cases adding much to its effectiveness; its form and brightness are sure to commend it, no matter whether it happens to be a fashionable flower or otherwise. It is at once a bold and delicate form, and one that harmonises with any other kinds and colours. It should be grown in deeply-dug and well-enriched earth, and, as already hinted, the drier the situation the more safely will it winter. Not only that, but on raised beds or banks sloping to the full sunshine it will also flower to perfection. All its family, so far as I have proved them, hate excessive moisture. Its propagation may be by division, as in this damp climate it does not seem to ripen seed, but I have found sometimes not a little difficulty in dividing the woody roots, as frequently there is only one stem below the surface with roots. When there are more the difficulty is lessened, but I have noticed that the stronger branches which are weighted to the ground form rudimentary roots where in contact with the earth. These may either be pegged and covered with soil, or cut off and made into cuttings, removing most of the tops. If the latter is done during August they will become well rooted before the frosts appear. Flowering period, July to October. Coreopsis Tenuifolia. SLENDER-LEAVED COREOPSIS; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. Hardy, herbaceous, and perennial; a native of North America, and a distinct species, from its finely-cut foliage and small, dark, orange-yellow flowers. For several weeks it has a few flowers, but during September it literally covers itself with bloom, so that it is one of the most pleasing objects in the garden. It grows 2 ft. high; each flower has a long nearly nude stalk, slender but wiry; the flowers are 1½in. across, and of a deep yellow colour; the florets of the ray are more distant from each other than is the case with many of the genus; the disk is small, dark brown, but changing from the appearance and disappearance of the yellow seed organs. The foliage, as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 27), is deeply and finely cut, of a dark green colour, and so arranged that each node has a nearly uniform dressing; the main stems are slender, and bend gracefully with the least breeze, and otherwise this plant proves a lively subject. Its habit is bushy and very floriferous, and it is well worth a place in every garden. It cannot fail to win admiration; even when growing, and before the flowers appear, it is a refreshing plant to look upon. In a cut state, the bloom, if taken with long stems, is well adapted for relieving large and more formal kinds. Tastes differ, and in, perhaps, nothing more than floral decorations; all tastes have a right to a share of indulgence, and in claiming my privilege in the use of this flower, I should place two or three sprays (stems) alone in a glass or bright vase, but there might be added a spike of the cardinal flower or a pair of single dahlias and a falling spray of the Flame nasturtium (_Tropæolum speciosum_). This plant should have a rich soil, sunny aspect, and a raised or well-drained site, and this is all it needs; it is not a subject to increase fast; not only, however, may it be easily divided, but if properly done after the tops have died down, the smallest pieces will make good blooming stock the first season. [Illustration: FIG. 27. COREOPSIS TENUIFOLIA. (One-sixth natural size; _a_, half natural size.)] Flowering period, August and September. Cornus Canadensis. CANADIAN CORNELL, _or_ DOGWOOD; _Nat. Ord._ CORNACEÆ. This pretty herbaceous plant is sometimes said to be a British species; its specific name, however, somewhat forbids that opinion. _C. suecica_, which is British, is very similar in all its parts, and the two may have been confounded. They flower, however, at very different dates, _C. Canadensis_ beginning in June and continuing until well into autumn; during the month of August the flowers are in their finest form and greatest numbers. It grows 6in. to 8in. high, and notwithstanding its dwarfness, it proves a most attractive object, being not only conspicuous for so small a plant, but chastely beautiful. [Illustration: FIG. 28. CORNUS CANADENSIS. (One-half natural size.)] The flowers are exceedingly small, strictly speaking, and are arranged in a minute umbel in the midst of a bract of four white pink-tinted leaves; these latter are commonly taken for the petals, and, as may be seen in the illustration (Fig 28), the real flowers will only appear as so many stamens; but at their earlier stage these are of a yellowish colour; later the purplish style becomes prominent and imparts that colour to the umbel, and, in due time, small fruit are formed. All the while the bract of pleasing white leaves remain in unimpaired condition; they are arranged in two pairs, one of larger size than the other, somewhat heart-shaped and bluntly-pointed, richly tinted at their edges and tips with a bright pink colour, and forming a flower-like bract 1½in. across the broadest part. The bract and pedicels of the umbel all spring from the extremity of a peduncle 1½in. long, square, but of wiry character; this grows from the midst of a whorl of six leaves, and sometimes only four. They are in pairs, one pair being larger than their fellows, and are from 1½in. to 2in. long, elliptical-oblong, entire, smooth, waved, distinctly veined, tinted with pink at the tips and edges, and of a pale apple-green colour. On the stem, below the whorl of leaves, there is one pair more, varying only in size, being rather less. The habit of the species is neatness itself. From the slightly creeping roots, the perennial stems are produced separately, forming compact colonies of bright foliage, topped with its lively bracts. It is a suitable plant for the moist parts of rockwork, where it may be grown with such things as _Cardamine trifolia_, _Galax aphylla_, _Pyrola rotundifolia_, and _Salix reticulata_, and it would form a rich edging to choice dwarf plants, more especially if the position were gutter-formed, as it loves moisture in abundance. In such positions as those just mentioned, together with a light vegetable soil, this plant will grow to perfection, and that it is worth a proper place is evidenced by its long-continued blooming. Many flowers come and go during its period of attractiveness, and, after the summer flush, it is one to remain, braving alike the hot sunshine and heavy rain. Its propagation is by division of the roots in autumn or very early spring. Flowering period, June to October. Corydalis Lutea. YELLOW FUMITORY; _Nat. Ord._ FUMARIACEÆ. A native herbaceous perennial, though somewhat rare in a wild state. As grown in gardens, where it seems to appreciate cultural attentions, it proves both useful and effective, especially when placed in partial shade (when its foliage has an almost maiden-hair-like appearance), or as an edging it proves both neat and beautiful. It seldom exceeds a foot in height. The flowers are small, a yellow, white and green mixture, the yellow predominating; they are produced in loose spare racemes, on well-foliaged diffuse stems, which are also angular; the calyx is composed of two leaves; the petals are four, forming a snapdragon-like flower. The leaves are bipinnate, leaflets wedge-shape, trifoliate, and glaucous; the foliage very dense, having a pretty drooping habit. It flowers all summer, and is one of the most useful plants in a garden to cut from, the foliage being more valuable than the flowers. Its native habitats are said to be old walls and ruins, but I have proved it for years to do grandly in ordinary garden soil, both exposed and in the shade of fruit trees. When once established it propagates itself freely by seed. I ought to add that it answers admirably grown in pots for window decoration, the rich foliage nearly hiding the pot. Flowering period, May to October. Corydalis Nobilis. NOBLE _or_ GREAT-FLOWERED CORYDALIS; _Nat. Ord._ FUMARIACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 29. CORYDALIS NOBILIS. (One-half natural size; blossom, natural size.)] A hardy tuberose perennial, imported from Siberia in 1783. It is one of that section of the Fumitories called "Hollowe Roote," the appropriateness of which name is most amply illustrated in the species now under consideration. If, in the first or second month of the year, a strong specimen is examined, the long and otherwise stout tuberous root will be found, immediately under the healthy and plump crown, to be not only hollow, but so decayed that the lower and heavy fleshy parts of the root, which are attached to the crown by a narrow and very thin portion of the root bark, in such a way as to suggest that the lower parts might as well be cut off as useless--but, let me say, do not cut it. If it is intended to replant the specimen, let it go back to "Mother Earth" with all its parts, deformed as some may seem to us; otherwise _Corydalis nobilis_ will be anything but a noble plant at the flowering season; it may not die, but it will probably make for itself another "hollowe roote" before it produces any flowers, The habit and form of this plant are perfect (see Fig. 29), and there are other points of excellence about it which cannot be shown by an engraving, in the way of the arrangements of colours and shades. Seldom does the little plant, so full of character, exceed a height of 8in. The specimen from which the drawing was made was 7in., and grown fully exposed in a pot plunged in sand. Another plant, grown on rockwork, "high and dry," is about the same size, but it looks better fed. Probably the long roots are short of depth in pots, and the amount of decay may soon poison the handful of mould contained therein. Be that as it may, the specimens grown in pots have a hungry appearance compared with those less confined at the roots. The flowers are a pleasing mixture of white, yellow, brown, and green. The four petals are of such a shape and so arranged as to form a small snapdragon-like flower. These are densely produced in a terminal cluster in pyramid form on the stout and richly-foliaged stem; dense as is the head of flowers, every floret is alternated with a richly-cut leaf, both diminishing in size as they near the top. The older flowers become yellow, with two petals tipped with brown, the younger ones have more white and green, and the youngest are a rich blend of white and green; the head or truss is therefore very beautiful in both form and colour, and withal exquisitely scented, like peach blossom and lilac. The leaves are stalked bipinnate; leaflets three-parted, cut, and glaucous; there are few plants with more handsome foliage, and its beauty is further enhanced by the gracefully bending habit of the whole compound leaf. The flowers are too stiff for cutting, and otherwise their fine forms, colours, and perfume cannot well be enjoyed unless the plants are grown either in pots or at suitable elevations on rockwork, the latter being the more preferable way. The long blooming period of this plant adds not a little to its value, lasting, as it does, quite a month, the weather having little or no effect on the flowers. Any kind of sweet garden soil seems to do for it, and its propagation is carried out by careful root division. Flowering period, April to June. Corydalis Solida. _Common Name_, FUMITORY; _Nat. Ord._ FUMARIACEÆ. This is said to be a British species, but it is a doubtful, as well as somewhat scarce one. Though but a small plant of the height of 6in. or 8in., it is very effective, being compact with finely-cut foliage of a pale glaucous green, and the stems pleasingly tinted. For some weeks in early spring it forms a graceful object on rockwork, where it seems to thrive well. The flowers, which are purple, are not showy; still, they are effective from the way in which they are borne, as the illustration (Fig. 30) will show. Its specific name is in reference to its root, which is bulbous and solid. Many of the Fumitories have remarkably hollow roots, and one of the old names of this genus is written "Hollowe roote." When the flowers fade the whole plant withers, nothing being left but the bulbous roots to complete their ripening; still, this should not hinder its extensive cultivation, because it not only appears in its best form when flowers are rare, but also because it is so pleasingly distinct. [Illustration: FIG. 30. CORYDALIS SOLIDA. (One-half natural size.)] I find it to do well on rockwork, also in well-drained borders of light loam. It should be allowed to increase until it forms good-sized tufts, which it soon does. To propagate it, it is only necessary to divide the tubers any time from July to October. Flowering period, February to May. Crocus Medius. _Nat. Ord._ IRIDACEÆ. This is a charming kind, seldom seen and, perhaps, little known; the name would imply that it is a variety having equal traits of two other forms. It blooms in January and the flowers appear without any foliage. So well is the Crocus known, it will only be needful to state the more striking features of the one under notice. The flowers are produced on tubes 3in. to 5in. long, and stoutly formed; the colour is a shaded lilac-purple, striped with darker lines; the petals or divisions of the perianth are 1½in. long and ½in. broad, shining or satiny, and become well expanded during the short moments of winter sunshine; the stamens are half the length of perianth, of a fine deep orange colour, and covered with a thick coat of pollen all their visible length. In rich contrast with these is the style, with its tuft of filaments of a bright orange scarlet colour. From this description it will be seen that the flower is a rather small Crocus, but from the soft tints of the perianth, and more pronounced and bright colours of the seed organs, it is one of much beauty. These features, added to the facts of the bloom appearing in winter and having the scent of wild roses, are sure to render it a favourite kind wherever grown. The leaves are short and narrow, almost grassy. It enjoys a light but rich loam and sunny aspect, and increases itself freely by offsets of the matured corms, clumps of which may be divided after the foliage has withered. Flowering period, January. Cyananthus Lobatus. _Nat. Ord._ POLEMONACEÆ. A small plant with a large flower, a veritable gem; no collection of choice alpines can be complete without this species. A native of Chinese Tartary, brought to this country in 1844, where it proves perfectly hardy in the most exposed parts of the open garden; it is herbaceous and perennial; its large and brilliant flowers are very beautiful, but all its other parts are small, as may be seen in the illustration (Fig. 31). It is seldom met with except in collections of rare plants, but there is no reason why it should not be more commonly grown, as its requirements are now well understood. It is not a showy subject, but, when examined, it proves of exquisite beauty. The flowers are of a bright purple-blue colour, over an inch across, the petals being of good substance, tongue-shaped, and falling backwards, when the china-like whiteness about the top of the tube becomes more exposed; the calyx is very large, nearly egg-shaped, having five finely-pointed and deeply-cut segments; the bulky-looking part, which has an inflated appearance, is neatly set on a slender stem, and densely furnished with short black hairs of even length; this dusky coat has a changeable effect, and adds not only to the character, but also to the beauty of the flower. The small attenuated leaves are alternate and laxly arranged on the flower stems, which are 6in. to 12in. long, round, and nearly red. Each leaf is less than 1in. long, distinctly lobed with five or more lobes, and all the edges are turned back, causing the foliage to appear thick and well finished; the foliage of the stems not bearing flowers is more closely set. The habit of the plant is procumbent; stems contorted, and producing solitary flowers. [Illustration: FIG. 31. CYANANTHUS LOBATUS. (Natural size.)] It should be grown on rockwork, where its stems can nestle between the stones and its roots find plenty of moisture, as in a dip or hollowed part; the long and fleshy roots love to run in damp leaf mould and sand. The position should be open and sunny, in order to have flowers. Cuttings may be taken during summer, and struck in sandy peat kept moist, or strong roots may be divided. The latter method is the less desirable, not only because of jeopardising the parent stock but also because strong roots show to greater advantage when not separated. Flowering period, September and October. Cypripedium Calceolus. ENGLISH LADY'S SLIPPER; _Nat. Ord._ ORCHIDACEÆ. This well-known terrestrial orchid is a rare British plant, very beautiful, and much admired, so much so, indeed, that many desire to grow it. It happens, however, that it seldom thrives under cultural treatment, and seems to prefer a home of its own selection, but its habitats are said now to be very few in Great Britain, it having been hunted out and grubbed up everywhere. Fortunately, it can be grown in gardens, and in good form, though rarely seen thus. To see well-grown flowers of this orchid either makes us feel more contented with our own climate or strongly reminds us of others where the most gorgeous varieties of flowers and fruit grow wild. It is large and striking, fragrant, and very beautiful; no one can see it, especially in a growing state, without being charmed by its freshness and simplicity; it also forms one of the finest specimens for the student in botany, and in every way it is a plant and flower of the highest merit (see Fig. 32). It should be in all collections of choice plants, and every amateur should persevere until he succeeds in establishing it. [Illustration: FIG. 32. CYPRIPEDIUM CALCEOLUS. (One-third natural size.)] Under cultivation it flowers in early May, at a height of 9in. to 12in.; the flowers are composed of a calyx of three brownish-purple sepals, which have only the appearance of two, from the fact of the lower two being joined or grown together, and even so combined they are somewhat less than the upper sepal. The division may be observed at the tips, though in some specimens it is microscopic--in the one now by me it is hardly the eighth of an inch. Two petals; these are cross-form in relation to the sepals, of the same colour, and a little longer--about 2in.--narrow, drooping, pointed, and slightly twisted when a few days old; lip, "blown out like a slipper," shorter than the sepals, compressed, richly veined, and lemon yellow. The seed organs are curious, the stigma being foot-stalked, peltate, and placed between and above the anthers. The leaves are pale green, very hairy, many-ribbed, stem-clasping, alternate, ovate, and slightly wavy; the lower ones are 5in. or 6in. long and 2in. to 3in. wide, and pointed. The root is creeping, the fibres stout, long, wiry, and bent. During spring the plant makes rapid growth, and seldom bears more than one flower; for the first time a plant produced two with me in 1882. They are sweetly scented, like the primrose. Many amateurs, who have otherwise proved their knowledge of the requirements of plants by growing large and choice collections, have failed to establish this after many trials; and were it not for the fact that with me it is growing in various positions and under different modes of treatment, and that it has so grown for several years, I think I should not have ventured to give hints to experienced horticulturists. In my opinion, four conditions are strictly necessary in order to establish this native orchid in our garden: (1) A strong specimen with a goodly portion of the rhizoma attached; (2) Firm or solid planting during autumn; (3) Moist situation; (4) Shade from the mid-day sun. Further information may be best given by stating the _modus operandi_: Several years ago a number of good roots were planted in sandy loam of a calcareous nature. They were put in somewhat deeply, the roots carefully spread out, and the soil made solid by repeated waterings, the position being shaded by an apple tree. They are now well established, and only receive a top dressing of leaves and manure to keep them cool and moist in summer. At the same time a number were potted deeply in loam, peat, and broken oyster shells; when filling in the compost, it, too, was washed to the roots, so as to make all solid by frequent applications; the pots have always been kept in cool and shady quarters, and plunged; they bloom well every season. I have likewise found another plan to answer well. In a moist corner make up a low-lying bed of sand and peat, mostly sand, plant 9in. deep, and make all solid, as before, by water. When the growths appear on the surface, water with weak liquid manure, and if shade does not exist from the mid-day sun, some should be provided; in this way I am now growing my finest specimens; but if once the roots become dry, the plants will suffer a serious check. I feel equally confident that the roots enjoy a firm bed, but it should be of such material that they can freely run in it. Flowering period, May and June. Daphne Cneorum. TRAILING DAPHNE; _Common and Poetical Name_, GARLAND FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ THYMELACEÆ. An alpine shrub from Austria; dwarf, evergreen, and having a tendency to creep. It is deservedly a great favourite; it wins admiration by its neat and compact form and its dense and numerous half-globular heads of rosy pink flowers, which are exceedingly fragrant, in the way of the old clove carnation, but more full. [Illustration: FIG. 33. DAPHNE CNEORUM. (One-fourth natural size; (1) flower, full size.)] The flower buds are formed during the previous season of growth, like those of the rhododendron; for many days before the flowers open the buds have a very pleasing appearance, being closely packed and coral-like; when all the florets are expanded they form a half-globular head 1in. to 1½in. across, being of a lively pink colour. The flowers are composed of a tubular calyx, four-parted; leaves inversely ovate, lanceolate, pointed, and entire; about an inch long, and narrow; of a dark green colour and much substance, being arranged in circular form on the round and somewhat wiry, tough stems, which in time become very long and bare. In order to grow this shrub well, three conditions are needful, viz., a moderately pure atmosphere, exposure to full sunshine, and plenty of moisture; it also prefers peat or vegetable soil, but this is not strictly needful if the other conditions are present. I have grown the specimen, from part of which the illustration (Fig. 33) was drawn, for four years in rich loam, without a particle of peat, but the roots have been protected against drought by large stones at the base of small rockwork. Doubtless, peat, where it is plentiful, used in addition to the above compost, would prove beneficial. After a few years' growth in one position, bushes which have become long and bare in the stems may be transplanted with advantage, laying in the stems to a moderate depth, from which new roots will issue the first season; this is also the readiest way of propagation. February or September would be suitable months for such operation, but the latter would probably interfere with its flowering at that time, when frequently a second but spare crop is produced. Flowering periods, April and May, and again in September. Daphne Mezereum. MEZEREON; _Old Names_, SPURGE-FLAX, GERMAN OLIVE-SPURGE, _and_ DWARF BAY; _Nat. Ord._ THYMELACEÆ. This is a dwarf deciduous shrub, which produces its welcome flowers in great abundance whilst bare of leaves; it is a British species, though not occurring generally, yet it is pretty well known from its extensive cultivation as a garden shrub. The flowers are very desirable, from the way in which they are produced in knotted clusters on the long stems; they appear in winter; moreover, they are of a hardy and durable nature and very sweetly scented. As a shrub it is very suitable for any sized garden, being dwarf--2ft. to 4ft. In some parts it is a general favourite, and may be seen in almost every garden; such patronage is well merited, as it not only enlivens the garden at a dead season, but it heralds spring time and furnishes long sprigs of wallflower-scented blossom as cut bloom, which shows to advantage by gaslight. There are interesting facts in connection with this shrub that add to its charm. It was esteemed of old of great virtue; all its parts are hot and biting, more especially the berries, of which it was said that "if a drunkard do eate--he cannot be allured to drinke any drinke at that time: such will be the heate of his mouth and choking in the throte." Its wood is very soft and tough, and cannot easily be broken; this, however is a quality common to the genus. The berries are poisonous to man, but birds are so fond of them that they are rarely allowed to become ripe, at least, such is the case near towns. The seeds of this and allied species are used in the South of Europe as a yellow dye for wool. From its importance, the shrub has been long and widely known, and both its botanical and common names are numerous; for these, however, the reader may not care. It is seldom called by any other than its specific name, Mezereon, which Gerarde describes as English-Dutch. Its flowers, which are purple, come on the otherwise naked stems of last season's growth, lateral fashion, in threes mostly, and sometimes the blossomed stems will be over a foot in length; the flowers are ½in. long, sessile and funnel-shaped; the limb four-cut; sweet smelling and very durable. The berries are the size of a small pea, bright green at first, then turning to red, and ultimately to a nearly black colour. The leaves--lance-shaped, smooth, and deciduous--appear after the flowers. The habit is branched and erect, forming neat bushes. In a wild state it flowers in March and April, but under cultivation it is much earlier. In the garden it may be planted under other trees, where it proves one of a scarce class of shade-loving flowering shrubs; it also does well in open quarters. In gardens, where its fruit is unmolested, it is, perhaps, more attractive than when in blossom, as then the foliage adds to its beauty. The flowers in a cut state are serviceable, pretty, and desirable from their sweetness; long sprigs mixed with lavender or rosemary form a winter bouquet not to be despised; or, it may be placed in a vase, with a few small-leaved ivy trails and a spray of evergreen bamboo (Metake). Gerarde's description of this shrub will, doubtless, be read with interest: "The braunches be tough, limber, and easie to bend, very soft to be cut; whereon do grow long leaves like those of priuet, but thicker and fatter. The flowers come foorth before the leaves, oftentimes in the moneth of Januarie, clustering togither about the stalks at certain distances, of a whitish colour tending to purple, and of a most fragrant and pleasant sweet smell. After come the smal berries--of an exceeding hot and burning taste, inflaming the mouth and throte of those that do taste thereof, with danger of choking." Flowering period, February to April. There is a variety called _D. M. album_; the only difference from the typical form is implied by the name, the flowers being white. It also is in bloom at the same time as the species. _D. M. autumnale_ is another variety, which, however, blooms in the autumn; the flowers are red; it is a native of Europe. These shrubs enjoy a light but moist soil of a vegetable nature, but they also thrive in a sandy loam. They may be increased by seed, or, more quickly, by grafting on stocks of spurge laurel; cuttings may be rooted, but are uncertain. Dentaria Digitata. TOOTHWORT; _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. A hardy, tuberous perennial, native of Switzerland, but long cultivated in British gardens, and decidedly "old-fashioned." Imagine a spray of pale purple wallflower, and that will give some idea of the form and colour of its flowers, which are produced on round wiry stems, nearly a foot high, in terminal racemes. The leaves, which are produced mostly in threes on a stem, have a channelled petiole, and, as the specific name denotes, are spread out like fingers, mostly of five parts; a five-cut leaf of a Christmas rose will give a fair notion of the form, but the Toothwort leaves are less, not so thick, and more herb-like than the hellebore; they are also finely, deeply, but irregularly toothed. The roots are of singular form, almost like human teeth, arranged as scales, whence the name Toothwort. Its first appearance above ground is in February, when the young growths are bent or folded like those of the anemone, and in genial seasons it will flower early in March. It loves both a little shade and moisture. I grow it at the base of a bit of rockwork, in black or leaf mould; the aspect is south-east, but an old sun-dial screens it from the mid-day sun. The whole plant has a somewhat quaint appearance, but it has proved a great favourite. When the tops have died down the roots can safely be lifted, cut in lengths of one or two inches, and then replanted. It also produces seed freely, but from the easy method of increase by root division, I have not had occasion to experiment with seed. Flowering period, March to May. Dianthus Deltoides. MAIDEN PINK; _Old Names_, "WILD GILLOFLOWER," "VIRGIN-LIKE PINKE," "MAIDENLY PINKE"; _Nat. Ord._ CARYOPHYLLACEÆ--SILENACEÆ. A British species of perennial character, never failing to bloom for a long period when it meets with a suitable home in our gardens--as in positions similar to those described for _Erysimum pumilum_. Seen either wild or in gardens it is much admired; it bears but simple flowers, but therein consists its beauty. As Gerarde says, "Virgin-like Pinke is like unto the rest of the garden pinkes in stalkes, leaves, and rootes. The flowers are of a blush colour, whereof it tooke his name, which sheweth the difference from the other." It is about the most simple form of the Pink tribe. The flowers are a little over ½in. across, of a rose colour or pleasing blush. It grows nearly a foot high in some soils, but in a poor compost it is more dwarf and floriferous. The flower stems are much divided near the tops, and capable of producing a good effect from their numbers of bright flowers. The leaves are small, scarcely 1in. long, linear, lance-shaped, and of a dark green colour; they are closely arranged on decumbent stems, which sometimes are more than 1ft. long. The habit is compact, both as regards leaves, stems, and flowers. For all such places as afford dryness at the roots this is a suitable plant as a constant bloomer of effective colour. When once it has become established it seeds freely, and the young plants may be seen in the walks for yards around the parent stock. It is one of those happy subjects that can take care of themselves, either braving its enemies or having none. In its wild state it blooms from the sixth to the tenth month, both inclusive; but with cultural attention and during favourable winters, it has been seen in flower to the end of the year. Flowering period, June to October. Dianthus Hybridus. _Syn._ D. MULTIFLORUS; MULE PINK; _Nat. Ord._ CARYOPHYLLACEÆ. Hardy and evergreen. The specific name of this variety is not at all descriptive, and it may be better to at once give its common name of Mule Pink, of which there are various colours, as bright scarlet, rose and pure white, all very double and neat flowers. It is the double rose kind which has induced me to speak of this section of the Pink and Sweetwilliam family. I dare say many will be surprised when I state that my strongest plant of this has been in flower more than two years. Severe as the 1881 winter was, when the plant was clear of snow it was seen to have both flowers and buds--in fact, for two years it has flowered unceasingly; the other varieties are not such persistent bloomers. The genus to which these hybrids belong is very numerous, and includes Carnations, Picotees, garden and alpine Pinks and Sweetwilliams. They are all remarkable for their fresh green and glaucous foliage and handsome flowers. Some species or varieties are amongst the "old-fashioned" garden plants of Parkinson's time, and all are characterised by an exquisite perfume. The Latin name of this genus is a very happy one, meaning "divine flower," in reference to its fragrance. Nearly every form and colour of Dianthus are popular favourites, and hardly any garden is without some of them. The Mule Pink is supposed to have been produced from _D. barbatus_ and _D. plumarius_; be that as it may, the features of both are distinctly seen in it: the colour and partial form of the foliage, the form of stems, and clustered arrangement of the buds much resemble _D. barbatus_ or Sweetwilliam; whilst the stout reflexed and pointed features of the leaves, and the general form of the small but double flowers resemble _D. plumarius_, or the garden Pink. To this description of _D. hybridus_ I will only add that in both foliage and flowers there is more substance than in either of its reputed parents, and the habit of the plant is semi-trailing or procumbent, as seen in specimens three years old. It is rather more difficult to grow than the common Pink. Any position or soil will not answer; it does well on rockwork, where it can hardly suffer from damp, so much disliked by all the genus; but if thus planted, it should be where its thickly-foliaged stems cannot be turned over and wrenched by strong winds. It may be grown in borders in sandy loam; and if such borders are well drained, as they always should be for choice flowers, there will be little to fear as to its thriving. Such an excellent flower, which, moreover, is perpetually produced, deserves some extra care, though, beyond the requirements already mentioned, it will give very little trouble. To increase it, the readiest way is to layer the shoots about midsummer, half cutting through the stems, as for Carnations; thus treated, nice plants will be formed by October, when they may be lifted and transplanted to their blooming quarters; and I may here state that a line of it, when in flower, is richly effective. A good style also is to make a bold clump by setting ten or twelve plants 9in. apart. Another mode of propagation is to take cuttings at midsummer and dibble them into boxes of leaf soil and sand. Keep them shaded and rather close for a week or more. If the boxes could be placed in a cucumber frame, the bottom heat and moisture would be a great help to them. The object to aim at should be not only to root the cuttings, but to grow them on to fair-sized plants for putting out in the autumn. To do this, when the cuttings are rooted they should be planted 6in. apart in a bed made up of well decayed manure and sand, in which it will be seen that they will make plenty of roots and become sturdy plants. The wireworm and slugs are both very fond of Pinks and Carnations. Slugs should be trapped, but the wireworm, unfortunately, has often done the mischief before we become aware of its presence, and even then it is a troublesome pest to get rid of. I find nothing more useful than stirring and digging the soil as soon as there is room to work with a spade or fork; the worm cannot endure frequent disturbance, and such operations are otherwise beneficial to the plants. Flowering period, May to September. Dodecatheon Jeffreyanum. _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. This is a distinct and noble species. The older leaves are more spoon-shaped, at least a foot long, rather narrow, not toothed, of a reddish colour at the base, and the mid-rib pale green, almost straw-colour; the flower scape is also reddish, but the flowers are fewer. As a foliage plant this species is very effective. All the Dodecatheons make a rapid growth in spring, their scapes being developed with the leaves; the genus will continue in flower for two months, after which time, however, their foliage begins to dry up. They should, therefore, be planted with other subjects of later growth and blooming, so as to avoid blank spaces. The overshading foliage of other things will do them no harm, as it will be only for a season. The position should be moist and somewhat sheltered from high winds, or the stout and tender flower stems will be snapped off. The soil should be of a vegetable character and retentive of moisture. My specimens are grown in leaf soil and loam, in a dip of small rockwork. All the kinds were planted that a large flat stone, which we had ready, would so fit to, or over, them as to secure their roots against drought. This I find a good plan with moisture-loving subjects, where suitable positions are not otherwise readily offered. Besides, the varieties so grown have a pleasing appearance, and for purposes of comparison are very handy. Their propagation is easy. The crowns may be divided either in spring or autumn, the latter being the best time, as then probably each piece will flower the following spring. Flowering period, April to June. Dodecatheon Meadia. SHOOTING STAR, _or_ AMERICAN COWSLIP; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. A distinct and pretty herbaceous perennial, very hardy and floriferous. Those who do not readily recognise it by any of the above names, may do so by the illustration (Fig. 34). It has long been grown in English gardens--nearly 150 years--its habitat being North America. Not only does it do well in this climate, but since its introduction several improved varieties of this species have been produced, which are both good and distinct. A brief notice of them will not be out of place here, but first the general description may as well be given. [Illustration: FIG. 34. DODECATHEON MEADIA. (One-sixth natural size.)] The flowers much resemble the Cyclamen, but they are only about one-fourth the size; the calyx is five-parted; the corolla has five stout petals inserted in the tube of calyx; they are well reflexed and rather twisted; their colour is purplish-lilac, but at the base of the petals there is a rich blending of maroon and yellow. The seed organs are very long, compact, and pointed, giving the appearance of shooting stars. The flowers are arranged in fine clusters on a scape more than a foot high, each flower having a rather long, wiry, and gracefully bending pedicel; all of them spring from one centre. The leaves are radical, oblong, smooth, dented, and wavy, about 8in. long and nearly 3in. broad. _D. M. albiflorum_ I do not grow, but from what I remember of it, it differs from the above only in being less vigorous and in having white flowers. _D. M. elegans_.--Shorter and broader in leaf, and roundly toothed; flower stems shorter, umbels more numerously flowered, bloom deeper in colour. _D. M. giganteum_ has a very large leaf, much larger than the typical form of the species, and of a pale green colour, and in all other respects it is larger, being also more than a week earlier in flower. Flowering period, April to June. Dondia Epipactis. _Syns._ ASTRANTIA EPIPACTIS _and_ HACQUETIA EPIPACTIS; _Nat. Ord._ UMBELLIFERÆ. This is a little gem, perhaps rather overdone with too many big names; still, this choice, hardy, herbaceous perennial is worth knowing by all its titles. Never more than 6in. high, its singular flowers are very attractive; they spring from the ground almost abruptly, are greenish-yellow and leafy in appearance--in fact, what at first sight might seem to be the petals are really but whorled bracts, which embrace the tiny umbels of flowers. Soon after the flowers the leaves begin to appear, unfolding like many of the anemones, each one springing from the root only; they also are of a peculiar colour and shape, being three-lobed and finely notched. It will stand any amount of rough weather, always having a fresh appearance when above ground. It forms a choice specimen for pot culture in cold frames or amongst select rock plants; it should be grown in mostly vegetable mould, as peat or leaf mould, and have a moist position. Not only is it a slow-growing subject, but it is impatient of being disturbed; its propagation should therefore only be undertaken in the case of strong and healthy clumps, which are best divided before growth commences in February. Flowering period, April and May. Doronicum Caucasicum. LEOPARD'S-BANE; _Syn._ D. ORIENTALE; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. The specific name denotes sufficiently whence this comes. It is hardy, herbaceous, and perennial, and one of those plants which deserves to be in every garden; its general appearance is that of a tender plant, from the pale but fine delicate green of its foliage, a somewhat uncommon shade for so early a season. It begins to flower in March in a warm situation in the garden, when only a few inches high, and it goes on growing and flowering until summer, when it is nearly 2ft. high. A glance at Fig. 35 will give a fair idea of its habit. [Illustration: FIG. 35. DORONICUM CAUCASICUM. (One-third natural size.)] The flowers, which are bright yellow, are 2½in. across, produced one at a time, though the leafy stems are well supplied with buds in various stages of development. The leaves, besides being so rich in colour, are of handsome forms, being variously shaped, some having long stalks, others none; all are finely toothed and heart-shaped; the radical ones come well out and form a good base, from which the flower stems rise, and they in their turn serve to display the richly veined and ample foliage which clasps them to near their tops. Although this species is not a very old plant in English gardens, it belongs to a genus, several species of which are very "old-fashioned," and, consequently, it shares the esteem in which such subjects are held at the present time. If left alone, after being planted in fairly good soil, it will soon grow to a bold specimen. Plants three years old are 2ft. across; rockwork or ordinary borders are alike suitable for it, but if planted on the former, it should be of a bold character, so as to harmonise. I have observed that neither grubs nor slugs seem to meddle with this plant, which is certainly a rare recommendation. Its propagation may be carried out at almost any time. Flowering period, March to July. Echinacea Purpurea. _Syn._ RUDBECKIA PURPUREA; PURPLE CONE-FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. In the autumn season one is almost confined to Composites, but in this subject there is, at any rate, a change, as regards colour. Yellows are indispensable, but then predominate too strongly. The flower under notice is a peculiar purple with greenish-white shadings. This will doubtless sound undesirable, but when the flower is seen it can hardly fail to be appreciated. It is much admired; in fact it is stately, sombre, and richly beautiful--not only an "old-fashioned" flower, but an old inhabitant of English gardens, coming, as it did, from North America in the year 1699. In every way the plant is distinct; it does not produce many flowers, but they individually last for several weeks, and their metallic appearance is a fitting symbol of their durability. They begin to expand in the early part of September, and well-established plants will have bloom until cut off by frost. The flowers are borne at the height of 2ft. to 3ft., and are produced singly on very thick, rigid stalks, long, nearly nude, grooved, furnished with numerous short, bristle-like hairs, and gradually thickening up to the involucrum of the flower. Said involucrum is composed of numerous small leaves, a distinguishing trait from its nearest relative genus _Rudbeckia_. The receptacle or main body of the flower is very bulky; the ray is fully 4in. across, the florets being short for so large a ray; they are set somewhat apart, slightly reflexed, plaited, and rolled at the edges, colour reddish-purple, paling off at the tips to a greyish-green; the disk is very large, rather flat, and furnished with spine-like scales, whence the name _Echinacea_, derived from _echinus_ (a hedgehog). In smelling this flower contact should therefore be avoided; it is rather forbidding; the disk has changeable hues of red, chocolate, and green. The leaves of the root are oval, some nearly heart-shaped, unevenly toothed, having long channelled stalks; those of the stems are lance-shaped, distinctly toothed, of stouter substance, short stalked, and, like those of the root, distinctly nerved, very rough on both sides, and during September quickly changes to a dark, dull, purple colour. The habit of the plant is rather "dumpy;" being spare of foliage, thick and straight in the stems, which are drum-stick like; it is for all that a pleasing subject when in flower; I consider the blooms too stiff for cutting, more especially as they face upwards. Unlike many species of its order, it is somewhat fickle. I have lost many plants of it; it likes neither shade nor too much moisture; latterly I have found it to do well in a sunny situation, in deep rich loam and vegetable soil mixed. If planted with other ray flowers it forms a fine contrast, and when once it has found suitable quarters the more seldom it is disturbed the better. It may be propagated by division, which may be more safely done after growth has fairly started in spring, or it may be done at the sacrifice of the flowers in late summer or early autumn, before growth or root action has ceased. Flowering period, September to end of October. Edraianthus Dalmaticus. _Nat. Ord._ CAMPANULACEÆ. A rare and beautiful alpine species, from Dalmatia and Switzerland. At the end of July it is one of the most distinct and charming flowers in the rock garden, where it not only finds a happy home, but, by its neat and peculiar habit, proves a decorative subject of much merit. This desirable plant (see Fig. 36) is quite hardy in this climate, being herbaceous and perennial; it has, however, the reputation of being difficult to manage, but, like numerous other things, when once its requirements and enemies are found out, the former supplied and protection from the latter afforded, it proves of easy management. In some instances these conditions may, though stated in such few words, prove comprehensive; but in this case it is not so. The position and soil it most seems to enjoy may be readily afforded in any garden, as we shall shortly see; but, so far as my experience goes, the slugs are its most persistent enemies. Especially when in flower do they make long journeys to reach it; they go over sand and ashes with impunity, and often the beautiful tufts of bloom are all grazed off in one night. I had occasion to fetch in from the garden the specimen now before me, and, when brought into the gaslight, a large slug was found in the midst of the grassy foliage, and a smaller one inside one of the bell flowers. The "catch and kill 'em" process is doubtless the surest remedy, and three hours after sunset seems to be the time of their strongest muster. Not only does this plant suffer from slugs when in flower, but perhaps equally as much when in its dormant state, especially if the winter is mild; then I have noticed the somewhat prominent crowns eaten entirely off, and it is not unlikely that this plant has come to have the name of a fickle grower, from being the favourite prey of slugs. [Illustration: FIG. 36. EDRAIANTHUS DALMATICUS. (One-half natural size.)] It is not more than 4in. high under any conditions in this climate, and more often only 3in. in height. From the thrift-like tufts of foliage there radiates a set of stout round flower stalks, which are 3in. to 4in. long, and rest on the ground; the large heads of flowers are erect; the stalks are red, and furnished with short stout hairs and short foliage, the latter becoming sere long before the bloom fades. The crowded heads of "bells" are of pale purple colour, in the style of the bell-flower; they are an inch in length, the corolla being somewhat deeply divided; eight to twelve form the terminal cluster, and they have a fleshy calyx, with very long and persistent segments; the lower part can scarcely be seen for the ample and somewhat peculiar bract which closely embraces the whole cluster; said bract springs from the much thickened stalk and is composed of half leaf and half scale-like forms, arranged in two or more circles; the scales feather off with the leaf-like appendage, the latter being reflexed, but the whole is furnished with spines. The foliage of a well-grown specimen is arranged in tufts, the whole having a grass-like appearance. The leaves are 2in. to 4in. long, rough and hairy on the upper side, smooth and shining underneath, the edges having rather long hairs their whole length; the main root is long, thick, and somewhat woody. To grow this plant well, it requires a good deep loam for its long roots, and a surfacing of grit will be of benefit, as the crowns should be clear of the damp loam. This elevation of the crowns is natural to the plant, and should be provided for. The position cannot well be too exposed, provided the deep searching roots can find plenty of moisture. On rockwork this subject may be planted with considerable effect. If put between large stones in upright positions, the plant will show its pretty form to advantage. The spoke-like flower stalks, radiating from the rich dark green tufts of foliage, are very pleasing. It may be propagated by offsets from strong and healthy plants. Care should be taken not only to have all the roots possible with each crown, but the young stock should be carefully established in pots before planting in the open. Shade and careful watering will be needful; too much of the latter will render rot inevitable. Soon as the flowering period is past is the best time to divide the roots, which should not be done too severely. Flowering period, July and August. Epigæa Repens. CREEPING _or_ GROUND LAUREL; _Nat. Ord._ ERICACEÆ. A hardy evergreen creeper, long since imported into this country from North America (1736), but only within the last few years has it won much favour. At the present time it is much sought after. It has the reputation of being a ticklish subject to grow. Many have had it and lost it, and those who still retain a specimen are loth to mutilate it for increase. This may to some extent account for the present demand for and difficulty experienced in obtaining it. For the last three years, hard as the seasons have been within that time, its flowers have been produced in great abundance on my specimen. Usually it flowers in this climate in April, but when winter has continued open and genial, its blooms are produced as early as the middle of March, and they are in their full beauty in early April. They are white, delicately tinged with pink, of much substance and wax-like appearance. They are small, not unlike in form the lilac flower, but rather more open at the corolla and shorter in the tube. They are arranged in one-sided, elongated bunches, which rest on the ground, the blossoms peeping through the foliage. I must not omit to mention perhaps the most desirable property of this species--viz., the perfume of its flowers, which is strong, aromatic, and refreshing. The leaves are cordate, ovate, and entire, nearly 2in. long, slightly drawn or wrinkled, and covered with stiffish hairs. They are arranged on procumbent branches, all, like the flowers, facing upwards. To see the clusters of waxy flowers these branches must be raised, when it will be seen that the flower stalks issue from the axils of the leaves all along the branches. In a cut state the flowers are more than useful; they are, from their delicious, scent, a great treat. The plant is a suitable companion to the ledums, kalmias, gaultherias, and other genera of its own order. Its culture, in this climate at least, has, from all accounts, proved rather difficult, so that it may be said to require special treatment; such, at any rate, has been my experience of it. Suitable soil, aspect, shelter, moisture, and position, all seem necessary for the well-doing of this plant. It deserves them all, and, let me add, they may all be easily afforded. The list of requirements may seem formidable on paper, but to put them into practice is but a trifling affair. My specimen is grown in leaf mould, a little loam mixed in with it, and fine charcoal instead of sand, but sand will answer nearly as well; the aspect is east, it is sheltered from the west by a wall, the north by rhododendrons, and the south by a tall andromeda. Moreover, its position is one that is sunken between small mounds, where moisture collects, and is never wanting; and when the specimen was first planted a large sandstone was placed over its roots to further secure them against drought; under these conditions it has thriven and flowered well, and afforded many offshoots. I attribute its well-doing mainly to the sheltered aspect and even state of moisture, but doubtless all the conditions have helped its growth. Its propagation is best carried out by earthing up about the collar, so as to induce the branches to become rooted, or they may be pegged near the extremities like carnation layers, but they will be two years, probably, before they can be safely lifted. Flowering period, middle of March to end of April. Eranthis Hyemalis. _Syn._ HELLEBORUS HYEMALIS; WINTER ACONITE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This, though well known and a general favourite, is not seen in the broad masses which ought to characterise its culture. It is nearly related to the Christmas roses, and, like them, flowers in winter, the bright golden blossoms suddenly appearing during sunshine close to the earth. A little later the involucrum becomes developed, and is no unimportant feature. It forms a dark green setting for the sessile flower, and is beautifully cut, like the Aconite. There are other and very interesting traits about this little flower that will engage the study of botanists. It enjoys a moist soil, somewhat light; also a little shade. In such quarters not only do the tubers increase quickly, but the seed germinates, and if such positions are allowed it, and garden tools kept off, there will soon be a dense carpet of golden flowers to brighten the wintry aspect of the open garden. Many things in the way of deciduous flowering shrubs may be grown with them, their bareness in winter and shade during summer favouring their enjoyment and growth. Early in the summer they die down. From that time the tubers may be lifted and transplanted. Such work should be finished in early autumn, or the roots will not have time to establish themselves for the first winter's bloom. Flowering period, December to February. Erica Carnea. WINTER HEATH; _Nat. Ord._ ERICACEÆ. A well-known, hardy, evergreen shrub, belonging to a genus comprising many hundreds of species and varieties, which, for the most part, however, are not hardy in this country, being natives of the Cape. The genus is most numerously and beautifully illustrated in _Loddige's Botanical Cabinet_. This might be thought to have no claim to consideration in this book, but I introduce it because of its great value in the spring garden, and because in all respects it may be cultivated like an ordinary border plant, which is saying a deal for one of the Heath family. _Erica carnea_ comes to us from Germany, but it has so long been grown in this country that it would appear to have become naturalised in some parts. In the latter part of March it is to be seen in its full beauty; the flowers are reddish-purple, abundantly produced on short leafy stems, and arranged in racemes, drooping; the foliage is of the well-known Heath type; the whole shrub has a procumbent habit, rarely growing more than a foot high; its fine deep green foliage, compact habit, and bright enduring flowers are its chief recommendations; the latter often last six weeks in good form and colour, so that little more needs to be said in its praise. It can hardly be planted in a wrong position--on rockwork, in borders, or shrubberies, fully exposed, or otherwise, it proves a cheerful object, whilst as an edging shrub it is second to none, excelling box by the additional charm of its flowers. Not long since I was struck by the way in which the common vinca had interlaced itself with a few bushes of this Heath, both being in full bloom at the same time; the effect was truly fine, the red of the Heath and pale blue flowers of the periwinkle being so numerous and set on such a fine bright green carpet, of two distinct types of foliage, that to my mind they suggested a most pleasing form of spring bedding, and also one of semi-wildness, which, for quiet beauty, more laboured planting could certainly not excel. Most Ericas require peaty soil; in the case of this, however, it is not necessary. Doubtless it would do well in peat, but I have ever found it to thrive in ordinary loam or garden soil, so that I have never planted it otherwise, except where peat has been the most handy. It is also easily propagated, carrying, as it does, plenty of root as well as earth with each rooted stem; these only need to be carefully divided and transplanted in showery weather, just before the new growths commence being the best time. An annual top dressing of leaf mould is very beneficial. Flowering period, February to April. Erigeron Caucasicus. CAUCASION FLEABANE; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. Herbaceous and perennial. This species is a somewhat recent introduction compared with some of the same genus which may be called old varieties, from having been introduced as early as 1633, as in the case of _E. graveolens_. Moreover, the genus is represented by such British species as _E. acris_, _E. alpinus_, and _E. uniflorus_. The variety now under notice is, as its specific name implies, a native of the Caucasus, first brought into this country about sixty years ago. It is a pleasing subject when in flower, and is certainly worth growing. Its daisy-shaped flowers are less than an inch across, and when fully matured of a rosy purple colour; but, perhaps, the most interesting and attractive features about this plant are the various forms and colours of its flowers at their different stages of development; just before opening, the buds are like miniature birds' nests formed of white horsehairs, all arranged in the same way, _i.e._, round the bud, but the points are turned into the centre--these are the unexpanded florets; the next stage of development may be seen in buds, say, two days older, when a few of the florets have sprung from the nest form, and have the appearance of mauve-coloured spiders' legs laid over the bud; gradually they (being dense and numerous) expand in a similar manner, outgrowing their angularity, and at the same time deepening in colour, until at length we see the rosy-purple, daisy-shaped, and feathery flower with a yellowish centre. These pleasing flowers are borne in loose masses on stems nearly 2ft. high, and remain in bloom all the summer through. About the middle of August a large plant was divided, and the flowers were then cut away. The young stock so propagated were in flower in the following June. I may here appropriately name an experiment I tried on this species two years ago. It was sent to me as the dwarf _Aster dumosus_, which it much resembles in the leaves, these being spoon-shaped from the roots, the others tongue-shaped and stem-clasping, but rougher and lighter green. I also saw it was not woody enough in the stem for the Michaelmas daisy. It was then near flowering, and the winter was just upon us, so, in order to get the flowers out, I covered it with a bell glass, slightly tilted. It flowered, and continued to flower throughout the winter with such shelter, and doubtless many of our fine late-blooming perennials, by such simple contrivances, might have their flowers protected or produced at a much later date than otherwise. Flowering period, June to October. Erigeron Glaucum. _Syn._ CONYZA CHILENSIS; GLAUCOUS FLEABANE, _or_ SPIKENARD; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This very beautiful species is far from common. There are many facts in connection with it which render it of more than ordinary value and interest. It is sometimes classed as an alpine; probably that is only an inference, or it may be so considered by some, from its dwarf habit and suitable association with alpines. It is not an alpine; it comes from South America, and though that climate differs so widely from ours, the plant grows and winters to perfection in this country. One of its main distinctions is its somewhat shrubby and evergreen character; of the whole genus, so far as it is at present comprehended, it is the only species with such traits; its foliage, too, is of leathery substance, and compares oddly with the herb-like leaves of its relatives; it is, moreover, as indicated by its specific name, of a glaucous hue; and otherwise, as may be seen in the following description, there exist well marked dissimilarities. But, what is of more importance, when viewed as a garden subject or an ornamental flower, it is one of the most useful as well as distinctly beautiful, as much from the fact that it produces its flowers in two crops, which extend over six or seven months of the year, as from their numbers and showiness. The flowers are nearly 2in. across the ray, the florets being of a pleasing lilac-purple, and rather short, owing to the large size of the disk, which is often nearly an inch in diameter; this part of the flower is more than usually effective, as the disk florets become well developed in succession, when they have the appearance of being dusted with gold; the scales, which are set on the swollen stem, are of a substantial character; the numerous imbricate parts, which are covered with long downy hairs pointing downwards, give the body of the flower a somewhat bulky appearance. It will be observed that I have made no mention of the Conyza traits of divided ray florets and reflexed scales, simply because they do not exist in this species, and though there are other Conyza traits about the plant, notwithstanding its almost isolating distinctions from other Erigerons, it would seem to have more properly the latter name, and which is most often applied to it. The flower stems, which produce the flowers singly, seldom exceed a height of 12in.; they are stout, round, and covered with soft hairs, somewhat bent downwards. They spring from the parts having new foliage, and for a portion--about half--of their length are furnished with small leaves, which differ from those on the non-floriferous parts of the shrub, inasmuch as they have no stalks. The leaves are produced in compact tufts on the extremities of the old or woody parts of the shrub, which become procumbent in aged specimens; the leaves vary in length from 2in. to 4in. long, and are roundly spoon-shaped, also slightly and distantly toothed, but only on the upper half; they are stout, ribbed, clammy, and glaucous. The habit of the shrub is much branching, dense, and prostrate; its foliage has a pleasant, mentha-like odour, and the flowers have a honey smell. This subject may occupy such positions as rockwork, borders of the shrubbery, or beds of "old-fashioned" flowers. Its flowers, being, as taste goes at the present time, of a desirable form, will prove very serviceable as cut bloom. A good loam suits it to perfection, and no flower will better repay a good mulching of rotten manure. Its propagation, though easy, is somewhat special, inasmuch as its woody parts are stick-like and bare of roots, until followed down to a considerable depth, therefore the better plan is either to take advantage of its prostrate habit by pegging and embedding its branches, or, as I have mostly done, take cuttings with a part of the previous season's wood to them, put them well down in deeply-dug light soil, and make them firm. If this plan is followed, it should be done during the summer, so that the cuttings will have time to root before winter sets in. The layering may be done any time, but if in spring or summer, rooted plants will be ready for the following season. This subject begins to flower in June, and, as already hinted, it produces two crops of flowers; the first are from the parts which have been green and leafy through the winter, the second from the more numerous growths of the new season, and which are grandly in bloom in August; not only are the latter more effective as regards numbers and colour, but the fuller habit or more luxuriant condition of the shrub render the specimens more effective in late summer. Eryngium Giganteum. GREAT ERYNGO; _Nat. Ord._ UMBELLIFERÆ. This hardy species was brought from the Caucasus in 1820. The genus, though not commonly patronised as garden subjects, are, nevertheless, highly ornamental, and when well grown much admired. Specimens are of various heights, according to position and nature of the soil; under ordinary conditions they will be 2ft. to 3ft. high at the blooming period. [Illustration: FIG. 37. ERYNGIUM GIGANTEUM. (One-tenth natural size.)] As will be inferred from the order to which the Eryngium belongs, the flowers are aggregate, of a changeable blue, and arranged in cone-shaped heads 1½in. long; the heads are neatly embraced by an ample bract of prickly leaves; the main flower stem is well and evenly branched (see Fig. 37), each node being furnished with leaves which clasp the stems; they are, like those of the flower bract, deeply cut and prickly; the radical leaves are very different, long stalked, large heart-shaped and toothed, of good substance and a glossy green colour. The whole plant has a rather stiff appearance, the flower stems, together with the stem leaves, are of a pleasing hue, nearly the colour of blue note paper; this is characteristic of several of the genus, and adds greatly to their effect. Specimens look well with a grassy foreground or in borders. Their culture is easy, provided the soil is of a light nature; a sunny position is needful, in order to have the tops well coloured. Propagate by division of strong and healthy clumps when dormant. Wireworm and grub are fond of the roots; when the plants appear sickly, these pests should be looked for. Flowering period, August and September. Erysimum Pumilum. FAIRY WALLFLOWER, _or_ DWARF TREACLE-MUSTARD; _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. One of the alpine gems of our rock gardens, not in the sense of its rarity, because it grows and increases fast. It came from Switzerland about sixty years ago, and for a long time was esteemed as a biennial, but it is more--it is perennial and evergreen; at any rate its new branches take root, and so its perennial quality is established. Let the reader imagine a shrub, 3in. high, much branched, and densely furnished with pale green foliage, which hides all its woody parts, forming itself into cushions, more or less dotted over with minute canary-yellow flowers, and he will then only have a poor idea of the beauty of this pretty alpine. It flowers in summer, autumn, and winter, and in certain positions both its habit and flowers show to most advantage at the latter season. At no other time during the year have my specimens looked so fresh and beautiful as in January. This I have proved repeatedly to be the result of position, shortly to be explained. The flowers are produced in terminal racemes, are scarcely ½in. across, cruciform in the way of the Wallflower, greenish-yellow, and delicately scented. The leaves vary in shape on the various parts of the branches, some being lance-shaped and others nearly spoon-shaped; the lower ones being all but entire, and the upper ones, which are arranged in rosettes, distinctly toothed. They seldom exceed an inch in length, more often they are only half that size, but much depends on the position and soil. In summer the foliage is greyish-green; later it is almost a bright or clear green, the latter being its present colour. The habit is branching and compact, by which it adapts itself to crevices and uneven parts in a pleasing manner; and not only does it best adorn such places, but from the fact of their dryness, they are better suited to the requirements of this little shrub. A sandy loam, such as will not bake, suits, and if mixed with a few stones all the better--this will be found ample food for it; poor soil and a dry situation grow this subject in its finest form. I may perhaps usefully give the method by which my specimen is grown, after experimenting with it in various parts of the garden, and also the substance of a few notes I made of it. In pots the fine roots soon formed a matted coat next the sides, when the foliage would turn sickly and yellow, so that, useful as the practice is of growing alpines in pots, it does not answer in this case. On rockwork, in vegetable soil, this low shrub grew taller, being less woody, and was killed by severe weather. On the flat, in borders, in rich soil, it did well for a season, then damped off, a branch or two together. On the flat, in sand alone, it does well, also on the top of a wall, such being a position especially provided for hardy sempervivums and a few cacti. A bit of the Fairy Wallflower was tried there in a thin layer of sandy loam, and for two years my finest specimen has occupied that position, flowering more or less throughout the winter. Where there are old walls or rockwork it should be introduced. A ready and effective way of planting it is to get a sod of grass 3in. thick; measure with the eye the size of the interstice in the side of a wall, partly cut through the sod on the earthy side, open it by bending, and insert the roots of a small specimen; close up, and cram the planted sod tightly into the selected opening. In one season the shrub so planted will have a snug and pretty appearance. It is self-propagating, from the fact of its lower branches rooting where they touch the soil. These may be taken any time and planted separately. Flowering period, April to winter. Erythronium Dens-canis. DOG'S-TOOTH VIOLET; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. A hardy bulbous perennial. There are several varieties of this species, and all are very handsome. The variety shown at Fig. 38 is the large white-flowering kind; others have yellow, pale purple, and lilac-coloured blooms. All are produced singly on stems 4in. or 5in. long, and gracefully bending. During bright weather the divisions of the lily-like flowers become reflexed and otherwise show themselves to advantage. Their foliage forms a rich setting for the flowers, being variously coloured with red, brown, and different shades of green, all charmingly blended or marbled. The leaves are broad and oval, and open out flatly, so that their beauties can be well seen; if they are grown amongst the very dwarf sedums or mosses, they look all the better and are preserved from splashes. Two leaves, one stem, one flower, and one bulb constitute a whole plant; both flowers and foliage remain in beauty for a long time. I have them growing in various positions and soils, and I think they most enjoy a vegetable mould, with full exposure to the sun, but they should not lack moisture; they seem to increase more rapidly in peat than in any other compost. They should not be disturbed more than necessary, and when they are, autumn is the best time to transplant. [Illustration: FIG. 38. ERYTHRONIUM DENS-CANIS. (Large white variety. One-half natural size.)] Flowering period, March and April. Euonymus Japonicus Radicans Variegata. VARIEGATED ROOTING SPINDLE TREE; _Nat. Ord._ CELASTRACEÆ. It is probable that the genus _Euonymus_ is more generally known than that of _Celastrus_, from which the order takes its name; besides, the latter is composed of unfamiliar genera, so it is more likely that the reader will not care about any reference to them; it may concern him more to know that the above somewhat long name belongs to a very dwarf hardy evergreen shrub, having a neat habit and very beautiful foliage. This variety is one of many forms which come under the name _E. japonicus_, none of which, however, have long been cultivated in this country, the date of the introduction of the type being 1804. The genus is remarkable for the number of its species having ornamental foliage, and not less so, perhaps, for the insignificance of their flowers. The species under notice (_E. japonicus_) in cultivation has proved sportive, which habit has been taken advantage of, whence the numerous forms, including the one I have selected for these remarks. Some of the Spindle Trees do not flower in this climate, and others, which do, produce no seed; these facts are in connection with the more finely leaf-marked sorts, and it may be inferred that such unfruitfulness arises from their hybrid nature or abnormal tendency, as seen in "sports." The typical form is a tree growing 20ft. high, producing small white flowers, but of the variegated kind under notice established specimens have ever failed to show the least sign of flowering, though otherwise well developed and of good habit. The leaves are nearly oval, ½in. to 1½in. long, sometimes oblong, sharply serrulated, of stout leathery substance, smooth, and much variegated in colour. The markings are mostly on and near the edges, and take the form of lines and marblings. The tints are a mixture of white, yellow, and pink, inclining to purple; these are variously disposed on a dark green ground. The arrangement of the leaves is crowded and panicled on the recent shoots, which are twice and thrice branched; from the shortness and twisted shape of the leaf stalks, the branchlets have a compressed appearance. The old stems are round, wiry, 9in. to 18in. long, prostrate, and emit roots like the ivy when they come in contact with suitable surfaces, whence the name "_radicans_." The habit of the shrub, from its dense and flattened foliage, fine colour, and persistent nature, together with its dwarfness and rooting faculty, all go to render it one of the finest rock shrubs for winter effect. The wetness of our climate only seems to make it all the brighter, and it is also without that undesirable habit of rooting and spreading immoderately. It enjoys a sunny situation and enriched sandy loam. Where such conditions exist it may be planted with good effect as a permanent edging to walks or beds; as such it may be clipped once or twice a year, but I may add that it is worth the extra time required for pruning with a knife, as then the leaves are not cut in two and the outline is left less formal. By such treatment the foliage is kept thick to the base of the shrub. The summer prunings may be pricked into sandy loam in a shady part, where they will root and become useful stock for the following spring, or strong examples may be pulled to pieces of the desired size. Festuca Glauca. BLUE GRASS; _Nat. Ord._ GRAMINEÆ. This comes from the warm climate of Southern Europe, but is a perfectly hardy grass in this country; it is highly ornamental, irrespective of its flowers, and is useful in several ways. With me it is grown somewhat largely, and both professional and amateur gardeners have quickly appreciated its effectiveness, but it has been amusing to see their want of faith when told that "it stands out all winter." It belongs to a section of grasses of fine quality as fodder for cattle, all enjoying good soil of a light and rich nature. Its main features as a garden subject are its distinct blue colour and dense graceful habit; these qualities, however, are greatly dependent on the quality of soil, which must be positively rich. Its bloom is of no value ornamentally, being much like that of some of our common meadow grasses, and it will be as well to remove it in order that the grass may be all the brighter and more luxuriant. The blades, if they can be so called, are reed-like, but very fine, 6in. to 12in. long, densely produced, and gracefully bending. The glaucous quality is most pronounced, and quite justifies the common name Blue Grass. More need not be said to show that this must be effective in a garden, especially where bedding and the formation of bold lines are carried out; as single tufts, on rockwork, or in the borders, it looks well; whilst as an edging to taller grasses and bamboos it shows all to advantage. It is also often grown in pots in greenhouses, where it proves useful for drooping over the edges of the stage; but if it once obtains a place in the garden and is well grown, the amateur will see in it a suitable subject for many and varied uses. Wherever it is planted the soil should be made sandy and fat with manure; in this the long roots are not only warmer, but they amply support a rapid growth and metallic lustre. As the roots can easily be lifted from the light soil without damage, this grass may be divided any time when increase is needful. Flowering period, summer. Fritillaria Armena. _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. A charming little hardy bulbous perennial, which, although as yet a comparative stranger in this country, bids fair to find a place not only in our gardens, but in the list of the choicest spring favourites, such as lily of the valley, snowdrops, snowflake, and squills, being of the same or nearly allied order, as well as of corresponding stature. Its yellow flowers, too, highly commend it, as, with the exception of the yellow crocus, we have not a very dwarf spring flower of the kind, and, as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 39), it differs widely from the crocus in every way. [Illustration: FIG. 39. FRITILLARIA ARMENA. (One-half natural size.)] This is a really charming species; its dark yellow flowers are large for so small a plant, being more than an inch across when expanded by sunshine, but its more common form is bell-shape; one, and sometimes more flowers are produced on the upright, smooth, leafy stem, which is less than 6in. high. The leaves are alternate linear, sharply pointed, smooth, and glaucous: Such dwarf flowers always show to most advantage, as well as keep cleaner, where carpeted with suitable vegetation; the dark green _Herniaria glabra_ would be perfection for this glaucous plant. It seems happy where growing fully exposed in ordinary garden soil, but it is not unlikely that it may require more shade, in common with other Fritillaries, for, as before hinted, it is yet in its trial stage. I am, however, pretty certain of its hardiness, but not about the best mode of culture and propagation. Flowering period, April and May. Funkia Albo-marginata. _Common Name_, WHITE-EDGED PLANTAIN-LEAVED LILY; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. A hardy herbaceous perennial from Japan, of but recent introduction, than which there are few more useful subjects to be found in our gardens. It combines with its wealth of foliage a bold spike of pleasing lilac flowers, the former, as implied by the specific name, being edged with a white line, which is broad and constant, this quality being all the more commendable from the fact that many variegations are anything but reliable. Speaking of this as a decorative plant for the garden, it may be said to be one of the best; however placed, it has a neatness and beauty which are characteristic, especially when used in lines, and has become well established; from early spring, when the fresh young leaves appear, until the autumn is well advanced, this plant upholds a fine appearance independent of its flowers; they are, however, not wanting in beauty, produced as they are on stems nearly 2ft. high, and nude with the exception of one or two very small leaves. The floral part of the stem will be 8in. or more in length; the flowers are numerous, 2in. long, trumpet-shaped, drooping, and so arranged that all fall in one direction; the colour is lilac, with stripes of purple and white; each flower is supported by a bract, which, like the foliage, is margined with white. The leaves are 6in. to 8in. long, oval-lanceolate, waved and ribbed, of a dark green colour, margined with white; the leaf stalks are stout, 6in. long, and broadly channelled. Flowering period, June to August. Funkia Sieboldii. SIEBOLD'S PLANTAIN-LEAVED LILY; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This is a grand plant; the lily-like flowers alone are sufficient to commend it, but when we have them springing from such a glorious mass of luxuriant and beautiful foliage, disposed with a charming neatness rarely equalled, they are additionally effective. The illustration (Fig. 40) gives a fair idea of the form and dimensions of a specimen three years ago cut from the parent plant, when it would not have more than two or three crowns, so it may be described as very vigorous; and, as if its beauties were not sufficiently amplified by flowers and form of foliage, the whole plant is of a rich glaucous hue, rendering it still more conspicuous and distinct. It is herbaceous and perfectly hardy, though it comes from the much warmer climate of Japan, whence are all the species of _Funkia_. It is a comparatively new plant in English gardens, having been introduced into this country only about fifty years; still, it is pretty widely distributed, thanks, doubtless, to its exceptionally fine qualities. I know no plant more capable of improvement as regards size than this; if set in rich deep soil, it will in a few years grow to an enormous specimen. One so treated in my garden is 4ft. to 5ft. in diameter, and about the same height when the flower-stems are fully developed. I should, however, add that this is an unusual size, but it, nevertheless, indicates what may be done by high culture. The flowers are produced on nude stems, 2ft. or 4ft. high, being arranged in somewhat short and irregular one-sided spikes; they spring singly from the axils of rather long bracts (see Fig. 40) and have long bending pedicels, which cause the flowers to hang bell fashion; their colour is a soft pale lilac, nearly white. Size, 1in. to 2in. long, and bell or trumpet shaped. They are of good substance, and last a long time in fine form. The leaves have radical stalks, nearly 2ft. long in well-grown specimens, gracefully bending and deeply channelled; they are from 8in. to 12in. long, and about half as wide, long heart-shaped, somewhat hooded, waved, distinctly ribbed, and evenly wrinkled; glaucous and leathery. The outer foliage is so disposed that the tips touch the ground; it is abundantly produced, forming massive tufts. The long fleshy roots denote its love of a deep soil; a moist but well-drained situation suits it, and manure may be used--both dug in and as a top dressing--with marked advantage. The natural beauty of this subject fits it for any position--the lawn, shrubbery, borders, beds, or rockwork can all be additionally beautified by its noble form; grown in pots, it becomes an effective plant for the table or conservatory. The flowers in a cut state are quaint and graceful, and the leaves are even more useful; these may be cut with long stalks and stood in vases in twos and threes without any other dressing, or, when desired, a few large flowers may be added for a change, such as a panicle of _Spiræa aruncus_, a large sunflower, or a spike or two of gladioli. Leaves so cut may be used for weeks; after they have become dusty they may be sponged, when they will appear fresh, like new-cut ones. [Illustration: FIG. 40. FUNKIA SIEBOLDII. (One-eighth natural size.)] In the propagation of this plant certain rules should be observed, otherwise the stock of young plants will prove stunted and bad in colour. Do not divide any but strong and healthy clumps, taking care not to damage more roots than can be helped; do not divide too severely, but let each part be a strong piece of several crowns, and after this they should be allowed to make three years' growth in a good, rich, deep soil before they are again disturbed, and thereby the stock will not only be of a vigorous character, but always fit for use in the most decorative parts of the garden. Flowering period, July to September. Galanthus Elwesii. ELWES'S GALANTHUS _or_ SNOWDROP; _Nat. Ord._ AMARYLLIDACEÆ. This is a splendid species or variety, whichever it may be, said to be the finest of all the Snowdrops; it is a new kind and not yet much known. My impressions of it last spring were not in accordance with such reports, but I ought to add that, though the bulbs were fresh when sent me, they had only been planted less than a year, when they flowered somewhat feebly. Flowering period, February and March. All the Snowdrops may be propagated by seed or division of crowded clumps--after all the tops have died off is the proper time; the longer the delay, the worse for next season's bloom, as new root action sets in about that period. Galanthus Imperati. IMPERIAL SNOWDROP; _Nat. Ord._ AMARYLLIDACEÆ. I have only recently flowered this kind. It is said by Mr. W. Robinson to be double the size of _G. nivalis_, which estimate is probably correct, judging from the blooms which I have obtained. With me the bulbs seem either not to have a happy home, or they may have suffered from the vicissitudes of transport from the genial climate of Italy. The publisher of this book informs me that he flowered _G. imperati_ the first year in the open borders, from some bulbs procured from Messrs. Collins Bros., and that the blossoms were highly scented, as of elder flowers. Flowering period, February and March. Galanthus Nivalis. COMMON SNOWDROP, EARLY BULBOUS VIOLET, _and_ FAIR MAIDS OF FEBRUARY; _Nat. Ord._ AMARYLLIDACEÆ. One of the most charming members of the British flora; a native of our fields and orchards, so beautiful as to be beyond description, and, fortunately, so common as to need none (see Fig. 41). It belongs to a noble order of bulbous plants, the genera of which are numerous, as are the species too, in perhaps an increased proportion. Comparatively few are hardy in our climate, and very few indeed are natives of this country, so that in this respect the Snowdrop, if not a rare flower, is a rare representative in our flora of the order _Amaryllidaceæ_. [Illustration: FIG. 41. GALANTHUS NIVALIS. (One-half natural size.)] It may be useful to give a few of the better-known genera to which _Galanthus_ is so nearly related: _Amaryllis_, _Nerine_, _Crinum_, _Vallota_, _Pancratium_, _Alstroemeria_, and _Narcissus_. The last-named genus is more nearly allied than any of the other genera mentioned; not only does it resemble the Galanthus in style, early period of bloom, and habit of becoming double, but also for the general hardiness of its species, a feature not usual in their order. The literal meaning of the generic name is "Milk Flower." The title with such a pleasing reference was given by Linnæus. The specific name--meaning white--may, for two reasons, seem unnecessary; first, because milk is white, and again, because no other than white-flowered species are known. All the three common names are happy ones: "Snowdrop" and "Fair Maids of February" are appropriate both to the season and a pretty flower; "Bulbous Violet" pleasantly alludes to its sweetness; all are poetical, as if this lovely flower had the same effect on the different minds of those (including Linnæus) who first gave them. A dropped name for the Snowdrop was that of "Gilloflower"; Theophrastus, the father of natural history, gave it the name of "Violet" (_Viola alba_ or _V. bulbosa_)--that would be 2100 years ago! The bulbs should be planted by thousands; they will grow anywhere and in any kind of soil; the demand for their blossom is ever increasing, and Snowdrops, as everybody knows, are always in place, on the grass, border, or window sill, or for table; they may be used as emblems of either grief or joy; they are sweetly pure and attractive, without showiness. Flowering period, February to April. Galanthus Plicatus. FOLDED GALANTHUS; _Nat. Ord_. AMARYLLIDACAÆ. A species from the Crimea; compared with our native kind, it is larger in the grass, having also other, but very slight, points of difference. The main one is implied by its name, "plicatus," or folded; its leaves are furrowed, which causes it to have a folded appearance. Culture and flowering period, the same as for the other species. Galanthus Redoutei. REDOUTE'S GALANTHUS; _Nat. Ord._ AMARYLLIDACEÆ. This is by far the most distinct form, having broad grass-green foliage. It is somewhat late in flowering (during March and April), and not so free as others. Galax Aphylla. _Syn._ BLANDFORDIA CORDATA; HEART-LEAVED GALAX; _Nat. Ord._ PYROLACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 42. GALAX APHYLLA. (One-sixth natural size; 1, natural size.)] Nearly 100 years ago this charming little plant was imported from North America; still, it is rarely seen, notwithstanding that rock-gardens have long been popular. On rockwork it not only thrives well, but appears to great advantage. No rock-garden should be without it. It is a rare and beautiful subject, remarkably distinct and pleasing; it is perfectly hardy, also perennial and herbaceous; but its last-named characteristic should be qualified, inasmuch as the old leaves remain in good form and colour until long after the new ones are fully grown, so that there are always two sets of foliage. Viewed in this light, it may be called an evergreen plant; moreover, it is one of those plants which the artist can scarcely do justice to, for though the illustration (Fig. 42) depicts faithfully its neat habit and handsome foliage, the living plant makes a better impression. I said it was rare, but this is less in the sense of scarcity than because it is little known and seldom seen; it is also quite distinct from any other plant, and the only species of the genus. Its milk-white flowers, which, though very simple, are richly effective, are produced on tall, nude stems, 18in. high, round, wiry, and nearly amber-coloured. They are arranged in a dense spike, 6in. to 8in. long; the corolla is ¼in. across, and composed of five petals; the calyx has a short tube and five sepals; the leaves are heart-shaped, nearly round, evenly toothed, and sometimes glandular; of leathery substance, and somewhat stiff, smooth, shining, and richly veined or nerved. The leaves of various ages differ in colour; the old ones are dark green, conspicuously reticulated; the new, but perfectly-developed ones, are pale green, with a ray of yellowish-green next the edges; the growing ones are nearly red, and all the serrated edges are hemmed with a nearly scarlet line, always brightest at the points of the teeth. This finely-tinted foliage is elegantly disposed by means of the stalks, which bend in various ways; they vary in length from 4in. to 8in., and are all radical; they are round, wiry, and once grooved. The bloom lasts for several weeks in good form, and the foliage is always beautiful, more especially in the autumn, when it glows like polished mahogany. Such a plant can hardly fail to please when well grown, but it must be so developed. This lovely plant certainly requires a little special treatment, but that is easy and simple; in fact, it scarcely can be called special. It may be put in a few words--damp, but not sour vegetable soil, and very slight shade. My specimen, from which the drawing was taken, is growing in a little dip at the base of a small rockery, below the level of the walk, which acts as a watershed; the soil is nearly all leaf mould--a small portion of loam, and I ought to add that there is a moderate quantity of small charcoal incorporated with it, which will doubtless assist in keeping the soil sweet. There cannot, therefore, be much difficulty in setting up these conditions; the charcoal may not be necessary, but an annual top-dressing with it will meet the case of such plants as grow in low damp situations. The propagation of this species is very easy in the case of well-grown clumps, which, when dug up in the autumn and thoroughly shaken, will come asunder into many small and well-rooted crowns; these only require to be replanted separately, under similar conditions to those by which they were produced. No attempt should be made to divide other than perfectly healthy clumps. Flowering period, July and August. Galega Officinalis. OFFICINAL GOAT'S-RUE; _Nat. Ord._ LEGUMINOSÆ. A grand "old-fashioned" flower. It is 314 years since this plant was brought from Spain; it is perfectly hardy and herbaceous. Both it and its varieties are among the most useful subjects of the flower garden; they grow to shrub-like bushes, have elegant foliage, and an abundance of bloom, which continues until late autumn. Specimens have a clean and healthy appearance, and though they grow to the height of 4ft., they give no trouble, requiring neither tying nor supports. From their large quantities of flowers they are exceedingly gay; but it is for the handsome stems in a cut state that they should be most prized. These, cut 18in. long, and placed singly in pots or vases, are truly noble, more especially by gaslight. As will be inferred from the order to which _Galega_ belongs, the flowers are pea-flower-shaped, about ½in. or more long, and the same broad. They are of a pleasing, but undecided blue colour, arranged in long conical racemes, on stout, round stalks, as long as the leaves, which are pinnate, having a terminal odd one. The leaflets are evenly arranged in pairs, mostly in six pairs; they are each about 2in. long, lance-shaped, mucronate, entire, smooth, and glaucous. The floriferous character of the plant may be inferred from the fact that, after the raceme fades, there pushes from the axil a peduncle, which, in a short time, produces many other racemes. _G. o. alba_, a variety of the above, grows 4ft. high, and is an abundant bloomer; flowers superb for cutting purposes. For culture, see _G. Persica lilacina_. Flowering period, July to September. Galega Persica Lilacina. _Nat. Ord._ LEGUMINOSÆ. This is a lovely species of _Galega_ imported little more than fifty years ago from Persia. Perfectly hardy; in general form it corresponds with _G. officinalis_. The following are its distinctions: More dense racemes of lilac flowers, a foot less tall, leaflets shorter and broader--in fact, oval, oblong, somewhat twisted or edged up in the arrangement, and often without the terminal leaflet. The above Goat's-rues are of the simplest culture; they will do in any soil, but if they are liberally treated they will repay it. A fat loam and sunny situation are what they delight in. They may remain year after year in one position, but I find them to do better in every way if they are divided the second year; it should be done in summer, so that they can make a little growth in their new quarters before winter sets in. In order to carry out this, the older plants (I divide half my stock one year, the other half the year following) should be cut over near the ground, though they may be in full bloom. Divide the roots into several strong pieces, and replant them in soil deeply dug and where they are intended to flower; they will bloom finely the following season. Flowering period, July to September. Gentiana Acaulis. GENTIANELLA; _Nat. Ord._ GENTIANACEÆ. A hardy, evergreen creeper, its creeping stems running immediately under the surface. This is a remarkably beautiful plant, and the wonder is that it is not grown in every garden. The most attractive features, when in flower, of this dwarf Gentian are its immensely large blooms and neat shining green foliage (see Fig. 43). It is easily identified, there being not another species like it, and certainly very few to equal it for beauty and service; it forms one of the best edgings for beds and borders. Many report that it is difficult to grow, which may be the case in some gardens from one cause or other, whilst in many places it runs like quick-grass. [Illustration: FIG. 43. GENTIANA ACAULIS. (One-fourth natural size.)] Flowers, dark bright blue, large, long bell-shaped, but not drooping; tube, five-angular, nearly 3in. long; corolla, five-limbed, and an inch or more wide; the stems are seldom more than 3in. long, square, furnished with small opposite leaves, and terminated with one flower on each. That part of the foliage which sends up the flower is arranged in rosette form, the leaves being stout, flat, and acutely lance-shaped. Anywhere or everywhere may this subject be planted; it is always bright, even in winter, and when there are no flowers upon it it forms a rich covering for the otherwise bare ground; its blooms will each keep good a week. They are rarely produced in great numbers at one time, but the plants will continue for a long while to yield them sparingly. I find _G. acaulis_ to thrive well at the base of rockwork, as an edging to a flat bed, and in the gutters of the garden walks--it likes moisture. To me this is clearly proved by other plants, which, in all respects but one, are treated the same, the exceptional condition being that they are planted on the sloping face of rockwork, where they scarcely grow and never bloom. With reference to soil, rich or silky loam is best for it, but any kind, if sweet and retentive, will do. Its propagation may be effected by division of the rooted creeping stems after they have made four leaves. Very early in spring is a good time to do this, but neither these nor the old plant, if it has been much disturbed, will flower the same season after being so mutilated. Flowering period, May to July. Gentiana Asclepiadea. SWALLOW-WORT-LEAVED GENTIAN; _Nat. Ord._ GENTIANACEÆ. A tall and beautiful alpine species from Austria, very hardy and herbaceous. It has long had a place in English gardens--fully 250 years--and is described by Parkinson in his "Paradise of Flowers." The tall stems are very showy, having an abundance of shining dark green foliage, amongst which nestle the large and bright purple-blue flowers; it is a subject that looks well at a distance, and, as a rule, flowers with that quality are of the greatest value for borders and cutting purposes. It grows nearly 2ft. high; the stems are round, erect, short-jointed, and very leafy; the flowers are produced on a third of their length, they are stalkless, and spring from the axils of the leaves in pairs; the calyx is ½in. long, tubular, angled, and having fang-shaped segments; the corolla is also tubular and angled, somewhat bellied, the divisions being deeply cut and reflexed; the whole flower will be fully 1½in. long. The inside of the corolla is striped with white and various shades of blue and purple. The leaves are 2in. long, oval, lance-shaped, distinctly ribbed, somewhat lobed at the base, and stem-clasping, which gives the pair of leaves a joined or perfoliate appearance; the nodes are short, or near together, the lower ones being the more distant, where also the leaves are much smaller; the foliage is a glossy dark green colour, the whole plant having a sombre but rich effect. From the fact that the long stems are top-heavy and of a brittle character, a sheltered position should be given to this plant, or the wind will snap them off. It ought not to have stakes, as they would mar its good form. A fat loam and a moist situation will suit this Gentian to perfection, and it may be planted with other strong herbaceous things in the borders, where it should be allowed to grow to large specimens. It is one of the quickest growers of its genus, few species of which can be grown in too large quantities. When it is needful to increase this subject, it maybe done more readily than the propagation of some Gentians--the roots are more easily separated. It should, however, be carefully done, and early spring is the best time; or if the autumn should be a dry season and the tops die off early, it may be done then. Flowering period, July and August. Gentiana Burseri. BURSER'S GENTIAN; _Nat. Ord._ GENTIANACEÆ. A hardy perennial species, of a bold but neat habit, while the flowers and foliage combine in rendering it a first-class decorative subject. It is a recent introduction, having been brought from the Pyrenees in 1820; it is seldom seen in flower gardens, where it certainly deserves to be. Its flowers are not brilliant, but they are effective from their size, number, and persistency; they are produced in whorls on stout round stems 18in. high, but only on the three or four upper joints. Each flower is 1½in. long, lemon-yellow, tubular, angular, having four to six segments, widely separated, and furnished with a membrane at each separation. The segments, and also the tube, are dotted with dark brown spots; each flower is tightly folded in a somewhat one-sided membranous calyx and borne erect. They occur in pairs mostly, but with several pairs in a whorl. They have very short pedicels, and the whorl is supported by a bract of stem-clasping leaves, cupped, and variously shaped, as ovate and beaked; there are also supplementary bracteoles. The leaves of the root very much resemble the plantain leaf, also that of _G. lutea_, having longish ribbed and grooved petioles or stalks; they are 5in. to 6in. long, and over 3in. broad, egg-shaped, entire, veined longitudinally, and slightly wrinkled; they are of a dark green colour, shining, and of good substance. The leaves of the stems, as already stated, are stem-clasping, and differ in shape. The flowers keep in good form for two or three weeks, and otherwise this rigid bright-foliaged Gentian proves very ornamental. I find it to do well in vegetable soil in a moist quarter. Most of the members of this genus enjoy plenty of moisture at their roots, and this specimen is no exception. A flat stone will form a good substitute for a damp situation if placed over the roots; besides, such a method of growing this and others of the tall Gentians will allow of their being planted on rockwork, or otherwise, near the more frequented walks, where they must always prove pleasing from their bold and shining foliage, to say nothing of their striking flowers. The propagation of this species should be effected by division of the roots, which are very strong. Each crown should have as much of the more fibrous roots retained as possible, and the parts to be severed should be cut with a very sharp knife; it also ripens seed plentifully. Flowering period, June to August. Gentiana Cruciata. CROSS-LEAVED GENTIAN; _Nat. Ord._ GENTIANACEÆ. An interesting species from Austria, and one of the "old-fashioned" plants of English gardens, having been cultivated in this country for nearly 300 years. Gerarde gives a faithful and full description of it, which I will quote: "Crossewoort Gentian hath many ribbed leaues spred upon the ground, like unto the leaues of sopewroot, but of a blacker green colour; among which rise vp weak iointed stalks, trailing or leaning towarde the grounde. The flowers growe at the top in bundels, thicke thrust togither, like those of sweete Williams, of a light blew colour. The roote is thicke, and creepeth in the grounde farre abroade, whereby it greatly increaseth." Its height seldom exceeds 10in., and it is to be commended because it is one of the Gentians that are easily grown, and is handsome withal. It may be planted in either vegetable or loamy soil--the common border seems to suit it; it spreads much faster than any of the other Gentians I know, with the exception of _G. acaulis_, and it is in broad masses one sees it to greatest advantage. Propagated by division any time. Flowering period, June and July. Gentiana Gelida. ICE-COLD GENTIAN; _Nat. Ord._ GENTIANACEÆ. This species comes from Siberia, and has been grown in this country for nearly eighty years. It is a very beautiful species, the whole plant being handsome; it grows nearly a foot high. The flowers are produced in terminal clusters, one large flower being surrounded by a whorl of smaller ones; they are of a rich purplish-blue inside the corolla, which is rotate; the segments (mitre-shaped) and the spaces between are prettily furnished with a feathery fringe; the wide tube is also finely striped inside; the calyx is tubular, having long awl-shaped segments; the stems are procumbent, firm (almost woody), short jointed, and thickest near the top. The leaves are of a dark shining green colour, from 1½in. to 2in. long, smallest at the root end, and finishing next the flowers with the largest, which are lance-shaped, the lower ones being heart-shaped; they are closely arranged in pairs, are sessile, and at right angles with the stem. It seems to enjoy a shady damp corner in rockwork, where its distinct forms and neat habit appear to advantage. It should be planted in vegetable soil, such as peat or well-decayed leaves mixed with sand. It cannot endure drought at the roots. It is a slow-growing plant, but very floriferous; the flowers last fully a fortnight in good form, the weather, however rough or wet, seeming to have no effect on them. In a cut state it is exquisite, but those who properly value the Gentians, especially the slow growers, will hardly care to cut away the stems, as, by doing so, not only will the plant be checked, but next year's growth will prove reduced in both number and vigour. It is propagated by root division when in a dormant state. I have also successfully transplanted this kind after it has made considerable growth, but the roots have been carefully guarded against dryness. Flowering period, June to August. Gentiana Verna. SPRING ALPINE FELWORT; _Nat. Ord._ GENTIANACEÆ. A native evergreen creeper. This plant has many synonymous names in old books. It is now, however, well known by the above Latin name. Let me at once say that it is a matchless gem. Its flowers are such as to attract the notice of any but a blind person. It is said to be rare now in this country, still, I think it is far from being extinct in its wild state. Be that as it may, it is fortunate that it can be easily cultivated, and nothing in a garden can give more pleasure. Its flowers are blue--but such a blue! the most intense, with a large and sharply defined white eye, and though only ½in. across, one on each stem, and 3in. high, they are grandly effective. It has a tubular, angled calyx; corolla five-cut. The leaves are oval, nearly 1in. long, and half as broad; dark shining green and of leathery substance. The radical leaves are crowded into a nearly rosette form. By many this Gentian is considered difficult to grow, but if a proper beginning is made it proves to be of the easiest management. Very suitable places may be found for it in, not _on_, rockwork, where good fat loam forms the staple soil; little corners, not _above_ the ground level, but on, or better still, _below_ the ground level, are sure to meet its requirements; on the edge of a border, too, where moisture collects in the small gutter, has proved a suitable position for it. But, perhaps, the most successful way of growing it is in pots, for, as with _Trientalis Europa_ and other root creepers, when so treated more compact specimens are obtained. It is important to begin with properly-rooted plants, the crowns of which are often 2in. to 3in. below the surface; from these spring the numerous, bare, yellow, wiry stems, too often taken for roots, whereas the main roots are still deeper, very long for so small a plant, and furnished with silky feeders. Good crowns potted in rich fibrous loam and plunged in sand, fully exposed, with an unstinted supply of water, is the substance of the simple treatment my plants receive the year round; they are still in the 3in. and 4in. pots in which they were placed three years ago, and during spring they are covered with flowers. When a pot is lifted out of the sand in which it is plunged, the fine long silky roots are seen to have made their way through the hole. Spring is the best time to plant. Flowering period, April to June. Geranium Argenteum. SILVERY CRANE'S-BILL: _Nat. Ord._ GERANIACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 44. GERANIUM ARGENTEUM. (One-half natural size.)] A hardy perennial alpine from the South of Europe, introduced in 1699. It is, therefore, an old plant in this country, and is one of the gems of the rock garden; very dwarf, but effective, as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 44). The foliage is of a distinct and somewhat conglomerate character, besides being of a silvery-grey colour. Well-grown specimens of this charming Crane's-bill look remarkably well against dark stones. Its flowers are large for so small a plant, and wherever it finds a suitable home it cannot fail to win admiration. In borders of rich soil it is grown to the height of about six inches, but in drier situations, as on the upper parts of rockwork, it is more dwarf. The flowers are fully an inch in diameter when open, cup-shaped, and striped in two shades of rose colour; the unopened flowers are bell-shaped and drooping; they are borne on long naked pedicels, bent and wiry, oftentimes two on a stem; calyx five-cleft, segments concave; petals five, equal and evenly arranged. The leaves are produced on long, bent, wiry stalks, the outline is circular, but they are divided into five or seven lobes, which are sub-divided and irregular, both in size and arrangement; they have a silky appearance, from being furnished with numerous fine hairs or down. The plant continues to flower for many weeks, but, as may be judged, it is, otherwise than when in flower, highly attractive. To lovers of ornamental bedding this must prove a first-rate plant. As an edging to beds or borders of choice things it would be pleasingly appropriate, and, indeed, anywhere amongst other dwarf flowers it could not be other than decorative. It thrives well in a good depth of loam, its long tap-roots going a long way down. If, therefore, it is planted on rockwork, suitable provision should be made for this propensity. The propagation of the plant is not so easy, from the fact that it makes large crowns without a corresponding set of roots, and its seed is scarce and often taken by birds before ripened. Moreover, the seedlings do not always come true; still, it seems the only mode of propagation, unless the old plants have plenty of time allowed them to spread and make extra roots. Latterly I have gathered the seeds before the capsules burst--in fact, whilst green--and, after carrying them in the waistcoat pocket for a few days, they have been sown in leaf soil and sand, and germinated freely. When the seedlings have made a few leaves the deteriorated forms may be picked out readily. Flowering period, May to July. Gillenia Trifoliata. _Syn._ SPIRÆA TRIFOLIATA _and_ S. TRILOBA--THREE-LEAVED GILLENIA; _Nat. Ord._ ROSACEÆ. A hardy herbaceous perennial from North America, imported in 1713. The main features about this plant are its elegant form and rich tints. The illustration (Fig. 45) may give some idea of the former quality, but to realise the latter the reader should see a living specimen in the form of a bold clump. There is a wild beauty about this subject which it is not easy to describe; as a flower it is insignificant, but the way in which the flowers are disposed on the slender stems, blending with a quaintly pretty foliage, neither too large nor dense, renders them effective in their way. It is, however, only as a whole that it can be considered decorative, and it should be well grown. [Illustration: FIG. 45. GILLENIA TRIFOLIATA. (One-sixth natural size; blossom, full size.)] Although most nearly related to the spiræas the distinctions from that genus are very marked, notably the very slender stems and large flowers, which are produced singly on rather long-bending pedicels, almost as fine as thread, and, like the stems, of a bright brown (nearly ruddy) colour. The flowers form a lax panicle, interspersed with a little foliage. The calyx is a bright brown colour, rather large and bell-shaped. It contrasts finely with the five long, narrow petals, which are white, tinted with red; they are also irregular in form and arrangement, somewhat contorted. The leaves, as implied by the specific name, are composed of three leaflets; they have very short stalks, and the leaflets are all but sessile, lance-shaped, finely toothed or fringed, ribbed, and somewhat bronzed. Perhaps it is most useful in a cut state; the sprays, even if they have but one or two flowers on them, are charming for vase work. I may say the calyx is persistent, and after the petals have fallen they not only increase in size, but turn a fine red colour, and so render the sprays additionally effective. To grow this plant well it should have a deep soil; it also loves moisture, and, as already hinted, partial shade; it is a steady grower, far from rampant, like the spiræas. This is a capital subject to grow near or under "leggy" shrubs and trees, where, in semi-shade, it is not only at home, but proves very attractive. It may be propagated by division, the best time being early in the year, just before growth commences. Flowering period, June to August. Gynerium Argenteum. PAMPAS _or_ SILVERY GRASS; _Nat. Ord._ GRAMINEÆ. This handsome grass is well known, at least, its feathery plumes are, from the fact of their being imported largely in a dry state for decorative purposes. It has not been grown long in this country, and, perhaps, it is not generally known that it endures our climate as an outdoor plant; in most parts of Great Britain, however, it proves hardy. As far north as Yorkshire I have seen it in the form of specimens 8ft. high; my own examples are yet young--two and three years old--and are only just beginning to flower, at the height of 3ft. to 4ft., diameter about the same. It is a native of South America, occurring mostly on the prairies; it is also found in other parts where there are swamps and high temperatures. This would lead us to have doubts as to its suitableness for English gardens, but facts prove it to have elastic qualities in this respect. It proves at all times to be a noble ornament in gardens of moderate size. In its growing or green state it is a distinct and pleasing object, but it is at its greatest beauty when it has ripened its tall and silky plumes, which glisten in the sunshine and are of a silvery-grey colour, and when also the very long and narrow grass has become browned and falls gracefully, more or less curling under the tufts. All its parts are persistent, and, as a specimen of ripe grass, it is not only ornamental in itself, but it gives a warm effect to its surroundings during winter. Under favourable conditions it will grow 10ft. or 12ft. high, but it is seldom that it attains a height of more than 8ft. or 9ft. As an illustration (Fig. 46) is given, further description is not needed. I may add that if it is not "laid" by heavy snows, it keeps in good form until the new grass begins to grow in the following spring. I find it to do well in light earth, well enriched with stable manure, the soil having a more than ordinary quantity of sand in it; the position is such as can have a good supply of moisture, being near walks that drain to it. In stiffish loam a strong clump was planted three years ago, but it has never looked healthy. The best positions for it are well-prepared shrubbery borders; there it contrasts finely with the greenery, and receives some protection from the high winds. It may be increased by division of healthy roots, when the grass is ripe, but it ought not to be cut off. [Illustration: FIG. 46. GYNERIUM ARGENTEUM. (One-twentieth natural size.)] The plumes appear in August, and will keep in good condition till the weather changes to a wintry character. Harpalium Rigidum. _Syn._ HELIANTHUS RIGIDUS--RIGID SUNFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. One of the most effective and beautiful flowers to be seen in autumn; it would be hard to mention another at any period of the year that gives more satisfaction and pleasure than this does, either as a decorative plant or a cut flower. A bold specimen, 4ft. through, is truly fine, and not only those who seldom visit a garden, but amateurs well versed in flowers, are alike charmed with its rich and stately blossoms. Most people know what a Sunflower is; many of them are coarse and almost ugly; but though the present subject is of the family, it is supremely distinct; it is without the formal character in its ray, and also the herby leafiness of many of its genus, its large, clean, shining, golden flowers, mounted on slender, ruddy, long, and nearly nude stalks, not only render it distinct, but impart an elegance to this species, which is all its own. It grows 4ft. high, is a comparatively new kind in English gardens, and comes from North America; still, it has become widely known and appreciated, in fact a universal favourite, so much so that, although it increases fast, the demand for it is not yet satisfied; it is, doubtless, a flower for every garden. The flowers are 4in. across, glistening golden yellow, and formed of a deep ray and small disk; the florets of the ray are 1½in. long and more than ½in. broad, they are incurved at their points, but reflexed at their edges, and are handsomely ribbed or pleated; they are arranged in two or three rays in each flower, and irregularly disposed; the florets, being well apart, not only seem to give the bloom body, but also an artistic informality and lightness. The florets of the disk are chocolate colour, whence issue twirled filamentary forms, which impart to the centre of flower the appearance of being netted with a golden thread. The scaly involucre is formed of numerous small members of a dark olive-green colour, neatly arranged and firmly clasping the whole flower. The pedicels are long, round, covered with short stiff hairs, and thickened at the involucre; the stems are very rough, rigid, hard, and brown or ruddy on the sunny side, sometimes twisted and nude, with the exception of a solitary rudimentary leaf. The main stems have many axillary branches. The leaves of the root are few, 5in. or 6in. long, and oval. Those of the stems more lance-shaped, sessile, and slightly dentate, or toothed, lessening in size as they get higher; all the leaves are very thick, three-veined, and remarkably hispid, being almost as coarse as sandpaper to the touch. I have also observed another peculiarity about the leaves, when they have been taken from the plant for an hour or more, _i.e._, they have a most elastic property. Very often the leaves may be seen in trios, whence spring three side branches, surrounding the upright and central one. The habit of the whole specimen is very rigid, with the exception of the flowers, which are slightly nodding; the tallest growths need no stakes, and the species enjoys a happy immunity from insect pests, probably by reason of its hispid character. As already stated, as a garden subject this is one of the most useful; it shows grandly in front of evergreens, and associates well with lilies. In borders of tall perennials, or in conspicuous but distant situations, such as are visible from the doors or windows of the house, or as isolated clumps, on or near the lawn, this fine Sunflower may be planted with satisfactory results; in fact, it cannot be planted wrong, provided it is kept away from small subjects. In a cut state it is of such value that it cannot be overpraised--a branch with four fully blown flowers and others nearly out, requires no assistance as a table decoration. Its blooms have the quality of keeping clean, doubtless from the smoothness of the florets. The cultural requirements are few. Any garden soil will do for it, but if deeply dug and well enriched with stable manure, so much the better; it should have a fairly open situation; it is not only a Sunflower in name and form, but it enjoys sunshine. It is self-propagating, and runs freely at the roots, immediately under the surface; the thick stolons form knobby crowns at their extremities, out of and from under which the roots issue, going straight and deep down, and so forming an independent plant. Flowering period, August and September. Hedera Conglomerata. CONGLOMERATE IVY; _Nat. Ord._ ARALIACÆ. I do not introduce this as a flowering subject, but as a dwarf ornamental shrub; it differs so much from all other species and varieties of Ivy, and is so beautiful withal, that I trust no further apology is needed for giving it a place amongst decorative plants and shrubs. I have not been able to learn its habitat or origin; its stunted tree-like shape, together with other peculiarities, would indicate that it is a species; be that as it may, it has long had a place in English gardens, and yet it is seldom met with--it would be hard to explain why. On a bit of rockwork I have grown a specimen for nearly five years, and it was an old shrub when planted, yet it is not more than 2ft. in diameter and 1ft. high. It is much admired, and many notes have been taken of it. For rockwork, it is one of the best dwarf evergreen shrubs I know. It has very small leaves, densely arranged in flat or one-sided wreaths. They seldom exceed 1in. in diameter, and are of various forms, as heart-shaped, sagittate, oval, tri-lobed, and so on. Some are notched, others slightly toothed, but many are entire. All are waved or contorted, wrinkled and thickened at the edges, where the younger leaves show a brown line; the under sides are pale green, and furnished with short stiff brown hairs, as also are the stout leaf stalks. The upper side of the foliage is a dark glossy green, with shadings of brown. In substance the leaves are leathery, inclining to stiffness. The stunted branches have a cork-like appearance as regards the bark, are diffuse, curiously bent, and sometimes twisted loosely together. It is of slow growth, more especially in the upward direction, and though provision may be made for it to cling and climb, and it has also well-formed roots on the branchlets, still, it assumes more the tree-shape. I never saw or heard of its flowering, much less that it ever produced seed; if it does not seed we are not only deprived of an ornamental feature belonging to the genus from the absence of berries, but it proves that it is only a variety of some species. It may be grown in any kind of sandy soil, and nothing special whatever is needed. An open sunny situation will favour its form and colour of foliage; under trees I have found it to produce larger leaves of plainer shape and more even colour. During the winter it becomes a conspicuous object on rockwork, where it seems most at home. It may be propagated by cuttings, and spring is a suitable season to lay them in; in well dug light soil they soon make plenty of roots. Helianthus Multiflorus. MANY-FLOWERED SUNFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This fashionable flower is glaringly showy. Still, it is not wanting in beauty; moreover, it belongs to an "old-fashioned" class, and is itself a species which has been grown for nearly 300 years in English gardens. It was brought from North America in the year 1597, and during the whole of its history in this country, it can hardly ever have been more esteemed than it is to-day; it is very hardy, and in every way a reliable subject. Everybody knows the Sunflower, therefore no one will care to read a description of it; still, one or two remarks may, perhaps, be usefully made in the comparative sense, as this is a numerous genus. Many of the Sunflowers are annuals, to which this and others of a perennial character are much superior, not only in being less trouble and not liable to be out of season from mismanagement in sowing and planting, as with the annual sorts, but from the fact that their flowers are of better substance and far more durable; they are also less in size and more in number--two points of great gain as regards their usefulness as cut bloom. They are, besides, better coloured, and the flowering season more prolonged. Well-established specimens, two or three years old, will, in average weather, last in good form for fully six weeks. The colour (yellow) is common to the Sunflowers. This species has flowers which vary much in size, from 2in. to 6in. across, and they are produced on stems 3ft. to 6ft. high, well furnished with large heart-shaped leaves of a herb-like character, distinctly nerved, toothed, and rough. Flowering period, August and September. _H. m. fl.-pl._ is, of course, the double form of the above, the disk being represented by a mass of florets considerably shorter than those of the ray proper. The flowers are not produced in such large numbers as with the typical form, neither does the plant grow so tall, but the foliage is a little larger; these constitute all the points of difference which I have noticed. These forms of Sunflower are very effective--nowhere, perhaps, so much as amongst shrubs. The plants lift well, carrying a good ball that facilitates their being placed in pots even when in bloom, when, as I have lately seen, they may be used in a most telling manner with potted shrubs in large halls, corridors, and public buildings. In such places they get no sun to make them droop, and a good watering keeps them as fresh as if they had not been disturbed. Of the usefulness of this flower in a cut state nothing whatever need be said--who has not tried it? Doubtless, when it becomes unfashionable it will have fewer patrons, but it will be the same flower, richly beautiful--æsthetic. No special culture is needed, any kind of garden soil will suit it; if well enriched, all the better. Any situation will do but one too densely shaded. Propagated by splitting the roots after the plants have done flowering, or in spring. Flowering period, August and September. Helianthus Orygalis. GRACEFUL SUNFLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. Yet another Sunflower, and one, too, of the common yellow colour, and not otherwise attractive, as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 47)--of course, I am now referring to the flower only. There are, however, features about this species which all must admire; stems 7ft. high, furnished with bright foliage, in the manner indicated, are not mean objects, even if topped with but a common yellow composite. This is a native of North America, and of recent introduction; it is a distinct species, and for foliage a prince among its fellows. I know not another to nearly approach it, _H. angustifolius_ being perhaps the nearest, but that species has never with me proved of more than a biennial character, and its leaves, though long and narrow, are irregular and herby. The flowers need not be further described beyond saying that they are borne on short side shoots, near the top of the main stems, but they harmonise with the general arrangement of foliage, and, indeed, from their bract-like leafiness, somewhat enrich it. This is one of the latest-blooming Sunflowers. The leaves are 5in. to 8in. long, and ½in. to 1in. wide, the lower half on the stems droop, though they are of good substance; the upper half bend gracefully, and, from their close arrangement, all but hide the stem. At the axils of the larger leaves, tufts of smaller (much smaller) leaves appear, causing the long stems to be top-heavy. Still, they wave and bend during the strongest winds without supports or damage. It will be seen that the usefulness of this plant consists in its distinct form and tallness, and that it is effective is without doubt. Among low shrubs, or with other tall things, will prove suitable quarters for it. [Illustration: FIG. 47. HELIANTHUS ORYGALIS. (One-eighth natural size; flower, one-fourth natural size.)] Any kind of soil will do, shelter from the wind being the most important, and perhaps the only point to study when planting. It is propagated by root divisions when the tops have withered. Flowering period, September and October. Helleborus Abchasicus. ABCHASIAN HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is a native of the Caucasus, and in this climate, where it has been cultivated about fifteen years, it retains its foliage through the winter in a green state. It is a free grower, and flowers well, having a somewhat slender habit. It is sometimes described as having green flowers, but more often as having purple ones. It may be useful to remember that there are varieties, and it is likely that, even in the so-called green flowers, traces of purple will be seen. Not only is it a fact that this species, like _H. purpurascens_ and _H. niger_, is far from fixed as regards depth of colour, but it is said to be one of the parent forms of some of the fine hybrids. These considerations may help to reconcile the apparently conflicting descriptions as regards bloom colour. The flower stems are 12in. to 18in. high, distantly forked twice, and of a purplish colour. The flowers are produced in threes and fours on each of the branchlets, are inclined to purple, over 2in. across, and nodding; sepals oval, waved, and set well apart at the outer ends; petals scale-like, green, and numerous; anthers a beautiful delicate yellow; leaves of the flower stems few, small, and of irregular form, notched, finely serrate, and of a purplish-green shade; in their young state more especially does the purple prevail on the under surface--they are, in fact, nearly the colour of the flowers. The radical leaves are many, nearly a foot in diameter, of a dark green colour, and leathery substance; the leaflets are rather distant from each other, forming a noble pedate leaf; they are somewhat one-sided, slightly waved, sharply and regularly toothed nearly all their length. From this description it will be inferred that this is one of the most distinct species, and such is truly the case. Moreover, it has a bold and rich effect. The older radical foliage, with its long stalks, is for the most part spread on the ground, when the new erect flower stems, furnished with small leaves and nodding buds and blossoms, all of a shining purplish colour, form a peculiar but pleasing contrast, not nearly so marked in any other species with which I am acquainted. There is a variety called _H. A. purpureus_, in allusion to the colour of the flowers being a little more purple. This Abchasian species and its varieties are not widely distributed; they are to be obtained, and need no longer be found only in rare collections. It is desirable in every way for the garden, where it forms a most ornamental object during winter. Its flowers last for four or five weeks, and in a cut state they form rich companion bloom to the white Christmas Rose. A good fat loam suits them; the position should be rather shady and moist, but by all means well drained. A top dressing of good rotten manure, after all have done blooming, about the end of March, is a great help to them. All the Hellebores may be easily increased by root divisions, but the stock should be strong and healthy. Roots affected with the least rot or canker should be discarded, as from their slowness of growth they will not be worth garden space. Seed may also be raised, but unless sown as soon as it is ripe germination is less certain, and always slower in proportion to the length of time it has been kept dry. I may add that, in February (1883), I noticed a pot, sown with Hellebore seed in February of 1880; a few were just pushing through the mould. The seed was sold to me as the produce of 1879. Since 1880 I have sown seed ripened on plants that were bloomed for indoor decoration, it being ready about February. From this I had nice little plants in less than twelve months. But by seed the process of propagation is slow, and not advisable unless the object is to obtain new varieties--a very easy matter, by the way, with this family, if the simple rules of cross-hybridising are applied. All the Christmas Roses should be so planted that they may be conveniently shaded during their blooming time. They mostly flower during the dullest part of the year, and the blossom, more especially the white kinds and those with metallic hues, unless protected, become damaged with mud splashes. Hand-lights or bell-glasses should be freely used. Flowering period, January to March. Helleborus Antiquorum. ANCIENT HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. In what sense this specific name is applied, or which meaning of the word is supposed to be exemplified in this plant, I have no means of being certain. It is very probable that the name is in reference to its "old-fashioned," but beautiful, flowers; that they are "worthy," "dearer, more acceptable," and of "more esteem and account," is likely to be the verdict of every amateur who grows this kind successfully, for a more lovely flower could hardly be desired--large, white, softly toned with pink and grey. Sepals very large, incurved, overlapping each other, having the appearance of being semi-double, and being of good substance. The petals are small, short, of a lively green, and numerous. It is a bold and effective flower, but to see it in its full beauty it should be gathered spotlessly clean, as grey and pink tints are ugly when soiled. The leaves accompanying the flowers are of the previous season's growth, and are produced on slender round stalks, 1ft. to 1½ft. long, and much thickened at their junction with the leaves. The latter are nearly a foot across, pedate, or palm-shaped; the segments or leaflets are sub-divided and of irregular form, but mostly ovate, lance-shaped, finely and sharply toothed, and of a dull green colour. In a rich and free loam this kind proves a good grower, and when, in January, it is putting up its flower stalks, the buds being well developed and coloured from the time they appear above the earth, furnished with "floral leaf," in which respect it differs from the common Christmas Rose, it causes a pleased surprise that such a pure and delicate looking blossom can develop and mature in the depth of winter. As a cut flower by many it would be preferred to the better-known _H. niger_, not only for its antique tints, but for the fine cup form, which is constant, and the overlapping, incurved edges of the sepals. Altogether, its form is distinct, and when used in small glasses as single specimens, or, at most, accompanied only by a fern frond or a few blades of grass, it is a charming object. Cultivation, as for _H. Abchasicus_. Flowering period, January to April. Helleborus Bocconi. BOCCON'S HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This, by many, is believed to be a species, but as such is unauthenticated. It is classed as a variety of _H. purpurascens_, compared with which, however, there are some well-marked distinctions. It is sometimes called _H. multifidus_, a name that suits it well, as being descriptive of its irregularly slashed foliage. It has but recently been brought under cultivation, and was found a native of the Apennines of Etruria. It proves perfectly hardy in this climate, and flowers in mid-winter unless the season is very severe. As will be inferred from its near relationship to _H. purpurascens_, like that species it has non-persistent foliage, and the flower stems with their floral leaves appear before the leaves of the root. As a species or variety, whichever it may be, its more marked features are to be seen in the form or cut of the leaves. As a garden flower it is not showy, yet it stands out well in a group; the nodding cup-shaped bloom is a bright green colour, and, for a time, the outer sides of the sepals only are seen; but when the flowers are more fully expanded, the numerous and somewhat long stamens (which are a creamy-white) seem to nearly fill the cup; to my mind, its greatest charm is in the fragrant odour which it yields, resembling that of elder flowers. A single blossom, if plucked dry and when in its prime, scents a small room; at such a stage, the anthers are loaded with pollen, and the tubular petals are richly charged with nectar. True, these last-named qualities are common to the genus, but when they are coupled with that of a sweet perfume, and produced by an open-air plant in winter, such a plant, be its blossoms green or red, is too valuable to be neglected. The flowers are borne on stems 6in. to 12in. high, which are twice and thrice branched or forked, having six to twelve blossoms on a stem. The flowers are bright green, nearly 2in. across, cup-shaped, and drooping. The sepals are somewhat oval, concave, and overlapping; petals very short, pale green, and evenly arranged; stamens creamy-white; styles green. The flowers are supported by floral leaves, which are much divided, in the way of those of _H. purpurascens_, but the segments are more irregular in shape. The radical leaves have long stems, and are palmate; divisions lobed. It dies down entirely during the autumn. Being a vigorous grower and free bloomer, and the flowers very durable withal, it should be largely grown for the sake of its sweet-scented blossoms for cutting purposes. There is an allied variety cultivated under the name of _H. B. angustifolia_ (narrow-leaved). Assuming that _H. Bocconi_ is a species, this is a variety but slightly removed from the typical form, inasmuch as the latter is not only much cut in the floral and radical leaves, but the shape is uncertain. This form, then, which, at least by its name, claims a specific feature in the cut of leaf, may be somewhat difficult to identify, more especially as there are no other dissimilarities of note. Seen, however, as a well-grown specimen, the feature of narrow foliage is not only manifest, but the plant is very effective. Cultivation and flowering period, the same as with _H. Abchasicus_. Helleborus Colchicus. COLCHICAN HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. A new species from Asia Minor. This is a strong grower and blooms well. The flowers vary in size and shade, but it may be said to be distinct in form and pronounced in colour, the latter being an uncommon feature with the Hellebores; either growing or cut it is indispensable to a group. Moreover, it is one of the best flowers of the genus, and would stand high even in a selection of the best six; it is one that should have a place in every collection. It flowers amongst the previous season's foliage on branched stems; the sepals are somewhat round and flat, which gives the flower a stiff appearance. Still, from their unusual deep purple colour and the yellow stamens, together with the manner in which the sepals overlap each other, the flower is a most effective one; the petals are a bright green, and blend harmoniously with the yellow and purple parts. The leaves are very large, pedate, dentate, and distinctly veined. In a young state the foliage is richly coloured or tinted with "bloom." It enjoys a rich sandy loam and summer shade. Cultivation, the same as for _H. Abchasicus_. Flowering period, January to March. Helleborus Cupreus. COPPERY HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. Notwithstanding its peculiar colour, as implied by the name, this is a pleasing border flower; moreover, the somewhat large flowers are also numerous; blossoms 3in. across, arranged in clusters of four and six, and handsomely furnished with new foliage, are no mean things in the depth of winter. The specific name of this Hellebore, though applicable, is not so definite as some, inasmuch as the colour to which it refers is that of several other species and varieties; there may be rather more of the metallic hue in our subject, but it is so slight as to be outside the pale of notice to the florist. The Coppery Hellebore is a native of mid-Europe, and is one of recent introduction into this country, where it proves hardy but annually dies down. It grows and flowers freely in January, the flower stalks appearing before the radical foliage, and attaining a height of nearly a foot. The flower stems are a palish green, with purplish markings, are twice branched and furnished with floral leaves; the latter have ample stipules and seven longish divisions, which are well spread out, distinctly veined underneath, and coarsely toothed. The flowers are 2in. to 3in. across, sepals pointed, overlapping for about half their length, and well expanded; their outsides are of a purplish colour, which extends along the stalk; the inner surface of the sepals is a yellowish green, the whole being suffused with a metallic hue or "bloom"; the stamens and anthers are a creamy white, the petals short and apple-green. The flowers droop gracefully, and are rendered all the more pleasing by the floral leaves which immediately support them. The leaves of the root are large and pedate, the divisions wide apart and unevenly toothed; the under sides are distinctly veined with purplish-brown when in a young state. The habit is robust, and the bloom is produced well above the radical foliage. There is a peculiar beauty about a strong flowering specimen which would hardly be expected from the above description, and it is even more difficult for me to do it justice. In a cut state a whole stem, with its flowers in different stages of development, is fine. The youngest rosy-purple buds, about the size of a cob nut; the more opened bell-shaped forms, just showing both the inner and outer colours of the sepals; these surmounted by the longer-stalked, fully expanded, but drooping flower, with its tassel-like bunch of stamens, and all finely interspersed with young leaves of two distinct colours, according to the side which meets the eye--all go to make it a charming decoration for indoors, and if cut clean it deserves a place for the whole week or more during which it remains in good form. Cultivation, as for _H. Abchasicus_. Flowering period, January to March. Helleborus Dumetorum. BUSHY HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. One of the less showy species. It comes from Hungary, and has been grown in this country about seventy years. It entirely renews its foliage yearly, the flower stems appearing before the radical leaves. The flowers are small, green, and drooping; the sepals are roundish. The flower stems are twice branched, full-flowered, and furnished with the "cut floral leaf," which is nearly stalkless and palmate. The root leaves are very smooth and pedate. The bright green flowers mix well with others, but where Hellebores are grown in limited varieties this may be omitted without loss as regards floral beauty. Cultivation, as for _H. Abchasicus_. Flowering period, February and March. Helleborus Foetidus. STINKING HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is a native species, distinct, ornamental, and evergreen. Its name may, with some, prevent its being planted in the pleasure garden, but its foetid odour is not perceptible unless sought for. It is mostly found wild in this country in chalky districts, and it occurs largely in the southern parts of Europe. Though poisonous, it is a valuable herb. Its value as a garden subject consists in its dark evergreen foliage, good habit, and handsome panicles of bloom. The latter is produced under cultivation in mid-winter. It never fails to flower then if the position is a sheltered one. In its wild state the flowers appear in March. It belongs to that section of the Hellebores which have leafy stems and many flowers; its grows 2ft. high, and never seems to rest, but goes on making new leaves throughout winter. The flowers are produced in clusters larger than a man's hand, and are of a green colour, the sepals edged with brown, which turns to a purplish tint; they are nearly an inch across, well cupped, and mostly hang bell-fashion; the leaves are much smaller than those of most Hellebores, pedate, smooth, of stout substance and dark green colour; the divisions of the leaves are narrow and numerous. The foliage is persistent, and keeps green until after the new has appeared; it bends downwards in a pleasing manner, and the leafy stems have a palm-like appearance. These, when topped with panicles of flowers, though they be green ones, are worthy objects for any garden. It is a suitable plant for mixing with deciduous shrubs; bold specimens of it enliven such borders by their shining greenery, and they are of greatest service when most needed, for in such sheltered quarters they are pretty sure to flower during winter; and the summer shade, if not too dense, will prove more beneficial to them than otherwise. Cultivation, ordinary garden soil. Flowering period, December to April. Helleborus Guttatus. SPOTTED HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is one of the newer species or varieties; its main distinction is well implied by the specific name. The flowers are fully 2in. across, and white; the sepals are spotted with purple; the petals are more constant than in some species, and of a rich green colour; flowers are produced on stems having the floral leaf; the buds are a greenish white, but very beautiful. The foliage is smaller than that of most kinds; the leaves are radical, rather short-stalked, pedate, and divisions narrow; they are of a leathery substance and a dark green colour. This is a free bloomer, a fact which, together with those of its winter-blooming habit and distinct flowers, renders it a valuable acquisition to the open garden. Either cut or growing, it is very lasting. Cultivation, as for _H. Abchasicus_. Flowering period, January to March. Helleborus Niger. BLACK HELLEBORE, _or_ CHRISTMAS ROSE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. A hardy, herbaceous perennial. It came from Austria in 1597. In favoured situations it proves evergreen; there is nothing black to be seen about a growing plant, and it has often puzzled its admirers as to the cause of its specific name, which is in reference to the black roots of a year or more old. It would appear, moreover, that this is not the true "Black Hellebore" of the ancients (see remarks under _H. Orientalis_). This "old-fashioned" flower is becoming more and more valued. That it is a flower of the first quality is not saying much, compared with what might be said for it; and, perhaps, no plant under cultivation is capable of more improvement by proper treatment (see Fig. 48). Soil, position, and tillage may all be made to bear with marked effect on this plant, as regards size and colour of flowers and season of bloom. We took its most used common name--Christmas Rose--from the Dutch, who called it Christmas Herb, or Christ's Herb, "because it flowereth about the birth of our Lord Iesus Christ," and we can easily imagine that its beautiful form would suggest the other part of its compound name, "rose." In sheltered parts, where the soil is deep and rich, specimens will grow a foot high and begin to bloom in December, continuing until March. The individual flowers last a long time in perfection, either on the plant or in a cut state; they vary somewhat in their colour, some being more brown on the outer side of the sepals, and others much suffused with pink; but under glass, whether in the shape of a bell glass in the open garden, or a greenhouse, they mature to a pure white; their form is somewhat like that of a single rose, but may be more properly compared to a flower of its own order--the single pæonia. It is composed of five sepals, and is 2in. to 3in. across, being white or rose-coloured; these sepals form a corolla-like calyx; the petals are very short and tubular, nestling down amongst the tassel-like bunch of stamens; the flowers are produced on stout leafless scapes, having one or two bracteæ; for the most part the flowers are in ones or pairs, but sometimes there may be seen three, and even four, on a scape. The leaves are radical, having stout, round stalks; they are large and pedate in shape, stout, and of leathery substance. The habit of the plant is neat, growing into rounded tufts. [Illustration: FIG. 48. HELLEBORUS NIGER. (One-quarter natural size.)] In suitable quarters it proves a quick grower, whilst in ungenial situations it will hardly increase, though it is seldom killed. As it happens that its flowers are produced at a most unfavourable time for keeping them clean, they should be covered with some kind of glass shelters, or, where the soil is retentive, the roots may be lifted with large balls of earth to them, and be placed in a cool greenhouse well up to the light. It would, however, be a mistake to adopt this plan where the soil is loose, and during the lifting operation will fall from the roots; and it is also a mistake to expect flowers from newly-planted roots. Where its fine bloom is required at Christmas, good roots should have been planted fully a year previously. Doubtless many an amateur will herein recognise his failing point when expecting Christmas Roses from roots planted only a month before, and sometimes less. True, the buds are there, and fine ones, too, perhaps, but the plants, unless transferred with a good ball, suffer a check which it will take at least a year to outgrow. It is a good plan to grow this flower in good-sized pots, which should be plunged in a shady part of the garden all the year, with the exception of the blooming period; but even with pots well grown and showing plenty of buds, the mistake is often made of suddenly placing them in heat, immediately over hot pipes or flues, the heat from which shrivels the buds and foliage too. Though the Hellebores are amongst our best flowers for forcing, it should be done gently in an atmosphere constantly kept humid. As a cut bloom, the Christmas Rose vies with the eucharis and pancratium. For vase work, or used about the person, it is a flower that wins the greatest admiration, and it is no unusual thing for cut flowers to last indoors quite a fortnight. _H. n. angustifolius_ (narrow-leaved Hellebore) has smaller flowers than the type. The divisions of the leaves or leaflets are narrower, whence its name. The foliage is of a pale or apple green, whereas that of the type is very dark. It was introduced in the same year as its reputed parent. As a foliage plant it is very handsome, the leaves bending gracefully, and the whole specimen having a neat appearance. _H. n. maximus_ is the largest Christmas Rose, and is a truly grand variety; the flowers are 4in. and 5in. across. The illustration (Fig. 49) is one-fourth natural size. The scapes are very stout, and produce several flowers, which are held well above the foliage; like those of the type, they, too, are tinted with a pink colour, which passes away when the flowers are a week or so old. The foliage is remarkably bold, having thick, round, and beautifully marked stalks. Well-established specimens have a shrub-like effect, being nearly 2ft. high, and richly furnished to the ground. The half-blown buds of this variety are exquisitely beautiful, and vary somewhat in form according to their age; some resemble a nearly blown tulip, and others a rosebud. As buttonholes, backed with a frond of maidenhair, they are charming. A whole scape, having one fully-blown flower and several buds, is the most perfect and beautiful decoration imaginable for a lady's hair. This variety is at its best in the month of December, being a little earlier than the typical form. [Illustration: FIG. 49. HELLEBORUS NIGER MAXIMUS. (One-quarter natural size.)] All these kinds should be grown in moist and rather shady quarters; under trees not too densely foliaged will suit them; the soil should be a deep rich loam. I may mention that all my Hellebores are grown under "nurses," _i.e._, suitable small trees. I use walnut. About eighteen species and varieties are planted under six small trees, 4ft. high. The reasons why I use walnut are, that they leaf late in spring and lose their leaves early in autumn, so affording the greater amount of light during the flowering time of the Hellebores, and screening them in summer from the sun with their ample but not over thick foliage; a cut under the trees once a year with a sharp spade keeps them dwarf and prevents their making too many strong roots. Without saying that Hellebores should be grown in this way, it will serve to show how they may be conveniently shaded. Nothing could well look more happy under such treatment, and, once properly planted, they give no further trouble than a mulching of rotten manure in spring, when all the kinds have finished flowering. Christmas Roses are easily raised from seed, provided it is sown as soon as ripe, but plants so raised are two or three years before they flower. The quicker method of increase is by division of the roots. This can only be done successfully when the old stock is in robust health. Pieces of roots taken from old and unhealthy specimens will remain in the ground for twelve months as immovable as stones, whereas the least bits of clean young growths will form nice blooming plants the first year. Flowering period, December to March. Helleborus Odorus. SWEET-SCENTED HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. Like all the Hellebores, excepting the white-flowered _H. niger_ and its varieties, this has, until very recently, been much neglected, notwithstanding that its name implies the rare and desirable quality of a sweet odour; moreover, it is of easy culture, very hardy, and a free bloomer. It is a native of Hungary, and was introduced to English gardens in 1817. It is like _H. purpurascens_, only its flowers are green; it even more strongly resembles our native _H. viridis_. All its foliage is renewed annually. It belongs to the section having stems few-flowered, forked, and bearing floral leaves. It grows 9in. to 12in. high. The flowers are green, small, nodding, and scented. The sepals are nearly round, and overlap each other. The flowers are produced at long intervals on the twice-branched, stout, pale green stems; they are supported by prettily-cut leaves, having lance-shaped segments, finely serrated, also having large stipules. The radical leaves are palmate, covered with a fine down on the under surface. The segments are oblong, undivided, and at the base quite entire, but finely toothed near the top. The bloom lasts a long time, either cut or in the growing state. There is nothing very distinct to the eye about this species, but it is to be commended for the sweetness of its flowers. Like other Hellebores, it should be grown in a shady place, where there is a good depth of rich sandy loam. Propagated by division of healthy stock at almost any period. Flowering period, February to March. Helleborus Olympicus. OLYMPIAN HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This comes from a Grecian habitat, as the specific name denotes; still it is perfectly hardy in this climate, and it deserves a place in every garden. It is not so old in English gardens as some kinds, and may not be much known; at any rate, it is seldom met with; but, from the fact of its coming into bloom in the first month of the year, and having finely-formed purple flowers, it is a desirable companion to the white Christmas Rose; it is variously stated to have white and purple flowers, both statements being authorised; they are produced in spare clusters on stems a foot high; the buds are charming objects, of a ruddy-brown colour, and the size of a big filbert; they are rather close together, and supported by a "cut floral leaf." The leaves are well divided and almost palm-shaped, the leaflets being ovate and toothed. It is a free grower, and never fails to bloom well too. Cultivation and flowering period, the same as with _H. niger_. Helleborus Orientalis. EASTERN HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. Sometimes also called the Lenten Rose, as it may often be seen in flower during Lent, though it is no uncommon thing for it to bloom in January in favoured situations and mild winters. This is a very old species which has long been known to botanists, but it has only recently been introduced into this country. It is a native of the Levant, is plentiful on mountains and near Thessalonica and Constantinople. It has gone under the name of _H. officinalis_, and as such was, as it still is, the shop Hellebore of the East. As a garden flower it is to be recommended as one of the best of the genus; the colour is often a fine rose variously tinted, and the blooms are of good size. It is, however, a species respecting which there is still considerable misconception. One authority says the leaves die off and again appear with the flowers; another classes it with the group "leaves not annually dying"; then one says, "the greenish-white blossoms are tinted at the margin with purple"; another, that the flowers are "rose-coloured"; whilst botanical descriptions, usually so taunting to the florist as regards blossom-colour, are no exceptions in this case. "Sepals oval, coloured," does not point out very clearly the information desired. Many of the species of Hellebore are known to produce flowers varying more or less in colour; and we also know that an individual blossom, during the long period in which the sepals keep good, often changes its tints and colours, but we are scarcely prepared to hear that a species has greenish-white flowers, whilst we have always seen a rosy or rosy-purple one produced. Still, the information from another source, that _H. orientalis_ is a species intermediate between _H. niger_ and _H. viridis_, would seem to favour the greenish-white as the typical colour; be that as it may, it is most likely that the more desirable rosy-flowered variety will prevail in flower gardens, that being the general recognised colour of the type, and moreover, one which renders it pleasingly distinct in the whole genus. There are hybrid kinds which have been raised from this species crossed with _H. viridis_ and, perhaps, others, and some of them have greenish-white flowers; but they should not be confounded with the species under notice. These varieties have received such names as _H. orientalis elegans_, _H. o. viridescens_, and _H. o. punctatus_. If hybrids are to be honoured with specific names, it will require much care to avoid confusion, and it is just possible that some such causes have led to the various descriptions above referred to. The type under notice is fairly distinct, and the amateur having a slight acquaintance with the Hellebore family will have little difficulty in making it out. The flowers are produced on forked stems, and are accompanied by finely-cut floral leaves, nearly sessile and palmate; the radical leaves are large, pedate, downy underneath, having long stalks, and remaining green throughout winter. The habit is to push the stout flower stems well up above the foliage, sometimes as high as 18in.; the flowers are very durable, at least the major parts--as the sepals--are, the stamens and petals falling somewhat sooner than those of most species; if different positions are given to a few specimens, flowers may be had from Christmas to Lent, according to amount of shelter or exposure therein obtained for the plants. There are facts connected with this plant, as other than a garden subject, which can hardly fail to be generally interesting. "This is the Black Hellebore of the ancients," so that, though _H. niger_ bears the name and is known to be largely possessed of properties similar to those of the oriental species, it is proved to be wrongly applied. So much was claimed by ancient doctors for the Black Hellebore as a medicine in mania, epilepsy, dropsy, and other ills to which mortals are heirs, that naturally the true plant was sought with much zeal. Dr. Woodville laments the want of proper descriptions of plants and the consequences, and in his "Botany," p. 51, points out some ridiculous errors made in reference to the Black Hellebore previous to 1790; he gives the names of many plants which had been mistaken for it and actually employed, and he assumes that at the time of his writing all such errors had not only been discovered, but corrected, by what he then described as, and we now call by the name of, _H. niger_, being the true Black Hellebore; and after all, the potent herb of the ancients has been identified in a plant (a near relation, it is true) other than the white Christmas Rose--it may be some time before we come to think of our present subject as the true Black Hellebore, especially when an otherwise popular species bears the name. Cultivation, as for _H. niger_. Flowering period, December to April. Helleborus Purpurascens. PURPLISH HELLEBORE; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. A native of Podolia and Hungary, introduced sixty to seventy years ago. It belongs to the section whose flowers appear before the root leaves, having branched flower stalks and the cut floral leaf. It is a dwarf kind, and varies very much; I have now an established specimen in bloom at the height of 3in., and others at 8in. or 9in. It also differs in the depth of bloom-colour; some of its flowers may be described as purplish-green and others as greenish-purple, slaty and dove-coloured; others have a tinge of red more visible. The flowers are few, on twice-forked stems, are 2in. or more across, and commonly, as the name implies, of a purplish colour; the inner surface of the sepals is a slaty shade, the purple prevailing on the outer surface; the form of the flower is nearly round and slightly cupped, from the nearly round or kidney shaped sepals, which neatly overlap each other, and are also incurved at the edges; the petals are very short and green; the stamens and anthers of a creamy white; the floral leaf is nearly stalkless; segments unevenly toothed. The radical leaves are "pubescent on the under surface, palmate, with the segments cuneated at the base, and from three to five lobed at the apex." The habit is robust and free blooming; the flowers slightly droop, and, though the colours are not showy, they are attractive from the way in which they are borne on the straight stems and the absence of the larger leaves. It is a desirable species for the garden; a few specimens grown amongst a mass of the "winter aconite" are enough to make one forget that it is winter. Cultivation, as for _H. niger_. Flowering period, February to April. Hepatica Angulosa. _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is a very distinct species. It comes from North America, and is twice the size of _H. triloba_ in all its parts; the leaves are more cut, and very woolly; the flowers are bright mauve, and 1½in. across. All the Hepaticas are slow growers, but _H. angulosa_ is the more vigorous. Some say they should be grown in peat, but I never saw them so fine in peat as in strong loam, well drained and manured; they are the better with slight shade. I do not object to peat, as possibly it may be more suitable than the natural soil of some gardens. Still, if I had to make up a compost for Hepaticas, I should freely use strong loam on a well-drained site. With me they have been in flower nearly three months, commencing in February. It seems desirable to increase these fine spring flowers, but they are most impatient of being disturbed, and, after all, the increase can exist in no finer form than in big clumps, though when they are to be propagated the roots should be divided before the new leaves are produced, which is during the blooming period. A deeply-dug and well-manured plot should be prepared for them, and their long roots should not be doubled up in the least; they both need and deserve great care. Flowering period, February to April. Hepatica Triloba. _Syns._ ANEMONE TRILOBA _and_ ANEMONE HEPATICA; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 50. HEPATICA TRILOBA. (One-third natural size.)] The well-known common Hepatica, of which there are so many beautiful varieties. It is a hardy perennial, one of the "old-fashioned" flowers of English gardens, and is said by some to be a British species; anyhow, it was well known and admired in this country 300 years ago. Well-established specimens form neat tufts of three-lobed leaves on long stems, which are not evergreen in this climate, though the Hepaticas are known to be so in North America, one of their most extensive habitats. Here, under cultivation, they produce much finer flowers, and more of them. The cut (Fig. 50), however, shows the foliage in more perfect form than it is commonly seen to be in this climate during the period of bloom, when the old is usually sered, and the new scarcely visible. The varieties of _H. triloba_ differ only in the colour and form of their flowers, there being blue, purple, white, and pink. Of the first and last named there are double varieties as well. Cultivation, the same as for _H. angulosa_. Flowering period, February to April. _H. t. splendens_ is a charming Windflower, and one which, from its extra brilliancy, is sure to become a favourite, as, indeed, the whole genus _Anemone_ is. It is a new variety of _H. triloba_, and is yet somewhat scarce, differing from the more generally known kinds of the same species in only two points, so that, beyond the mention of them, no other description is needful: (1) Its flowers are single red, but so much deeper in colour, brighter, and of better substance, as to be quite distinct, and merit the name "_splendens_." (2) It flowers earlier than the commoner red kind. This handsome seedling of the common Hepatica is very suggestive of what can be done by raising seed from carefully-selected sorts, and within the last few years something has been done in that direction, so that in a little time we may expect to see other good varieties. I may add that seedlings are three years before they bloom, and even longer before a proper idea can be formed of their qualities. Cultivation, the same as for _H. angulosa_. Flowering period, February to March. Hesperis Matronalis Flore-pleno. DOUBLE SWEET ROCKET, _or_ DAMES' VIOLET; _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. There are several double forms of this very popular old flower, such as purple, ruby, and pure white, the last named being by far the greatest favourite. A few years ago it was said to be very scarce, and in some parts of the country it certainly was so, but when the present taste for the good old flowers became general, it was not only found, but quickly propagated, so that now the double white Sweet Rocket may be had everywhere, and certainly no more beautiful flower can occupy the garden borders, its perfume being strong and deliciously fragrant. The parent plant of these double kinds is widely distributed over Europe; all are perfectly hardy. They vary in height from 12in. to 18in., branching candelabra-like, the flowers being produced in terminal spikes, arranged in the way of, and very much resembling, the double stocks--in fact, the Hesperis used to be called "Queene's Gilloflower." The leaves may be briefly described as oval, lance-shaped, toothed, and veined; dark green, and often spotted or blotched. Gerarde's description, too, may be given, as it is always pleasant to recognise the old plants of 300 years ago: "Dames' Violets hath great large leaues of a darke greene colour, somewhat snipt about the edges; among which spring up stalks of the height of two cubites, set with such like leaves; the flowers come foorth at the toppe of the branches--like those of the Stock Gilloflower, of a verie sweete smell." These desirable flowers have a long blooming period, and their cultivation is simple; there is, however, one special point to be observed, otherwise these double kinds will die off. It should be remembered that they produce no seed, and propagation must be carried out by divisions of the roots and cuttings; old plants, too, have a habit of forming their perennial crowns nearly out of the soil, so that the roots going down from them are often bare and unestablished; the older parts, too, are frequently attacked by ground vermin. No doubt these causes would tend greatly to the former scarcity of the finer kinds, but all the difficulties, if they can be called such, may be overcome by the very simple process of either putting in cuttings like wallflower slips during summer, or, as soon as the old plants are past their best bloom, dividing and replanting the various parts deeper, whereby all of them, however small, will make good plants the following season. This mode of keeping up the stock will be found to make the plants vigorous and free blooming, and also will prove a remedy for the complaint so often given expression to in such words as "I lost all my double Sweet Rockets; I cannot keep them above two years." Flowering period, June to August. Heuchera. ALUM-ROOT; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This is a small genus of hardy perennials suitable for the decoration of the English garden from their bold and finely-shaped leaves, which are well marked with various pleasing tints, also because of their perpetual verdure and neat habit. It takes its name from J. H. de Heucher, a botanist. The species, as many of them as are known, are from American habitats; nearly all have been introduced within the last sixty years; the well-known _H. Americana_, however, is an old plant in English gardens, having been cultivated for 223 years. The order, as given above, together with the illustration figuring one of the species (see Fig. 51), will give some idea of the usefulness of the genus, especially when it is remembered that in the depth of winter the foliage is fresh, and even in a growing state. The flowers are of little value for ornamental purposes; they are very small and numerous, and are arranged in panicles or racemes, on rather tall and mostly leafless stems, round, and somewhat wiry; calyx, petals, and stamens have a mixed appearance, the whole flower being of a dingy colour, often resembling some of the panicled bloom of meadow grass, when seen at a short distance; the calyces, however, are persistent, they crown the capsules; these and the naked stems, from their durable nature, mar the beauty of the foliage for several weeks, unless cut off. The plants are more ornamental without the flowers, as they impart a seedy appearance; at no time does the foliage show to more advantage than in January, when most herbaceous plants are dormant, and when their handsome tufts are alike beautiful, either bedewed with fogs, crystallised with hoar-frost, or glittering in the sunshine. As a genus, _Heuchera_ is sometimes placed after _Saxifraga_ and before that of _Tiarella_; the latter it much resembles, as well as the genera _Mitella_ and _Tellima_. Anyone knowing these will at once admit the usefulness of the plants under notice. Not only do they make good edgings or lines to borders, but the leaves in a cut state are of great service for table decoration, doing duty repeatedly around dishes, &c., either with or without flowers; after being so used, if placed in water, they may be kept a fortnight in good form. I am told that the leaves are sold in Covent Garden Market for similar purposes. I have seen them used in the autumn with the large white anemone, and in winter with the Christmas rose, one flower arranged and tied on the face of a single leaf. These placed round dishes, &c., have a pretty effect. They grow freely in any kind of soil, excepting stiff clay, and are readily increased by division of the crowns. This may be done any time, but, perhaps, spring is the best. The Heucheras bloom from May to August. Heuchera Americana. AMERICAN HEUCHERA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. The flowers of this species are a dull or reddish purple. The foliage is rough and clammy; the form of leaf resembles that of _H. glabra_ (see Fig. 51), but the colour is a lighter green. All the genus are of an astringent nature, but this species is remarkably so, and in its native country has earned for the family the name of "Alum-root." For cultivation and flowering period see _Heuchera_. Heuchera Cylindrica. CYLINDRICAL-SPIKED HEUCHERA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This is much in the way of _H. Richardsoni_, with the distinction indicated by the name, the flowers being arranged evenly round the spike like a cylinder. For cultivation and flowering period see _Heuchera_. Heuchera Drummondi. DRUMMOND'S HEUCHERA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A tall kind, with leaves of handsome shape (heart-shaped and lobed) and greener than most varieties. Cultivation and flowering period are described under _Heuchera_. Heuchera Glabra. SMOOTH HEUCHERA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 51. HEUCHERA GLABRA. (One-sixth natural size.)] This was introduced in 1824 from North America. The foliage is bold and abundant; the illustration (Fig. 51) not only gives a good idea of the form and habit of foliage, but fairly represents the whole genus, as seen during the late (1882) season. This species has dull pinkish flowers; the scapes have a few leaves; root leaves are 2in. to 5in. in diameter, heart-shaped, lobed, toothed, smooth, and of a dark bronzy-green colour. The leaf stalks are long and slender; the habit very neat. Cultivation and flowering period are described under _Heuchera_. Heuchera Lucida. SHINING-LEAVED HEUCHERA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A very dwarf species, not more than 3in. or 4in. high; the foliage a clear bright green, nearly kidney-shaped, lobed, and roundly toothed. The fresh appearance of its prostrate leaves, which are 2in. across, forms a pleasing object in mid-winter. Cultivation and flowering period, as given under _Heuchera_. Heuchera Metallica. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This was presented to me in 1881 by a lady, who informed me that it was introduced by the late Miss Hope. It is a beautiful plant; the hues somewhat justify the name, but to the touch the leaves are more like a soft fabric, as cloth or velvet. The flowers are of no value, but the foliage is bloom of no mean order, so much so, that everyone stops to admire this handsome plant. Cultivation and flowering period, as given under _Heuchera_. Heuchera Micrantha. SMALL-FLOWERED HEUCHERA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. From Columbia. Flowers a yellowish-green; leaves nearly round, bluntly lobed, crenate or round toothed, the teeth horned or pointed; the colour is inclined to auburn during autumn, but it varies, and for a botanical description it would be hard to state a particular colour. The gardener, however, will find in this a most useful plant, where different forms and tints of foliage are desirable. Into the sub-tropical garden it may be introduced with good effect. I may add that the leaf stalks are 9in. to 12in. long, also of a rich brown colour, and the leaves are 3in. to 5in. across. Cultivation and flowering period, as described under _Heuchera_. Heuchera Purpurea. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This seems to be a less known or newer variety. If the name has reference to the colour of the foliage, it is not inappropriate. The bold leaves are a dark green, shading to a bronze, then a purple, the whole having a soft downy effect. It is a charming kind. Cultivation and flowering period, the same as for the _Heuchera_. Heuchera Ribifolia. CURRANT-LEAVED HEUCHERA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This is another dwarf kind, producing such leaves as the name denotes. Of this species the only useful feature for a garden seems to be its habit of neatly carpeting the ground under deciduous trees. It has also a remarkably fresh appearance during winter. Cultivation and flowering period, as for other _Heucheras_. Heuchera Richardsoni. RICHARDSON'S HEUCHERA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A taller variety than _H. Drummondi_. The most striking distinctions are the pale green colour of the young leaves contrasting with the bronzed appearance of the older ones, and the larger size of its flowers, which, however, are green. Cultivation and flowering period, as for other species. Houstonia Coerulea. BLUETS; _Nat. Ord._ GENTIANACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 52. HOUSTONIA COERULEA. (Natural size.)] Hardy and evergreen. This pretty little shining plant never exceeds a height of 3in. Like most species of this order, both flowers and foliage have much substance and endure for a long time in perfection, but its neat form and bright parts most commend it--it almost sparkles in both leaf and flower. This species, as implied by the specific name, bears a blue flower, but there is a variety (_H. c. alba_ or _H. albiflora_) which bears white flowers, from a specimen of which the illustration (Fig. 52) is drawn, and, as the colour of the flower is the only dissimilarity, a description of the typical form will in all other respects apply to both. The flowers, which are produced singly on slender stems 2in. high, are composed of a four-toothed calyx; corolla, four petals, or four-toothed and funnel-shaped; when fully expanded each flower is ½in. across, and shows a distinct yellow eye. The leaves of the root are spathulate, those of the stems opposite and lanceolate; all the parts are shown of the natural size in the illustration. All the known Houstonias are natives of North America; still, our winters seem to kill strong plants. From an impression that the plants were destroyed by insects amongst their roots and foliage, I had several tufts lifted, well shaken out, and divided in the autumn; they were replanted in leaf soil and sand and kept rather moist. When planting them, all amongst the roots was thickly strewn with dry silver sand, so as to leave no space for the lodgment of vermin; the results were fine, fresh, green tufts throughout the following winter, which, however, was not severe; still, the plants not so treated dwindled and were unhealthy, whereas the others were finely in bloom, the subject of the drawing being one of them. These minute plants do well and look well wedged between large stones on rockwork, where they flower nearly all the year round; they also form pretty pot specimens under cold frame treatment; and they may be used with good effect for surfacing the pots in which other hardy but tall and bare stemmed things--such as lilies--are grown. The mode of propagation has been indicated by the above autumnal treatment. Flowering period, April to July. Hutchinsia Alpina. _Syn._ LEPIDIUM ALPINUM; _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. An alpine species, from South Europe, which may be said to be evergreen in this climate, and, according to my experience of it, flowering throughout the year. Though found in some gardens to be difficult to establish, when it finds a suitable home it becomes a pretty addition. This alpine seldom exceeds 2in. in height. The flowers are a glistening white and very small, produced in numerous heads, and they are very enduring; the calyx is concave and falls off; the four petals are inversely ovate; the little leaves are deeply lobed, of a pale shining green colour, with plenty of substance; its habit is spreading or creeping. Neither slugs nor any other pests seem to meddle with it. It may be transplanted at any time, and the mode of propagation may be gathered from the following remarks. Probably because its name implies its alpine character, some may be misled to plant it on rockwork; whether that be so or not, I so tried it, and found it would not grow in such a situation. A bed of dwarf and moisture-loving subjects was being planted, in which a bit of this Hutchinsia was dibbled, and it found a home in the moist vegetable soil. For two or three years I do not remember to have seen it, or the seedlings, without flowers; its pretty, dwarf, rue-like foliage grew so thickly that it threatened to kill the edging of gentianella and such things as _Polemonium variegatum_, the double cuckoo-flower, and the little _Armeria setacea_; it also filled the walks, and its long wiry roots have been eradicated with difficulty. From this it will be seen how much depends, with some plants, on the position in which they are placed. Hydrangea Paniculata Grandiflora. LARGE-PANICLED HYDRANGEA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This dwarf shrub is perfectly hardy and deciduous; it comes from Japan, and is one of the best hardy things I have come across for some time. It is quite a new introduction, and has many fine qualities; the fact of its producing immense clusters of white flowers, 12in. long and 12in. in circumference, as well-established plants, is enough to induce its extended cultivation; but when it is stated that its clusters are numerous and durable, that the shrub begins to flower in summer and continues in great beauty until damaged by frosts, it will doubtless be recorded on the lists of desiderata of those who do not possess it. The usefulness of such a subject is notable not only to the gardener who has a keen eye to artistic effect, but to the lover of showy flowers (see Fig. 53). The flowers are male and female kinds, and, as is usual with the genus, the fruitful ones are interspersed with unfruitful, being shorter in the stalks and nearly covered over by the latter, which are much larger; in fact, they are not the true flowers from a botanist's point of view, but with the florist it is exactly the opposite; their colour is white, more or less tinted with pink, which, if the autumn season proves fine and dry, becomes purple. As the name denotes, the bloom is arranged in massive panicles, pyramidal form, 6in. to 12in. long, and 4in. to 8in. in diameter. They slightly bend with the great weight, but are otherwise well supported by the woody stems. The latter are somewhat short, seeing they carry such large clusters. The leaves are oval, subcordate (varying), distinctly ribbed, and finely toothed, also varying much in size. The habit of the shrub is much branched, of strong growth, and very floriferous. The flowering shoots issue from the hard wood of the previous season's growth. In the shrubbery it is very attractive, its flowers out-numbering, out-measuring, and out-lasting most of its neighbours. Kept dwarf, what a grand bedder it would make! Grown in pots it is a first-class indoor subject. It has that rare quality, even when in small pots, of being adapted for the company of large ferns, palms, &c., from the great size of its panicles, and I need scarcely say that for cutting purposes it is valuable, more especially in decorations which are not closely viewed. [Illustration: FIG. 53. HYDRANGEA PANICULATA GRANDIFLORA. (One-tenth natural size); blossom, natural size.] The culture of this shrub is very simple; it does best in rich loam. The situation should be sunny, that it may well ripen its wood. In order to have clusters of large size, it should be closely pruned, like roses, by which treatment the bush may also be kept in the desired form. Its propagation is by cuttings; they should be of fairly well-ripened wood of the last season's growth. The degree of ripeness, like that of such things as roses and fuchsias, may vary according to the method by which the cuttings are to be treated. Half-ripened shoots will root well in a little heat; the harder wood will root equally well, but more slowly, in the open in sandy loam. Flowering period, July to end of September. Hypericum Calycinum. LARGE-CALYXED ST. JOHN'S WORT, _or_ ROSE OF SHARON; _Nat. Ord._ HYPERICACEÆ. A very ornamental deciduous shrub, but often green throughout the winter. This I claim the privilege of introducing amongst herbaceous perennials; it is a well-known and favourite "old-fashioned" flower, in fact, a native of Ireland. The old name for it was "Cup St. John's Wort." In July it is in splendid form, and, familiar as we are with it, it never fails to win admiration. How charming are its large, shining, golden blossoms, nestling amongst the bright but glaucous foliage! the bundled tassels composed of numerous filamentary stamens glistening like threads of gold; and though often seen one can never tire of it. As a flower, it is distinct in form, showy, and richly effective. It grows to the height of 1ft. or 18in.; the flowers are 4in. across, of a rich golden-yellow colour, and produced singly on the very leafy stems which, at the base or at their more woody parts, are square, the upper parts being nearly round. Short flower-stalks issue from the side and near the top, a small new growth being produced in juxtaposition with the blossom, the said growth being composed of half-a-dozen or so smaller-sized leaves of a pale apple-green, charmingly suffused with a glaucous hue. The calyx of five sepals is very large, whence the specific name, and each sepal is nearly round and cupped, whence the old common name, "Cup St. John's Wort"; the five petals are 2in. long and widely apart; stamens very numerous, long, thready, and arranged in tufts. These are very beautiful, and form the most conspicuous part of the flower; like the other seed organs, and also the petals, they are of a rich, glistening, yellow colour. The leaves are closely arranged in pairs, opposite, and nearly sessile; they are 2in. to 3in. long, and about 1in. broad, oval-oblong, blunt, smooth, and leathery. When young, they are as above described, but when older, they are of a dark, shining green colour, and somewhat reflexed. The under sides are finely reticulated or veined, and sometimes the foliage is spotted with brown. The habit of the shrub is neat, the short stems being numerous and semi-prostrate, forming dense, even masses of verdant foliage. Such a subject as this cannot be too highly esteemed on the score of the merits already set forth; but there are other good qualities which I will briefly refer to presently. There can be little doubt that the fine parts and many uses, decorative and otherwise, of most of the "old-fashioned" flowers have much to do with the high and continued esteem in which they are held. Not one of the least recommendations of this St. John's Wort is that it can be grown with great success under the shade of trees. It is one of the very few subjects that will bloom freely in such situations. It is, therefore, very valuable; besides, as regards its period of flowering, it comes in nicely after the vincas are over. These two genera are, perhaps, the best hardy flowering shrubs we possess for planting in the shade of trees. I scarcely need add that for more open situations, as rockwork and borders, it is in every way suitable. To the lover of cut flowers this must prove one of the most satisfactory, not only because of its beauty, but also because they are produced for fully three months--into September--and they are sweetly scented, like wallflowers. A flower-topped stem forms a perfect and unique decoration for a lady's hair; sprays in small vases are exquisite, whilst a bowlful for the table (without any other flower) is very fine indeed--let the reader try these simple styles of decoration. Also, mixed with other flowers, it is one of the most telling; none of the yellow exotics can excel it. It is now before me, with a few sprays of the pink sweet pea and a bold spike of the white variety of goat's-rue; the blend is both delicate and effective. As a cut flower it can hardly be misused, provided it is not crowded. Its culture is simple. Any sort of garden soil suits it, but it prefers a sandy loam. A winter top dressing of stable litter will help to produce greater luxuriance and a longer succession of flowers. It quickly and broadly propagates itself by means of its creeping roots; these may be at any time chopped off, with a sharp spade, in strong pieces, which, if planted in deeply-dug loam, will make blooming specimens for the following season. Flowering period, July to September. Iberis Correæfolia. _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. This is a hybrid and much improved variety of the well-known evergreen and shrubby Candytuft, often called "Everlasting Candytuft." A more pronounced remove from its parents could hardly be found in any plant or shrub than is this. There are evident improvements in colour, size, and habit, both in foliage and flowers. It is also a robust grower and perfectly hardy, in these respects being very different from _I. Gibraltarica_. None of the shrubby Candytufts can compare with this for usefulness and beauty; it comes into flower in May, and is in its greatest beauty in early June. It remains in fine form for fully four weeks. At first the flowers seem small, but later they form broad masses of dazzling whiteness, the corymbs being the size of a crown piece. Not only is this wholly distinct from its relatives, but it is one of the most useful flowers and evergreen shrubs which can be introduced to a garden. It cannot be planted wrong as regards either soil or situation. It forms a rich surfacing subject, all the year round, to other tall plants, as lilies, &c. It looks well as a front specimen in the shrubbery, makes an effective and neat appearance at the angles of walks, or as an edging it may be cut and trimmed as a substitute for a grass verge; it thrives on sunny or almost sunless outhouse tops, and on rockwork it is superb; moreover, it grows fairly well in reeky towns, and though its white flowers may be soiled the day they open, its bright green leaves and dense habit render it a pleasing object. The flowers are arranged in flat heads at first, but as the stems become elongated and the succession of buds open, a long round cluster is formed by the old flowers remaining (as they do for weeks), such heads or spikes sometimes being 3in. long. There is much substance in the petals, which causes them to glisten in strong light; the flower stems are produced 5in. or 6in. above the foliage, their total height rarely exceeding a foot. The leaves are numerous, of a dark shining green colour; in length 1½in., and over ¼in. broad near the ends; their shape is spathulate, obtuse, entire, and smooth; the new set of foliage contrasts pleasingly with the old, and its growth is completed during the flowering period; the woody and slender branches are numerous and procumbent. Besides the positions already mentioned, in which this shrub may usefully be planted, there is none more so, perhaps, than that of rough or unsightly corners, where, if it is provided with a little loam, it will soon adapt its form to the surroundings. The flowers in a cut state are not only sweet-smelling, but very useful where white bloom is needed in quantity, as for church decorations. _I. correæfolia_ can scarcely be said to need cultural treatment, but it is useful to bear in mind that it may be much more finely bloomed if generously treated, which simply consists in nothing more than giving it a sunny place and sandy loam, well enriched with old manure. Specimens so treated, which were cuttings only two years ago, are now 2ft. in diameter, and covered densely with large flowers; and how lovely some of the pretty weeds which have sprung up amongst the bushes, and mingle their flowers among the masses of white, appear--such as Spring Beauty (Claytonia), pink flowers; the Maiden Pink (_Dianthus deltoides_), rose; Self-heal (_Prunella pyrenaica_), purple; and the forget-me-nots! This comparatively new Candytuft is as easily increased as grown, by either layers or cuttings; the latter may be put in almost any time, early spring being the best; if put in in June, no better quarters can be given than under the shade of shrubs, where the soil is sandy loam. Flowering period, middle of May to middle of June. Iris Foetidissima. GLADDON, GLADWIN, _or_ SPURGE-WORT; _Nat. Ord._ IRIDACEÆ. A British species, occurring largely in some parts, in shady woods and swampy places near the sea. It is evergreen and of a pleasing form throughout the year. Its flowers are of a dull colour, and not likely to be much esteemed, more especially when in midsummer there are so many beautiful kinds around; still, it merits a place in our gardens. Its handsome berry-like seeds, which are so attractively conspicuous in December, are much more desirable than its flowers, ready as they are for our use at Christmas time. It grows 2 ft. high, and is a water-loving plant, but may be easily grown in the more moist parts of the garden. The large pod is three-cornered; the husks having turned brown, become divided, and expose to view the large, orange-coloured seeds, which, later, turn to a reddish-brown. They are held in the husks for many weeks and strong winds do not displace them; they are very effective amongst the dark green foliage, and may be cut if desired, as they often are, for indoor decoration. They may be used in a hundred different ways, but never do they show to more advantage than when cut with long stems and placed in a vase with some of their own dark green sword-shaped leaves; these last-named, by the way, may be appropriated throughout the winter as a dressing for other flowers. There need be no difficulty in growing this species, for if the soil is not naturally moist in summer, a thick dressing of rotten stable manure will meet the case. As a matter of fact, my specimen is grown in a bed fully exposed to the sun; the soil is well drained, and stone-crops are grown in the next bed to it; no water is ever given to established plants, and still the Gladwin is well fruited; the soil is deeply tilled, and there is a thick covering of manure. It is easily propagated by division of the roots in autumn or early spring. Flowering period, June to August. Isopyrum Gracilis. SLENDER ISOPYRUM; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is a hardy herbaceous plant, of great beauty. The flowers are not showy, but their great numbers and arrangement render them of importance in what may be termed a fine-foliaged subject. The Isopyrums are very nearly related to the thalictrums or rues, and this one greatly resembles the maidenhair-like section, one of which it is often taken for. There is, however, an important botanical difference between the two genera: the thalictrums have no calyx, and the Isopyrums have. Still, as the flowers of both are very small, that feature is not very observable. As a decorative plant it may be classed with the maidenhair-like rues, and the illustration may be said to give a fair idea of three or four species. [Illustration: FIG. 54. ISOPYRUM GRACILIS. (One-eighth natural size; 1, leaflet, full size.)] The Isopyrum under notice grows 12in. or 15in. high, and produces its dark brown flowers on slender, well-branched stems, forming feathery panicles, which have a graceful appearance. The flowers are very small, and composed of a five-cleft calyx, five equal petals, and numerous long, pendent seed-organs; the stems are elegantly furnished with the fine-cut foliage. The leaves are large, but the leaflets small, as may be seen by the one given, full size, in the drawing (Fig. 54), being somewhat cordate, lobed, and dentate; they have hair-like stalks, which add to their elegance of arrangement, and their glaucous colour further enhances their effectiveness. This light and diffuse subject may be usefully planted to relieve other kinds; in beds or lines it looks well, having a lace-like effect; as a cut flower or spray it nearly equals maidenhair, and for mixing with large flowers, it perhaps excels. Either cut or in the growing state it is very durable. It may be grown in average garden soil, but to have it fine, it should be given vegetable soil and a moist situation, not shaded. It is propagated by seeds or division of the roots in autumn. Flowering period, July and August. Jasminum Nudiflorum. NUDE-FLOWERED JASMINE; _Nat. Ord._ JASMINACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 55, JASMINUM NUDIFLORUM. (One-third natural size.)] This was brought to this country from China a little less than forty years ago, and, as proof of its sterling worth, it is already in extensive use. The whole genus is a favourite one; but there is a special and most attractive feature about this species that is sure to render it desirable to all--it flowers freely in mid-winter, and it does so in the open garden. Like many of the genus, this species comes from a very warm climate, and for a time it was grown in glasshouses as a tender shrub, where it flowered during the winter months. It is now found to be a perfectly hardy subject, not only withstanding our most trying seasons without the least injury, but also proving true to the month of December as the period when it begins to produce its numerous golden flowers. It is a climbing deciduous shrub, though it has neither the habit of clinging nor twining. The shrub produces bloom when only 18in. high, but it often grows to as many feet, and even taller. The flowers are borne singly at the joints from which the leaves have fallen, and as the latter were opposite, the blossom appears in pairs on the new twigs. In the bud state they are drooping, and are marked with a bright chestnut tint on the sunny side. The calyx is ample, almost leafy, but these parts are hidden when the flower opens and becomes erect. The form of the Jasmine blossom is well known; in size this one is rather larger than a full-blown violet, and quite as sweetly scented, which is saying very much, but the colour is yellow; the petals are of good substance and shining; the flowers last a long time, even during the roughest weather, they open most during sunshine, but do not wait for it, and they remain open until they fade. The leaves, which are produced in early spring, are very small and ternate; leaflets of unequal size, ovate, downy, and of dark green colour. The wood is very pithy, square, with sharp corners, and having the appearance almost as if winged; the younger branchlets are dark bronze green. The habit of the shrub is rampant, climbing, much branched, and very floriferous. The green leafless sprigs of bloom are very serviceable in a cut state for vase decoration, especially if mixed with dry grasses or well-foliaged flowers; the sweet odour, too, reminds one of spring time. Specimens growing against the house or other walls, either nailed or in a trellis, have a happy effect in winter, from the slender whip-like growths hanging down and being well bloomed. From the dark green colour and great number of branchlets, although leafless, a well-grown example has quite the effect of an evergreen. It enjoys a sunny position, but I have it doing well in a northwest aspect; it may be used in bush form in almost any situation. Neither is it particular as to soil, but I should not think of planting a winter-blooming subject in stiff or retentive loam--that of a sandy nature is more likely to be productive of flowers. It is easily propagated from cuttings of the young wood; if they are taken in late summer, when the leaves are falling, they will root quickly. Before the strong west winds of autumn occur, it should be pruned, in order to prevent its being torn from the wall; if the prunings are laid in sandy loam, between shrubs, they will be sufficiently rooted for planting out by the following spring. Flowering period, December to April. Kalmia Latifolia. BROAD-LEAVED KALMIA; _Nat. Ord._ ERICACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 56. KALMIA LATIFOLIA. (One-third natural size.)] An evergreen shrub, very hardy in our climate. It comes from North America, and from its dwarf character and free-blooming habit, it is not only one of the most useful shrubs, but may be freely planted in connection with herbaceous subjects, where it will help to redeem the deadness of beds and borders during winter (see Fig. 56). Like the rhododendron, it grows to various heights, according to the soil or situation in which it may be planted, but 18in. to 2ft. is the size at which it may often--perhaps most often--be seen producing its wealth of flowers. There are many fine flowering shrubs, but they do not gain the esteem in which this is held. Its large clusters of delicate flowers, surmounting dark shining foliage, and which seem almost too pure and beautiful to withstand the vicissitudes of the open garden, are its winning points; moreover, the flowers last several weeks in perfection. The flowers are arranged in broad panicles; the pedicels and five-cleft calyx are a bright brown colour, and furnished with short stiff hairs. The salver-shaped corolla, which is white, pleasingly tinted with red, has a short tube and five divisions, curiously cornered; the flower is fully ¾in. across, and in its unopened state is hardly less pretty than when blown. The leaves are borne on stout woody branches, have short stalks, and a bent or contorted habit; they are thick, leathery, shining, smooth, and of a dark green colour on the upper side; underneath they are a yellowish-green. In form they are elliptical and entire, being 3in. to 4in. long. Healthy specimens are well furnished with foliage; otherwise it is spare, and when that is the case the flowering is rarely satisfactory. As this subject requires to be grown in moist vegetable soil, such as leaf mould or peat, it is useless to plant it where these conditions do not exist; moreover, the rule with species of the order _Ericaceæ_ is to require a pure, or approximately pure, atmosphere. Doubtless these conditions will debar many from growing this shrub successfully; but I may add, where its requirements can be afforded, not only should it be freely planted, but it will probably thrive without any further care. As a cut flower it is exquisite, if taken with a good stem and a few leaves; to many it may appear odd when I say it is too good to cut, but there are others who will comprehend me. The flowers can nowhere show to more advantage than on the bush, and it seems a pity to take its strongest branches for the sake of transferring the blossom. It is a slow-growing subject, but easily propagated by layering the lower branches; no matter how old or hard the wood has grown, if pegged well down they will soon become rooted. Flowering period, June to August. Lactuca Sonchifolia. SOW THISTLE-LEAFED LETTUCE; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This is one of the few ornamental species of a somewhat numerous genus; it is, moreover, perennial and hardy in this climate--characteristics not common to the family. It came from Candia, in 1822, since which time it has been grown in English gardens, more or less, as a decorative plant; it is of unusual form, especially in the foliage. I think it would scarcely be called handsome; but the flowers, which are a fine pale blue, and of the form usual to the order, are too good to be overlooked, and their value is enhanced by the fact of their being produced so late in the year. In speaking of the flower as a subject of the pleasure garden, it is unnecessary to describe it beyond saying that it is of a rich but pale blue colour, and over 1in. across, produced on stalks nearly 2ft. high, in lax panicles. The leaves are large--about 1ft. long and 9in. wide--have a stout mid-rib, are pinnate, and most curiously lobed. The leaflets, moreover, are fantastically shaped, being again lobed, also toothed and bent in various ways. The teeth have spine-like points, and the only uniform trait about their form seems to be that the edges are turned backwards. The upper surface is a pale green colour, the under side grey, almost white. It is of rather neat habit, and though I have not grown it in lines, it is only needful to see one good specimen in order to be certain of its effectiveness when so planted; it would be singularly distinct. It enjoys sunny quarters and deep but light or sandy loam. With me it does well on a raised bed of light earth; its long tap roots will save it from drought during the driest summer, when its fleshy and fast-growing foliage would lead one to think that it could not endure a dry time. It is readily increased by division of the roots or seed. Flowering period, September to strong frosts. Lathyrus Grandiflorus LARGE-FLOWERED EVERLASTING PEA; _Nat. Ord._ LEGUMINOSÆ. A hardy, herbaceous climber, coming from the South of Europe. It was introduced to this country nearly seventy years ago; it is an attractive object when in bloom, growing 6ft. high and being very floriferous. The flowers are nearly 2in. across. Not only in good soil do specimens grow densely and become furnished from the ground to the extremities of the stalks with bloom, but the roots run under the surface so rapidly that a veritable thicket is formed in three or four years. It is as well to allow this fine pea a good broad space, in the midst of which several iron standards, 6ft. high, should be firmly fixed; to these, fresh twiggy branches might be secured every spring; if the old ones are left in, their rottenness will allow them to snap off during strong winds when the tendrils have laid hold of them; but fresh branches, used as suggested, will bend but not break, and will withstand the strongest winds. This is very important, as, if the mass of foliage heads over, it is spoilt for the season. The flowers are dark rose colour, produced in twos and threes on longish stalks, which spring from the axils. The tendrils are three-cut, having a pair of oval leaflets; the stems are square, or four-angled, and slightly twisted and winged. This plant may be grown in any soil or situation. A specimen does well with me planted in rubble, where it covers a short rain-water pipe, the said pipe being feathered with twigs every spring; but to have flowers of extra size and luxuriant growth, plant in good loam, in a sunny site, and top dress with stable manure every spring. This large Pea-flower is most useful for cutting purposes, being not only handsome but very durable. The running roots may be transplanted in early spring, just before they make any stem. Flowering period, June to August. Lathyrus Latifolius. LARGE-LEAVED LATHYRUS, _or_ EVERLASTING PEA; _Nat. Ord._ LEGUMINOSÆ. This deciduous climber is one of the handsomest plants of the British flora (see Fig. 57); in its wild state it is a charming object, and under cultivation, in full exposure to sunshine, with proper provision for its tendrils, and kept clear of weeds, it becomes in every way one of the finest objects in the garden, whether considered as a decorative climber, a floral specimen, or a source of cut flowers. [Illustration: FIG. 57. LATHYRUS LATIFOLIUS. (One-sixth natural size.)] It grows fully 8ft. high, in deep and rich soil, and is furnished with large, many-flowered bunches of blossom from the leaf axils nearly all its length, each flower stalk being 6in. to 9in. long. The flowers are of a lively rose colour, about twelve in a cluster; tendrils five-cut, long, and two-leaved. The leaves are in pairs, elliptical, many ribbed, glaucous, and very large, whence the specific name; the internodes of the whole plant are winged, wings membranaceous; stipules large, broader than the stems. The habit is rampant; it enjoys sunshine, but will do in partial shade. _L. l. albus_ is a variety similar to the above in all its parts, but scarcely as large in the foliage, and the flowers are pure white, and produced a week or a fortnight later; for cutting purposes these are justly and highly esteemed. Tall vases may be pleasingly dressed by the flowered stems, if cut about 3ft. long; these twined round or hanging down are very graceful, but they should not be used too freely--one, or two at most, on each large vase will be ample. Both the above may be grown with good effect amongst other climbers, on a specially prepared trellis-work, ordinary pea-rods, or over defunct trees. Propagated by seeds, or by division of very strong roots only. February is a good time for both methods. Flowering period, June to August. Leucojum Æstivum. SUMMER SNOWFLAKE; _Nat. Ord._ AMARYLLIDACEÆ. As may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 58), this native bulbous plant is somewhat ungainly; blooming specimens are sometimes 2ft. high, and each one rarely produces more than three of its small flowers, but they are worth growing, because of their lasting properties, either cut or otherwise; the pretty snowdrop-shaped flowers are very effective when used in vases, their long stems rendering them more serviceable than they otherwise would be. [Illustration: FIG. 58. LEUCOJUM ÆSTIVUM. (One-third natural size.)] The white flower is without calyx, and has a corolla of six petals, each one being delicately tipped with pale green; they are produced on long thick stems, each flower having a somewhat lengthened pedicel, by which they are suspended bell-fashion. The foliage is of the common daffodil form, but longer; bulb small. There are, it is said, two varieties of this species, which have generally become mixed; the other variety is said to be more dwarf and later in flowering; if this is correct, possibly these mixed varieties may have something to do with the long time which they are known to continue flowering. Not only for the sake of preventing the tall growths from heading over should it be grown in broad masses, but when so planted this flower is more effective. It will grow in any kind of soil, but it seems most at home amongst dwarf shrubs, where its flowers are always of a more delicate colour than when exposed. Propagated by division of the roots during autumn every third year. Flowering period, May to July. Leucojum Vernum. SPRING SNOWFLAKE; _Nat. Ord._ AMARYLLIDACEÆ. A hardy bulbous species from Germany. It is not necessary either to describe or praise this beautiful flower, beyond stating that in every way it closely resembles the snowdrop; it is larger, however, whence the appropriateness of its name, Snowflake, in relation to that of the snowdrop. It will thrive anywhere but in wet, sour situations; it most enjoys fine light soil and the partial shade of trees, where it rapidly increases by offsets of the bulbs; these may, with advantage, be divided every three or four years. Flowering period, March and April. Lilium Auratum. GOLDEN-RAYED _or_ JAPANESE LILY; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This is a hardy Lily, and though this particular species is comparatively new to our English gardens, it belongs to a noble genus which has had a place in our ancestors' gardens for ages. It was long thought that this bulb from Japan could not endure our winters, and though it is proved to be perfectly hardy, there are yet many who only cultivate it indoors, and seem surprised when they see it in beds and borders, where it is allowed to remain year after year. The flowers vary very much in size, from 5in. to 8in. across; the divisions are richly tinted (golden-rayed), beautifully spotted and reflexed; the stems, at the height of 3ft. to 6ft., are furnished with flowers, mostly about five to eight in number. Though the flowers appear delicate, it is surprising how well they stand out in the open garden. For beauty and effect this Lily is incomparable (see Fig. 59). [Illustration: FIG. 59. LILIUM AURATUM. (One-half natural size.)] Much has been said about its culture, far more than need be put into practice. I have found the observance of three simple rules sufficient in order to have it in fine bloom year after year: First, begin with good sound bulbs, not over large. Second, plant them 9in. deep in sandy soil, and a moist situation, surrounding each bulb with half-a-spadeful of fine charcoal, which protects them from rot, canker, and (what I believe to be the chief cause of failure) the wireworm. Third, grow them where they will be sheltered from high winds; otherwise their long and top-heavy stems become wrenched, and the upper roots, above the bulbs, so torn that the current season's bloom is more or less damaged and root development checked. To put my simple method of growing this Lily in a plainer way, I may state that my garden is naturally well drained, has light soil, and a south aspect. Under a west wall I planted small bulbs in the manner already stated, and though I have often seen this Lily nearly twice as tall as ever I grew it, I have not any cause to complain about the quantity of bloom. I never either water or put down stakes as supports. If the situation is moist no water is needed, and it is next to impossible to send down stakes without coming in contact with the large bulbs. Doubtless a few good waterings with liquid manure would be an advantage, but where _L. auratum_ is esteemed as satisfactory with short stems, this need not be given. When once a clump or batch of this Lily has become established, it should not be disturbed for several years, when, if the stems are becoming too rank to allow them to wave without damaging each other's flowers, or if there are many young unflowered stems, they may profitably be dug out in a careful manner when the bulbs have ripened, which will be the case when the tops have become thoroughly dry; there will then be found to be numbers of nice clean young bulbs, which, with a year's extra patience, will probably form a more vigorous batch than the parent one. Such bulbs are properly called "home grown." Flowering period, September to November. Linum Flavum. YELLOW FLAX; _Nat. Ord._ LINACEÆ. This handsome shrub-like Flax comes from Austria, and is a comparatively new species in English gardens. It is not only a distinct form, but from the large quantities and more durable quality of its flowers, it proves itself a very useful subject for flower-beds and borders, where it should have the most select companions. It is classed as a hardy, herbaceous perennial; its woody character, and a few green leaves which it carries throughout the winter would, however, show that it is not strictly herbaceous. Its hardiness, too, will be questioned by many who have tried to winter it outside, more especially in the northern parts of Great Britain. It is only hardy under certain conditions, which, in effect, is saying that it is not perfectly hardy. It requires a light warm soil and a dry situation, besides which, if the winter is severe, it should be protected with a thick covering of ashes or cocoa fibre. This special treatment has been found needful in Yorkshire, but more south it has been proved hardy without such precautions. The neat habit and clusters of rich yellow flowers of this plant render it deserving of the little extra care above indicated; this, together with the fact that it is hardy in many parts, is a sufficient reason for naming it amongst hardy plants. Its flowers are produced in branched heads, dense and numerous, on stems a foot or more high; each flower is 1in. or 1½in. across, the five petals being of a transparent golden yellow, distinctly veined with orange; they are broad, and overlap each other; calyx small, and of a dark olive-green colour; segments finely pointed. The leaves are 2in. or more in length, lanced, but inclining to spoon shape; sessile, stout, smooth, entire, and glaucous. Through the summer new stems are quickly grown, which, in their turn, become topped with clusters of bloom, and so a succession of flowers is kept up until autumn. On rockwork it is effective, the situation, to some extent, meeting the requirements of its somewhat tender constitution; it may also be grown well in beds or borders, but they should be of a sandy character, and raised, unless it is intended to take up the plants for the winter; in such positions four or five specimens form a charming group, and nothing can be finer than the effect of other Flaxes, of a tall and spray-like character, grown near and amongst this golden yellow, such, for instance, as _L. Narbonnense_ and _L. perenne_. It is easily propagated by seeds, which should be sown in the autumn as soon as ripe; it may also be divided, but I have found the quickest and best results from cuttings taken in a half-ripened state. They should be put round the side of a rather large pot in sandy peat; the warmth, shade, and moisture of a cucumber-frame will cause them to root quickly, when they should be potted off singly, so as to make sturdy plants before the winter sets in, and such young stock ought to be wintered in a cold frame. Flowering period, August and September. Lithospermum Prostratum. PROSTRATE GROMWELL; _Nat. Ord._ BORAGINACEÆ. Sometimes called the Gentian L., from its bright blue gentian-like flowers. By many this species is considered synonymous with _L. fruticosum_. They are, however, very dissimilar. Our subject is an evergreen and stunted trailer; _L. fruticosum_ is a deciduous trailer and very vigorous; both, however, are perfectly hardy. The most striking characteristics of the Prostrate Gromwell are its fine dark blue flowers and procumbent habit. It is a native of France, and only within the last sixty years has it been introduced into this country. Its habit is most distinct as compared with the various long-stemmed species. It much resembles the well-known _Veronica prostrata_ in its general appearance. Its flowers are sparingly produced from the axils of the leaves, but, being large compared with the size of the foliage, they are very effective when they first open. The dark but bright blue corolla is tinged with red, but later on the colour becomes an unmixed blue, and the blooms increase in size until more than ½in. across. The complexion of the foliage is very dark (holly green), the leaves are about 1in. long, and are narrow and stalkless; they have much substance and are rather hard. The whole plant is thickly coated with hairs--a common feature of this order; but in this species the hairs are remarkably stiff, those of the edges of the leaves being almost thorny. The form of growth assumed by this plant eminently fits it for rockwork. It should be so planted that its densely-branched stems can fall over the face of a light-coloured stone; in this respect it forms a good companion to the dwarf phloxes, but it is otherwise a superior rock plant, being more characteristic and prolonged in its flowering. It should be allowed to grow to a large size, which will require several years, or the object may be sooner gained by planting half-a-dozen specimens in a group; this should be done when the plants are young, as it is very impatient of being disturbed when once established. It would make a capital edging plant for small shrubs, to come next the grass, backed by a row of _Erica carnea_, which is also dwarf, a continued bloomer and contemporaneous. Its propagation can only be readily effected in this climate by cuttings, as it does not ripen seed well; it cannot be divided, because generally the little shrub has a short bole, therefore, cuttings must be struck from the previous year's growth; they should be dibbled into fine sand and peat, kept shaded and cool for several weeks; they root quicker during the warm season, when they are also less liable to be over-watered, which is a very common cause of failure in striking cuttings; they should be well rooted before the winter sets in. Flowering period, May to July. Lobelia Cardinalis. CARDINAL FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ LOBELIACEÆ. This is one of the finest herbaceous perennials that bloom in October; stately, brilliant and lasting. There are many varieties of it, and of late years some extra fine sorts have been raised and named, all of which are good. The varieties differ much in the foliage as well as the flowers, some being much larger, and of a dark brown or reddish colour. The illustration (Fig. 60) is drawn from the typical form, which has smooth foliage; it is not so large as some of the varieties, but it seemed desirable to figure the type, otherwise the varieties might have proved misleading. To a more than ordinary extent this plant is called by its common name, "the Cardinal Flower," and I have very frequently found that it has not been recognised by its proper name, even by amateurs who had long grown it. "Is that tall plant a Lobelia?" has often been asked; therefore, common as the plant is, I thought it might prove useful to give an illustration. One of its valuable qualities is that it flowers for a very long time, beginning about the latter end of August and continuing until stopped by frosts. In the early part of October it is simply grand, as then not only the main stems, but the lower ones, are all furnished with their brilliant colouring. [Illustration: FIG. 60. LOBELIA CARDINALIS. (One-twelfth natural size.)] This "old-fashioned" plant grows 2ft. or 3ft. high; the flowers are produced in terminal spikes on stout, round, and well-foliaged stems; each flower has a slender stalk, starting from the axil of a rudimentary leaf. The calyx is very finely formed, broadly cup-shaped and cornered; the five divisions are narrow, finely pointed, ¾in. long, and spreading; the corolla has a divided tube 1in. long, broadly set in the ample calyx, gradually narrowing to the divisions of the corolla. As may be seen by the engraving, the flowers much resemble some of our native orchids in form, the lip being most characteristic. The leaves are broadly lance-shaped, serrated, and sessile. The habit of the plant is erect, and almost rigid. The flowers are of the most attractive kind for borders, and, as cut bloom, can hardly be excelled. The only drawback which attaches to it in this climate is that it is _not_ perfectly hardy; in other words, it dies in winter when planted in certain soils and positions. But I can, from an experience extending over three trying winters, confidently state that, if it is planted in spring, in deep rich loam, fully exposed to the sun, it will both flower well and live through the winter. Only let the reader remember that it is a native of North America, and he may then judge that it can be no stranger to a cold climate. The advantages of the above method are, that the plant becomes well established during summer, its long cord-like roots get deep down to the moisture it loves so well, and from full exposure it withers seasonably and the crowns become fully ripened by the time the strongest frosts occur, so that they do it no harm. The reader may take it for what it is worth, that by leaving the dried stalks on, the plants are benefited; at any rate, I leave them on, for the following reasons: In a dry state they are very hollow, and when cut I have found them conductors of rain into the midst of the younger roots and dormant crowns, causing them to rot, and when the remaining part of the stalk has come away from rottenness too, it has been seen that a cavity of corruption had formed where it joined. When I have left the withered stalks untrimmed until the following growing season, no such decay has been seen. So that, after all, it is perhaps not less hardy than many other plants about which little doubt exists, but which may have been a little more fortunate as regards other conditions than cold. To those who prefer to dig up their stock of _L. cardinalis_ and winter it away from frost, I may say that it is only needful to pack the roots in sand, which should be kept moist, not wet. Propagation may be effected by division of the crowns in spring. Flowering period, August to first frosts. Lychnis Chalcedonica. CHALCEDONIAN LYCHNIS, _or_ SCARLET LYCHNIS; _Nat. Ord._ SILENACEÆ. This hardy herbaceous perennial (see Fig. 61) came from Russia so long ago as 1596. It is a well-known and favourite flower, and, of course, a very "old-fashioned" one; it is commonly called the Scarlet Lychnis, but there are other forms of it with white flowers, both double and single, and there is also a double scarlet variety. The typical form comes into flower a fortnight earlier than the others, but all may be seen in bloom during July. The very brilliant flowers, which are produced for several weeks in large showy heads, must commend this plant, and its tall habit renders it all the more conspicuous. It ought to be grown in every collection of hardy perennial flowers, amongst which bright scarlets are not too plentiful. In sandy loam, enriched with well-rotted manure, it attains a height of 2ft. to 3ft. The flowers are ¾in. across, the five petals open flat, and each petal is divided into two rounded segments; the calyx is hairy, long, bellied, ribbed, five-cleft, and much narrowed at the divisions; the numerous flowers are arranged in flat clusters, interspersed with many small leaves or bracteoles; the stems are stout, round, and having hairs pointing downwards; the nodes or joints are distant and furnished with a pair of stem-clasping, lance-shaped leaves, whence issue short stems that flower later on. The leaves are 2in. to 4in. long, lance-shaped, hairy, waved at the edges, and somewhat recurved. The whole plant is of a clammy character, after the manner of other Catchflies. [Illustration: FIG. 61. LYCHNIS CHALCEDONICA. (One-third natural size)] As already hinted, this species, with its varieties, enjoys a sandy soil; a mulching of manure proves of great benefit; not only are the heads of bloom larger for it, but the side shoots are induced to flower freely. In borders of tall plants the scarlets are very showy; they cannot, however, endure shade; the position should be sunny and open. The propagation of the single forms may be carried out by seed, which ripens in large quantities; in fact, they sow themselves freely. The double kinds should be divided in early spring. In a cut state the flowers are both useful and effective, and if kept in a sunny window will continue in good form and open the buds. Flowering period, June to August. Lychnis Viscaria Flore-pleno. GERMAN CATCHFLY; _Nat. Ord._ SILENACEÆ. The double form of the red German Catchfly. The old Latin name for the type was _L. Angustifolia_, which is still used sometimes, being a good descriptive name. So much cannot be said of the common name; at any rate, it sounds odd that one of our native plants should be called the "German Catchfly," as name is evidently used in the geographical sense. There are several forms of this species having double flowers, which may be termed florists' or garden varieties; all are handsome and effective flowering plants, and last a long time in good form. A very short description will suffice for these, the flowers of which in many respects resemble pinks; they are, however, borne on stout stems in long heads, the petals being full, divided, and bent, each flower an inch across. The rose-coloured varieties are bright and attractive; the leaves are in tufts 3in. or 4in. long, narrow and reflexed. These double Catchflies are very showy in either borders or rockwork; they rank with our neatest subjects and brightest flowers, and certainly ought to be widely grown. They enjoy a stiff soil, but are in no way particular; they should, however, have a sunny situation. They may be increased by root divisions in summer or early spring. Flowering period, June to August. Lysimachia Clethroides. CLETHRA-LIKE LOOSESTRIFE; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. This is a tall-growing and distinct species, newly imported from Japan; it is perfectly hardy and herbaceous, and differs very much indeed from its creeping and evergreen relation, the moneywort, or "creeping jenny," being more like a tall speedwell, having large leaves; it is so dissimilar, there can be no likelihood of confounding it with other species. As a decorative garden plant it is both attractive and interesting. It attains a height of 3ft. in favourable quarters, and has both a wealth of rich foliage and showy one-sided spikes of white flowers; the latter are neatly formed and continue to develop along the spike for the length of a foot; the flowers are ½in. across, somewhat star-shaped, having five, and sometimes six, divisions of the corolla, which are oval and cupped; the short flower stalk is supported by a very narrow bracteole of equal length--this helps not a little to enrich the yet unblossomed part of the spike, the buds of which are of the purest whiteness and pearl-shape, mounted in the claw-like setting of the pale green calyx; these pleasing spikes of flowers and buds have a peculiar habit of bending; the unbloomed part is at right angles with the erect stem, with the exception of the tip, which slightly erects itself; the angle is ever changing, being ruled by the change of flower to seed, the development causing the sharp bend to rise day by day. The leaves of the root are spoon-shaped, and those of the stems broadly lance-shaped, varying in length from 3in. to 5in., entire, veined, of good substance, and having attenuated stalks; the younger leaves have a changeable satiny hue; all the leaves at their junction with the stems are marked with a bright redness; the main stems are furnished with many side branches, which assist in maintaining floriferousness until late autumn. The habit of the plant is dense, and from the numerous spikes of flowers and bright green foliage strong specimens have a commendable appearance; with me, the growth has been remarkably vigorous, exceeding by nearly a foot the usual height; this I attribute to the enrichment of the soil. The bent spikes are scarcely suitable for cutting purposes, but that the plant is deserving of a place in the borders may fairly be inferred from the manner in which it wins admiration when in flower. It enjoys deep loam, which, as before hinted, should be rich; the situation should be such as will afford it protection from the winds--then, if its leaves remain untorn, they will afford a treat from their "autumnal tints." Propagated by root division during late autumn or early spring. Flowering period, July to September. Margyricarpus Setosus. BRISTLY PEARL-FRUIT; _Nat. Ord._ ROSACEÆ. A charming little evergreen shrub, and most aptly named, for not only does the name convey some idea of its beauty, but it is specific to the utmost degree; a glance at the illustration (Fig. 62) and the English name, which is a translation of the Latin one, will show this. It is the only species of the genus. It was introduced in the year 1829 from Peru, and for a time was considered too tender a subject for other than stove treatment, and even now it is treated as a shrub needing protection; but warm as is its native climate, it proves hardy in ours; it is not merely a safe subject to winter out under special conditions, but quite hardy in fully exposed parts. It stood out with me in the winters of 1879-80 and 1880-1, and in 1881-2, which, however, was specially mild, it held its berries until spring. Its evergreen character renders it all the more desirable, for though the foliage is small and somewhat spare, it is of a bright and pleasing colour. Quite young specimens are prolific, and only during the severe months are they without berries. [Illustration: FIG. 62. MARGYRICARPUS SETOSUS. (One-third natural size; fruit, natural size.)] A full-grown example does not exceed the height of 6in. or 8in. in this climate. The flowers are green and insignificant--in fact, hardly visible, and must be closely looked for; they are produced singly on the riper parts of the soft wooded branches; they are chubby forms, all but stalkless, and supported by a brown stem-clasping sheath, which is long-pointed and bent backwards, resembling a spine; these sheaths are numerous, and probably suggested the specific name, _setosus_--rough or bristly. The flowers appear for many months, and there is a corresponding succession of berries; the latter form the main feature of this singular shrub, measuring 1/8in. to 1/6in. in diameter, they are of a clear, shining white colour, and are well named "pearl fruit." Sooner or later in the season every joint of the main branches seems to be furnished with fruit, which lasts a long time in perfection. The leaves are ½in. to 1in. long, pinnate, leaflets awl-shaped, reflexed, and of a deep glistening green colour; they are arranged in minute tufts on stoutish branchlets, and, for the most part, have a single berry at the parent node. All these young shoots grow in the upward direction, leaving the procumbent branches to form an even line on the lower side. The habit of this shrub is spreading and prostrate, and, from the bright berries and foliage (the latter all turned upwards), it becomes a most pleasing object to look down upon, reminding one of a dwarf erica immediately after a hailstorm. For rockwork, this is a gem. Many amateurs will be glad to learn, if they do not already know the shrub, that it is one of those pretty, uncommon, and distinct forms ever desirable for choice collections. It should be so planted that its branches can rest on a dark-coloured stone; this will show up its fruit to advantage. It enjoys a rich, light soil, thriving in a mixture of sand, loam, and rotten leaves. Beyond this there is nothing special about its culture; moreover, it is easily increased, either by cuttings taken in summer and pricked into moist peat under a bell glass, or by layering the branches. These only need to be pegged down and covered with soil, or to have a small boulder placed on the part where roots are desired. Flowering period, all summer. Mazus Pumilio. DWARF MAZUS; _Nat. Ord._ SCROPHULARIACEÆ. This diminutive and pretty plant is a native of Australia, and was introduced into this country in 1823. It is hardy, herbaceous, and perennial; it is, however, sometimes said to be only annual, which may have been inferred from the fact of its perishing in winter in this climate when grown in cold, stiff soil, but that it is perennial is beyond doubt. Not only have I experienced that it dies every winter in clay soil, but also that the roots remain fresh and healthy year after year when in more suitable quarters, such as an open situation in light vegetable soil mixed with sand, where it quickly spreads by underground runners and asserts its perennial character. Its flowers much resemble the small wild violet of the hedgerows, in size and colour more especially; the flower-stalks are, however, sometimes branched, carrying four or five flowers; and if I may be allowed to make another comparison in order to convey an idea of its form, I would mention _Pinguicula vulgaris_, the common butterwort. The flowers spring from the midst of flattened tufts of pale green foliage; the leaves are 1in. to 3in. long, spoon-shaped, slightly waved at the edges and occasionally notched, distinctly veined, of a light green colour, and flesh-tinted in the stalks; they are arranged in nearly rosette form up to the period of flowering, when they are not only longer, but become almost erect; but the younger tufts which do not produce flowers remain perfectly flat. It is useful for rockwork or as a carpet plant where the soil is of a sandy nature. There should be few bare places in our gardens whilst we have such lovely creepers as this to fall back upon. The rooted stems, which run immediately under the surface, may be transplanted any time except during winter. If the roots are mutilated then, they will probably rot. Flowering period, June to September. Melittis Melissophyllum. _Syn._ M. GRANDIFLORUM; LARGE-FLOWERED BASTARD BALM; _Nat. Ord._ LABIATÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 63. MELITTIS MELISSOPHYLLUM. (One-sixth natural size.)] This is a somewhat uncommon but handsome native plant. The above names, together with the illustration (Fig. 63), will doubtless give the reader a fair idea of its appearance. It forms one of the best possible subjects for a border of "old-fashioned" plants, being of a distinct type and colour. The flowers are a mixture of white, pink, and purple; and are nearly 2in. long, in general shape resembling the foxglove, but wider at the corolla and a little shorter in the broad tube. They are arranged in whorls springing from the axils of the leaves. The whorls are said to be of as many as eight flowers, but specimens are more commonly seen to have only two to four, being repeated the whole length of the stems, which are 18in. high. The leaves are two to three inches long, and half as broad, ovate, serrate, hairy, and short stalked. No one can be otherwise than pleased with the ancient style and soft colour of the large flowers, which last a long time in perfection. There is a trimness, too, about the plant which distinguishes it from the more weedy species to which it is related. In a cut state the long stems are not only pretty of themselves when placed in old vases or crackle ware, but they have a remarkably good effect. They, however, should not be crowded or swamped by more showy foliage or flowers--in fact, they should be used alone. It will grow anywhere and in any quality of soil, but slight shade and well-enriched loam will be found to make a vast difference in the size of the flowers, and their colour will be also improved. It may be divided or transplanted any time after it has done flowering. Flowering period, June to August. Monarda Didyma. _Syn._ M. KALMIANA; BEE BALM, _or_ OSWEGO TEA; _Nat. Ord._ LABIATÆ. All the Monardas are natives of North America, and, consequently, quite hardy in this country; they are also herbaceous and perennial. This species has been grown for 130 years in English gardens, and at the present time it is not only accounted an old flower but it is highly esteemed. The blooms are large and brilliant in colour, and their shaggy forms give them an effect which is decorative both in the garden and vase. The flowers are not only numerous, but, for the most part, bright; moreover, they begin to flower at midsummer and continue until the frosts set in. The species under notice has bright scarlet flowers, produced when the plant is about 18in. high; it, however, grows to nearly twice that size, flowering all the while. The whorls of bloom issue from half-globular arrangements of buds and persistent calyces; each flower is an inch long; corolla ringent, or gaping; helmet, or upper division, linear; the seed organs are longer; the calyx tubular, having five minute teeth, being striped and grooved; the whole head, or whorl, is supported by a leafy bract, the leaflets being of a pale green colour, tinted with red. The leaves are ovate-cordate, or broadly lance-shaped, taper-pointed, toothed, rough, and slightly wrinkled, and they have short stalks. The stems are square, grooved, and hard. The whole plant exhales a powerful but pleasant odour. The habit is branching, that of the root progressive, not only increasing rapidly, but such parts on the surface may be termed creeping or prostrate branches, forming a veritable mat of fibre. The whole genus is made up of such species as may be used freely in most gardens, more especially in those having plenty of space. For culture and flowering period, see _M. Russelliana_. Monarda Fistulosa. WILD BERGAMOT; _Syns._ M. AFFINIS, M. ALTISSIMA, M. MEDIA, M. OBLONGATA, M. PURPUREA, _and_ M. RUGOSA; _Nat. Ord._ LABIATÆ. The Wild Bergamot has a pleasant smell; it has, however, the objectionable property of attracting great numbers of bees and wasps. Compared with the scarlet _M. didyma_, the more striking differences are the purple flowers, which are less, and mostly produced in single heads. The bracts are tinted with purple, and they are more bent down the stems; the latter, too, are only half as thick and of a dark brown colour. For culture and flowering period, see _M. Russelliana_. Monarda Russelliana. RUSSELL'S MONARDA; _Nat. Ord._ LABIATÆ. Another, distinct species. Its flowers are white, with pistil tinted purple, and less in size than either of the above. The bract is remarkably large, and further amplified by numerous small leaves amongst the flowers; all are deeply tinted or veined with purple; the leaves are larger than those of _M. didyma_, and those near the tops of the stems are also tinted with purple on their stalks, mid-ribs, and edges; the stems are green, rounded at the corners, channelled, and smooth. There are other species than those I have named, but the above-mentioned are not only the more distinct, and well represent the genus, but as flowers they form a richly beautiful trio of colour, so that, when grown side by side, their effectiveness is much enhanced; as cut bloom they answer well for furnishing old vases. Either growing or cut, their flowers and leaves are pleasant, but if bruised the odour is too powerful; they, however, when used in moderation, form a valuable ingredient of _pot pourri_. They may be grown in ordinary soil, and in any position but a too shady one. The propagation of these plants may be carried out any time, by cutting small squares of the matted roots from old specimens, but it will be found that if allowed to grow to bold examples their effect will be all the more telling. Flowering period, July to September. Morina Longifolia. _Syn._ M. ELEGANS; WHORL FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ DIPSACEÆ. Until this plant comes into flower there is little about it for us, who are trained to dislike and almost despise thistles, to admire. It is not a thistle certainly, but the resemblance is very close when not in flower, and the three or four specimens which I grow have often caused a laugh from visitors at my expense, but I pocket the laugh and ask them to come and see my thistles in June. When, too, weeding is being done, it is always needful, for the safety of the plants, to give some such hint as "Do not pull up those thistles;" but if this plant is no relation to that despised weed, it belongs to another race, the species of which are also formidably armed--viz., the Teasel. It comes from the Himalayas, and is comparatively new in English gardens. It is hardy, herbaceous, and perennial, grows to a height of 2ft., and the flowers are produced in whorls or tiers interspersed with the thorny foliage near the top of the stems. At this stage of development the plant has a noble appearance, and the rings of flowers are very beautiful--though when I say flowers I here mean the combination of buds and blossoms in their different stages and colours. The buds are pure white and waxy, and when open, are of a delicate pink; as they get advanced, they turn to a lovely crimson; these are all the more pleasing, because the flowers last a long time. In form they are tubular and horn-shaped, having a spreading, uneven corolla, five-parted. Each flower is 1in. long and ¾in. across, six to fifteen in a whorl, the whorls being five to ten in number. The whorl-bracts are formed of three arrow-shaped leaves, deeply cupped, and overlapping at their junction with the stem or scape; they are spiny and downy underneath. Calyx, tubular and brown. Segments (two), pale green, notched, alternated with long spines, and surrounded with shorter ones. The leaves of the root are 9in. to 12in. long, and 2in. wide in the broadest parts; pinnate, waved, and spined, like the holly or thistle. The leaves of the stem are similar in shape, but very much smaller. The whole plant, and especially if there are several together, has a stately appearance, and attracts much attention; it is a good border plant, but it will be more at home, and show to equal advantage in openings in the front parts of the shrubbery, because it enjoys a little shade, and the shelter from high winds is a necessity, it being top heavy; if tied, it is robbed of its natural and beautiful form. It thrives well in sandy loam. Slugs are fond of it, and eat into the collar or crown, and therefore they should be looked for, especially in winter, during open weather. To propagate it, the roots should be divided as soon as the plants have done flowering, they then become established before winter sets in. Plant in the permanent quarters, and shade with leafy branches for a fortnight. Flowering period, June and July. Muhlenbeckia Complexa. _Nat. Ord._ POLYGONACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 64. MUHLENBECKIA COMPLEXA. (One-fourth natural size; fruit, natural size.)] A hardy climber, of great beauty; during November its nearly black stems are well furnished with its peculiar small dark green leaves, which, even when without flowers or fruit, render it an object of first-class merit as a decorative subject. The illustration (Fig. 64) is fairly representative of all its parts; still, it can give no idea of the effect of a specimen climbing 4ft. to 6ft. high, diffuse and spreading withal. Although I have grown this handsome climber several years, my experience and information respecting it are very limited indeed; its hardiness and beauty are the inducements which have led me to recommend it for the pleasure garden. As a matter of fact, I have never bloomed it, and I am indebted to a lady for the wax-like and flower-shaped fruits illustrated; they were produced in a warm vinery, and I have otherwise learned that in this climate the plant only flowers outside during very warm summers. I have also information from one of H. M. Botanic Gardens that this species "was introduced from South America, but when and by whom I am unable to say. It requires a warm, sheltered position. Before the severe winters came it used to be covered with star-like whitish flowers, which were succeeded by fruits." The fruits given in the illustration (natural size) are a fine feature, but, considering the uncertainty of their production, they can hardly be claimed for outside decoration. They are of a transparent, wax-like substance, and the tooth-like divisions glisten like miniature icicles; they hang in small clusters on lateral shoots from the more ripened stems, and have a charming effect, contrasting finely with the black stems and dark green foliage. The leaves are small (¼in. to ¾in. across) somewhat fiddle-shaped, of good substance, and having slender stalks; they are alternate and distantly arranged on the long trailing and climbing stems. The habit is dense and diffuse, and though it loses many leaves in winter, I have never seen it entirely bare; it is therefore entitled to be called evergreen with outdoor treatment. The distinct form and colour of its foliage, together with the graceful shape of the spray-like branches, render this subject of great value for cutting purposes. Seen in company, and used sparingly with white flowers for epergne work, the effect is unique; and I ask those who possess it to try it in that or a similar way. It enjoys a sunny position and well drained or sandy soil. With me it grows entangled with a rose tree, the latter being nailed to the wall. I have also seen it very effective on the upper and drier parts of rockwork, where it can have nothing to cling to; there it forms a dense prostrate bush. It may be propagated by cuttings of the hardier shoots, which should be taken in early summer; by this method they become nicely rooted before winter. Flowering periods, warm summers. Muscari Botryoides. GRAPE HYACINTH; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This is a hardy species, somewhat finer than the more common _M. racemosum_, from the fact of its richer, bright sky blue flowers. The form of the Grape Hyacinth is well known (see Fig. 65), being a very old garden flower and a great favourite; when it is once planted, it keeps its place, despite all drawbacks common to a crowded border, with the exception of that wholesale destroyer, a careless digger; if left undisturbed for a year or two, it increases to very showy clumps. The flowers, which are densely arranged on stout spikes 8in. high, are very small, globular, and narrowed at the opening, where the tiny divisions are tipped with white. The foliage resembles that of the wood hyacinth, but it is more rigid, not so broad, and slightly glaucous. It seems to do best in light earth, and the flowers are finer in colour when grown in shade, but not too much. Where quantities are available, they may be used as an edging, nothing looking better in a spring garden. [Illustration: FIG. 65. MUSCARI BOTRYOIDES. (One-eighth natural size.)] _M. b. alba_ varies only in the colour of its flowers; the white is somewhat creamy for a time; it becomes much clearer after a few days, and remains in perfection for two weeks in ordinary weather. This is a charming variety; grown by the side of the different blues its beauty is enhanced. It is very effective as a cut flower, though rather stiff, but if sparingly used it is attractive for bouquets, whilst for a buttonhole one or two spikes answer admirably. Flowering period, March to May. Muscari Racemosum. _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This is the commonest species, and although very pleasing, suffers by a comparison with the above blue kind, being more dwarf and the flowers less bright. The best time to transplant the bulbs is when the tops have died off, and the choicer sorts of these, as well as all other bulbs whose foliage dies off early in summer, should have something to mark their situation when in their dormant state. Cultivation and flowering period, as for _M. botryoides_. Narcissus Minor. SMALLER DAFFODIL; _Nat. Ord._ AMARYLLIDACEÆ. A very beautiful and effective spring flower. Though a native of Spain, it proves one of the hardiest denizens of our gardens; it is not often met with, but it has been cultivated in this country since 1629. It was well known in Parkinson's time. Not merely is it a species due to bloom early, but it does so, no matter how severe the weather may be, in March, and the flowers are freely produced. We could hardly have more severe weather than we had in March, 1883, when the snow was sometimes several inches deep and the frost as much as 17deg. to 23deg. Still this little Daffodil continued to push up its golden blossoms, so that in the latter half of the month, it formed one of the most pleasing of the hardy flowers of the spring garden. Its blue-green leaves are densely grown, and being only 4in. high and somewhat rigid, they not only form a rich setting for the bright blossom which scarcely tops them, but they support the flowers, which have a drooping habit. Later on, however, they lift their fair faces and look out sideways, but whether seen in profile or otherwise, they are alike charming. I do not remember ever to have seen or heard this flower described as finely scented; as a matter of fact, it is deliciously so. The odour is aromatic and mace-like. If the bloom is cut when in its prime and quite dry, a few heads will scent a fair-sized room. Of course, all the species of the genus (as implied by the generic name) exhale an odour, and some kinds a very fragrant one, whilst others are said to be injurious; but the spicy smell of this can scarcely be otherwise than acceptable, and it must always be a desirable feature in a flower suitable for cutting, and more especially in a winter and spring flower. From its dwarfness this Daffodil is very liable to be soiled; either of three plans may be adopted to prevent this: Plant on grass; top-dress in January with longish litter, which by the blooming time will have a washed and not very objectionable appearance; or, lastly, let the patches grow broad and thick, when their own foliage will keep down the mud, excepting at the sides. I find the litter method to answer well for scores of things for a similar purpose. Flowers are produced on slender scapes, 3in. to 4in. long, singly, from the long membranous spatha; they are 1¼in. across the expanded perianth, and about the same length; the six divisions are rather longer than the tube, and of a pale yellow or lemon colour; the crown or nectary is campanulate, longer than the petal-like divisions, lobed, fringed, and of a deep yellow colour. The leaves are strap-shaped, stout and glaucous, and about the same length as the scapes. This plant is in no way particular as to soil, provided it is well drained. It enjoys, however, partial shade and liberal top-dressings of manure. It increases fast by offsets, and, if desirable, the bulbs may be lifted the third year for division, after the tops have died off in late summer. Flowering period, March and April. Nierembergia Rivularis. WATER NIEREMBERGIA, _or_ WHITE CUP; _Nat. Ord._ SOLANACEÆ. This alpine plant comes from La Plata; when well grown (and it easily may be) it is a gem--hardy, herbaceous, and perennial. It has a most pleasing habit; from its mass of root-like stems which run very near the surface, it sends up a dense carpet of short-stalked leaves, which in July become studded over with large and chaste white flowers; though it rarely exceeds 4in. in height, it is very attractive. The flowers are 1½in. across, of a variously tinted white, sometimes with pink and sometimes with purplish-grey inside the corolla. The outside is yellowish-green; the five lobes of the corolla are arranged cup-fashion, having four distinct ribs or nerves and wavy margins, the inner bases being richly tinted with lemon-yellow; what appears at first sight to be the flower-stalk, 2in. to 3in. long, is really a long round tube, very narrow for so large a flower; it is of even thickness all its length. The calyx nearly touches the earth; it is also tubular and five-cleft. The leaves are from less than an inch to 3in. long, somewhat spoon-shaped or sub-spathulate and entire, smooth, and very soft to the touch. It thrives in a light soil, but it should not be dry. Moisture and a little shade are the chief conditions required by this lovely creeper, and where bare places exist, which are otherwise suitable, nothing more pleasing could well be planted; in dips or the more moist parts of rockwork, it may be grown with capital effect, but the patches should be broad. It also forms a good surfacing subject for leggy plants or shrubs. Lilies not only appear to more advantage when carpeted with the short dense foliage of this creeper, but their roots are kept more cool and moist by it, and there are many similar cases in which it will prove equally useful. It is easily propagated by division of the roots after the leaves have died off, but I have found spring much the better time, just as the new growth is pushing. Flowering period, July and August. Oenothera Speciosa. SHOWY EVENING PRIMROSE; _Nat. Ord._ ONAGRACEÆ. A hardy and beautiful perennial species from North America; it is aptly named, as the flowers are not only large but numerous (see Fig. 66). The plant has a gay appearance for many weeks. As a garden flower, it is one of those happy subjects which may be allowed to grow in any odd corner, no matter what quality the soil may be, and full exposure or a little shade is equally suitable. No matter where it grows in the garden, it is a showy and pleasing flower, which, if plucked, is found to have the delicate smell of the sweet pea. It grows 18in. high, is herb-like in the foliage, and very distinct from other species, more especially as regards its slender stems and somewhat large and irregular foliage. The flowers are a satiny white, delicately nerved, and nearly 3in. across; the four petals are a pleasing yellowish-green at the bases; when fully expanded they form a cross, being clear of each other; they become tinted with rose when they begin to fade. The leaves are of various sizes, sometimes spotted, lance-shaped, toothed, and attenuated at the base. The general habit of the plant is erect, but it is often procumbent; it has, from its slender stems, a light appearance, and for one evening's use the sprays are very useful in a cut state. [Illustration: FIG. 66. OENOTHERA SPECIOSA. (One-sixth natural size.)] It propagates itself freely by its root runners near the surface. These roots may be transplanted in early spring, and they will flower the same year. Flowering period, June to August. Oenothera Taraxacifolia. DANDELION-LEAVED EVENING PRIMROSE; _Nat. Ord._ ONAGRACEÆ. From the great beauty of the flowers of this plant, it has not only become widely distributed, but a great favourite, considering that it was so recently introduced into this country as 1825; it came from Peru. Fortunately this charming exotic proves perfectly hardy in our climate; it is also herbaceous and perennial. No garden ought to be without so easily grown a flower, and though its foliage much resembles that of the common dandelion, a fine mass of it proves no mean setting for the large white flowers which spring from the midst of it. Another pleasing feature in connection with the flowers is that for a day they are pure white, after which they partly close and turn to a scarcely less beautiful delicate flesh tint. This colour and the half closed form are retained for several days; it exhales a sweet odour, about which there is a peculiarity. When newly opened--the first night--while the flowers are white, they will be found to have a grateful scent like tea roses; but if the older and coloured blooms are tried, they will be found to have the refreshing smell of almonds. There is yet another curious trait about this lovely flower--it has a long stalk-like tube, which may be called the flower stalk, as, so to speak, it has no other, and the lower part--it being 4in. to 6in. long--is inclined to squareness, but near the top it becomes round and widens into the divisions of the calyx, being, in fact, the tube or undivided part of the calyx. Let the reader carefully examine this interesting flower. First pluck it with all its length of stem or tube (it may be 6in. long); with a small knife or needle split it upwards, and there will be exposed the style of a corresponding length. The tube and segments of the calyx are of a pale green colour, segments an inch or more long, finely pointed; the four petals are large, nearly round, and overlapping each other, forming a corolla more than 3in. across; they are satiny in appearance, and transparent, beautifully veined or nerved, the nerves having delicate green basements, from which spring stamens of a like colour, but with anthers ½in. long, evenly balanced, and furnished with lemon-yellow pollen. The leaves are herb-like, and, as the common name implies, like the leaves of the dandelion, similar in size, but more cut or lobed. The plant, however, varies materially from the dandelion, in having stems which push out all round the crown, growing to a considerable length, and resting on the ground. This plant cannot well be grown in too large quantities, where there is plenty of room; it produces flowers for a long time, and they are highly serviceable for cutting purposes, though lasting only a short time. It cannot well be planted wrong as regards position, as it will thrive anywhere, providing the soil is enriched, it being a gross feeder; it should not, however, be planted where it will be likely to overgrow smaller and less rampant subjects. On the whole, it is one of those plants which afford a maximum of pleasure for a minimum of care, and needs no special culture--in fact, takes care of itself. Its propagation is simple, and may be carried out either by division of the old roots or by transplanting the self-sown seedlings into their blooming quarters, during March or April. Flowering period, June to August. Omphalodes Verna. CREEPING FORGET-ME-NOT; _Syn._ CYNOGLOSSUM OMPHALODES; _Nat. Ord._ BORAGINACEÆ. The common name of this pretty, hardy, herbaceous creeper at once gives the keynote to its description; it is a very old plant in English gardens, and a native of South Europe. Parkinson gives a very neat description of it: "This small borage shooteth forth many leaves from the roote, every one upon a long stalke, of a darke greene colour; the stalkes are small and slender, not above halfe a foote high, with very few leaves thereon, and at the toppes come forth the flowers, made of five blew round pointed leaves, every one upon a long foote stalke." This, together with the well-known form and habit of the plant, leaves little more to be said by way of description; and it maybe added that though the flowers are akin to forget-me-nots, but more brilliant, the foliage is very different indeed, being nearly heart-shaped, and over 2in. long. Its habit is such that though its flowers are small, they are somewhat conspicuous, from their brightness, abundance, and manner in which they are produced, _i.e._, well above a bright green mass of leaves; only bold clumps, however, show to such advantage. When the plant is fairly established, it makes rapid growth, increasing itself somewhat strawberry fashion, by runners. It is worthy of note here that this semi-woody creeper does well under trees not too densely grown. Many inquiries are made for such subjects, and this is one of the number (which is far from ample) that can be relied upon for not only covering the bare earth, but also for bespangling such position with its bright blossoms for two months in spring. I have also tried it in pots, grown and bloomed under the shade of a trellised peach tree, in a small house, without artificial heat, where it not only did well, but vied with the violets for effectiveness. This otherwise robust plant I have found to die when divided in the autumn (a period when many--indeed, I may say most--perennials are best transplanted), but when its propagation is carried out in spring, it grows like a weed. Flowering period, March to May. Ononis Rotundifolia. ROUND-LEAVED RESTHARROW; _Nat. Ord._ LEGUMINOSÆ. One of the most charming of the "old-fashioned" border flowers, having been grown in this country since 1570. It came from the Pyrenees, is hardy, evergreen, and shrubby. The common name of the genus, Restharrow, is in reference to the long, tough, and woody roots and branches. According to Gerarde, these properties "maketh the oxen, whilst they be in plowing, to rest or stand still." Although this species has tough roots and branches, it seems more likely that the name would be from the trouble caused by the weedy species of the genus of his time. In its growing state there is seen an exquisiteness of form and colour rarely approached by any other subject; from the manner in which the unopened scarlet buds blend with the thick and handsome-shaped foliage, the illustration (Fig. 67) can scarcely do justice to it. It should not be judged by other and better known species of the genus, some of which are of a weedy character, and from which this is as distinct as it well can be. Besides having the valuable property of flowering all summer, it is otherwise a suitable subject for the most select collections of hardy flowers. [Illustration: FIG. 67. ONONIS ROTUNDIFOLIA. (Plant, one-sixth natural size; blossom, natural size.)] It grows 18in. high, and is erect and branched in habit; the flowers are produced on short side shoots; in form they are pea-flower-shaped, as the reader will infer from the order to which the shrub belongs. The raceme seldom has more than two or three flowers fully open at one time, when they are of a shaded pink colour, and nearly an inch in length; the leaves are 1in. to 2in., ternate, sometimes in fives, ovate, toothed, and covered with glandular hairs. The plant should be grown in bold specimens for the best effect. Ordinary garden soil suits it; if deeply dug and enriched, all the better. It is not so readily increased by division of the roots as many border plants, though root slips may, with care, be formed into nice plants the first season; the better plan is to sow the seed as soon as well ripened, from which more vigorous plants may be had, and they will sometimes flower the following summer, though far short of their natural size. Flowering period, June to September. Onosma Taurica. GOLDEN DROP; _Nat. Ord._ BORAGINACEÆ. A hardy perennial, somewhat woody, and retaining much of its foliage in a fresh state throughout the winter, though by some described as herbaceous. The leaves which wither remain persistent, and sometimes this proves a source of danger to the specimen, from holding moisture during our wet winters, causing rot to set in. It is a comparatively new plant in English gardens, having been introduced from the Caucasus in 1801, and as yet is seldom met with. Not only is it distinct in the form of its flowers--as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 68)--from other species of its order, but it has bloom of exceptional beauty, and the plant as a garden subject is further enhanced in value from the fact of its delicious perfume and perpetual blooming habit--_i.e._, it flowers until stopped by frosts; in short, it is one of the very finest hardy flowers, and if I could only grow a small collection of fifty, this should be one of such collection. The flowers are bright yellow, 1½in. long, somewhat pear-shaped, and tubular. The calyx is long and deeply divided; the corolla is narrowed at the mouth; segments short, broad, and rolled back, forming a sort of rim. The flowers are arranged in branched heads, which are one-sided. The flower stalks are short, and the flowers and buds closely grown. The stems are about a foot long, having short alternate shoots, which flower later on; they are weighed to the ground with the numerous flowers and buds; the leaves are 3in. to 6in. long, narrow, lance-shaped, reflexed, and covered with short stiff hairs, which impart a grey appearance to the foliage. It should be grown fully exposed, as it loves sunshine; if planted in the frequented parts of the garden, its delicious perfume is the more likely to be enjoyed; on rockwork, somewhat elevated, will perhaps prove the best position for it, as then the pendent flowers can be better seen and studied. The whole habit of the plant renders it a suitable subject for the rock garden; it may be grown in either loam or vegetable soil if well drained, and when it once becomes established in genial quarters it makes rapid growth and is very floriferous. What a rich bed could be formed of this, judiciously mixed with hardy fuchsias and the various linums, having deep blue flowers and graceful slender stems! These all love a breezy situation and sunshine, they also all flower at the same time, and continuously. To increase this choice plant, cuttings should be taken during summer; they may be rooted quickly if placed in a cucumber frame and kept shaded for ten or twelve days; water should be given carefully, or the hairy leaves will begin to rot. Aim at having the young stock well rooted and hardened off before the cold weather sets in. [Illustration: FIG. 68. ONOSMA TAURICA. (Plant, one-quarter natural size; blossom, one-half natural size.)] Flowering period, June to the frosts. Orchis Foliosa. LEAFY ORCHIS; _Nat. Ord._ ORCHIDACEÆ. This terrestrial Orchid is not generally known to be hardy, but that such is the fact is beyond doubt. It is not only hardy, though it comes from Madeira, but it thrives better in this climate when exposed to all the drawbacks belonging to the open garden, or hardy treatment, than when kept under glass. It only seems to require two things--a deep rich soil and leaving alone--being very impatient of disturbance at its roots. Many of the hardy Orchids, though interesting, are not showy enough as flowers for beds or borders. This, however, is an exception, and is not only, in common with other Orchids, an interesting species, but a handsome and durable flower. It blooms at different heights, from 9in. to 2ft.; the spike, as implied by the name, is leafy up to and among the flowered portion, which is from 3in. to 9in. long; the flowers are a cheerful purple colour, each ¾in. in diameter; the sepals are erect, cupped, and paler in colour than the other parts of the flower; petals small; lip large, three lobed, the middle one somewhat pointed; leaves oblong and smooth, lessening and becoming more subulate near the top of the stem. When well grown, this plant has a noble appearance, and when closely viewed is seen to be a flower of a high order, as, in fact, all the Orchids are. Fortunately, it is not so particular either as regards soil or atmosphere as most of its relations, and it may frequently be met with in cottage gardens in splendid form. Good sandy loam, in a moist situation, suits it well, and I have seen it with fine spikes of bloom both in partial shade and fully exposed. Its position should be correctly noted, otherwise, when the tops have died down, the roots may suffer damage; they should be well guarded against disturbance. When increase is desirable the roots may be divided, but if they can be left alone it will be much to the advantage of the specimens. Flowering period, June and July. Orchis Fusca. BROWN ORCHIS; _Nat. Ord._ ORCHIDACEÆ. A rare and noble British species, terrestrial, and having a tuberous root of moderate size; the specific name does not always apply, as this species varies considerably in the colour of its flowers--certainly all are not brown. According to Gray, the flowers are "large, greenish-brown, brownish-purple, or pale ash grey;" the specimen from which our illustration (Fig. 69) was drawn may be said to be "brownish-purple," from its great number of brown spots; it is also slightly tinged with green. According to Linnæus, it is synonymous with _O. Militaris_, the Soldier, or Brown Man Orchis. Of the native kinds of Orchis, many of which are now getting very scarce, it is desirable to know what's what. But, as a garden flower, the one now under consideration has many points of merit. The plant is bold and portly, and the foliage ample compared with many of the genus. The head of flowers is large, numerous, and well lifted up, while, far from their least good quality, is that of their fine aromatic perfume. [Illustration: FIG. 69. ORCHIS FUSCA. (One-fourth natural size; 1 and 2, natural size of flower.)] The full size of a flower is shown in the drawing. The sepals are seen to be broad, converging, and pointed; the lip, which is rough, is three-parted; lobes, unequal and ragged; the side ones are long and narrow, the middle lobe is twice notched in an irregular manner; the spur is straight with the stem; bracts, short; the flowers are densely produced, forming a compact bunch 3in. to 4in. long, on a spike rather over a foot tall; they continue in perfection three weeks or a month. The leaves are 9in. or more in length, lance-shaped, and fully an inch broad in the middle; they are of a pale, shining, green colour, the root leaves resting on the ground. I find this Orchid capable of withstanding very rough treatment, but it requires some time (two years) to get fairly established. Silky loam and leaf soil are suitable for it; a moist situation, but in no way of a stagnant character, should be given, and the position should also be carefully selected, so as to secure the brittle and top-heavy flower spikes from strong winds, otherwise it will suffer the fate of hundreds of tulips after a gale. It is propagated by root division after the foliage has died off. Flowering period, end of May to end of June. Origanum Pulchellum. BEAUTIFUL MARJORAM; _Nat. Ord._ LABIATÆ. This is indeed a well-named species or variety, whichever it may be; little seems to be known of its origin, but that it is distinct and beautiful is beyond doubt. It shines most as a rock plant; its long and bending stems, which are somewhat procumbent, have as much rigidity about them as to prevent their having a weak appearance; the tips, moreover, are erect, showing off to advantage the handsome imbricate bracts, bespangled as they are with numerous rosy-purple blossoms. The long and elegant panicles of bracteæ, together with the pleasing arrangement thereof, are the main features of this subject. The rosy flowers are very small, and have the appearance of being packed between the bracteoles; still, their gaping forms are distinctly traceable, but the pretty lipped calyxes are quite hidden; the bract leaves are roundly-oval, acute, cupped, and touched with a nutty-brown tint on the outer sides; the spikes have many minor ones, being as fine as a thread, covered with short soft hairs, and of a brown colour; the leaves are ¾in. long, oval, entire, and downy. The plant or shrub grows 18in. high. As already hinted, the habit is procumbent, the older flower stems being woody; not only is it a bright object for rockwork, but it is in its finest form when most other flowers are past. The branches are useful in a cut state; the slender spikelets, with their pale green and brown tinted bracts, are very pretty by gas light, and they keep well for a long time in water. The Marjorams are fond of a dry situation, and this is no exception to that rule. Rockwork or raised beds of sandy loam suits it to perfection, provided the aspect is sunny. It will, therefore, be seen that there is nothing special about its culture, neither is there in its propagation; cuttings may be taken in summer, or the rooted shoots may be divided at almost any time. It flowers from September to the time of severe frosts, and is in its greatest beauty in October. Orobus Vernus. PEASELING, OR SPRING BITTER VETCH; _Nat. Ord._ LEGUMINOSÆ. A hardy herbaceous perennial; it flowers in very early spring, and sometimes sooner, but it is in full beauty in April, its blooming period being very prolonged. Not only is this bright and handsome pea flower worth attention being a very old subject of English gardens, but also because of its intrinsic merit as a decorative plant. I say plant designedly, as its form is both sprightly and elegant, which, I fear, the illustration (Fig. 70) can hardly do justice to--more especially its spring tints and colours. [Illustration: FIG. 70. OROBUS VERNUS. (One-fourth, natural size.)] Pretty nearly as soon as the growths are out of the earth the flowers begin to appear. The greatest height the plants attain rarely exceeds a foot; this commends it as a suitable border plant. Individually the flowers are not showy, but collectively they are pleasing and effective. When they first open they are a mixture of green, red, blue, and purple, the latter predominating. As they become older they merge into blue, so that a plant shows many flowers in various shades, none of which are quite an inch long, and being borne on slender drooping stalks, which issue from the leafy stems, somewhat below the leading growths, the bloom is set off to great advantage. The foliage in form resembles the common vetch, but is rather larger in the leaflets, and instead of being downy like the vetch, the leaves are smooth and bright. In a cut state, sprays are very useful, giving lightness to the stiffer spring flowers, such as tulips, narcissi, and hyacinths. Rockwork suits it admirably; it also does well in borders; but in any position it pays for liberal treatment in the form of heavy manuring. It seeds freely, and may be propagated by the seed or division of strong roots in the autumn. Whether rabbits can scent it a considerable distance off, I cannot say, but, certain it is, they find mine every year, and in one part of the garden eat it off bare. Flowering period, March to May. Ourisia Coccinea. _Nat. Ord._ SCROPHULARIACEÆ. A hardy herbaceous perennial from South America, as yet rarely seen in English gardens, and more seldom in good form. As may be judged by the illustration (Fig. 71), it is a charming plant, but it has beauties which cannot be there depicted; its deep green and shining leaves constitute wavy masses of foliage, most pleasing to see, and the short-stemmed, lax clusters of dazzling scarlet flowers are thereby set off to great advantage. I have no fear of overpraising this plant, as one cannot well do that. I will, however, add that it is a decorative subject of the highest order, without a single coarse feature about it; seldom is it seen without a few solitary sprays of flowers, and it is never met with in a seedy or flabby state of foliage, but it remains plump throughout the autumn, when it sometimes shows a disposition to indulge in "autumnal tints." Though seldom encountered, this lovely plant is well known, as it is pretty sure to be, from notes made of it and published with other garden news; but it has the reputation of being a fickle plant, difficult to grow, and a shy bloomer. I trust this statement will not deter a single reader from introducing it into his garden; if I had found it manageable only with an unreasonable amount of care, I would not have introduced it here. It certainly requires special treatment, but all the conditions are so simple and practicable, in even the smallest garden, that it cannot be fairly termed difficult, as we shall shortly see. The flowers are 1½in. long, in form intermediate between the pentstemon and snapdragon, but in size smaller, and the colour an unmixed deep scarlet: they are produced on stems 9in. high, round, hairy, and furnished with a pair of very small stem-clasping leaves, and where the panicle of flowers begins there is a small bract, and less perfectly developed ones are at every joint, whence spring the wiry flower stalks in fours, threes, and twos, of various lengths and a ruddy colour. The panicles are lax and bending; the flowers, too, are pendent; calyx, five-parted and sharply toothed; stamens, four, and long as petals; anthers, large and cream coloured, style long and protruding. The leaves are radical, and have long, hairy, bending stalks; the main ribs are also hairy; beneath, they are of a deep green colour, bald, shining, veined and wrinkled; their form is somewhat heart-shaped, sometimes oval, lobed, but not deeply, and unevenly notched; they grow in dense masses to the height of 6in. [Illustration: FIG. 71. OURISIA COCCINEA. (Plant, one-fourth natural size; 1, blossom, one-half natural size.)] It is said to like a peaty soil, in which I have never tried it. In the management of this plant I have found position to be the main desideratum; the soil may be almost anything if it is kept moist and sweet by good drainage, but _Ourisia coccinea_ will not endure exposure to hot sunshine; even if the soil is moist it will suffer. I have large patches of it, 3ft. in diameter, growing in a mixture of clay and ashes, formed into a bank 18in. high, sloping north and screened by a hedge nearly 6ft. high from the mid-day sun, and shaded by overhanging trees; and I may also add that during the three years my specimens have occupied this shady, moist, but well drained position they have grown and flowered freely, always best in the deepest shade. As before hinted, there is a sort of special treatment required by this plant, but it is, after all, very simple. It is a slow surface creeper, should be planted freely in frequented parts of the garden, if the needful conditions exist, and no more beautiful surfacing can be recommended; grown in such quantities it will be available for cutting purposes. As a cut flower it is remarkably distinct and fine; it so outshines most other flowers that it must either have well selected company or be used with only a few ferns or grasses. It is readily increased by division of the creeping roots, which is best done in early spring. If such divisions are made in the autumn, according to my experience, the roots rot; they should therefore be taken off either in summer, when there is still time for the young stock to make roots, or be left in the parent clump until spring, when they will start into growth at once. Flowering period, May to September. Papaver Orientale. ORIENTAL POPPY; _Nat. Ord._ PAPAVERACEÆ. The Oriental Poppy is a bold and showy plant, very hardy and perennial. There are several colours, but the bright scarlet variety is the most effective. Specimens of it which have become well established have a brilliant appearance during June; they are 3ft. high and attract the eye from a distance. Among other large herbaceous plants, as lupines, pæonies, thalictrums, &c., or even mixed with dwarf shrubs, they are grandly effective; indeed, almost too much so, as by the size and deep colour of the flowers they dazzle the eye and throw into the shade the surrounding flowers of greater beauty. The kinds with brick-red and other shades are comparatively useless. Their flowers are not only smaller, but wind or a few drops of rain spot the petals. A night's dew has the same effect; the stems, too, are weak and bending, which makes them much wanting in boldness, and when the flowers are damaged and the stems down there is little left about the Oriental Poppies that is ornamental. [Illustration: FIG. 72. PAPAVER ORIENTALE (_var._ BRACTEATUM). (One-fourth natural size.)] The flowers are 6in. to 8in. across when expanded, produced singly on stout round stems covered with stiff hairs flattened down, and also distantly furnished with small pinnate leaves. Only in some varieties is the leafy bract (Fig. 72) to be found. This variety is sometimes called _P. bracteatum_. The calyx is three-parted and very rough; the six petals (see engraving) are large, having well defined dark spots, about the size of a penny piece. The leaves are a foot or more in length, stiff but bending; they are thickly furnished with short hairs, pinnate and serrated. This large poppy can be grown to an enormous size, and otherwise vastly improved by generous treatment; in a newly trenched and well manured plot a specimen has grown 3ft. high, and produced flowers 9in. across, the colour being fine; it will, however, do well in less favoured quarters--in fact, it may be used to fill up any odd vacancies in the shrubbery or borders. It is readily increased by division of the roots, and this may be done any time from autumn to February; it also ripens seed freely. Flowering period, May to June. Pentstemons. _Nat. Ord._ SCROPHULARIACEÆ. The hybrids, which constitute the numerous and beautiful class commonly grown as "florists' flowers," are the kinds now under notice. The plant, when a year old, has a half-shrubby appearance, and if I said that it was but half hardy I should probably be nearer the mark than if I pronounced it quite hardy. It may, therefore, appear odd that I should class it with hardy perennials; there are, however, good reasons for doing so, and as these extra fine border plants are great favourites and deserve all the care that flowers can be worth, I will indicate my mode of growing them; but first I will state why the hybrid Pentstemons are here classed as hardy. One reason is that some varieties really are so, but most are not, and more especially has that proved to be the case during recent severe winters--the old plants, which I never trouble to take in, are mostly killed. Another reason why I do not object to their being classed as hardy is that cuttings or shoots from the roots appear to winter outside, if taken in the summer or autumn and dibbled into sand or a raised bed (so that it be somewhat drier than beds of the ordinary level), where they will readily root. Such a bed of cuttings I have found to keep green all the winter, without any protection other than a little dry bracken. My plants are so propagated and wintered. The Pentstemon has of late years been much improved by hybridising, so that now the flowers, which resemble foxgloves, are not only larger than those of the typical forms, but also brighter, and few subjects in our gardens can vie with them for effectiveness; moreover, they are produced for several months together on the same plants, and always have a remarkably fresh appearance. The corolla, which can be well seen both inside and out, has the pleasing feature of clearly pronounced colour on the outside, and rich and harmonious shadings inside; such flowers, loosely arranged on stems about 2ft. high, more or less branched, and furnished with lance-shaped foliage of a bright glossy green, go to make this border plant one that is justly esteemed, and which certainly deserves the little extra care needful during winter. [Illustration: FIG. 73. PENTSTEMON. (One-fourth natural size.)] It is grandly effective in rows, but if in a fully exposed position it flags during hot sunshine; it is, therefore, a suitable plant to put among shrubs, the cool shelter of which it seems to enjoy. The remarks I have already made respecting its hardiness sufficiently indicate the mode of propagation. Old plants should not be depended upon, for though they are thoroughly perennial, they are not so hardy as the younger and less woody stuff--besides, young plants are far more vigorous bloomers. Flowering period, June to August. Petasites Vulgaris. _Syns._ TUSSILAGO PETASITES _and_ T. FRAGRANS; WINTER HELIOTROPE _and_ COMMON BUTTERBUR; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. I must explain why this native weed, of rampant growth and perennial character, is here mentioned as a fit subject for the garden. It blooms in the depth of winter--in fact, all winter; the flowers are not showy at all, but they are deliciously scented, whence the specific name _fragrans_ and the common one "Winter Heliotrope," as resembling the scent of heliotrope. In its wild state it does not flower so early as when under cultivation; the latter state is also more favourable to its holding some green foliage throughout the winter. It has been said that there are different forms--male and female, or minor and major. Parkinson recognises two forms, and as his remarks are interesting and clearly point to the variety under notice, I will quote him from "The Theater of Plants," page 419: "The Butter burre is of two sorts, the one greater and the other lesser, differing also in the flowers, as you shall heare; but because they are so like one another, one description shall serve for them both. Each of them riseth up very early in the yeare, that is, in _February_, with a thicke stalke about a foote high, whereon are set a few small leaves, or rather peeces, and at the toppes a long spiked head of flowers, in the one which is the lesse and the more rare to finde, wholly white and of a better sent than the other (yet some say it hath no sent), in the greater, which is more common with us, of a blush or deepe red colour, according to the soile wherein it groweth, the clay ground bringing a paler colour somewhat weake, and before the stalke with the flowers have abidden a moneth above ground will be withered and gon, blowen away with the winde, and the leaves will beginne to spring, which when they are full growne are very large and broad, that they may very well serve to cover the whole body, or at the least the head like an umbello from the sunne and raine." The flowers are produced on bare, fleshy scapes, springing from amongst the old foliage; the new leaves not appearing until much later. The bloom is small, of a pinky white colour; they are miniature forms, resembling the coltsfoot flowers, being arranged, however, in clusters. The leaves are large, cordate, downy, and soft to the touch, having long stout stems; they vary much in size, from 3in. to more than a foot across, according to the nature of the soil. The usefulness of this plant consists entirely in its flowers as cut bloom, the least bit of which fills a large room with its most agreeable perfume. The plant, therefore, need not be grown in the more ornamental parts of the garden, and it should have a space exclusively allotted to it. It runs widely underground, and soon fills a large space. It enjoys moisture, but I have proved it to be more productive of bloom with leaves of half their usual size when planted in a rather dry situation with light but good soil. Usually a root does not produce flowers until two years after it has been planted. Poor as the flowers otherwise are, they are of great value in winter, when finely-scented kinds are scarce. They may be mixed with more beautiful forms and colours so as not to be seen, when, like violets in the hedgerow, they will exhale their grateful odour from a position of modest concealment. Flowering period, November to February. Phlox. HYBRID TALL VARIETIES; SUB-SECTIONS, SUFFRUTICOSA _and_ DECUSSATA (EARLY _and_ LATE FLOWERING); _Nat. Ord._ POLEMONIACEÆ. These noble flowers are not only beautiful as individuals, but the cheerful appearance of our gardens during the autumn is much indebted to them; the great variety in colour and shade is as remarkable as it is effective. The finer sorts are known as "florists' flowers," being named. Whence they came (from which species) is not so clear, but in other respects than form and habit they are much in the way of _P. paniculata_. The Phlox family is a numerous one, and the species are not only numerous but extremely dissimilar, consisting of the dwarf woody trailers, or _P. procumbens_ section, the oval-leafed section (_P. ovata_), the creeping or stolon-rooted (_P. stolonifera_) section, and the one now under notice, which differs so widely that many have seemed puzzled that these bold tall plants are so closely related to the prostrate, Whin-like species. The sub-divisions of the section under notice, viz., early and late flowering varieties, in all other respects except flowering period are similar, and any remarks of a cultural nature are alike applicable. This favourite part of the Phlox family is honoured with a specific name, viz., _P. omniflora_ (all varieties of flowers), but notwithstanding that it is a most appropriate name it is seldom applied. As the flowers must be familiar to the reader, they need hardly be described, and it is only necessary to mention the general features. They are produced on tall leafy stems in panicles of different forms, as pyramidal, rounded, or flattish; the clusters of bloom are sometimes 8in. in diameter in rich soil; the corolla of five petals is mostly flat, the latter are of a velvety substance, and coloured at their base, which in most varieties forms the "eye;" the tube is fine and bent, so as to allow the corolla to face upwards; the calyx, too, is tubular, the segments being deep and sharply cut; the buds abound in small clusters, and although the flowers are of a somewhat fugacious character, their place is quickly supplied with new blossoms (the succession being long maintained) which, moreover, have always a fresh appearance from the absence of the faded parts. The leaves, as indicated by the name _suffruticosa_, are arranged on half wood stems, and, as implied by the name _decussata_, are arranged in pairs, the alternate pairs being at right angles; these names are more in reference to the habit and form of the plants than the period of flowering, which, however, they are sometimes used to indicate; the leaves of some early kinds are leathery and shining, but for the most part they are herb-like and hairy, acutely lance-shaped, entire, and 2in. to 5in long. Under ordinary conditions these hybrid forms of Phlox grow into neat bushy specimens of a willow-like appearance, 2ft. to 4ft. high, but in well-prepared richly-manured quarters they will not only grow a foot taller, but proportionally stouter, and also produce much finer panicles of bloom; no flower better repays liberal culture, and few there are that more deserve it. In the semi-shade of trees, the more open parts of the shrubbery, in borders, or when special plantings are made, it is always the same cheerful subject, sweet, fresh, and waving with the breeze; its scent is spicy, in the way of cinnamon. The whole genus enjoys loam, but these strong-growing hybrids have a mass of long hungry roots, and, as already hinted, if they are well fed with manure they pay back with interest. As cut bloom, if taken in entire panicles, they are bouquets in themselves. All are effective, and many of the more delicate colours are exquisite, vieing with the much more cared-for bouvardias and tender primulas. To grow these flowers well there is nothing special about their management, but a method of treatment may be mentioned which, from the improved form it imparts to the specimens, as well as the more prolonged period in which extra-sized blooms are produced, is well worthy of being adopted. When the stems are 12in. or 15in. grown, nip off the tops of all the outer ones, they will soon break into two or four shoots. These will not only serve to "feather" down the otherwise "leggy" specimens and render them more symmetrical, but they will produce a second crop of flowers, and, at the same time, allow the first to develope more strongly. When the taller stems have done flowering, or become shabby, the tops may be cut back to the height of the under part of the then-formed buds of the early pinched shoots, and the extra light will soon cause them to flower; they should then be tied to the old stems left in the middle; this will quite transform the specimen, not only making it more neat and dwarf, but otherwise benefiting it--the old worn stems will have gone, and a new set of beaming flowers will reward the operator. The tops pinched out in the early part of the season make the best possible plants for the following season's bloom. They root like willows in a shady place in sandy loam, and are ready for planting in the open by midsummer, so that they have ample time to become strong before winter. Another way to propagate these useful flower roots is to divide strong clumps in the autumn after they have ceased to bloom. The very earliest kinds (some three or four) begin to flower early in August, and by the middle of the month many are in bloom; the late-flowering (_decussata_) section is a month later; all, however, are continued bloomers. Phlox Frondosa. FRONDED P.; _Nat. Ord._ POLEMONIACEÆ. A hardy creeper; one of the dwarf section, having half-woody, wiry stems. For this and many other species of the Creeping Phlox we are indebted to North America. Of late years these beautiful flowers have received much attention, not only from the trade, but also from amateurs, some of whom have taken much pains in crossing the species by hybridising, notably the late Rev. J. G. Nelson. Perhaps the most distinct and beautiful of all the dwarf Phloxes is the one which bears his name--the white-flowered _P. Nelsoni_. I have selected the species _P. frondosa_, because the specific name is, perhaps, beyond that of any of the others, more generally descriptive of all the following kinds: _P. divaricata_, _P. glaberrima_, _P. Nelsoni_ (white flowers), _P. reflexa_, _P. oculata_, _P. setacea_, _P. s. atropurpurea_, _P. s. violacæa_, _P. subulata_, _P. prostrata_. These differ but slightly from one another, so little, indeed, that many discard the distinctions; still, they do exist, and may be clearly seen when grown close together in collections. The flowers differ in depth of colour; the leaves of some are more recurved, crossed, twisted, shining, or pointed, also broader and longer; the stems likewise differ; herein the distinctions are seen, probably, more than in either flowers or leaves. Sometimes they are, in the different species, long or short, leafy, branched, dense, arched, and divaricate, but, although at any time when their fresh foliage is upon them, and when they are so close together that the eye can take them all in at a glance, their distinctions are fairly clear, autumn is the time to see them in their most definite and beautiful form. Like many other North American plants, they have lovely autumnal tints, then their forms have rich glistening colours, and they are seen to not only differ considerably, but, perhaps, to more advantage than when in flower; but let me add at once that I have only proved these plants to take such rich autumnal colours when they have been grown so as to rest on stones, which not only keep them from excess of moisture, from worm casts, &c., but secure for them a healthy circulation of air under their dense foliage. From the above, then, it will be seen that a general description of _P. frondosa_ will apply to the other species and varieties mentioned. The flowers are lilac-rose; calyx, tubular; corolla of five petals, narrow and notched; leaves, awl-shaped, short, bent, and opposite; stems, branched, dense and trailing. The dwarf Phloxes are pre-eminently rock plants, as which they thrive well; when raised from the ground level, so as to be nearly in the line of sight, they are very effective. They should be so planted that they can fall over the stones, like the one from which the illustration (Fig. 74) was drawn. For at least a fortnight the plants are literally covered with flowers, and at all times they form neat rock plants, though in winter they have the appearance of short withered grass; even then the stems are full of health, and in early spring they become quickly furnished with leaves and flowers. These Phloxes make good edgings. Notwithstanding their dead appearance in winter, a capital suggestion occurred to me by an accidental mixture of croci with the Phlox. At the time when the latter is most unseasonable the crocuses, which should be planted in the same line, may be seen coming through the browned foliage. When in flower, the blooms will not only be supported by this means, but also be preserved from splashes; when the crocuses are past their prime, the Phlox will have begun to grow, and, to further its well doing, its stems should be lifted and the then lengthened foliage of the crocuses should be drawn back to the under side of the Phlox, where it might remain to die off. This would allow the Phlox to have the full light, and the arrangement would be suitable for the edge of a shrubbery or border of herbaceous plants, or even along the walks of a kitchen garden. [Illustration: FIG. 74. PHLOX FRONDOSA. (Plant, one-sixth natural size; 1, natural size of flower.)] The Phloxes are easily propagated, either from rooted layers or cuttings. The latter should be put into a good loam and kept shaded for a week or two. Early spring is the best time. Flowering period, March to May. Physalis Alkekengi. WINTER CHERRY; _Nat. Ord._ SOLANACEÆ. This plant begins to flower in summer; but as a garden subject its blossom is of no value; the fine large berries, however, which are suspended in orange-yellow husks of large size, are very ornamental indeed, and form a very pleasing object amongst other "autumnal tints." It is not till October that the fruit begins to show its richness of colour. The plant is quite hardy, though a native of southern Europe; it is also herbaceous and perennial, and it has been grown in this country for 330 years. Still, it is not to be seen in many gardens. An old common name for it was "Red Nightshade," and Gerarde gives a capital illustration of it in his Herbal, under the name _Solanum Halicacabum_. _P. Alkekengi_ grows to the height of about two feet. The stems of the plant are very curious, being somewhat zigzag in shape, swollen at the nodes, with sharp ridges all along the stems; otherwise, they are round and smooth. The leaves are produced in twins, their long stalks issuing from the same part of the joint; they are of various forms and sizes, but mostly heart-shaped, somewhat acute, and 2in. to 4in. long. The little soft creamy white flowers spring from the junction of the twin leaf-stalks; their anthers are bulky for so small a flower. The calyx continues to grow after the flower has faded, and forms the Chinese-lantern-like covering of the scarlet berry; the latter will be over ½in. in diameter, and the orange-coloured calyx 1½in., when fully developed. In autumn the older stems cast their leaves early, when the finely-coloured fruit shows to advantage; the younger stems keep green longer, and continue to flower until stopped by the frost. To this short description I may add that of Gerarde, which is not only clear but pleasantly novel: "The red winter Cherrie bringeth foorth stalkes a cubite long, rounde, slender, smooth, and somewhat reddish, reeling this way and that way by reason of his weakness, not able to stande vpright without a support: whereupon do growe leaues not vnlike to those of common nightshade, but greater; among which leaues come foorth white flowers, consisting of five small leaues; in the middle of which leaues standeth out a berrie, greene at the first, and red when it is ripe, in colour of our common Cherrie and of the same bignesse, which is enclosed in a thinne huske or little bladder of a pale reddish colour, in which berrie is conteined many small flat seedes of a pale colour. The rootes be long, not vnlike to the rootes of Couch grasse, ramping and creeping within the vpper crust of the earth farre abroade, whereby it encreaseth greatly." The stems, furnished with fruit of good colour, but otherwise bare, make capital decorations for indoors, when mixed with tall grasses, either fresh or dried, and for such purposes this plant is worth growing; any kind of soil will do, in an out-of-the-way part, but if in shade, the rich colour will be wanting. Flowering period, June to frosts. Podophyllum Peltatum. DUCK'S-FOOT, _sometimes called_ MAY APPLE; _Nat. Ord._ PODOPHYLLACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 75. PODOPHYLLUM PELTATUM. (One-third natural size.)] A hardy herbaceous perennial from North America, more or less grown in English gardens since 1664. As may be seen from the illustration (Fig. 75), it is an ornamental plant, and though its flowers are interesting, they are neither showy nor conspicuous, as, from the peculiar manner in which they are produced, they are all but invisible until sought out. Its leaves and berries constitute the more ornamental parts of the plant. The flowers are white, not unlike the small white dog-rose in both size and form; the calyx is of three leaves, which fall off; the corolla, of six to nine petals; peduncle nearly an inch long, which joins the stem at the junction of the two leaf stalks, only one flower being produced on a stem or plant. The leaves join the rather tall and naked stem by stalks, 2in. to 3in. long; they are handsome in both form and habit. As the specific name implies, the leaves are peltate or umbrella-shaped, deeply lobed, each lobe being deeply cut, and all unevenly toothed and hairy at the edges, with a fine down covering the under sides; the upper surface is of a lively, shining green colour, and finely veined. The flower is succeeded by a large one-celled ovate berry, in size and form something like a damson, but the colour is yellow when ripe, at which stage the berry becomes more conspicuous than the flower could be, from the manner in which the young leaves were held. We want cheerful-looking plants for the bare parts under trees, and this is a suitable one, provided the surface soil has a good proportion of vegetable matter amongst it, and is rather moist. The thick horizontal roots creep near the surface, so it will be seen how important it is to secure them against drought otherwise than by depth of covering; a moist and shady position, then, is indispensable. In company with trilliums, hellebores, anemones, and ferns, this graceful plant would beautifully associate. Another way to grow it is in pots, when exactly the required kind of compost can easily be given, viz., peat and chopped sphagnum. Thus potted, plunged in wet sand, and placed in a northern aspect, it will be found not only to thrive well, as several specimens have done with me, but also to be worth all the trouble. To propagate it, the long creeping roots should be cut in lengths of several inches, and to a good bud or crown. When so cut in the autumn, I have proved them to rot when planted, but others buried in sand until February, and then planted, have done well. Flowering period, May and June. Polyanthus. _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. This, with its numerous varieties, comes under _Primula veris_, or the common Cowslip. The improved varieties which have sprung from this native beauty of our meadows and hedgerows are innumerable, and include the rich "gold-laced" kinds--which are cared for like children and are annually placed on the exhibition tables--as well as the homely kinds, which grow in the open borders by the hundred. The Polyanthus is eminently a flower for English gardens; and this country is noted for the fine sorts here raised, our humid climate suiting the plant in every way; its flowers offer a variety of colour, an odour of the sweetest kind, full and rich, reminding us not only of spring time, but of youthful rambles and holidays. As an "old-fashioned" flower for garden decoration it is effective and useful, from the great quantity of bloom it sends forth and the length of its flowering season; from its love of partial shade it may be planted almost anywhere. Its neat habit, too, fits it for scores of positions in which we should scarcely think of introducing less modest kinds; such nooks and corners of our gardens should be made to beam with these and kindred flowers, of which we never have too many. Plant them amongst bulbs, whose leaves die off early, and whose flowers will look all the happier for their company in spring; plant them under all sorts of trees, amongst the fruit bushes, and where only weeds have appeared, perhaps, for years; dig and plant the Polyanthus, and make the wilderness like Eden. Flowering period, February to June. Polygonum Brunonis. KNOTWEED; _Nat. Ord._ POLYGONACEÆ. This is a dwarf species from India, but quite hardy. It is pretty, interesting, and useful. The flowers are produced on erect stems a foot high, and formed in spikes 3in. to 5in. long, which are as soft as down and smell like heather. The colour is a soft rose. These flowers spring from a dense mass of rich foliage; the leaves in summer and early autumn are of a pleasing apple-green colour, smooth, oblong, and nearly spoon-shaped from the narrowing of the lower part; the mid-rib is prominent and nearly white; the leaf has rolled edges, and is somewhat reflexed at the point. Let the reader closely examine the leaves of this species while in their green state, holding them up to a strong light, and he will then behold the beauty and finish of Nature to a more than ordinary degree. This subject is one having the finest and most lasting of "autumnal tints," the dense bed of leaves turn to a rich brick-red, and, being persistent, they form a winter ornament in the border or on rockwork. The habit of the plant is creeping, rooting as it goes. It is a rampant grower, and sure to kill any dwarf subject that may be in its way. It may be grown in any kind of soil, and almost in any position, but it loves sunshine. If its fine lambtail-shaped flowers are desired, it should be grown on the flat, but, for its grand red autumnal leaf tints, it should be on the upper parts of rockwork. It is self-propagating, as already hinted. The flowers prove capital for dressing epergnes. I had not seen them so used, until the other day a lady visitor fancied a few spikes, and when I called at her house a day or two later saw them mixed with white flowers and late flowering forget-me-nots--they were charming. Flowering period, August to the time of frosts. Polygonum Cuspidatum. CUSPID KNOTWEED; _Nat. Ord._ POLYGONACEÆ. A recent introduction from China, perfectly hardy, shrub-like but herbaceous; a rampant grower, attaining the height of 6ft. or 7ft., and spreading fast by means of root suckers. During the early spring it pushes its fleshy shoots, and the coloured leaves, which are nearly red, are very pleasing; as they unfold they are seen to be richly veined, and are as handsome as the beautiful Fittonias, so much admired as hothouse plants. The long slender stems grow apace, and when the growth has been completed the flowers issue from the axils of the leaves; they are in the form of drooping feathery panicles, 4in. to 5in. long, creamy white, and produced in clusters, lasting for three weeks or more in good condition. The leaves are 3in. to 4in. long, nearly heart-shaped but pointed, entire, and stalked, of good substance, and a pale green colour; they are alternately and beautifully arranged along the gracefully-arching stems. The specimens are attractive even when not in bloom. If the roots are allowed to run in their own way for two or three years they form a charming thicket, which must prove a pleasant feature in any large garden. All through the summer its branches are used as dressings for large vases, and, either alone or with bold flowers, they prove most useful. In the shrubbery, where it can bend over the grass, from its distinct colour and graceful habit, it proves not only an effective but a convenient subject, as it allows the mowing machine to work without hindrance or damage. It is a capital plant for the small town garden. After sending to a friend several hampers of plants season after season, all without satisfactory results, owing to the exceptionally bad atmosphere of the neighbourhood, I sent him some of this, and it has proved suitable in every way. Flowering period, July and August. _P. c. compactum_ is a variety of the above. It is, however, very distinct in the way implied by its name, being more compact and rigid, and not more than half as tall. The leaves, too, are somewhat crimped, and of a much darker colour, the stems are nearly straight and ruddy, and the flowers are in more erect racemes, the colour yellowish-white. It forms a handsome bush, but is without the graceful habit of the type. Like the other knotweeds described, it enjoys a sandy loam, and requires nothing in the way of special culture. The roots may be transplanted or divided when the tops have withered. Polygonum Filiformis Variegatum. KNOTWEED; _Nat. Ord._ POLYGONACEÆ. Very hardy and effective. I simply mention this as a foliage plant. The leaves are large, drooping, and finely splashed or marbled with pale green and yellow, in shape oval-oblong, being crimped between the veins. It is a scarce variety. Fine for the sub-tropical garden. Culture, the same as for all the Knotweeds. Flowering period, late summer. Polygonum Vaccinifolium. VACCINIUM-LEAVED KNOTWEED; _Nat. Ord._ POLYGONACEÆ. It may seem odd that we should go into the Dock family for plants and flowers for our gardens; still we may, and find some truly beautiful species. The above-named is a charming alpine, coming from the Himalayas, and proves perfectly hardy in our climate; it is seldom met with and cannot be generally known, otherwise it would be more patronised; it forms a pretty dwarf shrub, with woody slender stems, clothed with small shining foliage. The flowers are very small, resembling those of the smaller ericas, and of a fine rosy colour; the unopened ones are even more pretty, having a coral-like effect; they are arranged in neat spikes, about 2in. long, and tapering to a fine point; they are numerously produced all along the procumbent branches, becoming erect therefrom. As the specific name denotes, the leaves are Vaccinium-like--_i.e._, small and oval, like box, but not so stout; they are closely set on the stems, are of a pale shining green, and somewhat bent or rolled. The habit is exceedingly neat, and, when in flower, a good specimen is a pleasing object; it is only a few inches high, but spreads quickly. On rockwork it seems quite at home. My example has shade from the mid-day sun, and, without saying that it should have shade, I may safely say that it does well with it. The plant will thrive in sandy loam and is readily increased by putting small stones on the trailing stems, which soon root. The leafy stems, with their coral-like, miniature spires, are useful in a cut state, so pretty, in fact, that it does not require any skill to "bring them in." Flowering period, August to the frosts. Potentilla Fruticosa. SHRUBBY CINQUEFOIL; _Nat. Ord._ ROSACEÆ. In mountainous woods this native deciduous shrub is found wild, and it is much grown in gardens, where it not only proves very attractive, but from its dwarf habit and flowering throughout the summer and autumn months, it helps to keep the borders or rock garden cheerful. The flowers, which are lemon yellow, are in form like those of its relative, the strawberry, but smaller; they are produced in terminal small bunches, but seldom are more than two or three open at the same time, and more often only one; but from the numerous branchlets, all of which produce bloom, there seems to be no lack of colour. In gardens it grows somewhat taller than in its wild state, and if well exposed to the sun it is more floriferous, and the individual flowers larger. It attains the height of 2ft. 6in.; the flowers are 1in. across; the petals apart; calyx and bracteæ united; ten parted; each flower has a short and slender stalk. The leaves are 2in. or more in length, pinnate, five but oftener seven parted, the leaflets being oblong, pointed, entire and downy; the leaf stalks are very slender, and hardly an inch long; they spring from the woody stems or branches, which are of a ruddy colour, and also downy. The habit of the shrub is densely bushy, and the foliage has a greyish green colour from its downiness. This subject may be planted in any part of the garden where a constant blooming and cheerful yellow flower is required; it is pretty but not showy; its best quality, perhaps, is its neatness. It enjoys a vegetable soil well drained, and propagates itself by its creeping roots, which push up shoots or suckers at short spaces from the parent stock. Flowering period, summer to early frosts. Pratia Repens. _Syn._ LOBELIA PRATIANA; CREEPING PRATIA; _sometimes called_ LOBELIA REPENS; _Nat. Ord._ LOBELIACEÆ. In October this small creeper is a very pretty object on rockwork, when the earlier bloom has become changed into oval fruit-pods. These berry-like capsules are large for so small a plant, and of a bright and pleasing colour. These, together with the few flowers that linger, backed up, as they are, with a dense bed of foliage, interlaced with its numerous filiform stems, present this subject in its most interesting and, perhaps, its prettiest form. The flowers may be called white, but they have a violet tint, and are over half-an-inch in length. The calyx is adnate in relation to the ovarium, limb very short, but free and five-toothed; the corolla is funnel-shaped, but split at the back, causing it to appear one-sided. The solitary flowers are produced on rather long stems from the axils of the leaves. As they fade the calyces become fleshy and much enlarged, and resemble the fruit of the hawthorn when ripe. The leaves are distantly arranged on the creeping stems, ½in. long, oval, roundly toothed and undulated, fleshy, somewhat glaucous and petiolate. The habit of the plant is to root as it creeps, and the thread-like stems intersect each other in a pleasing way. They are to be seen distinctly, as the leaves are not only small, but distant, and seem to rest on a lattice-work of stems. This species comes from the Falkland Islands, and is of recent introduction. It is herbaceous and perennial, and proves hardy in this climate if planted on a well-drained soil of a vegetable character. It not only enjoys such a position as the slope of rockwork, but, when so placed, it may be seen to advantage. It should be free from shade, or the fruit will not colour well. It will therefore be seen that this is a rock plant, so far as its decorative qualities are concerned. It may, however, be grown well on flat beds of peat soil, where its fruit will mature finely, but it cannot be so well seen. It is self-propagating. Transplantings should be made in spring, or tufts may be placed in pots, during the autumn, and put in cold frames, as then they would not suffer displacement by frosts. Flowering period, June to frosts. Primula Acaulis. _Syn._ P. VULGARIS, COMMON PRIMROSE; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. This common native flower needs no description, growing everywhere, yet we all seem to enjoy its company in our gardens, though it may, perhaps, be seen wild close by. It is a flower of more interest than ordinary, and to the florist of some importance. The great variety of double and single primroses have all sprung from this, the modest form found in our woods and damp hedgerows, and the number is being added to year by year. The generic name is in allusion to a quality--that of early or first flowering. The specific name, _acaulis_, is in reference to its stemlessness, which is its main distinguishing feature from the Polyanthus and Oxlip (_P. veris_). I may add, that from the great variety of _P. acaulis_ and _P. veris_, and their mutual resemblance in many instances, the casual observer may often find in this feature a ready means by which to identify a specimen. Of course, there are other points by which the different species can be recognised, even when the scape is out of sight, but I am now speaking of their general likeness to each other in early spring. Common Cowslips or Paigles (_P. veris_), great Cowslips or Oxlips (_P. elatior_), field primrose or large-flowered primrose (_P. acaulis_), were all in olden times called by the general name of primrose, the literal meaning of which is first-rose. Old authorities give us many synonymous names for this plant, as _P. grandiflora_, _P. vulgaris_, _P. sylvestris_, and _P. veris_. The last is given by three authorities, including Linnæus. As this seems to clash hard with the name as applied to the Cowslip species, I may at once state that Linnæus has only that one name for the three species, viz: _P. acaulis_, _P. elatior_, _P. veris_; the name _P. vulgaris_, by another authority, is explained by the same rule; Curtis (_Flora Londinensis_) is the authority for the name _P. acaulis_. I need not here go into any of the varieties, beyond giving a cursory glance at them as a whole. The double kinds are all beautiful, some superb and rare, as the ruby and crimson; the white, sulphur, mauve, magenta, and other less distinct double forms are more easily grown, and in some parts are very plentiful. The single kinds have even a more extensive range in colour. We have now fine reds and what are called blue primrose; the latter variety is not a blue, but certainly a near approach to it. It is an interesting occupation to raise the coloured primroses from seed, not only because of the pleasing kinds which may be so obtained, but under cultivation, as in a wild state, seedlings are always seen to be the more vigorous plants; self-sown seed springs up freely on short grass, sandy walks, and in half-shaded borders; but when it is sought to improve the strain, not only should seedlings be regularly raised, but it should be done systematically, when it will be necessary, during the blooming season, to look over the flowers daily and remove inferior kinds as soon as proved, so that neither their seed nor pollen can escape and be disseminated. This part of the operation alone will, in a few years, where strictly carried out, cause a garden to become famous for its primroses. Seasonable sowing, protection from slugs, and liberal treatment are also of the utmost importance. Briefly stated, the _modus operandi_ should be as follows: Sow the seed at the natural season, soon as ripe, on moist vegetable soil; do not cover it with more than a mere dash of sand; the aspect should be north, but with a little shade any other will do; the seedlings will be pretty strong by the time of the early frosts; about that time they should, on dry days, have three or four slight dressings of soot and quicklime; it should be dusted over them with a "dredge" or sieve; this may be expected to clear them of the slug pest, after which a dressing of sand and half-rotten leaves may be scattered over them; this will not only keep them fresh and plump during winter, but also protect them from the effects of wet succeeded by frost, which often lifts such things entirely out of the earth. In March, plant out in well enriched loam, in shady quarters; many will flower in late spring. Another plan would be to leave them in the seed bed if not too rank, where most would flower; in either case, the seed bed might be left furnished with undisturbed seedlings. The main crop of bloom should not be looked for until the second spring after the summer sowing. The double forms are not only less vigorous, but the means of propagation are limited; offsets of only healthy stock should be taken in early summer. A rich retentive loam suits them, or moist vegetable soil would do: shade, however, is the great desideratum; exposure to full sunshine harms them, even if well moistened at the roots; besides, in such positions red spider is sure to attack them. This mode of propagation is applicable to desirable single varieties, as they cannot be relied upon to produce stock true to themselves from seed. In planting offsets it is a good practice to put them in rather deeply; not only are the new roots emitted from above the old ones, but the heart of the offset seems to be sustained during the warm and, perhaps, dry weather, by being set a trifle below the surface. This I have ever proved to be a sure and quick method in the open garden. Flowering period, February to June. Primula Capitata. ROUND-HEADED PRIMULA; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. Hardy, herbaceous, and perennial. Before referring to this Primula in particular, I would say a word or two respecting hardy and alpine Primulæ in general. It may appear strange and, on my part, somewhat presumptuous, when I state that this section of the Primula family is little known. Gardeners, both old and young, who have seen them in collections, have asked what they were as they stood over them admiring their lovely flowers. They are, however, very distinct on the one hand from the primrose (_Primula vulgaris_ or _acaulis_) and polyanthus (_Primula elatior_) sections; and also from the _P. sinensis_ section--the species with so many fine double and single varieties, much grown in our greenhouses, and which, of course, are not hardy. The hardy and distinct species to which I now allude are mostly from alpine habitats, of stunted but neat forms, widely distinct, and very beautiful. The British representatives of this class are _Primula farinosa_ and _P. Scotica_, but from nearly all parts of the temperate zone these lovely subjects have been imported. It may not be out of place to name some of them: _P. Allioni_, France; _P. amoena_, Caucasus; _P. auricula_, Switzerland; _P. Carniolica_, Carniola; _P. decora_, South Europe; _P. glaucescens_ and _P. grandis_, Switzerland; _P. glutinosa_, South Europe; _P. latifolia_, Pyrenees; _P. longifolia_, Levant; _P. marginata_, Switzerland; _P. minima_, South Europe; _P. nivalis_, Dahuria; _P. villosa_, Switzerland; _P. viscosa_, Piedmont; _P. Wulfeniana_, _P. spectabilis_, _P. denticulata_, _P. luteola_, _P. Tirolensis_, and others, from the Himalayas and North America, all of which I have proved to be of easy culture, either on rockwork, or in pots and cold frames, where, though they may be frozen as hard as the stones amongst which their roots delight to run, they are perfectly safe. The treatment they will not endure is a confined atmosphere. _P. capitata_, which is a native of Sikkim, is still considered to be new in this country, though it was flowered at Kew about thirty years ago, but it has only become general in its distribution during the past three or four years. The flowers are borne on stems which are very mealy, and 6in. to 9in. high; the head of bloom is round and dense, 1½in. across. The outer pips are first developed, and as they fade the succeeding rings or tiers extend and hide them. The very smallest in the centre of the head remain covered with the farina-like substance, and form a beautiful contrast to the deep violet-blue of the opened, and the lavender-blue of the unopened pips. One head of bloom will last fully four weeks. The denseness and form of the head, combined with the fine colour of the bloom, are the chief points which go to make this Primula very distinct. The leaves, which are arranged in rosette form, are otherwise very pretty, having a mealy covering on the under side, sometimes of a golden hue; they are also finely wrinkled and toothed, giving the appearance, in small plants, of a rosette of green feathers. Sometimes the leaves are as large as a full-grown polyanthus leaf, whilst other plants, which have flowered equally well, have not produced foliage larger than that of primroses, when having their earliest flowers. It makes a fine pot subject, but will not endure a heated greenhouse. It should be kept in a cold frame, with plenty of air. It may be planted on rockwork where it will not get the mid-day sun. I hear that it grows like grass with a correspondent whose garden soil is stiff loam; there it seeds and increases rapidly. My first experience with it was troublesome; when dying down in the winter, the leaves, which are persistent, seemed to collect moisture at the collar and cause it to rot. I tried planting not quite so deeply, and I imagine that it has proved a remedy. So choice a garden subject should not be passed by because it cannot be dibbled in and grown as easily as a cabbage. Old plants produce offsets which, as soon as the April showers come, may be transplanted in loamy soil and a shady situation. Propagation may also be carried on by seed when well ripened, but that has not been my experience of it hitherto. Flowering period, April to June. Primula Cashmerianum. CASHMERE PRIMROSE; _Nat Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. This belongs to the large-leaved and herbaceous section, and though it comes (as its name specifies) from a much warmer climate than ours, its habitat was found at a great altitude, and it has been proved to be perfectly hardy in North Britain. This species is comparatively new to English gardens, but it has already obtained great favour and is much grown (see Fig. 76). No collection of _Primulæ_ can well be without it; its boldness, even in its young state, is the first characteristic to draw attention, for with the leaf development there goes on that of the scape. For a time the foliage has the form of young cos lettuce, but the under sides are beautifully covered with a meal resembling gold dust. This feature of the plant is best seen at the early stage of its growth, as later on the leaves bend or flatten to the ground in rosette form, the rosettes being often more than 12in. across. The golden farina varies in both quantity and depth of colour on different plants. [Illustration: FIG. 76. PRIMULA CASHMERIANUM. (One-fourth natural size.)] The flower scape is from 9in. to 12in. high, nearly as stout as a clay pipe stem, and very mealy, thickening near the top. The flowers, which are small, of a light purple colour, and having a yellow eye, are densely arranged in globular trusses, each lasting more than a fortnight in beauty. The leaves when resting on the ground show their finely serrated edges and pleasing pale green, which contrasts oddly with the under sides of those still erect, the latter being not only of a golden colour, as already mentioned, but their edges are turned, almost rolled under. This plant loves moisture; and it will adorn any position where it can be well grown; it will also endure any amount of sunshine if it has plenty of moisture at the roots, and almost any kind of soil will do except clay, but peat and sand are best for it, according to my experience. During winter the crown is liable to rot, from the amount of moisture which lodges therein somewhat below the ground level; latterly I have placed a piece of glass over them, and I do not remember to have lost one so treated. Offsets are but sparingly produced by this species; propagation is more easily carried out by seed, from which plants will sometimes flower the first year. Flowering period, March to May. Primula Denticulata. TOOTHED PRIMULA; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. This is one of that section of the Primrose family having stout scapes and compact heads of bloom. It is a comparatively recent introduction from the Himalayas, a true alpine, and perfectly hardy in this climate. As a garden flower, it has much merit, blooming early and profusely. It cannot be too highly commended for its fine form as a plant and beauty as a flower, more especially as seen on rockwork. The flower buds begin in very early spring to rise on their straight round stems, new foliage being developed at the same time. The flowers are arranged in dense round clusters, and are often in their finest form when nearly a foot high. They are of a light purple colour, each flower ½in. across, corolla prettily cupped, segments two-lobed, greenish white at bases, tube long and cylindrical, calyx about half length of tube, teeth rather long and of a dark brown colour. The scape is somewhat dark-coloured, especially near the apex. The leaves are arranged in rosette form, are lance-shaped, rolled back at the edges and toothed, also wrinkled and downy; they continue to grow long after the flowers have faded. Delicate as the flowers seem, they stand the roughest storms without much hurt. _P. d. major_ is a larger form in all its parts. _P. d. nana_ is more dwarfed than the type. _P. d. amabilis_ is a truly lovely form, having darker foliage and rosy buds; its habit, too, is even more neat and upright, and the blooming period earlier by about two weeks. A moist position and vegetable mould suit it best, according to my experience, and the dips of rockwork are just the places for it, not exactly in the bottom, for the following reason: The large crowns are liable to rot from wet standing in them, and if the plants are set in a slope it greatly helps to clear the crowns of stagnant moisture. Propagation is by means of offsets, which should be taken during the growing season, so that they may form good roots and become established before winter. Flowering period, March to May. Primula Farinosa. MEALY PRIMROSE, _or_ BIRD'S-EYE; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. The pretty native species, very common in a wild state in some parts, near which, of course, it need not be grown in gardens; but as its beauty is unquestionable, and as there are many who do not know it, and evidently have never seen it, it ought to have a place in the garden. It is herbaceous and perennial. All its names are strictly descriptive. The little centre has a resemblance to a bird's eye, and the whole plant is thickly covered with a meal-like substance. Small as this plant is, when properly grown it produces a large quantity of bloom for cutting purposes. It is 3in. to 8in. high, according to the situation in which it is grown. The flowers are light purple, only ½in. across, arranged in neat umbels; the corolla is flat, having a bright yellow centre; leaves small, ovate-oblong, roundly toothed, bald, and powdery beneath; the flower scapes are round and quite white, with a meal-like covering. In stiff soil and a damp situation this little gem does well, or it will be equally at home in a vegetable soil, such as leaf mould or peat, but there must be no lack of moisture, and it is all the better for being screened from the mid-day sun, as it would be behind a hedge or low wall. So freely does it bloom, that it is not only worth a place in the garden, but repays all the trouble required to establish it in proper quarters, after which it will take care of itself, by producing offsets and seedlings in abundance. Flowering period, April to June. Primula Marginata. _Syn._ P. CRENATA; MARGINED PRIMROSE; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. A native of Switzerland, so rich in alpine flowers; this is but a small species, yet very distinct and conspicuous (see Fig. 77). As its specific name denotes, its foliage has a bold margin, as if stitched with white silken thread, and the whole plant is thickly covered with a mealy substance. So distinct in these respects is this lovely species that, with, perhaps, one exception, it may easily be identified from all others, _P. auricula marginata_ being the one that most resembles it, that species also being edged and densely covered with farina, but its foliage is larger, not toothed, and its flowers yellow. [Illustration: FIG. 77. PRIMULA MARGINATA. (Two-thirds natural size.)] _P. marginata_ has bright but light violet flowers on very short scapes, seldom more than 3in. high; these and the calyx also are very mealy. The little leaves are of various shapes, and distinctly toothed, being about the size of the bowl of a dessert spoon. They are neatly arranged in tufts on a short footstalk, which becomes surrounded with young growths, all as clear in their markings as the parent plant, so that a well grown specimen of three years or even less becomes a beautiful object, whether it is on rockwork or in a cold frame. The flowers are produced and remain in good form for two or three weeks on strong plants, and for nearly the whole year the plant is otherwise attractive. I scarcely need mention that such plants with mealy and downy foliage are all the better for being sheltered from wind and rain. In a crevice, overhung by a big stone, but where the rockwork is so constructed that plenty of moisture is naturally received, a specimen has done very well indeed, besides keeping its foliage dry and perfect. When such positions can either be found or made, they appear to answer even better than frames, as alpine species cannot endure a stagnant atmosphere, which is the too common lot of frame subjects. It is not very particular as to soil or situation. I grow it both in shade and fully exposed to the mid-day sun of summer, and, though a healthy specimen is grown in loam, I find others to do better in leaf mould mixed with grit and pebbles. It enjoys a rare immunity--the slugs let it alone, or at least my slugs do, for it is said that different tribes or colonies have different tastes. To propagate it, the little offsets about the footstalk should be cut off with a sharp knife when the parent plant has finished flowering; they will mostly be found to have nice long roots. Plant in leaf soil and grit, and keep them shaded for a month. Flowering period, March to May. Primula Purpurea. PURPLE-FLOWERED PRIMULA; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. A truly grand primrose of the same section as _P. denticulata_, coming also from an alpine habitat, viz., the higher elevations of the Himalayas. It has not long been in cultivation in this country compared with our knowledge of the Himalayan flora. It is perfectly hardy, but seems to require rather drier situations than most of the large-leaved kinds. I never saw it so fine as when grown on a hillock of rockwork in sand and leaf mould; the specimen had there stood two severe winters, and in the spring of 1881 we were gladdened by its pushing in all directions fifteen scapes, all well topped by its nearly globular heads of fine purple flowers. It begins to flower in March, and keeps on for quite a month. The flower stems are 9in. high, stout, and covered with a mealy dust, thickest near the top and amongst the small bracts. The umbels of blossom are 2in. to 3in. across, each flower nearly ¾in. in diameter, the corolla being salver shaped and having its lobed segments pretty well apart; the tube is long and somewhat bellied where touched by the teeth of the calyx; the latter is more than half the length of tube, of a pale green colour, and the teeth, which are long, awl shaped, and clasping, impart to the tubes of the younger flowers a fluted appearance; later on they become relaxed and leafy. The leaves have a strong, broad, pale green, shining mid-rib, are lance-shaped, nearly smooth, wavy, and serrulated; the upper surface is of a lively green colour, and the under side has a similar mealy covering to that of the scape. Flowers and leaves develope at the same time, the latter being 8in. long and of irregular arrangement. The exceedingly floriferous character of this otherwise handsome primula renders it one of the very best subjects for the spring garden; it should have a place in the most select collections, as well as in more general assemblages of plants, for not only does it take care of itself when once properly planted, but it increases fast, forming noble tufts a foot in diameter, than which few things give a finer effect or an equal quantity of flowers at a time when they are not too plentiful. As already hinted, it should have a somewhat drier position than _P. denticulata_, but by no means should it suffer from drought, and a little shade will be beneficial. Propagated by division during the growing season, immediately after flowering being the best time. Flowering period, March and April. Primula Scotica. SCOTTISH PRIMROSE; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. This charming little member of the British flora very much resembles the native Bird's-eye Primrose (_P. farinosa_), which is very common in some parts. It is not uniformly conceded to be a distinct species, but many botanists believe it to be such. As a matter of fact, it is different from _P. farinosa_ in several important points, though they are not seen at a mere glance. That it has darker flowers and a more dwarf and sturdy habit may, indeed, be readily seen when the two are side by side. Size and colour, however, would not in this case appear to be the most distinctive features. The seed organs differ considerably. "In _P. farinosa_ the germen is broadly obovate and the stigma capitate; here the germen is globose and the stigma has five points." But there is another dissimilarity which may or may not prove much to the botanist, but to the lover of flowers who tries to cultivate them it is all-important. Whilst _P. farinosa_ can be easily grown in various soils and positions, in the same garden _P. Scotica_ refuses to live; so fickle, indeed, is it, that were it not a very lovely flower that can be grown and its fastidious requirements easily afforded, it would not have been classed in this list of garden subjects. Here it begins to blossom in the middle of March at the height of 3in. In its habitats in Caithness and the north coast of Sutherland it is considerably later--April and May. The flowers are arranged in a crowded umbel on a short stoutish scape; they are of a deep-bluish purple, with a yellow eye; the divisions of the corolla are flat and lobed; calyx nearly as long as tube, and ventricose or unevenly swollen. The whole flower is much less than _P. farinosa_. The leaves are also smaller than those of that species; obovate, lanceolate, denticulate, and very mealy underneath. To grow it requires not only a light but somewhat spongy soil, as peat and sand, but it should never be allowed to get dry at the roots; a top dressing during summer of sand and half decayed leaves is a great help to it, for the roots are not only then very active, going deep and issuing from the base of the leaves, but they require something they can immediately grow into when just forming, and to be protected from drought. It will be well to remember that its principal habitats are on the sandy shores, as that gives a proper idea of the bottom moisture, and, from the looseness of the sand, the drier condition of the immediate surface. My specimens have always dwindled during summer and failed to appear the following spring, excepting where such treatment as the above has been adopted. I am much indebted for these hints to several amateurs, who grow it well. That many fail with it is evidenced by the facts that it is in great demand every spring and that there are few sources of supply other than its wild home. Never was it more sought for, perhaps, than at the present time, not only by amateurs at home, but by both private and trade growers abroad. The exquisite beauty of this primrose when well grown and the technical care required to have it in that condition are both things of which any plant lover may be proud. If once established, its propagation is scarcely an affair of the cultivator's; the self-sown seed appears to germinate with far more certainty when left alone, and, as the plants are always very small, they hardly need to be transplanted. If left alone, though they are often much less than an inch across, many will flower the first season. Some have taken it as something of a biennial character. The treatment is at fault when it gives cause for such impressions; its perennial quality is both authorised and proved under cultivation. Flowering period, March to May. Primula Sikkimensis. _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 78. PRIMULA SIKKIMENSIS. (Plant, one-sixth natural size; _a,_ blossom, two-thirds natural size.)] The specific name of this noble and lovely plant has reference to its habitat, Sikkim, in the Himalayas, where it was found not many years ago. It is not largely cultivated yet--probably not well known. It may, however, be frequently met with in choice collections, where no plant is more worthy of a place. Its general character may be said to be very distinct, especially when in flower. It is herbaceous, hardy, and perennial. Its hardiness has been questioned for several years, but the winters of 1880 and 1881 settled that beyond the region of doubt. I had then many plants of it fully exposed, without even a top-dressing, which is sometimes given to plants of unquestionable hardiness, and they stood the winters as well as their kindred species--our common Cowslip. It was also said to be not more than biennial, as if it were a plant too good to be without some fatal fault for our climate. However, I can say emphatically that it is more than biennial, as the specimens from which the drawing (Fig. 78) is taken are three years old. Several correspondents have written me stating that their plants are dead. That has been during their season of dormancy, but in every case they have pushed at the proper time. I may as well here explain, though somewhat out of order, a peculiarity in reference to the roots of this species: it dies down in early autumn, and the crown seems to retire within the ball of its roots, which are a matted mass of fibres, and not only does it seem to retire, but also to dwindle, so that anyone, with a suspicion, who might be seeking for the vital part, might easily be misled by such appearances, which are further added to by the fact that the species does not start into growth until a late date compared with others of the genus. So peculiar are the roots and crown of this plant, that if a root were dug up in mid-winter, and the soil partly shaken from it, a two-year-old specimen would be found to be the size and shape of a cricket ball, and the position of the crown so difficult to find that, on planting the root again, considerable discrimination would have to be exercised, or the crown might be pointed the wrong way. _P. Sikkimensis_ is a Cowslip. The flowers are a pale primrose yellow, rendered more pale still by a mealiness which covers the whole stem, being most abundant near the top, but whether it is produced on the petals, or, owing to their bell-shape and pendent form they receive it from the scape and pedicels by the action of the wind, I cannot say. The flowers are considerably over 1in. long; they are numerously produced on long drooping pedicels, of irregular lengths; the tallest scape of the specimen illustrated is 18in. high, but under more favourable conditions this Cowslip has been said to reach a height of 3ft. The leaves are 6in. to 12in. long, wrinkled, unevenly dentate, oblong and blunt; during the time of seeding the leaves increase in length, some becoming spathulate, or broadly stalked; it ripens seed plentifully, from which seedlings come true. Although I have never grown this noble plant otherwise than in ordinary garden loam well enriched and in shady borders, it is said to be more at home in peaty soil always in a moist state. However that may be, I have proved it to do well under ordinary treatment; it should be well watered during hot dry weather; amongst dwarf trees, in the more damp parts of rockwork, or at the foot of a north wall covered with any kind of foliage, it will be grown and seen to advantage. Besides by seed, which should be sown as soon as ripened, it may be propagated by root divisions at the time the crowns are pushing in spring. Flowering period, June and July. Primula Vulgaris Flore-pleno. DOUBLE-FLOWERED PRIMROSE; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. It is not intended to descant upon, or even attempt to name, the many forms of Double Primrose; the object is more to direct the attention of the reader to one which is a truly valuable flower and ought to be in every garden. Let me at once state its chief points. Colour, yellow; flowers, large, full, clear, and sweetly scented, produced regularly twice a year; foliage, short, rigid, evergreen, handsome, and supporting the flowers from earth splashes. Having grown this variety for five years, I have proved it to be as stated during both mild and severe seasons. It seems as if it wanted to commence its blooming period about October, from which time to the severest part of winter it affords a goodly amount of flowers; it is then stopped for a while, though its buds can be seen during the whole winter, and when the longer days and vernal sunshine return, it soon becomes thickly covered with blossoms, which are of the most desirable kind for spring gathering. Its flowers need no further description beyond that already given; but I may add that the stalks are somewhat short, which is an advantage, as the bloom is kept more amongst the leaves and away from the mud. The foliage is truly handsome, short, finely toothed, rolled back, pleasingly wrinkled, and of a pale green colour. It is very hardy, standing all kinds of weather, and I never saw it rot at the older crowns, like so many of the fine varieties, but it goes on growing, forming itself into large tufts a foot and more across. It has been tried in stiff loam and light vegetable soil; in shade, and fully exposed; it has proved to do equally well in both kinds of soil, but where it received the full force of the summer sun the plants were weak, infested with red spider, and had a poorer crop of flowers. It would, therefore, appear that soil is of little or no importance, but that partial shade is needful. It is not only a variety worth the having, but one which deserves to have the best possible treatment, for flowers in winter--and such flowers--are worth all care. Flowering periods, late autumn and early spring to June. Pulmonarias. LUNGWORTS; _Nat. Ord._ BORAGINACEÆ. In speaking of these hardy herbaceous perennials, I should wish to be understood that the section, often and more properly called _Mertensia_, is not included because they are so very distinct in habit and colour of both flowers and foliage. Most of the Pulmonarias begin to flower early in March, and continue to do so for a very long time, quite two months. For the most part, the flowers (which are borne on stems about 8in. high, in straggling clusters) are of changing colours, as from pink to blue; they are small but pretty, and also have a quaint appearance. The foliage during the blooming period is not nearly developed, the plants being then somewhat small in all their parts, but later the leaf growth goes on rapidly, and some kinds are truly handsome from their fine spreading habit and clear markings of large white spots on the leaves, which are often 9in. or 10in. long and 3in. broad, oblong, lanceolate, taper-pointed, and rough, with stiff hairs. At this stage they would seem to be in their most decorative form, though their flowers, in a cut state, formed into "posies," are very beautiful and really charming when massed for table decoration; on the plant they have a faded appearance. Many of the species or varieties have but slight distinctions, though all are beautiful. A few may be briefly noticed otherwise than as above: _P. officinalis_ is British, and typical of several others. Flowers pink, turning to blue; leaves blotted. _P. off. alba_ differs only in the flowers being an unchanging white. _P. angustifolia_, also British, having, as its specific name implies, narrow leaves; flowers bright blue or violet. _P. mollis_, in several varieties, comes from North America; is distinct from its leaves being smaller, the markings or spots less distinct, and more thickly covered with _soft_ hairs, whence its name. _P. azurea_ has not only a well-marked leaf, but also a very bright and beautiful azure flower; it comes from Poland. _P. maculata_ has the most clearly and richly marked leaf, and perhaps the largest, that being the chief distinction. _P. saccharata_ is later; its flowers are pink, and not otherwise very distinct from some of the above kinds. It is not necessary to enumerate others, as the main points of difference are to be found in the above-mentioned kinds. All are very easily cultivated; any kind of soil will do for them, but they repay liberal treatment by the extra quality of their foliage. Their long and thick fleshy roots allow of their being transplanted at any time of the year. Large clumps, however, are better divided in early spring, even though they are then in flower. Flowering period, March to May. Puschkinia Scilloides. SCILLA-LIKE PUSCHKINIA, _or_ STRIPED SQUILL; _Syns._ P. LIBANOTICA, ADAMSIA SCILLOIDES; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. As all its names, common and botanical, denote, this charming bulbous plant is like the scillas; it may, therefore, be useful to point out the distinctions which divide them. They are (in the flowers) to be seen at a glance; within the spreading perianth there is a tubular crown or corona, having six lobes and a membranous fringe. This crown is connected at the base of the divisions of the perianth, which divisions do not go to the base of the flower, but form what may be called an outer tube. In the scilla there is no corona, neither a tube, but the petal-like sepals or divisions of the perianth are entire, going to the base of the flower. There are other but less visible differences which need not be further gone into. Although there are but two or three known species of the genus, we have not only a confusion of names, but plants of another genus have been mistaken as belonging to this. Mr. Baker, of Kew, however, has put both the plants and names to their proper belongings, and we are no longer puzzled with a chionodoxa under the name of _Puschkinia_. This Lilywort came from Siberia in 1819, and was long considered a tender bulb in this climate, and even yet by many it is treated as such. With ordinary care--judicious planting--it not only proves hardy, but increases fast. Still, it is a rare plant, and very seldom seen, notwithstanding its great beauty. It was named by Adams, in honour of the Russian botanist, Count Puschkin, whence the two synonymous names _Puschkinia_ and _Adamsia_; there is also another name, specific, which, though still used, has become discarded by authorities, viz., _P. Libanotica_--this was supposed to be in reference to one of its habitats being on Mount Lebanon. During mild winters it flowers in March, and so delicately marked are its blossoms that one must always feel that its beauties are mainly lost from the proverbial harshness of the season. At the height of 4in. to 8in. the flowers are produced on slender bending scapes, the spikes of blossom are arranged one-sided; each flower is ½in. to nearly 1in. across, white, richly striped with pale blue down the centre, and on both sides of the petal-like divisions. The latter are of equal length, lance-shaped, and finely reflexed; there is a short tube, on the mouth of which is joined the smaller one of the corona. The latter is conspicuous from the reflexed condition of the limb of the perianth, and also from its lobes and membranous fringe being a soft lemon-yellow colour. The pedicels are slender and distant, causing the flower spikes, which are composed of four to eight flowers, to have a lax appearance. The leaves are few, 4in. to 6in. long, lance-shaped, concave, but flatter near the apex, of good substance and a dark green colour; bulb small. As already stated, a little care is needed in planting this choice bulbous subject. It enjoys a rich, but light soil. It does not so much matter whether it is loamy or of a vegetable nature if it is light and well drained; and, provided it is planted under such conditions and in full sunshine, it will both bloom well and increase. It may be propagated by division of the roots during late summer, when the tops have died off; but only tufts having a crowded appearance should be disturbed for an increase of stock. Flowering period, March to May. _P. s. compacta_ is a variety of the above, having a stronger habit and bolder flowers. The latter are more numerous, have shorter pedicels, and are compactly arranged in the spike--whence the name. Culture, propagation, and flowering time, same as last. Pyrethrum Uliginosum. MARSH FEVERFEW; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. A very bold and strong growing species, belonging to a numerous genus; it comes to us from Hungary, and has been grown more or less in English gardens a little over sixty years. It is a distinct species, its large flowers, the height to which it grows, and the strength of its willow-like stalks being its chief characteristics. Still, to anyone with but a slight knowledge of hardy plants, it asserts itself at once as a Pyrethrum. It is hardy, herbaceous, and perennial, and worth growing in every garden where there is room for large growing subjects. There is something about this plant when in flower which a bare description fails to explain; to do it justice it should be seen when in full bloom. Its flowers are large and ox-eye-daisy-like, having a white ray, with yellow centre, but the florets are larger in proportion to the disk; plain and quiet as the individual flowers appear, when seen in numbers (as they always may be seen on well-established specimens), they are strikingly beautiful, the blooms are more than 2in. across, and the mass comes level with the eye, for the stems are over 5ft. high, and though very stout, the branched stems which carry the flowers are slender and gracefully bending. The leaves are smooth, lance-shaped, and sharply toothed, fully 4in. long, and stalkless; they are irregularly but numerously disposed on the stout round stems, and of nearly uniform size and shape until the corymbose branches are reached, _i.e._, for 4ft. or 5ft. of their length; when the leaves are fully grown they reflex or hang down, and totally hide the stems. This habit, coupled with the graceful and nodding appearance of the large white flowers, renders this a pleasing subject, especially for situations where tall plants are required, such as near and in shrubberies. I grow but one strong specimen, and it looks well between two apple trees, but not over-shaded. The idea in planting it there was to obtain some protection from strong winds, and to avoid the labour and eyesore which staking would create. It likes a stiff loam, but is not particular as to soil if only it is somewhat damp. The flowers last three weeks; and in a cut state are also very effective; and, whether so appropriated or left on the plant, they will be found to be very enduring. When cutting these flowers, the whole corymb should be taken, as in this particular case we could not wish for a finer arrangement, and being contemporaneous with the Michaelmas daisy, the bloom branches of the two subjects form elegant and fashionable decorations for table or vase use. To propagate this plant, it is only needed to divide the roots in November, and plant in deeply-dug but damp soil. Flowering period, August to September. Ramondia Pyrenaica. _Syns._ CHAIXIA MYCONI _and_ VERBASCUM MYCONI; _Nat. Ord._ SOLANACEÆ. This is a very dwarf and beautiful alpine plant, from the Pyrenees, the one and only species of the genus. Although it is sometimes called a Verbascum or Mullien, it is widely distinct from all the plants of that family. To lovers of dwarf subjects this must be one of the most desirable; small as it is, it is full of character. The flowers, when held up to a good light, are seen to be downy and of ice-like transparency; they are of a delicate, pale, violet colour, and a little more than an inch in diameter, produced on stems 3in. to 4in. high, which are nearly red, and furnished with numerous hairs; otherwise the flower stems are nude, seldom more than two flowers, and oftener only one bloom is seen on a stem. The pedicels, which are about half-an-inch long, bend downwards, but the flowers, when fully expanded, rise a little; the calyx is green, downy, five-parted, the divisions being short and reflexed at their points; the corolla is rotate, flat, and, in the case of flowers several days old, thrown back; the petals are nearly round, slightly uneven, and waved at the edges, having minute protuberances at their base tipped with bright orange, shading to white; the seed organs are very prominent; stamens arrow-shaped; pistil more than twice the length of filaments and anthers combined, white, tipped with green. The leaves are arranged in very flat rosettes, the latter being from four to eight inches across. The foliage is entirely stemless, the nude flower stalks issuing from between the leaves, which are roundly toothed, evenly and deeply wrinkled, and elliptical in outline. Underneath, the ribs are very prominent, and the covering of hairs rather long, as are also those of the edges. On the upper surface the hairs are short and stiff. In the more moist interstices of rockwork, where, against and between large stones, its roots will be safe from drought, it will not only be a pleasing ornament, but will be likely to thrive and flower well. It is perfectly hardy, but there is one condition of our climate which tries it very much--the wet, and alternate frosts and thaws of winter. From its hairy character and flat form, the plant is scarcely ever dry, and rot sets in. This is more especially the case with specimens planted flat; it is therefore a great help against such climatic conditions to place the plants in rockwork, so that the rosettes are as nearly as possible at right angles with the ground level. Another interesting way to grow this lovely and valuable species is in pans or large pots, but this system requires some shelter in winter, as the plants will be flat. The advantages of this mode are that five or six specimens so grown are very effective. They can, from higher cultivation (by giving them richer soil, liquid manure, and by judicious confinement of their roots), be brought into a more floriferous condition, and when the flowers appear, they can be removed into some cool light situation, under cover, so that their beauties can be more enjoyed, and not be liable to damage by splashing, &c. Plants so grown should be potted in sandy peat, and a few pieces of sandstone placed over the roots, slightly cropping out of the surface; these will not only help to keep the roots from being droughted, but also bear up the rosetted leaves, and so allow a better circulation of air about the collars, that being the place where rot usually sets in. In the case of specimens which do not get proper treatment, or which have undergone a transplanting to their disadvantage, they will often remain perfectly dormant to all appearance for a year or more. Such plants should be moved into a moist fissure in rockwork, east aspect, and the soil should be of a peaty character. This may seem like coddling, and a slur on hardy plants. Here, however, we have a valuable subject, which does not find a home in this climate exactly so happy as its native habitat, but which, with a little care, can have things so adapted to its requirements as to be grown year after year in its finest form; such care is not likely to be withheld by the true lover of choice alpines. This somewhat slow-growing species may be propagated by division, but only perfectly healthy specimens should be selected for the purpose, early spring being the best time; by seed also it may be increased; the process, however, is slow, and the seedlings will be two years at least before they flower. Flowering period, May to July. Ranunculus Aconitifolius. ACONITE-LEAVED CROWFOOT, _or_ BACHELORS' BUTTONS; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. An herbaceous perennial, of the alpine parts of Europe, and for a long time cultivated in this country. It grows 1ft. high, is much branched in zigzag form, and produces numerous flowers, resembling those of the strawberry, but only about half the size; the leaves are finely cut and of a dark green colour; it is not a plant worth growing for its flowers, but the reason why I briefly speak of it here is that I may more properly introduce that grand old flower of which it is the parent, _R. a. fl.-pl._ (see Fig. 79), the true "English double white Crowfoote," or Bachelor's Buttons; these are the common names which Gerarde gives as borne by this plant nearly 300 years ago, and there can be no mistaking the plant, as he figures it in his "Historie of Plantes," p. 812; true, he gives it a different Latin name to the one it bears at the present time; still, it is the same plant, and his name for it (_R. albus multiflorus_) is strictly and correctly specific. Numerous flowers are called Bachelor's Buttons, including daisies, globe flowers, pyrethrums, and different kinds of ranunculi, but here we have the "original and true;" probably it originated in some ancient English garden, as Gerarde says, "It groweth in the gardens of herbarists & louers of strange plants, whereof we have good plentie, but it groweth not wild anywhere." [Illustration: FIG. 79. RANUNCULUS ACONIT FOLIUS FLORE-PLENO. (One-fourth natural size; _a_, natural size of flower.)] Its round smooth stems are stout, zigzag, and much branched, forming the plant into a neat compact bush, in size (of plants two or more years old) 2ft. high and 2ft. through. The flowers are white, and very double or full of petals, evenly and beautifully arranged, salver shape, forming a flower sometimes nearly an inch across; the purity of their whiteness is not marred by even an eye, and they are abundantly produced and for a long time in succession. The leaves are of a dark shining green colour, richly cut--as the specific name implies--after the style of the Aconites; the roots are fasciculate, long, and fleshy. This "old-fashioned" plant is now in great favour and much sought after; and no wonder, for its flowers are perfection, and the plant one of the most decorative and suitable for any position in the garden. In a cut state the flowers do excellent service. This subject is easily cultivated, but to have large specimens, with plenty of flowers, a deep, well enriched soil is indispensable; stagnant moisture should be avoided. Autumn is the best time to divide the roots. Flowering period, May to July. Ranunculus Acris Flore-pleno. DOUBLE ACRID CROWFOOT, YELLOW BACHELOR'S BUTTONS; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. The type of this is a common British plant, most nearly related to the field buttercup. I am not going to describe it, but mention it as I wish to introduce _R. acris fl.-pl._, sometimes called "yellow Bachelor's Buttons"--indeed, that is the correct common name for it, as used fully 300 years ago. In every way, with the exception of its fine double flowers, it resembles very much the tall meadow buttercup, so that it needs no further description; but, common as is its parentage, it is both a showy and useful border flower, and forms a capital companion to the double white Bachelor's Buttons (_R. aconitifolius fl.-pl._). Flowering period, April to June. Ranunculus Amplexicaulis. STEM-CLASPING RANUNCULUS; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. A very hardy subject; effective and beautiful. The form of this plant is exceedingly neat, and its attractiveness is further added to by its smooth and pale glaucous foliage. It was introduced into this country more than 200 years ago, from the Pyrenees. Still it is not generally grown, though at a first glance it asserts itself a plant of first-class merit (see Fig. 80). The shortest and, perhaps, best description of its flowers will be given when I say they are white _Buttercups_, produced on stout stems nearly a foot high, which are also furnished by entire stem-clasping leaves, whence its name; other leaves are of varying forms, mostly broadly lance-shaped, and some once-notched; those of the root are nearly spoon-shaped. The whole plant is very smooth and glaucous, also covered with a fine meal. As a plant, it is effective; but grown by the side of _R. montanus_ and the geums, which have flowers of similar shape, it is seen to more advantage. On rockwork, in leaf soil, it does remarkably well; in loam it seems somewhat stunted. Its flowers are very serviceable in a cut state, and they are produced in succession for three or four weeks on the same plant. It has large, fleshy, semi-tuberous roots, and many of them; so that at any time it may be transplanted. I have pulled even flowering plants to pieces, and the different parts, which, of course, had plenty of roots to them, still continued to bloom. [Illustration: FIG. 80. RANUNCULUS AMPLEXICAULIS. (One-fourth natural size.)] Flowering period, April and May. Ranunculus Speciosum. SHOWY CROWFOOT; _Nat. Ord._ RANUNCULACEÆ. This is another double yellow form of the Buttercup. It has only recently come into my possession. The blooms are very large and beautiful, double the size of _R. acris fl.-pl._, and a deeper yellow; the habit, too, is much more dwarf, the leaves larger, but similar in shape. Flowering period, April to June. All the foregoing Crowfoots are of the easiest culture, needing no particular treatment; but they like rich and deep soil. They may be increased by division at almost any time, the exceptions being when flowering or at a droughty season. Rudbeckia Californica. CALIFORNIAN CONE-FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This, in all its parts, is a very large and showy subject; the flowers are 3in. to 6in. across, in the style of the sunflower. It has not long been grown in English gardens, and came, as its name implies, from California: it is very suitable for association with old-fashioned flowers, being nearly related to the genus _Helianthus_, or sunflower. It is not only perfectly hardy in this climate, which is more than can be said of very many of the Californian species, but it grows rampantly and flowers well. It is all the more valuable as a flower from the fact that it comes into bloom several weeks earlier than most of the large yellow Composites. Having stated already the size of its flower, I need scarcely add that it is one of the showiest subjects in the garden; it is, however, as well to keep it in the background, not only on account of its tallness, but also because of its coarse abundant foliage. It grows 4ft. to 6ft. high, the stems being many-branched. The flowers have erect stout stalks, and vary in size from 3in. to 6in. across, being of a light but glistening yellow colour; the ray is somewhat unevenly formed, owing to the florets being of various sizes, sometimes slit at the points, lobed, notched, and bent; the disk is very bold, being nearly 2in. high, in the form of a cone, whence the name "cone flower." The fertile florets of the disk or cone are green, and produce an abundance of yellow pollen, but it is gradually developed, and forms a yellow ring round the dark green cone, which rises slowly to the top when the florets of the ray fall; from this it will be seen that the flowers last a long time. The leaves of the root are sometimes a foot in length and half as broad, being oval, pointed, and sometimes notched or lobed; also rough, from a covering of short stiff hairs, and having once-grooved stout stalks 9in. or more long; the leaves of the stems are much smaller, generally oval, but of very uneven form, bluntly pointed, distinctly toothed, and some of the teeth so large as to be more appropriately described as segments; the base abruptly narrows into a very short stalk. The flowers of this plant are sure to meet with much favour, especially while the present fashion continues; but apart from fashion, merely considered as a decorative subject for the garden, it is well worth a place. There are larger yellow Composites, but either they are much later, or they are not perennial species, and otherwise this one differs materially from them. I need not say anything respecting this form of flower in a cut state--its effectiveness is well known. If planted in ordinary garden loam it will hold its place and bloom freely year after year without further care. Smaller subjects should not be set too near it; it may be unadvisable to plant too many clumps in the same garden, but it can be allowed to spread into one bold patch. The best time to divide or transplant is in early spring, when growth is just pushing, for vigorous as this and many other perennials are, I have often found them to rot, when the dormant roots, after being cut into pieces, have had to face the winter. Flowering period, July to September. Rudbeckia Serotina. _Late_ CONE-FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This hardy American species, though not an old plant in English gardens, is nevertheless classed with "old-fashioned" plants and flowers; and certainly its sombre but pleasing dark golden ray flowers, together with its likeness to many of the old sunflowers, favours such classification. It is the latest of a late-flowering genus. It attains the height of 2ft.; the root leaves are of irregular shape, some oval and pointed, others, on the same plant, being lance-shaped, with two or three large teeth or acute lobes; in size the leaves also vary from 3in. to 8in. long, and being covered with short bristly hairs, they are very rough, also of a dull green colour; the flower stems have but few leaves, so it will be judged that the plant has but a weedy appearance, but this is compensated for by the rich and numerous large dark orange flowers, 3in. across; the ray is single, and the centre, which is large and prominent, is a rich chocolate brown. This subject, to be effective, should be grown in large specimens; mine is about 3ft. in diameter, and the level mass of flowers, as I have often noticed them in twilight, were grandly beautiful. I can well understand that many have not cared for this cone flower when they have judged it from a small plant which has sent up its first, and perhaps abnormal, bloom. It is especially a subject that should be seen in bold clumps, and in moderately rich soil it will soon become such. Moreover, the flowers are very effective in a cut state, when loosely arranged in vases, only needing something in the way of tall grasses to blend with in order to form an antique "posy." Autumn is the best time to plant it; its long roots denote that it enjoys deep soil, and, when planted, the roots of this, as well as all others then being transplanted, should be made firm, otherwise the frost will lift them out and the droughts will finish them off. Many plants are lost in this manner, and, indeed, many short-rooted kinds are scarcely saved by the greatest care. The stem-rooting character of this plant affords ready means of propagation by root divisions. Flowering period, from September till strong frosts. Salix Reticulata. WRINKLED _or_ NETTED WILLOW; _Nat. Ord._ SALICACEÆ. A native deciduous shrub, of creeping or prostrate habit, not growing higher than 2in. As the flowers are inconspicuous and only interesting to the botanist or when under the microscope, let me at once say I mention this subject because of its beautiful habit and distinct quality of foliage. When grown on rockwork, no other plant can compare with it, and where choice spring bulbs are planted, this handsome creeper may be allowed, without injury to such roots, to broadly establish itself; so grown, its little stout leaves, thickly produced, flatly on the surface, are much admired. The flowers or catkins stand well above the foliage, but are unattractive, being of a dusky brown colour; the leaves are dark green, downy, of much substance, 1½in. long, and nearly 1in. broad, but the size of foliage varies according to the conditions under which the specimens are grown; the sizes now referred to are of plants grown on rather dry rockwork and fully exposed; the form of the leaves is orbicular, obtuse, not in the least notched, bald, reticulately veined, and glaucous beneath; the stems are short and diffuse, and tinged with red on the younger parts. During winter, when bare of foliage, its thick creeping stems, covered with fat buds and interlaced in a pleasing manner, render it interesting in almost any situation not shaded. It forms a capital carpet plant from early spring to the end of summer. It is in no way particular as regards soil, and though it loves moisture, like most other willows, it proves thriving in dry places. It is, moreover, a good grower in large towns. Its propagation may be carried out before the leaves unfold in spring. Little branches with roots to them may be cut from the parent plant, and should be set in sandy loam and watered well to settle it about the roots. Flowering period, September to strong frosts. Sanguinaria Canadensis. BLOODROOT; _Nat. Ord._ PAPAVERACEÆ. This is a native of North America, and is, therefore, hardy in this climate; tuberous rooted. It is a curious plant, not only from its great fulness of sap or juice, which is red (that of the root being darker, whence its name Bloodroot), but also because of the shape of its leaves, their colour, and method of development (see Fig. 81). Though very dwarf, it is handsome and distinct. The flowers are pure white and nearly 2in. across; the petals have good substance, but they fall in five or six sunny days; the stamens are numerous and bright yellow. Though belonging to the order of the Poppy, it is in many respects unlike it; each flower stem, which is 6in. high, springs directly from the root, and only one flower is produced on a stem; the leaves are also radical, so that the plant is branchless and stemless; the leaf stalks are rather shorter than those of the flowers. The foliage is of a slate-grey colour, prominently veined on the under side, the upper surface being somewhat wrinkled; the leaves are 3in. across when fully developed, vine-leaf shaped, deeply and beautifully lobed; their development is slow, not being completed until the bloom is past. Both leaves and flowers are produced in a curious fashion; for a time the flower-bud is compactly enfolded by a leaf, and so both grow up to the height of 2in. or 3in., when the former pushes through, and soon swells its olive-shaped buds. At this stage a good specimen clump is very attractive, and is only more so when the fine blooms first open. [Illustration: FIG. 81. SANGUINARIA CANADENSIS. (One-half natural size.)] It should be grown amongst some such carpeting plants as _Sibthorpia Europæa_ or _Linaria pilosa_, so as to protect it; moreover, these creepers are suited for a similar soil and position. The soil should be light, either of sandy or vegetable character, but one that cannot bake; shade from the mid-day sun is essential, as also is plenty of moisture. When the growths have become crowded, as they do in about three years, it is as well to lift, divide, and replant at a distance of 3in.; this is best done after the tops have died off in summer; plant 4in. or 5in. deep. Flowering period, April and May. Saponaria Ocymoides. ROCK SOAPWORT, _or_ BASIL-LEAVED SOAPWORT: _Nat. Ord._ SILENACEÆ. A very hardy alpine from France, and one of the most floriferous subjects that can be placed on rockwork, where should be its position. During a single season it is no uncommon thing to see a small plant grow into a large cushion 2ft. in diameter, and only 6in. or 9in. high. In planting it this fact should not be overlooked, not only for the sake of giving it plenty of room, but also in order that less vigorous subjects near it may not become overgrown; it blooms all summer, and though the flowers are small and not at all bright, their numbers render it attractive. The flowers, which are about ½in. across, are of a pink colour, and produced on many-branched prostrate stems; the calyx is five-toothed; the corolla is formed of five flat petals; the leaves are small, basil-like, oval-lance shaped, entire and smooth; the general appearance of the plant when in bloom is that of a compact mass of small leaves and flowers, the latter predominating. It will grow in any kind of soil, but prefers that of a vegetable character, with its roots amongst large stones; but, strictly speaking, it needs nothing but an open situation and plenty of room to spread. It ripens an abundance of seed, and there is not a better mode of propagation than its own; hundreds of stout seedlings appear the following spring around the parent plant, and these may then be transplanted, and they will flower the same season. _S. o. splendens_ is a variety of the above very much improved indeed; and though one cannot discard the good old plant for its very recent offspring, the former is certainly very much eclipsed. _Splendens_ has foliage slightly different, but its flowers are much larger and brighter; and though it may not be quite so vigorous, in this case that may be considered an improvement. It is said to come true from seed. Flowering period, May to August. Saxifraga Burseriana. BURSER'S SAXIFRAGE; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A hardy evergreen alpine. A native of Carniola, not long discovered, and quite new to English gardens. Though it belongs to a very extensive genus, it is a distinct species; many of the Saxifrages are not so, neither are they sufficiently decorative to merit a place in any but large or scientific gardens. This one, however, is a truly handsome kind, and its flowers are produced amid the snow and during the bleak and dull weather of mid-winter. The plant in form is a dense cushion of little spiked rosettes, of a dark green colour, slightly silvered. The flowers are produced on bright ruddy stems 3in. high, and are creamy white, nearly the size of a sixpence. Small as the plant is, a moderate sized specimen is very attractive, especially before the flowers open, when they are in their prettiest form. They open slowly and endure nearly two months. It enjoys light soil and a well drained situation, such as the edge of a border, where strong growing kinds cannot damage it, or on rockwork, where it will be fully exposed to the sun. To be effective, it should be grown into strong clumps, which may easily be done by annually giving a top-dressing of leaf-mould; the older parts of the plant will remain perfectly sound and healthy for years. When it is desirable to propagate it, it may best be done in April, when the tufts should be carefully divided, and its short roots made firm in the soil by one or two stones being placed near. Flowering period, January to April. Saxifraga Cæsia. SILVER MOSS, _or_ GREY SAXIFRAGE; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. One of the alpine gems. This has been grown in English gardens since 1752, yet good specimens are rarely met with, though its culture is simple and easy. It is found wild on the Alps of Switzerland, Austria, and the Pyrenees. To the lover of the minute forms of genuine alpine plants, this will be a treasure; it is very distinct in form, habit, and colour. Its tiny rosettes of encrusted leaves can scarcely be said to rise from the ground, and the common name, "silver moss," which it is often called by, most fittingly applies; but perhaps its colour is the main feature of notice. The meaning of its specific name is grey, to which it certainly answers; but so peculiar is the greyness that a more definite description may be useful, in giving which I will quote that of Decandolle and Sprengle: "The _lavender_-blue is a pale blue (cæsius); it is mixed with a little grey." This exactly answers to the colour of the pretty Saxifrage under notice, and it is far from a common one in foliage. The flowers differ but slightly from those of other encrusted forms of the genus, but they are a creamy white, arranged in small panicles on short and slender stems. They are sparingly produced in May and June. The leaves are ¼in. long, aggregate or in miniature rosettes; in shape, linear-oblong, recurved, and keeled. The upper surface is concave, having marginal dots, evenly disposed; the dots are bright and excavated, and some of the leaves (those of the stems) are scale formed. The glaucous or lavender-blue colour is beautifully enlivened with the crystal dots. Its habit reminds one of the more distinct forms of lichens, and, when it is grown with suitable companions on rockwork, it has a happy way of showing and adapting itself in such situation; besides, its colour then shows with more effect. [Illustration: FIG. 82. SAXIFRAGA CÆSIA MAJOR. (1, single rosette, natural size.)] There is a variety of this species not yet in general cultivation, and it cannot be too strongly recommended to lovers of the finest forms of rock or alpine plants. It is called _S. c. major_ (see Fig. 82). The name at once suggests the main difference from the type, but there are other features quite as marked as that of its extra size in all its parts; the foliage is more crowded, which seems to cause the largest leaves to become more erect, and the habit, too, perhaps from the same cause, is ball shaped; the small rosettes of thick encrusted leaves, from the manner in which they are packed together, form a rigid mass, which differs widely both in detail and effect from any other Saxifrage I know. These dwarf subjects are best suited for rockwork; but another plan, now much practised, is to grow them in pots. This in no way implies that protection is given or needed--these sturdy subjects are far better fully exposed--but the pot system has advantages; when so planted, the roots are more likely to be placed in a better selected compost, and the specimens can be raised in order to examine their miniature beauties. The above kinds enjoy a gritty vegetable soil; perfect drainage is indispensable. These are not among the Saxifrages that are readily propagated; a few crowns or rosettes with short pieces of stem are not sure to root, and if more careful division is not carried out, perhaps but two or three growing bits from a large specimen may be the result, so lessening instead of increasing the stock. Before cutting let the roots be washed clear of soil, trace the long roots, and so cut up the plant that each division will have a share of them. Sometimes a rather large specimen will have but few of such roots, in which case it will prove the better and safer plan to make only a corresponding number of divisions, so making sure of each. A further help to such newly planted stock is gained by placing small stones about the collars; this keeps the plants moist and cool during the dry season, when (after flowering) the divisions should be made. Flowering period, May and June. Saxifraga Ceratophylla. HORN-LEAVED SAXIFRAGE; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. For the most part, this numerous genus flowers in spring and early summer, the species now under notice being one of the late bloomers; its flowers however, like most of the Saxifrages, are small and insignificant; on the other hand, its foliage, as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 83) is highly ornamental. In November, the grand half-globular tufts of rigid dark green foliage are delicately furnished with a whitish exudation, which, seen through a magnifying glass, resembles scales, but seen by the naked eye--and it can be clearly seen without stooping--it gives the idea of hoar frost. We have here, then, an interesting and ornamental subject, which, when grown in collections of considerable variety, proves attractive; and as even after many degrees of frost, it retains its beauty, and, I may add, its finest form, it may be confidently recommended as a suitable winter garden subject. This species proves evergreen in our climate, though a native of Spain, from which country it was imported about eighty years ago. It is sometimes called _S. cornutum_, a name quite applicable, and it is frequently confounded with _S. pentadactylis_ (the Five-fingered-leaved Saxifrage), which it much resembles, from which, however, it is distinct in several respects. [Illustration: FIG. 83. SAXIFRAGA CERATOPHYLLA. (Leaf, one-half natural size.)] Its flowers are small, white, and numerous, produced on slender stalks in summer; they are of the general type of the flowers of the mossy section, and need not be further described. The foliage forms rigid cushions, dense, rounded, and of a dark green colour in the early season; later it becomes grey, with an exudation; the leaves are arranged in rosette form, having stout stalks, channelled or folded on the upper surface; there are three deep divisions, and others less cut; the segments are subulate, bent back and tipped with horny mucrones, whence its specific name; these horn-like points are bent under, which, together with their transparency, renders them all but invisible; they can, however, be clearly seen if brought near the eye and looked for on the under side of the foliage. The leaves are of good substance, 1in. to 2in. long, having broad stipules; the stems are exceedingly slender in the older parts, and somewhat woody, having the appearance of being dried up and dead. On rockwork it is seen in its best form, as the slope not only shows it off better, but is conducive to a finer growth. In flat places, the dense cushions, which are 6in. or 8in. high, often rot from too much moisture. I have never seen this occur in the drier positions afforded by the slopes of a rockery. If planted between large stones it has a happy way of adapting itself to them, and few plants are more effective. It thrives equally well in soil of a loamy or vegetable character, but it seems to enjoy a little limestone, small pieces of which I place round the specimens; they also serve to hold up the lower foliage and favour the admission of air. Where alpines are grown in pots this should form one, as it makes a charming specimen; the drainage should be perfect. It also makes a capital edging plant, especially for raised beds, as then it is accommodated in the same way as on rockwork. It may be propagated by taking the slips nearest the earth, which will often be found to have a few rootlets, but if not they will still prove the more suitable; if taken in summer and dibbled into sand, they will make good roots in a week or two, when they may be transplanted to their permanent quarters, so as to become established before winter. Saxifraga Ciliata. HAIRY-MARGINED SAXIFRAGE; _Syn._ MEGASEA CILIATA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This is a peculiar, distinct, and beautiful form of Saxifrage; there seems, however, to be some confusion in reference to its nomenclature. That it belongs to the _Megasea_ section there can be little doubt, so that its synonym (_M. ciliata_) is fairly descriptive; but when it is said to be _identical_ with _S. ligulata_, also of the _Megasea_ section, the difficulty of recognising the form illustrated as such is very great indeed. It is also supposed to be a _variety_ of _S. ligulata_, and though it has many important dissimilarities, it has also many affinities. So much does it differ from _S. ligulata_ that it seems to be fully entitled to the specific honours which some authorities have given to it. It differs from _S. ligulata_, described by Don, in being rough and hairy on both sides of the leaves; in other respects it agrees, more especially in the colour of the flowers, which is uncommon. It may be the _Megasea ciliata_ of Haworth, which Don refers to under _S. ligulata_, or it may be a distinct form of the latter, as, on the authority of Dr. Wallich, of the Botanical Gardens of Calcutta, the species has varieties. Wherever its proper place may be in its numerous genus, the name at the head hereof is a good descriptive one. It is an Indian contribution, hailing from the mountains east of Bengal. In this climate it endures our winters, though it is not one of the hardiest of its tribe. It has not long been cultivated in this country, and is rarely met with. Its distinct habit and fine flowers render it desirable, and it will with many be more so on the score of its peculiarities. A few of the latter may be mentioned here. Anthers very large, and brick-red before becoming pollenized; scapes and scape-sheaths nearly smooth, though all other foliar parts are hairy; stipules very large and fully developed whilst the leaves are in their rudimentary stage. When not in flower the plant has a strong resemblance to _S. sarmentosa_, which belongs to another section, but _S. ciliata_ has features belonging to both sections. The habit, however, is more flat, and leaves more oval, and if, as has been hinted, this is a hybrid, it may not be without some relationship to that species, which is also of Asian origin. Further, on the authority of Murray, _Sax. sarmentosa_ is identical with _S. ligulata_; so that, if we may suppose _S. ciliata_ to be a distinct variety of _S. ligulata_, and the latter to have such affinity to _S. sarmentosa_ that Murray puts it as identical, the chief difference between our subject and the form generally accepted as _S. ligulata_ is accounted for, viz., the hairy and rougher surfaces of the leaves, which are traits of the well-known _S. sarmentosa_. If these remarks prove nothing, they may serve to show the difficulty of recognising the various forms and species of so popular a genus from reading alone, it having been so extensively treated of, and the classifications being so varied. Its study, when the species are being cultivated, is simply delightful, compared with the confusion of book study alone; and yet it is no uncommon thing, when forming a collection of Saxifrages, to receive three or four different forms from different sources under the same name, and each perhaps more or less authorised. The student by growing this genus of plants will reap other pleasures than that of identification, and in a few years time will find in his own garden (as the outcome of growing allied species) new forms springing from seed, and scattered about the beds and walks in a pleasing and suggestive manner. (See Fig. 84.) [Illustration: FIG. 84. SAXIFRAGA CILIATA. (One-fourth natural size; (1) two-thirds natural size.)] The present subject has bell-shaped flowers, arranged in short-branched panicles, each flower ¾in. across, and sometimes, when well expanded, quite an inch; the colour is a delicate pink-tinted white; petals obovate and concave, inserted in the calyx, clawed, sometimes notched and even lobed; stamens long as petals, inserted in throat of calyx, stout, green changing to pink; anthers large and brick red when young; styles massive, joining close together, turgid, nearly long as stamens, and pale green; stigmas, simple, beardless, turning to a red colour; calyx bell-shaped, five-parted, wrinkled; segments slightly reflexed and conniving or joining; scapes 4in. to 6in. high, stout and smooth, excepting solitary hairs; bracts, leaf-like; leaves oval or cordate, 2in. to 4in. long, wrinkled, slightly waved, and toothed, conspicuously ciliated or haired on the margin, whence the specific name "_ciliata_." Both surfaces are also furnished with short stiff hairs, the whole leaf being stout and flatly arranged; leaf stalks short, thick, and furnished with numerous long hairs, and ample stipules, which are glabrous, but beautifully ciliated. Roots, woody, and slightly creeping on the surface. Habit of foliage reflexing, forming flat masses; smaller or supplementary scapes are sent up later than the main scape, from the midst of the stipules, bearing flowers in ones and twos. The blossom, which is effective and very beautiful, is also sweetly scented, like the hawthorn. As already hinted, this is not one of the most hardy Saxifrages, but I have twice wintered it out on gritty beds, well raised, also on rockwork, under a warm south wall; and, as such positions can be found or made in most gardens, it would be advisable to try and establish this distinct and lovely spring bloomer. Lime and sandstone grit mixed with loam and leaf soil I find to be the best compost I have yet tried for it; in fact, until a dry situation and a little lime were given, it proved a shy bloomer. It is now quite the reverse, notwithstanding that the roots were divided during the previous autumn. Fogs and rain are its greatest plagues, owing to its hairy nature; the glass and wire shelters should be used for this most deserving subject. Propagated by division of the woody semi-creeping roots during early autumn; each division should have a crown and some roots, when they may be planted in their permanent quarters. Flowering period, March to May. Saxifraga (Megasea) Cordifolia. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A first-class herbaceous perennial, grown for over a hundred years in English gardens; it comes from Siberia, and consequently, it is very hardy in this climate. The _Megasea_ section of the Saxifraga is a very distinct genus; there are several forms with but slight distinctions in the section, but the species now under notice may be readily distinguished from its nearest known relatives, first by its extra size in all its parts, next by its wrinkled heart-shaped leaves. The flowers are produced on stout stems nearly a foot high, a section of which will cut the size of a sixpenny piece; the rose-coloured flowers are perfectly developed before they push through the many-times over-lapped foliage; they are neatly arranged, the branching stems sometimes giving the panicle of blossom the form and also the size of a moderate bunch of grapes. Just at this stage the flowers, to be most enjoyed, should be cut before the weather spoils their delicate colour. The fine pale green calyx, which is also conspicuous by its handsome form and extra length, is far from the least important feature of this flower, especially at the above-mentioned stage. The leaves are 6in. to 10in. across. Of the use of its flowers in a cut state, a few words may be said. The weather soon destroys their beauty, but when cut they may be preserved for fully a fortnight. On one occasion I took a blossom and placed it in a flower stand for single specimen blooms; in this instance all the other glasses held such fine roses as Baroness Rothschild, Madame Lacharme, and Edouard Morren, but so richly did it compare with these roses that it was given the place of honour--the top centre glass; this flower I should say had never seen the full light in the open. After that others pushed out of the leaves and were speedily damaged, and not fit to cut. Flowering period, March to May. Saxifraga Coriophylla. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This is a rather recently discovered alpine species, very dwarf, but beautiful. The specific name would appear to be in allusion to its flowers as pink-shaped; they are very small, but the reader, by referring to the cut (Fig. 85), may form his own opinion of such likeness; however well founded or otherwise the name may be, we have in this subject a gem for the rock garden. It is a native of Albania, and belongs to that section of its extensive genus having triquetrous and obtuse leaves, or blunt three-sided foliage, as formed by a well developed keel. It is in flower in the middle of March, at the height of 2in. All its parts are of miniature dimensions, and yet when grown in a suitable position it is effective. [Illustration: FIG. 85. SAXIFRAGA CORIOPHYLLA. (One-half natural size.)] The flowers are pure white, produced on leafy stems an inch or more high; they are few, and open in succession; petals round and overlapping; calyx large for the size of flower, and covered with down; sepals obtuse and tipped with a brown, almost red-tint; stamens short, having rather large yellow anthers, which fill the throat of the corolla. The leaves are evergreen or silvery grey, arranged in small rosettes, and ¼in. long, of good substance, rigid and smooth; their shape is obtuse, concave, and keeled; they are furnished with marginal excavations, which present themselves as dots; the habit is compact, the rosettes being crowded and forming cushioned-shaped specimens; the flowers last for a fortnight in average weather. Between large stones in vegetable mould and grit, it both thrives and shows to advantage; it is also a charming subject for the pot culture of alpines. In company with the red-stalked and white-flowered _S. Burseriana_, the purple _S. oppositifolia_, and the many other forms of the mossy section, all, or nearly all in bloom about the same time, it offers a pleasing variety, as being distinct in every way from its contemporaries, more especially in the foliage. It is rather a slow grower, and not so readily increased as most Saxifrages; it is greatly benefited by having pebbles or small stones about the collar. These keep it moist at the roots during the growing season. If a little dry cow manure or guano is dusted amongst the stones during early summer, the results will soon be seen; such growth, however, should not be stimulated during the latter half of the year, or from its want of ripeness it will be liable to damage during winter. This practice of top dressing greatly assists the parts touching the earth to root, and so either an increased stock or larger specimens may sooner be obtained. Flowering period, March. Saxifraga Fortunei. FORTUNE'S SAXIFRAGE; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This, as may at once be seen by a glance at Fig. 86, belongs to the lobed-leafed section. It is as yet new in English gardens, and is often grown in pots in warm glasshouses. It is, however, perfectly hardy, having stood out with me in the open for the past three years. It is nearly related to _S. japonica_ and its varieties, but is without the stolons or runners. In this climate, with outdoor treatment, it flowers in October until cut down by frost, which sometimes happens before the flowers get well out. It has been stated not only that it is not hardy, but that its flowering period is May. With me it has proved otherwise, and others have proved it to flower naturally in October. I also observed it in bloom in the Hull Botanic Gardens on the open rockwork in November, 1882. I have no doubt that autumn is the natural season for well-established plants to flower; weaker specimens may fail to push forth ere the frost cuts down their leaves, when the dormant buds must remain sealed for the winter, but ready to develope with the return of longer and warmer days. The flowers are arranged in panicles on scapes nearly a foot high, the panicles being 6in. long and 3in. in diameter. The petals are long and narrow, of uneven length, and notched; colour pure white. The calyx is well developed; segments oval, notched at the ends; colour, pale apple green. Stamens, long and tipped with beautifully orange-coloured anthers. The ovary is prominent, and of a pale yellow. Besides the above features, the flowers, which mostly look sideways and are quite an inch across their broadest parts, have one very long petal at the low side, and the two next are at right angles with it, less than half its size, the two upper ones being still less; the effect is both unusual and pleasing. The leaf stalks are long, stout, and of a succulent nature, semi-transparent, and slightly furnished with longish hairs; the stipules are ample, and of a bright red, which colour extends for a short length up the stalk. The leaves are kidney-shaped, 2in. to 5in. across, eight or ten lobed, toothed and reflexed; they are furnished with solitary stiff hairs, are of good substance, and a very dark green colour, but herbaceous. The habit of this species is neat and very floriferous; therefore it is a valuable plant for in or outdoor gardening; but owing to its late season of flowering outside, the blossom is liable to injury. A bell glass, however, will meet the case; it should be placed over the plant, but tilted slightly, when there are signs of frost--the flowers will amply reward such care. If the bloom can be cut clean, a good cluster will vie with many orchids for delicacy and effect. [Illustration: FIG. 86. SAXIFRAGA FORTUNEI. (One-fifth natural size; 1 and 2, full size.)] I find it to do well in fat loam, and with the same kind of soil in pots, which comes in for placing in cold frames when frost threatens. I find it one of the easiest plants possible to manage--in fact, it needs no care to grow it; still, many amateurs fail to keep it, I suppose from taking it into a warm greenhouse, where it is sure to dwindle. It is readily propagated by division of the crowns, which should be done in spring. Flowering period, October until strong frosts. Saxifraga (Megasea) Ligulata. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. One of the large-leaved species (see Fig. 87) compared with others of the _Megasea_ section, its leaves are strap-like, as implied by the specific name. It is sometimes called _Megasea ciliata_, but there is a large-leaved species, commonly called _S. ciliata_, which is very distinct from this one, and it is all the more important that they should not be confounded with each other, as _S. ciliata_ is not very hardy, whilst this is perfectly so, being also one of our finest herbaceous perennials. It comes to us from Nepaul, and has not long been cultivated in this country. [Illustration: FIG. 87. SAXIFRAGA (MEGASEA) LIGULATA.] Its flowers are produced numerously on bold stout stems 10in. high. Sometimes the flower-stem is branched. The pale but clear rosy flowers are not only showy, but very enduring, lasting several weeks. The leaves are six to ten inches long, of irregular form, but handsomely ribbed and wavy; the new growths are bright yellowish-green, and tinted from the edges with a reddish bronze, so that, during spring, besides being finely in flower, it is otherwise a pleasing plant to look upon. Moreover, it is one of the few bold kinds of plants which flower so early and therefore a most valuable subject for the spring flower-beds. It looks well in any position, either near or back from the walks, in shrubs, or as a centre specimen for beds; it is also a plant that may be moved easily, as it carries plenty of root and earth, consequently it may be used in such designs as necessitate frequent transplantings. It is not particular as to soil or position, but in light earth, well enriched with stable manure, I have found it to thrive, so as to be equal to many of the so-called "fine foliage" plants during summer; therefore, I should say, give it rich food. To propagate it, a strong specimen with branched crowns should be selected. These branches or stems are ½in. to 1in. thick. They should be cut off with as much length as possible; if they have a bit of root, all the better; if not, it does not much matter. Let the cut end dry for a little time, take off half, or even the whole, of the largest leaves, or the action of the wind will prevent their remaining firm. When so prepared, the cuttings may be deeply planted in sandy loam, which has previously been deeply stirred. This may be done as soon as the flowers are past, and by the end of the year the cuttings should be well rooted and suitable for moving into the ornamental part of the garden. Flowering period, March to May. Saxifraga Longifolia. LONG-LEAVED SAXIFRAGE; QUEEN OF SAXIFRAGES; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. Numerous and beautiful as are the species and varieties of this genus, this is the most admired of them all, from which fact it derives its proud name of "Queen." It is of recent introduction; habitat, the Pyrenees; but though of alpine origin, it thrives in lower, I may say the lowest, situations even in our wet climate. As will be seen by the illustration (Fig. 88), it belongs to the rosette section, and may indeed be said, for size and symmetry, to head the list. There are many forms of it, differing more or less in shape of leaves, colour, habit, and size of rosette. The original or reputed type is but an indifferent form compared with the one now generally accepted as the representative of the species. So readily do the various Saxifrages become crossed, that it is hard to distinguish them; and when a distinct form is evolved the question occurs, What constitutes or entitles it to specific honours? Surely the form of which we are speaking must be fully entitled to a name all its own, as it is not possible to find another Saxifrage that can so widely contrast with the whole genus. It may be as well, in a few words, to refer to one or two varieties; and it shall only be from an amateur's point of view, whose estimate of their worth or importance is based entirely on their ornamental qualities under cultivation. Such varieties, as far as I know, have not had any name given them, descriptive or otherwise, and I for one have no desire to see any, as the genus is already overloaded with names. [Illustration: FIG. 88. SAXIFRAGA LONGIFOLIA. (One-fourth natural size.)] There is, first, a form whose main distinction is its dark olive-green leaves; the ends are rather inclined to be spathulate, they are long, narrow, and arch well, rather nearer the centre of the rosette; this causes the end of the outer circle of leaves to come flat on the ground. The whole specimen has a sombre appearance compared with the more silvery kinds. The second form has broader leaves, is more distinctly toothed and spotted; as a consequence of their width, the leaves are fewer, and though all the varieties are very formal, this is the most so. When by the side of what we may term the true form, which has sometimes _vera_ added to its name, this one has a plain and somewhat "dumpy" appearance, and frequently the tips of the leaves curl back, which further detracts from its ornamental quality. A third form has small rosettes, pale green foliage, indistinct silvery dots, and, worse than all, the habit of throwing out a progeny of young growths all round the collar, furnishing itself as with a ruff, when the parent rosette turns to a yellowish-green. Of all the forms this is the most constant bloomer. The favourite variety, to which an engraving can do but scant justice, is superior to the above kinds in all its parts. Its blooming period is in early summer, but specimens often grow in size and beauty for three or five years without producing flowers. The foliage is the more admired feature, and is at its greatest beauty in December. The flowers are borne in handsome panicles, in the style of those of _S. pyramidalis_, which are about 18in. high. The blossom is of the kind common to this section. The leaves are long, narrow, toothed bluntly, and spotted with silvery dots; the whole leaf is greyish; the habit is rigid and of even arrangement; the rosettes are of all sizes, from 2in. to 10in. in diameter. At 3in. to 6in. they are attractive, and as they grow larger, they become conspicuous in their beauty. It is not desirable to have them flower, inasmuch as the rosettes are then destroyed, though the plants do not die. Of course, if a specimen "shows bloom" it cannot be helped, but rather than lose a season's produce of young stock I would nip out the "lead," and so cause offsets to be produced instead of flowers. In the rock garden this is one of the most telling subjects that can be introduced; not only does it love to have its roots amongst the stones, but it is a form which harmonises and yet contrasts finely with such shapeless material, and, further, relieves the sameness of verdure of other plants in a more than ordinary degree. It will grow in borders or beds, but looks nowhere so well as on rockwork. True, its uses are limited, but then they are exceedingly effective. I have grown this subject in almost every kind of soil and compost, and it has done well in most; stiff clay-like loam appears too cold or wet for it; on the other hand, a sandy loam, mixed with leaf soil, grows it finely; perfect drainage is the desideratum, in no matter what position it is planted. It may be increased in various ways--1st, By seeds, which may be bought, as it is carefully harvested abroad; 2nd, from offsets, as already stated; and, 3rd, from offsets produced by cutting out the leaves in two or more parts, so as to let the light in at the collar. This method may seem heartless, and it certainly spoils the specimen; it is a mode to be followed only where there are spare old plants and young stock is needed. Flowering period, June and July. Saxifraga Macnabiana. MACNAB'S SAXIFRAGA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This is a new and very beautiful variety, called after Mr. MacNab, who raised it in 1877. Of the several hundreds of species and varieties of this genus, it is doubtless one of the best and most distinct as regards its habit and rich flowers. So pronounced are its merit that, although I have not grown it for more than four years or so, I can have no hesitation in sounding its praise. It is possible that when it has become better established in the collections of amateurs and others, and when it has regained what may be termed its natural vigour, lost by the too rapid propagation common to new plants, it may prove to be even better than I have yet proved it. However that may be, there can at present be only one opinion respecting it. The rosette foliage is in the style of _S. longifolia_ and _S. pyramidalis_, intermediate; the flowers are quite distinct, but they remind one of the charming _S. mutata_, which is also a rosette form, having a fine panicle of blossom. It is said to be a seedling from _S. Nepalensis_ crossed by _S. cotyledon_ or _S. pyramidalis_, but, as the cross was accidental, there must be some uncertainty; both parents are evidently incrusted forms. The flowers are ½in. across, corolla flat, petals richly spotted with numerous bright red spots; they are much shorter than the petals of most of the other incrusted varieties; they are also slightly reflexed in the more matured flowers; the calyx, too, is less hairy and the segments shorter than those of its reputed parents. The stem of my tallest specimen is not more than 15in. high; the panicle is large, beginning about four inches above the rosette. It is well branched, the flowers being clustered at the ends of the branchlets. The whole panicle will be about 10in. long and 6in. or 8in. through. As regards the foliage, I only need add to what has already been stated, that the leaves are arranged in somewhat lax rosettes, are strap, or tongue-shaped, evenly serrated, and, in the winter bright at the edges, with frosted or silvery markings; the flowers are so very attractive that casual observers readily recognise their beauties amongst hundreds of other Saxifrages, and they have not inaptly been compared with fine old china. I ought not to omit mention of that rare quality possessed by this Saxifrage, viz., a rich perfume. Though it is perfectly hardy, it may be grown in pots with great advantage, as then it can be the more closely examined; but if it is not convenient to grow it in that manner, it may be planted either on rockwork or in borders amongst choice things, where its flowers will not fail to command admiring notice. As to the kind of soil, it seems in no way particular. Sandy loam, mixed with peat, however, suits it well. It is propagated by offsets, but these are rarely produced in numbers, as is common with most of the incrusted Saxifrages. I may say that I have only met with one specimen which has thus proved useful in any degree worth notice, and it produced nearly a score of offsets during one season; it ripens much seed, which may, or may not come true. Flowering period, June and July. Saxifraga Mutata. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A somewhat rare alpine species, evergreen, hardy, very distinct and beautiful. It is one of the rosette forms, after the style of _S. pyramidalis_, but there are several important variations about the plant, other than in the flowers, which are totally different. There are many peculiarities about this species, but they would hardly require to be noticed here were not the plant otherwise of great merit. When in bloom it is highly decorative, and the flowers in a cut state are unique. The flower stem is 12in. to 18in. high, furnished with supplementary ones all its length; the lower ones are 8in. long, and spreading; they become shorter as they near the top, the whole forming a fine symmetrical panicle. The flowers are over ½in. across, petals awl-shaped, and, when first open, are nearly red; they change to dark orange and again to pale yellow; the calyx is very large, the sepals four times as broad as the petals and bluntly pointed; the stamens and anthers are coloured, and change like the petals; the ovary, which is very conspicuous, is a fine purple, but later, it, too, changes to a pink colour; the outer parts of the calyx and all the shorter flower-stalks, which are clustered at the ends of the supplementary stems, are greenish-yellow, and this feature of the plant adds much to its beauty. Calyx, stems, and stem-leaves are densely furnished with stiff gland-tipped hairs, rendering them clammy to the touch. The leaves of the rosettes are tongue-shaped, rough at the edges, fleshy, covered with glandular hairs, of a shining green colour, and slightly reflexed. The changeable nature of the flowers doubtless gives rise to the specific name. A well-flowered specimen is very effective on rockwork, but the panicles have a fault of heading over, from their weight, and also because, unlike _S. longifolia_ and _S. cotyledon_, which have large and firm rosettes close to the ground to stay them, this species has a somewhat "leggy" rosette or a foot stalk, which is more or less furnished with browned and very persistent foliage. The flowers last a long time in good form, and, if grown clean, their yellow--nearly golden--stalks render them very useful in a cut state. The propagation of this Saxifraga is more difficult than any other according to my experience, and I have heard of many who have found it the same. The offsets are not produced close to the ground, consequently have no rootlets; neither, from their hairy character, can they resist rot from moisture so well when planted as if they were bald, like the stolons of other species. I have found the best plan to be as follows: Take offsets before the plants flower; if there are none, which will often be the case, the bloom must be sacrificed by pinching out the stem. As soon as there are nice sized shoots ready, cut them off with all possible length of stalk; prepare a sandy patch of soil in a warm situation, lay them in a row on the surface, heads to the north, and then place a brick on them so as to hold all the cuttings in position; gently press on the brick, to cause the cuttings to assume a more natural position, and they will need no other attention until they become rooted; the brick will act as a screen from the hot sunshine, absorbing the heat to the benefit of the cuttings, as it will also absorb superfluous moisture. During the summer I have rooted many offsets in this way. That contact with the brick is favourable to the roots is evidenced by their clinging to it; no water should be given, however droughty the season may be--excessive moisture is the main thing to guard against. Flowering period, June to August. Saxifraga Oppositifolia (_Lin._) PURPLE MOUNTAIN SAXIFRAGE, PURPLE SAXIFRAGE, BLUE SAXIFRAGE, OPPOSITE-LEAVED SAXIFRAGE; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. During the month of March this is one of the most effective flowers in our gardens. The mossy appearance of its foliage, when dotted with its large blossoms, is hardly less beautiful than when the whole broad spreading tufts are literally packed with them. This must be a dear flower to all lovers of our native flora, for it not only comes very early, and in its wild homes on the Ingleborough, Welsh, and Scottish hills, greets and gladdens the rambler, who is, perhaps, making his first excursion of the year, but it is one of our most striking and beautiful flowers, even though they are produced on a plant of such humble size and habit. The pleasing and descriptive names of this gem of our hills would form a chapter in themselves. Even the old Latin names by which it was known, before the time when Linnæus arranged and re-named most of our native plants, bespeak a desire to do justice to a flower of more than ordinary beauty; and, as they were so strictly descriptive, at least one, I think, may be given without trying the reader's patience: _Saxifraga alpina ericoides flore cæruleo_, or the Blue-flowered Erica-like Mountain Saxifrage. Doubtless, shorter names are more convenient, but such specific names as the one just given are not entirely useless. Its present botanical name is in reference to the foliage only, but otherwise so distinct is this plant either in or out of bloom that no one could well mistake it. The flowers are ½in. to ¾in. across, produced terminally and singly on short procumbent stems. They are of a bright purple colour; petals ovate; the longish stamens carry bold anthers furnished with dark orange-coloured pollen, which forms a pretty feature. The leaves are small, crowded, opposite, ovate, entire, leathery, fringed or ciliated, and retuse. A peculiar feature about this species is the pore at the blunt apex of each leaf. The habit is prostrate; the stems being long, tufted, or pendulous, according to the situation; the flower shoots are upright, on which the leaves are more remote. Under cultivation newly planted roots will be found not only to flower sparingly, but the blooms will be rather small until the plant grows large and strong. On rockwork, with its roots near or between large stones, is in every way the best place for it; it however, thrives in the borders. The soil is not of much importance, but without doubt it does best in a compost of the nature of that of its wild homes. The humus and grit may be represented by sand and small stones, and peat or leaf soil, all mixed with loam. This, let me here state, will be found generally the right stuff for alpines and rockery plants. This plant is useful as a spring bedder, or for carpeting bare places; and any conspicuous part of the garden needing bright objects during March and April should give room largely for this cheerful subject. The bloom is very lasting; no storm seems to do it any hurt, and in every way it is reliable. It may be readily propagated by divisions. The procumbent stems will, in strong patches, be found to supply rootlets in abundance. These may be transplanted at almost any time of the year. Flowering period, March and April. _S. opp. alba_ is a white flowered variety of the above. It is not found wild. Other dissimilarities are the smaller parts throughout the whole plant, and the less straggling habit. The white petals show up the dark orange anthers finely. There are other varieties of the above type, but their points of difference are so slight as not to need description for garden uses. It may, however, be useful to give their names: _S. opp. major_, _S. opp. pyrenaica_, _S. opp. retusa_, _S. opp. pallida_. All the above varieties may be grown like the common form; their uses, propagation, and blooming period are the same, with the exception of _pyrenaica_, which not only flowers a little later, but is less rampant, and not nearly so easy to propagate. I have imagined that a little limestone has helped it, bits of which are placed over its roots. Saxifraga Paradoxa. PARADOXICAL SAXIFRAGE; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 89. SAXIFRAGA PARADOXA. (Two-thirds natural size.)] One of the less known and, perhaps, somewhat rare saxifrages; it is a curious, distinct, and beautiful form, being of that class which the lover of the ornamental kinds most admires, for not only is it attractive all the year round, but additionally so when there cannot be seen any part of a growing or decaying flower stem upon it, and when its silvery, but lax rosettes, with their encrustments and glistening leaf dots, are perfectly matured, which is the case during mid-winter. I fear the illustration (Fig. 89), can give but a poor idea of the pleasing silvery-grey colour, which, when the specimen is dry, overlays foliage of a dark and glossy green, to say nothing of the numerous and regular spots which so charmingly enliven the specimens. I am unable to learn to what species it is most nearly related; its name, which doubtless has reference to its peculiar form and habit, would seem to isolate it even from its parents, if such are known; it, however, belongs to that section having thick leathery leaves, ligulate, encrusted, arranged in rosette form, and having excavated dots. _Saxifraga lingulata_, _S. crustata_, _S. Australis_, _S. longifolia_, and _S. carinthiaca_ belong to the same section; but _S. paradoxa_ differs much in general appearance from them all, and remarkably so in one or two respects, as, indeed, it does from the whole genus, thus justifying its name. The uneven length and arrangement of leaves, the casting off of the encrustments as a skin or in flakes, exposing to view a finely-polished surface, and the general web-like appearance of the tufts, are all peculiar to it. Of all the varieties of its section it most resembles _S. carinthiaca_ and _S. Australis_; these forms, however, grow in compact rosette form, having leaves of more even size and shape. Our subject is irregular in every way, many of the leaves pushing out to double the length of others, and becoming attenuated at their junction, or club-shaped. Its flowers are insignificant and similar to those of _S. Aizoon_, but more dwarf in the stem. The leaves are ½in. to 3in. long, very narrow and tongue-shaped, sometimes obtuse and club-shaped; stout, dark green, with a greyish crust-like covering, and deeply dotted with bright spots. The leaves are arranged in lax rosettes and are reflexed or pressed flat to the earth nearly all their length. The habit is very pretty in established and fair-sized specimens, which accommodate themselves to the form of surface, and the longer or erratic leaves become so interlaced with the other parts as to appear woven; this habit and the bright bead-like dots go to make the plant more than ordinarily attractive. It should be in every collection of choice Saxifrages; it is charming as a pot specimen, plunged and grown out of doors the year round. On rockwork it should have a place, too, among the gems, being a neat and slow grower; its position should be near dark-coloured stones, where it will prove most telling. In damp weather its silvery parts are obliterated, but a breeze of half-an-hour or a beam of sunshine soon brings it into full beauty again. Gritty peat and a little loam suits it well; I have it doing nicely in ordinary garden soil; but if the more carefully prepared composts are employed, the results well repay the pains so taken. Its propagation is easily carried out by root divisions; early spring is a good time for the operation. Flowering period, May and June. Saxifraga Pectinata. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This belongs to the encrusted section, being most distinctly toothed; from this it takes its name; the teeth are large for such small leaves. Specimens of this Saxifrage, though small, are exceedingly pretty. Excepting when there is fog or rain, it is nearly white; and the rosettes, of various sizes, from ¼in. to 1in. across, are not only neat in themselves, but are densely and pleasingly arranged in a hard flat mass. It is never more beautiful, not even in May and June, when it flowers, than in November, when the growth is both complete and ripened, and the scaly substance which is spread over the leaves and the silvery teeth combine to render it attractive. The flowers are of the usual form, and are produced on stems 4in. to 6in. high; they are white. The leaves seldom exceed ½in. in length and 1/8in. in width; they are spathulate in form, stout, and rigid. The rosettes are somewhat flattened and numerous, and give the idea of greenish-white flowers. _S. p. hybrida_ is a variety of the foregoing species, and without pretending to say what the type has been crossed with to produce this handsome form, I may, for the purpose of conveying an idea of what it is like, say that it approaches _S. aizoon_, which also flowers in May and June. In all its parts it is larger than the type; the leaves are greener and more strap-shaped, and are more erect, but not so rigid; the habit, too, differs--it forms more rounded tufts. In all these respects it will be seen to resemble _S. aizoon_. It is a lovely form; the sparkling teeth are relieved by the fine dark green ground of the foliage. These comb-leaved Saxifrages belong to the more neat and effective rock plants; the type, at least, is of alpine origin, and under cultivation it seems most happy amongst the stones. I have grown these kinds as pot specimens, on nearly flat beds, and as edging plants; and in every position they prove attractive. It is very strange that such pretty forms are not more generally seen in gardens; they will grow well on walls and the tops of outhouses, and are good subjects for town gardens. Any kind of sandy soil will do for them; that of a vegetable character is, however, the best; they may be planted with choicer things, for, unlike many of the genus, they are not rampant growers. Practically, they need no propagating; for as the specimens spread they make new roots, and at any time one or half a dozen rosettes may be slipped off for planting elsewhere. It is better, though, to avoid this with small plants, as their full beauty is not realised until they become of considerable size. Flowering period, May and June. Saxifraga Peltata. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A new species to English gardens, hardy, herbaceous, and perennial, imported from North America; it is a truly noble plant. The illustration (Fig. 90) will convey some idea of its fine form, but the reader must rely on the description for its size when fully developed. When the flowers of this Saxifrage are in their best form, the noble foliage is scarcely half developed; a drawing, therefore (though it could hardly be made at a stage when the plant is more interesting), must necessarily fail, in this case, to give any more than an approximate idea of the parts undeveloped. Not only is this the largest species of the extensive genus at present grown in this country, but its form is both distinct and noble. [Illustration: FIG. 90. SAXIFRAGA PELTATA. (1, Single blossom, natural size.)] The flowers are produced on stems 18in. high and ¾in. thick at the base, being covered with long stiff white hairs, which are very conspicuous on the reddish stems. The flowers are similar to those of most of the genus, as may be seen by the one given in the drawing; they are arranged in massive heads, 3in. to 6in. in diameter, and rose-coloured. The leaves at the flowering time are 6in. or 9in. across, having stout, round, ruddy stems, 8in. long, covered with stiff hairs; they form a junction with the leaves in an unusual way, viz., near the centre, whence the specific name _peltata_, or umbrella shape; but the form of the leaves at the flowering period, which is funnel-shape, is, a little later on, reversed, the edges bending downwards. The younger leaves are folded and hooked downward, having the appearance of stout fern fronds just out of the ground, and their stalks are much contorted. The more advanced leaves are seen to be seven-cut, each lobe divided and sub-divided by cuts less deep, the whole leaf being richly toothed and veined. The under side is covered with hairs, the upper surface being smooth, shining, and of a pleasing bronze-green colour. Later, the foliage in every way increases very much in size, reaching a height of 2ft., and each leaf measuring nearly a foot across. The root or rhizoma is horizontal, progressive, jointed, and fibrous at the joints, and nearly 2in. in diameter; it may be clearly traced on the surface, but the fibrous parts go very deep. It is said to be a bog subject; fortunately, however, this fine plant may be grown otherwise than in a bog, but it should not want for depth of rich soil. This I believe to be a more important condition than a boggy situation, inasmuch as I have grown my specimen for three years on the top of a dry mound; but the soil is good rich loam, and fully 5ft. deep; and to show that this strong-growing subject needs a good depth of soil, I may mention that I had occasion to dig up a piece, when it was found, for the operation, to require both the strength and tools that trees demand, the fibrous parts being deep and tough. When fairly established it makes rapid growth, and when in full leaf it proves very effective. Its propagation is easy with healthy plants; a length of the creeping root, with a crown to it, should be cut from the parent stock just before growth commences in early March. If planted as indicated in the foregoing remarks, and kept shaded with a leafy branch for a month or two, there need not be any fear about young plants becoming established the first season. Flowering period, June. Saxifraga Purpurascens. LARGE-LEAVED PURPLE SAXIFRAGA, MEGASEA _section_; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A rare plant of great beauty. It is figured here without flowers, as I consider it in finer form then than when in bloom. Fine as its flowers are, much resembling those of _S. cordifolia_ and _S. crassifolia_ (also of the _Megasea_ section); the brightness and colouring of its leaves in autumn are such as to render it distinct from all the other species. I need only ask the reader to note the fine foliage indicated in the cut (Fig. 91), and inform him that in the autumn it turns to a glossy vermilion colour, and I think he will admit that it will not come far short in beauty of any flower. The species is a recent introduction from the Himalayas, and in this climate proves all but evergreen (if tinted foliage can be so called) and hardy. The latter quality has been doubted by some, but by others re-asserted. My present specimen was planted in the open garden in the spring of 1880, since which time it has withstood 22deg. of frost. The flowers are produced on stout stems, 8in. high, arranged in branched heads, of a rose or rosy-purple colour, and bell-shaped. They are, however, soon damaged by unfavourable weather, and there is little about the plant at that period to render it more attractive than its fellows; its finer qualities are developed as more genial weather prevails. When the stout foliage grows glossy, waved, and of a deep clear green colour, the edges of the leaves become lined with red as if hemmed with red silk; the leaves also have the edges irregular in form, the outline broadly oval, 4in. to 6in. long, and they are veined and slightly wrinkled; during the autumn a yellow tint starts from the edge, and in time becomes a vermilion, which is all the more effective from the leaf being of leather-like substance. [Illustration: FIG. 91. SAXIFRAGA PURPURASCENS. (One-third natural size.)] It enjoys a deep rich loam; and, evidently, to place its roots in contact with pieces of limestone is beneficial. Rare as the plant is, this is all that I do for it, and not only does it remain healthy, but it has increased greatly in size during the last year. I have not as yet tried to propagate it, but so far as I can judge there will be no difficulty in forming young stock by root division. It has hitherto enjoyed a happy immunity from all garden pests, not excepting slugs. Flowering period, April to June. Saxifraga Pyramidalis. PYRAMIDAL SAXIFRAGA; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This is a very handsome form or variety of _S. Cotyledon_, and belongs to the alpine regions of Europe. As a decorative subject for our gardens, it is highly and deservedly esteemed; its attractiveness consists more in the numbers and arrangement of the flowers than in any beauty which belongs to them individually, though they are not devoid of that quality. Of the many hundreds of species and varieties of Saxifrages which bloom during the month of June, this is one of the most distinct and useful as a decorative flower, and where the Saxifrages are grown in large collections, as they often are, giving more than an ordinary amount of pleasure compared with collections of other genera, the kind now under consideration always asserts itself as one of the first order of merit. Not only in its blooming state, but all the year round, it is very effective and striking; it is a free grower, having handsome, large rosetted foliage. [Illustration: FIG. 92. SAXIFRAGA PYRAMIDALIS. (One-eighth natural size; 1, single blossom, natural size; 2, leaf, one-eighth natural size.)] The flowers, as will be seen by the one given, natural size, in the illustration (Fig. 92), are of the common Saxifrage form, but rather more highly coloured in the central markings than the general run. They are produced on stout stems, 2ft. high, well and evenly branched in the form of a pyramid, whence the specific name. Each flower will be ½in. or more across; they are very numerous, and, partly from the fact that they remain perfect for a very long while, and partly because of the habit of the plant being to open all its flowers about or near the same time, the large panicle of bloom is very fine. The leaves, as already hinted, are formed into lax rosettes, which are 5in. to 7in. across; they are strap-shaped, narrowing slightly at the connection, half an inch wide, the outer ones being reflexed; the edges are finely serrated, and irregularly lined with a silver colouring. This is a capital plant for rockwork, where it shows itself to much advantage; but specimens are much finer grown in beds or borders, where the moisture and temperature at the roots are likely to be more equable; besides, I find that, owing to its small quantity of roots, all of which are very near the surface, when grown on rockwork they may often be seen bare on inclined surfaces, and the weight of the flowers drags them entirely out of the soil on one side. They may be planted as an edging to a shrubbery, in bold groups, or as ordinary border flowers. So useful has this variety been found by professional gardeners that it is now largely grown in pots in single rosettes, which, after becoming well established, send up their rich plumes of blossom, all the finer for having been kept clean under glass. So grown, nothing can better repay the small amount of trouble which they give in order to place them in the conservatory as showy specimens; all they require being a 4in. pot, well drained, a compost of half-rotted leaves, and fat loam and sand. Put in one rooted offset any time from June to the end of July, the earlier the better; plunge the pot to its rim in sand or ashes until next spring, when it may be taken under glass if desired. To have fine flowers, the offsets should be pinched off as they appear. I may also mention that a somewhat shady situation has proved conducive to large and better coloured flowers; between irises 4ft. high and shrubs 6ft. high, the opening being not more than 3ft., running north and south. The specimen from which the drawing is taken was grown along with many others. A baking or dry treatment is often not only given to plants of this genus, but believed to be of advantage to them; it may be to some, but there are exceptions, and this is one without doubt. All the sections of Saxifraga to which it belongs are fond of good loam, well enriched. It is propagated from offsets taken as soon as they are from an inch to two inches across; they may either be put into nursery beds or be planted in their blooming quarters. Flowering period, June and July. Saxifraga Rocheliana. ROCHEL'S SAXIFRAGE; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. Another hardy evergreen species, distinct in form, foliage and flowers, and a native of the alpine regions of central Europe; it nevertheless thrives well in our climate with ordinary care. Its foliage takes the form of miniature rosettes, which are closely packed; the tiny leaves are distinctly and regularly dotted; and present a frosted appearance. The flowers are unimportant, though they form an interesting feature of such a choice and somewhat rare plant; they are small, white, and produced on stems 3in. to 4in. high, which are thick and curiously furnished with leaves. During summer this species has a very bright silvery appearance, as if laid on in patches. Similar treatment is required for this as for _S. Burseriana_, but it will be found much more difficult to propagate, as its roots are of the tap kind, and are more sparingly produced, while its seed seldom ripens, I believe, in this climate. To increase it, the better plan is to prepare the old plant by keeping it well earthed up, and so encouraging new roots; after a year's patience it may be divided in April. The small pieces should be secured by stones or verbena pins, and a supply of pebbles placed around them will keep them cool and moist during summer. Flowering period, March and April. Saxifraga Umbrosa. LONDON PRIDE; _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. This common flower is well known, and is only mentioned here as the typical form, and by way of introducing a beautiful variety called _S. u. variegata_, broad cushions of which, from their verdant condition, good habit, and pleasing variations of leaf colour, are amongst the more attractive objects of the garden in January. It hardly need be said that the plant is not valued for its flowers, which are similar to those of the parent form and borne at a corresponding date. The leaves, however, are much less in size and more flatly arranged in rosette form, they are also recurved at the edges. The markings are of two colours, creamy-white and pink, and there are many shades of green. The forms of the markings are most irregular, as striped, flecked, marbled, dotted, and edged; the various shades of green blended with pink and white, although figured on one of the commonest plants we know, render such plant worthy of a place in every garden, and more especially on rockwork. It has this drawback--it is not constant. In some gardens the markings die out. This, however, need not be, for a rather dry situation and rich soil will produce rosettes of large size and good figuring. Still, there will be fully half of the rosettes entirely green in a large patch; this is more desirable than otherwise. The marked ones have a more starry effect in such a green setting; it is only when all become green that disappointment is felt. Sometimes I have noticed rosettes, about the size of a penny-piece, all one colour--creamy-white--which, when cut from the plant, very much resembled a carnation. Such abnormal forms are of no moment to the botanist, but if nine out of every ten persons who see this plant are interested, not to say pleased with it, it ought not to be entirely neglected. It is most effective in patches 1ft. to 2ft. broad. In propagating it the more finely marked pieces only should be taken. Flowering period, May to July. Saxifraga Wallacei. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. A hardy perennial hybrid variety, of first-class merit. Its loose and spreading panicles of large pure white flowers are something better than the ordinary run of bloom belonging to this extensive genus; it is said to be the offspring of species of the mossy section; but there is certainly a great likeness about its foliage to some of the horny section, such as _S. cornutum_ or _S. pentadactylis_, or even the handsome _S. geranioides_. It would, however, be hard to say what it is from; but in it we have not only a showy but most useful variety (see Fig. 93). It has deservedly grown into great favour, though known to amateurs but for three years. It begins to flower in April, but in May it is in its best form, being covered with a rich mass of bloom from the foliage to the height of a foot. The flowers, as before stated, are of a pure white--an unusual colour amongst the genus; they are bell-shaped but erect, the ovate petals reverse. Well-grown specimens with me have flowers quite an inch across. The individual blooms last more than a week, and the succession is well maintained during summer. The panicles are leafy, having small entire leaves, and others once and twice-cut. The stems of the present season's growth are stout, semi-transparent, and ruddy; the leaves are palmate, slender at the bottom, mostly five-fingered, fleshy, and covered with long silky hairs which stand well off; the fine apple-green foliage is shown to great advantage by the ruddy stems. This plant may be grown in pots or borders, as edging, or on rockwork, and in any kind of soil; but to have fine specimens and large flowers it should be planted in calcareous loam, and be top dressed in early spring with well rotted manure. I have it as an edging to a small bed of roses; the position is bleak, but the soil is good; it furnishes large quantities of cut bloom, and otherwise, from its rich hawthorn-like scent, it proves a great treat. So freely is its handsome foliage produced that it, too, may be cut in quantities for table decoration. If the flowers, or some of them, be left on, the tufts will form a pretty setting for a few other small flowers of decided colours. [Illustration: FIG. 93. SAXIFRAGA WALLACEI. (One-half natural size.)] To increase this Saxifrage is a simple matter during the warm season: The twiggy tufts should be pulled asunder, no matter whether they have roots or no roots; if dibbled into fine soil, deeply dug, and shaded for a week or two, they will form strong plants before the winter sets in. Flowering period, April to August. Scilla Campanulata. BELL-FLOWERED SCILLA _or_ BLUEBELL; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. A hardy bulbous perennial, introduced from Spain 200 years ago. It very much resembles the English hyacinth--_H. nutans_, or _Scilla non-scripta_--better known as the wood hyacinth. Handsome as this simple flower is, it might have been omitted from these notes as a plant too well known, but for the fact that there are several varieties of the species which are less known, very beautiful, and deliciously fragrant, entitling them to a place amongst other choice flowers, both in books and gardens. Of the typical form little need be said by way of description. The flowers are bell-shaped, pendent, blue, and produced in racemes of many flowers. The leaves are lance-shaped, prostrate, and of a dark shining green colour. [Illustration: FIG. 94. SCILLA CAMPANULATA ALBA. (One-fourth natural size; single flower, one-half natural size.)] _S. c. alba_ differs from the type in having its white flowers arranged more evenly round the scape, being shorter in the divisions of petals and wider at the corolla; the habit of the plant, too, as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 94), is more rigid and neat. In a cut state the flowers are not only very lasting, but if gathered clean, they are suitable for the most delicate wreath or bouquet. _S. c. carnea_ has pink flowers. All the forms of _S. campanulata_ are cheerful and effective spring flowers. They should be grown in bold clumps, and if under slight shade, where many other things cannot be well grown, all the better; still, they are in no way particular--any aspect, position, or soil will answer for these robust flowers. Such being the case, few gardens should be without at least the finer forms of the large Bluebell. So fast do these varieties increase by seed and otherwise, that any remarks on their propagation are unnecessary. Flowering period, April to June. Sedum Sieboldi. SIEBOLD'S STONECROP; _Nat. Ord._ CRASSULACEÆ. This is a capital species. It is perfectly hardy, though not generally known to be so. It is more often seen under glass, and is certainly a pretty pot plant. Its stems are 12in. or less in length, slender and procumbent. The leaves, which are rather larger than a shilling, fleshy, cupped, and glaucous, are curiously arranged on the stems, somewhat reflexed, and otherwise twisted at their axils, presenting a flattened but pleasing appearance. The small flowers, which are bright rose, are borne in clusters, and remain two or three weeks in perfection. It is a fine subject for rockwork, and, moreover, likes such dry situations as only rockwork affords. It should be so planted that its graceful stems can fall over the stones. There is a variety of this species, with creamy foliage, but it is less vigorous; neither are the flowers so fine in colour. Slugs are fond of these, and sometimes they will eat off nearly every leaf. A sprinkling of sharp sand once a week keeps them off, but trapping them with hollowed turnips is a more effective remedy. Propagated by cuttings pricked into sand in summer, or division of roots when the tops have died down. Flowering period, August and September. Sedum Spectabile. SHOWY STONECROP; _Nat. Ord._ CRASSULACEÆ. Hardy and herbaceous. This is one of our finest autumn bloomers. During September, the broad massive heads of small rosy flowers, which are arranged in cymes 6in. across, are very attractive, and will, with average weather, keep in good form for a month. This species is somewhat mixed up with another called _S. Fabarium_; by many they are said to be identical, but such is not the case. I grow them side by side, and I may say that they are as "like as two peas" up to midsummer, when they begin to diverge. _S. Fabarium_ continues to grow to the height, or rather length, of 2ft., and tumbles over; the foliage has a lax appearance, and the flowers are very pale. Concurrently _S. spectabile_ has grown its stems and glaucous leaves to stouter proportions, and crowned them with more massive heads of bright rose-coloured flowers, at the height of 15in. It is larger in all its parts, with the exception of length of stem, and by September it is nearly twice the size of _S. Fabarium_; it also stands erect, so that then the two species suggest a contrast rather than a comparison, _S. spectabile_ being by far the more desirable. I find, however, that it is much slower in increasing itself; the best way to propagate it is by cuttings dibbled into sand in early summer. The commoner one increases rapidly and often bears the wrong name; care should therefore be taken to obtain the true species, after which it will not give much further trouble, thriving in any kind of soil, but it should be planted in the full sunshine, when its habit and flowers will be greatly improved. It will bear any amount of drought--indeed, it seems to enjoy it. My finest clump is on a very dry part of rockwork, where it has always flowered well. These two Stonecrops and a variegated variety are some of the very few hardy plants which slugs do not graze; at any rate, it is so with me; neither do other pests attack them, but the humble bees literally cover their flowers the whole day long at times. Flowering period, August to October. Sempervivum Laggeri. LAGGER'S HOUSELEEK; _Nat. Ord._ CRASSULACEÆ. Of the numerous species and varieties of Houseleek, this is at once the most curious, interesting, and beautiful. It is by far the finest of the webbed forms. It has, however, the reputation of not being quite hardy, but that it will endure our severest winters is without doubt, and if we recall its habitats, which are in alpine regions, its hardiness in a low temperature need not be further questioned. Still, partly from its downy nature, and partly from the dampness of our winters, this climate causes it to rot. There are, however, simple and most efficient remedies, which shall be mentioned shortly. The illustration (Fig. 95) gives some idea of its form and habit. The flowering rosettes send up stems 6in. high; they are well furnished with leaves--in fact, they are the rosettes elongated; they terminate with a cluster of buds and flowers, which remain several weeks in perfection, however unfavourable the weather may be. The flowers are more than an inch across, of a bright rose colour, and very beautiful; the central flower is invariably the largest, and the number of petals varies from six to twelve. The leaves are in rosette form, the rosettes being sometimes 2in. across, nearly flat, and slightly dipped in the centre; a downy web, as fine as a cobweb, covers the rosette, it being attached to the tips of the leaves, and in the middle it is so dense that it has a matted appearance. The leaves are very fleshy, glandular, and of a pale green colour. Slow in growth, habit very compact; it has a tender appearance, but I never saw its web damaged by rain or hail. [Illustration: FIG. 95. SEMPERVIVUM LAGGERI. (Two-thirds natural size.)] Many grow it in pots for indoor use; it finds a happy home on rockwork or old walls; it should have a dry and sunny situation, and, with these conditions, it will prove attractive all the year round. It thrives well in gritty loam; a little peat rubbed in with the grit will be an improvement and also more resemble its native soil. To preserve it from the bad effects of our damp winters, it need not be taken indoors, but sheets of glass should be tilted over the specimens during the short days, when they are dormant; the glass should not touch the plant. This seems to be the nearest condition we can afford it as a substitute for the snows of its mountain home, and I may add, for years it has proved effective; in fact, for several years I have left specimens in the open without any shelter whatever, and the percentage of loss has been very low, though the seasons were trying. It propagates itself freely by offsets; if it is intended to remove them from the parent plant, it should be done early in summer, so that they may become established before winter, otherwise the frosts will lift them out of position. Flowering period, June to August. Senecio Pulcher. NOBLE GROUNDSEL; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 96. SENECIO PULCHER. (One-tenth natural size.)] Autumn is the heyday of Composite flowers. The one now under notice has the merit of being of an unusual and beautiful colour, viz., purplish crimson. It is, in fact, a new plant in English gardens, and has been justly described as one of the finest imports of recent years; it has only to be seen in order to commend itself to all lovers of hardy flowers (see Fig. 96). It is a robust grower, ranking with the more noble subjects suitable for the borders. Its hardiness is doubted by many, and a few have suspected its perennial quality; but notwithstanding the warm climate of South America (whence it hails), it has proved both hardy and perennial in this country. Excessive moisture is its greatest enemy. Its bright purplish-crimson flowers are daisy-shaped and large, the centre being a fine golden yellow--on strong young plants the flowers will be 3in. across. Moreover, they are numerously produced on stems 3ft. high, in branching cymes, and last a long time in perfection; with favourable weather an individual bloom will stand above a week, and the plant provides itself with abundance of buds for succession. I never yet saw a specimen that developed half its buds, but this brings me to notice one of its faults (for it has more than one), viz., it is too late in blooming; at any rate, in Yorkshire we rarely get more than three weeks' enjoyment of its flowers, when, but for severe frosts, it appears capable of blooming for two months. To some extent this may be remedied, as will be shown when I refer to its culture. The radical leaves are over a foot long, stem leaves much smaller, very dark holly green of leather-like substance, the edges very unevenly shaped, the general form of the leaf being something like the cos lettuce. The cut blooms are indeed fine and cannot well be inappropriately used. This brings me to fault No. 2. The flower stems are very hollow and dry, nearly as much so as the hemlock or kex, and I have found that when flowers have been cut, either from the moisture collecting in the stem, or some such cause, rot sets in lower down, and soon the branches of bloom head over. I tried cutting to a joint where the cavity was stopped, but the pith when so exposed soon gave way, so that latterly I have ceased to cut the flowers, unless the occasion was worth the risk. A specimen not cut from did not suffer from stem rot. I, therefore, blamed the cutting. There may, however, be other causes; at any rate, there is the fact of fine flowers in their prime falling over, and it is worth one's while to try to find out from what cause it happens, and if my theory is not the true one, it may prove useful as a hint. It likes a deep and rich soil, and well deserves to have it; if left out all the winter, a piece of glass should be put over the crown, because it has the fault (No. 3) of rotting in the centre, as I believe from water being conducted down its spout-like stems; but even under the most neglected conditions it stands our winters, and the rootlets send up a number of small growths in spring. These may make plants, but will not be reliable for bloom the following autumn; the damage should be prevented if possible. Another plan, by which two points are gained, is to grow young plants in good-sized pots and winter them, plunged in cold frames, not failing to give plenty of air. In April these, if compared with others in the open garden, will be found to be much more forward, and the first gain will be that, if planted out then, they will flower much more vigorously, and, secondly, they will start earlier by two weeks at least. To propagate this fine border plant, the very long and fleshy roots may be cut into pieces 6in. long and dibbled into fine soil; they are somewhat slow, but pretty sure to "go"; they should be protected from slugs, which are very fond of the young leaves. On young stuff, grown apart from the flower beds and borders, quicklime may be used, which would otherwise be unsightly. Flowering period, August to October. Sisyrinchium Grandiflorum. SATIN-FLOWER, _or_ RUSH LILY; _Nat. Ord._ IRIDACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 97. SISYRINCHIUM GRANDIFLORUM. (One-third natural size.)] The generic name of this flower is in reference to the grubbing of swine for its roots, and means "pig-snout." The common names may be seen, by a glance at the cut (Fig. 97), to be most appropriate; that of Satin-flower is of American origin the plant being a native of Oregon, and is in reference to its rich satiny blossom; that of Rush-lily, which is, perhaps, an even more suitable name, has been recently applied to it, I believe, in this country. It is applicable alike to the rush-like form and habit of foliage, and the lily-like purity and style of flowers. It was sent to this country in 1826, and yet it is rarely met with in English gardens. Some think it scarcely hardy in our climate in certain soils. I happen to have grown it for six years, which period includes the recent severe winters, and it has not only survived but increased in a moderate degree. This took place on rockwork facing south; in the autumn of 1881 I divided the specimen, and planted a part of it in the coldest part of my garden, which is not without clay, though far from all clay; that division is now a strong plant, and has made an extra crown; it forms the subject of the present illustration. Let me state, in passing, that it is naturally a slow grower. The very severe weather of the week previous to my writing this note, in March, 1883, when 23deg. of frost was registered, which cut down the bloom stems of Hellebores and many other well-known hardy things, did not hurt this subject very much; I am, therefore, confident of its hardiness from six years of such experience. The flowers are 1in. to 1½in. long, and about as much across when open, of a fine purple colour, with a shining satiny appearance; the six transparent petal-like divisions are of uneven form, having short bluntish points; from the openness of the corolla the stamens and style are well exposed, and they are very beautiful. The flowers are produced when the plant is about 6in. or 9in. high, the buds being developed on a rush-like stem, and enfolded in an almost invisible sheath 2in. or 3in. from the apex. Gradually the sheath, from becoming swollen, attracts notice, and during sunshine it will suddenly burst and let fall its precious contents--a pair of beautiful flowers--which dangle on slender arching pedicels, springing from the sheath-socket. They seem to enjoy their new-born freedom, and flutter in the March wind like tethered butterflies. Their happy day, however, is soon over; their fugacious petals shrivel in three or four days. The leaves are rush-like, ribbed, and sheathed. I have found it to thrive in loam, both light and moderately stiff, also in vegetable soil and sand; it likes moisture, but not of a stagnant character; between large stones, at the base of rockwork, suits it in every way; it may also be grown by the side of the larger kinds of snowdrops for contrast and effect. Impatient of being disturbed, it is not wisdom to lift it for any purpose, provided it is making progress, or until it has formed strong tufts; when, if it is desirable to increase it, and during early autumn, the long roots should be got well under, and taken out of the ground as entire as possible; from their wiry nature they are then both easily cleared of earth and divided into single crowns; these should be replanted in positions deeply dug, and where they are intended to remain, being carefully arranged without any doubling up. After such pains have been taken with so well-deserving a plant, there will be little to fear for its future, no matter how severe the winter may prove. _S. g. album_ is a white-flowered variety, of which, however, I have had no experience. Since these lines appeared in serial form, a lady, cultivating a good collection of choice hardy flowers, has informed me that this variety is very fine, and in every way commendable. Flowering period, March to May, according to positions or climatic conditions. Soldanellas. _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. Diminutive herbaceous alpine perennials. This genus is small in number of known species as in size of specimens. They are found in very high altitudes in the Tyrol, Switzerland, and Germany; but they are easily managed even in our foggy climate, as is shown by the fact of the various species being grown in all collections of alpines; and, indeed, no collection can be said to be complete without such gems--they are great favourites, as they well deserve to be. They flower in early spring, some with one, and others more than one flower on a stem. The flowers are very small, broadly bell-shaped, and of a feathery appearance, from the fact of their petals being finely divided. The foliage is also small, nearly round, of good substance, and in all the following species very bright green; the leaf stalks are long and wiry, and form neat and handsome little tufts, independent of the flowers, which, I may add, do not last more than five or six days. _S. alpina_, smaller in all its parts, but otherwise much resembling _S. montana_--has leaves the size of a shilling piece, flowers bright blue, mostly two on a stem. _S. Clusii_, from Germany, is smaller than _S. alpina_; in other respects similar, with the exception of flowers, which are purple. _S. minima_ (smallest). Very tiny in all its parts, many of its little thick leaves being only ¼in. across; flowers purple, single on the stem, which is only ½in. to 1in. long. _S. montana_ (Fig. 98) is the largest species of all--leaves the size of a half-crown piece, flowers bright blue, four or five on a stem, 5in. high. It has other distinctions, of a minute character, from the smaller species, but by difference of size alone it may be readily identified. All the Soldanellas love a vegetable soil, as peat or leaf mould, to which, when under cultivation, a liberal quantity of sand should be added. If grown in pots, they make lovely specimens, and should be plunged in sand and kept moist; but I find my specimens to grow much more vigorously when planted out, as they are at the base of a small rockery, rather below the level of the neighbouring walk, which forms a miniature watershed for the supply of moisture. I also fancy the liverwort, which surrounds them, rather helps them than otherwise. Certain I am, however, that moisture is the great desideratum in the culture of this genus. My difficulty with the planted-out specimens is to keep them from being grazed off by the slugs; a dash of silver sand every day or two has sometimes proved of use. When the Soldanellas once get into proper quarters they make rapid growth; I have divided them most successfully in April and May. [Illustration: FIG. 98. SOLDANELLA MONTANA. (One-half natural size.)] Flowering period, March to May. Spiræa Palmata. PALM-LIKE SPIRÆA; _Nat. Ord._ ROSACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 99. SPIRÆA PALMATA. (One-eighth natural size.)] A bold and handsome species from China, imported about sixty years ago. It is perfectly hardy, though, generally grown in pots and under glass. It belongs to the herbaceous section, and I may as well state at once that the Spiræas--more especially the herbaceous kinds--are only decorative when in flower, by which I wish to convey the idea that after they have done flowering, from their abundant foliage, which then begins to turn sere and ragged, they become unsightly if planted in conspicuous parts. Still, their flowers and general habit are both rich and handsome when in their prime, and they are certainly worth growing, especially by those who have large gardens, where they can be planted in large patches in some of the less frequented parts. _S. palmata_ (Fig. 99) has remarkably bright rosy-crimson flowers; they are of indistinct form unless closely examined. It is, however, a well-known form of flower, or arrangement of flowers, and need not be further described, beyond saying they are in panicles and have a feathery appearance. The leaves, which are 6in. or more across, have long smooth stems, are mostly seven-lobed, the lobes being long, pointed, and unevenly serrated. The size of foliage and height of plants vary very much; if grown in a bog or by the side of a stream, it attains the height of 3ft. to 4ft.; in drier situations I have seen it flower when only 10in. high. The specimen illustrated is about 15in. high. A light spongy vegetable soil, with plenty of moisture, is the main requirement of most of the Spiræas, and to grow them to perfection little less will do; but a creditable display of bloom may be enjoyed from plants grown in ordinary garden loam, provided the situation is moist. By way of experiment, I planted a dozen roots of this species in an exposed border, drained, and in all respects the same as for the ordinary run of border flowers. They none of them flowered, and scarcely grew; at no time would they be higher than 6in. I wish to make it clear that the Spiræas, and especially _S. palmata_, cannot be grown and bloomed well without an abundance of moisture at the roots, as I am aware that many have tried and failed with this desirable kind. It should be treated as a bog plant, then it can scarcely fail to do well. In sunk parts of rockwork, by the walk gutters, by the side of a pond or stream, or (if there is one) in the hedge dyke, are all suitable places for this bright flower, and if only for the fine spikes which it produces for cutting purposes, it should be grown largely; and as most of the positions indicated are somewhat out of the way, they may perhaps be the more readily thus appropriated. Propagated by division of strong roots during autumn. Flowering period, July and August. Spiræa Ulmaria Variegata. _Syn._ S. ODORATA FOL. VAR.; _Nat. Ord._ ROSACEÆ. The beautiful variegated form of the well-known "Meadowsweet," other old names being "Mead-sweet," and "Queen of the Meadows." The typical form, at least, needs no description, it being one of the commonest and most appreciated plants of the British flora. This variety, however, is less known; it differs only as regards the markings of the foliage. When the crimped leaves are young, the broad golden patches are very effective, and when the plants are fully grown, the markings of the older foliage become lighter coloured, but not less rich. Of the value of this as a "fine foliage" plant there can be no doubt; it is very telling, and always admired. As regards its flowers, they ought not to be allowed to develope. I only mention this subject for the sake of its beautifully coloured leaves. Requirements: Ordinary garden loam, in a moist situation; propagated by root divisions during autumn. Flowering period, May to August. Spiræa Venusta. QUEEN OF THE PRAIRIE; _Nat. Ord._ ROSACEÆ. A comparatively new species of the herbaceous section, from North America. In good deep loam it grows to the height of 3ft. or more. The flowers are of a soft red, after the manner of those of _S. palmata_, but rather differently arranged, viz., in clustered sprays or cymes, which bend outwards; they are durable and very effective, even when seen at some distance in the garden, whilst for cutting they are flowers of first-class merit; the leaves are large, somewhat coarse, pinnate, segments sharply lobed and irregularly serrated. I find this plant to flower indifferently under the shade of trees, but in a fully exposed situation, planted in a deep retentive loam, it thrives and flowers well. It is perfectly hardy, and easily propagated by division during autumn. Flowering period, June to August. Statice Latifolia. BROAD-LEAVED SEA-LAVENDER; _Nat. Ord._ PLUMBAGINACEÆ. This hardy perennial is all but evergreen in this climate. Probably there are two varieties of it, as although the plants in growth and form correspond, there is a notable difference in the habit of some specimens, as regards the greenness of the foliage in winter; whilst one shrivels and blackens the other will remain more or less green. It is possible that the native countries from which they come may have something to do with this fact. The species was introduced from Portugal in 1740, and again from Siberia in 1791. It need not be wondered at if the variety from the northern habitat proved the more verdant, notwithstanding its becoming acclimatised. Its lofty and diffuse panicles are ornamental and lasting; it is a subject which may be grown in almost any part of the garden, and hardly seem misplaced, notwithstanding its height of 3ft., because only the slender stems, furnished with their minute flowers, rise above the ground, and from the cloud-like effects more dwarf flowers can be easily seen, even when behind them. In many such cases, therefore, this gauzy-flowered Sea-lavender proves of advantage. The bloom is lilac-coloured, each flower being very small. The stout scape at a short distance above the ground becomes much branched; the branchlets, as already indicated, are slender, and furnished with the soft blue bloom. The leaves are radical, and arranged in somewhat rosette form, and for the most part prostrate; many of them are quite a foot long and 5in. broad, or long egg-shaped; they are wavy, of leathery substance, and a dark shining green colour. Of all the genus, this is, perhaps, the most useful of the hardy species. Either in a growing or cut state, the flowers are much admired; cut, they need not be placed in water; and for a year, until the plant yields fresh supplies, they will remain presentable and even bright. Its culture is simple, though there are positions where I have found it to simply exist, viz., on rockwork, unless it was given a part where moisture would be abundant about the roots, in search of which its long woody roots go deeply; if planted in deep loam of a light nature, there will be little fear as to its thriving, but if well manured and mulched, specimens would grow to nearly double size. Propagated by root division. But often the crowns are all on one stout root, and then it is not a safe or ready operation; still, with a sharp knife, the woody root may be split its whole length--this should be done in spring, when the divisions can begin to grow at once. Another and safer plan would be to divide the root for an inch or more from the crowns downwards, insert a few pebbles to keep the parts open, and put back the specimen in freshly dug earth, where, during a season of growth, the cut parts would produce vigorous roots. Flowering period, August to October. Statice Profusa. PROFUSE SEA-LAVENDER; _Nat. Ord._ PLUMBAGINACEÆ. A hybrid hardy form, not to be confounded with the hairy-leaved and tender kind commonly grown under glass, which has the same name. All the Sea-lavenders are profuse blooming, but the one now under notice is more especially so, as may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 100). The seed of this genus is prolific in varieties, and, although the name of this variety, or even the plant, may not be generally known, and the parentage, perhaps, untraceable, it appeared to such advantage, when grown by the side of such species as _S. bellidifolia_, _S. echioides_, _S. gmelina_, _S. incana_, _S. latifolia_, _S. sereptana_, _S. speciosa_, _S. tatarica_, _S. tormentilla_, _S. virgata_, _and_ _S. Wildenovi_, that I considered it worth a short description, more especially as the object of this book is to speak of subjects with telling flowers or attractive forms. It is well known that the Statices have insignificant blossoms, taken individually, though, from their great profusion, they have a singular beauty. The variety now under notice, at the height of 2ft., developed a well branched panicle about the latter end of August; gradually the minute flowers expanded, when, in the middle of September, they became extremely fine, the smaller stems being as fine as horsehair, evenly disposed, and rigid; the head being globular, and supported by a single stem. [Illustration: FIG. 100. STATICE PROFUSA. (One-tenth natural size.)] The flowers are of a lively lilac, having a brownish or snuff-coloured spiked calyx, the effect being far prettier than the description would lead one to imagine. The leaves are radical, 6in. to 8in. long, oval, or somewhat spathulate, waved, leathery, shining and dark green, the outer ones prostrate, the whole being arranged in lax rosette form. The flowers are very durable, either cut or in the growing state; they may be used to advantage with dried grasses, ferns, and "everlastings;" or the whole head, when cut, is a good substitute for gold-paper clippings in an unused fire grate; our people have so used one for two years, and it has still a fresh appearance. It needs no words of mine to explain that such a plant as is represented by the illustration will prove highly decorative in any part of the flower garden. There is nothing special about the culture of the genus. All the Sea-lavenders do well in sandy loam, enriched with stable manure. Some sorts, the present one included, are not very readily propagated, as the crowns are not on separate pieces of root, but often crowded on a woody caudex. I have, however, sometimes split the long root with a sharp knife, and made good plants; this should only be done in spring, when growth can start at once. Flowering period, August to frosts. Stenactis Speciosus. _Syn._ ERIGERON SPECIOSUS; SHOWY FLEABANE; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This has not long been cultivated in this country; but though a native of the warm climate of California, it proves to be one of the most hardy of herbaceous perennials; it begins to flower in early summer, but August is the heyday of its showiness, and it continues at least a month longer. Its more recent name, _Stenactis_, is, according to Paxton, a happy and appropriate derivation, and tends much to explain the form of flower, "_Stene_, narrow, and _aktin_, a sunbeam, from the narrow and sunlike rays of the expanded flower." It belongs to a genus of "old-fashioned" flowers, which, moreover, is that of the most modern fashion in flowers. As a garden plant it is not only effective, but one of that class which will put up with the most offhand treatment; tenacious of life, neither particular as to soil nor position, constant in fair and foul weather, and doing duty alike in town or suburban garden, these qualities go to make it a worthy subject. Whilst it is nearly related to, and much resembles, the starworts or Michaelmas daises, it far exceeds in beauty the best of them, with only a third of their ungainly length of stem. The flowers are fully two inches across, of a light purple colour; the disk is somewhat large and of a greenish yellow; the florets of the ray are numerous, full, narrow, and slightly uneven at their points, giving the otherwise dense ray a feathery appearance. These large flowers are produced in bunches of six or ten on each branch, at the height of about eighteen inches; there are many stems, and each one is well branched, the species being very floriferous; the leaves are herb-like, lance-shaped, pointed, amplexicaul, and smooth; root-leaves spathulate. This plant needs no cultural care; its only requirements are a place in the garden and some one to appropriate its beaming crop of flowers, which cannot fail to be serviceable. As a border plant, among suitable companions, bold clumps are fine, especially when seen by twilight; in lines, too, it may be profitably used. Propagated by division of the roots at any time. Flowering period, June to September. Stokesia Cyanea. JASPER-BLUE STOKESIA, _or_ STOKES' ASTER; _Nat. Ord._ COMPOSITÆ. This handsome, hardy, herbaceous perennial was brought from Carolina in the year 1766. It is the only species known of the genus, and was named after Jonathan Stokes, M.D., who assisted Withering, the botanist, in his arrangement of British plants. The order which includes it is a very extensive one, and it may be useful to add that it belongs to the sub-order _Carduaceæ_, or the Thistle family. The mention of this relationship may not help our subject much in the estimation of the reader, but it must be borne in mind that in plant families as well as others, there are individual members that often contrast rather than compare with their relatives, and so it is in the Thistle family, for it embraces the gay Doronicums, silky Gnaphaliums, shining Arnica, and noble Stobæa and Echinops. But the relationship will, perhaps, be better understood when it is stated that as a sub-order the _Carduaceæ_ stand side by side with that of the _Asteraceæ_, which includes so many well-known and favourite flowers. Let me now ask the reader to glance at the illustration (Fig. 101), and he will, I think, see marks of affinity with both the thistle and the aster; the few thorny teeth at the base of the larger leaves, and the spines on the smaller divisions of the imbricate calyx, are clearly features of the former, whilst the general form of the plant and flowers are not unlike the aster. Of all herbaceous plants, this is one of the latest to bloom; in favourable situations it will begin in October, but often not until November and December in northern parts of the country; and, I hardly need add, unless severe frosts hold off, it will be cut down before its buds expand. There is much uncertainty about its flowering, when planted in the ordinary way, so that, fine as its flowers are, the plant would scarcely be worth a place in our gardens, if there were no means by which such uncertainty could be at least minimised; and were it not a fact that this plant may be bloomed by a little special treatment, which it justly merits, it would not have been introduced in this book, much less illustrated. The plant itself is very hardy, enduring keen frosts without apparent damage, and the bloom is also durable, either cut or on the plant. I scarcely need further describe the flowers, as the form is a very common one. It has, however, a very ample bract, which supports a large imbricate calyx, the members of which have stiff bristle-like hairs. Each flower will be 2in. to 3in. across, and of a fine blue colour. The leaves are arranged on stout round stems, 18in. high, being from 2in. to 6in. long, somewhat lobed and toothed at the base, the teeth rather spiny; their shape varies very much, but generally they are lance-shaped, concave, often waved at the edges, and otherwise contorted. The foliage is more thickly furnished at the upper part of the plant, it has a glaucous hue, is of good substance, smooth and shining, like many of the gentians. It will, therefore, be seen that this is far from a weedy-looking subject, and throughout the season has a tidy and shrub-like appearance, but it grows top-heavy, and, unless supported, is liable to be snapped off at the ground line by high winds. [Illustration: FIG. 101. STOKESIA CYANEA. (One-sixth natural size.)] In order to get it to bloom before the frosts cut it, the soil and situation should be carefully selected; the former cannot be too sandy if enriched with manure, whilst cold, stiff soil is quite unsuited to it. The position should not only have the sunniest possible aspect, but be at the base of a wall that will ward off the more cutting winds. In such snug quarters many things may be had in bloom earlier, and others kept in flower through the winter, as violets; whilst fuchsias, crinums, African and Belladonna lilies, and similar roots, that would perish in more exposed parts, will live from year to year in such situations. Unless the subject now under consideration can have these conditions, it is useless to plant it--not that its hardiness is doubtful, but because its blooming period should be hastened. Its propagation may be by division of the roots after it has flowered, or in spring. Flowering period, October to December. Symphytum Caucasicum. CAUCASIAN COMFREY; _Nat. Ord._ BORAGINACEÆ. A comparatively modern species in English gardens, belonging to a genus well represented by native species, from which this differs mainly in being less tall and hairy, and otherwise less coarse. The erect habit, and abundant azure flowers produced in pendent form, which, moreover, last for several weeks, go to make this a capital border plant. If not an old species, from its resemblance to some which are so, it is rendered a suitable companion to "old-fashioned" subjects. The plant grows to a height of nearly 2ft., is of dark greyish-green colour, from being thickly covered with short, stiff hairs, on every part, including the calyx. The flowers are more than ½in. long, produced in elongated clusters, opening three or four at a time, and just before expansion they are of a bright rose colour, but afterwards turn a fine blue; calyx five-parted, as also is the corolla, the segments being drawn in at the mouth. The entire flower is long and bell-shaped; the pendent clusters of bloom are well held out from the main stem by leafy branches, each being terminated by two racemes. The leaves of the root are large and stalked, oval, lance-shaped, and wrinkled; those of the stems are stalkless, and so attached as to give the stems a winged appearance near their junction. The plant will thrive in any kind of soil, but it likes shade and moisture, and a specimen grown under such conditions will be found to be much superior in every way. A position under fruit trees suits it admirably, and for such thoughtful planting it will well repay the lover of flowers for vase decoration. It also makes a good subject for large or rough rockwork, on which, however, it should be sheltered from the mid-day sun. Its propagation may be carried out at any time by dividing the roots, but autumn is the preferable period. Flowering period, April to June. Tiarella Cordifolia. _Nat. Ord._ SAXIFRAGACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 102. TIARELLA CORDIFOLIA. (One-fifth natural size; _a_, flower, natural size.)] The illustration (Fig. 102), together with the order given to which it belongs, will convey a fair idea of the style and habit of the plant, but its exquisite flowers must be seen to be appreciated, and hardly could they appear to more advantage than in a growing state, the rich foliage forming their most natural and effective ground. This hardy herbaceous perennial has been known to English gardens for 150 years, and was introduced from North America, where it grows in glorious masses, but common as it is in its native country, and long as it has been grown in this, I scarcely know a flower respecting which so many have been in error as regards the true species. I have had all sorts of things sent to me under the name, and, after all, it is easy to be wrong with it unless the amateur has either closely noted its distinctions or grown it for a year at least. Heucheras are similar in habit and shape of foliage, and are often confounded with it, though otherwise very distinct. _Tellima grandiflora_, when in its young state, is very like it, but the strong crowns should be noted--they are twice the strength of _T. cordifolia_, and develop foliage more than double its size, whilst the flowers are on stems 3ft. high, nearly green, and might easily be taken for seed pods. The Mitellas, however, are much more puzzling, the distinctions being finer and mostly of a botanical character. Still, in May and June, when all are in flower, the identification of our subject is not difficult, more especially if the other species of the same order are near for comparison. _T. cordifolia_ grows to the height of 9in. to 12in.; the flowers are composed of a calyx (five-parted) and five petals, which are entire, evenly set in the calyx. The ten stamens are prominent; each flower has a stout pedicel, which holds out the pretty white blossom in a nearly horizontal way. There is nothing of a bell-shape character about the flower, as in its nearest relative the Mitella. The flower stem is erect and round, being evenly furnished with flowers, for a length of 4in. to 6in.; the flowers are very lasting. The leaves are heart-shaped, acutely lobed, denticulate, slightly wrinkled, hairy on both sides, and more or less spotted or splashed with brown spots on the main ribs; the leaf stalks are long, and carry the foliage gracefully. The whole plant has a neat habit, and, when in vigorous health, sends out surface creepers. It enjoys moist quarters and slight shade, though it is grown as seen in the drawing in an exposed part. The soil is good, but otherwise there is nothing special about its culture. If this little spring flower can be made more known, it will be sure to be more widely cultivated; for covering the bare parts of lawn shrubberies it would form a pleasing subject, and might be mixed with the scarlet ourisia and the finer sorts of myosotis; these would make an excellent blend, all flowering together, and lasting for a long time, besides being suitable otherwise for such shady positions. When increase is desired strong plants may be divided at any time, soon after flowering being the best; if the season be dry, the young stock should be shaded by a leafy branch and kept well watered. Flowering period, May and June. Trientalis Europæa. EUROPEAN WINTERGREEN, or STAR-FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ PRIMULACEÆ. Some may say, "Why, this is a common British plant;" and so it is in some parts, but for all that there are many who have never seen it. In no way does the mention here of this lovely little flower need an apology: the best possible reasons for growing and recommending it are in the facts that it is very beautiful and greatly admired (see Fig. 103). [Illustration: FIG. 103. TRIENTALIS EUROPÆA. (Plant, one-third natural size; blossom, full size.)] The flowers, which are ¾in. across, are salver-shaped, pure white, excepting for a day or two when newly opened, then they are stained with a soft pink; the calyx has eight handsome light green, shining, awl-shaped sepals; the corolla has five to nine petals, equal in size, flatly and evenly arranged, their pointed tips forming the star-like appearance from which the flower takes one of its common names; the flower stalks are exceedingly fine--thready--but firm, from 1in. to 3in. long, and each carries but one flower; they issue from the axils of the leaves, which are arranged in whorls of five or seven, and nearly as many blossoms will be produced from the whorl, but seldom more than one, and hardly ever more than two, flowers will be open together, when they occupy the central position of the foliage, which gives the plant an elegant appearance. The leaves are of a pale green colour, sometimes a little bronzed at the tips, veined, entire, bald, lance-shaped, and, as before hinted, verticillate; they vary much in size, being from 1in. to 3in. long and ½in. to 1in. broad. The stems are round, reddish, slender, and naked, with the exception of two or three minute round leaves, borne distantly apart; the stems, too, like the leaves, vary in length; sometimes they grow 8in., while others equally floriferous are not above 3in. high; the root is creeping, and somewhat tuberous. A colony of this plant has the appearance of a miniature group of palms, bedecked with glistening stars at the flowering time, and it is one of the most durable flowers I know; so persistent, indeed, are they, that botanical descriptions make mention of it. In a cut state they equal either violets or snowdrops, from the beautiful combination of flowers and foliage, and it is a pity that it is not grown in sufficient quantities for cutting purposes. Its culture is very easy, but to do it well it may be said to require special treatment; in its wild state it runs freely, and the specimens are not nearly so fine as they may be had under cultivation with proper treatment. It should have moist quarters, a little shade, light vegetable soil, and confinement at the roots. I ought, perhaps, to explain the last-mentioned condition. It would appear that if the quick-spreading roots are allowed to ramble, the top growths are not only straggling, but weak and unfruitful. To confine its roots, therefore, not only causes it to grow in compact groups, but in every way improves its appearance; it may be done by planting it in a large seed pan, 15in. across, and 4in. or 6in. deep. Let it be well drained; over the drainage place a layer of lumpy peat, on which arrange another of roots, and fill up with leaf soil and peat mixed with sand; this may be done any time from September to February; the pan may then be plunged in a suitable position, so as to just cover the rim from sight, and so do away with artificial appearances; but if it is sunk too deep, the roots will go over the rim and all the labour will be lost. So charming is this plant when so grown, that it is worth all the care. A well-known botanist saw such a pan last spring, and he could hardly believe it to be our native species. Pans at two years old are lovely masses, and very suitable for taking as grown for table decoration. The outer sides of the pans should be banked down to the tray with damp moss, which could be pricked in with any soft-coloured flowers, as dog roses, pinks or forget-me-nots. I will only add that, unless the root confinement is effected either in the above or some other way, according to my experience, the plant will never present a creditable appearance as a cultivated specimen; at the same time, this somewhat troublesome mode of planting it is not in proportion to the pleasure it will afford and certainly ought not to prevent its introduction into every garden. Flowering period, May and June. Trillium Erectum. ERECT WOOD-LILY; _Nat. Ord._ MELANTHACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 104. TRILLIUM ERECTUM. (One-half natural size.)] A hardy, tuberous perennial, from North America, whence most, perhaps all, the species of this genus are imported. The peculiar form of the plants gives rise to the generic name. A flowering specimen has on one stem three leaves, three sepals, and three petals; the specific name is in reference to the more erect habit of this species compared with others. Of _T. erectum_ there are several varieties, having different-coloured flowers; the specimens from which the drawing (Fig. 104) was taken have rich brown or dark maroon flowers. Little groups have a rather quaint look, they being very formal, the flowers curiously placed, and of unusual colour. The flowers are fully 2in. across, or much more, if the petals did not reflex almost their whole length. The sepals of the calyx are exactly alternate with the petals, and remain erect, giving the flower a characteristic quality; and, let me add, they are far more pleasing to the eye than to the sense of smell. The leaves are arranged in threes on the main stem, and that number constitutes the entire foliage of the plant; they are stalkless, oval, but pointed, entire, smooth, and of a shining dark green colour. The specimens from which the illustration was made are 5in. to 6in. high, but their height differs very much with the positions in which they are grown, shade and moisture inducing taller growths. The roots, which are tuberous, are of unusual form--soft swollen root-stocks may be more descriptive of them. Trilliums are now in much favour, and their quiet beauty is likely to create a genuine love for them. Moreover, the different species are distinct, and if grown in cool, shady quarters, their flowers remain in good form and colour for a long time. They are seen to most advantage in a subdued light, as under the shade of rather tall but not too thickly grown trees. They require vegetable soil, no matter how light it may be, provided it can be maintained in a moist state, the latter condition being indispensable. Trilliums are capable of taking a good share towards supplying shade-loving subjects. How finely they would mix with anemones, violets, _Paris quadrifolia_, hellebores, and such like flowers! Colonies of these, planted so as to carpet small openings in shrubberies, would be a clear gain in several ways to our gardens; to many they would be a new feature; more showy flowers would not have to be given up for such an arrangement, but, on the other hand, both would be more enjoyed by the contrast. Trilliums increase slowly; propagation may be carried out by the division of the roots of healthy plants. Flowering period, May and June. Triteleia Uniflora. _Sometimes called_ MILLA UNIFLORA; ONE-FLOWERED TRITELEIA, _or_ SPRING STAR FLOWER; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This is a favourite flower, and in some soils increases very fast; it is the commonest species of the very limited genus to which it belongs; was brought from South America only so recently as 1836, and it is already extensively grown in this country, and as a trade article is very cheap indeed, thanks to its intrinsic worth. Though small, its star-like form gives it a lively and effective appearance in the borders. It is much used by the Americans as a window and greenhouse plant, notwithstanding that it is a wild flower with them, and its pretty shape and lovely hues render it eligible for such uses, but on account of the esteem in which is held the odour of garlic, I should not like to recommend it for such close associations. The flower in shape is, as the generic name implies, like the Trillium, formed of three, or rather threes; the divisions are arranged in threes, or triangularly; the two triangles, being crossed, give the flower a geometrical and star-like effect. The flowers, which are 1in. to 2in. across, are borne on slender stems, 4in. to 6in. long. They are nearly white, but have various tints, bluish reflections, with a line of blue in each petal. The leaves resemble those of the snowdrop when overgrown and turning flabby, and have a somewhat untidy and sprawling habit; they are abundantly produced from the rather small cocoon-shaped bulbs. On the whole, the plant is very ornamental when in flower, and the bloom is produced more or less for many weeks; at any rate, it is an early flower, and if it cannot be used indoors it should be extensively planted amongst border subjects, than which there are few more hardy or reliable. Propagated by divisions of the crowded bulbs every other year, during late summer. [Illustration: FIG. 105. TRITELEIA UNIFLORA. (One-fourth natural size.)] _T. u. lilacina_ (the Lilac-coloured Star Flower) is a most handsome variety, having, as implied by the name, a richly coloured flower. I am indebted to a lady for roots and flowers recently sent me; so far as I know, it is not yet generally distributed. It is very distinct from the type in having smaller parts throughout, and a more highly coloured bloom, with the outer surface of the shining tube of a darker or brownish-green colour. I have seen a mauve coloured form, but this is much more pronounced and effective. The chief recommendation of this otherwise desirable flower, to my thinking, is its rich, new-mown hay scent; in this it differs much from the parent form. Flowering period, March to May. Tritoma Uvaria. GREAT TRITOMA; _Common Names_, FLAME-FLOWER, RED-HOT POKER; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ-HEMERO-CALLIDEÆ. This is one of our finest late-flowering plants; it has, moreover, a tropical appearance, which renders it very attractive. It is fast becoming popular, though as yet it is not very often seen in private gardens; it comes from the Cape of Good Hope, its year of introduction being 1707. In this climate, when planted in well-exposed situations and in sandy loam, it proves hardy but herbaceous; if protected it is evergreen; and I ought to add that if it is planted in clay soil, or where the drainage is defective, it will be killed by a severe winter; but when such simple precautions as are here indicated will conduce to the salvation of a somewhat doubtful plant, it may be fairly termed hardy. According to my experience during severe winters, plants in wet stiff loam were all killed, but others of the same stock, in light sandy earth, did not suffer in the least. I have also made similar observations outside my own garden. The stout scapes or stems sometimes reach a height of 4ft., and are topped with long or cocoon-shaped spikes of orange and red flowers; the flowers are tubular and small, closely arranged, and drooping; each will be about an inch long, and the spikes 6in. to 8in. long. The leaves are narrow, 2ft. to 3ft. long, keeled, channelled, and rough on the edges, of a dark green colour and prostrate habit. Either amongst trees or in more conspicuous positions this flower proves very effective, whilst in lines it is simply dazzling; when grown in quantity it may be cut for indoor decoration, than which few large flowers are more telling. Cultural hints have already been given in speaking of its hardiness, but I may add that where the soil is naturally light and dry a liberal dressing of well-rotted manure may be dug in with great benefit to the flowers. It is readily propagated by division of the roots every third year; the young stock should be put in rows, the earth having been deeply stirred and well broken; this may be done in late autumn or spring--if the former, a top dressing of leaves will assist root action. This bold and brilliant flower appears in September, and is produced in numbers more or less to the end of the year, provided the season does not set in very severe. Tropæolum Tuberosum. TUBEROUS TROPÆOLUM; _Nat. Ord._ TROPÆOLACEÆ. All the species of this genus are highly decorative garden subjects, including the annual varieties, and otherwise they are interesting. They are known by various names, as Trophy-plant, Indian Cress, and Nasturtium, though the latter is only applicable strictly to plants of another order. The plant under notice is a climber, herbaceous and perennial, having tuberous roots, whence its specific name; they much resemble small potatoes, and are eaten in Peru, the native country of the plant. It has not long been grown in this country, the date of its introduction being 1836; it is not often seen, which may be in part owing to the fact of its being considered tender in this climate. But let me at once state that under favourable conditions, and such as may easily be afforded in any garden, it proves hardy. As a matter of fact, I wintered it in 1880-1, and also in 1881-2, which latter does not signify much, as it proved so mild; but it must be admitted that the first-mentioned winter would be a fair test season. The position was very dry, viz., on the top of a small bank of earth, against a south wall; the soil was sandy loam, and it was overgrown with ivy, the leaves of which would doubtless keep out many degrees of cold, as also would the dryness of the soil; another point in favour of my specimen proving hardy, would be the fact of its exposure to the sun, by which the tubers would be well and duly ripened. It is one of the handsomest trailers or climbers I know for the herbaceous garden; a free grower, very floriferous, bright, distinct, and having a charming habit. The illustration (Fig. 106) can give no idea of the fine colours of its flowers, or richly glaucous foliage. One specimen in my garden has been much admired, thanks to nothing but its own habit and form; under a west wall, sheltered from the strong winds, it grows near some _Lilium auratum_; after outgrowing the lengths of the stems, and having set off to advantage the lily bloom, it caught by its tendril-like shoots an apricot tree on the wall, and then reached the top, being furnished with bloom its whole length. The flowers are orange and scarlet, inclining to crimson; they are produced singly on long red stalks, which spring from the axils of the leaves; the orange petals are small and overlapping, being compactly enclosed in the scarlet calyx; the spur, which is also of the same colour, is thick and long, imparting a pear-like form to the whole flower, which, however, is not more than 1½in. long. The leaves are nearly round in outline, sub-peltate, five, but sometimes only three-lobed; lobes entire, sometimes notched, smooth and glaucous; the leaf-stalks are long and bent, and act as tendrils. The plant makes rapid growth, the stems going out in all directions, some trailing on the ground. It is a good subject for the drier parts of rockwork, where a twiggy branch should be secured, which it will soon cover. It is also fine for lattice work, or it may be grown where it can appropriate the dried stems of lupine and larkspurs. For all such situations it is not only showy, but beautiful. The flowered sprays are effective in a cut state, especially by gaslight; they come in for drooping or twining purposes, and last a long time in water. [Illustration: FIG. 106. TROPÆOLUM TUBEROSUM. (One-fifth natural size.)] If grown as a tender plant its treatment is as simple as can be; the tubers may be planted in early spring in any desired situation, and when the frosts at the end of the season have cut down the foliage, the tubers may be taken up and stored in sand; but if it is intended to winter it out the situation should be chosen for its dryness, and the soil should be of a sandy nature, in which the tubers ought to be placed 5in. or 6in. deep. It is self-propagating, the tubers being numerously produced; and like "potato sets," the larger ones may be cut in pieces; if, however, numbers are not the object they are better left uncut. Caterpillars are fond of this plant; at the first sight of an eaten leaf, they should be looked for and destroyed. It begins to flower in the latter part of summer, continuing until stopped by frosts. Umbilicus Chrysanthus. _Nat. Ord._ CRASSULACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 107. UMBILICUS CHRYSANTHUS. (One-half natural size.)] This is a very pretty and distinct subject, and never fails to flower very late in the year. It is a plant having the appearance of being tender, and is not often seen growing fully exposed in the garden; it is, however, perfectly hardy, enduring any amount of cold; it suffers more from wet. It is also evergreen. Its soft dull or greyish-green rosettes are in marked contrast with the rigid and shining sempervivums, in the company of which it is frequently placed. It is an alpine subject, and comes from the mountains of Asiatic Turkey, being also found more west. Not only is it interesting, but its pretty form and habit are qualities which render it very useful in a garden, more especially for dry parts, such as old walls and rockwork. It grows 6in. high, the older rosettes elongate and form leafy flower stalks, which are topped by drooping panicles of flowers, somewhat bell shaped; each flower is ¾in. long, of a yellowish white colour; the petals are finely pointed, and well supported by a fleshy calyx; the bloom is slowly developed and very enduring, even when the worst weather prevails. The leaves are arranged in flat rosette form (the rosettes from 1in. to 2in. across), lower leaves spathulate, those near the centre more oval. All are fleshy, covered with short hairs, and somewhat clammy to the touch. Its habit is neat, and it adorns such situations as otherwise suit it, viz., banks or risen beds, and such other positions as have already been named. Its culture is easy, but it ought to have the compost it most enjoys--peat and grit--and it should be sheltered from the strong winds, otherwise its top-heavy flower stalks will be laid prostrate. When it once finds a happy home it increases fast; the thick stalks are procumbent and emit roots. These may either be left to form large specimens or be taken off during the growing season for stock. Excessive wet is its greatest enemy. For such subjects, the wire and glass shelters are not only a remedy, but very handy. Flowering period, summer, until stopped by frosts. Vaccinium Vitis-Idæa. RED WHORTLE-BERRY; _sometimes called_ COW-BERRY; _Nat. Ord._ VACCINACEÆ. Although a native evergreen, and in some parts occurring extensively, it proves to be both decorative and useful as a garden subject; as a neat evergreen it is worthy of a place, especially when it is not to be found near in a wild state. It is seldom seen without either its waxy and pink-tinted white flowers or its bright clusters of red berries, but in October it carries both, which, together with the fine condition of the foliage, renders the shrub most attractive. It grows 6in. to 9in. high under cultivation. In form the flowers somewhat resemble the lily of the valley, but they are closely set in the stems and partly hidden, owing to the shortness and drooping character of the racemes; not only are the flowers pleasingly tinted, but they exhale a full and spicy odour; the buds, too, are tinted with a lively pink colour on their sunny sides. The berries are quickly developed, being nearly the size of the holly berry, but a more bright red. The leaves are stout, shining, and leathery, and ofttimes pleasingly bronzed. They are over ½in. long and egg-shaped, being bent backwards. The stems are furnished with short hairs, are much branched, and densely foliaged. This compact-growing shrub would make a capital edging, provided it was well grown in vegetable soil. It would go well with _Erica carnea_ to form a double line, either to a shrubbery or permanent beds of dwarf flowering trees. Now that berries are so much used for wearing about the person and for indoor decoration, those of this shrub may become useful. A dishful of sprigs in October proves pleasant both to the sight and smell, the flowers and fruit being charmingly blended. [Illustration: FIG. 108. VACCINIUM VITIS-IDÆA. (Natural size.)] _V. v.-i. major_ is a variety which is simply larger in all its parts; it is, however, rather more bronzed in the foliage. I daresay by many it would be preferred to the typical form, both for its robust and decorative qualities. It is nearly twice the size of the type. As may be inferred, both from the order to which this shrub belongs and the localities where it occurs in its wild state, a peaty or vegetable soil will be required. I find the species grow most freely in a mixture of leaf soil and sand, the position being moist but exposed. It does not object to a little shade, but then its useful berries are neither so numerously produced nor so well coloured. It is easily propagated by division at almost any time. Flowering period, May to October. Veronica Gentianoides. _Syn._ V. GENTIANIFOLIA; GENTIAN-LEAVED SPEEDWELL; _Nat. Ord._ SCROPHULARIACEÆ. This is a distinct and pleasing species, viewed as a garden plant. It is very hardy, and one of the herbaceous kinds; it has been grown in English gardens nearly 150 years, and came originally from the Levant. It is pretty widely used, but it deserves a place in every garden; not only are its tall spikes of flowers effective during their season, but the foliage, compared with other Veronicas, is of a bright and plump character. The newly-formed tufts, which are somewhat rosette-shaped, have a fresh appearance throughout the winter, it being one of the few herbaceous subjects in which the signs of life are so visible in this climate. The flowers are small-½in. in diameter--numerously produced on spikes 18in. high. They are blue, striped with light and dark shades; both calyx and corolla, as common to the genus, are four-parted, petals of uneven size. The flower spikes are finely developed, the flowers and buds occupying 12in. of their length, and tapering off to a point which bends gracefully. The buds are not less pretty than the flowers, resembling as they do turquoise in a deep setting of the calyx. The leaves are smooth, shining, and of much substance, 3in. to 6in. long, and 1in. to 2in. broad, lance-shaped, serrated, and sheathing. They are of a somewhat clustered arrangement close to the ground. Good pieces of this plant, 1ft. to 2ft. across, are very effective, and flower for a good while. The rich and graceful spikes are of great value for vase decoration, one or two sufficing in connection with other suitable flowers. There is a lovely variety of this species called _V. g. variegata_; in shape and habit it resembles the type though scarcely as vigorous, but not at all "miffy." The leaves are richly coloured pale green, white, and pink; and the flowers, as seldom occurs in variegated forms, are larger and more handsome than in the parent; in all respects, it is as useful, and, for forming an edging, perhaps more suitable than the common form. Both kinds like a good fat loam and a moist situation; they may be grown either in borders or on rockwork, but specimens on the latter compare poorly with those grown otherwise; either they are too dry, or the soil gets washed from them, so that the new roots, which strike down from the surface-creeping stems, do not find the needful nourishment. Their increase is easily effected by division of the rooted stems any time after they have done flowering. If the season is droughty, they should be well watered. Flowering period, May to July. Veronica Pinguifolia. FAT-LEAVED SPEEDWELL; _Nat. Ord._ SCROPHULARIACEÆ. This is a rather uncommon species, being of the shrubby section, but unlike many of its relative kinds, it is perfectly hardy, also evergreen and very dwarf; a specimen three or four years old is but a diminutive bush, 18in. through and 8in. high. The habit is dense, the main or old branches are prostrate, the younger wood being erect and full of very short side shoots. The flowers are produced on the new wood; the chubby flower-spikes issue from the axils of the leaves near the leading shoot; in some cases there are three, in others four, but more often two. Each flower spike has a short, stout, round stem, nearly an inch long, and the part furnished with buds is nearly as long again. At this stage (just before they begin to open) the buds are rice-shaped, snow white, waxy, and arranged cone form. They are, moreover, charmingly intersected with the pale green sepals in their undeveloped stage. The little bunches of buds are simply exquisite. The flowers are small, pure white, waxy, and twisted in the petals. The two filaments are longer than the petals, having rather large anthers, which are bright purple. This pleasing feature, together with the young shoots in the midst of the blossoms, which have small stout glaucous leaves tipped with yellow--nearly golden--give the clusters a bouquet-like appearance. The leaves are small--little more than half an inch long--and ovate, slightly cupped, stem-clasping, and opposite. They are a pale glaucous hue, and closely grown on the stems; they greatly add to the rich effect of the flowers. This shrub is a most fitting subject for rockwork, and it would also make an edging of rare beauty, which, if well grown, no one could but admire. It seems to enjoy loam and leaf soil in a moist but sunny situation. It may be propagated by cuttings, taken with a part of the previous year's wood. Flowering period, May to July. Veronica Prostrata. PROSTRATE SPEEDWELL; _Nat. Ord._ SCROPHULARIACEÆ. This is sometimes confounded with _V. repens_, I presume from the slight distinction in the specific names, but so different are the two species that no one who has seen them can possibly take one for the other. _V. repens_ is herb-like; it creeps and roots, and has nearly white flowers in April; but _V. prostrata_ is a deciduous trailer, and the more common and best form has fine gentian-blue flowers; it is a capital rock plant, being most effective when hanging over the face of large stones. The flowers are small, and produced in rather long sprays, which are numerous, so that little else than flowers can be seen for two or three weeks. It will grow and flower freely in any soil, but the aspect should be sunny; it is easily increased by division or rootlets. I may add that the very long stems of this prostrate plant (when in bloom) are well adapted for indoor decoration. Where pendent, deep blue flowers are needed, there are very few good blues so suitable. Flowering period, May to July. Vesicaria Græca. _Nat. Ord._ CRUCIFERÆ. This beautiful, diminutive, hardy evergreen shrub comes to us from Switzerland, being an alpine species (see Fig. 109). [Illustration: FIG. 109. VESICARIA GRÆCA. (One-third natural size; 1, full size.)] When in flower it does not exceed the height of 6in. or 8in., at which time it is very showy, covered, as it is, with flowers of the brightest golden yellow, surpassing the golden alyssum, which in some respects it resembles, being half woody, possessing greyish leaves, and dense heads of flowers, which, however, are arranged in small corymbs, and being also much larger. The leaves of the flower stalks resemble lavender leaves in general appearance; those of the unproductive stems are larger, and arranged sparingly in rigid rosette form, such unproductive stems being few. The neat and erect habit of the plant renders it most suitable for rockwork or edgings, and otherwise, from its long continued flowering, which will exceed a month in moderate weather, it is one of the most useful spring flowers; whilst, for cutting purposes, it cannot but rank with the more choice, as, combined with extra brightness of colour, it exhales a rich hawthorn perfume. To all who have a garden, big or little, I would say, grow this sweet little shrub. It has never failed to do well with me in any situation that was fully exposed; it flowers freely in a light dry bed, but on rockwork it is most at home. The quickest way to prepare plants of flowering strength is to divide strong pieces; but this interferes with the larger specimens, which are by far the best forms in which to grow and retain it. Another mode is to cut off all the flowers nearly down to the old wood; side shoots will thus be induced to grow earlier than otherwise, so that in late summer they may be taken off as slips, and there will still be plenty of time to strike them like wallflower slips, and get plenty of roots to them before the cold weather sets in. The plant also produces seed freely in its inflated pods, which affords another, but more tedious, way of increasing it. Flowering period, April to June. Viola Pedata. PEDATE-LEAVED _or_ BIRD'S-FOOT VIOLET; _Nat. Ord._ VIOLACEÆ. Over a hundred years ago this hardy herbaceous violet was introduced from North America; still, it is not largely grown, though it is now becoming quite a favourite. As may be seen by the illustration (Fig. 110), it is distinct in general appearance, more especially in the foliage, which in its young state is bird-foot-shaped, whence the appropriateness of its specific name; it should perhaps be explained that the leaves are very small compared with the flowers when the plant first begins to bloom, but later they increase very much in size. There are several characteristics about this species which render it desirable, and no choice collection should be without either this (the typical form) or some of its varieties. Deep cut, shining, dark green foliage, very bright blue flowers, and pleasing habit are its most prominent features; its blooming period is prolonged, and it has a robust constitution, which further commends it to lovers of choice flowers, and if once planted in proper quarters it gives no further trouble in the way of treatment. The flowers are nearly an inch across, bright purple-blue, produced on stalks of varying lengths, but mostly long; the leaves are many parted, segments long, narrow and lance-shaped, some being cut or toothed near the tips; the crown of the root is rather bulky; the roots are long and fleshy. The following are varieties; all are handsome and worth growing: _V. p. alba_, new; flowers white, not so robust as the type. _V. p. bicolor_, new; flowers two colours. _V. p. flabellata_ (syn. _V. digitata_); flowers light purple. _V. p. ranunculifolia_ (syn. _V. ranunculifolia_); flowers nearly white. [Illustration: FIG. 110. VIOLA PEDATA. (Two-thirds natural size.)] As this plant requires a moist and partially shaded situation, it is not eligible for doing duty indiscriminately in any part of the garden; still, it will thrive under any conditions such as the well-known violets are seen to encounter. On the north or west side of rockwork, in dips or moist parts, it will be found to do well and prove attractive. The propagation of all the kinds may be carried out by allowing the seed to scatter itself, and, before the winter sets in, a light top-dressing of half rotted leaves and sand will not only be a natural way of protecting it until germination takes place, but will also be of much benefit to the parent plants. Another mode of increase is to divide the roots of strong and healthy specimens; in this way only can true kinds be obtained; seedlings are almost certain to be crossed. Flowering period, May and June. Viola Tricolor. THREE-COLOURED VIOLET, PANSY, or HEARTSEASE; _Nat. Ord._ VIOLACEÆ. [Illustration: FIG. 111. VIOLA TRICOLOR. (One-third natural size.)] This well known herbaceous perennial is a British species. It has long been grown in gardens, where, by selection and crossing, innumerable and beautiful kinds have been produced, so that at the present time it is not only a "florist's flower," but a general favourite. Besides the above-mentioned common names, it has many others, and it may not be uninteresting to repeat them--"Love in Idleness," "Call me to you," "Kiss me ere I rise," "Herb Trinity," and "Three Faces under one Hood." Although this plant is herbaceous, the old stems remain green until the new growths come into flower, and, in many varieties, by a little management in plucking out the buds during summer, flowers may be had in the autumn and well into winter. If, also, from other plants early cuttings have been taken, and become well rooted, they will produce large flowers very early in spring, and so the Pansy may be had in flower nearly the year round. Any description of this well-known plant would be superfluous to an English reader. The wild _V. tricolor_ is, however, a very different plant and flower to its numerous offspring, such as the illustration (Fig. 111) depicts, and in which there is ever a tendency to "go back." It is only by constant care and high cultivation that the Pansy is kept at such a high standard of excellence, and one may add that such labour is well repaid by the results. With no flower more than the Pansy does all depend on the propagation and culture. Not the least reliance can be placed on seeds for producing flowers like those of the parent. Cuttings or root divisions should be made in summer, so as to have them strong, to withstand the winter. They enjoy a stiffish loam, well enriched. And in spring they may be lifted with a ball and transplanted into beds, borders, lines, or irregular masses, where they are equally effective, and no flower is more reliable for a profusion of bloom. Yucca Filamentosa. THREADY-LEAVED YUCCA; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This is of a more deciduous nature than _Y. gloriosa_, reclothing itself each spring more amply with foliage. In December, however, it is in fine form, and though it is a better flowering species than most of its genus, and to a fair extent valuable for its flowers, it will be more esteemed, perhaps, as a shrub of ornamental foliage. It came from Virginia in the year 1675. The flowers are pretty, greenish-white, bell-shaped, and drooping: they are arranged in panicles, which, when sent up from strong plants, are, from their size, very attractive; but otherwise they are hardly up to the mark as flowers. The leaves in form are lance-shaped, concave, reflexed near the ends, and sharp-pointed. The colour is a yellowish-green, the edges are brown, and their substance is split up into curled filaments, which are sometimes 9in. or more long, and are blown about by every breeze. From these thready parts the species takes its name. It is seldom that this kind grows more than 4ft. high, but a greater number of offsets are produced from this than from any other of our cultivated Yuccas. I know no better use for this kind than planting it on the knolly parts of rockwork, positions which in every way suit it, for it enjoys a warm, dry soil. _Y. f. variegata_, as its name implies, is a form with coloured foliage. In the north it proves to be far from hardy, and therefore cannot be recommended for culture in the open garden. My reasons for mentioning it are that it is convenient to do so when the typical form is under notice, and that it is frequently spoken of as hardy. Subjects needing well selected positions, protection, and a mild winter in order to keep them alive from autumn to spring, can in no sense be considered hardy, even though they may be planted out of doors. Flowering period, August to October. Yucca Gloriosa. GLORIOUS YUCCA, ADAM'S NEEDLE; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. A hardy evergreen shrub which has long been grown in England, but for all that is not often met with in private gardens. It is a native of South America, and was brought to our shores in 1596. The genus is remarkable for not flowering constantly in our climate, and also for slow growth; fortunately, both these drawbacks, if one may term them such, are counter-balanced by the handsome foliage of the various species, mostly of an evergreen and very durable nature, and also by the bold and symmetrical arrangement of the same. This Yucca flowers in the autumn, but it may be considered more especially a foliage subject, as the bloom is insignificant compared with the leaves and is not produced more than once in four years as a rule. The leaves assume their richest hues and become thoroughly matured about the end of the year; and when the ground is covered with a thick coat of snow, their rigid forms are amongst the very few of any note that can be seen. In any garden, no matter how large or how small, a Yucca imparts a style or character to it which scarcely any other subject can give. It may not be so easy to explain this, but the fact is recognised by the most casual observer at first sight. If I say the effect is tropical, noble, rich, and sometimes graceful, a partial idea of its ornamental qualities may be conveyed; but to know its value and enjoy it, it should be grown. The species under consideration has many forms, some differing rather widely from the type, so much so that these varieties are honoured with specific names. First may be given a brief description of the parent form. It grows from 3ft. to 6ft. high, according to the more or less favourable conditions. These dimensions apply to blooming specimens; but shrubs, three to six years old, if they have never bloomed, may not exceed 1ft. to 2ft. in height, and about the same in diameter. The flowers, as may be gathered from the order to which the genus belongs, are lily-like, or bell-shaped; they are of a greenish white colour, arranged in lax clusters on stoutish stalks. The leaves are 12in. to 2ft. long, 3in. or more broad in their widest parts, concave or boat-shaped, sharp pointed, glaucous, sometimes slightly plicate, rigid, and leathery. The habit, after flowering, is generally to form offsets, when the plant loses much of its former boldness and effect. From the lateness of its blooming period, and a lack of suitable conditions, it does not ripen seed in our climate, and it must of necessity be raised from seed ripened in more favourable climes. The following are said to be some of its varieties, bearing useful descriptive names: _Y. g. pendula_, having a pendulous habit or reflexed leaves; _Y. g. plicata_, having plaited leaves; _Y. g. minor_, a lesser form in its various parts. There are other reputed varieties of more doubtful descent. For cultivation see _Y. recurva_. Yucca Recurva. RECURVE-LEAVED YUCCA; _Common Name_, WEEPING YUCCA; _Nat. Ord._ LILIACEÆ. This is a charming species, perfectly hardy and evergreen; it was brought from Georgia about ninety years ago. The flowers are a greenish-white, and undesirable where the shrub is grown for the sake of its ornamental qualities; fortunately they are far from being constant in their appearance. September is its blooming period in our climate. The leaves are its main feature; with age it becomes rather tall, 6ft. to 9ft. high, having a woody hole or caudex, which is largely concealed by the handsome drooping foliage; a few of the youngest leaves from the middle of the tuft remain erect. The whole specimen is characterised by its deep green and glossy foliage, combined with a most graceful habit. Few things can be planted with such desirable effect as this shrub; it puts a stamp on the landscape, parterre and shrubland, and when well grown forms a landmark in the most extensive garden. [Illustration: FIG. 112. YUCCA RECURVA (one-eighteenth natural size.)] For all the species and varieties of Yucca the mode of culture is not only similar but simple. They have long roots of a wiry texture. These denote that they require deep soil, light, and rather dry. Sandy loam, light vegetable soil, or marl and peat grow them well. Raised beds or borders, the higher parts of rockwork, or any open position, thoroughly drained, will not only be conducive to their health, but also prove fitting points of vantage. In planting Yuccas it must never be forgotten that perfect drainage is the all important requisite, and if it is not afforded the stock will never thrive, but ultimately die from rot or canker. Another matter, when referred to, will perhaps complete all that is special about the culture, or rather planting, of Yuccas. Begin with young stuff; I know nothing that transplants worse than this class of shrubs after they have become considerably grown. Their spare, wiry roots, when taken out of a sandy soil, do not carry a "ball," and from the great depth to which they run they are seldom taken up without more than ordinary damage. Young specimens, 6in., 9in., or not more than 12in. high, should be preferred, and of these sizes the least will prove the safest. Yuccas are readily propagated at the proper season; and in specifying the season it is needful to point out that of offsets, from which young stock is soonest obtained, there are two kinds. Some spring from immediately below the earth, and may more properly be termed suckers; the others grow on the visible part of the stem or caudex, often close to the oldest leaves; these should be cut off with a sharp knife, in early summer, and if they have a little of the parent bark attached to them all the better. If they are planted in a shady place, in sweet sandy loam, they will make good roots before winter, and may be allowed to make the following summer's growth in the same position. In the succeeding autumn it will be a good plan to put them in their permanent places. The suckers will be found to have more or less root; they should be taken in spring from the parent specimen, the roots should be carefully preserved, and the pushing parts planted just level with the surface. FLOWERING PERIODS. As an aid to readers desirous of making a selection of plants which will secure a succession of bloom the year through, we here give a list of those described in the preceding pages, arranged according to their average periods of flowering. January. Anemone fulgens, Aralia Sieboldi, Bulbocodium vernum, Cheiranthus Cheiri, Crocus medius, Eranthis hyemalis, Helleborus abchasicus, H. antiquorum, H. Bocconi, H. colchicus, H. cupreus, H. foetidus, H. guttatus, H. niger, H. orientalis, H. olympicus, Jasminum nudiflorum, Petasites vulgaris, Saxifraga Burseriana. February. Anemone blanda, A. fulgens, A. stellata, Arabis lucida, A. Sieboldi, Bellis perennis, Bulbocodium trigynum, B. vernum, Cheiranthus Cheiri, Corydalis solida, Daphne Mezereum, Eranthis hyemalis, Erica carnea, Galanthus Elwesii, G. Imperati, G. nivalis, G. plicatus, Helleborus abchasicus, H. antiquorum, H, Bocconi, H. colchicus, H. cupreus, H. dumetorum, H. foetidus, H. guttatus, H. niger, H. odorus, H. orientalis, H. olympicus, H. purpurascens, Hepatica angulosa, H. triloba, Jasminum nudiflorum, Petasites vulgaris, Polyanthus, Primula acaulis, Saxifraga Burseriana. March. Anemone blanda, A. fulgens, A. Pulsatilla, A. stellata, Arabis lucida, Aralia Sieboldi, Bellis perennis, Bulbocodium trigynum, B. vernum, Cheiranthus Cheiri, Chionodoxa Luciliæ, Corydalis solida, Daphne Mezereum, Dentaria digitata, Doronicum caucasicum, Epigæa repens, Erica carnea, Erythronium dens-canis, Galanthus Elwesii, G. Imperati, G. nivalis, G. plicatus, G. Redoutei, Helleborus abchasicus, H. antiquorum, H. Bocconi, H. colchicus, H. cupreus, H. dumetorum, H. foetidus, H. guttatus, H. niger, H. odorus, H. orientalis, H. olympicus, H. purpurascens, Hepatica angulosa, H. triloba, Jasminum nudiflorum, Leucojum vernum, Muscari botryoides, M. racemosum, Narcissus minor, Omphalodes verna, Orobus vernus, Phlox frondosa, Polyanthus, Primula acaulis, P. Cashmeriana, P. denticulata, P. marginata, P. purpurea, P. Scotica, Pulmonarias, Puschkinia scilloides, Saxifraga Burseriana, S. ciliata, S. cordifolia, S. coriophylla, S. ligulata, S. oppositifolia, S. Rocheliana, Sisyrinchium grandiflorum, Soldanellas, Triteleia uniflora. April. Alyssum saxatile, Andromeda tetragona, Anemone Apennina, A. fulgens, A. Pulsatilla, A. stellata, Arabis lucida, Bellis perennis, Calthus palustris flore-pleno, Cheiranthus Cheiri, Chionodoxa Luciliæ, Corydalis nobilis, C. solida, Daphne cneorum, D. Mezereum, Dentaria digitata, D. Jeffreyanum, D. Meadia, Dondia Epipactis, Doronicum caucasicum, Epigæa repens, Erica carnea, Erysimum pumilum, Erythronium dens-canis, Fritillaria armena, Galanthus nivalis, G. plicatus, G. Redoutei, Gentiana verna, Helleborus antiquorum, H. colchicus, H. orientalis, H. purpurascens, Hepatica angulosa, H. triloba, Houstonia coerulea, Jasminum nudiflorum, Leucojum vernum, Muscari botryoides, M. racemosum, Narcissus minor, Omphalodes verna, Orobus vernus, Phlox frondosa, Polyanthus, Primula acaulis, P. capitata, P. Cashmeriana, P. denticulata, P. farinosa, P. marginata, P. purpurea, P. Scotica, P. vulgaris flore-pleno, Pulmonarias, Puschkinia scilloides, Ranunculus acris flore-pleno, R. amplexicaulis, R. speciosum, Sanguinaria canadensis, Saxifraga Burseriana, S. ciliata, S. cordifolia, S. ligulata, S. oppositifolia, S. purpurascens, S. Rocheliana, S. Wallacei, Scilla campanulata, Sisyrinchium grandiflorum, Soldanellas, Symphytum caucasicum, Tritelia uniflora, Vesicaria græca. May. Alyssum saxatile, Anchusa Italica, A. sempervirens, Andromeda tetragona, Anemone Apennina, A. coronaria, A. decapitate, A. fulgens, A. nemorosa flore-pleno, A. Pulsatilla, A. stellata, A. sulphurea, A. sylvestris, A. vernalis, Arabis lucida, Bellis perennis, Calthus palustris flore-pleno, Cheiranthus Cheiri, C. Marshallii, Corydalis lutea, C. nobilis, C. solida, Cypripedium calceolus, Daphne cneorum, Dentaria digitata, Dianthus hybridus, Dodecatheon Jeffreyanum, D. Meadia, Dondia Epipactis, Doronicum caucasicum, Erysimum pumilum, Fritillaria armena, Gentiana acaulis, G. verna, Geranium argenteum, Heuchera, H. Americana, H. cylindrica, H. Drummondi, H. glabra, H. lucida, H. metallica, H. micrantha, H. purpurea, H. ribifolia, H. Richardsoni, Houstonia coerulea, Iberis correæfolia, Leucojum æstivum, Lithospermum prostratum, Muscari botryoides, M. racemosum, Omphalodes verna, Orchis fusca, Orobus vernus, Ourisia coccinea, Papaver orientale, Phlox frondosa, Podophyllum peltatum, Polyanthus, Primula acaulis, P. capitata, P. Cashmeriana, P. denticulata, P. farinosa, P. marginata, P. Scotica, P. vulgaris flore-pleno, Pulmonarias, Puschkinia scilloides, Ramondia pyrenaica, Ranunculus aconitifolius, R. acris flore-pleno, R. amplexicaulis, R. speciosum, Sanguinaria canadensis, Saponaria ocymoides, Saxifraga cæsia, S. ciliata, S. cordifolia, S. ligulata, S. paradoxa, S. pectinata, S. purpurascens, S. tuberosa, S. Wallacei, Scilla campanulata, Sisyrinchium grandiflorum, Soldanellas, Spiræa ulmaria variegata, Symphytum caucascium, Tiarella cordifolia, Trientalis europæa, Trillium erectum, Triteleia uniflora, Vaccinium Vitis Idæa, Veronica gentianoides, V. pinguifolia, V. prostrata, Vesicaria græca. June. Acæna Novæ Zealandiæ, Achillea ægyptiaca, A. filipendula, A. millefolium, A. Ptarmica, Allium Moly, A. neapolitanum, Anchusa italica, A. sempervirens, Anemone alpina, A. coronaria, A. decapitata, A. fulgens, A. stellata, A. sulphurea, A. sylvestris, A. vernalis, Anthericum Liliago, A. Liliastrum, Anthyllis montana, Arabis lucida, Arisæma triphyllum, Arum crinitum, Aster alpinus, Bellis perennis, Calthus palustris flore-pleno, Campanula grandis, C. latifolia, C. speciosa, Centaurea montana, Centranthus ruber, Cheiranthus Cheiri, C. Marshallii, Cornus canadensis, Corydalis lutea, C. nobilis, Cypripedium calceolus, Dianthus deltoides, D. hybridus, Dodecatheon Jeffreyanum, D. Meadia, Doronicum caucasicum, Erigeron caucasicus, E. glaucum, Erysimum pumilum, Festuca glauca, Funkia albo-marginata, Gentiana acaulis, G. Burseri, G. cruciata, G. gelida, G. verna, Geranium argenteum, Gillenia trifoliata, Hesperis matronalis flore-pleno, Heuchera, H. Americana, H. cylindrica, H. Drummondi, H. glabra, H. lucida, H. metallica, H. micrantha, H. purpurea, H. ribifolia, H. Richardsoni, Houstonia coerulea, Iberis correæfolia, Iris foetidissima, Kalmia latifolia, Lathyrus grandiflorus, L. latifolius, Leucojum æstivum, Lithospermum prostratum, Lychnis chalcedonica, L. Viscaria flore-pleno, Margyricarpus setosus, Mazus pumilio, Melittis melissophyllum, Morina longifolia, Oenothera speciosa, Oe. taraxacifolia, Ononis rotundifolia, Onosma taurica, Orchis foliosa, O. fusca, Ourisia coccinea, Papaver orientale, Pentstemons, Physalis Alkekengi, Podophyllum peltatum, Polyanthus, Pratia repens, Primula acaulis, P. capitata, P. farinosa, P. sikkimensis, P. vulgaris flore-pleno, Ramondia pyrenaica, Ranunculus aconitifolius flore-pleno, R. acris flore-pleno, R. speciosum, Saponaria ocymoides, Saxifraga cæsia, S. longifolia, S. Macnabiana, S. mutata, S. paradoxa, S. pectinata, S. peltata, S. purpurascens, S. pyramidalis, S. umbrosa, S. Wallacei, Scilla campanulata, Sempervivum Laggeri, Spiræa ulmaria variegata, S. venusta, Stenactis speciosus, Symphytum caucasicum, Tiarella cordifolia, Trientalis europæa, Trillium erectum, Vaccinum Vitis-Idæa, Veronica gentianoides, V. pinguifolia, V. prostrata, Vesicaria græca. July. Acæna Novæ Zealandiæ, Achillea ægyptiaca, A. filipendula, A. millefolium, A. Ptarmica, Allium Moly, A. neapolitanum, Anchusa Italica, A. sempervirens, Anthericum Liliago, A. liliastrum, Anthyllis montana, Arisæma triphyllum, Arum crinitum, Aster alpinus, Bellis perennis, Calystegia pubescens flore-pleno, Campanula grandis, C. latifolia, C. persicifolia, C. pyramidalis, C. speciosa, C. Waldsteiniana, Centaurea montana, Centranthus ruber, Coreopsis lanceolata, Cornus canadensis, Corydalis lutea, Dianthus deltoides, D. hybridus, Doronicum caucasicum, Edraianthus dalmaticus, Erigeron caucasicus, E. glaucum, Erysimum pumilum, Festuca glauca, Funkia albo-marginata, F. Sieboldi, Galax aphylla, Galega officinalis, G. persica lilacina, Gentiana acaulis, G. asclepiadea, G. Burseri, G. cruciata, G. gelida, Geranium argenteum, Gillenia trifoliata, Hesperis matronalis flore-pleno, Heuchera, H. americana, H. cylindrica, H. Drummondi, H. glabra, H. lucida, H. metallica, H. micrantha, H. purpurea, H. ribifolia, H. Richardsoni, Houstonia coerulea, Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, Hypericum calycinum, Iris foetidissima, Isopyrum gracilis, Kalmia latifolia, Lathyrus grandiflorus, L. latifolius, Leucojum æstivum, Lithospermum prostratum, Lychnis chalcedonica, L. Viscaria flore-pleno, Lysimachia clethroides, Margyricarpus setosus, Mazus pumilio, Melittis melissophyllum, Monarda didyma, M. fistulosa, M. Russelliana, Morina longifolia, Muhlenbeckia complexa, Nierembergia rivularis, Oenothera speciosa, Oe. taraxacifolia, Ononis rotundifolia, Onosma taurica, Orchis foliosa, Ourisia coccinea, Pentstemons, Physalis Alkekengi, Polygonum cuspidatum, Potentilla fructicosa, Pratia repens, Primula sikkimensis, Ramondia pyrenaica, Ranunculus aconitifolius flore-pleno, Rudbeckia californica, Saponaria ocymoides, Saxifraga longifolia, S. Macnabiana, S. mutata, S. pyramidalis, S. umbrosa, S. Wallacei, Sempervivum Laggeri, Spiræa palmata, S. ulmaria variegata, S. venusta, Stenactis speciosus, Umbillicus chrysanthus, Vaccinium Vitis-Idæa, Veronica gentianoides, V. pinguifolia, V. prostrata. August. Acæna Novæ Zealandiæ, Achillea ægyptiaca, A. filipendula, A. millefolium, A. Ptarmica, Aconitum autumnale, Allium Moly, A. neapolitanum, Anchusa italica, A. sempervirens, Anemone japonica, Apios tuberosa, Asters, A. ptarmicoides, Bocconia cordata, Calystegia pubescens flore-pleno, Campanula persicifolia, C. pyramidalis, C. Waldsteiniana, Centaurea montana, Centranthus ruber, Chrysanthemum, Cichorium Intybus, Clethra alnifolia, Coreopsis auriculata, C. grandiflora, C. lanceolata, C. tenuifolia, Cornus canadensis, Corydalis lutea, Dianthus deltoides D. hybridus, Edraianthus dalmaticus, Erigeron caucasicus, E. glaucum, Eryngium giganteum, Erysimum pumilum, Festuca glauca, Funkia albo-marginata, F. Sieboldi, Galax aphylla, Galega officinalis, G. persica liliacina, Gentiana asclepiadea, G. Burseri, G. gelida, Gillenia trifoliata, Gynerium argenteum, Harpalium rigidum, Helianthus multiflorus, Hesperis matronalis flore-pleno, Heuchera, H. americana, H. cylindrica, H. Drummondi, H. glabra, H. lucida, H. metallica, H. micrantha, H. purpurea, H. ribifolia, H. Richardsoni, Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, Hypericum calycinum, Iris foetidissima, Isopyrum gracilis, Kalmia latifolia, Lathyrus grandiflorus, L. latifolius, Linum flavum, Lobelia cardinalis, Lychnis chalcedonica, L. Viscaria flore-pleno, Lysimachia clethroides, Margyricarpus setosus, Mazus pumilio, Melittis melissophyllum, Monarda didyma, M. fistulosa, M. Russelliana, Muhlenbeckia complexa, Nierembergia rivularis, Oenothera speciosa, Oe. taraxacifolia, Ononis rotundifolia, Onosma taurica, Ourisia coccinea, Pentstemons, Phlox, Physalis Alkekengi, Polygonum Brunonis, P. cuspidatum, P. filiformis variegatum, P. vaccinifolium, Potentilla fruticosa, Pratia repens, Pyrethrum uliginosum, Rudbeckia californica, Saponaria ocymoides, Saxifraga mutata, S. Wallacei, Sedum Sieboldi, S. spectabile, Sempervivum Laggeri, Senecio pulcher, Spiræa palmata, S. ulmaria variegata, S. venusta, Statice latifolia, S. profusa, Stenactis speciosus, Tropæolum tuberosum, Umbilicus chrysanthus, Vaccinium Vitis-Idæa. September. Acæna Novæ Zealandiæ, Achillea ægyptiaca, A. filipendula, A. millefolium, Aconitum autumnale, Anchusa italica, A. sempervirens, Anemone japonica, Apios tuberosa, Asters, A. ptarmicoides, Bocconia cordata, Calystegia pubescens flore-pleno, Campanula persicifolia, C. pyramidalis, Centaurea montana, Centranthus ruber, Chrysanthemum, Cichorium Intybus, Clethra alnifolia, Colchicum autumnale, C. variegatum, Coreopsis auriculata, C. grandiflora, c. lanceolata, C. tenuifolia, Cornus canadensis, Corydalis lutea, Cyananthus lobatus, Daphne cneorum, Dianthus deltoides, Dianthus hybridus, Echinacea purpurea, Erigeron caucasicus, E. glaucum, Eryngium giganteum, Erysimum pumilum, Festuca glauca, Funkia Sieboldii, Galega officinalis, G. persica liliacina, Gynerium argenteum, Harpalium rigidum, Helianthus multiflorus, H. orygalis, Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, Hypericum calycinum, Lactuca sonchifolia, Lilium auratum, Linum flavum, Lobelia cardinalis, Lysimachia clethroides, Margyricarpus setosus, Mazus pumilio, Monarda didyma, M. fistulosa, M. Russelliana, Ononis rotundifolia, Onosma taurica, Origanum pulchellum, Ourisia coccinea, Phlox, Physalis Alkekengi, Polygonum Brunonis, P. filiformis variegatum, P. vaccinifolium, Potentilla fruticosa, Pratia repens, Pyrethrum uliginosum, Rudbeckia californica, R. serotina, Salix reticulata, Sedum Sieboldi, S. spectabile, Senecio pulcher, Statice latifolia, S. profusa, Stenactis speciosus, Tritoma uvaria, Tropæolum tuberosum, Umbilicus chrysanthus, Vaccinium Vitis-Idæa. October. Achillea millefolium, Aconitum autumnale, Anemone japonica, Apios tuberosa, Asters, A. ptarmicoides, Campanula pyramidalis, Chrysanthemum, Colchicum autumnale, C. variegatum, Coreopsis lanceolata, Cornus canadensis, Corydalis lutea, Cyananthus lobatus, Dianthus deltoides, Echinacea purpurea, Erigeron caucasicus, E. glaucum, Erysimum pumilum, Gynerium argenteum, Helianthus orygalis, Lactuca sonchifolia, Lilium auratum, Lobelia cardinalis, Onosma taurica, Origanum pulchellum, Phlox, Physalis Alkekengi, Polygonum Brunonis, P. filiformis variegatum, P. vaccinifolium, Potentilla fruticosa, Pratia repens, Primula vulgaris flore-pleno, Rudbeckia serotina, Salix reticulata, Saxifraga Fortunei, Sedum spectabile, Senecio pulcher, Statice latifolia, S. profusa, Stokesia cyanea, Tritoma uvaria, Tropæolum tuberosum, Umbilicus chrysanthus, Vaccinium Vitis-Idæa. November. Achillea millefolium, Anemone japonica, Aralia Sieboldi, Asters, Chrysanthemum, Lilium auratum, Origanum pulchellum, Petasites vulgaris, Physalis Alkekengi, Primula vulgaris flore-pleno, Saxifraga Fortunei, Stokesia cyanea. December. Aralia Sieboldi, Eranthis hyemalis, Helleborus foetidus, H. niger, H. orientalis, H. olympicus, Jasminum nudiflorum, Petasites vulgaris, Physalis Alkekengi, Stokesia cyanea. COLOURS OF FLOWERS. The following list will be found useful to those who wish to select flowers of any particular colour:-- ~Blue~ (including some of the shades inclining to Purple). Aconitum autumnale, 5. Anemone Apennina, 12; A. blanda, 12; A. coronaria, 13; A. japonica vitifolia, 16. Anchusa italica, 8; A. sempervirens, 9. Campanula grandis, 49; C. latifolia, 50; C. persicifolia, 50; C. pyramidalis, 51. Centaurea montana, 54. Chionodoxa Luciliæ, 58. Cichorium Intybus, 61. Cyananthus lobatus, 74. Eryngium giganteum, 96. Galega officinalis, 110. Gentiana acaulis, 111; G. cruciata, 114; G. verna, 115. Hepatica triloba, 140. Houstonia coerulea, 146. Lactuca sonchifolia, 158. Lithospermum prostratum, 165. Muscari botryoides, 179; M. racemosum, 180. Omphalodes verna, 185. Orobus vernus, 192. Primula, 212; P. capitata, 213. Pulmonarias, 224; P. azurea, 225. Scilla campanulata, 267 Soldanella alpina, 276; S. montana, 276. Stokesia cyanea, 284. Symphytum caucasicum, 286. Veronica gentianoides, 300; V. prostrata, 301. Viola pedata,303; V. tricolor, 305. ~Brown.~ Cheiranthus Cheiri, 56. Corydalis nobilis, 71. Chrysanthemum, 59. Gillenia trifoliata, 117. Orchis fusca, 189. Trillium erectum, 291. ~Green.~ Helleborus abchasicus, 126; H. Bocconi, 128; H. dumetorum, 131; H. foetidus, 131; H. odorus, 136; H. orientalis elegans, 138. Heuchera Richardsoni, 146. Margyricarpus setosus, 171. ~Lilac.~ Asters or Michaelmas daisies, 37. Bulbocodium trigynum, 45; B. vernum, 46. Campanula Waldsteiniana. 53. Crocus medius, 74. Erigeron glaucum, 94. Erythronium dens canis, 98. Funkia albo-marginata, 102; F. Sieboldii, 103. Galega persica liliacina, 110. Phlox, 202. Statice latifolia, 280; S. profusa, 281. Triteleia uniflora liliacina, 293. Helleborus cupreus, 130. ~Pink~ (including shades of Blush and Rose). Achillea millefolium, 4. Anemone japonica, 16. Calystegia pubescens flore-pleno, 48. Centaurea montana, 54. Centranthus ruber coccinea, 56. Chrysanthemum, 69. Daphne cneorum, 78. Dianthus deltoides, 81, 152; D. hybridus, 82. Geranium argenteum, 116. Helleborus orientalis, 137. Hepatica triloba, 140. Heuchera glabra, 144. Lathyrus grandiflorus, 159; L. latifolius, 160. Lychnis Viscaria flore-pleno, 170. Melittis Melissophyllum, 174. Morina longifolia, 176. Origanum pulchellum, 191. Phlox, 202 Polygonum Brunonis, 207; P. vaccinifolium, 209. Primula denticulata amabilis, 217. Pulmonarias, 224; P. saccharata, 225. Saponaria ocymoides, 237. Saxifraga cordifolia, 245; S. ligulata, 249; S. peltata, 259; S. purpurascens, 261. Scilla campanulata carnea, 268. Sedum Sieboldi, 269; S. spectabile, 269. Sempervivum Laggeri, 270. Spring Beauty, 152. ~Purple~ (including shades Lilac Purple, Rosy and Reddish Purple, Purple Blue, &c). Anemone coronaria, 13; A. pulsatilla, 18; A. stellata, 20; A. vernalis, 24. Anthyllis montana, 27. Apios tuberosa, 27. Arum crinitum, 35. Aster alpinus, 37; A. Amellus, 37; A. Madame Soyance, 37. Bulbocodium vernum, 46. Campanula speciosa, 53. Colchicum autumnale, 63; C. variegatum, 64. Corydalis solida, 73. Crocus medius, 74. Chrysanthemum, 59. Cyananthus lobatus, 74. Daphne Mezereum, 79. Dentaria digitata, 81. Dodecatheon Meadia, 84; D. Meadia elegans, 85. Echinacea purpurea, 87. Edraianthus dalmaticus, 88. Erica carnea, 92. Erigeron caucasicus, 93. Erythronium dens-canis, 98. Gentiana gelida, 114. Helleborus abchasicus, 126; H. A. purpureus, 126; H. colchicus, 129; H. olympicus, 136; H. purpurascens, 139. Hepatica triloba, 140. Hesperis matronalis flore-pleno, 141. Heuchera americana, 143. Melittis Melissophyllum, 174. Monarda fistulosa, 176. Orchis foliosa, 189; O. fusca, 189. Primula cashmeriana, 214; P. denticulata, 216; P. farinosa, 217; P. purpurea, 219; P. Scotica, 220. Prunella pyrenaica, 152. Saxifraga oppositifolia, 255; S. purpurascens, 261. Sisyrinchium grandiflorum, 274. Soldanella Clusii, 276; S. minima, 276. Stenactis speciosus, 283. Viola pedata digitata, 304; V. p. flabellata, 304; V. tricolor, 305. ~Red~ (including Ruby and shades of Crimson). Bellis perennis fistulosa, 40. Centranthus ruber, 55. Daisy, Sweep, 40. Daphne Mezereum autumnale, 80. Hepatica triloba splendens, 141. Hesperis matronalis flore-pleno, 141. Lobelia cardinalis, 166. Lychnis Viscaria flore-pleno, 170. Primula acaulis, 211. Saxifraga mutata, 254. Senecio pulcher, 272. Spiræa palmata, 278; S. venusta, 280. Tropæolum tuberosum, 295. ~Scarlet.~ Anemone coronaria, 13; A. fulgens, 15. Dianthus hybridus, 82. Lychnis chalcedonica, 168. Monarda didyma, 175. Ononis rotundifolia, 185. Ourisia coccinea, 193. Papaver orientale, 195. ~Striped.~ Anemone coronaria, 13; A. stellata, 20. Arisæma triphyllum, 33. Gentiana asclepiadea, 112. ~Violet~ (including shades of Mauve). Colchicum autumnale, 63. Chrysanthemum, 59. Hepatica angulosa, 139. Mazus pumilis, 173. Pratia repens, 210. Primula, 211; P. capitata, 213; P. marginata, 218. Pulmonaria angustifolia, 225. Ramondia pyrenaica, 228. ~White~ (sometimes with delicate edgings of colour, or with pale tints). Achillea Ptarmica, 5. Allium neapolitanum, 6. Anemone coronaria, 13; A. decapetala, 15; A. japonica alba, 16; A. nemorosa flore-pleno, 17; A. stellata, 20; A. sylvestris, 22. Anthericum liliago, 25; A. liliastrum, 25; A. l. major, 27. Aralia Sieboldi, 30. Aster alpinus albus, 39; A. ptarmicoides, 39. Bellis perennis hortensis, 44. Bocconia cordata, 42. Campanula persicifolia, 50; C. pyramidalis alba, 53. Centaurea montana, 54. Centranthus ruber albus, 56. Clethra alnifolia, 62. Cornus canadensis, 68. Daisy, Bride, 40. Daphne Mezereum alba, 80. Dianthus hybridus, 82. Dodecatheon Meadia albiflorum, 85. Epigæa repens, 90. Erythronium dens canis, 98. Galax aphylla, 108. Galega officinalis alba, 110. Helleborus antiquorum, 127; H. guttatus, 132; H. niger, 132; H. n. maximus, 134. Hepatica triloba, 140. Hesperis matronalis flore-pleno, 141. Houstonia albiflora, 146. Hutchinsia alpina, 147. Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora, 148. Iberia correæfolia, 151. Kalmia latifolia, 157. Lathyrus latifolia albus, 161. Leucojum æstivum, 161; L. vernum, 162. Lilium auratum, 162. Lychnis, 168. Lysimachia clethroides, 170. Monarda Russelliana, 176. Muhlenbeckia complexa, 178. Muscari botryoides alba, 180. Nierembergia rivularis, 181. Oenothera speciosa, 182; Oe. taraxacifolia, 183. Petasites vulgaris, 198. Phlox divaricata, 202; P. glaberrima, 202; P. Nelsoni, 202. Physalis Alkekengi, 203. Podophyllum peltatum, 205. Polygonum cuspidatum, 208. Pratia repens, 210. Primula, 211. Pulmonaria officinalis alba, 225. Puschkinia scilloides, 225. Pyrethrum uliginosum, 227. Ranunculus aconitifolius, 229; R. amplexicaulis, 231. Sanguinaria canadensis, 235. Saxifraga Burseriana, 238; S. cæsia, 238; S. ceratophylla, 240; S. ciliata, 242; S. coriophylla, 245; S. Fortunei, 247; S. Macnabiana, 253; S. oppositifolia alba, 256; S. pectinata, 258; S. Rocheliana, 265; S. Wallacei, 266. Scilla campanulata alba, 268. Sisyrinchium grandiflorum album, 276. Tiarella cordifolia, 288. Trientalis europæa, 288. Tritelia uniflora, 292. Umbilicus chrysanthus, 297. Vaccinium Vitis-Idæa, 298. Veronica pinguifolia, 301; V. repens, 301. Viola pedata alba, 304; V. p. ranunculifolia, 304. Yucca filamentosa, 306; Y. gloriosa, 307; Y. recurva, 308. ~Yellow~ (all shades, from Cream to Deep Orange; also shades of Greenish Yellow). Achillea ægyptiaca, 3; A. filipendula, 4. Allium Moly, 6. Alyssum saxatile, 7. Anemone sulphurea, 21. Calthus palustris flore-pleno, 47. Cheiranthus Marshallii, 58. Coreopsis auriculata, 65, 68. Corydalis lutea, 70; C. nobilis, 71. Chrysanthemum, 59. Cypripedium calceolus, 76. Dondia Epipactus, 85. Doronicum caucasicum, 86. Eranthis hyemalis, 91. Erysimum pumilum, 97. Erythronium dens-canis, 98. Fritillaria armena, 101. Gentiana Burseri, 113. Harpalium rigidum, 121. Helianthus multiflorus, 123; H. orygalis, 124. Heuchera micrantha, 145. Hypericum calycinum, 150. Jasminum nudiflorum, 155. Linum flavum, 164. Narcissus minor, 180. Onosma taurica, 187. Potentilla fruticosa, 209. Primula, 211; P. auricula marginata, 218; P. sikkimensis, 221; P. vulgaris flore-pleno, 223. Ranunculus acris flore-pleno, 231; R. speciosum, 232. Rudbeckia californica, 233; R. serotina, 234. Saxifraga mutata, 254. Tropæolum tuberosum, 295. Vesicaria græca, 302. Viola tricolor, 305. INDEX. A. Acæna microphylla, 1. Novæ Zealandiæ, 1. Achillea ægyptica, 3. filipendula, 4. millefolium, 4. ptarmica, 4. sylvestris, 4. Aconite, winter, 91. Aconitum autumnale, 5. japonicum, 6. Adamsia scilloides, 225. Adam's needle, 307. Alkanet, Italian, 8. Allium Moly, 6. neapolitanum, 6. Alum root, 142. Alyssum saxatile, 7. Anchusa italica, 8. sempervirens, 9. Andromeda tetragona, 10. Anemone alpina, 11. apennina, 12. apiifolia, 21. blanda, 12. blue Grecian, 12. coronaria, 13. decapetala, 15. double-wood, 17. fulgens, 15. geranium-leaved, 12. Honorine Jobert, 16. hortensis, 15, 20. japonica, 16. nemorosa flore-pleno, 17. pavonina, 15. pulsatilla, 18. snowdrop, 22. stellata, 20. sulphurea, 21. sylvestris, 22. triloba, 140. vernalis, 23. Anthericum liliago, 25. liliastrum, 25. liliastrum major, 27. Anthyllis montana, 27. Apios Glycine, 27. tuberosa, 27. Apple, May, 205. Aralia Sieboldi, 30. Arabis alpina, 29. lucida, 29. l. variegata, 29. Arisæma triphyllum, 33. zebrinum, 33. Arum crinitum 35. hairy, 35. three-leaved, 33. triphyllum, 33. Asters, 37. alpinus, 37. amellus, 37. diversifolius, 37. dumosus, 37. ericoides, 37. grandiflorus, 37. Mdme. Soyance, 37. pendulus, 37. ptarmicoides, 39. Stokes', 284. Astrantia Epipactis, 85. B. Bachelor's buttons, 229. Bachelor's buttons, yellow, 231. Balm, bee, 175. large-flowered bastard, 174. Bay, dwarf, 79. Bellflower, broad-leaved, 50. peach-leaved, 50. great, 49. Bellis perennis, 40. p. aucubæfolia, 40. p. prolifera, 40. Bergamot, wild, 176. Bloodroot, 235. Blandfordia cordata, 108. Bluebell, 267. Bluebottle, large, 54. Bluets, 146. Bocconia cordata, 42. Borago sempervirens, 9. Bruisewoorte, 42. Buglossum sempervirens, 9. Bulbocodium, spring, 46. trigynum, 45. vernum, 46. Butterbur, common, 198. C. Calthus palustris flore-pleno, 47. Calystegia pubescens flore-pleno, 48. Campanula, chimney, 51. glomerata dahurica, 53. grandis, 49. latifolia, 50. muralis, 54. persicifolia, 50. pulla, 49. pyramidalis, 51. speciosa, 53. Waldsteiniana, 53. Zoysii, 54. Candytuft, everlasting, 151. Cardinal flower, 166. Cassiope tetragona, 10. Catchfly, 168. German, 170. Centaurea montana, 54. Centranthus ruber, 55. Chaixia Myconi, 228. Cheiranthus Cheiri, 56. Cheiranthus Marshallii, 58. Cherry, winter, 203. Chicory, 61. Chionodoxa Luciliæ, 58. Chrysanthemum, 59. Cichorium Intybus, 61. perenne, 61. sylvestre, 61. Cinquefoil, shrubby, 209. Claytonia, 151. Clethra, alder-leaved, 62. alnifolia, 62. Colchicum autumnale, 63. caucasicum, 45. variegatum, 64. Comfrey, Caucasian, 286. Cone-flower, Californian, 233. late, 234. Convolvulus, double, 48. Conyza, chilensis, 94. Coreopsis auriculata, 65. ear-leaved, 65. grandiflora, 66. lanceolata, 66. large-flowered, 66. slender-leaved, 67. spear-leaved, 66. tenuifolia, 67. Cornell, Canadian, 68. Cornflower, perennial, 54. Cornus canadensis, 68. suecica, 67. Corydalis lutea, 70. noble or great-flowered, 71. nobilis, 71. solida, 73. Coventry bells, 18. Cow-berry, 298. Cowslip, 206, 211. American, 84. Crane's-bill, silvery, 116. Crocus, 202. autumnal, 63. medius, 74. Crowfoot, aconite-leaved, 229. double acrid, 231. English double white, 229. Cup, white, 181. Cypripedium calceolus, 76. Cyananthus lobatus, 74. Cynoglossum omphalodes, 185. D. Daffodil, smaller, 180 Daisy, blue, 37. common perennial, 40. double, 40. Hen and Chickens, 40. little, 42. Michaelmas, 37. Daphne Cneorum, 78. mezereum, 79. m. alba, 80. m. autumnale, 80. m. trailing, 78. Dentaria digitata, 81. Dianthus barbatus, 82. deltoides, 81, 152. hybridus, 82. multiflorus, 82. plumarius, 82. Dodecatheon Jeffreyanum, 83. meadia, 74. m. albiflorum, 85. m. elegans, 85. m. giganteum, 85. Dogwood, 68. Dondia Epipactis, 85. Doronicum caucasicum, 86. orientale, 86. Dragon's mouth, 35. Duck's foot, 205. E. Easter flower, 18. Echinacea purpurea, 87. Edraianthus dalmaticus, 88. Epigæa repens, 90. Eranthis hyemalis, 91. Erica carnea, 92, 166. Erigeron caucasicus, 93. glaucum, 94. speciosus, 283. Eryngium giganteum, 96. Eryngo, great, 96. Erysimum pumilum, 97. Erythronium dens-canis, 98. Euonymus japonicus radicans variegata, 99. Everlasting pea, large-leaved, 160. large-flowered, 159. EVERGREENS:-- Achillea ægyptica, 3; Alyssum saxatile, 7; Anchusa sempervirens, 9; Andromeda tetragona, 10; Aralia Sieboldi, 30; Campanula grandis, 49; Cheiranthus Cheiri, 56; Daphne Cneorum, 78; Dianthus hybridus, 82; Epigæa repens, 90; Erica carnea, 92; Erigeron glaucum, 94; Euonymus japonicus radicans variegata, 99; Galax aphylla, 108; Gentiana acaulis, 111; Hedera conglomerata, 122; Helleborus abchasicus, 126; H. foetidus, 131; H. niger, 132; Heuchera, 142; Houstonia coerulea, 146; Hutchinsia alpina, 147; Iberis correæfolia, 151; Iris foetidissima, 153; Kalmia latifolia, 157; Lithospermum prostratum, 165; Margyricarpus setosus, 171; Saxifraga Burseriana, 238; S. ceratophylla, 240; S. purpurascens, 261; S. Rocheliana, 265; Umbillicus chrysanthus, 297; Vaccinium vitis-idæa, 298; Veronica gentianoides, 300; V. pinguifolia, 301; Vesicaria græca, 302; Yucca gloriosa, 307; Y. recurva, 308. F. February, Fair Maids of, 106. Felworth, spring alpine, 115. Festuca glauca, 101. Feverfew, marsh, 227. Flame-flowers, 294. Flaw flower, 18. Flax, yellow, 164. Fleabane, Caucasian, 93. glaucous, 94. showy, 283. Flower, milk, 107. Foliage Plants:--Achillea ægyptica, 3; Arabis lucida variegata, 29; Aralia Sieboldi, 30; Arisæma triphyllum, 33; Bocconia cordata, 42; Cornus canadensis, 68; Corydalis lutea, 70; C. nobilis, 71; C. solida, 73; Dodecatheon Jeffreyanum, 83; Erica carnea, 92; Euonymus japonicus radicans variegata, 99; Festuca glauca, 101; Funkia albo-marginata, 102; F. Sieboldii, 103; Galax aphylla, 108; Galega officinalis, 110; Gentiana asclepiadea, 112; G. Burseri, 113; Geranium argenteum, 116; Gynerium argenteum, 119; Hedera conglomerata, 122; Helleborus foetidus, 131; Heuchera, 142; H. glabra, 144; H. metallica, 145; H. purpurea, 145; Iris foetidissima, 153; Isopyrum gracilis, 153; Lactuca sonchifolia, 158; Lysimachia clethroides, 170; Ononis rotundifolia, 185; Ourisia coccinea, 193; Podophyllum peltatum, 205; Polygonum Brunonis, 207; P. cuspidatum, 208; P. filiformis variegatum, 209; Statice latifolia, 280; Saxifraga Burseriana, 238; S. cæsia, 238; S. ceratophylla, 240; S. ciliata, 242; S. ligulata, 249; S. longifolia, 250; S. Macnabiana, 253; S. paradoxa, 257; S. pectinata, 258; S. peltata, 259; S. purpurascens, 261; S. pyramidalis, 262; S. Rocheliana, 265; S. umbrosa variegata, 265; Sempervivum Laggeri, 270; Spiræa ulmaria variegata, 279; Tiarella cordifolia, 287; Yucca gloriosa, 308. Forget-me-not, creeping, 185. Fritillaria armena, 101. Fumitory, 73. "hollowe roote," 71, 73. yellow, 70. Funkia albo-marginata, 102. Sieboldii, 103. G. Galanthus Elwesii, 105. folded, 107. imperati, 105. nivalis, 106. plicatus, 107. redoutei, 107. Galax aphylla, 108. heart-leaved, 108. Galega officinalis, 110. persica liliacina, 110. Garland flower, 78. Garlic, large yellow, 6. Gentian, Burser's, 113. cross-leaved, 114. ice-cold, 114. lithospermum, 165. swallow-wort leaved, 112. Gentiana acaulis, 111. asclepiadea, 112. Burseri, 113. cruciata, 114. gelida, 114. verna, 115. Gentianella, 111. Geranium argenteum, 116. Gillenia trifoliata, 117. Gilloflower, 107. Queene's, 141. stock, 142. wild, 81. Gillyflower, 57. Gladdon or Gladwin, 153. Glory, Snowy, 58. Goats-rue, officinal, 110. Golden drop, 187. Goose-tongue, 4. Grandmother's frilled cap, 51 Grass, blue, 101. pampas or silvery, 119. Gromwell, prostrate, 165. Groundsel, noble, 272. Gynerium argenteum, 119. H. Hacquetia Epipactis, 85. Harebell, showy, 53. Harpalium rigidum, 121. Heath, winter, 92. Hedera conglomerata, 122. Helianthus multiflorus, 123. m. flore-pleno, 124. orygalis, 124. rigidus, 121. Heliotrope, winter, 198. Hellebore, abchasian, 126. ancient, 127. black, 132, 188. Boccon's, 128. bushy, 131. Colchican, 129. coppery, 130. eastern, 137. officinalis, 137. Olympian, 136. purplish, 139. spotted, 132. stinking, 131. sweet-scented, 136. Helleborus abchasicus, 126. a. purpureus, 126. antiquorum, 127. Bocconi, 128. B. angustifolia, 129. colchicus, 129. cupreus, 130. dumetorum, 131. foetidus, 131. guttatus, 132. hyemalis, 91. multifidus, 128. niger, 132, 138. n. angustifolius, 134 n. maximus, 134. odorus, 136. olympicus, 136. orientalis, 137. o. elegans, 138. purpurascens, 139. Hepatica, anemone, 140. angulosa, 139. triloba, 140. t. splendens, 141. Herb, Christ's, 132. Hesperis matronalis flore-pleno, 141. Heuchera, 142, 288. americana, 143. currant-leaved, 145. Heuchera cylindrica, 143. cylindrical-spiked, 143. Drummondi, 144. glabra, 141. lucida, 144. metallica, 145. micrantha, 145. purpurea, 145. ribifolia, 145. Richardsoni, 146. shining-leaved, 144. small-flowered, 145. smooth, 144. Hill tulip, 18. Houseleek, Lagger's, 270. Houstonia albiflora, 146. coerulea, 146. Hutchinsia alpina, 147. Hyacinth, 267. grape, 179. Hydrangea, large-flowered, 148. paniculata grandiflora, 148. Hypericum calycinum, 150. I. Iberis correæfolia, 151. Indian cress, 295. Iris foetidissima, 153. Isopyrum gracilis, 153. slender, 153. Ivy, conglomerate, 122. J. Jack in the pulpit, 33. Jasminum nudiflorum, 155. K. Kalmia, broad-leaved, 157. latifolia, 157. Knapweed, mountain, 54. Knotweed, 207, 209. cuspid, 208. vaccinium-leaved, 209. L. Lactuca sonchifolia, 158. Lathyrus grandiflorus, 159. latifolius, 160. l. albus, 161. Laurel, creeping or ground, 90. Leopard's bane, 86. Lepidium alpinum, 147. Lettuce, sow thistle-leaved, 158. Leucojum æstivum, 161. vernum, 162. Lilium auratum, 162. Lily, erect wood, 291. golden-rayed or Japanese, 162. rush, 274. St. Bernard's, 25. St. Bruno's, 25. Siebold's plantain-leaved, 103. white-edged, plantain-leaved, 102. Lilywort, 226. Linaria pilosa, 237. Linum flavum, 164. narbonnense, 165. perenne, 165. Lithospermum fruticosum, 165. prostratum, 165. Lobelia cardinalis, 166. pratiana, 210. repens, 210. Loosestrife, clethra-like, 170. Lungworts, 224. Lychnis chalcedonica, 168. scarlet, 168. viscaria flore-pleno, 170. Lysimachia clethroides, 170. M. Macleaya cordata, 42. Madwort, rock, or golden tuft, 7. Margyricarpus setosus, 171. Marigold, double marsh, 47. Marjoram, beautiful, 191. Mazus, dwarf, 173. pumilio, 173. "Meadow bootes," 47. Meadowsweet, 279. Meadows, Queen of the, 279. Megasea ciliata, 242, 249. cordifolia, 245. ligulata, 249. purpurascens, 261. Melittis grandiflorum, 174. melissophyllum, 174. Merendera caucasicum, 45. Mertensia, 224. Mezereon, 79. Milfoil, common, 4. Milla uniflora, 292. Mitella, 288. Monarda affinis, 176. altissima, 176. didyma, 175. fistulosa, 176. kalmiana, 175. media, 176. oblongata, 176. purpurea, 176. rugosa, 176. Russelliana, 176. Monk's-hood, autumn, 5. Morina elegans, 176. longifolia, 176. Moss, silver, 238. Muhlenbeckia complexa, 178. Mullien, 228. Muscari botryoides, 179. b. alba, 180. racemosum, 180. N. Narcissus minor, 180. Nasturtium, 295. Nierembergia rivularis, 181. water, 181. Nightshade, red, 204. O. Oenothera speciosa, 182. taraxacifolia, 183. Omphalodes verna, 185. Ononis rotundifolia, 185. Onosma taurica, 187. Orchis, brown, 189. foliosa, 189. fusca, 189. Orchis, leafy, 189. militaris, 189. soldier or brown man, 189. Origanum pulchellum, 191. Orobus vernus, 192. Oswego tea, 175. Ourisia coccinea, 193. Oxlips, 211. P. Paigles, 211. Pansy, 306. Papaver bracteatum, 195. orientale, 195. Pasque-flower, 18. Passe-flower, 18. Peachbels, 50. Pearl-fruit, bristly, 171. Peaseling, 192. Pellitory, wild, 4. Pentstemons, 197. Petasites vulgaris, 198. Phlox, 199. decussata, 199. early and late flowering, 199. frondosa, 201. omniflora, 200. ovata, 200. paniculata, 200. procumbens, 200. stolonifera, 200. suffruticosa, 199. Physalis Alkekengi, 203. Pinguicula vulgaris, 173. Pink, maiden, 81, 152. mule, 82. Pinke, maidenly, 81. virgin-like, 81. Podophyllum peltatum, 205. Polyanthus, 206. Polygonum Brunonis, 207. cuspidatum, 208. c. compactum, 208. filiformis variegatum, 209. vaccinifolium, 209. Poppy, oriental, 195. Potentilla fruticosa, 209. Prairie, Queen of the, 280. Pratia, creeping, 210. repens, 210. Primrose, Cashmere, 214. dandelion-leaved evening, 183. double-flowered, 223. margined, 217. mealy or bird's-eye, 217. Scottish, 220. showy evening, 182. Primula acaulis, 211. Allioni, 213. amoena, 213. auricula, 213. a. marginata, 218. capitata, 213. carniolica, 213. cashmeriana, 124. crenata, 217. decora, 213. denticulata, 213, 216. d. amabilis, 217. d. major, 217. d. nana, 217. elatior, 211. farinosa, 213, 217, 220. glaucescens, 213. glutinosa, 213. grandiflora, 211. grandis, 213. latifolia, 213. longifolia, 213. luteola, 213. marginata, 213, 217. minima, 213. nivalis, 213. purple-flowered, 219. purpurea, 219. round headed, 213. scotica, 213, 220. sikkimensis, 221. sinensis, 213. spectabilis, 213. sylvestris, 211. tyrolensis, 213. toothed, 216. veris, 206, 211. villosa, 213. viscosa, 213. vulgaris, 211. v. flore-pleno, 223. Wulfeniana, 213. Prunella pyrenaica, 152. Ptarmica vulgaris, 4. Pulmonarias, 224. maculata, 225. mollis, 225. officinalis, 225. Puschkinia libanotica, 225. scilla-like, 225. scilloides, 225. s. compacta, 226. Pyrethrum uliginosum, 227. R. Ramondia pyrenaica, 228. Ranunculus aconitifolius, 229. acris flore-pleno, 231. albus multiflorus, 229. amplexicaulis, 231. speciosum, 232. stem-clasping, 231. Red-hot poker, 294. Rest-arrow, round-leaved, 185. Rocket, double sweet, 141. ROCKWORK PLANTS:-- Acæna Novæ Zealandiæ, 1; Alyssum saxatile, 7; Andromeda tetragona, 10; Anthyllis montana, 27; Arabis lucida, 29; Aralia Sieboldi, 30; Aster alpinus, 37; Campanula Waldsteiniana, 53; Cardamine trifolia, 70; Colchicum variegatum, 64; Cornus canadensis, 68; Corydalis nobilis, 71; C. solida, 73; Cyananthus lobatus, 74; Dentaria digitata, 81; Dodecatheon Jeffreyanum, 83; Dondia Epipactis, 85; Doronicum caucasicum, 86; Edraianthus dalmaticus, 88; Erica carnea, 92; Erigeron glaucum, 94; Erysimum pumilum, 97; Festuca glauca, 101; Funkia Sieboldii, 103; Galax aphylla, 70, 108; Gentiana acaulis, 111; G. Burseri, 113; G. gelida, 114; G. verna, 115; Geranium argenteum, 116; Hedera conglomerata, 122; Houstonia coerulea, 146; Iberis correæfolia, 151; Linum flavum, 164; Lithospermum prostratum, 165; Lychnis Viscaria flore-pleno, 170; Margyricarpus setosus, 171; Muhlenbeckia complexa, 178; Nierembergia rivularis, 181; Onosma taurica, 188; Origanum pulchellum, 191; Orobus vernus, 192; Phlox, 202; Polygonum vaccinifolium, 209; Pratia repens, 210; Primula, 213, 216, 218, 222; Pyrola rotundifolia, 70; Ramondia pyrenaica, 228; Ranunculus amplexicaulis, 231; Salix reticulata, 70, 235; Saponaria ocymoides, 237; Saxifraga Burseriana, 238; S. cæsia, 238; S. ceratophylla, 240; S. ciliata, 242; S. coriophylla, 246; S. Fortunei, 247; S. longifolia, 250; S. mutata, 254; S. oppositifolia, 255; S. paradoxa, 257; S. pectinata, 258; S. pyramidalis, 262; S. umbrosa variegata, 265; S. Wallacei, 266; Sedum spectabile, 269; Sempervivum Laggeri, 270; Symphytum caucasicum, 286; Tropæolum tuberosum, 295; Umbilicus chrysanthus, 297; Veronica pinguifolia, 301; V. prostrata, 301; Vesicaria græca, 302; Viola pedata, 303; Yucca filamentosa, 306. Rose, Christmas, 132, 138. lenten, 137. of Sharon, 150. Rudbeckia californica, 233. purpurea, 87. serotina, 234. Rues, maidenhair-like, 153. S. Saffron, meadow, 63. spring, 46. Saint John's Wort, cup, 150. large calyxed, 150. Salix reticulata, 235. Sanguinaria canadensis, 235. Saponaria ocymoides, 237. ocymoides splendens, 237. Satin-flower, 274. Saxifraga Aizoon, 258, 259. alpina ericoides flore coeruleo, 255. australis, 257, 258. Burseriana, 238, 246. cæsia, 238. carinthiaca, 257, 258. ceratophylla, 240. ciliata, 242, 249. cordifolia, 245, 261. coriophylla, 245. cornutum, 241, 266. cotyledon, 253, 254, 262. crassifolia, 261. crustata, 257. fortunei, 247. geranioides, 266. japonica, 247. ligulata, 242, 249, 257. longifolia, 250, 254, 257. macnabiana, 253. mutata, 254. nepalensis, 253. oppositifolia, 246, 255. o. alba, 256. paradoxa, 257. pectinata, 258. peltata, 259. pentadactylis, 240, 266. pryamidalis, 262. purpurascens, 261. rocheliana, 265. umbrosa, 265. variegata, 265. sarmentosa, 243. Wallacei, 266. Saxifrage, blue, 255. Burser's, 238, 246. Fortune's, 247. grey, 238. hairy margined, 242. horn-leaved, 240. large-leaved purple, 261. long-leaved, 250. Mac Nab's, 253. opposite-leaved, 255. paradoxical, 257. purple mountain, 255. Queen of, 250. Rochel's, 265. Scilla, bell-flowered, 267. campanulata, 267. Sea lavender, broad-leaved, 280. profuse, 281. Sedum Fabarium, 269. spectabile, 269. Sieboldi, 269. Self heal, 152. Sempervivum Laggeri, 270. Senecio pulcher, 272. Sibthorpia europæa, 237. Sisyrinchium grandiflorum, 274. Grandiflorum album, 276. Slipper, English lady's, 76. Sneezewort, 4. Snowdrop, common, 106. Elwes's, 105. imperial, 105. Snowflake, spring, 162. summer, 161. Soapwort, basil-leaved, 237. rock, 237. Solanum Halicacabum, 204. Soldanella alpina, 276. Clusii, 276. minima, 276. montana, 276. Speedwell, fat-leaved, 301. gentian-leaved, 300. prostrate, 301. Spikenard, 94. Spindle tree, variegated, rooting, 99. Spiræa odorata, 279. palmata, 278. palm-like, 278. trifoliata, 117. triloba, 117. ulmaria variegata, 279. venusta, 280. Spring beauty, 152. Spurge-flax, 79. German olive, 79. wort, 153. Squill, striped, 225. Star-flower, 288. lilac, 293. Star-flower, spring, 292. Star, shooting, 84. Starwort, 37, 283. Starwort, alpine, 37. bouquet, 39. Statice latifolia, 280. profusa, 281. varieties of, 281. Steeple-bells, 50. Stenactis speciosus, 283. Stokesia, jasper blue, 284. cyanea, 284. Stonecrop, showy, 269. Siebold's, 269. Succory, wild, 61. Sunflower, graceful, 124. many-flowered, 123. rigid, 121. Symphytum caucasicum, 286. T. Teazel, 176. Thistle, 284. Tiarella cordifolia, 287. Tirentalis europæa, 288. Toothwort, 81. Treacle-mustard, dwarf, 97. Trillium erectum, 291. Triteleia, one-flowered, 292. uniflora, 292. u. liliacina, 292. Tritoma, great, 294. uvaria, 294. Tropæolum tuberosum, 295. tuberous, 295. Trophy plant, 295. Tussilago fragrans, 198. petasites, 198. U. Umbillicus chrysanthus, 297. V. Vaccinium Vitis-Idæa, 298. Valerian red, 55. Valeriana ruber, 55. Verbascum Myconi, 228. Veronica gentianoides, 300. Veronica pinguifolia, 301. prostrata, 165, 301. repens, 301. Vesicaria græca, 302. Vetch, mountain kidney, 27. spring bitter, 192. Viola pedata, 303. pedata bicolor, 304. tricolor, 305. Violet, Dame's, 141. dog's tooth, 98. early bulbous, 106. pedate-leaved, or bird's-foot, 303. W. Wallflower, common, 56. fairy, 97. Marshall's, 58. Whorl flower, 176. Whortle-berry, red, 298. Willow, wrinkled or netted, 235. Windflower, 141. alpine, 11. double, 17. fair, 12. Japan, 16. mountain, 12. poppy-like, 13. shaggy, 23. shining, 15. star, 20. stork's-bill, 12. sulphur-coloured, 21. Wintergreen, English, 288. Y. Yarrow, Egyptian, 3. wild, 4. Yucca filamentosa, 306. filamentosa variegata, 306. gloriosa, 307. recurva, 308. thready-leaved, 306. weeping, 308. 
21516	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ Northern Nut Growers Association Incorporated AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY _42nd Annual Report_ _Annual Meeting at_ URBANA, ILLINOIS August 28, 29 and 30, 1951 * * * * * [Illustration: Jacobs Persian Walnut Genoa, Ohio (see pages 86-87)] The above picture shows a view made last winter of the original Jacobs Persian walnut in Elmore, Ohio. Member Malcolm R. Bumler of Detroit stands under the tree. The picture was made by Mr. W. G. Schmidt and the engraving is by courtesy of Gilbert Becker, our Michigan vice president and president of the Michigan Nut Growers Association. The Jacobs variety, a second generation seedling of a German walnut, was brought to the attention of the NNGA by Sylvester Shessler, Genoa, Ohio, who has been regularly taking prizes with it and another seedling he found growing at Clay Center. The Jacobs was fourth in the 1950-51 NNGA contest, having a good nut with 47.1% kernel. The tree, now over seventy years old, bears regularly, having 200 pounds of nuts in one recent year. Several members in Ohio, Michigan, and other states are propagating the Jacobs, and it appears to be one of the most promising non-Carpathian Persian varieties for the Midwest.--J. C. McDaniel * * * * * Table of Contents Foreword 4 Officers and Committees, 1951-52 5 State and Foreign Vice-Presidents 6 Attendance at the 1951 Meeting 7 Constitution 9 By-Laws 9 Proceedings of the Forty-Second Annual Meeting. Starting on 13 Talk by George Hebden Corsan 13 Address of Welcome--C. J. Birkeland 14 Response--H. L. Crane 14 President's Address--William M. Rohrbacher 15 Control of Spittle Bugs on Nut Trees--S. C. Chandler 18 Preliminary Results from Training Chinese Chestnut Trees to Different Heights of Head--J. W. McKay and H. L. Crane 22 The Filbert and Persian Walnut in Indiana--W. B. Ward 29 Nut Growing in Eastern Iowa--Ira M. Kyhl 31 Secretary's Report--J. C. McDaniel 34 Discussion and Resolution on Securing New Members 35 Treasurer's Report--Sterling A. Smith 37 Reports of Committees 38 Announcement of Tour--R. B. Best 39 Status of the Northern Pecan--W. W. Magill, leading discussion 39 Pecans in Northern Virginia--J. Russell Smith 45 Pecans in the Vicinity of St. Paul, Minnesota--Carl Weschcke 47 Preliminary Report on Growth, Flowering, and Magnesium Deficiency of Reed and Potomac Filbert Varieties--H. L. Crane and J. W. McKay 50 Bunch Disease of Black Walnut--J. W. McKay and H. L. Crane 56 (Above paper given at the 41st Annual Meeting. See discussion on page 80 of 1950 Report.) A Forester Looks at the Timber Value of Nut Trees--C. S. Walters 62 Symposium on Nut Tree Propagation--F. L. O'Rourke, leader 68 Factors Affecting Nut Tree Propagation--F. L. O'Rourke 78 Nut Rootstock Material in Western Michigan--H. P. Burgart 82 Hudson Valley Experience with Nut Tree Understocks--Gilbert L. Smith 83 Results of 1950 Carpathian Walnut Contest--Spencer B. Chase 86 Colby, a Hardy Persian Walnut for the Central States--J. C. McDaniel 87 Resolutions 90 List of Members of Northern Nut Growers Association 91 * * * * * Foreword This volume is going to press somewhat later than was anticipated, and in order to expedite its publication, a few papers which were contributed in 1951 are being held over for the 1952 Report. Two of these will incorporate new data to be presented at the 1952 meeting, Mr. E. A. Curl's discussion on the status of the oak wilt disease and Mr. W. W. Magill's talk on top working of native pecans in southwestern Kentucky. Also deferred are Mr. L. Walter Sherman's "Final Selections in the Five-Year Ohio Black Walnut Contest", the vice-presidents' round table discussion led by Mr. H. F. Stoke, on "What Black Walnut Varieties Shall We Recommend for Planting?" and two short papers from the Ohio section. "Bunch Disease of Black Walnut" by Drs. McKay and Crane in this volume was read at the 1950 Pleasant Valley Meeting, and the discussion on it will be found in last year's Report. Other "Extras" are the propagation papers by Mr H. P. Burgart and Mr. Gilbert L. Smith, Dr. J. Russell Smith's and Mr Carl Weschcke's papers on pecans, and the reprinted article on Colby Persian walnut by the secretary. (The original tree has a big crop of nuts now maturing.) Officers of the Association 1951-1952 =President:= Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Floriculture Department, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York =Vice-President=: Richard B. Best, Columbiana Seed Co., Eldred, Illinois =Secretary:= J. C. McDaniel, University of Illinois, Dept. of Horticulture, Urbana, Ill. =Treasurer:= Carl F. Prell, 825 J. M. S. Bldg., South Bend 1, Indiana =Directors=: The officers and the following past presidents: Mildred Jones Langdoc, P. O. Box 136, Erie, Illinois Dr. William Rohrbacher, 811 E. College St., Iowa City, Iowa COMMITTEES 1951-1952 =Program Committee:= Royal Oakes, Chairman (Ill.); J. Ford Wilkinson (Ind.); Spencer Chase (Tennessee); Ira M. Kyhl (Iowa); A. S. Colby (Ill.); W. D. Armstrong (Kentucky); and J. C. McDaniel (Ill.) ex-officio. =Publications--Editorial Section:= Lewis E. Theiss, Chairman (Penn.); W. C. Deming (Conn.); John Davidson (Ohio), Arthur H. Graves (Conn.); and Mrs. Herbert Negus (Md.). =Publications--Printing Section=: G. L. Slate, Chairman (N.Y.); Carl F. Prell (Ind.); and J. C. McDaniel (Ill.) ex-officio. =Place of Meeting:= R. P. Allaman, Chairman (Penn.); George Salzer (N.Y.); John Rick (Penn.); Arthur H. Graves (Conn.); and Elton E. Papple (Ontario, Canada). =Varieties and Contest--Survey=: H. F. Stoke, Chairman (Va.); A. G. Hirschi (Okla.); L. W. Sherman (Mich.); Sylvester Shessler (Ohio); F. L. O'Rourke (Mich.). =Standards and Judging:= Spencer Chase, Chairman (Tenn.); Gilbert L. Smith (N.Y.); Raymond E. Silvis (Ohio). =Research:= H. L. Crane, Chairman (Md.); G. F. Gravatt (Md.); Paul E. Machovina (Ohio); George L. Slate (N.Y.). =Membership:= R. B. Best, Chairman (Ill.); Gilbert L. Smith (N.Y.); Sterling Smith (Ohio); Dr. Clyde Gray (Kans.); Louis Gerardi (Ill.); Carl F. Prell (Ind.) ex-officio. =Exhibits:= Sylvester Shessler (Ohio), Chairman; A. G. Hirschi (Okla.); Fayette Etter (Penn.); J. U. Gellatly (B. C., Canada); Carl Weschcke (Minn.). =Auditing:= Sterling A. Smith (Ohio); Carl Weschcke (Minn.). =Legal Adviser:= Sargent Wellman (Mass). =Official Journal:= American Fruit Grower, Willoughby, Ohio State and Foreign Vice-Presidents Alabama, Edward L. Hiles, Loxley Alberta, Canada A. L. Young, Brooks Belgium R. Vanderwaeren, Bierbeekstraat, 310, Korbeek-Lo British Columbia, Canada J. U. Gellatly, Box 19, Westbank California Thos. R. Haig, M.D., 3021 Highland Ave., Carlsbad Connecticut A. M. Huntington, Stanerigg Farms, Bethel Delaware Lewis Wilkins, Route 1 Newark Denmark Count F. M. Knuth, Knuthenborg, Bandholm District of Columbia Edwin L. Ford, 3634 Austin St., S.E., Washington 20 Florida C. A. Avant, 960 N.W., 10th Avenue, Miami Georgia William J. Wilson, North Anderson Ave., Fort Valley Hong Kong P. W. Wang, 6 Des Voeux Rd., Central Idaho Lynn Dryden, Peck Illinois Royal Oakes, Bluffs (Scott County) Indiana Ford Wallick, Route 4, Peru Iowa Ira M. Kyhl, Box 236, Sabula Kansas Dr. Clyde Gray, 1045 Central Avenue, Horton Louisiana Dr. Harald E. Hammar, 608 Court House, Shreveport Maryland Blaine McCollum, White Hall Massachusetts S. Lathrop Davenport, 24 Creeper Hill Rd., North Grafton Michigan Gilbert Becker, Climax Minnesota R. E. Hodgson, Southeastern Exp. Station, Waseca Mississippi James R. Meyer, Delta Branch Exper Station, Stoneville Missouri Ralph Richterkessing, Route 1, Saint Charles Nebraska Harvey W. Hess, Box 209, Hebron New Hampshire Matthew Lahti, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro New Jersey Mrs. Alan R. Buckwalter, Route 1, Flemington New Mexico Rev. Titus Gehring, P. O. Box 177, Lumberton New York George Salzer, 169 Garford Road, Rochester 9 North Carolina Dr. R. T. Dunstan, Greensboro College, Greensboro North Dakota Homer L. Bradley, Long Lake Refuge, Moffit Ohio A. A. Bungart, Avon Oklahoma A. G. Hirschi, 414 N. Robinson, Oklahoma City Ontario, Canada Elton E. Papple, Cainsville Oregon Harry L. Pearcy, Route 2, Box 190, Salem Pennsylvania R. P. Allaman, Route 86, Harrisburg Prince Edward Island, Canada Robert Snazelle, Forest Nursery, Rt. 5, Charlottetown Rhode Island Philip Allen, 178 Dorance St., Providence South Carolina John T. Bregger, P. O. Box 1018, Clemson South Dakota Herman Richter, Madison Tennessee W. Jobe Robinson, Route 7, Jackson Texas Kaufman Florida, Box 154, Rotan Utah Harlan D. Petterson, 2076 Jefferson Avenue, Ogden Vermont Joseph N. Collins, Route 3, Putney Virginia H. R. Gibbs, Linden Washington Carroll D. Bush, Grapeview West Virginia Wilbert M. Frye, Pleasant Dale Wisconsin C. F. Ladwig, 2221 St. Laurence, Beloit Attendance Register Urbana Meeting, August 28-29, 1951 Mr. and Mrs. R. P. Allaman, 803 N. 16th St., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Dr. H. W. Anderson, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Professor W. D. Armstrong, Western Kentucky Exp. Substation, Princeton, Kentucky Mr. Adin Baber, Kansas, Illinois Mr. and Mrs. F. C. Baker, Troy, Kansas Mr. Richard Barcus, Massillon, Ohio Mr. Paul J. Bauer, 123 S. 29th, Lafayette, Indiana Mr. Gilbert Becker, Climax, Michigan Mr. W. M. Beckert, Jackson, Michigan Mr. and Mrs. Stephen Bernath, Rt. 3, Poughkeepsie, New York Mr. Charles B. Berst, Erie, Pennsylvania Mr. and Mrs. R. B. Best, Eldred, Illinois Dr. C. J. Birkeland, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Mr. A. S. Brock, 1733 N. McVicker Avenue, Chicago 30, Illinois Mr. Morrison Brown, Ickesburg, Pennsylvania Mr. S. C. Chandler, Carbondale, Illinois Mr. Spencer B. Chase, Norris, Tennessee Mr. William S. Clarke, Jr., Box 167, State College, Pennsylvania Dr. and Mrs. A. S. Colby, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Mr. George Hebden Corsan, Echo Valley, Toronto 18, Canada Mrs. Lilian V. Corsan, Echo Valley, Toronto 18, Canada Mr. George E. Craig, Dundas, Ohio Dr H. L. Crane, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland Mrs. Harley L. Crane, Washington, D. C. Mr. and Mrs. John Davidson, Xenia, Ohio Mr. Roy H. Degler, Jefferson City, Missouri Dr. Oliver D. Diller, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio Mr. Kenneth A. Dooley, Rt. 2, Marion, Indiana Dr. L. L. Dowell, 529 North Avenue, N.E., Massillon, Ohio Mr. Ralph Emerson, Detroit, Michigan Mr. A. B. Ferguson, Center Point, Iowa Mr. and Mrs. Frank H. Frey, 2315 W. 108th Place, Chicago, Illinois Mr. Wilbur S. Frey, 820 W 72nd St., Kansas City, Missouri Mr. O. H. Fuller, Joliet, Illinois Mr. Louis Gerardi, Caseyville, Illinois Mr. Charles Gerstenmaier, 13 Pond St., S.W., Massillon, Ohio Mr. John A. Gerstenmaier, 13 Pond St., S.W., Massillon, Ohio Dr. Edward A. Grad and family, 1506 Chase St., Cincinnati 23, Ohio Mr. G. A. Gray, Bartlesville, Oklahoma Mr. H. W. Guengerich, Stark Bros. Nursery, Louisiana, Missouri Mr. H. C. Helmle, 526 South Grand Avenue, W., Springfield, Illinois Dr. V. W. Kelley, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Mr. and Mrs. Frank M. Kintzel, 2506 Briarcliffe, Cincinnati 13, Ohio Ralph Kreider, Jr., Rt. 1, Hammond, Illinois Mr. and Mrs. Ira M. Kyhl, Sabula, Iowa Mr. Clarence F. Ladwig, Rt. 2, Beloit, Wisconsin Jeanne Ellen Langdoc, Erie, Illinois Mr. and Mrs. Wesley W. Langdoc, Erie, Illinois Mr. Michael Lee, Milford, Michigan Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, 422 Chestnut St., Ithaca, New York Mr. P. E. Machovina, 1228 Northwest Blvd., Columbus 12, Ohio Professor W. W. Magill, University of Kentucky, Lexington 25, Kentucky Mr. J. C. McDaniel, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois J. C. McDaniel, Jr., Urbana, Illinois Mr. J. W. McKay, U.S.D.A. Beltsville, Maryland Mr. J. Warren McKay, 4815 Osage St., College Park, Maryland Mr. A. J. Metzger, Toledo 6, Ohio Mr. Elwood Miller, 450 E. Chapel St., Hazleton, Pennsylvania Mrs. Elwood Miller, 450 E. Chapel St., Hazleton, Pennsylvania Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Negus, 5031-56th Ave., Roger Heights, Hyattsville, Maryland Mr. and Mrs. Royal Oakes, Bluffs, Illinois Mrs. E. N. O'Rourke, Tipton, Michigan Mr. and Mrs. F. L. O'Rourke, Hidden Lake Gardens, Tipton, Michigan Mr. John H. Page, Dundas, Ohio Mr. Edward W. Pape, Rt. 2, Marion, Indiana Mr. Christ Pataky, Jr., Mansfield, Ohio Mr. Carl F. Prell, 825 J.M.S. Bldg., South Bend 1, Indiana Mrs. C. A. Reed, 7309 Piney Branch Road, Washington 12, D.C. Mr. John Renken, St. Charles, Missouri Mr. Ralph Richterkessing, Rt. 1, St. Charles, Missouri Mr. John Rick, Reading, Pennsylvania Dr. and Mrs. W. M. Rohrbacher, 811 E. College St., Iowa City, Iowa Mr. E. T. Rummel, 16613 Laverne Avenue, Cleveland 11, Ohio Mr. and Mrs. George Salzer, 169 Garford Road, Rochester 9, N. Y. Mr. Rodman Salzer, 169 Garford Road, Rochester 9, N.Y. Mr. L. Walter Sherman, 220 Fairview Avenue, Canfield, Ohio (New address for Sherman) Mr. Sylvester Shessler, Genoa, Ohio Mr. Raymond E. Silvis, 59 First St., S.E., Massillon, Ohio Mr. Douglas A. Smith, 630 W. South St., Vermilion, Ohio Mr. and Mrs. Sterling A. Smith, 630 W. South St., Vermilion, Ohio Mr. D. C. Snyder, Center Point, Iowa Mr. and Mrs. W. F. Sonnemann, Vandalia, Illinois Miss Elizabeth Ann Sonnemann, Vandalia, Illinois Mr. Alfred Szego, 77-15a 37th Ave., Jackson Hgts., New York, N. Y. Mr. Ford Wallick, Peru, Indiana Prof. W. B. Ward, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana Mrs. Harry R. Weber, Box 42, Miamitown, Ohio (Now Mrs. Herbert Krone of Rt. 1, Lancaster, Pa.) Mr. A. M. Whitford, Farina, Illinois Mr. Gordon Zethmayr, Rt. 1, West Chicago, Illinois Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman, Rt. 1, Linglestown, Pennsylvania CONSTITUTION of the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, INCORPORATED (As adopted September 13, 1948) NAME ARTICLE I. This Society shall be known as the Northern Nut Growers Association, Incorporated. It is strictly a non-profit organization. PURPOSES ARTICLE II. The purposes of this Association shall be to promote interest in the nut bearing plants; scientific research in their breeding and culture; standardization of varietal names; the dissemination of information concerning the above and such other purposes as may advance the culture of nut bearing plants, particularly in the North Temperate Zone. MEMBERS ARTICLE III. Membership in this Association shall be open to all persons interested in supporting the purposes of the Association. Classes of members are as follows: Annual members, Contributing members, Life members, Honorary members, and Perpetual members. Applications for membership in the Association shall be presented to the secretary or the treasurer in writing, accompanied by the required dues. OFFICERS ARTICLE IV. The elected officers of this Association shall consist of a President, a Vice-president, a Secretary and a Treasurer or a combined Secretary-treasurer as the Association may designate. BOARD OF DIRECTORS ARTICLE V. The Board of Directors shall consist of six members of the Association who shall be the officers of the Association and the two preceding elected presidents. If the offices of Secretary and Treasurer are combined, the three past presidents shall serve on the Board of Directors. There shall be a State Vice-president for each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the Association, who shall be appointed by the President. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION ARTICLE VI. This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or copy of the proposed amendments having been mailed by the Secretary, or by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS (Revised and adopted at Norris, Tennessee, September 13, 1948) SECTION I.--MEMBERSHIP Classes of membership are defined as follows: ARTICLE I. ANNUAL MEMBERS. Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who pay annual dues of Three Dollars ($3.00). ARTICLE II. CONTRIBUTING MEMBERS. Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who pay annual dues of Ten Dollars ($10.00) or more. ARTICLE III. LIFE MEMBERS. Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who contribute Seventy Five Dollars ($75.00) to its support and who shall, after such contribution, pay no annual dues. ARTICLE IV. HONORARY MEMBERS. Those whom the Association has elected as honorary members in recognition of their achievements in the special fields of the Association and who shall pay no dues. ARTICLE V. PERPETUAL MEMBERS. "Perpetual" membership is eligible to any one who leaves at least five hundred dollars to the Association and such membership on payment of said sum to the Association shall entitle the name of the deceased to be forever enrolled in the list of members as "Perpetual" with the words "In Memoriam" added thereto. Funds received therefor shall be invested by the Treasurer in interest bearing securities legal for trust funds in the District of Columbia. Only the interest shall be expended by the Association. When such funds are in the treasury the Treasurer shall be bonded. Provided: that in the event the Association becomes defunct or dissolves, then, in that event, the Treasurer shall turn over any funds held in his hands for this purpose for such uses, individuals or companies that the donor may designate at the time he makes the bequest of the donation. SECTION II.--DUTIES OF OFFICERS ARTICLE I. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and Board of Directors, and may call meetings of the Board of Directors when he believes it to be the best interests of the Association. He shall appoint the State Vice-presidents; the standing committees, except the Nominating Committee, and such special committees as the Association may authorize. ARTICLE II. Vice-president. In the absence of the President, the Vice-president shall perform the duties of the President. ARTICLE III. Secretary. The Secretary shall be the active executive officer of the Association. He shall conduct the correspondence relating to the Association's interests, assist in obtaining memberships and otherwise actively forward the interests of the Association, and report to the Annual Meeting and from time to time to meetings of the Board of Directors as they may request. ARTICLE IV. Treasurer. The Treasurer shall receive and record memberships, receive and account for all moneys of the Association and shall pay all bills approved by the President or the Secretary. He shall give such security as the Board of Directors may require or may legally be required, shall invest life memberships or other funds as the Board of Directors may direct, subject to legal restrictions and in accordance with the law, and shall submit a verified account of receipts and disbursements to the Annual meeting and such current accounts as the Board of Directors may from time to time require. Before the final business session of the Annual Meeting of the Association, the accounts of the Treasurer shall be submitted for examination to the Auditing Committee appointed by the President at the opening session of the Annual Meeting. ARTICLE V. The Board of Directors shall manage the affairs of the association between meetings. Four members, including at least two elected officers, shall be considered a quorum. SECTION III.--ELECTIONS ARTICLE I. The Officers shall be elected at the Annual Meeting and hold office for one year beginning immediately following the close of the Annual Meeting. ARTICLE II. The Nominating Committee shall present a slate of officers on the first day of the Annual Meeting and the election shall take place at the closing session. Nominations for any office may be presented from the floor at the time the slate is presented or immediately preceding the election. ARTICLE III. For the purpose of nominating officers for the year 1949 and thereafter, a committee of five members shall be elected annually at the preceding Annual Meeting. ARTICLE IV. A quorum at a regularly called Annual Meeting shall be fifteen (15) members and must include at least two of the elected officers. ARTICLE V. All classes of members whose dues are paid shall be eligible to vote and hold office. SECTION IV.--FINANCIAL MATTERS ARTICLE I. The fiscal year of the Association shall extend from October 1st through the following September 30th. All annual memberships shall begin October 1st. ARTICLE II. The names of all members whose dues have not been paid by January 1st shall be dropped from the rolls of the Society. Notices of non-payment of dues shall be mailed to delinquent members on or about December 1st. ARTICLE III. The Annual Report shall be sent to only those members who have paid their dues for the current year. Members whose dues have not been paid by January 1st shall be considered delinquent. They will not be entitled to receive the publication or other benefits of the Association until dues are paid. SECTION V.--MEETINGS ARTICLE I. The place and time of the Annual Meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the Board of Directors shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the President and Board of Directors. SECTION VI.--PUBLICATIONS ARTICLE I. The Association shall publish a report each fiscal year and such other publications as may be authorized by the Association. ARTICLE II. The publishing of the report shall be the responsibility of the Committee on Publications. SECTION VII.--AWARDS ARTICLE I. The Association may provide suitable awards for outstanding contributions to the cultivation of nut bearing plants and suitable recognition for meritorious exhibits as may be appropriate. SECTION VIII.--STANDING COMMITTEES As soon as practical after the Annual Meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint the following standing committees: 1. Membership 2. Auditing 3. Publications 4. Survey 5. Program 6. Research 7. Exhibit 8. Varieties and Contests SECTION IX.--REGIONAL GROUPS AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ARTICLE I. The Association shall encourage the formation of regional groups of its members, who may elect their own officers and organize their own local field days and other programs. They may publish their proceedings and selected papers in the yearbooks of the parent society subject to review of the Association's Committee on Publications. ARTICLE II. Any independent regional association of nut growers may affiliate with the Northern Nut Growers Association provided one-fourth of its members are also members of the Northern Nut Growers Association. Such affiliated societies shall pay an annual affiliation fee of $3.00 to the Northern Nut Growers Association. Papers presented at the meetings of the regional society may be published in the proceedings of the parent society subject to review of the Association's Committee on Publications. SECTION X.--AMENDMENTS TO BY-LAWS ARTICLE I. These by-laws may be amended at any Annual Meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present provided such amendments shall have been submitted to the membership in writing at least thirty days prior to that meeting. * * * * * Forty-Second Annual Meeting Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc. August 28, 29 and 30, 1951 Urbana, Illinois At the evening session on August 27, Dr. William Rohrbacher presented Dr. Arthur S. Colby, of the University of Illinois, who informally welcomed the gathering and set forth in detail the plans for the convention, with directions for finding different buildings, and suggestions concerning the several scheduled events. Dr. Colby concluded his talk by calling for a few remarks from one of our Canadian members, George H. Corsan, of Toronto, who is probably (with Dr. Deming) one of two nonagenarians in the association. Mr. Corsan spoke as follows: MR. CORSAN: My neck is still stiff. On the 27th of May I was up looking at a budding and I was coming down a 40-foot ladder, and when I was 22 feet from the ground the ladder had a bad rung and I took a head-first dive for the earth. I believe my tissues were made out of nuts, fruit, honey, and grain and I was able to survive. I looked exactly like a man in the gallows. They said, "You will be in the hospital for eight weeks or more." In two weeks and two days I was hoeing corn. On the way here I dropped into various places that were of interest. Jack Miners. The place is really better than when their father was alive. I came over across the river and dropped into Battle Creek. I spent a good time hunting for Kellogg and I couldn't find him. One person told me he was dead. He was quite peppy over the telephone and I was amazed because he had been ill and well, then ill and then well. He says, "Come on over. I am ready and looking for you." He wrote me a letter scolding me. He asked where I was going and I told him. I asked him, "Do you know you are a life member of that association?" He has a monster dog descended from Rin-Tin-Tin and that dog is clean, intelligent and looks like a human being. He is on the shore of Gull Lake, a seven-mile-long, one-mile-wide lake. Marvelous looking. He had abandoned his big house and he gave that to soldiers and sailors and sick men. I had asked for him and they have never heard of him. That's how he hides himself. He is back on the lake again. So I hunted and found a house so unique that no one but he could have a house like that built. There he was and he was peppy as ever. He has a new man on the bird sanctuary. He was fully alive. I don't want to take up any more of your time. I have had call on me an enormous number of people who are more interested in nut growing than ever. I can't blame them, with the price of meat so high, and so many doctors advising the displacement of animal foodstuff by the eating of nuts. It was on my 94th birthday that I got a plaster cast and was in it two weeks and two days. I will tell you a little secret. I was supposed to have a diet. They had a dietician and I said I didn't need to eat anything. I drank orange juice and pineapple juice and apple juice and grapefruit juice. I ate some European black bread with carroway seeds; it tasted bitter. I don't eat so much as I did before the accident. I am trying to be careful of myself. I want to have a talk with Wilkinson on the black walnut. I have four big trees of Stabler, and hardly a nut grows on them. Down there they behave themselves and have big crops. How do they have such big crops? I like them. I don't believe there is a tastier nut in the world. Even my hybrid Asiatic butternut cross. I have got quite a lot of them here to show you and the biggest filberts in the world and they are all seedlings. Not a hickory nut, butternut or black walnut. I had a ton of black walnuts. There is a good crop of hybrids, filberts, English walnuts, and there are some other nuts. I am north of Lake Ontario. When any of you are going across, drop in and see me. TUESDAY MORNING SESSION DR. ROHRBACHER: Will you please come to order. My gavel is in Iowa City, so I will use my pocket knife. We have to make a little change in our program. Our leader, Mr. Magill, is not yet here. First on our program this morning will be Dr. C. J. Birkeland, head of the Department of Horticulture at the University of Illinois. It's wonderful to have such a splendid response so early in the morning. DR. BIRKELAND: It is certainly nice to see such a big turnout and we certainly welcome you to Illinois. We have been interested in nuts for a long time and probably will be more interested in the future. We have one man on our staff who has for years been interested. Now that we have two, we will be twice as interested. In the past, years ago, the Endicotts probably pioneered in a new variety of nuts. Later on, the Caspers and Gerardis and Whitfords and now the Oakes and Best families are doing a lot of work in the propagation of new and better varieties. We have a lot of areas in Illinois suitable for nut propagation, with the Wabash, Illinois, and Mississippi rivers, and we have been working with farm advisers and other groups to increase nut production and now we have a new horticultural experimental station in the southern part of the state. There is a lot of land suitable for that type of production. Out on the horticultural farm we have, I guess, several hundred seedlings and varieties of nuts which you will probably see. I hope your stay here will be a lot of fun as well as profitable. DR. CRANE: It is a great pleasure for me, and I know from the expression that I have had from those with whom I have talked, also for the members of the Northern Nut Growers Association who are here to be able to meet in Urbana as guests of the University of Illinois. As a matter of fact, we have tried and wanted to come out here for quite a long while, but we didn't have a good invitation and we are glad to accept--here we are! The members of the Northern Nut Growers Association are all good people and they are very much interested in nut growing, not so much from the standpoint of making a fabulous income and being able to retire on an unlimited bank account on ten acres of land in nut trees, but they get a lot of pleasure out of fooling with them as a hobby, and in order that they might more or less through their trees respond under God's loving care. This is the 42nd annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association, so it is no longer a baby. It is growing up. I don't know what the membership is at the present time. The secretary is going to tell us what the membership is this afternoon. It has gotten to be quite a sizable organization. We welcome the opportunity of coming out here to Illinois to see some of the nut orchards and nut trees in this great state, particularly pecans, although we do see quite a lot of hickories and also walnuts. We certainly thank you, Dr. Birkeland, for your welcome and I know that our pleasure here is going to be unlimited. We thank you. DR. ROHRBACHER: Thank you, Dr. Crane. We had them bring up some water to take care of our whistles. At this time I'd like to present our address. President's Address I want to say it is a real privilege and pleasure for me to visit with you today and to have the honor of serving as your president for the past year. I have always been impressed with the enthusiasm and optimism of this group. You know enthusiasm and optimism are highly contagious, and I look forward each year with great anticipation to my regular inoculation. It is particularly fitting that we assemble here with a common goal and purpose and also with the common knowledge that there is much work to be done. This society, which was formed 42 years ago, has enjoyed great progress and I wish to commend the men who had the vision to conceive this association and nurture it to manhood. Their accomplishments were indeed fruitful. However, there is still room and need for a program of expansion. It is our responsibility and obligation to see that this growth continues. The rings of growth on a tree trunk push outward and continually expand and grow--so must our association. Sometimes we become so deeply engrossed in what we are doing or trying to do that it is advisable to back up and take a broadside view of our objectives and purpose. In other words, we sometimes cannot see the forest for the trees. I should like at this time to review the real intent and purpose of the Northern Nutgrowers Association. The defined purpose of this association, as stated in the Constitution, is to promote: (1) Interest in nut bearing plants; (2) Scientific research in their breeding and culture; (3) Standardization of varietal names; (4) The dissemination of information concerning the above and such other purposes as may advance the culture of nut bearing plants. We are very happy that the 1951 convention has come to Illinois, which represents the western rim of this group. Only one meeting was held farther west, and that was held in Iowa in 1915, when my good friend and fellow Iowan, D. C. Snyder's brother, was active and contributed so much to nut culture in this country. The late Sam Snyder's, as well as D. C.'s untiring efforts, did much to originate and develop some of the finest named walnut and hickory nuts in Iowa. Through the years many other good nuts of the black walnut, hickory, pecan, Persian walnut and chestnut have been added to the ever-growing list. It is my considered opinion that one of the real questions that must be answered and answered intelligently, based on actual experience, is what nut trees shall I plant now? It is only natural that the list of different varieties has grown so long in nearly every variety that we should concern ourselves particularly with point three of our objectives, which I have reviewed with you--that being the standardization and selection of varietal names. In order that nut culture be extended and expanded for profit, as well as satisfaction, I feel this is a real problem. It is my considered judgment that a definite culling must be done. Those of us who find our favorite nut tree meeting the axe may propagate it on a personal basis. The fact remains however that a definite list of approved varieties, based on actual experience and performance, is needed. We will save many a heartache, much time, work, and money by knowing more definitely what to plant. This would enable the nurseryman or the propagator of nut trees to reduce the number of varieties it has been necessary to carry in the past. It is imperative that any growing business have a broad commercial base. The nurseryman is seeking information on the most desirable varieties because it is unprofitable for him to carry a huge inventory of varieties he feels are most desirable, yet are called for the least. It has been my experience that the nurserymen in Iowa are limiting the number of species for propagating purposes. They are making a selection of varieties based on their own judgment, which may be good or perhaps could be better. If more standardization and selection could be obtained, the nurseryman could and would propagate more of the varieties that are recommended for their particular localities. In my opinion, it is our responsibility to help furnish this information. With this in mind, we have named a committee to work on this important problem during the past year. The very capable and efficient Mr. H. F. Stoke has been working with the vice-presidents of our organization to survey the black walnut through the black walnut belt. I am sure we all are anxious to learn about their findings and accomplishments later in this conference. It is my sincere hope that this report and the forum round table discussion will give all of us a better understanding of which black walnut to plant in each respective locality. If we can accomplish this one problem at this meeting, I feel this conference would be most worthwhile and be a contributing factor to an ever-expanding production of good black walnuts in this country. If we can make real progress on the black walnut, and I am confident we can, the other varieties such as the hickory, Persian walnut, chestnut, and the lesser grown nuts, can be dealt with in the future. This matter of selecting the best variety of black walnuts for a particular locality has been of interest to me ever since I became interested in the fascinating subject and practice of growing nut trees. Furthermore, I have become increasingly interested in this during each succeeding year. If you will pardon a personal reference, we started out by planting some of each variety that appealed to me that was being propagated or sold by nurserymen. In the beginning years we experienced difficulty with two factors: namely, cattle and flood waters. We still have a number of varieties but have discarded many for a number of reasons. However, in the next few years the trees will be ready to bear and will furnish many of the answers concerning production in our own locality. This single project may save future planters of nut trees many heartaches and, more important, loss of time--because they will know what to plant. That sentence in essence is my main thought for the day--and year. And as a final example we could read the parable from the book of Matthew of the man who sowed seed but an enemy sowed tares and the servants asked if they should pull the tares. But Jesus said, "No, because in so doing they might uproot the wheat. Rather," said He, "wait until the harvest, then separate the tares from the wheat." Earlier it was mentioned that we all like to be identified with a growing or expanding business or project. It is my firm conviction that we all should do more to promote more and better nut trees. We need more planters of a few nut trees as well as a few planters with many trees. We have recently seen a tremendous rebirth of interest in grassland farming in this country. This is constructive and sound for the long pull. Livestock and proper land use are natural companions. Another ally and companion in this whole movement should be good walnut trees in every pasture, a few nut trees in every farm lot, in the fence row and corner of the farm. I am sure that our educational agencies would be very receptive to putting more emphasis on this sound and fundamental practice. Good pasture lands, clear streams, plenty of trees for shade are all important and real assets to any farm. Shade produced by a tree is incomparable to any man-made structure. Instead of compromising with any shade tree let us all accept it as our mission to educate the people to know that nut trees are the most economical and useful. Then, after a summer of furnishing the finest shade from the summer heat, fall would bring an abundant harvest of highly desirable edible nuts for the household and perhaps a few more for a city neighbor who may not have been so fortunate. Thus, in closing, may I again emphasize that it is my sincere hope that the survey, which has been completed by Mr. Stoke through the good cooperation of the vice presidents, will result in a more intelligent selection of the best black walnuts for the respective communities and localities. This will enable the beginner, as well as others, to purchase black walnut trees with a reasonable assurance that the returns will be a source of satisfaction rather than a disappointment. It is a real pleasure to come to Urbana and partake of the gracious hospitality of people like Dr. Colby, J. C. McDaniel, and others who have contributed so much to the success of this association. This is a great fraternity and it is my sincere hope that we continue from here to a most successful meeting. This common bond and mutual objective of better nut culture gives us pleasure, profit, pleasant association, healthful enjoyment, and at the same time renders a genuine service to our community and country. At this time, we have to make a change in our program, due to the fact that our leader W. W. Magill, of the University of Kentucky, is not here with us. We have asked that S. C. Chandler, of Carbondale, Illinois, speak on the Control of Spittle Bugs on Nut Trees. Control of Spittle Bugs on Nut Trees S. C. CHANDLER, _Illinois Natural History Survey, Carbondale, Ill._ When Dr. Crane spoke about the fact that so many of you grow nuts for pleasure rather than for profit, I thought that probably explained why I just knew about this pecan spittle bug June 27 of this year. I never even heard of it before, although it has been quite serious in and around Union County, 200 miles south of here. The firm which owns the orchard where these tests were conducted, Conrad Casper and Son, has 75 magnificent pecan trees besides an apple and a peach orchard. Mr. Casper didn't say anything about the trouble until then. He lays much of the loss of his crop to the pecan spittle bug. I want you to know what it is like. It is a little out of season. The meadow spittle bug works on grasses and weeds. This is, we have found, a different species. This one I brought up doesn't show as much as it would if I had collected it three weeks ago. There is a little nymph of a sucking insect which spits as it feeds. It doesn't chew tobacco fortunately. I got it from down here in the bottoms of the Little Wabash River. I first want to tell you a little of what the grower, Mr. Conrad Casper, considers the importance of it. Now, as I say, I don't pretend to be a specialist on nut insects. My work has been mostly with fruit insects. Whatever I know about this insect I have learned this year, and I am just passing on that information to you. Mr. Casper says that in the year represented by this growth here the spittle bug worked right into the base, and that is the one that would have produced buds. So, instead of bearing nuts, it acts as if you have pruned it. It didn't stop the growth, but it stopped the bearing of nuts. That was attacked by spittle bugs, but at any rate it didn't produce nuts. That has gone on four or five years and his neighbors all say the same thing. Here is one year, two, three, in the twig growth. This year it did make some nuts, in that particular branch. I am not prepared to back everything he says. Here is a growth here, then another, and finally had a few nuts all over the tree. So much then for the importance of it. My problem was three-fold. I wanted to find out what species was involved. I found out it was not the same species that works on the grasses, and I sent in some adults for identification. They told me the right genus, but couldn't tell me the species. They are either in the process of determining it or on vacation. It is a different thing from the Meadow spittle bug and has two broods instead of one. I wanted to learn something about the life history. All of you know that it is very important to get the life history of the insect, because then you know the stages in which they are most likely to be most easily killed. We know something of the stages and when it would be of use to spray or do something for them. In order to learn the species, I had to rear it out and to attempt some control measures when it was first called to my attention by the farm advisers. This first brood was about over, and I thought our work was about over. The spittle was drying up. It is interesting to note that unless it is actually feeding, you can carry it around in a car for only a short time. The insect seems to stop working and you can't get a very good sample. MR. McDANIEL: We have some out there on our pecan trees and on the walnuts also. MR. CHANDLER: Down there we found where walnut was interplanted with pecan, it would be very light on a walnut then. So I thought that maybe our observations and tests were over before they ever started, but by July 8 or 10, a new brood had started. Dr. G. C. Decker could hardly believe it. There is only one brood of the Meadow spittle bug with which he was familiar, but this was a different species. It was very much more numerous than the first brood. Ninety-five per cent of the terminals were infested. If that does anything to nut production it is bound to reduce the bearing. Now that brood lasted until late August. The adults continued to emerge for about a month, starting August third, and as far as I know they were still emerging on Sunday afternoon, August 26. Now, just before telling about that and showing some of the pictures and spraying test, I might wind up this part of it by saying something about the distribution. I wondered if it is in Gallatin County. I found it abundant there. Mac already says we have some in Urbana. I was wondering if it was down in the so-called pecan orchards. These orchards are really just seedling groves. Immense things. I went down there on my way and they do have it. The first man I met said I think we haven't been getting pecans because of that spittle bug. It did seem funny to stumble on the thing. Mr. Casper was really an apple grower. It took him four years to suffer enough to complain about his pecan insects. I want to show you some slides. Dr. Kelly will start showing the pictures. I tried to take a picture of one of the worst infested branches. Really, later I found I had taken it a little too soon. This thing actually hangs down in bags. This was my attempt to show some of these previous year's growth that was killed, and there it was. You can see some of this whitish material here. This was taken after we had sprayed. The new growth is coming through here. I must have gotten my finger in the way here. This is the dead part and the new growth and something working on it. Another thing that Mr. Casper says is that sometimes it gets bad enough so that some of these nuts are caused to drop off. They seem to be pretty well established. Now there are small things I am attempting to show here. I think our official photographer is on vacation. He has some that are larger than I was able to take. I tried to take a picture when the spittle was dried up, but I don't know whether you can see them. I wanted to show you some of the cages. They were emergence cages that cover a branch. The nymphs would develop into the adults inside that. Here again I wished for my official photographer. These are the adults, darkish up here and light in the other end. They are about three-eighths of an inch long and they are a hopper. They have wings with which they can fly, but mostly you see them jumping about. They look like your tree hoppers. I just wanted you to take a look down this magnificent orchard of Mr. Casper's. He has 75 of those trees. They are 31 years old, planted 55 feet apart. They are 75 feet high. I am going to have to use some of my boy scout ability and measure by proportion. He claims to have sprayed at least the lower three-fourths of the tree. MEMBER: He uses a speed sprayer, doesn't he? MR. CHANDLER: No, it's another kind. With all the pressure on one gun, he can get a long way up. One of the materials we used was too strong and we got a crinkling on the leaves. After that he cut it down to what I told him. My data slide. I want to tell you about this. He sprayed first on July 16 in the orchard which I showed you. He sprayed the whole thing with parathion. He had been using it with his apples and he thought of that as being such a deadly poison that that must be the thing to do. We thought so the first day afterward. He sprayed in the evening. At nine the next morning we could find practically none of those terminals that seemed to have live spittle bugs, but in about two days we could see some were surviving that treatment so we came in again. That spray was applied July 23. At any rate, we sprayed one row with lindane, 1-1/4 lb. per 100 gallons. When I went through the original parathion sprayed plot there was well over half that had some live nymphs. We started our tests over again. On July 30 we sprayed with lindane (25% wettable powder) with one pound to one hundred gallons of water. Only three terminals with any live nymphs out of a hundred were left in the lindane. The parathion has 38 per cent alive. TEPP which is teta ethyl pyrophosphate is a very quick acting material but doesn't last. Whatever it does, it has to do in an hour or two's time. It has lost its efficiency after that. But we know it might kill everything in a big hurry. There was still ten per cent. We could rule out parathion. We went back to this one row and sprayed on July 23 and on August 2 and 3. That would be nine days. There still were only four infested terminals. That lindane is a refined BHC, which is that material that stinks. It has been known to produce an off flavor in peaches, and it could very easily make an off flavor in pecans. In tests before this on Meadow spittle bugs on crops which might be used for food they did not use BHC, which would be cheaper. There are four or five different forms of the molecule that are important in making that and this gamma is the most important. We used a pound of this 25% gamma lindane and that apparently was the most successful. I didn't get this idea out of a clear sky. I talked to Dr. G. C. Decker and read one or two articles showing where they had been using dieldrin and lindane with the most success. I guess that is all the slides now. MEMBER: Do you get away from the bad effects of BHC by using lindane? MR. CHANDLER: Yes. Now we feel that at any rate in the very short time in which we have known anything about the thing we have at least learned something about the pest and the distribution and the species and apparently we have got a lead on control. Mr. Casper thinks there is no reason why he shouldn't start in the first brood, although he has had about four years build up of the thing and no wonder it is bad. If we should try that another year, I would say we should start about the middle of June, because when he looked on the 27th of June the show was about over. MEMBER: Your lattitude is about the same as Evansville? MR. CHANDLER: Yes, Carbondale is almost on the due west line with Henderson, Kentucky, and Anna is 20 miles south of Carbondale. MEMBER: One hundred miles north would be about two weeks later. MR. CHANDLER: Yes, I wouldn't be surprised if it wouldn't be later. We thought maybe you might have to spray when the adults were out. We didn't know whether any material would go through that spittle. We thought you might have to spray and envelop the tree when the adults were around. MEMBER: I saw some spittle bugs in Northern Michigan on wild hazel, and I am wondering if they are a pest on filberts. MEMBER: We have no damage on filberts and I think we have spittle bugs in St. Louis. Our first brood comes between the first of June and the tenth, and in the last eight years they have been very serious. MEMBER: Did you say Northern Peninsula of Michigan? MEMBER: We have reports from Illinois and Missouri and Mr. Armstrong found it over at Princeton, Kentucky, and I know it is in Indiana. MR. McDANIEL: I have seen some on pecans in Tennessee, but not as abundant as in Union County. MEMBER: English walnuts in Ohio. H. F. STOKE: I am in southwestern Virginia. I can say that we have spittle bug in the South. I am not sure it is the same species. When I get it determined, I will let you know. DR. CHASE: That occurs in all the southern states. It is quite bad in Georgia and Florida and Alabama and in fact all the southern states. MR. McKAY: It is very bad on weeds and grass in our orchards. MR. CHANDLER: That's another species. MR. McKAY: I have never seen any on our nut trees. MEMBER: Just before this attack on the nut trees it was real bad on clover and grasses in our area. MEMBER: That comes a little earlier. We ought to be sure that we get that determined. Dr. Milton W. Sanderson has had to send some specimens to a specialist in this group in Lawrence, Kansas.[1] MEMBER: Are there just two broods? MR. CHANDLER: There might possibly be three. I have another cage in my check block in which I collected the live ones, and I am going to find out whether they produce or don't. MEMBER: There are two broods in Iowa. MEMBER: Do I understand the common spittle bug is an enemy to nut trees? MEMBER: That is for young nursery seedlings. MR. CHANDLER: Did you see these big trees where I told you about having the crop? I explained for several minutes that there must be two varieties. MR. FERGUSON: There is a spittle bug that bothers the June berries. DR. ROHRBACHER: We have a spittle bug we had a year or two in Iowa on the elm trees. At this time Dr. Colby would like to make a few announcements. DR. COLBY: I just had a call from Tubby Magill. He is over in Danville and he has burned out a bearing and he is going to get over here for this afternoon. We will have to pinch-hit the rest of the morning. DR. ROHRBACHER: We will now have a presentation by Dr McKay on the Preliminary Results of the Training of Chinese Chestnut Trees. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: Dr. Kathleen G. Doering, at the University of Kansas identified the spittle bug from the Illinois pecans as _Clastoptera achatina_, a species not hitherto recognized as an important pecan pest. Spittle bugs from southeastern pecans have been referred to a different species.--Ed.] Preliminary Results from Training Chinese Chestnut Trees to Different Heights of Head J. W. MCKAY AND H. L. CRANE[2] Introduction Many growers of Chinese chestnut (_Castanea mollissima_) want to know how soon their young trees may be expected to bear their first crops of nuts. This is determined by several factors, but perhaps one of the most important is the amount and kind of pruning the trees receive during the first four or five years they are in the orchard. One reason for the importance of type of pruning is the characteristic habit of the species to form branches low on the trunk, so that low-headed and spreading tops result if trees are left unpruned. It has long been accepted by most horticulturists that any kind of pruning of fruit trees tends to be a dwarfing process. Hence, pruned trees would be smaller than similar unpruned trees. Pruning of young fruit trees, though reducing the size of the top and the number of growing points, tends to stimulate the growth of the remaining shoots. This has a marked tendency to delay the formation of fruit buds. Hence, unpruned trees come into bearing earlier than even lightly pruned trees. Tufts (2)[3] reported that lightly pruned deciduous fruit trees, such as apple, pear, apricot, and peach, came into bearing one to three years earlier than similar trees that had been heavily pruned. Crane (1) found that height of head in apple trees had little effect on yield for the first nine years in the orchard, but at the time the experiment was terminated the trees were still too young for him to expect much fruit production. He found, however, that the low-headed trees made more shoot growth and a larger gain in trunk diameter than the high-headed ones, and thus the bearing area was larger. Because the tree form of the horticultural varieties of Chinese chestnut is somewhat comparable to that of apple varieties, it would be expected that the two might give similar growth and yield responses to pruning or training procedures. The experiment described in this paper was initiated for the purpose of determining the response made by trees of Chinese chestnut varieties pruned and trained to three heights of head. Experimental Procedure The three varieties used in the experiment are Meiling, Nanking, and an unnamed variety carried under the accession number 7916. The last variety is characterized by dwarf, heavy-bearing trees that mature their crops very early in the fall, whereas Meiling and Nanking are vigorous, fast-growing varieties that mature their nuts in midseason. In the early spring of 1948 thirty-six two-year-old grafted trees were planted 25 feet apart in the orchard in four short rows of nine trees each. The three treatments consisted of (1) no pruning; (2) pruning to a 2-foot head; and (3) pruning to a 4-foot head. Three trees, one of each variety, were included in a plot or treatment. Thus, the experiment was arranged in a randomized block design with the three treatments randomized in each row and the four rows serving as replications. Each spring the trees received a liberal application of a 10-6-5 fertilizer. Strips six to eight feet wide on each side of the contoured rows received frequent cultivation each growing season, while strips of orchard grass sod were left between the rows to prevent erosion. The soil is Riverdale (tentative series) sandy loam that had been in orchard grass sod for ten years before the experiment was begun. It has been necessary to spray the trees each year with DDT, parathion, or both to control Japanese beetles and mites. Pruning of the trees was begun during the first winter following the planting in the orchard, but only a few of the lower limbs were removed in order not to dwarf the pruned trees severely. The second winter a few more lower limbs were removed and at this time the two-foot-head treatments were complete. A third pruning was necessary before the heads of the trees in treatment three could be raised to four feet. Detailed records and measurements were made of the diameter of each tree trunk one foot above the ground, and of the weight and number of nuts produced (yield). Experimental Results =Table 1. Effects of training to different heights of head on the average diameter of tree trunk and yield of nuts of three varieties of Chinese chestnuts at the end of the third season (1950) after transplanting= ===========+=============================+==============================+ | | | | Average diameter of tree | | | trunk (millimeters) | Yield of nuts (pounds) | Treatment +-----------------------------+------------------------------+ | | | | Meiling No. Nanking Tree | Meiling No. Nanking Tree | | 7916 average| 7916 average | ------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+ | | | No pruning | 43 43[1] 47 45 | .19 .43[1] .05 .16 | 2-foot heads| 25 19 21 22 | 0 .12 0 .04 | 4-foot heads| 27 22 25 25 | 0 .03 0 .01 | ------------+-----------------------------+------------------------------+ =============+==============================+ | | | | | Number of Nuts | Treatment +------------------------------+ | | | Meiling No. Nanking Tree | | 7916 average | -------------+------------------------------+ | | No pruning | 11 22[1] 2 10 | 2-foot heads | 0 7 0 2 | 4-foot heads | 1 4 0 2 | -------------+------------------------------+ [1] 2 trees missing. Data on the diameters of the tree trunks and yields of nuts at the end of the third year in the orchard are given in table 1. It should be pointed out first that these grafted trees produced some nuts the third growing season they were in the orchard. This is very much earlier than seedling trees ordinarily could be expected to bear nuts. It will be noted that trees of Number 7916 developed a somewhat smaller trunk on the average than the other varieties did, but Number 7916 outyielded them about two to one, both in weight and in number of nuts produced. The tendency of Number 7916 to bear nuts earlier and on smaller trees than other varieties may prove to be a valuable characteristic that will justify naming and releasing this clone as a new variety. The fact that it matures its nuts early may also make it suitable for growing in more northerly areas than other varieties, because the length of season required for maturing the crop presumably is shorter than for other varieties. However, this cannot be determined without extensive tests in the North, which are now being made by a number of growers. It will be noted also in table 1 that the trunk diameters of the unpruned trees were about twice as great as were those of trees trained to two-and four-foot heads; and furthermore, the yield of nuts was more than four times as great. This means that cutting off the limbs that formed below the 2-foot level checked growth so that the bearing surface of the tops was greatly reduced as compared with that of unpruned trees. Also, growth of the tops of these trees was etiolated and spindly, and the shoots produced few or no catkins as compared with the abundant catkins produced by the unpruned trees. Several of the trees with four-foot heads became so top-heavy that staking was necessary, and nearly all the pruned trees leaned to some extent. At the end of the third year in the orchard, the unpruned trees were much taller than trees headed at two and four feet, and the spread of branches was also much greater. Preliminary results from this experiment indicate that early pruning of young Chinese chestnut trees causes severe dwarfing and consequent delay in the formation of catkins and the bearing of nuts. All pruning operations should, therefore, be delayed until the trees reach bearing age, and from that time on low limbs may be removed gradually from year to year until the trees are trained to the proper height. Literature Cited (1) Crane, H. L. The effect of height of head on young apple tree growth and yield West Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 214. 1928 (2) Tufts, Warren P. Pruning young deciduous fruit trees California Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 313: 111-153. 1919 Discussion MR. McDANIEL: What age and height were these trees when planted? DR. McKAY: These trees were grafted on two year old stock and allowed to grow a year. They were three years old. They have grown in the orchard three years, so they are now six years old and about five feet high. They were grafted about a foot from the ground and they grew three feet or so. They were a good size grafted tree. MEMBER: May I ask the time of the year when you pruned? DR. McKAY: In the dormant season. MR. SHERMAN: I have been pruning some Persian walnuts. Just as the side branch starts I rub that bud off and I can't see that I am dwarfing it any. MEMBER: Maybe you aren't pruning enough to do any dwarfing. We have removed whole limbs. MEMBER: I have taken it off and allowed the center to go up. DR. McKAY: It may have different effects. We actually removed wood from the tree. MEMBER: Is that 7916 a pretty good sized nut? DR. McKAY: It is a smaller nut. The 7916 is a potentially high bearer. It bears quickly after it is planted and that is one of the things a lot of us are interested in. MEMBER: How about eating quality? DR. McKAY: It is just as good. Our preliminary conclusion is that early pruning in this species causes severe dwarfing and delay in the fruiting of Chinese chestnuts. Just let them alone. Plant them and forget about pruning them until they come into bearing. Let them alone and you will get nuts two or three years sooner than if you start taking those lower limbs off. Once you get it into bearing then start in and take off a few limbs on the bottom. You could still over-do the thing. The point is to wait at least three or four years. We will have some recommendations in another year when we shall know more ourselves. MEMBER: What do you disinfect those cuts with? DR. McKAY: We don't figure it is necessary to be too particular about painting the wounds. Those wounds heal over very quickly. Use an asphalt tree wound compound. MR. SILVIS: Personally it appears to me that Walter Sherman's method of rubbing off the buds or very young shoots just as they start growth is to be preferred. Your method of cutting off limbs is destructive pruning. Though you say pruning dwarfs the tree, actually the root is still there and given enough time will not the tree recover? DR. CRANE: I carried on pruning experiments for many, many years, with apples, peaches, pears and cherries. Since then I have been working on nut trees. As for this debudding, the reason he doesn't know he was injuring, was that he didn't have checks and experiments. When you have, you will see that debudding or even pinching the terminals will actually dwarf the tree, although not as badly if it is not done in the summer time. If you do it in the springtime, and if you keep on debudding along in June and July, you are dwarfing your trees. MR. McDANIEL: In the University orchard you will see some Chinese chestnuts which have been pruned heavily, and the results aren't good. MR. CORSAN: I visited a sweet chestnut orchard in Michigan, and the grower told me that there were two types of Chinese chestnut trees, one that grew tall and the other squatty. The one that grew shorter was much later than the tall one. Then I would like to tell you about an experience I had years ago. I imported from this state of Illinois from Miss Amelia Riehl, and I also planted about a bushel of seed of Chinese chestnut trees grown in the Niagara district. These Niagara seedlings are quite large and the amazing thing is they didn't grow any nuts. So I came across another orchard in the Niagara district where they were growing that large pointed type of nut and I got some grafts from that and I put them on these non-bearing trees and they all took at once. A bunch of them would all grow up without any failure. That was easy and now they are growing fine. I just thought I would tell you that peculiar experience, and that knocked me cold. The trees from Illinois and the trees from the seeds of the large good sized nuts were equally good. MEMBER: Did they bear after you grafted them? MR. CORSAN: They sent out sprouts that far. [Indicating.] The trees were all right. MR. STOKE: I think you are both wrong. I think you will take the tree and plant it without pruning and then it starts and then in the summer after it is in full leaf pinch off the leader in the lower branches. That will retain the value of those lower leaves. By doing that and suppressing the lower you will get better results than either of the other ways. Nature will remove and make unfruitful the lower ones. You can help nature in forcing the upper growth and removing the lower. DR. McKAY: That is one way of doing it. A lot of people want to get ahead of nature. If you wait for those lower limbs to die, the tree will have to be pretty large. Lots of people want to get under their trees before that. You sometimes want to get there after three or four years. I think it would take ten years for the shade to do it. MR. STOKE: I didn't mean to let the shade do it. We after three or four years can remove the limbs ourselves with less shock and much better results. That will work on any tree. DR. McKAY: I don't see how you can remove. MEMBER: You force stronger leaders at the top and hasten the growth of the top. MEMBER. You will get a delay of fruiting. MEMBER: I think you make up for it. DR. CRANE: That may be true. We have seen very conclusively that when you prune even a little you are going to destroy fruiting. MR. STOKE: You will have a larger tree in five years by my method than by yours. MR. A. M. WHITFORD: I have trees of that very spreading type of Chinese chestnut, that are lying on the ground and I should have removed those limbs five or eight years ago. You should remove them in not more than five years after planting. DR. McKAY: I want to make a comment. Some grafted trees are not bearing. This to us shows the importance of varieties. This difference between 7916 and the two others is so striking it means in the future we have to pay more attention to the varieties. There is no question that some varieties will bear sooner than others. We have to talk about grafted trees because that is the only thing that can be developed. Every grafted tree is potentially like every other of the same variety. MEMBER: What factors suppress them? In pinching back, do you mean that the actual growth rate is changed, or that debudding will suppress the entire tree? DR. McKAY: We mean the amount of the top itself. Usually it is the spread and the height together. When you prune, you tend to hold back the total amount of the fruiting area of the tree. If you allow it to develop untouched you have a greater fruiting area. MEMBER: The chestnut tree often will sprout from the trunk. What are the processes to check that? DR. CRANE: It is very largely root pressure. When you have a tree that is uninjured, all of your water and soluble minerals are going up to the top. When you have the tree trunk killed or cut off you still have water in your root system. In some trees you have a lot of adventitious buds that are still there and never forced out. Nitrogen will force those dormant buds into growth. At each walnut node or leaf we have as many as seven buds, all of which are capable of producing growth. Normally it is only the major bud that grows, but propagators sometimes get a patch bud back to life even though the primary bud dries up. Keep on forcing it and you are bound to get a sprout out of that bud. That is just the way it is with a lot of dormant buds. There are so many that when we cut off the top these dormant buds are forced into growth. Some trees don't have them. Tung does not form dormant buds, but will form those adventitious buds. They will form numerous buds even in a very small area of callus. It is just a safeguard that some plants have developed to keep the individuals alive. MR. McDANIEL: I think what Mr. Craig had in mind was the tendency there is in Chinese chestnut to form multiple trunks. DR. CRANE: That is due to these dormant buds and the ability to produce callus. Chestnut is one of the species that produces abundant callus very readily. That is one of the reasons this Chinese chestnut is so blight resistant. When it has an injury it will form callus at the point of the injury. MEMBER: Would you tell me how you would start a blind bud growing. It will not break. It doesn't form. When I come to a wood which is blind I cut it off. MR. CHASE: We have had such buds and find if that bud is blind you can force all you want to but you won't get any new buds to grow from that bud patch. DR. McKAY: It does on two-year wood. Perhaps on one-year wood you have no adventitious buds. When the bud dies, that patch is through. On two-year wood frequently small adventitious buds will grow. MEMBER: If you rub the main bud off, it will start on the side. MEMBER: Do you recommend two year wood for budding? DR. McKAY: We recommend one year if it is large and vigorous. If you have to use chestnut wood smaller than a pencil the results will be indifferent. MEMBER: What time do you recommend budding? DR. McKAY: We graft in spring, the first week in May, using dormant wood the size of your little finger. We wait until the first leaves are open, usually in May. MEMBER: Do I understand that most any place along that tree trunk there are adventitious buds? DR. McKAY: Particularly next to the root. MEMBER: Have you had any success in bench grafting of the chestnuts? DR. McKAY: We have had some success and other times failures. We can't recommend bench grafting. Perhaps you can do it, but we haven't yet worked out a satisfactory method. MEMBER: Wouldn't it do better if you dipped the top in paraffin or something? DR. McKAY: Ask Mr. Bernath. He is the authority. MR. BERNATH: No, none whatever. No, it wouldn't help. MR. CORSAN: In New York they had weevils. That is the most terrible thing I ever saw. Has the weevil disappeared entirely? MEMBER: No, indeed, we have weevils over a large area. It is a very important pest in the East and in the Ozark Chinkapin range around chestnut plantings. There is a very satisfactory and easy way of control. DDT, two pounds per 100 gallons of spray solution or a dust of one per cent. The trees are sprayed once or twice or three times from about the last of August on until shortly before harvest. MR. McDANIEL: That is discussed in last year's annual report. MR. CORSAN: I fumigated my seed nuts for the weevils and killed them all effectively, and we have no weevils of hickory or chestnuts now. That is, as far as southern Canada is concerned. It would matter terribly if we had any weevils of any kind. Anyone hear about the hickory and chestnut weevil? MEMBER: Standard directions are available for the control of weevils both in chestnut and hickories. MEMBER: There are practically no weevils in New York. The boundary line would be about southern New Jersey. It doesn't make much progress farther north. It's also absent toward the Southeastern and Gulf coasts. MEMBER: That is an interesting discussion, but it is off the current subject. DR. ROHRBACHER: I am sure your project is interesting, manifested by the questions you have been asked. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 2: Horticulturist and Principal Horticulturist, respectively. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau Plant Industry, Soils and Agricultural Engineering, Beltsville, Md.] [Footnote 3: Number in parenthesis refer to literature cited, p. 25.] The Filbert and Persian Walnut in Indiana W. B. WARD, _Department of Horticulture, Purdue University_ The soils and climatic conditions in Indiana are, for the most part, favorable to the growing of nut trees. There are various types of soils, ranging from light sand to heavy clay, soils high and low in organic material and natural fertility. The annual rainfall, 35 to 40 inches, is fairly well distributed throughout the year. The length of the growing season is about 150 frost-free days and, oftentimes, another 20 to 30 days of non-killing temperature. The summer and winter temperatures are average, thus providing good conditions for the development of fruit and growth to the trees. There are always exceptions to the normal conditions, and a good test season broadens the experience of those who want to go to the extreme in planting nut trees. This past year, 1950-51 season, was a good test year. The temperature early in November was as high as 85°, tomatoes, peppers, beans, and sweet corn were growing in the gardens. During mid-November the temperature quickly dropped to near zero. The cold later went down to -20° and even -35°, as recorded at Greensburg. This cold weather, not only killed much of the tender short growth and pistillate flower possibilities, but destroyed many of the catkins. The filbert and Persian (including Carpathian) walnuts, suffered and in some instances the plants were killed to ground level. All of the damaged plants have survived, and where the top of the tree was killed, new growth came up from the root. As only seedling Persian walnut trees were under observation and included in the Purdue plantation, their sucker growth will be used to form new tops. The native walnut, hazelnut, hickory, and butternut had little or no winter injury and many trees are very fruitful all over Indiana. The improved strains of filberts and the Persian walnuts have only a few fruits this year. Seedling Persians grafted or budded on native black walnut survived, but there was some damage to the top growth due to immaturity of the wood and bud last fall. Before general planting recommendations can be made, other than for the hobbyist or home-owner with a few trees, further testing will be required. Filbert and Hazelnut The native hazelnut thickets are not as common now as in years past. Most of the nuts were small and of little commercial value. When hybridizers and other nut enthusiasts started improving the size and quality of the native hazelnut and bringing in filberts from other countries, some impetus was added to the filbert planting program. Only a few took advantage of these new and promising seedlings, and aside from a few small plantings throughout the state the filbert is placed in the ornamental grouping of plants. Several areas in Indiana are suitable for more extensive plantings. The Jones hybrids have proven satisfactory and are found growing from the northern part to the Ohio River. Several crosses were made four years ago using pollen from the Rush and large fruited seedlings on the native hazel. There are 35 or 40 such plants, two years old, now growing in the Purdue plot. They came through the winter in excellent condition. Many of the catkins on the older plants were killed during the early cold spell, and the nut crop this year is very spotty. The filbert does have a place around the home as an ornamental, as a fruit tree, or when used as a hedge for screening. The Carpathian Persian Walnut The Carpathian Persian walnuts in Indiana are practically all seedlings. Many of these seedling trees show great promise, while others under observation for the past few years are being discarded because of lack of hardiness and production. Some few seedlings made vigorous growth and produced fair to good yields for the past 10 years, but some weakness was evident after the 1950-51 winter. It appears now that those trees that have survived and are in production this year are worthy of further study and propagation. The oldest known Persian walnut in our state is the Haderle seedling. A few nuts, from a friend in California, were planted in 1924 and 10 years later fruited. This tree has produced as many as 350 pounds of nuts in a single year and has survived all test winters since planting. The nut from the Haderle tree averages 32 nuts per pound, medium shell, good quality and 44.6 per cent of the total weight is edible. The nut cracks well. Several other such Persian seedlings have been classified as existing prior to the general distribution of Carpathian nuts from the Wisconsin Horticultural Society in 1936 to 1938 and later. Several individuals in Indiana took advantage of the nut sale and importation from Poland during the years mentioned and about 10 per cent of the original seedlings are now alive. Many of the trees planted 10 to 15 years ago are fruiting and classified. Outstanding groups of seedlings, which are referred to by name, such as Bolten, Fateley, Eagles, Barnhart, Kraning, Behr, Zollman, and others are found from the extreme northern area to the Ohio River, and are distributed over nearly one-half of the 92 counties in Indiana. The use of eastern black walnut as understock has been practised by several orchardists and nurserymen, and a few will have trees for sale in the near future. The fruits from these trees compare with the best. The largest nut is in the Fateley #1., with some fruits two inches in diameter, and averaging 23 nuts per pound. The nut is high in quality, has an appealing taste, and a well formed kernel. It cracks easily and has a very thin shell for such a large nut. This tree has borne 50 pounds of nuts or more annually for the past few years and has a nice crop this year after the severe test winter. The Fateley #1 seedling as well as the #2, #3 and #4 seedlings, are grown on a city lot, under crowded conditions and provided with only moderate care. Several crosses have been made at Purdue with the Persian walnut, and approximately 100 seedlings have been distributed to various persons throughout a large area of the state. The trees do not seem as susceptible to insect and disease damage as the native black walnut, and growing well in sod should make good lawn trees. Some of the nut trees were sprayed with "Nu Green"--five pounds per 100 gallons of spray material was used on the orchard crops, and great growth response was noted for the sprayed over unsprayed trees. As the home owner is forever looking for new trees to plant, and trees with clean habits, the Persian and particularly the Carpathian selections may be the answer. * * * * * The speaker exhibited photographs to illustrate his talk. They pictured several of the different trees he had mentioned. The photographs showed the conditions under which the trees grew, the effects of fertilizing, and the injuries resulting from the winter cold. The reading of the paper was followed by a short discussion, after which Dr. Rohrbacher called upon Mr. Ira Kyhl, of Sabula, Iowa, who talked on the subject "Nut Growing in Eastern Iowa." Nut Growing in Eastern Iowa IRA KYHL, _Sabula, Iowa_ About five years ago, I became very much interested in nut trees and having hundreds of wild black walnuts and hickories I attempted to graft, or rather top work, the black walnuts to Persian walnuts and heartnuts, and the hickories to pecans and hicans. My favorite, of course, is the Persian walnut, and in addition to top working them on blacks I planted several grafted trees and several hundred seed nuts. To my surprise and pleasure, nearly every seed grew and the seedlings are still doing very well. I now have 35 to 40 varieties. I have had very little winter injury, except with the Broadview variety. The tops froze back a little and I had a little trouble with the bark splitting on the larger trees. I covered the splits with tree wound dressing and they are all doing well now. I consider the Schafer about the best and most promising variety I have and the grafts take very well. Most of the Carpathian varieties are also growing nicely and especially the Illinois number 10,[4] which is a very rapid grower. In top working, I use the bark slot method, usually setting two to three grafts on a three inch stock, as at least one scion is almost sure to start. These scions are fitted and nailed in place with a seven-eighth or one inch nail and then well wrapped with one-inch industrial adhesive tape. This seems to break or deteriorate with the growth of the graft. I then thoroughly wax the taped part as well as all of the scion, covering the buds rather lightly. After the scion has started to grow well, a one by one strip is nailed to the stock. This extends from two to three feet above the top of the stock. The growth is then tied to the stick with soft cord. If growths are not tied this way, most of them are broken off by the wind. After the grafts are set, I cover with a paper milk bottle, or rather, container, and cut four small holes in it for ventilation. It sheds the rain well. I use a small tack on two sides. The containers usually stay there until removed when the graft starts. This method works much better than paper bags, as they are easily water-soaked and the wind blows them against the scion, which is easily loosened and therefore fails to start. I am also well pleased with the results I have had with heartnuts on black walnuts. I consider them the most rapid-growing of any of the nut trees. I have had grafts bear a few nuts the next year after being set. I now have seven or eight varieties, of which I consider Fodermaier, Aloka, Rival, Mitchell, and Wright as the most promising, along with Goettler. Squirrels seem to prefer heartnuts to all other sorts. I have eliminated this trouble by tacking a length or two of stove pipe around the trees. Last summer my attention was called to a tree about 30 miles from my home, which bore a very large crop of heartnuts. The man that owned the tree called them filberts. The tree is about 40 feet tall with a spread of 40 or 50 feet and is 18 inches in diameter. It is perhaps 20 to 25 years old and bears from three to four bushels a year, I am told. I have heard that the tree grew from a seed brought over from Germany. I have named the tree Goettler, in honor of the man bringing it to my attention. The nut seems to resemble the Wright and is one of the best cracking nuts I have found. I received permission to get scion wood from the tree and have a few grafts growing well. Hickories are, of course, a native of this section as is pecan, which grows wild on the Mississippi River bottoms about as far north as the mouth of the Maquoketa River. The pecan grafts take off nicely on hickory stocks but the graft seems to outgrow the stock. I have found, however, that hican, being half hickory and half pecan, works much better on a hickory stock. My pecan grafts which seem the most promising are Major, Indiana and Greenriver, and of the hican grafts the Burlington and Wapello. Chestnuts seem to do very well here, as well as filberts and native hazels. Of the chestnut varieties I have growing I prefer the Nanking, Kuling and Meiling. Most of my Persian walnut plantings I have interplanted with dwarf fruit trees and have clover and alfalfa growing between the rows. This is cut twice a year and used for mulch. The following spring it is spaded in and a small amount of high test nitrogen applied at the same time and the trees all seem to respond to this treatment very well. DR. ROHRBACHER: Any questions or remarks? MEMBER: Mr. Kyhl mentioned the Schafer. That is the one for the boys and girls in a hurry to get nuts. In three years you get nuts. I have experimented with it and that is the only tree that will do it. MR. CORSAN: I would like to ask the convention if they have had the experience with the black walnut and the Persian. Down the valley would come a good strong wind and break off the tops. I had one that grew 20 feet from a little graft. When I put this on, it had three buds. One bud threw six feet and 20 feet of wood from that one seeding. I barricaded it so the ice wouldn't break it. The ice broke through my barricade and I have one that is growing as high as I can reach. Black walnut broke off with the wind. Sometime, the whole tree broke down. Not a twig was broken off the English walnut. The black walnuts worry me to pieces. MR. DAVIDSON: In connection with this rapid growth, is there any difference in the quality of the wood? We have some that grow so much more rapidly. When the wood matures, will it have the same value for furniture and so on as the slower growing ones? Would they be more like the softwood? MR. CRANE: Our highest grade native woods are those which grow more slowly. We haven't made any studies on the wood in black walnut, in relation to the growth rate. DR. MacDANIELS: The strength and value of the wood depends on the proportion of large and small cells. In a very slow-growing tree you have a large proportion of the big cells. In rapid-growing wood you also have an undesirable result. It is between the very slow and very rapid that you get the best. If you get a rapid growth the cells are thin, even though they may be small. It is the in-between condition that makes for good timber. That is based on actual strength tests and evaluation. MEMBER: Mr. Corsan wrote me about the wind damage. I never had that experience. I saw the cyclone in southeastern Iowa. Elms were up-rooted and torn to pieces and I didn't see any black walnut damage. Even the hickories were damaged and some snapped off. I have never seen any walnut give away. MR. McDANIEL: We have wind damage in Urbana, and we can show you some places where black walnut trees were removed. MR. CORSAN: Many years ago I was in a train going from Toronto to Montreal, and this is a section that is full of hickory trees. The Indians must have planted them. That is the only nut except butternut. I looked out the window and we had a six-inch ice storm and the oaks were stripped. Most of the other soft trees were down to the ground. There wasn't even a twig killed on the hickories. The shagbark hickory. They were just as sound. DR. ROHRBACHER: The ladies who want to take a little walk and end up at Mrs. Colby's home where she is going to serve hot coffee meet at 1.30 in the main lobby. This is the regular time on which you are eating and sleeping now. The remainder of the group will meet here at one o'clock. If we go down to the cafeteria and get in before 11:40 we have a better chance. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 4: Now named Colby, this variety is a seedling of Crath No. 10.--ED.] TUESDAY AFTERNOON SESSION (meeting called to order at 1:00) DR. ROHRBACHER: We will have the secretary's report. MR. McDANIEL: By count last Saturday, we had 568 paid members plus 21 subscribers--a total of 589, compared with 575 members and a total list of 596 a year ago and 653 in 1949. Maybe you need a new secretary who is a more successful salesman, to push the membership higher. Actually we still have more members than at any time before the late 1940's, but we need more salesmanship to double or triple the present number. The planting of hardy named nut trees is going up by leaps and bounds (ask any nut nurseryman) but membership in the leading organization to promote their culture is lagging. We need more members among the new nut planters, and I think we have plenty to offer them for their $3.00, but we are not getting the point over to enough of them. There are thousands that we helped to get started. If anyone has some new ideas on the subject, let him speak up in the discussion period, and we will try to put the ideas into operation if they don't cost too much--in money or time of the organization's officers. Ohio still has the most members, and I think we can say the Ohio group is the most closely knit and active one in any state at present. There are 82 members in Ohio now. Several of them are new ones. Ohio is keeping up its membership percentage and it is always well represented at the meeting. How many here from Ohio today? Not _quite_ half the group. It is nip and tuck between New York and Pennsylvania for membership down through the years. This year Pennsylvania is one man ahead of New York, unless George Salzer has brought another new member's name with him. Pennsylvania is 58, New York 57. Two years ago it was New York 62, Pennsylvania 57. Then we had the meeting in New York state last year. Maybe some of the New Yorkers took a good look at us and decided it wasn't the crowd they wanted to be associated with! We haven't met in Pennsylvania recently, so the membership there is very steady. Dr. Colwell moved back home from Ecuador, so Pennsylvania moves from 57 to 58 members. Will the members from these two states rise briefly? Pennsylvania first--at least three from Pennsylvania; then New York--three from New York State. I might say the decline in New York members is _not_ in the Rochester area. Mr. Salzer is seeing to it that they don't drop out in Western New York. A lady in his county won our $25.00 first prize for her Persian walnut, and George relieved her of $3.00 of it for 1952 dues. We need more members like Mr. Salzer, and Mrs. Metcalfe, too. Illinois is fourth now with 38 members. I don't know what it'll drop to after this meeting. One member changed his address from Chicago to Indiana, but we are still seven up from the 31 of two years ago. Maybe Illinois is going to become a nut growing state after all, in spite of oak wilt, walnut bunch, spittle bugs, and the 1950 Thanksgiving freeze. Will the Illinois people rise, both members and visitors? Not quite a fourth of the group is from Illinois. Michigan is still fifth--32 members now, 30 in 1949. Take a bow, all you Michiganders--five or six from Michigan. We could afford to take a chance on a meeting there again before long. Indiana is going up slowly in membership. It is now sixth with 27, supplanting Tennessee. It had 18 members in 1947 and 25 in 1949. How many Hoosiers here? Six or seven from Indiana. Canada has 26 members listed now, putting it seventh. (There were 26 in 1949 also). Who's here from Canada--at least two. Iowa is one of only two other states with more than 20 members, having 22 in the book now, compared with 26 two years ago and 30 in 1947. How many Iowans here?--three besides our President. New Jersey has 21, Massachusetts has 17, Tennessee has 16, Virginia and Washington 14 each, Missouri, 13, California and Maryland 12 each, Connecticut and Oklahoma, 11 each, Kentucky and Kansas 10 each, West Virginia 8 and Georgia 5. There are fewer than five each in all the other states, except seven states with no members. Arkansas is a good nut producing state, but membership dropped from four to none. There are no members and seldom have been in Arizona, Colorado,[5] Maine, Montana, Nevada, and Wyoming. I believe we never had one in either Arizona or Nevada, but the others have occasionally had one. Hong Kong is a new territory on our list of foreign members, though Mr. Wang, who now lives there, joined the NNGA from China around 30 years ago. We are a _little_ better off on the annual report now than we were a year ago. It is printed and members who are here can take their copies. The story is the same as usual with the printers, although they are new ones this time. Our job got behind some others which moved slowly and then was put aside for work on school annuals in which this company does a lot of business. With some more volunteer editorial assistants and proof readers maybe we can get the copy to the printers earlier, so as really to get the book printed in the winter I agree with all the members who said that a year between the meeting and the publication is too long. Looking toward this the November 1 cut-off for accepting papers should still apply, with the suggested addition that no long ones will be accepted which were not read at the meeting. Composition is too expensive to permit publication of a book with unnecessary wordage, so I hope we can avoid as much as possible the duplication of material which appeared in recent reports. Boil it down, and please, for the sake of the editor's eyesight, don't try to put too much on a page. The editors appreciate some space between the lines. But if you have something new to report, don't hesitate to send it in. The 1950 report is here. I think it's a good one. In the hope of having a still better one for this meeting, I'll stop now. DR. ROHRBACHER: Thank you for your report. Any discussion and criticism both destructive and constructive? MEMBER: I thought this 1951 circular of information was a handy thing to have. I was wondering if more are available. MR. McDANIEL: Yes, we run off a surplus each year and any member may have more upon request. MEMBER: If you were to mail two instead of one to each member, that member could give the extra copy to a prospective member. MEMBER: I would like to make a suggestion on that card business. Why not follow the system of the _National Geographic's_ recommendation card--you can't become a Geographic Society member any other way. MR. McDANIEL: We will put a card or blank for nominations of members in the next issue of the _Nutshell_. DR. ROHRBACHER: This is the time the secretary would like to have comments on this to give him help if he gets his job back. MEMBER: It seems to me it would be a help in not only attracting new members but a help in stimulating attendance in our meetings if the annual report of the preceeding meeting could be gotten out something like two months ahead of the following meeting. MR. McDANIEL: I believe we can do better than that this year. MR. DAVIDSON: I do think it has quite an influence in stimulating interest not only on the part of our members but stimulating attendance at our meeting. I do think also that the suggestion of following the example of the _National Geographic_ should be put in the form of a motion and the Secretary instructed to remind each member to please nominate his or her friends for membership in the Association. I would be glad to make that motion. DR. ROHRBACHER: Do I hear it seconded? (Motion seconded). It has been moved by Mr. Davidson and seconded by Mr. Wallick from Indiana that we carry through this new project of securing membership. Any further discussion? MEMBER: Please repeat the motion. MR. DAVIDSON: I would move then that the secretary be instructed to send to each member a reminder of his duty to nominate friends for membership in this Association. MEMBER: What do you mean by membership--members or officers? MR. McDANIEL: Members first, officers later. If you stay a member long enough you probably get to be an officer. MEMBER: I'd like to amend that resolution that the secretary send a card to each member in which he can nominate a new member. With the secretary just reminding the members nothing ever happens. I think the card has to go with the reminder. MR. DAVIDSON: I accept that amendment. MEMBER: I think this whole thing clarifies itself if you bear in mind that the application form and the nomination are one and the same thing. A card which says in effect "I apply for membership in the NNGA" and the blank for his name, occupation and address. The card says that remittance of the annual dues is made herewith and this applicant has been nominated by the current member of the Association. It is one card. I receive a couple of these from the secretary and write my name for a nominee. His name and address and that is sent in to the treasurer together with his dues and an application of someone who has been nominated. It is a good screening because you have people interested definitely in the work of this organization. MEMBER: I would fear that too many barriers put in the way of it might tend to decrease the number of new members. It is hard enough to get people interested. MEMBER: Mr. President, I don't see how that can be a barrier since one doesn't know unless a member tells him. One doesn't become a member until a member said "Look, you should belong, let me nominate you for membership." DR. ROHRBACHER: If I want to become a member, this is just another source. MEMBER: The _National Geographic_ psychology is good. They have a circulation of one million, seven hundred thousand. If you want the _National Geographic_, some member has to sign a card. The psychology of that is that it makes it a little hard to get in and it works. MR. RUMMEL: If there is a motion on the floor, I will second the amendment. DR. ROHRBACHER: All in favor say "aye"--opposed "no". Motion carried. Is there anything further to take up under the heading of helping our secretary? If not, we will go on and have a report from our treasurer. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 5: A Colorado walnut grower joined later.--Ed.] Treasurer's Report MR. SMITH: Ladies and gentlemen of the NNGA, our good secretary awhile ago made the remark that perhaps he wasn't a very good salesman. Perhaps it is more the treasurer's fault for not being a good collector. The treasurer's report for August 26, 1940 to August 25, 1941. Annual membership dues--$1655.00. Among these there are two contributing members, Arp Nursery and Mr. Howard Thompson. I have two sustaining members, Mrs. Herbert Negus and Mr. Alfred Szego. Sale of Reports--$240.51; Interest on U. S. bonds--$37.50; contributions toward the rental of the hall--$47.25; contributions for the Persian walnut contest $35. I had hoped that some other states would come forward, but they didn't. Total receipts--$2,015.26. Disbursements: Rich Printing Company for the 1949 annual report, $1,529.26, including the mailing and envelope charges and also the cost of printing. _American Fruit Grower_ subscriptions--$221.20; supplies--$65.38; Secretary's 50 cent per member--$270.00; secretary's expenses--$37.49; treasurer's expense--$96.37. My expenses rose due to the fact I sent out two notices that dues were due. The two years previously I had depended upon The Nutshell to let the members know and a lot of the members don't read the notice. The editor had it up there in the front lines, but it didn't bring them in too well. That made the postage bill $37 more than it was the year before. Prizes for the Persian walnut contest--$75.00; rent of hall, $60.00. You will notice above the rent was more of a donation. They gave us strong hints that is what they wanted. G. R. Grubb and Company $47.25 for cuts for the annual report you just got. We owe $19.00 on the cut that appears on the front cover. 1000 copies of Ford Times--$10.00. This is their March, 1951 issue with Dr. J. Russell Smith's color-illustrated article. MR. McDANIEL: I told you about it in _The Nutshell_ and I have ten or more requests. I still have a large stack and will try to bring some over. [Still available for 3¢ stamp at the secretary's office.] MR. SMITH: Membership affiliation with American Horticultural Society--$5.00; Bank service charges--$1.72; Miscellaneous--$16.50; Total--$4,320.93. Cash on deposit as of the present time--$1,730.99. There are still a couple of checks outstanding. One was for a walnut prize winner. He probably just framed his check. He has had it over a month. We have $1.97 in petty cash on hand. Disbursements of $2,587.97. Total on hand--$4,320.93. On hand August 26, 1950--$2,305.67; the receipts this year to August 25, 1951--$2,015.26 which makes the total of $4,320.93. U. S. bonds--$3,000. DR. ROHRBACHER: Thank you, Mr. Treasurer. MEMBER: I'd like to speak about the pamphlet from the Ford people, an article by Smith, very interesting. I believe the secretary said he has a number of copies in his possession. It is well worth having. DR. ROHRBACHER: I think the treasurer will welcome a vote of thanks for his report and work. I move his report be accepted with thanks for his work. It has been moved and seconded that we offer a vote of acceptance and thanks for this report. So passed. MEMBER: Mr. O'Rourke has a report and he has a pamphlet. He would like each of you to have a copy to read and study, so when he comes on the program it will save a lot of time if you read this pamphlet which he has provided. MR. SILVIS: As chairman of the auditing committee, I find two discrepancies in the report issued by Sterling Smith. The checks that are uncashed of course I don't believe are found, and while the cash seems to be going down, in the face of mounting printing costs and mailing costs, this committee in auditing the books believe they are in good shape. DR. ROHRBACHER: Thank you. Shall we have a motion? (Motion made, seconded and passed) I have appointed Dr. Crane on the Resolutions Committee. At this time we will go along with our program. MEMBER: Mr. Chairman, I believe that a report on our constitution and by-laws provide that the nominating committee must make a report on the first day of the meetings. Now, I am not sure about that. MR. McDANIEL: The nominating committee doesn't have the legal number of members. We overlooked a careful reading of the constitution and it should have five instead of three. I think the constitution says it has to report on the first day. DR. ROHRBACHER: Is the committee ready to report? MR. CRANE: I think the nominating committee makes its report as to the slate of officers that they suggest for the next year. However, the election of the officers takes place at the closing sessions. That is in order to give the membership the opportunity to study the recommendations. Nominations for any office may be presented from the floor now or immediately preceding the election, if you disagree with the choice, so you have an opportunity to present additional nominations just before the election takes place. Mr. President, the nominating committee desires to nominate our Dr. L. H. MacDaniels to be our president for the coming year. And for vice president, Mr. Richard Best of Eldred, Illinois. Our very loyal, faithful, hardworking secretary has agreed to fill the post for another year again, so we will nominate J. C. McDaniel to that position. I am sorry to say our present treasurer has asked and insisted upon being relieved from his duties, so the nominating committee has reluctantly agreed to that, feeling that we should not work an officer too long and too hard. We ought to pass these things around, and we now take Carl F. Prell of South Bend, who has kindly agreed to serve. This, Mr. President, is the report of the nominating committee. DR. ROHRBACHER: Thank you, Mr. Crane. This board looks very good. Understand that it is open for any further nominations from the floor at any time, either now or preceding the election. If you wish to present any other names to this list, you may do so at our meeting tomorrow evening. Mr. Best, we haven't heard about your problem, about your project. Before we make this trip I think we should have a little response. MR. BEST: You want me to tell you what the trip consists of at Eldred. After getting through with the Persian walnuts at Royal's, we will proceed down the Illinois River about 30 miles to our place at Eldred. We are along the Illinois River. We have a large planting of all the nuts we can think of, but what we are particularly interested in showing you folks is our pecan trees, 5,000 pecan trees. Those are grafted varieties. We have 47 varieties. We are doing some work with seedlings. We have taken Mr. Wilkinson's Major and Greenriver and then a few of the hickory-pecan hybrids and we have planted nuts with the idea we will grow those nuts and let them bear. We will exhaust all the possibilities. This year we have treated a number of seedlings with colchicine. We don't plan to show you very much of anything but pecans. We do have some Persian walnuts. We should have some notice for reservations. Everyone who has written to us we have taken care of in the best possible way. If any more of you want to come, be sure and let us know so we can handle that. Status of the Northern Pecan W. W. MAGILL, _University of Kentucky, Leader of Discussion_ MR. MAGILL: I offer no apologies for being late. My car broke down. Mr. Armstrong is with the car and will be up here most any time. Since three o'clock this morning I have been trying to get here by bus. I was stranded over in Danville. This is the first round table discussion I ever tried to lead without previously talking to some members of the panel. Mr. Best, Mr. Crane, Mr. Gerardi, Mr. Weschcke, Mr. Snyder, Mr. Wilkinson. In leading a discussion on northern pecans, I don't know how well this group of nut enthusiasts agree. I think we should have an understanding of what a northern variety is. About all I picked up I got from Ford Wilkinson, introducer of many of our leading varieties. He knows where every one of them is standing. I don't know how many times he has been up there. We owned two of the most valuable. During the floods of '37 when water was over Louisville, Paducah and the original Major and Greenriver trees the farm hands were sent out to clean up the debris so they worked it out and ended those two trees. Now this Niblack, that is from up here around Vincennes, the Posey originated in Gibson County, Indiana, the Busseron is from southern Indiana. The Goforth is from New Haven, near Shawneetown, Illinois. The Tissue (Tissue Paper), the Giles and Johnson are from Kansas. Gerardi has a few from Southwest Illinois. We can't say north of the Mason-Dixon line; we say "close to the Mason Dixon."--Is that north or south out there in Kansas? MEMBER: It's Republican. MR. MAGILL: I'm not counting that. West of the Mason-Dixon line. I assume that this group would be interested in certain factors and maybe we can get it out to the crowd in a more interesting way by asking questions. What factors would you take into consideration in trying to make a decision? We recognize the southern varieties would be more easily killed by certain temperatures. You're from Illinois. Read off your contribution. What is your observation on these northern pecans? MR. GERARDI: The varieties that we introduced around our particular area I could give as much for as any. These others have all been tried and with close observation there is not so much difference in the varieties I can see. I will name three or four of those varieties. The Gildig pecan is a little longer than the Indiana, but the same shape. This variety I tasted. I think the flavor is better in the Gildig. Soil variations will make a difference and it is a little longer. That is the one variety I like very well. A little slow in bearing, the trees in the nursery have no nuts before five years. After that time, it began to build up, until we had spittle bug infestation and that has been a battle. It suddenly appeared. The first I noticed was the native seedlings with spittle bug and then it moved into these plantings of these better varieties and it is very bad. In the last four years it is noticeable on the amount of nuts taken off. Because of killing that latter twig growth, it destroyed the crop of the future years. We have had the trees bear at four years old. They have a wonderful set until the spittle bug gets hold of them. From the first to the tenth of June, it's around until the 25th of July. And the second brood was active and of course it doesn't take the nut off. Most of the damage is on the twig. The first brood insect gets right around where the cluster of nuts set and it drops off. It seems to girdle the tree. The insect bores into it. I had a little difficulty telling just what quantity was on this Gildig pecan. The next variety is the Fisher pecan, very much like the Major. The fact is I think it is a little more elongated. The youngness of bearing is the same. The Major started at three years old. The three-year tree had several sets of nuts. It keeps building on and the bearing isn't getting less. MR. MAGILL: Do you find your bearing earlier? In top working a seedling tree? MR. GERARDI: Top working will gain at least two years. Then again depending on the size of your root stock. You will gain at least two years. Under adverse soil conditions at least five years. MR. MAGILL: Do you plant seedlings where you want them to grow and then later top work? MR. GERARDI: I haven't because I have been producing them in a nursery. I don't think we have time for pre-planting these pecan seeds where you want the tree to grow. I think it is advisable in many areas. If you can plant a nut tree you can go right ahead and there is no further care to be given it. After the Fisher and the Gildig is one called the Queens Lake. (This was called Gildig number 2.) It is a little more round. It is stubby and heavy in diameter something like the Money-maker among the southern varieties only not as large. It is a little smaller. Another variety is the Duis. He had named two or three, including the Swagler and Duis variety. I noticed two years ago after he had died, the ground had changed hands. I saw the tree but it had very few nuts. The tree was apparently ten years old. I don't believe there are more than a dozen nuts. It was in a creek bottom, growing very rapidly. The Duis pecan is a nice size. It is a little larger than any of the commercial northern varieties. As for the bearing, I am a little skeptical. The Swagler variety I have practically abandoned. It is very much like the Norton. Clarksville I like very well. The Norton (parent of Clarksville) does not bear at all for me. I have ruled that one out. The Swagler gives a little trouble with late growth and winter trouble, winter damage, from the late growth in the fall. Consequently I haven't had any fruit until the present time. MR. MAGILL: We'll come back to you later. I want to present some points in a letter from Dr. Frank B. Cross, of Oklahoma A.&M. College. They spent a lot of time on pecans in Oklahoma. They don't all have oil wells. He makes two or three statements I hadn't thought of. I will just throw these in to carry this discussion along. "In comparing the two groups of nuts, namely, northern and southern, we find that practically all northern nuts require a longer rest period, than do the southern nuts. This means that the northern nuts for the most part begin growth later in the spring and begin to mature leaves and shed leaves and drop nuts before the southern varieties. The Major and the Greenriver are perhaps somewhat different from others of the northern varieties in that their maturity date usually falls with the earlier southern varieties. "In order of production, I would rate the northern varieties as follows from highest to lowest: Major, Greenriver, Busseron, Indiana, Niblack, Kentucky, Warwick, Posey, Coy, Tissue, Johnson. Perhaps a little broader classification and grouping should be made. In my judgment, the Major, Greenriver, Busseron, Indiana, and Niblack compose one group which may be depended upon for fairly satisfactory production. The Kentucky, Warwick, Posey, Coy, Tissue, and Johnson have consistently been much lighter producers than those named in the first group. "In order of desirability for planting I would make a list about as follows: Niblack, Major, Greenriver, Busseron, Indiana. I list the Niblack as first choice because it seems to be about as productive as any of the other varieties, and because of its excellence as a cracking nut and the quality of the kernel. The Niblack is really a very desirable nut for cracking, when it is cracked by such devices as the Squirrel cracker which applies pressure to both ends. The kernel comes free from the shell. In a good many varieties, such as the Indiana and Busseron the kernel and shell do not drop free, but the kernel frequently is wedged in furrows in the shell so that the two must be pulled apart. This is not true of the Niblack. When they are cracked by end to end crackers, the shell and kernel drop free. I list Major as second choice because of its good production. It is a little bit late in maturing for a variety of the northern group, and will sometimes get caught by frosts in many northern localities. The nut is not a desirable one for cracking because of its shape. A good cracking nut must be oval. The Major is comparatively round and many of the kernels will be crushed when they are cracked. The Greenriver is a good producer but it is a little bit late. The Indiana and Busseron are both proved to be good producers. "Comparing the general production of the northern varieties and the southern varieties, as groups, the northern varieties seem never to be so productive in Oklahoma as are the southern varieties. Much more dependable production may be obtained from the southern varieties. "Some data on cracking percentage of nuts and size of nuts might be desirable. This list is not complete, but contains several different varieties. Variety No. Nuts per Pound Kernel Percentage Busseron 62 47 Greenriver 80 49 Major 57 45 Posey 53 54 Warrick 63 48 "Of the nuts mentioned, the Posey is definitely larger than any of the others. It is a very fine type of nut, having a high kernel percentage. It is rather flat in shape, but is attractive in appearance. Were it not for the fact that the trees are consistently light producers, it would be a very desirable nut." MR. BEST: They bear all right up here. MEMBER: Where would it rank in the ability to bear? MR. GERARDI: I would say third or fourth. Gildig, Major, Greenriver and Posey. MR. BEST: I'd want to put Indiana and Busseron pretty close to the top. Major as one, probably Busseron and Indiana as second. Then I'd come along with probably Posey as third or fourth because, while Posey may not be the best bearer in our section, it does make a wonderful quality of nut which always matures. This matter of maturity in pecans is important. MEMBER: How about Niblack? MR. BEST: We haven't had too many trees that produce too many nuts. It is a high quality nut. It would be somewhere near the top. You wouldn't call it a relatively heavy producer. It hasn't fruited as early as the rest. We have had trees as old as 15 years. There is another good pecan. That is the Stevens. MR. MAGILL: You and I will have to have Ford Wilkinson do our climbing. You find that to be a good producer. It's early. Getting back to our first consideration, we are pretty close to the north line. We have these Cass County pecans. We are just getting our first nuts. Close to Cass County--Champaign-Urbana still is the United States--not all Republicans. MEMBER: How does that compare in Missouri? MR. GUENGERICH: What little observation I have had about west central Missouri, it has been satisfactory. I would pick out Major from my observations. Then probably the Indiana, Greenriver. Beyond that there is some question. MR. MAGILL: I have an idea about that Major I have been a crank of pollination on apples. We had many orchards planted in Kentucky. The Major for pollination is what Jonathans are to apples. A week ago we had a couple hundred people at a field day down in Kentucky. We were going around over the ground and we got five pecan trees and a lot of the records were lost. I don't know how old these pecans are. I think they were planted in '17 I don't know what variety they are. We think there is one Greenriver. We really don't know what they are. There is many a pecan planting in Kentucky that was a failure because there wasn't anything to pollinate. If you were to judge the value of the tree, two and a half feet in diameter, big enough to make a world of pecans, you would have to remember that just because we didn't have something to pollinate we didn't have any pecans. I got a few to graft in Greenriver and they do fine bearing. So things like that lead me to believe there is something in pollination. We plant them out there on the bank of the west fork of the Kentucky River. We got the Major, Greenriver, the Busseron, and one other, and the Major had more crop every year. The Greenriver is about two years later. I don't know which are the best pollinaters. MR. SNYDER: I better tell you where the Iowa trees are. They are approximately 300 miles from here. We are 150 miles north. We are also 180 miles west. We have temperatures up there too that we have to figure on. The temperature in most years gets to minus 20 and the coldest we ever had was minus 42, but that was only for an hour, but temperature is only one factor. An old professor of the University of Iowa, regarded wind as more important than temperature. The more I see of wind killing, the more I believe he is right. Wind is more important than temperature. If you have your trees surrounded, you don't get wind injury. The trees I am reporting on were planted from 1920 to 1930. Some of them now are 16 to 18 inches in diameter and 30 feet high and the varieties are such as we got from Mr. Wilkinson. Indiana, Busseron, and one other which Mr. White--he is a wholesale druggist interested in horticulture--selected and he knows the nut trees probably better than any other one man. He kept in contact with these river rats and they would always bring anything to him they thought was of interest. We have a bunch of seedling trees about the same age and size which never bloom at all and of course they are ready for cutting out. I don't know why there would be a number of seedling trees that would never bloom. DR. CRANE: In extensive breeding work, Mr. Clarence A. Reed started in at Albany, Georgia, with 4,000 seedlings and out of 4,000 about half that many came into production and bore fruit enough so we could tell what the fruit was like in about 15 years. The other half just never did bear. Those trees had grown and made large trees and in a lot of cases they carried large leaves but there was no way we could predict anything about fruiting. It was discouraging for that reason. We quit, in our breeding work, growing the seedlings beyond one year. We make our crosses now and grow them one year in the nursery. We plant nuts at harvest and grow them until they form leaf buds and graft from the seedlings on old trees cut back. We can save anywhere from one to three, four, or five years. There are a great per cent that will not bear. MR. MAGILL: In Iowa, out there, what varieties are making good? MR. SNYDER: There aren't any. As nut producers they aren't worth anything. Why not plant the hicans? They ripen better but don't bear. The hicans make one of the prettiest trees but they don't bear. We make no plans for pecans unless we have a season with no freezing until the middle of November. So that is where the pecans are that far north, except as shade trees. MR. H. W. GUENGERICH: I feel that I am out of my territory in talking about nut growing to this Association, but I have had a few things forced on my attention that may be of interest. When I first joined Stark Brothers Nursery, Paul Stark asked me to look into the possibilities of locating a pecan variety that would be satisfactory north of the southern pecan belt. I talked to our Missouri extension horticulturist, Bill Martin, and he informed me that a lot of pecans are being grown around Brunswick, Missouri, on the Missouri River. The Missouri flows northeast from Kansas City for about 75 miles and then swings toward the south again. Brunswick is located at the northernmost point on the river, between Kansas City and St. Louis. It is about 150 miles west of Louisiana, and in general the weather becomes more severe as you travel West. So pecans that thrive and mature at Brunswick are pretty rugged. I went over to Brunswick to see a friend who introduced me to some pecan growers. One of these men has an interesting story and I wish he were here. I tried to bring him along but he could not get away from his farming operations. He operates several hundred acres of farm land in the Missouri River bottoms and his house stands in a grove of native pecans. When he went into his house he pointed to a hook on the door post where he tied his boat the previous spring when he moved his family out because of high water. That year, 1947, all his grain crops were destroyed by the flood but that fall he harvested 50,000 lbs. of pecans. They sold for 25¢ a pound and the total expense was for picking them, off the ground. In a year like that, $12,000.00 would come in handy. It rained again in Kansas this year and I called him and asked about the flood. He said he had a couple of inches of land that wasn't covered with water, but he expects to gather 40,000 lbs. of pecans this fall. That is interesting because there are thousands of acres in the middle west where crops have been destroyed by floods. Yet here is a crop that grows on native trees with very little care, that will pay off despite high water. I asked my friend what effect the high water would have on the pecan foliage and he replied that the leaves would fall, but that the trees will produce new leaves and the nuts will mature. He has been through this before and knows what he is talking about. Reference was made a short while ago to the pecan as a shade tree. I think this is one of the big opportunities in pecan growing. Recently I drove from Louisiana, Missouri, to central Ohio and saw a string of dead elms along the entire route. Now the oaks are threatened in the same way. We don't know what to do about shade trees. Some scientists from Holland visited us several weeks ago and they weren't very enthusiastic about their disease resistant elm selections. We had hoped that these selections might provide the answer to the elm tree problem. Now pecans make very attractive shade trees. I used to live near Kansas City on a place where someone had planted 18 or 20 pecans right along the side of a golf course. When the trees were about 20 years old a fairway was laid out through this pecan grove and now blue grass grows right up to the tree trunks. A lot of other shade trees are shallow rooted and lawns do not grow well under them. I think there is a tremendous opportunity to plant pecans as shade trees. There is just one other point I want to make. Undoubtedly we need better varieties. The nurseryman realizes this better than anyone else. But when my friend from Brunswick sold his native pecans he got just about as much for them per pound as the southern growers got for their much larger southern seedlings. Several commercial pecan crackers that I asked about this stated that the northern nuts have a better flavor and they produce more kernels per pound. So the size of the kernel doesn't make too much difference, although we all prefer the larger nuts. Pecans in Northern Virginia J. RUSSELL SMITH, _Swarthmore, Pennsylvania_ (Extracts from a letter to the NNGA secretary, November 26, 1951) Having sold my Virginia cabin and the nursery business [Sunny Ridge] I have been down to the nursery for the last month getting rid of trees. A job of digging is one thing and that of packing and shipping is another. The man I had could do one but not both, and competent persons to pick up for either job are not available, so I have been standing in the gap, getting calluses on my hands and getting rid of $16,000 worth of trees. Now as to facts on northern pecans: I find the Busseron bears with regularity at Round Hill, Virginia, in a tight bluegrass sod. This pasture is not of high fertility and has had a small amount of commercial fertilizer. It is on a hillside that has probably lost all of its topsoil once or twice in the last hundred years, though not for the last twenty because it has been in grass. My neighbor, Henry B. Taylor, Hamilton, Virginia, has Busseron, Butterick, Greenriver, Indiana, and Major, all bearing well to heavily. Unfortunately this year the Greenriver hulls did not open, although the nuts were well filled. Ordinarily I believe they have been dropping their nuts, but not all at once. Twenty-five years ago I planted some Butterick and Busseron along a stream on a dairy farm on which I was born. There was no regular record of their performance, but I have observed that the Buttericks have had a good crop in 1950 and also in 1951.[6] I had previously concluded that the Butterick was almost a non-fruiter, and quit propagating it years ago. These especially productive Buttericks are on alluvium near the barn in a permanent pasture where the cattle congregate while waiting for the gate to open to let them into the barn. It is therefore fertilized over and over again with cow drippings. Mr. Taylor's excellent yields are also produced on trees that are on unusually fertile soil. My conclusion is that the pecan is a very active feeder, and what it needs is about three times as much fertilizer as is required for any ordinary crop. It is time somebody better placed than I am made a systematic experiment as follows: 1. Feed pecan trees at least five times as much plant food as the nuts and leaves use. 2. Injure the trees by hacking the bark to make them bear, and see how much they can be made to produce by this means. A Busseron tree in the town of Round Hill stands in a backyard of a friend of mine and they use it, I think, to tie clotheslines to and maybe the boys have had a little fun driving nails into it and it bears every year.[7] The real find of my observations is a pecan known as All State, which has been wonderfully advertised by one of your fellows.[8] On a catalog it produces a nut two inches long--wonderful. On Mr. Henry Taylor's tree in Hamilton, Virginia, it produces a tiny, symmetrical, pointed nut too small to be contemptible, except for squirrel feed. They might have time to handle the crop. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 6: In the NNGA Report for 1935, Mr. C. A. Reed told of studies of blossoming habits of pecan varieties at Rockport, Indiana, conducted for four seasons in co-operation with Mr. J. F. Wilkinson. There the Busseron was found to be a protandrous variety, shedding most of its pollen, and in some years all of it, before the period of receptivity of its pistillate flowers. "With Butterick ... the order was reversed, as the period of receptivity began first," and it was classified, therefore, as regularly protogynous. "... Furthermore, upon close observation it has been found," he said, that trees of the Butterick variety "develop very few pistillate flowers, and that many of these wither up and drop off, apparently because of inherent weakness. From this, it would appear that light bearing is not necessarily due to lack of suitable or adequate pollen." The Butterick had a record of practically non-bearing performances during the four years (1931, 1932, 1934 and 1935) at Rockport, which is duplicated by its performance records at other locations and other years, so it is generally on the discard list. But when it does bear and mature its nuts it is a good pecan. Mr. P. W. Wang rated it his first choice of northern pecans fruited in China. Mr. Reed listed as protandrous Busseron, Kentucky, Major, and Niblack varieties, whereas Butterick, Indiana, and Posey were protogynous. He did not specify in which class the Greenriver fell. Major during each of the four years, had an interval of 1 to 3 days between the last shedding of pollen and the first pistil receptivity; Warrick, an obsolete variety, had some overlap each year as did Indiana and Posey. The Kentucky, a discarded variety, had overlaps the three years it was observed. In two years it was observed, Niblack had staminate and pistillate flowering together one season, and staminate overlapping four days into the period of pistillate receptivity the next. Busseron, Butterick, and Greenriver sometimes had overlaps and sometimes intervals. Reed's conclusion, that "northern varieties of pecan ... appear to be partly or completely dependent upon other varieties for pollen," still holds good, as does his second observation, that "all varieties tend to vary, from year to year with respect to periods of pollen shedding and pistil receptivity." But more records are needed, and any members who have two or more varieties flowering in 1952 can make valuable contributions by taking accurate notes on their habits. There are now newer varieties for which such data are completely lacking, and until more is known, no reliable basis can be had for matching them with the best combinations for adequate cross-pollination.--J. C. McD.] [Footnote 7: I think the first phase of the suggested experiment has more to recommend it than the second. Perhaps the Round Hill tree gets needed zinc from clotheslines and roofing nails. A more scientific way to apply zinc is to use zinc sulfate in sprays or ground applications, and these are to be used on some trees at Urbana which Dr. Crane diagnosed as zinc-deficient.--J. C. McD.] [Footnote 8: The Bradley Brothers, who do not court anonymity, are no fellows of the Association or of the University of Illinois. They have been known to sell some kind of grafted pecan trees in recent years, possibly the Stuart or some other variety available from southern wholesale propagators. Mr. Taylor was lucky enough to have his order filled with a southern Illinois seedling which at least is good for the squirrels. We haven't yet seen any All State nuts from Maine or Montana. The Bradley variety is an obsolete southern pecan.--J. C. McD.] Pecans in the Vicinity of St. Paul, Minnesota CARL WESCHCKE About 25 years ago pecan seeds from the most northern natural habitat in Iowa were planted in garden soil here in St. Paul. Most of them were later transplanted in nursery rows at my farm seven miles east of River Falls, Wisconsin. Out of approximately 300 trees, about 40 are still living, of which 25 have grown well. The remainder probably have not found soil conditions to accommodate their natural vigorous growth. Where the trees are in deep soil with sufficient plant food, they have done well, the largest tree being about 10 inches in diameter, and several of these have been bearing nuts for five years. The nuts were immature, however, but in the fall of 1949 about 70 of the best ones were planted in a seed bed and today about 15 living trees of pure pecan parentage represent the second generation. This evidence is very important, for although the pecan has been almost as hardy as any native tree (such as the bitternut hickory, the butternut and the black walnut), yet the length of season required for the maturing of nuts is a primary factor which would have to be considered in recommending pecans for planting this far north. However, it has been my observation that these pecans have slowly cycled their way into our season, and it is gratifying to notice that this spring many leafed out at nearly the same time that the black walnut vegetated, which of course is much slower than the local butternut. This shows the tremendous adaptability of the pecan, and it is hoped that this ability to adapt itself to soil and climatic conditions will eventually cause it to produce small but edible pecans here in the north. It is my hope, also, that I can use our locally raised pecan seedlings on which to graft our many successful varieties of hickories, which heretofore have been limited to some extent in their usefulness because we had only the local bitternut stocks on which to graft. Whereas the bitternut is an excellent stock for some varieties of shagbark hickory and even for shellbark, as well as pecans and hicans, there would no doubt be an increase in the scope of hickory planting if we had hardy pecan seedlings as understocks. At first, when comparing the growth of the native bitternut seedlings with that of pecans, locally raised in the same soil, it appeared that the pecan was a much more vigorous grower; but experiments with different types of soil and fertilizers indicate that we can get seedlings of certain bitternut hickories to produce from two to three feet of growth in the first year. I have even found several of these same hickory seedlings of two seasons' growth which, when transplanted last fall, are large enough to graft this spring. However, experiments have not proceeded far enough to verify the practical side of this new idea of hickory propagation. Only one variety of pecan which was among the original seedlings, and which existed as a lawn tree for more than twenty years in St. Paul, was compatible with the bitternut hickory root systems; but enough of this variety of pecan has been grafted on local hickories to demonstrate that this is perfectly feasible as far as the union is concerned. In fact, several of these larger grafted trees have been bearing staminate bloom for two or more years. No nuts have been produced of this Hope variety as yet, and although it has been distributed on the market, it has always been classed as an ornamental rather than a fruiting variety. Of course, the pecan part over-grows the stock. In other words, there is a larger diameter above the union than in the stock below the union. So far, this has not interfered with good growth and hardiness, whereas the black walnut grafted on butternut (which is a similar combination as far as results go) more than thirty years ago in experimental work, indicates that this is a wrong procedure. Very few nuts were ever gathered from grafts of black walnut on butternut, although in most instances they continue to live and thrive. The pecan here is subject to much the same insect pests as the black walnut, but suffers less from hickory borers and types of insects which seem to be like oak pruners. This might be useful later on in maintaining healthy pecan trunks with hickory tops. Probably the early formation of rough bark, for which the pecan is noted, may be responsible for this. The nuts that have been produced so far have been extremely small, but here again the writer has observed an increase in size over the original nuts that were produced. In some seasons, at least one tree has produced nuts of sufficient size to be good enough for home purposes. They are nothing, however, to compare with any named northern pecans, such as the Major and the Indiana varieties. Practically all of these northern pecans have been tried in our environment, and some have lived for several years. Most of them have died because there was no congenial union of the pecan grafted on our local bitternut stocks. We do, however, have congenial grafts and good living specimens of the Norton and the Burton, which are no doubt some form of hybrid.[9] Hicans that graft well on local bitternut stocks are the Rockville, first in hardiness and for bearing nuts of the usual size for Rockville. They do not mature yet, but it is expected that favorable years will mature these nuts. Next in hardiness is the Green Bay, and next are Burlington, Des Moines, Bixby, and McCallister. Although making good growth, these have seemed to be too tender for our climate, although we have good living specimens of them and believe that some have begun to bear, particularly the Bixby, unless names of grafts have been mixed up. These latter trees are mostly in the deep woods, and it is hard to get close data on their behavior and bearing. A Marquardt (which is supposed to be a lost variety of hican) I believe exists on my place, and I have taken it out of the deep woods, where it was grafted nearly thirty years ago from scions direct from J. F. Jones, and have placed scions on stocks in the vicinity of the nursery, where they can be watched. The differences between the scions freshly grafted last spring and the known varieties of Rockville, Green Bay, and Burlington are distinctive. Also the Marquardt (if it is a true Marquardt) last winter indicated much greater hardiness than did grafts made at the same time with Rockville and Burlington varieties. However, it is too early to say for sure whether the Marquardt is represented among my varieties of hicans. The Marquardt grafted on local stocks used by Jones and purchased as individual trees, did not survive. It is assumed in this paper that this discussion would naturally lead to pecan hybrids, rather than staying with the pure blooded pecan this far north, for some of the varieties come very close to being pure pecans, but still, like Norton and Burton, probably are distinct hybrids. When some of the original seedlings from Iowa were transplanted from the nursery row they were already quite large trees and we did not get all the roots. The portions that were cut off were left in the soil. One of these roots sprouted three trees; one was subsequently moved into the orchard and marked because of its vegetative nature, and a variety of hickory known as the Weschcke was grafted on it. It makes a very good growth, but in most instances our native bitternut stock produces an equally good growth in unions with this particular variety. This particular performance is indicative of things to be expected for this combination in the future. In conclusion I would say that the pecan is far from being a practical nut tree for our vicinity, and is only a very hopeful dream. But so, also, were the best hickory varieties 30 years ago when I first began my experiments. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 9: The Norton name seems to be shared by a pecan and a hican. The Burton hican from Owensboro, Ky., is presumably a pecan-shagbark cross with an excellent nut, fruitful farther south.--Ed.] Preliminary Report on Growth, Flowering, and Magnesium Deficiency of Reed and Potomac Filbert Varieties H. L. CRANE AND J. W. MCKAY[10] During the course of filbert breeding investigations at the Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md., covering a period of approximately 18 years, the leaves of certain seedlings scorched badly in mid or late summer. Certain other trees showed little or no evidence of this disorder. It was thought that, because filberts thrive best under maritime climatic conditions of cool summers and mild winters, this scorch was probably due to high temperatures accompanied by deficient soil moisture. This breeding work resulted in the introduction in 1951 of the Reed and Potomac varieties, which were produced as a result of crosses between the American filbert, _Corylus americana_, and the European filbert, _C. avellana_. The original trees of these varieties had been under observation for more than 10 years, and their performance had been such as to indicate their suitability for home plantings under eastern conditions. Furthermore, these varieties had shown little or no evidence of scorch and had held their leaves well. In early spring of 1948, an experimental orchard, consisting of 36 layered trees each of Reed and Potomac, was planted at Beltsville, for the purpose of testing them more fully than had been possible before as to their suitability for eastern conditions. The orchard was designed also for study of their response in tree growth and fruiting to differential fertilizer treatments. Although this experiment has been underway now for only three years, certain of the findings are thought to be of such importance that a preliminary report should be made at this time. Experimental Plan The site selected for the orchard is a gentle slope varying from five to 15 percent and providing good air drainage. The soil is a Riverdale (tentative series) sandy loam that had been in orchard grass sod for 10 years before the experiment was begun. Much of the land on the Plant Industry Station farm is now known to be low in available magnesium and potassium. Tree crops, including peaches, pears, and apples, have shown deficiencies of one or both of these elements. The trees were planted 20 feet apart on the contour in pairs, one of each variety in a plot, with six plots in a row. The 36 two-tree plots were in six rows. Thus, the experiment was arranged in a 6 by 6 Latin square and six fertilizer treatments were used. After planting, the trees received frequent cultivation and a uniform application of one pound of 10-6-4 fertilizer. The following spring differential fertilizer treatments were applied: Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, complete, nitrogen and potassium, and check. The amounts applied per tree in fractions of a pound were elemental nitrogen 0.2, phosphoric acid, 0.4, and potash 0.2. In the spring of 1950, the amounts applied per tree were doubled; and these same amounts were applied in the spring of 1951. Nitrogen was applied in the form of nitrate of soda, phosphorus as 20 percent superphosphate, and potassium as 50 percent muriate of potash. Strips about six to eight feet wide on each side of the tree rows have been cultivated frequently, but strips of orchard grass sod have been left in the tree row middles to prevent soil erosion. The trees have been sprayed with DDT or parathion or both to control Japanese beetles and mites. Growth Responses To determine the growth responses made by the two varieties to the differential fertilizer treatments, diameters of the tree trunks one foot above the soil were measured each spring before growth started. These data are not given here because in 1949 and 1950 there were no significant differences in the growth of the trees as a result of the differential fertilizer treatments. However, trees of the Potomac variety made more growth than those of the Reed variety. At the end of the 1949 and 1950 growing seasons, the average diameters of the tree trunks of the Potomac variety were 16.3 and 25.7 millimeters, respectively; those of the Reed variety were 13.6 and 22.4 millimeters, respectively. The differences 2.7 and 3.3 millimeters, are highly significant. Under the conditions of this experiment, the trees of the Potomac variety are much more vigorous than those of the Reed. The greater vigor of the Potomac trees may account for the fact that they produce suckers much more freely than do trees of the Reed variety. The habit of producing abundant suckers is an advantage in propagating by layering, but it is a disadvantage in orchard trees because the suckers must be removed for optimum nut production. Whether the differences in vigor and suckering habit of the two varieties shown thus far will affect their performance as orchard trees will have to be determined by future observations. Flowering Response Each year at the height of the flowering period, each tree in the experiment was rated on the catkins it carried. So far, there has been no effect of the differential fertilizer treatments on the production of catkins. However, there have been very highly significant differences between the Potomac and the Reed. In 1950, only four of the 36 Reed trees produced catkins, whereas 32 of the 36 Potomac trees flowered, and approximately half of them were heavily loaded. In 1951, the number of Reed trees producing catkins was 12 of the 36, whereas 35 Potomac trees flowered. The amount of pistillate flowering during the two years was small on both varieties and not greatly different; this indicates that their nut-bearing potentialities may be about the same. The amount of pollen produced by the Reed variety has always been considered ample for cross-pollinating the Potomac, even though the former has been a light producer of catkins. Records of dates of flowering of the two original trees over a 10-year period, and of these young orchard trees over a 3-year period, show that there is great variability in time of flowering, depending upon the sequence of weather events each season. Fertilizer treatments have had no measureable effect. The trees have shed pollen as early as January and as late as April, and stigma receptivity sometimes has continued intermittently for two months. The average period of flowering at Beltsville is the last week of February to the first week in March. Both varieties have flowered at the same time under all seasonal conditions observed. This means that additional pollinators will not be necessary when the varieties are planted together in an orchard. Symptoms of Scorch The visible symptoms of scorch do not begin to appear under conditions at Beltsville until about the middle of July or later. The first symptom is fading of the green color, especially around the margins of the leaf blade. Sometimes this chlorosis results in blotches, which may extend for a considerable distance from the margin towards the mid-rib. This stage is of short duration, as the tissues of marginal chlorotic areas or those of the blotches soon die, roll up, and turn brown. Some leaves show yellow blotchiness over most, if not all, of the surface and this may develop into brown patches of dead tissue or the yellow leaves may fall before the tissues die. The older leaves, those at the base of a shoot, are generally the first to show chlorosis and scorch, and the terminal leaves are the last to show such symptoms. On severely affected trees all the leaves on a shoot may be scorched at the time scorching is observed. Severely affected trees drop part or all of their leaves prematurely. The leaves dropped are those that are scorched or that show yellow blotches. Such trees do not make satisfactory growth, they set few nuts, and the nuts are usually poorly filled at harvest. The symptoms of scorch on filbert leaves are similar in many respects to magnesium-deficiency symptoms on apple (1, 5, 6)[11] and tung leaves (3). Leaf Analyses[12] No differences in appearance of the trees as regards leaf scorch were noticed the first year after the differential fertilizer treatments were applied. However, in late July and early August of the second season, severe leaf scorch developed on the trees that had received potassium alone or nitrogen plus potassium, and scorch developed to some extent on the check trees. On August 15, 1950, leaf samples for chemical analyses were taken from each tree in all replications and composited by treatments into six samples. The data on the chemical composition of the leaves as affected by the differential fertilizer treatments are given in table 1. These data show that the fertilizers applied to the trees were taken up by them and that the composition of the leaves was significantly affected. The trees in treatments 2, 3, and 6, which did not receive nitrogen in the fertilizer, had lower percentages of nitrogen in the leaves than those from the other plots. Their light green color indicated that in the middle of August they were deficient in nitrogen when its concentration was 2.3 percent or less. =Table 1. Chemical composition (oven-dry basis) of filbert leaves collected August 15, 1950, from fertilizer experiment, Beltsville, Md.= _____________________________________________________________________ | | Treatment | Composition of leaves | Mg (percent) ________________|__________________________________| Ratio ____________ | | K (percent) | Ash N P K Ca Mg | ________________|__________________________________| | % % % % % % | 1. Nitrogen | 6.68 2.52 .129 .945 1.30 .143| .151 2. Phosphorus | 8.56 2.29 .160 .885 1.60 .186| .210 3. Potassium | 9.39 2.31 .150 1.650 1.93 .155| .094 4. Complete | 7.18 2.43 .133 1.175 1.63 .132| .112 5. Nitrogen and | | potassium | 7.62 2.49 .119 1.480 1.33 .110| .073 6. Check | 7.38 2.32 .188 .890 1.70 .149| .167 Potassium applications produced the greatest effect on leaf composition, as they increased the concentration of that element in the leaves by 0.285 to 0.760 percentage unit over that in the leaves from the check trees. In addition, it seems likely that this great increase in the potassium content of the leaves was accompanied by a decrease in their magnesium content, since this usually has been found to result. When the ratios of the percentage of magnesium to the percentage of potassium in the leaves were calculated, it was found that they were rather low for the trees that had been fertilized with potassium. The magnesium-potassium ratio was highest in the leaves from the trees fertilized with phosphorus only, followed in order by the check and nitrogen treatments. Relation of Magnesium Deficiency to Leaf Scorch, Winter Injury, and Fungus Infection On August 15, 1950, at the time the leaf samples were taken, each tree in the experiment was scored as to the degree of leaf scorch present. In the winter of 1950-51 soil samples were taken from each plot receiving potassium alone and the lime requirement was determined by the Division of Soil and Management and Irrigation, of this Bureau. The lime requirement was found to vary greatly, ranging from 1500 to 6700 pounds per acre. In early spring of 1951, high-magnesium dolomitic lime was applied uniformly at the rate of 1500 pounds per acre and in addition each tree received 5 pounds of Epsom salt. Each tree in the experiment was scored for degree of winter injury on May 10, 1951. By August 3, leaf scorch was evident on trees in certain treatments and the trees were scored for leaf scorch. At this time it was found in certain treatments that the trees that had not shown any appreciable amount of scorch heretofore had some severely necrotic leaves on them. Careful examination revealed many fruiting bodies of one or more fungi in these necrotic areas. Each tree was, therefore, scored for the presence of this disease, which has been tentatively identified by Paul L. Lentz, of this Bureau, as being caused by _Labrella coryli_. The data on leaf scorch, winter injury, and the fungus disease are given in table 2. Table 2. Relation of magnesium deficiency in filbert leaves to leaf scorch, winter injury, and disease caused by _Labrella coryli_ ______________________________________________________________________ Ratio Scorch[1] Winter[2] Scorch[1] Disease[1] Treatment Mg (percent) score injury score score score K (percent) (1950) (spring, 1951) (1951) (1951) ______________________________________________________________________ 1. Nitrogen .151 1 4 7 9 2. Phosphorus .210 1 3 1 11 3. Potassium .094 21 22 24 3 4. Complete .112 2 5 8 11 5. Nitrogen and potassium .073 13 19 9 5 6. Check .167 14 6 6 8 Note 1: Total plot score for 12 trees; highest possible score 36. The scale for scoring was 0, none; 1, light; 3, severe. Note 2: Total plot score for 12 trees; highest possible score 48. The scale for scoring winter injury was 0, full leaf, no injury; 1, few dead twigs; 2, half of buds not growing; 3, very large amount of dead twigs; 4, only a few buds growing. Trees that had received potassium alone had the most severely scorched leaves and more of them on August 15, 1950, followed by those that had received nitrogen plus potassium. The trees that had received nitrogen or phosphorus alone showed practically no scorch, each having a total score of 1; and the complete fertilizer trees a total score of only 2, while those in the check had a total score of 6. These scores indicate that scorch is related to magnesium deficiency or unbalance. There was a close relation between the amount of leaf scorch in August, 1950, and the amount of winter injury, the coefficient of correlation being 0.97, which is very highly significant. This coefficient means that 94 percent of the winter injury sustained could be accounted for by the leaf scorch present the preceding summer and early fall. The scorch scores of August, 1951, show that there had been no consistent improvement from the magnesium-deficiency condition as a result of the dolomite and Epsom salt applications. The scores for the disease caused by _Labrella_ show that applications of phosphorus alone increased the incidence of the disease and those of potassium alone or potassium plus nitrogen decreased it. In all cases, the incidence of leaf scorch, winter injury, and disease were strikingly different on the Reed and Potomac varieties. In the summer of 1950, the total scorch score of the Reed variety was 26 and that of the Potomac 18, and in August, 1951, the scores were 36 and 19, respectively. The total winter injury scores were 46 for the Reed variety and 21 for the Potomac. Thus, it is clearly evident that under the conditions of this experiment the Reed variety was much more susceptible to leaf scorch and to the winter injury resulting from magnesium deficiency or unbalance between magnesium and calcium plus potassium than was the variety Potomac. Furthermore, the total score for the incidence of the disease caused by _Labrella coryli_ on the variety Reed was 38 as compared with 9 for the Potomac variety. It would, therefore, seem that the Reed is about four times as susceptible to infection by this fungus as is the Potomac. Its less vigorous tree growth, susceptibility to leaf scorch, winter injury, and infection by _L. coryli_ may be due to the differences between its nutritional requirements and those of the Potomac variety. Conclusions and Summary The preliminary results of the experiment described show that there is a great difference in vigor, growth, flowering habit, susceptibility to leaf scorch, winter injury, and infection with a fungus disease tentatively believed to be caused by _L. coryli_ between trees of the Reed and Potomac filbert varieties. In all cases the Potomac variety has been the superior. It would appear that much of the leaf scorch on filberts experienced in the past has been due to a magnesium deficiency or to an unbalanced condition between magnesium and calcium plus potassium in their nutrition. The symptoms of magnesium deficiency (scorch), which in general are similar to those on apple and tung, are described. The data presented show that liberal applications of potassium alone, or in combination with nitrogen, resulted in a highly significant increase in the incidence of leaf scorch due to magnesium deficiency. This in turn resulted in susceptibility to winter injury, the coefficient of correlation being 0.97, which means that the severity of the leaf scorch in August, 1950, would account for 94 percent of the winter injury sustained. Applications of 1500 pounds per acre of high-magnesium dolomite, together with five pounds of Epsom salt per tree in early spring of 1951, did not produce consistent improvement in leaf scorch. It seems that recovery from magnesium deficiency in filberts is slow after treatment, just as has been found to be the case in fruit trees (2, 4). Literature Cited 1. Boynton, Damon, Cain, Carlton J., and Van Geluwe, John Incipient Magnesium Deficiency in Some New York Apple Orchards. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 42:95-100. 1943. 2.---- Magnesium Nutrition of Apple Trees. Soil Sci. 63:53-58. 1947. 3. Drosdoff, Matthew, and Kenworthy, Alvin L. Magnesium Deficiency of Tung Trees. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 44:1-7 1944. 4.----, and Lagasse, Felix S. The Effect of Some Magnesium and Calcium Fertilizers in a Magnesium Deficiency Bearing Tung Orchard. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 56:5-11. 1950. 5. Southwick, Lawrence Magnesium Deficiency in Massachusetts Apple Orchards. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 42:85-94. 1943. 6. Wallace, T. Magnesium Deficiency of Fruit Trees. Jour. Pom. and Hort. Sci. 17:150-166. 1939. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 10: Principal Horticulturist and Horticulturist, respectively, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Beltsville, Md.] [Footnote 11: Numbers in parenthesis refer to Literature cited, p. 55.] [Footnote 12: The authors take this opportunity to thank Dr. Harald E. Hammar for making the chemical analyses of the leaf samples.] Bunch Disease of Black Walnut [Paper expanded from a talk given at the 41st annual meeting of NNGA in 1950.] JOHN W. MCKAY, _horticulturist_, and HARLEY L. CRANE, _principal horticulturist, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Division of Fruit & Vegetable Crops and Diseases, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland_ Introduction For the past several years observations have been made on the development and spread of the bunch (brooming)[13] disease on _Juglans nigra_ and on other species of walnut growing in the orchards at Plant Industry Station at Beltsville, Maryland. Because of the widespread interest in growing walnuts a brief survey of these observations will be given in this paper together with a summary of the history of the disease and a discussion of its possible effect on walnut production. History of the Disease The bunch disease of walnut has been known for years. Waite[14] in 1932 said, "It turned up in Delaware several years ago, where quite a variety of walnuts, including the Persian, the Japanese Group, and the American Black Walnut, were found to be affected. At Arlington Farm, Virginia, during the past 15 years it has boldly riddled the collection of nut trees assembled in the grounds for study and ornamental purposes." Photographs made in 1914 of Japanese walnut trees growing in Georgia and thought to be affected by rosette (now known to be caused by zinc deficiency) have been found in the files of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Now that the symptoms of the two different disorders are known, it seems clear that the bunch disease was present in those two states at that early date. Becker,[15] of Climax, Michigan in 1940 reported on his observation of this disease in that area. He reports that he observed several cases of it on Persian walnut, Japanese walnut, and butternut, in addition to many diseased eastern black walnuts. He says, "My conclusions are that in witches'-broom (bunch disease) we have a very bad disease that threatens the black walnut trees everywhere". In 1939, the late Howard E. Parsons, pathologist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, made an inspection trip to Climax and other areas in Michigan where he studied and photographed diseased trees. Parsons at that time was working on a similar disease of pecan and water hickory and was of the opinion that the disease found on the various species of walnuts in Michigan was similar to the one he was studying. For the past 20 years the bunch disease of walnuts has been under observation by the writers and it seems clear that its incidence has increased greatly during that time. In 1935 scions and buds were taken from diseased eastern black walnut and butternut trees growing at Arlington Farm and grafted or budded on eastern black walnut stock growing in the original nut tree nursery at the Plant Industry Station at Beltsville, Maryland. This was done in an attempt to determine whether the disease was caused by a mineral deficiency or by a virus. All buds and scions died, but the following year two of the seedling rootstocks showed characteristic symptoms of the bunch disease. Since this disease was already present on the station farm it was not definitely known that it was transmitted to the stocks by budding or grafting the diseased material on them. In December of 1946 Hutchins and Wester[16] presented a paper before the American Phytopathology Society giving the results of their studies on the bunch disease. In this paper they reported that the disease was transmitted by patch bark grafts performed in 1944 and 1945 and that the incubation period varied from several months to two years. It was concluded that since the disease was transmitted by grafting, and in the absence of a visible pathogen, a virus causal agent was indicated. Symptoms The characteristic symptoms of the bunch disease are mainly the production of brooms or sucker shoot growth on the tree trunk and main branches and the tufting of terminals, profusion of small branches from axillary buds, the dwarfing and narrowing of the leaflets, and the dying back of the trees resulting sometimes in the death of the trees. The principal symptom is the production during summer of bushy, wiry growth caused by the breaking into growth of lateral buds that normally would remain dormant over the winter. These buds produce shoots that again branch from lateral buds and the process may be repeated for three or four times, resulting in a tightly packed mass or bunch of small, wiry twigs and undersized leaves. Another characteristic symptom is that this growth proliferation continues unabated until the first frost, and, since the wood of these shoots is thus not properly matured, killing back of the diseased portions of the tree usually occurs with the first hard freezes of winter. As the disease progresses, the wood in the main branches becomes very brittle and is easily broken by wind or ice. This condition is followed by the dying back of branches and finally the death of the tree. Trees even moderately affected soon become worthless for nut production, as few nuts are set and those that mature are usually poorly filled. Susceptibility of Species Extended observations show that of the walnut species now grown in eastern United States, the Japanese walnuts, i.e., the Siebold and the heartnut, are by far the most subject to attack by this disease. These walnuts are so susceptible that in localities where this disease is present the planting of young trees is inadvisable, as they are almost certain to be short lived. Once infected, will endanger other walnut trees in the area. Observations at Beltsville show that the butternut is almost as susceptible to attack as is the Japanese walnut. Some workers are inclined to believe that the rather serious decrease in numbers of butternut trees in some areas is due to the bunch disease. The Persian (English) walnut is also quite susceptible, although probably not so much so as the butternut or the Japanese walnut. The eastern black walnut seems to be the most resistant of all, although some evidence indicates that at least certain trees of this species may have the disease but not show symptoms of it. Gravatt and Stout[17] report that walnut trees may be affected for a considerable length of time without showing recognizable symptoms. Out of a lot of 300 healthy-appearing trees, 37 per cent showed bunch disease symptoms following pruning. Only four percent of the unpruned check trees developed similar symptoms during the same period of time. Distribution At the present time bunch disease is quite widespread in eastern United States, occurring in Maryland, District of Columbia, Delaware, New Jersey, New York, Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, and probably other States. No special surveys have been made for bunch disease, and all distribution information has been obtained from observations of U. S. Department of Agriculture or State workers or from specimens submitted. Damage Caused Trees with bunch disease may live for several years in a stag-horned or tufted condition. Affected trees generally set few nuts and the nuts that mature are usually poorly filled and hence low in oil content. It is likely that a part of the unsatisfactory growth and fruiting performance of certain eastern black walnut trees may be due to the disease, even though they do not show the symptoms as they are now known. Severely affected trees are subject to cold injury, and in addition the wood becomes very brittle and is easily broken by storms. Although this disease has been known for several years, it is believed that its seriousness has not been fully appreciated, as it does not cause death as soon as symptoms appear. Several years must elapse before the tree succumbs. In the nut tree plantings made at the Plant Industry Station at Beltsville, Maryland, large numbers of butternut, Japanese walnut, and Persian walnut trees were planted. During the following years, although no records have been kept, several hundred of these trees have become affected and have been removed. Consequently at the present time we do not have any butternut or Japanese walnut trees, and only a few Persian (English) walnut trees left in the plantings. So far, not a single eastern black walnut tree has been removed from the orchards because of the bunch disease. Some trees have shown characteristic symptoms of the disease, but following the removal of the entire diseased limbs the symptoms have not reappeared. Possible Effects of Bunch Disease on the Walnut Industry This disease is known to spread to nearby healthy walnut trees, but the means by which it is spread or how infection occurs is not known. No survey has been made to determine whether the disease is present in the various regions in which walnut trees are grown, and hence it is not known how widely it is distributed at present. Its spread is probably associated with an insect vector, and the presence of the vector would determine whether or not local spread would occur. Much more must be learned about this disease before its importance and destructive nature can be fully determined. It seems certain that in localities where the disease is already present there is little use in planting young trees of the most susceptible species unless trees in the vicinity that are already diseased are destroyed. Nurserymen growing trees of the Japanese walnut, butternut, and Persian walnut should be sure that no diseased trees which might infect the nursery trees are close to their nurseries. It is not known how far the inoculum may be carried, but at this time it would seem that in order to be reasonably safe no diseased tree should be allowed to grow within a mile radius of a nursery. Infected nursery trees (or scions) probably constitute the most important means of long-distance spread for a disease of this type. Control The only known method of control of the bunch disease is to prevent healthy trees from becoming infected. This can be done only by destroying completely all diseased trees. In the early stage of the disease, sometimes only one branch on a tree may show symptoms; and complete removal of this branch may result in the tree's not showing additional symptoms for a year or more. Except in the case of black walnut, the disease breaks out again; hence cutting out diseased limbs cannot be considered a satisfactory control measure, except possibly on the eastern black walnut. Case Histories at Beltsville As a part of walnut breeding work carried on during the past 14 years, approximately 20 large _nigra_ trees of named horticultural varieties have been topworked to seedlings of natural first-generation hybrids between _J. regia_ and _J. nigra_ for the purpose of forcing the seedling scions into early fruiting. Of these 20 trees, 3 have shown such unusual behavior as to merit a description of each in the form of a case history. _Tree Number 838._ This tree was cut back severely in the spring of 1942, and on August 26, 1943 vigorous new shoots were budded to 47.11-P17, a second-generation seedling of the O'Conner natural hybrid. The buds grew vigorously in 1944 and early in the season developed symptoms of the bunch disease. By the end of the growing season of 1944 the scion limbs were heavy with the typical proliferated shoots characteristic of the disease. Also, a few vigorous sucker limbs of the stock tree that grew out from below the point of union of the scions showed typical symptoms of the disease, although these limbs were later outgrown by normal shoots and are not now to be seen. In the early spring of 1945 the diseased limbs were all removed from the tree to prevent the further spread of the disease in the area. At the same time that the above seedling was budded in the top of this tree, a large lateral limb of the stock tree was budded to seedling number 40.70-P1. This seedling originated from a nut of the Ohio variety of black walnut that was only about 1/4 the size of nuts typical of the variety. At the time it was thought that this nut resulted from a cross of Ohio with pollen of the Persian walnut, as it was produced under bag and following hand-pollination. Later growth of the seedling indicated, however, that the pistillate flower was probably pollinated by _J. nigra_ before the bagging occurred, since only _J. nigra_ characteristics have shown up in the seedling. In 1950, one bud of the _nigra_ seedling 40.70-P1 has almost completely regenerated the top of the tree and no symptom of the disease is evident. By contrast in 1944, almost all of the top of the tree was occupied by diseased limbs, five in number, of the O'Conner seedling. _Tree Number 854._ This tree has shown behavior almost identical with that of Number 838, but three seedlings were topworked instead of one. All three originated from the Coye hybrid and all were budded on July 27, 1944. Less than one month later all buds had produced a foot or more of growth, and one to two scions of each seedling reached sufficient size and vigor to survive the following winter without damage. None of the scions branched in 1944, and all failed to show symptoms of the disease. Early in 1945 profuse branching occurred on the one surviving scion of seedling number 39.03-P2, and by midsummer excessive proliferation of the buds of primary shoots had resulted in the formation of a mistletoe-like growth characteristic of the disease. Scions of the two other seedlings, 39.03-P8 and 39.03-P11, were lost by wind damage in midsummer, but at the time they showed no signs of the disease. Most of the shoots of 39.03-P2 were killed during the following winter, and in April, 1946, the remaining live portions were removed by the Division of Forest Pathology for use in transmission studies. On August 18, 1944, four patch buds of the O'Conner natural hybrid were placed on one of the main limbs of this tree. One of these buds grew, and in 1950 has come to occupy more than half the top of the tree. The remainder of the top is made up of the original stock tree. There is no evidence of bunching in the tree at present. _Tree Number 411._ This tree was budded to six seedlings of the Fox natural hybrid on April 28, 1943. Only one of these lived, 40.45-P4, and one scion of this seedling in 1950 comprises the entire crown. No symptom of the disease has appeared in this scion, and the tree is healthy at present. On April 8, 1944, small lateral limbs of the tree were splice-grafted to two Coye seedlings, 39.03-P8 and 41.26-P10. One scions of each grew vigorously during the summer, and 41.26-P10 first became chlorotic, then diseased. Seedling 39.03-P8 became chlorotic but at the end of the season had not shown symptoms of the disease. Both were removed from the tree early in 1945 and the living shoots used for scionwood in transmission studies by the Division of Forest Pathology. An additional case is _Tree Number 795_. This is a grafted tree of the Graham variety of black walnut that was planted in 1932 within 100 feet of trees of the Bates and Faust varieties of heartnuts. By 1940 the latter trees were heavily infected with bunch disease, but it was not until 1943 or 1944 that symptoms were discovered in the Graham tree. At this time the heartnuts were removed from the orchard. The Graham tree has shown only a few small diseased limbs during the past six or seven years, and in 1950 a fair crop of nuts is in prospect. Discussion The following observations should be mentioned briefly before discussing the questions raised by the case histories: 1. Out of more than one hundred seedling scions from 13 hybrids topworked on large _nigra_ trees, three have become diseased the first or second year after the scions began to grow on black walnut stock. 2. The three susceptible seedlings have all been grafted on different _nigra_ stock trees, and the three stock trees have since regenerated only healthy limbs, after removal of the diseased shoots. 3. Seedlings from a total of 13 natural hybrids between _J. nigra_ and _J. regia_ have been used, and only two of these hybrids have yielded susceptible seedlings. However, only a few seedlings were available from certain hybrids. 4. A total of 156 trees of approximately 36 horticultural varieties has been grown at Beltsville, and only one tree of the variety Graham has shown well developed symptoms of the bunch disease. Two other Graham trees have shown slight or questionable symptoms of the disease. It should be pointed out that a considerable number of heartnut and butternut trees were planted at random in the same orchards with the black walnut trees used in these experiments and at the same time (1932). In many cases black walnut trees grew within 50 or 100 feet of the heartnut trees. The bunch disease first appeared on heartnut trees, the most susceptible walnut species, and spread quickly to butternut, which is also very susceptible. By 1940 most of the diseased heartnuts had been removed from the orchards, but it was not until after the top-working experiments described above were completed that the orchards were cleared of all diseased trees. It is therefore possible that insect vectors or other agencies may have spread the disease to the scions of the topworked seedlings from the infected heartnut and butternut trees. Number 795 is the only _J. nigra_ tree on the station farm that has consistently shown symptoms of the disease during the past eight years, and in 1950 only a few limbs are affected. On the basis of the admittedly meager information reported here, it can be stated that the black walnut varieties used in these experiments are more resistant to the bunch disease than are varieties and seedlings of heartnut and butternut. That this is generally true is also borne out by the fact that in the vicinity of Beltsville, Maryland, and the District of Columbia, practically all dooryard trees of the Japanese walnut are infected with bunch disease, many of them having already been killed, whereas relatively few black walnut trees in the area show symptoms of the disease. The suggestion has been made that most varieties and seedlings of black walnut are symptomless carriers of the disease, and only under certain adverse conditions of environment would symptoms appear. This would explain why trees that are cut back severely, as was the case with tree Number 838 described above, show symptoms on the excessively vigorous shoots of the next year's growth. Little can be said at the present time about the relative resistance of black walnut varieties to the bunch disease because nothing is known about how it is spread from one individual tree to another. The case histories of trees described in the present paper are considered to be worth recording because they show that black walnut trees may support diseased scions and later regenerate apparently healthy tops. In these cases the trees showed a type of resistance to the disease. However, there are many cases known, the majority of which are seedlings, in which black walnut trees became so badly infected with the disease that nut production ceased and the trees later died. Whether the type of resistance described in this paper is widely prevalent in the black walnut as a species will be impossible to determine until more is known about how the disease is spread. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 13: Several common names have been applied to this disease, among which "bunch" and "brooming" have most frequently been used. The authors strongly feel that the accepted common name should be "bunch" for the following reasons: (1). The term is very descriptive of the symptoms of the disorder. (2). It is the accepted name of a disease of pecan and hickory species that is very similar if not identical to the one occurring on walnut species. (3). The names "brooming" and "witches'-broom" have already been applied to diseases caused by fungi.] [Footnote 14: Waite, M. B. Notes on Some Nut Diseases with Special Reference to the Black Walnut. Ann. Rept. Northern Nut Growers Assoc. 23:60-67, 1932.] [Footnote 15: Becker, Gilbert, My Observations on Witches Broom Disease of Black Walnut Trees. Annual Report Northern Nut Growers Assoc. 31:106-109, 1940.] [Footnote 16: Hutchins, Lee M., and Wester, Horace V. Graft--transmissible Brooming Disease of Walnut (Abstract.) Phytopathology 37: 11, Jan. 1947.] [Footnote 17: Gravatt, G. F., and Stout, Donald C. Diseases Affecting the Success of Tree Crop Plantings. Ann. Rept. Northern Nut Growers Assoc. 39: 60-68. 1948] WEDNESDAY MORNING SESSION A Forester Looks at the Timber Value of Nut Trees CHARLES S. WALTERS, _Forestry Department, University of Illinois_ What I am going to say will apply mostly to black walnut since it is one of our most valuable timber trees, but it also will apply to other species like hickory, pecan, persimmon. I've never seen papaw or hazel nut large enough for timber, but the Persian walnut has some value and the Chinese chestnut is a fair timber tree. All of these species should be commercially useful if there is sufficient quality and volume involved to warrant a sale. What I have to say may not apply five years from now. Persimmon used to be the main source of material for golf club heads and shuttles for the textile industry. It no longer is. Today golf club heads are being made of "Compreg," a wood which has been impregnated with phenolic resins and cured with heat. The resin is similar to Bakelite. Thin sheets of wood are glued together to build up the head, rather than using a single solid piece, and it makes a considerably better golf club head. The developments in wood use are progressing just as in many other fields. What the wood specialists are trying to do is to take low quality material and change it over to a form which is suitable for many uses for which high-quality expensive material is now used. The timber buyer now wants a tree of long, clean, bole with few knots, of large size,--at least 16 inches in diameter at breast height. In short, he wants high quality material. What I am saying may not apply to nut growing. Foresters grow trees for the wood crop, with nuts as a by-product. The first 16 feet of trunk or the butt log is his main interest. It should be completely free of limbs, knots, and other defects for at least 16 feet. You can use the logs above the butt-cut but they usually produce lower grade material. You have two courses to follow. You can grow wood either in natural stands or in plantations, and the end product is very little different. It is probably easier to grow a high quality tree in a plantation than in the wild. What can be easier than growing a timber tree in the woodlands? It eventually reaches merchantable size and is harvested. Well, nature can do better if you give her help. Your chances of growing a high quality tree to merchantable size are better in the plantation. About ten years ago Dr. R. W. Lorenz of our Department made a study of 150 plantations growing on prairie soil in Illinois. Thirty-six were walnut which ranged in age from 22 to 75 years. The one thing we had the most trouble with was determining their ages. One day we stopped at a farm and talked to a farmer, and we asked him when the trees were planted. This man said he could tell us the exact day. "I was a young lad and a neighbor drove by and said, 'Yesterday Abe Lincoln was shot.'" So we had the historical records to determine the age of that particular plantation. These plantations ranged in number of trees per acre from 46 to 330. The number of trees per acre has a direct influence on the size or diameter growth of the timber tree. An eight by eight spacing, or 680 trees per acre, eventually will be thinned to 200 trees per acre. That gives each tree proper spacing for best height and diameter growth. The trees ranged in height from about 31 feet to 85, averaging about a foot and a quarter in height each year. The average diameters ranged from about 12 inches to 15 inches. Individual trees, however, ranged up to 24 inches at breast height (4-1/2' above ground level). Each plantation had had very little or no care. If some of them had been cared for, or "managed", their owners would have had a better wood crop--higher quality and higher quantity too. Now, as to the growth in the managed plantations. We believe it is possible to grow 300 board feet per acre per year. Compared with upland oak, walnut exceeded it in almost all growth factors up to 70 years of age and then they were about the same. Of the cultural practices, the most important is probably pruning. Sawing off the limbs growing on the trunk makes all wood produced thereafter free of knots. When the trees reach about six inches in diameter, one should select those he is going to call "crop trees"--about 200 of these per acre--and spend his time getting them to timber size and quality. The other trees are removed over a period of several years, so that you finally have only the 200 high quality crop trees left. The reason I suggest starting the pruning when the trees are six inches in diameter, is that that is the size of the veneer core left after the veneer manufacturer has turned the log for the thin sheet of furniture veneer. Remove the limbs and improve the quality so you get a 16-foot log free of limbs and knots. That is what the buyer is looking for. I know practically nothing about growing trees for a nut crop, but we seem to have something in common in growing trees both for nuts and timber. Just a lot of it is "horse sense", with a few rules of thumb based upon scientific principles. You must give the crop trees space, give them plenty of room to grow. In the woods they start to grow in a dense undergrowth. The young trees soon reach a height where they begin to dominate their neighbors. There you pick the straight, thrifty-growing trees for crop trees and favor them in your thinning and pruning operations. Tree density influences diameter growth of the trees. In thick stands, trees are usually small and spindly. So plant a large number to give the crop trees good form, then thin the plantation carefully to make it grow. Grazing and fire are very harmful to tree plantations. Most of the plantations we studied were grazed. A good many were burned. I don't think nut growers would periodically burn their stands to improve the nut production. It is the same with growing a crop of wood. Once the livestock begin to trample or compact the soil, tree growth slows down and when that happens it makes the tree more susceptible to attack by insects and fungi. As to marketing trees, let's assume you have some material you want to sell. The one thing you want to know is, "how much is it worth?" That is like me asking you what my house is worth. I understand there are persons here not only from Illinois and Iowa, but from New York, West Virginia, Ohio, and Kentucky. Prices on wood products vary not only from state to state but also within a state as well. The things you ought to know are the sizes and the grades of the timber that you want to sell, since they determine price. Now, there are publically employed foresters available to help you. They know your local conditions. The manufacturer's markets determine what he can afford to pay you. For example, we organized some walnut marketing pools in Illinois during the war. I suppose a half million board feet of Illinois walnut was sold for gun stock material. One company was buying most of the product of the pools. Later we found that this company had a market for low grade stump veneer. Most of the other companies would mark a half dozen trees for their stumps. This company would buy 35 to 40 stumps. Every buyer looked at the same quality and quantity of material, since the trees were all marked. In this case, however, the difference in markets determined the price the manufacturer could pay. Another thing that concerns price is what we call "logging chance" or how easy is it for the buyer to harvest those trees. I imagine anyone buying trees in Pennsylvania would have considerably more difficulty in getting them out than he would in Illinois. The differences in equipment and methods used to harvest the trees all have a bearing on the price paid the timber owner. Hickory is commonly sold for handle stock. Wood for striking-tool handles has a definite restriction in the specifications on the number of rings allowed per inch of growth. The Federal Government grades handles on the basis of growth rate. From 17 to 22 growth rings per inch is specified. Timber buyers don't want logs grown any slower than 22 rings per inch and those grown a little faster than ten rings per inch may be acceptable. Now, as to determining the trees to sell. I mentioned a 16-inch diameter limit. A few trees smaller than this with logs shorter than 8 feet in length may be accepted if a large quantity of wood is to be sold. It has to be economically worth while for the buyer to harvest and transport the wood, or he can't afford to buy it. Each buyer of course has a different set of specifications. You ought to measure and _mark_ those trees you want to sell and ask the buyers to bid only on those marked trees. Buyers like to approach the timber owner with, "You have some timber I can use. I'll give you $100 for what I can use." That is the same approach as if I were to offer $100 for your entire nut crop. You would probably say, "Let's weigh those nuts so we will have a basis for coming to an agreement." It's the same way with timber. There are two ways you can sell your timber. You can either measure your trees and sell on a volume basis, or you can mark certain trees and state to several buyers, "I have marked 25 trees for sale. What is your best offer for them?" Each buyer looks at the same trees, and you have a common denominator for comparing the fairness of each bid. For example, we had a farmer in Woodford County, Illinois who had walnut trees, wild trees, but growing in a pasture grove. I jotted down the bids that were made. One buyer offered $200 for 27 trees, another bid $225 for 35, a third bid $265 for 40 or $165 for 35, and the last buyer offered $425 for 25 trees. The point I am trying to illustrate is that the farmer, without that extremely high bid, would have been unable to compare the bids because someone bid on 27 trees and someone else on 35 trees. If all buyers had bid on 27 marked trees, he would have had a basis for comparing the bids. Sell on contract. Farm foresters have simple contract forms which they will give you. The forms can be filled out so that they tell what you agree to do and what the buyer agrees to do. Both parties sign the agreement, so there is less chance for disagreement later. May I have those slides? (Picture showing large tall tree in dense forest.) This isn't a walnut tree, but I want to show you the kind of condition foresters like to see trees growing under. Nice tall stem, free of any limbs, good diameter. These trees show a rather wide range of age classes. When I talk to my folks about growing timber, they say "70 years is a long time to wait for your money." Here is a tree that started 70 years ago and is ready to be harvested. The crop is sustained yield. I put this in to show you what we don't like to see. (Picture showing park-like stand of timber.) When these 100 or so trees are gone, there will be no others to replace them. Cattle have grazed this stand to the extent that it will be a long time before any other age classes develop to replace those you see in the picture. That is a white oak. I told you there weren't many. Good diameter all the way up clear of limbs. When the logger cuts that tree he will have high quality material. The same applies for walnut, hickory, or any other species. This walnut tree shows you how to mark trees for sale. One mark up here so the buyer knows which tree is designated for cutting, and one down at the bottom so you can assure yourself that that tree was to be sold. It identifies one of the trees you intended to sell; a penalty is involved for cutting any others. I wanted to show you what a good walnut stump-cut looks like. These trees should be 18 inches or larger in diameter at about two feet above the ground to be worthwhile. The stump will be cut off when it gets to the mill, and peeled for veneer. This is one of the walnut plantations cut for gun stock material. I put this in to show you how the buyers cut the trees down, and measure off the logs to get the best grade of material. They aren't interested so much in volume as in lumber. They want the best grade of wood, and they want it in that butt log. I put these in to show poor quality logs that weren't worth taking. This is an open pasture grown tree. No care or attention given it, so the limbs stayed on and grew quite large. This shows how they load logs with a tractor and chain. This "cross haul" is a trick of the logger's trade. This is the improper way. The tractor was broken down so it took five or six men to load it because they didn't have the tractor. There are some good logs and here are some poor logs. This is a group of logs, at a railroad siding. Some look small, but at that time--with the market as it was--they could use the smaller logs. You see some of nice length, good form and free of defects. I mentioned metal. Here's a man with an Army mine detector. They tried them out to locate metal. This company uses this mine detector to test all logs for metal content. Here's what happens. The metal discolors or stains the wood. This tree probably grew in a fence line. The buyers are just a little reluctant to buy them. If they do they cut them off this high so they are pretty sure all fence wire is left in the stump portion. In this grove of walnut a wire is nailed on every tree. Such a practice ruins the tree. This shows wasteful practice. This small mill in southern Illinois was buying these short bolts cut from small trees. Be careful that you don't sell trees that are too small and too young. It is like, I suppose, harvesting your walnuts before the kernel develops. This is the result of fire. That log, from outside appearance, didn't have a blemish. Loggers left this part because it was hollow. The infection developed from a fire scar and rotted out the inside. This shows the same thing. Fire scarred. Bumping machines used to harvest the nut crop or any defect or injury may result in something like this and decrease the tree's value for timber. I mentioned hickory. Here are some single-trees that are made out of pecan. Hickory is also used. Hickory grows to a commercial size in southern Illinois but in most states it is too small and knotty. One time the Peoria office of the WPB got a release from Washington indicating that hickory was needed for axe handles. They released it to the newspapers. We answered letters for a month after that. Farmers who had hickory they wanted to sell had to be told that there wasn't enough hickory involved to make it commercially possible to market. In addition, there wasn't a single handle mill in the state at that time. This is a couple of loads of good walnut logs. They were cut in Illinois and trucked to Indiana to be manufactured into veneer and lumber. Dr. Colby has asked me if I had any methods of getting rid of stumps. We have worked for five years and we still haven't a method that is economical or easy. We recommend grubbing or burning them out with a small stove, or you can cut them close to the ground and let them rot out. What about the chemicals?--We have worked for a good many years and we have bored stumps until our arms ached, but we haven't found any of them that work. Discussion MEMBER: 300 board feet per acre per year? MR. WALTERS: I said we felt that on good soil and by encouraging nature we can grow that volume. MEMBER: What are the stumpage prices? MR. WALTERS: Ranging from about $10.00 per thousand board feet to $300. There is quite a span and each grade is different. There is a prime grade, which is the best grade, which must be 16 inches in diameter at the small end at least. Each company has a little different set of grades. Even with the same grade the prices will range according to the size of the log. Maybe a 16 inch prime log may be worth $200 per thousand board feet and 24 inch will be $300. MR. CRAIG: Curly walnut would be worth more? MR. WALTERS: Yes. It is somewhat of a guess as to whether a tree will have a curly figure. If you let them take the bark off a tree, the buyers can tell. I know of one beautiful stump on which the buyer wanted permission to remove part of its bark to see if it had nubby growth. If it had had the figure, it would have been very valuable. The farmer said, "I don't want you cutting on that tree because if it doesn't have the figure and you don't buy it, the tree will be spoiled." Don't let the buyers chop into the tree to see whether it has figure. MR. CRAIG: I bought two to get grafting wood. [Editor's note: Mr. Craig refers to the Lamb curly black walnut, article on which appeared in NNGA 39th Annual Report.] MR. WALTERS: There has been some work done on grafting or stimulating growth for figure. One method was to beat the trees with a rubber hose and try to stimulate figured or curly grain. Not too much has been published on this work as yet. MEMBER: Do you think the figure could be propagated by asexual propagation? MR. WALTERS: I don't know. I will say this; in forest trees, the inherited characteristics are the things we depend upon. If a tree has curly figure and the seed carries that characteristic, you may see it in the progeny. An acquired characteristic I don't think you can depend on so much. MEMBER: Is it thought to be acquired or hereditary? MR. WALTERS: I just don't know whether it is acquired or hereditary. DR. ROHRBACHER: One thought came to me on this black walnut timber. It's a long pull, and it is one for our posterity. The thought came to be that it is for those of us who are interested in setting up something for our offspring. The plan has been brought out before of using a grafted known name variety of nuts. Plant those, and perhaps those trees as they grow would first give us that wonderful nut which we were looking for. Symposium on Nut Tree Propagation F. L. O'ROURKE, _Leader_ MR. O'ROURKE: I believe if you get 10 nut people together, you are going to have eight or nine propagators. It is the one thing that people like to dream and talk about. I went through the list a little bit, and in order to save some time I wrote a resumé of what had been done. In order to accumulate that material I had to dig into some of the more or less unused volume. There is a wealth of information in some of those earlier reports of the Northern Nut Growers Association. MEMBER: You can get them for $15 a set. MR. O'ROURKE: It's a good investment anyway. At any rate, I think I am going to try to make a bit of an analogy. Suppose this was a church group who had been working on paying off their mortgage. Every once in a while they passed a hat, but instead of dumping that hat on the table they let those contributions accumulate, so that after a while they had the accumulation of 41 years in the hat. Someone has to dump the hat sometime and I tried to do that this summer, and I found all sorts of contributions in that hat. We might say this happened to be the hat. You would find some brand new fresh ten dollar bills, nice new currency, and then you would find some gold pieces (before Roosevelt). They too can be used because they can also be converted. Then you could dig back and come across some stuff, and you didn't quite know what it was. It might be a Spanish doubloon or an old brass button. Right there is where you need a little knowledge. You should be able to tell the difference. I don't know whether I was able to tell that difference. We will, of course, find a lot of slugs and buttons and this and that among the valuable pieces, so possibly we should sift those out and put them in the discard. You never can be sure what to discard. Just as I said, every nut grower is a propagator at heart. A little wee paragraph may be a lead to something which would be of quite a lot of value. This little brief resumé I passed around yesterday, and now this morning I am using my school teacherish techniques in passing around a sheet of paper. There is merely an outline. Pardon me if I insult your intelligence in getting out that outline. As you notice, we start out with the seedling and end with nursery practice. This outline should fit almost any nut species. It should fit chestnut, hickory, walnut or any. I thought it might be best to have a vote as to which one we talk about first, and then we will run down each particular species. I think we should have our panel come up front. As I said a while ago, we know that practically every person in this room is a propagator. In order that we have this panel conducted in an orderly way, please raise your hand when you speak. I will get the question and pass it to one of the panel members. Which one shall we take up first? MR. McDANIEL: Let's take the hard one first, the Chinese chestnut. All right, chestnut. To be systematic, let's talk about seed. Anyone having any difficulty? No trouble at all. Who grows most of the Chinese chestnuts, germinates most of the seed? MEMBER: I have trouble with rabbits, squirrels, ground hogs. MR. O'ROURKE: He wishes to know of something to protect his chestnuts. DR. McKAY: We don't plant in the Fall. I know of one person who uses red lead. We have never used it. I know that has been done. We store our chestnuts in cold storage over the winter and plant in the Spring. C. S. WALTERS: May I interrupt? We tried 50 chemicals, treating walnut seed with them or putting them on the seed spot after the nut was planted. The squirrels lifted every nut except those that wouldn't have germinated anyway. The rascals knew the difference. We tried allylisothiocyanate--"tear gas." The squirrels would dig those nuts up and when the vapor got too strong they would go away and allow it to evaporate. Within two weeks they would come back--maybe two or three times--before they finally took the nut. We tried cayenne pepper and n-butyl mercaptan--the main ingredient in "polecat essence." We had squirrels all over our test plots, and the only nuts they didn't take were the bad ones. MEMBER: I have had every other kind of rodent. I found I have to plant in the spring and always in a tin can, with rock wool over the nut. MEMBER: We have used rock wool; planted in the spring. They will get them any time. MEMBER: I did the same thing with chicken wire and no squirrels got them. MEMBER: I would like to ask Mr. Chase if he has planted chestnuts on a quantity basis. MR. CHASE: We planted them on a quantity basis and as some of you know our nursery is adjacent to a wooded area where you would assume there would be a lot of rodents and polecats, both kinds--four and two legged. I made that statement once before about never having had any squirrel damage. We don't have any trouble. We do not lose chestnuts. We mulch with composted mixtures. MEMBER. They claim sawdust will help keep them away. MR. CHASE: On the other hand, a gentleman wanted to get started with chestnut in the Smokies. We helped him get lined up and he planted in beds and these are perhaps a hundred feet long. We mulched heavily with sawdust. The area had been cut over six to eight years ago and had immense piles of sawdust. We mulched with about four inches and some animal got every chestnut out. We never knew what animal it was. There wasn't any evidence on the top. They got every chestnut which was quite a shock to him. I brought this point out that there _was_ danger and he was going to build the bed up high and cover with wire or he was going to get some of this old camouflage netting type and cover that bed for protection both against rodents and early spring frost. He didn't follow through on that so I don't plead guilty. MEMBER: Does the Chinese chestnut seed have a rest period? DR. McKAY: For some years we have had a friendly discussion with the Division of Forest Pathology in regard to whether a chestnut seed has a rest period in the same way black walnut, hickory, or some of the others do, and we are not absolutely set in our opinion on the matter. We have the opinion that the Chinese chestnut does not require a rest period. I will tell you that one species, the Allegany Chinkapin _(C. pumila_) will germinate very readily as soon as it is matured. It will start growing immediately. When you go into the oak species, you have a number like that. They fall to the ground, and put a root into the soil, become anchored, and grow slowly all winter long. We feel that the Chinese chestnuts are of that type. Perhaps the old American chestnut was that way. It fell to the ground in the fall and it sprouted rather promptly within a month or so and grew slowly. Perhaps the Chinese chestnut is not so much inclined that way. We have done this: we have taken them from storage at various times during the winter and planted them, and have never failed to get reasonably good germination. Others have. The results there vary considerably. Perhaps we can't be too sure about the matter. We simply feel that on the basis of what we have seen and observed, they do not have a definite rest period. Many of the failures that have been obtained have been due to poor storage conditions, where the nut started to spoil and perhaps the workers didn't realize it and planted that nut and the nut spoiled immediately. So you fail, not because of the inability of the seed to sprout, but because it was improperly handled and could not grow. MR. O'ROURKE: Is it not a fact that ... seed has no true rest period as we know it with trees? On the other hand, about 30 days' exposure to low temperature and moist conditions will cause all those seeds to germinate immediately. It may be somewhat the same with chestnut seed. MR. STOKE: In confirmation, I furnished a man some seed some years ago and we put them in flower pots and they were a foot high by Christmas. MR. McDANIEL: The growth is normal from the immediate planting, too. You don't get the suppressed growth later, as in prematurely germinated peach. MEMBER: The chinkapins will often sprout even before they come out of the bur. MR. CRAIG: I might say this concerning the California Persian walnuts. Take one at harvest and plant it, and that seed will germinate immediately. You hold it in dry storage and plant in the spring and it will come up in a couple of weeks. I speak from experience. DR. CRANE: The same thing is true with pecan, in west Texas and Arkansas and California. We have lots of trouble with pecans germinating. It is not uncommon to find a pecan germinated with a root as much as ten inches long grown in the hull. If that nut goes through to maturity and becomes dry, then there is an appreciable delay in germination. They won't germinate as quickly. There has got to be a lot of changes in the kernel after they have once dried out and been harvested before germination will be initiated again. DR. McKAY: In connection with this question of germinating nut seeds of all kinds, we think it is very important to plant the seed in a well aerated medium. I think that is a mistake many people make. If the soil happens to be of a clay nature, it keeps out oxygen and air and the sprout will rot. That is the reason why, when we plant chestnut seed, we like to plant in sand or the same with any nut seed. Coarse sand has a lot of air in it. That nut has a high demand for oxygen. MEMBER: In the matter of chestnut seed, don't put too many layers of seeds. One is better than two. Even in rather porous soil, they seem to develop gas. Anyway, I found the bottom ones didn't get enough air and they rotted, whereas on top they didn't. It is better to plant a single layer than more. MR. SHERMAN: What is the best method of treating the chestnut seeds in the fall to prevent the development of weevils? DR. McKAY: Of course, there are several ways of treating the nuts for weevils. One is the old hot water method. All of us can heat water. We have to heat it to about 120 degrees. So hot, you can't hold your hand in it. Immerse thirty minutes for an average size nut. Now in connection with the spoilage and rotting that is another matter. We believe in harvesting chestnuts promptly, storing them before they dry out. We of course store our chestnuts in cans. Cans with lids and holes punched at either end. MR. O'ROURKE: Are there any other questions pertaining to seeds? MEMBER: I would like to caution persons outside the weevil belt about being very careful if you get nuts that may be infested. Leave your nuts in a small jar and you have the advantage of watching the weevils actually emerging. You can pick the nuts out about February, and you can select all the nuts that are sound. Once in awhile a weevil will live through the winter. One thing we should all be thinking about is that the nurseryman has to produce grafted trees in order to fill a demand, and those nut trees must be produced cheaply and he must use methods which are highly efficient. MEMBER: Has anyone tried to deep freeze? DR. CRANE: We tried that just this past winter. For a couple of years back one individual had asked us why we didn't freeze them. Last winter we did. We stored three gallon buckets at two temperatures. One at zero and the other at ten degrees below--hard freezing temperatures. Those nuts stayed frozen from early October until the next April. We brought them out and examined them one morning. The first thing we did was taste them. Those nuts we ate when first opened and you could tell them from no other chestnuts. They were nice eating, sweet. We let those chestnuts thaw evenly at room temperature. That evening we examined them and it's hard to describe what the transformation was in those nuts. In the first place was the deterioration that had gone on as soon as the tissue thawed ... They were dripping water. The tissue had burst and the water just flowed. On the other hand, about an hour after they thawed out, when we first examined them just as they thawed out, you would be amazed at how tender they were. They would melt in your mouth. Freezing apparently breaks down the tissue. The tissue is as soft as it can be. Apparently this freezing transformed some of the starch to sugar. The rub is that it won't keep for even two or three hours. MEMBER: They might keep if you put them in the soil first. DR. CRANE: The tissue is ruined. MR. O'ROURKE: We have now decided certain things pertaining to seed germination. Then we are confronted with the problems of seedling versus clonal rootstocks. I do not know whether or not there have been clonal rootstocks selected for Chinese chestnut. I am sorry to have to ask Dr McKay to talk again but he knows more about it. DR. McKAY: I can only tell you about the experiment we started this spring on clonal stocks of chestnuts. We have just this year's results. Unfortunately we didn't get good results. We took ten seedling trees. We used nursery trees, large five-year old trees, with vigorous root system, ten seedlings, and got from them 20 roots. We took roots the size of your finger with a lot of feeding roots, and we grafted onto those five times four. We took four per variety. We used five varieties of chestnuts, and all five of those each had four pieces and we had ten of those seedlings. We wanted to find out whether any of those ten seedlings would give us a better set of these five varieties than any other trees. In other words, we are trying to get a start on a clonal rootstock. We used a splice graft. We simply took a piece of scion and spliced it right on the end of the root. We had four of those in the bundle, and we had five per seedling and we had ten of them. That made 20 in all. We planted in a cold frame, with cheesecloth covering to keep the temperature from getting too high. Eventually, if this thing works, we will establish a clonal line. We planted those ten original trees but you will be surprised. We can go back to the original tree if we succeed with clonal lines, so a chestnut variety we hope will be grafted on a line of stock that came from that one original tree. Bear in mind this is the method and it remains to be seen whether it is going to work for chestnuts. The results are discouraging. Only one or two seedlings gave us six or 8 successful grafts on all the five varieties but by that method of trying all five of these varieties on all ten of the seedings we hope to get a start. We will try them again, and we hope to get at least a start that will work. It may be that we will have to start over again. We may want to take ten other seedlings. That is, in brief, our work so far in that direction. We took it off the ground. We didn't have long enough side roots. MEMBER: How about mound layering? DR. McKAY: We tried cutting off at the ground level and mounding up those sprouts and tried to root them, with no satisfactory results. There was just a small amount of rooting. MEMBER: Did you try layering? DR. McKAY: One year we did, but with no success. MR. McDANIEL: I have seen a few layered successfully but it's a little slow. MR. O'ROURKE: Shall we move to vegetative propagation and consider cuttings first? DR. McKAY: Just one thing I think ought to be mentioned at this time. We know that even the use of clonal rootstocks does not entirely eliminate variability. All the work that has been done with these Malling apple stocks shows that, as far as apples are concerned. Now we have an idea which, in a crop like chestnuts, may have very far reaching influence and we feel quite hopeful for it. That is growing seedling progenies of certain parent trees. I want to tell you our experience with it. We started our work on breeding and selection of tung nuts in 1938, and we have tested now over 600 parent trees that were especially selected. Out of those six hundred we have released a total of six horticultural varieties, for asexual propagation. But out of those six we have three trees, the seed of which will produce seedling progenies that come very true to the type of the parent tree. One of those released we know as the Lampton variety. It will produce from 95 to 100 per cent of its seedlings, that are so true to type that you can identify them in the nursery. At the end of the first season you plant 95 to 100 per cent of the remaining trees in the orchard and anybody can identify the trees. In the case of budded trees we have the variability of the rootstocks, which affects the growth. Since that particular variety has been released there has not been one single nut of that variety crushed. Every single seed is grown to tree size, to plant in a new orchard. It has taken us 12 years to reach that stage, but that one variety is probably the most outstanding thing we have. There is a slight variation in the trees but not as much as you have in other trees. Now, with Chinese chestnuts, we planted seedlings that were grown from the seed of a parent tree at Beltsville. We planted a thousand trees. There were seedlings grown from seed produced by different parent trees. Out of those thousand there wasn't a single one outstanding. Yet in one lot of seedlings which was planted in Georgia, every one of the seedlings grown from the seeds of that selected tree produced such high quality nuts that we haven't cut out a single tree. There just hasn't been any off types. Now we have gone a step further. We had one called selection 7932 which came into bearing very early. We have had those trees grown from seed. The seedling at three years of age produced a pound of nuts, the seedling having the characteristic of its mother. We have hopes that before many years we shall be able to produce parent trees or clonal lines in which the seed taken from those line and planted will give us uniform seedlings. I don't want you folks to get the idea we have these parent trees or seed from them that are available. I mention it because a lot of you are growing chestnut trees and planting them from seed. You could make a great contribution if you would take the nuts from each individual tree and plant separately, so that you will know in the future the origin of every one of those seedling trees you have. Some of these days someone is going to find one that is going to give us seedling trees that are good and free from variation. Elberta peach seed will come practically true to variety from seed, except minor variations of size, shape, color and season. In a peach you are facing a very highly specialized market. But with the Chinese chestnut, color is not so important. What we are interested in is trees that bear and have enough uniformity so that we don't have pee-wees by one and jumbos by another. We need very badly this sort of thing. We need chestnut varieties planted in pairs in isolated places. Any of you folks could do a great service if you will let us know wherever trees occur in pairs, or just two varieties and no others, and then we know that one variety pollinates the other. When you have a mixed planting of a half dozen varieties the male is promiscuous. Therefore you have a much greater mixing of genetic factors. If we have a pair of trees, we get a much more uniform breeding group of seedlings. MEMBER: How far removed from other varieties do they have to be? DR. McKAY: Half a mile or a mile. MR. O'ROURKE: I think we can go to vegetative propagation of cuttings. I think that we have any amount of evidence that Chinese chestnuts can be rooted from cuttings, but can trees grow on from rooting cuttings? DR. CRANE: You have summed up the situation perfectly. MEMBER: Just by accident, in our storage house a couple of chestnuts fell over into a pile of peat moss and they did make roots. MR. CORSAN: Would you call the Chinese chestnut a second? MR. O'ROURKE: We should confine this only to propagation. While there are any number of interesting phases of it, we have to stick to propagation or we will never get through. We have had remarks on layers. Any comments on layers? Let's move on to graftage. We want to have our chestnut produced on a quantity basis so I am going to ask Mr. Bernath to tell us a good method. MR. BERNATH: I don't graft too many outside, but I do my propagating in the greenhouse. I had more than a thousand graftings growing, some of them this high [indicating] which greatly depends upon the root system and the condition of the soil. I think that is the fastest and easiest way of grafting chestnuts. I do my grafting sitting down. MEMBER: That's on the potted stock. MR. BERNATH: That's right. MEMBER: After you have produced all these grafts, what are you going to do with them? MR. BERNATH: Sell them. MR. STOKE: I tried to contact some nurseries. They are selling your seedlings, little chestnut trees for $1.75 and they want to give you 75¢ or a dollar for grafted ones. MR. O'ROURKE: Mr. McDaniel has received a letter from Mr. Hirschi from Oklahoma City and there is one paragraph that I think the membership will be interested in. [Letter from Mr. Hirschi is partly reproduced here.] Oklahoma City, Okla. Aug. 23, 1951 Mr. J. C. McDaniel, Urbana, Ill. My Dear Mac; ... In my work with chestnuts I believe I have had an experience that will be interesting to the membership. As you well know I am a strong believer in selected named varieties. I do not regard seedling chestnuts any more valuable than seedling peaches or apples. The--Nursery, a member of our association, have been customers of mine for a long time. Last year I persuaded them to catalog seedling chestnuts at about half the price of Nanking, Meiling, Kuling, and Abundance. I was anxious to learn the attitude of the public, where they had an opportunity to buy and plant selected grafted varieties, when heretofore only seedlings were available. To my utter amazement the seedlings did not sell at all, but the thousand trees of selected varieties were sold out long before the season was over. I could not supply more, neither could I get them elsewhere. So far as I know Max Hardy and I are the only ones grafting chestnuts in quantities. It is amazing the volume of business that catalog nurseries do. For instance the above firm does a million dollars gross business annually, and many others do a big business. All would be glad to catalog grafted chestnuts, and the chestnut movement would grow by leaps and bounds. True, they would have to be sold to them at wholesale prices, but they want small sizes, parcel post sizes preferred, which can be produced the second year from seed. Plant the seed in March, the next March graft them, and by fall the grafts will range from three to seven feet as shown by the enclosed photos. I had the same experience with the above firm with Carpathians, sold them 500, which were sold out long before the season ended and I could not get them any more. They have ordered 2500 for this coming season. Unfortunately we had a poor take on grafts this spring due to cutting scion wood after a November freeze, which killed all other English walnuts. Carpathian wood was not hurt except where used for scions. Where left on the trees they forced out as usual and are producing a good crop of nuts. I must close. I know you will have a wonderful meeting and I wish I could be with you. I will be with you in spirit, and in the meantime will be doing all I can to promote interest in nut growing.--Very truly yours, A. G. Hirschi. MR. GERARDI: I don't yet have the greenhouse. I depend on field grafting. I produce my own seedlings. I just use seed from those three best trees. They run pretty uniform as far as growth is concerned. I bark graft in the field, when the buds begin to swell nicely and from there on. You can get a growth like that. [Indicating four to 5 feet.] MEMBER: He has the same thing. Just as soon as the buds swelled. Sometimes I do go to the trouble if I am covering more ground, to cut them off as soon as they start to swell. A chestnut will peel again in four days. I start in after about four days and set these grafts and I use this bark graft. I have a sample of the method here. This is the plain bark graft which is efficient and fast for the production of chestnuts in quantity. I have to get into bigger production. I am trying to make speed and I am using this method. To start, the first week of April, when the buds start. If I get it done, it's the first week or the second of April. MR. GERARDI: Four days on chestnuts. In my personal opinion after a few years observation I don't believe it is absolutely essential to cut back. Sometimes weather conditions will be a big factor. Sometimes the temperature is around forty and remains that way four or five days. The weather has taken the place of your cut back. That doesn't always happen, but weather conditions sometimes favor this. MEMBER: What percent of failures do you expect on a hundred? MR. GERARDI: Well, it is better to take a thousand trees. Out of a thousand you miss 35 or 40. The percent that takes is high. This is an important factor; you must have good wood. You are running just a little on the small size. From a quarter of an inch up to--. I never set a scion over about 9/16. That is just getting into the rough ... It's hard on the tool and rootstocks. MEMBER: Do you wax the graft? MEMBER: By all means you use the proper wax. MEMBER: Did you ever try not to? MR. GERARDI: Yes, if favorable weather permits. I use this Acme compound. Last season, it was a little stiff and I mixed a little oil and it cut my rubber bands too quick. That brush wax is about as good as you can get, but customers come in and I am called away and someone is always interfering with the work. I was trying to get a wax that I could just drop and it would be ready when I picked it up again. It is beginning to be an assembly line production. You can go faster if you have a helper or two to do the tying and waxing. MEMBER: I have a rather crude scion storage method. I have dug out in a hill a reservoir that I keep ice in. If you could keep it at 32 to 40 degrees from the time it is cut in February, or the first part of March and then store it in this until the grafting time, it will keep readily. MEMBER: In California I built a little house and there was room enough to put in at least 40 bushel boxes, 900 pounds of ice and I packed grafting wood in boxes and kept it until July. MEMBER: The ice keeps up the humidity. MEMBER: There are a lot of successful methods. It is what is available for you. MR. WILKINSON: I have had very little experience in propagation of chestnuts. Mine has been limited. I shoulder my scions. I like to shoulder. My percentage of take varies with the conditions, sometimes it's fairly good and sometimes not so good. I have a specimen union of two inches in diameter and you can see what a nice union it makes. Ordinarily I have had very good success with chestnut grafting. DR. McKAY: We have done some work on budding chestnuts but it hasn't been successful. We have had indefinite results. As Mr. Stoke says, grafting is so much more simple. We realize more work should be done on budding. We simply do our propagating the way it is easiest. Until the time comes that we have got more information on budding we will go along as we do now. One of the difficulties is that the wood is fluted and it is hard to get a good bud fit. It doesn't make for a good fit. We carried out a little experiment on one year old seedling at the crown. There is a smooth area on the stem as it enters into the root condition. It is a perfectly smooth area and we tried putting sealed buds at that point. We have had good success in putting those kinds of buds in at the time when you would ordinarily bud fruits, in the fall, where growth conditions are still good. Another year we did that same work and we didn't succeed so well. So we don't know exactly what we did wrong. In order to keep a set from those buds we don't know just what the conditions should be. MR. O'ROURKE: To summarize then, the two successful methods are the greenhouse method and the field method used by Mr. Gerardi. MR. STOKE: I mostly use a plain splice. The cut is about four times as long as scion diameter, if it is on a stock of the same size. It is the best method. I use also a modified cleft graft with a little trimming. Mr. Jones brought out that modified cleft graft and I have made a little change. Here is the stock, and a modified cleft graft is a side graft with the stock top cut off. You cut in at an angle far enough and you put your scion in here and there is your modified cleft graft. You get contact on all four lines. It takes experience and judgment. You cut your scion wedge and then make your understock cut and you will seldom make a mistake after you get experience. That is a side graft and a modified cleft graft. That makes a flexible portion here and you get a fit on both sides. But with the ordinary cleft graft, if you go to the end of your stock you still have a split and not a perfect fit. MEMBER: Would you explain that? If your scion is not the same size it might over lap or ... how do you handle that? MR. STOKE: If the scion is undersized, you don't cut so deep. Sometimes the stock is a little oversize. You simply cut less deep in your stock. If you have a large stock and small scion I'd make a bark graft. MEMBER: I should like to bring up one point. That is produce more nut trees and do it cheaper. It seems to lie between Mr. Gerardi and Mr. Bernath. Mr. Gerardi can set between six and seven hundred per day, and tie them himself, and Mr. Bernath will graft between seven hundred and a thousand a day with someone else doing the tying. MR. CHASE: We have tried all these grafting methods with varying degrees of success. Our propagation experiments at Norris have been directed at the development of more economic methods. Conifer grafts are often placed in a grafting case for rapid callusing. This year we tried some black walnut grafts and found that they callused in 10 to 14 days when placed in a grafting case. These were bench grafted on piece roots, using modified cleft and side grafts. Later we tried chestnut with excellent results. Then we made more chestnut grafts, wrapped them in damp moss and placed them in a lab oven with a temperature of approximately 75 degrees. These callused rapidly and were planted immediately in the nursery. They made good growth. We think that some adaptation of this method has possibilities in our region. Often our chestnut grafts are damaged by late spring frosts. If we can bench graft, callus, and then hold the grafts until favorable weather, frost damage will be eliminated. It may be possible to handle black walnut in some similar fashion. Then we would be dealing only with successful grafts. A cold frame provided with heating cable should be adequate. Factors Affecting Nut Tree Propagation F. L. O'ROURKE, _Department of Horticulture, Michigan State College_ Propagation of nut trees is primarily involved with the problems affecting the perpetuation of selected clones by vegetative means. It has been indicated by Morris (14), Reed (18), and others that trees produced from seed are of inferior value for nut production. Seed propagation, however, must be practiced to produce the necessary rootstocks upon which the selected varieties are budded or grafted. Seed Propagation Barton (1) indicated that while some few seedlings may be produced without prior seed stratification, after-ripening of the seed for 2 to 4 months at 35° to 50° F. markedly increased seedling production with hickory and walnut. Chase (4) found that black walnut seed sown in November yielded more and larger seedlings than when planted at a later date. Chase (5) also reported that nuts containing larger kernels produced larger seedlings, and that planting 1 to 2 inches beneath the surface yielded larger seedlings than deeper placement. There have apparently been little or no observations made on the performance of seedlings for rootstock purposes between different parental strains except for Chinese chestnut as reported by McKay (12). Clonal Rootstock Propagation The difficulty of propagating any selection of nut trees by vegetative means has discouraged selections for rootstock purposes. Only filberts offer such an opportunity for selection on somewhat the same basis as the East Malling clones of apple rootstocks which produce different sized scion varieties after grafting. Unfortunately, no non-suckering desirable clones of filberts have yet been reported and even the non-suckering Turkish tree hazel is grown from seed when such rootstocks are used (16). Propagation by Cuttings Gellatly (7) quoted the success of the East Malling Research Station in England in rooting cuttings of walnuts grown in the greenhouse and reported on his own experience in producing short roots on dormant cuttings of heartnut and Persian walnut. The writer (15) has occasionally produced roots on softwood cuttings of pecan and hickory set in a mist humidified greenhouse but the cuttings did not survive. Mist humidification has been a distinct aid in retaining foliage on softwood cuttings of filbert and Chinese chestnut until roots were formed but unless the axillary buds were developed sufficiently to make new growth immediately thereafter, little or no survival was secured. Apparently when the cuttings were succulent enough to form roots the buds were too immature to put out new shoots. If one waited until the buds were developed the tissue at the base of the cutting was too highly lignified for root formation. The use of synthetic plant hormones on cuttings of nut-tree species has been of questionable value. Propagation by Layers Mound layers are used quite successfully for the propagation of filbert varieties but have not proven of value with other nut-tree species. Chinese chestnut has been reported to layer easily but experiments with both mound and trench layers of selected varieties of this species at the Glenn Dale, Maryland Station of the U.S. Department of Agriculture gave negative results. The writer (15) has occasionally rooted pecan, hickory, and Chinese chestnut by aerial layering. A marcot box containing sphagnum moss kept moist by a glass wick immersed in water from a bottle at the lower end was employed. The time and labor involved were so great that the experiments were discontinued. Propagation by Grafting Bench grafting of walnuts and hickories has been adequately described by Bernath (3), Hardy (8), Lounsberry (10), Slate (24), and others. This method has been tested on a commercial basis and apparently should be considered as one of the most efficient ways to produce nut trees quickly and cheaply in large quantities. Greenhouse and storage facilities are required and keen expert attention must be given the newly-made grafts to assure success. Reports on top-working and field grafting are both numerous and voluminous. Morris (13), MacDaniels (11), Wilkinson (29), and others have demonstrated the value of cutting back the stock a week or more before setting the scion in order to avoid injury from excess flow of sap. Reed (17), Stoke (27), Morris (14), Shessler (21), Sitton (23), and others have described methods of preparing and setting scions in the stock. All writers agree that greater success is secured when dormant scions are set relatively late in the season. Becker (2) stated that greater success was secured when scions were set from time leaves were full-grown until catkins fell. Protection of the scion by waxes, paper bags, and shading has been advocated by Morris (14), MacDaniels (11), Shelton (20), Shessler (21), and others. Propagation by Budding The shield or T bud has not been considered suitable for thick-barked trees such as hickory and walnut due to the difficulty of preventing "air-pockets" beneath the bark. Shaving the edges of the bark at the side of the shield may eliminate this difficulty. Joley (9), reported variable success in shield budding of walnut in California. Patch budding, either by the annular method or with the Jones patch-budding tool was described by Reed (17), and is reported by Chase (6), Zarger (30), and others to be the most practical method of propagation with walnuts. Pecans and hickories are commonly patch-budded in summer in commercial nurseries. The thin-barked Chinese chestnut is usually budded by the shield-or T-bud method as reported by Hardy (8) and McKay (12). Scion and Budstick Handling Sitton (22) reported that two-year wood of black walnut was superior to either older or younger wood. MacDaniels (11) advocated the base of the scion to be in the two-year wood and the tip in the one-year wood. Shelton (19) reported that scions could be kept moist until used by storing in a closed container with a small amount of sodium sulphate, commonly known as "Glauber's salt". The usual method of scion storage is to pack in moist but not wet peat or sphagnum moss and place in a refrigerator at about 35° F. Waxes and resins have been used successfully to prevent undue loss from the plant tissues while in storage. Waxes and Dressings Propagators seldom agree in their choice of a wax and wound dressing. In a series of carefully controlled tests, Sitton (23), found that a rosin and beeswax mixture with a filler gave results with pecans superior to the so-called "cold waxes" or asphalt emulsions. Paraffin and polyvinyl resin are often used for scion covering and to protect newly set buds. Shelton (20) has indicated certain qualities of a satisfactory wax. The Rootstock Problem In the Pacific Northwest Painter (16) stated that some Persian walnut varieties on _Juglans hindsi_ (the northern California black walnut) develop a fatal graft blight due to delayed incompatibility at about 20 years of age. This is the so-called black-line disease. McKay (12) found great differences in survival of buds of Chinese chestnut placed on five seedling strains and Hardy (8) suggested that more attention should be paid to the parental relationship of stock and scion in the chestnut. Weschcke (28) reported that black walnuts grafted on butternuts yielded poor crops and that bitternut was a satisfactory stock for shagbark varieties and shagbark hybrids. Smith (25) advocated shagbark stocks for shagbark varieties but found bitternut to be practically as good. Stoke (26), and Smith (25) found eastern black walnut to be the best stock for all walnut species, including heartnuts and butternuts. Nursery Practices Commercial nurseries have adopted various methods to discourage the normal tap-rooting habit of nut trees and stimulate lateral and fibrous root production. Planting seed over screen wire, undercutting the seedling each year in the nursery row, frequent transplanting, and root pruning are methods commonly used. Attention must be given to the production of an adequate root system to help the grafted tree withstand the shock of transplanting to its permanent location. Summary The chief obstacle to the large scale growing of selected nut varieties is the difficulty in propagation. Careful workers with a background of knowledge and experience and skilled in craftmanship are successful in a limited way. Quantity production is apparently dependent upon specialized facilities and efficient labor programs. The need for extensive rootstock research is keenly felt by growers of walnut, hickory and chestnut. Literature Cited 1. Barton, Lela V.--Seedling Production in _Carya ovata_, _Juglans cinerea_, and _Juglans nigra_. Cont. Boyce Thompson Inst. _8_:1-5. 1936 2. Becker, Gilbert--Notes from Southwestern Michigan. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _28_:135. 1937 3. Bernath, Stephen--Propagating Nut Trees under Glass. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _37_:90. 1946 4. Chase, Spencer B.--Black Walnut Nursery Studies. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _37_:40-41. 1946 5. Chase, Spencer B.--Eastern Black Walnut Germination and Seedbed Studies. Jour. For. =45=:661-668. 1947 6. Chase, Spencer B.--Budding and Grafting Eastern Black Walnut. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. _38_:175-180. 1947 7. Gellatly, J. U.--Notes on Nuts and New Combinations of Old Principles. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _29_:115-120. 1938 8. Hardy, Max B.--The Propagation of Chinese Chestnuts. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _40_:121-126. 1949 9. Joley, Lloyd E.--Personal Correspondence. July, 1951 10. Lounsberry, C. C.--Bench Grafting of Black Walnuts. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _28_:60. 1937 11 MacDaniels, L. H.--Some Experiences in Nut Tree Grafting at Ithaca, New York. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _28_:52. 1937 12. McKay, J. W.--Results of a Chinese Chestnut Rootstock Experiment. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _38_:83-84. 1947 13. Morris, R. T.--Top Working Hickories--Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _11_:105. 1920 14. Morris, R. T.--Nut Growing. 1931. Macmillan, New York 15. O'Rourke, F. L.--Unpublished data. 1940-1945 16. Painter, John H.--Personal Correspondence. July-August, 1951 17. Reed, C. A.--Nut-Tree Propagation. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1501. 1926 18. Reed, C. A.--Seedling Chestnut Trees versus Grafted Varieties. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _32_:79. 1941 19. Shelton, E. M.--Glauber's Salt for Humidity Control in Scion Storage. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _28_:70-71 1937 20. Shelton, E. J.--A Laboratory Experience in Testing Wax Mixtures for Use in Plant Propagation. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _28_:72-75. 1937 21. Shessler, Sylvester--Grafting Walnuts in Ohio. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _39_:145. 1948 22. Sitton, B. G.--Vegetative Propagation of the Black Walnut. Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Tech. Bul. 119. 1931 23. Sitton, B. G.--Pecan Grafting Methods and Waxes. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. 545. 1940 24. Slate, George L.--Grafting Walnuts in the Greenhouse. Rept. North Nut Grow. Assoc. _39_:146-147. 1948 25. Smith, Gilbert L.--Our Experience with Rootstocks. Rept. North Nut Grow. Assoc. _40_:62-64. 1949 26. Stoke, H. F.--Nut Nursery Notes--Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _34_:96. 1943 27. Stoke, H. G.--Grafting Methods Adapted to Nut Trees. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _37_:99-102. 1946 28. Weschcke, Carl--The Importance of Stock and Scion Relationship in Hickory and Walnut. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _39_:190-195. 1948 29. Wilkinson, J. F--Preparation of Stocks for Propagation. Rept. North. Nut Grow. Assoc. _28_:65-66. 1937 30. Zarger, Thomas G.--Nut-testing, Propagation, and Planting Experience of 90 Black Walnut Selections. Rept. Nut Grow. Assoc. _36_:23-30. 1945 Nut Rootstock Material in Western Michigan Harry P. Burgart, _Union City, Michigan_ It is only natural that those who propagate by budding and grafting are always hoping to find a rootstock that will accept their scions with the highest percentage of takes and impart vigorous growth to the scion variety. Sometimes in our eagerness to adopt a new rootstock we are likely to neglect a vital point, namely--Future Performance of the root-top combination we are about to use. It would take years of observation in a test planting to prove whether or not a new rootstock material is safe to use. A rootstock can affect the tree it supports in various ways. Sometimes the rootstock will force to the top too much growth, which is likely to bring about unfruitfulness. In other cases, the rootstock may cause a dwarfing habit in the future tree, with the resulting top being a scant producer of nuts. Then there is the combination where rootstock and top vary too much in their growth rate, thus making an unsightly tree. The ideal rootstock is one that attains a diameter nearly equal to the diameter of its partner, and is capable of producing a moderate amount of top growth, together with the production of heavy crops of nuts. Such a rootstock should also accept buds or grafts readily, and be compatible with the scion throughout the life of the tree. My first experience with rootstocks for grafting came about in 1926 when I was working at the J. F. Jones Nursery then at Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Mr. Jones used both bitternut and pecan seedling stocks for grafting shagbark hickories. Pecans and hicans were also grafted on hardy northern pecan seedlings, and Japanese walnut stocks were used for butternuts and heartnuts. Black and Persian walnut scions were set on eastern black walnut seedlings. When I returned to Michigan I brought back enough of Mr. Jones' trees for a small test planting here at Union City. These trees were planted in a heavy quack grass sod and some were lost, but those surviving show good compatibility between the top and root. In the intervening years I have made but slight changes in the rootstock material used in my own nursery. I do not approve of the performance of our butternut varieties on the Japanese walnut _root_, as it results in a weak and dwarfed tree. The use of butternut rootstocks is also unsatisfactory, for they tend to produce trees of low vitality that in a few years fall victim to blight and then perish. I tried our Michigan black walnut seedlings as a rootstock and found that they are very much better rootstock material. The growth at the union is about equal. Top growth is good, and the butternut tops bear early and heavily, with no signs of blight during the ten years I have had them under test. After years of test I have decided to use the northern pecan seedlings as rootstocks for my shagbarks, pecans, and hicans because they are a fast growing stock tree. They accept the grafts readily, and make good unions more quickly than the bitternut stocks I have tried. Mr. Wilkinson, from whom I obtain my seed, has never failed to send me seed with good viability, just about every seed germinating. The northern pecan seedlings have shown no winter injury here in Southern Michigan during the 20 years I have watched them growing. An example of the superiority of the black walnut over the Persian walnut as a rootstock is a seedling of the variety Wiltz Mayette growing near a Broadview grafted on black walnut. Both trees are the same age, but the Broadview on black walnut is just about twice the size of its own-rooted neighbor. Hudson Valley Experience with Nut Tree Understocks Gilbert L. Smith, _Millerton, N. Y._ This report is not based on any planned or well conducted experiments, but is based simply on our observations of results of our grafting work over the years since 1934. Our first work was with hickories, so I will start with them. Our first year's grafting was done in a plot of practically pure pignut stocks. This was the seven leaflet pignut, which I believe to be _Carya glabra_. I have never been sure of the identification of the two species of pignuts. We secured a fairly good percentage of living grafts, which grew well the first summer. The next spring all of the grafts failed to leaf out and later were found to be dead. A few grafts which were put on bitternut stocks (_Carya cordiformis_) grew well, and are still growing well after more than fifteen years. Several different varieties of shagbark hickory scions were used in this grafting. The second year, we again grafted as many or more stocks in this same area. The results were exactly the same, except that we used some scions of Davis and Fox. (These varieties were brought to light through the contests of the previous winter). The grafts of Davis grew on pignut stocks, are still alive and doing fairly well. They have been bearing for several years, although the squirrels have stolen all of the nuts. Grafts of all other varieties which were on the pignut stocks died the next spring. One graft of Fox on mockernut lived and has continued to grow fairly well. That same year we started our test orchard of shagbark stocks (_Carya ovata_) in a different area. Grafts on these stocks have grown very well. I believe that for some reason grafts of shagbark on pignut stocks cannot stand cold weather. Certainly, incompatibility is very marked. Our experience with hickory stocks to date is as follows: PIGNUT (_Carya glabra_ or possibly _Carya ovalis_). This species is worthless as a stock for shagbark, shellbark, and hybrids of these species. If nut growers have some pignut stocks growing where they especially wish to have some good hickory trees, they can graft them to Davis. We have also heard that Brooks will grow on pignut stocks. MOCKERNUT (_Carya alba_). This species is also nearly worthless as a stock for shagbark, shell bark, and hybrids, although many more varieties will live on it than will on pignut stocks. SHAGBARK (_Carya ovata_). This species makes the most dependable stock of any we have tried so far, for shagbark, shell bark, and the hybrids. Its greatest drawback is the long time it takes to grow seedlings to a size large enough to graft. SHELLBARK (_Carya laciniosa_). We have never had an opportunity to use this species as a stock. I think that it would make a good one and possibly be faster growing than shagbark. BITTERNUT (_Carya cordiformis_). We have found that this species makes a very satisfactory stock for shagbark and hybrid grafts. We have not tried shellbark on it, except Berger which grows well on it. Seedlings of this species are much faster growing than are shagbark seedlings, and thus are large enough to graft sooner. We have grafts growing on bitternut stocks since 1935, they are growing and producing well. We consider this species as good or nearly as good as shagbark as a stock. We have received contrary reports from farther south. These may be due to stock being blamed for something they did not cause or it may be that bitternut stocks grown from seed of more southern origin may not be as good as our northern stock.[18] PECAN (_Carya pecan_). Our experience with this species as a stock is very limited and has been confined to grafts of only one variety of shagbark (Wilcox). Results were very disappointing, but we have been told by others that it makes a good stock. It is much faster growing than is shagbark. Walnut In walnut grafting, we have found that the eastern black walnut stocks are so much superior to any others we have been able to find, that we have discarded all others. BUTTERNUT (_Juglans cinerea_). We have found that it is much harder to secure living grafts on this stock than on black walnut. It also attracts butternut curculio to the nursery. JAPANESE WALNUT (_Juglans sieboldiana_ and variety _cordiformis_). We have found that seedlings grown from either of these species are a great attraction to the butternut curculio. They are more difficult to secure living grafts on, and grafts on these stocks are very definitely less hardy than similar grafts on black walnut growing side by side. We have proved this repeatedly. PERSIAN WALNUT (_Juglans regia_). We have never used this species as a stock, and in view of the fact that grafts of it grow so well on black walnut stocks, I can see no use in even trying it. EASTERN BLACK WALNUT (_Juglans nigra_). As stated above, we have found this to be the ideal stock for all walnut grafting. It is more free from insects than any of the other walnuts. Grafts grow well on it and are more hardy than grafts on some of the others. We have not had enough experience in grafting chestnuts and filberts even to offer any comment as to stocks for them. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 18: The planting location perhaps has more influence than the seed source. At any rate, the poorest growing pecan in the University of Illinois orchard is on a Wisconsin bitternut understock.--J. C. McD.] The 1950 Persian Walnut Contest Spencer B. Chase, _Contest Chairman, Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris, Tennessee_ The nationwide Persian Walnut Contest conducted by NNGA in 1950 attracted 33 entries from 11 states. The contest was judged by H. L. Crane, L. H. MacDaniels, and H. F. Stoke, assisted by S. B. Chase. The entries were first evaluated independently by the judges. Then each judge made a second evaluation with the knowledge of the findings of the other two judges. The Chairman then arbitrated the differences of opinion among the three judges. This action amounted only to the placing of four entries after the first prize had been unanimously agreed upon. The following table shows the results of the contest: Results of 1950 Persian Walnut Contest ___________________________________________________________________________ Prize Entry Submitted By Nut Kernel Kernel Weight Weight Percentage =========================================================================== 1 030 Mrs. W. H. Metcalfe, 11.9 6.5 54.5 Webster, New York 2 011 (Hansen) S. Shessler, Genoa, Ohio 9.8 5.8 58.5 3 002 (McKinster) Roy McKinster, Columbus, Ohio 12.5 6.4 51.2 4 012 (Jacobs) S. Shessler, Genoa, Ohio 12.9 6.0 47.0 5 006 Lewis Weng, Dayton, Ohio 12.4 6.4 51.9 _Honorable Mention_ 001 Mrs. Gale Harrison, 14.7 6.2 42.2 Pemberton, New Jersey 008 A. C. Orth, Dayton, Ohio 14.7 6.7 45.8 014 (Burtner) Fayette Etter, Lemasters, 10.4 4.6 44.4 Pennsylvania 016 (S-66) G. L. Smith, Millerton, 15.1 6.8 44.9 New York 025 P. F. Countryman, Ontario, 13.9 6.3 45.3 031 (Colby[19]) A. S. Colby, Urbana, Illinois 10.8 5.9 54.1 032 (S-M-9) Royal Oakes, Bluffs, Illinois 15.8 6.6 41.5 033 S. Elwell, Homer, Michigan 19.2 8.3 43.2 A brief history of the prize-winning trees follows: _Entry 030:_ A Carpathian originally obtained through the Wisconsin Horticultural Society in 1936 (Rev. Crath's selections). In 1950 this tree was 14 years old, 22 feet high, with a trunk circumference of 23 inches. It has withstood 18 degrees below zero without damage. The tree began bearing a few nuts in 1947, 4 quarts in 1948; 1 peck in 1949; and 1/2 bushel in 1950. _Entry 011:_ This is the Hansen variety which was given second place in the 1949 contest. The origin of this tree is uncertain. It is estimated to be 50 years old and 25 feet high. It has withstood 15 degrees below zero without damage. Just when this tree began bearing is unknown, but it produced 2 bushels in 1947; 3 pecks in 1948; 1 bushel in 1949; and 3 bushels in 1950. _Entry 002:_ This is the McKinster variety which was judged the best entry in the 1949 contest. It is a Carpathian originally obtained through the Wisconsin Horticultural Society in 1939 (Rev. Crath's selections), and was 11 years old in 1950. It is 29 feet high with a circumference of 22 inches. It has withstood 17 degrees below zero without injury. This tree began bearing in 1943. In 1947 it produced 1/2 bushel; 1 bushel in 1948; 3 pecks in 1949; and 3 pecks in 1950. _Entry 012:_ This is the Jacobs variety which placed third in the 1949 contest. The nut which produced this tree originally came from Germany some 70 years ago. It has withstood 15 degrees below zero without injury. This is a large tree which has been bearing since 1915. It produced 300 pounds in 1947; 100 pounds in 1948; 200 pounds in 1949; and 200 pounds in 1950. _Entry 006:_ A Carpathian originally obtained through the Wisconsin Horticultural Society in 1936 (Rev. Crath's selections). In 1950 it was 14 years old, 25 feet high, with a circumference of 30 inches. It has withstood 10 degrees below zero without injury. This tree began bearing in 1949; in 1950 it produced 15 pounds of nuts. It should be emphasized that this contest was based entirely on nut characteristics. In another year the placing of the same entries might be considerably different, because of seasonal variation. However, it is significant that the McKinster, Hansen, and Jacob varieties which were among the prize-winners in the 1949 contest were also among the prize-winners in 1950. Contests such as this are valuable as a first step in the selection and development of improved varieties. The prize-winners and those given honorable mention are all very promising hardy Persian walnuts. The next step will be to test these selections to determine their adaptability to our varying conditions. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 19: Named since the close of the contest.--Ed.] Colby, a Hardy Persian Walnut for the Central States J. C. McDaniel, _Extension Horticulturist, University of Illinois_ When the Reverend Paul C. Crath of Toronto imported walnut seeds and scions from his native Ukraine region and adjacent areas of Poland in the 1920s, he started a chain of propagation and selection which promises to establish the Persian walnut (_Juglans regia_) as a commonly grown nut in southern Ontario and the north central states. The best of his importations, and seedlings from them, are fruiting in such states as Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois and Missouri, showing in many cases a degree of hardiness which must reverse the conclusion of an older generation of pomologists that Persian or "English" walnuts were too tender for successful cultivation in most of the middle west. The time has now arrived when there are enough fruiting trees of the "Crath Carpathian" walnut seedlings in many states that comparisons can be made and the more promising ones named and disseminated for propagation. The nuts which the Reverend Mr. Crath imported in greatest quantity during the middle 1930s came from more than 100 different seedling trees selected in Poland. Their seedlings exhibit much variability in characters of trees and nuts. Some are much less hardy than others under our conditions. Not all are as large fruited as their seed parents (and some of the parent trees bore small nuts). Though many have smoother shells than Mayette or Franquette, there is also much variation in shape, thickness, and color of shells. Color and flavor of kernel vary from tree to tree. The season of nut maturity, though variable, is generally early enough in locations where the trees are winter hardy. The parents were selected for good filling of kernels, and this character generally has carried over to the seedlings fruited in America. As with other walnuts, some of the Carpathian seedlings are apparently more susceptible than others to fruit damage by the husk maggot. Walnut blight has infected them in some localities. The COLBY Persian walnut, named in August 1951, and released to nut nurserymen for propagation early in 1952, is the best to date of thirteen Carpathian seedlings (each from a different parent tree) planted at the University of Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station from 1937 to 1939. It is the first Persian walnut variety to be named at this station. The name, Colby, honors Dr. Arthur S. Colby of the Department of Horticulture at the University of Illinois, who has been in charge of nut investigations here since 1919. It was given to this variety, with his permission, by members of the Northern Nut Growers Association during their 42nd Annual Meeting, held at Urbana in August, 1951. Dr. Colby is a former president of the Northern Nut Growers Association. Colby is a seedling of the tree designated as Crath No. 10. The seed was collected in 1934 from the parent tree near Cosseev, in the Carpathian mountain region of southern Poland as then constituted, planted in the nursery of S. H. Graham, Ithaca, New York, and the seedling transplanted to Urbana, Illinois at the age of two years. It has been fruiting annually here since 1942, with crops of up to 1-1/4 bushels in recent years. The accompanying cut shows nuts of the 1951 crop, a little less than 2/3 natural size. They are thin shelled, like the parent Crath No. 10, well filled with kernels of rich flavor, and are medium in size for varieties of this species. [Illustration: Colby walnuts of 1951 crop, showing thin shells and plump, bright kernels.] The Colby tree is rather upright in growth, with strong branches, being the most vigorous among the four hardiest Carpathian seedlings at Urbana. It was one of two trees on which most catkins survived the winter of 1950-51, when temperatures at Urbana fell to -19° F. It is among the earliest Persian walnuts to start growth in spring, blossoming at Urbana normally in the first half of May. Flowering is protandrous (male flowers first) but with enough overlap of staminate and pistillate blossoms to secure a large degree of self-pollination from the abundant large catkins. Fruit set might be improved, however, by planting nearby another variety with later staminate catkins.[20] The nuts mature from the middle to the last of September and have not been seriously affected by walnut husk maggot or walnut blight at Urbana. The tree is relatively early in wood maturity, shedding its foliage usually before November, a characteristic shared by the other hardiest Carpathian seedlings in Illinois. Prior to 1952, scions of the Colby walnut (previously designated Illinois No. 10) were propagated for test by top working on native eastern walnut (_Juglans nigra_) at two widely separated locations. It fruited in 1951 at Greensboro, North Carolina, where the early growth sometimes is injured by spring freezes. (This is common with Carpathian walnuts in the southeast.) It has survived three winters at Sabula, Iowa with no cold injury and made unusually vigorous growth there. At both Urbana and Sabula, it has been compared with Broadview Persian walnut, a British Columbia origination considered a hardy variety. Broadview has often suffered winter injury at both locations, and in 1950-51 was killed to the understock at Urbana. The suggested test regions for the Colby Persian walnut include those with a climate similar to central Illinois, and where spring freezes are not generally a problem. The suggested understock is black walnut (_J. nigra_) though established hardy Carpathian and other Persian walnuts may be satisfactory for top working. Additional wood for propagation of the Colby will be available in small quantities next August to nut nurserymen and other experiment stations. (Walnut scions cannot be sent from Illinois to California.) Trees of Colby should be available from several cooperating nurseries in the fall of 1953.--Reprinted from _Fruit Varieties and Horticultural Digest_, 6(4):72-75. 1952. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 20: According to U.S.D.A. workers in walnut breeding, pollen of other _Juglans_ species is not to be depended upon for securing a set of fruit on this species. Several hardy Persian varieties of good quality which have won awards in recent contests are being propagated but have not been grown at Urbana. These include the Lake, McKinster, and Metcalfe among others of Carpathian parentage, and two non-Carpathian varieties, Hansen and Jacobs, which have been fruitful in northwestern Ohio. Before one or more of these can be recommended as a pollinator for the Colby walnut, however it will be necessary to have them flowering in the same orchard for a period of several years. Among the other Carpathian walnuts which have flowered in the orchard containing the original Colby tree, there is one very hardy seedling, R 5 T 27, which in 1951 and 1952 produced abundant pollen at the proper time to pollinate the Colby. Tree R 5 T 27 an open pollinated seedling of Crath No. 23, is protandrous, but later flowering than the Colby with respect to pistils as well as catkins, and consequently most of its pistillate flowers fail to set fruit in years like 1951 when there was no later Persian walnut pollen available. The R 5 T 27 tree produces an attractive, smooth shelled nut slightly smaller than that of Colby, not quite as sweet in flavor, and slightly earlier in maturity. Because of its hardiness and apparent value as a pollinator for Colby, propagating wood from this R 5 T 27 walnut tree will be available to experimenters, but we do not plan to name it at present.] Resolutions Mr. President and members of the Northern Nut Growers Association. The Northern Nut Growers' Association, assembled in its forty-second annual meeting here at Urbana, Illinois, on this the 29th day of August, 1951, desires to express its appreciation and thanks to Dr. George D. Stoddard, President of the University of Illinois, and to Dr. H. P. Rusk, Dean of the Agricultural College, to Dr. C. J. Birkeland, Dr. A. S. Colby, Professor J. C. McDaniel, and other members of the Department of Horticulture, as well as to other members of the staff of the University for the excellent accommodations provided for the entertainment of the members attending and for the meeting place provided, and to Mrs. A. S. Colby and other for their entertainment of the ladies and for the refreshments furnished. Therefore, be it resolved that the Secretary spread this resolution upon the minutes of the Association and send copies to President Stoddard, Dr. Birkeland, and Dr. and Mrs. A. S. Colby. In the passing of Harry R. Weber, who was a nut culturist, one of the oldest members of the Association, and a past president, we have lost not only a real leader and worker in this Association, but also a very dear friend. This Association is greatly indebted to him and he has been deeply missed at this meeting. Therefore, be it resolved that the Secretary of this Association spread upon the record of this meeting this resolution and send a copy to Mrs. Weber Signed, Members of Resolutions Committee (s) H. L. Crane, _Chairman_ (s) F. L. O'Rourke (s) Spencer Chase FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 19: Named since the close of the contest.--Ed.] [Footnote 20: According to U.S.D.A. workers in walnut breeding, pollen of other _Juglans_ species is not to be depended upon for securing a set of fruit on this species. Several hardy Persian varieties of good quality which have won awards in recent contests are being propagated but have not been grown at Urbana. These include the Lake, McKinster, and Metcalfe among others of Carpathian parentage, and two non-Carpathian varieties, Hansen and Jacobs, which have been fruitful in northwestern Ohio. Before one or more of these can be recommended as a pollinator for the Colby walnut, however it will be necessary to have them flowering in the same orchard for a period of several years. Among the other Carpathian walnuts which have flowered in the orchard containing the original Colby tree, there is one very hardy seedling, R 5 T 27, which in 1951 and 1952 produced abundant pollen at the proper time to pollinate the Colby. Tree R 5 T 27 an open pollinated seedling of Crath No. 23, is protandrous, but later flowering than the Colby with respect to pistils as well as catkins, and consequently most of its pistillate flowers fail to set fruit in years like 1951 when there was no later Persian walnut pollen available. The R 5 T 27 tree produces an attractive, smooth shelled nut slightly smaller than that of Colby, not quite as sweet in flavor, and slightly earlier in maturity. Because of its hardiness and apparent value as a pollinator for Colby, propagating wood from this R 5 T 27 walnut tree will be available to experimenters, but we do not plan to name it at present.] Northern Nut Growers Association Membership List As of July 29, 1952 * Life member ** Honorary member § Contributing member *** Sustaining member ALABAMA East Alabama Nursery, Auburn, =Chestnut, pecan and persimmon nurserymen= Hiles, Edward L., =Hiles Auto Repair Shop=, Loxley ARKANSAS Hale, A. C., Fairview School, Camden Wade, Clifton, Forest Avenue, Fayetteville. =Attorney= Wylie, W. D., Dept. of Entomology, Univ. of Arkansas, Fayetteville. =Entomologist= BELGIUM Centrale Kas voor Landbouwkre, Diet van den Belgischen Boerenbond N. V., 24 Minderbroedersstraat, Leuven R. Vanderwaeren, Bierbeekstraat, 310, Korbeek-Lo. CALIFORNIA Andrew, Col. James W., Box 12, Hamilton A.F.B. Armstrong Nurseries, 408 N. Euclid Avenue, Ontario =General nurserymen, plant breeders= Brand, George (See Nebraska) Buck, Ernest Homer, Three Arch Bay, 16 N. Portola, South Laguna Haig, Dr. Thomas R., 3021 Highland Avenue, Carlsbad, California Fulcher, E. C., 5706 Fulcher Ave., North Hollywood Jeffers, Harold N., Lt. CHC, USN, USS Dixie (AD14) c/o F.P.O., San Francisco Kemple, W. H., 216 W. Ralston Street, Ontario Linwood Nursery, Route No. 2, Box 476, Turlock Pentler, Dr. C. F., 806 Arguello Blvd., San Francisco 18. =American Friends Service Committee= Pozzi, P. H., 2875 S. Dutton Ave., Santa Rosa. =Brewery worker, farmer= Serr, E. F., Agr. Experiment Station, Davis. =Associate Pomologist= Stewart, Douglas N., 633 F Street, Davis Sullivan, C. Edward, Garden Highway, Box 447, Yuba City Welby, Harry S., 500 Buchanan Street, Taft. =Private and Corp. Hort.= CANADA Brown, Alger, Route 1, Harley, Ontario. =Farmer= Collens, Adam H., 42 Seaton St., Toronto 2, Out. * Crath, Rev. Paul C., Toronto, Ontario English, H. A., Box 153, Duncan, B. C. =Farmer, fruit and nut grower= Filman, O., Aldershot, Ontario. =Fruit and veg. grower= Gage, James M., 76 Water St. E., Burlington, Ontario Gellatly, J. U., Box 19, Westbank, B. C. =Plant breeder, fruit grower, nurseryman= Harrhy, Ivor H., Route 7, St. Thomas, Ont. =Fruitgrower and poultry= Housser, Levi, Route 1, Beamsville, Ontario. =Fruit farmer= Lefevre, H. E., 354 St. Catherine Street E., Montreal 18, Quebec Lossing, Elgin, Norwich, Ontario * Neilson, Mrs. Ellen, 5 Macdonald Avenue, Guelph, Ont. Papple, Elton E., Route 1, Cainsville, Ont. Porter, Gordon, 258 McKay Ave., Windsor, Ont. =Chemist= Smith, E. A., Box 6, Sparta, Ont. =Farmer= Snazelle, Robert, Forest Nursery, Route No. 5, Charlottetown, P. E. I. =Nursery Supt.= Trayling, E. J., 509 Richards St., Vancouver, B. C. =Jeweller= Wagner, A. S., Delhi, Ont. Walker, J. W., c/o McCarthy & McCarthy, 330 University Ave., Toronto 1, Ont. Wharton, H. W., Route No. 2, Guelph, Ont. =Farmer= White, Peter, 30 Pear Ave., Toronto 5, Ont. Willis, A. R., Route No. 1, Royal Oak, Vancouver Island, B. C. =Accountant= Woods, David M., 48 South Front St., West, Toronto, Ont. =Vice President, Gordon McKay, Ltd.= Young, A. L., Brooks, Alberta. =Dairy Farmer= COLORADO Forbes, J. E., Julesburg. =Banker= CONNECTICUT Daniels, the Honorable Paul C. See Ecuador David, Alexander M., 480 So. Main Street, West Hartford Deming, Benton H., Radio WTHT, Hartford ** Deming, Dr. W. C., Litchfield. =Dean of the Association= Fruch, Alfred J., Route 2, West Cornwall Graves, Dr. Arthur H., 255 S. Main St., Wallingford. =Consulting Pathologist, Conn. Agr. Expt. Station, New Haven, Conn.= Hapgood, Miss Dorothy A., 745 Farmington Avenue, Hartford Henry, David, Blue Hills Farm, Route 2, Wallingford * Huntington, A. M., Stanerigg Farms, Bethel. =Patron= * Newmaker, Adolph, Route No. 1, Rockville Pratt, George D., Jr., Bridgewater Risko, Charles, City Tobacco & Candy Co., 25 Crescent Ave., Bridgeport 8 White, George E., Route No. 2, Andover. =Farmer= DELAWARE Brugmann, Elmer W., 108 Thomas Drive, Monroe Park, Wilmington. =Chemical Engineer= Logue, R. F., Gen. Mgr., Andelot, Inc., 2098 du Pont Bldg., Wilmington Wilkins, Lewis, Route 1, Newark. =Fruit grower= DENMARK Carøe, Mr. J. F., "Meulenborg" Helsingør Granjean, Mr. Julio, Hillerød Knuth, Count F. M., Knuthenborg, Bandholm Pers, Mr. Plantageejer E., Edelgaard, Vejstrup DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA American Potash Inst., Inc., 1102-16th St., N.W., Washington Ford, Edwin L., 3634 Austin St., S.E., Washington Kaan, Dr. Helen W. See Maryland Reed, Mrs. Clarence A., 7309 Piney Branch Rd., N.W., Washington 12 ECUADOR, SOUTH AMERICA Acosta Solis, Prof. M., Director del Departamento Forestal, Ministerio de Economia, Quito. (Exchange.) Daniels, The Honorable Paul C., American Ambassador, American Embassy, Quito ENGLAND Baker, Richard St. Barbe, The Gate, Abbotsbury, Weymouth, Dorset. (Founder, Men of the Trees.) Commonwealth Bureau of Plant Genetics, School of Agriculture, Cambridge. (Exchange.) The Gardeners Chronicle, London. (Exchange.) FLORIDA Avant, C. A., 940 N.W. 10th Ave., Miami. =Real Estate, Loans.= =(Pecan orchard in Ga.)= Estill, Gertrude, 153 Navarre Dr., Miami Springs. (Summer address under Mich.) GEORGIA Hardy, Max, Leeland Farms, P. O. Box 128, Leesburg. =Nurseryman, farmer= Hunter, Dr. H. Reid, 561 Lake Shore Dr. N.E., Atlanta. =Teacher, nut farmer= Noland, S. C., Box 1747, Atlanta 1. =Owner, Skyland Farms= Wilson, William J., North Anderson Ave., Fort Valley. Peach and pecan grower HAWAII Keaau Orchard, John F. Cross, Manager, P.O. Box 1720, Hilo. =Macadamia growers= HOLLAND Institute for Horticultural Plant Breeding. Herenstraat 25. Wageningen. (Exchange) HONG KONG * Wang, P. W., c/o China Products Trading Corp., 6 Des Voeux Rd., Central IDAHO Dryden, Lynn, Peck. =Farmer= Horn, Anton S., 920 N. 20th St., Boise. =Ext. Horticulturist= ILLINOIS Allbright, R. D., Allbright Nurseries, 4237 Western Avenue, Western Springs Allen, Theodore R., Delavan. =Farmer= Anderson, Ralph W., R.F.D. 3, Morris Andrew, Col. James W. (See California) Anthony, A. B., Route No. 3, Sterling. =Apiarist= Baber, Adin, Kansas Barrow, J. M., P.O. Box 209, Urbana. =Architect, University teacher= Best, R. B., Eldred. =Farmer= Booth, Earl, R.F.D. 2, Carrollton Blough, R. O., Route No. 3, Polo Blyth, Colin R., Math. Dept., U. of I., Urbana. (Farm in northern Ontario) * Boll, Herschel L., 2 Hort. Field Lab., Univ. of Ill., Urbana. =Asst. in Pomology= Borchsenius, Wayne L., R.F.D. 2, Sheridan Brock, Arthur S., 1733 North McVicker Ave., Chicago 39 Canterbury, C. E., Cantrall. =Seed Grower= Churchill, Woodford M., 4323 Oakenwald Ave., Chicago 5 Colby, Dr. Arthur S., U. of Illinois, Urbana Dahlberg, Albert A., D.D.S., 5756 Harper Ave., Chicago 37 Daum, Philip A., North Sixth St., Carrollton Dietrich, Ernest, Route No. 2, Dundas. =Farmer= Dintelman, L. F., State Street Road, Belleville Douglass, T. J., 309-1/2 North St., Normal Eigsti, Dr. O. J., Funk Bros. Seed Co., Bloomington. =Research Botanist= Estill, Mrs. Harry, Power Farms, Cantrall Fordtran, E. H. Route No. 2, Box 197-A, Palatine Frey, Frank H., 2315 W. 108th Place, Chicago 43. =Asst. to V. P., CRI & P RR.= Frey, Mrs. Frank H., 2315 W. 108th Place, Chicago 43. =Housewife= Fuller, Owen H., 1005 Oneida Street, Joliet Gerardi, Louis, Route No. 1, Caseyville. =Nut and fruit nurseryman= Glidden, Nansen, West Lincoln Highway, DeKalb Grefe, Ben, Route No. 4, Box 22, Nashville. =Farmer= Heberlein, Edwin W., Route No. 1, Box 72A, Roscoe Hermerding, Ted, c/o Russell Miller Milling Company, Jerseyville Hockenyos, G. L., 213 E. Jefferson St., Springfield. =Business man= Jennings, Charles L., Box 321, Grayville Jungk, Adolph E., Route No. 1, Jerseyville, Illinois Kammarmeyer, Glenn, 1711 E. 67th St., Chicago 49 Knoeppel, J. A., Bluffs Kreider, Ralph, Jr., Route No. 1, Hammond. =Farmer= Langdoc, Mildred Jones (Mrs. Wesley W.) P. O. Box 136, Erie. =Nursery, farm, housewife= McDaniel, J. C., c/o Hort. Field Lab., U. of I., Urbana. =Horticulturist. (Sec'y of Ass'n.)= McDaniel, J. C., Jr., Urbana Marsh, Mrs. W. V., Route 2, Aledo Moeser, William W., Route 1, Belleville Musgrave, Carl, 419 W. 61st Street, Chicago 21. =Machinist= Newman, Roy, P. O. Box 51, Martinsville. =Orchardist= Oakes, Royal, Bluffs (Scott County) Pierson, Stuart E., Carrollton. =Bank President= Pray, A. Lee, 502 N. Main St., LeRoy Price, Harold G., Sr. (See Utah) Reisch, Louis C., Route 4, Carrollton. =Farmer= Robbins, W. J., 885 N. LaSalle St., Chicago 10. =Insurance= Robertson, Virgil E., Virginia. =Retired farmer= Schubert, Kenneth, Rt. 1, Millstadt Sokolowski, F. W., M.D., 2503 Donald Ave., Alton Sonnemann, W. F., Experimental Gardens, Vandalia. =Lawyer, farm operator= Sparks, Maurice E., 1508 Ash, Lawrenceville Spencer, H. Dwight, 275 W. Decatur St., Decatur. =Attorney= Vortman, Elmer, Route 1, Bluffs Wahle, Fred, Route 1, Fieldon Warnecke, Martin H., 714 South First Avenue, Maywood Whitford, A. M., Farina. =Nurseryman= Zethmayr, Gordon, Route No. 1, Box 130, West Chicago INDIANA Aster Nut Products, Inc., George Oberman, Mgr., 1004 Main St., Evansville Bauer, Paul J., 123 S. 29th St., Lafayette Bolten, Ferd, Route 3, Linton. =Farmer, fruit grower. (Carpathian walnut seeds.)= Boyer, Clyde C., Nabb Buckner, Dr. Doster, 421 W. Wayne St., Ft. Wayne 2. =Physician and Surgeon= Clark, C. M., C. M. Clark & Sons Nurseries, Route 2, Middletown =Nurseryman, fruit farmer= Cole, Charles W., Jr., Madison Rd., Rt. 6, Box 112A, South Bend Coleman, Robert G., =Field Editor, The Indiana Farmer's Guide=, Huntington Cunningham, Earl E., 612 E. 4th Street, Anderson Dooley, Kenneth R., Route No. 2, Marion. =Gardener= Eagles, A. E., Eagles' Orchards, Wolcottville. =Walnut grower, apple orchardist= Eisterhold, Dr. John A., 220 Southwest Riverside Drive, Evansville 8. =Medical Doctor= Fateley, Nolan W., 26 Central Avenue, Franklin. =Auditor and cashier. (Carpathian walnut seeds.)= Glaser, Peter, Route No. 9, Box 328, Koering Road, Evansville Grater, A. E., Route 2, Shipshewana Harrell, Franklin M., Route 1, Griffith § Johnson, Hjalmar W., Rt. 4, Valparaiso. =V. P. Inland Steel Co.= Kaufman, Ray, Route 4, Peru Kodera, Shunzo, Goshen College, Goshen Kyburz, Benjamin E., Route 1, Idaville Neimeyer, Harry D., West Lebanon. =High school principal and farmer= Newman, Jesse D., Jr., R. R. 2, Culver Pape, Edw. W., Route 2, Marion Prell, Carl F., 1414 E. Colfax Avenue, South Bend 17 Office: 821 J.M.S. Bldg., South Bend 1. =Treasurer of Ass'n.= Reed, Frank, Daleville. =Toolmaker= Richards, E. E., 2712 South Twyckenham Drive, South Bend. =Studebaker Corp.= Risko, A., Tioga Orchards, Monticello Russell, A. M., Jr. 2721 Marine St., South Bend 14 Skinner Dr. Chas. H., Rt. 1, Thorntown Sly, Miss Barbara, Route No. 3, Rockport Sly, Donald R., Route 3, Rockport. =Nurseryman, nut tree propagator= Wallick, Ford, Rt. 4, Peru Ward, W. B., Horticulture Bldg., Purdue University, Lafayette. =Ext. Horticulturist, Vegetables= Westerhouse, George F., East Ohio Street, Monticello Whitsel, Gilbert L., Jr., 515 S. 15th Street, Lafayette Wichman, Robert P., Route No. 3, Washington. =General farming= Wilkinson, J. F., Indiana Nut Nursery, Rockport. =Nurseryman= IOWA Berhow, Seward, =Berhow Nurseries=, Huxley Boice, R. H., Route No. 1, Nashua. =Farmer= Carlson, R. J., M.D., 2025 College Street, Cedar Falls Cole, Edward P., 419 Chestnut Street, Atlantic Eads, Carroll, R.F.D., Miles. =Farmer= Ferguson, Albert B., Center Point. =Nurseryman= Ferris, Wayne, Hampton. =President of Earl Ferris Nursery= Greig, John E., Box 157, Estherville Huen, E. F., Eldora. =Farmer= Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg. =General nurserymen= Iowa Fruit Growers Assn., c/o Sec'y, State House, Des Moines 19. =Cooperative buying organization= Kaser, Mrs. J. D., Winterset Knowles, W. B., Box 476, Manly Kyhl, Ira M., Box 236, Sabula. =Nut nurseryman, farmer, salesman= Lysinger, Addison, Lamoni Martzahn, Frank A., Route No. 1, Davenport. =Farmer= McLeran, Harold F., Mt. Pleasant. =Lawyer= Orr, J. Allen, 535 Frances Bldg., Sioux City 17 Rohrbacher, Dr. William, 811 East College Street, Iowa City. =Practice of Medicine= Schlagenbusch Brothers, Route No. 2, Fort Madison. =Farmers= Snyder, D. C., Center Point. =Nurseryman, nuts and general.= Snyder, Paul V., Kalona Tolstead, W. L. See Nebraska Wade, Miss Ida May, Route No. 3, LaPorte City. =Bookkeeper= Welch, G. L., Mt. Arbor Nurseries, Shenandoah White, Herbert, Box 264, Woodbine. =Rural Mail Carrier= Williams, Wendell V., Route No. 1, Danville. =Farmer= KANSAS Baker, Fred C., Troy. =Entomologist= Borst, Frank E., 1704 Shawnee Street, Leavenworth Breidenthal, Willard J., Riverview State Bank, 7th and Central, Kansas City 1. =Bank President= Funk, M. D., 600 W Paramore Street, Topeka. =Pharmacist= Gray, Dr. Clyde, 1045 Central Avenue, Horton. =Osteopathic Physician= Harris, Ernest, Box 20, Wellsville. =Farmer= Leavenworth Nurseries, Carl Holman, Proprietor, Route No. 3, Leavenworth. =Nut nurseryman= Mondero, John, Lansing Stark, M. F., Hawthorne Place, Hiawatha. =Supt. City Schools= Thielenhaus, W. F., Route No. 1, Buffalo. =Retired postal worker= Underwood, Jay, Riverside Nursery, Uniontown Wales, Max, 1534 MacVicar Street, Topeka KENTUCKY Alves, Robert H., 302 Clay St., Henderson Armstrong, W. D., West Ky., Exp. Sta., Princeton. =Horticulturist= Bray, Terrell, Bray Orchards, Bedford Hopson, J. R., Route 2, Cadiz Magill, W. W., Horticulture Dept., U. of Ky., Lexington Miller, Julien C., 220 Sycamore Drive, Paducah Moss, Dr. C. A., Williamsburg. =Bank President= Rouse, Sterling, Route No. 1, Box 70, Florence. =Fruit grower, nurseryman= Shakelford, Thomas B., P. O. Box 31, Compton Taliaferro, Philip, Box 85, Erlanger Tatum, W. G., Route 4, Lebanon. =Commercial orchardist= Usrey, Robert, Star Route, Mayfield Walker, William W., Route No. 1, Dixie Highway, Florence Widmer, Dr. Nelson D., Lebanon LOUISIANA Hammar, Dr. Harald E., USDA Chemical Lab., 606 Court House, Shreveport 47. =Chemist= Perrault, Mrs. Henry D., Route No. 1, Box 13, Natchitoches. =Pecan grower= MARYLAND Case, Lynn B., Route 2, Box 208, Federalsburg Crane, Dr. H. L., Bureau of Plant Industry Station, Beltsville. =Principal Horticulturist, USDA.= Eastern Shore Nurseries, Inc., P. O. Box 743, Easton. =Chestnut growers= Graff, George U., Harding Lane, Rt. 3, Rockville Gravatt, Dr. G. F., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville. =Research Forest Pathologist= Hodgson, William C, Route No. 1, White Hall. =Farmer= Kaan, Dr. Helen W., 8335 Grubb Road, Silver Spring. =Research Associate= Kemp, Homer S., (Proprietor) Bountiful Ridge Nurseries, Princess Anne McCollum, Blaine, White Hall. =Retired from Federal Government= McKay, Dr. J. W., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville. =Government Scientist= * Negus, Mrs. Herbert, 5031-56th Ave., Roger Heights, Hyattsville Porter, John J., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown. _Farm Owner_ Quill Farm, Barclay Shamer, Dr. Maurice E., 3300 W. North Avenue, Baltimore 16. Physician MASSACHUSETTS Babbitt, Howard S., 221 Dawes Avenue, Pittsfield. =Service station owner and part time farmer= Bradbury, H. G., Hospital Point, Beverly Brown, Daniel L., Esq., 60 State Street, Boston Bump, Albert H., P. O. Box 275, Brewster Davenport, S. Lothrop, 24 Creeper Hill Road, North Grafton. =Farmer, fruit grower= Faulkner, Luther W., R.F.D., Westford Fitts, Walter H., 39 Baker St., Foxboro. =General foreman, instrument company= Ganz, Dr. Robert Norton, 262 Beacon St., Boston Kendall, Henry P., Moose Hill Farm, Sharon Kerr, Andrew, Lock Box 242, Barnstable La Beau, Henry A., North Hoosic Road, Williamstown. =Stat. engineer= Murphy, John D., 19 Boulevard Rd., Wellesley Rice, Horace J., 5 Elm Street, Springfield. =Attorney= * Russell, Mrs. Newton H., 12 Burnett Avenue, South Hadley Stewart, O. W., 75 Milton Avenue, Hyde Park 36 Wellman, Sargent H., Esq., Windridge, Topsfield. =Lawyer= Weston Nurseries, Inc., Weston Wood, Miss Louise B., Pocassett, Cape Cod Viera, Manuel, Main Street, Vineyard Haven MICHIGAN Andersen, Charles, Route No. 2, Box 326, Scottsville. =Nurseryman= Barlow, Alfred L., 13079 Flanders Avenue, Detroit 5 =Sec'y of Mich. Nut Growers Assn.= Becker, Gilbert, Climax Boylan, P. B., Route No. 1, Cloverdale. =Homesteader= Bumler, Malcolm R., 2500 Dickerson, Detroit 15. =Insurance trustee= Burgart, Harry, Michigan Nut Nursery, Box 33, Union City. =Nurseryman= Burgress, E. H., Burgess Seed & Plant Company, Galesburg Burr, Redmond M., 320 S. 5th Avenue, Ann Arbor. =General Chairman, The Order of Railroad Telegraphers, Pere Marquette District, C&O Ry. Co.= Cook, Ernest A., M.D., c/o County Health Dept., Centerville Corsan, H. H., Route No. 1, Hillsdale. =Nurseryman= Dennison, Clare, 4224 Avery, Detroit 8 Drake, Virgil, Route No. 2, Bangor 2 Emerson, Ralph, 161 Cortland Avenue, Detroit 3 Estill, Miss Gertrude. (See under Florida, Summer Address: Route 4, Box 762, Battle Creek) Hackett, John C., 3321 Butterworth Rd., S.W., R. R. 5, Grand Rapids 6 Haesler, L. M., Route No. 4, Box 130, South Haven Hagelshaw, W. J., Route No. 1, Box 394, Galesburg. =Grain farmer, contractor= Hay, Francis H., Ivanhoe Place, Lawrence. =Farmer= Kennedy, Robert M., 45354 Deneweth Rd., Mt. Clemens Korn, G. J., c/o Mrs. Arthur Howell, Onaway Lee, Michael, P. O. Box 16, Milford Lemke, Edwin W., 2432 Townsend Ave., Detroit 14. =Engineer, nut orchardist= McCarthy, Francis W., Box 392, Algonac Miller, O. Louis, 417 N. Broadway, Cassopolis. =Forester= O'Rourke, Prof. F. L., Hidden Lake Gardens, Tipton. =Professor of ornamental horticulture, Mich. State College= Pickles, Arthur W., 760 Elmwood Avenue, Jackson Prushek, E., Route No. 3, Niles. =Plant breeding= Ricky, Lowell L., 1009A Birch, East Lansing Schmidt, Wilhelm G., 22037 Poinciana, Detroit 19. =Printer= Sherman, L. Walter. See Ohio Simons, Rev. R. E., Flat Rock Somers, Lee, Route No. 1, Perrinton. =Farmer-nurseryman= Sweet, Dale V., 530 South Capitol, Lansing Tate, D. L., 959 Westchester St., Birmingham Ullrey, L. E., 1209 Cambridge Drive, Kalamazoo 27 Wyman, Miles L., 40 North Street, Highland Park 3. =Certified Public Accountant= MINNESOTA Dubbels, Charley, Elgin Hodgson, R. E., Dept. of Agriculture, S. E. Experiment Station, Waseca Hormel, Jay C., Austin Wedge, Don, R.F.D. 2, Albert Lea. =Wedge Nursery= Weschcke, Carl, 96 S. Wabasha St., St. Paul. =Proprietor Hazel Hills Nursery Co.= MISSISSIPPI Gossard, A. C., U. S. Hort. Field Station, Route No. 6, Meridan. =Associate Horticulturist, USDA= Meyer, James R., Delta Branch Experiment Station, Stoneville. =Cytogeneticist (cotton)= MISSOURI Bauman, Ivan T., Bauman Brokerage Co., 4350 Taft Avenue, St. Louis Biggs, Dutton, 248 Elm Avenue, Glendale 22 Degler, Roy H., 1305 Moreland Avenue, Jefferson City Hay, Leander, Gilliam Howe, John, Route No. 1, Box 4, Pacific Huber, Frank J., Weingarten. =Farmer= James, George, James Pecan Farms, Brunswick Logan, George F., Oregon Nicholson, John W., Ash Grove. =Farmer= Ochs, C. Thurston, Box 291, Salem. =Foreman in garment factory= Owens, LeRoy J., Willow Springs Richterkessing, Ralph, Route No. 1, St. Charles. =Farmer= Rose, Dr. D. K., 230 Linden, Clayton 5 Sims Fruit and Nursery Farms, Hannibal Stark Bros. Nursery & Orchard Co., Attn. Mr. H. W. Guengerich, Louisiana Stephens, A. F., G.M. & O.R.R., 721 Olive Street, St. Louis. =Gen. Agr. Agt.= Wuertz, H. J., Route No. 1, Pevely NEBRASKA Brand, George, Rt. 5, Lincoln Caha, William, 350 W. 12th, Wahoo Hess, Harvey W., The Arrowhead Gardens, Box 209, Hebron Sherwood Jack, Nebraska City Tolstead, W. L., Department of Botany, University of Nebraska, Lincoln NEW HAMPSHIRE Demarest, Charles S., Lyme Center Lahti, Matthew, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro. =Investment banker= NEW JERSEY Anderegg, F. O., Pierce Foundation, Raritan Blake, Harold, Box 93, Saddle River Bottoni, R. J., 41 Robertson Road, West Orange. =President of Harbot Die Casting Corp.= Brewer, J. L., 10 Allen Place, Fair Lawn Buckwalter, Mrs. Alan R., Route No. 1, Flemington Cox, Philip H., Jr., 30 Hyde Rd., Bloomfield Cumberland Nursery, William Wells, Proprietor, Route No. 1, Millville. =Nurserymen= Donnelly, John, Mountain Ice Company, 51 Newark St., Hoboken Dougherty, William M., Broadacres-on-Bedens, Box 425, Princeton. =Secretary, U. S. Rubber Co.= Ellis, Mrs. Edward P., Strawberry Hill, Route No. 1, Box 137 Keyport Kass, Leonard P., 82 E. Cliff St., Somerville Lamatonk Nurseries, A. S. Yorks, Proprietor, Neshanic Station. =Nut Nursery= Lippencott, J. C., 15 Mundy Ave., Spotswood McDowell, Fred, 905 Ocean Avenue, Belmar Parkinson, Philip P. (See Quill Farm, under Maryland) Ritchie, Walter M., Route No. 2, Box 122-R, Rahway Rocker, Louis P., The Rocker Farm, Box 196, Andover. =Farmer= Sheffield, O. A., 283 Hamilton Place, Hackensack. =Dun & Bradstreet= Sorg, Henry, Chicago Avenue, Egg Harbor City. =Manufacturer= Van Doren, Durand H., 310 Redmond Road, South Orange. =Lawyer= Williams, Herbert H., 106 Plymouth Ave., Maplewood NEW MEXICO Gehring, Rev. Titus, Box 117, Lumberton NEW YORK Barton, Irving, Montour Falls. =Engineer= Bassett, Charles K., 2917 Main St., Buffalo. =Manufacturer= Beck, Paul E., Beck's Guernsey Dairy, Transit Road, East Amherst. =Dairy Executive= Benton, William A., Wassaic. =Farmer, and Sec'y, Mutual Insurance Co. Partner in Benton & Smith Nut Nursery= Bernath, Stephen, Bernath's Nursery, Route No. 3, Poughkeepsie. =Nurseryman= Bernath, Mrs. Stephen, Route 3, Poughkeepsie Bixby, Henry D., East Drive, Halesite, L. I. =Executive V.P., American Kennel Club, N. Y. City= Brook, Victor, 171 Rockingham Street, Rochester 7. =Sales Engineer= Brooks, William G., Monroe. =Nut tree nurseryman= Bundick, Clarkson U., 35 Anderson Ave., Scarsdale. =Mechanical engineer= Caldwell, David H., N. Y. State College of Forestry, Syracuse. =Instructor in wood technology= Carter, George, 428 Avenue A, Rochester 5 Cassina, Augustus, Valatie, Columbia County Feil, Harry, 1270 Hilton-Spencerport Road, Hilton. =Building contractor= Ferguson, Donald V., L. I. Agr. and Tech. Institute, Farmingdale Flanigen, Charles F., 16 Greenfield St., Buffalo 14. =Executive manager= Freer H. J., 20 Midvale Rd., Fairport. =Typewriter sales and service= Gibson, Stanfard J., 56 Fair Street, Norwich Glazier, Henry S., Jr., 1 South William St., New York 4 Gould, Mrs. Gordon, 419 East 56 Street, New York 22 Graham, S. H. Bostwick Road, Route No. 5, Ithaca. =Nurseryman= Granjean, Julio. (See Denmark) Hasbrouck, Walter, Jr., 19 Grove St., New Paltz. =Post office clerk= Hill, Francis S., Sterling. =Letter carrier on rural route= Iddings, William A., 1931 Park Place, Brooklyn 33 Irish, G. Whitney, Fruitlands, Route No. 1, Valatie. =Farmer= Kettaneh, F. A., 745 Fifth Ave., New York 22 Knipper, George M., 333 Chestnut Ridge Rd., Churchville Knorr, Mrs. Arthur, 15 Central Park, West, Apt. 1406, New York Kraai, Dr. John, Fairport. =Physician= Larkin, Harry H., 189 Van Rennsselaer Street, Buffalo 10 * Lewis, Clarence. (Retired) Lowerre, James, Route 3, Middletown * MacDaniels, Dr. L. H., Cornell University, Ithaca. =Head, Dept. of Floriculture and Ornamental Hort. (President of the NNGA.)= Metcalfe, Mrs. Ward H., 710 Five Mile Line Rd., Webster Miller, J. E., Canandaigua. =Nurseryman= Mitchell, Rudolph, 125 Riverside Drive, New York 24. =Mechanical engineer= * Montgomery, Robert H., 1 E. 44th Street, New York Mossman, Dr. James K., Black Oaks, Ramapo Newell, Palmer F., Lake Road, Route No. 1, Westfield O'Brien, Esmonde M., 25 South Street, P. O. Box 2169, New York 4 Owen, Charles H., Sennett. =Superintendent of Schools= Pura, John J., Green Haven, Stormville Salzer, George, 169 Garford Road, Rochester 9. =Milkman, chestnut tree grower= Schlegel, Charles P. 990 South Ave., Rochester 7 Schlick, Frank, Munnsville Schmidt, Carl W., 180 Linwood Avenue, Buffalo Shannon, J. W., Box 90, Ithaca Sheffield, Lewis J., c/o Mrs. Edna C. Jones, Townline Road, Orangeburg Slate, Prof. George L., Experiment Station, Geneva. =Fruit Breeder= Smith, Jay L., Chester. =Nut tree nurseryman= Spahr, Dr. Mary B., 116 N. Geneva St., Ithaca Steiger, Harwood, Red Hook. =Artist-designer= *** Szego, Alfred, 77-15A 37th Avenue, Jackson Heights, New York Wadsworth, Millard E., Oswego Wheeler, Robert C., 36 State Street, Albany Windisch, Richard P., c/o W. E. Burnet Company, 11 Wall St., New York 5 * Wissman, Mrs. F. De R. (Retired) NORTH CAROLINA Brooks, J. R., Box 116, Enka Dunstan, Dr. R. T., Greensboro College, Greensboro Finch, Jack R., Route 1, Bailey. =Farmer= Parks, C. H., Route No. 2, Asheville. =Mechanic= NORTH DAKOTA Bradley, Homer L., Long Lake Refuge, Moffit. =Refuge Manager= OHIO Ackerman, Lester Route No. 3, Ada Glen Helen Department, Antioch College, Yellow Springs Barden, C. A., 215 Morgan Street, Oberlin. =Real Estate= Beede, D. V., Route No. 3, Lisbon Bitler, W. A., R. F. D. 1, Shawnee Road, Lima. =General contractor= Borchers, Perry E., 412 W. Hillcrest Ave., Dayton 6 Brewster, Lewis, Route No. 1, Swanton. =Vegetable grower= Bridgwater, Boyd E., 68 Cherry St., Akron 8. =V. P. Bridgewater Machine Co.= Bungart, A. A., Avon Button, Fred, Route 2, McArthur Cinadr, Mrs. Katherine, 13514 Coath Ave., Cleveland 20. =Housewife= Clark, Richard L., 1517 Westdale Rd., South Euclid 21. =Sales manager= Cook, H. C., Route No. 1, Box 125, Leetonia Cornett, Charles L., R. R. Perishable Inspection Agency, 27 W. Front St., Cincinnati. =Inspector= Craig, George E., Dundas (Vinton County). =Fruit and nut grower= Cranz, Eugene F., Mount Tom Farm, Ira Cunningham, Harvey E., 420 Front Street, Marietta Daley, Jame R., Route No. 3, Foster Park Road, Amherst. =Electrician= Davidson, John, 234 East Second Street, Xenia. =Writer= Davidson, Mrs. John, 234 East Second Street, Xenia Diller, Dr. Oliver D., Dept. of Forestry, Ohio Exp. Sta., Wooster Distelhorst, P. E., 3532 Douglas Road, Toledo 6 Dowell, Glenn C., Jr., M.D., 116 26th Street, N.E., Canton 4 Dowell, Dr. Lloyd L., 529 North Ave., N. E., Massillon. =Physician= Farr, Mrs. Walter, Route No. 1, Kingsville Fickes, Mrs. W. R., Route 1, Wooster Garden Center of Greater Cleveland, East Blvd. at Euclid Ave., Cleveland Gerber, E. P., Kidron Gerstenmaier, John A., 13 Pond S. W., Massillon. =Letter carrier= Goss, C. E., 922 Dover Avenue, Akron 20 Grad, Dr. Edward A., 1506 Chase Street, Cincinnati 23 Hake, Hanrey, Edon Hansley, C. F., Box 614, Sugar Grove. =Contractor= Hawk & Son Nursery, Route No. 2, Beach City. =Chestnut trees= Hill, Dr. Albert A., 4187 Pearl Road, Cleveland Hinde, John G., Route 1, Sandusky Hornyak, Louis, Route No. 1, Wakeman Howard, James R., 2908 Fleming Road, Middletown Irish, Charles F., 418 E. 105th St., Cleveland 8. =Arborist= Jacobs, Homer L., Davey Tree Expert Company, Kent Kappel, Owen, Bolivar Kerr, S. E., M. D., Route No. 1, North Lawrence Kintzel, Frank W., 2506 Briarcliff Ave., Cincinnati 13. =Principal, Cincinnati public schools= Laditka, Nicholas G., 5322 Stickney Ave., Cleveland 9. =Electrician= Leaman, Paul Y., Route No. 1, Creston Lorenz, R. C., 121 North Arch Street, Fremont Machovina, Paul E., 1228 Northwest Blvd., Columbus 12. =College professor= McKinster, Ray, 1632 South 4th Street, Columbus 7 Meister, Richard T., =Editor, American Fruit Grower=, Willoughby Metzger, A. J., 724 Euclid Avenue, Toledo 5 Oches, Norman M., R. D. 1, Brunswick. =Mechanical Engineer= Osborn, Frank C, 4040 W. 160th St., Cleveland 11. =Tool and die maker= Page, John H., Box 34, Dundas (Vinton County) Pataky, Christ, Jr., 492 Hickory Lane, Route No. 4, Mansfield. =Produce market, grocer= Pattison, Aletheia, 5 Dexter Place, E. W. H., Cincinnati 6 Pomerene, Walter H., Route No. 3, Coshocton. =Agricultural Engineer, Hydrological Research Station= Purdy, Clyde W., 19 Public Square, Mt. Vernon Ranke, William, Route No. 1, Amelia Roberts, J. Pearl, Rt. 3, Freeport Rogers, T. B., P. O. Box 296, Lakemore Rummel, E. T., 16613 Laverne Avenue, Cleveland 11. =Sales manager= Schoenberger, L. Roy, Green Pines Farm, Route No. 2, Nevada Seas, D. Edward, 721 South Main Street, Orrville Sebring, R. G., 1227 Lincoln Road, Columbus Shelton, Dr. Elbert M., 1468 W. Clifton Blvd., Lakewood 7 Sherman, L. Walter, 220 Fairview Avenue, Canfield Shessler, Sylvester M., Geneo. =Farmer= Silvis, Raymond E., 1725 Lindbergh Avenue, N. E. Massillon. =Realty= Smith, Sterling A., 630 W. South Street, Vermillion. =Telegrapher, NYC RR= Spears, Ernest G., 4326 Forest Ave., Norwood 6 Spring Hill Nurseries Company, Tipp City. =General nurserymen= Steinbeck, A. P., East Nimisilla Rd., Route 7, North Canton. =Rubber worker, Firestone Tire & Rubber Co.= Stevens, Robert T., Jr., Route 1, Lucas Stocker, C. P., Lorain Products Corp., 1122 F. Street, Lorain Stolz, Thomas O., 334 Claranna Ave., Dayton 9 Thomas, Fred, 773 Bedford Road, Masury Toops, Herbert A., 1430 Cambridge Blvd., Columbus 12. =College Professor= Underwood, John, Route No. 4, Urbana Urban, George, 4518 Ardendale Road, South Euclid 21. =Mayor= Van Voorhis, J. F., 215 Hudson Avenue, Apt. B-1, Newark Von Gundy, Clifford R., R. F. D. No. 8, Cincinnati 30 Walker, Carl F., 2851 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland 18. =Consulting engineer= Weaver, Arthur W., R.F.D., Box 196B, Cass Rd., Maumee Willett, Dr. G. P., Elmore Williams, Harry M., 221 Grandon Road, Dayton 9. =Engineer= Williams, L. F., Box 386, Mt. Vernon Wischhusen, J. F., 15031 Shore Acres Drive, N. E., Cleveland 10 Yates, Edward W., 3108 Parkview Avenue, Cincinnati 13. =Mechanical engineer= Yoder, Emmet, Smithville OKLAHOMA Butler, Roy, Route No. 2, Hydro. =Farmer, cattleman= Cross, Prof. Frank B., Dept. of Horticulture, Oklahoma A&M College, Stillwater. =Teaching and Experiment Station Work= Gray, Geoffrey A., 1628 Elm Ave., Bartlesville Hartman, Peter E., 3002 S. Boston Pl., Tulsa 5. =Nurseryman= Hirschi's Nursery (A. G. Hirschi), 1124 North Hudson, Oklahoma City. =Dry cleaning business, nurseryman= Hughes, C. V., Route No. 3, Box 614, Oklahoma City Keathly, Jack, Marland. =Farmer= Kissick E. A., State Board of Agr., 122 State Capitol Bldg., Oklahoma City. =Marketing Specialist= Mayfield, W. W., General Delivery, Sallisaw Meek, E. B., Route 3, Box 16, Wynnewood Pulliam, Gordon, 1005 Osage Ave., Bartlesville Scales, Charles D., 3200 N. W. 26th St., Oklahoma City 7 OREGON Countryman, Peter F., Rt. 1, Box 275, Ontario Graville, Ed., Route 3, Box 363, Junction City Miller, John E., Treasuredale, Route No. 1, Box 312-A, Oswego Pearcy, Harry L., Route 2, Box 190, Salem. =H. L. Pearcy Nursery Co. (Nut trees.)= Trunk, John E., General Manager, Northwest Nut Growers, Dundee PENNSYLVANIA Allaman, H. C., 1812 South Pine St., Harrisburg Allaman, R. P., Route 86, Harrisburg. =Farm superintendent= Amsler, E. W., 707 Main St., Clarion Anthony, Roy D., 215 Hillcrest Ave., State College. =Retired Professor of Horticulture= Arensberg, Charles F. C., First Nat'l Bank Bldg., Pittsburgh 22 =(Chinese chestnut seed grower.)= Banks, H. C., Route No. 1, Hellertown Beard, H. K., Route No. 1, Sheridan. =Insurance agent= Beck, Dr. William M., 200 Race St., Sunbury Berst, Charles B., 11 W. 8th Street, Erie. =Inspector, Lord Mfg. Co., Erie, Pa.= Blittle, George, 107 Lincoln Highway, Penndel Bowen, John C., Route No. 1, Macungie Brown, Morrison, Ickesburg Buckwalter, Geoffrey R., c/o F. H. Levey Co., Inc., 1223 Washington Ave., Philadelphia 47 Clarke, William S., Jr., P. O. Box 167, State College Colwell, Dr. Frederick A., R.F.D. No. 1, Collegeville Comp, Alton, 5 North 2nd St., Newport Damask, Henry, 1632 Doyle Street, Wilkinsburg 21 =Telephone man= Deagon, Arthur, 61 E. Main St., Mechanicsburg Ebling, Aaron L., Route No. 2, Reading Etter, Fayette, P. O. Box 57, Lemasters. =General foreman for an electric company= Gage, Charles K., 1429 Newman Road, Havertown Gardner, Ralph D., 4428 Plymouth St., Colonial Park, Harrisburg. =Assistant State Fire Marshal= Good, Orren S., 316 N Fairview Street, Lock Haven. =Retired= Gorton, F. B., Route No. 1, East Lake Road, Harborcreek. =Electrical contractor.= Chestnut and Evergreen Nurseryman= Hales, Alfred R., Jr., Apt. 9-C, Cloverleaf Village Apts., Pittsburgh 27 Hammond, Harold, 903 South Poplar Street, Allentown Hershey, John W., Route No. 1, Downingtown. =Nurseryman= Hostetter, L. K., Route No. 3, Lancaster. =Farmer, black walnut grower= Hughes, Douglas, 1230 East 21st Street, Erie Johnson, Robert F., 1630 Greentree Road, Pittsburgh 20 Jones, Mildred M. (See Mrs. Langdoc--under Illinois) Jones, Dr. Truman W., Walnut Grove Farm, Parksburg Kaufman, Mrs. M. M., Box 69, Clarion Kirk, H. B., 1902 North St., Harrisburg Knouse, Charles W., Colonial Park, Harrisburg. =Coal dealer= Leach, Will, 406-410 Scranton Life Bldg., Scranton 3. =Lawyer= Mattoon, H. Gleason, Box 304, Narberth. =Consultant in Arboriculture= McKenna, Philip M., P. O. Box 186, Latrobe Mecartney, J. Lupton, 918 W. Beaver Ave., State College. =Pomologist= Miller, Elwood B., Mill and Chapel Sts., Hazleton Miller, Robert O., 3rd and Ridge Streets, Emmaus Moyer, Philip S., 80-82 U. S. F. & G. Bldg., Harrisburg. =Attorney= Neiderriter, Leonard, 1726 State St., Erie Nonnemacher, H. M., Box 204, Alburtis. =Line foreman, Bell Tel. Co. of Pa.= Reidler, Paul G., Front and Chestnut Streets, Ashland. =Manufacturer of textiles= * Rick, John, 438 Penna. Sq., Reading. =Fruit grower and merchant= Schaible, Percy, Upper Black Eddy. =Laborer= Schieferstein, William B., Box 457, Temple Shade, Earl L., 1027 E. 26th St., Erie Sherman, L. Walter. (See under Ohio) Smith, Dr. J. Russell, 550 Elm Ave., Swarthmore. =Retired teacher, writer= Smyth, C. Wayne, 1 Prospect St., Troy. =Attorney= Stewart, E. L., Pine Hill Farms Nursery, Route No. 2, Homer City Theiss, Dr. Lewis E., 110 University Ave., Lewisburg. =Retired professor= Thompson, Howard A., 311 West Swissvale Ave., Pittsburgh 18 Twist, Frank S., Box 127, Northunberland. =Salesman= Washick, Dr. Frank A., S. W., Welsh & Veree Roads, Philadelphia Il. =Surgeon= Weaver, William S., Weaver Orchards, Macungie Weinrich, Whitney, P. O. Box 225, Wallingford. =Chemical engineer= * Wister, John C., Scott Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore =Horticulturist= Wright, Ross Pier, 235 W. 6th Street, Erie. =Manufacturer= Zimmerman, Mrs. G. A., R. D., Linglestown RHODE ISLAND * Allen, Philip, 178 Dorance Street, Providence SOUTH CAROLINA Bregger, John T., Clemson. =Research Supervisor (Soil Conservation), Orchard Erosion Investigations= Gordon, G. Henry, c/o Union Dry Cleaning Co., 1314 Main St., Union. =Returned Mariner= SOUTH DAKOTA Hanson, Oliver G., Route 2, Box 194, Yankton Richter, Herman, Madison. =Farmer= TENNESSEE Alpine Forest Reserve, Alpine. (c/o Dr. H. S. Randolph, 156 5th Ave., New York City) Boyd, Harold B., M.D., 3418 Waynoka St. Memphis 11. =Physician= Chase, Spencer B., T. V. A., Norris. =Horticulturist= Collier, Robert H., Lutie Rd., Route 2, Knoxville Dulin, Charles R., Brownsville. =Fruit grower= Dye, Mrs. Sherman, Howell Nurseries, Sweetwater. =Chestnut and Ornamental Nursery= Garrett, Dr. Sam Young, 1902 Hayes St., Nashville. =Surgeon= Holdeman, J. E., 855 N. McNeil St., Memphis 7 Jones, D. T., Route 2, Midway McDaniel, J. C. (See under Illinois) Meeks, Hamp, c/o Jackson Elec. Dept., Jackson. =Electrical Engineer= Murphy, H. O., 12 Sweetbriar Avenue, Chattanooga. =Fruit grower= Richards, Dr. Aubrey, Whiteville. =Physician= Roark, W. F., Malesus. =Farmer, chestnut grower= Robinson, W. Jobe, Route No. 7, Jackson. =Farmer= Saville, Chris, 118 Church St., Greeneville Waterhouse, Carmack, P. O. Box 258, Oak Ridge TEXAS Arford, Charles A., Box 1230, Dalhart. =R. R. engineer, amateur horticulturist= Brison, Prof. F. R., Dept. of Horticulture, A. & M. College, College Station Florida, Kaufman, Box 154, Rotan § Kidd, Clark, Arp Nursery Co., P. O. Box 867, Tyler. =Nut nurseryman= Lancaster, Carroll T., R.F.D. 2, Box 206, Palestine. =Electrolux dealer= Praytor, T. J., Box 667, Seymour Reasonover, J. Ray, Route 2, Kemp Winkler, Andrew, Route 1, Moody. =Farmer and pecan grower= UTAH Dabb, Clifford H., Route 3, Box 448, Ogden Ericksen, Keith, 883 N. State Street, Orem Petterson, Harlan D., 3910 Raymond Avenue. South Ogden. =Highway engineer= Price, Harold G., Sr., 1270 E. Crystal Ave., Salt Lake City 6. =(Farm in Putnam County, Illinois)= VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., R.F.D. No. 2, Box 266, Springfield =Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven. Perpetual member, "In Memoriam."= VIRGINIA Acker Black Walnut Corp., Box 263, Broadway. =Walnut processors= Cooper, Lawrence E., Belle Meade. =Nurseryman-landscaper= Curthoys, George A., P. O. Box 34, Bristol Dickerson, T. C., Jr., 316-56th Street, Newport News. =Statistician, farmer= Gibbs, H. R. Linden. =Carpenter, wood worker= Jenkins, Marvin, Brightwood. =Farmer= Lee, Dr. Henry, 806 Medical Arts Building, Roanoke 11 Moore, R. C., Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg 13 Narten, Perry F., 6110 N. Washington Blvd., Arlington 5 Pinner, Henry, P. O. Box 155, Suffolk Stoke, H. F., 1436 Watts Avenue N.W., Roanoke Stoke, Mrs. H. F., 1436 Watts Avenue, N.W., Roanoke Thompson, B. H., Harrisonburg. =Manufacturer of nut crackers= WASHINGTON Eliot, Craig P., P. O. Box 158, Shelton. =Electrical engineer, part time farmer= Erkman, John O., Apt. 85, 1219 Washington Way, Richland. =Physicist= Fulmer, W. L., 505 Boylston, No., Seattle 2. =Lily grower= Latterell, Miss Ethel, 408 N. Flora Rd., Greenacres. =Greenhouse worker= Linkletter, Frank D., 115 4th Ave. North, Seattle 9. =Retired= Naderman, G. W., Route 1, Box 353, Olympia. =Caretaker of summer resort= Ross, Verel C., 4025 Rucker Ave., Everett Shane Brothers, Vashon Tuttle, H. Lynn, Lynn Tuttle Nursery, The Heights, Clarkston. =Nut nurseryman= WEST VIRGINIA Eckerd, John K., 305 William Street, Martinsburg. =Engineer, steam= Engle, Blaine W., Mutual Fire Ins. Co. of W. Va., Goft Bldg., Clarksburg * Frye, Wilbert M., Pleasant Dale. =Retired= Gold Chestnut Nursery, c/o Mr. Arthur A. Gold, Cowen. =Chestnut nurseryman= Hale, Daniel, M.D., Princeton Hartzell, Benjamin, Shepherdstown Long, J. C., Box 491, Princeton. =Civil engineer= McNeill, John Hanson, Box 531, Romney. =Chem. Engineer= Mish, Arnold F., Inwood. =Associational farmer= Reed, Arthur M., Moundsville. =Proprietor, Glenmount Nurseries= Williams, Mrs. Dan, Romney WISCONSIN Eiler, William, Benton Ladwig, C. F., 2221 St. Laurence, Route 2, Beloit. =Grocer and (hobby) farmer= Mortensen, M. C., 2117 Slauson Ave., Racine Snowden, Dr. P. W., The Monroe Clinic, Monroe Standing Library Orders and Advance Subscriptions for the 42nd Annual Report Alabama Polytechnic Institute (Main Library), Auburn, Alabama Brooklyn Botanic Garden Library, 1000 Washington Avenue, Brooklyn 25, N. Y. Library, College of Agriculture, University of California, Davis, Calif. Clemson College Library, Clemson, South Carolina Cleveland Public Library, Leta E. Adams, Order Librarian, 325 Superior Avenue, Cleveland 14, Ohio Connecticut Agr. Exp. Sta., Genetics Dept. 123 Huntington St., New Haven, 11, Connecticut Cornell University, College of Agriculture Library, Ithaca, New York Detroit Public Library, 5201 Woodward Avenue, Detroit 2, Michigan University of Maine (Library), Orono, Maine Massachusetts Horticultural Society Library, Horticultural Hall, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston 15, Massachusetts Library, University of Miami, Coral Gables 34, Florida Library, Missouri Conservation Commission, Monroe Bldg., Jefferson City, Mo. Library, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire North Carolina State College (D. H. Hill Library), Raleigh, North Carolina Oregon State College Library, Corvallis, Oregon Peachey, Enos D., P. O. Box 22, Belleville, Pennsylvania Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Library, Room 101, Patterson Hall, State College, Pennsylvania Purdue University, Agr. Library, Lafayette, Indiana Rhode Island State College, Library Dept., Green Hall, Kingston, Rhode Island Rutgers University, Agricultural Library, Nichol Avenue, New Brunswick, N. J. Seattle Public Library, Seattle 4, Washington St. Louis Public Library, Olive, 13th and 14th Streets, St. Louis, Missouri University of Wisconsin Agricultural Library, Madison 6, Wisconsin U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Library, Washington 25, D. C. Main Library, Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada Superintendent, Dominion Experimental Station, Harrow, Ontario, Canada W. F. HUMPHREY PRESS INC. GENEVA, N. Y. 
22484	----	produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) GARDENING INDOORS AND UNDER GLASS A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE PLANTING, CARE AND PROPAGATION OF HOUSE PLANTS, AND TO THE CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF HOTBED, COLDFRAME AND SMALL GREENHOUSE BY F. F. ROCKWELL Author of _Home Vegetable Gardening_ NEW YORK McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY 1912 Copyright, 1911, 1912, by McBride, Nast & Co. Published September, 1912 * * * * * [Illustration: Too few people realize the possibilities for enjoyment in prolonging the garden through the winter months indoors] FOREWORD There is nothing which adds so much sunshine and cheer to the rooms of a house besieged by winter and all his dreary encampment of snow and ice, as the greenery, color and fragrance of blossoming plants. There is no pastime quite so full of pleasure and constant interest as this sort of horticulture; the rooting of small slips, the repotting and watering and watching, as new growth develops, and buds unfold. Some have the magic gift, that everything they touch will break into blossom; others strive--perhaps too hard--only to gain indifferent results. It is hoped that this book will aid those of the second class to locate past mistakes and progress to future success; and further that it may indicate to those more fortunate ones of the first class the way to more extensive achievements in the work they love. This is not a technical book; simply an attempt to tell in so plain a way that they cannot be misunderstood the everyday details of the successful management of plants in the house and within such small glass structures as may be made, even with limited means and time, a part of the average home. There is another aspect of the case worth considering; so much so in fact, that it is one of the reasons for writing this book. By the use of such modest glass structures as almost everyone can afford not only is the scope of winter gardening enlarged and the work rendered more easy and certain, but the opportunity is given to make this light labor pay for itself. Fresh vegetables out of season are always acceptable and well grown plants find a ready sale among one's flower-loving friends. CRANMERE, August 1st, 1912. F. F. R. CONTENTS PART I--PLANTS IN THE HOUSE CHAPTER PAGE I INTRODUCTION 1 II THE PROPER CONDITIONS: LIGHT, TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE 6 III SOILS, MANURES AND FERTILIZERS 14 IV STARTING PLANTS FROM SEED 22 V STARTING PLANTS FROM CUTTINGS 29 VI TRANSPLANTING, POTTING AND REPOTTING 35 VII MANAGEMENT OF HOUSE PLANTS 44 VIII FLOWERING PLANTS 51 IX SHRUBS 70 X FOLIAGE PLANTS 81 XI VINES 90 XII FERNS 97 XIII PALMS 103 XIV CACTI 110 XV BULBS 116 XVI VERANDA BOXES, WINDOW-BOXES, VASES AND HANGING BASKETS 128 XVII HOUSE PLANT INSECTS AND DISEASES 132 XVIII ACCESSORIES 140 PART II--HOME GLASS XIX ITS OPPORTUNITIES 146 XX THE COLDFRAME AND THE HOTBED 149 XXI THE CONSTRUCTION OF CONSERVATORIES AND SMALL GREENHOUSES 156 XXII METHODS OF HEATING 167 XXIII MANAGEMENT 172 XXIV FLOWERS 180 XXV VEGETABLES 193 XXVI VEGETABLE AND BEDDING PLANTS FOR SPRING 197 INDEX 207 ILLUSTRATIONS A flourishing flower bay _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE An isolated bay-window conservatory 8 A tiled window-sill garden 9 Preparing flats for the "sub-irrigation" method of watering 28 Cuttings ready for sand 29 Geranium cuttings ready for potting 29 Potted cuttings ready for their first shift 40 Striking Rex begonia leaf cuttings 40 "Crocking" in a flower pot 41 Seedlings ready to transplant 48 A flower bay protected with heavy curtains 49 Pride of Cincinnati begonia 60 Pansy geranium 61 Primrose (_Primula obconica_) 61 The Silk Oak (_Grevillea robusta_) 72 Otaheite orange 73 Baby rambler rose 80 _Araucaria excelsa_ 81 Screw Pine (_Pandanus Veitchii_) 88 Rubber plant (_Ficus elastica_) 89 Vines on an indoor trellis 96 Crested Scott Fern (_Nephrolepis exaltata_, var. _Schoizeli_) 97 Propagation of Boston Fern by division 100 A variety of the Fan Palm (_Phoenix Roebelenii_) 101 Weddell's Palm 101 A pan of forced crocuses 116 Victory gladiolus 117 A second story window-box 128 Iceland poppies and trailing vines in a window-box 128 A movable plant table 129 Inside a small greenhouse 148 A small lean-to greenhouse 149 A three-sash coldframe 164 The simplest type of window greenhouse 165 Tomatoes in the greenhouse 196 Cucumbers and lettuce in the greenhouse 197 GARDENING INDOORS AND UNDER GLASS Part One--Plants in the House CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION To-day the garden is in the zenith of its glory. The geraniums and salvias blaze in the autumn sun; the begonias have grown to a small forest of beautiful foliage and bloom; the heliotropes have become almost little trees, and load the air with their delicate fragrance. To-night--who knows?--grim winter may fling the first fleet-winged detachment of his advance across the land, by every roadside and into every garden-close; and to-morrow there will be but blackening ruins and burned bivouacs where the thousand camps of summer planted their green and purple in the golden haze. And what provision, when that inevitable day of summer's defeat comes, have you made for saving part of the beauty and joy of your garden, of carrying some rescued plants into the safe stronghold of your house, like minstrels to make merry and cheer the clouded days until the long siege is over, and spring, rejuvenescent, comes to rout the snows? I do not know which is the more commonly overlooked, the importance and fun of keeping the living-rooms of the house cheerful with plants and flowers in winter, or the certainty and economy with which it may be done if one will use the plain common-sense methods necessary to make plants succeed. Too much care and coddling is just as sure to make growth forlorn and sickly as too much neglect. That may be one reason why one frequently sees such healthy looking plants framed in the dismal window of a factory tenement, where the chinks can never be stopped tight and the occupants find it hard enough to keep warm, while at the same time it is easy to find leafless and lanky specimens in the superheated and moistureless air of drawing-rooms. It certainly is true that many modern houses of the better sort do not offer very congenial conditions to the healthy growth of plants. It is equally certain that in many cases these conditions may be changed by different management in such way that they would be not only more healthy for plants to live in, but so also for their human occupants. In many other cases there is nothing but lack of information or energy in the way of constructing a place entirely suitable for the growth of plants. To illustrate what I mean, I mention the following instance of how one person made a suitable place in which to grow flowers. Two narrow storm windows, which had been discarded, were fastened at right angles to the sides of the dining-room windows, and the regular storm sash screwed on to these. Here were the three glass sides of a small conservatory. Half-inch boards made a bottom and roof, the former being supported by brackets to give strength, and the latter put on with two slanting side pieces nailed to the top of the upright narrow sash spoken of, to give the roof a pitch. Top and bottom were covered with old flexible rubber matting which was carried back under the clapboards making a weather-proof, tight joint with the side of the house. Six-inch light wooden shelves on the inside gave a conservatory of considerable capacity. How many houses there are where some such arrangement could be made as the result of a few hours' work and thought, and a very small expense. And yet how infrequently one sees anything of the kind. In many instances such a glassed-in window would be all that is needed, sufficient heat being furnished by a radiator under the window within the house. In the case mentioned, however, it was necessary to heat the small greenhouse. This was done by installing a small gas stove in the cellar, as nearly as possible under the window greenhouse. Over this stove a large tin hood was fitted, with a sliding door in front to facilitate lighting and regulating the stove. From the hood a six-inch pipe, enclosed in a wood casing for insulation, ran through the cellar window and up into the floor of the conservatory, ending in a small radiator. These details are given not with the idea that they can be duplicated exactly (although in many instances they might), but to show what a little ingenuity and effort will accomplish in the way of overcoming difficulties. Nor is the reward for such efforts as these restricted to the growing of a few more plants. From the actual accomplishments described in the second part of this book, the reader must see that it is entirely possible and feasible for one with only average advantages to have during a large part or even all of the year not only flowers which cannot be grown to advantage in the house, but also such vegetables as lettuce, radishes, tomatoes and cucumbers, and others if desired; and also to give the flower and vegetable gardens such a start as would never be possible otherwise. Do not attempt too much, but do not be content with too little, when only a slight increase in planning and work will bring such a tremendous increase in results and happiness. I feel confident that there is not one home out of ten where more thought and more information brought to bear on the things whereof this book treats, would not yield a greater return in actual pleasure than any other equal investment which could be made. Do not be impatient to get to a description of all the results at once. Do not skip over the chapters on dirt and manures and pots and other seemingly uninteresting things, because in a thorough understanding of these essentials lies the foundation of success. And if a condition of soil, or an operation in handling plants does not seem clear to you as you read it over, remember that in all probability it will become so when you actually attempt the work described. Nothing worth while is ever won without a little--and often a great deal--of patient work. And what is more worth while than to keep busy in the constant improvement and beautifying of one's daily surroundings? CHAPTER II THE PROPER CONDITIONS:--LIGHT, TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE After so much advice as to the possibility of making conditions right for the growing of plants in the house, the inexperienced reader will naturally want to know what these conditions are. LIGHT In the first place, almost all plants, whether they flower or not, must have an abundance of light, and many require sunshine, especially during the dull days of winter. Plants without sufficient light never make a normal, healthy growth; the stems are long, lanky and weak, the foliage has a semi-transparent, washed-out look, and the whole plant falls an easy victim to disease or insect enemies. Even plants grown in the full light of a window, as everyone with any experience in managing them knows from observation, will draw toward the glass and become one-sided with the leaves all facing one way. Therefore even with the best of conditions, it is necessary to turn them half about every few days, preferably every time they are watered, in order that they may maintain an even, shapely growth. As a rule the flowering plants, such as geraniums and heliotropes, require more light and sunshine than those grown for foliage, such as palms, ferns and the decorative leaved begonias. It is almost impossible, during the winter months, to give any of them too much sunlight and where there is any danger of this, as sometimes happens in early fall or late spring, a curtain of the thinnest material will give them ample protection, the necessity being not to exclude the light, but simply to break the direct action of the sun's rays through glass. A great variety of plants may be grown in the ordinary window garden, for which the sunniest and broadest window available should be selected. There are two methods of handling the plants: they may be kept as individual specimens in pots and "dishes" or "pans" (which are nothing more or less than shallow flower pots), or they may be grown together in a plant box, made for the purpose and usually more or less decorative in itself, that will harmonize with and set off the beauty of the plants. The latter method, that of growing in boxes, offers two distinct advantages, especially where there is likely to be encountered too high a temperature and consequent dryness in the air. The plants are more easily cared for than they are in pots, which rapidly dry out and need frequent changing; and effects in grouping and harmonious decoration may be had which are not readily secured with plants in pots. On the other hand, it is not possible to give such careful attention to individual plants which may require it as when they are grown in pots; nor can there be so much re-arrangement and change when these are required--and what good housekeeper is not a natural born scene shifter, every once in so often rolling the piano around to the other side of the room, and moving the bookcase or changing the big Boston fern over to the other window, so it can be seen from the dining-room? If the plants are to be kept in pots--and on the whole this will generally be the more satisfactory method--several shelves of light, smooth wood of a convenient width (six to twelve inches) should be firmly placed, by means of the common iron brackets, in each window to be used. It will help, both in keeping the pots in place and in preventing muddy water from dripping down to the floor or table below, if a thin, narrow strip of wood is nailed to each edge of these shelves, extending an inch or two above them. A couple of coats of outside paint will also add to the looks and to the life of these shelves and further tend to prevent any annoying drip from draining pots. Such a shelf will be still further improved by being covered an inch or two deep with coarse gravel or fine pebbles. [Illustration: If possible it is well to have the house plants in a place where the moisture and temperature can be regulated for them alone] [Illustration: In almost any house it is possible to arrange a wide sill with a metal or tile bottom where house plants may be properly cared for] This is much better than the use of pot saucers, especially for small pots. Where a bay-window is used, if cut off from the room by glass doors, or even by curtains, it will aid greatly in keeping a moist atmosphere about the plants and preventing dust from settling on the leaves when sweeping or dusting is being done. A window-box can readily be made of planed inch pine boards, tightly fitted and tightly joined. It should be six to ten inches wide and six to eight inches deep. If a plain box is used, it will be necessary to bore inch holes every six inches or so through the bottom to provide for carrying off of any excess of water--although, with the method of filling the box described in a later chapter, those holes would hardly ever be called into service. Plants in the house in the winter, however, are as likely to suffer from too much water as from too little, and therefore, to prevent the disagreeable possibility of having dirty drainage water running down onto several feet of floor, it will be almost as easy, and far better, to have the box constructed with a bottom made of two pieces, sloping slightly to the center where one hole is made in which a cork can be kept. A false bottom of tin or zinc, with the requisite number of holes cut out, and supported by three or four inch strips of wood running lengthways of the box, supplies the drainage. These strips must, of course, be cut in the middle to allow all the water to drain out. The false bottom will take care of any ordinary surplus of water, which can be drained off into a watering can or pitcher by taking out the cork. The details of construction of such a box are shown in figure 1. It will be best to have the box so placed upon its supporting brackets that it can be changed occasionally end for end, thus keeping the plants growing evenly, and not permitting the blooms continually to turn their backs to the inside of the room. [Illustration: Fig. 1--Box for plants. AC--false zinc bottom; AB, CB--slanting bottom to drain water out at hole B.] With the above simple provisions one may take advantage of all the light to be had in an ordinary window. Occasionally a better place may be found ready to hand, such as the bay-window illustrated facing page 8 or such as that described in the preceding chapter, or those mentioned in the first chapter of Part II (page 146). The effort demanded will always be repaid many times by greater ease and greater success in the management of plants, and by the wider scope permitted. TEMPERATURE Next in importance to light, is the matter of temperature. The ordinary house plants, to be kept in health, require a temperature of sixty-five to seventy-five degrees during the day and fifty to fifty-five degrees at night. Frequently it will not be possible to keep the room from going lower at night, but it should be kept as near that as possible; forty-five degrees occasionally will not do injury, and even several degrees lower will not prove fatal, but if frequently reached the plants will be checked and seem to stand still. Plants in the dormant, or semi-dormant condition are not so easily injured by low temperature as those in full growth; also plants which are quite dry will stand much more cold than those in moist soil. The proper condition of temperature is the most difficult thing to regulate and maintain in growing plants in the house. There is, however, at least one room in almost every house where the night temperature does not often go below forty-five or fifty degrees, and if necessary all plants may be collected into one room during very cold weather. Another precaution which will often save them is to move them away from the windows; put sheets of newspaper inside the panes, not, however, touching the glass, as a "dead air space" must be left between. Where there is danger of freezing, a kerosene lamp or stove left burning in the room overnight will save them. Never, when the temperature outside is below freezing, should plants be left where leaves or blossoms may touch the glass. As with the problem of light, so with that of temperature--the specially designed place for plants, no matter how small or simple a little nook it may be, offers greater facility for furnishing the proper conditions. But it is, of course, not imperative, and as I have said, there is probably not one home in twenty where a number of sorts of plants cannot be safely carried through the winter. MOISTURE It would seem, at first thought, that the proper condition of moisture could be furnished as easily in the house as anywhere. And so it can be as far as applying water to the soil is concerned; but the air in most dwellings in winter is terribly deficient in moisture. The fact that a room is so dry that plants cannot live in it should sound a warning to us who practically live there for days at a time, but it does not, and we continue to contract all sorts of nose and throat troubles, to say nothing of more serious diseases. No room too dry for plants to live in is fit for people to live in. Hot-air and steam heating systems especially, produce an over-dry condition of the atmosphere. This can be overcome to a great or complete extent by thorough ventilation and by keeping water constantly where it can evaporate; over radiators, etc. This should be done for the sake of your own health, if not for that of the plant. Further information as to watering and ventilation will be found in Chapter VII (page 45), but before we get anxious about just how to take care of plants we must know how to get them, and before getting them we must know what to give them to grow in--the plant's foundation. So for a little we must be content with those prosaic but altogether essential matters of soil, manures and fertilizers, which in the next chapter I shall try to make clear in as brief manner as possible. CHAPTER III SOILS, MANURES AND FERTILIZERS The soil must furnish the whole foundation of plant life. For centuries those who have grown things have realized the vital importance of having the soil rich or well supplied with plant food; and if this is important in growing plants in the field or flower garden, where each vegetable or flower has from one to several cubic feet of earth in which to grow, how imperative it is to have rich soil in a pot or plant box where each plant may have but a few cubic inches! But the trouble is not so much in knowing that plants should be given rich soil, as to know how to furnish it. I well remember my first attempt at making soil rich and thinking how I would surprise my grandmother, who worked about her plants in pots every day of her life, and still did not have them as big as they grew in the flower garden. I had seen the hired man put fertilizer on the garden. That was the secret! So I got a wooden box about two-thirds full of mellow garden earth, and filled most of the remaining space with fertilizer, well mixed into the soil, as I had seen him fix it. I remember that my anxiety was not that I get too much fertilizer in the soil, but that I would take so much out of the bag that it would be missed. Great indeed was my chagrin and disappointment, twelve hours after carefully setting out and watering my would-be prize plants, to notice that they had perceptibly turned yellow and wilted. And I certainly had made the soil rich. So the problem is by no means as simple as might at first be supposed. Not only must sufficient plant food be added to the soil but it must be in certain forms, and neither too much nor too little may be given if the best results are to be attained. Now it is a fact established beyond all dispute that not only food, but air and water, as well, must be supplied to the roots of growing plants; and this being the case, the _mechanical_ condition of the soil in which the plant is to grow has a great deal to do with its success or failure. It must be what is termed a porous and friable soil--that is, one so light and open that water will drain through it without making it a compact, muddy mass. One of the things I noticed about my special fertilizer soil, mentioned above, was that it settled, after being watered, into a solid mass from which water would not drain and into which air could not penetrate. It is next to impossible to find a soil just right for house plants, so, as a general thing the only way to get a good soil is to mix it yourself. For this purpose several ingredients are used. If you live in a village or suburb, where the following may be procured, your problem is not a difficult one. Take about equal parts of rotted sod, rotted horse manure and leaf-mould from the woods and mix thoroughly and together, adding from one-sixth to one-third, in bulk, of coarse sand. If a considerable quantity of soil will be required during the year, it will be well to have some place, such as a bin or large barrel, in which to keep a supply of each ingredient. The sod should be cut three or four inches thick, and stacked in layers with the grassy sides together, giving an occasional soaking, if the weather is dry, to hasten rotting. The manure should be decomposed under cover, and turned frequently at first to prevent burning out; or sod and manure can be rotted together, stacking them in alternate layers and forking over two or three times after rotting has begun. The manure furnishes plant food to the compost, the rotted sod "body," the leaf-mould water-absorbing qualities, and the sand, drainage qualities. If the soil is wanted at once, and no rotted sod is to be had, use good garden loam, preferably from some spot which was under clover-sod the year before. If it is difficult to obtain well-rotted manure, street sweepings may be used as a substitute, and old chip-dirt from under the wood pile, or the bottom of the woodshed if it has a dirt floor, will do in place of leaf-mould. Peat, or thoroughly dried and sweetened muck are also good substitutes for leaf-mould. Finely screened coal ashes may take the place of sand. If you live in the city, where it is difficult to obtain and to handle the several materials mentioned, the best way is to get your soil ready mixed at the florists, as a bushel will fill numerous pots. If you prefer to mix it yourself, or to add any of the ingredients to the soil you may have, most florists can supply you with light soil, sand, peat or leaf-mould and rotted manure; and sphagnum moss, pots, saucers and other things required for your outfit. If a large supply is wanted, it would probably be cheaper to go to some establishment on the outskirts of the city where things are actually grown, than to depend upon the retail florist nearer at hand. Potting soil when ready to use should be moist enough to be pressed into a ball by the hand, but never so moist as not to crumble to pieces again readily beneath the finger. MANURES Manure of some sort is essential to the growing of plants in pots or boxes, both because of the plant-food it adds to the soil, and because it improves its mechanical condition and sponginess or water-holding quality. Thoroughly rotted horse manure or horse and cow manure mixed is by far the best. Cow manure alone, or pig manure, is lumpy and cold, and hen, sheep, pigeon or other special manures are not safe in the hands of the beginner, as they are one-sided, being especially rich in nitrogen and likely either to burn the plants or to cause too soft and watery growth. This brings us to the point where it is necessary to say a few words about the theory of manures, for they are not all alike and what would be wise to give a plant under some circumstances under others would be quite wrong, just as you would not think of feeding beefsteak to a baby just recovering from the colic, while it might be a very good thing for a hungry man who was going to saw up your wood-pile. Plants of all sorts--in pots, in the garden or in a ten-acre lot--require three kinds of food elements: nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. These elements may be fed to the plants in various forms; for instance, the nitrogen in hen manure, or in cottonseed meal, or in salts from the nitrate fields of Chile, known as nitrate of soda; the phosphoric acid from bone, or from acid phosphate (a ground rock treated with acid); the potash from wood ashes or from German potash salts (muriate or sulphate of potash). Plants, to do their best, require that all three elements shall be present in sufficient amounts to supply their wants. It is not necessary, however, to go very deeply into the science of plant foods in order to grow plants successfully. Fortunately, manure rotted as described above, furnishes all three elements in about the right proportions. Cow, sheep, hen and pigeon manure are best used as described later, under "Liquid Manuring." FERTILIZERS There are many brands of mixed fertilizers prepared specially for use in the greenhouse or on plants in pots. There is a temptation to use these on account of their convenient compact form, and because they are more agreeable to handle. As a general rule, however, much better results will be obtained by relying on rotted manure. If you want to use fertilizers at all--and for certain purposes they will be very valuable--I would advise restricting the list to the following pure materials which are not mixed, and which are always uniform; nitrate of soda, cottonseed meal, pure fine ground bone, and wood ashes. (Several of the other chemicals are good, but not so commonly used.) Ground bone is the most valuable of these. It should be what is known as "fine ground," or bone dust. It induces a strong but firm growth, and can be used safely in the potting soil, supplementing the manure as a source of plant food. From two to three quarts to a bushel of soil is the right amount to use. It should be thoroughly mixed through the soil. It may also be frequently used to advantage as a top dressing on plants that have exhausted the food in their pots, or while developing buds or blooming. Work two or three spoonfuls into the top of the soil. Nitrate of soda is the next in importance. It is very strong and must be carefully used, the safest way being to use it as a liquid manure, one or two teaspoonsful dissolved in three gallons of water. If first dissolved in a pint of hot water, and then added to the other, it will be more quickly done. Use a pint or so of this solution in watering. The results will often be wonderful. Cottonseed meal may be safely mixed with the soil, like ground bone, but requires some time in which to rot, before the plant can make use of it. Wood ashes are also safe, and good to add to the potting soil. They help to make a firm, hard growth, as a result of the potash they furnish. Where plants seem to be making a too rapid, watery growth, wood ashes may be applied to the surface and worked in. With a soil prepared as directed in the first part of this chapter, there will be very little need for using any other of the fertilizers, until plants have been shifted into their last pots and have filled them with roots. When this stage is reached the use of liquid manures as described later will frequently be beneficial. If, however, a plant for any reason seems backward, or slower in growth than it should be, an application or two of nitrate of soda will often produce results almost marvelous. Be sure, however, that your troubles are not due to some mistake in temperature, ventilation or watering, before you ascribe them to improper or exhausted soil. Now, having had the patience to find out something about the conditions under which plants ought to succeed, let us proceed to the more interesting work of actually making them grow. CHAPTER IV STARTING PLANTS FROM SEED One of the ways of getting a supply of plants for the house is to start them from seed. With a number of varieties, better specimens may be obtained by this method than by any other. Most of the annuals, and many of the biennials and perennials, are best reproduced in this way. Simple as the art of starting plants from seed may seem, there are a number of things which must be thought of, and done correctly. We must give them a proper situation, soil, temperature, covering and amount of moisture, and when once above ground they need careful attention until lifted and started on their way as individual plants. The number of plants of one sort which will be required for the house is naturally not large, and for that reason beginners often try starting their seeds in pots. But a pot is not a good thing to try to start plants in: the amount of earth is too small and dries out quickly. Seed pans are better, but even they must be watched very carefully. A wooden box, or flat, is better still. Cigar boxes are often used with good results; but a more satisfactory way is to make a few regular flats from a soap or cracker box bought at the grocer's. Saw it lengthwise into sections two inches deep, being careful to first draw out nails and wire staples in the way, and bottom these with material of the same sort. Either leave the bottom boards half an inch apart, or bore seven or eight half-inch holes in the bottom of each, to provide thorough drainage. If they are to be used in the house, a coat or two of paint will make them very presentable. Of course one such box will accommodate a great many seeds--enough to start two hundred to a thousand little plants--but you can sow them in rows, as described later, and thus put from three to a dozen sorts in each box. Where most beginners fail in attempting to start seeds is in not taking the trouble to prepare a proper soil. They are willing to take any amount of trouble with watering and heat and all that, but they will not fix a suitable soil. The soil for the seed box need not be rich, in fact it is better not to have manure in it; but very porous and very light it must be, especially for such small seeds as most flowers have. Such a soil may be mixed up from rotted sod (or garden loam), leaf-mould and sharp sand, used in equal proportions. If the loam used is clayey, it may take even a larger proportion of sand. The resulting mixture should be extremely fine and crumbling, and feel almost "light as a feather" in the hand. If the sod and mould have not already been screened, rub the compost through a sieve of not more than quarter-inch mesh--such as a coal-ash sifter. This screening will help also to incorporate the several ingredients evenly and thoroughly. While we provided holes in the seed box for drainage, it is best to take even further precautions in this matter by covering the bottom of the box with nearly an inch of coarse material, such as the roots and half decayed leaves, screened out of the sods and leaf-mould. On the top of this put the prepared soil, filling the box to within about a quarter of an inch of the top, and packing down well into the corners and along sides and ends. The box should not be filled level full, because in subsequent waterings there would be no space to hold the water which would run off over the sides instead of soaking down into the soil. The usual way is to fill the boxes and sow the seed, and then water the box on the surface, but I mention here a method which I have used in my own work for two years. When filling the box, set it in some place where it may be watered freely, such as on the cellar floor, if too cold to work outdoors. After putting in the first layer of coarse material, give it a thorough soaking and then put in about two-thirds of the rest of the soil required and give that a thorough watering also. The balance of the soil is then put in and made level, the seeds sown, and no further watering given, or just enough to moisten the surface and hold it in place, if dry. The same result can be obtained by filling and sowing the box in the usual way, and then placing it in some place--such as the kitchen sink--in about an inch of water, and leaving it until moisture, not water, shows upon the surface. Either of these ways is much surer than the old method of trying to soak the soil through from the surface after planting, in which case it is next to impossible to wet the soil clear through without washing out some of the small seeds. After filling the box as directed, make the soil perfectly smooth and level with a small flat piece of board, or a brick. Do not pack it down hard,--just make it firm. Then mark off straight narrow lines, one to two inches apart, according to the size of the seed to be sown. The instructions usually given are to cover flower seeds to from three to five times their own depth. You may, if you like, take a foot-rule and try to measure the diameter of a begonia or mignonette seed; but you will probably save time by simply trying to cover small seeds just as lightly as possible. I mark off my seed rows with the point of a lead pencil--which I have handy back of my ear for writing the tags--sow the seed thinly, and as evenly as possible by shaking it gently out of a corner of the seed envelope, which is tapped lightly with the lead pencil, and then press each row down with the edge of a board about as thick as a shingle. Over the whole scatter cocoanut fiber (which may be bought of most seedmen) or light prepared soil, as thinly as possible--just cover the seeds from sight--and press the surface flat with a small piece of board. A very light moistening, with a plant sprinkler, completes the operation. The temperature required in which to start the seeds of any plant will be about the same as that which the same plant requires when grown. Germination will be stronger and quicker, however, if ten to fifteen degrees more, especially at night, can be supplied. If this can be given as what the florists term "bottom heat," that is, applied under the seed box, so much the better. Until germination actually takes place, there is little danger of getting the soil too warm, as it heats through from the bottom very slowly. The box may be placed on the steam radiator, on a stand over the floor radiator, or on a couple of bricks on the back of the kitchen range; or the box may be supported over a lamp or small kerosene stove, care being taken to have a piece of metal between the wood and the direct heat of the flame. For the first few days it may be kept in the shade, but as soon as the seeds push through they must be given all the light possible. If the seed flats or pans are prepared by the newer method suggested above, they will probably not need any further watering, or not more than one, until the seeds are up. The necessity of further watering, in any case, will be shown by the soil's drying out on the surface. In the case of small seeds, such as most flower seeds are, the moisture in the soil will be retained much longer by keeping the box covered with a pane of glass, slightly raised at one side. If the box is to be kept in bright sunlight, shade the glass with a piece of paper, until the seedlings are up, which will be in a day or so with some sorts, and weeks with others. From the time the little plants come up, until they are ready to prick off in other flats or into pots, the boxes should never be allowed to dry out. If they are being grown in winter or early spring, while the days are still short and the sun low, they will require very little water, and it should be applied only on bright mornings. In autumn and late spring, especially the latter, they will require more, and if the boxes dry out quickly, you should apply it toward evening. In either case, do not water until the soil is beginning to dry on the surface, and then water thoroughly, or until the soil will not readily absorb more. If you will take the pains, and have the facilities for doing it, by far the best way to keep the seed boxes supplied with moisture is to place them, when dry, in an inch or so of water (as described for seed sowing) and let them soak up what they need, or until the surface of the soil becomes moist. This does the job more evenly and thoroughly than it can be done from the surface, and is also a safeguard against damping off, that dreaded disease of seedlings which is likely to carry away your whole sowing in one day--a decaying of the stem just at or below the soil. From the time the seedlings come up they should be given abundance of light, and all the air possible while maintaining the required temperature. It will be possible, except on very cold dark days, to give them fresh air. Never, however, let a draft of air more than a few degrees colder than the room in which they are blow directly upon them. The secret of growing the little plants until they are ready for their first shift is not so much in the amount of care given, as in its _regularity_. Tend them every day--it will take only a few minutes time. When the second true leaf appears they will be ready for their first change, which is described in Chapter VI. [Illustration: A new scheme of sub-irrigation for flats. Some porous material such as sphagnum moss or excelsior (as here) is put on the open bottom and the flat watered by allowing it to stand in a sink or tub for a few minutes] [Illustration: Cuttings ready for sand; the leaves have been clipped back. From left to right, heliotrope, geranium, "patience plant"] [Illustration: Geranium cuttings ready to pot. Notice the roots, which should not be allowed to grow more than half or three-quarters of an inch long before potting] CHAPTER V STARTING PLANTS FROM CUTTINGS While many plants are best started from seed, as described in the preceding chapter, there are many which cannot be so reproduced; especially named varieties which will not come true from seeds, but revert to older and inferior types. Also it very frequently happens that one has a choice plant of some sort of which the seed is not to be obtained, and in this case also it becomes necessary to reproduce the plant in some other way. Where large numbers of plants are to be started, and they may be had from seed, that is usually the best way in which to work up a supply: but where only a few are wanted, as for house plants or use in a small garden, propagation by cuttings is the quickest and most satisfactory method. Practically all of the house plants, including most of those which can be started from seed, may be increased in this way. The matter of first importance, when starting plants by this system, is to have strong, healthy cuttings of the right degree of hardiness. Take your cuttings only from plants that are in full vigor, and growing strongly. They should be taken from what is termed "new growth," that is the terminal portions of shoots, which have not yet become old and hard. The proper condition of the wood may be determined by the following test: if the stem is bent between the fingers it should snap (like a green bean); if it bends and doubles without breaking it is either too old and will not readily root, or too soft and will be almost sure to wilt or rot. The cutting should be from two to four inches long, according to the plant and variety to be propagated. It should be cut off slant-wise, as this will assist in its being pushed firmly down into the cutting box. It may be cut either near, or between a joint or eye--with the exception of a few plants, noted later. The lower leaves should be taken off clean; those remaining, if large, shortened back, as shown in the illustration facing page 29. Then the plant will not be so likely to wilt. If the cuttings cannot be put in the propagating medium immediately after being made; keep them in the shade, and if necessary sprinkle to prevent wilting. I once obtained a batch of chrysanthemum cuttings from a brother florist who said that they were so badly wilted that they could never be rooted. I immersed them all in water for several hours, which revived them, and had the satisfaction of rooting almost every one. The medium most commonly used in which to root cuttings is clean, medium-coarse sand, such as builders use. It must not be so fine as to pack tightly, nor so coarse as to fit loosely about the cuttings, and admit air so freely as to dry them out. Make a flat similar to that used for starting seeds, but four or five inches deep. Place in the bottom an inch or two of gravel or coal ashes, covered lightly with moss or a single thickness of old bag, and then fill nearly full of clean sand. Make this level, and give a thorough soaking. After drying out for an hour or so, it is ready for the cuttings. Mark the box off in straight lines, two or three inches apart, and insert the cuttings as closely as possible without touching, and to a depth of about one-third or one-half their length. A small, pointed stick, or dibber, will be convenient in getting them in firmly. Wet them down to pack the sand closely around them. The best temperature for the room in which the cutting box is to be kept will be from fifty to fifty-five degrees at night. Like the seed box, however, it will be greatly helped by ten or fifteen degrees of bottom heat in addition. For method of giving this extra bottom heat, see page 26. If the box is kept in a bright sunny place, shade the cuttings with a piece of newspaper during the heat of the day, to prevent wilting, and if the weather is so hot that the room is warmer than seventy degrees, an occasional light sprinkling will help to keep them fresh. Never let the sand dry out or all your work will be lost. As a rule, it will require a thorough soaking every morning. With these precautions taken, the cuttings should begin to throw out roots in from eight to twenty days, according to conditions and varieties. Do not let them stay in the sand after the roots form; it is much better to pot them off at once, before the roots get more than half an inch long. If some of the cuttings have not rooted but show a granulated condition where they were cut, they will be safe to pot off, as they will, as a rule, root in the soil. The above method is the one usually employed. There is another, however, just as easy and more certain in results, especially where bottom heat cannot easily be had. It is called the "saucer" system of propagation. Make the cuttings as described above. Put the sand in a deep, water-tight dish, such as a glazed earthenware dish or a deep soup plate, and pack the cuttings in as thickly as necessary. Wet the sand to the consistency of mud and keep the dish in a warm light place. The temperature may be higher than when using the sand box, and there will not be a necessity for shading. _The sand must be kept constantly saturated_: that is the whole secret of success with this method of rooting cuttings. Pot them off as soon as the roots begin to grow. Cuttings made by the two systems described above are usually taken in autumn, or in spring. When it is necessary to get new plants during June, July or August, a method called "layering in the air" will have to be resorted to if you would be certain of results. Instead of taking the cutting clean off, cut it nearly through; the smallest shred of wood and bark will keep it from wilting, but it should be kept upright, for if it hangs down the end of the shoot will immediately begin to turn up, making a U-shaped cutting. The cuttings are left thus partly attached for about eight days or until they are thoroughly calloused, when they are taken off and potted, like rooted cuttings, but giving a little more sand in the soil and not quite so much water. They are, of course, shaded for several days. Some of the plants ordinarily grown in the house, such as Rex begonias, rubber plants, sword ferns, are best increased by leaf cuttings, topping, layering or other methods differing from seed sowing or rooting cuttings. These several operations will be described in treating of the plants for which they are used. Having carried our little plants safely through the first stage of their growth, it is necessary that we use some care in getting them established as individuals, and give them the best possible preparation for successful service in their not unimportant world. CHAPTER VI TRANSPLANTING, POTTING AND REPOTTING Directions have already been given for preparing the best soil for house plants. This soil, sifted through a coarse screen--say a one-half inch mesh--is just right for "pricking off" or transplanting the little seedlings. Use flats similar to those prepared for the seeds, but an inch deeper. In the bottom put an inch of the rough material screened from sods and manure. Give this a thorough watering; cover with an inch of the sifted soil, and wet this down also. Then fill the box nearly level full of the sifted soil, which should be neither dry nor moist enough to be sticky. Take care also that this soil is not much--if any--colder than the temperature in which the seedlings have been kept. It is usually best to transplant the seedlings just as soon as they are large enough to be handled, which is as soon as the second true leaf appears. Nothing is gained by leaving them in the seed boxes longer, as they soon begin to crowd and get lanky and are more likely to be attacked by the damping off fungus than they are after being transferred. Find a table or bench of the right height upon which to work comfortably. With a flat stick, or with a transplanting fork (which can be had for fifteen cents) lift a bunch of the little plants out, dirt and all, clear to the bottom of the box. Hold this clump in one hand and with the other gently tear away the seedlings, one at a time, discarding all crooked or weak ones. Never attempt to pull the seedlings from the soil in the flat, as the little rootlets are very easily broken off. They should come away almost intact, as shown facing page 48. Water the seed flats the day previous to transplanting, so that the soil will be in just the right condition, neither wet enough to make the roots sticky, nor so dry as to crumble away. Take the little seedling by the stem between the thumb and forefinger, and with a small round pointed stick or dibber, or with the forefinger of the other hand, make a hole deep enough to receive the roots and about half the length--more if the seedlings are lanky--of the stem. As the little plant is dropped into place, the tips of both thumbs and forefingers, by one quick, firm movement, compress the earth firmly both down on the roots and against the stem so that the plant sticks upright and may not readily be pulled out. Of course there is a knack about it which cannot be put into words--I could have pricked off a hundred seedlings in the time I am spending in trying to describe the operation--but a little practice will make one reasonably efficient at it. When the flat is completed, jar it slightly to level the surface and give a watering, being careful, however, to bend down the plants as little as possible. Set the plants on a level surface, and if the sun is bright, shade with newspapers during the middle of the day for two or three days. From now on until ready for potting, keep at the required temperature, as near as possible, and water thoroughly on bright mornings when necessary, but only when the drying of the surface shows that the soil needs it. Above all, give all the air possible, while maintaining the necessary heat. The quality of the mature plants will depend more upon this precaution than upon anything else in the way of care. The little seedlings are sometimes put from the seed flat directly into small pots. I strongly advise the method described above. The flats save room and care, and the plants do much better for a few weeks than they will in pots. Where room is scarce, it is well to transplant cuttings into flats instead of potting them off. As soon, however, as either the transplanted plants or cuttings begin to crowd in the flats, they must be put into pots. How soon this will be depends largely, of course, upon the amount of room they have been given. As many as a hundred are often set in a flat 13x19 inches, but it is well to give them twice as much space as that if room permits. POTTING Cuttings and small plants are put into two-inch or "thumb" pots. Some of the larger growing geraniums or very sturdy plants require two-and-one-half inch pots, but the smaller size should be used when possible. The soil for pots up to three inches should be screened, but not made too fine. A coal-ash sifter, or half-inch screen will do. The soil should be made up as directed in Chapter III. The pots should be thoroughly cleaned with sand and water, or by a several days' soaking, and then wiping out with a cloth, if they have been used before. An old pot, with dirt sticking to the inside and the pores all clogged up, will not do good work. Old or new, they should be immersed in water until through bubbling just before using; otherwise they will absorb too much moisture from the soil. The method of potting should depend somewhat upon the condition of the roots of the cutting. If they are less than half an inch long, as they should be, fill the pot level full of soil, make a hole with the forefinger of one hand; insert the cutting to about half its depth with the other, rap the bottom of the pot smartly against the bench to settle the earth, and then press it down firmly with the thumbs, leveling it as the pot is placed to one side in an empty flat. (The jarring down of the soil should precede the firming with the thumbs, as this will compact the soil more evenly within the pot.) This should leave the soil a little below the rim of the pot, making a space to hold water when watering; and the cutting should be so firmly embedded that it cannot be moved without breaking the soil. With cuttings whose roots have been allowed to grow an inch or more in length, and plants with a considerable ball of roots--as they should have when coming from the transplanting flats--it is better partly to fill the pot. Hold the plant or cutting in position with the left hand and press the soil in about it with the right hand--firming it as directed in the former case. With a little practice either operation can be performed very rapidly. Florists do four to five hundred pots an hour. When for any reason it is necessary to put a small or weakly rooted plant or cutting, or a cutting that is just on the point of sending forth roots, in a pot that seems too large, _put it near the edge of the pot_, instead of in the middle. This will often save a plant which would otherwise be lost, and at the next shift it can, of course, be put in the center of the pot. If no small pots are at hand, several small plants or cuttings can be put around the edge of a four-or five-inch pot, with good results. Care must be taken, however, not to give too much water. As soon as the little plants or cuttings are potted up, give them a thorough watering and place them where the holes in the bottoms of the pots will not be clogged with soil. A large flat, in the bottom of which an inch of pebbles, coarse sand or sifted cinders has been put, will be a good place for them. Keep shaded during the hot part of the day for three or four days. At first the pots may be placed as close together as possible, but in a very short time--two weeks at the most, if the growing conditions are right--they will need to be put farther apart. Nothing will injure them so quickly as being left crowded together where they cannot get enough air. Better, if necessary, give or throw away half of them than to attempt to grow fifty plants where you have room for only two dozen. As before, water only when necessary, _i.e._, when the surface of the soil begins to look whitish and dry. Then water thoroughly. Until by practice you know just what they need, knock a few out of the pots, say fifteen minutes after watering, and see if the ball of earth has been wet through to the bottom; if not, you are not doing the job thoroughly. If the pots do not dry out between waterings, but stay muddy and heavy, either your soil is not right or you have used pots too large for your plants. REPOTTING In the course of a week or two, if a plant is knocked out, the small white roots may be seen coming through the ball of earth and beginning to curl around the outside of it. The time for repotting the young plants will have been reached when these roots have made a thick network around the ball of earth, but before they become brown and woody; that is, while they are still white and succulent--"working roots," as the florists term them. [Illustration: Potted cuttings ready for shifting to a larger pot. From left to right, ivy geranium, snapdragon, geranium and dusty miller] [Illustration: Some plants, like Rex begonia, will strike root from their leaves if perforated with a knife into damp sand] [Illustration: In all potted plants an important detail is the placing of rough drainage material, such as broken pieces of pot, charcoal, ashes, etc., at the bottom, to prevent moisture from settling in the soil and souring it] The shift, as a general rule, should be to a pot only one size larger, that is, from a three to a four, or a four to a five. Remove the plant from the old pot by holding the stem of the plant between the index and middle finger of the left hand, and with the right inverting the pot and rapping the edge of the rim sharply against the edge of the bench or table. Before putting the plant into the new pot, remove the top half inch of soil and gently loosen up the lower half of the ball of roots, if it is firmly matted. Put soil in the bottom of the pot to such a depth that when the ball of roots is covered with half an inch or so of new soil, the surface thereof will still be about half an inch below the rim of the pot. Hold the plant in place with the left hand, and with the right fill in around it, making the soil firm as before. Water and care is the same as after the first potting. Pots four inches or over in size should be crocked to make certain of sufficient drainage. The best material to use is broken charcoal, in pieces one-half to an inch in diameter. Pieces of broken pots, cinders or rough pebbles will do. Be sure that the drainage hole is not covered; if pieces of pots are used, put the concave side down over the hole, as illustrated facing page 41. The depth of the drainage material, or crocking, will be from half an inch to three inches, according to the size of the pot. Over this rough material put a little screenings, leaf mould or sphagnum moss, to prevent the soil's washing down into it. Then fill in with soil and pot in the regular way. The time for repotting house plants is at the beginning of their growing season. It varies, of course, with the different kinds. The great majority, however, start into new growth in the spring and should be repotted from the middle of March to the middle of May. Plants kept through the winter for stock plants are usually started up and repotted early in February to induce the abundant new growth that furnishes cuttings. The method of repotting will depend on the nature of the plant. Soft-wooded plants, like geraniums, are put in in the ordinary way and firmed with the fingers. The palms do best with the new soil more firmly packed about the old ball of roots. Hard-wooded plants with very fine roots, like the azaleas, should have the soil rammed down firmly about the old ball; for which purpose it is necessary to use a blunt, flat piece of wood, of convenient size. In repotting such plants, it is well to let the ball of roots soak several minutes in a pail of water before putting into the new pot. If very densely matted, make several holes in it with a spike, working it around, and leave the soil a little lower at the center of the pot to induce the water to run down through the root ball. Plants that have been crocked in the old pots should have this material removed, if possible, before going into their new quarters. Plants in large pots often use up all the plant food available, and where they cannot be given still larger pots become quite a problem. They are usually handsome specimens which one does not like to lose. Remove such a plant from its pot and carefully _wash_ all the soil from the roots; clean the pot and carefully repot in fresh soil in the same pot. The result will be extremely satisfactory. Until one has become proficient in the art of potting, it will pay well to practice with every plant and cutting that may be had. If you have mistakes to make, make them with these, so that your favorite plants may be handled safely. CHAPTER VII MANAGEMENT OF HOUSE PLANTS There are some general rules that will apply to taking care of all plants in the house; then there are several groups, the different sorts in which are handled more or less alike; and lastly there are the individual requirements of the plants in the several groups to be considered. Information about all these varieties, as given in the usual way, results in a more or less confusing mass of detail. It is for the purpose of getting this information into as plain a form as possible that the instructions in the first chapters of this book have been given in such detail; and those instructions should be used in conjunction with the following pages. The beginner cannot expect to fully comprehend the suggestions given until the plain everyday operations of plant growing have become familiar. Much of what has been said in the previous pages has borne upon the several points of managing plants successfully in the house. It will be of use, however, to have those various suggestions brought together in condensed form. In the first place it must be remembered that at best it is hard to get conditions in the living-room that will be suitable for the healthy growth of plants. Every effort should be made to prepare a place for them in which such conditions may be made as nearly ideal as possible: plenty of light, evenly regulated temperature; moisture in the air. For most house plants the temperature should be 50 to 55 at night and 65 to 75 during the day. An occasional night temperature of 45 or even 40 will not do great harm but if reached frequently will check the growth of the plants. Air should be given every day when the temperature of the room will not be too greatly lowered thereby. Avoid direct drafts, as sudden chills are apt to produce bad results. Even on very cold days, fresh air may be let in indirectly, through a window open in an adjoining room or through a hall. It is better, when possible, to give a little ventilation during an hour or two, than to rush too sudden a lowering of the temperature by trying to do it all in fifteen minutes. The amount of water which should be given will depend both upon the plant and upon the season. During the dull days of winter and during the "resting season" of all plants, very little water will be required. It should be given on bright mornings. During early fall and late spring, when the pots or boxes dry out very rapidly, water in the evening. In either case, however, withhold water until the soil is beginning to get on the "dry side" and then water thoroughly. Water should be given until it runs down through into the saucers but should not be allowed to remain there. Sometimes it will be beneficial to moisten the foliage of plants without wetting the soil. Just after repotting and in fighting plant lice, red spider and other insect enemies (see Chapter XVII) this treatment will be necessary. A fine-rose spray on the watering-can may be used but a rubber plant-sprinkler costing about sixty-five cents, will be very much better, as with it the water will be applied in a finer spray with a great deal more force and to either the upper or under surface of the leaves--a point of great importance. Plants growing in windows, where the light strikes them only, or mostly, from one side, should be frequently turned to prevent their growing one-sided. Also do not hesitate to use knife, scissors and fingers in keeping them symmetrical and shapely. One of the greatest mistakes that amateurs make is in being afraid to cut an ungainly or half leafless branch. Instead of injuring a plant, such pruning frequently is an actual benefit. If neglected, dust will quickly gather on the leaves and clog their pores, and as the plants have no way of breathing but through their leaves, you can see what the result must be. Syringing, mentioned above, will help. They should also be wiped clean with a soft dry cloth, especially such plants as palms, rubbers, Rex begonias. Do _not_ use olive oil or any other sticky substance on the cloth. Always remove at once any broken, dead or diseased leaf or flower. Do not let flowering plants go to seed: nothing else will so quickly bring the blooming period to a close. Do not try to force your plants into continuous growth. Almost without exception they demand a period of rest, and if you do not allow them to take it when nature suggests, they will take it themselves when you do not want them to. The natural rest period is during the winter. During this time a _very_ little water will do and no repotting or manuring should be attempted. It is, however, desirable in some cases, as with many of the flowering plants, to change the season bloom, as we want their beauty during the winter. In such cases they should be _made_ to rest during the summer, by withholding water and keeping them disbudded. Many beginners get the idea that as soon as any plant has filled its pot with roots it must be immediately shifted to a larger one. While this is as a rule true with small plants, being grown on, it is not at all true of mature plants, especially those wanted to bloom in the house. When a shift has been given, at the beginning of the growing period, no further change should be necessary during the winter. It will, however, be well, if not imperative, to furnish food in the form of liquid manures when the soil in the pot has become filled with roots. It should be applied from one to three times a week--the former being sufficient for a plant showing ordinary growth. All the animal manures, cow, horse, sheep, hen, etc.,--are good to use in this way, but cow manure is the safest and best. Place three or four inches of half-rotted manure in a galvanized iron pail, fill with water, and after standing a few hours it will be ready for use. The pail can be refilled. As long as the liquid becomes the color of weak tea it will be strong enough to use. Give from a gill to a pint at each application to a six-or eight-inch pot. The other manures should not be made quite so strong. For liquid chemicals see page 19 or mix up the following: 5 lbs. nitrate of soda, 3 of nitrate of potash and 2 of phosphate of ammonia, and use 1 oz. of the mixture dissolved in five or six gallons of water. At the beginning of the growing period and at frequent intervals during the early growth of plants they must be repotted. The operation is described on page 40. [Illustration: From left to right, cabbage seedlings just right for transplanting; seedlings of stocks; lanky seedlings that have been too thickly sown. These last should be set deeply, as indicated by the cross line] [Illustration: An attractive and efficient flower bay was made here by waterproofing the floor, building plant shelves and isolating the whole when necessary with the curtains] As soon as danger of late frost is over in the spring the plants should be got out of the house. It is safest to "harden them off" first by leaving them a few nights with the windows wide open or in a sheltered place on the veranda. Those which require partial shade may be kept on the veranda or under a tree. Most of them, however, will do best in the full sun and should, if wanted for use in the house a second season, be kept in their pots. The best way to handle them is to dig out a bed six or eight inches deep (the sod and earth taken out may be used in your dirt heap for next year) and fill it with sifted coal ashes. In this, "plunge," that is, bury the pots up to their rims. If set on the surface of the soil it will be next to impossible to keep them sufficiently wet unless they are protected from the direct rays of the sun by an overhead screening of lath nailed close together, or "protecting cloth" waterproofed. Where many plants are grown for the house such a shed, open on all sides, is sometimes made. Care must be taken not to let plants in "plunged" pots root through into the soil. This is prevented by lifting and partly turning the pots every week or so. They will not root through into the coal cinders as rapidly as into soil and better drainage is secured. Watch the soil in the pots, not that in which they are plunged, when deciding about watering. For most plants a thorough watering, tops and all, once every afternoon ordinarily will not be too much. Plants such as geraniums and heliotrope, which are wanted for blooming in early winter, should be kept rather dry and all buds pinched off. Do not shift them to new pots until two or three weeks before time to take them in. CHAPTER VIII FLOWERING PLANTS The very important question--"What plants shall be grown in the house?"--must be left for the individual to answer. In selecting a few to describe somewhat in detail in the first part of this chapter, I do not mean to imply that the others are not as beautiful, or may not, with proper care, be successfully grown in the house. However, most of those described are the more popular--very possibly because as a rule greater success is attained with them. The same is true of the treatment of the other groups--shrubs, foliage plants, palms, ferns, vines, cacti and bulbs, which are classed not upon a strict botanical basis but with reference to their general habits and requirements, my sole object in this book being to make the proper cultural directions as definite and clear as possible. _Begonias_ I think if I were restricted to the use of one class of plants for beautifying my home in winter I should without hesitation choose the begonias. No other plants so combine decorative effect, beauty of form and flower, continuity of bloom and general ease of culture. There are three types: the flowering fibrous-rooted begonias, the decorative leaved begonias and the tuberous-rooted, with their abundant and gorgeous flowers and beautiful foliage. (These latter are described more fully in Chapter XV on Bulbs.) Begonias are rather difficult to raise from seed and the best way to get them is to go to some good florist and select a few specimens; after that you can easily keep supplied by cuttings (see page 29). The large fancy-leaved begonias (Rex begonias) are increased by "leaf-cuttings." Take an old leaf and cut it into triangular pieces, about three inches each way and with a part of one of the thick main ribs at one corner of each piece; this is the corner to put into the sand. These--seven or eight of which can be made from one leaf--should be inserted about an inch into the sand of the cutting box or saucer, and treated as ordinary cuttings. The new growth will come up from the rib. (Illustration facing page 40). Some of the foliage begonias have long, thick stems, or "rhizomes" growing just above the soil; from these the leaves grow. Propagate by cutting the rhizome into pieces about two inches long and covering in the rooting medium. The most satisfactory way to select your begonias is to see them actually growing at the florist's. In case selection cannot be made, thus, however, the following brief descriptions may be helpful. The begonia with the most showy flowers is the "coral" begonia--(in catalogues B. _maculata_, var. Corallina). The flowers, which grow in large clusters, reach half an inch across. Begonias _rubra_, Alba, Vernon, _nitida_ and _N. alba_, Luminosa, Sandersoni and _semperflorens_, _gigantea rosea_, are all good sorts. For foliage, _Begonia metallica_, is the most popular. The flowers while not conspicuous are very pretty. _B. Thurstoni_, _albo-picta_, and _argenteoguttata_ are also very attractive, the two latter having small silvery spots upon the leaves. Of the large leaved Rex begonias new varieties are frequently introduced. They are seldom improvements over the old favorites, Philadelphus, Silver Queen, Fire King, Mrs. Rivers and others. One of the most glorious of all flower sights is a plant of begonia Gloire de Lorraine in full bloom. It makes a graceful hanging mass of the most beautiful pink flowers. I cannot, however, conscientiously recommend it as a house plant. The best way is to get a plant, say in October, which is just about to bloom. Even if you lose it after it is through blooming--they continue in flower for several months--it will have been well worth the expense. But it is not necessary to lose it. When through flowering give it less water and keep in a cool light place. During summer keep it as cool as possible, on the veranda, or plunged in the shade of a tree. About September rapid growth will be made and it may gradually be given full sunlight. Gloire Cincinnati is a splendid begonia of very recent introduction and it is claimed to be much hardier than Gloire de Lorraine, but whether it will prove satisfactory as a house plant I cannot say. There are many other beautiful kinds of begonias besides the few described above. If you have room, by all means try some of them. As to soil, add about one-third of thoroughly pulverized leaf-mould to the potting soil described on page 15, if you would give them the best conditions. In watering keep them if anything a little on the "dry side." They like plenty of light but will do best if kept out of the direct rays of the sun. _Fuchsia_ There is perhaps no plant which more perfectly combines gracefulness and beauty of color than a well grown fuchsia in full bloom. Well-grown in this case does not simply mean that it should have been given the proper care as regards food and temperature. The fuchsia is naturally a somewhat trailing and very brittle-wooded plant. It needs support and the problem is to give it this support and at the same time not destroy its natural gracefulness of form, as is usually done when it is tied up stiffly to a wooden stake. If tied carefully to an inconspicuous green stake by means of green twine this may be accomplished. A better way will be to use one of the stakes described on page 144. Fuchsias are shade plants. The full direct sunlight is likely to prove fatal to their existence. In winter they may be kept in an east or north window, or on the inside of other plants in a south window. If they are wanted to bloom early in the fall keep well pinched back and disbudded during the summer which is the natural blooming season for all the best varieties. For summer blooming, dry off gradually in the fall and keep during the winter--until February or March--in a frost-proof room or cellar. After they have been brought into the light, repot and water and new growth will start. Prune back the old branches severely, as the next crop of flowers will be borne on the new wood. This is also a good time to start cuttings for a new supply of plants. Old plants--two or three years--will, however, give a far greater abundance of flowers. The most serious enemy of the fuchsia indoors is the pernicious red spider. For details of the proper reception to be given him see page 134. The varieties of the fuchsia, in both single and double flowers, are many. Among popular sorts are Elm City, Black Prince, speciosa, Phenomenal. Florists' catalogues list many others, new and for the most part well worth trying. _Geraniums_ The geranium has been for years, and is likely to remain, the most popular flowering plant of all, whether for use in summer flower beds or for the winter window garden. To some people this wide popularity renders it less desirable, but with those who grow plants for their intrinsic beauty and not because they may or may not be in vogue the geranium with its healthy vitality, its attractive foliage and its simply marvelous range of color and delicate shadings will always be a favorite. I even venture to predict more; to prophesy that it is going to be used, as one seldom sees it now, as a cut flower for decorative purposes. I have grown some of the newer varieties with stems from twelve to eighteen inches long, supporting enormous trusses of dull red or the most delicate pink and keeping fresh in vases for days at a time. I find that very few people, even old flower lovers, have any conception of the improvement and variety which the last few years have brought, especially in the wonderful new creations coming from the hands of the French hybridizers. The latest news is that a German plant-breeder has produced the first of a new race of Pelargoniums (Pansy or Lady Washington geraniums) that continues to bloom as long as any of our ordinary bedding sorts. It has not yet been offered in this country, but doubtless soon will be, and it will be an acquisition indeed. The culture of the geranium is simple. For its use as a house plant there are just two things to keep in mind; first give it a soil which is a little on the heavy side; that is, use three parts of good heavy loam, one of manure and one of sand; secondly do not over-water. Keep it on the "dry side"--(see page 45). To have geraniums blooming in the house _all_ winter prepare plants in two ways, as follows: First, in May or June pot up a number of old plants. Cut back quite severely, leaving a skeleton work of old wood, well branched, from which the new flowering wood will grow. Keep plunged and turned during the summer and take off every bud until three or four weeks before you are ready to take the plants inside. Secondly, in March or April, start some new plants from cuttings and grow these, with frequent shifts, until they fill six-or seven-inch pots, but keep them pinched back to induce a branching growth, and disbudded, until about the end of December. These will come into bloom after the old plants. The best time for propagating the general supply of geraniums is from September 15th to the end of October. Cuttings should be taken from wood that is as firm and ripe as possible, while still yielding to the "snapping test" (see page 30). In all stages of growth the geranium is remarkably free from any insect or disease. The varieties of geraniums now run into the hundreds--a wonderful collection. I shall name but a few, all of which I know from my own experience in selling several thousand every spring, are sure to be well-liked and good bloomers. _Geranium Varieties_ S. A. Nutt leads them all. It is the richest, darkest crimson--usually ordered as "the darkest red." It is a great bloomer, but one word of caution where you grow your own plants:--You must keep it cut back and make it branch, otherwise it will surely grow up tall and spindling. E. H. Trego is the most brilliant of the reds that I have grown. Marquis de Castellane is the richest of the reds--a dull, even, glowing color with what artists term "warmth" and "depth." The trusses are immense and the stems long, stiff and erect. It is the best geranium for massing in bouquets that I know. Beauté Potevine is the richest, most glorious of the salmon pinks--perhaps the most popular of all the geraniums as a pot plant for the house. It is a sturdy grower and a wonderful bloomer. Dorothy Perkins is a strong growing bright pink, with an almost white center. Very attractive. Roseleur is one of the most lovely delicate pinks. Mme. Récamier, perhaps the best of the double whites, making a very compact, sturdy plant. Silver-leafed Nutt, very recently introduced, is, I believe, destined to be one of the most popular of all geraniums. It has the rich flowers of S. A. Nutt and leaves of a beautiful dull, light green, bordered with silver white. I am chary of novelties, and got my first plants last spring with the expectation of being disappointed. So far it has proved a great acquisition. New-life is another new sort which has won great popularity, the center of the flowers being white in contrast to the red of the outer petals. This is one of a new type of geranium having two more or less distinct colors in each flower. Another new type is the "Cactus" section, with petals narrower and recurved. In fact, the geranium seems to have by no means reached its full development. _Foliage Geraniums._ The foremost of these is Mme. Salleroi (Silver-leaf geranium). It is unequaled as a border and for mingling with other plants in the edge of boxes and vases. Well grown specimens make beautiful single pot plants. Mrs. Pollock and Mountain of Snow are other good varieties. _Sweet Scented Geranium._ This type has two valuable uses; their delicious fragrance and also the beauty and long keeping quality of the leaves when used in bouquets or to furnish green with geranium blossoms. Rose and Lemon (or Skeleton) are the two old favorites of this type. The Mint geranium, with a broad, large leaf of a beautiful soft green, and thick velvety texture, should be better known. All three must be kept well cut back, as they like to grow long and scraggly. The ivy-leafed geraniums have not yet come into their own. To me they are the most beautiful of all. The leaves are like ivy leaves, only thicker and more glossy. The flowers, which are freely borne, contain some of the most beautiful and delicate shades and markings of any flowers, and the vines are exceedingly graceful in habit when given a place where they can spread out or hang down. Like the common or Zonal geranium, the ivy-leafed section has within the last few years been greatly improved. There is space here to mention but one variety (L'Elegantea), whose variegated white and green foliage, in addition to its lovely flowers, gives it a wonderful charm. [Illustration: Begonias combine more fully than any other house plant the three important factors of beauty of form and flower, continuity of bloom and ease of culture. This is the variety Pride of Cincinnati] [Illustration: The pansy geraniums bear the most beautiful flowers of the whole geranium family, but as yet the flowering season is rather short] [Illustration: _Primula obconica._ Primroses need no particular care. Buy small plants from the florist each spring] _The Pelargoniums_ (Pansy Geraniums)--This section contains the most wonderful flowers of all the geraniums. Imagine, if you can, a rather graceful shrub with attractive foliage, eighteen inches or so high and broad, covered with loose clusters of pansies in the most brilliant and harmonious contrasts of color, and the most delicate blendings of rare shades, such as snow white and lilac. Unfortunately, these marvelous blossoms remain but a few weeks at most, and then there is a year's care and waiting. As with the fantastic cacti, all their blossoming energy and beauty seems to be concentrated into one brief but glorious effort. It certainly is to be hoped that the new strain, mentioned on a former page, will successfully be developed. Pelargoniums are propagated by cuttings, and cared for as the ordinary geraniums, except that they should be kept very cold and dry during their winter resting spell. Cut back after blooming. _Heliotrope_ The heliotrope has long been the queen of all flowers grown for fragrance. It is grown readily from either seeds or cuttings; the latter generally rooted in the spring. For blooming in winter, start young plants in February, or cut back old ones after flowering, and keep growing but pinched back and disbudded, in partial shade during the summer. There are several varieties, from dark purple to very light and white. Lemoine's hybrids have the largest flowers, but are not so fragrant as some of the smaller sorts. By pinching off the side shoots and training to a single main stalk, the plants may be grown as formal standards, with the flowering branches several feet from the pot, like the head of a tree. For certain uses they are appropriate, but I think not nearly as beautiful as when well trimmed to shape and grown in the ordinary way. The heliotrope objects to any sudden change, whether of temperature, watering or soil, and will readily turn brown and drop all its leaves. Giving it proper care and cutting back, however, will quickly bring it into good humor again. _Petunia_ The petunia is one of the most easily grown and generous bloomers of all house plants. It is, however, a little coarse and some people object to its heavy odor. The flowers are both single and double, each having its advocates. Both have been vastly improved within the last few years. Certain it is that some of the new ruffled giant singles are remarkably beautiful, even as individual flowers; and the new fringed doubles, which come in agreeable shades of pink, variegated to pure white (instead of that harsh magenta which characterized the older style) produce beautiful mass effects with their quantities of bloom. They are grown either from seed or cuttings, the latter frequently blooming in the cutting box, if allowed to. In raising seedlings, be sure to save all the slowest growing and delicate looking plants, as they are fairly sure to give some of the best flowers, the worthless singles growing strong and rank from the start. Plants growing outdoors during the summer may be cut back, potted up and started into new growth. The singles bloom more freely than the doubles, especially indoors. After blooming, cut the plants back to within a few inches of the root, repot or give liquid manure and a new growth will be sent up, and soon be in blossom again. _Primroses_ Of the deservedly popular primrose there are two types, the Chinese primrose (_Primula Sinensis_) and _Primula obconica_. Both are favorites, because of their simple beauty and the remarkable freedom and constancy with which they bloom. Another advantage is that they do not require direct sunlight. Primroses need no particular care. The soil may have a little extra leaf-mould and should slope toward the edges of the pot, to prevent the possibility of any water collecting at the crown of the plant, which must be left well above the soil when potting. The easiest way to get plants is to buy small ones from the florist every spring. They may be raised from seed successfully, however, if one will take care to give them a shaded, cool location during the hot summer months, such as a coldframe covered with protecting cloth, or any light material that will freely admit air. From seed sown in February or March they should be ready to bloom by the following Christmas. It does not pay to keep the plants over for a second season. There are numerous varieties. One very small sort, _P. Forbesi_--sometimes called Baby Primrose--is exceedingly floriferous. Several plants of this sort put together in a large pan make a most beautiful sight, and will do well as a decoration for a center table. Until recently _P. obconica_ was inferior in size of flower to the Chinese primrose, but the newer strains, under the name _P. grandiflora fimbriata_, or Giant Fringed, are quite wonderful. Some of the individual flowers are over an inch and a quarter across, and range from pure white to deep rose. If you cannot obtain other plants of this type from your florist they will well repay the trouble of starting from seed. _Snapdragon_ I feel somewhat doubtful about giving this comparatively little known flower a place among the especially recommended plants. Not on the basis of my own experience with it, but because in the several books in my possession which deal with house plants, I do not find it mentioned. There certainly can be no question that the long spikes of flowers in pure white, light and dark reds, deep wines and clear yellows, with combinations of two or more of these in many cases, are among our most beautiful flowers. They stay in blossom a long time, each stalk opening out slowly from the bottom to the top of the spike, like a gladiolus. They seem, in my own experience at least, to stand almost any amount of abuse; this spring several old plants that I had abandoned to their fate insisted on coming to life again and trying to vie with their younger progeny in flowering. Snapdragons are easily raised from seed, or propagated by cuttings. For winter blooming sow the former in March or April, grow on in a cool place and keep pinched back to make bushy plants. If you have limited room, let one stalk blossom on each plant, so that you can avoid selecting duplicates. Cuttings may be taken at any time when the weather is not too hot. Take the tops of flowering shoots which have not yet matured so far as to become hollow. The varieties have been greatly improved, that now sold as Giant-flowered Hybrids being the best. There is also a dwarf type and of still later introduction a double white. This will undoubtedly break into the other colors and give us a valuable new race. With the directions given for the foregoing, and also on pages 6 to 50, the following brief instructions should be necessary to enable success with the other flowering plants which are worth trying in the house for winter blooming. OTHER FLOWERING PLANTS _Ageratum_--Valuable for its bright blue flowers and dwarf growth, going in well with other plants. There is also a white variety. Make cuttings in August, or cut back and pot up old plants. _Alyssum_--Good with other plants to produce a light bouquet-like effect. White. Fall and dwarf varieties. Seed or cuttings. _Balsam_--Beautiful colors. Take up and pot after blooming in garden. Only double sorts worth while. _Candytuft_--Colors. Good for cut flowers. Seed or cuttings. _Cannas_--New dwarf hybrids, named varieties have beautiful flowers. Give rich soil, lots of sun and water. Dry off after flowering. _Carnation_--This beautiful flower is not well adapted for house culture. It may, however, be grown in five-or-six-inch pots, using a heavy soil, keeping in a cool temperature, about forty-five degrees at night, watering regularly and spraying daily with as much force as possible. For further information about growing the plants, see Part II., page 181. _Carnation Marguerite_--These are much better suited for the trials of house culture. While not as large, they are in other respects fully as beautiful. Take up the best sorts from the flower garden, cut back severely and keep shaded until new growth starts. _Chrysanthemum_--This is another beautiful flower not well suited to house culture. However, if you have room,--it will take an eight-, nine-or even ten-inch pot for each plant--and want to go to the trouble, you can have it indoors. For cultural directions see Part II, page 185. _Daisies_, Double English Daisies--The bright little short-stemmed daisies, seen so frequently in spring (_Bellis perennis_) are not often used as a house plant, but make a very agreeable surprise. Start from seed in August; transplant to boxes of suitable size, and on the approach of freezing weather cover gradually with leaves and rough manure or litter in a sheltered, well drained place. Bring them in as wanted from January on. _Daisy_, Paris or Marguerite--Beautiful daisy-like flowers, very freely borne, in two colors, pure white and delicate yellow. Root cuttings in spring and keep pinched back for winter flowering. Grow in rather heavy rich soil, with plenty of water. _Patience Plant (Impatiens)_--This old-fashioned but cheery flowered plant resembles the flowering begonias in looks and habit. It grows very rapidly and is one of the most indefatigable bloomers of all plants. Spring cuttings grown on will make good flowering plant for winter. Give plenty of water. _Lobelia_--This favorite little plant bears starry blossoms of one of the most intense blues found anywhere in the realm of flowers. Grown easily from fall sown seed, or cuttings. Star of Ishmael and Kathreen Mallard are two named varieties recently introduced and great improvements. _Mahernia_--(Honey-bell)--Of great value for its fragrance. Grow on from summer cuttings. _Mignonette_--Another flower owing its popularity to its fragrance. Start winter plants by sowing in two-inch pots in July or August, several seeds to a pot. As soon as well started, thin to the best plant. Grow on, keeping cool and well pinched back. Give support. There are several newer named varieties that are great improvements over the old type, especially in size of spike. Colossal, Allan's Defiance, Machet, are all fine sorts. _Pansy_--If wanted for winter blooming, take cuttings or start from seed, as described for Daisy (_Bellis perennis_). The seed bed must be kept cool and shaded. _Salvia_--One of the most brilliant of all flowering plants. For winter make cuttings in August, or take off suckers with roots at base of plant. They like heat. Keep thoroughly sprayed to ward off red spider. _Piqueria or Stevia serrata_--Another fragrant flower. Root cuttings in January or February and grow on for blooming from November to February. _Stocks_--What I said about snapdragons on page 64 might well be repeated here. Start from seed in August or September. They are very easily grown. In addition to their beauty--they resemble a spray of small roses--is their entrancing fragrance. Only the double sorts are good. There are many fine new sorts. Abundance, a beautiful delicate pink, will be sure to arouse your enthusiasm. _Verbena_--If any of these old brilliant favorites are wanted, start from cuttings, being sure to use strong new growth which may be induced by spading up and enriching the soil in August, and cutting back the plants. _Verbena, Lemon_--See page 77. _Violets_--See Part II (page 183). There is one thing which the beginner cannot be told too often, and which I repeat here, as it has much to do with the success of many of the above plants. Do not fail to pinch back seedlings and cuttings during their early stages of growth, to induce the formation of stocky, well-branched plants. This must be the foundation of the winter's returns. CHAPTER IX SHRUBS The shrubs of dwarf habit available for growing inside in winter are numerous and valuable. They include a number of the most attractive plants one may have, and as a rule will stand more hardships in the way of poor light, low temperature and irregular attention than any of the other flowering plants. They differ from the other flowering plants in several ways. They are harder wooded; the resting spell is more marked and they make growth and store up energy for flowering _ahead_ of the blossoming season. Their differences in habit of growth naturally involve differences in treatment. In the first place, they are harder to propagate; in many cases it is better for the amateur to get plants from the florist than to try to raise them. This is not such a disadvantage as might at first appear, because most of them can be kept for several years, only improving with age. The "snapping" test (page 30) will not apply to many of the shrubs when taking cuttings. In this case they are made from the new growth after it becomes firm and well ripened. It should be fresh and plump, and rooting will be made more certain by bottom heat. Often cuttings of hard-wooded plants, such as oleander, are rooted in plain water, in wide-mouthed bottles hung in a warm place in the sun, the water being frequently renewed or kept fresh with a lump or so of charcoal. Many of the shrubs are beautiful for summer blooming on the veranda or in large pots or tubs. These may be kept over winter safely by drying off and keeping in a frost-proof cellar where they will get little light. In this way they will come out again in the spring, just as hardy shrubs do out-of-doors. The earth should not be allowed to get dust dry, but should not be more than slightly moist; very little, and often no, water is required, especially if mulching of some sort is put over the earth in pots or boxes; but it should not be any material that would harbor rats or mice. The leaves will fall off, but this is not a danger signal, such plants being deciduous in their natural climates. It will be best to keep such plants as are to be stored in the cellar, from the time there is danger of frost until about November first, in an outbuilding or shed, where they will not freeze. This makes the change more gradual and natural. The temperature of the cellar should be as near thirty-four to thirty-eight degrees as possible. About March first will be time to start giving most plants so treated heat, light and water again, the latter gradually. The fact that growth is made in advance of the flowering period means that the summer care and feeding of such plants is very important. Plenty of water must be given, and frequent applications of liquid manure or fertilizers, or top dressing. Flowering shrubs that bloom on last season's wood, like hydrangeas, should be pruned just after blooming. _Abutilon_--The Flowering Maple (Abutilon) is an old favorite, but well worthy of continued popularity. It is practically ever-blooming, which at once marks it as highly desirable. The pendulous flowers are very pretty, coming in shades of pink, white, yellow and dark red. The foliage is also beautiful, especially that of the variegated varieties, than which very few plants are more worthy of a place in the window gardener's collection. New plants, which will grow and bloom very rapidly, are propagated by cuttings rooted in the fall or spring. Give the plants when indoors plenty of light. Old plants, for which there is not room in the window garden, may be wintered almost dry in a cool place and allowing the leaves to fall off. [Illustration: _Grevillea robusta_, the Silk Oak, is easily grown and an exceedingly graceful shrub for growing indoors] [Illustration: Otaheite orange. Their rest period should be given during November, December and January] The varieties are numerous. Some of the best are Santana, deep red; Boule de Neige, pure white; Gold Bell, yellow; _Darwini tesselatum_; Souvenir de Bonn and Savitzii (the latter the most popular of all variegated); Eclipse and vexillarium, trailing in habit. _Acalypha_--Valuable for its variegated foliage. For use in the house root cuttings in early fall. The old roots, after cutting back, may be kept on the dry side to furnish cuttings in spring for the garden plants. _Aralia_--Aralia (_Fatsia Japonica_) and _A. J. variegata_, especially the last, are two of the most decorative plants one may have. They are not widely known--very likely because they are difficult to propagate. Easily kept. Get from florist. _Ardisia_--(_Ardisia crenulata_) is the best red berried plant for the house. It is a dwarf, with very beautiful dark green foliage. While kept healthy it will be laden constantly with its attractive clusters of berries, one crop lasting over the next. Seedlings make the best plants, and are readily grown. Sow in January to April, and plants will flower within a year and thereafter be perpetually decorated. Old plants can be topped (see page 86) and make fine specimens. By all means give the ardisia a place in your collection. _Aucuba_--The Gold Dust Plant: one of the beautiful shrubs and especially valuable for decoration because doing well in such shaded positions as inner rooms, or by doorways. Strong tip cuttings--six to ten inches--can be rooted readily in the fall. Give a soil on the heavy side. _Azalea_--The azalea is the most beautiful flowering shrub--if not the most beautiful of all winter flowering plants. With proper treatment an azalea should do service for several years, becoming more splendid each season. You will probably get your plant when it is in full bloom. At this time, and during the whole growing season, it requires abundant water. The best way to make sure of giving it a thorough one, is to stand it for half an hour in a pail of water. Keep it in a rather cool place, say forty-five at night, and the flowering season, which should last several weeks, will be prolonged. With the azaleas you must do the work for next year's success as soon as the flowering season is over. After repotting, keep in a temperature of fifty to fifty-five degrees at night. There are three types of azalea suitable for winter blooming, the Indian, Ghent and Mollis, of each of which there are several kinds. The Indian type has the advantage of not blooming without its leaves, as the others do. The best way to select the varieties wanted is to purchase when in bloom. It will not pay the amateur to attempt propagation. _Bouvardia_--Pink, white or red flowers, sweet scented. Propagated by root cuttings, but as the plants are good for a number of years, the best way is to get them from the florist. Old plants may be divided, small enough to go into number three pots. Give either cuttings or divisions about sixty degrees at night after potting, which should be in spring, until put outdoors. Keep pinched to shape. Then bloom from late fall to February. _Browallia_--A very attractive flowering shrub, easily grown in a cool room, with plenty of sunlight. Sow seeds in 4-inch pots in August, thinning to three or four. Repot to 6 inches. Cuttings make good plants. Best grown as standards. _B. elata_ is especially valuable because of its deep blue flowers. _B. Jamesonii_ is orange. Roezlii and Grandiflora, blue or white. _Daphne_--_D. odora_ is easily grown and very fragrant. As ornamental as orange or lemon and very free flowering. Give almost no water in winter, or store in cellar. Plants good for many years. _Genista_--A beautiful evergreen shrub, bearing freely in spring clusters of pea-shaped yellow flowers, richly fragrant. Cut back after flowering, and in fall put in a cold room, forty degrees, or a frame, giving several weeks rest. Cuttings may be rooted readily in spring, when pruning the plants. _Grevillea robusta_--The Silk Oak is grown with the greatest ease and makes an extremely graceful, beautiful plant, either by itself or as a center for fern dishes, etc. Sow in March and grow on with frequent shifts. _Hibiscus_--One of the most brilliant flowering shrubs outside of the azaleas, with single and double flowers. Give a warm, sunny spot. Large plants can be stored in the cellar. Cuttings in spring or summer will furnish new plants. _Hydrangea_--This is another popular flowering shrub, often had in bloom inside in the spring, but personally I do not consider it suited for such use. The flowers are rather coarse to bear close inspection, such as a house plant must be subject to: they are far more effective in masses out-of-doors or used as semi-formal decorations about paths or stoops, for which purpose they are unsurpassed. If you care to have them bloom indoors, get small plants from the florist, or start cuttings of new growth in spring, taking shoots which do not have buds. After flowering, cut back each branch and grow on, in a cool airy place with slight protection from noonday sun. Take into the house before frost, and gradually dry off for a rest of six weeks or more in a cold room. Then start into growth. Plants for flowering early in the spring outdoors should be treated in the same way during summer, and wintered in the cellar, as directed above. Take up to the light any time after first of March in the spring, but be careful to harden off before setting outside. The varieties of the hydrangea are several, some being entirely hardy farther north than New York, but the sorts best for house and tub culture are not. Most of them will come through some winters, but it doesn't pay to take the chance. _H. Hortensia_ Japonica is the blue flowering variety; the color will depend much, however, upon the soil. To make sure of the color, dissolve one pound of alum in two quarts of ammonia, dilute with twenty gallons water and use as a liquid fertilizer. Thomas Hogg is a beautiful pure white, quite hardy. _H. h._ Otaksa, pink, is one of the most popular. _Lantana_--Easily grown flowering shrub, trailing in habit, with small flower clusters of white, pink, red, yellow or orange. New dwarf varieties best for pot culture. Cuttings root easily. I have never cared for this plant, and its odor is not pleasant to most people. _Lemon_--The best lemon for house culture is the Ponderosa, or American Wonder, of comparatively recent introduction. Most florists now have it. Easily grown and a very attractive plant. The fruit is good to use. _Lemon Verbena_ (_Aloysia citriodora_)--Many people consider this the most delightfully fragrant plant grown. Certainly no window garden should be without it. Early in September cut back old plants, if in the garden, and pot up. New growth will quickly be made. Plants kept in pots should be rested in early winter by keeping dry and cool. Spring cuttings root easily. _Oleander_--A beautiful old-time favorite, with fragrant blossoms of red, pink, yellow or white. Give a very rich soil and plenty of water when growing. Rest after flowering. Cuttings are rather hard, but will root with care. _Orange_--There are several sorts suited to house culture, and they should be more frequently tried, as a well grown plant will have flowers, green fruit and attractive golden oranges almost all the time--to say nothing of its foliage beauty and delightful fragrance. Their rest period should be given during November, December and January. Otaheite Orange is the one most commonly grown for house culture, and while the fruit is of no use for eating, it has the more valuable advantage of remaining on the tree (which is eighteen to twenty-four inches high) for months. Satsuma is another good sort. Kumquat (_Citrus Japonica_) is also very attractive. _Reinwardtia_ (known usually as _Linum trigynum_)--Another attractive flowering shrub, with light or bright yellow flowers. Cuttings will root with bottom heat in April. _L. tetragynum_ is a companion variety. _Roses_--Those who will take the proper pains can grow roses successfully in the house; but as a general rule satisfactory results are not obtained. The first essential to success is the use of the right varieties and those only. The second is a moist atmosphere; the third is cleanliness,--insect enemies must be kept off. For soils, growing in summer, etc., see Part II, page 188. The best varieties for house culture are the Crimson Baby Rambler (Mme. Norbert Levavasseur), Pink Baby Rambler (Anchen Muller), Crimson Rambler, Clothilde Soupert, Agrippina, Hermosa, Safrano, Maman Cochet, White Maman Cochet and La France. If the plants are set in a window-box (see page 9) about one foot apart, they will be more easily cared for than in pots. They may be treated in two ways. (1) After blooming, cut away most of the old growth and enforce rest during the summer. Start again in October and grow on in the house. (2) Grow on through the summer and dry off in the fall as the leaves drop. Store in a cold place (a little freezing will not hurt) until about January first. Then prune back severely--about half--and bring into warmth and water. A combination of the two methods will give a long flowering season. _Swainsona_--A shrub of vine-like habit, bearing flowers, white and light pink, which greatly resemble sweet peas. The foliage is unusual and very pretty. It should be trained up to stakes or other supports and cut back quite severely after flowering. _Sweet Olive_ (_Olea fragrans_)--This is still another fragrant flowering shrub and one of the very easiest to grow. The house shrubs, having harder stems and tougher leaves than other classes of plants, will stand many hardships that to the latter would prove fatal. They are, however, particularly susceptible to attacks of red spider and scale. _Keep your shrubs clean._ If you do not, in spite of their seeming immunity to harm, you will have no success with them. Syringing, showering, washing, spraying with insecticides, even giving a next-to-freezing rest,--all the remedies mentioned in Chapter XVII on Insects and Diseases--may at times have to be resorted to. But, at whatever trouble, if you want them at all, keep your shrubs clean. [Illustration: Baby rambler rose. Few varieties of rose will stand the dry air and dust that oppress most house plants] [Illustration: _Araucaria excelsa._ Give little water in winter and a cool, even temperature] CHAPTER X FOLIAGE PLANTS The foliage plants depend very largely for their beauty upon making a rapid, unchecked growth and being given plenty of sunlight. In many of those having multi-colored and variegated leaves, the markings under unfavorable conditions of growth become inconspicuous and the value of the plant is entirely lost. Therefore, where the proper conditions cannot be given, it will be far wiser to devote your space to plants more suited to house culture. Aspidistra, araucaria, Pandanus and the rubber plant are exceptions; two of them being remarkable for their hardihood under neglect and ignorance. While many of the foliage plants will live under almost any conditions, it must be remembered, however, that the better care they receive the more beautiful they will be. _Achyranthes_--Achyranthes are still popular as bedding plants, as they furnish good coloring. They may be used as house plants also, but in my opinion are a little coarse. Take cuttings in August for new plants and keep on the warm side and rather dry in winter. _Alternanthera_--These little plants are unique and brilliant, and a few will be worth having in any collection. They make dense, shrubby miniature bushes a few inches high, very attractively colored. Take cuttings in August; give rich soil, on the sandy side, plenty of light and heat. _A. versicolor_ has leaves bearing a happy contrast of pink, crimson and bronzy-green. _Tricolor_ is dark green, rose and orange. There are numerous other attractive varieties. _Anthericum_ (_A. variegatum_)--The foliage is shaped like a broad blade of grass and very prettily bordered with white. Of the easiest culture, doing well in the shade. Propagated by division. _A. medio-picta_ is another variety, often considered more attractive than the above. _Araucaria_--The several araucarias should be much more widely known than they are. Their beauty has made them popular as Christmas gifts, but most of the fine specimens which leave the florists during the holiday season find their end, after a few weeks in a gas-tainted, superheated atmosphere, with probably several times the amount of water required given at the roots, in the ash barrel. They are, when one knows something of their habits of growth, very easily cared for. Little water in winter, and a cool even temperature, are its simple requirements. The araucaria is, I think, the most beautiful of all formal decorative plants. Its dignity, simplicity and beautiful plumelike foliage place it in a class of its own. The branches leave the main stem at regular intervals, in whorls of five, and the foliage is a clean soft green, lighter at the tips. Propagated by cuttings from leading shoots, not side shoots. The two varieties ordinarily used are _A. excelsa glauca_ and _A. e. robusta_. Some time ago I saw a specimen of a new variety, not yet put on the market, and the name of which I have forgotten. (I think it was _stellata_) The outer half of each branch was almost white, giving the whole plant a wonderful star-like effect. _Aspidistra_--The aspidistra is the toughest of all foliage plants--if not of all house plants. It has proved hardy out-of-doors as far north as Philadelphia. The long flat leaves grow to a height of eighteen to twenty-four inches, springing directly from the ground. Its chief requirement is plenty of water during the growing season. New plants are readily obtained by dividing the old roots in February or August. There are several varieties and those familiar only with the common green sort (_A. elatior_) will be surprised and pleased with the striking effectiveness of the variegated, (_A. e. varigata_) and with the spotted leaved _A. punctata_. _Caladium_--This is another popular plant for which I have never cared greatly myself. It seems to have no personality. Well grown plants, however, give most gorgeous color effects. Buy bulbs of the fancy-leaved section, and start in February or March, giving very little water at first. Take in before the first sign of frosts. When growth stops, dry off gradually and store in warm cellar; or better, take out of pots and pack in sand. Do not let them dry out enough to shrivel. _Coleus_--The best of all the gay colored foliage plants, but tender. To keep looking well in winter they must have plenty of warmth and sunlight. Root cuttings in August. They grow on very rapidly. Make selections from the garden or a florist's, as they come in a great variety of colors and markings. _Dracæna_--The best of all plants, outside the palms, for centers of vases, boxes and large pots. Small plants make very beautiful centers for fern dishes. The colored section need to be kept on the warm side. Give plenty of water in summer, but none on the leaves in winter, as it is apt to lodge in the leaf axils and cause trouble. _Dracæna_ (_Cordyline_)--_Indivisa_, with long, narrow, recurved green leaves, is the one mostly used. The various colored sorts are described in most catalogues. _Leopard Plant_--_Farfugium grande_, better known as Leopard Plant, has handsome dark green leaves marked with yellow. It is of the easiest culture, standing zero weather. Old plants may be divided in spring and rooted in sand. There is a newer variety with white spots, very beautiful. The farfugium is now more commonly listed as _Senecio Kaempferi_. _Pandanus_--The Screw Pine is another favorite decorative plant, easily grown. The leaves are two or three feet long and come out spirally, as the name indicates. As they get older they curve down gracefully, giving a very pleasing effect. The soil for pandanuses should contain a generous amount of sand. Give plenty of water in summer, little in winter, and be sure that none of it lodges in the axils of the leaves, as rot is very easily induced. New plants are produced from suckers at the base of the old ones. _Pandanus utilis_ is the variety most commonly seen. _P. Veitchii_, dark green bordered with broad stripes of pure white, is much more decorative, a really beautiful plant. _P. Sanderi_ is another good sort, with golden yellow coloring, that should be given a trial. _Pepper_--Some of the peppers make very attractive pot plants on account of their bright fruit, which is very pretty in all stages of growth from the new green pods, through yellow to bright red. Buy new plants or start from seed in spring. They are easily grown if kept on the warm side. Celestial and Kaleidoscope are the two kinds best suited for house culture. _The Rubber_ (_Ficus._) This is the most popular of all formal decorative plants. At least part of the secret of its success undoubtedly lies in the fact that--almost literally--you cannot kill it! But that is no excuse for abusing it either, as there is all the difference in the world between a well cared for symmetrical plant and one of the semi-denuded, lop-sided, spotted leaved plants one so frequently sees, and than which, as far as ornamentation is concerned, an empty pot would be far more decorative. The rubber requires--and deserves--a good rich soil, and in the spring, summer and fall, all the water that the soil will keep absorbed. Give less in winter, as an excess at this time causes the leaves to turn yellow and droop. As the rubber is more difficult to propagate than most house plants, and specimens will not get too large for several years, it will be best to get plants from the florist. It frequently happens, however, that an old plant which has been grown up to a single stem, becomes unwieldy, and bare at the bottom. In such cases the upper part may be removed by "topping" and the main trunk cut back to within six to eighteen inches of the pot or tub, and water withheld partly until new growth starts. The old stem may thus be transformed into a low, bush plant and frequently they make very handsome specimens. The topping is performed by making a deep upward slanting cut, with a sharp knife, at the point you want in the pot for your new plant. In the cut stuff a little sphagnum moss; remove this after a few days and wash the cut out with warm water, removing the congealed sap. Insert fresh moss and with strips of soft cloth tie a good handful over the wound. _Keep this moist_ constantly until the roots show through the moss, which may be several weeks. Then pot in _moist_ earth, not wet, and syringe daily, but do not water the pots for two or three days. Sometimes pots cut in halves and the bottoms partly removed are used to hold the moss in place. August is a good time to propagate. _Ficus elastica_ is the common rubber plant. The "fiddle-leaved" rubber plant (_F. pandurata_) is another variety, now largely grown. It differs from the former in having very broad, blunt leaves, shaped like the head of a fiddle, which are marked by the whitish veins. Two other beautiful plants are _F. Cooperia_, having large leaves with red mid-ribs, and _F. Parcelli_, with leaves marbled with white. They should be given a higher temperature than _F. elastica_. _Saxifraga_: _S. sarmentosa tricolor_ is the commonly known strawberry geranium, or beefsteak plant. It has a quite unique habit of growth and is best displayed where its numerous runners have a chance to hang down, as from a basket or hanging pot. The runners are easily rooted in soil. There are numerous varieties, with flowers of red, white and pink. _Sensitive Plant_ (_Mimosa pudica_)--This is a pretty little green-leaved plant, the never-failing interest in which lies not in its beauty, however, but in the fact that it shrinks and folds up when touched, as though it belonged to the animal kingdom. It is easily grown from seed. _Tradescantia_--This is otherwise known as spiderwort, Wandering Jew, Creeping Charles and under other names. It is a very pretty running or trailing plant, of the easiest culture, its chief requirement being plenty of water. Cuttings root easily at any time. There are several varieties, among them being _discolor_, a variegated leaf, and _Zebrina multi-color_, the leaves of which give almost a rainbow effect in their wonderful diversity and blending. For those familiar only with the old green variety it will prove a great surprise. [Illustration: _Pandanus Veitchii_, the Screw Pine. The soil for this family should have a generous amount of sand] [Illustration: The rubber plant (_Ficus elastica_), perhaps the most popular of all formal decorative house plants] _Zebra Plant_ (_Maranta zebrina_)--This is another easily grown decorative plant with tropical looking, large leaves. While usually listed as _Maranta zebrina_, it is really a calathea and the plants of this genus show a variation in their markings unsurpassed by any. Zebrina and most of the varieties, of which there are many, should be grown in the shade, with plenty of water and a minimum temperature of sixty degrees all the year. _C. pulchella_ and _C. intermedia_ resembles _C. zebrina_ and can be grown in a cooler temperature. Do not allow the plants to flower. Increase by division. CHAPTER XI VINES A number of the vines make very excellent house plants, though one seldom sees them. This seems rather strange when one takes into consideration the facts that they are easily grown and can be used for decorative effects impossible with any other plants. If there is one particular caution to be given in regard to caring for plants in the house, it is to _keep the foliage clean_. Naturally a vine that runs up the window trim, and maybe halfway across the wall to a picture frame, cannot well be sprinkled or syringed; but the leaves can be occasionally wiped off with a moist, soft cloth. Keep the pores open; they have to breathe. _Cissus discolor_--This altogether too little known vine has the most beautiful foliage of any. The leaves are a velvety green veined with silver, the under surfaces being reddish and the stems red. It is a rapid grower and readily managed if kept on the warm side. New plants may be had from cuttings at almost any season. _C. antarctica_ is better known and easily grown. _Clematis_--This popular outdoor vine is sometimes successfully used as a house plant, and has the advantage of doing well in a low temperature. Cuttings rooted in June and grown on will make good plants, but the best way will be to get at the florist's two or three plants of the splendid new varieties now to be had. _Coboea scandens_--The Coboea is sometimes called the cup-and-saucer flower. It is very energetic, growing under good conditions to a length of twenty to thirty feet. The flowers, which are frequently two inches across, are purplish in color and very pretty. They are borne quite freely. The coboea is easily managed if kept properly trained. As the plant in proportion to the pot room is very large, liquid manures or fertilizers are desirable. Either seeds or cuttings will furnish new plants. The former should be placed edge down, one in a two-inch pot and pressed in level with the surface. They will soon need repotting, and must be shifted frequently until they are put in six-or eight-inch pots. _Coboea scandens variegata_ is a very handsome form and should without fail be tried. _Hoya carnosa_--This is commonly known as the wax plant on account of its thick leaves and wax-like flowers, which are a delicate pink and borne in large pendulous umbels. It is easily cared for; give full sun in summer and keep moderately dry in winter. Leave the old flower stalks on the plant. Cuttings may be rooted in early spring in pots, plunged in bottom heat. _The Ivys_--The ivys are the most graceful of all the vines, and with them the most artistic effects in decoration may be produced. I have always wondered why they are not more frequently used, for they are in many respects ideal as house plants; they produce more growth to a given size pot than any other plants, they thrive in the shade, they withstand the uncongenial conditions usually found in the house, and are among the hardiest of plants suitable for house culture. And yet how many women will fret and fume over a Lorraine begonia or some other refractory plant, not adapted at all to growing indoors, when half the amount of care spent on a few ivys would grace their windows with frames of living green, giving a setting to all their other plants which would enhance their beauty a hundred percent. The English ivy (_Hedera helix_) is the best for house culture. A form with small leaves, _H. Donerailensis_, is better for many purposes. And then there is a variegated form, which is very beautiful. Large cuttings, rooted in the fall, will make good plants. _Hedera helix arborescens_ is known as the Irish ivy and is a very rapid grower. The German ivy (_Senecio scandens_) has leaves the shape of the English ivy, and is a wonderfully rapid grower and a great climber. It lacks, however, the substance and coloring of the real ivy. It is, nevertheless, valuable for temporary uses, and a plant or two should always be kept. Cuttings root freely and grow at any time. _Manettia_--This is a cheery, free flowering little vine, especially good for covering a small trellis in a pot. The brilliant little flowers, white, blue or red and yellow, are very welcome winter visitors. Cuttings root easily in summer and the plants are very easily cared for, being particularly free from insect pests. Give partial shade in summer. _Mimosa moschatus_--This is the common Musk Plant which, according to one's taste, is pleasant--or the opposite. It is of creeping habit and has very pretty foliage. There are a number of varieties. That described above is covered with small yellow flowers. _M. m. Harrisonii_ has larger flowers. _M. cardinalis_, red flowers and is dwarf in habit. _M. glutinosus_ is erect in habit, with salmon colored flowers, very pretty. _Moneywort_ (_Lysimachia Nummularia_)--This is a favorite basket plant, as it is a rapid grower and not particular about its surroundings, so long as it has enough water. While the flowers are pretty, being a cheery yellow, the plant is grown for its foliage. New plants may be had by dividing old clumps. _Morning-Glory_--This beautiful flower is seldom seen in the house, but will do well there if plenty of light can be given. Neither vines nor flowers grow as large as they do out-of-doors, but they make very pretty plants. _Nasturtium_--Another common summer flower that makes a very pretty plant in the house. Start seeds in August and shift on to five-or-six-inch pots. There is also a dwarf form and other sorts with variegated ivy leaves that make splendid pot plants. Of the tall sorts some of the new named varieties, like Sunlight and Moonlight, give beautiful and very harmonious effects. They will be a very pleasant surprise to those familiar only with the old bright mixed colors. _Othonna crassifolia_--This pretty little yellow flowered trailing plant, sometimes known as "little Pickles" is quite a favorite for boxes, or as a hanging or bracket plant. It should be given the full sun but little water in winter. When too long, it it may be cut back freely. Root cuttings, or the small tufts along the trailing stems, in spring. _Smilax_--In some ways this is the most airily beautiful and graceful of all the decorative vines. And it is valuable not only for its own beauty, but for its usefulness in setting off the beauty of other flowers. It is very easily grown if kept on the warm side, and given plenty of root room. Care should be taken to provide green colored strings for the vines to climb up, as they make a very rapid growth when once started. The best way to provide plants is to get a few from the florist late in the spring, or start from seed in February. New plants do better than those kept two seasons. _Sweet Peas_--Of late years a great deal has been done with sweet peas in winter, and where one can give them plenty of light, they will do well inside. Plenty of air and a temperature a little on the cool side, with rich soil, will suit them. Start seed in very early fall, or in winter, according as you want bloom early or late. There are now a number of varieties grown especially for winter work such as Christmas Pink, Christmas White, etc. Five or six varieties will give a very satisfactory collection. The fragrant, beautiful blossoms are always welcome, but doubly so in winter. Do not let the flowers fade on the vines, as it increases the number of flowers to have them taken off. _Thunbergia_--The Thunbergia, sometimes called the "butterfly plant," is the best all-round flowering vine for the house. The flowers are freely produced, average an inch to an inch-and-a-half across, and cover a wide range of colors, including white, blue, purple, yellow and shades and combinations of these. Its requirements are not special: keep growing on during summer into a somewhat bushy form, as the vines will grow rapidly when allowed to run in the house. It can be grown from seed but cuttings make the best plants. Root early in spring, and by having a succession of rooted cuttings blossoms may be had all winter. _Thunbergia laurifolia_ has flowers of white and blue; _T. fragrans_, pure white; and _T. Mysorensis_, purple and yellow. [Illustration: One too seldom sees vines used indoors, although they are easily grown and can be made most decorative] [Illustration: The Crested Scott Fern (_Nephrolepis exaltata_, var. _Scholzeli_) is one of the most beautiful developments from the Boston Fern] CHAPTER XII FERNS Ferns, although there are not many varieties of them available for culture indoors, are probably more universally used as house plants than any other class of plants. Their culture is not difficult, although it differs somewhat from that given most of the plants described in the preceding pages. In the first place, ferns want a porous soil, say two parts screened leaf-mould, one sand and one old manure or rich loam, the latter being preferable. In the second place, they should be given a warmer temperature, a minimum of fifty-five degrees at night being very desirable, although not absolutely essential. The third requisite in success with ferns is a moist atmosphere, as well as plenty of water at the roots. If the pots are carefully drained (facing page 41) as they should be, and the soil properly porous, it will be almost impossible to over-water at the roots. Great care should be taken, however, not to wet the foliage, particularly where the sun can shine on the leaves. When the fronds must be wet, to keep them clean, try to do it on a warm day, that they may dry off quickly near an open north or east window. They should always be given as much light as possible, without direct sunlight, and as much air as possible while maintaining the proper temperature. Many of the ferns can be increased either by runners or division, and these are easily propagated at home. Those which are grown from spores (the fern's seeds) it will be better to get from the florist's. Most of the ferns belong to one of three groups, the sword ferns (_Nephrolepis_), the maidenhairs (_Adiantum_) or the spider ferns (_Pteris_). The distinguishing feature of the sword ferns is their long pointed fronds; the maidenhairs command attention by their beautiful feathery foliage, in some varieties as delicate as the filmiest lace; and the spider ferns, seen usually in mixed varieties in dishes or fern pans, are attractive for their shades of green, gray, white and silver, and compact growth. THE SWORD FERNS The old widely popular sword fern was _Nephrolepis exaltata_, but the original form has been almost entirely replaced by new varieties developed from it, the most widely known of which is the Boston fern (_N. ex. var. Bostoniensis_). The wide popularity of this fern is due to both its beauty and its hardiness, as it will stand more ill usage than any other house fern. It grows rapidly and makes a handsome plant at all stages of development. THE SCOTT FERN A well grown large Boston fern requires a good deal of room, and the long fronds--three feet or more in length--are apt to get damaged at the ends. For these reasons the _Scottii_ fern, a development of the Boston, is for some purposes a better plant. Its fronds are like those of the latter, but shorter and proportionately narrower, and the habit of the plant is much more dense and compact. It makes a very satisfactory plant. THE PLUMED TYPE Another fern developed from the Boston is _Whitmani_, in which the fronds are not so long but the foliage is so finely divided that it gives a decided plumey effect. The _Whitmani_ is perhaps the best of this type for house culture as the others, under adverse conditions, are likely to revert to the Boston type of frond. _Piersoni_ and _Elegantissima_ are exceptionally beautiful, but must be given careful attention. _Scholzeli_, sometimes called the Crested Scott fern, is very beautiful and well worth trying. THE MAIDENHAIRS Of the beautiful, but delicate, adiantums perhaps the one most frequently seen in the florist's window is _A. Farleyense_, with its drooping, lace-like, light green leaves. It is not, however, suited for house culture and while it can be made to succeed, do not waste time in trying it until you have mastered the growing of the hardier sorts. However, just because _Farleyense_ is so delicate, do not feel that you cannot have any maidenhair fern. _Croweanum_ is another beautiful adiantum, and as its fronds are much firmer than those of most of this class, it withstands the trying conditions of house culture very satisfactorily. Another maidenhair, often called the hardy _Farleyense_, is _Adiantum c. v. imbricatum_. As its name suggests, it looks very much like the Farley fern, but it is suitable for house culture. It is a very satisfactory fern. And just recently there is another from England called the Glory fern (Glory of Moordrecht). I have not seen it, but certainly from photographs and what the horticultural journals have said of it, it will make a very fine fern for the winter garden. THE SPIDER FERNS The name given _Pteris_ ferns is descriptive of only part of them, as they vary greatly. They are commonly used in made up dishes, or with other plants, but most of them will make fine single plants as well. _P. Wilsoni_ is a popular sort making a compact plant with a unique tufted foliage of light clear green. _P. cretica_ is dark green, or green lined with white, according to the variety. _Victoriæ_ is perhaps the best of the several variegated Pteris'. [Illustration: The Boston Fern is easily propagated at home by division] [Illustration: _Phoenix Roebellenii_ is one of the more recent and best developments of the old favorite Fan Palms] [Illustration: _Cocus Wedelliana_ is a small palm but one of the most graceful of all] OTHER FERNS The Holly fern (_Cyrtomium falcatum_) is another very desirable house plant and has been a favorite for years. It has very dark green substantial glossy foliage, and stands up well. There is a new Holly fern, however, which I think will replace _C. falcatum_; it is _C. Rochfordianum_; its foliage is not only a richer deeper green, but the pinnae, or leaflets, are deeply cut and also wavy, and have given it the popular name of the Crested Holly fern. Be sure to try it among the next ferns you get. Fern balls, which are usually composed of one of the _Davallias_, sometimes prove unsatisfactory. Be sure in ordering to get them fresh from some reliable mail order house, rather than take chances on them at the florist's. The best way, however, is to get them already started. If you get them in dormant condition, soak in tepid water and then give a temperature as near sixty degrees at night as possible until they start. While not strictly members of the fern family, the asparagus used for decorative purposes under the name of Asparagus Ferns, are commonly classed with them. Since their introduction they have proved very popular indeed. _Asparagus plumosus nanus_, the Lace fern. No foliage is more beautiful than the feathery light green sprays of this asparagus. Notwithstanding its delicacy, it keeps wonderfully well when cut. The plants can be grown as pot plants, or as vines. If wanted for the former purpose, keep the sprays pinched back at twelve inches, and the roots rather restricted. For vines, keep in large pots or boxes--always well drained--and keep well fed. _Asparagus Sprengeri_ in both foliage and habit is very distinct from _A. plumosus_. The leaves resemble small glossy pine needles, borne in long sprays, and as it is trailing in habit it makes a unique and beautiful plant for stands or baskets. The sprays keep well when cut, and make an excellent background for flowers. It is now used more universally for green by florists than any other plant. Either of the above may be started from seed, or propagated by dividing old plants, but small young plants may be had of the florists at a very low price. They need about the same treatment as smilax (see page 94), but will do well in a temperature of fifty to fifty-five degrees at night. Shower frequently, but water only moderately. For many years these two varieties have held the field to themselves, but recently a new asparagus, of each type has put in an appearance. _Hatcheri_ resembles _plumosus nanus_, but is more compact in habit and the leaves are much closer together on the stems. If it remains true to type, and is as hardy as _plumosus_, it will replace it, for it certainly is a more beautiful plant. _A. S. variegata_ is a very pretty "sport" with the leaves edged white. CHAPTER XIII PALMS The number of palms adapted to house culture is very limited but they comprise the most elegant of the decorative plants. Although popular now, they would be much more widely used if their culture were better understood. Mistakes made in handling palms are serious in results, for they produce for the most part only two or three new leaves in a year, and so any injury shows for a long time; it is not soon replaced by new growth and forgotten, as with many of the more rapid growing house plants. Nevertheless, if the few cultural requirements of palms are carefully attended to, they are as easily grown as any plants and yield a solid and lasting satisfaction. The house palms, as I have said, grow very slowly. It is not only useless, but dangerous, to try to force them into unnatural growth. Palms do best when restricted as to root room. When your plant comes from the florist, do not get impatient after a month or so and think that a larger pot would make it grow faster. Repotting once a year while palms are growing, and not so frequently as that after they are in eight-or ten-inch pots, will be sufficient. The best time for repotting is late spring--May or June. Use a pot only one size larger than that in which the palm has been growing. Remove carefully, _do not disturb the roots_, and put into the new pot carefully, ramming the new earth in firmly about the old ball with a thin piece of wood (see directions for repotting, page 40). The soil for palms need not contain as much humus (leaf-mould or peat) as that for most other house plants. Good rich garden loam, with sharp sand added, and bone meal worked through it, will be right. Be sure the drainage is perfect. Crock the pots carefully (facing page 41). If any of the crocking from the old pot comes out with the ball of earth, remove it as carefully as possible and fill in the space with soil. After potting, keep shaded for several days. While palms require plenty of water, no plants are more fatally injured by overwatering. Above all must care be taken never to let water accumulate in saucers or jardinieres in which the pots are standing. Water will soak up through a pot as well as down through it, and water-saturated soil will quickly become sour. When you do water, water thoroughly and then see that the pots are kept where they can drain out, and do not water again until they show a tendency to get too dry. Much water will cause the leaves to turn brown. In this case change the treatment at once. (The looks of the leaves can be somewhat improved by cutting them to shape with a pair of scissors.) The amount of water required is much greater in summer than in winter, when the plants are practically at rest. Direct sunlight is not desirable for palms, but they should have plenty of light. Do not stick them away in a dark corner or an inner room and expect them to do well. They will stand such a situation several days without injury, but should be brought back to the light as soon as possible. They do well in north windows, providing the temperature of the room is high enough. Remember, however, that pots kept in a shady place will dry out much less quickly than those in the light or sunlight. If they are to be kept permanently where the sun does not strike, it is a good thing to add charcoal to the soil, as this aids greatly in keeping it from getting sour. Give plenty of air. The more the better, so long as a proper temperature is kept up, as that counteracts the effect of the more or less poisonous atmosphere of living-rooms kept closed during winter. Beware of drafts blowing across the plants, but provide plenty of fresh air. In the spring as soon as it warms up outdoors--say after the apple blossoms fall--plunge the palms outside, in a sheltered position, where they can be given plenty of water. At this time, if they are not repotted, bone meal should be worked into the surface of the soil and a liquid manure of bone meal given once a month or so during the growing season. Both during winter and summer, _shower the leaves frequently_, with as forceful a stream as possible, to prevent scale and mealy-bug getting a start. (For treatment see page 135.) Keep the leaves and stems clean by wiping off every once in a while with a soft cloth and soapy warm water, syringing with clean water afterwards. THE BEST HOUSE PALMS Although the number of palms cultivated is very large, very few indeed--only about a dozen--will give satisfactory results in the house. The fact that a palm will live--or rather, takes a very long time to die--under abuse, has misled people into thinking that they do not need as much care as other house plants. This is a mistake. Palms may be considered in two classes, the fan-leaved and the feather-leaved, or deeply cut, sorts. Of the former there are but three sorts good for house culture. _Latania Borbonica_, the Chinese Fan-leaved palm, is the best known. It is one of the hardiest, standing a temperature as low as forty-five degrees at night. It is broad in habit, and the large leaves are deeply cut and drooping at the edge, making a very attractive plant. _Livistona rotundifolia_, the Miniature Fan palm, is a more compact type of the above; not only the leaves but the whole plant being round in habit and growing quite dense. It is a beautiful lively green in color, and making a neater plant, is in many ways more desirable for the house than _Latania Borbonica_. It requires more warmth, however, and should be kept up to 55 degrees at night if possible. _Chamærops excelsa_ has the distinguished feature of forming shoots at the base, thus having foliage where most palms are bare, and in old specimens unattractively so. Its leaves are shaped like those of _Borbonica_, but are smaller, and the leaf stalk in proportion is longer. It is a good strong variety. THE FEATHER-LEAVED PALMS Many of these are of more recent introduction than the old favorite fan palms, but they have won their way to a growing and deserved popularity. _Phoenix Roebelenii_ is one of the newest. It is destined, I venture to say, to become the most popular of all palms for the house. It has frequently been described as having "the beauty of _Weddelliana_ and the hardiness of _Kentia_." That perhaps describes it, but does not do it full justice. It has several times the amount of foliage that _Cocos Weddelliana_ has, and is a more robust grower. It has, unlike that palm, leaf stalks growing all the way to the bottom, the lower ones gracefully recurved and the upper ones spreading airily. It is very easily cared for, and on the whole wins on a larger number of counts than any other house palm. _Phoenix Rupicola_ has gracefully arching, drooping foliage and is very handsome, the dark green leaves being even more feather-like than those of _Cocus Weddelliana_. It is also one of the hardiest. _Areca Verschaffeltii_ is unique in having a creamy colored mid-rib. It must be given the best of care, but will well repay any extra pains taken with it. The _Kentias_, _K. Belmoreana_, the Thatch-leaf palm, and _K. Forsteriana_, the Curly palm, are the hardiest of all the house palms and sure to give satisfaction. The former is of dwarf, sturdy habit, with broadly divided, dark green leaves borne up well on stiff stems. _K. Forsteriana_ is of stronger growth, spreads more, and the divisions of the leaf are broader. _Cocos Weddelliana_ is the most artistically graceful of the house palms. The finely cut, feathery leaves spring well up from the pot and from the slender erect stem. It is a small palm, and grows slowly. I think I should give it a place among the three choicest palms for the house, although, unfortunately, it is not as hardy as some of the others. It is the best palm to use as a center for fern dishes. _Seaforthia elegans_, the Australian Feather palm, is a tall growing and stately variety, which does well in the house. _Caryota urens_ is commonly known as the Fishtail palm, and on account of that distinguishing characteristic deserves a place in any good collection. It is a large growing sort and will utilize more root room than most of the others. It is not so strong as most of the others described, but will succeed well if precautions are taken not to let it get chilled in cold weather. CHAPTER XIV CACTI Personally I am not an enthusiast over cacti. While a cactus in bloom is a marvelous sight, so gorgeous in fact that it is almost unbelievable and unreal, I prefer flowers a little less fervid and more constant. There are, however, two distinct advantages which most of the cacti possess, making them available for use where no other plants could be kept. They are practically proof against any hardships that may be imposed upon them, and they take up very little room. In addition to that they are always an interesting curiosity, and for that reason alone well worth the little attention they require. The low-growing sorts, among which some of the most curious are to be found, may be given a narrow shelf or the edge of the plant shelf in the winter window garden. As far as care and soil are concerned, their requirements are simple. The most important thing to see to is that they are given perfect drainage. The soil should be sandy, and coal ashes, or better still, old plastering or lime rubbish, should be added. Only a moderate amount of water will be required in winter, but when the plants are set outside in a well drained position in summer they should be showered frequently. As to temperature, although they come from hot climates, most of the sorts will stand as low as thirty-five degrees without injury. Just before and during the blooming period about sixty degrees is desirable, but forty-five to fifty degrees will be better at other times. Where room is lacking, they may, for the most part, be wintered over in the cellar, as described previously for other plants (page 71). Propagation is performed either by seeds or cuttings, the latter being the more generally used, as they root very readily--just break a piece off and stick it in the sand. Considered from the layman's point of view, cacti are made up of two classes: those which are valued for their wonderful flowers and those which excite curiosity by their weird habits of growth. Some of the latter--such as the Crown of Thorns and the _Mammillaria_--have small or infrequent flowers. Specimens of this class, well cared for, are worthy of a place in any collection of flowering plants. They will stand, especially during the flowering period, weak applications of manure water. The _Epiphyllums_ or Crab cacti (_Ephiphyllum truncatum_ and its varieties) are by far the most valuable, because of their profuse and long flowering season, especially as it comes in the winter when bright flowers are scarce. _E. t. coccineum_, with deep scarlet flowers, is one of the best. _Ruckerianum_, light purple with violet center; _Magnificum_, white, slightly pinkish at the edge; and _violaceum superbum_, white with rich purple edge, are some of the other good varieties of these beautiful plants. _Phyllocactus_ is perhaps the next best flowering sort. The flowers are larger, more gorgeous, but borne only for a very short time. _P. Ackermanni_ is one of the best of these. It has very large flowers, lily-shaped, bright red shading to light red with the inner petals, and the long gracefully curved stamens add to its beauty. It blossoms in May or early June, but the season is usually limited to two or three weeks. The night blooming _Phyllocactus_, with white flowers, is commonly confused with the Night-Blooming cereus. Cereus may be distinguished by its angular stems as compared to the broad flat stems of _Phyllocactus_. _C. grandiflorus_ and _C. Macdonaldiae_, the famous Night-blooming cereuses, have white flowers which remain open only one night. They are, however, though so transient, a marvelous sight. Prone to strange tasks indeed is the hand of Nature which has fashioned these grotesque, clumsy, lifeless looking plants to accumulate nourishment and moisture for months from the niggardly desert sands, and to mature for a few hours' existence only these marvelously fashioned flowers which collapse with the first rays of the heat-giving sunshine. _C. flagelliformis_, and _C. speciosissimus_, two very gorgeous flowered day blooming sorts, remain longer, but they are not so hardy as most of the other cacti. _Opuntia_, the Indian fig, is another flowering sort, though not so valuable. They are grotesque in shape and the flowers, which are various shades of red or yellow and two inches or so across, according to variety, look as though they had been stuck onto the plant. Of the other cacti commonly grown most are of dwarf form and a single window will accommodate quite a number of them. _Echinocactus_, the Hedge-hog cactus, is one of the best known of these. _E. myriostigma_, the Bishop's Cap, is a quite familiar variety. _Echinopsis_, the Sea-urchin cactus, is another queer dwarf type. The flowers seem much too large for the plants, being sometimes half a foot long. They are lily-shaped and rose pink or white, according to variety. _Pilocereus senilis_, the Old Man cactus, is another sort which always attracts attention in any collection. The stem is covered with fine white hairy spines, three to five inches long, which give it a very peculiar appearance. When kept in the house the hairs are likely to become dusty and grimy. They may be protected by cutting two panes of glass into four long pieces, just wide enough to square the pot, and enclosing it, putting a fifth piece over the top. _Opuntia senilis_, the dwarf prickly pear, is very similar to the above, but indoors makes a larger plant usually, although much smaller in its natural habitat. _Anhalonium fissuratum_, the Living Rock, is an other frequently encountered and very interesting sort. The _Mammillarias_ are compact, neat little plants quite unique and attractive in spite of their spiral rows of vicious spines. They grow only a few inches high and have inconspicuous pale flowers of yellow, red or purple, followed by the bright red little fruits which are one of the most interesting characteristics. _M. bicolor_ is one of the best and most frequently encountered sorts. _M. plumosa_ has fuzzy spines, like the Old Man cactus. It can be kept clean by growing under a large glass. There are several succulent plants quite closely resembling cacti, which need about the same treatment. The century plant (_Agave Americana_) is universally known. There are two sorts frequently seen, that with the green leaves and a variety with broad yellow bands which is much handsomer. They make excellent formal tub plants, standing almost any hardships and lasting for years. They are easily propagated from suckers and grow quite rapidly. They are, however, in the larger sizes very difficult to handle, armed with spines at leaf tips and edges. Tub specimens are usually wintered over in the cellar, or at the florist's. There is an unfounded superstition that they bloom once every hundred years. They rarely flower when domesticated. Repot as often as needed, in fairly rich soil, while growing. Small plants are quite attractive in the house in winter and may be plunged outside in summer. The Crown of Thorns (_Euphorbia splendens_) is also quite well known. It makes a long tangled vine, full of wicked short thorns and small, pretty leaves. The flowers are not large but the bright red bracts add a touch of color and the plant is covered with them most of the year. It must be carefully staked up and trained, a short wide pot trellis being the best thing to use. "Little Pickles" (_Othonna crassifolia_) is quite a favorite basket and hanging plant. The odd, thick foliage looks like small cucumbers. It must be given plenty of light, sunshine if possible, to produce its flowers, which are small and yellow, in shape like those of the sun pink, but smaller. There are a number of other succulents sometimes used for house plants, among them the aloes, mesembryanthemums (fig marigolds), echeverias (_E. metallica_ being the best sort), sedums and house leeks (_Sempervivums_), among which _S. globiferum_, "hen-and-chickens," is the most widely known. These do not occupy very important positions, however, and space does not permit further description here. CHAPTER XV BULBS Bulbs furnish one of the most satisfactory classes of winter-blooming house plants, especially for city houses and apartments where conditions are not apt to favor the longevity of plants. They may be considered in two classes:--the forcing bulbs, such as narcissus and freesia, and those given natural conditions of growth in pots, such as amaryllis or callas. Most of the forcing bulbs are included in what florists term the "Dutch" and "Cape" bulbs. They may be had in a succession of bloom from Thanksgiving to Easter, and yet all the work is done at one time. The task of bringing them to bloom is an easy one. [Illustration: A pan of forced crocuses. The big secret of success lies in securing a good root growth before a top growth starts] [Illustration: Few people realize that the gladiolus is an easily forced bulb for indoor bloom. This variety is named Victory] If you want to have the enjoyment of attending to the whole process yourself, procure your supply of bulbs from a reliable seed store, or order by mail. The bulbs should be firm and plump. The easiest to grow and the most satisfactory are hyacinths, tulips, narcissus and freesia. They can be grown in pots, but success will be more certain with small boxes four to six inches deep and any size up to the regular "flat" (about 13x22 inches), according to the number you wish in bloom at one time. All the paraphernalia you will need is a supply of light, rich soil (one-third old rotted manure, two-thirds rotted turf-loam is good) a few fern or bulb pans, boxes, and your bulbs. Begin operations early in October. Cover the bottoms of your pots and boxes, which should have ample drainage (see illustration) with an inch or so of coarse screenings, charcoal lumps, pot fragments or sifted coal cinders to assure good drainage. Cover this with an inch or so of soil, and put the bulbs in place, setting them firmly, right side up, and near enough almost to touch each other. The "extra size" bulbs can go a little further apart, but not more than two or three inches. Then cover over and fill with the same soil, until the bulbs are an inch or so below the surface of the potting soil. _The Dutch or Cape Bulbs._--The next step is to select your storage place, where the bulbs are to be kept while making roots, and until they are wanted to flower in the house. A dark, cold, dry cellar, free from mice, will do. If this is not available use the coldframe, if you have one, or simply dig a trench, in any well drained spot, about one foot deep, and long enough to hold your boxes and pots. After placing them here give them a thorough watering, and cover with six or eight inches of soil. Cover freesias only two inches, with a light soil. If you wish to keep tabs on your plantings, use a long stake, with place for tag at the top, in each pan or box. Don't trust to your memory. Your bulbs will need no further care until they are ready to be brought in, except, on the approach of freezing weather, to cover the trench with leaves, or litter if they are kept outdoors. In four or five weeks bring in hyacinths and polyanthus narcissi. Von Thol tulips may be had in bloom by Christmas. Success will be more certain with the other tulips and large flowered narcissi if you wait until the last of November before bringing them into the house. Their growth outside will have been almost entirely root growth; the first leaves may have started, but will not be more than an inch or two high. Immediately upon bringing them in, the bulbs should be given another good watering, and from this time on should never be allowed to suffer for water. When the flower spikes are half developed, a little liquid manure, or nitrate of soda, or one of the prepared plant foods, dissolved in water, will be of great benefit applied about once a week. The temperature for bulbs just brought in should be at first only 45 to 50 degrees; after a few days 10 degrees more. In the ordinary living-room a little ventilation by opened windows will readily lower the temperature, but care should be taken not to expose the growing plants to any draft. Forcing bulbs, like almost all other plants, will be better and healthier with the maximum amount of fresh air compatible with a sufficiently high temperature. The plants thus brought into water, light and warmth, will grow with remarkable rapidity. Just as the first buds are opening out is the ideal time to use them as presents, as they will continue subjects of daily attraction for a long time. Those that are kept can be saved, either to plant out or use another year. Let the soil gradually dry out when they are through blooming, and when the tops are dead take the bulbs from the soil, clean them and store in a perfectly dry place, or in boxes, in dry sand. The colors and other qualities of the many varieties of hyacinths, narcissi and tulips will be found described in the fall catalogues of all the best seedhouses. As before stated, hyacinths, tulips, narcissi and freesias are the most readily forced and the most satisfactory bulbs. The beginner will do well, for his first attempt, to confine himself to these. There are, however, several more that respond to practically the same treatment, and whose various types of beauty will repay handsomely the trouble of forcing them. _Ixias_ and _sparaxias_ are two more of the Cape group easily forced and well worth growing. They like a cool temperature, 35 to 40 degrees at night, even after having been brought in. They should not be put in the dark or covered with earth after potting, but started in a cool temperature, with light. _Oxalis._ Another very beautiful effect is had by getting a hanging basket, or a pot-hanger with which to suspend a six-inch or eight-inch bulb-pan, and in it start some oxalis bulbs. They do not need to be rooted first, but should be placed at once in the light and heat (about 55 degrees). They will send out spray after spray of beautiful flowers, continuing in bloom for months. Dry off and rest about June, if started in October; start again in the fall. Freesias and oxalis, to be had in bloom by Christmas, should be started in August. _Easter Lily_ (_Lillium Harrisii_) is universally popular. It is usually bought from the florist in bud or bloom, but may be grown in the house. Large firm bulbs should be procured, and potted at once in five or six inch pots, and given the same treatment as above until root growth has been made, when they will still be several months from flowering. When wanted for Easter they should be brought into the house the first or second week in November. Keep rather cool for two or three weeks. Later they may be given a much higher temperature. When the pots are covered with roots, it is a good plan to carefully repot, setting rather deep, so that the new roots starting above the soil, may be of use. _Lillium candidum_ and _L. longiflorum_ may be given the same treatment but will require a longer time in which to mature. _Calla_ (_Richardia Aethiopica_) The soil for callas should, where possible, be about one-third rotted cow manure. Otherwise make very rich soil with bone and whatever may be had but get the cow manure if possible. It also likes a great deal of water. Pot at once in large pots, give a thorough watering and keep cool and shaded for four or five weeks, until active growth begins. Then give more heat, keeping it about 60 degrees if you can. They will continue to bloom a long time. In the spring, after flowering ceases, dry off gradually and lay the pots on their sides in a shaded spot, and rest until August. Beside the large white calla most commonly seen, there are several other forms which will be found described in good catalogues, among them Tom Thumb or Little Gem, a dwarf sort; _Elliottiana_, the Yellow calla; Godfrey, a dwarf ever-blooming sort, especially desirable as a pot plant where, as is often the case, the ordinary large white sort is too big to be managed conveniently; _albomaculata_, white with purple throat, etc. The red and black callas are arums. _Cyclamen._ While these beautiful flowers may be grown from seed it is much easier for the amateur to get the bulbs or a growing plant. If the former, pot in four-or five-inch pots, using a light compost and giving little water at first. Repot as needed. Shade during summer and syringe frequently, give 55 to 60 degrees in winter, with liquid manure while flowering. When the leaves begin to look yellowish, dry off, and give a short rest but don't let them get dry enough to shrivel. _The Gloxinia_ (_Sinningia speciosa_) may receive much the same treatment but is a summer bloomer. The bulbs or dried roots should be potted up in February or March and kept growing on and repotted. One of their valuable characteristics is the great range of colors and combinations in the flowers, which are freely produced. _The Amaryllis-like Group._ Amaryllis (_Hippeastrum_) is altogether too little known in its modern varieties. Everyone has seen one of the old forms, red or red with a white stripe, with the lily-like flowers borne well aloft above scant foliage. But the new named sorts are tremendous improvements and should by all means be tried, even if they seem expensive beside other bulbs, of which you can get a dozen for the price of one good amaryllis. Remember, however, that the amaryllis is of the very easiest culture and will last for years. Pot the bulbs up as soon as received--they come in November--and let them stay dormant awhile. In a month or two they will begin growth and flower (unfortunately) long before the leaves have made much of a show. Do not dry off just because the flowers fade,--the plant has got to make its growth and store up food for next season. Continue to water and feed--outdoors in the summer--until the leaves begin to turn yellow; then dry off and store in a cool place until the bulbs again show signs of growth. The flowers are generally borne from January until May and come in shades of crimson, blood-red and white and attractive combinations of these colors. _Vallota purpurea_ is little known, but a very useful plant for the window garden, resembling the amaryllis, but having evergreen foliage which, of course, gives it a distinct advantage. The flowers are reddish scarlet. _Imantophyllum miniatum_ is another very desirable evergreen foliaged bulb, having large amaryllis-like flowers, red with a yellow throat. There are several varieties. The African blue lily (_Agapanthus umbellatus_) is quite like the above but the flowers are bright blue, a large number forming each umbel, so that it is one of the most striking of plants. It naturally flowers in the summer (being carried through the winter by storing in the cellar), but by changing the resting season may be flowered in the spring. Unlike most of the other bulbs in this group, they should be repotted in rich soil every year, to do their best. Beside the above there are varieties with white and with double flowers and one with variegated leaves. They form a most interesting group. The Blood Flower (_Hæmanthus_) has very beautiful flowers but they are produced in advance of the foliage. Give the same treatment as amaryllis. The above group will make a very unusual and desirable collection, easily managed, and giving satisfaction for a good many years. _Tuberous Begonia._ While this is not a bulb, strictly speaking, it is treated in about the same way as the bulbs. The tubers should be started in pots and not much larger than themselves, in a light, rich soil, using old cow manure and leaf-mould, if available, to secure these characteristics. Repot as often as necessary until seven or eight-inch pots are filled. Then feed while blooming. The tubers are dried off after growth, taken from the pots and stored in sand or sawdust to prevent shriveling. They are among the most satisfactory of flowers, but as their development has taken place largely within the last ten years or so, they are not yet nearly so widely known as they deserve. For flowering either in pots or outdoors they rank among the very best. Avoid direct sunlight. _Gladiolus._ This magnificent flower has gained rapidly during recent years, but few flower-lovers seem to realize as yet that it may be easily forced indoors. Pot up the bulbs in December, using a rich soil and setting them just even with it and covering with half an inch of gritty sand. America, May and Shakespeare are three of the best varieties for forcing but new ones are being produced every year. Keep cool until a good root growth is made, then shift to four-or five-inch pots and keep in a room of 45 to 50 degrees at night. _Caladiums._ While the fancy-leaved caladiums require a higher temperature than most house plants, they will repay the extra care and heat demanded in cases where it can be given. Start in February. Cover under and over with fine sphagnum moss, kept moist, and give 60 degrees until the roots start, which they will do quickly. Then pot in rather small pots, using a rich, light soil, with plenty of leaf-mould and sand. Water sparingly at first; shift on and give manure water as the leaves develop. Give all the light possible without letting the direct sunlight strike them during the heat of the day. Fifty-five degrees at night is the minimum temperature to allow. When the leaves begin to die dry off and treat as for begonias. _Lily-of-the-Valley_ (_Convallaria majalis_) may be forced in the house where sufficient bottom heat can be given and they are very desirable flowers, possessing a grace, beauty and fragrance seldom combined. Get "cold storage pips" and place in deep flats of pure sand. They may be stored in the cold and brought in as desired. Increase the temperature gradually until by placing over a radiator or in some other exceptionally warm place, 75 to 80 degrees is given at the bottom of the box. Keep covered from the light until the buds show when the shading should be gradually removed. _Iris._ The Spanish iris makes a very desirable plant for forcing and the plants are easily managed. A list of colors, etc., will be found in most of the fall bulb catalogues. They are quite distinct from the Japanese and German irises ordinarily seen outdoors. Start same as caladium, but they do not require so much heat. _Spirea_ (_Astilbe Japonica_). Several varieties of this beautiful flower are good for forcing. When the roots are received pot up in light, rich soil, water thoroughly, and set in a shaded place. Remove to the cellar or a deep coldframe as freezing weather comes on. Do not let the soil dry out. After the first of January bring into heat gradually. Sprinkle frequently as growth develops. _Ranunculus_ or buttercups, listed in the catalogues as Turkish, Persian and French, are very easily grown flowers. They have fleshy roots which are given the same treatment as Cape bulbs, i.e., started in light. _Poppy-flowered Anemones_ (_A. fulgens_ and _A. coronaria_) are also easily grown in the same way. They come in a variety of colors, including reds, whites, and blues. They are very cheery little flowers, two inches or so across, and well worth giving a few pots to. Several of the bulbs are easily grown in water, or pebbles and water, with no soil at all. The best known of these is the Chinese Sacred Lily. The Golden Chinese Lily is not so well known but very desirable. Hyacinths are easily grown in pure water; a special vase called the "hyacinth glass" being made for the purpose. CHAPTER XVI VERANDA BOXES, WINDOW-BOXES, VASES AND HANGING BASKETS Many of the plants ordinarily set outdoors in pots, or planted in the flower beds, could be much more effectively used in veranda boxes, window-boxes, vases or hanging baskets. The veranda boxes are generally about eight by six inches, made as described on page 9, and of the right length to fit some window-sill, or the corner or top of a veranda railing. Arrangements for watering should be made as convenient as possible, as this work is almost sure to be more or less neglected during the hot months when it needs frequent and thorough attention. The soil used should be porous and very rich, as many plants will have to get their nourishment from a very limited space. [Illustration: Window-boxes are at their best when containing only one or two kinds of bloom, part of it hanging down] [Illustration: Iceland poppies are not often seen in the window-box, as it takes many blooms to make a good showing] [Illustration: It is not necessary to have your window garden consist of tomato cans or old saucers--a little ingenuity will suggest such improvements as this movable plant table] The majority of the plants described in the foregoing pages may be utilized successfully in box work; which ones in any particular case should depend on circumstances, such for instance as whether the boxes will be in partial shade, or strong sunlight; or whether in a sheltered or a windswept position. A favorite combination is dracaenas, Nutt or Beauté Poitevine, with the variegated vinca as a front border. The lover of plants desirous of artistic effects will not be content, however, to go by fixed rules where so many opportunities for expression of individual taste are offered. There are two warnings to be given in addition to the suggestions above. Do not attempt to crowd too many plants into the small space available; remember that as a safe rule the most pleasing results will be obtained by the use of a very few kinds and colors. A good way to be sure of not making mistakes is to fill the boxes to within three or four inches of the top, arrange the plants, still in their pots, until a satisfactory picture is designed, and then fill up with soil and plant. Vases usually have three serious drawbacks; they are very restricted in size, are exposed to the most drying action of winds and sun, and are not conveniently watered. The last two disadvantages can be to some extent overcome by placing them in situations at least partially sheltered and shaded, and by running a half-inch or three-quarter inch pipe (which may be bought second hand for two to four cents a foot, while good hose costs sixteen to eighteen), a few inches under the sod and up to the top of the vase. Such a pipe should be detached and drained in the fall and will last many years; the few feet running up to the vase will be sufficiently concealed by the vines and reasonably inconspicuous. Where such precautions are not taken, restrict the plants used to those doing well in the heat, and a dry soil; one of the best is the ice plant (_Mesembryanthemum_) with flowers of pink or white, very freely produced. There is no prettier way of displaying plants than in the hanging basket, either in the house or on the porch. That one so seldom sees them is undoubtedly due to the fact that few people seem to know how to fill and take care of them. In the first place, the basket should be as large as possible--a size or so larger than you think you ought to have, for what reason you will see in the following. Get a supply of sphagnum moss, and line the entire inner surface, sides as well as bottom, an inch in thickness; press down compactly, then fill nearly full of light, rich prepared soil, and put in the plants; something tall and graceful in the center, compact and dwarf-growing around this, and vines around the edges. Astonishingly beautiful results may be had with small baskets by using only one sort of plant in each, such as oxalis, ivy geranium or some trailing flowering vines. Cover the surface of the soil between the plants with clean live sphagnum moss. This will both add to the appearance and conserve the moisture. The best way by far to water hanging baskets is to have them so arranged that they may be taken down easily and allowed to soak until thoroughly wet in a tub or pail of water--which will take some time, as the moss will be like a dry sponge. Let them drain until dripping ceases and hang in place again. If the above method is adhered to, you are sure to meet with success that will prove most gratifying. CHAPTER XVII HOUSE-PLANT INSECTS AND DISEASES If the suggestions for taking proper care of plants, detailed in a former chapter, are carefully followed, and they are given plenty of fresh air and not crowded together, insects should not cause serious trouble. No matter how careful one may be, however, they are almost certain to put in an appearance and steps to combat them must be taken immediately. Remember, however, that the best remedy is prevention, and the best prevention is to have good strong healthy plants. The two troubles perhaps the most common are neither insects nor disease. They are gas and sour soil. The faintest trace of furnace gas or of illuminating gas will cause trouble, indicated by the yellowing and falling of the leaves and unsatisfactory development of buds. Where there is no way of eliminating the presence of these gases the only way to success with the plants--unless they can be entirely shut off in an enclosed place as suggested in Chapter II--is to take every possible care about leaks, and to give all the fresh air possible. Sour soil is the result of improper drainage conditions, too much water, or both. It causes the leaves to turn yellow and checks new growth. Making right the harmful conditions will usually renew the health of the plant, but in bad cases it will be far better to remove the earth, wash the soil from the roots, carefully clean the pot--if the same one is to be used--and repot in good porous fresh earth. Keep on the dry side until growth is resumed. As a rule, insects do much more damage to house plants than is caused by diseases. One characteristic of nearly all plant insects which will astonish the amateur is the marvelous rapidity with which they increase. One to-day, and to-morrow a million, seems no exaggeration. While it may be true that, as one of our erstwhile best-selling heroes said, "a few fleas is a good thing for a dog; they keep him from broodin' on bein' a dog," a few bugs are certainly not good for a plant, because in a day or two there will be enough of them to endanger its life and surely, quickly to ruin its appearance. Never let the bugs get a start. If you take them in time they're easy: if not you have a very difficult and disagreeable task on your hands. PLANT ENEMIES _Aphis._ Aphis or green plant louse is the most commonly encountered of all the insect pests. It used to be dreaded, but with modern methods it may be readily and effectively exterminated. There are several forms and colors of these pests. If you have attempted plant-growing you are undoubtedly familiar with them. In the house, shaded places, crowded plants, poor ventilation, dry plants, all furnish environment favorable to the development of aphids. Change these conditions at once. The old method of fighting used to be by burning moistened tobacco stems, or steeping them in water and making a very weak tea for spraying. But either was a difficult, disagreeable and unsatisfactory method. There are now on the market three forms of tobacco all of which are easy to use and efficient. Tobacco dust--but it must be strong and made especially for the purpose; liquid nicotine, to be diluted and sprayed on according to directions; and prepared paper for fumigating. The last is perhaps the most effective. Besides these, and in my experience pleasanter and quicker, is the comparatively new compound called Aphine, which can be had from almost any seedsman in quart tins--enough to make five gallons of very effective spray, which will not discolor flowers or foliage. _Red Spider._ This very serious pest is about the size and color of a grain of red pepper--although sometimes appearing brown or dull red. To make himself inconspicuous, he works on the under side of the leaves and behind a tiny web, but his presence is soon made manifest by the leaves upon which he is at work, which first turn light green, then show minute yellow spots, turn yellow and finally drop off. The red spider is very tenacious of life, and hard to get rid of when he is allowed time to become well established. The best weapon to use against him, where it can be done, is clear cold water with as much force as possible against the under side of the foliage. Damp atmosphere assists in the work; so keep the air damp, and be on a sharp lookout. Evaporated sulphur, or flowers of sulphur dusted upon the leaves will also help. Where the collection of plants is not too large a one, the quickest and most certain way to be rid of the spider is to dip the top of each plant quickly two or three times into hot water--140 to 165 degrees. Although uncomfortable to the hand, water of this temperature will not injure the tenderest plant. It is effective against aphis and mealy bug, as well as against the spider. _Mealy Bug._ The mealy bug inhabits a white, cottony looking mass, which is easily seen. Remove this covering and the real intruder is there. It is most fond of the soft-wooded plants, such as coleus and fuchsias, thrives in a hot, dry atmosphere, and will keep out of sight, if not watched for, in a mass of leaves or under some branch axis, until there are a large number. If they are discovered before multiplying to any great extent, exterminate them with a fine brush or feather dipped in alcohol, coal-oil or kerosene, any of which, if applied directly to them, will kill them on the spot. _Scale._ The scales infesting house plants are of two kinds. The more common is the brown scale, which has a hard, slightly convex, circular shell, one-quarter of an inch or so in diameter. The white scale is much smaller, and soon forms quite dense colonies. Both attack the thick-leaved, smooth-barked plants, such as palms, ferns, lemons, and abutilons. They do not appear to be doing any damage, but invisibly suck the juices of the plant. They should be destroyed at once. This is accomplished by the use of fir-tree-oil soap, whale-oil soap, or kerosene emulsion and a stiff brush. _Thrips._ These do not often appear in the house, but may where plants are crowded in a shady place. They eat the substance of the leaves, leaving only the skeleton structure. They are small, about a quarter of an inch long, and brown or black. Aphine, kerosene emulsion or Paris green (one teaspoonful to twelve quarts of water) will keep them quiet. _Root Aphis._ Sometimes the leaves of a healthy plant will begin to look sickly with no apparent cause. It may be found upon examination that the blue root aphis is at work, clinging in clusters to the rootlets. Remove and wash away the soil, and then wash the roots in whale-oil soap suds, and repot in fresh soil. If no fresh soil is available, tobacco tea or tobacco dust should be washed into the soil every other day for a week. _Soil Worms._ The common earthworms sometimes find their way into a pot, and while they do not seem to bother the roots, I should judge from observation that they render the soil next to useless, especially in small pots. Another worm, or rather larva, sometimes to be found, is very small and hatches into a small white fly. If numerous, they do a good deal of damage. The treatment recommended for root aphis will get rid of them; or lime water (slake a piece of fresh lime the size of an apple in a pail of water, drawing off the water after settling), if used freely will kill them. DISEASES There are but two plant diseases likely to attack plants in the house: fungus and mildew. The first seems to be a sort of decomposition of the leaf, leaving a black, powdery residue. It is combated by spraying with bordeaux. Bordeaux can now be had in paste or powder form, which for small quantities is much better than to try to mix it yourself. Mildew causes the tenderest leaves to curl up and some of them seem to be covered with a white powder. Flowers of sulphur, dusted over the plants while the foliage is damp, is the standard remedy. For the sake of ready reference, the foregoing is condensed in the following simple table of plant insects and diseases. ======================================================================= INSECT | CONDITIONS | OR | SUPPORTING | REMEDIES DISEASE | GROWTH | -------------------+----------------------+---------------------------- Aphis, green and | Shade; poor | Aphine; tobacco-dust black | ventilation; | or tea; kerosene | thick foliage | emulsion; hot | | water bath; insect | | powder. | | Aphis, blue | Stunted growth; | Whale-oil soap | lack of water | solution; repotting; | | tobacco tea applied to | | roots. | | Thrips, 1/4 inch, | Shaded places; | Kerosene emulsion; long, brown or | crowded plants | Paris green--1 black; they eat. | | teaspoon to 12 quarts Mealy bugs } | | water. Other scale } | Corners; close, | Brush off; coal-oil; insects } | dry air | kerosene emulsion; | | hot water. | | Red spider | Hot, dry | Moisture, sulphur, | atmosphere | hot water. | | Rose-beetle | | Hand picking; wood | | ashes. | | White flies | Dry foliage | Kerosene emulsion. (Aleyrodes) | | | | | | Slugs | Dark corners; | Air-slaked lime. | dampness; | sweetened bran and | decaying wood | Paris green. | | Ants | | Insect powder; | | molasses traps. | | Angleworms | Dampness; heavy | Lime; lime-water; | soil | tobacco tea, and | | tobacco dust washed | | into soil. | | | | White grub | Manure not old | | enough. Destroy. | | | Fungous leaf spot | Shocks; checks | Bordeaux; Fungine. | | Mildew | Checks | Flowers of sulphur; | | Fungine. ======================================================================= To make the kerosene emulsion, use 2 ounces of soap (whale-oil is much better than the common), 1 quart of boiling water (over brisk fire), 2 quarts of kerosene oil. Dissolve the soap in boiling water, remove from fire, and add oil. Churn or beat until of the consistency of cream. If correctly mixed, the emulsion, on cooling, will adhere without oiliness to glass. Use rain water, if possible; if not, add a little baking soda to the water. For scale insects, dilute with 10 parts of water; for aphis and soft insects, with 15 or 20 parts water. In using kerosene emulsion, apply in fine spray. Remember it must come in contact with the insect to be effective. CHAPTER XVIII ACCESSORIES The following list of implements and materials is suggestive rather than imperative. While all these things are useful many successful flower growers get along without many of them. At the same time, if one adds to the garden outfit from time to time, the expense will hardly be noticed and in the course of two or three years a fairly complete set will be accumulated. Do not feel in the least that in the meantime you cannot grow flowers successfully. FOR MIXING SOIL _Spade._ A good long-bladed sharp instrument should be procured, for use both in taking up plants and in cutting out sod, etc., for the compost heap and in "cutting down" the same for repiling. _Hoe._ Get a long blade with a straight edge. See that the ferrule and shank are of one piece if you do not want to be bothered with a loose head. _Sieve._ For small amounts of soil, an ordinary round coal ash sieve is just the thing. It is a good thing to have as it will insure getting soil for seeds and small pots to the proper degree of fineness. _Trowel._ Don't buy a cheap trowel. They may be had for fifteen or twenty cents but a fifty-cent one will outlast a dozen of these and not break just when you need it most. SOIL INGREDIENTS A sufficient quantity of soil constituents should be kept on hand in barrels or covered boxes. Store where they will not dry out. _Rich Loam or Rotted Sod._ This is the basis of most plant soils. Keep a good supply ahead, that it may be thoroughly decomposed. _Sand._ What is known as "Builders' Sand," medium, coarse and gritty, is the proper kind. Contrary to some horticultural superstitions, it makes no difference what the color is, "silver" or gray, red, white or yellow. _Leaf-mould._ Easily procured by scraping aside the top layer near some stone wall or hollow in the woods where leaves collect and rot from year to year. _Sphagnum moss_ is another very valuable accessory. It can be gathered in most swampy places or bought cheaply at the florist's. _Peat._ Not obtainable in all localities, but it can be bought cheap from florists. Found under mucky bog-swamps but must be thoroughly dried and pulverized before use. _Bone meal._ This is invaluable for enriching plant soil. (See page 19.) The fine sort, sometimes called bone flour, is the quickest acting. For plants that stay potted for several years, it is best to use about two-thirds of the coarse-ground. FOR PLANTING AND TRANSPLANTING _Transplanting fork._ This can be had in malleable iron for fifteen cents and as it is not submitted to hard strains, like a trowel, will do as well as the seventy-five-cent imported sorts. It will save the life of innumerable seedlings, in lifting them from the seed box. _Dibber._ You can make two or three of various sizes in a few minutes from a piece of soft pine. They are used for pricking off and repotting. It will often be convenient to have one end bluntly pointed and the other rather flat. _Sub-irrigation tray._ The use of this convenient method of watering is described on page 24 and illustrated facing page 28. The tinsmith will make you a tray for fifty or seventy-five cents. It will certainly pay to have one if you attempt to grow many fine-seeded flowers. _Watering can._ As this accessory is more used perhaps than any other, and as the quality of the work it does is very important, it is poor economy to buy a cheap one. The Wotherspoon type, sold by most seed houses, is the best. It has brass fittings which will not rust, tighten or rot out and a coarse and a fine brass nozzle with each pot. They cost from two to three dollars, according to size, but are well worth the money. _Pots._ A good smooth red pot adds not a little to the looks of a plant. For the ordinary collection of house plants three shapes, quite distinct, are desirable: "Standard" the sort ordinarily seen; "Pans," very shallow for their width and used for bulbs, or ferns (facing p. 116); and "Rose" pots, or those exceptionally deep. The latter are good for plants requiring large root room, such as single bulbs, or plants demanding exceptionally thorough drainage. _Bulb glasses._ These are constructed especially to support the bulb, while permitting the roots to grow down into the water. They come in different shapes and colors and are not expensive. _Hanging baskets._ Attractive baskets can now be had cheaply. They are made of wire, rustic work or earthenware, and no plant lover should be without one or two, as they offer a most effective way of displaying plants. Use picture wire to support them, as cord is apt to rot and break. They should be hung so as to be easily taken down. _Boxes._ While these may be homemade, as described on page 9, it is often desirable to purchase one of the ornamental sorts now on the market. Many of them are hideous, but there are artistically designed ones. The "self-watering" box is a great labor-saver and well worth getting where one can afford the investment, as they will last for years. FOR HANDLING PLANTS In addition to the above there are a number of other devices often convenient to use. _Brackets_, frequently make possible the accommodation of a number of extra plants and show them off to the best advantage, especially vines and drooping plants. They are readily secured by screws to the window casing. _Pot-hangers_, can be had for a few cents each and used to convert pots of any size into "Hanging baskets." They very often solve the problem of what to do with a choice plant that is beginning to take up too much room. _Pot-covers_, made of water-proof material are now to be had in a great assortment of styles and colors and are very useful, especially in connection with potted plants used as gifts. _Plant-stakes._ Often any old stake is used for supporting drooping plants, such as fuchsias. A much better one can easily be made by taking a round stick, say one-half or three-fourths of an inch in diameter and boring small holes through it with a gimlet. Stout pieces of wire, of a size that will fit snugly are inserted and twisted once around to reinforce the wood. These may then be bent readily to any angle and thus made to conform with needs of the particular plant being supported. If one has a soldering outfit, the main stake may be made of heavy wire. _Raffia._ This may be bought cheaply at the florist's and is much better than twine for tying up plants and similar purposes, as it is soft and broad--a dried, ribbon-like grass. It may be had stained green and with green stakes makes the support of a plant practically invisible. _Syringe._ If only a few plants are kept, a rubber bulb plant sprinkler may do for syringing them. But if one wants to combat insects and keep plants healthy with the least trouble, a small florist's brass syringe will prove a good investment. With ordinary care they will last a lifetime. It will also be useful for applying insecticides in liquid form. _Fertilizers._ In addition to the chemicals, etc., described in Chapter III, there are to be had concentrated plant foods in tablet form. These are very convenient to use, and a box kept on hand will frequently prove useful. If any number of plants are kept, however, an old metal pail and a small dipper, for mixing and applying liquid manure, should have a place in the tool outfit and be used frequently. Never apply liquid manure when the soil is dry. Part Two--Home Glass CHAPTER XIX ITS OPPORTUNITIES It cannot be said that America has yet reached the gardening age. There is no doubt, however, that the appreciation of flowers, and the liking for things horticultural in general, is growing rapidly. The stimulus that compels hundreds to turn with delight to the joy in the creative work of growing things arises from a sound foundation. Comparatively few people, however, realize that this pleasure can be had by them around the entire circle of the months. They look forward to planting time in the spring and accept as inevitable the cessation of their gardening adventures with the first frost. It is to such people that the message of home glass must come as good tidings indeed. For them the gentle art of gardening under glass has seemed a distant and mysterious thing. Little indeed have they realized how easily it might be brought within reach; that instead of being an expensive luxury it would be by no means impossible to make it a paying investment, yielding not only pleasure but profit as well. As a matter of fact, when one's mind is once made up not to sacrifice the pleasures of gardening for six months every year, a little energy, ingenuity and a very few dollars will go a long way in providing the necessary equipment. Nor is the care of the ordinary flowers, and the vegetables suited for winter use, such a complicated profession that the beginner cannot achieve quite a considerable measure of success with his or her very first attempts, provided that regular care is given the work in hand. It is a much easier task than succeeding with plants in the house, notwithstanding the fact that general opinion is to the contrary. It is not necessary to start in on a large scale. A very few square feet of soil, where all the conditions can be controlled as they are under glass, will produce an amazing amount. Take for instance lettuce grown for the home table. How good it is right fresh and crisp from the soil compared to the wilted or artificially revived bunches one can get at the grocer's! Outdoors you put it a foot apart in rows a foot and a half apart; a patch 3 x 10 feet would give you twenty heads. In the home garden under glass you set out a batch of Grand Rapids lettuce plants, one of the very best in quality, six inches each way, so that a little piece of bench 3 x 10 feet would give you one hundred heads (which incidentally at the grocer's would cost you $10. or $12.--enough good money to buy glass for a quite roomy little lean-to). (See page 164.) Details of construction, etc., are given in the following pages, but the most important thing of all is just to make up your mind that you will have a little greenhouse of your own. If you once decide to have it the way can be found, for the necessary cash outlay is very small indeed. Think of the variety of ways you could use such a winter garden! Not only may lettuce, radishes, tomatoes, cucumbers, beets and other vegetables be had out of season, but you can get a better start with your garden than ever before--put it weeks and weeks ahead of the old sow-out-in-the-ground way. And then consider the flowers! A dozen carnation plants, for instance, would occupy about six square feet of room, say 2 x 3 feet of bench, and would supply you comfortably with blossoms all winter long--nice fresh ones outlasting twice over the cold storage blooms from the retail florist's--to say nothing of the added value of having them actually home grown. [Illustration: It is surprising how most people over-estimate the difficulties and expense of maintaining a small greenhouse. In relation to the pleasure one brings, the cost is exceedingly small] [Illustration: A lean-to type of greenhouse, such as has been built on the east wall of this house, is within reach of almost any owner of a small country place] CHAPTER XX THE COLDFRAME AND THE HOTBED The simplest form of home glass is the coldframe. The simplest hothouse is the manure heated coldframe or hotbed. The following directions for making the frames and preparing the soil for them are taken from the author's _Home Vegetable Gardening_. For the ordinary garden, all the plants needed may be started successfully in hotbeds and coldframes. The person who has had no experience with these has usually an exaggerated idea of their cost and of the skill required to manage them. The skill is not as much a matter of expert knowledge as of careful regular care, daily. Only a few minutes a day, but every day. The cost need be but little, especially if one is a bit handy with tools. The sash which serves for the cover, and is removable, is the important part of the structure. Sash may be had, ready glazed and painted, at from $2.50 to $3.50 each, and with care they will last ten or even twenty years, so you can see at once that not a very big increase in the yield of your garden will be required to pay interest on the investment. Or you can buy the sash unglazed, at a proportionately lower price, and put the glass in yourself, if you prefer to spend a little more time and less money. However, if you are not familiar with the work, and want only a few sash, I would advise purchasing the finished article. In size they are three feet by six. Frames upon which to put the sash covering may also be bought complete, but here there is a chance to save money by constructing your own frames--the materials required being 2 x 4 inch lumber for posts, and inch-boards; or better, if you can easily procure them, plank 2 x 12 inches. So far as these materials go the hotbed and coldframe are alike. The difference is that while the coldframe depends for its warmth upon catching and holding the heat of the sun's rays, the hotbed is artificially heated by fermenting manure, or in rare instances, by hot water or steam pipes. In constructing the hotbed there are two methods used; either placing the frames on top of the manure heap or by putting the manure within the frames. The first method has the advantage of permitting the hotbed to be made upon frozen ground, when required in the spring. The latter, which is the better, must be built before the ground freezes, but is more economical of manure. The manure in either case should be that of grain-fed horses, and if a small amount of straw bedding, or leaves--not more, however, than one-third of the latter--be mixed among it, so much the better. Get this manure several days ahead of the time wanted for use and prepare by stacking in a compact, tramped down heap. Turn it over after three or four days, and re-stack, being careful to put the manure from the top and sides of the pile now on the inside. Having now ready the heating apparatus and the superstructure of our miniature greenhouse, the building of it is a very simple matter. If the ground is frozen, spread the manure in a low, flat heap nine or ten feet on each side, a foot and a half deep, and as long as the number of sash to be used demands. A cord of manure thus furnishes a bed for about three sash, not counting for the ends of the string or row. This heap should be well trodden down and upon it should be placed the box or frame upon which the sash are to rest. In using this method it will be more convenient to have the frame made up beforehand and ready to place upon the manure, as shown in one of the illustrations. This should be at least twelve inches high at the front and some half a foot higher at the back. Fill in with at least four inches--better six--of good garden soil containing plenty of humus so that it may allow water to soak through readily. The other method is to construct the frames on the ground before severe freezing, and in this case the front should be at least twenty-four inches high, part of which--not more than half--may be below the ground level. The 2 x 12 inch planks, when used, are handled as follows: stakes are driven in to support the back plank some two or three inches above the ground,--which should, of course, be level. The front plank is sunk two or three inches into the ground and held upright by stakes on the outside, nailed on. Remove enough dirt from inside the frame to bank up the planks about halfway on the outside. When this banking has frozen to a depth of two or three inches, cover with rough manure or litter to keep frost from striking through. The manure for heating should be prepared as above and put in to the depth of a foot, trodden down, first removing four to six inches of soil to be put back on top of the manure,--a cord of the latter, in this case, serving seven sashes. The vegetables to be grown, and the season and climate, will determine the depth of manure required--it will be from one to two feet,--the latter depth seldom being necessary. It must not be overlooked that this manure, when spent for heating purposes, is still as good as ever to enrich the garden, so that the expense of putting it in and removing it from the frames is all that you can fairly charge up against your experiment with hotbeds, if you are interested to know whether they really pay. The exposure for the hotbeds should be where the sun will strike most directly and where they will be sheltered from the north. Put up a fence of rough boards, five or six feet high, or place the frames south of some building. The coldframe is constructed practically as in the hotbed, except that if manure is used at all it is for the purpose of enriching the soil where lettuce, radishes, cucumbers or other crops are to be grown to maturity in it. All this may seem like a lot of trouble to go for such a small thing as a packet of seed. In reality it is not nearly so much trouble as it sounds, and then, too, this is for the first season only. You will have a well built frame lasting for years--forever, if you want to take a little more time and make it of concrete instead of boards. But now that the frame is made, how to use it is the next question. The first consideration must be the soil. It should be rich, light, friable. There are some garden loams that will do well just as taken up, but as a rule better results will be obtained where the soil is made up specially, as follows: rotted sods two parts, old rotted manure one part, and enough coarse sand added to make the mixture fine and crumbly, so that, even when moist, it will fall apart when pressed into a ball in the hand. Such soil is best prepared by cutting out sod, in the summer, where the grass is green and thick, indicating a rich soil. Along old fences or the roadside where the wash has settled will be good places to get limited quantities. These should be cut with considerable soil and stacked, grassy sides together, in layers in a compost pile. If the season proves very dry, occasionally soak the heap through. In late fall put in the cellar, or wherever solid freezing will not take place, enough to serve for spring work under glass. The amount can readily be calculated; soil for three sash, four inches deep, for instance, would take eighteen feet or a pile three feet square and two feet high. The fine manure (and sand, if necessary) may be added in the fall or when using in the spring. Here again it may seem to the amateur that unnecessary pains are being taken. I can but repeat what has been suggested all through these pages, that it will require but little more work to do the thing the best way as long as one is doing it at all, and the results will be not only better, but practically certain--and that is a tremendously important point about all gardening operations. While the cold frame and hotbed offer great advantages--especially in the way of room--over growing plants and starting seed in the house, they are nevertheless incomparably less useful than the simplest small greenhouse. Plants may be wintered over in them, violets may be grown in them, lettuce may be grown late in the fall and early in the spring, and followed by cucumbers. But they are not convenient to work in. One is dependent on the weather. They are not satisfactorily under control. Take, for instance, one of those dark fall days, with a cold nasty drizzle cutting down on a slant, or one of those bright sunny and cloudy chill-winded spring days, when no pleasure is to be had out-of-doors. Under the shelter of your little glass roof, where you can make your own weather, what fun it is to be potting up a batch of cuttings, or putting in a few packets of choice seed for the extra early garden! There is nothing like it. CHAPTER XXI THE CONSTRUCTION OF CONSERVATORIES AND SMALL GREENHOUSES Have you ever stepped from the chill and dreariness of a windy day, when it seems as if the very life of all things growing were shrunk to absolute desolation, into the welcome warmth and light and fragrance, the beauty and joy of a glass house full of green and blossoming plants? No matter how small it was, even though you had to stoop to enter the door, and mind your elbows as you went along, what a good, glad comfortable feeling flooded in to you with the captive sunlight! What a world of difference was made by that sheet of glass between you and the outer bitterness and blankness. Doubtless such an experience has been yours. Doubtless, too, you wished vaguely that you could have some such little corner to escape to, a stronghold to fly to when old winter lays waste the countryside. But April came with birds, and May with flowers, and months before the first dark, shivery days of the following autumn, you had forgotten that another winter would come on, with weeks of cheerless, uncomfortable weather. Or possibly you did not forget, until you had investigated the matter of greenhouse building and found that even a very small house, built to order, was far beyond your means. Do not misunderstand me as disparaging the construction companies: they do excellent work--and get excellent prices. You may not be able to afford an Italian garden, with hundreds of dollars' worth of rare plants, but that does not prevent your having a more modest garden spot, in which you have planned and worked yourself. Just so, though one of these beautiful glass structures may be beyond your purse, you may yet have one that will serve your purpose just as practically. The fact of the matter is, you can have a small house at a very small outlay, which will pay a good, very good interest on your investment. With it you will be able to have flowers all the year round, set both your flower and vegetable garden weeks ahead in the spring, save many cherished plants from the garden, and have fresh green vegetables, such as lettuce, radishes, tomatoes and cucumbers that can readily be grown under glass. And you will be surprised, if you can give the work some personal attention, or, better still, have the fun of doing a little of the actual building yourself, at how small an outlay you can put up a substantial structure of practical size, say 20 feet by 10--of the "lean-to" form. By way of illustration let us see what the material for such a house would cost, and how to erect it. Almost every dwelling house has some sheltered corner or wall where some glass "lean-to" could easily be added, and the shape and dimensions can be made to suit the special advantages offered. We will consider a simple house of the lean-to type, requiring a wall, to begin with, 20 feet long and 7 feet high, down to the ground, or a foot or so below it, if you can dig out. Below is listed the material such a house would require. With modern patented framing methods such a house has been estimated by greenhouse building companies to cost, for the material only, from $325 to $400. Yet you can have a wooden house that will serve your purpose at a cost for materials of $61 and, if you do not care to put it together yourself, a labor cost of, say, one-third more. [Illustration: Fig. 2--Floor plan of the lean-to type of greenhouse shown in section on the opposite page.] As our north wall is already in place, we have only four surfaces to consider, as the accompanying diagram shows--namely, south wall, gable ends, roof and openings. For the roof we will require a ridge against the wall of the dwelling house, sash-bars running at right angles to this, a "purlin," or support, midway of these, and a sill for the lower ends. For the south wall we will need posts, one row of glass, and boards and "sheathing." For the gable ends, a board and sheathing wall to the same height, and for the balance, sash-bars and glass. The required openings will be a door or doors, and three ventilators, to give a sufficient supply of fresh air. [Illustration: Fig. 3--A sectional view of a two-bench, 10 X 20 ft. house built against the dwelling wall. If possible it would be well to gain a steeper slope for the glass and better headroom. The detail in the upper right hand corner shows, at larger scale, the plate and front lights, indicated just below in the main section.] For these the material required will be: 10 ft. of 2-in. x 4-in. ridge $ 0.80 13 10-ft. drip bars 3.25 2 10-ft. end bars 1.00 5 6-ft. x 1-1/4-in. second-hand pipe posts .50 20 ft. 1-in, second-hand iron pipe 1.00 4 1-1/4-in. x 1-in. clamps .50 20 ft. 2-in. x 4-in. eaves plate 1.60 20 ft. 2-in. x 6-in. sill 2.20 15 1-in. pipe straps .50 18 ft. 2-in. x 4-in. sill, for gables 1.50 40 ft. side bars, random lengths, for gables 1.00 3 ventilating sash for 3 24-in. x 16-in. lights 3.00 9 16-in. headers for ventilators .40 6 hinges with screws for ventilators .75 1 roll tar paper, single-ply 2.00 6 boxes 24-in. x 16-in. glass, B double thick 24.00 75 lbs. good greenhouse putty 2.50 ------ Total of items listed above $46.50 All of the above will have to come from a greenhouse material supply company, and prices given do not include freight charges. The following items may probably be bought more economically in your immediate vicinity, and the prices will vary in different sections of the country:-- Total of items listed above $46.50 240 ft. rough 1-in. boards 7.50 6 posts, 4 in. thick, 6 ft. long, planed on one side} 3.00 2 posts. 4 in. thick, 8 ft. long, planed on one side} 1000 shingles 4.00 ------ Total cost of materials $61.00 Estimate of labor 20.00 ------ Total cost of greenhouse $81.00 Level off a place about 22 x 12 feet, and set in the posts as indicated in the plan on page 158, taking care to get the lines for the ends of the house perfectly square with the wall, and exact in length. This is best done by laying out your lines first with stout string, and making your measurements accurately on these. Then put in the posts for sides and ends, setting these about three feet into the ground, or, better still, in concrete. Put in the two corner posts, which should be square first. Next saw off all posts level at the proper height, and put in place the 2 x 4 in. eaves plate on top of these and the 2 x 6 in. sill just far enough below to take a 16 x 24 in. light of glass, with its upper edge snug in the groove in lower side of plate, as shown in detail of section on page 159. Fit the 2 x 6 in. sill about the posts so that the mortice on same will just clear the outside of posts. Then put on the siding on sides and ends--first a layer of rough inch-boards, running vertically, a layer, single or double, of tar paper, and a second layer of boards, laid horizontally, covering on the outside with shingles, clapboards or roofing paper. The five 7 ft. x 1-1/4 in. pipe posts may now be placed loose in their holes, and a walk dug out of sufficient depth to allow passage through the middle of the house. Rough boards nailed to stakes driven into the ground, will hold the earth sides of this in place. Next, after having it sawed in two vertically (thus making 20 ft), screw the ridge securely to side of house at proper height, giving a thick coat of white lead at top to insure a tight joint with house. Now put one of the end bars in place, taking care to get it exactly at right angles with ridge, and then lay down the sash-bars, enough more than 16 in. apart to allow the glass to slip into place readily. Take a light of glass and try it between every fourth or fifth bar put into position, _at both ridge and eave_, as this is much easier than trying to remedy an error when half the glass is laid. Use "finishing" nails for securing the sash-bars, as they are easily split. Next, with chalk line mark the middle of the roof sash-bars, and secure to them the one-inch pipe purlin, which will then be ready to fasten to the uprights already in place. Next, make concrete by mixing two parts Portland cement, two of sand and four of gravel or crushed stone with sufficient water to make a mixture that will pour like thick mud, and put the iron pipe posts in their permanent positions, seeing that the purlin is level and the posts upright. (If necessary, the purlin can be weighted down until the concrete sets.) Then put into place the ventilators, glazed, and the headers for the same--short pieces of wood, cut to go in between the sash-bars,--and fit these up snugly against the lower edge of the ventilator sash. When laying the glass in the roof, which will now be ready, use _plenty_ of putty, worked sufficiently soft for the glass to be thoroughly bedded in it, and leaving no air-spaces or crevices for the rain to leak through later. If this work is carefully done, it will not be necessary to putty again on the outside of the glass, but it should be gone over with white lead and linseed oil. Be sure to place the _convex_ surface of every light up. The panes should be lapped from 1/6 to 1/4 of an inch, and held securely in place with greenhouse glazing points, the double-pointed _bent_ ones being generally used. The lights for the ends of the house may be "butted," that is, placed edge to edge, if you happen to strike good edges, but as a general thing, it will be more satisfactory to lap them a little. The woodwork, before being put together, should all receive a good priming coat of linseed oil in which a little ochre has been mixed, and a second coat after erection. I have suggested putting the glass in roof and sides before touching the benches, because this work can then be done under shelter in case bad weather is encountered. The benches can be arranged in any way that will be convenient, but should be about waist-high, and not over four or four and a half feet across, to insure easy handling of plants, watering, etc. Rough boards will do for their construction, and they should not be made so tight as to prevent the ready drainage of water. The doors may be bought, or made of boards covered with tar paper and shingles or roofing paper. The house suggested above is used only by way of illustration. It may be either too large or too small for the purposes of some of the readers of this book, and I shall therefore give very briefly descriptions of several other types of small houses, some of which may be put up even more cheaply than the above. The plainest is the sash lean-to somewhat like Fig. 3, which is made by simply securing to a suitable wall a ridge-piece to hold one end of the sashes for the roof, and erecting a wall, similar to the one described above, but without glass, and with a plain, 2 x 4 in. piece for a sill, to support the other ends. Either a single or double row of sashes may be used, of the ordinary 3 x 6 foot size. In the latter case, of course, a purlin and supporting posts, as shown in diagram, must be supplied. Every second or third top sash should be hinged, to open for ventilation, and by tacking strips over the edges of the sash where they come together, a very tight and roomy little house can be put up quickly, easily and very cheaply. New sash, glazed and painted one coat, can be bought for $3 to $3.50 each. Ten of these would make a very practical little house, fifteen feet long, and over ten feet wide. [Illustration: Sash and frames for a coldframe or hotbed cost only about $3.00 per frame, 3 x 6 ft., and will serve to raise thousands of young plants for setting out in the spring] [Illustration: A simple and ingenious type of window greenhouse made from a single coldframe sash with side glazing and a shelf] [Illustration: An inside view of the same. Three shelves are available for plants in addition to the main shelf at the bottom] Another form of lean-to where there are windows is shown in another diagram. The even-span house, of which type there are more erected than of any other, is also shown. The cost of such a house, say 21 feet wide, can be easily computed from the figures given in the first part of this chapter, the north wall, and purlin braces from the ridge posts, being the only details of construction not included there. [Illustration: Fig. 4--A simple form of lean-to greenhouse where there is an available sheltering wall but with first-story windows. The inner slope or valley should be drained] [Illustration: Fig. 5--The simplest of all "greenhouses," which is in reality little more than a deep coldframe with an opening into the cellar] A simple way of greatly increasing the capacity of the ordinary hotbed or coldframe, is to build it next to a cellar window, so that it will receive some artificial heat, and can be got at, from the inside, in any weather. Several sashes can be used, and the window extend to include as many of them as desired. By all means get a little glass to use in connection with your garden this coming year. Put up one of these small greenhouses, if you can: if not, get a few sash, at least. Don't put it off till next year; do it now! [Illustration: Fig. 6--The regular even-span type. A indicates a row of pipe standards; BB, braces from these to the purlins. There is a fitting made for the junction C.] In the next chapter we will take up the handling of vegetables and flowers in the small greenhouse. But don't be content to _read_ about it. It's the pleasantest kind of _work_--try it yourself! CHAPTER XXII METHODS OF HEATING In the foregoing chapter on homemade greenhouses very brief reference was made to the various methods of heating. It will be well to understand a little more in detail how to heat glass structures, as temperature is, next to moisture, the most important factor of success. If steam or hot water is used in the dwelling house and a greenhouse of the lean-to type is used, the problem becomes a very simple one, as additional pipes can be run through the greenhouse. But as this advantage is not always ready to hand, we will consider the heating of an isolated house, and the principles involved may be adapted to individual needs. There are three systems of heating: flues (hot air), hot water, and steam--the latter we need not take up as it is economical only for larger structures than the amateur is likely to have. [Illustration: Fig. 7--The best arrangement for heating a greenhouse by hot air, is to run a brick or cement flue from the furnace around under the benches and into the chimney over the fire. AA--storages space; B--furnace; C--chimney; DDD--benches; E--furnace door.] Heating by hot air carried through brick or tile flues is the simplest and cheapest method for very small houses. The best way of constructing such a system is illustrated in the diagram adjoining, which shows the flue returning into the chimney (after traveling the length of the house and back). This method does away with the greatest trouble with flue heating--a poor draft; for immediately the fire is started, the air in the chimney becomes heated, and rising, draws the hot air from the furnace around through the flue with a forced draft. This forced draft accomplishes three other good things: it does away with the escape of noxious gases into the greenhouses, lessens the accumulation of moisture and dust from wood smoke, and distributes the heat much more evenly throughout the house. The furnace may be built of solid brick, with doors and grates and an arched dome, and the flue should be of brick for at least one-third the length from the furnace into the house; for the rest of the way cement or vitrified drain pipe will be cheaper and better. The flue should have a gradual upward slope for its whole length and will vary in size with the house to be heated, from five to eight or nine inches in diameter, the latter being sufficient for a house 60 by 21 feet. The flue should be raised a little from the ground, and at no point should any woodwork be nearer than six inches to it. Very small houses, especially if not started up until January, may be heated by an ordinary wood stove with the stove pipe run the length of the house, but such an arrangement will give off a very drying and uneven heat, and require a lot of attention, to say nothing of its danger. [Illustration: Fig. 8--Hot water is undoubtedly the most satisfactory method of heating the small greenhouse. The diagram shows a 1-1/2-inch supply pipe leading out from the boiler, with 1-inch returns under the benches, making a satisfactory system for the lean-to type described in detail in the previous chapter.] [Illustration: Fig. 9--For the larger greenhouse of the isolated double-slope type, 21 x 50 feet in size, a 2-inch supply pipe, with five 1-1/2-inch returns under the outer benches, will secure a temperature of 55 degrees.] By far the most satisfactory way will be to use hot water. If the size of the house will not justify the purchase of a small heater--a second-hand one may often be had at a very reasonable figure--a substitute may be had by inserting a hot-water coil in a stove or in the house furnace. In one of the diagrams is shown an arrangement of pipes for heating a house 21 x 50 feet, and in another piping for lean-to described in the preceding chapter. With the small pipe sufficient for such a house as that illustrated in the latter diagram, the work can be done by anyone at all acquainted with the use of pipe tools; if possible, the pipes should be given a slight downward slope, say one inch in ten feet, from as near the heater as practical. For all this work second-hand piping, newly threaded, will answer very well, and it may be bought for about four cents per foot for one-inch pipe; six cents for one and one-half inch, and eight cents for two-inch. In putting the stove or heater in place, it should be sunk below the level upon which the pipes will run, and attention should also be given to the matter of caring for the fire, removing ashes, etc., making the management of these things as convenient as possible. CHAPTER XXIII MANAGEMENT Experience only can teach the beginner just how to manage his vegetables and plants in this new winter garden. But at the outset he must remember one thing: If it is true that he has control of his miniature world of growing things it is also true that he can leave nothing, as he does with his outside garden, to the treatment of nature. The control is in his hands--the warmth, the moisture, the fresh air, the soil--none can be left to chance; he must think of them all. And before going into details, which might at first be confusing, let us take up the elements of this little world over which we are to reign, and try to elucidate first a few general rules to guide us. The house, after countless little delays and unforeseen problems conquered by personal interest and ingenuity, is at last ready, and the bare board benches look ugly enough in the bright, hot sunlight. How are they to be converted into a small Garden of Eden, when all outdoors is chained in the silent desolation of drifted snow? Here is a new task. No longer Nature's assistant, the gardener has been given entire management of this new sort of garden. It is almost a factory, where he must take his raw materials--earth, water, heat, light, and the wonderful thread of life, and mold these all into a hundred marvelous forms of beauty and utility. Something of art, something of science, something of business, must all be brought to his interesting work. Let us begin then at the bottom. What is the best kind of dirt to use? It should be friable, so that it will not bake and cake in the pots; rich, that the little plants may readily find ample nourishment; porous, that water may be soaked up readily, and any surplus drained off freely. A soil answering all these requirements is made as follows: cut from an old ditch or fence-side, thick sods, and stack them with the grass sides together to rot. This heap should be forked over several times, when it has begun to decompose. In dry weather, if within reach of the hose, a good soaking occasionally will help the process along. The sods should be cut during spring or summer. To this pile of sod, when well rotted (or at time of using), add one-third in bulk of _thoroughly rotted manure_--cow and horse mixed, and a year old, if it can be obtained--and mix thoroughly. If the soil is clayey or heavy, add enough coarse sand and make it fine and friable, or use a larger proportion of the manure. Leaf-mould, from the woods, will also be good to lighten it with. This one mixture will do for all your potting. Keep enough of it under cover, or where it will not freeze, to last you during the winter and early spring. Store some of it in old barrels, or in boxes under the greenhouse bench, if there is not a more convenient place. For very small pots, run it through a half-inch sieve. For the larger sizes, three inches and up, this will not be necessary--just be sure the ingredients are well mixed. Proper temperature is more likely to be the beginner's stumbling block than any other one thing. Different plants, of course, require different treatment in this respect; and just as your corn and beans will not come up if planted too early in the spring, or carrot or pansy seed in the heat of July, so the temperature in which a coleus will thrive would be fatal to the success of verbenas or lettuce under glass. It will often pay, where a variety of things are to be grown in the small greenhouse, to have a glass partition separating it into two sections, one of which may be kept, either by additional piping or less ventilation, several degrees warmer than the other. So, while a general collection of many plants can be grown successfully in the same temperature, it is foolish to try everything. Only actual experiment can show the operator just what he can and cannot do with his small house. Even where no glass partition is used, there will probably be some variation in temperature in different parts of the house, and this condition may be turned to advantage. The beginner, however, is more likely to keep his house too hot than too cool. He may seem at first to be getting a fine quick growth, and then wonders why things begin to be lanky, and yellow, forgetting that his plants can get no air to breathe, except what he is careful enough to give to them. For the majority of those plants which the beginner is likely to try--geraniums, petunias, begonias, fuchsias, abutilon, heliotrope, ferns, etc., a night temperature of 45 to 55 degrees, with 10 to 20 degrees higher during the day, will keep them in good growing condition during the winter, providing they are neglected in no other respect. So long as they are not chilled, they cannot have too much fresh air during sunny days. Make it your aim to keep the temperature as _steady_ as possible--the damage done to plants is as often the result of sudden changes in temperature as of too high or too low a temperature. If it is easy to overdo in the matter of temperature, it is even more so in watering. A soil such as described above, when watered, will absorb the water rapidly, and leave none of it standing upon the surface of the pots after a few moments. Practice, and practice only, can teach just when the soil has been sufficiently saturated. It should be watered until wet clear through, but never until it becomes muddy. And when watered it should not be watered again until dry--not baked and hard, but a condition indicated by a whitening of the surface, and the rapidity with which it will again soak up water, a condition hard to describe exactly, but at once recognizable after a little practice. During the dull winter months, it will be sufficient for most plants in the greenhouse to receive water twice a week, or even less often, but on the coming of warm spring days, more frequently, until care is needed daily. There are some old fogy ideas about soft and tepid water, which may help confuse the beginner: they accomplish nothing more. Recent experiments, made by one of the State experiment stations, have confirmed the experience of practical florists, that the temperature of water used, even to ice water, has almost absolutely no effect--the reason being that the water applied changes to the temperature of the soil almost before it can reach the roots of the plant at all. And hard and soft, spring and cistern water, have likewise been used without difference in results. The main thing is to attend to your watering regularly, never letting the plants get dried out or baked. Not the least important of the "arts" which the worker under glass has to acquire is that of potting. From the time the cuttings in the sand bench are rooted, until the plants are ready to go outdoors in the spring, they have to be potted and repotted. The operation is a very simple one when once acquired. To begin with the cutting: Take a two-inch pot (a few of the geranium cuttings may require a 2-1/2 inch pot), fill it level with the sifted soil and with the forefinger make a hole large enough to receive the roots of the cutting and half its length, without bending the roots up. With the thumbs press down the dirt firmly on either side of the cutting, and give the pot a clean, short rap, either with the hand or by striking its bottom against the bench (which should be about waist-high) to firm and level the earth in it. With a little practice this operation becomes a very easy and quick one. Place the pots side by side and give a thorough watering. Keep in a shaded place, or shade with newspapers, for four or six days, and as soon as growth begins, move the pots apart, to allow the free circulation of air before the plants crowd. The time for repotting in a larger size pot is shown by the condition of the roots; they should have formed a network about the side of the pot, but not have remained there long enough to become tough or hard. They should still be white "working" roots. To repot, remove the ball of earth from the old pot, by inverting, striking the rim of the pot against the edge of the bench (a light tap should be sufficient), taking care to have the index and middle finger on either side of the plant stem, to hold it readily. Put in the bottom of the new pot sufficient earth to bring the top of the ball of roots, when placed upon it, a little below the rim of the pot. Hold this ball firmly in the center of the new pot, and fill in the space about it with fresh earth, packing it in firmly, using either the fingers or a bit of wood of convenient size. As a usual thing it is best when shifting to use a pot only one size larger. For pots above four inches in diameter, provide drainage by "crocking." This is accomplished by putting irregular shaped bits of stone, charcoal, cinders or pieces of broken pots in the bottom, being careful not to cover or plug up the hole. If the pots are placed directly on the bottom of the bench--board, slate, tile or whatever it is--they will dry out so quickly that it is next to impossible to keep them properly watered. To overcome this difficulty, an inch or two of sand, or two or three inches of earth, is placed on the benches. When placing the pots upon this covering, work them down into it, just a little, instead of setting them loosely on top of it. There are several insect pests which are likely to prove quite troublesome if given a start and the proper conditions in which to develop--crowded plants, too much heat, lack of ventilation, too little moisture. Prevention is the best cure. Burn tobacco stems or tobacco dust, used according to directions, every week (or oftener if required), and see that no bugs appear. One or two of the strongest brands of tobacco dust for sprinkling are also used successfully applied directly to the insects _on_ the plants, but my experience with most of these has proved them next to worthless. (See also Chapter XVII.) It is not nearly so interesting to read about the various greenhouse operations as it is to _do them_. It is work of an entrancing nature, and no one who had never taken a little slip of some new or rare plant and nursed it through the cutting stage and watched its growth till the first bud opened, can have an idea of the pleasure to be had. In the next chapter I shall attempt to explain just how to handle some of the most satisfactory flowers and vegetables, but the inexperienced owner of a small greenhouse who wishes to make rapid progress should _practice_ with every plant and seed that comes his, or her, way, until all the ordinary operations have become as easy as falling off a street car with him. Mistakes will be made, and disappointments occur, of course, but only through these can skill and efficiency be obtained. CHAPTER XXIV FLOWERS There are a number of greenhouse crops which are easily within the reach of the amateur who has at his disposal a small glass structure. One is apt to feel that something much more elaborate than the simple means at his hands are required to produce the handsome flowers or beautiful ferns which may be seen in the florist's window. It is true that many things are beyond his achievement. He cannot grow gigantic American Beauties on stems several feet long, nor present his friends at Christmas with the most delicate orchids; but he can very easily have carnations more beautiful, because they will be fresher if not quite so large, than any which can be had at the glass-fronted shops; and cyclamen as beautiful, and much more serviceable, than any orchid that ever hung from a precarious basket. To accomplish such results requires not so much elaborate equipment as unremitting care--and not eternal fussing but regular thought and attention. There is, for instance, no more well beloved flower than the carnation, which entirely deserves the place it has won in flower-lovers' hearts beside, if not actually ahead of, the rose. As a plant it will stand all kinds of abuse, and yet, under the care which any amateur can give it, will produce an abundance of most beautiful bloom. Within a comparatively few years the carnation, as indeed a number of other flowers, has been developed to nearly twice its former size, and the number of beautiful shades obtainable has also increased many times. To be grown at its best the carnation should have a rather cool temperature and plenty of ventilation, and these two requirements help to place it within reach of the small greenhouse operator. If only a few plants are to be grown, they may be purchased from a local florist, or obtained by mail from a seed house. If as few as two or three dozen plants are to be kept--and a surprising number of blooms may be had from a single dozen--they may be kept in pots. Use five-or six-inch pots and rich earth, with frequent applications of liquid manure, as described later. If, however, part of a bench can be given to them, the results will be more satisfactory. The bench should be well drained and contain four or five inches of rich soil, such as already described. If it is too late to compose a soil of this kind, use any rich garden loam and well rotted manure, in the proportions of five or six to one. For plants to begin blooming in the early winter, they should be put in during August, but for one's own use a later planting will do. For this year, if you are too late, get a few plants and keep them in pots. Next year buy before March a hundred or so rooted cuttings, or in April small plants, and set them out before the middle of May. Cultivate well during the summer, being sure to keep all flower buds pinched off, and have a nice supply of your own plants ready for next fall. In putting the plants into the bench (or pots) select a cloudy day, and then keep them shaded for a few days, with frequent syringing of the foliage, until they become established. Keep the night temperature very little above fifty degrees, and not above seventy-five in the daytime, while sixty will do in cloudy weather. As to the watering, they should be well soaked when put in, and thereafter only as the ground becomes dry, when it should again be wet, care being taken to wet the foliage as little as possible. In the mornings, and on bright days, syringing the foliage will be beneficial, but never in dull weather, as the leaves should never be wet over night. As the flower stems begin to shoot up they will need support. If you can get one of the many forms of wire supports used by commercial florists, so much the better; but if these are not obtainable the old method of stakes and strings (or preferably raffia) will do very well. To obtain large flowers the flower stems must be "disbudded"--that is all but the end bud on each stalk should be pinched off, thus throwing all the strength into one large flower. If, on the other hand, the terminal bud is taken off, and several of the side buds left, the result will be a beautiful cluster of blooms, more pleasing, to my mind, than the single large flowers, though not so valuable commercially. There are any number of wonderful new varieties, but the white, pink and light pink Enchantress, and one of the standard reds will give satisfaction. VIOLETS Requiring even less heat than the carnation is the old-time and all-time favorite, the violet. With no greenhouse at all, these can be grown beautifully, simply with the aid of a coldframe. But where a house is to be had, the season of blooming is, of course, much longer. The essential thing is to get strong, healthy plants. As with the carnations, if only a few are wanted, they may be grown in pots, using the six-inch size. The soil, whether for pots or benches, should be somewhat heavier than that prepared for carnations, using one-fourth to one-fifth cow manure added to the loam or rotted sod. If a bench is used, select one as near the glass as you can. Take in the plants with as little disturbance as possible, and keep them shaded for a few days, as with carnations. The plants will require to be about eight inches apart. As for care, apply water only when the bed has begun to dry, and then until the bench is soaked through. Pots will, of course, require more frequent attention in this matter than a bench. Keep all old leaves picked off and the soil stirred about the plants, with syringing and fumigating as suggested on page 134. The temperature will be best as low as forty-five degrees at night, and as little above fifteen more in the daytime as possible. Where no artificial heat can be had, a fine crop through the spring months may be had by making a smaller frame inside the regular coldframe, and packing this space with fine dry manure, as well as banking the outer frame. This arrangement, with two sash and mats in the coldest weather, will keep the plants growing most of the winter, and certainly the abundance of fragrant blooms at a season when flowers are most scarce will amply repay you for the trouble. Some prefer the single to the double blossoms. Marie Louise and Lady Hume Campbell (double blue); Swanley White, and California and Princesse de Galles (single blue) are the best varieties. Plants may be purchased of most large florists or from seedsmen. FERNS Many of the decorative ferns may also be grown to perfection in the small house, at a moderate temperature, fifty to sixty degrees, the nearer sixty the better. The Boston fern (_Nephrolepis exaltata Bostoniensis_) and its improved form, _Scottii_, are two of the best for house use, and if grown in the greenhouse until of good size and form, they will make unusual and very acceptable holiday or birthday gifts. A few small plants obtained from the florist and kept where they do not get a direct glare of light, watered frequently enough so that the soil is always moist (but never "sopping"), and plenty of fresh air in bright weather, will rapidly make fine plants. If you happen to have a few old plants on hand, they may be increased readily by division. Separate the old crowns into a few small plants. Don't make them very small or they will not renew as readily. Keep them, if possible, a little above sixty degrees, with plenty of moisture. Loam and sand, to which is added about the same amount of leaf-mould, will make a proper soil. Asparagus ferns will also respond to about the same care, though thriving in an even lower temperature. _Asparagus plumosus nanus_, the Lace fern, is especially delicate and graceful and makes an ideal small table plant to use with flowers. CHRYSANTHEMUMS These are propagated by cuttings, which root very easily. I would suggest, however, dipping them first in a wash of one part Aphine to thirty-five parts water, and then rinsing in clear cold water, in order to rid them entirely of any black aphis there may be present. Give them a clean start, and it will be much easier to keep them clean, as they must be kept to make good healthy plants. If you have not already a stock on hand, I would suggest going to some florist's in the chrysanthemum season and making a list of the varieties which particularly please you. Later, say in February or March, you can get cuttings of these, already rooted if you like, but it's more fun to root them yourself. Pot off in two-and-one-half-inch pots, and shift on as rapidly as the roots develop. Use, after the first potting, a very rich soil, and give plenty of water. Chrysanthemums are very gross feeders and the secret of success with them lies in keeping them growing on from the beginning as rapidly as possible, without a check. Keep at about fifty-five degrees and repot as frequently as required. If they are to be grown in a bed or bench, have the soil ready by the first part of June. The distance apart will be determined by the method by which they are to be grown--six or eight inches if to "single stems" with the great big flowers one sees at the florist's; about eight, ten or twelve if three blooms are to be had from each plant. Of course that will be determined by individual taste; but personally I prefer the "spray" form, growing a dozen or more to each plant. They should be syringed frequently and given partial shade. A good way is to spray onto the roof a mixture of lime-water, about as thick as milk, or white lead and naphtha in solution. As soon as they are well established and growing, decision must be made as to how they are to be grown. If more than one flower to a plant is wanted, pinch out the big top bud and as the side buds develop, take them all off to the number of flowers required, two, three or more as the case may be. If sprays are wanted, pinch out the end buds of these side shoots also when they get about three inches long, and all but a few of the side buds on the shoots. If at any time during growth the plants seem to be checked, or lose their healthy dark green color, it is probable that they are not getting enough food and should be given top dressings or liquid manure accordingly. Or if one does not want to devote space in the greenhouse to them for so long a time (although they occupy it when there is little other use for it) the plants may be grown in pots, the final shift being into six-or seven-inch. They are kept in a cool house, or in a shaded place out-of-doors, plunged in coal ashes. One advantage of this method is, of course, that they can be brought into the dwelling house while in bloom. In either case, the plants must be watched carefully for black fly, which can be kept off with Aphine. The plants will also need supports of twine or wire, or stakes, whether in the beds or in pots. The usual method is to cut back the plants after blooming, store in a cold place and start later into new growth for cuttings. A better way is to set a few plants out early in the spring--one of each variety will give an abundance of plants for home use. Cuttings can be taken from these that will be just right for late flowers. These stock plants are cut back in the fall, taken up and stored in a deep box, keeping as cold as possible without freezing. Varieties are so numerous, so constantly changing, of so many types, that it would be unsatisfactory to give a list. The best way, as mentioned before, is to get a list of the sort you like, while they are in bloom at the florists. ROSES It is much more difficult to grow good roses than to grow either chrysanthemums or carnations. They are more particular as to soil and as to temperature, and more quickly affected by insects and disease. Nevertheless there is no reason why the amateur who is willing to be painstaking should not succeed with the hardier varieties. Some roses are much more easily grown than others. Plants may be grown from cuttings of the ripened wood, which should have become too hard to comply with the "snapping test" (see page 30) used for most other plants. By far the best way for the beginner, however, is to buy from the nurserymen or florist. This is especially true of the many sorts which do better when grafted on a strong growing stock. There are two ways of buying the plants: either in the dormant state, or growing, out of pots. In the first way you get the dry roots and canes (2-year olds) from the nursery as early as possible in the spring and set them in nine-inch pots to plunge outdoors, or boxes, allowing 6 x 6 to 12 inches for room if you want them for use in the house in the winter. Cut back one-half at time of planting, and after watering to bring the soil to the right degree of moisture, go very light with it until the plants begin active growth, when it is gradually increased. As with chrysanthemums, as the plants get large, fertilizers and liquid manure must be given to maintain the supply of plant food. Let the plants stay out when cold weather comes, until the leaves have dropped and then store until December or January in a cold dry place where they will not be frozen too hard or exposed to repeated thawings--a trial that few plants can survive. Bring into warmth as required. The above treatment is for plants for the house. For the greenhouse bench get plants that are growing. They should be clean and healthy, in four-or five-inch pots. They are set 12 x 12 to 12 x 16 inches apart, depending upon whether the variety is a very robust grower. The best time for setting is April to July first, according to season in which it is desired to get most bloom. As a rule early planting is the more satisfactory. One of the most important points in success with roses is to provide thorough drainage. Even when raised beds are used, as will generally be the case in small houses, wide cracks should be left every six inches or so. If the house is low, room may be saved by making a "solid" bed directly upon the ground, putting in seven or eight inches of prepared soil on top of two or three inches of clinkers, small stone or gravel. The preparation of the soil is also a matter of great importance. It should be rather "heavy," that is, with considerably more clay than average plant soil. Five parts rotted loam sod, to one to two parts rotted cow manure, is a good mixture. _It should be thoroughly composted and rotted up._ When filling the bench press well down and if possible give time to settle before putting in the plants. The plants should be set in firmly. Keep shaded and syringe daily in the morning until well established. Great care must be taken to guard against any sudden changes, so that it is best to give ventilation gradually and keep a close watch of temperature, which should be kept from fifty-five to fifty-eight at night in cold weather. Care should be taken to water early in the morning, that the leaves may dry off by night. At the same time it is well to keep the atmosphere as moist as possible to prevent trouble from the red spider (see page 134) which is perhaps the greatest enemy of the rose under glass. As large growth is reached, liquid manure or extra food in the form of dry fertilizer must be given, a good mixture for the latter being 1 lb. of nitrate of soda, one of sulphate of potash and ten of fine bone. Wood ashes sprinkled quite thick upon the soil and worked in are also good. As the plants grow tall, they will have to be given support by tying either to stakes or wires. It is well to pick off the first buds also, so that mature growth may be made before they begin to flower heavily. The plants should at all times be kept scrupulously clean. The roses suited for growing in pots or boxes, to be dried off and brought into heat in January or February, are the hybrid perpetuals, and the newer ramblers, Crimson, Baby White and Baby Pink. For growing in benches, as described, the teas are used. Among the best of the standard sorts of these are Bride, Perle, Kaiserin Augusta Victoria, Bridesmaid, Pres. Carnot, Meteor, Killarney. New sorts are constantly being tried, and some of these are improvements over old sorts. The catalogues give full description. For growing at a low temperature, fifty-five degrees or so, the following are good: Wootton, Papa Gontier, red; Perle, yellow; Bridesmaid, large pink; Mad. Cousin, small pink; Bride, white. The above will make a good collection for the beginner to try his or her hand with. CHAPTER XXV VEGETABLES While tomatoes and cucumbers require a high temperature, lettuce may be grown easily all the year round. A good method is to grow three crops of lettuce during the fall and winter, and follow with tomatoes and cucumbers in the spring, when the high temperature required can be more easily maintained. Lettuce is a low-temperature plant, and there is no reason why the small greenhouse owner should not be able with ease to supply his table constantly with this delicious salad. As with the carnations, and violets, if there is no part of a bench that can be devoted to the lettuce, a few plants can be grown in pots. If this method is used, the seedlings should be pricked off into small pots. When these begin to crowd they will have to be given six to eight inches of room, and the pots plunged in soil to their full depth. But it will be more satisfactory to devote a part of a bench, a solid one if possible and in the coldest part of the house, to the lettuce plants. Well rotted manure, either horse or mixed, and a sandy loam, will make the right soil. The first sowing of seed should be made about August first, in a shaded bed out-of-doors; the seedlings transplanted, as with spring lettuce, to flats or another bed. By the last week in September these will be ready to go into the beds prepared for them, setting them about six inches apart for the loose and eight for the heading varieties. The bed should be well drained, so that the soil will never stay soggy after watering. The soil should be kept fairly dry, as too much moisture is apt to cause rot, especially with the heading sorts. Syringe occasionally on the brightest days, in the morning. Keep the surface of the bed stirred until the leaves cover it. Keep the temperature below fifty at night, especially just after planting, and while maturing. And watch sharply for the green aphis, which is the most dangerous insect pest. If tobacco fumigation is used as a preventive, as suggested, they will not put in an appearance. The first heads will be ready by Thanksgiving, and a succession of plants should be had by making _small_ sowings of seed every two or three weeks. If the same bed is used for the new crops, liquid manure, with a little dissolved soda nitrate, will be helpful. If a night temperature of sixty degrees can be assured in part of the house, tomatoes and cucumbers may also be had all winter. If the house is only a general purpose one, held at a lower temperature than that, they may still be had months before the crop outside by starting them so as to follow the last crop of lettuce, which should be out of the way by the first of April. The seeds of either need a high temperature to germinate well, and may be started on the return heating pipes, care being taken to remove them before they are injured by too much shade or by drying out. In sowing the cucumber seed, pots or small boxes, filled about half-full of a light sandy compost, may be used, these to be filled in, leaving only two plants in each, as the plants get large enough, with a rich compost. If there is a solid bed available, a trench filled with horse manure, well packed in, will act as a hotbed and help out the temperature required for rapid growth. If fruits are wanted for the winter, the tomatoes should be started in July and the cucumbers early in August. They should be given a very rich and sandy soil, and the day temperature may run up to eighty degrees. Until the latter part of spring, when the ventilators are opened and bees have ready access, it is necessary to use artificial fertilization in order to get the fruit to set. With a small soft brush, dust the pollen over the pistils. With the English forcing cucumbers, this will not be necessary. While fruit is setting, the houses should be kept especially dry and warm. The vines of both tomatoes and cucumbers will have to be tied up to stakes or wires with raffia. They should be pinched off at about six feet, and, for the best fruit, all suckers kept off the tomatoes. The best varieties of tomatoes for forcing are Lorillard, Stirling Castle and Comet; of the cucumbers, Arlington White Spine, Davis Perfected and the English forcing varieties. If you do not like to stop having lettuce in time to give up space to cucumbers or tomatoes, start some plants about January first, and have a hotbed ready to receive them from the flats before March first. With a little care as to ventilation and watering, they will come along just after the last of the greenhouse crops. A point not to be overlooked in connection with all the above suggestions is that any surplus of these fresh out-of-season things may be disposed of among your vegetable-hungry friends at the same step-ladder prices they are paying the butcher or green-grocer for wilted, shipped-about products. And don't get discouraged if some of your experiments do not succeed the first time. Keep on planning, studying and _practicing_ until you are getting the maximum returns and pleasure from your glass house. [Illustration: Tomato plants, started in pots, ready for transplanting into the bench] [Illustration: The tomato plants in full bearing. The vines are severely pruned and tied up to sticks or twine] [Illustration: Lettuce and cucumbers in the greenhouse. The cucumber vines are induced to climb the heavy strings so as to economize bench space] CHAPTER XXVI VEGETABLE AND BEDDING PLANTS FOR SPRING While it is true that there are many ways in which one may save money with a small greenhouse all through the year, the best chance for making money is by growing vegetable and bedding plants in the spring. Bedding stock is what the florists term geraniums, coleus, begonias and other plants used for setting out flower beds in the spring. In every community a large number of such plants are used and the case will be rare indeed in which one will meet with any difficulty in disposing of quite a number of such plants among immediate neighbors and friends. The number of plants which can be grown in the spring with even a very small house and a few sash is quite surprising. The secret of the mystery lies, of course, in the fact that in their early stages, seedlings and cuttings, the plants occupy very little room; while as soon or soon after they are transplanted or shifted to large pots they are shoved outdoors into coldframes. As the tender vegetables, such as tomatoes, peppers, egg-plant, etc., are not started until after the hardier ones, cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower, etc., the frames can be filled up again usually as fast as emptied. In the same way heliotrope, salvia, coleus and other tender plants follow pansies, daisies, carnations, etc. It will thus be seen that to grow these plants to the best advantage, a coldframe, or better still, both a coldframe and hotbed, will be used in conjunction with the small home greenhouse. Directions have already been given (see Chapter IV) in these pages for sowing, starting and transplanting seed. VEGETABLES The dates for sowing are about as follows in the vicinity of New York. Allow about a week's difference for every hundred miles of latitude--earlier in the south, later in the north. February 1st--Cabbage, cauliflower. February 15th--Cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, beets, lettuce, onions for plants. March 1st--Lettuce, celery (early), tomato (early), beets. March 15th--Lettuce, tomato (main), egg-plant, pepper. For one's own use or special orders, cucumbers, squash, lima beans, potatoes sprouted in flats of sand, may also be started, but there is no market demand for them. April 1st--Celery (late), cauliflower; (in sods or paper pots), muskmelon, watermelon, corn, for special use. After being started and pricked off into flats, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, beets, lettuce, and celery are kept inside just long enough to get well established, and then put outside in a tight frame. Harden off as well as possible before putting out, as a freeze the first night might injure them. After that slight frost on the leaves will not injure them, but if they freeze stiff, apply cold water in the morning--ice-cold is just as good--and shade until they are thawed out. If very cold it will be necessary to protect the frames with shutters. Beets and lettuce will not stand quite so low a temperature as the cabbage group. By the time the plants are pretty well grown, cloth-covered frames may be substituted for the glass ones, and these may be used elsewhere to cover the tenderer plants such as tomato and egg-plant. After the first of April they will not need any protection. Last spring I had several thousand cabbages covered twice with several inches of snow, and hardly a one was lost. Tomatoes, peppers and egg-plants require different treatment. They are heat-loving plants, and not only succumb to even a slight freeze, but will be so checked by a low temperature, even if not touched by frost, that they will amount to little. They should be kept growing as rapidly as possible. They will also require a _second_ transplanting. Those wanted for the retail trade are put a dozen in a box, three or four inches deep and 7 x 9 inches. Care must be taken not to let these plants run up tall. Always give all the air possible while keeping up the temperature, which should be from fifty to fifty-five at night. Get them outdoors as soon as the weather becomes settled, where they could be protected in case of a sudden late frost. BEDDING PLANTS Most of the plants used for flower gardens and lawn beds come under the three following classes: (1) Those grown from seed; (2) those grown from cuttings; (3) those of a bulbous nature. Almost all of the first group are sown in the spring in flats in the greenhouse. Two important exceptions, however, are pansies and English daisies (_Bellis perennis_). They are sown early in the fall, as already described, and the plants wintered over in a frame or protected outdoors. For the retail trade they are put up in small boxes or "pansy baskets" made for the purpose. While small plants, just beginning to bloom, are the best, it seems very hard to convince a customer of it and they will often choose a basket with four or five old plants loaded with bloom in preference to a dozen small ones. Asters, alyssum, balsams, candytuft, celosia, coleus, dianthus (pink), lobelia, mignonette, petunias, phlox, portulaca, ricinus, salvia, verbenas, vinca, roses, zinnias, may all be started from seed. The greatest secret of success is to keep the plants from crowding, and keep pinched back to make bushy plants. Salvias and coleus are the tenderest of these plants. The others can go out to the frames, if room is scarce, as soon as the weather becomes settled. PLANTS FROM CUTTINGS The method of choosing and rooting cuttings has been outlined in a previous chapter (see page 29). In greenhouse work the main difference is that they are taken in much larger quantities. For this reason it is usually convenient to have a cutting bench instead of the flats or saucers used in rooting house plants. The bench should be three or four inches deep, filled with medium coarse, gritty sand, or a substratum of drainage material. If possible, have it so arranged that bottom heat may be given--this being most conveniently furnished with pipes under the bench boxed in. (The temperature required for most cuttings will be fifty to fifty-five in the house with five to ten degrees more _under_ the bench.) The cutting bench should also be so situated that it readily may be shaded, as one of the most important factors of success is to prevent the cuttings from wilting at any time--especially just after placing in the sand. After rooting, the cuttings are put into small pots or flats as already explained. Spring stock of some plants, such as geraniums, are rooted in the fall--September to November. Others, which make a quick growth, such as petunias, not until early in the spring,--last of January to April, but for the most part in February. In the former case, cuttings are taken just before frost from outside plants, or later from stock plants lifted and taken indoors; in the latter case, stock plants are taken in and carried through the winter in a more or less dormant or resting condition; being kept rather dry and started into active growth in January. The new growth furnishes material for cuttings, which are grown on as rapidly as possible. The following plants are treated in one of the above ways; further details in any case may be found in the first part of the book: Alternantheres Heliotrope Begonias, fibrous rooted Ice Plant Coleus Paris Daisy Cuphia Petunias Geraniums Salvias Ivy Geraniums Vincas German Ivy BULBOUS BEDDING PLANTS The bulbous plants are started directly in pots, or in flats and transferred to pots, as described in individual cases in the preceding pages. Cannas, tall Cannas, dwarf flowering Dahlias Caladiums Tuberous rooted Begonias are the sorts for which there is most demand. CONCLUSION Condensed as the latter part of this book has had to be, I trust it may give the reader a glimpse of the pleasure, and even of the possibility for profit, that is offered by the small home glass house. Do not feel that because you cannot have a large greenhouse, with all the modern equipment, that it is not worth while to have any. Many of the large establishments in the country have grown from just such small beginnings as have been described or suggested here. Possibly you would never be interested in the commercial side of your under-glass gardening, even though success crowned your efforts. There is not, however, any question about the fun and healthy pleasure to be had, and I can wish you no more gardening joy than that the coming year will find you with at least a modest amount of "home glass." THE END INDEX A Abutilon, 72. Acalypha, 73. Accessories, 140. Achyranthes, 81. African Blue Lily, 123. Ageratum, 66. Alternanthera, 82. Alyssum, 66. Amaryllis, 122. Anemone, 126. Anthericum, 82. Aphis, 133. Araucaria, 82. Aralia, 73. Ardisia, 73. Aspidistra, 83. Aucuba, 73. Azalea, 74. B Bay-window, 3, 9. Balsam, 66. Bedding plants--grown for spring, 200. Begonia Rex, 53. Begonias, flowering, 51. Blood Flower, 124. Bone meal, 141. Bouvardia, 74. Browallia, 75. Bulbs, Dutch or Cape, 117. Bulbs, for winter bloom, 116. C Cacti, 110. Caladium, 83, 125. Calla, 121. Candytuft, 66. Carnations, 66, 180. Cannas, 66. Chinese Sacred Lily, 127. Chrysanthemum, 67, 185. Cissus, 90. Clematis, 90. Coboea Scandens, 91. Coldframe, 149. Coleus, 84. "Crocking" pots, 178. Cuttings, preparation of, 29. Cuttings, propagation of, 30. Cucumbers, 194. D Daphne, 75. Disbudding, 182. Diseases, 137. Dracæna, 84. E Easter lily, 120. English ivy, 92. F Farfugium, 84. Ferns, 97, 184. Fertilizers, 19, 145. Flowering maple, 72. Foliage plants, 81. Achyranthes, 81. Alternanthera, 82. Anthericum, 82. Araucaria, 82. Aspidistra, 83. Caladium, 83. Cissus, 90. Clematis, 90. Cobæa scandens, 91. Coleus, 84. Dracæna, 84. English ivy, 92. Farfugium, 84. German ivy, 92. Hoya Carnosa, 91. Ivy, 92. Leopard plant, 84. "Little Pickles," 94, 115. Manettia, 93. Moneywort, 93. Morning-glory, 93. Musk plant, 93. Nasturtium, 94. Othonna, 94. Pandanus, 85. Pepper, 85. Rubber plant, 86. Saxifraga, 87. Sensitive plant, 88. Smilax, 94. Sweet peas, 95. Thunbergia, 95. Tradescantia, 88. Vines, 90. Zebra plant, 88. Frozen plants, treatment of, 199. G Genista, 75. Geranium, 56. German ivy, 92. Gladiolus, 124. Greenhouse, construction of, 156. Greenhouse, management of, 172. Grevillea, 75. H Hanging baskets, 130, 143. Heating apparatus, 3. Heating of greenhouses, 167. Heliotrope, 61. Hibiscus, 75. Hotbed, 149. House plants, 44. Hoya Carnosa, 91. Hydrangea, 76. Hyacinths, 118. I Insects, 132. Insect diseases, remedies for, 138. Iris, 126. Ivy, 92. K Kerosene emulsion, 139. L Lantana, 77. Leaf-mould, 141. Lemon, 77. Lemon verbena, 77. Leopard plant, 84. Lettuce, 193. Lily-of-the-valley, 125. Light, proper amount of, 6. "Little Pickles," 94, 115. Lobelia, 68. M Mahernia (honey-bell), 68. Manettia, 93. Manures, 17, 145. Manure, liquid, 48, 145. Marguerite carnation, 66. Mealy bug, 135. Mignonette, 68. Moisture, amount of, for plants indoors, 12. Moneywort, 93. Morning-glory, 93. Musk plant, 93. N Narcissi, 118. Nasturtium, 94. Nitrate of soda, 20. Nitrogen, forms of, 18. O Oleander, 77. Orange, 78. Othonna, 94. Oxalis, 120. P Palms, 103. Pandanus, 85. Pansy, 68, 200. Patience plant (_impatiens_), 67. Peat, 141. Pepper, 85. Petunia, 62. Phosphoric acid, forms of, 18. Pots, 143. Potting, 38, 176. Potash, forms of, 18. "Plunging" pots in summer, 49. Primroses (_Primula_), 63. Propagation, from cuttings, 30. Propagation, from seed, 22-27. Propagation, "saucer system," 32. R Ranunculus, 126. Red spider, 134. Reinwardtia, 78. Repotting, 40. Resting periods of plants, 47. Rex, Begonia, 53. Root aphis, 136. Roses, 78, 188. Rubber plant, 86. S Salvia, 68. Sash, lean-to, 164. Saxifraga, 87. Scale, 136. Sensitive plant, 88. Shelf, for plants, 8. Shrubs. Abutilon, 72. Acalypha, 73. Aralia, 73. Ardisia, 73. Aucuba, 73. Azalea, 74. Bouvardia, 74. Browallia, 75. Daphne, 75. Flowering maple, 72. Genista, 75. Grevilla, 75. Hibiscus, 75. Hydrangea, 76. Lantana, 77. Lemon, 77. Lemon verbena, 77. Oleander, 77. Orange, 78. Reinwardtia, 78. Roses, 78-188. Swainsona, 79. Sweet olive, 79. Slips, preparation of, 29. Smilax, 94. Snapdragon, 64. Soil, ingredients, 141. Soil, for greenhouses, 173. Soil, for pots and boxes, 14. Sphagnum moss, 141. Spirea, 126. Steria, 68. Stocks, 69. Sub-watering, 24, 142. Swainsona, 79. Sweet olive, 79. Sweet peas, 95. T Temperature, for plants, indoors, II, 45. Temperature, for greenhouses, 174. Thrips, 136. Thunbergia, 95. Tomatoes, 194. Tradescantia, 88. Transplanting, 35. Tuberous begonia, 124. Tulips, 118. V Vallota, 123. Vases, 129. Vegetable plants, started under glass, 197. Veranda boxes, 128. Verbena, 69. Verbena, Lemon, 77. Vines, 90. Violets, 183. W Watering, 45. Watering, for greenhouse, 175. Window-boxes, 128. Window-box, construction of, 9-10. Worms, 137. Z Zebra plant, 88. 
22312	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE SECOND ANNUAL MEETING ITHACA, NEW YORK DECEMBER 14 AND 15, 1911 PRESS OF THE ITHACA JOURNAL ITHACA, NEW YORK 1912 +--------------------------------------------+ |Transcribers' note: | | | |The errors listed below have been corrected.| +--------------------------------------------+ Errata Page 3, under "Officers" transpose addresses of President and Vice-President. Page 23, line 5, for "Pennsylvania" read "Louisiana." Page 103, line 2, for "Siebold" read "Nebo." [Illustration: MR. HENRY HALES OF RIDGEWOOD, NEW JERSEY _And the Original Hales' Paper Shell Hickory Tree_] TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Officers and Committees of the Association 3 Members of the Association 4 Constitution and Rules of the Association 6 Proceedings of the meeting held at Ithaca, New York, Dec. 14th and 15th, 1911 7 Address of Welcome by Professor Craig 7 Secretary's Report of the Meeting for Organization held in New York Nov. 17th, 1910 8 Secretary-Treasurers' Report for the Year 10 Discussion on Juglans Mandshurica 12 President's Address. The Hickories, Robert T. Morris, M. D. 14 Discussion 21 The Chestnut Bark Disease. J. Franklin Collins, Washington, D. C. 37 Discussion 43 Nut Growing in the Northern States. C. A. Reed, Washington, D. C. 49 Discussion 56 The Indiana Pecan. T. P. Littlepage, Washington, D. C. 62 Discussion 74 Executive Session 75 The Bench Root-Grafting of Persian Walnuts and Pecans. C. P. Close, Washington, D. C. 79 Discussion 80 The Hales' Paper Shell Hickory. Henry Hales, Ridgewood, New Jersey 85 Discussion 86 Nut Promotions. W. C. Deming, M. D., New York 89 Some Facts Concerning Pecan Trees for Planting in the North. W. N. Roper, Petersburg, Virginia 92 Discussion 95 The Scolytus Beetle. Prof. G. W. Herrick, Ithaca, New York 96 Discussion 99 The Persian Walnut in California. Prof. E. R. Lake, Washington, D. C. 100 Discussion 102 Is There a Future for Juglans Regia and Hicoria Pecan in New York and New England? Prof. John Craig, Ithaca, N. Y. 106 Resolutions and Executive Session 109 Exhibits 110 Appendix 111 Miscellaneous Notes 111 Report of Committee on Exhibits 111 Prize Nuts 112 Report of the Committee on the Nomenclature of Juglans Mandshurica and the Shellbark Hickories 114 The Hickory Bark Borer. Circular and Correspondence 116 Resolutions of the Pennsylvania Conference on the Chestnut-tree Bark Disease 122 OFFICERS President Robert T. Morris New York Vice-President T. P. Littlepage Indiana Secretary and Treasurer W. C. Deming Westchester, New York City COMMITTEES _Executive_ John Craig C. A. Reed W. N. Roper And the Officers _On Promising Seedlings_ T. P. Littlepage C. A. Reed W. C. Deming _On Hybrids_ R. T. Morris Henry Hicks C. P. Close _On Membership_ W. C. Deming E. R. Lake J. G. Rush W. N. Roper _On Nomenclature_ John Craig R. T. Morris W. C. Deming _On Press and Publication_ W. N. Roper T. P. Littlepage W. C. Deming STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS Connecticut Charles H. Plump West Redding Florida H. Harold Hume Glen St. Mary Georgia G. C. Schempp, Jr. Albany, Route 3 Illinois Dr. F. S. Crocker Chicago Indiana R. L. McCoy Lake, Spencer Co. Louisiana J. F. Jones Jeanerette Maryland C. P. Close Washington, D. C. Massachusetts Bernhard Hoffman Stockbridge Minnesota C. A. Van Duzee St. Paul New Jersey A. B. Malcomson West Orange New York A. C. Pomeroy Lockport Ohio J. H. Dayton Painesville Panama B. F. Womack Canal Zone Pennsylvania J. G. Rush West Willow Virginia W. N. Roper Petersburg MEMBERS OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS' ASSOCIATION Abbott, Frederick B., 419 9th St., Brooklyn, N.Y. Barron, Leonard, Editor The Garden Magazine, Garden City, L.I. Benner, Charles, 100 Broadway, New York City. Button, Herbert, Bonnie Brook Farm, Cazenovia, N.Y. Chute, Miss Bessie, 1024 University Ave. S.E., Minneapolis, Minn. Clendenin, Rev. Dr. F. M., Westchester, New York City. Close, Prof. C. P., Expert in Fruit Identification, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Coleman, H. H., the Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Co., Newark, N.J. Craig, Prof. John, New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N.Y. Crocker, Dr. F. S., Columbus Memorial Building, Chicago, Ill. Dayton, J. H., Painesville, Ohio. Representing the Storrs & Harrison Company. Deming, Dr. N. L., Litchfield, Conn. Deming, Dr. W. C., Westchester, New York City. Deming, Mrs. W. C., Georgetown, Conn. Dennis, Dr. Frank L., The Colchester, Colorado Springs, Colorado. *Hales, Henry, Ridgewood, N.J. Hicks, Henry, Westbury Station, L.I. Hoffman, Bernhard, Stockbridge, Mass. Holden, E. B., Hilton, N.Y. Holmes, J. A., 127 Eddy St., Ithaca, N.Y. Hume, H. Harold, Glen St. Mary, Fla. Hungerford, Newman, 45 Prospect St., Hartford, Conn. +Huntington, A. M., 15 W. 81st St., New York City. James, Dr. W. B., 17 W. 54th St., New York City. Jessup, Miss Maud M., 440 (40) Thomas St., Grand Rapids, Mich. +Jones, J. F., Jeanerette, La. Kiefer, Louis W., 901 N. Elm St., Henderson, Ky. Lake, Prof. E. R., Asst. Pomologist, Dept. of Agric., Washington, D.C. Littlepage, T. P., Union Trust Building, Washington, D.C. Lovett, Mrs. Joseph L., Emilie, Bucks Co., Pa. McCoy, R. L., Ohio Valley Forest Nursery, Lake, Spencer Co., Ind. Malcomson, A. B., 132 Nassau St., New York City. Mayo, E. S., Rochester, N.Y. Representing Glen Brothers. Meehan, S. Mendelson, Germantown, Phila., Pa. Representing Thomas Meehan and Sons. Miller, Mrs. E. B., Enid, Oklahoma, R. 7, Box 47-1/2. Miller, Mrs. Seaman, c/o Mr. Seaman Miller, 2 Rector St., N.Y. City. Morris, Dr. Robert T., 616 Madison Ave., New York City. Moses, Theodore W., Harvard Club, 27 W. 44th St., New York City. Pierson, Miss A. Elizabeth, Cromwell, Conn. Plump, Chas. H., West Redding, Conn. Pomeroy, A. C., Lockport, N.Y. Potter, Hon. W. O., Marion, Ill. Reed, C. A., Div. of Pomology, U.S. Dept. of Agric., Washington, D.C. Riehl. E. A., Alton, Ill. Roper, Wm. N., Arrowfield Nursery Co., Petersburg, Va. Rose, Wm. J., 413 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. Rush. J. G., West Willow, Pa. Sensenig, Wayne. Schempp, G. C., Jr., Route 3, Albany, Ga. Shoemaker, Seth W., Agric. Ed. Int. Corresp. Schools, Scranton, Pa. Smith, Goldwin, Highland Creek, Ontario, Canada. Smith, Percival P., 108 S. La Salle St., Chicago, Ill. Tuckerman, Bayard, 118 E. 37th St., New York City. Van Duzee, Col. C. A., St. Paul, Minn. Walter, Dr. Harry, The Chalfonte, Atlantic City, N. J. Wentink, Frank, 75 Grove St., Passaic, N. J. Williams, Dr. Charles Mallory, 48 E. 49th St., New York City. Williams, Harrison, Erie R. R. Co., 50 Church St., New York City. +Wissmann, Mrs. P. deR., 707 Fifth Ave., New York City. Womack, B. F., Ancon Canal Zone, Panama. *Honorary member. +Life member. CONSTITUTION AND RULES OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION. _Name._ The society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION. _Object._ The promotion of interest in nut-producing plants, their products and their culture. _Membership._ Membership in the society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the approval of the committee on membership. _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president, and a secretary-treasurer; an executive committee of five persons, of which the president, vice-president and secretary shall be members; and a state vice-president from each state represented in the membership of the association. _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the subsequent year. _Meetings._ The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. _Fees._ The fees shall be of two kinds, annual and life. The former shall be two dollars, the latter twenty dollars. _Discipline._ The committee on membership may make recommendations to the association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. _Committees._ The association shall appoint standing committees of three members each to consider and report on the following topics at each annual meeting: first, on promising seedlings; second, on nomenclature; third, on hybrids; fourth, on membership; fifth, on press and publication. The Northern Nut Growers Association SECOND ANNUAL MEETING THURSDAY, DECEMBER 14, 1911, 10 A. M. ROOM 191, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, ITHACA, NEW YORK. President Morris: The meeting is called to order and I will first ask Professor Craig to make a few remarks on behalf of the College Director and the President of the University. Professor Craig: It is my privilege and pleasure to welcome the representatives of the Northern Nut Growers' Association in this, their second annual meeting, to the New York State College of Agriculture. I regret exceedingly that Director Bailey, who has been avoiding out of state engagements this winter quite generally, made one about two months ago for this day, about a thousand miles away, which makes it absolutely impossible for him to be with us. He regretted this very much, and asked me particularly to impress upon you the idea that he was most anxious that this Association should meet here, and that all the facilities of the College of Agriculture should be placed at your disposal, for the purpose of making your meeting as profitable and as pleasant as possible. President Schurman, whose time at this period of the year is much monopolized and who is by previous engagements occupied very completely this morning, has asked me to say to you that he hoped to be able to come over and join us informally some time during the afternoon. I wish then to impress the thought that, although the official representatives of the University and College are not with us, they have not forgotten this meeting. As a member of the Executive Committee, in charge of the sessions, I have made up a tentative program for this morning for the purpose of starting the meeting off; and as the President will undoubtedly tell you later on, this program is subject to revision and change according to the convenience of the members. It is proposed to occupy this morning with regular program subjects, and it has been suggested that this afternoon we take a couple of hours' leisure which we may use in examining the exhibits or in viewing the University, if you care to consider that an exhibit worth while. It will be our pleasure to furnish guides for those who desire to make an excursion around and through the University buildings. Let me say in conclusion that I hope you will make use of the opportunities and facilities that are at your full disposal. The Department of Horticulture is located on the second floor. I would like you to make that office your headquarters, and make use of our clerical force, and such facilities as are available, to the fullest measure possible, so that your visit will be pleasant, as I am sure it will be profitable. President Morris: The next order of business will be the report from the Secretary-Treasurer, and the report of the last meeting. * * * * * Doctor Deming: A meeting for organization of Northern Nut Growers was held, on the invitation of Dr. N. L. Britton, at the Botanical Museum in Bronx Park, New York City, on Nov. 17th, 1910. Dr. Britton called the meeting to order, stated its purpose and presented specimens. Those present were: Dr. N. L. Britton, Director N. Y. Botanic Gardens. Dr. Robert T. Morris, 616 Madison Ave., New York City. Prof. John Craig, of Cornell University. Mr. T. P. Littlepage, Union Trust Building, Washington, D. C. Mr. A. B. Malcomson, Orange, N. J. Mr. Henry Hales, Ridgewood, N. J. Mrs. Joseph L. Lovett, Emilie, Bucks County, Pa. Mrs. Yardly (with Mrs. Lovett). Dr. Geo. Knapp, (at the request of Simpson Bros., Vincennes, Ind.) 21 Claremont Ave., New York City. Mr. C. A. Schwartze, 92 Stagg St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Mr. Nash, of the Botanical Museum. Dr. W. C. Deming, Westchester, New York City. On the retirement of Dr. Britton Dr. Deming acted as temporary chairman and read a number of letters from persons interested in nut culture encouraging the formation of an association. The chairman appointed Prof. Craig, Dr. Morris and Mr. Littlepage a committee to draw up a tentative constitution or set of working rules until permanent organization could be effected. The committee made the following report which was adopted with the understanding that the executive committee should consider the question of constitution and by-laws and report at the next regular meeting. * * * * * _Name._ The society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION. _Object._ The promotion of interest in nut-producing plants, their products and their culture. _Membership._ Membership in the society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality. _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary-treasurer and an executive committee of five persons, of which latter the president and secretary shall be members. _Meetings._ The association shall hold an annual meeting on or about Nov. 15 and such other special meetings as may seem desirable, these to be called by the president and executive committee. _Fees._ The fees shall be of two kinds, annual and life. The former shall be $2.00, the latter $20.00. In addition to the large number of letters showing a wide spread interest in nut growing, communications of especial interest were received from Prof. W. N. Hutt, State Horticulturist of North Carolina, Mr. W. N. Roper, former editor of the American Fruit and Nut Journal, and from Mr. Henry Hicks of Westbury, Long Island. The election of officers resulted as follows: President--Dr. Robert T. Morris, New York City. Vice-President--Mr. T. P. Littlepage, Washington, D. C. Secretary-Treasurer--Dr. W. C. Deming, Westchester, New York City. Executive Committee: Prof. John Craig, Cornell University; Henry Hales, Ridgewood, N. J.; Prof. C. P. Close, College Park, Md. Exhibits of nuts, nut literature, trees, grafting methods, a budding tool, etc., were received and shown from nineteen different contributors. A detailed account of these has been published and is on file. The following resolution, introduced by Mr. T. P. Littlepage, was unanimously adopted: Resolved, that the Northern Nut Growers' Association express its appreciation of the attitude of the National Nut Growers' Association in encouraging the organization of associations which have for their purpose the development of the nut industry, and we hereby pledge our support to, and our cooperation with, said National Nut Growers' Association. And be it further Resolved, that we hereby acknowledge our great obligation to the many pioneer nut growers of the South who have done so much to put nut culture on a scientific basis, and that we express to them our deep gratitude for the fund of valuable information and data which they have worked out and made available. The meeting then adjourned. The Secretary-Treasurer has received for membership fees $108.00, and expended for postage, printing and stationery, telephone and telegrams, $59.27. Remaining in treasury, $48.73. The following leaflets were issued during the year: A reprint of Dr. Morris's article "Nut Culture for Physicians." A list of societies, books and other publications devoted to nut culture. A list of some of the chief nurserymen carrying nut trees in stock. The President also published in the Garden Magazine for May an article on nut culture, in which he referred to our organization, as a result of which some 45 letters of inquiry were received by the secretary, covering the country from Canada to Texas and from British Columbia to Panama. The leaflets, and notices of the annual meeting, have been sent to about 321 addresses, including the members, agricultural journals, nurserymen and nut dealers, government and state officials, state horticulturists, correspondents and persons who it was thought might be interested. The following letter was sent to 21 leading nurserymen: "The President of our association, Dr. Robert T. Morris of New York, asks me to suggest to you that it might be well for your firm, or some member of it, to join the association, to be present at the meetings and to take up the matter of raising such nursery stock as is in constant and growing demand by the members. We need to be in touch with those who are growing things commercially and if they are present at the meetings they will know what we want. The national association is largely made up of professional nurserymen." Nov. 15, 1911. Two nurserymen have accepted the invitation. Evidently the others do not yet think the northern nut grower one whose acquaintance is worth cultivating. We hope to convince them to the contrary. The following letter has been sent to the state horticulturists of the northern states and the provinces of Canada. "The Northern Nut Growers' Association desires your interest, your aid and advice, your membership and, if possible, your attendance at the meetings. It would also be of help to the association in its work if you would give it information of those persons in your state who are interested in nut culture." Nov. 15, 1911. Cordial replies have been received from M. B. Cummings, Secretary of the Vermont Horticultural Society; from Le Roy Cady, Chief of the Division of Horticulture, Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station; and from J. H. Poster, Professor of Forestry, New Hampshire Agricultural College. Fifty postal card reminders of this meeting were sent to members and others a week ago. The secretary has also made investigation by correspondence on the hickory bark beetle and the identity of _Juglans mandshurica_. The response from all communications to the various officials of the Department of Agriculture at Washington has been prompt, cordial, interesting and helpful. This should certainly be very encouraging, if encouragement is needed, coming from men likely to be far-seeing as to the needs for, and the possibilities of, nut culture. Prof. Frederick V. Coville is conducting experiments in rooting hickory cuttings sent by the secretary. Prof. Walter Swingle offers his cooperation in experiments in propagation. The general correspondence received by the secretary shows an interest and an enthusiasm that reveals the growing appreciation of the importance of the purposes for which this association stands. (The following figures are brought up to date of going to press.) Eighteen of our 60 members are from New York, 8 from Connecticut, 6 from Pennsylvania, 4 from New Jersey and Illinois, 3 from the District of Columbia, 2 each from Indiana, Virginia and Minnesota, and one each from Massachusetts, Ohio, Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, Colorado, Kentucky, Michigan, Oklahoma, Panama and Canada. Thus seventeen states, the District of Columbia, Panama and Canada are represented in our membership. Eight of our members are women, one of them a life member, nine are professional nurserymen, eight are physicians, six are connected with educational institutions, three are lawyers, five agriculturists, two at least are capitalists, and all expect to be, two are in literature and there are one each of the following: clergyman, painter, insurance, secretary, railroads, senator. The national association has 273 members of whom 52 are from the northern states. We ought to have all of these. The secretary is keeping a record of the scattered articles, communications to agricultural journals and other literature relating to nut growing. He would consider it a favor if the members would send him information of anything of this kind that may come to their knowledge. Mr. Littlepage: I move that the report of the Secretary-Treasurer be approved. Professor Craig: I second that motion. I would like to add just a word, to the effect that it seems to me that the Secretary has started out in a very promising manner. He has not merely performed the routine duties of the secretary, but he has studied the case, and has presented in an analytical and striking form a good many facts not apparent on the surface, had he only given us the stereotyped matter in the conventional way; and it seems to me that this augurs well for the future of the Secretary's office. I trust he can keep up the gait. (Carried.) Professor Craig: May I say that it seems to me there are one or two matters arising out of the Secretary's report which are worthy of special action? One is the question of the invasion of the Scolytus beetle; the other is the nomenclature of _Juglans mandshurica_. It occurs to me that it might be well to appoint committees on these subjects to report during the sessions of the society. I might say on the Scolytus matter, that I have conferred with Professor Comstock, who has been kind enough to say he would place the matter in the hands of one of his assistants, who will present to the society the latest we have on that subject; and in the event of a committee being appointed, I would suggest that that person, Professor Herrick, be made the chairman of that committee. President Morris: I will appoint Professor Herrick and Professor Craig on the scolytus committee, and on the nomenclature committee I will appoint Doctor Deming and Mr. Barron. In this connection, I will have to say, however, that I neglected to bring my correspondence relating to the nomenclature of _Juglans mandshurica_. I can say a word that the committee may wish to use. For a long while, I have been trying to trace the origin of the name _Juglans mandshurica_. It is applied to two different nuts. The one described in the United States government bulletin is the nut originally described by Maxim as _Juglans mandshurica_ more than thirty years ago. That nomenclature has priority for two reasons: first, because of the date, and in the second place, because of the recognized standing of Maxim as a botanist. The Yokohama Nursery Company has been sending out a very different nut which they call _Juglans mandshurica_, evidently of the race of _Juglans regia_. The _Juglans mandshurica_ of the government bulletin is like the butternut, the _Juglans mandshurica_ of the nursery companies is evidently a race of _Juglans regia_. I have conferred with Doctor Britton, Sargent, and other authorities, and we have never been able to trace the name given to this walnut of the _Juglans regia_ type, _Juglans mandshurica_, until by accident I happened to get word from the Yokohama Nursery Company to the effect that they had made up that name in the office a few years ago, not knowing that a previous _Juglans mandshurica_ existed and had been named by Maxim. So that traces the rodent to its hole. The name _Juglans mandshurica_ by Maxim is the proper name for the worthless butternut-like nut from China. De Candolle named the valuable walnut that has been sent out by the Yokohama Nursery Company _Juglans regia sinensis_. So both of these nuts have been previously named, and by authority. Professor Craig: It is a question, then, of priority. President Morris: Yes, a question of priority; but really the Yokohama Company had no right to make up that name. It was simply made up in the office as a matter of trade convenience, and they attached to this _Juglans regia_ nut a name that had been applied to an entirely different nut, not knowing that this name had been previously applied. So there is a _Juglans mandshurica_ and a _Juglans regia sinensis_, respectively. Mr. Littlepage: Is the walnut, _Juglans mandshurica_, which you have been discussing, similar to the ordinary butternut of the Middle West, the Indiana white walnut? President Morris: You can find nuts much alike on first inspection, but the mandshurica nut has six ridges in addition to the suture ridges. The leaf of _Juglans mandshurica_ is sometimes a yard in length, with twenty-seven to thirty-one leaflets, sometimes--an enormous tropical leaf. The nut is usually too small to be valuable. Mr. Littlepage: I have seen the butternut of the Middle West nearly similar, but it grows on the ordinary tree with white bark, and has small leaves. President Morris: The general outline of the nut is about the same in both, but the air chambers are very much larger in the _mandshurica_ than they are in the butternut and there is a marked difference in the flavor. You can distinguish them readily enough. Mr. Littlepage: The butternut grows wild throughout the Middle West, usually along small water courses and alluvial lands. There are perhaps one hundred and fifty on a creek corner on one of my farms. President Morris: They are very plenty here at Ithaca. In fact, you will find them in Maine and Nova Scotia. Mr. Littlepage: I saw them in Michigan. President Morris: I will state, that from two until four the members will view the collections, and make the tour of the Campus buildings. During that time the report on competition, or at least examination of specimens in competition, should be made, and I would like to appoint Professor Reed and Mr. Littlepage on that committee, and I will serve as _ex-officio_ member of the committee. The other committees I can make up a little later. The next order of business will be the President's address. Mr. Littlepage, will you take the chair? THE HICKORIES. ROBERT T. MORRIS, M. D. So far as we know, the hickories, belonging to the Juglandaceae, are indigenous to the North American continent only. Representatives of the group occur naturally from southern Canada to the central latitude of Mexico, in a curved band upon the map, which would be bounded upon the east by the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west roughly by the Missouri River, until that river bends east from the eastern boundary of Kansas. From the angle of that bend the hickory runs approximately southwest into Mexico. The exact number of species has not been determined as yet, because of the open question of specific or varietal differences in some members of the family. Sargent's classification at present includes eleven species: Hicoria pecan, H. Texana, H. minima, H. myristicaeformis, H. aquatica, H. ovata, H. Carolinae-septentrionalis, H. laciniosa, H. alba. H. glabra, and H. villosa. To this list may be added H. Mexicana (Palmer), which so far seems to have been found only in the high mountains of Alvarez, near San Louis Potosi in Mexico; and H. Buckleyi from Texas, which was described once by Durand, and since that time overlooked by writers, excepting by Mrs. M. J. Young in 1873, who included the species in her "Lessons in Botany." Professor Sargent tells me that the Buckley hickory will be included in the next edition of Sargent's "Manual of the Trees of North America." This brings the number of species up to thirteen. In addition we have well marked varieties: H. glabra odorata, H. glabra pallida, and H. glabra microcarpa, making sixteen well defined hickories that have been described. Nuts of all of these hickories are in the collection of "Edible Nuts of the World" at Cornell University, with the exception of nuts of the varieties H. glabra odorata and H. glabra pallida. In addition to the sixteen described varieties and species of hickories in America, we have an endless variety of hybrid forms, because cross-pollenization seems to take place readily between hickories of synchronous flowering time. Five of the hickories: H. pecan, H. Texana, H. minima, H. myristicaeformis, and H. aquatica belong to the open-bud group, while the rest belong to the scale-bud group. The winter buds of the open-bud group resemble the winter buds of the walnuts in a general way, and in artificial hybridization experiments I seem to note a close relationship between the open-bud hickories and the walnuts. There is no more promising work for the horticulturist than crossing hickories with walnuts, and crossing hickories with each other. Five hundred years from now we shall probably find extensive orchards of such hybrids occupying thousands of acres of land which is now practically worthless. The hickories are to furnish a substantial part of the food supply of the world in the years to come. At the present time wild hickories held most highly in esteem are: H. pecan, H. ovata, H. Carolinae-septentrionalis, and H. laciniosa. Several other kinds have edible kernels, sometimes of excellent character, but not readily obtained except by boys and squirrels, whose time is not valuable. In this group we have H. alba, H. glabra, H. villosa, H. glabra pallida, H. glabra odorata, H. glabra microcarpa, H. Mexicana, H. Buckleyi, and H. myristicaeformis. In another group of hickories with temptingly thin shells and plump kernels, we have a bitter or astringent pellicle of the kernel. This group contains H. Texana, H. minima, and H. aquatica. Sometimes in the bitter group we find individual trees with edible nuts, and it is not unlikely that some of them represent hybrids in which the bitter and astringent qualities have been recessive. Among the desirable species of wild hickories there is much variation in character, and selection of trees for propagation is in its infancy. One reason for this has been the difficulty of transplanting hickories. Another reason is the fact that hickories do not come true to parent type from seed. A third reason is the length of time required for seedling hickories to come into bearing. Concerning the first reason, the enormous taproot of young hickories requires so much pabulum for maintenance that when the trees are transplanted, with destruction of root-hairs along with the feeding roots, transplanted stocks may remain a year or two years in the ground before they are ready to send out buds from the top. On this account, the Stringfellow method has in my locality proven of value. This consists in extreme cutting back of root and top, leaving little more than a short club for transplantation. The short club does not require much pabulum for maintenance, and new feeding roots with their root-hairs get the club under way quickly, because there is little useless load for them to carry. The Stringfellow method further includes the idea that stock should be planted in very hard ground, and seems to be practicable with the hickories. The root-hairs which take up nourishment from the soil find it difficult to carry on osmosis in loose soil. The close contact obtained by forcing a way through compact soil facilitates feeding. On this account, autumn is perhaps a better time for transplantation of hickories, in the northern latitudes, at least. Callus forms over the ends of cut roots at all times when the ground is not frozen, and the more complete the callus formation the more readily are feeding roots sent out. One of the main obstacles to propagation of hickories has depended upon the fact that nuts did not come true to parent type from seed. This is overcome by budding or grafting, and we can now multiply the progeny from any one desirable plant indefinitely. In the South grafting is nearly as successful as budding, but in the North budding seems to be the better method for propagation. The chief difficulty in grafting or budding the hickories is due to slow formation of callus and of granulation processes which carry on repair of wounds. The propagation of trees from a desirable individual plant can be accomplished also by transplanting roots. A hickory root dug from the ground, divested of small rootlets, cut into segments a foot or more in length, and set perpendicularly in sand with half an inch protruding, will throw out shoots from adventitious buds. In my experimental work with hickory roots, in covered jars, surrounded by wet moss, but with the entire root reached by light, adventitious buds have started along the entire length of the root, and we may find this an economical way for root propagation, dividing up sprouting roots into small segments. The chief objection to this method of propagation as compared with budding is the length of time required for seedling trees to come into bearing, propagation from roots probably requiring the same length of time as propagation from seed, whereas by budding or grafting the bearing period begins very much earlier. Forty-six years ago Mr. J. W. Kerr of Denton, Maryland, planted three pecks of large shagbark hickory nuts, but of the progeny only about twenty were satisfactory, most of the trees bearing inferior nuts. These trees required from thirteen to eighteen years to come into bearing, and young trees that Mr. Kerr purchased from nurseries and planted were twenty-five years old before they began to bear. Others who have planted shagbark hickories and pecans state that nearly twenty years are required for the trees to come into bearing on an average. When budded or grafted the pecan sometimes comes into bearing in two years, and frequently in four years. We may anticipate that other hickories will act analogously. The hickories prefer rich, well drained soil for best development of nuts, and an abundance of moisture, provided the land is well drained. Many of the hickories, however, are so adaptable to various soils that they often thrive in lands that are sandy, and dry, and almost barren. In the latter case, they have to maintain an enormous root system for feeding purposes, and this is detrimental to good bearing qualities. The mocker-nut, pignut, and hairy hickory, perhaps adapt themselves best to sandy soils. This feature may make them valuable species for planting when one has no other soil, because the stocks can be used for grafting better kinds. While the hickories prefer neutral or alkaline soil, most of them will grow fairly well even in acid glacial tills. Their preference, however, for neutral or alkaline soils would suggest the use of a good deal of lime in acid soils, when hickories are to be grown in orchard form. All of the trees in the hickory group are intolerant of shade and of competition with other trees. The more sunlight they can have the better. Most of us are familiar with the hickory tree standing alone in the cultivated field, which bears a heavy annual crop, when the neighbors at the edge of the forest bear sparingly. Hickories in forest growth put their energies into the formation of wood chiefly, and in the struggle for food and light devote very little energy to fruiting. The best method for cultivation of hickories has been worked out only with the pecan up to the present time. With this species, it has been determined that clean cultivation with plenty of fertilization gives best results, as with apples. It is probable that Stringfellow's sod culture method will come next in order, and will perhaps be most generally used by nut orchardists, because it is less expensive and requires less labor. The sod culture method includes the idea of cutting all grass and weeds beneath the trees, in order to take away competition, allowing these vegetable substances to decompose beneath the trees and furnish food. There is no objection to adding artificial fertilizer, or a still greater amount of vegetable matter. The enemies of the hickories are not many in the forest, where the balance of nature is maintained, but when man disturbs the balance of nature by planting hickories in large numbers in orchard form certain enemies increase, and must be met by our resources. Fungous and bacterial enemies are beginning to menace some varieties of the pecan in the South, and both in the North and in the South certain insect enemies are becoming important in relation to all valuable hickories. The bark boring beetle (Scolytus) has been reported as destructive to hickories in some sections, the trees dying as a result of depredations of the larvae of this beetle. I find a large borer at work on some of my hickories, but have not as yet determined its species. It may be the painted hickory borer (Cylene), or the locust borer. It makes a hole as large as a small lead pencil, directly into the trunk or limbs, and excavates long tunnels into the heart wood. The painted hickory borer is supposed to occur chiefly on dead and dying hickories, but the borer of which I speak is found in the vigorous young hickories in the vicinity of my locusts, which are riddled with locust borers. In some localities involucre borers make tunnels between the nut and the involucre, interfering with the development of the kernel. The hickory twig girdler (Oncideres) is abundant in some localities, but not as yet very destructive. Hickory nut weevils destroy many nuts in some localities, and their colonies increase about individual trees markedly. In such cases, it is important to collect the entire crop each year from a given tree, taking pains to destroy all nuts which contain weevil larvae. These may be selected in a general way by dumping the freshly gathered nuts into a tub of water. Nuts containing weevil larvae will float for the most part, and in order to make sure of the destruction of larvae in the remaining nuts they may be placed in a closed receptacle, and carbon bisulphide poured over them. One of the bud worms is sometimes very destructive to individual hickory trees which have developed colonies, the larvae destroying the axillary buds, and burrowing into the base of the petioles of leaves. A new enemy which I found this year for the first time is the _Conotrachelus juglandis_. This beetle ordinarily lays its eggs in the involucre of the butternut. With the introduction of exotic walnuts, the beetle has changed its habits, and lays its eggs in the herbaceous shoots of walnuts and hickories. The larvae tunnel into the center of a shoot, and destroy it, or seriously interfere with its nutrition. Among the enemies of the hickory we must not forget the common field mouse, and the pine mouse, which burrow beneath the surface of the ground, and in winter feed freely upon the bark of the roots of the hickories. They have destroyed many thousands of young hickories of various kinds in my nursery, and in digging up roots of old hickories for experimental root grafting I find that mice have been living freely for years upon the bark of some roots. RANDOM NOTES Aside from the facts which have been grouped together in this paper, certain notes may be of interest, as introducing questions for speculation. Are we likely to find more species among the hickories than the ones already described? If so well described a species as the H. Buckleyi has almost escaped observation, and if H. Mexicana is confined, as it seems to be, to a very limited area, and if most of the hickories grow in regions where few botanists are at work, it seems to me probable that several species remain as yet undiscovered. These are likely to be species which lack means of defence, and which are restricted to certain small areas. If we make a parallel with other observations of recent discoveries, one thinks, for instance, in Ichthyology of the Marston's trout, the Sunapee sabling, Ausable greyling, and the Kern River trout, confined almost to a certain stream or lake, and remaining undiscovered for years by naturalists, although familiar to thousands of local fishermen. Sometimes there is a very apparent reason for the check to distribution of a species. The men whom I employed to go into the mountains of Alvarez for the Mexican hickory tell me that the trees are so loaded down with mistletoe that they rarely bear a crop, and there are few nuts with well developed kernels to be found. Distribution of a powerful species of hickory, like the pecan, seems to be limited in the North by incomplete development of the pistillate flowers. These are borne on the ends of the herbaceous shoots of the year, and the pecan has such a long growing season that in the North the pistillate buds, which are last developed, are exposed to winter killing. Southern limitation of hickories which have a very short growing period, like the shagbark, may be due to the fact that after a period of summer rest, new growth begins in the autumn rains, and this new growth may not lignify for winter rest. By artificial selection we can extend the range of all hickories far beyond their indigenous range, which is limited by natural checks. Extension of range, adaptation to various soils, and changes in the character of the nut are likely to occur from grafting hickories upon different stocks of the family. Thus we can graft a shagbark, which does not thrive in poor sandy soil, upon the mocker-nut, which does grow in such soils. Some varieties of the species may grow freely far out of their natural range if they are simply transplanted. For instance, the Stuart pecan, which comes from the very shores of the Gulf of Mexico, is one of the hardiest pecans at the latitude of New York. I don't know about its northern fruiting as yet. If the Satsuma orange grafted upon trifoliate orange stock gives a heavy, well flavored fruit, while the same variety grafted upon sweet orange stock gives a spongy fruit of little value, we may assume that similar changes in character of fruit will follow nut grafting. Perhaps the astringent feature of the pecan nut will be found to disappear when the pecan has been grafted upon certain other hickories. Sometimes undesirable results are obtained from such grafting; for instance, the pecan grafted upon water hickory stock has been found to grow freely for four or five years, and then to die back unaccountably. Stocks of rapidly growing hickories, like the pecan and the bitternut, may serve to shorten the bearing time of slowly growing species, like the shagbark, when scions of the latter are grafted upon such stocks. At the present time I have shagbark grafted upon stocks of the pecan, shagbark, bitternut, mocker-nut, and pignut, but these are all young, and I cannot at the present time discern much difference in effect of stock upon scion. In cross pollenization of hickories, I have not as yet discovered the best way to prevent the development of aphides and of other insects under the protection of the paper bags (which cover the pistillate flowers) sometimes to the point of destruction of flowers before nuts are started. It is probable that sprinkling the leaves with Persian insect powder, and leaving a little insect powder in the bag, will settle the question. I have not as yet learned how to prevent squirrels from getting at hybridized nuts while they are still upon the tree. Squirrels cut through mosquito netting which is tied about nuts to prevent them from falling to the ground, and if wire gauze is used, they cut off the branch, allowing gauze and all to fall to the ground, and then manage to get the nut out of the gauze. The red squirrel particularly is a pest in this regard, and will even cut off the tape which is tied about the branches for marking purposes, for no apparent reason aside from pure mischievousness. Nuts which are to be planted must be kept away not only from the squirrels, but from rats and mice. One of my farmhouses got the reputation of being haunted because of mysterious noises made by rats in rattling hybrid nuts worth a dollar apiece about between the partitions. The best way that I have found for keeping nuts for sprouting purposes is to have a number of large wire cages made. These are set in the ground, nuts are stratified in sand within these cages, and allowed to remain exposed to the elements during the winter. It is probable that some of the hickories will be grown in forest form in future because of the increased value of the wood of the species. For growing hickories in forest form, it is probable that they should be set not more than six or eight feet apart at the outset. At ten years of age the first thinning will give a valuable lot of hoop poles. The second thinning will give turning stock. The third thinning will give wood for a large variety of purposes. I know of no tree which promises to return a revenue more quickly when planted in forest form than hickories like the shagbark and the shellbark, mocker-nut and pignut. These trees will not be expected to bear nuts, because in the struggle for food and light their energies will be directed toward making trunks. Hickories are undoubtedly to be used for decorative purposes in parks and streets by future generations. The stately pecan, the sturdy shagbark, can be made to replace, South and North, the millions of useless poplars, willows, and other bunches of leaves, which please the eye but render no valuable annual or final returns. The chief reason why this has not been done is because people have not thought about it. * * * * * President Morris: This paper is not to be considered with the respect that is ordinarily due to a presidential address, but is open for discussion, and I would like to have any of my theories disproven. Professor Craig: Doctor Morris has covered a very extensive field in his presidential address, and has raised so many interesting questions that I imagine the difficulty with you is to know just where to begin. Personally, and because I am not as thoroughly aware of the field of Doctor Morris' hybridization work as I ought to be, I should like to ask him what combinations of the hickories he has effected thus far. The field of hybridizing nuts is an exceedingly interesting one, and Doctor Morris has been the foremost worker in it. I am sure it would be interesting to you, as it is to myself, to know briefly what ground he has covered in the extensive range of his experiments. President Morris: In answering that question, I am speaking from memory and may not speak correctly. I have made crosses back and forth between shagbark, bitternut, mocker-nut, pignut, and pecan. In the crosses I made, using pecans, pollen was received from the South and put upon the others. The number of crosses that are fertile I cannot state as yet, because I have not had experience enough in protecting these nuts, and many of the hybrid nuts were lost. Squirrels and mice destroyed the labor of three of my men and myself during one season. I have secured fertile hybrids between the pecan and the bitternut and between the pecan and the shagbark. If I remember correctly, those are the only fertile hybrids I have between hickories at the present time. In regard to crossing hickories and walnuts, I have crossed back and forth several of the walnuts, our black walnut, our butternut, the Siebold walnut, with the pecan, and with the bitternut, and have fertile hybrids. These are open bud hickories, and the open bud hickories seem to cross pollenize freely with the walnuts back and forth, while the scale bud hickories do not accept pollen readily from the walnuts. I would rather perhaps not make a report to this effect for publication at the present time, for two reasons. In the first place, I am speaking from memory; in the second place, rats, mice, squirrels, small boys, visitors, and high winds have made such inroads upon my specimens, and upon my work, that it is not quite time to report. I am merely speaking offhand in a general way, stating that the hickories, open bud and scale bud, both seem to cross rather freely back and forth. Open bud hickories and the walnuts seem to cross rather freely back and forth, while the walnuts and the scale bud hickories apparently do not cross so readily back and forth. Professor Craig: In growing your hickories from root cuttings, have you had any trouble from excessive sprouting? President Morris: Anywhere from one to eight sprouts will start from adventitious buds at the circle near the ground, and then I break all these off but one, letting that one grow. Mr. Wilcox (Pennsylvania): How do you prepare your stocks for budding and grafting, in pots? President Morris: I have tried practically every method that has ever been described, and the only successful method that I have now has been topworking vigorous sprouts of one year's growth. That is, I would cut off the tops of the trees now. Next spring those tops send out very vigorous sprouts. I bud those early in August or the latter part of July, or else in the following spring, sometimes, we graft them; and in grafting, it is quite important to cut longitudinally at one side of the stock, and go clear to the cambium layer. That gives the flexible slice on one side, and adapts itself to the tying. Mr. Wilcox: Have you prepared any stocks in pots at all? President Morris: Yes. I personally have to leave these to others. I tell my men to do it, but it is rather new work for them, and I give them so much to do that things are apt to be neglected; and just a moment of neglect at the wrong time will wipe out a whole year's work. I have not cared very much at the present time for root grafting in pots. I have lost a great proportion of the grafts, and it does not at the present time seem desirable; but I believe if that is done in hot houses with the ground warmed from the bottom, it is very apt to succeed. Give them plenty of time for granulating. They granulate very, very slowly. Mr. Wilcox: What kind of pots do you use? President Morris: Some Professor Sargent showed me, long, made for the purpose. Mr. Collins (Pennsylvania): You spoke of the hairy hickory. What hickory is that? President Morris: _Hicoria villosa_, that you find from Carolina southward. Mr. Littlepage: You spoke of the Stuart as being the most hardy pecan in the latitude of New York. I presume you meant of the southern pecans? President Morris: It seems to be one of the hardiest anyway. Even Virginia forms don't stand it through the winter as well as the Stuart. Mine are not fruiting as yet. Mr. Littlepage: What varieties have you there? President Morris: Appomattox and Mantura are northern ones I have. Mr. Littlepage: Have you none of the Indiana varieties? President Morris: Yes, I have the Indiana varieties on northern stocks, but those have only gone through one winter. They went through all right. I would say that the Stuart is quite as hardy as those. Mr. Littlepage: I have observed the Stuart in Indiana. A friend of mine has a small orchard of several varieties of pecans. I notice some places where the Stuart has lived six or seven years, and then some particularly hard freeze has frozen it back. I have a letter from Mr. Jones in Louisiana, in which he says they had a recent freeze, and every variety of pecan he had there had suffered, except the Stuart. I don't recall whether he mentioned the Moneymaker in a previous letter or not, but he did mention the Russell and some other varieties. President Morris: We have a number of pecan trees about New York that have been grown on private estates. Pecans have been planted in Connecticut and Massachusetts. You run across seedling trees here and there, and a good many of them are perfectly hardy. They are very apt to be infertile. The staminate flowers are apt to be destroyed because they mature so late, and they may not carry any nuts. Pollination is imperfect as a rule, and nuts may not fill. Mr. Reed (Washington, D. C.): But trees of Stuart are in bearing? President Morris: I don't know about bearing. Three years they have stood a temperature of twenty below zero, so that is a pretty good test. Mr. Reed: You haven't seen any nuts yet? President Morris: No, I haven't seen any nuts; but they mature their wood, and if they mature their wood, they are likely to mature staminate and pistillate flowers. Mr. Littlepage: While it is true they may mature staminate and pistillate blossoms, the question arises whether or not the growing season is going to be long enough at the end to mature the nuts. I notice in going through wild groves in Indiana, once in a while you have a tree which never matures any nuts, though it has bountiful crops. The frost gets them. Professor Craig: There is evidently a lack of summer heat to ripen fruit. Before we get quite away from this subject, I would like to ask Mr. Roper if he has noticed any striking differences in the hardiness of Stuart and other northern forms of the pecan in his particular locality. Does Stuart maintain its reputation for hardiness in his locality? We are interested in that question from the northern standpoint. Mr. Roper (Virginia): I think it does, but that is discussed in a paper which I shall read some time here in the meeting. Both the Stuart and Moneymaker have done better with us than any other of the southern varieties when they are budded on hardy stocks. The grafted trees do not do well with us. President Morris: Professor Lake, will you speak on any of these points? Professor Lake: I am learning much and prefer to continue a learner. I shouldn't know anything about this crossing, except in the case of the _Juglans regia_ and the oaks of California. That is one case that was not mentioned. We have a remarkable hybrid between the native oaks and the Persian walnut. It is remarkable in many ways. It has foliage that is perhaps half way between the oak and the walnut, and the nut on the surface looks like a small walnut, and on the inside it is between a walnut and an acorn. I had an opportunity to sample the flesh, but it is not edible yet. They are interested in the work very much, especially at Chico and the Southern California Station. President Morris: It is said to be a cross between the live oak and the walnut. It seems absolutely impossible, but I have seen the nuts, and a photograph of the tree. Mr. Reed: We haven't devoted a great deal of attention to the hybridization of nuts in our Department work. There is one thing that occurred to me, as I sat here, merely of passing interest. A gentleman in Mississippi sent a specimen of foliage, together with berries, from what he said was a hybrid between the pecan and the China berry; and he had the evidence, because the parent pecan tree stood right there, and the China berry was the other parent tree! He wanted world wide attention called to that. They were taken to the botanist, and he recognized them as one of the ordinary soap berries. There was a similar case this fall. A gentleman in Texas exhibited some nuts at the State Fair at Dallas that he said were a hybrid between the mocker-nut, the common hickory there in Texas, and the pecan. He said that the parent trees stood near one another and that the pecan blossomed some years about the same time that the hickory did, and in those years the hickory nut was long, and in other years it was short. Somebody sent one of the nuts to Mr. Taylor, Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry. He sent the nut on to me, and I looked it up. I struck Texas on one of those cold wave days, and drove five miles out and back in a Texas livery rig, and found an ordinary hickory that bore nuts just a little different from others. That is one way the Department is called upon to ferret these things out. Mr. Littlepage: I would like to ask Mr. Reed what information he has as to the success of pecans bearing when grafted or budded on other varieties of hickory? I say that because I know from traveling around through the country that there is a widespread impression that it is possible to have very extensive pecan orchards throughout the North by topworking the wild hickory. I have had some little experience along that line, but I don't know what the facts are; and Mr. Reed has made an extensive trip recently for the Department of Agriculture, collecting data in reference to the pecan. Mr. Reed: The present situation, so far as we have been able to gather the information, is just this. The pecan has been grafted on a good many species of hickory, all the way from Virginia south to Florida, and west to Texas; but rarely ever can we find an instance in which they have produced satisfactorily after they have come to a bearing stage. We find that they unite readily ordinarily, and grow rapidly; but the pecan eventually proves to be a more rapid grower than the hickory, and when it catches up and is the same diameter, then the pecan growth is slower, and while they bear a little the first few years, later on they are not productive. I don't wish to say that is final, but it has been the experience so far. You will find most enthusiastic advocates of pecan on hickory where it hasn't been tried for any length of time. The men who try it find it unites readily and makes this quick growth, and think the question is solved. But aside from a few instances in Texas, I don't find very encouraging reports. It may be due largely to the fact that the right varieties of pecan haven't been used. We know that in the early history of pecan culture the Rome and Centennial and some others that are light bearers were used; and then the pecan on hickory has been looked at as so much saved, and they haven't been given much attention. It is still very much a matter of doubt, but is not in a very favorable light at present. Professor Craig: I would like to ask Mr. Reed if he has looked over Mr. Ramsey's work recently at Austin, Texas. Mr. Reed: I was at Mr. Ramsey's last year, and I don't recall that that matter came up at all. Professor Craig: Didn't you see his plantation of top worked hickories? Mr. Reed: I didn't know he had topworked hickories. He has topworked pecans. Professor Kyle of the Station in Texas has recently issued a bulletin on that very thing, and he cites a number of cases in which he concludes that there will be a favorable outcome; but for some reason, in the instances which he cites, the trees haven't borne very much. They attribute it this season in one instance to the fact that they had a storm at pollinating time, and last year some other accident happened that prevented them from maturing after a quantity of nuts had set. Mr. Littlepage: I mention this at this time because I want to get Mr. Reed's testimony in the record, because I think that every prospective nut grower must go through this stage. A year ago I undertook on my farm in Indiana to bud the pecan into other varieties of hickory--I have a great many wild hickories growing all over my farm,--shagbark, shellbark, and different varieties of those even. So I went to work and budded perhaps one hundred of those trees, and for a while it seemed that there was going to be a great degree of success. I budded them all upon the limbs where the bark was thinner, and tied the bud in with waxed cloth very tightly; and by absorption the majority of the buds lived a week or ten days. After that, there was perhaps a third of them alive. For the next two weeks, we could find an occasional bud that remained green, and then the number became so very small that I gave up the idea that any would live. But this spring I found a few of these had started to grow, but I had tied them so very tightly that in some instances where there had been a growth of an inch or two, the bud part had been cut in two. Then I undertook it on a much smaller scale. I cut back eight or ten small hickory trees three to four inches in diameter, let them throw up water sprouts, and budded into these. The bud wood I used stuck very tight, and I examined the buds in November, and there were quite a number alive of the Greenriver and Huntington varieties of pecan. Whether they will grow finally remains to be seen. (A discussion then occurred as to holding the afternoon session and it was decided to continue the business during the afternoon, instead of visiting the Campus.) President Morris: I would like to comment on one point made by Mr. Littlepage. He has given us perhaps the reason why pecans die back when grafted upon other stocks. Mr. Reed, that is an extremely important point. He has shown that the pecan grows so much more rapidly than other hickories that when it has arrived at a proportion to be supported by the root of the other hickory, it then ceases bearing because all the energy is required for maintaining this new pecan top that tries to grow faster than the hickory, if that is my understanding of this point. May we not graft freely back and forth hickories of kinds which have about the same rate of growth, and may we not graft other kinds of hickories upon pecan stock, for we don't care how much nourishment is given to a fine young shagbark? Mr. Littlepage: That is a fine point. President Morris: I am very glad Mr. Reed brought up that point. It is going to save thousands of dollars if it is a fact recognized in time, because many would go to putting pecans upon other hickories. We may learn that certain kinds of hickories can be grafted to advantage upon other stock, however. Mr. Reed: There is another point right there I would like to have your views on, and that is, the smaller the hickory is at the time the pecan is grafted on it, the greater will be the influence of the pecan on the hickory. President Morris: It can drag the stock along perhaps. It has been proved, I think, that a graft has a certain influence upon the stock, and in some cases can drag it along willy nilly to a certain extent. The root and the top get to balance each other fairly well if the root is very small at the time the graft is put on. Most of the trees that have been topworked to pecan have been various kinds of large hickories. Perhaps if you were to take a shagbark hickory one to two years of age and graft it, the pecan top would dominate or control that root, no matter whether it wanted to grow or not. Mr. Reed: The claim is sometimes made that if the pecan is grafted on other hickory young enough, it will transform the hickory completely. It will make a sufficient root system to feed the pecan as well as the pecan root would. But I have never seen that demonstrated. President Morris: That is speculative. It is a very valuable point, one of the sort of points that would naturally be brought out at a meeting of this kind. Mr. Reed: Have you seen that with other fruits, Professor Craig? Professor Craig: Yes. Each variety of apple produces its own kind of roots without reference to the seedling stock. That is to say the scion overrules the root in budding or grafting upon one or two year old seedlings. President Morris: A parallel that comes to mind now is the grafting of Burbank's Royal walnut upon ordinary walnut stock. When that was done, his Royal walnut was said to drag the other walnut along. Professor Craig: I think it is a very valuable suggestion. I am not sure I will go as far as the President has gone; but I think it is exceedingly suggestive, and worthy of careful consideration. Mr. Rush (Pennsylvania): I find the same experience in some instances, that the graft outgrows the stocks. That is a peculiar instance of the work of improper unions. Eventually the stock pushes up and forms a perfect union in growth, with the Persian walnut. This is particularly applicable to pecan and hickory. I suppose Mr. Reed will bear me out in that, with regard to English walnut and black walnut. Mr. Reed: Oh, yes. President Morris: You occasionally see a variety of apple grafted on another in which the graft part gives the tree a sort of slipshod appearance. How about the bearing in that kind of a tree? Professor Craig: They usually bear heavily where the food supply is restricted. Mr. Reed: That would make our pecans bear more heavily on hickory stock than on their own. Professor Craig: As a matter of theory, they ought to. The bearing ought to be increased, because it is a system of girdling, or brings about the same effect,--in other words it restricts the return flow of the elaborated food. The food is checked at the point of union. Another parallel is in the case of _Prunus domestica_, the European plum, when worked on _Prunus Americana_, the American plum. In that case, the top always outgrows the stock, and in ten years it presents a very curious appearance. It presents the appearance of a very top-heavy head on a very spindling stem. The bearing is usually encouraged, but the fruit is usually small. The amount of fruit measured by numbers is increased, but the amount of fruit measured by the size of individual specimens is decreased. Mr. Collins: Isn't the size of the fruit increased in the case of apples? Professor Craig: By topworking, usually, it is, but that doesn't contemplate such an extreme case as that. It means when the union is reasonably uniform, when there is a reasonable affinity between stock and scion. But in extreme cases we get the opposite result. Reproduction is encouraged, but size of fruit is checked. President Morris: I would like to hear from Mr. Rush or Mr. Pomeroy in connection with the hickory. Mr. Pomeroy: I haven't ever tried any experiments with the hickory. President Morris: We will discuss further some of the points that have been suggested in this paper, because it seems to me we are along a good line of cleavage, and this line of cleavage may dispose of some questions that we haven't discussed. One question brought up was if the bitter, astringent qualities are likely to be recessive among hybrids in the trees which have bitter nuts. Mr. Littlepage: I made a trip through Missouri and Arkansas a year ago, and while there, took occasion to go into the forests, and investigate to some extent the Arkansas and Missouri hickory and pecan. Among other things, I found two hybrids, one of the pecan and one of the pignut, one of which was bitter and inedible, the other a fairly good nut. I have both of them with me here today. One of them was very astringent and bitter, the other had taken more the quality of the pecan as to meat, and was a fairly good substitute. I don't know what the reason for it is, that one is fit to eat, and the other isn't, when they are both hybrids between the pignut and the pecan. Doctor Deming: How did you know they were hybrids, by the appearance? Mr. Littlepage: Yes, the appearance is unmistakable. The pignut characteristics are very prominent, also the pecan characteristics. President Morris: Have the members anything to say about the Stringfellow method of transplanting hickories? Doctor Deming: I have had very little experience in transplanting hickories, but I set out two Hales hickories I got from Meehan, and they are both living, although they have made little growth in some three years. Can you tell us what stocks the Hales hickory is grafted upon? Mr. Brown (Pennsylvania): Upon the bitternut. All there are have been upon the bitternut from the start. Doctor Deming: Mr. Littlepage, what do you think of the future of topworking our seedling hickories in the North with improved varieties of hickory or pecan,--the commercial future? Mr. Littlepage: It is largely speculative. I suppose it is the province of every nut enthusiast to have an opinion about these things. In fact, I find it is encouraging to talk to the fellow who has an opinion. My notion is that there is a great future for topworking the various varieties of the hickory in the North to the desirable forms of the hickory, that is, of the hickory other than the _Hicoria pecan_. On my farm I expect next year to devote some time to topworking the various hickories I have to the desirable varieties of the shagbark. I think that can be done throughout the whole country. The shagbark seems to be indigenous to such extensive latitudes, that it seems to me there are great possibilities along that line. I observe that around here we find many of those trees. I have some very beautiful shagbarks that came from Canada. My opinion is that it will be successful. I think the reason the pecan has not proved very satisfactory upon the other species of hickory is that most of those hickories have a close grained wood, and that the distribution of available food depends largely upon the amount of sap. The _Hicoria pecan_ is a much coarser grained wood. The flow of the sap upward is facilitated much more than the flow of the sap upward through the hickory stock of other varieties. I believe that is the reason the theoretical rule would probably not work in this case, simply because the distribution of sap cannot take place fast enough through the tight, close grained stock of other varieties of hickory. Otherwise, I don't see why the rule would not obtain, as with fruits. The experiences Mr. Reed gives, I think, are generally recognized by those who have experimented with them to any extent. I noticed in visiting Mr. Roper's nursery he had one very beautiful specimen of the pecan grafted on a hickory. That was the Stuart, was it not? Mr. Roper: The Moneymaker. It had made a growth of four or five feet in two years. Mr. Littlepage: Do you know the variety of hickory that it was topworked to? Mr. Roper: Just our common hickory, I suppose the pignut. Mr. Littlepage: It made beautiful growth from the wood standpoint. Mr. Roper: Mr. Reed's point was that it would do that till it got by the period of good nutrition from the root. Professor Craig says the elaboration of food from the pecan top more than overcomes the deficiency. Professor Lake: I would like to question Mr. Littlepage's physiological ground for the lack of proper fusion of liquids between the pecan and the other hickories. I believe it is not authenticated that the water supplies from the earth would not distil as fast in the close grained hickories as in the more open grained pecan. At least, the very close grained, firm woods of the tropics transmit a tremendous amount of water, much in excess of many of our fine grained woods of the North. And it seems to me I wouldn't like to have this Association go on record as vouching for this explanation exactly. It seems to me there are better explanations. Lack of fusion is not due to the amount of water that is carried up, but rather to the fact that the root system of the hickory does not develop fast enough to collect water to transmit. Mr. Littlepage: I am very glad to hear Professor Lake's statements. My suggestions were given only as a possible theory that occurred to me, and I don't vouch for their accuracy. There must be some explanation to controvert the general rule which Professor Craig has given us. Professor Craig: May I add one word? When a stock and scion unite, the union is really a mechanical one. It is a union of cells, and in that respect it is simply mechanical, not a physiological union. The different life types or character of the scion and top do not fuse, but we have a mechanical union of cells, and that mechanical union is as clearly shown forth as possible when we make a section through the point of union. If your type of cell in the stock differs very materially from the type of structure in the scion, the union is unsatisfactory. If the types of tissue are much alike, the union is good and you do not have either overgrowth of stock or undergrowth of scion very much, but you have what is called a good union. It is to some extent a question of mechanics, in my judgment, influenced by the cell structure of stock and scion. If you have a good, smooth union, the two grow equally. Where you have overgrowth of scion, you usually have a starved root, because the food which is to be returned elaborated is checked at the point of union, the root is starved, and you have a short lived tree, because your root system, which ought to receive its share of the distributed food, is underfed, finally weakens, and the whole structure fails. Professor Lake: You may have mechanical union, but you can't have the after fusion in which you are going to have proper function of stock and scion. Professor Craig: Each cell functions after its own kind. It is a question of passage or transmission of food through that carrier, after the union is effected. If the character of the two types differs very much, the transmission of food is checked and is difficult. President Morris: There is another mechanical point I'd like to ask about. When the two types of cells differ, will the difference in degree of capillarity regulate the amount of pabulum distributed, or does it depend upon negative and positive pressure? Professor Craig: That is a very difficult question, because it isn't settled at the present time what credit we should give to capillarity and what to root pressure in sap circulation. Mr. Reed: There is another question I would like to ask Professor Craig. Supposing you have a mechanical union perfected, what is the difference in the food that different species of the same genus transmit? Has that been worked out? Professor Craig: I don't think so. Of course, there is a difference in the food. That is proven, because there is a difference in the quality of the food. The tree machine, the tree factory speaking individually, evidently makes different products, and that is shown by the different quality of nuts. That is all we know about it. Professor Lake: That part below the scion still continues to be normal hickory, and that part above, pecan, so really it is not a matter of distribution of water supply by gravity or other pressure, but rather a distribution of the proper amount of elaborated food; and that is transmitted through the cell itself, not the cell walls. Because this top makes a food that is different from the normal requirements, or because the latent character of those cells below does not respond to the food supply as actively as the part above, is the whole question, it seems to me. If the cells below functioned as the cells above, there would be no question about the stock and scion being the same. Mr. Littlepage: Of course there must be sufficient flow of sap to distribute food. The hickory root might not send the flow of sap as fast as the pecan top would like. Mr. Reed: Is Mr. Lake's point always true, that the stock below the point of union remains a normal hickory? Professor Craig: I don't believe there are more than one or two exceptions noted to that, and those exceptions are recorded under graft hybrids. Mr. Reed: A seedling pecan tree owned by Mr. B. M. Young of Morgan City, Louisiana, was top worked with scions from the McAllister hican some seven or eight feet above ground, and later on the bark of the pecan trunk below the point of union became scaly like that of the hican above. Professor Lake: That would suggest something worth while, if that part below would produce fruit like the part above, but I would want to question a little the modification in bark characteristics being a direct result of cross grafting. Mr. Reed: Of course, it was no check--only one instance. Professor Craig: There are one or two others that are authentic. I have known a case of plum. Here we have the plum stock, we will say it is _Prunus Americana_, grafted with _Prunus triflora_, the Japanese, then later on, _Prunus domestica_ is put on top. I have seen a sprout from triflora bearing Japanese plums, while the top of the tree bore _Prunus domestica_, although there was only a small section of stem in there between our two distinct species. They were perfectly normal. President Morris: Each elaborates its own kind of food in its own kind of cell. I would like to hear from Mr. Brown and Mr. Wilcox on this matter of grafting--the influence of stock on scion. Mr. Wilcox: We had a good show of stocks, but instead of allowing them to become established in the pots, we grafted them as they started into growth after rooting. Had they been established, we would have expected better results. Professor Craig: What method do you employ? Mr. Wilcox: Side grafting. Professor Craig: Do you mean whip grafting? Mr. Wilcox: Side whip grafting. Doctor Deming: I would like to ask Doctor Morris what he thinks of the practical future of grafting our hickory seedlings with improved varieties of hickory or pecan, and the method most likely to succeed,--whether grafting or budding, and at what season. It is important to learn whether we can so graft or bud our hickory sprouts that within a few years we can hope to get something from them. President Morris: We can only make a parallel with the pecan. If we know that it requires fifteen or twenty years for coming into bearing as a seedling tree, and if we know that it bears frequently in two, three, or four years after being grafted we can anticipate analogous action with other species of hickories. I haven't been able to get testimony from men who have grafted hickories. One man told me he thought shagbark grafted upon other shagbark, topworked, came into bearing in seven or eight years. Another man told me that his came into bearing in a much shorter time than it would otherwise, while with one particular variety, the Hale, I think that twelve years has been required for the tree to come into bearing. Doctor Deming: I have a communication from Mr. Hales in which he speaks of a tree grafted in 1880, but doesn't say when it began to bear. Mr. Littlepage: He told me it has taken some of them twenty years. Doctor Deming: But the pecan on hickory has been known to bear the second season, that is, topworked. Can we expect such results in topworking our own hickories? Mr. Littlepage: I think so. Doctor Deming: Are we going to have success in topworking, and by what method? President Morris: I believe in the South they can graft, but in the North we have got to do it by budding. My best results have been late July or early August. I believe herbaceous budding promises a good deal. Mr. Rush: Were those buds then of the year previous?. President Morris: Those were buds from the year of the scion, and herbaceous stock of the year. Doctor Deming: Mr. Littlepage has had some success in budding hickory very early, haven't you? Mr. Littlepage: I was just stating that I started in last year to bud. I think it would be possible to make a pecan orchard bear early by budding into these hickories, ten, fifteen, or twenty years old. This next year I am going to try hickory on hickory. I am going to try three processes. I am going to try bark grafting, and whip grafting in the body of the tree which has been cut off. Then, I have quite a number of hickories each four or five inches in diameter that I have sawed off and allowed to put up clusters of water sprouts, and I am going to whip graft some and put paper sacks over them, and see which is the best. President Morris: I have found budding the best. Mr. Reed: Doctor Morris referred to the analogy of the pecan grafted on pecan as coming into bearing in two years. Do you account for that in the fact of its being a graft, or the fact that the wood you selected came from a tree that had the characteristic of early bearing? President Morris: No doubt that characteristic was transmitted, and further, no doubt the grafted stock was used from bearing wood. Those points are all of interest. Mr. Reed: Does the mere operation of grafting or budding influence earliness of bearing? President Morris: Yes, if I understand the question rightly. A tree that might not bear for fifteen years as a seedling may bear in three years grafted. Mr. Rush: I have Persian walnuts that bore two fine nuts the second year. I have young trees, one about thirty inches, and I am sure it will be full of nuts next year, unless some providential misfortune should intervene. Mr. Reed: At what age did the original trees begin to bear? Mr. Rush: Those were buds shipped to me from California. Mr. Littlepage: I am firmly convinced that there is something in the process of budding or grafting that stimulates the growth. For example, I have scions that were not over four to eight inches long grafted on one year seedling pecans which, at the end of this season's growth, were as much as thirty inches high. All along in the same row where seedling pecans were not grafted, there is none over eighteen inches high. Mr. Reed: To have made exact comparison, you would have had to take buds from your seedling nursery trees, and graft on other trees. You are comparing these buds from one tree with seedlings of another. Professor Lake: I would like to ask if you didn't bud or graft the best stocks in the row too? Mr. Littlepage: We took the whole row, as we came to it, but that particular tree might have been on some particularly favorable stock. It is a matter of a good deal of interest to see why a seedling which wasn't budded at all didn't grow as high as a scion which was budded in summer, stratified all winter, then put into the ground in an unnatural position. Professor Craig: It is the same principle, I think, which we discover in pruning. If we prune heavily during the dormant season, the effect is increased vegetative growth. If we wish to stimulate the growth of an old tree somewhat debilitated, we go to work and cut off a large portion of the top. We don't disturb the root. The effect is that with the same amount of pushing power from the root, we have a decreased area over which that energy is spread, and it results in apparently increased growth. I am not quite sure if we were to measure it up in a scientific way, we would actually find it was increased growth. There are fewer branches, but they have made greater length. In the case of grafting our pecans, we cut off our tops, set a two-bud scion in the root, and usually but one starts and receives all the vigor from the established root, instead of the vigor being distributed over several buds on the original seedling top. We have as a result of that concentration of vitality increased growth. I think that theoretical explanation will stand fairly well, because it seems to be directly in line with the effect of winter pruning. Mr. Reed: I would like to ask Professor Craig to what extent he would select seed for nursery purposes? What influence would the characters of the parent tree from which the seed came have on the grafted tree? Professor Craig: I don't believe that we can expect the characters of our stock to affect the scion to any extent. I think what the nurserymen should have in mind and keep in mind is a good, vigorous stock, and as many stocks as possible,--as he can get out of a pound of nuts. Otherwise, I don't think it cuts much figure. In that connection there is a principle which I have discovered by experience, namely, that if you are growing stocks it is wise to get your nuts as near your own locality as possible. My experience last year in planting five hundred pounds of northern grown nuts in a southern locality, and five hundred pounds of southern grown nuts in the same locality, gathered in that locality, is that I got fifty per cent more trees from my southern grown nuts than northern, and trees that were fully thirty per cent better. Mr. Littlepage: Where were your northern grown nuts stratified? Professor Craig: They were not stratified. They were planted as soon as they were received, and they were received within two weeks from the time they were taken from the trees. Mr. Littlepage: I am inclined to believe that if your northern grown nuts had been stratified in the North, and undergone the customary freezing and thawing, then had been taken up in the spring, you wouldn't have seen that difference. Professor Craig: I think that point is well taken. President Morris: There is no doubt about that. In that same connection--I would choose nuts for seed purposes of a mean type, for the reason that nature is all the while establishing a mean. The big pecan is a freak. If you plant big or small nuts, you don't get big or small nuts in return. You get both big and little seeking a mean. Mr. Roper: The large nut will give a better tree. We have tested that out. President Morris: Does that work out logically in that way, is it a comparative matter all the time? Mr. Roper: We haven't worked that out in the bearing, but in the nuts in the row, the small nuts did not produce as large trees as the large nuts. We never tested the mean nuts. We did select some of the very smallest we had, and planted one of the northern and one of the southern type. They came up, but the trees amounted to nothing. President Morris: The idea I meant to convey was that both very small and very large nuts are freaks, and neither likely to give as good a tree as mean types. What would you anticipate, Professor Craig? Professor Craig: I think that would resolve itself on a practical basis from the practical standpoint. I think the mean or average sized nut would give you the best results. There is no doubt, as Mr. Roper said, the very small nut would give you weak seedlings. On the other hand, you couldn't afford to use the very largest, so that a mean between large and small would be the natural thing to choose. But we should do nothing to discourage the planting of the finest specimens, with the possibility of getting something unusually good. That is certainly the work for every amateur. Professor Lake: Does that statement, that you think it doesn't make much difference about the parent of the nuts for stock, apply to walnuts? Professor Craig: I haven't had any experience in walnuts. Mr. Littlepage: I would like to ask Mr. Roper if he knows of any examples where selection of fine varieties of seed has not resulted in getting a more productive variety of the plant which he was producing? Mr. Roper: Only one, and that wasn't in a tree. President Morris: In regard to coming true to type, I think records have been made of many thousands of pecans, and I don't know of any instance where the progeny resembled the parent closely. Mr. Pomeroy: Maybe someone could explain one of my failures a few years ago in planting some Persian walnuts. I went to another tree in western New York, and got a peck or more. They were planted the same day, in the same ground, and all came up. Those I got from another tree resembled a hill of beans, and stayed that way for three years. Why wouldn't those grow? In soil three feet from those, there were trees growing. Those nuts never did make trees. The nuts were of good size. Colonel Van Duzee: As a practical nurseryman, I wouldn't think of planting nuts from a tree that I didn't know individually. We have had very much better success with nursery stock where we have chosen as seed medium sized nuts from vigorous trees with which we were acquainted. In the case of Mr. Pomeroy, I don't think there is any question but that the history of his tree would account for the failure. In other words, his nursery stock was undoubtedly from the results of years of slow growth on the part of the original tree, or unfavorable conditions of some kind. I don't quite agree with Professor Craig on the question of the influence of stock, because I believe it is really a very important point. President Morris: We are not here to agree upon anything. Colonel Van Duzee: I can't speak from the scientific standpoint, but I am quite sure that in the nursery business I shouldn't care to overlook that influence. President Morris: When men agree, it means we are on stale old ground which has been thrashed over. THURSDAY AFTERNOON, DECEMBER 14, 1911. President Morris: The meeting is called to order. The first paper this afternoon will be that by Mr. J. Franklin Collins of the United States Department of Agriculture, on the chestnut bark disease. THE CHESTNUT BARK DISEASE. J. FRANKLIN COLLINS, Washington, D. C. I presume some of you know as much about certain features of this chestnut disease as I do myself; for I have only worked over certain sides of the whole question. I also presume that you are all acquainted with the fact that this disease, which is known as chestnut blight or the chestnut bark disease, is without doubt the most serious disease of any forest tree which we have had in this country at any time, that is, so far as its inroads at present appear to suggest. I want to call your attention to certain general historical facts in connection with the disease, facts which are familiar to some of you, but unfamiliar possibly to others. The Forester of the Bronx Zoological Park, Dr. Merkel, discovered in the fall of 1904, or had his attention particularly called in 1904 to the fact, that a good many chestnut trees were dying in his vicinity, a number sufficient to have attracted especial attention. He looked at the matter carefully, and decided that there was a definite disease on these trees. He handed specimens over to Doctor Murrill of the New York Botanical Garden; who worked out the disease, and decided that it was a new fungus which was causing the trouble. He named it _Diaporthe parasitica_, the name under which it is generally known today, although there is some question as to whether that is the one which should be applied to it. This, you remember, was in 1904--in the fall. The first publication which appeared on the disease was in 1906, as I recall it. The publication which then appeared was Doctor Murrill's upon his investigations. The disease has spread very rapidly since then, so that today we know the disease in a general area indicated by the red color on this map. The green area indicates in a general way the natural distribution of the common chestnut. Since 1904 investigations upon the geographical range of the disease have been carried on so far as to show that the disease is now known over approximately the area indicated in red on that map. The northern limits of the disease are perhaps in New York State. Further east, it is known as far north as northern Massachusetts, mainly in the western part, and it is also known in Boston. There have been two or three cases of the disease found in the Arnold Arboretum. On the west, we have two cases in West Virginia, and the most southern station which I know of is in Bedford County, Virginia. But those are isolated stations beyond the area which is indicated here. I shall have a little more to say in regard to the distribution. Before speaking of that, I want to call your attention to a few points in regard to fungi in general, points of common knowledge to all who have studied fungi or mycology. A fungus is a kind of plant which does not, on account of the absence of the green coloring matter, manufacture its own food. It is a plant which has, in other words, no green foliage, and as it has no green foliage, it must obtain its organic or elaborated food from some other source. The fungi have very aptly been termed the tramps of the vegetable kingdom, that is, they live on food prepared by somebody else. They can take certain organic substances and change them apparently into other organic matter which can be used by the plant. In the case of this chestnut fungus, we have a fairly typical fungus in certain respects. We have a vegetative stage of the fungus which is nothing more or less than a lot of threadlike structures penetrating the bark of the chestnut, the inner bark or the middle bark, and there drawing the organic matter from the bark of the chestnut and appropriating it to its own use. Fungi, like practically all other plants, have two stages of existence, one the vegetative or growing stage, the other the reproductive stage. Sooner or later the fungus will produce the fruiting bodies, after it has obtained a sufficient amount of food to justify the formation of these more highly organized structures. In the case of the fruiting body of the chestnut fungus, we have very small, pinhead-like structures, which come out to the surface of the bark, the vegetative portion developing through the interior of the bark. On smooth bark we find that these fruiting pustules are apt to appear all over the surface. With bark that is sufficiently old to have ridges and crevices, we find these fruiting bodies only in the crevices. These fruiting pustules which you will see on this bark are the structures which produce the reproductive bodies, these latter being known as the spores. There are two types of spores which are produced by this fungus. One is the type which is commonly spoken of as the summer spore, the other the type which is spoken of as the winter spore. The winter spore is known from the point of view of the mycologist as the perfect stage of the fungus, that is, it is the more characteristic of this particular fungus. If we should make a cross section of the bark, we should find that the vegetative stage is running through the middle bark, and commonly the inner bark, sometimes in one place only, sometimes in the other only, sometimes in both. This vegetative stage later sends up in various ways a mass of tissue which results in the formation of pustules. These appear on the surface, sometimes more or less regularly rounded, sometimes rather irregular. In the case of the summer spore stage, we have inside the pustules a mass of tissue which is formed into spores. The interior of the spore mass, or at least portions of it, is somewhat mucilaginous, so that when moisture is applied a swelling of the interior mass is produced at a certain stage and something has to break. As a result, we have a mucilaginous mass pressed out through the break in the shape of a twisted thread, much the same as if you take a collapsible tube of paste and pinch it. Now, one of those summer spore threads may contain anywhere from one to five million spores. I have tried to estimate the number in a thread of this sort which was about an eighth of an inch long, and by taking a certain portion of that thread, mounting it in a drop of water, and then counting over a certain measured area under the microscope, I have estimated, by multiplying, that there were 2,400,000 spores in that one thread. So you can imagine how many of these spores may be produced by a single diseased area which has produced perhaps four or five hundred of those pustules, each pustule containing anywhere from one to twenty threads. Each one of those spores may develop a new diseased area, provided it is transported to a fresh break in the bark of a chestnut tree. Fortunately, only a very small fraction of one per cent ever reaches the proper place for growth. This last is what I alluded to as the summer spore stage. There is a winter spore stage, or technically, the ascospore stage, which comes, as a rule, later in the development of the fungus. In this same pustule, later in the season, certain sacs are formed. These have long necks which extend to the top of the pustule. These sacs are sufficiently large to be seen with the naked eye. They are dark colored. Inside these, we have a lot of smaller transparent sacs or cases in each of which we get eight spores, sometimes in one row, sometimes in two rows. Each spore can propagate the fungus. We have, then, two types of spores, either one of which can reproduce the fungus under suitable conditions. There is still another way by which the disease may be kept going. The vegetative stage can survive the winter and continue growing the following year. I will say right here that I am planning to give you merely an outline of this disease, and have time afterwards for questions which I think in a meeting of this sort are one of the most productive sources of information. In regard to the rapidity of spread of this disease, I will merely call your attention to two cases as illustrations, or to certain facts, rather. One is that the disease, so far as our attention has been directed to it, has developed over the area indicated on the map since the fall of 1904. Another case is one which has occurred in Rhode Island, where I have had a chance to watch its development a little more closely than in other places, that is, more constantly. In the fall of 1908, after I had made over thirty excursions around Rhode Island, I was unable to find a single trace of this disease, and no one else was able to find a single case of the disease in Rhode Island. In May, 1909, I happened to be about five miles west of the city of Providence, and I found two or three cases, all in one rather restricted spot. Later, it was discovered a little farther south, and soon, a little to the north, so that at the end of the season of 1909 we knew of about ten cases in Rhode Island. At the end of 1910, a season in which very few trips were made with the special object of surveying for the disease, we had more than doubled the number of infections found. That led to putting someone into the field in 1910 to make a survey of Rhode Island. A man was also put into the state of Massachusetts for the same purpose. Mr. Rankin, in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture, made a survey of New York State, which has resulted in this map. A man was put into Pennsylvania and one into Maryland for the same purpose. As a result of the survey in Rhode Island, where at the end of 1910 we knew of less than fifty cases at the outside, we now know of very nearly 4000 cases. It has been much the same story in Massachusetts. At the beginning of this year, there were four towns in which the disease was known; now there are seventy-one. At present in Connecticut, the disease is known in one hundred thirty-two towns of the one hundred sixty-eight in the state, and the southwestern part of Connecticut is very badly infected, just as badly as the adjoining portions of New York.[A] [Footnote A: Since this statement was made the disease has been definitely reported in approximately 164 towns in Conn. [J. F. C]] So much for illustrations of the rapidity with which the disease develops. I am not going to say at this time anything special about the origin of the disease, simply because we haven't yet decided what was the probable origin. I will merely say there are some different theories in regard to the origin. One is that it was imported from the Orient, another, that it is a saprophyte, a fungus which has lived normally upon dead organic matter, but which has taken on the parasitic form, which develops on living organisms. In connection with any disease of this sort, one naturally inquires, how are we going to recognize this disease? This past summer Pennsylvania has put into the field thirty or more men who have been trained to recognize this disease, with the idea of locating the infections in Pennsylvania. As perhaps all of you know, the legislature of Pennsylvania has passed a law relating to this particular disease, and has appropriated $275,000 to see if the disease can be controlled. Their idea is that they have perhaps fifty million dollars' worth of chestnuts, and if $275,000 can show whether or not this disease can be controlled, it is economy to try it. So far as Pennsylvania is concerned, it means possibly the saving of the chestnuts in the middle and western parts of the state; but it also means that if they can check it there, it is likely to save the great area of chestnut growth along the southern Appalachians. I don't want to make any prophecy as to how that experiment is likely to come out, but, however it comes out, it will be a very great object lesson as to what can be done on a large scale with a disease of this sort. One of the first things which had to be considered in Pennsylvania was to train a number of men to recognize the disease, so as to go over the country and locate the diseased spots. The method of recognizing the disease I will briefly outline. Of course, over a large country, many hundreds of square miles, it is a long, and laborious operation to look over every tree. It is perhaps impossible without a very much larger force than $275,000 could put into the field. But there are certain clues to the location of the disease which can be seen a long distance, a quarter of a mile, at any rate. The means of recognition is by what I commonly call danger signals. This fungus, when growing through the bark, starts from the common point of infection and grows in all directions, up the stem, down the stem, and around the stem. Wherever this vegetative stage, technically known as mycelium, penetrates, the bark is killed; and of course, you all know what that means. When this has succeeded in reaching around a twig, branch, or trunk, everything beyond that girdled area dies, not immediately, perhaps, but sooner or later it dies; and it dies in such a way that the leaves change color during the summer. The first obvious change which can be noted is a slight wilting of the leaf; then the leaf assumes a pale green color, and from the pale green it takes on a yellow stage; from this a reddish yellow stage, and then a brown, till the leaf is the ordinary dark dull brown of the dead leaves. This coloration which takes place is conspicuous. There is your guide, your danger signal. If the disease has worked very long, half a season, in one locality, you are almost sure of getting some of these danger signals. Where one is present, you can go and look up the cause of that danger signal. It may be a broken twig, but the point is to find out if it is this disease which has caused the danger signal. We start by looking at the danger signal, then at the base of the dead area. If we find here some of the reddish pustules which have been shown on this bark we are quite sure that the disease is present. Then by cutting into the bark a little, instead of the normal buff or yellowish tint of the fresh clean bark, we get, when the disease is present, a rather mottled effect, varying from a brownish to lighter or even darker. There is a peculiar fan-like effect to this mycelium which penetrates the bark, so that by shaving off the surface of the bark, you get this mottled appearance, which gives you another means of identifying the disease. So we look for the danger signals, and then look for the meaning of the danger signals. If we find those two things, the pustules and the mottled mycelium, we can very safely say that this disease is present. There are a few fungi which closely resemble this chestnut disease in general appearance, but they are not very common, and are not confused with the disease, as a rule, when you get the lens on them. In regard to the experiments for the control of the disease. I want to say a few words. As far back as 1907, the United States Department of Agriculture began experiments on certain experimental plots, particularly in Long Island near the region where the earliest cases of this disease were known, to see if it could be controlled on individual trees after they had become infected. Later, experiments were undertaken along the same line in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Spraying was tried, although there was no idea that it would be of any use, because the vegetative stage of this fungus is running through the interior of the bark, where no spray could reach it. Thus spraying was found to be of no use whatever. Then the operation of cutting out the disease was tried. Where the diseased spot appeared, it was cut out with a gouge. Then the exposed area was covered in various ways with antiseptics. This gave, for a year or two, very promising results, but about the third year the disease appeared to get over on to the margin, where it had been cut. This led to the later discovery that the disease had been running in the wood, as we had previously suspected. So the cutting out of the bark alone is not sufficient. This year cutting has been done so as to include a portion of the sap wood. There is just one other topic which I want to allude to. That is in regard to the immunity question. It has been found that this disease attacks the common native chestnut, the chinquapin, the various cultivated European chestnuts, but very rarely the Japanese. In regard to this point. I hope that Doctor Morris will tell us something about his experiments on the breeding of chestnuts with the idea of producing a new and immune variety. You will understand that I have just made an outline of this disease, and I hope that, if there are any questions to be asked, you will make them easy, so that I can answer them. President Morris: This very interesting paper is now open for discussion, and I hope that we can get some points which will allow us to know how to control the disease. With the wind-borne spores that are carried miles and miles by a single sharp gust of wind, this disease is a difficult matter to control. We must, I believe, find some natural enemies, if we can. I don't know where to look for these. I will have to ask the mycologists what we may anticipate along the line of natural enemies. I would like to ask if it is common for a weak species to become a devastating species. Have we many parallels in the field of mycology? The point relating to raising immune kinds is one for discussion. Are we to raise immune chestnuts? The history of most plants, I think, has been this, that where they have met their enemies in their natural environment, the fittest survive; and it seems to me that this is a case in which we perhaps have survival of the fittest in North Asia; for the North Asian chestnuts certainly resist the disease better than any others, but the chestnuts of southern Asia are quite vulnerable to it. In my own orchards, I have twenty-six kinds of chestnuts, and have followed them along, for the purpose of determining which ones would resist the blight best. I cut out last year 5000 old American chestnut trees on my property. There is not a tree in all that part of Connecticut, the vicinity of Stamford, that is not blighted, and very few that are not dead. Now, in the midst of this disaster, what was the behavior of my experimental chestnuts of various kinds? It was this. I had about one thousand Koreans that lived up to five years of age, growing in the midst of blighted chestnuts, and none of these blighted. It occurred to me that it might be well to graft these on the stumps of American chestnut, because these Koreans resisted the blight; but when I grafted them on the sprouts of American stumps, at least fifty per cent of the Koreans blighted, showing that the pabulum wanted by the _Diaporthe_ seemed to be furnished by the American chestnut. I had some chestnuts from North Japan that resisted the blight, and yet these grafted on the sprouts from American chestnuts blighted. I had some Chinese chestnuts, and none of those have blighted as yet; and in grafting them, two or three have not been blighted. I have perhaps twenty-four chinquapins, both the western form and the eastern, and only one branch of one tree has blighted. Of the southern Japanese chestnuts, very many are blighted. They are not as resistant as the northern. I have a good many chestnuts of European descent, and among these some resist the blight pretty well; and some of the American progeny, like the Hannum and Ridgely, seem to resist well enough, so that now I am grafting these upon many different sprouts. This should be worked out, and I wish to know what men have tried experiments along this line. I would like to ask Professor Reddick to discuss this question. Professor Reddick: I have very little that I can add at the present time. The points the talk has raised here are of the greatest importance, and there is certainly room for a great many people to work, though here in this state we have only one man who is devoting his attention particularly to this disease. I find in connection with the work that Professor Collins is doing, and in connection with the Pennsylvania work, that there are some people engaged on these very vital and important problems. They are not giving any particular attention to field work, but are working on these special problems. I think you all appreciate that progress of investigations on this kind of subjects is rather slow, and in the meantime the man who has his trees and his nurseries blighting is surely up against it. I have only one thing in mind, a thing which I suggested to Mr. Rankin when he first started on this work, and it is a thing which Doctor Peck, our state botanist, suggested at the chestnut bark conference that was held in Albany not long since. Doctor Peck says that he has lived a good while, and he has seen epidemics come and go. Certain plants, certain varieties were threatened with extermination, yet at the present time they are still with us. I suggested to Mr. Rankin that, while it looked as if chestnut blight was going to be with us indefinitely, the chances were it would all be gone before he had a chance to find out all the things he thought he was going to. Our friend Doctor Clinton of Connecticut would have us think it is only a matter of a few years to have conditions come around so that the chestnut blight will not be a thing of serious importance. In other words, Doctor Clinton stoutly maintains that, while this fungus is doing so much now, it is largely due to the condition to which our trees have come, owing to a succession of very unfavorable summers and winters; and as soon as the conditions get around to normal, the disease will be no more. Some of us are not inclined to agree with him entirely. Professor Craig: Perhaps you can tell us what Mr. Rankin has been doing this year. Professor Reddick: At the beginning of the past summer, from the surveys and observations that had been made almost entirely by the United States Department of Agriculture authorities, it was known that the chestnut disease had extended up the Hudson River perhaps as far as Poughkeepsie. It was our idea that he would probably find the border line of healthy and diseased trees somewhere in the vicinity of Poughkeepsie, so Mr. Rankin located it opposite Poughkeepsie at Highlands. During the course of the summer, the assistance of the State Survey Commission and the State Department of Agriculture was enlisted, and there were six or eight men who spent part of July and all of August surveying the portion which now appears on this map in red. The results of this survey show that the entire Hudson River Valley, with the exception of a small part in the vicinity of Albany, is now infected. In fact, it is the general opinion that there is no use whatever to attempt in any way to save the trees in this locality. Very fortunately there is a strip of territory which is almost solid spruce forest, and in which there are almost absolutely no chestnut trees. We have already, then, abandoned the Hudson River Valley, but with this great natural barrier, you see that it is going to be relatively easy, so far as the State of New York is concerned, to put some sort of an artificial barrier across the little neck there. This all depends on what can be done in Pennsylvania. This cross-hatching of red along the Delaware River represents an area in which the infection is only partial, and the few dots of red shown about Binghamton represent localities in which the blight has now been exterminated. The diseased trees have been taken out, stumps killed, and bark burned. We are in hopes the disease will not reappear there. I don't believe things have been definitely settled at Albany in the Department of Agriculture, where the control work naturally lies, but Commissioner Pearson is very anxious that something be done to try to control or prevent the further spread of the disease in our state. Plans are being made so that a large number of men will be located in this territory next summer, making very careful inspection, removing the occasional diseased trees, killing stumps, and burning bark; and a forester will be connected with the work, for the purpose of advising with regard to the use of the diseased timber. I might call attention to the fact that our state agricultural law, as it now reads, empowers our Commissioner of Agriculture to quarantine against this or any other dangerous fungous disease,--a very broad step from what it was before that time, when the only fungous disease he had any power to act against was the black knot of plums. Mr. Reed: From the chart, it appears that the disease is more common in the vicinity of streams and bodies of water. Professor Reddick: That is an observation that has often been recorded. Mr. Reed: How is it elsewhere than in New York? Professor Collins? The question has been asked more often than otherwise, why do we find the disease on the tops of hills away from the water? I think there isn't a sufficient amount of evidence or observation on that point to say whether it is more common near or away from bodies of water. I will call your attention to one experiment that can be performed by anybody with the microscope. Take a piece of one of those spore horns or threads, put it in a drop of water on a microscope slide. Inside of two minutes, it will disappear entirely. It is dissipated in the water, and the spores are so small you cannot see them with the naked eye. If you let the water dry on the slide, then put that slide under the microscope and try to blow those spores off, you can do it just about as easily as you can blow the shellac off a door. You can brush that film under the microscope, and you can't see that a single spore has been disturbed. The explanation, I think, lies in the fact that these spores are of a mucilaginous nature, and when they dry, they stick to whatever they come in contact with. That does not mean that these spores cannot be blown, because they may lie on fragments of leaves and be blown about by the wind. Again, some of the spores may be detached in a mechanical way and thus blown by the wind. But I am quite convinced that the spores are not blown broadcast, simply because they are of a sticky nature. Now, those spore threads are forced out under certain conditions, moisture conditions, as a rule. It has been shown after repeated observation that these spore threads are pushed out a day or two after a rain. Of course, in the springtime, the atmosphere is much more moist than later in the season. Consequently, we find more of these spore threads in the spring than at any other time. You will recall that the last week of August this year was a week of almost continuous rain. Two days after that ceased, I saw as many of these spore threads as I had seen at any one time all summer. So that, although conditions are best in the spring for greater abundance of these spores, they may occur at any time. If a bird alights on these spore masses, there is no reason that I see why they should not be carried. We know the rain water running down the trunk dissolves these spore masses, and they are carried down, there to reinfect the tree when insects crawl around. President Morris: My brother has some Japanese chestnuts twenty-five or thirty years of age. By cutting off one branch at a time as fast as they blighted, he has saved those trees. Professor Collins: You spoke, Doctor Morris, of grafting Japanese on to American stock. I have seen repeated cases where the Japanese has been grafted on to American stock. The whole Japanese tree has been killed, and we find the disease has killed the tree by girdling the American stock below the graft. President Morris: Yes, I find this over and over again. In one case where I had a very choice variety of Burley's chestnut, the _Diaporthe_ attacked the American stock underneath this, and had practically girdled it when I saw it. There remained a fraction of an inch of good bark. I cut off all except that, and put tar over it, and grafting wax over that, and this year the graft has grown a foot or more. So by giving a great deal of attention to some one little injury, we can overcome the effect of it. Mr. Jensen: In your grafting, what was the relationship of the rapidity of the growth of top after grafting, compared with the old stock? President Morris: When these grafts are put on the stock, on rapidly growing shoots from a large root, they grow enormously, and sometimes we have had nearly one hundred feet of growth in one year. That, however, would be a chestnut like the Scott or the Ridgely. We frequently get thirty, forty, or fifty feet growth in one year. Mr. Jensen: Does the plant grow more rapidly when it is grafted than on its own stock? President Morris: I have not grafted Japanese on Japanese stock, but the Japanese and Korean grafted on American stock does grow more rapidly than it does on its own roots. Professor Craig: Mr. Hall has another interesting instance of chestnut blight. Mr. Hall: On the ground where the blight appeared, there were four chestnuts set by a nurseryman, two Japanese and two European chestnuts. Of the European chestnuts, one has succumbed to the blight, and the other has been continually attacked for the past four or five years, twice in a period of four years, and it is still alive and recently appears to be in a more healthy condition than for the past four or five years. During that time it has never borne any chestnuts. The companion tree of the same kind was girdled in two or three years. President Morris: There is comparative resistance. Some of my trees went down instantly, and went all to pieces, while others stood up for four or five years. Chestnuts of the Paragon type I hoped were going to be fairly immune, but they are going pretty fast. I have advised people who have asked about Paragon chestnuts to buy them, but be prepared to have to cut out blighted branches as they appeared. It is a question whether I can advise even buying them much longer, because I have lost nearly all my Paragons, but they have not gone as fast as the Americans. Doctor Deming: Ought we not before we leave this subject either to appoint a committee, or to pass resolutions urging action on the part of the state similar to the action taken by Pennsylvania in attempts to limit this disease? I would make such a motion, that the Northern Nut Growers' Association urge legislative action similar to that already taken by the State of Pennsylvania to limit the spread of the chestnut bark disease. Mr. Littlepage: I second the motion. (Carried.) Professor Craig: Should not the Secretary be empowered to send a copy of those resolutions to the Commissioner of Agriculture? I think the motion includes that. Mr. Reed: It seems to me that this disease is of as much importance to other states as it is to New York and Pennsylvania, and that this sentiment, as this action can only be a sentiment of the Association, should be sent to the Commissioner of Agriculture in other states, as well as in New York. This is not the New York Nut Growers' Association. I would make that as a motion, that the sentiment of this Association in favor of state action similar to that of Pennsylvania be pressed upon the Commissioner of Agriculture in each state where that disease is prevalent. President Morris: Shall we make Mr. Reed's motion take the place of Doctor Deming's? Doctor Deming: I would accept that as an amended motion. (Carried.) Professor Craig: Inasmuch as we have gone that far, should we not take another step, and that is, fearing lest the United States Secretary of Agriculture should feel slighted, should we not as the Northern Nut Growers' Association draw his attention to the fact that here is a serious disease sweeping over the whole northern part of the country, representing a very considerable portion of his domain, and ask his aid and cooperation with the various states which are attempting to do such good work? President Morris: Will that have to go as another motion or as an amendment to Doctor Deming's? Professor Craig: I move that a resolution of a similar type be passed, and forwarded to the Secretary of Agriculture of the United States. (Carried.) Mr. Wilcox: May I ask some of the gentlemen who have experience along this line if we may look for any cure or help for it in the future, and if so, along what lines will it be possible, along the lines of isolation, of natural enemies, or some other preventive or cure? President Morris: Yes, I would like to ask if anyone has a definite proposition beyond the one that has been proposed, restricting it by cutting out the advance agents of the blight. I believe that has been the only proposition so far. We certainly can't kill off the birds that will carry off blight on their feet. We don't know if a fungous enemy is likely to follow it up, or if it is a weak species, brought into activity by certain conditions, which will be brought back to its normal mode of life again. I don't know that anything definite could be stated till we know more about it. Professor Craig: Perhaps Mr. Collins or Professor Reddick might offer something in the way of suggestions on that. Mr. Collins: I don't think that I have anything to propose beyond the points suggested by the President. I think there are a good many points which should be kept watch of, and I don't know any one that looks any more promising than the other, except perhaps this of cutting out the disease. But this is an expensive method. Mr. Reed: Have you ever found any individual trees in infested districts that were immune? Mr. Collins: Only the Japanese, but I think Doctor Morris has found the Korean even more immune. I shouldn't use the word "immune," perhaps, but "highly resistant" to the disease. I have watched quite a number of trees, in the midst of disease, which seemed to be resisting the disease. I explained it in some cases by the fact that the bark was very free from injury--maybe that was the reason why they did not take the disease so easily as they might otherwise. President Morris: The next paper will be that of Mr. C. A. Reed of the United States Department of Agriculture on "The Present Status of Nut Growing in the Northern States." NUT GROWING IN THE NORTHERN STATES. C. A. REED, Washington. D. C. With the exception of the chestnut, no species of native nut-bearing tree has become of prominent commercial importance as a cultivated product in that portion of the United States lying east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio and Potomac Rivers. The growing of foreign nuts has attracted greater attention than has the development of the native species. Almost with the beginning of our national history, the culture of Persian walnuts attracted considerable attention throughout the East, especially in the States of the Middle and North Atlantic Coast. The European and Japan chestnuts, the European hazels and the Japan walnuts have since come into considerable prominence in the same area. Within the district so outlined, which comprises practically the entire northeastern quarter of the United States, there are few sections of large extent to which some species of native or foreign origin has not already demonstrated its adaptability to the soil and climatic conditions, or to some other locality of approximately similar conditions. In order of importance, the species of native nut-bearing trees known to be suited to some portion of the area under discussion, the following list is probably not incorrect: The American chestnut (_Castanea dentata_); the shagbark (_Hicoria ovata_); the American black walnut (_Juglans nigra_); the butternut (_Juglans cinerea_); the pecan (_Hicoria pecan_); the shellbark (_Hicoria laciniosa_); and the hazels (_Corylus americana_; _Corylus rostrata_). The American beechnut (_Fagus atropunicea_, Sudworth) naturally belongs to this list, but as it is probably not under cultivation as a nut tree at any place in the United States, it will not be discussed at this time. The principal foreign species which have been tried in the Northeastern States are: The European and Japanese chestnuts (_Castanea sativa_ and _C. japonica)_; the Persian (English) walnut (_Juglans regia_); the Japanese walnuts (_J. Sieboldiana; J. cordiformis_ and _J. mandshurica_); the European hazels (_Corylus avellana_ and _C. tubulosa_). THE AMERICAN CHESTNUT (_Castanea dentata_, Marsh). Representatives of the American species of chestnut are found native to a large area. The species seems to avoid extremes of temperature, cold, alkaline or acid soils, and an excess of moisture. It is apparently at its best in the sandy and coarse gravelly soils of the uplands from lower New England to the southern extremity of the Piedmont Plateau in the East and from the extreme southern part of eastern Michigan to northern Mississippi on the West. Although the quality of the American chestnut is unapproached by most of the foreign species, comparatively little attention has been paid to its development, while considerable effort has been directed toward the introduction and cultivation of the large European and Asiatic species. Comparatively few varieties of the American species have been originated, and of these none have been widely disseminated. The one variety, which, because of its size, productiveness, and quality, has been extensively propagated and widely planted, is the Paragon. This variety originated at Germantown, Pa., and was introduced about 1888. It is believed to have originated from a seed grown from a nut obtained from a European seedling, then in one of the gardens of Philadelphia. This variety has been propagated very extensively both in the nursery and by grafting on native stumps and sprouts of cleared-over forest lands. In the nursery it is now chiefly grafted to seedlings grown from Paragon nuts. This variety is both precocious and prolific. In a 25 acre orchard of young nursery grown trees planted near Boonville, Indiana, during the spring of 1910, nearly every tree set a number of burs during the same season. From two or three to from fifteen to seventeen burs had to be removed from each tree in order to prevent over-taxation. Mr. Charles A. Green of Rochester, New York, Mr. E. H. Riehl of Alton, Illinois, and Mr. G. W. Endicott of Villa Ridge, Illinois, are the introducers of a number of improved varieties of the American sweet chestnut, illustrations and descriptions of which may be had upon application to these gentlemen. The extreme severity of the chestnut blight throughout the section where it has made its appearance, the rapidity with which it has spread since its discovery, and the present practical impossibility of keeping it under control have put the future of the chestnut industry of this country much in doubt. As has already been made clear during the present meeting, this disease has resulted in the entire destruction of thousands of forest and park chestnut trees in the sections where it has appeared, and as evidence of the further apprehension with which the chestnut blight is taken into account by the authorities familiar with it, it may be well to state that at the last meeting of the Pennsylvania State Legislature, the sum of $275,000 was appropriated for use in studying and combatting this disease. Above every other question bearing upon the subject of chestnut culture, that of this disease is by far of the greatest importance to the prospective planter. THE SHAGBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria ovata_). This species is native to the greater portion of the area under discussion. It is not common north of southern Maine and is much less abundant than the chestnut in the lower New England and North Atlantic States. It is best adapted to regions of deep fertile soils well supplied with moisture, yet without standing water. It is very difficult to propagate by asexual methods and ordinarily requires from twelve to twenty years to bring it into commercial bearing. For these reasons exceedingly few varieties have been called to public attention. The location of several individual trees of superior merit to that of the average are now known and arrangements are being made for their early propagation. The most practical means of obtaining young trees for nut purposes it the present time is to plant nuts from selected trees. This method will, of course, lead to the wide variation common with seedling trees, but until experienced propagators meet with better success in their efforts at grafting or budding this species than in the past, there is little use for the amateur to undertake it. THE AMERICAN BLACK WALNUT (_Juglans nigra_). The American black walnut is common to much the same general area as the shagbark hickory. It is much less exacting in its soil and moisture requirements than that species and is much more frequent within the same area. Its representatives, either native or planted, are found in almost every kind of soil and at nearly every degree of elevation from the well drained lowlands to the mountain sides. As with the shagbark, few varieties of the black walnut have been introduced. The same interest is now being shown by leaders in nut culture in their efforts to locate and insure for propagation superior varieties of black walnuts as with the shagbarks. THE BUTTERNUT (_Juglans cinerea_). The butternut or white walnut, as it is sometimes called, is one of the most neglected of our native nut bearing trees. In the forest it abounds under much the same conditions as does the black walnut, to which it is closely related. Its native range within the entire United States extends further to the East and North and is not found so far to the South or West as is the black walnut. Like the shagbark, it is generally less abundant within the area of its native range than is either the chestnut or the black walnut within their respective native areas. So far it is known to the writer, not a single variety of the butternut has been introduced. THE PECAN (_Hicoria pecan_). The pecan is native to a very small portion of the area under discussion. North of the 38th parallel it is found native along the river bottoms bordering on the Mississippi River and its tributaries to Davenport, Iowa, Terre Haute, Indiana, and nearly to Cincinnati. Scattered individual trees are by no means rare in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Delaware and New Jersey, as far north as the 41st parallel, and they are occasionally found in the lower parts of Michigan, New York and Connecticut. In rare instances, they have been reported near the Atlantic coast in Massachusetts. It is doubtful if any of these northern trees which are well outside of the area included by the native range of the pecan have yet borne nuts of good size and quality to an important extent. The efforts to carry the pecan beyond the limits of its accepted range have thus far been mainly by the planting of seedling nuts. During the past 3 or 4 years, intelligent efforts have been made by several persons in the State of Indiana to locate wild or seedling trees of sufficient merit to justify their propagation as named varieties for northern planting. Already they have called to attention and are propagating as rapidly as possible the Indiana, the Busseron, the Major, the Greenriver, the Warrick, and the Hinton. Some of these varieties compare favorably in the matter of size with the average pecans of the South, and while none of those yet discovered are of extremely thin shell, in points of plumpness, richness, bright color of kernel and pleasant flavor one or two of these northern varieties are not excelled by any of the southern sorts. Scions and buds from these trees have been used in the propagation of nursery trees, and already a few trees have been disseminated. Several nurseries are now propagating these varieties but all combined their output will necessarily be very limited for some years to come. Somewhat in advance of the steps taken in Indiana two varieties, the Mantura and the Appomattox, have been introduced from southeastern Virginia by Mr. W. N. Roper of Petersburg. The Mantura pecan is distinctly of the southern type,--large, thin shelled and a ready cracker. It has been disseminated throughout the North to some extent when grafted upon the stocks of southern seedlings. None of the trees are yet in bearing. It is now being propagated by grafting to stocks of northern seedlings and it is highly probable more hardy trees will be the result. The Appomattox pecan has not yet been propagated to great extent. Since the variety was called to public attention, a horse stable has been erected immediately under the tree; and consequently, being greatly over-supplied with nitrogen, it has been unable to normally develop its crops. Good specimens, therefore, have not been obtainable for description during the past several years. In the mind of the introducer, however, it is a valuable variety, and well worthy of further observation. THE SHELLBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria laciniosa_). The shellbark hickory is much less common and far less well known than is the shagbark. In its native range it appears in certain counties of central New York, eastern Pennsylvania and in parts of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska and Oklahoma. According to Nut Culture in the United States,[B] this species attains its "greatest development along the streams of southern Kansas and Missouri, Arkansas and Oklahoma." [Footnote B: Published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1896.] The nuts of this species are considerably larger than those of the shagbark and of much thicker shell, and commonly do not have as plump kernels. Exceedingly few have been propagated. THE AMERICAN HAZELS (_Corylus Americana; Corylus rostrata_). Shrubs of these two species are often seen growing together throughout the greater portion of the area under discussion. The former (_C. americana_) is of somewhat the better quality. Neither has been propagated asexually or cultivated to any extent, but it is doubtful if any native species of the nut tree offers a more inviting field for improvement than do these two species of hazels. The same methods of searching out the individuals of superior merit to that of the general average for propagation by grafting and budding by which other nut trees are being improved should be followed with the hazels. THE CHINKAPIN (_Castanea pumila_). Except as a wild product, this nut has perhaps the least commercial importance of any species mentioned in this paper. A few cultivated varieties are in existence but the nuts are commonly looked upon by experienced growers as novelties rather than as products worthy of special attention. The species is merely that of a dwarf chestnut growing as a shrub instead of as a tree. It is less hardy than the chestnut, being evidently best adapted to the climatic conditions of the southern portion of the chestnut area and even farther south. FOREIGN NUTS. THE EUROPEAN AND ASIATIC CHESTNUTS (_Castanea sativa_; _Castanea japonica_). It is probable that within the area under discussion greater attention has been paid to the introduction of European and Asiatic chestnuts than to any other foreign species. The former is a moderately strong grower usually, with a low, rather broad top. The latter makes a small tree chiefly of value for ornamental purposes. Both are grown principally from second generation seedlings, which seem better adapted to American conditions than do imported trees. As in the case of the American sweet chestnuts the existence of these species in the United States is threatened by the swiftly spreading chestnut blight. THE PERSIAN WALNUT (_Juglans regia_). The Persian walnut was among the first nut species to be introduced. The area east of the Rocky Mountains within which it seemed most successful previous to 1896 was described in Nut Culture at that time as being "A limited area along the Atlantic Slope from New York southward through New Jersey, southeastern Pennsylvania, central Virginia, North Carolina and Georgia." Continuing, the same publication said, "The tree endures the winter in favored localities near the coast as far north as Connecticut, Rhode Island and Massachusetts, but has never been planted there except in a small way." What was then said is still very largely correct. However, contrary to the construction which might be implied from the wording, there are few commercial orchards of Persian walnuts anywhere east of the Rockies; one, that of Mrs. J. L. Lovett of Emilie, Bucks County, Pa., of from fifty to seventy-five trees, approximately twenty years of age, is bearing fully as well as could be expected under its present environment. The trees appear to be entirely unaffected by the severity of climatic conditions, but being seedlings altogether, and uncultivated, the crop production is irregular. Reports from northwestern New York and Pennsylvania indicate that this species may be safely grown in those sections when within the zones which are tempered by the influence of the Great Lakes. Ordinarily the trees scattered over the Eastern States do not seem able to permanently withstand the severe winters, as in most cases they are not infrequently severely frozen back. In eastern Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey and New York City, the writer recently inspected numbers of fine trees apparently from 50 to 75 years of age which showed no indications of winter injury. The owners seemed to be entirely ignorant of the reputation of the species with respect to its inability to withstand severe weather. The nuts from many of these trees were of such large size and good quality that a number are to be extensively propagated in the near future. THE JAPAN WALNUTS (_Juglans sieboldiana_; _Juglans cordiformis_; _Juglans mandshurica_). These nuts are of comparatively recent introduction into the United States, having been brought from Asia since 1860. All are generally hardy; the first two are rapid growers, very productive and serve to an excellent purpose as ornamentals; the last is well known. The nuts of the former two are smaller than those of our native black walnut, of about equally thick shell, usually of no better quality, and as yet are not in great demand on our markets. A few trees, however, should certainly be given a place about the home grounds. THE EUROPEAN HAZELS (_Corylus avellana_; _Corylus tubulosa_). Numerous efforts have been made to introduce these species into the Eastern states, but owing to the severity of a blight everywhere prevalent with the American species in this section, such efforts have usually met with failure. There have been very few instances in which either species has been cultivated in the Eastern states for any great period of time without being destroyed by blight. The future of hazel nut production in this section evidently depends upon the development of our native species or by hybridizing with some of the foreign species. In concluding this article, it may not be amiss to throw out the following suggestions as to the steps by which all may help in the development of the nut industry: (1) Ordinarily, stick to the native species. (2) Plant nuts or seedling trees only when budded or grafted varieties cannot be had, but do not fail to plant nut trees of some kind. (3) Whenever a tree or shrub is located which because of the superior quality, size, thinness of shell and quantity of nuts appears to be worthy of propagation, specimens should be sent to the officers of this Association; to the State Experiment Stations or to the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C, for examination. (Franks for the mailing of such nuts to the U. S. Department of Agriculture without postage will be sent upon application.) (4) Nut trees must be accorded the same degree of cultivation and horticultural attention given to other fruit-bearing trees, if commercial production of nuts is to be expected. President Morris: This interesting paper is now open for discussion. I will start it by saying that the criticism of the Japanese walnut is correct, so far as it goes; but we have there a fine opportunity for good new work, and if the nurseries would take up this question in the right way, they could open up an enormous trade for stock. Let us take the _Juglans mandshurica_, and the _sieboldiana_, which have been distributed more than any others over this country because of the beauty of the trees. They grow rapidly, and are tremendously hardy, although not so much so as the best of the Japanese walnuts, the cordiformis. It was found on the Pacific Coast that the cordiformis went largely to wood. In the East, it bears well, is perfectly hardy and the nut is delicious. Individual trees bear thin shelled nuts, and individual trees bear large nuts. In fact, I have seen the nut quite as large as the nut of the average American butternut, and thin shelled, at that. The thing for the large nurseries is not to sell Japanese nuts under that name, but to sell the cordiformis, and sell only that, and only grafted trees. In that way we would get rid of the less desirable varieties, just as with the hickories a thousand and one shagbarks that we find are not remarkable, and yet we will find here and there one that is worth grafting and propagating. It is the same way with the Japanese walnuts, but particularly this cordiformis which is hardy and growing native in a climate which corresponds to Nova Scotia. If the nurseries will put out this nut, grafted, they will have a very valuable nut to give us. I notice that the speaker distinguished a "little shagbark." Now, I wonder if that is not a question worthy of discussion right here. The names shagbark, shellbark, and scaly bark, are applied indifferently to _Hicoria ovata_, _Hicoria cinerea_, and _Hicoria septentrionalis_. We can distinguish them much better if we take different names for the little and the big shagbark,--if we call the little one shagbark and the big one shellbark, it makes a distinction; and the reason why that distinction seems legitimate is that the bark comes off like great sheets from the big shellbark, and the little shagbark has the scales of the bark coming off in smaller scales, shelling off. At the same time, it is more scaly than the other. If we call the shaggy one, _Hicoria ovata_, shagbark, and call the big western one shellbark, it seems to me a distinction that we may as well make in our discussions, and fix the names in such a way as to afford convenience. Mr. Reed: My reference was to _Hicoria ovata_. President Morris: Yes, that is for the little one, and if we call the _laciniosa_ shellbark, that will make a distinction. Shall we call the little one shagbark, and the big shagbark shellbark, or must we always depend upon the scientific names in classifying? Mr. Collins: May I call attention to another complication? To botanists who are not particularly nut growers, there is another tree which is known as the little shellbark,--that is the _microcarpa_, with a nut about one-half to three-quarters of an inch long. Professor Lake: Have we a committee on nomenclature? President Morris: We haven't appointed that committee yet. Professor Lake: I was going to move that the matter go to them, with the suggestion that they take official action. President Morris: Supposing we extend the function of the committee on the nomenclature of _mandshurica_ to include this question of the naming of the shagbarks. Doctor Deming: Then had we not better include the President, _ex-officio_, on that committee? President Morris: We may as well begin, because there is no need of having this eternal confusion. Doctor Deming: I have never been able to understand why more attention hasn't been given to the hazels. Here we apparently have a nut which is easy to transplant, which is perfectly hardy, which comes into bearing early, which bears a valuable nut--so valuable that when I went into a confectionery store in New York, I saw trays of nut meats lying side by side, and pecan meats were priced at $1.00 a pound and filbert meats were $1.25. I understand the only obstacle to the growth of the filbert, which might well fill the early waiting years of the nut grower, is the hazel blight. I tried to get information on the hazel blight from Doctor Waite of the United States Department of Agriculture, and also from Mr. Kerr of Denton, Maryland, who, I know, has grown hazels for a long time, and done it very successfully; but I have not succeeded in getting any accurate information on the blight, and as I understand it, no accurate experiments have been carried out in the treatment of the blight, or in its prevention. It seems as if the blight, being an external fungous disease, ought to be one amenable to treatment by sprays. I am not aware of any experiments which have been made with that object. President Morris: Henry Hicks of Westboro has given as much attention as anybody to this matter. He made a great effort to introduce the European hazels for years. They all went down with the blight. Specimens of the blight you can get without difficulty. Doctor Deming: Did he practice spraying experiments carefully? President Morris: He told me he had tried all. What have the Meehans done? Mr. Wilcox: They have never had any trouble with the blight. President Morris: How long do they keep them in the nurseries? Mr. Wilcox: We keep them to six or eight feet. President Morris: Do you have the common hazel abundant? Mr. Wilcox: Yes, along the water courses. President Morris: This blight is more apt to attack the exotics, and over where Mr. Kerr lives there are no native hazels. He happens to be on an island. He started Europeans where we have no American hazels, so that accounts for his immunity. Mr. Reed: His trees are practically all dead now. He has given up. President Morris: That has been the history everywhere. That is the last instance I have been able to find of successful raising of hazels. One line, it seems to me, offers promise--that is the making of hybrids. I am making hybrids between the American hazel and various European and Asiatic. Mr. Rush: I have had some experience with the hazel. I have exchanged with Mr. Roody of Washington. He has sent the Barcelona and Du Chilly, and they are growing very hardy without the least indication of blight. There are two kinds of American hazels. I have them growing as large in the bush as twenty to twenty-five feet. And then we have a small bush. The small type is worthy of propagation. The Barcelona and Du Chilly are thickly set with catkins this fall, and by all indications there will be a very nice crop next summer. President Morris: The rule is they begin to blight about the fifth year. About the eighth they are gone. Doctor Deming: Isn't that a most promising field for experiment, in producing blight-free varieties, and also in spraying? President Morris: As I understand it, this fungus lives in the cambium layer of the bark, very much as _Diaporthe parasitica_ does, and at such a depth that spraying is not much advantage. The fungus does not attack the native hazel, except when it has been injured. Professor Craig: We haven't heard from Mr. Barron. Mr. Barron: I don't know that I have anything to say. I came here to gather some information. I am chiefly interested in the possibility of the use of nut trees for landscape effect. President Morris: This belongs right with this paper, because the uses of nut trees are not limited to the nuts for fruit purposes. Their decorative value is one Mr. Barron brings in very properly, and it seems to me we may replace thousands of practically useless trees in the parks with wonderfully beautiful nut trees. What had you in mind particularly? Had you thought it out? Mr. Pomeroy: The nurserymen must have done something to induce people to set out horse-chestnuts. There can't be anything more unsightly. It is always shedding something in the way of filth. There are two or three varieties of Japanese walnuts that are beautiful, at the time of year when they are in blossom, with that long, red blossom. It seems as if the nurserymen might do something to induce people to set out these. President Morris: What could be finer than your English walnuts? Mr. Barron: Mr. Hicks has given up hazel, but right close by Mr. Havemeyer is starting right in again. He has had them there for two years. Doctor Deming: One of my correspondents wrote, asking me what varieties of nut trees were most rapid growing and best for shade or screens. I think that is a very good subject for investigation. President Morris: We can discuss it right here. Doctor Deming: I said the most rapid growing trees were the Japanese walnuts, and perhaps the best for screens were the Japanese chestnuts. I should hardly know what to say are the best for shade, because all of the nut trees are so good. Mr. Reed: It would depend very largely on the locality. Of course, there are some of us here who are disciples of the pecan, and where you can grow the pecan successfully, it is doubtful if there is a prettier shade tree and one that makes less litter, or that grows faster. Some of the hickories--the mocker-nut especially, _Hicoria alba_, makes a very beautiful growth, and has a dense foliage of rich, dark green. For other purposes, there is no prettier tree than the chestnut, aside from the blight. It grows to greater size than most of the hickories and more rapidly. The Japanese chestnuts I am not familiar with. The butternut is not usually a compact enough grower to be a beautiful tree, but the black walnuts and certain of our hickories, the rapid growing hickories, are very fine, and this Rush chinquapin, I expect, would be very fitting for hedge planting. It is a very compact grower, and grows up about fifteen or twenty feet, making a very pretty tree. But every one of these trees we are mentioning has its particular place in the landscape. You can't use any one of them in all places. President Morris: The objection to black walnut and butternut is the early loss of leaves in autumn. I have heard others speak about it as an objection. Among the rapid growing ones, there is no doubt the Japanese walnuts are tremendously rapid growers, during the first few years. For screen purposes, the chestnuts and chinquapin certainly would do remarkably well. We have forgotten the beech altogether, simply because we haven't been classifying it as a nut tree. But the nurserymen can put out beech trees grafted from trees that bear fine, valuable nuts, and give us the beech as a tree of double value. Mr. Reed: Dr. Deming raised the question as to why the hazel nut was not given more attention. It occurs to me that we have an analogy in the pecan situation. The pecan is native up and down the Mississippi River and out in Texas, and in that district you will find that a great deal less attention has been paid to development of varieties of the pecan as an orchard tree than farther east. All through Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida, we find new varieties by the scores. It seems to be a case of distance lending enchantment. Professor Lake: Going back, I wanted to ask you, Doctor Morris, if in your work of reproducing the hazel, you had used the Pacific Coast hazel for stock. President Morris: Yes, the Pacific Coast hazel is really the same species as ours, only it grows thirty or forty feet out there, and I have seen it nearly thirty feet high up in the Hudson Bay country. In some of the rich valleys in the far North, both on the Pacific and Atlantic Coasts, the hazel becomes almost a tree. I have used it for grafting stock, but I haven't used it for crossing as yet. I have a lot of hazels ready for pollenizing next spring. Professor Lake: It seems to me it would be a most excellent thing if this Association could do something in the way of stimulating the improvement of varieties of the native hazel. I can't help thinking that bush is entitled to much more attention than we have given it in the past. President Morris: Some work has been done along that line. I devoted the entire nut-collecting part of one year to studying the hazel. I went over many thousands of hazels. One day, when I asked a neighbor if I might go over his grounds, he said, "Yes, but what better hazel do you want than that one that grows above your north bars?" He said, "We have known of that for one hundred years about here." He couldn't find it. Finally it was found, covered by a ton of grape vine. It has wonderful hazels on it. I have transplanted it. It is a large, thin-shelled, fine hazel, but a shy bearer. I have three very fine American hazels I am going to use in crossing. This big, thin-shelled one is a wonderful hazel, except that it is a shy bearer, and it is difficult to transplant. I have transplanted four American hazels, and it took me about two or three years to get them under way. It is a nuisance with us. It grows in our pastures so rapidly the cows have to get out of the way--crowds everything out. I have no doubt a great deal more work will be done with the hazel. Now my bushes are all ready for pollenizing. I have crossed a lot of them this year. Professor Craig: I think Mr. Barron's point in reference to the ornamental or esthetic value of the nut trees is very well taken, indeed. It is a fact that nurserymen have paid more attention in the past to those forms which are particularly striking in some way, rather than to the forms which are actually and intrinsically beautiful. Anything which has variegated leaves or purple leaves is sure to catch the eye. As a matter of fact, I believe there are few trees which are more picturesque than the hickories here in New York. The summer season is not the season in which they carry their most beautiful forms. The winter is the time when we see that picturesque framework standing out against the sky, distinctive in every respect. Mr. Collins: Isn't this subject one in which the Association might interest itself? President Morris: I have found that nurserymen to whom I have talked for the most part were men of naturally esthetic taste, but dropped their esthetic taste in order to adjust themselves to economic principles. If a customer says, "Please give me a thousand Carolina poplars," the nurseryman knows these will be beautiful for about fifteen years, then ragged and dead and unsightly; but the customer wants them, and the nurseryman has to furnish Carolina poplars. Mr. Barron: The nurseryman, as a rule, doesn't take much trouble towards educating the people up to the better stuff. President Morris: I believe that if the nurserymen make a concerted movement--or not necessarily a concerted movement--if any one firm or two or three firms will make a business of introducing beautiful, useful trees of the nut-bearing group, they will open up a new group. People just haven't thought about it. They give an order for trees in a sort of perfunctory way, because they must have them. If there is no further discussion, we will go on to the Indiana pecan, by Mr. T. P. Littlepage, and this will be the last paper of the afternoon. THE INDIANA PECAN. T. P. LITTLEPAGE, Washington, D. C. The subject of the northern pecan is one that I have been interested in for more than thirty years. Away down in Spencer County, Indiana, on the banks of the Ohio River, stand many large native pecan trees, and some of my earliest recollections and most pleasant experiences are connected with gathering the nuts from under these large trees; and, without realizing it, I acquired much of the information in those early days that has of late enabled me to carefully discriminate between the desirable and undesirable varieties of pecans, viewed from the standpoint of one who propagates them for orchard purposes. My interest in the various points connected with pecan growing was at that time a very direct interest, and the only motive I had for determining various facts was the fundamental motive which largely dominates the world today, and that is the question of securing the thing we desire for our immediate use. The large, magnificent pecan trees growing on the banks of the beautiful Ohio year after year became a matter of the deepest interest to me. I have seen the Ohio surging swiftly through their branches in the winter, have seen them withstand the storms and vicissitudes of snow and ice and raging floods; and as the spring came on I have beheld them, with more or less surprise and pleasure, laden with blossoms. As summer advanced, I watched the growing clusters of delicious nuts; and as the nuts began to ripen in the fall, I soon learned to pick out the best bearing trees. It was not a matter of science or unselfish research that enabled me to determine the fact that some trees rarely ever missed a crop, while others were very uncertain; that some nuts were large, thin-shelled, and of fine flavor, while others were small and hard to crack, and otherwise undesirable; that some of the trees ripened their nuts early, long before frost, while others seemed to hang on and resent the coming of autumn with all their might. At the age of nine, I could take many different varieties of Indiana seedling pecans, separate them, and locate the trees from whence they came, and give the essential points of their bearing record. I could also tell whether the respective owners watched them very carefully, kept a dog, or lived at a safe distance away, all of which points were just as essential so far as I was concerned as the size of the nut and its quality. The pecan captured me early in life, and I have been a willing victim ever since. My interest in this nut of late years is based on more scientific principles, but I doubt if the facts arrived at are any more reliable than the facts which came from the simple desire to appease a boyish appetite with the best nut that nature has ever produced. When I was about fourteen years old I came into personal possession of twelve acres of land which had descended to me from my father's estate. The land was almost valueless for general cropping purposes, but I had already, at that age, determined something of the value of a pecan orchard, and I proceeded to gather nuts from the best trees in that section, and the following spring planted the whole twelve acres in pecans. I knew, however, that even though the ground was not very productive it would have to be cultivated that summer, so I planted the pecans around stumps where the young trees would be protected. My information as to the value of pecans was accurate and unerring; however, there were several things I had not taken into consideration. First, that a pecan that is kept in the dry all winter is very slow to germinate in the spring, and in fact the percentage of them that does germinate is very small. Second, that the field mice have an abiding hunger for pecans. Third, that the pecan does not come true to seed, and that an orchard of seedlings is of very questionable value. The first two facts, which I failed to take into consideration--that is, the poor germinating qualities of a dry pecan, and the appetite of the field mice, relieved me from the embarrassment of the third, for it is needless to say that this attempt made twenty-five years ago was a complete failure, and for the time being discouraged my ambitions in this direction. But after many years they revived sufficiently to stimulate me to action again in the line of pecan culture. I mention the above facts merely to show my credibility as a witness on this subject. Being a lawyer by profession, I have learned long since that the value of one's opinion, and especially the value of testimony is directly in proportion to one's knowledge of and interest in the subject matter at issue. Therefore, trusting that I have sufficiently established my credibility, at least to my own satisfaction, I shall proceed to make some observations relative to nut culture in the North. First, let me say that I most heartily endorse the line of work undertaken by our Association--that is, the work of collecting and diffusing information in reference to nut culture that will be valuable to the prospective grower. Our southern brethren have very largely passed this stage in nut work in the South. They still have many problems before them, but the fundamental problems of the determination and propagation of the most desirable varieties of pecans have been already worked out and they are producing in their nurseries hundreds of thousands of fine budded and grafted pecan trees. There is such a lack of information on this subject in the North that it is indeed opportune that our Association should at the beginning of the interest in nut culture in that section take up these various question and give the public the benefit of our experience and information in reference to them. There are yet many people who think that you cannot transplant a pecan tree, and that if you cut the tap root it will not produce, while the fact is that the pecan tree can be transplanted with almost as much success as can fruit trees. Two years ago I transplanted a number of cherry trees. At the same time I transplanted some pecan trees, and I had a higher percentage of loss among the cherries than among the pecans. There are some who believe that it is even a benefit to cut the tap root. I have never belonged to the school which endorses cutting the roots of any tree to accelerate its growth, except, of course, where it is necessary to take up a tree and reset it, in which case it is necessary to cut some of the roots. It is unquestionably true that if the roots are cut too severely the tree receives too great a shock, but the pecan tree seems to recover as quickly as any other variety of tree. However, there are hundreds of farmers today who would not undertake to raise pecans, for the reason that they think they cannot be transplanted. Also, in every community where the pecan is native, can be seen many seedling trees ranging anywhere from ten-to twenty-five years old that have never borne a nut. These trees are pointed out by the general public as horrible examples of the uselessness of attempted pecan culture. Near my home at Boonville, Ind., is a row of seedling pecan trees planted in a garden. The trees are now old enough to bear a half bushel of pecans every year, but so far as I know they have never borne a nut. The general public throughout the North and Middle West have not yet learned that the average seedling pecan is an uncertain quantity, grows slowly, bears irregularly, if at all, and probably inferior nuts. However, once in a while, nature, through her wonderful workings, has produced a tree that bears large crops of fine nuts regularly, and when the seedling pecan is grafted or budded from this kind of tree the trees so propagated take on the qualities of the parent and begin bearing very early. I have frequently taken pictures of small pecan trees not over three feet high, each bearing a cluster of large, fine nuts. This, of course, is unusual, but shows the tendency of the grafted or budded tree. I mention the above two points not for the purpose at this point of entering into a discussion of the propagation of the pecan, but to show the necessity for general enlightenment on the possibilities, and to dispel some of the bug-a-boos that exist in the minds of many persons. Those of you here who have engaged in the various phases of nut culture may think these points primitive and unnecessary, and they are, perhaps, unnecessary to the expert, but it is my pleasure every summer to spend considerable time in the rural sections of the country, and it is surprising how very little is known, even by our most enlightened farmers, on the subject of nut culture. I have made many trips throughout the South, and I find the farmers in that section have read the various proceedings of the National Nut Growers' Association until a knowledge of nut culture throughout the South is becoming very general. It is, therefore, the duty and the province of the Northern Nut Growers' Association to diffuse as much information as possible among the farmers of the North and Middle West on this subject. This is important for many reasons. At a recent meeting of the National Nut Growers' Association held at Mobile, Ala., in discussing the subject of the Extension of the Pecan Area, I used the following language: "In my opinion nothing is more important to the permanency of the pecan industry than the development of the pecan area in different parts of the country, and having orchards cultivated under as many different conditions as are consistent with the known probable successful area. This is important, for the reason that this more than anything else will insure a supply of pecans each year, and this will develop a public dependency upon this most valuable nut. Nothing can be more detrimental to any industry than a spasmodic and irregular supply of the product upon which that industry depends." I quote this language for the reason that the culture of the pecan in the North is just now in its infancy, and it is peculiarly the function of our organization to get before the public the essential facts upon which its success depends. We are under great obligation for the work that has been done in the South and the information that is made available through the National Nut Growers' Association. Much of this is valuable in the North, but there are a great many of the essential points that have yet to be worked out, as the climatic conditions make it impossible to follow exactly in all cases the line of work that has been done in the South. The fake promoter and the crooked nurseryman will no doubt come in for their inning in the North, as they have in the South, and the public will be imposed upon by inferior and "doctored" trees, and all sorts of get-rich-quick orchard schemes will no doubt make their advent throughout the North; but it is very probably that our Association, through its proper committee, having in mind the experiences of the South, can keep closely in touch with the general work that is going on and have on hand sufficient information to protect those who will take the trouble to make inquiry. Nothing in the horticultural line is more satisfactory, more beautiful or more valuable than a fine young grove of grafted or budded pecan trees of good varieties; but like all other good things, it will attract the counterfeiter. Coming now more specifically to the subject which has been assigned to me by the committee--that is, "The Indiana Pecan and My Experience in Nut Culture," I want to explain what is meant by the "Indiana pecan." It is true, of course, that some of the very finest of the northern pecans have originated in Indiana, yet I prefer to speak of pecans in that whole section of the country as belonging to the "Indiana group." Taking Evansville, Ind., as the center, there grow, within a radius of fifty miles, in Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky, many thousands of wild pecan trees; and after an investigation extending through a number of years, there have been selected from these various wild groves a few trees from which it has been deemed desirable to propagate. In this connection I want to mention the valuable work that has been done along this line by Mason J. Niblack, of Vincennes, Ind.; Prof. C. G. Woodbury, of Lafayette, Ind.; R. L. McCoy, of Lake, Ind.; and J. F. Wilkinson, of Rockport, Ind. These men, with the assistance of others throughout the State, have for several years been making investigations of these pecans with a view of determining the most desirable varieties from which to propagate. It has been my privilege to have the benefit of the information gathered by these gentlemen, which, added to my own experience, has given me a fairly comprehensive view of the desirable nuts in that section, and, as the geographical center of the present known desirable varieties seems to be about Evansville, Ind., I will, for matter of convenience, designate them as belonging to the "Indiana Group." We have been able to determine with some certainly the desirability of six or seven varieties of pecans for propagating purposes. We have a number of others under observation. In investigating a pecan for propagating purposes, it is necessary to examine it from two standpoints, first, the tree qualities, and second, the qualities of the nut itself. The tree must be of a thrifty nature, a rapid grower, not especially subject to any particular diseases, must bear regularly, and the crops must be of a good average as to quantity. When observing a great number of pecan trees, it soon becomes apparent that some varieties grow much faster than others. This is first noticed in the nursery rows, and it is highly desirable to select not only those varieties which grow fast, but even the best growing trees of any particular variety. Most of the trees from which propagating is done are generally full grown, and it is sometimes difficult to tell from observing them in the woods what their growing qualities are, yet it is occasionally apparent from observing a tree that it is thrifty and strong, while another tree may look entirely different. The growing quality, however, does not usually become apparent until after they are propagated and put under proper conditions of cultivation. The bearing record of a tree can be determined only by observing the tree for a number of years and measuring its crops. There are many trees that are almost infallible producers, but some years the crop is lighter than others, although it is not probable that an orchard, even from one of these unusual bearers, can be obtained which will not occasionally miss a crop. The influence of the stock upon the scion is something that has not yet been fully worked out, and for that reason it is impossible to say why the grafted or budded tree does not always take on the bearing qualities of the parent, although it is pretty safe to say that as a rule its qualities are very closely approximated, and by careful selection it is possible to get grafted and budded trees that begin bearing very early and bear with a great degree of regularity. In visiting a tree while the nuts are green, one can get some idea as to its bearing quality by the number and size of the clusters hanging on the limbs. A tree that is a poor bearer, or bears only a fair crop, usually bears its nuts in clusters of one to three, while a good bearer produces clusters of from three to six. I have seen as many as eight nuts in a cluster in the South, and have seen some clusters of seven on some of our Indiana trees, but as a rule good bearing trees of the Indiana group have clusters of about four to five nuts each. After the tree qualities have been determined, it is then necessary to consider the nut itself. The nut must be of fair size, of good flavor, thin to medium thickness of shell, well filled, and of good cracking quality--that is, the conformation of the shell and kernel must be such that a large percentage of the kernels can be taken out as whole halves, and the convolutions of the kernels must be wide enough that the partitions do not adhere to them. When all of these qualities, both of the tree and nut, can be combined, we then have a desirable tree from which to propagate, and it is very surprising how few come up to the standard. In one wild grove in Kentucky, on the banks of the Ohio River just across from Indiana, near the mouth of the Green River, there are nearly 300 acres of wild pecan trees. In this grove are perhaps more than a thousand trees, and so far as I have been able to determine up to date, there are but three trees out of the whole grove that come near my notion of the standard. Sometimes, however, a tree or a nut may grade up so high on some one point as to make it a desirable variety from which to propagate, even though it does not grade high on other desirable points. For example, one of the most desirable southern pecans, perhaps, considering only the nut itself, is the "Schley," yet the tree is reputed to be of very medium bearing quality. The nut is so very fine, however, that no southern grove of pecans is complete without a fair percentage of "Schley" trees. On the other hand, the "Stuart," another southern variety, has not ranked nearly so high as the "Schley," considering only the nut; and yet there are probably twice as many "Stuarts" being put out in the South today as any other variety, for the simple reason that it is a good-sized nut and the tree has a very fine bearing record. All these things have to be taken into consideration by those of us who are undertaking to propagate northern varieties. There is unquestionably a large area of country extending approximately from the latitude of Atlanta, Ga., to that of Terre Haute, Ind., in which there is a great field for experimenting with the northern varieties of pecans. It is a great mistake to undertake to bring the southern varieties too far north. A majority of the finest of the southern varieties originated on the Gulf Coast, and it is true that they can be brought a considerable distance north of there, but I have always doubted their successful growth with any degree of certainty of crops north of Atlanta, Ga.; for I think it is pretty well conceded that if one undertakes to crowd the northern limits with the southern varieties of pecans, they become uncertain in their bearing habits and the pecans are much smaller and not as well filled. On the other hand, it is my opinion that the northern pecan can be taken south of its origin with complete safety. The longer growing season will probably add to the certainty of the crops and the size of the nuts. It is also very important for the grower of these northern varieties of pecans to recognize the fact that they cannot be taken too far north of the location of the parent tree. The limits, however, both of the northern and southern varieties are not arbitrary, as they depend very much upon proximity to the ocean and other moderating influences. For example, it is very probable that pecans can be cultivated much farther north close to either the Atlantic or Pacific Coast than they can in the Middle West. All of these things remain yet to be determined, but it is important to distinguish between the setting of orchards for commercial purposes and the setting of trees for purely experimental purposes. There is unquestionably a great section of the country comprising approximately, as I have said, the territory lying between the latitude of Atlanta, Ga., and Terre Haute, Ind., in which pecans can be commercially produced successfully. In the near future I expect to see pecan orchards of these northern varieties producing fine nuts and bearing as regularly in the northern sections as they do in the South. The prospective orchardist, however, must look well to the varieties which he selects and the latitude of the parent tree from whence they come and the geographical conditions that influence the weather. I have referred to Evansville, Ind., as being about the center of the Indiana Group. The average fall frost period at Evansville is about the 20th of October. The average period of the last spring frost is about April the 9th. This will serve somewhat as a guide to the prospective commercial orchardist. However, most of the trees of the Indiana Group do not pollenate until about the 10th of May, and the great majority of them ripen their nuts by the 15th of October, and several of the good trees ripen their nuts by the 1st of October, though they usually are not gathered till later. The northernmost tree, so far as I know, that has been deemed worthy of observation is the "Hodge," which is native in Illinois, about eighty-five miles north of Evansville, Ind., and a few miles southwest of Terre Haute, Ind. It is one of the largest of the northern varieties, and is a fair nut, but does not grade high in filling qualities, and the bearing record of the parent tree has not yet been determined. The tree is crooked and very unprepossessing looking, and stands in the woods where it has a very poor chance. When I visited it this year, it had a very light crop of nuts, but I did not condemn it, for the reason that any tree growing under the same conditions could not be expected to bear very well. I expect to observe the tree for several years in the future, and determine further as to its bearing record. It is possible that trees propagated from this variety, under favorable conditions, may prove to be good bearers. The next northernmost trees of the desirable varieties are the "Indiana" and "Busseron," standing about 100 yards apart, west of Oaktown, Knox County, Indiana, about sixty-five miles north of Evansville. Mr. Mason J. Niblack, of Vincennes, Ind., has had these trees under observation for a number of years, and it is due to his interest that they were brought to the attention of the public. The "Busseron" is an old tree that is reputed to have a very fine bearing record. A few years ago, the owner of this tree cut all the top out of it, and this crippled the tree very badly and set it back for quite a while. When I visited it last August, it had put up new growth, and the few remaining old limbs that had been left on it were hanging full of clusters containing four and five nuts each. "The Indiana," standing a short distance away, is a comparatively young tree, and is thought to be a seedling of the "Busseron," as the two nuts resemble one another very much. The "Indiana" has been cut very severely for grafting wood the last few years, and it is therefore difficult to give very authentic information as to its bearing record. It appears, however, to be a very promising tree, and when I visited it in August it had a fair crop of nuts. The clusters were not large--mostly two and three each. The tree looked very thrifty, and from the best information that I have been able to gather in reference to it, I consider it a desirable variety from which to propagate. My choice of the two trees is the "Busseron," although the "Indiana" has made an excellent showing, considering the severe prunings for grafting wood. Coming down near the center of the Indiana Group, we have the "Warrick," growing in Warrick County, Indiana, which took the prize at the pecan show at Mt. Vernon, Ind., in 1909, and is a fair nut of more than average size. It is reputed to have a good bearing record, but I have not yet had opportunity to completely verify this. In Posey County, Ind., near Evansville, are hundreds of wild pecan trees, many of which produce good nuts. One of them, from which I propagated last year under the name of the "Hoosier," is a very prolific tree. The nut itself is of medium size, beautiful color and thin shell, but the kernel qualities are not nearly so desirable as many of the other of our Indiana pecans, and it does not take a very high rank in the estimation of some of our observers. I visited the tree in August, 1910, and at that time it had one of the most bountiful crops of nuts that I had ever seen growing on a tree. It was hanging full of clusters containing five and six nuts each. I visited it again an October and found that the nuts had ripened very early. This nut took the prize at the Mt. Vernon pecan show in 1910. Crossing the river from Indiana, we have in the Major woods at the mouth of Green River, nine miles from Evansville, three desirable pecans--the "Greenriver," the "Major," and the "Hinton." The "Major" and the "Hinton" have been propagated by Mr. William N. Roper, at Petersburg, Va., for some time. They are round, well filled nuts, and are considered by confectioners as the most desirable type of pecan for many of the confectionery purposes. The "Major" is the best cracking pecan that I have ever seen, either North or South, and is a regular bearer, but not as high in flavor as some other varieties. The "Hinton" is an oval-shaped nut, having a corrugated shell, of fine cracking and kernel qualities, but I have not yet satisfactorily determined its bearing record. The "Greenriver" is a little larger than either of the above nuts, and is one of the very finest medium-sized pecans that I have found. The tree is reported not to have missed a crop in eleven years, although the crop this year was very light, probably owing to the fact that it was cut pretty severely last year for grafting wood. All three of these varieties coming from the Major woods at the mouth of Green River give excellent promise, with perhaps the "Greenriver" in the lead for general qualities. Down on the banks of the Wabash in Posey County, Indiana, and across on the Illinois side, are several very fine, large, beautiful varieties of pecans, which Mr. R. L. McCoy, of Lake, Ind., and myself are observing. Several of these pecans are as large as many of the standard southern varieties, and when I visited the trees this year in August, they were bearing good crops of nuts. We have not yet named these varieties, but expect to do so after we have observed them the coming year. There are one or two varieties in this neighborhood that may take rank over all the northern pecans that have been discovered. It is no longer a question of finding nuts in the North of good size, for we have already located some that rank well with many of the standard southern varieties in size, and one of the surprising and favorable points of the northern pecan is their fine filling qualities and high flavor. When placed on the scales their weight is most surprising to those who have not tested them. The problem before the prospective pecan grower in the North is to secure good trees of these most desirable varieties. Seedling trees are not worth setting out. Until last year the successful propagation of pecans in the North was doubted by many, but the experiments conducted by myself and Mr. R. L. McCoy, at Lake, Ind., who worked in conjunction with me, have demonstrated that they can be successfully propagated. A number of points, however, must be carefully observed in this work. First, in reference to grafting: The grafting should be done on northern two-year-old stocks. One-year-old stocks can be used, but two-year-olds are thought to be better. The stocks must be grown from northern seedlings. There is no place in the North for the southern stock, and right here let me suggest that the individual who buys northern trees grafted on southern stocks or southern trees grafted on northern stocks is throwing his money away. I set fifty trees last fall of the "Indiana" grafted on southern stocks, and the first freeze that came promptly killed them all. They put up a few new sprouts last summer, but finally the roots rotted, and this fall I dug them up. I have a neighbor who put out an orchard of southern grown trees. Some of them seemed to grow all right for six or seven years, and then froze down to the ground, and so far as I have been able to find out, experiments with southern trees in the North have been practically a waste of time and money. So it is necessary to bear in mind that these northern varieties must be grafted or budded on trees grown from northern seed. The proper time for grafting in the Evansville latitude is the last week in March and the first week in April. The scions must be cut from thrifty growing trees and must be used immediately after they are cut. Experience has shown that scions kept in cold storage or stratified in sand for any length of time lose a very large part of their vitality, and success with them is very limited in that section. Last year I cut most of my scions in November and December, stratified them in sand until spring, and my percentage of success with them was very small, while on the other hand Mr. McCoy used scions directly off the tree and had a satisfactory stand. I am of the opinion that it will be proven later that the best method of grafting in the North is to graft above the ground and tie paper bags over the scions for two or three weeks until they start into growth. Our experiments so far have been confined to root-grafting, and while it has proven fairly successful under proper conditions, yet I believe that grafting above the ground will prove more successful. We have not done much budding in our section, but what we have done gives fair promise of success, and it may be that this will prove to be the best method of propagating nut trees in the North. In grafting we use both one and two-year-old wood, but one-year-old wood, if it is thrifty, is more desirable, although it is better to use thrifty two-year-old wood than to use weak scions of one year's growth. Either one or two-year-old growth can be used successfully. My experiments and adventures in the work of propagating pecan trees were made for the purpose of securing enough of the desirable varieties of these trees to put out an orchard for myself. I found, upon inquiry, that it was impossible to buy hardy northern trees, and furthermore that but few of the desirable varieties had been propagated. In fact, I knew that some of the best ones had never been brought to the attention of the nurserymen, and being more anxious to risk my own judgment on this than that of anyone else, I started in to produce my own trees. Up to date I have accumulated a vast amount of experience and have a few trees to show for my work, but I would not take many times the cost and trouble of my work, for the information I have acquired. I have also sent to some of my friends bud-wood from our best trees for the purpose of getting these varieties propagated for the benefit of those who desire to grow them. My suggestion is that unless one is looking for the experience and enjoys a great deal of hard work and some expense, he had better buy his trees from some reliable person who has successfully propagated them. If the farmers in the latitude of the good varieties of pecans were to put out ten to twenty acres on some corner of their farm and cultivate the trees properly, they would soon be surprised to find that this small piece of ground would be worth more money than all the rest of their farm, and they would leave not only a valuable estate to their children, but also a monument by which they would be remembered for more than a hundred years after they had passed from the toils of this earth. Ten acres of pecan trees can be cultivated at less expense annually than ten acres of corn, and if the grove consists of the right varieties and has been properly cultivated, it will be worth not less than $500 per acre in ten years. In fact, I do not know of a single grove of pecan trees in the United States--and I have seen many--of the right varieties that has been properly cultivated that can be bought for $500 per acre at ten years of age, yet the principal reason that this very thing has not been done by the farmers throughout the pecan belt is because they have not had sufficient information on the subject and have had no means of acquiring it. I do not want to close this long paper without saying something about walnuts and hickory nuts in Indiana. While it is true that the pecan is unquestionably the most attractive and valuable nut that grows in the world, yet there is much profit and satisfaction in the culture of walnuts and hickories. In southern Indiana we have some very fine varieties of the shagbark, and I am making some experiments in propagating it. One of the advantages of this nut is that it will grow far into the north. In fact, I have had some specimens of very beautiful shagbarks sent me by Dr. D. S. Sager, from Ontario, Canada. The shagbark is a slower growing tree than the pecan, but when properly cultivated shows a very satisfactory growth. I am also experimenting with the propagation of the Persian (English) walnut, and so far have had very satisfactory results. I am trying some of the California varieties--the "Franquette" and "Parisienne" especially--and last spring I grafted a number of them on the wild seedling black walnut and they grew as much as four feet in height during the summer. There are several very fine varieties of the Persian walnut that are hardy throughout our latitude, and when grafted on the native black walnut stocks, make very satisfactory growth. I have had several Persian walnut trees under observation in Washington, close to where I live, and have found that some of these trees bear good crops of very fine walnuts. I cannot make this paper long enough to go into the details of this subject as it has been discussed here by others who know more about it than I. I merely desire to mention the fact that so far as our experiments have gone in Indiana up to date with the Persian walnut, everything seems to indicate that it can be very successfully propagated and grown there, provided the right varieties are selected; but with this, as with all other nut trees, the prospective orchardist must make very careful selection of the varieties which he plants. In closing, I want to add just a few words more as to the value and beauty of nut trees. It is very hard to overstate either if the trees are properly cared for. A friend of mine recently asked me how early a pecan tree would bear, and how big it would grow within a certain time. I told him that it depended altogether upon who owned the tree. Nothing adds so much to the value of a home or to a farm as beautiful trees, and nothing indicates more the intelligence and taste of the person who owns a home or farm than the character of the trees surrounding it. In taking a trip through the country, it is very painful to notice how little attention has been given to trees, and I take it that this is due to the lack of information on this subject. A house can be built in a very short time. It can be furnished beautifully if one has taste and money. The science of mechanics can do much toward making an attractive place in which to dwell, but after all, the home that is remembered and admired, both by its occupants and by others, is the home surrounded by beautiful trees that bring forth their leaves and blossoms and fruit to please the eye and the taste and temper the heat of summer. These cannot be bought with mere money nor made in a day, but when placed there with care and intelligence come forth with surprising rapidity and beauty and not only add manifold value to the home and farm, but bespeak for some one a standard of intelligence and nobility that is better than great riches; for he who plants and cares for a tree is of the true, the beautiful and the good. * * * * * President Morris: The paper is now open for discussion. Professor Lake: I'd like to ask Mr. Littlepage a question. What is the condition of the wood of those large growths of walnuts? Mr. Littlepage: When I observed it in November, it was ripening off very nicely. The average frost period for that latitude is about the twentieth of October, and we had had quite a number of very hard frosts,--in fact, there had been some ice. It had not been injured. Professor Lake: That is remarkable. Mr. Littlepage: I have pictures here of those, taken the twentieth of June. There was perhaps three feet of growth at that time. They quit growing about the middle of August down there, and to that I attribute very largely the fact that the wood ripened up. Professor Craig: What is your minimum temperature? Mr. Littlepage: I have seen the thermometer ten degrees below zero. I have seen the Ohio River frozen over so thick that for a month at Rockport the wagons could go across the river on ice. In fact, a threshing machine was hauled over. I don't know how low the thermometer got. I imagine it went lower than ten degrees. President Morris: I have seen it lower still on Persian walnuts and pecans. It is the early starting of sap in spring that hurts mine most. Mr. Littlepage: The pecans differ from native hickory. The native hickories in that section opened their buds and began to show strong flow of sap long before the pecans gave any indication whatever. Some of the pecans there seem to be very slow about starting sap. Very few pollinate before the tenth of May. President Morris: My trees had to stand twenty-eight degrees one night only, but they have had to stand twenty sometimes, and frequently several degrees below. Mr. Pomeroy: I want to ask if he thinks he will have any difficulty in transplanting those black walnuts seven or eight years old? Mr. Littlepage: That suggests a very painful subject. I have had that very thing in mind. They stand six or seven feet apart. I have got to settle that very question some of these times. Mr. Pomeroy: I might suggest that you begin the fall before, and take a whole lot of time in digging around the trees, then leave them till nearly spring, then finish the transplanting before the ground has a chance to thaw entirely. President Morris: I believe that is a good point, if you will do your cutting early, and let the callus form well during the winter. Let us hear more about that particular point. Mr. Reed: In view of the fact that this Association is trying to rectify as many mistakes as it can, and the fact that it is looked upon as an establisher of precedents, I make the motion that all of our references to the nut just under discussion be to it as the Persian walnut, and not as the English walnut. Mr. Pomeroy: I second that motion. (Carried.) President Morris: Let us hear from Mr. Roper. Mr. Roper: I don't think I know much about the Indiana pecan trees, except what we have been doing in Virginia with them. I have discussed some of the results in the paper on pecan trees for planting in the North. * * * * * President Morris: Committee appointments are as follows: Committee on Competition, Messrs. Reed, Littlepage, and myself, _ex-officio_. Committee on General Exhibits, Messrs. Barron and Roper. Committee on Resolutions, Messrs. Reed, Littlepage, and Schempp. Committee on Membership, Messrs. Deming, Lake, and Rush. Nominating Committee, Professor Craig and Col. Van Duzee. Professor Lake: Does that complete all the committees? President Morris: That is all on the list here. Professor Lake: I would like to suggest one, because I think it will materially help the matter of bringing the nut subject before the people in an effective manner,--a committee on score card. That is at the basis of competitions, and when the nut grower gets acquainted with the score card, and knows that is going to be the basis of judging the competitions, he knows there is going to be something doing. President Morris: That is a rather important point. I would like to have the matter discussed. Professor Craig: I think the idea is an excellent one. There is no way in which we can analyze the qualities of fruit better than by having a systematic method of discussing its different characters. The score card does that,--separates each one and makes them stand for what they are worth. In order to unify methods of judging used by the different societies, a score card which this society might develop and recommend would be a very valuable thing as a guide for nut growers here in the Northeast. The National Nut Growers' Association has a score card for pecans, and a score card has been recommended by the Department of Agriculture. I am not sure that score cards have been provided for the Persian walnut and for the hickories, and our northern types. I think Mr. Lake's suggestion is entirely in order and well worthy of consideration. President Morris: It appeals to me at once. I think we would put Mr. Lake and Professor Craig on a score card committee. Professor Craig: I think a score card can be presented, subject to revision, which will answer the present demand. FRIDAY MORNING, DECEMBER 15, 1911. President Morris: The meeting is called to order. The Secretary will read the proposed amendments to the constitution. I believe there is no provision in the by-laws for making such amendment. I don't know what the customary rule is in the matter. I presume we could submit it to a vote. Doctor Deming: Under the heading "Committees," the following is proposed: "The Association shall appoint standing committees of three members each to consider and report on the following topics at each annual meeting: first, on promising seedlings; second, on nomenclature; third, on hybrids; fourth, on membership; fifth, on press and publication." Professor Craig: I move the adoption of this amendment to our constitution. (Seconded. Carried.) Doctor Deming: Under the head of "Meetings," the amendment is as follows: "The Association shall hold an annual meeting, to be held at the time and place to be selected by the Executive Committee." Professor Lake: Some way or another, I feel that I oppose that attitude. I believe a delegate will often go to a convention with the idea of presenting views upon holding it at some specific place. It seems to me we ought to give the annual meeting an opportunity to designate the place of meeting. Some people say they will pack a convention. If they are sufficiently enthusiastic to pack a convention they are entitled to have the meeting. I have heard an expression from one or two members that they would like to see it at a certain place. It is true they can present their views to the Executive Committee, but if the Executive Committee is not present at this place, it is necessary for them to make another trip, or appeal to them by correspondence. I would like to have that put in such a way that the annual meeting might select the place of meeting. President Morris: It is a matter for consideration. Is there any further discussion on this point? Doctor Deming: It seems to me that the question of the selection of the meeting place is a matter for very deliberate consideration, and it isn't always that a question of this kind will get deliberate consideration in a meeting which acts very often without considering all sides of the question. It seems to me that, while it would be advisable to have the place of the next meeting discussed by the Association as a whole, the decision as to the place of meeting might very safely be left to the Executive Committee. Mr. Littlepage: I think, as a general rule, it is pretty wise to give some latitude in these matters, for the reason that conditions may develop from time to time which make it desirable to have some flexibility as to the place of meeting. I think, especially with the able Executive Committee we now have, it could safely be left to the Executive Committee. Professor Craig: Since Professor Lake has spoken, I have a good deal of sympathy with his attitude, and I am rather inclined to think it would be wise to modify that clause in such a way as to give the meeting the privilege, in case there was an overwhelming element in favor of a certain place, of selecting the next place for the convention; and I would suggest a modification of that clause to this effect, that the place of meeting shall be selected at the annual meeting, or by the Executive Committee subsequently thereto. That would give the membership an opportunity of having a word in it, and would open the door so that it could be considered at the annual meeting; but in the event of this not taking place then, it would fall to the Executive Committee to select the meeting place. I move that as an amendment to the proposed clause. Professor Lake: I support Professor Craig's motion. Professor Craig: If my seconder will approve, I will offer that as a substitute instead of an amendment. Professor Lake: I accept it. (Carried.) Doctor Deming: Under the head of "Officers," the following amendment is proposed: "There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary-treasurer, and an executive committee of five persons, of which latter the president, vice-president, and secretary shall be members, and a vice-president from each state represented in the membership of the Association." Professor Lake: I move that the clause be accepted. Mr. Rush: I second the motion. (Carried.) Doctor Deming: Under the heading of "Election of Officers," this addition is proposed: "The President shall appoint a nominating committee of three persons at the annual meeting, whose duty it shall be to report to the meeting a list of officers for the ensuing year." Professor Lake: I don't want to be an objector. I simply want to file a protest against this method of election in an organization, on general principles. I am opposed to anything that looks like continuing an administration. This doesn't give an opportunity for election from the floor. It might be so amended, that an annual meeting may elect from the floor. I am thoroughly in sympathy with popular government. I have seen a good deal of this, and I would like to get away from the sentiment of anything of that kind by allowing nominations from the floor. Doctor Deming: How would it be if the nominating committee, instead of being appointed by the President, were appointed in some elective way by the meeting as a whole? Professor Lake: I accept Doctor Deming's suggestion. That is a most excellent way of eliminating both sides of the controversy. I would like to put that definitely into form, that we have a committee of five,--that is sufficient for the present,--that a committee of five be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the subsequent year. I put that as a motion. Mr. Rush: I second that motion. (Carried.) President Morris: The committee for the nomination of new officers will consist of Professor Craig and Colonel Van Duzee. This other committee of five, as I understand it, is not to be appointed now. Doctor Deming: The only thing that I have now is the proposition that we honor Mr. Henry Hales by electing him an honorary member of the Association. I would like to move that Mr. Henry Hales of Ridgewood, New Jersey, be elected an honorary member of this Association. Mr. Littlepage: I second that motion. (Carried.) President Morris: On the competition, the committee consisted of Mr. Reed, Mr. Littlepage, and myself. Mr. Littlepage has specimens in for competition, and I will appoint Mr. Roper in his place. The next order of business will be the paper on experiences in propagation, by Professor Close. THE BENCH ROOT-GRAFTING OF PERSIAN WALNUTS AND PECANS. BY C. P. CLOSE, U. S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The results of my bench root-grafting of Persian walnuts and pecans at the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station in 1911 were not as satisfactory as might be wished, partly owing, at least, to the unusually long and hot drought which was disastrous in many respects in this section of the country. PURPOSE AND METHOD OF THE EXPERIMENT. The purpose of this experimental work was to devise some method of procedure in the bench grafting of nut trees which would be reliable and practical, especially if done during January, February, and March. The whip or tongue method with variation in thinness of tongue to make closely fitting unions, was employed. For the Persian walnut cions, black walnut, butternut and Persian walnut roots were used, and for the pecan cions, hardy Indiana and ordinary southern pecan seedlings, whole root and piece root, were used. Part of the grafts were planted outdoors in nursery rows as soon as made and part were placed in soil or decayed sawdust in a cool greenhouse. This was for the purpose of determining whether or not it would prove advantageous to go to the extra expense and trouble of placing the grafts under greenhouse conditions until April or May. Ground beds were used and thus bottom heat was not applied. PERSIAN WALNUTS. There were 287 grafts of San Jose, Concord and Franquette Persian walnuts, made from February 15 to April 4, which were planted in nursery rows very soon after being made. Only 40 of these were alive in October, the best results being obtained with San Jose on black walnut stocks. Sixty-four walnut grafts were placed in decayed sawdust in the greenhouse in February and March and of these 22 were alive early in May when they were taken out. PECANS. The pecan grafts, set in nursery rows as soon as made, numbered 474 and consisted of the following varieties: Mantura, Appomattox, Frotscher, Moneymaker, Van Deman, Stuart, and Pabst. Only one of these, a Pabst on a piece root, lived during the season. The grafts which were placed in the greenhouse gave pretty good results as shown by the following data given respectively under the headings "Earth Bed" and "Decayed Sawdust." EARTH BED. Jan. 14. 10 Moneymaker on Indiana stocks, not waxed. 8 alive in May. 10 Moneymaker on Indiana stocks, waxed 4 alive in May. Feb. 14. 10 Mantura on Indiana stocks, not waxed. 8 alive in May. 15 Moneymaker on Indiana stocks, not waxed. 11 alive in May. Mar. 8. 33 Stuart on Indiana stocks, not waxed. 20 alive in May. 30 Stuart on Indiana piece roots, not waxed. 15 alive in May. ___ ___ Totals 108 66 DECAYED SAWDUST. Feb. 14. 25 Mantura on Indiana stocks, not waxed. 6 alive in May. Mar. 8. 12 Stuart on Indiana stocks, not waxed. 12 alive in May. 23 Stuart on Indiana stocks, not waxed. 21 alive in May. ___ ___ Totals 60 39 These figures show that 61 per cent of those in the earth bed and 65 per cent of those in the decayed sawdust, were alive when they were taken up early in May. Some had made a growth of from two to eight inches and were fine little trees. Most of these transplanted grafts were set in nursery rows and nearly all succumbed to the extreme drought of the season. CONCLUSIONS. The season was so extremely dry that the practice of planting root grafts as soon as made did not prove successful. However, work done in other years indicated that in normal seasons this may be done with considerable success. Placing the grafts in a greenhouse either in earth or decayed sawdust gave encouraging results, but when transplanted in the nursery the grafts could not withstand the unusually dry and hot weather. The black walnut proved to be the best stock for the Persian walnut and two buds to the cion are required. Grafting wax should not be used if the union of cion and stock is to be covered with earth; this point was clearly proven in previous years. [The foregoing paper, read by title, was the subject of a verbal report by Prof. Lake, who said further:] Prof. Close performed considerable work in topgrafting and budding on three and four year old stocks. The top grafts were a failure. The buds survived, and were in good, strong condition October fifteenth. That was on Persian walnut and pecan, about half and half. Mr. Pomeroy: Did he bud on black walnut stock? Professor Lake: Yes. It was a little higher than a man, and had been cut back to about three feet. The crown grafting was fairly successful, but would have been much more successful, had they used something to cover the grafts. Mr. Pomeroy: How long should the paper sack be left? Professor Lake: It would vary with the season and activity of the stock, ten days to two weeks. President Morris: I wish you would try further experiments in rooting scions in warm sand in the hot-house. I believe that in some stage you can probably root those cuttings in moist sand in the hot-house, heated beneath; and if you can do that, it is going to settle the question very largely of hickory and walnut propagation. What do you think about that, Professor Craig? Professor Craig: I am not very optimistic about the possibility of that. I find it very, very difficult to get roots to develop from _Hicoria_. You can get the callus almost every time, but it is very difficult to secure the development of roots afterwards. President Morris: How about getting callus by three months, we will say, in storage? Professor Craig: We would have the same trouble. They would develop adventitious buds very poorly. Doctor Morris has sent us from time to time some samples, and we have been making experiments. I have used different methods and different propagators. We have one propagator, who has been most successful usually in striking difficult things, and he has absolutely failed in this one. I may say that our facilities for propagation are not ideal at the present time, but we shall have in a short time a good propagating house with properly regulated benches, as to bottom heat and overhead ventilation and all that; and we shall, of course, keep up the experiments. President Morris: In my experiments, I grafted hickory scions on hickory roots, and the whole thing, root and scion, lived until the root sent out adventitious buds, yet in that case we did not get union between the top and the stock. How do you explain that, Professor Craig? Professor Craig: I don't explain it. President Morris: Are we likely to have success along that line by some modification of the plan? Professor Craig: I couldn't say. You can keep the cuttings alive for three or four months. President Morris: They were in damp rooms, exposed to light, right in the window. Doctor Deming: Professor Coville has made some experiments in rooting hickory cuttings for me. Professor Coville is the one who has made such a success of blueberry culture. I sent him some cuttings, and he reports as follows: "Two experiments were tried with the hickory cuttings received from Dr. W. C. Deming on January 5, 1911. In one experiment some of the cuttings were placed in a glass cutting bed in live sphagnum covered with sand, the upper ends of the cuttings projecting from the sand. The atmosphere above the cutting bed was kept in a state of saturation by a covering of glass. The bed was kept shaded and was subjected to an ordinary living room temperature varying from about 55° to 70°, or occasionally a few degrees higher. On January 11 the cambium ring at the lower end of the cuttings had begun to callus. On February 17 the upper bud on one of the cuttings began to push. Later some of the other cuttings began to swell preparatory to the development of new growth. All the cuttings, however, finally died. It appeared from their behavior that the temperatures to which they were subjected were too high for their best development. In the other experiment the cuttings were placed in sand without sphagnum in a greenhouse at a temperature ordinarily of 50° to 65°, rising occasionally, however, on still, sunny days to 70°. After a few weeks, these cuttings were well callused and the buds began to swell slowly, exposing first their green bracts, and later on some of the cuttings the green compound leaves, pushing out from among the bracts. These cuttings also, however, finally turned black and died, but not until after the first of April. The experiments showed that hickory cuttings, when taken at a suitable time of year and exposed to conditions suited to other hard wooded plants known to be difficult to root, retained their vitality and passed satisfactorily through the stages preliminary to rooting. While no actual roots were secured, the experiments suggest that the rooting of hickory cuttings is not beyond the possibility of attainment. As the basis of an experiment this winter, I suggest that you select half a dozen twigs that you are willing to sacrifice on some good variety of hickory, and remove a ring of bark at a distance of 4 to 8 inches from the top. The ring of bark removed should be about half an inch in length and its upper end should come about a quarter of an inch below a bud. At the present season the bark will not peel from the wood. It will, therefore, be necessary to scrape it off, so as to leave nothing but the wood on the girdled area. The bark should be cleanly cut at each end of this area. I hope that we shall still have sufficient warm weather to induce the formation of a callus on the cambium at the upper end of this ring. Later in the winter, some time in January, you can cut off these twigs and send them to me, packed as those were last year. The cutting is preferably made just below the ring. I would prefer that all the wood from the ring to the tip of the twig be of the past summer's growth. We can try, however, twigs containing two seasons' growth, if the others are not easily available." President Morris: That is a suggestion, you see, of apparent value, because it has succeeded with blueberries,--this method of cutting off a ring of bark before the leaves are shed, allowing a ring to callous, then later cutting off this prepared twig and subjecting it to methods for striking roots. It is an extremely interesting suggestion. Just as soon as I heard of this procedure, I went out and prepared about fifty hickory and walnut twigs myself, but that was this autumn, and I haven't cut them yet for the experiments in rooting. Has anyone had experience along this line? Mr. Collins: I saw an experiment in rooting, and I am prompted to ask if anything has been done along this particular line. The method employed was this. The twig was partially cut from the branch, perhaps cut three-quarters of the way through with a slanting cut. It was then bent a little, and a little sphagnum put in the cut, then a ball of sphagnum was wrapped about the whole cut area, and it was tied with twine, and that was kept wet for several months, I think, until, finally, new roots pushed through and appeared on the outside of this ball of sphagnum. President Morris: I read of that. It was published in a government report. Professor Collins: It was on the rubber plant. President Morris: I tried it at that time on the hickory. The difficulty was in getting my men sufficiently interested to keep the sphagnum wet all the time. It promised something. The rubber plants, perhaps, would lend themselves more readily to such a procedure than the hickories, because most of the rubber plants are air plants, anyway. All of the _Ficus_ family depend so little upon the ground for their nourishment. Professor Collins: I have seen that worked very successfully. Professor Lake: You don't know how successful the callousing has been? President Morris: They calloused all right. Professor Lake: How long did it require? President Morris: I don't remember. It was a good while, longer than I anticipated. I don't think there was a callus on the hickory in less than thirty days. The butternut and black walnut hardly showed any callus at all after keeping the sphagnum wet as long as my men would do it. Professor Lake: At what time was the ringing done? President Morris: The leaves had fallen this year. Professor Coville suggested that it be done before the leaves had fallen. But the hickory will callous after the leaves have fallen. It seems to me hickories are at work all winter long. They have a free flow of sap in January, and any warm day in January they will be like a maple tree, almost, if they are cut. I have grafted them at that time. Mr. Brown: Can anyone give me any information on grafting chestnuts? Mr. Rush: I have been very successful with the grafting of the chestnut. It is just as simple as grafting other fruit, except the Persian walnut. Tongue grafting and cleft grafting is very successful. There is no particular secret in connection with grafting chestnuts. President Morris: Personally, I found it difficult for two or three years, but now I can graft the chestnut about as readily as I can graft the apple. There is no difference in methods. It seems to me from my present experience that one may graft or bud chestnut by almost any of the accepted methods pretty freely. What has been your experience, Mr. Littlepage? Mr. Littlepage: I haven't been experimenting with the propagation of the chestnut yet. I am getting ready. I have three or four thousand seedlings, a few of which will be ready to graft next year. I have twenty acres of the Paragon chestnuts growing. President Morris: In chestnut grafting, we will find that one kind does not graft or bud readily upon another kind, perhaps. For instance, there is some antagonism between the American sweet chestnut and Asiatic chestnuts. There is some antagonism between Asiatic and Europeans; there is little between Europeans and American sweet. These antagonisms are something that one has to learn from experience at the present time, because I doubt if we have had enough experience to know just where we stand on this question. Professor Collins: Doesn't there seem to be antagonism between eastern Asiatic other than Japanese and Japanese? President Morris: Yes; the Koreans of both kinds, the north Japanese of both kinds, and the Manchurian chestnut are the five that I have experimented with in grafting, and none of those grow so well on American stock as they should. Professor Collins: I mean to say between the Korean and the Japanese. President Morris: There is less antagonism. You can graft the Korean upon the Japanese and the Japanese upon the Korean very readily. They have very much the same texture of wood, the same character of buds and bark. Professor Collins: Is there any antagonism between eastern Asian and Japanese? President Morris: I don't know that my experience has been extensive enough to say. My men have put on perhaps two or three hundred grafts back and forth between these kinds, the customary accidents have happened, and we have about given up trying to do much grafting of Japanese on American, but still plan to graft Japanese back and forth upon each other, and we are now planning to graft European and American back and forth upon each other. Mr. Brown: What about the position of the graft? President Morris: I don't know, Mr. Brown, if there is very much difference. I haven't found very much. I have grafted all the way from the root to the top. Mr. Rush: It is better on top. Sometimes the grafting has an effect upon the stock just at the union. If it is budded low, it blights. The bark gets loose. All those that are grafted high are doing remarkably well. President Morris: The next on the list is Doctor Deming's paper on "Nut Promotions." Doctor Deming: I will read first a communication from Mr. Henry Hales of Ridgewood, New Jersey. HALES' PAPER SHELL HICKORY. My shagbark (paper shell) hickory tree was on my farm when I bought it in 1868. It had been noticed by the neighbors as bearing a fine nut and was watched by them for the nuts, but they did not appreciate the value of them. The late Andrew S. Fuller had not seen them, but asked me to bring him a few. When he saw them he was surprised and at once pronounced them the finest hickories he had ever seen, and named them "Hales' Paper Shell." The hickory is one of the most valuable of North American nuts. It is of a variable nature. I have over twenty old trees on my place, and no two bear nuts of the same shape or size, and although some neighbors planted some nuts from the old tree and produced fruit from them they were only ordinary sized, so that it is necessary to propagate them to retain their value. About 1880 Parsons & Son, of Flushing, N. Y., grafted some in pots under glass, from which trees these nuts sent are the product. The fruit is fully as fine as the original tree. Prof. C. B. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum has taken great interest in the nut. I have two trees grafted on wild saplings by Jackson Dawson near bearing size. Those are the only trees successfully grafted, out of thousands done in the North outside, from which I am afraid grafting outside in the North is a failure on hickory stocks. There may be a better chance on pecan stock, which I have not thoroughly tested under favorable circumstances. I have been sending northern pecan nuts and had them planted, and sent scions for working on them in the South; had some failures from natural causes. Simpson Bros. of Monticello, Florida, have had fair success there. My share of two year old trees are on the way here. Of the value of these nuts too much cannot be said. Mr. Fuller ranked them superior to the Madeira nut. It has remarkable keeping qualities. It has taken from eighteen to twenty-five years for my grafted trees to come into bearing. I earnestly hope that with the knowledge gained so far, the means of propagation on a large scale will soon be discovered and successfully carried on. What a gain it would be to the wealth of our food production and luxury. The American hickory would then stand highest on the list of our native nuts. * * * * * President Morris: Are there any comments upon this paper of Mr. Hales? So much is being said about the Hales hickory, it seems to me that possibly we ought to put on record some thoughts in the matter. Mr. Hales is entitled to more credit than any other man for bringing forward the development of the shagbark hickory, and his enthusiasm was based upon this remarkable nut on his grounds. It is a very large nut, and, like all large nuts, is much coarser in character than small nuts, and, like all large nuts, lacks delicacy of flavor that we find in small nuts. It is thinner shelled than most of the shagbarks that we would see in many days spent in the woods, but when we have for comparison some smaller nuts, we find shells very much thinner than the shell of the Hales. The Hales, like many other large hickories, keeps much better than the small hickories of finer texture and more delicate quality, and it may be very good at three years of age, while some of the most delicious of the smaller, more tender and delicate nuts are spoiling at the end of six months. I don't know that Mr. Hales would take exception to my way of stating this, but it seems to me that he ought to feel that we give him all honor, that we think it a remarkable nut, that it is a nut, because of its size and features, worthy of the enthusiasm he gave it. There is apt to be some misunderstanding as to the exact position this holds in relation to other shagbark hickories. Mr. Littlepage: What is its bearing record as to quantity? President Morris: The tree has been cut so much for scions that it has never had a fair chance. It is a prolific tree. It is well worthy of propagation. Mr. Littlepage: It is, perhaps,--judging from looking at it--a very fine shagbark for commercial purposes. Isn't it true that within the next ten years there will, in all probability, be a complete reversion in the mind of the nut culturist as to the kind and quality of the nut he will propagate. I will supplement that by saying that heretofore, both in the pecan and other nut fields, the whole tendency has been toward something big. Now, the wise fellows in the South today are beginning to get away from that. I have made many trips down there, and I find there is a very changing sentiment. I want to say that in my observation the future price of the various nuts of the country is going to be determined by the price of nut meat; that the meats are going to be put on the market, and while there will always be plenty of nuts marketed in the shell, the price of the nut meat will be the dominant factor. I was walking down G Street in Washington the other day with an ex-United States Senator, and ex-member of Congress, and an ex-Governor, and they passed a nut store, and saw in the window some nuts, also a big box of nut meats. Everyone went in, and all passed up the nuts and bought the nut meat. That expresses, to my notion, the tendency that is coming; and that thing is going, then, to determine very largely the question of quality. President Morris: I think we certainly are going to have a complete change in ideas about raising nuts. We are going to raise big ones of the kinds where everybody will buy one pound and nobody will buy two pounds. We are going to raise nuts that will appeal to the people who purchase things in the open market, and who never in their lives get hold of anything that is good. We are going also to raise nuts that will appeal to connoisseurs, and that will be bought by people who know one work of art from another. In other words, we are going to make the progress in nut culture that has been made in other fields of horticulture. At the present time, if one could raise a pear as big as a watermelon and tasting like the rind, that would be the pear that would sell in the market. But the connoisseur buys the Seckel in place of it. When there is a pear like the Kieffer that will fill the top of the tree so there is no room for leaves and branches, the market men are going to raise that pear. But when we go into the market, we go around a block to escape the place where they sell the Kieffer pear, and we buy the Bartlett. We have precisely the same problems in nut culture. Mr. Pomeroy: I have been thinking some on this line. I have spent a good many half hours in the last four or five years with an old German in Buffalo. He has a stand on one of the big markets. I find that he has a whole lot to say in regard to what the people buy. He has found this out, and he has been there a good many years. He says, "I have been getting black walnuts from the same farmer boy for six or seven years. They are fine; try one." He has learned something about the different trees throughout that section, and about some nuts that are being shipped in, and he can tell the varieties. He has customers that do come back after the second package of nuts. He is trying to keep those customers one year after another. He is creating the demand. When I was a youngster, if I could have received the prices for black walnuts and butternuts that youngsters get now, I would have thought I was a capitalist. Butternuts are retailing at two dollars and two dollars and a half, and black walnuts the same. President Morris: We have got to get away from the idea that we are going to find the best hickory nut or the best walnut or the best nut of any kind in the largest nut. Nature spreads out just so much material in the way of flavor and good quality of a nut, and if it is in a large nut, those good qualities are spread out thin; if it is in a small nut, they are concentrated. Professor Lake: I wish I were as optimistic as Mr. Littlepage in this matter. That is because he has been studying all nuts for twenty-five or thirty years, and I have only been dabbling around in Persian walnuts for about twenty years. I have been dabbling with apples twenty-five or more years, and the real connoisseurs of the apple have been telling us during that time that the Ben Davis would be wiped out inside of ten years. I heard that twenty years ago. I believe that there are more Ben Davis apples being consumed by the public today than any other one apple. Notwithstanding that, every man who knows good apples goes out and decries it. It is because that apple can be grown anywhere by anybody at any time, and will be eaten by the people. The kind of nut that is going to make the money the next twenty-five or thirty years is the nut that is prolific, of fair quality, that can be grown by any man, and that has a fairly good appearance. I believe that the process of educating the public on the matter of quality is going to be tremendously slow. It is not always the case, however, that the smaller the size, the better the quality. A medium size would be better. The Yellow Newtown is quite a large apple, and it is superior in quality to the Winesap. President Morris: I was stating a general rule. Professor Lake: I fear we aren't going to be able to educate the people. How many people who eat nuts know anything about their quality? Dr. Morris has got the ideal of the best nut in walnuts, for instance, the French Mayette. That is the connoisseur's choice. I know of many people who will tell you very frankly they prefer the American grown Franquette, which is much more starchy in make-up and much less nutty. Mr. Littlepage: I think there is a great deal in what Professor Lake says. I am not sure he has got the cause of the facts he states. One reason why the Ben Davis is being planted is, as he stated, that it will grow almost anywhere; but the reason the public accept the Ben Davis is because they can't get enough of another at a reasonable price. There isn't any doubt that if there were plenty others at a reasonable price the Ben Davis wouldn't be used at all. We hear so much today about this high cost of living. Of course, there are artificial conditions that have contributed to this to a greater or less extent; but the principal element is that we have come up against the problem of feeding the great American public, that has grown faster than the facilities have grown. The time for low priced food products is gone forever. Yet there is a good deal in this commercial phase of it. President Morris: The Hales hickory is going to be like the Ben Davis apple, one of the very most popular in the market. Doctor Deming: I will say regarding the retail price of nuts that in New York City shelled filberts are priced at $1.25 a pound, shelled almonds $1.00, ordinary run of hickories and chestnuts in the shells twenty cents, black walnuts in the shell twelve cents. President Morris: Hickories will give somewhat over fifty pounds to the bushel; black walnuts about forty. If we make a rough estimate of fifty pounds to the bushel for shagbarks, and forty for Persian walnuts, we will probably have a good fair average. NUT PROMOTIONS. BY W. C. DEMING, NEW YORK. Promoters attack their quarry with a two-edged sword; one edge is what they say, the other what they leave unsaid; and both edges are often keen. What they say generally has a foundation of truth with a superstructure of gilded staff. You must knock over the staff and examine the foundations to see if they are laid up in good cement mortar or only mud. Sometimes they are honestly laid but your true promoter can no more help putting on his Coney Island palace of dreams than a yellow journal reporter can help making a good story of the most everyday assignment. I suppose he takes a professional pride in his decorations, even when the real facts themselves are good enough. Or even, in his enthusiasm, half believes, and fully hopes, that what he says is true. So you never can say that because of the evident gilding there is nothing worth while beneath. What the promoter does not say it is absolutely necessary for the safe investor to find out. Deductions from experience in general, and from knowledge of the business in particular, will help and, when these favor further investigation, there are two essentials for a wise decision. First, a study of the records of the promoters, and second, a personal examination of the property. If these can be thoroughly made, and the results are satisfactory after a suitable period of mental incubation, if the prospects will stand the candle test for fertility, you may put some money on the chance of a good hatch; remembering, too, that many a good hatch afterward comes to grief with the pip. Some promotions are conceived in iniquity, some in drunkenness and folly and some are abortive from incapacity. Your legitimate and well-born, well-brought-up promotion, fathered by ability and mothered by honesty, it is your problem to recognize, if that is what you are looking for, and to avoid the low-born trickster or incapable. No one can tell you how to do this any more than he can tell you an easy way to graft hickories. The northern nut grower is not yet bothered with northern nut promotions. At most he is called on to discount the statements of sellers of trees, and that a little, not too expensive, experience will teach him. The West is apparently too busy selling fruit and fruit lands to lay out nuts to trap eastern nibblers. But the allurements of pecan growing in the South are spread before us with our bread and butter and morning coffee. The orange and pomelo properties have been banished from the stage, or made to play second fiddle, and now we see in the limelight the pecan plantation, with a vista of provision for old age and insurance for our children. And there shall be no work nor care nor trouble about it at all. Only something down and about ten dollars a month for ninety-six months. And the intercropping is to more than pay for that. It is indeed an enticing presentation. Although we have as yet no northern nut promotions we may expect the time when the sandy barrens of the shore and the boulder pastures of the rock ribbed hills will be cut up into five acre plots and promoted as the natural home of the chestnut and the hickory, holding potential fortunes for their developers. I hope it will be so for it will postulate a foundation in fact. But the chestnut blight and the unresponsiveness of the hickory to propagation as yet hold up these future camp followers of the northern nut growing pioneers. So that for the present there is only the sword of the southern pecan promoter to parry. It would be a work of supererogation and effrontery for me to attempt to treat this subject in particular since it has been so clearly and ably done by Col. C. A. Van Duzee of St. Paul, Minn., and Viking, Fla., from the standpoint of long experience and full knowledge. His paper should be read by all interested persons. I am permitted to make the following quotations from it: "The pecan as an orchard tree has recently been discovered and its history has not been written. The record at present is largely based on scattered individual trees growing under abnormal conditions which, as a rule, are favorable.... "Calculations and deductions based upon these results have been made which are fascinating, but they are utterly unreliable when applied to orchards of other trees in different localities growing under totally different conditions?... "No one knows what a pecan orchard grown under such conditions is going to do." Col. Van Duzee, however, expresses firm belief in the success of pecan growing under proper personal supervision. It all comes down to the question, "Can you or I hire our business done for us, never go near it ourselves and expect others to make a success of it for us?" And yet, when all is said, I confess that I have been tempted by my faith in the present and future of pecan growing in the South. I might have invested were it not for my firm belief that, in nut growing, the North is but a few years behind the South, and that I wish to devote my resources and my energies to having a hand in a development which, I share with you the belief, is to be of inestimable benefit to the human race. We can picture the day when our dooryards, our roadsides, our fields and hills shall be shaded by grand nut trees, showering sustenance and wealth on our descendants, and all people, and bearing the names of their originators; when the housewife of the future shall send her wireless call to the grocer for a kilo of Hales' Papershells, the Rush, the Jones, the Pomeroy Persian walnuts, the Black Ben Deming butternut, the Craig Corean chestnut, the Morris Hybrid hickory, the Close black-walnut or the Littlepage pecan. * * * * * President Morris: It is a very timely paper. The number of promoters we find in connection with any subject furnishes an index of the fundamental value of the original proposition. The number of dishonest people, the number of fakirs that are now promoting development schemes in connection with the pecan indicates that down at the bottom somewhere, there is a real gold mine. We will go on to Mr. Roper's paper. SOME FACTS CONCERNING PECAN TREES FOR PLANTING IN THE NORTH. W. N. ROPER, PETERSBURG, VA. Pecan trees for successful culture in the North must be of hardy, early-maturing varieties, budded on stocks from northern pecans and grown in nursery under suitable climatic conditions. These are requisites indicated by practical, experimental work and observations extending over several years. The successful production of large southern pecans in far northern climates can hardly be looked for except under the most favorable conditions of soil, location and season. There seems no good reason for planting southern pecans in the far North, except in an experimental way; for there are northern varieties now being propagated that are the equal of most of the standard southern sorts in quality and very little below them in size. They will prove to be as large or larger in the North than the southern varieties grown in the same locality, and much more apt to bear regularly. The method used in propagating the hardy types is important. Budding and root-grafting each has its advocates among pecan growers in the South, and this would indicate that there is no great difference between the trees propagated by these two methods when they are planted in that section. But based on results with several hundred specimens, root-grafted pecan trees are not desirable for planting in northern climates. During the past six years there have been grown in nursery, in the eastern part of Virginia, near Petersburg, about 2,000 root-grafted trees of eight southern varieties of pecans and one Virginia variety, including Stuart, Van Deman, Moneymaker, and Mantura. All these trees are worthless. None of them, though they have been cared for, has ever been considered by the grower fit to dig and transplant. Most of these trees suffer winter injury each year, many of them being killed back to the graft union. Those that do not die below the ground grow out the following summer, only to be killed back again the next winter or spring. Those damaged only a part of the way down the trunks, even when not badly injured, do not recover promptly. Several hundred budded trees grown during the same period in adjoining rows have been entirely free from any winter injury. The grafts and buds were inserted on stocks from northern and southern nuts. A thousand budded and root-grafted trees received from six southern nurserymen were planted in orchards in the same locality. A very large percentage of the root-grafted trees died; only a small percentage of the budded trees died. Many of the root-grafted trees that survived are making poor growth; most of the budded trees are strong and vigorous. The only trees of the Virginia varieties ever reported winter-killed were root-grafts. No root-grafts of the northern types on northern stocks have been made in Virginia, but root-grafts of Indiana varieties on southern stocks transplanted there winter-kill badly. Several Indiana trees root-grafted on southern stocks and in their second year's growth in the nursery winter-killed in Florida last season. Not a single budded Indiana tree in Virginia suffered any winter injury whatever, although the buds were grown on southern as well as on northern stocks. All the root-grafted Indiana trees transplanted at Petersburg during the past two years have died from winter injury. Northern types root-grafted on northern stocks not having been tested, no definite information can be given, of course; but with all southern varieties winter-killing in the North, when root-grafted on either northern or southern stocks, and the Virginia variety winter-killing when root-grafted on southern or northern stocks, and the Indiana varieties winter-killing both in the North and in the South when root-grafted on southern stocks, it seems reasonable to presume that the northern varieties root-grafted on northern stocks will also winter-kill. The stocks of the root-grafted trees are seldom injured. They send up sprouts except in cases where the graft union is so far beneath the surface of the soil that after the grafted part is killed the stock is too deep to grow out. Not a single tree out of a total of 40,000 seedlings in Virginia grown from northern nuts planted during a period of six years has ever been found affected by winter injury; practically all the trees out of 50,000 or more grown in the same locality from southern nuts, planted during the same years had their tops affected by winter injury the first, and most of them the second season of their growth; but no injury after the second season has been noted. With the view of making southern varieties better adapted to planting in northern area, experiments have been made in propagating them on stocks from northern nuts. This stock has thus far proved unsatisfactory for southern varieties either budded or root grafted. The trees from northern nuts go dormant earlier in the fall and remain dormant later in the spring than trees from southern nuts. Northern trees in the nursery rows in early spring, in a perfectly dormant condition, are in striking contrast with the southern trees and their fresh, green foliage. Though the growing period in the North is nearly a fourth shorter for the northern than for the southern varieties, the native trees in the North make equal growth with the southern trees there during the same season. Northern varieties budded on northern stocks grown at Petersburg the past summer made nearly as much growth during one season as root-grafted trees of the same varieties on southern stocks grown in Florida two seasons. The trees at Petersburg were from dormant buds set the previous fall. They were just starting into growth in May when the trees in Florida had made a growth of six to twelve inches. The northern seedlings in the North make better growth in a season than the northern seedlings in the South, as far as has been observed. When the growing period begins in the northern climate, the native trees respond at once to the quick growing season and outgrow the trees that have been accustomed to a slower growing climate. When their growing period is over, they begin promptly their preparation for the winter. The long, slow growing climate of the South does not seem to give the quick growing tree of the North an opportunity for its greatest growth at the important period. There appears to be too much difference between the growing habits of the southern and the northern pecans for either to be suitable stock upon which to grow the other. Two choice trees of Moneymaker and one of Stuart, all well grown and giving every promise of success, were selected out of a large number of these varieties budded on northern stocks, and were transplanted in orchard two years ago for experiment. The Moneymaker trees have made little growth and the Stuart tree practically none. All have an unhealthy appearance and are left standing only for further experiments. The section of Virginia in which these experiments have been made affords very severe climatic tests. The temperature in winter sometimes goes below zero, the temperature in spring is variable, changing suddenly from warm to freezing. Pecan trees seem able to endure almost any degree of cold when they are in a thoroughly dormant condition. The winter-killing from which they often suffer in the South, as well as in the North, is due to the effect of sudden freezing temperatures following warm periods in winter or spring. Only well grown, vigorous pecan trees should be planted in the North. It is a waste of time and money to plant indifferent pecan trees in any locality, and especially in a locality where they have to contend with severe climatic conditions. The size of the tree is less important than its root system and vigor. The purchasers of trees grown on thin, sandy soil, with the root systems consisting almost entirely of straight tap roots, destitute of laterals, need not expect success. Most of these trees will die early, and many of those that live will linger on for several seasons without making much growth, tiring out the patience of the planter. The work of transplanting should be very carefully done and the trees given proper care and culture. It has been found that it costs more to grow pecan nursery trees in the North than in the South, but it is believed that planters in the North will find that these trees have a value which will far offset their additional cost. Some of the methods of propagation and care are slightly different in the North from those that usually obtain in the South. But it is not practicable to go into the details connected with this work. The facts that have been mentioned are those that are believed to be of most importance for consideration by persons planting pecan trees in the North. Those who have gone thus far with the work upon which the conclusions are based are continuing as earnestly as they began. The outlook for the success of the pecan industry in northern territory is exceedingly promising where hardy, early-maturing varieties are properly grown in nursery on hardy stocks under climatic conditions that will best fit them for the locality in which they are to be planted. President Morris: We can give some time to the discussion of Mr. Roper's paper. I want to ask if some of the hardy kinds which will stand the winters well may not carry their ripening season so late that they do not properly mature! Isn't this a line of observation we have got to follow out in adapting pecans to northern fields? Who has had experience? Mr. Littlepage: That is a very important point, and it is one of the things that everyone is going to discover who is engaged in northern pecan planting on the extreme limits within the next few years. There isn't much danger of the pecan getting frost-bitten in the spring as some imagine, because the pecan tree seems to be a pretty good weather prophet. They don't get ready, as a rule, till most of the danger is past. A great majority of the Persian walnuts and pecans don't begin to pollenate till the tenth of May, and it is very rare that a tree doesn't ripen its nuts there. But once in a while we discover a tree that sets a bountiful crop annually and never matures a nut, because it gets frost bitten. It simply doesn't have the length of growing season. Mr. Rush: I remember a pecan tree I received, and have had growing for the last six years in Pennsylvania. It was never affected with the cold, and made luxurious growth. But I haven't been so fortunate as to get it to bear, although it throws out catkins in the spring. President Morris: The pecan tree is known to be hardy as far north as Boston. There are quite a good many near New York City, some of them fine, trees, but not bearing much, and for the most part small nuts. Mr. Rush: Mr. Jones of Jeanerette, Louisiana, has been at my place, and he says that the growth of the pecan is just as luxuriant there as in Louisiana. President Morris: The point we want to bring out is this, and I think we ought to emphasize it at this meeting--that pecans suitable for northern planting must include the idea of an early ripening season, earlier than the ripening season of southern pecans. Mr. Rush: Sometimes there is a provision in nature for that. The tree will adapt itself to the climate, and give a smaller nut. President Morris: What has been your experience, Mr. Roper? Mr. Roper: We have only fruited Stuart at Petersburg. All the nuts have been well filled, but much smaller than the Stuart farther south. Mr. Pomeroy: Mr. Littlepage made the remark yesterday that nature will attend to this largely for us. He spoke of the wood beginning to ripen the middle of August. With us in Niagara County, we expect that with all trees the wood will begin ripening about the first of August, preparing for the winter. Persian walnut doesn't come into blossom till about the last of May or the first of June. President Morris: It is not mainly a matter of ripening wood, but of ripening nuts, in pecan growing in the North. A good many nuts will remain green, even though the tree will grow well; and we must have nurserymen draw our attention to this difference, when they are sending trees out to us for northern planting. That is a thing that may not be determined right now, but nurserymen must be able to report upon comparative ripening times of various kinds of pecans to be sent north. We will have the report of the Committee on Nominations. [The report was accepted and the nominees elected.] President Morris: We have with us Professor Herrick, who will present his paper on the subject of the scolytus beetle. Professor Herrick has prepared his paper at our request since we came here. THE SCOLYTUS BEETLE. PROF. A. W. HERRICK, ITHACA, N. Y. With a residence of a little over a decade in the South, I became more or less intimately connected with a good many of the nut growers of the section, especially the pecan growers. I found them there an intelligent body of men. The President has asked me to talk just a little on the hickory bark borer. While in Mississippi, I first came into contact with the hickory bark borer by its work on the hickories on the lawn in front of my house and on the Campus. It began killing the trees. I had ten or a dozen trees on the lawn that were from six to eight inches through, and they had made a fine growth but they began suddenly to die. First, I noticed the leaves falling in the summer time, then later in the winter the branches began to die at the top. On investigation, I found that it was this little hickory bark borer. We carried out, as a result of that investigation, a few experiments, and extended them over the Campus, following the recommendations of Doctor Hopkins of the Department of Agriculture, Washington. The results were pretty gratifying. I was able to save those trees on the lawn, and during three or four years succeeding the time we got these experiments into practice, no more had died, and they had kept on making a good growth; and I believe the ravages of the beetle had been checked. The little beetle belongs to a family called the _Scolytidae_--very small beetles that burrow through the bark of trees, and between the bark and the wood, partly in the bark and partly in the wood. These beetles are interesting in their life history. The female bores through the bark, and then she builds a channel partly in the wood and partly in the bark. She goes along and digs out little niches all along, and in each one of these, deposits a tiny white egg. That soon hatches into the small grub, and the grub begins to burrow out to get his food, and you will find these little burrows running out from the main burrow of the mother beetle. When these grubs reach their growth, each one of them comes out and bores a little shot-hole-like round hole through the bark, so that a tree that is pestered with it will finally have the bark full of these little round holes. You have probably seen a similar thing in peach, plum, and cherry trees. The hickory bark borer is found all over the eastern United States, from Canada to the Gulf, and as far west as Nebraska. It attacks hickory trees and walnut trees, and as far as I can find, the authorities say probably the pecan. I never found it on the pecan in the South. If it does ever come to attack it in any numbers, it will be a serious pest from the nut grower's point of view. In this state, it was first noticed by its work on hickory trees in the vicinity of New York City, and it is killing a good many of them. To show its dangerousness--on the estate of Mr. Wadsworth at Geneseo in 1900 and 1901 over an area of two hundred acres, it destroyed ninety to ninety-five per cent of the hickories. It really becomes a most injurious pest. These little fellows running under the bark cut off the cambium layer and girdle it, and kill the tree as effectually as if we were to take an axe and girdle it. A few can girdle it very quickly. An infested tree in the summer shows some characteristic effects. The leaves begin to dry and wither, and finally drop. The adult beetles, when they come out in June and July, attack the petioles, leaves, and terminal buds for food, then go down to the larger branches and trunks, and burrow to lay their eggs. The younger top branches begin to die. If you look, you will very often find a little white sawdust in cracks in the bark. That is an indication that they are present. If you take off the bark, you will find such an appearance as I have shown you. Later, you will find these holes all over, showing the work of the beetle. I will give the life history of the insect very briefly. The insects live over the winter under the bark, as grubs, and in the spring they change to the pupa form, and come out along in June and July. Some may be as late as August. Those beetles go to the branches and leaves, and soon begin laying their eggs. There is only one brood a season, in this locality at least. In a longer season, farther south, there might be more than one, although my experience in Mississippi was that there was only one brood. A word regarding methods of control. You can readily see that there is no way of getting at the beetle with insecticides after they have gotten under the bark. Doctor Pelt mentions the value of spraying the trees in summer to kill adults when they are feeding on the petioles and probably the terminal buds and younger twigs. It is rather doubtful whether it would pay to spray hickory trees at that time, although the expense of spraying large trees is not so great as you might think. We have had experiences here, because it fell to my lot to spray all the elm trees on the Campus last year. I kept very careful account of this. We sprayed between five and six hundred trees. About one hundred are scattered over the hillsides west of the buildings, some a mile from the water supply. We did the work for about eighty-eight cents apiece, each tree having a thorough spray. The largest trees on each side of the street we gave two sprayings for a little less than forty cents apiece. The real method of getting at this hickory bark borer is for everybody to cooperate and cut those trees out, or at least the affected parts of the tree, before the first of May. I know of no other effective method of getting them. Cut them out and burn them. Some say, peel off the bark and destroy that; but if you do that, you have got to cut off the smallest branches and burn those, and I am afraid you would not get all of the grubs. But it is better, if you can, to actually dispose of the whole tree in some way. There were three trees on the lawn infested and dying. I cut those out in February, and that evidently stopped the ravages of the beetle. That was carried on over the whole Campus, and it must have stopped the injuries, because during the three or four years I was there after that, we had no dead hickories from that cause. That is evidently the only method of getting at them. It has been wondered if we might not go to the Commissioner of Agriculture, and ask him to take this matter in hand and force people to cooperate, because it has become a rather serious problem. It is evident from a perusal of the law that he has power to do that, and perhaps if this Nut Growers' Association wishes to pass resolutions to bring before Commissioner Pearson, they might induce him to take some steps to control this hickory bark borer. President Morris: If we have evidence that the hickory bark borer can destroy ninety per cent of the hickory trees on an estate so well cared for as the Wadsworth estate, it indicates a menace to the whole hickory forests of the North. In view of this fact, in view of the possibility of ninety per cent of our hickory trees being destroyed by this beetle, it seems to me that we should ask our Commissioner of Agriculture to take charge of the matter, as he has taken charge of the chestnut bark disease, requiring the cooperation of the people in disposing of a question which is so vital among the economic problems of our state. Is there any discussion on this paper? Doctor Deming: I would like to read an extract from a letter addressed to me by H. W. Merkel, Forester of the Bronx Zoological Park: "Under Chapter 798 of the laws of the state of New York, passed on July 26th, 1911, the Commissioner of Agriculture is authorized and charged with preventing the spread of just such pests as the Hickory bark-borer, and if this matter be called to his attention promptly and in the right way by such responsible and interested parties as the Northern Nut Growers' Association, there is, undoubtedly, still time to check the further spread of the pest. We have from now until June (the time when a new generation of beetles will emerge) to take whatever action is necessary, and I urge upon you to persuade the Nut Growers' Association to take the necessary steps. I would be glad to have a conference with you on this matter, and will be glad to help you in any way you wish." I would suggest the appointment of a committee to draw up a strong set of resolutions to be sent to the Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of New York and perhaps of other states, and to the Department of Agriculture. (Referred to Executive Committee for report.) President Morris: We will have next in order the paper by Professor Lake on the Persian walnut in California. THE PERSIAN WALNUT IN CALIFORNIA. ABSTRACT OF A LECTURE BY PROFESSOR E. R. LAKE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Persian walnut industry of the United States is confined, practically, to four counties in Southern California, Santa Barbara, Ventura, Los Angeles and Orange. The territory covered is, in a general way, fifty by one hundred and fifty miles in extent, though, of course, only a very small part of this area is planted, and that really the best land in the territory. This industry which yields practically two and one-half millions of dollars annually to the growers is about thirty-five years old, and at present involves the consideration of one variety, the Santa Barbara Softshell. While it is true that there are about seventy-five named varieties now grown in the country, the Santa Barbara constitutes the commercial crop and will for some time to come, though effort is being made to find a more desirable variety. During the past ten years a troublesome pest in the form of a fungous disease which attacks the young twigs and young nuts has awakened an interest in other varieties and at present much work is being done with a view to finding one or more varieties that shall be fully resistant to this foe. At present the University of California, which is the directive factor in this investigation, is recommending the trial of half a dozen of the more promising varieties or forms that have been developed through selection, or chance, in the local orchards. As a result of the effect of this trouble, the crop output has increased very slightly during the past decade, though the area of planted trees has increased very much, hence it is very apparent that some other varieties must be found; for it has been quite conclusively proven that none of the means so effectively used against the fungous troubles that affect other orchard crops are of any avail in this case. When it is noted that there has been practically no advance in the improvement of varieties since the origin of the Franquette and Mayette about one hundred and fifty years ago, except the accidental appearance of the Santa Barbara which was produced presumably from a nut from Chili (!) in 1868 on the grounds of Joseph Sexton, Goleta, California, it is evident that our nuciculturists have been indifferent, especially as to the possibilities of extending the area of production. Speaking more particularly of California walnut growing, it may be said: The best of soils are selected for this crop; the trees are being planted from forty to fifty feet apart; the best and most common advice is to plant budded or grafted trees, and so far as this advice has been followed the Placentia, an improved Santa Barbara, has been used, though in the newer districts where efforts are being made, with apparent success, to develop this industry, several other varieties are being used, such as the Wiltz, Franquette, Mayette, Eureka, Chase, Prolific, Meylan, Concord, Treyve and Parisienne. Thus far this work is experimental, and only time will determine the success and value of it. The crop, as with all orchard crops on the Pacific Coast, is cultivated intensively, clean tillage being given, followed by cover crops and in some cases fertilizers accompanied with intercrops. The trees require very little pruning, and though formerly the heads were started high, they are now formed low and the primary branches trained to ascend obliquely, thus facilitating tillage operations, and, in this respect, even improving upon the high head with spreading or even drooping main branches. While the more progressive planters favor trees one year from the bud, which have been put upon two year old stock, some still prefer two year old tops. Stocks are preferably California black, northern form. This is a large and vigorous tree, while the southern form is often or perhaps better, usually, a large shrub or small tree. The remarkable behavior of the Vrooman orchard at Santa Rosa, in which there are sixty acres of grafted Franquettes, has been the chief means of stimulating the very extensive plantings that have been made during the past five or six years in the Pacific Northwest. This is the largest orchard of grafted nuts of a single type variety in the United States and is a most excellent example of what follows grafting. The nuts are exceedingly uniform, and large size. They are marketed in the natural color and are especially attractive, particularly when of a reddish-golden tinge. The trees begin to bear at five or six years, though many instances are recorded where two year olds have borne a few nuts. Usually only a few pounds per year are produced prior to twelve years, after that the yield increases rapidly until at sixteen years the trees will average approximately fifty pounds or more per tree under favorable soil, tillage, and climatic conditions, providing the trees are of selected varieties of good bearing qualities. One tree, known as the Payne tree, top worked on to a native black, has a record of yielding as much as seven hundred and twelve pounds in one season, though it is not fair to use these figures in estimating the yield per acre of seventeen trees. While the walnut has received little attention in the Eastern United States, there are sufficient data at hand now to warrant the statement that several meritorious varieties may be successfully grown in favorable localities. These nuts, though not rated as high as the best imported nuts or the choice California product, would successfully compete with the foreign nuts which are now rated as replacement nuts by the dealers in California's best grade. It is not safe to endorse the view that any waste or abandoned land may be converted into successful walnut orchards, though such lands may in due time produce trees that will bear nuts. A first-class walnut orchard can only be produced upon first-class land, deep, fertile soil, a low water table, an open subsoil, with choice varieties, grafted upon the most suitable stock and then given first-class tree-care. Professor Lake: I think a man now is making a tremendous mistake who thinks for a moment of advising the planting of seedling walnuts. We are bound to meet the problem of grafted fruit right away. The success in grafting in Washington this year has been such as to make us feel certain that we may safely advise budding yearling stocks and expecting a return of from seventy to ninety per cent of successful sets. Stocks giving best success in budding are California black. About two weeks after the budding is done, the tops are cut off two inches above, and allowed to bend over and protect the buds; and in the West, where they have intense sunlight, they have found it necessary to cover the buds with paper sacks. The budding which has given the largest success is hinge budding, a kind that I haven't seen discussed generally in the East. Instead of being a T at one end, it is a T at both ends. There is a horizontal cut across, another below, and a split between. The buds are taken preferably from the last year's wood. We attempt to take the wood away from the bud, with the exception of that little spongy part that runs up into the bud, and is the core. Mr. Pomeroy: You speak of the hulling. Do they have to hull the Persian walnuts? Professor Lake: In many instances, especially in dry seasons, or in those sections where water is not particularly abundant. Ordinarily, hulling is avoided by irrigating just preceding the time of falling. Frequently the growers of large acreages say that it is cheaper to run them all through the huller. Mr. Littlepage: What would you prophesy about the average seedling Persian walnut tree as to success and quality of nut? Professor Lake: I was led to think that all that was necessary to do was to plant the walnuts, because most of our authorities of twenty years ago said the walnut would come true to seed. I think out of several hundred trees planted throughout the state, and many we planted ourselves, not a seedling came true. I should think, normally, we should be very much dissatisfied in ten years from planting seedlings. As soon as anyone buds these with Franquette, Parisienne, Concord, Rush, Pomeroy, and others, I am satisfied he will not want to chance it with seedlings. Mr. Littlepage: This dissatisfaction that may result from setting seedling walnuts, such as Rush, Nebo, Pomeroy, and others, would be just as great, perhaps, as the dissatisfaction resulting in the West, would it not? Professor Lake: I can't see any reason, but that if there are present any of the native trees, they are bound to cross-fertilize. In California we have the Royal hybrid produced at over a mile and a half distance from any known American blacks. The Royal is a cross between the American black and the California black. Mr. Littlepage: I don't suppose it would be reasonable to expect that there is a Persian walnut in the northern or eastern United States far enough from some native black to render it safe. Professor Lake: I should hardly think so. Even if it is, I question whether a nut of real merit will come true to seed. President Morris: Is it true that even from single type orchards the nuts, while coming fairly true to seed, would give trees widely different in bearing propensities? Professor Lake: That is very true in this Vrooman orchard that has been developed to the very best possible advantage. There are trees that haven't borne a nut to make them worth while, others have been remarkably vigorous. From these, a few people, knowing of their real merits, are propagating select strains for their own use. They have fifteen or sixteen years' record. I question, if you take a hundred Franquettes from the Vrooman orchard miscellaneously, whether you would get more than ten per cent that would be really as good as the Vrooman. President Morris: In California I went along the coast this summer from Los Angeles to Oregon and Washington, and looked over orchards. I find that in the West, as in the East, the tendency is for the Persian walnut to store up an undue amount of starch in the kernel. It is apt also to store up an undue proportion of tannin, and to be insipid. That means that in this country we must develop our own type of walnut, and it is quite the exception to find among any Persian walnuts growing on the Atlantic Coast or the Pacific Coast or in the middle of the country walnuts that are free from this tendency to astringency, to insipidity, and to toughness. When I was on the Pacific Coast looking over specimens in one agricultural collection, a young woman who was showing the collection said, "And here is a lot of Franquettes, and Chabertes, and Mayettes, and Parisiennes that we imported; and do you know, we found our walnuts very much better than those?" I said to her, "Don't deceive yourself in this matter. This self-deception is a mistake. The thing to do is not to make that kind of a decision, but really to develop in our own country walnuts just as good as those, but not like them." This was exemplified in a group of walnut raisers. One would say, "Here is a fine walnut that I raised." The other would say, "Yes, that looks pretty good, but you have got to hire a good talker to sell it." Another would say, "Isn't this a fine thin shelled nut?" And the same thing would be said. Now, the whole conversation of that meeting was to the effect that "you have got to have a good talker to sell it." Those people send their good talkers all over the country, and they do sell the walnuts; and it is going to kill the walnut market, unless this is stopped. Those points are ones upon which I would like to have an expression of opinion from Mr. Lake. Professor Lake: I may say that the western knowledge of the walnut is based very largely upon the character of the Santa Barbara Softshell, and the people in the West are fully satisfied that the Pacific Coast walnuts are the best in the world. I am thoroughly of their belief, too. I agree thoroughly with the doctrine that we have got to improve our own varieties, and that is being done in the best way that we know at present,--by cross-fertilizing and growing the seedlings. A number have been developed the past few years. It is very true that the general public's taste, however, is not up yet to the connoisseur's in this matter, and I am satisfied that the ordinary grade of walnut is going to meet the public demand for a long time yet. The Santa Barbara Softshell will sell to the American public for good profitable prices for some time, and in the meantime, the men who are really wideawake and have a knowledge of the situation are going to endeavor to improve the home strains. I can't see that we can hope for very much from France, for during the last two years the real Mayette of France has been imported, because we have trees bearing in Santa Clara Valley a Mayette as near like the Mayette of Europe as it is possible to make them. The French have not been particularly anxious for us to get their best strains. President Morris: In this connection, let me say I have seen Mayette, Chaberte, Parisienne,--the best European walnuts--growing in this country, and in this country they do precisely like the best European grapes,--that is, they give us a different product. Imported grafted stock will take from our soil those elements which make an astringent, tough, insipid nut. We have got to recognize it. Don't let us fail to go on record as calling attention to that fact. That means if we import the very best European kinds and plant these, we are going to have the same records as with grapes. Professor Lake: This matter of quality is of considerable moment to the growers out there. Last year I took occasion to write five of the leading dealers in New York, like Parke and Tilford. They said in their letters of reply, "We consider the quality as varying from season to season. Some seasons we get the California product better than the European product; other seasons it is just the other way." It leads me to think seasonal variation has a great deal to do with the walnut, possibly. In some cases even the large dealers are not yet agreed that the American product is not yet good enough for the American market. President Morris: Shall we say that nuts for the connoisseur should not be bleached? Professor Lake: Modern bleaching consists in running the nuts through a current of salt. It is applied in such a way that it does not do any injury whatever to the flavor or the kernel, unless possibly salting the kernel in cracked nuts would be considered injurious. The bleaching is beautiful. They are not over bleached. They use six pounds of salt to a thousand gallons of water, and run a current of ninety-five volts. It is sprayed on to the nuts as they pass through a revolving cylinder, the spray coming on in a fine mist. As they pass over the cylinder, they are graded and ventilated, and put into sacks. That is after they have been dried. They are ready in about twenty-two hours to be sacked and delivered. The old method of processing in soda and lime and sulphur certainly did injure them. Mr. Pomeroy: I am just a short distance from Niagara Falls and Buffalo. When any of you are in that section, I would like to have you come and see my trees. There are the seven year old trees my father started, and the orchard is of five or six acres. Some of the seedlings are in bearing now. I have a good many black walnuts in nursery rows, and I am going to begin grafting and budding. One thing I came for was to get information in regard to budding and grafting. In regard to the caring for the trees, it is a great pleasure to watch a tree grow and get it in shape. Professor Craig: It seems to me that out of the very interesting discussion we have had on this question of the Persian walnut, and out of the discussion which has arisen from the papers of Mr. Littlepage and others on native nuts, we have obtained some very general principles which should be emphasized at this time. The one large principle that I want to call attention to is the principle which says that, in order to develop fruits--and we will include nuts in that general group--which shall be useful to the American public, we shall have to develop them under American soil and atmospheric conditions. In other words, the importation _per se_ of European stock of whatever kind is altogether likely to meet with failure. This is the history of American fruit growing from the beginning. The very first beginning of fruit culture in this country was the importation of European fruits, and these uniformly failed. Success came when American colonists began to grow American seedlings. The fact that these have prevailed is shown by the percentage of American fruits the large orchardist produces at the present time. Today nearly ninety-nine per cent of our apples are of American origin. The condition of today means success; the condition of a hundred years ago meant failure. In this Persian walnut business, I think success is going to come to us through such work as Mr. Pomeroy and other interested amateurs are doing throughout the country, in selecting a good type of seedling here and there and growing seedlings from it. This homely old method of producing new types through seedling selection is, I think, going to do a great deal to ameliorate conditions the country over. I simply wanted to impress that idea, that if we nut growers are going to do something to help the nut interests of the country, we can do it by planting nuts and selecting nuts from the best types, again taking the best nuts from the best types and planting them; thus by keeping on selecting, we shall win success in the future. IS THERE A FUTURE FOR _JUGLANS REGIA_ AND _HICORIA PECAN_ IN NEW YORK AND NEW ENGLAND? JOHN CRAIG, ITHACA, N. Y. [Read by title.] It is common knowledge that there have been frequent instances of the successful fruitage of Persian walnuts throughout the entire Northeast. The evidence is forthcoming in attractive samples of nuts. Specimens have been received during the past two years from New England, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and the lake region of New York, as well as the Hudson River section. So far as I am aware, however, _Hicoria pecan_ has not fruited to any extent further north and east than southern Indiana. Is it not remarkable that so little effort has been made to extend the natural range of this superb native nut northward? The fruiting habits of _Juglans regia_ may be regarded as fickle, depending in some cases upon pollination, in others upon climatic conditions at the blooming time. One of its defects is its decided proterandrous habit, which seriously affects pollination and fruit setting. In general, the Persian walnut is capable of cultivation in all safe peach growing sections. Yet in the Gulf States the complaint is made that it is too readily susceptible to stimulating influences of warm weather in the spring. Again, the roots in that section are affected by fungi and insects. Notwithstanding these charges, there should be a future in the North, as well as in the South, for this fine nut. It is hardly to be expected that success is to be attained in all sections of the country by using exclusively the material, by this I mean the strains and races, we have at the present time. For instance, in the South the root trouble is peculiar to that section, and it is probable that the root difficulties spoken of may be overcome by using native stocks in grafting and budding. The blooming habits, however, can only be modified by the relatively slow process of breeding. In the North, nature has already provided us with foundation material for the improvement of _Juglans regia_. We have many promising varieties that have appeared more or less fortuitously here and there over the country. It is conceded that all of these do not possess the full range of desirable qualities, but they are sufficiently attractive certainly to challenge the best efforts of the plant breeder. We are encouraged too by such experiences as has come to us in the crossing of regia with allied species. A number of crosses of _regia_ and _nigra_ are recorded from the Pacific Coast. Burbank, Payne, and others have made notable progress in this line. It is a question, however, whether this line offers as certain reward as breeding in narrower lines, using the best individuals of _Juglans regia_ which have come to us more or less by chance. The latter appears to me as the best field to operate. Among the requirements in the Northeast, it may be said that we need hardiness of tree, coupled with a determinate habit of blooming, more than any other characteristics. Of course it goes without saying that we need thin shells, well filled with palatable meat. The work of Messrs. Pomeroy of Lockport, N. Y., J. G. Rush of West Willow, Pa., and other individuals in the Northeast is worthy of all encouragement. Wherever Persian walnuts are producing good nuts here in the Northeast, the best specimens of the best individual trees should be planted in the strong hope of improving the strain. There should be a first rate promise of success in this field, for many of our walnuts are fruiting as individual trees, standing alone and isolated, and therefore, are probably self-fertilized, a circumstance which may assist in shortening the process of improvement by breeding. _Hicoria Pecan._ This is undoubtedly the best of all the native nuts, and the most worth while improving. The great popularity which this form of hickory enjoys in the South is undoubtedly due in considerable measure to the fact that it is adapted to a considerable range of territory. This adaptation is the natural acquirement of many years' evolution. At this time of the year, one sees in fruiterers' shops in New York and other cities appetizing looking baskets, containing cracked shagbarks and pecans. These nuts are enjoying a large share of popularity at the hands of the consumers. As these two forms are exhibited together, the observer may note the essential good qualities of each, and he may make a mental picture of the possibilities of a union which would eliminate the undesirable features and combine the desirable. The lack of hardiness of the pecan would be strengthened by the hardy northern form, while the breeder would aim to retain the excellent flavors of each, the good qualities of meat, but enclosed by a covering of paper shell texture. We want the hardiness and adaptability of the shellbark, combined with the thin shell, the excellent cracking qualities, and the pleasant flavors of the pecan. Here is a truly attractive field. The fact that returns may be rather slow in maturing should not deter the plant breeder, for sometimes prizes come quickly. Of course the field is one which appeals more strongly to the institution of indefinite life tenure than to the individual whose years of activity are relatively brief. What nature has done in the way of extending the range of the pecan northward has been clearly set forth in the excellent paper presented by Mr. Littlepage. This indigenous movement from the natural zone of the pecan towards the North and East has undoubtedly been infinitely slow. The important fact has been established, however, that not only has nature extended the natural range in the directions indicated, but Mr. Littlepage has shown that here and there a variety of exceptional merit has appeared, fortuitously and without assistance or guidance from man. These superior varieties are being placed under observation by interested nut enthusiasts like Messrs. Littlepage, Niblack, and McCoy, and others, who are not only studying the nut in its native haunts, but are experimenting with methods of propagation so that we may confidently look forward to a stable supply of these natural selections in the years near at hand. Here, then, we have the material for founding new races of northern nuts by combining them with our best hardy hickories. Who will gainsay the prophecy that not far distant is the day when we may expect new hybrid strains of great economical importance arising from the union of our northern hickories with the most northerly forms of the pecan? Shall we designate these hybrids as "shellcans," "shagcans," or "hickcans," after the nomenclatural methods of present day plant breeders? The splendid work of our President in the interbreeding of northern types of nuts gives us strong hope to expect results of this nature. In the matter of propagation we have learned certain essential fundamentals. First and most important is the firmly established fact that southern, pecan stocks are unsafe and generally unreliable in the region of the northern hickory. We must grow our own stocks from northern nuts. We must propagate by using home grown material exclusively, and as to methods of propagation, it is probable that we can follow in general the practice of the southern nurseryman, but unquestionably modifications in procedure will arise out of the sum of our experience which will tend each year to bring a larger measure of success. This Association will perform an invaluable service in collecting these various experiences, winnowing the sound from the unsound, and disseminating safe deductions and reliable principles to the rapidly increasing band of nut culturists throughout the region of its activities. Our second session has been an unqualified success. May this meeting be surpassed in respect to enthusiasm manifested, experience and knowledge disseminated, by each of the annual conferences to be held in the years to come. President Morris: Discussion as to the next place of meeting is in order. Mr. Rush: I would certainly be very glad to entertain the Northern Nut Growers' Association at Lancaster City, Pennsylvania, and will assure you in advance that I will give you the best hospitality that the country can afford. We have now associated with the walnut interests in Lancaster County Mr. Jones of Jeanerette, Louisiana, who has been through that section and is pleased with the work that is being done there. I think it may be policy for the Association to meet there. We can have our night session, and be absent several hours in the morning and look over some of the work. Mr. Jones contemplates topgrafting hickory trees at his new home, and we can have the opportunity of seeing with what success he meets. The Association voted to accept Mr. Rush's invitation. President Morris: We will hear the report of the Committee on Resolutions. RESOLUTIONS PASSED BY THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, December 15, 1911. (Read by Reed.) Be It Resolved: That the Northern Nut Growers' Association assembled does hereby express its sincere thanks to the President and Faculty of Cornell University for placing at its disposal the facilities for holding its convention at this time. That special thanks be extended to Dean L. H. Bailey of the College of Agriculture for the invitation to meet at this place and to Prof. John Craig for his many courtesies shown the Association and its individual members. That we hereby express our thanks to President Morris and Secretary Deming for their labor and untiring efforts to bring about a successful meeting. That we also tender our thanks to President Morris for the liberal premiums offered for nut exhibits and to the many who have responded. That special attention be called to "The Morris Collection of the Edible Nuts of the World," maintained at this place by Dr. Robt. T. Morris, President of this Association. This collection is of the greatest possible educational value to those interested in the study of nuts and nut products. That, in view of the distribution and rapid spread of the disease known as "Chestnut Blight," especially among the American species, we express our hearty approval of the efforts being made by the federal government, the several state departments and especially the action of the Pennsylvania State Legislature in appropriating the sum of $275,000.00 to aid in studying and combatting this dread disease, and That we urge the importance of continued efforts along these lines and similar action in all other states in which the chestnut species is of commercial importance, either for timber or nut purposes. That the Secretary be instructed to send a copy of these resolutions to Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C, and to Commissioner of Agriculture or Director of Experiment Stations of such states as within which, according to his judgment, the chestnut species may be of sufficient importance to justify such action. C. A. REED, T. P. LITTLEPAGE, GEO. C. SCHEMPP, JR., _Committee_. (Read by Littlepage.) That we thank Messrs. Collins, Reed, and Lake of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for attendance at this meeting and for their valuable information and assistance, and furthermore that we respect-fully invite them to attend the next annual meeting, and in the meantime lend the Executive Committee their assistance in making plans for next season's work and in carrying out the purposes of our organization. T. P. LITTLEPAGE, GEO. C. SCHEMPP, JR. The Association voted to adopt these resolutions. President Morris: We will adjourn, and the Committee on Competition will meet this afternoon for examination of specimens and decisions in regard to the respective values of the different specimens exhibited. APPENDIX MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. Those in attendance at the meeting were as follows: Dr. Robert T. Morris, New York City, President Mr. T. P. Littlepage, Washington, D. C, Vice-President Dr. W. C. Deming, Westchester, New York City, Secretary-Treasurer Prof. John Craig, Ithaca, N. Y., Chairman of the Executive Committee Mr. C. A. Reed of the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Special Agent Field Investigations in Pomology Mr. J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pa. Prof. J. Franklin Collins, Forest Pathologist, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture Prof. E. R. Lake, Assistant Pomologist, U. S Dept, of Agriculture. Col. C. A. Van Duzee, St. Paul, Minn., and Viking, Fla. Mrs. W. C. Deming, Redding, Conn. Mr. W. N. Roper, Petersburg, Va, Editor American Fruit & Nut Journal Mr. Leonard Barron, Editor Country Life in America, Garden City, L. I. Mr. A. C. Pomeroy, Lockport, N. Y. Professors Crosby, de Garmo, Tuck, Herrick, Drew, of the University. Mr. J. A. Holmes, Ithaca, N. Y. Mr. Geo. S. Tarbell, Ithaca, N. Y. Mr. G. C. Schempp, Jr., Albany, Ga. Mr. H. Brown and Mr. S. V. Wilcox, representing Thos. Meehan & Sons, Germantown, Pa. Mr. F. M. Rites, Slaterville Springs, N. Y. Students of the University and others. The thanks of the association are due Professor Craig for his contribution to the purposes of the convention of the services of his private stenographer which made possible a complete record of all the proceedings and discussions. The success of the meeting is largely due to the thorough preparation made by Professor Craig. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EXHIBITS. By Department of Horticulture, New York State College of Agriculture. A collection of the walnuts of commerce, comprising 35 varieties, shown with a specimen of each in section. A collection of 28 varieties of filberts. A collection of 35 varieties of pecans. The Morris collection of edible nuts of the world. This includes not only the nuts of the North, but the fullest collection of the nuts of the tropics that has ever been brought together. By J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pennsylvania. Two plates of black walnuts; one plate showing hybridity between Persian walnut and butternut; one plate Paragon chestnuts; one plate especially large American sweet chestnuts. By A. C. Pomeroy, Lockport, New York. Four plates of walnuts, showing variation of seedlings; grown on trees varying from six to eight years old. By W. N. Roper, Petersburg, Virginia. One plate Mantura pecans. By T. P. Littlepage, Washington, D. C. An exhibit of eighteen varieties of seedling pecans, grown in the Wabash region of Indiana and Kentucky. These seedlings represent very promising varieties, some of them being exceedingly thin shelled, most of them well filled and symmetrical in form. Of these, five have been named, to wit: Greenriver, Warwick, Hodge, Hoosier, and Major. Mr. Littlepage exhibits a plate of _Juglans regia_ and a fine sample of _Juglans nigra_. PRIZE NUTS. Announcement by the President. In the interest of science and of American horticulture the Northern Nut Growers Association is making an effort to find nut trees of various kinds which produce superior nuts which can be used for propagation. Prizes for special lots of nuts are offered. Each lot of nuts sent for prize competition is to consist of twelve nuts from one tree, and the location of the tree is to be well marked, so that no mistake can be made later if cuttings are to be purchased from the owner or finder of the tree. Nuts are to be sent by mail in a box or bag containing a card with the name and address of the sender plainly written. At the same time a letter is to be written separately, describing the tree in a general way, and giving the name of the town in which it grows. Packages of nuts and descriptive letters are to be addressed to PROFESSOR JOHN CRAIG, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. and all specimens must be sent by November 15, 1911. In former years it has happened that several people from the same town have sent nuts from the same tree. Under these circumstances, if the nuts take a prize, the prize must be given according to the date of the first specimens sent. In addition to the prizes given, valuable varieties receive the name of the person sending them, and this goes on record permanently. The sender of these nuts will often have opportunity to sell cuttings from the tree later at the common rate of five cents per foot. Prizes are offered for the following nuts: 1st prize is to be two dollars, 2nd prize is to be one dollar, and the amount of postage will be returned for all lots of nuts sent which do not receive prizes. SHAGBARK OR SCALY BARK HICKORY (_Hicoria Ovata_). Class A. Large thin shelled nuts. Class B. Very small thin shelled nuts. SHELLBARK HICKORY, KING NUT, BIG BUD HICKORY (_H. laciniosa_). Size is particularly desired with this species, but thinness of shell counts high. PECAN (_H. pecan_). Pecans sent for competition must be native nuts from New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana and Ohio only, as these nuts are desired for northern horticulture. OTHER HICKORIES. Sometimes a tree of various other kinds of hickories will produce a very desirable nut; consequently first and second prizes are offered for any hickory nut not belonging to the above three kinds. BLACK WALNUT (_Juglans nigra_). Thin shelled black walnuts of good quality are desired. BUTTERNUT, WHITE WALNUT (_Juglans cinerea_). Size and thinness of shell are most important. PERSIAN WALNUT, ENGLISH WALNUT (_Juglans regia_). American grown varieties the only ones receiving prizes. ASIATIC WALNUTS (_Juglans cordiformis_, _J. Sieboldi_, _J. Sibirica_). American grown varieties the only ones receiving prizes. BEECHNUT. Size stands first for prize qualifications for Beechnuts. AMERICAN HAZELS. Thinness of shell and size are most important. CHINQUAPIN (_Castanea pumila_). Size is the most important qualification for this species. CHESTNUTS. On account of the rapid spread of the chestnut blight no other kinds of chestnut besides Chinquapins are desired at present. FREAK NUTS. Remarkable freaks of any species of edible nuts may win prizes. For instance, a black Walnut with meat growing in only one half of each shell. R. T. MORRIS, New York City, President Northern Nut Growers Association. PRIZES AWARDED IN THE RESULTING COMPETITION. 1. _Hicoria ovata_ Plate II, first prize: Plate I, second prize: Exhibited by Theron E. Platt, Newtown, Conn. 2. _Hicoria pecan_ Mantura, first prize: W. N. Roper, Petersburg. Va. Major, second prize: T. P. Littlepage, Union Trust Building, Washington, D. C. 3. _Hicoria laciniosa_ First and second prizes: C. N. Stem, Sabillasville, Md. 4. _Persian walnut_ Nebo, first prize: J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pa. Holden, second prize: E. B. Holden, Hilton, N. Y. 5. _Asiatic walnut_ Juglans Sieboldiana, first prize: J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pa. 6. _Chinquapin_ No. 2, first prize: J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pa No. 1, second prize: J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pa. 7. _Freak nuts_ Hickory No. 4, first prize: Lillie E. Johnson, Gowanda, N. Y. 8. _Butternuts_ First prize: Mrs. Albina Simonds, South Royalton, Vt. 9. _Beechnuts_ First prize: Malcolm Newell, West Wardsboro, Vt. Second prize: William Davis, Rutland, Vt. 10. _Black walnuts_ First prize: J. J. Robinson, Lamont, Mich. Second prize: Dorothy McGrew, R.F.D. 6, Box 77, Kent, O. The prizes awarded in this competition were contributed personally by the President. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF JUGLANS MANDSHURICA AND THE SHELLBARK HICKORIES. The following are the questions sent by the secretary and the answers received: As there seems to be a difference of opinion as to the identity of 'Juglans mandshurica' will you be so kind as to answer the following questions for the benefit of the Northern Nut Growers' Association at their annual meeting at Ithaca, New York, Dec. 14 and 15, 1911. Q. 1 What type of nut do you consider the "Juglans mandshurica" to be? J. H. Black, Hightstown, N. J.: Probably a Juglans Regia Manchuria. T. E Steele, Palmyra, N. J.: No resemblance to Persian walnut but very similar to butternut, a little longer and thicker than butternut and of little better quality. Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, Cal.: Nigra, or the connecting link between butternut, eastern black walnut and a trace of Sieboldi especially in foliage. H. E. Van Deman, Washington, D. C.: It is almost identical with J. Sieboldiana. J. M. Thorburn & Co., 33 Barclay St., N. Y. City.: Our idea of the type is that it resembles very closely in size, form and color of the shell the English walnut or Juglans regia, though the shell is thicker and the quality of the kernel has not the pleasant flavor of the Juglans regia. Q 2 Does it resemble the Persian walnut or the butternut? J. S. Black: Persian. T. E. Steele: (See Q. 1). Luther Burbank: (Does it resemble the Persian walnut--) _No._ (--or the butternut?) Very much in nut but less elongated and not pointed. _Very_ thick shell. H. E. Van Deman: Not similar to either of them. J. M. Thorburn & Co.: (See Q. 1). Q. 3 Is it a nut of commercial or other value? J. S. Black: Yes. T. E. Steele: I hardly think it a nut of commercial value as the shell is too thick. I should not consider it much better than the butternut. Luther Burbank: Hardly unless improved. Meat sweet like butternut. Juglans Sieboldi var. Cordiformis is the very best of this type, thin shell, _very_ sweet meats. Both these nuts vary _very_ widely in form. H. E. Van Deman: Only of value as a shade tree or as a stock from which to make crosses. J. M Thorburn and Co.: As far as we know it has no commercial value here. We sell it only for seed purposes. Q. 4 How was it introduced into this country? J. S. Black: By Yokohama Nursery Co. of New York City. T. E. Steele: I do not know. Luther Burbank: Some twenty years ago both by myself and the Arnold Herbarium of Newtown, Mass. H. E. Van Deman: By nuts from Manchuria, I have always understood. J. M. Thorburn & Co.: We cannot tell. We purchase direct from Japan. Q. 5 What are the characteristics of the tree? J. S. Black: Very similar but hardier than Persian. T. E. Steele: Very similar in growth to that of the Japan walnut, not unlike the butternut. In fact many call them butternuts, but Mr. Van Deman was quite sure they were the Mandshurica when he picked one from the tree I have in mind. Luther Burbank: Much like Sieboldi. Van Deman: Very thrifty and luxuriant with large leaves and large growth. Bark light colored. J. M. Thorburn & Co.: It is a broad-headed tree growing about 60 feet high. Q. 6 Have you raised them yourself or can you say who has? J. S. Black: We have raised trees but not the nuts. T. E. Steele: I have never raised them and know of no one who has. Luther Burbank: Young trees. My one tree is more spready than other walnuts, and so far though old does not bear. Van Deman: No, I have not grown the trees. Think John or Wm. Parry of Parry, N. J., have them. I have J. Cordiformis. J. M. Thorburn & Co: We have never raised them ourselves. Q. 7 Can you send samples or say where they can be obtained? J. S. Black: We can furnish trees. Get nuts from Yokohama Nursery Co., New York City. T. E. Steele: I know of but one tree near here, and I am mailing you one nut that I gathered a year or two ago, too long ago to be of any value except to show the character of the nut. If I can procure another nut or two of this year's growth I will do so and mail to you. Luther Burbank: Have no samples but enclose usual form. From half shell. (Drawings of this, of the surface character of the nut, and of "size and form of a common sieboldi.") H. E. Van Deman: Perhaps from the Parrys. No replies were received from R. E. Smith, of the California Agricultural Experiment Station, Whittier; from Jackson Dawson, of the Arnold Arboretum; or from the Yokohama Nursery Co., 31 Barclay St., N. Y. City. Summary of Dr. Morris's investigations as given by him on p. 12: The nut described in the U. S. bulletin as _Juglans mandshurica_ is the one originally described and named by Maxim more than thirty years ago and is a nut of the butternut type. A few years ago the Yokohama Nursery Co., not knowing that this name had been previously applied, gave it to a nut of the _Juglans regia_ type which they distributed. This nut had been previously named by De Candolle, _Juglans regia sinensis_. NOMENCLATURE OF THE SHELLBARK HICKORIES. The names "shellbark," "shagbark" and "scalybark" are at present used interchangeably by authors for different species of the hickory. It is advised that the Association take an arbitrary stand on the nomenclature and state our choice of the name "shagbark" for _Hicoria ovata_, "shellbark" for _Hicoria laciniosa_ and "scalybark" for _Hicoria Carolinae-septentrionalis_. This should become a matter of official record and eventually clear up the confusion. THE HICKORY BARK BORER. In Country Life in America for October 15, 1911, there appeared an article entitled "Warning!--The Hickory Bark Borer is With Us" by Hermann W. Merkel, Forester of the New York Zoological Gardens. The following circular was issued by E. F. Felt, New York State Entomologist, under date of Oct. 31, 1911. DYING HICKORY TREES. Numerous magnificent hickories have been killed by the pernicious hickory bark borer in the vicinity of New York city. It has destroyed thousands of trees in the central part of the State, while recent investigations show that it is at work in the Hudson valley near Tivoli and probably is injurious in numerous other places. The severe droughts of the last two or three years have undoubtedly been favorable to the development of this pest, since the vitality of many trees has been lowered and they have thus been rendered more susceptible to attack by insect enemies. The preliminary signs of injury, such as wilting leaves and dead twigs in mid-summer are exceedingly important because they indicate serious trouble before it has passed the remedial stage. Examination of injured trees at the present time may show particles of brown or white sawdust in the crevices of the bark, and in the case of some a few to many circular holes appearing as though they had been made by number 8 buckshot. This external evidence should be supplemented by cutting down to the sapwood. The exposure there of the longitudinal galleries 1 to 1-1/2 inches long, about 1/8 of an inch in diameter and with numerous fine, transverse galleries arising therefrom and gradually spreading out somewhat fan-shaped, is conclusive evidence as to the identity of this pest. Only a little experience is necessary before one can recognize the work of this borer. The insect passes the winter in oval cells as stout, whitish, brown-headed grubs about 1/4 of an inch long, the beetles appearing from the last of June to the last of July. Badly injured trees are beyond hope and should be cut some time during the winter and the bark burned before the beetles can emerge; otherwise many will mature and attack other trees next spring. It is particularly important to locate the trees which have died wholly or in part the past summer, because they contain grubs likely to mature and then be the source of trouble another year. General cooperation in the cutting out of infested trees and burning of the bark as indicated above will do much to check this enemy of our hickories. E. P. PELT. State Entomologist. The following "Press Notice" was issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture under date of Nov. 15, 1911:-- THE DYING HICKORY TREES,--CAUSE AND REMEDY. Within the past ten years a large percentage of the hickory trees have died in various sections throughout the northern tier of States from Wisconsin to Vermont and southward through the Atlantic States to central Georgia and to a greater or less extent within the entire range of natural growth of the various species. CAUSE. While there are several and sometimes complicated causes of the death of the trees, investigations by experts of the Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, have revealed the fact that the hickory barkbeetle is by far the most destructive insect enemy and is therefore, in the majority of cases, the primary cause of the dying of the trees. HOW TO RECOGNIZE THE WORK OF THE BEETLE. The first evidence of the presence and work of the beetle is the premature dying or falling of a few of the leaves in July and August caused by the adult or parent beetles feeding on the bark at the base of the leaf stem, but this work alone does not kill the trees. The next evidence of its destructive work is the dying of part of a tree or all of one or more trees. If the trees are dying from the attack of the beetle, an examination of the inner bark and surface of the wood on the main trunks will reveal curious centipede-like burrows in the bark and grooved on the surface of the wood. These are galleries and burrows of the parent beetles and of their broods of young grubs or larvae. The girdling effect of these galleries is the real cause of the death of the trees. HABITS OF THE BEETLES. The broods of the beetle pass the winter in the bark of the trees that die during the preceding summer and fall. During the warm days of March and April these overwintered broods complete their development to the adult winged form, which during May and June emerge through small round holes in the bark and fly to the living trees. They then attack the twigs to feed on the base of the leaves and tender bark and concentrate in the bark of the trunks and large branches of some of the living healthy trees and bore through the bark to excavate their short vertical egg galleries. The eggs are deposited along the sides of these galleries and the larvae hatching from them excavate the radiating food burrows which serve to girdle the tree or branch. The following recommendations for the successful control of this beetle are based on investigations, experiments and demonstrations conducted by the experts on forest insects of the Bureau of Entomology during the past 10 years. RECOMMENDATIONS. 1. The best time to conduct the control work is between October 1st and May 1st, but must be completed before the 1st to middle of May in order to destroy the broods of the beetle before they begin to emerge. 2. The hickory trees within an area of several square miles that died during the summer and fall and those of which part or all of the tops or large branches died should be located and marked with white paint or otherwise. 3. Fell the marked dead trees and cut out all dead branches or the tops of the remaining marked trees which still have sufficient life to make a new growth of branches. 4. Dispose of all infested trunks and branches in such a manner as to kill the overwintering broods of the beetles in the bark; (a) by utilizing the wood for commercial products and burning the refuse; or (b) utilizing the wood of the trunks and branches for fuel; or (c) by placing the logs in water and burning the branches and tops; or (d) by removing the infected bark from the trunks or logs and burning it with the branches or as fuel. 5. So far as combating the beetle is concerned it is unnecessary and a waste of time to dispose of trees or branches which have been dead 12 months or more, because the broods of the destructive beetle are not to be found in such trees. 6. Spraying the tops or branches or the application of any substance as a preventive is not to be recommended. Nothing will save a tree after the main trunk is attacked by large numbers of this beetle or after the bark and foliage begin to die. 7. The injuries to the twigs by this beetle do not require treatment. 8. The bark and wood of dying and dead trees are almost invariably infested with many kinds of bark and wood-boring insects which can do no harm to living trees. Therefore all efforts should be concentrated on the disposal of the broods of the hickory barkbeetle, according to the above recommendations. In order to insure the protection of the remaining living trees it is very important that at least a large majority of the dead infested and partially dead infested trees found within an entire community of several square miles be disposed of within a single season to kill the broods of this beetle. Therefore there should be concerted action by all owners of hickory trees. On account of the value of the hickory for shade and nuts and for many commercial wood products it is important that the people of a community, county or state who are in any manner interested in the protection of this class of trees, should give encouragement and support to any concerted or cooperative effort on the part of the owners towards the proper control of the hickory bark beetle. The following is an extract from a letter from Dr. Felt to Mr. Merkel: "Replying to yours of the 11th inst. I would state that Chapter 798 of the Laws of 1911, a copy of which is enclosed herewith, is, in my estimation, sufficiently comprehensive to include such an insect as the hickory bark borer." "It is certainly extremely unfortunate that trees past hope and infested by thousands of insects liable to destroy those in the vicinity, should be left standing through the winter and the pests allowed to mature and continue their nefarious work, especially as they could be checked at a comparatively slight expense and by the adoption of measures which ultimately must be carried out unless the trees are allowed to decay in the field. I am much interested in the matter." The following are extracts from a letter from Dr. Felt to the Secretary, under date of Nov. 21, 1911: "Your of the 19th is at hand and it gives me pleasure to enclose herewith a copy of a circular summarizing the hickory bark beetle situation in this State and suggesting the prompt adoption of remedial measures. This pest, as you are doubtless aware, is very injurious and has been responsible for the destruction of thousands of hickories, not only in the Hudson valley but also during recent years in the central part of the State. Only a few weeks ago we found a rather bad infestation in the vicinity of Tivoli. You are doubtless familiar with my article on this pest, published in Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees, N. Y. State Museum Memoir 8, Volume I, pages 275-79." At the annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, held December 14th and 15th, 1911, at the New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, the following resolutions were adopted: "Be it resolved that, in view of the distribution and rapid spread of the disease known as the "Chestnut Blight," especially among the American species, we express our hearty approval of the efforts being made by the federal government, the several state departments, and especially the action of the Pennsylvania state legislature in appropriating the sum of $275,000 to aid in studying and combating this dread disease; and That we urge the importance of continued efforts along these lines, and similar action in all other states in which the chestnut species is of commercial importance, either for timber or nut purposes. That the secretary be instructed to send a copy of these resolutions to the Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, at Washington, D. C. and to the Commissioner of Agriculture or the Director of Experiment Stations of the states within which, according to his judgment, the chestnut species may be of sufficient importance to justify such action. Attention is called especially to Farmers' Bulletin No. 467, "The Control of the Chestnut Bark Disease," Issued Oct. 25th, 1911, by the U. S. Dept, of Agriculture. And be it further resolved that, in view of the depredations in various parts of the country by the "Hickory Bark Beetle," to which attention has been called by a press notice of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, by a circular issued by Dr. E. P Pelt, Entomologist of the State of New York, by an article entitled "Warning;--The Hickory Bark Borer is with Us," by Herman W. Merkel, Forester of the New York Zoological Park, published in Country Life in America, Oct. 15th, 1911, and by an address before the annual meeting of this association by Prof. Herrick of the New York State College of Agriculture; and In view of the presence of this destructive insect throughout the eastern states, and as far south and west as Mississippi and Nebraska; and In view of the presumption that its introduction into the pecan area of the United States would be a calamity; and In view further of the fact that it has been demonstrated that prompt action in the destruction of infested trees will prevent further spread of this pest, and that it is of the utmost importance that such action should be taken before the emergence of a new brood of this beetle in the spring of the year; The Secretary be instructed to present these resolutions to the Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, and to the Commissioners of Agriculture of New York and other states where the hickory bark beetle is a menace, urging immediate and energetic measures against the spread of this dangerous pest which in many localities threatens the hickory tree with serious destruction." Jan. 31, 1912. LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY TO HON. CALVIN J. HUSON. The Honorable Calvin J. Huson, Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, New York. Sir:-- I have the honor to transmit herewith the resolutions passed by the Northern Nut Growers' Association at its annual meeting held at the New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York, Dec. 14th and 15th, 1911. In connection with these resolutions I wish to recall to your attention the fact that by the Laws of New York, Chap 798, entitled "AN ACT to amend the agricultural law, in relation to fungous growths and infectious and contagious diseases affecting trees," which became a law July 26th, 1911, the Commissioner of Agriculture is given full power to deal summarily with these and other pests. The testimony of all those fully acquainted with the facts concerning the "chestnut bark disease," and the "hickory bark borer" is unanimously to the effect that they have done such an amount of damage, and threaten such continued destruction, as to demand that every effort be made to check their ravages, and that even large expense will be inconsiderable in comparison with the enormous loss that will be inflicted if these most destructive pests are not checked. Attention has been called in the resolutions to the action of the state of Pennsylvania in appropriating the sum of $275,000 for taking action in the case of the chestnut bark disease. Since the passage of these resolutions it is reported that the Governor of the state of Pennsylvania has called a conference to be held at Harrisburg, February 21st and 22nd, for the purpose of considering further action to be taken in the case of this disease. It might be well that your office should be represented at this conference in order that the united action of the states may be brought about and that our state may not continue to lag behind in a matter so seriously affecting so many of its inhabitants. Detailed information concerning both these diseases is contained in the literature to which reference is made in the resolutions. May I ask if you will kindly inform me what action, if any, has been taken by the Commissioner of Agriculture, or other department of the state government, for the study or the control of either of the diseases referred to. REPLY FROM THE COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. Feb. 7, 1912. I have your communication of the 1st inst., duly received and containing the resolutions passed by the Northern Nut Growers Association at its meeting in Ithaca on the 14th and 15th of December last. Chapter 798 of the Laws of 1911 constitute Sections 304 and 305 of the Agricultural Law, under which this Department has been working for several years for the control of such insects as are distributable by nursery stock, and for the preventing of the establishment in the state of dangerously injurious insect pests and fungous diseases. If the Department were to attempt to control the hickory bark borer, it would require a character of work quite different from anything that we have undertaken for the reason that this insect would not likely be distributed in nursery stock. It is an insect that is not only a native of the country but is quite widely distributed over the state and is one that is given to irregular periodic outbreaks. Of late its depredations have shown seriously in the vicinity of New York along the Hudson Valley and at numerous places in the state. The pest is not amenable to such treatment as can be used against many other deleterious insects. I am informed that the only way now known to control the insect is to first locate it and then destroy all trees or parts of trees in which the grubs are found before the middle of June. It appears to me that to attempt the suppression of the hickory bark borer, it would require a very large force of men and, of course, considerable money. Relative to the chestnut bark disease, we had a conference at this office in the month of October last and the question was discussed by botanists and foresters from adjoining states and the whole matter was thoroughly thrashed out by those who were present, including representatives of the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington. Invitations have been received from the Governor of Pennsylvania to a conference to be held at Harrisburg on February 20th and 21st and I have directed a representative of this Department to be present. Mr. C. H. Pettis, Superintendent of Forests of the State Conservation Commission, joined in our conference here and I learn that someone will be sent from that Commission to Harrisburg. We have in the hickory bark borer and the chestnut bark disease, two very serious propositions, the importance of which I fully appreciate. It is not clear to me what methods should or can be adopted which will be productive of the greatest good. Any suggestions that your Association make will be highly appreciated. As soon as I learn of the result of the conclusions at the Harrisburg meeting, I shall be pleased to take the subject up again. Very truly yours, CALVIN J. HUSON, Commissioner. LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY TO COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE. March 16th, 1912. Hon. Calvin J. Huson, Commissioner of Agriculture, Albany, New York. Dear Sir:-- Your letter of February 7th in reply to mine of an earlier date in relation to the hickory bark beetle has been too long unanswered owing to a rush of professional and other work. I regret this delay as I would like to do all that I can to expedite the work which should be done as soon as possible to prevent further damage from this insect. If I am not mistaken Chapter 798 of the laws of 1911 is a new law under which the Department has not previously worked and which states specifically that "no person shall knowingly or willfully keep any plants or vines affected or infected with--or other insect pest or fungous disease dangerously injurious to or destructive of the trees, shrubs or other plants; every such tree, shrub, plant or vine shall be a public nuisance, etc." It also states that if the Commissioner of Agriculture is notified of the presence of any such pests he shall take such action as the law provides, and the law provides for the destruction or treatment of diseased trees. This law appears to be not confined in its application to nursery stock, and in this view I am supported by such men as Dr. E. P. Felt, State Entomologist, and Forester Merkel of the New York Zoological Park. It appears that the Commissioner of Agriculture not only has the right but it is his duty to take action under this law when his attention is called to a matter such as the one in question. The methods of procedure under this law seem to be sufficiently clear. Wherever infected trees are known to exist the Commissioner is directed to order the owners thereof to destroy them. Failure to obey these orders constitutes a misdemeanor and the Commissioner may have his orders carried out by his own agents. I am glad that you fully appreciate the serious nature of this pest which threatens great destruction of one of our most valuable timber and nut trees and I hope that no obstacle will be allowed to stand in the way of the enforcement of the full intent of the law. This Association will aid such work in any way in its power. I would like to call to your attention a report in the Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1903, page 317, of the successful treatment of an outbreak of this pest at Detroit, Michigan. Also to an address to be published in the transactions of this Association, a copy of which I will send you, by Prof. Herrick in which he recounts the successful treatment of another outbreak. April 3, 1912. W. C. Deming, M. D., Sec., Northern Nut Growers' Association, Westchester, New York City. Dear Sir:-- I am in receipt of your communication of the 16th of March, and have considered carefully the question of what can be done towards the control of the hickory bark beetle. As this is a species which at irregular intervals becomes abundant and capable of doing considerable local damage, yet I am inclined to think that so far as the Department of Agriculture can exercise any control, the hickory bark beetle should be classed among such pests as in a way have like habits of injury, such for instance as the apple tent caterpillar, forest tent caterpillar, green maple worm, fruit tree bark beetle, pine bark beetle, and other thoroughly established native and introduced species, all of which exert injuries at irregular intervals and then disappear. The hickory bark beetle suggests one of the problems which is difficult to handle, and it does not seem that much can be accomplished in a practical way by starting an agitation on the subject. The entomologist of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, says that the insect is common around Geneva, and nearly every season an occasional tree succumbs to its work. He further says that he believes that hickory trees have some time in the past suffered from either a severe winter or drought, and that the shot-hole borer is attacking the weakened trees. Owing to wide distribution, I do not see how I can direct a campaign against this particular insect at this time for the lack of funds. The appropriations at my disposal under Sections 304-305 of the Agricultural Law, are scarcely adequate for the large amount of work which has already been started, and which, owing to its nature, must be kept up and finished each season. It is my opinion that general publicity would result in accomplishing much, if individual owners were informed how necessary it is to seek out and destroy the dead trees before the 1st of June, in order to prevent the insects attacking healthy trees adjoining. The habits of these insects are thoroughly known and their life histories have been worked out by our entomologists, and very definite information can be given for the control of the hickory bark borer. Very truly yours, CALVIN J. HUSON, Commissioner. RESOLUTIONS PASSED AT THE CONFERENCE CALLED BY THE GOVERNOR OF PENNSYLVANIA AT HARRISBURG FEB. 20 AND 21 FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF THE MEASURES TO BE TAKEN TO CONTROL THE CHESTNUT-TREE BARK DISEASE: WHEREAS this Conference recognizes the great importance of the chestnut tree as one of our most valuable timber assets, having an estimated value of not less than $400,000,000, and WHEREAS a most virulent fungous disease has made its appearance in wide sections of the chestnut timber region, and already many millions of dollars of damage has been sustained, and the total extinction of the chestnut tree is threatened by the rapid spread of this disease, and WHEREAS we recognize the importance of prompt action. THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED: That the thanks of this Conference are tendered to Governor Tener for calling it, and for the courtesies he has shown That we appreciate the interest of the President of the United States as evidenced by his communication to Governor Tener, showing as it does, that the head of the National Government is not unmindful of the great danger presented by the Chestnut Blight problem. That the Commission appointed by the Governor of Pennsylvania be commended for the earnestness and diligence they have shown in the conduct of their work. That we urge the National Government, the States and the Dominion of Canada to follow the example of Pennsylvania, which is analogous to that of Massachusetts in starting the fight against the gypsey moth, and appropriate an amount sufficient to enable their proper authorities to cope with the disease where practicable. That we favor the bill now before Congress appropriating $80,000 for the use of the U. S. Department of Agriculture in Chestnut Bark Disease work, and urge all States to use every means possible to aid in having this bill become a law at the earliest moment. That we believe trained and experienced men should be employed in field and laboratory to study the diseases in all its phases. That we believe definite boundaries should be established where advisable in each State beyond which limits an endeavor should be made to stamp out the disease. That we believe an efficient and strong quarantine should be maintained and that it should be the earnest effort of every state, the Federal Government and the Dominion of Canada to prevent the spread of the disease within and beyond their borders. In accord with this thought we strongly commend the efforts being made to pass the Simmons bill now before Congress. That we believe strong efforts should be made in all States to stimulate the utilization of chestnut products, and in order to do so, we recommend that the Interstate Commerce Commission permit railroads and other transportation companies to name low freight rates so that chestnut products not liable to spread the disease may be properly distributed. That we recommend the National Government, each State and the Dominion of Canada to publish practical, concise and well illustrated bulletins for educating owners of chestnut trees. That we believe further meetings on the line of this Conference advisable and we hope the Pennsylvania Commission will arrange for similar meetings. That we thank the State of Pennsylvania for its intention to publish immediately the proceedings of this Conference. That copies of these resolutions be forwarded to the President of the United States, to the Governor of every State, to the Governor General of the Dominion of Canada, and the members of the Federal and State legislatures, with the request that they do all in their power to aid in checking the ravages of this dread disease. * * * * * WHITE'S BUDDING TOOL (PATENTED APRIL 1905) PECANS, HICKORIES, CHESTNUTS WALNUTS, PERSIMMONS And all other trees $2.75 DELIVERED _A Scientific Instrument for the Propagation of the Pecan and other Trees by the Annular, Semi-annular, Patch and Veneer Methods._ FOR SALE BY HERBERT C. WHITE DE WITT, GA. * * * * * Grafted and Budded Pecans and Catalpa Speciosa The Ohio Valley Forest Nurseries of Lake, Indiana, is engaged in growing forest tree seedlings of all kinds, but make a specialty of Catalpa Speciosa seeds and seedlings that are true to name. We are also engaged in the propagation of trees from the best varieties of Northern Pecans found in the states of Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky. Our supply of budded and grafted Pecan trees is limited at this time, but we hope to be able to fill all orders by fall of 1912. If interested in Pecan trees that will grow and bear nuts in the North, write us for further information and prices. R. L. McCoy, Proprietor; Lake, Spencer Co., Indiana * * * * * Hardy Pecan and Walnut Trees We grow hardy varieties of Pecans and Persian (English) Walnuts under northern conditions for northern planting. Varieties of Pecans introduced by us won all the premiums offered on Pecans in the Morris Competition, at the December convention of Northern Nut Growers, Cornell University, 1911. We are the pioneers in the growing of hardy pecan trees. You get the benefit of our wide experience extending over several years when you plant "Arrowfield" trees. Our Persian (English) Walnut trees are of hardy northern types, budded on black walnut stocks. We shall have some unusually fine specimens for next season Let us book your order, select some fine trees for you and bring them to prime condition for delivery at such date as you may designate. Write for our booklet "Nut Trees". It contains information that will interest you. ARROWFIELD NURSERIES Box N, Petersburg, Va. * * * * * Get a Copy The American Fruit and Nut Journal, of Petersburg, Va., is a bi-monthly publication covering every phase of the Nut Industry from the Festek of Greece and Assyria to the Chestnut, Almond, Walnut and Pecan of America. It is ably edited, fully illustrated and handsomely printed. If you want full, accurate, reliable information pertaining to every phase of Nut Growing--varieties, cultures, insects, harvesting, selling--If you want a practical paper that interests, inspires and informs, read this Journal. _Subscription price, one year, one dollar; three years, two dollars. Write now for a sample copy._ American Fruit and Nut Journal PETERSBURG VIRGINIA * * * * * NUT TREES Why not plant NUT TREES about the home and combine profit with ornament and shade. You may not need the revenue, but you will certainly enjoy the nuts, if you plant Jones' budded and grafted trees. Nurseries at Jeanerette, La., and Willow Street, Pa. J. F. JONES The Nut Tree Specialist Willow Street, Pa. 
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22587	----	Northern Nut Growers Association _INCORPORATED_ Affiliated with The American Horticultural Society Thirty-fourth Annual Report 1943 CONTENTS Officers and committees 3 State Vice-Presidents 4 List of members 5 Constitution 18 By-Laws 19 Foreword--W. C. Deming 20 Report of the Secretary for 1942-43 20 Report of the Treasurer for 1942-43 21 The Status of Nut Growing in 1943. Survey Report 22 John Davidson, Chairman of Committee. Side-lights on the 1943-44 Survey 47 Seasonal Zone Map of United States 51 Juglone: The active Agent in Walnut Toxicity--George A. Gries 52 Possible Black Walnut Toxicity on Tomato and Cabbage--Otto Reinking 56 Preliminary Studies on Catkin Forcing and Pollen Storage of Corylus and Juglans--L. G. Cox 58 Storage and Germination of Nuts of Several Species of Juglans--W. C. Muenscher and Babette I. Brown 61 A Key to Some Seedlings of Walnuts (Juglans)--W. C. Muenscher and Babette I. Brown 62 Further Tests with Black Walnut Varieties--L. H. MacDaniels and J. E. Wilde 64 Shelling Black Walnuts--G. J. Korn 83 Better Butternuts, Please--S. H. Graham 85 The Use of Fertilizer in a Walnut Orchard--L. K. Hostetter 88 Lime and Fertilizers for our Black Walnut Trees--Seward Berhow 89 The Propagation of Black Walnuts through Budding--Sterling Smith 89 Northern Nut Growing--Joseph Gerardi 91 Nut Puttering in an Off Year--W. C. Deming 94 Nut Nursery Notes--H. F. Stoke 96 Report from the Tennessee Valley--Thomas G. Zarger 98 Report from Minnesota--Carl Weschcke 99 Be Thrifty with Nut Trees--Carl Weschcke 104 Report of Season 1943--George Hebden Corsan 105 American Walnut Manufacturers Association Carries out Industrial Forestry Program--W. C. Finley 106 The Crath Carpathian Walnut in Illinois--A. S. Colby 107 Ohio Nut Growers' Meeting--G. J. Korn 110 Walnut and Heartnut Varieties; Notes and Remarks--J. U. Gellatly 112 Letters 116 Experiment Station Investigates Tree Believed to be the Oldest Chestnut in Connecticut 120 Report of Committee of Ohio Nut Growers--A. A. Bungart 122 Dr. John Harvey Kellogg--Obituary 126 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President_--CARL WESCHCKE, 96 SOUTH WABASHA ST., ST. PAUL, MINN. _Vice-President_--DR. L. H. MACDANIELS, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, N.Y. _Secretary_--GEORGE L. SLATE, EXPERIMENT STATION, GENEVA, N.Y. _Treasurer_--D. C. SNYDER, CENTER POINT, IOWA. _DIRECTORS_ THE OFFICERS--and J. F. WILKINSON, ROCKPORT, INDIANA, and DR. A. S. COLBY, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, URBANA, ILLINOIS. _COMMITTEES_ _Auditing_--DR. WILLIAM ROHRBACHER, CHAIRMAN. _Finance_--CARL F. WALKER, CHAIRMAN, ZENAS H. ELLIS, HARRY R. WEBER. _Press and Publication_--DR. W. C. DEMING, CHAIRMAN, MRS. ALAN BUCKWALTER, CLARENCE A. REED, GEORGE L. SLATE, DR. L. E. THEISS. _Varieties and Contest_--ALAN R. BUCKWALTER, CHAIRMAN, JOHN W. HERSHEY, C. A. REED, D. C. SNYDER, H. F. STOKE. _Survey_--JOHN DAVIDSON, CHAIRMAN. _Exhibits_--G. H. CORSAN, CHAIRMAN, GILBERT BECKER, PAUL C. CRATH, S. H. GRAHAM, HOMER L. JACOBS, G. J. KORN, O. C. LOUNSBERRY, SARGENT H. WELLMAN. _Program_--GILBERT BECKER, CHAIRMAN, JOHN BREGGER, SPENCER B. CHASE, DR. H. L. CRANE, G. J. KORN, J. W. MCKAY, CLARENCE REED, G. H. CORSAN, PROF. R. B. THOMSON, W. J. STRONG, DR. CONELLY, PROF. WHITE, PROF. DWIGHT. _Membership_--DR. J. RUSSELL SMITH, CHAIRMAN, L. V. KLINE, SPENCER B. CHASE, MISS MILDRED JONES, J. F. WILKINSON, MISS AMELIA RIEHL, H. F. STOKE, S. H. GRAHAM, D. C. SNYDER, CARL WESCHCKE, JOHN W. HERSHEY, GILBERT BECKER, HARRY R. WEBER. _DEAN OF THE ASSOCIATION_ DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, STAMFORD, CONNECTICUT. _FIELD SECRETARY_ ZENAS H. ELLIS, FAIRHAVEN, VERMONT. _EDITOR OF PUBLICATIONS_ DR. W. C. DEMING, LITCHFIELD, CONN. _OFFICIAL JOURNAL_ AMERICAN FRUIT GROWER, 1770 ONTARIO STREET, CLEVELAND, OHIO. State Vice Presidents Arkansas Prof. N. F. Drake Alberta, Canada A. L. Young British Columbia, Canada J. U. Gellatly California Will J. Thorpe Canal Zone L. C. Leighton Connecticut George D. Pratt, Jr. District of Columbia L. H. Mitchell Georgia Walter P. Pike Illinois Dr. A. S. Colby Indiana Hon. Hugh D. Wickens Iowa D. C. Snyder Kansas Frank E. Borst Kentucky E. C. Rice Maine Herman G. Perkins Maryland Dr. H. L. Crane Massachusetts Sargent H. Wellman Mexico Julio Grandjean Michigan Harry Burgart Minnesota Carl Weschcke Missouri Victor H. Schmidt Nebraska William Caha New Hampshire Prof. L. P. Latimer New Jersey A. R. Buckwalter New York Dr. L. H. MacDaniels North Carolina D. R. Dunstan Ohio Harry R. Weber Ontario, Canada Rev. Paul C. Crath Oregon C. E. Schuster Pennsylvania John Rick Quebec, Canada Dr. R. H. McKibben Rhode Island Phillip Allen South America Celedonio V. Pereda South Carolina John T. Bregger Tennessee L. V. Kline Texas Y. D. Carroll Vermont Zenas H. Ellis Virginia Dr. J. Russell Smith Washington Major H. B. Ferris West Virginia Dr. John E. Cannaday Wisconsin Marvin Dopkins Northern Nut Growers Association Members as of May 19, 1944 ALABAMA McDaniel, John, McDaniel Nursery Specialties Co., Hartselle Orr, Lovie, Penn-Orr-McDaniel Orchards, R. No. 1, Danville Richards, Paul N., R. No. 1, Box 308, Birmingham ARKANSAS *Drake, Prof. N. F., Fayetteville. Johnson, Searles, Japton Williams, Jerry F., R. No. 1, Viola CALIFORNIA Armstrong Nurseries, 408 No. Euclid Ave., Ontario Gray, G. A., 1507 11th St., Santa Monica Haig, Dr. Thomas R., 3344 H. St., Sacramento Kemple, W. H., 222 West Ralston St., Ontario Meyer, James R., Guayale Research Project, Box 1708, Salinas Parsons, Chas. E., Felix Gillet Nursery, Nevada City Thorpe, William J., 3203 Anna St., San Francisco Welby, Harry S., 500 Buchanan St., Taft CANADA Cook, C., 6226 Vine St., Vancouver, B. C. Corsan, George H., Echo Valley, Islington, Ontario Crath, Rev. Paul C., R. No. 2, Connington, Ontario Creed, Fred H., 276 Sandwich St. W., Windsor, Ontario Filman, O., Aldershot, Ontario Gellatly, J. U., Westbank, B. C. Giegerich, H. C., Con-Mine, Yellow Knife, N W T Housser, Levi, Beamsville, Ontario * Neilson, Mrs. Ellen, Box 852, Guelph, Ontario Papple, Elton E., R. No. 3, Gainesville, Ontario Porter, Gordon, Y.M.C.A., Windsor, Ontario Somers, Gordon L., 37 London St., Sherbrooke, Quebec Stephenson, Mrs. J. H., North Bend, B. C. Trayling, E. J., 509 Richards St., Vancouver, B. C. Troup, Alex, R. No. 1, Jordon Station, Ontario Wagner, A. S., Delhi, Ontario Wood, C. F., c/o Hobbs Glass Limited, 689 Notre Dame St., West Montreal, P. Q. Yates, J., 2150 E. 65th Ave., Vancouver, B. C. Young, A. L., Brooks, Alta. CANAL ZONE Leighton, L. C., Box 1452, Cristobal COLORADO Colt, W. A., Lyons Wilder, W. E., 915 West 4th, La Junta Williams, Erasmus W., P. O. Box 966, Durango CONNECTICUT Biology Department, Avon Old Farms, Avon Coote, Albert W., 1104 Farmington Ave., West Hartford. David, Alexander M., 480 So. Main St., West Hartford Dawley, Arthur E., R. No. 1, Norwich Deming, Dr. W. C., Litchfield Frueh, Alfred J., West Cornwall or (34 Perry St., N.Y., N.Y.) * Huntington, A. M., Stanerigg Farms, Bethel Jennings, Clyde, 30 West Main St., Waterbury Lehr, Frederick L., 45 Elihu St., Hamden Lobdell, Mrs. Frank C., 225 Verna Hill Rd., Fairfield Milde, Karl F., Town Farm Rd., Litchfield * Morris, Dr. Robert T., RFD., Stamford * Newmaker, Adolph, R. No. 1, Rockville Page, Donald T., Box 228, R. No. 1, Danielson Pratt, George D., Jr., Bridgewater Rourke, Robert U., R. 1, Pomfret Center, Conn. Senior, Sam P., R. No. 1, Bridgeport Walsh, James A., c/o Armstrong Rubber Co., West Haven White, Heath E., Box 630, Westport White, George E., R. No. 2, Andover DELAWARE Lake, Edward C., Sharpless Rd., Hockessin DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA American Potash Inst., Inc., Librarian, 1155 16th St., N. W., Washington Bush, Dr. Vannevar, 4901 Hillbrook Lane, Washington Littlepage, Thomas P., Union Trust Bldg., Washington Mitchell, Col. Lennard H., 2657 Woodley Rd. N. W., Washington FLORIDA Cook, Dr. Ernest A., c/o County Health Dept., Quincy McDaniel, J. C., Box 1111, Haines City GEORGIA Eidson, G. Clyde, 1700 Westwood Ave. S. W., Atlanta Hunter, H. Reid, 561 Lakeshore Dr. N. E., Atlanta Skyland Farms, S. C. Noland & C. H. Crawford, Prop., 161 Spring St. N. W., Atlanta IDAHO Dryden, Lynn, Peck Swayne, Samuel F., Orofino ILLINOIS Achenbach, W. N., 410 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago Adams, James S., R. 1, Hinsdale Allen, Theodore R., Delavan Anthony, A. B., R. No. 3, Sterling Baber, Adin, Kansas Best, R. B., Eldred Bolle, Dr. A. C., 324 E. State St., Jacksonville Bontz, Mrs. Lillian, 161 W. Mass. Ave., Peoria Bronson, Earl A., 800 Simpson St., Evanston Churchill, Woodford M., 4250 Drexel Blvd., Chicago Colby, Dr. Arthur S., University of Illinois, Urbana Colehour, Francis H., 411 Brown Bldg., Rockford Dintelman, L. F., Belleville Duis, J. G., Shattuc Edmunds, Mrs. Palmer D., La Hogue Frey, Mrs. Frank H., 2315 West 108th Place, Chicago Frey, Frank H., 2315 West 108th Place, Chicago Frierdich, Fred, 3907 W. Main St., Belleville Gerardi, Joseph, O'Fallon Gott, Lawrence E., P. O. Box No. 104, Enfield Gusler, Carl, 213 N. Taylor Ave., Oak Park Haeseler, L. M., 1959 W. Madison St., Chicago Helmle, Herman C., 123 N. Walnut St., Springfield Jungk, Adolph, 817 Washington Ave., Alton Kilner, F. R., c/o American Nurseryman, 508 So. Dearborn St., Chicago Kinsel, Dr. O. A., Box 53, Morrison Knobloch, Miss Margaret, Arthur Kreider, Ralph, Jr., Hammond Livermore, Ogden, 801 Forest Ave., Evanston Logan, George F., Dallas City Love, W. Wray, 601 E. Boone St., Salem Maxwell, Leroy O., 312 W. Avondale St., Champaign Oakes, Royal, Bluffs Peterson, Dr. Joel A., 602 University Ave., Urbana Powell, Charles A., Hickory St., Jerseyville Remaly, Howard A., 1120 E. Maple St., Kankakee Riehl, Miss Amelia, Evergreen Heights, Godfrey Trobaugh, Frank E., West Frankfort Valley Landscape Co., Box 688, Elgin Van Cleave, Bruce, 1049 Chatfield Rd., Winnetka Walantas, John, 3464 Lituanica Ave., Chicago Werner, Edward H., 282 Ridgeland Ave., Elmhurst Whitford, A. M., Farina INDIANA Behr, J. E., Laconia Boyer, Clyde C., Nabb Gentry, Herbert M., R. No. 2, Noblesville Minton, Charles F., R. No. 5, Huntington Morey, B. F., 453 S. 5th St., Clinton Olson, Albert L., 1230 Nuttman Ave., Fort Wayne Prell, Carl F., 803 West Colfax Ave., South Bend Skinner, Dr. Chas. H., Indiana University, Bloomington Sly, Donald R., R. No. 3, Rockport Tormohlen, Willard, 321 Cleveland St., Gary Wallick, Ford, R. No. 4, Peru Warren, E. L., New Richmond Wilkinson, J. F., Indiana Nut Nursery, Rockport IOWA Andrew, Dr. Earl V., Maquoketa Beeghly, Dale, Pierson Berhow, S., Berhow Nurseries, Huxley Boice, R. H., R. 1, Nashua Cerveny, Frank L., R. No. 4, Cedar Rapids Christensen, Everett G., Gilmore City Crumley, Joe F., 221 Park Rd., Iowa City Ferris, Wayne, Hampton Gardner, Clark, c/o Gardner Nurseries, Osage Harrison, L. E., Nashua Hill, Clarence S., Hilburn Stock Farm, Minburn Huen, E. F., Eldora Iowa State Horticultural Society, State House, Des Moines Kivell, Ivan E., R. No. 3, Greene Lehmann, F. W., Jr., 3220 John Lynde Rd., Des Moines Lounsberry, C. C., 209 Howard Ave., Ames Mahon, Milton, Blakesburg McLeran, Harold F., Mt. Pleasant Rohrbacher, Dr. Wm., 811 East College St., Iowa City Schlagenbusch Bros., R. No. 3, Ft. Madison Schlanbusch, Dr. O. E., 350 Magowan Ave., Iowa City Snyder, D. C., Center Point Steffen, R. F., Box 62, Sioux City Van Meter, W. L., Adel Wade, Miss Ida May, 1410 Avalon Ave., Waterloo Wingert, John O., Dallas Center Wood, Roy A., Castana KANSAS Borst, Frank E., 1704 Shawnee St., Leavenworth Boyd, Elmer, R. No. 1, Box 95, Oskaloosa Funk, M. D., 1501 N. Tyler St., Topeka Hofman, Rayburn, R. No. 5, Manhattan Leavenworth Nurseries, R. No. 3, Leavenworth Schroeder, Emmett H., 800 W. 17th, Hutchinson Wise, H. S., 579 W. Douglas Ave., Wichita KENTUCKY Alves, Robert H., c/o Nehi Bottling Co., Henderson Baughn, Cullie, R. No. 6, Box 1, Franklin Bureau of School Service, University of Kentucky, Lexington Cornett, Lester, Box 566, Lynch Gooch, Perry, R. No. 1, Oakville Moss, Dr. C. A., Williamsburg Rice, E. C., Absher Tatum, W. G., No. R. 4, Lebanon Watt, R. M., R. No. 1, Lexington Whittinghill, Lonnie M., Box 10, Love LOUISIANA Fullilove, J. Hill., Box 157, Shreveport Louisiana State University and A. & M. College, General Library, University MAINE Pike, Radcliffe B., Lubec MARYLAND Crane, Dr. H. L., Bureau of Plant Industry Station, Beltsville Gravatt, Dr. G. F., Forest Pathology, Plant Industry, USDA, Beltsville Hodgson, Wm. C., R. No. 1, White Hall Hoopes, Wilmer, Forest Hill Kemp, Homer S., Bountiful Ridge Nurseries, Princess Anne Kingsville Nurseries, Kingsville Lewis, Dean, Bel Air McCollum, Blaine, White Hall McKay, J. W., Bureau of Plant Industry Station, Beltsville Nogus, Mrs. Herbert, 4514 32nd St., Mt. Rainier Porter, John J., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown Purnell, J. Edgar, Spring Hill Rd., Salisbury Reed, C. A., Bureau of Plant Industry Station, Beltsville Shamer, Dr. Maurice E., 3300 W. North Ave., Baltimore MASSACHUSETTS Allen, Edward E., Hotel Ambassador, Cambridge Beauchamp, A. A., 603 Boylston St., Boston Booson, Campbell, 30 State St., Boston Brown, Daniel L., 60 State St., Boston Chatterton, R. M., 44 Cedar St., Malden Fitts, Walter H., 39 Baker St., Foxboro Fritze, E., Osterville Garlock, Mott A., 17 Arlington Rd., Longmeadow Gauthier, Louis R., Wood Hill Rd., Monson Groff, George H., 46 Chestnut St., Brookline Kaan, Dr. Helen W., Wellesley College, Wellesley Kendall, Henry P., Moose Hill Farm, Sharon Kibrick, I. S., 106 Main St., Brockton LaBeau, Henry A., 1556 Massachusetts Ave., North Adams McTavish, W. C., 50 Congress St., Boston Perells, Walter J., North-Falmouth Rice, Horace J., 5 Elm St., Springfield *Russell, Mrs. Newton H., 12 Burnett Ave., South Hadley Swartz, H. P., 206 Checopee St., Checopee Short, I. W., 299 Washington St., Taunton Stewart, O. W., 75 Milton Ave., Hyde Park Trudeau, Dr. A. E., 14 Railroad St., Holyoke Van Meter, Dr. R. A., French Hall, M. S. C., Amherst Wellman, Sargent H., Windridge, Topsfield Westcott, Samuel K., 79 Richview Ave., North Adams Weston Nurseries, Inc., Brown & Winter Sts., Weston Weymouth, Paul W., 183 Plymouth St., Holbrook MEXICO Grandjean, Julio, P. O. Box 748, Mexico, D. F. MICHIGAN Andersen, Charles, Andersen Evergreen Nurseries, Scottville Aylesworth, C. F., 920 Pinecrest Dr., Ferndale Barlow, Alfred L., 13079 Flanders Ave., Detroit, 5 Becker, Gilbert, Climax Binder, Charles, 34 E. Michigan Ave., Battle Creek Boylan, P. B., Cloverdale Bradley, L. J., R. No. 1, Springport Buell, Dr. M. F., Dept. of Health & Recreation, Dearborn Bumler, Malcolm R., 1089 Lakeview, Detroit Burgart, Harry, Michigan Nut Nursery, R. No. 2, Union City Burgess, E. H., Burgess Seed & Plant Co., Galesburg Cardinell, H. A., Michigan State College, E. Lansing Corsan, H. H., R. No. 1, Hillsdale Daubenmeyer, H., 7647 Sylvester, Detroit Emerson, Ralph, 161 Cortland Ave., Highland Park, 3 Farrington, Robert A., Chittenden Nursery, U. S. F. A., Wellston Gage, Nina M., 6440 Kensington Rd., Wixom Hay, Francis H., Ivanhoe Place, Lawrence Healey, Scott, R. No. 2, Otsego Hewetson, Prof. F. N., Michigan State College, East Lansing **Kellogg, W. K., Battle Creek Korn, G. J., R. No. 1, Richland Lee, Michael, Lapeer Lemke, Edwin W., 2432 Townsend Ave., Detroit, 14 Lewis, Clayton A., 1219 Pine St., Port Huron Mann, Charles W., 221 Cutler St., Allegan Mason, Harold E., 1580 Montie, Lincoln Park McShane, Gerald, 1320 Franklin St. S. E., Grand Rapids McMillan, Vincent U., 17926 Woodward Ave., Detroit, 3 Miller, Louis, 1300 O'Keefe, Cassopolis Ricker, John E., 14642 Marlowe Ave., Detroit Scofield, Mr. and Mrs., Box 215, Woodland Stocking, Frederick N., Harrisville Stotz, Raleigh R., 1546 Franklin S. E., Grand Rapids, 6 Tate, D. L., 959 Westchester Way, Birmingham Wise, C. E., R. No. 3, Milford MINNESOTA Andrews, Miss Frances E., 48 Park View Terrace, Minneapolis Cothran, John C., 512 N. 19th Ave. E., Duluth Grosch, Robert H., 2732 Drew Ave. S., Minneapolis Hodgson, R. E., Dept. of Agriculture, S. E. Exp. Station, Waseca Skrukrud, Baldwin, Sacred Heart Vaux, Harold C., R. No. 4, Faribault Weschcke, Carl, 96 So. Wabasha St., St. Paul MISSOURI Barnes, Dr. F. M., Jr., 4952 Maryland Ave., St. Louis Bucksath, Charles E., Dalton Fisher, J. B., R. R. H. 1, Pacific Hay, Leander, Gilliam Johns, Jeannette F., R. No. 1, Festus Ochs, C. T., Box 291, Salem Owen, Dr. Lyle, Branson Richterkessing, Ralph, R. No. 1, St. Charles Schmidt, Victor H., 5821 Virginia, Kansas City Stevenson, Hugh, Elsberry Thompson, J. D., 600 West 3rd St., Kansas City NEBRASKA Brand, George, R. No. 5, Box 60, Lincoln Caha, William, Wahoo Clark, Ivan E., Concord DeLong, F. S., 1510 2nd Corso, Nebraska City Ferguson, Albert B., Dunbar Hess, Harvey W., The Arrowhead Garden, Box 209, Hebron Hoyer, L. B., 7554 Maple St., Omaha Lydick, J. J., Craig Wever, Francis E., Box 312, Sutherland White, Bertha G., 7615 Leighton Ave., Lincoln NEW HAMPSHIRE Lahti, Matthew, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro Latimer, Prof. L. P., Department of Horticulture, Durham Ryan, Miss Agnes, Mill Rd., Durham Vannevar, Dr. Bush, E. Jaffrey or (4901 Hillbrook Lane, Washington, D. C.) NEW JERSEY Blake, Harold, Box 93, Saddle River Brewer, J. L., 10 Allen Place, Fair Lawn Bottom, R. J., 41 Robertson Rd., West Orange Buch, Philip O., 106 Rockaway Ave., Rockaway Buckwalter, Alan R., Flemington Buckwalter, Mrs. Alan R., Flemington Case, Lynn B., Mountain Ave. & Piedmont Dr., Bound Brook Collins, Joseph N., 769 First St., Westfield Cumberland Nursery, R. No. 1, Millville Donnelly, John H., Mountain Ice Co., 51 Newark St., Hoboken Dougherty, Wm. H., Broadacres-on-Bedens, Box 425, Princeton Fuhlbruegge, Edward, R. No. 1, Box 21, Pittstown Gardenier, Dr. Harold C., Westwood Gottein, Louis, 1081 So. Clinton Ave., Trenton *Jacques, Lee W., 74 Waverly Place, Jersey City Jewett, Edmund Gale, R. No. 1, Port Murray McCulloch, J. D., 73 George St., Freehold Mueller, R., R. 1, Box 81, Westwood Ritchie, Walter M., 402 St. George St., Rahway Rocker, Louis P., The Rocker Farm, Andover Szalay, Dr. S., 931 Garrison Ave., Teaneck Terhune, Gilbert V. P., Apple Acres, Newfoundland Todd, E. Murray, R. No. 2, Matawan Tolley, Fred C., 223 Berkeley Ave., Bloomfield Van Doren, Durand H., 310 Redmond Rd., South Orange White, Co. J. H., Jr., Picatinny Arsenal, Dover Williams, Harold G., Box 344, Ramsey Youngberg, Harry W., 304 Hillside Ave., Nutley NEW MEXICO Bryan, Lawrence, P. O. Box 1053, Artesia Williams, Erasmus D., Box No. 6, Wagon Mound NEW YORK Benton, William A., Wassaic Bernath's Nursery, R. No. 1, Poughkeepsie Bixby, Henry D., East Drive, Halesite, L. I. Bixby, Mrs. Willard G., 32 Grand Ave., Baldwin Black, Mrs. William A., 450 W. 24th St., New York Brinckeroff, John H., 150-09 Hillside Ave., Jamaica Brook, Victor, 171 Rockingham St., Rochester Brooks, William G., Monroe Collins, James F., Cold Spring Rd., Stanfordville Cowan, Harold, 643 Southern Bldg., The Bronx, New York Davis, Clair, 140 Broadway, Lynbrook De Schauensee, Mrs. A. M., Easterhill Farm, Chester Dutton, Walter, 264 Terrace Park, Rochester Ellwanger, Mrs. William D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Fagley, Richard M., 29 Perry St., New York, 14 Feil, Harry, 1270 Hilton-Spencerport Rd., Hilton Flanigen, Charles F., 16 Greenfield St., Buffalo Freer, H. J., 20 Midvale Rd., Fairport Garcia, M., 62 Rugby Rd., Brooklyn Graham, S. H., R. No. 5, Ithaca Graves, Dr. Arthur H., Botanic Garden, Brooklyn Gressel, Henry, R. No. 2, Mohawk Guillaume, Ronald P., 5210 Maine St., Wmsville Gwinn, Ralph W., 522 5th Ave., New York Hasbrouck, Walter, Jr., New Paltz Heckelman, Edward, 245 S. Franklin St., Hempstead Hubbell, James F., Mayro Bldg., Utica Iddings, William, 165 Ludlow St., New York Kelly, Mortimer B., 17 Battery Place, New York Kirstein, Edward K., 89 Westminster Rd., Rochester *Lewis, Clarence, 1000 Park Ave., New York Little, George, Ripley *MacDaniels, Dr. L. H., Cornell University, Ithaca Maloney Bros. Nursery Co., Inc., Danville Mevius, William E., East Church St., Eden Miller, J. E., R. No. 1, Naples *Montgomery, Robert H., 1 E. 44th St., New York Newell, P. F., 53 Elm St., Nassau Oeder, Dr. Lambert R., 551 Fifth Ave., New York Ohligor, Louis H., R. No. 2, New City Phillips, Clyde F., 11 Olive Ave., Batavia Pickhardt, Dr. Otto C., 117 East 80th St., New York Pomeroy, Robert Watson, Wassaic Potter, Wilson, Jr., Pomona Country Club, Suffern Price, J., 385 Arbuckle Ave., Cedarhurst, L. I. Rebillard, Frederick, 164 Lark St., Albany Salzer, George, 169 Garford Rd., Rochester Schlegel, Charles P., 990 South Ave., Rochester Schmidt, Carl W., 180 Linwood Ave., Buffalo Schwartz, Mortimer L., 1243 Boynton Ave., Bronx, New York Slate, Prof. George L., State Agricultural Experiment Sta., Geneva Smith, Gilbert L., State School, Wassaic Smith, Jay L., Chester Steiger, Harwood, Red Hook Stern-Montegny, Hubert, Erbonia Farm, Gardiner Sucsy, Emil J., West Nyack Warren, Herbert E., P. O. Box 109, Norwich Wilson, Mrs. Ida J., Candor, New York Windisch, Richard P., W. E. Burnet & Co., 11 Wall St., New York *Wissman, Mrs. F. de R., 9 W. 54th St., New York NORTH CAROLINA Dunstan, R. T., Greenboro College, Greenboro Malcolm, Van R., Celo P. O., Yancey County Parks, C. H., R. No. 2, Asheville OKLAHOMA Billups, Richard A., Hales Bldg., Oklahoma City Clifton, Edward C., 1325 East 66th St., R. No. 2, Tulsa Hirschi's Nursery, 414 N. Robinson, Oklahoma City Hughes, C. V., 5600 N. W. 16, R. No. 5, Oklahoma City Jarrett, C. F., 2208 W. 40th St., Tulsa Meek, E. B., R. No. 2, Wynnewood Swan, Oscar E., Jr., 1431 E. 35th St., Tulsa OHIO Bungart, A. A., Avon Cinadr, Mrs. Katherine, 13514 Coath Ave., Cleveland, 20 Cole, Mrs. J. R., 163 Woodland Ave., Columbus Cook, H. C., R. No. 1, Box 125, Leetonia Cranz, Eugene F., Mount Tom Farm, Ira Crooks, John L., 4600 Chester, Cleveland Davidson, John, 234 E. 2nd St., Xenia Diller, Oliver D., Dept. of Forestry, Experiment Sta., Wooster Dubois, Wilber, & Son, Madisonville, Cincinnati, 27 Emeh, Frank, Genoa Fickes, W. R., R. No. 1, Wooster Franks, M. L., R. No. 1, Montpelier Garden Center of Greater Cleveland, 1190 East Blvd., Cleveland Gauly, Dr. Edward, 1110 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Gerber, E. P., Kidron Gerhardt, Gustave A., 13125 Jefferson Ave., Cincinnati Gerstenmafer, John A., 18 Pond S. W., Massillon Hoch, Gordon F., 6292 Glade Ave., Cincinnati Hill, Dr. Albert A., 4187 Pearl Rd., Cleveland Irish, Charles F., 418 105th St., Cleveland Jacobs, Homer L., c/o Davey Tree Expert Co., Kent Jacobs, Mason, 3003 Jacobs Rd., Youngstown Kappel, Owen, Bolivar Kintzel, Frank M., 2506 Briarcliffe Ave., Cincinnati, 13 Kirby, R. L., Box 131, R. No. 1, Sharonville Kratzer, George, Kidron Lacknett, G. S., 510 E. Main St., Newark Lehmann, Carl, Union Trust Bldg., Cincinnati Madison, Arthur E., 13608 5th Ave. E., Cleveland McBride, William B., 2398 Brandon Rd., Columbus, 8 Meikle, William J., 730 Thornhill Dr., Cleveland Metzger, A. J., 724 Euclid Ave., Toledo Ochs, C. T., Box 291, Salem Ochs, Norman M., R. No. 2, Brunswick Osborn, Frank C., 4040 W. 160th St., Cleveland Ransbottom, Earl A., 1057 W. Market St., Lima Scarff's Sons, W. N., New Carlisle Shelton, E. M., 1468 W. Clifton Blvd., Lakewood, 7 Shessler, Sylvester M., Genoa Silvis, Raymond E., 1725 Lindberg Ave. N. E., Massillon Smith, Sterling A., 630 W. South St., Vermillion Spring Hill Nurseries Co., Tipp City Toops, Herbert A., 1430 Cambridge Blvd., Columbus Van Voorhis, J. F., 215 Hudson Ave., Apt. B-1, Newark Walker, Carl F., 2351 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland *Weber, Harry R., 123 East 6th St., Cincinnati Weber, Martha R., R. No. 1, Morgan Rd., Cloves Willett, Dr. G. P., Elmore Wischhusen, J. F., 15031 Shore Acres Dr. N. E., Cleveland OREGON Carlton Nursery Co., Carlton Doharian, S. H., P. O. Box 346, Eugene Flanagan, George C., 909 Terminal Sales Bldg., Portland Miller, John E., R. No. 1, Box 312-A, Oswego Russ, E., R. No. 1, Halsey Schuster, C. E., Horticulturist, Corvallis PENNSYLVANIA Allaman, R. P., R. No. 1, Harrisburg Allen, Lt. Col. Thomas H., St. Thomas Banks, H. C., R. No. 1, Hollortown Barnhart, Emmert M., R. No. 4, Waynesboro Baum, Dr. F. L., Boyertown Beard, H. K., R. No. 1, Sheridan Blair, Dr. G. D., 702 N. Homewood Ave., Pittsburgh Bowen, John C., R. No. 1, Macungie Brenneman, John E., R. No. 6, Lancaster Brown, Morrison, Carson Long Military Academy, New Bloomfleld Creasy, Luther P., Catawissa Dewey, Richard, Box 41, Peckville Driver, Warren M., R. No. 4, Bethlehem Diefenderfer, C. E., 918 3rd St., Fullerton Duckham, William C., R. No. 2, Allison Park Ebling, Aaron L., R. No. 2, Reading Ellenberger, Herman A., 333 S. Burrows St., State College Etter, Fayette, P. O. Box 57, Lemasters Gebhardt, F. C., 140 East 29th St., Erie Heckler, George Snyder, Hatfield Heilman, R. H., 2303 Beechwood Blvd., Pittsburgh Hershey, John W., Nut Tree Nurseries, Downingtown High Tor Nursery, R. No. 6, Pittsburgh Hostetter, C. F., Bird-In-Hand Hostetter, L. K., R. No. 3, Lancaster Jackson, Schuyler, New Hope Johnson, Robert F., R. No. 5, Box 56, Crafton Jones, Dr. Truman W., Coatesville Jones, Miss Mildred, P. O. Box 356, Lancaster Kaufman, M. M., Clarion Kirk, DeNard B., Forest Grove Kline, Dr. Florence M., 909 Arlington Apts., Corner Acken and Center Aves., Pittsburgh Leach, Will, Court House, Scranton Long, Carleton C., 141 Walnut St., Beaver Losch, Walter, 133 E. High St., Topston Lutz, Stanley W., Egypt Mattoon, H. Gleason, 1008 Commercial Trust Bldg., Philadelphia McCartney, T. Lupton, Room 1, Horticultural Bldg., State College Miller, Robert O., 3rd and Ridge St., Emmaus Moyer, Philip S., Union Trust Bldg., Harrisburg Owens, G. F., 700 E. Line Ave., Ellwood City Reidler, Paul G., Ashland Rial, John, 528 Harrison Ave., Greensburg *Rick, John, 439 Pennsylvania Sq., Reading Ruch, George, Huntingdon Valley Rupp, Edward E., Jr., 57 W. Pomfret St., Carlisle Sameth, Sigmund, Grandeval Farm, R. No. 3, Kutztown Schaible, Percy, Upper Black Eddy Schmidt, Albert J., 534 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh Siebley, J. W., Star Route, Landisburg Shelly, David B., R. No. 2, Elizabethtown Silin, I. J., Echo Mountain, Fairview Smith, Dr. J. Russell, 550 Elm Ave., Swarthmore Southampton Nurseries, Southampton Stoebener, Harry W., 6227 Penn. Ave., Pittsburgh Theiss, Dr. Lewis E., Bucknell University, Lewisburg Waggoner, Charles W., 432 Harmony Ave., Rochester *Wister, John C., Clarkson Ave. and Wister St., Germantown Wood, Wayne, R. No. 1, Newville Wright, Ross Pier, 235 West 6th St., Eric RHODE ISLAND **Allen, Philip, 178 Dorance St., Providence R. I. State College, Library Dept., Green Hall, Kingston SOUTH AMERICA Pereda, Celedonia V., Arroyo 1142, Buenos Aires, Argentina SOUTH CAROLINA Bregger, John T., Clemson SOUTH DAKOTA Bradley, Homer L., Lacreek National Wildlife Refuge, Martin TENNESSEE Chase, Capt. Spencer B., Hqs. Det. Sta. Camp, Camp Tyson Kirk, Charles H., Oak Ridge Howell Nurseries, Sweetwater McDaniel, J. C., P. O. Box 331, Brownsville Rhodes, G. B., R. 2, Covington Zarger, Thomas G., Norris TEXAS Carroll, Y. D., 2093 McFadden St., Beaumont Florida, Kaufman, Box 154, Rotan Price, W. S., Jr., Gustine UTAH Oleson, Granville, 1210 Laird Ave., Salt Lake City, 5 Petterson, Harlan D., 2164 Jefferson Ave., Ogden VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., R. No. 3, Springfield *Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven Foster, Forest K., West Topsham VIRGINIA Acker, E. D., Co., Broadway Brewster, Stanley II., "Cerro Cordo," Gainesville Burton, Geo. L., 728 College St., Bedford Carey, Graham, Fair Haven Dickerson, T. C., 316 56th St., Newport News Gibbs, H. R., McLean Johnson, Dr. Walt R., 2602 B. Monument Ave., Richmond Landess, S. S., 2103 N. Quantico St., Arlington Lewis, Pvt. Hewlett W., H. & H. Co., 938 Engr. Avn. Cam. Bn., A. A. B., Richmond Morse, Chandler, Valross, R. No. 5, Alexandria Nix, Robert W., Jr., Lucketts Peters, John Rogers, P. O. Box 37, McLean Pertzoff, Dr. V. A., Carter's Bridge Stoke, H. F., 1420 Watts Ave., Roanoke Stoke, Dr. John H., 408-10 Boxley Bldg., Roanoke Varcity Products Co., 5 Middlebrook Ave., Staunton Webb, John, Hillsville Zimmerman, Ruth, Bridgewater WASHINGTON Altman, Mrs. H. E., Cedarbrook Nut Farm, Nooksack Barth, J. H., Box 1827, R. No. 3, Spokane Carey, Joseph E., 4219 Letona Ave., Seattle Clark, R. W., 4221 Phinney Ave., Seattle Denman, George L., 1319 East Nina Ave., Spokane Ferris, Major Hiram B., P. O. Box 74, Spokane Kling, William L., R. No. 2, Box 230, Clarkston Linkletter, F. D., 8034 35th Ave. N. E., Seattle Lynn Tuttle Nursery, The Heights, Clarkston Martin, Fred A., Star Route, Chelan Naderman, G. W., R. No. 1, Box 370, Olympia Shane Bros., Vashon Wilson, John A., East 1517 16th Ave., Spokane WEST VIRGINIA Cannaday, Dr. John E., Charleston General Hospital, Charleston Hoover, Wendell W., Webster Springs Slotkin, Meyer S., 1671 6th Ave., Huntington, 1 WISCONSIN Aoppler, C W., Box 239, Oconomowoc Bassett, W. S., 1522 Main St., La Crosse Dopkins, Marvin, R. No. 1, River Falls Downs, M. L., 1024 N. Leminwah St., Appleton Koelsch, Norman, Jackson Zinn, Walter G., P. O. Box 747, Milwaukee *Life Member **Contributing Member CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I _Name_--This Society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, INCORPORATED. ARTICLE II _Object_--Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III _Membership_--Membership in this society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV _Officers_--There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary and a treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and a board of directors consisting of six persons, of which the president, the two last retiring presidents, the vice-president, the secretary and the treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V _Election of Officers_--A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI _Meetings_--The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the board of directors shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and board of directors. ARTICLE VII _Quorum_--Ten members of the Association shall constitute a quorum but must include two of the four elected officers. ARTICLE VIII _Amendments_--This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I _Committees_--The Association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on exhibits, on varieties and contests, on survey, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the Association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II _Fees_--Annual members shall pay two dollars annually. Contributing members shall pay ten dollars annually. Life members shall make one payment of fifty dollars and shall be exempt from further dues and shall be entitled to the same benefits as annual members. Honorary members shall be exempt from dues. "Perpetual" membership is eligible to any one who leaves at least five hundred dollars to the Association and such membership on payment of said sum to the Association shall entitle the name of the deceased to be forever enrolled in the list of members as "Perpetual" with the words "In Memoriam" added thereto. Funds received therefor shall be invested by the Treasurer in interest bearing securities legal for trust funds in the District of Columbia. Only the interest shall be expended by the Association. When such funds are in the treasury the Treasurer shall be bonded. Provided that in the event the Association becomes defunct or dissolves then, in that event, the Treasurer shall turn over any funds held in his hands for this purpose for such uses, individuals or companies that the donor may designate at the time he makes the bequest or the donation. ARTICLE III _Membership_--All annual memberships shall begin October 1st. Annual dues received from new members after April first shall entitle the new member to full membership until October first of that year and a credit of one-half annual dues for the following year. ARTICLE IV _Amendments_--By-laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present at any meeting. ARTICLE V Members shall be sent a notification of annual dues at the time they are due and, if not paid within two months, they shall be sent a second notice, telling them that they are not in good standing on account of non-payment of dues and are not entitled to receive the annual report. At the end of thirty days from the sending of the second notice, a third notice shall be sent notifying such members that, unless dues are paid within ten days from the receipt of this notice, their names will be dropped from the rolls for non-payment of dues. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION INCORPORATED For the third time in the forty-four years of our existence our annual convention has been omitted. Each time this has been due to war conditions. The first was in 1918, the others in 1942 and 1943. No report was issued for 1918 but one was compiled for last year, and this present little volume will show that your members and officers are still functioning. We have great hope for the future. An important part of this report is the result of the work of the Chairman of the Survey Committee, Mr. John Davidson, a good job well done. Considering the still elementary state of nut growing it is remarkable--a really immense undertaking. The responses to this survey show enthusiasm that is encouraging. The war and its emphasis on food seems to have increased interest in nut culture. W. C. DEMING. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY FOR 1942-43 The Association has had a successful year in spite of the war and the cessation of our annual meetings because of the restrictions on wartime travel. Interest in the Association and nut culture appears to be well-maintained. The program committee assembled a report for 1942 and is already working on one for 1943. During the past year the membership increased from 400 as of August 10, 1942 to 466 as of July 1, 1943. If this rate of increase continues, we shall pass the 500 mark before the end of 1944. In the 1932 report 134 members were listed and each year since then has shown a substantial increase. Accompanying this letter is a questionnaire from the survey committee which is designed to extract as much information as possible from the members. The secretary is especially interested in the section on personal information as it should give some idea as to the interests of the members and indicate how they may best be served by the officers and committees. The program committee can also use this information in preparing programs. President Weschcke announces that the committees and state vice-presidents for 1942 will continue for another year. The membership circulars which contain the list of nut nurseries and a list of publications on nut culture may be had from the secretary by all who wish to distribute it. The sets of reports as now sold lack the report for 1935. The few remaining copies are being reserved for agricultural libraries. If members have copies of this report for which they no longer have any use their return to the secretary's office will be appreciated as it may make possible the supplying of complete sets to libraries. Treasurer's Report REPORT OF THE TREASURER--AUG. 15, 1942 to SEPT. 1, 1943 _Receipts:_ Memberships $774.15 (Philip Allen $10.00) (Exchange .15) Sale of Reports 102.85 Sale of Index .75 Sale of Advertising (1941 Report) 5.00 Carl Weschcke Contribution 50.00 ------- $932.75 $932.75 _Disbursements:_ Fruit Grower Subscriptions 71.20 Printing and Mailing 1942 Report 328.37 Reporting 1941 Convention 32.50 Expense of President None Expense of Secretary 74.02 Expense of Treasurer 26.38 Supplies and Miscellaneous 26.71 ------- $559.18 $559.18 ------- ------- Excess of Receipts over Expenditures 373.57 Balance on Hand Aug. 15, 1942 216.05 ------- Balance on Hand Sept. 1, 1943 in North Linn Savings Bank $589.62 D. C. SNYDER, Treasurer The Status of Nut Growing in 1943 SURVEY REPORT JOHN DAVIDSON, _Chairman of Committee_ This survey of nut tree growing in the United States and Canada is a cross section of the industry and has been conducted through the membership of our Association. Questionnaires were submitted to all members, of whom a very satisfactory percentage responded with reports which usually were as complete as the age of the planted trees made possible. Our thanks are due to all who had the patience to reply to so searching a questionnaire. Their reward, we hope, will be increased by nuggets of information from others. The survey committee is indebted to the officers of the Association, to Mr. Slate particularly, who took care of the multigraphing and mailing drudgery, and to the experienced men who lent invaluable aid in formulating and revising the exhaustive and detailed questions. The results are here set forth in three sections: Northern United States, Southern United States and Canadian. It is evident that trees which do well in the south may act very differently in the north; yet, to a certain and very important extent, the experience of the south has a bearing upon conditions in the north. For example, the pawpaw, though not a nut tree, has seemed to edge itself into the affections and interest of many nut tree men. It is in reality a tropical fruit which has adapted itself to northern latitudes. The pecan seems to be trying to do the same thing. Both illustrate a way of working that nature practices more or less with all species. By cross pollination and selection, human hands are having a part in speeding up this process of adaptation in pecans, Persian walnuts and other tender species. In fact, this is one of the jobs to which the Association is dedicated. We wish here to pay tribute to the nurserymen of this Association. Most nurserymen are intelligent and honest but sometimes they have a tough time of it. Their worst competitor is a nurseryman who sells seedlings for named varieties, who advertises widely and prospers upon the work of others. When we think of the painstaking care of the honest nurseryman, of his days of drudgery, of the thousands of failed experimental trees and plants that he destroys, of the service he renders his fellows, we know that we should make slow progress without his help. The conscientious worker in the experiment stations is in the same category. He does his best work largely for love of it. In addition to many letters and other valuable sources of information this survey covers reports from more than 150 planters of named varieties of nut trees. Many are also planters of seedlings from selected and named varieties with which they are experimenting and from which they are making selections for future tests. Some are experimenting with cross pollination. As one example of careful work, we have now on file blue prints from the New Jersey Department of Conservation and Development, from Gerald A. Miller, of Trenton, showing exact locations by name and number of one of the largest variety collections of hybrid walnut trees in the world. From the Brooklyn Botanic Gardens, Arthur H. Graves, Curator, we have valuable records of the breeding of chestnut trees, with selections made primarily for tree growth and timber production. There is also hope for some good nuts from the trees. The timber, in money value, is of course more important than the nuts. If successful, we shall again have both. It is difficult to interest "hurry-up" Americans in planting trees for future generations. They want results now. But the sooner we develop reliable and adaptable fruiting trees for general planting, the sooner will thousands of people begin to plant trees. The late rapid growth of membership in this Association shows an awakened interest that could be swollen into a mighty flood of tree planters if good trees were available. If there were more agencies like the Tennessee Valley Authority, more trees of the better sort would be developed. Its tree crop activities have now been transferred to a "Forest Resources Division" under the supervision of Mr. W. H. Cummings, and its testing and selection work is going ahead steadily. Thomas G. Zarger, Jr., Botanist, is handling the black walnut work in connection with other investigations of "Minor Forest Products." The headquarters is at Norris, Tennessee. Charles V. Kline, now Assistant Chief of the Watershed Protection Division, still keeps his old interest in the black walnut and tree crop program. Definite and important results are bound to follow from so sustained and well organized a project. Most state agencies complain of lack of appropriations and help. The real trouble lies in lack of vision and knowledge upon the part of legislators. The President has proposed an immense program of communications and highway development as a post-war project. We suggest that fruitful land is still more important, and that highways through desert countries are almost unknown except as means for getting from one fruitful land to another. Perhaps this Association could do more than it has done toward spreading the gospel among legislatures. The largest source of contribution to the survey is, of course, from the Northern United States. For purposes of tabulation, we have included everything north of Central Tennessee in this class. Nearly one hundred planters of nut trees contribute their experiences in this section. Of the lot, only fourteen of them plant trees for sale as nurserymen. Today we could keep more of them with stocks sold out. Seventy-six are interested in planting primarily for the production of nuts; fifty-seven, in grafting and budding trees from named varieties; forty-five in planting seed from the better varieties, either for production of stocks upon which to graft or, in large quantities, for observation and selection. As many as twenty-six are doing important work in hybridizing. Fifty-one are top-working young trees to better varieties. Only twenty-one count upon the growth of timber for a part of their profit. But certainly the growth of timber, especially black walnut, is not an item to be left out of consideration. Much, here, depends upon the manner of planting, whether in orchard or forest formation. However, even in orchard plantings, the stumps alone are valuable for beautifully patterned veneers. Fifty-seven correspondents tell us that they are testing standard varieties, while forty-two are interested in discovering and developing new varieties, certainly an index to the pioneering and creative urge which dominates many of our members. As is to be expected, most of our newer members are thus far feeling their way by growing a few of the better varieties for home use. Only nine of the whole number say that they are working with nut trees at an experiment station. As to the species of trees being planted, black walnut heads the list with eighty-nine planters. Persian walnuts are next with seventy-three, including five who specify Carpathians or Circassians. Sixty-eight are planting Chinese chestnuts, and sixty-four hickories. Filberts and pecans are tied with fifty planters each; forty-eight say they are planting hazels; forty-three heartnuts; and forty-two persimmons--if we may include these trees for the time being among the nuts. Thirty-eight are planting butternuts; thirty-two, Japanese Walnuts; twenty-eight, pawpaws; twenty-seven, mulberries; twenty-four, Japanese chestnuts. After these, in order, come almonds along the southern borders, beech toward the north, hicans, tree hazels, oaks, Japanese persimmons, honey-locust, jujube, black locust (the correspondent explains, "for bees and chickens"), Manchurian walnuts, and finally, coral and service berries. As an indication of the adaptation of species and varieties to the climates in which these men, and several women, are working, they listed at out request the following native trees found most plentifully in their sections. Black walnuts and hickories stand at the head of the list, as reported by seventy-five correspondents each. Then follow in order, butternuts, hazel, beech, oaks (probably overlooked by many), pecans and chestnuts. Of nut trees found sparingly in these sections, butternut trees, surprisingly, take first place, indicating broad adaptation but a certain weakness, perhaps a slow susceptibility to blight or fungi, which prevents this tree from being found plentifully. It is significant that it is found most plentifully in the more rigorous areas of New England where fungous ravages are discouraged by cold. Add chinquapins to the number of scarce trees, and the list is complete. As a further gauge of climatic conditions, fifty reported that peaches are reliably hardy in their sections, while fifty said they are not. This, according to the late Thomas P. Littlepage, is a fairly reliable index to the climatic adaptability of present varieties of northern grown pecans. Ninety-two planters reported that their seasons are long enough to mature Concord grapes. Only four said "no." For Catawba grapes? "Yes," said forty-two; "No," fourteen. For field corn? "Yes," ninety-three; "No," four. This question was improperly asked. Field corn varies too widely in length of maturity for accuracy in this respect. Lowest temperatures expected range from 8°F above to 30°F below zero, with the usual lower range in the greater portion of the northern states, from zero to 12° below. Lowest known temperatures range all the way from 10° to 52° below, but in most portions from 15° to 35° below. Returns indicate that winter injury is not always, nor even usually, the result of low temperatures but, rather, to the condition in which the trees enter the winter. If late excessive growth leaves them with wood not wholly dormant, they suffer. If not, they will stand extraordinary low temperatures with little or no damage. One way to guard against this damage is by preventing late growth. A means of doing this will be found in an important contribution by Mr. H. P. Burgart, of Union City, Michigan. Mr. Burgart says: "After 21 years of experience with growing, selling and planting nut trees, I have had to have a neighbor show me the best way to care successfully for them. I have studied and practiced Mr. Baad's methods, and in comparing them with my former practice, and with the practice of others who have failed with their trees, I will suggest the following cultural procedure to be given all plantings when possible, and to be continued for at least three years, or even longer for best nut production. "Nut trees should be given clean cultivation right after being planted (in the spring) and until August 1st. This encourages root growth and conserves moisture. Then sow a cover crop of rye, cow peas or soy beans to take up moisture, slow up growth and prevent the late sappy condition that is often responsible for winter injury. Leave the cover crop over winter and turn it under in the spring for humus. Before turning under, a light application of some kind of manure, along with some superphosphate and potash, should be sprinkled around each tree. Then thorough cultivation again until August, and repeat. "Soil for nut trees should be tested for acidity, nitrogen, phosphate and potash. It has been determined that most nut trees prefer a pH range of 6.0 to 8.0; but I have frequently found people planting trees on soils of 4.0 and 5.0, where nothing but sickly growth could be expected. "Where it is not possible to work all of the ground between nut trees, cultivation should begin with a three or four foot circle around each tree, annually increasing this space with the growth of the branches. Cultivation, with attention to humus and fertility, are necessary to proper tree growth and nut production. Sod culture will never do." Mr. Burgart's method has the advantage not only of guarding the trees from excessive winter injury but at the same time adds an almost immediately available source of humus and nutrients to the soil for spring growth. If followed, it should greatly reduce the number of reports of winter injury, failure to start, and of weak growth afterward. Excessive summer heat is not so great a problem in most portions of the northern states. The highest expected temperatures range, in our reports, from 86° to 110°; mostly from 90° to 100°. The highest known are reported to be all the way from 95° to 120°, but mostly from 100° to 110°. A method of guarding against heat damage will be found in a communication from Mr. H. F. Stoke, of Roanoke, Va., which appears later in this report. Drouth and hot, dry winds are more dangerous enemies than either cold or heat. It is somewhat ominous that, out of eighty-three reports, forty-two, originating all the way from Maine to Oregon and from Canada to Tennessee, report the occurrence today of frequent drouths, while forty report hot, dry winds. Surely the need for tree planting is immediate and urgent. Mulching, and the protection of recently planted trees by wrapping their trunks, are preventives of some damage, but can not stand up forever against the longer and longer periods of drouth now being reported, during which the water table is gradually being lowered beyond the reach of tree roots. The length of the frost-free season has an important bearing upon the production of nuts after the trees are matured. This is true in the south as well as in the north. One of the most frequently reported causes of loss of nut production in southern sections is an early spring, inducing growth of buds and blossoms, followed by a frost. No protection seems to have been found against this damage except by use of heavy smudges. Large orchardists protect themselves, but planters of small groves rarely do so. This explains the autumn scramble, reported by many members, in search of early fallen nuts. We should continue our search for trees which produce nuts of early maturity. Thus far the search has not been too successful among most species, but some progress has been made and the future is more encouraging in this respect than it was a decade or two ago. Some early maturing nuts have been found and pollen from the trees is being used for cross-pollination with better known nut producers. In the northern states, dates of the latest spring frosts range from April 1 to June 1, with the average around May 15. The earliest fall frosts come from Sept. 5 to Oct. 15, with the average about Sept. 15 to 20. Where the frosts fall much outside these limits--too late in the spring or too early in the fall--protective measures will help but will not always prevent damage. _Soil Conditions._ There is a slight preponderance of clay soils over loam among the returns from planters. Loams and sandy loams are tied for second place. A smaller number report that these top soils lie shallow over hard-pan or rock. Fewer still report a soil underlaid with sand or gravel. By far the best growth for most kinds of nut trees, as well as the best production of nuts, is to be found where trees are planted in deep loam. Next come the trees in clay loam; then come trees in sandy loam and in clay over sand or gravel. Numerous complaints of poor growth come from members who have trees set in a soil which is shallow over rock or hard-pan. Some of the hazels and butternuts are reported as able, for a time at least, to establish themselves in such soils, but their fight for survival seems precarious and is apparently short-lived. Black walnuts, particularly, require deep, rich soils into which their long taproots can easily penetrate. This is one of the few nut tree facts so definitely established that there can no longer be any doubt about it. The reports show that the planting of black walnuts in any but good deep soil should be discouraged. It leads only to disappointment and often to loss of interest. A somewhat sandy soil, particularly if loamy, seems adapted to the planting of chestnuts and to such trees as do well on ground that will successfully grow peach trees. If such soil is found upon a hillside or hill top, so much the better. All such soils, of course, require more attention to fertility maintenance, for they leach out more quickly than soils with more of a clay constituent. Do any of the nut tree species prefer an acid to an alkaline soil? This is a question our questionnaire does not answer. Thirty correspondents say their trees are set in a lime soil, fourteen in an alkaline soil (which may or may not, in the commonly accepted usage of that term, have lime as a source of alkalinity). Sixty-one report an acid soil. Only eight of this group report the use of lime, two the use of bone meal, and one of wood ash as acid correctives. Unfortunately, we did not ask definitely about the reaction of trees to the use or non-use of lime. Puzzled by this comparative neglect of lime as a corrective on acid soils, we asked Mr. H. F. Stoke, of Roanoke, Va., a very accurate and acute observer, who had reported plantings in both kinds of soils, what his experience had been. Also we asked Miss Mildred Jones, whose experience with nut trees is second to none, the same question. Their replies follow: Mr. Stoke says: "In response to your inquiry, 'What nut trees, if any, do best in acid soils?' I should reply that the chestnut leads the list, followed closely by the mockernut hickory. "Throughout its native habitat the heaviest stands of the native chestnuts are to be found on acid soils over granitic and sandstone formations, rather than on limestone ridges. The best stands are on granite ridges, partly due, no doubt, to the poverty of sandstone soils. "The mockernut hickory occurs about anywhere on the poor, acid, clay soils of the south, its vigor depending on fertility. Shagbark does not occur on the acid (granitic) Blue Ridge mountains, but is found on the limestone Alleghanies running parallel only a few miles away. I have never seen a shagbark hickory between Roanoke and the coast, more than 200 miles away, but it occurs freely to within two or three miles on the west. The difference is not in elevation or rainfall, but in the soil. "On the other hand, black walnut occurs on both acid and limestone soils, but seems to prefer the latter. Part of its preference may be due to the generally greater fertility and better drainage to be found in limestone soil. Persian walnut, I believe, when on its own roots, is more or less allergic to acid soil. Wild hazels grow here on both limestone and granite soils. "Frankly, I believe the matter of soil acidity, as such, is rather over-emphasized. There are other factors entering into the problem that are of as great or greater importance. I doubt if there was actually any really alkaline soil, in its native state, in the humid region lying east of the Mississippi River. In the glaciated region lying to the north, the soil seems to have been more nearly neutral (pH 7). Such was the case in Iowa and in Minnesota where I homesteaded many years ago. "Throughout the south the soil averages much more acid, even much limestone soil being greatly benefitted by liming. North or south, soil acidity is greatly affected by drainage and by the resulting native vegetation. "Peat or muck soils are notably acid; also they are notably deficient in potash. The addition of wood ashes greatly benefits such soils in two ways. On the other hand, the addition of wood ashes to a soil already alkaline might be harmful even though in need of potash. "In the last several years I have been making some soil experiments that I may write up when I am sure I know what I am talking about. In general, I may say I should prefer a soil slightly on the acid side for any and all tree and farm crops if I had an eye to future fertility. Lime breaks down vegetable matter and makes its constituent plant foods quickly available, but prevents a build-up of humus in the soil. The effect is very pronounced in times of drought, the alkaline soil crops drying up much more quickly than do those on acid soil. On the other hand, such soil elements as phosphorus seem to require the lime as a flux to prevent the phosphates from becoming fixed and unavailable to crops. "In regard to peat moss, it is undoubtedly acid, but it is beneficial in its water-holding properties and in the comparatively slow release of its nutritive elements. Lime added to the peat will break it down rapidly and make it more available as a fertilizer, but until the decomposition reaches a certain point; its effect is to impoverish rather than to enrich the mixture. This seeming paradox can perhaps best be explained by some experiments I have been making with sawdust. A number of plots were prepared and given various treatments, including mixing one surface-inch of sawdust with the soil, and wheat was sown on the area. "Wheat sown on the test plot without any treatment or fertilizer was normal for the poor clay soil on which the experiments were made. Where sawdust, only, was added, the wheat came up but sickened and produced no filled heads. The same was true where lime was added to the sawdust. Where heavy applications of nitrate of soda were added to the sawdust treated plots, both with and without lime, the 'sickness' disappeared and wheat was matured. "My analysis of this, coupled with experiments in composting, leads to the following conclusion: During the period of decomposition of the sawdust (hastened, no doubt, by the lime), the bacteria of decomposition fed so heavily on the nitrates in the soil that the plants were starved. When the material had reached the condition of humus, the bacterial activity decreased to the point where fertility was restored. "The above analysis accounts for the fact that coarse vegetable material, injures crops, when plowed under, for the current season. Fresh succulent material decays so quickly that it becomes almost immediately available, releasing its constituent plant food. "With proper conditions of moisture and aeration, sawdust, when mixed with quickly decaying material like kitchen garbage, can be reduced to an excellent, usable humus in three summer months. In fact, it is then better material than if permitted to lie out in the weather for fifteen years. "There is another factor I think important in tree growth, especially where summers are hot, and that is soil temperature. "For any of our nut trees I should say that an acidity test of pH 6 to 7 would be entirely satisfactory. If the soil is infertile, some form of humus should be worked in at the time of planting. If much such material is used, some lime may be added. Better yet, wood ashes and bone meal will furnish potash, phosphorus, and the lime necessary to correct acidity and maintain the phosphorus in an available condition. Add to this, proper drainage and cool soil achieved by, first, cultivation, and later by heavy mulching, artificial shading, or shrubby undergrowth extended outside the root area, and your tree should 'go to town.' When the tree is large enough to shade its own root area it will take care of its own soil refrigeration. Nature knew what she was about when she planted trees in forests. Trees require warm heads (sunshine) and cool feet (shade), just the opposite from us humans." Mr. Stoke's letter recalls a very ancient Arabian proverb connected with the date palm. "The date palm tree must have his head in hell and his feet in water." We are indebted both to Mr. Stoke and to the Arab scientists for many things. Miss Mildred Jones' reply, fortunately, goes into other and equally important phases of the same subject. She says: "Anyone who is going to lime and fertilize nut trees should take at least a five year period for his work, using lime and fertilizer each year, and not dump it all in one year, then wait for results. He should study the return on a five year basis. One year is too short a term. Weather conditions can upset a program to the extent that both lime and fertilizer may not have their effect until the following year. Let those who really want to know, make graphs of growth in young trees and of nut production from older trees, in pounds, for five years, as against five of the same years during which trees similarly situated received no fertilizer or lime. "I shouldn't be at all surprised if those who state in reports to you that they have an acid soil, merely have a top acid soil. They may be growing their trees in basic limestone soils. Walnut trees grow in this environment very well, because they are found growing wild in woods where laurel and other types of plants loving an acid condition grow. This is true here in our county, but these soils are not seriously acid. They grow good garden crops. "Ground, or pulverized, limestone is the safest type of lime to apply to trees or crops, in my estimation. Some of it is ground so fine that it looks like hydrated lime and is used for medicinal purposes. I am inclined to think that any reports you received that noted injury from the use of lime may have been due to the use of burned lime (calcium oxide) which is caustic when wet. This type of lime may be used in winter, but during the growing season, or too close to the growing season, may injure trees. I believe such injury depends entirely upon weather conditions, but it is a good thing to be on the safe side and use a lime which will not have the hot reaction that burned lime has. "Your reports will serve an excellent purpose if they lead to getting a yearly record by planters on bearing and tree growth of their varieties. Few people know enough to go into the matter of soils and treatments intelligently. One can hardly blame them. It is a baffling subject. An unbalance in one element will lock up another element until one has quite a time unlocking them again. It seems that a conservative middle course is about the best to advise." Upon reflection, it seems likely that if our questionnaire had asked specifically about the use of lime, many more reports would have been received of its use. In response to an inquiry as to how weed competition near young trees is controlled, the replies are encouraging. Forty-seven practiced mulching; forty-five, mowing; thirty-four, occasional cultivation; twenty, regular cultivation, and a few others, slag or cinders around the trees. As is evident, some used several of the above methods. A few used none and suffered losses. Their honesty is admired, and their experience, disappointing as it is, is useful information. As to fertilizing, forty-three reported the use of manure in some form as the principal material; twenty-eight used nitrogenous fertilizer; twenty-one, a complete fertilizer. Other materials were, in order, lime, compost, bone meal, ammonium sulphate, wood ash, tankage. One used a mixture of muck and manure and got results in excellent growth where the use of muck alone produced unsatisfactory growth. Several reported injury from too much fertilizer or from too late an application. Tree growth was thus pushed on into late fall; the trees were too sappy to stand the winter freezes and suffered from winter killing. The same result was reported from "over-cultivation." In this connection, we refer back to the letter from Mr. H. P. Burgart, of Michigan, whose suggestions on cultivation and fertilizing are well worth careful study and practice by all who have had this trouble. It is possible that some planters, especially those whose trees are set on hillsides, where erosion is a robber of fertility, would modify Mr. Burgart's practice of turning under the green crop in the spring. They might prefer, as indeed might others who would like to see their green manure nearer the top of the soil, to disk in the green crop rather than bury it deeply with mouldboard plows. They would of course follow it up with repeated diskings until the time came for sowing another cover crop. This is, however, entirely in line with Mr. Burgart's recommendations. Pursuing this subject to its conclusion, we next asked: "_When young trees failed to grow with you, what percentage of these failures was due to_ ..." (various causes enumerated below)? The question was misunderstood. Many evidently gave percentages of all trees planted. Others, correctly, gave percentages merely of the trees which failed to grow. As nearly as could be arrived at, about 30 percent of losses were among trees that failed even to start; 40 percent failed from weak growth the first year or two; 10 percent from failure to maintain later growth; 16 percent were winter killed, and 3 or 4 percent died from rodent or similar (mole, gopher, deer, bear) injury. It is evident that by far the greatest losses were suffered within the first two years--not less than seventy percent. Probably more. It would seem that two years of intensive care should not be too burdensome a stint for a reward which lasts a lifetime. Rodent and similar injuries were no doubt kept low because of extra protective care. Hardware cloth (galvanized wire 1/4" mesh, 24" high, preferred) around each tree proved the most common and effective preventive. Following this, in order of use, were: wrapping the trunks (including wrappings of tar paper); mounding with earth or ashes; poison bait, dogs and cats, clean cultivation; resinous paint; spray (with Purdue formula mentioned); and, finally, hogs, against mice. Anti-rodent treatments which proved injurious to trees were reported to be; tar paper wrappings; coal tar washes; close-set creosoted posts; oil sprays; "any paint"; any chemical to smear on trunks; rooting cement. For those who are located in regions where deer are a source of injury, Mr. J. U. Gellatly, of West Bank, B. C., reports the successful use of an old and heroic Russian formula. Spray or paint all branches with manure water, using hog or human offal. Deer will stay away. Naturally. Next come answers to some personal questions as to experiences from which the reader may glean a wide variety of suggestions. The first of these questions is: "_What is your ONE greatest source of success?_" The answers seem to show many royal roads, each of which was the one road for someone. The answers: Mulching young trees; watering care; planting seeds; planting one-year seedlings; wrapping-with paper; 50% moist peat mixed with earth in transplanting; manure; sod in bottom of planting hole and use of nitrogen later; setting trees at bottom of slopes; clean cultivation until August then sowing rye, soy beans or cow peas as cover crops to turn under in spring; topworking hickories; grafting in cool, moist spring weather; pigs in orchard; chickens in orchard; planting 12-14-foot trees severely cut back, burlap wrapped, heavily mulched. It seems a pity that limitations of space do not permit the telling of the various stories connected with the above glimpses of successful solutions. Each represents a little or a big success story connected with an individual problem. It is sufficient, perhaps, to know that someone somewhere found that each was the answer to his own difficulties. The next question brings out the reverse side of the planters' work: "_What is your chief source of failure?_" The answer most often given was the honest one, lack of attention. We can all convict ourselves here, either involuntarily or otherwise. Especially during this period of warfare, when so many have been taken away from their plantings and have been unable to get help, there is no question but that our trees have suffered. The next in frequency is "unsuitable soil." Following this come: lack of water; poor planting; planting too big a tree; spring planting of nut trees; buying 5 to 7 year-old trees; climate; transplanting failures; grafting; grafting in dry, hot, springs; top-working old trees; stink bugs on filberts (nuts); lack of drainage; forcing with nitrogenous fertilizer; fertilizing young trees too much; birds breaking off top growth. It had been the intention to confine this question to young trees, but it was not so phrased, so we shall let the answers stand as they are. It is a bit ironical that some found their chief source of failure exactly where others had made their best success. The explanation must lie in differences in technique, in soil or in some other local condition. Skill, knowledge, and persistence must always play a great part in any success. We next asked, "_What have been your chief difficulties with established, bearing trees?_" The difficulties here shift from matters of soil, rodent protection and the like to other types; caterpillars, neglect, winter injury, limited crops, failure of nuts to fill, disappointing quality of nuts, bag and tent worms, blight, "blight" due to drought, too early leaf fall, insects in early spring, trees drowned out in flooded bottom lands. It is probable that this last disaster happened to younger trees. As to the species of trees chiefly damaged by these causes, black walnut comes first (possibly because more of these trees have been planted), then hickories, Persian walnuts, chestnuts (blight), heartnuts, pecans, filberts, butternuts, and finally butternuts in the south areas from fungus troubles. Trees reported to have been least damaged were, first, butternuts, then hazels and filberts, black walnuts, hickories, Manchurian walnuts, Jap. walnuts, heartnuts, chestnuts, pecans, Persian walnuts. In response to the specific question, "_What insects damaged the trees?_", we found that walnut caterpillars were more common than any others, followed closely by web or "tent" worms. The Japanese beetle is a close second and is broadening its entrenched positions steadily. Others are flat-headed apple borers, lace-wing fly, aphis, leaf hoppers. To this list two reporters added sapsuckers among the insects. These birds would almost girdle some of the branches with punctures. Insect damage was reported as serious by eight reporters, as slight or occasional by six, and of yearly occurrence by nearly all. Others reported damage as serious if not controlled. "_What do you do to control the insects?_" was then asked. Most of the answers referred to clustering types of insects and involved removal of the clusters by burning, by cutting off the infested twigs, or by scraping off the clusters from the trunks in the early morning or late evening. Others sprayed with lead arsenate, "sprayed in late summer with lead arsenate", sprayed with nicotine sulphate for aphis and lice. Other methods mentioned were early cultivation, shaking the tree with a pole early and often, and chickens in the grove. Some of these means are adapted manifestly, to small plantings and others to larger groves. None mentioned the attracting of birds by plantings of trees or shrubs that bear berries or small seeds. When trees are tall enough to be beyond reach of poles or sprays, the birds become more essential as insect destroyers. "_What insects damage the nuts?_" Weevil, by long odds. Next come husk maggots or "shock worms", codling moth larvae, borers, stink bugs on filberts, butternut curculio. No cure is given for this trouble except the very valuable one of keeping chickens, or, better still, turkeys running freely in the plantation. Clean cultivation will, of course, destroy many larvae that hibernate under trash. "_What species are most injured by disease?_" None are immune, apparently, though three reporters in favored regions answer "none" are injured. Black walnuts suffer from leaf-spot, blight, or canker, especially in seasons when the trees have been weakened by drought. Hazels and filberts are next, then Persian walnuts, butternuts, native chestnuts, Chinese chestnuts, pecans. Blight in chestnuts, nectria canker and blight in black walnuts, blight in filberts (Cryptosporella), scab in pecans, and die-back Melanconium oblongum in butternuts. These are the kinds of diseases most to be feared among nut trees. Sprays, chiefly with Bordeaux mixture and copper base solutions, are recommended. If nut orchards were generally as well sprayed as apple and peach orchards, we should hear less of disease among nut trees. As it is, nut trees are in general far more resistant by nature to disease than fruit trees, but it will not do to take unlimited resistance for granted. As progress is gradually made in the selection of varieties for better nut production, it is very likely that there will be a weakening of this resistance to disease. Better cultural methods, resulting in more robust growth, will build up resistance. Better sprays and more spraying will act as a barrier not only to disease but to most insect enemies as well. "_What disease, if any, affects the nuts?_" Fortunately, very few diseases are reported. "None," say most of our reporters. A scab is reported for the first time this year in some sections on pecans. "Galls" are reported on some hickories. A husk blight appears to affect Persian walnuts in some places, and nut production is very seriously affected among black walnuts by defoliation prematurely, either because of drought or leaf-spot. The cure is undoubtedly the same as for disease affecting the trees, namely spraying. "_What proportion of nuts are taken by the squirrels?_" The answers to this question range all the way from "all if allowed" to "none if prevented." If the nut trees are located near a forest, the proportion will be large; if not, much smaller. Most correspondents say that the proportion is very small, but nearly a third of those who make any report on this at all, say such losses are rather heavy. In the extreme north, there seem to be no squirrels to bother. Several report thefts, particularly of filberts, by chipmunks, while one complains about both mice and jaybirds as filbert lovers. The most effective squirrel control is the rifle or shotgun. Rat traps, using black walnuts as bait, are second choice and said to be effective. The banding of isolated trees with tin (one says cotton batting) will prevent squirrels from climbing. A good cat or several of them will be useful, say several reporters. One judicious correspondent says that, in general, there are two popular ways of handling the situation; one by shooting, the other by cussing--most practiced, least effective. One grower, not to be outdone by the patient Chinaman or Japanese, in September ties up each chestnut burr in a cloth sack. Take your choice; but it will be well, if you wish to remain in good standing with the law, either to do your shooting during the open hunting season or, if at other times, catch your thief in the act and, wastefully, let him lie where he falls when shot. So says the law, at least in some states. On the other hand, there are many who will say, with one reporter: "I do nothing about it. I like squirrels." [This note by chairman--not W. C. D.!] _The Marketing of Nuts!_ The purpose of this section was not to inquire into methods of marketing but merely to determine, if possible, what marketing of nuts is now being done. It is little enough. Chestnut lovers have all but forgotten the taste of good chestnuts. Black walnut buyers, confectioners, bakers, report that it is next to impossible, at least for the duration of the war, to get deliveries of nuts, especially shelled nuts. The market for a good product is best only when the product is easily and plentifully obtainable. Forty-one growers reported that they sell nuts commercially. The others do not because they have no surplus to sell. Only six sell kernels. The others sell whole nuts. Owing to a misreading of the question, few reported on profitable varieties. Those who did, reported Thomas as first, then Stabler and Ohio. Of pecans, Major first, then Greenriver, Busseron, Indiana, Niblack. Of chestnuts, Hobson is the only one mentioned, and of filberts only the Jones hybrid. Most growers reported on species instead of varieties. Of these, black walnuts stand first, then pecans, chestnuts and filberts. In the far northwest, filberts stand first. Most growers have the feeling that the hybrid chestnut, _mollissima x dentata_, is coming fast and offers one of the best chances for profitable commercial planting. At present only three reporters who specifically commit themselves on the subject say they count upon the sale of nuts as an important item in their income. Fifty-one do not. Fifteen definitely expect, and sixteen others have hopes, that nuts may some day become, at least to an extent, good income producers for them. Practically all express themselves as willing to sell or exchange either nuts or cions for propagation purposes. _Discovery of Promising Nut Trees._ Some thirty-odd "wild" trees which bear nuts of unusual promise have been reported by discoverers in their answers to this survey. It is more than likely that some of them have been previously reported. The committee has no means of knowing. However, it is hoped that, out of the lot, one or two may be good enough for propagating or for contributions of pollen for cross-pollination. The names and locations of the owners of these trees have been turned over to Mr. C. A. Reed, Associate Pomologist, U. S. D. A., Beltsville, Md., for further investigation. It has been found that such information should not be prematurely published, since it leads to trouble for the owners and to possible undue valuations being placed upon the trees in question. _RATING OF VARIETIES._ First, it will be best to state how the committee arrived at a rating. Certain well-known varieties were printed by name, and blanks were left to be filled, if desired, with names of special favorites of the reporter. Those listed by name were not all good, but were widely planted. We wished to know exactly what the planters' experience had been not only with the better varieties but with other old stand-bys which were suspected of being below standard. We asked reporters to mark their sheets with the following scale symbols: XXXX for best; XXX, very good; XX, good; X, average. O, poor; OO, failure. In tabulating final summaries, the committee valued the XXXX symbol at 100%; XXX, 75%; XX, 50%; X, 25%; O, O%; OO, minus 20%. Twenty percent was arbitrarily deducted from any 100% rating, and 10% from any lesser rating, in case no other reports on the same tree were received from other reporters. Qualities upon which ratings were made were hardiness, average yield (rating), yield in pounds per tree or acre, age of oldest trees, age at first crop, percentage filled nuts, husking quality, cracking quality, size of nuts, weight of kernels, quality of kernel. Naturally, not all reporters were able to evaluate all of these qualities, so many spaces were left blank. For instance, hardiness could be rated for a very young tree, but not yield. In any future survey, we should advocate including a rating on early maturity of nuts, since this is a quality essential in trees planted farthest north. _Black Walnuts._ Six names of well-known varieties were printed upon our sheets and, of course, most of the reports are centered around these trees. Twenty-four varieties were voluntarily written in and reported on by correspondents. No doubt some of these varieties will in time replace some of the older ones. Reports on them are now too scattered and too much uncorroborated to enable us to do them justice here. For the present we shall have to content ourselves with those which have sufficient evidence. Of the printed list, Thomas takes first place with rating of 80.1%, which is a cumulative percentage of all percentages earned on the most desirable black walnut qualities. The method of obtaining this Thomas overall percentage is as follows: Add all the Thomas percentages in the paragraph below. Their average will be found to be 78%. Reports from Canada and the southern area bring this average up to 80.1%, as stated. Stambaugh is second with a rating of 72%. Rohwer rates 76%; Ohio, 57%; Stabler, 49%, and Ten Eycke, 45%. The last three seem to stand in jeopardy of replacement by other varieties. Breaking these percentages down according to their qualities, the trees in the northern U. S. area were rated as follows, using the valuations noted in the second paragraph at this section entitled _Rating of Varieties_: In hardiness Thomas rates 80; Stambaugh, 70; Rohwer, 75; Ohio, 70; Stabler, 60; Ten Eycke, 65. In yield, Thomas rates 61%; Stambaugh, 39; Ten Eycke, 38; Rohwer, 37; Ohio, 36; Stabler, 13. Yield per tree or per acre was not well enough reported to warrant reliable ratings. In percentage of filled nuts, Thomas rated 82%; Stambaugh, 88; Rohwer, 91; Ohio, 87; Stabler, 67; Ten Eycke, 68. In husking quality, Thomas, 71%; Stambaugh, 67; Rohwer, 66; Ohio, 7; Stabler, 21; Ten Eycke, 13. In cracking quality, Thomas rated 81%; Stambaugh, 79; Rohwer, 57; Ohio, 57; Stabler, 61; Ten Eycke, 50. In size of nuts, Thomas rated 92%; Stambaugh rated 57%; Rohwer, 58; Ohio, 55; Stabler, 39; Ten Eycke, 42%. In weight of kernels, Thomas rated 79%; Stambaugh, 87; Rohwer, 62; Ohio, 55; Stabler, 50; Ten Eycke, 31. In quality of kernels, Thomas rated 77%; Stambaugh, 58; Rohwer, 60; Ohio, 68; Stabler, 44; Ten Eyck, 47. It would have been more accurate, of course, to have again divided these returns according to the warmer and cooler regions from which they came, but the report has certain limits which can not be over-stepped. All these varieties are represented by some trees twenty years old or older. Thomas was reported to be the youngest to bear. Its average age at first crop was exactly five years; Stambaugh, 6 years; Rohwer, 5.57 years; Ohio, 5.17; Stabler, 5.7; and Ten Eyck, 5.17 years. Other varieties, the names of which were written in, are each sponsored by one or more correspondents who were attracted by their outstanding excellence with respect to the following qualities: =Hardiness:= Creitz, Homeland, Mintle, Elmer Myers, Tasteright, Pinecrest, Patterson, Horton, Vandersloot, Lamb, Deming Purple, Brown, Tritton, Cole, Sifford and Korn. =Yield:= Creitz, Homeland, Mintle, Cozad, Vandersloot, Brown. =Filled Nuts:= Homeland, Mintle, Cornell, Niederhauser, Cozad, Vandersloot, Brown, Tritton, Cole, Sifford. =Husking Quality:= Creitz, Homeland, Mintle, Patterson, Todd, Snyder, Cozad, Horton, Vandersloot, Lamb, Deming Purple, Brown, Tritton, Cole, Sifford. =Cracking Quality:= Eureka, Snyder, Mintle, Patterson, Brown, Tritton. =Size of Nuts:= Homeland, Todd. =Weight of Kernels:= Mintle, Todd, Snyder, Cornell, Niederhauser. =Kernel Quality:= Creitz, Homeland, Mintle, Korn, Snyder, Cornell. This, of course, cannot be a complete list, but we give it as reported to us. It will be well to keep an eye on several of them. Mr. L. K. Hostetter, Lancaster, Pa., sends us the only report which gives a year-by-year record of nut production from black walnut trees. He says: "I am especially interested in persimmons, service-berries, wild cherry, mulberry and elderberry. Of about 15 varieties of persimmon here I consider Early Golden and Josephine the best. Of 20 or more varieties of mulberries I consider Downing and Paradise the best. Paradise is a large purple mulberry I found near here. It has an exceptionally good flavor. "Following is a record of my crops of black walnuts, grafted varieties: 1931, 2 bu.; 1932, 3 bu.; 1933, 4 bu.; 1934, 8 bu.; 1935, 12 bu.; 1936, 18 bu.; 1937, 37 bu.; 1938, 54 bu.; 1939, 52 bu.; 1940, 300 bu.; 1941, 20 bu.; 1942, 125 bu.; 1943, 70 bu." Mr. Hostetter sells his nuts both as kernels and in the shell. He says that he can now count upon this crop for a substantial contribution to his annual income. _Seedling Chestnuts._ None but Chinese and Japanese varieties were reported on. More of the Chinese seedlings have been planted than of the Japs. The latter excel in hardiness, yield, size of nuts, but the Chinese have a better percentage of filled nuts, have better husking quality and much better quality of kernel, according to growers. Of course, being seedlings, neither is entirely dependable in any of these qualities. The best that can be said is that the planter of a Chinese seedling has a better chance than the planter of a Jap seedling if he is after nut quality. _Named Chestnuts._ Outside of the report on hardiness, the returns on these varieties are too meagre to enable one to arrive at a corroborated conclusion. In hardiness, the Hobson stands first with a rating of 95%. Zimmerman and Carr are tied at 60%; Yankee rates 50%. Reliable seems to be little planted but also seems to rate well in hardiness. Hobson again stands first in yield, with Carr and Zimmerman second. The ratings are 80% and 60% respectively. Reliable comes next, then Yankee. In early bearing, Hobson stands first, Carr next. All seem to fill well, also have good husking quality. Carr is said to bear the largest nut, with Hobson and Zimmerman next. In quality of kernel, Hobson and Reliable stand out from the others. Hobson, on the returns, has much the best of it in general excellence. However, the last word has by no means been said in connection with hybrid chestnuts. In no field of nut culture is so much hybridizing being done. We expect to see many contenders for preeminence in this most promising branch of the industry. _Pecans._ The returns on pecans are also very incomplete after we go beyond the young tree age. Perhaps one reason for this is that young orchards of pecans require a longer time for growth than many other species before they begin to bear. The reports confirm this view. Records of crops from present plantings are none too numerous. In the reports on hardiness among the pecans, Major stands first with a percentage score of 85; Greenriver 83; Busseron, Indiana and Giles are tied at 80; Posey 75; Butterick 40. Records of yields are not numerous enough to be conclusive, but Major, Busseron and Butterick lead. This is in the absence of reports on Greenriver, Posey, Niblack, and other important varieties. _Hybrid Pecans._ The records for hardiness here, as with other pecans, are marred by lack of good reporting. So far as the record shows, Pleas--Hican var. (hickory x pecan) is the outstanding variety for hardiness in regions north of its origin. It scores 85%; Norton and Rockville, 80% each; Gerardi, 75; Burlington, 60; Bixby, Des Moines and McCallister, 50% each. Records of yields are not forthcoming. Such records as we have of filled nuts show them to be in general, unsatisfactory. In fact, however, no reliable conclusion can be reached from a study of the pecan reports unless it should be--a sad one--that the questionnaire or the questionees fell down here. _Filberts._ The story brightens. Many are working with filberts. In the northwest, the growing of filberts is developing into a commercial enterprise of good proportions. Our records are correspondingly more complete though they show that there is plenty of room for improvement in the development of varieties of desirable quality. In hardiness, Winkler leads in the reports with a score of 71.46%, with Jones hybrid a very close second at 71.15%. Bixby is next, then Buchanan. Of the "written-in" varieties, excellent hardiness is reported for Cosford, Hazelbert, Kentish Cob, Early Globe, Burkhardt's Zeller, Comet, Gellatly No. 1, Chinese Corylus, Brixnut and Longfellow. Yields rule best with Rush and Jones hybrid. Winkler, Bixby and Buchanan follow closely. Failures in this respect are noted for Barcelona, DuChilly, Italian Red and White Aveline. Cosford has a good report. Rush and Jones hybrid fill well, as do Cosford, Hazelbert, Buchanan and, usually, Winkler. Husking qualities are quite good for all varieties named except Winkler and, in some places, Rush. Cracking qualities are fairly uniform in all varieties reported. In size of nuts, Jones hybrid and Winkler have a more uniformly good record, with Hazelbert, DuChilly, White Aveline, Barcelona, Brixnut and Longfellow following closely. In kernel quality, Rush, Winkler, Cosford, DuChilly, Bixby, Buchanan and Longfellow are named as among the best. _Butternuts._ The record is very scant. Weschcke, Sherwood and Buckley, according to these reports, are hardy. Weschcke and Craxezy yield well. Sherwood is the most precocious in early bearing with Weschcke close up. Sherwood, Craxezy and Weschcke fill well and the latter two crack well. Buckley leads in size of nuts, with Sherwood close, and all have good kernel quality. We have no reports on Aiken, Deming or Devon. _Persian Walnuts._ In most portions of the north, the reports show that Franquette, Mayette, Pomeroy and Rush are not adapted to our climate--too tender. Broadview has the best record for hardiness, followed by one or two of the Crath Carpathian numbers, and with Breslau, Lancaster and Bedford showing up well. In yields, Broadview and Payne have the best reports, followed by Breslau, Lancaster and Bedford. In size of nuts, Breslau, Lancaster and Franquette are first; Broadview and Payne next. In quality of kernel, Bedford, Franquette, Lancaster and Payne, in that order, are claimed as best, with Mayette, Breslau, Crath, Pomeroy and Broadview following. Since kernel quality is a matter of taste, it seems unlikely that any rating on it will prove satisfactory to everybody. _Hickories._ Returns are numerous and well distributed. In hardiness, Stratford leads with a rating of 84%; Glover rates 83; Fairbanks, 79; Romig, 75; Weiker, 71; Kentucky, 65. Others, written in, with best ratings by their growers, are, in the following order; Beaver, Hales, Barnes, Clark, Caldwell, Taylor, Weschcke, Beemen, Bridgewater. Schinnerling, Hagen and Abscota are close up. Best yields are reporting for Stratford and Fairbanks. Close up are Barnes, Glover and Schinnerling. Weschcke, Glover, Weiker, Beeman and Bridgewater are most precocious in early bearing. Best filled nuts are reported, in order of precedence, for Stratford, Fairbanks, Walters, Beaver, Hagen, Weschcke, Beeman and Bridgewater. =Husking quality:= Reports were inadequate. Cracking quality, in order or rank, Glover, Stratford, Hagen, Beeman, Weschcke, Schinnerling, Kirtland, Weiker, Bridgewater. =Size of nuts:= In order of rating, Weiker, Bridgewatar, Fairbanks, Weschcke, Stratford, Beeman, Schinnerling, Hagen. In weight of kernel: first, Abscota, then Barnes, Glover, Fairbanks, Kentucky, Kirtland. =Quality of kernel:= In order of preference, Kirtland, Glover, Weschcke, Hagen, Stratford, Bridgewater, Weiker, Abscota, Schinnerling, Kentucky, Beeman, Stratford, Beaver. Too much dependence should not be placed upon the order of precedence in the above lists after the first two or three, since, in many instances, there is not sufficient corroboration from separate sources to warrant more than a tentative position, especially for some of the varieties listed at the ends of the classes. _Heartnuts._ The hardiest, in the order reported, are Walters, Fodermaier, Gellatly, Faust, Bates. Lancaster, does not bear well and is not hardy in the northern areas. Best yields reported are from Walters and Bates. Other reports are inadequate or absent. Most precocious, Bates and Gellatly. Best filled heartnuts, with best husking and cracking qualities as well as best quality of kernels; returns are about equally divided between Gellatly, Walters and Bates, with Walters and Gellatly somewhat larger in size. It is to be regretted that reports are incomplete or absent in connection with many varieties of nuts. We feel, however, that, in the main, the above ratings, especially when arrived at from cumulative evidence, reflect with fair accuracy, the present status of nut tree conditions in northern United States. _CANADA._ In all its chief characteristics, the Canadian nut growing experience follows the pattern of northern United States. The reports received from Canada numbered about one-tenth those received from the northern states--upon the whole, a satisfactory cross section. In summarizing these reports it will be necessary only to call attention to such practices and experiences in Canada as are at variance with those already reported from the northern states. For example, in response to the question, "What species are you planting experimentally or commercially?" we find, surprisingly, that Persian walnuts displace black walnuts from first place, at least in these reports, and that filberts and heartnuts come next. Then come black walnuts, butternuts, hickories, hazels, Chinese chestnuts, persimmons, Jap walnuts, almonds and a scattering of other species. Leading native wild trees are, first hazels, then black walnuts, hickories and butternuts. Winter climate is widely varied, being temperate along Puget Sound and close to the southern tier of the Great Lakes, but subject to great extremes in the prairie provinces. Lower winter temperatures in these provinces average from zero to 45° below, while the lowest recorded is reported to have been 62° below. It is evident that Canadians have widely variable problems, in spite of which three Canadians, exactly the number reported from the northern states, tell us that the sale of nuts is an important item in their annual incomes. It looks as though, in comparison, northern U. S. growers could do better. With an average frost-free season of less than five months (from May 7 to Oct. 2), Canadians do this. The normal dates of latest spring frosts average from April 20 to May 24, and of earliest fall frosts, from Sept. 10 to Oct. 12. Extremes at either end often shorten the season somewhat. Soil conditions are generally good, with plenty of loam and sandy-loam, half lime, half acid; but drought is serious in places, necessitating irrigation. One wonders whether, if more of us were pushed to it, we might not find irrigation so profitable that we would never again be without it. Cultural and soil corrective practices are, in general, similar to those previously reported. Less trouble is experienced from rodents--mice, rabbits, squirrels--but more from deer. Wrapping the trunks of young trees is more generally practiced than with us of more southern latitudes, and disk cultivation is more generally favored. In reply to the question, "What was your one greatest source of success?", the answers include, pollination by hand, the use of good trees, disking, planting hardy seed, and budding Persians on black walnut stocks. Failures were due mostly to the inevitable causes, cold, drought, weak growth. Alkaline soil is mentioned in one report as a chief difficulty. Bud worms, June beetle, leaf hoppers and walnut caterpillars are also enemies, but Canada seems free from some of the other pests that have invaded the United States. The most profitable species reported by Canadians are filberts, black walnuts, with "soft-shelled" walnuts mentioned by Mr. Gellatly, of West Bank, B. C. From Ontario, Mr. A. S. Wagner, of Delhi, writes, "We are collecting (nuts) now to make tests of various types of black walnuts this winter. There are one or two plantations of 1000 trees which will soon be bearing, and the future looks interesting." _Black Walnuts._ Four varieties appear in Canadian reports which have not been mentioned previously: Impit, Troup, Gifford and Neilson. Gifford and Neilson are said by Mr. Corsan, of Ontario, to be heavy croppers in Canada, Neilson "Very heavy." Impit is a splendid, upright-growing tree which should do well for timber production as well as for nuts. All trees printed in the questionnaire, Ohio, Rohwer, Stabler, Stambaugh, Ten Eyck and Thomas, are given "good" ratings for hardiness except Thomas which is fair. Gibson bears large nuts of good cracking quality. Neither Japanese chestnuts nor pecans are reported on from Canada. Chinese chestnuts and hybrid chestnuts are reported as planted and hardy, thus far, but have yet to bear. _Filberts._ Holden, Craig, Firstola, Comet and Brag show up as hardy and bear good crops of nuts of good quality. Other promising varieties are Petoka (new variety, small, thin shell,) Daviana, Churchvelt--significant name! Barcelona, DuChilly, Italian Red, Rush, White Aveline and Bixby are reported to be not hardy. Winkler is hardy. Mr. J. U. Gellatly, of West Bank, is working with a number of tree hazels, Chinese, Indian, Turkish and a cork-barked variety. All are rated by him as hardy in his area. They are young trees, not yet reported in bearing. _Butternuts._ In addition to previously named varieties, Edge is added and is given a foremost rating in all departments, The rating on others is not conclusive. _Persian Walnuts._ No new light is thrown on the performance of varieties already listed. Broadview is one of the hardiest, a good producer of fair nuts. Watt produces a large nut of finest flavor. Geloka is a good nut, and Corsan is hardy but bears a smaller nut of lesser kernel quality. _Hickories_ do not seem to interest Canadians. Stratford, first, and Weiker, second, are leaders. Stratford bears heavily but its quality in Canada is not up to par. _Heartnuts_ are a Canadian specialty. Gellatly, of all varieties in the printed list, is reported as best in all departments. Of the twelve varieties written in by reporters as worthy of special mention, it is difficult to make a just appraisal. Okanda, O. K., and Crofter are reported perfectly hardy through minus 20° of cold. Others, hardy and good in all departments, are, Mackenzie, Canoka, Walters, Rover, Calendar and Smyth. Stranger seems not quite so hardy, but Mr. Corsan calls it "the best heartnut grown", splendid in flavor, thin shelled, a little small but with a better than usual percentage of kernel. If heartnuts have a future, which seems almost inevitable, it looks as though Canada, if it continues as it has started, will be one of the main sources of supply for varieties. The Canadians are doing a creative job. _THE SOUTHERN AREA._ There are no nurserymen who report from the southern area. Practically all are interested in the production of nuts, but they are more alive than their northern neighbors to the value of timber, and more of them count upon it for a part of their profit from the planting of nut trees. Interest is about equally divided between methods of propagation, grafting, budding, top-working, planting seed of better varieties, artificial cross-pollination, and searching their neighborhoods for wild trees that show promise of superiority. The species being planted experimentally or commercially are, in order of precedence, black walnut, persimmon, pecan, Persian walnut, Chinese chestnut, hickories, filberts, hazels, heartnuts, Jap chestnuts, almonds, mulberry, native chestnuts, Jap walnuts, pawpaws and beech. Species of wild trees found locally follow closely the pattern of planting mentioned above, which is as it should be. Climatic conditions are, in-general, favorable. Peaches are in most places reliably hardy. Lowest temperatures normally expected range from 22° above to 20° below zero; and the highest normal summer temperatures range from 90° to 115°. Dates of normal late spring frosts have a very wide spread, being all the way from March 1 to May 12. Normal early frost expectancy is from Oct. 10 to Nov. 15. All long-season crops mature well. The chief climatic enemies are drought and hot, dry winds. As to growth conditions, clay soils predominate, but with plenty of loamy bottom land for nut planting. Acid soils predominate somewhat over lime soils, growing more unfavorably alkaline in the south-west. Cultural practices are generally the same as in the north, but with a greater proportionate use of mowing and mulching, no doubt induced by the need for protection against greater heat, as well as for conservative of moisture. A greater proportionate failure of young trees to start first year's growth is also probably due to heat injury in the spring and summer following planting. Tree wrapping seems to be the corrective chiefly indicated. The difficulties principally mentioned with matured trees are again mostly climatic; drought, sun-scald, early advent of spring followed by late frosts, delayed dormancy in the fall, poor filling in dry seasons, and biennial fruiting. Insect enemies which damage both trees and nuts are practically the same as in the north only there are more of them. Rodent damage and squirrel theft seem less troublesome there owing, perhaps, to protective measures and to the well developed hunting instinct among southern farm boys. A larger proportion of growers than are reported in the north sell nuts commercially, with pecans, walnuts, and chestnuts listed as the most profitable species. The practice is still limited as an important source of income, but a much greater proportion of planters look confidently forward toward profitable operations in the future. _Black Walnuts._ It is evident that in some of the warmer parts of the United States, California, for instance, the word "hardiness" takes on a certain connotation that we should understand better in the north. Its meaning there is "resistance to delayed dormancy", as one California report states it. As a matter of fact, it might be advisable for us all everywhere to think of hardiness in these terms. Delayed dormancy is hazardous in any tree, whether natural to it or induced artificially by late summer or early fall cultivation and fertilizing, and whether the tree is located in the north or in the south. When a tree goes into the winter with sappy wood, it is injured, and we say it is not hardy. That this is true in the south as well as in the north is well attested by the returns on black walnut trees of the south. There, the tree gives us a picture surprisingly similar to that of the north. In the south, if the tree's dormancy is delayed, it does not get its proper rest between crops and it dies or is stunted, in one way or another, for some time thereafter. In the north, if the following winter is severe, it simply dies. Perhaps the winter killed it. Or perhaps we killed it with unseasonable pampering. Reports show that in the south, Rohwer, Stambaugh, and Ten Eyck lead in hardiness in the printed list of black walnuts, with a score of 80% each. Ohio, Stabler and Thomas each average 75%. Of the written-in names, Sifford and Beck are reported hardy, followed by Creitz. Elmer Myers has only one report, which is rather unfavorable in this respect. In yield, Creitz has the best rating, then Thomas, Stambaugh, Sifford, Stabler and Beck, in that order. Thomas is the most precocious in early bearing. One report has it that Thomas kills itself, sometimes, by overdoing it in this respect. Stabler, Sifford, Creitz and Beck come next. All of these varieties are reported as having well filled nuts, with Stabler in the lead, which may come as a surprise to many. Other qualities, such as husking and cracking, size, and quality of kernel, are reported to be the same as in the north except that Stabler leads in cracking quality, with Thomas a rather poor second, owing, perhaps, to a shell too well filled for cracking without shattering the kernels. _Seedling Chestnuts._ More Chinese chestnuts are planted than Japs. They are hardier, yield better crops, are more precocious, and have a far better quality of kernel. The Japs excel only in size. _Named Chestnuts._ Hobson is hardy and an extremely precocious bearer of finest quality. Carr follows. Reports on these varieties, however, are not numerous enough to enable one to reach a satisfactory appraisal. Two Marron strains are mentioned as producers of very large nuts; otherwise this variety's record is not impressive. _Pecans._ Posey and Greenriver are given top mention for hardiness, with Busseron, Major, and Niblack next. In the more southern areas, of course, the more tender varieties are favored, such as Mahan, Success, Burchett, Schley and Stuart. Mahan seems to be the one most favored for general excellence in yield, flavor, and cracking qualities. It must be said, however, that, in flavor, these larger pecans are inferior to the best pecans of the indigenous northern varieties which are now being propagated. But because of their size, beauty, and productiveness, they will probably maintain their present leadership commercially. _Hybrid Pecans, Filberts, Butternuts._ Reports from the south are inadequate for appraisal. The inference one must draw is that they are not being planted extensively there. _Persian Walnuts._ The object of the inquiry, of course, was primarily to get information about varieties which might be capable of expanding their range toward the north. In this, so far as the southern reports are concerned, we have not been successful. Placentia and Eureka are mentioned in one report but their records, as reported, are not particularly good. Corroborative evidence is needed. Upon the whole, the south, strangely enough, seems not to be the place to look for Persian walnuts for the north. In California, the varieties of Persians, Juglans regia L., are well rooted to the ground. They object to more northern locations. This may not be entirely true of another species, J. hindsii, which in the past has shown a tendency to cross with other members of the juglans tribe. Crossed with the native black walnut, the hybrid known as "Royal" was developed, a robust grower which bears little. Crossed with the Persian, "Paradox" was produced. We are indebted to Mr. Harry S. Welby, of Taft, Calif., for some interesting J. hindsii varieties of good size and rather large, well filled kernel capacity. Upon their exterior, the nuts resemble the Persians, and the kernel has the Persian flavor. Inside the shell, the structure is that of the American black, with a substantial woody cross-brace, and the shell itself calls for a hammer for cracking. Neither Paradox nor Royal have proved of value except for stocks upon which the growers graft or bud their commercial cions. Much experimenting has been done in hybridizing J. hindsii, thus far without producing more than comparatively sterile "mules", but, the tendency to cross having been demonstrated, this work should be continued. Mr. Welby's samples have been sent to Mr. C. A. Reed, at the Beltsville Experiment Station, for evaluation. "Perhaps someone will know," says Mr. Welby, "the limit of cold J. hindsii will stand." Mr. Welby's comments accompanying his report are too interesting to omit. He says: "On the grounds of an oilfield camp, I have carried on collaboration with the U. S. D. A. Bureau of Plant Introduction for twenty years. The importation of graftwood of eastern soft shell black walnuts has been "on my own." Of black walnuts we have bearing trees among ornamental plantings. There has been a marked change of attitude from the early days when I was more or less looked upon as a freak for working with them. The nuts are valued today. The original objective has been attained. "In the meantime, I have purchased, 450 miles north of here, a twenty; have fenced and planted it to a brand of permanent pasture grasses known as "Evergreen", furnished by a grass specialist, Dale Butler, of Fresno. Prior to the grass, black walnuts, grafted and ungrafted had gone in. A strip bordering the highway was reserved for trees, we hope pistachio. There are now thirty of that variety, bearing, in an interior block. "We have for years purchased black walnut meats in the Chico area. That would be a paradise for a black walnut man. And years ago I visited Teharna, a deserted village from the storybook, a former pony express station--wonderful black walnuts! Upon placing my camera upon a stump of a tree that grew in the street-parking, which had been logged, I braced the camera with a chip of this four-foot stump and discovered that the tree had been a curly walnut. The trees there are not _J. hindsii_, but Missouri blacks planted by forty-niners. "Concerning pistachio: I doubt, considering the percentage of members who would be interested, whether I should bring this up, but there is need for just such an organization as the N. N. G. A. behind this tree. It does not lend itself to common nursery practice. It should be raised from seed, potted or in cans, reared without babying for several years, a horticulturist brought in, and your pistachio vera male and female blossoms worked to _P. atlantica_ or _chinensis_. Lots of work but it is worth the trouble. It is deciduous with a hickory-like foliage; clusters of nuts clothed in pink-cheeked hulls. Bailey reports best nuts come from Sicily. Perhaps knowledge of them will be more widely disseminated when the boys return." _Hickories._ This species seems not to be of great interest to the south. The old varieties are not mentioned in the reports. Nugget is mentioned by Mr. W. D. Dockery, of Steele, Ala., as one of the best. It grows well, yields well, its kernels have a good size and their quality is unusually good. Of _heartnuts_, only one is mentioned, the Lancaster, which leaves much to be desired in performance in the south. _Suggestions and Requests._ In response to the questions, "Is there any service that N. N. G. A. could render you not now being met?" and "Have you any suggestions for future work?", a number of responses were received which are worth noting. Dr. O. D. Diller, State Exper. Sta., Wooster, O., "We are thinking in terms of another state wide nut contest in the fall of 1944." It will be remembered that the last Ohio contest brought the Brown and Tritton trees to light. Both are making friends by good production of good nuts. This is a suggestion for promotion in other states. Sylvester Shessler, Genoa, O.: "Planted 10 nuts from Tritton parent tree in 1935. One seedling bore a larger nut than the parent tree. Several others bore very small nuts but all well filled." J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa., "Urge the members to run local contests for good nuts. It may bring members if not nuts, and you may find some good new neighbors you didn't know about." (One easily worked plan is to see the secretary of your county fair board, offer to pay half or all prize money for best nuts from a single tree in your own and surrounding counties. See that judging is done by someone who knows how or do it yourself.) Alfred J. Frueh, W. Cornwall, Conn., "Have had quite a lot of winter injury on the south-west side of black walnut trunks grafted near the ground. Note that seedling walnuts have a ridged, corky bark on the trunk already the second year, whereas a grafted trunk maintains its smooth bark for 6 to 8 years. Am now grafting on seedling stock 5 to 6 feet above the ground and much of the winter injury is thus eliminated." A. B. Anthony, Sterling, Ill., "If they can be had disease free, promote the planting of a few of the most choice chestnuts in widely scattered regions where no one grows such trees. Possibly our children can get back to chestnut growing." Seward Berhow, Huxley, Ia., "In a separate (pamphlet) or included in an early report, give a complete list of all named varieties, especially black walnuts, name of nut, name and address of originator, location of original tree, north latitude, year discovered, nuts per pound, score for cracking, kernel, prizes won. This would be very valuable for quick reference." The T. V. A. has issued a pamphlet giving much of this information. Also, we believe, Mr. C. A. Reed is at work on a book which will be worth waiting for. J. U. Gellatly, Westbank, B. C.: "Could not the Association supply samples of recommended nuts or perhaps give lists of those who would sell small (3 or 4) nut samples. I have sent out such samples of 2 or 3 each of varieties I have on hand up to 9 or 12 kinds, at 50 cents per package, post paid. This is not enough to pay for the time consumed but is a good advertising practice." Harry S. Welby, Taft, Calif.: "The ground squirrel is a pest here. Black walnut as bait will attract them in winter when fruits are scarce. At that time I have had some success with a box trap treadled by an electric contrivance instead of figure 4. Can anyone tell me any experience with scent baits which I believe Biological Survey trappers sometimes use? It may be a delicate question, but I should be interested in knowing more if the information is available." R. T. Dunstan, Greensboro College, Greensboro, N. C.: "I would be happy if this survey brings to light information on the behavior of the best and more recently discovered hickories. (If not,) I believe an article on performance of such varieties as Whitney, Grainger, Bergor, Davis, Wilcox, Schinnerling, etc., perhaps similar to that by Reed in 1938 Proceedings, would be highly valuable and welcome. Perhaps a report on T. V. A.'s nut tree work in recent years would also be worth while." C. H. Parks, Asheville, N. C.: "Would be interested in a chestnut that will grow in southern Appalachian regions." (See Mr. H. F. Stoke's report above. Chairman.) Harold G. Williams, Ramsey, N. J.: "I believe that most useful trees, both fruit and nut, that are now commercially important, were developed from selected seedlings grown in the area in which they are being used. I have a suggestion. How about a concerted breeding program for nut trees with full membership participation? The best parent trees should be selected from present plantings of grafted, named varieties. Ship these seeds, or one or two year old seedlings from them, to each member on a subscription basis. Let each member make a trial planting of as many trees as he can. When these trees come into bearing there will be a better chance of finding superior strains that are adapted to their environment. Hybridizing by cross pollination requires more time and skill than many of our members possess. There are, however, members who now own orchards containing some of the best varieties, such, for instance (among the black walnuts) as Thomas, Stabler, Stambaugh, and perhaps Elmer Myers, planted in such close proximity as to allow for cross pollination. Seed could be purchased from them and resold to members for their planting; costs to be kept fairly low, with annual reports required as to care, cultivation, fertilizing and growth. "An alternate plan would be to turn over such seed to Hershey, Smith, and other member nurserymen to plant, grow the young seedlings under best conditions, and furnish to member cooperators whose pledged subscriptions are to take care of the cost. This would give the cooperating nurseries a piece of business that could be depended upon (of a kind that would take comparatively little time as compared with that required for grafted trees), in return for their support. These trees could be planted fairly close, since most of them would prove to be useless as nut producers. If an outstanding variety is found, everything around it should be chopped down to give it room for development. I personally would raise and report upon some two dozen trees of this kind, and if a large group joined in the work, hundreds of tree could be tested." Comment: That the chairman of this committee thinks the above suggestion a good one, and the project a good gamble, is evidenced by the fact that he has about a thousand of such trees now growing. Seed was bought from Mr. Harry Weber's, Rockport, Ind., and Mr. C. F. Hostetter's Bird-in-Hand, Pa., plantations in the fall of 1937 and planted at once. Most of the seed was from Thomas trees which had been flanked in the plantations with Stablers and other named trees, and from Stablers similarly flanked. The trees have now had six years' growth. He hopes for first nuts in 1944 _from seedlings planted in deep loam only_. Growth elsewhere has been negligible. If no outstanding nut producers are found, there will at least be some splendid timber, already assured. It should be stated at once, however, that those whose object is the assured production of nuts, rather than the discovery or development of a new variety, should never plant anything but the best grafted trees bought from reliable nurserymen. Your decision should be governed by your interest. If you wish to be sure of nuts of a certain quality for home use, buy grafted trees of that quality. If, on the other hand, you have the urge to probe into the unknown and possibly create a new type, the above project will appeal to you, especially if you should lack training and time for more painstaking work. The following account is an example of the latter kind. Arthur H. Graves, Curator, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, says: "We are breeding chestnuts for the purpose of obtaining a disease-resistant timber tree stock similar to the old chestnut tree which has now nearly disappeared on account of the blight. We started breeding chestnuts here at the Botanic Garden in 1930, and now after thirteen years of work, have on our plantation at Hamden, Conn., Litchfield, Conn., where the White Memorial Foundation is cooperating with us, and Redding Ridge, Conn., where Mr. Archer M. Huntington and the Connecticut Agr. Exp't Station are cooperating, about 1000 hybrids, a large number of combinations of Chinese, Japanese and American chestnuts, many of them now in the third generation from the beginning of the breeding period in 1930. "We are carrying out our breeding program in the following way: "We have selected the Chinese and Japanese species to cross with the American because the Asiatic species are disease-resistant, and we hope to incorporate this quality of disease-resistance with the tall timber growth of the American. We find that the Chinese are in general more disease-resistant than the Japanese. Other stocks which have been incorporated in our hybrids are the European _C. sativa_, the southern chinquapins _C. pumilia_, _C. ozarkensis_, _C. floridana_, and Dr. Van Fleet's old hybrid, presumably of _C. crenata_ and _C. pumila_, which goes under the name of S8, and _C. seguinii_. After the hybrids become old enough, we inoculate the tallest of them with the blight fungus in order to get an index of their disease resistance. The most disease-resistant are bred together and of their offspring the tallest are selected, inoculated, and the most disease-resistant are bred together again. For example, this year we had 350 hybrids from last year's breeding experiments set out in a special nursery at Hamden and carefully tended during the season. Of these 350 we have selected 50 which are the tallest and straightest, that is, 20 inches and over. The others were sent to Washington, D. C., where the Division of Forest Pathology, Department of Agriculture, is working along a similar line, but with more attention to the nut phase of the problem. "Our ultimate aim, of course, is to establish a race of chestnut trees which shall replace our now practically extinct American chestnut. The loss in money value from this timber tree has amounted to millions of dollars in comparison with which the value of its nut crops is very small indeed. "However, we are interested in the nut problem, and whenever any particularly fine nuts appear we note the fact. We have now a strain of Chinese chestnut which has not yet come into bearing which we believe will have nuts as sweet as the old American chestnut, but much larger." With this forward-looking note we close our report. We have a foundation upon which to build that is substantial and tried. The pioneering work of a patient, far-sighted, and distinguished group of workers has shown us much of what to do and what not to do. It is now up to us, the farmers, the planters, to multiply their work and continue it. Side-lights on the 1943-4 Survey Very many interesting bits of information have been included in the survey reports; so many that the committee has regretfully omitted some that hardly seemed properly to belong with the material of a survey, which after all must have some limits. One such item is from J. C. McDaniel, of Haines City, Fla., and has a special interest for members of this Association. He says: "Perhaps you will be interested in data on one of America's largest Chinese chestnut trees, even if it does grow in Florida, at Monticello. It stands adjacent to a lot in which the late J. F. Jones had a nursery for a short time in the early years of this century, and apparently was planted at that time, around forty years ago. The trunk is now more than 25 inches in diameter below where it divides 6 feet above the ground. From this level, the tree branches profusely and has a symmetrical, rounded crown. It is healthy, not having a sign of the bark disease, although a native chinkapin 100 feet away is badly infested. It has abundant bloom and sets heavy crops of burrs but, lacking another variety for pollination, the number of nuts matured is small. Nuts are about average size for the species, of typical sweet flavor, and separate readily from the pellicle. Many of them become infested, before ripening, with a fungus which rots the kernel, apparently the same one which infests chestnuts and chinkapins at Savannah and Albany, Georgia. Mr. Paul Goldberg, of Monticello, the present owner, states that the tree has been bearing annually during the twenty years his family has owned it." This nut-rot among the oriental chestnuts is one of the diseases that have become troublesome elsewhere. It is being studied and efforts are being made to combat it. Thus far, so far as we know, no effective cure has been found. A report upon present progress would be worth while. Oscar E. Swan, Jr., Tulsa, Okla., reports an enviable situation. He says: "My nut trees are growing on a farm where more than 30 years of cultivation have failed to kill the native pecan sprouts. They come up year after year from the top roots. Since acquiring the place in 1936, I have allowed the pecan sprouts and the few native walnuts to grow unchecked except where necessary to cut them out to avoid crowding. The growth of these sprouts is quite vigorous, and they are ideal for top-working. I have top-worked a few trees every spring and now have about 300 grafted trees all the way from 6 to 30 feet tall. Many are too close together for full grown trees and I plan to thin them. My problems, so far, are the mechanical ones of top-working. I have settled upon a modification of the Biederman bark graft, which gives very good results. After the grafts are well established, the trees get very little attention except for cutting out the crowding trees. They are literally growing 'wild', yet the growth has been better than transplanted trees would have made with the best of care, because the root systems are well established in a situation which suits them. "This system of neglect probably explains why I have failed with some species and varieties such as the butternut and some of the hickories. Occasionally I am pleasantly surprised, as in the case of some seedling Carpathian walnuts which, grafted upon some established black walnut sprouts, came through the severe 1943 drouth in fine shape without benefit of mulch, cultivation, fertilizer, or watering. The same applies to the Helmick hybrid. (A two year old tree, a hybrid walnut, grafted and growing well on black walnut stock, and which Mr. Swan says will bloom next year.) I have pampered my Chinese chestnut trees with cultivation, mulch and manure, as they are located in poorer, drier soil. They were badly hit by the drouth. Some died in spite of the attention. "As to varieties, I am far enough south to grow all the standard southern pecan varieties, although several do not have a long enough season to mature their nuts. I am trying the northern varieties and, so far, am well pleased with their growth as compared with the southern kinds. It will be a few years before I can report on the size and quality of their nuts." J. C. McDaniel again: "Source and variety of seed in Chinese chestnuts have a great influence on the performance of seedlings. Numerous seedlings from the original Hobson tree began fruiting in their second season of growth, and half of the ones I have are fruiting during their fourth season. On the other hand, I have a tree from imported seed which grew nine seasons before setting and ripening its first burr. The above data refer to my planting near Hartselle, Morgan County, Ala., and that vicinity. I have several black walnut trees under observation, native trees, on which data are not yet complete enough for evaluation." If any man deserves a bright N. N. G. A. medal, it is A. L. Young, of Brooks, Alberta. Lowest temperature expected in winter, 45° below; lowest known, 62° below. Highest expected in summer, 101°. Frequent drouths? Yes. Hot, dry winds? Yes. Native nuts found plentifully? None. Sparingly? None. Yet Mr. Young plants nut trees. It is men like that who have made Canada what it is. It takes more than mere weather to stop them. The never-say-die spirit of pioneers speaks throughout his report: "Black walnuts, butternuts, some oaks, hazels and American chestnuts (Ohio buckeyes) all came through last winter well. However, late frosts reduced the nut crop. Of these species, filberts are not getting anywhere. Winkler, I believe, will eventually make a go of it. Heartnuts got a rough deal last winter, and European buckeye chestnuts were hurt a little by late spring frosts. Some Manchurian walnuts also got a setback with spring frosts, and some did not. Carpathian walnuts killed back quite a lot, so did most of my hybrid walnuts. Hybrid hazels seem perfectly hardy. Pecans, beechnuts and sweet chestnuts almost passed out of the picture last winter. Giant hickory from Ontario seems hardy but particular about the kind of soil and conditions. When irrigated, too much water will kill them. And this is true also of walnut and butternut seedlings. I have no acreage of nut trees. I grow seedlings and plant them wherever I find a place protected from the stock and within reach of moisture from the irrigation ditch, as this is a desert, cactus country. "I always have a stock of seedling trees on hand, and whenever visitors show any interest, I give or send them fruit or nut trees and a few perennial flowers. So there are sure to be a few nut trees, some day, growing successfully throughout Alberta. "There is more benefit from this northern seed, especially as I am using a commercial pollen with the hope of getting a hardy white walnut with possibly a coarse bark like the black to ward off sun-scald in this climate. They are on their way. I don't know when we'll be eating these imaginary nuts. However, it is not so long ago that fruit growing on the cattle range was a dream. I grew the first pears in Alberta, so far as we know. Now we are insulted if there is not a crop of fruit every year. I have many seedlings of standard apples, unnamed, that are really choice fruit, and, of course, a few named varieties that are doing fairly well. Minnesota has done great work in apple and plum breeding for the north. We are enjoying some of them right here. "I am sorry that I have no data on husking, cracking, etc. Really even the hardiest, best trees bear nuts that, while of fair size, do not have fleshy kernels, and some have three sections instead of two. Butternuts are very sweet with fair size kernels. I was surprised, after a long hard winter, to find the Ginkgo trees still alive and gaining growth. Credit some or all this result to J. U. Gellatly and Paul Crath for supplying me with seed, seedlings, and pollen to carry on with. I am greatly obliged to them and also to George Corsan of Echo Valley, Islington, who has a wealth of nut interest. "We have had a mighty dry year here, so, between irrigating and tending the largest herd of Ayrshire cattle in the prairie provinces, I have been busy. The town of Brooks is probably the only town in Canada on straight Ayrshire milk; and the change in Brooks from a box-car on a siding years ago to the Brooks of today, with its hundreds of healthy children now on the streets, is the marvel of a man's lifetime." George H. Corsan, Echo Valley, Islington, Ont.: "Last winter, 1942-43, was by far the coldest ever recorded. No damage to filberts. A few inches of twigs were hurt on certain English walnuts. The Stranger heartnut, a tender variety, passed through unscathed. Persimmons and pawpaws passed without a bud killed. These are perfectly hardy varieties. Jujubes passed O. K., but that may be due to the very deep snows." Dr. Oliver D. Diller, Associate Forester, Ohio Experiment Sta., Wooster, Ohio: "You will be glad to know that the experiment station has set aside some land for improved varieties of nut trees. If you find some promising walnuts which might be tested in this part of the state, we should be glad to have you keep us in mind." This is indeed welcome news and will be appreciated by all growers in this area. J. G. Duis, Shattuc, Ill.: "A chicken yard is one of the best places to grow nut trees." J. U. Gellatly: "I do not believe in selling nuts for seed purposes except on a very large scale." J. C. McDaniel: "A neighbor lost some 5 year old Chinese chestnut trees following a summer drouth on silty loam soil, rather shallow to hard-pan. It is my observation that deeper, sandier soils (not too extremely sandy) are best for chestnuts in the coastal plain and other regions subject to summer drouths. In the mountains where summer rainfall is more uniform, they thrive also in clay soils." G. H. Corsan: "Best success in grafting (hickories) has been in juicy, wet springs. Heartnuts must not be budded until late August (in Islington, Ontario). Heartnuts must not be pruned." A. L. Young, Alberta: "There is a demand for young walnuts for pickling." (Does anyone know the details--when to pick, how to pickle?) (Note by Ed. Several recipes and methods in Am. Nut Journal now out of print but indexed by Ed. Copies of this index in his hands and those of Mr. C. A. Reed at Washington. Also recipes in 33rd Ann. Report p. 95). Sterling A. Smith, Vermillon, O.: "With me, summer budding is the most successful means of propagating black walnuts." J. Russell Smith: "Chinese chestnuts will blight some if under-nourished." Which includes the wrong kinds of soil, if uncorrected. "Does anyone know for sure how to get pawpaw seed to germinate?" Several have asked this question. The chairman has had the same trouble, so can not answer. (Note by Ed. See "Nut Puttering in an Offyear" in this report.) So far as the correspondence shows, no state or federal department buys seed on a large scale (with the exception, now, of chestnut seed) from trees of the better named varieties with which to grow seedlings for distribution by state nurseries for forest planting. All nut seed seems to be gathered haphazardly. W. G. Tatum, Lebanon, Ky.: "A nut tree with plenty of root, top cut back one third, promptly set, roots protected, stem wrapped, 4 inches, mulch applied, set either spring or fall, grows for me 99% of the time. Failures are not worth mentioning if the above conditions are met." Carl Weschcke, St. Paul, has a dozen or so extra hardy Persian walnuts by selection from some 12,000 seedlings. Also is introducing the hardy "Hazelbert," result of crosses between wild varieties and filberts. "Dip wire screen guards in red lead and they will be good for twenty years." Thomas and Stambaugh, among the black walnuts, are, with justice, entrenched leaders, but it will be well to watch Patterson, Mintle, Elmer Myers, Eureka, Creitz, Todd, and other promising new ones less well known. Thomas is more prolific in the south (generally) than in the north, which indicates that its bloom may possibly be out nearly enough to suffer in the north from late frosts. Among chestnuts, the weight of evidence favors Hobson, Carr and Reliable, though J. Russell Smith says he has something he likes better than the first two. Among pecans, Major, Greenriver, Pleas; among filberts and hazels, Winkler, Jones hybrid, Cosford, Gellatly, Brixnut; among Persian walnuts, Broadview, one or two Crath varieties, Payne, Breslau; among hickories, Stratford, Fairbanks, Barnes, Glover, Weschcke. These seem, so far as the returns show, to have outstanding points of superiority. In any such survey, injustice is bound to be done to some not fully reported. Outside of filberts in the northwest, no northern grown nut can yet be said to have reached the status of a profitable commercial crop. (Exception: The narrow pecan belt along the southern terminus of the Ohio river valley; mostly wild trees.) Dr. A. S. Colby, University of Illinois says, "The report from the State Statistician at Springfield indicated a crop of 575,000 pounds of pecans for Illinois in 1943. I don't know just where they came from." Short crops were reported in Calhoun and Gallatin, leading nut producing counties. No reports have been received as to the size of pecan crops in the Kentucky and southern Indiana portions of the same belt. The search for better varieties must continue, but it is also altogether likely that with an orchardist's attention, with cultivation, mulching, fertilizing, spraying one to three times yearly with Bordeaux and lead sprays, we might approach the commercial goal more closely with what we have today. Is anyone treating a bearing nut orchard as well as he would treat an apple orchard? That's the test. S. H. Graham of Ithaca, N.Y. says: "The Ohio is commonly regarded as hard to hull. With a chained tire husker it hulls as well as any." He rates it for hardiness and a percentage of 90 to 100 for filled nuts, while Thomas yields only 0 to 90%. [Illustration: Seasonal Zones Compiled from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Records, Based on the Average Date of the Last Killing Frost in Spring] Juglone--The Active Agent in Walnut Toxicity _By GEORGE A. GRIES, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station_ The problem of walnut toxicity dates back at least to the writings of Pliny. In his "Natural History," this Roman philosopher stated that "the shadow of walnut trees is poison to all plants within its compass" and that it kills whatever it touches. The first rebuttal to the existence of such a toxicity was forwarded by Evelyn in the 17th century. This author discussed the high regard in which walnuts were held in Burgundy as field trees. The roots of these trees were below the plow sole and thus did not affect either cultivation nor the growth, of grasses and cereals beneath them. The pros and cons of the problem have been reviewed several times in the recent proceedings of the Northern Nut Growers Association. (Greene, 1930; MacDaniels and Muenscher, 1942; Brown, 1943.) That the roots of walnut trees are toxic to the roots of certain crop plants in direct contact with them is widely accepted. In nature this toxicity seems to be limited to plants with tap root systems such as tomato and alfalfa (Davis, 1923) and those with other types of deep root systems such as apple trees (Schneiderhan, 1927), rhododendrons (Pirone, 1938), and privet. This toxicity is exhibited only when there is a direct contact between the roots of the two plants involved. (Jones, 1903; Massey, 1925). That the wilting observed under walnuts is due to a toxic product from the bark of the walnut, and does not result from a lack of water, is substantiated by the fact that the vascular or water conducting system is discolored for several inches above the point of contact with the walnut root. This symptom is very similar to that produced by vascular disease fungi. No such discoloration results from wilting due to competition for water. This symptom of toxicity has been overlooked by many workers in the field. Massey (1925) suggested that the toxic component of walnuts might be juglone. This idea was further supported by Davis (1928). Today this concept is widely held. Chemically this substance is known as 5, hydroxy-1, 4, naphtho-quinone and belongs to a group of strong oxidizing agents with commercial uses, including tanning agents, medicinals, poisons, etc. A knowledge of the physiology of juglone in the walnut is essential to an understanding of the divergent results obtained by various experimenters. Juglone, as such, occurs probably only in minute quantities in the inner root bark, and in the green husks of the nuts. These regions are, however, rich in a substance known as hydrojuglone. This compound, the colorless, non-toxic, reduced form of juglone is immediately oxidized to its toxic form upon exposure to the air or some oxidizing substance from the roots of other plants. Upon standing in the air juglone again disappears, being either changed back to hydrojuglone or broken down into other non-toxic substances. This sequence of events may be noted in a fresh green husk of a black walnut. When the fresh husk is cut, the interior is white but immediately turns yellow as the colorless hydrojuglone is transformed into the yellow juglone. Upon standing or drying the husk becomes black as further chemical changes occur. It is impossible to extract juglone from these dried husks without first reoxidizing them. It now becomes possible for us to understand some of the discrepancies in the studies on walnut toxicity. If walnut bark or other plant parts are allowed to become desiccated, no toxicity may be found. If the roots of plants do not contact plant parts containing juglone or hydrojuglone, their oxidizing ability can not produce the toxin. Further the relative amounts of juglone in various species of _Juglans_ has not been completely investigated. It does occur definitely in _J. nigra_ and _J. cinerea_ and has been reported as being in _J. regia_. Other species need investigation before being included as sources of juglone. It is known that many plants are not adversely affected when grown under or near walnut trees. Some of these have root systems too shallow to contact the roots of the walnuts, especially in plowed ground. Some plants may send out sufficient surface roots to keep the plant alive in spite of injury to the deeper roots. The possibility that the roots of some plants are capable of withstanding the oxidizing power of the juglone is currently under study. In early American folklore, the inner bark and the husks of the nuts were used as a source of a yellow dye for cloth. This yellow dye is juglone. The ancients also used this method of dying both cloth and hair. Another property of juglone is its toxicity to fish. A few years ago it was a common practice in the South to cut the husks from young nuts and throw them immediately into a still pond of water. The fish, stunned by the juglone, would rise to the surface and were collected and eaten. No one seemed to worry about the effects of such poisoned food on the consumers. Juglone is toxic to fungi and bacteria. Of all the medicinal powers attributed to walnuts by the Greeks and Romans, its use in curing certain skin diseases including ringworm has held up through the ages until many today can recall the use of the green husks for control of ringworms. Brissemoret and Michaud (1917) reported the use of juglone in clinical cases for the cure of eczema, psoriasis, impetigo and other skin diseases and concluded that juglone deserves extensive use in dermatology. To our knowledge the medical profession has not followed up the possibilities which this substance offers. The author is familiar with one case in which pure juglone was applied to a persistent ringworm infection. The infection disappeared within a month after treatment was begun. Though conclusions can not be drawn on a single case, certainly this observation lends credence to the medicinal lore of the ancients and the American pioneers. During the fall and winter of 1942-43, investigations on juglone were started at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station in conjunction with studies of the effect of other plant toxins on the roots of higher plants. When the toxicity of this oxidizing compound was established, it was produced in some quantity both by extraction from walnuts after the method of Combes (1907) and by synthesis after the method of Bernthsen and Semper (1887). Working on the assumption that the killing of germinating fungus spores and root hairs are similar phenomena, juglone was subjected to standardized laboratory tests for fungicidal value. In a series of experiments, this compound proved to be equally toxic with the copper in Bordeaux mixture. Such a high degree of toxicity was deemed worth further investigation, so juglone was tested as a seed protectant and as a spray in field trials for the control of black spot of roses. As a seed protectant, juglone failed miserably. It's toxicity to the noncutinized surfaces of root tissues was so great that germination was abnormal and greatly impaired. The injury noted here was apparently the same as that discussed by Brown (1943) and that which occurs normally in the field. In field tests on the control of black spot of roses juglone stood up well. No phytotoxic activity could be noted on the cutinized stem and leaf surfaces. On the variety George Ahrens, juglone gave equal control with 2-1/2 times as much 325 mesh sulfur, the standard control for this disease. SUMMARY 1. Under certain conditions walnut trees exhibit toxicity to those plants whose roots are in intimate contact with the roots of the walnut. 2. This toxicity is due to the action of juglone, the oxidized form of hydrojuglone, a non-toxic substance occurring in the inner bark and green husk of walnuts. 3. Juglone has been used in dermatology to cure various skin disorders including both bacterial and fungus diseases. 4. As a seed protectant, juglone is unsuitable because of its inherent toxicity to the non-cutinzed root surfaces. 5. Laboratory and field tests have shown juglone to be an excellent fungicide LITERATURE CITED 1. Bernthsen, A. and A. Semper Ueber die Constitution des Juglons und seine Synthese aus Naphtalin. Ber. d. deutsch. Chem. Gesellsch. 20: 934-941. 1887. 2. Brissemoret et Michaud Sur une nouvelle classe de médicaments de la peau; les quinones peroxydes. Jour. pharm. et chim. 7e ser. 16:283-285. 1917. 3. Brown, Babette I. Injurious influence of bark of black walnut on seedlings of tomato and alfalfa. Northern Nut Growers' Assn., Proc. 1942:97-102. 1943, 4. Combes, R. Sur un procéde de preparation et de purification des dérivés oxyanthraquinoniques et oxynapthoquinoniques en genéral, du juglon et de l'émodine en particulier. Bull. soc. chim. 4c ser. 1: 800-816. 1907. 5. Cook, Mel T. Wilting caused by walnut trees. Phytopathology 11:346. 1921. 6. Davis, Everett. The toxic principle of _Juglans nigra_ as identified with synthetic juglone, and its toxic effects on tomato and alfalfa plants. Amer. Jour. Bot. 15: 620. 1928. 7. Greene, K.W. The toxic (?) effect of the black walnut: Northern Nut Growers' Assn., Proc. 1929: 152-156. 1930. 8. Jones, L. R. and W. J. Morse The shrubby cinquefoil as a weed. 16th Ann. Rpt, Vt, Agr. Expt. Sta. 188-190. 1902-03. 9. MacDaniels, L. H. and W. C. Muenscher Black walnut toxicity. Northern Nut Growers' Assn., Proc. 1940 172-179. 1941. 10. Massey, A. B. Antagonism of the walnuts (_Juglans nigra I._ and _J. cinerea_.) in certain plant associations. Phytopathology 15: 773-784. 1925. 11. Pirone, P. P. The detrimental effect of walnut to Rhododendrons and other ornamentals. Nursery Disease Notes 11; 1-4. 1938. 12. Plinius Secundus, C. The historie of the world. English translation by P. Holland, A. Islip, London. 1601. 13. Schneiderhan, F. J. The black walnut (_Juglans nigra L._) as a cause of death to apple trees. Phytopathology 17: 529-540. 1927. Possible Black Walnut Toxicity on Tomato and Cabbage _By OTTO A. REINKING New York State Agricultural Experiment Station_ The toxicity or antagonism of black walnut roots and those of certain other plants has been a controversial question. L. H. MacDaniels and W. C. Muenscher in a report on page 172 of the Thirty-first Annual Meeting of the Nut Growers' Association held in 1940 cited evidence pro and con relative to the toxic effect of black walnut on various crops. They concluded that because of conflicting evidence, the problem of walnut toxicity was still unsolved and needed further investigation. In 1942, Babette I. Brown reported on page 97 of the Thirty-third Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, on the injurious influence of bark of black walnut roots on seedlings of tomato and alfalfa. It was concluded, from carefully conducted tests, that walnut roots produce a substance that may be injurious to certain other plants. Experimentation showed that the walnut root bark produces a substance that is injurious to alfalfa and tomato seedlings. During the past years, a number of instances of stunting and wilting of tomato plants in the vicinity of black walnut trees has been observed. In 1942, a very definite case of wilting and stunting was noted in cabbage plants growing in the vicinity of a black walnut tree. Severely wilted tomato plants were observed on July 30, 1943, in a field of tomatoes near Egypt, New York. This case was typical of others observed in tomato fields in recent years. The wilting and stunting were all located in one corner of the field, on both sides of which large black walnut trees were growing, and extended out in the field for a distance somewhat greater than the height of the trees. The rest of the field planted with the same stock of tomatoes was entirely healthy. The field had been planted to beans in 1942 and prior to that had been in grass for at least 7 years. The vascular bundles of affected plants were browned as in Verticillium or Fusarium wilt and in some bacterial diseases. No cankers or discolorations were observed on the external parts of the plants. In order to determine whether or not the wilting was caused by a fungus or bacterium, plants were collected for microscopic examination and for culturing to show possible presence of pathogens. The microscopic examinations showed the absence of fungi or bacteria in the vascular system or other plant tissues. The browning in the vascular bundles appeared to be confined to the phloem tissue. All attempts to culture a pathogenic fungus or bacterium from affected tissue was negative. Portions of diseased plants with discolored vascular bundles were placed in a damp chamber and no fungus or bacterial growth developed from the vascular system. From these field and laboratory studies, it was concluded that the wilting and stunting were not produced by a plant pathogen. Since the affected plants in the field were all confined to the area adjacent to black walnut trees, and the fact that it had been shown that the bark of this tree does produce a substance that is toxic to certain plants, it was concluded by circumstantial evidence alone that the wilting possibly was due to black walnut toxicity or antagonism of some sort. In August of 1942, studies were made on wilted and stunted cabbage plants growing in a semicircle on one side of a field adjacent to a walnut tree (Fig. 1). The field was located near Hall, New York, in a region known to be infested with cabbage yellows. From a distance, the affected plants appeared to have yellows, but upon close study, it was found that they were merely wilted and stunted and did not show the other typical symptoms of the yellows disease. The root systems of wilted plants did not show the presence of club root or black rot infection. The plants in the field were all of one variety and came from the same seed bed. Microscopic studies and attempts to culture a fungus from the vascular bundles of affected plants showed the absence of any fungus that might have caused, the disease. Since the affected plants showed no symptoms of known cabbage diseases and as they were growing in a semicircle adjacent to a walnut tree, it was concluded that the presence of the root system of this tree might have been the cause of the trouble. [Illustration: Fig. 1. Wilted and stunted cabbage plants growing in a semicircle adjacent to a black walnut tree. Note large, healthy plants in foreground, side and background about a semicircle of smaller, wilted plants, growing in an area affected by the root system of the black walnut tree.] These two instances of wilting and stunting of plants in the vicinity of walnut trees give further circumstantial evidence that the trouble might have been caused by the toxicity or antagonism of black walnut roots. Detailed experiments with the plants in question would have to be run to prove this assumption. Preliminary Studies on Catkin Forcing and Pollen Storage of Corylus and Juglans L. G. COX, _Cornell University_ Methods of collecting and storing pollen are of great interest to those engaged in plant breeding. Very little reliable information is available for the various nut species compared with many other horticultural plants. The following preliminary experiments were conducted to obtain data on germination media, forcing methods, and storage conditions for Corylus and Juglans Sieboldiana pollen. The former was mostly from hybrid plants produced by crossing the Rush filbert (Corylus americana) with European varieties. _The optimum temperature and sugar concentration for germination of Corylus pollen._ The cut ends of Corylus branches with mature catkins collected March 1, 1942 were immersed in water and forced into shedding pollen in a room at a temperature of approximately 20° centigrade. The collected pollen was sifted upon the surface of a thin layer of sugar-agar in petri dishes. Commercial cane sugar was used in preference to purified sucrose, because other studies have shown it to contain impurities which stimulate pollen germination. A range in sugar concentration from 5% to 55% by weight in 5% intervals was made up in distilled water containing 1.5% agar, heated to boiling and poured into the petri dishes. The pollen was incubated at 10° C. and at 25° C. on the agar medium for 48 and 24 hours respectively prior to making the germination counts. Pollen was assumed to have germinated if the length of the pollen tube exceeded the diameter of the pollen grain. At 25° C. germination was prompt and uniform with a maximum of 19.5% at 25% sugar concentration. At 10° C. the rate of germination was very slow and incomplete at the end of 48 hours with a maximum of 9% germination at 35% sugar concentration. For subsequent work a temperature of 25° C. and a sugar concentration of 25% by weight was taken as a standard. _The effect of temperature and humidity during forcing on the viability of the pollen_ Pollen shed from catkins forced in a warm, dry room (about 75° F.), and in a cool, humid greenhouse (60° F.) gave pollen germinating 36% and 69% respectively, which indicated that the air temperature and humidity surrounding the developing catkins may have considerable effect on the viability of the maturing pollen. The experiment was repeated by forcing the catkins at 10° C., 18-20° C., and 24-26° C., at two humidity levels. The low humidity level corresponded to the natural room humidity, about 25% and the higher level of nearly 100% was achieved by enclosing the branches with catkins in large sealed cans over a water surface. As soon as a majority of the catkins began to shed their pollen or to absciss their full developed anthers, the catkins were removed and dried on a sheet of smooth paper at room temperature until the pollen was shed. The pollen was then collected and stored at 4° C. until used. The results obtained are given in table 1. Table 1. Percentage germination after 24 hours of Filbert pollen forced at different temperatures and humidities. -------------------------------------------------------------- Temperature 10° C. 18-20° C. 24-26° C. Low humidity 80 31 7 High humidity 96 60 12 -------------------------------------------------------------- Later experiments indicate that the pollen viability is greatly lowered if the catkins are removed from the higher humidities prior to the maturity of the anthers as indicated by their tendency to shed their pollen. Apparently the high humidity hinders the dehiscence of anthers and shedding of the pollen grains. _Effect of catkins extracts on pollen germination_ The failure of pollen to germinate in the catkins at 100% humidity suggested the possibility that the catkin tissue might contain some substance which prevented germination of the mature pollen grains until after it was shed. Two mature catkins plus remnants of their unshed pollen were ground in a mortar with a small amount of water in clear quartz sand. One cubic centimeter of the resulting turbid suspension was added to 10 cc. of warm fluid agar and mixed by rotating the petri dish. Pollen which gave a 91% germination on the standard medium showed only 50% germination on this catkin extract. Germination was distinctly abnormal with short stubby pollen tubes, often with numerous nodular swellings. In general the pollen tube grew up into the air away from the surface of the agar, rather than down into it or parallel with the surface as in normal germination. _Storage of Corylus and Juglans Sieboldiana pollen_ Sulphuric acid solutions to give humidities from 10% to 100% in 10% intervals were made up. The storage chambers consisted of Atlas one-pint, wide-mouth fruit jars. In the bottom of each was placed a small 1-oz. bottle containing 20 cc. of the sulphuric acid solution. The pollen was placed in small glass vials loosely stoppered with cotton. Two lots of Corylus pollen of 80-1/2 and 96-1/2 initial viability respectively, and one lot of Juglans Sieboldiana pollen of well over 50% viability were used in the experiment. Storage temperatures of 0° 40° and 10° were used. The Corylus pollen was placed in storage March 20, 1942, and the Juglans April 12, 1942. The pollen was taken out of storage November 28, 1942 and germinated on the standard agar-sugar medium at 25° C. for 24 hours. Results are given in table II. Table II. The effect of storage temperature and humidity on percentage germination of Corylus and Juglans pollen ------------------------------------------------------------------ Kind of Temperature Degrees Per cent relative humidity Pollen Centigrade 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 ------------------------------------------------------------------ Corylus 10° 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -- Juglans -- 0 -- 0 3 0 0 -- Corylus 4° 0 0 0 0 9.0 0 -- 0 Juglans -- 0 -- 0 -- 0 0 0 Corylus 0° 3.0 1.0 4.5 8.5 0 0 0 0 Juglans -- 0 -- 12.0 -- 12.0 0 0 ------------------------------------------------------------------ This preliminary work indicates that Corylus pollen can best be stored at 0° C. at 30 to 40% relative humidity and Juglans pollen at 0° C. at 40 to 60% relative humidity. _Summary_ 1. The optimum sugar concentration for germination of Corylus pollen is around 25% by weight in 1.5 per cent agar at 25° C. 2. Forcing the catkins at a low temperature (4° C.) and at high relative humidity (80%) favors the development of a high percentage of viable pollen. 3. The catkins contain some substance which when added to the germination media inhibits pollen germination and causes abnormal types of germination. 4. Preliminary results on pollen storage indicate that Corylus americana pollen can be stored for eight months or more in a viable condition at 0° C. with a range of 30 to 40% relative humidity. Juglans Sieboldiana pollen can be stored at 0° C. at 40 to 60% relative humidity. Whether or not pollen stored for this length of time would be effective in plant breeding should be tested by actual trial. The supposition based upon studies with other pollens is that germination tests are a reliable indication of the effectiveness of pollen in fertilization. Storage and Germination of Nuts of Several Species of Juglans W. C. MUENSCHER AND BABETTE I. BROWN _Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y._ While working on the general problem of the possible toxic effect of the roots of species of Walnut (_Juglans_) upon other plants we have had occasion to germinate the nuts to produce seedlings for experimental use.[1] The storage treatment employed previous to planting the nuts provided a successful method of supplying viable nuts. The simple treatment used, a modification of that suggested by Barton,(2) is briefly described and the results that may be obtained are indicated in a report of some germination data from the plantings of 1943. The nuts were harvested after they had fallen from the trees and were stored in a cool place as soon as possible thereafter until the time when the husks were removed. Those harvested at Ithaca were put in cold storage at once; those harvested in California or Texas were delayed a few weeks during shipment. The husked nuts were stratified between layers of moist peat 2 cm. thick in two-or five-gallon crocks. The uppermost layer of nuts was covered with peat to a depth of about 10 cm. The nuts were placed in a cold room at 1 to 3° C. in late autumn and left until they were planted, between April 15 and June 2. Nearly all species used germinated well after about five to six months of cold storage. Table 1 shows the results obtained from treated nuts of ten species of _Juglans_ when they were planted in the open field, in soil in the greenhouse or in moist sphagnum in the greenhouse. While some variation in germination is observed, most of the species gave a good germination under all treatments. The field planted seeds were somewhat slower in appearing above the soil surface than those planted in the greenhouse. This delay may have been caused by the cold rainy weather soon after planting. The firmness of the soil, a clay loam, may also have retarded the emergence of the seedlings. The germination percentages are based upon lots of 100 nuts except in a few species in which only 50 nuts were used. Differences in the percentage of germination obtained from various plantings of the same species are slight in most species. Even the larger differences in germination obtained in a few species cannot be considered significant but probably indicate variations in the quality of the original lots used. Summary Walnuts husked soon after harvest, before they are completely air-dried, and stored in moist peat at 1 to 3° C. for five to six months have their dormancy broken and remain viable for at least three months thereafter. This treatment is effective for all ten species tested. It is probably effective for all species of _Juglans_. This method of handling the nuts has the advantage over outdoor stratifying or autumn planting which often result in much damage or loss of nuts from the activities of rodents. Table 1. Germination of nuts of _Juglans_ spp. after stratifying in peat over winter, at 1-3°C. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Per cent germination ------------------------------------- |Date |Planted in| |Planted Kind Source |entered|soil in |Planted |in |in |greenhouse|in field|sphagnum |storage|April 15 |April 24|June 2 -----------------------------------+-------+----------+--------+-------- nigra (Cornell) Ithaca, N.Y. |Oct. 1 | 70 | 80 | 68 nigra (Cayuga) Ithaca, N.Y. |Oct. 1 | 100 | -- | 80 cinerea--Ithaca, N.Y. |Oct. 1 | 60 | 44 | 8 regia (Sorrentina) Chico, Calif. |Nov. 9 | 66 | 48 | 8 regia (Franquette) Chico, Calif. |Nov. 9 | 80 | 36 | -- regia--Chico, Calif. |Nov. 9 | 75 | 46 | -- Sieboldiana--Ithaca, N.Y. |Oct. 1 | 100 | 40 | -- honorei--Chico, Calif. |Dec. 18| 60 | 55 | 46 pyriformis--Riverside, Calif. |Nov. 9 | 10 | 54 | 31 rupestris--Alpine, Texas |Oct. 1 | 40 | 83 | 50 major--Riverside, Calif. |Nov. 9 | 90 | 92 | 66 californica--Pomona, Calif. |Nov. 9 | 62 | 84 | 91 californica quercina--Chico, Calif.|Dec. 18| -- | 18 | 25 hindsii--Riverside, Calif. |Nov. 9 | 50 | 56 | 52 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ References-- 1. Brown, Babette I. Injurious Influence of Bark of Black Walnut Roots on Seedlings of Tomato and Alfalfa. Northern Nut Growers Association, 1942: 97-101. 1943. 2. Barton, Lela V. Seedling Production in _Carya ovata_. _Juglans cinerea_ and _Juglans nigra_. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. 8: (1) 1-5. 1936 A Key to Some Seedlings of Walnuts W. C. MUENSCHER AND BABETTE I. BROWN _Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y._ While working with the seedlings of several species of walnuts certain diagnostic characters, by which the common species can be separated, became evident. These characters have been used to make a key to seedlings from one to three months of age. This key has been found helpful to us and it is here presented in the hope that it may prove useful to others who need to handle and determine walnuts in the seedling stage. The key has two main divisions based upon the types of leaves on the main axis. The first division includes three species, _Juglans sieboldiana_, Japanese butternut, _J. cinerea_, American butternut, and _J. regia_, Persian or English walnut, all of which have only compound green leaves. In addition, one or more pairs of minute simple scales or buds occur on the lower part of the stem but above the cotyledons. The second main division includes species in which the seedlings have several simple, alternate, scale-like leaves followed successively by serrate, lobed and finally compound leaves forming a gradual series. This group includes _Juglans rupestris_, Texas black walnut, _J. nigra_, eastern black walnut, _J. honorei_, Ecuador walnut, _J. pyriformis_, Mexican walnut, _J. major_, Arizona black walnut, _J. californica_, California black walnut, and _J. hindsii_, Hind's black walnut. It is important that the leaves on the primary axis arising from the plumule are examined. If the primary axis is injured secondary shoots may arise from the axils of the cotyledons. These may develop various types of leaves not necessarily like those of the primary axis. The key is based upon seedlings grown in the field and in the greenhouse at Ithaca, New York. _A Key to seedlings of some species of Juglans_ 1. Leaves on the primary axis all compound; 1 to 4 pairs of opposite or subopposite reduced scales or buds sometimes present on the lower axis but above the cotyledons. 2. Scales or buds wanting between the lowest compound leaves and the leaves and the cotyledons _J. sieboldiana_ 2. Scales or buds in pairs on 1 to 4 nodes below the compound leaves. 3. Stem with 1 pair of opposite scales or buds near the base; leaflets hairy, serrate _J. cinerea_ 3. Stem with 2 to 4 pairs of opposite scales or buds below the compound leaves; leaflets glabrous, entire or denticulate _J. regia_ 1. Leaves on the primary axis alternate, forming a gradual series from simple, entire scales to compound leaves; the lower 3 to 8 leaves simple. 4. Lateral veins of leaflets all or mostly all terminating in the notches between marginal teeth _J. rupestris_ 4. Lateral veins of leaflets or their main branches all or mostly all terminating in the apex of marginal teeth. 5. Midrib of leaflets glandular hairy. 6. Glandular hairs on midrib of young leaflets interspersed with stellate clusters of gray glandless hairs; lateral leaflets ovate to broadly lanceolate, rugose _J. nigra_ 6. Glandular hairs on midrib of young leaflets interspersed with sessile, usually yellow glands; lateral leaflets lanceolate, not rugose _J. honorei_ 5. Midrib of leaflets glabrous or nearly so, sometimes with scattered, sessile glands. 7. Leaflets lanceolate, with acuminate apex; rhachis glabrous. 8. Leaflets widest near middle; vein-islets prominently raised; free ends of veins wanting or if present distinct to the apex and mostly unbranched _J. pyriformis_ 8. Leaflets mostly widest below the middle; vein-islets not prominently raised; free ends of veins slender, terminating in indistinct branches _J. major_ 7. Leaflets ovate or nearly so, with obtuse or acute apex; rhachis somewhat pubescent. 9. Petioles of the 3 lower compound leaves less than 1 cm. long; leaves crowded on a short axis _J. californica_ 9. Petioles of the lower compound leaves from 1+ to 3 cm. long; leaves more distant on an elongated axis _J. hindsii_ Further Tests with Black Walnut Varieties L. H. MACDANIELS _and_ J. E. WILDE, _Cornell University_ In 1937 the Northern Nut Growers Association committee on varieties and judging standards proposed a tentative schedule for the judging and evaluation of black walnut varieties(1). It was pointed out at that time that for one reason or another none of the schedules which had been used in judging walnuts were satisfactory and usable in giving an accurate estimate of the cracking quality and value of a variety. It was recognized also that the schedule proposed was only tentative and that it would need to be modified in the light of future testing and experience. In 1939 the question was again considered(2) and on the basis of tests which had been made, changes were proposed which would make the schedule more realistic. Since then many tests have been made using the modified schedule. The purpose of this paper[A] is to give the data secured in these tests and to consider again the value of the schedule and possibilities of improvement. [Footnote A: The authors are indebted to many persons for furnishing samples for testing and for making duplicate tests. This cooperation is gratefully acknowledged with thanks.] Recently a number of papers have been published dealing with the evaluation of black walnut varieties. In 1941 Kline and Chase(3) compiled the available published data and additional tests made by the Tennessee Valley Authority on nut weight and kernel percentage of black walnut selections. Two hundred and twelve clones and 335 tests are reported. As would be expected the samples of the same variety from different localities show variation in weight per nut and in total per cent kernel. For example, in 12 samples of the variety Ohio the weight per nut varies from 14.8 grams to 18.7 and the per cent kernel from 16.6 to 32.9. Twenty-one tests of Thomas show variations in single nut weight from 16.7 to 25.0 grams and in per cent kernel from 19.0 to 30.0. In general the samples grown in the north were made up of smaller nuts with less per cent kernel, indicating that the varieties were not suited to that latitude. In 1942 Kline(4) worked out a somewhat technical method of evaluating walnut varieties on the basis of cash return per hour of labor spent in cracking with a hand operated cracker. A formula is proposed in which the variables of price and other factors may be substituted. The approach is on a commercial basis and the method is not intended for use in evaluating small samples. The paper represents many tests and establishes or affirms by statistically treated data several points of general interest in walnut testing, namely, (1) that a 25 nut sample is large enough to show varietal or other differences of a gram in total weight or 1 per cent of kernel weight, (2) that unless extreme accuracy is desired, moisture content may be ignored in making tests of 25 nut samples if the nuts have been hulled and air dried for about two months and (3) that the mean weight per nut and per cent kernel of nuts from the same tree may vary appreciably from year to year, for example a variation of 4.9 grams per nut and 3.3 per cent in kernel weight is reported for Snyder. Such variation is recognized and emphasizes the necessity of testing a variety in any locality for a number of years if correct valuation is to be made. In Kline's paper earnings per hour for fifteen black walnut selections are given showing a maximum of $0.279 for the variety Norris, $0.245 for Ohio down to $0.12 for an unnamed seedling. Lounsberry(5) published kernel cavity measurements for 64 clonal selections and related these to kernel weight per nut. Measurements of the thickness of the partition separating the halves of the kernel are also given. He does not relate these characters to scoring or cracking quality. The purpose of the scoring system under discussion in this paper is to provide a realistic method of judging the relative merit of different clones of black walnuts that can be used mostly by members of the Northern Nut Growers Association or others having some skill in cracking technique. At the present time the Association has little reliable information either as to the performance of different varieties under different conditions in any one locality, from year to year on the same tree, or the suitability of any one variety growing in far different parts of the United States. It is important that such information be available and a workable basis of evaluation would be of the greatest value in obtaining it. Much of our information at the present time is from the many tests made by N. F. Drake(6, 7, 8) which are of great value in rating varieties. His schedule is an improvement over any previously proposed but fails to provide standard sampling and cracking procedure and includes the items of flavor and color which are in no way objective characters. The use of a point score based on the concept of a "perfect nut" is cumbersome and considered undesirable by the committee. It is recognized that the value of a variety depends also upon the bearing habit of the tree, the nature of the husk, disease resistance and other characters. It has been five years since the present schedule was proposed and enough tests have been made to give a basis for judgment as to the merits and weaknesses of the schedule. As stated in the original committee report it is generally agreed that the best measure of the value of a nut of any clone is the amount of usable or marketable kernels that can be obtained from a given weight of shucked nuts with the least labor. The characteristics of the nuts that contribute to this value are recognized as follows: 1. The size of the individual nut. 2. The per cent of kernel of total sample weight recovered without recracking and without the use of a pick. 3. The total per cent of kernel of total weight of sample. 4. The number of quarters. 5. The plumpness of the kernels. 6. The number of empty nuts or nuts with shrivelled kernels in the sample. Flavor and color may be important but are so dependent upon personal preference and on the treatment of the samples before testing that they cannot be rated numerically. In considering the value of any schedule the following questions are pertinent: 1. Is it possible for one operator testing one lot of nuts to obtain the same score with replicate random samples? 2. Is it possible for different operators to obtain approximately the same score on replicate samples? 3. Does the score give an accurate evaluation of the variation of a variety from year to year in one locality or in the same year in different localities? The latter is very important in determining the regions to which the variety is best adapted and the performance of the variety in any one locality. 4. What are the causes of variation in the scores obtained? Which of these reflect the inherent worth of the sample and which are related to technique, personal equation and methods of handling the sample? 5. What changes may be made in the schedule to weight the various factors to give a more realistic score of what changes in procedure will make the schedule more realistic? Table 1 gives data on replicate samples tested by the same operator. In the samples of Spear, numbers 1-6 the variation is as follows: weight of single nut 1.3 grams, per cent kernel first crack 2.9, total per cent kernel 2.6, number of quarters 3, penalties 4.5 points, score 9.2 points. In scores figured without penalty the variation is 5.4 points. Sample No. 7 was cracked November 4 before the nuts were dry and hence is not comparable with others. Analysis of these differences indicates that the variation in nut weight is closely related to the number of shrunken and empty nuts in the sample. This is a difficult factor to evaluate in a practical way. At the time of the 1939 report it was suggested that the score should be figured on the basis of filled nuts. This cannot be arranged easily in testing because if the operator cracks the nuts before weighing there is almost sure to be loss of fragments of shell. Trying to correct the original weight in any way is necessarily inaccurate. Deciding whether or not the kernel of a nut is sufficiently shrivelled to deserve a penalty is a matter of judgment which is a personal matter. The variation in per cent kernel first crack and total per cent kernel probably represents fairly the difference in the samples. The total per cent is a wholly objective value and varies practically as much as the per cent first crack. Uniformity in the number of quarters is striking. This large number is undoubtedly related to the fact that many of the kernels were shrunken enough to be penalized and others were perhaps shrunken enough so that they did not tightly fill the shell cavity. In general it may be said that the more tightly the kernels fill the shell the more difficult it is to extract large pieces. Thus having the kernels a little shrunken but not enough to seriously reduce their weight favors a higher score. Of course, in some varieties the kernels may he plump and still not fill the shell tight enough to make cracking difficult. This is a desirable condition. Variability in penalties is more important (i. e. 4.5 points) than any other factor in influencing the final score. Without the penalties the scores of samples 1 to 6 would be 87.5, 84.0, 83.6, 83.7, 82.1 and 82.8 respectively which is fairly uniform. Statistically the presence of empty or shrivelled nuts in a lot from which samples are taken increases the number required to make a satisfactory sample by greatly increasing the individual variation of the single nut. TABLE 1 Variation in the score of tests of duplicate samples made by the same operators. Twenty-five nut samples. Nuts grown at Ithaca, N.Y. 1942. Black Walnuts. KEY: A: Wt. 1 nut grams B: % kernel 1st crack C: % kernel total D: Quarters number E: Penalty F: Score ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Variety Treatment A B C D E F Remarks ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Spear No. 1 S 18 hours 14.6 24.9 28.0 91 -3.5 84.0 1 empty, 5 shr. D 15 hours Spear No. 2 D 15 hours 15.7 24.0 26.8 94 -6.1 77.9 3 empty, 6 shr. Spear No. 3 D 15 hours 15.9 22.9 25.4 92 -3.5 80.1 1 empty, 5 shr. Spear No. 4 Dry 15.0 23.3 25.4 94 -5.0 78.7 1 empty, 8 shr. Spear No. 5 Dry 15.4 22.0 26.8 93 -4.5 77.6 1 empty, 7 shr., 20 bnd. qtrs. Spear No. 6 Dry 14.7 22.7 26.6 94 -8.0 74.8 4 empty, 8 shr., 16 bnd. qtrs. Spear No. 7 Nov. 4 16.7 27.9 28.8 98 96.7 only partly dried, 16 halves Snyder No. 1 Dry 16.8 23.1 26.0 87 -4.0 80.7 8 shr., 9 bnd. qtrs. Snyder No. 2 Dry 16.0 24.0 26.3 74 -3.5 81.0 1 empty, 5 shr., 13 bnd. qtrs. Snyder No. 3 Soaked 15.8 24.1 25.8 86 -4.0 77.5 1 empty, 6 shr., 8 bnd. qtrs. Snyder No. 4 Soaked 16.2 23.1 25.6 78 -7.5 75.5 3 empty, 9 shr., 8 bnd. qtrs. Snyder No. 5 Dry 18.2 19.9 26.4 90 -3.5 76.7 7 shr., bnd. Snyder No. 6 Nov. 4 21.2 27.6 29.8 95 100.8 qtrs. Eldridge Dry 20.8 19.3 23.1 98 80.7 13 halves, not Geneva, N.Y. well dried out " Dry 20.6 20.0 22.6 92 81.0 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- With the variety Snyder a difference of 2.4 grams in weight per nut in samples 1 to 5 suggests poor sampling technique as this is an objective value. A difference of 4.2 per cent in first crack suggests carelessness on the part of the operator in cracking or difference in soaking as this is quite out of line with the variation of .8 per cent in per cent weight of total kernel. The difference of 16 quarters is considerable but represents only 1.6 score points. As with the Spear the variation in penalty of 4 points is greater than other factors except per cent first crack (i.e. 4.2% points). The difference in score of 5.5 points is obviously greater than desirable, but probably indicates the relative value of the samples. Without penalties the difference is 4.5 points. Sample 7 of Spear and number 6 of Snyder were cracked November 4th when only partly cured and show the importance of curing in obtaining an accurate rating for a sample. The score of each variety was increased materially in all characteristics and no shrivelling was apparent. As a practical means of recovering the kernels in large pieces, cracking before the nuts are dried out is a decided advantage provided the kernels are cured before they are stored. The duplicate samples of Eldridge check very closely and show no significant differences. In Table 2 are given the results of ten tests on carefully replicated random samples of Snyder black walnuts. In making these samples the nuts were spread in a single layer on the floor and lots of 25 cut off the edges of this layer without selection of any kind. Even with such selection there is a variation of 1.2 grams in the average weight of single nuts from different samples. Per cent kernel first crack shows a minimum of 21.8 and a maximum of 26.9 in the ten samples. This difference is related mostly to the presence of 3 empty nuts in the low scoring sample as compared with none in the high scoring sample. The high score is also in part due to soaking. This variability is about the same as with total per cent kernel indicating that cracking technique was uniform. Comparing samples 1 and 2 in more detail it is found that the difference of 11.6 points in the score is caused by the presence of empty nuts in the sample. The average weight of kernels per single nut in sample 1 is 4.9 grams. The difference in the weights of the kernels of the two samples is 15 grams or about the weight of the kernels of 3 nuts. These empties also reduce the score by reducing the number of quarters recovered. Where empty nuts are involved, it is doubtful if random sampling will reduce variation unless the size of the sample is greatly increased, a practice which is not a practical solution in that a 25 nut sample is about as large as can be handled with any facility. It would seem that this difference in scores was a fair indication of the merit of the two samples. The scores of the other samples show a fair degree of uniformity. The high score of sample 4 is probably related to the soaking treatment though the scores of sample 3 also soaked is lower than that of sample 6 which was not soaked. It seems that when these conditions and with this variety stored in a fairly high humidity, soaking had little effect except to increase the number of halves recovered. TABLE 2 Cracking tests by single operator with 10 random replicate samples of Snyder black walnuts. 1942 crop. 25 nut samples. KEY: A: Wt. 1 nut grams B: % kernel 1st crack C: % kernel total D: Quarters number E: Penalty F: Score Sample Treatment A B C D E F Remarks ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 Dry as received 18.1 21.8 23.1 85 -9.0 72.7 3 empty, 12 shr. 2 Dry as received 18.5 24.0 25.8 99 -5.0 84.3 10 shr. 3 Soaked 9 hrs., dried 14 hrs. 18.6 25.7 28.0 94 -6.0 87.4 1 empty, 10 shr., 8 bnd. qtrs., 16 hvs. 4 Soaked as above 18.3 26.9 28.4 99 -4.5 91.7 9 shr., 5 bnd. qtrs., 19 hvs. 5 Held in cellar 4 days 18.0 24.4 25.7 90 -6.5 82.1 1 empty, 11 shr., (high humidity) 8 bnd. qtrs. 6 Held in cellar 7 days 19.0 25.6 27.2 99 -5.0 88.7 10 shr., 7 bnd. qtrs., 3 hvs. 7 Held in cellar 7 days 18.4 23.9 26.1 96 -6.5 82.3 1 empty, 11 shr., 9 bnd. qtrs. 8 Held in cellar 4 days 19.2 24.8 26.6 98 -5.5 86.4 11 shr., 4 bnd. qtrs. 9 Held in cellar 4 days 18.4 23.7 26.7 92 -7.5 81.6 2 black counted as empty, 11 shr., 12 bnd. qtrs. 10 Held in cellar 4 days 18.6 23.5 25.9 94 -5.5 83.4 1 empty, 9 shr., 10 bnd. qtrs. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Another lot of 24 random replicate 25 nut samples of Ohio black walnut from the original tree was made by scooping the nuts out of a bag with a quart berry box which held about 25 nuts. Care was used not to select the samples in any way. The lightest sample 3 weighed 385 grams, the heaviest 22 weighed 434 grams or a difference of 2 grams per nut. The score of these two samples was 85.0 and 85.4 respectively apparently because there were no empty nuts in either sample. The results of tests on 18 of these replicate samples of Ohio are given in Table 3. The nuts were apparently a uniform lot. The kernels while of good quality were in most cases not quite plump and did not fill the cavities of the shell tightly. This doubtless accounts for the large number of quarters recovered. The kernels on the whole were plumper than with the variety Snyder reported in Table 2 and there were fewer empty nuts. Of the samples that were not soaked the variation of 4.3 per cent in the per cent first crack is of the same order as variation of 3.6 per cent for total per cent kernel and indicates uniform cracking technique. The data in Table 3 gives evidence of the effect of treatments before cracking. The first nine samples marked with an asterisk were held for several weeks in a damp cellar and have an average test score of 86.6. The last seven samples were held in a dry but unheated room for a week before cracking and show an average test score of 83.7. The average score for the two soaked samples was 93.9. Soaking also increased the number of halves and quarters recovered in the same way as shown with variety Snyder in Table 2. None of these samples was excessively dry. In this table the lowest score (sample 19) is directly related to the presence of 3 empty nuts in the sample. The low score of sample 21 is mostly related to low per cent first crack which is caused by large number of bound quarters and the high penalty related to empty nuts and shrivelled kernels. These scores seem to indicate the value of the samples but bring out the difficulty of obtaining equal scores from such replicate samples. The other scores in the table are probably as close to each other as can be expected with samples of this sort. In this and the preceding tables the number of bound quarters is given as an indication of cracking technique. With the Hershey cracker the nuts of many varieties will split into four quarters without releasing the kernels. The number of such bound quarters is increased if the operator does not put sufficient pressure on the anvils to crush the shoulders of the nut and free the kernel. On the other hand if too much pressure is used and the anvils brought too close together the kernels will be crushed and the score affected adversely. With some varieties, for example, the Adams as shown in samples 1 and 2 in table 5, the nuts are so pointed at each end that the standard anvils do not strike the shoulders of the nut and many bound quarters result. With such varieties cracking with a hammer would probably give a better score. Anvils with deeper cavities in the ends would be an advantage for such nuts. TABLE 3 Tests by the same operator of duplicate samples of Ohio black walnuts, treated in various ways before cracking. 25 nut samples. 1942 crop. KEY: A: Wt. 1 nut grams B: % kernel 1st crack C: % kernel total D: Quarters number E: Penalty F: Score Sample Treatment A B C D E F Remarks --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9 *Dry 16.9 25.8 27.1 98 -0.5 91.3 1 shr., 5 bnd. qtrs., 7 halves 10 *Dry 16.8 23.8 25.2 95 -3.0 83.5 1 empty, 4 shr., 7 bnd. qtrs. 12 *Dry 16.2 24.5 26.5 97 -2.0 86.1 4 shr., 8 bnd. qtrs., 13 halves 24 *Dry 16.2 24.8 25.7 86 -3.0 84.2 2 empty, 2 shr., 4 bnd. qtrs., 8 halves 17 *Dry 17.3 24.8 27.3 97 -0.5 89.7 1 shr., 9 bnd. qtrs., 12 halves 21 *Dry 15.9 22.0 25.5 96 -4.0 78.2 1 empty, 6 shr., 14 bnd. qtrs., 17 halves 8 *Dry 16.6 25.2 26.9 99 -1.5 88.8 3 shr., 6 bnd. qtrs., 10 halves 15 *Dry 16.6 25.5 26.7 99 -1.5 89.8 3 shr., 5 bnd. qtrs., 12 halves 23 *Dry 16.4 25.2 26.2 96 -3.0 87.0 6 shr., 4 bnd. qtrs., 10 halves 11 Soaked 16.9 27.0 28.2 100 -1.5 93.5 Soaked 1 hr., moist 18, dried 12 hrs., 3 shr., 5 bnd. qtrs., 25 halves 16 Soaked 16.8 27.1 28.2 100 -0.8 94.3 Soaked as above, 1 shr., 5 bnd. qtrs., 16 halves 4 Dry 16.2 23.6 26.4 98 -3.5 82.9 7 shr., 10 bnd. qtrs., 15 halves 5 Dry 17.1 23.6 25.0 93 -3.0 83.1 1 empty, 6 shr., 5 bnd. qtrs., 10 halves 18 Dry 17.0 25.3 26.6 97 -2.0 88.6 4 shr., 6 bnd. qtrs., 8 halves 19 Dry 16.3 21.5 23.7 85 -4.5 75.1 3 empty, 3 shr., 9 bnd. qtrs., 8 halves 3 Dry 15.4 24.7 27.0 97 -3.0 85.0 6 shr., 8 bnd. qtrs., 5 halves 7 Dry 16.0 25.7 25.7 94 -3.5 86.1 7 shr., 6 halves, end reversed in cracking 22 Dry 17.4 24.1 25.8 94 -2.5 85.4 5 shr., 8 bnd. qtrs. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- TABLE 4 Variation in score of replicate samples of 3 varieties of Black Walnuts tested by different operators and of same varieties from different sources Wt. 1 % kernel % nut 1st kernel Quarters Variety Source grams crack total number Score ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Operator 1 Thomas--Weber, Ind. 20.4 20.8 24.2 75 81.6 Thomas--Jones, Pa. 14.6 28.8 30.3 95 96.8 Thomas--Baum, Pa. 14.3 25.6 27.0 100 89.0 Thomas--Worton, Md. 16.4 28.2 30.8 94 97.6 Average 16.4 25.8 28.1 91.0 91.2 Operator 2 Thomas--Weber, Ind. 22.0 22.2 23.8 47 83.0 Thomas--Jones, Pa. 17.5 26.7 31.4 55 92.1 Thomas--Baum, Pa. 17.0 24.0 26.5 72 85.5 Thomas--Worton, Md. 16.7 19.5 26.4 64 75.3 Average 18.3 23.1 27.0 59.5 83.9 Operator 3 Thomas--Jones, Pa. 18.1 16.2 27.1 52 69.2 Thomas--Baum, Pa. 16.1 19.1 26.6 68 74.4 Thomas--Worton, Md. 18.0 17.8 27.2 61 73.3 Average 17.4 17.7 27.0 60.3 72.3 Operator 1 Ten Eyck--Weber, Ind. 18.0 20.5 27.5 57 78.5 Ten Eyck--Jones, Pa. 15.4 21.1 23.2 99 79.1 Ten Eyck--Baum, Pa. 14.3 26.3 30.2 93 91.3 Ten Eyck--Worton, Md. 15.0 28.0 31.0 83 94.8 Average 15.7 24.0 28.0 83.0 85.9 Operator 2 Ten Eyck--Weber, Ind. 19.1 24.4 26.5 38 84.8 Ten Eyck--Jones, Pa. 16.4 24.6 24.6 64 84.3 Ten Eyck--Baum, Pa. 15.8 25.7 26.5 54 86.0 Ten Eyck--Worton, Md. 15.4 25.5 28.7 55 86.2 Average 16.7 25.0 26.6 52.7 85.3 Operator 3 Ten Eyck--Weber, Ind. 16.8 17.3 24.6 57 69.4 Ten Eyck--Jones, Pa. 15.2 21.1 23.3 84 77.4 Ten Eyck--Baum, Pa. 15.0 18.3 19.7 69 68.4 Ten Eyck--Worton, Md. 15.7 25.2 30.1 76 88.5 Average 15.7 20.5 24.4 71.5 75.9 Operator 1 Ohio--Weber, Ind. 17.2 28.5 29.7 89 98.0 Ohio--Jones, Pa. 16.4 28.7 29.9 96 99.2 Ohio--Baum, Pa. 14.2 31.1 31.1 99 101.9 Ohio--Worton, Md. 13.7 30.8 30.8 88 99.5 Average 15.4 29.8 30.4 93.0 99.6 Operator 2 Ohio--Weber, Ind. 19.1 25.1 28.3 59 89.3 Ohio--Jones, Pa. 17.2 27.3 27.5 64 91.9 Ohio--Baum, Pa. 15.0 27.4 28.1 63 90.1 Ohio--Worton, Md. 14.9 26.1 29.1 58 87.4 Average 16.5 26.5 28.2 61.0 89.7 Operator 3 Ohio--Weber, Ind. 17.7 21.4 27.7 65 80.8 Ohio--Jones, Pa. 17.2 22.9 28.2 74 84.5 Ohio--Baum, Pa. 15.0 24.9 29.3 81 87.5 Ohio--Worton, Md. 14.6 22.4 28.7 66 80.3 Average 16.1 22.9 28.5 71.5 83.3 ------------------------------------------------------------------------ Table 4 gives the results of tests of similar samples of three varieties from four different sources by three different operators. The tests are not satisfactory because pretreatment was not uniform and there is insufficient data on penalties which are omitted. Some samples of the varieties Ten Eyck and Thomas contained empty nuts and shrivelled kernels which would preclude equal scores. The variety Ohio was uniformly filled from all sources. In the variety Ten Eyck there is a difference of 10.5 per cent in total per cent kernel in samples from the Baum orchard. This was related to 6 empty nuts in the sample cracked by operator 3. In the variety Ohio in which the kernels were plump the greatest variation between duplicate samples in total per cent kernel is 3 or only about 10 per cent of average total per cent kernel. An examination of these data show the following points of interest: (1) that the duplicate samples showed considerable variation in weight of single nut and total per cent kernel, characters not dependent on personal skill or judgment. Operator 2 did not crack the whole sample of 25 and may have selected the larger nuts, thus securing a greater weight per nut with all varieties. The superior filling of the nuts of Ohio appears to be related to the fact that in the orchards in question this variety was observed to hold its leaves longer than the others which lost their leaves in late summer before harvest by leaf blight. Shrunken kernels are a logical result of early defoliation. In the per cent of kernel obtained in first crack operator 1 recovered a higher per cent than operator 3 in all of the eleven possible comparisons and higher than operator 2 in 9 out of 12 possible comparisons. This probably is the result of soaking the samples by operator 1 and not by the others or possibly due to greater skill or care in cracking. The number of quarters recovered by operator 1 is greater in all cases than that obtained by either operator 2 or 3. This is also a result of soaking or skill or both. The score of operator 1 was in all tests of duplicate samples higher than that obtained by operator 3 and higher than the scores of operator 2 in 9 out of 12 comparisons. The scores of the different samples are apparently mainly determined by the per cent recovered at first crack and the number of quarters, at least the only cases where the scores of operator 2 exceed those of operator 1 are where the per cent first crack and the number of quarters are greater for operator 2. This is related to the presence of empty nuts. The data obtained for the variety Thomas by operator 1 and 2 show for the most part the same relative scoring of samples from different sources. For example with both operators the score of the samples from the Weber orchard was lower than that from the Jones and Baum orchards and the sample from the Jones orchard scored higher than that from the Baum orchard. In the samples from the Worton orchard the relative scores are reversed. The scores o£ operator 3 are quite out of line. With the variety Ten Eyck the differences between scores of samples from different sources are not consistent. Operator 2 obtained scores that were essentially alike for all four samples whereas the scores of operator 1 show differences of more than 10 points. This is related to empty nuts in the sample. With the variety Ohio there is reasonable uniformity in the scores obtained by all operators. This was the only variety with well filled nuts and for that reason alone the score would be less variable. TABLE 5 Tests by different operators on duplicate samples of black walnuts, soaked and unsoaked. 25 nut samples. 1942 crop. KEY: A: Treatment B: Wt. 1 nut grams C: % kernel 1st crack D: % kernel total E: Quarters number F: Penalty G: Score ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Sample A B C D E F G Remarks ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Operator 1 Ohio No. 1 Dry 16.8 26.1 27.6 97 -4. 88.5 5 bnd. qtrs., 18 shr., 8 halves Ohio No. 2 Soaked 16.7 27.3 27.8 99 -1.5 93.5 2 bnd. qtrs., 1 shr., 1 empty Operator 2 Ohio No. 6 Dry 15.9 26.3 26.7 93 -1. 90.2 1 empty Ohio No. 13 Soaked 15.9 25.8 26.4 93 -1. 89.0 1 empty Ohio No. 14 Soaked 15.7 25.2 26.3 96 - .5 88.4 1 shriveled Ohio No. 20 Dry 16.7 25.3 26.4 94 -1. 88.9 1 empty Operator 1 Grundy No. 1 Dry 23.8 24.1 24.6 99 - .5 93.7 1 shriveled, 2 bnd. quarters Grundy No. 2 Soaked 23.2 24.2 24.2 100 - .5 97.2 All out 1st crack, 5 halves Operator 2 Grundy No. 3 22.4 24.0 24.0 88 -2. 89.2 Empty Grundy No. 4 Dry 23.5 24.7 25.5 98 - .5 95.0 1 shriveled Operator 1 Adams No. 1 Dry 14.2 18.3 24.5 70 0. 70.0 35 bnd. qtrs., well filled, good quality Adams No. 2 Soaked 14.4 17.3 23.7 78 -2.5 67.1 2 empty, 20 bund. qtrs., 1 shr. Operator 2 Adams No. 3 Dry 14.6 18.1 24.0 77 -3. 67.5 3 empty Adams No. 4 14.3 19.6 25.4 78 -2. 72.3 2 empty ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The average scores of all samples of each variety are Ohio 90.0, Thomas 83.4, and Ten Eyck 82.4. These are not out of line either with the scores obtained for these varieties elsewhere or the relative merit of the varieties. Because of the variability obtained in the tests shown in Table 4, another series of tests of similar samples by different operators was arranged in the summer of 1943. The samples of Ohio were some of the same lot reported in Table 3. The varieties Grundy and Adams grown in Michigan were carefully sampled to give comparable lots. The results of these tests given in Table 5 show no greater variability between the scores of the two operators for any one variety than between tests by the same operator and indicate that it is possible for different operators to obtain comparable scores on duplicate samples provided great care is used in treating and cracking the samples. The differences in average score between the different varieties is consistent and apparently gives a correct indication of their relative merit. Grundy shows an average score of 93.7, Ohio 89.7 and Adams 69.2. The high score of Grundy is related to the large size of nut and high per cent first crack. The low score of Adams is related to small size of nut and low per cent first crack resulting from a large number of bound quarters. The kernels of this variety were plump, filling the cavity of the shell full and shattered on cracking. In Table 6 are given the results of 54 tests of 38 selections or clones. In general it appears that the score is a fair indication of the worth of the sample. Low scores are related mostly to low per cent first crack and to the presence of empty nuts or shrivelled kernels in the sample. It is evident also that if a sample is too dry with many varieties a low score will result. Just what soaking treatment is most expedient is not too clear. Soaking 12 hours and drying 24 proved to be a satisfactory practice. The method followed by Mr. Stoke of soaking for 5 minutes and keeping the sample in a wet burlap sack for 24 hours is all right but is cumbersome if many samples are to be tested. Soaking one hour and holding 24 hours in a closed container like a coffee can give good results but percentage should be figured on dry weight and kernels should be air dried for 24 hours before weighing. One weakness in the schedule is that it tends to give a small nut an advantage if the per cent kernel obtained in first crack is high. Thus a sample of the Mintle grown in Iowa which weighed but 13.6 grams per nut and total per cent kernel of 32 scored 101.1 points chiefly because the per cent first crack was 31.5. The same variety grown at Ithaca weighing 13.7 grams per nut but with 23.9 per cent first crack and 24.3 total scored 83.8. Possibly a penalty could be taken for nuts weighing less than 18 grams. On the other hand a large nut like the Grundy weighing about 23 grams would have a 10 point score advantage over Mintle and this may be enough for this character. The six samples of Thomas grown on different trees in Ithaca, N.Y. in 1942 show great variation in score as has been the case in other years. Poor scores are related to shrunken kernels and such samples come from trees that are making poor growth because of poor soil conditions and competition with weeds. Also shriveled kernels are the result of defoliation by early frosts which may be very local and affect some trees and not others. TABLE 6 Tests and Scores of Black Walnut Varieties from Various Sources. 25 nut samples unless otherwise indicated. All scores figured on basis of 25 nuts. KEY: A - *Treatment D--Dry S--Soaked No.--Hours dried or soaked B - Wt. 1 nut grams C - % kernel 1st crack D - % kernel total E - Quarters number F - Penalty G - Score -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Variety Source A B C D E F G Remarks -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Adams Becker, Mich. D 14.7 11.3 21.4 44 52.4 Poor; 62 bound quarters '42 Benton Smith, Wassaic, S-5 13.2 26.8 28.2 94 -2.0 88.5 Plump kernels, good flavor, N.Y. 2 empty Sample No. '42 D-8 nuts 1 (23) Sample No. " D 12.9 23.1 23.6 74 -3.0 75.3 3 empty nuts 2 (24) Bontz Snyder, Iowa S-12 18.7 20.3 22.0 85 -10.0 68.8 Nut long like Ohio. Shell '40 D-12 chamber smooth. Nearly all kernels shrunken. Prominent spur; oily; poor to med. extr.; few shrunken Boothe Stoke, Va. S-16 15.3 24.5 29.2 87 -2.5 85.1 Good quality; flavor good, 28 '40 D-10 blind qtrs.; ext. poor Burrows Snyder, Iowa S-12 17.5 13.5 24.4 35 -0.3 59.9 No data '40 D-4 Calhoun Becker, Mich. D 15.4 26.0 28.5 94 90.6 End cracks, 2 empty nuts, '42 3 shr. Cayuga Ithaca, N.Y. S-12 13.8 26.1 26.7 100 -3.5 85.9 kernels, good extr. middle '42 D-24 tree Climax Becker, Mich. D 17.2 25.3 27.3 90 90.8 Some shrunken kernels '42 Cornell Ithaca, N.Y. S-12 16.5 24.9 25.1 80 89.0 (20) '42 D-24 100% No empty nuts, kernels full, Creitz Stoke, Va. S-15 18.8 22.0 23.8 100 -1.3 83.4 very good extr., good color '40 4-4 Excellent cracker. Shell thin; Cresco Ithaca, N.Y. S 16.7 15.9 21.0 80 67.0 thin; good nut; flavor mild (6) '42 Eldridge Geneva, N.Y. S-12 Not promising at Ithaca (15) '42 D-24 21.1 24.0 24.5 96 -10. 80.0 Dried in husk; kernels shrunken Finney Snyder, Iowa S-12 19.5 18.0 22.4 82 -12.5 62.4 Shell thick; kernels shr., '40 D-48 spurs prominent. Tough to crack Freel Ithaca, N.Y. S 12.1 17.9 19.6 80 65.7 Shell thick, kernel thin. Not (6) '42 a good nut Galloway Snyder, Iowa S-12 16.4 22.3 23.2 94 -0.3 81.7 Kernel smooth, flavor good. '40 D-24 Extraction good Harris Snyder, Iowa S-12 18.5 23.8 25.6 100 -12.5 76.4 Dark color. All kernels '40 D-12 withered. Flavor poor. Extraction very good Homeland Stoke, Va. S- 5 19.1 20.4 25.8 89 81.7 Smooth kernels; flavor good; (19) '40 D-16 closed suture Karnes Stoke, Va. S-16 20.3 25.6 29.4 56 91.8 Tight in shell. Kernels oily, '40 D- 7 shatter. Flavor good. Shining pellicle Korn Korn, Mich. D 16.8 19.0 27.9 62 74.9 Kernels fill cavity very full. '39 Shatter McCoy Snyder, Iowa S-12 19.4 20.7 21.2 90 -0.8 79.6 Smooth kernel; some slight '40 D-4 shrinking. Thick shell McGee Becker, Mich. D 13.7 16.2 26.8 83 67.8 Bound qtrs., hard pointed '42 nuts, hard cracking Michigan Korn, Mich. '39 D 20.0 23.0 30.3 90 90.1 Kernels plump, very good nut Mintle Snyder, Iowa S-12 13.6 31.5 32.0 95 -1.0 101.1 Flavor mild, extr. very good. '40 D-12 Very good nut, smooth shell Mintle Ithaca, N.Y. S-12 13.7 23.9 24.3 100 83.8 No empty nuts, kernels plump, '42 D-24 good extraction Ohio Snyder, Iowa S-12 18.5 24.0 27.4 79 -1.3 86.8 Shell chamber smooth. Flavor '40 D-24 sharp. Extraction fair. Rohwer Snyder, Iowa S-12 21.5 24.0 28.2 84 92.0 Kernel smooth, extr. fair. '40 D-48 Kernels plump. Rohwer Stoke, Va. S-15 18.5 18.0 22.4 79 - .3 73.3 Fair extraction; flavor fair. '40 D- 3 Spur prominent. 11 blind qtrs. Schwartz Snyder, Iowa S- 6 20.3 21.8 25.6 86 -3.0 82.2 End cracked. Spurs prominent. '40 D-14 Some shrinking. Not too good. 11 blind qtr. Sifford Stokes, Va. S-16 23.6 23.7 25.6 100 -11.0 82.8 Large nut. Good extr. Kernels '40 D-7 shrunken Snyder Jacobs, Ohio D 19.6 26.1 28.0 94 95.4 Not entirely cured (4) '42 Snyder Smith, Wassaic, D 21.9 22.0 26.4 91 88.2 11 bound qtrs. Kernels lg. (14) N. Y. '42 rather dark, a good nut Sparrow Ithaca, N.Y. S-12 15.5 20.7 22.4 42 -14.5 63.2 1 empty, all shrunken, end (11) '42 D-24 96% cracks; poor quality Sparrow Smith, Wassaic, D 16.5 21.6 28.2 85 82.3 Well filled, kernels bright, (10) N.Y. '42 good flavor, good nut Sparrow Snyder, Iowa S- 6 16.1 25.1 31.2 84 90.3 Flavor good; smooth nut, spur '40 D-19 medium prominent. 13 blind qtrs. Sper Becker, Mich. '42 D 16.2 20.0 25.6 90 78.0 Kernels somewhat shrunken " D 16.7 27.9 28.7 98 96.6 No. 4, 1942 not completely Sper dried. Not recleaned Stabler Stoke, Va. S- 5 14.5 20.2 22.8 80 -9.0 65.3 Flavor mild. Easy extr. 12 '40 D-20 blind qtrs. Many shrunken Stabler Wilkinson, Ind. S-12 14.9 25.7 27.2 77 -3.0 84.6 End cracks; 6 bound qtrs. 2 '40 D-24 empty nuts, 2 shr. kernels Stambaugh Graham, Ithaca, (7) N.Y. recleaned 19.3 24.0 24.0 28 -12.5 61.3 All kernels shrunken. Poor S-12 D-24 100% quality Sterling Korn, Mich. D 19.8 25.2 25.9 97 92.8 Kernels plump. Very good nut '39 Tasterite Graham, Ithaca, N.Y. (4) N. Y . recleaned 13.5 25.0 25.0 100% 86.0 All kernels plump; quality '42 S-12 D-24 fair Thomas Snyder, Iowa S-12 17.2 22.9 25.6 91 -1.0 83.9 Good extraction. Some '40 D-12 shrunken Thomas Wilkinson, Ind. S-12 18.5 21.5 27.1 26 77.7 End cracks; 21 bound qtrs., '40 D-24 Kernels plump; oily, clinging Thomas No. Ithaca, N.Y. D 20.6 19.1 22.1 96 79.4 Some shrunken 1 '42 Tree 1 Thomas No. Ithaca, N.Y. S-1-1/2 20.6 14.4 18.2 91 -1.0 67.6 1 empty nut; some shrunken 2 No. 2 '42 D-6 Thomas No. Ithaca, N.Y. D 20.4 19.1 22.1 96 79.2 3 No. 3 '42 Thomas No. Ithaca, N.Y. D 20.1 15.5 16.8 82 -16.0 36.2 4 empty nuts; all shrunken 4 '42 No. 4 Thomas No. Ithaca, N.Y. S-12 20.5 23.4 24.0 90 -8.0 80.5 4 empty nuts; 8 shr. kernels; 5 (24) 2 blind qtrs. Thomas Ithaca, N.Y. S-12 19.8 17.6 18.4 94 -10.0 63.7 2 empty nuts; 16 shr. kernels (20) No. 6 '42 D-24 Thomas Wilkinson, Ind. S-12 20.5 21.1 25.4 69 -7.0 75.3 3 empty nuts; 4 shr. kernels, '40 D-24 23 bound qtrs. Troup Graham, Ithaca, S-12 16.0 16.0 18.0 16 -20.0 51.0 All kernels shr., 2 empty (4) N.Y. '42 D-24 100% nuts, quality poor Vail Ithaca, N.Y. S-12 15.3 20.8 21.8 30 4 empty nuts, 6 shr. kern., (8) '42 D-24 94%-17.0 60.2 2 blind qtrs., end cracks Vandersloot " S-12 27.5 13.4 16.6 58 -3.0 64.4 1 empty nut, 4 shr. kern., D-24 11 bound qtrs., ext. poor Wiard Snyder, Iowa S-12 18.8 26.8 29.4 83 95.4 One of best, well filled. '40 D-12 Smooth kernel, good flavor, good extraction DISCUSSION In the light of the data presented some conclusions can be drawn on the various questions raised at the beginning of this paper. It is evident that if approximately the same score is to be obtained by one operator on duplicate or replicate random samples, great care must be used in sampling. There is a tendency in taking samples to pick out the larger nuts or in some other way fail to take a good random sample. Selections submitted for contests are likely to be quite misleading as to the value of the variety and reflect in considerable part the contestant's skill in selection rather than the merit of the clone. The Freel walnut seems to be an example of this. At least as grown at Ithaca it is very disappointing. It is evident that if comparable scores are to be obtained the samples receive the same treatment particularly as regards moisture content. Samples should be dried sufficiently to show the shrinkage of poorly developed kernels but in no case be allowed to dry to the point of checking the shells. Uniform soaking practice is a step in the right direction. A green or partially dried nut will test much higher than one properly cured as evidenced by Snyder, sample 6 and Spear, sample 7 in Table 1. It seems probable that no schedule can be devised that will eliminate the necessity for skill on the part of the operator. To obtain satisfactory uniformity in scores, it is essential that the operator be skilled in the use of the cracking machine and use continuous care in applying the necessary pressure and in holding the nut in the anvils. Undercracking or overcracking, reversing the ends of the nut in the anvil or failure to hold the nut vertical may affect the score. The presence of empty or poorly filled nuts in a lot of nuts from which samples are taken at random introduces greater variability in the samples than that found in lots with all nuts filled. This is true because the chances of getting an equal number of empty nuts in 25 nut samples are small and the presence of each empty nut decreases the per cent kernel and also the numbers of quarters possible. Variations due to empty nuts could be eliminated by greatly increasing the number of nuts in the sample but this is not practical for the purposes this schedule is intended to serve. The question of whether or not it is possible for different operators to obtain equal scores on duplicate samples is not satisfactorily answered by the data in table 4. As the data stand the scores are far from equal. There is, however, a consistency in the scoring of each operator and it is quite probable that with more uniform treatment of nuts before cracking and more careful sampling better agreement would be achieved. This is borne out in the data given in table 5 in which the variation in scores between the two operators was no greater than that obtained by the same operator. From a study of the data secured it appears that the causes of variation in the scores of duplicate or replicate samples are the result of (1) lack of care in making replicate random samples, (2) differences in treatment of samples before cracking, particularly as regards moisture content, (3) differences in the skill or care of the operator making the tests, (4) presence of empty nuts or shrivelled kernels in the sample which introduces variation not compensated for in a 25 nut sample and further complicates the matter because assigning penalties for shrivelled kernels involves personal judgment. The first three of these can be minimized or eliminated by care and skill. The fourth item is not so easy but procedure can at least be standardized. Increasing the size of the sample is not practical if much testing is to be done. All things considered it would seem that the scores indicate fairly well but not accurately the relative merit of the samples and thus can be relied upon to determine the relative merit of a variety or clone, the suitability of the variety for growing in a given locality and the variability of a variety grown in the same region but under different conditions. To determine the merit of a variety as compared to another both must be grown under the same conditions. The over-all value of a variety can only be determined from samples of well filled nuts. In any case the more samples tested the better. The following suggestions are made as to procedure: 1. In taking a random sample no selection as to size, uniformity, or any other quality should be made. Suggested procedure would be to scoop up about 25 nuts in a berry basket or with the hands from the main supply and reduce the sample to 25 without conscious selection. What we in the Northern Nut Growers' Association want is a measure of the merit of the crop of the tree or variety in question and not the value of a highly selected sample. 2. It is not practical to bring samples to a uniform moisture content before cracking is done. The following precautions, however, may be followed: (a) Take care to see that nuts are reasonably well cleaned and free from fragments of husk. Scrubbing or beating the nuts together in a sack will usually remove most of the loose material. Of course the best practice is to wash the nuts immediately after shucking. (b) Cure samples until they are dry enough not to lose more weight preferably in an unheated room. This takes at least a month or 6 weeks. (c) Avoid storing the samples in a heated room where they will become so dry that the shells will check or crack. If this occurs the normal cracking fracture of the shell is destroyed and a satisfactory test cannot be made. (d) Nuts that have become so dry that the kernels shatter may be moistened by soaking about 2 hours in cold or lukewarm water then holding them in a moist condition for 18-24 hours, followed by drying for 10-12 hours before cracking. Nuts that are to be soaked should be weighed before soaking and the dry weight used in figuring percentages. The kernels of soaked nuts should be dried for 24 hours before weighing, preferably under the same conditions in which the samples were stored before weighing. 3. Care and skill on the part of the operator are of the greatest importance, particularly in the thoroughness of cracking. The most important variable in the score is the per cent kernel recovered at first cracking. The score is reduced by undercracking the nut so as to leave the quarters bound or by overcracking to the point of smashing the kernels. If the nuts have a long point so that the rims of the anvils do not contact the shoulders of the nut, poor cracking will result. At the present time a cracker with interchangeable anvils is not available. Using different sized iron pipe couplings in a vise may help solve the problem. Some varieties will crack better with a hammer than with a cracker of the Hershey type with standard anvils. In cracking a sample for test the operator should try to recover the most possible out of the first crack without using a pick or recracking. 4. The empty nut problem is probably the most difficult and is not satisfactorily solved by cracking nuts in excess of 25 until 26 filled nuts are secured. This necessitates weighing the sample after the nuts are cracked which is usually impracticable because of loss of parts of shells in cracking and because additional nuts are not available. Empty or shrivelled nuts in a sample are a serious defect which should count heavily against it. On the basis of experience it seems that a better method is to crack the random sample of 25 nuts and let the empty nuts and shrivelled kernels affect the score as reduced weight per nut, reduced per cent kernel and the penalty as well. Shrivelling that is obvious and which adversely affects the appearance of the kernels should be penalized. Possibly further experience will suggest a better way of handling this problem. The proposed score of a sample is made up as follows: 1. The weight of a single nut in grams. 2. The per cent kernel of total weight of sample recovered after first crack x 2. 3. The total per cent kernel of total weight of sample divided by 2. 4. One tenth point for each whole quarter recovered. 5. Penalty of one score point for each empty nut in the sample. 6. Penalty of 1/2 point for every nut with shrivelled kernel. The makeup of this score does not differ from that previously used except in the matter of procedure with empty nuts. It is felt that the items included are weighed in a realistic manner and that difficulties in scoring have been due to methods of handling the samples rather than in the scoring schedule itself. It does not seem likely that this schedule or any schedule will be valuable unless used by experienced operators who are willing to take the precautions indicated. Also it is apparent that wherever possible more than one sample of a lot to be scored should be tested and the average score used. REFERENCES CITED 1. MacDaniels, L. H. Report of committee on varieties and judging standards. No. Nut Growers Assn. Proc. 28: 20-23. 1937. 2. MacDaniels, L. H. Is it possible to devise a satisfactory judging schedule for black walnuts? No. Nut Growers Assn. Proc. 30: 24-27. 1939. 3. Kline, L. V., and S. B. Chase. Compilation of data on nut weight and kernel percentage of black walnut selections. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 38: 166-174. 1941. 4. Kline, L. V. A method of evaluating the nuts of black walnut varieties. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 41: 136-144. 1942. 5. Lounsberry, C. C. Measurements of walnuts of United States. No. Nut Growers Assn. Proc. 31: 162-167. 1940. 6. Drake, N. F. Judging black walnuts. No. Nut Growers Assn. Proc. 22: 130-137. 1931. 7. Drake, N. F. Black walnut varieties. No. Nut Growers' Assn. Proc. 26: 66-71. 1935. Nut Growers Assn. Proc. 30: 81-83. 1939. Shelling Black Walnuts _By G. J. KORN, Berrien Springs, Michigan_ The methods used in the shelling of black walnuts by one of the commercial growers in southeastern Pennsylvania may be of interest to some of our NNGA members. For the last three seasons I have helped this grower with the harvesting and shelling of his crop. The Thomas variety predominated in his 40-acre nut orchard. This variety is truly a very outstanding nut when properly grown. The Thomas is large, cracks well, its kernels may be readily removed in large pieces, mostly quarters, and they are of excellent flavor and color. Care in selecting the orchard site, soils, methods of cultivation, fertilizing and spraying appear to be of prime importance in the production of high quality nuts. The matters I shall speak of in this article, however, will have to do mostly with the harvesting, husking, curing and cracking of the walnuts and picking their kernels. When the walnut husks may be easily dented with the thumb they are ready to gather. This is usually about October 5 in that locality. The harvesting is begun immediately, as the kernels will become somewhat damaged as to flavor and color if the husks are allowed to darken and decompose. When the nuts have ripened they do not remain in prime condition for harvesting for more than about 10 to 15 days. By this time the husks will have begun to decompose and darken the kernels. Just as soon as the nuts are ripe they are shaken from the trees. The nuts are gathered into bushel baskets and hauled in a pick-up truck to the husker. One of the old cannon type corn shellers, once quite common in Pennsylvania, is used to husk the nuts. A farm tractor furnishes the power to run the husker. The nuts are run through the husker a couple of times to assure a clean job of husking. The cleanly husked nuts drop into a basket at the end of the husker. Only 3 minutes or slightly more time is required to turn out a bushel of husked nuts. The freshly husked nuts are washed in a large copper kettle of water by vigorously stirring them a few minutes with a common garden hoe. About 1-1/2 bushels of nuts are washed in each batch. All nuts that float lightly on the water are skimmed off and discarded. The nuts are then spread out about 2 or 3 nuts deep on trays to dry. The frames of the trays are made of 1x3 inch lumber and are 1-1/2 feet wide and 3-1/2 feet long; 3/4 inch mesh galvanized chicken wire netting forms the bottoms of the trays. Walnuts dried indoors in the shade produce lighter colored and finer flavored kernels than do those dried outdoors in the sun and rain. When nuts are being dried indoors, care should be taken to see that they have a good circulation of air or the nuts may start molding in the early stages of their curing. Although the outside of the walnut shells may dry off quite rapidly, it takes considerable more time for the inside of the nut to cure properly for storing. The nuts should be left on the trays for a few weeks to insure thorough curing. [Illustration] The cracking of the nuts is done with one of the small mechanical crackers that is to be found on the market. The more care exercised in the cracking at the nuts, the less work and time will be required in separating the kernels. After cracking the nuts they are sifted through a series of screens. This helps very materially in preparing them for rapidly picking their kernels. It is quite important that this operation be done properly if the kernel picking is to be made simple and rapid. The cracked nuts are first sifted through a screen made of 1-inch mesh chicken wire netting. Next the nuts are sifted through a screen made of 1/2-inch mesh hardware cloth. All material which will not pass through this screen should be kept separate. Some of these pieces will require recracking and kernel picking with the fingers. The material which has passed through the 1/2-inch mesh screen is now sifted on a hardware cloth screen with 5 meshes to the inch. Only the very fine material will pass through this screen which is not suitable for further kernel recovery. The material which remains on the 1/2-inch mesh screen is now placed on the table especially made for kernel picking. This table is shown in the accompanying sketch. The table is of suitable size to allow two people to use it at the same time. The operators sit on stools about 20 inches in height, and work from the low side of the table. A small amount of the material is brought forward and spread out very thinly before the operator. A piece of 1/2-inch softwood dowel about 5 inches long with 4 No. 9 sewing needles imbedded in one end is used to pick up the kernels. The needles are placed in the form of a square and should be only about 3/32 of an inch apart to do the best work. The picks should not be used to pry kernels from the shell, as the needles would soon become bent and worthless. The picks are meant to be used only to pick up the kernels from _among_ the shells. As soon as the operator has removed all the kernels from the small amount of material he has brought forward from the rear of the table, he shoves the shells into the hole at the edge of the table and they drop into a receptacle. The pick is used with the right hand, and the kernels are removed from the pick with and into the left hand. As soon as a convenient handful of kernels has been obtained, they are dropped into a small pan which sets on the table near the operator's left hand. The rapidity with which kernels may be picked by using these methods is surprising. It is sometimes necessary to moisten the nuts and hold them in this condition for 2 or 3 days before cracking them, to keep the kernels from shattering unduly. After the kernels are picked out they are dried very thoroughly. Trays whose bottoms are lined with screening somewhat finer in mesh than that used for windows, are used to dry the kernels. Care should be taken to not overheat the kernels, or their flavor and color will be impaired. Good clean lard or similar cans with tight fitting covers are used for storing the kernels. The kernels are stored in a cool dry place. Any kernels which are to be kept over the summer months, are placed in cold storage. Better Butternuts, Please _S. H. GRAHAM, Ithaca, N. Y._ "As to palatability, there are many persons who would be disposed to place the butternut at the very head of edible nuts." This is the opinion of Luther Burbank in Vol. XI, page 32, of "Luther Burbank, His Methods and Discoveries." The butternut tree is noteworthy as being at home in a greater variety of soils than the blackwalnut as well as being hardier than the black walnut or the hickory. It ripens so early that the nuts always have plenty of time to mature while the richly flavored kernels are rarely shrunken and never astringent. Despite these good qualities, a search through the publications of the Northern Nut Growers' Association for the past thirty years proves that comparatively little interest has been manifested in it. It would seem quite in order to inquire into the reasons for this neglect. Five of them come to mind: 1. Too early blooming. 2. Difficulty of propagation. 3. Curculios. 4. Melanconis disease. 5. Lack of sufficiently good varieties. The butternut too often blooms so early that its blossoms are caught by frost. The filbert has the same fault and so, to a less extent, has the Persian walnut. Late blooming varieties of each have already been selected. It does not seem too much to hope that late blooming varieties of butternut may also be found. I know of one butternut that has had good crops every year but one for the last ten years but have never visited it at the right time to observe its blooming habit. President Weschcke reports that butternuts on black walnut stocks have their blooming retarded for a few days. Many experienced nut tree propagators have little success in grafting the butternut. But Mr. Harry Burgart of Michigan, has found that nursery trees may be successfully grafted if the operation is performed at a point three or four feet from the ground, while the late Dr. G. A. Zimmerman of Pennsylvania, found that very early grafting gave him the best results. He reported that his best catch was from grafts set March tenth. Some moderately successful propagators do not pay careful attention to outside temperatures when they cut their scions. In contrast to this let us see what Mr. J. F. Jones thought about it. He was undoubtedly the most successful nut tree propagator in the East and he was always as generous in sharing his hard earned knowledge as he was skillful in its application in his own commercial nursery. Note this from his paper in the 1920 annual report. "In the case of trees that bleed freely when cut, we must guard against taking scions after hard freezing weather and before the tree has fully recuperated. This semi-sappy conditions following low temperatures that freeze the wood seems to be a provision of nature to restore the sap lost by evaporation. We always try to avoid taking scions of any kind soon after hard freezing weather. I have found scions of English and Japanese walnuts, cut from trees in this condition, to be practically worthless for propagation, although they may have been cut in late winter long before the sap gets up in the tree naturally." This warning would undoubtedly apply to the butternut as it bleeds freely when cut. Another pitfall for the inexperienced propagator lies in storing scions in packing material that is too moist. Sphagnum is commonly used. It should be no more than slightly moist to the touch. If left to run wild, the butternut curculios are a serious menace to the butternut, the Japanese walnut and the Persian walnut. Their life history as described at length in U.S.D.A. bulletin 1066, is briefly as follows: The beetles (called elephant bugs by some because the side view resembles the elephant) spend the winter in the ground. As soon as new growth appears on the host tree they begin feeding on the tender leaves and stems. Soon they begin laying their eggs in crescent shaped punctures which they cut in the new shoots and nutlets. The larvae hatch in a few days and tunnel through the pith of the shoots seriously injuring and stunting their growth while the infested nuts soon fall from the tree. The eggs may be laid from late May to early August. They hatch in a few days. The larvae complete their growth in four or five weeks when they enter the ground to pupate. In about a month they emerge as adult beetles and begin feeding on leaves and leaf stems as their parents did in the spring, but they will do no egg laying until the following spring. Poison spray applied in early spring and again in late August and September should so reduce their numbers that they will not become a serious pest. Our State Experiment Station suggests the use of a cryolite spray as it is more effective against curculios than arsenical sprays and less likely to injure tender walnut foliage. The Mitchell hybrid, (butternut x heartnut) with us, appears to have natural immunity to the curculio. This brings to mind a secondary but very important reason for finding better butternuts,--namely that they may be used as a starting point for the super variety that someone should give the world from his long rows of crosses between the best butternuts and the best heartnuts. The nut growers of this country are indebted to Dr. Arthur H. Graves of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden for a complete study of the Melanconis disease of the butternut. This study was begun in New York City but has since been widely extended. He thinks that the disease is probably present throughout the entire range of the butternut and is usually responsible for the dead limbs that are so often seen in butternut trees. The Japanese walnut is also susceptible. The disease usually enters the tree through twigs that have been injured in some way. His conclusions, after thorough scientific laboratory and field work covering a period of over twenty years, is that it is caused by a weak parasitic fungus attacking rapidly only when the host tree is in a weakened condition; that it may lie practically dormant in vigorous trees and that it may be successfully combatted by fertilizing, mulching, providing necessary water in time of drought and avoidance of any condition that might weaken the tree. All dead twigs and all twigs showing fruiting bodies of the fungus should be pruned off some distance below the apparent infection as soon as discovered and the pruning wounds painted. Dr. Graves thinks it possible that butternuts grafted on black walnut stocks may have their vigor increased sufficiently to help in warding off the disease. Mr. Weschcke says that, although the Melanconis disease is prevalent in his locality, there has never been the slightest indication of it on the butternut trees which he has growing on black walnut stocks. If kept free of disease the butternut may reach great size. Dr. Robert T. Morris has stated that when he was a boy there were magnificent butternut trees over the greater part of Connecticut. There still remains the stumbling block of lack of really outstanding varieties bearing nuts of good size, large percentage of kernel and perfect shelling quality with heavy and regular bearing. This is a large order to fill but it is a fair guess that somewhere there are wild trees better than any thus far brought to light. Trying to locate them should be an exciting assignment for a nut tree enthusiast. Do not think lightly of a butternut tree just because it looks small and unthrifty. It may be that the fault lies in an unfavorable location. Only an appraisal of the nut will establish its value. The butternut is fairly abundant throughout its range which extends well up into Canada. In central New York there are uncounted thousands of butternut trees along fence rows, in the large and small valleys and along little streams. One person with limited time can hardly hope to examine more than a small proportion of them during the period when the nuts are ripe. The scout for better nuts should lose no opportunity to tell his errand to the people that he meets. I have found the average stranger interested and cooperative. He may direct you to a superior tree that you would never otherwise find. For this work one must be able, like the successful inventor, to hold his enthusiasm after many disappointments. If the coveted variety is not found, one at least has been out in the woods and fields during a wonderful time of year. The Use of Fertilizer in a Walnut Orchard _By L. K. HOSTETTER, Pennsylvania_ Sometime in the fall of 1941 Professor Fagan of Pennsylvania State College, and Mr. Graham of Cornell University, called on me and proposed to make some fertilizer tests in my walnut orchard. The following spring Professor Fagan sent me 16 bags of fertilizer, one bag for each tree. These tests were divided into three parts and each part had one tree that received nitrogen, superphosphate and potash, one that received nitrogen and superphosphate, one nitrogen and potash, one superphosphate only and one potash only and a sixth tree that received no fertilizer. In the first group all the trees received a liberal amount of mulch. In the second group they received no mulch but the same fertilizer as the first group and in the third group they received the same fertilizer, no mulch but raw lime was added to the fertilizer. One tree received lime only. There was a heavy sod in the part of the field where these tests were to be made. This sod was torn up with a springtooth harrow (weed hog) about March 15th and the fertilizer was applied on May 6th. That year was a very poor one in which to make these tests, for during all of July and August we had continuous rainy and cloudy weather and by the first of September all of the leaves had turned yellow and dropped. Most of the trees had a big crop of walnuts which were gathered about October 10th, the nuts from each tree being kept separate. After they were cracked the kernels were weighed and graded and believe it or not, the tree that received lime only had the best grade of kernels, and second best were one that received lime and potash and another lime, nitrogen and potash. The tree that received mulch and potash also had a very good grade of kernels. In 1943 the same tests were repeated. This was again a poor year for we had very little rain during all of August and September just when the trees needed it most. The tree that received nothing had the best quality of kernels and again all the trees that received potash had good kernels. In 1941 I grew two acres of tobacco and the following spring the stalks were cut in one-inch pieces and put on about twenty-five trees. The first year I could not see that it did any good but this past summer all the kernels from these trees were just perfect. It surely is a pleasure to crack walnuts when at least 98% of the kernels are perfect. Lime and Fertilizers for Our Black Walnut Trees _By SEWARD BERHOW, Iowa_ In 1941-1942-1943 black walnut crops from trees growing in timberland in competition with other trees were nearly a total failure. The nuts were fair in number but not filled, the kernels badly shriveled, tough, lacking greatly in flavor and discolored. Some of these black walnut trees have been bearing for 50 years. Are they through, due to having used up all the soil fertility? Wild or native black walnut trees, growing on good soil and not crowded have done better. It looks to me as if it is time our experiment stations, particularly those having black walnut trees on or near their grounds should start studying the cultural requirements of nut trees in the way of lime and fertilizer for better nuts. I have experimented by applying lime and fertilizer to a few bearing trees with very good results. But we need to know the proper amounts to be used for all sizes of trees from the transplants to the bearing trees of different sizes. Such investigations can best be conducted by our experiment stations. There is a very substantial increased demand for grafted nut trees each year. This is evidence that we should make a study of our nut tree culture and care. The Propagation of Black Walnuts Through Budding _By STERLING SMITH, Ohio_ The propagation of black walnuts by budding has proven a highly successful experience. By following this method over a period of several years, under normal weather conditions, the results have been fairly uniform. Stocks, upon which to bud, may either be secured from private nurseries, state forestry departments, or by planting the seed of vigorous native nut trees. If one desires to produce his own stock, the nut seeds should be planted soon after they are gathered. A garden nursery row makes a desirable place for small plantings. If a large scale increase is contemplated it is best to plant the seeds where the trees may be left to grow to maturity. Plant two or three seeds a few inches apart (within a hill) and space these hills as the land available will warrant, anywhere from twenty-five to fifty feet apart. Should all the nuts sprout there will be a three-to-one chance for a healthy tree, and if more than one good tree is produced in each hill the excess stock may be transplanted. After the stock has grown for one year it should be cut back to within four inches from the ground. Such stock makes good material for experimental grafting. By pruning the stock in the spring it forces new growth upon which to place buds later in the season. In the budding process the Jones patch budder has been very successfully used. Along the southern shore of Lake Erie the first week in July is a favorable time to begin this procedure. Due to the fact that the northeast side of the tree is the coolest and shadiest the greater part of the day, there the buds should be set. With the budding tool cut through the bark of the stock, several inches above the start of the new growth. Do not remove the bark. This produces a gathering of callus-forming material at this point and aids in the healing in of the bud which is to be later placed there. My experience shows successful results in many instances where I had failed to make this previous cut. Bud wood should be new and vigorous growth, the first five or six buds nearest the spot from which the growth started being the best. When the bud wood is available cut off the first four or five leaf stalks close to the buds. By the time the buds are ready for use the remainder of the leaf stalk will have ripened or dried and fallen off, and the bark underneath hardened off. If this is not the case the bark is apt to rot at this point, which is directly beneath the bud itself. Bud wood, procured from any source, should be trimmed with the stub of the leaf stalk cut as closely as possible to the bark. If the budding is not done immediately those cuttings may be wrapped and stored in a cool place (about 40° F.) for several days before using. In a hot, dry season the actual budding should be started soon after the middle of July. Due to the excessive amount of rainfall during 1943, buds which were set on July 24th yielded poor results, while those applied later in the summer, about August 12th, healed in one hundred per cent. Procedure: Cut the patch bud from the bud stick with the bud in the center of the patch. Place this patch bud between the lips, as this is a clean and convenient place to hold it. Next, cut the patch, which has been previously marked out, and quickly place the new patch in the opening, tying in place. As many as three or four buds may be similarly set before they are coated with wax. Parapin wax (a paraffin and pine gum mixture) is an excellent substance for coating the buds, due to its rubber-like, non-cracking qualities. A convenient homemade contrivance for melting the wax may be made by soldering a small can into the top of a railroad lantern. Rubber bands of good quality have been made especially for budding by several large rubber companies. These are ideal for tying the buds in place and may be reused several seasons. Treekote, an asphalt emulsion, has proven a successful substance for coating the new work. After the buds have set for two weeks remove the rubber bands and examine. Where buds have failed to heal in properly, and room remains on the stock, new buds may be applied just below the scar. When the trees show signs of growth, the following spring, cut them back to the top of the bud patch, cover the cut with Treekote and prevent all growth on the original stock from developing. The placed buds are frequently slower in starting than the natural buds. A stake driven beside the young stock makes a convenient support for the rapid new growth, which should be tied to prevent breaking by strong winds. Trees started in the nursery may be transplanted to permanent locations the following spring, inasmuch as the spring of the year has proven a more satisfactory time for transplanting than the fall. To attain success in transplanting the newly dug tree, roots should be exposed as little as possible to the air. Prepare the holes before digging the trees, moving one tree at a time for best results. Move as much of the root stock as possible, usually about 18 to 24 inches. Trim roots with a sharp knife, making a clean cut facing downward. Remove at least half of the top growth of the tree and plant at once, tamping the loose dirt firmly about the roots. Water generously and slowly around the loose soil to aid in washing the dirt thoroughly around the newly disturbed roots. With severe pruning, trees may be transplanted after new growth has started. During periods of drought the soil around the trees should be thoroughly soaked from time to time. In conclusion, it may be said that due to varying conditions of soil, climate and locality, for best results the proper time to bud may be either earlier or later in localities other than northern Ohio. Various factors may alter the procedure in those localities due to the individual operator's experimentation, from which he has devised methods giving him the best results. * * * * * Note: The trade-name items mentioned in this article may be obtained from any reliable nursery supply house. Northern Nut Growing _By JOSEPH GERARDI, Illinois_ Judging from the demand for nut trees the public is fast becoming aware of the possibilities of growing its own nuts. Heretofore nut growing has been confined to two favorable sections of the United States, the west coast and the southern pecan groves. But, now we can safely plant the pecan as far north as Springfield, Illinois, and from all indications some trees found in Cass County will extend the northern limit another one hundred miles. The pecan is the favorite nut of nearly everyone, in fact it is preferred to any other nut for its pleasing flavor and easy cracking. Wild nuts used to be gathered from native trees without consulting the owner, but since they are selling at good prices the owners of trees gather them themselves. Fortunately, through efforts of far-seeing individuals some very good pecans have been found that can be grown successfully much farther north than the southern pecan belt. Our nut enthusiast, Dr. A. S. Colby, has drawn the attention of the writer to three promising pecans that he located in Cass County, Illinois. This extends the northern pecan limit much farther north than we formally considered them adaptable. For this locality we can now boast of quite a list of pecans that have been doing well. Of the older introductions Greenriver and Busseron can safely be recommended, and of course, the local finds are all good here, at least the parent trees are doing so well that the public is planting them in preference to the older introductions. West of the Mississippi River Giles, Clarkville and Norton can be recommended. Prospective pecan planters should bear the following remarks in mind. Environment has a decided influence on the behavior of plants and the nut tree is no exception. As they are taken farther north of their original habitat the nuts become smaller and do not fill as well. The black walnut may be considered an exception to this statement. Many local finds and some southern pecans are perfectly hardy as far north as Chicago and Ontario, but can not be expected to ripen any of their nuts. Many southern pecan trees in this locality are wonderful lawn trees but as bearers they are worthless. The Black Walnut The list of black walnuts is altogether too long. Of the numerous introductions only a few are retaining their popularity. In this section I would still plant Stambaugh for its cracking and bearing qualities and its thin shell, but its flavor does not equal that of Thomas and Mintle. The Mintle is smaller but a much better cracker than Thomas. It is also a young and heavy bearer, grows fast and straight as a candle and grafts easily. The Elmer Myers will become the most popular black walnut in sections where it does well, provided its thin shell will withstand machinery hulling without injury to the nuts. We have not fruited the Myers as yet. The black walnut is fast rivaling the pecan, and for confection surpasses it because it retains its flavor after being cooked or baked. Persian Walnuts The Persian walnut in spite of its popularity does not appeal to me. Its flavor can not compare with that of the pecan, hickory, or black walnut. Besides, it is too exacting as to climate and soil. We have tried all the supposedly hardy ones but so far only one will withstand our changeable climate. This one came from a New York nursery and the name was lost. We list it as the Schmidt for the man who owns the tree. This tree is now some twenty years old and bearing well. So far it is remaining healthy as also are the trees grafted from it. Our trouble with all other varieties of this species is that they make a second growth in fall and then succumb to frost. Of all the Broadviews, Shafers, Pekins and Crath seedlings we have grafted in the last ten years not one is now alive in this locality. Something puzzling to me is that two Broadview seedlings we now have growing from seed I obtained from Mr. Corsan of Islington, Ontario, are growing slowly but are still healthy after the '40 and '41 seasons. All the rest of the trees from this same seed succumbed. Filberts, Hazels and Their Hybrids The Winkler hazel failed to bear the past season the first time in 15 years. All pure filberts we have tried in this locality are a failure. Of the hybrids, Bixby and Buchanan are promising. Chestnuts The Mollissima chestnut is very promising in southern Illinois. The tree requires protection in this locality as it sun scalds badly if not protected. No doubt many orchards will be planted in the future. Propagating Nut Trees This is a fascinating subject full of disappointments. We have our ups and downs as does everyone else who attempts it. I get numerous letters telling of their experience and troubles asking for details just how to go about it. What makes it so fascinating is that in certain seasons we have fabulous success and them again in others almost complete failure. Fall of '41 and spring of '42 we averaged 75% catches in budding chestnuts. Fall of '42 and spring of '43 our chestnut budding was just about nil, only 3 or 4% catches, and I am at a loss how to account for this variance. A budded chestnut tree is much superior to a grafted one as far as the union is concerned. Grafted trees usually do not knit well the first season while at two years the union is good. So we also must learn our chestnut propagation all over again. I have a letter before me from Brother Borst asking why his walnut buds took so well and not one of them vegetated in spring. This happened to us a number of times on both walnuts and hickories. Also, in the same season, we have had one or two varieties, of which we did not set many buds or grafts, to show 100% catches, while other varieties set the same day would be 100% failure. Apparently all scions used were in prime condition. Why then this great variance? While we used the double-bladed knife for budding and the side graft for grafting, other methods are just as successful under skilled hands. The skill of the operator has much to do with it. =Fall budding of persimmons.= The persimmon has only about ten days in which it will fall bud. Before or after this period budding will not succeed. It also is important that the scions be taken from thrifty trees a number of years old. The ordinary "T" shield budding gives good success on the persimmon either spring or fall. The spring bud sticks should be perfectly dormant. Butternut and Japanese Walnuts and Their Hybrids None of these are worth the space they occupy in this locality. 1-18 on which I reported last year didn't set a nut this season. Of all the heartnuts I am acquainted with none are satisfactory. There is a siebold tree in St. Louis that so far we have been unable to graft that promises to be adapted to this vicinity. It is good bearer, good cracker and pleasant flavor. This class of nuts is adopted to the north where the pecan is unsatisfactory. The Hicans and Hickories The hicans are numerous in this and adjacent counties. While a number of them are good, I have located none that can compare favorably with Bixby, Gerardi, and Pleas for this locality. The Pleas is a bitternut hybrid and has some bitterness in the kernel, but no more than the English walnut and people like it. Of the twenty hicans we have tried the above three only are satisfactory. In this latitude the hicans are unquestionably the most satisfactory nut trees to plant. They grow fast, bear young, have a high flavor, crack well and are unsurpassed as shade or lawn trees. Here the Gerardi and Bixby are the best so far fruited. The Pleas is very ornamental but lacks flavor. The Burlington and Fairbanks are adapted to the north but here are not satisfactory bearers. I have reports on about 25 Gerardi hican seedlings. They are all worthless, smaller in nut than either pecans or hickories. The peculiar thing is that some of the pecans are decidedly bitter in flavor as also are some of the hickories. Two of the seedlings show shellbark blood. =Handling the nut weevil and plum curculio.= Two years ago the few nuts the Gerardi hican had were all wormy. Last spring I cultivated the ground with a one-horse cultivator and gave our chickens free access to the feast. They made so good a job of it that not a single nut was stung this season. Where the ground can be flooded for several days this will also exterminate the weevil. The same treatment applies to plum curculio. Cultivation should be done before growth starts in spring, or quite late in fall. If anyone ever got a Pleas hybrid nut to grow I would appreciate ever so much to hear from him. So far all my trials to germinate the nuts have failed. I may add that in my estimation no land on this globe is blessed with a nut flora that equals that of the United States. Nut Puttering in an Off Year _By W. C. DEMING, Connecticut_ I did manage to get over to Avon Old Farms, the boys' school, and topwork a few hickory trees. All grew, about a dozen, except three scions of one kind that I put in one tree. This is the third year that I have grafted hickories on the grounds of this school, some three thousand acres. The school was planned and built by Mrs. Theodate Pope Riddle, and I was told there that it cost seven million dollars. It is a beautiful and original group of buildings in the lovely Farmington River Valley, well worth visiting. Mr. Sperry the science teacher, is deeply interested in the nut trees. Dr. Arthur Harmount Graves and I have both given him a number of chestnut trees, and I have added a variety of others, walnuts, persimmons, papaws, pecans, filberts and others as well as the topworked seedling hickories. The trees have been given reasonably good and intelligent care. Many trees were badly winter killed or injured last winter when the temperature dropped to twenty-four below zero in Hartford, official, and is said to have reached forty below in Litchfield county. Japanese chestnuts were especially badly injured. But hybrids having an American strain seemed generally to be little injured. Filberts also showed bad injury. Pecans, persimmons and a papaw seemed to have weathered the winter, though they should be further observed before deciding. The nut trees have been set out in orchard form over tracts of a number of acres and well fertilized. The land is good. Incidentally Mr. Sperry expressed the thanks of the school with more than one bottle--of fine maple syrup which he and the boys make every spring. The mollissima chestnut tree in my yard at Litchfield, which Dr. Graves considers remarkable because it bears a moderate crop of fertile nuts every year without apparent benefit of outside pollination, was stripped almost bare of branches by an ice storm. It had reached thirty five feet in height, mainly, perhaps because pretty well surrounded by taller trees. Now it has to start over again from a much lower height. It bore a few nuts on the remaining branches this year. On account of the restrictions on driving I did not visit Mr. Beeman at New Preston, but he wrote me that he had a few quarts of hickory nuts, chiefly Glover from one of his large topworked trees. He has a couple of acres set out to grafted hickories, some of which have been bearing for several years. Pretty good for a man now 86 who began nut growing less than ten years ago and who has serious physical handicaps. He is the man, as many of you do not know, who, when he began with nut trees, built scaffolds 40 feet high about each of two hickory trees in his yard, and topworked them almost to the last branch by a method of his own One reason for his success is that he is a violin maker with a record of perhaps fifty violins, violas and 'cellos, and he makes his own tools. He is a modest man whom it is a privilege to know. I have had some interesting experiences with papaws this year. For the first time I have succeeded in growing the seed intentionally. The only other time when I have had seedlings was when a bunch of them came up by themselves in the yard as thick as hair on a dog. Last year (1942) in the fall, I scattered a lot o£ seed in a perennial bed and poked them in with a cane and also in a reentrant angle of a house looking to the northeast, behind some rather luxuriant Christmas roses (helleborus niger) where there wore also lilies-of-the-valley and jack-in-the-pulpits and the soil had been rather heavily enriched. In both places the papaws came up quite freely, especially in the angle of the house where the sun struck only a short time each day. The chief reason, however, was probably the rich, deep soil. These seedlings with taproots 6 to 8 inches long were easily transplanted with their leaves on. I brought four of them to St. Petersburg, Florida. They are said to be native in upper Florida. Dr. Zimmerman, who was our authority on papaws, said that he thought hand pollination was necessary for good crops. I have been making observations on this for several years and in 1942 obtained confirmatory results. Last spring (1943) I hand-pollinated a tree about 18 feet high using pollen from a number of other trees. This was the same tree on which I had had good results in 1942 over the limited part of the tree that I had been able to reach from the ground. This year I used a stepladder. Also, because the tree was close to a tool house, on the grounds of the park superintendent, I was able to reach the top of the tree from the roof of the tool house. From this tree I gathered about 100 fruits, all but two perfect, weighing together 23 pounds. There were several bunches of three and four and one of six. The quality I did not think as good as some. But it seemed a pretty good demonstration of the value of hand pollinating. In the yard of a house in Hartford, belonging to the widow of a high school classmate of mine, I found a number of papaw trees, some of them as big as they often grow, perhaps forty feet high and up to a foot in diameter. The lady told me that they used to bear abundantly when her neighbor just over the fence kept bees. Since these are gone she has had very few or no fruit at all and the squirrels got them, if there were any. I pollinated a lot of blossoms that I could reach from the ground and in the fall they were quite loaded with clusters of fruit, but much smaller than those on the first tree described. They were, however, of better quality. There was also a small number of fruit in the high branches of the trees and some of these the squirrels cut off, but apparently just for fun as I did not see any sign of their eating them. I am writing this in St. Petersburg, Florida. I boarded first with a man who describes himself on his card as a tree surgeon doing grafting and budding, spraying, fertilizing and pruning. This year he took the agency for the Mahan pecan and has sold quite a number at $5 each, with one order for twenty trees. These are put out by the Monticello, Florida nursery. The history of their buying the Mahan pecan tree, and a picture of the parent tree in its original home, is given in the files of the American Nut Journal, an index of the seventeen volumes of which I completed this year. Mr. Stewart sets out all the trees he sells and is meticulous in doing so. Nearby is a good sized Mahan tree with still quite a crop of nuts (in November) after a good many have been gathered. Mr. Stewart speaks well of this pecan tree as a good bearer, with nuts well-filled and of good quality. I haven't cracked enough of them to verify these statements but they are offered by the Monticello Nursery in fifty-pound lots. They sell at Webb's in this city for 65 cents a pound. Schleys I believe sell for 45 cents at the same place. The Mahan is, I think, the largest pure pecan, about a third larger than the Schley and those I have seen were equally thin-shelled. I mention this because I had supposed that pecans did not do well as far south as this. Yet I see many trees about the city, some with fair crops on them and some in good foliage, though many, or all of them I have observed, are partially defoliated by the fall web worm. I saw one fine tree that I was told was a Stuart. The Moneymaker also is said to do well here. I speak particularly of the Mahan because it has not, so far as I know, had the unqualified approval of the experts. But what has? And I don't know that it deserves it. It is a joy to be among the many citrus fruit trees, the guavas, papayas, avocadoes, loquats, surinam cherries, new and strange fruits and flowers of many kinds in Florida. The Australian or Queensland nut, Macadamia ternifolia, grow and bear well here, I am told--but the squirrels got all the nuts! But the greatest joy of all is the freedom from ice and snow. Nut Nursery Notes _By H. F. STOKE, Roanoke, Va._ The present season has seen an increase of interest in nut tree planting that is new in my experience. This interest is apparent not only in retail orders, but is reflected in inquiries received from large general nurseries, many of which have not been listing nut trees. I do not believe that this interest in food-producing trees is a passing phase of the war, but that it will continue if honestly catered to and wisely directed. With apologies for personal reference, the demands of my small commercial nursery on my time and attention have become so heavy that I am faced with the necessity of either building a permanent organization of skilled workers or dropping out altogether. Due to advancing years and other considerations I am choosing the latter course. Because of this I feel free to make certain remarks as to the future of nut tree production that I would hesitate to make if I were still in the business. Without doubt many of the large commercial general nurseries will take up the growing and selling of nut trees. We who have pioneered in this work, should welcome the increased public interest that will result from the more extensive advertising and cataloging of nut trees. The specialist who has worked out propagation, pollination and variety problems should be more than able to hold his own against the competition of newcomers in his field, however large. As all old-timers know, there are certain factors in the growing of nut nursery stock that do not lend themselves to the mass-production methods of the large general nurseries. Stocks, generally, take longer to produce. It may take as much as six years to produce a saleable hickory tree from the time the seed is planted. Failures in grafting and budding walnuts run high, especially with beginners. A catch of twenty-five per cent means either selective hand digging must be resorted to or seventy-five per cent of the seedling stock must be sacrificed if power digging is used. Suitable grafting stock for chestnuts is still a matter of controversy. Good authorities claim that Chinese chestnut is unreliable as a root stock while others, including myself, as stoutly maintain that the main need is for proper technique in grafting and budding. These and other considerations, including the training of workers in improved technique, offer certain obstacles to the newcomer which, in turn, offer certain temptations that may result in harm to the whole movement toward nut tree planting. To be specific, the difficulty of producing good grafted or budded trees of named varieties may readily tempt the less scrupulous to sell any kind of nondescript seedling, while at the same time giving the public the impression that superior stock is being offered. This is, in fact, already being done. I have before me the catalogues of three large general nurseries. One of them offers what are obviously seedling Chinese chestnuts in these words: "Only two years from now, right on your own grounds, you can pick up big, fat, tasty chestnuts from the trees you plant this year." Of English walnuts--no variety name given and quite obviously seedlings--the following description is given: "Thin-shelled, large, delicious nuts, producing heavy crops and demanding good prices". In both these cases the prices asked are as high or higher than good, grafted, named varieties can be bought for elsewhere. The second catalogue offers seedling black walnuts, not so designated, and also "Thomas Improved" black walnuts at a higher price. Seedling English walnuts, not stated as such, are offered as having commercial possibilities and being as good in quality as those grown elsewhere. The third catalogue is entirely ethical and legitimate. It lists a limited assortment of well-selected varieties under their true names. When misguided buyers purchase a seedling chestnut tree with the expectation of "picking up big, fat, tasty chestnuts in two years from planting" and realize a handful of nuts after ten years of waiting, or nothing but empty burrs because of lack of pollination, nut tree planting gets a black eye. The same is true when the buyer tenderly nurses a weak-rooted English walnut seedling for fifteen years before he gets a few small, thick-shelled, astringent nuts. When nurseries that show honesty in their advertising write me for information I give them the best I have. When their advertising is otherwise I do not trouble to answer. One party, after asking many questions, wound up by saying he wanted "to get in on this nut game." My impression was that if he had said "shell game" he would have more accurately stated his case. Buyers should be on their guard not to be deceived by flowery, but vague descriptions. If catalogues list nut trees by recognized variety names it is pretty safe to assume that the trees are as represented. If recognized variety names are omitted the trees may safely be considered to be seedlings and that they will produce a wholly unknown quantity, no matter how alluring the advertising. Of course, this is not intended to discourage the planting of new varieties offered by nurseries of known reputation for integrity, nor of such strains as the Crath Carpathian walnut importations, from which new varieties are emerging. As a practical note I wish to state that the black walnut is by far the most satisfactory stock on which to graft walnuts of any species. Not infrequently seedling English walnut trees take from ten to fifteen or more years to come into bearing. I have fruited fifteen or more varieties by grafting on black stocks, and in no case has it required more than five years for the trees to bear. Frequently they have borne in two or three years. The English walnut is also a more vigorous grower on black walnut roots than on its own. The Sherwood butternut grafted five or six years ago on butternut stocks has not borne yet; grafted on a small black walnut in the nursery row in 1942 it bore one nut in 1943 and has many staminate buds for 1944 visible at the present time. Walters heartnut bears the second or third year on black walnut; it has not borne for me on butternut after seven years. The same holds good for the other heartnuts. In the grafting of chestnuts, defective (incompatible?) unions can generally be spotted the first year. They develop with a transverse fissure into which the bark ingrows. Good unions show new tissue entirely around the closing wound; the final scar as healing approaches completion being vertical, i. e. longitudinal with the stock. This result can be obtained by proper technique. The members of the Association can do much to further the cause of nut tree planting by discrimination in recognizing the ear-marks of honest advertising and encouraging their friends to make their purchases from conscientious, responsible nurserymen. Our Association nursery list is a valuable help in this direction. Report from the Tennessee Valley _By THOMAS G. ZARGER, TVA, Norris, Tennessee_ _Black Walnut Industry_--in the early fall of 1943, a survey was made of the black walnut industry in the Tennessee Valley and Nashville Basin. Four commercial cracking plants had shelled 10 million pounds of nuts purchased in 1942. This year, cracking plants have offered to buy unlimited quantities of nuts in the shell at the relatively good price of $4.50 per 100 pounds. Because of the manpower shortage, especially on the farm, the collection of nuts has not exceeded the preceding year. Pasteurizing plants had processed a quarter of a million pounds of kernels purchased in 1942. This year only three pasteurizing plants will operate, and a smaller quantity of kernels will be processed. The kernel supply from the home-cracking industry has decreased because the sanitation requirements of the Federal Food and Drug Administration are difficult to meet in the homes. _Bearing Habits of Wild Black Walnut_--Looking forward to a fuller utilization of the wild black walnut crop, the bearing habits of the black walnut tree is being investigated. Four-year records are now available on tree growth, nut yield, and nut quality of sample trees located throughout the Tennessee Valley. For 121 trees, with a range in diameter from 4 to 28 inches total dry nut yield, in pounds, averaged as follows: 1940, 31; 1941, 24; 1942, 38; 1943, 29. There is some evidence of alternate bearing, with a heavy crop followed by a very light crop. How much larger nut crop a larger tree is expected to bear was found to increase on an average trend from 0 pounds of filled nuts for a tree of 4-inch diameter to 65 pounds for a 24-inch tree. Judged on the basis of nut quality, only one of the sample trees compared favorably with standard propagated varieties of black walnut. Filled nuts on the average, amounted to 83 percent of total nut crop weight, and had a total kernel percentage of 21. Recovery of marketable kernels averaged 17 percent of total nut weight. In order to learn still more about the bearing habits of the black walnut, records on all sample trees will be carried on for two more years. _Macedonia Black Walnut_--A sample of black walnuts from a tree growing on the home place of Mr. N. U. Turpen at the Macedonia Community at Clarksville, Georgia, were sent to us for evaluation in 1939. The nuts were thought to be two years old--from the 1937 crop. When tested, the kernel content averaged about 40 percent--the highest on record for a black walnut. The tree, supposed to be the one which bore the nuts we tested, had not borne any appreciable amount since 1937. Since the tree yielded good crops in 1942 and 1943, we are now in a position to report further on the Macedonia walnut. Based on cracking tests of nut samples, the average nut weight and kernel percentage were 16.8 grams and 28 percent in 1942; and 16.4 grams and 29 percent in 1943. It is apparent that the Macedonia black walnut has not exhibited those exceptional characteristics of thinness of shell and high kernel percent which were found in the original sample tested. Report from Minnesota--Letter from Carl Weschcke to Miss Mildred Jones The winter of 1942-43 was the most damaging on fruit and nut trees within my experience of 25 years in River Falls, Wisconsin. The main reason was that we had a long wet fall and all vegetation was in a succulent green condition when our first snow storm of September 25th hit us. For other details of this winter and the Armistice Day storm of 1941, the second in its deleterious effect on horticultural varieties, please write Mr. C. G. Stratton, Coop. Observer, of River Falls, Wisconsin, who is in charge of the U. S. Government weather bureau there. Mr. Stratton furnished me with an affidavit showing one of our very coldest winters in which the temperature went down, in February, to 47° below zero. This was in 1936. This winter of extreme cold did very little damage to trees, and an apricot on which I had taken out a plant patent, subsequently called the Harriet apricot, went through this winter without any damage and bore fruit the next year. This gave me such confidence in its hardiness that I began to propagate it for sale. The winter of 1942-43 wiped out practically all of the apricot trees of this variety and all of the early Richmond cherries that had been growing on my farm for nearly twenty years. It killed more than half of the catalpa trees which were nearly as old. It also killed outright a large Stabler black walnut which had been grafted on a Minnesota seedling nearly twenty years previous. This was a fine large flourishing tree that bore each year and I had thought because of this behavior that Stabler was to be considered one of the hardiest of the black walnuts. It had stood up better than Thomas many winters. I could go on enumerating failures of many other varieties and species but it is a long story and a sad one. To make this report more concise I will now give you my opinion as to what is hardy under these severe tests. To begin with, one of your father's hazel hybrids, of which I have two bushes, stood all of this very well. These bushes, which are perhaps fifteen years old, are still flourishing, although the main trunks are decaying rapidly. Several of the sprouts are blossoming freely. These two bushes have borne only one crop of nuts, although they blossom freely, and the catkins are about as hardy as anything in the filbert line that I have seen. The reason for their not bearing is lack of pollination. I never did find out what was satisfactory, even at the time that I hand-pollinated them to get a crop of nuts. The nuts are much more satisfactory than Winkler or Rush hazels. The Rush is absolutely worthless here; is subject to blight and is very tender to our winters. The Winkler is a very hardy variety, bears something every year. The trouble with the Winkler is that it matures its nuts so late, much later than the Jones' hybrid. I never have propagated your father's hybrid for sale as I did not know a hardy pollinizer for it. I have sold a few Winklers, recommending them for proper locations. I have one Winkler planted by a small lake cottage up at Delta, Wisconsin. This is about thirty miles west of Ashland, Wisconsin. This territory is very uncertain for successful corn raising so the Winkler is quite a hardy bush. Four hybrid plants that bear worthwhile nuts, which grew from seed planted in 1933 and 1934, are perfectly hardy, almost as hardy as the native wild hazel and hardier than any other worthwhile filbert or hybrid that we have. This hardiness is no doubt due to the fact that the mother plant was an ordinary wild Wisconsin hazel. These hybrids, from the native hazels, we call "Hazilberts," and have obtained a United States trademark on all plants produced after this manner. Here again I have not recommended nor sold any of these because of my lack of knowledge as to the correct pollinizer; this has yet to be developed. They do not pollinize themselves nor do they pollinize each other satisfactorily. They have all the finest characteristics that you could ask for except prolificacy which may be due to the lack of a proper pollinizer. They are the most resistant to the hazel blight of anything that I have worked with so far in 25 years. Hard winters, such as we have had recently, have no deleterious effect on them. They blossom and do not lose any of their wood and apparently there is no injury. They are very vigorous plants and can be trained to a single tree standard or they make very tall-growing vigorous bushes. I have placed these filberts and their hybrids first on my list of recommended trees because they are going to be the backbone of nut tree production. I have nearly one hundred experimental European filberts, mostly of wild varieties, of which about a dozen are hardy both in pistillate and staminate bloom, even in our most severe winters, although of this dozen only about two or three have nuts which could possibly be considered commercial. Practically all of these are being injured in one way or another by the blight. Many have passed out of existence and only two or three have been able to resist the blight so that it doesn't seem to make any headway. I do not do anything for a blighted filbert--it must take care of itself. I have experimented along these lines, however, using chemicals and other means of protection. I do not know of anything adequate except to build resistance in the plant itself through cross-breeding. The next really successful plant is the Weschcke butternut. This is a native butternut which I discovered on my own farm. Every local woods has butternut trees in it. We must have at least five hundred butternut trees in our woods; they are subject to some kind of a bark disease but this seems to encroach on the life of the tree very slowly since trees that I remember showing signs of this disease nearly twenty years ago are still living. They are awful looking sights, however, by this time. Such large trees that have developed this blight are possibly in the neighborhood of fifty years old. The Weschcke butternut is a medium size to small butternut. Its great value lies in the fact that it splits exactly in half and the shell structure is so shallow that by merely turning the nut upside down the kernel falls out--nothing to hold it in the shell. Very frequently the kernel stays absolutely intact, its wings being held together by the little tender neck joining them at the point of the nut. The nut kernel is tender and light colored. The difficulty here is grafting them on black walnut roots; after they are grafted they grow very rapidly and bear at once. I have had them bear the first year grafted. Next in line of hardiness and reliability is the Weschcke hickory. This is now an old-timer; since its successful grafting in 1934 it has borne an ever-increasing crop every year. This is not to be measured in bushels, however, but in pounds. No other hickory nut has begun to touch it, in its regularity, reliability and its quality: that is, no hickory so far north. It is the thinnest shelled hickory of any that I have ever tested out, and releases its kernels about the best of any. It has one fault, however; the staminate blossom is abortive, never produces any pollen. It needs a pollinizer and we have been recommending the Bridgewater and the Kirtland which we know by actual experiments have produced pollen in large amounts, sufficient for pollinization of this tree. Even before Kirtland and Bridgewater pollens were available those trees, grafted to the Weschcke, bore hickory nuts every year, but in very small quantities. I am now quite sure that they borrowed pollen from the wild bitternut trees which are in abundance nearby. There is also the other possibility, which has not been conclusively proved, that this variety is a parthenogen. Innumerable hard frosts in early springs have destroyed butternut crops and walnut crops, but these hickory nuts invariably come through such seasons and escape the early fall frosts, which come in September, for the reason that the nuts are matured usually the second week in September. We therefore can recommend the Weschcke hickory freely. We have not determined how far north it can live, but I believe the 45th parallel is very safe, and as far west as the Dakota line. It originated at Fayette, Iowa, and probably would thrive far into the south. It grafts extremely well on the wild bitternut hickory root which is about the hardiest known. Your father was very partial toward it as a stock. This root system does not handle all hickories by any means. In all my trials using pecan scions the only pecan which grafts well on it and survives indefinitely, is the Hope. This is also a very hardy tree but we cannot recommend it as a nut tree because we have never seen the parent tree bear any nuts. The parent tree is now twenty years old. Quite a large tree but no nuts. It is growing in an unfavorable location for bearing since it is shaded by much larger trees. It is growing right here in St. Paul. The Bridgewater and the Beeman are two more hickories which are very hardy and which come into bearing quickly, also are successfully grafted on bitternut root. They do not mature their nuts so reliably nor so early by any means as the Weschcke. For a little further south they might be very reliable. They are fully as hardy and satisfactory in every other respect. The hickories that have proved to be fairly hardy but have produced very few nuts are the Cedarapids and the Kirtland. The Beaver hybrid hickory is probably next for nut production satisfaction, grafts well on bitternut root but does not seem to have a long life. The trees that I bought from your father nearly twenty years ago are now dead although they lived to become large fine trees and bore in some seasons very nice crops of nuts. The Fairbanks hickories, grafted some seventeen or eighteen years ago, are still surviving, but bear very few nuts, some seasons practically nothing at all. They very seldom ripen as they mature very much later than the natives or the other varieties mentioned above. I do not consider the Fairbanks a very edible nut anyway as they become very rancid after a couple of months. The Beaver is not a good keeper either. This is rather an important characteristic in a nut and one in which the Weschcke excels, as in ordinary office temperature it usually keeps two or three years. I believe that this is partly due to the thin shell. My theory is that the thin shell expands and contracts with heat and moisture conditions without cracking. This prevents air from getting at the kernel, and since it is the oxygen which is mostly responsible for rancidity, this exclusion of air probably accounts for the fresh state that these nuts maintain for a long time. I have noticed that thick-shelled shellbarks and, to a lesser degree the shagbarks, crack open, in minute hairline cracks, and these nuts which split like this invariably soon become rancid. Now the black walnuts are next in order. For many years I considered the Ohio a worthless variety. They would seldom mature any of the nuts, and although they were regular bearers the thick hull was a nuisance. I have had twenty years' experience with this variety and they are the hardiest of all the old ones. They stand up very well and each year the nuts become a little more satisfactory. Evidently the trees have the ability to acclimatize themselves and they stand up better than Thomas, Stabler or Ten Eyck of the old varieties that I have tested. More recent varieties which I have tested and have proved satisfactory, are the Paterson and the Rohwer; I recommend these two above all other black walnuts. I have two seedlings which I am watching with a great deal of interest. One is from Minnesota and the other is a failed grafted tree which sprang up from the root and so far is beginning to bear prolifically a medium sized nut with a rather thick shell which does not crack out very well but the quality is superb. It has a thin hull which you can pop off by merely pressing your thumb against it after it is thoroughly dry, coming off very clean leaving a good looking nut. The kernel is very light straw-colored and you can generally get them out in good pieces, about one-quarter of the whole kernel. Above all it matures very early, about the middle of September or sooner, and this is the deciding factor for any nut, because, no matter how well It cracks, how prolific it may be, or hardy, if you do not get a ripe nut you have nothing for here in the north. I feel quite certain that this is going to be the standard black walnut for the north. For want of a better name I have been calling it the "Ruffy" because the hull, when green, has a pimply surface and a rough appearance. The other black walnut that I am watching is a seedling resulting from ten bushels planted nearly twenty years ago, the only tree to bear because of the crowded condition of all these walnuts planted so close together. I have been watching it for six or seven years and was never able to get a mature nut until this year. Reason was that in most of the seasons the nuts were empty; other times I did not wait until they were fully ripe, being too anxious to find out what was inside. This tree I have named the "Walbut" because it seemed to me it might be a cross between a butternut and a walnut. The kernel is very light colored. It cracks out the best of any walnut I have ever tested. It is difficult to graft, so far in my experience. I have no living grafts from it although I have tried again and again to graft it on other large isolated stocks in the orchard. It has a square shape, with deep indentations near the point. It is something to watch, and work with although it does not seem to be extra hardy in spite of the fact that it is a native tree. At present it is merely an interesting variety to experiment with and it may possibly be of some use later on. The branches have shown curious little birdseye markings--it has a habit of developing buds which die and form little brown structures in the wood and it is possible that the tree may be a fancy timber tree. The shell has only one structure down the center, thereby insuring that the halves come out whole. An ornamental known as the lace-leaf walnut is very hardy here, doesn't winter kill at all but so far has not borne any nuts. The Deming Purple is not hardy; the Stabler is very unreliable considering the last few years; the Thomas is still one of the best except it suffers from winter injury occasionally; the Ten Eyck very seldom bears any nuts although we have several very large trees now. The Elmer Myers possibly has a chance; it is still living. The Snyder has survived the last few winters and in my opinion it is one of the best nuts I have ever seen. The grafts have borne a few nuts already in the second year of grafting. They set a couple of nuts even after a severe winter last year, but they fell off during the summer, much the same as the Thomas and many of the Ohio did. The same thing happened to practically all of my hybrid hazels, also the Winkler and even the wild hazel kept continually dropping the nuts until there was practically nothing left. No doubt this effect was produced by a peculiar season. We should not hold it against the nut trees since it was a universal condition. Last summer about one-half dozen of the pecan trees which I had been playing around with for twenty years, started to blossom but only had staminate bloom, There might possibly be a crop of pecans this coming year--I do not have any hopes that any of these seedlings will be able to mature their nuts, but there is always a possibility and they are certainly hardy. None of them that I have tried to graft will live on bitternut roots. Chestnuts are difficult to get started but once they are started they grow very well although there are only a few surviving out of many thousands of seeds planted. Every year one or more comes into bearing--they generally do not mature their nuts, and what I have tasted of them are not anything to brag about except that they are sweet; the size is insignificant and they evidently have much of the native chestnut blood. I am still testing such varieties as the Carr, Zimmerman, and Connecticut Yankee. So far these have shown themselves to be quite tender varieties. I do not consider the chestnut worthwhile because of the constant threat that if a grove should be started it might soon have the blight in it. I have several Chinese chestnut seedlings which are making a fairly good growth and in time may become productive trees. We have one hybrid white oak which has an edible kernel but out of about one hundred nuts you might get one wholesome one free from weevils. The tree is very old and is rapidly declining. The nut is small but the tree is quite prolific. I merely mention it to show that there are possibilities in developing the oak. I think our mutual friend, J. Russell Smith, would probably like to hear this as he advocates the use of oaks, and I agree with him that there are possibilities for human food to be used first-hand. I am all out of sympathy with second-hand food production as pork or beef or any meat products, as you know. One reason is that it is economically wrong as it takes many times more acreage to produce meat than vegetables for the same amount of food energy to be derived. My authority, the Encyclopedia Brittanica, which says it takes 64 pounds of dry fodder to produce 1 pound of dry beef, and 32 pounds of dry fodder to produce 1 pound of dry mutton, etc., etc. Be Thrifty with Nut Trees _By CARL WESCHCKE, Minnesota_ There has been too much accent put on the profit to be made on nut production. No matter how much income a man may receive, if he has not learned to save out of that income he will never be better off for having received it. Now, nut trees offer a particularly practical way of saving out of income. If one has a large family to feed the saving may amount to a hundred dollars or more a year. When this fine food, contained in the kernels of nuts, is used right in your own family, and supplies the family's entire requirements of nuts, you will find that you have made very substantial savings in your family food budget. First of all, it is different from income from the sale of nuts because when you sell nuts they must be sold in the competitive market, and usually to the wholesaler if you have a considerable amount to dispose of. Therefore you save the profit made by the wholesaler and the retailer by using your nut crop rather than selling it. This is really being thrifty. If you have a large crop of nuts you will find that you can easily increase the uses in combination with other foods so that less other food has to be purchased in order to meet the family needs. And with the higher prices of ordinary foods you can easily visualize what a tremendous saving this might be. Nuts are a fine luxury food, but in a way they can quickly become a necessary food by being used as a replacement for meat. I don't like to use the term "substitute for meat" as it implies that nuts are inferior to meat, and nothing could be further from the truth. Nuts are more _NUTricious_ than any meat, pound for pound, and what meat can you store away that will keep as sweet and edible as a nut for so long a time! Plant nut trees to save your income not to increase it. You will never have to pay a tax on that saving. Report of Season 1943 _By GEORGE HEBDEN, Corsan, Canada_ The winter of 1942-43 was one of the coldest ever known here. One day it was 33° below zero and another it was 38° below. Filberts did not seem to take any notice of the severe cold and my Stranger Jap heartnuts that are said to be tender went through with flying colors. One or two varieties of Russian walnuts (J. regia) froze to the ground as did all the Pomeroys. Some of the Crath walnuts froze from a few inches to a yard, but the majority did not lose a bud. Strange to say all the extremely large varieties of J. regia came through unscathed as did my Chinese. Asiatic tree hazels missed cropping but came through unscathed. Winkler and Rush hazels were not harmed, though the Rush is a bit tender and succumbed the winter of 1933-34. In fact 1933-34 was a harder winter on trees than 1942-43 as that winter all but my Daviana filberts were hit more or less. Last fall (1943) all trees went into their winter's sleep in most excellent condition and the twigs are hard to the top buds. Signs on twig terminals indicate a large crop of nuts for the fall of 1944. Thus I hope to be able to have on display for the convention-to-be a most interesting show. Besides nuts of all the hardy varieties I always have a real big show of hardy and tropical water lilies and lotus, a complete collection. Also a complete collection of grapes and many other horticultural curios rarely seen. I was many years finding persimmons hardy enough to survive our winters, but at last I have at least 2 and maybe 3 varieties that passed last winter in perfect condition. I am north of Lake Ontario and just a mile west of Toronto. I doubt that northern pecans, big western shellbarks and hicans will have a long enough season to ripen. The Weiker hickory, which is a cross between shagbark (Carya ovata) and shellbark (C. laciniosa) hickories, ripens completely each season. Catawba grapes won't ripen except in a rather long summer. Just across the lake the golden muscatel grapes have ripened two or three times in my memory. Barcelona and Kentish cob seem to be the only two filberts that are tender with me. Du Chilly and Italian red live and crop regularly. I have several very large new varieties of seedling filberts. I like to grow seedling filberts, they show wonderful variations in fruiting. The same with heartnuts. I never lose a seedling heartnut for if the tree yields an unsatisfactory nut I promptly bud it to a Stranger which is the most regular and heaviest cropping heartnut I know of. Yes, every year a monster crop of nuts whose meats come out whole. Our hybrid Jap heartnut � native butternut crosses are of three types and all excellent and will hold their own with any nut that grows. No nut can beat our butternut for eating. But the shells are too thick, the trees crop only about every 4 years, are unhealthy and shed their leaves soon after September 1st. On the other hand, the hybrid outlooks it, outcrops it and outlives it and our friendly neighbor Russia is very greatly intrigued with these new nuts developed here at Echo Valley. They are thin-shelled, very easy to crack, meats come out easily, trees have a tropical look, crop early, grow fast and very large, leaves hang on green almost to November and the crop ripens early, just after the filberts which are the first nuts to ripen with me, while the Winkler hazels are the last, though the hybrid filbert-hazels are almost as late. A very beautiful sight here are the many different nut trees growing on black walnut stock to be seen all over the 20 acres. They are heartnuts, Jap walnuts, hybrids, English walnuts and butternuts, as well as superior named black walnuts. People don't want beautiful trees nearly as much as they do trees that grow nuts. For instance, they don't buy pecans from me, because though they are quite hardy and beautiful, yet the northern pecans don't mature their crop sufficiently in our short season. Down in extreme southwestern Ontario the pecan has cropped and ripened. One mistake we must not make is not to be too sure of the value of a nut because it is large, thin-shelled and has a fine flavor but is a poor cropper. The nut that produces a very heavy crop is the valuable nut. Thus McAllister hican and the Stabler black are worthless because of their extremely thin crop. Another nut that looks large and excellent on the tree is the Ohio black walnut, whose huge dirty hull and small nut condemns it. I like thin-hulled nuts that come out clean. American Walnut Manufacturers Association Carries Out Industrial Forestry Program _By W. C. FINLEY, Forester_ The forestry program now in operation is ambitious in scope, and has as its objectives the promotion of forest practices which will encourage growing and harvesting American Walnut as a permanent crop. One of the greatest evils which we are attempting to eradicate is the cutting of small diameter trees. The Walnut Industry has expressed a desire to conserve small diameter fast growing walnut trees for future use and is advocating that farmers, timberland owners and log producers leave these trees in the woodlots to grow into high quality timber. We are trying to educate the farmer, timber owner and log producer in forestry practices which will serve not only their best interests, but which in the final analysis, will serve the lumber industry as a whole. Trees less than 14 inches d.b.h. if cut constitute a real loss in potential high quality and more valuable logs because the logs they produce are too small to be used advantageously. On the other hand, trees of 14 inch d. b. h. and up are in demand and are playing a patriotic role in furnishing material for use by the armed forces, namely gunstocks. The public in general, and tree farmers and timber owners in particular, must be made aware of the fact that while the present walnut timber supply is adequate, conservation of immature trees must be practiced to the full to assure the industry with sufficient raw materials for future use. Success in this particular phase of our program is being enhanced greatly through the excellent cooperation of Extension Foresters, State Foresters, U. S. Forest Service, Timber Production War Project Foresters, Foresters of the Soil Conservation Service and Tennessee Valley Authority Foresters. These various agencies are working hand in hand with us on those objectives of our program which, in a measure, dovetail with various phases of their own programs. One of the most interesting aspects of our program is our work with 4-H Clubs. We are sponsoring a contest among those members who are interested in forestry. Each contestant is required to plant 25 seedlings, record certain data and write a story about his woodlot giving specific information. Two winners will be chosen from each county participating. Winners will be chosen on the basis of the best story submitted; judges will be 4-H officials and the Extension Forester from each state. The reward to be presented winners will be one week's vacation at 4-H Summer Camp with all expenses paid by the American Walnut Manufacturers Association. This contest is open to all 4-H Club members in the States of Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Michigan, Missouri, Ohio and Tennessee. In addition to this, the Association Forester will conduct a one day forestry program at the summer camps at which time he will present the winners with special certificates. The program was planned by the Association's Forestry Committee, consisting of Chester B. Stem, C. B. Stem, Inc., New Albany, Indiana, Chairman; B. F. Swain, National Veneer and Lumber Company, Indianapolis, and Seymour, Indiana; Clarence A. Swords, Sword-Morton Veneer Company, Indianapolis, Indiana and Burdett Green, Secretary-Manager of the American Walnut Manufacturers Association, Chicago, Illinois. The committee worked in close cooperation with Harris Collingwood, Washington, D. C., Forester for the lumber industry. Of especial help were several of the Midwest's outstanding foresters from regional and state offices of the various governmental forestry agencies--men who have had years of woods experience in the areas where most of the Walnut Association's forestry activities will be carried on. The Crath Carpathian Walnut in Illinois _By A. S. COLBY_ The Persian walnut (_Juglans regia_), usually and incorrectly called the English walnut, has been highly prized both for the beauty of the tree and the quality of its nuts since ancient times. The species flourishes in Southern Asia and Europe and in our Southwestern and Pacific Coast States, but most of the attempts that have been made to fruit it in Northern and Eastern sections have failed. The varieties or strains tried there were for the most part native to sections of the Old World where the winters are comparatively mild and they were therefore not able to survive our colder and more changeable climate. The late E. A. Riehl, of Alton, Illinois, tried repeatedly to grow named varieties of this nut which are successful in California, but often stated that the species had no future in Illinois. In extreme southern Illinois, at Robert Endicott's place, in Villa Ridge, several Persian walnut trees are growing but their bearing habits are disappointing. One of the most promising recent developments in Northern nut culture is the introduction into America of hardier strains of the Persian walnut, through the efforts of Rev. Paul C. Crath, of Toronto, Canada, a native of Poland, and whose father was the head of the Agricultural College in the Ukraine. He went back to his own country as a missionary in the early 1930's, and there noticed the hardiness of the Persian walnuts growing in that severe climate. Realizing the possibilities of these strains for fruiting in North America, he combed that rich Russian agricultural region in the Carpathian Mountains for seed for experimental planting over here, harvesting it from trees uninjured at temperatures of -40° F. These parent trees were carefully selected for regular production of good crops of thin-shelled, easily-cracked nuts of good quality. The trees were growing at such distances from others that cross-pollination was avoided. Rev. Crath had observed that seedlings from such self-pollinated trees usually bore nuts that closely resembled those of the parent. Each tree from which nuts were saved was given a number in order to keep future records straight. The nuts were planted in a nursery established by Rev. Crath near Toronto. Wishing some point in this country where his trees could be distributed without the difficulty and delay incurred in moving small shipments across the border, Rev. Crath arranged with Mr. Samuel H. Graham, of Ithaca, New York, to take sole charge of their distribution in the United States. Considerable interest has been aroused in the possibilities of these strains and their distribution has been wide-spread, with over 2,000 seedlings sent to many Northern States since 1937. In a few more years, after a considerable proportion of these numbered seedlings have come into bearing, we shall have some valuable information regarding their possibilities in sections of the country where previously it had not been considered possible to grow Persian walnuts. Several Illinois horticulturists have planted seedlings of these strains and have already brought one or more of them into bearing. Others have used scion wood of the Crath types in top-working black walnut trees. The sample Crath Carpathian walnut No. 1 on display at the 1942 meeting of the Illinois Horticultural Society at Quincy was grown by Mr. Royal Oakes, of Bluffs, Illinois. Mr. Oakes topworked a black walnut with Crath Seedling No. 1 scions in 1938 and harvested six nuts in 1942. At the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station at Urbana, we have over 20 Crath seedlings under number, planted in 1937 and 1939. They are all healthy and vigorous, and several bore pistillate flowers in 1942. Comparatively little is known about the bearing habits of the Crath walnut strains. Several growers have noted that their trees began to bear pistillate flowers within a few years after planting but set no nuts. Evidently the staminate catkins necessary for pollen production are somewhat slower in appearing. Other strains of Persian walnuts are said to be slow in this regard, usually beginning to bear female flowers from 3 to 5 years before male flowers are produced. It is thought possible that Persian walnut pistils will accept black walnut pollen. Mr. Oakes reports that there were no staminate flowers on the Crath (from which he picked the nuts he exhibited at Quincy), but black walnut pollen was abundant nearby at that time and for good measure he also brought in butternut bouquets. As he states, "something worked." The prospective planter should understand that these new walnut strains are as yet only in the experimental stage. It is believed that some of them have considerable promise, at least in the southern and the central, and possibly in the northern, parts of this state. However, they must be properly planted and cared for if one expects them to grow and bear. Too close planting should be avoided and some attention must be given to forming the head when the tree is young. No one knows exactly when they will bear, how much, and how long. In their native country, trees have been observed estimated to be over 300 years old. Most of us can expect to enjoy nuts from trees we plant, with more for our grandchildren and great-grandchildren. One might ask also in this connection, as does one nut nurseryman, "How soon will a Chinese elm or soft maple bear nuts?" [Illustration: Parent tree of Ohio black walnut, on the farm of Charles Arbogast, 1-1/2 miles northwest of McCutchenville, Ohio. The tree is 2-1/2 feet in diameter and very vigorous. It is said to bear heavy crops in alternate years. Photograph by O. D. Diller, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Oct. 8, 1943.] [Illustration] Ohio Nut Growers' Meeting _By G. J. KORN, BERRIEN SPRINGS, MICH._ A meeting of Ohio nut growers was held at the Wooster, Ohio, Experiment Station on September 5, 1943. A very pleasant and profitable afternoon was had in the exchange of ideas and reports on the growing of nut trees. Most of those present were members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. As the annual meeting of that organization had been cancelled for the duration of the war, the Ohio members decided to hold a meeting of their own at Wooster. The growers presented reports on the varieties with which they are working and evaluated their merits and performance. As an example, Mr. A. A. Bungart of Avon, said he had spent a good share of his spare time for two summers in examination of several hundred native black walnut trees, and has never found a nut as good as the varieties Todd or Thomas. He still feels, however, that there are superior walnuts growing wild and that continued search for them is well warranted. Several other kinds of nut trees are being grown by Mr. Bungart, such as filberts, Chinese chestnuts, and Crath Persian walnuts. In a summary of his report he said, "In viewing the growing of nut trees, I am convinced that it is a wonderful hobby, and that the contributions of various individuals and groups will eventually establish nut growing in the northern states on a commercial basis." Mr. Eugene Cranz of Ira also gave a very interesting report. This past summer Mr. Cranz passed his eighty-first birthday, and for many years has been keenly interested in general forestry practices. One of his particular interests is nut culture; a very superior hickory tree grows on his place, which bears a very high quality nut. During the course of his remarks, he expressed great optimism in the matter of developing the Chinese chestnut into a valuable commercial nut crop. Mr. J. Lester Hawk & Son of Beach City, concurred in Mr. Cranz's opinion on this matter, and cited as an example the 2 Hobson Chinese chestnuts which they planted on their property in 1917. These two trees have been bearing crops of well-formed tasty nuts for a period of 20 years. Mr. Hawk reports that he had sold several hundred seedling trees from these trees last year, and reports that he has about 2,500 one-year seedling trees in his nursery at the present time. Many other interesting reports were given on cultural practices and on the merits of various types of nut trees adaptable to northern conditions. Mention should be made of the especially fine illustrated talk given by L. Walter Sherman, superintendent of the Mahoning County Experiment Farm at Canfield. Colored slides were shown by Mr. Sherman, of his grafting technique and of individual trees throughout the state from which he has collected scions. Three acres of the Mahoning County Farm are being devoted to nut growing and research at the present time. This planting includes 21 different varieties of black walnut. Mr. Sherman is keeping an accurate record of the trees as they develop, their source of scions, and other items that may be of interest. Besides recording this data, he is also making color slides of his cultural methods and progressive stages of the trees' growth. In spite of unavoidable interruptions to their individual efforts occasioned by the war, those in attendance expressed the belief that real progress is being made in this particular field. A committee was chosen to draft tentative plans for a 20-year research program on nut culture in Ohio. The great enthusiasm shown at this initial meeting indicates that a meeting of Ohio nut growers is likely to become an annual event. On my return home to Michigan from attending the Ohio meeting, I stopped off near McCutchenville, Ohio, to visit the parent "Ohio" black walnut tree. The accompanying photos taken by Mr. O. D. Diller, Dept. of Forestry, Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio, show the majesty and beauty of this great tree. Walnut and Heartnut Varieties Notes and Remarks _By J. U. GELLATLY, Westbrook, B. C._ BARLEE BLACK WALNUT--1935 crop grown in Kelowna, B. C.--1 nut--44.0 per lb., 1 kernel--206.1 per lb., 21.36% kernel. BROADVIEW NUTS--1941 crop, 5 nuts--29.5 per lb., 68.7 kernels per lb., 1 best kernel 64.8 per lb., 51.5 shells per lb., 42.85% kernel. CALLANDER HEART NUT--20 Nuts--124.8 per lb., 20 kernels--392.7 kernels per lb.--31.8% kernel. CANOKA HEART NUT--1941 crop--1 nut--79.6 per lb., 24-1/2% kernel, 105.5 shells per lb., 324.0 kernels per lb. CANOKA HEART--1941 crop--5 nuts average--90.4 per lb., 123.3 shells per lb., 338.5 kernels per lb., 26.7% kernel. CHINESE OR MANCHURIAN WALNUTS 1941 crop grown O. K. Valley--5 nuts--27.1 per lb., 5 kernels--62.0 per lb., 5 shells--48.1 per lb., 43.73% kernel. Kernels very fine flavour. COGLAN WALNUT--from Coglan, B. C.--1 nut--47.7 per lb., 1 kernel--113.4 per lb., 1 shell--82.5 per lb., 42.1% kernel. A very good thin shell nut of Franquette type. FRANQUETTE WALNUTS 1941 crop--outside dry storage or unheated shed. 5 nuts--30.0 per lb., 1 largest nut--26.4 per lb., kernel of this nut 78.2 per lb., 1 small kernel 141.75 per lb., 1 medium kernel--79.6 per lb., 5 kernels--94.1 per lb., 5 shells--45.3 per lb. 32.48% kernels. Kernels best of flavour. GELLATLY HEART NUT--1939 crop--20 nuts--64.2 per lb., 252.0 kernels per lb., 25.5% kernel. Shell heavy--cracking only fair. HEART NUT--from R. P. Wright, Erie, Pennsylvania, U. S. A.--1 nut--84.0 per lb., 266.8 kernels per lb., 122.6 shells per lb., 31.48% kernel. IMPIT BLACK WALNUT--1941 crop--1 nut--25.2 per lb., 1 kernel--141.8 per lb., 17.78% kernel. 2 nuts--25.6 per lb.,--2 kernels--137.5 per lb., 18.64% kernel. IMPIT BLACK WALNUT--1941 crop--10 nuts--25.2 per lb., 10 kernels--110.4 per lb., 28.8% kernel. Cracking time 12 minutes to crack with hammer. MACKENZIE HEART NUT--20 nuts--48.3 per lb., 20 kernels--193.0 kernels per lb., 25% kernel--extracting and opening with knife--4 minutes. NORTH STAR WALNUT--1941 crop grown in O. K. Valley--5 nuts--28.8 per lb., 5 kernels--76.9 per lb., 5 shells--46.1 per lb., 37.48% kernel. NURSOKA HEART NUT--1940 crop grown at Peachland, B. C.--1 nut--72.0 per lb., 103.1 shells per lb., 238.7 kernels per lb., 30.2% kernel. Extracting time 6 minutes. [Illustration] [Illustration] O. K. HEART NUT--1933 crop grown at Kelowna, B. C--20 nuts--103.1 per lb., 382.8 kernels per lb., 26.9% kernel. 3.5 minutes to open and extract with small penknife. PENOKA HEART NUT--1939 crop--1 nut--96.5 per lb., 412.4 kernels per lb., 23.4% kernel. ROVER HEART NUT--1941 crop--10 nuts, average--79.4 per lb., 98.6 shells per lb., 408.6 kernels per lb., 19.4% kernel. ROVER HEART NUT--1939 crop--1 nut--96.6 per lb, 378.0 kernels per lb., 25.53% kernel. ROVER HEART NUT--1935 crop--20 nuts--90.7 per lb., 302.4 kernels per lb., 30% kernel. SMYTHE HEART NUT--5 nuts--95.7 per lb., 5 kernels--276.6 per lb., 34.6% kernel. Well sealed but easy to open. SPREADOKA WALNUT "J. REGIA"--5 nuts--49.3 per lb., 5 kernels--105.0 per lb., 5 shells--92.95 per lb., 46.95% kernel. THACKER HEART NUT--1942 crop--10 nuts--103.1 per lb., 324 kernels per lb., 31.8% kernel. VAUX ENGLISH WALNUT--1940 crop--a new seedling on J. U. Gellatly's lot. Large nuts--heavy shell. 1 nut--36.3 per lb., 1 kernel--90.7 per lb., 69.8 shells per lb., 40% kernel. WALSH WALNUTS--1941 crop grown in O. K. Valley--5 nuts 24.3 per lb., 5 kernels--57.7 per lb., 5 shells--42.2 per lb., 42.26% kernels. Kernels bland flavour. WALTERS HEART NUT--1934 crop--20 nuts--47.2 per lb., 180.4 kernels per lb., 26.2% kernel. 13 minutes to open and extract with penknife. WALTERS HEART NUT--1940 crop--1 nut--58.2 per lb., 226.8 kernels per lb., 78.2 shells per. lb., 25.64% kernel. NO. E. 16--From Ross Pier Wright--235 West 6th St., Erie, Pennsylvania, U. S. A. 1 nut--61.3 per lb., 232.6 kernels per lb., 83.2 shells per lb., 26.35% kernel. WATT WALNUT--from Himalayan Mts., India, B. C.--grown 1940. 1 large nut--35.4 per lb., 1 kernel--75.6 per lb., 1 shell--66.7. per lb., 46.876% kernel. Letters _Abstract of letter from Thomas Mitchell, 259 W. 29th St., New York, N. Y., to Julio P. Grandjean, Box 748, Mexico, D. F._ I am a tree breeder interested in creating hybrid crop trees, oaks and, if possible, bi-generic hybrids of carob with honey locust and with mesquite. I have, in the past seven years, made over a thousand crosses of poplars and about 600 inter-specific oak crosses. This spring I made 250 oak crosses at the Arnold Arboretum, of which about 20% seem to be ripening viable acorns. I have a list of 90 varieties of hybrid oaks and about 60 varieties of American Asiatic and European species which are available here or at the Arboretum. I will send this list to any one who is interested in trying to graft them on native oak seedlings, and will send scions to any one willing to send me acorns, scions or pollen. I believe the oak tree to be, potentially, more valuable than any other crop tree. _Abstract of letter from W. G. Tatum, Lebanon, Kentucky, to the Chairman of the Survey Committee._ We have had reports from E. C. Rice of Absher, Ky., but his work with trees and his wonderful personality are not well enough known to us. Besides his large plantings of nut and fruit trees he does general farming. He has almost all of the finer varieties of nut trees, many of them large, in bearing and doing well. Lewis Edmunds of Glasgow, Ky., discoverer of the Edmunds black walnut, is a general farmer whose plantings of nut tree, while not large, include many of the older and better known sorts, as well as later discoveries of his own, including a very thin shelled walnut, shagbark hickories, a seedless persimmon; and he is planning a large planting of chestnuts. He has a Stuart pecan that bears well-filled nuts every year, apparently without benefit of pollen from another tree. Our experiment station has issued a new leaflet on nut growing in Kentucky and our State Forester, Mr. Jackson has given radio talks on the subject. I am planning and planting all the time and have at least a small start of most of the better strains of all varieties. I have a little nursery where I grow and graft my own trees. I consider Edmunds a very fine black walnut. I think that more free exchange of graftwood should be encouraged among our members, and we should encourage and help newcomers in learning the art of grafting. I got 90% of my Stambaugh grafts to grow this season, in a row of stocks running from the size of a lead pencil to that of the average man's little finger, using scions near to the size of the stocks, grafted by the "whip and tongue" splice method. _Letter from H. F. Stoke to Miss Mildred Jones:_ I am pleased to comply with your request to report on those varieties that have given me the best results in this locality. It is perhaps unfortunate that some of them are unknown or obscure varieties that are not generally in the hands of the nursery trade. (As an aside, I am quitting the nursery business, so what I say is without prejudice or any personal bias.) I am listing the varieties in order of my estimate of them for this locality based on my own personal experience. I am becoming increasingly hard boiled in my judgments based on two considerations: first, that a nut tree should bear within a reasonable time and that the crops should be regular and reasonably abundant; second, that the nuts should be fit to eat after they have been grown. These two considerations knock out many varieties that have been highly touted. _Filberts._ The Buchanan and its second generation seedlings have been better filled and more productive than any of the European hazels. Italian red comes next. Brixnut and Longfellow are strong, healthy growers, but the former does not fill well and the latter bears sparsely. Barcelona is out. _Chinese chestnut._ Hobson, Carr, Zimmerman, Reliable. Hobson heads the list as most precocious and productive. It requires a pollenizer. Carr will bear partial crops without cross-pollination. Zimmerman is almost as productive as Carr, but its need of cross-pollination is unknown to me. Reliable is the smallest of the four, of high quality and a steady bearer of moderate crops. Pollination requirements not known. (The original Zimmerman sent me by Dr. Zimmerman was worthless. The present Zimmerman, furnished me by Dr. Smith, is a satisfactory nut.) _Japanese chestnut._ Austin is the best of the lot. _Hybrid chestnut._ One of Dr. Colby's hybrids is promising but has not been released and should not be listed without his permission. The hybrid I have been selling as Stoke is a better nut than any of the Japs, including Austin. A moderate producer of moderate crops of beautiful, high quality nuts ripening the first of September. The Government's S8 Van Fleet hybrid is a very prolific hybrid of rather poor quality. It should be satisfactory for people who cook their chestnuts. Mr. C. A. Reed should be consulted before listing. S8 will outyield any chestnut I know of. Tree is less vigorous than Stoke and more subject to blight. _Black walnut._ Homeland, Creitz, Mintle, Thomas. Homeland is a local nut and is unknown to the trade. It makes a poor test score, partly because of its pointed shape, partly because of the plumpness and tenderness of the kernel. It fills out much better than Thomas growing beside it: bears moderate crops every year, both on the parent and on grafted trees. It is a nice, upright, healthy grower; new growth tinged with purple. I consider quality first class. Creitz bears regularly and well; nuts very like Ohio but husks thin and it cleans much better. Kernels apt to be shrivelled somewhat. Mintle good bearer, plumper than Creitz, pellicle somewhat off color. Thomas does not fill so well, especially if given much nitrogen, which Homeland will stand. Stabler worthless here. _English walnut._ Bedford, Lancaster, Payne, Franquette. Bedford is a local nut found on an abandoned farm in Bedford County, Va. A regular bearer of high quality nuts of the Mayette type. Blossoms late, a little before Mayette and Franquette. The only one of fifteen varieties that I have fruited that can be depended on to pollinize itself; medium size, well sealed, cures well, no bitterness to pellicle, no "sticktite" nor moldy nuts. Lancaster, very large, very vigorous tree, precocious, prolific, quality of nuts good but not best; staminate blossoms early, pistillate late. Requires a pollinizer. Franquette, Mayette and Bedford should answer. Payne will not stand winter temperatures much below zero; requires cross-pollination; needs seemingly met by Crath and Broadview. Good nut of good size and quality, precocious and very prolific. Moderate grower. Worst fault starts too early in spring. Good for south and upper south. I forgot to mention that one of the worst faults of Lancaster is that the nuts must be dried promptly on ripening; sometimes the kernels mold before the nuts fall from the tree. Franquette should rank with Bedford except that it usually bears poorly, although rarely it bears a good crop. Always blossoms freely. Trouble seems to be pollination. Bedford may be the answer; Mayette is not, and also bears very poorly. King and Chambers, recommended by Carroll Bush as pollinizers for Franquette, produce their staminates too early here. Broadview is vigorous, precocious, prolific, large with a pellicle too bitter for human consumption. Nuts sometimes spoil on the tree, like Lancaster. _Heartnut._ Like most English walnuts heartnuts blossom too early in the spring and are usually killed back by late frosts here. Walters is the only one that blossoms late enough to produce usually a crop. I still think that a well-filled Sifford is the best black walnut I have seen, but the parent tree generally produces poorly-filled nuts, and the young trees have been very slow to come into bearing, so I have left it off the list. Early defoliation appears to be the cause of poor filling in wet seasons. When well filled it runs 32% kernel. Any and all of the nuts listed, of all species, are perfectly winter-hardy here, except that Payne English walnut was injured by a temperature of 10 below zero some years ago. All English walnuts, except Franquette and most seedling Chinese chestnuts lost their crops last spring by a freeze May 5th. Hobson, Carr, Zimmerman and Reliable came through with crops. It will be most unfortunate if the many nurseries that, in my opinion, will go into nut tree production should boost seedling trees just because they do not have or cannot produce the named varieties. If the public can be at this time educated to demand select varieties it will influence the planting of nut trees favorably for the next hundred years. If they get shunted off on to seedlings it will take another twenty-five years to awaken the present interest. One might as well expect an apple growing industry to spring from the indiscriminate planting of seedling apple orchards. This goes especially for the English walnut and the Chinese chestnut. _Abstract of letter from Rev. P. C. Crath, Cannington, Ontario._ Only a limited report is possible this year. In Toronto there are four Carpathian walnut trees 20 to 25 feet high which bear nuts regularly. One of these bears nuts of huge size, another smaller nuts with very thin shell and with the flavor of the Cashew nut. The other two trees produce regularly medium sized nuts with thin shells. In Islington, near Toronto, Carpathian No. 34 belonging to Mr. J. Robson continues bearing. Mr. Robson died last spring and I am naming this tree No. 34 the "Robson" in his memory. The eight Carpathians along the Welland Canal are doing well and bear every year. The tree in the yard of the Rev. Foster at Welland is a nice big tree and bears every season but squirrels carry off all the crop. In Ontario until the present time the curculio has not attacked Carpathian walnuts. Prof. C. T. Currelly of Canton has some nice big trees of his own grafting. One of these is of the Landyga type that in its seventh year now has never shown any cold injury. We can feel assured that the Landyga type is the best for the cold regions of Ontario. A tall and beautiful No. 46 that had a bacteriological canker near the root has thoroughly healed. Other No. 46 trees on the same estate are doing fine. The original No. 34 (now Robson) on Prof. Currelly's farm is doing exceptionally well. It is the type of a good market walnut. The Harbey Carpathians, belonging to J. regia maxima, with very thin shells are also doing well. My Ukrainian and Turkish filberts on Currelly's estate have now become small bushes, 40 in number bearing abundantly. _Abstract of letter from Sylvester M. Schessler, Genoa, Ohio._ To keep scionwood I place sticks, such as elder, on a cement floor, lay the scions crosswise on these, cover them with sawdust and throw an oilcloth over this. In May I graft by the slotbark method nailing the scion and tying with string or rubber bands and wax with Acme Grafting Compound put on cold. I cover with a two pound paper sack and later stake up the new growth. I like fair sized scion wood cut from near the base of the new growth and often graft with two year old wood carrying some one year wood. I will exchange graft wood and have several varieties of Ohio prize winners bearing nuts. I also do budding by the patch method. Experiment Station Investigates Tree Believed to be the Oldest Chestnut in Connecticut Progress Report from Connecticut Experiment Station, Dated November 15, 1943 Many years ago, at a time when the American chestnut was still the king of the woods, a farmer set out a small orchard of nut trees on the bank of the Connecticut River flood plain north of Hartford. Now, some 60 years later, one lone Japanese chestnut survives. Dr. Donald F. Jones of the Agricultural Station in New Haven, who recently investigated the tree, believes it is by far the oldest living chestnut in the State. And the most interesting thing about the tree is that it shows no signs of blight, the disease that destroyed all the native chestnuts. Dr. Jones' attention was called to the tree late last fall by a hunter who noticed a deposit of chestnut hulls in the river bank. On investigation, the man discovered the tree and was impressed by its size. This fall the tree was visited in search of nuts. There, rising above the brush and brambles of what is now a tobacco field, stood the chestnut, 30 foot high and 18 inches in diameter. The men were able to rescue only six nuts, their visit being a little late for the main harvest. The nuts were among the largest Dr. Jones has seen. They have been planted at the Experiment Station farm in Mount Carmel. Inquiry in the neighborhood of the chestnut revealed that two or three people knew about the tree and had gathered the nuts that are produced profusely every other year. One of the neighbors recalled that 60 years or more ago, when he was but 12 years old, a man named John P. Jones had set out the nut trees. But the original source of the trees is unknown and it remains a question whether the planter got the trees from a nursery in this country or directly from the Orient. Though the lone survivor is somewhat neglected, with several dead branches that have been left untrimmed, a neighbor was interested enough in its possibilities to plant some of the nuts. This resulted in one six-year-old seedling tree. Unfortunately, this already shows blight and is apparently the result of pollination by some blighted American seedling or sprout in the neighborhood. The nuts collected this fall may also give disappointing results but should transmit to later generations the blight-resistance of this Japanese parent. In addition to planting the nuts, Dr. Jones will take scions from the tree for grafting on young trees at the Station's Mount Carmel farm. Those should produce results more quickly than the seeds. Next summer pollen will be collected from the tree for use in hybridizing some of the young trees already growing here. Dr. Jones has for many years been interested in the development of a useful chestnut for Connecticut conditions. Some of the young trees, crosses between American and Asiatic types, show promise but will take several years of testing to prove their value. The new "find" may be of considerable help in shortening the length of time necessary to get a tree that is blight resistant, of large fruiting habit and of good timber quality. (Note by Editor--This tree has been known to me for probably fifteen years. It was brought to my attention by Mr. Charles Vibert of East Hartford and named by me the "Vibbert," [with two b's to insure the right pronounciation]. The name has been published and I have sent scions to a number of people and grafted trees myself. The tree bears a very large nut, twelve selected ones weighing over a pound. I have gathered a good many quarts of them and exhibited them in Hartford and Litchfield. So far as my observation goes this large size is at least partly due to the fact that there is only one filled nut in a burr, the other two being aborted. This fact, and the fact that the crops are small, I have attributed to the partial inefficiency of self-pollination, there being no evident outside source of pollen. One year I grafted several other varieties into the top of the tree. Most of those grew a year or two but then died. I have believed that this was due to blight. There has been much dead wood in the tree ever since I have known it and I had supposed that this was blight.) Report of Committee of Ohio Nut Growers _A. A. BUNGART, Chairman_ On September 5, 1943, members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association living in Northern Ohio met at the Wooster Experiment Farm to discuss nut growing in the State. At this meeting a committee was formed to work out plans and suggestions for a twenty-year nut growing program. It was felt that greater progress would result if something more definite were done by way of coordinating the work of the Forestry Department with the effort of individuals. The committee, meeting here on October 31, 1943, submits the following report. The chairman has attempted to incorporate most of the material submitted by members of the committee and by others. The committee recommends the appointment of a full time research man in nut culture, or two part-time workers. This man, or men, would form the hub around which the 20 year program would be built. There should be a division of labor: certain individuals already embarked on a program of their own should continue their work and coordinate it with a specialist at Wooster, or whatever place is designated as headquarters. For example, Mr. Silvis favors the hickory over all other nut trees. As a young man he can reasonably look forward to many years of experimentation with various varieties and under different conditions. Mr. Davidson is following a plan of planting large numbers of black walnut seed from blocks of trees in which natural crossing might combine the desirable characteristics of several better-than-average named varieties. Mr. Sherman has collected English walnuts from trees in the northern part of the state. Already he has seedlings of many varieties growing at Canfield. Now, each of these projects is excellent and should be encouraged in every way. Whenever members of our organization find new and better nuts of those species, they should send nuts, or scions or data about the trees, to these gentlemen. As time goes on there should be opportunities to farm out projects to individual growers. Mr. Fickes, for example, by experience and because of his favorable location could well carry out experiment suggested by a specialist, (or as a research worker to help with one of his own.) It would seem, apart from large scale operations to be mentioned later, that the specialist or expert should make his headquarters a clearing house for information sent by members. It should be his job to study some of the scientific phases of nut culture, such as artificial crossing, pollenizing data on various species and varieties of nut trees, genetic investigations, value of the proper root stocks, and, as time and information would warrant, the publishing of monographs on phases of nut growing. Finally such specialist might consider broadly the problems of securing an increased food supply from Ohio forests. 2. Devote the 9 acres at Apple Creek to nut tree planting. Plant two or three trees of each variety that has especially good traits. Also set out numbers of seedling stock upon which to graft scions of promising trees. By having the main planting near the Experiment Farm, the plant breeder at Wooster should also attend to nut trees. 3. The Forestry Department should procure seed of hardy English walnuts and of other nut trees; grow one-year seedlings and distribute these in small numbers (not over five or six) to people who will plant them in good locations. Such action should be started at once; in twenty years or less something good might result. 4. Continue the planting of all promising varieties of the different species of nut trees at Mahoning so that the bearing habits, production, etc., could be under strict observation and study, and so that a supply of scion wood might be available for other plantings and for commercial propagation. 5. Establish a similar project in some other section of Ohio; the southeastern section would seem to be the logical place when nut growing becomes a commercial industry in Ohio. 6. a. Graft promising hickories in the tops of established hickory seedling trees. There is a volunteer stand of such hickories on the lands of the Mahoning Valley Sanitary District that would be ideal for such top-working. No doubt many other such places could be located. b. Same as "a" but using black walnuts. c. Same as "a" but using English walnuts. Suitable black walnut seedlings are now growing on the Mahoning Valley Sanitary District for projects 6b and c. 7. Encourage the planting by the Forestry Department of better seed from the best named varieties. While this would be a long-range program it would be preeminently worth while. The forests of Ohio have all but disappeared. Organizations with vision and unselfishness must begin to replace them. 8. Urge a program of education. Nut trees require good soil and proper care. It would be folly for an organization to sponsor a program for nut tree planting, unless the growers are provided with proper cultural directions. The tendency in the past has been to plant nut trees in out-of-the-way places, and let nature take her course. Nature took her course; the result, scrubby trees and disgruntled planters. 9. Initiate future nut contests for the purpose of arousing public interests in nut growing and for bringing to light new varieties. Four-H clubs, county agents, boy scout troops, sport clubs, all might be urged to co-operate with the Forestry Department, or with our own organizations, in making a state-wide survey for better nuts. One member of the committee thinks that the Ohio Farmer contest did not bring to light all the good wild trees, although every nut grower is indebted to that splendid paper for its cooperation in the past. 10. Favor a moderate amount of publicity. Any plans, developments, or discoveries should be put before the public in scientific journals, farm papers, and the daily press. But propaganda of a sensational of exaggerated nature ought to be discouraged. In other words, the committee thinks that false claims and high pressure publicity on new varieties would do more harm than good. 11. Study the pollenizing problems of all the better varieties of nut trees, especially the black walnut, chestnut and hickory species, and test the better varieties to find those best suited to Ohio conditions. 12. Develop and perfect a simplified means of propagating nut trees and incorporate this information in a bulletin for all who are interested in nut trees. Many farmers and fruit growers shy from nursery prices for nut trees. If they could propagate their own they would be more likely to plant them. 13. a. Urge a means of developing better kinds of nut trees and nut hybrids for Ohio. Specifically, embark upon a program of artificial crossing and hybridizing. While some might object to the length of time required to check results, the committee thinks it possible to check three generations within a 20 year program. This could be expedited by budding or grafting the crossed seedling upon the stock of a bearing tree. The original seedling should be saved to check its growth, shape and other characteristics not apparent in the grafted branch. A Thomas-Elmer Myers cross might possibly combine the desirable traits of both parents, or a McAllister-shagbark cross might increase the productivity of the former. A nut, for example, having the cracking qualities of the English walnut, and the hardiness and retention of flavor when cooked or baked of a black walnut, would be a worthy achievement. Also, securing pollen from a hybrid English black walnut and back crossing with either species might produce the dream tree. N. B. Hybrid vigor might be a blessing for the quicker growth of all forest trees. Experiments in nut trees might be applied to other species. 13. b. Establish in the same tree two varieties suitable for crossing. This seed should be distributed for propagation by the Forestry Department to public institutions and to others for reforestation on waste lands or water-shed project or private grounds. By selecting isolated trees for this mating, the nuts would either be self-pollinated or a cross of the desirable varieties. This it would seem would yield better nuts than the hit-an-miss methods of nature. 14. Use a new yard stick for measuring the value of nut trees for commercial production. Size of nut, thickness of shell, cracking qualities are desirable traits but they might not be deciding factors in evaluating a tree. Other factors equally important perhaps even more so, are size of nut clusters, rate of growth, consistency in bearing annual cross, yield per tree of shucked nuts, resistance to blights and insect nests. 15. Compile a list of the best articles that have appeared in the N.N.G.A. reports and print them in pamphlet form for distribution to Ohio growers. All the articles on black walnuts would be found in the one booklet, and so on for all other trees in which Ohioans would be interested. 16. Check carefully the experiences and observations of all the members so as to assemble data on the behavior of nut trees. This information would be more useful in determining what crosses would be desirable. The Thomas nut, for example, has been both praised and condemned. What would be the concensus of opinion on the merits of this much debated variety? 17. Make northern Ohio the nucleus of the N.N.G.A. Geographically and climatically, this section of the state represents an ideal spot for nut tree experimentation, in the northern states. The experiment farms at Wooster and Canfield, the Findley State Forest, the various state properties, all could be brought into a closely knit functioning project. CONCLUSION The committee thinks that a 20 year program along these 17 lines, or a modification of them, will eventually prove successful. If such an organization can offer farmers and all others interested in nuts and conservation a better walnut, filbert, hickory or chestnut suitable for Ohio soils and Ohio climate the effort would seem worth while. So far people interested in nut culture have been called "nuts." Practical-minded people are apt to smile at such nut experiments, but a glimpse at our state proves that nut enthusiasts have vision, and a faith in the future; that they are modern Johnny Appleseeds with more of Johnny's methods but less of his madness. The history of our state is a history of squandered natural resources, of get-rich-quick methods, of wanton destruction of all forms of plant and animal life. If this organization can in a small way stop the erosion of gullied hillsides, check the rampage of swollen rivers, arrest the fertility of Ohio farms from floating to the Gulf or the Ocean, if it can find some substitute for the magnificent chestnut trees now gone forever, if it can make better nuts grow where none or poor ones grow now, if it can sell conservation and a love of trees to every farmer in Ohio, this organization or any other will be conferring a rich legacy upon future Ohioans. OBITUARY _Dr. John Harvey Kellogg_ died at the age of 91 at his home in Battle Creek, Michigan, on December 14, 1943, from pneumonia. Until his death he was one of our two honorary members, the other being his brother, W. K. Kellogg. Our only other honorary members have been Henry Hales, H. E. Van Deman, and Dr. Walter Van Fleet. The Kelloggs were thus honored because of their large gifts to the association, their entertainment of the association twice at Battle Creek, and the numerous papers on nuts as food sent to the association by Dr. Kellogg. He once gave us $500 as prizes for a nut contest. He was present at our Stamford meeting and at those in Battle Creek. A full account of his life and works was printed in the N.Y. Times for December 16, 1943; and from a medical standpoint, in the Journal of the American Medical Association for December 25, 1943, p. 1132. Other accounts may be found in the Michigan newspapers and elsewhere. He was certainly one of our most eminent members. He was resolute and sincere in his beliefs, forceful and persistent in advocating them though they differed quite radically from the beliefs of most of the medical profession. He would not permit his patients to use alcohol, tobacco, meat in any form, or tea and coffee. Those who had been excessive users of these things were often immensely benefitted by a stay in a Kellogg sanitorium. He joined our association on account of his advocacy of nuts as food to replace in part the absence of meat. Of late years he had laid more emphasis on soy beans. Whatever may be thought of his radical views on food there can be no doubt that he did an immense amount of good not only by his treatment of individual patients but also by the wide dissemination of his teaching and his invention of many useful forms of so-called "health foods." Printed by THE CORSE PRESS, Inc., Sandy Creek, N.Y. 
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23656	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS AT THE THIRD ANNUAL MEETING LANCASTER, PENNSYLVANIA DECEMBER 18 and 19, 1912 THE CAYUGA PRESS ITHACA, N. Y. 1913 [Illustration: PROFESSOR JOHN CRAIG A FOUNDER OF THE ASSOCIATION _Died 1912_] * * * * * TABLE OF CONTENTS Officers and Committees of the Association 3 Members of the Association 4 Constitution and Rules of the Association 8 Proceedings of the Meeting held at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, December 18 and 19, 1912 9 Address of Welcome by the Mayor of Lancaster 9 Response by Mr. Littlepage 11 President's Address. The Practical Aspects of Hybridizing Nut Trees. Robert T. Morris, New York 12 Fraudulent and Uninformed Promoters. T. P. Littlepage, Indiana 22 Recent Work on the Chestnut Blight. Keller E. Rockey, Pennsylvania 37 Some Problems in the Treatment of Diseased Chestnut Trees. Roy G. Pierce, Pennsylvania 44 Nut Growing and Tree Breeding and their Relation to Conservation. J. Russell Smith, Pennsylvania 59 Beginning with Nuts. W. C. Deming, New York 64 The Persian Walnut, Its Disaster and Lessons for 1912. J. G. Rush, Pennsylvania 85 A 1912 Review of the Nut Situation in the North. C. A. Reed, Washington, D. C 91 Demonstration in Grafting. J. F. Jones, Pennsylvania 105 Some Persian Walnut Observations, Experiments and Results for 1912. E. R. Lake, Washington, D. C 110 The Indiana Pecans. R. L. McCoy, Indiana 113 Appendix: Report of Secretary and Treasurer 116 Report of Committee on Resolutions 117 Report of Committee on the Death of Professor John Craig 119 Report of Committee on Exhibits 120 The Hickory Bark Borer 122 Miscellaneous Notes: Members Present 124 List of Correspondents and Others Interested in Nut Culture 124 Extracts from Letters from State Vice-Presidents and Others 138 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION President T. P. Littlepage Indiana Secretary and Treasurer W. C. Deming Georgetown, Conn. COMMITTEES _Executive_ Robert T. Morris W. N. Roper And the Officers _Promising Seedlings_ T. P. Littlepage C. A. Reed W. C. Deming _Hybrids_ R. T. Morris J. R. Smith C. P. Close _Membership_ W. C. Deming G. H. Corsan W. N. Roper _Nomenclature_ W. C. Reed R. T. Morris W. C. Deming _Press and Publication_ W. N. Roper T. P. Littlepage W. C. Deming STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS Canada Goldwin Smith Highland Creek Colorado Dr. Frank L. Dennis Colorado Springs Connecticut Charles H. Plump West Redding Delaware H. P. Layton Georgetown Florida H. Harold Hume Glen St. Mary Georgia G. C. Schempp, Jr. Albany Illinois Dr. F. S. Crocker Chicago Indiana R. L. McCoy Lake Iowa Alson Secor Des Moines Kentucky A. L. Moseley Calhoun Louisiana J. F. Jones Jeanerette Maryland C. P. Close Washington, D. C. Massachusetts Bernhard Hoffmann Stockbridge Michigan Miss Maud M. Jessup Grand Rapids Minnesota C. A. Van Duzee St. Paul New Hampshire Henry N. Gowing Dublin New Jersey Henry Hales Ridgewood New York A. C. Pomeroy Lockport North Carolina W. N. Hutt Raleigh Ohio J. H. Dayton Painesville Oklahoma Mrs. E. B. Miller Enid Oregon F. A. Wiggins Toppenish Panama B. F. Womack Canal Zone Pennsylvania J. G. Rush West Willow Texas C. T. Hogan Ennis Vermont Clarence J. Ferguson Burlington Virginia W. N. Roper Petersburg West Virginia B. F. Hartzell Shepherdstown MEMBERS OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION Abbott, Frederick B., 419 9th St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Armstrong, A. H., General Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y. Arnott, Dr. H. G., 26 Emerald St., South, Hamilton, Canada. Barron, Leonard, Editor The Garden Magazine, Garden City, L. I. Barry, W. C., Ellwanger & Barry, Rochester, N. Y. Benner, Charles, 100 Broadway, N. Y. City. **Bowditch, James H., 903 Tremont Bldg., Boston, Mass. Button, Herbert, Bonnie Brook Farm, Cazenovia, N. Y. Browne, Louis L., Bodsbeck Farm, New Canaan, Conn. Butler, Henry L., Gwynedd Valley, Pa. Casper, Norman W., Fairlawn, New Burnside, Ill. Chalmers, W. J., Vanport, Pa. Chamberlain, W. O., 300 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis, Minn. Clendenin, Rev. Dr. F. M., Westchester, N. Y. City. Close, Prof. C. P., Expert in Fruit Identification, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Cole, Dr. Chas. K., 32 Rose St., Chelsea-on-Hudson, N. Y. Coleman, H. H., The Northwestern Mutual Life Ins. Co., Newark, N. J. Corsan, G. H., University Gymnasium, Univ. of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Crocker, Dr. F. S., Columbus Memorial Bldg., Chicago, Ill. Dayton, J. H., Painesville, Ohio. Rep. Storrs & Harrison Co. Decker, Loyd H., Greeley, Col., R. 5, Box 11. Deming, Dr. N. L., Litchfield, Conn. Deming, Dr. W. C. Georgetown, Conn. Deming, Mrs. W. C. Georgetown, Conn. Dennis, Dr. Frank L., The Colchester, Colorado Springs, Col. Ellwanger, W. D., 510 E. Ave., Rochester, N. Y. Ferguson, Clarence J., Rep. Eastern Fruit & Nut Orchard Co., 144 College St., Burlington, Vt. Fischer, J., Rep. Keystone Wood Co., Williamsport, Pa. Fullerton, H. B., Medford, L. I. Gowing, Henry N., Dublin, N. H. Gschwind, Geo. W., 282 Humboldt St., Brooklyn, N. Y. Haberstroh, Arthur L., Sharon, Mass. Hale, Mrs. Geo. H., Glastonbury, Conn. Hall, L. C. Avonia, Pa. *Hales, Henry, Ridgewood, N. J. Hans, Amedée, Supt. Hodenpyl Est., Locust Valley, L. I., N. Y. Harrison, J. G., Rep. Harrison's Nurseries, Berlin, Md. Hartzell, B. F., Shepherdstown, W. Va. Haywood, Albert, Flushing, N. Y. Hicks, Henry, Westbury Station, L. I., N. Y. Hildebrand, F. B., 5551 Monroe Ave., Chicago, Ill. Hoffman, Bernhard, Stockbridge, Mass. Hogan, C. T., Ennis, Texas. Holden, E. B., Hilton, N. Y. Holmes, J. A., 127 Eddy St., Ithaca, N. Y. Hopper, I. B., Chemical National Bank, N. Y. City. Hume, H. Harold, Glen Saint Mary, Fla. Hungerford, Newman, 45 Prospect St., Hartford, Conn. **Huntington, A. M., 15 W. 81st St., N. Y. City. Hutt, W. N., Raleigh, N. C. James, Dr. W. B., 17 W. 54th St., N. Y. City. Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly St., Jersey City Heights, N. J. **Jones, J. F., Jeanerette, La., & Willow St., Pa. Jessup, Miss Maud M., 440 Thomas St., Grand Rapids, Mich. Keely, Royal R., 1702 Mt. Vernon St., Philadelphia, Pa. Walpole, Mass., Box 485. Koch, Alphonse, 510 E. 77th St., N. Y. City. Lake, Prof. E. R., Asst. Pomologist, Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Layton, H. P., Georgetown, Del. Leas, F. C, 400 So. 40th St., Philadelphia, Pa., and Bala, Pa. Littlepage, T. P., Union Trust Bldg., Washington, D. C, and Boonville, Ind. Loomis, Charles B., E. Greenbush, N. Y. R. D. 1. Lovett, Mrs. Joseph L., Emilie, Bucks Co., Pa. Malcomson, A. B., 132 Nassau St., N. Y. City. Mayo, E. S., Rochester, N. Y. Rep. Glen Brothers. McCoy, R. L., Ohio Valley Forest Nursery, Lake, Spencer Co., Ind. Meehan, S. Mendelson, Germantown, Phila., Pa. Rep. Thos. Meehan & Sons. Miller, Mrs. E. B., Enid, Oklahoma, R. Box 47 1-2. Miller, Mrs. Seaman, Care of Mr. Seaman Miller, 2 Rector St., N. Y. McSparren, W. F., Furnice, Pa. Magruder, G. M., Medical Bldg., Portland, Oregon. Morris, Dr. Robert T., 616 Madison Ave., N. Y. City. Moseley, A. L., Bank of Calhoun, Calhoun, Ky. Moses, Theodore W., Harvard Club, 27 W. 44th St., N. Y. City. Niblack, Mason J., Vincennes, Ind. Nichols, Mrs. F. Gillette, 129 E. 76th St., N. Y. City, and E. Haddam, Conn. Patterson & Taylor, 343 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. Pierson, Miss A. Elizabeth, Cromwell, Conn. Plump, Chas. H., West Redding, Conn. Pomeroy, A. C., Lockport, N. Y. Potter, Hon. W. O., Marion, Ill. Reed, C. A., Div. of Pomology, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Reed, W. C., Vincennes, Ind. Rice, Mrs. Lilian McKee, Barnes Cottage, Carmel, N. Y. Rich, William P., Sec'y Mass Horticultural Society, 300 Mass. Ave., Boston. Ridgway, C. S., "Floralia," Lumberton, N. J. Riehl, E. A., Alton, Ill. Roper, Wm. N., Arrowfield Nursery Co., Petersburg, Va. Rose, Wm. J., 413 Market St., Harrisburg, Pa. Rush, J. G., West Willow, Pa. Schempp, G. C., Jr., Albany, Ga. Route 3. Secor, Alson, Editor Successful Farming, Des Moines, Iowa. Sensenig, Wayne, State College, Center Co., Pa. Shellenberger, H. H., 610 Broadhead St., Easton, Pa. Shoemaker, Seth W., Agric. Ed. Int. Corresp. Schools, Scranton, Pa. Smith, E. K., 213 Phoenix Bldg., Minneapolis, Minn. Smith, Goldwin, Highland Creek, Ontario, Canada. Smith, J. Russell, Roundhill, Va. Smith, Percival P., 108 S. LaSalle St., Chicago, Ill. Tuckerman, Bayard, 118 E. 37th St., N. Y. City. Turner, K. M., 1265 Broadway, N. Y. City. Ulman, Dr. Ira, 213 W. 147th St., N. Y. City. Farm, So. Monsey, Rockland Co., P. O., Address, Spring Valley, N. Y. Van Duzee, Col. C. A., St. Paul, Minn, and Viking, Fla. Walter, Dr. Harry, Hotel Chalfonte, Atlantic City, N. J. Wentink, Frank, 75 Grove St., Passaic, N. J. White, H. C., DeWitt, Ga. Wiggins, F. A., Rep. Washington Nursery Co., Toppenish, Wash. Wile, Th. E., 1012 Park Avenue, Rochester, N. Y. Williams, Dr. Charles Mallory, 48 E. 49th St., N. Y. City, and Stonington, Conn. Williams, Harrison, Gen. Land & Tax Agt., Erie R. R. Co., 50 Church St., N. Y. City. **Wissmann, Mrs. F. DeR., 707 Fifth Ave., N. Y. City. Womack, B. F., Ancon, Canal Zone, Panama. Wyman, Willis L., Park Rapids, Minn. * Honorary Member. ** Life Member CONSTITUTION AND RULES OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION. _Name._ The society shall be known as the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION. _Object._ The promotion of interest in nut-producing plants, their products and their culture. _Membership._ Membership in the society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the approval of the committee on membership. _Officers._ There shall be a president, a vice-president, and a secretary-treasurer; an executive committee of five persons, of which the president, vice-president and secretary shall be members; and a state vice-president from each state represented in the membership of the association. _Election of Officers._ A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the subsequent year. _Meetings._ The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the executive committee shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and executive committee. _Fees._ The fees shall be of two kinds, annual and life. The former shall be two dollars, the latter twenty dollars. _Discipline._ The committee on membership may make recommendations to the association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. _Committees._ The association shall appoint standing committees of three members each to consider and report on the following topics at each annual meeting: first, on promising seedlings; second, on nomenclature; third, on hybrids; fourth, on membership; fifth, on press and publication. NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION THIRD ANNUAL MEETING DECEMBER 18 AND 19, 1912 AT LANCASTER, PENNSYLVANIA The third annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association was held in the Court House at Lancaster, Pa., beginning December 18, 1912, at 10 A. M.; President Morris presiding. The Chairman: The meeting will be called to order. We have first an address by the Mayor of Lancaster, Mayor McClean. (Applause.) Mayor McClean: Ladies and gentlemen of the Northern Nut Growers Association: The Mayor of a city of the size of this, in which conventions meet so frequently, is so often called upon to make a speech that the prospect of having to do so causes him some disturbance of mind, not only on the day of the delivery of the speech but for many days preceding; but I confess that the invitation to come here today has had no such effect on me. I am very glad to meet and mix up with the members of this organization. The evolutionists tell us where we came from; the theologians, where we are going to; but no matter how much we may differ as to the theories of these respective leaders of thought, upon one thing we can all agree and that is that we are here. You ladies and gentlemen representing the Northern Nut Growers Association are here to interchange opinions and discuss questions which have to do with the greater success of the very useful industry, the youthful and useful industry, in which you are engaged. I am here as the Mayor of this goodly town to tell you that you are not looked upon as intruders; that we will be blind when you help yourselves to our wine flasks, but that we will not be deaf should you ask for more. I am thoroughly in sympathy with the purpose of this organization, understanding it to be the encouragement of the planting of nut bearing trees in order that an addition to our present food supply may be provided; and that much waste land, now profitless, may be taken up and converted to practical and profitable uses; and further that through the medium of such tree planting and tree care as you propose, landscape embellishment in greater degree than that which now exists may be provided. We hear very much about conservation these days and it seems to me that the proposition which you advance is conservation in a very worthy and very high degree. The soil and climate of Lancaster County seem to be peculiarly adapted to the growing of trees bearing nuts and fruits, and I am sure that the result of this convention will be to stimulate locally a very great interest in this worthy undertaking. You have chosen wisely in selecting Lancaster as the place for this meeting, because we feel and we are satisfied that you will agree, after you have been here a few days, that this was the town that Kipling had in mind when he wrote of the town that was born lucky. (Laughter.) Here you will find all the creature comforts, everything that makes for the pleasure of existence, good food and good water, and if there be any of you who have a liking for beverages other than water, it may be some consolation to you to know that in this vicinity the mint beds are not used for pasture, the punch bowls are not permanently filled with carnations, the cock-tail glasses show no signs of disuse and the corkscrew hangs within reach of your shortest member. (Laughter.) We are a great people over this way. Perhaps you are not aware of that, but we bear prosperity with meekness and adversity with patience. We feel that we can say to you, without boasting, if you seek a pleasant country, look about you. You may not know it, but it is a fact and the United States census reports ever since census reports have been made will prove it, that the annual valuation of the agricultural products of the county in which you now sit exceeds that of any other county in all this great nation. (Applause.) Another bit of local history may surprise you when I tell you that the combined deposits of the banks of Lancaster County approximate the enormous amount of fifty million dollars, that they are larger than the total deposits of any one of seven states in the Union that I can name and that they exceed the combined deposits of two of those seven states. But I don't want to take up your time with a recitation of local history, because I feel that your Lancaster colleagues will give you all the information, and I don't want to spoil their pleasure in giving it by anticipating them. I congratulate you upon the success of this convention. I applaud the purpose for which you are united. I felicitate you upon your achievements up to this time, and predict for you a greater measure of usefulness and advantage in the time to come, which usefulness and advantage, let me suggest, can be made yours more promptly, certainly more surely, by your proceeding upon the principle that whatever is of benefit to the organization as a whole must be of benefit to each of its members, either directly or indirectly. I trust that you will go on with this good work and stimulate enthusiasm in your purpose in a nation wide way, working together with one common object, proceeding under the motto of the Three Guardsmen of France, "One For All and All For One." I now extend to you the freedom of the city. Roam where you will. Just one bit of advice I have to give. Contrary, perhaps, to general report, this is not a slow town and therefore you are in more danger of being run down than run in. (Laughter.) I will not follow the time honored practice of handing you the keys of the city, for the reason that when I heard you were on the way, I had the old gates taken off the hinges in order that your incoming might be in no way impeded. (Laughter.) And now, in the name of the city of Lancaster, its heart filled with the sunny warmth of July, I bid you welcome and promise that we will try to extend to you a hospitality as generous as golden October. (Applause.) The Chairman: Will Mr. Littlepage please respond to the Mayor's kindly address of welcome? Hon. T. P. Littlepage: Mr. President: On behalf of the members of the Northern Nut Growers Association, I desire to thank the Mayor very cordially for his delightful words of welcome to this city. We feel that the words haven't any strings to them, such as were indicated in a little poem I noticed the other day, which said that a young man took his girl to an ice cream parlor and she ate and she ate and she ate until at last she gave him her heart to make room for another plate. (Laughter.) There apparently isn't anything of that in the cordial welcome which we have received here to this great County of Lancaster. I know now after hearing the Mayor's discourse upon the great resources of this county, why it was that a young fellow who had rambled out into the West and happened to drop into an old fashioned protracted meeting, when asked to come up to the mourners' bench, objected somewhat, and finally when they said, "Well, young man, you've got to be born again;" replied, "No, it isn't necessary, I was born in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania." (Laughter and applause.) I understand now why the young man was so sanguine, why it wasn't necessary to be born again, even under the auspices of the Great Spirit. It is very gratifying indeed to be in the midst of a great county of this kind that has made one of the great basic industries so successful. It takes three things to make a really great nation; it takes great natural resources, it takes great policies and it takes great people. We have nations in this world where the resources, the possibilities of agriculture and all lines of human endeavor are as unlimited, almost, as ours, but they haven't the people and in the cases where they have people of the right kind, they haven't adopted the policies. It takes those three things for any county, any state or any nation to be really great, and it is indeed gratifying to those of us who believe in the highest development, the best for humanity, to come into a county where the people, through their industry, their policies of advancement, have made that county one of the best farmed agricultural counties in the United States; and that is saying a great deal when you consider the greatness of this nation and her immense wealth and resources. It is indeed gratifying to all of us who are spending some time and some effort to further somewhat the advancement of the country along horticultural lines, to be met with a cordial welcome and to come into this community that has so highly developed her various resources: so, on behalf of this Association and all its members, even the members that are not here, those of them who might, if they desired, take advantage of the Mayor's corkscrew and carnation bowl, I thank the Mayor and thank the citizens of this County and say that we are delighted to be among you. (Applause.) The Chairman: We will now proceed with the regular order of business. As my paper happens to be placed first on the list, through the methods of the Secretary, I will ask Mr. Littlepage to kindly take the chair while I present notes on the subject of hybridizing nut trees. THE PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF HYBRIDIZING NUT TREES DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS, NEW YORK [Illustration: DR. ROBERT T. MORRIS OF NEW YORK _First President of the Association, 1911 and 1912_] In the experimental work of hybridizing nut trees, we soon come to learn that a number of practical points need to be acquired before successful hybridizing can be done. This is a special field in which few have taken part as yet, and consequently any notes upon the subject will add to the sum total of the knowledge which we wish to acquire as rapidly as possible. First, in collecting pollen; it is important to shake our pollen into dry paper boxes. If we try to preserve the pollen in glass or in metal, it is attacked by various mould fungi and is rapidly destroyed. We have to remember that pollen consists of live cells which have quite as active a place in the organic world as a red squirrel, and the pollen grains need to breathe quite as much as a red squirrel needs to breathe. Therefore they must not be placed in glass or metal or tightly sealed. Further, the pollen grains need to be kept cool in order to avoid attacks from the greatest enemy of all organic life, the microbes or the lower fungi. Probably we may keep pollen for a longer time than it could ordinarily be kept, if it is placed in cold storage, but practically I have tried the experiment on only one occasion. Last year I wished to cross the chinkapin with the white oak. The white oak blossoms more than a month in advance of the chinkapin in Connecticut, and the question was how we could keep the white oak pollen. Some of it was placed in paper boxes in cold storage; some in paper boxes in the cellar in a dry place. Pollen which had been kept in the cellar and pollen which had been kept in cold storage were about equally viable. It is quite remarkable to know that pollen can be kept for more than a month under any circumstances. Hybridization occurred in my chinkapins from this white oak pollen. Sometimes, where the flowering time of such trees is far apart, it is important to know how we may secure pollen of one kind for the female flowers of the other. Two methods are possible. In the first place, we may secure pollen from the northern or southern range of a species for application upon pistillate flowers at the other end of the range of that species. Another way is to collect branches carrying male flowers before the flowers have developed, place them in the ice house or in a dark, cold room without light until the proper time for forcing the flowers, and if these branches are then placed in water, the water changed frequently as when we are keeping flowers carefully, the catkins or other male flowers will develop pollen satisfactorily a long time after their natural time of furnishing pollen, when they are brought out into the light. In protecting pistillate flowers from the pollen of their own trees, with the nut tree group where pollen is wind-borne rather than insect borne, I find that the better way is to cover the pistillate flowers with paper bags, the thinner the better, the kind that we get at the grocery store. It is best to pull off the undeveloped male flowers if they happen to be on the same branch with the female flowers, and then place the bags over the female flowers at about the time when they blossom, in advance of pollination of the male flowers. It is not safe to depend upon pulling off the male flowers of an isolated tree and leaving the female flowers without bags to protect them from pollen of the same species or of allied species, for the reason that wind may carry pollen to a great distance. One of Mr. Burbank's critics--I am sorry he has so many, for they are not all honest or serious--one of his critics, in relation to the crossing of walnuts, said that it was due to no particular skill on the part of Mr. Burbank, for, whenever the wind blew from the east, he regretted to say that his entire orchard of Persian walnuts became pollinized from the California black walnuts nearly half a mile away. This is an exaggeration, because the chances are that most of the Persian walnuts were pollenized from their own pollen, but in the case of some Persian walnuts blossoming early, and developing female flowers in advance of male flowers, pollen might be carried to them from half a mile away in a high wind from California black walnut trees. Black walnut pollen would then fertilize pistillate flowers of the Persian walnut. I have found this a real danger, this danger of wind-pollination at a distance, much to my surprise. Last year I pollinized one or two lower branches of female flowers of a butternut tree which had no other butternut tree within a distance of a good many rods, so far away that I had no idea that the pollen would be carried from the tree with male flowers to the one which happened to have female flowers only that year; consequently I placed pecan pollen on the female flowers of the lower branches of this butternut tree without protecting them with bags, and left the rest of the tree unguarded. There were no male flowers on that butternut tree that year. Much to my surprise, not only my pollinized flowers but the whole tree bore a good crop of butternuts. This year, on account of the drought, many of the hickory trees bore female flowers only. I do not know that it was on account of the drought, but I have noted that after seasons of drought, trees are apt to bear flowers of one sex or the other, trees which normally bear flowers of both sexes. This year a number of hickory trees bore flowers of one sex only, and I noted that some shagbark trees which had no male flowers had fairly good crops of nuts from pollen blown from a distance from other trees. I had one pignut tree (H. Glabra) full of female flowers which contained only one male flower, so far as I could discover and which I removed. On one side of this tree was a bitternut; on the other side a shagbark. This tree bore a full crop of pignuts, (Hicoria glabra) evidently pollinized on one side by the bitternut and on the other side by the shagbark These points are made for the purpose of showing the necessity of covering the female flowers with bags in our nut tree hybridizations. We must sprinkle Persian insect powder inside the bags or insects will increase under protection. When we have placed bags over female flowers, it is necessary to mark the limb; otherwise, other nuts borne on neighboring limbs will be mistaken for the hybridized nuts unless we carefully place a mark about the limb. Copper wire twisted loosely is, I find, the best. Copper wire carrying a copper tag with the names of the trees which are crossed is best. If I mark the limb with string or with strong cord I find there are many ways for its disappearance. Early in the spring the birds like it so well that they will untie square knots in order to put it into their nests. Later in the season the squirrels will bite off these marks made with cords for no other purpose, so far as I know, except satisfying a love of mischief. Now I am not psychologist enough to state that this is the reason for the action of the red squirrel, and can only remember that when I was a boy I used to do things that the red squirrel now does. (Laughter.) Consequently, on that basis, I traced the psychology back to plain pure mischief. Red squirrels and white footed mice must be looked after with great care in our hybridized trees. If the squirrels cannot get at a nut that is surrounded by wire cloth, they will cut off the branch and allow it to fall to the ground and then manage to get it out. White footed mice will make their way through wire, and mice and squirrels will both manage to bite through wire cloth unless it is very strong in order to get at the nut. The mere fact of nuts being protected by wire cloth or in other ways seems to attract the attention of squirrels. One of my men, a Russian, said, in rather broken English, "Me try remember which nuts pollinized; no put on wire, no put on tag, no put on nothing; squirrel see that, see right straight, bite off one where you put sign for him." (Laughter.) The best way for keeping squirrels and white footed mice from ascending a tree, I find is by tacking common tin, slippery smooth tin, around the trunk of the tree and this may be left on only during the time when squirrels are likely to ascend the tree. They will begin long before the nuts are ripe. In the case of hazel nuts, I have surrounded the bushes with a wire fence or wire mesh, leaving a little opening on one side, and have placed steel traps in the opening. Now here enters a danger which one does not learn about excepting from practical experience. I went out one morning shortly after having thought of this bright idea and found two gray squirrels in the traps. They had followed their natural instinct of climbing when they got into the steel traps, and climbing wildly had broken off every single branch from those hazels which carried hybridized nuts. There wasn't one left, because the squirrels when caught had climbed into the trees and had so violently torn about with trap and chain that they had broken off every single branch with a nut on it. So many things happen in our experiments that appeal to one's sense of the ludicrous, if he has a sense of humor, that I assure you nut raising is a source of great delight to those who are fond of the drama. The field of hybridizing nut trees offers enormous prospects. We are only just upon the margin of this field, just beginning to look into the vista. It has been done only in a limited way, so far, by crossing pollen and flowers under quite normal conditions. We may look forward to extending the range now of pollinization from knowledge based upon the experiments of Loeb and his followers in biology. They have succeeded in developing embryos from the eggs of the sea urchin, of the nereis, and of mollusks, without spermatozoa. Their work has shown that each egg is a single cell with a cell membrane and it is only necessary to destroy this cell membrane according to a definite plan to start that egg to growing. Life may be started from the egg in certain species without the presence of the other sex. This may lead us into a tremendous new field in our horticultural work. We may be able to treat germ cells with acids or other substances which destroy the cell membrane so as to allow crossing between very widely separated species and genera. Loeb, by destroying the cell membrane of the sea urchin, was enabled to cross the sea urchin with the star fish, and no one knows but we may be able, following this line of experimentation, eventually to cross the shagbark hickory with a pumpkin and get a shagbark hickory nut half the size of the pumpkin. That is all! (Applause.) * * * * * (President Morris then took the chair.) The Chairman: Please let me add that the hickory pumpkin idea is not to be taken seriously. That is a highly speculative proposition. I have found some times that, in a very scientific audience, men who were trained in methods of science, had very little selvage of humor,--little margin for any pleasantry, but this highly speculative suggestion, curiously enough, is not in fact more speculative than would have been the idea twelve years ago that you could hatch an egg, start an egg to development--without fertilization. Mr. Hutt: I would like to ask how widely you have been able to cross species? The Chairman: It has been possible to cross species of hazels freely with the four species that I have used, the American hazel, Corylus Americana; the beak hazel, Corylus rostrata; the Asiatic, Corylus colurna, and Corylus pontica. These apparently cross readily back and forth. With the hickories I think rather free hybridization occurs back and forth among all, but particularly in relation to groups. The open-bud hickories, comprising the pecan, the bitternut, the water hickory, and the nutmeg hickory, apparently, from my experiments, cross much more readily among each other than they cross with the scale-bud hickories. The scale-bud hickories appear to cross much more freely among each other than they cross with the open-bud hickories; not only species but genera may be crossed, and I find that the walnuts apparently cross freely with the open-bud hickories and the open-bud hickories cross with the walnuts. I have thirty-two crosses between the bitternut hickory and our common butternut, growing. All of the walnuts apparently cross rather freely back and forth with each other. I have not secured fertile nuts between the oaks and chestnuts, but I believe that we may get fertile nuts eventually. The nuts fill well upon these two trees fertilized with each others' pollen respectively, but I have not as yet secured fertile ones. We shall find some fertile crosses I think between oaks and chestnuts, when enough species have been tried. Mr. Hutt: Do you notice any difference in the shapes of any of those hybrids, the nuts, when you get them matured and harvested? Do they look any different from the other nuts on the tree? The Chairman: There isn't very much difference, but I seem to think that sometimes the pollen has exercised an influence upon the nuts of the year. Theoretically it should not do so, but I noticed one case apparently in which I crossed a chinkapin with a Chinese chestnut, and the nuts of that year seemed to me to present some of the Chinese chestnuts' characteristics. Mr. Hutt: This year I crossed a number of varieties of pecans and in nearly all those crosses there was to me quite an evident difference in the nuts. For instance those gathered off certain parts of a pecan tree of certain varieties, Schley or Curtis or Frotscher, would be typical nuts, but those hybrids or crosses that I produced were distorted, more or less misshapen and seemed to have peculiarities; so that when we came to look over the colony we were in doubt whether they were hand pollinated hybrids or had been pollinated before we got the blossoms covered. Many of them evidenced a great number of distortions, and one of them I remember particularly whose shell was so thin it was just like a piece of brown paper; and there were several peculiarities that were quite noticeable in those hand pollinated nuts. The Chairman: That is a very interesting point. When we come to consider deformities of nuts we shall find very many cases due to the character of the pollinization. I crossed the Persian walnut with the shagbark hickory and had nuts that year of just the sort of which Mr. Hunt speaks, with shells as thin as paper. One could crush them with the very slightest pressure of the finger. The shells were not well developed. Unfortunately the mice happened to get at all of those nuts. I don't know if they were fertile or not. The kernels were only about half developed. I should look for deformity in these nuts rather than a taking on of the type of one parent over the other, the idea being based on theoretical biological considerations. We had last year a photograph of a tree in California which apparently was a cross, a very odd cross--does any one remember about that California tree? Mr. Wilcox: It was a cross between Juglans Californica and the live oak. The Chairman: Both the foliage and the nuts were very remarkable and pertained to characters of these two trees. Such a cross to my mind would be wholly unexplainable excepting on the ground recently brought out by Loeb and his followers in crossing the lower forms of animal life and finding that the cell membrane of the egg, if destroyed, will allow of very wide fertilization subsequently with other species. It occurs to me now--I had no explanation last year, but it occurs to me now, knowing of Loeb's experiments--that it is possible that one of the parents, the parent California oak tree carrying the female flowers, might have had its sex cells subjected to some peculiar influence like acid, sulphurous acid, for instance, from some nearby chimney. Sulphurous acid perhaps from someone merely lighting a match to light a cigar under the tree; he might have so sensitized a few female flowers, may have so injured the cell membrane of a few female germ cells that cross pollinization then took place from a walnut tree. It is only on some such ground as the findings of Loeb that we can explain such a very unusual hybridization as that, which appeared to me a valid one, of a cross between an oak and a walnut. (Secretary Deming then called attention to hybrids in the various exhibits.) Professor Smith: I should like to ask why, if this free hybridization takes place in nature among the hickories, you do not have a perfect complex of trees showing all possible variations in the forest. The Chairman: In answer to Professor Smith's question I will start from his premises and remark that we do have such complexities. The hickories are so crossed at the present time, like our apples, that even crossing the pollen of various hickory trees of any one species does not promise interesting results unless we cross an enormous number. They are already so widely crossed that it is very difficult sometimes to determine if a certain tree is shagbark or pignut or shellbark or mockernut. For the most part the various species and varieties of hickories retain their identity because their own pollen is handiest, and different species do not all flower at the same time. Their own pollen from the male flowers is apt to fall at the time when their own female flowers are ripe and under these circumstances the chances are very much in favor of the tree pollinizing its female flowers with its own pollen. On the other hand, there is hardly one chance in many hundred thousand for any crossed nut to grow, for the reason that most nuts are destroyed by mice, squirrels, rats and boys. If you have a hickory nut tree growing in a lot, and which has produced a bushel of hickory nuts year after year, do you know of one single nut from that tree which has grown? In this plan of Nature, this plan of enormous waste of Nature in order to get one seed to grow, the chance for a hybridized hickory nut to grow under normal conditions, is so small that we should have relatively few crossed trees growing wild in Nature, though we do find quite a good many of them. Professor Smith: If I am not taking up too much time, I would like to put some more questions to you. The Chairman: That's what we are here for. Professor Smith: Have you ever tried the plan of serving collations to squirrels? Why wouldn't it pay to give them portions of wheat and corn? Second, what percentage of the oak pollen kept in cold storage a month was alive? Third, what is the range of time that the hybridizer has to make the pollinization? Must we go on the dot or have we two days or four days or a week, in the case of hickories and walnuts? The Chairman: I think possibly as these are three direct questions, I might answer them now. No, I think it would be better to have all questions bearing on this subject brought out and then I will answer all together. So if you will kindly ask all the questions, I will then endeavor to answer them. Mr. Corsan: The squirrels bothered me last year. I've got forty acres of land for experimental purposes only and I started planting and the little beggars would dig down exactly where I planted the nuts, so I went into town and got a rat trap with a double section so I could catch them alive; and I caught so many by feeding them cheap pignuts, the sweet pignuts from Michigan, that I brought them in and my boys sold them for twenty-five cents apiece. Since then we have never been bothered with red squirrels. For the white footed mice I laid down large doors over some hay or long grass and they gathered underneath and then I lifted the doors up every day and with a stick I smashed hundreds of them. I have posted a notice to leave the skunk and mink alone; I don't want anybody on the place shooting them. The Chairman: I will first answer Professor Smith's questions. This matter of serving collations for squirrels had best be done as collations are served at political meetings--with a trap attached. You don't know how many squirrels there are in the vicinity or how many white footed mice. You will be surprised at the numbers of the little rascals, and not only that, but the field mice, the common field mouse and pine mouse run in mole holes under the ground and can smell a nut a long way off. They are extremely destructive. What percentage of pollen grains of the white oak were alive? I do not know. Enough to fertilize a number of flowers. The sooner pollen is used the better. I cannot answer the question exactly because I did not make an experiment in the laboratory to know what part of the pollen was viable. I put on a good deal of it and there were at least some viable grains in the lot. That, however, is a matter which can be subjected to exact laboratory tests without any difficulty. I am so busy with so many things that I can only follow the plan of the guinea hen that lays forty eggs and sits in the middle of the nest and hatches out all she can. Now the range of time for pollinizing is a thing of very great importance and we have to learn about it. We must all furnish notes on this question. With some species I presume the duration of life of pollen, even under the best conditions, might be only a few days. Under other conditions it may be several weeks; but we have to remember that, in dealing with pollen, we are dealing with a living, breathing organism. The Secretary: I believe the experiment has been carried to completion of fruiting a thousand trees from nuts grown on one pecan tree without two of the resulting nuts being like one another or like the parent nut. Is that true, Mr. Reed. Mr. Reed: Yes, you might say ten thousand. The Secretary: We have an illustration of the variability of the progeny of a nut in this collection of chestnuts by Mr. Riehl out in Illinois. This is a parent nut, the Rochester, and these others are seedlings from the Rochester, except where marked otherwise, some showing a tendency to revert to the parent, and some promising to be improvements on the parents. The Chairman: Mr. Secretary, I think we'd better confine ourselves to the hybrid question at the present time. The Secretary: Are not those all hybrids? The Chairman: I don't believe any man can tell, unless you get the flowers, because you have the American and European types merging together so perfectly. Some of them show distinctly the European type; others show distinctly the American type. That is what I would expect, however. The practical point is the question of quality. Which one keeps the American quality and which one retains the coarseness of the European type? Mr. Harris: Speaking of variations of nuts I think it is well known that there is quite a variation in the nuts of the oak. I noticed in one species, michauxii, which is an oak in the South, that its nuts varied a great deal. It is something of the type of the chestnut, the white oak or the rock oaks and it varies a great deal. I found one on my father's range in New Jersey and also one on the Potomac. The variations extend to the trees as well as the nuts. The Chairman: The oak tree properly belongs in another tree group and some of the acorns are not only edible, but first-rate. In China there are at least three species found in the markets to be eaten out of hand or roasted. Our white oaks here, some of them, bear very good fruit, from the standpoint of the boy and the pig, anyway, and it seems to me that we may properly include the oaks in our discussion. There would be great range in variation of type from hybridization between oak trees and I have seen a number of oak trees that were evidently hybrids, where the parentage could be traced on both sides, that were held at very high prices by the nurserymen. I asked one nurseryman, who wanted an enormous price for one hybrid oak, why he didn't make ten thousand of those for himself next year? It hadn't occurred to him. If there is no further discussion in connection with my paper we will have Mr. Littlepage's paper on Nut Promotions. Mr. Littlepage: Dr. Deming said that he thought it might be time that we have something just a little lighter--that either he should read a paper or I. (Laughter.) Inasmuch as he included himself, I took no offense whatever. The subject I have written on, roughly and hurriedly, is Fraudulent and Uninformed Promoters. FRAUDULENT AND UNINFORMED PROMOTERS T. P. LITTLEPAGE, WASHINGTON, D. C. [Illustration: MR. T. P. LITTLEPAGE OF INDIANA _President of the Association_] In the beginning, let me assert my confidence and interest in agriculture in general. This is one of the basic industries, upon the proper understanding and growth of which depends the food supply of the nation. It is admitted by scientists that, other conditions being equal, an adequacy or inadequacy in the supply of proper food makes the difference between great people and undesirable people. This being true, the various operations of agriculture must always be of the greatest concern to those who are interested in the nation's welfare. The "back-to-the-farm" movement is being discussed today in various periodicals, but back of the "back-to-the-farm" movement is a philosophy that has not been generally understood. It is not proper here to take time to discuss the reasons why the man in the "steenth" story of some magnificent office building, with telephones, electric lights, elevators, and all modern conveniences, longs for the time when he can roam again amidst the green fields in the sunshine and fresh air, but suffice it to say that in my judgment a majority of the professional men, and men in other walks of life, would, if they could, abandon their various employments and turn again to the soil. The boy on the farm dreams of the days when he can be the president of a bank, have a home in the city, own an automobile, smoke good cigars and go to the show every night. The bank president dreams of the day when he can turn again to the farm and walk in the green fields, where he can shun the various artificial activities of life, drink buttermilk and retire with the chickens. It may be asked what connection these statements have with the subject, and the answer is this--that in the minds of many thousands of people there is this supreme desire to some day own a portion of God's footstool to which they can retire from artificial and vainglorious environments to those under which they can be their real selves and follow pursuits to their liking. It is this that makes it possible for the promoter of various horticultural enterprises to succeed in interesting in his schemes the clerk, the merchant, the doctor, the lawyer, the school teacher, the preacher, and all others whose occupations confine them within the limits of the great cities. In the beginning, let us distinguish between the fraudulent promoter and the uninformed promoter. The fraudulent promoter is he who recognizes this great and worthy ambition of many people to buy a spot to which they can some day retire and work and rest and dream and enjoy the coming and going of the seasons, and the sunshine and the shadows, and who capitalizes this ambition, with that industry as his stock in trade which, at the particular moment, happens to offer the most attractive inducements. Those familiar with the industry he is exploiting, can tell him by his actions, by his words, by his nods and winks. It is hard for the crook to disguise himself to the informed. Distinguished from the fraudulent promoter is the uninformed promoter, but, so far as results are concerned, there is not much difference between them for the innocent investor. They both lead him to failure. They are unlike only in this, that the pathway of the one is lined with deception, crookedness and chicanery; of the other, with blasted hopes based upon good intentions but bad information. Both lead to the self-same sepulcher which in the distance looks white and beautiful but when reached is filled with the bones of dead men. There is not much difference after all, when one comes right down to the facts, between the crook who starts out deliberately to get one's money and the fellow who starts out in ignorance and makes great promises of returns that he knows nothing about. Both succeed in getting one's money and both succeed in misleading those who have a desire to lay aside something for their old days. We naturally feel more charity for him who has good intentions, but who fails, than for him who starts out with bad intentions. But, after all, only results count. Did you ever receive the literature of one of these various concerns that has pecan or apple orchards to sell? How beautiful their schemes look on paper! With what exquisite care they have worked out the pictures and the language and the columns of figures showing the profits! While writing this article I have before me a prospectus of a certain pecan company that prints columns of attractive figures. Fearful, however, that the figures would not convince, it has resorted to all the various schemes of the printers' art in its portrayal of the prospective profits from a grove set to pecans and Satsuma oranges, and it tells you in conclusion that it guarantees by a bond, underwritten by a responsible trust company, the fulfillment of all its representations. Yet what are the facts? Their lands are located in a section where the thermometer falls to a point that makes highly improbable the profitable growing of Satsuma oranges. And all their figures are merely estimates of the wildest character, printed in attractive columns, based upon nothing. As a member of the National Nut Growers Association I was this year chairman of the committee on orchard records. I sent out blanks, with lists of questions, to many prominent nut growers to see if I could secure data upon which to base a report to the association. The replies I received showed the existence of some very promising young orchards of small size, well cared for, but they also showed that there was no such thing as an intelligent report upon which reliable data as to the bearing records of orchards could be based for any future calculations. There are two reasons for this. First, most of the figures we have are based upon the records of a few pet trees around the dooryard or garden, grown under favorable conditions. Second, the young groves are not yet old enough for anyone to say, with any degree of accuracy, what the results will be. Therefore, the alluring figures printed in these pamphlets are only guesses. Furthermore, what of the contract of these concerns? What does it specify? You would be surprised to know the legal construction of one of these contracts, together with their guaranty bond. In most cases they advertise to plant, and properly cultivate for a period of five to seven years, orchards of the finest varieties of budded or grafted pecan trees, with Satsuma oranges or figs set between. But the guaranty company is usually wise enough to have lawyers who are able to advise them of their liabilities, and about all they actually guarantee is that, after a period of five years, provided all payments have been promptly met, there will be turned over to the purchaser five acres of ground with trees upon it. Five years old? No, they may not be one year old. Budded or grafted? No, they may be mere seedlings. Oranges set between them? No, the orange has passed out of the proposition before the bond stage. The companies generally print a copy of the bond, but usually in such small type that the victim does not read it, though the heading is always prominent. It thunders in the index and fizzles in the context. Moreover, suppose suit is brought on one of these contracts and bonds? What is the measure of damages? What basis has any court or jury for fixing damages? And be it remembered that courts do not exist for the protection of fools against their folly. The principle "caveat emptor" is as old as the common law itself, and it means that the buyer must beware, or in other words, that he should inform himself, and that he cannot expect the courts to protect him where he has failed to exercise due caution and diligence. Therefore, as a lawyer, I should very much hesitate to take on a contingent fee the suit of one of these various victims against a promoting orchard corporation. However, in any jurisdiction where there is a criminal statute against fraudulent representation and obtaining money under false pretenses, I should not hesitate, if I were the prosecuting attorney, to indict every member of such a corporation, and, to sustain the case, I would simply present to a jury of honest men the representations in their advertising literature, and then have the court instruct the same jury as to the validity and limitations of their contract. Their advertising is brilliant enough to dazzle the sun. Their contract is as dull as a mud pie. In addition to all of this comes the question of orcharding by proxy, and the success of the unit or acreage system, and many other similar questions; and let me say that I doubt if there is today in the United States one large development scheme, either in pecan or apple orchards, that will prove of ultimate financial profit and success to the purchaser. The promoter may get rich--he has nothing at stake. In most instances he has the price of the land in his pocket before there is a lick of work done on it, and the payments come in regularly and promptly to take care of his salary and the meager and unscientific development. Of course I would not be understood as saying that pecan or apple orchards cannot be made profitable. I am of the opinion that reasonable sized orchards in proper locations and proper soil, of proper varieties, with proper care in handling, are good investments, and, as proof of my confidence, I am planting orchards both in the north and south. The adjective "proper" which I have used here may seem insignificant at the start but, believe me, before you have begun to clip the coupons off your orchard bonds this adjective will loom up as important as Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. In fact you will wonder how it has been possible for anyone to forecast in one word such comprehensive knowledge. Think of a man a thousand miles away putting money into the hands of some unknown concern, for five acres of unknown land, to be set in unknown varieties of trees, to be cared for by unknown individuals. Can he not see that, in keeping with all the other unknown factors, his profits must also be unknown? We look at a great industrial enterprise, such as the steel trust, and marvel at its success. But it must be remembered that this industry started many years ago, and step by step built furnace after furnace and mill after mill, after the owners had tried out and become familiar with all the factors of that industry, and after great corps of trained experts had been developed, and after science had given to this industry many of the most marvelous mechanical inventions of the age. These facts are overlooked, however, when some fellow steps up and proposes to put a steel-trust-orchard on the market in twelve months. In most industrial enterprises there are well-known and established factors to be considered. In horticultural enterprises, however, no man knows what twelve months hence will bring. I read the other day with great interest the prospectus of a great pecan orchard started several years ago by a very honorable and high-minded man, and the promises of success were most alluring. What are the facts? The boll weevil came along and wiped out his intermediate cotton crops. The floods came later and destroyed acres of his orchards, and, if he were to write a prospectus today, it would no doubt be a statement of hope rather than a statement of facts. He would no doubt turn from the Book of Revelations, where at that time he saw "a new heaven and a new earth," and write from the Book of Genesis, where "the earth was without form and void." How many people have been defrauded by these various schemes, no one knows. How many clerks, barbers, bookkeepers, stenographers, students, preachers, doctors, lawyers, have contributed funds for farms and future homes in sections where they would not live if they owned half of the county. How many people have been separated from their cash by literature advertising rich, fertile lands in sections where the alligator will bask unmolested in miasma for the next fifty years, and where projects should be sold by the gallon instead of by the acre. Some time ago it was reported that inquiries in reference to the feasibility and profits of various orchard schemes had come in to the Bureau of Plant Industry of the Agricultural Department, at Washington, in such numbers that the officials of that Bureau had considered the advisability of printing a general circular, which they could send to the inquirers, advising them to make due investigation, and giving a few general suggestions about proxy farming and orchard schemes. I was advised by a friend in the middle west that the contemplated issuance of this circular by the Bureau of Plant Industry had aroused a number of protests throughout the country, and that various Senators and Members of the House of Representatives had entered strong protests with the Secretary of Agriculture against it. A number of these protests have come to my notice, and they take various forms of opposition, but are all unanimous against the Department of Agriculture offering to the prospective purchaser any information. Various reasons for their stand were given by the protestants, but how flimsy and ridiculous they are when analyzed. Congress for a number of years has been appropriating money and authorizing certain work by the Department of Agriculture. It is the people's money, and the people's Department, and the information gathered by the experts in this Department ought to be the people's information, and it ought to be possible for any citizen to write the Department a letter about any proposition that he has received from any of these various promoters, and have the advice of those who know most about it. I suppose the Department of Agriculture has entirely too many duties to perform to undertake a work of this kind, but what an inconsistent position it is for a Member of Congress, who has been voting for appropriations to carry on this work, to appeal to the Secretary of Agriculture to suppress such information in order that some exploiter may get somebody's money under false representations. I think if it were possible today to know the list of concerns and companies who registered, directly or through agents, their opposition to this proposed warning circular, you would have a correct index of the concerns good to let alone. For no honest, reputable individual or company need be afraid of the work or suggestions of that great Department. I have the pleasure of knowing many of the officials in the Bureau of Plant Industry, and never anywhere have I seen a body of men so conscientiously engaged in the work of promoting legitimate horticultural and agricultural knowledge. It is the very life of that great Department, and its officers and employees above everyone else are most interested in seeing the land produce the most and best that it can be made to produce, and they are best qualified to pass upon these matters. Most of the questions in these various schemes are questions of soil and horticulture. One letter in opposition to the Agricultural Department's attitude, that was brought to my attention, stated that crops varied under different conditions, and that no one was able to tell what a certain soil would or would not produce throughout a period of years, and intimated that the Department of Agriculture might mislead the public; and yet the concern that sent it printed columns of figures guaranteeing returns from pecans and Satsuma oranges in a section where orange growing is of very doubtful possibility. Boiling down these objections by the promoters, they come to simply this: That the Agricultural Department, with no motive but to tell the truth, and with its corps of trained experts, might mislead the public, but they (the promoters) could not possibly be mistaken in their fabulous figures compiled for the purpose of getting money from some misinformed victim. Proxy farming never was a success and I do not think it ever will be. One of my friends told me a short time ago of a very successful young pecan orchard on the gulf coast. Upon inquiry I found that it was of reasonable size, nine years old, and that the owner had lived in it nine years. It was not 500 acres in extent, or 1,000 acres, or 2,000 acres, but about 20 acres. Last summer I went into a beautiful apple orchard in Southern Indiana and saw about forty acres of trees bending to the ground with delicious Grimes Golden apples. On that particular day there were great crowds of people walking among the trees and admiring the fruit. I too walked among the trees a short time, but of greater interest to me than the trees was the old, gray-haired man who had made the orchard. The trees could not talk, but he could, and he told the story of the years of care, and diligence, and work, and thought, and patience, that showed why it is not possible to cover the mountains of a state with orchards bringing almost immediate and fabulous incomes. Some time ago I stood talking to the old superintendent of the Botanical Garden in Washington--William R. Smith, now deceased--and while discussing with him the requisites for tree culture, he said "Young man, you have left out the most important one of them all," When I asked him what I had left out, he said "above all things it takes the eye of the master." So it does, and the master is he whose vigilance is continual, who watches each tree as if it were a growing child--as indeed it is, a child of the forests--who has the care and the patience, and who is not dazzled by the glitter of the dollar, but who loves trees because they are trees. Theoretically, one can figure great successes in big horticultural development propositions, but these figures rest upon theory and not fact. It would be difficult to state all the reasons why I have a firm conviction that such big schemes of every kind will fall, but I believe this conviction is shared by the foremost thinkers in the horticultural world. A four-year-old boy was once taken to see the animals in a circus. He was very much interested, but, when shown the tremendous elephant, shook his head and said "he is too big." A small grove properly handled ought to be an excellent investment. The various uncertainties and vicissitudes involved can, in a degree, be compensated for by great care; and I suppose it would be possible even with some of these big schemes--by placing enough money behind them--to insure a fair degree of success. It must be borne in mind, however, that these promoters, of whom we have been speaking, are not so much concerned in the successful orchard as they are in big salaries and profits, and, if one has money enough to pay big salaries and profits, and still pay for the proper care of the orchard, then he does not need an orchard. Most of these promoters charge too much for a proper and honest development alone, and too little for the proper development plus the profits and salaries of the promoters. I wish it were not so. I wish the old earth could be made to smile bountiful crops without such expensive tickling, but this is one of the checks and balances that nature places upon her great storehouse of wealth. * * * * * The Chairman: This is a matter of very great importance and I hope we shall have a good discussion, from a practical point of view, by men who know about fraudulent promotions and their effect. We ought to go on record in this matter right now. I know of numbers of teachers, doctors and other poor people who have put money into nut promotion schemes without knowing anything about the ultimate prospect of profit. Mr. Hutt: One noticeable thing about the promoter's literature is that he never knows anything about crop failure, and in the agricultural and horticultural world that is a thing that is painfully evident to a man who has been in business a great length of time. In the promoter's literature it is just a matter of multiplication; if one tree will produce so much in a year, a hundred trees will produce a hundred times as much. I got a letter the other day from Mr. S. H. James, of Beaumont, Louisiana, and he said, "I have been very fortunate, I have actually had two good crops in succession," and when you come to compare that with the promoter's literature--why he knows no such thing as crop failure. Anybody who knows anything about agricultural or horticultural work knows that we have winter and floods and everything else to contend with. The Chairman: Someone might tell us about failures they happen to know of in promotion schemes. Mr. Smith: I would like to ask if Mr. Littlepage isn't going to open up that barrel of actual facts that he has about yields? Mr. Littlepage: Mr. President, I didn't know that I had a whole barrel of actual facts. When I started in several years ago a barrel wouldn't have held all of them, but I think that now I could put the actual facts in a thimble. I've got several barrels of good pecans, however, I'd like to open up and let Mr. Smith sample if he wants to. The Chairman: Let's hear about frauds from someone who knows how the land was managed and how the trees were managed and how it actually occurred. Mr. Van Duzee: Mr. President, I feel that I ought to say something, first in commendation of the paper itself. It is a question how far we, as an Association, are responsible for the care of our fellowmen, but at this period when the industry is new, I feel that it is a very legitimate thing for us to do a little work to try and prevent these people from preying upon our fellowmen. The president remarked this morning that something was an evidence of the tremendous waste in Nature. It is true, Nature, in building a forest, wastes a vast amount of time and energy. These people who are preying upon the nut industry today find as their victims the weaklings which Nature buries in the forest. Those things are incidental and we must expect them, but I feel that a paper of this kind, at this time, is a very valuable thing and I hope it will receive wide publication. We cannot say too much to discourage this sort of thing. Now, to respond, in a measure, to the President's request for actual facts, I am confronted with this proposition, that some of the men who have made the greatest failures are men who have done so through ignorance. They are honest men, they are personal friends of mine. I don't care to go too much into details, because they are just as sorry today as I am, but I have seen this done. I have seen hundreds of acres of nut orchards in the South planted with the culls from nurseries bought at a very low figure. I have seen these trees neglected absolutely, not in one case but in many cases. I have seen the weeds as high as the trees at the time when a telegram was received by the the local agent that a carload of the purchasers of these tracts was about to leave to look over their property. I have seen the local manager hustle out, when he got that telegram, and hire every mule in the community to come in and, with a plow, throw a furrow or two to the rows of trees so that they could be distinguished from the weeds they were growing among. As Mr. Littlepage has said, there can be no success in such operations; and I feel, looking at it in a very broad way, that this is a very good time to emphasize the point that those of us who have the greatest experience in the growing of nut trees do not feel that these enterprises are legitimate, or that they promise very much success. (Applause.) Mr. Pomeroy: I live just a short distance from Buffalo. A few months ago--I got it on the very best authority--there was some salesman in Buffalo who didn't have time to call on all those who wanted to give him money for pecan propositions. He didn't have time, Doctor, he just had to skip hundreds of them, he said; he was just going from one place to another, making his collections. Buffalo is a city of only about 450,000 people and there must be some money being collected and sent in to somebody. The Chairman: Very glad to hear of that instance; let's hear of others. Mr. Littlepage: I would like, if possible, to answer Mr. Smith's question. I didn't know that he referred to facts about these promotions, I thought perhaps he meant facts about nut growing. Mr. Smith: You said you had made inquiries as to nuts, harvest yields, orchard yields; it was those, particularly, that I had in mind. Mr. Littlepage: Oh well, I could give those to you readily. There are some very promising orchards, making a good showing under investigation, handled under proper conditions and of proper size. I would not want to say that those things are not possible. Talking specifically of these overgrown schemes, one of them is recalled to my mind, a development company in southern Georgia, that advertises very alluringly. It set out one year a lot of culls; they all died. I am told that they went out the second year and, without any further preparation, dug holes and set out another lot of culls. They too died; and then they went out the third year and planted nuts, and those trees, at the end of a year's growth, were perhaps six or seven inches high, and the salesman from that company, I understood, took one of the prospective purchasers over into a fine grove owned by another man on the opposite side of the road, and let him pick out his five acres from the orchard across the road. That's one type I could multiply indefinitely. Mr. W. C. Reed: I think this is a very important matter. As a nursery man who has sold a great many trees to promoting companies, I want to say that I have never, with one exception, seen an orchard that has been a success, but I have seen hundreds of failures, some of them where they have set out orchards of 150,000 trees and sold them off in one and ten acre tracts, and in only one case have I seen a success. I think these promotions should be avoided by the nut growers of the North. The Chairman: This is very valuable information, coming from a dealer. Mr. Van Duzee: I have found this in the yields of my orchards. Six or seven or eight years ago, I discounted every source of information that I could have access to, as to yields, brought them to a conservative point, submitted them to the best informed men in the United States, and then divided those figures by five as my estimate of what I might hope to accomplish as my orchards came into bearing. I have since been obliged to find some excuses for failing to even approximate those conservative figures. I had this year in our orchard, a 35 acre plot of Frotscher trees which is one of the most promising varieties, six years of age, and there were not five pounds of nuts in the whole plot. I have had an orchard of 36 acres, mostly Frotscher and Stewart, go through its sixth year with less than 200 pounds of nuts to the entire orchard. I have another orchard of 30 acres which in its sixth year has produced less than 100 pounds of nuts. Now many of these promoters guarantee to take care of these orchards, which they are selling, for 10 per cent or 20 per cent, or even half the proceeds of those orchards, from the fifth year. You can see readily that the entire crop of such orchards as I have been able to produce, would not begin to pay their running expenses the sixth and seventh year. The Chairman: You took good care of yours? Mr. Van Duzee: I think so. I think there are many gentlemen in the audience who have been through them, and it is conceded that my orchards are at least fairly good representatives of what can be done under normal conditions. Mr. Corsan: Are yours southern orchards? Mr. Van Duzee: These pecan orchards are in south-western Georgia. Mr. Corsan: The Northern Nut Growers Association, as I understand, is a collection of men who are interested in finding out what we can do in the way of growing nuts for the North. We go to the markets and see baskets of cocoanuts, Brazil nuts, California walnuts, but no nuts growing for the market around our neighborhood. In my own city, Toronto, I can see some nut trees because I look very closely at everything, but the average person cannot see them because they are very few. I have a number of experiments on hand. If I succeed in even one of these experiments, I am satisfied to spend my whole life at it. I am not nervous, I can watch a hickory tree grow. (Laughter.) I want to grow some nuts for the next generation. I haven't the slightest thought of making a copper of money out of it but I am going to enjoy the thing, and that's the idea of the Northern Nut Growers Association, or else I have made a mistake. The Chairman: Is there any further discussion on the matter of frauds? Does anyone else wish to speak on this subject? Mr. Littlepage: It is indeed very gratifying to hear the President of the National Nut Growers' Association, Col. Van Duzee, speak on this subject and to have the honor of having him with us as a member of our Association. It is gratifying to have him come out in such strong terms on this question. It has always been his policy and his reputation, so far as I have heard, to stand for what is best and squarest in nut culture. The Chairman: The paper of Mr. Littlepage is one of very great importance, because the number of frauds associated with an enterprise is an indication of the fundamental value of the cause. These fraudulent nut promoters capitalize the enthusiasm of people who want to get back to the land, just as porters at the hotels capitalize the joy of a newly married couple. (Laughter.) We have in this "back-to-the-land" movement, a bit of philosophy of fundamental character which includes the idea of preservation of the race. Preservation of the race!--why so? Nature made man a gregarious species and, being gregarious, he has a tendency to develop the urban habit. Developing the urban habit, he fails to oxidize his proteins and toxins. Failing to oxidize his proteins and toxins, he degenerates. Recognizing the degenerating influence of urban life, by means of his intelligence he has placed within his consciousness that automatic arrangement, as good as the automatic arrangement which turns water on to a boiler, which says to him, "go out and oxidize your proteins and toxins." That is what "back-to-the-land" means. You've got to begin from this fundamental point. Now then, if this represents a fundamental trait in the character of our species and we are acting in response to a natural law, then must we be doubly careful about having our good intentions, our good methods, halted by unwisdom. That brings to mind the point made about our present Secretary of Agriculture. I am very glad this has been made a matter of record here, for I am sorry to say that in connection with another subject--(health matters)--wherever there has been opportunity for the Secretary to act, he has decided as a matter of policy on the side of capital and against the side of public interest. Almost every time, so far as we have a record of the action of the present Secretary of Agriculture and of Dunlap and McCabe, his assistants. We ought to state here, in connection with fraudulent nut promotions, that he has acted in favor of capital and against the public interest if it is true. It ought to go as a matter of record from this Association. We may be bold in this matter, but we should be righteously bold because we are speaking for the public interest ourselves. We have nothing to gain; there is nothing selfish about this organization. We may be kindly and say that the Secretary is at the mercy of shrewder men. Mr. Corsan says that we are interested in scientific work only. That is true at the present time, because all progress must be from a scientific basis. If our care in managing experiments is such that we cannot avoid getting rich, we will accept the result. (Laughter.) I am glad that in connection with this discussion Mr. Corsan made one epigrammatic remark,--that he was not nervous and could watch a hickory tree grow. I tell you there's a lot of wit in that. Mr. Littlepage: He has good eyesight, Mr. President. The Chairman: The reason why we have so many fraudulent promotions is largely because of our American temperament; we are so nervous that we can't watch a hickory tree grow. In matters of public health, our Secretary of Agriculture has prevented actual criminals from being brought to justice--he made that his policy. I think those are the points that I wish to make in commenting upon Mr. Littlepage's paper and if he will make any concluding remarks we will be very glad to hear them. In regard to Mr. Hutt's suggestion that we cannot count on crop success or crop failure mathematically--now, there are fortunes to be made from the proper management of good nut orchards. We know of orchards where very large incomes are at present being made, and I am very glad that the sense and sentiment of this meeting is against quotation of that feature. I have not heard here one word in quotation of orchards which bring incomes of $10,000 a year or more from various kinds of nuts, and we know there are many such orchards. It is the failures upon which we should concentrate our attentions right now, and the reason for failure is not that nut growing is not going to make progress but that we cannot count on our nuts from a mathematical basis. One of my friends, an old Frenchman, became very enthusiastic about raising poultry. He sent out requests for circulars to every poultry fancier who published circulars, and I will wager that he got 50 per cent of answers to his requests for circulars about fancy poultry. He began to raise chickens, and my father-in-law met him on the street one day and asked how he was getting on with his pullets that were going to lay so many eggs. "Oh," he said, "Ze trouble is with ze pullet; she no understand mathematique like ze fancier. If I have one pullet, she lay one egg every day; if I have two pullet, _perhaps_ she lay two egg every day, and if I have three pullet, she _nevaire_ lay three egg every day." (Laughter.) Now I think that the remaining time this morning we had better devote to the executive session, then we had better meet at two o'clock for the election of our committee. The meeting then is at present adjourned, with the exception of those who will take part in the executive session, and we will meet again at two P. M. There is one point I wanted to make in connection with Col. Van Duzee's remarks that a certain number of really honest men have allowed their names to be used in connection with promotion propositions. Men who are quite skillful at learning the use of names, have gotten men of good intentions and kindly interest, I know, to lend their names as even officials of nut promotion companies. Besides that, a good deal of garbled literature of recommendation has gone out in their circulars. I have had a number of circulars sent to me quoting abstract remarks that I had made relative to nut culture in general, and this has been applied concretely in circulars; the context did not go with it. I asked a lawyer what I could do about it, and after going over the question he said that I probably was powerless. After announcements by the Secretary, the convention took a recess until 2 P. M., at which time it was called to order by President Morris and the regular program was resumed as follows: The Chairman: The executive session will be held after the meeting, as many are here to hear the paper on the chestnut blight, so we will proceed at once to the order of business and listen to the first paper by Mr. Rockey. Mr. Rockey: This paper deals more particularly with the work that has been done in Pennsylvania. But what has been done here may be considered to be typical of what has been done elsewhere. RECENT WORK ON THE CHESTNUT BLIGHT KELLER E. ROCKEY Forester in charge of Demonstration Work, Pennsylvania Chestnut Tree Blight Commission The history of the blight, briefly outlined, is as follows: In 1904 the diseased condition of the chestnut trees around New York City was noted and an examination of them showed that they were being attacked by a disease at that time unknown. Investigations since then have shown that the blight had been at work there and elsewhere for a number of years before that time, but it has been impossible to determine just when it first appeared or where. The disease was studied and described at that time. On display here are specimens and photographs showing the appearance of the blight so that I will not go into that part of the subject in detail. I hope that you will notice, however, the symptoms by which the disease is recognized: 1st. The small red pustules which produce the spores and, on rough barked trees, appear only in the crevices. 2nd. The peculiar mottled appearance of the inner bark of the canker. 3rd. The discoloration of the outer bark. 4th. The danger signals, such as withered leaves in summer or persistent leaves or burrs in winter, suckers which develop at the base of cankers, and the yellowish cracks which soon appear in the bark over the cankers. Workers in the Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C., have been studying the blight since 1908. In the Spring of 1911, a bill creating the commission for the investigation and control of the blight in Pennsylvania was passed, and the active work began in August 1911. The method upon which the Commission is working is outlined in Farmers' Bulletin No. 467, of the Department of Agriculture, and consists briefly of determining the area of blight infection and in removing diseased trees west of a certain line, with the purpose of preventing the western spread of the blight. This Commission has ascertained as accurately as possible the amount of infection in the various parts of the state and the results are given in a map on display here. The state is divided into two districts by a line drawn along the western edge of Susquehanna, Wyoming, Columbia, Union, Snyder, Juniata and Franklin Counties, which is approximately the western line of serious blight infection. West of this line a large portion of the state has been scouted, and the remainder will be finished early in 1913. We have learned by experience that in the winter, after the fall of the leaves, the best scouting work can be done. Persistent leaves and cankers along the trunk are readily seen, and more and better work can be accomplished than in the summer, except when the snow is very deep. Blight infections have been found in counties adjacent to this line: also in Fayette County, near Connellsville, in Warren County, near Warren, and in Elk County, near St. Mary's. These three infections were directly traceable to infected nursery stock, and in one case the blight had spread to adjacent trees. A large area of diseased chestnut in Somerset County illustrates the harm done by shipping infected nursery stock. The centre of this infection is a chestnut orchard where about 100 scions from an infected eastern orchard were grafted to native sprouts in 1908. The percentage of infected trees in the orchard from which the scions were obtained, according to a count made this Fall, averages 80 per cent. Evidently these scions brought the disease into this region, for the grafts have all been killed by the blight and every tree in the orchard is killed or infected by disease. On adjoining tracts over 5,400 infected trees have been cut, and there are a number of others in process of removal, radiating in all directions from the orchard as a center to a distance of three miles. Another infection of 143 trees was found in Elk County. It is thought that three trees at the centre of infection were diseased in 1909, although it is possible that one of these trees was already infected in 1908. In 1910, 27 additional trees were infected; in 1911, 50 additional trees, and in 1912, 228 additional trees. The disease spread in all directions from the center of infection to a distance of 700 feet. These infections are interesting in showing the rate at which the blight may travel in healthy timber. These infections have all been removed and it is the expectation that by the end of January 1913 all scattered spot infections will be removed from the territory west of the line previously mentioned, and that, to the best of our knowledge, these western counties will be free from blight. In 1913 the field force will be concentrated on the advance line and the work will be carried eastward. The Commission has the power to compel the removal of infected trees. In the western part of the state this power has been exercised in the few cases where it was necessary. As a rule, however, the owners are not only willing but anxious to get rid of the infected trees, and our field men are given hearty support by individuals, granges and other organizations. The timber owners of Elk County had printed and posted an announcement that the chestnut blight had been found in the locality and warned the people to be on the look-out for it. In addition the Commission has had a man, for a short time at least, in each of the eastern counties of the state, and their time has been taken up principally by those who requested inspections of timber with the view of determining the percentage of blight infection and the best method to be pursued in combating it and realizing on their timber. Our men are all deputy wardens, with the authority which is attached to this office, and are instructed to do their utmost to prevent fire damage. An exhibit which consists of specimens showing the blight in various stages together with photographs, literature, etc., was placed in about 30 of the county fairs throughout the state. The appreciation of the public has been so clearly shown that next year it is the intention of the Commission to continue and perhaps increase this phase of the work, and to place large permanent displays at the Commercial Museum, Philadelphia, the State Capitol, Harrisburg, and other places. Many of the Annual Teachers' Institutes have been reached with a display and lecture. We have arranged also to have a speaker at fully one hundred of the Farmers' Institutes this winter. We are also arranging to have a permanent display at many of the public schools, normal schools and colleges, where instruction on the blight is given. An effort was made last winter to enlist the service of the boy scouts and we are indebted to them for considerable work, chiefly in an educational way. The successful outcome of all our work will depend in a large measure upon the owners themselves, and it is our purpose to give them all the information possible upon the whole subject. The Commission established a Department of Utilization which is collecting information on the various industries which use or might use chestnut wood, listing the buyers and owners of chestnut wood, thus assisting owners of blighted chestnut trees in marketing their timber to the best advantage. The Department is trying to increase the use of chestnut wood by calling attention to its many good qualities, and thus utilize the large quantity which must necessarily be thrown upon the market. There has been more or less discrimination against blighted chestnut timber. This has been in many cases unjust, since the blight does not injure the value of the wood for most purposes for which it is used. However, the owners sometimes fail to realize that the blight cankers are the most favorable places for the entrance of the borers, and that where a large number of trees are being considered, a percentage of them will be materially injured by insects which follow blight infection. Where telegraph poles are barked, it is often seen that borers have attacked the wood under blight cankers, and have not touched any other part of the tree. All blighted timber should be cut before death to realize its best value, since insects and wood-destroying fungi cause the very rapid deterioration of dead, standing timber. There has been a good market in almost every locality for poles, ties and the better grades of lumber. Cordwood presents the difficult problem of disposal. The best market for this is in the central part of the state, at the extract plants. The Commission has secured from the Pennsylvania R. R. a special tariff on blighted chestnut cordwood so that this product may be profitably shipped from greater distances than before. The Commission has inspected all chestnut nursery stock shipped from nurseries within the state and has also provided for inspection of all chestnut stock entering the state. This should prevent a repetition of infections in the western part of the state which might destroy millions of dollars worth of timber. From time to time publications have been and will be issued by the Commission, which are obtained free of charge upon request, or they may be consulted in the leading libraries throughout the state. An appropriation for $80,000 was given by the last Congress for scientific research work upon the blight disease and work is being carried out in cooperation with the various states. Several of the Government investigators are now at work upon our force. Some of the most important unsolved scientific problems of the blight, as given by Secretary Wilson, in his message, to Congress, are as follows:-- First, the relation of the disease to climate. Second, the relation of the parasite to the varying tannin content of the tree. Third, the origin of the disease. Fourth, relation of birds and insects to the dissemination of the disease. Fifth, the nature and degree of resistance of the Asiatic species. Another problem in relation to tree treatment may be added, that is, the relation of spores and mycelium to toxic agents. The Pennsylvania Commission maintained laboratories during the summer at Charter Oak, Centre County, and at Mt. Gretna, Lebanon County. The latter has been moved to Franklin and Marshall College, Lancaster, for the winter. We have also had a laboratory at the University of Pennsylvania, which has been greatly enlarged this fall. The number of people who informed us that they had discovered a sure "cure" for the blight made it necessary to obtain an orchard near Philadelphia where all such discoverers were given an opportunity to demonstrate the efficacy of their remedies. It might be noted that in every case the blight is thriving as usual. These cures consisted largely of an injection of a toxic principle by some means into the circulation of the tree. In some cases this was accompanied by a fertilizer of some kind, and this fertilizer may account for the apparently improved condition of the tree in some cases, after such remedies were used, since the growth was increased and the leaves and branches had a healthier appearance. This increased growth has not had any appreciable effect upon the rapidity of spread of the blight mycelium. As the experiments are not officially finished and recorded it is too early to give any further data. Our pathologists have also conducted experiments in this same line but no medicinal remedy or fertilizer has yet been found. The varying chemical constituents of chestnut trees, principally tannic acid, have often been suggested in regard to the origin and spread of the blight. Investigators are now working along this line and we hope, for valuable results before long. The origin of the disease, as already stated, is something of a mystery, and there is as yet no generally accepted theory, although many people have very pronounced views on the subject. Many puzzling facts have been noted since investigating the disease in Pennsylvania, among them being the large percentage of infection in eastern York and southern Lancaster counties, the relative small percentage in certain localities around which the blight is generally prevalent, and recent infections found in Warren and other western counties, a great distance from what is known as the western advance line of the disease. Our pathologists have reported some very interesting facts in regard to the dissemination of the blight. In the preliminary report of the summer's work at our field laboratories the results tend to show: First, the prolific ascospore stage is very important in causing the spread of the blight, the spores at this stage being forcibly ejected from the pustules and borne through the air for some distance. This ejection of spores takes place under natural field conditions only when the bark has been soaked by rain, but the expulsion of spores is also dependent upon temperature conditions and ceases entirely at temperatures from 42 to 46 degrees F. and below. Second, the wind plays a large part in local ascospore dissemination. Third, birds and insects (except ants) are apparently of very little importance in the dissemination of the blight except in providing wounds. Further investigations of the importance of ants is being made during the present winter. Several kinds of beetles have been observed eating the pustules and are in this way beneficial, since tests show that they digest and destroy the spores. It has also been suggested by workers in the Bureau of Entomology that such beetles, which are of several kinds, may be of value in the attempt to control the disease. These are perhaps the only natural enemies discovered to date. The proper classification of the chestnut blight fungus has also been the subject of much discussion. Last winter specimens of what in external characteristics appeared to be Diaporthe parasitica were found in western Pennsylvania, Virginia and elsewhere, growing upon chestnut, oak and other species. This condition was puzzling and the subject of some controversy. It has been found, however, that this fungus, called the "Connellsville fungus," is a distinct species closely related to the true blight fungus, being, however, entirely saprophytic. Cultural distinctions are apparent and the ascospores differ in size and shape so that no further confusion need occur. Upon the question of immunity of certain kinds of Asiatic stock, there is very little to report beyond what was known one year ago. In the investigations made the work has been hampered by the fact that much of the so-called Japanese stock is in reality a hybrid of European or American species. In 1909, 45 Japanese seedling trees were set out at Gap, Lancaster Co., for experimentation along this line. A recent examination showed that 90 per cent are infected. Concerning the variety or purity of this stock, I have not been informed. Our force as well as others are at work upon the problem which will require many years' study. Previous investigations seem to show that certain pure strains of Japanese and Korean chestnut are resistant to the blight. Blight cankers may be found upon them but they are less easily infected and suffer less than the more susceptible varieties. With this as a working basis, considering the results that have been attained in other fruit by selection and hybridization, the situation is hopeful. Prof. Collins said at the Harrisburg Conference in February that "There is no reason to doubt that we may eventually see an immune hybrid chestnut that will rival the American chestnut in flavor and the Paragon in size". In southern Europe chestnut orcharding is a well established and profitable industry. In the United States chestnuts have been considered a marketable commodity ever since the Indians carried them to the settlements and traded them for knives and trinkets. The demand has always exceeded the supply and at the present time about $2,000,000 worth of nuts are imported from Europe annually. With the development of the better varieties of the American nut has come an increased activity in the United States and the chestnut orchard industry promises to become one of very large importance. It has an added advantage that the trees can be grown upon the poorer types of soil which are not adaptable for farming or the raising of other fruit. At the present time there are in what is known as the blight area of Pennsylvania, or eastern half of the State, about 100 orchards ranging from 12 trees up to 400 acres in extent. These orchards are in varying stages of blight infection, some of them being almost entirely free, due to the attention which has been given them. In order to protect such orchards the Commission is compelling the removal of infected trees within a certain radius of them. As you know the blight has been a very serious factor in this industry. Some of the orchards have been completely annihilated and the income reduced from several thousand or more dollars per year to nothing. Whether or not the blight will completely wipe out the orcharding industry is a subject of large importance. Personally I believe that chestnuts will be raised commercially in Pennsylvania in increased abundance, and as the various phases of the blight subject are brought to light, keeping the disease under control can be more easily accomplished. At the present time this is being done in certain orchards by the present methods of examining the trees often, treating each infection, or removing the tree. If this policy is successfully pursued for several more years it will demonstrate conclusively that chestnuts can be grown in spite of the blight and this will mean an opportunity to use vast areas of waste land in Pennsylvania and in the other states, in a highly profitable manner. * * * * * The Chairman: The subject of the next paper is Some Problems in the Treatment of the Chestnut. It will be presented by Mr. Pierce, after which we will have a general discussion of the entire subject. Mr. Pierce: Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen: I see that, as we wrote our papers separately, some of the things I had in mind will be similar to those Mr. Rockey had. SOME PROBLEMS IN THE TREATMENT OF DISEASED CHESTNUT TREES BY ROY G. PIERCE Tree Surgeon, Pennsylvania Chestnut Tree Blight Commission The problems that present themselves to the growers of chestnut trees concerning the present disease may be summed up under three heads: first, what the disease is, how it is caused, and how it may be recognized; second, what is to be done with diseased trees to bring them to health or to prevent them from infecting other healthy trees nearby; third, what means in the future can be undertaken to keep a tree healthy, that is, to prevent reinfection. First, what the disease is, how it is caused, and how it may be recognized. The disease known as the chestnut tree blight is caused by the fungus, _Diaporthe parasitica_, which usually finds entrance to the tree through wounds in the bark. The mycelium or mass of fungous filaments gradually spreads through the bark in much the same manner as mold spreads over and through a piece of bread, even penetrating the wood to a depth of sometimes five annual rings. The spread of the fungus, resulting in the cutting off of the sap flow, is the immediate cause of the wilting and dying of the leaves and branch above the point of girdling. This wilting of the leaves, followed later by the death of one branch after another as the fungus spreads, has given rise to the term "blight" of the chestnut trees. The danger signals which the chestnut tree displays when diseased are not a few. In summer, when the tree is first affected, the leaves turn yellow-green and wilt, later turning brown. Small burs and withered leaves retained in winter are some signs of the diseased condition of the tree. At the base of the blighted part a lesion, or reddish brown canker, is usually found. This lesion may be a sunken area or, as is frequently the case, a greatly enlarged swelling, known as a hypertrophy. After a branch has become completely girdled sprouts or suckers are very apt to be found below the point of girdling. In old furrowed bark on the main trunk of the tree the presence of the disease is seen in the reddish brown spore-bearing pustules in the fissures. In determining the presence of the fungus in the furrowed bark of old trees, one must learn to recognize the difference between the light brown color characteristic of fissures in healthy growing bark, and the reddish brown color of the fungus. When the disease has been present several years the bark completely rots and shrinks away from the wood, and when the bark is struck with an axe a hollow sound is produced. Many of the owners of chestnut trees throughout Pennsylvania do not acknowledge that a fungus is causing the death of the trees. They state that since they have found white grubs or the larvae of beetles in nearly every tree that dies, that it has been the larvae that killed the tree. It is acknowledged that generally white grubs are found in dying chestnut trees, and that in nearly all of the large cankers or lesions these grubs are present. However, if one will take the pains to examine the small twigs and branches or the new shoots rising from the stumps, that are diseased, he will not find the grubs present. Second, what is to be done with diseased trees to bring them back to health or to prevent them from infecting other healthy trees nearby. To bring the trees back to health implies that the disease can be cured. This is not always true for the tree may be already nearly girdled, when the disease is first noticed. A tree taken in time, however, may have its life prolonged indefinitely though it may have the blight in some portion of it every year. More particularly does this apply to valuable ornamental and orchard trees. Prof. J. Franklin Collins, Forest Pathologist in the Department of Agriculture in Farmer's Bulletin No. 467 on "The Control of the Chestnut Bark Disease" gives the following: "The essentials for the work are a gouge, a mallet, a pruning knife, a pot of coal tar, and a paint brush. In the case of a tall tree a ladder or rope, or both may be necessary but under no circumstances should tree climbers be used, as they cause wounds which are very favorable places for infection. Sometimes an axe, a saw, and a long-handled tree pruner are convenient auxiliary instruments, though practically all the cutting recommended can be done with a gouge with a cutting edge of 1 or 1-1/2 inches. All cutting instruments should be kept very sharp, so that a clean smooth cut may be made at all times." All of the discolored diseased areas in the tree should be removed. Small branches or twigs nearly girdled are best cut off. Cankers in the main trunk or on limbs should be gouged out. Carefulness is the prime requisite in this work. If the disease has completely killed the cambium, the bark should be entirely removed as well as several layers of wood beneath the canker. By frequent examination, however, diseased spots may be found on the tree where the mycelium of the fungus is still in the upper layers of the bark. It is not necessary then to cut clear to the wood, but the discolored outer bark may be removed and a layer of healthy inner bark left beneath the cut. The sap may still flow through this layer. The border of the diseased area is quite distinct, but cutting should not stop here but should be continued beyond the discolored portion into healthy bark, at least an inch. The tools should be thoroughly sterilized by immersion in a solution of 1.1000 bichloride of mercury, or 5 per cent solution of formaldehyde, before cutting into the bark outside of the diseased area. Experiments have shown that a gouge or knife may carry the spores into healthy bark and new infection take place. Experiments are being carried on in the laboratory to determine the length of time which spores will live in solutions of different strengths of fungicides. It has been shown that a cut made pointed at the top and bottom heals much faster than one rounded. The edges of the cut should be made with care so as not to injure the cambium. The chips of diseased bark and wood should not be allowed to fall on the ground then to be forgotten. A bag fastened just below the canker will collect most of this material as it is gouged out and prevent possible reinfection, which might take place if the material were allowed to scatter down the bark. Canvas or burlap spread around under a small orchard tree might be sufficient to catch all of the diseased chips of bark and wood cut out of the lower infections. This diseased material should be burned together with blighted branches. After completely cutting out all of the diseased parts the cut surfaces should be either sterilized or covered with a waterproofing which combines a fungicide with a covering. Among these might be mentioned coal tar and creosote, or a mixture of pine tar, linseed oil, lamp black and creosote. The trees which have been killed by blight, or nearly girdled, have been overlooked. These should be cut off close to the ground, the stump peeled and the bark and unused portions of the tree burned over the stump. The merchantable parts of the trees should be removed from the woods promptly, as all dead unbarked wood furnishes an excellent breeding place for the blight fungus. Third, what means in the future can be undertaken to keep a tree healthy, that is, to prevent reinfection. The spores may be carried by so many agents that it is difficult to prevent reinfection. However it is clear that the farther infected products or trees are removed from healthy trees the less liable they are to have spores carried to them. Cooperation with nearby owners of diseased trees will help solve this problem. Spraying on a large scale has only been carried on, so far as I know, on the estate of Pierre DuPont, Jr., at Kennett Square, Pennsylvania. At this place there are many large chestnut trees ranging from sixty to ninety feet in height, many of which were planted some sixty-five years ago. Mr. R. E. Wheeler started the work of cutting out diseased limbs and cankers in October 1911, and began spraying with Bordeaux mixture in April 1912. The formula 5-5-50, five pounds of copper sulphate and five pounds of lime in 50 gallons of water was found to be injurious to the foliage in the Spring. This was changed therefore, to 4-5-50, which had one pound less of copper sulphate. This did not seem to injure the foliage. About 70 trees were sprayed twenty times during the season. Nearly all of these were gone over four times to remove diseased branches and cankers, once in October 1911, then in early summer and again in September and November 1912. As an example take tree No. 6 which was studied, December 14, 1912. It is 39 inches in diameter at breast height, and approximately 70 feet in height. On this one tree six diseased limbs were removed, and sixteen cankers were cut out. Of these sixteen, two infections continued, that is, were not completely cut out, and had spread; three had infections below old limbs which had been removed, and eleven were healing over. This tree was about 1000 feet away from other badly infected trees, though but 25 feet away from other chestnut trees in the same row. The experiment of Mr. DuPont in spraying shows what can be done on valuable lawn trees. On the whole, these trees look well and healthy. Trees which were not sprayed over three times and were within 50-100 feet from badly blighted trees, became infected in so many different places that it will be necessary to remove them. One of the problems to be solved next year will be that of the least number of sprayings which will be effective in preventing new infection. * * * * * The Chairman: The question of the chestnut blight is now open for discussion. Mr. Littlepage: I should like to ask these gentlemen how far west they have heard of chestnut blight--that is, heard of it with any degree of authenticity, and also whether or not they care to express an opinion as to what the prospects are in the middle west, say out in Indiana, Illinois and Ohio? Mr. Pierce: In answer to that question, I will say that in Pennsylvania we have found infections in Wayne County and also in Fayette County, both near the western extreme of the state, but those have been attended to, very largely, and the boundaries closely determined. In Ohio there have been several reports of the blight being found, but I don't think either of the reports have been proven. There has been a fungus that I have spoken of as the Connellsville fungus, that has been all around in that neighborhood, south-western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio. The Chairman: Is the Connellsville fungus also _diaporthe parasitica_? Mr. Pierce: Yes, sir. It was placed by Mr. Anderson, who did the work on that, in the same genus as diaporthe, but he preferred the name _endothia parasitica_. The Chairman: The question is of changing the generic name, from _diaporthe_, on the basis of the previously established species? Mr. Pierce: Yes, sir, previously established species of _endothia_. It is only a suggestion of Mr. Anderson; it was made by him. This was very similar to the true blight fungus and when our men first went out into the western part of the State, they reported these various cases that came up there as chestnut blight, and none of the pathologists of our force then were competent to determine the difference, except that the fact was noted even then that it was not growing as a parasite in the sense that the true blight fungus has been growing in the east. The Chairman: That may be due to varietal differences, though, rather than specific? Mr. Pierce: Yes, although Mr. Anderson seemed to think it was specific. The Chairman: Is there any further discussion? The subject is worthy of a good deal of comment. Mr. Pomeroy: I want to ask the speaker what the approximate cost would be for one spraying of a tree about that size, 70 feet in height? Mr. Pierce: We have photographs on the table there showing our eight hundred dollar spraying machine, the same kind used in Massachusetts in gypsy moth work. With this two men can spray about ten such trees in a day. I haven't got it down in black and white but I figured that, on those chestnuts at DuPont's, they sprayed about 600 gallons a day. Ten trees a day would make it, say, with a $2.50 man, not very high for a tree. I think it costs in all something like four dollars a tree during the whole season, but that is a very rough estimate and the materials are not included. The Chairman: The cost will have to be calculated on a sentimental basis for the ornamental trees, and on a commercial basis for the commercial trees. The actual value of the spraying has not yet been determined. This spraying cannot reach the mycelium in the cambium layer; if the disease has been carried in by a beetle or woodpecker your spraying would be ineffective. Mr. Pierce: Yes indeed, that was just the thought Mr. Galena had, notwithstanding the fact that they cut out all visible infections and the trees were so blue with spray that you could see them for half a mile. The Chairman: But, later on, cracks and squirrel scratches and all sorts of injuries would allow new spores to be carried in? Mr. Pierce: Yes, sir. Mr. Reed: The future of the chestnut depends so largely on the conquering of this disease that no other horticultural problem of this nut is, just at present, imperative. So far as we know, all of the European and American varieties are highly subject to this disease, so much so that there is no inducement to plant them, and we are waiting for Dr. Morris and a few other hybridizers to find some hybrids, or straight Japanese varieties, that are of sufficient merit, and of sufficient degree of resistance to this disease, for us to have a basis for building up the future industry. On the tables there are quite a number of exhibits from Mr. Riehl and Mr. Endicott of Illinois. Most of them are hybrids between the American and the Japanese species, but, so far as we know, they have not been tried in communities where the disease prevails. We don't know whether they are resistant or not, as they are being grown in a section entirely outside of the area where the blight exists. I think I am right in that, am I not, Mr. Pierce? Is there any chestnut blight in southern Illinois? Mr. Pierce: There has been none reported. Mr. Reed: I think that the varieties that these men in Indiana have originated are the most promising we know of. I think that in examining these specimens you will agree that they are of fairly high quality and good size, and if they prove to be resistant to the disease much may be expected from them. Mr. Hutt: I have not seen the chestnut blight at all. I hope that it isn't in our section. I have heard it was brought in from some point but I do not know whether it was identified exactly as the chestnut blight. Mr. Pierce: I saw a specimen sent from North Carolina and it proved to be the Collinsville fungus. Mr. Corsan: If you remember reading Fuller's book on nuts, he reported that the chestnut blight extended through the Carolinas but said that chestnuts were still coming from that direction in great abundance. Up in Canada we haven't the chestnut blight. The chestnut tree runs from the Ohio River to the Niagara River but it doesn't cross into Michigan, except along the Michigan Southern and Lake Shore Railroad where some enterprising gentlemen have planted the chestnut with the tamarack alternately all the way from Cleveland to Chicago. I examined the state of Indiana across and from top to bottom several times in the summer and I never saw any chestnuts there, but I have seen some newly planted places in Michigan; near Battle Creek I saw a farm of about fifty acres. We are having up in Ontario, beyond Toronto, a blight that has attacked the Lombardy poplar and that looks similar to the chestnut blight. I have been watching it for the last ten years and the tree seems to have at last outlived it. It dies down and then a little sprout comes out from the carcass. The Chairman: Isn't that the poplar tree borer that always attacks the Lombardy? Mr. Corsan: Oh no, it's very similar to the chestnut tree blight. We can grow chestnut trees all we like but no one has brains enough to grow them. The farmers grow pigs and things but don't bother with chestnut trees; consequently the chestnut blight does not exist there. Mr. Pierce: I didn't answer a portion of Mr. Littlepage's question. Mr. Littlepage asked whether or not the blight might be expected in the Middle West. That depends, more or less, upon the results of the work Pennsylvania is now carrying on. If we can keep the disease from extending through the territory in which we are working, there is a very good chance to keep it out of the West. If we are not successful, it may be expected to develop, in time, over the whole chestnut range. There seems to be a very good opportunity for growing the chestnut commercially beyond its present range; that is, where it is so infrequent as not to be in danger from infected growths nearby. In the eastern part of the state different people have reported that the blight seemed to them to be dying out and, a number of these reports coming from a certain locality, the Commission decided to investigate one which seemed to be better reported than the others. It was found, after a very extensive investigation, that this dying out was true only in the sense that it was not spreading, perhaps, as fast as it had been spreading before. The mycelium and the spores were healthy and were affecting the new trees in quite the same manner as the year before and as in other parts of the state. The Chairman: The question of controlling blight after it has appeared is of very great consequence. Concerning any commercial proposition with chestnuts the people are wide awake to the seriousness of the blight. They are afraid to go into growing chestnut orchards; they have had so many fake propositions in the past in pecan promotions that they are afraid of chestnuts and everything else. Any proposition for bringing forward chestnuts commercially must be a plain, simple, straightforward statement of the truth, the whole truth and nothing but the truth. We are ready, all through the North and East, to raise hundreds of acres of chestnuts, such as Mr. Reed has spoken about, ones which resist the blight, or ones which resist the blight comparatively well. Let us consider comparative immunity for a moment. We know how expensive it is to manage an apple orchard, and yet, with the present high prices, the profits on apple orchards, well managed, are great. May we not have chestnut orchards managed with the same degree of relative expense and the same degree of relative profit? I would like very much to hear from some of the men who have actually raised chestnuts in orchards concerning the relative care of the chestnut compared with the apple, and the relative profit. I see Col. Sober here; can't you tell us about your experience in managing the blight? Can it be managed successfully in proportion as apple tree parasites are managed? Col. Sober: My experience has been this; I have four hundred acres of chestnuts in bearing. They range from five years to fifteen years old. I find that I can control the blight easier than I can control the scale on apple trees. If anyone doesn't believe this I invite him and all to come to my place and see for themselves. I think I have nearly one million seedling and grafted paragon trees. I don't think you will find fifty affected trees on the whole place today. I have men going in every grove at the present time who have inspected thousands of trees and found seven that had blight on the limbs, so I know what I am speaking about. The Chairman: What is your method? Col. Sober: Cutting out, cutting off anything I see; if it is really necessary, cut the tree down; but we don't often find that necessary because just as quick as we see any affected, or any limb dying or dead, we cut it off. I had my groves laid out in sections of a hundred feet wide and numbered; and I had charts made so that they can be inspected section by section. In that manner, every tree is inspected. One individual will inspect the trunk and another one the top. In each section I can show you as far as we have gone. I can show you how many trees are in each section and how many affected trees there are in that section, or whether there are any or not. I say I can control it easier than I can control scale and with less expense and I want that to go on record. There is no question about it. It can be seen at my place. I go over my groves about four times a year and have been doing it all the time, and I don't doubt but that I discovered this disease the first of anybody in the state, perhaps, in 1902. I was looking around to cut scions and I saw one tree whose center was dead and around it were the finest shoots almost that I had ever seen for grafting purposes. I went to it and saw the center was dead. I cut some scions and today that is one of the finest trees I've got on my place. From what I know now that was a blighted tree. A member: Did you paint over the scars? Col. Sober: No sir, but we are doing it now, using white lead. A member: How much blight is there around you? Col. Sober: I am surrounded with it on all sides. Right up against my groves about 17 per cent of the trees are affected. That is the report coming from the parties inspecting now for the Blight Commission. I shipped Mr. Mayo about four or five thousand trees this fall. I don't suppose there were a dozen that were thrown out, thinking they were blighted or diseased. We have records of all that up at my place. There are some trees right here now that came from my nursery. I wish you gentlemen could just see for yourselves; come out and see. The Chairman: In advancing this chestnut on a commercial basis it had better be stated that it does not blight as badly as the American chestnut and that when blighted it can be cared for with less cost than the apple tree. I would suggest that some such notice be sent out with commercial stock. That would put it on the right basis so that the chestnut would find its position, which it is not finding now because the people are full of the blight; and if a frank, full statement of this sort were made I believe it would be extremely important. Mr. Rockey: I went through practically the whole extent of Mr. Sober's orchard recently and found one infected tree. I can vouch for the statement that he has made that he is almost surrounded by blight. The Chairman: I have given attention to only a few of my own trees that were blighted because I have too much else to do and too large a place, a couple of hundred acres engaged in a small and large way,--a variety of ways--with nut trees; and the few I have cared to save after blight has begun I have saved by cutting it out very thoroughly and using either white paint or grafting wax. I used also pine tar and some gas tar. I killed some good trees that I wanted particularly to save by putting on gas tar. The matter of compelling the removal of infected trees is a very important one, but it must rest with the authorities. In the vicinity of New York we have so much hard wood that you cannot sell it unless you are in some sort of a trade combination. Fine oak, fine hickory, fine chestnut, you can't dispose of in New York City, because we have such a lot of it. We have wild deer within fifteen miles of New York City on three sides of us on account of the forests. You have got to find some special way for disposing of this blighted chestnut timber. Telephone and telegraph poles and ties all go for nothing, unless you happen to be so situated that you can manage the matter commercially, and a way should be found by the state so that people can dispose of their blighted timber, which is just as good as any other. It is very important to note that the boy scouts are interested, and we ought to encourage their interest. It is a splendid thing, getting the interest of boys engaged. You know how active a boy is in getting a snake from under a rock and he will do the same thing with the chestnut blight. It is his natural tendency to hustle when he gets after anything. This chestnut blight belongs to the microbe group and the microbe is the great enemy of mankind. In wars the microbe kills about eight men for every one killed by missiles. If we can encourage the interest of boy scouts in fighting the greatest of all human enemies, the microbe, including this little fungus, we shall have a splendid working force. In regard to the injection of poisons and medicines into trees, it seems to me that a very firm stand ought to be taken by all responsible men who know anything about plant pathology. We know that a poison injected into a tree must either act injuriously right there upon the cells of the tree, or else must undergo metabolic changes. A tree cannot use anything that is thrown into it, poison or food or anything else, until it has undergone a metabolic change; you must have a distinct, definite chemical process taking place and we ought to state that most of the substances which are alleged to be of value, when injected into a tree, are either absolutely worthless or injurious. One man tried to persuade me that his medication if applied to the cambium layer would be absorbed, and said that if I would only use it on a few of my trees I could see for myself. He said it would drive off even the aphides. I tried it on four trees affected with aphides and found that he told me the truth. It drove them off, because the trees died and the aphides left. One tree lived a year before being killed; it was a most insidious sort of death, but the aphides left that tree. (Laughter.) Some of the Asiatic chestnuts resist the blight very well. Curiously enough when grafted upon some of the American chestnuts they then become vulnerable. Two years ago, from a lot of about one thousand Corean chestnuts in which there had been up to that time no blight, I grafted scions on American stump sprouts and about 50 per cent of those grafts blighted in the next year, showing that the American chestnut sap offers a pabulum attractive to the Diaporthe, and that is a fact of collateral value in getting our negative testimony upon the point. Concerning the question of carrying blight fifty miles, there's no telling how far birds will fly carrying the spores of Diaporthe upon their feet. The spores are viscid and adhere to the feet of beetles, or migratory birds which sometimes make long lateral flights following food, rather than direct flights north and south. It is quite easy to imagine birds carrying this Diaporthe over an interval of possibly fifty miles, making that distance in one night perhaps. Someone may have carried chestnuts in his pocket to give to his granddaughter fifty miles away, and in that way carried the blight. If any grafted trees have been carried fifty miles, or any railroad ties, with a little bark on, carried fifty miles and then thrown off, it might blight the chestnuts in that vicinity. One can have as much range of imagination as he pleases as Longfellow says, There is no limit to the imagination in connection with questions of spreading the blight of Diaporthe. Some of the Japanese and Corean chestnuts and some of the Chinese chestnuts resist blight fairly well. Among my chinkapins, I have the common _pumila_ and the Missouri variety of _pumila_, which grows in tree form forty or fifty feet high. I have the alder-leaf chestnut, which keeps green leaves till Christmas, sometimes till March when the snow buries them, and those comparatively young trees have shown no blight; but one hybrid, between the chinkapin and the American chestnut, about twelve years of age, has blighted several times. I have cut off the branches and kept it going, but this year I shall cut it down. It will start at the root and sprout up again. I thought I'd give up that hybrid, but having heard Col. Sober's report I will begin at the root and look after some of the sprouts. That hybrid is the only one of my chinkapin group that has blighted at all. In regard to the use of bichloride of mercury or formaldehyde, it seems to me that formaldehyde will be a better germicide than bichloride of mercury, because bichloride of mercury coagulates the albuminous part of the plasm and may destroy the cell structure, whereas the formaldehyde will be more penetrating and less injurious. One would need to know how strong a formaldehyde solution can be used safely. I presume the most vulnerable part of the tree would be at the bud axils. Spraying must require considerable experience at the present time and is of doubtful efficiency for timber chestnuts I am sure. We would like very much to hear any further comment upon this subject. Prof. Smith: Mr. Sober's orchard is so unusually large that evidently it does not apply to average cases. The average man is buying chestnut trees for the garden or yard or lane. Prof. Collins has an acre on the top of a hill at Atlantic Forge and there he has fought diligently with the skill of a highly trained man, and the blight is gradually driving him back. I think that in a short time the trees on Prof. Collins' acre will be gone. I believe we need much more information before we can offer any hope that chestnut trees from a nursery will be safe against blight. I should like to ask the Blight Commission if they are at the present time planning to breed immune strains of chestnuts, and if not, I wish to suggest that it is a piece of work well worthy of their consideration. They might try grafting on American stocks, or on their own seedlings, some of the Korean chestnuts, on any variety that promises resistance, and also hybridizing, with the hope of getting a good nut that will resist the blight. The Chairman: That is a very important matter, no doubt. In regard to the few chestnuts bought for lanes and gardens, I know a good many men who have bought a few grafted chestnuts with the idea of setting out a number of acres if those few did well, being men of a conservative sort. Men of that sort are the ones we want to have in our Association. We want to have men who will buy four trees, and if they do well, set out four hundred acres. That is what a great many men have had in mind in buying two, four or six trees of any one kind; they want to try them out. That is the wise way, the conservative way, the truly progressive way. If we are going to have very large numbers of any one kind of chestnut set out, we must make a statement of the dangers, so that men may be forewarned. If they set them out without warning and are disappointed, they drop the entire subject and go to raising corn and hogs; and then, to save trouble, turn these hogs into the corn and get to doing things in the easiest way, rather than carry on the complicated methods of agriculture that belong to the spirit of the present time. I would like to know if many efforts are being made toward breeding immune kinds. I am at work on that myself. Mr. Pierce: Our Commission has recently gotten, I think, about fifty pounds of Chinese chestnuts of several kinds, which they expect to plant for experiment. Besides that they have made some other arrangements of which I know very little. This investigation will take years. The Commission has been compelled to devote itself to so many lines of work that I am afraid this question has not been given the attention it might have had. I think in the future there will be a good deal done along that line. Two of us have been given the title of tree surgeons, and we work, or make arrangements to have someone else work, sometimes the scout, in the orchards throughout the state. I have a list of two hundred owners of cultivated chestnut trees that I got in the last month from various sources. Anyone in Pennsylvania who has a cultivated chestnut tree, can send a postal card, get one of us out to examine the tree and see whether it is blighted, and we will demonstrate what can be done in the way of treating it. I have done that right along in the last two months. If it is only a single tree I cut out all I can myself. The Chairman: There are two distinct questions; first, the chestnut as a food tree, and second, as a timber tree. Your work has been chiefly with the chestnut as a timber tree? Mr. Pierce: No, mine has been mostly on the lawn, so that it is for nuts. Experiments made on one or two species of Japanese chestnuts show about 9 per cent of tannin; the tannin in the American chestnut runs only 6 per cent and in the small American, runs less. We know that the Japanese is somewhat more immune than the American. We have already found that it has 50 per cent more tannin. I believe one of us wrote you about experiments to find out the percentage of tannin in Corean, North Japanese, South Japanese and Chinese chestnuts. The investigation will be carried on for the next two or three months. Mr. Corsan: May I ask if there is any soil food that would increase the amount of tannin? Trees protect themselves. We have watched the black walnut and seen him fight all sorts of enemies. The tree has poisons everywhere and the nut a thick shell to boot and doesn't coax enemies to get at him or to eat him until he is ripe. A Member: Have you found that fertilizing a tree increased the percentage of tannin? Mr. Rockey: That hasn't been determined yet but it will be studied. The Chairman: It is a question if the tendency would not be for tannin to go over to sugar and cellulose under cultivation. I don't remember the chemistry on that. Aren't there any expert chemists here who can tell us? The natural tendency of the tree under high cultivation would be to change tannin over into sugar and starch. Mr. Corsan: This talk of the chestnut blight reminds me of a remark made by a gentleman at a peach growing convention. He said the best thing that ever happened to this country was to get that San Jose scale because it stopped lazy men from growing peaches. He said, "I don't mind it a bit and can make more money than when peaches were nothing a basket." Probably nature will help us some way. The Chairman: We have to consider what nature wants to do. Mr. Mayo: If I am in order, I would like to know whether this fungus trouble is likely in the future to attack or has at any time attacked, the apple, pear or quince? The Chairman: I think it has been pretty well decided that they are not in danger. I will, however, ask Mr. Rockey and Mr. Pierce to answer that question. Mr. Rockey: Up to the present time there has been no indication that the blight will get into them. This might be a good occasion for me to mention the Connellsville fungus again. It was found on some of the oaks and other trees in this section of the country, and for a time it looked as though the blight was getting into other species, but since that fungus has been identified there has been no indication that the blight will extend beyond the chestnut group as a parasite, although you can inoculate oaks and other trees with the fungus and it will live in them, but only on the dead portion of the tree and not as the parasite lives on the chestnut. Prof. Smith: I should like to ask Mr. Sober if he has found any evidence that the paragon chestnut differs from the native chestnut in resistance to the blight, and if his paragons are different from other paragons? Col. Sober: I cannot say whether my chestnuts are different from the other paragon chestnuts or not, or whether they are as resistant to the blight. I know it is a very sweet chestnut. In regard to keeping my groves clean--from 1901 to 1910, we had three broods of locusts and two hailstorms that opened the bark in almost every tree and branch. The limbs were stung by the locusts thousands of times, so that I didn't have a crop of chestnuts. Professor Davis was cutting off limbs for a couple of months so you see my trees were open, if any ever were, to receive the blight. The hailstorms destroyed the leaves and I didn't have any chestnuts that year in one part of my grove and with all that--you people come and see how clean it is, that's all there is to it. I know what I've done and what I can do. The Chairman: The next paper in order is that of Professor Smith. NUT GROWING AND TREE BREEDING AND THEIR RELATION TO CONSERVATION PROFESSOR J. RUSSELL SMITH, PENNSYLVANIA Prof. Smith: Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen; I am going to ask your indulgence for including in my subject a matter that perhaps goes a little beyond the scope of this organization, for I wish to speak of fruit as well as nut-bearing trees. Conservation, whose object is the preservation of our resources for future generations, as well as for ourselves, finds its greatest problem in the preservation of the soil. The forests can come again if the soil be left. It is probable that we can find substitutes for coal, and for nearly everything else, but once the soil is gone, all is gone; and the greatest danger to the soil is not robbery by ill cropping, because no matter how man may abuse the soil, scientific agriculture can bring it back with astonishing speed. But the greatest enemy of conservation is erosion, the best checks for erosion are roots. Thus far, the only man who has been telling us anything about planting roots upon the hillsides is the forester. But he usually sets nothing but wood trees, which at the end of fifty or a hundred or a hundred and fifty years, we can cut down, and which, during the intervening time, have done nothing but cast shade, drop leaves and retain the soil. My doctrine is that the potentially greatest crop-producing plants are not those on which we now depend for our food, but are the trees,; that the greatest engines for production are not the grasses, but the trees. Our agriculture is an inheritance from the savage, and the savage found that he could do better with annual grains than he could with nut trees, because he didn't know how to improve the nut crop by selection of the trees, while there came involuntarily an improvement in the other crops. No man today knows the parentage of some of the cultivated plants and grains on which we now depend. Thus we came down to the present day of science, with the purely chance discoveries of savages as the main dependence of mankind for the basis of agriculture. We have within a decade discovered the laws of plant breeding. We know a good deal more about it now than ever before and are in a position to start about it very deliberately and with a reasonable certainty that we are going to get certain combinations of qualities if we keep at it long enough. Thus the hickory and walnut offer perfect marvels of possibilities. Look around on these tables and see the size of some of these things. There are hickory nuts 1-1/4 inch long and there are shagbarks as full of meat as pecans and probably quite as good. There are in Kentucky, I am told, hickory nuts that you can take in your fingers and crush. Here we have the pecan, this great big shellbark from Indiana, the shagbark from the North, and the thin shell nuts from Kentucky. Now hybridize these and I think, if you work at it long enough, you will get a tree that will have all those good qualities. The wonderful black walnut is a tree of hardiness, and the delicious Persian or English walnut is a nut of acceptable form. The pair offers splendid possibilities in their hybrid progeny. We have fruits thus far recognized as of little value which offer great possibilities as forage producers. The mulberry bears from June to September and the persimmon from September till March and the pig harvests them himself. We have the possibility of a brand-new agriculture, depending not upon grains, but upon tree crops, provided someone will breed the crop-yielding trees which we can use. This will permit us to use entirely different kinds of land from that now considered best for agriculture. The natural necessities for plant growth, I believe, are heat, moisture, sunlight and fertility. Now they are not all the limiting factors with man, because man adds the fifth, the arbitrary fact of arability, and that right away bars out about half of the fertile earth, because when we insist on heat, light, moisture, fertility _and arability_, we leave out that rough half of the earth equally fertile, idle, subject only to the work of the forester, who will give us a forest about 1999. It might just as well be planted with a host of crop-yielding trees, the walnuts, hickory nuts, pecans, persimmons, mulberries--and the list is very long. There are at the present time in use in Mediterranean countries twenty-five crop-yielding trees other than the ordinary orchard fruits. I am told that they have oak trees there which yield an acorn that is better than the chestnut. A pig will fill himself with acorns on the one hillside and with figs on the next hillside and then lie down and get fat. We are too industrious, we wait on the pig; I want the pig to wait on himself. But who is going to breed these things? These crop yielding trees? A gentleman told us this morning that he was not nervous, that he could watch a hickory tree grow, and stated that he had forty acres of land and was breeding trees for fun. Here is Dr. Morris, who is having a delicious time doing the same thing. We should not have to depend on enthusiasts who are working for fun; we must not depend on such sources for the greatest gifts in the line of food production that man can imagine. This work should be done by every state in the Union. I believe that it is capable of proof that we can get just as much yield from a hillside in untilled fruit and nut-yielding trees, as we can from putting that same hillside under the plough and getting wheat, corn, barley, rye and oats and a little grass once in a while. It will make just as much pig or just as many calories of man food from the tree crops as it will make under the plough. And under the plough that hillside is going down the stream to choke it and reduce the hillside to nothing. We have three classes of land. The first class is the level land, which belongs to the plough now and for all time. The third class, which is the unploughable steep mountain and hill land, is probably as great in area as the level land, and between the two is the hilly land that we are now cultivating to its great detriment, visibly reducing the earth's resources by bringing about rapidly that condition which has led to the saying in the Old World: "After man, the desert." The Roman Empire, where men have had possession for two thousand years, proves, "After man, the desert." It is equally proven in much of China, but it can be prevented if these hill lands are put to trees. But we cannot afford to put those lands into trees unless the trees yield. I move that this Association memorialize those persons who are in position to promote the breeding of fruit and nut-yielding trees, that we may bring nearer the day of tree-crop agriculture. I want a letter to go from this Association with the authority of the Association and its sanction, to the Secretary of Agriculture at Washington and to all the men in authority in the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington, to the Presidents of the State Agricultural Colleges, the Directors of Experiment Stations and professors who are interested in plant breeding. That will make a list of three or four hundred persons and involve an expenditure of a few dollars but I believe it will be productive of good. I hope that the Association will see fit to lend its name and a little cash to that proposition, because if we can get the authority of the state and the money of the state, the results will come much more rapidly than if there are just a few of us doing it independently. (Applause.) * * * * * The Chairman: Will someone put Prof. Smith's suggestion in the form of a motion? A Member: I move that it be referred to the Committee on Resolutions. (Motion carried.) Mr. Corsan: Undoubtedly we all agree with Prof. Smith. He spoke of the persimmon. When I speak of the persimmon in my country nobody knows what I am talking about. I found two trees in Battle Creek, Michigan, in a front yard. The person who owned them was an old lady. I said, "Will you give me these persimmons?" She said, "Yes, take them all; the neighbors come here and while they are getting the persimmons they bother me a lot. Everybody seems to like them." They were delicious persimmons that were quite edible before frost, they are probably the two furthest north persimmon trees in the world. I went a little way around Devil Lake, and found pawpaws. They are a very good fruit when cultivated. The idea of preserving the soil and not sending it all into the Lakes and down into the Gulf of Mexico--that is a good idea of Prof. Smith's. Mr. Gardner: I submit that that Battle Creek woman should start a new breakfast food. (Laughter.) Mr. Corsan: Every second year there is an immense crop on one of the persimmon trees; they are a male and female, I think. You can't see the branches for the fruit, and the thermometer there falls to 22 degrees below zero. The Chairman: You can graft the male trees with pistillate grafts if you want to, or you can transfer grafts both ways. The persimmon and pawpaw will undoubtedly both grow at Toronto. They are not indigenous there because of natural checks to development in their sprouting stage, but if you buy Indiana stock for Toronto, such transplanted trees will both grow there, I am sure. This is not quite relevant to Prof. Smith's paper. It seems to me that Prof. Smith gave us a very comprehensive resumé of facts bearing upon the situation, perhaps not particularly calling for discussion. We are very glad to have his arraignment of facts. The next paper on the program will be that of Dr. Deming. While Dr. Deming is getting ready, I would like to have the trees shown. Mr. Jones will speak about his pecans, these specimens of young trees here. Mr. Jones: These are pecans that Mr. Roper brought up from the Arrowfield Nurseries. (Here Mr. Jones described the trees.) The Chairman: Would those trees grow after they have been dried as much as that? Mr. Jones: I don't think so; pecans don't stand much drying. The Chairman: No, unless you cut off all the roots. Prof. Smith: If we should dig up a tree like this and cut it off a foot and a half down, would it be all right to transplant it? Mr. Jones: Yes, if your season should not be too dry. The Chairman: What has been your experience with the Stringfellow method of cutting off every single root? Mr. Jones: We cut the tap-roots off, but leave an inch of the lateral roots. The Chairman: I think you can do better by following the Stringfellow method and cutting off all the laterals. Prof. Smith: If you were going to transplant those for your own use where would you cut them off? Mr. Jones: About here, a foot and a half down. The Secretary: And the top? Mr. Jones: Yes, sir, I'd reduce the top about that much; I think we will have to work for a better root for the North. BEGINNING WITH NUTS DR. W. C. DEMING, WESTCHESTER, NEW YORK CITY In his official capacity as secretary of the Northern Nut Growers Association the writer is frequently asked, by persons wishing to grow nuts, about climate, soils, varieties and methods. The following observations are intended to apply only to the northeastern United States, the country lying east of the Rockies and north of the range of the southern pecan. They are intended more for the person who already has his land, or is restricted in his range, than for the one who can range wide for larger operations and will study deeper before deciding. It is probable that most nuts will grow wherever the peach will. Outside the peach area there is probably not much use in trying to grow the pecan or Persian walnut. Yet it must always be remembered that nut growing in the North is, at present, almost entirely experimental and that anybody may be able to disprove the authorities. We are all experimenting now. By and by it will be different. In severer climates the chestnut, shagbark, black walnut, butternut, hazel, beech, pine, Japanese cordiformis and hardy Chinese walnuts can be grown or, at least, offer possibilities. In such climates the development of the native nuts by selection and crossing, and the adaptation of alien nuts, deserves, and will repay, experiment. It is to be supposed, as before said, that the hopeful beginner already has his land. Let him choose the best part of it that he can spare. By "best part" is meant the most fertile, not too wet nor too dry nor, if possible, too hilly to cultivate. Hard pan near the surface, and too thick to be easily broken up by dynamite, is not desirable. A nut orchard ought to have much the same preparation as an apple orchard. A practical way would be to plow deeply and harrow well in summer and sow a cover crop like rye and vetch or clover. The more stable manure, or other fertilizer, applied the better. Let the field now be staked off thirty feet apart in squares, or in triangles if preferred. Late in the fall dig the holes and plant nuts, three or four in each hole, two to four inches deep, according to size, and six inches apart. Put a good handful of ground bone in each hill. Unless the soil and subsoil are mellow, so that the long tap roots may penetrate deeply, it would be best to dynamite the holes, using a half pound of 20 per cent or 25 per cent dynamite at a depth of two and a half feet. This is a simple matter and the dynamite companies will furnish materials and instructions. It is also some fun. There is some danger that nuts planted in fall may be destroyed by rodents, that some will "lie over" and not sprout the first year, or that all the nuts in a hill may make inferior plants, so that some authorities advise putting them in a galvanized wire cage, the nuts only half buried, then covered with a few leaves during the winter and otherwise left exposed to the elements. In the spring they must be taken from the cage and planted in the hills before the sprouts are long enough to be easily broken. The different kinds of nuts should be planted in "blocks" rather than mingled, to facilitate handling. These nuts are to furnish trees that are later to be grafted or budded. After they have grown a while the weaker ones are to be removed, as necessary, until only the strongest remains in each hill. When grafted and grown to great size the brave man will thin them out to sixty feet apart. Interplanting with fruits or vegetables may be practised. As to the kinds of nuts to be planted that depends on what you want to grow. If chestnuts it must be remembered that the bark disease is very likely to attack them, in the East at any rate. Experiments with chestnuts outside the range of the blight are very desirable. The American (_Castanea dentata_) and European (_C. sativa_) chestnuts are specially susceptible. The Asiatic chestnuts (_C. Japonica_, etc.) seem to have a partial immunity, especially the Korean, and it is possible that the native chestnut grafted on these may be rendered more or less immune. It is being tried and is an interesting experiment. The Asiatic chestnut trees are dwarfish in habit, come into bearing early, the nuts are generally large and some of them of pretty good quality. They may be planted as fillers between the trees of larger growth. The nuts may be bought of importers. (See circular on "Seedsmen and Nurserymen".) The small Korean chestnut has been especially recommended. If you wish to grow the shagbark hickory (_Hicoria ovata_) plant the best specimens of this nut you can get, or the bitternut (_H. minima_) which is said to be a superior stock for grafting. High hopes are held that that other favorite hickory, the pecan (_H. pecan_) may be grown far outside its native range, and the Indiana pecan is the nut on which these hopes are founded. Seed nuts may be obtained from reliable Indiana dealers, but it is said that some of them are not reliable. The hickories may be budded and grafted on one another so that one kind of stock may serve for both shagbark and pecan. If you want to grow the Persian walnut (_Juglans regia_), often called the "English" walnut, the black walnut (_J. nigra_), seems to afford the most promising stock, though _J. rupestris_, native in Texas and Arizona, has been recommended and _J. cordiformis_, the Japanese heart nut, is also promising. This nut can be recommended for planting for its own sake as the tree is hardy, a rapid grower, comes into bearing early and bears a fairly good nut. There are no grafted trees, however, so the variable seedlings will have to be depended upon. On any of these walnut stocks the black walnut and the butternut (_J. cinerea_) may also be propagated if worthy varieties can be found. There are none now on the market. The nuts mentioned are enough for the beginner and the three stocks, chestnut, hickory and walnut, will give him all he wants to work on and furnish plenty of fascinating occupation. The hazel, the almond and others, though offering possibilities, had better be left to those further advanced in the art of nut growing. Now the nut orchard is started and the owner must push the growth of the trees by the ordinary methods, cultivation, cover crops and fertilizers. See any authority on growing fruit trees. In from two to five years the trees will be ready for budding and grafting, they will have made a good growth above ground, and a bigger one below, they are permanently placed and haven't got to be set back a year or two, or perhaps killed, by transplanting, with loss to the tap roots and laterals. In the writer's opinion that natural tap root of the nut tree growing down, down to water is not to be treated as of no importance. So let your seedlings grow up and down happily while you get ready the stuff with which to build their future character, for seedling trees are very slow in coming into bearing, and uncertain in type and quality of nut. Grafted trees bear early and true to type. Take your choicest bit of ground and put it in the best shape you know how. Then order the finest grafted trees you can find on the market. (See circular on "Seedsmen and Nurserymen".) Your choice will be limited for there are as yet only a few grafted varieties of the Persian walnut and the Indiana pecan, and but one of the shagbark hickory to be had. Of chestnuts there are more and, in the South of course, plenty of pecans. But pecan growing in the South is another story. If you order chestnuts be sure that they do not come from a nursery infected with blight. Get young trees because they are more easily established. Order from two to four of each variety. Fewer than two gives too small an allowance for mortality and more than four, besides the not inconsiderable strain on the pocket, will divide your attention too much; for you have got to give these trees the care of a bottle baby. Set them sixty feet apart if you have the room. If not set them closer. Better closer if that means better care. They may be set in the fall but probably spring is better, as early as you can get them in. Follow the instructions of the nurserymen closely. Digging holes with dynamite is probably good practice. Put some bone meal in the soil around the roots but no strong fertilizer. Some soils need lime. Tamp the soil about the roots with all your might. It cannot be made too firm. Then water them all summer, or until August if they have made a good growth. Give them all they can drink once a week. Sink a large bar about a foot from the tree and pour the water into the hole, as much as the soil will take. Keep up cultivation and a dust mulch or, if you cannot do this, mulch with something else. Mulching doesn't mean a wisp of hay but something thick or impervious. Six inches of strawy manure, grass, vines or weeds; an old carpet, burlap, feed or fertilizer bags or even newspapers, held down with stones or weeds or earth, all make good mulches. These trees ought to grow and, whether you ever succeed in grafting your seedlings or not, you should have at least a small orchard of fine nut trees. The second summer with the trees will be something like the baby's. Worms may bother them. Look out for bud worms and leaf-eating caterpillars. Give them all the water they can drink in the dry dog days. Nurse them, feed them and watch them and they will grow up to bless you. Some of them may bear as early as apple trees. These trees, and such scions as, from time to time, you may obtain elsewhere, are to furnish your propagating material. The plan just described may be modified in various ways, but the general principles are the same. Instead of planting the nuts in their permanent positions they may be put in nursery rows where they may have the advantage of intensive cultivation. The best of the resulting trees may be grafted or budded in the rows, or after they have been transplanted and have become well established. This method is an excellent one and has distinct advantages and many advocates. Yearling seedlings may be bought and set either in permanent positions or in nursery rows. Of course the man who is in a hurry, who can disregard expense and who does not care for the experience and gratification of grafting his own trees, may set his whole plantation with expensive grafted trees and replant where they fail. The technique of budding and grafting you must work out yourself with the help of the instructions obtainable from several authorities, or, by far the surer way, study the art with a master. The essentials are good stocks and good scions, the right moment--and practice. Excellent publications giving instructions in methods of propagation are: "The Persian Walnut Industry in the United States," by E. R. Lake; Bulletin 254, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1913: "The Pecan," by C. A. Reed; Bulletin 251 of the same department, 1912: "Walnut Growing in Oregon," published by the Passenger Department Southern Pacific Company Lines in Oregon, Portland, Oregon, revised edition, 1912; and "Nut Growing in Maryland," by C. P. Close; Bulletin 125 of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment Station, College Park, Maryland. Any of these may be had free on application. The files and current issues of the nut journals are full of information. Join the nut growers associations, subscribe to the nut journals, get all the literature (see Circular No. 3) and you will soon be happily out of the fledgeling stage of nut growing and begin to do as you please. * * * * * The Chairman: Comment upon this paper is now in order. Mr. Lake: You say you are going to issue that? The Secretary: On my own responsibility, but subject to modification. Mr. Lake: If that is going out as a circular of the association, I would like to suggest two slight changes. For instance, you wouldn't expect the ordinary nut tree to begin to bear as early as the ordinary transplanted apple tree. The Chairman: Some would. Mr. Lake: A summer apple would begin to bear much earlier than the ordinary nut tree. The Secretary: Well, chestnuts begin to bear very early after grafting. I refer only to grafted trees here. Mr. Lake: I thought that the paper had to do with trees that were planted as nuts. The Secretary: No, I think I made that perfectly clear. Mr. Lake: What is that new statement about roots, that it is desirable to leave them? The Secretary: That it is better that a tree should go undisturbed than that it should be transplanted. Mr. Lake: Isn't there a question about that? The Secretary: A question would arise in the hands of an expert, perhaps, but I think for an amateur, that a tree growing where the nut was planted is more likely to live and do well than a transplanted tree. Mr. Lake: I am not so certain about that, but what I had in mind was that the planter would get the idea that the tap-root was not to be cut off and that it is very desirable to the tree. The Secretary: That's a good point. The Chairman: About cutting the tap-root I have said yes and no so fast that I don't know which I've said last, and it seems to me that we ought to have discussion on this very point. The Secretary: I have said that in buying these grafted trees you should set them out following the instructions of the nurseryman closely. Mr. Lake: But that statement about the tap-root would lead the average planter to think that it was very desirable to have the tap-root. The Secretary: Has it been settled that it is not desirable? Mr. Lake: Well, I think it has been generally accepted that it is of no special value. The Secretary: That trees will grow as well transplanted as if they have never been transplanted? Mr. Lake: Well, I shouldn't want to put it that way, but this is the point: I would like to have the tree planter understand that a walnut tree doesn't need the tap-root and if he cuts off the tap-root in planting, there is no great loss. I wouldn't want to say that his trees wouldn't begin to bear earlier or bear larger if left in the original place. I prefer to transplant my own tree after it is grown, rather than run the risk of getting scrub trees in the post hole or on the hill. I prefer to select the grafted trees even without the tap-roots, which would be removed in digging, and planting them all uniform, rather than to plant the seeds. Speaking for the amateur, I think the latter is good practice. The point I had in mind was that many people will not take the time to plant nuts but will want to set grafted trees, and the question is, should they have considerable tap-root--the grafted trees? The Secretary: Following my plan, a man would buy a small number of fine trees and set them out at once; that would probably be all he would undertake and all he could probably manage. He would also plant a small number of nuts on which to experiment in propagation. My experience up in Connecticut has been that all my southern transplanted trees, almost without exception, have died. I have planted pecans and Persian walnuts from a number of different nurseries. I have done it personally and done it as carefully as I could, but they have either made a very feeble growth indeed or have all died. On the other hand, the seeds I have planted have grown into very vigorous trees. Mr. Rush: I have had a little experience with the tap-root theory. You can't dig a walnut tree without cutting the tap-root, and that tap-root, I find, is practically of no benefit at all after you have your upper laterals, and an abundance of them; by cutting the tap-root growth is stimulated and a new tap-root is made. It is very largely in the mode of pruning the tap-root. You can readily stimulate the tap-root system. The Chairman: You try to keep an equilibrium by cutting down the top in proportion? Mr. Rush: Yes, sir. Mr. Pomeroy: In examining transplanted trees I found ten times as many roots where the tap-root had been cut; and there were two tap-roots. I like a tree with a good tap-root system and I am positive that if you transplant a tree you get a better root system, get a great many more roots. The Chairman: The tree development, it seems to me, depends not upon the number of roots which are carried with it when it is transplanted, but upon the feeding roots which develop. Now, if we cut back the tap-root, cut back the laterals, cut back the top, we have a tree carrying in its cambium layer, food, just as a turnip or beet would carry it--and I look upon a transplanted tree much as a carrot or beet, with stored food ready to make a new root. Mr. Harris: I planted last fall a year ago a lot of English walnuts. Would the gentleman advise taking those up, cutting the tap-roots and planting them again? Mr. Rush: I don't think that would be advisable. Mr. Harris: They were grown from the nuts sown in a row last fall a year ago and grew very well. Mr. Rush: In propagating the English walnut we have had them do the best by transplanting when the tree is about two years old, but it will more or less disturb the vigor of a tree to transplant it. That is self-evident; it needs some time to heal those wounds that are made both in the root and the branch. Mr. Harris: What time of year do you bud them? Mr. Rush: In August. Mr. Hutt: I notice some trees here that are evidently two-year old pecans that have been cut back, and you notice that in every case several tap-roots have taken the place of the one. Here are some others that have not been cut. These have gone straight down. They are strong roots with few fibers on them. On these other trees that have been cut the formation of tap-roots continues. They will go down till they strike a permanent water-table and then the tap-root will stop. In Hyde County, North Carolina, near the ocean, the water-table is close to the surface and there is a deep black alluvial soil with a great deal of water in it. In order to grow anything there they have to put in ditches to get the water out. The pecan trees growing there have absolutely no tap-roots at all, it rots off as soon as it strikes the permanent water-table; and I think that's the reason they produce such enormous quantities of pecans in that county. In bottomless, sandy land where there is no clay the root keeps on going down till it finds the permanent water-table, even if that is six or eight or ten feet down. These roots, as you see, were going right down to China to look at that king on the other side if they got a chance. It's the same with the long leaf pine. It has a tap-root below ground thicker than the trunk above ground. The reason is that it grows naturally on those bottomless places; the root goes down till it strikes water, then runs off laterally. If you cut the roots they are bound to make new tap-roots. You can see the place where they have been cut and in place of one tap-root you have two, going right down into that sandy soil till they find a water-table. I believe that a nurseryman who will cut off the root of the pecan tree when it is transplanted, will cause it to form more lateral roots and make a better tree. There's a great number of vigorous roots in this tree than in this, and this tree whose root has been cut off will make a tree much easier to transplant and will be a better tree than those with great thick roots without the fibers that have the root hairs upon them. A member: You wouldn't recommend cutting back that tap-root too severely, would you? Mr. Hutt: In planting a tree of this kind, I'd cut off a foot or 18 inches. If you get about 24 inches in a specially good soil, or about 30 inches of root ordinarily that's all you want. A member: I should think that would depend quite a little on the height of the water-table. If you were planting on land where the water-table is low, you would leave more tap-root? Mr. Hutt: Yes. A member: That was the reason I brought up the point, because I think cutting so short would be too severe. Mr. Hutt: The cambium is the only part of the tree that maintains growth. Every wound kills the cambium to a certain extent, so I always cut off roots of any size with sharp shears as smoothly as possible. I cut far enough back to find good, fresh, living tissue. In moist soil that will callous over. In the South the soil is moist and we have growing conditions in the winter time, so it will callous over during the winter. In the North, I understand, you make a practice of planting in the spring, because of the weather conditions. Mr. Harris: In Western Maryland we have in the mountains a deep, sandy soil; there doesn't appear to be any water bottom to it; what would the tap-root do in that case? Mr. Hutt: It will go down until it finds what it wants, finds sufficient moisture. Mr. Harris: Gravelly bottom? Mr. Hutt: If you have ever seen the roots of a long leaf pine, you've seen where the roots go to when they get a chance. Prof. Smith: I should like to ask Dr. Deming if he would give us his experience in propagating the walnut and hickory? Dr. Deming: A very important thing indeed for us nut growers in the North is to learn how to propagate. Dr. Morris has had some success; I haven't had any. I have tried it summer and spring, year after year. I believe there are a few pieces of bark, without buds, still growing. Chestnuts I haven't found very difficult, but with the walnut and hickory I have had no success whatever, although I have practiced the best technique I could master. I think one reason why I have had no success is that I haven't had good material. I have had good stocks, but I haven't had good scions, not the sort of scion that the successful southern nurserymen use. Still, Dr. Morris has had success with the same kind of material that I have failed with. The Chairman: Not very much success. Mr. Lake: Dr. Deming said that the land ought not to be too dry nor too wet. Would you feel like saying that a water-table at 24 inches was neither too low nor too high? Mr. Hutt: It depends a great deal on the nature of the soil, the water-pulling capacity of the soil. Take a soil like that I mentioned, in Hyde County, near the ocean; you can see it quake all around you. Mr. Lake: But would you say that the northern nut grower might safely put his orchard on soil that had a water-table within two or three feet of the surface? Mr. Hutt: I could tell if I saw that soil. If it is craw-fishy, or soil that is ill-drained or won't carry ordinary crops, I'd say keep off of it, but if it will bear ordinary crops it's all right; in some cases where the soil is very rich the plant does not need to go down into that soil anything like the depth it would in a poor soil. The poorer the soil the further the roots have to go to find nourishment. Mr. Lake: I think that is an extremely exceptional case in relation to northern nuts. There is very little such North Carolina land in this section of the country, if I judge right. We don't plant nut-growing orchards up here in peaty soils, so Dr. Deming's recommendation was rather for very good agricultural soil. A water-table here must be eight or ten feet deep; in that event, it would not make any difference whether you left three feet of tap-root or 15 inches. Mr. Hutt: No. The Chairman: In the soils of some parts of New England, a tree would have to have a root three or four hundred feet deep to get to flowing water, but nevertheless trees flourish there. Mr. Lake: But the capillarity of the soil provides water for the tree above the water-table. Mr. Corsan: It all depends on the kind of nut. At St. Geneva I came across a butternut that was growing in a soil that would kill a chestnut very quickly. The soil was very springy and wet and the butternut just loves that soil. I found that while other butternut trees bore nuts in clusters of one to three, this butternut tree was bearing them in clusters of ten and eleven. At Lake George, right in front of the Post-Office, there was one tree twenty-four years old, two feet through, that grew butternuts in clusters of ten and you could get a barrel of nuts from it. It bore again this last summer heavily, not in clusters of ten but in clusters of seven or eight. When we have damp soil we can't grow the chestnut but the hickory nut will grow in a swamp, and so will the butternut. The Chairman: And the beech. Mr. Corsan: The beech wants clay; it won't grow unless there is clay. The Chairman: Our beech will grow where it has to swim. Mr. Reed: Before we get away from this discussion I think that we ought to commend Dr. Deming in the selection of this subject and in the handling of his paper. In my position in the Government, we have a good many inquiries about nut matters, and they are usually from people who want to know how to start. The great call for information at the present time is from the beginners, not from the advanced people, and I am glad that Dr. Deming took that subject and handled it as he did, and I am glad that he proposes to issue it as a circular from this Association. It will be a great relief to others who are called on for information. I should like to have a word, too, about this tap-root question. From what has been said it is pretty clear that there is quite a difference of opinion. We sometimes think we can improve on nature in her ways by harsh methods and, while I know it is customary in the nurseries of the South to cut the tap-roots back pretty severely, I wonder, sometimes, whether that is always the best thing. I haven't had any personal experience, but I have observed quite a good deal, and the tendency, it seems to me, is to try to develop as much as possible the fibrous root. Sometimes that is brought about by cutting the tap-root, or putting a wire mesh below where the seed is planted, so as to form an obstruction to the tap-root, so that it necessarily forms a fibrous root. Where the tap-root is the only root I doubt very much the advisability of cutting back too severely. Col. Van Duzee: I have heard this subject discussed all over this country, in meetings of this kind, and a great deal of energy has been wasted. I do not think any of us know anything about it, but I do wish to say this, that when you come to transplant a tree from the nursery to the orchard, there are things of infinitely more moment than how you shall hold your knife between your fingers when you cut the roots. The exposure of the roots to the air, the depth to which the tree is to be put in the ground, the manner in which it shall be handled--those things are of infinitely more importance, because we know we can transplant trees successfully and get good results when the tap-root has been injured or almost entirely removed. I do not consider that the question of cutting the tap-root is of very serious importance, but I do think we should insert a word of caution as to the exposure of the roots of trees to the atmosphere, and make it just as strong as we are capable of writing it. The Chairman: That is a very interesting point, that we have fixed our eye on the tap-root and talked too much about it. Not long ago one of the agricultural journals decided finally to settle the question about the time for pruning grapes, whether it should be done in the fall, spring, winter or summer, and after summing up all the testimony from enthusiastic advocates for each one of the seasons, the editor decided that the best time is when your knife is sharp; and that is very much the way with the tap-root. Be very particular in getting the root in and caring for it. Mr. Pomeroy: Prof. Close, in a bulletin issued two years ago, spoke as does Col. VanDuzee about protecting the roots of the trees; he said "when the trees are taken from the box that you receive them in, don't expose them to the sun or air, puddle every tree, and plant as soon as possible." I think that is pretty good advice. It doesn't cost any money, and takes very few minutes, to puddle the trees and it saves many of them. The Chairman: I have tried the Stringfellow Method of cutting back top and root until my men asked me if I didn't want to transplant another tree instead, and they have grown just as well as trees on which I took great pains to preserve fine branching roots. The Secretary: The last thing in my thought was to start a discussion of this perennial subject of the tap-root, but I should like criticism of this little circular, no matter how severe, because I am not finally committed to it and want to make it as useful as possible. Prof. Smith: Every man likes to ride his own hobby horse. Would it not be wise to suggest that some of these seedlings be put in odd corners? Certainly the hickory and walnut are adept in making themselves a home in the roughest kind of land. The Secretary: I have tried that, but I don't think, as a rule, the trees do well when stuck around in fence corners and odd places. To be sure the trees I put behind the barn or pig pen have grown beautifully, so that at one time I thought of building barns and pig pens all over the farm to put trees behind, but where they were set in fence corners and out of the way places they have not done very well. I think the experience of others is about to the same effect. Prof. Smith: My experience has been different from yours. I have some chestnut and walnut trees, on an unploughable hillside in the corner of my father's farm in Virginia which I stuck there ten or a dozen years ago and have done very little to them. Of course they are native. They have thriven. Nature does it exactly that way. The Secretary: It seems to me there is no question that they will do better under cultivation. Of course they may do fairly well in odd places if they can dominate the other growth. Prof. Smith: A man could take a pocketful of the various kinds of nuts and go around his fence corners and plant a few. In an hour he can plant fifty, and if he gets one to grow it is good return for that hour's work. The Secretary: I have advised people to take a handful of nuts and a cane when they go out walking and occasionally stick one in. The Chairman: In our locality, people would ask, "Why is that string of squirrels following that man?" Mr. Corsan: I have been planting nuts in that way for years. The Chairman: If a man planted trees which belonged in his neighborhood, nuts that were already in the dominant ruling group, then his chances for success would be very good, but if he introduced in fence corners trees that had to adjust themselves to a new environment, he would find very few growing and the squirrels, other trees and various obstacles to development in the midst of established species, would wipe out most of them. Nevertheless, as it isn't much trouble, I would advise anybody to take a pocketful of hickory nuts out with him when he goes for a walk and plant one every little way. A Member: The idea is good; let us follow it up. Mr. Rush: I don't think it is feasible at all to plant trees around fence corners. The Chairman: In our locality it would not do at all. A Member: It won't do in any locality. The sods and grass around the tree will dwarf it and cause a very slow growth. Our time is valuable and we can't wait on that kind of a tree to bring results. Cultivation is the main need. Sometimes trees will do well where the soil is rich and competition absent. In Burlington, N. J. we found a walnut tree bearing enormous crops in a back yard. I have seen the same thing in this county, and also in Carlisle, and the Nebo tree, famous for its wonderful productiveness, has a similar environment. But it is high cultivation that usually is necessary for the best results in all trees, and walnut trees particularly. The Secretary: Here is a note relating to this subject: "The women of Sapulpa, Okla., who recently organized for city and county improvement and advancement, have determined to plant pecan, walnut and hickory trees on both sides of a road now being constructed through Creek County, basing their action on the theory that two pecan trees placed in the back yard of a homestead will pay the taxes on the property. They believe that when the trees begin to bear they will provide a fund large enough for the maintenance of the road." The Chairman: That's all right if you can look after them. Mr. Littlepage: It is very interesting to listen to these discussions of roadside trees and I have until recently been a strong advocate of them, but I have changed my opinion. I don't think there is anything in the planting of trees in fence corners or along the roadside, for several reasons. The first reason is that nobody knows how long it is going to take that tree to amount to anything. I wouldn't give two cents a piece for trees stuck out where you cannot cultivate them and get to them to fertilize them. Another thing, we are right up against the problem of the insect pests of these trees and who is going to take care of them along the roadside? The insect pests will get on them and come into the fields of the man who is cultivating and raising trees legitimately. Down in southern Indiana, now, we find along the roadside hundreds of walnut trees that are every year eaten up with caterpillars. They love those trees and come over on to my trees. I keep my trees cleaned off pretty well. There's that problem. Up to a short time ago I was an advocate of roadside trees. It would be all right if there was some means of cultivating them. If there is land somewhere that is of no use, so that it doesn't make a bit of difference whether the trees on it have insect pests or not, you can go out there and scatter nuts and let it alone and wait the length of time you've got to wait. I don't think it's of much value, however, even then. I don't think there is a thing in it. I used to pride myself on the fact that I had set out more trees than anybody else in the State of Indiana. I haven't bragged about that for a long time, though I have set out, perhaps, in the last eight or ten years, or had set out under my direction, about 750,000 trees; I am not particularly proud of that any more, but I am proud to meet the fellow who has set out twenty or thirty acres of trees on good land, the best he's got, and cultivated them and kept the insects off of them and burned them up instead of letting them prey on the neighborhood. I think there should be a law passed that these trees along the roadside must be cut down or that somebody will have to take care of them. The Chairman: The original idea of roadside trees was constructive in its nature but failed to include the idea that, with the increase of orchard trees, or trees of any one species, we increase the insect pests because we disturb the balance of nature; and by disturbing the balance of nature we give advantage to insects which then remain on neglected trees to prove a menace to our own orchards. It we have various towns setting out roadside trees and detailing the children to look after them, asking the children to report on them, I believe the thing can be made a success and that the taxes of many a small town can be paid from the nut trees along the roadside, provided you have one boy or one girl for each tree, their services to be given free and the profit from the tree to be given to the town. Mr. Corsan: How about the cattle? Let them keep grazing around? The Chairman: Oh, my, yes. Prof. Smith: I think we sometimes let our feelings make us say things that our brains would scarcely approve. I believe Mr. Littlepage's charge against the tree on the roadside is not necessarily substantiated. I don't know just how he is going to take care of his trees, but if it requires a vehicle carrying spray, I submit that a roadside tree is about as well fixed as one in his field. If it requires a man with a stick or a hoe or a ladder, the tree on the roadside is in about as eligible a location as one in the field. If care implies the idea of turning over the soil, the roadside is handicapped, but nature has got along without having the soil upturned. My point is this; there is on nearly every farm in the East a little patch of land somewhere, a little row between a road and stream where a few trees can grow, and if fertilization is required, a few barrels of manure can go there as well as anywhere else. The fact that a tree is put in a place that is not ploughed doesn't mean that it is beyond all care. My point is that with care we can get trees in fence rows without tillage and that, in addition to Dr. Deming's formal and carefully cultivated plot, there is about every farm a place where a man can stick a few trees and give them such care as can be given without tillage. Mr. Littlepage: I agree heartily with Prof. Smith's theory, but having had some experience, I find those things that he describes are not done; there is just that difference, always, between theory and fact. I read a beautiful book once, written by a woman, entitled, "There is No Death," and I found on inquiry that she had already buried four husbands. (Laughter.) I was much interested in reading, once upon a time, Rousseau's beautiful story of domestic life and I found that while he was writing it, his children were in an orphan asylum. A fellow teaching in the high school in Terre Haute, Indiana, married one of the beautiful attractive young ladies of that town. Shortly after they were married he was busy writing and turned and told her that he didn't love her any more and he wished she'd go home. She was heartbroken and left and it turned out later that he was writing a book on how to get to Heaven. (Laughter.) There's just the difference between theory and fact. This is a beautiful theory. I used to be the strongest advocate of it, but all you've got to do is to go on a farm and try it. The trees won't get big enough to amount to anything in our lifetime, because these things you say you will do to them you don't do; at least, that has been my experience, and I would like to ask anyone to point to any section in the United States today, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific, where this theory is carried out successfully; and yet I know it has been advocated for fifty years. The Chairman: How about school children reporting on trees under their care? Mr. Littlepage: Whenever you give the proper care to them you solve the problem--whenever anyone will convince me that that will be done. There is no reason, of course, why the tree won't grow in these places, but my experience is that they don't thrive. The Chairman: I've put out thousands of them for public-spirited citizens, but it would be difficult to find one of them today. Mr. Rush: In France and in Germany the land is very valuable and they take a great deal of pride in their nut trees. The nuts we have here in the Lancaster market, Persian walnuts, are largely brought from France, Spain, Italy and Germany. The land being so valuable there, they devote much of their waste land to nuts, like Mr. Smith's idea of planting along the wayside, and they plant and cultivate them in their yards and in all corners. They would not, under any consideration, plant a maple tree just for the shade; the tree must serve for both fruit and shade, and those are some of the sources of foreign wealth. Mr. Harris: I don't think the question is so much one of planting in fence corners as that we have a great deal of waste land on which the soil is very well adapted to growing nut trees. I know that sometimes in growing peach trees it is almost impossible to cultivate them. I know places in western Maryland where the rocks are lying so that you can hardly plough, and yet the soil is fertile and particularly adapted in some places for peach trees, and would be for chestnut trees. They have there a system of cultivation much as if you used the plough, and yet they are on steep hillsides. There is no reason, I think, why nut trees shouldn't grow there as well as on the level field where you can cultivate every inch of soil. The Chairman: They are looked after, that's the whole thing. Mr. Gowing: I come from New Hampshire and we have what used to be an old farm, but it is now a pasture and the soil is quite a potash soil, I think, amongst the rocks, and there's some apple trees planted there by the original man that worked this place. It was too rough to plough, but they have borne us as good apples some years as we have had on the place; and on this same piece of twenty acres or so, there's some chestnut trees more than two feet through that were cut off when the land was cleared, and they must have done well, for they grew to be such enormous trees. The Chairman: The trees are planted on this same old stump land? Mr. Gowing: Yes, sir. The Chairman: A great deal of stump land can be planted in this way. Mr. Corsan: That wouldn't be planting them along roadsides and in fence corners. The Chairman: No, they would be looked after; the whole thing is looking after them. A Member: My idea is that there would be very few nut trees planted if every one was to start his own trees. They put off planting the trees even when they can get them at the nurseries, and if they had to start their own nurseries there wouldn't be one planted to where there's 10,000 now; and I think that in the end the nurserymen are going to attend to the planting of trees and the other people are going to attend to growing them. Maybe I'm mistaken but did this Government ever produce any trees? Prof. Smith spoke of appropriating money and letting the Government get us some new variety. Hasn't it always been private individuals who get the new varieties? I have been trying to think of some fruit tree, apple or something, that a state or the Government has propagated. The Chairman: In this country I believe the Government has never done it, but in some parts of Europe, especially Switzerland, the taxes of some towns are paid by the trees along the roadside; but there every man has to report on his own trees and the proceeds go to support the town, and the taxes of certain small towns are actually paid today by roadside trees; but this is in a country where land is valuable, and every tree is under the direct supervision of a citizen who must report on it, and the product of that tree goes to the Government, he giving his labor instead of paying taxes. Prof. Smith: I was merely pleading for the continuation and spread of that work, both geographically and in increasing the varieties of trees. Mr. Lake: I am heartily in favor of that, but I think it ought to be referred to a committee. I want Prof. Smith to write it out in the form of a letter. Prof. Smith: I am glad you called my attention to that. Mr. Lake: The Government and the states are now engaged in such work and this ought to give it impetus. I think that the time and labor of the Nut Growers Association, since its organization, will have been well spent if we succeed in bringing to fructification this one resolution. I want also to suggest that Prof. Smith include among the nuts, the beechnut, because there's more meat in beechnuts for the amount of shell than any other nut we grow. The Chairman: If there is no further discussion, we will have now to spend a short time in Executive Committee work. I think we will ask to have a Nominating Committee appointed first. Mr. Rush, will you kindly read the list of the names of the men you proposed to act as a Nominating Committee? Mr. Rush then moved that the Nominating Committee consist of Messrs. Lake, Hutt, C. A. Reed, Smith and Deming, and the motion was adopted, after which the Nominating Committee reported as follows: For President, Mr. Littlepage; for Vice-President, Mr. C. A. Reed; for Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. Deming. On Executive Committee: Dr. Robert T. Morris, in place of Mr. C. A. Reed. On Hybrids, Prof. J. R. Smith, in place of Mr. Henry Hicks. On Membership Committee, Mr. G. H. Corsan, in place of Prof. E. R. Lake. On Committee on Nomenclature, Dr. W. C. Deming in place of Prof. John Craig; the other committees to stand as heretofore. Mr. Lake: I move that the secretary be instructed to cast the ballot of the association for these nominations. The motion was seconded and adopted and the ballot cast in accordance therewith. The Chairman: Now I will appoint as a Committee on Resolutions relating to Prof. Craig, Dr. Deming and the Chairman; Committee on Exhibits, Col. VanDuzee, Mr. Roper and C. A. Reed, and they will be here this evening to report on exhibits. Committee on Resolutions, Prof. J. Russell Smith and Mr. T. P. Littlepage. There is no Committee on Incorporation. Will someone propose that we have such a committee? The Secretary: Isn't it a desirable thing that the society should be incorporated? It was mentioned to me by a wealthy man that if anyone wished to leave, or give, some money to this association, they would be much more likely to do it if the society were incorporated. The Chairman: I think it would be better for someone to make a motion. Mr. Lake: I move that a Committee on Incorporation be appointed by the chairman; a committee of three. (Motion seconded and adopted.) The Chairman: The Committee on Incorporation will consist of Mr. Littlepage and Prof. Close. This evening we will meet informally here at about eight and tomorrow at ten we have the meeting at the Scenic to hear the papers of Mr. Rush and Prof. Lake and Prof. Reed, and see the lantern slides. We will first meet here at nine o'clock for an executive meeting and to look over the exhibits. The Committees will report at that time. (After discussion, on motion of Prof. Smith, seconded by Mr. Littlepage, the selection of the place of the next meeting was left to the Executive Committee.) The report of the Secretary and Treasurer was then read. (SEE APPENDIX) The Chairman: You have heard the Secretary's report. We had better take up, first, the question of deficit. What are we going to do about the $66.00? What prospects have we for the balancing of that account? The Secretary: That account will be easily balanced, and more than balanced, by the dues coming in and then I will proceed to run up a deficit for next year. The Chairman: You have heard the Secretary's report. If there is no discussion, a motion to adjourn will be in order. (Adjourned till December 19th.) * * * * * The Convention met, pursuant to adjournment, December 19th, 1912, at 9:30 A. M., President Morris in the Chair, and went into Executive Session. It was moved and carried that the President be empowered to appoint a committee to attend the conference at Albany, called for the consideration of the hickory bark borer, by the Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of New York. The question of the publication of reports of the Convention proceedings in the American Fruit and Nut Journal, was next taken up and it was moved by Mr. Lake and carried that the papers and discussions of this Society shall be used for its own publications exclusively, except as the Executive Committee deems it to the best interests of the industry to furnish them for separate publication. The Secretary: On November 8th, I received a letter from Calvin J. Huson, the Commissioner of Agriculture of New York, to this effect. Dear Sir: At the coming land show in New York this department proposes to have, as a part of its exhibit, a collection of native and introduced New York grown nuts. Can you give us the names of growers of the better strains of nuts who might be able to furnish material for such an exhibit. Perhaps your association would be able to assist in the matter. The Department will be able to stand a reasonable expense for cost of nuts, expressage, etc. Perhaps a few seedling trees would add interest.... By the exhibit as a whole we wish to show the variety and quality of nuts that may be grown in this state.... Very truly yours, CALVIN J. HUSON, Commissioner. He wished me to assist in getting up an exhibit, but as he only gave us a week I was unable to do anything. I do not know that there is any action to be taken on that, but I read the letter simply to show that the interest in nut growing is increasing and that this is an opportunity for us to make an exhibit another year. Mr. Lake: Would the secretary take the trouble to make a collection of nuts covering the territory of the association and submit it for exhibit at a meeting of this character, this land show, giving credit to the donors for material, somewhat as Mr. Reed has done in pecans for the National Nut Growers Association? The Secretary: I think I'd have a few minutes to spare to do that. Mr. Lake: I think it would be an admirable thing. The Chairman: Yes, it would advertise the organization extensively and be a constructive step in agriculture. * * * * * Mr. Littlepage, have you any report from the Committee on Incorporation? Mr. Littlepage: That is a matter that will require considerable thought and attention. It will require attention from several standpoints, as for example under what laws we might wish to incorporate, so I think the committee will reserve its report to make to the Executive Committee at some later meeting. The Chairman: We have no other business, I believe, and will now retire to the hall where we will have the lantern slide exhibition. The morning session closes the meeting and we are to meet at two o'clock at the Monument and from there go out to see certain trees in the vicinity. Mr. Rush and Mr. Jones are to show us these and their two nurseries. Mr. Lake: I would like to offer as a resolution, that the secretary be instructed to make arrangements with the publishers of the American Fruit and Nut Journal for the distribution of one copy to each member as a part of his membership fee. The secretary will then be able to reach the members in his published notices without special printers' troubles of his own, and the members will be able to get some live matter right along. The motion was seconded and adopted, after which the executive session closed and the members adjourned in a body to the Scenic Theatre, where the regular program was resumed as follows: The Chairman: We will have Mr. Rush's paper first. THE PERSIAN WALNUT, ITS DISASTER AND LESSONS FOR 1912 J. G. RUSH, PENNSYLVANIA The year just closing has been full of disasters both on land and sea, though I do not wish it to be understood that I am inclined to be a pessimist on account of these occurrences. I wish to speak of a disaster which overtook the walnut industry in the northern states. Early in the year we had an arctic cold wave which put the thermometer from 23 to 33 degrees below zero. This cold wave apparently did no injury to the walnut trees at the time but late in the spring it was discovered that the wood cells were ruptured though the buds and bark were uninjured. In cutting the scions in early April the bark and buds seemed in good condition for grafting; but as the time approached to do the work it was readily seen, by its changed color, that the wood was injured, some scions of course more than others. Those that were only slightly discolored were used in grafting. But as time passed the unhappy result came to light that out of about 2,000 nursery trees grafted only one graft grew. After climbing an 80 foot walnut tree to get our scions, and paying a good price for them besides, this was rather discouraging. This cold wave, which was unprecedented for the time, had wrought other injuries to the nut industry. That was especially to the young trees that were transplanted the fall previous and last spring. The transplanting with a frost injury already was too great a strain on the feeble life of the trees. The consequence was that some of them died outright, and others made only a feeble growth. But where low and severe pruning was practised good results followed and such trees as were established on the original root system escaped the frost injury entirely. The young nursery trees with dormant buds were not affected in the least but made a strong growth of from three to seven feet this last summer. The intense cold wave was such that some old and young seedling Persian walnut trees were killed outright, and not only the Persian walnut but in a few instances the American black was very much injured; likewise the Norway maple, magnolia, California privet and roses. Also the peach both in tree and fruit. Now in conclusion let me say, what is the lesson to be learned? First, as to the propagation of the Persian walnut, great care should be taken that only trees that are hardy should be propagated from, as well as having good bearing qualities with a first class nut. Second, after a freeze such as we had last winter, a special effort should be made to save the newly planted tree by close and severe pruning. As, for example, I had a very fine two year old Hall Persian walnut which was referred to me as dead. I cut the tree off about 4 inches above where it was budded on the black walnut stock. It was not long after that signs of new life appeared and eventually it made a very fine, handsome tree. Nature does indeed some wonderful tricks in this respect by which we can learn valuable lessons; and chief of these is close pruning. Such a cold wave may visit us only once in a lifetime and should not discourage us from carrying nut culture to its highest development. We must not think for a moment that other walnut sections are exempt from similar visitations. They have them in the Pacific Northwest, and in France and Germany. As regards the walnut industry for Lancaster county or Pennsylvania in general, I am safe in saying that a fair percentage of the farmers are taking hold of it. This is because of the fact that the San Jose scale has practically destroyed all the old apple trees around the farm buildings, and, not wishing to have the building denuded of the customary shade and fruit, nut trees are planted instead. This is in reality the practice prevalent in France and Germany where they utilize every foot of ground to profitable account. The life of an apple tree is from fifty to sixty years whereas a walnut tree is just in its prime at that age and destined to live for hundreds of years afterwards. Then again the ravages of the chestnut tree blight are destroying the cultivated paragons just as freely as the chestnuts in the forests, which in a few years will be things of the past, thus giving still more room for walnut and other nut trees. The Northern Nut Growers Association was organized for a grand and noble purpose, that is to stand together shoulder to shoulder to devise ways and means to bring nut culture to a grand and glorious success. * * * * * Mr. Corsan: The temperature Mr. Rush spoke of rather surprises me. Last year at Toronto it did not fall lower than 9 degrees below zero. We had summer almost until New Year's and then a very severe winter until April. I didn't notice any evergreen trees killed, but at Detroit, the Bronx and various other places, I never saw a winter so disastrous for killing evergreens. The Chairman: Not only that but nurserymen all over eastern New England said they suffered greater losses last winter than ever before. Prof. Smith: I would like to ask Mr. Rush if it would be possible to cut scions by December 1st, so as to escape danger from such great freezes. Mr. Rush: I really have little experience in keeping scions. This fall I put some in the moist cold earth in the cellar. I think the experiment will be successful because I have known chestnut scions cut in the fall, to be kept under leaves in the grove till spring. Prof. Smith: I should like to suggest that you try the following experiment; bury them, wrapped up in a gunny-sack or something, entirely underground where they will have absolute moisture and be shut away from the air. I have found that very successful. Mr. Rush: Sometimes the trouble is they get too moist. The Chairman: There is a principle here, and we had better keep down to principles as much as we can. That principle is that if the cells of the scions are distended with water a certain chemical process is going on all the while, because a scion is just as much alive as the red squirrel; it is a living organism. Now then, if the cells are a very little below normal dryness the chemical processes mostly cease, and that is better. We have to use nice judgment in avoiding having a scion so dry that its cells perish or so moist that its cells are undergoing chemical processes too rapidly. Our scions are cut, say, the last of November, then covered with leaves enough to prevent freezing and thawing. That will carry scions pretty well through the winter and perhaps is the best way, but we must never forget that in dealing with scions we are dealing with living red squirrels just as when we are dealing with pollen. A Member: Are the leaves moist or dry? The Chairman: The driest leaves in the woods contain more water than you think they do. They carry enough to maintain the life of the cells, if they are packed pretty firmly about your scions, and at the same time the scions are still allowed to breathe. I keep them above ground. I put a layer of shingles on the cellar floor, if I've got a bare ground cellar floor, and then a layer of very fine leaves like locust leaves, then a single layer of scions and then a good big heap of leaves over those, packed tight, a good big heap of apple leaves or anything you have at hand. Try it on the basis of principles. It is a complex question. You can't settle any of these questions off-hand. Every man who has had much experience has learned that he needs a whole lot more. Prof. Smith: Have you had any experience in fixing up a bed of scions like that and putting it in cold storage? The Chairman: Yes, but you must tell the cold storage people not to let them get too dry. Tell them you want them in moist cold storage, and to keep the temperature about 40. A Member: We have found with walnuts that if you have the scions too damp they won't keep very long. If you have them just moist enough to hold them you can keep them all winter, maybe indefinitely. The Chairman: If your cell is full of water the scion will work as hard as an Irishman. A Member: I find that we have to graft them above ground, in the North, and if they are too moist when grafted they will dry up, but if kept dry they will grow, because they will remain in good condition until the sap comes up in the stock. The Chairman: Yes, you must choose a position midway between too dry and too moist. Mr. Littlepage: That is very important; they won't stand dampness. Mr. Pomeroy: Wouldn't it be well to dip the cut end of the walnut scion in wax to hold the sap? The Chairman: I am afraid that would stop its breathing. You are dealing with a red squirrel all the while, remember that. Col. Sober: My method is this: I have a little room about six feet wide with ice packs on both sides and double doors. In that I pack my scions in this way: I take carbide cans made of iron and put damp sawdust, about an inch or so, on the bottom and then I pack my scions in the cans, cut end down, then I put the top on loosely. I have carried them over the second year in that way. The Chairman: But you let them breathe all the while? Col. Sober: Certainly, and they have but very little moisture. They are kept in a temperature of about 40 degrees. Prof. Smith: How often do you wet that sawdust? Col. Sober: Not once. The Chairman: Well, that's in keeping with our theoretical basis. Col. Sober: I cut scions any time between now and March. I don't take them out of storage until we use them. We graft up to the middle of June. The Chairman: I found some hickory scions that had been accidentally overlooked, kept under leaves, and the buds in the cambium were perfectly good after two years. In regard to winter injury--in the vicinity of Stamford, Conn., the nurserymen reported greater losses of all kinds in nursery stock than they had had before in their experience. I noticed that some small branches of the Persian walnuts had been injured, and particularly where grafts had started a little late and had not lignified quite thoroughly I lost whatever grafts had not had time to lignify. Last winter the injuries in our vicinity consisted chiefly of two kinds; occasional killing of the small branches--this does little harm because, where the branch is killed and dies back for a certain distance, we have three or four more branches starting up, so that perhaps it is not sophistical to say that it does the tree good. We get a larger bearing area than if it were not for this occasional freezing of small branches. Another form of injury occurs in the spring. The sap will start to ascend when we have warm days in February and March; then a few cold days come and, if we have absolutely freezing temperature at night, this sap freezes and when it freezes it expands, as water does everywhere, and the result is a bursting of the bark. That is an occasional happening with all trees but particularly with exotics. One kind of winter injury has been overlooked in connection with the walnut. The very last thing which the tree does in the autumn is to complete its buds for female flowers. That is the very last job the tree has on hand and if the tree cannot complete the buds for female flowers perfectly, then a very little wood killing will make that a barren tree, although it appears to be a good strong tree. That covers the kinds of winter injury I have seen in the vicinity of Stamford, Conn. (Here Col. C. K. Sober of Pennsylvania showed lantern slide views of his orchards of paragon chestnuts and his methods.) The Chairman: We will have now Mr. Reed's address with lantern views. A 1912 REVIEW OF THE NUT SITUATION IN THE NORTH C. A. REED, WASHINGTON, D. C. In taking up the question of the present status of the nut industry of the Northern States, we have to do more with what has not been accomplished than with what has been. Very little has been done toward developing the northern chestnut. What has been done has been mostly with the European species and so far that has not been very satisfactory. The European species is quite subject to the blight. The Japanese nut is not ordinarily of a quality equal to that of the American. It is thought, too, that with the Japanese chestnut the chestnut blight has been introduced, which has been so serious to our native species. The walnut has not become well established in the eastern states. So far, most of the European nuts that have been imported have been too tender to adapt themselves to our climatic conditions, and the filbert, when brought from Europe, proves quite subject to a blight that prevails everywhere with our native species, but with them is not so serious. In running over these slides, I will begin first with the chestnut. That is perhaps the best known species in this locality. That shows one of our native chestnut trees as it is familiar to you all in a great part of this territory under discussion, that is, the part of the United States east of the Mississippi River and north of the Potomac. That photograph was taken some time last June or July when the tree was in full bloom. The chestnut is one of the most beautiful of our native nut trees. This tree has the blight in one of the earlier stages and it is shown here merely to call attention to the disease, because no discussion of the chestnut industry at the present time can be complete without at least calling attention to the seriousness of that blight. That tree, perhaps, has not been affected more than two years, possibly one. Is that right, Mr. Pierce? Mr. Pierce: About two. That's an 18 or 20 inch tree, isn't it? Mr. Reed: Yes, sir. Mr. Pierce: It must be an 18 or 20 inch tree to be so badly blighted at the top. Mr. Reed: Two years, but you see it's pretty well gone. We come now to the Paragon, one of the first trees of that variety ever propagated. It was planted where it stands, by the introducer, Mr. Henry M. Engel, at Marietta, where they had quite an orchard at one time, but the blight is so serious that there are only a few specimens of the trees left. That tree is probably in the neighborhood of twenty-five years old. The next slide shows two trees of the same variety that we may possibly see this afternoon. They are on the farm belonging to Mr. Rush and they are about twenty years old. Prof. Smith: What have those trees yielded? Mr. Rush: They yield four, five, six and seven to eight bushels. You can see that they are not far from the barn and the roots run under that barnyard manure pile. Mr. Reed: What would you consider an average crop? Mr. Rush: They grow five or six bushels per tree. Mr. Reed: The greatest attention that has been paid to developing the paragon chestnut in orchard farming has been on the plan Mr. Sober has just shown, by clearing away the mountain side and cutting down everything but the chestnut sprouts. This photograph was taken in a thicket where the underbrush had not been cleared away. Those are a good age now or perhaps a little bit older than we usually graft, aren't they, Mr. Sober? Mr. Sober: Yes, sir; one or two years old. When they get to be three years old they are past grafting, according to my method. Mr. Reed: This photograph was taken at Mr. Sober's a little over a year ago, taken in the rain and is not very clear, but it shows the distance between the trees at the time when these trees were four or five years old--is that right? Mr. Sober: They are eleven year old trees. Mr. Reed: Do you thin them out after they get that size? Mr. Sober: Yes, sir, they should be thinned out more, but I hesitated on account of the blight; I have thousands that I could spare, but for fear the blight will take them out. A Member: Do you cultivate the ground? Mr. Sober: I don't cultivate it, I just pasture it. The land is fertilized, but not cultivated. Mr. Reed: That is a photograph of a large chestnut orchard in this county. It is not many miles from here. I understand that owing to the blight and to the weevil, that orchard has not been satisfactory, and I was told two or three days ago that it was being cleared away. The Chairman: What varieties? Mr. Reed: Paragon and native stock. A Member: Was that the old Furness Grove? Mr. Reed: Yes, sir. That slide shows the congeniality, ordinarily, between the stock of the native chestnut and the paragon. The next slide shows a typical instance of malformation between the Japanese and native chestnut. I understand that this is not unusual at all. The Japanese, ordinarily, does not make a good union with the American sweet chestnut. That slide was taken in Indiana. It is a twenty-five acre paragon orchard owned by Mr. Littlepage and Senator Bourne of Oregon, planted in the spring of 1910. The next slide shows one of the trees in the orchard during its first season. Mr. Littlepage had to have them all gone over and the burs removed. They were so inclined to fruit during the first season that they would have exhausted themselves if the burs had not been removed. They made a very promising start, but I understand from Mr. Littlepage that a number of the trees have since died. Is there anything you'd like to add to that, Mr. Littlepage? Mr. Littlepage: I haven't yet quite determined the cause of the trouble. Last winter I lost perhaps one-third of the trees with a peculiar condition. The wood under the bark was darkened. I sent some of them to Washington the year before to see if there was any blight or fungus and they reported there was none on any of the trees, but this winter perhaps one-third of the trees died down to the graft. A few, however, would sprout from the scion, giving me, of course, the grafted top again. It seemed to indicate, perhaps, a winter killing and yet I would not undertake to assert that that was the cause, but it was very serious. Prof. Smith: Was the land low or high? Mr. Littlepage: High land along a hillside, very excellent land for chestnuts. Mr. Reed: Sandy loam? Mr. Littlepage: No, it's a hilly clay with a considerable humus and set in clover. The Chairman: Which way does it face? Mr. Littlepage: South. The Chairman: That is rather bad. Mr. Littlepage: I don't know. I have some over on the other side of the hill and I don't know whether the killing was greater on the other side or not. Mr. Reed: We have before us a view of the original Rochester and its originator, Mr. E. A. Reihl, of Alton, Ill. Over in the Court House we have on exhibition nuts of that variety which most of you have seen. You are aware, probably, that it is a native chestnut. It is one of the largest and best of the native chestnuts and originated in southern Illinois, where so far the blight has not spread. It gives considerable promise for the future. We come back now to Lancaster county to a chinkapin tree, a hybrid chinkapin. The original tree stands in a forest in this county, and as you notice there, it is a very good sized tree. You might think from the looks of the photograph that that is a chestnut, but the nuts are small and borne in racemes, so they are typical chinkapins. Mr. Lake: One parent was a chestnut? Mr. Rush: We don't know; it's a native tree; it's a hybrid. Mr. Lake: It's a supposed hybrid. Mr. Reed: Yes, the chestnut and chinkapin grow close together. The Chairman: What is the form of the nuts? Mr. Rush: Round like a chinkapin. I think it was a chestnut on a chinkapin. Mr. Lake: If it is a chinkapin, what is there to indicate that there is any chestnut blood in it? Mr. Rush: The size of the tree and the fact that the nut matures with the chestnut. The chinkapin is about three weeks earlier than this variety of chinkapin. Mr. Reed: That photograph is typical of the Rush hybrid chinkapin. We take up the butternut now. So far as we know, there are no named varieties of the butternut; there cannot be until some good individual tree is found which is of sufficient merit to entitle it to propagation by budding and grafting. It is one of the best known nuts in our field, especially in New England; it is more common there than it is further south. This slide shows the native butternut in the forests of southern Indiana near the Ohio River. Of course, those trees in forests like that don't mature many nuts. It is not in the forests, ordinarily, that you will find individual trees of sufficient merit to entitle them to propagation. It is the tree in the open that has had greater opportunities than are afforded in the forest. Mr. Lake: Are there any coniferous trees in that forest? Mr. Littlepage: No, that's an alluvial bottom, Mr. Lake. There is quite a long bottom by the creek where the butternut grows profusely. We have the same tree on the farm that Senator Bourne and I own. Hundreds of those trees grow in the woods there. It's rich alluvial soil. Mr. Lake: The fact that it is rich alluvial soil does not usually bar coniferous trees; it may in your section. Mr. Littlepage: There are none there. Mr. Reed: The slide before us shows typical black walnuts that are almost as common, perhaps more so, in many parts of the area under discussion, than the butternut. This photograph was taken in Michigan where the trees are growing along fence rows without cultivation or special attention. No one knows whether the nuts of those trees are of special value or not. It merely shows the starting point for improvement in the walnut. We come now to the Persian walnut, which Mr. Lake will discuss more fully in a few minutes. This is one of the trees we will probably have an opportunity to see this afternoon. It is between Mr. Rush's nursery and the station, on the right hand side as you are going out. Just above the top of the fence you will notice a dark line which indicates the point of union. The Persian walnut was grafted on the black stock. The Persian is of slightly greater diameter. Now we have Mr. Rush in his walnut nursery. These are seedling walnuts in their third year. Mr. Rush: Second year. Mr. Reed: Second year from the time of planting. You will notice the luxuriant growth. The next slide shows the methods of propagation. This is the first step in the operation. The knife is similar to those on the tables in the Court House. The next slide shows the second stage in the operation where the bark has been lifted and Mr. Rush holds the bud of the Persian walnut in the fingers of his left hand, and the next slide shows the bud in position and being held firmly by a finger of the left hand. As soon as it is in position like that, Mr. Rush lifts the pencil--the instrument that he holds in the right hand and folds the bark back over the new bud and then cuts it on the outside, so that he makes a perfect fit. If anything, the bark of the black walnut overlaps slightly the bark of the bud, and the third step in the operation is the wrapping. Below, right at this point, is a completed operation. That was done in August, using buds of the present season's growth, and in about how many days is it that you take off the wrapping? Mr. Rush: About two weeks. Mr. Reed: In about two weeks take off the wrapping; and about how much longer is it before you get a growth like that? Mr. Rush: About two weeks more, three weeks more. Mr. Reed: In about four or five weeks from the time of the operation a growth like that is not uncommon. Prof. Smith: When is the top cut off? Mr. Rush: When I see that growth is taking place I cut the top off in order to encourage the growth to get strong enough for the winter. Of course our object is to keep the bud dormant until the following season, perfectly dormant, but sometimes they do make a growth and, if they do, cut them off at the top and force them. You will not get that bud to grow next summer, but another bud starts out below that branch and gives you your tree. Mr. Reed: That one dies then? Mr. Rush: Yes, sir, invariably dies. Mr. Reed: There is one of Mr. Rush's own growing of the Rush walnut, a little tree which, in its second season, matured two nuts. That photograph was taken just about the time the nuts were ready to be gathered. Mr. Corsan: I noticed in the nurseries at the Michigan Agricultural College, a lot of black walnuts that were sun-scalded. They were too far apart. Can anyone tell us anything about this danger of sun-scald to the trunk? Mr. Reed: Well, in this particular instance, the tree stands right next to a fence, so it is protected from the hot sun during a large part of the season. Perhaps Mr. Rush could tell us whether he has had any trouble with sun-scald. Mr. Rush: Not at all, none whatever, never. The Chairman: There is, in some localities, a great deal of danger from sun-scald. In the vicinity of Stamford, Conn., most of the English walnuts will sun-scald more or less unless we look out for that and give them shade; mostly in the trunk below the branches. Mr. Lake: How about the nuts? The Chairman: I haven't seen any scalding there. Mr. Reed: These are all interesting points and I am glad to have them thrown in. Mr. Rush can tell us about this slide. It is one of the cut-leafed varieties of walnut from California that he is propagating. It is more of an ornament than it is a commercial nut, isn't it? Mr. Rush: It is both combined. It is very productive and very hardy. The nut is not quite as large as the Nebo. It is the cut-leafed weeping walnut. The first tree that came from California cost twenty dollars. It is very ornamental. Mr. Reed: This is a view of a seedling Persian walnut orchard in Bucks county, this state, some twenty or thirty miles north of Philadelphia. It is now about ten years of age and is owned by Mrs. J. L. Lovett, of Emilie. Some of the nuts of this orchard are on exhibition over in the Court House. The orchard was not given any special cultivation at the time this photograph was taken. The nuts from the trees, of course, are very ununiform, being seedlings, and the bearing of the trees is not especially large, but the apparent thrift and vigor of these trees gives a good deal of ground for looking forward to a walnut industry in the eastern states. Prof. Smith: Do you know the origin of the seed? Mr. Reed: No, sir, we do not. The nuts from which those trees were planted were obtained and planted by Mr. Lovett who is now deceased. The Chairman: One of the most important features, it seems to me, of grafting, is the idea that we can graft from prolific trees. The majority of trees, of walnuts, hickories, anything you please, are not remarkably prolific, but in grafting you select a tree that is prolific as one of the most desirable of its qualities. A Member: You say that this grove was given no particular cultivation; are they careful to allow all the foliage to remain on the ground where it drops? Mr. Reed: I couldn't answer as to that. A Member: Mr. Sober, do you do that? Col. Sober: Yes, sir. A Member: The point I wanted to make is that that is probably very much better than any cultivation that could be given. The Chairman: The matter of cultivation is one we have got to settle in this country. I have been over the walnut orchards on the Pacific coast, in the East and in Europe, and I find three entirely separate and distinct methods of treatment. On the Pacific coast, the rule is to cultivate every year and irrigate where they can, but to cultivate, at any rate, whether they irrigate or not. In the East, where people are supposed to be very industrious, we have adopted the lazier way of letting the trees grow in sod; but that is not so bad if we follow the principle brought forward by Stringfellow of letting the leaves all decompose, and adding more fertilizer and more leaves and taking away nothing. In France and Germany and England, where the trees are cultivated, particularly in France, where they are best cultivated, we find two methods; first, keeping up clean cultivation and adding a little lime every year and, second, add lime without the cultivation. One great feature of the treatment of the tree in France, where the best walnuts come from, is the addition of a little lime every year, even if it's a limestone ground, and that may possibly account for the delicate character of the French walnuts and the reason why they have the first call in the market. I don't know that that is true, but it seems to me, at least, a collateral fact, and collateral facts often mean something. Mr. Pomeroy: Judging from my own experience I think that that orchard would be producing now two or two and a half bushels per tree each year if put under cultivation and given the care of an ordinary peach orchard. Mr. Reed: These are seedling trees, you understand, in that orchard we showed. This is a Persian walnut tree in Mr. Rush's front yard. I've forgotten the variety. Mr. Rush: That is the Kaghazi. Mr. Reed: Now we come to the original hickories. This is one of the earliest hickory nuts propagated, in fact, it's about the only one so far. That tree is owned by Mr. Henry Hales of Ridgewood, N. J. Prof. Smith: Have they fertilized it? Mr. Reed: No, not especially. It stands on good, fertile soil but I think no attention has ever been paid to it in the way of cultivation. Prof. Smith: Have you its yielding record? Mr. Reed: It never made large records; as I recall it now, it has never borne more than a few bushels at any one time, perhaps two bushels. The Chairman: One reason is because it has been cut back regularly every year for scions? Mr. Reed: Yes, that's true. Prof. Smith: Over two hundred years old, then? The Chairman: I doubt if that tree is over fifty or sixty. Mr. Reed: That's what I should say,--somewhere in the neighborhood of fifty or sixty years old. Mr. Reed: That slide shows a typical grafted tree in Mr. Hales' garden. It's a nice shapely, thrifty tree about seven years old and only recently came into bearing to any extent. The nurserymen have had great difficulty in propagating it until recently. Now that Mr. Jones has come up from the South and he and Mr. Rush are getting down together earnestly in the propagation of these northern trees, we will probably have more of them, but in all the years that Mr. Hales has been working with that particular variety, he has never been able to get more than a few trees grown in the nursery, so it is not disseminated to any extent. The Chairman: Do you think that this will be like the pecan and hickory, that some varieties will bear fifteen years after grafting and other varieties two years after grafting, for instance, as extremes? Mr. Reed: Probably so, the same as it is with other fruits. The Chairman: It seems to me that that is what we may fairly anticipate. Mr. Corsan: Like Northern Spy apples and other apples. Mr. Reed: This slide is a little bit out of order. It's a native Persian walnut tree that stands in this county. It is owned by Mr. Harness. Mr. Rush has propagated it under the name of Geit. That photograph was taken in the fall of 1911. Last year it suffered greatly during the extreme weather, but it came out again and made a very good growth. This is the original Rush tree that we may be able to see this afternoon. And this is the original Nebo that we had hoped to be able to see but will probably not succeed. It is some seven or eight miles from Mr. Rush's home and we will hardly be able to make it this afternoon. The slide before us shows some European filberts that were planted by Mr. Hales and up to the present time they are doing nicely although they have never fruited especially heavily; but there is no blight. The Chairman: How many years? Mr. Reed: I think those are ten to twelve years old. Perhaps you have seen them. The Chairman: Yes. There are two features connected with the filbert that we ought to discuss right here. One is the tendency to its being destroyed by the blight of our American hazel, which extends to Indiana, and another is the fact that it blossoms so early that the female flowers or the male flowers are both apt to be killed by the frost. All the members of this Association ought to get to work to bring out a variety which will have the blight-resisting features and the later blooming of the American hazel. Mr. Reed: This slide shows a filbert we will probably be able to see this afternoon. It is in Mr. Rush's door yard and is still pretty young. I believe it has not borne of any account. Mr. Rush: It has borne a little. The Chairman: How old is it? Mr. Rush: I think it's about five years old. It is a Barcelona. Mr. Reed: The next slide is taken in the orchard of Mr. Kerr at Denton, Md. At one time he had a very nice orchard of these filberts, but the blight has gotten in and has about wiped out everything. In a letter from him this fall he said he had very few nuts of any variety, although he did have a few. A letter that came this week from J. W. Killen, of Felton, Md., said he had found filberts to be about as unprofitable a nut, as any he could have grown. We will spend a few minutes now running over the pecan situation. We can hardly omit it altogether because there are so many people in the northern states who are interested in the pecan in a financial way. The chart before us shows first the native area. This part here is the portion of the United States in which the pecan is a native. You notice how far upward it extends, almost to Terre Haute, Indiana, and across southern Indiana along the Ohio River, and it is right in here, about where the pencil indicates that some of our best northern varieties have originated. Mr. Littlepage and W. C. Reed and others have shown us nuts over in the Court House that originated there. The Busseron and the Indiana are the two most northern. They are a little way north of Vincennes. No varieties so far of any merit have originated in Illinois. While we have the map of Illinois before us, I would like to point out the place where Mr. Riehl originated the variety of chestnut we referred to some time ago. Down in more southern Illinois is where we find Mr. Endicott. This darkened area along the southeastern part of the United States, and extending away up into Virginia, shows the area to which the pecan has been planted with more or less success. This area extending down over the Piedmont and up into Virginia and West Virginia, is the mountain area to which the pecan is not adapted. You never find pecans on the uplands. This thick, heavy area shows the territory within which the pecan has been most extensively planted. It is not common down in southern Florida. You notice, too, that over here in Texas there have been very few orchards planted to pecans. North of these shaded areas, anywhere up in Ohio or Pennsylvania or New York, the pecan has not shown any adaptability or has not shown sufficient adaptability to justify commercial planting. Whatever planting of pecans is done in the area north of the shaded portions there must be considered as experimental. The Chairman: The southern part of Texas is actually in the tropical zone. It would be interesting to know if we have the pecan actually growing in the tropics. Mr. Reed: We have more or less vague reports that it is growing down near Brownsville. I think Mr. Littlepage told us the other day of a friend of his who is planting pecans. The Chairman: Brownsville is very close to the tropics. Mr. Littlepage: Mr. Yoacum told me he had a grove down there that had not been a success so far. I know that quite a number of people have discussed the question of planting pecans in that section. Mr. Reed: This is one of the largest of pecan trees; it is the largest that it has ever been my personal privilege to see. It has a circumference of between 18 and 19 feet and a spread of about 125 feet. We estimated that it was about the same height. It stands on the west side of the Mississippi River, some distance south of Baton Rouge. Mr. Littlepage: What is the approximate water level below the ground? Mr. Reed: It is quite near the surface. Mr. Littlepage: I thought so. There are conditions you will observe that are unusual. In lands where the water level is near the surface, there is a tendency in the tree to shove out a lot of surface roots. You can travel all over the pecan belt of Indiana and will never see a pecan tree that does not look as if it had been driven in the ground with a pile-driver, but I have noticed that you find those spreading roots where the water level is near the surface of the ground. Mr. Reed: It is interesting to know that right near this tree were other large trees, nearly as large, that were blown over, and they showed no tap-roots, but merely the surface roots, This slide shows a pecan bloom. The pistillate bloom is clear up on the terminate growth; the staminate, like other nut trees, is on the growth of last season and comes out somewhat in advance of the pistillate, necessarily. We come now to the wild pecans of Texas. The recent census figures show that fully three-fifths of all the pecans produced in the United States come from Texas. This photograph shows the native wild pecans along the Colorado River. Here is the pecan as a park tree. This picture was taken in Llana Park, New Braunfels, in west Texas. One of the nuisances in pecan trees is illustrated in the upper part of this photograph; you will notice the Spanish moss that grows so densely on the pecan trees if neglected. Unless the moss is kept out it gets so dense that it smothers the fruiting and leafing surface, so trees that are densely covered with that are able to make leaves only on the terminals. You notice in the rear the leaves of bananas that grow there throughout the entire year. The Chairman: I have noticed that the mistletoe was a bad parasite on the pecans in some regions. Have you found that? Mr. Reed: Yes, that is true; that is one of the pests of the pecan. This slide shows a typical Texas scene. The wild pecans have been gathered and are brought into town and are waiting the buyers. You will notice right here is a bag that has been stood up and opened, waiting for a buyer, the same as we see grain in the streets of northern towns, and here are pecans on their way from the warehouse to the car. The next slide shows another step; they are on their way now from Texas to the crackery or the wholesalers. The crop of pecans in Texas alone usually runs from 200 cars to 600 or 700 cars. This year the crop is small and probably not over 200 cars, so the prices are going up. This is the pecan crackery in San Antonio, having a capacity of 20,000 pounds a day. The pecans are cracked by machinery and the kernels are picked out by hand. This slide shows a native pecan tree. The one in the foreground was from across the river near Vincennes. It is one of the first northern varieties that was introduced, but it is now superseded. The next is the original tree of the Busseron. The nuts from that tree are on exhibition over at the Court House brought here by Mr. Reed. The tree was cut back quite severely several years ago to get budwood and has not made sufficient top yet to bear normal crops again. This is the original tree of Indiana. Beside the tree is the introducer, Mr. Mason J. Niblack, the gentleman with his hand by the tree. Now we come to the original Green River, one of the northern Kentucky pecans. It is in a forest more than twelve miles from Evansville across the Ohio River in Kentucky. The trunk of that tree is typical of others in the forest. There is a pecan forest of perhaps 200 acres, from which everything but pecan timber was removed several years ago. The slide before us shows the trunk of a supposed chance hybrid between hickory and pecan. The next slide shows a grafted tree of that variety. It is interesting to note the vigor of this hybrid. It is quite the usual thing to get added vigor with hybrids. This is one of the most beautiful, dense, dark green trees that I have ever seen in the hickory family. This tree is in northern Georgia, but it is not so prolific as the parent tree. The Chairman: Does the shell fill down there? Mr. Reed: No, it does not. The Chairman: It grows very vigorously in Connecticut. It is a perfectly hardy hybrid, but I am afraid I shall only be able to use the crop for spectacle cases. Mr. Reed: This shows one of the most common methods of propagating the pecan, the annular system. It is a slight modification of the system Mr. Rush applies to the propagation of the walnut. This shows one of the tools designed especially for annular budding, the Galbraith knife. The rest of the operation you already understand. It is merely placing the bud in position and wrapping the same as Mr. Rush does. The Chairman: I would like to ask, does it make a great deal of difference whether the bud ring is half an inch long or an inch and a quarter long? Mr. Rush: It does not make any difference. The union takes place on the cambium layer. It is not made on the cut. The Chairman: Then the length of the bud is not of great importance? Mr. Rush: No, it is of no importance at all. Mr. Reed: This slide may be a little bit misleading. Two nuts matured in the nursery on a scion that was inserted in February. The scion was taken from a mature tree and the fruit buds had already set and had enough nourishment to carry them through the season so that they matured. That is no indication of what may be expected in the way of bearing. It is one of the freaks. This is merely a view of a fourteen-year old pecan orchard in south-western Georgia, a 700-acre orchard owned largely by one person. That is the orchard belonging to Mr. G. M. Bacon, a name probably familiar to some of you. Those trees are set 46 feet, 8 inches apart, each way. There are twenty trees to the acre, just beginning to bear now. That photograph was taken some two years ago showing the first step in topworking. The top has been removed, as you notice, and the next slide shows the subsequent water-sprouts which are later budded. The lower branches were left in the first place to take up the sap while the new head was in formation. They have now been removed. Our next point might be brought out in connection with this slide. One of the typical, sub-tropical storms, not unusual in the Gulf States, swept over this area in September, just as the nuts were beginning to mature and defoliated the trees and whipped off the nuts. The sap was still in circulation, and the varieties that respond most readily to warm weather, that start earliest in the spring, sent out new leaves, so that foliage was foliage that ought to have come on the next year, that is, it was exhausting next year's buds. The same year the tree sent out its blossom buds, so it had no fruit the following season. This slide shows one of the pests in the pecan orchard, the twig girdler, at work. The insect deposits its egg under the bark up at about that point, then goes down below girdles the twig, and it breaks off, goes to the ground, and the insect comes out, goes into the ground and comes out the next season. There are a good many drawbacks that are occurring and more are to be expected the same as with other fruit. There are probably no more setbacks to pecan growing than there are to the growing of other fruit, but this is one of the things. This orchard was set in land bordering the Flint River and at the time this picture was taken the water stood at the depth of three feet. It probably did no harm, because it didn't stay more than a week or ten days. Sometimes it stays longer and in such cases it is a serious matter. In Texas, floods come up like that into the branches of the trees, so high in some seasons after the nuts are formed, that the nuts deteriorate and fall to the ground. In such cases it is a pretty serious thing. (Applause.) The time for which the "scenic" was engaged having expired, the delegates returned to the Court House and the regular program was resumed. The Chairman: We will next hear from Mr. Lake. Mr. Lake: My topic, aside from the slides, was concerning the result of the work at Arlington this year. It is all written out but I don't propose to read the paper at this stage. I have not been a teacher and lecturer for 25 years for nothing, and I don't propose to kill the few friends I have among nut growers by talking them to death when they are hungry and want to see something interesting. I will send this paper in due time to the secretary, and give way now to Mr. Jones. I did want to show you on the slides a few illustrations of cross fertilization between the Japanese and the American walnut, but we will put those in engravings and put them in the Northern Nut Growers' Journal, so that you will see them there with better satisfaction. Now one or two words about these Persian walnuts. These are eastern grown seedlings, the best that I have been able to pick out. Here is an Oregon grown nut. That is the ideal type for dessert walnuts. This is the Meylan. There is only one better, and that is the real Mayette, of which we grow very few in the United States, but we are growing considerable of the Meylan. Whether we can grow this successfully here or not, I am not certain, but it is well worth trying. The better type of our nut seedlings in the east are from the Parisienne. We must get a nut something like this that you can crack between your fingers, not one that is sealed so hard that it requires a hammer, and must get one with a very good quality of meat. One great advantage to the walnut grower in the East will be that he can get his crop on to the Thanksgiving market, which is the cream of the market--something the Western or European nut grower cannot do. So if we can grow a nut reasonably fair in quality we can expect excellent results. The Chairman: Mr. Jones, will you give us your points now? Mr. Jones: Dr. Deming yesterday asked me to give a little demonstration of grafting and I have brought along a sort of transplanted nursery on a board, so that I might do so. (Here Mr. Jones demonstrated methods of grafting the pecan.) The Chairman: Tell us about the wax cloth, Mr. Jones. Mr. Jones: We use that over the cut. The Chairman: How do you make your wax cloth? Mr. Jones: We take a roll of this, possibly three or four yards long, very thin muslin, roll it up and drop it in the melted wax. The Chairman: How do you make that wax? Mr. Jones: We don't measure the ingredients, but I think it varies from four to six pound of rosin, to one pound of beeswax and a tea cup full of boiled linseed oil and about a tablespoon of lamp black. Prof. Smith: What do you use the lamp black for, Mr. Jones? Mr. Jones: To toughen the wax so that it will not crack and so that it will adhere better. A Member: How do you get your excess of wax off the cloth? Mr. Jones: We just throw the rolls on a board and press them. Mr. Reed: I believe you would find it easier to tear it up into strips than to put it in rolls. We have been using that method. We ran short of cloth and I went to town and got some and tore off a piece about 8 or 9 yards long and folded it up into strips that wide and dipped it in the pure beeswax and pressed it on a board and it was ready for work. Col. Sober: I take just a common corn cob and wind it on as you would on a spool, then, while the wax is warm, I dip it in; you can have the cloth half an inch wide or an inch wide just as you please. My way of making wax is, I take two pounds of rosin, one pound of beeswax and half a pound of tallow. I find that stands all kinds of weather. Mr. Jones: You prefer the tallow? Col. Sober: Yes sir, I do. The Chairman: Beef tallow or mutton tallow? Col. Sober: I prefer mutton tallow; two pounds of rosin, one of beeswax and half a pound of tallow. Then you want to boil it very slowly and thoroughly, and pour it in cold water. A Member: Do you unroll this roll of cloth? Col. Sober: I have a machine to turn it on just the same as you would on a spool. Mr. Jones: The strip goes through the wax? Col. Sober: No, you wind that, then when your wax is warm, you drop this in but secure the ends, then take it out and lay it by till it's all saturated; then I tear it off as I use it. I find that is the most convenient thing, and I generally get calico, that is pretty closely woven, but is rotten so that it tears easily. Mr. Jones: Did you ever use raffia for tying your grafts? Col. Sober: No sir, I have not. Mr. Jones: We have used it on pecans and walnuts for the reason that it doesn't have to be untied as it bursts off with the growth of the tree. Col. Sober: This wax I have tried on thousands and thousands of grafts and it stands all kinds of weather. You can get wax that's been there 8 or 10 years and you can take it off now and use it. Mr. Jones: That is one advantage of using the tallow; linseed oil will dry out. Col. Sober: Tallow is the best; that's been my experience. A Member: If linseed oil is not used immediately or very soon, it gets hard. Mr. Jones: It's all right in wax and all right in cloth, too, if you keep it in a damp place till ready to use. Mr. Hutt: Can you use parafine in place of beeswax? The Chairman: Have you tried this method on the other hickories besides the pecans? Mr. Jones: Yes sir. The Chairman: You've got shagbark to catch fairly well, have you by this method? Mr. Jones: Yes sir. The Secretary: How did your pecans and hickories do last summer? Mr. Jones: I've forgotten the exact percentage that grew. Some died after they had made a growth of several inches. I think I left too many limbs growing on the hickories. Some of them made quite good growth. A Member: When is this kind of grafting done? Mr. Jones: We wait until the sap is up. The Chairman: What do you cover the top with? Mr. Jones: With wax. We leave this open at the bottom, for the reason that the sap can get out and not ferment. If it holds the sap, it will sour you know. The Chairman: How far down does your wax go, Mr. Jones? Mr. Jones: Far enough to cover up the wrapping. A Member: Does that work on pecans as well as hickories? Mr. Jones: Yes sir. To show the value of this patch, we have grafted rows side by side and got 80 per cent where we used this patch and 34 per cent where we waxed it over solid and left no ventilation or exit for the sap. A Member: Isn't that to keep the wax out of the cambium layer? Mr. Jones: Yes sir, it does that too. Prof. Smith: Are there any fine points about this trimming, other than mere wedge? Mr. Jones: No sir, only it's thick on one side, as you will see so that it wedges tightly. A Member: Isn't it a fact that you can use three and four year pecan wood just as well? Mr. Jones: Yes sir, two year wood or three will give you better results than one year. Col. Sober: What time in the season do you graft? Mr. Jones: The 20th of April to the 20th of May here. Prof. Smith: What stage of stock do you prefer? Mr. Jones: Well it doesn't matter, you can graft these after they have made a foot of new growth, if you've got a good dormant scion; you could put in a graft any time in the summer, perhaps. A Member: How long do you leave on the paper bags? Mr. Jones: Until the scion begins to grow. Sometimes I have made a mistake and left them on until they grew up and curled down. Prof. Smith: What is the superiority of that over plain cleft grafting? Mr. Jones: You can do better work and do it quicker. I have put in 1200 grafts in a day. The Chairman: You don't mind this arch being left up? Mr. Jones: That ought to go a little deeper, maybe, but it don't make much difference, so long as it is well waxed. Prof. Smith: The paper bag protects the scion? Mr Jones: Yes sir. The object is not to protect the scion so much as to keep it dry. You want to keep the scion dry until it gets sap from the stock to start it into growth. Prof. Smith: Is it necessary that this should be waxed cloth? Mr. Jones: No sir, we use paper ordinarily, of course we run wax over the paper in waxing the scion and then the paper is as good as cloth. Col. Sober: Do you find it apt to curl up in windy days--the paper? I tried that and had all kinds of trouble until I got on to the tape. Mr. Jones: We don't try to tie with the paper; the paper is only to let the surplus moisture or sap out. A Member: Does this tend to hold that in or is it all held in by the patch there? Mr. Jones: This doesn't really need any tying, as it is large. The Chairman: Would you carry the patch around to the other side? Mr. Jones: No sir, just fill it up with wax. The Chairman: And the juice runs out of there and will escape anyway. Mr. Jones: Yes sir. A Member: Do you wax in addition to the paper you put on? Mr. Jones: We don't wax the scion all over. We used to take hot wax and run a thin layer over the whole scion, but we quit that and used the bag, because if you wax over a scion tight and it happens to have sufficient moisture, it will start growth with that moisture before it makes the union. Prof. Smith: Do you wax the tip end? Mr. Jones: Yes sir. Prof. Smith: Do you wax this in here? Mr. Jones: Yes sir; we fill that over with liquid wax. It is possible to have your wax too hot, and burn the scion. Prof. Smith: Have you found that all the species of hickory take grafts with equal ease? Mr. Jones: We grafted some here last spring that started very nicely and then died. I don't know whether it was in the hickory stock or whether they were robbed by the sprouts; we didn't pull off any sprouts. There's a whole lot of things we don't know about grafting yet, but will know more in time. The Chairman: How about using scion wood more than one year old? Mr. Jones: We prefer two or three year old wood for the scion. We have coming now, 3,000 walnut scions from California and they are all to be two and three years old. I have put in rows of 100 with large two year scions and you could count 100 and not find one dead among them and some of the scions were almost as big as my wrist. It's a job to cut them. You see that scion, being large, has enough vitality to hold it until it can make a union. A Member: You want one bud on this? Mr. Jones: We generally have two buds. A Member: Do you use the same method on the Persian walnut? Mr. Jones: Yes sir; we got a little stingy one year and cut these all to one bud and hardly got any out of them. You've got to have wood enough to hold the scions dormant; of course there may be one or more buds on the scion. The Chairman: And got to have food enough in them. Mr. Jones: Yes sir. Col. Sober grafts chestnuts that way, but I have never been able to graft pecans and walnuts with very short scions. The Chairman: I have caught chestnuts with one bud, but most of the nut trees want more food and you've got to have a lot in the scion. Prof. Smith: Have you used that with pecans in the North? Mr. Jones: Yes sir, this will be our method of propagation. After Mr. Jones had given further illustrations of the process of grafting, the convention adjourned. SOME PERSIAN WALNUT OBSERVATIONS, EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS FOR 1912 E. R. LAKE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Arlington work for 1912 in the propagation of the Persian walnut consisted in top-grafting three and four year old nursery stock by several methods, as ordinary cleft, side cleft, bark cleft, prong, whip and modified forms of these. For wrapping we tried bicycle tape, waxed cord and cloth, with wax and plasticine for covering. The work was done during the latter part of April and first part of May. The stocks averaged from 3/4 to 1-1/4 inches diameter, and were cut off from 16 to 30 inches above the surface of the ground. In a few cases bark grafting by modified whip form was performed upon the branches at a height of about 4 feet. Later in the season from June 12th to August 25th buds were placed by varying methods. In the earlier instances the buds were taken from left-over grafting stock. Of the scion wood received last year all the wood from Eastern growers was frost bitten and wholly failed to take with one or two exceptions. The Pacific Coast wood was received in excellent condition and operations with it were gratifying, especially with the ordinary cleft graft, and patch bud. Next year's work in grafting will be confined to the cleft, and the bark-whip processes. This latter is very simple and under careful treatment promises to be a convenient and successful process. In the budding operations we resorted to a number of methods largely for the benefit of the information obtained from the practice, and not so much for the returns in propagated trees. However, for 1913 in the work of propagating for stock results we shall confine our practice to the patch method, though we may find from later tests that the hinge method so favorably looked upon by Oregon is better suited to the work. Various experiments with tying material were tried. Raffia, cotton cord, waxed cloth and bicycle tape were used. The raffia and cord gave best results. A tight tie is needed. June-budding from the left-over graft-wood gave a very low percentage of "takes." Most of the buds appeared to be drowned. Buds from the current year's growth inserted from early to middle of August are at present apparently in good dormant condition. Some July buds from the left-over graft-wood placed in the younger branches of a twelve year old American black took well and made from three to six inches growth. The branches were cut back as soon as the buds appeared to be set, a course that would not be advocated if one were doing the work for re-topping. The young wood from these buds is delicate and soft and in order to insure their living through the winter, so far as our efforts may avail, they have been enclosed in strong paper bags. In our budding and grafting operations we had no success with the Japanese or Chinese stocks. We expect to try them further as their rapid growth makes them much to be desired if a permanent union can be effected. So far as we have been able to learn from the southern propagators who have worked along this line, no difficulty has been encountered in effecting a short-life union,--four to six years on an average, though a few have kept alive for twelve years. The growth of the successful grafts has been very variable. In several instances in which both scions upon a stock grew, the growth was from two to three feet. In other cases the young wood was scarcely a foot long. The fact that the stocks and scion-wood varied widely in size and vigor and the further fact that the scions were from several varieties of western stock are quite sufficient causes for no uniform results in this respect. The wood of all successful grafts appears to be in excellent condition for the winter season and we are looking forward to an interesting further growth of these next year, though the trees have just been transplanted. In order to doubly insure ourselves against loss of the varieties now growing one half, or even more in a few instances, of the young wood has been removed and placed in a cold room so that further grafting or budding of these varieties may be made next year. Nursery trees of the Franquette, Pomeroy, Parisienne and unidentified others, on their own roots are making a pitiable effort at successful growth, while all wood on the black stock is making excellent growth. In one instance the wood of Mayquette a cross between Mayette and Franquette formed two nutlets. Lack of pollen was all that prevented the fruiting of one-year-old grafted trees. A splendid point for the unit orchard booster, but a point of no value to the real walnut grower. CROSS FERTILIZATION Owing to the very vigorous weather of the past winter the catkins on the older Persians at Arlington Farm were killed. In order to study the conduct and product of these trees we sought pollen elsewhere to fertilize their liberal display of pistils. We were successful in obtaining some from the trees of Messrs. Killen and Rosa, and Miss Lea, but though this and some pollen of black, butternut and the Japanese was used no pollenation was successful. In the case of sieboldiana, however, we succeeded in securing what appears to be fruit of certain definite cross-fertilization, as sieboldiana x nigra; sieboldiana x cinerea and possibly sieboldiana x regia. Only in one instance did the nuts appear to have other than the usual characters of sieboldiana. The nuts of the cinerea cross were longer, more tubular and somewhat deeper furrowed and darker. Unfortunately some conflicting results in the fruiting of the sieboldiana places the possible cross-fruits under a cloud. A peculiarity of the blossoming of the sieboldiana at Arlington this year was that the stamens and pistils of an individual tree opened at dates of six to ten days apart, and with the tree used for crossing the catkins were all off before the pistils opened. As no two trees are near together, perhaps two to three hundred feet being the closest, natural cross-pollenating was not expected. However, after the cross-pollenations by hand were made and fruits set, and even matured, it was found that some clusters had from one to three more nuts than were hand treated. Many of the clusters had less nuts than the number of pistils treated, which was to be expected. But how to account for the extra sets is a problem not clear for it is possible that pollenation might have occurred in one of two ways--by stray pollen grains from the hand operations by wind-carried grains from the trees. In any event only the fruiting of the trees from the nuts under consideration will settle it, and as these have been planted we are on the way to the solution. THE INDIANA PECANS R. L. MCCOY, INDIANA The pecan is probably the best nut that grows. It belongs to the hickory family which is indigenous to North America. Since water is its natural distributing agent it is most generally found growing intermixed with the large hickory nut or shagbark in creek and river bottoms. While the hickory is hardy enough to thrive even into the Canadian provinces the pecan is not so hardy and is seldom found in the northern tier of states. It thrives well as far north as the northern boundary of Illinois. The writer has seen a transplanted tree in bearing in Branch County, Michigan, and native trees along the Mississippi River near the mouth of the Wisconsin. The nuts in the extreme northern limit are not much larger than a hazel nut. But the nuts that grow in Indiana and Illinois from the Ohio River on the south to Rock Island on the northwest and Lafayette on the northeast are much larger. Here are found many superior nuts worthy of propagation. In fact, the writer has before him a great many nuts of named and un-named varieties which he and Mr. Littlepage and others have discovered in their search for worthy nuts in the native pecan woods. There are many thousand acres of these groves on the Ohio, Green, Wabash and Illinois rivers where many trees are found which bear nuts as large as some of the varieties which are being propagated in the Gulf Coast country. The nuts of the Evansville group are especially noted for their fine flavor. The people of this section will not eat southern pecans if they can get native nuts. This year several carloads of these native wild nuts will be shipped to the Cleveland, Boston, and New York markets. While the finer nuts seldom get into the markets at all but are bought by wealthy men in the locality where they grow. Many men buy from a special tree year after year--its flavor suiting their taste. The yield from some of these larger trees (and there are many of them four feet in diameter and some as large as nineteen feet four inches in circumference at shoulder height) is very good. The writer has seen a number in the last few days which were estimated to have from four to six hundred pounds, the most of the crop having not yet been gathered. He knows of one tree which bore (17) seventeen bushels and Mr. Louis Huber of Shawneetown gathered 718 pounds from another tree. Two hundred and eighty-five pounds of nuts were gathered and weighted from the Luce tree. These nuts were gathered green for fear of their being stolen and it was estimated that fifteen pounds were left on the tree. Also that the hail storm in early September destroyed fifty (50) pounds more. Hence the Luce bore approximately eight bushels. The Kentucky tree had four and one-half bushels by measurement. The Warrick tree had, the best we can estimate, about 150 pounds. The Grayville, or Posey as Mr. Littlepage wishes to call it, bore at least two hundred pounds by weight. One hundred and sixty pounds were gathered from the Major and two hundred and fifty pounds from the Green River tree. We do not think the Hinton bore to exceed two pounds of nuts. We do not know the amount of nuts gathered from the Indiana and the Busseron trees. The Buttrick tree had some three or four bushels of nuts this year but as a dredge ditch was recently constructed by it, destroying half of its root system, it did not mature its crop. This tree has been in bearing since 1817 and it has not been known to miss a crop previous to this year. In our search for nuts worthy of being propagated we have found several nuts as yet un-named that are in our opinion much superior to any northern nut that has been brought to public notice. But as we know little of their bearing record and do not wish to burden the nurserymen with too many varieties we will keep these trees under observation for a year or two before naming them. We have been trying to propagate some of the best varieties at our nursery for about three years. Our first attempt was root-grafting in which our success varied from 15 per cent to 75 per cent under the best conditions. We found after some experience that it was not difficult to root-graft. But last winter, 1911-12, was the coldest winter for some years, the thermometer registering as low as 20 degrees below. Most of our root-grafts were killed back to the ground but few if any of them were killed outright. When spring came they started new growth and are now about four feet high. The fall of 1911 was very warm and wet and they were in vigorous growth until the first week in November when we had a hard freeze which killed the wheat, causing the worst failure in that crop ever known in this section. The winter then following being very cold we had two conditions against spring root-grafted pecans. But we failed to see any budded ones that were injured. However, we only had pecans budded to hickory which was done by Mr. Paul White in May, 1911 and, so far as we know, this was the first hickory top-worked to pecan in Indiana. However, he now has quite a number top-worked last spring that have made a growth of three or four feet. We also have both budded and root-grafted pecans from last spring and summer so that in the spring we will have a better opportunity to see what effect the winter will have on them. So far as we are able to determine from our observation of a few orchards all pecan trees bought from southern nurserymen and planted in this section have either died out or made very feeble growth. Although some large Texas nuts have been planted here and grown, yet they have either not fruited at all or the nuts have proved no better than our native nuts. The northern pecan timber is not brash like the southern pecan but is very elastic and tough. An axe-handle made from northern pecan sells for ten cents more than one made from hickory and pecan timber is much sought after by axe-handle makers. The people in this section have in the last few years awakened to the fact that their swamps studded with pecan trees are about the most valuable lands they possess and many are the inquiries: "Where can we get good budded or grafted pecans?" The idea of propagating the northern pecan is of very recent origin and while the few attempts at propagation have not as yet met with any very great success, yet we are hoping that the time will be when many acres of our lands shall be set in valuable pecan orchards and our highways lined with long rows of fine pecans, chestnuts, and English walnuts which shall serve the three-fold purpose of beautifying Mother Earth, yielding delicious food, and furnishing a place of rest for the weary traveler. APPENDIX REPORT OF THE SECRETARY AND TREASURER Bal. on hand, date of last report $ 48.73 Annual dues and life membership 178.00 Advertisements in Annual Report 25.00 Sale of report 18.00 Dr. Crocker, paid for list of names 2.00 Prof. Collins, paid for reprints 8.00 ________ Total receipts $279.73 Expenses: Expenses of Prof. Collins $ 20.85 Printing report and reprints 195.16 Other printing 38.00 Postage 35.75 Typewriting 16.24 Stationery 4.50 Miscellaneous 14.30 _______ Total expenses $324.80 Bill receivable 1.00 Bill payable 22.00 _______ _______ $346.80 $280.73 Deficit $66.07 Our first annual report, embodying the transactions at the first and second annual meetings, was issued in May, and copies were sent to all members, to the principal libraries of the country, to officials of the Agricultural Department at Washington, and to some state agricultural officials, to several agricultural and other periodicals for notice and review, and to various persons especially interested. Eighteen copies have been sold. About 1,000 copies of each of the two circulars, "Why Nut Culture is Important" and "The Northern Nut Growers Association and Why You Should Join It", have been sent to members and correspondents, and also revised circulars on the literature of nut growing and on seedsmen and nurserymen. An illustrated article about nut growing and the association appeared in the Literary Digest and many agricultural and other periodicals have had notices of our association and our meeting. * * * * * Besides the regular notices sent to members and papers, different notices and brief statements about nut growing, were sent weekly for five weeks before the meeting to 80 different newspapers published in the country about Lancaster in the hope of getting a good local attendance. The Pennsylvania Chestnut Blight Commission assisted in this publicity campaign by sending postal card notices to about a hundred persons in the eastern part of Pennsylvania who were known to have from a few to thousands of cultivated chestnut trees. The secretary's correspondence has increased so as to become, if it were not for enthusiasm, burdensome. Often several inquiries a day are received and they come from all parts of the United States and Canada. The following figures are brought up to date of going to press. Our membership has nearly doubled since the last report was issued, increasing from 60 to 113. We have lost 1 member by death and 2 by resignation. Our present membership standing at 110. We have members in 27 states, the District of Columbia, Panama, and Canada. New York heads the list with 37 members and Pennsylvania comes next with 12. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON RESOLUTIONS READ BY PROFESSOR SMITH RESOLVED: 1. That we extend our thanks to the Mayor and citizens of Lancaster for the welcome and entertainment they have afforded us while here and for the excellent auditorium they have placed at our disposal. 2. That we extend our thanks to Messrs. Rush and Jones and their entertainment committee. 3. That we extend our thanks to the Pennsylvania Chestnut Tree Blight Commission for the attendance of their representatives. We note with keen interest their expressions of hope for the control of this cyclopean menace. 4. That we express our deep appreciation of the great interest and valuable services of Dr. Morris, the retiring President, and Dr. Deming, the Secretary and Treasurer, two officers to whose untiring efforts this Association is largely due. 5. That we express the thanks of the Association to those members and others who have enriched this meeting by their interesting exhibits. 6. That the following letter be sent from this Association to the,-- Secretary of Agriculture, Persons in authority in the United States Bureau of Plant Industry, The Presidents of Agricultural Colleges, The Directors of Agricultural Experiment Stations, And leading Teachers in Agriculture Colleges. The Northern Nut Growers' Association, by resolution passed at its third annual meeting, held at Lancaster, Pa., in December 1912, calls your attention to the importance of, and need for, the breeding of new types of crop yielding trees. We now have the possibility of a new, but as yet little developed, agriculture which may (A) nearly double our food supply and also (B) serve as the greatest factor in the conservation of our resources. (A) Our agriculture at the present time depends chiefly upon the grains which were improved by selection in pre-historic times, because they were annuals and quick yielders. The heavy yielding plants, the engines of nature, are the trees, which have in most cases remained unimproved and largely unused until the present time because of the slowness of their generations and the absence of knowledge concerning plant breeding. We now know something about plant breeding, and its possibilities as applied to the crop yielding trees seem to be enormous. They certainly warrant immediate and widespread effort at plant breeding. A member of this Association has shown that the chinquapin can be crossed with the oak; that all the walnuts freely hybridize with each other and with the open bud hickories, a class which includes the toothsome and profitable pecan. There is in California a tree which is considered to be a cross between the native walnut and the live oak. The Mendelian Law in connection with past achievements in plant breeding, and the experiments of Loeb in crossing the sea urchin and the star fish are profoundly suggestive. The possibilities of plant breeding as applied to crop yielding trees seem to be enormous. They certainly warrant immediate and widespread effort toward the creation of useful strains which may become the basis of a new agriculture yielding food for both man and the domestic animals. (B) The time for constructive conservation has come. Our most vital resource is the soil. It is possibly the only resource for which there is no substitute. Its destruction is the most irreparable waste. So long as the earth remains in place the burnt forest may return and the exhausted field may be restored by scientific agriculture. But once the gully removes this soil, it is the end so far as our civilization is concerned--forest, field and food are impossible and even water power is greatly impaired. Our present system of agriculture, depending upon the grains, demands the plowing of hillsides and the hillsides wash away. This present dependence upon the plow means that one-third of our soil resources is used only for forest, one-third is being injured by hillside erosion, and only one-third, the levelest, is being properly used for plow crops. The present alternative of Forestry for hillsides is often impossible because the yields are too meagre. Almost any land that can produce a forest, and much that has been considered too dry for forest, can produce an annual harvest of value to man or his animals when we have devoted sufficient attention to the breeding of walnuts, chestnuts, pecans, shellbarks, acorn yielding oaks, beech nuts, pine nuts, hazel nuts, almonds, honey locust, mesquite, screw bean, carob, mulberry, persimmon, pawpaw, and many other fruit and nut trees of this and other lands. The slowness and expense of the process of plant introduction and tree breeding limits this work to a few individuals with patience and scientific tastes and to governmental and other institutions of a permanent nature. The United States Government and each state experiment station should push this work vigorously and we appeal to you to use your influence in that direction. You may find material of interest in our published proceedings and in the Fruit and Nut Journal, the organ of the industry, published at Petersburg, Virginia. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON THE DEATH OF PROFESSOR JOHN CRAIG Read by Dr. Morris "The Northern Nut Growers' Association suffered very great loss in the death of Professor John Craig, at Siasconset, Massachusetts, on August 10, 1912. "Professor Craig, from his many responsible positions in the horticultural world, had acquired a wealth of information which was always at the disposal of his friends and students. His training as a teacher gave such facility in expression of view, that his part in our discussions inspired the audience and called forth the best that others had to offer. "His type of mind was essentially scientific, and combined with this type of mind there was a rare quality of critical faculty in relation to the relative practical values of horticultural ideas and methods. His interest in the Northern Nut Growers Association belonged to a natural fondness for everything that promised new development, and he established at Cornell University the first course in nuciculture,--so far as we are aware,--that has ever been formulated at an educational institution. "The personality of Professor Craig, characteristic of that of the scientist, was marked by simplicity and directness of manner, impatience with error due to carelessness or intent, but unlimited benign tolerance of all men who honestly expressed views opposing his own or who made conscientious mistakes. Professor Craig possessed that broad humanity which found quite as large interest in his fellow man as it found in his special study of plants, and his charming personality, strong manly bearing, scholarship, and active interest in whatever engaged his attention at all, will be ever remembered by those of us who had the pleasure and the profit of his acquaintance." Mr. Littlepage: I would just like to say, in connection with the very appropriate and excellent words which the President used in reference to Prof. Craig, that it certainly meets the most hearty approval of all of us who knew Prof. Craig, that this association go on record in this manner. At the first meeting that was held, by the few of us who met in Bronx Park Museum at New York, to start this organization, you will remember the enthusiasm and the words of encouragement that Prof. Craig gave us at that time. He was there among the first and there was always intermingled with the scientific phase of the subjects that he discussed, the practical, genial good fellowship that made everyone like him; and after all, it is but proper that we stop for a moment and express our deep appreciation. In this life of turmoil and business hustle, I think that we sometimes do not quite realize the shortness of life, the shortness of the time that we have to accomplish any of those things in which we are interested; and it is the men who are giving their time to these scientific subjects, the results of which will inure to all humanity, who are certainly entitled to consideration and a kindly remembrance. That is why it was that I heard with such gratification the words of the President about Prof. Craig. REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EXHIBITS Read by Professor Hutt By J. G. Rush, West Willow, Pa. Persian walnuts, four varieties: Hall, Burlington, Nebo, Rush; plate of mixed, imported varieties; Seedling walnuts, Paradox walnut, black walnuts and rupestris, (Texas); two plates Chinquapins; chestnuts, Giant Japanese; shellbarks: LaFeuore, very good, large, Weiker, fair; two seedlings: Paradise nut; two plates filberts; Lancaster Co. pecans; budding knives. By Wilmer P. Hooper, Forest Hill, Md. Seedling Persian Walnut; Sir Clair; tree probably fifty years old, vigorous, hardy, annual bearer. On farms of L. J. Onion, Cooperstown, Md. P. O. Sharon, Md. 1911 crop one bushel; 1912 crop one and one half bushels. Alexis; tree twenty-eight years old; vigorous, hardy, annual bearer, flavor good. Farm of Alexis Smith, Churchville, Md. Crop 1911 one bushel; crop 1912 one bushel. Sheffield; tree six years old; bought of Hoopes Brothers & Thomas; hardy, vigorous; 6 to 18 feet high; on farm of Mrs. S. T. Poleet, Cooperton, Md., P. O. Sharon, Md. Smith; tree forty to forty-five years old; large, hardy; on farm of J. T. Smith, Berkeley, Md. Beder; fifty to fifty-five years old; large, annual bearer; grown from nut on farm of David Hildt, Janettsville, Md. Hooker; tree twenty-two years old; origin Franklin Davis; vigorous, hardy, annual bearer, hard shell, fine butternut flavor; from farm of Mrs. Kate Hooker, Vale, Md. By Mr. Knaub. Shellbarks, five varieties: three black walnuts, two butternuts; one chestnut. By Mrs. J. L. Lovett, Emilie, Pa. Six varieties of Persian walnuts. By E. B. Holden, Hilton, N. Y. Holden walnut. Stock Seed Nuts from J. M. Thorborn & Co., 33 Barclay St., New York City. Juglans Californica, Juglans cordiformis, Juglans Sieboldi, Juglans nigra, Juglans cinerea, Juglans sinensis, Carya alba (shellbark), Carya porcina (pignut), Carya tomentosa (mockernut), Carya sulcata, Corylus rostrata, Corylus amara, Castanea Americana. By E. A. Riehl, Alton, Ill. A plate of Rochester nuts and thirty seedlings of it, showing tendency to reversion; eight varieties of shagbark; eight varieties of shellbark; eight plates of Sieboldi; eight plates black walnuts (Thomas); Rush Chinquapin. Collection of walnuts by Professor Lake, of Washington, D. C. Royal Hybrid, California x nigra; Paradox, California x regia; Meylan, Glady, Sypherd, Stabler, Milbank, St. Clair. By A. C. Pomeroy, Lockport, N. Y. Pomeroy walnuts and seedlings of the original tree. By T. P. Littlepage, Washington, D. C. Indiana pecans, six varieties: Warwick, Posey, Major, Kentucky, Indiana, Hodge; Hinton, McCallister hican, Barnes walnut from Washington, D. C., four varieties shagbark. By W. C. Reed, Vincennes, Ind. Indiana pecans, thirteen varieties: Luce, Beard, Busseron, Porter, Squires, Kentucky, Hall, Sullivan (2), Warwick, Indiana, Wilson. By Col. C. K. Sober, Lewisburg, Pa. Photograph of his chestnut orchard and nursery. By C. A. Reed, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Exhibition jars of Holden walnut, Warwick pecan, Kentucky pecan, Luce pecan, Hales shagbark, Kirtland shagbark, Weiker shagbark. Exhibition of Squirrel, Perfection and Great Grip nut crackers; White, Jones and Galbreath budding tools. By Arrowfield Nurseries, Petersburg, Va. Seedling pecan trees. THE HICKORY BARK BORER That our correspondence with the New York State Commissioner of Agriculture, as published in the annual report, has borne fruit is shown by the calling of a conference at the office of the Commissioner at Albany on February 24th, "to consider methods of control of the hickory bark borer". Among those present were the following: Frederick Allien, representing Riverdale Park Association. H. W. Merkel, Forester, New York Zoological Park; representing Bronx, Valley Parkway Commission. Dr. W. A. Murrill, Acting Director, New York Botanical Garden. J. J. Levison, Forester, Department of Parks, Brooklyn. Wesley B. Leach, Consulting Arboriculturist, Boro of Queens. Clifford R. Pettis, Superintendent of State Forests, Albany. Dr. E. P. Felt, State Entomologist, Albany. Dr. W. C. Deming, Sec., Northern Nut Growers' Ass'n, Westchester. George G. Atwood, Chief, Bureau of Horticulture, State Dept. of Agriculture, Albany. B. D. Van Buren, Assistant Chief. Dr. W. H. Jordan, Director, State Experiment Station, Geneva. George L. Barrus, Conservation Commission, Albany. S. H. Burnham, Assistant State Botanist, Albany. Dr. Donald Reddick, Professor of Plant Pathology, College of Agriculture, Ithaca. Glenn W. Herrick, Professor of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Ithaca. W. H. Rankin, Conservation Commission, Albany. P. J. Parrott, Entomologist, State Experiment Station, Geneva. F. C. Stewart, Botanist, State Experiment Station, Geneva. After a prolonged discussion the following resolution was unanimously adopted: WHEREAS, the hickory bark borer is at present extremely injurious and destructive to hickory trees in and around New York City, and has already destroyed and is threatening the destruction of thousands of valuable trees; and WHEREAS, it has been demonstrated in several instances, on a large scale, that the hickory bark borer can be practically controlled; therefore, be it RESOLVED, that we hereby respectfully request the commissioner of agriculture to take such steps as may be necessary to bring about the enforcement of the provisions of the agricultural law relative to insect pests and diseases with particular reference to control of the hickory bark borer; and be it further RESOLVED, that the thanks of the conference are hereby tendered to Commissioner of Agriculture Huson for his courtesies and the calling of the conference. The following "News Items" of no date, but received in the early part of June, shows what action has so far been taken: STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE News Items Commissioner Huson of the State Department of Agriculture is receiving considerable information relative to a serious outbreak of the hickory bark borer in the vicinity of New York and on Long Island. This borer is the principal cause of the death of thousands of hickory trees. The greatest infested area is in the northern part of New York City, in Westchester County, in Queens and Nassau Counties, though much injury has been observed throughout Suffolk County, particularly along the northern shore of the island. The area of infested hickories is about the same as the territory where the chestnut trees have succumbed to the attacks of the chestnut bark disease. Now that the chestnuts have so nearly disappeared and the fact that the hickory trees are also threatened with entire extermination because of the hickory borer, requests have been made by many citizens, that the Commissioner of Agriculture should exercise such authority as the law gives him in the control of this pest. That the hickory trees that have not been attacked may be saved, or in a very large measure protected has been proven in the Zoological Park and in the parks of Brooklyn. The able superintendents of these two parks have for the last two or three years, been cutting out every infested hickory tree and in that way the other trees are found at this time to be free from insects and they have been saved from certain destruction. The hickory borer eats its way into the bark of the hickory trees in mid-summer. Eggs are laid which hatch and the grubs feed in peculiar galleries in the bark and between the wood and the bark is such a way as to cut off the flow of the sap, thus causing the death of the trees. These grubs are in these galleries at this time of the year and will remain so until about the middle of June. It is, therefore, necessary that the infested trees be cut and destroyed before that time in order to prevent further widespread of the insects. The Commissioner has been promised the hearty cooperation of many influential and interested citizens in this movement and agents of this Department are on the ground with authority to inspect trees to ascertain the limit of infestation and they have been directed to mark such trees as should be removed and destroyed at once. All persons are requested to inform the Department of the location of infested hickory trees and to extend to the inspectors such assistance as may be desired. Department Circular Number 64 on "Dying Hickory Trees" will be sent to all applicants. CALVIN J. HUSON, Commissioner of Agriculture Albany, N. Y. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Members present: Dr. R. T. Morris Mr. T. P. Littlepage Dr. W. C. Deming Mr. C. A. Reed Mr. W. N. Roper Prof. E. R. Lake Mr. E. S. Mayo Mr. A. C. Pomeroy Mr. J. F. Jones Mr. J. G. Rush Col. C. A. Van Duzee Prof. J. Russell Smith Prof. W. N. Hutt Mr. G. H. Corsan Mr. C. S. Ridgway Mr. H. N. Gowing Mr. W. C. Reed Mr. W. F. McSparren. Others present: Mrs. C. A. Reed Mrs. A. C. Pomeroy Mrs. J. F. Jones Mrs. C. S. Ridgway Prof. F. N. Fagan, Dept. of Horticulture, State College of Pennsylvania Mrs. Fagan Mr. Roy G. Pierce, Tree Surgeon, Penn. Chestnut Blight Commission Mr. Keller E. Rockey, Forester in Charge of Demonstration Work, Penn. Chestnut Blight Commission Col. C. K. Sober, Lewisburg, Pa. Mr. S. V. Wilcox, Rep. Thos. Meehan & Sons, Germantown Mr. H. Brown, Rep. Thos. Meehan & Sons, Germantown Mr. Wilmer P. Hoopes, Forest Hill, Md. Dr. A. H. Metzger, Millersville, Pa. Mr. Amos M. Landis, Lancaster, Pa. Mr. Blair Funk, Pequea Creek, Pa. Mr. David S. Herr, Lancaster, Pa. Mr. Edward Harris, Sr., Cumberland, Md. Mr. Edgar A. Weimer, Lebanon, Pa. Mr. Benj. H. Gochnauer, Lancaster, Pa. Mr. C. G. Reese, Elizabethtown, Pa. And others. CORRESPONDENTS AND OTHERS INTERESTED IN NUT CULTURE ALABAMA Williams, P. F., Prof. of Horticulture, Ala. Polytechnic Institute, Auburn Alabama Farm Journal, Montgomery, Ala. ARIZONA Biederman, C. R., Garces, Cochise Co. Huntzinger, H. G., Teviston Rodgers, Robt. A., Forest Service, U. S. Dept, of Agric, Canille ARKANSAS Wilson, B. N., Prof. of Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Ark., Fayetteville Powers, R. C, 414 So. Trust Bldg., Little Rock, Ark. CALIFORNIA McNeil, Anna, 2154 Center St., Berkeley Baker, W. A., Greenfield Leonard Coates Nursery Co., Morgan Hill Smith, R. E., Agric Exp. Sta., Whittier Burbank, Luther, Santa Rosa CANADA Cleugh, H. H., Castlegar, British Columbia Secord, Harper, St. Catherin's, Ontario Porter, W. T., 1520 St. Clair Ave., Toronto Sager, D. S., Dr., Brantford Moyle, Henry, 84 Bedford Road, Toronto Ross, Malcolm N., Dept. Public Works, Regina, Saskatchewan Saunders & Co., W. E., London, Ontario Hubbell, W. S., Spanish River Lumber Co., Little Current, Ontario Peters, E. W., 742 Somerset Bldg., Winnepeg Graham, Wm., Hagensburg, British Columbia COLORADO Bell, Bessie, Miss, 156 S. Sherman, Denver Morgan, J. W., Dr., 85 S. Penn. Ave., Denver CONNECTICUT Cleveland, E. S., Hampton Buttner, J. L., Dr., 763 Orange Street, New Haven Jewell, Harvey, Cromwell Gorham, Frederick S., 48 Holmes Ave., Waterbury Jenkins, E. H., Agric. Exp. Sta., New Haven Spring, Sam. N., State Forester, New Haven Pratt, C. M., Newtown Hale, Geo. H., Mrs., Glastonbury Miles, H. S., Dr., 417 State St., Bridgeport Ives, E. M., Sterling Orchards, Meriden Cook, Harry B., Orange, Ct. Allen, G. Wilford, M.D., Boardman, Ct. Smith, Geo. W., Elm Fruit Farm, Hartford Lane, W. S., Norfolk Werle, Jos. A., Merwin's Beach, Milford Williamson, Robert, Greenwich Stauffer, W. F., No. 81 S. Burritt St., New Britain Boyd, Wm. A. Dr., Westport Lewis, Elmer H., Central Village Frothingham, Channing, New Canaan Fletcher, Albert E., Box 67, Farmington Morre, R. D., Colchester Wolcott, C. B., P. O. Box 39, Plantsville DELAWARE Killen, J. W., Felton McCue, C. A., Prof., Newark Cowgill, L. P., Dover Cannon, Miss Lida, Dover Kosa, J. J., Milford Sypherd, C. D., Dover Whitehead, F. Houston, Lincoln Studte, M. H., Houston Knipe, T. E., Delaware City Dunn, Thos. F., Dover Webb, Wesley, Dover FLORIDA Simpson Bros. Nurseries, Monticello Curtis, J. B., Orange Heights Floyd, W. L., Prof. of Horticulture, University of Florida, Gainesville Baldwin, Ed. S., DeLand GEORGIA Wight, J. B., Cairo Wilson, J. F., Dr., Waycross McHatton, T. H., Prof. of Horticulture, Athens Edwards, B. H., Macon, Ga. Southern Ruralist, Atlanta IDAHO Vincent, C. C., Prof., College of Agriculture, Moscow Ackerman, W. B., P. O. Box 184, Twin Falls Hays, L. H., Mace ILLINOIS Lindholm, E., 9139 Commercial Ave., Chicago Stoll, Wm. Paul, 1264 Glenlake Ave., Chicago Schafer, J. F., Mt. Pulaski Koonce, Geo. W., Greenville Watson, Bloomington Banning, Thos. A., Mrs., Chicago Graham, R. O., Bloomington Karstens, Peter J., Chicago Leslie, A. M., 201 Main Street, Evanston Fisher, Mr., "Cairo Citizen", Cairo Endicott, H. W., Villa Ridge Hektoen, H., Memo. Inst. for Infectious Diseases, Chicago McVeigh, Scott, 1208 Wrightwood Ave., Chicago Evans, Homer W., R. F. D. 6, Plainfield Buckman, Benjamin, Farmingdale Horner, H. Clay, Chester Burt, Frank A., 115 1-2 So. Race St., Urbana Somer, George W., No. 106 N. La Salle St., Chicago Spalding, C. W., No. 1851 Byron St., Chicago Strawbridge, A. N., No. 533 E. 33rd St., Chicago Remley, Mrs. Grace, Franklin Grove Prochnow, I. W., No. 1127 Second Ave., Rock Island McFarlane, H. W., Chicago Graham, W. H., Fort Gage Fink, Wm. H., No. 4030 N. Pauline St., Chicago Crandall, C. S., Urbana Campbell, T. W., Elgin Badgley, B. H., No. 2241 Greenleaf Ave., Chicago Millroy, W. L., Quincy Sweeney, Jno. M., No. 1636 Manadnock Block, Chicago Krossell, C. F. P., Dr., No. 5502 Indiana Ave., Chicago Weeks, E. F., No. 143 N. Dearborn St., Chicago Heald, Prescott, No. 107 So. Glen Oak Ave., Peoria Riddle, F. A., Mrs., No. 1441 Jackson Boulevard, Chicago Kennish, F. H., No. 124 East Oak St., Kewanee Finley, J. B., Care of Moline Polo and Shaft Co., Moline Braden, E. S., No. 10 S. LaSalle St., Chicago Kemp, E. F., No. 108 S. LaSalle St., Chicago Peterson, Albert J., No. 3448 Hayes St., Chicago Hewitt, R., No. 149 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago Hopkins, A. M., R. 710, 167 W. Washington St., Chicago Hemingway, Geo. R., Oak Park Rut, Z. D., Park Ridge Dietrich, J. J., Arlington Heights Hansell, E. F., No. 5654 W. Lake St., Chicago INDIANA Leiber, Richard, Indianapolis Garden, Daniel A., Elnora Cathcart, Alva Y., Bristol Strassell, J. W., Supt. of Schools, Rockport Howard, W. T., R. F. D. 19, Indianapolis Boos, E. M., R. F. D. 2, Milan Boss Co., John C, Elkhart Green, Frank, No. 811 So. St., Newcastle House, M. M., 1664 College Ave., Indianapolis Simpson & Sons, H. M., Vincennes Woodbury, C. G., Lafayette Ray, Elgin H., Winamac, R. F. D. 1 Fellwock, P. B., 3 Up. Fourth St., Evansville Hooke, Ora G., Albany, Delaware Co. Smith, Oren E., Dr., Traction Terminal Bldg., Indianapolis Whetsell, Edward, 107 Kirkwood Ave., Bloomington Swain, W. H., South Bend Knapp, Dr., Evansville Yoder, A. C., Dr., Goshen Knaub, Ben., R. 1, Box 99, North Vernon Lukens, B., Mrs., Anderson IOWA Dennis, A. B., Dr., Cedar Rapids Ruppersberg, E. A., Miss, Charles City College, Charles City Patten, C. G., Charles City Sawyer, L. H., Des Moines Thompson, Harry French, Forrest City "Successful Farming" Des Moines "Kimball's Dairy Farmer" Waterloo KANSAS Godfrey, F. M., Holton Skinner & Co., J. H., Topeka KENTUCKY Matthews, Clarence W., State University, Lexington Horine, E. F., M.D., 1036 Bardstown Rd., Louisville "Inland Farming", Louisville Brislin, John A., Cash. Farmers' Bank of Ky., Frankfort Kiefer, Louis W., 901 N. Elm St., Henderson LOUISIANA Hinton, E. G., Weeks MAINE Soule, Sidney S., Mrs., South Freeport Hitchings, Edson F., College of Agriculture, Orono Peardon, J. H., Matinicus Stryker, D. J., Rockland Chase, Dr. Walter G., Wiscasset MARYLAND Michael, Jesse J., Frederick Little, William E., Westminister Bunting, J. T., Box 137, Marion Station Benkert, George, Baltimore Heron, Benj. F. L., Box 58, Mt. Ranier Coad, J. Edwin, Drayden, St. Mary's Co. Munter, D. M., No. 22 Virginia Ave., Cumberland Daingerfield, P. B. K., Maryland Club, Baltimore Bachrach, Walter K., No. 16 W. Lexington St., Baltimore Hewell, John, No. 2028 W. Lexington St., Baltimore Hays, Amos H., Parkton Stem, C. W., Sabillasville Tyler, John Paul, No. 344 W. Preston St., Baltimore Munter, D. W., No. 1642 Runton Ave., Baltimore Kerr, J. W., Denton Overton, W. S., R. F. D. 2, Silver Spring Harris, Edward, Sr., 31 S. Liberty St., Cumberland Strite, S. M., 52 Broadway, Hagerstown Harrison's Nurseries, Berlin Hoopes, Wilmer P., Forest Hill Irwin, Arthur J., 226 E. Main St., Frostburg McDaniel, Alex H., North East P. O., Cecil Co. MASSACHUSETTS Blood, W. H., Mrs., Jr., 147 Grove Street, Wellesley Reed, Orville, Rev., Granville, Centre Deroo, Frank B., Box 363, Needham Fox, Jabez, 99 Irving Street, Cambridge Hall, James L., Kingston, Box 31 Adams, Norris W., Box 323, Worcester Mass. Agric. Coll., Amherst Crosby, Fred, Bolton Bailey, Thos. W., Kingston Griffin, W. E., Cor. Central St. & B. & M. R. R., Worcester Dawson, Jackson, Mr., Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain Dowse, Granton H., Wrentham Ellsworth, J. Lewis, Sec'y Mass. State Bd. of Agric., Boston Fleming, Charles B., Norwood Brounell, Lewis, 1030 High Street, Fall River Portmore, J. M., 7 Denison Av., So. Framingham Humphrey, F. A., Worcester Waugh, F. A., Prof., Amherst Beebe, E. Pierson, Boston Mead, H. O., Lunenburg Torrey, John P., Dr., Andover Affleck, G. B., 287 Hickory St., Springfield Deming, Grove W., Mt. Hermon School Elder, David, Harwich, Mass. James, Gorton, 492 So. Station, Boston Sturtevant, E. L., Brookline Brown, J. Frank, The Corey Hill Hospital, Brookline Willwerth, A. H., No. 21 Greenwich Park, Boston Day, W. Taylor, No. 313 Main St., Great Barrington Coney, Harriet M., Miss, No. 106 Church St., Ware MICHIGAN Brauer, H. A., 810 W. Huron St., Ann Arbor Cobb, Myron A., Central State Normal School, Mt. Pleasant Ilgenfritz's Sons Co., T. E., Nursery, Monroe Haines, Peter S., Detroit Kidder, Samuel, Ann Arbor Paul, Irwin, Muskegon, R. F. D. 7 Garfield, Chas. W., Hon., Grand Rapids Wermuth, Burt, Assoc. Ed. "Michigan Farmer", Detroit Eustace, H. J., Prof., State Horticulturist, E. Lansing Carmichael, Milton, 281 Yard Bldg., Detroit Richardson, A. H., Dr., The Martha Washington, Mt. Clemens Baker, N. I., Dr., Himebaugh, Clayton D., Sheffield Mfg. Co., Burr Oak Spring, O. L., 728 Wabash Ave., Detroit Reshore, L. T., Dowagiac Adams, Rollo K., Middleville Montgomery, R. H., 46 Jefferson Ave., Detroit "The Gleaner", Detroit Davis, R. J., Lock Box 753, Buchanan Simpson, Wallace N., No. 379 W. Main St., Battle Creek Palmer, A. C., Ellsworth Faurote, Fay L., Lord Bldg., Detroit Andrus, F. P., Almont, Lapeer Co. Gamble, M. D., E. F., Coldwater Horner, E. E., Eaton Rapids Woolen Mills, Eaton Rapids Stryker, F. A., Buchanan Lake, Geo., Northville Hanes, P. S., No. 730 Sheridan Ave., Detroit Handy, J. W., M.D., No. 105 West 1st St., Flint MINNESOTA Fairchild, D. H., St. Paul Husser, Henry, Minneiska Wedge, Clarence, Albert Lea Cutting, Fred, Byron Underwood, Roy, Lake City Alford, E. F., 2390 Woodland Ave., Duluth Latham, A. W., Sec'y State Hortic. Soc'y, 207 Kasota Bldg., Minneapolis Woodbridge, Dwight E., U. S. Bureau of Mines, Duluth Tillinghast, E. G., Leetonia Mining Co., Hibbing Lake Sarah Specialty Farm, Rockford Farm Stock & Home, Minneapolis MISSOURI Bostwick, Arthur E., 70 Vandeventer St., St. Louis Stark Bros.' Nurseries and Orchards Co., Louisiana Williams, F. V., D.D.S., 3720 Virginia, Kansas City Born, H. H. Dr., Park & Compton Sts., St. Louis Bailey, B. A., Versailles Wallace, E. S., Office of City Chemist, Kansas City Cummings, C. C., Dr., Joplin Wilcox, Walter H., 433 Forth Ave., Webster Groves Mosher, H. G., Schell City NEW HAMPSHIRE Dillingham, Thos. M., Dr., Marlboro Clement, Ruth E., Miss, E. Deering NEBRASKA Rolder, C. A., Dr., Hedde Bldg., Grand Rapids NEVADA Swingle, C. G., Hazen Gregory, E. R., Dr., Reno NEW JERSEY Lovett, J. T., Little Silver Pomona Nurseries, Palmyra Bobbink & Atkins, Rutherford Speer, Lester W., 401 Passaic Ave., Nutley Black, Son & Co., Jos. H., Hightstown Chevrier, Chas. S., P. O. Box 579, Trenton Rice, John J., Almonnesson Parry, John R., Parry Totten, A. B., Middlebush Hartt, Wm. S., Box 366 Toms River Dantun, A. P., Walsted Farm, Freehold Shoemaker, Wm. E., Bridgeton Miller, Jessie E., Miss, 204 W. Passaic Ave., Rutherford Hall & Robert Tubbs, Willowwood Farm, Pottersville P.O. Mount, T. S., Hamilton Sq. Schulze, Edward H., Elizabeth Spindler, M., No. 316 Halsey St., Newark Sonders, Geo. B., P. O. Box 204, Mays Landing Palmer, H. C. H., Main Road, Vineland Putnam, G. H., Vineland Parkin, J. W., No. 576 E. 23rd St., Paterson Martin, Geo. W. R., No. 47 Chestnut St., Newark Lintner, Geo A., Summit, New Jersey Kirkpatrick, F. L., No. 35 E. Chestnut St., Merchantville Gilmore, Jr., Thos. J., No. 219 Montgonery St., Jersey City Haddon, Chas. K., Camden Black, Walter C, Hightstown Parkin, John M., No. 576 E. 23rd St., Paterson Bailey, G. W., Kenilworth Eyferth, Adolph, No. 554 Tenth St., N.E., West New York, N. Y. Matlack, C. L., No. 47 Potter St., Haddenfield Wellborn, C. E., Weston Somers, A. F., No. 187 Warren St., Jersey City Turner, H. J., Box 356, Montclair Woodruff, Leon, No. 27 Jefferson St., Bridgeton Davis, H. H., No. 113 Chestnut St., East Orange Butler, F. W., Mrs., Plainfield Kevitt, T. C, Anthonia Maurer, E. H., No. 309 S. Broad St., Elizabeth NEW MEXICO Thompson, W. M., Dr. Logan NEW YORK Hedrick, U. P., Prof., Experiment Station, Geneva Murrill, W. H., Botanical Museum, Bronx Park, New York City Bailey, Liberty H., Cornell Agric. Coll., Ithaca The Rochester Nurseries, Rochester L'Amoreaux Nursery Co., Schoharie Green's Nursery Co., Rochester Lewis, Roesch & Son, Nurserymen, Fredonia Burnette, F. H., Phelps Wheatcroft, S. F., Brooklyn Irwin, Chas., 116 Rosedale St., Rochester Garrison, H. F., Westfield Benney, Wm. H., 30 Church St., N. Y. City Harris, C. F., 211 Blandina St., Utica Thew, Gilmore E., 2006 Fifth Ave., N. Y. City Yoakum, B. F., 71 Broadway, N. Y. City Trimble, J. H., 1255 St. Paul St., Rochester McNair, E. O., Erie Co., Bank Bldg., Buffalo Baruch, H. B., 55 New Street Studley, Frank P., Matteawan Bostwick, Henry J., Clifton Springs Sanitarium, Clifton Springs Wyckoff, C. H., Aurora Slocum, J. F., 29 Park Street, Buffalo Sunnyfield Nursery Co., Poughkeepsie Morgan, H. E., Pittsford Williams & Co., Rose, Miss, Newark Hechler, C. H., Harbor Hill, Roslyn Piccard, L. M., 705 Fulton St., Brooklyn Bardin, A. G., Mr., 29 Brevoort Pl., Brooklyn Townsend, 257 Broadway, N. Y. City, Room 703 Hunter, Wm. T., Jr., 32 Rose St., N. Y. City Gage, Stanley A., 72 Mahlstedt Place, New Rochelle Robertson, C. G., 39 Ormond Pl., Brooklyn Sackman, Karl Bever, 92 Williams Street Younkheere, D., 3320 Bailey Ave., Kingsbridge, N. Y. City Foster, E. W., Central Park, L. I. Hemming, H., Mrs., 59 Walworth St., Brooklyn Powell, E. P., Clinton, Otsego Co. Merkel, Herman W., Forester, Bronx Zoological Park Powell, Geo. T., Pres. Agric. Experts Assoc, 5 E. 42 St., N. Y. City Britton, N. L., Dr., Director Botanical Gardens, Bronx Park, N. Y. City Walker, Roberts, 115 Broadway, N. Y. City Sullivan, W. F., 154 E. 74th St., N. Y. City Rosenberg, Max, Pleasantville, Box 91 Bridgman, A. C., The Standard Union, Brooklyn Voorhis, Ernest, Rev., 1047 Amsterdam Ave., N. Y. City Buckbie, Annie, Miss, Wisner, Orange Co. Knight, Geo. W., Mrs., 28 Cambridge Pl., Brooklyn Hickox, Ralph, Williamsbridge, N. Y. City Armstrong, M. E., Miss, 10 St. Francis Place, Brooklyn Perry, C. J., 18 Fulton St., Auburn Holden, E. R., Jr., 34 W. 33 Street, N. Y. City Charlton Nursery Co., Rochester Jones, L. V., Miss, St. Luke's Hospital, Newburgh Hichcock, F. H., 105 W. 40th St., N. Y. City Vickers, H. W., Dr., Little Falls Shepard, W. E., New Paltz, Ulster Co. Mendelson, D., 1825 Pilkin Ave., Brooklyn Hopkins, W., 15 Dey St., City Smith, H. P., Center Moricrifs, Suffolk, Co. West, Dr., 51 E. 25th St., N. Y. City Grimmer, John W., Armour Villa Park, Bronxville Leipziger, H. A., Dr., Hotel Empire, Broadway & 63rd St., N. Y. City Engesser, Jas., 513 N. Washington St., Tarrytown Kepke, John, Dr., 488 Nostrand Ave., Brooklyn Manning-Spoerl, J. O. O., Dr., 151 Lafayette Ave., Brooklyn Langdon, H. P., Maple Ridge, Farm, Constable Wainwright, John W., Dr., 80 Wash. Sq., E., N. Y. City Teele, A. W., 30 Broad St., N. Y. City Grot, Henry, 201 E. 116th St., N. Y. City Graham, S. H., Ithaca Teter, Walter C., 10 Wall St., N. Y. City Jewett, Asabel, Berkshire Thompson, Adelbert, East Avon Wiggin, Thos. H., Scarsdale "Ridgewood Times", Myrtle & Cypress Aves., Brooklyn Schubel, Geo., Lit. Ed., Myrtle & Cypress Aves., Brooklyn Kelly, Julia Z., Miss, College of Agriculture, Ithaca Caldwell, R. J., 374 Broadway, N. Y. City Lincoln, Egbert P., 429 Lincoln Pl., Brooklyn Reynolds, Walter S., Dr., 66 W. 71st St., N. Y. City Davidson, Charles Stewart, 60 Wall St., N. Y. City Slosson, Richard S., 140 Carolina St., Buffalo Leutsch, Nina, Clinton Corners Armstrong, Rob. P., N. Y. State School of Agric., Canton Manning, J. M., 1002 Third Ave., N. Y. City Righter, J. Walter, 156 Fifth Ave., N. Y. City Reynolds, H. L., 50 Palace Arcade, Buffalo Spencer, W. F., No. 106 Bond St., Brooklyn Sauer, Arthur W., Broadway & Driggs Ave., Brooklyn Mezger, L. K., M.D., No. 186 Clinton Ave., North Rochester Williams, Olive G., Miss, No. 341 Garfield Ave., Troy Austin, Nichols & Co., New York Bearns, J. H., Jr., No. 198 Broadway Dupree, Wm., No. 83 Halsey St., Brooklyn Thomas, A. E., No. 105 Windsor Place, Brooklyn Holt, Frank L., No. 220 Broadway Greffe, Joseph A., Box 105, Boonton Holden, E. R., Jr., No. 34 W. 33rd St Hendrickson, B. W., Care of J. K. Armsby Co., No. 87 Hudson St. Hoyle, Louis C., Middletown Hall, John, Sec'y, Rochester Miller, Francher, L., No. 605 Kirk Block, Syracuse Mitchell, F. J., No. 44 W. 98th St. Leggett & Co., Francis H., Franklin, Hudson & Leonard Sts. Krizan, Jos., No. 521 E. 72nd Street Jaburg Bros., No. 10-12 Leonard St. Mathans, J. A., White Plains Nicholson, J. E., Care of Messrs. Wassermass, No. 42 Broadway Nicholson, J. E., No. 83rd St. & 24th Ave., Bensonhurst Mills, W. M., No. 397 Goundry St., N. Towanda Sullivan, Warren, No. 44 Morningside Drive Sweizer, Karl, No. 40 Exchange Place Shook, F. M., Dept. of Tropical Medicine Randolph, Lewis C., No. 357 Delaware Ave. Riley, R. M., Garden City Rogers, G. M., Apt. 44. No. 605 144th St. Williams & Co., R. C., Fulton & South Sts. Turner, Fred. C., R.F.D. No. 7, Box 115, Schenectady Tuthill, W. C., No. 245 Water St. Sanford, A. E., No. 18 Bowman St., Rochester Smith, Howard K., No. 323 Webster Ave., Brooklyn Hewitt, R., Ardsley on Hudson Evans, J. C., Lockport Hessinger, M. A., No. 102 West 102d St. Wetbeck, J. B., Care of Worcester Salt Co., No. 71 & No. 73 Murray St. Scott, Thomas C., No. 372 Chenango St., Binghamton Dye, Walter A., Garden City Ellison, E. T., No. 1272 Jefferson Ave., Brooklyn Brown, Carl W., Ripley, Chautauqua Co. Teran, T. Mrs., Hotel Calvert, New York City Power, Alice B., Miss, No. 203 St. Paul St., Rochester Banks, E. M., No. 342 West 45th St., New York City Anderson, Bryon Wall, No. 79 Franklin Ave., New Rochelle Mesner, E. D., No. 34 Carlton St., Buffalo Gawey, Gerald, No. 347 W. 19th St. Maynard, A. R., Waterloo Johnson, M., No. 540 W. 146th St. Strawn, T. C., No. 355 W. 55th St. Bruce, W. Robert, Brick Church Institute, Rochester Broughton, L. D., No. 304 Lewis Ave., Brooklyn Ouilshan, H. W., N. E. Cor. 125th St. and 8th Ave., Bishop Building, Rooms 207-210, New York City Wadsworth, M. A., No. 423 E. 4th St., Brooklyn NORTH CAROLINA Blair, Wm. A., V. P. People's Nat. Bank, Winston-Salem OHIO Wise, P., Maumee Schuh, L. H., Columbus Rich, E. L., No. 3063 Edgehill Road, Cleveland Heights, Cleveland Neff, W. N., Martel McEwen, Will J., No. 755 Wilson Ave., Columbus Miller, Wm., Gypsum Marshall, Robert, No. 23 Hollister St., Cincinnati Longsworth, I. R., Lima Kiser, Frank A., Fremont Goetz, C. H., Columbus Draine, F. J., 2411 Detroit Ave., Toledo Cochran, J. H., Napoleon Bundy, C. C., No. 1356 Mt. Vernon Ave., Columbus Penrod, A. M., Camp Chase Poston, E. M., President, New York Coal Co., Columbus Rodgers, A. S., Springfield Gas Engine Co., Springfield Jeffers, F. A., Monroe Bank Building, Woodsfield Kennedy, C. S., No. 412 Monroe St., East Liverpool Crawford Co., M., Cuyahoga Falls Hoyt, C. H., Cleveland Ashbrook, Wm. A., Hon., Johnstown Johnston, I. B., Station K., Cincinnati Stasel, A. A., No. 25-1/2 S. Third St., Newark Book, G. M., Bloomdale Smith, E. R., No. 132 S. Collett St., Lima Rader, Hal, No. 125 Chestnut St., Nilec Watt, Frank E., No. 116 Show Ave., Dayton Anderson, A. J., "Ohio Farmer", Cleveland Scarff, W. U., New Carlisle Durant, A. T., German-American Ins. Co., Akron Daugherty, U. G., R. D. 13, Dayton Miller, Chas. D., 60 N. Garfield Ave., Columbus Doren, Jane M., Bexley, Columbus Prickett, J. D., 727 Plymouth St., Toledo Zerkey, M. Allen, Justus, R. D. 1 Lohman, E., Greenville Ewart, Mortimer, Mogadore Schumacher, Arlin, Pandora Yunck, Ed. G., 710 Central Ave., Sandusky Nellis, A. S. Byrne, Dr., Cor. Third & Webb Sts., Dayton Rogers, W. B., St. Stanislaus' House of Retreat, Cleveland Parrott, Frances, Miss, R. D. 12, Dayton Rector, J. M., Dr., Columbus Lauder, Ed., Dr., 1012 Prospect Ave., S. E., Cleveland OREGON Robinson, C. A., R.F.D. 1, Carlton, Yamhill Co. Oregon R. R. & Navigation Co., Portland Power, Frank W., Sec'y State Horticultural Society, Orenco Gardener, V. R., Associate Prof, of Horticulture, Corvallis McDonald, M., Oregon Nursery Co., Orenco Magruder, G. M., Medical Building, Portland Fishback, P. L., Monmouth PANAMA Deer, G. N., Ancon, C. Z. PENNSYLVANIA Le Fevre, B. W., 251 Elm St., Lancaster Harris, D. S., Williamsburg, P.O. Box 416 Wright, M. H., Penn. Shafting Co., Spring City Hutchinson, Mahlon, 138 South 15th Street, Philadelphia Taylor, C. B., Philadelphia Townsend, C. W., Pittsburg Allen, Carl G., Williamsport Hall, L. C., Avonia Sober, C. K., Lewisburg Foley, John, Forester Penn. R. R. Co., Broad St. Sta., Philadelphia Mann, Chas. S., Hatboro, Montgomery Co., R. D. 1 Springer, Willard, Jr., Forest Asst. Pa. R. R. Broad St. Sta. Philadelphia Peck, Wm. H., Care of Third Nat. Bank, Scranton Riehl, H. F., Manheim Hildebrand, F. B., Duquesne Wolford, C. H., Prin. Duquesne Public Schools, Duquesne Motts, Sarah E., 533 S. Hanover St., Carlisle Watts, R. L., Prof. of Horticulture, State College Hebbin, T. T., McKeesport Ballou, C. S., Potter Co. Marsden, Biddle R., Dr., Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia Fenstermacher, P. S., Care of Harry C. Tripler, Young Bldg., Allentown Keeler, Asa S., Tunckhannock Hess, Frank P., Jr., 31 N. Walnut St., Mt. Carmel George, W. H., Edgewood, Bucks Co. Scott & Hill, Erie St. Francis, J., 21 Scott Block, Erie Wilt, Edwin M., No. 816 Brooklyn St., Philadelphia Wright, W. J., State College Scott, W. M., No. 824 Centennial Ave., Sewickley Small, Norbert, Edgegrove Schotte, T. B., Kittanning Kirkpatrick, F. L., No. 273 Eleventh St., Philadelphia Gochnauer, Benj. H., Lancaster, R. F. D. No. 7 Engle, E. B., Marietta Cook, Dr., George R., Johnston Chalmers, W. J., Vanport, Beaver Co. Cahalan, Jno. A., No. 1524 Chestnut St., Philadelphia DeWeese, D. M., No. 51 Logan Ave., Sharon Doan, J. L., School of Horticulture, Ambler. Keystone Wood Co., Williamsport Fleming, H. N., No. 410 Downing Bldg., Erie Hassell, H. W., Dr., Medical Department, Eastern State Penitentiary, Philadelphia Pease, H. E., No. 1111 Lamont St., Pittsburgh Palmer, C. L., Dr., P. O. Box, Mt. Lebanon Spear, James, Jr., Wallingford Hoerner, William S., Chambersburg Hazel, Boyd E., Box No. 57, Madisonburg Stover, C. J., Ambler Davis, Thos. D., No. 267 Shady Ave., Pittsburgh Hill, V. J., No. 4215 Chestnut St., Philadelphia Richards, A. C., Schellsburg Stocks, George, No. 1128 Heberton, Pittsburgh Rhoads, Dr., J. N., No. 1635 S. Broad St., Philadelphia Quimby, C. S., R. F. D. 3, Phoenixville RHODE ISLAND Peckham, F. H., Dr., 6 Thomas St., Providence Collins, Franklin J., Prof., 468 Hope St., Providence Heaton, H. W., M.D., No. 2 Iron's Block, Providence Winslow, Ernest L., Providence Bronsdon, M. H., Chief Engineer, The Rhode Island Co., Providence Pleger, John J., Box 686, Manila TEXAS Blair, R. E., U. S. Exper. Farm, San Antonio Edward, Chas. L., Dallas Kyle, E. J., Prof, of Horticulture, College Station Anderson, J. H., Brighton Canada, J. W., Houston UTAH Hansen, O. K., Dr., Provo Hughes, M. A., Dr., Judge Bldg., Salt Lake City VERMONT Woodman, J. S., So. Royalton Cummings, M. B., Sec'y State Horticultural Society, Burlington Parrish, John S., Eastham, Albermarle Co. Blue, C. E., Ridgeway, Charlottsville Haynes, I. J., Manakin VIRGINIA Emerson, J. S., Dr., Red Hill Catlett, Carter, Gloucester WASHINGTON Washington Nursery Co., Toppenish Shomaker, Joel, Nellita Moody, Robert, Everett Stuart, John A., Christopher Nurseries, Christopher Davis, Pauline, Miss, Box 415, Pullman May, Walter, 456 Empire Bldg., Okanogan Western Farmer, Spokane March, G. L., Kennewick WEST VIRGINIA Bennett, Louis, Mrs., 148 Court Ave., Weston WISCONSIN Kirr, A. R., Box C, R. D. 6, Fond du Lac Harold, Geo. E., Maiden Rock, R. D. 3 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Van Deman, H. E., Washington Swingle, Walter, Prof., Bur. Plant Industry, Washington Coville, Fred. V., Prof., Bur. Plant Industry, Washington Clinton, L. A., Prof., Dept, of Agric., Washington Stabler, Albert, Ins. Agt., Washington Bick, Wm. H., 1403 H. St., Washington Hendrick, A. J., 609, 3rd St., Washington Life & Health, Takoma Park Sta., Washington EXTRACTS FROM LETTERS FROM STATE VICE-PRESIDENTS AND OTHERS A well-known nut grower in Delaware writes: "We have given the filberts a thorough test and found them one of the most unprofitable nuts ever tested. At one time we had under test about 15 distinct varieties. After several years tests they all succumbed to the blight; a blight that attacked the old wood and killed it. Some of our bushes or trees got as much as six inches in diameter before they were entirely killed back. Possibly by thorough spraying from the setting of trees a success might be made. Some varieties tested were very prolific and of fine quality. We succeeded in getting a fine lot of walnuts from the tree southeast of the potato house by applying pollen. They are as fine and as well filled and as large as any I have ever seen. Several of our crosses had a few nuts this year, most of them are rather thick shelled. The trees though seem to be perfectly hardy. We have several Japan walnut trees bearing this year some of which I consider first class, equal to the best shellbarks or pecans in cracking quality; besides they are so very prolific, producing as many as a dozen in a cluster. We can show specimens from several distinct varieties or types. The Cordiformis seems to be one of the best. We also have some very fine black walnuts. One of our seedlings from the select nuts produces the largest walnuts that I have ever seen. The tree did not have very many on it this year. Several of the other seedlings from the same planting produced fine nuts with good cracking qualities. We also had several pecan trees to bear a few nuts this year; most of the nuts were rather small but of fine quality, very thin shells and well filled. Our Japan chestnuts bore quite full. I think it possible to produce Persian walnuts successfully in our locality. I also think the Japan walnut offers a good field for investigation." FROM THE STATE VICE-PRESIDENT FOR COLORADO Dec. 11, 1912. So far as I can learn only two attempts have been made in this state to grow nuts. The first one consists in the setting out of about one hundred Japanese walnuts by the Antlers Orchard Co. Their place is on the western slope in the fruit district and I am informed that the first winter the tops were killed but new shoots put out from the roots and the trees did well this year. The other attempt is one I made last spring. I set out a few pecan trees as an experiment near Colorado Springs. Six of the seven trees lived and put out some leaves but did not make much growth. If they survive the winter I purpose planting more pecans and some other nuts,--chestnuts, black walnuts and possibly Persian walnuts. * * * * * Hilton, N. Y. Nov. 29, 1912. Dear Sir: In reply to your inquiry I am inclosing notes on walnut culture in this locality. This noble fruit is not generally known here. I do not know of more than twelve or fifteen bearing trees in my county. Of these all are without doubt seedlings, and are located in places where the peach will thrive. The soil in which they grow is varied: Dunkirk fine sand, Dunkirk silt loam, Ontario fine sand loam, and Ontario loam. (See soil survey of _Monroe county_, N. Y. U. S. Dept. Agriculture.) The altitude is comparatively low. The highest point in the county is only 682 ft. above lake Ontario, and the average elevation is not more than 300 ft. The "Holden" walnuts are growing at a still lower level. This tree, considering its surroundings and location, had a good crop this year. Standing on the lawn uncultivated and unfertilized, hemmed in on three sides by other trees, it gave us at least three bushels of fine nuts. The wood showed no injury after last winter's intense cold. Growth started in the spring just as the apple blossoms came out. The catkins are very large, at least much larger than those on the other trees we have, and hang on longer. One of our trees loses its male blossoms before the female bloom appears, but the "Holden" is the last to lose them. About half of the clusters of fruit have two or three nuts in them. We began harvesting the nuts Sept. 15th, just four months from the blossom. The dropping continued for a month, prolonged on account of lack of frost. Last week the Rochester Democrat and Chronicle reported the appearance of the first load of English walnuts ever brought on the local market. They were grown on fifteen year old seedlings, at East Avon, N. Y., by Adelbert Thompson. His orchard is said to contain 200 trees. It seems very probable that the next twenty-five years will see the development of Persian walnut growing, to commercial proportions, in those localities in the state where the peach will grow. I had a little experience last spring with southern grown walnut trees. Last spring I received from Louisiana eleven trees of the "Holden" variety grafted on black walnut stocks. They were fine trees, the largest at least eight feet tall. Six of these I set out in my own orchards and gave them intensive care and cultivation, but alas, growth was weak and at last they died. If I were to deduce any conclusions it would be that there is too great a difference between Louisiana and New York conditions. FROM THE SECRETARY OF THE MINNESOTA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY Dear Sir:-- I am addressing you as secretary of the Northern Nut Growers' Association in hopes that you can refer me to some one, perhaps a member of your society, in this part of the country to whom we can appeal to take part at the coming annual meeting of this society as champion of nut growing. While in our state we cannot successfully grow pecans, nor perhaps the sweet chestnut and some other nuts, yet some varieties do well with us and a larger interest in their growing should be stimulated. Yours very truly, A. W. Latham, Sec'y. 
22721	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ Northern Nut Growers Association INCORPORATED Affiliated with The American Horticultural Society 38th Annual Report [Illustration] CONVENTION AT GUELPH, ONTARIO SEPTEMBER 3, 4, 5 1947 TABLE OF CONTENTS Officers and Committees 3 State Vice Presidents 4 List of Members 5 Constitution 21 By-Laws 22 Proceedings of the Thirty-Eighth Annual Convention 23 Address of Welcome--Dr. J. S. Shoemaker 23 Response--Dr. L. H. MacDaniels 24 Report of Secretary--Mildred M. Jones 25 Report on the Ohio Contest--Sterling Smith 27 Report of Treasurer--D. C. Snyder 28 Other Business of the Association 29 Factors Influencing the Hardiness of Woody Plants--H. L. Crane 30 Nut Culture in Ontario--I. C. Marritt 37 Nut Growing at the Hort. Sta., Vineland Station, Ont.--W. J. Strong 39 Soil Management for Nut Plantations in Ontario--J. R. van Haarlem 43 Report from Southern Ontario--Alex Troup 45 Nut Trees Hardy at Aldershot, Ontario, Canada--O. Filman 45 Report from Echo Valley, 1947--George Hebden Corsan 48 Report from Beamsville, Ontario--Levi Housser 50 Nut Growing in New Hampshire--L. P. Latimer 51 Nut Notes from New Hampshire--Matthew Lahti 52 A Simplified Schedule for Judging Black Walnut Varieties--L. H. MacDaniels and S. S. Atwood 55 Test Plantings of Thomas Black Walnut in the Tennessee Valley--Spencer B. Chase 60 West Tennessee Variety, Breeding and Propagation Tests, 1947--Aubrey Richards, M. D. 68 Notes on Some Kansas and Kentucky Pecans in Central Texas--O. S. Gray 69 Experiences of a Nut Tree Nurseryman--J. F. Wilkinson 70 Morphology and Structure of the Walnut--C. C. Lounsberry 72 A Method of Budding Walnuts--H. Lynn Tuttle 74 Questions asked Mr. Stoke after his demonstration of grafting and budding 76 Importance of Bud Selection in the Grafting of Nut Trees--G. J. Korn 78 The Hemming Chinese Chestnuts--E. Sam Hemming 79 Results of a Chinese Chestnut Rootstock Experiment--J. W. McKay 83 Breeding Chestnut Trees: Report for 1946 and 1947--Arthur Harmount Graves 85 Chinese Chestnuts in the Chattahoochie Valley--G. S. Jones 92 Some Results with Filbert Breeding at Geneva, N. Y.--George L. Slate 94 Nut News from Wisconsin--Carl Weschcke 101 Home Preparation of Filbert Butter and Other Products--Mrs. Jeanne M. Altman 102 Notes from Central New York--S. H. Graham 103 Experience with the Crath Carpathian Walnuts--Gilbert L. Smith 104 Observations on Hardiness of the Carpathian Walnuts at Poughkeepsie, New York--Stephen Bernath 106 Discussion after Graham, Smith, and Bernath Persian walnut papers 107 Nuts About Trees--R. E. Hodgson 108 Report on Nut Trees at Massillon--Raymond E. Silvis 111 Planting of Nut Trees on Highways Undesirable--R. P. Allaman 113 Nut Growing for the Farm Owner--H. Gleason Mattoon 114 Tree Crop and Nut Notes from Southern Pennsylvania--John W. Hershey 116 Notes from the New Jersey Section of the Northern Nut Growers Association--Mrs. Alan R. Buckwalter 119 Report of Resolutions Committee 120 Report of the Necrology Committee--Gerardi, Ferris 121 Exhibitors 123 Attendance 125 Pictures Made on 1947 Tour 124, 126, 127 Announcements 128 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President_--JOHN DAVIDSON, 234 E. Second St., Xenia, Ohio _Vice President_--DR. L. H. MACDANIELS, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. _Treasurer_--D. C. SNYDER, Center Point, Iowa _Secretary_--J. C. MCDANIEL, Tennessee Dept. of Agr., State Office Bldg., Nashville 3, Tenn. _Director_--CLARENCE A. REED, 7309 Piney Branch Rd., N. W., Washington, D. C. _Director_--CARL WESCHCKE, 96 S. Wabasha St., Saint Paul, Minn. _Dean_--DR. W. C. DEMING, 31 S. Highland, W. Hartford 7, Conn. _Constitution Committee_--L. H. MACDANIELS, GEORGE L. SLATE, MISS MILDRED JONES EXECUTIVE APPOINTMENTS _Press and Publication_---Editorial Section: Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Dr. W. C. Deming, Miss Mildred Jones, Dr. J. Russell Smith, Dr. A. S. Colby, George L. Slate, H. F. Stoke Publicity Section: Dr. J. Russell Smith, H. F. Stoke, C. A. Reed, A. A. Bungart, J. C. McDaniel Printing Section: J. C. McDaniel, H. F. Stoke _Program_--Spencer B. Chase, J. C. McDaniel, C. A. Reed, Dr. O. D. Diller, Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Miss Mildred Jones _Place of Meeting_--George L. Slate, D. C. Snyder, Royal Oakes, Dr. A. H. Graves _Varieties and Contests_--T. G. Zarger, L. Walter Sherman, Sterling Smith, J. F. Wilkinson, Gilbert Becker, Gilbert L. Smith, A. G. Hirschi, Seward Berhow. Standards and Judging Section of this Committee: Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Spencer Chase, C. A. Reed, H. F. Stoke _Survey and Research_--R. E. Silvis, S. H. Graham, G. A. Gray, E. F. Huen, Dr. Kenneth W. Hunt, Dr. C. H. Skinner, H. S. Wise, Dr. G. F. Gravatt, John T. Bregger, Dr. A. H. Graves _Membership_--Mrs. S. H. Graham, Mrs. Herbert Negus, Mrs. Harry Weber _Exhibits_--H. F. Stoke, Jay L. Smith, L. Walter Sherman, J. F. Wilkinson, G. L. Smith, H. H. Corsan, G. H. Corsan, Carl Weschcke, Royal Oakes, H. G. Mattoon, George Brand, Seward Berhow _Necrology_--Mrs. William Rohrbacher, Mrs. John Hershey, Mrs. J. F. Johns _Audit_--Dr. William Rohrbacher, E. P. Gerber, R. P. Allaman _Finance_--Carl Weschcke, Harry Weber, Carl F. Walker, D. C. Snyder _Legal Advisers_--Harry Weber, Sargent Wellman _Official Journal_--American Fruit Grower, 1370 Ontario St., Cleveland 13, Ohio State Vice-Presidents Alabama LOVIC ORR Alberta, Canada A. L. YOUNG Arkansas A. C. HALE British Columbia, Canada J. U. GELLATLY California DR. THOMAS R. HAIG Colorado W. A. COLT Connecticut WILLIAM G. CANFIELD Delaware EDWARD S. LAKE Florida C. A. AVANT Georgia G. CLYDE EIDSON Idaho FRED BAISCH Illinois LOUIS GERARDI Indiana CARL F. PRELL Iowa IRA M. KYHL Kansas FRANK E. BORST Kentucky DR. C. A. MOSS Louisiana J. HILL FULLILOVE Manitoba, Canada A. H. YOUNG Maryland WILMER P. HOOPES Massachusetts DR. R. A. VAN METER Mexico FREDERICO COMPEAN Michigan GILBERT BECKER Minnesota R. E. HODGSON Mississippi JAMES R. MEYER Missouri ADOLPH GIESSON Nebraska GEORGE BRAND New Hampshire MATTHEW LAHTI New Jersey MRS. A. R. BUCKWALTER New York CLARENCE LEWIS North Carolina DR. R. T. DUNSTAN Ohio A. A. BUNGART Oklahoma A. G. HIRSCHI Ontario, Canada G. H. CORSAN Oregon S. M. DOHANIAN Pennsylvania H. GLEASON MATTOON Rhode Island PHILIP ALLEN South Carolina JOHN T. BREGGER South Dakota HOMER L. BRADLEY Tennessee THOMAS G. ZARGER Texas KAUFMAN FLORIDA Utah GRANVILLE OLESON Vermont A. W. ALDRICH Virginia DR. V. A. PERTZOFF Washington F. D. LINKLETTER West Virginia WENDELL W. HOOVER Wisconsin W. S. BASSETT Wyoming W. D. GREENE Northern Nut Growers Association Membership List as of December 1, 1947 ALABAMA Orr, Lovic, Penn-Orr-McDaniel Orchards, Rt. 1, Danville ARKANSAS Hale, A. C., Rt. 2, Box 322, Camden Harris, Lt. Col. Oscar B., Rt. 1, Fayetteville Stanley, Julian G., Rt. 1, Box 239, Camden Winn, J. B., Westfork CALIFORNIA Armstrong Nurseries, 408 N. Euclid Ave., Ontario Gaston, Eugene T., Rt. 2, Box 771, Turlock Haig, Dr. Thomas R., 3344 H. St., Sacramento Kemple, W. H., 22 West Ralston St., Ontario Logan, George F., 16125 Hoover Street, Gardena Parsons, Chas. E., Felix Gillet Nursery, Nevada City Pozzi, P. H., 2875 S. Dutton Ave., Santa Rosa. Walter, E. D., 899 Alameda, Berkeley Welby, Harry S., 500 Buchanan St., Taft CANADA Brown, Alger, Rt. 1, Harley, Ontario Cahoon, Dr. E. B., 333 O'Connor Dr., Toronto 6, Ontario Casanave, John A., 909 Patterson Rd., Lulu Island, Vancouver, B. C. Corsan, George H., Echo Valley, Islington, Ontario Crath, Rev. Paul C., Rt. 2, Connington, Ontario Eddie & Sons, Ltd., Pacific Coast Nurseries, Sardis, B. C. Elgood, H., 74 Trans Canada Highway West, Chilliwack, B. C. English, H. A., Box 153, Duncan, B. C. Filman, O., Aldershot, Ontario Gellatly, J. U., Box 19, Westbank, B. C. Giegerich, H. C., Con-Mine, Trail, B. C. Goodwin, Geoffrey L., Rt. 3, St. Catherines, Ontario Harrhy, Ivor H., Rt. 1, Burgessville, Ontario Housser, Levi, Beamsville, Ontario Lawes, E. H., 412 Westmoreland Ave., Toronto 4, Ontario Little, Wm. J., Rt. 1, St. George, Ontario Maillene, George, Rt. 1, Fulford Harbor, B. C. Manten, Jacob, Rt. 1, White Rock, B. C. *Neilson, Mrs. Ellen, 5 McDonald Ave., Guelph, Ontario Papple, Elton E., Rt. 3, Cainsville, Ontario Porter, Gordon, Y. M. C. A., Windsor, Ontario Stephenson, Mrs. J. H., 1539 Bellevue Ave., West Vancouver, B. C. Trayling, E. J., 509 Richards St., Vancouver, B. C. Wagner, A. S., Delhi, Ontario Willis, A. R., Rt. 1, Royal Oak, Vancouver Island, B. C. Wharton, H. W., Rt. 2, Guelph, Ontario Wood, C. F., Hobbs Glass, Ltd., 7 Dale Ave., Toronto, Ontario Yates, J., 2150 E. 65th Ave., Vancouver, B. C. Young, A. H., Portage La Prairie, Manitoba Young, A. L., Brooks, Alta. COLORADO Colt, W. A., Lyons Hyde, Arthur, P. O. Box 417, Dolores CONNECTICUT Canfield, William G., 463 West Main St., New Britain **Deming, Dr. W. C., 31 S. Highland, West Hartford 7 Gresecke, Paul, 379 Weed Ave., Stamford Graham, Mrs. Cooper, Darien Graves, Dr. A. H., 255 So. Main St., Wallingford Huntington, A. M., Stranerigg Farms, Bethel Kydd, Dr. D. M., 19 Westwood Rd., New Haven 15 McSweet, Arthur, Clapboard Hill Rd., Guilford Milde, Karl F., Town Farm Rd., Litchfield Newmaker, Adolph, Rt. 1, Rockville Page, Donald T., Box 391, Rt. 1, Danielson Pratt, George D., Jr., Bridgewater Rodgers, Raymond, Rt. 2, Westport Rozanshi, Joseph, 130 La Salle St., New Britain Scazlia, Jos. A., 372 Matson Hill Rd., So. Glastonbury Senior, Sam P., Rt. 1, Bridgeport White, George E., Rt. 2, Andover DELAWARE Brugmann, Elmer W., 1904 Washington St., Wilmington Lake, Edward S., Sharpless Road, Hockessin Wilkins, Lewis, Rt. 1, Newark DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Borchers, Perry E., 1329 Quincy St., N. W., Washington 11, D. C. Graff, Geo. U., 242 Peabody St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Kaan, Dr. Helen W., National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Ave., Washington 25, D. C. Librarian, American Potash Institute, Inc., 1155-16th St., N. W., Washington, D. C. Reed, C. A., 7309 Piney Branch Rd., N. W., Washington 12, D. C. FLORIDA Avant, C. A., 960 N. W. 10th Ave., Miami GEORGIA Eidson, G. Clyde, 1700 Westwood Ave., S. W., Atlanta Hammar, Dr. Harold E., U. S. Pecan Field Sta., Box 84, Albany Hunter, H. Reid, 561 Lake Shore Dr., N. E., Atlanta Neal, Homer A., Neal's Nursery, Rt. 1, Carnesville Skyland Farms, S. C. Noland & C. H. Crawford, 161 Spring St., N. W., Atlanta Wilson, Wm. J., North Anderson Ave., Ft. Valley IDAHO Baisch, Fred, 627 E. Main St., Emmett Dryden, Lynn, Peck Falin, Mrs. John, Riggins Hazelbaker, Calvin, Lewiston Kudlac, Joe T., Box 147, Buhl McGoran, J. E., Box 42, Spirit Lake, Idaho Swayne, Samuel F., Orofino ILLINOIS Albrecht, H. W., Delaven Allen, Theodore R., Delevan Anthony, A. B., Rt. 3, Sterling Baber, Adin, Kansas Best, R. B., Eldred Bolle, Dr. A. C., 324 E. State St., Jacksonville Bradley, James W., 1307 N. McKinley Ave., Champaign Bronson, Earle A., 800 Simpson St., Evanston Churchill, Woodford M., 4333 Oakenwold, Chicago Colby, Dr. Arthur S., University of Illinois, Urbana Dietrich, Ernest, Rt. 2, Dundas Dintelman, L. F., Belleville Frey, Mrs. Frank H., 2315 West 108th Place, Chicago Frey, Frank H., 2315 West 108th Place, Chicago Frierdich, Fred, 3907 W. Main St., Belleville Gerardi, Louis, Rt. 1, Caseyville Haeseler, L. M., 1959 W. Madison St., Chicago Heberlein, Edw. W., Rt. 1, Box 72 A, Roscoe Helmle, Herman C., 123 N. Walnut St., Springfield Hockenyoo, G. L., 213 E. Jefferson St., Springfield Holland, Dr. W. W., 512 N. Randolf St., Macomb Johnson, Hjalmar W., 5811 Dorchester Ave., Chicago 37 Jungk, Adolph, 817 Washington Ave., Alton Kilner, F. R., American Nurseryman, 343 S. Dearborn St., Chicago 4 Klein, A. F., 1026 Harrison St., Galesburg Knobloch, Miss Margaret, Arthur Kreider, Ralph, Jr., Hammond Langdoe, Wesley W., Erie Community High School, Erie Leighton, L. C., Arthur Mandrell, C. Wayne, Box 642, Tolono Oakes, Royal, Bluffs Pray, A. Lee, 502 North Main St., LeRoy Sonnemann, W. F., Experimental Gardens, Vandalia Seaton, Earl D., 2313 6th, Peru Terril, Mark, 726 Greenleaf Ave., Wilmette Urush, R. A., 1022 N. Dearborn, Chicago 10 Whitford, A. M., Farina Williams, Jerry F., 2704 Walnut St., Shelbyville Youngberg, Harry W., Port Clinton Rd., Prairie View INDIANA Behr, J. E., Laconia Boyer, Clyde C, Nabb Cole, Chas. Jr., 220 West La Salle Ave., South Bend Garber, H. G., Indiana State Farm, Greencastle Gentry, Herbert M., Rt. 2, Noblesville Glaser, Peter, Rt. 1, Box 301, Evansville Hite, Charles Dean, Rt. 2, Bluffton Pritchett, Emery, 1340 Park Ave., Fort Wayne Prell, Carl F., 803 West Colfax Ave., South Bend Ramsey, Arthur, Muncie Tree Surgery Co., Muncie Simpson, Paul F., 5951 Indianola, Indianapolis 20 Skinner, Dr. Charles H., Rt. 1, Thornton Sly, Miss Barbara, Rt. 3, Rockport Sly, Donald R., Rt. 3, Rockport Stephenson, Walter, Delta Electric Co., Marion Stierwalt, G. W., Rt. 4, Greencastle Wallick, Ford, Rt. 4, Peru Warren, E. L., New Richmond Wilkinson, J. F., Indiana Nut Nursery, Rockport IOWA Berhow, S., Berhow Nurseries, Huxley Boice, R. H., Rt. 1, Nashua Cole, Edward P., 419 Chestnut St., Atlantic Ferguson, Albert B., Center Point Ferguson, Roy, Center Point Ferris, Wayne, Hampton Gardner, Clark, Gardner Nurseries, Osage Harrison, L. E., Nashua Huen, E. F., Eldora Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg Iowa Fruit Growers' Association, State House, Des Moines Kaser, J. D., Winterset Kivell, Ivan E., Rt. 3, Greene Kyhl, Ira M., Box 236, Sabula Lanman, Harry, Hamburg Last, Herman, Steamboat Rock Lounsberry, C. C., 209 Howard Ave., Ames Martazahn, Frank A., Rt. 3, Davenport McLeran, Harold F., Mt. Pleasant Meints, A. Rock, Dixon Rodenberg, Henry, Guttenberg Rohrbacher, Dr. Wm., 811 East College St., Iowa City Schlagenbusch Bros., Rt. 3, Ft. Madison Snyder, D. C., Center Point Steffen, R. F., Box 1302, Sioux City 7 Swartzendruber, D. B., Kalona Wade, Ida May, Rt. 3, LaPorte City Widmer, H. R., Bloomfield Welch, H. S., Mt. Arbor Nurseries, Shenandoah Wood, Roy A., Castana KANSAS Baker, F. C., Troy Borst, Frank E., 1704 Shawnee St., Leavenworth Boyd, Elmer, Rt. 1, Box 95, Oskaloosa Burrichter, George W., c/o Mrs. James Stone, 3011 N. 36th St., Kansas City Fisher, Richard W., 704 N. 12th St., Leavenworth Funk, M. D., 1501 N. Tyler St., Topeka Gray, Dr. Clyde, 1045 Central Avenue, Horton Hofman, Rayburn, Rt. 5, Manhattan Leavenworth Nurseries, Rt. 3, Leavenworth Mendere, John, Lansing Threlenhaus, W. F., Rt. 1, Buffalo KENTUCKY Alves, Robert H., Nehi Bottling Co., Henderson Baughn, Cullie, Rt. 6, Box 1, Franklin Cornett, Chas. L., Box 566, Lynch Moss, Dr. C. A., Williamsburg Palmeter, Clarence, Rt 1, Mt. Sterling Tatum, W. G., Rt. 4, Lebanon Whittinghill, Lonnie M., Box 10, Love LOUISIANA Fullilove, J. Hill, Box 157, Shreveport MARYLAND Crane, Dr. H. L., Bureau of Plant Industry Sta., Beltsville Eastern Shore Nurseries, Inc., Dover Rd., Easton Fletcher, C. Hicks, Lulley's Hillside Farm, Bowie Gravatt, Dr. G. F., Forest Pathology, Plant Industry Sta., Beltsville Harris, Walter B., Worton Hodgson, Wm. C, Rt. 1, White Hall Hoopes, Wilmer P., Forest Hill Kemp, Homer S., Bountiful Ridge Nurseries, Princess Anne Mannakee, N. H., Ashton McCollum, Blaine, White Hall McKay, Dr. J. W., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville Negus, Mrs. Herbert, 4514-32nd St., Mt. Rainier Porter, John J., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown Purnell, J. Edgar, Spring Hill Road, Salisbury Shamer, Dr. Maurice E., 3300 W. North Ave., Baltimore Thomas, Kenneth D., 2826 Rosalie Ave., Baltimore 14 MASSACHUSETTS Babbitt, Howard S., 321 Dawes Ave., Pittsfield Brown, Daniel L., Esq., 60 State St., Boston Fitts, Walter H., 39 Baker St., Foxboro Fritze, E., Osterville Garlock, Mott A., 17 Arlington Rd., Longmeadow Gauthier, Louis R., Wood Hill Rd., Monson Hanchett, James L., Rt. 1, East Longmeadow Kendall, Henry P., Moose Hill Farm, Sharon La Beau, Henry A., North Hoosic Rd., Williamstown Pinkerton, E. G., 177 Lowden St., Dedham Rice, Horace J., 5 Elm St., Springfield *Russell, Mrs. Newton H., 12 Burnett Ave., South Hadley Short, I. W., 299 Washington St., Taunton Stewart, O. W., 75 Milton Ave., Hyde Park Swartz, H. P., 206 Chicopee St., Chicopee Van Meter, Dr. R. A., French Hall, M.S.C., Amherst Wellman, Sargent H., Esq., Windridge, Topsfield Westcott, Samuel K., 70 Richview Ave., North Adams Weston Nurseries, Inc., Brown & Winters Sts., Weston Weymouth, Paul W., 183 Plymouth St., Holbrook MEXICO Compean, Senor Federico, Gerente, Granjas "Cordelia" Apartado 141, San Luis Potosi, Mexico MICHIGAN Achenbach, W. N., Petoskey Andersen, Charles, Andersen Evergreen Nurseries, Scottsville Barlow, Alfred L., 13079 Flanders Ave., Detroit 5 Becker, Gilbert, Climax Blackman, Orrin C., Box 55, Jackson Bogart, Geo. C., Rt. 2, Three Oaks Boylan, P. B., Cloverdale Bradley, L. J., Rt. 1, Springport Bumler, Malcolm R., 1097 Lakeview, Detroit Burgart, Harry, Michigan Nut Nursery, Rt. 2, Union City Burgess, E. H., Burgess Seed & Plant Co., Galesburg Burr, Redmond M., 320 S. 5th Ave., Ann Arbor Buskey, James, 2932 Marlborough, Detroit 15 Cook, E. A., M. D., Director, County Health Dept., Corunna Corsan, H. H., Rt. 1, Hillsdale Emerson, Ralph, 161 Cortland Ave., Highland Park 3 Germer, C. F., Rt. 2, Burr Oak Hackett, John C, 315 Diamond Ave., S. E., Grand Rapids 6 Hagelshaw, W. J., Box 314, Galesburg Hay, Francis H., Ivanhoe Place, Lawrence Healey, Scott, Rt. 2, Otsego *Kellogg, W. K., Battle Creek King, Harold J., Sodus Korn, G. J., 140 N. Rose St., Kalamazoo 24 Lee, Michael, Lapeer Lemke, Edwin W., 2432 Townsend Ave., Detroit 14 Mann, Charles W., Box 357 Saugatuck Miller, Louis, 130 N. O'Keefe, Cassopolis O'Rourke, Dr. F. L., Hort'l Dept., Michigan State College, E. Lansing Otto, Arnold G., 4150 Three Mile Drive, Detroit Pickles, Arthur W., 760 Elmwood Ave., Jackson Prushek, E., Rt. 3, Niles Scofield, Carl, Box 215, Woodland Stahelin, C. A., Bridgeman Stocking, Frederick N., Harrisville Tate, D. L., 959 Westchester St., Birmingham Wiard, Everett W., 510 S. Huron St., Ypsilanti Witbeck, Mrs. V. H., Rt. 2, Woodland Whallon, Archer P., Rt. 1, Stockbridge Zeket, Arnold, 1955 Catalpa Ct., Ferndale 20 MINNESOTA Andrews, Miss Frances E., 48 Park View Terrace, Minneapolis Hodgson, R. E., Dept, of Agriculture, S. E. Exp. Sta., Waseca Mayo Forestry & Horticultural Institute, Box 498, Rochester Skrukrud, Baldwin, Sacred Heart Weschcke, Carl, 96 S. Wabasha St., St. Paul MISSISSIPPI Meyer, James R., Delta Branch Exper. Station, Stoneville MISSOURI Bauch, G. D., Box 66, Farmington Blake, R. E., c/o International Shoe Co., 1509 Washingtin Ave., St. Louis 3 Campbell, A. T., Robinson Pike, Rt. 1, Grandview Fisher, J. B., R. R. H. 1, Pacific Giesson, Adolph, River Aux Vases Hay, Leander, Gilliam Howe, John, Rt. I, Box 4, Pacific Huber, Frank J., Weingarten Hudson, Perry H., Smithton Johns, Mrs. Jeannette F., Rt. 1, Festus Nicholson, John W., Ash Grove Ochs, C. T., Box 291, Salem Richterkessing, Ralph, Rt. 1, St. Charles Schmidt, Victor H., 4821 Virginia, Kansas City Stanage, John L., 135 So. Rock Hill Rd., Webster Groves Stark Brothers Nurs. & Orchard Co., Louisiana Tainter, Nat A., 714 N. Fifth St., Saint Charles Thompson, J. D., 600 West 63rd St., Kansas City 2 Weil, A. E., c/o Dow Chemical Co., 3615 Olive St., St. Louis 8 NEBRASKA Brand, George, Rt. 5, Box 60, Lincoln Caha, William, Wahoo Ginn, A. M., Box 6, Bayard Hess, Harvey W., The Arrowhead Gardens, Box 209, Hebron Hoyer, L. B., 7554 Maple St., Omaha Lenz, Clifford Q., 3815 Maple St., Omaha 3 Marshall's Nurseries, Arlington Van Arsdale, D. N., 701 N. Fifth St., Beatrice White, Bertha G., 7615 Leighton Ave., Lincoln 5 White, Warren E., 6920 Binney St., Omaha 4 NEW HAMPSHIRE Lahti, Matthew, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro Latimer, Prof. L. P., Dept of Horticulture, Durham Malcolm, Herbert L., The Waumbek Farm, Jefferson Messier, Frank, Rt. 2, Nashua NEW JERSEY Bangs, Ralph E., Allamuchy Beck, Stanley, 12 South Monroe Ave., Wenonah Blake, Dr. Harold, Box 93, Saddle River Bottom, R. J., 41 Robertson Rd., West Orange Brewer, J. L., 10 Allen Place, Fair Lawn Buch, Philip O., 106 Rockaway Ave., Rockaway Buckwalter, Mrs. Alan R., Flemington Buckwalter, Geoffrey R., Route 1, Box 12, Flemington Canfield, Roger I., 549 Fairview Ave., Cedar Grove Cumberland Nursery, Rt. 1, Millville Donnelly, John H., Mountain Ice Co., 51 Newark St., Hoboken Dougherty, Wm. M., Broadacres-on-Bedens, Box 425, Princeton Franek, Michael, 323 Rutherford Ave., Franklin Gardenier, Dr. Harold C., Westwood Hostetter, Amos B., 17 So. Beechcroft Rd., Short Hills *Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly Place, Jersey City Jewett, Edmund Gale, Rt. 1, Port Murray Lovett's Nursery, Inc., Little Silver McCulloch, J. D., 73 George St., Freehold McDowell, Fred, 905 Ocean Ave., Belmar Mueller, R., Rt. 1, Box 81, Westwood Ritchie, Walter M., Rt. 2, Box 122R, Rohway Rocker, Louis P., The Rocker Farm, Andover Sorg, Henry, Chicago Ave., Egg Harbor City Sutton, Ross J., Jr., Rt. 2, Lebanon Szalay, Dr. S., 931 Garrisin Ave., Teaneck Van Doren, Durand H., 310 Redmond Rd., South Orange Yorks, A. S., Lamatonk Nurseries, Neshanic Station NEW YORK Barber, Geo. H., Rt. 1, Stockton Barton, Irving Titus, Montour Falls Bassett, Charles K., 2917 Main St., Buffalo Beck, Paul E., Beck's Guernsey Dairy, Transit Rd., E. Amherst Benton, William A., Wassaic Bernath's Nursery, Rt. 1, Poughkeepsie Bixby, Henry D., East Drive, Halesite, L. I. Blauner, Sidney H., 290 West End Ave., New York Bradbury, Captain H. G., 30 Fifth Ave., New York 11 Brinckeroff, John H., 161-19 Jamaica Ave., Jamaica Brook, Victor, 171 Rockingham St., Rochester Brooks, William G., Monroe Bundick, C. U., 35 Anderson Ave., Scarsdale Carter, George, 428 Avenue A, Rochester 5 Cowan, Harold, 643 Southern Bldg., The Bronx, New York 55. Dasey, Mrs. Eva B., 210 High Bridge St., Fayetteville Dutton, Walter, 264 Terrace Park, Rochester Ellwanger, Mrs. William D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Elsbree, George Jr., Stanfordville, Dutchess Co., New York Engle, Mrs. Charle, Rt. 1, Port Crane Feil, Harry, 1270 Hilton-Spencerport Rd., Hilton Flanigen, Charles F., 16 Greenfield St., Buffalo Freer, H. J., 20 Midvale Rd., Fairport Fribance, A. E., 139 Elmdorf Ave., Rochester 11 Fruch, Alfred, 34 Perry St., New York Garcia, M., c/o Garcia & Diaz, 82 Beaver St., New York 5 Graham, S. H., Rt. 5, Ithaca Graham, Mrs. S. H., Bostwick Road, Ithaca Gressel, Henry, Rt. 2, Mohawk Haas, Dr. Sidney V., 47 West 86th St., New York City Hasbrouck, Walter, Jr., New Platz Hubbell, James F., Mayro Bldg., Utica Iddings, William, 165 Ludlow St., New York Irish, G. Whitney, Valatie Kelly, Mortimer B., 17 Battery Place, New York Knorr, Mrs. Arthur, 15 Central Park, West, Apt. 1406, New York Kraai, Dr. John, Fairport Larkin, Harry H., 189 Van Rensselaer St., Buffalo 10 *Lewis, Clarence, 1000 Park Ave., New York Little, George, Ripley Lowerre, James D., 1121 Bedford Ave., Brooklyn 16 *MacDaniels, Dr. L. H., Cornell University, Ithaca Maloney Brothers Nursery Co., Inc., Dansville Miller, J. E., Canandaigua Mitchell, Rudolph, 125 Riverside Drive, New York 24 *Montgomery, Robert H., 1 E. 44th St., New York Mossman, Dr. James K., Black Oaks, Ramapo Muenscher, Prof. W. C., 1001 Highland Road, Ithaca Newell, P. F., Lake Road, Rt. 1, Westfield Oeder, Dr. Lambert R., 551 Fifth Ave., New York Overton, Willis W., 3 Lathrop St., Carthage Page, Charles E., Rt. 2, Oneida Rauch, Basil, Barnard College Columbia U., New York 27 Rebillard, Frederick, 164 Lark St., Albany 5 Rightmyer, Harold, Rt. 4, Ithaca Salzer, George, 169 Garford Rd., Rochester Sameth, Sigmund, 38 E 65th St., New York 21 Schlegel, Charles B., 990 South Ave., Rochester Schlick, Frank, Munnsville Schmidt, Carl W., 180 Linwood Ave., Buffalo Shank, W., 141 Parkway Road, Room 9, Bronxville Shannon, J. W., Box 90, Ithaca Sheffield, Lewis J., c/o Mrs. Edna C. Jones, Townline Rd., Orangeburg Slate, Prof. George L., Experiment Station, Geneva Smith, Gilbert L., State School, Wassaic Smith, Jay L., Chester Steiger, Harwood, Red Hook Stern-Montagny, Hubert, Erbonia Farm, Gardiner Szego, Alfred, 77-15 A 37th Ave., Jackson Heights, New York Timmerman, Karl G., 123 Chapel St., Fayetteville Todd, E. Murray, 55 Liberty St., New York Waite, Dr. R. H., Willowwaite Moor, Perrysburg Wichlac, Thaddeus, 3236 Genesee St., Cheektowaga (Buffalo) 21 Windisch, Richard P., c/o W. E. Burnet & Co., 11 Wall St., New York *Wissman, Mrs. F. De R., G. W. 54th St., New York NORTH CAROLINA Brooks, J. R., Box 116, Enka Dunstan, Dr. R. T., Greensboro College, Greensboro Finch, Jack R., Bailey Parks, C. H., Rt. 2, Asheville Rice, Clyde H., Rt. 2, Box 158, Mars Hill, N. C. OHIO Barden, C. A., 215 Morgan St., Oberlin Bitler, W. A., 322 McPheron Ave., Lima Bungart, A. A., Avon Bush, David G., Rt. 3, Warren Chapman, Floyd B., 1944 Denune Ave., Columbus 3 Cinadr, Mrs. Katherine, 13514 Coath Ave., Cleveland 20 Clark, R. L., 1184 Melbourne Rd., East Cleveland 12 Cook, H. C., Rt. 1, Box 125, Leetonia Cranz, Eugene F., Mount Tom Farm, Ira Davidson, John, 234 E. 2nd St., Xenia Davidson, Mrs. John, 234 E. 2nd St., Xenia De Leon, Donald, Box 244, Sta. G., Columbus 7 Diller, Dr. Oliver D., Dept. of Forestry, Experiment Sta., Wooster Dubois, Miss Frances M., 4623 Glenshade Ave., Cincinnati 27 Elliott, Donald W., Rogers Emch, F. E., Genoa Evans, Maurice G., 335 S. Main St., Akron 8 Fickes, Mrs. W. R., Rt. 1, Wooster Foraker, Maj. C. Merle, 152 Elmwood Ave., Barberton Foss, H. D., 875 Hamlin St., Akron 2 Franks, M. L., Rt. 1, Montpelier Frederick, Geo. F., 3925 W. 17th, Cleveland 9 Garden Center of Greater Cleveland, 11190 East Blvd., Cleveland Gauly, Dr. Edward, 1110 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Gerber, E. P., Kidron Gerstenmaier, John A., 13 Pond S. W., Massilon Goss, C. E., 922 Dover Ave., Akron 2 Gray, G. A., 3317 Jefferson Ave., Cincinnati 20 Grad, Dr. Edw. A., 1506 Chase St., Cincinnati 23 Haydeck, Carl, 3213 West 73rd St., Cleveland 2 Hill, Dr. Albert A., 4187 Pearl Rd., Cleveland Hoch, Gordon F., 6292 Glade Ave., Cincinnati 30 Hunt, Kenneth W., Yellow Springs Irish, Charles F., 418 E. 105th St., Cleveland Jacobs, Homer L., Davey Tree Expert Co., Kent Jacobs, Mason, 3003 Jacobs Rd., Youngstown Kappel, Owen, Bolivar Kintzel, Frank M., 2506 Briarcliffe Ave., Cincinnati 13 Kirby, R. L., Rt. 2, Blanchester Kratzer, George, Rt. 1, Dalton Krok, Walter P., 925 W. 29th St., Lorain Laditka, Nicholas G., 5322 Stickney Ave., Cleveland 9 Lashley, Charles V., 216 S. Main, Wellington Lehmann, Carl, Union Trust Bldg., Cincinnati Lorenz, R. C., 121 N. Arch St., Fremont Madson, Arthur E., 13608 5th Ave., E. Cleveland 12 McBride, William B., 2398 Brandon Rd., Columbus 8 Metzger, A. J., 724 Euclid Ave., Toledo 5 Neff, William, Martel Nicolay, Chas., 2259 Hess Ave., Cincinnati 11 Oches, Norman M., Rt. 2, Brunswick Osborn, Frank C, 4040 W. 160th St., Cleveland Pomerene, W. H., Coshocton Poston, E. M., Jr., 2640 E. Main, Columbus Ranke, William, Rt. 1, Amelia Rowe, Stanley M., Rt. 1, Box 73, Cincinnati 27 Rummel, E. T., 16613 Laverne Ave., Cleveland 11 Scarff's Sons, W. N., New Carlisle Schaufelberger, Hugo, Rt. 2, Sandusky Seas, D. Edw., 721 South Main St., Orrville Shelton, Dr. E. M., 1468 W. Clifton Blvd., Lakewood 7 Sherman, L. Walter, Mahoning Co., Exp. Farm, Canfield Shessler, Sylvester M., Genoa Silvis, Raymond E., 1725 Lindbergh Ave., N. E., Massillon Smith, L. A., Rt. 1, Uniontown Smith, Sterling A., 630 W. South St., Vermilion Spring Hill Nurseries Co., Tipp City Strauss, Jos., 3640 Epworth Ave., Cincinnati 11 Stocker, C. P., Lorain Products Corp., 1122 F. St., Lorain Sylvarium Gardens, L. E. Crawford, 5499 Columbia Rd., North Olmsted Thomas, W. F., 406 S. Main St., Findlay Toops, Herbert A., 1430 Cambridge Blvd., Columbus Urban, George, 4518 Ardendale Rd., South Euclid 21 Van Voorhis, J. F., 215 Hudson Ave., Apt. B-1, Newark Walker, Carl F., 2851 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland Weaver, Arthur W., 318 Oliver St., Toledo 4 *Weber, Harry R., Esq., 123 E. 6th St., Cincinnati Weber, Mrs. Martha R., Rt. 1, Morgan Rd., Cleves Whitney, Charles E., West Mansfield Willett, Dr. G. P., Elmore William, Harry M., 221 Grandon Rd., Dayton 9, Ohio Wischhusen, J. F., 15031 Shore Acres Dr., N. E., Cleveland 10 Yoder, Emmet, Smithville OKLAHOMA Butler, Roy, Rt. 2, Hydro Cross, Prof. Frank B., Dept, of Hort., Stillwater Hirschi's Nursery, 414 N. Robinson, Oklahoma City Hubbard, Orie B., Kingston Hughes, C. V., Rt. 3, Box 564, Oklahoma City 8 Jarrett, C. F., 2208 W. 40th, Tulsa Meek, E. B., Rt. 2, Wynnewood Pulliam, Gordon, 407 Osage Ave., Bartlesville Ruhlen, Dr. Chas. A., 114 W. Steele, Cushing Swan, Oscar E., Jr., 1226 E. 30th St., Tulsa 5 OREGON Borland, Robert E., 219 Mill St., Silverton Butler, Joe C., Sherwood Carlton Nursery Co., Forest Grove Dohanian, S. M., P. O. Box 246, Eugene Miller, John E., Rt. 1, Box 312-A, Oswego Pearcy, Harry L., H. L. Pearcy Nursery Co., Rt. 2, Box 190, Salem Schuster, C. E., Horticulturist, Corvallis Sheppard, Chas. M., Tucker Road, Hood River PENNSYLVANIA Allaman, R. P., Rt. 1, Harrisburg Anundson, Lester, 2630 Chestnut St., Erie Banks, H. C., Rt. 1, Hellertown Beard, H. K., Rt. 1, Sheridan Berst, Chas. B., 655 Brown Ave., Erie Bowen, John C., Rt. 1, Macungie Breneiser, Amos P., 427 N. 5th St., Reading Buckman, C. M., Schwenkville Catterall, Karl P., 734 Frank St., Pittsburgh 10 Clarke, Wm. S., Jr., Box 167, State College Colwell, F. A., R.F.D., Collegeville Creasy, Luther P., Catawissa Damask, Henry, 1632 Doyle St., Wilkinsburg Dewey, Richard, Box 41, Peckville Dible, Samuel E., Rt. 3, Shelocta Eckhart, Pierce, 573 Haddington St., Philadelphia 31 Etter, Fayette, P. O. Box 57, Lemasters Gardner, Ralph D., Box 425, Colonial Park Gibson, Ralph, 331 Center St., Williamsport Good, Orren S., 316 N. Fairview St., Lock Haven Gorton, F. B., Rt. 1, East Lake Road, Harbor Creek, Erie Co. Heasley, George S., Rt. 3, Beaver Falls Heckler, George Snyder, Hatfield Hershey, John W., Nut Tree Nurseries, Downingtown Hostetter, C. F., Bird-In-Hand Hostetter, L. K., Rt. 5, Lancaster Hughes, Douglas, 1230 East 21st St., Erie Johnson, Robert F., Rt. 5, Box 56, Crafton Jones, Mildred M., 301 N. West End Ave., Lancaster Jones, Dr. Truman W., Coatesville Kaufman, M. M., Clarion Kirk, DeNard B., Forest Grove Knouse, Chas. W., Colonial Park Laboski, George T., Rt. 1, Harbor Creek Leach, Hon. Will, Court House, Scranton Long, Carleton C., 138 College Ave., Beaver Mattoon, H. Gleason, Narbeth McCartney, J. Lupton, Rm. 1, Horticultural Bldg., State College Mercer, Robert A., Rt. 1, Perkesmenville, New Hanover Miller, Elwood B., c/o The Hazleton Bleaching & Dyeing Works, Hazleton Miller, Elwood B., c/o The Hazleton Bleaching & Dyeing Works, Moyer, Philip S., U. S. F. & G. Bldg., Harrisburg Niederriter, Leonard, 1726 State St., Erie Parloff, Robert, 2018 N. Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. Ranson, Flavel, 728 Monroe Ave., Scranton 10 Reece, W. S., Clearfield Reidler, Paul G., Ashland Rial, John, 528 Harrison Ave., Greensburg *Rick, John, 438 Pennsylvania Sq., Reading Rupp, Edward E., Jr., 57 W. Pomfret St., Carlisle Schaible, Percy, Upper Black Eddy Smith, Dr. J. Russell, 550 Elm Ave., Swarthmore Stewart, E. L., Pine Hill Farms Nursery, Rt. 2, Homer City Stewart, John H., Yule Tree Farm, Akeley Stinson, George, Box 77, Bedminster Theiss, Dr. Lewis E., Bucknell University, Lewisburg Twist, Frank S., Northumberland Washick, Dr. Frank A., S. W. Welsh & Veree Rds., Philadelphia 11 Weinrich, Whitney, 134 S. Lansdowne Ave., Lansdowne *Wister, John C., Scott Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore Wood, Wayne, Rt. 1, Newville Wright, Ross Pier, 235 West 6th St., Erie Zimmerman, Mrs. G. A., Piketown, R. D., Linglestown RHODE ISLAND *Allen, Philip, 178 Dorance St., Providence R. I. State College, Library Dept., Green Hall, Kingston SOUTH CAROLINA Bregger, John T., Clemson Gordon, G. Henry, Union, Union Co. Poole, M. C., Cross Anchor SOUTH DAKOTA Bradley, Homer L., Sand Lake Refuge, Columbia TENNESSEE Chase, S. B., Norris Garrett, Dr. Sam Young, Dixon Springs Holdeman, J. E., 208 Shrine Bldg., Memphis 3 Howell Nurseries, Sweetwater Lowe, Dr. Jere., Thayer Vet. Hospital, Nashville 5 McDaniel, J. C., Tenn. Dept. of Agriculture, 403 State Office Bldg., Nashville 3 Rhodes, G. B., Rt. 2, Covington Richards, Dr. A., Whiteville Shadow, Willis A., County Agt., Decatur Roark, W. F., Malesus Zarger, Thomas G., Norris TEXAS Arford, Charles A., Box 1230, Dalhart Bailey, L. B., Box 1436, Phillips Buser, C. J., Rt. 1, Arp Florida, Kaufman, Box 154, Rotan Gray, O. S., P. O. Box 513, Arlington Kidd, Clark, Arp Nursery Co., Tyler Price, W. S., Jr., Gustine Winkler, Andrew, Moody UTAH Jeppeson, Chris, Wildwood Hollow Farm Nursery, Provo City Oleson, Granville, 1210 Laird Ave., Salt Lake City 5 Peterson, Harlan D., 2164 Jefferson Ave., Ogden VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., Rt. 3, Springfield Collins, Jos. N., Rt. 3, Pultney Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven, Perpetual Membership "In Memoriam" Farrington, Robert A., Vermont Forest Service, Montpelier Foster, Forest K., West Topsham Ladd, Paul, Hilltop Farm, Jamaica VIRGINIA Acker, E. D., Co., Broadway Burton, George L., 728 College St., Bedford Case, Lynn B., Rt. 1, Fredericksburg Dickerson, T. C., 316-56th St., Newport News Gibbs, H. R., McLean Gunther, Eric F., Rt. 1, Box 31, Onancock Nelson, C. L., 964 Avenel Ave., Lee Hy. Ct., Roanoke Nix, Robert W., Jr., Lucketts Pertzoff, Dr. V. A., Carter's Bridge Pinner, H. McR., P. O. Box 155, Suffolk Stoke, H. F., 1420 Watts Ave., N. W., Roanoke Stoke, Mrs. H. F., 1420 Watts Ave., N. W., Roanoke Stoke, Dr. John H., 408-10 Boxley Bldg., Roanoke Thompson, B. H., Harrisonburg Variety Products Co., 5 Middlebrook Ave., Staunton Webb, John, Hillsville Zimmerman, Ruth, Bridgewater WEST VIRGINIA Cannaday, Dr. John E., Charleston General Hospital, Charleston 25 Cross, Andrew, Ripley Frye, Wilbert M., Pleasant Dale Glenmount Nurseries, Arthur M. Reed, Moundsville Gold Chestnut Nursery, Arthur A. Gold, Cowen Hoover, Wendell W., Webster Springs White, Roscoe R., 635 Mulberry Ave., Clarksburg White, Wayne G., 833 Glendale Ave., So. Charleston 3 WASHINGTON Altman, Mrs. H. E., 2338 King St., Bellingham 9 Barth, J. H., Box 1827, Rt. 3, Spokane 16 Bartleson, C. J., Box 25, Chattaroy Biddle, Miss Gertrude W., W. 923 Gordon Ave., Spokane 12 Brown, H. B., Greenacres Bush, Carroll D., Grapeview Clark, R. W., 4221 Phinney Ave., Seattle Denman, George L., 1319 East Nina Ave., Spokane 10 Garvin, Mrs. Mildred S., W. 3408 2nd Ave., Spokane 9 Harrison, Geo. C., Greenacres Hyatt, L. W., 2826 West La Crosse, Spokane 12 Jessup, J. M., Cook Kling, William L., Rt. 2, Box 230, Clarkston Latterell, Ethel, Greenacres Linkletter, F. D., 8034-35th Ave., N. E., Seattle 5 Lynn Tuttle Nursery, The Heights, Clarkston Naderman, G. W., Rt. 1, Box 381, Olympia Rodgers, W. R., N. 1411 Mamer, Opportunity Shane Bros., Vashon Watt, Mrs. L. J., W. 203 16th Ave., Spokane 9 WISCONSIN Bassett, W. S., 1522 Main St., La Crosse Brust, John J., 135 W. Wells St., Milwaukee 3 Dopkins, Marvin, Rt. 1, River Falls Heberlein, Edw. W., Box 747, Milwaukee Johnson, Albert G., Rt. 2, Box 457, Waukesha Koelsch, Norman, Jackson Ladwig, C. F., 2221 St. Lawrence, Beloit Mortensen, M. C., 2117 Stanson Ave., Racine Reische, Frank C., Rt. 1, Plymouth Zinn, Walter G., P. O. Box 747, Milwaukee WYOMING Greene, W. D., Box 348, Greybull =* Life Member ** Honorary member= CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I--NAME This Society shall be known as the =Northern Nut Growers Association, Incorporated=. ARTICLE II--OBJECT Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III--MEMBERSHIP Membership in this society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV--OFFICERS There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary and a treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and a board of directors consisting of six persons, of which the president, the two last retiring presidents, the vice-president, the secretary and the treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V--ELECTION OF OFFICERS A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI--MEETINGS The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the board of directors shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and board of directors. ARTICLE VII--QUORUM Ten members of the Association shall constitute a quorum but must include two of the four officers. ARTICLE VIII--AMENDMENTS This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I--COMMITTEES The Association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on exhibits, on varieties and contests, on survey, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the Association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II--FEES Annual members shall pay two dollars annually. Contributing members shall pay ten dollars annually. Life members shall make one payment of fifty dollars and shall be exempt from further dues and shall be entitled to the same benefits as annual members. Honorary members shall be exempt from dues. "Perpetual" membership is eligible to any one who leaves at least five hundred dollars to the Association and such membership on payment of said sum to the Association shall entitle the name of the deceased to be forever enrolled in the list of members as "Perpetual" with the words "In Memoriam" added thereto. Funds received therefor shall be invested by the Treasurer in interest bearing securities legal for trust funds in the District of Columbia. Only the interest shall be expended by the Association. When such funds are in the Treasury the Treasurer shall be bonded. Provided: that in the event the Association becomes defunct or dissolves then, in that event, the Treasurer shall turn over any funds held in his hands for this purpose for such uses, individuals or companies that the donor may designate at the time he makes the bequest or the donation. ARTICLE III--MEMBERSHIP All annual memberships shall begin September 1st. Annual dues received from new members shall entitle the new member to full membership until the next August 31st, including a copy of the Annual Report published for the fiscal year in which he joins the Association. ARTICLE IV--AMENDMENTS By-Laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present at any meeting. ARTICLE V Members shall be sent a notification of annual dues at the time they are due and, if not paid within two months, they shall be sent a second notice, telling them that they are not in good standing on account of non-payment of dues and are not entitled to receive the annual report. At the end of thirty days from the sending of the second notice, a third notice shall be sent notifying such members that, unless dues are paid within ten days from the receipt of this notice, their names will be dropped from the rolls for non-payment of dues. PROCEEDINGS of the Thirty-eighth Annual Convention of the Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc. Meeting At ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE GUELPH, ONTARIO, CANADA SEPTEMBER 3-5, 1947 [Illustration: NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, INC. CONVENTION ONTARIO AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE SEPTEMBER 3-5, 1947] The meeting was called to order by Dr. L. H. MacDaniels in the absence of Clarence A. Reed, our President, who was ill and could not attend the meeting. Telegram from the Rev. Paul C. Crath: "Let the Lord bless you and keep you. I am sorry I am unable to attend the present meetings." Address of Welcome DR. J. S. SHOEMAKER, Head of Horticulture Department, Ontario Agricultural College. Our President, Mr. W. R. Reek, had hoped to be here in person to extend this welcome to you but he has found it necessary to go to Toronto today. He regrets that he cannot meet with you at this time, and has asked me to welcome you. Mr. Reek has shown a great deal of interest in this convention and I am sure you will find definite evidence of this in our hospitality while you are here. In looking through your 37th Annual Report I noticed that the address of welcome at your meeting in Wooster, Ohio, last year was given by Dr. L. H. Gourley. I held the position of Associate Horticulturist at Wooster and Columbus for some 10 years, and so knew Dr. Gourley intimately. His sudden death was a great shock to myself and his many other friends, and a great loss to horticulture. My 10 years with Dr. Gourley was a very pleasant, helpful, and exceedingly important part of my career. I am very happy that you have come to the Ontario Agricultural College for your convention this year. As a simple matter of fact, the O. A. C. is one of the oldest and largest colleges of agriculture in the British Empire. It is the second oldest agriculture college in North America, Michigan State being the only older one. We are an affiliated college of the University of Toronto and function as the Faculty of Agriculture of the University of Toronto. I believe the enrollment at the University of Toronto is in the neighborhood of 18,000 students. There will be about 1,500 students on this campus in a few weeks. Most of these will be in the four-year course which leads to the B.S.A. degree. Some will be in the two-year course. The Ontario Veterinary College is also located on this campus, as is the MacDonald Institute which provides courses for girls. The O. A. C, like the Horticultural Experiment Station at Vineland, comes under the Minister of Agriculture, the Honourable T. L. Kennedy. The Vineland Station and we ourselves co-operate closely in horticultural work. No doubt many of you have visited Vineland and met Director E. F. Palmer. You will hear from two members of the Vineland staff, Mr. Strong and Mr. Van Haarlem on tomorrow's programme. I spent some 13 years in the United States--at Ames, Iowa; East Lansing, Michigan; St. Paul, Minnesota; and Wooster and Columbus, Ohio. There are in this audience some good friends of long standing whom I first met in the United States. They are probably surprised to hear that I graduated from this institution, but as an Irishman would say "That I did," some 26 years ago. I expect that all of you are familiar with the contributions made by James A. Neilson in the field of nut growing. Mr. Neilson was a member of the staff here some years ago. He left his mark throughout Ontario, and in the field of nut growing in general. We are happy that Mrs. Neilson, who is a life member of the Association, is attending this Convention. I am sure you will agree that the campus here is a very beautiful one. The dining hall and the residence may surpass what you expected to find. It is a real privilege to have you in our Horticulture building. We made certain plans for your entertainment at the mixer and banquet. In brief, we are delighted that you have come, we know from the programme that the meetings will be good ones, and we hope that our hospitality will meet with your full approval. We indeed welcome you here. RESPONSE Dr. L. H. MacDaniels: "In reply to Dr. Shoemaker's address of welcome we are certainly happy to be here and appreciate the excellent arrangements which have been made for our entertainment. Dr. Shoemaker spoke about the work done on nut trees several years ago by Mr. Neilson in Canada. I am familiar with the work of Mr. Neilson and hope that at some time someone on the staff in Canada will give more time to the culture of nut trees. That goes for the United States as well. Nut trees, if you have the facilities and good varieties, are something that will make living more enjoyable and worthwhile. I do appreciate very heartily the trouble you have gone to in making facilities so acceptable and useful." =Presidential Address=--Mr. Reed was unable to be present and preside at the meeting because of illness. This telegram was sent to him: Telegram to Clarence A. Reed, Garfield Hospital, Washington, D. C. "The Northern Nut Growers Association last night received the news of your illness with deepest regret. We appreciate your long and earnest work in our field. You have been one of the 'spark plugs' of our organization and we all miss your presence. SECRETARY." COMMITTEES APPOINTED Resolutions Committee--W. Rohrbacher, Sterling Smith, J. Russell Smith, Wm. Hodgson. Auditing Committee--Royal Oakes, R. P. Allaman, Gilbert Smith. SECRETARY'S REPORT, SEPT. 3, 1947 Miss Mildred M. Jones The duties of the Secretary during the year were of the usual routine nature. Three separate mailings of information to all members were made. The 1944 report is now exhausted, partly because of the long season in which it was current, and partly because there were several articles in it which were of vital interest to a number of people who were not members of the Association. In March of this year an article appeared in Organic Gardening magazine which referred to our report and the Hemming chestnut trees which were described in the 1944 report. As a result of this one article I was obliged to return more than $30.00 which had been sent to me, a dollar from each person, for this report. I returned the money with a letter to each person telling them Mr. Hemming would bring his report up to date at our meeting this year, telling them about the work of our Association, and inviting them to join our group so they could keep up with progress being made in nut tree culture as the information became available. The sale of reports other than membership this past year amounted to $135.00. This amount includes 5 sets of reports which sell for $8.00 per set. About $95.00 of this amount was for single copies at $1.00 per copy to non-members. Since our printing costs have increased considerably, and since we are handling the mailing and printing of these reports at $1.00 per copy at almost a loss, it would seem advisable to raise the price to non-members. Every member can help us increase our membership. We have a number of members who are equipped with writing ability and by writing articles about interesting nut trees and mentioning our Association and the Secretary many, many inquiries are received. To these inquiries we can send our four page information folder or answer questions and thus we can increase our membership by letting people who are interested in nut trees know about our Association. On February 28, 1947, Mr. George L. Denman wrote me that at different times he had two articles about nuts and nut trees in the Spokesman-Review of Spokane. He said the result was rather surprising and he requested fifty copies of our folder to assist him and make it easier to answer inquiries. If our Association can be mentioned in the article, many inquiries will come direct to the Secretary and thus save the author the work of answering questions if he does not have time to do so. The article written by Mr. Davidson in December, 1946, American Fruit Grower brought in over 100 inquiries to the Secretary's office. The Secretary's office has a number of calls for information regarding sources of nuts and nut kernels for private consumption or planting. Chestnuts seem to head the list the past year--mostly for planting. Requests are also received regarding information for market outlets, nut cracking equipment, nut shelling plants, trees, budwood and graftwood. Anything you may do to supply this and other kinds of information about nut trees will be appreciated. The Secretary of the American Horticultural Society, Inc., with whom we are affiliated, has expressed the desire of that Society for ideas as to how we may both profit more from this affiliation. Their need, like ours, is for more members, more and better articles for the National Horticultural Magazine. Mr. Reed has contributed several worthwhile articles to this magazine. The Editor would like to have more articles about nut trees from our members. The National Horticultural Magazine is nicely printed and bound, issued four times a year, and is well illustrated with pictures of the horticultural subjects described in each issue. Dues in this society are $2.00 per year if you are a member of our Society, $3.00 if you are not. You can ask our Treasurer to bill you for membership at the same time membership in our Association is billed, or membership may be sent direct to The American Horticultural Society, 821 Washington Loan and Trust Building, Washington 4, D. C. Our membership at present is 621 according to my present mailing list which has been corrected to paid-up members. During the war all members who were thought to be in the armed forces were carried along without the payment of dues according to our Treasurer's report of last year. For this reason we can use only our income as an indication of our growth during those years. The question of a seal for the Association came up at the time of the Ellis legacy. Our member, Sargent H. Wellman, Boston, Mass., represented the Association, and payment was made finally without our seal being shown. It may be well to consider whether we may need a seal in the future and if so to take the necessary steps to have one made. The American Fruit Grower magazine has printed quite regularly the column "Nut Growers News". They also refer nut tree inquiries to us and have indicated their interest and further cooperation. They devoted an entire issue to nuts last December. A number of our members during the year do much work for the Association and it is here that I wish to acknowledge all of the help and assistance the Secretary has had from the various committees and members. The printing of the report for 1946 and the responsibility of getting it mailed was due mostly to the work and effort of Mr. Stoke, and Mr. Reed. It was a real pleasure to work with the members of the Staff at Ontario Agricultural College with whom I had considerable correspondence during the year in arranging for our meeting this year. It has been a real pleasure to serve in the capacity of Secretary to this organization and I regret that lack of time to do this work as it should be done makes me feel it is necessary to relinquish this post. I shall always continue my interest in the Association. Dr. MacDaniels: "More articles should be written for magazines as one way in which to increase membership." Telegram from Dr. W. C. Deming was read: "Infirmities of age detain me. Congratulations on membership and on accomplishments. Everything depends on good officers. Present officers are ideal but young members should now take over. Don't wear out the old ones. W. C. DEMING, Dean." This telegram was sent to Dr. W. C. Deming: Sept. 3, 1947. "We had hoped you would be with us. Your telegram evoked many warm appreciations of your great and long service to our organization and the cause of nut growers in the North. Warmest greetings from N.N.G.A. SECRETARY." J. Russell Smith: "Dr. Deming was one of the five founders of the Association. He did an excellent job on the reports and in compiling the cumulative index. He is Dean of the Association." Report of Committee on Time and Place: Prof. Slate reported three invitations, the most attractive at the present time being the invitation to meet at Norris, Tenn. Prof. Slate: "In order to bring the matter to a head, I move we hold our 1948 meeting at Norris, Tenn., or wherever arrangements can be made convenient to that point." Stoke: "Second." Passed with unanimous approval. Report on the Ohio Contest--Sterling Smith: "The Ohio contest had 692 entries. Mr. Chase helped with the judging. A number of good walnuts were brought out. The data for the first ten is given in the 1946 annual report. We are trying to find out what the parent trees are doing--what they were bearing in the past and also this year. This is to be done for 5 years. Ohio has 90 members which puts them in the lead--ahead of New York." J. Russell Smith: "I greatly appreciate the report given. I approve of the 5 year plan. It would bring in members." Sterling Smith: "Couldn't we offer $100.00 or more for a really outstanding black walnut that would meet certain specifications? Our good walnuts now run about 25 grams and 32% kernel." Dr. MacDaniels: "Is there anyone present who helped with the judging of this contest?" Mr. Chase: "It required over 2 weeks with 4 to 6 persons to crack and cull out the ones we knew were not worth further consideration. One-tenth passed the screening test. The nut selected is one in ten-thousand expectancy. This contest brought out some outstanding nuts. The judges didn't have much trouble selecting No. 1. The next four were harder to place. The third prize went to Pennsylvania and the eighth prize to West Virginia." Report of Treasurer For Period from September 1, 1946 to August 30, 1947. INCOME: Annual Memberships $1,212.00 Philip Allen Life Membership 50.00 Sale of Reports 44.00 Ellis Legacy 12.50 Miscellaneous 5.60 --------- Total Income $1,324.10 DISBURSEMENTS: Fruit Grower Subscriptions $ 80.80 President's Expense 10.00 Secretary's Expense 59.50 Treasurer's Expense 45.80 Supplies 77.66 Banquet 1946 Meeting 22.32 Reporter 1946 Meeting 25.00 Ellis Legacy Bond & Addition 1,000.00 Treasurer's Bond 12.50 Report for 1945 569.84 Report for 1946 821.83 Postage & Envelopes 49.03 Miscellaneous 19.20 --------- Total Disbursements $2,793.54 Balance on Hand September 3, 1946 $3,259.88 Receipts for the Year 1,324.10 --------- Total $4,583.98 Disbursements for Year 2,793.54 Balance August 30, 1947 $1,790.44 --------- In Walker Savings Bank $ 633.92 In Peoples Savings Bank 1,056.44 Cash and Checks on hand 100.08 --------- Subtotal $1,790.44 Secretary has on hand 26.71 --------- Balance $1,817.15 D. C. SNYDER, _Treasurer_ * * * * * Member: "The charge of $1.00 to non-members for the current report--shouldn't the price of the reports be increased to cover the increased costs of printing?" Mr. Snyder: "I think the amount should be increased as the cost of the report is almost $1.00 now, and with handling and mailing we are doing this at a loss if we continue to sell the report for $1.00." McCollum: "Shouldn't the price of a full set of reports be raised? They are sold at the same price now as they were a number of years ago. Several volumes have been added. I believe the price should be increased." Prof. Slate: "Some years go out of print about as soon as new ones come along." Dr. Rohrbacher: "I move we sell our current and last year's report at $2.00 per copy." Second by Mr. Silvis. Mr. Corsan: "Nut enthusiasts and nut groups haven't the slightest hesitancy in parting with $2.00." Member: "A non-member paying $2.00 for the annual report would automatically become a member." J. Russell Smith: "I would like to recommend that if at all possible an index be included in each volume of our report as it is published. A volume like this has 50 or 75 different articles but no mention in the title reveals the content of the article which makes it a job to try to refer back to or use these reports for reference. An index would make them much more valuable. This is not a job for the Secretary, it is a technical job. I would like to make a motion, if the Executive Committee finds it feasible, that this be done." Second by Mr. Silvis. Dr. Colby: "Don't you think that index should begin with the volume Dr. Deming finished? I suggest that the executive Committee arrange for compiling of the index subsequent to and including 1940." Mr. Corsan: "I would like to suggest that the nut exhibit be left at O.A.C. permanently because of the large number of visitors who come here and who would see it. This would help to increase our membership." * * * * * Report from the Constitution and By-Laws Committee--Dr. MacDaniels. * * * * * Dr. Crane: "I move we accept the report of the Committee and suggested changes be voted on item by item." Mr. Silvis: "Second." The question of whether the entire Constitution and By-Laws should be read at this meeting or mimeographed and mailed to each member was considered. Prof. Slate: "I move the Constitution be taken up now." Dr. Colby: "Second." The motion was carried. Dr. MacDaniels read the Constitution and By-Laws and they will be voted on at the 1948 meeting. J. Russell Smith: "I move that '10 days' notice for change in the Constitution be changed to '30 days'." Seconded by Mr. Silvis. Motion carried. On fiscal year--Dr. Rohrbacher: "I suggest the fiscal year be changed to January 1 through to the end of December." Mr. Snyder: "I can see no improvement in changing the fiscal year. If we are to hold our meetings the first part of September each year it would be better to have our fiscal year ended August 31." Dr. MacDaniels: "I move that our fiscal year be from September 1st to August 31st and I move that the annual dues include a report for only the year you join." Motion carried. Factors Influencing the Hardiness of Woody Plants H. L. CRANE, Principal Horticulturist[1] There is hardly any soil or climatic condition found in the world where it is not possible for at least one or more kinds of plants to be grown. This is possible because the plants that can be grown under the most adverse conditions have special structures and adaptations with regard to periods of growth and rest or dormancy. One of the most important adaptations of nearly all trees and shrubs that shed their leaves in autumn and survive freezing weather without injury for a part of the year, is that of rest. This rest in plants is somewhat similar to sleep in animals in that it is a period in which the life process activities take place slowly. In other words, the plant physiologist defines rest in living plants as that period in which their buds will not open and grow even though the temperature, moisture, and other external environmental conditions are highly suitable for growth. [Footnote 1: Division of Fruit and Vegetable Crops and Disease, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Research Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture.] Different kinds of deciduous plants have or require rest periods of different lengths, just as some people require more sleep than do others. Two or three weeks may be enough for soft-shelled almonds but three or four months may be required for butternuts, to cite extremes. The Eastern black walnut requires more rest than most Persian walnut clones, and they more than the Southern California black walnut. Even within a species there is considerable difference in the rest period of individual seedling trees and certain clones. For example, it has been found that the varieties of Persian walnut grown in northern California and in Oregon, such as Franquette and Mayette, have the longest rest period; and those grown in Southern California, such as Placentia, Ehrhardt, Chase, and others, have the shortest rest period. It is quite possible that the clones and seedlings of the Persian walnut brought to this country a few years ago by the Rev. Paul Crath from the Carpathian Mountains of Poland may require the longest rest period of all. The question may be asked what causes or brings on this rest period in plants and what breaks it? The scientific answers to these questions are not known at this time, but we do know some of the factors which cause the initiation of rest and how it is broken. Tree growth is initiated in the spring with coming of warm weather and other suitable conditions. At first the rate of growth is slow; but the rate increases and goes through a maximum and then slows up again and finally ceases. On the cessation of growth in length, a terminal bud is formed and the tree begins to go into rest. This period of growth is determined by the age of the tree, the suitability of moisture and nutrient supply. Young trees grow longer during the spring and summer than do old ones. Deficiencies of soil moisture or nutrients or both cause the cessation of growth and the beginning of rest. In some trees, such as tung, cessation of growth and the initiation of rest is caused by the change from long to short day-lengths. After rest has begun, the longer it continues the more profound or deeper it becomes until a maximum is reached, i.e., it becomes increasingly difficult, up to a certain time, to make the trees start growth again even though optimum conditions are provided. Some trees such as Persian walnuts and pecans, for example, are slow to go into deep or profound rest in late summer or fall. For this reason, there may be several cycles or periods of growth during the summer and early fall, depending on weather conditions and whether the leaves on the trees have remained in a healthy condition. Under conditions of dry weather growth stops on the Persian walnut and pecan and when this is followed by a rainy period and warm weather growth begins again. In fact in early summer a walnut or pecan tree may form terminal buds on all the shoots and remain without growth long enough for an apple or pear tree to go into complete or profound rest; then later, new shoot growth may be made from all or nearly all of the walnut or pecan shoots. Not only is this an important factor in promoting susceptibility to cold injury but in the case of bearing trees more often than not this late growth prevents the proper development of the kernels in the nuts and they are poorly filled or shriveled at harvest. Should the leaves of these trees in midsummer or later be so seriously damaged by disease or insects as to result in partial or complete defoliation, new growth is generally sure to follow even in late fall if growing conditions are suitable. This habit permits such trees to grow so late that there is much greater danger of severe injury from late fall or early winter than is the case with most other deciduous fruit trees. Furthermore, it explains why we see so much cold injury in the shoots and limbs of trees; they had grown late and had no chance to develop hardiness before killing temperatures occurred. After the rest in trees has become deep or profound a certain amount of chilling temperature must prevail before the rest period is broken so as to permit the buds to open and grow normally on the approach of warm weather. This is often spoken of as the chilling requirement. If the rest period is not broken by a suitable amount of chilling, tree growth is very slow to start in the spring, and then only certain of the longer and stronger twigs may force into growth; water sprouts may develop on the trunks and main limbs; flower buds may not open but fall off; and even though the trees may flower the flowering period is long and few or no fruits or nuts may be set. The most effective chilling temperature is not known but we can be reasonably certain that temperatures of 45°F. to 32°F. are just as effective in breaking the winter rest period as are those well below freezing, if not more so. This chilling requirement is essentially the same as the rest period. Almonds have a short rest period and require 2 to 3 weeks of chilling, while butternuts, with a long rest period, may require 3 or 4 months. When the tree has been subjected to adequate chilling the rest period is broken and with the oncoming of warm weather growth, blossoming and fruit setting is normal. A distinction of great importance from a physiological and a practical point of view is made between rest and dormancy in plants. This difference can be simply stated: plants, trees, or seeds that will not grow when external environmental conditions are favorable for growth are in rest, but after the rest period has been broken and they do not grow because of unfavorable conditions they are said to be dormant. The difference between rest period and dormancy is of great importance in the United States in determining the amount of cold injury that may be sustained by woody plants. Furthermore, it explains why certain plants may be successfully grown in much colder parts of the world and yet fail here. Our winter weather conditions are not uniform, in that it is quite common for us to have quite long periods of alternating warm and cold weather. Too often during mid-or late winter the weather may be quite warm for several days, with above-freezing temperatures even at night, only to be quickly followed by a sudden and extreme drop in temperature. Such conditions are almost certain to result in cold injury to at least certain kinds of woody plants in which the rest period had been broken prior to the occurrence of warm weather, especially so if conditions are favorable for initiation of growth. The plants that were still in the rest period at the time of the warm weather or those with high heat requirement to start growth (as for example, the pecan) would be the only ones that would escape injury. To illustrate with an example: The Chinese chestnut tree has a shorter rest period or less chilling requirement than does the average Persian walnut tree. Now suppose that during the months of November and December a sufficient number of hours of chilling temperatures were experienced to break the rest period or to satisfy the chilling requirement of the Chinese chestnut but not that of the Persian walnut. Then suppose there was a period of two weeks or more of warm weather in January and it was ended by a very sudden drop to below freezing temperatures. Later we would expect to find that some parts or tissues of the Chinese chestnut trees had been injured while the Persian walnut trees had survived without injury. Similar differences would be expected with other crops, such as peaches and apples, that have a difference in rest period or chilling requirement. Under the conditions just described the parts or tissues of the tree that are most likely to be injured are those that first become active with the coming of warm weather, such as the pith in the wood, the lower buds, and later the cambium or the leaf buds. This explains why peach fruit buds and the catkins of the European filbert are often killed in the East during the winter. Some kinds of woody plants are very much hardier than are other kinds. For example, the butternut is hardier than the eastern black walnut and the almond is hardier than the tung tree. Hardiness is only a relative term and can be determined only when the different kinds of plants are in the same physiological condition as regards growth or activity. Just what it is that makes a difference in the hardiness or ability to withstand low temperatures without injury is not known. However, over the years, experience and research have taught us that there are a number of factors that affect the hardiness of woody plants. There is a very great difference between the temperature that will cause injury to a tree tissue when it is in active growth and most tender in the spring and that required when it is most resistant in midwinter. With some trees this difference in temperature is as much as 50° to 60°F. or even more. With woody plants, the tissues are least hardy in spring when they are growing rapidly, and as the season progresses hardiness normally increases provided that second or late growth does not occur. There are many changes that take place in the tissues of a tree as hardiness is developed: the moisture content is reduced; cell walls are thickened; the concentration of sugars, starches, and other carbohydrates becomes greater; there is the formation of pentosans, gums, and waxes; and the respiration and other life processes become slower. However, none of these offer a full and satisfactory explanation of why the plant becomes as resistant to cold as it does. All of these changes and probably many others play a part in developing hardiness in woody plants. Maximum hardiness is developed only by trees that support a large area of normal leaves continuously from the time of foliation in the spring until late fall when they are killed by frost. Attacks by insects or diseases that injure the leave or cause partial or complete defoliation at any time during the spring, summer, or before the occurrence of frost in the fall, not only prevent the development of maximum hardiness of the trees, but such defoliation results in reduced growth of the trees and in poor filling of the nuts. The importance of maintaining a large area of healthy leaves on the trees during the entire growing season can hardly be too strongly stressed. This is because trees that hold their leaves are strong, vigorous trees and are the ones best able to withstand cold, as well as other adversities, without injury. This, however, does not mean that fertilizer applications should be made in late summer or that cultivation should be practiced at that time, which would tend under suitable conditions to stimulate late growth of the trees. This is because some trees like the Persian walnut are slow to go into rest at best and practices that stimulate late growth of the trees cause them to be susceptible to cold injury especially in late fall or early winter. I have seen very severe injury and killing of pecan trees in south Georgia as a result of spring fertilizer applications which, because of drouth, did not become available to the trees until late August and early September and then caused second growth of the trees. In the case of walnuts and pecans, especially, but also others than are not sprayed for the control of diseases and insects, it is not uncommon for the trees to become defoliated in late summer and while bearing a crop of nuts. Very often this premature defoliation results in the production of a new crop of leaves and some shoot growth. This is one of the worst conditions one can have in an orchard, for the nuts are certain to be very poorly filled and the trees especially susceptible to cold injury. In such a case as this, the nuts withdraw carbohydrates, proteins and minerals from the leaves and wood of the tree for their development and the production of new leaves and shoots has a like effect. This all results in such a severe removal or using up of the materials involved in the development? of hardiness that such trees are very susceptible to cold injury. Woody plants to be resistant to cold injury must be well nourished. Unbalanced mineral nutrition of trees is a very important factor in determining the amount of injury they may sustain from cold weather. In the various parts of the United States the soils on which fruit and nut trees are grown generally do not supply in adequate amounts some one or more of the essential elements required in their nutrition. This condition results in unbalanced nutrition, in that too much of certain elements is absorbed by the trees and too little of certain other elements. Under severe conditions this causes the leaves to be abnormal in size or in form, for them to be chlorotic or to scorch or burn, or for them to drop prematurely. Such leaves do not function properly, they are not able to carry on photosynthesis at a normal rate and hence do not make sufficient plant foods of the proper kinds to properly nourish the trees. This results in disorders of various kinds said to be due to mineral deficiencies. Among these deficiencies that have been found to reduce tree growth and yield and to increase susceptibility to cold injury are (1) boron, (2) copper, (3) iron, (4) magnesium, (5) manganese, (6) nitrogen, (7) phosphorus, (8) potassium, (9) zinc, and others. In all cases the corrective treatment to be given consists in supplying the trees with the element or elements in which they are deficient. These must be supplied in an available form and by such methods that they can be absorbed by the trees. The size of the crop of fruit or nuts borne by a tree and the length of time between harvest and a killing freeze are important factors in determining the cold resistance of fruit or nut trees. In test winters many cases have been observed in which trees that matured heavy crops during the previous summer were severely injured. Cases have been observed in which the degree of cold injury sustained has been largely in proportion to the size of crop matured the previous growing season. Trees that mature the crop of fruits or nuts late in the season may be less hardy than those that mature the crop early. It seems not only that some material or materials are made in the leaves during late summer or early fall which move out of them into the wood and cause it become resistant to low temperatures, but that when a tree is maturing a crop so much of this material goes into the fruits or nuts that if the season is not a favorable one the wood may not attain its maximum hardiness. We have learned that a high percentage of certain of the minerals, carbohydrates, and oil that go to make up the kernels of the oily nuts are transported into them during a period comprising a month to six weeks before they are mature. In the production of a heavy crop the amount of minerals and elaborated food materials such as proteins, carbohydrates, and fats removed from a tree is very large. If the trees do not carry a large healthy leaf area at the time of harvest or if there is a killing frost at that time, the leaves have no opportunity to elaborate more carbohydrates and other materials to replace those removed in the crop, and as a result the trees do not develop maximum hardiness. To cite an outstanding example of this effect of the crop on hardiness, I want to describe some observations I made several years ago. The late J. B. Wight of Cairo, Ga., had a few hundred Satsuma orange trees that bore a very heavy crop of fruit. The fruit had all been harvested from certain of these trees for two weeks or more before the occurrence of a freeze the last of November. From other trees the fruit crop had only been partially harvested and none had been harvested from most of them. The day and night temperatures had been warm but there was a rather sudden drop into the low 20's during one night with the result that all of the trees from which no fruit had been harvested were killed to the ground. The trees from which a part of the fruit had been removed were defoliated and all but the large limbs were killed. The trees from which all the fruit had been removed two weeks or more before the freeze were defoliated, but little or no injury to the woods occurred. The severe injury was probably because the materials making for hardiness in the wood had been transported to the maturing fruits and the temperature dropped quickly before the trees had time to develop cold resistance. It is a well-known fact that many kinds of non-woody as well as many woody plants develop hardiness or cold resistance on exposure to very gradually falling temperatures. This change, in the case of non-woody plants such as cabbage or wheat, is spoken of as "hardening off." It is not known how important this is in developing cold resistance in flower and leaf buds of woody plants. It is quite possible that buds that have become extremely tender as a result of rapid growth might, if held for some time at temperatures too low for further growth, become quite resistant to low temperatures just as do wheat or cabbage. Generally speaking, the greatest amount of cold injury to the buds or above-ground portions of a tree occurs on a single night. The length of the cold period is of only indirect importance as influencing the rate of temperature fall or the acquiring of cold resistance by the trees. Trees that are subjected to low temperatures over a considerable period of time are not nearly so likely to be injured as are those that are subjected to a low temperature suddenly. That is really why there is so much severe cold injury to woody plants in the South. In the deep South freezing weather may be uncommon but when freezes do occur usually they follow a period of comparatively warm weather and the temperature falls quickly. It is this sudden change in temperature that causes the severe injury. Two different places may have had the same mean monthly temperature yet at one place severe injury may have occurred and no injury at the other place with plants normally having equal hardiness. A careful analysis of the situation, however, would probably show that at the place where the injury occurred a period of warm weather had existed which was followed by a rapid drop in temperature to a killing low on a single night, whereas the trees at the place where no injury occurred were not subjected to such changes in temperature. On the other hand, injury to the roots usually occurs only after prolonged periods of cold weather. This is largely because the soil cools slowly and it requires a long period of cold weather to reduce the soil temperature sufficiently and to such depths as to cause injury to the roots. Under northern conditions where low temperatures for a rather long period are sometimes experienced, injury to the portion of the trees above ground may occur as a result of drying out of the wood. It is well known that a cake of ice will gradually evaporate and disappear when in the open and exposed continuously to below-freezing temperatures. We all know that the family wetwash when hung on a line and frozen will soon dry, especially if the wind blows. The principles operating in these cases may cause severe injury to trees. In the wintertime the root systems of trees take up water from the soil that is not frozen and this water moves in the tree to replace that lost by evaporation. Under conditions where the soil is frozen to such an extent that the water absorbed by the roots is continually less than that lost by the top of the trees by evaporation, drying out of the top occurs. If this is continued over a period of time a dryness of the wood and other tissues occurs that causes death of the dried-out portions. This type of injury does not show the typical symptoms of cold injury but rather those of drying out. The conditions that are most likely to cause such injury are a soil frozen to the effective rooting depths, a dry atmosphere, and a moderately high wind velocity. Injury of a similar nature to that just described very often affects trees transplanted in late fall or early winter, especially those that did not have their tops cut back to balance the loss of roots sustained in transplanting. During even very mild winters the tops of such trees dry out to such an extent that the small branches and even the leader may die. In extreme cases the entire top may die back to the root. In planting bare-root trees regardless of the time of the year they should be rather severely cut back immediately after transplanting to prevent such drying out and dying back of the wood. Cut-back trees generally will make more growth the first season following transplanting than will similar trees not cut back. One of the most common types of injury to young nut trees as well as others is that known as "sun scald" or "winter injury". This occurs generally on the south or southwest sides of the trunk and for some distance between the ground and the head of the tree. Usually the injury is not evident until a year or so after it occurred and then it may be observed as a narrow strip of discolored and sunken bark which may crack where it meets the live tissue. This dead or injured area is usually invaded by borers of one or more kinds. This so-called sun scald injury is thought to be caused by the alternate freezing and thawing of the tissues on the south and southwest sides of the tree. On a bright, sunshiny day, even though cold, the sun's rays striking the bark of the tree quickly raise the temperature of the bark and wood. When the sun is obscured by clouds or at nightfall the temperature of the tissues drops rapidly and they may freeze again. It is thought that the rapid and rather great change in temperature of the bark and wood is the primary cause of sun scald. Whatever the cause, we know that it can be prevented by shading the tree trunk. This can be done by heading the trees low so that the branches shade the trunk, or by shading the south side of the trunk with a board 6 or 8 inches wide, or by wrapping the trunk with burlap or similar material. Much of the injury to Chinese chestnut, pecan, and hickory trees, especially, is caused by inexperienced growers who cut off the low branches in an effort to raise the head of young trees. The Chinese chestnut generally forms a very low-headed or bush-type tree. Most of the cold or winter injury I have seen on Chinese chestnut trees has been on the trunks and has resulted from removing the lower limbs so that they were not shaded. Hardiness in woody plants is only a relative term and is determined by the condition of the plant at the time the low temperature occurs. Woody plants are most tender when they are most actively growing and most resistant to cold injury when they are in deep or profound rest. Strong, vigorous, well-nourished trees are much more resistant to cold injury than weak, poorly-nourished trees. Hence, the successful grower makes an effort through disease and insect control and proper fertilization and cultivation to keep his trees strong. These practices should be so carried out that the trees will make a strong, vigorous growth in the spring and early summer and then go into rest without a second or third flush of growth. The trees should carry their leaves until frost as there are some things made in them that cause the trees to develop resistance to cold injury. Winter or cold injury can destroy in a single night the hopes and expectations of several years' work but, in the main, if one grows well only those trees that are suited to the environment such losses are only rarely experienced. Nut Culture In Ontario I. C. MARRITT, District Forester, Ontario Department of Lands and Forests It was suggested to me that a paper be prepared on nut culture in Ontario. The Department of Land and Forests of Ontario has not done specialized work on nut culture. The reason for this neglect is not that various members did not realize the importance of nut culture, but that there was always more work on general reforestation and woodlot extension than could be done. The work with nut trees has been along with their general work. We have not, as yet, had a member of the staff who has gone "nutty" over nuts. It is hoped that your meeting here will stir up interest in this worthy subject. We are very proud in Ontario of the work that has been done on general reforestation and woodlot management. This is a subject that all nut enthusiasts are interested in, and we would like you to know what is being done in Ontario. The Province of Ontario has been distributing trees free to landowners since 1907. There are three well-equipped tree nurseries, and a fourth is being developed in the eastern part of the province. A fifth nursery has been started in the northwest at Fort William on Lake Superior. The number of trees distributed varies considerably from year to year. The high distribution years were 1939 and 1940, when approximately seventeen million trees were planted each year. During the war years, on account of the labour situation and war activities, the distribution declined to between ten and eleven million trees. This past season, the demand was much larger than the supply. All the nurseries are expanding, as it is anticipated there will be a heavy demand by private planters, and also most of the counties are enlarging the area of their county forests. The application form for forest trees includes seven evergreens and nineteen deciduous trees. Walnut and butternut are the only nut trees on the application form. Shagbark hickory has also been grown, but not in large enough quantity to include it in the list of available trees. The St. Williams tree nursery near Lake Erie has grown named varieties of walnuts and hickories. These have been given out to interested parties, and, in future years, will further the growing of the more desirable nut trees. About ten years ago, the citizens of St. Thomas planted nut trees two or three feet in height for seventy miles along No. 3 Highway which crosses Elgin County. A large number of these trees have survived. A large acreage of forest trees has also been planted under the Counties Reforestation Act. Under this act the county purchases the land and the province plants and looks after the plantations for thirty years. The county then has three options _re_ paying back the cost of planting and supervision. All the options are without interest charges. The county forests are largely on light sandy soils that, in most cases, are a liability to the municipalities if they are not growing trees. The Ontario Government passed an act in 1946 that gave the counties the right to pass a by-law to regulate cutting on privately-owned woodlots. You will be interested to know that eleven counties have passed by-laws to regulate cutting. They are all based on a diameter limit. We realize that a diameter limit is a poor substitute for good forestry practice, but it is better than unrestricted cutting. The diameter limits range from ten to sixteen inches for most trees, and five to six inches for cedars. Considerable extension work was done on nut growing in the period from 1920 to 1930. Mr. James A. Neilson, an Extension Horticulturist stationed at Vineland, became very interested and located many individual trees and gave numerous lectures on nut culture. A bulletin by Mr. Neilson on nut culture was published in 1925, and reprinted in 1930, by the Ontario Department of Agriculture. Mr. Neilson went to Michigan and did extension work on this subject until his untimely death. Mr. G. H. Corsan has also done considerable work to keep nut culture before the public by writing letters to the different newspapers. There has always been a large demand for black walnut. The reason for this is the high value placed on this wood and the planting of these trees for shade and nut production, although the consumption of native nuts is comparatively low. The black walnut grew, originally, south of a line from Toronto to Sarnia. It has been planted as far north as Ottawa, and is distributed quite widely in Old Ontario now--being planted largely as shade trees. These shade trees are producing nuts, and with the aid of squirrels, the walnuts are seeding up along fence rows, around farm homes, and in woodlots. Walnut has been observed coming up in a woodlot, and the only possible source is a shade tree half a mile away. The walnut caterpillar defoliates the trees but seldom kills them, although it does lower their value as shade trees. Walnut has been a favorite species for forest tree planting. It is planted in pure stands and in mixtures. The largest and best known walnut plantation was put out by Sir William Mullock in 1926 on the highway north of Toronto. There are numerous small plantations throughout the province. Foresters in Ontario generally recommend mixing walnut with other hardwoods and evergreens rather than planting in pure stands. It has been advocated to plant walnuts with white spruce. The idea is that spruce will shade the ground, kill the side branches of the walnut, and help to force the walnuts to grow long slender poles. It is understood, and expected, that the spruce will be ruined, as their leaders would grow into the branches of the walnut. As far as we know, this experiment has not been undertaken. The butternut tree is found growing naturally farther north than the walnut tree. Its northern boundary is roughly a line drawn from Midland on Georgian Bay to Ottawa. It is widely distributed, but is not in large enough quantity to have commercial value for lumber. An expert wood carver, who is employed by the Department of Lands and Forests, uses butternut largely in his work. The shagbark and bitternut hickories make up the large percentage of the hickories growing in Ontario. The northern limit of the bitternut is approximately the same as the butternut--that is, Midland on Georgian Bay and Ottawa on the east; while the northern limit of the shagbark is thirty to forty miles south of the bitternut. The pignut and the mockernut hickories are found in the southern hardwood belt along Lake Erie. The American chestnut was quite plentiful in different sections of the southern hardwood belt. It was valued quite highly for the nuts. It has been killed out by the chestnut blight and it is very rarely that live suckers are seen. The beech was widely distributed in the woodland of southern Ontario. It has rarely been planted as a shade tree and it is not seeding up extensively in woodlots. There are many stories of hogs being fattened on beechnuts in pioneer days. The Japanese heartnut has been planted in various parts of the province. A heartnut tree in Bruce County lived through a hard winter that killed many sugar maples and beech in the same area. Nut trees are seeding up in many pastured woodlots in southwestern Ontario. The reason for this is that stock do not relish their foliage as they do the maple, beech and basswood, etc., and because of this, it is likely that nut trees will make up a larger percentage of trees in Ontario woodlots than originally, as it is a sad fact that at least seventy-five percent on the farm woodlots in Ontario are still being pastured. It is hoped that more interest will be shown in planting nut trees by farmers and home owners. The Department of Lands and Forests is enlarging its staff of Extension Foresters, and no doubt they will include the propagation of nut trees in their extension work. Nut Growing at the Horticultural Experiment Station, Vineland Station, Ontario W. J. STRONG There was very little interest in nut growing in the early days of the Horticultural Experiment Station although back in 1914 a few filberts and Persian (English) walnuts were planted. The first nut orchard at the Station was set out in 1922 and since then several lots of nut trees have been added from time to time, principally filberts and Persian walnuts. Also a few black walnuts, Japanese heartnuts, Chinese chestnuts, hickories, pecan and several hybrids were planted. In 1922 twenty varieties of filberts were obtained from a nursery near Rochester, N. Y. These were reputed to be some of the better sorts imported from Germany but when they came into bearing only one was true to name, this being Italian Red. Another un-named variety in this lot (field number 3 R 1 A T 10, 11, 12), proved to be hardy and very vigorous. The nuts were only of medium size but very well filled and of good quality. The rest of these were a nondescript lot of worthless varieties or seedlings and so after a few years nearly all were uprooted and discarded. At this time (1922) four varieties of Persian walnuts were planted, Franquette, Mayette, Hall and Rush. The Franquette and Mayette have not grown very well here and have given very poor yields. Both Hall and Rush made good growth the first 15 or 20 years from planting but latterly, growth has been poor and yields have fallen off considerably, although this year (1947) there is a very fair crop showing, but with rather much dropping. The nut of the Hall variety is quite large but the husk is thick and the shell is thick and coarse, also in some seasons the kernel has not filled out very well. The Rush has given good crops of medium-size nuts. It seems to be rather susceptible to bacterial blight. Five named varieties of black walnuts also were planted at this time (1922), Thomas, Ohio, Stabler, Ten Eyck and McCoy. The Thomas has proven to be the best of these and the value of the others was pretty much in the order named. The last two were quite inferior as to nut, while the Stabler lacked vigour and did not yield very well, although it is a nice nut and the kernel comparatively easy to extract. Eight Persian walnut seedlings in the same plantation, set out in 1926, have made poor to fair growth. They have given very few nuts until this year (1947) when two of them are showing a very fair crop. About 1928 twenty Japanese walnuts and hybrids with the butternut, and about the same number of Persian walnut seedlings, which have been brought in by the late Professor Jas. A. Neilson, were transplanted to the permanent fruiting positions. The Japanese walnuts and hybrids were worthless and so were discarded. The Persian walnuts, however, seemed to be of more value, several are quite nice nuts and one, at least, looks to be worthy of increase for further trial or limited distribution. This seedling (field number 13R3T14) has made very fair growth and has shown only slight winter injury. For the last five or six years it has given moderately good yields of very nice looking nuts. The nuts are large, rather long and oval, resembling somewhat the Franquette. The shell is smooth and moderately thick, well sealed but easy to crack. Usually they are quite well filled and the kernel is mild in flavour and of nice quality. Another Persian walnut, set out about the same time, is the McDermid. The original tree was found on the property of a Mr. McDermid at St. Catharines, Out. One grafted tree and four seedlings were planted on the Station grounds. They grew well and showed very little killing back and for several years gave quite nice crops of nuts, but of recent years the yield has been rather small. The nut is blunt-oval in shape and of good size with a fairly hard shell which is well sealed but not any too easy to open. The quality is fairly good but the pellicle is rather strong flavoured. The year 1936 may be considered the high water mark in nut planting at the Station. A variety block of filberts was set out that year and fifty one-year-old Persian walnut seedlings (Carpathian strain) were planted in a nursery row, and in permanent location in 1937. The filbert planting consisted of from three to nine bushes each of twelve varieties, including Aveline (white), Barcelona, Bixby, Bolwyller, Buchanan, Cosford, Daviana, Du Chilly, Medium Long, Red Lambert (?) and Jones hybrid. These were planted in a compact block, 18 feet apart each way on the square. A lesser distance no doubt would be sufficient for upright growing sorts like Du Chilly but some of the more spreading kinds can use the greater distance. Most of these filberts started to yield a few nuts at five to seven years from planting and at nine or ten years were giving good crops. Yields have fluctuated considerably from year to year, and also between varieties and different bushes of the same variety. Yields obtained from individual ten-year-old bushes and size of nut are given in the following table. Quarts[2] Pints, nuts Size of nut Name (with husks) (without husks) No. per pint Barcelona 11 8 101 Bixby (1) 11 9 130 Bixby (2) 22 12 148 Daviana (1) 10 6 94 Daviana (2) 11 7 90 Du Chilly (1) 20 11 93 Du Chilly (2) 17 12 92 Medium Long 11 8 115 [Footnote 2: Canadian measure.] Higher yields have undoubtedly been obtained from other plantations and from other individual bushes and certainly lower yields, also, may be expected. Those given above are for 1946 from the best ten-year-old bushes in a plantation of forty plants. Yield and size of nut while of major importance are not the only criteria for appraising the value of a nut variety. In filberts, such points as ease of husking, amount of fibre and, of course, quality must be considered. Also, as in other nuts, thickness of shell and proportions of kernel to shell are quite important. Vigour and hardiness of bush and hardiness of flower, male and female, are assumed, as without these high yields are not to be expected. Most of the filbert varieties in bearing at the Horticultural Experiment Station with a few of their outstanding qualities are noted below. Barcelona has a rather thick shell and too much fibre. It matures early, first week of September, and the nuts drop out of the husk fairly readily. The plant is strong and vigorous and somewhat spreading in habit of growth. It appears to be hardy. Du Chilly is not always hardy and it is difficult to husk. Some bushes of this variety have given quite low yields. Medium Long is a useful nut. It is not as large as the former two, but it fills well and there is very little fibre; also the shell is thin. It ripens somewhat later than Barcelona and is easy to husk. Bixby is of medium size, somewhat pointed with a medium thick shell but almost no fibre. It is late in maturing, first week of October, and does not husk readily. Daviana is a large, attractive nut with a moderately thin shell and has very little fibre. The quality is good. The nuts are mostly borne singly but with some pairs and they are apt to cling to the husk. Cosford is a very nice nut. It is similar to Medium Long, somewhat smaller and of good appearance. It has a thin shell and is of good quality. It ripens early and separates readily from the husk. Perhaps not always hardy. Bolwyller is hardy, yields moderately well and has nice quality. Buchanan, much like Bixby, but a more vigorous grower. Rather difficult to pick. The nut has good quality and very little fibre. Italian Red, one of the best but not hardy. The filbert plantings have been added to from time to time. In 1942, 200 open-pollinated seedlings of the hardy seedling (3R1AT 10, 11, 12--1922 planting) were set out and are now (1947) beginning to bear a few nuts. The main purpose of growing these seedlings is to find a larger nut of good quality with the vigour and hardiness of the female parent. In 1944 a bush each of Beethe, Buchanan, Luisen and Volkugel varieties were set out, also bushes of the following hybrids: Rush x White Aveline No. 21 Rush x Kentish Cob No. 110 and 111 Rush x Barcelona No. 157 and 159 Rush x Bolwyller No. 200 Rush x Red Lambert No. 394 and 398 Rush x Du Chilly No. 485 and 555 Rush x Daviana No. 529 and 521 This material was supplied by the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station for test purposes. So far none of these has come into bearing. The seedling Carpathian walnuts (1937 planting) are nearly all bearing a few nuts. Some began in 1943 while other bore nothing until several years later. One tree in 1946 gave six pints of nuts, without the husks, another four pints and several two pints, but most of them much less. As in other seedling trees there is much variation in this lot of walnuts. They vary considerably in habit of growth and vigour, also in nut characteristics. They have shown little or no winter injury. It is too early yet to pass judgment on these seedlings. Undoubtedly many of them are worthless, others are on the border line, and a few may be better than seedlings already growing in the Niagara fruit belt. It is possible that some may have sufficient hardiness for planting in the less favoured sections of Ontario. Other types of nuts growing at the Horticultural Experiment Station are of general interest. The chestnuts and most of the pecans are very young and so are not bearing. Several hickories, =Carya ovata= and =C. laciniosa=, and Japanese walnuts bear some nuts occasionally. The Persian walnut x black walnut hybrids bear a few nuts sometimes but are worthless; the trees however, are nice as ornamentals. The Japanese walnut x butternut hybrids usually have a nice crop but the nuts are of questionable value. The trees are nice ornamentals although subject to wind injury. Several seedling Chinese chestnuts were topworked to selected Chinese chestnuts, grafts of which were obtained from the Division of Forest Pathology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Unfortunately these were all destroyed at the result of construction work. In addition to plantings made at this Station, nuts and nut seedlings have been distributed to people who wished to grow a few nut trees on their own places. Cultural practices have been very simple at the Station. After planting, the trees were cultivated for a year or two, then the space between sown to grass and clover and the space just around the trees was mulched with manure, hay, etc. The grass is cut several times a year and placed around the trees as additional mulch. Small quantities of a good commercial fertilizer such as 4-8-10 have been applied occasionally and some nitrogen also has been used. Pruning has been reduced to a minimum, a light thinning out of branches being given as required. Very little attempt has been made to keep filberts to a single stem, but the walnuts have been kept to a single low-headed trunk. There has been a marked increase in interest in the planting of nut trees in Ontario since the first plantings were made at the Station. These Station plantings serve to demonstrate in a small way that nut trees can be grown in the Niagara fruit belt of Ontario. The feasibilty, however, of growing nut crops in a commercial way, even in this district, is still open to question, although it is felt that farmers and others should be encouraged to plant a few nut trees on their property both for the sake of the nuts and because of the ornamental nature of the trees. Soil Management for Nut Plantations in Ontario J. R. van HAARLEM, Horticultural Experiment Station, Vineland Station, Ontario Fruitgrowers with high priced land, such as we have in the Niagara Peninsula, are not much interested in using such land for a crop not yet proven commercially sound. Plantings, whether large or small, are likely to be made on low-priced marginal land needing good care. It is doubtful if these locations are best suited to proper nut culture since most nut trees are deep rooted with extensive root systems requiring the best soils. At the Vineland Station we have three plantations made up of 110 walnuts, 240 filberts, 14 chestnuts and 6 pecans. These comprise named varieties and seedlings of black, Carpathian, and other Persian walnuts, filberts, chestnuts and pecans. During the first years of the life of these plantations we maintained a clean cultivation program during the spring and early summer followed by the planting of a green-manure crop about July 1st each year. Such crops as buckwheat, millet, rye, and weeds, have been used on occasion. We soon found that the treatment was not good enough for the trees and we then changed to a grass sod with mulch around each tree within the spread of the branches. Since this sod-mulch treatment was applied the trees have done very much better, making fine growth and maintaining a large leaf area of good color. This treatment is fairly representative of the many trees planted in dooryards under sod conditions, where the grass is cut and left on top. Most of our Ontario soils are deficient in organic matter and, depending on location, deficient in phosphate or potash, or both together. The mineral deficiency should first be corrected by liberal applications of the required fertilizer before placing the plantations in sod, in fact it would pay to do this several years before setting out the trees, growing alfalfa on this land and returning all the hay back into the soil. For plantations already set out these minerals could be placed in a furrow cut just under the outer spread of the branches. Our soils have a high fixation factor for phosphate and potash and we have found that the best practice is to place the fertilizer under the surface either with a deep-placement machine or as outlined above. After the plantation is in sod an application of 500 to 1,000 lbs. of a 4-8-10 fertilizer every fifth year should take care of the mineral requirements. However, our experience with fruit in general where planted in sod is that not sufficient care is taken to keep the trees well supplied with nitrogen, many growers laboring under the mistaken idea that just the sod is sufficient. Liberal applications of either manure or nitrate in the spring is necessary to make sure that the tree gets its required nitrogen and not just the sod alone. Mineral fertilizers should be applied in the late fall, for under our conditions fixation of phosphate and potash is considerably less at that time. The plantation may be seeded down in the early spring but mulch should not be added until late fall. Applying the mulch in late fall will allow the material to fill up with water from the fall rains and winter snows, and so prevent the serious withholding of water from the trees during dry spells in the summer, because the light summer rains are seldom sufficient to soak through the dry mulch material. We have had several instances where a summer-applied mulch has seriously robbed the tree of needed moisture during dry weather. Do not look for immediate improvement from sod-mulch, it will take at least two years to become well established. Improvement should begin to show up the second year after applying. We sometimes see a chlorotic condition of the foliage, different from the pale yellow foliage due to nitrogen deficiency, which occurs on marginal or shallow soil and often where the soil remains too moist, as along a water course or low spot. We frequently see this same trouble on grape foliage in such locations. This is probably due to a lack of sufficient iron intake caused by a deficiency of manganese. It can be cured by either spraying with a 1% solution of magananese sulphate or applying the dry salt under the spread of the branches. The spraying method seems to give better and faster results. It has been reported from British Columbia that some die-back is due to deficiency of boron. Perhaps some of the die-back we see on nut trees during the summer is due to this cause and not all to winter injury. The very erratic results from ground application of borax would indicate that borax should be incorporated with one of the regular sprays as a 1% mixture. Our conclusions therefore are that nut plantations should be placed in sod as soon as possible and a mulch established the fall of the year the grass is sown. Each year cut the grass and draw in around the tree to supplement the mulch. If not enough material is gathered in this way it can be supplemented by straw or old hay. Manure or nitrate should be applied each spring and trace elements where needed can be incorporated in the regular spray program. * * * * * Discussion after J. R. van Haarlem's paper. Dr. MacDaniels: "I realize that there are more trees which are starving to death than are being overfed." Silvis: "Do you recommend that freshly cut hay be used as mulch?" Van Haarlem: "Any crop refuse can be used as mulch. Anything that will rot down. The pH of the soil should be 6.2 to 6.5." O'Rourke: "Would you use clean cultivation for the first year?" Van Haarlem: "There is nothing against it. We use sod mulch at Vineland. The reason that our growers are not growing nut plantations is that good land, that is good soil, sells for $1,000 per acre. Nut trees grown on poor land, cheap land, do not produce." McCollum: "I am surprised that rain would not go through loose straw and will go through old straw. Where does the rain go when it falls on the loose straw?" Van Haarlem: "It is absorbed before it gets through the straw. Dry mulch should be 18 inches deep." Member: "How would you prevent erosion on rolling land?" Van Haarlem: "Plant on the contour." Dr. Crane: "How often do you renew mulch under trees?" Van Haarlem: "After first application additional may be needed but after that enough is grown under trees which when cut and raked will suffice." Report from Southern Ontario ALEX TROUP, Jordan Station, Ontario Here in southern Ontario we find that most of the northern nuts do well in most seasons. Among black walnuts the Thomas, Ohio, and many others do well. The Thomas does not always fill. The Ohio seems to be the favorite among Persian (English) walnuts. Franquette, Broadview and a few others are satisfactory but sometimes do not fill well. Of Japanese heartnut walnuts nearly all do well. The Mitchell, Stranger, Bates and others are satisfactory. All the shagbarks and shellbarks are doing well, although only the young shagbarks are bearing, and then only lightly. Chestnuts have done well at times but some trees have been killed by the blight. We have Japanese, Chinese and some other seedlings. They are sometimes winter injured. Filberts are satisfactory and usually bear well. We have Barcelona, Du Chilly, Troup, White Aveline, Italian Red, Kentish Cob, Daviana, Mosier, Guy Smith, Nonpariel and Brixnut. The Barcelona drops nearly free of the husk and is a fine nut. Most are of this variety. We do not have hazels. Pecans will grow and bear but do not fill. Nut Trees Hardy at Aldershot, Ontario, Canada O. FILMAN, Aldershot During the past nine or ten years I have planted a few trees of some of the better known varieties of northern nut species, some of them chosen from the lists of promising selections in the annual reports of the Northern Nut Growers Association, some on the recommendation of reliable nut nurserymen. These trees have been planted here and there in various locations where space permitted on a small fruit and vegetable farm, not in orchard form nor in a solid nut tree planting. Editor's Note: Anyone reading this paper should remember that it applies to an area of intensive growth of peaches, pears, and other fruits in a bit of Canadian land west of Niagara Falls and protected spring and fall from extremes of temperatures by Lake Ontario on the north and Lake Erie on the south. The paper by H. L. Crane in this report should be read in connection with it. Aldershot is a fruit and vegetable growing district, about six miles from Hamilton, below the escarpment, on the Toronto-Hamilton lake shore highway. This district is almost at the western tip of Lake Ontario and is more or less a continuation of the Niagara fruit belt which borders the lake. Consequently the climate is not so severe as that of localities situated a few miles farther from the lake and above the Niagara escarpment at higher altitudes. Winter temperatures seldom go much below zero, although, in occasional seasons, temperatures of-20 degrees F., and sometimes even somewhat lower, are experienced. The soil is a deep, well-drained, light sandy loam, known as Fox sandy loam, considered a good fruit and vegetable soil, if organic matter and fertility are maintained with manure, fertilizers and green manure crops. Nut trees, which I have planted, include Chinese chestnut, heart nut, filbert, hickories, butternut, Persian walnut, a few black walnut seedlings and two seedling pecans. =Chestnuts.= The native chestnut grew in the woods of this locality before the blight reached it. I have tried eight varieties of Oriental chestnuts, and I have trees surviving of five: Abundance, Hobson, Carr, Zimmerman, and one of Mr. Carroll D. Bush's called Chinese Sweet No. 3. They all came through a temperature of about-20 degrees, early in 1943 (with the exception of Zimmerman which was planted later) without showing any sign of killing back or other visible injury. Unfortunately, I have kept no records of crops but expect to do so. =Abundance.= One bearing tree, purchased from Mr. Bush of Oregon, and planted in the spring of 1938. Bore a few burs in 1941. Bore a crop in 1944, missed 1945, a good crop in 1946. It is bearing what appears to me to be quite a heavy crop this year, 1947. Blossoms in July. Bears a good-size, attractive nut, which falls free from the bur, ripening in early October. Abundance has made the best growth of any of the varieties and appears the most promising. =Hobson.= Two trees, one, planted in 1940, bore its first crop in 1946; the other, planted in 1943, not yet bearing. Has been a little disappointing, in view of the very favourable reports of its performance in more southern locations in the United States. Probably it is a little too far north of its natural environment. In some seasons it has made rather good growth, but not as vigorous as that of Abundance. It bore a fair crop in 1946, however, of attractive nuts of about the same size as Abundance. It ripened in late October about two weeks later than Abundance. These nuts germinated well this spring when planted in pots in the greenhouse. =Carr.= One tree surviving, planted in 1940. Two others, planted in 1943, have died, but I do not believe that winter injury was the cause of their death. Has grown slowly, bearing in 1944 and 1946. The nut is much smaller than that produced by the same variety at more southern latitudes, judging from descriptions of it which I have read. The nut is much smaller than that of Hobson, as grown here. This small tree bore a tremendous crop in 1946, more than I thought any tree of its size could support. The tree was literally covered with burs. The nuts were very small, not larger than a small native chestnut. They ripened early, beginning to drop from the burs by September 25th. I stratified most of the nuts in pots of soil and planted 206 nuts from this little tree, which is only about seven feet high and not at all spreading. Germination was good. =Zimmerman.= One small tree planted spring of 1945. Not bearing yet. Is not growing fast but appears healthy with good foliage. =Chinese Sweet No. 3.= Purchased from Mr. Bush in 1938. Planted at the same time as Abundance, which Mr. Bush at that time called Chinese Sweet No. 1. He later named No. 1 Abundance, but did not consider No. 3 worthy of naming. Has grown well, but has borne very few nuts. Mr. Bush discarded it for the same fault. [See comment following.--Ed.] I have also tried and lost the following varieties: Connecticut Yankee, Austin Japanese and Stoke hybrid. I have quite a number of young seedlings of Abundance, Carr and a few of Hobson, from seed produced on my own trees, some of which I hope to allow to bear in order to see if anything promising shows up among them. The Abundance seedlings seem to inherit the superior vigour of their female parent. =Heartnuts.= The Japanese walnut grows vigorously. I have planted a few of Mr. J. U. Gellatly's varieties, as well as the Wright heartnut. All of the ones planted seem perfectly hardy and at home. I have only one tree of each variety. =O.K.= From J. U. Gellatly, planted in 1942. Transplanted 1944. Bore its first nuts, one cluster, in 1946. Cracking and extraction of kernel were excellent. The flavour was fine. Size of nut about medium. =Okanda.= From J. U. Gellatly, 1942. Said by Mr. Gellatly to be a hybrid between heartnut and native butternut. Tree vigorous. Nut has a smooth shell like a heartnut. Cracking and extraction good. Flavour excellent. Nut about size and shape of a medium-sized heartnut. Bore its first crop in 1946 and is repeating this year with a fair crop. =Crofter.= From J. U. Gellatly, 1942. Also said by Mr. Gellatly to be a hybrid between heartnut and butternut. Tree vigorous. Bore its first crop in 1946 and has a few nuts this year. The nut has a comparatively smooth shell like a heartnut, is somewhat larger than that of Okanda but does not crack as well, or rather the kernel does not come out of the cavity nearly so well as that of Okanda. Flavour fine. =Canoka.= From J. U. Gellatly, 1944. A pure heartnut. Tree very vigorous. Bearing its first crop this year, several clusters. =Slioka.= A new heartnut from Mr. Gellatly, planted in 1945. Tree growth is vigorous. Is bearing one nut, its first, this year. =Wright.= From Benton and Smith nurseries 1946. Seems to be hardy. Tree growth has not been very strong but appears healthy. =New, un-named heartnut.= From J. U. Gellatly, planted in the spring of 1944. A new selection which Mr. Gellatly has not named. The tree has grown vigorously and it is bearing its first crop of several clusters of nuts. =Butternuts.= I have only one grafted butternut tree, a Crax-ezy, from the Michigan Nut Nurseries in 1940, transplanted in 1942. The tree has been hardy and healthy but has not grown very vigorously. It is bearing its first crop this year. I had one tree of the Sherwood butternut, planted in 1938, which died last winter as a result, I believe, of a heavy infestation of oyster shell scale which I did not control soon enough. Sherwood bore early and heavily. The nut was extremely large but did not crack at all well. =Persian walnut.= Only one grafted tree, a Broadview, from Mr. Gellatly, planted in 1942, transplanted in 1944. Has been hardy, but has just begun to make really good growth, this year. Has not borne. =Filberts.= I have planted four of Mr. Gellatly's varieties, namely Craig, Brag, Comet and Holder, as well as Barcelona, Cosford, Medium Long and Buchanan. Craig and Brag are the only ones which have borne. Trees of those varieties planted in 1942 bore their first crop in 1946. They have very few nuts on them this year. All varieties seem to be winter-hardy in the wood. Craig, Brag and Comet, the only ones which have borne staminate flowers do not seem too hardy in the catkins however. Nearly all were killed, last winter, although the temperature scarcely went as low as zero. Mr. Gellatly states that their catkins survive much lower temperatures than that in the west. Some other factor than low temperature probably is accountable. (See paper by H. L. Crane in this report.--Ed.) Cosford, Medium Long and Buchanan were planted in the fall of 1946, and hence it is too early to have any information on their hardiness. They survived their first winter in good condition and have grown vigorously this summer. =Hickories.= Only three grafted trees surviving. =Pleas hybrid.= One tree, planted in 1938, has been perfectly hardy, having come through several severe winters without any sign of injury. It has made good growth and has developed into a fine shade tree for the lawn but has not borne. It has had many staminate catkins for several years. =Barnes.= One small tree, planted in the spring of 1946, has made slow but healthy growth and appears to be hardy thus far. =Miller.= One tree, planted in 1946, is still living but very weak. In addition to these named varieties I have a number of seedling black walnuts, butternuts and heartnuts, which I hope to topwork to named varieties; also two seedling pecans which are making surprisingly good, thrifty growth. The pecan seedlings have been quite hardy. * * * * * =Discussion after Mr. Filman's paper.= Stoke: "Hobson is not as large as Abundance. Abundance is always larger than Hobson. Carr always produced better nuts than Hobson. Mr. Filman finds that Carr has very small nuts. I am surprised to see a reversal of performance between Ontario and Virginia." McDaniel: "Mr. Bush now reports that his No. 3 chestnut has borne better crops recently. Abundance has not survived in TVA tests at Norris." Report from Echo Valley, 1947 GEORGE HEBDEN CORSAN, Islington, Ontario The Northern Nut Growers Association visited Echo Valley, Islington, Ontario, September 5th on the field trip following their annual convention at Guelph. Some 15 species of nuts and nearly 400 varieties are growing there. The filberts drew a lot of attention, as the most of them were seedlings and quite large, some larger than the largest Oregon varieties. The seeds planted were: Italian Red. Du Chilly, Giant de Halle, Brixnut, Bollwyller, Cosford, Daviana, and Jones No. 1 Hybrid. The policy followed has been not to discard a plant because it bears small nuts or no nuts at all, because such trees may bear hardy catkins that live through the winter. The female blossoms of filberts are very hardy but many male blossoms may be killed during cold winters. Years ago the Dominion Department of Agriculture declared that filberts, chestnuts and Persian (English) walnuts could not be grown north of Lake Ontario. I would grant that they grow better south of the lake. However, the filbert crop this fall south of the lake was very poor and scanty, whereas mine was large and in fact the largest I ever had. My Winkler and Rush hazelnuts are crowded on the branches. And the same with the English walnuts. My crop on the larger trees could not be better. The Thomas black walnut, as well as other black walnuts, Jap heartnuts, hybrid butternut x Japanese heartnut cross, chestnuts and hickories are very large. Hicans and northern pecans do not develop north of Lake Ontario. Down in the very southwest corner of Ontario, north of Lake Erie, some small pecans have cropped well on trees. As a curiosity pecan trees are quite hardy here, but we lack length of season to mature the nuts properly. No Weiker hickory hybrid crops and ripens well here. This nut is one of the very few crosses between shellbark and shagbark hickories, (=Carya laciniosa=) western and (=Carya ovata=) eastern, hickories. I have some crosses between the Chinese and Japanese chestnuts that I am watching. I have one European x American cross chestnut, the Gibbons, and one native (=Castanea dentata=) that have escaped the blight. So far this year I have found only one blighted chestnut limb and I promptly cut it off and tarred the cut well. At least I have persimmons hardy enough to stand the winters north of Lake Ontario, but I am not sure about the pawpaw. This fruit seems to require shade from the winter's sun. Many but not all of the Crath importations of Persian walnuts from the Carpathians are hardy and much more so than the Pomeroy varieties. Even the Broadview is not hardy as many of the Crath varieties. Rev. Crath did an immense service to us by his importations which far exceeded our highest expectations. I have here nearly half a hundred varieties of =Juglans regia= that are doing well, especially the three Rumanian giants that ripen so well here. List of Some of the Larger and More Important Trees at Echo Valley, Islington, Ontario =Black Walnut= Stambaugh 1926--1st prize. Thomas from J. F. Jones, late ripener. Troup, cracks out whole in spring. Hepler, from Miss Riehl, a long nut. Elmer Myers, excellent flavor, the thinest shell. Snyder, medium size, large kernel. Tasterite, a small nut, origin New York State. Clark, origin Iowa, very large nut. Gifford, bears very heavy crop every second year, ripens before Thomas. =Persian (English) Walnut= David Fairchild, seedling Rumanian giant. Senator Pepper, seedling Rumanian giant. Paul de Kruif, seedling Rumanian giant. Chinese, very hardy, medium size. Broadview, from British Columbia but originally from Russia. =Hickory= Neilson, a true shagbark, nut large flat and very thin shell, flavor is wonderful. A big tree on highway 24 not far south of where Alexander Graham Bell perfected the telephone. Hagen, a true shagbark, a fast grower. Hand, a shagbark. Weiker, a shellbark and shagbark cross, a large, heavy bearing nut that ripens here north of Lake Ontario. Excellent flavor, grafted on pecan. Papple, a small good shagbark, cracks out whole. Anthony No. 1 shagbark. Glover, from Miss Riehl. =Heartnut= Wright, a good bearer and excellent cracker. Stranger, very heavy bearer, excellent cracker. Gellatly. =Filbert= Italian Red, medium long with wide base. Bollwyller, large round. Du Chilly, long smooth. Many seedlings of named varieties. =Chestnut= Gibbons, Miss Riehl, hybrid European American. Chinese, test not completed. =Jap Butternut= Helmick, from Miss Riehl, 14 cluster, regular bearer, very thin shell, grafted on black walnut. Report from Beamsville, Ontario LEVI HOUSSER About twenty years ago I started to plant nut trees, as I decided nuts were the solution to good health, which I later found was correct. Most of my first trees died. I started gathering nuts all over the country until at last, near my own home, I found a neighbor who had ten trees and two out of the ten were bearing large size nuts of an excellent flavor. I also added filberts to my collection. About this time I learned of Prof. Neilson, so I went to see him in Guelph. He told me about the Northern Nut Growers Association. I also learned about Mr. Corsan and his work at Islington so I went to see him. He also told me about the Association so I went to the next meeting and joined up. I began to add more varieties to my plantings. My first four acre planting was seeded with oats the second year. All my tress had a nice start. I spent some three hundred dollars that year for grafted nut trees. That second fall I hired a man to watch and stand by each tree as the binder passed. It was impossible for me to be there. The man who cut the oats in his own stubborn way went alone and cut everything as he went, trees and all. My heart was nearly broken! I started again. I bought nuts of good varieties from all over. I decided to make a little nursery this time then plant out after the trees got bigger. Just as I got this started nicely the war came. I also had a fruit farm where I now live besides also planting some grafted stock here. My nursery, seventy-eight miles away on my fifty acres, I had to leave as gas was rationed and I was forced to sell, so remaining there are about one hundred trees which I shall watch. My best trees died but I kept going on planting every year. Today, after all the calamities I had, I have around two hundred trees living. This year I expect two bushels of heartnuts; about two bushels of filberts; some extra nice ones that ripened early, large and well filled; about two bushels of black walnuts, some very promising. Besides these I have about fifty trees of the Carpathian walnuts from which I have gathered about two quarts of nuts. My oldest tree is ten years old. One I grafted on black walnut stock and it is a very large nut. I gathered five nuts from this. The graft is now five years old. Hundreds of nuts started; nearly all dropped off. Possibly as the tree gets older it will do better as I have planted several other nut trees not far away to help with cross pollination. I have some good sized butternuts and I gathered about 17 quarts of these so I expect to have enough nuts to supply my daily needs from now on from my own plantings. After twenty years of hard work and with an outlay of at least $1,000, my trees, as they grow up around me, are like children to me. They supply me with food. My nervousness was cured by them and my health has returned. My worst enemy here with filberts is they start to grow too early, then a frost comes and they are done after a week or two of nice weather. Even though we have this trouble we gathered nearly two bushels from 25 trees which are eight years old. Our lowest temperature here was 20 below zero a few years ago. My Carpathians did not seem to mind that nor did the heartnuts. From now on I am planning my own little nursery and do my own grafting as well. I top work my young trees that show poor nuts. Nut Growing in New Hampshire L. P. LATIMER, Assistant Horticulturist, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire At the present time there are no nuts grown commercially in New Hampshire. Those gathered by the residents of this state for home use or local consumption are comprised almost entirely of butternuts from wild seedling trees and nuts of the native hickory. The butternut is the most highly prized among our native nuts. It grows wild over a large portion of the state. The hickory nuts take second place, probably because of their smaller size and the greater difficulty involved in removing the meat from the shells. Black walnuts are occasionally found but do not seem generally as popular. Dr. A. F. Yeager of the Horticultural Department of the University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire, has several times called for specimens of superior butternuts grown in the state. These have been tested for their cracking ability, and size of kernel and ease of removal from the shell in halves or as whole meats. Several very fine specimens have been collected, but progress in the development of these better types has been impeded by the difficulty involved in trying to propagate them vegetatively. The New Hampshire Horticultural Department would gladly welcome any information concerning the propagation of the butternut that would make grafting or budding successful. The best possibility in developing commercial nut crops in New Hampshire apparently lies first in the use of the hazel or filbert. Although the European filbert has not been very successful, such varieties of the American hazel as Winkler and Rush look promising. The Winkler has borne heavy crops but in a short summer season the nuts do not always mature fully in the fall. Although we have had much less experience with the Rush variety, this does mature earlier in the fall and seems promising. Some of the Jones hybrids have been tested at the Experiment Station in Durham, a few of which have done quite well. Of these Jones hybrids No. 1181, 1154, and 1094 have made quite vigorous growth. Seedling No. 1094 has been outstanding, producing good sized nuts which mature well and shell out easily from the husks. In type and flavor of nut it resembles the European hazel quite strongly under our conditions. So far, none of the chestnuts, including the Chinese species, have shown great enough resistance to chestnut blight to warrant their recommendation. We still hope that we may discover a good chestnut for this section. The hardy Persian or English walnuts have not been tested long enough to warrant any conclusion as to their promise for New Hampshire; one difficulty will probably lie in the fact that the nuts of some do not ripen properly under our cool, short summer conditions. Mr. Matthew Lahti of Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, has been experimenting with various species and varieties of nuts for that section. His location on the shore of Lake Winnipesaukee undoubtedly presents a more favorable site for growing certain types of nut plants than exists here in Durham, or most other parts of New Hampshire. At the present moment I have on my desk a parcel received from Mr. Lahti containing some fine specimens of one of the hardy Persian walnuts which he is growing in Wolfeboro. The unusually warm and dry late summer and fall of this year have favored the maturity of this walnut. (For a detailed description of Mr. Lahti's experience with nut varieties, please refer to his paper printed below.) Nut Notes from New Hampshire MATTHEW LAHTI Not being able to attend the annual convention I thought possibly some of the members might be interested in the following random notes of an amateur nut grower. My place is in Wolfeboro, N. H., which is situated in the eastern end of Lake Winnepesaukee, 43 degrees, 35 minutes north latitude; elevation above sea level, 687'. The elevation of the lake is 504'. Wolfeboro is just about at the northern fringe of the climate where peaches will ripen, that is during favorable years in favored locations. Improved varieties of field corn will ripen during favorable seasons. It also happens to be the northern fringe of the American chestnut, in favored location. I have discovered a number of saplings that are still alive. As a matter of fact, three or four years ago I was fortunate in finding some ripened nuts, but the trees that bore those nuts have since died of the blight. While a certain variety of old fashioned sweet cherry will live and bear fruit, some of the recent improved varieties will not live. Every one that I have planted was winter-killed. The Montmorency cherry, however, does well. It is also the northern limit of the pignut. Butternuts do very well. DDT Dust versus Butternut Curculio I was prompted to write this note by reading Mr. S. H. Graham's article entitled "An Experiment with DDT" appearing on page 101 of the 1945 annual report, in which he states that the butternut curculio did not survive DDT powder. In the past four or five years the butternut curculio (identified as such by Prof. Conklin of the University of N. H.) has all but ruined my Crath Persian walnuts and heartnuts, so, acting on the basis of Mr. Graham's experiment, I had my trees dusted early in the morning when the dew was on the leaves, using a 10% DDT powder, the first time about May 30 and again two weeks later, and I am happy to say that this dusting has been very effective. I have been unable to find any sign of curculio injury this year, although I have seen it nearby on some native butternut trees. My Gellatly heartnut was riddled by the curculio last year. This year, when the dusting was done, this tree was overlooked, so I undertook to dust it myself, and not realizing that the Niagara duster which I used was set in the closed position, I dusted the tree with considerable effort. In spite of the small amount of dust that came out, it proved sufficient to keep the curculios away or else to kill them so that there is no sign of any damage at this writing. Persian Walnuts In the spring of 1938 I planted a number of Crath Persian walnut seedlings. Out of possibly eight or ten, only two survive. (I gave each one about three years, and if it showed serious winter injury, I pulled it up.) I was pleasantly surprised the other day to discover that one of them has borne a single nut this year. This particular tree is at least 300' from any other Persian walnut, so it looks as if it were self-fertile. It now remains to be seen whether or not the nut will ripen. In the spring of 1940, I planted a Broadview Persian walnut graft on black walnut stock, and this tree is bearing for the first time with eighteen nuts showing. Three or four years ago this Broadview suffered some winter damage by a split trunk and split lower branch. I painted over the cracks with gasket cement, and they are now healed. The Broadview has also shown some winter-kill of terminal twigs, but not enough to affect its bearing this year. There has been no splitting of the trunks or branches of the two surviving Crath Persian walnut trees and no winter injury to terminal twigs. The Crath walnut trees are now 18" in circumference a foot from the ground and about 12 to 15' tall. The Broadview on the black walnut stock has a circumference of 16" above the graft and 15-1/4" below the graft, tending to show that the Broadview grows faster than the black walnut. It is interesting to note that the Broadview blooms a week or ten days later than the Crath Persian walnut, and at the same time as the native butternut. Black Walnuts I have planted a few Thomas black walnut seedlings, two grafts, and a Tasterite black walnut graft. A Thomas black walnut graft has borne nuts in three different years, including this year. The graft was sent out in the spring of 1939, and the seedlings were set out in the spring of 1940. The seedlings have not yet borne. The Thomas black walnut graft last bore three years ago, when the nuts on the whole ripened and were well filled. We had a very cold spring in 1945, so much so that apples were almost a total failure. I also planted a Tasterite black walnut in the spring of 1939, and this is the first year that it has borne any nuts. It remains to be seen whether they will be filled out or not. There is, however, an important difference between the Thomas and the Tasterite, which are growing only 50' apart, namely that the Thomas suffers from winter injury to the terminal twigs each year, whereas there has not been any sign of such injury to the Tasterite. Hickories I have planted possibly two dozen of a number of varieties of hickories, of which only nine survive to date, the cause being not winter injury but what appears to me to have been improper circulation through the graft union. They would struggle along for three or four years (producing suckers from the root stock which I broke off), and then die. None of these has borne any nuts yet except the Weschcke, which was planted in the fall of 1941, and which is now bearing one nut. This nut is a mystery to me because the tree bore no catkins. There are no hickory trees within thirty miles of the vicinity to my knowledge, and the nearest pignut tree is perhaps three-quarters of a mile distant, in a direction against the prevailing winds, the intervening space being forest. Could it be possible that the Weschcke hickory was pollinated by a butternut or the Broadview Persian walnut? A big butternut tree stands within 60' and the Broadview is situated about 150' distant. Heartnuts I have tried a number of heartnuts, including the Gellatly and the Wright. Only a single Gellatly survives. Here again the cause was not winter injury so much as either the butternut curculio or other causes. The Gellatly, while suffering some terminal twig winter injury and deer damage by rubbing of horns, has borne and ripened nuts. Filberts and Hazelnuts I planted a number of Winkler hazels in the fall of 1940, and this is the second year of bearing. The nuts hardly have time to ripen in our climate and a good many of the catkins get winter-killed. In the spring of 1939 I planted a number of filbert seeds received from Mr. Slate such as No. 128 Rush Barcelona; Medium Long; and Red Lambert. These are bearing for the first time this year, and judging from the size of the nuts now, it looks as if they will mature. Many of the catkins were winter-killed. Bixby and Buchanan planted in the spring of 1939: While the plants did very well, most of the catkins invariably were winter-killed, so I was obliged to pull them up. I have a feeling that filberts would do better here if it were not for the very cold winds that blow off the lake in winter, killing most of the catkins. I discovered a wild hazel in Lexington, Mass., (which town is located in a so-called cold air pocket) the nuts of which are almost equal to the Winkler. I have transplanted some of these to Wolfeboro and shall know more about them later. I also discovered some wild hazels in northeastern Maine, between Lincoln and Vanceboro on the border of New Brunswick, Canada, which two weeks ago had good sized, well filled nuts on them. I have also transplanted some of these to Wolfeboro. In closing I should like to thank all officers, committee members, and others who are responsible for the annual report. To those of us who do not get to the conventions very often, the report is the Northern Nut Growers Association, and a source of very valuable and interesting information, especially to an amateur like myself. A Simplified Schedule for Judging Black Walnut Varieties L. H. MacDANIELS and S. S. ATWOOD, Cornell University All its members would agree that the Northern Nut Growers Association should have an officially accepted schedule for judging black walnuts and the other kinds of nuts with which it is concerned. Some yardstick is needed to serve as a basis for the comparison of varieties which the members of the Association will use. Persons familiar with nut varieties are freqeuntly asked to answer questions about the best varieties to plant. Of course there is no simple answer to such a question as many factors besides the nuts themselves determine the value of a variety. The quality and value of the nuts are, however, the most important initial consideration in selecting a variety on its merit and there should be some objective test adopted to aid in evaluating nut samples. During the many years that the Northern Nut Growers Association has been operating more than a hundred and fifty varieties of black walnuts have been named. Yet at the present time we are not certain which are the better varieties except in a very general way. There is no widely accepted judging schedule being used as is evident in the tables published by Seward Berhow in his paper in the 1945 Proceedings (2). In these tables scores are given but these come from several sources and are not comparable and hence are of little value in making comparisons. There have been many schedules for judging black walnuts presented in the past. One of the first was proposed by the late Willard G. Bixby (3, 4). This was complicated and never came into general use although the testing done by Mr. Bixby was a valuable contribution to our knowledge of varieties. The late N. F. Drake tested many varieties through the years according to a schedule of his own devising (5, 6). Professor Drake's schedule was related to his concept of a perfect walnut and the various values were related to this on a percentage basis. This schedule never had wider acceptance, chiefly because it was too complicated and required too much figuring. Mr. C. A. Reed has probably tested more varieties of nuts and is more familiar with varieties than any other person but he does not have a definite scoring schedule. Kline and Chase (7) summarized results of the testing work that had been done and Kline (8) compared varieties according to a system which he devised in which they were rated in terms of return per hour of labor spent in cracking and extracting the kernels. Mr. C. C. Lounsberry has proposed a method of scoring which was related to kernel cavity measurement (9). In 1935, a Committee on Varieties and Standards endeavored to formulate a working schedule that would be adopted as official. This committee set up a score that represented the best thinking of the group at that time (1). Twenty-five nut samples were used. The score was the sum of the weight of an individual nut in grams plus twice the per cent kernel of the weight of the nuts recovered in the first crack plus the total percentage of kernel plus 1/10 of a point for each quarter kernel recovered. Penalties were proposed for shrunken kernels and empty nuts. Through the years a large number of samples have been tested according to this scoring schedule (11). In 1943, MacDaniels and Wilde (12) summarized the previous work done, added many tests and evaluated the scoring system. This was not considered to be altogether satisfactory. In the first place, it was somewhat cumbersome and had never been adopted by the Association nor had it been used much by others. The figuring of percentages and penalties made a score too involved for wide aceptance. A very serious difficulty was the problem of shrunken kernels and empty nuts. Obviously, with a score related to the weight of the sample before cracking, the inclusion of a number of empty nuts made it impossible to make any accurate correction in the percentages that were used in the score. Penalties did not solve the problem. Also the initial weight of the sample varied with the amount of husk clinging to the shells. From this work it was evident that an acceptable score would have to be formulated on some other basis. The next approach was to analyze data of this type statistically in an attempt to devise a better scoring system (1). The results from such a study proved valuable in answering such questions as 1) the size of sample necessary to obtain significant differences between samples; 2) the significance of small differences in measurements or in scores and 3) the amount of variation that is normal and without significance in comparing varieties. The following qualifications were considered essential to a workable schedule: 1) The schedule must be easy to use. 2) The schedule must concern itself with objective qualities or characters which can be weighed or measured. It cannot be concerned with flavor and other characters upon which there may be disagreement and which depend upon personal preference. 3) Characters must be avoided which vary with the treatment of the samples themselves such as color of kernels. 4) It must give a score that will separate samples on small differences. Considering the problem from these angles and scrutinizing the older schedules, a number of ideas came out. First of all, why include the shells? If shells are discarded a number of problems would be solved, such as the cleaning of the nuts and adjustments for shrivelled and empty nuts. Also, why reduce any of the weights or measures to percentages which only add to the complexity of the score? The actual amount of kernels recovered reflects both the size of nuts and the yield of kernels. Plumpness of the kernels is reflected in the total weight of kernels and does not need to be considered separately. The important elements in a score were considered to be: 1) The crackability of the nuts of the variety. This is measured by the weight of kernels obtained in the first crack. 2) The yield of the variety. This is measured in the total weight of kernels. 3) The marketability of the product. This can be measured by the number of pieces in the sample. In general, the smaller the number and the larger the size of the pieces the better the marketability. With this general background in mind, many samples were tested and the results published in the 1945 report[1]. In order to secure the data needed the kernels of the individual nuts in the samples were weighed separately. NOTE: All samples were cracked with the (John W.) Hershey nut cracker. Some of the conclusions drawn from these tests were as follows: 1) Using kernel weights only gives a rapid and accurate test of differences between varieties. 2) Ten nuts are adequate for a single sample. 3) The location of the tree with reference to climate and soil is probably the most important single factor influencing kernel yield. No evidence was obtained, however, to indicate that the varieties ranked significantly different at different locations. 4) If reasonable care is used in cracking the differences due to different operators tend to be non-significant. The statistical proof that a ten-nut sample is adequate and that differences between operators are not significant are two findings that are important in setting up a schedule. During the past year further testing has been done, in which scores were computed from ten-nut samples.[A] The samples had preliminary cool, dry storage to assure comparable moisture content. Enough nuts were cracked in each sample to secure ten that were well filled. Empty nuts were recorded. The following data were kept for each sample: 1) The weight of the kernels recovered in first crack in grams. 2) The total weight of the kernels in grams. 3) The number of quarters and number of halves recovered. Scores were computed as 1) the weight of the first crack in grams plus 2) half of the total weight of the kernels recovered in grams plus 3) the number of quarters divided by four and, 4) the number of halves divided by two. In this score, it was considered that the crackability of the sample was measured by the weight of the first crack; the yield, by the total weight of kernels secured from the sample; the marketability by the number of quarters and halves. From the use of this schedule scores were secured ranging from 83.9 for the variety Thomas grown in Maryland to 37.4 for the variety Huen, which is a small nut giving relatively small kernel yield. Analyses of the data to determine the percentage of the score that was derived from each component showed that crackability as measured by the weight of the kernels recovered in first crack gave an average of 54% of the score with a range of 49 to 58 for the different samples; yield, as measured by total weight of kernels divided by two, 31% with range of 27 to 34%; marketability measured by number of quarters divided by four 14% with range of 10 to 22% and number of halves divided by two 1%. The percentage of the score derived from the number of halves was so small as to be negligible. It seemed better, therefore, to base the score on only three elements, namely, the weight of the first crack, the total yield of kernels and the number of quarters recovered from the sample. On this basis the problem becomes that of deciding the weights that should be given to these three components. The score as set up emphasizes the crackability of the variety much more than its marketability. This seems logical because the value of a variety is in large part dependent upon the ease of recovery of the kernels on first cracking. Several different combinations of the weighting of these three components were considered and it was decided that the most logical was to weight the elements as follows: 1) The weight of first crack in grams. 2) The total weight of the kernels divided by two and 3) the number of quarters recovered divided by 2. If there are halves, each half would count as two quarters. Table I. Average scores from 18 black walnut samples cracked by three operators and computed by two scoring systems. Scoring Systems[3] -------------------- Variety Source Year I II points points Thomas Maryland '46 83.9 93.1 Snyder Ithaca, N. Y. (A) '46 81.8 89.2 Ohio Maryland '46 79.5 88.9 Thomas Ithaca, N. Y. (A) '46 76.4 85.5 Norris Tennessee '45 76.1 83.9 Stambaugh Ithaca, N. Y. (A) '46 75.9 81.0 Stambaugh Ithaca, N. Y. (A) '46 74.0 83.2 Thomas Tennessee '45 71.5 79.6 Thomas Ithaca, N. Y. (B) '46 65.7 74.6 Cornell Ithaca, N. Y. (C) '46 59.3 67.6 Stabler Maryland '45 56.9 64.5 Cresco Ithaca, N. Y. (A) '46 55.8 65.2 Seedling No. 1 Geneva, N. Y. '46 52.7 62.2 Seedling No. 3 Geneva, N. Y. '46 50.6 59.0 Brown Ohio '45 49.7 59.4 Stabler Tennessee '45 47.5 51.4 Seedling No. 2 Geneva, N. Y. '46 44.4 52.2 Huen Iowa '46 37.4 44.9 Least significant difference (5%) 6.3 6.6 [Footnote 3: Score I=Weight (grams) 1st crack + Total weight (grams) + -------------------- 2 Number quarters + Number halves --------------- ------------- 4 2 Score II=Weight (grams) 1st crack + Total weight (grams) + -------------------- 2 Number quarters --------------- 2 ] Calculating the percentage of each component in the total score on this basis gives crackability 48%, yield 27%, marketability 25%. This schedule gives relatively more weight to marketability as against the other two components. The average scores of 18 samples cracked by three operators and calculated on both the above described schedules are given in table I. The table shows that the rank of the different samples was not changed materially by using only the three components, except in a few cases in which there were an appreciable number of halves. The Stabler has many one-lobed nuts which increase the number of halves recovered. It is to be noted that with both schedules the least significant difference at the 5% level is about 6 score points. Table II gives the score calculated by schedule II for five samples, each cracked by six operators. The difference between operators is not significant but the difference between varieties is highly significant. Table II. Scores from five samples of black walnuts each cracked by six operators according to scoring schedule II. Operators ---------------------------------- Variety Location Year 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average Snyder Ithaca, N. Y. '46 89.2 87.3 78.9 94.4 87.5 91.5 86.5 Thomas Ithaca, N. Y. (A) '46 83.5 79.2 83.1 78.0 84.2 83.8 83.6 Thomas Ithaca, N. Y. (B) '46 73.1 67.4 73.4 74.1 69.6 83.8 73.6 Cresco Ithaca, N. Y. '46 66.0 69.2 63.1 67.2 68.5 60.2 65.7 Brown Ohio '45 62.5 51.0 65.4 60.4 48.1 64.8 58.7 ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Average 74.9 70.8 72.8 72.8 71.6 78.8 73.6 Least significant difference (5%) for variety averages 6.2 A third scoring system, involving 1) weight of kernels in grams for the first crack, plus 2) total weight of kernels, 3) all divided by the number of marketable pieces (as counted following sifting on a 1/4" round hole screen) was tried, and the resulting ranking of the varieties was very similar to that obtained with systems I and II. The results from this system appeared to be the most precise, but it was not considered as generally acceptable as system II, since the latter would be easier to record and calculate. It is the opinion of the authors that Schedule II gives a score that estimates very well the relative merit of the samples tested as to crackability, yield and marketability. It is simple to use and the only equipment required is a scale accurate to 1/10 gram. Calculations are reduced to a minimum and the characters used are not dependent on judgment of the individual making the test. It should be pointed out, however, that differences in score of less than six points are not significant on the basis of testing done to date. As more tests are made this value may be reduced. The schedule should serve as a measure to establish differences between varieties, particularly when a considerable number of tests are made. It can also be relied upon to measure differences due to the location of trees of the same variety, variation of the same variety from year to year in the same and in different locations and differences of a similar nature. In ranking varieties which have scores within the limits of variability, it will be necessary to use judgment as to small differences of appearance. No scoring schedule can be expected to entirely eliminate the judgment of experts. Also it must be realized that characters other than the nuts, such as bearing habit, hardiness, yield of trees, disease resistance and the like must be considered in finally establishing the value of a variety. References Cited 1. Atwood. S. S. and L. H. MacDaniels. Tests of black walnut varieties for differences in kernel yields. N.N.G.A Rept. 36: 44-50, 1945. 2. Berhow, Seward. Black walnut variety tabulations. N.N.G.A Rept. 36: 38-43, 1945. 3. Bixby, W. G. Judging nuts. N.N.G.A. Rept. 10: 122-133, 1919. 4. ----. The 1929 contests and the method of testing used. N.N.G.A. Rept. 22: 42-63, 1931. 5. Drake, N. F. Judging black walnuts. N.N.G.A. Rept. 22: 130-137, 1931. 6. ----. Black walnut varieties. N.N.G.A. Rept. 26: 66-71, 1935. 7. Kline, L. V., and S. B. Chase. Compilation of data on nut weight and kernel percentage of black walnut selections. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 38: 166-174, 1941. 8. Kline, L. V. A method of evaluating the nuts of black walnut varieties. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 41: 136-144, 1942. 9. Lounsberry, C. C. Measurements of walnuts of United States. N.N.G.A. Rept. 31: 162-127, 1940 10. MacDaniels, L. H. Report of committee on varieties and judging standards. N.N.G.A. Rept. 28: 20-23, 1937. 11. ----. Is it possible to devise a satisfactory judging schedule for black walnuts? N.N.G.A. Rept. 30: 24-27, 1939. 12. ----, and J. E. Wilde. Further tests with black walnut varieties. N.N.G.A. Rept. 34: 64-82, 1943. Test Plantings of Thomas Black Walnut in the Tennessee Valley SPENCER B. CHASE, Tennessee Valley Authority Native black walnut occurs abundantly throughout most of the Tennessee Valley. Practically every farmer has at least one "favorite tree" and each fall he collects nuts from that tree and stores them for cracking during the winter. In some sections of the Valley walnut cracking in the home is of considerable importance. Each year, some million and a quarter pounds of kernels are cracked out at the five modern cracking plants located in or adjacent to the Valley. Utilization of the crop is becoming more and more complete. In early studies of native nut trees, TVA recognized the possibilities of black walnut, especially the improved varieties. Here was a tree that produced not only valuable nut crops but also cabinet wood without equal; in addition, it was a desirable pasture shade tree. Black walnut has long been a favorite among farmers, but few of them had ever heard of =improved= black walnuts. Along with TVA, the state agricultural extension services saw the advantages of the improved varieties and were eager to test them under Valley conditions. And so it was that a cooperative testing project was developed. TVA produced the trees and the seven Valley state extension services distributed them to farmers for test planting. The Test The Thomas walnut was used in these test plantings for several reasons. In the first place, it produces large, rather thin-shelled nuts with good cracking qualities. Few varieties are more easily cracked with a hammer or a hand-operated cracking machine. In addition, fast growth is characteristic of the variety and it should produce merchantable sawlogs earlier than the common walnut. Despite its northern origin, 5-year-old plantings at Norris, Tennessee, seemed well adapted to Valley conditions. No other variety at the time offered as many advantages. Test planting was begun in Tennessee in 1939 and then it was extended to the other Valley states as more trees were propagated. For the most part, planting sites were selected by extension foresters and county agents. If the tests were successful they would automatically become demonstrations, so special attention was given those areas where walnut cracking in the home was an important enterprise. Many of the test plantings were located in communities that had been organized for the study and application of improved farming methods. In general, farmers planted the trees in low, fertile spots not suitable for other uses, along fences, or in pastures if they could be protected from livestock. Through 1946, 9,614 trees were planted in 3,286 test plantings. They were scattered all over the Valley, in 92 of its 125 counties. The number of trees per planting varied with the availability of good walnut sites. Generally, there were 2 to 4 trees in each planting. The Results Getting survival and performance data on these widely scattered experimental plantings presented quite a problem. Examination of a few plantings showed that trees given reasonable care had survived and were beginning to bear nuts. So in 1946, the farmers who had planted the trees were polled by mail for an overall evaluation of the plantings. Questionnaires asking for information on survival, growth, and bearing were sent by the state extension foresters to 3,274 farmers. The return of questionnaires was excellent. Forty-two percent came back and three-fourths of them were filled out completely. =Survival and Mortality Causes.= Eighty-one percent of the 1,373 plantings reported on were still active in 1946; that is, they still had at least one living tree. Survival reports received on 3,831 trees planted showed that 2,439 or 64 percent of the trees were living in 1946. Survival was best in the portion of the Valley north and east of Chattanooga; 84 percent in Virginia, 71 percent in North Carolina, and 66 percent in eastern Tennessee. South and west of Chattanooga survival percent was lower: 62 in Georgia, 61 in western Tennessee, 54 in Kentucky, 45 in Alabama, and 26 in Mississippi (Table 1). Causes of mortality, as reported, were classified in five categories; losses prior to establishment, livestock and destruction, drought, insects and disease, and unknown (Table 1). Cause of mortality was listed as unknown for 42 percent of all trees reported dead. Field experience leads us to believe that most of the trees in this category probably succumbed to improper planting or complete neglect following planting. Many persons do not follow planting instructions; they often substitute their own methods with disastrous results. Among the reported known causes, drought killed most of the trees--29 percent. We know black walnut is very susceptible to dry weather after transplanting. Weather records for the area show that the early growing season of 1941 was exceptionally dry; 1942 was also drier that average; in 1943 and 1944 near drought and drought conditions prevailed throughout most of the Tennessee Valley. Weather is usually blamed when a tree dies without apparent cause, but in this case the reported mortality due to drought appears reasonable. Livestock, mowing, fire, and intentional removal were reported to have caused 13 percent of total mortality. Cows are curious animals and newly set trees seem to arouse all the curiosity in their make-up. Horses and cows apparently do not relish the foliage of walnut trees but they do bite at it, and in so doing usually break down the branches to such an extent that the tree dies. Some trees were accidentally destroyed simply because they had been forgotten. The next highest mortality cause reported was pre-establishment loss; this was blamed for 9 percent of the deaths. Losses resulting from delayed planting were placed in this category, also those where the report was "trees failed to leaf out." Insects and diseases were reported as causing 7 percent of the mortality. =Growth and Bearing.= Those who plant improved black walnut trees naturally want to know how soon they will begin bearing. This survey shows that bearing begins much earlier than most people thought. Trees in 32 percent of the plantings established between 1939 and 1944 were bearing by 1946. Of these 342, 113 began bearing 2 to 4 years after planting; 120 bore their first crop after 5 years; 109 began bearing after 6 to 8 years (Table 2). According to the reports, the earlier plantings were slower to come into bearing than the later plantings. This probably is not a true picture. We suspect that after six or eight years the actual date of first bearing had been forgotten in many cases. Growth was reported in terms of total height for each tree. These heights were then converted to annual growth rates for trees 3 to 8 years old and placed in arbitrary classes are follows: low (less than 1 foot) medium (1 to 2 feet), and high (over 2 feet). Test plantings in North Carolina had the highest growth rate; those in Mississippi, the lowest. In other states, growth rates fell between these two and were quite similar for the most part (Table 3). Average for all trees was 1.6 feet per year. Trees averaging less than one foot of height growth per year were slow to come into bearing. Only 14 percent of the trees in the low growth rate class were bearing. On the other hand, 71 percent of the trees with a high growth rate had come into bearing. Growth of black walnut, following recovery from transplanting shock, depends on site conditions and tree care. Trees set in fertile soil with an adequate moisture supply and kept free of livestock and other damage make rapid growth. Trees set in poor, thin or droughty soil do not make much growth if they survive at all. Black walnut is very sensitive to any wounds and, if subject to mechanical or livestock damage, growth is retarded. Cases of exceptional growth and bearing were reported. One in eastern Tennessee is worthy of brief description. There were two trees in this planting set approximately 40 feet apart. One was on the edge of a garden; the other, in a chicken run. In seven years the first tree grew to a height of 32 feet--an average growth of 4.5 feet a year. It began bearing in 1943 and produced a crop of nuts each year up to the time of the survey. The 1946 crop, reported as a light one, yielded 3.5 pounds of kernels. The other tree, shown in Figure 1, was 18 feet tall, having averaged 2.5 feet a year. It also began bearing annual crops in 1943, and in 1946 it had a very heavy crop for its size, yielding 2.5 pounds of kernels. Here are two Thomas trees of the same age planted practically side by side; one is almost twice the size of the other, but they both began bearing annual crops three years after planting. =Field Survey in Sample Area.= To check on the adequacy of the questionnaire survey, 108 test plantings in eastern Tennessee were visited and inspected. Forty of these had been reported on by mail; 68 had not. In general, the trees had been planted on the best sites available. Some were set out in farm orchards (Figure 2); a large number were planted in yards as combination nut and shade trees (Figure 3). Field examination of the 40 plantings which had returned questionnaires revealed conditions very similar to those reported (Table 4). Survival was found to be 75 percent compared with a reported 77 percent. Average tree height was reported as 9 feet; actual height averaged 11 feet. There was some hesitancy in reporting tree deaths caused by livestock; 4 percent was reported while 23 percent was found. Such mortality was usually listed as unknown on questionnaires. Information collected by field examination of 68 plantings which had not returned questionnaires and the 40 plantings which had returned questionnaires is shown in Table 4. Trees were found to be 2 feet taller in the 68 plantings but these trees averaged one year older than trees in the 40 plantings. Trees in the 68 plantings averaged 13 feet in height compared with 11 feet. Average age at first bearing was very similar. And here is a revealing discovery; livestock, mowing, and fire were responsible for 47 percent of the tree mortality in the 68-planting group, compared with 23 percent in the 40 plantings. This is perhaps one reason why the persons involved in these 68 plantings did not return questionnaires; it also explains most of the poorer survival. A large number of trees were planted in pastures and elsewhere without adequate protection from livestock. Even when cattle guards were used they were generally too small or weak for tree protection. Severe livestock damage resulting in poor growth and eventual death of trees was encountered frequently. We are inclined to believe that livestock accounted for a much higher percent of tree mortality than that reported in this survey. The high percent return of questionnaires in this survey, followed by a field check in a sample area, provides a good picture of Valley-wide plantings. Since survival was found to be lower in plantings which did not return questionnaires, an actual overall survival of 64 percent may be slightly high. Other spot checks in the field will give more information on this point. Discussion Interest in improved black walnut is mounting in the Valley. As the test plantings came into bearing farmers were quick to see the superiority of these nuts over the wild ones to which they had been accustomed. Word spread from farm to farm, and as a result there has been an increasingly large number of inquiries about sources of improved varieties and cultural treatments. The interest was reflected in the questionnaire survey. Nineteen percent of the questionnaires returned contained unsolicited comments of one kind or another. A large percentage of them showed evidence of interest such as: "the nuts are large and easy to crack," "where can I get more grafted trees?" Only 7 percent implied disinterest: "the trees are slow growing," "the nuts are faulty." This test-planting project will be completed in 1948. The plantings have already yielded much valuable information on the Thomas variety; they will yield much more as the trees become older. Further studies are planned on nut yield, nut quality, and tree growth in relation to the varying conditions existing in the Tennessee Valley. Summary Farmers in the seven Tennessee Valley states established 3,286 test plantings of Thomas black walnut in cooperation with state extension services and TVA during the period 1939-1946. A questionnaire survey in 1946 showed 81 per cent of the plantings still active and 64 percent of the trees living. Tree growth averaged 1.6 feet per year. Age at first bearing varied from 2 to 8 years, with 5 years most frequently reported. [Illustration: Figure 1. The Thomas variety appears well adapted to Tennessee conditions. This 7-year-old tree began bearing annual crops 3 years after planting. In 1946 it was 18 feet tall and heavily laden with nuts yielding 2-1/2 pounds of cracked-out kernels. (Hancock County, Tenn.)] [Illustration: Figure 2. Black walnut makes an ideal combination nut and ornamental tree. This 8-year-old Thomas has been producing nut crops for 3 years. In addition, it has enhanced the beauty of the lawn and provided welcome shade. (Anderson County, Tenn.)] Table 1.--Number of Questionnaires Sent and Returned, Reported Tree Survival and Cause of Tree Mortality by State. Questionnaires Trees Reported State Sent Returned Planted Living no. pct. no. pct. Alabama 161 44 274 45 Georgia 50 28 26 62 Kentucky 174 49 241 54 Mississippi 19 58 72 26 North Carolina 586 40 733 71 Tennessee, East 1,386 40 1,516 66 Tennessee, West 720 44 809 61 Virginia 180 48 160 84 All 3,276 42 3,831 64 [Illustration: Figure 3. Thomas tree planted in the farm orchard. This young tree has received excellent care and began bearing at 5 years of age. (Hancock County, Tenn.)] Reported cause of tree mortality Pre-estab Livestock, Insects, Total Planted -lishment destruction Drought diseases Unknown Trees Lost pct. pct. pct. pct. pct. no. Ala. 11 7 51 2 29 150 Ga. 30 10 0 20 40 10 Ky. 2 2 46 4 46 112 Miss. 19 4 49 0 28 53 N. C. 15 16 12 13 44 223 Tenn. (E.) 7 18 20 7 48 515 Tenn. (W.) 8 9 38 7 38 318 Va. 32 12 12 4 40 25 All 9 13 29 7 42 1,406 Table 2. Number of Bearing Thomas Plantings Established 1939-44, by Age of First Bearing and Growth Class. Plantings Age in years at first bearing Growth rate Year Number 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Low Medium High 1939 27 1 6 10 6 4 1 19 7 1940 112 2 14 39 41 16 9 58 45 1941 89 1 4 17 35 32 1 58 30 1942 71 1 12 18 40 1 34 36 1943 38 1 13 24 1 21 16 1944 5 5 2 3 All 342 3 36 74 120 83 22 4 13 192 137 Table 3. Tree Survival, Growth, and Percent Bearing by State and Year of Planting Plantings Trees, Growth, Bearing State reported survival annual trees number number feet percent Alabama 71 124 1.6 65 Georgia 14 16 1.5 18 Kentucky 85 129 1.5 71 Mississippi 11 19 1.0 29 North Carolina 235 518 1.9 25 Tennessee, East 553 1,007 1.5 32 Tennessee, West 318 491 1.6 32 Virginia 86 135 1.6 0 Year of planting 1939, 1940 255 627 1.6 64 1941, 1942 499 693 1.6 44 1943, 1944 326 558 1.6 18 1945, 1946 293 561 1.5 0 All 1,373 2,439 1.6 32 Table 4. Data Obtained from Returned Questionnaires and Actual Field Examination of 40 Plantings and Field Data Only on 68 Plantings. Data on 40 Plantings Data on 68 Plantings Questionnaire Field Field Tree Survival, percent 77 75 51 Average Height, feet 9 11 13 Cause of Tree Mortality, percent Pre-establishment 33 42 11 Livestock and Other Destruction 4 23 47 Drought 13 0 0 Insects and Diseases 8 4 2 Unknown 42 31 40 West Tennessee Variety, Breeding and Propagation Tests, 1947 AUBREY RICHARDS, M.D., Whiteville, Tennessee I surely wish I could have made the trip to the Northern Nut Growers Association meeting, but I simply had "too many hens setting" at that time. I've been waiting for you [the Secretary] to show up down here for the big news--at least it is to me--if it holds up. If you have ever tried to propagate heartnuts on Japanese walnut you know what it means. Here it is: Rhodes, Wright and Fodermaier heartnuts patch-budded on 10 Japanese understocks (all I had) took 100%. The same 3 varieties as a control on black walnut gave a take of only 80%. These trees give me a chance to check on the performance of black versus Japanese stocks for these varieties. From last year's propagation, Rhodes on black is beating Rhodes on Japanese and Bates (which was not used this year) seems fully as good on black walnut stocks. An isolated tree of Bates did not set a nut. Its pollen all shed before the pistils were receptive. An isolated tree of Rhodes bore a full crop. Incidentally, a weak chlorine bleach (Clorox) after these heartnuts are hulled does for them what peroxide does for the ladies and makes them look very inviting. Stambaugh again led in topworked black walnuts, bearing its second consecutive full crop on a 3-year graft. It seems to be immune to whatever it is that causes the other nuts to turn black, shrivel and drop off from the time they set until near maturity. Thomas was second. Snyder, Sparrow and Myers had no crop. I budded 25 more trees of Stambaugh this year. The Carpathian Persian walnut that we pollinated this spring with Wright heartnuts [no other walnuts were shedding at the time] matured a nice, large, rather pointed, heavy nut. It also matured another nut higher on the tree than we could reach with the catkins, but I'm sure it's a blank. It is still more pointed than the well-filled nut. The good nut is stored for planting. Rush hazel that set fruit last year with the help of a bouquet of native [West Tennessee] catkins set only 5 nuts this year "on its own." These I have also stored to plant. I didn't have enough stocks to utilize all the pollen-sterile Japanese chestnut buds you sent me [in early September]. I put in most of them, even in some cases several to the stock to see what percentage of takes we would get with the twin T. [See 1946 Report of N. N. G. A., pp. 87-88, for a description of the Twin T budding method.--Ed.] Here are the percentage takes for chestnut propagation this year. Of course I don't know how many of these buds will later drop off. 1. Pollen-sterile Japanese on Japanese stock. Late summer buds 100% 2. Austin Japanese on Japanese Stock. Late summer buds 86% 3. Hobson Chinese on Chinese. Late summer buds 75% 4. Zimmerman Chinese on Chinese. Late summer buds 50% 5. Colossal hybrid on Japanese stock. Spring grafts 60% I had a nice crop of Chinese chestnuts on my young Hobson and Zimmerman trees. The 1947 nuts were exceptionally large. One 3-year seedling bore 1 bur with 3 nuts fully as large. Connecticut Yankee bore for the first time, 3 nuts to a bur, but very small, scarcely 1/2" in diameter. (You will notice I budded none of this variety!) (Perhaps mislabeled seedling.--Ed.) I have about 100 nuts from isolated trees that were hand pollinated, as follows: Austin x Hobson, Austin x Zimmerman, Hobson x Austin and Hobson x Zimmerman. I have altogether 3 quarts of select nuts stored in the refrigerator. So far they are keeping nicely. (I dusted them with Fermate, hope it doesn't affect germination.) Notes on Some Kansas and Kentucky Pecans in Central Texas A letter to the Secretary from O. S. Gray, nurseryman at Arlington, Texas, October 28, 1947, has some interesting notes on two standard northern pecans, three new varieties from Kansas, and the Moore variety, one of the earliest maturing among southern pecans: We are propagating Major and Greenriver from Kentucky; Coy, Tissue Paper and Johnson from southeastern Kansas; and Brake from eastern North Carolina. Several years ago we used quite a few pecan trees of the Moore variety in planting around Tulsa. We though it would be a dandy because of its early maturity in the fall. I find that early fall maturity is only one important factor. The other is the date of starting growth in the spring. Moore seems to start out a little early in the spring and that disadvantage seems to limit it in the Tulsa, Oklahoma area. I also believe this might be a factor in using this variety in northern locations. [Moore originated in north Florida from Texas seed--Ed.] I have been considerably impressed with the Johnson variety. It matures two or three weeks ahead of Moore in the fall. The only data that I have was made in 1944 when Moore buds began to put out on March 25, Stuart and Success--April 5, Johnson--April 5, Coy and Major--April 8, Greenriver and Tissue Paper--April 10. The Johnson matures on our place several weeks ahead of Major and Greenriver although I don't have the exact date on maturity. Experiences of a Nut Tree Nurseryman J. F. WILKINSON, Rockport, Indiana In pioneering a nursery as we did in the early days of propagation of Northern nut trees, especially the pecan, it was necessary to first locate parent trees in this section that were worthy of propagation, in order that the nursery stock produced from them would be hardy in this and more northern territory. Along the Ohio and Wabash rivers and their tributaries many thousands of large seedling pecan trees grew naturally, and to locate some of the most worthy ones for propagation took the combined efforts of all of us in this section who were interested, as well as the aid of the tree owners and nut gatherers. In the year 1910 three nut nurseries were established here in Southern Indiana, two of which have long since been discontinued. Before that time a very few propagated pecan trees had been produced in an experimental way by some fruit tree nurserymen. Little did I realize at that time the trials and headaches that lay in the path I was to travel in this venture, such as locating the parent trees, securing the graft and budwood from them, learning to keep this wood from time of cutting until used, methods of propagation, trying to educate the prospective tree buyer as to the value of these trees, and to believe that pecan trees could be transplanted, and that they would bear if the taproot had been cut, and many other things. Production of nut trees in nurseries in this northern territory is so different, and more difficult than in the Gulf Coast country, where I spent a part of two seasons hoping to get information that would be of value here. What I learned there was of little or no value here, so it was up to us to solve our own problems in this section by experience, as there was very little in print at that time on Northern nut tree propagation. One of our first problems was to learn to keep cions from time of cutting until time of use, not knowing when that time was. We tried all times from March until May, having little success at any time. At first we kept the scions in a cold storage plant in Evansville, and at a temperature of around 32 degrees, and in wet moss. Later we found it much better to keep scions at home in a cellar at a higher temperature, and in only slightly dampened sphagnum moss. In the beginning our efforts were mostly in grafting, then after a year or two of failure, probably largely due to the way we kept our scions, we had some results at the McCoy Nursery, with scions kept at home. The McCoy Nursery was about four miles from my place, and located in a sandy soil with a near quicksand sub-soil. At that location they were later reasonably successful in grafting, using the modified cleft graft. My nursery is in clay soil with a hard stratum of soil three or four feet below the surface, and because of this I have been unable to graft pecans in the nursery, though I have tried every known method, and under all conditions. I could successfully graft at the McCoy Nursery, then use the same scion wood and the same method at home, but have a complete failure; therefore, I turned to budding entirely on pecans in the nursery. It is somewhat different with walnut--I can get fair results with walnut grafting at times, though I do very little of this, as more than 95% of my walnut trees are produced by budding. I do a lot of topworking on native seedling nut trees for others. Mr. Sly, who is with me, and I make one or more of these trips each spring. For this work I use only the slip-bark method, shaping the scion a little differently from any other I have ever seen used. This has given splendid results everywhere I have used it, which has been over the territory from Ohio to Oklahoma. A certain amount of allowance is made in this work as to safe drainage of the stock, depending on weather and soil conditions, which vary as, to season and location. I do practically all of my nursery propagating by budding, and one of the most essential things is to have favorable sap conditions in budwood as well as in stocks. On walnut I use only the current season's growth of wood for budwood, and it must be reasonably well matured. Very often sap in the stock may show signs of leaving before budwood is matured enough for use, and only the riper buds near the base of the bud stick can be used, in which case the rest of the buds on the bud stick are lost. Sometimes sap in the stocks can be held a few days longer by cutting a ring around the stock above the place where the bud is to be placed, which checks the flow of sap to the upper part of the stock. Sap in the stock must be in a favorable condition to hope for good results. In budding pecan it is different. Either the current or the past season's growth may be used with about equal results, though the current season's buds must be well matured. Very often in a dry season when there is evidence of sap leaving the pecan stocks earlier than usual and the current season's buds are not well matured, I use the past season's growth until the new growth is mature. A nut tree nurseryman has experiences that are both pleasant and unpleasant in selling trees as well as producing them. This is probably well known to all of you who have produced and sold nut trees. It is astonishing how many questions (some of which are amusing) the public can ask, and very often those that ask the most questions, leading one to believe they are a good prospect for a large order, may order only one or two trees, or none at all. Then there are those who have never bought a nut tree before, and when they see their first one are dissatisfied because it does not have a root system like a fruit tree; and there are a few who will try to get replacements whether they are entitled to them or not, and usually they are not; for, regardless of the instructions given for the planting and after-care, they will neglect them, then complain if they have a loss, and certain experiences have led me to believe they claim loss before having it. Many seem to think that a nurseryman should guarantee his trees to live when planted by the purchaser. To do this would be assuming the responsibility of the handling, planting and after-care of the planter, which would make it necessary for the nurseryman to put a price on his trees that would take care of a lot of replacements to the more careless ones who would have losses, and be very unfair to those who take good care of their trees, and have little or no loss, as they would be standing part of the loss of the careless ones. The most a nurseryman can do is to produce the best trees possible, dig them carefully, pack them in first class condition and ship them immediately. Discussion after Mr. Wilkinson's paper. Dr. Crane: "Minor elements are important in plant nutrition The problem of deficiencies is going to become very important. We do not keep the livestock we did and we are not returning to the land the manure and other fertilizers that contain the elements the trees need. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, also magnesium are needed. We are taking more from the soil than we are putting back." Corsan: "In Cuba there are hundreds of sharks. These make fine manure, wonderful for nut trees." Prof. Slate: "How many sharks would you need for an acre of land?" Morphology and Structure of the Walnut C. C. LOUNSBERRY, Iowa State College This subject, the structure of the walnut, is discussed in its relation to propagation. Catkin bearing nut trees, such as the walnut, have a refined structure that makes grafting difficult. Structure, rather than form of walnuts, suggests treatment under the headings, bark, cambium, wood, roots, pith and buds, as well as the sap that permeates them. =Bark:= When the bark of the walnut is cut, as in budding, it is difficult to tie down so it will not curl and yet not strangle the bud. The wax-like covering of the bark is thin. However, the bark itself will stay green two months or more if weather is cool. =Cambium:= The cambium dries quickly when exposed to air, and must be kept covered. Grafted walnuts show callus growth from the cambium, and also from the pith of stems and the endodermis of the root. =Wood:= The wood of the walnut is diffuse porous, brittle, straight grained, and easily split. The wood must be cut diagonally to get sufficient tension to hold the scion in grafting. The branch grows rapidly in a short season, May 15th to July 1st in central Iowa. The upper two-thirds of the one year growth is usually light weight with pith of large diameter. The base of the one-year growth is the best for scions. Some varieties of walnut as for example the Thomas, have relatively large one-year growth and more scions can be cut from its branches than from the wood of Ohio which is small and willow-like. Measurements taken in 1940 on 118 common black walnut seedlings planted in 1939 showed 9/16" average diameter of seedling at crown, 5/16" average diameter of pith at crown; 3/8" average diameter of seedling at top; and 1/4" average diameter of pith at top; 3.26 inches average length of solid pith above crown; 2.91 inches average length of solid pith in root below crown. =Pith:= Pith in the black walnut is chambered (lamellate) in the older wood, but solid in the younger, growing wood. The plates are a light brown color, getting larger in diameter toward the top of the year's growth. The leaf traces from the leaf rachis to the pith show heavier from the bottom buds of the branch than at the tip, and the pith is usually solid at the bottom of the branch. =Roots:= When the nut of the black walnut germinates in the soil the lobes or cotyledons do not rise above the ground like the cotyledons of the bean but remain in the nut shell under ground, and are broken off in the growth of the seedling, the root going down and the stem rising above the ground. Where the cotyledons are broken off, the so-called crown of the walnut, two rough places appear, nearly opposite on the stem. In these rough places, two groups of buds are formed, rarely three groups. Cytological studies at Iowa State College have not shown why there are not stem initials in the tap roots of the walnut. When the root is cut off a foot underground, root initials develop but no stem initials. The sensitivity of walnut leaf buds to water may have something to do with it. =Buds:= Buds of the walnut are in vertical groups of two or three in the axils of the leaves. They have few scales. They appear on seedlings and current year branches. Some have short stalks. If broken off they do not usually grow back again. The second year, these buds usually drop off in mid-season. In cutting off buds, unless the group of buds is taken out as a chip, some may grow out again. =Leaf arrangement:= There is a three rank arrangement of leaves in the walnut, the ninth leaf coming in the same position as the first. According to the work of Caesalpino, the buds should then rise in three places at the crown. Only in rare cases does this occur in the black walnut, although it is usual with the Persian walnut. If the nut is planted deep this causes much suckering and a tendency to etiolate the buds so they will stand water. =Buds are sensitive:= Buds are sensitive to water, and storage material must be fairly dry and cool. In two large boxes of scions received last year from Germany, some 20 varieties of Persian walnut, all had dead buds when received. They were packed in German peat. When buds are covered with wax the wax must not be too hot or it will kill the buds. In placing grafted walnuts in sphagnum or sand they should not stay wet or the buds will die. Either unions must be above damp sand or sphagnum, or the buds be protected by wax or adhesive. =Sap:= In spring grafting there is an enormous flow of sap which will sometimes tear the plates out of the pith. Grafts may be protected by girdling the stock a few inches below the place where the graft is set, or both above and below it. In 1937 259 walnuts three years old were cut off six inches above the ground and girdled two inches above the ground. 171 crown buds came up, 88 started above the girdling. 207 trees were cut off three feet above the ground, and the trunk girdled six inches above the ground. 153 started above the crown, and 90 started above the girdle. The same year (1937) 195 trees three years old were cut off four feet above the ground, and all buds above ground were cut flush with the surface of the bark. This was repeated twice, finally taking buds out as a chip, except the top bud; 126 died; 69 grew from the top but. 203 trees three years old were cut off five feet above ground and all buds cut off except upper one; 64 died; 139 grew from top bud. 200 trees three years old were cut off six feet above ground, and all buds kept rubbed off except top one; 33 died, and 167 grew from top bud. =Vitality and sap:= Black walnut sap changes color from oxidation almost instantly. Bench grafts must be made quickly and put in place at once or the unions will dry out. If the root does not stain hands in grafting the graft usually fails. In outdoor grafting if the sap stands in pockets the sugar will ferment, killing the graft. There is a new Jersey (3) bulletin which shows black walnut sap as unstable, quickly forming sugar when exposed to warm weather. =Vegetative propagation of greenwood cuttings:= Witt and Spence (4) in England working with greenwood cuttings attained 75 per cent success with Persian walnut and Royal walnut in July and August. They had no success with black walnut at that time (1926). The Germans in 1936 (1) working on greenwood cuttings had most success with the Persian walnut, but used greenwood taken in September. =Vegetative propagation or hardwood cuttings:= In 1938 the author (2) using growth substance on saddle grafts of various walnuts found Asiatic and western walnuts went on their own roots. At this time the Tasterite black walnut went on its own root. In 1946 and 1947 using about 25 varieties of black walnut, Persian, western and Asiatic walnuts, eight inch hardwood cuttings were used beginning in December and repeated in the spring of 1947. Nearly all the cuttings of the larger size (about 1/2") started in about a month and grew about two months. Then all died. There were balls of callus on many of them. One on Thomas was an inch in diameter. The bottom heat was held at 70 degrees F. This may have been too high, as on raising the cuttings it was found the callus had rotted. This procedure has possibilities. Literature Cited 1. Institut fur Obstbau, Berlin. Die Walnusz veredlung. (Vegetative propagation of walnuts). Merkbl. Inst. Obstb. Berlin 5, pp. 15, 1936. 2. Lounsberry, C. C. Use of Growth Substance in Bench Grafting Walnuts and Hickories. Northern Nut Growers Association 1938 Report, p. 63. 3. Nelson, Julius. Fermentation and Germ Life. N. J. Ag. Exp. Sta. Bul. 134, 1899. 4. Witt, A. W. and Howard Spence. Vegetative Propagation of Walnuts. Ann. Rep. East Malling Res. Station 1926-27. A Method of Budding Walnuts H. LYNN TUTTLE, Clarkston, Wash. It took man some thirty thousand years to learn to build a fire--conveniently. I thought it was going to take me that long to learn how to bud walnuts, but fortunately the period has been somewhat shortened. When I first began to propagate, or try to propagate, walnuts, I naturally looked to the approved and accepted methods. For me, they did not work. Before I was through I think I tried them all. I patch-budded with variations and improvisations. I shield-budded and bark-grafted. I coated the wounds with grafting-wax, latex, cellophane, asphalt and paraffine. I trimmed off the bud shoulders to make a smoother tie and trimmed around the edges to make more contact. I wrapped with raffia, strings, rags and rubber strips and tacked with small nails. Whatever I did or however I did it results were all about the same--the sap soured. In fact over a period of years I tried every way I could think up or read about to bring the bud and the cambium layer together and make them stick. Results were surprisingly uniform--the sap soured. But we must not dwell too long on the shots that missed. As with a refractory engine that will suddenly sputter, there came some elements of success. The point to learn was, why? Concentrating on the shield bud entirely we determined to find these whys. So we tried taking big slabs of bark along with the bud, peeling out the wood, breaking off the leaf stem entirely and waxing the scar and making an unnecessarily long cut for the bud. The bark stuck fairly well but the buds died. This was some encouragement and I knew that with enough time, reason and a little luck we would eventually hit the mark. Now Dame Fortune had decreed that I be raised on a grain and stock ranch where the only trees we could see were in the distant mountains, or, if we rode in the canyons, cottonwoods and choke-cherries. My experience and training was with animals, and animals, especially horses, seem quite susceptible to accident. The first principle of treating almost any wound is to give it drainage, otherwise, both literally and figuratively, the "sap" soured. Thus it dawned on me that a tree-wound, even if only skin deep should have the same treatment as a flesh wound. And drainage, being desirable, should be ample. It was quite late in the season but I went out and set a dozen Schafer walnut buds on eastern black stocks. These buds HAD DRAINAGE. The vertical cut of the T extended at least two inches below the bud. Success ensued, they grew. The following spring we budded as soon as the bark would slip and continued at intervals all summer. Results were good. Some of the steps we now use are probably not essential and perhaps not even the best, but there are two points that cannot be over-emphasized, namely, drainage and contact. The complete method is as follows: 1. Trim bud sticks to leave an inch of petiole on the bud. 2. Make the T cut with a long vertical slash that will extend at least an inch below the bottom of the bud. 3. Cut the bud long and deep and peel it from the wood by pinching the sides. Be carefull not to injure the bark just below the bud. 4. Insert the bud either flush with or below the cross-cut. 5. Wrap with large sized rubber budding strips just firmly enough to make good contact. Too tight wrappings curtail circulation. Do not cover the cut below the bud. The wound must have =drainage=. 6. Be sure that the center of the bud-cut is firm against the cambium layer. If it humps of bows and won't stay down insert a tooth-pick or bit of leaf stem or something along the center line to hold it down. We usually do this during the wrapping process. We use no wax. We throw a wrap over the bud, shoulders even though it may press the petiole forward against the bud. If the center of the bud pulls out it will not grow although an adventitious bud may eventually start. Budding seems about equally successful any time that the bark slips freely. On walnuts this is all summer if not too dry. Early-placed buds may make several feet growth before fall if sufficient moisture is available. On walnuts there are always dormant buds. We have used storage wood but now just cut it fresh. We have not tried draining patch-bud or grafts. Although we have not tried it we think cherries and other trees inclined to drown the buds might be better handled in this manner. Climate is a factor in the type of propagation advisable. One very fine grower using buds in California could propagate only by grafts when he moved to Western Oregon. The kernel of my walnut budding experience may well be summarized in one word--drainage. * * * * * Questions asked Mr. Stoke after his demonstration of grafting and budding. [See his paper in 1946 Report, pp. 99-103.--Ed.] Member: "How do you keep your scions?" Stoke: "I prefer 'orange' cold storage for scionwood. This is just above freezing. Walnuts should be in full leaf before spring budding." McDaniel: "What percentage of chestnuts did well with the 'plate' method of budding?" Stoke: "I don't use it with chestnuts for spring budding, but sometimes for summer budding. It will work well on any variety of Persian walnut, heartnut and black walnut. Place buds on the north and northeast side of tree to prevent sun injury." Question: "Do you find any difference in using buds from an eight or ten year old tree as against a younger tree?" Stoke: "No, not so long as it is healthy. For spring budding I don't care to have any trees too vigorous. Cut tops off young trees three to five days after budding, and force the buds into growth. If you delay too long the bud will die. I wouldn't try to bud trees unless bark is slipping." Member: "I have used parapin wax and covered it with old bread paper." Stoke: "That may work because the wax was shaded. Southern sun may melt parapin and paraffin waxes." Mr. Corsan: "Dentists, surgeons and wood carvers make the best grafters." Question: "Can the scions be cut with a small plane?" Stoke: "Anything you have to cut with a plane is too big. I never use a plane." Question: "What do you use a splice graft for?" Stoke: "Anything except walnut. In walnut I use a modified cleft graft, and I take care of the sap flow by placing the graft down about 1" or 1-1/4" below the cut (where the tree is cut off). Wax the scion but do not wax the cut. Let it bleed." Question: "What is the value of cut leaf black walnut?" Stoke: "Purely ornamental. Weschcke reports that it is very hardy with him." Rick: "What about the Lamb walnut?" Stoke: "We don't know whether the wood of grafted trees is curly or not. I sent Mr. Reed a limb from Lamb and he gave it to the forest laboratory and they found no evidence of curly grain." Rick: "Shouldn't it be propagated until we are sure?" Stoke: "We had Mr. Lamb himself talk before us at Roanoke and he told us about the parent tree. He doesn't know what makes one tree curly and another not." Korn: "Is that uncommon?" Stoke: "Not so very. Trees are most curly at the base and in the outer wood." Question: "Do you always leave that stub on black walnut?" Stoke: "Yes, but it should be removed later in the first summer." Question: "Where do you use your splice graft." Stoke: "On anything other than walnut, if scion and stock are the same size. Where stock is larger than scion I use the modified cleft graft up to sizes approaching one inch in the stock. For topworking larger stocks I use one of the forms of bark graft. For the large hickory stock Dr. Morris' bark slot graft is preferred. For large, thin-barked stocks the simple bark graft may be used. My original grafts of the Carr and Hobson Chinese chestnuts, made with scions received from Messrs. Carr and Hobson in the winter of 1932, are still perfect unions. "I believe that grafted chestnuts growing in frost pockets are most likely to develop faulty unions; possibly frost injury to immature cells at the junction point may occur. Dr. Crane mentions a similar failure of unions between Persian and black walnuts on the Pacific Coast." Dr. Crane: "What cut did you use in grafting those chestnuts?" Stoke: "Modified cleft. In using Dr. Morris' bark slot graft I find it best to leave just a little of the cut face of the scion wedge above the top of the stock. This, with top of the stock cut sloping away from the scion, as illustrated, promotes quick healing with no 'die-back.'" Dr. Smith: "Is that top slanting?" Stoke: "Yes, I cut it slanting." Dr. MacDaniels: "That is a good graft for walnuts, too." Note: Mr. Stoke showed the group a picture of a mockernut tree in one of his fields which he had girdled to kill it. The tree lived four years and during those years the moisture had to go up through the inner wood. The substance of Mr. Stoke's talk, together with illustrations, may be found on page 99 of the 1946 report. Importance of Bud Selection in the Grafting of Nut Trees G. J. KORN, Kalamazoo, Michigan For many years the fruit growers have been improving the qualities of their fruits in several ways. The early pioneers of our country selected the best fruits from seedling trees. Chance seedlings that were found in pastures, by roadsides, or possibly in some out-of-the-way place, selected because of some special quality or group of qualities, still dominate our commercial plantings of fruits and nuts. Several of the apple varieties to be found in the market today are from these chance seedlings. In more recent years some of our agricultural colleges have been breeding fruits. Such breeding has given us several of our more promising named varieties. In this way a great improvement has been brought about in our fruits. Environment too appears to have played an important part in making changes in fruits and nuts. Nuts that are extremely hardy in the more northern latitudes, appear to have developed this hardiness gradually throughout many generations. Because of this quality we are now able to select varieties that are most likely to succeed in any particular locality. More rapid and satisfactory methods of improving our fruits and nuts have been brought about through breeding. This development of the science of plant breeding has made it possible to blend the good qualities of two seedlings into a new variety. Man does not have to follow nature's slow hit-and-miss method of developing more desirable qualities in her products. Controlled breeding, as brought about by man, produces faster and more satisfactory results. Man's improvement over nature has come about through his choice of the qualities to be blended, and his ability to bring together two parents from widely separated parts of the earth, if necessary. Besides breeding, we are able also to use some of the mutations or bud sports to improve our nuts as well as fruits. Although our progress in improving nuts may not yet be as spectacular as cross-breeding with apples, bud selection has already modified the list of our commercial varieties. One of the first requisites in bud selection is so thorough a knowledge of the variety that any departure from the type will be detected. Then it will be necessary to start propagation to determine whether the variation was caused by some environmental factor, or is really a sport which can be perpetuated by vegetative propagation. You may wonder if many of our nut growers know nut varieties well enough to detect any but the most obvious sports. Nut improvement through bud selection within the variety lies ahead of us. Among fruit growers the search seems to have been for fruits of different or more pleasing color. As nut growers we are more likely to be interested in nut sports having better size, kernel, cracking qualities, etc. Trees that are able to ripen their nuts in short or cool seasons are especially desirable in some of our more northern states. My attention was especially called to the importance of bud selection several years ago while buying my winter's supply of apples. I was examining the splendid crop of Jonathan apples in a neighbor's large commercial orchard. On most of the Jonathan trees the apples were large and well colored and the crop was heavy. However, a few trees bore apples of inferior size and color. Upon questioning the fruit grower as to the difference in the performance of the two types of Jonathan apple trees, he explained that the better apples came from trees supplied by a nurseryman who was very particular in selecting a good bud strain. The other trees were just the ordinary strain of Jonathan. It was while working in a commercial orchard of the grafted varieties of black walnuts that I noticed one especially promising Thomas tree. During the few years that I have observed this tree, its nuts have been of splendid size and very uniform. The kernels from the nuts from this tree were somewhat better than those from most of the other trees. I now have some grafts growing from this promising tree. There appears to be much promise for nut improvement by cross-breeding to regroup desired qualities. Although many of us enjoy the nut contests that are conducted from time to time, it appears that our nut improvement program might move along faster if more attention were given to nut breeding and searching out desirable bud sports. Discussion after G. J. Korn's paper. Corsan: "Farmers should be encouraged to plant nut trees along boundary lines. Enormous amounts of fertilizer there." J. R. Smith: "One tree in ten thousand seedlings is worth while." Dr. Lounsberry: "We have two trees planted close together--one bears small nuts and the other large nuts. They are from the same grafting. It would seem that the trouble is in the stock. The stock makes a vast difference." The Hemming Chinese Chestnuts E. SAM HEMMING, Easton, Maryland The bearing record of our row of 18 Chinese chestnuts has attracted so much attention that I thought the Association would be interested in seeing some slides of these trees, also of our experimental orchard, as well as the large quantity of small trees we grow in our nursery and the manner in which we raise them. You will see a number of slides of chestnut trees and hear a lot about the bearing qualities, but you won't see a single nut, for unfortunately all these slides were taken between December 1946 and July 1947. You will just have to let the numerous little trees attest to the fact that these trees bear. We have 50,000 trees in our nursery. These trees are now nineteen years old and have borne rather remarkably since 1937. They are spaced too close--an accident--but I believe that helps thorough pollination. They are now 12 and more inches in diameter, some are 30' high and the spread is at least 35' where they have the room. All but No. 14 are spreading in character; spreading character and good bearing seemed to be connected. The bearing record of these trees has been given before but I will summarize them by years again: 1937--118 pounds; 1938 (no records); 1939-463 pounds; 1940--250 pounds; 1941--564 pounds; 1942--658 pounds; 1943--749 pounds; 1944--678 pounds; 1945--250 pounds; 1946--1,100 pounds; this year's crop will probably run 700 to 800 pounds. The trees seem to bear much the same, with No. 14 the poorest and No. 19 the best and, like many other tree crops, they tend to alternate good and poor crops on each tree. The nuts are of good size, averaging 40 to 50 per pound (green) with No. 6 and No. 19 bearing the smallest nuts. They ripen in September with the exception of No. 19 which is a month later. Mr. Reed likes No. 16 which has a wrinkled shell. All the nuts are medium sweet to sweet and all of them fall free of the bur. I think the most significant thing is that at least 12 of the trees have nut characteristics so near alike that they are about indistinguishable, which certainly makes them a good source of seed. The similarity of the nuts brings up the controversial subject of the seedling raised tree, and I will make some remarks in defense of this method. 1. All our parent trees are good bearers. 2. There is no extraneous pollen in the vicinity. 3. I will present as a question: Has the Chinese chestnut, like the rose and the apple been hybridized out of all semblance of the wild form? 4. The seedling tree should bring chestnuts to the average householder's table 30 years sooner than grafting will. 5. We now produce a 3'-4' tree for a very reasonable figure. 6. All varietal forms at present are as yet unstabilized (most varieties of 10 years ago have been discarded). There will probably be some duds in seedling trees, but we've had no local complaints and I wonder if they will exceed the "troubles" found in the grafted tree. We have had customers brag about what their 2 or 3 or 6 trees bore. To prove our faith in this method we planted a test orchard. When the trees were 3 years old from 2 year transplants they bore 25 pounds. Next year, 1944, they bore 800 pounds or an average of 1 pound per tree. Right then and there we thought that we would have a real story to tell, but we had misfortune in another direction. Three years in a row we have had frosts when 6 inches of new growth were on these trees (the orchard is not as well situated as the parent trees in this respect). So we had no crops worth mentioning but neither did we have strawberries or similar fruits. This year the orchard was frosted 2/3 the way to the top so we will get quite a few nuts, maybe 500 pounds. Incidentally, we have been here 25 years and we've not had frosts like these before. We use all of our good nuts for seed purposes, grading out all small or damaged nuts. In raising these trees, even from seed, we've had our troubles. We let them cure several weeks then plant them in well fed soil in a narrow trench about 2 inches deep. We place the nuts 5 or 6 inches apart; we fill the trench with sawdust level with the surface. We mound the soil over this about 4 inches until spring. Then it is removed. This method lets the shoots through, otherwise they tend to send 3 or 4 stems. The nut sends down the root very early in the spring. We have some trouble with the mole-mice combination; for this reason heavy soil and sawdust is better than sandy soil. As you know neither the nut nor the tree likes wet soil. In raising the young tree the principal difficulty is in getting a trunked upright tree. A seedling, especially when transplanted the first year, flops all over like a flowering shrub. To get them up we plant them fairly close, prune them, and feed them. Our 1 year trees are usually two feet high and 2 year trees are 4 to 5 feet high. We wholesale our trees mostly to mail order nurseries and the largest had a 5% request for replacements. There are troubles in growing Chinese chestnuts just as there are in most fruits and nut crops and, in a way, I am glad there are because I am of the opinion there is no such thing as harvesting without cultivation. For instance, if you plant them and let nature take its course--it will. It will on an apple, too. We have found a few small lesions of chestnut blight which were removed by pruning and then painted with pine tar. They usually occurred at a previous point of pruning. Some of the transplanted seedlings have developed a twig canker at a bud, but I've never seen them kill one and even when we don't prune it out, the tree overcomes it by new growth. The Japanese beetle attacks the chestnut but, although they were bad this year, one spraying of DDT was effective. The weevil (curculio) was bad enough last year so we are spraying this year. Small growers should put the nuts in metal containers and thus destroy the larvae, if any. I would like to remark here that we are a nursery growing many ornamentals, and the Chinese chestnut, although low branched, is a very ornamental tree. I know of no tree that has a handsomer dark, shiny green leaf or one whose green color holds so well until frost. Now I think you will agree I have reported the behavior of our trees fairly, the difficulties of raising the trees, and have emphasized that I doubt if you will get success with the Chinese chestnut without effort; yet in conclusion I would like to step into "fantasy". Our No. 19 tree bore 124 pounds; suppose you had 50 trees per acre bearing that quantity. You would get 6,000 pounds per acre. The European chestnut, which is not as good, brought 30c on the Baltimore market last year. That would mean $1,800.00 per acre. Imagine having 10 acres! 1947 CROP Pounds of Chestnuts from Original Trees at Eastern Shore Nurseries, Inc. No. 1, 78; No. 2, 58; No. 3, 51-1/4; No. 4, 7-1/2; No. 5, 49; No. 6, 31; No. 7, 34; No. 8, 31-1/2; No. 9, 63; No. 10, 40-1/2; No. 11, 61-1/2; No. 12, 64-1/2; No. 13, 56; No. 14, 47-1/2; No. 15, 74; No. 16, 60; No. 18, 106; No. 19, 25-1/2--Total, 938-3/4 pounds. =Young Orchard:= 225-1/2 pounds. Discussion after E. Sam Hemming's paper Corsan: "Do you recommend the use of lime?" Hemming: "We do not use lime. We use Vigoro at the rate of 1 to 1-1/2 lbs. to inch of diameter per tree." Corsan: "Why do you use Vigoro?" Hemming: "No particular reason, just that it is available." Member: "What time of year do you fertilize your trees?" Hemming: "We fertilize during the winter--usually during December." Crane: "Last year we used a method of storing Chinese chestnuts which proved very satisfactory. Two thousand pounds of nuts were stored last year. Fall planting is good where one can use it but in a lot of areas it can not be used because of rats robbing the plantings. We have to store the nuts. The procedure we follow is to harvest every other day. Nuts are placed in tin cans with friction top lids. The lids should have one to three holes of 1/16" diameter in them to provide air. Cans are placed in storage at a temperature of 32 to 40 degrees F." Stoke: "I keep chestnuts in the cellar in a can with an open top in what we call limestone sand. Keep wonderfully well. Chestnuts must have air." Gravatt: "Down south we have a lot of trouble with decay. We take nuts right from the bur and put them in the soil. They give much better germination." Crane: "The Chinese harvest their chestnuts just as soon as the bur cracks. They do not wait for the nuts to drop from the trees but harvest the nuts from the trees and store in covered pottery jars. They plant in the fall of the year. They do not hold nuts for any length of time." Corsan: "How about charcoal?" G. Smith: "Charcoal is good to store nuts in. They are shipped from China that way." Smith: "Would chestnuts stand carbon bisulphide for getting the weevil out, or is the hot water treatment better?" Crane: "Carbon bisulphide treatment is dangerous, it will kill weevils but it will also kill the nuts so they will not germinate. Unless precautions are used it may cause an explosion and fire. Methyl bromide treatment is better." Stoke: "The hot water treatment is the best. It consists of immersing the nuts in water at 120 degrees F. for forty minutes." Hemming: "I have raised about 100,000 seedlings and have never seen blight on any of my seedlings." Dr. Smith: "A tree needs usually to be as big as the small end of a baseball bat before the bark opens enough to let in the blight spores." Stoke: "Blight begins where there is rough bark which provides lodgment for the spores. Rough bark and moisture result in blight, hence the disease usually starts near the ground." Crane: "The blight problem in the growing of chestnuts has often been stressed. I think you will have more loss from sunscald and root rot than you will from blight. Blight is a minor trouble with us. The Chinese chestnut naturally grows with a low head. It is a mistake to cut off the low branches on the trees until they attain some size, they can then be cut off." Stoke: "Regarding the protection of nut trees against winter sun scald, I find that if you take ordinary aluminum paint and paint the south and southwest side of nut trees it will last for two years." Dr. Smith: "Chestnut trees have blighted for me where the water table was too high and trees of same origin or better drained ground nearby did not blight. Blight is often a sign that the tree wants something it lacks--much like disease in humans." Results of a Chinese Chestnut Rootstock Experiment J. W. McKAY[4] Introduction The propagation of chestnut species by budding or grafting has been performed by different workers with varying degrees of success. Many have found that grafted trees could be produced and grown successfully but that graft union troubles developed in a certain percentage of the trees either soon after grafting or a few years later. The variety "Carr" is known to graft with difficulty in certain localities and to give a high percentage of poor unions both at the time of grafting and after a few years of growth. The question of relationship of scion and stock has been considered by many workers to have an important bearing on the success of grafting operations but no critical work has been done to determine this point. Some investigators hold that scions of one species may be grafted upon stock of another species without harmful effects. The results of the budding experiment with Chinese chestnut reported in this paper are the first of a series of tests designed to contribute needed information about stock-scion relationship in chestnuts. [Footnote 4: Associate cytologist, Division of Fruit and Vegetable Crops and Diseases, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Research Administration, U. S. Department of Agriculture.] Description and Results The five seedling Chinese chestnut trees used in the experiment were selected because of their heavy-bearing tendency and because of the excellent keeping quality of the nuts. Two of the trees bear nuts of large size while the other three bear nuts of medium to small size. Seeds from the five trees were planted before the use of the seedlings as stocks in the budding experiment was planned, and since the seedlings from each tree were planted together replication of the experiment was not possible. However, the stock was grown in thoroughly mixed soil in a coldframe and differences in performance of seedlings could hardly be attributed to soil heterogeneity. Buds from the five parent trees were placed on the five lots of their own seedlings in all combinations of budwood and stock. The work was done during the first week of September when the bark of both budwood and stock was slipping yet growth had slowed down to some extent. Buds were placed about two inches below soil level on the one-year-old seedlings and the soil pulled back to cover the buds. Budding was done by means of the familiar shield or T-bud method and rubber budding strips were used as a wrap. Budwood was shipped from Albany, Ga., to Beltsville, Md., and was damaged somewhat by high temperature in transit, a factor which may be partially responsible for the overall low percentage of buds that grew. In referring to the results presented in table I, it will be noted that considerable variation occurred in the performance of the five lots of seedlings as stock, as well as in the take of buds from the five parent trees. The totals in the last column on the right are all equivalent to percentage since 100 buds were placed on each lot of seedlings. In like manner, the totals in the bottom line are all equivalent to percentages since 100 buds of each parent tree were used. Seedlings of stock D were decidedly inferior to seedlings of stock C in take of buds, and both of these lots of seedlings originated from large nuts. Also, scion e gave a significantly lower take of buds on all lots of seedlings than scions c or d. The scion e tree produces small nuts whereas the scion c and d trees produce large nuts. Scions a and b are intermediate in take of buds, and the source trees both produce small nuts. Discussion At least one significant interpretation may be made from the results of this experiment, that may partially explain the difficulties encountered heretofore in propagating chestnuts. Using the take of buds as a criterion it can be stated that in this experiment the five lots of seedlings from known parents differed in their performance as stocks. Moreover, the five parent trees used as a source of budwood differed among themselves in the capacity of their buds to grow when placed on comparable lots of stocks. If these results are correctly interpreted it is clear that both the stock and the scion may influence the success or failure of propagation technique. Doubtless both of these variables have operated together in the propagation of existing varieties and, as would be expected, the results have been unpredictable. It seems likely that the grafting and budding of chestnut varieties should be worked out in the future on the basis of using understocks derived from the seed of special trees or clones found to be suitable sources by tests for grafting performance. It should be pointed out that the five trees used in this work originated from two lots of seed imported from neighboring localities in China and probably are closely related. The fact that significant differences were obtained in this material furnishes basis for the belief that great variability in the budding performance of the Chinese chestnut is to be encountered in the many introductions that have been made into this country. Table I. Results of budding each of five Chinese chestnut clones on its own seedlings and on the seedlings of four other clones. The figure for each combination represents the number of buds that grew out of 20 buds placed. SCION a b c d e Totals S A 4 6 4 5 0 19 T B 3 2 8 4 0 17 O C 0 3 8 9 5 25 C D 1 2 3 1 1 8 K E 2 2 7 9 2 22 TOTALS 10 15 30 28 8 91 Discussion After Dr. McKay's Paper Dr. MacDaniels: "A good scion on chestnut is one problem which we have not solved." Dr. Smith: "I find both Carr and Hobson difficult to graft and have discontinued them." Dr. Crane: "In California and Oregon they are having quite a lot of difficulty with graft union failure with Persian walnuts. They have used the Northern California black or Hinds walnut as root stocks. Now they find that in some cases the union fails and results in what is known as the black line disease. At the present time this trouble is the most important cause of the loss of their trees." Dr. Smith: "Zimmerman is a good bearing variety with a good nut. I find that soil makes some difference with this variety." Breeding Chestnut Trees: Report for 1946 and 1947 ARTHUR HARMOUNT GRAVES[5] The chief aim of this breeding work is the development of a chestnut tree of timber type to replace the now practically defunct American species, _Castanea dentata_. For the principal economic value of the chestnut was not in its edible nuts but its valuable timber, the loss of which means at present many millions of dollars subtracted from the assets of the American people; and when we consider the loss for all time in the future the figures become astronomical. [Footnote 5: Consulting Pathologist, Conn. Agric. Expt. Station; Special Agent, Conn. Geological and Natural History Survey; and Collaborator, Division of Forest Pathology, U. S. Dept. Agriculture.] _The Chestnut Blight in Italy._ Early in 1946 we received a visit from Captain John B. Woodruff, of Wilton, Connecticut, who told us that while serving as Chairman of the Department of Agriculture and Forestry, and Instructor in Forestry at the Army University Study Center in Florence, Italy, he visited chestnut stands infected with the blight. _Endothia parasitica_ was first discovered by Professor Guido Paoli in 1938 on a private estate in Busalla, about twenty miles north of the seaport city of Genoa. Since then the blight has been detected throughout the province of Genoa in the legion of Liguria; and other widely separated infections have been found. The fungus has been cultured and identified by Professor Biraghi of the Royal Pathological Station in Rome, as _Endothia parasitica_. It is believed to have been present in this region for from five to eight years previous to its discovery. The manner of its introduction into Italy is not known, but since Japan and the U. S. have carried on considerable commerce with Italy, either or both countries are possible sources. The disease is spreading in Italy at a rapid rate. "By 1942 one half of the 190,000 acres of chestnut in the province of Genoa had been infected and spot infections had been discovered in the adjoining coastal province of La Spezia, also in the region of Liguria." I am devoting some space to this situation because it means so much to the Italian people. In Italy fifteen percent of the forest is composed of chestnut. Not only does the country use the nuts as a source of food and income, approximately sixty million pounds being exported annually in former years, but the young coppice shoots are used for the weaving of baskets, older ones for poles for vineyards, still older for staves of wine casks, and the oldest for telephone and telegraph poles. "Before the war, chestnut flour was the principal food in many localities, but during the war a serious food shortage forced the people in many other areas to rely solely upon chestnut flour for weeks at a time." Professor Aldo Pavari, Director of the _Stazione Sperimentale di Selvicoltura_ at Florence, visited this country in the summer and fall of 1946, under the sponsorship of the UNRRA, and spent four days with me at our plantations, learning our methods and getting acquainted with the blight resistant hybrids we have been developing by the breeding together of oriental and native chestnuts. Prof. Pavari visited also the plantation of the Division of Forest Pathology at Beltsville and elsewhere, and other plantations in the west. In December we shipped to Florence, Italy, nuts of our best hybrids, and in March, scions for grafting--also this summer (1947) pollen of some of our best trees. On October 15 of this year (1947) we sent another shipment of nuts. Thus we may be able to give Italy the advantage of the progress we have made to date. Regarding the susceptibility to the blight of the European or Spanish Chestnut (_C. sativa_) we have had the following experience. Our winter temperatures appear to be too severe for this species. Dying back is sure to occur, at least at our Hamden, Connecticut plantations, marked more or less according to the degree of cold; and on the dead parts _Endothia_ then appears, to later invade the parts still living. In 1932 I received nuts of _C. sativa_ from France from Professor Hochreutiner of the Geneva Botanic Garden, from Professor Uldrich of the Berlin Botanic Garden, and also from France from Dr. Guillaumin of the Jardin de Plantes at Paris. Although I have given the resulting plants much attention they continually die back each year so that we have only two or three individuals that are more than six feet high. But Professor Pavari says in recent correspondence (July 15, 1947) "Referring to Spanish chestnuts, after we have been assured that the fungus we have found and observed on _Castanea crenata_ in Spain is really _Endothia parasitica_, we must admit that our hypothesis may be exact that _Castanea vesca_ [_sativa_] presents in Spain races or types resistant to the disease." He goes on to say that the fact that the chestnut blight is so widespread at Naples and Avellino is at variance with my theory that cold winters are the predisposing cause, for in the regions mentioned the winters are mild and "very warm in comparison with those of Connecticut." The essential fact seems to be that the European or Spanish chestnut is very susceptible to the blight, perhaps as much so as is our native species, but that evidently certain individuals or races exist that are more or less resistant. During the early part of 1947 we had a visit from Professor Cristos Moulopoulos of the University of Salonika, Greece. Although the disease had not then appeared in Greece, the pathologists there would like to be ready for it when it does come. _Pollinations in 1946 and 1947._ Without going into details, the general purpose of the pollinations during these last two years has been to incorporate more and more of the resistant Chinese stock into our hybrids. Beginning in 1937, we crossed our best Japanese-American hybrids with Chinese, and we now have a considerable number of young saplings of flowering age, which have the pedigree: Chinese x Japanese-American. Unfortunately, in this cross the Chinese is usually dominant as regards habit, but not always. We have some tall, straight-growing individuals of this combination which may well be the forerunners of a blight-resistant forest stock for America. Therefore, during 1946 and 1947 we have been crossing these fine Chinese x (Japanese-Americans) with the following: 1. Our best Chinese 2. American-Chinese and Chinese-American 3. American (C. dentata) 4. Our best Japanese-Americans 5. Among themselves For it is the ultimate aim of this work to develop a race of tall, hardy, blight resistant individuals which will breed true and thus of themselves re-establish the chestnut tree in the forests of Eastern North America. As everyone knows, the re-establishment of the chestnut as a forest tree can not be done in a few years or even a score of years, but by continued breeding and patience and perseverance it can be done. The materials are at hand, i.e. tall, erect growth, and blight resistance; and with persistent effort the desired combination can be made. For (1) above we were fortunate in 1946 in receiving a supply of pollen from tall-growing Chinese trees, through the kindness of Mr. Michael Evans of Greenville, Delaware and Professor Maurice A. Blake of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. As a result of our pollinations in 1946, in which 72 combinations were made, we harvested and planted in our cold frames in October 479 hybrid nuts, a large proportion of which germinated, so that this summer (1947) we have set out in our nurseries about 325 hybrid seedlings. In 1947 we have made 58 combinations in which 213 branches were bagged; October 10-13 we gathered 380 hybrid nuts resulting from these cross pollinations. The large yield of 1947 is doubtless the result in part of a good growing season, for there was plenty of rain--at times almost too much--in southern Connecticut. One drawback was the cold period during the latter part of June. From the fifteenth to the twenty-sixth the minimum temperatures were 55 or below--on three days as low as 50. This set back the flowering period four days to a week later than usual, depending upon the species or hybrid. _Cooperation in Diller's Underplanting and Girdling Method for the Establishment of Chestnut Forest Stands._ In the 37th Annual Report of our Association for 1946 is printed a paper by Dr. Jesse D. Diller of the Division of Forest Pathology, U.S.D.A. entitled "Growing Chestnuts for Timber" pp. 66-68. Many people seem to think that all you need to do when planting a tree is to stick it in the ground--just _any_ ground. This may be true of some kinds, but is certainly not true of the chestnut. For best growth and development the chestnut requires a fairly deep, well-drained soil, rich in mineral elements and humus, with a fair degree of moisture and plenty of sunlight. Two things chestnuts will _not_ endure are shallow soil and drought, the latter often depending on the former. As tree indicators of the kind of site required for the establishment of a chestnut forest Dr. Diller has chosen yellow poplar, northern red oak, white ash, sugar maple, and yellow birch, with spice bush as a shrub indicator and maiden hair fern, bloodroot and other herbs as herbaceous indicators. Using a small area of about one eighth of an acre, Dr. Diller's plan is to girdle all the trees and then underplant with chestnut seedlings. He says: "As the girdled overstory trees die they gradually yield the site to the planted chestnuts in a transition that does not greatly disturb the ecological conditions, particularly of the forest floor. Rapid disintegration of the mantle of leaf mold is prevented by the partial shading which the dead or dying overstory, girdled trees cast." This may seem to some a rather drastic method, but when so much is at stake, namely the re-establishment of the chestnut in our forests, it would seem a justifiable experiment on a small area. In March, 1947, we supplied Dr. Diller with one hundred seedlings, one or two years old, of our best stock, for underplanting in two of these selected sites, fifty seedlings each, namely on the estate of Mr. E. C. Childs at Norfolk, Connecticut, and on lands of the T. V. A. at Norris, Tennessee. Our best wishes for a successful blight-resistant future go with these little trees. _Grafting Work._ We are continuing with our method of "inarching" young "suckers" from below a blighted area into the trunk above the lesion, the diseased tissue of the lesion being first cut out. This method (see Brooklyn Botanic Garden Chestnut Breeding Project. 35th Annual Report of Northern Nut Growers Association for 1945. pp. 22-31--1945) is entirely successful in case we desire to preserve partly resistant hybrids of good parentage for future breeding and for scions. (Figs. 1 and 2) But inarching of the native chestnut is for the most part unsuccessful because the fungus grows too rapidly and girdles the stem, killing the parts above before the inarched tips of the suckers can take hold. There seems to be a certain relation between the amount of disease resistance in the tree and the possibility of restoring it to health by the inarching method. By the common ordinary cleft-graft method, using Japanese, or better, Chinese stock we are adding to the supply of our most desirable hybrids. _Insect Pests._ The spring canker worm, _Paleacrita vernata_, has not been destructive either in 1946 or 1947 and no special preventive measures have been taken. Japanese beetles have done a little damage. This year the first one appeared July 11. We find the best method with these is to pick them off at dusk after they have settled themselves for a night's sleep, dropping them into kerosene oil. Under these conditions they will usually slip readily off the leaf into the oil. One thing I should like to emphasize (which probably others also have noticed) is that new beetles keep coming, day after day. Apparently the adults are issuing from the ground all summer. Last year I found a few Japanese beetles in November. So one must keep continually on the job all through the season. This summer (1947) we have had a spray program of three sprayings, August 15, 30, and September 10, with "Deenate" (fifty percent DDT) to destroy the chestnut weevils which appeared for the first time rather extensively in our Hamden plantations last year. (See E. R. Leeuwen; DDT for chestnut weevils, American Fruit Grower 67: 28. 1946) This spray, which we have used on the ground as well as on the young burs, kills Japanese beetles as well as the weevils. This fall I have seen very few weevils in our whole crop of nuts. The louse, _Callaphis castaneae_, appeared on July 5, 1947, at least the leaves became so much curled that its presence was then noticed. Two spraying on successive days with nicotine sulphate ("Black Leaf 40") were sufficient to control it. With us this insect attacks leaves of American stock only. Japanese-American hybrids are also susceptible, but not Chinese-American or American-Chinese. The lice, of an orange color, congregate in great numbers along the midrib of the leaf, sucking out its juices. This summer, perhaps on account of the unusual almost tropical weather conditions--hot and humid with continually recurring showers--we have been harassed by a new pest which has appeared in one of our plantations only sparingly for five or six years--a mite, which Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station authorities say is _Paratetranychus bicolor_. Affected leaves have a whitish or grayish color chiefly along midrib and principal veins, due partly to the deposit of the creature's shells on molting, and partly to injury to the tissues of the leaf. Hexa-ethyl tetraphosphate, known in the trade as "Killex 100," was used effectually twice as a spray. Unfortunately this chemical has no ovicidal properties, so that a second spraying was necessary to kill the mites newly hatched out from thousands of eggs. We are informed that DN 111 will kill the eggs as well as the mites and will kill aphids at the same time. The mites seem to prefer Chinese chestnut leaves, but this summer they didn't seem particular and spread from one badly infested tree as a center. [Illustration: Fig. 1--Japanese-American hybrid chestnut (Hammond 86-31) 34-1/2 feet in height, 16 years old. This is the same tree three years later as that shown in figures 1 and 2, in 35th Ann. Rept. of Northern Nut Growers Assoc. for 1944. Note healthy development, as shown by foliage and long yearly growth. Hamden, Conn. Photo. Sept. 13, 1947 by Louis Buhle.] _Chinese Chestnuts._ I am enthusiastic about Chinese chestnuts as a nut substitute for our old native chestnuts. The Chinese are quite blight resistant. They are attacked by the blight fungus--at least most individuals suffer at some time in their lives, and yet the fungus doesn't thrive and the trees are able to overcome its attacks, in many cases forming a healing wound callus around the lesions; in others the lesion becomes simply a granular mass in which the fungus appears to be living only in the outer bark. Cultivation, fertilization, and judicious pruning certainly help these trees to withstand these fungus attacks. We harvested a bumper crop last year and this from trees given us in 1929 by the Division of Forest Pathology, U.S.D.A. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Close-up of lower part of tree in fig. 1, showing inarched basal shoots which at the beginning were as slender as the leafless shoot now showing on right side, below, coming from base of trunk. Note exposed dead part of trunk showing old canker disease. Photo Sept. 13, 1947, by Louis Buhle.] _Public Interest in the Problem._ Last fall, September 1946, in an article in the Yankee Magazine, I asked for nuts and pollen of the American chestnut. As a result the following persons from many different parts of the country sent in nuts: Mr. Henry Hartung, Methuen, Mass.; Mrs. Marie Garlichs, Brooklyn, from Lake Minnewaska, N. Y.; Mr. Charles Ericson, Brooklyn, nuts from Staten Island, N. Y.; Mrs. Jay B. Nash, N. Y. City, from Lake Sebago, Sloatsburg, N. Y.; Mr. H. W. Donnelly, Tacoma, Wash.; Mr. George M. Hindmarsh, Kent County, R. I.; Mrs. Steiner, Niota, Tenn.; Miss Marjorie Bacon, New Haven, Conn. from Litchfield, Conn. through Dr. Edgar Heermance; Mr. Harold E. Willmott, Bethel, Conn.; Mr. W. F. Jacobs, Tallahassee, Fla. (_Castanea crenata_); Mr. P. P. Pirone, New Brunswick, N. J. (_C. crenata_); Mr. Morton F. Sweet, Seattle, Wash. (_C. sativa_), nuts, and scions in March '47; Mr. John I. Shafer, Sparta, Tenn. This lists shows not only the widespread interest in the subject but also that the chestnut sprouts are still bearing nuts. In some cases the nuts were "blind," i.e. sterile, containing no kernel or embryo. In order to develop a good nut there must be two chestnut trees within a reasonable distance of each other so that cross fertilization may take place. Isolated trees will usually not bear nuts. In other words, the chestnut is usually self sterile. We are still planting all nuts received, labeled with the name and address of the sender. The resulting trees are being set out in the Yale Forest in Tolland and Windham Counties, Conn. under the direction of Mr. Basil Plusnin, Forester in charge. Thus the possibility is being explored of the existence of blight resistant strains of the American chestnut. When nuts are sent they should be mailed within a few days after harvesting and wrapped in moist cotton, peat moss or something similar. Drying of the nut kills the embryo so that it will no longer germinate. Nuts should be mailed to me at Chestnut Plantations, Wallingford, Conn. Pollen of the American chestnut is getting scarce. After scouring the vicinity of Hamden, Conn. this summer, we found a good supply at Bethany, Conn. from native shoots. The following persons also sent us American pollen, for which we are indeed grateful: Mr. George Gilmer, Charlottesville, Va.; Mrs. M. E. Garlichs, Lake Minnewaska, N. Y.; Mr. Alfred Szego, Pine Plains, N. Y.; Mr. Seward Pauley, Sumerco, W. Va.; and Mr. Charles W. Mann, Fennville, Mich. To ship the pollen it is necessary only to wrap small branches bearing the catkins in oiled paper and mail to me, preferably by air mail. The catkins should be ripe, i.e. shedding the pollen. _Acknowledgments._ It is a pleasure to have this opportunity to express our appreciation of the cooperation of the above mentioned persons. The interest of these and many other persons and institutions is encouraging. During 1946 and 1947 this project has been sponsored by the Connecticut Geological and Natural History Survey, and we have as usual enjoyed the cordial cooperation of the Division of Forest Pathology, U.S.D.A. Dept. of Agriculture. Beginning as of October 1, 1947, the work is also being sponsored by the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn. On July 1 I retired from my position as Curator of Public Instructor at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden and shall now be able to devote my entire time to the chestnut work. My permanent address will be: Chestnut Plantations, Wallingford, Conn. Chinese Chestnuts in the Chattahoochee Valley G. S. JONES, Route 1, Box 140, Phenix City, Alabama (Excerpts from letter to Secretary, Oct. 23, 1947.) Growing trees is a work dear to my heart for I have been interested in it since childhood. Dr. J. Russell Smith's book on "Tree Crops" is one of the best I have ever read along the lines of growing trees to produce food for man and beast as well as producing many other useful products, and much of the work of your Association seems to be along the same line. I am sure we can live easier and better on this earth when we learn to use the trees in their proper place. Man often acts in a shortsighted way by depending largely on annual crops for the main source of food for himself and his animals and neglects the long lived trees which may not have to be planted but once in a lifetime and which, if given a little intelligent management, will improve instead of deplete his land and at the same time make a far more beautiful landscape. I only have a few trees (maybe 200 or 250) in my nursery which I usually dispose of at the farm or use to set on my place. I have not attempted to grow many seedlings as I don't wish to get into this phase of work. It would take too much time from other work which I like to do. This fall I have sold over 600 pounds of nuts to various nurseries for planting so I would prefer that they grow and sell trees from my orchard. I gather planting nuts from the trees which show the best qualities, consistently, and sell the nuts from the other trees for eating purposes. The trees from which I sell eating nuts have some bad qualities such as some of the nuts being retained in burs, irregular or poor production, and nuts that seem to be too dry at ripening so I would not offer these for sale although the pollen from these trees does mix with the others causing some of the nuts to carry these bad features, a thing which will hardly be avoided in open-pollinated seedlings. Your letter made me more proud of my orchard than ever when you made the statement that my last year's production of 1,722 pounds for 22 trees so young as mine may have set a record for production. [See 1946 NNGA Report, p. 128--Ed.] I had little idea how my trees compared with other orchards, for Mr. Gravatt had not told me anything about this. In fact I have never seen him nor did I take the trouble to write and ask this question. I knew my trees were producing much better than an orchard of the Soil Conservation Service at Auburn but I attributed that to the better type of soil (for chestnuts) in which my trees are set, and better air drainage. I had also heard about an orchard near Blue Springs above Columbus, Ga., which was not doing so well because the soil was maybe too heavy or damp. I can say one thing and that is that my Chinese chestnuts have surely surpassed my fondest hopes and dreams, for that small area has certainly made me lots of money and has given me much joy in tending it and watching it grow. You asked me to give some information about my 1947 crop. This has not been quite as large as last year as I have harvested only a little over 1,554 pounds (I say a little over for it is hard to get all the nuts) of weighed nuts. This includes some that were beginning to spoil. I include these since it is sometimes due to my failure to gather promptly and I think can be fairly included in production records. I might state here in fairness to last year's report of a yield of 1,722 pounds of nuts that I recorded 1,557 as being sold which leaves a difference of 165 pounds, which were either discarded as spoiling or were unaccounted for. This gives me a loss of approximately 10% for last year. Although my total production was lower than last year I had one tree (ML No. 2) which produced 150 pounds of weighed nuts and a few pounds more (maybe 2 or 3) which were not included. This tree has been a consistent heavy bearer for several years but I had not checked its yield separately before. Since it is so early it was easy to keep the nuts separate (as I was keeping these to sell for seed nuts). In about 2 weeks time it had produced about 130 pounds so I made a special effort to check the remainder since I was astonished at so large a yield. When most of the nuts had fallen I had the above figure, to my surprise. The tree in size is not my largest but about average being 12-1/2" in diameter 3' above the ground with a limb spread of 30' and a height of 24'. It has a very symmetrical shape with enough rigidity in the limbs to hold them off the ground so the tree does not appear very large. I just had to laugh when I got a letter yesterday from Mr. Ralph D. Gardner, whom I had written previously about the yield of this tree and sent 2 pounds of nuts from it, asking me if the tree produced two crops in one year. He said Mr. James Hobson had told him that he gets two crops from his tree each year. Mr. Gardner had a good reason to ask this question since knowing about the Hobson chestnut, but I reckon he might have thought about what I would have thought under similar circumstances, i.e., surely a tree so young (13-1/2 years from setting) couldn't produce that many nuts at one time, so must have two ripening periods to contain the fruit. I will have to say that all these were produced in one crop. Most of these ripened in just a little over two weeks. I might say that I do have one tree (ML No. 1) which has on a few occasions bloomed the second time and had burs which remained green until near frost but these did not amount to anything and I consider it undesirable. I have never seen No. 2 tree produce late blooms and burs. I might tell a few things as to how I handle my nuts. As is well said by Mr. Reed in his 1946 article about chestnuts they should be gathered daily (although I sometimes don't carry this out). After weighing I dump the nuts in a tub of water. The nuts which are beginning to spoil will practically all float and the sound nuts will sink. This is where the largest percentage of my culls is eliminated. Some good nuts will float but very few if the nuts are gathered daily. I then put 20 to 25 pounds of nuts in a coarse mesh burlap bag. I use chicken scratch feed bags mostly as these are a nice size, and ties a string near the top of the bag. Then I place these on a lath frame which is about 12" above the ground under a large pecan tree which furnishes shade about 3/4 of the day. I arrange the nuts in the bag so it will be flat, which does not allow more than 2 or 3 nuts to be on top of each other. On days of moderate temperature I wet these bags thoroughly with water once a day but on very hot or windy days I often wet them twice. This keeps the nuts moist most of the time and lowers the temperature considerably from the evaporation. In this way I can keep the nuts days and days and even weeks with very little change except a slight drying. If any spoiled nuts were missed by the water these too will show up in about 10 days with specks of white mold and can be eliminated. The other nuts seem to be as good as the day they were gathered. I only use this to keep them temperarily (as it is some trouble to wet them) and mostly for the eating nuts until I can take them to market or put them on cold storage (30° to 35°F.) If I attempt to hold seed nuts about a week or more I pack in damp sphagnum in crates and keep these under the shade tree with excellent results. This year I used green sphagnum with all its water and the nuts seemed to keep well in it. Some nuts have been in damp sphagnum for over 5 weeks now and are in excellent shape except for a few that spoiled at first (which I am quite sure were bad to begin with). If too much water is used some nuts will begin sprouting but it is surprising how much they can stand and show no tendency to sour. I am of the opinion that the chestnuts in my section get ripe prematurely and that at a time when we often have our hottest and dryest weather. These nuts seem to need a period to continue their ripening under cool moist conditions which the wet sack treatment gives (or the damp sphagnum.) Even if this is not the case I have had splendid results with it whereas before I began using this method with lots of water I often became so discouraged that I thought I would have to abandon trying to put my chestnuts on the market. Now if I can get them gathered promptly I have little trouble holding them until I am ready to dispose of them. I failed to tell you that the bad feature about my ML No. 2 tree which produced the 150 pounds of nuts is its early ripening period (the latter part of August and first part of September) which causes some of the nuts to be spoiled almost when they fall. A few hours of too hot sun seems to start the spoiling process. The tree has no other objectionable features except the nuts are only small to medium in size but nearly every one falls freely from the burs. [Nuts about 70 to the pound.--Ed.] Some Results with Filbert Breeding at Geneva, N.Y.[6] GEORGE L. SLATE New York (Geneva) Agricultural Experiment Station This paper reports the results of attempts to improve filberts by hybridization at the Experiment Station at Geneva, N. Y. The filbert project was started at Geneva in the spring of 1925 when a collection of varieties from American sources was established. In later years additional varieties from European and other sources were added until about 120 were under test. As soon as the varieties had fruited for several years it became evident that many of them were inferior and not adapted to New York conditions. A few exhibited considerable merit and the range of characteristics in the different varieties indicated that it might be worth while to start a filbert breeding project with the object of combining the desirable characteristics of the better sorts. [Footnote 6: Journal Paper No. 719, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.] It was decided first to cross Rush, a selected form of _Corylus americana_, with the best varieties of _Corylus Avellana_, Rush contributing the hardiness of the native hazel, possible resistance to filbert blight, and the hybrid vigor that sometimes results from the crossing of two species. The European filberts were expected to furnish large-sized nuts as well as dessert and cracking quality. The first crosses were made in 1930 when two trees of the Rush variety growing on Dr. MacDaniels' place in Ithaca were pollinated with pollen of several varieties of _Corylus Avellana_ that was brought from Geneva. Additional crosses were made at Ithaca in 1931 and 1933. In 1932 the pollinations were made at Geneva, using a Barcelona tree covered with a tightly woven cloth. No pollinations have been made since 1933. In the spring of 1932, 535 seedlings were received from Willard G. Bixby, of Baldwin, Long Island, N. Y., which had resulted from crosses made by C. A. Reed of the United States Department of Agriculture, at Baldwin. Including these U.S.D.A. seedlings and those resulting from the breeding work at Geneva, 1,999 seedlings have fruited. The nuts from these crosses were stratified in sand in a cold frame, dug up, and planted in the greenhouse in early March. After one transplanting they were moved to the nursery to grow for two years, when they were moved to the seedling orchard. The nuts from one year's crosses were planted directly in the nursery but germination was low due to drought. The seedlings were spaced 10 x 5 feet in the orchard. This spacing was satisfactory if the trees came into bearing the fourth year, but if unfavorable weather eliminated the first or second crops the trees became too crowded to permit satisfactory fruiting. Usually, however, the trees fruited sufficiently to make it possible to evaluate them and remove the inferior trees so that the better seedlings would have enough room to remain for several additional crops. During the first few years the orchard was clean cultivated until cover crops were sown in August. In later years the orchards were not cultivated but nitrogen fertilization was substituted. Satisfactory growth was maintained, but the grass and weeds made harvesting more difficult. No pruning was done except at planting time as the seedlings were all evaluated before pruning was needed. Suckers were removed around the young trees, but as they became older this was not done and some of the plants now have several stems. Evaluating the Seedlings The nuts were harvested in the fall after they had dropped, or, with the later maturing seedlings and those which tended to cling to the tree, they were harvested by picking or shaking them from the tree. As soon as practicable the nuts were husked and the crop of each tree weighed and recorded. Samples of nuts of every seedling fruiting were placed on paper plates, each population being by itself, and eight or ten nuts of each sample were cracked and left on the plate. The seedlings were then divided into three classes, those that were obviously good, those that were poor, and an intermediate class that received further attention. The poor seedlings were marked for discard and if so marked for two or three years they were pulled out. The good seedlings were then examined more carefully and sorted into three groups, as follows: 1. Those that were outstanding in both nut and tree characters. 2. Those that were good enough to propagate for a second test, but not equal to the best. 3. Seedlings good enough to keep for further observation. These were usually good in one or more characteristics but deficient or doubtful in one important feature. If upon further testing these third group plants proved to be outstandingly productive or hardy they were given a higher rating. In examining the nuts, emphasis was placed on size and color of the nut, the large, bright brown nuts being considered more desirable than the smaller, duller colored, pubescent nuts. The amount of space between the shell and the kernel was important. If the kernel fitted tightly it was easily broken or chipped in cracking the nut. Thickness of shell was of minor importance as only a few were thick enough to make cracking difficult. The kernel characters were of most importance since the kernel is the reason for producing the nut. The kernel must be plump, smooth, light brown in color, and free of the superfluous pellicle, or fibrous material that is characteristic of the Barcelona kernels. Generally, seedlings with Rush as one parent had very little of this superfluous fibrous material and the best of them were much superior to Barcelona in appearance and dessert quality. Flavor received less consideration since most of the seedlings were reasonably good in that respect. Given a good kernel, and there were many of them, it became necessary to rely upon other characteristics to eliminate the less desirable of these seedlings. It was here that the records of yields and catkin hardiness were valuable. After several years it became evident that certain seedlings were consistently high yielding while others were low yielding. Hardiness of catkin also varied greatly and rather consistently from year to year. Weather conditions influenced catkin killing greatly. Catkin hardiness is important since the pollen is necessary for nut production and must be present in abundance as its movement in the orchard is subject to the vagaries of the wind, and only a small percentage of that in the air ever comes in contact with the stigmas of the other varieties. It is the purpose of this paper to indicate the value, insofar as it may be estimated from the available data, of the different varietal crosses in obtaining desirable filbert hybrids. Table 1 contains a list of crosses made, the number of seedlings raised, and the percentage of these which were of sufficient merit to be retained for further study. The percentage of seedlings propagated indicates even more definitely which crosses are of the greatest value in producing superior seedlings as only the outstanding seedlings were propagated for a second test. Selections included in Table 1 are there by virtue of their all-around merit. Crosses between Rush and Littlepage and Rush and Winkler produced nothing of value. The populations were small, but other equally small populations from other crosses produced seedlings of value. The inter-crossing of selections of _Corylus americana_ does not appear to be a promising line of attack in filbert breeding where hybrids with _C. Avellana_ will thrive. Rush and Barcelona were each used as seed parents in crosses with the same eight varieties. In the crosses involving Rush 1,232 seedlings were produced and of these 39, or 3.2%, were good enough to propagate. Of the 306 seedlings raised from the same varieties combined with Barcelona only 4, or 1.3% were worth propagating. None of these Barcelona seedlings are among the best. Under the conditions of the experiment it would seem that Rush is much superior to Barcelona as a parent in crosses with varieties of _Corylus Avellana_. The cross between Kentish Cob and Cosford failed to produce any seedlings of outstanding merit. In considering the productiveness and hardiness of the catkins of the seedlings resulting from the different crosses the data have been assembled in Tables 2 to 5, each table containing the summarized records for different plantings. These plantings were started at different times and the records are not directly comparable as they are for different years and varying lengths of time. In Table 1 the total number of seedlings is given, but in Table 2 to 5 only the data for the selections are used. Records for the selections are available for several years, whereas the inferior seedlings were discarded and limited data only are available. Furthermore, the filbert breeder is interested primarily in the worthwhile material that may be taken from populations of known parentage. Assuming that we have a fairly good nut productiveness is the most important characteristic in a filbert. If the plant is productive it must of necessity be reasonably vigorous and hardy. For that reason much emphasis has been placed on productiveness in the final evaluation of the selections. The selections in Table 2 are from the U.S.D.A. Bixby plants which were the first to fruit at Geneva. Considerable variation in productiveness is evident in the different populations. Rush x Kentish Cob and Rush x White Aveline selections were only about half as productive on the average as Rush x Barcelona, Bollwiller, Red Lambert, and Daviana. Rush x Italian Red also failed to produce high-yielding selections. In a later planting in the same orchard, as shown in Table 3, the Rush x Kentish Cob selections performed no better, the Rush x Red Lambert selections outyielding them by a substantial margin. The Barcelona x Italian Red selections were very low yielding. In orchard 22, as shown in Table 4, where Rush and Barcelona are crossed with the same varieties, the resulting selections from the Rush crosses are about one third more productive if mean yields are considered, or one-half more productive if only highest yielding selections are considered than with the Barcelona crosses. Cosford has been outstanding in transmitting productiveness in crosses with Rush, Italian Red, and Nottingham. Rush x Kentish Cob selections in this orchard as in the other planting, were only about one half as productive on the average. In the crosses with Barcelona the combination with Medium Long, Red Lambert, and Italian Red were considerably more productive than crosses with Purple Aveline, Halle, Daviana, and Bollwiller. The Kentish Cob x Cosford cross was less productive than most of the other combinations made. Kentish Cob definitely appears to transmit unproductiveness when crossed with Rush, Barcelona, and Cosford. In orchard 8 as shown in Table 5, the trees soon became very crowded as the discards were not removed and the yield records were less reliable than in the other plantings. Winterkilling of catkins were recorded on the selections for several years. In early April the percentage of winter-killed catkins was recorded by estimate. Tables 2 to 5 contain the mean of these estimates and a considerable variation in catkin hardiness in the different populations is evident. Red Lambert, which had the hardiest catkins of any variety of _C. Avellana_ tried at Geneva, produced a higher proportion of catkin-hardy seedlings than any other variety. Cosford was fairly good in this respect and in orchard 16 Bollwiller, Italian Red, and Barcelona when crossed with Rush produced selections with moderately hardy catkins. Winter injury of catkins was nearly always very high in crosses between varieties of _Corylus Avellana_. Of the 1,970 seedlings included in Table 1, 340 or 17%, were retained for further observation and of these, 52, or 2.6%, were considered good enough to propagate for a more extensive test. Of these 52 a few thus far have been outstanding when compared with the others. Possibly the best and most productive selection is No. 1265, Rush x Purple Aveline, that is the heaviest yielding of all and the nuts are also among the best, being of medium size, plump, and free from fiber. This seedling is far superior to any others from the same cross. Nos. 1408 and 1467, both selected from a Rush x Cosford population, are close seconds to No. 1265. In the Rush x Cosford population are several others nearly as good, the general level of merit in this combination being fairly high. Farther down the list, but still among the best, are No. 110 Rush x Kentish Cob, and No. 157, Rush x Barcelona. Filbert breeders working under similar conditions would probably find it worthwhile to make these crosses and also to produce more seedlings from Rush x Red Lambert than were raised at Geneva. No crosses have been made at Geneva in recent years, but all of the nuts from the selections, sometimes several hundred pounds a year, have been planted by the Soil Conservation Service and the resulting seedlings planted in various parts of the country. Undoubtedly, if these could be examined when in fruit, some worthwhile selections could be made. Those in New York State will probably be worked over during the next few years. TABLE 1. Results from filbert crosses. Number of Num- Percent- Number Percent- Seedlings ber Re- age Re- Prop- age Prop- Cross Fruited tained tained agated agated Rush x Kentish Cob (Du Chilly 430 63 14 11 2 Rush x Cosford 447 52 12 11 2 Rush x Bollwiller 165 18 11 6 3 Rush x Italian Red 118 17 16 2 1 Rush x Red Lambert 36 10 28 6 16 Rush x Daviana 13 2 15 2 15 Rush x Purple Aveline 12 3 25 1 8 Rush x White Lambert 11 0 0 0 0 Rush x Barcelona 119 20 16 3 2 Rush x White Aveline 54 10 18 3 5 Rush x Imperial deTrebizond 24 5 21 1 4 Rush x Nottingham 23 7 30 2 8 Rush x Brixnut 8 2 25 0 0 Rush x Littlepage 12 0 0 0 0 Rush x Winkler 6 0 0 0 0 Barcelona x Kentish Cob (Du- Chilly) 42 21 50 3 7 Barcelona x Cosford 57 27 48 1 2 Barcelona x Bollwiller 11 2 18 0 0 Barcelona x Italian Red 66 9 13 0 0 Barcelona x Red Lambert 41 12 29 0 0 Barcelona x Daviana 21 5 24 0 0 Barcelona x Purple Aveline 25 8 32 0 0 Barcelona x White Lambert 43 1 2 0 0 Barcelona x Medium Long 45 16 35 0 0 Barcelona x Early Globe 78 0 0 0 0 Barcelona x Halle 12 6 50 0 0 Barcelona x Red Aveline 9 1 11 0 0 Kentish Cob (Du Chilly) x Cosford 35 22 63 0 0 Total 1970 340 17 52 2.6 TABLE 2. Yields and winterkilling of filbert catkins, Orchard 16, 1935 1937, 1938 and 1939. Yields are 4 year total. Catkin injury is 5 year mean No. of Mean Highest Mean Lowest Selec- Yield Yield Percent- Percent- tions per Se- per Se- age Cat- age of lection lection kins Catkins in in Winter- Winter- Cross Ounces Ounces killed killed per Se- lection Rush x Bollwiller 18 81 143 21 4 Bush x Kentish Cob (Du Chilly) 12 38 117 36 3 Rush x White Aveline 9 44 73 42 0 Rush x Barcelona 6 94 147 26 8 Rush x Imperial de Trebizond 5 81 100 28 10 Rush x Italian Red 3 79 80 15 3 Rush x Red Lambert 3 88 116 7 3 Rush x Daviana 2 82 110 33 26 Rush x Purple Maxima 1 37 37 17 17 TABLE 3. Yields and winter injury of filbert catkins, Orchard 16, 1937-41 inclusive. Mean Highest Mean Lowest Yield Yield Percent- Percent- per Se- per Se- age Cat- age of No. of lection lection kins Catkins Selec- in in Winter- Winter- Cross tions Ounces Ounces killed killed per Se- lection Rush x Kentish Cob (Du Chilly) 26 38 102 68 5 Rush x Barcelona 14 52 89 90 38 Rush x Red Lambert 5 67 117 12 5 Barcelona x Italian Red 3 18 20 83 73 TABLE 4. Filbert selections. Orchard 22. Yields 1939, 1940, 1941, 1942, 1944, 1945 and 1946. Catkin injury records 1939-42, inclusive. Mean Highest Mean Lowest Yield Yield Percent- Percent- per Se- per Se- age Cat- age of No. of lection lection kins Catkins Selec- in in Winter- Winter- Cross tions Ounces Ounces killed killed per Se- lection Rush x Cosford 26 129 229 42 0 Rush x Kentish Cob (Du Chilly) 25 68 185 70 13 Rush x Nottingham 7 96 180 31 14 Rush x Italian Red 3 114 181 45 30 Rush x Purple Aveline 3 114 240 42 25 Rush x Red Lambert 2 90 127 21 8 Rush x Brixnut 2 49 51 62 58 Barcelona x Cosford 27 90 138 62 32 Barcelona x Kentish Cob (Du Chilly) 21 69 126 69 25 Barcelona x Medium Long 16 93 257 83 71 Barcelona x Red Lambert 12 83 147 52 13 Barcelona x Purple Aveline 8 50 73 78 55 Barcelona x Italian Red 6 84 133 90 81 Barcelona x Halle 6 52 79 52 23 Barcelona x Daviana 5 53 75 67 59 Barcelona x Bollwiller 2 66 94 62 58 Barcelona x Red Aveline 1 91 91 56 56 Barcelona x White Lambert 1 103 103 5 5 Kentish Cob (Du Chilly) x Cosford 22 62 151 64 33 TABLE 5. Filbert selections. Orchard 8. Yields 1940, 1941, 1942 and 1944. Catkin injury records 1940, 1941 and 1942. Mean Highest Mean Lowest Yield Yield Percent- Percent- per Se- per Se- age Cat- age of No. of lection lection kins Catkins Selec- in in Winter- Winter- Cross tions Ounces Ounces killed killed per Se- lection Rush x Cosford 26 25 47 30 2 Rush x Italian Red 11 25 39 27 0 * * * * * Discussion after Mr. Slate's paper-- _MacDaniels: "Of the 1999 seedlings tested at Geneva, 52 are being carried on for further observations. Prof. Slate is doing a fine work."_ _J. R. Smith: "I want to express my appreciation of the work Prof. Slate is doing. To care for 1999 seedlings and keep the performance records is a big job and just the kind of thing on which progress depends."_ Nut News from Wisconsin CARL WESCHCKE This year at River Falls, Wisconsin, which is only 35 miles southeast of St. Paul, Minnesota, the season started off with much rain and a delayed cold spring. All the grafting had to be postponed from two to four weeks later than normal. The stored scion wood suffered some because of this long storage period, and some of it was quite dry when taken out. This was particularly true of the Weschcke butternut and these scions looked so dry that I was tempted to throw them all away, but instead I gave them to two young horticulture students to practice with. None of them grew, however, so we had a 100% failure on butternut grafting. About a dozen years ago I had much success grafting butternut on black walnuts and was unimpressed, therefore I did not make any notes as to the process I used. This was a mistake for apparently I have lost the art. The last five years has probably produced only about five or six plants successfully grafted on black walnut. Hickories respond much better and I usually get about 50% successful grafts on my native butternut stocks. Although the insect pests, such as the butternut curculio, were delayed in their attacks, they eventually caught up and destroyed most of the big butternut crop and did their usual damage to heartnut and Persian walnut growth. I noticed in the American Fruit Grower that plum curculio was controlled in the peach orchards through the use of hexaethyl tetraphosphate. If this chemical poison controls plum curculio, it ought to control any of the curculio family, such as the hazel curculio, chestnut curculio and butternut curculio. The butternut and hazel curculio appear to me to be the same insect. I am not troubled with the chestnut curculio yet, but if this chemical gives control over the curculio insect family we will certainly be able to raise large crops of all of the nuts mentioned. Quite a few of my grafted test trees, both in the forest and in the orchard, which in some cases were grafted on bitternut hickory stocks fifteen years ago, are beginning to bear. These varieties are the Woods, Fox, Taylor, Platman and Davis. Others which have borne a few times previously also have good crops set. These are Bridgewater, Glover, Beaver, Kirtland, Deveaux and Fairbanks. The trees setting the largest crops of hickory nuts are the Weschcke, and they are the only ones that I can really count on maturing early enough to escape our usual early fall frosts. I derive great pleasure in observing new seedling plants of filberts, hazels and their hybrids coming into bearing for the first time this year. There are about two hundred of these new varieties. Of course most of them will be worthless commercially. The ideal hybrid hazilbert has not yet appeared, but when it does we will propagate it for sale as rapidly as possible. At this date, August 20, we have suffered from an extremely dry August and will apparently lose many trees that we cannot reach by irrigation or some other means of watering. We have been busy at the farm and nursery erecting a small pilot plant for grinding filbert butter which we expect to be able to put on the market between October 15 and November 1. There is about a one-fourth crop of black walnuts in my orchard trees, with the Thomas leading. Many of the Ohio trees are barren. Usually the Ohio bears freely. It is my observation here that the wild hazels and some of their hybrids will drop their crop of nuts when it becomes too dry. This probably is an excellent feature from the standpoint of the plant as it no doubt saves the plant from being killed by drouth. There is no doubt in my mind but that the hazel-filbert hybrids (hazilberts) will make a large agricultural crop in the corn belt. When these crops are shelled in local plants and ground into butter the industry will fall into much the same category as country creameries. However, we have not reached the point where we have the right commercial plants for this purpose and for the time being will have to use the Pacific Coast filberts until such large crops of the ideal hybrids appear. Home Preparation of Filbert Butter and Other Products MRS. JEANNE M. ALTMAN, Bellingham, Washington Filberts may be prepared in different ways at home to make a delicious food. To make filbert butter first shell a roasting pan two-thirds full of kernels and put it in a 325° oven. Stir the kernels thoroughly and often to get an even tan. Cut a few in half to determine when they are brown enough. Cook about thirty minutes. Do not leave in oven any longer than necessary because the kernels begin to brown rapidly upon further cooking. Cool and stir when not too hot. Most of the brown pellicle can be removed by rubbing kernels between one's hands. Run the kernels through a food chopper or meat grinder to make a Crunchy butter. To make a more delicious product, however, first run the kernels through a coarse knife, salt them and then run through a fine knife. This results in a butter with enough oil of its own to make a delicious dish. It takes lots of nuts to make much filbert butter. In preparing salted filberts in quantity I cook them in a strainer in a kettle of deep fat. Check the temperature with a thermometer and do not let them get too hot. Cool them quickly by putting them into a cold dish and stirring. When salting the whole kernels put only enough fat with them to coat the pellicle. After they are sufficiently brown take them out and salt them as they are cooling. Stir just enough to coat the kernels with salt. Eat pellicle and all; it holds the salt. Stirring too much tends to remove the salt. You can treat a pound of nuts at a time in a heavy iron skillet on top of the stove stirring constantly. When we follow that practice we eat them salted just as they were instead of grinding them. I think they are better than salted peanuts. I sent a recipe to one of our west coast papers and they added a note to drain them on a paper towel. That is wasteful and unnecessary. A Bellingham dentist put whole nuts into his false-teeth baking oven in the evening. I do not know what temperature was maintained but it must have been low because he left the nuts there all night and the next morning he found them all roasted and ready to eat. Filberts, even the green ones just as they come from the tree, may be boiled and then salted and buttered. They may be used to advantage in many cooking and baking recipes. Notes from Central New York S. H. GRAHAM, Ithaca, N. Y. This summer has been a difficult one for black walnuts. A late spring delayed starting and three freezes during the week beginning Sept. 22 prematurely checked development so that poor filling seems to be the rule. The Persian walnuts again demonstrated their ability to ripen their nuts in a short season. Some of our Persian walnut trees are growing in the partial shade of larger black walnut trees. We prefer to keep these larger trees as they may be valuable stocks to be grafted to the superior varieties that one is always hoping will appear later on. This condition gives a good opportunity to observe the effect of shade. There seems to be no doubt that even light shade is detrimental in our latitude to the Persian walnut and results not only in more spindling and unsymmetrical growth but also interferes with proper ripening of the wood making it more subject to winter injury. One difficulty with the Persian walnuts in the East is premature falling of the nuts. The female flowers on the young Persian trees that we have seen are usually more numerous than with black walnuts of the same size and age, but even hand pollinating often fails to give a good set of nuts. Last spring we took pollen from eight of our Persian trees to the pomology department of our State College of Agriculture for germinating. The best sample showed 45% viable pollen; the next best 15% and the rest from O to 5%. This had been collected and stored for several weeks according to the methods given by Dr. Cox in the annual report for 1943, page 58. It is possible that this lack of viability may be due to some soil deficiency such as insufficient lime or boron. Prof. Schuster of the Oregon station writes that they find that Persian walnuts readily accept good Persian pollen but not black walnut or butternut pollen. If the viability of the pollen falls below 50% they consider it unsatisfactory. On some of the Oregon soils an application of boron in the form of ordinary borax under the trees in the spring has greatly helped in getting a crop of nuts. This should be well worth trying in the eastern states. The filbert crop this year is better than usual. Out of over a thousand crosses between Rush and Winkler with European and Pacific Coast varieties, in our estimation, only one has proven worthy of propagation considering size, flavor, abundance of bearing and resistance to filbert blight. Some growers think lightly of blight but our experience in fighting it through the years in cutting out cankered wood has convinced us of the futility of this means of control in infested areas. Control measures may apparently succeed for a time but when conditions of moisture, heat and air movement are just right it can spread like wildfire. Therefore, to us, resistance to this disease (Cryptosporella anomala) seems of paramount importance. The prevalence of blight has been almost universal in the scattered plantings which we have visited in central New York, usually without the owner knowing why his trees were dying. All our European and Coast varieties, as well as most of the hybrids, take blight readily but there is an occasional hybrid that is clearly resistant. Bixby is one of these. We have always used a knapsack sprayer equipped with a mist nozzle for our trees but this is inadequate as the trees grow taller. This summer a much more satisfactory nozzle was found that may be quickly adjusted to throw a mist for low trees or a far reaching one for the taller trees. This is made by the D. B. Smith Co. of Utica, N. Y. From time to time articles appear on insects injurious to nut trees. Frequently mentioned are the web worms and the walnut caterpillars. With us, the damage they do is as nothing compared to that caused by the curculios, the strawberry root worm beetles and the leaf hoppers. We are getting the upper hand of the curculios by the use of cryolite spray but the root-worm beetle problem is still unsolved. Until Rev. Crath wrote of leaf hopper damage (Annual Report 1938 p. 111) we had not regarded them as at all serious. Subsequent observation has convinced us that he was right and that they are often the cause of the blackening and dying of the tender young leaves of Persian walnuts and the curling up of older leaves. We were especially impressed during the Wooster, Ohio, field trip last year and, later on, in seeing how Mr. Sherman had overcome this trouble on the Mahoning Co. farm simply by adding DDT to his spray mixture. In closing, we would like to call the attention of new members to the wealth of information that is to be found in the old Association annual reports. Experience with the Crath Carpathian Walnuts GILBERT L. SMITH, Wassaic, New York In the spring of 1935 we purchased from the Wisconsin Horticultural Society two pounds of the nuts which Rev. Paul Crath had imported from Poland. We planted these nuts in the nursery row. Sixty-two seedlings resulted. We assigned a number of each of these seedlings and transplanted them when they were two years old. Here we made our first mistake. We selected what proved to be a very poor site for them, adjacent to and nearly surrounded by woodland, in which were a goodly supply of butternut curculios which we have found to be by far the worst insect enemy of the Persian walnut. It attacks the terminal growth doing some damage by feeding but principally by laying eggs in the terminals and the fleshy base of the leaf stems. From these eggs grub-like larvae hatch which bore into the terminal and the leaf bases, greatly dwarfing the terminal growth. We have found as many as six larvae in a single terminal. Of course they also like to lay their eggs in the young nuts which then drop from the tree in mid-summer. In the spring of 1937 we started to graft from these seedlings on black walnut stocks, giving each the same number as that of the seedling from which the wood was taken. It is too bad that we did not start this work sooner as we lost a few of the seedlings, largely through the ravages of the curculio, but possibly some of them were just not rugged enough to stand our climate. We still have 49 of these varieties living, either as grafts or the original trees. To this collection we have added a few varieties, securing wood from seedlings being grown by others. We have had living grafts of some of the named Crath varieties which we suppose developed from some of the wood imported from Poland by Rev. Crath. All of these have failed with us except one, Carpathian D. Apparently they were not hardy enough for our climate. So far we have had only one severe test of our Crath seedlings, as to hardiness. This was on February 16th, 1943, when the temperature at Mr. Benton's farm was thirty-four degrees below zero. This was not official but was registered by two thermometers which Mr. Benton knew to be very accurate. Many of our Crath seedlings showed no injury at all on this occasion while others showed varying degrees of injury. Our grafts of Broadview were damaged quite severely, Carpathian D to just about the same extent. One other named Crath variety, Crath No. 1, was killed outright. Only one of our seedling varieties showed as severe injury as did Broadview. This was S 12. This tree has now fully recovered but we will not grow any trees from it except for more southern latitudes and then only if it shows exceptional merit when it begins to bear. Therefore, according to our experience so far, there is quite definite evidence that these Crath seedlings are hardier than Broadview. McDermid was killed outright. We have found that practically all Persian walnut trees, when young, will bear pistillate blossoms for several years before they bear staminate blossoms (catkins). This fact has delayed us in securing nuts from these seedling varieties and has compelled us to resort to hand pollination. However, they are now beginning to produce both kinds of blossoms. The first one to bear was in 1944, when one tree bore twelve nuts which had resulted from hand pollination with pollen sent us by Mr. Reed. This variety appears to be the most promising one that has borne so far. We have named it Littlepage and have had a booklet printed which describes it fully. We will be glad to mail a copy to anyone who wishes. We have now found a good pollinizer for Littlepage, our No. S22 seedling. This variety produces pollen at just the right time, some of which I used this spring to hand pollenize the Littlepage tree. A fine crop of nuts is now on this tree as the result of this pollination. Last year (1946) we had a few nuts from each of five other seedling varieties. While we did not consider any of them equal to Littlepage, they were all worth growing and compare quite favorably with English walnuts as found in our markets. This year we have nuts on each of eleven varieties, five of them and the same ones that bore last year and six new ones. Now that these seedlings are beginning to bear we are able to cull out any that prove to be very inferior. As our facilities are far too limited to thoroughly test the promising varieties, we have started to propagate them and offer them in many parts of the country and subject them to many different conditions. Thus it should be only a matter of time until the truly worthy varieties will prove themselves. If we were wealthy we could propagate them and distribute them free of charge but I doubt if it would prove as satisfactory as it is to charge for them, as it seems to be a trait of human nature to take better care of that which costs us something. We will not name these new varieties at present but will put them out under their test numbers. Later the ones that prove best can be named. To facilitate the distribution of these new varieties we are getting out a folder showing natural size pictures of the nuts of the six varieties which were produced last year, with a brief description of each. I am very sorry that I was unable to get these folders from the printer before coming to this convention. However we will have them very soon and will be glad to mail a copy to anyone who requests it. As stated before we have found that the butternut curculio is a very bad pest with the Persian walnuts, also heartnuts and butternuts. It does not injure the black walnut at all. There are also several other insects which feed on the Persian walnut, most of these chewing insects that simply injure the foliage more or less severely. Last winter I was advised by Dr. Dean of our experiment station staff, to try benzene hexachloride (hexachlorocyclohexane) for control of the curculio. He stated that in California they have found out that the Persian walnut is quite susceptible to arsenical injury when a spray containing arsenate of lead is used on it. Also tests so far indicate that D.D.T. is not very effective against the apple and plum curculio, therefore not likely to be effective against the butternut curculio. So last spring we secured a supply of benzene hexachloride. Just as we were about to spray the trees I discovered a swarm of orange colored insects with black wing covers, feeding on them. So I checked the compatibility chart in the February issue of the American Fruit Grower and found that benzene hexachloride and D.D.T. were compatible when used together in the spray mixture. I thought it would be well to use a double barreled dose. So we made up a spray of four pounds of benzene hexachloride, four pounds of D.D.T., 50% wettable powder, and 6 pounds of wettable sulfur to 100 gallons of water. This first spray showed a slight burning of the leaves, which I suspected was due to the sulfur. We omitted sulfur from the later sprays and did not note any more burning. We put on three sprays at about two week intervals and a fourth spray about the middle of July. The result of these sprays appears to be excellent. I have found only one nut showing any insect injury and this one was only slightly injured, whereas last summer we lost a considerable percentage of the nuts from curculio injury. A day or two after applying the first spray, I wanted to secure a specimen of the orange-colored insects with black wing covers, but I could not find a single specimen. We did not apply our first spray quite soon enough and curculio larvae had already invaded a few of the terminals. The first spray should be applied about as soon as the leaf buds separate and quite likely should be followed by the second spray in about a week, as new growth is very rapid at this time and the scant foliage at the time of the first spray would hardly hold enough of the chemicals to give control for more than a few days. Observations on Hardiness of the Carpathian Walnuts at Poughkeepsie, New York STEPHEN BERNATH In our section we have very good Persian walnut varieties of Carpathian and other European sources. I have planted some of all strains and varieties. My place faces northwest on a good elevation. My experience with trees there is that we have no winter injury. We can grow trees there that cannot be grown on some place which is situated low, and therefore does not have enough air circulation. Damage is done after heavy frosts when the sun comes out suddenly. That is what damages the trees--not the cold. If you take trees and put them in a temperature of 35 to 40 degrees below zero and bring them out to thaw gradually no harm is done. Most people buy trees and plant them in low places; that is the error. We have planted trees where the wind is very heavy throughout the winter and in the spring I found that these trees stood up wonderfully well; whereas, we have European walnut trees with a trunk diameter of about 12 to 14 inches that in one year froze two to six feet--about three to four years growth. If you plant your trees on a fairly good elevation you can be assured of a good nut crop. In planting nut trees I do not know what kind of fertilizer you use, but I always use well decayed cow manure and put a little right around the root system. I never use fresh manure and never use poultry, sheep, or horse manure. They are bad for trees as they are very high in ammonia and this does damage to the trees. Discussion after Graham, Smith, and Bernath Persian walnut papers. Corsan: "Is using lime a good idea? I always use a lot of wood ashes." Stoke: "Use ground agricultural limestone. Burned lime may cause injury." J. R. Smith: "Barnyard manure is the best." Stoke: "With the Carpathian walnuts there is no uniformity in winter injury. I have had the Crath variety kill back to two inch wood. Most others have never shown winter injury." Corsan: "When is it practical to take mulch away?" MacDaniels: "If you take mulch away too late you will get more injury than if you don't take it away at all." Member: "Why does my young walnut tree not bear?" Bernath: "English walnut trees may produce pistillate blooms for a number of years before they produce pollen so that if you have only one tree it may be due to lack of pollination." Member: "With English walnut is more than one tree necessary for pollination? The male blossom appears a week or 10 days before the female." Crane: "Persian walnuts should be used to pollinate Persian walnuts--do not depend on black walnuts. In growing Persian walnuts it is best to have trees of two or more varieties in a planting so as to provide cross pollination." Stoke: "Persian walnuts may not pollinate black walnut, but black walnut has pollinated the Persian walnut in known instances." MacDaniels: "Control or uncontrol of pollination is very complex." Crane: "We find that we can not readily produce Persian x Eastern black hybrids under conditions of controlled pollination. We have found a number of natural hybrid trees but they bear very few nuts." Nuts About Trees R. E. HODGSON, Superintendent, Southeast Experiment Station, University of Minnesota. When hiking with a Boy Scout troop, they often asked me, "What tree is that?" In summer I could usually tell an oak from a box elder but had never had much reason to go further into the subject until the boys exposed my ignorance. In self defense I began to hunt up the names and found it a most interesting hobby. The University of Minnesota has a branch experiment station some 80 miles south of the Twin Cities and it is here that a few acres have been roped off as a testing site for whatever trees of interest we can persuade to grow. My job is with field crops and livestock but my golf, fishing, hunting and bridge are mostly played with a spade and pruning shears or wandering around in the brush somewhere looking for something new. Our soil is a heavy clay loam of Clarion type containing plenty of lime but often poorly drained. It is very rich and productive being at one time part of Minnesota's big woods. Native trees are basswood, oak, elm, ash, walnut and their associates. My ignorance concerning trees is still profound and becomes more apparent as acquaintance matures, but it has been a lot of fun to start about 130 varieties of trees and shrubs and watch their development. The Latin names are mostly a mystery to me, but their habits, methods and rate of growth along with soil preferences and winter survival have furnished more entertainment for me than picking shot out of a dead bird or furrowing the turf on a putting green. It has been a real thrill to see cypress, sycamore and even a few yellow poplars, survive our rugged winters. The project began with an attempt to collect native trees and expanded to make room for some exotics, just to see what would happen to them. Detours and by-paths included attempts to grow various conifers from seed and persuade cuttings to root. Somewhere along the line nut trees began to enter the picture and now these have an alcove all to themselves. Perhaps it started when a neighbor offered me $5.00 if I could tell whether a young sprout in his yard was butternut or walnut. He died before I found the answer which was probably common knowledge to most people. The color of the pith did not seem reliable, but at last a book pointed out the little moustache a butternut wears just above each leaf scar. It worked, and the thrill was equal to catching a 10 pound wall eye! I was raised on the prairie part of southwestern Minnesota and it was a delightful surprise when I moved 140 miles east to find that one could gather almost any desired quantity of black walnuts from remnants of the old forest. After a few years these trips to the woods became less glamourous and the pickeruppers more critical. Many of the wild nuts were small and hard to crack. Perhaps a friend's Thomas tree in full bearing with its heavy crop of huge, tasty nuts inspired a wish to grow bigger and better producing trees near at home. It looked easy to transplant vigorous, 6 foot black walnut whips which could be had for the digging. It took 10 years to learn that nuts properly planted would make larger trees in a decade than transplants. Digging 2 deep holes to move one tree seemed a waste of labor when one planted nut would better serve the purpose. Of course nut planting led to a contest of wits with the squirrels. It was a funny sight to watch a helper carefully placing nuts at regular intervals in an open furrow and a big fox squirrel following 10 feet behind him, removing the prizes as fast as he could scamper up and down a nearby hollow oak. Our ideas concerning appropriate locations for walnut trees did not coincide with those of Mr. Bushytail. We learned that the simple way to plant walnuts in the woods was to pile a half a bushel here and there. The tree climbers took their toll, but did a good job of planting. Survival seemed better than when we placed individual nuts and "stepped them in." The desire for bigger, better and more useful nuts led to the planting of a couple of acres to seed from various trees of known value. These will not come true of course but it is hoped that some day they may serve as material for a small nut breeding project in which an attempt will be made to combine some of the more desirable chromosomes into a single tree that retains the best of what we have in present selections, and adds a little more hardiness between growing seasons. Who can tell? We might find a tree that the walnut worms didn't like! The squirrels didn't fancy our plans to grow trees in rows according to parentage, so they tried to improve our technique. We almost called in the F. B. I. to circumvent their machinations. Jamming an open tin can over the planted nut seemed to help. When the sprout came up we turned up the edges of the split can bottom just enough to let the tree through, but the sharp jagged edges seemed to discourage marauders. A lot of other methods were also tried. From the Wisconsin Horticultural Society we obtained a pound of English or Persian walnuts in 1937. So far we have some 23 seedlings struggling to keep alive. They range in height from 18 inches to 7 feet and are definitely out of their range. Some years they grow 4 feet of new wood and some winters it all kills back. There seem to be differences in hardiness and--who can tell?--they might even bear a nut some day. Bark injury, which may be winter sun scald, has damaged some of the trees. One tree of the Broadview selection is alive after four years and may make a go of it. Hickories grow wild in certain parts of Minnesota, but this doesn't happen to be one of those parts. They seem to do best where soil is acid in reaction and here we are amply supplied with lime. That may account for the slow growth of a grafted Hales hickory tree. It was 3 years old when set out in 1921. For the first 9 years it had just 2 leaves per year. Now approaching 30, the tree is 7 to 8 feet high and going up at the rate of 8 to 12 inches a year. Nuts from Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota wild hickories, have done better. At 8 years the trees are from 1 to 2 feet high, with a couple of Shakespeares, (geniuses) towering a foot above them. This may not be hickory country, but, by gum, they're growing! A couple of years ago, Dr. Brierley from the Central Station, Division of Horticulture, who has nut propagation as one of his minor projects, gave us 7 seedlings of shellbark hickory, (Carya laciniosa), from a tree planted many years ago by Peter Gideon of Wealthy apple fame. After 2 winters, these 7 seedlings are still with us and seem to grow faster than the shagbarks (ovata). Other attempts to vary our diet (if we live long enough) are a few Chinese chestnut seedlings. A couple secured from the Nut Tree Nurseries, Downington, Pa., in 1940 are now 3 and 4 feet high and apparently in a good state of health. They are leisurely growing, which may be a good thing. Trees like the Manchurian walnut which grow 6 to 8 feet of new wood in a year, seem to freeze back and start over more frequently than the trees which poke along but harden their wood before cold weather. In 1946, a few more seedlings from D. C. Snyder, Center Point, Iowa, were set out and most of them have survived the first winter. Carl Weschcke reports that chestnuts do best for him at River Falls, Wisconsin, in sandy soil with an acid reaction. If I ever raise a chestnut, I'd like to send him one. Fooling with nuts has led to another activity which has been pleasant though not very practical so far. Each spring, Dr. Brierley spends a couple of days with me trying to graft some of the named varieties to our available wild trees. We have raised nuts on some of the hickory scions grafted to the plentiful native bitternuts, but in general our grafts have failed. We have had good advice from many sources and have tried most everything but our successes have not been numerous enough to cause any inflation of the ego. We're inclined to think that the sudden wide variations of temperature which are common here in May, can be the controlling factor. We've made a few walnuts, hickories, and hicans grow, but still have too many zeroes for any complacency. This year may be our bonanza. Most of the grafts on some 40 trees are shooting buds. Perhaps it's the grafting tape we tried this spring. In 1948 we'll be able to write it all down in the book--and try again. Nuts are not the only food crops growing on trees. We have read the glowing reports of sweet pods of honey locust grown on such varieties as Millwood and Calhoun, as told by John Hershey and J. Russell Smith. Our Millwoods all killed the second winter and this year we're trying Calhoun. Meanwhile, we're hunting for a hardy, northern grown sweet tree. Miss Jones asked nut growers to tell me what they had and several interesting replies and samples were received. The quality of the pods varied all the way from the sweet Millwood to our native honey locusts, most of which are so bitter and astringent that they remind us of a combination of green persimmons and red pepper. No sensible animal will touch them. Cions were received from a tree in Omaha, Nebraska, through the courtesy of F. J. Adams. These were grafted on local trees this spring and perhaps they will answer all of our needs. Our attempts to grow better nuts in southern Minnesota have not caused even a ripple in the local economic situation, but it has been a lot of fun. Perhaps the greatest return so far is the interesting correspondence with like minded people in many localities. Amos Workman of Hurricane, Utah, sent seed of his best black and Persian walnuts, pecans and figs. The figs didn't even start (probably my ignorance), but we have trees coming from all the rest. J. Russell Smith has been most helpful with suggestions and the "Minnesota Horse Thief" as he calls me, has enjoyed his letters immensely. John Hershey has passed along some of his enthusiasm for trees and many others have contributed to the pleasure of a fascinating hobby. It's fun to grow trees even though some of the unusual things provide only exercise and entertainment. Our persimmons grew from seed, were transplanted and came through the first winter! One pawpaw is still trying to get ahead of the winter set-backs, and a Macedonian white pine (said to produce edible nuts) is doing fine. Perhaps I'm the biggest nut of all, but I'm happy about it! Report on Nut Trees at Massillon RAYMOND E. SILVIS, Massillon, Ohio I will first give an account of plantings observed recently in or near Massillon, and, secondly, a condensation of my own introduction to nut growing. Louis Bromfield in his richly descriptive book "The Farm" writes, "On the way one passed the big orchard which was Jamie's pride, and beyond one came to the field where the big hickory stood. It was a memorable tree, famous in the countryside for bearing enormous nuts with shells so soft that the faintest tap of a rock or a hammer would lay open the bisque-colored kernels." He also writes a reference to the ingredients of candy making at Christmas time in which a good many recipes called for hickory nuts and walnuts. In Massillon Mr. Alvin Schott, when he drove by the farm of Mr. Lester Hawk and read his sign, "Chinese Chestnut Trees for Sale," thought of the chestnuts he used to eat. Since he, like the rest of us, cannot go out along the road in the fall and pick up chestnuts as of old, he declared to plant some nut trees on city park land so that the younger generation could in a small measure recapture that which now is only a memory. After making numerous talks and speeches to all the lodges, civic clubs and P. T. A.'s, he received donations and publicity to help him in his project. He enlisted the help of other civic nut-minded personnel to help him select the trees and locations for planting. Boy Scouts and school children dug some of the holes. When it rained (it seems to rain every time a shipment came in) Mr. Schott would call us away from our work and have us dig holes. We have planted in city parks: 13 Hawk chestnuts, 10 Thomas black walnuts, 8 hazel, 4 mulberries, 2 Broadview Persians, 2 Josephine persimmons, 3 pecan seedlings, 1 hican, 9 large seedling black walnuts and several hickories. We have additional money for another spring planting. Thus Massillon has joined the list of cities that own trees that will produce something else besides leaves. On August 17th Mr. Gerstenmaier and I drove to Ira, Ohio, to visit Mr. Cranz and take advantage of his invitation to inspect his nut planting. At this moment I believe that his invitation was made with the subtle purpose of bragging about his excellent crop of Thomas black walnuts and filberts. The trees were originally planted by squirrels and later grafted by Mr. Cranz. They grow at the bottom of a huge hill or escarpment 200 feet high at the top of which is his planting of 20 _mollissima_ chestnuts. It's a long climb through his neatly scythed pathways on a hot day. Afterwards I felt like I needed the can which he usually carries. Recently I found a young black walnut which I hope may be a good selection for further work. It is too early to make any predictions, but I can assure you that a careful check on the tree's performance will be interesting. Thin shell, good kernel cavity, etc. Near Bolivar, Ohio, stands a young shagbark hickory which bears a nut about the size of a Pleas hican with a very smooth kernel cavity and a thin shell. Even though small this is another nut which will bear watching. I believe the greatest interest in nut trees will develop when a definite program of controlled crossing is instituted. When I became a member of this organization in 1939 I was managing almost 1,000 acres of farm land. My own 90 acre farm was being farmed up and down the hill because the fences were built that way. My plan was to change over to a contour operation. After reading "Nut Growing" and "Tree Crops" I decided to plant nut trees at 100' intervals along the edges of the contour strips. I had a twofold purpose, to produce more revenue and preserve the contour method of farming. I ordered grafted nut trees from Jones Nurseries, Crath seedlings from Graham and 200 northern pecan nuts from Wilkinson. Homer Jacobs, really "sold me" on the Nut Growers Association and then sent me scions of the Wilcox hickory. I was successful in getting two to grow about 100' apart. Miss Jones sent me Pleas hican wood and one graft grew between the two Wilcox. All were grafted on shagbark stock, breast high using the late Mr. Fickes' method. The pecan nuts were stratified and given the usual nursery care and at three years of age were transplanted to the farm along with 200 seedling black walnuts and 100 chestnuts. These seedlings were to be used as stocks for grafting the newer and superior productive varieties. This was 1943. The farmer became dissatisfied with my soil conservation tendencies and moved away. The war developed in earnest and I matriculated at a defense plant. The farm just grew up. I was not dissatisfied. I was just tired. I couldn't find enough time to manage 1,000 acres of farm land 20 miles south; work at a defense plant 20 miles north and operate my insurance and real estate business. So I sold all the farms including mine with the nut trees. Now it is 1947. It was only two years ago that I made a decision to relinquish the 90 acre farm. A short time ago I found all the grafted trees bearing fruit except the hickories and hican. The grafted Zimmerman, Stoke and Hobson chestnuts have died and most of the pecan, walnut and chestnut seedlings planted on the contour strips have succumbed to the mower, etc. I could find none of the grafted hickories purchased through the years except one Fairbanks. The present owners are enthusiastic over the early bearing chestnuts and are taking care of all the remaining survivor trees. I have reached the conclusion that any farm in this section of the U. S. with enough hope to warrant contour farming is usually marginal land. This is land which barely pays the cost of working or using; land whereon the costs of labor, coordination and capital approximately equal the gross income. I believe that a planting of grafted nut trees on the edges of contour strips will increase the value of that farm and should have the attention of every county agent and farm owner. I am no doubt the worst "grafter" in the business. When I get one out of 20 sets to grow I am startled, not so much with the statistical percentages but because a small stick of wood from Kentucky can make its home on the roots of an Ohio cousin. I believe that scion storage is important and I wish to report that the method which Dr. Shelton explained in the 1945 report is very satisfactory. The next best is John Gerstenmaier's apple storage cellar, which he and I have used ever since my interest in nut bearing trees brought us together. It is still 1947. I'm still in the real estate business. I recently purchased 160 acres of land in an adjoining county and placed title in my son's name. He is six years old. I should be free of any inclination to sell this for fifteen years. Since there are no buildings I won't have a tenant problem. This spring I purchased and planted grafted hickories and grafted black walnuts and set them in supposedly favorable locations where I hope they will maintain themselves. In addition I planted about 200 Hawk seedling chestnuts spaced about 20 to 30 feet apart. These were planted in three different locations. One group was planted under the canopy of a locust grove, another on an exposed hilltop which faces the prevailing westerly winds. The third is on a broad hilltop field which does not have the best drainage since the top soil is clay underlaid with sandstone shale. All of these groups grow on land abandoned some years ago. The soil fertility is generally low. Volunteer native growth of cheery, ash, dogwood and hawthorn prevails. If I can continue to plant for the next fifteen years I should have quite an orchard, or else my son will have a good hardwood forest. I hope that all of us here can meet there then. Discussion after R. E. Silvis' paper. Mr. MacDaniels: "It is a good idea to have nut trees established in the parks. In your home town there is usually a park in which nut trees can be used. Very often it just takes initiative to get these things started. Boy Scout organization is very good at starting projects like this. Chestnuts are more difficult to establish than other trees." Dr. Gravatt: "Nut trees should not be grown along the curbs because people will gather the nuts that fall on the road. This is very dangerous where there is much traffic." Stoke: "Walnuts are much more satisfactory as park trees than Chinese chestnuts. People are so prone to break off branches bearing immature chestnuts." Dr. MacDaniels: "Wire guards are excellent to keep mice, rabbits, etc., away from your nut trees." Planting of Nut Trees on Highways Undesirable R. P. ALLAMAN, Harrisburg, Pa. Having always opposed this practice when it was under discussion, I have been asked to prepare an article on the subject. This paper was prepared in collaboration with Mr. Wilbur H. Simonson, Senior Landscape Architect, U. S. Bureau of Public Roads, Washington, D. C. Since the beginning of the roadside improvement demonstration program in 1933 the policy of the Public Roads Administration has never favored planting of the showy, garden type of fruit and nut trees on highway roadsides for several reasons: 1. =Traffic Hazards=--Dropping of fruits and nuts on pavements tends to make surface conditions slippery and dangerous to traffic. 2. =Police Problems=--Ripening of fruits and nuts tends to invite passing motorists to stop on side of highway pavements to gather the fruits, adding to traffic hazard. Also such trees tend to invite vandalism by boys together with clubbing the trees to get down the fruits with the possible results of not only injury and damage to the trees themselves, but throwing sticks, stones and clubs into the tree branches is likely to result in hitting or striking passing motorists and otherwise cause loss of control of vehicles by drivers, a very dangerous road condition especially because it is an unexpected situation to have clubs or fruit come down on the highway when driving through. This all means more intensive policing of the highway by the responsible authorities with added costs in maintenance budgets. 3. =Maintenance Problems=--Not only do dropping of fruits, and the results of vandalism, cause extra cleanup of pavements and drainageways, (clogging of pipes and gutters with debris from the trees) all hazardous to traffic; but also the questions of insects and disease problems are added. This all complicates public maintenance problems and especially the proper pruning and spraying of the trees. It is not considered a proper function of public authorities to carry on operations that compete with private property developments. Administrative policy and procedures shall encourage the planting of shade tree types along public highways, and avoid the above described difficulties that are =bound= to occur if nut-bearing types of trees are placed on highway areas. References: Bennett's book on Roadside Development, 1929, pages 6 and 52, also page 527 of the proceedings for the twentieth annual meeting of the Highway Research Board in 1940, regarding the selection and use of trees on highway areas, as recommended by the Committee on Roadside Development. I quote from these the following extracts: "Profusely flowering fruit or nut-bearing trees are not desirable, as a rule; very showy garden types of flowering, fruit or nut-bearing trees should be avoided in roadside planting. Experience indicates than vandalism is encouraged by planting any species of tree commonly used in garden, commercial fruit, or nut orchard planting." "Trees which drop heavy masses of petals, fruit or nuts on highway surfaces are not desirable. Horticultural varieties of flowering trees (particularly those of exotic origin such as the Japanese cherries) should be avoided in roadside planting because a too garden-like appearance of planted roadsides will usually indicate excessive annual maintenance costs, and probably heavy future losses of planted material because of competition with superior and more rugged native tree species." _Re:_ Vandalism, parents are responsible for acts of their children and public plantings should not encourage children towards acts of a vandalistic nature, with trouble not only for the tree but also for the parents in keeping the children in order. Nut Growing for the Farm Owner H. GLEASON MATTOON It is with trepidation that I present a paper on nut growing before a group so much more learned in the subject than I. But two things impel me to do so. First, the firm conviction that nut trees, carefully chosen, properly planted and intelligently cared for, have a place on many farms as a cash crop for the market and a food crop for the farm family and, second, the poor results from many nut tree plantings on farms. As may be imagined, my conviction is not based upon results seen but upon the possibilities I know are inherent in nut trees. When the first wave of publicity for soil conservation was at its zenith back in the late 30s, I listened to a talk, the substance of which was that there are no such things as submarginal land, and problem areas. There are only submarginal people and problem people. Land does not destroy itself nor is squalor self-created. Human qualities create both conditions. Therefore the problem to be tackled is the ignorance, cupidity or stupidity of those who create such conditions. This made a profound impression on me. It has influenced my thinking in all things connected with our renewable resources. Our success in growing anything, whether it be cotton, corn or nut trees, depends largely upon ourselves. If we mix three parts of intelligence with one part of effort, the yield will be manifold. Much of this intelligence should be of the "green thumb" variety, a mixture of common sense and keen observation. The one using this kind of intelligence would plant black walnuts in a deep, rich, well-drained loam, because he has observed that this species grows best and yields more heavily in that type of soil. He would plant the trees with top roots not more than one inch under the surface of the soil because he has noted that is the way they grow naturally. He would strive to keep foliage on the tree as long as possible because he knows that the leaves are the manufacturing part of the tree. Without them the tree could not grow and would not produce filled nuts. He would do many other things essential for proper tree growth and yield. But unfortunately several of the farm nut tree plantings I have seen show a woeful lack of "green thumb" intelligence. I recall one in particular because of the condition of both the trees and the owner. The planting originally consisted of twenty Chinese chestnuts, fifteen named black walnuts, four hicans and four Persian walnuts. The owner originally was an enthusiastic convert to nut growing. Today the planting is a failure, while the owner is an irate backslider who would not plant another nut tree even though it bore ten dollar bills. Four years after planting, nineteen of the twenty chestnuts, all hican, three Persian walnuts and ten black walnuts were dead. Of the remaining seven trees only one could be called healthy. Examination soon focused the picture. Most of the trees had been planted on an eroded hillside deficient in humus. In addition, many of them were planted from three to ten inches too deep. The only thriving walnut was planted at the proper depth and in a pocket of top soil at the base of the slope. Under questioning, the owner said that he had purposely planted them deep to "keep their roots cool." That is a widely held horticultural fallacy which is unconsciously fostered by many nurseryman. In their instructions they say to plant the tree one inch deeper than it was in the nursery. Too many laymen reason that, if planting the tree one inch deeper will help, then the tree should do even better if planted six inches deeper. After eighteen years of trying to learn why transplanted trees do not thrive, I am convinced there are four main causes. I list them in the order of their prevalence. First and foremost, too deep planting. Second, fibrous roots allowed to become dry. This may occur in transit, in the hands of the purchaser or because of air space around the roots after planting. Third, deficiency of moisture due to low humus content of the soil or drought. Four, rodent damage. While some nut trees are possibly more difficult to re-establish than a few other species, if care is used to see that none of these four conditions occurs, there is no reason why a well-rooted tree should not grow and remain healthy. Up to this point I have been dwelling on the negative side. Though it must be confessed that the preponderance of such planting has not fulfilled the owner's expectations, we must remember that the fault does not lie in the trees but in the human element. If the purchaser of nut trees has received proper instructions and carries them out faithfully, the trees will grow. Not all of the fault, however, can be placed upon the purchaser. The nurserymen should remember that there is a place for gilded pictures and glowing generalities but that place is not in the directions for planting and care. These directions should be practical, precise and detailed, with no implications of Midas returns from a half acre grove. Every grower of nut trees knows that problems and troubles continue to arise which tax his knowledge and experience. How much more baffling such difficulties are to the layman who is just embarking on the venture of growing trees. I have planted nut trees and have seen them grow to maturity and yield bountifully. I have seen a few farm tree plantings which have more than repaid the time and effort. Though the varieties now grown by nurserymen are inferior to those that I am confident will be produced at some future time, they still have sufficient merit to warrant planting. You who are interested in nut trees which thrive in the northern states, must recognize that two factors contribute to the development of superior strains. One is hybridizing and the other sport development. The former is a long term project which should have institutional backing. The opportunity for the latter, that is, chance development of a superior or unique variation, is in direct ratio to the number of nut trees growing in the area. Successful farm nut growers, dotted over the region, will, therefore, increase the chance that finer strains will appear. But whether the farm nut grove ever abets science and produces the long sought superior nut, is of little importance compared to its value to the farm. It is incumbent, therefore, upon every nut enthusiast, who has a hand in bringing to the attention of farm owners the value of nut trees, to be meticulous in giving instructions for their planting and care. Tree Crop and Nut Notes from Southern Pennsylvania JOHN W. HERSHEY _Broadview English Walnut_--This hardy variety seemed so good it took a lot of effort to keep from recommending it commercially. The oldest tree in our section, owned by my brother, bore lightly for several years. With its fine flavor, tree beauty and hardiness it edges closer and closer to where we can recommend it commercially. In its seventh year it bore a half bushel; the 8th, this year, it's really loaded. I have planted 30 trees. _A Southern Persian Walnut_ The northern man in the south loves the cool climate, Persian walnut. I have found chance seedlings here and there, even down to northern Alabama. One tree, northeast of Knoxville, Tennessee, had a good quality nut and was seemingly resistant to sun scald. Starting late in the spring it avoids the late frosts so damaging to horticulture in the south. _Cornell Black Walnut_--This new variety, a Thomas seedling, named Cornell by its originator at Ithaca, New York, bore one nut for us in 1946. The boys at Cornell like it because it fills even in an abnormally cool season of the Finger Lakes region when natives fail. You can't decide an issue with one nut, but our specimen was as large and full of high-flavored, white meat as the Thomas, and as thin-shelled as the Stabler. So attractive does this variety appear that I am reserving it this fall in order to plant several in orchard form to produce scion wood. _Honey Locusts_--The latest report on their performance comes from J. C. Moore, Soil Conservation Service at Auburn, Alabama, on February 3, 1947. Their laboratory tests of Millwood show a sugar content of 36.65%, and Calhoun 38.95%. The animal husbandry department of the Alabama Experiment Station at Auburn has found the pods equal to oats, pound for pound, in a dairy ration. A team of mules fed for 30 days on pods showed satisfactory results. Cows and hogs showed equal success. At 5 years of age, Millwood averages 58 pounds and Calhoun 26 pounds per year. At eight years, Millwood bore 200 pounds, and Calhoun 60. The pods fall from October 15th to December 30th. Lespedeza sericea planted between the trees yields 2-1/2 tons per acre annually. This gives us courage to continue emphasizing their great value for pasture and rough land planting. The trees we planted in our swampy, worn-out meadow are doing fine. _Mulberries_--This great chicken, bird and hog feed will some day fill a definite place in the sun of the American farmer, just as it does in Asia. The drawbacks are lack of hardiness and short bearing season in the north. The Hicks variety bears for six to eight weeks but is not hardy north of the Mason-Dixon line. This year we have grafted eight varieties of which seven are new. One from southern Indiana, an American seedling selected by a mulberry enthusiast, bears for six to eight weeks. Will it be hardy farther north? We shall know soon. Six are from select seedlings of L. K. Hostetter, of Lancaster, Pa., the mulberry king of America. The other is a fine white, a chance seedling from 75 miles north of Pittsburgh. It has not borne yet but was far hardier than Downing last winter. I have a few of these to sell this fall. Mulberries need sweet soil to prevent winter killing. On worn out soils we have discovered that they do well until established, by applying a few handfuls of lime around the tree at planting time. Not only are they excellent for the above mentioned uses but the right varieties are better than raisins when dried. In 1945 we set a leaky corner of sandy meadow to honey locusts. I saw them growing in semi-swamp land in Alabama, but here all but two of the 18 trees died. When replanted in 1946 also they died. I found the two that were living were carelessly planted too shallow, with the top roots sticking out of the ground. We replanted more trees in the spring of 1947 with the top roots above the ground level, mounded soil over them about 6 to 10 inches, then mulched. They are all growing fine. _Starting a Tree Crop Farm. What Is It?_--It consists of a blended, balanced program of cattle, hogs, poultry and sheep pasturing under mulberries, honey locust, persimmons, oaks, etc., plus the hog feed from the refuse chestnuts, walnuts and Chinese dates. The great secret of nature is that your security lies in a balanced land use between animal and plant production with crops for animals, and animal manure for the crops, with a margin of each for the profit book. I bought this abandoned swampy, rocky, sandy soil farm of 72 acres, to show how it can be done on land too rough for the plow. The first requirement was to work out a program with permanent crops to bring in a continuous return, while planting and developing the slower bearing nuts and crop trees. I have found you must live on the farm a year to learn which soils and sites are best for a species. For instance, the field that fitted my plan to plant walnuts is too wet, so there we shall plant the hickories, pecans and hicans with persimmons as fillers. The place where I wanted walnuts was too sandy, so we shall plant chestnuts and filberts, and where I wanted chestnuts the soil is good for walnuts. _Starting a Profit Cycle_--To create a return as quickly as possible on such a cycle we started a small flock of chickens, ducks and geese. The next step was to decide what to plant of a permanent nature to make a succession of crop income from spring until the nut crop comes in autumn. In the spring of 1945 we planted an acre of asparagus and one of raspberries. In 1947 both started bringing in returns. In 1948 they will be in full production. In 1946 and 1947 we set an acre or more of blueberries. Half of the blueberries were planted in a semi-swamp, useless to farm or pasture, but the home of blueberries after we drained it. These will start bearing in 1948 and increase in production for ten years. We have 2 cows for family milk as I nearly live on it. The surplus we use in vealing calves as well as to start a herd. The first year we took in about $100, the second $150; to date we've taken in $850, plus an inventory increase of 5 nine months old bulls and 6 year old heifers. No soil can live without manure and, due to the results of over 20 years of organic soil management, we use no chemical fertilizers. Hence, we need lots of manure. I can not afford to buy straw so we use shavings and sawdust for bedding. We apply to the manure in the stables about 100 pounds per animal of raw phosphate rock a week, which sweetens the dust and helps feed the soil. We also buy straw for seven riding horses for the manure, as this is great fox hunting country. While this young stock is supplying manure for the soil it is increasing in value. Our program is expensive because time needed in the nursery and orchard prevents us from growing grain, but when you start you can grow grain. We shall soon be having stock to sell each year which will add to our income. While these crops are contributing to our keep, our time is used in developing the slower-bearing, permanent tree crops, 600 mulberries for hogs and cattle, 350 honey locusts, nearly a 100 persimmons, 50 oaks, 50 Chinese Jujubes and 90 filberts, all going well. To this we added in the spring of 1947 5 acres of Persian and black walnuts with chestnuts interplanted in the row. These are our future feeds for a bigger and cheaper hog, cattle, sheep and poultry feeding program, as well as providing food and cover for wild life. We have yet to plant 5 acres of mixed hickory, hicans and pecans interplanted with over 100 seedling persimmons and a six acre boulder field of black walnuts interplanted with chestnuts and a 5 acre sandy field of chestnuts interplanted with filberts. The rest of the farm will be in nursery, hay and cereals. Now hold in mind these vital factors. To get rich just planting a farm of nuts or any other one crop is a delusion, with the bankers eventually holding the bag, the soil and owner taking a licking. Nature is a balanced force, soil undisturbed is a delicately balanced flour barrel of never ending life. Learn of nature how to protect this soil, that shallow insulation board between man and disaster. After feeling our way over 3 years this is what we found best in handling trees. In the meadow where we planted honey locust, and on a rocky knoll with oaks, the first year we applied a shovelful of night soil and a light mulch of leaf compost. The second summer we mowed, raked, and forked the hay to the tree in a wide circle. It was amazing the life activity that was created under this mulch by the next spring. Mice were controlled by pulling the mulch 3 inches from the tree in early fall and with poisoned wheat under the mulch. In the spring of 1947 we mulched a 4 to 5 ft. circle around each tree with manure two or three inches thick. You should see the trees growing. One-half was mowed for hay and on the other half electric fences were put up along the tree rows and the field was pastured. We planted the walnuts and chestnuts in a sod of natural white clover and timothy. Walnuts were planted in 60 ft. rows with a chestnut tree every 30 ft. Here, three rounds were made with the plow and disk and the ground was manured before the trees were planted. After planting one shovelful of night soil, or two or three shovelfuls of cured slaughter house tankage, were applied to each tree. The rows were kept clean until June and then sowed to soy beans. Sufficient manure was available to make it possible to complete a manure mulch around these trees. The field where the hickory and pecans are to go has the tree rows plowed, manured and soy beaned ready for planting. We plan to use the same method in future plantings. Notes from the New Jersey Section of the Northern Nut Growers Association MRS. ALAN R. BUCKWALTER (As a suggestion to some other State Vice-Presidents the editors print parts of a letter from Mrs. Buckwalter whose husband was long a valued and active member of the N. N. G. A. "After receiving the annual report I sent reply post cards to each of the members in New Jersey. I received answers from about one-third of them and have assembled some of their reports and questions to send you, along with a few notes about our orchard.") Wm. M. Daugherty of Princeton reports that his three hundred ten-year-old black walnut trees had a fine set of nuts this spring. However, a hail storm in midsummer stripped the trees of both leaves and nuts. From Saddle River, Dr. Harold Blake reports that his black walnuts are doing well, but a late spring frost killed the catkins on the Cosford, Medium Long and Italian Red filberts. Mr. Blake suggests a theory of bark rot and asks the opinion of other nut growers. He noticed that in several instances of bark rot on Thomas and Stambaugh black walnuts the diameter of the scion was larger than that of the stock. He concludes that the scion was taken from a faster growing tree than the one that was used for the stock and that the so-called bark rot is cambium rot due to the fact that the smaller stock does not completely feed the cells of the naturally faster growing section. Dr. Blake therefore suggests more study of the compatibility of scion to stock, especially in regard to growth and bearing. He notes that in fruit trees the root stock is of importance in this regard and it may be that the variance in reports from different localities on black walnuts and other nut trees may be due to the difference in root stock as well as climate and soil conditions. Edward Fuhlbruegge of Scotch Plains has long tried to grow pawpaw seedlings with no success. He wants to know if any other New Jersey members have been able to raise pawpaws from seed. (Ed.--He should keep the seedbed moist through the summer. These seeds germinate slowly and the seedlings cannot emerge through a hard soil surface.) The observation of Gilbert V. P. Terhune of Newfoundland is that the native chestnuts continue to sprout and occasionally produce nuts. He predicts that in years to come we will again have our native chestnuts. [Ed.--Someone should carefully save his nuts and grow trees from them.] John H. Donnelly of Hoboken asks other nut growers for their opinion of using cut grass as a mulch for nut trees. [Ed.--Excellent.] From Fairlawn J. L. Brewer states that his black walnuts do not seem to have any bad effects on raspberries and strawberries, thus adding another note to the long controversy as to the deleterious effects of black walnuts on the soil. His Texas pecan and Indiana hickory seedlings, although planted in favorable location, have not made a good growth. [Ed.--Did he feed them?] Louis P. Rocker of Andover reports his Thomas and Stabler walnuts had a good crop in 1946 but this year have few nuts. This planting (Buckwalter) consists of _Castanea mollissima_, _mollissima_ hybrids and _Japonica_ (crenata). Due to circumstances during the war years, we have not been able to do much with this orchard; however, we hope gradually to build it up. In 1946 the part of the chestnut crop that was harvested was infested with the chestnut curculios. About fifty per cent of the nuts were affected. No infestation had been noted in previous years, although in 1945 the crop was not harvested at all. [Ed.--That gave the worms their chance to propagate.] We will not be able to spray our entire chestnut orchard this year; however, a few of the trees will be sprayed to determine the effectiveness of DDT as a control. In the December, 1946 issue of "The American Fruit Grower" it was stated that DDT as a wettable power (four pounds of fifty per cent DDT to one hundred gallons of water) should be used. Three applications gave best results, and this will be tried on our trees. This year we have a good crop of nuts and hope to select the best of our trees, which will be included in next year's report. Report of Resolutions Committee The Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc., is bringing to a close the 38th annual convention with deep appreciation of the complete and satisfying hospitality which we have enjoyed at the hands of our hosts, the Ontario Agricultural College. We have enjoyed the beautiful, well kept, and spacious grounds, the substantial and well planned buildings, the thoughtful and pleasant help of all of the personnel with whom we have come in contact, especially Dr. J. S. Shoemaker, head of the Department of Horticulture in whose building we have had satisfactory meeting place, display room, use of lantern and operator, and the esthetic satisfaction of looking at beautiful flowers harmoniously arranged. We have been well nourished with good food, well prepared and expeditiously served. We especially appreciate the courteous entertainment that the faculty ladies have so kindly arranged for the ladies who accompany us. For many years Clarence Reed has been one of the "war horses" of the N. N. G. A. We were expecting to see him cap this long service by presiding over this session, and it was with great sorrow that we learned of his inability to be with us. Your Resolutions Committee wishes to call attention to the excellent manner in which Dr. L. H. MacDaniels has conducted the sessions of this convention. It is with great regret that the members of this Association learned of the resignation of Miss Mildred Jones as Secretary. Her work in that office has been of an unusually high order of efficiency and devotion. It was the kind of work which shows the enthusiasm that arises from deep personal interest. Her services will be greatly missed. Dr. W. Rohrbacher, Dr. J. Russell Smith, Sterling Smith, Wm. Hodgson. Report of the Necrology Committee JOSEPH GERARDI Mr. Joseph Gerardi, 78 year old nurseryman, died at his home in O'Fallon, Ill., on April 3rd, 1947. Mr. Gerardi was an enthusiastic and especially well informed student of nut culture. He was always looking for new and better seedlings, some of which were named as they were found worthy. His Gerardi hican is probably one of the best in that group. He also introduced the Gildig pecans (Gildig Nos. 1 and 2) and the Fisher pecan. Mr. Gerardi was quite successful as a propagator and always tried to have nursery stock of the best varieties. His loss will be keenly felt. His son, Louis Gerardi, will continue the propagation of nut trees at Caseyville, Ill. (The following notes are supplied by Louis Gerardi.--Ed.) Joseph Gerardi was born in the year 1868 on the old Hagamann farm, five and one-half miles northwest of Lebanon, Ill., in O'Fallon Township. He was the fourth child of John and Catherine (Haas) Gerardi. When he reached the age of five years, his parents moved on a farm three and one-half miles southeast of Trenton, Illinois, in Clinton County. His early schooling was obtained in the McKee School near his home and in St. Mary's School in the town of Trenton, Illinois. After graduating from the eighth grade, he helped his father through the spring and summer months with the farm work, but in the winter attended McKee school. In the year 1894 at the age of 25 years he left the home farm in Clinton County, and moved to a farm two and one-half miles southeast of Jerseyville, Illinois, in Jersey County. Here he began the study of fruit growing, and became an agent for the Stark Bros. Nursery. In 1907 he married Eleanor Collignon of Trenton, Illinois. To this union six children were born: Eleanor Barbara, Sharlotte Catherine, Eugenia Ruth, Louis Joseph, Bernice Marie, and Gertrude Beatrice. In the spring of 1918 he sold this farm and moved to Trenton, Ill., where he worked with his father-in-law, John Martin Collignon, doing construction work. During this year he searched for a farm with soil suitable for fruit growing. In 1919 he purchased a 110 acre farm situated two and one-half miles west of O'Fallon, Illinois. The next year he set out twenty acres of Stark Bros. trees. While living on this farm in the fall of 1920 the little family had its first great loss. Here the oldest girl, Eleanor Barbara, died from a railroad accident. Julius Rohr, watching him work with his trees, encouraged him to start his own nursery because he knew so much about trees. With this encouragement, he started his own nursery in 1923. As demand increased he added a general line of nursery stock. Being interested in better varieties of fruit trees, he also became interested in better varieties of nuts. Having some native nut trees on his farm, he began to buy the better varieties of nut trees grown by other nurseries. When these came into bearing, not being satisfied with the known varieties of nuts on the market, he began his search for better nuts. In the fall of 1930 while searching in the river bottoms of Clinton County, Illinois, he discovered the Gerardi hican, and began its propagation and distributed it among other nurseries. It is now known the country over. A few years later while hunting in the same river bottoms with a friend named Frank Gildig, he was shown a very fine pecan which now bears the name of the Gildig pecan. And also the Queens Lake Pecan originated in the same locality. These were introduced in the year 1936. His health failed and in 1942 he discontinued growing general nursery stock and grew only nut trees, until his death, which was caused by cancer in the spring of 1947. MAJOR HIRAM B. FERRIS Our Major Hiram B. Ferris, of Spokane, Washington, died May 14th, 1947. He was a valued member, and his loss is keenly felt. He has been a source of inspiration, and a highly esteemed bank of information and instruction. His passing is very much regretted. (Submitted by George L. Denman, Spokane, Washington.) Mrs. William Rohrbacher, Mrs. John Hershey, Mrs. J. F. Johns. (_Committee Members_) Exhibitors At the Annual Meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association, Guelph, Ontario, Sept. 3, 4, 5, 1947 A. B. Anthony, Sterling, Ill. Black walnuts, Anthony shagbark hickory. Mrs. F. L. Baum, Yellow House, Pa. Black walnut kernels. G. H. Corsan, "Echo Valley", Islington, Ont. Black walnuts, Persian walnuts, Japanese walnuts, heartnuts, filberts, shellbark and shagbark hickories. H. H. Corsan, Hillsdale, Mich. Black walnuts, Persian walnuts, Japanese heartnuts and walnuts, pecans, hicans, butternuts, butternut hybrids, shagbark and shellbark hickories. Dr. R. T. Dunstan, Greensboro College, Greensboro, N. C. Black walnuts, filberts, shagbark hickories, pecans. Fayette Etter, Lemasters, Pa. Black walnuts, Persian walnuts, Chinese chestnuts, filberts, shagbark and shellbark hickories. J. U. Gellatly, Westbank, B. C. Hybrid filberts, hybrid butternuts, photographs. A. G. Hirschi, Oklahoma City, Okla. Pecan clusters, various varieties. E. F. Huen, Eldora, Iowa. Black walnuts. G. J. Korn, Kalamazoo, Mich. Black walnut kernels, black walnuts, Persian walnuts, Persian walnut hybrids, shagbark hickories. Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Ithaca, N. Y. Black walnuts, Japanese heartnuts, Turkish filbert, shagbark and shellbark hickories. J. C. McDaniel, Nashville 3, Tenn. Shagbark hickories, heartnut, Texas walnut. Papple Brothers, Brantford, Ont. Black walnuts, Japanese heartnuts, filberts. Jay L. Smith, Chester, N. Y. Filberts, Japanese chestnuts. H. F. Stoke, Roanoke, Va. Black and Persian walnuts, heartnuts, filberts, shagbark and shellbark hickories, Chinese, Japanese, American and hybrid chestnuts, papaws, chestnut grafts. Kenneth Thomas, Baltimore, Md. Black walnuts. Lynn Tuttle, Clarkston, Wash. Persian walnut nuts and shield buds, filberts. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. Persian walnuts, heartnuts, pecans, Chinese and Japanese chestnuts, Allegheny chinkapin. Vineland Experiment Station, Vineland, Ont. Persian walnuts, filberts, almonds. J. F. Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind. Black walnuts, hicans. [Illustration: PICTURES MADE ON THE _1947_ TOUR] The photograph on this page was taken by Sterling Smith, those on pp. 126-7 are by Dorothy Milne. Groups of NNGA members are shown examining nut trees and other items of interest on G. H. Corsan's place, "Echo Valley," Islington, Ontario. Attendance Mr. and Mrs. Royal Oakes, Bluffs, Ill. Mr. and Mrs. Henry Gressel, Mohawk, N. Y. Mr. and Mrs. F. L. O'Rourke, East Lansing, Mich. Mr. Ford Wallick, Peru, Ind. Mr. Carl Prell, South Bend, Ind. Dr. Arthur S. Colby, U. of Ill., Urbana, Ill. Rosamond H. Waite, M.D., Perrysburg, N. Y. Mr. and Mrs. Raymond E. Silvis, Massillon, O. Mrs. Herbert Negus, Mt. Rainier, Md. Mr. and Mrs. G. F. Gravatt, U. S. Plant Industry Sta., Beltsville, Md. W. M. Churchill, Chicago, Ill. Edwin W. Lemke, Detroit, Mich. Wm. C. Hodgson, White Hall, Md. Ivor H. Harrhy, Burgessville, Ont. Gordon Porter, Windsor, Ont. Dr. and Mrs. Wm. Rohrbacher, Iowa City, Ia. Betty Rohrbacher, Iowa City, Ia. Anne Clarke, Columbus, Ohio. G. L. Slate, Geneva, N. Y. Mr. and Mrs. John H. Connelly, Milford, N. J. J. F. Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind. Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Ithaca, N. Y. Sterling A. Smith, Vermilion, Ohio D. C. Snyder, Center Point, Iowa Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Pa. Mr. and Mrs. H. F. Stoke, Roanoke, Va. Eugene F. Cranz, Ira, Ohio Victor Brook, Rochester, N. Y. George Salzer, Rochester, N. Y. Dr. and Mrs. H. L. Crane, Hyattsville, Md. Spencer B. Chase, Norris, Tenn. Ira M. Kyhl, Sabula, Iowa Mr. and Mrs. R. P. Allaman, Harrisburg, Pa. H. A. English, Duncan, B. C. Wm. J. Little, St. George W. J. Strong, Vineland, Ont. Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio G. J. Korn, Kalamazoo, Mich. Roy E. Ferguson, Center Point, Iowa Elton E. Papple, Cainsville, Ont. Merle H. Papple, Cainsville, Ont. E. F. Huen, Eldora, Iowa C. C. Lounsberry, Ames, Iowa Ralph Emerson, Highland Park, Mich. Joseph C. McDaniel, Nashville 3, Tenn. Mr. and Mrs. Blaine McCollum, White Hall, Md. H. W. Guengerich, Louisiana, Mo. J. S. Shoemaker, Guelph, Ont. Mr. and Mrs. Stephen Bernath, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. William S. Clarke, Jr., State College, Pa. E. Sam Hemming, Easton, Md. John Rick, Reading, Pa. Lewis E. Theiss, Lewisburg, Pa. Ralph Gibson, Williamsport 15, Pa. Gilbert L. Smith, Wassaic, N. Y. Levi Housser, Beamsville, Ont. Mr. and Mrs. Philip S. Moyer, Harrisburg, Pa. Ernest Chitton, Norwich, Ont. H. Lynn Tuttle, Clarkston, Wash. Mrs. J. A. Neilson, Guelph, Ont. Mildred Jones, Lancaster, Pa. J. R. VanHaarlem, Vineland Station, Ontario [Illustration] [Illustration] [Illustration] Announcements PUBLICATIONS Fall, 1947 and Winter, 1947-48 numbers of "The Nutshell", news bulletin of the NNGA, have been issued by the Secretary's office. It is intended to have this bulletin distributed to members four times a year. It will carry news of the Association's activities, supplementing the "Nut Growers News" column in the American Fruit Grower magazine, as well as reprints of items from other sources that concern nut growers in the northern two-thirds of the United States plus southern Canada. Beginning with the Winter, 1947-48 issue, advertising is being accepted in "The Nutshell." Members who have not received the first two issues, and others who want additional copies, may obtain them by writing to the Secretary. This Report is a few pages short of its anticipated size, because of the withdrawal for additional entries of a "Bibliography of References on Nuts of Special Interest in the North." We hope to have this brought up to date for publication in the next Annual Report. PUBLICITY All members can contribute to the strength of the Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc., by showing its publications to their neighbors, and by calling them to the attention of local farm paper and newspaper editors. Several of our members have helped swell the NNGA membership by mentioning it in nut tree articles for local and regional publications. As an example, Mr. H. F. Stoke wrote a short article on Chinese chestnuts for the "Southern Agriculturist", February, 1948 issue. At the end he stated that a list of nurseries selling Chinese chestnut and other nut trees could be obtained from the NNGA Secretary's office. To date (January 26, 1948) more than 50 requests have been received and each day brings more. Along with the nursery list, these correspondents receive information about the Northern Nut Growers Association, so any sudden increase in our membership in the States from North Carolina to Texas can be ascribed to this bit of publicity. STYLE MANUAL Mr. Clarence A. Reed, our retiring President (1946-47), has a suggestion for writers for publication: "An authoritative guide for writers is the _STYLE MANUAL_ issued by the U. S. Government Printing Office (Washington 25, D. C.) Its use by Association writers would go far toward standardizing their papers and in simplifying the work of editing. The 1945 edition contains 435 pages. Cloth bound $1.50. Paper cover 35c. There is no charge for postage." 1948 MEETING The dates selected by the Directors for the 39th Annual Meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc. are September 13, 14, and 15. The place is Norris, Tennessee. Norris is about 25 miles from Knoxville. J. C. McDANIEL, Secretary, c/o Tennessee Department of Agriculture, Nashville 3, Tennessee. Hybrid Walnut Scions Offered for Nut Breeding (The following note seems to me to belong in the NNGA Report, even though it wasn't on the program. It is an invitation to the experimenters to get something they might want.--J. Russell Smith.) Thomas R. Haig, M.D., 3344 H. St., Sacramento, California, reports a promising cross of northern California black X Persian walnut: "The nuts are fertile. This hybrid produces =pistillate flowers only=, lending itself easily to pollination with the various varieties of Persian. Should any experimenter wish scions he is welcome. Such scions could save considerable time. "The tree is now 9-10 years old. I obtained 5 nuts in 1947, by back-crossing the hybrid to Persian walnut. One seedling obtained previously by this hybridization is not yet bearing." Other members who have available scions of promising hybrids or other new varieties of nut trees are invited to communicate promptly with the Secretary. A list of these will be published in =THE NUTSHELL= for Spring, 1948. Hybrid Oak Information Mr. Thomas Q. Mitchell, 16 East 48th Street, New York 17, New York, calls our attention to his article on "Hybrid Oak Crop Trees," in Harper's Magazine for February, 1948. He adds: "A much longer article is in preparation (in collaboration with Mr. Charles Morrow Wilson) for Scientific Monthly. Can you report any hybrid or exotic oaks there, or put me in touch with any Dendrophiles interested in oak hybrids as crop trees?" 
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25905	----	Core Historical Literature of Agriculture (CHLA), Albert R. Mann Library, Cornell University (http://chla.library.cornell.edu/) http://chla.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=chla;idno=2923510 Transcriber's note: Text enclosed between tilde characters was in bold face in the original (~bold face~). [oe] represents the oe-ligature. THE $100. PRIZE ESSAY ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE POTATO. Prize offered by W. T. WYLIE and awarded to D. H. COMPTON. HOW TO COOK THE POTATO, _Furnished by Prof. BLOT._ [Illustration] ILLUSTRATED. PRICE, 25 CENTS. New-York: ORANGE JUDD CO., No. 751 BROADWAY. PRIZE ESSAY ON THE POTATO AND ITS CULTIVATION. $100. In the fall of 1868, I offered $100 as a prize for the best Essay on the Cultivation of the Potato, under conditions then published; the prize to be awarded by a committee composed of the following gentlemen, well known in agricultural circles: Colonel MASON C. WELD, Associate Editor of _American Agriculturist_. A. S. FULLER, ESQ., of Ridgewood, N. J., the popular author of several horticultural works, and Associate Editor of the _Hearth and Home_. Dr. F. M. HEXAMER, who has made the cultivation of the potato a special study. In the month of January, 1870, the committee awarded the prize to D. A. Compton; and this Essay is herewith submitted to the public in the hope of stimulating a more intelligent and successful cultivation of the Potato. BELLEFONTE, PA., January, 1870. W. T. WYLIE. OFFICE OF THE AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST, NEW-YORK, January, 1870. REV. W. T. WYLIE: DEAR SIR: The essays submitted to us by Mr. Bliss, according to your announcement, numbered about twenty. Several could not be called essays from their brevity, and others were exceedingly incomplete. About twelve, however, required and were worthy of careful consideration. That of Mr. D. A. Compton, of Hawley, Wayne County, Pa., was, in the opinion of your committee, decidedly superior to the others as a practical treatise, sure to be of use to potato-growers in every part of the country, and well worthy the liberal prize offered by yourself. In behalf of the committee, sincerely yours, MASON C. WELD, _Chairman_. POTATO CULTURE. BY D. A. COMPTON, HAWLEY, PENNSYLVANIA. The design of this little treatise is to present, with minuteness of detail, that mode of culture which experience and observation have proved to be best adapted to the production of the Potato crop. It is written by one who himself holds the plow, and who has, since his early youth, been engaged in agriculture in its various branches, to the exclusion of other pursuits. The statements which appear in the following pages are based upon actual personal experience, and are the results of many experiments made to test as many theories. Throughout the Northern States of our country the potato is the third of the three staple articles of food. It is held in such universal esteem as to be regarded as nearly indispensable. This fact is sufficient to render a thorough knowledge of the best varieties for use, the character of soil best adapted to their growth, their cultivation and after-care, matters of the highest importance to the farmers of the United States. The main object of this essay is so to instruct the novice in potato-growing that he may be enabled to go to work understandingly and produce the potato in its highest perfection, and realize from his labors bestowed on the crop the greatest possible profits. SOIL REQUIRED--ITS PREPARATION. The potato is most profitably grown in a warm, dry, sandy, or gravelly loam, well filled with decayed vegetable matters. The famous potato lands of Lake County, Ohio, from which such vast quantities of potatoes are shipped yearly, are yellow sand. This potato district is confined to ridges running parallel with Lake Erie, which, according to geological indications, have each at different periods defined its boundaries. This sand owes much of its potato-growing qualities to the sedimentary deposit of the lake and to manural properties furnished by the decomposition of the shells of water-snails, shell-fish, etc., that inhabited the waters. New lands, or lands recently denuded of the forest, if sufficiently dry, produce tubers of the most excellent quality. Grown on dry, new land, the potato always cooks dry and mealy, and possesses an agreeable flavor and aroma, not to be attained in older soils. In no argillaceous soil can the potato be grown to perfection as regards quality. Large crops on such soil may be obtained in favorable seasons, but the tubers are invariably coarse-fleshed and ill-flavored. To produce roots of the best quality, the ground must be dry, deep, and porous; and it should be remembered that, to obtain very large crops, it is almost impossible to get too much humus in the soil. Humus is usually added to arable land either by plowing under green crops, such as clover, buckwheat, peas, etc., or by drawing and working in muck obtained from swamps and low places. The muck should be drawn to the field in fall or winter, and exposed in small heaps to the action of frost. In the following spring, sufficient lime should be mixed with it to neutralize the acid, (which is found in nearly all muck,) and the whole be spread evenly and worked into the surface with harrow or cultivator. Leaves from the woods, buckwheat straw, bean, pea, and hop vines, etc., plowed under long enough before planting to allow them time to rot, are very beneficial. Sea-weed, when bountifully applied, and turned under early in the fall, has no superior as a manure for the potato. No stable or barn-yard manure should be applied to this crop. If such nitrogenous manure must be used on the soil, it is better to apply it to some other crop, to be followed the succeeding year by potatoes. The use of stable manure predisposes the tubers to rot; detracts very much from the desired flavor; besides, generally not more than one half as many bushels can be grown per acre as can be obtained by using manures of a different nature. Market gardeners, many of whom from necessity plant on the same ground year after year, often use fine old stable manure with profit. Usually they plant only the earlier varieties, crowd them with all possible speed, dig early, and sell large and little before they have time to rot, thus clearing the ground for later-growing vegetables. Thus grown, potatoes are of inferior quality, and the yield is not always satisfactory. Flavor, however, is seldom thought of by the hungry denizens of our cities, in their eagerness to get a taste of something fresh. Market gardeners will find great benefit from the use of wood-ashes, lime, and the phosphates. Sprinkle superphosphate in the hill at the rate of two hundred pounds per acre; mix it slightly in the soil with an iron rake or potato-hook, then plant the seed. Just before the last hoeing, sprinkle on and around the hill a large handful of wood-ashes, or an equal quantity of lime slacked in brine as strong as salt will make it. But for the generality of farmers, those who grow only their own supply, or those who produce largely for market, no other method of preparing the soil is so good, so easy, and so cheap as the following; it requires time, but pays a big interest: Seed down the ground to clover with wheat or oats. As soon as the grain is off, sow one hundred and fifty pounds of plaster (gypsum) per acre, and keep off all stock. The next spring, when the clover has made a growth of two inches, sow the same quantity of plaster again. About the tenth of July, harrow down the clover, driving the same direction and on the same sized lands you wish to plow; then plow the clover neatly under about seven inches deep. Harrow down the same way it was plowed, and immediately sow and harrow in two bushels of buckwheat per acre. When it has grown two inches, sow plaster as before; and when the buckwheat has grown as large as it will, harrow down and plow under about five inches deep. This, when cross-plowed in the spring sufficiently deep to bring up the clover-sod, is potato ground _first-class in all respects_. It is hardly supposable that this mode of preparation of soil would meet with favor among all farmers. There is a parsimonious class of cultivators who would consider it a downright loss of time, seed, and labor; but any one who will take the trouble to investigate, will find that these same parsimonious men never produced four hundred bushels of potatoes per acre; and that the few bushels of small tubers that they do dig from an acre, are produced at considerable loss. "Men do not gather grapes from thorns, nor figs from thistles." To make potato-growing profitable in these times of high prices of land and labor, it is absolutely necessary that the soil be in every way fitted to meet any and all demands of the crop. It is said that in the State of Maine, previous to the appearance of the potato disease, and before the soil had become exhausted by continued cropping, potatoes yielded an average of four hundred bushels per acre. Now, every observer is aware that the present average yield of the same vegetable is much less than half what it was formerly. This great deterioration in yield can not be attributed to "running out" of varieties; for varieties are extant which have not yet passed their prime. It can not be wholly due to disease; for disease does not occur in every season and in every place. True, we have more insects than formerly, but they can not be responsible for all the great falling off. It is traceable mainly to poverty of the soil in certain ingredients imperatively needed by the crop for its best development, and to the pernicious effect of enriching with nitrogenous manures. Any one who will plant on suitably dry soil, enriched only with forest-leaves, sea-weeds, or by plowing under green crops until the whole soil to a proper depth is completely filled with vegetable matter, will find to his satisfaction that the potato can yet be grown in all its pristine vigor and productiveness. To realize from potato-growing the greatest possible profits, (and profits are what we are all after,) the following conditions must be strictly adhered to: First, the ground chosen _must be dry_, either naturally or made so by thorough drainage; a gently sloping, deep, sandy or gravelly loam is preferable. Second, the land should be liberally enriched with humus by some of the means mentioned, if it is not already present in the soil in sufficient quantities, and the soil should be deeply and thoroughly plowed, rendering it light, porous, and pulverulent, that the air and moisture may easily penetrate to any desirable depth of it; and a proper quantity of either wood-ashes or lime, or both, mixed with common salt, should be harrowed into the surface before planting, or be applied on top of the hills immediately after planting. And, finally, the cultivation and after-care should be _prompt_, and given as soon as needed. Nothing is more conducive to failure, after the crop is properly planted, than failure in promptness in the cultivation and care required. GENERAL REMARKS ON MANURING WITH GREEN CROPS. Experience proves that no better method can be adopted to bring up lands partially exhausted, which are remote from cities, than plowing under green crops. By this plan the farmer can take lot after lot, and soon bring all up to a high state of fertility. True, he gathers no crop for one year, but the outlay is little; and if in the second year he gathers as much from one acre as he formerly did from three, he is still largely the gainer. It costs no more to cultivate an acre of rich, productive land than an acre of poor, unproductive land; and the pleasure and profit of harvesting a crop that abundantly rewards the husbandman for his care and labor are so overwhelmingly in favor of rich land as to need no comment. Besides, manuring with green crops is not transitory in its effects; the land remembers the generous treatment for many years, and if at times lime or ashes be added to assist decomposition, will continue to yield remunerative crops long after land but once treated with stable manure or guano fails to produce any thing but weeds. The skinning process, the taking off of every thing grown on the soil and returning nothing to it, is ruinous alike to farm and farmer. Thousands of acres can be found in various parts of the country too poor to pay for cultivating without manuring. Of the capabilities of their lands under proper treatment the owners thereof have no idea whatever. Such men say they can not make enough manure on the farm and are too poor to buy. Why not, then, commence plowing under green crops, the only manure within easy reach? If fifty acres can not be turned under the first year, put at least one acre under, which will help feed the rest. Why be contented with thirty bushels of corn per acre, when eighty or one hundred may be had? Why raise eight or twelve bushels of wheat per acre, when forty may as well be had? Why cut but one half-ton of hay per acre, when the laws of nature allow at least three? Why spend precious time digging only one hundred bushels of potatoes per acre, when with proper care and culture three or four hundred may easily be obtained? And, finally, why toil and sweat, and have the poor dumb beasts toil and sweat, cultivating thirty acres for the amount of produce that should grow, may grow, can grow, and has grown on ten acres? The poorest, most forsaken side-hills, cobble-hills, and knolls, if the sand or gravel be of moderate depth, underlaid by a subsoil rather retentive, by turning under green crops grow potatoes of the first quality. If land be so poor that clover will not take, as is sometimes the case, seed to clover with millet very early in the spring, and harrow in with the millet thirty bushels of wood-ashes, or two hundred pounds of guano per acre; then sow the clover-seed one peck per acre; brush it in. If neither ashes nor guano can be obtained at a reasonable price, sow two hundred pounds of gypsum per acre as soon as the bushing is completed. This will not fail in giving the clover a fair foothold on the soil. Before the millet blossoms, cut and cure it for hay. Keep all stock off the clover, plaster it the following spring, plow it under when in full bloom; sow buckwheat immediately; when up, sow plaster; when in full bloom, plow under and sow the ground immediately with rye, to be plowed under the next May. Thus three crops are put under within a year, the ground is left strong, light, porous, free from weeds, ready to grow a large crop of potatoes, or almost any thing else. Much is gained every way by having and keeping land in a high state of fertility. Some crops require so long a season for growth, that high condition of soil is absolutely necessary to carry them through to maturity in time to escape autumnal frosts. In the Western States manure has hitherto been considered of but little value. The soil of these States was originally very rich in humus. For a time wheat was produced at the rate of forty bushels per acre; but according to the statistics given by the Agricultural Department at Washington, for the year 1866, the average yield in some of these States was but four and a half bushels per acre. It is evident from this that Mr. Skinflint has had things pretty much his own way. His land now produces four and a half bushels per acre; what time shall elapse when it shall be four and one half acres per bushel? Who dare predict that manure will not at some day be of value west of the Alleghanies? New-Jersey, with a soil naturally inferior to that of Illinois, contains extensive tracts that yearly yield over one hundred bushels of Indian corn per acre, while the average of the State is over forty-three; and the average yield of the same cereal in Illinois is but little over thirty-one bushels per acre. In the Western States, where potatoes are grown extensively for Southern markets, the average yield is about eighty bushels per acre; while in old Pennsylvania could be shown the last year potatoes yielding at the rate of six hundred and forty bushels per acre. There are those who argue that manure is never necessary--that plant-food is supplied in abundance by the atmosphere; it was also once said a certain man had taught his horse to live without eating; but it so happened that just as he got the animal perfectly schooled, it died. Good, thorough cultivation and aeration of the soil undoubtedly do much toward the production of crops; but mere manipulation is not all that is needed. That growing plants draw much nourishment from the atmosphere, and appropriate largely of its constituents in building up their tissue, is certainly true; it is also certainly true that they require something of the soil besides mere anchorage. All facts go to show that if the constituents needed by the plant from the soil are not present in the soil, the efforts of the plant toward proper development are abortive? What sane farmer expects to move a heavy load over a rugged road with a team so lean and poverty-stricken that they cast but a faint shadow? Yet is he much nearer sanity when he expects farming to be pleasant and profitable, and things to _move aright_, unless his land is strong and fat? Is he perfectly sane when he thinks he can skin his farm year after year, and not finally come to the bone? The farmer on exhausted land must of necessity use manure. Manure of _some_ kind must go under, or he must go under; and to the great mass of cultivators no mode of enriching is so feasible, so cheap, and attended with such satisfactory results, as that of plowing under green crops. The old plan of leaving an exhausted farm, and going West in search of rich "government land," must soon be abandoned. Already the head of the column of land-hunters have "fetched up" against the Pacific, and it is doubtful whether their anxious gaze will discover any desirable unoccupied soil over its waters. The writer would not be understood as saying that all farms are exhausted, or that there is _no_ way of recuperation but by plowing under green crops. What he wishes understood is, that where poor, sandy, or gravelly lands are found, which bring but small returns to the owner, by subjecting them to the process indicated, such lands bring good crops of the kind under consideration. And further, that land in the proper condition to yield a maximum crop of potatoes, is fitted to grow other crops equally well. Neither would the writer be understood as arguing that a crop of clover and one of buckwheat should be turned under for each crop of potatoes; where land is already in high condition, it may not be necessary. A second growth of clover plowed under in the fall for planting early kinds, and a clean clover sod turned in _flat_ furrows in the spring, for the late market varieties, answer very well. To turn flat furrows, take the furrow-slice wide enough to have it fall completely inside the preceding one. Potatoes should not be planted year after year on the same ground; trouble with weeds and rapid deterioration of quality and quantity of tubers soon render the crop unprofitable. Loamy soil planted continuously soon becomes compact, heavy, and lifeless. Where of necessity potatoes must be grown yearly on the same soil, it is advisable to dig rather early, and bury the vines of each hill in the one last dug; then harrow level, and sow rye to be plowed under next planting time. The intelligent farmer, who grows large crops for market, will always so arrange as to have a clover-sod on dry land in high condition each year for potatoes. It is said by many, in regard to swine, that "the breed is in the trough;" though this is certainly untrue to a certain extent, yet it is undeniable that in potato-growing success or failure is in the character of soil chosen for their production. Why clover, or clover and buckwheat lands, are so strongly urged is, such lands have in them just what the tubers need for their best and healthiest development; the soil is rendered so rich, light, and porous, and so free from weeds, that the cultivation of such land is rather a pleasure than otherwise, and at the close of the season the tangible profits in dollars and cents are highly gratifying. VARIETIES. From the fact that the United States produce about 109,000,000 bushels of potatoes annually, it might be supposed a great many varieties would be cultivated. Such, however, is not the fact. Of the varieties extant, comparatively few are grown extensively. Every grower's observation has established the fact that for quality the early varieties are inferior to the late ones. The Early June is very early, but its quality is quite indifferent. The Cherry Blow is early, attains good size, and yields rather well. In quality it is poor. The Early Kidney, as to quality, is good, but will not yield enough to pay for cultivation. The Cowhorn, said to be the Mexican yam, is quite early, of first quality, but yields very poorly. The Michigan White Sprout is early, rather productive, and good. Jackson White is in quality quite good, is early, and a favorite in some places. The Monitor is rather early, yields large crops; but as its quality is below par, it brings a low price in market. Philbrick's Early White is one of the whitest-skinned and whitest-fleshed potatoes known. It is about as early as Early Goodrich, is quite productive, and grows to a large size, with but few small ones to the hill. Its quality is excellent. It has not yet been extensively tested. The Early Rose is said to be very early, of excellent quality, and to yield extremely well. It has, however, not been very widely tested. Perhaps for earliness and satisfactory product, the Early Goodrich has no superior. It is of fair quality, and though some seasons it does not yield as well as others, yet, all things considered, it is a desirable variety. The old Neshannock, or Mercer, is among the latest of the early varieties. As to quality, it is the standard of excellence of the whole potato family. But it yields rather poorly, and its liability to rot, except on soils especially fitted for it, has so discouraged growers that its cultivation in many sections is abandoned. On rather poor, sandy soil, manured in the hill with wood-ashes, common salt, and plaster only, it will produce in ordinary seasons two hundred bushels per acre of sound, merchantable tubers, that will always command the highest market price. Any potato cultivated for a long series of years will gradually become finer in texture and better in quality; but its liability to disease will also be greatly increased. As an instance of this, it will be remembered that when the Merino and California varieties were first introduced, they were so coarse as to be thought fit only to feed hogs, and for this purpose, on account of their great yielding qualities, farmers continued to cultivate them, until finally they became so changed as in many sections to be preferred for the table. Their cultivation, however, is now nearly abandoned. Of the later varieties, the Garnet Chili, a widely-diffused and well-known sort, deserves notice. It is not of so good quality as the Peach Blow; but its freedom from disease, and the large crop it produces, make it a favorite with many growers. The chief fault with it is, the largest specimens are apt to be hollow at the centre. It ripens rather early; and, even when dug long before maturity, it has a dryness and mealiness, when prepared for the table, not found in many other sorts. The Buckeye is extensively grown for market; its yield is not satisfactory, and its quality is only medium. The Dykeman is yet grown to some extent, but will soon be superseded. The Prince Albert is a well-known and highly-esteemed variety, approaching very near the Peach Blow in quality. One peculiarity of this potato is, the largest tubers appear to be of as good quality as the small ones. With proper soil and culture, it yields a fair crop; is quite free from disease; and its smoothness, high flavor, and fine appearance make it much sought after in the market. The Fluke, a very late potato, is a great favorite with many who produce for market. Its yield is very large; and its smoothness and uniformity of size make it altogether a desirable variety. It is generally free from disease. In quality it is rather above medium. The Harrison, if it should do as well in the future as it has done in the past, bids fair to become _the_ potato for general cultivation. It has yielded in this section, on soil of moderate fertility, with ordinary culture, one peck to the hill of uniform-sized, merchantable potatoes. It is a strong, vigorous grower, and very healthy. Its quality, though not the very best, is good. The Willard, lately originated by C. W. Gleason, of Massachusetts, is a half-early variety. It is enormously productive, of a rich rose color, spotted and splashed with white. The flesh is white. In form and size it closely resembles the Early Goodrich, its parent. It has not been extensively tested, but certainly promises well. The Excelsior is said, by those interested in its sale, to be very productive, and of most excellent quality, retaining its superior flavor all the year round. It is claimed that old potatoes of this variety are better than new ones of most early kinds, thus obviating the necessity of having early sorts. The Excelsior is said to cook very white and mealy; form nearly round, eyes prominent. It has not been much tested out of the neighborhood where it originated. But the potato-eater is yet unborn who can justly find fault with a properly-grown Peach Blow. It is pronounced by many equal or superior to the Mercer in quality, which is not the fact. It is emphatically a late potato; and, though it does not yield as well per acre as some other sorts, it is comparatively healthy; and its quality is such that it always brings a high price in the market. In fact, but few other kinds of late sorts could find sale if enough of this kind were offered to supply the demand. Planted ever so early, it keeps green through the heat of summer, and never matures its tubers until after the fall rains, and then no potato does it more rapidly. Grown on rich argillaceous soil, it will be hollow, coarse flesh, and ill-flavored; but planted on such soil as is recommended, it is about all that could be desired. It is a strong, vigorous grower; and one peculiarity of it is, that insects will not attack vines of this variety if other kinds are within reach. Planted on extremely poor ground, it will, perhaps, yield more bushels of tubers, and those of better quality, than any other variety that could be planted on the same soil. Among all the old or new sorts, perhaps, no potato can be found that deteriorates so little in quality from maturity to maturity again. And, in fine, where only high quality with moderate yield are desired, it has few if any superiors. Many other varieties might be mentioned; but the list given includes about all of much merit. New varieties are constantly arising, clamoring for public favor, many of which are wholly unworthy of general cultivation. One or two varieties, such as are adapted to the grower's locality and market, are preferable to a greater number of sorts grown merely for variety's sake. INFLUENCE OF SOIL ON SEEDLINGS. The characteristics of a potato, such as quality, productiveness, healthfulness, uniformity of size, etc., depend much on the nature of the soil on which it originated. These characteristics, some or all, imbibed by the minute potato from the ingredients of the soil, at its first growth from the seed of the potato-ball, adhere with great tenacity to it through all its generations. A seedling may, in size, color, and form resemble its parent; but its constitution and quality are in a great degree dependent on the nature of the soil, climatic influences, and other accidental causes. True crosses are generally more vigorous and healthy than others; and it is probably to accidental crosses we are indebted for many varieties that differ so widely from their parents. A cross is most apparent to the eye when the parents are of different colors, in which case the offspring will be striped or marked with the colors of each parent. HOW TO CROSS VARIETIES. In order to comprehend fully the principles of this subject, and their application to practical operations, it will be necessary to take a general view of the generative organs of the vegetable kingdom, and the manner in which they act in the production of their species. If we examine a perfect flower, we shall find that it consists essentially of two sets of organs, one called the pistils, the other the stamens. The pistils are located in the centre of the flower, and the stamens around them. The summit of the pistil is called the stigma; and on the top of each stamen is situated an anther--a small sack, which contains the pollen, a dust-like substance, that fertilizes the ovules or young seeds of the plant. These organs are supposed to perform offices analogous to those of the animal kingdom--the stamens representing the male, and the pistils the female organs. When the anthers, which contain the pollen, arrive at maturity, they open and emit a multitude of minute grains of pollen; and these, falling on the pistils of the flower, throw out hair-like tubes, which penetrate through the vascular tissue of the pistil, and ultimately reach the ovules, thus fertilizing them, and making them capable, when mature, of reproducing plants of their own kind. The ovules are the rudimentary seeds, situated in a case at the base of the pistils, each consisting of a central portion, called the nucleus, which is surrounded by two coats, the inner called the secundine, the outer the primine. When the hairlike tube of the pollen-grain passes through the orifice in the coatings of the ovule, and reaches the nucleus, or embryo sack, it is supposed to emit a spermatic or plantlet germ, which passes through the wall of the embryo sack and enters the germinal vesicle contained in it. The vesicle corresponds to the vesicle, or germinal spot, in the eggs of birds, and ovum of mammiferous animals. The germ remains in the vesicle, and finally becomes the embryo, fully developed into a plantlet, as may be seen in many seeds. Flowers of plants are called perfect when the stamens and pistils are in the same flower, as the apple; mon[oe]cious, when in different flowers and on the same plant, as the white oak; and di[oe]cious, when in different flowers and on different plants, as in the hemp. In that class of plants in which the stamens, or males, are on one plant, and the pistils, or females, on another, the males of course must always remain barren; and the pistilates, to be fruitful, must have the pollen from the anthers of the staminate brought in contact with its stigma by wind, insects, or other means. In plants with perfect flower, the stamens are generally situated around and above the pistil, so that the pollen falls upon the stigma by mere force of gravity. In the potato, the pollen is conveyed from the anthers to the stigma by actual contact of the two organs. Cross-breeding in plants consists in fertilizing one variety with the pollen of another variety of the same species. The offspring is called a cross-breed, or variety. The process of cross-breeding consists in taking the pollen of one variety and applying it to the stigma of another variety, in such a way as to effect its fertilization. This is done by cutting away (with scissors) the stamens of the flower to be fertilized, a short time before they arrive at maturity, and taking a flower in which the pollen is ripe, dry, and powdery, from the stalk of the variety wished for the male parent; and holding it in the right hand, and then striking it on the finger of the left, held near the flower, thus scattering the pollen on the stigma of the pistil of the flower to be fertilized. The utmost care should be taken to apply the pollen when the flower is in its greatest vigor, and the stigma is covered with the necessary coating of mucus to insure a perfect connection of the pollen with the pistil, and make the fertilization perfect. All flowers not wanted in the experiment should be removed before any pollen is formed. It is necessary to tie a thin piece of gauze over the flower to be fertilized, before and after crossing, to prevent insects from conveying pollen to it, thus frustrating the labors of the operator. If the operation has been successful, the pistil will soon begin to wither; if not perfect, the pistil will continue fresh and full for some days. This _modus operandi_ is substantially the same in crossing fruits, flowers, and vegetables throughout the vegetable kingdom. Hybridizing differs from cross-breeding only in fertilizing one species, or one of its varieties, with the pollen of another species, or one of its varieties, of the same or a different _genus_. The offspring is called a hybrid, or mule. Hybrids, with very few exceptions, are sterile, they fail to propagate themselves from seed, and must, to preserve them, be propagated by grafts, layers, or suckers. No change is perceptible in the fruit produced from blossoms upon which the operation of cross-breeding or hybridizing has been performed; but the seed of fruits so obtained may be planted with the certainty of producing a fruit or tuber commingling the qualities, colors, and main characteristics of both parents. Experience, however, shows that the characteristics of the male predominate somewhat in the offspring. To judicious cross-breeding and hybridizing we owe most of our superior fruits and vegetables. If the operation were more generally known and practiced by farmers, the most gratifying results would be soon obtained, not only in the production of the most valuable varieties of potatoes and other vegetables, but also in fruits, flowers, and grain of every description. SMOOTH VS. ROUGH POTATOES. Other things being equal, smooth potatoes are preferable to those with deeply-sunken eyes. The starch being most abundant near the skin, not so much is lost by the thin paring of the former as by the necessarily deeper paring of the latter. Varieties usually well formed sometimes grow so knobby and ill-shaped as to be scarcely recognized. This is caused by severe drought occurring when the tubers are about two thirds grown, causing them to partially ripen. On the return of moisture, a new growth takes place, which shows itself in knobby protuberances. CUT AND UNCUT SEED. Many growers argue that potatoes should be planted whole. The only plausible theory in support of whole seed is, that the few eyes that do start have a greater supply of starch available from which to obtain nutriment until the plant can draw support from the soil and atmosphere. But experiments also demonstrate that if all the eyes except one or two near the middle be cut out of the seed-potato, such seed will push with the greatest possible vigor. Many eyes of the uncut seed start, but the stronger soon overpower the weaker, and finally starve them out. A plot planted with three small, uncut potatoes to the hill, and another planted with three pieces of two eyes each to the hill, will not show much difference in number of vines during the growing season. The poor results sometimes attending cut seed are almost always traceable to improper seed improperly cut. Only large, mature, sound tubers should be used. Cut them in pieces of two or three eyes each, taking pains to secure around each eye as much flesh as possible, also under the eye to the centre of the tuber. Experiments prove that eyes from the "seed end" produce potatoes that mature earliest; they are also smallest. Those from the large or stem end are largest, latest, and least in numbers. Eyes from the middle produce tubers of very uniform size. If small, ill-shaped potatoes be planted on the same ground for three successive years, the results will give the best variety a bad name. Much is gained by changing seed. No two varieties are made up of the same constituents exactly in the same proportion; hence, a soil may be exhausted for the best development of one, and still be fitted to meet the demands of another. Even when the same variety is desired, experience shows the great benefit of planting seed grown on a different soil. The best and most extensive growers procure new seed every two or three years, and many insist on changing seed every year; and undoubtedly the crop is often doubled by the practice. PLANTING AND MANURING. Early kinds should be planted as soon as the ground has become sufficiently dry and warm. Late market varieties should be planted about two weeks later than the early ones. Unquestionably more bushels can be obtained per acre by planting in drills than in hills, but the labor of cultivating in drills is much the greater. Prepare the ground by thorough plowing, making it decidedly mellow. Mark it out four feet apart each way, if to be planted in hills, by plowing broad, flat-bottomed furrows about three inches deep. At the crossings drop three pieces of potato, cut, as directed, in sections of two or three eyes each. Place the pieces so as to represent the points of a triangle, each piece being about a foot distant from each of the other two. If the cut side is put down, it is better; cover about two inches deep. Where land is free from stone and sod, the covering may be well and rapidly done with a light plow. Immediately after planting, sprinkle over and around each hill a large handful of unleached wood-ashes and salt, (a half-bushel of fine salt mixed with a barrel of ashes is about the right proportion.) If ashes can not be obtained, as is sometimes the case, apply instead about the same quantity of lime slacked in brine as strong as salt will make it. The potato from its peculiar organization has a hungering and thirsting after potash. Wood-ashes exactly meet its wants in this direction. Lime indirectly supplies potash by liberating what was before inert in the soil. Salt in small quantities induces vigorous, healthy growth. To obtain the best results, the ashes or lime should be covered with about half an inch of soil. This plan of manuring in the hill is recommended only in cases where the fertilizers named are in limited supply, and it is desirable to make the most of them. Maximum crops have been obtained by using the fertilizers named in the manner described; but where they can be obtained at low prices, it is certainly advisable, and requires less labor, to apply all three, ashes, lime, and salt, broadcast in bountiful quantities, and harrow it in before the ground is marked out for planting. CULTIVATION. If weeds are expected, pass a light harrow over the rows just before the vines are ready to burst through; this will disturb them and render them less troublesome. As soon as the tops are two inches high, run a corn-plow five inches deep _close_ to the hills, turning the furrows _from_ the rows. Plow both ways twice between the rows, finishing on the rows running east and west, which will give the sun's rays a better chance to warm the ground properly. Standing on the squares of earth, warmed on all sides by the air and sunlight, the potatoes will grow amazingly. Just as soon as the tops have attained a height of six or seven inches, hitch a strong horse to a two-horse plow, and turn furrows fully seven inches deep midway between the rows _to_ the hills. Plow twice between the rows both ways; and if the ground be a side-hill, turn the first furrow between the rows up-hill, which will leave the rows in better shape. Hoeing is often wholly unnecessary; but where, from weeds or poor plowing, it is needed, draw mellow earth to the plants with the hoe, keeping the top of the hills somewhat hollow to catch the rains. Then, so far as stirring the soil is concerned, _let it alone_. After potatoes are fairly up, their cultivation should be crowded through with all possible speed, or at least as rapidly as the growth of the tops will permit. If the last plowing be deferred until the vines are large, a large proportion of small potatoes is sure to be the consequence. After a certain stage of growth, new tubers are formed each time the soil is disturbed; these never fully develop, they rob those first formed, and make the crop much inferior to what it should be. By the mode of culture described, the ground is made warm and mellow close up to the seed-potatoes, the roots soon fill the whole hill, and tubers are formed that have nothing to do but to grow. The writer is aware flat culture has strong advocates; but, after many experiments, he is convinced that hills are much the best. PLASTER. However much lime or other fertilizers may be applied to the soil, still great benefit is derived from the use of plaster, (sulphate of lime.) After all, plaster is the main dependence of the potato-grower, a help on which he may rely with the utmost confidence. Astonishing results are obtained from its use, when applied in a proper manner. The writer has seen a field, all of the same soil, all prepared alike, and all planted with the same variety at the same time, on one half of which, that had no plaster, the yield was but sixty bushels per acre, and many rotten; the other part, to which plaster was applied in the manner hereafter explained, yielded three hundred and sixty bushels per acre, and not an unsound one among them. The action of plaster is often puzzling. From the fact that where land has been strongly limed, a small quantity of plaster applied shows such decided benefit, there would seem plausibility in Liebig's theory that its effects must be traceable not to the lime, but to the sulphuric acid. The ammonia in rain-water in the form of carbonate (a volatile salt) is decomposed by plaster, the sulphuric acid having greater affinity for it, thus forming two new compounds, sulphate of ammonia and carbonate of lime. But as arable soil has the same property of absorbing ammonia from the air and rain-water, and fixing it in the same or even a higher degree than lime, there is only the sulphuric acid left to look to for an explanation of the favorable action of plaster on the growth of plants. It is found that plaster in contact with soil undergoes decomposition, part of the lime separating from the sulphuric acid, and magnesia and potash taking its place, quite contrary to the ordinary affinities. These facts show that the action of plaster is very complex, and that it promotes the distribution of both magnesia and potash in the ground, exercising a chemical action upon the soil which extends to any depth of it; and that, in consequence of the chemical and mechanical modifications of the earth, particles of certain nutritive elements become accessible and available to plants that were not so before. It is said plaster is of most benefit in wet seasons; such is not always the case. It is certainly beneficial to clover, wet or dry; so of potatoes. A few years since, when the drought was so intense in this section as to render the general potato crop almost a total failure, the writer produced a plentiful crop by the use of plaster alone. On examination at the dryest time, the bottoms of the hills were found to be literally dust, yet in this dust the tubers were swelling finely: the leaves and vines were of a deep rich green, and remained so until frost, while other fields in sight, planted with the same variety, but not treated with plaster, were brown, dead, and not worth digging. That gypsum attracts moisture may be proved by plastering a hill of corn and leaving a hill by it unplastered; the dew will be found deposited in greater abundance on the plastered hill. But, according to Liebig, certain products of the chemical action of plaster enter into and are incorporated with the structure of the plant, closing its breathing pores to such an extent that the plant is enabled to withstand a drought which would prove fatal to it unassisted. Certain it is that plaster renders plants less palatable to insects, and, so far as the writer's experiments extend, it is fatal to many of the fungi family. To obtain the best results, the vines of potatoes should be dusted with plaster as soon as they are fairly through the soil, again immediately after the last plowing and hoeing, and, for reasons hereafter given, at intervals throughout the whole growing season. The first application may be light, the second heavier, and thereafter it should be bountifully applied, say two hundred pounds per acre at one sowing. THE POTATO-ROT--ITS CAUSE The year 1845 will ever be memorable by its giving birth to a disease which threatened the entire destruction of the potato crop, and which caused suffering and pecuniary ruin to an incredible extent throughout Europe. The potato, at the time of the appearance of the potato disease, was almost the sole dependence of the common people of Ireland for food. That over-populated country experienced more actual suffering in consequence of the potato disease than has any other from the same cause. Although this disease has never, in this country, prevailed to the same ruinous extent that it has in some others, yet we are yearly reminded of its existence, and in some seasons and localities its destructive effects are seriously apparent. The final or culminating cause of the disease known as the "potato-rot" is _Botrytis (peronospora) infestans_. This may be induced by many and various predisposing causes, such as feebleness of constitution of the variety planted, rendering them an easy prey to the disease; by planting on low, moist land, or on land highly enriched by nitrogenous manures, causing a morbid growth which invites the disease; also by insects or their larvæ puncturing or eating off the leaves or vines. But by far the most wide-spread and most common cause of the disease is sudden changes of atmospheric temperature, particularly when accompanied by rain. Drought, though quite protracted and severe, unless accompanied by strong drying winds, and followed by sudden and great reduction of temperature, seldom affects the potato seriously. It is not uncommon in the Northern States, during the months of August and September, for strong westerly winds to prevail for many days in succession. These winds, coming from the great American desert, are almost wholly devoid of moisture, and their aridity is often such that vegetation withers before them as at the touch of fire. Evaporation is increased in a prodigiously rapid ratio with the velocity of wind. The effects of the excessive exhalation from the leaves of plants exposed to the sweep of such drying winds are at once seriously apparent. When these winds finally cease, the atmosphere has a low relative humidity, not enough moisture remains in the air to prevent radiation; the heat absorbed by the earth through the day is, during the bright, cloudless night, rapidly radiated and lost in space, and a reduction in temperature of twenty to thirty degrees is the consequence. In the first place, the potato-vines suffer by excessive exhalation; in the second, by sudden reduction of temperature, and, though not frozen, their functions are much deranged, and their vitality greatly enfeebled. To use a common expression, the plant "has caught a violent cold that has settled on the lungs." The leaves (which are the lungs of plants) now fail to perform their functions properly. The points of many of the leaves turn brown, curl up, and die. The ascending sap, not being fully elaborated by the diseased leaves, oozes out through the skin of the stalk in a thick, viscous state, and the plant to all appearance is in a state of consumption. At this stage the ever-present minute spores of the _Botrytis infestans_ eagerly pounce on the sickly plant, fastening themselves on its most diseased parts. The _Botrytis infestans_ is a cryptogamous plant, and is included in the Mucidineous family, (moulds.) It is a vegetable parasite preying upon the living potato plant, like lice or other animal parasites upon the animal species. At first this mould forms webby, creeping filaments, known in botanical language as mycelium. These root-like fibres then branch out, sending out straight or decumbent articulated stems. These bead-like joints fill up successively with seeds or spores, which are discharged at the proper time to multiply the species. Under favorable conditions of warmth and moisture, the mycelium spreads very rapidly. Spores are soon formed and matured, to be carried to plants not yet infected. Rains also wash the seminal dust down the plant, causing it to fasten and grow on the vine near the ground. The roots of the parasite penetrate and split up the stalk even to the medullary canal. These roots exude a poisonous substance, which is carried by the elaborated descending sap down to the tubers, and as the largest tubers require the largest amount of elaborated sap for their development, they will, consequently, receive the greatest quantity of the vitiating principle, and will, on digging, be found a mass of rottenness, when the smaller ones are often but slightly affected. The _Botrytis infestans_ can not gain a lodgment on vines that are truly healthy and vigorous, high authority to the contrary notwithstanding. Healthy varieties, growing in a sheltered situation on dry, new soil, to which no nitrogenous manures have been applied, can not be infected, though brushed with other vines covered with the fungus. Different varieties, and sometimes different members of the same variety, are not always alike affected by the disease, though growing in the same hill. As will be noticed, the potato disease is rather an effect than a cause, and appears to have been designed to prevent members enfeebled by accident or otherwise from propagating their species by putting such members out of existence. Ozone, supposed to be a peculiar form of oxygen, is exhaled from every part of the green surface of plants in health, and effectually repels the attacks of mildew; but it is found that when the atmosphere is very dry, or, on the other hand, very humid, plants cease to evolve ozone, and are therefore unprotected. Winds from the ocean are strongly ozonic, and it is ascertained that plants growing on soil to which salt has been applied evolve more ozone than others. Hence the benefit derived from the use of salt on potato lands. The "Black knot," another species of fungus that attacks the branches of the plum and Morello cherry, operates very similarly to the potato mildew. The roots of the parasite penetrate and split up the cellular tissue of the branch on which it fastens, and if the limb be not promptly amputated, the descending sap carries the deleterious principle through the whole system, and the following year the disease appears in a greatly aggravated form in every part of the whole tree. The remedy in this case is prompt amputation of the part diseased on its first appearance, and a judicious application of salt to the soil. Common salt, to a certain extent, is as beneficial to some plants as to animals; and every intelligent farmer knows that if salt be withheld from the bovine _genus_ for any considerable length of time, the general health droops and parasites are sure to abound. The object of nature in bringing into existence the large family of mildews, each member of which is a perfect plant in its way, and as capable of performing its functions as the oak of the forest, was undoubtedly to prevent propagation from sickly stock, and by the decomposition of feeble plants to make room and enrich the soil for the better development of healthier plants. But it by no means follows that, because a plant is attacked by mildew, it must necessarily be left to die, any more than it follows that, because an animal is infested with vermin, it should be let alone to be eaten up by them. REMEDY FOR THE POTATO-ROT. In treating for the potato-rot, "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure;" for when leaves or vines are once dead, they ever remain so. All that can be done for potatoes infested is to stop the mildew from spreading, by destroying it where it is, and by strengthening "those things which remain." The writer was led to the adoption of the remedy proposed by experiments made upon fruits. Every one who has an apple or pear-orchard must have observed that mildew of fruit supervenes after some sudden change of temperature, especially when accompanied by rain. Spots of mildew invariably form on the young fruit immediately after a cold night, when the thermometer has indicated a change of twenty to twenty-five degrees. This growth of mildew takes place when the apples are of various sizes, from the earliest formation to the size of large marbles. These fungous growths appear as dark-colored spots, which arrest the growth of the apple immediately beneath, causing it to become distorted, while the expansion and contraction bring on diseased action, which results in the cracking and general scabbiness of the fruit. Knowing that dry-rot (_Merulius Lachrymans_, Schum,) another species of fungus, was remedied by an application of sulphuric acid, I thought it might possibly destroy the fruit mildew. An application of plaster, (gypsum,) which is composed of lime and sulphuric acid, was made with the happiest results. It was found that an apple dusted with ground plaster at its first formation remained free from mildew and came to maturity, while apples growing by it, but not so treated, became scabby and worthless. It was also ascertained that a thorough application of plaster destroyed the mildew after it had formed, and that such fruit came to maturity. On the potato mildew, so far as the writer's experience extends, plaster, if applied early, is a perfect prevention, and if not delayed too long after the disease appears, is a certain remedy. The vines should be watched closely, and on the first appearance of the disease plaster should be applied; not merely sowing it broadcast, but dashing it over and under the vines, bringing it in contact with the stalks, using a handful to three or four hills. Plaster for this purpose should be very dry and powdery, and should be applied when the air is still. One application is seldom sufficient; it should be renewed as often as circumstances require. Examine the vines about three days after a cold night, or about the same length of time after a heavy rain. If the leaves begin to curl and wither, apply plaster at once; and, in short, whenever the vines show any signs of drooping, be the cause bites of insects, excessive aridity, or excessive humidity of the atmosphere, or sudden change of temperature, drooping from any cause whatever indicates the approach of mildew, which should be promptly met with an application of plaster. As before stated, plaster the vines as soon as they are up, again after the last plowing and hoeing; after that, one, two, or three times, as circumstances indicate. By this method the vines are kept of a bright lively green, and the tubers are kept swelling until growth is stopped by frost. Another point gained is, potatoes so grown are so sound and free from disease as to be easily kept for spring market without loss by rot. Whether the surprising effects of plaster on the potato mildew is attributable to the sulphuric acid, to the lime, or to its simply being a dust, has not been determined. It is well known that the fruits of a vineyard or orchard in close proximity to a dusty and much frequented highway are remarkably free from mildew, which can only be due to dust settling on the trees and fruit. But in the case of plaster, the writer is inclined to believe its efficacy is mainly due to the sulphuric acid, probably assisted by the lime in a state of dust. Be this as it may, it matters not. The result is all that can be desired; the remedy is easily applied, costs but a trifle, and a single season's trial is all that is needed to convince the most skeptical grower of its merits. DIGGING AND STORING Is full half the labor of growing and securing a crop of potatoes. Digging is a long, laborious task. Many small fortunes are sunk yearly by inventors in experimenting with and constructing "potato-diggers;" but, so far, no machine has done the work properly except under the most favorable circumstances. Stones, vines, and weeds are obstacles not yet fully overcome. Many tubers are left covered with earth, and so lost; and besides, some machines so bruise the potatoes in digging as to injure their appearance and keeping qualities. Undoubtedly, the day will come when the great bulk of potatoes will be dug well and rapidly by horse-power; but until that day does come, the potato-hook must be used. Much of the back-ache and general unpleasantness incident to digging is avoided, or greatly mitigated, by having the potatoes large and sound, turning out a peck to the hill, especially if the digger is the owner of the crop. Digging should be done only when the ground is dry, that the potatoes may come out clean and bright. A small plow, to turn a light furrow from each side of the rows, is some help. Pull up the vines, and lay them down so that they will be covered by the dirt dug from the hill. Commence on one side of the hill; press the hook or hoe down, so that it will reach a trifle below the potatoes, and draw the implement firmly toward you. Repeat the operation, each time placing the tool a few inches further in or across the hill, until the whole hill is dug. By this method the potatoes will not be bruised; whereas, if the digging be commenced in the centre of the hill, many potatoes will be sacrificed and much injured. Potatoes should be picked up as soon and as fast as dug; and immediately covered with straw or other material, to protect them from the light. A few hours' strong sunshine will ruin the best potato ever grown. Light changes the natural color to green, and renders the potato so bitter and unpalatable as to be wholly unfit to eat. Owing to the inconsiderate way in which potatoes are often dug, and the light to which they are exposed while being transported to and while in market, the denizens of our cities seldom, if ever, taste this vegetable in its greatest excellence. If to be stored in the cellar, the potatoes should be left in the field, in heaps covered with straw, until the sweating is over, and then be removed to the cellar and lightly covered with dry sand, or earth, just sufficient to exclude the light. If to be buried in the field, choose a dry, sideling place; scrape out a slight hollow, by merely removing the surface soil with a hoe; into this, pile ten to twelve bushels; place the potatoes properly, and cover them carefully with clean straw, six inches deep; cover over the straw with four or five inches of earth, except a small opening at the top; over this opening place a board or flat stone, elevated a little on one side, to lead off the rain. Let them remain so until the sweating is completely over, or so long as prudence will permit; and when cold weather fairly sets in, add more earth to keep from freezing, leaving only a wisp of straw protruding through to carry off any foul air that may be generated. Where the winters are intensely cold, it is best to cover but lightly with earth, say five or six inches deep; and when freezing is becoming severe, spread over the heap buckwheat straw, or coarse manure, to the depth of six inches. There is danger in covering very deep at first, especially if the autumn should prove warm. If kept too warm, rot is sure to ensue. Experience shows that any vegetable keeps better buried in pits that contain not more than ten or twelve bushels each. Where large quantities are to be buried, it is advisable to open a long, shallow, broad trench, leading up and down a hill, if possible, to secure good drainage. Commence, at either end, by placing a desirable quantity of potatoes as soon as dug; next to these put a little straw; against the straw place about six inches of earth; then more straw and more potatoes; and so keep on until the trench is full. A few furrows plowed on each side assist in covering; and make a drain to lead off the rains, which is a matter of the first importance. By this method each lot of potatoes is kept separate; and any section can be opened at any time to be taken to market, without endangering the others. Potatoes buried properly are usually of better flavor in the spring than it is possible for potatoes to be which are kept in a common cellar. And here let me add that, if leaves from the woods be used instead of straw, to cover potatoes to be buried, such potatoes will be of better flavor; and further, if nothing but dry earth comes in contact with them, they will be better still. Straw is used for the twofold purpose of securing an air-chamber to keep out frost, and to prevent the earth from mingling with the tubers on opening the pits. INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE POTATO. There are ten distinct species of insects preying upon the potato-plant within the limits of the United States. Many of these ten species are confined within certain geographical limits. Their habits and history differ very widely. Some attack the potato both in the larva state and in the perfect or winged state; others in the perfect or winged state alone; and others again in the larva state alone. In the case of seven of these insects, there is but one single brood every year; while of the remaining three there are every year from two to three broods, each of them generated by females belonging to preceding broods. Eight of the ten feed externally on the leaves and tender stems of the potato; while two of them burrow, like a borer, exclusively in the larger stalks. Each of these ten species has its peculiar insect enemies; and a mode of attack which will prove very successful against some of them will often turn out to be worthless when employed against the remainder. [Illustration] ~The Stalk-Borer~,[A] (_Gortyna nitela_, Guenee.)--This larva (Fig. 2,) commonly burrows in the large stalks of the potato. It occurs also in the stalks of the tomato, in those of the dahlia and aster, and other garden flowers. It is sometimes found boring through the cob of growing Indian corn. It is particularly partial to the stem of the common cocklebur, (_Zanthium sirumarium_;) and if it would only confine itself to such noxious weeds, it might be considered more of a friend than an enemy. It is yearly becoming more numerous and more destructive. It is found over a great extent of country; and is particularly numerous in the valley of the Mississippi north of the Ohio River. The larva of the stalk-borer moth leaves the stalk in which it burrowed about the latter part of July, and descends a little below the surface of the earth, where in about three days it changes into the pupa, or chrysalis state. [Footnote A: Where no hair-lines are given, the insects are represented life-size.] The winged insect (Fig. 1,) which belongs to the same extensive group of moths (_Noctua_ family, or owlet moths) to which all the cut-worm moths appertain, emerges from under ground from the end of August to the middle of September. Hence it is evident that some few, at all events, of the female moths must live through the winter, in obscure places, to lay eggs upon the plants they infest the following spring; for otherwise, as there is no young potato, or other plants, for them to lay eggs upon in the autumn, the whole breed would die out in a single year. This insect, in sections where it is numerous, does more injury to the potato crop than is generally supposed. ~The Potato-Stalk Weevil,~ (_Baridius trinotatus_, Say.)--This insect is more particularly a southern species, occurring abundantly in the Middle States, and in the southern parts of Missouri, Illinois, and Indiana. It appears to be totally unknown in New-England. The female of this beetle deposits a single egg in an oblong slit, about one eighth of an inch long, which it has previously formed with its beak in the stalk of the potato. The larva subsequently hatches out, and bores into the heart of the stalk, always proceeding downward toward the root. When full grown, it is a little more than one fourth of an inch in length, and is a soft, whitish, legless grub, with a scaly head. Hence it can always be readily distinguished from the larva of the stalk-borer, which has invariably sixteen legs, no matter how small it may be. Unlike this last insect, it becomes a pupa in the interior of the potato-stalk which it inhabits: and it comes out in the beetle state about the last of August or beginning of September. The stalk inhabited by the larva wilts and dies. The perfect beetle, like many other snout-beetles, must of course live through the winter, to reproduce its species the following spring. In Southern Pennsylvania, some years, nearly every stalk of extensive fields is infested by this insect, causing the premature decay of the vines, and giving them the appearance of having been scalded. In some districts of Illinois, the potato crop has, in some seasons, been utterly ruined by this snout-beetle, many vines having a dozen larvæ in them. This insect attacks no plant but the potato. ~The Potato-Worm~, (_Sphinx 5-maculata_, Haworth.)--This well-known insect, the larva of which (Fig. 3,) is usually called the potato-worm, is more common on the closely allied tomato, the leaves of which it often clears off very completely in particular spots in a single night. When full-fed, which is usually about the last of August, the potato-worm burrows under the ground, and shortly afterward transforms into the pupa state, (Fig. 5.) The pupa is often dug up in the spring from the ground where tomatoes or potatoes were grown in the preceding season, and most persons that meet with it suppose that the singular jug-handled appendage at one end of it is its _tail_. In reality, however, it is the _tongue-case_, and contains the long, pliable tongue which the future moth will employ in lapping the nectar of flowers. The moth itself (Fig. 4) was formerly confounded with the tobacco-worm moth, (_Sphinx Carolina_, Linnæus,) which it very closely resembles, having the same series of orange-colored spots on each side of the abdomen. The gray and black markings, however, of the wings differ perceptibly in the two species; and in the tobacco-worm moth there is always a more or less faint white spat, or a dot, near the centre of the front wing, which is never met with in the other species. The potato-worm often feeds on the leaves of the tobacco plant in the Northern States. In the Southern States, in Mexico and the West-Indies, the true potato-worm is unknown, and it is the tobacco-worm that the tobacco-grower has to fight. The potato-worm, however, is never known to injure the potato crop to any serious extent. ~The Striped Blister-Beetle~, (_Lytta vittata_, Fabr.) This insect (Fig. 6) is almost exclusively a southern species, occurring in some years very abundantly on the potato-vines in Southern Illinois, and also in Missouri, and according to Dr. Harris, it is occasionally found even in New-England. In some specimens the broad outer black stripe on the wing-cases is divided lengthwise by a slender yellow line, so that, instead of _two_, there are _three_ black stripes on each wing-case; and often in the same field may be noticed all the intermediate grades; thus proving that the four-striped individuals do not form a distinct species, as was supposed by the European entomologist Fabricius, but are mere varieties of the same species to which the sixth-striped individual appertains. The striped blister-beetle lives under ground and feeds upon various roots during the larva state, and emerges to attack the foliage of the potato only when it has passed into the perfect or beetle state. This insect, in common with our other blister-beetles, has the same properties as the imported Spanish fly, and any of them will raise just as good a blister as that does, and are equally poisonous when taken internally in large doses. Where the striped blister-beetle is numerous, it is a great pest and very destructive to the potato crop. It eats the leaves so full of holes that the plant finally dies from loss of sap and the want of sufficient leaves to elaborate its juices. In some places they are driven off the plants (with bushes) on a pile of hay or straw, and burned. Some have been successful in ridding their fields of them by placing straw or hay between the rows of potatoes, and then setting it on fire. The insects, it is said, by this means are nearly all destroyed, and the straw burning very quickly, does not injure the vines. ~The Ash-Gray Blister-Beetle~, (_Lytta cinera_, Fabr.)--This species (Fig. 7, male) is the one commonly found in the more northerly parts of the Northern States, where it usually takes the place of the striped blister-beetle before mentioned. It is of a uniform ash-gray color. It attacks not only the potato-vines but also the honey locusts, and especially the Windsor bean. In particular years it has been known, in conjunction with the rose-bug, (_Macrodactylus subspinosus_, Linn.,) to swarm upon every apple-tree in some orchards in Illinois, not only eating the foliage, but gnawing into the young apples. This beetle does considerable damage to the potato crop, especially in the North-Western States. Like the other members of the (_Lytta_) family, it lives under ground while in the larva state, and is troublesome only when in the perfect or winged state. ~The Black-Rat Blister-Beetle~, (_Lytta murina_, Le Conte.)--This species (Fig. 8,) is entirely black. There is a very similar species, the black blister-beetle, (_Lytta atrata_, Fabr.,) from which the black-rat blister-beetle is distinguishable only by having four raised lines placed lengthwise upon each wing-case, and by the two first joints of the antennæ being greatly dilated and lengthened in the males, of the lath species. It is asserted by some authors that the black blister-beetle is injurious to the potato; but I can not see how it could do much damage to that crop, as the perfect insect does not appear until late in August, when the potato crop is nearly out of its reach. Not so, however, with the black-rat blister-beetle, which is on hand ready for business early in the season. This insect does considerable damage to the potato in Iowa, and neighboring States; it is also found, though in not so great numbers, throughout the whole of the Northern States. ~The Margined Blister-Beetle~, (_Lytta marginata_, Fabr.)--This species (Fig. 9) maybe at once recognized by its general black color, and the ash-gray edging to its wing-cases. It usually feeds on certain wild plants, but does not object to a diet of potato-leaves. Though found over a large extent of country, it seldom appears in numbers large enough to damage the potato crop materially. Like other blister-beetles, it goes under ground to pass into the pupa state, and attacks the potato only when it is in the perfect or winged state. ~The Three-Lined Leaf-Beetle~, (_Lema trilineata_, Olivier.) The larva of the three-lined leaf-beetle may be distinguished from all other insects which prey upon the potato by its habit of covering itself with its own excrement. In Figure 10, _a_, this larva is shown in profile, both full and half grown, covered with the soft, greenish excrementitious matter which from time to time it discharges. Figure 10, _c_, gives a somewhat magnified view of the pupa, and Figure 10, _b_, shows the last few joints of the abdomen of the larva, magnified and viewed from above. The vent of the larva, as will be seen from this last figure, is situated on the upper surface of the last joint, so that its excrement naturally falls upon its back, and by successive discharges is crowded forward toward its head, till the whole upper surface is covered with it. There are several other larva, feeding upon other plants, which wear cloaks of this strange material. Many authors suppose that the object of the larva in all these cases is to protect itself from the heat of the sun. In all probability the real aim of nature in the case of all these larvæ is to defend them from the attacks of birds and of cannibal and parasitic insects. There are two broods of this insect every year. The first brood of larvæ may be found on the potato-vine toward the latter end of June, and the second in August. The first brood stays under ground about a fortnight before it emerges in the perfect beetle state, and the second brood stays under ground all winter, and only emerges at the beginning of the following June. The perfect beetle (Fig. 11) is of a pale yellow color, with three black stripes on its back, and bears a strong resemblance to the cucumber-bug, (_Diabrotica vittata_, Fabr. Fig. 12.) From this last species, however, it may be distinguished by its somewhat larger size, and by the remarkable pinching-in of the thorax, so as to make quite a lady-like waist there, or what naturalists call a "constriction." The female, after coupling, lays her yellow eggs (Fig. 10,_d_) on the under surface of the leaves of the potato plant. The larvæ hatching, when full grown descend into the ground, where they transform to pupæ (Fig. 10, _c_) within a small oval chamber, from which in time the perfect beetle emerges. This insect in certain seasons is a great pest in the Eastern and Middle States, but has never yet occurred in the Mississippi Valley in such numbers as to be materially injurious. ~The Cucumber Flea Beetle~, (_Haltica cucumeris_, Harris.) This nimble minute beetle (Fig. 13) belongs to the flea-beetles, (_Haltica_ family,) the same sub-group of the leaf-beetles (_Phytophaga_) to which also appertains the notorious steel-blue flea-beetle (_Haltica chalybea_, Illiger) that is such a pest to the vineyardist. Like all the rest of the flea-beetles, it has its hind thighs greatly enlarged, which enables it to jump with much agility. It is not peculiar to the potato, but infests a great variety of plants, including the cucumber, from which it derives its name. It eats minute round holes in the leaf of the plant it infests, but does not always penetrate entirely through it. The larva feeds internally upon the substance of the leaf, and goes under ground to assume the pupa state. It passes through all its stages in about a month, and there are two or three broods of them in the course of the same season. This is emphatically the greatest insect pest that the potato-grower has to contend with in Pennsylvania. It abounds throughout most of the Northern, Middle, and Western States. Large fields of potatoes can any summer be seen in the Middle States much injured by this minute insect, every leaf apparently completely riddled with minute round holes, and the stalks and leaves appearing yellow and seared. Plaster frequently and bountifully applied is sure to prevent the attacks of this insect, or to disperse it after it has commenced operations. ~The Colorado Potato-Bug~, (_Doryphora_ 10--_lineata_, Say.)--This insect, which, according to Dr. Walsh, has in the North-West alone damaged the potato crop to the amount of one million seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars, came originally from the Rocky Mountains, where it was found forty-five years ago, feeding on a wild species of potato peculiar to that region, (_Solanum rostratum_, Dunal.) When civilization marched up the Rocky Mountains, and potatoes began to be grown in that region, this highly improved pest acquired the habit of feeding upon the cultivated potato. It went from potato-patch to potato-patch, moving east-ward at the rate of about sixty miles a year, and is now firmly established over all the country extending from Indiana to its old feeding-grounds in the Rocky Mountains. In about twelve years it will have reached the Atlantic coast. There is another very closely allied species, known as the Bogus Colorado potato-bug, (_coryphora juncta_, Germor,) which has existed throughout a great part of the United States from time immemorial. This latter insect, however, feeds almost exclusively on the horse-nettle, (_Solanum carolinense_, Linn.,) and is never known to injure the potato. Both insects are figured, so that one need not be mistaken for the other. Figure 14, _b_, _b_, _b_, gives a view of the larva of the true Colorado potato-bug, in various positions and stages of its existence. Figure 15, _b_, _b_, of that of the bogus Colorado potato-bug. It will be seen at once that the head of the former is black, and the first joint behind the head is pale and edged with black behind only; that there is a double row of black spots along the side of the body; and that the legs are black. In the other larva, (Fig. 15, _b_,) on the contrary, the head is of a pale color, the first joint behind the head is tinged with dusk and edged all round with black; there is but a single row of spots along the side of the body, and the legs are pale. Figure 14, _d_, _d_, exhibits the true Colorado potato-bug; Figure 15, the bogus Colorado potato-bug; each of its natural size. Figure 14, _e_, shows the _left_ wing-case enlarged, and Figure 15, _e_, an enlarged leg of the latter. On a close inspection, it will be perceived that in the former (Fig. 14, _e_) the boundary of each dark stripe on the wing-cases toward the middle is studded with confused and irregular punctures, partly inside and partly outside the edge of the dark stripe; that it is the third and fourth dark stripes, counting from the outside, that are united behind, and that both the knees and feet are black. In Figure 15, _d_, on the contrary, it is the second and third stripes--not the third and fourth--counting from the outside, that are united behind, and the leg is entirely pale, except a black spot on the middle of the front of the thigh. The eggs (Fig. 14, _a_, _a_, and Fig. 15, _d_, _d_) are yellow, and are always laid on the under side of the leaf in patches of from twenty to thirty; those of the bogus are of a lighter color. Each female of the true Colorado potato-bug lays, according to Dr. Schirmer, about seven hundred eggs. In about six days the eggs hatch into larvæ, which feed on the foliage of the potato plant about seventeen days; they then descend to the ground, where they change into pupæ at the surface of the earth. The perfect beetle appears about ten to fourteen days after the pupa is formed, begins to pair in about seven days, and on the fourteenth day begins to deposit her eggs. There are three broods of this insect every year. Neither geese, ducks, turkeys, nor barn-yard fowl will touch the larva of the Colorado potato-bug when it is offered to them, and there are numerous authentic cases on record where persons who have scalded to death quantities of these larvæ, and inhaled the fumes of their bodies, have been taken seriously ill, and even been confined to their beds for many days in consequence. It is also reported to have produced poisonous effects on several persons who handled them incautiously with naked hands. Various plans have been tried to destroy this persistent enemy of the potato plant. Powdered hellebore is said to have been used with effect as a means of destroying the pest. It should be dusted on and under the foliage when the plant is wet with dew. Hellebore, however, is a dangerous remedy on account of its poisonous qualities. A mixture of one part salt, ten parts soap, and twenty parts water, applied to every part of the plants with a syringe, is quite effectual. Several cannibal and one parasitic insect are known to prey upon the larva of the Colorado potato-bug, and the eggs in vast numbers are eaten by several species of lady-birds and their larva. GENERAL REMARKS ON INSECTS. The time is not far distant when the American farmer will be obliged to put forth greater efforts to destroy noxious insects than he has hitherto. It is a well-known fact that noxious insects are increasing in a rapid rate throughout every part of our land. The country is becoming so "buggy" that eternal vigilance is the price of every thing produced from the soil. Close observers calculate that more fruits of various kinds and varieties are annually destroyed or rendered worthless by insects than are gathered and used by man. The cotton-worm, the wheat-midge, the canker-worms, the potato-bugs, are each every year increasing in numbers and destructiveness. The "curculio" alone destroys millions of dollars' worth of fruit annually. It is a safe estimate, all things considered, that, if noxious insects of all descriptions could at once be annihilated throughout our country, and mildews of various classes be effectually held in check, the cost of living to our people would, in-a short time, be reduced to one third of its present amount. It is disheartening to see what a vast amount of grains, fruits, and vegetables is annually eaten up by the larvæ, or appropriated by the perfect insects of various classes, merely for the sake of propagating their abominable species. Yet, in view of all the devastation, but feeble effort is made to abate the evil. Birds, many species of which nature seemingly designed on purpose to keep insects in check, are wantonly shot by lazy boys and indolent men, who range the fields and forests, killing all, from the humming-bird to the crow. Legislative enactments made expressly to protect the insectivorous songsters are every day violated with impunity. One man plants an orchard and does all he can to destroy noxious insects; another man near him also has an orchard, but his orchard serves no purpose but to propagate "curculios," "canker-worms," "bark-lice," "tent caterpillars," "codling moths," etc., for his neighbors, and, as a matter of course, the whole neighborhood swarms with noxious insects. If all cultivators would act in concert and with a will, insects might be reduced in numbers very rapidly. Most moths of night-flying insects are attracted to and destroyed by small bonfires kindled in still evenings during the summer months. Bottles half-filled with sweetened water, hung here and there, will trap countless bugs. Strong soap-suds applied immediately after they hatch is a sure remedy for plant lice. Molasses and water, to which a little arsenic has been added, placed in shallow dishes among the vines, is good medicine for potato-bugs, and all bugs in general. A lighted lamp placed in the centre of a common milk-pan, partly filled with water, the whole elevated a few feet from the ground, will, on a still evening, attract and destroy the wheat-midge and similar insects in great numbers. The calculations of the "curculio" and "codling moth" are brought to naught by turning hogs into the orchard to eat the stung fruit as it falls, and the larva that depastures upon the leaves of the current and gooseberry is destroyed by syringing the plants with a mixture of soap, salt, and water. VALUE OF THE POTATO AS CATTLE FOOD. The constituents of the potato are according to different authorities, as follows: Water 75.2 Casein 1.4 Starch 15.5 Dextrine 0.4 Sugar 3.2 Fat 0.2 Fibre 3.2 Mineral matter 0.9 Or economically: Water 75.2 Flesh-formers 1.4 Fat-formers 18.9 Accessories 3.6 Mineral matter 0.9 Of the high value of potatoes, when used in connection with other food, there is not a shadow of doubt. All experimenters and observers in the economy of food agree in saying that they are of the highest utility; but they must be used with other food whose constituents are different from those of the root. The analysis shows that potatoes surpass in the fat-producing principles the nutritious or flesh-forming in such proportions that they could not alone sustain the composition of the blood; for an animal fed alone on these tubers would be obliged to consume such quantities to provide the blood with the requisite proportion of albumen that, even if the process of digestion were not discontinued, there would be a superabundance of fat accumulated beyond the power of the oxygen to consume, which would successively absorb from the albuminous substance a part of its vital elements, and thus a check would be caused in the endless change of matter in the tissues in the nutritive and regressive transformations. Potatoes, then, to be of most value as food for cattle, should be fed in connection with grain, or with other roots in which the flesh-forming element predominates. There seems to be no doubt that the tubers are of most value when cooked, although some authors affirm to the contrary. It seems possible to prove this on philosophical principles; for it is well known that the starch contained in the potato is incapable of affording nourishment until the containing globules are broken, and one of the most efficient means of doing this seems to be by heat. Boussingault, in speaking of the economy of cooking potatoes, says, "The potato is frequently steamed or boiled first; yet I can say positively that horned cattle do extremely well upon raw potatoes, and at Bechelbrunn our cows never have them otherwise than raw. They are never boiled, save for horses and hogs. The best mode of dealing with them is to steam them; they need never be so thoroughly boiled as when they are to serve for the food of man. The steamed or boiled potatoes are crushed between two rollers, or simply broken with a wooden spade, and mixed with cut hay or straw or chaff, before being served out. It may not be unnecessary to observe that by steaming potatoes lose no weight; hence we conclude that the nutritive equivalent for the boiled is the same as that of the raw tuber. "Nevertheless, it is possible that the amylaceous principle is rendered more easily assimilable by boiling, and that by this means the tubers actually become more nutritious. Some have proposed to roast potatoes in the oven, and there can be little question that heated in this way they answer admirably for fattening hogs, and even oxen. Done in the oven, potatoes may be brought to a state in which they may perfectly supply the place of corn in feeding horses and other cattle." The apparent contradiction in the remarks will be observed; but the evident leaning in favor of cooked potatoes shows that Boussingault, although paying some attention to the theory that cooked food is not generally attended with the same benefit to ruminating as to other animals, was evidently almost convinced that those which contained an abundance of starch in their constituents must be rendered more nutritious when exposed to the action of heat. Potatoes fed in a raw state to stock are laxative in their effects, and are often given to horses as a medicine in cases of "hidebound" with decided benefit. Bots, which have been known to live twenty-four hours immersed in spirits of turpentine, die almost instantly when placed in potato-juice; hence a common practice with horsemen, where bots are suspected, is to first administer milk and molasses to decoy the parasites from the coating of the stomach, and then drench the animal with the expressed juice of potatoes. A decoction made by boiling the parings of potatoes in a small quantity of water is often used as a wash to kill vermin on cattle. Raw potatoes, fed occasionally and in small quantities, are a good tonic for stock of any kind which is kept principally on hay; but all experiments show that when the potato is used for fattening purposes, the tubers should in some way be cooked, that the animal to which they are fed may derive from them the greatest possible amount of nutriment. Repeated experiments demonstrate the fact that horned cattle or hogs lay on as much fat from the consumption of two thirds of a given quantity of potatoes properly cooked as they will by eating the entire quantity in a raw state. In point of nutriment as cattle-food, two pounds of potatoes are considered equivalent to one pound of hay. HOW TO COOK THE POTATO. FURNISHED BY PROF. PIERRE BLOT, OF BROOKLYN. At the suggestion of a number of friends, I addressed the following note to Professor Blot, which, with his reply, is appended: PROFESSOR PIERRE BLOT: NEW-YORK, Feb. 15, 1870. DEAR SIR: In connection with a Prize Essay on the cultivation of the potato, I wish to publish an article on COOKING THE POTATO, to be taken from your _Hand-Book of Practical Cookery_. I write this note to ask whether I can do this with your entire approval. Hoping that such article may aid our American housekeepers to prepare the potato for the table in a more palatable and wholesome manner, I remain yours very truly, W. T. WYLIE. BROOKLYN, CENTRAL KITCHEN, Feb. 15, 1870. REV. W. T. WYLIE: DEAR SIR: ~You are authorized, with the greatest pleasure.~ P. BLOT. In accordance with the above authority, the following selections have been made from the book named: ~To Select.~--As a general rule, the smaller the eye the better the potatoes. By cutting off a piece from the larger end, you ascertain if they are sound; they must be white, reddish, bluish, etc., according to the species. If spotted, they are not sound, and therefore very inferior. There are several kinds, and all of them are good when sound or coming from a proper soil. Use the kind you prefer, or those that are better fit for the way they are intended to be served. ~To Boil.~--Being naturally watery, potatoes should never be cooked by boiling except when wanted very white, as for _croquettes_. When boiled whole, put them of an even size as much as possible, in order to cook them evenly. They are better, more mealy, when steamed or baked; but those who have no steamer must, of course, boil them. Cover them with cold water, set on the fire and boil till done, then pour off all the water, put the pan back on a slow fire for five minutes and well covered; then use the potatoes. ~To Steam.~--Place them above a kettle of boiling water, in a kind of drainer made for that purpose, and adapted to the kettle. The drainer must be covered tight. They cook as fast as by boiling, the degree of heat being the same. When steamed the skin is very easily removed. ~To Prepare.~--If they are to be boiled, or steamed, or baked, it is only necessary to wash them. If wanted peeled, as for frying, etc., then commence by cutting off the germs or eyes; if young and tender, take the skin off with a scrubbing-brush, and drop immediately in cold water to keep them white; if old, scrape the skin off with a knife, for the part immediately under the skin contains more nutriment than the middle, and drop in cold water also. If wanted cut, either in dice, or like carpels of oranges, or any other way, cut them above a bowl of cold water, so that they drop into it; for if kept exposed to the air, they turn reddish and lose their nutritive qualities. ~A l'Allemande.~--Steam, peel, and slice the potatoes. Cut some bread in thin slices, and fry bread and potatoes with a little butter, and turn the whole in a bowl, dust well with sugar, pour a little milk all over, and bake for about fifteen minutes; serve warm. ~A l'Anglaise.~--Steam or boil about a quart of potatoes, and then peel and slice them. Put two ounces of butter in a frying-pan on the fire, and put the potatoes in when melted, toss them for about ten minutes, add salt, pepper, a little grated nutmeg, and serve hot. ~Broiled.~--Steam, peel, and slice the potatoes. Lay the slices on a gridiron, and place it over a rather slow fire; have melted butter, and spread some over the slices of potatoes with a brush; as soon as the under part is broiled, turn each slice over and spread butter over the other side. When done, dish, salt, and serve them hot. A little butter may be added when dished, according to taste. ~Fried.~--To be fried, the potatoes are cut either with a vegetable spoon, in fillets, in slices, with a scalloped knife, or with an ordinary one, or cut in pieces like carpels of oranges, or even in dice. When cut, drain and wipe them dry. This must be done quickly, so as not to allow the potatoes to turn reddish. Have a coarse towel ready, then turn the potatoes into a colander, and immediately turn them in the towel, shake them a little, and quickly drop them in hot fat. When done, turn them into a colander, sprinkle salt on them, and serve hot. Bear in mind that fried potatoes must be eaten as hot as possible. Fry only one size at a time, as it takes three times as long to fry them when cut in pieces as when sliced or cut in fillets. ~To fry them light or swelled.~--When fried, turn into the colander, and have the fat over a brisk fire; leave the potatoes in the colander only about half a minute, then put them back in the very hot fat, stir for about one minute, and put them again in the colander, salt them, and serve hot. If the fat is very hot, when dropped into it for the second time they will certainly swell; there is no other way known to do it. It is as easily done as it is simple. Potatoes cut in fillets and fried are sometimes called _à la Parisienne_; when cut in slices or with a vegetable spoon, they are called _à la française_. Potatoes cut with a vegetable spoon and fried, make a good as well as a sightly decoration for a dish of meat or of fish. They may be fried in oil also, but it is more expensive than in fat. They may be fried in butter also, but it is still more expensive than oil, and is not better than fat; no matter what kind of fat is used, be it lard, beef suet, or skimmings of sauces and gravy, it can not be tasted. ~Lyonnaise.~--Potatoes _Lyonnaise_ are prepared according to taste, that is, as much onion as liked is used, either in slices or chopped. If you have not any cold potatoes, steam or boil some, let them cool, and peel and slice them. For about a quart of potatoes, put two ounces of butter in a frying-pan on the fire, and when melted put as much onion as you please, either sliced or chopped, into the pan, and fry it till about half done, when add the potatoes and again two ounces of butter; salt, pepper, and stir and toss gently till the potatoes are all fried of a fine, light-brown color. It may require more butter, as no vegetable absorbs more than potatoes. ~Mashed.~--Peel and quarter about three pints of potatoes, as directed; put them in a saucepan with more water than is necessary to cover them, and a little salt; set on the fire and boil gently till done, drain, put them back in the saucepan, mash them well and mix them with two ounces of butter, two yolks of eggs, salt, pepper, and milk enough to make them of a proper thickness. Set on the fire for two or three minutes, stirring the while, and serve warm. When on the dish, smooth them with the back of a knife or scallop them, according to fancy. ~Mashed and Baked.~--Put two ounces of butter in a stewpan and set it on the fire; when hot, add a tea-spoonful of parsley chopped fine, and a little salt; five minutes after, put in it a quart of potatoes, prepared, cooked, peeled, and mashed, as directed; then pour on the whole, little by little, stirring continually with a wooden spoon, a pint of good milk; and when the whole is well mixed, and becoming rather thick, take from the fire, place on the dish, then set in a brisk oven for five minutes, and serve. ~Sautees.~--Take a quart of young and tender potatoes, peel them with a brush, and cut in slices. Put two ounces of butter in a frying-pan on a quick fire; when hot, put the potatoes in, and fry them till of a golden color; place them on a dish without any butter, sprinkle chopped parsley and salt on, and serve. They may also be served without parsley, according to taste. ~Soufflees.~--Steam a quart of potatoes, then peel and mash them in a saucepan and mix an ounce of butter with them; set on the fire, pour into it, little by little, stirring the while, about half a pint of milk, stir a little longer after the milk is in and until they are turning rather thick; dish the potatoes, smooth or scallop them with the back of a knife, and put them in a quick oven till of a proper color, and serve. ~In Cakes.~--Prepare and cook by steam a quart and a half of potatoes, peel and mash them; mix with them the yolks of five eggs, half a lemon-rind grated, and four ounces of fine white sugar. Put four ounces of butter in a stewpan and set it on the fire; when melted, put the mixture in, stirring it with a wooden spoon continually; as soon as it is in the stewpan, add the whites of the five eggs, well beaten; leave on the fire only the time necessary to mix the whole well together, and take off; when nearly cold, add, if handy, and while stirring, a few drops of orange-flower water; it gives a very good flavor; then put the whole in a tin mould greased a little with butter; place in a quick oven for about thirty-five minutes, and serve. ~With Butter, or English Fashion.~--Put water on the fire with considerable salt in it; at the first boil, drop a quart of washed potatoes in and boil till done, when take off, peel, and put them whole in a saucepan, with butter, salt, pepper, and a little nutmeg; set on a rather slow fire, stirring gently now and then till they have absorbed all the butter. Serve warm. They absorb a great deal of butter. ~With Bacon or Salt Pork.~--Peel and quarter about a quart of potatoes. Set a saucepan on the fire with about four ounces of fat salt pork cut in dice in it. When fried, put the potatoes in. Season with a bunch of seasonings composed of two sprigs of parsley, one of thyme, and a bay-leaf; salt and pepper to taste, and about half a pint of broth or water. Boil gently till cooked, remove the bunch of seasonings; skim off the fat, if any, and serve warm. It is served at breakfast, as well as _entremets_ for dinner. ~With Cream or Milk.~--Peel and mash a quart of potatoes, when prepared and cooked. Put two ounces of butter in a stewpan and set it on a good fire; when melted, sprinkle in it a tea-spoonful of flour, same of chopped parsley, a pinch of grated nutmeg, and salt; stir with a wooden spoon five minutes; then add the potatoes, and half a pint of milk or cream; keep stirring ten minutes longer, take from the fire, sprinkle in them half a table-spoonful of sugar, and serve as warm as possible. ~With White Sauce.~--Clean, wash, and throw a quart of potatoes in boiling water, with a sprig of thyme, two onions, a bay-leaf, two sprigs of sweet basil, two cloves, salt, and pepper; when cooked, take the potatoes out carefully, peel and cut them in two, place them on a warm dish, pour on them a white sauce, and serve warm. THE POTATO: ILLUSTRATIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS. We propose to add a few pages of illustrations of the new varieties, together with descriptions of the same. A number of these were given in the pamphlet issued last year, and are reproduced from that. In case a new edition is called for, it is likely that a number of additional cuts will be added to it. We would call attention to the report of a series of experiments which have been made on the farms connected with the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania. There are very many questions connected with the cultivation of the potato which can be answered satisfactorily only by careful and repeated experiments. [Illustration: Excelsior.] Seedling of Early Goodrich, now six years old, and is claimed to combine more good qualities than any other potato. D. S. Heffron, of Utica, originated it. Is said to be productive, early, and of good keeping qualities. MASSASOIT.--A new variety from Western Massachusetts, resembling the Harrison in appearance, but earlier and of much better quality; flesh white, cooks dry and mealy, and altogether a superior variety; strongly recommended for a general crop. (See next page.) BELLEFONTE, February 12, 1870. REV. W. T. WYLIE: DEAR SIR: I inclose an extract from the report, suitable, I think, for the pamphlet. H. N. MCALLISTER. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF PENNSYLVANIA. From an interesting and instructive report of the Professor of Agriculture to the Board of Trustees of the Agricultural College of Pennsylvania, for 1869, in relation to the results of experiments made upon the three several experimental farms connected with that institution, we make the following extracts touching the Potato, verifying and illustrating some of the principles set forth in the above essay: _1st.--Varieties._ Of upward of thirty different varieties experimented upon, the Early Goodrich, Early Rose, and Harrison are among the best and most prolific. LIKE WEIGHTS OF SEED UPON EQUAL AREAS OF GROUND. _2d.--Different Modes of Preparing the Seed._ CENTRAL FARM.--One fourth of Plot No. 11--Early Goodrich--_cut tubers_, yields 500 pounds, equal to 286 bushels per acre; _large and whole tubers_, yields 410 pounds, equal to 234 bushels per acre; _medium-sized tubers_, yields 419 pounds, equal to 239 bushels per acre; and _small tubers_, yields 486 pounds, equal to 278 bushels per acre. _3d.--Combined Diversity between Soil and Sub-soil and Common Plowing._ CENTRAL FARM.--The 4 plots, Nos. 11, 16, 116, and 416--_soil and subsoil plowing_--yields 6200 pounds, equal to 221 bushels per acre; the 2 plots, Nos. 216 and 316--_common plowing_--yields 1845 pounds, equal to but 131 bushels per acre. _4th.--Diversity between Letting all Sprouts Grow and Thinning to Three in each Hill._. EASTERN FARM.--Plot No. 208: Monitors; large and whole tubers, 21-1/2 pounds; _not thinned_; Moro Philips's superphosphate; yield 1174 pounds, equal to 168 bushels per acre. Plot No. 209: Monitors; large and whole tubers, 23 pounds; _thinned_; Moro Philips's superphosphate; yield 1042 pounds, equal to 149 bushels per acre. Plot No. 210: Monitors; large and whole tubers, 15 pounds; _not thinned_; stable manure; yield 860 pounds, equal to 124 bushels per acre. Plot No. 211: Monitors; large and whole tubers, 14-1/2 pounds; _thinned_; stable manure; yield 839 pounds, equal to 119 bushels per acre. _5th.--Diversity from Time of Cutting the Seed-Potatoes._. Plot No. 222: Monitors; _cut two weeks before planting_; yield 580 pounds, equal to 83 bushels per acre. Plot 223: Monitors; _cut at time of planting_; yield 819 pounds, equal to 117 bushels per acre. Plot 220: Early Shaw; _cut two weeks before planting_; yield 764 pounds, equal to 100 bushels per acre. Plot 221: Early Shaw; _cut at time of planting_; yield 907 pounds, equal to 129 bushels per acre. [Illustration: Massasoit.] [Illustration] Bresee's Peerless, or No. 6. The latest and best of all Mr. Bresee's seedlings for the main crop. This is also a seedling of the Garnet Chili, and originated from the same seed-ball as the Early Rose; skin dull white, occasionally russeted; eyes shallow, oblong; flesh white, mealy; grows to a large size, often weighing from one and a half to two pounds, and enormously productive. At a trial before a committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, in September last, this variety obtained more votes as to quality than any other of Bresee's seedlings. TABLE OF EXPERIMENTS. TRY IT AND REPORT RESULTS. lbs. Two pounds large-sized potatoes, planted whole 00 " " " " cut into quarters 00 " " " " cut to single eyes 00 " " " " cut to single eyes and planted four in a hill 00 " " " " planted in drills, fifteen inches between the sets, 00 Two pounds small potatoes, planted whole 00 " " " cut in two pieces 00 Two pounds cut to single eye, and worked in ridges 00 " " " the surface kept flat 00 To these add such other experiments as may be interesting to you. _Weigh_ the product of each carefully, and report _weight_, _average_, _size_ of each lot, and _quality_. [Illustration] _Brezee's King of the Earlies._ Raised, in 1862, by Albert Brezee, of Hubbardton, Vt., from a ball of the Garnet Chili. Vines of medium height, or a little less, and bearing no balls; leaves large; tubers large and handsome, roundish and slightly flattened; eyes small, and somewhat pinkish; skin flesh-colored, or dull pinkish white; flesh white, cooks well, and is of the best quality for the table. Has proven thus far very hardy. The variety will not be sent out until the spring of 1870. [Illustration] THE EARLY MOHAWK POTATO. Originated in Michigan, in 1866, from a cross of the Peachblow and Brick Eye. It is of oblong, roundish shape, flattened at the ends. Skin light pink, with pink blush near the eye. Eyes slightly sunken, flesh white, cooks dry and mealy, and of superior flavor. Ripens from six to ten days earlier than the Rose, of uniform large size and but few small ones, and perfectly free from Core or Hollow Heart, and a superior Winter and Spring variety. [Illustration] _Brezee's Prolific._ This variety originated with Albert Brezee, Esq., of Hubbardton, Vt., in 1861. Mr. Brezee was the originator of the Early Rose, the seed producing both that and Brezee's Prolific being from the same seed-ball, and both are seedlings of the Garnet Chili. The vines of Brezee's Prolific are of medium height, quite bushy, and somewhat spreading, and with very large leaves; as yet they have produced no seed-balls. Tubers large, regular in shape, and very smooth, slightly oblong, and very much flattened; skin dull white, inclined to be russeted; eyes but little depressed and slightly pinkish; flesh white, rarely if ever hollow; cooks quickly, and is very mealy and of excellent quality. Yield very large, maturing three weeks later than the Early Rose. * * * * * _Rules Worth Observing._--An experienced cultivator says, "My experience leads me to lay down the following as _safe rules_: "I. As early as possible, _lay your plans_ for the next season's planting, and manure and work your ground accordingly, in advance. "II. Secure the _best seed_, even if it cost you two or five times as much as a common and less valuable sort. "III. _Always_ get a new, improved variety, as soon as it has been tested and proved. _Remember_ the profit is mainly made by the early cultivators. When it gets so common that _you_ can buy cheap, you will have to _sell_ cheap, too. "IV. Buy only from reliable dealers, and _be sure_ you get the _genuine_ article. "V. BUY, or at least ORDER, if you possibly can, in the fall or winter; you thus save the spring rise of prices. "VI. Liberal outlay for _seed, manure, tools, and work_ gives ten-fold the largest return in money, as well as satisfaction." [Illustration] THE GLEASON. Also a seedling of 1860, of the Pink Eye Rusty Coat, No. 15, which it closely resembles. When two years old, Mr. Goodrich described it thus: "Longish, rusty, coppery; leaves and vines dark green; flowers white; a very hopeful sort." September 29th, 1863, at digging time, he added: "Very nice; many in the hill; no disease." The two seasons, 1865 and 1866, under Dr. Gray's cultivation, this variety yielded at the rate of four hundred bushels to the acre, being more productive than the parent. This variety gives the best satisfaction. The tubers are not overgrown, but numerous; have fine-grained, solid flesh, that cooks white. For winter use this kind is excellent. It is a good keeper, and has a fine, rich flavor, especially when baked. [Illustration] _Willard._ J. J. H. Gregory says of this potato: "The Willard is a seedling from the Early Goodrich. It proves to be a half early variety, enormously productive, and is a potato of good promise. It is of a rich rose color, spotted and splashed with white. The flesh is white." [Illustration] THE EARLY ROSE. "It is a seedling of the Garnet Chili, that was originated in 1861, by Albert Brezee, Esq., an intelligent farmer of Hortonville, Vt. I have experimented with it for three years, and have been so well pleased with it that I have purchased all Mr. Brezee could spare for the last two years, and have engaged the whole of his small crop for another year. "It has a stout, erect stalk, of medium height; large leaves; flowers freely; bears no fruit. The tuber is quite smooth, nearly cylindrical, varying to flattish at the centre, tapering gradually toward each end. Eyes shallow, but sharp and strongly marked. Skin thin, tough, of a dull bluish color. Flesh white, solid, and brittle; rarely hollow; boils through quickly; is very mealy, and of the best table quality. It is as healthy and productive as the Early Goodrich, matures about ten days earlier, and is its superior for the table. The cut is a good outline of this beautiful and excellent sort. "I consider it the most promising very early potato with which I am acquainted, and I have tried nearly all the early sorts of the country." * * * * * _~How to Double Your Crop, when you have New and Rare Kinds.~_--In an ordinary hot-bed or cold frame, put some six inches of good, loose, rich soil; split your potato, and lay it cut side down about three inches under the surface. When the sprouts are four or five inches high, lift the potato, slip off the sprouts, and plant them. You can then cut the tuber into single eyes, and plant as usual. The crop from the sprouts will ripen two weeks before the others. I made $40 this year by trying this with a _handful_ of potatoes. Every reader is welcome to it, and may make as much or more than I did, if he secures a few pounds of the newer and costly but valuable kinds. W. _Early Goodrich._ A seedling of the Cusco of 1860. In 1862, Mr. Goodrich described it: "Round to longish; sometimes a crease at the insertion of the root; white; flowers bright lilac; (produces) many balls; yield large. Table quality is already very good. This sort is No. 1 every way." He said to me in the spring of 1864: "This early sort gives me more satisfaction than any other I have ever grown." This variety ripens as early as the Ashleaf Kidney; on rich soil yields from 250 to 350 bushels per acre; has never shown any disease; is white-fleshed, and of superior quality. The above description by D. S. Heffron is fully sustained by my experience. I noticed at dinner to-day, (Nov. 17th,) every potato in a large dishful had cracked its skin, and from most of them the skin had peeled itself half off. W. * * * * * _Rev. W. F. Dixon_, of Pine Grove, gives the results of his experience in the following note: "PINE GROVE, MERCER CO., PA., September 20, 1868. "A year ago last spring, a friend gave me three early Goodrich potatoes, which I planted four eyes in a hill, and last fall I raised over one bushel. I had the Buckeye planted in the same lot. The Goodrich produced about four times as much to the hill as the Buckeye." * * * * * Our country may well honor the memory of Rev. C. E. Goodrich, who, by persevering experiments and patient toil, has produced such wonderful results. His success should stimulate every farmer to make a similar line of experiments. _Potato Crop of New York State._--The total potato crop of the State of New York, this year, is about 25,000,000 bushels. The six great potato counties are Washington, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Monroe, St. Lawrence, and Genesee. Only one other county (Oneida) produces 300,000 bushels; three others, 600,000; one, 500,000; six, 400,000. New York county returns a crop of 1700 bushels. The entire crop of the State, 25,000,000 bushels, is raised on 254,403 acres of land. The three counties in the State which produce the most potatoes join each other, viz., Washington, Rensselaer, and Saratoga--their aggregate production reaching within a fraction of 2,500,000 bushels, or more than one-eighth of the total product of the whole State.--_New York Observer_. HARISON. Mr. Heffron gives the following account of this variety: "It is a brother of the Early Goodrich--a seedling of the Cusco of 1860. When two years old, Mr. Goodrich described it thus: 'White, large, not so deep eyes as the parent, nice.'" In 1863, Mr. Goodrich had eleven and a half bushels; and though it was a bad year for disease, and this a young and tender seedling, when he overhauled his seedlings, January 29th, 1864, he made this entry in his book: "All perfect, fine." It has a smooth white skin, white flesh, and is the most solid of large potatoes, having no hollow at the centre. It is enormously productive, yielding as well as the parent Cusco, and exceeds all others; its form is good, table quality excellent; keeps well; ripens ten days earlier than the Garnet Chili, and thus far is as hardy as the Garnet Chili. Among winter sorts this potato must soon hold as high a place as is conceded to the Early Goodrich among the early sorts. [Illustration] _To Keep Potatoes during Winter._--As soon as dry after digging, pick up and handle carefully; store in a dry, well-aired, cool cellar, free from frost, either in bins raised a little from the bottom of the cellar, or in barrels having at least two holes bored through the staves near the bottom, and lay the top head on, over a lath, so as to exclude the light without preventing a free circulation of air. Also sprinkle among the potatoes about half a pint of recently slacked quick-lime to each barrel. If bins are used, cover them over sufficiently to exclude the most of the light. Air the cellar all winter, as often as the temperature outside will admit of it. CLIMAX. [Illustration] It has a stout, erect stalk, of full medium height, internodes of medium length, and very large leaves; the tuber is above medium in size, quite smooth, in form of a short cylinder swelled out at the centre, occasionally slightly flattened, and terminating rather abruptly; eyes shallow, sharp, sometimes swelled out or projecting, and always strongly defined; skin medium thickness, considerably netted or russet, tough, white; flesh entirely white, solid, heavy, brittle, and never hollow, and it boils through quickly, with no hard core at centre or stem, is mealy, of floury whiteness, and of superior table quality. [Illustration] _Early Prince._ The _Early Prince_ is a seedling of the Early York, and was propagated in 1864. It has proved to be from a week to ten days earlier than the Early Rose, as far as size and solidity are concerned, and from two to three weeks earlier in quality. * * * * * ESTABLISHED IN 1842. A Good, Cheap, and very Valuable Paper for Every Man, Woman, and Child IN CITY, VILLAGE, AND COUNTRY. THE AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST, FOR THE Farm, Garden, and Household, Including a Special Department of Interesting and Instructive Reading for Children and Youth. * * * * * THE AGRICULTURIST is a large periodical of _forty-four_ quarto pages, beautifully printed, filled with _plain, practical, reliable, original_ matter, and containing hundreds of _beautiful and instructive Engravings_ in every annual volume. It contains each month a Calendar of Operations to be performed on the _Farm_, in the _Orchard_ and _Garden_, in and around the _Dwelling_, etc. The thousands of hints and suggestions given in every volume are prepared by practical, intelligent _workingmen_, who know what they write about. The _Household Department_ is valuable to every housekeeper, affording very many useful hints and directions calculated to lighten and facilitate indoor work. The _Department for Children and Youth_ is prepared with special care, to furnish not only amusement, but also to inculcate knowledge and sound moral principles. TERMS--English Edition. The circulation of THE AMERICAN AGRICULTURIST is so large that it can be furnished (_postage prepaid by the publishers_) at the low price of $1.50 a year; four copies, one year, for $5; six copies, one year, for $7; ten or more copies, one year, $1 each; single copies, 15 cents each. TRY IT A YEAR. ~A German Edition,~ containing all the principal articles and engravings of the English Edition, and other matter of special interest to German-Americans, is furnished at the same rates as above stated for the English Edition, _postage prepaid by the publishers_. ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, Publishers and Proprietors, No. 751 Broadway, New York City. 
26084	----	file was produced from scans of public domain works at the University of Michigan's Making of America collection.) PARKS FOR THE PEOPLE. PROCEEDINGS OF A PUBLIC MEETING HELD AT FANEUIL HALL, JUNE 7, 1876. BOSTON: FRANKLIN PRESS: RAND, AVERY, & CO. 1876. CONTENTS. ORGANIZATION OF MEETING 5 SPEECH OF MR. JOSEPH S. ROPES 7 " " MR. GEORGE B. CHASE 10 " " MR. RICHARD H. DANA, JUN. 11 " " DR. OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES 20 " " REV. ROLLIN H. NEALE, D.D. 26 " " REV. J. P. BODFISH 27 " " COL. CHARLES W. WILDER 31 " " MR. JOSEPH F. PAUL 33 " " HON. P. A. COLLINS 36 LETTER OF DR. EDWARD H. CLARKE 38 COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED 45 FANEUIL HALL MEETING IN FAVOR OF PUBLIC PARKS. Pursuant to a call published in all the daily papers, and signed by a large number of prominent citizens and tax-payers of Boston, a public meeting was convened in Faneuil Hall on the evening of Wednesday, the 7th of June, 1876, to take action on the recommendations contained in the Report of the Park Commissioners. The hall was crowded by an intelligent and enthusiastic audience; and the proceedings as reported _verbatim_ in the columns of the "Boston Morning Journal," were as follows:-- The meeting was called to order at eight o'clock by Mr. JOHN W. CANDLER, who said,-- GENTLEMEN,--As Chairman of the Committee of Arrangements, I have been requested to call this meeting to order. It is usually the case, that, when a mass meeting of citizens is to be held, a great deal of labor has to be performed in preparing for and organizing the meeting. But I am glad to say, that, on this occasion, the important advantage of having a public almost entirely in our favor was enjoyed by the Committee. We found a strong and intelligent and deep-seated sentiment almost unanimous throughout the community, in favor of having the City Government take prompt and favorable action upon the report of the Park Commissioners. [Applause.] We found the community earnest and enthusiastic in the desire that a system of parks should be projected for the city of Boston, to insure the health, and to make certain and positive the prosperity, of our citizens in the future. The Committee had only to present the call or address through the press, which some of you have read, to find hundreds ready to indorse it; and the authorities had only to open wide the doors of Faneuil Hall to have the people throng here, as they have to-night, to manifest the sentiment which they feel so generally. Gentlemen, we have with us to-night men of science, philanthropists, the representatives of the learned professions. We have the capitalist; we have the merchant; we have the mechanic; and we have the daily laborer, who toils from the rising to the setting sun,--we have them all here, to give out a voice to-night, expressing the opinions of the people, which can neither be misrepresented nor misunderstood. [Applause.] It is not my duty, gentlemen, to make a speech. You have here this evening to address you, the representatives of every class, the best that can be afforded in any city, the leading men of the city of Boston in the different professions. It is only necessary, in the discharge of my duty, that I should read to you the names of the gentlemen whom you will be asked to elect as the officers of this meeting. They are as follows:-- PRESIDENT. THE HON. JOSEPH S. ROPES. VICE-PRESIDENTS. CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, WILLIAM AMORY, RICHARD FROTHINGHAM, PETER C. BROOKS, MARTIN BRIMMER, GEORGE C. RICHARDSON, BENJAMIN F. THOMAS, EDWARD S. RAND, HENRY P. KIDDER, THOMAS J. GARGAN, EBEN D. JORDAN, C. A. RICHARDS, JOHN C. CROWLEY, WILLIAM B. BACON, AARON D. WILLIAMS, CHARLES F. DONNELLY, WM. W. CLAPP, BENJAMIN DEANE, RICHARD OLNEY, WILLIAM ATHERTON, THOMAS GOBIN, WILLIAM ENDICOTT, JUN., ALBERT BOWKER, DANIEL J. SWEENEY, PATRICK T. JACKSON, R. M. PULSIFER, ROLAND WORTHINGTON, JOHN G. BLAKE, M.D., J. H. CHADWICK, LEWIS COLEMAN. SECRETARIES. HAMILTON A. HILL. WILLIAM E. PERKINS. The list of names was unanimously approved; and the announcement of the election of the gentlemen named therein was received with applause. Mr. CANDLER continued, I have the honor of introducing to you JOSEPH S. ROPES, Esq., a merchant of Boston, who has been called to fill a great many places of trust, and who has always been found able in the discharge of every duty, and faithful in every trust committed to him. SPEECH OF MR. JOSEPH S. ROPES. FELLOW-CITIZENS,--I thank you for the honor you have done me in inviting me to preside on this auspicious occasion. You have come together to-night, not to quarrel with one another's politics, not to abuse one another's rival candidates, but to hold a friendly consultation upon one of the most important and interesting and agreeable subjects which can engage your attention,--the subject of public parks for the city of Boston. [Applause.] Gentlemen, I was born in Boston; and I well remember the time when our cows were pastured on Boston Common, when the Back Bay was not a myth, but a reality, and when at least a portion of the summit of Beacon Hill was covered with green fields, on which were seen sometimes "raree shows" and travelling menageries. Since that time, our city has grown and swelled, and stretched itself north and south, and east and west, striding over one arm of the sea, filling up another, swallowing the neighboring towns one by one, taking two mouthfuls for Roxbury, and one for Dorchester, and one for Charlestown and Brighton together, until it has expanded its population sevenfold, and its area almost seventy times seven, within fifty years. Yet there stands Boston Common just where and just what it was--no larger, and thank heaven! as yet no smaller [loud applause]--than it was fifty years ago. Where are the breathing-places for this enlarged metropolis? Where are the places of common resort for quiet and healthful enjoyment and peaceful recreation for this expanded population? Where are the noble parks and the wide-spreading groves? Where are the places fit for public entertainment, which we find in every other large city in the civilized world?--such as we see in London and Paris and Berlin and Vienna and Florence and Rome and Naples--yes, even for the few brief months of summer, in the northern capitals of Stockholm and St. Petersburg? And echo answers, "Where?" [Laughter and applause.] "Gone like a vision!" My friends, I need not tell you that this matter has excited the interest of our philanthropic and public-spirited citizens, and especially of the medical faculty, to whom it is, in its sanitary aspect, a matter of most important practical interest. And, through their representations to the city government and to the state legislature, a bill was brought before the legislature, which I had the honor myself to report in the House of Representatives a little more than a year ago, and which was passed by large majorities in both houses, authorizing the city of Boston to purchase and to take lands within its own limits for laying out public parks, and to co-operate with adjacent towns in laying out conterminous parks for the common benefit and advantage of citizens on both sides of the line. This measure was opposed (as all such measures are opposed) on the ground that "it would lead to jobbery and extravagance." And the answer was ready at hand, that all public enterprises are liable "to lead to jobbery and extravagance," but that the abuse of a good thing is no argument against its valid use [applause]; that it is for the citizens themselves, and for the government of the city of Boston, to see that their trust is rightly and honestly carried out. Again: it was argued that the people of Boston possess already, in their beautiful suburbs, all that is required in pure air and beautiful scenery. And this, again, is most true as regards those who live in those suburbs, and those whose wealth enables them to pass to and fro in their carriages, and regale their senses with the luxury of what they there find. But what application has this, my friends, to the working-man, to the masses of our population, whose sole idea of the suburbs consists of an hour's rattling drive in a crowded street-car, and an hour's seat by the side of a dusty thoroughfare? Again: it was argued that the city of Boston could not afford this expensive luxury of parks. And to this again it was easy to reply, that so long as the city of Boston could afford prisons and jails, and any number of millions spent for liquor and for hurtful indulgences, and for the repression of vice and crime, it could afford to spend money for this peaceful and healthful and elevating enjoyment for the people. In a word, gentlemen, this bill became a law; and, in pursuance of that law, a Commission was appointed by the city of Boston, the names of the gentlemen composing which Commission I need not repeat to you; for they are in all your hearts, as well as on all your lips. The Report of that Commission is now, and has been for weeks, in your hands; and it is the object of this meeting to indorse that Report, and to stimulate and incite the government of the city of Boston to act in accordance with its suggestions. We cannot expect that all its details will be approved by every one; nor are we to suppose that all its details will be carried out in action by the government. But it is not too much to say that it is so well digested, so full and complete, and in every way so satisfactory to the city and the citizens, that we cannot do better than recommend it as a whole to the municipal authorities. [Applause.] Now, my friends, it is not for me to do what will be so much better done by those who succeed me on this platform,--to give you the reasons, and enforce the arguments, for your action at this time. But as a representative of the city of Boston, as an almost constant resident within it for nearly thirty years past, as in my humble sphere a representative of the merchants of Boston, as a taxpayer of Boston, and in every way identified with the best interests and all the highest and best aims of our city, I call upon you to-night to adopt and to indorse and to commend this admirable system to our city government. [Applause.] I have now the pleasure of introducing Mr. GEORGE B. CHASE, who will present the resolutions. SPEECH OF MR. GEORGE B. CHASE. MR. PRESIDENT,--On behalf of the committee who have had in charge the arrangements for this meeting, I have the honor to offer for its acceptance several resolutions which have been prepared for it by a gentleman, than whom none is more versed in all that relates to the business questions and interests of the city of Boston, and who, during long and faithful service as secretary of the Board of Trade, became familiar with all subjects relating to the development and prosperity of the city. It is hardly necessary, Mr. Chairman, in such a connection, to mention the name of Mr. HAMILTON A. HILL. [Applause.] Mr. CHASE then read the resolutions as follows:-- _Resolved_, That this meeting would hereby emphatically re-affirm the opinion which has been expressed, at the polls and elsewhere, by the citizens and tax-payers of Boston, that the time has arrived when this city should be provided with a park or parks similar to those which have been projected by the other great cities of the United States, adapted to the wants of our large and steadily increasing population, and on a scale commensurate with the growing commercial importance and metropolitan influence of the city. _Resolved_, That the plan for a system of parks and parkways, prepared and recommended by the Park Commissioners, commends itself to this meeting as broad and comprehensive in its general features, fair to all sections of the city in its details, admirably suited to meet all the necessities of the case, and promising, when carried out, to make Boston one of the most healthful, attractive, and beautiful cities in the world. _Resolved_, That the pressing need which exists for a radical improvement of the sewerage in some parts of the city, the present cheapness and abundance of labor, the diminished value of land, and the exceptionally favorable terms on which the city can now negotiate for money, render it of the first importance that there should be no delay on the part of the city government in the acceptance of the proposed plan, and in the adoption of decided and vigorous measure for carrying it into execution. _Resolved_, That this meeting would therefore respectfully and earnestly ask for immediate and favorable official action upon the Report of the Commissioners, and that the chairman and secretaries are hereby authorized and requested to communicate a copy of these resolutions, properly authenticated, to his Honor the Mayor, and to each branch of the City Council. _Resolved_, That a committee of one hundred be appointed by the Chair, to represent this meeting before the city government, and to secure the desired action by it without loss of time. THE CHAIRMAN. Gentlemen, you have heard the resolutions, which evidently meet with your unanimous approbation. You will now be addressed in behalf of those resolutions by one who needs no introduction from me, Mr. RICHARD H. DANA, Jun. [Prolonged applause.] SPEECH OF MR. RICHARD H. DANA, JUN. FELLOW-CITIZENS,--I thank you from the bottom of my heart for this very kind welcome I have received at your hands to-night on coming upon the platform. I assure you, gentlemen, if I felt at liberty to waste the precious hours of this evening upon any thing relating to myself, I could say much more than I do to thank you for your great kindness. But, gentlemen, we are met here on public business. You have heard what we are asked to do. We are asked to petition the city government, and send a committee of force to the city government (not as if the government were at all reluctant, but that they may know the feeling of the people of Boston), and ask the city government to go to work at once, and see that Boston has, as soon as possible, these necessities for her honor, her health, and her beauty. [Applause.] In thinking of this subject, Mr. President and gentlemen, it occurred to me that it was a very singular fact, and not altogether to the credit of human nature, that great numbers of persons cannot live together without extreme inconvenience. Now, Robinson Crusoe, when he lived on the Island of Juan Fernandez alone, was not troubled with any question of public parks, or drainage, or health. Things took care of themselves. But when you get two or three or four hundred thousand Robinson Crusoes in a few square miles, you find the whole state of things is reversed, that you require all the patience, all the science, a large part of the money, and a large part of the industry, of the population, that you may live at all, and on any terms. The lower parts of our nature, the animal parts, tend to produce certain results which the intellectual parts are expected to meet and control. If they do not that, men become savages; if they do, they are enlightened. Now, in this great and enlightened city of Boston, the pride of us all, the "Athens of America," as we all know we are [laughter], and, as our friend Dr. HOLMES there has told us, the "Hub of the Universe" [laughter], it would hardly be respectful to say that one of the questions before us was, Which of those two roads we were going to take,--whether we were going to let the intellectual and moral parts have the upper hand, or whether we were going to sink beneath the material part. And yet, gentlemen, that is a good deal the question that is before us to-night. Why, look at the progress which is inevitably made where you get great numbers of human beings together. You must have drainage, you must look to the health of the population, and then you must look to their recreation and their amusements (for they will have them); and, if they are not good and creditable and honorable, they will not cease to exist, but they will come before us in the most shameful and unwholesome form. We used to be told, gentlemen, that Boston had natural parks all about her, and she did not need any artificial parks. Well, now, I am not in favor of any artificial parks. All I ask is, that the beauty of the environs of Boston may be preserved. [Applause.] We are on the defensive. We are defending the wholesomeness and the beauty of our beloved city against this encroachment of population. Why, the time was--Mr. ROPES will tell you when the time was--when the Back Bay was a beautiful sheet of water, filled at high tide, carrying the healthful air through the whole city. But then the necessity of population called for its filling up, and it is now piled in upon, and we have there now what Dr. CLARKE called "a natural cesspool." We changed the Back Bay from a beautiful bay, where the wholesome tides of the ocean swept in, to a natural cesspool. Well, now, look at the lanes and roads in the suburbs of Boston--beautiful. As you ride over them, there are trees hanging over them, and there are bushes on each side: you say it is charming. Well, go out there the next year. The selectmen if it is a town, the city government if it is a city, have changed all that. They have made a straight line right through it, and widened the streets sixty feet; cut down every tree, and made it one of the most disagreeable and painful spectacles that the eyes could rest upon. It is their duty so to do: it is a necessity. And so you go on destroying the beauties of the city, destroying its wholesomeness, destroying its charm; and now we have got to meet that tendency, and we have the power to meet it. We have the intellect, we have the money, we have the will, and we have the taste; and we would be incensed if any one should suggest that we do not. And yet we have allowed every city in the United States to get in advance of us. [A voice, "That's so."] Chicago has three thousand acres of parks; Philadelphia, five thousand; New York, one great park of about one thousand acres; and almost every city in Europe has better, more handsome and attractive accommodations than the city of Boston. I am ashamed to say it; but it is so. I trust, however, gentlemen, that, before I ever have the honor of addressing you again, we shall have taken the first step to remove this odium from the city of Boston. [Applause.] Some six years ago, I think it was, the people got greatly in earnest that this park should be undertaken. They saw that the progress of the manufactories was fast destroying the beauties of Boston; that they were taking up the land in the suburbs rapidly: and, when I said that your green lands were destroyed, with their beautiful curved lines, I forgot to mention that your beautiful sheets of water are in the same danger. Why, look at Fresh Pond, look at Jamaica Pond! They are beautiful objects to gaze upon: but when manufactories begin to surround them, when there are soap manufactories and tanneries, and I do not know what, draining into the pond, the result is, that the water is unwholesome, that the fish die, the water cannot be drunk, and then physicians begin to tell their patients, "You had better move out of that neighborhood." Are you aware, gentlemen, that that is coming upon us, that we must meet it, and avert it? Some years ago, the people of Boston were earnestly in favor of a park, or system of parks. The legislature, for some reason or other, required that the project should receive a vote of two-thirds of the people. That was extraordinary and hard. But it did receive a vote of two-thirds of the people of Boston proper, and more than two-thirds; but from the accident of a newly added portion of the city, for some reason or other, taking a slant in a certain direction, they voted very largely against it, and it fell through. We must take warning from that; for land that would have made then a handsome park, which we could have had, we cannot have now at all. It would cost altogether too much to take dwelling-houses and factories and railroad beds, if we could, for a park. Well, after six years of restlessness, at last we went before the legislature again; and we got an act passed, authorizing the appointing of commissioners with powers. That act passed, helped by our most able fellow-citizen, MR. ROPES, chairman of this meeting; and it was submitted to the votes of the people of Boston; and the park project was carried by the votes of this entire population,--Boston, East Boston, Charlestown, South Boston, Dorchester, Brighton, which make, all together, a very large and most decisive majority. And therefore, gentlemen, the question is not, Shall we have parks? you have decided that; but the question is, Whether, having determined to have them, we shall rest content with saying so? whether we will have our paper parks, as we have our paper money, with nothing to rest upon [laughter], or whether we shall have genuine parks, with life and trees, and have sheets of water? Now we are here to-night to say it is the latter that we want. [Applause.] Fellow-citizens, that statute authorized the appointment by the MAYOR, subject to approval, of three commissioners. Well, that was wise. It was not nine, seven, nor five; but it was three. Well, his Honor the Mayor, who has presided with so much dignity, wisdom, and integrity [applause] over the city of Boston for two years,--and we would be glad to get him for a third year, if his health would permit it [applause],--his Honor the Mayor appointed three gentlemen as commissioners, in whom this community have entire confidence. There are no politics among the Board of Commissioners; there is no jobbery in the Board of Commissioners; and I will venture to predict, gentlemen, that, when they finish their task, there will be no investigation. [Great applause.] I was amazed on looking over their charge. Why, I found an item of coach-hire for the whole period of their service, nine dollars. Why, it would not have been enough to take three common councilmen from Parker's or Young's. [Laughter.] But it is all they have charged; and how, on that sum, they succeeded in riding around Boston, I do not know. Their experience with persons who let carriages must have been much more favorable than mine has been. But not only have they done honorably, economically, and frugally, they have put into their work an amount of brain-labor, an amount of patient investigation and of good judgment, which no one can have an adequate opinion of who has not read their book; but, if he has not, I hope he will. And at least this I may be allowed to say, I do not think any citizen of Boston has the right to object to those parks, or to be silent or indifferent on the subject, unless he has read the report of the Commission, and knows what is proposed, and has been done. [Applause.] They have consulted the best authorities. They have consulted Mr. FREDERICK LAW OLMSTEAD, who laid out Central Park in New York, and he is the highest authority on the construction of parks in the country; and he has been all over this neighborhood, viewing the localities, and they have taken every thing into consideration; and, gentlemen, what is the result? They do not propose to us one great park of a thousand acres, at an almost unattainable distance; they do not propose a great park that nobody can get to, unless he gives a day to it, and a good deal of money: but they have adopted a system based upon the natural characteristics of the neighborhood of Boston. And what better could they do? At East Boston, they have given them a park upon the water-side, where they will always have the fresh breezes of the sea. At South Boston, they have given them a park upon the water-side, one directly opposite Fort Independence, and then another one, called the South Park, larger; and Chester Park, which you are all familiar with, is already extended, and nearly ready to be used as far as Beacon Street; and thence it is to go over to Cambridge, and be the quickest means of access to the University. That same avenue is to be extended easterly till it strikes the farthest of the South Boston parks, opposite Fort Independence; and, when that is done, you will be able to drive or walk, according to your powers of walking, from the park opposite Fort independence, into the city, and across it, to Harvard University. Now that is a good deal; but they have taken another step. They propose to take the water-front of the Charles River basin; and there is nothing in Nature so beautiful, so well adapted to the needs of a city, as a park, or boulevard, or promenade, directly on a water-front, especially if that water is sea-water,--if it is brought in and carried out by two daily tides. What more beautiful, what more wholesome, what more invigorating, during the hot season of the year, than to have an open boulevard, where you can sit, or walk, or ride,--a place for the fresh sea-water of the ocean brought in pure to you every day! Well, they mean to preserve that, and give us about two hundred feet for a driveway, a saddle-horse way (a saddle-pad, I think they call it), and footpath, a place for flowers and trees, as it extends along the water-side, beginning by Leverett Street, and going out as far as Brighton. Then from there they mean to take this great Back Bay, which Dr. CLARKE properly called a natural cesspool, and keep a large part of it under water, the ocean to be let in and let out at our option, so that it can be always kept pure; and yet such a quantity of it, that it will be a sort of inland sea, where we can have regattas, and where every gentleman may keep his boat, and every boy may keep his scull; and perhaps it is just as well a boy's skull should be there as anywhere else a large part of the time. [Laughter.] Then, gentlemen, they are going to take Jamaica Pond, and have a park or driveway around the pond; then the Chestnut Hill Reservoir, that has a parkway one hundred feet in width, where you can drive or walk at your pleasure. In West Roxbury they are to have a mountain-park, which will be the largest (about five hundred acres); and it is well called a providence, because it is high, it is rocky, it has a thoroughly sylvan look, like a forest. You would feel as if you were fifty miles from Boston, if you were where you could not see the city. At the same time, it is beautiful for a park. There are very few houses there; and it is difficult to make it salable for residences. But they have selected this spot; and they are going to give us the best park of the city, and then have all these parks connected by parkways, thus making them so convenient of access, that every poor man in Boston can take his child by his hand, and for five cents a head can be carried out to any one of those parks by the railroads. [Applause.] And, when he gets there, he can show this poor boy or girl, who has passed all the winter, and all the opening spring, in an alleyway,--he can show them, by a wholesome ascent of two hundred feet only, slow, gradual, one of the noblest prospects in the world,--the ocean pouring up into these great bays, and floating the great ships that come and go, the Bunker Hill Monument and the Navy Yard, the University, and the great series of cities that surround us. And, more than that, he can show him or her Wachuset Mountain, and over the top of Mount Monadnock in New Hampshire. Now I ask you, fellow-citizens, if it is not worth while for the city of Boston to improve these opportunities. We have been most fortunate in our Commissioners,--in their wisdom, in their frugality, in their intelligence, and their public spirit; and I hope, gentlemen, you will study their Report. It is easy reading, pleasant reading; and if, when you get home, you find your boy or girl engaged over some novel, especially if it is a yellow covered one, take it right out of his or her hand, and ask them to read that Report. You may think it absurd; but, ten to one, it will interest the children more than the novel would. It will certainly give them more valuable instruction; and I venture to say it will interest them more. I felt quite carried away by it. It seemed to me it must be a fancy; but, when I turned to their accounts (and they are all mercantile men), I was amazed to see at what small cost it could all be done. And, gentlemen, I want to detain you a moment longer on statistics, and show that it has increased the value of property in every city that has had a park, by bringing houses all about the parks, and by detaining as inhabitants of the city, to be taxed in the city, those men who skulk in small towns to throw the burden of the expense of their own city on those who stay behind. [Applause.] All we want to do to-night is to say to the city government that we are in earnest about this matter, and that we want the work done now. [Applause.] I tell you, gentlemen, it is very doubtful, if this fails, whether you will have another Board of Commissioners to compare with the present. I tell you it is doubtful, whether there will be a state of things in Boston which will be any thing like as favorable as the state of things we are in now. But I can tell you one thing that is certain; and that is, if you postpone it, you cannot have the parks that they propose. The growth of population will be crowding over it; speculators will buy it; the ponds will become injured; and the expense will be so great, that you will shudder at the thought of it. And, more than that, the parks that you ask for in another ten years will be four or five miles from the centre of population now, and I confess that one great argument with me for instant action is, that I want the parks to be as accessible as possible to all those persons especially who do not own their private carriages, and cannot give a day to it. [Applause.] And last of all, Mr. President and gentlemen, it should be done for economical reasons, as has been stated very well by the address and in the resolutions, because there never was a time, and I hope there never will be a time again, when the land was so cheap as it is now; and, when we take this land for parks, we take it at its present price. There has not been a time for many years, and I hope there never will be a time again, when the price of labor is as low as it is now [applause]; and that labor we would employ at once, and the laborers are begging for employment. Why, there is not one of you who has not often and often, within the last two years, perhaps it is not extravagant to say, felt his heart bleed when he has been stopped in the way by evidently honest men, who would say, "We can't find any thing to do. We have looked everywhere; and there is no work for us." [A voice, "That's so."] Yes, that is so. Now, some philanthropists, and some political economists, have told us that the government ought always to find employment for everybody; it is the duty of the city to see that everybody has work: but, though I do not advocate any such doctrine as that, I advocate this doctrine,--that whenever the community has any thing it ought to do, and which will employ laborers (and this is a hard time on the laborers), then is the time that they ought to do it. [Applause.] So that it is not only good economy, but it is humanity, that dictates an instant advance upon this work. To save the land that we can get now in a low market, and to employ laborers who are paid low wages, but are glad to get even that, and to prevent the entire failure of this scheme so carefully and beneficially made, we shall ask the city government to work at once. Now, there are others much more able to speak of the finances of the city government than I am; but we always do find, that, when a thing ought to be done, there is a way of doing it; and we sometimes find, that, when things ought not to be done, there is a way of doing them. I wish to say one word more, before I take my seat, on the report and scheme of these Park Commissioners; and that is its entire equitableness in its attention to localities. It has left no part of the city that is not benefited. Charlestown cannot have a park, because it is built over, and there is no room for one. If there was room, they would have one. They must annex; and then they can have a park. [Laughter.] East Boston has a park; South Boston has a park; then comes the great West Roxbury Park; then comes the Bussey Farm, which I omitted to mention; and then comes Jamaica Pond and Chestnut Hill Reservoir Park, and the park roads connecting them all, and uniting them; and then the water-front on all that part of the city of Boston where the water-fronts are not needed for commerce. I say, therefore, this plan is equitably divided among the citizens according to their residence; and it is accessible to all, and the plan is economical, and the time is auspicious. Therefore I hope that you will with unanimity adopt the resolutions, and call upon the city government to proceed at once. [Applause.] THE PRESIDENT. Allusion has been made to the "Hub of the Universe;" and you will all understand, that, when any thing is the matter with that Hub, the diagnosis must be made not only by an able physician, but by an able spokesman. [Laughter and applause.] I have great pleasure in introducing to you one who combines both, and a hundred other qualities, Dr. OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES. [Applause.] SPEECH OF DR. OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES. You will not ask for rhetoric or eloquence in the few remarks upon a vital subject to be offered you by a member of the silent profession. What could be so eloquent as the hollow voice which announces the Boston annual death-rate as being 26.18 against 23.7, that of the great paved nation of London; against 19.3, that of Philadelphia; and approaching that of our two unhealthiest cities, New York and New Orleans? This high death-rate has been shown to be largely due to the excessive mortality among infants and children under five years of age. The most fatal of the diseases which assail them is that destruction which wasteth at noonday, to which our American practitioners give the name of cholera-infantum. And this disease prevails chiefly, almost entirely, from June to October, the season when all out-of-door influences are most tempting and most needed. The weekly record of August and September is that of a pestilence. The destroying angel carries off the firstborn, and, oftener still, the last-born, out of almost every household in certain districts, as in the heaviest curse laid on Egypt. Thousands have fled the city, as they deserted London in the season of the plague; but thousands are left to follow in the funeral procession of those who were the hope of their households. A considerable part of this mortality, it may be feared, is unavoidable. Our climatic influences are permanent factors, and must always count in the bills of mortality. But there are certain agencies which we can, to a great extent, control. We can and do submit the dwellings of our citizens to inspection and sanitary regulation; we can and shall provide our city with proper drainage; we can and do inspect the food in our market, and condemn it if unfit for use; we can and must secure for our citizens the influences of unroofed and unwalled Nature,--air, light, space for exercise and recreation, the natural birthright of mankind. Of the uses of these larger breathing-spaces, which we call parks,--for the relief of the imprisoned dwellers in crowded streets, for the recreation of poor and rich alike, for the health of mind and body which they offer to all,--it seems almost needless to speak from the medical point of view; for all know what cities would be without open areas, where children can play in the shade, and old people warm themselves in the sun. I wish to call your attention to a single point intimately connected with the alarming fact of the excessive death-rate of which I have spoken. That point is the influence of the air they breathe on the health of children, with the bearing of this on the question before us. If a child is found to have been starved to death in a cellar or an attic, a cry of horror is raised over it. If two or three wandering boys, as it happened the other day at Lowell, come upon some noxious roots, and, in obedience to their omnivorous instinct, devour them, and pay the forfeit, the whole country hears of it. If a family or two get hold of some ill-conditioned meat, and suffer for it, the groans of their colics are echoed all over the land. If a milkman misrepresents his honest cows by falsifying their product, the chemist detects him, and the press puts him in the pillory. If the Cochituate or Mystic water is too much like an obsolete chowder, up go all noses, and out come all manner of newspaper paragraphs from "Senex," "Tax-payer," and the rest. But air-poisoning kills a hundred where food-poisoning kills one. Let me relate a circumstance which happened in Ireland, to which circumstance, in all probability, I owe the pleasure of being listened to at this moment by some among our hard-working, adopted citizens who are before me. When I say to you, meaning to speak the words of sober truth, that a single physician, by a single and simple measure, saved more lives than were lost at Waterloo by the British army and all its allies, leaving out the Prussians, you will suspect me of exaggeration, not very uncommon in public speakers. I will therefore intrench myself behind certain details which I have often before cited, but not in the presence of a gathering of this kind. Dr. ROBERT COLLINS was Master, as it is called, of the great Dublin Lying-in Hospital, where the annual rate of births was between two and three thousand, from the year 1826 to 1833. A work of his, containing the results of his practice during his seven years of service, was published in Boston in 1841, by order of the Massachusetts Medical Society, for the use of its members. I consider him vouched for as authority, therefore, by men in whom you can put confidence. Dr. COLLINS makes the following statement:-- When his predecessor, Dr. JOSEPH CLARKE, was in office, in the year 1784, he found that seventeen children in the hundred, nearly one in six, died within the first fortnight after birth, nineteen-twentieths of these of one particular disease peculiar to very early infancy. Looking for the cause of this frightful mortality, he thought he found it in a foul and vitiated state of the air of the hospital. So he had some openings of considerable size made in the ceiling of each ward, and three holes, of an inch in diameter, through each window at top: the doors, too, were perforated with numerous holes. In this way, a free circulation was secured, and so arranged, that the nurses could not control it; for some of the old-fashioned nurses would not have opened a window in the Black Hole at Calcutta, for fear the inmates should catch a cold. What was the result of this simple proceeding? Why, the mortality fell, from seventeen in a hundred, down to between five and six; and Dr. Collins gives us the result up to his time in these words, "Thus, by his valuable suggestions, 16,371 lives have been saved, as, had the mortality of infants continued one in six to this day (1833), the number of children dying of the 131,227 (which is the total number born in the hospital) would be 21,871, as the hospital registry now shows." In the battle of Waterloo, the British and their allies lost 16,186 men; that is, 185 less than the great army of very light infantry saved from death by letting out the smoke of the battle of life, and letting in the sweet air of heaven, through the walls of the Dublin hospital. So much for what air alone can do for children. Now, it is not the "nine-day fits" of that hospital in its unventilated condition which kills our poor children in the hot months, but that other disease of infancy, which to name is like sounding a funeral knell in the ears of many a parent. This one malady, more than any other, gives Boston its place on the black list of unhealthy towns. All parents having young children leave the city during the worst part of the sickly season, if they have the means of so doing. Our best streets look as DEFOE tells us London streets looked during the Great Plague. But thousands of families must remain; and we are bound to do what we can for them in their dearest interests,--the lives of their children. With regard to cholera-infantum,--the deadly scourge of which I have spoken,--the testimony of experience shows that change of air, even temporary, often effects the cure of which the apothecary, who "pestles a poisoned poison behind his crimson lights," cannot bring about with his drugs, though the wisest of physicians had written the prescription. This point is so important, and bears so directly, not only on the necessity of park-spaces, but upon their distribution so as to bring them within reach of all the crowded and unhealthy districts as far as possible, that I shall borrow a few sentences, enforcing it, from writers recognized as authorities on the diseases of children. "Even in cases in which a removal to a healthy and airy situation in the country is impracticable," says Dr. CONDIE of Philadelphia, long and well known by his writings, "much benefit may be derived from carrying the patient frequently into the open air in a carriage, or in the arms, or, when its residence is near a large river, sailing it daily in an open boat." And Dr. JOHN BELL of the same city says, "The restorative effects of fresh air in cholera-infantum are strikingly evinced in the relief procured by many hundreds of children every summer in Philadelphia, by their simply crossing and recrossing the River Delaware in steamboats once or twice a day. New life is restored to the little beings, who, on leaving their homes in the city, seemed almost exanimate, and in the last stage of incurable exhaustion." Dr. JAMES STEWART of New York, in his treatise on the diseases of children, and our own honored patriarch of the profession, the late Dr. JAMES JACKSON, in his letters to a young physician, speak in similar terms of the great advantage of change of place and of air. The "aquatic jaunts" recommended by Dr. STEWART, and spoken of as so efficacious by Dr. BELL, are among the advantages to be secured by the plan proposed by our Park Commissioners. I wish twenty tons of little children could be shipped every fine summer day for a good sail. There is one particular region which I will mention as like to be specially benefited by the plan referred to,--a region which would get the advantages of the fresh air coming over the wide estuary of Charles River without the expense and trouble of taking boats. The narrow and crowded streets of the northern slope of Beacon Hill, and a wide region extending northward from it, are inhabited by the very class most exposed to cholera-infantum and diseases of that nature. Having lived for many years in Charles Street, where I am no longer an owner, I had occasion to learn the incomparable comfort and delight to be got in a hot summer's day, when the wind is from the southwest, by turning the corner of Charles and Cambridge Streets, and getting into the current of air cooled by passing over the water. Some of the poor mothers with sick children had found out where to bring them for relief; and I often thought, if there were an open green filling up that corner, with shade trees and seats, what a priceless _sanatorium_ it would be to all that suffering quarter of the city! The proposed green margin, beginning at Leverett Street, and extending along the river, will meet this very want; and this is only one locality of many which will thus turn its natural advantages to account. I have preferred to insist on a single point rather than to expatiate on a larger number. But I trust that the eloquence of others will enforce and illustrate the innumerable advantages our city will derive from the only chain she would submit to,--a chain of pleasure-grounds all around her. The Bostonian has looked up at the gilded dome of the State House, and down at the reflection of his own features in the Frog Pond, long enough. Our city has always been a centre; and it must not act as if it considered itself a mere feeder. We must provide ourselves with the complete equipment, not of a village community, not of a thriving town, but of a true metropolis, large enough for a citizen of the world to live in without feeling himself provincialized, and not too large for one honest mayor like our own to handle. The marrow-bones of the past are pretty well cleared out, or will be before the Centennial year is over, and we must not be content to live on them for another century. The Old Elm got enough of it,--grew discontented, and started on its travels for wider quarters, but, unfortunately, stumbled and fell. Let us take the hint, and plant a thousand acres with young elms and all other trees of the forest, where the hillsides are not already clad in foliage; so that the children of coming generations may bless our memory, not only for all the happiness they have had in their shadow, but for saving more lives to the country than were lost in any one of the battles which scarred and crippled their fathers. [Applause.] THE PRESIDENT. Gentlemen, you have been addressed by two of the learned professions. It follows, as a matter of course, that you will now be addressed by one from the third, the most important and most respected of all. I am happy to introduce to you the Rev. Dr. NEALE, the oldest settled pastor of the city of Boston. [Applause.] SPEECH OF THE REV. ROLLIN H. NEALE, D.D. I do not intend, my friends, to trespass much upon your time, and certainly shall not presume to give any new information on the subject which has been presented. Owing, probably, to my long residence here, it has been thought, I suppose, that my _testimony_, in these days of calling for witnesses, may be of some importance. Of the financial bearings of this proposed enterprise, of course I cannot judge. These are to be considered and acted upon by men on whom the public responsibility rests, who will, doubtless, act considerately and wisely; but the desirableness of the thing itself is unquestionable. I have had opportunity, with some gentlemen here present, of wandering of a summer's day through the beautiful and extensive parks of Europe and of this country, and know how welcome and refreshing they are to the weary traveller. "Boston Common," of course, we praise everywhere; and when abroad, and thinking of dear home, say there is nothing like it the world over. It is a good feature in the character of Bostonians to love their own city. There is something delightful in its old buildings, and even its crooked streets. We forget political and even religious differences in view of ancient landmarks. We cling to the Old South, and would gladly have kept Brattle Square with its cannon-ball, whatever might have been thought of its theology. We cherish the memory of our fathers, and wish to keep among us, as far as possible, signs of the good old days. This is right and noble; but equally right, and quite as unselfish, is it to think of those who shall come after us. HORACE BUSHNELL was a scholar, and wrote many elaborate works on metaphysics and divinity; but the Bushnell Park of Hartford will probably be that for which coming generations will thank him most. Certainly it will keep his memory fragrant and green forever. Our good city is justly famous for its hospitals and physicians, as well as its churches and clergymen. I hope the contemplated parks may not supersede the sanctuary and the sermon, though, as they say, there are "sermons in stones, and good in every thing." But certain it is, that a ramble through green fields at any time, and along sparkling streams, is better than a sick-bed, or the apothecary's drugs and doses. We are all of us, I suppose, more or less subject to the blues, business-men, clergymen, and even politicians. In such cases, it is of no use to shut one's self up in the house, and brood over trouble. The best remedy is a walk, a good long stretch into the country, fresh air, a hearty laugh with some friend; or an exhilarating ride, Brother MURRAY would say, probably, behind a "perfect horse." And these are some of the blessings it is proposed to secure for us. The very season now here speaks impressively for this enterprise. The glories of a June day, how they make us yearn for rural scenes! Nature everywhere is beckoning. "The mountains and the hills break forth before us into singing, and all the trees of the field clap their hands." THE PRESIDENT. We have listened with much satisfaction and enjoyment to the address of one of the clergymen of the city of Boston: but all denominations of the Christian Church are included in this call; and I am now happy to introduce to you the Rev. Mr. BODFISH, Rector of the Catholic Cathedral of the Holy Cross of the city of Boston. [Applause.] SPEECH OF THE REV. J. P. BODFISH. MR. PRESIDENT AND GENTLEMEN,--I am happy to stand here, where so many of my ancestors have stood, and to address my fellow-citizens on such a measure of public importance. When this matter was first brought to my attention through the papers, when the plan proposed in all its grandeur first came before my mind, I was reminded of a saying of a musical friend of mine. He belonged to a band. He came from the fatherland; and his great specialty was to play on the trombone. After a while, it became rather remarkable, these solos on the trombone; and some of the college boys wanted to put him down a little; so they commenced by applauding. That seemed to have no effect. So one night they thought they would try another plan. He was playing his best on the trombone; and one of the boys cried out, "Louder!" And so he began again on the trombone; and the boys said, "Louder!" And he tried again on the trombone; and the boys still cried, "Louder!" And they still kept on, "Louder!" until he almost burst every blood-vessel. And he put down his instrument in disgust and said, "It is very well to say, 'Louder!' but where is you going to get the vind?" [Laughter.] Now when I thought of this system, and the immense expense it would be, I said to myself, Now, that is a grand system; it would be beautiful indeed; but where are you going to get the money? But then I took the Report of those able Commissioners, this pamphlet that is spoken of; and I read it myself carefully to see if it was a practicable and feasible plan, and was surprised to see the ability with which the whole matter had been treated. So thorough had been their investigations, that they had demonstrated it was perfectly clear that this grand and beautiful system of parks could be built at this time, now, with a very slight taxation upon the whole business community; and, furthermore, that by the improvement of property in the neighborhood of the parks, and by the advantage to the city in general, the money expended would soon return to the taxpayers of the city; and so that objection is disposed of at once. There seems to be no difficulty. There are so many solid men here in Boston, that a work of this kind surely can be carried out with greater ease than it has been in other cities; and we know in other cities they have reaped great pecuniary benefit from the establishment and building-up of their system of parks. But you would hardly expect a clergyman here to talk on the financial question: that is a little out of order. But the physicians have considered the medical point of view, the sanitary point of view, how necessary it is to the health of the city; and the financiers have demonstrated that it is easy in a financial point of view; and it would be natural for me to speak here to-night, perhaps, on the moral necessity of such a system of parks. Now, when I think of the conditions under which a great many of our poor people live, I am not very much surprised that they are goaded into desperation to commit some fearful crime; because we know very well, where a person lives in the country, and has the blue sky over his head, and the running brooks gurgling through the meadows, and the green trees and villages, and every thing cheerful and pleasant about him, why, he is removed from a great many temptations that are common to a large city; and we know, that, in a moral point of view, the people of a town or of a country district are removed from a great many temptations and incentives to crime: therefore every one who wishes well for the religious welfare of the people would be glad to have these parks established as a real moral agent in the community and to the people of this city. And, as my respected friend has suggested, perhaps the people would rather go out in the park than to stop and hear our dull sermons. But I would run even that risk; for the Lord's Day, you know, is a day of rest; and, after we pay our homage to our Creator, I think it would be pleasant even to Him to go and take your family, and take a stroll out into these pleasant parks that are proposed for your health. [Applause.] And then there is another feature which pleases me very much. You know, in the olden time, the lords and nobles, and those who possessed the landed estates, they felt it their duty to provide for the welfare of the laboring classes, upon whom they depended really for their riches; for they tilled their lands, and brought them in their incomes and the returns from their estates: and so they watched over them with a kind of a paternal care; and, when they were sick, they provided for them hospitals, and they watched over them as a father would over his family. Now, we live in a little somewhat different order of society; but still there remains the same common duty for the men of wealth, for the men who possess capital, to look out and provide for the wants and necessities of the poor, on whom they depend to a great extent; for capital cannot be independent of labor. [Applause.] Now I see around me, I may say, the nobility of this city. They may not have long, sounding titles; but they have the wealth, they have the philanthropy; and their presence here to-night shows you that they have those same generous impulses toward the whole of this city's population. They have come here as a unit: they are willing to pay whatever is required to build this magnificent system of parks, that all the people of every class may enjoy its benefits. I say they are acting the part of the nobles of old; and they are taking care of the people of this city as though they had a certain paternal influence and responsibility toward them [applause], and it rejoices my heart. And in another point of view, we know that the safety of any community and society depends upon the contentment and happiness of all classes of its people. If there is one class that is ground down, and unhappy, and living under unworthy conditions, they are, of course, immediately a dangerous element. I say that it is a matter of good policy, as a stroke of political economy, to provide for the wants of all classes of people in this way, that they may live contented and happy, and have every thing that is necessary for the health and recreation of their families. [Applause.] I cannot, of course, at this late hour, delay you with arguments. You have had sufficient already. That, as I understand it, is not the chief object of our meeting here. The arguments are at present before the authorities in this excellent Report of the Commissioners. We meet here to encourage them to go forward, to speak out in such a positive manner, that they can hesitate no longer. It is our duty to cheer them and encourage them in their work, and we hardly realize what an influence this meeting will have in encouraging them to the great and arduous work which they have undertaken to accomplish. Why, it reminds me of a little incident that happened in New York not long ago, when one of those great buildings was on fire,--those nine-story tenement-houses. When the great crowd gathered there in the night, and they were surging there, the police were trying to keep order, and the firemen were working, and the hot flames shot up toward the sky, and the black smoke rolled forth, and all was din and confusion; and, in the noise and tumult of that dark and threatening night, there was one voice heard. It was a mother's voice above the noise; and she cried, "Save my child! Will no one save my child?" And they would hush her; but still she cried, "Oh, save my child!" And there was one of the brave firemen, when he learned that a little child was in the fourth story of that building, who thought of his little ones at home; and he said he would risk his life, he would dare any thing, rather than that child should be lost. And they brought the great ladders, and they spliced them together, and they swung them up against the burning building; and he commenced to ascend. And, when he was halfway up, he looked at the hot flames and the dense smoke rolling forth, and his heart trembled with fear: it seemed to be instant death. But some one in the crowd below, who knew the springs that govern the human heart, cried, "Cheer him!" "Cheer him!" And there went up from that great crowd the wild hurrah, and it cheered his heart like an electric thrill; and he rushed on, and disappeared in the smoke. All was suspense; they waited with breathless anxiety: and at last he returned with the child, and placed it in its mother's arms. [Tremendous applause.] So you see the power of a word of encouragement and cheer when any one has arduous work before him; and that is our duty here to-night, my fellow-citizens,--to speak out with one voice, and determined voice, and to cheer those who have undertaken this work, and to let them know that we are ready to support them, that now is the time, and that we are determined that this great work shall be accomplished. [Applause and cheers.] THE PRESIDENT. I shall now have the pleasure of introducing to the audience Col. CHARLES W. WILDER. [Applause.] SPEECH OF COL. CHARLES W. WILDER. This large gathering of our citizens in Faneuil Hall is for some purpose: it is significant that the people want something. I do not understand that it is in any sense to re-affirm their conviction that their best interests will be served by adding to our public property a park or parks. That question has been fully discussed and decided by the people themselves for themselves: they settled that by their, with remarkable unanimity, voting to accept the act of the legislature, giving power to the city government to purchase or take land for that purpose. All classes seem to agree upon the necessity. The entire medical faculty with one voice say we want it for sanitary reasons, and have joined in the general petitions. Our capitalists and merchants have spoken for themselves unmistakably by their petitions to the city government, bearing more than seven thousand names, and representing, I am informed, more than two hundred millions of taxable property. An able Commission, after a year of careful study, and diligent devotion to their duty, have made their report. The people have examined, discussed, criticised, and finally approved and accepted it, and now come here in Faneuil Hall to speak direct to City Hall for its adoption. Mr. President, our professional men, our merchants and capitalists, have spoken for themselves by their petitions and voices here to-night. It remains only for me to speak for the more numerous class of our fellow-citizens who pay but two dollars poll-tax. Yet they are as good citizens, have and feel as deep interest in the growth, prosperity, and progress of our city, as their more fortunate neighbors; and in the name and behalf of the mechanics, the laborers, the great mass of men that build our cities, and whose labor contributes so much to our growth and prosperity, and whose employment is the one thing more than any other needed to-day to inaugurate the beginning of our old-time prosperity, I appeal to our city government to complete the work so opportunely and well begun. It is immediate action we ask for. There being no difference of opinion as to the necessity and utility of parks, and their ultimate payment for their full cost, the only open question is the time to begin. We say that time is now,--now, while thousands of unwillingly idle hands are waiting for work, and money is cheap; cheap, because labor is unemployed. We say to you, gentlemen of the city government, respectfully but earnestly, Act upon this matter now. Don't wait till your summer vacation; don't wait till next month; don't let any personal matter intervene to prevent the performance of this public duty the people now ask at your hands. The present truly great debt of our city, the bulk of which has been created in improvements, made enormously more costly by the failure of city governments in past times to comprehend the wants of a growing metropolis, admonishes you to act now, and secure the advantages the present favorable combination of circumstances offers. We confer on you the power to spend our money for the public good; and we ask you to act now, because we clearly see that delay means largely increased cost for what we must have in the near future. THE PRESIDENT. The Act under which this Commission was appointed, and has discharged its duty, was supported, I think, by nearly every member of the Boston delegation; and I may be allowed a single moment to add a tribute of respect to that delegation. Boston has been well represented, with one exception, perhaps, during the last two years, in the State legislature; and I am very happy to know that you are now to be addressed by a member of that delegation, who, as I said, supported this Act when it was passed; who did not always vote with me on every occasion, but who never voted against his conscience, never supported any thing dishonest, or unjust, or unfair; and who will stand up, I have no doubt, to-night, and speak well his mind, as he did on every fit occasion in the State House, for what he deems just and right, and for the good of the people: Mr. JOSEPH F. PAUL, whom I am very happy to introduce to you. [Applause.] SPEECH OF MR. JOSEPH F. PAUL. MR. CHAIRMAN AND GENTLEMEN,--I hardly know what reply to make to the remarks of the gentleman who has just taken his seat. In fact, I think I had better let them go, and allow you to judge for yourselves after I have said what I propose to say. I may say, in the first place, that this is my first appearance upon this stand as a speaker; and, when called upon to speak after such gentlemen as you have listened to to-night, I trust you will make all due allowance for any mistakes that I may make. But I claim the right as a citizen of Boston, as a tax-payer of Boston, to express my opinion upon this subject, as upon all others in which I take an interest. The necessity of parks has been made apparent to every gentleman here by those who are better qualified than I am to do so. I believe that there is no man here who does not believe that we are to have parks. I have not heard from such; and I do not believe that there is such a man, unless it is one who does not expect to enjoy them himself, and is unwilling that posterity should. Taking it for granted that that question is settled, the only question which seems to be before the people is, whether this is the proper time; and I propose to address myself to the consideration of that question. I propose to speak of it as of a private enterprise, and as an individual business-man. It has been explained to you in regard to the condition of the labor-market, and I think that I may say fairly and squarely that labor of the character to be used about parks has not been so cheap for twenty years. Money is cheap; labor is required; parks are wanted; and it is better to keep the men at work, and retain them in the city, than to sustain them and their families at the public cost. It is not like sending out of the country to import something for which we must pay our money. All the money is to be paid to our own citizens; and, unless some show of enterprise is made, we shall lose business-men from this city. They will not stay here, and do nothing, unless the city government makes some show of enterprise. I have had some experience myself in the city government, having been a member of it, whether that is an honor or not; though I hold that the honor or dishonor of any society depends upon one's own conduct. There is always some doubt about making a move in the city government; and, in a matter like the park question, such a meeting as this will be a great encouragement to action. The public feeling on this question is so great, that the parks must be established. The project has been fought no harder than the Water Board was; and where would the city of Boston be, if the friends of that enterprise had not succeeded? Act here to-night, and then let the city government do its part. Objections may be made by some gentlemen, made conscientiously; but, five years from now, these gentlemen will not remember that they raised any objection. This meeting is called for the purpose of giving the city government to understand that the business-men, the working-men, of the city, mean what they say, when they say that they want public parks; and there is no question that an impulse will be given to the action of the city government by this meeting. We are the city of Boston; and the members of the city government act for us. Gentlemen, it is getting late, and there are those to follow who will entertain you better than I can. But I propose to close with a little story which I heard; and it was in church that I heard it, in an excellent sermon. Just after the war of 1812, our laboring men stood, as they stand to-day, idling about the wharves and public places. That was the case in a little town to the east of Boston. They had enterprising men, as we have now; and one day a gentleman stepped into a bank, and said to the president, "Mr. President, I am going to build a ship."--"What do you know about shipbuilding?" asked the president. "Nothing. But I can do the business; and there are men here who can do the work. We have the money, and there are the men. I will build the ship, and sell it; you will get your money back; and the profit will be divided among the men." The idea was a novel one; but the president wanted to set the wheels of business in motion; and so he said that he would give an answer the next day. The gentleman called promptly the next morning; and the president informed him that the directors had agreed to advance the money. The gentleman then went out among the idle men, and said, "I am going to build a ship, and I want you to do the work. I will pay you enough to live on; and, when the ship is built, we will divide the profit." So they went to work as co-partners, and built the ship, this gentleman generously attending to the business. The ship was built and launched and sold, the money was paid to the bank, and the profits divided. That was the first ship built on the Merrimack in Newburyport, which has since become one of the largest shipbuilding places in Massachusetts. So we want something to set the wheels in motion. The city of Boston can borrow the money, and buy the land, for these parks, more cheaply now than ever again; and the men are ready to do the work. I know of nothing more that I can say. I am glad to see this hall filled to-night. There are men here to-night who have at heart the interests and prosperity of the city of Boston. That is what we are acting for; and I trust that that hundred men will go up to City Hall, and, if the city government will move in the matter, every true man will deem it his duty to stand behind and encourage them. THE PRESIDENT. My friends, the best things and the most enthusiastic meetings must come to an end; but those who wait till the last generally get the best. I have now the pleasure of introducing to you the closing speaker, the Hon. P. A. COLLINS. SPEECH OF THE HON. P. A. COLLINS. I know that no word of mine can add to the force of this movement. I am neither great tax-payer nor eminent sanitarist. I cannot hope to equal others who have discussed the moral, æsthetic, sanitary, and economic phases of the question before us. But, happily, there is no need of such discussion now. The question of public parks has been submitted, in all its forms and probable effects, to the ablest, keenest, wisest, of our citizens; and there is but one answer. The answer is, that we need more out-door life than our sedentary race enjoys, and that public grounds, accessible to all, are not only desirable, but necessary to the moral and physical health of our crowded population. This is the verdict; and, granted this, there remain but two questions,--"Is this the time?" "Can we afford it?" To some, the present is never the time for any thing. Their motto seems to be, "Don't do to-day what you can put off till to-morrow, because you may not live till to-morrow, and then you won't have to do it at all." This principle has been acted upon by short-sighted Boston too long; and the result is a melancholy looking-back to the time when improvements could have been made for a tenth or a fifteenth of the present cost. We are told of our beautiful suburbs, as if they can be suburbs forever. Even now, they are but for the rich. Beware of trespassing in the fields and woods: they are private property. The roads seem to belong to blood-horses and their owners. If you wish to know the future, look at the past. Look back, you aged men, to the fields and gardens of Tremont and Boylston Streets. Look back, you younger men, to rambles through South Boston farms, and land at "South End" sold by the acre. Always comes the old conservative admonition, "Wait!"--yes, wait till the great sea-wall makes City Point of Castle Island,--wait till the now extended arms of Boston clasp Brookline to the bosom of the metropolis,--wait till private avarice and easy legislation, acting intermittently, deface the shore and basin of Charles River,--wait till the dense and ever growing population, bursting from its narrow bounds, spreads itself in streets laid out at random, over what you are pleased to call our suburbs,--wait, in short, till the inevitable happens, and where are your public parks? You may have them, even then, I grant you; but you will have them where _the people_ cannot reach them, and where the cost will be too great. Remember that our city growth is like the growth of all cities in the New World and the Old; and, if we want green places in the future Boston, we must seize them now. Can we afford the expense? Rather, let us ask, Can Boston afford to be less comfortable to live in, less attractive, less healthy, than sister cities? We can afford police, paved streets, light, sewers, scavengers, a fire department, a board of health, and a score of other agencies, not because they give salaries and employment to certain men, but because the public health and safety require it; we can afford schools, maintained at enormous cost, though it may be conceded that we could live without education; we can afford pure water in abundance, be the expense never so great, because we need it; and, if we need pure air, we can afford to pay for it, to seize the means of having it, and keeping it forever. And suffer me, with due modesty, to say, that we in this meeting--representing as we do the commerce, industries, and professions of this goodly town--have a right to demand that what we ask shall be given us, and that Boston shall take and hold for the use of its people this needed reservation, while yet there is time. I trust our city fathers will need no further admonition than this meeting gives; but, if they should, we are enlisted for the war. As Cromwell, grimly looking down on the fair fields and shining streams of the land he came to conquer, said, "This is a land worth fighting for," so let us, as we survey the magnificent area of shore and hill and glade which fortune now permits us to dedicate to public use, exclaim, "This, indeed, is worth our effort;" and let us strive for it till the battle is won. THE PRESIDENT. I have been requested to state that the well-known physician, Dr. EDWARD H. CLARKE, who is too ill to be present here to-night, has written a long and interesting letter on the subject of this meeting, which will be published in the morning papers; and I desire that every citizen present will make a point of reading that letter. LETTER OF DR. EDWARD H. CLARKE. HAMILTON A. HILL, ESQ., SECRETARY, &C. _Dear Sir_,--I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your note of the 2d inst., requesting me, in the name of the committee who have called a public meeting on the park question, to address to them a letter which shall contain my views upon "the necessity existing at the present time for action on this subject, and upon the Report of the Park Commissioners." If my views are of any value to the community on this question, or if I could exert any influence, however little, in bringing about a result so necessary to the comfort, prosperity, and health of all the citizens of Boston, as the establishment of a public park within the limits of the city, I should esteem it not less a privilege than a duty to present those views, and exert that influence. Among the many and weighty considerations that might be appropriately urged in favor of the establishment of a park in this city, three stand out so prominently, that their importance can scarcely be overestimated. These are, first, the sanitary, second, the educational, and, third, the economic aspects of the question. Let me call your attention briefly to these three points. The first is the sanitary aspect of the park. The discussion of sewerage and drainage, and of the ventilation of sewers, drains, and houses, with which our community have latterly been made familiar, has impressed upon our citizens, to some extent, the importance of introducing pure air into our houses, and of keeping foul air out of them. The importance of such ventilation cannot be overstated. But we are in danger of forgetting that the importance of ventilating a city is as great as that of ventilating all the houses in it, with this difference, that if a city is not well ventilated, so as to bring fresh air into it, and to keep foul air and poisonous gases out of it, the ventilation of individual dwellings will be of little avail. The foul air of the streets will not only envelop those who pass through them, but will penetrate the houses that line them, visiting alike the sick and the well, increasing the danger of disease to the former, and diminishing the health and strength of the latter. In proportion as a city increases in size, large open spaces should be reserved. Parks are the lungs of the city. They are more than this: they are reservoirs of oxygen and fresh air. They produce atmospheric currents, which sweep through and purify the streets. Parks not only offer oxygen to all who visit them, but distribute a large amount of this prime necessity of life everywhere in their neighborhood. Without open spaces appropriately placed, it is impossible, in a large city, to have well ventilated streets, and to keep the air of the houses sweet and clean. Let us remember, moreover, that bad ventilation means poisoned air, and that poisoned air is sure to be followed by a ghastly train of diseases, with an occasional pestilence to remind the inhabitants what a terrible thing it is to disregard sanitary laws. Improved ventilation is by no means the only sanitary good that parks yield to a city wise enough to possess them. A fraction, and only a small fraction, of our population, are able to leave the city during the hot months of the year, for the country. When these favored ones reach Nahant, Swampscott, or Newport, or some modest farmhouse, or comfortable dwelling by the side of the many railroads that lead from the foulness of the city to the purity of the country, or of the mountains, how gladly and enthusiastically they speak of their escape from heat, discomfort, and disease, to coolness, comfort, and health! But the mass of the community,--the artisans and work-people, whose necessities compel them to remain within the limits of the city,--their families, children, sick ones and all, have at present no such escape from close and impure air. The carrying of little children who are pinched by cholera-infantum, or spotted by scarlet-fever, or of those who are paralyzed by diphtheria, or distorted by scrofula, or emaciated by consumption, for a few hours a day into the pure air and bright sunlight of an open square, has saved many a life. Many a needless death has occurred, because the city afforded no such opportunity for escape. A few hours' exposure of a child on a mother's lap, or in a basket or carriage, to the freshness of a park, will produce a sleep that never follows opium, chloral, or ether, and will yield a chance for health that no drug can give. For the last few years, Philadelphia has shown a diminished death-rate. Dr. WILLIAM PEPPER, who has lately investigated the sanitary condition of that city, commenting upon the gratifying fact just stated, says, "While thus showing an average rate of mortality more favorable than that found in any other city containing over 500,000 inhabitants, Philadelphia has recently (1874) attained a degree of healthfulness almost unparalleled; namely, with a population at that time of 775,000, the number of deaths was but 14,966, giving a death-rate of only 19.3 per thousand. These very favorable results are largely due to the abundant and cheap water-supply, and to the opportunities given, even to the poorest citizens, for the enjoyment of pure country air in the great Fairmount Park, which contains 2,991 acres. The extent to which this is valued by the citizens may be inferred from the fact, that, during the year 1875, the park was visited by over eleven million persons." There is no reason why a park in Boston should not yield as good a sanitary result as one in Philadelphia. While looking at the sanitary aspects of this subject, let us not forget that a park laid out in accordance with the plan of the Park Commissioners will utilize localities that would otherwise become plague-spots, and nurseries of disease. The low lands along the banks of Charles River, portions of the Back Bay, and other sections that might be mentioned, are sure to become unhealthy localities,--stations for distributing the germs of disease throughout their neighborhood and at a distance from them,--unless they are reserved, and left unoccupied. The most extravagant way of disposing of such localities is for the city to permit them to be built over, "improved" is the phrase, I believe, and then suffer the consequences, in the way of increase of disease and taxes, which follow such sort of improvements. Let us now pass from the sanitary to the educational aspect of our subject. The educational value of a park to the community of a large city is second only to its sanitary value. We are too apt to think that education is the exclusive function of the school, and that books and school-teachers are the only educators. This is a grievous mistake. The education of the home and street, of the workshop and store, of the church and theatre, of the base-ball club and the evening party, of the rum-shop and dance-hall, and of the numerous other influences of a great city, is more potent than that of the school. The evil of all evil agencies is intensified, and the good of the good ones diminished, by uncleanness and impure air. Clean hands and a pure heart go together. Foul air prompts to vice, and oxygen to virtue, as surely as sunlight paints the flowers, and ripens the fruits, of our gardens. The tired workman, who, after a day's labor, needs the repose and relaxation of home, is apt to be driven from it by the close atmosphere of the street and house in which he lives. He would, if he could, get into the fresh air of the country; but, as he cannot do this, he seeks the relief which drink or other excitement yields. If there were a park accessible to him, he with his family would seek it as instinctively as a plant stretches towards the light. The varied opportunities of a park would educate him and his family into the enjoyment of innocent amusements and open-air pleasures. Deprived of these, he and his are educated into the ways of disease and vice by the character of their surroundings. Who that has watched the groups of families, neighbors, and friends, that bivouac by hundreds and thousands on the parks which cluster around, adorn, and invigorate the great cities of Europe, can have failed to notice the innocent amusements and enjoyment of these crowds of young and old, or to be impressed with the fact that the influence of the natural scenes around them, of the trees and plants and flowers, of the pure air and bright skies, is a humanizing and elevating one? It is difficult to compute the value of such an influence in dollars and cents, or to measure it by any scale that the market acknowledges; but it is, nevertheless, a real, substantial, and potent one. If our large cities are the pride and boast of the republic, they also contain the greatest elements of danger to the state and the nation. Ignorance and vice, disease and crime, crowd themselves into cities. There they find their best hiding-places, their surest protection, and their most defenceless victims. It makes one tremble to think of the thousands of youth in our cities whom the school and the church do not reach, and who are moulded by these influences into the worst and lowest forms of humanity. They can not and will not go out into the country themselves, except upon some errand of violence and crime. The city should therefore bring the country to them, and give them a chance, at least, to experience its humanizing and blessed influence. A park, or a series of parks, with its trees and running waters, its grass and plants and flowers, its variegated surface and changing views, and all the beauty with which such scenes are flooded, supplements the labor of the church and school in educating, refining, and elevating the community. There will be less gambling, drinking, and quarrelling in Boston, when the mass of its inhabitants shall be allowed to partake of the blessing and beauty of a public park. These considerations naturally bring us to the third point which has been mentioned, viz., the economic aspect of the matter. Few will deny the truth of the above statements; but the admission of their truth is apt to be coupled with the reply, "The park will cost so much, we cannot afford it." It is true that it will cost a good deal, but not so much to each household as the inevitable cost of the sickness, vice, and death, which the opportunities that a park provides would prevent. Are human life and health and virtue so cheap, that we can afford to count the cost of procuring and maintaining them? Are vice, crime, and disease so unimportant, that we can afford to let them thrive, and propagate themselves indefinitely? We cannot repeat too often, or ponder too seriously, the statement made in the first report of the Park Commissioners: "Nothing is so costly as sickness and disease: nothing so cheap as health. Whatever promotes the former is the worst sort of extravagance: whatever fosters the latter is the truest economy." The truth is, it will cost the city of Boston more to get on without a park than to incur the expense of buying and taking care of one. We pay at present an enormous sum yearly for the maintenance of hospitals, prisons, jails, and workhouses. It is not asserted that the establishment of a park will depopulate these institutions, or render them unnecessary; but no sanitarian will deny that one result, and a most important one, of the establishment of a park, would be to diminish the number of those who are compelled to resort to these institutions. A greater economy than all this would be found to accrue to each household in the increased comfort, diminished sickness, more vigorous health, and ample enjoyment, that would be added to all its members. Boston has been long and justly celebrated for its health, beauty, and wealth. If it loses the two first of these distinctions, how long will it retain the last? Business and population will turn away from an unhealthy and unattractive town. Defective sewerage and imperfect drainage are sapping the health; and the occupation of the suburbs by houses, manufactories, workshops, and stores, is destroying the beauty of the city. Will the merchants of Boston, whose reputation for intelligence, sagacity, and enterprise has gone out to the ends of the world, permit a false economy to blind them to the importance of this whole matter? Of the details of the financial question, I am not qualified to speak; but I will venture a single remark. It seems only a piece of common sense to one unfamiliar with the intricate problems of finance to say, that, if the present time is one of great depression of values, it is precisely the time when a wealthy corporation like the city of Boston can purchase the land for a park at the lowest price, and therefore should do it. Permit me to add a single word with regard to the plan proposed by the Commissioners. It offers more advantages, and fewer disadvantages, than any other that has been proposed. This might be expected, when we reflect that it was prepared in accordance with the advice of Mr. OLMSTEAD, than whom no one is better qualified to advise in such matters. It may be safely asserted, that if Boston should accept this plan, and authorize it to be carried out, the city would possess a park unique in its character, of unrivalled beauty, and one which all our citizens, young and old, rich and poor, would greatly enjoy, and of which, if they once obtained it, they would never be bribed to dispossess themselves. The Rev. Dr. ELLIS, in his recent eloquent address at the centennial anniversary of the evacuation of Boston, used the following language, "As I read the history of our fathers in all their generations, their toil and virtue seem to me to have been the noblest, in their steady regard for the welfare and happiness of their posterity. And as I firmly believe that no single individual can follow the highest pattern of an earthly life, unless his hope and faith link on to a future, so I find it proved in all biographies and annals, that all unselfish, noble, and heroic lives are those which parents lead for their children and their children's children. We have such lives among us in city, state, and nation, private and public, high and humble." May we be true to the reputation and tradition of our fathers, and provide as intelligently for the well-being of ourselves and our posterity as they provided for themselves and for us! I am, with great respect, very truly yours, EDW. H. CLARKE. ARLINGTON STREET, BOSTON, June 6, 1876. The President, in calling for a vote on the resolutions, said, I merely wish to say that old Faneuil Hall can stand a great deal of noise; but still I would recommend, for the benefit of future audiences, that you should not take off the roof, nor burst the windows, nor put out the gas. [Laughter.] The resolutions were unanimously agreed to; and the following committee of a hundred, to present the result of the meeting to the city government, was appointed; the assembly dispersing shortly after ten o'clock. COMMITTEE OF ONE HUNDRED. Joseph S. Ropes William P. Hunt Marshall P. Wilder Hamilton A. Hill Oliver W. Holmes, M.D. Joseph F. Paul Richard Frothingham Charles W. Wilder Samuel Cabot, M.D. M. F. Dickinson, jun. J. Baxter Upham, M.D. P. A. Collins Thomas J. Gargan Albert Bowker George C. Richardson John C. Pratt John P. Reynolds, M.D. Jerome Jones John W. Candler H. H. A. Beach, M.D. George B. Chase S. J. Langmaid, M.D. William E. Coffin Joseph H. Chadwick Francis A. Osborn Benjamin Deane Ralph Crooker J. J. McNutt Robert Seaver Nath. Adams J. Mitchell Galvin B. F. Nourse W. W. Morland, M.D. Martin Griffin Richard Olney John J. May Joseph W. Balch M. Doherty C. Allen Richards Thomas B. Curtis, M.D. Charles L. Thayer Thomas Gogin William E. Perkins Royal E. Robbins James Edwards William W. Clapp J. Tisdale Bradlee E. B. Haskell Jonas Fitch C. F. Donnelly James Sturgis T. Quincy Browne J. N. Borland, M.D. F. E. Goodrich Charles W. Slack Charles W. Morris Clement H. Hill D. N. Skillings William V. Hutchings Hales W. Suter William T. Hart Henry Smith Robert Johnson William Atherton Asa P. Potter Charles J. Bishop William J. R. Evans Aaron D. Williams Charles Nowell Henry C. Morse Jacob Pfaff S. Parkman Dexter Eben D. Jordan George P. King George Woods Rice Albert Thompson Thomas Mack Joseph Dix Lewis Coleman H. M. Bearce Charles F. Choate William B. Bacon Roland Worthington George O. Carpenter M. B. Leonard, M.D. Henry J. Nazro A. H. Lewis J. Kent Crowley George G. Crocker James N. Spillane Charles L. Haley W. H. Forbes Waldo Adams J. B. Dacey John F. Payson James F. Gray Hollis Hunnewell John Bigelow Martin Hayes A. Claxton Cary 
26132	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) THE APPLE-TREE THE OPEN COUNTRY BOOKS A continuing company of genial little books about the out-of-doors Under the editorship of L. H. BAILEY 1. The Apple-Tree L. H. Bailey 2. A Home Vegetable Garden Ella M. Freeman 3. The Cow Jared Van Wagenen, Jr. Others about weather and the sky, scenery, camps, recreation, quadrupeds, fishes, birds, insects, reptiles, plants, and the places in the open. The Open Country Books--No. 1 THE APPLE-TREE BY L. H. BAILEY NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1922 _All rights reserved_ PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA COPYRIGHT, 1922, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1922. FERRIS PRINTING COMPANY NEW YORK CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Where There is no Apple-Tree 7 II. The Apple-Tree in the Landscape 10 III. The Buds on the Twigs 15 IV. The Weeks Between the Flower and the Fruit 19 V. The Brush Pile 27 VI. The Pruning of the Apple-Tree 36 VII. Maintaining the Health and Energy of the Apple-Tree 41 VIII. How an Apple-Tree is Made 48 IX. The Dwarf Apple-Tree 54 X. Whence Comes the Apple-Tree? 60 XI. The Varieties of Apple 66 XII. The Pleasant Art of Grafting 79 XIII. The Mending of the Apple-Tree 85 XIV. Citizens of the Apple-Tree 89 XV. The Apple-Tree Regions 97 XVI. The Harvest of the Apple-Tree 102 XVII. The Appraisal of the Apple-Tree 107 [Illustration: 1. The home apple-tree] THE APPLE-TREE I WHERE THERE IS NO APPLE-TREE The wind is snapping in the bamboos, knocking together the resonant canes and weaving the myriad flexile wreaths above them. The palm heads rustle with a brisk crinkling music. Great ferns stand in the edge of the forest, and giant arums cling their arms about the trunks of trees and rear their dim jacks-in-the-pulpit far in the branches; and in the greater distance I know that green parrots are flying in twos from tree to tree. The plant forms are strange and various, making mosaic of contrasting range of leaf-size and leaf-shape, palm and grass and fern, epiphyte and liana and clumpy mistletoe, of grace and clumsiness and even misproportion, a tall thick landscape all mingled into a symmetry of disorder that charms the attention and fascinates the eye. It is a soft and delicious air wherein I sit. A torrid drowse is in the receding landscape. The people move leisurely, as befits the world where there is no preparation for frost and no urgent need of laborious apparel. There are tardy bullock-carts, unconscious donkeys, and men pushing vehicles. There are odd products and unaccustomed cakes and cookies on little stands by the roadside, where the turbaned vendor sits on the ground unconcernedly. There are strange fruits in the carts, on the donkeys that move down the hillsides from distant plantations in the heart of the jungle, on the trees by winding road and thatched cottage, in the great crowded markets in the city. I recognize coconuts and mangoes, star-apples and custard-apples and cherimoyas, papayas, guavas, mamones, pomegranates, figs, christophines, and the varied range of citrus fruits. There are also great polished apples in the markets, coming from cooler regions, tied by their stems, good to look at but impossible to relish; and I understand how these people of the tropics think the apple an inferior fruit, so successfully do the poor varieties stop the desire for more. There are vegetables I have never seen before. I am conscious of a slowly moving landscape with people and birds and beasts of burden and windy vegetation, of prospects in which there are no broad smooth farm fields with fences dividing them, of scenery full of herbage, in which every lineament and action incite me and stimulate my desire for more, of days that end suddenly in the blackness of night. Yet, somehow, I look forward to the time when I may go to a more accustomed place. Either from long association with other scenes or because of some inexpressible deficiency in this tropic splendor, I am not satisfied even though I am exuberantly entertained. Something I miss. For weeks I wondered what single element I missed most. Out of the numberless associations of childhood and youth and eager manhood it is difficult to choose one that is missed more than another. Yet one day it came over me startlingly that I missed the apple-tree,--the apple-tree, the sheep, and the milch cattle! The farm home with its commodious house, its greensward, its great barn and soft fields and distant woods, and the apple-tree by the wood-shed; the good home at the end of the village with its sward and shrubbery, and apple roof-tree; the orchard, well kept, trim and apple-green, yielding its wagon-loads of fruits; the old tree on the hillside, in the pasture where generations of men have come and gone and where houses have fallen to decay; the odor of the apples in the cellar in the cold winter night; the feasts around the fireside,--I think all these pictures conjure themselves in my mind to tantalize me of home. And often in my wanderings I promise myself that when I reach home I shall see the apple-tree as I had never seen it before. Even its bark and its gnarly trunk will hold converse with me, and its first tiny leaves of the budding spring will herald me a welcome. Once again I shall be a youth with the apple-tree, but feeling more than the turbulent affection of transient youth can understand. Life does not seem regular and established when there is no apple-tree in the yard and about the buildings, no orchards blooming in the May and laden in the September, no baskets heaped with the crisp smooth fruits; without all these I am still a foreigner, sojourning in a strange land. II THE APPLE-TREE IN THE LANDSCAPE The April sun is soft on the broad open fenced fields, waking them gently from the long deep sleep of winter. Little rills are running full. The grass is newly coolly green. Fresh sprouts are in the sod. By copse and highway the shad-bushes salute with their handkerchiefs. Apple-trees show tips of verdure. It is good to see the early greens of changing spring. It is good to look abroad on an apple-tree landscape. As to its vegetation, the landscape is low and flat, not tall. There is a vast uniformity in plant forms, a subdued and constrained humility. A month later the leafage will be in glory, but that also will have an aspect of sameness and moderation. Perhaps the actual variety of species will be greater than in many parts of the abounding tropics, and to the careful observer the luxuriance will be as great, although not so big; but as I look abroad I am impressed with the economy of the prospect. It comes nearer to my powers of assimilation, quiets me with a deep satisfaction; the contrasts are subdued, the processes grade into each other imperceptibly in the land of the lingering twilight. In this prospect are maples and elms and apple-trees. The maples and elms are of the fields and roadsides. The apple-trees are of human habitations and human labor; they cluster about the buildings, or stand guard at a gate; they are in plantations made by hands. As I see them again, I wonder whether any other plant is so characteristically a home-tree. So is the apple-tree, even when full grown, within the reach of children. It can be climbed. Little swings are hung from the branches. Its shade is low and familiar. It bestows its fruit liberally to all alike. The apple is a sturdy tree. Short of trunk and short of continuous limb, it is yet a stout and rugged object, the indirectness of its branching branches adding to its picturesque quality. It is a tree of good structure. Although its limbs eventually arch to the ground, if left to themselves, they yet have great strength. The angularity of the branching, the frequent forking, the big healing or hollow knots with rounding callus-lips, give the tree character. Anywhere it would be a marked tree, unlike any other. The bark on the older surface sheds in short oblong irregular scales or plates that detach perhaps at both ends and often at the sides, clinging by the middle until the curl loosens them and they fall to the ground. These plates or chips are more or less rowed up and down the trunk and on the larger branches, yet the apple bark is not ridged and furrowed as on the elm. The bark is not checked in squares as on old pear-trees nor peeling as on cherries. In dry weather, the loose old bark is dark brown-gray, often supporting gray lichens, but in rain it is soft and nearly black, yielding pleasantly to the touch. In the forks, the bark is not so readily cast and there the chips may lie in heaps. On the young limbs and small trunks the bark is tight and close, not splitting into seams or furrows with the expansion of the cylinder but stretching and throwing off detached flakes and chips. Under the chips various insects hide or make some of their transformations. There the codlin-moth pupates. The old remains of scale insects may be found on the exterior. In the furrows about the dormant buds the eggs of plant-lice pass the winter. To destroy these breeding and hiding places, many careful apple-growers scrape away the loose bark, being careful not to expose the quick living tissue; and on the younger wood the eggs of aphis and other pests, as well as cocoons and nymphs, are destroyed by vigorous winter spraying. The regular spraying of apple-trees, in the different seasons, more or less sterilizes the bark. Many forms of canker, due to fungi and bacteria, invade the bark, making sunken areas and scars, often so serious as to destroy the tree. All these features are discoverable in the apple-tree. The trunk of the apple-tree is short and stout, usually not perfectly cylindrical and not prominently buttressed at the base. In old trees it is usually ribbed or ridged, sometimes tortuous with spiral-like grooves, often showing the bulge where the graft was set. The wood is fine-grained and of good color, and lends itself well to certain kinds of cabinet work and to the turning-lathe for household objects; it should be better known. [Illustration: 2. The apple-tree in the landscape] If left to itself, the tree branches near the ground, making many strong secondary scaffold trunks; but the plant does not habitually have more than one bole, even though it may branch from the very base; it is a real tree, even though small, and not a huge shrub. In the natural condition, the trunk often rises only a foot or two before it is lost in the branches; at other times it may be four or six feet high. Under cultivation, the lowest branches are usually removed when the tree begins to grow, and an evident clean trunk is produced. In Europe and the Eastern States, it has been the practice to trim the trunk clean to the height of four or six feet; but in hotter and drier regions the trunk is kept short to insure against sun-scald; and with the better tillage implements of the present day it may not be necessary to train the heads so high. In old hill pastures, in many parts of the North, one sees curious umbrella forms and other shapes of apple-trees, due to browsing by cattle. A little tree gets a start in the pasture. When cattle are turned in, they browse the tender terminal growth. The plant spreads at the base, in a horizontal direction. With the repeated browsing on top, the tree becomes a dense conical mound. Eventually, the leader may get a strong headway, and grows beyond the reach of the browsers. As it rises out of grasp, it sends off its side shoots, forming a head. The cattle browse the under side of this head, as far as they are able to reach, causing the tree to assume a grotesque hour-glass shape, flat on the under part of the head, with a cone of green herbage at the ground. Sometimes pastures are full of little hummocks of trees that have not yet been able to overtop the grazers. The winter apple-tree in the free is a reassuring object. It has none of the sleekness of many horticultural forms, nor the fragility of peaches, sour cherries and plums. It stands boldly against the sky, with its elbows at all angles and its scaly bark holding the snow. Against evergreens it shows its ruggedness specially well. It presents forms to attract the artist. Even when gnarly and broken, it does not convey an impression of decrepitude and decay but rather of a hardy old character bearing his burdens. In every winter landscape I look instinctively for the apple-tree. We are so accustomed to the apple-tree as a part of an orchard, where it is trimmed into shape and its bolder irregularities controlled, that we do not think it has beauty when left to itself to grow as it will. An apple-tree that takes its own course, as does a pine-tree or an oak, is looked on as unkempt and unprofitable and as a sorry object in the landscape, advertizing the neglect of the owner. Yet if the apple-tree had never borne good fruit, we should plant it for its bloom and its picturesqueness as we plant a hawthorn or a locust-tree. In winter and in summer, and in the months between, my apple-tree is a great fact. It is a character in the population of my scenery, standing for certain human emotions. The tree is a living thing, not merely a something that bears apples. III THE BUDS ON THE TWIGS Now the buds begin to break. The firm winter-buds swell. Their scales part. Tips of green appear. Tiny leaves come forth, neatly rolled inward, growing as they expand, the stalks lengthening. Resurrection is astir in the tree. Several leaves issue from every bud. From some buds arise only leaves; from others a flower-cluster emerges from the leaf-rosette, showing faint color even before it expands. Very close together and tight these unopened little flowers are packed as they emerge; if we had looked at them with a lens as they lay in the bud in the long winter we should understand why; now they escape their bonds and rapidly grow as they are delivered, yet at first pressed together by head and stem in their soft gray wool. Thus are there two kinds of buds on the twig of the bearing apple-tree,--the leaf-buds (sending forth leaves only), and the flower-buds (bearing both leaves and flowers). And if we wish to analyze more closely, we discover two kinds of leaf-buds,--those that send forth a rapidly growing shoot bearing the leaves, and those from which the leaf-cluster remains practically sessile on the branch. These latter, or the strongest and best of them, will probably give rise to short fruiting spurs and the others to elongated leafy branches. Before me as I write is an apple limb more than three feet long. It has been a vigorous grower, for it is only three years old. The years can be readily made out; there are two sets of "rings" separating them. You may see these rings on all young apple limbs. They represent the scars of the scales of the past terminal buds. Three years ago my shoot was sent off from its parent branch; that year it grew but four inches, bearing leaves on its sides, in the axils of which developed buds for the winter and at the end a larger terminal bud. Let us call this shoot 1918. Two years ago (1919), whilst I was in a distant land, the terminal bud gave rise to a shoot nineteen inches long; two buds near the end of the 1918 shoot pushed out clusters of leaves and made spurs about one-half inch long; all the other buds, five in number, remained dormant, and now they are dead and are rapidly becoming mere scars. Last year (1920) the terminal bud of 1919 gave rise to a shoot fifteen inches long; three buds at the base of this two-year (1919) shoot remained dormant; fourteen buds produced spurs. It is now the spring of 1921; the 1920 shoot has four dormant buds at its base, ten rosettes of leaves from the other buds, and a pushing terminal shoot. On my branch this year, therefore, are 5 plus 3 plus 4, or 12 dormant buds of all the years; 2 plus 14 plus 10, or 26 spurs; 1 terminal bud continuing the onward growth. [Illustration: 3. The bloom of the apple-tree] It is evident that the last two years were good ones for my apple limb, for the growths were long (19 and 15 inches) and most of the buds produced spurs. The result is evidenced also in the fact that the limb is this year laden with potential bloom. On 1918 the two spurs bear flowers, one of them only a single bloom and the other five blooms. On 1919 twelve of the fourteen spurs are bearing flowers in the following numbers: 5 flowers, 5, 5, 7, 5, 6, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5 = 63 flowers. On 1920 are no spurs bearing flowers, but the terminal bud (as is frequent on vigorous young trees) bears five flowers. Here, therefore, on this yard of three-year-old twig are seventy-four blossoms. But there will not be seventy-four fruits; some of the flowers are small and weak; others, as the petals fall, show unmistakable signs of failing. A few of them show the plump form of an embryo apple: I think there are a score of such promises. But I know that others will fail later from physiological causes, and others probably from onslaught of insects or disease or from accidents. If six fair fruits mature on a branch like this, the crop will be good; and probably the branch would not have vigor enough to set as many fruit-buds the following year or to bear as many fruits. It is good to watch the opening of the apple bloom: pink buds swelling and puffing out each day, the woolly stems elongating, the five overlapping incurving petals spreading and growing big, the stamens, about twenty, straightening up and lengthening their filaments that are attached on the flower-rim; the big light yellow anthers shedding pollen; the five green styles in the center. In some flowers the styles do not develop, and we have one reason why many flowers are sterile. The flower-clusters differ much among themselves, in size of parts, number of flowers, color; on some trees the flowers appear in advance of most of the leafage, but usually they are coincident with the leaves. Sometimes the flower-stems or peduncles are branched, bearing two or three flowers, and in that case there may be a small green leaf or bract where the fork arises. The placing of the petals in the bud at the epoch of expansion may differ in two flowers on the same tree. One petal may stand guard outside the others and free from them, both edges uncovered, while the remaining petals are spiral with one edge under and one edge over; or there may be two guard petals, one on either side; or sometimes all the petals may be spiral, one margin out, one margin in; in some cases all the petals stand free as the flower is expanding, with no margin interlapping. Sometimes one petal is missing, and again the petals may be six. This infinite variety within the bonds of so great regularity lends a subtle charm to natural objects, that is wholly absent in man's perfected machine-work. Man aims at uniformity, two and two alike; nature aims at endless difference, every object or even every member of an object having its own character. Much of man's energy is expended in trying to overcome the diverseness of nature. Gradually and slowly the flower balloons enlarge and puff themselves up, the petals standing together at their tips; all the variety is united into a harmony of exuberance, color and form; then one day there is a shower of genial rain, a warm sun, birds in the air, bees released, grasses soft and lush, and behold! the apple-tree is in bloom,--a great heavenly mound of white and pink exhaling a faint delicious breath. Then the pulses stir, the dogs bark at the edges of the wood, the fields call, the scented winds lead on forever. IV THE WEEKS BETWEEN THE FLOWER AND THE FRUIT The petals expand broadly, usually losing most of their pink. The blade is oblong and rounded at the end, at first cupped and then nearly flat, three-fourths of an inch long, narrowed at the base into a short stem-like part and usually hairy there, the edges perhaps wavy but entire. The expanse of the flower may be one and one-half to two inches. The brush of stamens, erect in the center, sheds its pollen and the anthers collapse. Then the petals fall, like flakes of snow, borne often by the wind. There remain the stout woolly flower-stems an inch or more long and bearing minute dry bracts, with the young fruit at the summit topped by the five recurving woolly sepals and the pencil of stamens and styles. The bloom being gone, the flowering system of the apple is thenceforth little observed. Not until the fruit begins to color do we come back to the apple-tree to look at it closely; yet in these intervening weeks some of the most interesting transformations take place, and on the exact observance of them depends to a large extent one's success in the rearing and saving of a good crop of apples. Here is the flower of the apple-tree (Fig. 3). It is a comely blossom, fragrant and pinky white, flatly spread to the sky, carrying the spirit of the cool of the spring. What concerns us now, however, is the cluster of stamens and pistils in the center, for these organs are directly concerned in the production of the fruit. The petals soon fall, but the remains of these interior organs persist, even unto the ripening of the fruit. The anther is attached at the back of its base or middle to the top of the filament in the suture separating the two large cells. These anther-cells split along the outer margins, releasing the pollen-grains. [Illustration: 4. Longitudinal section of the flower.] In the center of the ring of stamens are the five style-branches, which are united at the base into a short hairy column; the column is borne on the ovary, which is sunken deep into the receptacle or stem (Fig. 4). It is down these style-branches that the pollen-tube passes on its way to the ovules or embryo seeds. The top of the style is expanded into a cupped stigma on which are many glutinous points. One can observe the browning and ripening of the stigma after pollen has been deposited by wind, bees or other agencies. When the ovules are fertilized, the forming fruit enlarges regularly unless it meets with misfortune or is crowded out for lack of room and nourishment. If one cuts across the ovary or embryo fruit below the recurving sepals, one will see under a lens that it is neatly five-celled (Fig. 5). In each cell are two ovules; these, if all goes well, will ripen into ten seeds. These five cells comprise most of the diameter in the cross-section: but as the ovary enlarges and the young fruit grows, one may see that the inner part comprising the cells begins to have a character of its own and to be differentiated from the surrounding flesh. [Illustration: 5. Cross-section of the ovary.] The "blossom" falls. In reality only the petals fall. What is left is well shown in Fig. 6. Here remain the upstanding stamens with the empty anthers, and in the center one could see the five styles if the specimen were in hand. Here also are the calyx-lobes, widely spreading and even recurved. The photograph for Fig. 6 was taken May 3. On May 17 another cluster was photographed from the same tree (Fig. 7). Three of the flowers have produced sturdy young apples. The stems or pedicels have become stouter, and they begin to spread. Note that the calyx now is closed, the old stamens protruding, a circumstance that will have special significance when we become acquainted with the codlin-moth. Note also that one flower has failed, and remains as it was two weeks earlier; it will soon fall. The young apples begin to take shape. They show a glow of red on the cheek. They are fuzzy all over. One of them is already injured on one side, having been stung by a curculio or other insect: there are keen senses about the apple-tree. [Illustration: 6. May 3--When the petals have fallen] [Illustration: 7. May 17--When the young fruits begin to show] Two weeks later (May 31) still another cluster was taken from the same tree (Fig. 8). Here are three fruits erect on their stems; one of them is more than an inch in diameter either way, sturdy and unblemished; another shows deformity due to insect puncture; the third remains small and presently will drop. A scar in the leaf-axil marks the failure of another flower. Four blossoms were in this cluster, but only one fruit now has a chance to come to uninjured maturity, and two have already failed. The big apple has now lost most of its fuzziness and begins to assume a delicate "bloom" on its surface; the smallest one--the one that soon will perish--still holds some of its fuzz. A section of this smallest fruit discloses empty cells; apparently it was not fertilized. [Illustration: 8. May 31--The success and failure] [Illustration: 9. June 14--The one big apple] Another two weeks have passed. It is June 14th. From the same tree is taken the photograph, Fig. 9. Here is a big apple, 1-1/2 inch in diameter; and there is a dead shrivelled fruit that dropped when I touched it. Of the several flowers in the cluster, all have failed but one. This one fruit has now passed the danger of the blossom-end infection by the codlin-moth and it has no blemishes. The many whitish spots characteristic of the variety are now conspicuous all over the surface. The ribs begin to show. There is a faint blush on the upper side. The fuzz has disappeared and the bloom is becoming evident. The calyx is tightly closed, although the tips of the sepals are spread widely. The stem is stout. The weight of the apple inclines it nearly to the horizontal. Yet this good apple is not symmetrical; one side is larger than the other. I cut it crosswise and find two cells on the larger side developing two strong seeds each, whilst those on the smaller side have a single seed each and one of these seeds is small and perhaps would not have matured. The fleshy part of the apple, outside the core, now occupies about as much of the diameter as the core itself and much more than one-half the bulk of the fruit. Already my apple, now half grown, shows many of its distinctive characteristics. Yet another fortnight has come and gone, and it is June 28th. It has been good "growing weather." Summer is here, full-orbed, regal, bringing the abundance of the earth. Here are two stout apples hanging on their stems (Fig. 10), for they are now too heavy to be held erect. The larger fruit is a trifle more than two inches in diameter. The feature spots are now still more prominent on these apples, the ribs more pronounced, the blush against the sun more warm. Both these fruits, from one spur, will mature; but the smaller one will be blemished, for the apple-scab fungus has established itself on the crown and about the calyx. Already the growth is checked in that area, and the apple looks flattened. There is no evidence in either apple of codlin-moth invasion. The adjoining spur, not clearly shown in the photograph, is barren; it gave no flowers this year, and it shows no indication of a blossom-bud for next year. The leaves are thick and vigorous, yet they bear marks of insect injury and one of them has been extensively skeletonized. On the whole, however, the fruits have the mastery, and they now make a brave show. [Illustration: 10. June 28, and the apples have taken their form] July has passed this way. Tomorrow it will be August. The odor of apples is now in my tree. There are big striped apples on the ground, plucked by the wind, the hold loosened by bugs for they too have felt the fullness of July. Three apples, one of them three inches through and two and one-half inches high, and the others nearly as big, hang at the level of my eyes. You may see them in Fig. 11. Here rises again my boyhood spent in an orchard now passed away, as father and mother have passed, as playmates have fallen one by one, the old place holding only memories. Here is my boyhood because the earth is always young and repeats her miracles for the children by my side as it did for me so many many years ago. Yet the miracles are greater now than they were then. They have more meaning. Now are they part of some great order. They are not separate. Without moving my feet, I lay my hands on apples, Virginia creeper, asparagus, marigold, sweet sultan, oxalis, plantain, crab-grass, white clover, all growing securely in one place, and everyone like unto itself alone. Here is the everlasting miracle before my eyes, and all miracles are mysteries. Once I thought I should understand such things when I was "grown up," but I find myself still a boy. [Illustration: 11. July 31, and the apples are getting ripe] These three apples on the last of the days of July look fair and sound, partly hidden in the leaves, the deep red colors covering them in broad splashed stripes and relieved by light dots. Yet when I raise the leaves or when I lift the apples apart, I find the burrows of insects. They know that these apples are good. It is astonishing how nature covers up the wounds, how she conceals the sore places, and how fair she makes everything look. Were it not that she covers the depredations of man, the earth would not long remain habitable by him. Summer is ended. Today the sun is on the equator, and we are at the equinox when nights are equal to the days, as the word testifies. The harvest is over. The apples are no more. Yet the tree still is active and preparing for another year (Fig. 12). The spurs are now thick and stout, bearing sturdy hard leaves. The bud in the center is a big one, already recognized as a fruit-bud: here is the promise of speckled, furrowed, striped apples next August. Thereby I learn that it is not enough to be good to the tree in the year in which I desire its fruit: I must begin the year before, and the year before that, and even back at the time when the tree is planted; and if the tree at planting-time is not a good tree, it will be at a disadvantage perhaps all its life long. [Illustration: 12. September 22, and the buds are formed for the next year's crop] Finally the apple is ripe and ready. At the stem end is the "cavity," a depression, deep or shallow, according to variety, in which the stem is set. At the blossom end is the "basin," also with the characteristics of the variety as to depth and width and contour, in which the calyx-lobes persist, and inside the calyx are the remains of the dead stamens and styles; the calyx may be "closed" or "open," the character being a mark of the particular variety. Cut the apple through the center lengthwise (Fig. 13); note the curved outline of the core (the pistil) extending half or more across the fruit; if you do not see this outline, cut an apple until you do; carefully open the five cells or compartments and within the parchment walls find the two seeds attached by their points which are directed toward the stem end; perhaps one of the seeds has failed, but probably a cavity marks its place; perhaps both seeds have failed; perhaps the cell has more than two seeds. [Illustration: 13. The apples in section] Cut an apple cross-wise: note the five radiating cells of the core, the number and attachment of the seeds; note the ten points, imbedded in the flesh, marking the outline of the core. Cut an apple cross-wise above the core and beneath it; note where these points vanish and try to harmonize them with the core-outline as seen in the lengthwise section; probably you will discover why you may not see the core-outline in all the lengthwise sections you make. Before you leave the fruit, note whether single seeds in a cell are the same shape as the two seeds in a cell. The flesh outside the core-outline is interpreted to be stem structure rather than pistil structure. Sometimes an apple bears a scale-like leaf on its exterior, suggesting that the outer part of the fruit is stem. The older morphologists interpreted the apple flower to comprise a hollowed calyx (calyx-tube) inside which is the pistil and on the rim of which are the petals and stamens. The structure now is regarded as a hollowed receptacle or stem (hypanthium), with the pistil inside, the petals and stamens on its rim. We noted in the flower that the ovary part of the pistil is solidly imbedded in this receptacle, but that the five styles are free. The pear and quince are of similar structure, but the peach, plum and cherry are simple ripened pistils. Here, in this chapter, we have discovered some of the epochs in the life of the apple. Usually we let the imagination run only to the mature fruit, thinking of the harvest, but in all the weeks before the harvest the apple has been growing and taking form. As these weeks have not been blank to the apple-tree, so shall they not be blank to me. V THE BRUSH PILE Today I visited the brush pile back of the orchard. Here the trimmings of the winter are placed, waiting to be burned when dry. How many are the archives that will be destroyed! Here are histories in every bud and twig and scar, of the seasons, of the accidents and deaths, the records of the tree as there are records of families. These records are not written in numbers or in letters, nor yet in hieroglyphs; yet are they understandable. Alphabet is not needed, and the key is simple. From the brush pile of records I took one. I must describe it in part by a picture (Fig. 14). On the living trees at this writing the petals mostly have fallen and the leaves are nearly full grown. This branch was cut in winter. It has lain in the snow and rain, putting forth no flowers or leaves. Yet we can read it. It is May, 1921. The terminal shoot is obviously of 1920; we shall name it No. 1. It is a foot long, smooth and glossy, terminating at the base (_o_) in a "ring" and at a short stub or branchlet. If we count the buds on all sides of the shoot and at the tip we find them to be 13. The largest one is at the tip, and they are mostly successively smaller toward the base. Apparently the growth-energy was expended in the upper parts of the twig, making large full buds. In fact, the three or four lowermost buds are scarcely developed and would not grow unless the limb were broken off above them; they are dormant buds. [Illustration: 14. A three-year record.--In a leisure hour, trace the history of these parts; it will open your eyes.] Looking along the shoot, I find that every six buds stand in the same line: the sixth bud is over the first, seventh over the second, eighth over the third. If I were to fasten a string to bud No. 1 and wind it around the stem to my left, passing over every bud until I had reached the sixth, I should find that it had made two circuits of the stem (passed twice around it) and had passed over five spaces between buds. This is the leaf-arrangement or phyllotaxy of the apple-tree, expressed by the fraction 2/5. The space between two buds is two-fifths of a diameter, and two circuits (ten-fifths) must be passed before a bud comes over the one from which we started. The 2/5 leaf-arrangement obtains on cherry, peach, apricot, pear, raspberry and many others; but a very different order is that of the linden, grape, currant, lilies, elm, maple. We cannot understand this simple unbranched terminal twig (No. 1) until we know what took place last year. A year ago, in the spring of 1920, a terminal bud that had formed in 1919 expanded and gave rise to this rapidly growing shoot. By the end of May or early June this shoot had grown to twelve inches long, for the growth in length on the twigs of trees is usually completed that early. This shoot bore leaves on the 2/5 arrangement; in the axil of every leaf was a bud, the strongest buds being with the strongest leaves at the middle and top of the shoot; in the autumn of 1920 these leaves fell, but the buds remained, persisted the winter, and were ready to "grow" in the early spring of 1921. We see them on No. 1 (Fig. 14). [Illustration: 15. The growing shoot, with a bud in each axil, and a spur on last year's growth.] In 1921 these buds on No. 1, then, would have grown. New leaves would have come from the bud itself; in fact, the winter buds of the apple are packed with miniature leaves and sometimes with flowers as well. The shoot coming out of the bud may remain very short, constituting a "spur," or grow with long internodes, making a slender twig. Fig. 15 shows a branch with new elongated growth, _b_ to _a_, and a shoot or spur (_c_) arising from a bud of the previous year. Note the "ring," or division beyond _b_, marking the turn of the year. It will be noted in Fig. 14 that the buds are of two shapes and sizes, such as _a, a, a_, representing one kind and _b, b_, the other kind. The former, small and pointed, are leaf-buds; from them will arise a shoot bearing only leaves. The latter, _b_, large and rounded and usually more fuzzy, are flower-buds (fruit-buds): from them will arise a short shoot bearing leaves and a cluster of flowers; and we hope that at least one of the flowers will set fruit. We are now ready to resume our lesson with the branch before us. We have identified the slender terminal part, No. 1, as the growth of 1920. We are now to account for all the remaining buds and branchlets. If No. 1 grew in 1920, then the main shoot of No. 2 grew in 1919, from the point _o o_. It is also one foot long. Near its base are four small buds that remained dormant in 1920. There are nine branches (_d_) of various lengths besides the terminal shoot No. 1, all of which grew in 1920, for they are naturally a year younger than the main axis from which they arise; these branches are the same age as No. 1, with buds that would have produced shoots in 1921. But the terminal buds of eight of these lateral shoots (all but the lowermost) bear blossom-buds at the end; note their size and shape. Had not the branch been cut, these buds would have bloomed in 1921; the eight of them would have produced probably forty to fifty flowers; perhaps two or three good fruits would have resulted. Note that two of the lateral branches or spurs are short and weak: these would soon perish. The No. 2 branch has a dead end (_e_); in some way the terminal bud was destroyed, and No. 1 sprang from a lateral bud beneath it, changing the direction of growth. If No. 2 grew in 1919, then No. 3 grew in 1918. It also grew about one foot in length, showing that the conditions in the three years must have been very uniform. There are remains of five dormant buds at its base. There are seven side branches. As the main axis is three years old, so these lateral shoots are two years old; they are the same age as the axis No. 2. The lower one (_s_) grew less than an inch in 1919, and made a fruit-bud; in 1920 it blossomed and one fruit set as is shown by the square scar at the end; as the scar is small and the twig weak, we are safe in assuming that the apple was very small or else did not mature. A bud formed at the side of _s_ to continue the growth of the spur next year (1921), but it is a leaf-bud; apparently there was not sufficient energy to bear flowers and to make a fruit-bud; so there would have been no more fruit on this spur earlier than 1922: thus do we see that the alternate bearing of the apple-tree may have some of its origin in the fruit-spur. The side spur _f_ produced a terminal blossom-bud in 1919. In 1920 six flowers opened,--I could count the scars. One of the flowers produced a fruit, as I tell by the square scar at the end; the thickened stem also indicates fruit-bearing. The side bud in this case is a fruit-bud, but it is small and weak and is probably incapable of producing a fruit. There are no strong leaf-buds to take up the work, and this spur (_f_) would probably soon have died, as also would spur _s_. The side shoot _g_ grew to _h_ in 1919 and made a flower-bud. In 1920 this bud gave blossoms and one fruit resulted; the scar is prominent and there is an enlargement of the tissue indicating that the fruit probably attained good size; in 1920 also, two side spurs were formed each with weak blossom-buds, also a terminal shoot (beyond _h_) with leaf-bud at the end. The other shoots have similar histories: the long shoot _i_ bore a fruit-bud at _k_ in 1919 and a fruit in 1920; in 1920 it also made three lateral shoots and a terminal shoot, with flower-buds terminating two of them. Shoot _l_ bore flowers at its point in 1920 but did not carry the fruit to maturity; it also made two side growths and one terminal growth, all terminated by flower-buds, to be blown in 1921. The shoot _m_ is a short spur that made a flower-bud in 1919 and in 1920 carried three little fruits for a time and made a flower-bud in 1920. Shoot _n_ remained very short in 1919, making a terminal leaf-bud; in 1920 it grew two inches and made a weak flower-bud. If shoot No. 3 grew in 1918, then No. 4 grew in 1917; but the branch is severed and I cannot trace the record farther. We could trace the family history many years if we had the unpruned tree before us. Here, then, in my yard-long manuscript are forty bud-records on the main axis, counting the terminals on No. 2 and No. 3. I can find record of 144 buds on the side shoots. This makes a grand total of 184 buds. There is a total growth in length of 108 inches, or 9 feet. Each of the buds that has already "grown" has produced an average of probably ten leaves, or say 340 leaves in total. If there were an average of five flowers to the cluster, then about 150 flowers would have been carried on my branch, with the potentiality of 150 fruits; but in fact not more than three or four maturing fruits would have been produced in these years: and I should think this a good proportion as blossoms and apples go. Certainly the branch has done its part. There have been three eventful years. I would not have my reader to suppose that one may always distinguish leaf-buds and fruit-buds at a glance. I may be mistaken in some of the above determinations, but they are essentially correct for I have the twig before me. In some varieties of apples the differences between the two kinds of buds are less marked. The certain way is to dissect the bud: one may then see what it contains. It now remains to determine how the branch was placed in the tree. It must have been upright or very nearly so, for the main axis is essentially straight and the branchlets are about equally developed on all sides; moreover, there is no indication in the bark that one exposure was the "weather side." The big twig _i_ apparently found a light and unoccupied space into which to develop, but its extension is not greatly out of proportion. I suppose, however, that my branch was not topmost in the tree; there is no indication in very long growth or strong upward tendency of the branchlets to mark the branch as a "leader." Years ago I became fascinated with the study of knots and knot-holes in the timber of wood-piles. They are excellent records of the events in the life of trees. In print I have tried to show what they mean. I also worked out the life-histories of twigs and published them in nature-study leaflets and elsewhere. Hundreds of children were interested in the twigs and buds, finding them unusual, every one of them a different story, and yet not difficult to read. These lessons gave meaning to trees and seasons. Such observations have always meant much to me, even when made in the most casual way in the midst of constraining activities. And now in this later day I come back to a bare twig with all the joy of youth. The records of the years are in these piles of brush. VI THE PRUNING OF THE APPLE-TREE We have found that not all the buds grow. We also know that some of the spurs and shoots perish, not alone from accident but from defeat in the struggle to live. The chances of success are relatively few. The pruning process begins early in the life of the tree, and it continues ceaselessly until the end. To the apple-tree in the wild, strict pruning is the assurance of success. No tree can reach maturity unless more parts perish than are able to live. The young forest tree has branchlets and leaves along its side and at the top. All these perish as the trunk rises, often leaving marks on the bark, curls in the wood, and knot-holes large and small. Thousands of perished buds and branches are the price of a straight bole and great clear sheets of boards. Yet these perished parts bore their burden in their day and time, and contributed to the ultimate success: there could have been no tree without them. Any tree-top discloses the pruning in action if one looks intently. Part of it is recorded in the buds that never put forth a leaf; more of it in little shoots left behind; and there are large and small limbs, dead and dying, yellowing apparently before their time, hanging on till the last hold is broken. Were it not for the benevolent processes of decay, the ground would be strewn with the fallen parts accumulating through the years. In nature, the great result is to yield abundant quantity of seeds, that the species may propagate itself after its kind. Man may desire fruits relatively few, but large of size and excellent of quality, without spot or blemish; this means greater opportunity and care to the single fruit. Pruning is essential, to converge the energy of the plant into fewer branches, to give the fruits space and light, to increase the efficiency of measures for the control of diseases and insects. Part of the pruning consists in removing certain branches, and part of it in eliminating the fruits themselves by the careful process of thinning. The pruning of nature is fortuitous. The tree has the irregularity and abandon of the picturesque. The pruning of man is for a different end, and it produces the comely well-proportioned tree of the orchards. The tree becomes a manipulated subject, comforting to the eye of the thrifty pomologist. Branch-pruning is essentially the removal of superfluous branches,--those that crowd, that cross each other, that are so placed as to be profitless, that are in the way, that are injured or diseased. For the most part, the branches should be removed when they are small; but it is not possible to foresee all that may be needed in the training of the tree and, therefore, the frequent advice to prune only with a hand-knife cannot be followed. One needs a sharp pruning-saw and sometimes a chisel on a long handle. Usually it is not necessary to remove branches more than an inch or one and one-half inch in diameter if pruning is carefully practiced every year; but sometimes even well-pruned trees must be shaped, corrected and improved by the cutting of larger branches. Pruning is usually best performed in early spring. The branch should be cut close to the main limb or trunk and parallel with it, leaving no stub; the healing process is then likely to proceed more rapidly. The wound should be smooth and clean, without breaks, splinters or splits; the knot-holes in logs and trunks are usually the consequence of long "stubs" and torn injured parts. The tree is to be left shapely, with a uniform distribution of branches, plenty of fruit-bearing wood, easy to spray and from which to pick the fruit, of the form characteristic of the variety. In all the usual customary pruning of the apple-tree, dressing of the wounds is not necessary. It is much more important to give the added attention to the proper making of the wounds and the thoughtful choice of the parts to be removed. Wounds two inches and more in diameter may be protected with good paint, so that they will not check and therefore not hold water, until the callus covers them. Good judgment in pruning is more profitable than recipes to repair damage. Fruit-pruning, or thinning, is the removing of so much fruit, when it is small, as will allow the remainder to mature to its best and constitute a maximum yield; it reduces the quantity of inferior fruit, lessens the number of culls and the labor at packing time, conserves the energy of the tree by preventing the maturity of great numbers of seeds, diminishes diseases and pests. The overloading of the tree not only imposes a heavy tax on its vitality but is likely to break the limbs and to work much physical damage. Thinning may consist in removing part of the fruit in the cluster (in the case of varieties that tend to mature more than one fruit from each flower-cluster), in picking all the fruits from certain clusters or pairs of clusters, or in cutting away some of the fruit-spurs before blossoming time. The removal of the fruit itself is usually performed after the "June-drop," when the extent of the crop is evident. The fruits are pulled off by hand or cut with thinning-shears, the latter practice being the better since it is not so likely to break the fruit-spurs. The least promising fruits are taken away and the remaining apples are left at least five or six inches apart in most varieties. The extent of thinning must be governed by the variety, thrift of the tree, result desired, and other conditions. To secure the best results, the apples should be thinned when still small. Thinning by early-spring removal of fruit-spurs is a very special practice. It is employed on dwarf trees and on those specially trained. It should be undertaken only by a careful and experienced man. It is not to be inferred that the fruit of the apple is all borne on spurs, for some of it may be derived from terminal buds on the new axial growths or even from lateral buds; but the spurs are conspicuous and readily recognized. Of course the ordinary pruning of the tree removes fruit-bearing wood and is therefore a thinning process. Within sensible limits, therefore, pruning is an invigorating process in the sense that it deflects the energy to remaining parts of the tree. What is called too heavy pruning, whereby the tree throws out abundance of water-sprouts, is illustration of this fact: the tree is thrown into heavy growth of adventitious shoots. The tree may not produce more pounds of substance, or even more total feet in length, but new energy is developed in certain parts. In the restoration, or so-called renovation, of old neglected trees, the two primary considerations are to prune vigorously and to till and fertilize the land. Sometimes old trees must be mended as explained in Chapter XIII. Of course they must be sprayed for what ails them. If the variety is poor, the tree may be top-grafted (Chapter XII). In some cases, it is hardly possible to make neglected trees bear satisfactorily, for they were never of value: there is nothing to restore. It may be a question of soil and location, of lack of pollination, of trees so weak or so misshapen that effort on them is wasted. But tillage, pruning, spraying, should produce worth-while results in most cases. In the care of the fruit-tree there is no practice which brings the grower into such intimate knowledge of the plant as that of pruning and thinning. The operator sees the tree as a whole, taking it all in; then he sees it in small detail in all its parts, even to the spurs and buds. With simple good tools, sharp and keen, and with a practiced eye, he applies a deft and swift handicraft, cutting true, making a fair clean wound, leaving the tree comely and ready for its highest effort. The pride of good workmanship may find expression. The operator feels also the sense of mastery that is in him, whereby he corrects the tree, removes the wayward parts, keeps and encourages all that is best. To engage in this kind of education requires that one approaches the work with due preparation of mind and I think also with consecration of heart. VII MAINTAINING THE HEALTH AND ENERGY OF THE APPLE-TREE The apple-tree starts life fresh and vigorous. It grows rapidly. The shoots are long and straight. The wood is smooth and fair and supple. The leaves are usually large. It is good to see the young trees acquire size and take shape. Room in the ground and in the air is ample with the young apple-tree. It is free to grow. Probably the ground was newly prepared and tilled when the tree was planted; at least, a hole was dug and fine good earth was placed about the roots. Probably insects had not found permanent encampment on the tree. It had been well pruned, so that it carried the minimum of superfluous and competing parts. But in time the difficulties come. The tree probably slows down. It becomes too thick of branches. The land is not tilled. It is not manured. Insects and fungi make headway. The tree overbears. As the years go on, the tree is thrown into alternate bearing, one year a crop too heavy, one year a crop too light. The tree becomes broken, diseased, gnarly, unshapely. We have seen that the fruit-spur in bearing is likely to make a leaf-bud for the next year's activities rather than a flower-bud. It is assumed that the making of a flower-bud requires more energy than the making of a plain leaf-bud; if this is true, there may not be energy enough to carry a flower-cluster and to make a new flower-bud at the same time. But if the tree is in proper vigor, is well fed, protected from noxious organisms, not allowed to overbear, it should have sufficient energy to make a crop every year, frosts and accidents excepted. It is assumed, of course, that self-sterile varieties have good pollinizing varieties near them; it is always well to plant two or more kinds near together. Whether the continuity of bearing is exhibited on the same fruit-spurs or whether there may be an alternation in the spurs on the same tree, is of no moment in this discussion. It is enough to say that there is no reason in the nature of the case why an apple-tree should bear only every other year; it is probably a question of nutrition. The first essential to continued health and vigor is to start with a strong unblemished tree. It is to be planted before its vitality is lessened by exposure and hard usage. The more direct the transfer from nursery to orchard, the better. It is to be placed in good ground, well drained and deeply spaded or plowed. The apple-tree thrives on many kinds of land, but light sand, hard clay, and muck are equally to be avoided. "Good corn land" is commonly considered to be good apple land. Certain soils and regions are particularly adaptable to commercial apple-growing, but the amateur may plant quite independently of this fact. The observant man notes the many conditions under which the apple-tree may be grown with satisfaction. If the land is not uniformly prepared, then the hole dug for the tree should be larger than demanded by spread of roots, and the earth fined in the bottom of it. Trees should be planted when perfectly dormant, preferably in spring, at least in the northern parts. The roots should be cut back to sound unsplintered wood, and very long roots may well be shortened. The reader is aware that roots have no regular order or arrangement as do the buds from which branches arise. It is not necessary to try to shape the root-system to any formal regularity. As a good part of the root-system is destroyed when the tree is dug, so is the top reduced to insure something like a balance. Half or more of the top, on a three-year-old tree, is cut away, the long growths being shortened to perhaps three or four good buds. If limbs are left to form the framework of the future top, they should be alternate with each other at some distance apart so that weak crotches do not form. The tree is planted snugly, the earth being filled among the roots so that no air-holes remain. The tree is shaken up and down to settle the earth densely. Once or twice in filling, the earth is packed with the feet. The purpose is to keep the tree firm and stiff against winds, and to give all its roots close contact with the earth. Properly planted, so that it will not whip or dry out, the tree gets a hold quickly and begins to grow strongly. The first start-off of the tree is important. Apple-trees are held in vigor by plenty of room. For the standard varieties in regular orchards, the recommended distance either way is 40 feet, or 35 x 40 feet. Some varieties may go as close as 30 feet; and in regions (as parts of central and western North America) in which the trees are not expected to attain such great size as in the eastern country, the planting may be even less than this of the upright-growing kinds. The spaces between the trees may be utilized for a few years with other crops, even with other fruits, as peaches or berries. Orchardists sometimes plant smaller-growing and early-bearing varieties of apples between the regular trees as "fillers," taking them out as the room is needed. Of course all kinds of double cropping require that extra attention be given to the tilling and fertilizing of the plantation. The general advice for the growing of strong apple-trees is to give the land good tillage from the first and to withhold other cropping after the trees come into profitable bearing. Clean tillage for the first part of the season and the raising of a cover-crop in the latter part, to be plowed under, is a standard and dependable procedure. Trees live long in continuous sod and they may thrive, but they may be expected to show gains under tillage. Vast areas of apple plantings are in sod, but this of itself does not demonstrate the desirability of the sod practice. Allowing trees to remain in sod usually leads to neglect. There is a modification of sod-practice in some parts of the country that gives excellent results, under certain conditions. The grass is cut and allowed to lie, not being removed for hay. Manure and fertilizer are added as top-dressing, as needed. This method is known as the "sod mulch system." It is not a practice of partial neglect, like the prevailing sod orchards, but a regular designed method of producing results. Its application can hardly be as widespread as clean tillage, on level lands. It is a common opinion that hillsides and more or less inaccessible slopes should be planted to apples. This may be true in the sense that apples will grow on such areas and that such plantations are better than fallow land. In fact, many such lands are profitable in orchards. When they do not allow of tillage, easy spraying, and economy in harvesting, however, they cannot compete with level orchards. To maintain the health and energy of the apple-tree, the land should be enriched. This may be accomplished by the application of animal manures, chemical fertilizers, or cover-crops, or preferably by a combination of these means. Not many persons possess sufficient farm manures to supply the general crops and the apple-orchard; but every application the orchard receives is all to the good. Five to ten tons of good stable manure to the acre annually is a good addition for an orchard in bearing. This may be supplemented by cover-crops and bag fertilizers in years in which the manure is not available. Experiments are yet inconclusive on the fertilizing of apple-trees, but it is fair to assume that on most lands, particularly on old lands, the addition of chemical fertilizer is advantageous. A bearing apple-tree may receive two to eight pounds of nitrate of soda (depending on its size and on soil) applied to the full feeding area of the roots, five to nine pounds of acid phosphate, two or three pounds of muriate of potash; always ask advice. The pasturing of orchards is often defensible and sometimes even desirable. If the trees are growing too rapidly, they may be "slowed down" by seeding to grass for a time; and pasturing with hogs, and possibly with sheep, may afford a way of keeping the area in condition and of adding fertilizer. Sheep that do not have access to drinking-water and salt gnaw the trees. Hogs root up the ground and thereby provide a rude kind of tillage. If animals are fed other food in the orchard, the fertilizer increment will be considerable. In house-lot conditions, the apple-tree usually receives sufficient food if the land is well enriched for garden purposes; but trees in sod should have liberal top-dressings of fertilizer every year and of stable manure every other year. The apple-tree should have a good supply of moisture. Planted on banks and in hard places about buildings, it may suffer in this respect. The land should be so graded that the rainfall will not run off. In orchard conditions, the moisture is conserved by the addition of humus to the land, and by thorough judicious tillage; and in dry regions it is supplied by irrigation. The energy of the apple-tree, and its ability to produce, is conserved by holding all diseases and noxious insects in check. The means at the command of the apple-grower are now many. No longer is the man helpless, nor does he need to appeal to the moon or to "atmospheric influences" for reasons. The natural histories of fungi and insects, that do so much damage, are now a part of common understandable knowledge. To acquire at least a working understanding of the commonest of these subjects is in itself a great satisfaction and gives one a sense of dominion. The good books and bulletins are sufficient to keep one well informed. All these organisms are tenants of the apple-tree, and from the naturist's point of view alone they are not to be overlooked. It is not to be inferred that all apple-trees will yield equally well with equally good treatment. There is difference in trees as there is in cows. We may not know why. But even so, it is our part to do the best we can: this is our privilege. The tillage and care of plants lessen the struggle for existence. So is the apple-tree protected from the crowds, from contest for moisture and food, from insects, and from the competition within itself. Thereby is it able to express all its possibilities. Even the dormant potentialities may be wakened, and the plant makes a wide departure from its native state. This is not an original state of sin, but a state of repression in which it is held in a world that is full of so many things beside apple-trees. I may till my orchard ever so well, manipulate the trees ever so promptly, yet if the plantation then is allowed to run to neglect the processes of depreciation gain the mastery; the struggle for existence is restored. To keep one's apple-tree in the pink of perfection is as joyful an enterprise as to do anything else well. It is only the well-conditioned tree that yields its glorious harvest year by year. VIII HOW AN APPLE-TREE IS MADE If the seeds of a Baldwin or Winesap apple are planted, we do not expect to get a Baldwin or Winesap; we shall probably raise a very inferior fruit. The apple has not been bred "true to seed" as has the cabbage and sweet pea. To get the tree "true to name," of the desired variety and with no chance of failure (barring accident), is one of the niceties of horticulture. This is accomplished with great precision and despatch. The apple-tree is started from the seed. It cannot be grown freely by means of cuttings, as can the grape and currant. In commercial practice the seeds are collected mostly from cider mills or from pomace. The seeds may be washed from the pomace, allowed to dry, and then mixed in sand, charcoal, sawdust or other material to prevent dessication and kept until spring, when they are sown. Or, if the land is not so wet in winter that the seed will drown or be washed out, the seed in the pomace (not separated) may be sown in autumn. The seeds are sown in drills, after the manner of onions or turnips, one to two or even three inches deep. They germinate readily in the cool of spring, and the plants should reach a height of twelve inches and more the first year. If these plants were grown directly into bearing trees, it is probable that no two trees would produce the same kind of fruit. Some of the fruit might be summer apples, some of it winter apples, some red, yellow or striped, some of it flat, oblong or spherical, most of it sour but perhaps some of it sweet. Probably every kind would be inferior to the parent stock or to standard varieties, although there is a fair chance that a superior kind might originate from a field of such plants. Therefore, it is not the variety (that is, the top) that is wanted in the raising of these numerous plants, but merely the roots, on which desired varieties may be grown by the clever art of graftage. Yet not even all the roots may be wanted, for the growing plants may differ or vary in their stature and vigor as well as in their fruit. The discriminating grower, therefore, discards the weak and puny treelings at the digging time; or if the weak plants seem still to have promise, they may be allowed to grow another year before they are dug for the grafting. This digging time is the autumn of the first year, when the plants have grown one season. They are then to be used as "stocks" on which to graft Baldwin, Winesap or other varieties. The growing of these apple stocks is a business by itself. Formerly, most of the stocks used in North America were imported from France, where special skill has been developed in the growing of them and where the requisite labor is available. But now the stocks are grown also in deep rich bottom lands of the Middle West, as in Kansas, where, in the long seasons, a large growth may be attained. The methods of graftage of the commercial apple-tree are two--by cion-grafting whereby a bit of wood with two or three buds is inserted on the stock, by bud-grafting (budding) whereby a single bud with a bit of bark attached is inserted under the bark of the stock. Cion-grafting is practiced in winter under cover. The stock is cut off at the crown and the cion spliced on it, or the root may be cut in two or more pieces and each piece receive a cion. The union is made by the whip-graft method (Fig. 16). The cion is tied securely, to keep it in place. The piece-root method is allowable only when the root is long and strong, so that a well-rooted plant results the first year. The cion is a cutting of the last year's growth (as of No. 1, in Fig. 14). However accomplished, the process is to supply the cion with roots; it is planted in another plant instead of in the ground. [Illustration: 16. The whip-graft before tying.] The cion-grafts are now planted in the nursery row in spring. The cion starts growth rapidly, only one shoot being allowed to remain; this shoot forms the trunk or bole of the future tree. At the end of the first season, the little tree is said to be one year old, although the root is at least two years old; at the end of the second year it is two years old; the tree is sometimes sold as a two-year-old, but usually a year later as a three-year-old having a four-year-old root. In fact, however, the root and top may be considered, in a way, to be of the same age, particularly if only a piece of the root is employed, for the cion grew on its parent tree the same year the root was growing in the nursery. The tree grew from the seed but it is no longer a "seedling" or a "natural;" it is now a grafted tree, destined to produce a named recognized variety of apple, maybe York Imperial, maybe Jonathan. We find seedling trees in old fields, in fence-rows, and in woods. These have grown from scattered seeds and have come to fruit without the arts of the propagator. They bear their own tops or heads, rather than the heads that a thrifty horticulturist would have put on them. Now and then such a tree produces superior fruit; then a discriminating pomologist discovers it, names it a new variety, and propagates it as other varieties are propagated. Thus have most of the prized varieties originated, without knowledge on the part of man of the ultimate processes. But now with the accumulating knowledge of the plant-breeder we hope to be able to foresee and probably to produce varieties of given qualities. [Illustration: 17. A "bud" before tying.] Bud-grafting is practiced in summer. The young trees, obtained from the grower of apple stocks, are planted regularly in nursery rows in spring, the top having been cut back to the crown so that a strong vigorous shoot will arise. In July and August or September, when this shoot is the size of a lead pencil and larger and the bark will peel (or separate from the wood), a single bud is inserted near the ground (Fig. 17). This bud is deftly cut from the current year's growth of the desired variety; it grows in the axil of a leaf (Fig. 15). The leaf is removed but a small part of the stalk or petiole is retained with the bud to serve as a handle. A boat-shaped or shield-shaped piece of bark is removed with the bud. This piece, known technically as a "bud," is inserted in an incision on the stock, so that it slips underneath the bark and next the wood, with only the bud itself showing in the slit; it is then tied in place. The stock on which the bud is inserted has a two-year root, and the root is entire. For this reason, budded trees are usually very large and strong for their age when compared with piece-root trees grown under similar conditions of climate, tillage and soil. The bud does not grow the year it is inserted in the stock; it is dormant until the following spring, as it would have been had it remained on its parent branch; but soon after it is inserted it attaches itself fast to the stock: it is a bud implanted from one twig to another. The following spring, if the operation is successful, the bud "grows," sending up a strong shoot that makes the trunk of the future tree. The top of the stock is cut away; in the merchantable tree, the bend or place may be seen where the stock and cion meet. As in the case of cion-grafting, we now have a top of a known variety growing on the root of an unknown kind. The tree is sold at two or three years, counting the age of the top; and of course the tree is no longer called a seedling, and it produces its implanted variety as accurately as does the cion-grafted tree. Equally good trees are produced by both cion-grafting and bud-grafting. The apple-tree is now "propagated," and is ready for the planting. Great hopes will be built on it, and the tree will probably do its part to justify them. Nobody knows how a bud from a Baldwin tree holds the memory of a Baldwin or from a Winesap tree the memory of a Winesap. Neither does anyone know why of two seeds that look alike one will unerringly produce a cabbage and the other a cauliflower. So accustomed are we to these results that we never challenge a twig of apple or a seed of cabbage: we assume that the twig or the seed "knows." Nor have we yet approached this question in our elaborate studies of plant-breeding. Here is one of the mysteries that baffles the skill of the physiologist and chemist, yet it is a mystery so very common that we know it not, albeit the life on the planet would otherwise be utter confusion. IX THE DWARF APPLE-TREE We have learned that many kinds of apples and apple-trees may come from a batch of seeds. Differences are expressed in the tree as well as in the fruit. In fact, stature is usually one of the characteristics of the variety. Here I open Downing's great book, "The Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America," and find the description of a certain variety beginning: "Tree while young very slow in its growth, but makes a compact well-formed head in the orchard," and another: "Tree vigorous, upright spreading, and productive." We know the small stature and early bearing of the Wagener (wherefore it is often planted in the orchard as a filler), and the great wide-spreading head of the Tompkins King with the apples scattered through the tree. Now it so happens that in the course of time certain great races of the apple-tree have arisen, we do not know just why or how. There is the race or family of the russets and of the Fameuse. So are there several races very small in stature, remaining perhaps no larger than bushes. If we were to propagate any of the ordinary apples on such diminutive stocks, we should have a "dwarf apple-tree." The dwarf apple, then, is not a question of variety but of stock. Any variety may be grown as a dwarf by grafting it on a plant that naturally remains small, although some varieties are more adaptable than others to the purpose. If seeds of the natural diminutive apple-tree are sown, a variety of trees and apples may be expected. The fruits would probably be inferior. Probably the stature would vary between different seedlings. If we are to get the effect of dwarfness, we must be sure that the stock is itself really dwarf. Therefore, to eliminate variation and also because seeds of natural dwarf apples may not be had in sufficient quantity, the stocks are propagated by layers rather than by seeds. The diminutive tree, when well established, is cut off near the ground. Sprouts arise. Some kinds sucker very freely. If earth is mounded up around the sprouts, roots form on them and the sprouts may be removed and treated as if they were seedling stocks. Usually the mounding is not performed until the shoots have made one season's growth. Gooseberries and some other plants are often propagated by mound-layers. In the case of the gooseberry, however, it is desired that the layer reproduce the parent--it may be Downing or Whitesmith--and therefore it is planted without further manipulation. But in the case of the apple, we do not want the layer to reproduce the parent, for the parent would probably bear an inferior fruit since it does not represent an "improved" or recognized variety; therefore the layer is grafted or budded with the particular variety we desire to grow as a dwarf tree. Dwarf trees are grown in America, if at all, only in gardens, where extra attention may be given them. Only high-class kinds should be attempted on dwarfs, for the quantity-production of commercial apples must be obtained by less intensive methods on cheaper lands. Better fruits often are grown on dwarf than on standards, for two reasons: It is usual to propagate only the best varieties on dwarf stock; the little tree must receive extra care in pruning and in every other way. Its bushel of apples must be choice, every one, to make the effort of growing the tree worth the while. Under European conditions where land is high-priced and labor has been relatively cheap, it is possible (and common) to raise apples on dwarfs for market, as it is profitable to terrace the hillsides with human labor; but in North America the conditions are practically the reverse and the dwarf tree cannot compete with the standard orchard tree. The growing of a dwarf tree is essentially a gardening practice. It requires great skill. The spurs are produced and protected to a nicety. Every fruit may be the separate product of handwork. The fertilizing, mulching, watering, are carefully regulated for every tree. Often the trees are trained on cordons, espaliers, trellises or walls. The individual fruits may be tied up or bagged. All this is very different from the raising of apples by means of tractors and other machinery, gangs of pruners and pickers, broadside extensive methods, with highly organized systems of handling and marketing, in all of which the money-measure is the chief consideration. It is for all these reasons that the growing of a few dwarf apple-trees may afford such intimate satisfaction to a careful man who prizes the result of his skill. The dwarfs are grown as little trees branching near the ground, headed in at top and side and kept within shape and bounds. If they are of the dwarfest dwarfs and not trained on trellis or wall (as they usually are not in America), the fruit may be gathered by a man standing on the ground, even from old trees. The dwarfs are planted eight to ten feet apart when grown in regular plantation. Be it said that certain kinds of stocks produce trees only semi-dwarf; and in all cases if the tree is planted so deep that roots strike from the cion, the top will probably outgrow the stock, being supplied in part or even entirely by its own roots. This brings us to a consideration of some of the kinds of dwarf stocks, or dwarf races of the apple-tree. Be it said, in understanding of the subject, that there are naturally dwarf forms of many plants, and probably all ordinary plants are capable of producing them. Thus there are very compact condensed forms of arbor-vitae, Norway spruce, peach-tree. These have originated as seed sports and are multiplied by cuttings. So are there dwarf tomatoes, dwarf China asters, dwarf sweet peas, all coming more or less true from seeds, for these species (of short generations) have been bred to reproduce their variations. The inquirer must not suppose, therefore, that the races of dwarf apple-trees are an anomally in the vegetable kingdom. It is customary to speak of two classes or races of dwarf apple-trees, the Paradise and the Doucin. The former kinds are the smaller, the trees on their own roots sometimes reaching not more than four feet in height at full bearing maturity. On the Paradise stocks, the grafted apple-tree is very small; it is a true dwarf. The Doucin trees are by nature larger, and apples grafted on them make semi-dwarf trees, midway in stature between the real dwarfs and the common standard or "free" apple-trees. The case is not so simple, however, as this brief statement would make it appear. There are many kinds of Paradise stock, as also of Doucin. If one were to bring together living plants of all the kinds of natural dwarfs and semi-dwarfs that could be found in nurseries and growing collections, one would undoubtedly find a nearly complete series, so far as stature of tree is concerned, from the very dwarf to the full-sized standard tree. To say that a person is growing grafted dwarf apple-trees does not signify how large the trees may be expected to grow, for one may not know the particular kind of stocks on which the variety is grafted. In fact, it is considered even in Europe, where dwarf apples are chiefly grown, that the proper identification of dwarf stocks is still a subject for careful investigation. When the Paradise dwarfs first came into existence is undetermined. They appear to have been known in the Middle Ages. The many races, as the Dutch, French, Metz, Nonsuch, Broad-leaved, indicate an ancient origin. We cannot be too certain what apple-trees were meant in the early references to the Paradise apple. The fruits of the present natural Paradise apple-trees are not sufficiently attractive to justify us in considering them the "Tree of Paradise" or apple of the Garden of Eden, which circumstance is supposed by some to account for the name. "Paradise" was originally a park or pleasure ground, applied also to the Garden of Eden, and later to horticultural gardens. John Parkinson wrote his great treatise on horticulture, 1629, under the title, "Paradisi in Sole Paradisus terrestris; or, a Choice Garden of all Sorts of Rarest Flowers, etc." Now we use the word for gardens of bliss. The word Doucin, from the Italian, is supposed originally to have designated apples of sweet flavor, but it now applies technically to a class or race of semi-dwarf apple-trees. For the purpose of this little book, however, the interest in the dwarf apple centers not so much in the origin of the stock as in the natural-history of the tree itself and the good skill of hand and heart that one may expend in the growing of it. If one would come close to a plant, knowing it intimately in every season, causing it to respond to sympathetic treatment through a series of years, then a garden collection of dwarf apples may satisfy the desire. It is too bad that we do not have time to cultivate the dwarfs often in the yards and gardens of North America. We are more familiar with the raising of dwarf pears (which are grafted on quince stocks since there is no similar race of natural dwarf pear-tree), but we do not give them the thumb-and-finger care that is demanded for the choicest results. The abundance of apples in the market should only stimulate the desire of the connoisseur to have trees and fruits that are wholly personal. The market produce can never gratify the affections. X WHENCE COMES THE APPLE-TREE? If the dwarf apple-tree goes back to the Middle Ages and perhaps farther, then whence comes the apple originally? No one can surely answer. Carbonized apples are found in the remains of the prehistoric lake dwellings of Switzerland. When recorded history begins, apples were well known and widely distributed. The apple-tree is wild in many parts of Europe, but it is difficult to determine whether, in a given region, it is indigenous or has run wild from cultivation. Wild apple-trees are common in North America, but no one supposes that the orchard apple is native here. Expert opinion generally considers that the apple is native in the region of the Caspian Sea and probably in southeastern Europe. Perhaps it had spread westward before the Aryan migrations. It had also probably spread eastward, but it is not a cultivated fruit in China and Japan except apparently as introduced in recent time. The apple is essentially a fruit of central and northern Europe, and of European migration and settlement. It is a fertile retrospect to conceive of the apple as an attendant of the course of Western civilization. Without voice and leaving no record, it has nevertheless followed man in his wanderings, encouraged his attainment of permanent habitations, succored him in his emergencies. What the apple has contributed to sustenance can never be known, but we are aware that it yields its fruit abundantly, that it thrives in widely unlike regions and conditions, that the tree has the ruggedness to endure severe climates and to provide food that can be stored and transported. In the ages it must have stood guard at many a rude camp and fireside. It would be fascinating to know what the apple-tree has witnessed. These early apples must have been very crude fruits measured by the produce of the present day. But other food was crude and man was crude. The North American Indians found the apple to be worth their effort; remains of some of the so-called Indian orchards of the Five Nations in New York persisted until the present generation. These were seedling apple-trees, grown from the stocks introduced by the white man. The French missionaries are said to have carried the apple far into the interior, and early settlers took seeds with them. The legends and records of Johnny Appleseed, sowing the seeds as he went, are still familiar. My father, like other pioneers, took seeds from the old New England trees into the wilderness of the West; the resulting trees were top-grafted, some of them as late as my time; I can remember the apples some of these seedling trees bore, the like of which I have never seen again, probably poor apples if we had them in this day but to a boy at the edge of the forest the very essence of goodness. As early as 1639, apples had been picked from trees planted on Governor's Island in Boston harbor. Governor John Endicott of Massachusetts Colony had an apple-tree nursery in the early day; in 1644 he says that five hundred of his trees were destroyed by fire. So the apple came early to be a standby on the new continent. The apples of the colonists were not all for eating, but for drinking. The butts and barrels of cider put in cellars in the early times seem to us most surprising. Herein are suggestions of old social customs that might lead us into interesting historical excursions. The oldest book I possess on the apple is "Vinetum Britannicum: or, a Treatise of Cider," published in London in 1676; it treats also of other beverages made from fruits and of "the newly-invented ingenio or mill, for the more expeditious and better making of cider." The gradual change in customs, whereby the eating of the apple (rather than the drinking of it) has come to be paramount, is a significant development; the use of apple-juice may now proceed on another basis, on the principle of preservation and pasteurization rather than of fermentation. It is the custom to call the apple _Pyrus Malus_. This is the name given by the great Linnaeus, with whom the modern accurate naming of plants and animals begins. The nomenclature of plants starts with his "Species Plantarum," 1753. Pyrus is the genus or group comprising the pears and apples, and Linnaeus included the quince; Malus is Latin for the apple-tree. Together the names represent genus and species,--the malus Pyrus. These statements are easy enough to make, but it is impossible to demonstrate whether the common pomological apples are derived from one original species or from two or more. Many technical botanical names have been given in the group, but we need not pause with them here. It is enough for our purpose to know that the natural-history of the apple, as of anything else that runs to time immemorial, passes at the end into obscurity. We seem never to reach the ultimate origins or to find an end to our quests. There are other apples than the common pomological orchard types. There are the crabs. In general usage, the word "crab" designates an apple that is small, sour and crabbed. Such apples are wildings or seedlings. They are merely depreciated forms of _Pyrus Malus_, and probably much like the first apples known to man. What are known to horticulturists as crab-apples, however, are other species of Pyrus, of different character and origin. We need not pause with the discussion of them, except to say that the commonest kinds are the little long-stemmed fruits of _Pyrus baccata_ (berry Pyrus), native in eastern Europe and Siberia. These are the "Siberian crabs." The leaves and twigs are smooth, and the calyx falls away from the fruit, leaving a bare blossom end. These little hard handsome fruits are used in the making of conserves. Certain larger crab-apples, in which the blossom end is not clean or bare, as the Transcendent and Hyslop, are probably hybrids between the true crabs and the common apple; this class provides the main crab-apples of the markets. When the settlers came to the country west and south of New England, they found another kind of crab-apples in the woods, truly native. The fruits were hard and sour, but they could be buried to ripen. The trees are much like a thorn-apple,--low, spreading, twiggy, thorny; but the pink-white large fragrant flowers are very different. The wild crab-apple was called _Pyrus coronaria_ by Linnaeus, the "garland Pyrus." On the prairies is another species, _Pyrus ioensis_; it yields a charming double-flowered form, "Bechtel's crab." In the South are other species. In fact, _P. coronaria_ itself may not be a single species. These wild crabs run into many forms. In the northern Mississippi and prairie country are native apples good enough to be introduced into cultivation under varietal names. These are _Pyrus Soulardii_, a species bearing the name of J. G. Soulard, Illinois horticulturist. These crab-apples are probably natural hybrids between _Pyrus Malus_ and the prairie crab, _P. ioensis_. Had there been no European apple to be introduced by colonists, it is probable that improved forms would have been evolved from the native species. In that event, North American pomology would have had a very different character. There remains a very different class of apple-trees, grown only for ornament and usually known as "flowering apples." They are mostly native in China and Japan. They are small trees, or even almost bushes, with profuse handsome flowers and some of them with very ornamental little fruits. They have come to this country largely from Japan where they are grown for decoration, as the cherries of Japan are grown not for fruit but for their flowers, being of very different species from the cherries of Europe and America. The common apple itself yields varieties grown only for ornament, as one with variegated leaves, one with double flowers, and one with drooping branches. These are known mostly in Europe; but these forms do not compare in interest with the handsome species of the Far East. All these differing species of the apple-tree multiply the interest and hold the attention in many countries. They make the apple-tree group one of the most widespread and adaptable of temperate-region trees. It will be seen that there are three families of them,--the Eurasian family, from which come the pomological apples; the North American family, which has yielded little cultivated material; the East-Asian family, abundant in highly ornamental kinds. There are no apple-trees native in the southern hemisphere. The apple-tree, taken in its general sense, has a broad meaning. What may be accomplished by breeding and hybridizing is beyond imagination. XI THE VARIETIES OF APPLE Every seedling of the pomological apples is a new variety. Some of these seedlings are so good that they are named and introduced into cultivation. They are grafted on other stocks, and become part of the great inheritance of desirable apples. It is to be expected that in the long processes of time in many countries the number of varieties will accumulate to high numbers. No one knows all the kinds that have been named and propagated, but they run into many thousands. No one book contains them all, although some of the manuals are voluminous. Varieties drop out of existence, being no longer propagated; new varieties come in. So the lists of varieties gradually change. A list of one hundred years ago would contain many names strange to us. Thus, of the sixty apples in "A Select List of Fruit-Trees" by Bernard M'Mahon, published in "The American Gardener's Calendar," in 1806, not more than six or eight would be understandable to a planter of the present day. With the standardizing of practices in the commercial growing of fruits, the tendency is to reduce the number of varieties to small proportions; it is these varieties that the nurserymen propagate. Here and there over the country are still trees of the extra-quality but uncommercial varieties known to a former generation. If the amateur now wants to grow these varieties, he must find cions as best he can by patient correspondence, and graft them on his own trees. When I planted an orchard twenty-five years ago, I found cions of Jefferis here, of Dyer there, of Mother, Swaar and Chenango in other places. In the enlarged edition of Downing's "Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America," 1872, are descriptions of 1856 varieties, of which 1099 are American in origin, 585 foreign, 172 of origin unknown. The lists are not only much smaller in these days, but the foreign element tends to pass out. With the introduction of the Russian apples for the cold North in the latter part of the past century, the importation of foreign varieties practically ceased, as it ceased also for the pears at an earlier date with the introductions of Manning, Wilder and others. The epoch of the "testing" of varieties passed away, and with it has gone an appreciative attitude toward fruits and even toward life that constitutes a sad lack in our day. About thirty years ago (1892) I compiled an inventory of all the varieties of apple-trees sold in North America, as listed in the ninety-five nurserymen's catalogues that came to my hand. The inventory contains 878 varieties. In the present year, however, perhaps not more than 100 varieties are handled by nurserymen in Eastern United States. Probably the dealer and grower would consider even this small number much too great. The highly developed standardized business of the present day, aiming at quantity-production, naturally reduces the variety of products, whether in manufacturing or horticulture, and aims at uniformity. Under the influence of this leadership, we are losing many of the old products, varieties of apples among the rest. Why do we need so many kinds of apples? Because there are so many folks. A person has a right to gratify his legitimate tastes. If he wants twenty or forty kinds of apples for his personal use, running from Early Harvest to Roxbury Russet, he should be accorded the privilege. Some place should be provided where he may obtain trees or cions. There is merit in variety itself. It provides more points of contact with life, and leads away from uniformity and monotony. The leading varieties of apples, that have become dominant over wide regions, have been great benefactors to man. The original tree should be carefully preserved till the last, by historical or other societies; and then a monument should be placed at the spot. Monuments have been erected to the Baldwin, Northern Spy, McIntosh and other apples. We should never lose our touch with the origins of men, events, notable achievements, outstanding products of nature. I fear it is now a habit with many fruit-growers to minimize the interest in varieties, placing the emphasis on tillage, spraying and management of plantations. Yet, the only reason why we expend all the labor is that we may grow a given kind of apple; the variety is the final purpose. In this little book we cannot discuss varieties at length. There are special books on this fascinating subject. But we may have before us a compiled list by way of interesting suggestion. The list is sorted from the Catalogue of Fruits of the American Pomological Society, 1901, the last year in which the catalogue was published with quality rated on a scale of 10. On such a scale, Ben Davis ranks 4-5; Baldwin, 5-6; Wealthy and York Imperial, 6-7; Rhode Island Greening, 7-8; Northern Spy, 8-9; Yellow Newtown (Albermarle Pippin) 9-10. There is no apple in the entire catalogue of 324 kinds (not including crab-apples) rated wholly lower than 4 in quality except one alone and this is grown for cider only, although several varieties of minor importance bear the marks 3-4. Only two varieties are rated exclusively 10, the Garden Royal, a Massachusetts summer-fall apple, little known to planters, and the familiar Esopus Spitzenberg. Of course judgments differ widely in these matters, as there are no inflexible criteria for the scoring of quality; yet this extensive list is probably our soundest approach to the subject. The varieties in the catalogue of the American Pomological Society are starred if "known to succeed in a given district" and double-starred "if highly successful." North America is thrown into nineteen districts for the purposes of this catalogue (which comprises other fruits besides apples). For our purposes we may combine them into six more or less indefinite great regions: n. e., the northeastern part of the country, Delaware and Pennsylvania to eastern Canada; s. e., the parts south of this area and mostly east of the Mississippi; n. c., north central, from Kansas and Missouri north; s. w., Texas to Arizona; mt., the mountain states of the Rockies west to the Sierras, including of course much high plains country; pac., the Pacific slope, Washington to southern California. Of the varieties starred and double-starred in these various geographical regions there are 107; these are listed herewith. Of course the intervening twenty years might change the rating of some of these apples, other varieties have come to the front, and certain ones of these older worthies are receding still further into the background; but the exhibit is suggestive none the less. Arkansas--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt. Bailey (Sweet)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Baker--n.e. Baldwin--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac. Beach--s.e. Belle Bonne--n.e. Ben Davis--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac. Bietigheimer--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Bledsoe--s.e. Blenheim--n.e., n.c. Blue Pearmain--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Bough, Sweet--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Bryan--s.e., mt. Buckingham--n.e., s.e., n.c. Canada Reinette--n.e., n.c., mt. Clayton--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Clyde--n.e., n.c. Cogswell--n.e. Cooper--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Cracking--s.e., n.c. Doyle--s.e. Early Pennock--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Esopus (Spitzenburg)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac. Ewalt--n.e., s.e., mt. Fallawater--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Fall Harvey--n.e., mt. Fall Jenneting--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Fall Orange--n.e., s.e., n.c. Fall Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt. Fanny--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w. Farrar--s.e. Foundling--n.e. Gano--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt. Gilbert--s.e. Golding--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Gravenstein--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., s.w., pac. Hagloe--n.e., s.e. Hoover--s.e., n.c., mt., pac. Hopewell--n.c. Horse--n.e., s.e., n.c. Hubbardston--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w. Hunge--s.e. Huntsman--s.e., n.c., s.w., mt. Isham (Sweet)--n.c. Jacobs Sweet--n.e. Kent--n.e., s.e., n.c. Kernodle--s.e. Lady Sweet--n.e., mt. Lankford--n.e., s.e. Lawver--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Lilly (of Kent)--n.e. Lowe--s.e. Lowell--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. McAfee--n.e., s.e, mt. McCuller--s.e. McMahon--n.e., n.c., mt. Magog--n.e. Maverack--s.e. Milwaukee--n.c. Minister--n.e., s.e., n.c. Monmouth--s.e., n.c., mt. Newell--n.c. Nickajack--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Northern Spy--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac. Northwestern (Greening)--n.e., n.c., mt. Oconee--n.e., s.e. Ohio Nonpareil--n.e., s.e. Ohio Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c. Ortley--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Paragon--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Patten (Greening)--n.c. Pease--n.e. Peck (Pleasant)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Peter--n.c. Pewaukee--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Porter--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Pumpkin Sweet--n.e., s.e., n.c. Quince--n.e., n.c. Ramsdell (Sweet)--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Red Astrachan--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac. Rhode Island (Greening)--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac. Ridge (Pippin)--n.e. Rolfe--n.e. Rome--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt. Stark--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt. Starkey--n.e., s.e. Stayman Winesap--n.e., s.e., n.c. Sterling--n.e., n.c. Summer King--n.e., s.e. Swaar--n.e., n.c., mt., pac. Taunton--s.e. Titovka--n.e., mt. Tompkins King--n.e., s.e., mt., pac. Twenty Ounce--n.e., s.e., s.w., mt. Utter--n.c. Vanhoy--n.e., s.e. Virginia Greening--s.e., mt. Washington (Strawberry)--n.e., s.e., mt. Watson--s.e. White Pippin--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt., pac. Wine--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Wistal--s.e., s.w. Wolf River--n.e., s.e., n.c., mt. Yellow Bellflower--n.e., s.e., s.w., mt., pac. Yellow Newtown--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt., pac. Yopp--s.e. York Imperial--n.e., s.e., n.c., s.w., mt. There are many odd varieties of apple not found in any list but about which questions are likely to arise. One of these is the Sweet-and-Sour. There is an old ribbed variety of this name, the ribs having an acid flesh and the furrows sweetish; it is little known and of no special value. Apples are sometimes found that are sweetish on one side and sourish on the other. The reasons for this kind of variation are no more understood than are those responsible for variance in color or shape or durability. One yet sometimes hears the pleasant fable that sweet-and-sour apples are produced by splitting the bud when the tree was propagated. The Surprise is a small whitish apple with light red flesh. It is indeed a surprise to bite into such an apple, but it has little merit. It is an early winter variety. One is frequently asked about the Sheepnose apple, particularly by older people who remember it from early days and who deplore its infrequency in these latter times. The sheepnose shape--long-conical--is an infrequent variation, as apples go, and apparently none of these forms chances to have sufficient merit to keep it in the lists. The name is often applied to the Black Gilliflower, an old apple more than three inches long, dark red, of light weight perhaps because of the large core, ripening late in autumn to midwinter. It seems to be specially prized by children, perhaps in part because of its unusual shape and in part by its aromatic fragrance; but it is not a high-class apple, and is now little seen. With the Rambo, Vandevere, some of the russets, Early Harvest, Jersey Sweet and other old worthies, it probably will pass away unless rescued here and there by the amateur. To the lover of choice fruit nothing is old; every succeeding crop is as choice and new as is the new year itself, and one waits for it again and again. One hears of seedless and no-core apples, as also of pears. The core is present but greatly reduced in size, and the seeds may be few and small. I have also raised practically seedless tomatoes. All these are infrequent variations that may be propagated by asexual parts (cuttings, cions), but as yet none of them has any outstanding value. The reader will now ask me about the water-core apples, so much sought and prized by youngsters. The water-core is not characteristic of a variety, although occurring in some varieties more frequently than in others. It is a physiological condition, supposed to be associated with a relatively low transpiration (evaporation) so that excess water is held in the fruit. In certain seasons this condition is marked, and also in cloudy regions and often on young trees that have an over-supply of moisture. Yet such cores occur in old trees and sometimes with more or less regularity. What the physiological inability may be in such cases to dispose of excess moisture appears to be undetermined. Now and then one finds a double apple, with two fruits grown solidly together, two blossom ends and a single stem. A seedling tree I knew as a boy bore such apples frequently, sometimes a score of them among the crop of the year. This, of course, is a malformation or teratological state. Apparently two flowers coalesce to form these fruits. On the tree of which I speak, the two fruits were about equal in size, making a large, widened, edible apple, but I have known of other cases in which a diminutive undeveloped fruit is attached to the side of a normal one. Perhaps the oddest of them all is the "Bloomless apple." It is said to have no flowers. In fact, however, the flowers are present but they lack showy petals and are therefore not conspicuous. The bloomless apple is a monstrous state, the cause of which is unknown. Now and then a tree is reported. It was described at least as long ago as 1768, and in 1770 Muenchhausen called it _Pyrus apetala_ (the petalless pyrus). The flowers have no stamens, and apparently they are pollinated from any other apples in the vicinity. In 1785, Moench described it as _Pyrus dioica_ (the dioecious pyrus, sexes separated on different plants). The ovary is also malformed, having six or seven and sometimes probably more cells, and bearing ten to fifteen styles. The resulting fruit has a core character unknown in other apples but approached in certain apple-like fruits, as the medlar. The fruit has a hole or opening from the calyx (which is open) into the core; and the core is roughly double, one series above the other. The fruit, in such specimens as I have seen or read about, has no horticultural merit; but it is a curiosity of great botanical interest. It appears now and then in widely separated places, the trees probably having originated as chance seedlings. The fruits from the different originations are not always the same in size and form, but the flowers apparently all have the same malformed character. The apple is preeminently the home fruit. It is not transitory. It spans every season. In an indifferent cellar I keep apples till apples come again. The apple stands up, keeps well on the table. Children may handle it. In color and form it satisfies any taste. Its rondure is perfect. The cavity is deep, graceful and well moulded, holding the good stem securely. The basin is a natural summit and termination of the curvatures, bringing all the lines together, finishing them in the ornaments of the remaining calyx. The fruit adapts itself to the hand. The fingers close pleasantly over it, fitting its figure. It has a solid feel. The flesh of a good apple is crisp, breaking, melting, coolly acid or mildly sweet. It has a fracture, as one bites it, possessed by no other fruit. One likes to feel the snap and break of it. There is a stability about it that satisfies; it holds its shape till the last bite. One likes to linger on an apple, to sit by a fireside to eat it, to munch it waiting on a log when there is no hurry, to have another apple with which to invite a friend. Now I am not thinking of the Ben Davis apple or any of its kind. I do not want to be doomed to one variety of apple, or even to half a dozen kinds, and particularly I do not want a poor one. There are enough good apples, if we can get them. The days of the amateur fruit-growers seem to be passing. At least we do not hear much of them in society or in many of the meetings of horticulturists. There may be many reasons, but two are evident: we give the public indifferent fruits, and thereby neither educate the taste or stimulate the desire for more; we do not provide them places from which they can get plants of many of the choicest things. Yet on a good amateur interest in fruits depends, in the end, the real success of commercial fruit-growing. Just now we are trying to increase the consumption of apples, to lead the people to eat an apple a day: it cannot be accomplished by customary commercial methods. To eat an apple a day is a question of affections and emotions. We have had great riches in our varieties of apples. It has been a vast resource to have a small home plantation of many good varieties, each perfect in its season. The great commercial apple-growing has been carried to high perfection of organization and care. More perfect apples are put on the market, in proportion to numbers, than ever before,--carefully grown and graded and handled. I have watched this American development with growing pride. The quantity-production makes for greater perfection of product, but it does not make for variety and human interest, nor for high-quality varieties. We shall still improve it. Masterful men will perfect organizations. The high character and attainment of the commanding fruit-growers, nurserymen and dealers are good augury for the future. But all this is not sufficient. Quantity-production will be an increasing source of wealth, but it cannot satisfy the soul. The objects and productions of high intrinsic merit are preserved by the amateur. It is so in art and letters. It is necessarily so. A body of amateurs is an essential background to the development of science. The late Professor Pickering, renowned astronomer, encouraged the amateur societies of star-observers, and others. The amateurs in the background, disinterested and unselfish, support appropriations by legislatures for even abstruse public work. The amateur is the embodiment of the best in the common life, the conservator of aspirations, the fulfillment of democratic freedom. I hope pomology will not lag in this respect. In all lines I hope that professionalism will not subjugate the man who follows a subject for the love of it rather than for the gain of it or for the pride of it. In horticulture, when we lose the amateur, who, as the word means, is the lover, we lose the ideals. Naturally, the nurseryman cannot grow trees of all the good apples that may be wanted. The experiment stations cannot maintain living museums of them, for their function is to investigate rather than to preserve. Arboretums are concerned with other activities. Is there not some person of means, desiring to do good to his successors, ready now to establish a fructicetum _in perpetuum_ for the purpose of preserving a single tree of at least one hundred of the choicest apples, to the end that a record may be kept and that amateurs may be supplied with cions thereof? XII THE PLEASANT ART OF GRAFTING If I procure cuttings of a good apple, what shall I do with them that they may give me of their fruitage? The cuttings will probably be dormant twigs of the last season's growth. They may not be expected to grow when placed in the ground. They are therefore planted in another tree, becoming cions. The case is in no way different in principle from the propagating of the young tree in the nursery, of which we already have learned. The nurseryman works with a small stock, a mere slip of a seedling one or two years old. The grower would better not attempt the making of nursery trees. It is better for him to purchase regular nursery trees and to graft the cions on them; or he may put the cions in any older tree that is available. I have spoken of my own collecting of certain dessert apples. I "worked" them on young Northern Spy trees, purchased when two or three years old; they were grafted after they had stood a year in the orchard. These Northern Spy trees, used in this case as stocks, were regularly grown by nurserymen. The Northern Spy was chosen because of its hardiness and straight, clean, erect growth, making it a vigorous and comely stock. Weak-growing varieties are usually rejected for this purpose. Some growers use Oldenburg as stock, and there are other good kinds. From the young stock, the old head is to be removed and a new head (the new variety) grown in its stead. The tree, therefore, will be combined of three kinds of apple,--the root of unknown quality; the trunk or body under a varietal name; the top, of the variety desired. Any number of different kinds of apple wood may be worked into the tree if the tree is large enough. If the operations are well performed so that there are no imperfect unions, and if the pruning is judicious, the tree may be grafted many times, in whole or in part. I have said that my father brought apple seeds from New England and that the resulting seedlings were top-grafted. One of these trees was early top-worked to "Holland Pippin," which seldom bore. It stood in the yard near the smoke-house, where it found abundant nourishment. It grew to great size. In time I became a grafter of trees for the neighborhood, and often as I returned at night would have cions of different kinds in my pockets. It became a pastime to graft these cions in the old tree. More than thirty varieties were placed there. It was with keen anticipation, as the years came, that I looked for the annual crop, to see what strange inhabitants would appear in the great tree-top. I do not remember how many of these varieties came into bearing before the tree was finally gathered to the wood-box, but they were a goodly number, probably more than a score. I used often to wonder how it was that the nutrients taken in by the roots of the Vermont seedling and transported in the tissues of the Holland Pippin, combined with the same air, could produce so many diverse apples and even pears (for I had pears in that tree) each with the marks and flavor proper to its kind. The little cions I grafted into the tree were soon lost in the overgrowth, and yet all the branches that came from them carried the genius of one single variety and of none other. And I often speculated whether there were any reflex action of these many varieties on the root, demanding a certain kind of service from it. The cions (sometimes still called "grafts") are cut in winter or early spring, when well matured and perfectly dormant. Placed in sand in a cool cellar so they will not shrivel, they are kept until grafting time, which is early spring, usually before the leaves start on the stock. The cions may be placed on the tree by several methods, but only two are commonly employed,--the whip-graft and the cleft-graft. The former is adapted to small stocks, the size of one's finger or smaller; it is the method employed in root-grafting in the nursery, and Fig. 16 explains it. The requirement is to cause the cion and stock to grow together solidly, making one piece of wood. The growing plastic region is associated with the cambium tissues underneath the bark. It is necessary, therefore, to bring the "line betwixt the wood and the bark" together in the two parts, and to hold the junction firm and also well protected from evaporation until union takes place. The method of putting the parts together, the form of whittling, is a matter of convenience and practice. The case was put in this way by old Robert Sharrock, "Fellow of New-College," in his "History of the Propagation and Improvement of Vegetables by the concurrence of Art and Nature" (I quote from the second edition, Oxford, 1672): "Grafting is an Art of so placing the Cyon upon a stock, that the Sap may pass from the stock to the Cyon without Impediment." Batty Langley, in 1729, gave this direction in the "Pomona": "The Stocks being cleft, you must therefore cut the Cion in the Form of a Wedge, which must always be cut from a Bud, for the Reasons aforesaid; and then with a Grafting-Chizel open the Slit, and place the Cion therein, so that their Barks may be exactly even and smooth." Still earlier (1626) did William Lawson, in "A New Orchard and Garden," set forth the rationale of the practice in his Chapter X, "On Grafting," in this wise: "Now are we come to the most curious point of our faculty: curious in conceit, but indeed as plaine and easie as the rest, when it is plainly shewne, which we commonly call Graffing, or (after some) Grafting. I cannot Etymoligize, nor shew the original of the word, except it come of graving and carving. But the thing or matter is: The reforming of the Fruit of one Tree with the fruit of another, by an artificial transplacing or transposing of a twig, bud or leafe, (commonly called a Graft) taken from one tree of the same, or some other kind, and placed or put to, or into another tree in due time and manner." If the whip-graft is to be below the ground, it is sufficient to tie the parts tightly with string and cover with earth; if above ground, wax is applied over the string to prevent drying out. On the small shoots of young trees, the whip-graft is often employed, but it is not used in large trees. The cleft-graft is shown in Fig. 18. The trunk or branch is cut off; two cions are inserted in a cleft made with a knife. The "stub" is covered with grafting-wax (Fig. 19). Cleft-grafting is the usual method for the orchardist. [Illustration: 18. The cleft-graft.] [Illustration: 19. The cleft-graft after waxing.] In either kind of grafting, the cion carries about three leaf-buds. If "wood" (cion-shoots) is scarce, only one bud may be taken, but this reduces the chances of success. One bud may not grow, or the young shoot may be injured. The lowest bud is usually most likely to grow; it pushes through the wax. In young trees set for the purpose of top-working, the trunk may be cut off at the desired height and two cions inserted. The entire top is then removed at once; this is allowable only on young trees. Probably the better practice is to graft the main small side limbs and the main trunk or leader higher up. Usually it is better to leave some of the branches on the tree, not removing them all till the second or third year. In old apple-trees, the main branches are grafted, where they are an inch or two in diameter. Care is taken so to choose the branches that a well-shaped free-headed tree will result. Only a small part of the top is removed the first year, and three or four years may be required to change the top all over, the old branches being removed as the new ones grow. In about three years, or four, the grafts should begin to bear,--about as soon as strong three-year-old trees planted in the orchard. Any variety of the pomological apples will grow on any other variety, but apples do not take well on other species, as does the pear. The pear may be made to grow on the apple, but the graft is short-lived and the practice is not recommended. Boys may graft indiscriminately for practice, but grown-ups, having arrived at the unfortunate age of discretion, must operate only on those kinds known to succeed when joined. I have never known a boy who did not want to graft anything, as soon as his attention was called to the operation. The boy does not take it for granted: he wants to try. XIII THE MENDING OF THE APPLE-TREE Many accidents overtake the apple-tree. The hired man skins the tree with the harrow; fire runs through the dry grass; hard winters shatter the vitality, and parts of the tree die; borers enter; rabbits and mice gnaw the bark in winter; loads of fruit and burdens of ice crush the tree; wind storms play mischief; bad pruning leaves long stubs, and rot develops; cankers produce dead ragged wounds; fire-blight destroys the tissue; a poorly formed tree with bad crotches splits easily; grafts fail to take, and long dead ends are left; the tree is injured by pickers; vandals wreak their havoc. All these accidents must be met and the damages repaired. The surgeon must be summoned. We must first understand how a wound heals on a tree. Note any wound,--knot-hole on the trunk, place where wood has been removed. The exposed wound itself does not heal; it is covered and inclosed by tissue built out from the edges or periphery of the wound. This tissue is like a roll. It is the callus. Eventually the tissue meets in the center, and the lid is thereby put on the place, and it is sealed. The exposed wood has died, if it is the cross-section of a branch or a deep wound, and it remains under the callus a dead body. If the wood has not started to decay in the meantime, the place is safe, but too often invasion has begun before the process is complete, the rot disease finally extends to the heart of the tree, causing it to become hollow. If the center of the wound falls in, the callus cannot cover it, and an open sore remains. In these cavities birds may sometimes build. Therefore there are two points for the surgeon to consider in respect to the wound itself--whether it is so placed on the tree that the callus forms readily; whether the wound is kept healthy during exposure. All ragged tissue being removed, deep-wound surfaces should be kept aseptic. For ordinary cases, white-lead paint with plenty of linseed oil is a good protective from the germs of decay. On old wood, no longer active, creosote is good, perhaps followed by coal-tar. Usually, however, paint is quite sufficient. Small exposures usually receive no dressing. When the fresh surface wood is exposed by removal of bark, it is necessary to keep the tissue from drying out, and antiseptics are usually not applied. Bandaging with cloth is the usual practice, after the wound is cleaned and trimmed. The repairs fall into two classes,--those that require merely removal of injured parts and treatment of the wounds, and those that demand the ingrafting of new wood. We have learned, in the discussion of pruning, that long projecting ends of severed branches do not heal. The branches to be removed should be cut back close to the larger branch or to the juncture with another. In repairing injured trees, all projecting parts that do not have life in themselves must be removed. All wounds should be left smooth, without splinters or hanging bark. Decaying wood is to be removed, and the area cleaned out and disinfected. The nature-lover may find much to interest him in the observation of knot-holes as he comes and goes. Every knot-hole has a history; this history usually can be traced by one whose eye is keen and who becomes practiced in connecting cause with final result. One prides oneself on the ability to work out the obscure cases. An old neglected apple orchard thereby affords much entertainment. If a very large branch breaks off, the remaining part is cut back to fresh hard wood; antiseptic is applied; the other part of the tree may be shortened-in to aid in restoring the proportion or balance. Deep cavities caused by rot are cleaned out, disinfected with bordeaux mixture, gas-tar, or other material, and the place filled completely with cement. In some cases, new wood is added in the form of cions of last year's twigs. Such cions may be set around the edge of a stub, thrust between the bark and the wood, to start new branches where an important one was broken off. The cions are cut wedge-shape (much as those in Fig. 18) and a bandage is tied around the stub to hold them in place; the exposed parts are covered with grafting-wax. The operation is performed in spring. Sometimes cions are used to bridge a girdle. Usually a girdle heals itself if the injury does not extend into the wood, and if it is bound up to prevent drying out; but when the injury is deep and the exposed wood has become dry and hard, the cions may be used. The cions are somewhat longer than the width of the girdle. The edges of the girdle are trimmed to fresh tight bark; cions are cut wedge-shape at either end; the ends are inserted underneath the bark at bottom and top of the wound; edges of the wound are securely bandaged; entire work is covered with wax. The cions are many, so close that they nearly touch. The buds on the cions are not allowed to produce branches. This process is known as bridge-grafting. With some experience, the cultivator soon learns to make many deft applications of ingrafting. Sometimes a piece of bark may be used as a patch. In the bracing of crotches in young trees, the two trunks may be joined by uniting a small branch from either one, twisting them together to form a bridge like a bolt; they can be made to grow together, forming a solid union. Bolting the parts with iron rods, or holding them together by means of chains, is the usual and commonly the better method. The iron is not to go around a limb, however, for girdling results; the rods or chains should be secured by bolts bored through the wood and pulling against large heads or washers. The usual repairs are easily made. When trees are badly injured, and particularly when the tree is low in vitality, it may not be worth while to engage in surgery. It may be better to plant a new tree. Saving very old trees by the mending processes is not likely to be satisfactory. The grower should transfer his affection to a young tree. If the tree has had good care throughout its life, it probably will not need much surgery in old age. The grower will be willing, when the time comes, to take a photograph for memory's sake and to let the tree come to a timely and artistic end. XIV CITIZENS OF THE APPLE-TREE Many years ago, my old friend, the late Dr. J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, compiled a list of 356 insects that feed on the apple-tree. Later authorities place the number at nearly five hundred species. It must be a good plant that has such a host of denizens. The number of fungi is also large; and the tree often supports lichens, algæ, and other forms of life. The apple-tree is not single in its denizens. No plant lives alone. It has association with its fellows, perhaps contest for space and nourishment. It provides habitat for many organisms, many of which live on its bounty. I have never seen a bearing apple-tree that was not a colonizing place for other living things. We accept these things as matters of course, as being in place, living their part in nature. Therefore, one cannot understand the apple-tree unless one knows something of its citizenry. Probably the most prominent citizen of the apple-tree is the codlin-moth. Its larva is the apple-worm, the one that makes "wormy apples," the burrows going to the core and out again. The insect is native in Europe, but has been known in North America nearly two hundred years, and is widespread in the apple countries of the world. If one has screens in the apple cellar, one is likely to find small moths on them in the spring, larger than a clothes moth, about three-fourths inch in spread of the soft gray watered-silk wings. This is the imago or mature form of the insect known as the codlin-moth (it lives on codlins or apples). The larvæ or "worms" were brought into the cellar in the apples; some of them crawled out, spun themselves in a cocoon and pupated; in due season the moth emerged, ready to lay the eggs for other larvæ. Ordinarily the fruit-grower does not see the moth, for it is a small object amidst the foliage of apple-trees; the larva or apple-worm he knows well. There may be two or more broods of apple-worms, depending on the length of the season. In the northern apple regions of North America there is usually only one brood, with a partial second brood. The first brood is hatched from eggs laid by moths that emerge in spring. The moths come from larvæ that have lain in cocoons all winter, hidden under bark on the trunks and main branches of the apple-tree, in crevices in nearby posts and fences, and sometimes in the ground. The pupæ are the transformed larvæ or worms that left the apple of the previous year, usually before it fell, and crawled down the tree to find a place to spin the silken brown cocoons in which they wrapped themselves to undergo the wonderful transformation. So is the cycle complete: egg laid in early spring, mostly on the leaves; larva hatched in about one week, crawling to the young apple to feed, where it lives for perhaps a month; larva departed from the fruit to form a cocoon and to remain quiescent till it pupates the following spring (if there is no second brood) when it transforms into a moth; the moth alive for one week or ten days, laying perhaps as many as one hundred eggs or even more. If there is a second or third brood, the pupa resurrects in ten days or so into the moth; eggs are laid; larvæ are hatched; pupæ again are formed; and thus is the process continued. But the winter stage is the larva, although perhaps in store-houses the moths may emerge earlier and survive till spring. The eggs of the first brood are commonly laid on the leaves and fruit. The young larva or worm eats very little on the foliage. It usually crawls into the blossom end of the apple. The young apple stands erect, with the calyx open (Fig. 6); later the calyx closes and protects the larva that hatched there, forming a good cover for its operations (Fig. 7). The worm drives for the core, where it eats the young seeds and burrows extensively; then, when nearly grown, it sets out for the surface, eating a straight burrow; an opening is made through the skin of the apple, but this exit is plugged until the animal is ready to leave the place and to crawl down the tree to pupate. The larvæ of later broods may enter at the side of the apple, where a leaf affords protection or where two fruits come together; but the life-history is the same, varying in its rapidity. This account discloses the vulnerable point in the life-history, if one is to destroy the insects and to grow fair fruit; if poison is lodged on the erect open-topped little apple, the young larva will get it before he injures the fruit. If the application of the poison is delayed until the calyx closes (Fig. 7), there will be small chance of reaching the worm. The best way to reach the second brood is to destroy all the first brood. The standard practice, therefore, is to spray the trees soon after the petals fall, with the idea of depositing arsenic in the blossom end. But the season of egg-laying is long, often extending over a period of three or four weeks, for the moths do not all emerge from the cocoons simultaneously. It is customary, therefore, to spray again about two weeks after the first application, with the hope of catching the young worms on their way to the fruit. There is no question about the efficacy of spraying. Its value has been demonstrated time and again. The methods and the materials may be learned from the experiment station publications in any State, wherein the advice is kept up-to-date. In the days before the perfecting of the spraying processes, the codlin-moth was controlled by catching the pupating larvæ. Taking advantage of the habit of the worm to find lodgment under the bark on the trunk, it was the practice to scrape the loose bark from bole and large branches to destroy the hiding-places and then to tie a band of cloth around the trunk. Under this band the worms were taken, as they spun themselves up in the cocoons. This is a lesson taken from the industrious woodpeckers, who, in the winter, search the trees for the pupæ and make holes through the flakes of bark to get them. The scraping of apple-trees is not much recommended now for the reason that this special necessity is passed, and because the better tillage and care together with the soaking of the branches and trunk in the spraying operation, tend to keep the tree vigorous and the bark properly exfoliated. So the worm in the apple has a delicate and interesting history. From egg to imago the transformations proceed with regularity, and they are marvelous. Had we not traced the sequence, no man could tell by appearances that the larva, the pupa and the moth are one and the same animal. They seem to have nothing in common. So is the egg stage as different as the other three, but we are measurably prepared for this epoch, since we know seeds so well; the egg and the seed are analogous. That a moth in the air should come from a crawling worm in an apple is indeed one of the miracles of nature. The worm leaves the apple ere it falls; how the worm knows the time is again a mystery. By some instinct, it is able to cognize a dying apple. The later worms, either the lastlings from the early brood or the product of subsequent broods, may remain in the apple when it is harvested, particularly in an apple picked before it is quite mature and from which the worm has not escaped. The apple-worm ruins the crop by killing many of the fruits and by blemishing the remainder. Seldom are there two worms in an apple. They seem to respect each other's hunting-ground. From the worm's point of view and from man's, one is enough. If man has dominion and if he needs apples, then is he within his rights if he joins issue with the insects. Yet is the insect as interesting for all that. I think we should miss many of the satisfactions of life, and certainly some of the disciplines, if there were no insects. My apple-tree is a great place for a naturalist. Van Bruyssel wrote a book on "The Population of an Old Pear-Tree." "When certain blue spirits begin to flit about me," he writes, "I depart from my study to go and read, in what I am allowed, even by my clerical uncle, to call my book of devotions. The devotions I mean are not in my book-case. No publisher, if he ever thought of such a thing, could bring them out. They are a page of the book of Nature, opened in the country, under blue sky, displayed at all season." What a marvelous company Van Bruyssel found on his old pear tree; and what inexhaustible worlds did Fabre discover in the lives of the spider, the fly, the caterpillar, the wasps, the mason-bees and others! Therefore we need not pause with the other four hundred and more insect citizens of the apple-tree. Some of them, as the San José scale, are not peculiarly apple-tree insects. My tree has another crew of inhabitants, and to this company we may now have introduction. The spots on the leaves and fruits are not deposits of dirt nor are they caused by mysterious conditions in the atmosphere, as once supposed, nor is it in the nature of leaves to be spotted and of fruits to be scabby; nor are the one-sided dwarfed fruits merely accidents. The organism responsible for these blemishes is less evident than the codlin-moth; yet what fruit-grower knows the eggs of the codlin-moth? But the organisms are as definite as are the insects; no longer are the fungi things without form and without positive cycles. On the ground are apple leaves, shed in the autumn. On the leaves are spots or lesions,--injured or "diseased"--infected with the apple-scab fungus. Under a good microscope the investigator finds immature fruiting bodies in these areas. In the early days of Spring, these bodies or winter-spores mature. A rain discharges them in astonishing numbers. Rising in the air (for they are incredibly light), these spores lodge on the unfolding leaves and flowers of the apple, and there begin to germinate, invading the tissue. The tissue is penetrated and killed so rapidly that the practiced eye soon discovers a "spot." The leaf, if badly infected, may not reach full size; it may curl; it may die and fall; the tree thereby is injured. From the fungus in the active diseased areas, another kind of spore develops rapidly. It is the summer-spore, which may be produced in prodigious numbers, and being discharged carries the disease elsewhere. All summer the process of spore-formation and distribution keeps up. If conditions are favorable, the tree is invaded in foliage and fruit. The flower-stems in the unfolding buds are attacked by the winter-spores and the flower falls. The apples become spotted from the invasion of the summer-spores, perhaps misshapen. Late infections may not show at picking time, but develop on the fruit in storage. The affected leaves are cast in the autumn, the winter-spores begin to form, the snows come and hide the processes, in spring the spores mature; and so does the round of life go on and on. There are beautiful forms in these fragile fungus threads that eat their way into the tissues of the host. There are fascinating phenomena in the growth and reproduction. Even so and for all that, man protects his tree by spraying it with poison, and thereby again does he have dominion. The spraying for apple-scab is with lime-sulfur to which may be added arsenate of lead. This treatment, properly timed, may suffice also for the codlin-moth. As the fungus may attack the flower-stems and kill them, so is the first application made when the flower-buds open and the stems begin to separate, but before the flowers expand; the operator has a period of one to three days in which to spray. A second spraying is given just after the blossoms fall, as for codlin-moth; if the season is wet, a third application may be made ten to fourteen days later; if the fungus seems to spread, a fourth spraying may be applied in midsummer. These sprayings, variously modified, control not only the codlin-moth and the scab fungus but also scale, blister-mite, plant-lice, leaf-roller, case-bearer, bud-moth, red-bug and others. In the tropics one sees trees bearing great burdens of orchids and bromeliads and ferns and mosses, and one wonders at the strange and exuberant population. Yet here is my apple-tree supporting epiphytes and parasites and insects, protector and nurse of a goodly company; and birds nest on the branches thereof. XV THE APPLE-TREE REGIONS The northern hemisphere is the home of the apple, particularly Central Europe, Canada, the United States. In certain regions in the southern hemisphere the temperature and humidity are right for the good growing of apples, mostly in elevated areas. In New Zealand and parts of Australia, apple-growing is assuming large proportions. Their export trade to Europe and parts of South America has come to be important and undoubtedly is destined greatly to increase. In Europe, where land is often limited and high in price, apple-trees may be planted closer than in America, even in field conditions, and more attention is given to pruning, heading-in, and the development of fruit-spurs in the interior of the tree-top. I noticed this practice in New Zealand, also. In these directions, the Europeans have much to teach us in the careful growing of good apples. In Europe, the definite training of the apple-tree begins in the nursery; quantity-production, with standardization, is not there the aim. In North America the general practice is to let the tree take its course, reaching its full natural stature. The pruning is mostly corrective, to keep the tree in shape and to prevent the top from becoming too thick, rather than in the development of fruiting wood. The consequence is that our trees become very large, specially in New York and New England where they are long-lived. In the western country, as we have learned, the apple-tree tends to be shorter-lived and does not usually attain such great size. In the New York apple country, orchards may be in good bearing at forty to sixty years from planting, and individual trees may be productive much longer than this. The trees come into good bearing in ten to fifteen years. In the irrigated regions of the West, the trees may be expected to bear a good crop two to five years earlier; to what age they may attain, in large plantations, it is yet too early to state. The commercial apple regions of North America are in Canada and the northern United States, comprising about two or three tiers of States, with important extensions southward into the mountains and in special parts. The Southern States are not known as apple-growing country, except in special restricted elevated areas, although there are considerable plantations near the Gulf of Mexico. The geography of apple-growing on the North American continent cannot be better displayed than by copying the table of contents of the larger part of Chapters III and II in Folger and Thomson's excellent recent book, "The Commercial Apple Industry of North America:" _Commercial Apple Production in Canada_ Nova Scotia Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick Quebec Ontario British Columbia. _Leading Apple Regions of the United States_ Western New York Hudson Valley New England Baldwin belt The Champlain district New Jersey Delaware Shenandoah-Cumberland district Piedmont district of Virginia Minor regions in Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia Mountain region of North Carolina Mountain region of Georgia Ohio Southern Ohio, Rome Beauty district Minor regions in Ohio Kentucky Michigan Illinois Southern Illinois early apple region Mississippi Valley region of Illinois Ozark region Missouri River region Arkansas Valley of Kansas Southeastern Illinois Colorado New Mexico Utah Montana Washington Yakima Valley Wenatchee North Central Washington district Spokane district Walla Walla district Oregon Hood River Valley Rogue River Valley Other apple districts in Oregon Idaho Payette district Boise Valley Twin Falls Lewiston section California Watsonville district Sebastopol apple district Yucaipa section Wisconsin Minnesota The varieties of the South and the North, and largely also of the West and the East, are prevailingly different. Canada has a set of apples quite its own. These differences are marked when one visits exhibitions in the various regions. Let the visitor who is a good judge of apples in Michigan and Ohio attempt to judge them in an exhibition in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, in the Province of Quebec, in North Carolina, in Minnesota, in Oregon. He will be impressed with the wonderful diversity, as well as the undeveloped resources, of the continent. Southward, apples do not keep well. There are no true winter apples in the Southern States, outside mountain regions. A winter apple of the North becomes a fall apple in the South. In fact, there are marked differences in keeping quality within a single State. On gravelly lands or warm slopes in the southern part of New York, the Northern Spy may become practically a late autumn apple; in the northern parts of the State it is a firm crisp all-winter keeper. In the winter apple, the ripening process proceeds in storage. When the season is so long that maturity is reached on the tree, the subsequent duration is relatively short. It is not to be inferred, however, that apples are to be grown only in regions and soils naturally well adapted. Such adaptations should be controlling in commercial plantations; but if man has dominion he should be able to accomplish much in untoward or even in hostile conditions. Even the city lot may be able to yield a harvest, if the occupant of it is minded in fruits rather than in other things. Every observant traveler has noted cases in which good results in the rearing of plants and animals have been attained in places that no one would choose for the purpose: the man has overcome his obstacles. I was impressed with this fact in visiting a greenhouse in the Shetland Islands. Cultivation has been carried far beyond the optimum regions. The merit of the man's performance is measured in the excellence of his result rather than in the quantity of it. The application of skill is the highest test of ability in plant-growing, and this is often expressed in the most difficult places. Whatever may be the adaptability of any general territory to the growing of apples in a large way, the probability is that a man of resources and skill will be able to raise good apples for himself, unless, of course, the region is prohibitive. The amateur may be a law unto himself in many of these matters, delighting in the ingenuity that enables him to overcome. XVI THE HARVEST OF THE APPLE-TREE Finally the apple is ripe, a fair goodly object joyous in the sun, inviting to every sense. Hanging amidst its foliage, bending the twig with its weight, it is at once a pattern in good shape, perfect in configuration, in sheen beyond imitation, in fragrance the very affluence of all choice clean growth, its surface spread with a bloom often so delicate that the unsympathetic see it not; and yet the rains do not spoil it. The apple must be picked. Do not let it fall. Probably it is over-ripe when it falls; the hold is loosened; its time is up. Wormy apples may fall before they are ripe; the worm injury, if it begins early, causes them to ripen prematurely. A premature apple is not a good apple, albeit the small boy relishes it but only because he may get his apple earlier; in the apple season, when ripe fruits are abundant, the boy does not choose the wormy one. Pick the apple from the tree. It will do you good. It is ever so much better than to pick it from a box on the market or out of a quart-can in the ice-chest. You will feel some sense of responsibility when you pick it, some reaction of relationship to its origin. We know that we understand folks better when we see them at home. In varieties that mature before winter, the apple is of best quality when it ripens on the tree and is picked when fit to eat. In this respect it differs from the pear. One reason why store apples are usually poor is because they must be picked long before ripe to stand shipment. In my experience it is most difficult to find a man who will pick apples when ripe; he is usually possessed to pull them green, thinking that if the fruit is full grown and has a red cheek it is therefore ready to be plucked. One would expect the best summer and fall apples to come from nearby local orchards, but practically this is not the case because the grower will not allow them to remain on the tree until they are fit. Of course the really ripe apple will not keep long and it does not stand rough handling, but this does not affect the fact that, for eating, an apple should be naturally ripe. In every city, small or large, a good trade can be built up for local ripe hand-picked fruit of the first quality, in competition with the best commercial supply. Winter apples are picked in the Northern States in October, sometimes late in September. They are then full grown, but are hard and inedible. The red varieties are full colored; the green ones show more or less yellow. Light early frost does not injure them on the tree. Usually they are placed at first in piles or windrows; and from these piles they are barreled or boxed for market. If the choicest grades are to be made, they should be taken to a packing-house. The apple is an easy fruit to pick. The stem parts readily from the spur or twig. Yet if the harvester is choice of his trees he will work deftly rather than roughly, not to injure the bearing wood. The fruits are placed in baskets as they are plucked, sometimes in a bag slung over the shoulders but this is not the best way when the apples are ripe. In the packing-house, the fruits are sorted into uniform grades if they are for market. The better the trees are tilled, pruned and sprayed, the more uniform will be the crop, and particularly if the fruit is thinned on the tree; yet the second-class and even cull apples will be many under ordinary conditions. The purchaser, noting the price of extra-grade apples, may not realize that he buys only the remainder in a long process of grading, extending really over the season or even throughout the life of the orchard. In all this time, the grower has borne the risks of frosts and hail, insect and fungus invasions, lack of help, and disastrously low prices. A finished product of high quality is always expensive. The usual apples on the open market are not the kind I have here tried to describe. They are the product of indifferent orchards or of careless handling. They are purchased for cooking; and the eating of apples out of hand because they are attractive and really good is an unknown experience with great numbers of our people. The polished shiny apples of the fruit-stands are a delusion. The practice of burnishing the fruits produces a most inartistic result, destroying the natural bloom and violating the appearance of a natural apple. It is one thing to clean a fruit if it is soiled (which is seldom the case with boxed or barreled apples); it is quite another thing to rub and furbish an apple as if it were a billiard ball or glass marble and not a living object that grew on a tree,--it sets false standards before the children. Yet all this is in line with much of our practice whereby, in cookery and manipulation, we disguise our foods and show our lack of appreciation of the products themselves. For home use, winter apples may well be stored in boxes in a cool moist cellar if such a place is available. For best results in long keeping, the temperature should be maintained below 40 degrees F. In a cellar containing a furnace, the fruits shrivel from too much evaporation, as also in an attic or other dry room. If the fruit must be stored in such places, it is well to keep the box or barrel tightly closed, and the individual apples may be wrapped in thin paper. The apples must be sorted now and then, to remove the decaying ones; if the fruit was carefully sprayed, handled and graded in the first place and not too ripe, the necessity of frequent sorting will be considerably reduced. But in any case, the keeping of apples, except under good cold-storage, is at best a process of continually saving the most durable fruits. An "outside cellar," if properly ventilated, usually is a good place in which to keep apples. With the use of furnaces for heating and the cramped quarters of city apartments, the keeping of apples for home supply is constantly more difficult. There is no apple like the one that comes up fresh from the cellar on a winter night, cool, crisp, solid yet ready. It is the fruit of the home fireside. I often wonder whether one in a hundred of the people know what a really good and timely apple is. The yield of an apple-tree depends on many factors,--age, size, thriftiness, care it has received, whether it has escaped frost and other injuries; and some varieties are much more prolific than others. Some apples are "shy bearers," and for this reason soon are lost to propagation unless they have some superlative merit; Yellow Bellflower is an example of a shy, or at least an irregular, bearer. The great commercial varieties are of course good bearers, as Baldwin, Ben Davis, Stayman, York Imperial, Oldenburg, Rome, McIntosh, Wealthy, Yellow Transparent, Jonathan. An apple-tree at full bearing is a wonderful sight at the harvest, particularly in such varieties as McIntosh and Baldwin, in which the fruit is highly colored and hangs well toward the outside of the tree-top. While the first bearing year may yield only a half dozen fruits, the crop increases rapidly with the added years,--one peck, one bushel, five bushels, ten bushels, thirty bushels, even to sixty and seventy bushels on large sturdy old trees of some varieties. The amateur, however, first prizes the quality and regularity of his product for the sheer joy of it; then every added bushel is so much to the good. XVII THE APPRAISAL OF THE APPLE-TREE Now, therefore, in these sixteen little chapters have I tried to explain what I feel about the apple-tree. It is a version to my friend, the reader, not a treatise. As the interpretation is in the realm of the sensibilities, so do I aim not directly at concreteness. Yet as it is now the fashion to "score" all our products by a scale of "points," I make a reasonable concession to it. But I do not like the scoring of the fruit independently of the tree on which it grew as if the fruit were only a commodity. I know we cannot bring the tree to the exhibition-room, yet the perfect measure, nevertheless, is the tree and the fruit together. In these later times we have said much against the use of the museum specimen to the exclusion of the living object in its natural place: let us be cautious, then, that we do not forget apple-trees in our studies of apples. Here I shall not arrange numerical scales of points for the apple-tree. Sufficient for this occasion is the naming of the points, letting the reader place his own percentage-value on each of them; for I am trying to teach, not to instruct. Yet I must insert, for the reader's benefit, certain good rules and scores that have been adopted for the "judging" of the fruit by those experienced in these matters. This excellent exercise of judging fruits at exhibitions has gained much headway. Students of schools and colleges are trained for the "judging teams," and great technical perfection has been attained. To be exact is an exigency of science. I fear that we make exactness an end, but that is neither here nor there on this occasion and I shall not now pursue the subject further; I hope the judging trains the judge to see what he looks at in other things as well as in apples, that it leads him into the pleasant paths of causes and effects, that it opens the eyes of the blind. The customary judging of plants and animals and their products consists in assessing the attributes against a scale of perfection. Thus, if "form" or "conformation" is worth 10 points in the hundred (by the estimation of good authorities), the judge must decide whether the particular animal before him merits 6 or 7, more or less. So if "flavor" in an apple is considered to be worth 20 points of the hundred, the judge makes up his mind what rating, within that limit, he shall accord to the fruit he is testing. The arrangement in tabular form of the features for any product, with the number of points stated for each, all summing 100, constitutes a "score-card." Thus there may be a score-card for Merino sheep, another for Shropshires, one for apples, and for any other objects whatsoever. At competitive exhibitions, the element of comparison comes in. Perhaps it is the only criterion to be considered in a particular case,--whether this apple is better than that or than any number of others, which of several "plates" or samples of apples merits first mention, which of two or more collections of varieties is altogether most worthy of a prize. In these cases, the different fruits or collections may be scored by the card, and the total footings determine where the award shall go. Or, the different entries may be judged in general, "by the eye;" this is the usual method, and is satisfactory in the hands of persons whose standing and experience carry conviction. If one is to evaluate an apple-tree against a scale or code, these are some of the features, in relative order of importance, to be considered: 1. Whether the tree is typical of the variety, in shape, manner of growth, character of foliage and bloom. 2. Whether it is sound of all injury and disease, and free of blemish. 3. Whether it is duly vigorous and productive. 4. Whether its fruit is characteristic of the variety or kind. 5. Whether the pruning has been good; the thinning; the spraying. 6. Whether the performance of the tree has fulfilled reasonable expectations. The judging of fruits is facilitated by such score-cards and explanations as the following: 1. For comparison of different dessert varieties. Conformation 10 Size 5 Color 20 Core 5 Uniformity 5 Durability (keeping) 10 Condition 5 Freedom from blemish 10 Quality 30 ---- 100 2. For comparison of plates or samples of the same variety. Form 15 Size 15 Color 25 Uniformity 25 Freedom from blemish 20 ---- 100 DIRECTIONS FOR JUDGING PLATES OF APPLES IN AN EXHIBITION Following are directions and explanations issued to judging teams in exhibition contests, by an agricultural college: (1) _Form_: The shape and conformation of the apples on any one plate should be typical for the variety, the region of growth being somewhat considered. All specimens on a plate should be uniform in shape. When competition is close, a careful comparison of the more minute characteristics of the basin, cavity and stem are made. (2) _Size_: The specimens on any one plate should be uniform in size and of the size most acceptable on the market for the variety. A plate may be marked down for being either under or over the accepted commercial size. In many exhibits, the ideal size is given in the premium announcements. (3) _Colors_: All specimens in an entry should be uniformly colored in the way that is considered perfect for the variety in the district where grown. In judging color, one should consider (_a_) the depth and attractiveness of the ground color, (_b_) the brightness and attractiveness of the over-color, (_c_) the amount of the over-color. In a yellow or green apple, the yellow or green should be clear and even all over, considering the maturity of the specimen. In varieties that are typically blushed, (e. g., Maiden Blush) the specimens should show a distinct tinge of red on the cheek exposed to the sun. With such apples as Rhode Island Greening, that are only sometimes blushed, the presence or absence of the blush should not detract except that the apples on any one plate should be uniform. With apples typically over-colored, an intense color for the variety is desirable. The _bloom_ may be wiped from apples, but in no case should polished specimens be given the preference. Some exhibits have special rules regarding polishing of apples. (4) _Conditions_: Refers to the degree of ripeness. An apple to be in perfect condition should be firm for the variety and free from the withering that comes when apples are picked too green or when the fruit is over-ripe or has not been stored properly. (5) _Freedom from blemish_: All specimens should be free from blemishes of all kinds. One should look particularly for (_a_) marks of fungous or other disease, including stippin, (_b_) injury from insects of all kinds, (_c_) mechanical injury, including loss of stem. Unmistakable evidence of codlin-moth injury or San José scale should disqualify a plate. Other blemishes are considered important in about the order named: Side worms, scab, stippin, curculio or red-bug, skin punctures, bruises, stem pulled, russet (not typical for variety) and limb rub. The extent of scab spots should be considered. Minute spots are not as serious as some other blemishes, while spots which deform the apple should disqualify the plate. _Other information_: Five specimens constitute a plate, except when the rules of the contest or exhibit state otherwise. Any variation from this rule disqualifies the plate. When a plate is not labelled with the correct variety name, it should not be judged, but is disqualified and if possible the correct name is applied. If one specimen on a plate is not as labelled, the whole plate is disqualified. In some judging contests, the plates are not labelled with the variety name, and the contestant is supposed to make the identification. _Precaution_: Avoid pressing the specimens with the thumb and finger so as to bruise the fruit. The degree of firmness can be determined by gentle pressure with the inside of the whole hand. Defects, apparent or otherwise, should not be probed with the finger nail, pin, or other hard object. Special care should be exercised to replace all specimens on the right plate. Having in mind these definite criteria, the reader will know what is meant by a "good apple" and also a good apple-tree. Measurements of perfection aid us to estimate the deficiencies. * * * * * He who knows the apple-tree knows also its region. The landscape is his in every blessed year; he sees the chariots of the months come down from the distances and pass by him into the twilights. Clouds are his and the repeating shadows on the hills. The morning when the blossoms are laden with the fragrance of the night, high noon when the bees are busy, the gloaming when the birds drop into the boughs, these are his by divine right. The smell of new-plowed fields is his, with the urgent promise in them. Seed time and harvest, as old as the procreant earth and as new as the latest sunrise, are his to conjure. The verities are his for the asking, the strong things of cultivated fields and of wild places. And mastery is his, that comes of the amelioration of the land and the education of the tree. All these are everyman's, and yet they are his alone. INDEX PAGE Acid phosphate 45 Age of apple-trees 98 Alternate bearing 42 American Pomological Society 66 Apple-scab 95 Appleseed, Johnny 61 Arsenate of lead 95 Australia, Apples in 97 Bacteria 12 Bark of apple-tree 11 of cherry 11 of elm 11 of pear-tree 11 Bearing year 42 Black Gilliflower 73 Bloomless apple 75 Bolting trees 88 Bridge-grafting 88 Brush pile 27 Budding 50, 51 Buds 15, 19, 27 Calyx-tube 26 Canada, apples in 98 Canker 12 Cherimoya 8 Cherry, bark of 11 Christophine 8 Cider, treatise on 62 Cion-grafting 50, 79 Citrus fruits 8 Cleft-grafting 82 Coconut 8 Codlin-moth 12, 89 Custard apple 8 Diseases 46 Distance apart 43 Double apples 74 Doucin stocks 57 Downing, quoted 54, 67 Dwarf apple-trees 54 Elm, bark of 11 Endicott, Gov. 61 Enriching the land 45 Exhibitions 108 Fertilizing 40, 44, 45 Fig 8 Flower, structure of 20 Folger and Thomson, quoted 98 Fructicetum 78 Fruit-spurs and bearing 42 Fungi 12 Girdles 87 Graftage 49, 79 Grafts 81 Guava 8 Harvesting 102 Hillsides for orchards 44 Hogs in orchards 45 Hypanthium 26 Insects 46, 89 Judging apples 108 Knots 11, 85, 87 Land for apples 42 Langley, Batty 82 Lawson, William 82 Leaf-arrangement 29 Lichens 11 Lime-sulphur 95 Linnaeus 62 Lintner, J. A. 89 Malus 62 Mamone 8 Mango 8 Manning, mentioned 67 M'Mahon, quoted 66 Medlar 75 Mending trees 85 Moench, cited 75 Mound-layering 55 Muenchhausen, cited 75 Natural trees 51 New Zealand, apples in 97 Nitrate of soda 45 Origin of apple-tree 60 Ornamental apples 64 Ovary 20 Paint for wounds 86 Papaya 8 Paradise stocks 57 Parkinson, John 58 Pasturing 45 Pear, bark of 11 Phosphate, acid 45 Phyllotaxy 29 Picking apples 102 Piece-roots 50 Pistil 20, 26 Plant-breeder 51 Planting 42, 43 Plant-lice 12 Pollen-tube 20 Pollination 40 Pomegranate 8 Propagation of apple-tree 48, 54 Pruning 36, 40, 86, 104 Pyrus baccata 63 coronaria 63 diocia 75 Ioensis 63 Malus 62, 63 Soulardii 64 Receptacle of flower 26 Regions for apples 97, 99 Repairing trees 85 Root-grafting 50 Roots 43 Scale insects 12 Scale of points 108 Score-card 108 Seedless apple 74 Seedling trees 48, 51 Seeds, planting 48 Sharrock, Robert 81 Sheep in orchards 45 Sheepnose 73 Sod in orchards 44 Soil for apples 42 Spraying 40, 91, 95, 104 Star-apple 8 Stigma 20 Stocks 49 Storing 105 Struggle for existence 47 Style 20 Surgery 86 Surprise 73 Sweet-and-Sour 73 Thinning 38, 39 Thomson and Folger 98 Tilling 40, 44, 47, 104 Tree surgery 86 Varieties 66 list of 70 Water-core 74 Whip-graft 50 Wilder, mentioned 67 Wormy apples 89, 102 * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Some illustrations have been moved from their original positions to avoid breaking up the text, and to put them in numerical order. Variations in spelling and punctuation have been retained from the original book except for the following changes: Page 51: Both instances of "varities" changed to "varieties". Page 74: "occuring" changed to "occurring". Page 75: "dioecious pyrus" was originally typeset with an oe ligature. Page 91: "foilage" changed to "foliage". Page 93: "analagous" changed to "analogous". Page 94: "or" changed to "nor". "investigatior" changed to "investigator". Page 100: "gravly" changed to "gravelly". Page 113 (Index): "Appleseed, Johny" changed to "Appleseed, Johnny". "Bark of Cheery" changed to "Bark of Cherry". Page 115 (Index): "Linnæus" changed to "Linnaeus" to match text. 
25831	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ Northern Nut Growers Association INCORPORATED Affiliated with The American Horticultural Society 37th Annual Report CONVENTION AT WOOSTER, OHIO SEPTEMBER 3, 4, 5 1946 Table of Contents Officers and Committees 3 State Vice Presidents 4 List of Members 5 Constitution 21 By-Laws 22 Proceedings of the Thirty-Seventh Annual Convention 23 Address of Welcome--Dr. J. H. Gourley 23 Response--John E. Cannaday, M.D. 24 Address of Retiring President--Carl Weschcke 24 Report of Secretary--Mildred M. Jones 25 Report of the Treasurer--D. C. Snyder 26 Aims and Aspirations of the Ohio Nut Growers--A. A. Bungart 27 Notes on the Annual Meeting 31 Nut Growing Under Semi-Arid Conditions--A. G. Hirschi 32 Weather Conditions versus Nut Tree Crops--J. F. Wilkinson 37 Nut Tree Notes from Southwestern Ohio--Harry R. Weber 39 Black Walnut Nursery Studies--Stuart B. Chase 40 My Experiments, Gambles and Failures--John Davidson 42 Nut Trees in Wildlife Conservation--Floyd B. Chapman 45 Commercial Aspects of Nut Crops as far North as St. Paul, Minnesota--Carl Weschcke 48 The 1946 Status of Chinese Chestnut Growing in the Eastern United States--Clarence A. Reed 51 Bearing Record of the Hemming Chinese Chestnut Orchard--E. Sam Hemming 58 Walnut Notes--G. H. Corsan 60 Self-fruitfulness in the Winkler Hazel--Dr. A. S. Colby 60 Hickories and Other Nuts in Northwestern Illinois--A. B. Anthony 61 Nut Trees for Ohio Pastures--Dr. Oliver D. Diller 62 How Hardy Are Oriental Chestnuts and Hybrids?--Russell B. Clapper and G. F. Gravatt 64 Growing Chestnuts for Timber--Jesse D. Diller 66 Improved Methods of Storing Chestnuts--H. L. Crane and J. W. McKay 71 Essential Elements in Tree Nutrition--W. F. Wischusen 73 Nut Tree Propagation as a Hobby for a Chemist--Dr. E. M. Shelton 83 Notes on Propagation and Transplanting in Western Tennessee--J. C. McDaniel 87 Propagating Nut Trees Under Glass--Stephen Bernath 90 The Economic, Ecological and Horticultural Aspects of Intercropping Nut Plantings--Dr. F. L. O'Rourke 91 Nut Work at the Mahoning County Experiment Farm, Canfield, Ohio--L. Walter Sherman 93 The Ohio Black Walnut Contest of 1946 96 1946 Iowa Black Walnut Contest 98 Grafting Methods Adapted to Nut Trees--H. F. Stoke 99 Beginnings in Walnut Grafting--C. C. Lounsberry 103 Forest Background--John Davidson 106 Graft the Persian Walnut High in Michigan--Gilbert Becker 111 Pecan Growing in Western Illinois--R. B. Best 112 Random Notes from Eastern New York--Gilbert L. Smith 114 Yield and Nut Quality of the Common Black Walnut in the Tennessee Valley--Thomas G. Zarger 118 The 1946 Field Tour--C. A. Reed 124 Report of Resolutions Committee 126 Obituary--Gourley, Bixby 126 Letters to the Secretary; Notes; Extracts 128 List of Exhibits 133 Attendance 134 OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION _President_--CLARENCE A. REED, 7309 Piney Branch Rd., N.W., Washington, D. C. _Vice President_--DR. L. H. MACDANIELS, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. _Treasurer_--D. C. SNYDER, Center Point, Iowa _Secretary_--MILDRED M. JONES, BOX 356, Lancaster, Penna. _Director_--CARL WESCHCKE, 96 S. Wabasha St., St. Paul, Minn. _Director_--DR. A. S. COLBY, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. _Dean_--DR. W. C. DEMING, Litchfield, Conn. _Parliamentarian_--JOHN DAVIDSON, 234 E. Second St., Xenia, O. EXECUTIVE APPOINTMENTS PARLIAMENTARIAN John Davidson LEGAL ADVISERS Sargent Wellman, Harry Weber AUDITING E. P. Gerber, G. A. Gray, R. E. Silvis FINANCE Carl Weschcke, Harry Weber, D. C. Snyder PRESS AND PUBLICATION L. H. MacDaniels, George L. Slate, G. H. Corsan VARIETIES AND CONTESTS--Gilbert Becker, Gilbert L. Smith, L. Walter Sherman, A. G. Hirschi, Seward Bethow SURVEY John Davidson EXHIBITS--H. F. Stoke, Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman, Mrs. Herbert Negus, I. W. Short, Gilbert L. Smith, H. H. Corsan, G. H. Corsan, L. Walter Sherman, J. F. Wilkinson, Royal Oakes, Seward Berhow, George Brand, A. G. Hirschi, R. T. Dunstan, Spencer B. Chase and Abe Margolin, Carl Weschcke, PROGRAM--Mildred Jones, George L. Slate, L. H. MacDaniels, O. D. Diller, Thomas G. Zarger, R. P. Allaman, Clarence A. Reed MEMBERSHIP--Mrs. S. H. Graham, A. A. Bungart, Mrs. Herbert Negus, George Kratzer, Lewis A. Theiss NECROLOGY--Mrs. H. F. Stoke, Mrs. John Hershey, Mrs. William Rohrbacher, Mrs. John Davidson, Mrs. J. F. Jones PLACE OF MEETING (Both 1947 and 1948)--George L. Slate, L. H. MacDaniels, G. H. Corsan, D. C. Snyder, G. J. Korn OFFICIAL JOURNAL--American Fruit Grower, 1770 Ontario St., Cleveland, Ohio State Vice Presidents Alabama LOVIC ORR Alberta, Canada A. L. YOUNG Arkansas SEARLES JOHNSON British Columbia, Can. J. U. GELLATLY California DR. THOMAS R. HAIG Canal Zone L. C. LEIGHTON Colorado W. A. COLT Connecticut WILLIAM G. CANFIELD Delaware EDWARD C. LAKE Georgia G. CLYDE EIDSON Idaho FRED BAISCH Illinois JOSEPH GERARDI Indiana DR. CHARLES H. SKINNER Iowa E. F. HUEN Kansas H. S. WISE Kentucky DR. C. A. MOSS Louisiana J. HILL FULLILOVE Maine RADCLIFFE B. PIKE Maryland WILMER P. HOOPES Massachusetts DR. R. A. VAN METER Mexico JULIO GRANDJEAN Michigan GILBERT BECKER Minnesota R. E. HODGSON Mississippi DR. ERNEST A. COOK Missouri DR. F. M. BARNES, JR. Nebraska GEORGE BRAND New Hampshire L. A. DOUGHERTY New Jersey MRS. A. R. BUCKWALTER New York CLARENCE LEWIS North Carolina DR. R. T. DUNSTAN Ohio G. A. GRAY Oklahoma A. G. HIRSCHI Ontario, Can. G. H. CORSAN Oregon E. RUSS Pennsylvania H. GLEASON MATTOON Quebec, Can. GORDON L. SOMERS Rhode Island PHILLIP ALLEN South America CELEDONIA V. PEREDA South Carolina JOHN T. BREGGER South Dakota HOMER L. BRADLEY Tennessee THOMAS G. ZARGER Texas KAUFMAN FLORIDA Utah GRANVILLE OLESON Vermont A. W. ALDRICH Virginia DR. V. A. PERTZOFF Washington F. D. LINKLETTER West Virginia MEYER S. SLOTKIN Wisconsin W. S. BASSETT Wyoming W. D. GREENE Northern Nut Growers Association Membership List as of January 4, 1947 ALABAMA Orr, Lovic, Penn-Orr-MacDaniel Orchards, R. D. 1, Danville Richards, Paul N., R. D. 1, Box 308, Birmingham ARKANSAS Johnson, Searles, Japton Upham, Harry, "Quinta Nogalada", Cove Williams, Jerry F., R. D. 1, Viola CALIFORNIA Armstrong Nurseries, 408 N. Euclid Ave., Ontario Field, Lt. Eugene A., USN, U.S.S. Whitney, c/o Postmaster, San Diego Haig, Dr. Thomas R., 3344 H St., Sacramento Kemple, W. H., 222 West Ralston St., Ontario Parsons, Chas. E., Felix Gillet Nursery, Nevada City Walter, E. D., 899 Alameda, Berkeley Welby, Harry S., 500 Buchanan St., Taft CANADA Brown, Alger, R. D. 1, Harley, Ontario Casanave, R. D. 2, Euburne, B. C. Corsan, George H., "Echo Valley", Islington, Ontario Crath, Rev. Paul C., R. D. 2, Connington, Ontario Eddie & Sons, Ltd., Pacific Coast Nurseries, Sardis, B. C. Elgood, H., 74 Trans Canada Highway West, Chilliwack, B. C. English, H. A., Box 153, Duncan, B. C. Filman, O., Aldershot, Ontario Gellatly, David, Box 17, Westbank, B. C. Gellatly, J. R., Westbank, B. C. Giegerich, H. C., Con-Mine, Yellow Knife, NWT Housser, Levi, Beamsville, Ontario Maillene, George, Naramata, B. C. Manten, Jacob, R. D. 1, White Rock, B. C. * Neilson, Mrs. Ellen, 5 McDonald Ave., Guelph, Ontario Papple, Elton E., R. D. 3, Gainsville, Ontario Porter, Gordon, Y.M.C.A., Windsor, Ontario Somers, Gordon L., 37 London St., Sherbrooke, Quebec Trayling, E. J., 509 Richards St., Vancouver, B. C. Wagner, A. S., Delhi, Ontario Wood, D. F., Hobbs Glass Ltd., 54 Duke St., Toronto, Ontario Yates, J., 2150 E. 65th Ave., Vancouver, B. C. Young, A. L., Brooks, Alta. CANAL ZONE Leighton, L. C., Box 1452, Cristobal COLORADO Colt, W. A., Lyons Wilder, W. E., 915 West 4th, La Junta CONNECTICUT Canfield, William G., 463 West Main St., New Britain David, Alexander M., 408 S. Main St., West Hartford Dawley, Arthur E., R. D. 1, Norwich **Deming, Dr. W. C., Litchfield Frueh, Alfred J., West Cornwall Graham, Mrs. Cooper, Darien * Huntington, A. M., Stanerigg Farms, Bethel Jennings, Clyde, 30 West Main St., Waterbury Lehr, Frederick L., 45 Elihu St., Hamden LeMieux, W. E., 44 Grove St., Rockville McSweet, Arthur, Clapboard Hill Rd., Guilford Milde, Karl F., Town Farm Rd., Litchfield Morencey, Edward, 37 Kensington St., Manchester * Newmaker, Adolph, R. D.,1, Rockville Page, Donald T., Box 228, R. 1, Danielson Pratt, George D., Jr., Bridgewater Rodgers, Raymond, R. D. 2, Westport Rourke, Robert U., R. D. 1, Pomfret Center Scazlia, Jos. A., 372 Matson Hill Rd., South Glastonbury Senior, Sam P., R. D. 1, Bridgeport Tower, Sidney, 31 Birchwood Rd., East Hartford Walsh, James A., c/o Armstrong Rubber Co., West Haven Warfel, Robert, 1675 Main St., Glastonbury White, Heath E., Box 630, Westport White, George E., R. D. 2, Andover DELAWARE Lake, Edward C., Sharpless Rd., Hockessin DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA Librarian, American Potash Institute, Inc., 1155 16th St., N. W. Washington 6 Reed, Clarence A., 7309 Piney Branch Rd., N. W., Washington 12 GEORGIA Eidson, G. Clyde, 1700 Westwood Ave., S.W., Atlanta Hunter, H. Reid, 561 Lakeshore Dr., N.E., Atlanta Neal, Homer A., Neal's Nursery, R. D. 1, Carnesville Skyland Farms, S. C. Noland & C. H. Crawford, 161 Spring St., N. W. Atlanta IDAHO Baisch, Fred, 627 E. Main St., Emmett Dryden, Lynn, Peck Hazelbaker, Calvin, Lewiston Kudlac, Joe T., Box 147, Buhl Rice, E. T., Parma Swayne, Samuel F., Orofino ILLINOIS Adams, James S., R. D. 1, Hinsdale Allen, Theodore R., Delevan Anthony, A. B., R. 3, Sterling Baber, Adin, Kansas Best, R. B., Eldred Bolle, Dr. A. C., 324 State St., Jacksonville Bontz, Mrs. Lillian, 161 W. Massachusetts Ave., Champaign Bradley, James W., 1300 N. Prospect Ave., Champaign Breeden, Robert G., Lane Technical High School, 2501 W. Addison St., Chicago 18 Bronson, Earle A., 800 Simpson St., Evanston Churchill, Woodford M., 4250 Drexel Blvd., Chicago Colby, Dr. Arthur S., University of Illinois, Urbana Colehour, Francis H., 411 Brown Bldg., Rockford Dietrich, Ernest, R. D. 2, Dundas Dintelman, L. F., Belleville Edmunds, Mrs. Palmer D., La Hogue Frey, Mrs. Frank H., 2315 West 108th Place, Chicago Frey, Frank H., 2315 West 108th Place, Chicago Frierdich, Fred, 3907 W. Main St., Belleville Gerardi, Joseph, Gerardi Nurseries, O'Fallon Haeseler, L. M., 1959 W. Madison St., Chicago Helmle, Herman C., 123 N. Walnut St., Springfield Johnson, Hjalmer W., 5811 Dorchester Ave., Chicago Jungk, Adolph, 817 Washington Ave., Alton Kilner, F. R., American Nurseryman, 508 S. Dearborn St., Chicago Knobloch, Miss Margaret, Arthur Kreider, Ralph, Jr., Hammond Livermore, Ogden, 801 Forest Ave., Evanston Logan, George F., Carpathian Nursery, Dallas City Maxwell, Leroy C., 1606 W. Washington St., Champaign Oakes, Royal Bluffs Powell, Charles A., Hickory St., Jerseyville Pray, A. Lee, 502 North Main St., LeRoy Sonnemann, W. F., Experimental Gardens, Vandalia Valley Landscape Co., Box 488, Elgin Walantas, John., 7048 S. Union Ave., Chicago Werner, Edward H., 282 Ridgeland Ave., Elmhurst Whitford, A. M., Whitford's Nursery, Farina Youngberg, Harry W., Port Clinton Rd., Prairie View INDIANA Behr, J. E., Laconia Boyer, Clyde C., Nabb Garber, H. G., Indiana State Farm, Greencastle Gentry, Herbert M., R. D. 2, Noblesville Glaser, Peter, R. D. 1, Box 301, Evansville Hite, Chas. Dean, R. D. 2, Bluffton Minton, Charles F., R. D. 5, Huntington Morey, B. F., 453 S. 5th St., Clinton Olson, Albert L., 1230 Nuttman Ave., Fort Wayne Pritchett, Emery, 1340 Park Ave., Fort Wayne 6 Prell, Carl F., 803 West Colfax Ave., South Bend Ramsey, Arthur, Muncie Tree Surgery Co., Muncie Skinner, Dr. Charles H., Indiana University, Bloomington Sly, Miss Barbara, R. D. 3, Rockport Sly, Donald R., R. D. 3, Rockport Tormohlen, Willard, 321 Cleveland St., Gary Wallick, Ford, R. D. 4, Peru Warren, E. L., New Richmond Wilkinson, J. F., Indiana Nut Nursery, R. 3, Rockport IOWA Andrew, Dr. Earl V., Maquoketa Beeghly, Dale, Pierson Berhow, Seward, Berhow Nurseries, Huxley Boice, R. H., R. D. 1, Nashua Cerveny, Frank L., R. D. 4, Cedar Rapids Christensen, Everett G., Gilmore City Cole, Edward P., 419 Chestnut St., Atlantic Crumley, Joe F., 221 Park Rd., Iowa City Ferguson, Albert B., Center Point Ferris, Wayne, Hampton Gardner, Clark, Gardner Nurseries, Osage Harrison, L. E., Nashua Hill, Clarence S., Hilburn Stock Farm, Minburn Huen, E. F., Eldora Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg Iowa Fruit Growers' Association, State House, Des Moines Kaser, J. D., Winterset Kivell, Ivan E., R. D. 3, Greene Kyhl, Ira M., Box 236, Sabula Lehmann, F. W., Jr., 3220 John Lynde Rd., Des Moines Lounsberry, Dr. C. C., 209 Howard Ave., Ames McLeran, Harold F., Mt. Pleasant Meints, A. Rock, Diron Miller, Robert H., Box 604, Spencer Rohrbacher, Dr. Wm., 811 East College St., Iowa City Schaub, John M., 911 Locust St., Ottumwa Schlagenbusch Bros., R. D. 3, Ft. Madison Snyder, D. C., Snyder Bros., Inc., Nurserymen, Center Point Steffen, R. F., Box 62, Sioux City Van Meter, W. L., Adel Welch, H. S., Mt. Arbor Nurseries, Shenandoah Wood, Roy A., Castana KANSAS Borst, Frank E., 1704 Shawnee St., Leavenworth Boyd, Elmer, R. D. 1, Box 95, Oskaloosa Burrichter, George W., c/o Mrs. James Stone, 3011 N. 36th St., Kansas City Funk, M. D., 1501 N. Tyler St., Topeka Hofman, Rayburn, R. D. 5, Manhattan Leavenworth Nurseries, R. D. 3, Leavenworth Schroeder, Emmett H., 800 W. 17th St., Hutchinson Wise, H. S., 579 W. Douglas Ave., Wichita Yoder, D. J., R. D. 2, Haven KENTUCKY Alves, Robert H., Nehi Bottling Co., Henderson Baughn, Cullie, R. D. 6, Box 1, Franklin Cornett, Lester, Box 566, Lynch Gooch, Perry, R. D. 1, Oakville Moss, Dr. C. A., Williamsburg Tatum, W. G., R. D. 4, Lebanon Watt, R. M., R. D. 1, Lexington Whittinghill, Lonnie M., Box 10, Love LOUISIANA Louisiana State U., A. & M. College, General Library, University Fullilove, J. Hill, Box 157, Shreveport MAINE Pike, Radcliffe B., Lubec MARYLAND Crane, Dr. H. L., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville Eastern Shore Nurseries, Inc., Dover Rd., Easton Fletcher, C. Hicks, Lulley's Hillside Farm, Bowie Gravatt, G. F., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville Harris, Walter B., Andelot Inc., Worton Hodgson, Wm. C., R. D. 1, White Hall Hoopes, Wilmer P., Forest Hill Kemp, Homer S., Bountiful Ridge Nurseries, Princess Anne Kienle, John A., Land's End Farm, Queenstown Kingsville Nurseries, H. J. Hohman, Kingsville Lewis, Dean, Bel Air Mannakee, N. H., Ashton McCollum, Blaine, White Hall McKay, Dr. J. W., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville Negus, Mrs. Herbert, 4514-32nd St., Mt. Rainier Porter, John J., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown Purnell, J. Edgar, Spring Hill Rd., Salisbury Shamer, Dr. Maurice E., 3300 W. North Ave., Baltimore Thomas, Kenneth D., 10 N. Ellwood Ave., Baltimore 24 MASSACHUSETTS Atwood, Gordon E., 60 Crescent St., Northampton Beauchamp, A. A., 603 Boylston St., Boston Brown, Daniel L., Esq., 60 State St., Boston Fitts, Walter H., 39 Baker St., Foxboro Fritze, E., Osterville Garlock, Mott A., 17 Arlington Rd., Longmeadow Gauthier, Louis R., Wood Hill Rd., Monson Graff, George H., 46 Chestnut St., Brookline 46 Hanchett, James L., R. D. 1, East Longmeadow Kaan, Dr. Helen W., Wellesley College, Wellesley Kendall, Henry P., Moose Hill Farm, Sharon Kibrick, I. S., 106 Main St., Brockton La Beau, Henry A., 1556 Massachusetts Ave., North Adams Rice, Horace J., 5 Elm St., Springfield * Russell, Mrs. Newton H., 12 Burnett Ave., South Hadley Short, I. W., 299 Washington St., Taunton Stewart, O. W., 75 Milton Ave., Hyde Park Swartz, H. P., 206 Checopee St. Checopee Trudeau, Dr. A. E., 14 Railroad St., Holyoke Van Meter, Dr. R. A., French Hall, M. S. C., Amherst Wellman, Sargent H., Esq., Windridge, Topsfield Westcott, Samuel K., 79 Richview Ave., North Adams Weston Nurseries, Inc., Brown & Winter Sts., Weston Weymouth, Paul W., 183 Plymouth St., Holbrook MEXICO Grandjean, Julio., Ave. Cinco de Mayo, num. 10, Mexico City MICHIGAN Andersen, Charles, Andersen Evergreen Nurseries, Scottsville Avery, R. O., R. D. 2, Brooklyn Aylesworth, C. F., 920 Pinecrest Dr., Ferndale 20 Barlow, Alfred L., 13079 Flanders Ave., Detroit, 5 Becker, Gilbert, Climax Blackman, Orrin C., Box 55, Jackson Bogart, Geo. C., R. D. 2, Three Oaks Boylan, B. P., Cloverdale Bradley, L. J., R. D. 1, Springport Buell, Dr. M. F., Dept. of Health and Recreation, Dearborn Bumler, Malcolm R., 1097 Lakeview, Detroit Burgart, Harry, Michigan Nut Nursery, R. D. 2, Union City Burgess, E. H., Burgess Seed & Plant Co., Galesburg Cook, E. A., M.D., Director, County Health Dept., Corunna Corsan, H. H., R. D. 1, Hillsdale Daubenmeyer, H., 7647 Sylvester, Detroit Emerson, Ralph, 161 Cortland Ave., Highland Park 3 Gage, Nina M., 6550 Kensington Rd., Wixom Hackett, John C., 315 Diamond Ave., S.E., Grand Rapids 6 Hagelshaw, W. J., Box 314, Galesburg Hay, Francis H., Ivanhoe Place, Lawrence Healey, Scott, R. D. 2, Otsego **Kellogg, W. K., Battle Creek King, Harold J., Sodus Korn, G. J., 140 N. Rose St., Kalamazoo 24 Lee, Michael, Lapeer Leist, Dewey, 119 Livingston Dr., Flint Lemke, Edwin W., 2432 Townsend Ave., Detroit 14 Lewis, Clayton A., 1219 Pine St., Port Huron Mann, Charles W., 221 Cutler St., Allegan Mason, Harold E., 1580 Montie, Lincoln Park 25 McMillan, Vincent U., 17926 Woodward Ave., Detroit 3 Miller, Louis, 130 O'Keefe, Cassopolis O'Rourke, Prof. F. L., Hort'l Dept., Michigan State College, E. Lansing Otto, Arnold G., 4150 Three Mile Drive, Detroit Reist, Dewey, 119 Livingston Dr., Flint Scofield, Mrs. Carl, Box 215, Woodland Scofield, Carl, Box 215, Woodland Stocking, Frederick N., Harrisville Stotz, Raleigh R., 1546 Franklin, S.E., Grand Rapids 6 Tate, D. L., 959 Westchester St., Birmingham Wargess, R. D., 11 Rose St., Battle Creek Whallon, Archer P., R. D. 1, Stockbridge MINNESOTA Andrews, Miss Frances E., 48 Park View Terrace, Minneapolis Cothran, John C., 512 N. 19th Ave., E. Duluth Donaldson Co., L. S., 601 Nicollet Ave., Minneapolis 2 Hodgson, R. E., Dept. of Agriculture, S. E. Exp. Sta., Waseca O'Connor, Pat H., Hopkins Skrukrud, Baldwin, Sacred Heart Vaux, Harold C., R. D. 4, Faribault Weschcke, Carl, 96 S. Wabasha St., St. Paul MISSOURI Barnes, Dr. F. M., Jr., 4952 Maryland Ave., St. Louis Bucksath, Charles E., Dalton Campbell, A. T., 8117 Meadow Lane, Kansas City 5 Fisher, J. B., R. R. H. 1, Pacific Giesson, Adolph, Pine Hill Farm, Weingarten Hay, Leander, Gilliam Howe, John, R. D. 1, Box 4, Pacific Johns, Jeannette F., R. D. 1, Festus Nicholson, John W., Ash Grove Ochs, C. T., Box 291, Salem Richterkessing, Ralph, R. D. 1, St. Charles Schmidt, Victor H., 4821 Virginia, Kansas City Stark Brothers Nurs. & Orchard Co., Louisiana Stevenson, Hugh, Elsberry Thompson, J. D., 600 West 63rd St., Kansas City 2 NEBRASKA Adams, Frederick J., 5103 Webster St., Omaha 3 Brand, George, R. D. 5, Box 60, Lincoln Caha, William, Wahoo Clark, Ivan E., Concord DeLong, F. S., 1510 Second Corso, Nebraska City Ferguson, Albert B., Dunbar Ginn, A. M., Box 6, Bayard Hess, Harvey W., The Arrowhead Gardens, Box 209, Hebron Hoyer, L. B., 7554 Maple St., Omaha Lenz, Clifford Q., 3815 Maple St., Omaha 3 Marshall's Nurseries, Arlington Weaver, Francis E., Box 312, Sutherland White, Bertha G., 7615 Leighton Ave., Lincoln 5 White, Warren E., 6920 Binney St., Omaha 4 NEW HAMPSHIRE Dougherty, L. A., University of N. H., Durham Lahti, Matthew, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro Latimer, Prof. L. P., Dept. of Horticulture, Durham Malcolm, Herbert L., The Waumbek Farm, Jefferson Messier, Frank, R. D. 2, Nashua Ryan, Miss Agnes, Mill Rd., Durham NEW JERSEY Bangs, Ralph E., Allamuchy Beck, Stanley, 12 South Monroe Ave., Wenonah Blake, Dr. Harold, Box 93, Saddle River Bottom, R. J., 41 Robertson Rd., West Orange Brewer, J. L., 10 Allen Place, Fair Lawn Buch, Philip O., 106 Rockaway Ave., Rockaway Buckwalter, Mrs. Alan R., Flemington Buckwalter, Geoffrey R., Route 1, Box 12, Flemington Cumberland Nursery, R. D. 1, Millville Donnelly, John H., Mountain Ice Co., 51 Newark St., Hoboken Dougherty, Wm. M., Broadacres-on-Bedens, Box 425, Princeton Franek, Michael, 323 Rutherford Ave., Franklin Fuhlbruegge, Edward, R. D. Box 234, Scotch Plains Gardenier, Dr. Harold C., Westwood Goitein, Louis, 1081 S. Clinton Ave., Trenton * Jaques, Lee W., 74 Waverly Place, Jersey City Jewett, Edmund Gale, R. D. 1, Port Murray Lovett's Nursery, Inc., Little Silver Mann, Philip, 115 Bloomfield Ave., Newark McCulloch, J. D., 73 George St., Freehold Mueller, R., R. D. 1, Box 81, Westwood Piskorski, Mrs. Adelaide M., 604 Jersey Ave., Jersey City 2 Ritchie, Walter M., 402 St. George St., Rahway Rocker, Louis P., The Rocker Farm, Andover Sheffield, O. A., 283 Hamilton Place, Hackensack Sorg, Henry, Chicago Ave., Egg Harbor City Sutton, Ross J., Jr., R. D. 2, Lebanon Szalay, Dr. S., 931 Garrison Ave., Teaneck Terhune, Gilbert V. P., Apple Acres, Newfoundland Todd, E. Murray, R. D. 2, Matawan Tolley, Fred C., Berkeley Ave., Bloomfield Trainer, Raymond E., Roller Bearing Co., Box 480, Trenton Van Doren, Durand H., 310 Redmond Rd., South Orange White, Col. J. H., Jr., Picatinny Arsenal, Dover Williams, Harold G., Box 344, Ramsey Yorks, A. S., Lamatonk Nurseries, Neshanic Station NEW YORK Barton, Irving Titus, Montour Falls Beck, Paul E., Beck's Guernsey Dairy, Transit Rd., E. Amherst Benton, William A., Wassaic Bernath's Nursery, R. D. 1, Poughkeepsie Bixby, Henry D., East Drive, Halesite, L. I. Blauner, Sidney H., 290 West End Ave., New York Bradbury, Captain H. G., 30 Fifth Ave., New York 11 Brinckeroff, John H., 150-09 Hillside Ave., Jamaica Brook, Victor, 171 Rockingham St., Rochester Brooks, William G., Monroe Cowan, Harold, 643 Southern Bldg., The Bronx, New York 55 Davis, Clair, 140 Broadway, Lynbrook DeSchauensee, Mrs. A. M., Easterhill Farm, Chester Dutton, Walter, 264 Terrace Park, Rochester Ellwanger, Mrs. William D., 510 East Ave., Rochester Fagley, Richard M., 29 Perry St., New York 14 Feil, Harry, 1270 Hilton-Spencerport Rd., Hilton Flanigen, Charles F., 16 Greenfield St., Buffalo Freer, H. J., 20 Midvale Rd., Fairport Frifance, A. E., 139 Elmdorf Ave., Rochester 11 Fruch, Alfred, 34 Perry St., New York Garcia, M., 62 Rugby Rd., Brooklyn Graham, S. H., R. D. 5, Ithaca Graham, Mrs. S. H., R. D. 5, Ithaca Graves, Dr. Arthur H., Botanic Garden, Brooklyn Gressel, Henry, R. D. 2, Mohawk Gunther, Eric F., 25 E. Waukena Ave., Oceanside, L. I. Gwinn, Ralph W., 522-5th Ave., New York Hasbrouck, Walter, Jr., New Platz Hill, Ben H., 375 Beverly Rd., Douglaston, L. I. Hubbell, James F., Mayro Bldg., Utica Iddings, William, 165 Ludlow St., New York Irish, G. Whitney, Valatie Kelly, Mortimer B., 17 Battery Place, New York Knorr, Mrs. Arthur, 15 Central Park, West Apt. 1406, New York Kraai, Dr. John, Fairport Larkin, Harry H., 189 Van Rensselaer St., Buffalo 10 Lewis, Clarence K., 1000 Park Ave., New York Lewis, H. W., c/o Ann Cangero, Roslyn Little, George, Ripley Lowerre, James D., 1121 Bedford Ave., Brooklyn 16 * MacDaniels, Dr. L. H., Cornell University, Ithaca MacEwen, Harold, R. D. 5, Fulton Maloney Brothers Nursery Co., Inc., Danville Mevius, William E., E. Church St., Eden Miller, J. E., R. D. 1, Naples Mitchell, Rudolph, 125 Riverside Drive, New York 24 Mitchell, Thomas, 16 E. 48th St, New York * Montgomery, Robert H., 1 E. 44th St., New York Mossman, Dr. James K., Black Oaks, Ramapo Newell, P. F., 53 Elm St., Nassau Oeder, Dr. Lambert R., 551 Fifth Ave., New York Ohliger, Louis H., R. D. 2, New City Page, Chas. E., R. D. 2, Oneida Penning, Tomas, R. D. 3, Box 158, Saugerties Price, Jacob, Price Theatre Co., 352 West 44th St., New York 18 Price, J., 385 Arbuckle Ave., Cedarhurst, L. I. Rasmussen, Harry, R. D. 1, 85 Frederick St., E. Syracuse Rebillard, Frederick, 164 Lark St., Albany 5 Salzer, George, 169 Garford Rd., Rochester Schlegel, Charles P., 990 South Ave., Rochester Schlick, Frank, Munnsville Schmidt, Carl W., 180 Linwood Ave., Buffalo Schwartz, Mortimer L., 1243 Boynton Ave., Bronx Sheffield, Lewis F., c/o Mrs. E. C. Jones, Townline Rd., Orangeburg Slate, Prof. George L., Experiment Station, Geneva Smith, Gilbert L., State School, Wassaic Smith, Jay L., Chester Steiger, Harwood, Red Hook Stern, Otto, Stern's Nurseries, Geneva Stern-Montagny, Hubert, Erbonia Farm, Gardiner Szigo, Alfred, 77-15 A. 37th Ave., Jackson Heights, New York Timmerman, Karl G., 123 Chapel St., Fayetteville Waite, Dr. R. H., Willowwaite Moor, Perrysburg Weis, John F., Jr., R. D. 1, Carter Rd., Fairport Wichlac, Thaddeus, 3236 Genesee St., Cheektowaga 21 Wilson, Mrs. Ida, Candor Windisch, Richard P., W. E. Burnet & Co., 11 Wall St., New York * Wissman, Mrs. F. de R., 9 W. 54th St., New York NORTH CAROLINA Dunstan, Dr. R. T., Greensboro College, Greensboro Finch, Jack R., Bailey Malcolm, Van R., Celo P. O., Yancey County Parks, C. H., R. D. 2, Asheville OHIO Barden, C. A., 215 Morgan St., Oberlin Bitler, W. A., 322 McPheron Ave., Lima Bungart, A. A., Avon Chapman, Floyd B., 1944 Denune Ave., Columbus 3 Cinadr, Mrs. Katherine, 13514 Coath Ave., Cleveland 20 Clark, R. L., 1184 Melbourne Rd., East Cleveland 12 Clay High School, R. D. 5, Toledo 5 Cole, Mrs. J. R., 163 Woodland Ave., Columbus 3 Cook, H. C., R. D. 1, Box 125, Leetonia Cranz, Eugene F., Mount Tom Farm, Ira Crawford, L. E., Sylvarium Gardens, 5499 Columbia Rd., N. Olmsted Davidson, John, 234 E. 2nd St., Xenia Davidson, Wm. J., Old Springfield Pike, Xenia Diller, Dr. Oliver D., Dept. of Forestry, Experiment Sta., Wooster Dubois, Miss Frances M., 4623 Glenshade Ave., Cincinnati 27 Elliott, Donald W., Rogers Emch, Frank, Genoa Evans, Maurice G., 335 S. Main St., Akron 8 Fickes, Mrs. W. R., R. D. 1, Wooster Foraker, Major C. Merle, 152 Elmwood Ave., Barberton Foss, H. D., 875 Hamlin St., Akron 2 Franks, M. L., R. D. 1, Montpelier Frederick, Geo. F., 3925 W. 17th, Cleveland 9 Garden Center of Greater Cleveland, 11190 East Blvd., Cleveland Gardner, Richard F., 1474 Wagar Ave., Cleveland 7 Gauly, Dr. Edward, 1110 Euclid Ave., Cleveland Gerber, E. P., Kidron Gerhardt, Gustave A., 3125 Jefferson Ave., Cincinnati Gerstenmaier, John A., 13 Pond S. W., Massilon Goss, C. E., 922 Dover Ave., Akron 2 Gray, G. A., 3317 Jefferson Ave., Cincinnati 20 Hamlin, Howard E., 1945 Waltham Rd., Columbus 8 Haydeck, Carl, 3213 West 73rd St., Cleveland 2 Headapohl, Miss Marjean, R. D. 2, Wapakoneta Hill, Dr. Albert A., 4187 Pearl Rd., Cleveland Hoch, Gordon F., 6292 Glade Ave., Cincinnati Holley, Dr. C. J., 11 Elm St., Bridgeport Hunt, Kenneth W., Yellow Springs Irish, Charles F., 418 E. 105th St., Cleveland Jacobs, Homer L., Davey Tree Expert Co., Kent Jacobs, Mason, 3003 Jacobs Rd., Youngstown Jacque, John V., 13722 N. Drive, Cleveland 5 Kappel, Owen, Bolivar Kintzel, Frank M., 2506 Briarcliffe Ave., Cincinnati 13 Kirby, R. L., Box 131, R. 1, Sharonville Kratzer, George, Kidron Krok, Walter P., 925 W. 29th St., Lorain Laditka, Nicholas G., 5322 Stickney Ave., Cleveland 9 Lashley, Chas. V., 216 S. Main, Wellington Lehmann, Carl, Union Trust Bldg., Cincinnati Livezey, Albert J., Barnesville Madson, Arthur E., 13608-5th Ave., E. Cleveland 12 McBride, William B., 2398 Brandon Rd., Columbus 8 Meikle, William J., 730 Thornhill Dr., Cleveland Metzger, A. J., 724 Euclid Ave., Toledo 5 Miller, Arthur R., R. D. 4, Wooster Mutchler, Glenn M., Box 10, Massillon Neff, Wm., Martel Nicolay, Chas., 2259 Hess Ave., Cincinnati 11 Oches, Norman M., R. D. 2, Brunswick Olney High School, R. D. 1, Eggleston Rd., Toledo 5 Osborn, Frank C., 4040 W. 160th St., Cleveland Pomerene, W. H., Coshocton Poston, E. M., Jr., 2640 E. Main, Columbus Rowe, Stanley M., R. D. 1, Box 83, Cincinnati 27 Scarff's Sons, W. N., New Carlisle Schaufelberger, Hugo S., R. D. 2, Sandusky Shelton, Dr. E. M., 1468 W. Clifton Blvd., Lakewood 7 Sherman, L. Walter, Mahoning Co., Exp. Farm, Canfield Shessler, Sylvester M., Genoa Silvis, Raymond E., 1725 Lindbergh Ave., N. E., Massillon Soliday, E. C., 834 Madison Ave., Lancaster Southart, Dr. A. F., 24-1/2 South Main St., Mt. Gilead Smith, Sterling A., 630 W. South St., Vermilion Spring Hill Nurseries Co., Tipp City Stocker, C. P., Lorain Products Corp., 1122 F St., Lorain Sylvarium Gardens, L. E. Crawford, 5499 Columbia Rd., N. Olmsted Thomas, W. F., 406 S. Main St., Findlay Toops, Herbert A., 1430 Cambridge Blvd., Columbus Urban, George, 4518 Ardendale Rd., South Euclid 21 Van Voorhis, J. F., 215 Hudson Ave., Apt. B-1, Newark Walker, Carl F., 2851 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland Weaver, Arthur W., 318 Oliver St., Toledo 4 * Weber, Harry, R. Esq., 123 E. 6th St., Cincinnati Weber, Mrs. Martha R., R. D. 1, Morgan Rd., Cleves Weibel, A. J., 4130 Florida Ave., Cincinnati 23 Whitmer High School, 5530 Whitmer Drive, Toledo 12 Willett, Dr. G. P., Elmore Wischhusen, J. F., 15031 Shore Acres Dr., N.E., Cleveland 10 Yates, Edward W., 3108 Parkview Ave., Cincinnati 13 Yoder, Emmet, Smithville OKLAHOMA Hirschi's Nursery, 414 N. Robinson, Oklahoma City Hubbard, Orie B., Kingston Hughes, C. V., 5600 N. W. 16-R No. 2, Box 564, Oklahoma City 8 Jarrett, C. F., 2208 W. 40th, Tulsa Meek, E. B., R. D. 2, Wynnewood Pulliam, Gordon, 407 Osage Ave., Bartlesville Ruhlen, Dr. Chas. A., 114 W. Steele, Cushing Swan, Oscar E., Jr., 1226 E. 30th St., Tulsa 5 OREGON Borland, Robert E., 219 Mill St., Silverton Carlton Nursery Co., Forest Grove Dohanian, S. M., P. O. Box 246, Eugene Flanagan, George C., 909 Terminal Sales Bldg., Portland Miller, John E., R. D. 1, Box 312-A, Oswego Russ, E., R. D. 1, Halsey Schuster, C. E., Horticulturist, Cervallis PENNSYLVANIA Allaman, R. P., R. D. 1, Harrisburg Anundson, Lester, 2630 Chestnut St., Erie Banks, H. C., R. D. 1, Hellertown Barnhart, Emmert M., R. D. 4, Waynesboro Beard, H. G., R. D. 1, Sheridan Blair, Dr. G. D., 702 N. Homewood Ave., Pittsburgh Bowen, John C., R. D. 1, Macungie Breneiser, Amos P., 427-N. 5th St., Reading Brenneman, John S., R. D. 6, Lancaster Brown, Morrison, Carson Long Military Academy, New Bloomfield Buckman, C. M., Schwenkville Catterall, Karl P., 734 Frank St., Pittsburgh 10 Clarke, Wm. S., Jr., Box 167, State College Creasy, Luther P., Catawissa DeHaven, Edwin, 404 Wall Ave., Pitcairn Dewey, Richard, Box 41, Peckville Dible, Samuel E., R. D. 3, Shelocta Diefenderfer, C. E., 918 Third St., Fullerton Driver, Warren M., R. D. 4, Bethlehem Ebling, Aaron L., R. D. 2, Reading Etter, Fayette, P. O. Box 57, Lehmasters Gardner, Ralph D., Box 425, Colonial Park Gebhardt, F. C., 140 E. 29th St., Erie Gorton, F. B., 4110 Emmet Dr., Erie Heasley, George S., R. D. 2, Darlington Heckler, George Snyder, Hatfield Heilman, R. H., 2303 Beechwood Blvd., Pittsburgh Hershey, John W., Nut Tree Nurseries, Downingtown Hewetson, Prof. F. N., Fruit Research Lab., Arendtsville Hostetter, C. F., Bird-In-Hand Hostetter, L. K., R. D. 5, Lancaster Hughes, Douglas, 1230 East 21st St., Erie Jackson, Schuyler, New Hope Johnson, Robert F., R. D. 5, Box 56, Crafton Jones, Mildred M., 301 N. West End Ave., Lancaster Jones, Dr. Truman W., Coatesville Kaufman, M. M., Clarion Kirk, DeNard B., Forest Grove Knouse, Chas. W., Colonial Park Leach, Hon. Will, Court House, Scranton Long, Carleton C., 138 College Ave., Beaver Losch, Walter, 133 E. High St., Topton Mathews, Mrs. Geo., R. D. 2, Cambridge Springs Mattoon, H. Gleason, 258 South Van Pelt St., Philadelphia 3 McCartney, J. Lupton, Rm. 1, Horticultural Bldg., State College Mercer, Robert A., 435 E. Phil-Ellera St., Philadelphia 19 Miller, Elwood B., c/o The Hazleton Bleaching & Dyeing Works, Hazleton Miller, Robert O., 3rd & Ridge St., Emmaus Moyer, Philip S., Union Trust Bldg., Harrisburg Niederriter, Leonard, 1726 State St., Erie Reidler, Paul G., Ashland Rial, John, 528 Harrison Ave., Greensburg * Rick, John, 438 Pennsylvania Sq., Reading Robinson, P. S., Gettysburg Rupp, Edward E., Jr., 57 W. Omfret St., Carlisle Sameth, Sigmund, Grandeval Farm, R. D. 3, Kutztown Schaible, Percy, Upper Black Eddy Schmidt, Albert J., 534 Smithfield St., Pittsburgh Sheibley, J. W., Star Route, Landisburg Shelly, David B., R. D. 2, Elizabethtown Smith, Dr. J. Russell, 550 Elm Ave., Swarthmore Stewart, E. L., Pine Hill Farms Nursery, R. D. 2, Homer City Stewart, John H., Yule Tree Farm, Akeley Stoebener, Harry W., 6227 Penn Ave., Pittsburgh Theiss, Dr. Lewis E., Bucknell University, Lewisburg Twist, Frank S., Northumberland Waggoner, Charles W., 432 Harmony Ave., Rochester Washick, Dr. Frank A., 501 Cottman Ave., Philadelphia 11 Weinrich, Whitney, 134 S. Lansdowne Ave., Lansdowne Wicks, Dr. A. G., 227 Baywood Ave., Mt. Lebanon * Wister, John C., Scott Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore Wood, Wayne, R. D. 1, Newville Wright, Ross Pier, 235 West 6th St., Erie Zimmerman, Mrs. G. A., R. I, Linglestown RHODE ISLAND + Allen, Philip, 178 Dorance St., Providence R. I. State College, Library Dept., Green Hall, Kingston SOUTH AMERICA Pereda, Celedonia V., Arroyo 1142, Buenos Aires, Argentina SOUTH CAROLINA Bregger, John. T., Clemson SOUTH DAKOTA Bradley, Homer L., LaCreek National Wildlife Refuge, Martin TENNESSEE Howell Nurseries, Sweetwater McDaniel, Dr. J. C, Tenn. Dept. of Agriculture, 403 State Office Bldg. Nashville 3 Meyer, James R., Agronomy Dept., University of Tenn., Knoxville Rhodes, G. B., R. D. 2, Covington Richards, Dr. A., Whiteville Roark, W. F., Malesus Zarger, Thomas G., Norris TEXAS Florida, Kaufman, Box 154, Rotan Price, W. S., Jr., Gustine UTAH Jeppesen, Chris., Wildwood Hollow Farm Nursery, Provo City Oleson, Granville, 1210 Laird Ave., Salt Lake City 5 Peterson, Harlan D., 2164 Jefferson Ave., Ogden VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., R. D. 3, Springfield Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven. Perpetual Membership "In Memoriam" Farrington, Robert A., Vermont Forest Service, Montpelier Foster, Forest K., West Topsham Ladd, Paul, Hilltop Farm, Jamaica VIRGINIA Acker, E. D., Co., Broadway Brewster, Stanley H., "Cerro Gordo", Gainesville Burton, George L., 728 College St., Bedford Case, Lynn B., R. D. 1, Fredericksburg Dickerson, T. C, 316-56th St., Newport News Gibbs, H. R., McLean Johnson, Dr. Walter R., Garrisonville Morse, Chandler, Valross, R. D. 5, Alexandria Nix, Robert W., Jr., Lucketts Pertzoff, Dr. V. A., Carter's Bridge Peters, John Rogers, P. O. Box 37, McLean Pinner, H. McR., P. O. Box 155, Suffolk Powell, Frank, Stuart Stoke, H. F., 1420 Watts Ave., Roanoke Stoke, Dr. John H., 408-10 Boxley Bldg., Roanoke Thompson, H. C., Short & Thompson, Inc., Hopewell Variety Products Co., 5 Middlebrook Ave., Staunton Virginia Tree Farm, Woodlawn Webb, John, Hillsville Zimmerman, Ruth, Bridgewater WEST VIRGINIA Cannaday, Dr. John E., Charleston General Hospital, Charleston 25 Cross, Andrew, Ripley Frye, Wilbert M., Pleasant Dale Glenmont Nurseries, Arthur M. Reed, Moundsville, W. Va. Golden Chestnut Nursery, Arthur A. Gold, Cowen Gross, Andrew, Ripley Holcomb, Herbert L., Riverside Nurseries, P.O. Box 5, S. Charleston 3 Hoover, Wendell W., Webster Springs Margolin, Abe S., University of West Virginia, Morgantown Slotkin, Meyer S., 629-10th Ave., Huntington WASHINGTON Altman, Mrs. H. E., 2338 King St., Bellingham 9 Barth, J. H., Box 1827 R. D. 3, Spokane 6 Bartleson, C. J., Box 25, Chattaron Biddle, Miss Gertrude W., 923 Gordon Ave., Spokane 12 Carey, Joseph E., 4219 Letona Ave., Seattle Clark, R. W., 4221 Phinney Ave., Seattle Denman, George L., 1319 East Nina Ave., Spokane Ferris, Major Hiram B., P. O. Box 74, Spokane 1 Jessup, J. M., Cook Kling, William L., R. D. 2, Box 230, Clarkston Latterell, Ethel, Greenacres Linkletter, F. D., 8034-35th Ave., N.E., Seattle 5 Lynn Tuttle Nursery, The Heights, Clarkston Martin, Fred A., Star Route, Chelan Naderman, G. W., R. D. 1, Box 370, Olymphia Shane Bros., Vashon WISCONSIN Bassett, W. S., 1522 Main St., La Crosse Brust, John J., 135 W. Wells St., Milwaukee 3 Dopkins, Marvin, R. D. 1, River Falls Downs, M. L., 1024 N. Leminwah St., Appleton Johnson, Albert G., R. D. 2, Box 457, Waukesha Koelsch, Norman, Jackson Ladwig, C. F., 2221 St. Lawrence, Beloit Mortensen, M. C., 2117 Stanson Ave., Racine Zinn, Walter G., P. O. Box 747, Milwaukee WYOMING Greene, W. D., Box 348, Greybull * Life Member + Contributing Member ** Honorary Member CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I--NAME This Society shall be known as the Northern Nut Growers Association, Incorporated. ARTICLE II--OBJECT Its object shall be the promotion of interest in nut-bearing plants, their products and their culture. ARTICLE III--MEMBERSHIP Membership in this society shall be open to all persons who desire to further nut culture, without reference to place of residence or nationality, subject to the rules and regulations of the committee on membership. ARTICLE IV--OFFICERS There shall be a president, a vice-president, a secretary and a treasurer, who shall be elected by ballot at the annual meeting; and a board of directors consisting of six persons, of which the president, the two last retiring presidents, the vice-president, the secretary and the treasurer shall be members. There shall be a state vice-president from each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the association, who shall be appointed by the president. ARTICLE V--ELECTION OF OFFICERS A committee of five members shall be elected at the annual meeting for the purpose of nominating officers for the following year. ARTICLE VI--MEETINGS The place and time of the annual meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the board of directors shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the president and board of directors. ARTICLE VII--QUORUM Ten members of the Association shall constitute a quorum but must include two of the four officers. ARTICLE VIII--AMENDMENTS This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or copy of the proposed amendment having been mailed by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS ARTICLE I--COMMITTEES The Association shall appoint standing committees as follows: On membership, on finance, on programme, on press and publication, on exhibits, on varieties and contests, on survey, and an auditing committee. The committee on membership may make recommendations to the Association as to the discipline or expulsion of any member. ARTICLE II--FEES Annual members shall pay two dollars annually. Contributing members shall pay ten dollars annually. Life members shall make one payment of fifty dollars and shall be exempt from further dues and shall be entitled to the same benefits as annual members. Honorary members shall be exempt from dues. "Perpetual" membership is eligible to any one who leaves at least five hundred dollars to the Association and such membership on payment of said sum to the Association shall entitle the name of the deceased to be forever enrolled in the list of members as "Perpetual" with the words "In Memoriam" added thereto. Funds received therefor shall be invested by the Treasurer in interest bearing securities legal for trust funds in the District of Columbia. Only the interest shall be expended by the Association. When such funds are in the treasury the Treasurer shall be bonded. Provided: that in the event the Association becomes defunct or dissolves then, in that event, the Treasurer shall turn over any funds held in his hands for this purpose for such uses, individuals or companies that the donor may designate at the time he makes the bequest or the donation. ARTICLE III--MEMBERSHIP All annual memberships shall begin October 1st. Annual dues received from new members after April first shall entitle the new member to full membership until October first of that year and a credit of one-half annual dues for the following year. ARTICLE IV--AMENDMENTS By-Laws may be amended by a two-thirds vote of members present at any meeting. ARTICLE V Members, shall be sent a notification of annual dues at the time they are due and, if not paid within two months, they shall be sent a second notice, telling them that they are not in good standing on account of non-payment of dues and are not entitled to receive the annual report. At the end of thirty days from the sending of the second notice, a third notice shall be sent notifying such members that, unless dues are paid within ten days from the receipt of this notice, their names will be dropped from the rolls for non-payment of dues. Proceedings of the Thirty-seventh Annual Convention Report of the Proceedings of the Northern Nut Growers Association at its thirty-seventh Annual Convention, held at Wooster, Ohio, September 3, 4, 5, 1946, in the auditorium of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. The convention was called to order at 10 A.M. with the President, Carl Weschcke, in the chair. Address of Welcome By Dr. J. H. Gourley, of the Wooster Experiment Station The thing that would strike me particularly about this meeting we are having is to see people come from so far away; a group that is on fire with interest in a fruit which has no great economic importance, in a place like the central west, in comparison with other fruits. Another thing that is interesting, as contrasted with other fruit groups, would be this; that the extent to which nuts become of great economic importance in these places lies very largely with you. It seems to me that without the insistent desire of a very small minority of people an industry like this would not get very far. Ohio has not done as much as she should. You may have come to Ohio to give us a shot in the arm. On behalf of the Director, I want to extend to you a cordial welcome to the Experiment Station and to Wooster. This Station has 3600 acres of land and one-third is at Wooster--1200 acres. We have 15 district and county farms, 63,000 acres in state forests and parks. This station has introduced a number of varieties of wheat. Sixty to seventy-five per cent of all wheat in Ohio is grown from varieties that originated at this station. This station was organized in 1882 at Columbus. The Federal Hatch Act permitting this type of organization was passed in 1887; thus Ohio was five years ahead of the Federal Act. In 1892, the station was moved from Columbus to Wooster. The state act provided that an experiment station should be located within fifty miles of Columbus, but later it was permitted to extend the distance to 100 miles. They settled on Wooster, which is 90 miles. The tendency is to work more and more closely with the State University. The trend seems to be so they will function as one agricultural institution. I would like to extend the keys of the Station to you, but the keys may not unlock the fruit storage. I trust you will have a most profitable time while you are with us. Response By John E. Cannaday, M. D., Charleston, West Virginia It is a pleasure to meet here under such favorable auspices and to be received with these hospitable words by Dr. Gourley. In recent years, Ohio has gone far in nut growing under his leadership and that of his staff. Pennsylvania also has done a great deal to put nut growing on its feet. My own state, West Virginia, is also making good headway. In the early 1900's I got the 'bee', but I lost two or three of my first few trees. In 1917 I imported some chestnuts from Japan for planting and tried out various schemes in nut growing. In my opinion, chestnuts are the most important nuts for human food that grow in the temperate zone. It is interesting to observe how chestnuts follow true to seed in many respects. I have been advised that all of the chestnuts grown in China are from selected seed. Every foot of steep mountain land in some sections of Italy is said to be completely covered with chestnut trees. In my state, the weevil is the scourge of chestnuts; I had hoped that after the chestnut blight destroyed our native chestnuts, the Chinese and Japanese chestnuts would be free from that pest. Where it came from I do not know, unless it came from the chinkapin. West Virginia has chinkapins and these, being blight resistant, apparently have kept up the supply of weevils. Occasionally, shortly before the chestnuts begin to ripen, a few decay from some type of rot. I took a census of my chestnut trees recently and found 80 trees of bearing age. Some of the largest are 22 to 24 feet in height, with a trunk diameter of 5 inches or more. None have been pruned but have maintained their normal branch formation and grow low. The timber tree must be yet to come. I have read interesting statements to the effect that in parts of China and Burma, there are chestnut trees of timber shape and size. Chestnut trees are likely to become of extreme importance in our future economy. The nuts fill a very significant place in our dietary needs. We should continue to plant chestnut trees and take care of them. I have also from 350 to 400 younger trees that are coming on, and I want to plant additional chestnut trees every year. The black walnut and hickory nut are very important, but the chestnut crop is the corn crop of the nuts. Address of Retiring President Carl Weschcke, St. Paul, Minnesota Our last convention at Hershey, Pa., in September 1941, was a very outstanding one. Not only was it successful because of good attendance, excellent addresses and the places of interest we visited, particularly the home of Mildred Jones, our Secretary, at Lancaster and of the late Dr. G. A. Zimmerman at Linglestown, but it was important because it marked the beginning of a long period during which we had to forego our conventions. The death of Dr. Zimmerman shortly before that meeting dampened our usually jovial spirits when we were entertained at his home, but his wife did much to alleviate this. To me, the last convention we held was by far the most important since the very first one at New York in November, 1910, because at it I received the honour of being chosen president for the ensuing year. This was during the era when presidents were usually re-elected for a second term, but I assure you that I have not served as president for this long period because I have been seeking to emulate other presidents, but only because the war years prevented our holding the annual meetings at which our officers are elected. In mentioning any part of the history of our group, we should always remember that we owe its existence to Dr. Deming, who is now Dean of the Association. Now it is not my province to make a long speech about the N. N. G. A., because a number of other people will talk to you about it. I believe that the growth of our society in recent years has fulfilled the fondest dreams of Dr. Deming, since we have almost doubled our membership since 1941. We now have approximately over 600 members. People all over the United States are becoming aware of the value of nuts as food important to men. It is too bad that nuts have not been available on a competitive price basis with other foods, and that luxury prices have limited interest in nuts among the women buyers. A better understanding of the uses and comparative value of nuts is gradually coming about which will result in a tremendous demand on the nut-growing industry, which of course, includes the nurserymen who develop and grow all varieties of nut trees. It is unfortunate for our newer members that they will never have the opportunity of knowing those men who were among our earliest and most valued associates whom death has recently taken from us and that they are thus deprived of the pleasure and knowledge they might have gained through personal contact with the wisdom and friendliness these men displayed. Let us all take advantage of every opportunity we have to meet with and learn from the senior members of our group who are with us today. They are the salt of the earth, I assure you. To those of you who have come long distances from your homes to attend this annual meeting of the N.N.G.A., to our hosts and to all of my good friends here, may I express my great pleasure at meeting again with you after so long a time. Secretary's Report Mildred M. Jones, Lancaster, Pennsylvania In addition to the regular routine duties of answering inquiries about the Association, sales of reports, giving information about nut trees, where they may be obtained, and sources of additional reading material and reference material about nut tree work, a large part of the time I could devote to Association affairs this year was in preparation for this meeting. Because of travel restrictions, and the fact that the Canadian National Exhibition would not be held this fall, and assurance from the Toronto Convention and Tourist Association, Inc. that the Exhibition would be resumed in the fall of 1947, and that it would be a newer and greater show, it seemed advisable to place these facts before the members, and allow them to vote on their preference for a meeting place this fall. In addition to responses from the officers, I received 63 votes from members, 37 of which were for Wooster, Ohio, 24 for Beltsville, Maryland, and 3 for Canada. Since the letter asking for votes carried the understanding that we were putting the Canadian meeting off for a year by voting for a place in the U. S. this year, and were not canceling the Canadian invitation, this would explain the small vote for Canada. Our program committee this year was comprised of three members and myself--Mr. C. A. Reed, whose many years of Association work and wide acquaintance made him an invaluable source of suggestions; Dr. Oliver Diller, who took charge of the tremendous task of handling local arrangements; and Mr. A. A. Bungart, who helped greatly in procuring speakers. These men helped so splendidly that I should like here to voice my thanks and appreciation. Much new data for the revision of the 4-page pamphlet giving information about the Association, sources of seeds, nut tree nurserymen, and reference material for reading has been gathered for printing. Since I accepted the secretaryship in time for the first convention after the war, it seemed advisable to me to hold this material until it could be turned over to my successor who will be elected at this meeting, rather than put the Association to the expense of printing only a small number of circulars. A good many inquiries were received during the year for sources of certain varieties of nuts. It would help the secretary, and also the members, to have a list of those who have nuts for sale. Treasurer's Report For Period from October 1, 1945 to September 30, 1946 RECEIPTS: Annual Membership $871.00 Contributing Membership-- Philip Allen 10.00 Sale of Reports 154.80 Zenas H. Ellis Legacy 950.00 Miscellaneous 4.00 ------- $1,989.80 DISBURSEMENTS: Subscriptions to Fruit Grower $ 79.40 Supplies 12.52 Secretary's Expense 60.52 Treasurer's Expenses 41.94 Miscellaneous 10.00 ------- 204.38 ---------- Excess of Receipts over Disbursments $1,785.42 Balance on Hand--October 1, 1945 1,474.46 ---------- Total Balance--September 1, 1946 $3,259.88 Deposited in Walker State Bank $3,236.07 Cash on Hand 23.81 $3,259.88 Notes on the Annual Meeting A telegram was sent to Dr. Deming in reply to one of greeting from him, and various committees were appointed. Mr. Corsan suggested that an exhibit of nuts be placed on display in the Royal York Hotel, Toronto, Canada. Mr. Hirschi said that for killing trees by poison he uses two pounds white arsenic, one pound caustic soda and one gallon of water. A member stated that a few drops of mercury would answer the same purpose. Mr. Hirschi stated that he found the Niblack pecan an almost perfect cracker, bringing a premium price. Mr. Wilkinson stated that while the Niblack pecan had never been a prolific bearer, the nut has few equals. Perhaps intensive cultivation would improve the bearing. It was voted to leave the date of the next meeting to the executive committee. Mr. Spencer Chase, of the TVA, invited the members to meet in Tennessee at an early date. The President: "We should consider this a fine invitation for 1948. For 1947 we should honor our commitments and go to Canada." A free discussion occurred on the suggestion to establish a nut journal and on the proposal to raise the dues. The President suggested that the way to get the work of association done promptly would be to pay for it. Dr. McKay expressed doubt about the inadvisability of raising the dues. Mr. Walker thought that if the dues were raised it should be to the extent of a dollar on account of the inconvenience of sending fractional currency. The treasurer suggested the advisability of getting out a mimeographed letter to record progress. Mr. Slate emphasized the importance of producing a good report to hold the members. Mr. Hershey also approved the idea of getting out a news letter or progress report. The President suggested that one thousand members would settle the whole question. Mr. Jay Smith stated he thought the Association should advertise in some way, especially in sportsmen's magazines. A motion on the part of Mr. Stoke to raise the dues by fifty cents per year was lost. The nominating committee made the following nominations for officers for the ensuing year, 1946-47: Clarence A. Reed, President Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Vice-President Miss Mildred M. Jones, Secretary D. C. Snyder, Treasurer The nominating committee also, through its chairman, Mr. Weber, recommended that appropriate steps be taken at the next annual meeting to amend the Constitution to consolidate the offices of treasurer and secretary so that they can be filled by one person, and that the remuneration of the secretary-treasurer be fixed at fifty cents per member. Mr. Stoke moved that the report of the nominating committee be approved, and that the nominees be declared elected. Motion was seconded and carried. Mr. D. C. Snyder offered the following resolution: "Because of the great and enduring service that Dr. William C. Deming has rendered the Association, I move that he be named Dean of the Association and be given an honorary life membership, without payment of dues." The motion was seconded, and carried with applause. On being called to the chair, the newly-elected President, Clarence A. Reed, spoke as follows: "I take this as a very great honor; it is an equally great responsibility. All I can say is that I appreciate it deeply, and that I will give you the best service I have in me." The Ohio Section of the Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc., submitted a copy of its Constitution containing a provision that it affiliate with the Northern Nut Growers' Association by having its accredited members become also members of both Associations. After an open discussion by officers and members of both Associations, a resolution was adopted by the Northern Nut Growers' Association expressing appreciation to the Ohio organization for their offer of affiliation, and accepting such affiliation on the terms stated. It was also brought out as the sense of the meeting that the Executive Committee work out any necessary details in connection with this and any subsequent affiliation on the part of any district or state Association, the same to be submitted to the next annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers' Association for ratification. It was also recommended that the President appoint a member of each affiliating Association to the Executive Committee of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. This statement is made in lieu of an accurate transcript of the proceedings, or a verbatim report of the resolution as adopted, neither of which is available. Aims and Aspirations of the Ohio Nut Growers A. A. Bungart, Avon, Ohio In one of the previous bulletins of the NNGA, there appeared an eighteen-point program formulated by the Ohio Nut Growers. No doubt you are wondering what has been done and is being done to make this program function. We have eliminated one point, the one on the pollen bank. At the time our program was being prepared we assumed that nut pollen could be stored for several weeks or months: Since nut pollen does not remain viable in storage, we shall substitute a point on the use of lime, fertilizers of various formulas and the use of trace elements in nut culture. The Ohio Forestry Association on January 18, 1944, passed a resolution approving our eighteen-point program. As you are well aware, the war put a damper on many activities, nut and otherwise. Here in Ohio, the nut crops of 1944 and 1945 were virtually failures; even the crop of 1946 is decidedly spotty. Yet in spite of the war and adverse weather conditions, the Ohio growers are looking forward, and planning for the future. As a group we are directing our efforts to the attainment of two specific objectives. In the first place, we have almost $300 collected as prize money for State nut contests. I take this opportunity to announce a donation of $105 from Mr. John Davidson, of Xenia, Ohio. With the aid of such a generous contributor, we are able to offer a first prize of $50; second prize of $25; third prize of $15; fourth prize of $10; fifth prize of $5; and five one-dollar prizes for black walnuts. In three or five years we intend to have another contest; either a sweepstakes of $110, or a repetition of the amounts offered this year. We may keep the contest open next year and the year after for those wishing to enter nuts for the final awards. In this way, too, we include black walnuts which are not bearing this year. Our follow-up will work something like this: We intend to keep a record over the years of the performance of each of the ten prize winners and the ten honorable mentions of the 1946 contest. To that end we have made a score card. The first section of this card will contain information useful to the Department of Forestry and to nut culture in general, but it will not be a factor in selecting the prize winner unless a virtual tie might result in the sweepstakes contest. This section will include: 1. Location--owner, County, rural route, village, town, state route, etc. 2. Location of Tree--isolated, moderately crowded, in dense woods, farm, pasture, city lot, fence row, general ecology; types of other trees in neighborhood, air drainage, exposure. 3. Size of Tree--circumference 4-1/2 ft. from the ground, probable age, height, limb spread; shape, tall, short; symmetry or lack of it. 4. Type of Soil--bottom land, slope and direction, upland; clay, loam, alluvial; presence or absence of humus; acidity; sod or cultivated, mulch or not; depth and kind of subsoil. 5. Moisture Conditions--presence of stream or tile drain, proximity to to stream, lake, pond, etc. 6. Fertility Conditions--wild natural state, near barnyard, fertilized or not with manure or commercial fertilizers, application of lime, etc. The second section will contain information that will aid in awarding the final prizes. Superior rating under this head might, in the final judging, make an "honorable mention" of the 1946 contest the best all around performer three or five years hence. This section will include: 1. Resistance to disease and insect pests 2 points 2. Bearing habits over the given period; annual, biennial, occasional 7 points 3. Length of growing season; rate of growth; time of blossoming (staminate and pistillate flowers), time of leafing out, time of nut ripening, time of leaf fall 4 points 4. Size of nut clusters, range in number of nuts, per cluster, number of pounds of immature nuts 2 points 5. Size of crop in proportion to tree 5 points Total 20 points Some formula will have to be worked out for the last, i.e., size of crop in proportion to the size of tree. Perhaps we might say the crop equals (pounds of nuts) / (r squared x h) in which "r" would represent the radius or half the limb spread and "h" the height, measured from the top to lowest branches. For example, if a tree that yielded 100 pounds of nuts had a limb spread of 20 feet and was twenty feet high, it would have a value of 100 / (10 squared x 20) or 1/20. The fraction, of course, could be eliminated if the number of nuts were substituted for pounds. It is hardly likely that such a formula would be used for all the trees, probably only in instances where scores in other respects were close. The third section of the score card will record the rating of the judges on the cracking qualities and other characteristics of the nuts themselves. Any form accepted and approved by the NNGA will be satisfactory. We plan to use this system for hickory, butternut and other nut contests. Without a Mr. Davidson, however, we shall be compelled to reduce our prizes for the other contests. I should like to take this opportunity to thank Mr. C. A. Reed for originating this plan. He told us we ought to know more about the trees from which the prize nuts were taken. Our score card aims at a complete record. Our second aim is to secure a full time research worker in nut culture under the Horticultural Department of Ohio. We have the promise of Director Secrest that he will include in his biennial budget an appropriation for such a specialist. We have the encouragement of Dr. Gourley, the head of the department. But both men will expect us to do our part. Both expect us to speak for our group and our project when the time comes. We accept that responsibility. Our group has already contacted the members of the finance committee that passes on the budget, and we expect to have our representatives present when the budget is discussed in committee. At present, to be sure, we cannot furnish or even promise an endowment in money. Sixty Nut Grower members can scarcely compete with such powerful groups as the Apple Growers, the Hybrid Corn Breeders, the Poultrymen and others. We can, however, furnish an endowment of men. Among our members we have such men as Mr. Davidson, Mr. Shessler, Mr. Cranz, Mr. Smith and Mr. Weber, along with many others who have done a great deal with nut trees. A research worker could draw upon their advice, their experience, their technique. He would have as his assistants men who were actuated by no mercenary or selfish motives, and would give of their time and trees to make this dream a reality. Certainly much of the experimental work such as the crossing of varieties could well be performed on the trees of individual members. The need of such an expert is obvious. The job of getting ahead in nut culture is too big for any one of us. We all know, frequently to our regret, that nut growing is a slow and at times a discouraging business. If we are honest with ourselves we have to admit failures again and again; yet the work is creative and fascinating. We always plan to eliminate some blunder, to perfect some method, next year. Sometimes a man has a green thumb, or a magic touch, or whatever it takes to make grafts grow, or buds take, or hunches to succeed. Such a man was Mr. Otto Witte, of North Amherst. As a nonagenarian, he was ever looking ahead to another year with his beloved trees, but he died in his nineties. Some of his prize trees have been cut down and probably others will be. What has happened to the experiments of 60 years? Another such man was Mr. Ross Fickes, of Wooster, whose skill in grafting nut trees was at once our envy and our admiration. When his farm is sold, will the new owner sense the hand of the master and watch carefully over the walnuts and hickories, or will he cut them down? I suppose that death brings an end to many a business, but the nut business is a new one, and a slow one, too. It is regretted that a life time of patient care and painstaking research is lost to us and to nut culture. True, a nut specialist will not keep death from the door of nut growers, nor will he save their groves from destruction, but he can keep a record of each grower's trees. He can plant his trees and lay out his plantings on state land where there would be more assurance of permanency. Once a nut department is established there is good reason to suppose that the work would go on until certain objectives were attained. Well, what should our specialist specialize in? May I suggest a few activities? Such a specialist would be the proper person to keep the score cards of the prize-winning black walnuts, hickories, butternuts and English (Persian) walnuts of nut contests held in the state. He would have the time and space for grafting scions from such trees for further observation and study. In the second place, he could plant and study other varieties under identical conditions and observe their performance. By correlating these data with the records of individual growers he ought to be able to recommend certain varieties of nut trees for various sections of the state. In Ohio, we have chapters of the Izaak Walton League; we have Friends of the Land; we have sportsmens clubs; we have extensive tracts of municipal and state land. We have the problem of doing something constructive with strip mining areas; we have, and will have under contour farming, little crazy-quilt blocks of land unsuitable for cultivation. All these agencies and all these needs tie in with the intelligent use of trees, particularly nut trees, because they serve a fourfold purpose; lumber, food, erosion control, and a balanced wild life. Here is where the nut specialist would enter the scene. By collecting data, by pooling the results of the individual growers, and especially by selection and breeding, he should be able to recommend the proper varieties of nut trees for specific needs. It seems to me, however, that the main job of such a worker should be to produce a streamlined black walnut, a thin-shelled, good-cracking, fast-growing walnut. The black walnut is, indeed, a regal tree. It grows all over the State. Here is a tree of almost infinite variation. What an opportunity for the genetic scientist! What an opportunity for the nut specialist! In connection with the improvement of the black walnut as a nut and timber tree, the specialist might well investigate the English or Persian walnut. What about the possibilities of Circassian walnut lumber? What is to prevent the growers and the specialist from planting the English walnut for timber? Here in Northern Ohio, English walnut trees have been cut for timber. There are probably several hundred English walnut trees scattered through the northern counties of Ohio. Some of them are from 10 to 18 inches in diameter. A few are second generation. As these trees seem to be fairly rapid growers it would seem reasonable that nuts from these hardy trees would grow into valuable timber, apart from the value of the nuts. Perhaps all these aspirations and aims seem Utopian. Probably such a program would keep a dozen workers occupied. In cooperation with the Forestry Department, however, students might be assigned to study certain phases of nut culture. A Ph.D. dissertation might well be written on the variation of the Thomas walnut in Ohio. In conclusion, the Ohio growers will try to produce better nut trees. Through prize contests they hope to find what nature has produced. Through the services of a scientist they hope to find what man can produce. The two aims dovetail. We are reasonably certain of the prize contests; we are not yet certain of securing the nut scientist. Ohio is host to the NNGA this year. May the Ohio growers ask you for your moral support in this venture? The NNGA is the mother organization. Through the efforts of the officers, past and present, the association is in a flourishing condition with prospects of a very bright future. Whatever we do in Ohio, whatever will be done in other states and countries will be a monument to the NNGA. The groping years, the hard years, are behind. The spade work has been done. We want you to feel that the aims and aspirations of the Ohio growers sprang from your advice, your experiments and enthusiasm. I would like to add a final word about the unique advantage we enjoy here in Ohio. We have the cooperation of a powerful and excellent farm paper, "The Ohio Farmer." Through its pages our contests get a wide publicity. Mr. Ray Kelsey has furnished us with 5000 folders announcing the contest and the purpose behind it. We have the cooperation of the Experiment Station here at Wooster and its affiliated agencies. Drs. Secrist and Gourley have been kind, encouraging, helpful. Dr. Oliver Diller, of the Forestry Department, and Mr. Walter Sherman, of the Mahoning Farm, have helped and worked with us in a hundred ways. We feel the NNGA ought to know about this harmonious and whole-hearted team work. Nut Growing Under Semi-Arid Conditions A. G. Hirschi, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma The pecan is the major nut crop in Oklahoma. The timber growth along the rivers and creeks contains enough pecan trees, if they were properly distributed, to make one continuous pecan grove entirely across the state. Pecan improvement work is only in its beginning. The Oklahoma Pecan Grower's Association was organized in 1926. It is devoted to the general improvement of the pecan, and to the dissemination of information gained by the members from their experience and observation. Dr. Frank Cross, head of the Department of Horticulture of our A & M College at Stillwater, is very active in nut improvement and is giving us much valuable assistance. Early in the history of our association we began to graft the large improved varieties on our seedling trees. True, many mistakes were made. I recall when all our trees producing small and inferior nuts, were cut down level with the ground, and the sprouts growing from the roots, were budded or grafted to paper-shells. This meant a long wait for production. We soon realized it was better to stub back the limbs and graft these, or permit the sprouts to develop and bud them, plus saving most of the framework of the trees, which gives us heavy production of grafted pecans in a short time. Competing growth, that is underbrush and all kinds of trees other than pecans, rob the grove of moisture, sunlight, and plant food. This growth was formerly removed by hand grubbing, but now with a large bulldozer it is pushed right out of the ground into piles where it is burned. Now the ground is clean, no stumps to grub out, and ready for a cover-crop or clean cultivation. Nothing remains but pecan trees, some elm, hackberry and oak, too large for the bulldozer. These are poisoned and burned right where they stand the following winter. For poisoning a mixture of two pounds of white arsenic and a pound of caustic soda to a gallon of water, if applied from an oilcan with a spout in an open circle chopped in the bark so as to girdle the tree, will usually deaden it in a short while. Within the year nothing is left but pecan trees. These are watched carefully for production and shelling quality and, if not desirable, or standing too thick, are removed for greater spacing for permanent trees. Today, only the smaller pecan trees are top worked, either to named varieties or to selected seedlings. Due to changed conditions of market and labor, the native pecan has come into its own. The pecan sheller buys 90% of the native pecans. He will pay only a few cents more for the big paper-shell. The native pecan is as staple as butter and eggs. Every produce man buys them for the shelling plants. This leaves the big paper-shell to seek a special market at an advertising cost. Due to the small differential in the wholesale price of the native and the paper-shell, the larger native trees are no longer top-grafted but are encouraged in every way for heavy production. Thus, when creek and river bottom thickets are opened up to sunshine and air, nothing left but pecan trees properly spaced, and this on land usually considered worthless, these trees will quadruple in production and pay a handsome return on a $200 per acre valuation. This is a real and altogether possible two-story agriculture to those who are fortunate enough to own undeveloped pecan timber land. Many of our members have beautiful groves redeemed from the wild with bounteous crops of nuts overhead and cattle grazing on enriching cover crops underneath. The pecan means a lot to the farmers of Oklahoma. The average yearly tonnage is about 16,000,000 pounds, with a peak production of 30,000,000 pounds. This amounts to an average of $2,000,000 annually, with a peak of $5,091,000. I want to show you what it means to some of our members to develop their native pecans, either as natives or grafted to improved varieties. The proceeds from one lone pecan tree in Mr. Skorkosky's cotton patch paid the taxes on his farm several different years. Thus encouraged, he redeemed a small thicket, added a few nursery trees of paper-shells, about ten acres in all, which now often makes a return equal to the rest of the farm. Mr. Kramer paid $1,000 for 10 acres, with part in seedling pecans. He sold $1,000 worth of pecans several different times, and the rest of the farm makes a good return in pasture and hay. He also has 51 acres that often makes a return of $50 per acre in pecans, besides pasturing 20 Herfords. Mr. Kramer destroys trees by girdling. Mr. Pfile makes it a business to buy farms on which there are pecan thickets. One farm has 70 acres, all top-grafted to improved varieties. Trees were small and no production for five years, supporting production for the next four years. Tenth year grossed $8,500; eleventh year, $5,400; twelfth year, $1,800, and this year his conservative estimate is $10,000. Mr. Camp has 600 acres in pecans, 90% improved varieties. He planted 50 acres on upland sandy land on terraces, with pecan trees 40 feet apart and an apple tree between each two pecan trees. The tenth year he produced 8,000 pounds of paper-shells and 4,000 bushels of apples. More recently he planted 125 acres on upland, but planted the pecans 60 feet apart on terraces with an apple tree between. In this orchard he produces 3/4 of a bale of cotton per acre and plants vetch in the fall between cotton rows. In October he had four crops on this land, cotton, vetch, apples and pecans. He says apple trees alternated with pecans on terraces are OK. Cotton, potatoes and sweet potatoes between the terraces for the first ten years are OK, but vetch as a winter cover crop to improve the soil must not be neglected. Grover Hayden has the largest native pecan grove in the world--1,800 acres fenced hog tight. He started 31 years ago as a farm hand. He had rather have 500 acres of pecans than 1,000 acres of alfalfa. Now after 30 years he owns the place at a purchase price of $90,000, not counting improvements and equipment. His average production is about 300,000 pounds per year. In 1935, he produced 400,000. He held back his 1941 crop and together with his 1942 crop, he sold both for $61,000. Think of the faith a man must have in pecans in Oklahoma to go in debt for $71,000 as Mr. Hayden did! He rode a pony that was mortgaged for all it was worth from Arkansas to this ranch. Those of us who do not have native or seedling pecan trees to work with, must develop orchards from nursery trees. I was raised on a poor farm in Missouri. I always had a desire to take a poor piece of land and see what I could do to improve it. Consequently, I planted 225 improved pecan trees of 25 different varieties and all other kinds of nut trees, fruit trees and a variety of berries on a piece of worn-out upland, pronounced by our county agent to be the poorest piece of ground in our county, and predicted it would be a complete failure. I planted the pecan trees 60 feet apart, and interplanted with other nut and fruit trees. The trees were planted on the contour with youngberries and many others planted in rows between the tree rows, making a perfect soil conservation arrangement. Barnyard fertilizer was used to start the trees. Every September, vetch and rye were sown as a cover-crop and soil-builder and disked into the soil the following spring. Clean cultivation is practiced during the summer to conserve moisture. This procedure has been adhered to most rigidly without a single crop failure. At 12 years most of the trees are producing $25 worth of paper-shells. The youngberries and plants sold have paid the expense of the orchard and a handsome profit besides, until the trees needed all the room. This project has proved to my satisfaction that profitable nuts and fruit crops can be grown on upland, if soil conservation and improvement are practised. The limiting factors of nut and fruit production are plant food and moisture, and if these are supplied, good production is assured. Black Walnuts The native black walnut of Oklahoma is small and of little value. Most pecan growers have a few native black walnut trees they graft to the improved varieties. I have Thomas, Stabler, Ohio, Mintle, Myers, and others. Thomas has been used most extensively, but does not fill well on upland. However, in deep sand and low bottoms it fills perfectly. It is an alternate bearer and is subject to sunscald in our hot dry summers. Ohio and Stabler have not proven satisfactory. Mintle is a fine nut, splendid cracker, fills well, but is an alternate bearer. I like Myers very much, a consistent bearer, has thinnest shell of all, vegetates after frost in spring, has abundant foliage and twigs, holds leaves until late autumn. Myers is my choice of all varieties at present. However, as with pecans, what varieties to use is each grower's individual problem. We will be looking for better varieties 50 years from now. For five years I am offering $25 annually for the best seedling black walnut. Write to our A & M College, Horticulture Department, Stillwater, Oklahoma, for rules and regulations of the contest. How to Make Money with Black Walnuts I believe I have discovered the best way to market black walnuts. I have not had much success selling them either husked or unhusked, "too hard to crack." Then someone remarked, "If you would crack them and put in some horseshoe nails to pick out the meats, they might sell." There it is: the secret is discovered. The lowly and almost extinct horseshoe nail will sell cracked black walnuts. I have the reputation among local hardware dealers of having more horses than any man in Oklahoma. Black walnuts and horseshoe nails are reminiscent of the good old days down on the farm. The big fat meats of improved cracked walnuts peering through the sides of one or two pound cellophane bags pinned shut with a couple of horseshoe nails is a temptation few people can resist. Leave a few packages with your grocer or druggist and try it. I get 25¢ per pound for the whole walnuts, and 35¢ for those cracked. I sell several thousand pounds every season, and since the black walnut does not become rancid we sell them all the year. I have a down-town shop window to display nuts and fruits. We husk our walnuts by running them thru an ordinary corn-sheller, or by jacking up the rear wheel of an automobile, put on a mud chain, with a trough underneath, place car in gear and scoop walnuts into trough in front of the wheel. This will husk them rapidly and well. We should promote the growing of more improved black walnuts. Most catalog nurseries still list seedling walnuts. We sold 3000 Thomas and Myers black walnut trees to one mail order nursery, and they could have used more. English Walnuts I tried all the California varieties, but these lacked hardiness. The Wiltz Mayette grew into a big fine tree but the 1940 Armistice Day freeze proved fatal. Breslau, Broadview, Schafer, and several others with some 25 Carpathian seedlings are just coming into bearing. Some give promise of adaptation here. I am determined to find a prolific and adapted variety. In the meantime we must content ourselves to grow this most attractive tree with its large waxy leaves and beautiful light-colored bark as a useful novelty. Heartnuts Here is a surprise nut and tree to Oklahoma people. Both are unlike anything ever seen here. When they see this most unusual tree, with its tropical leaves and taste the delicious nuts they want a tree for their yard. Visitors stare in amazement at the immense catkins, and the grape-like clusters of nuts that develop later. This is a heartnut year. In most all varieties, ten to fifteen nuts to the cluster hang from the terminal of each twig. The leaves sun-burn easily. In spite of this we had a heavy crop of well-filled nuts. Of the several varieties I have, Stranger is the most prolific. Fodemaier, and Walters bloom late enough to escape our late spring freezes, are larger nuts, and should prove to be the best eventually. Butternuts Butternuts grow native in Missouri and Arkansas. Our section is most too hot and dry for them. However, I have a few grafts of Buckley and Weschecke bearing nicely, grafted on native black walnuts. Hickories The wooded hills and river bottoms contain several kind of hickories. I have several pecan trees grafted to the Pleas and McCallister hybrids, but they are light producers in Oklahoma. I have 80 acres of river bottom hickory nuts in southwest Missouri that bear abundantly. Oriental Persimmons Persimmons grow native here. The Early Golden, an American variety, is very productive and ripens in September long before frost. Of the Orientals I have Tamopan, Eureka, Fuyu, Data Maru, Tanenashi. Most all bear heavily, in fact usually overbear. They stand our dry weather better than does the native persimmon. The very large fruit usually in colors of yellow and red attract much attention from visitors who think they are oranges. The persimmon belongs to the ebony family. The fruit contains as high as 40% sugar and in the Orient is a national dish. We propagate them by grafting our native stock. Pawpaw The Pawpaw is native in Missouri and Arkansas and in the eastern part of Oklahoma. It is a beautiful tree and very productive. We shade the small trees here until they get started, after which they do quite well. The fruit is a favorite with many. Chestnuts I think the greatest tragedy that ever befell American horticulture was the chestnut blight. Not so long ago every hill and mountain-side east of the Mississippi River, from near the Gulf of Mexico to the Canadian border was covered with native chestnut trees producing millions of pounds of food for man and beast. Today all has been devastated by this terrible blight and nothing remains save leafless trunks, like tombstones, in memory of a grand food tree. In 1889, Tom and Mary Jones left their Kentucky mountain home to establish a new one in Oklahoma. As with all pioneers they brought seeds of many species with them, including chestnuts. I now own the farm they homesteaded. On it today there is an American chestnut tree 4 feet in diameter with a limb-spread of 50 feet. This grand tree has been an inspiration to me, surviving our hot dry summers and outliving two generations of fruit trees by its side. This beautiful tree, now nearly 60 years of age, was proof-sufficient that chestnuts would grow in Oklahoma. I began to plant chestnuts. I planted all the Riehl varieties--Progress, Dan Patch, Van Fleet and others. I also had Boone, an American and Japanese hybrid, brought about by Endicott, also of Illinois. These have borne well. Being isolated and outside of the native chestnut range, they have not blighted. Since 1906, the Government has imported many thousand seed chestnuts from China. Later, it distributed little trees among the nut growers in an effort to re-establish chestnut growing in this country. This Chinese chestnut is blight-resistant. The best Chinese seedlings have been selected for propagation and have been named; of these I have Stoke (a hybrid), Hobson, Carr and several others. They are very prolific and often set burs the same year set out. Mr. Stoke sent me scions of the newer varieties this spring--Colby's hybrid, and Stoke seedling's Nos. 1 and 2. I grafted these on Chinese stocks; they set burs and matured nuts the same year grafted. The named varieties of Chinese Chestnut are the most precocious bearers of all the nut trees, are adapted and worthy of planting over a wide area. It should be the duty of every man who is interested in food trees to lend a hand to help re-establish chestnut growing in this country, now that we have blight-resistant varieties. Almost within the shadow of our State Capitol, on a main highway leading from our fair city, I have planted 2-1/2 acres of blight-resistant Chinese chestnut trees, as a living memorial to our only child, Harold, who gave his life to our country in a Jap prison camp in the Philippines. We shall devote the rest of our days to this Living Memorial, and leave means for its continuance, so that passers-by in generations to come may be reminded of the world's greatest tree tragedy, and to demonstrate that chestnuts which once grew native over half the nation, and were laid low by a terrible disease, may again be grown. In conclusion, let me warn you to improve your soil continually. NO TREE CAN BE BETTER THAN THE SOIL IN WHICH IT GROWS. No man is a greater exponent of soil improvement than one of Ohio's most illustrious sons, Louis Bromfield. In his book, "IN PLEASANT VALLEY," he says, "What we need is a new kind of pioneer, not the sort which cut down the forest, and burned off the prairies, and raped the land, but the kind which creates new forests and heals and restores the richness of the country God has given us." Weather Conditions versus Nut Tree Crops By J. F. Wilkinson, Indiana Nut tree crops, like other crops, are dependent on heat, light and moisture in proper amount at the right time to produce a crop of nuts of normal quality; soil conditions also to be taken into consideration. These conditions are probably more essential to a nut crop than most of us have realized; even the weather of the preceding season of late summer and fall may affect or determine next seasons nut crop. The size of the nut depends on the weather in Spring and early Summer, for when the shell is once formed and hardened little more growth can be expected under any conditions, while plumpness of kernel depends on favorable conditions in late Summer and Fall. After the shell is formed it fills with water which gradually changes to kernel, beginning at outer part next to shell, and unless there is plenty of heat, light, and moisture, kernel may not be filled, which will cause kernel to shrink, and not be plump, neither will it have normal germinating vitality, flavor, or weight. In the past there have been seasons when nuts were not up to normal quality, but I did not realize then just what caused this condition, until a few years ago, I heard a party remark that a dry season was an indication of a good nut crop the following year. Recalling back several seasons this, as a rule, has been true, especially where there was no unusually early Fall freezes, and Spring weather was favorable. The season of 1944 here was one of the driest on record. Up until the middle of August, nut trees were showing signs of going dormant. Late in June, sap was getting so low that I did all my budding late in June, a month earlier than usual. This early dry weather caused the nuts that year to be very small, especially on trees growing under less favorable conditions. Trees that were well cultivated produced nearer normal sized nuts. About the middle of August rains began, and these nuts were well filled. The rains of August brought new life into the trees causing them to hold their foliage unusually late, and not being thoroughly dormant before cold weather, at which time no doubt many of the fruit buds were killed, with the result that a very light crop of nuts was set in Spring of 1945. Spring opened very early with a bright warm March starting growth before usual time, even some trees set Pistillate bloom by the first of April; then later in April it began raining, and rains continued most of the Summer with much cool, cloudy weather with the result that most of the nuts failed to properly fill, or mature. This was true of hickory nuts, walnuts and pecans of both the named varieties and native seedlings. While the 1945 nut crop was very light of both pecans and walnuts, I had a few trees with fair crops, though none of the nuts had well filled plump kernels. Some of the first nuts to ripen seemed to have fairly well filled kernels after gathering and kernels got dried out, they shriveled and lacked flavor. Walnuts seemed to suffer even worse than the pecans. I was not able to find a walnut tree in this section that produced good planting nuts; even farm crops suffered, especially corn of which much of the crop was not of normal quality. The spring of 1946 began very much as in 1945 with a very warm March, again causing trees to start growth unusually early, and this spring, pistillate bloom was visible on some pecan trees in the last days of March. This weather condition remained until about the middle of April when cool rainy weather set in lasting for a month with frosts and light freezes as late as May 10th, which took all the nut crop in this section with the exception of a very few walnuts, and these were of very poor quality. Another very peculiar thing happened in Spring of 1946. The Posey and Giles varieties, both of which are usually heavy bloomers of Stamen bloom, failed to set a single catkin this spring, while trees of other varieties growing near them set heavy crops of catkin bloom. The behavior of nut trees in this section in the past two years, both of which have been unusual seasons, is evidence that nut crops are subject to weather conditions, not only of the present, but of previous season as well. Nut Tree Notes from Southwestern Ohio Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio Influence of Stock on Scion At my farm home in the northwestern part of Hamilton County, Ohio, at about 800 feet elevation, on clay soil, the Carpathian walnuts commence growth too early in spring for their own good and my comfort, well knowing what lurking Jack Frost can do to them. These Carpathian walnuts are uninfluenced by their black walnut understocks, the Schafer variety alone excepted. I also have two Schafer trees that came grafted apparently on Carpathian understock; but these start as early as the others. The Schafer exception, to which I refer, is grafted on a native black walnut stock to which the Broadview variety also had been grafted. (The Schafer variety is patented. I had permission to use the graft as I did.) With these two hardy varieties in the same tree, which itself is a late starter in the spring, I unwittingly laid the foundation for an unanticipated result. This became apparent after a severe early spring frost in 1945 caused me to examine all my hardy (Persian) walnut trees to note the effects of that freeze. The new growth of Broadview on the same tree with the Schafer was frozen, while the Schafer with the rest of the tree was dormant. The new growth of the other two Schafer trees; of Breslau top-worked on two trees; of Broadview on another tree; of an unknown variety on still another tree; all trees being native black walnut, all were frozen. The same was true as to Breslau seedlings and also a Kremenetz on Minnesota black walnut. Of course, all these trees staged come-backs with no bad after effects. In April, 1945, we had a severe hail storm that clipped clean the second new growth from these trees. The topworked Schafer was still dormant, while its companion Broadview in the same tree suffered like the rest. The spring of 1946 showed the topworked Schafer still dormant, while all the others were active. The Broadview on the same tree with the Schafer was almost in full leaf before the Schafer and the rest of the understock showed signs of growth. A number of persons thought the rest of the tree was dead. The Keystone Black Walnut I have a cut leaf black walnut tree, of value as an ornamental, which originated in Pennsylvania. Although it had catkins for several seasons, not until the past season did it produce, and then only one lone nut. The husk of that nut had a smooth exterior similar to that of a Persian walnut; but it lacked the characteristic black walnut odor. In fact, it had none. If this tree has any Persian walnut blood in its makeup, that hybrid strain may have manifested itself in the foliage; in any event, there was an influence of some kind that caused the change in the usual type of foliage. I was more interested in planting the nut to see what kind of foliage the seedling will have rather than in cracking it for examination to determine its value as a nut. Throp Walnut The parent Throp tree stood bordering a road along the Ralph Throp farm in Indiana, 40 miles from my home. About six years ago, with the permission of Mr. Throp, and being a very old tree, it was cut down as its branches interfered with overhanging wires. When I last saw the stump early in 1942, it had staged a come-back by throwing numerous suckers. However, the main point in mentioning this tree is to register the fact that it bears two kinds of nuts, single-lobed, or peanut type, and doubled-lobed, with the peanut type predominating. A Throp tree of mine showed this variation, and on my next visit to the Throp farm, in the presence of Mr. G. A. Gray, one of our members, Mr. Throp definitely confirmed the fact that the parent tree bore the two kinds of nuts aforesaid and that the peanut type predominated. I am prompted to make this statement for the reason that one of our prominent members, well versed in the performance of our best varieties of northern nut trees, had not been aware of the dual performance of the Throp tree, until I called it to his attention. Black Walnut Nursery Studies S. B. Chase, Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris, Tennessee Briefly summarized, here are the results of a series of black walnut nursery studies undertaken in 1940 and 1941 by the Tennessee Valley Authority. The object was to develop nursery practices which would yield the large uniform seedlings most desirable as understocks for grafted or budded trees. Germination and Stratification It is known that either fall- or spring-planted walnuts germinate readily if the nuts are viable and if those planted in the spring are properly stratified over winter. To find out just what effect spring and fall planting has on germination and to compare various methods of stratification, three seedlots were given the following treatments on November 28, 1940: 1. Planted in seedbeds 5. Stratified at 65-75° F 2. Stratified outdoors 6. Stored dry at 45-50° F 3. Stratified at 38-40° F 7. Stored dry at 45-50° F 4. Stratified at 45-50° F subsequently soaked in water prior to planting Nuts from the three seedlots were kept separate and planted in random plots in three seedbeds. Each treatment was therefore represented nine times with a total of 162 nuts in each treatment. To determine whether time of outdoor stratification has any effect on germination and emergence, three other seedlots were treated as follows: 1. Planted November 28, 1940 5. Stratified January 30, 1941 2. Stratified November 28, 1940 6. Stratified February 20, 1941 3. Stratified December 19, 1940 7. Stratified March 13, 1941 4. Stratified January 9, 1941 These three seedlots were also planted in three seedbeds with a total of 135 in each treatment. With one exception, all nuts in the two tests were planted April 3, 1941. One of the two lots stored dry was soaked in water for five days, then planted April 7. Seedbeds were equipped with screen wire cloth at a depth of 10 inches. ~Results~: In both tests, fall nut planting resulted in the best germination. Germination was higher for nuts planted in the fall than for nuts stratified on the same day for spring planting, although the difference was significant only in the second test. Outdoor stratification produced the best results, followed in order by indoor stratification at 38-40° F and 45-50° F. None of the nuts stored dry germinated. Time of stratification proved to be important. Any delay after November 28 resulted in reduced and retarded germination and consequently smaller seedlings. Depth of Planting and Seed Orientation The effect of planting depth on germination and on seedling size was investigated by planting black walnuts one, two, three, and four inches deep. Other nuts were planted in three positions: (1) radicle end up, (2) on side, and (3) radicle end down. ~Results~: Germination was unaffected by any of these treatments. The emergence of the seedlings was retarded by deep planting and hence the final diameter of seedlings was smaller. There was little difference in seedlings from nuts planted one and two inches deep but they were noticeably larger than those planted 3 and 4 inches deep. Planting nuts with the radicle end down invariably produced seedlings with undesirable crooks in the root-stem region which made them unsuitable for grafting. Planting nuts radicle end up produced straighter seedlings than planting them on their side. The latter method was the most economical for nursery practice. Seed Size To study the effect of kernel size on size of seedling produced in the nursery, nuts from nine wild trees and Thomas nuts were planted. Kernel weights ranged from 1.21 to 5.61 grams; nut weight from 6.5 grams to 24.3 grams. ~Results~: With one exception where germination was poor, nuts with small kernels produced small seedlings and nuts with large kernels produced large seedlings. Under nursery conditions the need for uniformly large seedlings for budding and grafting is apparent. The results of this study indicated the desirability of using seed nuts with large kernels for production of understocks. Seedbed and Budding Studies Density of stand in seedbeds influences seedling size. As size of seedling is important in budding and grafting black walnut, information on the most desirable spacing in seedbeds was needed. In three seedbeds Thomas nuts were planted in three nut spacings: 4 x 4 inches, 5 x 5 inches, and 6 x 7 inches. In other plots nuts were planted 4 x 4 inches and after emergence the stand was thinned. All seedlings from the thinning test were set out in nursery rows the following spring and those large enough were budded in the summer. ~Results~: Increasing the spacing produced seedlings of larger girth and shorter height--a desirable characteristic in black walnut budding stocks. The most desirable spacing appeared to be 6 x 7 inches. Even though the number of seedlings resulting from this spacing was approximately half the number produced at 4 x 4 inches spacing, more usable seedlings were produced at the wider spacing. Thinning seedlings spaced 4 x 4 inches resulted in larger girth of those remaining--very similar in size to seedlings spaced 5 x 5 inches. Seedlings from the thinned and unthinned plots averaged 0.62 cm. and 0.55 cm. in diameter, respectively. In the nursery row 73 percent of the larger transplanted seedlings were large enough for budding the following summer, while only 59 percent of the smaller seedlings attained proper size. Bud survival was 22 percent on the larger stocks indicating the desirability of using large stocks. My Experiments, Gambles and Failures John Davidson, Xenia, Ohio In reading the past reports of this Association, I find one thing lacking. One becomes interested in a report dated, let us say, 10 or 20 years ago, which contains an account of a project then started. It had great possibilities. What was the outcome? We do not know. No mention of it has appeared since. Did it fail? Let us say it did. Why? The answer to this final query is almost, if not quite, as important as would be an account of the means employed to make it successful--if it succeeded. I should like to know, for example, whether anything remains of the Neilson-Post project in Michigan and what its history has been. I should like to hear more, also, about the outcome of many of Mr. Gerardi's intensely interesting and original experiments, such as his method, described in the 29th Annual Report, of asexual propagation of heartnut trees on their own roots; or his method of artificially creating beautifully marked burls on black walnut logs by systematically and repeatedly scoring the bark. These and many others. Which experiments were successful and which were not? Mr. Gerardi's original and adventurous mind is the sort that should be probed for the benefit of those who come after us. My report today is my own short and tentative contribution to such a resume. In the 1938 Report, on page 73, you will find my ambitious and optimistic "Farm Plan for Nut Tree Planting." In it I tried to outline a plan which could be used by any practical farmer with but slight sacrifice of useful land. Its last sentence reads as follows: "Meantime, I shall have kept practically all my land in profitable use all the time." Well, that depends upon what is interpreted as "profitable use." Tree growth is surely profitable. The plan, in substance, was as follows: First, plant 20 acres in a modified forest formation to selected seed, mostly black walnut, the trees to stand 8 feet apart in rows 22 feet apart. Use the space between the rows first for truck gardening and later for an interplanted row of some fast-growing species for timber. No grazing permitted. Second, plant another 20 acres to a nut orchard using grafted trees of named varieties spaced 80 feet apart. Protect from livestock and permit grazing. Finally, plant seed in another 30 acres, spaced 80 feet apart, the seedlings to be eventually topworked to the wood of promising discoveries from the first plot. Protect and cultivate or graze. What has been the outcome of this plan to date? The proposed plan worked very well in a 20-acre plot where a meadow was planted to an orchard of grafted trees, mostly pecans and Carpathians, which were protected by cattle guards, but was not completed in the seedling 20-acre plantation where the trees stood 8 feet apart in rows 22 feet apart. No grazing was permitted there, but berries and truck crops were put out. I couldn't keep it up. The reason: a World War, and lack of help for the intensive type of farming required for the project. Finally, when I attempted to interplant the rows with fast-growing trees, weeds choked out most of them in spite of my own efforts. My own physical and time limitations defeated me in the interplanting undertaking. This leads up to an enumeration of my mistakes. First, I did not start early enough in life. The elements of health and strength have their part in success. Then, too, let us see what might have been the result if I had started at the age of 20. Remember, in this first tract of 20 acres I planned a forest plantation of selected black walnut seedlings, some chosen for nut quality and some for large, straight timber growth. A tract of 20 acres planted 8 x 8 x 22 feet will hold about 4500 trees. Allow for thinning and other reductions. If only 1250 trees should reach log size in 50 years, that is, by today for me, at an average of $50 each, they would come to $62,500--a very tidy estate. Just now there are perhaps 2500 well grown trees in the good portion of the ground in this 20 acres. Pleasantly enough, they do not now seem to need the interplanting of faster-growing trees in order to develop upright growth but are pushing each other up as they stand, 8 x 8 x 22 feet apart. In this planting, then, there is evidence of successful timber growth in the good ground but of almost complete failure in the poor ground. Another failure is to be noted in my original plan for cattle guards. These guards were 12 feet in diameter, and about 6 feet in height. These were satisfactory for sheep after I had installed pipe for posts, but not for cattle. Trees grow horizontally as well as vertically. Cattle, reaching for these side shoots, reached over the guards and pushed in and under. I later reduced the guards to a 6-foot diameter of stronger woven fence-wire with 6-inch stays, not 12-inch, and raised the height to not less than 10 feet. The cattle may now nibble off the side shoots if they wish but the vertical growth is protected. Above 10 feet the trees can spread out without danger. Others say, "Permit no grazing at all." This statement, I think, should be made with certain qualifications. Where bluegrass bottom is used for the orchard planting of pecans or black walnuts, there is a possible slight reduction in growth from lack of cultivation, but this loss will be nowhere nearly proportionate to a farmer's loss of pasturage. And even in my 8 x 8 x 22-foot planting of seedlings, though no grazing was permitted while the trees were young, now the older trees are large and strong enough in the good soil to take care of themselves. Some lower branches are rubbed off but they should be off anyhow. Also, thank heaven, the weeds are at last kept down by grazing, the grass is utilized and, most important of all, the hazard of grass fires is entirely wiped out. I know of a neighbor's planting destroyed in this way and I shall always fear fire. I should not permit grazing in a general purpose woods lot where young growth is constantly coming on. Failure three: I have failed completely to interest my tenant in my project. Each mowing or clean-up job is just a chore to him. I can't blame him. Why should I expect anything else? With a World War on hand, and with his son in the army, and with two farms to care for, the immediate bread-and-butter jobs come first and my mowing suffers. However, the wonderful trees somehow continue to grow in spite of weeds and wars, perhaps a bit more slowly than they otherwise might, but I am in no hurry. The last war casualty was my original plan to make a further orchard planting of seedlings in loco, ready to be top-worked to the wood of some outstanding find among the selected seedlings. It has not been done--period. I think I do have one or two rather outstanding nuts among the seedlings, but this leads up to another casualty which must be faced by all of us--a temporary one, fortunately, namely, crop failures due to the weather. The larger trees began to bear at age seven. Then, three years ago we had a drouth. For the two years since then, we have had summer in March and winter in May. The catkins were mostly killed and the pistillate bloom was delayed in growth upon the new wood until most of it came too late for even such pollination as was so sparingly available. Thus we have had no generally good nut producing season for three years in our part of Ohio. As a result, my truly outstanding nut is still in hiding, and I am waiting for a good season to bring it out. Another disappointment with me has been the Carpathians. They partially winter-kill each winter. Their trunks still live and send up shoots. I let them stand, hoping for an eventual hardening of the wood. I regard them not as failures but as not yet proven. For purely experimental purposes I planted apple and peach trees close up to the walnuts. Whichever won out was to stay. Both are there yet. There is as yet no sign of the results of toxicity. They stand, literally, arm in arm. One success I feel may safely be chalked up. In selecting seed for my original planting, some were chosen for better nuts, as stated, and some because of the magnificent growth of the parent trees. One such tree gave me seedlings that are definitely superior in growth to other trees which stand in equally good soil--in fact, in adjoining rows. This is noteworthy. As for the seed selected for nut quality, because of the three poor producing seasons now past, the result is not so apparent. I can only say that, out of some score or more sources, the nuts produced upon such seedlings as have fruited tend to resemble the qualities of their parents. They all show some variations. Each nut tree is a new individual but with a family inheritance strongly enough marked to make the planting of seedlings, when done in large quantities, from the best parents, a sort of gamble in which the percentage is in favor of the gambler--which is, as you should know, unusual. One utterly complete failure must be noted. I shall never again plant a black walnut seed or tree in any but good soil. Even the best inheritance cannot prevail against hardpan or worn-out soil. I was unfortunate, when I made my first and largest planting of seed, in not knowing about the Northern Nut Growers Association. So I advertised for local nuts, paying double for the seed I accepted. So far as the seed which was selected because of the timber growth of the parent tree was concerned, I am well satisfied. But nut quality was only fair; far below the quality of our named varieties. Then, through the fine missionary work of Harry Weber, I was introduced to the NNGA. All my replanting since then has been from seed bought from the member's plantations. Next year I expect some of them to come into bearing. Most of you are chiefly interested in grafted or budded trees, and this is as it should be. Where sure results and the best possible nuts are the aim, one would be utterly foolish to plant a seedling. Upon the other hand, where plantings are made in great quantities, as is the case with foresters, state or federal agencies, colleges and other institutions--and with occasional individuals like myself who find their greatest interest in this particular exciting gamble, I think it is fairly well demonstrated that the percentage of success can be turned in favor of the planter by intelligent selection. But where can the best seed be found? The answer is as plain as the nose on your face. The best possible source is in existing plantations of named, proven varieties. As a farmer, I should not use a cross-roads maverick when I can use a registered Jersey, Hereford or Angus. As a planter of black walnuts, or any other nuts, either for timber or wood, I should not pick up my seed haphazardly from cross-roads trees. Every nut produced by planters of orchards of the best named varieties should be in active demand by state and national agencies for their own plantings, and the seedlings from them should be available for the widest distribution to the public. This urgent demand for better seed will make existing plantations of proved varieties more profitable and will fill our forests and farms with far better trees. Nut Trees in Wildlife Conservation By Floyd B. Chapman Ohio Division of Conservation & Natural Resources Attesting to our great faith in the value of the nut trees for wildlife conservation and restoration, the Ohio Division of Conservation and Natural Resources has distributed free of charge, to cooperating landowners: 132,000 American hazelnut, 1000 European and American hazel hybrids, 1000 pecans, 1000 butternut, over one thousand shagbark hickory, 1500 Asiatic chestnut, 2000 black walnut trees, and more than 50 bushels of black walnut nuts for seed spotting. This program has only been in operation since 1942, and I think a great deal has been accomplished in spite of the war and difficulties in growing and shipping of nursery stock. This record would not be so impressive had we not been able to take advantage of a vast amount of surplus stock made available when the U. S. Soil Conservation Service closed out a large nursery in this region. To show how dependent are certain wildlife species on an adequate supply of nut mast, I need only mention one group, the squirrels. Much information concerning the abundance of squirrels in the original forests is on record. It is also well known that nuts of several kinds were always plentiful: native chestnuts, walnuts, butternuts, hazelnuts, hickorynuts, and beechnuts. The supply was so large that an occasional crop failure was unimportant; much of the production from the preceding year was still available. Numerous wild animals, including squirrels, deer, rabbits, raccoons, and others fed on the native chestnut. It was such an important staple in the diet of many animals that its passing is one of the most devastating blows to befall the wildlife of this continent. In order to compensate for the loss of the chestnut, and at the same time restore some of the food and cover destroyed through pasturing of woodlots, and the removal of fencerow cover in clean farming, the Division of Conservation instituted its popular tree and shrub unit planting project four years ago. In this program, units of 100 or 200 pine trees and shrubs for food and cover are distributed free of charge to farmers who will plant them as suggested and protect them from fire, grazing, and cultivation. American hazelnut was extensively used in this project during the first two years. Since then we have been unable to obtain seedling plants in the large quantities that are needed. The Division also has several other wildlife restoration projects in which the nut trees are utilized. These are a farm pond project, a small wildlife refuge program, and a fencerow cover restoration proposition. In the pond development program, a farmer is assisted in impounding a small body of water, from which livestock is fenced, if he will agree to permit hunting on a portion of his farm. The pond margins are seeded to a grass mixture to prevent soil erosion and silting, and several hundred trees and shrubs having value as wildlife food and cover are planted in the area. The land immediately surrounding the pond becomes a wildlife refuge where no hunting is permitted. Many Asiatic chestnuts have been planted on these sites, in addition to American hazelnuts, and considerable seed spotting with black walnuts has been accomplished. In the small refuge plan, areas are selected, developed for wildlife by planting and other management measures, and are then closed to hunting for a period of years. Many hazelnuts, butternuts, some hickorynuts, walnuts and Asiatic chestnuts have been used in this work. Our own field men plant the seedlings or assist the landowner in planting them, then give advice on the culture of the plants. In the third undertaking, which is research to determine the best methods of restoring or developing fencerow food and cover strips; nearly a thousand hazelnut hybrids have been planted. Among these hybrids are: Barcelona x European Globe, avellana x Italian red, Barcelona x purple aveline, Barcelona x Cosford, Barcelona x Italian red, Rush x Kentish Cob, and Barcelona x various other types. The better sorts of hazelnuts have been used in this project to familiarize the farmers with them so that they will have an incentive to grow something valuable in fencerows. We have found that most farmers will not listen to the argument of growing anything in fencerows purely for the benefit of wildlife. By using a more subtle, convincing, and practical approach, we are convinced that success will be attained and that wildlife will be benefitted in the end. In addition to these projects which are of a statewide nature, the Division of Conservation owns some 14,000 acres of game lands on which experimental plantings of nut trees have been made. From plantings of Chinese chestnuts established in 1941, we are now beginning to realize definite returns. On the Zaleski State forest game area, one of these trees, now about 6 feet high, is bearing 21 burs this year. In connection with a squirrel research problem, one of our field men, Robert Butterfield, is carrying on some experiments in fertilizing nut and other trees which should yield some very valuable information. I recently saw a plot of Castanea mollissima which had been treated with a 33-1/2% nitrogen fertilizer. Planted on poor, acid, eroded soils in the hill country, these have barely survived. After treatment, the yellow, stunted foliage changed miraculously to a striking dark green, the leaves grew larger, and the entire plants showed every evidence of healthy growth. It has been suggested that interplanting chestnuts with black locust might have the same beneficial effect and we intend to try it. None of us has ceased to hope that some day the blight which has stricken our native chestnuts can be conquered. We can be assured that whenever a resistant variety of chestnut does originate in the wild, squirrels will find it and give it widespread distribution. In Ohio, squirrels are still proficient in locating the few sprouts that are fruiting, burying the nuts and forgetting them in the woods each year, with the result that we always have a few seedling trees coming on. Last spring, I found several bushels of chestnut burs cached in a sandstone cave in southern Ohio by woodrats. The States which are most interested in the nut trees from the standpoint of wildlife are usually those in which squirrels or wild turkeys are important game species. If those who are growing nut trees commercially would concentrate their efforts in these states which extend from Pennsylvania to Missouri and throughout the south, I think they would be helping themselves and contributing in an important measure to wildlife conservation and recreation. I think many States, and I know this is true of Ohio, would like to introduce some of the better named varieties of walnuts, hazelnuts, filberts, and other nut trees to the landowners of the State through conservation projects which I have described, but the cost is thus far too prohibitive for stock which is distributed by us free of charge. I am personally interested in the fine program of nut tree research which is being initiated in Ohio and elsewhere. The hill culture experiments are especially interesting and valuable. However, I believe every grower should give increasing attention to the possibilities of nut trees in conservation, to the end that better and more prolific varieties can be made available for this purpose. States which can use good nut tree stock in their conservation work should be solicited, their interest aroused in plantings for the dual purpose of home use and wildlife, and a few select varieties sold or given to them each year for experimental use. Some growers are already generous in releasing a few new and promising nut tree varieties for trial growing in various sections of the country. Most Conservation departments are financed on an annual basis with funds from hunting and fishing licenses. This prevents our knowing from year to year exactly what our requirements are going to be in the line of planting material. Such stock cannot be contracted for even one year prior to purchase. We have no Division-owned nursery for propagating game food and cover plants, and nearly all hardwood stocks are purchased from commercial nurseries. Most states prefer to purchase nursery stock that is grown locally, and if nut growers could succeed in lining up their own state conservation departments, I am sure that they could expand their production to furnish the stock needed, both at a profit to themselves and at a price we could afford to pay. Commercial Aspects of Nut Crops As Far North As St. Paul, Minnesota By Carl Weschcke, St. Paul, Minnesota For the benefit of those new members who are not familiar with my nut tree plantation at River Falls, Wisconsin, I wish to explain its geographical conditions. Situated in the 45th parallel, longitude 92-1/2°, about 860 feet above sea level, this is a very severe climate for growing most species of nut trees. Fortunately, I did not realize that fact 30 years ago, and I learned a great deal about the hardiness of many species and varieties and the difficulties of growing them before I was convinced of it. My optimism in those years so ruled me that I was influenced by it to try out such tender species as almonds, English walnuts, filberts, pecans and chestnuts, along with hardier types such as butternuts, black walnuts, hicans, hickories and hazels. To give you a rough idea of the testing I did, I will mention some of my work among hickories. I was fortunate enough to have a forest of bitternut trees on my land. It is a well-known fact that, at least temporarily, these bitternut hickories lend themselves well as grafting stock for many superior varieties of hickories, hicans and pecans, although the last species seldom is considered permanently compatible with bitternut. The number of varieties I tested on bitternut stock is roughly about 75. During the years since I started such grafting, most of these have been lost by natural elimination, lack of hardiness or incompatibility. Those varieties which on my place have proved hardy and compatible with bitternut stock for at least ten years are: Bridgewater, Cedar Rapids, DeVeaux, Glover, Kirtland, and Weschcke. Those which have endured well on this stock for from 6 to 15 years are: Barnes, Davis, Fox, Leonard, Milford, Netking, Platman, and Taylor. Among hybrids which have stood for 10 years or more, there are: Beaver, Burlington, Laney, Pleas, and Rockville. Of pecan, there are Hope and Norton. There are a few other survivors of whose identity I am not certain, as they have not yet fruited. This does not mean that all of those listed have borne, but only that the identity of some of the survivors can not be established without such verification. Preeminent among the hickories which have produced nuts, stands the Weschcke variety, which has borne the greatest quantity with the most regularity. This variety, grafted on bitternut in 1932, produced one nut that year. Its bearing record has been unbroken from then to 1946, when, on May 11, the temperature dropped to 26°F and on May 12, a similar, low temperature was accompanied by four inches of snowfall. Pictures I have on display verify these statements. The frost at that time destroyed the whole crop in a nearby 30-acre orchard of apples, pears, plums, and nuts. Although the first growth of Weschcke was totally destroyed along with the crop, the second growth contained a fair distribution of pistillate flowers which probably would have produced nuts, had they been pollinated. The Weschcke produces no pollen, being one of those curious freaks of nature which aborts its staminate flowers before they reach maturity. Other hickory hybrids and shagbarks which have borne satisfactory crops on my farm, with fair regularity, are the Beaver, Fairbanks, Bridgewater, Cedar Rapids, Kirtland, Siers and Laney, in the order of their worth. The remaining varieties that I mentioned have not yet fruited, although I hope they will do so. The facts I have given are my reasons for recommending the Weschcke hickory as a tree suitable for commercial use in the north. I realize, of course, that farther south, where hardiness is not so essential a quality, other trees may be just as satisfactory. I might also mention that the size and cracking qualities of the Weschcke variety are also commendable. The quality of the kernel, which is practically 50% of the total weight of the nut, is praised by all who have tasted it. It is with great regret that I admit that I have no black walnut varieties which I can recommend for commercial use this far north. However, I would place Ohio ahead of Thomas, because of its greater hardiness. The ease of hulling, the size and appearance of Thomas, plus its productivity, would certainly place it first were it not for the frequent winter-killing it suffers, to which Ohio, of course, is not completely invulnerable. Other varieties which have been fairly satisfactory but which are not as well-known, include Patterson and Rohwer. The fact remains, however, that not one black walnut I have tested has produced a regular and satisfactory crop, although they have been more productive than native butternuts. At present, I would rule out both species as apparently having no commercial value in the northern climate where my plantation lies, although they may be satisfactory for home orchards. Before leaving the hickories, I do want to mention that I feel there is a good chance for growing pecans in this climate. I have seedling trees, now more than 20 years old, which are in bearing but do not mature their fruit. It is possible that some of these may become acclimated to an extent that their cycle of dormancy will reduce itself, bringing their period of flowering early enough in the spring to allow sufficient time and heat units for maturing the nuts. Early in my experimental work, I tested chestnuts and chinkapins but met with poor results. Only in the last few years have experiments with them been successful enough to warrant their being mentioned as commercial possibilities in the north. At present, I have several Chinese and two American varieties, as well as one chinkapin, which have proved hardy and fruitful. Further testing is necessary before I can report anything definite about them. I have grafted on native plum stock most of the almonds which have been considered hardy, including the hard-shelled varieties from Michigan and the Northland from the Pacific Coast. Some have flowered but none have set nuts. All proved too tender for our climate. I feel more hopeful for success with some of the many seedling hybrid plums I am growing. A number of these have edible kernels and the trees could be considered for their fruit as well as for the kernels of their seeds. Among other species of walnut I have tested is the heartnut, which is a sport of the Japanese walnut. This is a worthy nut and has done well when grafted on black walnut stock. Only two varieties have proved hardy and only one of these, Gellatly, has produced good crops for a long time. Were it not for the insect pests which attack it and, worse still, the sapsucker, this tree might be considered for semi-commercial use in the north. The sapsucker is a woodpecker. It chips out bark right down to the wood, girdling large limbs and killing whole sections of a tree. This results in an excessive amount of succulent, tender growth which is subsequently winter-killed. Insects attack the new shoots, laying their eggs in the bud and stem portions, causing immature growth which stunts the tree and prevents its bearing. I have also found the heartnut difficult to graft, even on black walnut, which is a favorable combination. I began testing Persian walnuts 30 years ago by grafting them on wild butternut stock. Although many grafts were successful, not one even lived through a winter. It was not until 1937, when I grafted hundreds of trees with thousands of grafts of the many varieties of Crath importations from the Carpathian Mountains, that I succeeded in getting any to survive our winters. A few eventually bore nuts, but the severity of our winters and the inroads of new insects during the war years finally proved fatal to them. I made strenuous attempts to save the varieties by regrafting, but I was wholly unsuccessful. Right now, I am not at all hopeful that Persian walnuts of any kind can ever survive very long this far north. We now come to the last group of species mentioned at the beginning of this report, namely, filberts and their hybrids. In my opinion, these have potentialities of commercial value in the north. Even the frosts of May 11th and 12th this year (1946) did not wipe out the crops which had been set. With proper pollinization, I am certain that their production will become as reliable as the corn crop in this part of the country. At the banquet, I shall give each of you a sample of a new product made from these nuts. The combination of qualities of the cultivated filbert from Europe and our wild Wisconsin filbert results in an extremely hardy plant, with characteristics sometimes like the former, sometimes like the latter. Many times, the hybrid combines the best of each. I am testing these for field culture, to be cared for much as corn is. I expect to have three experimental farms before very long, demonstrating the success of commercial orchards of these hybrids which I call "hazilberts." "Hazilberts" is a word I coined by borrowing from the names of its parents. It has been readily accepted by the lay public and is easily understood to refer to hybrids between hazels and filberts. Furthermore, I was able to obtain a U. S. trademark on this for application to these plants. Hazilberts are all subject to the native hazel blight, ~Cryptosporella anomala~, a fungus infection. They are also susceptible to another blight similar to the bacteriosis of the Persian walnut. More serious than these, though, is the damage caused by a curculio, which cuts down heavily the production of nuts if measures are not taken to combat them. Breeding has demonstrated that some hybrids are so resistant to the inroads of this pest that they may almost be considered immune, especially when they are interplanted with other hazilberts which do attract curculios and so act as trap-plants. In this way, the insects are encouraged to concentrate in one place where they may be poisoned, thus protecting the main-crop plants. Since pollinators are required for filberts anyhow, the pollinators may be the trap-plants. This is actually the case in the initial plantings. Clean cultivation will also do away with many of the curculios, since they depend on unbroken soil in the fall for their metamorphosis. The presence of blight makes it unwise to depend on a single-trunked tree and I find that great productivity can be maintained when the plant is allowed to grow in stools having from three to five trunks. The management of such plants is like that of raspberry bushes, except that instead of thousands of plants per acre to be cared for, with hazilberts there are only 145, 15 x 20 feet apart. Judging by the number of nuts on small plants, one may reasonably expect crops to average one-half ton of nuts per acre. The hybrids I have grown so far have been self-husking. The size of their nuts is good, some measuring an inch in diameter. For commercial purposes, however, the large size is not particularly desirable nor necessary. In conclusion, I want to say that there is a very promising situation developing for these nuts commercially. Not only are these hazel-filbert hybrids easily planted, but they are easy to propagate, since they are one of very few species of nut trees which are easily propagated by layers and root sprouts. Out of more than 600 hazilberts which I planted in the fall of 1945, only about a dozen were dead in June of 1946, which gives you a practical idea of the ease and safety of transplanting them. The 1946 Status of Chinese Chestnut Growing In the Eastern United States By Clarence A. Reed U. S. Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland Introduction The Chinese chestnut, Castanea mollissima, now dominates interest among well-informed chestnut planters of the eastern United States almost to the exclusion of other species. Since its introduction in 1906, it has had but one important competitor, the Japanese chestnut, C. crenata. Among the world's most important producers of tree chestnuts, only these two species are effectively resistant to blight. However, the Japanese chestnut lacks the palatability to which Americans are accustomed and for all practical purposes it has been rejected in this country. Many small plantings still survive; but this species serves better for shade and ornamentation than for food production. Description of the Chinese Chestnut The nut of this species is usually of good size, roundish in form, not pointed at the apex, and with the basal scar smaller than the lower end of the nut. A certain amount of gray down is on the surface. This down may be confined to a small area about the apex or it may cover much of the upper end of the nut, and it may be thick, thin, or scant. The nut may have good cleaning quality, meaning that the kernel and its pellicle are easily separated. Cleaning quality may be good from the time the nut falls from the tree or it may become so only after curing for a time. Once it develops it may remain good as long as the kernel is usable or it may last for a short while only. In texture and in palatability, the kernel of the Chinese chestnut is not excelled by any other true chestnut. Individual nuts are sometimes sweet from the first but the great majority become so only after being cured for a week or 10 days. Very few nuts of the pure species fail to be sweet when fully cured. In the open the Chinese chestnut tree attains much the same size and general proportions as does the apple but it may become somewhat larger, more upright and considerably taller. Young seedlings vary greatly in form and are often ungainly and unsymmetrical; but others are all that could be desired with respect to symmetry. Early lack of symmetry tends to become less objectionable as the tree grows older and is seldom conspicuous after the first decade or so. In fruitfulness, many of the seedling trees of bearing age are definitely disappointing. Also in many cases the nuts are small. To judge the species by the past fruiting performance of a majority of its representatives in this country would leave little justification for commercial hope. However, there are a good many individual trees about the country whose performance record is excellent and a large number of these are under careful observation as potential varieties. The species has gained rapidly in popularity since the middle 'thirties when enough good-performing trees began bearing for a fair appraisal of the species to be possible. It was also at about that time that trees for planting began to be available from the nurseries. Before then trees could only be had in limited numbers from the Department of Agriculture. Today, they are listed in nursery catalogues of one or more firms in each of a half dozen or more states. The total number of trees yet planted is comparatively small and both nurserymen and planters up to this time have proceeded cautiously because of the newness of the industry and its uncertainties. Environmental Requirements The Chinese chestnut requires much the same conditions of climate soil, and soil moisture as does the peach, but there are indications that it will succeed somewhat farther both north and south. As with the peach air drainage must be good and frost pockets must be avoided, for while at the latitude of the District of Columbia, the flowering period is from late May until toward the end of June, growth begins early and may be badly damaged in April. This is especially true during such seasons as those of 1945 and 1946 in the middle Atlantic States when summer temperatures prevailed during a great part of March, and new shoot growth up to two inches had developed when sub-freezing temperatures killed all new growth and so injured the buds that at Beltsville, Maryland, and general vicinity there were no crops in either year. In some cases young trees were killed out-right as were occasional older trees that had become devitalized in some way. Young trees are so sensitive to lack of soil moisture that sometimes whole plantings are killed by drought. Spring growth is rapid as long as the soil is moist but root development is shallow during the first few years and, unless watered, trees are likely to fare badly in case of prolonged drought. Another serious type of injury, especially to newly planted trees, is sunscald on the exposed sides of the trunks. Probably the best means of prevention is to head the trees low enough to provide for shading by the tops. It is said[1] that at the altitude of 2200 feet in West Virginia, snow and ice frequently cause much injury to young trees. It is a notable characteristic of the species for young trees to retain their leaves during much of the winter. Unless these are removed soon after turning brown, they are apt to become heavily weighted with wet snow and to cause severe breakage. Hail and spring freezes also cause much damage in that locality. The last, however, is not peculiar to high altitude alone as frost injury is frequent at much lower elevations. It was generally in evidence in central Maryland during the springs of 1945 and 1946 as has already been mentioned. This type of injury is easily overlooked, but the cambium will be found dark if a cut is made through the outer bark. Recovery usually takes place rapidly if the injured trees are left undisturbed, but healing will be slow if they are dug up for transplanting or the tops are severely cut back in preparation of the stock for grafting. [Footnote 1: Verbal statement by Mr. Authur Gold, of Cowen, W. Va., made during April, 1946.] Bearing Ages Young trees may bear a few nuts three or four years after being transplanted, but it usually takes from 10 to 12 years for tops to become large enough to produce profitable crops. While there are occasional trees that become profitable at these ages, there are many that do not. The only significant record of yields yet made public is one reported by Hemming.[2] His statement shows that 18 seedling trees planted in 1930 bore an average of 29.5 pound (green weight) during six of the eight years from 1937 to 1944, inclusive, when crops were large enough to be separately recorded for each tree. The range in total production per tree for the six years was from 106 to 277 pounds. At an arbitrary price of 25 cents a pound, the average gross return per tree would have been $7.39 for each of the six crops. The 1944 crop was a practical failure. That of 1946, amounted to about 1000 pounds, or an average of about 55 pounds per tree. [Footnote 2: E. Sam Hemming, Easton, Md., "Chinese Chestnuts in Maryland," Ann. Rep't., Nor. Nut Growers Association, Incorporated, vol. 35, pp. 32-34. 1944.] The Seedling Tree The original planting stock of the Chinese chestnut as grown in the United States consisted wholly of seed nuts imported direct from the Orient. It was therefore, inevitable that a period of seedling development should follow. The great majority of the earliest trees grown proved unfit for use as potential varieties, although with some exceptions, they produced nuts that were sweet and palatable. Since the middle 'thirties, superior strains have been introduced, cultural and environmental requirements have become better understood, and the outlook for commercial orchards is much improved. To a great extent the seedling has served as well as would a grafted tree for the pioneer experimental work that had to be done. It has been far better than no tree at all and even now it has its advantages. With it there is no expense for grafting, no problems of congeniality between stock and scion and those of cross pollination are held at a minimum. Moreover, it must not be forgotten that it is only from seedling trees that superior varieties are possible. In 1946, the year in which this paper is being written, very few grafted trees are available from any source. The Grafted Tree The first varietal selections were made in 1930. Quite unavoidably they were chosen solely by what could be judged from the nuts with no knowledge of the bearing habits of the parent trees. These were first grafted in 1932 and first catalogued in 1935. Already by 1946, some had been supplanted by others of greater promise. Few grafted trees have been brought into bearing and with minor exceptions, it has not been possible to obtain bearing records. It is, however, mainly with the grafted tree that the future of the industry is expected to be built up. Individual Varieties--Abundance This variety was first catalogued in 1941 by Carroll D. Bush, then a nurseryman at Eagle Creek, Oregon. Of the very few trees of this variety sold by him, one went to Mr. Fayette Etter, Lemasters, Penna., with whom it early became a favorite among 7 or 8 he had under test. During 1945, he sent a quantity of Abundance chestnuts to Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Penna., who in turn forwarded 12 specimens to the Plant Industry Station. These arrived October 11 and were immediately placed in a refrigerator. On October 22, they averaged 50 to the pound and ranged from 38 to 76. The appearance was very attractive as the color was a rich brown and there was very little down over the surface. The cleaning quality was also very good and the flavor excellent. The Abundance has attracted considerable attention and, while it does not appear to be listed in any nursery catalogue, a number of leading growers are using it in top working seedling trees and it may soon be available through regular nursery channels. Carr The Carr chestnut originated as one of two seedlings sent by the Department of Agriculture in 1915 to the late R. D. Carr, Magnolia, N. C. Sixty-two nuts from Mr. Carr were received by the Department in 1930. These were not especially attractive as the surface was thickly coated with gray down. The lot averaged 58 per pound and the nuts were considered large. Cleaning quality was very good and the flavor was sweet and pleasing. The variety was immediately named in honor of Mr. Carr although propagation did not begin until 1932. It is believed to have been the first variety of the species ever grafted in this country. The work was performed by H. F. Stoke, Roanoke, Va. Later the Carr became available for several years from a number of nurseries. It was a strong grower but often failed to make good unions with its stock and is not now in general favor. Hobson This also originated as one of two seedling trees sent to a private grower by the Department. He was Mr. James Hobson, Jasper, Ga., in whose honor it was named in 1930. It was later taken up by commercial nurserymen and widely distributed for several years. It has much in its favor as it is easy to graft, precocious, prolific, annual in bearing, and the nuts are very sweet. Also, the cleaning quality is very good, but the nuts are too small to meet market requirements of this country to best advantage. Furthermore, being small, they are expensive and time consuming of labor at time of harvest. The average per pound for a lot of 110 nuts received in 1930 was 78. Others received during later years were even smaller. The variety rapidly lost favor with most nurserymen and its propagation was largely if not entirely discontinued. However, for home use, it is much to good to be abandoned at this time. Reliable Reliable was an introduction of H. F. Stoke, Roanoke, Va., by whom it was propagated for a short time only, beginning in 1938. It is not known to have been catalogued by any other nurseryman. Ten fresh nuts in 1939 averaged at the rate of 79 to the pound. Six days later, after further curing had taken place, the number became 101 to the pound. Aside from having a good bearing record, there appears to be little reason for continuing this variety. Stoke This variety appears to be the result of a natural Chinese-Japanese cross. The original tree was grown by H. F. Stoke, Roanoke, Va., whose attention was attracted to it because of its habit of maturing early. He reports that in southwestern Virginia, burs often begin opening during the third week of August. In appearance, the nuts greatly resemble pure Japanese. The parent tree bears well but the nuts are lacking in good quality. Insofar as known propagation has been discontinued. Yankee (Syn. Connecticut Yankee) The Yankee originated as a chance seedling on property of E. E. Hunt, Riverside, Conn. It was first propagated by Dr. J. Russell Smith, Swarthmore, Penna., in northern Virginia by whom it was first catalogued in 1935. The writer has seen no specimens but according to Dr. Smith, the size and other features are very good. The parent tree is said to bear well and to be hardy where it is located, which is not far from Long Island Sound in the extreme southwestern corner of Connecticut. Zimmerman This originated as a 1930 selection made by the late Dr. G. A. Zimmerman, Linglestown, Penna. Very few sound nuts of Zimmerman have ever been produced, for soon after the first crop the identity of the tree became lost and eventually it was destroyed together with others in an overgrown nursery row where it stood. In one known case where there are grafted trees of bearing age, the nuts are regularly destroyed by weevils. Such nuts as have been seen by the writer have been of a dull brown color and have had surface down only about the apex. The Zimmerman was first catalogued in 1938-39 by Dr. Smith. It is probable that as many trees of this variety have been sold and planted as of any one variety but performance records are difficult to obtain. Potential Varieties Other varietal selection are being made, mainly by the Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering from trees at its various field stations. Some of these are already under test as grafted stock in various parts of the country. The most promising will be released to commercial nurserymen as soon as their superiority over existing varieties is established. Pollination There is much evidence that chestnut pollen is largely carried by insects although this has not been fully established. The Chinese chestnut is largely, although apparently not wholly, self sterile; more than a single seedling or grafted variety should be included in any planting. Several seedlings or several varieties would be better. In seedling plantings, all trees that produce inferior nuts should be removed in order to avoid danger of undesirable pollen influence, either on nut characters, or on the genetic makeup of the embryos if the nuts are to be used as seed. Harvesting and Curing Chestnuts should be harvested daily as soon as some begin to ripen and drop to the ground. They should be placed at once on shelves or in curing containers with wooden or metal bottoms through which the larvae of any weevils with which the nuts may be infested cannot penetrate and reach the ground. In areas of infestation, these grubs soon begin to bore their way out of the nuts and leave conspicuous holes in the shells. All infested nuts should be promptly burned. In order to cure chestnuts to best advantage, they should be spread thinly on floors, or on shelves, or in shallow containers as just described, and held in a well-ventilated room. They should be stirred frequently and held for from 5 to 10 days depending both upon the condition of the nuts and the atmospheric conditions at the time of harvest: During the period of curing, the nuts will shrink rapidly in weight and the color will change materially. Both luster and brightness will largely disappear and, although still attractive, the nuts will quickly become dull brown. Three weeks is about as long as Chinese chestnuts usually remain edible without special treatment. Chestnuts should be marketed as promptly as possible both to minimize deterioration and to take advantage of good prices which are usually highest early in the season. Storing Chestnuts in sound condition when stored may be kept fit for eating or planting for several months by any one of several methods. When available, cold storage with temperatures somewhat above freezing is the simplest and generally the most satisfactory method. Stratifying method. Stratifying in a wire-mesh container buried deeply in moist but well-drained sand is very satisfactory and successful. Another method is to hold the nuts in a tightly closed tin container either in a refrigerator or in cold storage at 32° F. Burying under a porch or in the shade of a house or even in a bin of grain, preferably wheat or rye, is also a good method. Regardless, however, of temperature or other conditions, germination is likely to begin in early March and nuts intended for planting should be hastened into the ground as promptly as possible after that time. Insect Pests The two chestnut weevils are the principal insects attacking the nuts. These are exceedingly well-known in certain large areas where the chestnut is grown and in these areas both are often extremely abundant. Unless checked in some way they often render whole crops unfit for use. One of most effective means of control is to plant trees only in well populated poultry yards; however, in large developments, this is impracticable and other methods must be employed. In preliminary work carried on by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine at Beltsville, DDT has given very encouraging results in the control of the weevil. The weevils have sometimes been called curculios, under which name they were well discussed by Brooks and Cotton.[3] The Japanese Beetle is also a serious pest as chestnut leaves are among its favorite foods. Control methods have been given by Hadley.[4] Another insect pest which feeds on the leaves is the June bug or May beetle. It works mainly at night and feeds on the newest leaves. It is seldom seen and usually disappears about the time when the operator becomes aware of its presence. [Footnote 3: Fred B. Brooks and Richard T. Cotton, "Chestnut Curculios." U. S. Dept. Agr. Tech. Bul. 180. 1929.] [Footnote 4: C. H. Hadley, "The Japanese Beetle and its Control." U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1856. 1940.] Diseases Blight is the disease attacking the chestnut tree with which the public is most familiar. The Chinese chestnut is strongly resistant although not immune as few old trees entirely escape attack in areas where blight is prevalent. In most cases healthy vigorous trees of this species overcome the disease within a few years after being attacked. The ones that die are usually those that have been devitalized in some way. The nuts are subject to attack by any of several diseases either before or after the harvest. A preliminary report on these has been made by Gravatt and Fowler.[5] [Footnote 5: G. F. Gravatt and Marvin Fowler. Nor. Nut Growers Ass'n. Proc. 31: 110-113. 1940.] Present Extent of Planting With few exceptions the known plantings consist of small numbers of trees about residences. Occasionally there are one or two hundred trees in orchard arrangement. Production is not large and in most cases all sound nuts are either consumed locally or used by nurserymen and others for planting. The quantity that has reached the wholesale market is known to be small although a beginning in that field has been made. Future Outlook Extensive expansion has not appeared possible in the near future until the 1946 crop was harvested. This was unexpectedly large and a number of tons are known either to have been planted immediately or set aside for planting in the spring of 1947. It is conceivable that annual production of nuts available for seed purposes will increase rapidly. In this case, the extent of planting within the next few years will be entirely a matter of guesswork. Extensive planting in the early future cannot be considered economically safe for in addition to the usual number of problems that must be solved in establishing any new horticultural enterprise, chestnut growers must expect keen competition with imports from both Europe and Asia. At the outbreak of World War II, an average of more than 16 million pounds of chestnuts were yearly being imported into this country.[6] These imports will doubtless again appear with the return of normal international relations. [Footnote 6: Computed from Table 541, p. 413, Agricultural Statistics 1938. U. S. Dept. Agr. 19] Furthermore almost an exact half-century ago, the chestnut outlook was regarded as being so bright that it could hardly go wrong. During the middle and late 'nineties extensive chestnut developments were established in certain eastern districts mainly by use of Paragon and other varieties of European parentage. Thousands of small plantings were developed about home grounds and occasionally there were large orchards. The greatest developments were conducted by top working suckers that sprung up from stumps of native chestnut trees on cutover mountain land. Hundreds of acres were handled in this manner. Without exception, all ended in financial disaster. Summary The nut of the Chinese chestnut is an excellent product. It is unexcelled in sweetness and general palatability by any other known chestnut. The tree bears well and is about equally as hardy as the peach. It appears to require much the same conditions of cultural environment as does that fruit. It is practically the only species of chestnut now being planted by informed growers in the eastern part of the United States. It is thus far grown in this country almost entirely as seedling trees. Variation is about what was to be expected, with the majority of bearing trees proving to be poor producers and, in most cases, with nuts too small to sell well. Varietal selections of much promise are being made; the first appeared in 1930 and were first catalogued in 1935. Some of the earliest have already been dropped as their defects came to be known, and others of greater apparent promise have originated. The process of selection is constantly going on and further introductions should shortly appear. By taking certain simple steps chestnuts in sound condition may be kept in usable condition for many weeks. The Chinese chestnut is subject to attack by certain serious natural enemies. These include both insects and diseases and the tree as well as the nuts are affected. However, all that are now known appear controllable. Past planting has been largely limited to small numbers of trees mainly about residence grounds. The total number of trees available for planting has never been large, due chiefly to the scarcity of seed nuts needed for nursery use. Production, however, rose sharply with the harvest of the 1946 crop which was unexpectedly large. Annual production may continue to increase since the number of trees of bearing age is likely to become appreciably greater each year. Nursery planting is likely to be proportionately greater. The extent of future planting will doubtless be correspondingly influenced. Present enthusiasm over the Chinese chestnut is very great and it is possible extensive planting may soon take place. It is believed, however, that this would be unwise from an economic point of view. There are many uncertainties in connection with the industry in its present state of development, and, not improbably there will be keen competition in the market with imported chestnuts from both Europe and Asia as soon as international relations become normal. Bearing Record of the Hemming Chinese Chestnut Orchard By E. Sam Hemming, Easton, Maryland Our Chinese chestnut trees have aroused such interest that we are sure the readers of the Proceedings will wish to hear of the large crop harvested in 1946. A year ago an unseasonal spring brought a frost that killed back the six inches of soft new growth. As a result, the 1945 crop amounted to less than 250 pounds. This year the 18 trees produced 1138 pounds, 938 by actual weighing and 200 estimated. This is an average of 63 pounds per tree, with the largest crop of 124 pounds on No. 19, and the smallest on No. 14 of 22 pounds. These trees are now 18 years old and were unfortunately planted too close. But using a spacing of 30 feet � 30 feet, they would have borne 3000 pounds per acre and if planted 40 feet � 40 feet would have borne 1600 pounds per acre. Figure this crop at 25¢ a pound and you would get a really high return. This year the price was much better than that, but we planted the crop. The tree record was as follows: Number 1--38; Number 2--25; Number 3--30; Number 4--52; Number 5--44; Number 6--30; Number 7--42; Number 8--40; Number 9--45; Number 10--58; Number 11--56; Number 12--48; Number 13--58; Number 14--22; Number 15--50; Number 16--80; Number 18--86; Number 19--124; Total of 938 + 200 (estimated) = 1138. It is also worthy of note, that No. 19 is spaced 30 feet from No. 18 and No. 16 is the same distance from No. 18, while all the other trees are spaced 16 feet apart. An acre of trees like No's. 16, 18 and 19, spaced 30 feet apart, would average 96 pounds per tree or 4200 pounds per acre, a really tremendous crop. We had one disappointment this year, in that our method of controlling the weevil was not completely effective. To our chagrin we found that, while we were diligently picking the nuts up each day, some of the larvae were escaping through the cotton bags to reinfest the ground. Next year, we will use metal containers and we are sure that will stop them. We will fumigate if necessary. We do not particularly fear the weevil as we are sure that spraying, and fumigation will clean them up; after that proper harvesting should control them. We have heard that the U. S. D. A. has found the use of DDT to be effective. In another county a raiser of hybrid corn seed dusted his corn with DDT by plane, to kill the Japanese beetle, for $3.00 per acre. Surely that method would be adaptable to chestnut orchards to control the weevil. At the present time we are using our entire crop for seed purposes and this year we sowed 40 to 50 thousand nuts. We carefully grade the seed, not only discarding any infested nuts, but all moldy, split or undersized nuts, so that we get trees grown only from the choicest. By doing this we feel that although the trees are seedling raised, they come from parent trees that are bearing well, and from which all extraneous pollen is excluded so that the customer has a good chance of getting a tree that will bear well. The seed is sown in the fall, because it keeps better that way and germinates better too, although we have some trouble from a mole-mice combination. The seeds are sown in shallow trenches 6 inches apart and 2 inches deep and back--filled either with sawdust or light soil. On top is mounded a further 4 to 6 inches of soil which is removed in the spring. This reduces damage from freezing and thawing. We do not doubt for a moment that the Chinese chestnut is here to stay as an important food crop for the United States. Walnut Notes G. H. Corsan, Islington, Ontario I find the Ohio, Ten Eyck, Stabler, Allen and Wiard black walnuts inferior and unsuitable. The Stabler has only a small crop every five years. Very excellent varieties, I find, come from Thomas seedlings. The black walnut makes an excellent stock for the Persian walnut in low and slightly damp ground. I bud the Persian on the black during August. The Japanese heartnut and the butternut x heartnut hybrid can be grafted on black walnut. The Persian walnut when grafted on the black decidedly outgrows the latter. The reverse is the case when Japanese heartnut, Japanese butternut, or hybrids of either are grafted on the black. So far I have not found one good butternut worthy of naming, but there is one Japanese butternut that grows in clusters of 17 or even more that has a very thin shell; it is the Helmick. I have, however, very many named as well as unnamed black walnut seedlings that are very excellent nuts. This has been a very cold summer and I cannot state yet as to the maturing of the larger black walnuts, as they require a long season to mature properly. Pecan and hican trees grow well at Echo Valley and the small twigs harden up so that there is never any winter killing but the nuts do not fill well; in consequence I am using the trees as stocks for grafting with good shagbarks. The Weiker hickory ripens nicely with me and I consider it one of the best varieties in every way. Self-fruitfulness in the Winkler Hazel By Dr. A. S. Colby University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois To insure fruitfulness in nut plants it is generally recommended that more than one variety of each kind be planted in reasonably close proximity to help in bringing about cross-pollination. Then, with other conditions being favorable, the grower would be more certain of good yields of well-filled nuts. With specific reference to the filbert, the literature contains references to the effect that provision for cross-pollination is essential. However, one exception is listed. In the report of the proceedings of the 26th (1935) annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers' Association, D. C. Snyder of Iowa says on page 47, "The catkins of Winkler always come through the winter bright and the variety can be depended upon to bear without other varieties near for cross-pollination." The writer has been interested in this subject for several years. The question arises; how near were Mr. Snyder's Winklers to other varieties and in what direction with reference to the prevailing winds? It is not known just how far filbert pollen may be carried and still function. A planting of Winkler filberts consisting of about 30 bushes was set on the University Farm at Urbana in 1940. Crops have been borne annually since that time. The planting was isolated from other filberts to the southwest by about one-fourth of a mile. In an effort to determine whether the variety was self-fruitful, plants were dug in the early winter of 1943 after the rest period was over and reset in the greenhouse. The plants leaved out in January, 1944, and both male and female flowers appeared soon after. The pollen was applied to the pistils both by shaking the branches and by means of a camels hair brush. Nearly all the blossoms set and the nuts carried through to maturity. The experiment was repeated in 1944-45 with the same results. It is therefore concluded that the Winkler filbert is self-fruitful and may safely be planted alone where climatic conditions are favorable for filbert production. Hickories and Other Nuts in Northwestern Illinois By A. B. Anthony, Sterling, Illinois I have something like 25 grafted hickories of my No. 1 (Anthony) variety. The largest tree now has a trunk of 5-1/2 inches in diameter; has 20 nuts on it this year; and while it has had but few nuts each year, has missed bearing but one season in the past seven years. Other No. 1 trees run from 3-1/2 inches, in diameter down to about 1 inch. One 3-1/2 inch tree is offering its second bearing with five nuts this season. All these trees were grafted in cutover woodland tracts and moved here except the largest one which was moved in 1930 and grafted in 1933, 30 inches high and never trimmed for a higher head. Heavy annual catkin bloomer, few pistillates so far. Of my No. 2 variety, one tree transplanted in 1927 now has something like 25 nuts on it. The No. 3 hickories, five of them, have never borne either pistillate or staminate blooms. No. 4 is a hican from the parent tree of which I have had but three good nuts. The weevil moth works so well in dense woods that rarely are the nuts good there. The nuts are attractive and should not discolor like the lighter hickories, should their opening husks get rained upon when maturing. Men of the future must decide on the merits of these trees. Of the two Hagen trees grafted in 1931, one now has its first nuts, eight in number. I have been told that some one will cut these trees down some day. One of our county or state officials said a short time back that "if hog troubles keep coming on as of late, in 50 years we will not be able to raise hogs." With corn being the main hog food and the corn borer coming, this may come to be quite true, and then perhaps more men will get new vision as to where their meat is coming from. The past three years have offered almost no hickories at all. Hickories do not like shade, but they have to grow where the squirrels have planted them. Carrying a nut 100 yards to bury it would doubtless be about a squirrel's limit. I have noticed in timber of sizeable growth a north slope showed no young hickories, while a south slope showed a scattering few. Oak trees in this section predominate when it comes to groves of one species. Cottonwood trees come up here and there, probably because their seed is wind-carried. Willow sticks get carried down stream and get lodged, and grow. I have known a few young oaks to come up on my place all of a mile and a half of such woods. How come? It is probably the combination of the blue jay and squirrel, this time. No trouble for the blue jay to travel some distance and put his acorn in a bark crevice of cottonwood or willow tree. Along comes a wandering squirrel, finds the acorn, and if not hungry enough puts in the ground where it has a chance to grow. I have seen blue jays start off with chestnuts and the nearest trees they could reach were willows one-fourth mile or further away. For some reason there seems to be a tendency for the hickories to bear in seasons when the black walnut does not and the walnut to bear when the hickory fails. Last year, except for filling, walnuts did reasonably well and this year, at least with my Rohwer variety, the yield is still better except that the nuts are unusually small, doubtless because all of July and up to the 9th of August it was very dry. Throughout my years there have always been walnut trees on the place, first started by a pioneer land owner, then squirrels took it up, so I have a choice of stocks I did not have in hickories. Two of my Rohwer trees have trunks 12 inches in diameter; one is 11 inches and the other 14 inches in diameter. For years these trees, grafted in 1931, have been very profuse with catkins, but with few nuts. I have heard other complaints of it not bearing. My complaint with all walnuts grown in Northwest Illinois is that so many kernels turn out black and immature. I am inclined to blame it, in part, to the walnut shuck, which takes in so much moisture. The hickory shuck is much dryer and never has so many immature kernels. Late summer is generally the dryer part of our growing season, which can well be the cause. In the year 1940, we had an excess of moisture in that it rained day after day all through August, and that is the only season I can say we had good walnuts with practically all good, light-colored kernels. I have a few Thomas walnuts planted on the edges of the lowest flat ground I possess, hoping that they may there get more moisture and produce completely matured nuts. We had on August 9th about one inch of rain and since that 2-1/2 inches more. So far, throughout this month, I have been carrying about 15 gallons of water daily to two Rohwer trees and hope for some better filled walnuts, though they are unusually small. I am writing this August 24th. Nut Trees for Ohio Pastures By Dr. Oliver D. Diller, Wooster, Ohio Today I would like to discuss for a few minutes the possibilities of nut trees for shade and nut production in permanent pastures on Ohio farms. One of the most important developments in Ohio agriculture during the past decade has been improvement of pasture land through fertilization, new varieties, and combinations of grasses and clovers, and better methods of management. As one drives over the State it is evident that many farmers practice "clean" agriculture which means clean fence rows and treeless fields. Shade on a hot summer day is an important item to contented cows, so today I am going to plead the case for a cow out on pasture on a sweltering day. I believe that nut trees, particularly black walnuts, can be of real service in the fence rows and the interior of hundreds of permanent pastures in Ohio. In 1939, L. R. Neel,[7] of the Tennessee Agricultural Experiment Station, published an interesting article on the effect of shade on pasture. The results indicated distinct improvement in the carrying capacity of the pastures which had black locust and black walnuts spaced regularly throughout the fields. Improvement was evident both in the amount of Kentucky bluegrass and the pounds of beef produced. So far as I know, no evaluation has ever been made of the direct effect of shade on the contentment and consequent increase in efficiency of cattle for either beef or milk production. I believe this is an important factor and is frequently used as an excuse for woodland grazing. [Footnote 7: Neel, L. R., 1939. The effect of shade on pasture. Tenn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Cir. 65.] Another study similar to the one in Tennessee was conducted by R. M. Smith in southeastern Ohio during the period 1939 to 1941.[8] Dr. Smith made an intensive study of the effects of black locust and black walnuts upon ground covers and he found that in poor pastures black walnut trees improved both the species composition and chemical content of the plants growing under the trees. He rated walnut high as an ideal pasture tree because of its period of leaf activity; its light crown canopy; its small, fragile leaves which decompose rapidly, and are high in mineral matter and nitrogen; its deep tap root which competes very little with the surface rooted grasses for moisture and nutrients; its hardiness; and finally its high commercial value. [Footnote 8: Smith, R. M., 1942. Some effects of black locust and black walnut on southeastern Ohio pastures. Soil Science, Vol. 53, No. 5.] It seems apparent, therefore, that the introduction of improved black walnut trees into permanent pastures would be practical from the agronomic angle to say nothing about the beneficial effect of shade to livestock and possible income from occasional crops of high quality nuts. One stumbling block to the adoption of this idea is the protection of the trees during the period of their establishment. The conventional cattle guard with three or four long posts supporting a wire fence is expensive in both labor and materials. During the spring of 1946 in connection with my forestry instruction at Ohio State University, I had as one class project the planting of 50 black walnut seedlings of selected parentage in the cattle and poultry ranges on the University farm. Thirty of these trees were planted along a fence row at 32 foot intervals and were protected by a single electric wire connected to a battery charger. The set-up is illustrated in figure 1 which shows the charger at one end of the line and the wire supported by the line posts and a short single post opposite each tree. The one year old seedlings were planted 4 feet from the fence at alternate posts and the wire zig-zagged along the line to create the guards around the trees. Within a few days after planting and completion of the electric guards the trees were mulched to control weeds and conserve soil moisture. While this experiment has been in effect for only one growing season, the results, to date, indicate that this method is effective in providing protection from livestock. Growth and survival of the trees has been very satisfactory thus far. The advantages of this method appear to be the rather low cost of labor and materials and ease of installation. Within the next decade, we should be able to determine how the nuts from these seedling trees compare with the parent tree and there should be adequate shade for all classes of livestock on either side of the fence. How Hardy Are Oriental Chestnuts and Hybrids? By Russell B. Clapper and G. F. Gravatt Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland One of the questions most frequently asked in regard to the Oriental chestnuts is, will they thrive in a given locality? Broadly speaking, with respect to temperature requirements these chestnuts have been found about equally hardy with the peach. Some strains of the Chinese chestnut appear to be superior to the Japanese chestnut in hardiness. The Chinese chestnut is more widely planted in this country than the Japanese chestnut and more information has been collected on the hardiness of the former species than of the latter. The Chinese chestnut is growing satisfactorily in certain plantings as far south as Orlando, Fla. and the other Gulf States, northward to the southern tip of Maine, and westward as far as Iowa. But many areas within this large zone are unsuitable for growing Chinese chestnuts because of more severe climatic conditions. Specific data have been obtained relating to several types of winter injury of Oriental chestnuts and hybrids. This information is limited to the performance of mostly young trees and to a comparatively small number of locations. The fall freeze that occurred in mid-November, 1940, was studied in detail by Bowen S. Crandall,[9] formerly of this Division. Widespread damage occurred to Oriental chestnuts in the central parts of South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Temperatures before the freeze had been mild, and heavy rains in early November had broken a drought. On the nights of November 15 and 16, temperatures of 12° and 14° F. were reported by various farmers, and a drop to 20° F. was general on the night of the 16th. The damage to chestnuts by this freeze was increased because of the mild temperatures and heavy rains that preceded the freeze. The chestnut trees were not able to attain complete dormancy. Those trees, however, that were growing on uplands or on sites that were well air-drained suffered much less damage. Apparently equal damage was inflicted to Chinese and Japanese chestnuts. [Footnote 9: Crandall, Bowen S. Freezing injury to Asiatic chestnut trees in the South in November, 1940. Plant Disease Reporter 27:392-394. October 1, 1943.] On one farm near Columbus, Ga., four plantings were located at different elevations. The planting at the lowest elevation, maintained as a well cultivated orchard, suffered almost 100 per cent loss from this fall freeze. The trees at the highest elevation, in a forest planting, were practically uninjured. The damage from this freeze varied from killing of buds and shoots to killing of complete trees. Many owners of chestnut plantings did not notice the damage until the following spring. Fortunately fall freezes of this magnitude occur only infrequently. In the winter of 1944, this Division lost 23 per cent of its hybrids at Glenn Dale, Md., from freezing following abnormally high temperatures. The hybrids had been fertilized in October of the preceding year, but the effect on the extent of freezing damage is not known. The months of November, 1943, through March, 1944, were characterized by extremely variable temperatures. For example, in November a minimum of 15° F. occurred on the 17th, a maximum of 72° on the 19th; in December a maximum of 66° on the 3rd, a minimum of 2° on the 16th; in January a minimum of 8° on the 17th, a maximum of 74° on the 27th; in February a minimum of 11° on the 2nd, a maximum of 72° on the 25th; in March a minimum of 8° on the 10th, a maximum of 81° on the 16th. The extremes of temperatures in any one of these months may have been sufficient to cause damage to chestnut, although the extent of damage is influenced by the physiological conditions within the tree. The usual type of injury to the hybrids was a killing of the cambial cells extending from the base of the trunk up to varying heights. The cambial region was grayish-black and the inner bark was sappy and greenish-brown. More trees were injured and killed on the lower portions of the plot than on the higher portions. This catastrophe afforded opportunity to study resistance of the hybrids to freezing. In the lower part of the plot there were several 3-year-old American chestnut seedlings that were not damaged. Sixteen per cent of first generation hybrids of Chinese and American chestnut were killed. Chinese by American backcrossed with Chinese were killed to the extent of 36 per cent. Chinese by Japanese chestnut of the second generation were killed to the extent of 35 per cent. Despite this extensive killing of hybrids by extreme variations of winter temperatures, older Chinese and Japanese chestnuts on slightly higher ground in the same plot suffered no visible injury. These old trees have rough bark, which may serve as an effective insulator against extremes of temperature. In 1944, there was no damaging late spring frost, and these old trees produced the largest nut crop in their history. Winter temperatures of -25° F. or lower are usually injurious to Oriental chestnuts. A few reports of chestnuts surviving temperatures of -25° F. have been recorded, but usually Oriental chestnuts do not thrive in those northern States or regions where such temperatures occur. Many of our cooperators report that late spring frosts frequently cause failure of chestnut crops. Damaging frosts in late spring occur more frequently and over greater areas than early fall frosts or extreme winter temperature variations. A late spring frost in 1945 reduced the chestnut crop at Glenn Dale, Md., from 50 bushels expected to 3 bushels actual. A freeze of 24°F. on the nights of April 4 and 5 was sufficient to inflict this damage after two weeks of abnormally warm weather. Many of the trees were visibly injured, with wilted or dried unfolding buds. Other trees on higher ground were not visibly affected, yet they produced no crops. Again it was noted that the American chestnut, followed by American chestnut hybrids, sustained none to little damage. The American chestnut, besides its inherent resistance to freezing, leafs late in the spring. Most of the crop of nuts obtained in 1945 was produced by the American chestnut hybrids. Late spring frosts in 1945 were very extensive, reaching throughout the eastern and northeastern States, and there were practically no chestnut crops. There were also numerous reports of late spring frost injury to chestnut in the Central States. In order to reduce freezing injury to Oriental chestnuts, it is essential that they be grown on sites that have excellent cold air drainage. As an approximate rule, these chestnuts should be planted on sites similar to those that are best for peaches. The orchard planting is not the only type that is subject to winter injury; forest plantings, ornamental plantings, and plantings for wildlife are also subject to winter injury especially if they are not on the most favorable sites. Growing Chestnuts for Timber By Jesse D. Diller Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland Before the turn of the century, and even before chestnut blight had swept through our eastern forests, destroying one of our most valuable commercial timber trees, European and Asiatic chestnuts had been introduced. They made variable growth in the Gulf States, along the eastern seaboard from Florida to southern Maine, the southern half of Pennsylvania, southwestern Michigan, southeastern Iowa, down the Mississippi River Valley and on the Pacific Coast. These trees were grown for horticultural purposes, and for the most part, represented large-fruited varieties of Japanese chestnuts. They were not regarded as having forest-tree possibilities for in the open situations in which they were usually planted to insure early fruiting, the trees developed low-spreading crowns, resembling orchard trees. However, after the blight became fully established and it became apparent that our American chestnut was doomed, and that these scattered Asiatic chestnut trees had a natural resistance to this disease, a new interest developed in the Asiatic chestnuts as a possible substitute for the American chestnut. The interest in and need for resistant, forest-type chestnuts became so great that the U. S. Department of Agriculture imported from the Orient seed of strains that might be suitable for the production of timber, poles and posts, with tannin and nuts as valuable by-products--qualities inherent in our native chestnut. The Division of Forest Pathology, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering has been carrying on the project of testing Asiatic chestnuts as timber trees. Professor R. Kent Beattie of this Division was in China, Korea, and Japan from 1927 to 1930, and collected over 250 bushels of seed for shipment to this Division. The seeds represented four species: Castanea mollissima--the Chinese chestnut; C. henryi--the Henry chinkapin; C. seguinii--the Seguin chestnut; and C. crenata--the Japanese chestnut. Direct Seeding Studies At the very beginning of these investigations in growing Asiatic chestnuts as timber trees, it was believed that greater success in establishment could be obtained by planting seedlings, rather than by direct seeding. In direct seeding trials during the early thirties the planted nuts were promptly devoured by rodents. Sixteen years of field experience has proven the soundness of this belief. The imported nuts were planted in the Division's nursery at Glenn Dale, Md., and the resulting seedlings distributed as 1- and 2-year-old trees to cooperators throughout the eastern United States. In order to thoroughly test the possibilities of direct seeding as an economical method of establishment, this Division during seven years (1939 to 1942, and 1944 to 1946) planted over 7,000 nuts by direct seeding in 200 locations in 18 eastern States. It was suspected that the greatest hazard to direct seeding in or near forests would be rodents. Accordingly, in the spring of 1939 and 1940, 400 nuts and 600 nuts, respectively, were coated with a strychnine-alkaloid rodent repellent, and a comparable number of seeds, for both years, were left untreated to serve as checks. The checks were held in sphagnum moss at Beltsville, Md., and the nuts to be treated were packed in sphagnum moss and expressed to Denver for treatment by the Division of Wildlife Research, the Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior. Only 5.9 and 2.5 per cent of the treated seeds developed into seedlings, whereas 22.6 and 13.5 per cent of the untreated seeds produced seedlings. Not only did more of the treated seeds fail to germinate than of the untreated seeds, but the seedlings from the treated nuts were less vigorous. Because of the results obtained, the rodent-repellent study was discontinued at the end of the second year. In 1941 and 1942, over 4,000 untreated chestnut seeds, representing 22 strains, were planted in 12 locations in eight eastern States. The seed source was entirely from American-grown, Asiatic chestnut trees growing in 28 locations in 16 eastern States. They represented Chinese, Japanese, hybrids, and also a limited quantity of American chestnut seed. Seed of the American species was included primarily to determine whether or not it differs from the Asiatic species with reference to establishment by direct seeding. The results for the two years confirmed our earlier beliefs: Only 2.2 per cent in 1941, and 4.0 per cent in 1942, developed into seedlings, of which only a remnant have survived. No species or strain differences were apparent. "Tin Can" Method In 1944, the tin-can method was employed in planting 400 nuts in four eastern States. By this method 15.5 per cent of the planted nuts developed into seedlings, representing a fourfold increase over results obtained for the three previous years. One end of a No. 2 can is removed, and a cross is cut in the other end with a heavy-bladed knife. The open end of the can is then forced into the ground, over the planted nut, so that the top lies flush with the ground level. The four corners at the center of the cut top then are turned slightly upward, to allow a small opening through which the hypocotyl of the developing seedling can emerge. The can completely disintegrates by rusting within two or three years, and does not interfere with the seedling's development. An examination made of the various burrows about the tin cans, and also of the teeth marks on fragments of chestnut seedcoats lying about, indicated that not only squirrels, but other rodents, such as chipmunks, field mice, moles, and even woodchucks were probably involved in the direct seeding failures. In 1945 and 1946, the tin-can method was tested widely on farms, to determine its possibilities in securing establishment of blight-resistant chestnuts without a great outlay of cash to farmers. In 1945, five seeds were distributed to each of 90 cooperators residing in the Piedmont and southern Appalachian regions, and in the lower Mississippi and Ohio River valleys; and in 1946, to 38 cooperators residing in the Middle Atlantic States. Preliminary results indicate that 40.0 and 37.2 per cent of the nuts planted by the farmers developed into seedlings. It should be pointed out that these results are not strictly comparable with those of previous years, because most of the farmers preferred to plant the chestnuts in their gardens, and under these conditions the nuts were not exposed to the severe competition and the extreme rodent hazards that occur in the forests. Further proof of the superiority of planting seedling stock over direct seeding as a method of establishment is indicated in the results of an experiment initiated in 1939. One hundred and fifty 1-year-old seedlings and 150 nuts, all of the same Chinese strain, were planted on cleared forest lands in the Coastal Plains, the Piedmont, and the southern Appalachian regions, and in the Middle West. At the end of the eighth year, at each location, establishment and development of those originating from the 1-year-old transplants were better than those originating from seed, and their average survival was six times greater. Distribution of Planting Stock During the period 1930 to 1946, the Division of Forest Pathology distributed thousands of Asiatic chestnut seedlings to Federal, State, and private agencies for experimental forest plantings in 32 eastern States. The ten States receiving the most planting stock, in the order named were: North Carolina, Tennessee, New York, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Virginia, Ohio, Georgia, South Carolina, and Maryland. The purpose of this seedling distribution was to obtain information concerning the little-known characteristics of the Asiatic chestnuts--their soil and climatic requirements, and their range adaptability. Selection of Planting Sites At first the selection of the planting sites was left entirely to the judgment of the cooperators, and most of them assumed that the Asiatic chestnuts have site requirements similar to those of the native American chestnut. Because the American chestnut often occurs on dry ridges and upper slopes, especially where soil is thin and rock outcrops are frequent, the cooperators proceeded to plant the Asiatic chestnuts on similar "tough" sites. They believed that the planting of forest-tree species is justified only on defrosted areas that have reverted to grassland, or worn-out, unproductive agricultural land, or on wastelands--sites that we now know are better suited to the growing of conifers rather than hardwoods. As a result of this unfortunate choice of site selection, together with the several severe drought periods recurring in the early thirties, the cooperators lost most of their trees during the first and second years after planting. Inspections of some of these planted areas after a lapse of from 10 to 15 years indicated that the sites still support only a scant herbaceous cover, with broomsedge and povertygrass predominating, and with no evidence of native woody species encroaching on the areas. The few surviving Asiatic chestnut seedlings were sickly looking, multi-stemmed, misshapen trees, heavily infected with twig blight and chestnut blight, and severely damaged by winter injury. But despite these heavy losses, a few plantations succeeded at least in part, and from these limited areas, together with an appraisal of the situations where some of the earlier planted chestnuts grew well, valuable information as to the site requirements of the Asiatic chestnut species was obtained. Site Requirements These field studies clearly showed that the site requirements of the Asiatic chestnuts, particularly with reference to soil moisture, are more nearly like these of yellow poplar, northern red oak, and white ash, than like the American chestnut or the native chinkapin species. On fertile, fresh soils that support the more mesophytic native species, Asiatic chestnuts remained relatively disease-free, developed straight boles, made satisfactory growth, and were able to maintain themselves in the stands in competition with the other rapid-growing associated hardwood species. The indicator plants that suggest good sites for Asiatic chestnuts are: (a) Tree species--yellowpoplar, northern red oak, white ash, sugar maple, and yellow birch; (b) shrub species--spicebush; (c) herbaceous species--maiden hair fern, bloodroot, jack-in-the-pulpit, squirrelcorn and/or Dutchman's breeches. Plants that indicate sites too dry for forest-tree growth of Asiatic chestnuts are: (a) Tree species--the "hard" pines, black oak and scrub oak; (b) shrub species--dwarf sumac, and low blueberry; and (c) herbaceous species--broomsedge, wild strawberry, and povertygrass. Plants that indicate sites too wet are: (a) Tree species--black ash, red maple, and willows; (b) shrub species--alder; (c) herbaceous species--sedges and skunkcabbage. Climatic Test Plots On the basis of the experience gained from the earlier, extensive distribution of Asiatic chestnut planting stock, the Division of Forest Pathology, during the years of 1936, 1938, and 1939, established 21 Asiatic chestnut climatic test plots on cleared forest lands in eight eastern States on the most favorable sites obtainable. These plots, with their isolation borders, aggregating slightly less than 32 acres, and accommodating nearly 22,000 trees spaced 8 by 8 feet, occur from northern Massachusetts, along the Alleghenies southward to the southern Appalachians in southwestern North Carolina, and from the Atlantic seaboard, in southeastern South Carolina through the Middle West to southeastern Iowa. More than 20 strains are being tested at each place, including Chinese, Japanese, Seguin, and Henry species, as well as hybrids, and progeny of some of the oldest introduced chestnuts. Most of the plots are fenced against livestock and deer. Although the results from these plots are as yet entirely preliminary, during the 8- to 11-year period of testing, valuable information has already been obtained: (1) The range of the Asiatic chestnuts tested does not coincide entirely with the range of the American chestnut or the native chinkapins. All Asiatic chestnut species that have been tested have failed at Orange, Massachusetts, where the American chestnut grew in abundance. In southeastern South Carolina, where the several species of native chinkapin thrive, some of them attaining a height of 20 feet, the Asiatic species have largely failed. On the other hand in northern Indiana and southeastern Iowa, entirely outside the botanical range of the American chestnut, a few Chinese strains have done remarkably well. (2) The Chinese chestnuts have a much wider range adaptability to site than the Japanese chestnuts; the latter are more restricted to mild climate and appear to require somewhat better site conditions. Of ten Chinese strains tested, only four can thus far be recommended for future planting in the Middle West. One Chinese strain that has thus far proven far superior to the others, in all the climatic plots, was introduced by the Department of Agriculture as seed from Nanking, China in 1924. (3) Poorly aerated soil is an important limiting factor in all regions where the chestnuts were tested. Establishment by Underplanting and Girdling On the basis of the field experience gained from the wide distribution of Asiatic chestnut planting stock and the information thus far obtained from the climatic test plots, a new method of establishing Asiatic chestnut under forest conditions was initiated in the spring of 1946, and is now being tried on a limited scale. It consists of underplanting, with chestnut seedlings, a fully stocked stand of hardwoods ranging from 4 to 8 inches in diameter breast height in which the predominant species are yellow poplar, northern red oak, white ash, and sugar maples. All overstory growth 5 feet and over in height is then girdled. As the girdled overstory trees die, they gradually yield the site to the planted chestnuts in transition that does not greatly disturb the ecological conditions, particularly of the forest floor. Rapid disintegration of the mantle of leafmold is prevented by the partial shading, which the dead or dying overstory, girdled trees cast. At the same time, the partial shading hinders the encroachment of the sprout hardwoods and the other plant invaders (which would normally become established if the planted area had been clear cut) until the chestnuts have become fully established. Not only does this system provide the best site conditions conducive to the development of forest-tree form in the Asiatic chestnuts, in limited areas, but also under establishment conditions that require a minimum amount of maintenance. Summary In general, Asiatic chestnuts, when grown for timber purposes, are best adapted to northern slopes, above frost pockets on cool protected sites, on deep, fertile soils having a covering of leaf litter and humus in the top soil, a soil that is permeable to both roots and water, and that has a good water-holding capacity. The plant association, above mentioned as indicating ideal sites for Asiatic chestnuts for best timber development, occur in rich soils of slight hollows in moist hilly woods and on the mountains in cove sites. Improved Methods of Storing Chestnuts By H. L. Crane and J. W. McKay Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland Trees of the Chinese chestnut, Castanea mollissima, are quite resistant to the chestnut bark or blight disease. The heavy bearing of the trees together with the good quality of the nuts produced has stimulated planting of trees to replace those of the American species largely killed by that disease. Although a few horticultural varieties of Chinese chestnuts have been introduced and propagated, the great majority of the bearing trees are seedlings. In seedling plantings seldom do two trees produce nuts of the same size, color, and shape. All of these nuts when properly harvested, treated, and stored are sweet and edible and nourishing as food either raw, boiled, roasted, or combined with other foods in poultry dressing, salads, or pancakes. Then too, there is a big demand for Chinese chestnuts as seed for the purpose of growing seedling trees to be planted in orchards or to be used as rootstocks in propagating horticultural varieties. In either case, it is often desirable to store the nuts for several months before using them. Chestnuts are not like the oily nuts, such as pecans, walnuts, almonds, filberts, or peanuts, that must be dried to a moisture content of 5 to 8 per cent to store well. Chestnuts are starchy nuts, containing about 50% moisture when first harvested, and on drying they become very hard. In experiments conducted at the U. S. Horticultural Field Station, Meridian, Miss., it was found that the loss in weight of chestnuts ranged from 16.2 to 30.5% when stored for 4 months in open containers at 32°F., and 80% relative humidity. In an experiment in which chestnuts were stored 4-1/2 months at 32°F., they lost 18.8% in weight when stored in burlap sacks, 3.7% when stored in waxed paper cartons with tight-fitting lids, and 2.0% when stored in friction-top cans. Furthermore, chestnuts on drying lose their viability and become worthless. Chestnuts lose moisture rapidly and become subject to spoilage due to molds and other fungi and therefore must be considered as highly perishable and handled accordingly. There is a great difference in the keeping quality of the nuts produced by different trees in that some are very susceptible to infection by molds and bacteria and spoil quickly while others keep quite well. At Meridian, Miss., nuts from 5 different seedling trees ranged from 2 to 34% mold infection at harvest. Studies made by John R. Large at U. S. Pecan Field Station, Albany, Ga., showed that much of the infection of the nuts by molds occurred after they had fallen from the burs and while the nuts were in contact with the soil. It is, therefore, essential that the nuts be harvested promptly after they are mature. As a general practice the nuts should be gathered every other day during the ripening season. Burs that have split open and exposed the brown nuts should be knocked from the trees, and all of the nuts on the ground should be gathered up cleanly. It would be difficult to emphasize too strongly the importance of harvesting the nuts promptly as soon as they are mature. Prompt and careful attention must then be given to the conditions under which they are stored if they are to remain for long in an edible and viable condition. After the nuts have been gathered[10] they should be held in a layer not exceeding 1 or 2 inches deep for 3 or 4 days. It is important that they be kept in a well-ventilated building and that the sun does not strike the nuts during curing. After the preliminary curing, the nuts should be placed in friction-top metal cans (slip-top cans) and the lids should not be tight for the first month of storage. The nuts contain enough moisture after the short curing process that the lids will "sweat", or surplus moisture will accumulate on the under side. This will disappear slowly by evaporation during the first month or 6 weeks of storage and the lids may then be pushed firmly into place, making the can nearly airtight. The containers of nuts should be held in cold storage at temperatures of 32° to 36°F. While some nuts have kept quite well at temperatures as high as 45°F., the tests indicate that the nearer the storage temperature is to 32°F., the less is the mold development. Placing the cans in an ordinary home refrigerator should prove fairly satisfactory with nuts that have good keeping quality. [Footnote 10: If the nuts are infected with weevils, they should immediately be treated after harvesting with the hot water or methyl bromide treatment as recommended by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine.] It is essential that the nuts be placed in storage immediately after they have had the preliminary curing. Any delay may increase the possibility of mold development. In the winter of 1945-46, nuts from 6 seedling Chinese chestnut trees were stored separately in five-gallon friction-top cans at the Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md., at 32°F. for approximately 6 months. The results are given in Table 1. It will be noted that there was some variation in the percentage of spoiled nuts in the different lots, but the loss was small when compared with results obtained by other methods. All of the sound nuts in these lots were planted in a rodent-proof coldframe immediately after they were removed from storage, and from 90 to 95% germination of the seed was obtained throughout. It is almost impossible to keep some varieties satisfactorily with even the best of care. Because of the great difference in keeping quality of the nuts of different varieties and from different seedling trees, each chestnut grower should study the keeping performance of the nuts from the different trees in his own orchard. He should save for permanent trees those producing nuts that keep well. The method of storing chestnuts that perhaps has been more widely used than any other is to pack the nuts in slightly moist sphagnum moss or fresh hardwood sawdust in boxes and place them in cold storage at 32°F. to 34°F. A little less volume of packing material than of nuts is customarily used. The correct amount of moisture may be attained by adding 4 fluid ounces of water to 1 pound of dry sphagnum moss. There is great danger of getting too much moisture, which will tend to cause spoilage. If the cold storage compartment is one that has a tendency to dry the stored material, it may be necessary at some time during the year to open up the boxes and add a little moisture to the sphagnum, but in most storage houses this is not necessary. Based upon results obtained during the last 2 or 3 years, it seems probable that the method of storing chestnuts in friction-top cans will prove to be more efficient than other methods now in use. Tests are under way to determine the most desirable moisture content of nuts at the time of storage. If this can be determined the present period of preliminary curing will become a matter of reducing the moisture content of the nuts to a known amount before they are stored. It is likely that other refinements of the method will be made in the near future, but the procedure here described has given results that merit further trial by those concerned with chestnut storage problems. TABLE I--Record of Keeping Quality of Nuts from 6 Seedling Chinese Chestnut Trees Stored In Friction-Top Cans At 32°F. for Approximately 6 Months At Beltsville, Winter--1945-46[11] ====================================================================== Total Weight Weight of Weight of Tree Number of Nuts Sound Nuts Spoiled Nuts Percent Spoiled 4-24-46--Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 7861 23.69 23.08 .61 2.57 7881 25.20 24.63 .57 2.26 7930 26.85 26.48 .37 1.37 7932 24.29 23.80 .49 2.02 7938 29.00 27.48 1.52 5.24 8174 15.82 14.80 1.02 6.45 ====================================================================== ALL LOTS 144.85 140.27 4.58 3.16 [Footnote 11: Weighed and examined 4/24/46.] Essential Elements in Tree Nutrition (Paper presented before the Northern Nut Growers Association Convention, September 3-5, 1946, Wooster, Ohio.) By J. F. Wischhusen Manganese Research & Development Foundation, Cleveland 10, Ohio Mankind has harbored an age-old grudge against insects and fungi, so that under the heading of crop protection from these pests there has developed a large insecticide and fungicide industry. Relatively little attention has been paid to the effects of a nutritional character that can be obtained from simultaneous applications of essential elements. Insects will probably always constitute a problem of destruction, either of them or by them. But fungi, bacteriae, viruses, can be made to combat, control and balance each other; depending on the conditions under which their propagation is either facilitated or inhibited. There is evidence that so-called essential nutrients, also variously referred to as "minor", "trace", "rare", or "micro" elements play a direct as well as indirect role of considerable importance in this matter, and that trees can be fertilized, sprayed, injected or treated with them in other ways to insure their growth, health, crop bearing ability, longevity, disease--frost--and drought--resistance. There still exists a paucity of scientific explanations on these subjects, but there is already a good deal of scattered information, which it is my purpose to draw to your attention. People do not care about scientific facts if they can obtain results without them, and then scientific concepts too may undergo changes. The manner in which trees obtain their nutrients from soil, air and water, however, will forever remain unchanged, whether we understand it or not, and it behooves every grower to observe effects from causes, and to reflect upon them, and report his observations to his association for the benefit of all. Physical Soil Characteristics That the primary requisites for tree growing are the physical characteristics of all soils favorable for that purpose requires no discussion. The successful nut tree planting starts with the soil, whether it be on the scale of an orchard, grove, or just a few trees around the farm or garden. The better soils for general crop production are on limestone, basalt, dolemite, dolerite, diorite and gabbro formations, whereas sandstones, aplites, granites, pierre shale, cretacious rocks and volcanic formations weather into inferior soils. Gneiss can be sometimes good, sometimes unfavorable for building of fertile soil. It is well to bear in mind that geology and botany are our two fundamental sciences, and that all our other sciences are in reality departments of these. Chemistry can be either a branch of botany if it deals with organic chemistry, or else a branch of geology, if it deals with inorganic chemistry, and it would appear that the modern scientific grower of nut trees or any other crops is wittingly or unwittingly concerned with both. Biology and zoology both are branches of botany. The Essential Elements In the past, economics have governed any crop production, whether of trees, grains, fruits or vegetables; not nutrition and health. The future in all likelihood will demand improved crops from the standpoint of nutritional purposes as foods. It is gradually being realized that the production of better crops can be brought about by greater application of essential nutrients to soils or as nutritional sprays direct to trees, and that such practices also reflect true economics. The same principle should govern wood production. According to our today's knowledge, there are at least nineteen elements invariably essential to life, viz: Primary: Hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus. Secondary: Calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, iron, sulphur, chlorine. Micro: Manganese, copper, boron, silicon, aluminum, fluorine, iodine. Then there are another eighteen elements at least variably necessary to life, viz: (1) Variable Secondary Elements: Zinc, titanium, vanadium and bromine. (2) Variable Micro-Elements: Lithium, rubidium, caesium, silver, beryllium, strontium, cadmium, germanium, tin, lead, arsenic, chromium, cobalt and nickel. Elements in Soils Essential for Plant Growth It is furthermore safe to state at the present time that fertile soils should contain at least the following twenty elements: Nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, iron, sodium, chlorine, aluminum, silicon, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, iodine, and fluorine. Until quite recently many scientists believed that only the first ten elements were necessary for growth and maturing of crops; that only the first three should be considered as fertilizer ingredients, and that the others were supplied by soil, air and water, or were present as natural fillers in manures and fertilizer raw materials. The modern agronomist, however, takes all these twenty essential elements into consideration, and many so-called "complete" fertilizers contain at least sixteen to eighteen, if not all of the elements mentioned above. Cobalt, essential to animal nutrition, can also most economically be supplied through the soil, even though crops grow without it. As long as we have sufficient experimental research data that at least nineteen elements are invariably essential to all life, it stands to reason, that they at least must also be present in one way or another for the normal, or better the optimum growth of nut trees, and a crop of more nutritious nuts. Therefore, every time one of them is considered, all the others must also be borne in mind. It will neither prove difficult nor costly to experiment with them. It is a matter of finding the proper balance of everything essential for optimum nut tree growing. Indeed, to ascertain the true balance of all elements that are invariably essential to life, and their relationship to the elements which are variably essential, would quite naturally appear to constitute the quintessence of research still to be performed. We cannot control such essential factors as climate, weather, sunshine, but man can control the supply and adjustment of nutrients to trees, and it rests entirely with him to do so. There is one advantage a nut crop has over some other crops; it does not have to be harvested before fully mature. Nut crops obtain the benefit from elements that may be slowly assimilated during the season. The following experimental and historical evidence and opinions have come to my attention, and I record them for what interest they may have. Past experience is often discarded as too old, but many a time an experimenter was ahead of his time, and his work remained unrecognized, so that now some old references can be revived and presented as novelties. What the past ignored may indeed be due to the ignorance of those who did the ignoring. 1) The Chestnut Blight The chestnut blight, for instance, of a generation ago, may be re-examined in the light of the proceedings before a chestnut blight conference, held at Harrisburg, Penna., February 20-21, 1912. A chestnut extract manufacturer, a Mr. W. M. Benson[3], stated at the time that in his experience the best extracts were made from trees high in lime. "A blighted tree," he stated, "is simply a tree in the process of starving to death for lack of lime." Maps showed that the blight was worst where there was least lime, and that the chestnut trees died last in Tennessee, where soils are high in lime. Analysis showed that chestnuts contained 40% lime, an unheard of amount. That this high test may reflect a faulty condition is pointed out later. All I can add to this is that there is an English Walnut Tree, Alpine variety, on the farm of Mr. Deknatel, on Route 202, Chalfont, Penna., which is remarkable for its virility and crops of large nuts. This tree grows in a place protected by house and barn near a well, in limestone soil. It resisted the severe winters of 1935 and 1936, when many other English Walnuts in the vicinity died. My opinion is that any tree in that location would be an outstanding tree; and vice versa, had that particular tree been planted in another location, it would have done no better than any trees there located. Nuts from that tree might well be tested and compared with nuts from other trees. 2) The Banana Blight The banana blight in Central America threatened for a while to be as destructive as the chestnut blight in this country. It was due admittedly to an attack by soil fungi, but no fungicide to foliage or to the soil served its purpose. However, the proper restoration of bacterial life in soils to keep the soil fungi in check proved effective. This was a matter not of the presence or absence of any one inorganic nutrient, but of restoring to soils the balance of fertility, an abundance of organic matter as food for bacteriae. Dr. George D. Scarseth, West Lafayette, Ind.[4], is one of those largely responsible for correcting this epidemic. His experience may prove useful to nut growers, so that they may not live in constant fear of another blight epidemic such as the one that exterminated our chestnuts only a generation ago. 3) Tree Nutrition, Microbial From England comes interesting information about "Tree Nutrition"[5]. Evidence shows that the healthy growth of trees such as pines and spruces is intimately bound up with an association between their roots and fungi present in woodland soil. Poverty in mineral nutrients is no longer regarded as a necessarily critical factor in the failure of growth of trees of this kind, since the associated fungi have at their disposal sources of supply inaccessible to the roots of higher plants. Experiments carried out during the past ten years at Wareham in England fully confirm the opinion expressed long ago by Professor Elias Melin, Upsala, Sweden, that the growth of trees and other plants on poor soils of the raw humus type is greatly influenced by the root-fungus association. By fostering the appropriate combination it has been possible to carry out successful afforestation of heathland so poor that ordinary cultural methods prove inadequate for the least exacting tree species. Satisfying the mineral requirements of the trees by direct application of fertilizers is not in itself sufficient treatment to ensure continued healthy growth; biological factors also play an essential role in promoting soil fertility. The experiments have shown that failure of the trees to establish a satisfactory biological equilibrium with the necessary fungi is due in this case, not to the absence of these fungi in the soil, but to their inactivation by toxic products of biological origin. The factors inhibiting the activity of the fungi can be removed by the application of comparatively small amounts of organic composts which produce dramatic and lasting effects on the growth of roots and shoots. The special composts used are prepared from organic materials such as straw, hop waste and sawdust. The mechanism by which they stimulate growth is still obscure. All of them contain small amounts of directly available plant foods such as phosphates and potash, but careful investigation both in laboratory pot cultures and in the field, has shown that these can account for only a relatively temporary effect on growth. It is suggested that the composts act mainly by modifying the course of humus decomposition, thus bringing about drastic changes in the biological activities of the organic substrate of the soil. This demonstration of the profound influence of biological factors on the nutrition of trees challenges the attention of foresters and has important practical applications. By making use of suitable composts, it will be possible to carry out the successful afforestation of land formerly regarded as wholly unproductive. For further information see "Problems of Tree Nutrition"[5]. From the two foregoing examples it is seen that in the case of banana blight, fungi had to be suppressed by bacteriae, but that for pine trees on poor English soils fungi had to be activated for proper tree nutrition. 4) Inorganic Tree Nutrients Other information also from England concerns the use of so-called "minerals" which I prefer to call "essential inorganic nutrients," and name by the element or the compound in which the element is contained. "Minerals", strictly speaking, refers to compounds formed by nature as rocks, ores, brines, salt deposits, etc. Professor Wallace, Director of Britain's Long Ashton Research Station[6], has laid the foundation for diagnosing mineral deficiencies by leaf symptoms. These are reliable indicators of what nutrients to furnish plants when they are distinct and easily recognized. But for subacute deficiencies, plant analysis and injections are resorted to. Injections of manganese sulphate as pellets into holes drilled in trunks of cherry trees caused orchards that had been barren, to bear heavy crops a few months later. Manganese, boron, zinc, copper, iron, magnesium also lend themselves quite readily for applications as nutritional sprays, when applied as suitable compounds such as the sulphates. Both spray applications and tree injections have great diagnostic values, because a response to them, if needed is relatively quick. When trees are deficient their foliage will show marked improvement from a spray application within a few days, so that a test can be made on a few trees before an entire orchard is treated. Trunk injections should of course be made during the dormant season for results to show the following summer. 5) Nutritional Sprays Florida and California lead in the application of nutritional sprays on citrus and other fruit[7]. Vegetables, too, respond remarkably thereto[8]. I see no reason why nut trees likewise should not benefit from them, especially when other spray materials are used. Copper sulphate, zinc sulphate, manganese sulphate, magnesium sulphate, iron sulphate, cobalt sulphate and borax are all compatible with each other and with most other spray materials. Combination sprays seem to perform better, anyway, than single sprays, and the only objection would seem to be that some element is applied that is not deficient. It can be taken for granted, however, that nothing is wasted, even though the benefits may be invisible. Soils benefit in the long run from sprays. One element, even though not noticeably needed, may make another available or it may antidote toxicity of some element present to excess. Indirect results in all likelihood are always obtained. In Florida, recommendations for spray applications to citrus are made annually[9]. They can be obtained from the Florida Citrus Commission, Lakeland, Fla. A typical formulae is as follows: _ 3-5 lbs. zinc sulphate | 3-5 lbs. manganese sulphate | per 100 gallons of water or 2-5 lbs. copper sulphate with | other spray material equal amounts of lime. _| 1 gallon of lime sulphur or 1-1/2 lbs. of lime is used for every 3 lbs. of sulphate of manganese or zinc. Cherries, apples, plums are quite responsive to such applications, and I have seen the defoliation of prune trees in New York State corrected with a mixture containing: _ Manganese 10% | All as metallic, in the form of hydrated oxides, Copper 10% | and applied at the rate of 4 lbs, for the combination Zinc 5% | material per 100 gallons. Boron 1% _| The addition of 2 lbs. lime is optional. In California a manganese deficiency has been observed on English Walnuts[10], and 5-15 lbs. commercial manganese sulphate was used per 100 gallons of water during late May, through June, to correct this. Sprays should be applied at ten day intervals until the deficiency symptoms no longer persist. Plausible reasons for the somewhat quicker action of sprays than fertilizers may be furnished by two prominent authorities: McCollum[11], one of our foremost nutritionists, first noted the discovery that the leaf of the plant is a complete food, and that none of the storage organs of plants, seeds, tubers, roots, fruits enjoy that distinction. In the leaf, biological processes are most active. It is the site of synthesis of proteins, carbohydrates and fats. The leaf is rich in actively functioning cells which contain everything necessary for the metabolic processes, and they supply all the nutrients which an animal requires. ("All flesh is grass"). Hoagland[12], another authority, writes on this subject thus: "It is now certain that soils are not invariably capable of supplying enough boron, zinc, copper and manganese to maintain healthy growth of plants. This knowledge has come mainly during the past ten years. Within this period thousands of cases from many parts of the world have been reported of crop failure, of plant disease, resulting from deficiencies of micro nutrient elements.... The statements do not imply that most soils are deficient in any of these elements, but the areas involved are large and important enough to warrant the view that the recognition of micro nutrient deficiencies constitutes a development in applied plant nutrition of major significance. "When I refer to deficiencies of boron, copper, manganese, or zinc, it is not a question of absolute deficiency in total quantity of the element present in the soil, but rather a physiological deficiency arising from the insufficient availability of the element in the plant; in other words, not enough of the element can be absorbed and distributed in the plant for its physiological needs at each successive phase of growth." Nutritional sprays under such circumstances may prove the remedy, and we have experimental evidence to support this. Nut trees as is shown by the above mentioned experiment, may respond to spray applications equally as well as citrus, other fruit and vegetables, and effects, too may possess special diagnostic values, showing the need of trees, and therefore also the need of soils on which they are grown. Investigators are constantly confronted with determining whether foliage shows symptoms of disease or starvation, and whether this is due to a deficiency or an excess of any particular nutrient; whether fungicides inhibit the generation of fungi from the spore state, or whether the plant is fortified from sprays or dusts to become disease resistant, or repellent. Fungicides are valueless where plant disease is caused by bacteriae which invade the water conducting tubes, (roughly corresponding to the blood vessels of mammals), of plants, tree trunks, etc. and prevent the flow of water and nutrient solutions from roots to leaves. Deprived of water and nourishment, the plants or trees will wilt and die. Where, however, soils furnish these plants with protective inorganic nutrients, such as manganese, copper, iron, zinc, borax, etc. these bacterial diseases are prevented. Similar actions may take place in leaves. Deficiency Symptoms. Kodachrome Slides. Many acute deficiency symptoms have been identified by authorities and photographed, and I am able to show Kodachrome slides of the following: Manganese starvation on Swiss chard, spinach (five illustrations), courtesy of Dr. Robert E. Young, Waltham, Massachusetts. Apricot, sweet cherry, lemon, onions, peanut, soybean (two illustrations), tobacco (4 illustrations), sugarbeets, walnuts, wheat, all by different authors. Manganese deficiencies in Indiana on soyabeans, hemp, corn, by courtesy of George H. Enfield, Purdue University. Manganese on beets (mangels), (4 illustrations), and Romaine lettuce, Nassau County, Long Island. Courtesy of Dr. H. C. Thompson, Cornell University. Many more are published in "Hunger Signs of Crops," an illustrated reference book popular with scientific farmers and growers[13]. Other deficiencies that have been observed on nut trees are the so-called "little leaf" or "rosette" of pecans and black walnuts[14], which is due to a lack of zinc. Strangely enough, healthy orchards in this case contained a preponderance of fungi, whereas in affected orchards the soil microflora was predominantly bacterial[15]. We now have definite experimental evidence that lime, manganese and zinc are required in appreciable quantities for the growth, health and bearing quality of nut trees. It is well to make sure of these elements in the soils devoted to nut tree planting, but it cannot be emphasized too often that all essential elements and factors should be taken care of; anyone of them may be the limiting factor in crop failure; the one that is absent is always the most important. In regard to inorganic nutrients, more attention has probably been devoted to citrus trees than to any other tree species, largely because the soils of Florida and California require additions thereof. It would be unfair to say that such main fruit crops as apples, cherries, peaches, plums have been neglected; we merely possess more information on the nutrients of citrus trees than on other tree crops, as far as the micro essential nutrients are concerned. Most orchards and groves are fertilized only with nitrogen, phosphorus and potash, and limed when necessary. Nitrogen can stimulate size of fruit at the expense of quality. A paper by P. W. Rohrbaugh[16], Plant Physiologist of the California Fruit Growers Exchange, Ontario, California, deals with eleven mineral nutrient deficiencies and their causes, viz: calcium, magnesium, potash, phosphorus, sulphur, nitrogen, iron, boron, zinc, manganese, copper, and this might well be used as a guide for nut trees. 6) Miscellaneous A few oddities may also be mentioned for anyone inclined to experiment: From Holland it is reported that an avenue of large handsome shade trees close to a century old, all died in one year, except where a junk dealer had stacked a pile of old metals. The trees had exhausted the inorganic nutrients within reach of their roots in the soil, but the junkpile had replenished them sufficiently, so that those within reach of it kept alive to this day, twenty years later. A rock mulch is reported to have improved the growth of lime and lemon trees considerably[17], and it would seem that similar experiments should be made on young nut trees, just before bearing age in a comparative test with a check planting. Stones can be selected for the nutrients they contain, and a geologist can easily point out those containing the greatest number of elements. No one could go wrong in placing a few rocks of limestone or dolomite near the base of a tree, and let rain and sunshine, heat and frost attend to the fertilizing in a slow but perpetual manner. Maple sugar contains manganese[18], showing this as a distinct quality over cane sugar. Manganese and other essential nutrients are known to facilitate the production of proteins[19], and the question of better quality nut production may well be examined from the viewpoint of the indirect effect from activities of soil microbiology by manganese, copper, cobalt and zinc. Some of these elements have also been classed as inorganic plant hormones[20]. "Chlorosis," the yellowing of leaves, may not only be a deficiency symptom of manganese, but also one of iron, copper and magnesium. Lack of manganese can cause a decrease in photosynthesis[21], so much so that in manganese deficient leaves the CO2 assimilation may be reduced to half of normal. Herein, too, may lie the cause of low yields, smaller roots and lowered resistance of those roots to invading detrimental organism. Contemporary work on soil microbiology may show that manganese and other essential nutrients are perhaps most important in their functions for the preservation and balancing of microbial life and actions in soils. There is where tree nutrition must begin; whatever is neglected in soils can at best only temporarily be adjusted afterwards. After all, deficiency symptoms on foliage show lack of soil fertility, and while we should welcome them for their diagnostic value, our corrective measures to be most economical must be taken on soils. Transmission of Inorganic Nutrients from Soils to Plants to Animals Soil analysis and plant tissue tests both have their value, but also their limitations. Many laboratories and experiment stations are equipped to make rapid soil tests, and some engage in leaf analysis. It is important that they be correctly interpreted. For instance, at the Citrus Experiment Station, Riverside, California[22], bark and leaves were collected from healthy and diseased Persian Walnuts. They were analyzed for calcium, magnesium, inorganic phosphate, manganese and iron. A higher percentage of ash was found in the diseased than in the healthy bark, and calcium, magnesium, manganese and inorganic phosphates were also generally higher. It would be a fallacy I think to conclude therefrom that these elements were not necessary, or were present to excess. They were probably present because they had failed to function properly, due to changes in weather, excessive rains or droughts, and could not eliminate themselves. We must consider the results from the functions of the essential elements, and discard the popular belief that inorganic nutrients in soils are transmitted from soils to plants, and therein contained for the express purpose of satisfying the need of animals and humans[23]. The plant has only one purpose to perform which is to grow and to reproduce itself, and such is the case with all other forms of life. Plants contain very often inorganic elements in a form in which they cannot be utilized. It is therefore quite easy to mistake their presence either as a toxicity symptom or as a high requirement, when as a matter of fact these elements are present due to conditions unfavorable to metabolism, and they remained in bark and leaves as end products, in an inert form. Rather than being transmitted from soils to plant, their functions may consist of the formation of enzymes, proteins, hormones, chlorophyll, antibodies, vitamins, in carbon assimilation. When they have served such purposes they are not likely to be present in plants in anything like the amounts or forms as present in soils. They may come into question as catalysts or bio-catalysts, as sources of energy for microorganism, from which their optimum effects have been secured when they are not transmitted at all, causing changes, but remaining themselves unchanged. They are essential in the sense that the elements composing soils, sea, atmosphere are constantly energized, changed and used over and over again to create plant, animal and human life. In this cycle nothing is lost, only changed from old to new generations. Summary Soil factors for tree growth are physical, chemical and biological. To control the organisms of soils and plants is probably the most difficult problem in microbiology. It is not wise to alternate neglect with feverish attention when blights or other pests become epidemic or threatening. They may be of a nutritional, preventable rather than curable nature. Pathology and tree nutrition may as well become a constant part of your activities. References to the Literature 1. BEESON, K. C. The Mineral Composition of Crops U.S.D.A. Bulletin No. 369. March, 1941 2. FEARON, W. R. A Classification of the Biological Elements Sci. Proc. Royal Dublin Soc. Vol. 20 No. 35. February, 1933 3. WISCHHUSEN, J. F. Minerals in Agricultural and in Animal Husbandry Manganese Research & Development Foundation Cleveland 10, Ohio 4. RODALE, J. I. The Organic Forest--Editorial Organic Gardening, Emmaus, Pa. April, 1945, pp. 4-9 5. SCARSETH, GEORGE D. Growing Bananas on Acid SoilsAgriculture in the Americas, Vol. IV. October, 1944, No. 10 6. RAYNER, M. C. and NEILSON-JONES, W. Problems of Tree Nutrition Faber and Faber, Lt. London 7. ROACH, W. A. Soil Fertility and Trace Elements Soil Conservation, Washington. October, 1945 Condensed in Farmer's Digest, Ambler, Pa. January, 1946 8. CAMP, A. F. The Minor Elements in Citrus Fertilization Commercial Fertilizer, Atlanta, Ga. January, 1945 9. CHAPMAN, H. D.; BROWN, S. M.; and RAYNER, D. S. Nutrient Deficiencies in Citrus California Citrograph, May, 1945 10. McLEAN, F. T. Feeding Plants Manganese through the Stomata Science 66 (1927). Exp. Sta. Rec No. 58 11. SPRAY AND DUST SCHEDULES, Published Annually Florida Citrus Commission, Lakeland, Fla. 12. BRAUCHER, O. L. and SOUTHWICK, B. W. Correction of Manganese Deficiency Symptoms of Walnut Trees Proc. Horticultural Science 39. 133--6. 1941 13. McCOLLUM, E. V. ORENT-KEILES The Newer Knowledge of Nutrition. Fifth Edition The MacMillan Company, pp. 661-2 14. HOAGLAND, D. R. Inorganic Nutrition of Plants Chronic Botanica, 1944, pp. 32-3 15. HUNGER SIGNS OF CROPS--A Symposium National Fertilizer Assn. Washington, D. C. 1941 Judd & Detwiler, Baltimore, Md. 16. BLACKMON, G. H. Variety and Stock Tests of Pecan and Walnut Trees Florida Agr. Exp. Sta. Annual Report 1936, 75 (1937) 17. BLACKMON, G. H. Pecan Variety Response to Different Soil Types, Localities: Zinc Treatments Florida Agr. Exp. Sta. Ann. Rep. 1935, 74-5, (1936) 18. ARK, P. A. Little Leaf or Rosette of Fruit Trees VII. Soil Microflora and Little Leaf or Rosette Disease Proc. Amer. Soc. of Horticultural Sci. 34, 218-21. 1937 19. ROHRBAUGH, P. W. Mineral Nutrient Deficiencies in California Citrus Trees and their Causes California Citrograph, April-May, 1946 20. WHITE, CLARENCE Decorative Rock Mulches Organic Gardening, November, 1945--Emmaus, Pa. 21. RIOU, PAUL and DELORME, JOACHIM Manganese in Maple and Cane Sugars Comptes Rendues 200 1132-3 (1935) C.A. 294617 22. DELORME, JOACHIM Manganese in Maple and Cane Sugars Contrib. Lab. del'Ecole Hautes Etûdes Comm. Montreal No. 7, page 32 1937 23. BAUDISCH, OSKAR Biological Functions of Minor Elements Soil Sci. Vol. 60 No. 2 August, 1945 24. ELLIS, CARLETON; SWANEY, MILLER. W. Soilless Growth of Plants Reinhold Publishing Co. 1938 24. WILLIS, L. G. and PILAND, J. R. Minor Elements and Major Soil Problems Jour. Amer. Soc. Agronomy. 30--385--874 (1938) 26. HAAS, A. R. C. Walnut Yellow in Relation to Ash Composition, Manganese, Iron and Ash Constituents Bot. Gazette 94 (1933) E.S.R. 69, 511 27. WISCHHUSEN, J. F. Recommendations for Feeding Manganese Manganese Research & Development Foundation, Cleveland 10, Ohio Nut Tree Propagation As a Hobby for a Chemist By Dr. E. M. Shelton, Cleveland, Ohio Not so long ago we saw a movie by the title of "Cluny Brown." The heroine was possessed with a passion for repairing plumbing, but was continually inhibited by well-meaning relatives who told her that she "didn't know her place." A scene early in the story shows Cluny on the floor under a stopped-up kitchen sink explaining her problem to a sympathetic professor who states a philosophy something like this. "To be happy, one should not have to be bound by what is appropriate. If it is customary to throw nuts to the squirrels and you prefer to throw squirrels to the nuts, it should be all right to throw squirrels to the nuts." It is obviously not always advisable to be so unconventional, but it seems to me that in matters pertaining to one's hobby it should be permissable to throw "squirrels to the nuts." A hobby, like a shadow, is necessarily a very personal thing. Without the person with which it is associated it could not exist. Therefore, I feel that it is appropriate to present throughout this paper a liberal use of the pronoun in the first person. Years ago, as a boy on an Ohio farm, I tried repeatedly, without success, to graft on small hickory trees along the river bank scions from one especially good tree that stood out in a cultivated field. Time that followed was too crowded for further attempts at nut tree propagation until about fifteen years ago, when, living in Connecticut, I bought a grafted walnut, a Thomas, and set out to produce more like it. Before we left Connecticut, I had been able to present grafted walnut trees to many of my neighbors who had persisted, hitherto, in calling hickory-nuts "walnuts." They would listen with some show of interest while I expounded on my enthusiasm for black walnuts, but sooner or later would inevitably ask, "Do you mean the shagbark kind?" Last summer we drove back to Connecticut for a brief visit, and, on calling at the home of one of these friends, we found that the first nut borne on their Thomas tree had been carefully saved. Forthwith there was a solemn nut-cracking ceremony, and all present tasted the meat and pronounced it good. We hope that that tree and many others will thrive for years to come to add to the bonds of friendship with these neighbors we have known. Lately I have arranged my work so that we may once again live in Ohio not too far from my boyhood home. Last year I tried once again to graft along the hillside scions from that prized hickory, and this time six out of seven grafts have grown. My field of work has been that of a chemist, engaged in industrial problems related to animal and plant products. Hence, my hobby and my day's work are productive of mutually helpful ideas. The literature which I review frequently contains suggestions applicable to the various phases of tree propagation. Though a few references are quoted in the bibliography at the end of this paper, these are for illustration only and comprise a very small number of those which have appeared. My experiments in nut tree propagation have been reported from time to time in the yearbooks of the N.N.G.A. and I intend in the remainder of this paper only to outline problems under a number of general headings in which I am particularly interested, and give some indication of procedures which seem worth while investigating. An important phase of nut growing to which I have given little attention is the search for new varieties. I find my interest in this aspect growing as I associate with the group of nut growers in Ohio, who through prize contests and active personal work are trying to discover superior nut trees in nature, yet I do not find in this the opportunity I seek for experimentation unless it may be in the matter of hybridization. Rootstock Propagation Rootstocks for walnuts and hickories are very easily grown from seed. Chestnuts are grown with variable success, and it would seem that particular care in drainage of the seed bed, and possibly the use of one of the seed fungicides, should improve chestnut germination. The present trend in the propagation of fruit trees is toward selection of particularly suitable rootstocks. Do some nut tree seedlings accept grafts more readily than others? We do not know. Numerous writers have discussed the idea of varying degrees of compatibility of rootstocks with scions and Jones[1] has brought together considerable evidence to relate incompatibility among plants with something parallel to allergy in animals. Initial growth of the scion leads to a flow of foreign bodies into the stock. The theory is advanced that the stock develops antitoxins to these foreign bodies which succeed in killing the scion a few weeks later. If a particular strain of nut tree stock is some day found to be of particular value for grafting, or for propagation of a disease resistant type, as in the chestnut, the propagation of such stock vegetatively would be essential. A present illustration is the series of Malling apple rootstocks which are grown from cuttings. I have tried many times to grow chestnuts from cuttings with no success. A few experiments now in progress are limited to Malling IX apple stocks which I assume are not especially difficult to root. I am trying several modifications of a principle of making the cuttings at some time after girdling the stem. The hope is that in this way there will be accumulated at the base of the cutting more than the usual reserve of nutritive elements together with whatever plant wound hormones and plant growth substances the twig is capable of synthesizing. Scion Storage In earlier papers I described the use of sodium sulfate crystals (Glauber's salt) for controlling the humidity in scion storage. This season I have adapted the practice to the shipping of fresh walnut bud sticks. A sack of Glauber's salt in the bottom of the mailing tube keeps the cuttings moist, and if, in addition, the container is kept in a refrigerator when not actually in transit, the buds have been kept in condition for use up to twenty-five days. A low temperature is essential in storage of any scions. Variations in this factor may have been the cause of some of the objections which have been raised to the practice of coating scions with wax when they go into storage. If wax is to be applied over a scion, it can be done more uniformly and in a thinner coating by immersion of the scion in melted wax. The scion so coated seems to be in better condition than an uncoated scion when it comes out of storage provided the storage temperature has been low. However, if the wood has not been kept dormant by low temperature, gases are evolved which form blisters under the wax and injure the scion. It is quite probable that a wax coating then aggravates this damage. Grafting and Budding Until this year I had not tried budding, and have gotten into it first of all to learn whether an ordinary laboratory cork borer is not a usable substitute for a patch bud cutter. It seems to do very well. The patches are small, but as an aid in tieing them in I prepared short strips of painter's masking tape with a thin coat of a plastic grafting wax on one side. In the center of each piece of tape is a hole just large enough for the bud to show through. The tape is pressed on over the bud patch, after which the usual binding with rubber strips is applied. The whole technic of budding is fascinating and I plan to experiment as extensively next season as time and stock permit. Wax and Tape In 1937, Shear[2] published a report on a number of wound dressings for trees in which he observed that lanolin exerts a marked action in stimulating cambial growth. This led me to try various wax combinations in which lanolin was incorporated, and a mixture of equal parts of lanolin and beeswax has become the base for most of my experimental grafting wax mixtures. I have commented already on the importance of incorporating an opaque ingredient to exclude light. Experiments in progress this season have had to do with introduction of green vs. red dye and with the incorporation of a wax soluble pyrridyl mercuric stearate[3] as a fungicide. I have recommended painter's masking tape for tying in scions in all cases in which moderate tension is sufficient. A winding of such a tape of course excludes the grafting wax from contact with the line of cambial contact, so any favorable action which any ingredient in the wax might have must be largely interfered with. If a tape is prepared with a thin coating of plastic grafting wax on one side to serve as the adhesive, it should be possible to bring the wax into contact with the cut cambial surface without, however, introducing such a mass of wax as would make its way between stock and scion and interfere with contact. Nutrition My own field of work has recently changed to nutrition, infant feeding, and I shall undoubtedly come to have more of an understanding of plant nutrition as well as of babies as I study longer on this subject. Our recollections of the "good old days" are often mistaken, but I think there is no doubt that the nut trees bore more and better nuts when I was a boy than we can find now. Can it be a matter of nutritional failure? The first consideration in plant nutrition seems to be the water supply, and perhaps in many localities the water table has fallen sufficiently to threaten our trees with malnutrition. The supply of the common mineral elements may or may not be adequate. These elements should not be difficult to supply. The matter of the trace elements and their significance catches our fancy at present and many of us will undoubtedly begin to explore the effect of this or that panacea for restoring a favorite old tree to a second youth. Medication It is only a step from the consideration of nutrition of a plant or animal to that of medication. Remedial agents are readily introduced into plants, either through the roots, or by spray on the foliage, or by direct injection into the trees. Going a little further, such methods become means of killing trees. A few years ago, I became interested in killing trees in a way which would prevent sprouting and also protect the wood to some extent from insect attack and decay organisms. More recently my interest has turned toward the use of hygroscopic chemicals injected in the living tree for the purpose, not only of killing the tree, but of preventing the wood from cracking radially or drying. A number of government publications[4-10] have contributed information along this line. To inject enough chemical to accomplish this purpose it seems necessary to introduce the chemical solution through a cut the depth of the sap wood and extending entirely around the tree. A collar of water-proof paper cemented to the tree provides a means of supplying the chemical solution to the cut. All this is described in the literature cited. The only contribution I have made is the use of urea in the solutions. Many salts are more soluble in a water solution of urea than in water alone, and many such mixtures are very hygroscopic. Moreover, it seems that in the presence of urea higher concentrations of salt may be introduced into the sap stream of trees, though I do not as yet have experimental data to confirm this statement quantitatively. An example of a solution injected into a small ash tree is as follows: 90 grams urea 120 grams copper sulfate crystals 300 cubic centimeters water I hope in another year to cure a number of varieties of woods on the stump and later to compare their qualities in the shop with lumber cured in the usual way. By-Products Any object as juicy and colorful as a black walnut hull may well become a subject for search in recovery of by-products. The thermally active carbon made from the shells has actuated laboratory thermostats for me for several years. But more real and immediate by-products have been the personal associations which have arisen from this hobby. Physicians, engineers, teachers, farmers, persons from every calling are among those whom I have met through a common interest in nut tree propagation. I can recommend this hobby to anyone mature enough to take an interest in the future, and to chemists in particular. Bibliography 1. W. NEILSON JONES Plant Chimaeras and Graft Hybrids Methuen and Company, London 2. SHEAR-LANOLIN As a Wound Dressing for Trees Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 34, 286-8 (1937) 3. HORNER, KOPPA and HERBST--Mercurial Fungicide Wax Problems Ind. Eng. Chem, 37 1069-73 (1945) 4. U. S. BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY AND PLANT QUARANTINE--E-409--June 1937. A method for preventing insect injury to material used for posts, poles, and rustic construction. 5. E-434--May 1938, An efficient method for introducing liquid chemicals into living trees. 6. E-467--February 1939, Chemicals and methods used in treatments of trees by injections, with annotated bibliography. 7. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta.--Cir. No. 123--July, 1938 The use of water soluble preservatives in preventing decay in fence posts and similar materials. 8. U. S. D. A.--Cir. No. 605--June, 1941 The internal application of chemicals to kill elm trees and prevent bark-beetle attack. 9. FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY--November, 1938 A primer on the chemical seasoning of Douglas fir. 10. REPRINT FROM JOURNAL OF FORESTRY--Vol. 35--March, 1937 (Procured from Forest Products Laboratory) Seasoning transverse tree sections without checking. Notes on Propagation and Transplanting in Western Tennessee By Joseph C. McDaniel, State Horticulturist Tennessee Department of Agriculture Nashville 3, Tennessee These observations are presented as a preliminary report of the results obtained by three enterprising amateurs of nut growing in the western counties of Tennessee, whose work points the way toward overcoming some of the weaknesses previously encountered in nut culture in the northern part of the cotton belt states. These growers are the "three R's" of our Association in west Tennessee: Dr. Aubrey Richards of Whiteville, Mr. George Rhodes of Covington, and Mr. W. F. Roark of Malesus. I am giving this brief account of some of their experiences, with the hope that it will stimulate others to try their methods under various conditions, and to report their results at later N.N.G.A. meetings. We do not expect these methods to work equally well in all parts of the United States and Canada represented here today, but they are giving promising results in the mid-South territory, and perhaps will have value in a wider area. As Mr. Davidson has so ably done at this meeting in the case of his Ohio plantings, we expect to give you a follow-up report on this work in west Tennessee at the Toronto meeting or later. "Twin-T" Budding in Chestnut Propagation Of the nut trees grown in this area, the chestnut has been the most difficult to propagate by budding. Nurseries in the upper South have propagated their pecan and walnut trees mostly by patch-budding or the similar ring-budding method, with very good success. When applied to chestnuts, patch-buds have seldom grown. The common T-bud, likewise, has been a general failure on chestnuts in America, though reported successful in Japan. Chip-buds have not been much-better. Several years ago, Dr. Max B. Hardy told me that the inlay bark-graft had been used successfully with Chinese chestnuts at the U.S.D.A, laboratory in Albany, Ga., following Dr. B. G. Sitton's use of this method with pecans in Louisiana. (It is described in a bulletin from Michigan State College, East Lansing, Mich.) I tried it in a small way, and had some success using it on chestnuts in July and August. This spring I suggested it to Mr. Roark and Dr. Richards, both of whom tried it out, using Castanea mollissima stocks and various scion varieties. Mr. Roark used the inlay bark-graft in the spring, topworking a C. mollissima seedling with scions of the Colossal, a hybrid variety from California. About 50 per cent of these have grown this year. Dr. Richards tried it during July, on C. mollissima seedlings from a different source. None of the Colossal would grow on his trees, but he was partially successful with scions of the C. mollissima varieties, Hobson, Carr and Zimmerman. He then devised a variation in the method which was highly successful with C. mollissima varieties. This I shall call the Richards "Twin-T" bud. In "Twin-T" budding, a vertical slit is made in the bark of the stock. Then horizontal cuts are made through the bark at both top and bottom of the vertical cut. The bud piece is cut from the well matured part of a current season's twig, leaving a rather thick slice of wood beneath the bud. (It may be as thick as half the diameter of the twig.) The bud is inserted in the stock as in ordinary T-budding, then wrapped with a large sized rubber budding strip. (Westinghouse electrician's tape and Curity adhesive tape have also been used. Some other brands poisoned the buds.) The "take" of Chinese chestnut buds by this method has run from 60 to 90 per cent on Dr. Richards' trees of various sizes this year. In a short nursery row, buds were placed under first or second year bark, while larger trees were topworked by placing the buds mostly under the bark of second year limbs. The Colossal failed again on Dr. Richards' trees when budded by the "Twin-T" method, but Carr and other Chinese varieties were budded successfully. The graft-compatibility problem in chestnuts is one of considerable complexity. Thus Carr, which has presented incompatibility with certain stocks of C. mollissima at other places, grew on these trees, and Colossal, compatible on another C. mollissima tree, failed on trees which are apparently compatible with Carr. The Chinese chestnut species varies in its graft-compatibilities possibly as much as in other characteristics (growth, productivity, size and quality of nuts, etc.) so that nut nurserymen should begin to select their seed for chestnut understocks with a view toward getting strains with a greater degree of compatibility to the leading scion varieties. Mr. Roark has been able to propagate the Colossal upon its own roots by layering a small tree in his orchard. Two limbs pegged into the ground in the spring of 1945 had produced roots a year later, and were then detached from the parent tree. This is a slow but sure method of propagating nut tree varieties that are not congenial with the stocks available for grafting or budding. He has also layered sweet cherries and prune trees by this method which is described in U.S.D.A. Farmers Bulletin 1501 with reference to filberts. A Heartnut Variety Compatible with Black Walnut Stocks Seedling black walnuts are common on farms of west Tennessee. Dr. Richards and Mr. Rhodes have been most active in showing that these can be topworked readily to improved black walnut varieties under the conditions prevailing there. Mr. Rhodes has also fruited such older Persian walnut varieties as Lancaster, Mayette, and Franquette on black walnut stocks, but finds them generally unproductive in his climate. Newer varieties, including some selections of the Carpathian strains are now being tried and should be of fruiting age soon. Mr. Rhodes has also found, at Covington, a heartnut that is vigorous and productive under west Tennessee conditions. He finds that it buds readily on the native black walnut. Some budded trees of it are over a dozen years old. They have medium sized nuts, smooth shelled (with fairly thick shells for a heartnut) and kernels of good flavor, coming out whole when the nuts are cracked carefully. I am giving this variety the name Rhodes, and suggesting it for use in west Tennessee because of its adaptability and the fact that it can be budded upon black walnut. Others have reported Japanese walnut (including heartnut) varieties incompatible with black walnut at other locations. Dr. Richards has propagated some other heartnut varieties on black walnut, but finds them more variable than the Rhodes, in obtaining a good union. Paper Wrap Gives Summer-Long Protection to Transplanted Trees Too commonly, transplanted nut trees suffer from sunscald injury on their southwest sides during the first summer in the orchard. This injury is particularly common on pecans, which suffer a severe shock from transplanting and are slow in re-establishing vigorous growth. In west Tennessee, as one grower puts it, "A pecan is doing well if it holds one green leaf its first year." Pecans have been known to remain dormant in their tops until the second spring after planting, and then start growth. During this initial period of establishment in the orchard, it is beneficial to give some kind of shade to the tree trunk, to keep the bark from "cooking" and dying on part of the most exposed side. Waxing of the trunks before planting helps reduce drying out of the tops before the roots are partially regenerated and top growth begins, but waxing alone, under our conditions, is not sufficient to prevent the frequent occurrence of a dead area starting on the southwest side of the trunk during the summer following tree setting. Dr. Richards has found that a heavy wallpaper of a cheap grade, cut in strips and wrapped spirally to cover the tree trunk from the ground up, lasts through the season and eliminates nearly all of the sunscald injury on pecans which he has moved from his farm nursery row to the orchard. With trees that are shipped long distances, and allowed to dry out too much before resetting, the results are not so uniform. We are still in favor of the use of wax coatings on trees that must be shipped, but would recommend that they be given additional protection by some means, to shade the trunks throughout the first growing season. This paper wrap of Dr. Richards seems as efficient as any method, and is the most economical I have observed. It should be beneficial on most species of nut trees under summer conditions in the mid-south region. Propagating Nut Trees Under Glass By Stephen Bernath, Poughkeepsie, New York About ten years ago I decided to try a few nut grafts in my small propagating house. The results were so satisfactory that since that time I have grafted from a few hundred to several thousand each year. I found by experiment that I could not graft nut trees exactly as I did ornamental trees and shrubs, due to their extra sap content. Nut trees bleed excessively and I had to overcome this or my losses were heavy. I use no wax on grafts. My method is as follows: I take a strong light string and wax it with beeswax and parafin mixed fifty-fifty. I use a modified side graft, tying with this waxed string. Late in December or early in January, I pot the understock, using black walnut seedlings for four varieties (Persian walnut, butternut, black walnut and heartnut). I make sure the understock has had its rest period by not digging and storing them until they have been really hit by frost and left for a period, to be sure the wood has matured for the season. The mature understock is then stored in moist sand in a cool cellar. In late-December, as I have stated, I place the understock in benches using 3-1/2 to 4 inch pots, wetting them thoroughly after imbedding them in peat moss. Keep the moss damp and at a temperature of 55 degrees at night. After two or three weeks examine the roots by knocking several loose from the pots. If root action has started, the roots will show white thread-like fibers and are ready for grafting. This is important, because if grafting is done too soon the loss is heavy. If delayed too long the top starts growing. So I caution, do grafting when the understock is ready. Place newly made grafts on their side, imbedded in moss, and refrain from watering until the union has formed. Open grafting case after third day and daily thereafter, until union is complete. Each day wipe glass off with cloth to prevent moisture from dripping on grafts. Increase bottom heat after grafts are laid in benches from 68 to 75 degrees. In about three to four weeks, if union has formed, place grafts in up right position, then watering is resumed and heat is reduced to around 60 degrees at night. When graft shows two inches or more growth, cut understock off close above the union, and then give house plenty of ventilation to avoid soft growth. I find nut trees very tender subjects and delay planting these under-glass grown grafts out in nursery rows until every vestige of frost has passed. Also be sure to sever the waxed string as this is tougher than the green graft. If this method sounds like a great deal of work and trouble generally, remember the reward will be heavy rooted, easy to transplant, healthy, named varieties of nut trees. Who can say that, at the present, there is an abundance of such trees in this country. The Economic, Ecological and Horticultural Aspects of Intercropping Nut Plantings By F. L. O'Rourke Michigan State College, East Lansing, Michigan Mature nut trees are usually large trees, and large trees demand space. Young nut trees, therefore, must be planted relatively far apart from each other and for the first few years, at least, there is an abundance of unused land between the trees, which may be used for intercropping. The choice of just what crop or plants to use is often perplexing and should be considered for several aspects. The economic factors are of prime importance. The cost of growing the crop, the specialized farm machinery and equipment needed, the availability of labor, the distribution of the seasonal labor demand, the time of the critical cultural practices or of harvesting, the potential market, and the expected price of the saleable product must all be considered. The staple farm crops of the region are often preferable to specialty crops, particularly from the labor standpoint. Corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, and legumes can all be grown with a minimum of labor and the use of power machinery. There is less risk involved with farm crops than with specialities, both in securing an adequate crop and in the price received for the product. Fruit, vegetables and ornamentals often have very critical requirements. They must be sprayed, harvested, and shipped at exactly the right time or all the proceeds will be lost. Staple crops are not so demanding in either culture or harvesting. The labor distribution throughout the season or even throughout the year must be considered and well planned in advance. No two crops should require exact and demanding attention at the same time. They should be chosen and planted so that a regular, even distribution of labor can be maintained with as little of a rush period as possible and yet with a minimum of idle time. The general agricultural pattern of the region must be considered. In a sparsely settled grain and livestock region it would be quite inadvisable to grow strawberries or other crops which require a maximum of hand labor during a very brief period. Berries, however, may be perfectly well suited to sections where either transient workers or city children can be secured with little effort. The crop should suit from the ecological viewpoint. It must not compete with the young, growing trees for mineral food and water, particularly during spring and early summer when the trees make most of their annual growth. On the other hand, if planted too close to the trees, some intercrops may be shaded too severely to produce a normal yield. Success in intercropping is usually found between plants which are quite dissimilar in form and habit. Black walnuts and pasture grasses furnish a typical example. The long taproots of the walnuts penetrate deeply into the soil, while the grass roots are shallow and fibrous and feed in the soil surface layer. The aerial portions of these plants are likewise quite different, the walnuts tower high in the air, while the grasses form their crowns on the very surface of the ground. The light shade cast by the walnuts does not interfere with the photosynthetic activity of the grasses, but it is sufficient to discourage growth of broad-leaved weeds which have a higher light requirement than that of grass. This light shade also tends to provide a greater supply of available moisture for the grass, in that it reduces temperature and, consequently, water loss from the grass and soil by keeping down both transpiration and evaporation. Experiments in both Tennessee and Ohio have shown that the quantity of grass produced from beneath walnut trees is greater than on equal areas in the open and that the quality, as represented by a larger protein content, is also higher. For this reason, one may well consider livestock as the income-producing portion of a walnut-pasture planting. Over one fourth of the agricultural land of the United States is devoted to pasture and much of the land is suitable for interplanting to walnuts, butternuts, and other pasture trees, as honey locusts and black locusts, all of which are known to improve the pasture grasses to some extent. The potential income which may be derived from such plantings over this vast acreage is enormous and is the more striking in that these pasture trees occupy a plane that is now idle and unproductive, that is, the area lying above the grass tops. The nuts produced on this "upper story" will represent almost all "clear profit" in that very little care need be given these walnut trees after they have been properly planted. Livestock guards will need to be placed about the trees at planting time and kept there until the trees have grown to the point where they may no longer be harmed by straddling and browsing. Pastures are excellent sites from another angle. The closely grazed sod furnishes an ideal place to rake the nuts together at harvest time. Anyone who has hunted for nuts in a dense ground cover will appreciate this factor. While the walnut responds best to the deep, fertile soil of the river bottoms and flood plains, it will grow well on the lower portions of slopes if water is available and the site is not too exposed to the force of drying winds. Contour strips should be prepared by plowing several furrows downhill, each a little less in depth than the preceding, and the walnuts planted thereon. The walnut is a spreading tree and plenty of space should be allowed. Perhaps it may be wise to plant the walnuts at extended intervals and fill up the contour row with black locusts, for post wood, and honey locusts to produce succulent pods for cattle feed. In any event, it is better to allow too much, rather than too little space, as walnuts are long-lived trees and will thrive best where there is least competition. In Iowa, black walnuts are responding well to "basin culture" in sites which were prepared by "scalping" the sod from the upper portion of a slope and depositing it on a lower portion in order to catch and retain more water. Nut trees are like all other trees in that they react favorably to good horticultural practice. Fertilizer, particularly nitrogen, is usually always helpful. The addition of lime when the soil is acid and of organic matter when humus becomes depleted will aid in better soil aeration and an increased moisture supply. This, in turn, will be reflected in more vigorous tree growth and greater nut production. Occasional spraying may be necessary to control the Datana caterpillar in the summer. Chinese chestnuts seem to be admirably adapted for interplanting with mulberries, cherries, pears, and the like in poultry runs and hog lots where the pigs and chickens will control the weevils by gleaning the prematurely dropped and overlooked chestnuts which contain the grubs of the weevil. The fruit portion of the integrated planting will maintain a high carbohydrate ration during the season for the use of the livestock. Here, again, plenty of space should be allowed between trees to allow each its full measure of water, food, air and sunlight. Careful and thorough research is needed to determine the full requirements of nut trees and to work out the interplanting relationships. In view of the vast potentialities for their use, investigational programs may soon be under way and much more definite information be made available to the farmer and landowner. References AIKMAN, J. M.--A Basin Method of Nut Tree Culture. Proc. Iowa. Acad. Sci. 50:241-246. 1943 NEEL, L. R.--The Effect of Shade on Pasture. Tenn. Exp. Sta. Cir. 65, 1939 SMITH, R. M.--Some Effects of Black Locusts and Black Walnuts on Southeastern Ohio Pastures Soil Sci. 53:385-398, 1942 Nut Work At the Mahoning County Experiment Farm, Canfield, Ohio By L. Walter Sherman, Superintendent My interest in nuts dates back to the turn of the century when, as a boy in high school, I delighted in gathering wild nuts for my own use. I knew of several black walnut trees bearing very fine nuts and also one excellent hickory. These were near my home in northern Ohio. After my school days were over, I married and went to Oklahoma, where I found the most miserable wild nuts imaginable. However, I stayed but a short time and returned to my native state where the wild nuts were reasonably good. In 1935, I made a trip to California and visited the Persian walnut orchards at harvest time. As if that were not enough to convince me that it would be worth my while to do what I could in behalf of the nut industry, the Agricultural press of the time published several intriguing accounts of Persian walnuts growing in and near Toronto, Ontario which had been brought there by Rev. Paul C. Crath from the Carpathian Mountains of Poland. My constant talk about hardy strains of Persian walnut prompted friends to tell me of several plantings already growing in northern Ohio with more or less success. I promptly obtained scions and undertook to graft a number of these, but I had the usual ill-success of a beginner. I failed in attempts to top work trees and had no better results with bench grafting although I began early in the season and continued my efforts till the time arrived for planting the trees. I stored the grafted material in a cool apple storage house from the time they were grafted until they were planted. Then somehow I learned that walnut wounds would not callous over except at relatively high temperatures. Accordingly, I placed my next bench-grafted trees in a warm greenhouse, where growth started at once. This marked my first successful grafting of black walnut. Later, Mr. W. R. Fickes of Wooster, explained to me his technique of "boxing off" or "bleeding." By following his instructions, I was able successfully to top work some of the seedlings I had grown for the purpose. My next steps were to procure some of the nuts from Rev. Crath which he had brought from Poland and to make a personal importation of seed from an experiment station in Russia. With these two lots I started out to raise Persian walnut seedlings. The first grafted trees set out at the Farm were obtained from Homer C. Jacobs of Kent, Ohio, in 1937. That year we began planting a three-acre tract. The trees were grown with scions cut from prize winning seedlings brought out as a result of the Ohio nut contest held in 1934. The trees were set 25 feet each way in order to conserve room. This distance allowed for but 69 trees to the acre and available space was quickly occupied. By 1944, it became necessary to add two more acres. The new land was from an abandoned berry ground. It was plowed, limed heavily and fertilized. The alternate rows were used for peach trees as fillers. The main rows were mostly filled with new varieties of Persian walnut from northern Ohio which had been grafted on black walnut stocks. Some of the room was used for growing black walnut seedlings for use in grafting with scions of prize winners in the next Ohio contest, plans for which were already under way. In 1944, four plantings of Persian walnut trees located some distance from each other in northern Ohio, all had good crops and all produced superior nuts. A half bushel of the nuts were planted at the Farm during the following spring. All lots grew remarkably well. The resulting seedlings, together with grafted trees, which by then were growing in the Farm nursery, made it necessary to further add to the orchard room. The increase this time was eight acres, of which five were planted to trees during the spring of 1946. In all plantings, the distance between trees has remained the same as at first, not that 25 feet is enough for bearing trees but because it is expected to do a large amount of thinning out as bearing begins and many trees prove their inferiority. The problem of propagating desirable varieties has been our greatest difficulty. The kinds we wanted were not to be had from nursery sources as they were entirely new. Commercial nurserymen would not even undertake the task of grafting. We were forced to rely upon our own ingenuity. Not only did we have to master the art of grafting but we had to drive hundreds of miles in order to obtain scions of the various kinds. We still know too little about grafting. We often raise the question as to how it happens that surgeons can do almost anything they wish in the way of cutting and splicing parts of the human body, yet with nut trees, 75 per cent of success is rarely attained. Last spring I began a rather elaborate comparison of paraffin with beeswax--lanolin for use in grafting. Dr. Shelton had demonstrated that the latter was a good dressing for wounds and I assumed that in grafting, it would promote callousing. My experiment was partially frustrated by the loss of my melting pot which burned at about the time the work was half done. The grafting had to be finished without wax of any kind. Out of 60 grafts so set, only five grew. The five survivors had been merely "boxed off" or "bled," none grew which had been treated with hot wax of any kind. Research with nuts has but barely begun at the Farm. We feel, however, much encouraged and that the worst is over. We have a total of 725 trees in the planting, many of which have already borne a few nuts. Production should increase rapidly and we will soon have considerable quantities of nuts and other material with which to work. We have the following genera, species, varieties, and hybrid forms: Butternut--Craxezy and Vincamp; Chestnut--Carr, Hobson, Yankee (Syn., Connecticut Yankee), and Zimmerman; Hickory, including hybrids--Bixby, Bogne, Boor Nos. 1 and 2, Bowen, Cranz Nos. 1 and 2, Fairbanks, Frank, Haskell, Leach, Lozsdon, McConkey, Nething, Reynolds, Ridiker, Russell, Stratford, Weschcke, and Wright; Pecan--Busseron, Greenriver, and Posey; Black Walnut--Barnhart, Brown, Cowle, Fulton (Syn. Miller of Ohio), Hare, Havice, Horton, Jansen, Krause, Lisbon, Mintle, Mohican, Murphey, Ohio, Rohwer, Snyder, Sparrow, Stabler, Stambaugh, Thomas, Tritten, Twin Lakes, and Wanda; Persian Walnut--Alliance, Baxter, Blosser, Broadview, Diller, Elmore, Gligor Nos. 1 and 2, Graber, Hall, Lieber, Lopeman, Oehn, and Schafer; Heartnut--Bellevue, Canoka, Fish, and Keck. In addition there are 55 black walnut seedlings of Brown and Lisbon varieties; 65 seedling black walnuts of unknown parentage; 280 Persian walnut seedlings of known percentage; 37 heartnut seedlings; 30 Chinese chestnut seedlings; and 22 seedling filberts. The Ohio Black Walnut Contest of 1946 The contest was sponsored by the Ohio chapter of the N.N.G.A., Inc., and was publicised through the cooperation of the Ohio Forestry Association and the Ohio Farmer magazine. There were 692 separate black walnut entries, showing the great interest aroused. The nuts that won first place were grown by Mr. Duke Hughes, of Coal Run, Noble County, O. He states the tree is about 50 years old and stands in well-limed permanent pasture near the crest of a ridge, in Muskingum silt loam. The system of judging was that set up by the TVA at Norris, Tenn. The judges were Oliver D. Diller, Secretary of the Ohio Forestry Association; L. Walter Sherman, Superintendent of the Mahoning County Experiment Farm; and C. W. Ellenwood, Associate Horticulturist at the Wooster Experiment Station. They were assisted by William H. Cummings, Spencer B. Chase and Thomas G. Zarger, all of T.V.A., and several members of the Ohio chapter of NNGA. The prize winners are listed in order of awards. [Illustration: Mr. Duke Hughes, Coal Run, Washington County, Ohio, and the tree producing the first prize--Duke black walnut.] Name Weight, First Final Percent Applied Grams Pick, Pick, of Grams Grams Kernel 1. Duke Hughes, Coal Run, Duke 27.2 6.8 6.9 25.3 Washington County, Ohio 2. J. C. Burson, Rt. 5, Athens, Burson 21.5 4.9 6.2 28.8 Athens County, Ohio 3. Mrs. C. E. Campbell, Lowellsville, Kuhn 19.0 5.5 5.8 30.5 Mahoning County Ohio 4. Ed. Smith, Rt. 3, Athens, Athens 23.5 4.9 6.5 27.6 Athens County, Ohio 5. Mrs. O. Shaffer, Lucasville, Oliver 22.6 5.3 5.8 25.5 Scioto County, Ohio 6. Wm. J. Davidson, Xenia, Davidson 13.5 4.6 4.8 35.5 Green County, Ohio 7. A. C. Orth, Rt. 5, Dayton, Orth Montgomery County, Ohio 8. H. C. Williamson, Southside, Williamson Mason County, West Virginia 9. Herbert Penn, Otway, Penn Scioto County, Ohio 10. Mrs. A. L. Jackson, Little Jackson Hocking, Washington County, Ohio [Illustration: The Judges At Work] 1946 Iowa Black Walnut Contest By C. C. Lounsberry, Secretary I.N.G.A. The 1946 black walnut contest sponsored by the Iowa Nut Growers' Association was held at the Hoyt Sherman Place, Des Moines, Iowa, on November 14 and 15, 1946. The judges were Prof. H. E. Nichols, Dr. H. H. Plagge, and Dr. J. M. Aikman. Following the policy set in the 1942 contest, the Iowa State Horticultural Society put up cash and ribbons with special reference to standard and previously shown varieties, while the Iowa Nut Growers' Association was interested in new varieties. The following are the premiums awarded: Standard Varieties: Prize Name Variety 1 Schlagenbusch Bros., Ft. Madison Thomas 2 Russell Krouse, Toddville Krouse 3 Schlagenbusch Bros., Ft. Madison Stambaugh 4 E. F. Huen, Eldora Thomas 5 Seward Berhow, Huxley Ohio 6 Seward Berhow, Huxley Myers 7 R. S. Herrick, Prole Thomas 8 Schlagenbusch Bros., Ft. Madison Hepler 9 E. F. Huen, Eldora Ohio 10 E. F. Huen, Eldora Rohwer New Varieties: Prize Name Variety 1 Schlagenbusch Bros., Ft. Madison Schlagenbusch 2 F. J. Wagner, Danville Wagner 3 Tom Bandfield, Shell Rock Shepard 4 Roy A. Wood, Castana Wood 5 Mrs. Minnie Waldo, Grand Junction Waldo 6 E. F. Huen, Eldora Huen 7 Ira M. Kyhl, Sabula Tinker 8 Schlagenbusch Bros., Ft. Madison Kramer 9 Sam Moncrief, Center Junction Acme 10 C. E. Brockway, Grundy Center Birchwood There were only 22 entries in standard varieties and 22 entries in new varieties so we did not make much of a showing as compared with the 1946 Ohio contest. However, very good walnuts came in. They were all sampled with a mechanical cracker. An interesting development to me was the fact that machine cracking left the center of several of the best varieties of walnuts looking much like the core of an apple, instead of being broken in two as in hand cracking. Grafting Methods Adapted to Nut Trees By H. F. Stoke, Virginia (The notes I contributed to the 1945 Report under the title "Experiences With Nut Grafting" were so fragmentary as to be of little value. In an effort to correct the error I am offering the following supplementary notes in the hope that amateurs like myself may find them of some practical use.) My best success with the propagation of nut trees has been with the following methods. For budding, I use the plate bud exclusively. For grafting on stocks up to one inch I use either the splice graft or the modified cleft graft. For larger stocks I use either the simple bark graft or the slot bark graft. Each will be discussed in order. In making the plate bud, it is cut from the scion or bud stick the same as for the familiar T bud. Usually a bit of wood is cut away with the bud, which should not be removed. A bud, or a bit of bark, should similarly be cut from the stock at the desired point, and discarded. The area of exposed cambium on the stock should correspond as closely as possible with the cambium area exposed on the bud. The bud is then laid on the exposed cambium of the stock, and bound in place, preferably with rubber budding strips. The point of the bud should be left exposed. [Illustration: SIMPLE BARK GRAFT Useful with thin-barked species.] Choice of time when conditions are right is quite as necessary for success as the proper procedure. There are two separate periods when the plate bud may be used on walnut with the greatest success. The first period, in Virginia, is the latter half of May, when the black walnut stock is in almost full leaf. If done earlier the bud is likely to be drowned by the excessive bleeding of this species. Dormant buds cut the previous winter are used. The follow-up care is vitally important. The stock should be cut off above the bud within five to seven days after budding. If successful, the bud will start into growth within another week or ten days, and may be a foot long within 30 days. [Illustration: 1. Slot bark graft; useful in top-working. 2. Splice graft; unexcelled when scion and stock are of equal diameter. 3. Modified cleft graft; for all general purposes. 4. Plate bud; for small and medium stocks.] The tying material should be cut and removed within a few days after the bud starts, to prevent strangulation of the tender shoot. Be sure to keep native growth of the stock trimmed off until midsummer to force growth of the bud. The second period for successful plate budding of the walnut centers around August first, varying somewhat with the weather conditions. Buds of the current season's growth are used. The time must be late enough for these buds to be well matured, and early enough so that the stock is still growing and the bark slipping. If the buds are immature, or the bark tight, the operation will be a failure. The buds remain dormant during the following winter, and are forced into growth by cutting off the stock above the bud early in the spring. The tying material, if durable, should be removed about 30 days after budding. If conditions are right and the work is properly done, a high percentage of "takes" may be expected. In summer I preferably place the bud on the shady side of the stock, or shade it with a little skirt of white paper tied just above the bud. Chestnuts can be budded by the same method, but the spring budding should be done earlier, while the stocks are in bud, and the summer budding should be done two or three weeks later than with the walnut. I have not tried the plate bud on hickory or pecan, but it is the only budding method I use on walnut and chestnut, and I have tried them all. When it comes to grafting, the simple splice graft, as illustrated, is very successful, but it should only be used when scion and stock are of the same size. It works splendidly on chestnut, filbert and hickory, and can also be used on walnut; however, I prefer the modified cleft graft for the latter, because of the bleeding problem. In making the splice graft, the diagonal cut should be about four times as long as the diameter of the scion, to prevent slippage in tying. For the modified cleft graft I cut the stock off at the selected point at an angle of from 45 to 60 degrees. This greatly facilitates the healing of the entire wound. The cleft is made not by splitting, but by making a cut with a sharp knife, beginning at the apex of the stock and cutting diagonally downward and inward toward the center of the stock. Before making the cut, the scion should be selected, and the wedge cut, with one face slightly longer than the other. This enables one to properly judge the depth and angle of the cleft, thus securing a fit on all four cambial lines. The longer face goes toward the main body of the stock, and is left slightly above the top of the stock. The apex of the stock is squared off slightly before the cleft is cut, and the knife is set very slightly on the wood at the starting point, rather than between the bark and the wood. Care at this point guarantees very rapid healing, with no dead tissues or "heel" on the stock, sometimes called "dieback." Remember to watch all ties in grafting to prevent strangulation of the tender new growth. This, with removal of sprouts or suckers from the stock below the graft are two very important features of after-care, and neglect can nullify the most expert work in the grafting operation. In grafting the black walnut I prefer to use the side graft because of the bleeding problem. This is precisely the same as the modified cleft graft except that the cleft is made about three-fourths of an inch below the apex of the stock. By making the graft a little below the top of the stock one can tie and wax it, without waxing the top of the stock, which is permitted to bleed at will. This freedom to bleed relieves the pressure of the sap at the graft, where healing takes place without flooding. For stocks under an inch in diameter, I use the splice and modified cleft grafts exclusively. For larger stocks, such as are encountered in top working, other methods are preferred. One can cut the main stock off just above a small limb, and graft one or more of the limbs. Again, one may cut the large stock off a year in advance, and bud or graft one or more of the suckers that are thrown out. If neither of the above methods are applicable, one can use either the simple bark graft, or the slot bark graft. In making the simple bark graft, I cut the stock off at a 45 degree angle as for the modified cleft graft. The scion is prepared by making one long wedge face, and on the other side make two short faces so that the point is triangular. To insert the scion make a cut through the bark downward from the apex of the stock. Insert the scion between the bark and the stock, with the long face next to the wood, and force gently down until just a little of the face of the wedge shows above the top of the scion. It is well, in case the stock is large, to place three or four scions around the stock, removing all but the strongest after a year of two. This graft is satisfactory for thin-barked species, but for the hickory, the slot bark graft is preferable. For this graft, the scion should be trimmed as a wedge, with one face about twice as long as the other. Two parallel cuts are made through the bark at the top of the stock a distance apart equal to the width of the scion wedge. This strip of bark, or "tongue" is loosened at the top, and the wedge is forced between it and the wood, with the long face next to the stock, as in the simple bark graft. Secure tying and waxing should be practiced in all grafting. Small nails or tacks driven into the top of the stock will help in anchoring the tying material to the sloping surface. Inexperienced propagators should get it clearly in mind that union takes place only in the new growth. This new growth builds up from the cambium layer, which is the outside layer of wood cells that lies just beneath and in contact with the bark. This is why it is so vitally necessary that the lines between the bark and cambium be placed in parallel contact as closely as possible, in the splice and cleft grafts. Never mind if the outside of the bark of scion and do not match perfectly, due to differences in the thickness of the bark. It is the inside line of the bark that must match. Actual union takes place along this cambial line. The old wood of the wedge and cleft cannot, and never does, unite. A word about scions. I seldom use a scion with more than two buds. The best scion wood is of the previous season's growth, if it is of good diameter and well ripened. Thin, slender twigs give poor results. On old, slow-growing, bearing trees it is sometimes not possible to get good scion wood one year old. In this case it is best to take some of the older wood in cutting the scion. When used, the wedge should be cut from the two-year wood, just below the one-year wood, with the top of the scion carrying two or three buds on the new wood. The tip of the scion should be waxed, if cut. Scions should be cut when perfectly dormant and kept in cold storage until used. If kept too warm and wet the buds may swell, making the scions worthless. It is quite possible to cut the scions about three weeks before the buds begin to swell and get good results by grafting immediately. The chief danger from this practice is that late frosts may nip the buds after starting, which is fatal to the new scion. Waxing all cut surfaces, including the tip of the scion, should be practiced except as explained when the side graft is used for walnuts. Some advocate waxing the entire scion, also. If this is done I think it better to leave the buds unwaxed. Have your knife very sharp. A broad blade is desirable in a grafting knife, as it helps in making smooth, flat surfaces in wedges and clefts. For budding, use a knife with a narrow blade, but also very sharp. Develop skill in making the scion wedge, and in cutting the cleft just the right depth and width for the scion selected. Experiment on worthless material until you get the knack. If you are a good, natural-born whittler you will find it a greater asset than a college degree. Beginnings in Walnut Grafting By C. C. Lounsberry, Iowa Anyone who has studied propagation manuals from ancient to modern times cannot help but see how methods are carried down from older books to modern ones. However, in walnut grafting one suspects there were trade secrets not permitted publication. How different this was from friendly and helpful cultural and propagation directions given by Mr. J. F. Jones, Dr. W. C. Deming, Dr. Robert T. Morris, and others of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. Beginning with Ancient Times Greeks: Theophrastus mentions hazel nuts but nothing about walnuts. Romans: Pliny, Cato, etc. have little to say about walnuts. Pliny refers to planting seeds of walnuts but no other method of propagation. However, he states oaks and walnuts are poisonous to soil, and walnuts are only used in a few cases for human remedies. English: Loudon, Evelyn, Knight, etc. Loudon sticks to propagation of walnuts by seed. Knight[8] followed the French practice of grafting walnuts by approach up to the time of his discoveries in 1832, which were similar to Dr. Morris's "immediate" grafting. French: The French used grafting by approach (inarching) early in the 19th century. Mortillet[11], 1863, states only one-third to one-half of walnut grafts are successful. These were probably Persian walnuts. We are not sure what other methods the French used. Mr. C. E. Parsons of the Felix Gillet Co. in 1940, sent us a picture showing Felix Gillet in his greenhouse at Barren Hill Nursery, Nevada City, California. This picture he states was taken in 1900-1902. It shows one year grafted walnut trees, and bench grafted walnut trees covered by tumblers six inches high, grafted by the "Treyve" process. Beginnings in the United States The first grafting of black walnuts thus comes down to the beginning of the 20th century. William P. Corsa[3] with the USDA gave much information from replies to a questionnaire sent out in 1890, on nut culture and grafting, including bench grafting, in 1896. Mr. G. W. Oliver[13] in 1901, describes a method followed by Corsa in bench grafting walnuts and hickories. He used an incubator. Mr. Jackson Dawson[15] previously, working with hickories, had success in the greenhouse. Andrew S. Fuller[4] in his Nut Culturist, published in 1896, advises that the South had not yet perfected pecan grafting. This seems to have been a challenge to Mr. J. F. Jones[1 & 7], for we find he moved from Missouri to Monticello, Fla., about 1899, and specialized in pecan grafting. He developed the slanting cut he later advocated in walnut grafting. However, again showing "there is nothing new under the sun" the author's uncle, Owen Albright, is credited by Corsa[3] with suggesting it in 1894, and it is also suggested by Mortillet[11] in 1863. Grafting Wax The necessity to protect graft unions by excluding air and moisture from cut plant tissue led to the use of balls of mud in ancient times. Later, various kinds of waxes were used. In 1879, Prof. J. L. Budd[2], head of the Horticultural Department at Iowa State College, using resin and linseed oil, side grafted 150 varieties of Russian apples received from the interior of Russia in the winter of 1878. A boy swabbed hot wax on the grafts, using a lantern heater not too different from those used nowadays. Mr. F. O. Harrington and Mr. S. W. Snyder, Iowa nurserymen were teaching grafting to members of the Iowa Horticultural Society in 1900, 1901 and 1902, at their annual meetings. Mr. J. B. McLaughlin[9], College Springs, Iowa, speaks of successfully grafting walnuts in 1900 in a discussion of the horticultural society led by Van Houton, Edwards, etc. In 1909, Mr. E. A. Riehl[14] gave a talk before the Iowa State Horticultural Society in which he advocated covering the whole walnut scion, buds and all, with liquid wax. His first Thomas grafted tree is in a ravine back at his barn at Godfrey, Illinois. It was planted about 1902[12]. In 1910, the Northern Nut Growers' Association was organized by Prof. John Craig of Cornell University, Dr. Robert T. Morris, Dr. W. C. Deming, Mr. T. P. Littlepage and others. Craig had previously been at Iowa State College where he and Budd had shown much interest in nut trees. In 1912, Mr. J. F. Jones [1][7], came up from the South where he had been successful in pecan grafting and started a black walnut nursery at Lancaster, Penna. He had been in Florida up to 1907. While in Florida he became acquainted with Mr. John G. Rush, of Willow Run, Penna., and did some walnut grafting for him. It was Mr. Rush who advised him to go to Lancaster and start a nursery for northern black walnuts. Jones patented his patch budder in 1912, and using the hot wax method developed by Mr. E. A. Riehl was very successful in walnut grafting. In 1914, Dr. W. C. Deming and President T. P. Littlepage of the N.N.G.A. and Messrs. C. A. Reed and C. P. Close of the USDA had a conference in Washington which resulted in the publication of the American Nut Journal. Paraffin In Grafting Dr. Robert T. Morris[10], writing in the American Nut Journal in 1929, advocates the use of paraffin to cover walnut grafts instead of wax. Both he and Dr. J. Russell Smith[15] credit Mr. J. Ford Wilkinson with first using paraffin instead of wax on walnut grafts. Mr. Wilkinson wrote that he got the idea from seeing a careless workman splash paraffin on the buds as well as on the union in fruit tree grafting at the McCoy Nursery about 1914. The author bought apple and plum grafts about 1922 from the Gurney Nursery which were all covered with paraffin. It was at conventions of the Northern Nut Growers' Association that new methods like this were passed along to members. Bench Grafting In 1932, on account of the difficulties in outdoor grafting of the walnut, the author became interested in bench grafting of walnuts in the greenhouse as a means of supplementing outdoor grafting. However, like many other so-called new methods, it was discovered when we looked up the literature in 1937 that William P. Corsa[3] had used methods that were similar about 1896. He cut off the seedling above the crown instead of below the crown as we did. The completed graft was packed in layers of sphagnum and placed in an incubator instead of using a greenhouse. Notwithstanding all that has been done in black walnut grafting, the straight grained and brittle wood, the heavy sap flow, the almost instant oxidation of cut tissues, the liability to frost injury in the North in short seasons lowering vitality of scions, all combine to make walnut grafting with best methods available, a seasonal gamble. Literature Cited 1. AMERICAN NUT JOURNAL Life of J. F. Jones. Am. Nut Jour. 28:35, 1928 2. BUDD, J. L. Hot Waxing of Apple Grafts. Trans. Iowa Hort. Soc. 14:421. 1879 3. CORSA, WILLIAM P. USDA, Div. of Pom., Nut Culture of the United States. pp. 13-16, 58. 1896 4. FULLER, ANDREW S. Nut Culturist. 1896 5. HERSHEY, JOHN W. Life of J. F. Jones. The Nut Grower. 4:22, 1928 6. INSTITUT FUR OBSTBAU, BERLIN Die Walnusz verediung. (Vegetative Propagation of Walnuts.) Merkbl. Inst. Obstb. Berlin 5, pp. 15, 1936 7. JONES, J. F. Propagation of Nut Trees. About 1927 8. KNIGHT, THOMAS ANDREW New methods of Grafting Walnuts. Trans. Hort. Soc. of London. 2nd series. Vol. I, 1831-1835. pp 214-216 9. McLAUGHLIN, J. B. Grafting Black Walnuts. Trans. Iowa Hort. Soc. 35:534, 1900 10. MORRIS, DR. ROBERT T. Paraffin Coating Solves Difficult Grafting. Am. Nut Jour. 30:70,85. 1929 11. MORTILLET, PAUL D. Le Noyer sa Culture ses Varieties. (Propagation of the Walnut.) Rev. Hort. 136:499. 1863 12. NNGA CONVENTION, St. Louis Trip to Riehl Nut Orchard. Am. Nut Journ. 23:59, 1925 13. OLIVER, G. W. Grafting Walnuts and Hickories. Amer. Gard. 22:307-308. 1901 14. RIEHL, E. A. Nut Growing for Pleasure and Profit. Trans. Iowa State Hort. Soc. 44:84, 1909 15. SMITH, J. RUSSELL Tree Crops. 1929 16. STANDARD CYC. OF HORT. Hickory Propagation, p. 1489, 1925 17. WITT, A. W. and HOWARD SPENCE Vegetative Propagation of Walnuts. Ann. Rep. East Malling Res. Sta. 1926-7, Supl. A 10, 1928, pp. 60-64 Forest Background By John Davidson, Xenia, Ohio (Read at the Ohio Nut Growers Annual Meeting, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, August 16, 1946.) Where did the Persian, or so-called "English" walnut come from? Why is it a good commercial nut? The Pecan? How far can it be carried north beyond its natural, or original, environment? The Pawpaw? Why is it not a good commercial fruit? Why don't most people like it? What is the matter with the mulberry in America? In China and Japan it has a score of uses and great popularity. These questions need an answer, and the answer almost invariably is that the poorer varieties and species have had but little attention and development by human beings while the better ones, Persian walnuts, grapes, melons, apples, dates, figs--all have had much attention and painstaking selection--in some cases for centuries. Upon the other hand, to cite a contrasting case the black walnut has no such history. It is the baby among nuts--a pure American baby--waiting for some nursemaid--for many nursemaids--to tend and develop it as a prince among trees should be developed. Let us look back into the story behind a few--a very few--of our better known fruits and nuts and see, if we can, how they happened. In America once lived a man nicknamed "Johnny Appleseed." His neighbors called him a "crackpate." He had a mania for planting tree seeds wherever he went. As a rule they were haphazardly selected seeds, but usually appleseeds. What started him upon this crazy journey through the wilderness? Whatever it was, it would be worth while to isolate the germ and with it inoculate our present-day soil wasters. But he was not the first one of his kind. Hundreds of pre-historic planters had gone before him. For years, now, explorers have been searching out and sending back to America certain valuable discoveries. Tremendously interesting, all of them. As one reads, it becomes increasingly evident that a considerable amount of scientific plant and animal breeding, selection, perhaps even grafting and artificial cross fertilization, budding and slip propagating may have been practiced by pre-historic, intelligent, forgotten men long before our modern times. We usually find, today, that the best plants and animals have had their start in some center of old civilization. China, Manchuria, Japan, Indo-China, India, Persia, Asia Minor, Central America, Oceania--these places, the nurseries of all existing races of men are today the bonanza spots for these explorers. Such a coincidence could hardly have been due to chance. It must surely occur to the mind of anyone who cares to put two and two together that, in each of these centers, other ancient gatherers and planters had been busy in their day, just as our own explorers and experiment station scientists are carrying on today--our modern, scientific Johnny Appleseeds. It is hardly possible, here, to follow to the ends of the earth all of the trails of the tribe of Johnny Appleseed. One little section will do well enough for purposes of illustration. Let us consider Iran, or, as our fathers knew it, Persia. Here is a field that, possibly because of previous plunderings, is not now the most fruitful of our sources of plant and animal discovery, yet it is an eye-opener, and will do very well as a type of similar test-plots throughout the world. Here is a short list of only a few of the plants which have been developed for centuries, and were reported in the last century as growing in Persia--many, no doubt, descended from stocks which once grew in the famous hanging gardens of Babylon: apples, pears, filberts muskmelons, watermelons, grapes, peaches, plums, nectarines. And of flowers, these: marigold, chrysanthemum, hollyhock, narcissus, tulip, tuberose, aster, wallflower, dalia, white lily, hyacinth, violet, larkspur, pink and finally, the famous rose of Persia, from whence comes the attar of roses for which Persia is still famous. It would seem that someone must have possessed a knowledge of plant propagation in Persia centuries ago. Several of these products have had their influence upon the history and poetry of the world. It will be remembered by most high school students that when the Caesars and big shots of Rome and Greece wished to create a big splash in the social ponds of their day, they sent, at enormous expense, for melons and dates from Persia. Melons, in particular, seemed to be the high spot in those Lucullan feasts, and, in this connection it is well to remember that Lucullus, himself, as commanding general of a Roman legion, had long lived in Persia and had, no doubt, acquired a taste for Persian delicacies. His princely estates near Rome, no doubt, grew rare plants from Asia Minor and were very likely tended by the skilled Aryan, early Accadian or Semitic gardeners of Persia. These slaves were probably descended from and were heir to the trade secrets of some of the very builders of that seventh wonder of the world, the hanging gardens of Babylon. Except for those forgotten workers from Persia, one may well wonder whether, today, our Rocky Ford, Ohio Sugar, or Hearts-of-Gold muskmelon delicacies would exist at all. An interesting side-light may be found in the history of the peach. Originally this fruit was in all probability a poisonous variety of almond. What wizard, or succession of wizards, was it who created a peach from a pest--an asset from a liability? Persian, probably. Whoever did it, it constitutes one of the outstanding miracles of plant breeding, whether natural or artificial. The poison was sealed within the seed (where it remains to this day) and the nectar of the gods was bred into the pulp around it. Consider also the Persian walnut, now, for some strange reason, popularly called "English" walnut. This delicacy, too, was unlikely to have happened merely by chance. It was, no doubt, bred by a race of men trained in observation and experiment such as the Persians preeminently were. Having first been nomads, domesticators and breeders of animals; they eventually became husbandmen, breeders of trees and plants, and they undoubtedly found that the principles which were so usefully employed in producing animal variations could also be used in producing and fixing plant varieties. The pollen or germ of an outstanding good male individual, when brought into contact with the pistil or ovum of an outstanding female individual of the same species will produce a scion that is more likely than any other to have good qualities. Here was the secret of most of the progress which has been made in both animal and plant breeding, a secret of immense value--so valuable, in fact, that it was guarded for generation after generation by a close-mouthed priesthood. Just as, in the middle ages, the monasteries of Europe and Asia kept alive the tiny flame of Greek and Roman culture throughout the foggy ignorance of the Dark Ages, so did the priests of Baal, of Ashtoreth, of Marduk and of Ormuzd pass on the torch of their day to their successors who were Greeks and Romans. The Eleusinian mysteries, which at a later time were associated with a considerable amount of sensual, closely guarded ritual, were, in the Greek period, celebrated in the temple of Ceres in Eleusis. The origin of these sacred mysteries is lost in the shadow of profound antiquity. We know, only, that they were in the safekeeping of many generations of priests who jealously guarded them from thieving and ignorant conquerors. These mysteries were probably, at bottom, a body of scientific truths. They undoubtedly had to do with a store of information, painfully gleaned for generations, about those facts of reproduction, selection and beneficient fertility which are so close to the Holy of Holies of creation itself. Probably these precious mysteries could be simmered down to a few fundamentals and such as are now generally practiced by all plant and animal breeders. And they are not fully understood today, any more than they were fully understood three thousand years ago. By the practice of these simple arts, hedged in with taboos and religious inhibitions, Persia, Assyria, and all Mesopotamia became the garden spot of the world where things seemed to grow as they grew no place else. Here, in fact, was said to have been located the only genuine and original Garden of Eden, pointed out to this day by the faithful as the veritable spot where the father and mother of the race lived in a laborless, exhaustless Paradise. Mention has been made of the probability that the Persians, who originally were nomadic and therefore were chiefly interested in the domestication of animals--which means, really, selective breeding--used this knowledge in plant breeding when they finally settled down. The big leap from nomadic to settled life must have caused the old timers of that day plenty of headaches. It was a new deal to top all New Deals. Was it, perhaps, some Johnny Appleseed who engineered the New Deal of that day? Let us guess at the method he used. As the nomad tribe passed from place to place with its goats, its sheep, its camels, Johnny with his sons and grandsons would take to prettying up the camp sites a bit. He particularly like the dates from one palm that grew upon an oasis far down the desert. He carried the seeds from this tree and planted them at various stopping places. He did the same thing with some especially sweet nuts from a walnut tree which he had found, let us say, in the Caucasus Mountains. He set out many bright-blossomed desert weeds in order to attract the wild honey bees. Bees! Wherever there were bees, he had found flowers that reproduced themselves, trees that bore fruit. Some of these bees he found to be good workers and others he found lazy, quarrelsome and inefficient. He killed out the quarrelsome colonies and built hiding places for the better ones. In short, he did so much to make the camping places cozy, comfortable and in every way desirable that finally it became more and more difficult for the tribe to tear itself away on moving day. By reason of the small irrigation arrangements which Johnny had found desirable for his plantings and his bees, grass became more abundant and the flocks did not need to be moved so often. In time, the whole tribe wakened to the fact that a revolution had taken place. They did not need to move at all, ever! There was plenty of grumbling from the die-hards, but here the tribe stuck. It refused to budge. In time, a certain phrase, current throughout that part of the world, was used to describe this pleasant country: "A land flowing with milk and honey!" Unfortunately, it was a land, also, which could not fail, in the flower of its wealth and luxury, to attract the attention of those savage northerners who lived beyond this favored land. They came, they saw, and eventually they conquered. When Rome had definitely destroyed the flower of Asia Minor's civilization, the Roman proconsuls and merchants "rescued" and carried back to Italy many of the rarest of Mesopotamia's possessions. Among these, perhaps, were those indispensable wonder-workers among the flowers, the better bees of Persia. And this may be the reason why, these many centuries later, our bee experts still recommend that, if we wish to increase the strength and productivity of a backward hive of bees, we buy and introduce into the hive an Italian queen. Her ancient and still prepotent virility can almost invariable be relied upon to transfuse the colony with new and fruitful vigor. An "Italian" queen, is it? We wonder, as we think of that venerable land of Eden which once flowed with milk and honey, whether this so-called Italian queen might not more correctly be named Persian. You see, in this story we are traveling backwards into history like Ally Oop in his time machine. But beyond Persia one can go only in imagination. For the Persians, too, were a conquering nation and, no doubt, gathered their booty of gold and sheep and camels, of flowers and bees, from all the then known world which was subject to them. So perhaps Persia, too, has no more right to label her treasures Persian than has Italy with her presumably mislabeled Italian bees, nor England with her undoubtedly mislabeled English walnuts. However, the work of Johnny Appleseed has always belonged, not to his tribe nor to his locality, but to the world. These same Persian walnuts take rank among the better clues by which migrations of the Aryans may be traced over the face of the earth. For instance, not only do they take root easily in the mild, friendly climate of California, but much hardier strains are found to have climbed the Carpathians and the steppes of Russia almost to the very doors of Moscow. Scions of these hardier strains have very recently been made to grow and yield their nuts in America as far north as Toronto and are being set out in numbers in the northern part of the United States. How well they will prosper in this new, more variable and chilly climate remains to be seen, but the start is made. No doubt it will be by Johnny's old method of patient and repeated selection, first for hardiness then for quality, that the planned result will be accomplished. The contributions of Persia and the plantings of its forgotten scientists have here merely been touched on. Nothing, for instance, has been said about her great groves of mulberry trees, which led to silk-worms, which led to silk, which led to the production of jewel-bright vegetable dyes, which led to the development of a decorative art in fabrics that is rivaled by China, alone, in all the world. And of course, Aryan Persia is only one of the many treasure centers of ancient civilization. In scores of racial settlements elsewhere our lives today are being changed and enriched in innumerable ways by the hands of those old miracle-workers whose names were writ in water and whose works are immortal. The accomplishments of China are of such magnitude that even now we are only beginning to discover our debt to her. India, Indo-China, Mongolia, Manchuria, Japan--all have similar backgrounds. Even in the United States, young as it is, the migrations of pre-historic races have left their trails in the gardens and forests around us. Pecans from the South, for example, have been carried North and are gradually developing hardy strains that survived in Indiana and Illinois groves. Enough has been said to blaze the way to the end at which I have been driving. It may begin to look as though modern plant explorers have now followed the plant-spoor of human migrations to their final limits. It may look, too, as though the ends of these converging trails will find civilization at last firmly established. Or will they? The future race, let us admit, may eventually be able, by means of an almost unthinkable development of food, clothing, building and medical supplies of a synthetic or semi-synthetic nature, to dispense with some of the agriculture we know. This is the prediction of some scientists. Let it stand. What then is to be done with the land upon which our food crops had formerly been raised? Manifestly, it must again be covered with hurricane-control, flood-control, and erosion-control vegetation, chiefly trees, perhaps. Trees for safety's sake, trees for beauty's sake, for recreation's sake, trees for food's--yes, food's sake, for flavor and health, trees and vegetation as sources for the very synthetic that are supposed to supplant them; and last but not least, trees and vegetation for the protection and perpetuation of animal life, of bird life, and insect life. All these are inseparably bound up with human life. Come what may at the hands of a short-sighted human race, no matter what surface changes may come about in human eating habits, housing styles, farming or factory practice, still the winds will sweep the earth in hurricanes where there is nothing to impede them; the waters and ice of the heavens will still tear apart and level the hills, will gash the valleys and will carry off the earth and dump it into the sea. Following this, the sun will burn the unprotected earth into a cinder. Nothing can change these facts. From the beginning of life upon the earth, trees and vegetation have been the chief means by which a balance has been maintained between the antagonistically destructive and creative natures of the elements. Do we realize fully, I wonder, how important is the work of this group and the parent NNGA? The interest of its members is chiefly in "wild" trees that produce food crops--mainly, but not exclusively, nut crops. And they are interested not merely in planting and testing names and known varieties, but in finding and testing the best individuals among the wild trees, planting selected seed, enjoying the exciting gamble which is always sealed up in the magic, unknown potentialities of a hybrid. As, centuries ago, the Persian walnut was rescued from the forest and developed into the splendid nut we know today, so the American black walnut can be rescued; its nut can be improved and developed by selection and cross-breeding. It is a grand mahogany-like timber tree which is becoming far too scarce. Each war takes its toll for gun stocks. Its nuts are the only nuts within my knowledge, not even excepting our lost American chestnuts, that retain their full distinctive flavor through cooking. Nothing can replace its flavor in candy or cake making. The tree is indigenous to America and, in contrast to the Persian, has only decades, rather than centuries of selective breeding behind it. No one can tell what even one short century of intelligent selection may make of this great tree. We Americans, in fact, have barely started on the Appleseed trail, a trail which tends toward the development of a permanent perennial, rather than annual, type of agriculture, with trees, shrubs, vines and perennial grasses its chief interest. For, no matter what chemistry has in store for us in the way of plastics for construction and of synthetics for foods and drugs, the good earth is still our sole source of supply. The chestnut, the mulberry, persimmon, pawpaw, pecan, hickory, wild cherry, the grape, the elderberry in fact the whole tribe of fruits and nuts with flavors found nowhere else on earth--all are growing along this ancient trail. They offer an infinite variety of opportunity for exploration and discovery. To work with them gives one a sense of sharing in the work of creation. Graft the Persian Walnut High in Michigan By Gilbert Becker, Climax, Michigan The rule to plant the Persian walnut where peaches and sweet cherries do well is a good one; but not infallible and certainly can't be too closely relied upon here in southwestern Michigan. Since 1933, I have placed several hundred grafts of the Persian walnut upon black stocks. Many of these are top worked trees, but there were 68 grafted seedlings in nursery rows, grafted in 1936. These were planted out two years later. Some are now about ten feet tall with a well branched head. Of this lot I have only harvested one ripe nut and that was four years ago. Two of these same trees were planted near some buildings and shrubbery at a neighbor's home, and they are now bearing well. Before going further I must say that Persian walnut trees and peach trees are quite different. First, the Persian walnut cannot stand having its female flowers frosted when they are out or nearly so. Second, the peach can stand frost at, or shortly after, full bloom, and they will set a bumper crop of peaches. We have had two years of late spring frosts at the time nut trees were in bloom, and we have had bumper crops of peaches each year. Apples were badly hit, so many have failed to bear. Lilac blossoms failed to come out and be showy because of these severe frosts. However, I know of a peach tree heavily loaded right now growing between two Persian walnuts that haven't had a single nut either year, though they have borne nuts previously. Thus, peaches will bear in frosty springs when Persian walnuts are damaged. Further, good-air drainage, such as a high hill, with a deep valley below will save the Persian nut crop in a frosty spring. I have a small Persian walnut grafted in such a location, and it is the heaviest loaded nut tree I have. It has so many large nuts on its limbs that its lower limbs are actually resting upon the ground. This was grafted upon an established black seedling four years ago. What I have so far told would lead one to think that there is no nut crop on my Persian grafts this year. This is not so, for I have one of the largest crops in the 13 years I have had grafted Persian walnuts. These are on top-worked trees high above the ground! Most of the top-worked trees are over 12 feet at the graft, or higher, and it is best to have them this high, because almost all lower limbs are simply minus nuts, due to our unfavorable spring. As for proof, I noticed that the lower limbs had blackened leaves, while the entire tops were undamaged a few days after the frosty weather. The lower branches leaved out the second time in late May. It seems as if the Persian walnut produces two nuts to every one that a grafted black walnut will on a top of equal size. We are troubled with walnut curculio as well as considerably by squirrels, and by a leaf disorder that often blackens the leaves and causes them to fall in early September, followed by premature dropping of the nuts. Even then, there should be a good crop this year. Now, comes the question, should we graft the Persian walnut high, here in Michigan? It certainly saves time, because a middle-aged walnut tree produces, in terms of pecks and bushels, in eight to 15 years. Being well established it saves patience and disappointment. And I know it is far more profitable. This writing of my experience is not intended to hurt the established nut tree nurseryman in any way. Any of you who may live in Michigan are certainly devoted to your hobby and have doubtless learned the skills and pleasures of top-working a good sized seedling black walnut. You will surely find it profitable. First, purchase the grafted Persian tree from your nurseryman, and later, from this, work your established seedling blacks at your convenience. Graft them at least 12 feet up and see if what I say isn't quite true. Pecan Growing in Western Illinois By R. B. Best, Eldred, Illinois We need a consistent philosophy in this troubled world of ours. Working with nature and especially with nut trees helps us to develop this philosophy and to realize that there are no panaceas for our present day problems except as we work them out ourselves. After all our wishful thinking with panaceas and doctrines, we come back to the same conclusion. Those people with the best foundations built on reason and truth are those who are nearest the soil and growing things. Those who work with trees and other living things in nature possess the philosophy which acts as a breastwork against the forces which would destroy our society. We started our propagation of nut trees in 1930 under the guiding hand of Mr. Wilkinson, Mr. Sawyer and Professor Ray Marsh of the University of Illinois, and later have had help from Dr. Colby of the University. We have at present about 2500 grafted pecan trees, a few varieties of hickories, black walnuts, chestnuts, filberts, persimmons, butternuts, heartnuts, pawpaws, etc. When people ask me what we expect from our trees, I tell them that the trees have already paid me in satisfaction if not in filling my purse. I do expect our nut tree project to give us a good financial return. The pecan is our leader in Western Illinois as a popular nut. Much of our Illinois river bottom land, if deserted by man, would immediately pass back to nature and exist as pecan groves. I have been working with pecan trees since 1930 and today find myself with more questions than answers. We are growing at present about 37 varieties of pecans. We are reaching certain notions which we hope are right. The hybrids are fine and make wonderful trees but I doubt if they are the answer to our problem. With these remarks I dispose of further discussion of the Burlington, Rockville, McCallister and Gerardi varieties. The Major and Greenriver are excellent performers but are a little late maturing for us. The Posey nut is slightly earlier and makes an excellent quality but is not to be compared with Major and Greenriver for bearing. Our Butterick trees are excellent growers but bear few nuts. This variety is the poorest bearer that we have. Our earliest pecans of the better known varieties are Indiana and Busseron, of the newer varieties, Stephens and Gildig No. 2. The Giles pecan which Mr. Wilkinson discovered in Kansas is our outstanding nut for yield, size and early bearing but it should also be earlier maturing. Although the Giles has been late when grafted on some of our native trees, it has been early on others. In 1945, which will always be known by the Illinois weather man as the year without a summer, we found a great difference in our Major, Greenriver, and Giles nuts from tree to tree as to size and maturity. This question of compatibility between stock and scion is of the utmost importance and it impedes investigational work, complicating comparisons we are trying to make. Some of our new varieties which we are trying out might be checked immediately if we knew the effect of the under stocks of our trees. Our farms are about 50 miles north of St. Louis, Mo. Our first problem with pecans is maturity. The old named varieties are a little late for us. I personally feel that we should get grafts from no farther north than New Haven, Ill., or Rockport, Ind. I am interested in Mr. Gerardi's varieties at O'Fallon, Ill., because they should be early. Dr. Colby has brought to light three new ones from Cass County, Ill. which should make excellent maturity in central Illinois. We are blessed in our community with large numbers of native pecan seedlings. The behavior of different nuts on different stocks is not the same. Before any nut should be condemned we feel it should have an opportunity to perform on different stocks over a period of years. For this reason we always try to graft a number of trees to each variety. Most things taken from nature are subject to improvement and can be better adapted to the use of man. I would like to see some new varieties of pecans developed for our northern zone. I would like to see large plantings of nuts from all our leading varieties of pecans. From these seedling studies, great good would come and possibly a good variety. I would like to see Major, Greenriver, Giles, Posey, Busseron, Indiana, the Gildigs crossed with some early prolific nuts. I would like to see every nut that had any good quality crossed with every other good nut in a mass planting so that genetics could operate and have these trees planted where they might be permitted to reach maturity and the "get" of each union studied. We might get an early heavy bearer which would revolutionize the pecan industry. I would like to see some of our good Southern varieties like Stuart crossed with early northern varieties. This search for new nuts should be accelerated. Let us rededicate ourselves to the problem of getting the "super-nut." Let us explore these new fields of nut germ plasm which lie all about us, pull these old nuts apart genetically and recombine their good with the good of other nuts into new varieties. If we should fail 10,000 times and succeed once, success would be cheap. Random Notes from Eastern New York By Gilbert L. Smith, Wassaic, New York During the past few years I have found it increasingly difficult to keep up my nut tree work. However, three years hence, I expect to retire from my job as Farm Manager at Wassaic State School and then to devote much of my time to nut work. Mr. Benton now has even less time than I do for the nut work. Our work of previous years is now beginning to show results, especially our variety tests which should become more significant each year as more varieties come into bearing and repeat crops bear out or disprove our earlier opinions. Following are some of our findings on such varieties as have borne enough for us to form an opinion. Black Walnuts THOMAS, no doubt, is still entitled to first place. We made a poor start with Thomas as our first graft was placed on a stock growing at the edge of low swampy ground and the nuts of this graft have never matured properly, while those from two younger grafts, on higher ground, have matured their nuts well. This shows that black walnuts should not be planted in low wet ground, that is, land that is actually swampy; low ground which is well-drained is all right. We have found Thomas to be a fast growing and very good type tree. The nut is large, thin-shelled and cracks excellently, giving light-colored fine appearing kernels, largely in whole quarters. We do not consider the flavor of Thomas to be one of the best. I have tested this many times by cracking nuts of Benton, Snyder, Sparrow and Thomas, and then, without revealing which is which, have had various people try them and pick out the ones they like best; Benton and Sparrow in all cases were liked best, Snyder second and Thomas always least in favor. Thomas is a consistent bearer here. SPARROW is a little known variety which has a good many good points in its favor. In my opinion, it surpasses Thomas in everything except size of nut and cracking quality. In cracking quality I consider them to be about equal. Sparrow originated near Lomax, Ill. Wood of it was sent to us by C. A. Reed in the Spring of 1938. It has never been entered in any contest so is little known. The tree may not be quite as fast growing as Thomas, but it retains its foliage in the fall until cut by hard frost, long after its nuts have ripened, while Thomas will be nearly bare of leaves for some time before frost or its nuts are ripe. Sparrow ripens its nuts a full two weeks ahead of Thomas. The nuts of Sparrow are medium in size, being about 27 to the pound while Thomas will run about 19 or 20 to the pound. The nuts of Sparrow look small while on the tree because it has a thin husk. Yet it husks easily, coming out of the husk cleaner than any other black walnut I know of. Also I have never seen a husk maggot in this variety while some varieties with thick husks were badly infested. As the nut ripens, the husk turns yellow. The nut yields practically 30% kernel (29.94%) with 96% unbroken quarters. Color of kernel is bright and the flavor is excellent. Sparrow has borne consistently. SNYDER is a fairly well-known variety, having won first prize in the New York and New England contest of 1934. The tree is a little slower in growing than most varieties, yet it bears young and consistently Like Sparrow, it retains its foliage well until cut by frost. The nut is large, being about 21 per pound, with a very thick husk, on which account it should be husked as soon as gathered, as the husk will turn dark and stain the kernel. It ripens at the same time as Sparrow, last of September here. The nut cracks well, yielding about 25% kernel of good quality, about 95% in unbroken quarters. The color of the kernel tends to be a little dark. Certainly Snyder should prove to be a valuable variety for short season locations and possibly as a pollinizer for Sparrow. Also the retention of foliage in fall, until cut by frost, make this and Sparrow of considerable ornamental value. Early dropping of the foliage in the fall is a serious fault of some varieties as an ornamental. BENTON originated with us, the original tree growing in Mr. Benton's dooryard. It won second prize in the New York and New England contest of 1934. The nut is rather small, running about 34 to the pound. However, it yields about 29% kernel of excellent quality, light in color and about 86% quarters. It ripens about a week later than Snyder and Sparrow. It is a consistent bearer, a fairly fast growing tree, but only fair as to retention of foliage in the fall. STAMBAUGH is a well known variety, but we are a little too far north for it, 41°45' N. Lat. It matures well here only in our most favorable seasons. It appears to be an excellent nut, large, good cracking quality and good flavor. It appears to be a little capricious as to bearing, two years ago our one graft was heavily loaded, but there was no crop last year and a light one only this year. In spite of the lateness in maturing the nut, the tree sheds its foliage early. Hickories WILCOX is the outstanding variety of hickory of those which have borne in our test orchard, so far. This originated near Geneva, Ohio. It. won second prize in the Ohio contest of 1934. It appears to be a consistent, alternate bearer. The nut is only medium in size for a shagbark, about 90 to the pound. It cracks almost perfectly, yielding about 38% kernel, mostly in whole halves. Color of kernel bright and of very good flavor. MINNIE has also appeared very good. It is a trifle larger than Wilcox, being 85 to the pound. It cracks excellently and is of good quality. But so far it has not yielded as well as has Wilcox. DAVIS has shown up quite well. Our oldest graft is on a bitternut stock; it has borne well but the nuts have not cracked as well as those from the original tree or the ones grown at Cornell. In size the nut is between Minnie and Wilcox, kernel bright, plump and of good quality. FOX has been rather disappointing as produced on grafts so far. Not that it is a poor nut, in fact it is a good nut, but because it has fallen so far short of what was expected of it. Fox is the mystery variety of the hickories. How it could unanimously win first prize in the Northern Nut Growers Association contest of 1934, with a sample of nuts so excellent in every way and then for the grafts to bear only fair nuts, is a mystery. Some have advanced the idea of bud variation in the parent tree. To prove or disprove this, I made a trip to the original tree in the spring of 1943 and gathered grafting wood from various parts of the tree. This wood was grafted on various stocks in our test orchard, so that we now have living grafts from 13 different parts of the original tree. If there is a bud variation, we should certainly have some of the good ones and are anxiously waiting the time when these grafts begin to bear. To lend a little credence to the bud variation theory, I found that at some time in the past the Fox tree had been broken off in a storm and had since formed a new top, largely from a single leader. Mr. Fox stated that he had naturally taken wood from the lower portions of the tree as it was much easier to do so. (The late Dr. Zimmerman made a similar study of this tree and its nuts from different branches. He was firmly convinced that there were differences.--Ed.) Heartnuts We have really tested only two varieties so far, these are the Fodermaier and Wright. Both are very good, but we now consider Wright to be by far the better of the two. It is somewhat hardier than Fodermaier, nuts ripen earlier, and bears better with us. Fodermaier is also more severely affected by the butternut curculio than is the Wright, some years nearly all of the Fodermaier nuts have been destroyed by the curculio. GELLATLY has borne only one year with us, so we cannot form much of an opinion on it. It appears to be a very good nut. Crath Carpathian Persian Walnuts Several of our seedling Crath trees have nuts this year. In all cases, there are only a few nuts on each as our trees are still quite small. I had to hand-pollinate the blossoms this spring; this resulted in a rather small percentage of sets; then the curculio took a rather severe toll, so we will have only a few of each variety. In 1944 one of our seedlings bore 12 nuts. These were so good that we have named the variety "Littlepage" in honor of the late Thomas Littlepage, and are having it patented. We have published a little booklet on this variety, and upon request, we will be glad to mail a copy to anyone interested. This is about all we have to offer at this time in regard to our variety tests. We have a problem which I wish to bring before the members of the Association. It is that of controlling the butternut curculio. This insect is very bad on butternut, heartnut and Persian walnuts, with us it does not attack black walnuts or hickories. I fear that it is going to prove hard to control, as the larva is of the boring type, being found inside the green nuts, inside the new growth of the terminals and in the fleshy part of the leaf stems. In these places it cannot be reached by poisons. It appears that we will have to work entirely on the adult beetles. These eat very little and seem to make puncture-like holes, eating little outside tissue but mostly deeper tissues, thus poison will probably have to be applied heavily in order for it to get enough to kill it. D.D.T. is not effective against the apple and plum curculio so probably will not be so against the butternut curculio. It might be effective to apply a heavy coating of D.D.T. bearing dust under the trees so that as the larva drop to the ground to pupate, they will be killed while the adult beetle may be immune to D.D.T., it is not likely that the pupa could survive in heavily impregnated soil. The adult beetles are present from the time the first leaves appear until late summer. A spray of 4 to 5 pounds of arsenate of lead and 12 to 15 pounds of hydrated lime to 100 gallons of water, applied once a week throughout the early part of the season might prove effective but it will certainly prove expensive. Planting of the affected varieties at some distance from woodlands and wild butternut trees is helpful in avoiding this insect, but as the trees grow older the pests may build up a population of their own. Some sections of the county may not be affected; I hope so. Maybe we can get some of our entomologists to work on this insect. Let's put a little pressure on our State Experiment Stations and the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Maybe Mr. Reed can help us. Another subject I wish to mention is that of hardiness in nut trees. In reading the NNGA reports and in some of the letters I have received, I have found that many people confuse killing of the young leaves in the spring by late frosts, with winter hardiness. In my opinion there is no connection at all. I have seen many trees that were not hurt at all by -34°F. in mid-winter yet had all of their leaves killed by a late frost in the spring. In fact all species and varieties of hickory and walnut will have their leaves killed by a hard frost if the leaves have opened out of the buds; this includes our native wild trees as well as the grafted varieties. The only hardiness against late spring frosts is the characteristic of leafing out late, thus escaping most of such frosts. Of the different species, the black walnuts seem to be best protected in this way, with the hickories next and the heartnuts and Persian walnuts least protected. Of course there is a considerable varietal variation within each species. Then the protection we can provide, is to plant nut trees on side hills or other high ground where there is good air drainage, thus avoiding the frost pockets. Of course many want to plant nut trees and have no place except in low frosty sites. To these I say that they can expect to lose an occasional nut crop by these late spring frosts, but that only in exceptional cases will the trees suffer permanent injury. In years when the crops are lost the trees will still be good ornamentals and shade trees. My door yard is quite a frost pocket, yet I have lost only one crop of heartnuts out of four or five crops, no permanent injury to the tree. Yield and Nut Quality of the Common Black Walnut In the Tennessee Valley[12] By Thomas G. Zarger, Tennessee Valley Authority Black walnut occurs on open, non-crop land in the Tennessee Valley region. Trees grow around the farmstead, along fence rows, and in pastures on most farms. In recent years harvesting of walnuts for market from these trees has increased significantly. Looking forward to a fuller utilization of the wild black walnut crop, knowledge on the bearing habits of these open-grown black walnut trees was required. To supply this information a study of tree growth, nut yield, and nut quality was undertaken in 1940. Results on nut yield available from this study after six years are summarized in this report. [Footnote 12: Contribution from TVA Forestry Relations Department, Forestry Investigations Division on a project conducted in the Forest Products Section.] This study was initiated with the selection of representative open-grown walnut trees throughout the Tennessee Valley. In 1940, 96 sample trees were selected and 36 trees were added to the study in 1942. These 132 trees are located in 42 counties and afford a good representation of age, size, and growth quality of open-grown black walnut. Each sample tree has been visited annually. Entire crops were collected, carefully weighed and sampled: tree diameters and other measurements were taken for the tree growth phase of the study. When convenient, nuts were hulled in the field with a corn sheller, but more often they were brought to Norris and run through a hulling machine. After hulling, the nuts were dried until cured, then a sample for each tree was tested for percentage of filled nuts, nut weight, and cracking quality. Yield Results on nut yield and nut quality for the 132 sample trees have been condensed to the presentation in Table 1. For the six-year period the average tree in this study had a diameter of 13.3 inches and yielded 33 pounds of hulled, dry nuts a year. The yield of common black walnut trees in the Tennessee Valley is characterized by extreme variation. Tree size, of course, influences nut yield. One-half of the yields from a 6-inch diameter tree ranged from no crop to 4 pounds of hulled, dry nuts; whereas half the yields from a 22-inch tree ranged from 40 to 100 pounds. A yield of less than one-half pound of hulled, dry walnuts was considered "no crop". Some individual trees had unusually high or low yields. The outstanding bearer was tree 117. It had the highest average yield for the six-year period, and the heaviest crop of hulled, dry nuts for any single year. During the six years this tree yielded 953 pounds of dry, hulled nuts and 194 pounds of kernels--truly outstanding production for a common black walnut tree. Another notable bearer, tree 100, yielded 916 pounds of nuts and 189 pounds of kernels. However, this tree was almost 11 inches larger in diameter than tree 117. The exceptional bearers in each diameter class also had the highest single nut crops. The other extreme is characterized by low yields. Crops were lacking or insignificant for trees 60, 63, 211, and 221. Tree 37, with a 19.7-inch diameter, bore only one crop of 31 pounds during the entire six-year period. This tree has no value for nut production but would yield a good sawlog. Variation of yield by seasons and locality was examined by grouping the 132 sample trees into six localities of 22 trees each. Greater variation in averages by crop years existed than averages by tree location groups. However, some variation was found between the eastern and western portions of the Tennessee Valley. Indications on bearing habits were obtained for a six-year period on 96 trees, Nos. 1 through 140 (Table 1). Crop records for each of these trees were examined for relatively high and low yield by seasons. Convincing evidence on the alternation of bearing has accumulated during this six-year period with 46 percent of the trees having lighter crops every other year. Of these, 28 trees bore lighter crops in the odd years and 16 trees bore lighter crops in the even years. Tree 117, previously mentioned as outstanding in regard to yield, produced lighter crops in 1940, 1942, and 1944. This tree is located in west Tennessee. Walnut trees bearing lighter crops in 1941, 1943, and 1945 are more abundant in the eastern than in the western portion of the Tennessee Valley. This occurrence undoubtedly accounts for much of the variation found between the eastern and western portions. Four other yield patterns were recognized in 30 per cent of the trees. These indicate the existence of uniform annual crops and three-year cyclic bearing of black walnut. The bearing habits of the remaining 24 per cent of the trees is considered merely irregular, since definite patterns cannot be recognized until bearing records cover a longer period of years. Nut Quality The cracking quality of the nuts from the trees in this study was tested on a random sample of nuts from each crop that was collected and brought back to Norris. The nuts of each sample were weighed and the average nut weight computed. The nuts were then cracked in a hand-cracking machine, and kernels that could be extracted with the fingers were removed and weighed.[13] From this weight was computed the first-crack marketable kernel percentage. The nuts that still contained kernels were recracked and the remaining kernel removed. All kernels, including crumbs, were then weighed in order to compute the total kernel weight and kernel percentage. Finally, all of the quarters extracted were counted, and the average number of quarters was computed. Kernels recovered at first crack and the average number of quarters extracted indicate the relative ease of extraction of kernels. Cracking quality of walnuts for individual sample trees averaged by crop years are presented in Table 1. Nuts of all crops collected from four trees, 57, 58, 60, and 139, were shriveled or abnormal, and afforded no test of nut quality during the six-year period. Thus, nut quality data, based on 440 nut crop samples, are complete for 128 of the 132 sample trees. From this study, the average common black walnut in the Tennessee Valley has a nut weight of 17 grams, a kernel weight of 3.3 grams, a total kernel content of 20 per cent, a marketable kernel recovery at first crack of 17 per cent, and a quarter recovery of unbroken quarters averaging 1.8. [Footnote 13: The kernels were extracted over a 6-mesh wire screen. In commercial cracking, kernel pieces passing through this type of screen are not marketable as kernels.] Table I--Yield of Nuts and Kernels, and Cracking Quality of Nuts from 132 Sample Trees of Common Black Walnut in the Tennessee Valley _________________________________________________________________________ Tree _____________________ Diameter at 4-1/2 ______________________________________________________ Sample ft. number av. yr. 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Av. yr. _________________________________________________________________________ inches pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds 1 20.4 27 16 2 95 5 3 25 2 14.9 43 43 26 45 42 23 38 3 9.3 22 12 8 22 6 29 17 5 11.2 54 0 61 0 33 7 26 6 13.6 28 1 72 0 16 1 20 8 13.2 50 28 23 41 76 45 44 9 13.2 36 50 40 28 33 7 32 10 22.9 29 25 0 0 6 15 12 11 6.1 2 4 12 2 4 1 4 12 17.4 110 18 128 40 100 49 74 13 14.5 98 5 83 50 46 128 68 14 12.2 1 0 12 3 2 98 19 15 11.6 38 46 44 106 0 63 50 16 15.7 130 0 106 25 135 33 72 17 12.0 1 66 4 100 2 61 39 18 7.8 20 0 40 21 33 4 20 25 8.6 13 0 82 0 0 0 16 26 20.7 0 36 46 90 0 67 46 27 8.4 0 1 26 2 0 22 8 28 8.0 0 11 1 19 0 12 7 29 9.2 0 17 22 21 2 19 14 30 15.2 150 25 200 0 102 15 82 31 18.0 33 194 14 259 0 135 106 34 16.4 0 108 0 25 0 129 44 37 19.7 0 0 31 0 0 0 5 38 9.1 2 0 14 0 47 0 10 39 17.7 151 0 80 0 56 0 48 40 16.5 88 0 50 5 37 6 31 41 9.5 60 0 74 0 67 0 34 42 14.5 123 0 170 0 119 0 69 ______________________________________________________________________________ Av. Filled nuts Complete crack Kernel _________________ ________________________ yield First- bearing In terms crack Crops yrs. of total Average marketable Kernel tested number only weight weight kernel weight Kernel Quarters basis ______________________________________________________________________________ pounds percent grams percent grams percent number number 1 2.2 6 17 21 3.7 22 2.9 2 2 4.9 50 14 17 2.6 19 1.3 5 3 2.2 63 16 18 3.3 21 2.0 7 5 7.9 67 16 23 4.5 27 1.1 3 6 4.9 92 14 22 3.2 23 2.8 4 8 5.6 59 24 17 5.0 21 3.0 7 9 6.1 56 16 20 3.6 23 1.3 5 10 1.6 36 13 15 2.6 19 0.6 2 11 0.8 99 14 16 2.7 19 1.4 7 12 16.3 95 18 17 4.2 23 1.5 7 13 17.9 92 19 25 5.2 28 2.9 7 14 4.9 91 19 18 4.3 22 2.4 3 15 11.8 96 17 19 3.4 20 2.1 6 16 20.0 94 24 19 6.0 25 2.3 6 17 8.4 97 13 17 2.7 20 2.5 7 18 5.3 85 15 24 4.0 26 2.5 4 25 9.6 93 18 16 3.8 21 2.5 4 26 5.5 42 16 14 3.1 18 0.6 4 27 2.7 95 17 19 3.7 21 1.2 3 28 1.7 99 9 14 1.6 18 1.6 4 29 3.4 100 11 15 2.2 21 1.2 4 30 19.9 77 19 17 4.3 23 2.3 3 31 25.1 90 20 15 4.5 23 1.3 4 34 16.8 73 20 17 4.0 20 2.5 2 37 6.2 100 16 16 2.8 18 3.4 2 38 4.5 63 18 14 2.8 15 2.3 2 39 15.0 87 19 14 3.5 18 2.2 3 40 4.9 82 20 13 3.1 15 2.3 3 41 9.1 73 16 17 3.0 19 2.5 3 42 28.4 86 19 21 4.5 24 3.3 3 46 13.8 14 18 15 36 12 12 18 47 9.8 15 0 39 0 20 2 13 48 13.6 25 34 50 52 17 96 46 49 6.6 14 9 16 4 19 0 10 50 9.5 29 0 13 25 0 57 20 51 11.2 11 13 11 0 24 0 10 52 13.3 25 8 0 84 0 14 22 56 13.4 15 8 0 12 4 6 8 57 16.7 162 5 103 17 74 4 59 58 12.0 42 2 30 6 20 2 17 59 9.4 2 8 4 8 2 8 5 60 9.6 1 1 3 0 2 0 1 61 10.6 2 2 20 1 10 0 6 62 12.4 27 6 23 7 13 0 13 63 12.1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 64 11.8 18 2 37 0 21 0 13 65 17.8 130 53 101 9 107 0 67 66 9.6 31 0 25 1 13 5 12 67 9.4 89 0 7 7 10 11 21 69 13.7 70 2 104 4 30 2 35 70 16.1 72 2 11 95 0 68 41 71 15.2 7 1 43 1 0 1 9 76 8.1 7 0 6 0 9 0 4 77 11.2 40 0 21 6 4 23 16 78 11.4 34 0 40 0 31 2 18 79 16.4 28 0 24 0 11 22 14 80 11.4 132 44 110 8 189 42 88 86 24.9 191 0 282 0 64 110 108 87 14.0 45 0 107 0 31 9 32 89 8.4 1 8 2 39 0 44 16 90 13.2 11 6 72 8 13 7 20 91 12.4 68 5 200 3 54 22 59 92 17.6 18 74 138 76 2 126 72 93 10.9 30 0 48 3 26 0 18 94 7.2 0 36 0 21 0 53 18 46 1.7 51 17 16 2.8 17 2.8 4 47 3.8 97 11 17 2.2 20 1.0 3 48 8.2 83 13 16 2.6 20 1.3 4 49 2.0 80 18 16 3.7 20 2.0 3 50 3.7 72 17 19 3.6 21 3.4 3 51 1.9 49 18 19 4.2 23 1.6 3 52 6.0 80 18 16 3.2 18 1.3 2 56 0.6 13 22 20 4.8 22 3.0 1 57 4 0 58 9 0 59 0.4 20 27 19 5.6 21 3.0 2 60 0.0 0 22 15 3.4 15 3.9 1 61 0.2 48 14 9 2.0 14 1.5 2 62 0.4 15 25 19 4.6 19 3.8 2 63 0.5 94 13 21 3.2 24 3.1 2 64 3.1 70 21 20 5.1 24 3.2 3 65 7.9 58 23 15 3.7 16 3.4 3 66 1.6 34 24 18 4.6 19 3.7 3 67 2.2 31 20 18 3.7 18 3.6 3 69 8.6 92 21 21 5.4 25 1.9 3 70 9.2 87 18 16 3.4 20 1.5 3 71 2.0 88 14 16 2.6 19 1.9 3 76 1.4 94 13 16 2.6 20 2.2 4 77 2.6 89 21 16 3.5 17 3.6 3 78 4.2 80 20 14 3.6 18 3.0 3 79 5.0 97 21 20 5.0 24 2.8 3 80 19.3 94 18 22 4.3 23 3.2 3 86 32.0 96 13 19 2.8 20 1.8 4 87 11.3 100 11 19 2.7 22 0.5 3 89 3.2 91 13 18 2.6 21 1.1 6 90 3.4 87 18 19 3.5 20 2.6 3 91 13.4 96 16 22 3.8 23 2.4 7 92 15.5 93 16 20 3.4 21 2.2 7 93 5.1 97 12 14 2.4 18 1.7 3 94 3.6 52 19 24 4.7 24 2.1 3 Table I----Yield of Nuts and Kernels, and Cracking Quality of Nuts from 132 Sample Trees of Common Black Walnut in the Tennessee Valley (continued) _________________________________________________________________________ Tree _____________________ Diameter at 4-1/2 ______________________________________________________ Sample ft. number av. yr. 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 Av. yr. _________________________________________________________________________ inches pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds pounds 96 16.5 23 31 93 51 29 103 55 97 9.8 2 8 9 7 4 6 6 98 21.3 44 20 66 35 26 4 32 100 27.8 159 272 65 334 6 80 153 101 21.2 0 294 120 206 30 239 148 102 13.1 38 2 44 4 12 3 17 103 7.5 20 15 25 30 9 119 36 104 12.3 40 17 52 17 16 0 24 106 11.4 50 16 66 29 46 66 46 107 13.2 29 0 5 8 0 1 7 108 9.0 34 11 12 25 12 7 17 109 12.6 11 12 30 69 0 14 23 110 14.9 65 104 29 61 54 32 58 111 11.3 8 55 5 65 0 54 31 116 11.8 0 16 6 7 4 9 7 117 17.0 10 285 13 142 116 387 159 118 13.3 3 78 6 170 4 263 87 119 14.6 0 34 148 0 40 145 61 121 17.6 67 9 41 15 0 64 33 129 13.3 13 70 8 157 0 149 66 130 15.3 47 1 50 10 0 24 22 131 16.2 78 1 33 89 0 69 45 132 14.2 6 8 22 10 0 17 10 134 13.3 9 20 11 17 24 3 14 135 14.1 12 55 0 15 0 94 29 136 15.1 7 1 18 14 0 2 7 137 9.4 27 0 38 13 5 28 18 138 14.5 36 18 28 35 69 8 32 139 10.2 14 9 19 64 51 0 26 140 11.1 0 18 62 53 28 34 32 ______________________________________________________________________________ Av. Filled nuts Complete crack Kernel _________________ ________________________ yield First- bearing In terms crack Crops yrs. of total Average marketable Kernel tested number only weight weight kernel weight Kernel Quarters basis ______________________________________________________________________________ pounds percent grams percent grams percent number number 96 9.6 100 12 15 2.1 17 0.7 3 97 0.6 51 11 13 1.7 15 2.0 3 98 2.7 44 18 10 2.4 13 0.4 7 100 31.4 97 22 17 4.6 21 2.8 7 101 31.7 94 25 15 4.8 19 1.5 3 102 3.4 49 18 19 3.6 20 2.5 3 103 5.9 94 19 16 3.7 20 0.9 3 104 4.4 84 15 15 2.5 17 0.8 3 106 6.2 81 18 15 3.1 17 1.4 3 107 2.1 78 13 14 2.1 16 0.7 4 108 3.4 99 16 17 3.4 15 0.9 3 109 5.0 98 14 14 2.6 18 0.6 3 110 9.1 77 23 14 4.8 20 1.1 3 111 7.7 100 15 17 3.0 21 0.6 3 116 1.4 100 15 16 2.7 18 0.7 3 117 32.2 86 29 15 5.7 20 1.5 7 118 15.2 96 19 12 3.3 18 0.2 3 119 12.2 72 20 18 4.0 20 1.6 3 121 7.1 92 16 17 3.0 19 0.7 3 129 14.2 98 16 15 3.0 18 0.8 3 130 4.4 97 13 14 2.2 16 1.3 4 131 10.2 95 19 17 3.8 20 1.7 3 132 2.7 98 17 16 3.5 21 1.0 3 134 1.7 75 16 14 2.6 16 0.7 3 135 3.4 58 20 15 3.3 16 1.5 3 136 1.8 41 10 13 1.7 17 0.1 3 137 2.7 66 15 17 3.0 20 0.7 3 138 2.7 49 16 15 2.6 19 0.6 4 139 8 140 7.6 92 13 19 2.9 22 0.8 3 199 13.3 15 4 2 2 6 200 10.4 18 17 1 1 9 201 13.1 30 28 23 117 50 202 15.1 2 4 14 0 5 203 13.7 13 30 8 21 18 205 22.6 56 34 33 77 50 206 9.3 46 26 39 4 29 207 5.8 1 0 9 1 3 208 10.4 2 8 4 19 8 210 6.6 35 0 15 0 12 211 12.6 2 4 3 1 2 214 13.1 32 11 19 24 22 215 6.9 3 5 6 0 4 216 10.8 0 6 2 5 3 217 19.1 111 12 62 25 48 218 7.1 18 0 1 0 5 219 12.0 5 13 26 14 14 220 10.7 13 0 8 6 7 221 6.4 0 0 0 3 1 222 15.3 29 6 6 7 12 223 19.2 22 3 6 0 8 224 13.9 53 11 16 29 27 225 16.8 16 57 27 48 37 226 15.6 119 26 101 13 65 227 6.6 9 12 0 33 14 228 7.3 4 9 0 2 4 231 18.4 74 41 0 184 75 232 21.1 47 0 0 180 57 236 22.3 8 204 0 120 83 237 20.3 121 29 86 95 83 240 6.6 5 7 3 13 7 241 13.0 50 24 44 2 30 242 6.4 11 8 10 1 8 243 22.0 82 0 13 11 26 246 21.1 93 220 52 216 145 247 19.1 2 57 17 1 21 199 1.8 49 19 22 4.8 25 3.0 4 200 1.7 24 17 16 3.3 19 2.0 3 201 10.9 100 17 19 3.8 22 2.2 3 202 0.4 46 21 14 4.1 20 1.0 3 203 4.3 97 18 23 4.4 25 3.1 3 205 6.4 19 11 22 2.6 23 4.0 1 206 4.2 98 19 12 2.7 15 2.2 3 207 0.7 21 17 15 2.8 16 2.0 2 208 1.1 66 16 22 3.8 24 2.4 3 210 4.8 98 17 14 3.2 19 0.7 3 211 0.3 83 11 11 1.6 15 0.2 3 214 3.0 87 18 16 3.1 17 2.7 3 215 0.9 100 13 18 2.7 20 0.7 3 216 0.7 97 11 13 1.7 16 0.6 4 217 12.1 93 18 21 4.4 25 0.8 3 218 1.7 100 18 17 3.0 17 2.6 2 219 2.5 94 11 17 2.0 18 0.8 3 220 0.8 61 20 13 3.2 16 1.9 3 221 0.4 53 16 20 3.4 21 3.2 2 222 1.3 72 16 16 3.0 18 1.9 3 223 0.8 55 12 19 2.6 20 0.5 3 224 4.9 93 17 16 3.5 20 1.1 3 225 7.8 94 15 18 3.4 22 1.0 3 226 9.8 96 12 12 1.9 16 0.2 3 227 4.2 99 16 19 3.6 23 0.7 3 228 1.1 99 15 21 3.3 22 2.3 3 231 7.3 52 10 17 2.3 19 1.1 3 232 26.6 98 19 17 4.5 24 2.0 3 236 10.5 26 15 17 3.0 19 0.5 2 237 16.1 100 18 14 3.5 19 1.5 3 240 1.2 100 14 15 2.5 17 0.9 3 241 4.6 96 14 15 2.3 16 1.2 3 242 1.4 98 13 17 2.5 20 0.7 3 243 4.9 98 14 12 2.0 14 1.3 3 246 29.6 98 14 16 2.9 21 0.7 3 247 1.2 23 15 12 1.7 15 0.2 3 Results of cracking tests show that, in general, cracking quality of nut samples from the trees in this study is poor. When cracked, the kernels crumble badly, making extraction difficult and quarter recovery low. Variation in cracking quality can be seen by studying the values in Table 1. Nuts from trees 28 and 136 were extremely small, averaging 9 and 10 grams, respectively. Nuts from trees 61 and 98 had generally poor characteristics. Trees bearing walnuts of better-than-average quality are trees 5 and 18 with high total kernel per cent, and trees 8, 16, and 59 with high nut weight and an unusually high kernel weight. Other trees, of interest as exceptional bearers, include tree 101 with large nut weight, and tree 117 with both exceptional nut and kernel weight. The outstanding tree in the study from the standpoint of cracking quality of the nuts is tree 13, which has exhibited those characteristics of thinness of shell and high kernel content sought for in improved varieties. This black walnut selection is being propagated at the Norris Nursery under the appropriate name of Norris.[14] [Footnote 14: Kline, L. V. A method of evaluating the nuts of black walnut varieties. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 41:136-144. 1942.] Results from this study on the common black walnut have application in the evaluation of the relative yield and nut quality of improved selections suitable for use in the Tennessee Valley. This summary should also prove of value to other workers dealing with black walnut in other regions. It provides a basis for comparison, brings out the possibilities for making selections, and emphasizes the importance of nut production from improved varieties. The 1946 Field Tour By C. A. Reed Attending the indoor sessions of the meeting for two days in Wooster, visiting the Station orchards and plantings near town and contacting personally some of the big men of the Staff together with the wives of some, called for intensive attention on the part of everybody. It was time exceedingly well spent and created a feeling in everybody that they would like soon to return for another convention of the same kind. But the good things that had been planned were not over when the delegates left on the morning of the third day in the general direction of their homes. No matter in what direction they went, hardly a route could be found which did not lead near or through the home town of some nut man. A few took opportunity to visit the planting near Wooster of the late W. R. Fickes. A letter is before my eyes as these lines are being written which was directed to Dr. W. C. Deming by Mr. Fickes on January 9, 1924, in which he asked for information regarding certain kinds of nut trees which he did not have. He mentioned having Beaver, Fairbanks, and Siers hickory hybrids and asked about Weiker. He wanted to know about Barcelona and White Aveline filberts. He said he had procured seven varieties of filbert of European origin which were then being featured by Conrad Vollertsen of Rochester, N. Y. He was concerned over the chestnut weevil as he had about 125 trees of the Reihl varieties from Illinois and already weevils were troublesome. Those who had the privilege of keeping in touch with Mr. Fickes during his later years know that he assembled together a good many varieties of other kinds of nuts. His was an excellent collection of black walnut varieties. Persons who knew him well still mourn his passing. He was the type of man who made others feel better to be in his presence. It was 24 years ago last February that the American Nut Journal, then edited and published by R. T. Olcott of Rochester, N. Y., told of "x x the 57-acre farm of O. F. Witte near Amherst (in northern Ohio), on which Mr. Witte, who was then 72 years old, had been growing nuts for 52 years." The dispatch went on to say that the "x x farm was devoted exclusively" to nut trees. What a pity such men can't live on indefinitely! However, the spirits of Fickes and Witte live on. No one need go far in Ohio to see the evidence. Going east from Wooster on the morning of the third day, a group of 50 or more persons stopped first at Kidron where they were shown the nut plantings of Mr. E. P. Gerber and his family of that small hamlet. A half mile north of town, Mr. Gerber led the party through his largest planting of nut trees mostly of bearing age. Of black walnuts he showed such varieties as Deming (purple foliage, especially in early spring), Lamb (the original tree had a figured grain), Ohio, Stabler, Ten Eyck, and Thomas. Of pecan, there were five varieties, Busseron, Butterick, Greenriver, Indiana and Posey. In the group of heartnuts, there were two named varieties, Bates and Faust, and one of which Mr. Gerber appeared not to have the name. He simply called it a "sport." There were filberts of various kinds, Barcelona, DuChilly and Jones Hybrids, being the ones bearing variety designations. Also there were Persian (English) walnut trees, principally Broadview and Crath. Mr. Gerber had more Chinese chestnut seedlings than trees of any other one kind. There was but one butternut and that appeared to have been unnamed. Altogether 40 black walnut trees, 20 pecan, 30 filbert, 20 Persian walnut, one butternut, and 140 Chinese chestnut trees were seen. Upon finishing with the first block of trees, the party was taken into town where a large business house of Gerber and Sons was passed and a short visit paid to a second planting in the rear of various Gerber buildings, including the residence of Mr. Gerber. Here were some two or three dozen fine appearing trees of various species and hybrid forms. Lastly at Kidron, the party, was piloted a half mile west to a small park which Mr. Gerber had developed as a public picnic ground and a source of water for the village. It was well planted with nut trees and it was here that the Gerber family had provided tables and various food delicacies, including fresh milk, peaches and ice cream for everybody. A great part of the work of preparation had been taken care of by Mrs. Gerber and her two youngest children. The next stop on the tour was at the Mahoning County Experiment Farm, a half-mile south of Canfield, some 70 odd miles east and north of Wooster. Here transportation was provided and the entire group was taken in charge by L. Walter Sherman, Superintendent. The first impression one gained here was that of good buildings, excellent land, able management, and a lot of things under way. All is comparatively new. From a mimeographed list of species, varieties, hybrids, and strains which was prepared in June for another occasion, one gathered that there were perhaps more seedling nut trees here than grafted kinds. Mr. Sherman has reported fully elsewhere in these Proceedings regarding the nut work that is under way at this Station. Report of the Resolutions Committee The Northern Nut Growers Association in its annual meeting assembled at Wooster, Ohio, September 3rd to 5th, 1946, adopted the following resolutions: That our sincere thanks be extended to Dr. Edmund Secrest, Director of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station and other members of his staff for the courtesies extended, and for the facilities provided in the use of the auditorium and exhibit room of the Station. That we extend thanks to the speakers who unitedly made a successful meeting. That we appreciate the fine work of our Secretary, Miss Mildred M. Jones, in formulating the program and that we are mindful of the valuable assistance rendered by Dr. Oliver Diller, Mr. Clarence A. Reed, and Mr. A. A. Bungart. That we acknowledge appreciation to the estate of the late Zenas H. Ellis for providing in his will a gift of one thousand dollars to a special fund of the Association and that we thank Mr. Sargent H. Wellman for his legal efforts therewith. That the members of the Northern Nut Growers Association fully appreciate and extend sincere thanks to our officers for their hard work and enthusiastic efforts in maintaining the Association during the past five years when war conditions precluded annual meetings. RESOLUTIONS COMMITTEE C. F. Walker, Chairman J. L. Smith Albert B. Ferguson Obituaries DR. J. H. GOURLEY Members of this Association who attended the Wooster meeting in 1946 will not soon forget the cheery, witty and resourceful toastmaster who presided at their annual banquet, Dr. Joseph Gourley. Soon after this meeting, on October 19th, to be exact, Dr. Gourley was stricken with coronary thrombosis, and the field of horticulture lost a nationally known leader. Dr. Gourley's passing came at a time of high tide in his work. "Less than an hour before he was stricken," said an associate, "he was engaged in planning a project that he knew would continue long after his active career must end. This is the spirit of the true research man." He was a graduate of Ohio State University, had served as head of the Department of Horticulture in the University of New Hampshire and later in a like position with the University of West Virginia. In 1921, he was appointed chief of the Department of Horticulture at the Ohio Experiment Station and, from 1929, he concurrently held the position of Chairman of the Department of Horticulture at Ohio State University. He served both of these offices until the day of his death. He was the author of many bulletins and technical articles as well as of some better known text books which have had wide use in American Universities. He had acted as president of The American Society for Horticultural Science, President of The American Promological Society, and as president and member of numerous similar organizations to which he gave continued and enthusiastic service. It is as a good teacher, companion and warm friend, however, that Dr. Gourley will best be remembered by those who knew him well. His life and fire have sparked many another teacher, research worker and common man to greater effort and better achievement. A close associate closed a press notice of Dr. Gourley's passing with these words: "His consideration for his associates, both those equal and below in rank, marked his every contact through his long years of service. He was indeed, a truly great Chief. His family and close associates in the two departments he headed for so many years will miss him most of all, but life for them and for countless others who called him friend has been made richer, fuller and deeper because he passed this way. Teacher, scientist, Christian gentleman, friend and chief, we salute you." * * * * * MRS. I. E. BIXBY Mrs. Ida Elise Bixby, wife of the late Willard G. Bixby, died at her home at Baldwin, New York, April 29, 1945. Mrs. Bixby was a life member of the Northern Nut Growers Association, of which her late husband was a past president. Following Mr. Bixby's death in August, 1933, Mrs. Bixby interested the United States Department of Agriculture in taking over much of their large experimental planting of nut trees. Many specimens were moved to experiment stations under Government control, while other institutions as well as individuals benefitted by their collection. Mrs. Bixby is survived by three children: Willard F., of Cleveland, Ohio; and Katherine Elise and Ida Tielke, of Baldwin. Letters to the Secretary; Notes; Extracts EXCERPT FROM LETTER TO SECRETARY FROM G. S. JONES July 4, 1946. From G. S. Jones, R 1, Box 140, Phenix City, Lee County, Alabama. My trees (Chinese chestnuts) appear to be healthy and grow vigorously. (They were given me by the Bureau of Plant Industry in 1934.) They began bearing in 5 or 6 years and have now been bearing quite large crops for 3 or 4 years. There are 22 trees in the orchard, and the approximate yields have been: 1943--550 pounds; 1944--450 pounds, and 1945--950 pounds. The enormous increase in 1945 was due partly, I am quite sure, to mineralized fertilizer (Es Min. El.) which I began using in 1944. As my trees are seedlings they vary considerably in productivity and in size of nuts. Most of the nuts are of good size and quality when first gathered. This is where the trouble begins. The keeping quality is very poor, sometimes half of them spoil during the first month after being harvested. Since this is the case, you can see that germination may be very poor, unless they are handled in a special way. Refrigeration helps for a short while only. During the last two years, I have had good results in germination by stratifying the nuts under the trees, just as soon as they fall. In this way, the nuts are not allowed to become too dry as they are not exposed to the hot sun but are kept in the shade. Our falls are usually dry and our soil is sandy so there is little danger of the nuts becoming too wet during the winter. The danger of spoilage does not seem to be so great by the time winter rains set in. By this plan, I have had from 60 to 90 per cent germination during the last two years. I dig the nuts just as soon as they begin to sprout in late winter and line them out in nursery rows where they are to grow during the first year. Sometimes the sprouts become from 4 to 6 inches in length before I get to do the moving, but they transplant easily. I believe the micorrhiza from the soil of the old trees helps the young ones to grow better. December 11, 1946--My chestnut trees this fall produced slightly over 1,722 pounds. The nuts seemed to keep better than usual which I attribute to the cool rainy weather which we had during the ripening period. Hot, dry weather causes the nuts to begin spoiling quickly. My records show August 7th as the beginning of the ripening period and October 3rd as the ending. So one can see that this is often a hot and dry period in our section. * * * * * EXCERPT FROM LETTER TO SECRETARY FROM MRS. W. D. POUNDEN Dairy Department--Ohio Agric. Expt. Sta. Wooster, Ohio October 14, 1946 I am glad to give you the method I used in canning pecan kernels. Spread the shelled pecans in a shallow pan and place in a warm oven just long enough to heat the kernels through. Have clean jars--preferably pints so that the heat will penetrate more easily in processing--which have been warmed in the oven to be sure they are thoroughly dry inside before adding the pecans. Fill the jars with the pecans (do not add any liquid), place the lid on the jar (I prefer the Kerr self-sealing type), and process the nut-filled jars in a 250° oven for 30 minutes. I have kept pecan meats for over a year using this method and they are as crisp and good as when they came out of the shell. HYBRIDS At an informal meeting at Dr. Diller's cabin the evening before the Convention, Mr. Slate was asked to say something about hybrids. Mr. G. L. Slate: Hybrids between black and Persian walnuts were made at Geneva about 1916 by Professor W. H. Alderman, now of the Minnesota Experiment Station. After these trees had fruited all but five were removed to permit the remaining trees to attain full size. The trees have produced very few nuts and have been absolutely no good. Various persons have attempted to raise second-generation seedlings from these trees, but from my observation no one has succeeded. From what I know of these hybrids and what Reed has published about those with which he is familiar I am convinced it a waste of time and effort to attempt to produce hybrids between black and Persian walnuts with the hope of getting desirable nuts. The trees themselves are very rapid growing, handsome and well worth while as shade trees. But the walnut breeder will have more to show for his efforts if he confines his labor for the time being to improving the black and Persian walnuts by crossing among themselves the many clones within each species. However, the unsatisfactory hybrids between black and Persian walnuts, of between butternuts and Persian walnuts should not blind us to the fact that there are many species-hybrids of great pomological value. The hybrids between the Rush variety of Corylus americana and various varieties of C. avellana produced by the late J. F. Jones are very much worth while. Some of our finest red raspberry varieties are hybrids of the European and American species. The purple raspberry resulted from crossing the red and black raspberries. All our cultivated strawberries are descended from crosses between the native Virginia strawberry and the Chilean strawberry. The valuable new plums from the Minnesota Experiment Station resulted from crossing the native American plum, Prunus americana with the Japanese plum, P. salicina. Many of our best grapes, the Boysenberry, the Kieffer pear, and various citrus varieties are species hybrids. We must not generalize too much as to the merit or lack of merit of species-hybrids. Some are very good and of great economic importance. Many others of which we never hear are without merit, often being discarded, leaving only a few lines in a notebook to record their characteristics. * * * * * Mr. Stoke: Would you consider chestnut hybrids worth while? Mr. Slate: If you can get everything you need from the Chinese chestnut I see no reason for hybrids with any other. Mr. Stoke: Dr. Arthur S. Colby has made a number of hybrids between Fuller and Chinese. I consider his hybrid No. 2 as promising; the nut is large, beautiful and of good quality. So far I have found no weevils in this hybrid. The bur is very thick and fleshy, with close-set spines. Possibly the curculio is not able to penetrate the thick husk in laying its eggs. Colby No. 2 is the most rapid grower of all my chestnuts. PECANS WITH COMPANION EVERGREENS[15] Twenty years of experimenting with pecan trees at the Iowa Park station have revealed that pecans in the Wichita irrigated valley of Texas do very poorly in buffalo grass or Bermuda sod, much better when given clean cultivation, but best of all when planted with or near evergreens, particularly conifers. [Footnote 15: Forty-Eighth Annual Report, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station. P. 42. 1945.] In 1926 some pecan trees were set along the west line of the farmstead. Most of these died soon after setting and the few that survived did not grow satisfactorily. Later, a general farmstead improvement program called for Arizona cypress along this line. In 1933, when these pecan trees were seven years old, they had made little growth and were in such poor condition that it was decided to ignore them and set the cypress on equal spacings. Some of the cypress trees were placed very near pecan trees while others were farther away. None of the pecans were removed, however. As the cypress trees grew, the pecan trees near them began to take on new life, while the isolated pecan trees continued in their unthrifty state. As the years passed the pecans with companion cypress trees continued to increase in health and vigor until there was no doubt about the favorable influence of this companionship. At the time the cypress trees were set close to the older pecans, other pecan trees were being set in various locations on the farmstead; some in open sod and others with or near evergreens of various types. The behavior of these trees also confirms the value of companion evergreens for pecans in the Wichita irrigated valley. At the age of seven years the pecan trees were about the same size and in equally poor condition. The treatment as far as cultivation and irrigation is concerned has been the same. Hence, the great contrast in size of the pecan trees is attributed to the favorable influence of the companion conifers. [NOTE BY EDITOR--Heavy shade can reduce soil temperature, on summer afternoons, more than 20°F six inches underground. This may largely explain the benefits of companion trees.] * * * * * SAWDUST MAKES GOOD FRUIT TREE MULCH Many kinds of material ranging from paper to glass wool have been used as mulches for fruit trees, discloses J. H. Gourley, of the Department of Horticulture at The Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Straw, hay, and orchard mowings have been most commonly used. In some areas, sawdust and shavings are available in quantity and have been used to some extent for mulches which raises the questions of whether they make the soil acid. The Experiment Station has used both hardwood and pine sawdust and also shavings for a number of years in contrast with wheat straw, alfalfa, timothy, and others. No difference in appearance or behavior of the trees can be noted. Sawdust packs and gives poorer aeration than straw and it requires a large amount to mulch a tree. This mass also absorbs a large amount of rainfall before passing through to the soil but no injurious effects have been noted. The chief question has been about soil acidity and it may be stated that after 12 years of treatment the soil is little or no more acid than it is under bluegrass sod. The soil under the latter has a pH of 5.22, the hardwood sawdust 5.07, the softwood sawdust 5.07, hardwood shavings 5.20, and wheat straw 5.35. Contrary to the common conception, no objection to sawdust from the standpoint of soil acidity is justified from Station experience. * * * * * TWO FAMOUS TREES (Taken from "Bruce Every Month," December, 1938, page 17. Published by E. L. Bruce Company, Memphis, Tennessee.) Living monuments to a great governor of Texas are two nut bearing trees, a pecan and an old fashioned walnut. The last wish of Governor James S. Hogg was that "no monument of stone or marble" be placed at his grave, but instead there should be planted--"at my head a pecan tree and at my feet an old fashioned walnut; and when these trees shall bear, let the pecans and walnuts be given out among the plains people of Texas so that they may plant them and make Texas a land of trees." His wish has been fulfilled in its entirety, many trees from these two parent ones adorning the lawns of schools and court houses throughout the State of Texas. * * * * * OHIO TREES SERIES No. 1.--Black walnut (Juglans nigra):--Black walnut is one of the most valuable of the forest trees native to the United States. It is regarded as the country's premier tree for high grade cabinet wood; it produces valuable nut crops; and under certain conditions is highly effective as an ornamental shade and pasture tree. ~Lumber~--As lumber, black walnut is used principally for furniture, radio cabinets, caskets, interior finish, sewing machines, and gun stocks. It is used either in the form of solid wood cut from lumber or in the form of plywood made by gluing sheets of plain or figured veneer to both sides of a core. Black walnut veneer is made by the slicing method and to a limited extent by the rotary-cut method. ~Nuts~--In recent years the black walnut has gained an important position in the kernel industry. There has never been a market surplus of black walnut kernels. The demand, mostly from confectioners and ice cream manufacturers, has steadily increased while the supply has been limited largely by the labor of cracking and extracting the kernels. The process of cracking the nuts and separating the kernels from the shells has been mechanized by a farmer in Adams County, Ohio, to the extent that he uses over 4,000 bushels of walnuts per year. He sends the kernels to markets in New York, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Columbus, and Chicago. The facts all emphasize the economic importance of the black walnut in a market that is still far from saturated. ~Ornamental Value~--There are few trees whose utility is as great as the black walnut, that can rival it in beauty as a lawn tree. Its long graceful leaves provide a light dappled shade and grass will grow luxuriantly up to the very base of the tree. In its pleasing form and majestic size the black walnut can be a great addition to any landscape. Any tree yielding such fine timber and nuts, yet possessing beauty and utility for yard and pasture, can be nothing but a sound investment. ~Soil Requirements~--Black walnut grows best in valleys and bottom lands where there is a rich, moist soil but well drained. It does not generally grow on the higher elevations nor on wet bottom lands. It usually occurs as a scattered tree in hardwood stands and along roadsides, fence rows, and fence corners. ~Distribution and Growth~--The botanical range of this tree covers most of the eastern half of the United States. It is among the more rapid growing hardwoods. On good sites trees 10 years old will be about 20 feet high and in 40 years will reach 60 feet in height and 12 inches in diameter at breast height. According to Forest Survey figures, the estimated merchantable stand of walnut in Ohio in 1941 was 112,275,000 board feet while the cut during the same year was slightly over 3 million board feet. ~Pests~--The most serious pest is the walnut datana whose larvae eat the leaves. Other leaf-eating insects include the fall web worm and the hickory-horned devil. Several leaf spot diseases have attacked the leaves, also causing early defoliation. Leaf eating insects and leaf spot disease can be controlled by the application of one spray in June. This is composed of three pounds of arsenate of lead, ten pounds of powered Bordeaux mixture, and a good sticker in one hundred gallons of water. ~Selected Varieties~--Walnut trees vary greatly in the type of nut they produce. The most popular strains have been selected for propagation. The varieties which have been propagated by nurserymen are the Thomas, Ohio, Stabler, Ten Eyck, and Elmer Myers. Since the cost of grafted nut trees is rather high, many people are interested in planting the nuts of the better varieties for large scale planting. Seedling trees may be raised easily by anyone, whereas much skill and practice are required to produce grafted and budded trees. The degree to which the desirable characteristics of selected varieties are transmitted through seed is now being studied by the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. A list of commercial nut nurseries may be obtained by writing to Miss Mildred Jones, Secretary, Northern Nut Growers Association, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. ~References~--A few of the most outstanding publications on black walnut are listed below. 1. Black walnut for timber and nuts. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1392, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 2. Nut Growing in New York. Bulletin 573, College of Agriculture, Ithaca, New York. 3. Top-working and Bench Grafting of Walnut Trees. Special Circular 69, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. 4. Growing walnut for profit. The American Walnut Manufacturers Association, 616 South Michigan Avenue, Chicago 5, Illinois. Exhibits Gilbert Becker, Climax, Michigan. Crath strains of J. regia, hickory, black walnut kernels. Hebden H. Corsan, Hillsdale, Michigan. Cases of nuts, folders on nut planting for success. H. F. Stoke, Roanoke, Virginia. Chinese chestnuts, hybrid chestnuts, tree hazel hybrid, Jones hybrid filberts, hazelberts, black walnuts, E. Golden persimmons, J. regia, hickories, nut ornaments. Edwin W. Lemke, Washington, Michigan. Heartnuts, black walnuts, filberts, tree hazels, black walnut wood, a vacuum nut cracker. Jay L. Smith, Chester, New York. Books, black walnuts, hickories, chestnuts, hacksaws, grafts. E. J. Korn, Kalamazoo, Michigan. J. nigra, hickories, filberts. S. H. Burton, Indiana. Petrified nuts, wild hazels. Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio. Breslau Persian walnuts, filberts. E. P. Gerber, Kidron, Ohio. Photos, hickories, chestnuts, hicans, black walnuts. U. S. D. A., Beltsville, Maryland. Green hickory nuts of several varieties. A. G. Hirschi, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Heartnuts, J. regia, persimmons, chestnuts. U. S. D. A., Beltsville, Maryland. 35 large pictures of famous nut and other trees fully described; many other smaller photos of famous trees remarkable for clearness. John Davidson, Xenia, Ohio. Cross-sections of seedling black walnut. A very remarkable exhibit of thin-shelled black walnuts. Dr. A. S. Colby, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. A very desirable Crath (seedling I believe) Persian walnut. Fayette Etter, Lemasters, Pennsylvania. Large number of filbert varieties. Attendance Dr. and Mrs. Truman A. Jones, Farkesburg, Penna. Geoffrey A. Gray, Cincinnati, O. John W. Hershey, Downingtown, Penna. Mr. and Mrs. C. A. Reed and Miss Betty Reed, Washington, D. C. Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman, Linglestown, R. I, Penna. S. B. Chase, Norris, Tenn. Thomas G. Zarger, Norris, Tenn. W. A. Cummings, Norris, Tenn. Mr. and Mrs. John Davidson, Xenia, O. H. C. Cook, Leetonia, O. Mr. and Mrs. H. F. Stoke, Roanoke, Va. Mr. and Mrs. Raymond E. Silvis, Massillon, O. Victor Brook, Rochester, N. Y. D. Ed. Seas, Orrville, O. L. H. MacDaniels, Ithaca, N. Y. C. F. Walker, Cleveland, O. Mr. and Mrs. J. F. Wischhusen, Cleveland, O. Mr. and Mrs. S. H. Graham, Ithaca, N. Y. Dr. R. H. Waite, Perrysburg, N. Y. Kenneth W. Hunt, Yellow Springs, O. J. F. Wilkinson, Rockport, Ind. William S. Clarke, Jr., State College, Penna. Ira M. Kyhl, Sabula, Io. Edwin W. Lemke, Detroit, Mich. William C. Hodgson, White Hall, Md. J. H. Gourley, Wooster, O. H. R. Gibbs, McLean, Va. Mr. and Mrs. S. Bernath, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Mr. and Mrs. Carl Weschcke, St. Paul, Minn. Joseph M. Masters, Wooster, O. George L. Slate, Geneva, N. Y. George H. Corsan, Toronto, Ont. Mrs. Katherine Cinadr, 13514 Coath Ave., Cleveland 20, O. O. D. Diller, Wooster, O. Emmet Yoder, Smithville, O. F. L. O'Rourke, E. Lansing, Mich. R. E. McAlpin, E. Lansing, Mich. G. J. Korn, Kalamazoo, Mich. L. W. Sherman, Canfield, O. H. H. Corsan, Hillsdale, Mich. J. L. Smith, and daughter, Chester, N. Y. A. J. Metzger, Toledo, O. A. W. Weaver, Toledo, O. S. Shessler, Genoa, O. A. A. Bungart, Avon, O. Sterling A. Smith, Vermilion, O. C. P. Stocker, Lorain, O. Dr. and Mrs. John E. Cannaday, Charleston, W. Va. Andres Cross Mr. and Mrs. R. B. Best, Eldred, Ill. G. M. Brand, Lincoln, Nebr. Wm. M. Rohrbacher, Iowa City, Io. D. C. Snyder, Center Point, Io. Wm. N. Neff, Martel, O. E. P. Gerber, Kidron, O. Geo. Kratzer, Dalton, O. A. G. Hirschi, Oklahoma City, Okla. Mr. and Mrs. Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, O. Mr. Ford Wallick, Peru, Ind. Carl Prell, S. Bend, Ind. Albert B. Ferguson, Center Point, Io. E. F. Huen, Eldora, Io. John B. Longnecker, Orrville, O. Percy Schaible, Upper Black Eddy, Penna. Ruth Schaible, Upper Black Eddy, Penna. Mr. and Mrs. Blaine McCollum, White Hall, Md. Mrs. H. Negus, Mt. Ranier, Md. Dr. Elbert M. Shelton, Lakewood, O. H. M. Oesterling, Harrisburg, Penna. Frank M. Kintzel, Cincinnati, O. Dr. J. W. McKay, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. Dr. A. S. Colby, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. E. C. Soliday, Lancaster, O. L. E. Gauly, Cleveland, O. Mrs. Reuben Bixler, Apple Creek, O. 
26552	----	FRUITS OF QUEENSLAND BY ALBERT H. BENSON, M.R.A.C., Late Instructor in Fruit Culture, Queensland Government; now Director of Agriculture, Hobart, Tasmania. BRISBANE: BY AUTHORITY: ANTHONY J. CUMMING, GOVERNMENT PRINTER. 1914. [Illustration: Fruit of Mangosteen.] CONTENTS. PAGE. Preface 5 Introduction 7 Queensland Fruit-growing 17 Climate 18 1st.--Soils of Eastern Seaboard, and land adjacent to it, suitable to the growth of Tropical and Semi-tropical Fruit 21 2nd.--Soils of the Coastal Tablelands, suitable for the growth of Deciduous Fruit 23 3rd.--Soils of the Central Tablelands, suitable for the growth of Grapes, Dates, Citrus Fruits, &c. 24 The Banana 24 The Pineapple 31 The Mango 41 Mangosteen 45 The Papaw 47 The Cocoa-nut 49 The Granadilla 51 The Passion Fruit 51 Custard Apples 53 Citrus Fruit 57 The Persimmon 71 The Loquat 73 The Date Palm 75 The Pecan Nut 75 Japanese Plums 77 Chickasaw Plums 77 Chinese Peaches 77 Figs 79 The Mulberry 79 The Strawberry 79 Cape Gooseberry 82 The Olive 83 The Apple 85 The Peach 87 The Plum 89 The Apricot 89 The Cherry 90 The Pear 91 The Almond 91 Grape Culture 93 List of Fruits and Vegetables Grown in Queensland 102 [Illustration: Map of Queensland] PREFACE. In the more thickly populated portions of the Old and New World, and, to a certain extent, in the large cities of Australia, the question of how to make a living has became one of vital importance to a large portion of the population, and is the cause of considerable anxiety to fathers of families who are endeavouring to find employment for their sons. This difficulty of obtaining employment is a very serious question, and one demanding the most earnest consideration. It is probably the result of many different causes, but, in the writer's opinion, it is due mainly to the fact that for years past the trend of population has been from the country districts to the towns, with the result that many of the great centres of population are now very badly congested, and profitable employment of any kind is often extremely difficult to obtain. The congested towns offer no possible outlet for surplus labour, hence it is necessary that such labour must find an outlet in the less thickly populated parts of the world where there is still plenty of room for development and population is badly needed. Queensland is a country possessing these qualifications; but is, unfortunately, a country that is little known to the general mass of home-seekers, and, further, what little is known of it is usually so inaccurate that a very erroneous opinion of the capabilities of this really fine country exists. The great flow of emigration is naturally to those countries that are nearest to the Old World--viz., the United States of America and Canada--and little attention is given to Australia, although we have many advantages not possessed by either the United States or Canada, and are not subject to the disadvantage of an intensely cold winter such as that experienced throughout the greater portion of those countries for several months yearly. To those looking for homes the following pages are addressed, so that before deciding to what part of the world they will go they may know what sort of a country Queensland really is, what one of its industries is like, the kind of life they may look forward to spending here, and the possibility of their making a comfortable home amongst us. The life of a fruit-grower is by no means a hard one in Queensland, the climate of the fruit-growing districts is a healthy and by no means a trying one, and is thoroughly adapted to the successful cultivation of many fruits; and, finally, a living can be made under conditions that are much more conducive to the well-being of our race than those existing in the overcrowded centres of population. The writer has no wish to infer that there are big profits to be made by growing fruit, but, at the same time, he has no hesitation in saying that where the industry is conducted in an up-to-date manner, on business lines, a good living can be made, and that there is a good opening for many who are now badly in want of employment. The illustrations represent various phases of the industry, and have been specially prepared by H. W. Mobsby, the Artist of the Intelligence and Tourist Bureau. Most of the Illustrations have been taken at an exceptionally dry time, and at the close of one of the coldest winters on record, so that they do not show the crops or trees at their best; at the same time, they give a fair idea of some of our fruits, orchards, and fruit lands. ALBERT H. BENSON. Brisbane, Queensland, January, 1906. INTRODUCTION. Queensland's greatest want to-day is population: Men and women to develop our great natural resources, to go out into our country districts as farmers, dairymen, or fruit-growers--not to stick in our towns, but to become primary producers, workers, home-builders--not the scourings of big cities, the dissatisfied, the loafer, but the honest worker whose wish is to make a home for himself and his family. There are many such in the overcrowded cities of older countries, striving in vain to make a living--existing, it can hardly be called living, under conditions that are by no means conducive to their well-being--often poorly fed and poorly clad--who would better themselves by coming to Queensland, and by whom Queensland would be benefited. Queensland has room for many such annually: men and women who come here for the express intention of settling amongst us and building homes for themselves; who come here prepared to work, and, if needs be, to work hard; who do not expect to become rich suddenly, but will be contented with a comfortable home, a healthy life, and a moderate return for their labour--results that are within the reach of all, and which compare more than favourably with the conditions under which they are at present existing. Queensland's most valuable asset is her soil, and this requires population to develop it: soil that, in the different districts and climates best adapted for their growth, is capable of producing most of the cultivated crops of the world, and, with very few exceptions, all the fruits of commercial value, many of them to a very high degree of perfection. This pamphlet is practically confined to the fruit-growing possibilities of Queensland, and an endeavour is made to show that there is a good opening for intending settlers in this branch of agriculture, but the general remarks respecting the climate, rainfall, soils, &c., will be of equal interest to any who wish to take up any other branch, such as general farming, dairying, &c. The Queensland Department of Agriculture has received a number of inquiries from time to time, and from various parts of the world, respecting the possibilities of profitable commercial fruit-growing in this State, and this pamphlet is intended in part to be an answer to such inquiries; but, at the same time, it is hoped that it will have a wider scope, and give a general idea of one of our staple industries to many who are now on the look-out for a country in which to settle and an occupation to take up when they arrive there. [Illustration: Woombye, North Coast Railway. The centre of a large fruit growing district.] No branch of agriculture has made a greater advance during the past quarter-century than that of fruit-growing, and none has become more popular. The demand for fruit of all kinds, whether fresh or preserved, has increased enormously throughout the world, and it is now generally looked upon more as a necessity than a luxury. Hence there are continually recurring inquiries as to the best place to start fruit-growing with a reasonable prospect of success. It is not only the increased demand for fruit that causes these inquiries, but fruit-growing has a strong attraction for many would-be agriculturists as compared with general farming, dairying, or stock-raising, and this attraction is probably due to a certain fascination it possesses that only those who have been intimately acquainted with the industry for years can fully appreciate. In addition to the fact that living under one's own vine and fig-tree is in itself a very pleasant ideal to look forward to, there is no branch of agronomy that calls for a keener appreciation of the laws of Nature, that brings man into closer touch with Nature, that makes a greater demand on a man's patience, skill, and energy, or in which science and practice are more closely related, than in that of fruit-growing. To all those who are considering the advantages of taking up fruit-growing as an occupation, and to those who feel the attraction I have just described, these few words on fruit-growing in Queensland are addressed, as the writer wishes them to learn something of the fruit-growing capabilities of this State, so that before deciding on the country in which they will make a start they may not be in complete ignorance of a land that is especially adapted for the growth of a larger number of distinct varieties of fruit than any other similar area of land with which he is acquainted either in the Old or New World. Queensland is a country whose capabilities are at present comparatively unknown even to those living in the Southern States of Australia, and, naturally, very much less so to the rest of the world, hence a little general information respecting our country and one of its industries may be of some help to those who are looking for an opening in this particular branch of agriculture. [Illustration: A Tropical Orchard, Port Douglas.] [Illustration: Coochin York Mangosteen, Port Douglas District.] Queensland is a country having a population of a little over half a million, and an area of 429,120,000 acres; the population of a city of the second magnitude, and an area of some seven and one-half times greater than that of Great Britain, or two and one-half times greater than the State of Texas, United States of America. A country embracing 18 degrees of latitude, from the 11th to the 29th degrees of south latitude, and extending from a humid eastern seaboard to an extremely dry interior, some 15 degrees of longitude west. A country, therefore, of many climates and varied rainfall. A country possessing a great diversity of soils, many of which are of surprising richness. A country more or less heavily timbered with either scrub or forest growth, or consisting of wide open plains that are practically treeless. A country of infinite resources, that is capable of producing within its own borders all that man requires, from the extreme tropical to temperate products. A country that, once its possibilities are realised and turned to a profitable account, is destined to become one of the most fruitful in the globe, to support a large and thriving population of our own people; and last, but not least, a country that, from a fruit-grower's point of view, cannot be excelled elsewhere. We have a healthy climate, not by any means an extreme climate as is often represented--extreme cold is unknown, frost being unusual on any portion of the seaboard, but common during the winter months on our tablelands. But even where there are frosts the days are pleasantly warm. Summer is undoubtedly warm, but it is usually a bearable heat, and sudden changes are extremely rare, so that though trying in the humid tropical seaboard, it is not unbearable, and compares favourably with the tropical heat met with elsewhere. This is clearly shown by the stamina of the white race, particularly those living in the country districts, where both men and women compare favourably with those of any other part of the Empire. Except in very isolated places, communication with the outside world and between the different centres of population is regular and frequent; in fact, in all the coastal and coastal tableland districts of the State one is kept daily in touch with all the important matters that are taking place in the world. In the home life there is a freedom not met with in older countries; there is an almost entire absence of artificiality--people are natural, and are interested in each other's welfare. They are certainly fond of pleasure, but at the same time are extremely generous and hospitable. The writer can speak of this from a large practical experience, as for some years past he has annually travelled many thousands of miles amongst fruit-growers and others who are settled on the land, and, without exception, he has everywhere been met with the greatest kindness from rich and poor alike--in short, a hearty welcome--and the best that the house affords is the rule, without exception. In brief, should any of my readers decide on coming to Queensland, the only difference that they will find as compared with the older countries is, that our climate is somewhat warmer in summer, but to compensate for this we have no severe cold in winter. There is more freedom and less conventionality, life to all who will work is much easier, and there is not the same necessity for expensive clothing or houses as exists in more rigorous climates. The people they will meet are of their own colour and race, no doubt fond of sport and pleasure, perhaps inclined to be a little self-opinionated, but solid grit at the bottom. As previously stated, Queensland offers exceptional advantages to the intending fruit-grower, and the following may be quoted as examples. The ease with which fruit can be produced, when grown under conditions suitable to its proper development, is often remarkable, and is a constant source of wonder to all who have been accustomed to the comparatively slow growth of many of our commoner varieties of fruits when grown in less favoured climes, and to the care that is there necessary to produce profitable returns. Here all kinds of tree life is rapid, and fruit trees come into bearing much sooner than they do in colder climates. In addition to their arriving at early maturity, they are also, as a rule, heavy bearers, their fault, if anything, being towards over-bearing. Fruits of many kinds are so thoroughly acclimatised that it is by no means uncommon to find them growing wild, and holding their own in the midst of rank indigenous vegetation, without receiving the slightest care or attention. In some cases where cultivated fruits have been allowed to become wild, they have become somewhat of a pest, and have kept down all other growths, so much so that it has been actually necessary to take steps to prevent them from becoming a nuisance, so readily do they grow, and so rapidly do they increase. The very ease with which fruit can be grown when planted under conditions of soil and climate favourable to its development has had a tendency to make growers somewhat careless as compared with those of other countries who have to grow fruit under conditions demanding the most careful attention in order to be made profitable. This is enough to show that Queensland is adapted for fruit-growing, and the illustrations accompanying the description of our chief commercial fruits will show them more forcibly than any words of mine that my contention is a correct one. Latterly, however, there has been a considerable improvement in the working of our orchards, growers finding that it does not pay to grow second-quality fruit, and, therefore, they are giving much more attention to the selection of varieties, cultivation of the land, pruning the trees, and the keeping in check of fruit pests; as, like other parts of the world, we have our pests to deal with. This improvement in the care and management of our orchards is resulting in a corresponding improvement in the quantity and quality of our output, so that now our commercial fruits--that is to say, the fruits grown in commercial quantities--compare favourably with the best types of similar fruits produced elsewhere. The writer has no wish to convey the impression that all that is required in order to grow fruit in Queensland is to secure suitable land, plant the trees, let Nature do the rest, and when they come into bearing simply gather and market the fruit. This has been done in the past, and may be done again under favourable conditions, but it is not the usual method adopted, nor is it to be recommended. Here, as elsewhere, the progressive fruit-growing of to-day has become practically a science, as the fruit-grower who wishes to keep abreast of the times depends largely on the practical application of scientific knowledge for the successful carrying on of his business. There is no branch of agronomy in which science and practice are more closely connected than in that of fruit-growing. Every operation of the fruit-grower is, or should be, carried out on scientific lines and by the best methods of propagation--pruning, cultivation, manuring, treatment of diseases, and preservation of fruit when grown are all, directly or indirectly, the result of scientific research. To be a successful fruit-grower in Queensland one must therefore use one's brains as well as one's hands; the right tree must be grown in the right kind of soil and under the right conditions; it must be properly attended to, and the fruit, when grown, must be marketed in the best possible condition, whether same be as fresh fruit or dried, canned, or otherwise preserved, and whether same be destined for our local, Australian, or oversea markets. Fruit-growing on these lines is a success in Queensland to-day, and it is capable of considerable extension, so that, in the writer's opinion, it offers a good field for the intending settler. Carried out in the manner indicated, he has no hesitation in saying that Queensland is a good place in which to start fruit-growing, that the advantages it possesses cannot be surpassed or even equalled elsewhere, and, further, that as our seasons are the opposite of those in countries situated on the north of the equator, our fruits ripen in the off-seasons of similar fruit grown in those countries, and, with our facilities for cold storage and rapid transit, can be placed on their markets at a time that they are bare of such fruits, thus securing top prices. [Illustration: Bunch of Fruit of the Coochin York Mangosteen.] Queensland has practically an unlimited area of land suitable for fruit culture, much of which is at present in its virgin state, and is obtainable on easy terms and at a low rate. Government land is worth on an average £1 per acre, and privately-owned land suitable for fruit-growing can be purchased at from 10s. to £5 per acre, according to its quality and its distance from railway or water carriage. We have plenty of land, what we lack is population to work it; and there is no fear of over-crowding for many years to come. We have not only large areas of good fruit land at reasonable rates, but the Government of Queensland, through its Department of Agriculture, is always ready to give full information to intending settlers, to assist them in their selection of suitable land, to advise them as to the kinds of fruit to plant, to give practical advice in the cultivation, pruning, manuring, and general management of the orchard as well as in the disposal or utilisation of the fruit when grown; in short, to help the beginner to start on the right lines, so that he will be successful. [Illustration: Tamarind Fruits--Kamerunga State Nursery, Cairns.] There is also little if any fear of over-extending the fruit-growing industry, as, if it is conducted on the right lines and on sound business principles, we can raise fruit of the highest quality at a price that will enable us to compete in the markets of the world especially now that we have direct and rapid communication at frequent intervals with Canada, the United States of America, the East (Japan, Manilla, &c.), Europe, and the United Kingdom. QUEENSLAND FRUIT GROWING. Very few persons have any idea of the magnitude or the resources of this State of Queensland, and in no branch of agricultural industry are they more clearly shown than in that of fruit-growing. Here, unlike the colder parts of the world or the extreme tropics, we are not confined to the growing of particular varieties of fruits, but, owing to our great extent of country, and its geographical distribution, we are able to produce practically all the cultivated fruits of the world, many of them to great perfection. There are, however, one or two tropical fruits that are exceptions, such as the durien and mangosteen, whose range is extremely small, and one or two of the berry fruits of cold countries, which require a colder winter than that experienced in any part of this State. It will, however, be seen at once that a country that can produce such fruits as the mango, pineapple, banana, papaw, granadilla, guava, custard apple, litchi, sour sop, cocoa nut, bread fruit, jack fruit, monstera, alligator pear, and others of a purely tropical character; the date, citrus fruits of all kinds, passion fruit, persimmon, olive, pecan nut, cape gooseberry, loquat, and other fruits of a semi-tropical character, as well as the fruits of the more temperate regions, such as the apple, pear, plum, peach, apricot, quince, almond, cherry, fig, walnut, strawberry, mulberry, and others of minor importance, in addition to grapes of all kinds, both for wine and table, and of both European and American origin, offers a very wide choice of fruits indeed to the prospective grower. Of course, it must not be thought for a moment that all the fruits mentioned can be grown to perfection at any one place in the State, as that would be an impossibility, but they can be grown in some part of the State profitably and to great perfection. The law of successful fruit culture is the same here as in all other fruit-producing countries--viz., to grow in your district only those fruits which are particularly adapted to your soil and climate, and to let others grow those fruits which you cannot grow, but which their conditions allow them to produce to perfection. The intending grower must, therefore, first decide on what fruits he wishes to grow, and when he has done so, select the district best suited to their growth. The small map of the State shows the districts in which certain fruits may be grown profitably, or, rather, the districts in which they are at present being so grown; but there are many other districts in which fruit-growing has not been attempted in commercial quantities or for other than purely home consumption that, once the State begins to fill up with population, are equal, if not superior, to the older fruit-growing districts, and are capable of maintaining a large population. [Illustration: Typical Clean Orchard.] CLIMATE. As previously stated, the successful culture of fruit depends mainly on the right kinds of fruit being grown in the right soil and climate. This naturally brings us to the question of climate, and here one again gets an idea of the extent of our country, as we have not one but many climates. Climate is a matter of such vital importance to fruit-growers, and there is such a general lack of knowledge respecting the climate of Queensland, that a little information on this point is desirable. I am afraid that there is a very general impression that Queensland has a climate that is only suitable for a coloured race; that it is either in the condition of a burnt-up desert or is being flooded out. That it is a country of droughts and floods, a country of extremes--in fact, a very desirable place to live out of. No more erroneous idea was ever given credence to, and, as an Englishman born, who has had many years' practical experience on the land in England, Scotland, the United States of America, and the various Australian States, I have no hesitation in saying that, as far as my experience goes--and it is an experience gained by visiting nearly every part of the State that is suited for agricultural pursuits--taken as a whole, it is difficult to find a better or healthier climate in any other country of equal area. Our climate has its disadvantages, no doubt, particularly our dry spells, but show me the country that has a perfect climate. We have disadvantages, but, at the same time, we have great advantages; advantages that, in my opinion, outweigh our disadvantages. Our eastern seaboard, extending from the New South Wales border in the south, a few miles to the south of the 28th degree of south latitude, to Cape York, some 20 miles north of the 11th degree of south latitude, contains our best districts for the growth of tropical and semi-tropical fruits. The coastal climate, however, varies considerably, and is governed by the proximity or otherwise of the coast ranges. When they approach the coast there is always more rainfall, and as they recede the rainfall decreases. With one or two exceptions, where the coastal range is a considerable distance inland, the eastern coastal districts have a sufficient rainfall for the successful culture of most fruits, though they are subject to a dry spell during winter and spring. During this period of the year, the weather is extremely enjoyable; in fact, it is hard to better it, even in our extreme North. But as summer approaches, thunderstorms become prevalent, and are accompanied by more or less humid conditions, which, though good for fruit-development, are not quite so enjoyable as the drier months. Summer is our rainy season, and the rainfalls are occasionally very heavy. The weather is warm and oppressive, particularly in the more tropical districts; but these very conditions are those that are best suited to the production of tropical fruits. The climate of those districts having the heaviest summer rainfall is somewhat trying to Europeans, particularly women, but it is by no means unhealthy, and in the hottest parts, having the coast range nearly on the coast, there is, within a few miles, a tableland of from 2,000 to 4,000 feet elevation, where the climate is cool and bracing, and where the jaded man or woman can soon throw off the feeling of lassitude brought about by the heat and humidity of the seaboard. In autumn the weather soon cools off, drier conditions supervene, and living again becomes a pleasure in one of the best and healthiest climates to be met with anywhere. Practically all the district under review has a sufficient rainfall for the growth of all fruits suitable to the climate, though there are occasionally dry spells during spring, when a judicious watering would be a great advantage. This does not imply a regular system of irrigation, but simply the conserving of surplus moisture in times of plenty by means of dams across small natural watercourses or gullies, by tanks where such do not occur, or from wells where an available supply of underground water may be obtained. The water so conserved will only be needed occasionally, but it is an insurance against any possible loss or damage that might accrue to the trees during a dry spell of extra length. So far, little has been done in coastal districts in conserving water for fruit-growing, the natural rainfall being considered by many to be ample; but, in the writer's opinion, it will be found to be a good investment, as it will be the means of securing regular crops instead of an occasional partial failure, due to lack of sufficient moisture during a critical period of the tree's growth. The average yearly rainfall in the eastern seaboard varies from 149 inches at Geraldton to 41 inches at Bowen, the mean average being about 90 inches to the north and 49 inches to the south of Townsville. Were this fall evenly distributed throughout the year, it would be ample for all requirements. Unfortunately, however, it is not evenly distributed, the heavy falls taking place during the summer months, so that there is often a dry spell of greater or less extent during the winter and spring, during which a judicious watering has a very beneficial effect on fruit trees, and secures a good crop for the coming season. The rainfall shows that there is no fear of a shortage of water at any time, the only question is to conserve the surplus for use during a prolonged dry spell. These conditions are extremely favourable for the growth of all tropical and semi-tropical fruits, as during our period of greater heat, when these fruits make their greatest call for moisture, there is an abundance of rain, and during the other portions of the year, when the call is not so heavy, it is usually an inexpensive matter to conserve or obtain a sufficient supply to keep the trees in the best of order. Throughout the southern half of this seaboard frosts are not unknown on low-lying ground, but are extremely rare on the actual coast, or at an elevation of 300 to 400 feet above the sea, so much so that no precautions are necessary to prevent damage from frost. We have, unlike Florida and other parts of the United States of America--great fruit-growing districts--no killing frosts, and now, at the close of one of the coldest winters on record, and one of the driest, nowhere have our pineapples--fruit nor plants--been injured, except on low-lying ground, over in the Southern part of the State, and mangoes, bananas, &c., are uninjured. [Illustration: Burning-off for fruit growing, Mapleton, Blackall Range.] [Illustration: Same land one year later. Fruit-grower's family gathering strawberries.] In the more tropical North frosts are unknown on the coast, and there is no danger to even the most delicate plants from cold. Running parallel with the coast we have a series of ranges of low mountains, running from 2,000 feet to nearly 6,000 feet, the general height being from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, and at the back of these ranges more or less level tablelands, sloping generally to the west. On and adjacent to these ranges in the Southern part of the State, there are fairly sharp frosts in winter, but the days are warm and bright. This is the district best adapted for the growth of deciduous fruits and vines, table varieties doing particularly well. It is a district well adapted for mixed farming and dairying, as well as fruit-growing; the climate is even and healthy, and is neither severe in summer nor winter. The average rainfall is some 30 inches, and is usually sufficient, though there are dry periods, when a judicious watering, as recommended for the coast districts, would be of great value to fruit and vegetable growers. The more northern end of this tableland country has a much better rainfall--some 40 inches per annum--and frosts, though they occur at times, are not common. Here the climate is very healthy, there are no extremes of heat and cold, and, lying as it does inland from the most trying portion of our tropical seaboard, it forms a natural sanatorium to this part of our State. Further west the rainfall decreases, the summers are hot--a dry heat, as distinct from the more humid heat of the coast, and much more bearable. There are frequent frosts in winter, particularly in the Southern part of the State. Fruit-growing is only carried on to a slight extent at present, and then only with the help of water, but when the latter is obtainable, very good results are obtained. Grapes do well, both wine and table, and for raisin-making. Citrus fruits are remarkably fine, the lemons especially, being the best grown in the State. The trees are less liable to the attack of many pests, the dryness of the air retarding their development, if not altogether preventing their occurrence. The date palm is quite at home here, and when planted in deep sandy land, and supplied with sufficient water, it is a rapid grower and heavy bearer. As an offset to the smallness of the rainfall, there is a good supply of artesian water, distributed over a wide range of country, that can be obtained at a reasonable rate, and that is suitable for irrigation purposes. All bore water is not suitable for irrigation, however, as some of it is too highly mineralised, but there are large areas of country possessing an artesian supply of excellent quality for this purpose. It will thus be seen that we have in Queensland, roughly, three distinct belts of fruit-growing country-- 1st.--The Eastern Seaboard, and the land adjacent to it, suitable for the growing of tropical and semi-tropical fruit; 2nd.--The Coastal Tablelands, suitable for the growth of deciduous fruits, vines, olives, and citrus fruits in parts; 3rd.--The Central Tablelands, suitable for the growth of grapes, for table and drying, dates, citrus fruits, &c., but requiring water for irrigation to produce profitably. So far, I have confined my remarks mainly to the climatic side of fruit-growing, and, before dealing with the growing of the different kinds of fruit, I will say a few words about our fruit soils, and will deal with them in districts, as I have endeavoured to do in the case of climate. 1st.--Soils of Eastern Seaboard, and Land adjacent to it, suitable to the Growth of Tropical and Semi-Tropical Fruit. Several distinct types of soil are found that are well adapted for fruit-growing, but they all have one general characteristic which is a _sine qua non_ of success--viz., they must possess good natural drainage, so that there is no danger of their becoming waterlogged or soured during periods of continued or heavy rainfall, as these conditions are fatal to fruit culture under tropical and semi-tropical conditions. Of such soils, the first to be considered are those of basaltic origin. They are usually of a chocolate or rich red colour, are of great depth, in parts more or less covered with basaltic boulders, in others entirely free from stones. The surface soil is friable and easily worked, and the subsoil, which is usually of a rich red colour, is easily penetrated by the roots of trees and plants grown thereon. Occasionally the subsoil is more compact, in which case it is not so good for fruit-tree growth, but is better adapted for that of sugar-cane, corn, grass, &c. These basaltic soils are usually rich, and are covered in their virgin condition with what is termed scrub--a dense mass of vegetation closely resembling an Indian jungle. The scrub growth is totally distinct from forest growth, which will be described later, in that the bulk of the timber growing in it, much of which is of large size, is of a soft nature, and once cut down soon rots away. Imagine a dense wall of vegetation, consisting of large trees running up to 100 or 150 feet in height, with trunks ranging from 2 to 8 feet, or even more, in diameter, and between these trunks an impenetrable mass of smaller growths, all of the most vivid green colours, together with innumerable vines and creepers that are suspended from the branches of the trees, hanging in festoons, creeping palms and bamboos, ferns and orchids of many kinds, both on the ground and growing on the tree trunks, as well as many beautiful foliage plants only found in hothouses in England, and you will have a faint idea of what a virgin scrub in coastal Queensland is like. Much of the timber of the coastal scrubs is of considerable commercial value for building purposes and furniture making, and is, or should be, so utilised prior to felling and burning off. True scrub lands are not by any means the most difficult to clear, though to a "new chum" the work will appear at first of a Herculean character. Brushing the dense undergrowth and then felling the timber at a face costs from £1 10s. to £2 per acre, according to density, size of timber, and proportion of hardwood trees contained in it, and once this is done the fallen mass is allowed to become thoroughly dry, when it is burnt off. A good fire is half the battle, as the subsequent work of burning off the heavy timber left from the first burn is comparatively light. No stumps are taken out, as the bulk are found to rot out in a few years, and their presence in the soil is no detriment to the planting of such crops as bananas or even citrus fruit trees. No special preparation of the land, such as breaking up, &c., is necessary prior to planting. Holes are dug, trees or bananas are planted, and the whole cultivation for the first few years consists in keeping down weed growths with the chipping hoe. Once the stumps have rotted out the plough and other implements of culture take the place of the hoe. These soils are especially adapted for the growth of oranges, limes, mandarins, mangoes, bananas, pineapples, papaws, custard apples, strawberries, and cape gooseberries in the South; in fact, for nearly every kind of tropical and semi-tropical fruit. Some basaltic soils are occasionally covered with forest in the place of scrub, or a mixture, part scrub and part forest. Forest country, as distinct from scrub, is open-timbered country, with little undergrowth, and no vines or other creepers. The timbers are also, as a rule, very hard, and the stumps will not rot out. Such land, when at all heavily timbered, is much harder to clear and get ready for fruit-growing than true scrub, as all timber must be felled and burnt off, and all stumps and roots taken out, so that the land can be thoroughly broken up and brought into a good state of tilth prior to planting. These soils are suitable to the growth of similar fruits to the true scrubs, but, as a rule, they are not as rich. The second class of soils suitable to fruit-growing are of alluvial origin, and are of a sandy, loamy nature, of fair depth. They are usually met with along our creeks and rivers, or in the deltas of our rivers. In their virgin state they are either covered with scrub or forest, or a mixture of both, but the growth is seldom as strong as on the red volcanic soils. Heavy alluvial soils are not suitable for fruit culture, and are much more valuable for the growth of farm crops, but the light sandy loams and free loams of medium character suit all kinds of fruit to perfection. These soils usually are easy to work. They retain moisture well when well worked, and frequently they are capable of being irrigated, either from adjacent creeks or rivers, or by water from wells. These soils are some of our best for citrus fruits, and are well adapted for the growth of pineapples and bananas, as well as most other tropical fruits, when free from frosts. The third class of soils are free sandy loams, either scrub or forest. They are of various colours, and range in texture from light sandy loams to medium loams; they possess excellent drainage, and though, when covered with forest, they are not naturally rich, they make excellent fruit soils, and respond rapidly to systematic cultivation and manuring. They are usually of sandstone or granitic origin, and, when covered with scrub in the first place, grow good crops for the first few years, when they become more or less exhausted in one or more available plant foods, and require manuring. These soils, like the sandy alluvial loams, are easy to work, retain moisture well when kept in a state of perfect tilth, and respond readily to manuring. They will grow all kinds of fruits when free from frost. There are other soils on which fruit can be grown, but those mentioned represent those most suitable. The land on which these soils occur is often much broken, particularly in rich scrub country; it is fairly level when of alluvial origin, and more or less rolling, as a rule, when of a sandy loamy nature. High, ridgy, free, loamy country is usually the most free from frost, and alluvial flats the most liable to it. 2nd.--Soils of the Coastal Tablelands, suitable for the Growth of Deciduous Fruit. Starting from the Southern part of the State, adjoining the New South Wales border, the fruit soils are all of granitic origin. The country is much broken, but between the ridges and along the creek flats there is a considerable area possessing soils varying from a coarse, granitic, gritty soil to a fine granitic soil; that on the creeks of an alluvial nature, but still granitic. These soils vary considerably in quality, but are, as a rule, easy to work and retain moisture well. They are covered with open forest and are particularly adapted to the growth of apples, plums, peaches, and grapes, though other deciduous fruits are grown but not to the same excellence as those mentioned. Proceeding north the fruit soils are either sandy loams or loams of a brownish colour of volcanic origin. The former are suitable for almonds and wine grapes, and the latter for peaches, apricots, pears, apples, and especially olives. Further north a few of these fruits may be grown on loamy soils, together with citrus fruits, but, commercially, deciduous fruits are confined to the southern end of this district, the winter temperature being too high for their successful growth further north, as the trees get no winter rest, hence do not mature their fruit-bearing wood properly. 3rd.--Soils of the Central Tablelands, suitable to the Growth of Grapes, Dates, Citrus Fruits, Etc. At the Southern end of the State the fruit soils are all of a sandy nature. Nothing else is used in any quantity, as sandy soils alone will retain sufficient moisture for the growth of grapes and fruit trees during dry spells, and even then only when kept well and deeply worked. Further north, where suitable artesian water is available, the best fruit soils are also free loams of a sandy nature, either alluvial or open forest soils, but deep, and possessing perfect drainage, as irrigation on land without good natural drainage is fatal to fruit culture. These sandy loams are also easy to work; though by no means rich, they, on account of their depth, grow good crops of fruit by means of irrigation, and the fruit, such as dates, oranges, lemons, grapes, &c., is of very fine quality. The fruit soils of this district are covered either with open forest--the trees being of comparatively small size--or with a scrubby undergrowth through which a few larger trees are scattered. Nearly all the timber of this district is extremely hard, is more or less stunted, and burns readily, hence clearing is not a very expensive item. Having now given a very brief description of our climate and the fruit-soils in our principal fruit-producing centres, we will next consider the culture of those fruits which are grown in commercial quantities in the different parts of the State, as well as that of a few less well-known fruits which show especial promise. We will first deal with our tropical fruits, of which the first to be considered is the banana, as its production greatly exceeds that of any other tropical fruit, and, as far as Australia is concerned, this is the only State in which it is grown in commercial quantities. From tropical fruits we will go on to semi-tropical fruits, then to temperate fruits and vines. THE BANANA. Under the heading of "Banana," all kinds of plantains will also be included, as they belong to one and the same family. The members of this family of plants are all tropical, and produce the most typical and best known tropical fruits. [Illustration: Cavendish Bananas on scrub land, Buderim Mountain.] [Illustration: Cavendish Bananas at Woombye on newly cleared land.] The rank luxuriance of the growth of this class of fruits, their handsome foliage, their productiveness, their high economic value as food, and their universal distribution throughout the tropics, all combine to place them in a premier position. As a food it is unequalled amongst fruits, as no matter whether it is used green as a vegetable, ripe as a fruit, dried and ground into flour, or preserved in any other way, it is one of the most wholesome and nutritious of foods for human consumption. It is a staple article of diet in all tropical countries, and the stems of several varieties make an excellent food for all kinds of stock. [Illustration: Twenty-dozen Bunch, Buderim Mountain.] In Queensland, the culture of bananas is confined to the frostless belts of the eastern seaboard, as it is a plant that is extremely susceptible to cold, and is injured by the lightest frosts. It is grown in favourable locations in the South, where it produces excellent fruit, but its cultivation is much greater in the North, where the rainfall is heavier and the average annual temperature greater. In the Southern part of the State its cultivation is entirely in the hands of white growers, who have been growing it on suitable soil in suitable localities for the past fifty years or even more. I recently saw an old plantation that was set out over twenty years ago, and the present plants are still strong and healthy, and bearing good bunches of well-filled fruit, so that there is no question as to the suitability of the soil or climate. Bananas do best on rich scrub land, and it is no detriment to their growth if it is more or less covered with stones as long as there is sufficient soil to set the young plants. Shelter from heavy or cold winds is an advantage, and the plants thrive better under these conditions than when planted in more exposed positions. Bananas are frequently the first crop planted in newly burnt off scrub land, as they do not require any special preparation of such land, and the large amount of ash and partially burnt and decomposed vegetable mould provide an ample supply of food for the plants' use. Bananas are rank feeders, so that this abundance of available plant food causes a rapid growth, fine plants, and correspondingly large bunches of fruit. Though newly burnt off scrub land is the best for this fruit, it can be grown successfully in land that has been under cultivation for many years, provided that the land is rich enough naturally, or its fertility is maintained by judicious green and other manuring. In newly burnt off scrub land all that is necessary is, to dig holes 15 to 18 inches in diameter, and about 2 feet deep, set the young plants in it, and partly fill in the hole with good top soil. The young plant, which consists of a sucker taken from an older plant, will soon take root and grow rapidly under favourable conditions, producing its first bunch in from ten to twelve months after planting. At the same time that it is producing its first bunch it will send up two or more suckers at the base of the parent plant, and these in turn will bear fruit, and so on. After bearing, the stalk that has produced the bunch of fruit is cut down; if this is not done it will die down, as its work has been completed, and other suckers take its place. Too many suckers should not be allowed to grow or the plants will become too crowded, and be consequently stunted and produce small bunches. All the cultivation that is necessary is the keeping down of weed growth, and this, once the plants occupy the whole of the land, is not a hard matter. A plantation is at its best when about three years old, but remains profitable for six years or longer; in fact, there are many plantations still bearing good fruit that have been planted from twelve to twenty years. Small-growing or dwarf kinds, such as the Cavendish variety, are planted at from 12 to 16 feet apart each way, but large-growing bananas, such as the Sugar and Lady's Finger, require from 20 to 25 feet apart each way, as do the stronger-growing varieties of plantain. Plantains are not grown to any extent in Queensland, and our principal varieties are those already mentioned, the Cavendish variety greatly predominating. In the North, the cultivation of this latter variety is carried out on an extensive scale, principally by Chinese gardeners, who send the bulk of their produce to the Southern States of the Commonwealth. The industry supports a large number of persons other than the actual producers of the fruit, and forms one of our principal articles of export from the North. As many as 20,000 or more large bunches of bananas frequently leave by a single steamer for the South, and the bringing of this quantity to the port of shipment gives employment to a number of men on tram lines and small coastal steamers. The shipment of a heavy cargo of bananas presents a very busy scene that is not soon forgotten, the thousands of bunches of fruit that are either piled up on the wharf or that are being unloaded from railway trucks, small steamers or sometimes Chinese junks, forming such a mass of fruit that one often wonders how it is possible to consume it all before it becomes over-ripe. Still, it is consumed, or, at any rate, the greater portion of it is, as it is the universal fruit of the less wealthy portion of the community, the price at which it can be sold being so low that it is within the reach of everyone. A banana garden in full bearing is a very pretty sight, the thousands of plants, each with their one or more bunches of fruit, as, where there are several stems it is not at all uncommon to find two or more bunches of fruit in different states of development on the same plant, forming a mass of vegetation that must be seen to be appreciated. This is the case even with dwarf-growing kinds, but with strong-growing varieties, such as the Lady's Finger, the growth is so excessive that the wonder is, how the soil can support it. [Illustration: Bananas for shipment at Innisfail.] Bananas do remarkably well in Queensland, and there is practically an unlimited area of country suitable for their culture, much of which is at present in a state of Nature. Only the more easily accessible lands have been worked and of these only the richest. Manuring is unknown in most parts, and as soon as the plantation shows signs of deterioration it is abandoned, and a fresh one planted out in new land, the land previously under crop with bananas being either planted in sugar-cane or allowed to run to grass. This is certainly a very wasteful method of utilising our land, and the time will come, sooner or later, when greater care will have to be given to it, and that once land has become impoverished by banana culture, it will have to be put under a suitable rotation of crops, so as to fit it for being again planted to bananas. The trouble is, as I have already stated, we have too much land and too few people to work it, hence, so far, we are unable to use it to anything like the best advantage. During the year 1904 the production of bananas in Queensland was some 2,000,000 bunches, and when it is considered that each bunch will average about 12 dozen fruit, it will be seen that already we are producing a very large quantity. There is, however, plenty of room for extension, and any quantity of available country, but before this extension can be profitable, steps will have to be taken to utilise the fruit in a manner other than its consumption as fresh fruit, and this in itself will mean the opening up of new industries and the employment of a considerable amount of labour. I have mentioned 12 dozen as being the average quantity of fruit per bunch, but it is frequently much more than this, and I have often seen bunches of 25 to 30 dozen fine fruit grown on strong young plants on rich new land. Although the industry in the North is now almost entirely in the hands of Chinese gardeners, there is no reason whatever why it should not be run by white growers, as is done in the South, and there is no question that our white-grown bananas in the South compare more than favourably with the Northern Chinese-grown article, despite the fact that the latter has every advantage in climate and an abundance of virgin soil. Most of the photos of bananas are, I am sorry to say, not by any means typical of this industry, as they have been taken during the off-season, when the plants look ragged and are showing little new growth, and the bunches also are much smaller than usual. Still, I hope that the illustrations will give some idea of the growing and handling of this crop, and will show what a banana plant and its bunch are like. THE PINEAPPLE. If there is one fruit that Queensland can grow to perfection, it is undoubtedly the pineapple. This is not merely my own personal opinion, but is the universal admission of all who are qualified to judge. On many occasions I have taken men thoroughly conversant with pineapple-growing, and who knew what a good fruit really is, through some of our plantations, where I have given them fruit to test, and, without exception, they have had no hesitation in saying that they have never tasted better fruit. Our fruit has a firmness, freedom from fibre, and a flavour that is hard to beat. It is an excellent canning fruit, superior in this respect to the Singapore article, which it surpasses in flavour. This is admitted by English and European buyers, and its superiority is bound eventually to result in a great increase in canning and the establishment of large works run on thoroughly up-to-date lines. [Illustration: Picking Pines for market--Woombye District.] [Illustration: Pineapple Plantation--showing plants of different ages--Woombye, North Coast Line.] Like the banana, the pineapple is a tropical fruit, and is very sensitive to cold, hence its culture is confined to frostless districts. It is grown all along our eastern seaboard, where, when planted in suitable soils and under suitable conditions, it is, undoubtedly, our hardiest fruit, and is practically immune from any serious disease. Its culture is entirely in the open, no shelter whatever being given, so that we are not put to the great expense that growers of this fruit in Florida and some other pineapple-producing countries must incur if they wish to secure a crop. Here we have no severe freeze-outs, and, though dry spells retard the growth at times, we have never suffered any serious injury from this cause. In the Southern part of the State, the coolness of the winter retards growth somewhat, and occasionally the tops of the leaves and young fruit are slightly injured, particularly in low-lying land, or where the plants are growing on land having a cold subsoil. When grown under more favourable conditions, however, they sustain no injury, and produce fruit, more or less, all the year round. Pines are always in season, though there are times when they are comparatively scarce. There are usually two main crops a year--viz., a summer and a winter crop. The former is the heavier of the two, and the fruit is decidedly the best, as its sugar contents are much higher. The main summer crop ripens in the North from the beginning of November, and in the South from January to as late as March in some seasons. The main winter crop is usually at its best in July and August, but there is always more or less fruit during the other months of the year. The pineapple likes a warm, free, well-drained soil, that is free from frost in winter, and that will not become soured by heavy rain during summer. Sandy loams are, therefore, our best pineapple soils, though it does well on free loams of basaltic or alluvial origin. Unlike the banana, the pineapple does not do too well in newly burnt off scrub land, owing to the difficulty in working the ground and keeping it clean. It requires a thorough preparation of the soil prior to planting in order to be grown to perfection. In the case of new land of suitable texture, the timber should all be burnt off, and all stumps and roots taken out of the soil, which should then be carefully broken up and reduced to a fine tilth, all weed or grass growth being destroyed. It should then be again ploughed, and, if possible, subsoiled, so as to permit of the roots penetrating the ground to a fair depth instead of their merely depending on the few top inches of surface soil. Careful preparation of the land and deep stirring prior to planting will be found to pay well, and turn out far the cheapest in the end. Given suitable soil, well prepared, the growing of pineapples is not at all difficult, as the plants soon take root, and once they became established, they prove themselves to be extremely hardy. Pines will grow and thrive on comparatively poor soil, provided it is of suitable texture, but in such soils it is necessary to supplement the plant food in the soil by the addition of manures, if large fruit and heavy crops are to be obtained. Pineapples are propagated by means of suckers coming from the base of fruit-bearing plants, or from smaller suckers, or, as they are termed, robbers or gill sprouts that start from the fruiting stem just at the base of the fruit. They are also sometimes propagated by means of the crown, but this method is usually considered too slow. Well-developed suckers are usually preferred, as these come into bearing earliest, but equally good, if not better, returns are obtained by planting gill sprouts. The latter have the advantage in that they always develop a good root system before showing signs of fruit, hence their first crop is always a good one, and the fruit is of the best, whereas suckers sometimes start flowering as soon as they are planted, before they are properly established, with the result that the first fruit is small and inferior, and the plants have to throw out fresh suckers before a good crop is produced. Gill sprouts are slower in coming into bearing than suckers, but the results are usually more satisfactory. Like the banana, once a pineapple plant has borne fruit the fruiting stalk dies down, and its place is taken by one or more suckers, which in their turn bear fruit and die. Pineapples are planted in Queensland in several ways, but by far the most common method is to set the suckers out in single or double rows, from 8 to 9 feet apart, with the plants at from 1 to 2 feet apart in the row. The rows soon increase in width by the growth of suckers, and the throwing up of ratoons--surface roots thrown off from the original plant, which send up plants from below the ground as distinct from suckers, which come from the base or even higher up the stem of a fruiting plant. It is not at all an uncommon thing to see the rows grown together, so that the plantation appears to be a solid mass of plants, but pathways have to be kept between the rows to permit of gathering the fruit, manuring, &c. Pineapples have been grown in the Brisbane district for the past sixty years, and I have been shown beds of plants that have not been replanted for over forty years that are still producing good fruit. This shows how well at home this fruit is with us; but, in my opinion, it is not desirable to keep the plants so long in the same ground, as the finest fruit is always obtained from comparatively young plantations, the older ones producing too large a proportion of small fruit. From the Brisbane district this fruit has spread all over the eastern coast, and its production is increasing rapidly in several districts. Once the pine is planted, its cultivation is comparatively simple. If in single or double rows, all weed growth is kept down between the plants, and the ground between the rows is kept in a state of good cultivation by means of ploughing or cultivating, the soil being worked towards the rows so as to encourage the formation of suckers low down on the fruiting plants. Manure is given when necessary, the manure being worked in on either side of the rows. [Illustration: Smooth-leaved Cayenne Pines in fruit, planted 15 months, Woombye District.] The pineapple comes into bearing early, and, except where suckers throw fruit as soon as planted, bear their first crop in from twelve to twenty months, according to the type of suckers planted and the time of year at which they are set. Practically every sucker will produce a fruit at the first fruiting, and these will be followed by succeeding crops, borne on the successive crops of suckers, so that when the whole of the ground is occupied by plants, the returns are very heavy. One thousand dozen marketable fruits is by no means an unusual crop for Queen pines in a plantation in full bearing, and, taking these at an average of 2-1/2 lb. each, you get a return of 30,000 lb., or 15 tons American per acre. The illustrations herewith give a good general idea of the usual method of growing pines, and the method of handling and marketing, as well as of the nature of the country on which they are grown. The illustrations are mostly of smooth-leaved pines, which bear a fruit averaging from 6 to 8 lb. each, but occasionally running up to as much as 14 to 16 lb., though the latter is an extreme weight. The single pine shown is just under 12 lb. Several kinds of pines are grown, which are generally classified into roughs and smooths. The rough, or rough-leaved pines, such as the Common Queen and Ripley Queen, and local seedlings raised from them, are very prolific, and though not equal in size and appearance to the smooth-leaved Cayenne, our principal smooth-leaved kind, are usually considered to be of superior flavour, and to be better for canning or preserving. Rough pines run up to as much as 6 lb. weight each, but this is uncommon, the best average I have met with being about 4 lb. per pine, and they were exceptionally good. The price at which this fruit sells here seems absurd to those living in cold countries, who are accustomed to look upon it as a luxury only found on the tables of the wealthy, as good rough-leaved pines are worth about 1s. per dozen during the summer season, and smooth-leaved pines from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 6d. a dozen. Prices are certainly higher during the off-season, but growers would be well satisfied to get 1s. per dozen for rough pines all the year round. I have no hesitation in saying that pines can be grown at a profit at from £3 to £4 per ton, so that the cost of growing is so low that there is nothing to prevent us from canning the fruit and selling it at a price that will defy competition. [Illustration: Pineapple Plantation--Pines packed for market, and showing fruit-grower's home, Woombye District.] Pineapple-growing has been a very profitable industry, particularly in the older plantations of the Brisbane district, and still continues to be so in many places despite the fact that prices are much lower now than they were some years since. The plantations from which the illustrations are taken are comparatively new ones, the land having been in its virgin state from six to eight years ago, and, as shown, some is only now being cleared. The owners of the plantations started without capital, and, by dint of hard work and perseverance, are now reaping an excellent return of some £50 per acre net profit. This is by no means an isolated example, but is one that is typical of what can be done, and has therefore been chosen. There is a great opening for the culture of this fruit in Queensland, and its cultivation is capable of being extended to a practically unlimited extent. We have a large amount of land suitable for the growth of this fruit that is available in different parts of the State, much of it at very reasonable rates, so that there is no difficulty in this direction for anyone wishing to make a start. It is an industry from which returns are quickly obtained, and is a branch of fruit-growing that holds out strong inducements and every prospect of success to intending growers. At present our production is about sufficient for our presently existing markets, but there is nothing to prevent these markets being widely extended. Our present means of utilising our surplus fruits, by canning or otherwise preserving same, are by no means as complete or up to date as they should be, and before they can become so, it is necessary to greatly increase our output. Small works cost too much to run as compared with large canning establishments, hence we are not yet in a position to make the most of our fruit. With increased production we will have an increase in the facilities for utilising the fruit. This requires labour, and there is right here an opening for many industrious workers, a business that I have no doubt will pay from the start, a business of which we have the Australian monopoly, and in which there is no reason that I can see in which we should not compete satisfactorily in the markets of the world. [Illustration: Pineapple Plantation--Showing method of growing the fruit, Woombye District.] Queensland possesses many advantages respecting the growth of this fruit as compared with other countries in which it is grown commercially, which may be briefly enumerated as follows:-- 1st.--Freedom from loss by freeze-outs; 2nd.--The ease with which the fruit can be grown, and its freedom from disease; 3rd.--The large area of land suitable to its culture, and the low price at which suitable land can be obtained; 4th.--The fine quality of the fruit; 5th.--The superiority of our fruit for canning purposes; 6th.--The low price at which it can be produced, and the heavy crops that can be grown. These are enough reasons to show that in the pineapple we have a fruit well suited to our soil and climate, a fruit in the cultivation of which there is room for great extension, and which will provide a living for many industrious settlers. [Illustration: Rough-leaved Pines, Redland Bay District.] [Illustration: Pineapple Plantation--On virgin soil, showing scrub land at back being cleared for fruit growing, Woombye District.] THE MANGO. This magnificent fruit, which is practically unknown outside of the tropics, has become as hardy as a forest tree throughout our eastern seaboard, wherever it is planted out of frost. It has been named, and well named too, the apple of Queensland, as it stands as much neglect, and can be grown with as little care and attention as, or even less, than that given to the apple-trees in many of the Somerset or Devonshire orchards. It will not, however, stand frost. Droughts and floods have little effect on it; it will grow in any soil, from a sand to a heavy loam, amongst rocks, or on a gravelly or shaley land. Naturally, it does best in good land, but there are hundreds of cases where trees are doing well and bearing heavily on land that is by no means fruit land. The mango is one of our handsomest fruit trees; the symmetry of its growth, its large glossy leaves, the delicate colouring of its young growth, which is of different shades in different varieties, the abundance of fruit that it produces, varying in colour from dull-green to yellow, red, or even purplish tints, all render it conspicuous. As well as being one of our handsomest, it is also one of our most widely distributed fruits, being found growing luxuriantly the whole length of our eastern seaboard. A few trees are also to be met with inland in districts that are free from frosts, so that it stands both the dry heat of the interior and the humid heat of the coast. As a tropical fruit it naturally reaches its greatest perfection under our most tropical conditions, the trees there growing practically wild, requiring little if any attention, making a rapid growth, coming into bearing early, and producing heavy crops of fruit. Further south the growth is somewhat slower, though the trees grow to a large size and bear heavily. It is one of the easiest of trees to grow, as it is readily propagated by means of seed. In many plantations thousands of young seedlings may often be seen growing under the old trees, the seeds having taken root without even having been planted. In most cases it is propagated from seed, the stones of fruit showing especial merit being planted either in a nursery, or, better, still, where the tree is to remain permanently, as it usually does better when so planted than when grown in a nursery and thence transplanted to its permanent location. The land should be well worked prior to planting, and the young trees require to be kept free from weeds and undergrowth till such time as they occupy the whole of the ground, when they are able to look after themselves, and require no further attention, at any rate in the warmer parts. It is not at all uncommon to come across a mango-tree, in full bearing, in vigorous health, that is growing wild, the result of a stone that has been thrown away by someone who has eaten the fruit. The young tree has not only been able to hold its own against all kinds of indigenous growths, but has developed into a vigorous, healthy tree, thus showing that it is perfectly at home, and that the soil and climate of Queensland suit it to perfection. The fact that by far the greater portion of our mango-trees have been grown from seed has resulted in the production of innumerable varieties, many of which are of decidedly inferior quality, as one never knows when planting the seed what the resultant fruit is going to be like. One is more likely to get good fruit by planting the seeds from selected fruit of the highest quality, but is by no means certain to do so, as a number of seeds always revert to inferior types. This has had a bad effect on our mango industry, and has been apt to give the fruit as a class a bad name, so much so that we find it difficult to get our Southern neighbours to take to it at all readily. I can quite understand anyone, whose first experience of a mango is that of an inferior fruit, full of fibre, and having a distinctly disagreeable flavour, condemning the particular fruit, but because there are inferior fruits one should not condemn the whole without knowing what a really good mango is like. [Illustration: Mango Trees, Port Douglas.] We have many good mangoes in Queensland, but only a few that are really first-class, and of the latter I have yet to meet the man or woman, who is a fruit-eater, who does not appreciate their exquisite flavour, and who does not consider them worthy to rank with any of the finest fruits. By many a really fine mango is considered to be the king of fruits, and I am not at all certain that they are not right, but, at the same time, a really bad mango is indescribably bad. The mango grows to a large size here, even when comparatively young. I know trees over 50 feet in height, having a spread of the branches of more than 60 feet, a main trunk nearly 3 feet in diameter, that are under thirty years old, and that have borne from 1 to 2 tons of fruit for a single crop. Hundreds of tons of fruit go to waste annually for want of a market, or are consumed by farm animals, as the consumption of the fruit is practically confined to this State, and the production is greater than we can consume, despite the fact that mangoes are in season from the end of September to March, and that they are a favourite fruit with all who have acquired a liking for them. In addition to the consumption of the fruit in its fresh state, a quantity is converted into chutney, but this is so small that it has no appreciable effect on the crop as a whole. The unripe fruit makes an excellent substitute for apples, and is used stewed or for pies or tarts, and when sliced and dried it may be stored and used in a similar manner to dried apples. [Illustration: Mango Tree near Brisbane.] In addition to its value as a fruit, the mango forms a handsome ornamental tree, and one that provides a good shade for stock. It is very free from disease, as with the exception of one or two species of scale insects, which do not cause any very serious damage, it has few serious pests. It is a fruit that is bound sooner or later to come into more general favour, particularly when the qualities of the finer varieties are better known. Until quite recently it was considered to be one of the most difficult trees to propagate by means of grafting or budding, hence its propagation has been practically confined to raising it from seed, but now we have found out how to work it by means of plate-budding, and are able to perpetuate our best sorts true to kind. This is sure to lead to a general improvement of our existing varieties, as old trees can be worked over by this means, or young trees of approved kinds can be grown in a nursery and distributed. The fruit is very wholesome, is much appreciated by all who have acquired a taste for it, can be used fresh or dry, ripe or unripe, and cans well. It is a great addition to our list of purely tropical fruits, and finds a place in all orchards or gardens where it is capable of being grown. THE MANGOSTEEN. Many attempts have been made during past years to introduce this delicious fruit into Queensland, but these always resulted in failure. True, a certain variety of mangosteen has been successfully grown at Port Douglas, also on the Lower Burdekin, and rumours of the existence of the true Java mangosteen (_Garcinia mangostana_) have been received, but, in nearly every case, they have, on investigation, proved to be _Garcinia xanthochymus_, or some other species. At the Kamerunga State Nursery, however, trees of undoubted parentage were successfully raised. It is said that a thriving young plant, which is unquestionably _G. mangostana_, is owned by Mr. Banfield, of Dunk Island. The records of the Kamerunga Nursery show that in October, 1891, a quantity--about 100--of ripe mangosteen fruit was received from the Batavian agency by the then manager, Mr. Ebenezer Cowley, from which some 600 seeds were obtained. Of these, only a few germinated. The next mention is of the distribution, in February, 1892, of six plants to an applicant on the Mossman, and of two more in May of that year. Since then several young trees have been raised at the nursery, and one of them, in January, 1913, fruited for the first time for twenty-two years, and is the first to have done so in this State. Some of the fruit was sent to the Department of Agriculture and Stock, and proved to be fully equal to those of Java. A full history of the mangosteen and of its introduction into Queensland is given in "The Queensland Agricultural Journal" (vol. xxx., June and July, 1913). The photographs were taken from the original fruit. [Illustration: Fruit of Mangosteen.] THE PAPAW. Continuing our list of tropical fruits, we now come to the papaw, one of our most wholesome and useful fruits. It is grown all along our eastern seaboard in situations that are free from frost. It comes into bearing early, and is a heavy cropper. Like the other tropical fruits already described, it does best in our warmer parts, coming to maturity earlier, and producing better fruit. In many of the Northern coastal scrubs it is often met with growing wild, and producing fruit in abundance, the seeds from which the trees have been produced having been dropped by birds or distributed by other natural agencies. The papaw fruit resembles a rock melon somewhat in shape and flavour, the fruit being produced in the axil of the leaves all along the main stem, where they are clustered thickly together. The tree does best on well-drained soils, and is very sensitive to the presence of clay or stagnant water at the roots, hence it usually does best on scrub land or land well supplied with humus. It is propagated entirely from seed, which grows readily in such soils, and under favourable conditions will bear its first fruit when about ten to twelve months old, and continue to bear for three or four years or even longer. When the trees becomes old, however, the fruit decreases in size and deteriorates in quality, so that it is necessary to plant a number yearly in order to keep up a regular supply. It is a very handsome tree, with large spreading leaves on long stems, beneath which is its cluster of fruit--as many as 100 fruits being sometimes found in different stages of development on the one plant. The fruit ranges in size from 2 lb. to some 6 lb. in weight, and when ripe it is of a greenish-yellow or sometimes orange colour. The flesh is yellow, and when quite ripe it is moderately juicy, and of a flavour that it not always appreciated at first, but which one soon becomes very partial to. It more nearly resembles the flavour of a rock melon than that of any other fruit, and the seeds, which are found clustered in the centre of the fruit, have a flavour that closely resembles that of seeds of the nasturtium. Both the seeds and the fruit contain an active principle called papain, which is really a vegetable pepsin, that has the effect of greatly assisting in the assimilation of all food with which it is eaten, hence it is a valuable remedy in the case of dyspepsia, and persons who take the fruit regularly are never subject to this exceedingly troublesome disease. The fruit can be used both as a vegetable and as a fruit, the former in its green state, when it is boiled and served with melted butter, resembles a vegetable marrow or squash, but is superior to either of these vegetables. As a fruit it is either used by itself, or in conjunction with other fruits it forms the basis of a fruit salad. It is largely used in the North, and its cultivation is steadily spreading South, as its valuable properties are becoming better known. Its cultivation is very simple. The seeds are either planted where the tree is to remain, or are raised in a bed and transplanted to their permanent position in the orchard when strong enough to stand shifting, care being taken to select a dull moist day. The young plants are protected from the sun for a few days till they have become established, after which all that is necessary is to keep down weeds and to work the soil round them, taking care not to injure the roots. A good mulch of decomposed vegetable matter round the plants is an advantage, but they are usually so easily grown that little extra care is given to them. The papaw bears male and female flowers, which may be on the same trees, but are usually on different trees, so that it is usual to speak of male and female trees. This is, however, a mistake, as according to Bailey the plant is polygamous--that is to say, male, female, or hermaphrodite flowers may be found on the same or on distinct plants. The male flowers are usually on long scantily-branched auxiliary panicles, whereas the female flowers are mostly in the axils of the leaves close to the stem. The two trees are not distinguishable from each other till they come into flower, hence it is advisable to set the young plants fairly close together--say, 6 feet apart--and thin out the male trees when same can be distinguished by their blossoms. Besides its use as a fruit and vegetable, the papaw makes a fair conserve and an excellent sauce, and its medicinal principle, "papain," is an article of commerce. [Illustration: Papaw in fruit, near Brisbane.] THE COCOA-NUT. Although this palm can be grown for ornamental purposes as far south as Brisbane, its cultivation on commercial lines will be confined to the coast district north of Townsville, and to the islands off the coast, as, in order to develop its fruit to perfection, it requires a tropical climate. Where the climate is suitable it does well, it makes a rapid growth, and bears heavy crops of nuts. Old palms on the beach at Cairns compare favourably with any growing in the South Seas, and I am of opinion that its culture in commercial quantities on suitable land will be found profitable. The cocoa-nut palm does best right on or adjacent to the seashore, in comparatively poor sandy soil--soil that is usually of little value for general crops, though it will grow mangoes well. So far, it is not grown in any large numbers, and although there is a ready sale for the ripe nuts, there is no attempt to make copra or to utilise the coir. Copra is the dried flesh of the nut, from which oil is extracted, and is largely used in the manufacture of soap, candles, &c., the refuse left after the oil has been extracted being used for cattle feed. Coir is the fibre surrounding the nut, and is used for the manufacture of matting, door mats, &c. There is a considerable area of land suitable to the culture of this fruit on our Northern coast, which is at present lying idle, that, in my opinion, can be turned to a profitable use by planting it in cocoa-nuts as, in addition to utilising land otherwise of little value, we would be building up a new industry. The trees come into bearing in about eight years after planting the seed, and will continue to produce crops for many years without any attention. Care will have to be given for the first few years, whilst the plants are small, to keep down undergrowth and to prevent fires from running through the plantation, but, once fairly established, the plants will look after themselves. A cocoa-nut plantation gives a distinctly tropical look to the district in which it is grown, and the palms, particularly when young, are very ornamental; when old the long bare stems detract somewhat from the beauty of the top. It is a palm that I believe has a good future before it in the North, and for that reason I have included it amongst our tropical fruits, though it is cultivated at present more as an ornamental plant than as an article of commerce. [Illustration: Cocoa-nut Palms, Port Douglas.] THE GRANADILLA. A vine, belonging to the natural order Passifloreæ, that produces one of our most delicious tropical fruits. The papaw and the passion fruit belong to this same order. It can be grown all along our eastern seaboard, but comes to greatest perfection in the North. The fruit is of a pale greenish-yellow colour, cylindrical in shape, and varies in weight from about 1 to 5 lb., the largest fruits being produced on a sub-species. The fruit consists of an outer pulpy covering, which can be used for cooking if desired, which surrounds a cavity filled with seeds which are encased in a jelly-like mass. This is the portion eaten, and to use an Americanism, "It is not at all hard to take." It is either eaten by itself, or is used in conjunction with papaw and other fruits to make a fruit salad, a dish that is fit for the food of the gods, and once taken is never forgotten. The granadilla is easily grown from seed, and the plants are trained on an overhead trellis, the fruit hanging down on the underside. It is a heavy bearer, and once planted requires little attention. It requires a free, warm soil, that is fairly rich, to be grown to perfection, hence it is most commonly grown on scrub land. It can, however, be grown on any well-prepared land of a free nature. Unfortunately, it is a difficult fruit to ship any distance, hence its consumption is mainly confined to the districts in which it is grown, and where, needless to say, it is greatly appreciated. It is in fruit more or less all the year round, its main crop being in early spring in the North, and during the summer months further South. It is sometimes made into jam or jelly, but when preserved loses much of its characteristic flavour. [Illustration: Granadilla Vine at Kuranda, Cairns district.] THE PASSION FRUIT. This fruit is very closely related to the granadilla, but is much hardier than it, and can be grown to perfection much further South. It is not injured by frost to any extent in any part of coastal Queensland, and can be grown a considerable distance inland. It is more rightly a semi-tropical than a tropical fruit, though, as it is so nearly related to the granadilla, I have included it amongst the tropical fruits. It is also a vine, and, when grown commercially, is trained along a horizontal trellis, in a somewhat similar manner to a grape vine. It is readily grown from seed, and will produce fruit in less than twelve months from the time that it is planted, and will continue to bear fruit for some years. It does best on a free, warm soil of fair quality, though it may be grown anywhere with care, and often thrives well in very poor soils with the addition of manure. It is found growing wild on the borders of many of our scrubs and elsewhere, the seeds having been deposited by birds or other agencies, and under such conditions it produces an abundance of fruit. The fruit is of a roundish oval shape, and is of a dark-purple colour. It is about the size of a large hen's egg, the outer skin being hard and shell-like, and the centre filled with the seeds, which are surrounded with a jelly-like mass and a yellowish pulp. It is a very fine flavoured fruit, and is universally liked. It is grown in considerable quantities in the Southern part of the State, and is one of our commonest fruits. It has usually two crops a year--a summer and a winter crop--but can be got to produce its fruit at any particular time that is desired by systematic pruning at different times of the year. It is often grown over sheds, dead trees, fallen logs, &c., which it covers with a mass of dense green foliage, and converts what would otherwise be an unsightly object into an ornament. The illustration herewith shows this well, and gives a good idea of the growth of a single vine. Commercially it is grown on trellis, so that the land between the rows can be kept well cultivated, and also to permit of ease in the gathering of the fruit. When ripe, the fruit drops, and the gathering is usually from the ground. The fruit carries well, but will not keep for any length of time, as it shrivels up. It is principally used as a fresh fruit, though it is also made into jam or jelly, and it often forms part of a fruit salad, taking the place of the granadilla. It has few pests, and is one of the easiest fruits to grow. [Illustrations: Passion Fruit, Redland Bay--Showing method of culture (1) and part of a vine in fruit (2).] CUSTARD APPLES. Under this heading I will include all the Anonas, such as the sour sop, sweet sop, bullock's heart, and cherimoya. The sour sop is purely tropical, and is very sensitive to frost, but the other species are by no means so tender, and can be grown anywhere along the coast where the soil is suitable, as well as at many inland places. All the species produce very fine fruits, that vary somewhat in shape, in the roughness of the skin, and in size. The sour sop is the largest, and attains a size of 6 to 8 lb. The fruit is covered with soft spines, and is of an irregular oval, or even pyriform, shape. It ripens very soon after it is gathered, consequently cannot be sent any distance. It is a pleasant fruit of an aromatic sub-acid flavour. The pulp surrounding the seeds is of a woolly consistency, and this is surrounded by a custard-like mass which is much appreciated by those who have acquired a liking for it. It is a comparatively uncommon fruit, and is confined to the tropics. The sweet sop is the commonest of the Anonas, and is grown throughout a considerable part of coastal Queensland. It is usually of an irregular roundish shape, very full of seeds, which are surrounded by a custard-like pulp of very pleasant flavour. It is usually a heavy bearer, and is the variety most commonly met with in our fruit stores. The tree is hardy and is easily grown. The bullock's heart is a stronger-growing variety than the previous one, the fruit is larger, and, as its name implies, heart-shaped. It is also fairly seedy, the pulp of a light-brown colour, and more gritty, and not, in my opinion, of first-rate quality. It is most commonly grown in the North, where it is a very hardy and prolific tree. The cherimoya is the best of the custard apples. The tree is a strong grower, with large handsome leaves, but, as a rule, it is not a very heavy bearer. There are many varieties, the fruit of which varies considerably in size and shape, and the skin is sometimes smooth and sometimes warted, or even covered with short soft spines. It has usually comparatively few seeds, and these are surrounded by a rich custard-like pulp, which in the better kinds is of very fine flavour, and is generally much liked. The fruit is not a good keeper, still, given careful handling and packing, it can be kept for nearly a week. All custard apples are easily raised from seed, but the better varieties are propagated by grafting strong seedlings with wood taken from a tree producing fruit of especial merit. Any good fruit soil will grow them, and they do not require any especial treatment. [Illustration: Custard Apples, Brisbane District.] There are still a large number of tropical fruits that I have not mentioned, but space will not permit of my giving them more than a passing notice, as they are not of any great value from a commercial standpoint at present. Of these fruits the litchi, whampee, averoha, longan, vi-apple, and Chinese mangosteen are practically confined to the North. The guava, of which there are many species, grows anywhere; in fact, it is a pest in many cases, taking complete possession of the land. It is not cultivated to any great extent, as it grows so readily without, and, further, it harbours several pests whose presence it is desirable to remove from the orchard. It is a useful fruit for home consumption, as it stews well, makes an excellent jam, and its jelly is one of the best. The rosella, a species of hibiscus, is an annual fruit that is grown to a considerable extent in several parts of the State, and is used for pies, jams, and jellies. The latter is remarkably good, equal to that made from the red currant of colder climes, and will no doubt become an article of export at no very distant date. The fruit also dries well, and makes an excellent pickle. It is raised from seed, the young seedlings being set out in well-prepared land when all danger of frost is past. It is a rapid grower, and forms a bush some 4 feet across by 4 or 5 feet high. It is a heavy bearer, and the fruit meets with a ready sale. To do well, the plants require a warm, free, well-drained soil, as they do not thrive where there is any stagnant water at or near the roots. The avocado or alligator pear is not grown to any extent, though it thrives well, particularly to the north of the tropic of Capricorn, and can also be grown successfully as far south as the New South Wales border. It is a fruit that deserves to be cultivated to a much greater extent than it is at present, and once it becomes better known I have no doubt that it will be planted in considerable numbers, and prove a very welcome addition to our already long list of fruits, as it is unequalled, in my opinion, as a salad. As far as my experience goes, it is likely to become a profitable fruit to grow, as once persons acquire a liking for it, they become very partial to it, and eat it whenever they can get it. In addition to purely tropical fruits a number of semi-tropical fruits are grown on our eastern seaboard, but are not entirely confined thereto, as many of them are cultivated to a considerable extent in some parts of our coastal and inland tablelands, particularly in sheltered positions. Under the heading of semi-tropical fruits, all kinds of citrus fruits, persimmons, loquats, date palm, wine palm, pecan nut, Brazilian cherry, Natal plum, ki-apple, and many other fruits are included, as well as several fruits that more properly belong to the temperate regions, such as Japanese plums, Chickasaw plum, peaches of Chinese origin, figs, mulberries of sorts, strawberries, cape gooseberries, &c. Of all of these the citrus fruits, which include the orange, mandarin, Seville, lemon, lime, grape fruit, kumquat, citron, and pomelo are by far the most important, and are grown successfully over a very large portion of the State, so that we will consider them first. [Illustration: Sour Sop, Mossman District.] CITRUS FRUIT. Quite a number of fruits are included under this heading, and all reach a very high state of perfection in this State. The whole of the family, the lemon-shaped citron excepted, is noted for the beauty and symmetry of growth that its trees make, and I know of few more beautiful sights in the vegetable world than a well-kept citrus grove in full bearing. Take the common round orange as an example, its well-balanced and evenly grown head, its dark glossy green foliage, its wealth of white blossoms, which perfume the whole neighbourhood, or its mass of golden fruit between its dark-green leaves, render it one of the most beautiful of fruit trees at all times, but especially so when covered with blossoms or ripe fruit. A typical Queensland grove is even more beautiful than those of many other places, as the vigour and size of our trees, their exceptionally healthy appearance, their dark foliage, and the heavy crop of high-class fruit that they bear, are at once evident to a stranger who has never seen the orange grown under such favourable conditions as are experienced here. The yield is often so heavy that the trees actually bend to the ground with the weight of their fruit, and a stack of props has to be used to prevent the tree from splitting into pieces. Those who have seen the enormous crops of apples that are produced on some trees in Tasmania or the old cider orchards of Devon or Somerset can form an idea of the crops; but the writer, who has seen both, as well as our Queensland trees, has no hesitation in saying that a Queensland mandarin can give points to either as a heavy cropper; in fact, if it has a fault, it is its proneness to overbear, particularly when young. This all tends to prove how well adapted Queensland is to the growth of citrus fruits, and were I asked to select a country particularly suited to their culture I should have no hesitation in naming this State, as I know of nowhere where their culture can be carried out with less trouble, or where the trees will produce better fruit or heavier crops. Queensland may well be termed the home of citrus fruits, as we have no less than three native species which are indigenous to the State, and are by no means uncommon in our scrubs. Their presence gives unmistakable proof of the suitability of this State for the culture of fruits of the same family, so that I think a short description of these native species may not be out of place, but will be of some interest to my readers. [Illustration: Young Orange Orchard (6 years old) on scrub land, near Mapleton, Blackall Range. Showing the standing scrub in the background.] _Citrus australis_, the native orange or lime, is both the largest and most common. It grows into a large tree, having a diameter of 15 to 18 inches in the trunk, and a height of 60 feet or more. It produces a quantity of thick-skinned acid fruit, of from 2 to 3 inches in diameter. The skin is full of a resinous sap, and the fruit is of little value. It is a slow-growing tree, though, as just mentioned, it attains a considerable size, is very hardy, and produces a quantity of fruit. Its slow growth, when young, has prevented its use as a stock on which to work improved varieties, but I have no doubt it would make a very hardy stock that would be distinctly disease-resistant. The second variety is _Citrus australasica_, the so-called finger lime, a thorny bush, producing a fruit of from 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter, and 3 to 4 inches long. The fruit has a thin skin, and contains an agreeable acid pulp that varies in colour, in some specimens being of a reddish tinge that resembles the pulp of a blood orange. These two varieties are met with in the Southern part of the State, but the third is a Northern species, to which Mr. F. M. Bailey, our Colonial Botanist, has given the name of _Citrus inodora_, the North Queensland lime. It is met with in the scrubs of the Russell River, and is described by Mr. Bailey as bearing a greater resemblance to the cultivated species than the two former varieties. It produces a fruit over 2 inches long by 1-1/4 inches in diameter, having a thin rind and a juicy pulp of a sharply acid flavour, so that even in its wild state it is a desirable fruit, and takes the place of the cultivated lemon. Where native species flourish as they do here, there is every probability of cultivated species thriving equally well, and this is found to be the case in practice. [Illustration: A young Orange Orchard, Woombye District.] No fruits are more generally distributed or have a wider range in this State than those of the Citrus family, as, with the exception of the colder parts of the Downs, where the winter temperature is too low, the Gulf country, and the dry Western districts, where there is no water available for irrigation, they can be grown from one end of the State to the other, provided that they are planted in suitable soil, and that, in the drier parts, there is an available supply of suitable water with which to irrigate them during the prevalence of long dry spells. The country adjoining the eastern seaboard, extending from the Tweed River in the South to Cooktown in the North--a distance of about 1,100 miles, and extending inland for nearly 100 miles--is naturally suited to the growth of citrus fruits, and there is probably no country in the world that is better adapted to, or that can produce the various kinds of these fruits to greater perfection or with less trouble, than this portion of Queensland. Of course, the whole of this large area is not adapted for citrus culture, as it contains many different kinds of soils, several of which are not suitable for the growth of these fruits, and there is also a large extent of country which is too broken and otherwise unsuitable. At the same time there are hundreds of thousands of acres of land in this area in which the soil and natural conditions are eminently suited to the growth of citrus fruit, and in which the tenderest varieties of these fruits may be grown to perfection without the slightest chance of their being injured by frost; and where the natural rainfall is such that, provided the trees receive ordinary care and cultivation, there is seldom any necessity for artificial irrigation. At the present time there are hundreds of citrus trees growing practically wild in different parts of the coastal country that are in vigorous health and producing heavy crops of good fruit, even though they are uncultivated, unpruned, unmanured, and have to hold their own against a vigorous growth of native and introduced shrubs, trees, and weeds. When the orange, lime, citron, or common lemon become established under conditions that are favourable for their proper development, they apparently become as hardy as the indigenous plants, and are able to hold their own against them, thus showing how well the climate and suitable soils of coastal Queensland are adapted for the cultivation of citrus fruits. The commercial cultivation of citrus fruits is at present practically confined to this coastal area, the most important centres, starting from the South, being Nerang, Coomera, Redland Bay, Brisbane, Enoggera, Gatton, Grantham, Toowoomba, North Coast line from North Pine to Gympie including the Blackall Range and Buderim Mountain; the Wide Bay district, including Maryborough, Tiaro, Mount Bauple, Gayndah, Pialba, and Burrum; the Burnett district, including Bundaberg and Mullet Creek; the Fitzroy district, including Rockhampton and Yeppoon; Bowen, Cardwell, Murray River, Tully River, Cairns and district, Port Douglas, and Cooktown. In addition to these districts a few citrus fruits are grown at Mackay, Townsville, and several other places. Citrus fruits are also grown further inland, but their cultivation here is largely dependent on the ability to supply the trees with suitable water for irrigation during dry spells. Frosts have also to be taken into consideration, for, though the days are warm, the temperature often falls considerably during the night, owing to the great radiation, and citrus-trees in districts like Roma, Emerald, &c., are liable to injury thereby. West of Emerald, at Bogantungan, Barcaldine, and other places, citrus fruits do very well with irrigation. Some of the finest lemons, Washington Navel, and other improved varieties of oranges are grown here to perfection, the lemons especially being of high quality, and curing down equal to the imported Italian or Californian article. The soil in many of the inland districts is well suited to the culture of citrus fruits, and when the trees are given the necessary water, and are uninjured by frost, they produce excellent fruit. I stated, some short distance back, that there is probably no country in the world that is better adapted to the cultivation of or that can produce the various kinds of citrus fruits to greater perfection or with less trouble than the eastern seaboard of Queensland. To many of my readers this may seem to be a very broad statement; but I am certain that, if suitable trees are planted in the right soil and under favourable conditions, and are given anything like the same care and attention that is devoted to the culture of citrus fruits in the great producing centres for these fruits in other parts of the world, we have nothing to fear either as regards the cost of production or the quality of the fruit produced. In order to exemplify this, it may be interesting to compare our capabilities with those of the principal citrus-producing districts north of the equator. To begin with, I will take Florida, which more nearly approaches our climatic conditions than any other citrus-growing country that I know of, and which is noted for the excellence of its citrus fruit, and we find that we have all its advantages except that of proximity to the world's markets, without its disadvantages. We have a better and richer soil, requiring far less expensive artificial fertilisers to maintain its fertility, and at a very much lower price. We can grow equally as good fruit; in fact, it is questionable if Florida ever produced a citrus fruit equal in quality to the Beauty of Glen Retreat Mandarin, a Queensland production. We get as heavy, if not heavier, crops, and our trees come into bearing very early. We have no freeze-outs similar to those which have crippled the industry in Florida so severely in the past that many of their wealthy growers are actually covering in whole orchards of many acres in extent as a protection from frost. This covering-in is accomplished by means of a framework of timber having slat-work or panel sides and tops--in fact, by enclosing their orchards in a huge elaborate bush-house, which is further protected by the heat produced by six large heating stoves or salamanders to each acre of trees enclosed. If it pays the Florida growers to go to all this expense in order to prevent freeze-outs and to produce first-class fruit, surely we can compete with them when a seed stuck in the right soil under favourable conditions will produce a strong, vigorous, healthy tree, bearing good crops without any attention whatever. [Illustration: An Orange Orchard, near Woombye.] [Illustration: Orange Trophy in the Moreton District Exhibit at the Brisbane Exhibition.] In comparing Queensland with the citrus-producing districts of Southern Europe, we have the advantage of better and cheaper land, absence of frost, more vigorous growth, earlier maturity of the trees, and superior fruit; but with the advantage of cheaper and more skilful labour, especially in the handling and marketing of fruit, and proximity to the world's markets in their favour. As compared with California, our soil is no better than theirs, but it costs much less, and their citrus industry is dependent on artificial irrigation, their natural rainfall being altogether inadequate for the growth of citrus fruits. Californian conditions more nearly approach those of our inland districts, such as Barcaldine, with the exception that the only rainfall in California is during the winter, whereas in Barcaldine and similar districts the heaviest fall is during the summer months, but, in both, the successful culture of these fruits depends on irrigation. In Jaffa, also, where the oranges are of large size and extra quality, the trees have to be carefully irrigated and manured, as these operations are found to be essential to the production of marketable fruit. These few instances show how favourably the conditions prevailing in Queensland compare with those of the great citrus-growing districts of Europe and America, especially in the matter of soil and climate, and I feel confident that, if the industry were taken up in the same business-like manner that it has been done in California and Florida, we could easily hold our own against any part of the world. In comparing Queensland with the rest of the world we have the advantage--also shared by New South Wales and South Africa--of ripening our fruit at a time of the year which is the off season in the citrus-producing countries to the north of the equator, so that our fruit does not clash with theirs, their ripening period and ours being at different times of the year. As regards our Australian market, our fruit ripening earlier than that of the Southern States, we are enabled to dispose of a considerable portion of our crop in the Southern markets before the local fruit is ready for gathering. This gives us three markets--first, a local one; secondly, a Southern one; and, finally, when this demand is supplied, an oversea market to Europe, America, and the East. When grown under favourable conditions, citrus-trees are heavy bearers in this State, it being no uncommon thing to meet with seedling or worked orange-trees of from ten to twelve years of age producing over twenty cases of marketable fruit to the tree, averaging about 10 dozen medium-sized fruit. [Illustration: Bunch of Valencia late Oranges, Blackall Range District.] [Illustration: Washington Navel Oranges, Barcaldine District, Central Line.] Citrus-trees of all kinds, particularly worked trees, come into bearing very early, and the returns obtained from an orchard rapidly increase. The illustrations give a good idea of the rapid growth, and a fair one of the crop of fruit the young trees are bearing, but the following examples, taken at random for the crop that was marketed in January, 1906, will show better how our trees bear:-- Mr. A., Blackall Range, marketed 7-1/4 cases per tree from a row of twenty-five Beauty of Glen Retreat Mandarins, planted April, 1900. A return of £1 10s. per tree. Mr. B., from the same district, averaged 7 cases of Washington Navel Oranges per tree from trees six years old, which realised £1 15s. per tree, and 8 cases of Beauty of Glen Retreat Mandarins from trees of the same age. The navels were large, and averaged 5 dozen per case, and the mandarins 10 dozen per case. Mr. C, another district, averaged 6 cases of Valencia Late Oranges, from trees six years planted, and 10 cases per tree from Emperor Mandarins, nine years old. One twelve years old orange-tree in this district produced over 25 cases of fruit. Mr. D., same district as last; Washington Navels averaged 10 cases per tree, ten years planted, and have borne regular crops since three years old. Numerous other cases might be given, but the above are sufficient to show the earliness at which our trees bear, and the crops they yield. Trees in full bearing often yield up to 40 cases, but these are usually old seedlings, which bear a very heavy crop one year and a comparatively light crop the next. All the instances I have quoted are from worked trees, which are found to give the most regular and constant yields. Until quite recently, citrus-trees were almost entirely grown from seed in this State, with the result that we have a very large number of types, and many crosses between different species. This was not advisable, as a uniformity in type is desirable for marketing, hence the greater number of trees now being planted are of selected varieties of proved merit. Many of the seedlings have produced most excellent fruit, but a seedling has usually the disadvantage of being very full of seeds, and having a lot of rag (the indigestible fibre round the pulp) as compared with the worked varieties, which have either no seeds or very few seeds and little rag. Seedlings are also of many types, and they produce a lot of small fruit, thereby making an uneven sample, whereas worked trees produce fruit even in size and quality. Seedlings are probably the hardiest, and will stand the most neglect, but experience is showing that worked trees are the most profitable to grow. The growth of all kinds of citrus-trees from seed is a very simple matter, all that is necessary being a well-prepared seed bed of friable soil that is partially shaded from the heat of the sun, so as to protect the young plants. Selected, fully ripe fruit from well-grown, prolific, healthy trees is taken, and the seeds sown in rows in the seed bed, or broadcast when weeds are not likely to be any trouble. Fresh seed germinates quickly, and the young plants are soon ready to be transplanted into the nursery bed, where they are either worked over or allowed to remain seedlings. At twelve months old, from seed, a tree will have a stem-diameter of about 3/4-inch, and a height of 3 to 4 feet, a growth about twice that made in the Southern States. The general remarks I have given respecting our fruit soils apply with equal force to those best adapted for citrus culture--viz., they must possess perfect drainage, and be of a friable nature. We are growing most of the best varieties of citrus fruit, the original trees from which they are now being propagated having been introduced into the State from the most celebrated citrus-producing districts in the world, and, as stated and shown by the accompanying illustrations, they are all doing well. The Washington Navel, the variety of orange most commonly grown in California, does remarkably well on our rich volcanic scrub soils, where it has proved itself a regular bearer of high-class fruit. The Mediterranean Sweet Orange, Valencia Late, and Jaffa also do well in many parts, the Valencia Late adapting itself to most districts. Many other kinds of oranges are grown, but the varieties mentioned are some of the best, and are the ones now being planted in the greatest quantity. [Illustration: Spray of Orange Blossom.] In mandarins, all kinds do remarkably well, and I never saw this fruit produced to greater perfection in any part of the world than it is in Queensland. The varieties most commonly grown are: The Emperor or Canton, the Scarlet or Scarlet Emperor, Thorny or Tangerine, and Beauty of Glen Retreat, though there are many types of seedlings in addition to these well-known sorts. The grape fruit which is now so popular in America does well, but, so far, has not taken on in our markets. Citrons grow practically wild, and produce good fruit, for which there is a limited demand for peel. Their cultivation could be extended with ease were there a better demand for peel. The Seville Orange, which is used for the manufacture of marmalade, is an exceptionally hardy and prolific tree, and, were it required, we could easily grow enough of this fruit to supply the world. Lemons do best inland, or at an elevation of some 2,000 feet above sea-level, as this fruit is apt to become too coarse in the skin when grown in a humid climate. In suitable localities very good fruit can be grown, which compares very favourably with the European or American grown fruit. The lime does well in the more humid districts, taking the place of the lemon, and one variety--the Tahiti--has proved itself to be a heavy and regular bearer. The West Indian lime, from which the lime juice of commerce is made, is very easily grown, particularly in the more tropical parts, where it is often met with growing in an entirely uncultivated condition, and bearing heavy crops of fruit. Kumquats are easily grown, and are heavy bearers, and all the different types of pomelos or shaddocks do well. Seedlings of the latter are very hardy, as they are deep-rooted plants that stand dry weather well and are, consequently, not liable to injury during dry spells. There is very little demand for the fruit, but I am of opinion that the seedlings will prove to be of value as stocks on which to work our best kinds of oranges. The culture of all kinds of citrus fruits, when grown in suitable soil, is by no means difficult, as it consists mainly of keeping the land well stirred and keeping down all weed growth during dry spells, the keeping of the trees well pruned out in the centre, and the keeping in check of all diseases, both insect and fungus. Although citrus fruits are subject to many pests, they are for the most part easily kept in check by either spraying or cyaniding, or both, provided that reasonable care is taken, and the pests are destroyed before they have obtained control. Taken as a whole, our citrus fruits are remarkably clean, and compare more than favourably with those grown in the Southern States. The culture of these fruits is extending rapidly, with a corresponding increase in production, but, despite this, our prices have been better during the past season than for some years, as the quality of our fruit is such that it will command a good market. When properly handled, it has good keeping qualities, and I have no doubt that we will, in time, be able to supply the markets of the Old and New Worlds with good fruit, in the best of condition, at the time of the year that their markets are bare of locally-grown citrus fruit. There is a good opening for the growth of citrus fruits in this State, as the writer knows of no country where they do better, where they can be produced with as little trouble and expense, where they can be successfully grown over such a large area, or where the soil and climate is more suited to the production of fruits of the highest quality as in Queensland. [Illustration: Lisbon Lemon, Esk District.] THE PERSIMMON. This exceedingly handsome fruit of Japanese origin is grown to a high state of perfection in this State, particularly in the coastal districts south of the tropic of Capricorn. It is a fruit of comparatively recent introduction, the oldest trees being less than thirty years of age, but has already become widely distributed, as well as a favourite fruit amongst many. It is a very showy fruit when well grown, but must be thoroughly ripe before it is eaten, as, if not, it is extremely astringent, and anyone who has tackled an unripe fruit has no wish to repeat the experience in a hurry. There are many varieties of this fruit, some of which are seedless, and others more or less seedy. The seedless kinds are usually preferred, as, as well as being seedless, they are the largest and handsomest fruit. The different kinds vary considerably in the size of tree, habit of growth, foliage, size and colour of fruit, &c. All are easily grown, and most kinds are good and regular bearers. They do well on any fruit soil, and some of the dwarf-growing kinds are well adapted for growing in private gardens, on account of the small amount of room they take up. The trees are deciduous, and, as a rule, are not much troubled with pests. So far, the use of the fruit is confined to its consumption fresh, though in Japan it is dried in a similar manner to apricots or peaches. [Illustration: Persimmons.] THE LOQUAT. A handsome evergreen tree, that can be grown in the more Southerly coast districts, in the foothills of the coast range, and on the coast tablelands. There are several types of the fruit, whose chief value consists in that it ripens its fruit in early spring, when there is a shortage of stone fruits, and that it withstands wind well, so makes a good break for the protection of exposed orchards. Its cultivation is not extensive, nor is it likely to become so. [Illustration: Fruit of Loquat (1/2 natural size).] THE DATE PALM. Although this extremely valuable fruit is grown in this State more as an ornament than for its commercial value, there is nothing to prevent its culture on a scale sufficiently large to supply the Australian requirements. It is grown in many places along the coast, as well as in the foothills country of the coastal range, but it does best in situations that more nearly resemble its natural habitat--viz., in districts having a hot dry air, a deep sandy loam or sandy soil, and a good supply of moisture in the soil. This latter condition does not occur naturally, but can be supplied artificially in our Western lands, where there is a good supply of artesian water of a quality suitable to the plants' requirements. Here the date palm thrives, and produces huge bunches of fruit. Little, if any, cultivation is necessary when once the palm is firmly established; provided it has an ample but not excessive supply of moisture, it is able to take care of itself. The date palm is a dioecious plant--that is to say, the male organs, or stamens, are produced on one plant, and the female organs, or pistils, on another, and this necessitates the growing of the two sexes in proximity to each other, in order that the female flowers may be fertilised and produce perfect fruit. This is best accomplished artificially, the pollen from a fully developed bunch of male flowers being shaken over the bunch of female flowers. Infertile fruit contains no seeds, and is of small size and inferior quality, whereas the fertile fruit is both large and good. The date palm is a handsome ornamental plant, and in the hot and dry Western districts, where it thrives best, it forms a splendid shelter from the sun for both man and beast. So far, very little attention has been given to its growth, few persons knowing how to fertilise the flowers or even taking the trouble to see that they have plants of both sexes. There is no reason why this should be so, as there would be a good local demand for the properly-cured fruit, and I believe that, were its culture carried out in a thorough business manner, it would become a profitable industry, and one capable of supplying our Australian market. [Illustration: Date Palms in fruit at Barcaldine.] THE PECAN NUT. Another little-known fruit which does well in this State. It belongs to the hickory family, and closely resembles the walnut. There are trees now growing in the Maryborough district that are some 15 inches in diameter at the trunk, and from 40 to 50 feet in height, that bear regular and heavy crops of nuts, and that have stood drought and been under flood. For years the trees have received no cultivation, and they have shown themselves to be as hardy as the adjacent indigenous trees. The trees are easily raised from seed, and come into bearing in about eight years. Like all nut fruits, it is advisable to set the nut where the tree is to remain permanently, if it is possible to do so, as it produces a very deep taproot, with few laterals, and is consequently difficult to shift. The soil on which it does best is an alluvial loam, and, if possible, it should not be more than 30 feet to water, as the tree, being a very deep rooter, will penetrate a free soil to that depth. It will do on other free loamy soils, but will not make the same growth as when planted in free alluvials. It has been tested in several parts of the State, and it is probable that it will be found to thrive over a considerable area of the coastal and coastal tablelands districts. It produces an olive or acorn shaped nut, having a thin shell, and of a flavour closely resembling that of a good walnut, and will be a valuable addition to our list of nut fruits once it becomes better known. [Illustration: Date Fruit (natural size).] JAPANESE PLUMS. All varieties of this fruit thrive well and bear heavily in the more Southerly part of our coast country, as well as on the country immediately adjacent to it, the coastal tablelands, and several other parts of the State. The trees are rapid growers, come into bearing very early, and often bear enormous crops of fruit. They are good fruits for home consumption or for the fresh-fruit trade, but are not equal to European varieties of plums for preserving, drying, or jam-making. In this State they have one very great drawback, and that is their liability to the attack of the fruit fly, a pest that very frequently destroys the entire crop. For home use they are, however, a very useful fruit to grow, provided that the trees are kept dwarf, so that they can be covered with a cheap mosquito netting as a protection from the fly, as they are very easily grown, are by no means particular as to the kind of soil on which planted, and are heavy bearers. CHICKASAW PLUMS. This family of American plums does well in the same districts as the Japanese varieties just dealt with, but has the advantage of being resistant to the fruit fly. The trees are usually more or less straggling growers, the fruit is of small size, but good for cooking or jam-making. One or more of the varieties of this plum are bad setters, though they blossom profusely, but this may be overcome either by working two varieties which bloom at the same time on to the same stock, or by planting varieties that bloom at the same time together, as the pollen from the one will set the fruit of the other. It is a good plum for home use or marketing, despite its small size, as it is easily grown, requires little attention, and is not over particular as to soil. CHINESE PEACHES. Peaches of Chinese origin thrive well on the coast, and are extremely hardy. The fruit is not, as a rule, of high quality when compared with that of the Persian varieties, but their earliness and ease with which they can be grown causes them to be planted by many who have small gardens. Like the Japanese plums they are, however, very subject to the attack of fruit fly, and require to be kept dwarf and covered in a similar manner if any good is to be got from them. On the coast, they are practically evergreen, as they never lose their leaves entirely, and are in blossom during the winter. When grown on the tablelands, this early blossoming is a disadvantage, as the blossoms are liable to be injured by frost, but in these districts peaches of Persian origin can be grown instead. FIGS. Several kinds of figs can be grown successfully in the Southern coast districts, the first crop ripening before Christmas, but the second or main crop is often a failure, owing to the fact that it ripens during our wet season, and the fruit consequently sours and bursts. As one recedes from the coast, the fruit does better, and is less liable to injury from excessive wet. The coastal tablelands and the more Western Downs grow it well, and the trees, when planted on soil of a rich friable nature, grow to a large size and bear heavily. Many varieties are grown, which are used fresh or converted into jam, but no attempt has been made to dry them, though it is possible that this industry may eventually be found profitable in the drier parts of the State, where there is water available for the trees' use at certain periods of the year, but not during the fruiting period, as it cannot well be too dry then if a good quality of dried figs is to be turned out. This fruit is easily grown, and is not at all subject to serious pests, so that anyone who will take reasonable care can produce all that is required for home use or local sale, as its softness renders it a difficult fruit to ship long distances in a hot climate. THE MULBERRY. This is one of the hardiest fruits we have, one of the most rapid growers, and one of the most prolific. There are several varieties in cultivation, and those of Japanese or Chinese origin will grow from the coast to the interior, and thrive either in an extremely dry or humid climate. The common English or black mulberry does not do too well as a rule, though there are many fine trees scattered throughout the State, but the other sorts are as hardy as native trees. The fruit is not of any great value, still, as it is so easily grown, it finds a place in most gardens, and in time of drought the leaves and young branches are readily eaten by all kinds of stock, so that it is a good standby for stock as well as a fruit. THE STRAWBERRY. To those who have been accustomed to look upon the strawberry as a fruit of the purely temperate regions, it will be somewhat of a revelation to know that exceptionally fine fruit can be grown right on the Queensland coast, and well within the tropics, and that on the coast, between the 26th to the 28th degrees of south latitude, we are probably producing as fine fruit and obtaining as heavy crops as are produced in any of the older strawberry-growing countries. Not only this, but that we are able to supply the Southern markets of Australia with finer fruit than they can produce locally, and at a time of the year that they cannot grow it. As I have already mentioned when dealing with other fruits, one thing that particularly impresses strangers is the early age at which our fruits come into bearing. This is borne out in the case of the strawberry to a marked degree, as runners set in April fruit in July, and often earlier, and will continue to bear, given reasonable weather, right up to Christmas or even longer. New plants are set out every year, and the plantation is seldom allowed to stand more than two years, as the young plants produce the finest fruit. There is a good demand for the fruit, the larger berries being packed in flat cases holding a single layer of fruit, as shown in the illustration, and being sold for consumption fresh, whereas the smaller berries are packed in kegs and sent direct to the factories for conversion into jam. The strawberry grows well on various soils, but does best with us on a rich loam of medium texture, of a reddish-brown or even black colour. It should be planted in districts that are free from frosts where early fruit is desired, as frosts injure the blossoms, but where jam fruit only is wanted this is not so necessary. The land requires to be thoroughly well prepared, and the plants are usually set out in rows about 2 feet apart, with the plants about 1 foot apart in the row. Under favourable conditions they grow very rapidly, and soon start flowering. Their cultivation is usually confined to comparatively small areas of 2 or 3 acres in extent, as the labour of picking and packing is usually done by the grower himself with the assistance of his family. They are often planted between the rows of trees in young orchards, thus bringing in a return whilst the trees are coming into bearing, and helping to keep the pot boiling. They grow well on our coastal scrub lands, and have proved a great assistance to many a beginner, as one has not long to wait before obtaining a return. [Illustration: Strawberry Garden, Mooloolah District.] The productiveness of this fruit in Queensland is phenomenal, as high as 5 tons of berries having been taken off 1 acre in a single season. There are many varieties of strawberries in cultivation, some of which have been produced locally from seed, and have turned out extremely well, being of better flavour, stronger growers, and heavier bearers than introduced varieties--in fact, local seedlings have adapted themselves to local conditions, and stand our climate better than those varieties which are natives of colder countries. [Illustration: Marguerite Strawberry.] [Illustration: Marguerite Strawberry packed for market.] The case berries, which are used for fresh consumption, fetch a fair price, especially early in the season, but jam fruit sells at an average of 2-1/2d. per lb., at which price it pays fair wages, but is not a bonanza. As a rule the plants are very healthy, and any fungus pests to which they are subject, such as leaf blight, are easily kept in check by spraying, a knapsack pump being used for this purpose. The ground is kept well worked and free from weeds, whilst the plants are fruiting, and occasionally the ground is mulched, as is the case in the plot shown in the illustration. No special knowledge is necessary for their culture, but, at the same time, thorough cultivation and careful attention to details in the growing of the plants make a considerable difference in the total returns. [Illustration: Forman's Strawberry, Brisbane District.] CAPE GOOSEBERRY. This Peruvian fruit, introduced into this State _viâ_ the Cape of Good Hope, hence its name, has now spread throughout the greater part of the tropical and semi-tropical portions of Queensland. Its spread has largely been brought about by the agency of fruit-eating birds, that have distributed the seeds widely by means of their castings. It is one of the first plants to make its appearance in newly burnt-off scrub land, and often comes up in such numbers as to give a full crop of fruit. In other cases it is usual to scatter a quantity of seed on such land, so as to be sure of securing a plant. No cultivation is given; the plant grows into a straggling bush bearing a quantity of fruit which is enclosed in a parchment-like husk. The fruit is gathered, husked, and is then ready for market. The bulk of the fruit is grown in this manner, and as it can be grown on land that is not yet ready for any other crop (grass or maize excepted) it is a great help to the beginner, as a good crop and fair prices can usually be obtained. The name "gooseberry" is somewhat misleading, as it is not a gooseberry at all, is not like it, nor does it belong to the same natural order. It is a plant belonging to the order Solanaceæ, which includes such well-known plants as the potato, tomato, tobacco, &c., and altogether unlike the common gooseberry, which, by the way, is one of the fruits that we cannot do much with. In addition to being grown in the wild manner I have described, it is occasionally cultivated in a systematic manner, somewhat like the tomato, but not to any extent; growers preferring to depend on it as a first return from newly fallen and burnt-off scrub land. As a fruit it meets with a very ready sale, as it is one of the best cooking fruits grown; plainly stewed and served with cream, made into puddings or pies, or converted into jam, it is hard to beat. The jam has a distinct flavour of its own, one that one soon becomes very partial to, besides which it is an attractive-looking jam that, were it better known in the world's markets, would, I feel sure, meet with a ready sale at satisfactory rates. The plant is somewhat susceptible to cold, hence it does best in a district free from frost, but it is not killed out by light frosts, only killed back, and its crop put back. Like all plants belonging to the same natural order, it likes a good soil, rich in available potash, and this is probably the reason why it does so well on newly burnt-off scrub, the ashes of which provide an ample supply of available potash. THE OLIVE. A much-neglected fruit in this State, as it is also in most English-speaking countries. Few English people are fond of either the fruit or the oil, and yet it is probable that there is no tree that for the space it occupies will produce a greater annual return of food than the olive. A number of trees are scattered throughout the State, some of which are now of large size and fair age, but, so far, practically nothing beyond making a few gallons of oil and pickling a few gallons of fruit has been attempted, and this only in a purely experimental manner. The present condition of the olive industry is destined to have a wakening up ere long, as a country that can produce this fruit in such quantities and of such a quality as the lighter soils of the Darling Downs is destined some day to be one of the largest producers of olives on earth. Some years since I planted a number of the best varieties of olives--trees obtained direct from California--on the Darling Downs, in land that I considered suitable for their growth, and which was properly prepared prior to planting. The trees here have made a really phenomenal growth, they came into bearing within three years of planting, and have borne steadily ever since. They have proved enormous bearers, and an experimental crushing showed that the oil was of high quality. There are large areas of similar country to that in which they are planted in different parts of the State, and I feel certain that this really valuable food fruit is bound some day to be a considerable source of our national wealth. So far, the drawback to the growth of olives has been the cost of gathering the fruit and the limited demand for the oil or pickled fruit, but, against this, it has many advantages, one, and by no means the least, of which is its value as a shade and shelter tree on our open treeless plains. It is also a very hardy tree, withstanding drought well, and thriving in land that is too stony for the cultivation of ordinary farm crops. It is a healthy tree, free from most fruit pests other than the olive scale, which can be kept in check by spraying or cyaniding; and last, but not least, it is an ornamental tree whose wood is of considerable value. The olive does best with us in loamy soils of fair depth and basaltic origin, that are moderately rich in lime and potash, and have a fair drainage. A subsoil of decomposed rock answers well. It will, however, do on several other kinds of soil, but it is in the type that I have just described that it does so well, and in which I would recommend its culture on a large scale. It will stand a fair amount of frost as well as great heat, and I have never seen the trees injured by either on our Downs country. I have also seen trees doing well right on the coast, where they have been subject to heavy rainfalls, so that it appears to adapt itself to the conditions prevailing in many parts of our State. In addition to the fruits I have briefly described, there are several others of minor importance that can be grown successfully, but, as they are not of any great value commercially, I will leave them out, and go on to the fruits of our more temperate districts, as, in addition to growing the tropical and semi-tropical fruits which I have already dealt with, Queensland can also produce temperate climate fruits to a very high degree of perfection. The fruits of the temperate regions that we are able to grow include the apple, pear, plum, prune, quince, apricot, Persian peach, nectarine, almond, walnut, chestnut, cherry, &c., as well as some of the hardier fruits which I have classed as semi-tropical--viz., the Japanese plum, persimmon, Chickasaw plum, strawberry, &c. The districts adapted for the growth of the distinctly temperate fruits are mostly situated in the Southern portion of the State, and at an elevation of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea-level--districts having a warm summer but a comparatively cold winter, during which frosts are by no means uncommon, but where snow rarely falls; a healthy climate, with warm days and cool nights, to which many visitors go during the heat of summer, when the humidity of the coast is somewhat trying to persons not naturally robust. The Downs country, particularly its southern or Stanthorpe end, is the most suitable; the soil is mainly of granitic origin, and is very suitable for the growth of apples, stone fruit, and grapes, but the latter I will deal with by themselves later on. The country is by no means rich from an agricultural standpoint, and is considerably broken, but, as already stated, it is admirably adapted for the growth of fruit, and within the last ten years at least 100,000 fruit trees, mostly apples, plums, and peaches, have been planted out and are doing well. The Stanthorpe show, which is held annually during the month of February, is always noted for the excellence of its fruit exhibits, which would be hard to beat, both for size, quality, and appearance. The fruits ripen earlier than similar varieties grown in the Southern States, hence supply our markets at a time when there is little outside competition, and, consequently, meet with a ready sale at fair prices. The fruit grown in the largest quantity is the apple, so I will deal with it first. THE APPLE. As a description of this well-known and universally used fruit is entirely superfluous, I will confine my remarks to the types of fruit grown, and their method of growth. Owing to the fact that our fruits ripen much earlier than similar varieties in more southern parts of Australia, we have gone in largely for early varieties of apples, both for cooking and table use, but have not confined our attention to them entirely, as good-keeping sorts are found to do equally well, and have been shown at the annual exhibition that is held in Brisbane during August, in perfect condition, showing that the fruit has good keeping qualities. The soil on which the apple is mostly grown is largely composed of granitic matter, and is of a sharp, sandy, loamy nature, often of a gritty character. It is usually rich in potash, the predominating felspar being orthoclase, but somewhat deficient in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. It is usually easy to work, of fair depth, and retains moisture well when kept in a thorough state of tilth. The trees are usually planted at from 20 to 25 feet apart each way, when they are either one year or two years old from the graft or bud. They are headed low, so as to shade the ground from the heat of the sun, and also so as to facilitate the handling of the crop when grown, as well as to prevent their swaying about with the wind. The trees make a rapid growth, come into bearing very early, often bearing a fair crop three years after planting, and fruiting even earlier. The fruit of the early varieties has usually a handsome appearance, but lacks keeping qualities, but the later fruits are both handsome, high-coloured fruit, and good keepers. The trees are not very liable to disease, as, thanks to all varieties being worked on blight-resistant stocks, there is very little American blight (woolly aphis). Scale insects do a certain amount of damage, but are easily kept in check by winter spraying, and codling moth is not bad unless grossly neglected, many orchards being quite free from this great pest of the apple-grower. So far, the growing of apples has been confined entirely to the growing of fruit for the local markets, no attempt having been made to export same. A very small quantity is dried, and a little is used for jelly. Many varieties of apples have been tested in this State, but growers have found out that it pays them best to confine their attention to comparatively few sorts that have proved to be the best suited to the soil and climate, as a few good kinds are much more profitable to grow than a mere collection of varieties. Many varieties are prone to overbear, and trees of large size have produced enormous crops of fruit, whereas young trees frequently break down under the weight of their crop. The usual plan is to plant a few varieties that ripen in succession, so as to extend the season over as long a period as possible, and not to cause a glutted market at any one time. Early fruits particularly are not noted for their keeping qualities, and a market glutted with such would entail a heavy loss to growers, hence a succession of varieties that suit the district as well as the market is grown. Nearly all kinds of apples do well, those that are resistant to the attack of woolly aphis are, however, generally chosen in preference, even though they may not be of the highest quality, as their prolificness and freedom from this pest renders them more profitable than varieties of superior quality that are liable to blight, and that are at the same time often somewhat indifferent bearers. It is outside the scope of this paper to go into the question of varieties, but I may mention that such sorts as Irish Peach, Gravenstein, Summer Scarlet Pearmain, Twenty-ounces, Jonathan, Lord Suffield, Rome Beauty, and Prince Bismarck do remarkably well, and many other well-known kinds can be grown to perfection. [Illustration: Prince of Pippins Apple, Darling Downs District.] THE PEACH. This king of the temperate fruits grows with us to perfection. The tree is hardy, a rapid grower, comes into bearing early, and is, if anything, inclined to overbear. It can be grown over a considerable part of our coastal and inland downs, as well as the Stanthorpe district, and thrives in many kinds of soil, from light sandy loams of poor quality to rich loams of medium texture or even heavier. In this State, the peach is always grown on peach roots, the desired variety being either budded or grafted on to a seedling peach, and the resulting tree is planted out when it has made one year's growth. No tree is easier to grow, but if the best returns are desired, it requires very careful pruning for the first three years, after which an annual winter pruning is usually all that is necessary. The young tree is such a strong grower that unless it is heavily cut back it becomes top-heavy and breaks to pieces with the weight of fruit, but when hard cut back for the first two years, so that it has a good main stem and strong primary branches, it will form a strong tree, and stand up well under a heavy crop of fruit. The strong growth it makes necessitates heavy pruning when large fruit is desired--and it is large showy fruit which sells best here--as were the tree allowed to go unpruned, it would bear enormous numbers of fruit, many of which would be of small size. Growers now realise this, and many of our orchards are well pruned, whereas a few years since the trees were allowed to grow pretty much as they like. The peach remains profitable much longer here than it does in California, as the trees do not wear out so quickly, the roots remaining sound up to the last, so that, unless the top is too far gone, the life of the tree may usually be extended for several years by heading hard back and forming an entirely new head to the tree. Trees in full bearing often produce fully 1,000 lb. weight of fruit in a single season. This is, of course, very much above the average, but by no means exceptional. When in their third season, they should bear enough to pay for all working expenses. A very large number of varieties have been tested in Queensland, most of which do well, but, as in the case of apples, we find from experience that it is best to stick to a few kinds, and those that have proved to be most suitable to our soil and climate, rather than to experiment with a large number of varieties. The usual plan is to plant a number of varieties that ripen in succession, as with the apple, so as to spread the season over as long a time as possible, and to stick to kinds that bear well, look well, and ship well, for appearance will usually beat quality, and fetch more money. So far, little has been done in the way of utilising the peach, as the demand for the fresh fruit has been equal to our supply. There is, however, no reason why we should not be able to establish and maintain a fair canning and drying trade, should the production overcome the demand for the fresh fruit, as our peaches are of large size, and will can and dry well--that is to say, varieties adapted to those purposes will do so. The nectarine, which is simply a smooth-skinned peach, does equally well, many varieties bear heavily, and some produce fruit of exceptional merit. I have seen as fine nectarines grown in the Stanthorpe district as I have met with in any part of Australia or America, fruit of large size and the highest flavour, that compared favourably with the finest hothouse-grown fruit of the Old World. [Illustration: Peach Avenue, Darling Downs District.] THE PLUM. As already mentioned, plums of Japanese and American origin (Chickasaw) do well in the more coastal districts. They also bear heavily on our coastal downs and more western country, but some kinds of Japanese plums blossom too early for the Stanthorpe district. European plums, however, do well, and are heavy bearers. All kinds do not bear heavily, the freest bearers being those of the damson family--White Magnum Bonum and Diamond type. Prunes also do well. Plums of European origin do best in the coldest districts, but their cultivation is not confined entirely to these, as some varieties thrive well in warmer and drier parts of the country. So far, there has been a ready sale for all the plums we can produce for fresh consumption, excepting some of the smaller plums of the damson type, which have been converted into jam. It is not a fruit, however, in which there is much money, as it is too easily grown in the Southern States, and can there be converted into jam or canned at a lower rate than we can do here, hence our cultivation will be more or less confined to the growing of large fruits for supplying our local markets rather than to the production of the fruit in quantity. THE APRICOT. Most varieties of this fruit do well on our coastal downs country in the South, and to a certain extent further west. The trees are very rapid growers, and bear heavily. The earlier ripening fruit usually escapes damage from fruit fly, but the late fruit often suffers considerably. The apricot does best in a fairly strong rich soil, when it makes a great growth, and bears heavy crops of large-sized fruit. It also does well on sandier soils, which produce a firmer and better-drying fruit. So far, although a number of trees are planted throughout the State, the cultivation of the fruit is mainly confined to the production of table fruit, drying or canning having been carried out to a small extent only. The apricot grows to a large tree, and lives to a good old age. Like the peach, it is a very vigorous grower when young, requiring severe pruning in consequence, but, when once shaped, the trees require little in the way of pruning other than the removal of superfluous branches and an annual shortening in winter. THE CHERRY. Queensland is almost outside the limit of the successful growth of this fruit, but not quite, as we produce the first fruit to ripen in Australia, which realises a high price on account of its earliness. Many varieties have been tested, but, so far, no one variety can be said to be a complete success in our climate, nor do the trees grow to the large size or produce as heavily as they do in the Southern States, where the winters are more clearly defined than they are in Queensland. Another drawback to the growth of this fruit is that the soils of our coldest district are not the best of cherry soils. The cherry likes a deep, moderately rich loam, whereas we are growing it mostly on sandy loams of a granitic origin. What fruit we do grow is good, and pays well on account of its earliness, but I do not consider that this State will ever be able to compete with the South in the growth of the cherry. [Illustration: Litchi, Mossman District.] THE PEAR. Many kinds of pears do well, but, unfortunately, this fine fruit is very liable to be attacked by fruit fly. It does well generally in the districts that I have mentioned as suitable for the apple, plum, and apricot. The tree is healthy, grows rapidly and to a large size. It comes into bearing remarkably early as compared with the pear in colder climates, and produces excellent fruit. I have grown as good Bartletts here as could be obtained anywhere, and the trees have proved to be good bearers and doers. This fruit does best on deep soils of a medium to strong loamy nature, and of good quality, though it does well in much freer soils, but does not make as good a growth or bear as heavily. It is usually grown on seedling-pear stocks, but the growing of suitable varieties on quince stocks and keeping the resultant trees dwarfed is to be recommended. This method of growing the pear does well here, and dwarf trees can be easily protected from fly, whereas it is practically impossible to deal with big trees, which the pear becomes when grown on pear roots. THE ALMOND. This fruit does well in parts of our coastal tableland country, though its habit of blossoming too early in the season renders it very liable to injury from late frosts. The trees do remarkably well, grow rapidly, and bear heavily when the blossoms are uninjured by frost, hence it is a good tree to grow in selected situations containing suitable soil, as it commands a ready sale, and is very little troubled with pests. A free, sandy, loamy soil is best suited to the growth of the almond, and the situation should be well protected from frost. The trees are usually worked on peach stocks, on which they make a very rapid growth. Several varieties should be grown together, as a better set of fruit will be obtained by doing so, most almonds requiring the pollen of another variety flowering at the same time to render their flowers fertile. The almond grows into a handsome, shapely tree, and, when in blossom, an orchard is a sight not easily forgotten, the wealth of flowers being such that it must be seen to be fully appreciated. The walnut, chestnut, quince, blackberry, raspberry, and one or two other fruits of the temperate regions are also cultivated to a small extent, but are of no great value so far, though there is no reason why the walnut, which does well with us, should not be cultivated to a much greater extent than it is, as there is always a fair demand for the nuts. Blackberries of different kinds have been introduced, and do well, the common English blackberry almost too well, as unless kept in check it is apt to spread to such an extent as to be a nuisance. In addition to the cultivated fruits I have briefly mentioned as growing in Queensland, we have a number of native fruits growing in our scrubs and elsewhere that are worthy of cultivation with a view to their ultimate improvement. Of such are the Queensland nut, a handsome evergreen tree, bearing heavy crops of a very fine flavoured nut. The nut is about 3/4-inch in diameter, but the shell is very hard and thick. It could no doubt be improved by selection and careful breeding. The Davidsonian plum is also another fruit of promise. It is a handsome tree of our tropical North coast, and bears a large plum-shaped fruit of a dark purple colour, with dark reddish purple flesh, which is extremely acid, but which is well worth cultivation. Several species of eugenias also produce edible fruit, and there are two species of wild raspberries common to our scrubs. There are the native citrus fruits I referred to in an earlier part of this paper, as well as several other less well-known fruits that are edible. [Illustration: Tamarind Tree, Port Douglas District.] GRAPE CULTURE. No work on fruit-growing in Queensland, however small, would be complete without due reference being made to the vine, the last but by no means the least important of our many fruits. Although the cultivation of this most useful and popular fruit has not reached to anything like the dimensions that vine culture has attained in the Southern States, particularly in the production of wine, there is no reason why it should not do so at no very distant future. We have many advantages not possessed by our Southern neighbours in the culture of the grape, the first and most important of which is that our crop ripens so much earlier than that of the South that we can secure the whole of the early markets without fear of any serious opposition. Until quite recently, grape culture was in a very backward state in Queensland, the grapes grown on the coast being nearly all American varieties, which are by no means the best wine or table sorts. A few grapes of European origin were grown on the Downs and in the Roma district, but their cultivation was practically confined thereto. Now, however, things have altered very much for the better. Many good varieties of European grapes have been proved suitable to the coastal climate of the Southern half of the State, and many inland districts other than Roma and the Downs have also proved that they, too, can and do grow first-class fruit both for table and wine. [Illustration: Grosse Kölner Vine in Fruit, Roma District (Gros Colman).] [Illustration: Picking Grapes, Roma.] Now the culture of the grape extends over a great part of the State, from the coast to the interior; in the latter, its successful growth depending on the necessary suitable water for irrigation, and on the coast to our knowledge of how to keep fungus pests, such as anthracnose, in check by winter treatment and spring spraying. In the Brisbane district many kinds of excellent table grapes are now grown, which meet with a ready sale, such as the well-known Black Hamburgh of English vineries, the Sweetwater, Snow's Muscat Hamburgh, Royal Ascot, &c., as well as all the better kinds of American grapes, such as Iona, Goethe, Wilder, &c. A little wine is made, but more attention is given to table fruit. [Illustration: A Grape Vine in Fruit, Stanthorpe District.] [Illustration: Madresfield Court Grape.] In the Maryborough, Gympie, and Bundaberg districts, similar grapes are also grown, and do well, ripening somewhat earlier than they do in Brisbane; and in the Rockhampton district, right on the tropic of Capricorn, some of the best table grapes I have seen in the State are produced. Further north a few grapes are grown, but not in any great quantities, and I consider that the profitable cultivation of good table grapes on the coast extends from our Southern border to a short distance north of the tropic of Capricorn and inland to all districts where there is either a sufficient rainfall or a supply of water from artesian bores, or otherwise, to enable them to be grown. Grapes here, as in other parts of the world, like moderately rich, free, loamy soils of good depth, free sandy loams, and free alluvial loams. In such soils they make a vigorous growth, and are heavy bearers. The granitic soils of the Stanthorpe district, that produce such good peaches, plums, and apples, grow excellent grapes, which ripen late. They are of large size, and conspicuous for their fine colour. The sandy soils of Roma and the Maranoa country generally grow excellent wine and table grapes, the latter being of large size, full flavour, and handsome appearance. Wine grapes also do well here, and some excellent wine has been made, both dark and light, natural and fortified. I have no doubt that eventually good rich port and the best of sherries will be produced in this district, as the soil and climate are admirably adapted to the production of these classes of wine. Our difficulty, so far, has been to find out the exact kinds of grapes to grow for this purpose, but now I am glad to say that we are on the right track, and the excellence of Queensland ports and sherries will be a recognised thing before many years are past. There is a big and good opening for up-to-date viticulturists in this State. We have any amount of suitable land at low rates, and, thanks to the generous sun heat of our interior, we can grow grapes capable of producing wines equal to the best that can be turned out by Spain, Portugal, or Madeira. In those districts that do not possess such an extreme climate, such as the coastal downs and the Stanthorpe districts, good wines of a lighter character can be produced, and, as already stated, good wines are now being made on the coast. It is only now that we are beginning to realise the value of the grape to Queensland, as, until our production increased to such an extent that our local markets were being over-supplied, our growers made no attempt to supply outside markets. Now this is being done, and better means of handling and packing the fruit, so as to enable it to be shipped long distances, are now coming into vogue. With improved methods of handling and packing, we have a greatly extended market, in which we will have no local competition, hence will be able to secure good returns, so much so that I consider that grape-growing in Queensland has a very promising outlook for some years to come at any rate. In addition to growing grapes to supply the fresh-fruit trade and for winemaking, our western country is capable of producing good raisins and sultanas. So far, this industry has not been entered into commercially, the fresh fruit realising far too high a price for it to pay to convert it into raisins. Still, with increased production, this will have to take place, and when it does I am of opinion that we will be able to turn out a very saleable article. The growing of grapes here certainly requires considerable experience of a practical nature. This is not at all hard to obtain, and there are no insurmountable difficulties to the beginner, once he has learnt how to work his land so as to cause it to retain moisture during a dry spell, and to plant and prune his vines. These are matters in which any beginner can obtain practical advice from the Queensland Agricultural Department, as the Government of Queensland, recognising the importance of fruit-growing, grape-growing, and general agriculture to the State, have devoted considerable sums of money to the establishment of experiment farms, orchards, and vineyards in different parts of the State. All these Government institutions are under the control of thoroughly qualified managers, who are willing at all times to give any assistance to beginners, thereby enabling the latter to keep free from mistakes, and to obtain the best returns as the result of their labour. Instructors, thoroughly conversant with the State as a whole, are also available for giving practical advice, so that there is no necessity for a beginner, through lack of experience, to waste any time in finding out for himself what his soil and climate are suited for. He can start on the right lines from the beginning, and keep to right lines if he will only take advantage of the advice, based on practical experience, that is given him. Queensland is a good land for the intending fruit-grower. We offer you good soil, a choice of climates, suitable for the growing of practically every kind of commercial fruit, a healthy climate to live in, cheap land, free education for your children, and free advice from competent experts for yourselves. This is a country that has not been advertised or puffed up; that is, in consequence, not by any means well known; but it is a country that, taken all in all, will take a lot of beating when one is looking out for a home. Its natural advantages and the other inducements it offers to intending settlers, particularly those interested in fruit culture, cannot, in my opinion, be equalled, and certainly not excelled, elsewhere; and, as I stated in the beginning of this paper, my opinion is based on practical experience gained in various parts of the fruit-producing parts of the world. [Illustration: Black Mammoth Grape.] [Illustration: Cinsaut Grape.] List of Fruits Grown in Queensland. Almonds, several varieties Almond, Fiji Apples, many varieties Apricots, many varieties Averrhoa Avocada Pear Bael Fruit Banana, several varieties Barberry Blackberry Brazilian Cherry Bread Fruit Burdekin Plum Carob Bean Chalta Cherries, several varieties Chestnut--Spanish Chestnut--Japanese Chinese Raisin Citrons, several varieties Cocoa-nut, many varieties Custard Apples (Cherimoyers) Dates Davidsonia Plum Figs, several varieties Gooseberries--Cape Gooseberries--Otaheitan Granadillas Grapes, many varieties Guavas, many varieties Jujube Kai Apple Kumquat Litchi Longan Lemons, several varieties Limes, several varieties Loquats Mandarins, several varieties Mangoes, many varieties Mangosteen--Sour or Coochin York Medlars Melons, many varieties Monstera Mulberries, several varieties Natal Plum Nectarines, several varieties Olives, several varieties Oranges, many varieties Papaw, several types Passion Fruit, several types Peaches--Persian, many varieties Peaches--China, several varieties Peaches--Ceylon, several varieties Pears, many varieties Pecan Nut Persimmons, several varieties Pineapples, several varieties Pistachio Nut Plums--European, several varieties Plums--Japanese, several varieties Plums--American, several varieties Pomegranate Quince--European, several varieties Quince--Japanese Queensland Nut Raspberries, several types Rosellas Rose Apple Sapodilla Plum Shaddock or Pomelo, several types Star Apple Strawberries, many varieties Tamarinds Tree Tomato Vi Apple Walnut Whampee List of Vegetables Grown in Queensland. Artichokes--Jerusalem and Globe Asparagus Beans of all kinds Beetroot Broccoli Brussels Sprouts Cabbage Cabbage--Chinese Capsicums Cardoons Carrots Cassava Cauliflowers Celery Chicory Chokos Cress Cucumbers Earth Nuts (Peanuts) Egg Plant Endive Eschalots Garlic Herbs--all kinds Horseradish Kohl-rabi Leeks Lettuce Mushrooms Mustard Nasturtiums Ockra Onions Peas Potatoes--English and Sweet Pumpkins Radishes Rhubarb Salsify Seakale Spinach Squashes Sweet Corn Swedes Taro Tomatoes Turnips Vegetable Marrows Yams By Authority: ANTHONY JAMES CUMMING, Government Printer, Brisbane. 
2671	----	None 
18183	----	Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 18183-h.htm or 18183-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/8/1/8/18183/18183-h/18183-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/1/8/1/8/18183/18183-h.zip) TREES, FRUITS AND FLOWERS OF MINNESOTA 1916 [Illustration: MONUMENT ERECTED IN LOBBY OF WEST HOTEL, MINNEAPOLIS, Place of annual meeting of the society, December 7 to 10. Height of monument, 10 feet. Number of bushels of apples used, twenty-five. Enlarged seal of the society on its front.] Embracing the Transactions of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society from December 1, 1915, to December 1, 1916, Including the Twelve Numbers of "The Minnesota Horticulturist" for 1916. Edited By The Secretary, A. W. LATHAM, Office and Library, 207 Kasota Block, Minneapolis, Minn. Vol. XLIV. [Illustration: MINNESOTA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY "PERSEVERANTIA VINCIMUS" ORGANIZED 1866.] Minneapolis Harrison & Smith Co., Printers 1916 While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 JANUARY, 1916 No. 1 President's Greeting, Annual Meeting, 1915. THOS. E. CASHMAN, PRESIDENT. This is the forty-ninth annual meeting of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society. Nearly half a century has elapsed since that little band of pioneers met in Rochester and organized that they might work out a problem that had proven too difficult for any of them to handle single handed and alone. Those men were all anxious to raise at least sufficient fruit for themselves and families. They had tried and failed. They were not willing to give up. They knew they could accomplish more by interchanging ideas, and, furthermore, if they were able to learn anything by experience they wanted to pass it on to their neighbors. Those men built better than they knew. The foundation was properly laid, and the structure, while not finished, is an imposing one. A great many people believe that this structure has been completed, that we have reached our possibilities in fruit raising. This is only half true. We are still building on this splendid foundation erected by those few enthusiasts. None of those men are left to enjoy the benefits of their labor. The present generation and the generations to come are and will be the beneficiaries, and I believe as a tribute to their memory and the good that they have done that we should fittingly celebrate our fiftieth anniversary. At this time I can not suggest how this should be done; I simply make this suggestion in hopes that it may be worked out. I was in hopes that a home for this society might have been erected this year or at least made ready for the 1916 meeting. This would surely have been an occasion worthy of the anniversary which we hope to celebrate. The building committee appointed by the last meeting went before the legislature and tried with all the eloquence at their command to make the members of the legislature see the necessity of appropriating sufficient money to build a permanent home for this organization. The members saw the force of our argument, but we could not convince a majority of the appropriation committee that they should deviate from their plan of retrenchment which seemed to permeate their every act. We were disappointed but not disheartened. We were promised better success in the 1917 session. So we are living in hopes, and I firmly believe that if our efforts are renewed at that time that this and the auxiliary societies may have an opportunity of meeting and transacting business in a home that, while it will belong to the state, will be for the use of these organizations, and that we may be able to take up our abode in it not later than the winter meeting of 1917. Secretary Latham has prepared an excellent program for you. Many friends of this society are with us again, full of enthusiasm and vigor, and I know that we will have one of the most successful meetings ever enjoyed by this organization. Owing to the fullness of the program, I should consider it an imposition on my part if I should attempt to make an extended address at this time and will hasten to call on the gentlemen who are to contribute to the success of this meeting. [Illustration: New varieties of strawberries originated at the Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm.] Annual Meeting, 1915, Minnesota State Horticultural Society. A. W. LATHAM, SECRETARY. Did you attend the 1915 meeting of this association, held in the West Hotel, Minneapolis, four days, December 7-10 inclusive? Of course as a member of the society you will get in cold print the substance of the papers and discussions that were presented at this meeting, but you will fail altogether in getting the wonderful inspiration that comes from contact with hundreds of persons deeply interested in the various phases of horticultural problems that are constantly passing in review during the succeeding sessions of the meeting. With such a varied program there is hardly any problem connected with horticulture that is not directly or indirectly touched upon at our annual gathering, and the present meeting was no exception to this. In all there were sixty-nine persons on the program, and with the exception of Prof. Whitten, whom we expected with us from the Missouri State University, and whom sickness kept at home, and one other number, every person on the program was on hand to perform the part assigned to him. Isn't this really a wonderful thing where so many are concerned, emphasizing as it does the large interest felt in the work of the society? The meeting was held in the same room in the West Hotel which was used for the banquet two years ago. It seats comfortably 250, and was approximately filled at all of the sessions of the meeting. At the first session there were in attendance about 200 when the meeting opened at ten o'clock Tuesday morning. Later in the morning the seats were practically all filled. Making allowance for the change in the personnel of those in attendance at the various meetings, it is easily within the limit to say that between 400 and 500 were in attendance at these meetings. Immediately adjoining the audience room on the same floor, and opening out of the spacious balcony, were the various rooms occupied by the fruit exhibit and the vegetable exhibit. The plant exhibit was in two alcoves on this balcony, and the cut flowers were displayed along either side of the balcony, making altogether a wonderful showing of nature's floral products. The accommodations for this meeting were almost ideal, and judging from the expressions of the members we have never been more happily situated than on this occasion. I have endeavored to draw a plan of the arrangements at this meeting and submit it to you, not for criticism, but to assist you in understanding the situation. We were greatly disappointed that Prof. Whitten was detained at home by illness, but others from abroad took up the time so that there was really no interim as a result of his absence. We were fortunate in having with us the last day and a part of Thursday afternoon Sen. H.M. Dunlap and Mrs. Dunlap, and their parts on the program were listened to with intense interest, and I am sure much good was gained for our membership from the service they rendered the society, which it must be understood is a gratuitious one--indeed that applies to all of those whose names appear upon the program. That is one good thing about the horticulturist, he is willing to tell what he knows for the benefit of others. To hold any other view than this would be too narrow and selfish certainly for the true lover of horticulture. The exhibits were in every case in excess of what we anticipated. Notwithstanding the light crop of apples in the larger portion of the state, there was really a fine showing, and quality was very high. Of boxes of apples there were shown eleven, and of barrels of apples six, for each one of which exhibits some premium was paid, as besides the first, second and third premiums in each case there was also a sum to be divided pro rata. There were twenty-nine pecks of apples exhibited, for which premiums were also paid in the same way. Four collections of top-worked apples were on the list. Premiums were awarded to forty seedling apples, an exceedingly good showing for the season. As to the number of single plates shown the record is not easily available, but the accompanying list of awards will give information as far as they are concerned, there being of course many plates to which no awards were made. The vegetable exhibit was an extraordinarily fine one and filled comfortably the convenient room assigned for its use. It was excellently managed by Mr. N.H. Reeves, President of the Minneapolis Market Gardeners' Association. As to the flower exhibit under the fine management of W.H. Bofferding, it was so much better than we anticipated that it is hard to find words suitably to express our thought in regard to it. Besides the splendid collections of plants and the large display of cut flowers from the state, there was shown from several eastern parties rare flowers, many of them new productions, which had a great deal to do with the beautiful appearance of the balcony, where all of these flowers were shown. [Illustration: Sketch showing arrangement of hall and adjacent rooms, &c., used at 1915 Annual Meeting, in West Hotel, Minneapolis.] Mention ought to be made of the monument erected in the center of the lobby on the ground floor of the West Hotel, a structure ten feet high, containing at its base some dozen or fifteen single layer boxes of choice apples and on its sides something like twenty bushels of apples put on in varying shades of red and green with a handsome ornamental plant crowning the whole. The seal of the society decorated with national colors appears upon the front. The picture taken of this monument is shown as a frontispiece of this number. It is incomplete in that the photographer cut off both ends of it, which is unfortunate in results obtained. Nevertheless it helped materially to advertise the meeting and was a distinct ornament in the lobby. As to subjects in which there was a special interest on our program, the only one to which I will here refer is that of "marketing," which received particular attention from a considerable number of those on the program or taking impromptu parts at the meeting. The Ladies' Federation assisted us splendidly on the Woman's Auxiliary program, one number, that by Mrs. Jennison, being beautifully illustrated by lantern slides. Delegates from abroad as usual and visitors were with us in considerable number. Prof. F. W. Brodrick came from Winnipeg, representing the Manitoba Society; Prof. N. E. Hansen, as usual, represented the South Dakota Society; Mr. Earl Ferris, of Hampton, Ia., the Northeastern Iowa Society; and Mr. A. N. Greaves, from Sturgeon Bay, Wis., the Wisconsin Society. We were especially favored in having with us also on this occasion Mr. N. A. Rasmusson, president of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society, and Secretary Frederick Cranefield of the same society. If all the members of that society are as wide awake as these three the Minnesota Society will have to look to its laurels. I must not fail to mention Mr. B. G. Street, from Hebron, Ill., who was present throughout the meeting, an earnest brother, and gave us a practical talk on "marketing." Our friend, Chas. F. Gardner, of Osage, Iowa, managed to get here Friday morning after the close of the meeting of the Iowa Horticultural Society, which he had been attending, and so spent the last day of the meeting with us. Welcome, Brother Gardner! The meeting would certainly have been incomplete without the presence of those old veterans and long time attendants at our annual gatherings, Geo. J. Kellogg and A. J. Philips, both from the Wisconsin Society. We need you, dear brothers, and hope you may long foregather with us. As to that war horse of horticulture, C. S. Harrison, of York, Nebr., what would our meeting be without the fireworks in language which he has provided now for many of these annual occasions. The wonderful life and sparkle of his message survives with us from year to year, and we look forward eagerly to his annual coming. There were three contestants who spoke from the platform in competition for the prizes offered from the Gideon Memorial Fund as follows: First Prize--G. A. Nelson, University Farm School, St. Paul. Second--A. W. Aamodt, University Farm School, St. Paul. Third--P. L. Keene, University Farm School, St. Paul. Their addresses were all of a practical character and will appear in our monthly. Prof. Richard Wellington conducted a fruit judging contest, in connection with which there was a large interest, and prizes were awarded as follows: D. C. Webster, La Crescent, First $5.00 P. L. Keene, University Farm, St. Paul, Second 3.00 Marshall Hurtig, St. Paul, Third 2.00 At the annual election the old officers whose terms had expired were all re-elected without opposition, and later the secretary was re-elected by the executive board for the coming year, so that no change whatever was made in the management of the society. J. M. Underwood, being absent in the south, was nevertheless re-elected by the board as its chairman for the coming year. A pleasant event of this gathering was the presentation of a handsome gold watch and chain to the secretary, a memento in connection with the termination of his twenty-fifth year as secretary of the society, which expression of appreciation on the part of the members it may well be believed was fully appreciated by the recipient. The hall was brilliantly decorated with the national colors, which had never been used before at any of our annual gatherings. What can be more beautiful than the stars and stripes entwined with the colors of foliage and flower. Never has our place of meeting shown so brightly or been more enjoyed than in this favorable environment. During the meeting upon the recommendation of the executive board there were five names by the unanimous vote of the society placed upon the honorary life membership roll of the society, as follows: John Bisbee, Madelia; J. R. Cummins, Minneapolis; Chas. Haralson, Excelsior; F. W. Kimball, Waltham, and S. H. Drum, Owatonna. The meeting closed with seventy-five members in the hall by actual count at 4:30, and we certainly hated to say the parting word to those whom we earnestly hope to gather with again a year hence. What can we say about the crowning event of our meeting, the annual banquet? Two hundred and two members sat down together and fraternized in a most congenial way. Gov. W. S. Hammond was the speaker of the evening and greatly enjoyed. All the other numbers on the program were on hand to perform their parts. Here follows the program and you can judge for yourself. Why don't you come and enjoy this most entertaining event of the meeting? PROGRAM. Prof. N.E. Hansen, Toastmaster. Grace Rev. J. Kimball, Duluth Opening Song Trafford N. Jayne, Minneapolis Why Wake Up the Dreamers--Aren't They Getting Their Share? Prof. E. G. Cheyney, University Farm, St. Paul Reading Miss Marie Bon, Minneapolis What Joy in the Garden, Provided E. E. Park, Minneapolis Every True Horticulturist Has a Private Rainbow with a Pot of Gold at the End Mrs. T. A. Hoverstad, Minneapolis Song s. Grace Updegraff Bergen, Minneapolis The Joy of Service Gov. W. S. Hammond What Care I While I Live in a Garden A. G. Long, Minneapolis Song Trafford N. Jayne, Minneapolis Never Too Late to Mend--Unless You Are "80," A. J. Philips, West Salem, Wis. Reading Miss Marie Bon Right Living and Happiness--You Can't Have One Without the Other, T. E. Archer, St. Paul Closing Song Trafford N. Jayne, Minneapolis * * * * * "DON'TS" ISSUED TO PREVENT FOREST FIRES.--1. Don't throw your match away until you are sure it is out. 2. Don't drop cigarette or cigar butts until the glow is extinguished. 3. Don't knock out your pipe ashes while hot or where they will fall into dry leaves or other inflammable material. 4. Don't build a camp fire any larger than is absolutely necessary. 5. Don't build a fire against a tree, a log, or a stump, or anywhere but on bare soil. 6. Don't leave a fire until you are sure it is out; if necessary smother it with earth or water. 7. Don't burn brush or refuse in or near the woods if there is any chance that the fire may spread beyond your control, or that the wind may carry sparks where they would start a new fire. 8. Don't be any more careless with fire in the woods than you are with fire in your own home. 9. Don't be idle when you discover a fire in the woods; if you can't put it out yourself, get help. Where a forest guard, ranger or state fire warden can be reached, call him up on the nearest telephone you can find. 10. Don't forget that human thoughtlessness and negligence are the causes of more than half of the forest fires in this country, and that the smallest spark may start a conflagration that will result in loss of life and destruction of timber and young growth valuable not only for lumber but for their influence in helping to prevent flood, erosion, and drought.--U.S. Dept. Agri., Forest Service. Award of Premiums, Annual Meeting, 1915, Minnesota State Horticultural Society. The list of awards following will give in full detail the awards made in connection with the fruit exhibit: VEGETABLES. Carrots Chas. Krause, Merriam Park Second 2.00 Celeriac " " Third 1.00 Cabbage J. T. Olinger, Hopkins Second 2.00 Carrots " " Third 1.00 Onions (red) " " Second 2.00 Onions (yellow) " " Fourth .50 Celeriac Daniel Gantzer, Merriam Park First 3.50 Lettuce " " Third 1.00 Onions (red) " " Third 1.00 Onions (white) " " Fourth .50 Onions (yellow) " " Second 2.00 Onions (pklg) " " Second 2.00 Beets Karl Kochendorfer, So. Park Third 1.00 Carrots C. E. Warner, Osseo First 3.50 Onions (white) " " First 3.50 Beets Mrs. John Gantzer. St. Paul First 3.50 Cabbages " " Fourth .50 Onions (red) " " First 3.50 Onions (yellow) " " First 3.50 Beets Mrs. Edw. Haeg, Minneapolis Second 2.00 Cabbages " " Third 1.00 Celeriac " " Second 2.00 Carrots Alfred Perkins, St. Paul Fourth .50 Lettuce " " First 3.50 Onions (red) " " Fourth .50 Onions (white) " " First 3.50 Onions (yellow) " " Third 1.00 Onions (white) H. G. Groat, Anoka Second 2.00 Onions (pickling) " " Fourth .50 Beets Chas. Krause, Merriam Park Fourth .50 Cabbages " " First 3.50 Lettuce Mrs. Edw. Haeg, Minneapolis Second 2.00 Onions (white pklg) " " Third 1.00 Onions (white) Aug. Sauter, Excelsior Third 1.00 Globe Onions (red) P. H. Peterson, Atwater First 3.50 Salsify Mrs. John Gantzer, St. Paul First 3.50 Turnips (white) " " First 3.50 Rutabagas " " Fourth .50 Parsley Mrs. Edw. Haeg, Minneapolis Fourth .50 Hubbard Squash " " Third 1.00 Potatoes C. W. Pudham, Osseo Fourth .50 Hubbard Squash " " Fourth .50 Potatoes Frank Dunning, Anoka Second 2.00 Pie Pumpkins " " First 3.50 Hubbard Squash " " Second 2.00 Turnips (white) Alfred Perkins, St. Paul Fourth .50 Potatoes Fred Scherf, Osseo First 3.50 Rutabagas " " First 3.50 Pie Pumpkins " " Fourth .50 Parsley Chas. Krause. Merriam Park Third 1.00 Parsnips " " First 3.50 Salsify Chas. Krause, Merriam Park Second 2.00 Turnips (white) " " Second 2.00 Parsnips J. T. Olinger, Hopkins Third 1.00 Turnips " " Third 1.00 Rutabagas " " Second 2.00 Parsley Daniel Gantzer Second 2.00 Parsnips " " Second 2.00 Pie Pumpkins " " Second 2.00 Parsnips Karl K. Kochendorfer, So. Park Fourth .50 Potatoes Aug. Bueholz, Osseo Third 1.00 Hubbard Squash " " First 3.50 Rutabagas " " Third 1.00 Parsley Frank L. Gerten, So. St. Paul First 3.50 Pie Pumpkins " " Third 1.00 Radishes " " First 3.50 E. O. BALLARD, Judge. COLLECTION OF APPLES. Collection of Apples P. Clausen, Albert Lea $3.30 Collection of Apples Henry Husser, Minneiska 3.78 Collection of Apples D. C. Webster, La Crescent 3.96 Collection of Apples P. H. Perry, Excelsior 2.36 Collection of Apples F. I. Harris. La Crescent 3.48 Collection of Apples W. S. Widmoyer, La Crescent 3.12 SINGLE PLATES OF APPLES. Yahnke F. I. Harris, La Crescent First $.75 Utter W. S. Widmoyer, La Crescent First .75 N.W. Greening " " First .75 Malinda " " Second .50 Plumb's Cider " " First .75 Patten's Greening F. W. Powers, Minneapolis First .75 Duchess " " First .75 Malinda F. I. Harris, La Crescent Third .25 Peerless " " First .75 Wolf River " " Second .50 Wealthy " " Second .50 Antonovka " " Second .50 Fameuse " " Second .50 Gilbert " " First .75 Duchess P. H. Perry, Excelsior Third .25 Yellow Transparent " " First .75 Tetofsky " " First .75 Charlamoff " " Third .25 Yahnke " " Second .50 Evelyn " " First .75 Lowland Raspberry P. Clausen, Albert Lea Second .50 Hibernal " " First .75 Okabena Francis Willis, Excelsior First .75 Milwaukee " " First .75 Patten's Greening " " Second .50 Longfield " " Second .50 University " " First .75 Longfield P. H. Perry, Excelsior First .75 Fameuse " " Third .25 Hibernal E. W. Mayman, Sauk Rapids Second .50 Wealthy Sil Matzke, So. St. Paul First .75 Peerless " " Second .50 N.W. Greening " " Second .50 McMahon " " First .75 Yellow Transparent Henry Husser Second .50 Fameuse " " First .75 Walbridge " " First .75 McMahon D. C. Webster, La Crescent Third .25 N.W. Greening " " Third .25 Brett " " First .75 Gideon " " First .75 Superb " " First .75 Okabena M. Oleson, Montevideo Second .50 Peerless " " Third .25 Hibernal " " Third .25 Longfield " " Third .25 University " " Second .50 Charlamoff Henry Husser, Minneiska Second .50 McMahon " " Second .50 Wolf River " " First .75 Jewell's Winter " " First .75 Anisim P. Clausen, Albert Lea First .75 Jewell's Winter " " Second .50 Antonovka " " First .75 Iowa Beauty " " First .75 Yahnke " " Third .25 Borovinca " " First .75 Patten's Greening P. H. Peterson, Atwater Third .25 Malinda " " First .75 Okabena " " Third .25 Lord's L. " " First .75 Lowland Raspberry " " First .75 Charlamoff " " First .75 Duchess " " Second .50 Tetofsky W. J. Tingley, Forest Lake Second .50 Wealthy H. B. Hawkes, Excelsior Third .25 Grimes' Golden P. H. Peterson, Atwater First .75 JNO. P. ANDREWS, Judge. SEEDLING APPLES. Early Winter--Arnt Johnson, Viroqua, Wis. $1.45 " " --W.S. Widmoyer, La Crescent 2.45 " " --J. Flagstad & Sons, Sacred Heart 2.15 " " --No. 96--Henry Rodenberg, Mindora, Wis. 1.55 " " --No. 32-- " " 1.85 " " --No. 50-- " " 1.55 " " --No. 82-- " " 2.00 " " --No. 52-- " " 2.40 " " --No. 64-- " " 2.20 " " --Dr. O. M. Huestis, Minneapolis 1.55 " " --Jacob Halvorson, Delavan 1.55 " " --No. 102--Henry Rodenberg, Mindora, Wis. 1.15 " " --No. 138-- " " 1.40 " " --No. 137-- " " 2.00 " " --No. 131-- " " 1.70 " " --H. H. Pond, Minneapolis 1.15 " " " 1.30 " " " 1.15 " " " 1.55 " " --Henry Husser, Minneiska 2.10 " " --O. O.--M. Oleson, Montevideo 1.85 " " --O. K.-- " 2.05 " " --G. N.-- " 1.30 " " --G. S.-- " 2.20 " " --E. T.--M. Oleson 1.70 " " --E. A. Gross, La Moille 1.15 " " -- " 1.90 " " -- " 2.25 " " --No. 1--Arnt Johnson, Viroqua, Wis. 1.40 Late Winter--No. 133--Henry Rodenberg, Mindora, Wis. 3.90 " " --No. 134-- " " 2.75 " " --No. 135-- " " 2.55 " " --No. 104-- " " 3.70 " " --No. 49-- " " 3.25 " " --No. 16-- " " 3.80 " " --No. 12-- " " 3.25 " " W. S. Widmoyer, La Crescent 2.30 " " --Chas. Ziseh, Dresbach 2.30 " " --J. A. Howard, Hammond 4.20 " " " 4.15 " " --F. W. Powers, Excelsior 4.00 " " --J. Flagstad & Sons, Sacred Heart 3.25 " " Henry Husser, Minneiska 3.25 " " --No. 23--Henry Rodenberg, Mindora, Wis. 3.35 CLARENCE WEDGE, N. E. HANSEN, Judges. COLLECTION OF TOP-WORKED APPLES. Collection of Top-Worked P. H. Peterson, Atwater 4.16 Collection of Top-Worked P. Clausen, Albert Lea 11.45 Collection of Top-Worked Henry Husser, Minneiska 5.23 Collection of Top-Worked W. S. Widmoyer, Dresbach 4.16 DEWAIN COOK, Judge. PECKS OF APPLES. N.W. Greenings Aug. Sauter, Excelsior .95 Wealthy H .B. Hawkes, Excelsior 1.10 Wealthy P. H. Peterson, Atwater .90 Fameuse Henry Husser, Minneiska .80 Wolf River " " 1.00 Peerless " " .75 N.W. Greening " " .75 N.W. Greening D. C. Webster, La Crescent 1.10 Wealthy " " .90 Bethel " " 1.00 Scotts' Winter " " 1.00 Wealthy W. P. Burow, La Crescent .85 N.W. Greening " " 1.10 Wealthy E. W. Mayman, Sauk Rapids .80 Hibernal E. W. Mayman, Sauk Rapids .85 Wealthy Francis Willis, Excelsior .90 Duchess " " .55 Okabena " " .55 Milwaukee " " .80 Wealthy P. H. Perry, Excelsior .85 Fameuse " " .80 Seedlings " " .80 Peter " " .85 Wealthy F. I. Harris, La Crescent .85 N.W. Greening " " .95 Seedlings T. E. Perkins, Red Wing .80 N.W. Greenings F. W. Powers, Minneapolis 1.00 Wealthy " " .90 Duchess R. E. Olmstead, Excelsior .55 GEO. W. STRAND, Judge. BUSHEL BOXES OF APPLES. Wealthy--H. B. Hawkes, Excelsior 2.31 Wealthy--P. H. Peterson, Atwater 2.17 Wealthy--Henry Husser, Minneiska 2.43 Wealthy--D. C. Webster, La Crescent First 17.72 N.W. Greening--W. P. Burow, La Crescent 2.48 Wealthy--P. H. Perry, Excelsior 1.86 Wealthy--J. F. Bartlett, Excelsior Third 7.57 Wealthy--F. I. Harris, La Crescent Second 12.63 N.W. Greenings--F. W. Powers, Excelsior 1.98 Wealthy--F. W. Powers, Excelsior 2.08 Wealthy--S. H. Drum, Owatonna 1.77 W. G. BRIERLEY, Judge. BARRELS OF APPLES. H. B. Hawkes, Excelsior 8.98 Henry Husser, Minneiska 3.52 D. C. Webster, La Crescent First 25.23 W. P. Burow, La Crescent 3.05 Wealthy--P. H. Perry, Excelsior Third 14.37 F. I. Harris, La Crescent Second 19.85 W. G. BRIERLEY, Judge. COLLECTION GRAPES. Collection Grapes--Sil Matzke, So. St. Paul First 8.00 GEORGE W. STRAND, Judge. NUTS. Walnuts Henry Husser, Minneiska First 1.00 Butternuts " " First 1.00 Hickory Nuts " " Second .75 Hickory Nuts D. C. Webster, La Crescent First 1.00 H. J. LUDLOW, Judge. PLANTS. 12 Palms Minneapolis Floral Co. First $10.00 12 Ferns " " Third 4.00 12 Blooming Plants " " Third 6.00 12 Ferns Merriam Park Floral Co. First 10.00 12 Blooming Plants " " First 12.00 12 Palms L. S. Donaldson Co., Mpls. Second 7.00 12 Ferns " " Second 7.00 12 Blooming Plants " " Second 9.00 CUT FLOWERS. 25 Carnations (pink) L. S. Donaldson Co., Mpls. Third 1.00 25 Carnations (white) " " Second 2.00 12 Roses (red) Minneapolis Floral Co. Third 1.00 12 Roses (white) " " Third 1.00 12 Roses (yellow) " " First 3.00 12 Roses (red) N. Neilson, Mankato First 3.00 12 Roses (pink) " " First 3.00 12 Roses (white) " " First 3.00 12 Roses (yellow) " " Second 2.00 12 Roses (pink) Hans Rosacker, Minneapolis Second 2.00 12 Roses (red) " " Second 2.00 12 Roses (white) " " Second 2.00 12 Carnations (white) " " First 3.00 12 Carnations (pink) " " Second 2.00 12 Carnations (red) " " First 3.00 25 Carnations (red) Minneapolis Floral Co. Second 2.00 25 Carnations (pink) " " First 3.00 25 Carnations (white) " " Third 1.00 12 Chrysanthemums (yellow) John E. Sten, Red Wing First 4.00 12 Chrysanthemums (any color) " " First 4.00 12 Chrysanthemums (any color) Minneapolis Floral Co. Second 3.00 12 Chrysanthemums (yellow) L. S. Donaldson Co., Mpls. Second 3.00 12 Chrysanthemums (any color) " " Third 2.00 FLOWERS. Basket for Effect Minneapolis Floral Co. First $10.00 Bridesmaid Bouquet Minneapolis Floral Co. First Diploma Corsage Bouquet Minneapolis Floral Co. First Diploma Bridal Bouquet Minneapolis Floral Co. First Diploma O. J. OLSON, Judge. Judging Contest of Hennepin County High Schools. (Held at Annual Meeting, December 9, 1915.) The contest consisted of the judging of three crops, apples, potatoes and corn. Two varieties of each crop were used. Each school was represented by a team of three men. Each man was allowed 100 as perfect score on each crop or a total perfect team score of 900 points. Two high schools entered the contest, namely Central High, Minneapolis, and Wayzata High. Central High, of Minneapolis, won first with a total score of 697.8. Wayzata ranked second with a score of 672. Minneapolis won on apples and potatoes, Wayzata winning on the corn judging. Chester Groves, of Wayzata, was high man of the contest. County Adviser K. A. Kirkpatrick, gives a banner to the winning school. Judges of the contest were: Apples, Prof. T. M. McCall, Crookston; potatoes, Prof. R. Wellington, A. W. Aamodt; corn, Prof. R. L. Mackintosh. Fruit Judging Contest. (At Annual Meeting, December, 1915.) One of the important features of the Wednesday afternoon program of the State Horticultural Society was the apple judging contest. This contest was open to all members of the society and students of the Agricultural College. The contest consisted of the judging of four plates each of ten standard varieties. The total score of each contestant was considered by allowing 10 per cent for identification of varieties, 40 per cent for oral reasons and 50 per cent for correct placings. The prizes offered were: First, $5.00; second, $3.00; third, $2.00. D.C. Webster of La Crescent, ranked first; P.L. Keene, University Farm, second; and Marshall Hertig, third. Score First--D. C. Webster 87-1/2 Second--P. L. Keene 81-1/2 Third--Marshall Hertig 77-1/2 Fourth--Timber Lake 76-1/2 There were twelve men in the contest. Judges: Prof. T. M. McCall, Crookston; Frederick Cranefield, Wisconsin; Prof. E. C. Magill, Wayzata. Annual Report, 1915, Collegeville Trial Station. REV. JOHN B. KATZNER, SUPT. It is with pleasure and satisfaction that we are able to make a material correction of our estimate of this year's apple crop as noted in our midsummer report. We stated that apples would be about 15 per cent of a normal crop, and now we are happy to say it was fully 30 per cent. We picked twice as many apples as we anticipated. Considering that, as Prof. Le Roy Cady informed us, the apple crop would be rather small farther south and that they would practically get no apples at the State Farm, we may well be satisfied with our crop. In general, the apple crop was not so bad farther north as it was farther south in the state. This may have been due to the blossoms not being so far advanced here when the frost touched them as farther south. The best bearing varieties this year were the Wealthy, Charlamoff and Duchess, in the order named. These three kinds gave us the bulk of the crop. The Wealthy trees were not overloaded, and the apples were mostly fine, clean and large. The Charlamoffs were bearing a heavy crop of beautiful, large-sized apples and were ahead of the Duchess this year. The Hibernals, too, were fairly good bearers. Most other varieties had some fruit, but it was not perfect; it showed only too well the effect of frost. More than half of the blossoms were destroyed. Many flowers were badly injured and though they were setting fruit the result of frost showed off plainly on the apples. While some had normal size and form, many of them were below size, gnarled, cracked or undeveloped and abnormal. Most all of them had rough blotches or rings about the calix or around the body. Malformed apples were picked not larger than a crab, with rough, cracked, leather-like skin, which looked more like a black walnut than an apple. Of plums only some young trees gave us a good crop of nice, perfect fruit. The old trees have seen their best days and will have to give place to the new kinds as soon as they are tested. We have quite a variety of the new kinds on trial from the Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm and wish to say that they are very vigorous growers. Many of them made a growth of four feet and more. We expect that some will bear next year and we are only waiting to see what the fruit will be before making a selection for a new plum orchard. We have already selected No. 8 for that purpose, as one tree was bearing most beautiful and excellent plums, of large size and superior quality, this year. They were one and three-fourths inches long by five and one-half inches in circumference and weighed two ounces each. They kept more than week before they got too soft for handling and are better than many a California plum. It seems to us if a man had ten acres of these plum trees, he could make a fortune out of them. We will propagate only the very best kinds for our own use and may have more to say about them another year. [Illustration: Cluster of Alpha grapes from Collegeville.] Two or three of the imported pears bloomed again last spring, but the frost was too severe and they set no fruit. We have lost all interest in them and so, too, in our German seedling pears. The latter are now used as stocks and are being grafted with Chinese and hybrid pears. Of those already grafted this way some have made a growth of four and five feet. We have been successful in grafting the six varieties of hybrid pears obtained last spring from Prof. N.E. Hansen, of Brookings, S. Dak., and have trees of every variety growing. These, too, are very good growers, have fine large leaves and are promising. From the manner of growth in stem and leaf we would judge that at least two distinct Asiatic varieties have been used in breeding. We have gathered a little grafting wood and next spring some more German seedlings will lose their tops. It is only from continued efforts that success may be obtained in growing pears in Minnesota. Who would have thought it possible that in spite of all the frost and cold rains we would get a pretty good crop of cherries? And yet this is a fact. We have four varieties, and among them is one originated by the late Clem. Schmidt, of Springfield, Minn., which was bearing a good crop of very fine cherries while the three other sorts did not do a thing. To get ahead of the many birds we picked the cherries a few days before they were ripe and put them up in thirty-two half-gallon jars. As the cherries become very soft when dead-ripe, it was of advantage to can them when they were still hard. These canned cherries are meaty and most delicious. We never tasted any better. It is only a pity that this seedling cherry is not quite hardy. As most everywhere in the state, our grapes were a complete failure. The early growth with its good showing of fruit having been frozen in May, it was well toward the end of June when the vines had recovered from the shock and were able to grow vigorously again. There were a few grapes on some of the vines, but they never got ripe. The Alpha showed the most fruit, and a few bunches were just about getting ripe when the frost spoiled them. This May freeze was more severe than we thought it was. The wood of the old vines was not injured, but the one year old wood of young plants was killed to the ground. The lesson we learned from this is very important. It may be stated that vines full of sap and in growing condition can endure very little cold, but when the wood is ripe and dormant the vines will seldom be injured by sub-zero weather. This injury to vines from frost might have been averted at least in part by precautionary measures. In other countries people start smoldering fires, making much smoke in the vineyard so that the whole is covered with a cloud of smoke. This raises the temperature a few degrees and keeps the frost out. Such preventive means might have been used here very well to save the grapes, but it was not done. Our currants were not very good; they ripened unevenly and showed that they, too, were touched by frost. A few bushes were also attacked by the currant worm. We never cultivated any raspberries before. But last year we planted Raspberry No. 8, sent to us from the Fruit-Breeding Farm. This sort is a very vigorous grower; some canes grew over six feet high. It fruited this year; it is very prolific; the fruit is very large and of good quality. It would be quite satisfactory if it were a little hardier. Not being protected more than half of the plants were lost last winter. But the everbearing strawberry No. 1017 received from the Fruit-Breeding Farm is a complete success. They were properly planted and well taken care of. All flowers were removed up to July 10th and then left alone. In early August the first berries were picked, and we kept right on picking till the frost killed the fruit stalks. The growing of this strawberry will be continued. A new bed will be planted next spring with young plants that were not allowed to bear last season. The fruit was all that could be desired, fine, large and of very good quality. It seems to be of greater advantage to grow the everbearing than the June-bearing sorts. The everbearing planted in spring will grow a large crop in fall and bear again in June next year. From the first we get two crops in fifteen months, from the second two crops in three years. And to fruit any sort oftener than two seasons is not considered very profitable. Most all trees of apples, pears, plums, evergreens and grafts which were planted last spring, have done very well, and we don't know of any that failed to grow. The hybrid plums received last spring are all alive. The same may be said of the 50 Norway pine obtained from the Minnesota State Forester, W. F. Cox, not one failing to grow. If evergreens are handled right in transplanting they are just as sure to grow as any other trees. This year was especially favorable for transplanting on account of the many rains and cool weather. This, too, was the kind of weather which pleased our vegetable gardener. He found it scarcely ever necessary throughout the season to apply water to the growing plants for their best development. All grew fine and large. Cabbage heads were grown that weighed thirty-five pounds; carrots, onions, beets, lettuce and in fact all the different varieties were first-class. Yet there was something that did not please the gardener nor ourselves, namely, the tomatoes did not get ripe. We had a few early kinds all right, but the bulk, the large, fine varieties, were hanging on the vines still green when the first heavy frost touched them. It was too cool for them to ripen. The same may be said of the melons. Not once did we have melons at table this year. They were too poor to be served. Our floral plantings were a great success. The many artistic foliage designs developed wonderfully and were the admiration of all visitors. Our peonies were a mass of exceedingly beautiful flowers, filling the air with fragrance as of roses. We are not surprised that these flowers have gained so much popularity of late, for their great beauty and ease of culture recommend them to all lovers of flowers. The dahlias, too, were very excellent; in fact, we never saw them better. They are quite ornamental in flower and plant. The newer varieties have exceptionally large flowers, but the plants do not show off so well and bend down from the weight of the flowers. For symmetry and uniformity of growth the old varieties are hard to be excelled. Some of the roses were not so good as desired, the buds got too much rain at times and rotted away. The mock oranges, syringas and others were all very good, but the spireas suffered much when in flower from rains. As a whole, however, our lawns and grounds were beautiful and satisfactory and the new greenhouse has done good work. The growing of fruit this year has been a disappointment to many horticulturists. Indeed, some got quite a showing of fruit in favored localities, but the majority got not much of a crop to be proud of. Well, we cannot regulate the weather conditions, but we are pleased with the thought that such abnormal conditions are not of frequent occurrence in Minnesota. Yet there is one redeeming feature of the season and that is, the wonderful growth of plants and trees which gives promise that with the usual normal conditions our expectations for a better fruit crop will be realized. * * * * * STORING CABBAGE IN THE FIELD.--In choosing a site for a storage pit, select a ridge, well drained and as gravelly a soil as possible. The pit should be 6 to 10 inches deep, the length and width depending upon the amount to be stored. It is well to have it wide enough to accommodate 3 to 5 heads on the bottom row. In harvesting the heads, pull up by the roots. Break off only the dead or diseased leaves, and fold the remaining leaves over the head as much as possible to protect them. Overripe or cracked heads should not be stored. The heads are placed in the pit with their heads down and roots up. The second layer is also placed heads down between the roots of the first layer. It is well not to have more than two layers, on account of the weight having a tendency to crush the lower layer. When the cabbages are put in place they are covered with a layer of earth. When cold weather comes, straw or manure can be added. Cabbages can often be kept better in pits than in common cellars.--E. F. McKune, Colorado Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado. Wintering of Bees. FRANCIS JAGER, APIARIST, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. The winter losses of bees in Minnesota are great every year. Bee keepers can reduce these losses by preparing bees for their winter-quarters. The chief known cause for winter losses are: Queenlessness, smallness of number of bees in colonies, insufficient food, improper food, dampness, bad air, the breaking of the clusters, and low temperature. More colonies die from lack of food and from cold than from all other causes. In fact, most of the other causes can be traced to lack of food and cold. Queenless colonies will certainly die in a few months. If the number of bees in a colony is small the clusters cannot generate enough heat or keep it generated and the bees will perish. To avoid this, small colonies should be united in the fall into one big colony. Bees must have food in the winter in order to generate heat. About forty pounds of honey to the colony should be provided when the bees are put into winter-quarters. Should the colony be short of honey of its own, finished frames may be supplied early in the fall or sugar syrup may be fed. Bee keepers should keep about one well filled extracting frame out of every seven for feeding purposes. Dark (not amber) honey is poor food for bees in winter. All black honey should be removed and combs of white honey should be substituted. Experiments made by Dr. Phillips, in Washington, D. C., have shown that bees consume least honey and winter best when the temperature inside the hive is 57 degrees Fahrenheit. Dampness in a cellar causes the comb and frames of the hive walls and cover to get damp and mouldy, and the bees perish from wet and cold after exhausting their vitality in generating heat. Bees need fresh air. Foul air will cause excitement, causing an overheated condition; and the bees will scatter and die. Any excitement among bees in winter is fatal. Cellars on high ground, covered with straw over timbers, are best for wintering bees. If the bee cluster divides or splits up during the winter, the smaller clusters will perish from cold. The present style of Hoffman frames divides the bee cluster into eleven divisions separated from each other by a sheet of wax comb, with no direct communication between different divisions except over, below or around the frames. If the bee cluster contracts during the winter on account of cold the divisions of the outside frames are sometimes left behind and die. Some bee keepers perforate their frames to keep an easy passage for bees from one compartment to another. If kept warm, even weak colonies may pass over or around the frames without much difficulty. When cold, only the strongest will be able to accomplish this difficult task. Wintering bees in division hives or in two story hives, which give them a horizontal bee space through the middle between the two divisions, is highly recommended for successful wintering. [Illustration: Francis Jager, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul.] In long-continued severe cold the bee clusters will contract into a very small, compact mass. The tendency of this cluster is to move upward where the air is warmer. If enough honey is stored above them they will keep in contact with it. If the honey is stored at the side, the bees sometimes lose their contact with it and die of starvation and cold. This is another argument in favor of wintering in two story hives. Often they will move towards one corner and die there, leaving the other corners filled with honey. If you must winter in one story hives give bees plenty of honey in the fall and place the cluster at one side of the hive so that they move necessarily toward the honey supply. Bees should be kept in a cellar at a temperature of about 45 degrees. The difference in the temperature between the outside and the inside of the hive will be between 10 and 15 degrees. Very strong colonies, no matter where kept, will keep themselves warm and will survive any degree of cold, but there is no doubt that their vitality and ability to stand wintering will suffer a great deal thereby, causing dwindling in the spring. Cellar wintering is at present general in Minnesota. The bee cellar should be warm, dry, dark and ventilated. The bees should not be disturbed during their winter sleep by pounding, jarring, shaking and feeding. Mice also may cause the bees to get excited and perish. A four to one inch wire screen in front of the entrance will prevent mice from getting inside. The fundamental principles to guide the bee keeper in wintering his bees are: First, strong colonies, at least six frames covered with bees when clustered; second, ample store, not less than forty pounds of honey; and third, a hive with not less than 57 degrees inside temperature. This temperature may be maintained outside in a double walled hive or in a hive lined with flax or felt, now manufactured for that purpose, or by packing the hives in leaves, straw or shavings--or by putting them into a warm cellar. Bees in our climate should be put into winter quarters about November 15 and should not be put on their summer stands in the spring until soft maples are in bloom. By following these suggestions winter losses may be reduced to an insignificant percentage, and these mostly from accidents and causes unforseen, for bees respond wonderfully to proper treatment. The Currant as a Market Garden Product. B. WALLNER, JR., WEST ST. PAUL. The currant is essentially a northern fruit, therefore does well in Minnesota. I plant my currants on a clay loam as it retains moisture and coolness, which the currant prefers. Their roots run somewhat shallow, and hence sandy or friable soils are not desirable. Soils such as will prevent a stagnant condition during heavy rainfalls are essential. I plant my currants early in spring as soon as the frost leaves the ground and a proper preparation can be secured. I plant them five by five feet apart, as they require a thorough cultivation the first two years from planting. I plant mangels between the rows the first year; second year continued cultivation is practiced; third year I apply a mulch consisting of mushroom manure to a depth of from four to six inches, which answers a double purpose, to keep out weeds and to act as mulch at the same time. During a prolonged dry spell the soil is moist under this covering, and it makes it more pleasant for the picking, as it prevents the berries getting soiled after a rain during the picking season. You cannot fertilize the currant too abundantly, as it is a gross feeder and requires plenty of manure to get best results, as such fruit commands the best price on the market. I planted my currants on ground previously well fertilized with well decayed barnyard manure. I prefer strong well rooted two-year-old plants. The long straggling roots are shortened, and bruised portions cut off with a sharp knife. The tops are somewhat reduced, depending on the size of plants. I set them in a furrow, sufficiently deep to admit the roots to spread out in a natural position, fill in with surface soil and pack around the roots, so that when the earth is firmly settled the roots will not protrude out any place. In regard to pruning I find the best and largest fruit is produced on canes not over four years old, and if judicious cutting out of the old canes is followed nice, large, full clusters of fruit of excellent character will be obtained. This is a fact that I want to emphasize: if the market is glutted with currants, you can readily dispose of your product, providing they are qualified as extra large, which results can be attained by following these rules. Pertaining to insects and diseases, I spray my currants twice for the currant worm with arsenate of lead at the rate of two pounds to fifty gallons of water. I also use hellebore (dry powdered form), especially valuable in destroying the worms when berries are almost ready for market, and on which it is dangerous to use arsenical poisons. I never was troubled with the currant worm cane borer. I attribute the absence of this dreaded insect to my keeping all old wood cut out, which is generally infested with it. As to varieties I planted the following: Wilder, Victoria, Prince Albert, Red Cross, Diploma and White Grape. The Wilder is the best commercial berry, very productive and large, while the Diploma is one of the largest fruited varieties in existence, its main drawback consisting of a straggling habit of growth which requires either tying up the branches or pruning back somewhat short. The Prince Albert is late and can be recommended for commercial use. Victoria is a prolific bearer, fair size fruit and requires little pruning. Red Cross is large fruited, but shy bearer. The White Grape meets with little demand as a market berry, fine to eat out of hand and an excellent table berry. I also planted a few Black Champion; have not grown it long enough to know definite results. The demand for black currants is limited, but the prices are fair. As to picking would say we pick them when not quite ripe, as the average housewife claims they jell better than when over-ripe. They must be picked by the stem and not stripped off--all defective, over-ripe and bruised berries should be eliminated at the picking. When the box is being filled a few gentle raps should be given to settle the clusters into place, as they shake down considerably. All the conveniences and same character of boxes and crates used in handling of other small fruits are equally adapted to the currant. * * * * * WELCOME THE THRUSHES--THESE BIRDS DO THE FARMER LITTLE HARM AND MUCH GOOD.--That thrushes--the group of birds in which are included robins and bluebirds--do a great deal of good and very little harm to agriculture is the conclusion reached by investigators of the United States Department of Agriculture who have carefully studied the food habits of these birds. Altogether there are within the limits of the United States eleven species of thrushes, five of which are commonly known as robins and bluebirds. The other six include the Townsend solitaire, the wood, the veery, the gray-cheek, the olive-back, and the hermit thrushes.--U.S. Dept. of Agri. Report of Committee on Examination of Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm for the Year 1915. DR. O. M. HUESTIS, MINNEAPOLIS; FRANK H. GIBBS, ST. ANTHONY PARK. On the morning of October 12, 1915, your committee visited the State Fruit-Breeding Farm, was met at the Zumbra Heights Station, on the M. & St. Louis R.R., by Superintendent Haralson and were very soon in the midst of a plat of over 3,000 everbearing strawberry plants all different--some plants with scores of ripe and green berries as well as blossoms, others with few berries and many runners. The superintendent had already made selections and marked some 250 plants for propagation. In another plat of 1,000 varieties it was very apparent that No. 1017, a cross between Pan-American and Dunlap, was the superior, although others were choice, both as plant makers and fruit-bearers. No doubt many excellent kinds will come from those selected. It certainly was encouraging to be able, even after the heavy frost of a week before, to pick three quarts of large, well ripened berries, a photo of which we obtained on reaching the city and will appear in the Horticulturist. [Illustration: Field of No. 3 June-bearing strawberries at State Fruit-Breeding Farm.] Of the June-bearing varieties No. 3, a cross between Senator Dunlap and Pocomoke, would seem to surpass anything else we saw as to strength of plant and health of foliage. As to its fruiting ability, will refer to the display made at the last summer meeting of the society, which was so much admired. We have no doubt there is a great future for No. 3, as has been for its illustrious parent, the Dunlap. Next we went over to the raspberry field containing, it seemed, thousands of strong, straight, healthy plants, which would have to be seen to be appreciated and only then when in fruiting. No. 4 took our special attention. The canes were especially clean, well branched and healthy--a cross between Loudon and King. Many others seem to be very promising. [Illustration: Everbearing strawberries, No. 1017. Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm. Gathered October 12, 1915.] Next we were shown a variety of everbearing raspberry from which we indulged in ripe fruit of good size and flavor and which it is hoped will be as valuable as the everbearing strawberry. Of the thousands of everbearing seedlings selections had been made of about 100 which were fine looking plants, well cultivated and free from disease. We were then shown some hundreds of wild peach seedlings, seedlings of Burbank plums, thousands of hybrid plums of all ages, and a plat of thousands of plum seedlings which will be disposed of to nurserymen this fall and bring a nice income to the state; also wild pears from Manchuria with good prospects of being hardy and free from blight. We saw a number of nice plum trees, of which the superintendent told us the fruit would color before ripening and would stand long shipments, which so far promise well. Several hundred Beta grape seedlings probably even more hardy than the parent, many crosses in roses which if judged by the foliage must be seen in bloom to be appreciated, seedlings of Compass cherry crossed with apricot; Compass cherry crossed with nectarines; seedling currants, over 2,000 from which to select the best. Over a hundred commercial varieties of apples from East and West, and over 200 varieties of peaches from China and Manchuria, walnuts, butternuts and many dwarf apple trees on Paradise stocks, which fruit early. A good field of corn in shock, for feed for the horses. The old orchard on the place when bought, which had been top-worked to some extent, looked healthy everywhere. The farm seemed to be free from noxious woods, free from pocket gophers or moles and well cultivated, we thought, for the small number of men employed. Machinery and tools were well housed. We were also pleased to be shown through the new home of the superintendent, not yet occupied, which seemed to be complete in all its appointments. We think the state has a great asset in the farm and recommend that as far as possible members of this society visit it during the coming summer and that the society use its influence with the Board of Regents that more land be procured as soon as possible in order that trial plants may remain longer to more definitely prove their worth and that a greater work may be done for the state. We notice in a report made just six years before, viz., October 12, 1909, by Brothers Wedge, Underwood and the then president of the society, Prof. Green, that even runnerless everbearing strawberries were represented and that they had the usual pleasure of picking strawberry blossoms in October. Had they been with us they would have had a large dish of No. 1017 covered with rich cream and served at the hand of Mrs. Haralson. Mr. C. S. Harrison: Mr. Chairman, I think the slogan of this society should be "Urbanize the country and ruralize the town." I see tremendous changes going on all the while. Can you think of the possibilities of Minnesota? About 40 per cent of the land under cultivation and that half worked. By and by there is going to be a crop of boys who will raise seventy-five to 100 bushels of corn to the acre where their dads raised twenty-five. You got to keep out of their way, you got to help them along. Marketing Fruit by Association. A. N. GRAY, MGR. BAY LAKE FRUIT GROWERS' ASSN., DEERWOOD. Marketing fruit or any farm product by association is the modern farmer's insurance of results. A great deal might be said on this subject, but I shall tell you briefly what the Bay Lake Fruit Growers' Association have accomplished. The first raspberry growing for market at Bay Lake was back in 1886. Nick Newgard, one of our first settlers, sold quite a few berries that year. Bay Lake is seven miles from Deerwood, the nearest railroad point, and at that time there was only a trail between these places, and it was necessary for Mr. Newgard to pack his berries in on his back. This same method was used in transporting supplies. [Illustration: Strawberry field on place of A. N. Gray, at Bay Lake.] Mr. Newgard told me recently that he received a very good profit on his berries the first ten years, but each year the acreage increased and each year the growers' troubles increased in disposing of the crop. In 1909 there was an unusually large crop and, shipping individually, as we did at that time, it was a case of all shipments going to Duluth one day, flooding the market, then the next day every one shipping to Fargo and flooding that market, and at the end of the season when the growers received their final returns they found that they had received very small pay for their berries. In the fall of that year the growers around Bay Lake called a meeting to see if some organization could not be formed to handle their berries and look after the collections. The result of this meeting was the incorporation of the Bay Lake Fruit Growers' Association. When the berry season opened in 1910 we had a manager, hired for the season, on a salary, who worked under a board of five managing directors. It was the manager's business to receive the berries at the station, find a market for them, make the collections and settlements with the growers. The result of this first year was so satisfactory to the members that the total membership increased that fall to almost 100. This new system had eliminated all the worry, and we received a good price for our berries after the expense of our manager had been deducted. We have just closed our sixth season, which by the way has been a very successful one, as the prices received have been above the average. We now have about 150 members, and we have two shipping stations, Deerwood and Aitkin. We market strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, currants, gooseberries, plums, Compass cherries, apples, sweet corn and celery. We have a nice trade worked up and have little trouble in finding a ready market for any of our products. It is our aim, as growers, to give our customers all A No. 1 quality. During the berry season we have an inspector whose duty it is to inspect the berries as they arrive at the station and any found to be of poor quality we dispose of locally for canning. The grower of these berries receives a credit for the amount we realize. In this way we keep the standard of our berries up, and we have very few complaints from our customers on soft berries. As for losses on bad debts, we have thus far had very few. We usually get a credit rating from the prospective customer's bank and ship to him accordingly. Our old customers file standing orders with us to ship them so many crates each day, and each year brings us new customers who have heard of the fine Bay Lake berries. In 1912 the association built a potato warehouse at a cost of about $2,500, and we store the members' potatoes for them at a nominal cost. In 1914 the association decided to put in a stock of flour and feed and keep the manager the year around. Our business in this line has been increasing all the time. It is very interesting to note that over 60 per cent of our flour and feed customers are not members of the association. We are growing all the time and branching out. A few months ago we added a small stock of hardware and some groceries, and these have taken so well that we would not be at all surprised if eventually we find ourselves in the retail store business. Evergreens for Both Utility and Ornament. EARL FERRIS, NURSERYMAN, HAMPTON, IOWA. As far as horticulture is concerned, the only touch of color on the Northwestern landscape during the coming winter will be furnished by the greens and blues of evergreens. Did you ever pass a farm home in the winter that was protected by a good evergreen grove and notice how beautiful it looked? Did you ever stop to think of the difference in temperature that an evergreen grove makes, to say nothing of the contrast in the appearance of the place to that of a home with no grove? [Illustration: A shelter of old Scotch pine at Mr. Earl Ferris'.] When I was a small boy I was fortunate enough to be raised on a farm in Butler County, Iowa, that was well protected by a good Norway spruce, white pine and Scotch pine windbreak. The Norway spruce and white pine are still there and if anything better than they were thirty years ago. At that time my father fed from one to five carloads of stock every winter back of this grove, and I honestly believe that he fed his steers at a cost of from $5 to $15 per steer less than a neighboring feeder who fed out on the open prairie with a few sheds to furnish the only winter protection. I shall never forget the remark a German made who was hauling corn to us one cold winter day. As he drove onto the scales back of this grove, he straightened up and said: "Well, the evergreen grove feels like putting on a fur coat," and I never heard the difference in temperature described any better. Our evergreen grove moved our feeding pens at least 300 miles further south every winter, as far as the cold was concerned. [Illustration: Thrifty windbreak of Norway spruce at Mr. Earl Ferris' place, in Hampton, Ia.] Near Hampton, Iowa, we have three or four of the best stock raisers in the United States. Every one of them is feeding cattle back of a large evergreen grove. In recent years they have divided up some of their large farms into smaller places and made new feeding sheds, and the first improvement that they made on each and every one of these places was an evergreen grove. They buy the best trees that can be obtained that have been transplanted and root pruned, and most of them prefer the Norway spruce in the two to three foot size. After planting, they take as good care of them as they do of any crop on the farm, for they fully realize that cultivation is an all important thing in getting a good evergreen grove started. Several days ago, I talked with one of these feeders who has time and again topped the Chicago market. He made the remark that the buildings on his farm cost thousands of dollars while his evergreen grove had only cost from $100 to $200, but that he would rather have every building on the place destroyed than to lose that windbreak. As the price of land and feed increases, the farmers of the Northwest are waking up to the fact that an evergreen grove is an absolute necessity, and that they cannot afford to plant any other. The maple, willow, box elder and other similar trees take so much land that they cannot afford them. They are a windbreak in the summer, but a joke in the winter. The time is not far distant when every up-to-date farmer in Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska and other Northwest states will have a good evergreen grove which will be considered as much of a necessity as his barn, house or other outbuildings. [Illustration: Evergreens adorn old home of Otto Kankel, at Fertile, Minn., in Red River Valley.] Late this fall, my wife and I left Hampton for an automobile trip through Minnesota, North Dakota and into Canada. It seemed to me on this trip that the most beautiful thing we saw about the farm buildings were the evergreen groves that many of the farmers now have all through Minnesota and Dakota. I was certainly very much surprised at some of these windbreaks and at some of the varieties of evergreens that were being grown successfully as far north as Fargo. Near Fargo we found some extra good specimens of Norway spruce, which I consider the best of all windbreak makers. We also found the Scotch pine doing well 100 miles northwest of Fargo, and other varieties which were naturally to be expected being planted to a considerable extent. As far as usefulness is concerned, the farmer of the prairie states is bound to get more real value from an evergreen than any other person, but I am very glad to say that the homes of the wealthy in the cities each season are being improved more and more by the planting of the more ornamental evergreens. Cities like Detroit, Cleveland, Buffalo, Boston, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and other large cities of the United States are using thousands of evergreens every season to beautify the homes, of not only the wealthy but of the laboring man also. The price of evergreens at the present time is within the reach of everyone owning a home, and there is no other improvement that can be placed upon a piece of ground at so little expense and so little labor that will add so many dollars in real value to that property as will the evergreen, either as a windbreak or in landscape work. Annual Report, 1915, Executive Board. J. M. UNDERWOOD, CHAIRMAN The report of the executive board is necessarily brief from the fact that the machinery of our society is kept in such excellent condition by our secretary, that there is little left for our board to do. His monthly issues of the "Horticulturist" keep the membership posted on all important items of interest and are a splendid examplification to the public of the value of our publications and of the meetings of our society. Your executive board meets twice a year to verify the accounts of the secretary and treasurer and at other times when there is something of importance to attend to. We wish to call your attention to the fact that your board is practically self supporting. The members work for nothing and board themselves, which is a mighty good way to do. There is a work of very great importance for the _members_ of our society to do the coming year. That is to help in every legitimate way to _secure an appropriation_ by the next legislature with which to build for our society a _home_. We should have had it provided so that we could celebrate our semi-centennial a year from now in our own home. If we were a private society, we would have had a home years ago. We should be closely affiliated with the horticulture of the State University. Our home should be located on the grounds of the Agricultural College, where the building could be used for other purposes when not needed by our society. Let every member of our society interview the senator and member of the house from his or her district next fall and secure their promise to support a bill to appropriate $50,000 for building us a home. Annual Report of Treasurer, 1915. GEO. W. STRAND, TAYLORS FALLS, TREASURER. RECEIPTS. 1914. Dec. 1. Balance on hand $4,948.35 Interest on certificate of deposit, six months, to November 1, 1914 126.15 1915. Mar. 1. Semi-annual allowance 1,500.00 Apr. 5. Interest on deposit, six months, to April 1 85.96 A. W. Latham, receipts secretary's office, November 25, 1914 to June 21, 1915 3,290.74 Sept. 4. State Treasurer, semi-annual allowance 1,500.00 Dec. 1. A. W. Latham, receipts secretary's office June 21, 1915, to December 1, 1915 1,064.30 ---------- $12,515.50 DISBURSEMENTS. 1914. Dec. 12. Order 229, A .W. Latham, Revolving Fund $600.00 Dec. 12. Order 235, Premiums Annual Meeting 596.50 1915. Mar. 1. Order 230, A. W. Latham, first quarter salary 450.00 Apr. 5. A. W. Latham, interest on deposit 85.96 June 1. Order 231, A. W. Latham, second quarter salary 450.00 June 21. Order 232, A. W. Latham, expenses secretary's office November 25 to June 21, 1915 3,290.74 June 25. Order 236, Premiums Summer Meeting 1915 172.00 Sept. 3. Order 233, A. W. Latham, third quarter salary 450.00 Dec. 1. Order 234, A. W. Latham, fourth quarter salary 450.00 Dec. 1. Order 237, A. W. Latham, expenses secretary's office June 21, 1915 to December 1, 1915 1,064.30 ---------- $7,609.50 Dec. 1. Balance on hand 4,906.00 ---------- $12,515.50 Deposits, Farmers & Mechanics Bank $4,276.15 Deposits, First & Security National Bank 629.85 ---------- $4,906.00 Annual Meeting, 1915, N.E. Iowa Horticultural Society. C. E. SNYDER, PRESTON, DELEGATE Your delegate arrived at Decorah at nine-thirty, Wednesday, November seventeenth. Full accommodations offered by the Winneshiek Hotel made the trip complete and homelike to delegates and members. The convention was held in the old Marsh Hall, a very suitable place, offering ample room with all necessary accommodations for such a gathering. Decorations showed much time and skill, resulting in a beautiful display of shrubbery-boughs, evergreen, etc. The area of a table about one hundred feet long and six feet wide, running through the center of the hall, contained a great variety of apples surprising for this season. Many, including C.H. True, of Clayton county, proved themselves successful orchardists. [Illustration: Mr. C. E. Snyder, Preston.] On various other tables large displays of agriculture, apiary, greenhouse and garden products completed the harmonizing of horticulture, floriculture and agriculture, including mentioned decorations appearing as a striking feature and an encouragement to the cause. The meeting was called to order shortly after ten o'clock by President Geo. S. Woodruff. The mingling of many instructive papers with humorous selections and music proved the program well arranged. Same carried out very successfully held the interest of a not large but fair attendance throughout. A paper and address by Wesley Greene, of Des Moines, should have reached the ears of every Iowa and Minnesota citizen. A striking selection on "The Tree," by J. A. Nelson, was descriptive, instructive, humorous and poetic. A topic of great interest was the everbearing strawberry, which persistently bobbed up every now and then in interesting discussion. Brother Gardner, with his practical experience, was right at hand, a leader and authority on this fruit. Clarence Wedge, who always contended that the Progressive was away ahead of all others, was endorsed by every man that grew them in this convention, by a vote on merit of varieties. Reports from the different districts showed a heavy rainfall throughout the season, resulting in rust and scab. Sprayed orchards showed better results than others. Small fruits were abundant and good. Shortly after four o'clock Wednesday afternoon automobiles drew up and took delegates and members over beautiful Decorah, stopping at Symond's greenhouses, and on through the most beautiful park in this section, then to the palatial residence of John Harter, where a very bountiful banquet was enjoyed. During convention Secretary Black's and Treasurer True's reports showed the society in flourishing condition. All officers were re-elected, place of next meeting to be chosen later by the executive committee. * * * * * HANDLING RASPBERRIES.--In 1911 the Government investigators made comparative tests of the keeping qualities of carefully handled raspberries and commercially handled raspberries. Several lots of each kind were held in an ice car for varying periods and then examined for the percentage of decay. Other lots were held a day after being withdrawn from the refrigerator car and then examined. The results are most significant. After 4 days in the ice car it was found that the carefully handled berries showed only 0.4 per cent. decay, while the commercially handled fruit had 4.6 per cent. After 8 days in the car the difference was vastly greater. The carefully handled fruit showed only 2.2 per cent. decay, but with the commercially handled this percentage had risen to 26.7, or more than one-quarter of the entire shipment. When the fruit was examined a day after it had been taken out of the ice car, the evidence was equally strong in favor of careful handling. Carefully handled fruit that had remained 4 days in the car was found a day after its withdrawal to show only 1 per cent. of decay against 17.5 per cent. in commercially handled berries. Carefully handled fruit left in the car 8 days, and then held one day, showed only 8.1 per cent. of decay as against 47.6 per cent. in commercially handled fruit. The following year experiments were made with actual shipments instead of with the stationary refrigerator car, and the results confirmed previous conclusions. It was found, for example, that there was less decay in the carefully handled berries at the end of 8 days than in the commercially handled berries at the end of 4. Carefully handled fruit that was 4 days in transit, and had then been held one day after withdrawal from the refrigerator car showed less than 1 per cent of decay, whereas commercially handled berries subjected to the same test showed nearly 10 per cent. Orcharding in Minnesota. RICHARD WELLINGTON, ASST. HORTICULTURIST, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. This paper is purposely given a broad title so that it may cover any questions which come under the head of orcharding. Many of you who have been pestered with an "Orchard Survey Blank" can easily guess what subjects are to be taken up. Thanks to many of the members of this society and other fruit growers for their hearty co-operation, a large amount of data has been collected from fifty-three counties, representing most of the districts within the state. As would be expected certain counties have contributed much more information than others, probably owing to their greater interest in orcharding. For example: Thirty-one replies have already been received from Hennepin County, seven from Goodhue, six from Renville, five each from Houston, Meeker and Rice, four each from Chippewa, Dakota, Mower, Polk and Wabasha, three each from Blue Earth, Nicollet, Ottertail, Pine, Ramsey, Steele, Washington and Watonwan and one or two each from the remaining counties. Perhaps if the right parties had been reached the low-standing counties would have a higher ranking. The best way to present the data is an enigma. If all the information was given at one time we would need a whole day instead of fifteen minutes. Of course much of the material is a repetition, and a general summary will cover the main facts in most cases. Nevertheless it is not feasible to take up all of the subject matter in this short period, and therefore the first two topics on the survey blank have been selected, namely, orchard sites and protective agencies. At a later date, if you are sufficiently interested in dry facts other subjects, as soils, dynamiting, orchard management, stock of fruit trees, methods of planting and pruning, varieties for various localities, etc., will be taken up. Some of the subjects, like sites and soils, will be treated as state problems, while others must be considered as sectional. Minnesota, as you all know, contains many different climatic conditions, and consequently its orchard practices and recommendations must vary accordingly. To meet this problem the writer, in consultation with Prof. Cady, divided the state into six sections, namely, the southeastern, east central, northeastern, northwestern, west central and southwestern. Many counties are, of course, in an intermediate position and might be thrown into either of the adjoining sections, but an arbitrary line must be drawn somewhere. Freeborn, Waseca, Rice, Goodhue and all the counties east of them are placed in the southeastern section. Nicollet, LeSueur, Sibley, McLeod, Wright, Isanti and the counties to the east are included in the central east, and Pine, Mille Lacs, Morrison and the counties to the north and east are placed in the northeastern section. Beltrami, Hubbard, Ottertail and the counties to the west are placed in northwestern section; Traverse, Douglas, Todd, Stearns, Meeker, Renville, Yellow Medicine and the enclosed counties in the west central, and the remainder to the south and west are in the southwestern section. Thus, when the various sections are mentioned, you will know what part of the state is being referred to. _Site of Orchard._ By site of orchard we refer to its location, that is, whether it is on rolling, level or hilly ground, and the direction of its slope, provided it has one. From past experience it is believed that an orchard situated on a north slope is ideally located for Minnesota conditions, as its blossoming period is retarded and consequently the liability of injury from late frosts decreased. But all people who want orchards do not possess such a slope, so they set out their orchards on the most convenient location. A few growers have orchards sloping in all directions, and their opinion on the influence of slope on hardiness and retardation of the blooming period should be valuable. It is of interest to note that, out of 108 reporting on the levelness of the orchard ground, only twelve had level ground, two level to nearly level, one level to decidedly rolling, twenty-nine nearly level, seven nearly level to slightly rolling, three nearly level to medium rolling, twenty-nine slightly rolling, four slightly rolling to medium rolling, eighteen rolling and three decidedly rolling. A glance at the figures shows that the majority of orchards are on nearly level to slightly rolling land. In addition to the numbers given thirteen reported a slight slope, one a slight slope to a medium slope, two a slight to a steep slope, sixteen a medium slope, one a medium to a steep slope, and five a steep slope--the emphasis being laid on the moderate rising ground. No grower reported an orchard location entirely at the base of a slope, but six reported orchards extending from the base to the top of the slope, two from the base to midway of the slope, twenty-five at midway of the slope, seven from midway to the top and twenty-two at the top of a slope--the high ground evidently being preferred for orchard sites. As a general rule, as would naturally be expected, those who reported their orchards on the top of the slope usually reported their ground as either high or medium. Of ninety-six reports on the elevation of the orchards only four reported low land, and two of these were on top of a slope, two low and medium, one low and high, forty-six medium, fourteen medium and high, and twenty-seven high--the medium taking the lead. These figures have been given of the state as a whole, but when the sections are considered the southeastern and the west central take the lead in the highest percentage of high ground in comparison with the lower ground; the southeastern and east central, for the greatest amount of rolling land; and the southwestern, for the most level or nearly level land. [Illustration: Down the long row. View in well cared for orchard of J. M. Barclay, Madison Lake.] As for the effect of direction of slope on hardiness, there were many varied opinions. Thirty stated without question that the direction had an effect, thirty-one stated that it had no effect, and seventy-two admitted that they did not know. Of those answering in the affirmative only seven had two or more distinctly different slopes, while fifteen of the negatives had two or more slopes for comparison. Nine of those who stated they didn't know had two or more slopes upon which to base their judgment. In summing up the direction of sites preferred, seventy-seven recommended a northerly slope, nine had no preference, one preferred southeast, one west, one west and east, two east, one north and east, one northeast or east, and sixty-four expressed no opinion. Two growers stated that the north slope prevented early bloom and thereby lessened liability to injury from late frosts, two growers stated that northern slopes decreased the loss of moisture, and one stated that the northeast slope gives the largest fruit and the west the best colored. As a brief summary of the reports on orchard sites, it may be stated that high ground, rolling or sloping to the north, is preferred by the majority of growers who filled out these orchard survey blanks. _Protective Agencies._ Under this heading comes windbreaks of all kinds, whether hills, natural timber or planted trees, and bodies of water which ameliorate the climate. Out of fifty-four replies from the central east section, sixteen reported that their orchards were favorably affected by lakes, the benefit coming in most cases from the prevention of early and late frosts. One grower attributed the cooling of the air during the summer as a benefit and two stated that the bodies of water furnished moisture. Two growers in the southeast section received favorable influences from the Mississippi River, and one in the southwestern and two in the west central sections thought they received beneficial effects from lakes. According to this data, orchards in the east central section, owing largely to the influence of Lake Minnetonka, are greatly benefited by the presence of water. Windbreaks are a very important factor in successful orcharding in Minnesota, even though one party in the southeast section and three parties in the central east noted no beneficial effects. According to reports from the central west and southwest sections they are of great benefit and in some cases indispensable to apple growing. As would be expected by any one who is acquainted with Minnesota, the planted windbreaks are a more important factor in the prairie country than in the natural wooded and hilly regions. In the southeast section, five orchards were reported as protected by bluffs and hills, three by both hills and natural woods, two by natural woods, two by both natural and planted woods, and twenty-one by planted woods; in the central east section, one by a hill and a planted windbreak, one by a town, fifteen by natural timber, two by natural and planted timber, and nineteen by planted windbreaks; in the northeast section, two by natural and four by planted windbreaks; in the northwest section, three by natural and two by planted windbreaks; in the west central section, one by a hill and natural timber, five by natural timber, two by natural timber and planted windbreaks, and eighteen by planted windbreaks; and in the southwest section, one by a hill and natural woods, one by a hill and planted windbreak, two by natural timber, and fifteen by planted windbreaks. If Meeker County, which has natural timber, was not included in the central west--and perhaps it should have been included in central east--this section would have only one orchard protected alone by natural timber; and if Blue Earth County was eliminated from the southwest, this section would have no orchard protected alone by natural timber. The beneficial effects from windbreaks may be summed up as follows: Twenty-five reported that they prevented fruit from being blown off trees, nine that they prevented trees and limbs being broken by winds and storms, ten that they protected trees from injury by winds without specifying the kind of injury, four that they reduced injury from frosts, ten that they either prevented or reduced winter injury, four that they helped to retain moisture, five that they helped to hold snow, eight that they prevented snow drifting, five that they protected orchards from hot and dry winds, three that they permitted the growing of apples, and one that they supplied all advantages. The kinds of trees recommended for windbreaks and the methods of planting are numerous and variable and to discuss them at length would take too much time. However, the principal facts may be briefly enumerated. In eighty-five reports that listed set out windbreaks, it was found that fifty-seven growers had used evergreens, thirty-seven willows, twenty-nine box elders, twenty-five maples, seventeen cottonwoods, thirteen ashes, eleven elms, eight poplars, four oaks, four plums, three nuts and one apple. The evergreens consisted of thirteen Scotch pine, eleven evergreens (not named), eight Norway spruce, five spruce (not named), three balsam, three Austrian pine, two white pine, one yellow pine, two cedar, two white spruce, two pine (variety not named), two fir, two jack pine, one Black Hills spruce, and one tamarack. In the willows were given twenty willows (variety not named), two laurel-leaved, seven white and eight golden; in the maples, sixteen soft maples, two hard maples, one silver-maple and six maples (kind not named); in the poplars, five Norway, one Carolina, two poplar (kind not named); and in the nuts, one black walnut, one butternut and one walnut. The major part of the box elders, cottonwoods, willows and ashes were noted in the central west and southwest sections. Thirty-seven experienced growers of windbreaks, the most of them living in the southwest, west central and southeast sections, recommended the following trees for windbreaks in the given proportions, twenty-four evergreens, fifteen willows, seven maples, six poplars, five elms, five box elders, three elms, two plum, two cottonwood, three hedges, one oak, one hackberry and one black walnut. The evergreens are decidedly the most popular, and among the varieties mentioned Norway spruce takes the lead for those recommended, and the Scotch pine for those planted. There are about as many different systems of planting used as growers. The main point in all cases was to have a planting that would stop the wind and storms. A few growers advocated the use of a hedge or plum trees to fill in under the windbreak, while one grower desires a circulation of air under the branches of his trees. Cultivation and intercropping of windbreaks are also recommended in a few cases. The distance of planting varies, of course, with the trees or shrubs used. For example: one grower recommends 8 ft. x 8 ft. for large deciduous trees, and another grower, 6 ft. x 12 ft. apart in rows and two rows, 12 ft. apart. For Scotch pine one grower advocates eight feet. In some cases a mixture of many kinds of trees is recommended, and then again only one kind. One very solid windbreak is made up of a lilac hedge, four rows of jack pine, four rows of Norway poplar and one row of willow. Another is one row willow, one of evergreen, one of willow and one of evergreen. Various distances between windbreak and orchard were used and recommended. A large number of orchards were started at about twenty feet from the windbreak and a few as close as one rod, but these distances proved to be too close. One grower, however, recommended close planting and later the removal of a row of trees in the windbreak when more space was needed. The recommended distances for planting varied from thirty to 500 feet, although seventy-five to 100 was satisfactory in most cases. More details have been given in regard to orchard sites and windbreaks than many of you are probably interested in, but for one who is planning to set out an orchard they should prove of value and profit, as they are based upon the experiences of many of Minnesota's best orchardists. My Experience with a Young Orchard. ROY VIALL, SPRING VALLEY. About ten years ago we acquired some land three and one-half miles north of Spring Valley. This land is very rough and was originally covered with heavy timber, in fact, about one-third of our large orchard was cleared and grubbed out the fall before planting. When I became interested in fruit growing one of the first things I did was to join the Horticultural Society and to the knowledge obtained through this membership we owe in large measure what success has come to us. The eighteen acres selected for our main orchard slopes quite abruptly to the north and northeast. In fact, the slope is so steep that the ground, if kept under cultivation, would wash badly, and this was the real reason for seeding down our orchard at the time of planting. The orchard is now seven years old, and the trees have never had a particle of cultivation. Part of this ground was in grain and seeded to alsike and timothy the year before; the balance was the new land referred to, which we had broken and immediately seeded down to alsike and timothy, with oats as a nurse crop. Our first problem was what varieties to plant, in what proportion and where to buy them. In this we adopted the recommendation of this society at that time, choosing Wealthy, Duchess, Patten Greening and Northwestern Greening, with fifty Malinda and fifty Iowa Beauty. We now have in addition two small orchards with nearly forty varieties altogether. The varieties, for the large orchard were divided as follows: 250 Duchess, 250 Patten Greening, 300 Northwestern Greening, 1,000 Wealthy. Were I to set another commercial orchard of the same size it would contain 500 Duchess and the balance Wealthy. While the Patten Greening is an ideal tree and an early and prolific bearer, there is with us a much larger per cent of imperfect and diseased fruit than of any other variety. Tree for tree, I believe the Duchess will produce _more_ saleable _fruit_. Where to buy our trees was decided for us in one of our first numbers of the Horticulturist, viz., at the nearest reliable nursery. That this was good advice is evidenced by the fact that out of the 1,900 trees we have found but two that were not as ordered. Our next problem was, at what distance to plant the trees. The more information we sought the less sure were we of the best plan. We were advised to plant all distances from 12 feet by 16 feet to 24 feet by 32 feet. We finally concluded to take about an average of them all and decided on 20 feet by 20 feet, and so far have had no reason to regret it. We have put up the alsike and timothy every year for hay with the usual machinery, and there has not been over a half dozen trees seriously damaged. Our trees were nearly all three years old, 5 to 6 feet, and we find they do much better in sod than a smaller tree. Having the orchard set out the next thing was to protect the trees from mice and rabbits. This we did by making protectors out of wire cloth, using different widths, from 18 to 24 inches, cutting it in strips 10 inches wide and holding it about the trees by three pieces of stove pipe wire at the top, middle and bottom. Not counting the time of making and putting them on these cost us from 1-1/2 cents to 2-1/2 cents each, and lasted from three to four years. We used a few made of galvanized wire cloth, which lasted much longer. Three years ago we commenced replacing these protectors with a wash of white lead and raw linseed oil mixed to the consistency of separator cream. The first year we painted only fifty trees, the next year 100, the next 300, and this last year we painted every tree on the place. We can see no bad effects, and it certainly protects against mice and rabbits and, what is equally as important, against borers also, and the cost per tree, including labor, is much less. We have also used the lead and oil with splendid results in treating trees affected with canker. We had quite a number of Wealthy so affected, and we cut out the affected bark and wood and then covered the wound with lead, and in almost every case it has proved a cure, that is, stopped the spread of the canker. The second year our orchard was set out we began to mulch the trees with grass cut in the orchard, clover straw, pea straw--anything we could get. We were unable to mulch the entire orchard that year, and before we got the balance mulched you could tell as far as you could see the orchard which trees were mulched and which were not. The former not only made a better growth, but had a healthier look. Now I do not want you to get the idea that I am advocating the sod system except in locations similar to ours. Were our orchard on more level ground I not only should have cultivated the first three years, as advocated by most authorities, but would have continued the cultivation in some degree at least. Nevertheless, on account probably of the very favorable location, I think our orchard will compare favorably with any cultivated orchard of the same age. Having the orchard set out, protected against mice and rabbits and mulched, we found that the real work of raising an orchard had just begun. First came the gray beetles the following June, and they ate the new growth off several hundred trees before we discovered them. At that time, not knowing what else to do, we hand picked every one we could find and destroyed them. These beetles we found came from oak groves on the south and west, and the next year we sprayed with arsenate of lead six or eight rows of trees on that side of the orchard, and as we have since then sprayed the entire orchard each year we have had no further trouble. Next came pocket gophers, and before we learned how to stop them we had lost a number of trees by their chewing off the roots just beneath the surface of the ground. By opening their runways and placing well down in them a piece of carrot or potato in which has been placed a little strychnine we succeeded in getting rid of them entirely. Next came the woodchucks. They were very destructive with us, chewing the bark above the protectors as well as the roots. Trapping is the most successful method we have found, and by keeping a half dozen traps out all the time we held them in check. Eternal vigilance must be the motto of the successful orchardist. In the year 1913 we picked our first crop of apples, that is, in sufficient quantity to be considered in a commercial way. Our Duchess we sold in barrels at $2.00 net. Wealthy we packed in bushel boxes, making two sizes, the larger, three inches and over, we called No. 1, and they sold for $1.25 per box net. The balance or smaller ones were also sold in boxes and brought us $1.00 per box net. Patten Greenings brought us 80 cents and Northwestern Greenings, 90 cents per box. Our neighbors, who sold to the local and transient buyers in bulk and in barrels, received 75 cents to 90 cents per hundred pounds, or $2.00 per barrel. The past year we had only about 75 bushels of all kinds. With the exception of Duchess and possibly Patten's Greening we shall certainly sell our next crop in bushel boxes. We are top-working about 50 Patten's Greening to Jonathan, Delicious, McIntosh Red and King David. As the work was only started a year ago last spring I cannot tell you of its success or failure. So far the best results seem to be with the Jonathan. We also have about thirty varieties of plums, including many of Prof. Hansen's new hybrids. Of these the Opata seems to be the most hardy and prolific, but it is subject to brown rot, which, this past year was so bad that we lost more than half the fruit. We have it top-worked on several varieties of native plums, and it was similarly affected there also. This was the only variety in our orchard of 150 trees that was so affected. We have fifteen Surprise plums, set seven years, that have not yielded altogether a peck of plums. Only lack of time kept me from grubbing them out last spring. This past season they were so heavily loaded that we had to prop the limbs and then thin out the fruit. We endeavor to spray all our trees twice with commercial lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead--the first time immediately after the blossoms fall, the second two weeks later. Our spraying outfit consists of a Morrill & Morley hand pump, fitted in a 100-gallon tank, which we mounted on a small, one-horse truck. We operate it with three men, one to drive and pump and one for each line of hose, spraying two rows of trees at once. With this outfit we can spray 400 to 500 trees (of the size of ours) a day. * * * * * THE NATIONAL FORESTS--besides being the American farmer's most valuable source of wood, which is the chief building material for rural purposes, are also his most valuable source of water, both for irrigation and domestic use. In the West, they afford him a protected grazing range for his stock; they are the best insurance against flood damage to his fields, his buildings, his bridges, his roads, and the fertility of his soil. The national forests cover the higher portions of the Rocky Mountain ranges, the Cascades, the Pacific Coast ranges, and a large part of the forested coast and islands of Alaska; some of the hilly regions in Montana and in the Dakotas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas, and limited areas in Minnesota, Michigan, Florida, and Porto Rico. In addition, land is now being purchased for national forests in the White Mountains of New England and in the southern Appalachians. In regions so widely scattered, agricultural and forest conditions necessarily differ to a great degree, bringing about corresponding differences in the effect of the national forests on the agricultural interests of the various localities. Wherever agriculture can be practiced, however, the farmer is directly benefited by the existence of national forests and by their proper management.--U.S. Dept. of Agri. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. SOME SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF COAL ASHES-- This is the time of the year when the unsightly heaps of coal ashes are likely to appear in one's back yard--eyesores and apparently useless. Yet there are several ways in which they can be used to advantage about the garden. They should first be sifted, using a quarter-inch wire mesh. The rough or coarser parts are well adapted for use on paths and driveways, forming a clean, firm surface with use. These paths are especially good in the garden, for weeds do not grow readily in them, and they dry off quickly after a rain. Such parts of the ashes as will pass through an inch mesh will make a very good summer mulch about fruit trees and bushes that require such care. This mulch will conserve the moisture at the roots of the tree or plant at a time when it is very necessary to have it. About a pyramid of these coarse ashes one may plant anything that requires much water. The roots of the plants will run under the ashes and keep moist and cool. Through a drought a little water poured upon the ashes will be distributed to the roots without loss. The fine sifted ashes will render the tougher hard soils more friable, their chief virtue being lightening it. In a very mild degree they are a fertilizer, though in no degree comparable in this respect to hardwood ashes. Yet it has been proved that soil to which sifted coal ashes had been added grew plants of richer, darker foliage. They must be very well mixed with the soil by a thorough spading and forking. The following experiment was noted in the Garden Magazine: A soil was prepared as follows: One-eighth stable manure, one-eighth leaf mold, one-quarter garden soil (heavy), one-half sifted coal ashes. Plants grown in this soil surpassed those grown in the garden soil next to them. Coal ashes would not be advised for a light soil. * * * * * Watch this page for announcement of Garden Flower Society meetings. January 20th, Public Library, Minneapolis, Tenth and Hennepin, Directors' Room, 2:30 p.m. SUBJECTS: Hotbeds, coldframes, management and care of the young plants, Mr. Frank H. Gibbs. The Minnesota Cypripediums. Can they be successfully cultivated? Miss Clara Leavitt. Five-minute talks on "The Best Things of 1915." Members are urged to bring their friends to this meeting. No one who contemplates having a garden this year can afford to miss it. Let us be generous and share our good programs with as many as possible. Each member is host or hostess for that day. SECRETARY'S CORNER ANNUAL MEETING WISCONSIN STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCY.--This meeting is to be held at Madison, Wis., on January 5-7. Mr. Chas. Haralson, superintendent of our State Fruit-Breeding Farm, is to represent this society at that meeting. We may look for an interesting report from him in the February issue of our monthly. IS YOUR ANNUAL FEE PAID?--If not, won't you please send it in promptly, remitting by a $1.00 bill, which is a safe medium of payment, instead of using check unless you draw on a bank in one of the larger cities of the state. Checks on country banks, as a rule, can only be collected here by a payment of ten cents, which the society can ill afford to pay for so many members. ANNUAL MEETING S.D. HORT. SOCY.--The annual gathering of this sister association will be held in Huron, S.D., January 18-20. Quite a good many of our members live so near the state line that they may find it convenient to attend this meeting, which will certainly be a profitable one. Prof. N. E. Hansen is secretary. Mr. Wm. Pfaender, Jr., of New Ulm, is to be the representative of this society at the South Dakota meeting. ANNUAL MEETING SOUTHERN MINNESOTA HORT. SOCY.--This very wide-awake auxiliary of the state society will hold its annual meeting in Austin, January 19th and 20th next. The program of the meeting is not yet at hand, but you may be sure that it will be an interesting and practical one. If the reader is living anywhere within convenient range of Austin by all means attend this meeting and get inspiration and help for the work of another season. YOU ARE NOT FORGOTTEN.--This refers to members of the society who have paid their annual fee for 1916 and are wondering why they have not yet received the membership ticket. There is always a little unavoidable delay in sending out these tickets after the annual meeting. First the tickets must be printed, and then the society folder that goes out with them must be prepared, and the material making up this folder comes from quite a number of sources, and it takes more or less time to get all of these matters together and in shape. You need not be solicitous in regard to membership fees remitted, as the chance of loss in transmission is approximately nothing; hardly half a dozen instances of the kind have come up in the twenty-five years of service of the secretary. PASSING OF MICHAEL BENDEL, SR.--This old member of our society and resident of Madison has just been called away, December 23rd, at the age of seventy-nine years. While not an attendant at our meetings he was a most loyal member of the society, and especially conspicuous in the western part of the state, where he lived, as a successful experimenter in orcharding, in which work he had a large experience. His portrait and a brief sketch of his life appear in the 1914 volume of our report, on page 150. Mr. Bendel was for many years president of the Lac qui Parle County Agricultural Society, was always greatly interested in everything to improve the interests of his community, and especially those pertaining to farm life. He has left an enviable record. FARMERS AND HOME MAKERS WEEK.--University Farm, midway between Minneapolis and St. Paul, have prepared a royal program for all interested in agricultural work and life, including the needs of the household, filling all of next week, from January 3rd to 8th, inclusive. Seventy-nine professors and instructors by count are on the program for the week, and it is so arranged that those attending pass from one lecture room to another, from hour to hour, selecting the subjects that they have a special interest in. Horticulture, or subjects closely akin, have a place on this program Monday afternoon, Tuesday forenoon and afternoon, Wednesday forenoon and Thursday forenoon; Thursday afternoon the horticultural program is devoted entirely to vegetables; Friday forenoon and afternoon; and Saturday forenoon altogether spraying. When this magazine is received it will be too late to send for a program, but not too late to attend the meetings, which we hope many of our members may have the opportunity to do. ATTENDANCE AT ANNUAL MEETING.--The badge book, which is issued at every annual meeting, containing the list of those who notify the secretary of a purpose to attend the meeting, is a pretty good index of the attendance. This year the badge book contained 442 names. Of course not all of these were present at the meeting, but a great many who were there had not sent notice of attendance and whose names were not in the badge book, so that the figures given elsewhere in this magazine as to attendance, estimated at from 400 to 500, are certainly not any too high. Of this number not to exceed fifteen members, including vice presidents and superintendents of trial stations living at a distance, receive their railroad fare to and from the annual meeting, which is the only compensation they receive for their work in operating the trial stations and preparing the annual or semi-annual reports connected with their positions. This is not in fact any compensation for service but rather a recognition of the large obligation under which the society rests towards them for such gratuitous service. PLANT PREMIUMS FOR 1916.--On the inside front cover page of this monthly will be found a list of the plant premiums offered to our membership the coming spring. This list is also published in the society folder, of which copies will be sent to each member and which can be supplied in any number desired by application to the secretary. The list of plant premiums includes a considerable variety of plants both ornamental and otherwise useful. Those of special interest this year are the new fruits being sent out from the State Fruit-Breeding Farm, including No. 3 June-bearing strawberry, which gives promise of being a very valuable fruit for Minnesota planters; No. 1017 everbearing strawberry, the kind which has been selected from thousands of varieties fruiting at the station, a good plant maker and also a prolific fruiter of high quality berries; No. 4 raspberry, a variety of extraordinary vigor and hardiness, large fruited, and a prolific bearer; and several varieties of large fruited plums. Every member of the society with facilities for growing fruits should be interested in trying these new varieties, which of course are still being sent out on trial, and we desire to hear from our membership as to their measure of success with them. [Illustration: A. W. LATHAM O. C. GREGG CHAS. G. PATTEN From photograph taken in front of Administration Building, at University Farm, on the morning of January 8, just before presentation of certificates referred to on opposite page.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 FEBRUARY, 1916 No. 2 OPEN LETTER TO MEMBERS OF THE Minnesota State Horticultural Society FROM ITS SECRETARY. Probably members of the society very generally noticed a few weeks since in the daily papers of the Twin Cities and elsewhere an announcement that "certificates of award for special meritorious services in the advancement of agriculture" would be made by the Minnesota State University to Mr. O. C. Gregg, Hon. W. G. LeDuc, Mr. Chas. G. Patten and Mr. A. W. Latham. These certificates were awarded Saturday, January 8th, 1916, at the closing exercises of the Farmers Week at the University Farm before an audience of twelve hundred people, gathered in the chapel in the Administration Building. Appropriate exercises were conducted by the President, Geo. E. Vincent, and the Dean of the University Farm, A.F. Woods, in the presence of Hon. Fred B. Snyder, President of the Board of Regents of the State University, and other members of the Board and a large representation of the professorship of University Farm School, also occupying the platform. Dean Woods read a sketch of the life of each one of the recipients, and the certificates were formally presented to each in turn by the President of the State University. All the persons who were to receive this honor were in attendance except Gen. LeDuc, who was probably unable to be present on account of his extreme age. When this matter was first called to my attention I felt that it would be entirely out of place, being its editor, that I should make reference to it in the society monthly, but as the fact has been widely published throughout the state, and whatever honor is connected with this presentation is to be shared with the members of the Horticultural Society, I have changed my view point in regard to this, and it seems to me now that the members of the society should be fully informed as to what has taken place. Mr. O. C. Gregg received this distinction on account of his connection with the farmers' institutes of the state, of which he was the pioneer, and in connection with which he remained as superintendent for some twenty-two years. Gen. LeDuc was for a number of years Commissioner of Agriculture at Washington and introduced many important reforms in the management of that department. Mr. Chas. G. Patten is well known to our members of course as the originator of the Patten's Greening apple, although this is quite an infinitesimal part of the work that he has done in connection with the breeding of fruits, the results from which the public are to profit by largely, we believe, in the early future. At his advanced age of eighty-four we feel that this honor has been wisely placed. "Mr. A. W. Latham has been secretary of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society for twenty-five years, during which period its membership has advanced from one or two hundred to thirty-four hundred, making it the largest horticultural society in the country, and probably," as stated by the Dean in his address, "the largest in the world." While this distinction has been conferred upon the secretary of your society it is not to be considered as so much a personal tribute to him as a recognition of the splendid work done by the society as a whole, in which every member has had some share. To express fully my thought in this I will refer briefly to the organization of the society, just half a century ago, when a handful of earnest men united their efforts under the name of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society in an endeavor to solve the difficult problems connected with fruit growing in this region. None of the men who at that time organized this society are now living, but others have taken their places, and the important service that was so well cared for by the earlier membership is being equally as well prosecuted by those who have succeeded them. My personal connection with the society began the third year of its existence, so that I had the high privilege of enjoying personal acquaintance with practically all those earlier workers in the society, and indeed most of them were still alive when I came into the secretaryship twenty-five years ago. It will not be out of place to speak here particularly of a few of those who are no longer with us: John S. Harris, that staunch friend, one of the original twelve, whose medallion hangs on the wall of the horticultural classroom at University Farm; Peter M. Gideon, whose self-sacrifice gave us the Wealthy apple, now of worldwide planting--he in whose memory the Gideon Memorial Fund was created; Col. John H. Stevens, that large hearted man of unquenchable public spirit; P.A. Jewell, searcher for new fruits and founder of the Jewell Nursery Company; Truman M. Smith, seven years president during many dark days; Wyman Elliot, one of the original twelve, well called by one "King of the Horticultural Society"--so recently taken from us. The institution of learning conferring this distinction upon us has contributed a full share of workers now no longer with us; W. W. Pendergast, first principal of the University Farm School, and for many years president of the society until stricken with a fatal illness; and Prof. Saml. B. Green of blessed memory, whose loss we shall never cease to mourn. There are many others who did great service to the society that I should be glad to speak of here if space would permit. In the list of those who are still with us and have served with such self devotion and courage in advancing the interests of the society, and that for which it stands, are to be found the names of many men prominent in various walks of life in our state. It would be out of place for me to select from this list a few and give them special prominence where hundreds have contributed to the life and growth of the association all these many years until the present enviable place now occupied by the association has been attained. To the executive board of the society, most of whom have been members of the board for a long period of years, of course the success of the association is especially due. Men of initiative in an ambitious and unselfish way working for the success of the association, they have had very much indeed to do with its progress. As I endeavor to recall the personality of those who have been of special service to us I find the list almost without limit. With what pleasure and satisfaction have I been permitted to serve with the members of this society! What willingness to perform the duties suggested has ever characterized the assistance that has been rendered by the membership of this society! It has been an exceedingly rare thing for any member to offer an objection to undertaking any service asked of him, and with such support as this so readily and heartily given, and often at large expense to the member, what can be expected other than such success as has come to our society. I wish I had the ability to express at this time the thought that is in my heart as I recall all of these helpful brothers and sisters to whom indeed belongs as much as to the writer any distinction that comes to the society as a result of these years of labor. Notwithstanding the State University have seen fit to refer to this in a way to indicate that our society has reached some certain vantage ground, it must not be lost sight of that the real work of the society is still before it. Whether to be carried on under the present management or under a changed management we have a right to look ahead and anticipate the definite and widely expanding results that are still to come from the services of the members of the society, which we are sure in the future, as in the past, will be heartily rendered. A. W. LATHAM, Secy. June-Bearing Strawberries. GEO. J. KELLOGG, RETIRED NURSERYMAN, JANESVILLE, WIS. Any fool that knows enough can grow strawberries, which reminds me of the preacher in York State who both preached and farmed it. He was trying to bore a beetle head and could not hold it; a foolish boy came along and said, "Why don't you put it in the hog trough?" "Well! Well!" the preacher said. "You can learn something from most any fool." The boy said, "That is just what father says when he hears you preach." I don't expect to tell you much that is new, but I want to emphasize the good things that others have said: _Soils._ I once had twenty-one acres of heavy oak, hickory, crab apple and hazel brush, with one old Indian corn field. I measured hazel brush twelve feet high, and some of the ground was a perfect network of hazel roots; the leaf mould had accumulated for ages. The first half acre I planted to turnips, the next spring I started in to make my fortune. I set out nineteen varieties of the best strawberries away back in the time of the Wilson, than which we have never had its equal. The plants grew well and wintered well, but they did not bear worth a cent, while just over the fence I had a field on ground that had been worked twenty years without manure that gave me two hundred and sixty bushels to the acre. It took three years with other crops to reduce that loose soil before I could make strawberries pay. My fortune all vanished. Last June while judging your strawberry show, I found a large collection of twenty-five kinds of the poorest strawberries I ever saw, grown on the college grounds. I visited the field, found over a hundred varieties, well tallied, well cultivated, on new oak opening soil. First crop, the soil seemed ideal, every thing good except the plants and the fruit. The foliage was defective and the fruit very poor. Was it the new soil? I have always found good garden soil would produce good strawberries; the best beds were those that followed potatoes. Cut worms and white grubs seldom follow two years of hoed crops. [Illustration: Mr. Geo. J. Kellogg ten years ago] _Preparation._ Preparation for the best strawberries should be started three years before planting. Using soil from sand to clay, well drained, well manured, sowed to clover, take off the first cutting of clover, then more manure plowed under deep with the second crop of clover, as late as can before freezing up, to kill insects and make the soil friable and ready for a crop of potatoes the next spring. After harvesting 300 bushels of potatoes to the acre use a heavy coat of well rotted manure without weed seed, plowed under late in fall. The following spring, as soon as the ground will work, thoroughly disk and harrow, and harrow twice more. Then roll or plank it, mark both ways two by four feet, set by hand either with dibble or spade, no machine work. Crown even with the surface, with best of plants from new beds, leaving on but two leaves, and if the roots are not fresh dug, trim them a little. Firm them good. Now start the weeder and go over the field every week till the runners start, then use the nine-tooth cultivator with the two outside teeth two inches shorter than the others. Cultivate every week till the middle of October. Use the hoe to keep out all weeds and hoe very lightly about the plants. Weeds are a blessing to the lazy man, but I don't like to have it overdone. Don't let the soil bake after a rain. Keep the cultivator running. In garden work a steel tooth rake is a splendid garden tool. Volume 1905, page 230 (An. Report Minn. State Hort. Society). Mr. Schwab gets an ideal strawberry bed, then kills it with twelve inches of mulch. If the ice and snow had not come perhaps the plants would have pulled through. Volume 41, page 390. Mr. Wildhagen gives an ideal paper on strawberries, it will pay you to read it again and again. Instead of one year's preparation, I would have three. _Winter Protection._ Unless in an exposed place, marsh hay is the best and cleanest mulch, but high winds may roll it off. Clean straw away from the tailings of the machine is next best. For small acreage if one inch can be put on as soon as the ground is frozen a half inch, it will save the many freezings and thawings before winter sets in. For large acreage it is not practical to cover till frost will hold up a loaded wagon. Two inches of mulch, that covers the plants and paths from sight is enough, but I see you cover deeper, from four to twelve inches in Minnesota, and often smother the plants. If we could have a snow blanket come early and stay on late in spring, that would protect the plants, but we want the mulch also to protect from drouth and keep the berries clean. A January thaw is liable to kill out any field that is not properly mulched. A two inch mulch will not hinder the plants coming through in spring; four inches will require part of the mulch raked into the paths; if plants don't get through readily loosen the mulch. I have known some successful growers to take off all the mulch from the paths in spring and cultivate lightly but thoroughly, then replace the mulch to protect from drouth and to keep the berries clean, but I don't think it pays. _Weeds._ In the best fields and beds I ever saw there will come up an occasional weed in spring, and it pays to go over the ground with a spade or butcher knife and take out such weeds. We almost always get a drouth at picking time, better a drought than too much rain. A good straw mulch will usually carry us through. _Irrigation._ If irrigation is attempted the fields must be prepared before planting to run water through between the rows. Sprinkling will not do except at sundown. Rain always comes in cloudy weather; you cannot wet foliage in sun in hot weather without damage. A good rainfall is one inch, which is a thousand barrels to the acre, so what can you do with a sprinkling cart? Showers followed by bright sunshine damage the patch. If your plants are set too deep they rot, if too high they dry, if not well firmed they fail. When I have used a tobacco planter I have had to put my heel on every plant. Of course you know that newly planted June varieties must have the blossom buds cut out, and everbears bearing must also till July. _Picking._ The man who has acres to pick must secure his boxes the winter before and have at least part of them made up if they are to be tacked. I have found a boy can make up boxes as fast as thirty pickers can fill. If you use the folding box no tacks are needed. Too many boxes made up ahead are liable to be damaged by the mice. _Pickers._ Engage your pickers ahead; agree on the price and that a part of the pay is to be kept back till the close of the season, which is forfeited if quitting before time. If pickers are too far away, transportation must be furnished--free boxes of berries are appreciated by the pickers. _Marketing._ Sometimes the marketing of the fruit is harder than the growing of it. If enough is grown form an association to sell it, get advice from a successful association how to form and how to run it. Sometimes a well made wagon, a good team and a good man can sell from house to house in the country and city and make good returns. In this way you get back your crates and part of the boxes. I know a successful grower in Iowa, who sold his crop of ten acres to the farmers and city people, they doing their own picking and furnishing their own boxes, at a given price. All the proprietor had to do was sit at the gate and take in the cash. It is worth a good deal to know how to grow the best of strawberries and often it is worth more to know how to turn them into cash. _What Varieties?_ Dunlap and Warfield have a general reputation for profit, can be picked together and sell well; dark color, good canners and good shippers. If you want a third variety take Lovett. Some of your growers want nothing but Bederwood, but it is too light and too soft to ship, though it is a good family berry. I expect Minnesota No. 3 will soon be the only variety you will want of the June kinds. _Insects._ Winter drouth often injures the roots and some lay it to insects. The winter of 1899 was the worst winter drouth I ever knew; it killed every thing. If you are troubled with the crown borer, root lice, leaf roller or rust, grow one crop and plow under, or move your fields a good distance from the old bed. What shall be done with the old bed? If you have insects or rust plow under and get the best place to start a new bed, and don't set any of your own plants if you have insects or rust--and be sure you buy of a reliable grower. _Old Beds._ If the first crop is big, plow under, if light and you have a good stand of plants, no insects or rust, you can mow and teddy up the mulch and in a high wind burn it over--a quick fire will do no harm. Then you can plow two furrows between rows and drag it every way till not a plant is seen. Soon, if the rows are left a foot wide, the plants will come through. Then manure (better be manured before plowing), and you may get a good second crop. Some mow and rake off and burn outside the bed, then with a two horse cultivator dig up the paths and cultivate and get the ground in condition. Put on the manure and hoe out part of the old plants. I like the plan of Wildhagen; mow, burn and then cover three inches deep with one hundred big loads of manure to the acre and don't go near the patch till picking time next year. He gets a nice early crop, and if berries are a little small it pays better than any other way. Try it! I have known some fields carried to fourth crop, and amateur beds kept up for ten years. It takes lots of work to keep an old bed in good condition. J.M. Smith, of Green Bay, Wis., almost always took one crop and plowed under. If the first crop was injured by frost, he took a second crop. He raised four hundred bushels to the acre. Wm. Von Baumbach, of Wauwatosa, Wis., raised from five acres less ten square rods seventeen hundred bushels big measure beside quantities given the pickers. I have had beds and fields where I have timed my boys picking a quart a minute. I had one small boy that picked 230 quarts a day. But in all my sixty years growing strawberries I never properly prepared an acre of ground before planting. I could take a five acre patch now, as young as I am, and beat anything I have ever done. _Mulch._--For mulch for small beds, if straw or marsh hay is not handy, use an inch of leaves, then cut your sweet corn and lay the stalks on three inches apart and your plants will come up between in spring and give you clean fruit. Cut cornstalks are good for field covering, also shredded cornstalks. I have used the begass from the cane mill, but it is too heavy. Evergreen boughs are very good if well put on for small beds. In my paper, Vol. 1911, page 180 (Minn. Report), it should read five bushels to the square _rod, not acre_. Who ever heard of five bushels an acre! _Big Yields._--You all know of Friend Wedge's 74-3/4 quarts from one square rod of Everbearers the season of planting. I believe that can be beaten. Let our society put a few hundred dollars in premiums for best yield of square rod of everbearers and of June varieties, and of a quarter of an acre; also the best product of one hill, and the best product of one plant, and its runners fourteen months from planting. I believe one plant of everbearers can produce a quart the season of setting. I know of the five bushels to the square rod, and the other fellow had four and a half bushel of Wilson. Surprise Plum a Success. C. A. PFEIFFER, WINONA. I realize at the outset that I am treading on delicate ground in undertaking to defend the Surprise plum, on account of it having been discarded by our fruit list committee, but after seeing our young trees producing this year their third consecutive heavy crop I feel justified in taking exception to the action of the committee. My first experience with the Surprise plum dates back to 1897, when Mr. O. M. Lord, of Minnesota City, probably the best authority on the plum in the state in his time, presented me with one tree, which at that time were being sold at $1.00 each, and I was cautioned against giving it too much care or I would kill the tree, and that is just what happened to it. [Illustration: C. A. Pfeiffer, Winona.] The following year, 1898, I bought twenty-five trees from Mr. Lord and planted them late in March, on very sandy land on a southerly slope, pruning the trees back almost to a stump. These trees were very slow in getting started but made a satisfactory growth before the season was over. They commenced to bear the third year after planting, and are still producing good crops, but it is my more recent experience with this variety that finally induced me to prepare this article. In the spring of 1909, we set out 160 plum trees, on rich, black, loamy soil on low land, nineteen of them being Surprise, the other varieties being, according to numbers, Terry, Ocheeda, Stoddard, Hawkeye, Bursota, Wolf, Omaha also a few Jewell, DeSoto, Forest Garden, American and Stella. The Surprise trees bore a crop in 1913, again in 1914, and 1915, making it to the present time not only the most productive but the most profitable variety on our place. While we did not keep an accurate record of the exact yield in 1913 and 1914, some of the trees produced fully five 16 quart cases in 1913. A fair average would perhaps be about four cases per tree. In 1914 the crop was somewhat lighter, yielding an average of three cases per tree. This year we picked and sold eighty-five cases, which brought us a gross revenue of $79.60. We lost part of the crop on account of continual rain in the picking season, or we would have had fully 100 cases. Nine of the trees being in a more sheltered location than the other ten held their fruit better during the growing season, and produced a relatively heavier crop than the ten that were exposed to our fierce winds all summer. We have never been able to supply the demand for them, at good prices, while other varieties went begging at any kind of a price. Among their good qualities with us are productiveness, good size, extra fine quality and attractive color. They are delicious to eat out of hand just as they are ripe enough to drop from the tree. They are fine for canning, preserving or jelly. They are practically curculio proof, and have never been affected with brown rot as have some other varieties. Aphis never bothers them, while Terry and some other varieties nearly had the whole crop ruined by this pest in 1914. The branches form good, strong shoulders at the trunk and do not split or break down in heavy storms or under their heavy loads of fruit, as the Terry and Forest Garden do. The flower buds and fruit form as freely on the new growth as on the old spurs. The crop is therefore about evenly distributed all over the tree, and while we picked almost eight cases from one tree this year it did not appear to be overloaded, as some varieties frequently are, the Surprise tree always being capable of maturing all the fruit that sets. We have shipped them 300 miles by freight with perfect success, but we pick them from the tree before fully ripe. If allowed to ripen on the tree they drop badly, which bruises and damages them. The trees are thrifty, vigorous growers with beautiful glossy foliage that can be distinguished from all other varieties. You would note on examination of the buds that we have promise of another crop next year, but this will depend somewhat on the weather during the blooming season. We attribute one of the reasons for our success with the Surprise plum to the fact that they are planted among and alongside of varieties that have the same season of blooming, and which undoubtedly are good pollenizers, namely the Bursota, Wolf, Ocheeda and Omaha. The bloom of Surprise being almost sterile, they will not be a success planted alone. [Illustration: A Surprise plum tree growing on the place of Prof. A.G. Ruggles. It bore in 1914 four bushels, having been well sprayed with arsenate of lead and bordeaux mixture.] You will perhaps ask if there are no faults or diseases they are subject to, and we will state, for one thing, the fruit drops too easily when ripe, and you will either have to pick them before fully matured or find a good many of them on the ground. They are also occasionally subject to blossom blight, which was rather a benefit, as it thinned the crop out to about the proper proportion. We also had considerable plum pocket and fungous growth one season about ten years ago. Such has been our experience with the Surprise plum--and will again repeat that until the society finds a plum equally as good or better, instead of discarding it on account of unproductiveness and recommending such poor quality varieties as Wolf, DeSoto and some others, our learned horticulturists should make a special study of this variety and ascertain the cause of its unproductiveness, and also to what localities in the state it may be adapted. Mr. Pfeiffer: Right here I will say to those gentlemen who are looking for a cure for brown rot or curculio, they had better plant Surprise plums. (Applause.) Pres. Cashman: I am glad the Surprise plum has at least one good friend in this audience. I think it has several. Mr. Ludlow: What has been your experience with the Ocheeda? I see you mention it. Mr. Pfeiffer: The Ocheeda at the present time, I am sorry to say, I am disappointed with. I planted some fifteen years ago, and they were nice large plums, as you have described, and they were on sandy soil. I have twenty Ocheeda trees now, and they are quite badly subject to brown rot. Their quality is very nice to eat from the tree out of hand, nice and sweet. Mr. Street: I want to second everything Mr. Pfeiffer has said. I joined this society about twelve years ago, and it was through studying the reports of this society that I got interested in the native plum. The Surprise plum does very well with us in Illinois. Professor Hansen is one of those that are responsible for my starting in with the Surprise. It was years ago at our state meeting that he mentioned that as one of the good plums for Northern Illinois. Well, I put it alongside of the Wyant and the native plums that are of the same sort. I may state the conditions under which we grow them. We always cultivate before bloom, cultivate thoroughly. Before the growth starts we give them a very thorough spraying with lime-sulphur spray; then just before the bloom, just before the blossoms open, as late as we can wait, we use about 1 to 40 or 50 of the lime-sulphur solution, also put in three pounds of arsenate of lead. Then after the blossoms fall we use the same spray again, perhaps two weeks after that again, and we keep that up for about four times. We have had abundant crops, and they have been very profitable. Pres. Cashman: I am very glad to know that the Surprise plum has friends in Illinois, and we are also pleased to know that Mr. Street is with us and we hope to hear from him later. The president of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society, Mr. Rasmussen. Mr. Rasmussen: I will say the Surprise plum has given just about the same results with us--it is the most profitable we have. Mr. Sauter: I was over to the Anoka county fair; it was the first part of September, and all the other plums weren't ripe, all the stuff they had in was green. But all the Surprise were ripe, so that certainly must be an early ripener. Mr. Pfeiffer: Not especially early. Mr. Hall: I was certainly glad to hear Mr. Pfeiffer so ably defend the Surprise plum. The Surprise plum was the only one I got any good from. The DeSoto, Wolf and Stoddard and all those, the brown rot got them, but the Surprise plum had perfect fruit. I am surprised that it has a black eye from the society. Mr. Pfeiffer: Your location is where? Mr. Hall: Sibley County. Mr. Kellogg: Thirteen years ago I set out a root graft that made about five feet of growth and just as quick as it got big enough to bear it was loaded with Surprise plums, but since then it hasn't been worth a cent. Mr. Miller: If Mr. Pfeiffer had been in my orchard he could not have given us a better description of it than he did, of the Surprise plum. I set it out about fifteen years ago. I think I paid sixty cents for those seedlings, they stood about three and one-half feet. I never had brown rot in them. When I set them out I put them with other varieties and set them so the inside ones would fertilize the outside ones. Afterwards I set these on the east side of the orchard, where they got protection from the west wind. They have borne almost every year, and this year they are the only ones we had a crop on. Pres. Cashman: I think we get as near to agreeing on this question as on most others. It is suggested that we find out how many have had success and how many have had failures with the Surprise plum. All those who have been successful in raising Surprise plums will please raise their hands. (Certain hands raised.) Now, hands down. Those who have been unsuccessful will please raise their right hands. (Other hands raised.) It seems there were more successes than failures. A Member: It has been mentioned that the frost this year killed the plum crop. I noticed in my orchard previous to that frost when we had a snow storm, I noticed that the blossoms dried up and fell from the trees before that hard frost. I think the question of success or failure with the Surprise, as with other plums, is sort of comparative. I don't know of any plum of the Americana type that we have a success with every year any more than any other. So it is relative. I would like to ask if anyone had the same experience with the blossoms drying and falling off the trees before that frost. Mr. Crawford: Perhaps the gentleman will recall the fact we had two nights in succession of quite severe frost. The first night it was almost a freeze, and the second we had the snow storm which is given credit for the plum failure. Mr. Anderson: The gentleman who read the paper, he is from Winona, where he has a very much better location for any kind of fruit than the general run of the state. The other gentleman is from Illinois. Now, this good location near Winona and the temperature down in Illinois, does that favor the Surprise plum, and has it anything to do with their success and our failure? Pres. Cashman: We will have to leave that to the audience. Mr. S.D. Richardson: Down in Winnebago I got three trees from the originator of the Surprise plum, and while I was at the nursery I never saw any plums, but I propagated some from there and a man in our town has some Surprise plums from it, and since I left the nursery I think the man has had some plums from them. I got them from Mr. Penning when they were first originated, but they never bore plums for me. I had no other plums around there. Perhaps if they need pollen from other plums they didn't get it, and this man that has had the first success with them he had other plums near them. Perhaps that is the secret. The tree is hardy and good, and if you can get a crop of plums by having something else to fertilize them, the Surprise plum is all right. Pres. Cashman: I think Mr. Richardson has struck the keynote to a certain extent, we must put them near another variety to pollenize them. Northeast Demonstration Farm and Station. W. J. THOMPSON, SUPT., DULUTH. Last May the Station orchard was set out, the same consisting of about 516 apple trees with a fringe of cherries and plums. The apples consisted of year old stock (purchased the year preceding and set in nursery rows) and included these six varieties: Duchess, Patten's Greening, Okabena, Wealthy, Hibernal, Anisim. Good growth was made the past season and the stock went into winter quarters in good shape. However, 20 per cent died, the loss being in this order: Wealthy, Anisim, Hibernal, Pattens' Greening--Okabena and Duchess were tied for smallest loss. In addition to the above, we made a considerable planting of small fruits, principally currants and gooseberries, together with a limited quantity of blackberries and raspberries. Twelve varieties of strawberries were set out, each including 100 plants. All made a splendid growth this season. An interesting test is under way in the dynamiting work. Alternate trees have been set in blasted holes, a stick about one and one-half inches long being sufficient to make a hole three feet in diameter and perhaps twenty inches in depth. It is yet too early to measure the results of this work, but owing to the nature of the subsoil in this region, we are looking for splendid results. With regard to the stock secured from the Fruit Farm, we have not been uniformly successful. Much of the stock seems to be weak and dies readily from some cause unknown to us. Next season we should be able to render a more complete report, as our work will then be fairly started. Annual Report, 1915, West Concord Trial Station. FRED COWLES, SUPT., WEST CONCORD. [Illustration: Fred Cowles at home.] Of the new varieties of plums that I received from the Fruit-Breeding Farm most all have done well. The only one that has borne is No. 21. This one had two plums on last season, and several this. They were a medium size red plum, very good flavor, and seem to come into bearing very young. No. 17 is a very thrifty grower, but when it bears that will tell what it is worth. Hansen's plums are doing well, but we believe they are more adapted to a better drained soil than we have here, as we are on a heavy prairie soil. But these varieties are very thrifty and bear so young. The grapes have all stood the winter with no protection and have not killed back any. We expect some fruit next season. The raspberries that we received have all done well. No. 4 seems to take the lead for flavor and is a good grower. Notwithstanding the cold season our strawberry crop was very good, and we are much impressed with No. 3, it is so strong and healthy; it is just the plant for the farmer, as it will thrive under most any condition. I believe it will fight its way with the weeds and come out ahead. We reported very favorably on the Heritage when it was in bloom, but it does not set enough fruit to pay for its space. The berries are large but very few on my grounds. I will discard it. Our apple crop was very good, especially Duchess, Wealthy and Northwestern Greening. We have been trying some of the tender varieties top-worked. Northern Spy gave us five nice apples on a two year graft. We also have Jonathan, Talman Sweet and King David doing well. Delicious grafted three years ago has not fruited yet. This has been a splendid summer for flowers, and they seemed to enjoy the damp, cool season, especially the dahlia. If you have not tried the Countess of Lonsdale you should; it is a cactus dahlia and a very free bloomer. Everblooming roses did well--we had them in October. * * * * * PLANT LICE ON BLOSSOMS.--Aphids infesting the apple buds appeared in serious numbers during the present season in the Illinois University orchards when the buds began to swell. They were also observed in neighboring orchards. In 1914, apple aphids caused serious damage in certain counties in Illinois, and some damage was reported from many sections of the state. The aphids attack the opening buds, the young fruits, the growing shoots, and the leaves, sucking the plant juices from the succulent parts by means of long, very slender, tube-like beaks, which they thrust through the skins of the affected organs into the soft tissues beneath. They weaken the blossom buds by removing the sap; they dwarf and deform the apples so that varieties of ordinary size frequently fail to grow larger than small crab apples, and the fruits have a puckered appearance about the calyx end; they suck the juice from the growing shoots, dwarfing them; and they cause the leaves to curl, and if the insects are present in large numbers, to dry up and fall off. They are more injurious to the growth of young trees than of old trees. In old trees their chief injuries are on the fruit. This species of aphids are easily killed in the adult stage by certain contact sprays. Winter applications of lime sulphur cannot be depended on to destroy eggs. Poison sprays such as arsenate of lead are not eaten by this type of insect, and consequently are ineffective remedies for aphids. Kerosene emulsion is effective but is uncertain in its effect on the foliage of the trees. The best available sprays are the tobacco decoctions, of which the one most widely in use is "Black Leaf 40," a proprietary tobacco extract, made by the Kentucky Tobacco Products Company, Louisville, Kentucky. This material is used at the rate of one gallon in one thousand gallons of spray. It may be combined with lime sulphur, lime sulphur arsenate of lead, Bordeaux, or Bordeaux arsenate of lead, not with arsenate of lead alone. The ideal time to spray for these aphids is just as soon as all or nearly all the eggs appear to have hatched. Observations made in the University orchards this season indicate that all the eggs hatched before the blossom buds began to separate. After the leaves expand somewhat and the blossom buds separate, the aphids are provided with more hiding places and are more difficult to hit with the spray. Unfortunately, spraying at this time would require an extra application in addition to the cluster bud (first summer) spray (made for scab, curculio, bud moth, spring canker worms, etc.), and would thus add seriously to the cost of the season's operations. Spraying for aphids at the time of the cluster bud spray is, however, highly effective, and in general it is advised that this method be followed. If, however, previous experience has shown serious losses from aphids, or if they are present in extremely large numbers, the extra application may be well worth while.--Ill. Agri. Exp. Station. Annual Report, 1915, Duluth Trial Station. C. E. ROWE, SUPT., DULUTH. [Illustration: A rosa rugosa hybrid rose grown by C. E. Rowe, Duluth.] Although this was an off year for apples, results were probably as good here as in other sections of the state. The spring gave promise of an unusual crop, but the constant dropping of fruit during the summer months left us with about two-thirds as many apples as were harvested in 1914. The quality was much poorer, owing to extremely cool weather and the presence of scab in many localities. The plum crop failed almost completely, and many trees were injured from aphis attacks. I have never known the aphis so hard to control as they were last summer. Nearly all fruit trees made an excellent growth this season, and the new wood was well ripened when the freeze-up came. The fall rains provided plenty of moisture, and our trees should come through the winter in excellent shape. Raspberries and currants produced about one-half the usual crop this year, probably owing to our May freeze. Strawberries were almost a failure, largely due to winter-killing. Last winter did more damage to perennial plants than any other winter within the recollection of the writer. The fall was rather dry, and our snow covering did not come until January. We received from Supt. Haralson for trial four plum trees, variety No. 1; and fifty everbearing strawberry plants, variety No. 1017. Both plum trees and strawberry plants made a good growth. Although the strawberries were set heavily with fruit, but little of it ripened before the heavy frosts came. The plant is very vigorous, and the berry is large and of excellent quality. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, Tenth Congressional District. M. H. HEGERLE, SUPT., ST. BONIFACIUS. On May 18th we had several inches of snow accompanied by a fierce northwest wind, and orchards without any shelter suffered seriously, and both apples and plums in such orchards were scarce and of a rather inferior quality. A few orchards had a fair crop, while a couple of others with a natural windbreak had a fairly good crop, but on an average it was the lightest apple and plum crop we have had for some time. Mr. Beiersdorf and Mr. Swichtenberg report a good crop of Wealthy and Peter. Their orchards are close to a lake and are well protected on the north and west by a natural grove. Of the twenty-four report blanks sent out, eleven were returned properly filled in, and they all report conditions about as above outlined. Cherries and grapes suffered even more from the cold than the apples, and that crop was very light. My Homer cherry trees look healthy and are growing fine, but the past two years had not enough fruit to supply the birds. Raspberries and strawberries were a good crop and of exceptional fine quality, but the currants and gooseberries were a total failure in my garden as well as elsewhere, according to all reports received. There were not many fruit trees planted in this district the past year. For instance, at this station the deliveries last spring consisted principally of bundles containing one-half dozen or a dozen trees each, and the total number delivered in that way did not exceed 200 trees and, according to all information, the planting throughout this district was very light. I know of only one new orchard started with 700 four and five year old trees. About 500 are Wealthys and the balance Patten Greenings. The trees made a good start but were somewhat neglected during the summer, the field being planted to corn and some to barley, and all was handled rather rough. There was very little blight in this district the past year. I noticed just a little on two or three Transcendents, and Mr. Jos. Boll, who has about 1,500 bearing trees, reports no blight at all. I did no spraying this year, did not consider it worth while, as there was no fruit, and most others felt the same way. Other years though a lot of spraying is done, and the more progressive ones spray two and three times. There is plenty of moisture in the soil, and the trees are going into winter quarters in good shape, therefore prospects for apple and plum crop the coming season are excellent. [Illustration: Residence of M. H. Hegerle, St. Bonifacius.] Probably a hundred or more different kinds of apple and plum trees and berries of all kinds are grown here. Farmers in the past usually bought what the salesman recommended, just to get rid of him; lately though they are taking more interest in the selection, and the Wealthy, Patten's or Northwestern Greenings, Okabena, Peter and perhaps a few Duchess are about the only apple trees planted now. Surprise plums, Dunlap and everbearing strawberries are the leaders. Ornamental shrubs are found here of all names and descriptions and colors, and they all seem to do well. * * * * * HONEY VINEGAR.--Vinegar made from honey has an exceptionally fine flavor and is not expensive. A small amount of honey furnishes a large amount of vinegar. Follow these directions: Dissolve thoroughly in two gallons of warm, soft water one quart jar of extracted honey. Give it air and keep it in a warm place, where it will ferment and make excellent vinegar.--Missouri College of Agriculture. Thirty Years in Raspberries. GUST JOHNSON, RETIRED FRUIT GROWER, MINNEAPOLIS. Of the growing of fruit, it may well be said, "Experience is a good teacher, but a dear school." When I began fruit growing, some thirty years ago, I did not begin it merely as an experiment. I was interested in every branch of the work and, being very much in earnest about it, I felt confident of success. Thinking that the failures and drawbacks sometimes experienced could be easily overcome by a thorough understanding of the work at hand, I began by getting all the information possible. I found that great books such as by Downing, Thomas, etc., were more suitable for the advanced fruit grower, but I studied all the pamphlets and books obtainable during the winter months and put this knowledge into practice during the summer. Of course I could not put into practice all I had obtained from this reading, but I remembered distinctly the advice to all amateur fruit growers to start out slowly. This was particularly suited to my case, for the land was covered with timber, some of which I grubbed each summer, gradually adding acres as I cleared the land. My first venture was in planting raspberries, planting potatoes between the rows the first year. One delusion I had was in planting as many different and untested varieties as I could afford to buy and not confining myself to those that had been tried and had proven satisfactory. Fortunately for me, the high cost of plants at this time did not warrant my buying as many different varieties as I desired, and I had to be contented with fewer plants. From the most promising of these, I saved all the plants possible. I had an idea that I could do better by sending to some of the Eastern states for my plants, but here again I was mistaken, for the plants often did not arrive until late in May, and by the time they had reached their destination were practically all dried out. The warm weather then coming on, I lost the greater part of them, although I had carefully hoed and tended them in the hope that they would finally revive. Here I might also mention that the express charges added considerably to the cost of these already expensive plants. As a beginner I put much unnecessary labor on these plants. While I do not wish to leave the impression that hoeing and caring for them is not all right, still there should be a happy medium which I later learned as I became more experienced along this line. I must admit, however, that this rich, new land thus cultivated certainly yielded some wonderful fruit. As time went by, I kept adding to my plantation, and owing to the large yield and the good demand for the black caps I took a fancy to raising them. When the Palmer variety was first introduced, I planted quite a field of them. I shall never forget the way these berries ripened, and such a lot of them as there were. Practically every one by this time having planted black caps, their great yield soon overstocked the market, and berries finally dropped as low as 65c or 70c a crate. Having decided to dig up these black caps, I began paying closer attention to the red raspberry. I noticed that the raspberries growing wild on my place grew mostly in places where big trees had been cut down and young trees had grown up, thus partly shading the plants. Having this fact in mind, I planted the raspberries as follows: I planted an orchard, having the trees in parallel rows, and between the trees in these same rows I planted the raspberries. By planting in this manner, the cultivation would benefit the trees as well as the smaller plants. Of course after the trees began bearing heavily, the plants nearest the trees had to be removed, and later the other plants likewise were removed. As a beginner it was a puzzle to me which varieties I should plant. All varieties listed in the numerous catalogs were so highly recommended as being hardy, large yielders, good shippers, etc., that the selection of plants was not an easy matter. The speed with which a new variety of raspberry is sent out over the country and discarded is surprising. The most popular sort at this time was the "Turner" variety. I did not, however, fancy this variety, for it suckered so immensely that it required continual hoeing to keep the new plants cut down. The berries were unusually soft and settled down in the boxes, which greatly detracted from their appearance in the crates. There were also at this time a few of the "Philadelphia" variety being planted. They are a dark, soft variety and somewhat similar to the Turner. Just at this time there was being sent out a new variety, known as the Cuthbert, or Queen of the Market, and queen it was indeed. This was a large, firm berry, and after ripening it would remain on the plant a long time without falling off. These plants grew up in remarkably long canes, but not knowing how to head them back they would often topple over during a heavy storm. This added another valuable lesson to my increasing experience, which resulted in my pinching of the new canes as soon as they had attained a height of from three to four feet. This made the plants more stocky and more able to support their load of berries without the aid of wire or stakes. Next came the Marlboro, plants of which sold at as much as a dollar apiece in the east. I then set out a bed of Marlboro, which proved to be even better than the Cuthbert, previously mentioned. They could be picked while still quite light in color, thus reaching the market while still firm and not over-ripe. There was only one possible drawback, and that was the fact that I had planted them on a southern exposure, while they were more adapted to a colder or northern exposure. This variety on a new field, as it was, practically bore itself to death. About this time, there originated in Wisconsin a berry known as the Loudon. A committee of nurserymen having gone to see this variety returned with the report that the half had not been told concerning this great berry. Wanting to keep up with the times, I decided to plant some of this variety in the spring. The yield from these plants was immense, and the berries large, but unlike the Marlboro already mentioned they could not be picked until very dark and real ripe. This variety was more subject to anthracnose than any I had seen, and served to give me a thorough understanding of the various raspberry diseases, which I had heretofore blamed to the drouth. The leaves would dry up and the berries become small and crumbly when affected by anthracnose. It might be said of this variety as regards public favor, that it went up like a rocket and came down equally fast. I next tried the Thompson Early as an experiment, but this variety proved a failure, or at least a disappointment. These berries ripened very slowly, just a few at a time, and did not compare favorably with either the Marlboro or the Loudon. A party close by had at this time planted out a large field of a variety of raspberry which I had not seen before. These plants produced a large berry, more like a blackberry in appearance. Having by this time had experience with so many kinds of raspberries, I examined this new variety carefully, and all in all decided that this was the coming berry. Here, too, I also noticed the first signs of disease. The plants had only begun to bear fruit, however, and judging from the strong, tall canes, they looked good for at least fifteen years. This disease, however, practically destroyed the entire field within two years. Before too badly diseased, I had obtained and planted out a couple of acres of these plants and immediately began spraying them. The following spring I sprayed them again, and although the plants became perfectly healthy, I sprayed them once or twice during the summer, and it is needless to say the result was a berry which, considering all its good points, was certainly deserving of the name it bore, which was "King." In fact, I do not hope to see anything better in the raspberry line during the next thirty years, that is, any seedling having all its merits: a strong growth, hardiness of cane, an immense bearer and a good shipper. It's only fault is that the berries will drop from the plants when real ripe, but if you are on the job this can easily be averted. As far as anthracnose is concerned, I have found that there is not a variety of raspberry standing out in an open field, unsprayed or partly shaded, that will stand up under a heavy crop without being affected by this disease. After increasing my plantation, as I had by this time, I found I required more help. Ability in managing my helpers was a necessity. My experience with them in the field was that when I set them to hoeing a newly set raspberry field if not watched they would destroy half the roots, loosening the little hold the struggling plants had, by cutting close and hoeing the soil away from the roots. I have seen supposedly intelligent men plowing alongside of the plants, thinking they were doing their work so much more thoroughly, but if they would dig up one plant before plowing and another after, they would readily see the results of their plowing. A born farmer assumes that everybody knows how to handle a hoe or a plow, but why should they, not having had practical experience? When put to work such as hoeing, they would make the most outlandish motions with the hoe, often destroying valuable plants, not being able to distinguish them from the weeds. Though they may labor just as hard, they cannot possibly accomplish as much as the expert who can skillfully whirl a hoe around a plant in such a manner as to remove every weed and yet not injure the plant in the least. In other words, the best efforts of the novice cannot possibly bring the results so easily accomplished by the more skillful laborer. Except in a few cases, I have found inexperienced help a discouragement. In hiring pickers who had to come quite far each morning, I found that if the morning had been wet and rainy, but had later turned out to be a nice day, they would not come at all. The sun coming out after these showers would cause the berries to become over-ripe and to drop from the bushes, or if still on the bush would be too ripe for shipping. These same pickers, when berries were scarce, would rush through the rows, merely picking the biggest and those most easily acquired. Having tried pickers as mentioned, I decided that to get pickers from the city and board them would be the better plan. While they seemed to work more for the pleasure connected with life on the farm than with the idea of making money, yet after a little training and a few rules, most of them would make splendid pickers, and my berries being carefully picked and in first class condition, would readily sell to the best trade. Leaving the subject of berries and berry picking, I will dwell briefly on my experience with the winter covering of the plants. At first I would cover the canes in an arch-like manner, which would require more than 18 inches of soil to cover them, and it was necessary to shovel much by hand. In the spring I found it quite a task to remove all this soil and get it back in place between the rows. After I learned to cover them properly, that is flat on the ground, I found it required but a small amount of soil to cover them, and in the spring it was only necessary to use a fork to remove the covering, and with a little lift they were ready to start growth again. After getting more and more fruit, I found I could not dispose of it in the home market, and tending to the picking and packing of the fruit did not leave enough time to warrant my peddling it. I had been advised to ship my berries to two or three different commission houses in order to see where I could obtain the best results. I frequently divided my shipments into three parts: consequently some of my fruit would meet in competition with another lot of my fruit, and not only would one concern ask a higher or lower price than the other, but they would not know when to expect my shipments, which they would receive on alternate days. I finally came to the conclusion that I would send all my fruit to one party, and I found that it was not only more of an object to them, but people would come every day to buy some, knowing they were getting the same quality each time. Although it has been my experience that the raspberry is never a failure, still I have found that it is a good policy not to depend entirely on the raspberry, but to extend the plantation in such a way as to have a continuous supply of fruits and vegetables in season, from the asparagus and pie plant of the early spring to the very latest variety of the grape and apple ripening just before the heavy frost of fall, when it is again time to tuck them all away for the winter. Mr. Ludlow: Do I understand that you have to lay down and cover up those red raspberries? Mr. Johnson: Yes, sir; otherwise you only get a few berries right at the top of the cane, and if you cover them the berries will be all along down the cane. The President: Do you break off many canes by covering them? Mr. Johnson: No, it is the way you bend them. When you bend them down, make a kind of a twist and hold your hand right near them. You can bend them down as quick as a couple of men can shovel them down. Mr. Anderson: Do you bend them north or south or any way? Mr. Johnson: I generally bend one row one way and the other the other way. Where you want to cultivate, it is easier for cultivation; you don't have to go against the bend of those plants. That bend will never be straight again, and when you come to cultivate you are liable to rub them. Mr. Anderson: How far have you got yours planted apart? Mr. Johnson: About five feet. Mr. Sauter: What is your best raspberry? Mr. Johnson: I haven't seen anything better than the King. Mr. Sauter: Do you cover the King? Mr. Johnson: Yes. Mr. Sauter: We don't do it on the experimental station. I never covered mine, and I think I had the best all around berry last summer. Mr. Johnson: That might be all right when they are young, but I find it pays me. A Member: Don't they form new branches on the sides when you pinch off the ends? Mr. Johnson: Yes, sir; then you pinch them off. A Member: Don't they break right off from the main stalk in laying down? Mr. Johnson: No, no. A Member: We have a great deal of trouble with that. How do you get these bushy bushes to lie down? Mr. Johnson: I take three or four canes, and kind of twist them, give them a little twist, and lay them flat on the ground. Mr. Anderson: Don't you take out any dirt on the sides? Mr. Johnson: No, sir; sometimes I might put a shovel of ground against them to bend the canes over. Mr. Rogers: Do you plant in the hedge row or in the hill system? Mr. Johnson: In the hedge row. I think it is better because they protect one another. Mr. Ludlow: How far do you put them apart in the hedge row? Mr. Johnson: Four feet. That is the trouble with the King, if you don't keep them down, your rows will get too wide. A Member: I heard you say a while ago you covered these. Do you plow them after you get them down or do you cover them with a shovel? Mr. Johnson: I cover mostly with a shovel. Sometimes I take a small plow through. A Member: Don't you think in covering them with a plow you might disturb the roots? Mr. Johnson: That is the danger. A Member: I saw a fellow covering up twelve acres of black caps and he plowed them shut. After I heard what you said I thought maybe that he was injuring his roots. Mr. Johnson: You know the black cap has a different root system from the reds. The roots of the reds will run out all over the road. Mr. Willard: How thick do you leave those canes set apart in the row, how many in a foot? Mr. Johnson: I generally try to leave them in hills four feet apart, not let them come in any between. About three or four in a hill. I generally try to cut out the weak ones. Mr. Willard: You pinch the end of the tops, I think? Mr. Johnson: Yes, sir. A Member: When do you cut those sucker canes? Mr. Johnson: I generally hoe them just before picking time and loosen the ground in the row. That is very important, to give them a hoeing, not hoe down deep, but just loosen that hard crust there and cut all the plants that you don't want, and then generally, after the berries commence to ripen, your suckers don't come so fast, and you keep on cultivating once in a while. Mr. Brackett: I have some King raspberries, and I never covered them up in ten years. I will change that. The first year I did cover a part of my patch, at least one-half of them, and that left the other half standing, and I couldn't see any difference. Around Excelsior there are very few people that cover up the King raspberry. But the King raspberry has run out; all of the old varieties have run out. We have at our experiment station the No. 4--you can get double the amount of fruit from the No. 4 than from the King. The best way to grow the King raspberry or any other raspberry is to set them four feet apart and cultivate them. If you grow a matted row you are bound to get weeds and grass in there, you are bound to get them ridged up, but by planting in hills and cultivating each way you can keep your ground perfectly level. As far as clipping them back my experience has been it is very hard to handle them--they will spread out. It is a big job to cover the plants and then to uncover them again. I know it is not necessary with the No. 4; that is hardy. That is what we want. Hardiness is what we want in a berry, and you have it in the No. 4. Mr. Hall: I would like to ask you what you spray with and when you spray? Mr. Johnson: The bordeaux mixture. I spray them early in the spring and just before they start to ripen. Mr. Wick: With us the Loudon raspberry seems to be the coming raspberry. Mr. Johnson: Is it doing well now? Mr. Wick: Yes, it is doing well. Mr. Ludlow: How many years is the planting of the King raspberry good for? Mr. Johnson: I think it would be good for fifteen years or more if they are handled as I do it. Keep at the plant, hoeing and spraying them twice a year; trim out the old wood and keep them healthy. The President: You take out all the old wood every year? Mr. Johnson: Yes, sir. Mr. Ludlow: When do you do that? Mr. Johnson: In the fall. I figure this way, every extra cane that you grow on the plant is a waste. If I see a cane a little higher than the others I just stop it, and it throws the sap back. Mr. Berry: Do you fertilize and how and when? Mr. Johnson: I found I didn't need much fertilizer. I put on wood ashes and such things when I burn the trimming of the berries and such things. A Member: When do you spray? Mr. Johnson: I generally spray in the spring after they get started and just before they are starting to ripen. I spray them sometimes when they are starting to ripen, and the berries would pick up in one day. A Member: You mean to say you could grow them for fifteen years without fertilizing? Mr. Johnson: Yes, sir. * * * * * KNOWLEDGE of the temperature of the pantry and cellar is important, in order that one may make improvements in conditions. Putrefaction will start at 50°, so that a pantry or closet where food is kept should have a temperature at least as low as that. Cellars where canned goods are stored should have a temperature of 32° or over. Apples are frequently stored in outside cellars, where the temperature should be kept at 31° or 32°; but apples may be kept satisfactorily at 34° or 36°. When stored at the higher temperatures, the fruit should be placed there soon after being picked. Annual Report, 1915, Nevis Trial Station. JAS. ARROWOOD, SUPT., NEVIS. We would say that the station is in good condition; all trees and shrubbery have done well; no complaint as far as growth is concerned. This being an off year for fruit in this section, the fruit crop in general was light, the late frost and heavy rains destroying most all, both wild and tame fruits. The strawberries, raspberries and currants were fairly good; plums and apples were very light, except some seedlings, both apples and plums, which seemed to hold their fruit. Most all the large apples were destroyed by the freeze, such as Duchess, Wealthy, Greening and Hibernal. There were some of the Duchess seedlings that seemed to stand all kinds of freezing. [Illustration: Jas. Arrowood in his trial orchard, at Nevis, in Northern Minnesota.] Now in regard to the fruits that were sent here from Central station. The majority are doing fairly well, especially in regard to strawberry No. 3, which is doing splendidly and points to be the coming strawberry of northern Minnesota. It is a good runner and has a large, dark foliage. Plants that we left out last winter without covering came through in splendid condition and made a heavy crop. In regard to the fruit, it is of the best quality, large and firm and a good keeper. In regard to raspberries, Nos. 1, 4 and 7 did very well, and stood the winter without laying down, and bore a good crop. In regard to the eighteen plum trees I received three years ago, Nos. 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 12 have done very well and have made a good growth, but have had no fruit so far. The sand cherry that was received the same year, No. 2, has done very well and bore some fruit this last year of a fair quality. Hansen cherries are doing fairly well and bore some fruit this year. Now in regard to plums that were received in 1914 Nos. 2, 3, 8, 10, 13, 20, have all made a good growth. What was received in 1915 have all grown. The grapes that we received two years ago have made but little growth. There were no grapes in this section this year; they all froze off about twice. I received at the county fair about sixteen first prizes on apples and plums this year. We did considerable top-working, mostly on Hibernals and native seedlings, which are doing very well. Some of our seedling cherries are commencing to bear and show to be perfectly hardy. They are of the Oregon strain of sweet cherry. In regard to gardens, they were fairly good throughout the section. Corn crop a failure. In regard to the condition of the trees and shrubbery, this are going into their winter quarters with lots of moisture and with a large amount of fruit buds, with a good prospect for fruit next year. * * * * * DESTROYING PLANT LICE.--According to the results of experiments a 10 per cent kerosene emulsion should prove effective against the green apple aphis. The kerosene emulsion made either with 66 per cent stock, 10 per cent, or with naphtha soap and cold water, seemed to kill all the green apple aphides. The 40 per cent nicotine solution, with a dilution up to 1 to 2,000 combined with soap, were likewise effective aphidicides. The kerosene emulsions under 10 per cent were not satisfactory, neither were the soaps at the strengths tested, except that fish-oil soap, 5 to 50, killed 90 per cent of the aphides. Laundry soap, 3 to 50, was effective against the young aphides only. Arsenate of lead alone, as was to be expected, had little or no effect upon the aphides. The combination of arsenate of calcium with kerosene emulsions is not a desirable one, since an insoluble calcium soap is formed, thereby releasing some free kerosene.--U.S. Dpt. of Agri. New Fruits Originated at Minnesota Fruit-Breeding Farm. CHAS. HARALSON, SUPT., EXCELSIOR. The subject on which I am to talk is rather difficult to present at this time, but I will mention a few of the most promising new varieties. [Illustration: The new and valuable hardy raspberry No. 4, growing at State Fruit-Breeding Farm.] We have developed several hundred new varieties of fruit since we started fruit-breeding at the State Fruit Farm. Many of them are very promising, but it probably will take several years before we really know what we have that will be of value to the public. We have been growing thousands of seedlings of apples, plums, grapes, raspberries, strawberries, gooseberries and currants, from which valuable varieties have been selected. All of them have been put under propagation in a small way for testing at the Fruit Farm, trial stations and many other places. Some very favorable reports from several places have been received during the last year from parties who have fruited these new creations. We also have some hybrid peach and apricot seedlings which have stood the test of the last two winters. Some of them blossomed very freely last spring, but on account of the hard freeze in May they did not set any fruit. I hope to be able to report on these another year. [Illustration: Hybrid plum No. 21--at Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm.] The results of breeding strawberries have given us one everbearing and one June-bearing variety, which have been tested in many places throughout the state. The June-bearing variety has been introduced as Minnesota No. 3. The berries are almost identical with Senator Dunlap in color and shape, but somewhat larger and, I think, more productive. The plants are equal to Dunlap in hardiness, or more so, a stronger plant, and a good plant-maker. The fruiting season is about a week earlier than Dunlap. It is a firm berry and stands shipping a long distance. My belief is that this variety will make one of the best commercial berries for the Northwest. The everbearing variety is known as No. 1017. It is a large, round berry, dark red color, and is of the best quality. This variety is strong and vigorous and a good plant-maker when blossoms are picked off early in the season. It is also very productive. The blossoms and berries on a number of plants were counted in October, and we found all the way from 200 to 345 berries and blossoms on single plants. This is, of course, a little more than the average, but it shows what it will do under ordinary conditions. This variety has been growing next to Progressive, on the same soil, with the same cultivation, and I think that persons who have seen it this summer will agree with me that it is far ahead of Progressive in size and productiveness. I will say right here, if you expect to have a good crop of fruit in the fall, keep the most of the runners off. If you encourage them to make runners, or plants, you will have less fruit. The raspberries sent out as Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7, are all worthy of trial. The No. 4 has fruited several years and gave the best showing so far. The fruit resembles the Marlboro somewhat, but the color is darker. It is not one of very high quality, but the size of the berry and its appearance will more then make up for this. The canes and foliage are generally healthy and very hardy. This variety will be planted very extensively just as soon as enough stock can be supplied to fruit growers. The Burbank crossed with Wolf, hybrid plums. There have been several of these sent out to trial stations, and as premiums to members of the Horticultural Society. I will mention them in order as to size of fruit. No. 5, 12, 4, and 6 will measure 1-3/4 inch in diameter. Nos. 21, 10, 17, 9, and No. 1 are nearly as large. The kinds which have given best all around satisfaction up to the present time, are Nos. 1, 6, 9, 10, 12, 17, 21 and 25. One or two years more trial should give us an idea which ones will be worthy of general propagation. There are also several varieties of Abundance and Wolf crosses which have fruited for several years. The quality of the fruit of these hybrids is probably somewhat better than the Burbank and Wolf hybrids, but the fruit in most cases runs smaller. No. 35 is probably one of the best; its fruit is about 1-1/2 inch in diameter, colors up all over before it is ripe, and will stand shipping a long distance, as they can be picked quite green and still are colored up all over. There are several numbers equally, or nearly, as promising as No. 35. Sand cherry X Satsuma plum No. 145 is in the same class as Sapa. The color of the fruit is bluish black when ripe, the flesh purple, pit small and nearly freestone; fruit ripens first part of August. This tree is a strong grower and makes a large tree. We also have another plum, Compass cherry X Climax, about the only variety which fruited this year. The color of the skin is almost blue when fully ripe; the meat is green and of a very pleasant flavor. The pit is small and clingstone; size of fruit is about 1-1/2 inches in diameter. The tree is a strong, upright grower. This variety has been propagated this summer. I will not try to describe any more as there are some 2,000 hybrid plums on the place and only a small per cent have fruited. [Illustration: Ornamental Purple Leaf Plum, originated at State Fruit-Breeding Farm.] In grapes we have several varieties worthy of propagation, but I will just mention two varieties. One is a red grape about the size of Wyoming Red. The bunches are large and very compact; the season for ripening is about with Moore's Early; the quality is good enough to make it a table grape. The vine is just as hardy as Beta grape, of which it is a seedling. It has good foliage and the vine is a rank grower. The other variety is black when ripe, nearly as large as Moore's Early. The fruit is ripe first part of August; the vine is vigorous and hardy. Strawberries and raspberries were a good crop this year, but all other fruit was a total failure on account of the killing frost and snowstorm on May 18th. Apples were in full bloom at the time, and a good crop of plums had set on the trees, but all fell off a few days later. There were no currants or gooseberries and only a few grapes. Mr. Waldron: What do you think the male parent was of the red grape? Mr. Haralson: I couldn't say. We don't know what the cross is. Mr. Waldron: Did you have any red grapes growing there? Mr. Haralson: I presume there were quite a number of varieties growing near by. In the Beta seedlings we find a number of grapes that ripen green and also some black and a number red, but not a great many, I would say from five to seven per cent of the seedlings. Mr. Wellington: Have you been able to cross the European plum with the Japanese? Mr. Haralson: We have one or two varieties, but the fruit is very small, the fruit isn't very much larger than the Compass cherry. The tree is a very strong grower and makes a large tree, but the fruit is not up to what it should be. Mr. Cook: What number do you hold that red grape under? Mr. Haralson: The red grape is No. 1. Mr. Sauter: Which is the next best raspberry besides the No. 4? Mr. Haralson: I couldn't tell you at present. I thought the No. 2, but from reports I have had from several places some think No. 1 is better. No. 4 is the best of them all so far. A Member: I would like to ask which of those raspberries is the best quality. Mr. Haralson: They run very much the same, very little difference in the quality. The quality I should say compares very favorably with the King. The President: Those of you who know of the wonderful work done by Mr. Haralson can not help but say, "Well done, good and faithful servant." He has surely accomplished wonderful results out there, and the people of this state and adjoining states will all in time enjoy the fruits of his labor. (Applause.) * * * * * KILL WILD ONIONS IN NOVEMBER.--The secret of the vitality of the wild onion lies in the two sorts of underground bulbs. Each plant produces one large bulb, which germinates in the fall, and four or five small ones, which start growth in the spring. Late fall plowing, followed by early spring plowing and planting the infested land to some clean cultivated crop destroys the wild onion pest by killing both sorts of bulbs as the growth from them appears and before they have a chance to multiply. The fall plowing should be deep, and care should be taken to completely bury all green tops of the onion. If very much top growth has been made, a harrow run before the plow will facilitate the thorough covering of the tops. Another interesting and valuable point about the wild onion is that the spring bulbs rarely produce heads; consequently, if the infested land is plowed in the fall, a spring oat crop practically free of onions can always be secured. But for complete eradication of the onion, both fall and spring plowing is necessary, and November is the best time to do the fall work. Annual Meeting, 1915, Wisconsin Horticultural Society. CHAS. HARALSON, EXCELSIOR, MINN., DELEGATE. The meeting was held January 5, 6 and 7, 1915, in the Assembly Room of the State Capitol in Madison, Wis. Your delegate was present in time for the opening session and given a chance with other delegates to deliver the greetings of their societies. The opening address by Governor Phillip was very interesting. He told of the possibilities the State of Wisconsin offered fruit growers in a commercial way with markets all around them. He advocated honest grading and packing to obtain the top prices for the fruit. He also urged every farmer to have a small orchard and fruit garden for home consumption. Spraying and spray mixtures, illustrated, was ably presented by Professor Geo. F. Potter, University of Wisconsin. A speaking contest by ten students from University of Wisconsin competed for prizes of $25.00, $15.00 and $10.00. This brought out almost every phase of horticulture and was one of the most interesting sessions. Commercial orcharding in the middle west was shown with moving pictures and explanations by Sen. Dunlap, Savoy, Ill. These pictures illustrated spraying, cultivating, harvesting, grading, packing, caring for the fruit and marketing the same, and several other operations in connection with uptodate commercial orcharding. He also gave a talk on spraying and spraying materials. He said lime-sulphur is preferred in his locality. A half hour question and answer session was led by Professor J.G. Moore, University of Wisconsin, on pruning. This brought out a very lively discussion about how to prune young orchards and what age of trees to plant for commercial orchards. This question was not settled, as some preferred one year old trees, while others would plant nothing but two year old trees. M. S. Kellogg, Janesville, Wis., spoke of nurserymen's troubles. His paper was very interesting from a nurseryman's standpoint with all their troubles and what they have to go up against. C. O. Ruste, Blue Mounds, Wis., spoke about the farmer's orchard, what to plant and how to care for the same. The writer gave a paper, telling what is being done in the line of fruit-breeding at the Minnesota Fruit-Breeding Farm. The program was very full and interesting. The attendance, however, was not very large. A very good exhibit of apples was on display in the fruit room. The fruit was clean, well colored and up to size. Many varieties, such as Jonathan, Fameuse, Baldwin, Windsor, Talman Sweet and Wine Sap were on display in great quantities. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. At the annual meeting the following officers and members of the Executive Committee were elected. Officers--Mrs. E. W. Gould, President, 2644 Humboldt Ave. S., Minneapolis; Mrs. Phelps Wyman, Vice-President, 5017 Third Ave. S., Minneapolis; Mrs. M.L. Countryman, Secretary-Treasurer, 213 S. Avon St., St. Paul. Directors--Mrs. F. H. Gibbs, St. Anthony Park; Mr. G. C. Hawkins, Minneapolis; Miss Elizabeth Starr, Minneapolis; Mrs. H. A. Boardman, St. Paul; Mr. F. W. Bell, Wayzata; Mr. F. F. Farrar, White Bear; Mrs. R. P. Boyington, Nemadji; Mrs. J. F. Fairfax, Minneapolis; Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Minneapolis. After a thorough discussion, it was unanimously agreed that more frequent meetings would be advisable. Our program committee has, therefore, planned for a meeting each month, alternating between St. Paul and Minneapolis. It was, of course, impossible to set the dates for the three flower shows so early in the year, or to announce all of the speakers. The program in full for each month will appear on this page, and we hope to save our secretary a great deal of routine work as well as considerable postage to the society. So watch this page for announcements. We hope the following program will prove both interesting and profitable, and that our members will bring friends to each meeting, all of which will begin at 2:30 o'clock _promptly_. PROGRAM FOR 1916. February 24. Wilder Auditorium, 2:30 p.m., Fifth and Washington St., St. Paul. Soil Fertility, Prof. F. J. Alway. Birds As Garden Helpers. March 23. Public Library, Minneapolis, 2:30 p.m. Work of the State Art Commission, Mr. Maurice Flagg. How Can the Garden Flower Society Co-operate with It? Our Garden Enemies. Cultural Directions for Trial Seeds. Distribution of Trial Seeds. April 27. Wilder Auditorium, St. Paul, 2:30 p.m. Native Plants in the Garden. Roadside Planting. Use and Misuse of Wild Flowers. May. Date to be announced. Mazey Floral Co., 128 S. 8th, Minneapolis. Informal Spring Flower Show. What Our Spring Gardens Lack. Good Ground Cover Plants. June. Date to be announced. University Farm, St. Paul, Joint Session with Horticultural Society. Flower Show. July. Date to be announced. Minneapolis Rose Gardens, Lake Harriet. Picnic Luncheon, 1:00 p.m. Roses for the Home Garden. Our Insect Helpers in the Garden. August. Date to be announced. Holm and Olson, 2:30, 20 W. Fifth St., St. Paul. Informal Flower Show. How to Grow Dahlias. The Gladiolus. September 21. Public Library, Minneapolis, 2:30 p.m. Fall Work in the Garden. Vines. Planting for Fall and Winter Effect. October 19. Wilder Auditorium, St. Paul, 2:30 p.m. What Other Garden Clubs Are Doing. How My Garden Paid. Reports on Trial Seeds. November. Date to be announced. Park Board Greenhouses, Bryant Ave. S. and 38th St., 2:30 p.m. Chrysanthemum Show. Hardy Chrysanthemums. December. Annual Meeting. {MRS. PHELPS WYMAN, Program Committee. {MRS. N. S. SAWYER, {MISS ELIZABETH STARR, {MRS. E. W. GOULD, BEE-KEEPER'S COLUMN. Conducted by FRANCIS JAGER, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul. QUEEN BEES FOR BREEDING.--Queen bees for breeding purposes will be sent to beekeepers of the State from University Farm during the coming summer with instructions how to introduce them and how to re-queen the apiary. Mostly all bees in the state at present are hybrids, which are hard to manage. In many localities bees have been inbred for years, making the introduction of new blood a necessity. All queens sent out are bred from the leather colored Italian breeding queens of choicest stock obtainable. The price of queens will be fifty cents for one, and not more than three will be furnished to each beekeeper. Orders with cash must be sent directed to the "Cashier," University Farm, St. Paul, Minnesota. The queens will be sent out in rotation as soon as they are ready and conditions are right. SECRETARY'S CORNER MEMBERSHIP NUMBERS CHANGE.--A good many members when sending in annual membership fee give the number of their membership for the previous year. Members will please note that membership numbers change each year, as all members are numbered in the order of their coming upon the membership roll. The only number that we care about in the office, if for any reason it is necessary to give it, is the number for the current year. A WORD FROM PROF. WHITTEN.--Prof. J. C. Whitten, of the University of Missouri, who was on the program at our annual meeting for three numbers, and at the last moment was taken ill and unable to be with us, has written describing the condition of his illness and expressing his deep regret at his enforced absence from our meeting, and a hope that at some other time he may have an opportunity to be with us. We shall look forward to having him on our program another year with eager anticipation. Prof. Whitten ranks as one of the most prominent of professional horticulturists of the country, and we are certainly fortunate in being able to secure his attendance, as we hope to do another year. MEMBERS IN FLORIDA.--Quite a number of members of the Horticultural Society are spending the winter in Florida. Some of these the secretary knows about, but addresses of only two are at hand. J. M. Underwood, chairman of the executive board of the society, and family are at Miami, Fla., for the winter. Mr. Oliver Gibbs, at one time secretary of the society for a number of years, is at Melbourne Beach, on the east coast of Florida, where he has been now for some ten winters--and some summers also. His health makes it necessary for him to live in so mild a climate. We have the pleasure of meeting him here often during the summer. Now in his eighties he is nearly blind but otherwise in good health and always in cheerful spirits. NEW LIFE MEMBERS.--Since the report of 1915 was printed, in which there will be found on page 520 a list of life members of the society, there have been added to the life membership roll fifteen names; five of these were made honorary members by the unanimous vote of the association for valuable service rendered to the society, and were well deserving of this honor, as follows: Chas. Haralson, Excelsior; S. H. Drum, Owatonna; F. W. Kimball, Waltham; J. R. Cummins, Minneapolis; John Bisbee, Madelia. To the paid life membership roll there have been added ten names as follows: E. G. Zabel, LaMoure, N.D.; Roy E. McConnell, St. Cloud; O. F. Krueger, Minneapolis; L.A. Gunderson, Duluth; Mr. and Mrs. F. H. Gibbs, St. Anthony Park; Herman Goebel, Wildrose, N.D.; T. Torgerson, Estevan, Sask.; Law Swanson, St. Paul; Rev. Saml. Johnson, Princeton. Don't you want your name added to this life roll? If you have already paid an annual membership fee for this year a further payment of $4.00 made any time during the year will be received as first payment for a life membership fee. That is, the amount of the annual fee already paid may be deducted from a life membership fee paid any time during the current year. SEND IN A NEW MEMBER.--Have you noticed the advertisement on the inside of the back cover page of this and also the January issues of our monthly? There never was such an opportunity to secure valuable new fruits as this presents to you and to your neighbor, many of whom we feel sure would gladly take advantage of the opportunity if it were presented to them. Take an evening off and do yourself and your neighbors this good service--and the society as well. NUMBER THREE STRAWBERRY.--Very few of those who have so far selected plant premiums for next spring's delivery have chosen Minnesota No. 3 June-bearing strawberry. Our members will surely make a mistake if they do not secure for next spring's planting a quantity of this splendid new berry, which seems likely to supplant the Senator Dunlap as the June-bearing variety in the near future. It is a very vigorous grower, equally attractive, of good quality, holds up well and is a healthy, hardy plant. Do not leave this out of your list of selection for plant premiums. APPLE SEED OF LARGE VALUE.--A considerable quantity of apple seed has been secured of Mr. John Bisbee, of Madelia, Minn., from his orchard, top-worked, as it is, with many varieties of long keeping apples, so that this seed is almost certainly crossed with something that will keep well as well as of high quality. It will be found especially valuable to plant for growing seedlings. It would be well to secure this seed soon, mix it with damp sand and leave out of doors where it will freeze, keeping the package which holds it covered from the air so that it may not dry out. Every member should have a little corner in his garden for growing apple seedlings. It is an enticing experiment, and such seed as this is likely to give good results. We are still looking for the $1,000 apple. You may grow it from some of this seed. Package of twenty-five seed at ten cents, to be secured of Secy. Latham. A FAVORABLE WINTER FOR FRUITS.--The ground was in good condition last fall, with a reasonable amount of moisture, fruits, both trees and plants, well ripened up, and now with a fairly good blanket of snow and no long continued severe weather, we have to this point in the winter a very certain assurance of a good yield of fruit the coming spring. To be sure the thermometer was down in the neighborhood of thirty degrees one night, but it was there so short a time that it scarcely seems possible that any harm could have been done by it. The horticulturist should be a natural optimist and always anticipate something good ahead, which is one pretty sure way of getting it. MINNESOTA NURSERYMEN GIVE MEMBERSHIPS.--A considerable number of the nurserymen of Minnesota are again giving memberships this year as premiums to purchasers of nursery stock in quantity of $20.00 or upwards. This is a commendable enterprise, not only on account of its material assistance in building up the membership roll of the society but more especially because it brings in the kind of members who have, or should have, a large practical interest in the workings of the association, and we believe also that it is like "casting bread upon the waters;" those receiving these memberships will have a warm feeling for the nurserymen which present them. If you who read this are Minnesota nurserymen and are not in the list of those who are doing this service for the society, don't you want to take advantage of an immediate opportunity to align yourself with those who are showing so large an interest in the welfare of the association? [Illustration: GATHERING THE APPLE CROP IN HAROLD SIMMONS' ORCHARD--AT HOWARD LAKE.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 MARCH, 1916 No. 3 My Orchard Crop of 1915 from Start to Finish. HAROLD SIMMONS, ORCHARDIST, HOWARD LAKE. In anticipation of a crop of apples for 1915 we commenced the season with the regular annual pruning in March. We begin pruning as soon after the 25th day of February as the weather is mild enough for us to work comfortably, as the pruning of fifteen hundred trees requires considerable time when one is obsessed with the idea that nothing short of a first class job will do, and that to be accomplished mainly by the efforts of one individual. We have endeavored to grow our trees so that they should all have from three to five or six main limbs, and any tendency of a limb to assume the leadership is suppressed. A tree grown upon this principle has the faculty of growing a great many laterals, necessitating an annual pruning. As far as possible we prune to prevent laterals from becoming too numerous, from growing so as to overtop or shade lower limbs, to let in light and sunshine, so as to get the maximum amount of color on the fruit and in a measure to help in thinning the fruit. Having in view the idea of an annual crop instead of a biennial one, one essential point always in mind is that we want an open headed tree, and we also wish to insure our trees against blight, and so we eliminate all water sprouts. Apparently, no Minnesota orchard is immune against blight. Some objections are raised to this type of tree, one criticism being that the tree is structurally weak from the fact that if one limb breaks off at the trunk the tree is about ruined. We offset the possibility of such a break by careful training and by wiring the trees, a plan I gathered some years ago from a Mr. Mason, at that time president of the Flood River Apple Growers Association. [Illustration: Young trees in full bloom in Mr. Simmons' orchard.] We use No. 14 galvanized wire, a half inch galvanized harness ring, and screw-eyes with stout shanks and small eyes. Locating up the main limbs what might be called the center of effort, or where the main pull would be when loaded with fruit, put in a good stout screw-eye in every main limb, eyes all pointing to the center of the tree, and then wire them all to the harness ring in the middle of the tree. When finished the ring and the wires are like the hub in a wheel with the spokes all around. We tried this first on our N.W. Greening trees, and results were so satisfactory that we have applied it to a great number of other varieties with equal satisfaction. Once put in a tree, it is good for the life of the tree. Our objection to a tree with a central leader is that it is very difficult to create an open head, and if the blight strikes the leader it generally means the loss of the tree. Low headed trees we have found by experience, are easiest cared for; they are the most economical for thinning, harvesting, spraying and pruning; they also shade the trunk and main limbs. After pruning all brush is removed from the orchard and burned. The next operation is spraying, and our first spraying was done when most of the petals were down, using a Cushman power sprayer, running at two hundred pounds pressure, with two leads of hose and extension rods with two nozzles on each. Spraying solution, six gallons of lime and sulphur, twelve pounds of arsenate of lead paste to each tank of water containing two hundred gallons. We aim to cover the tree thoroughly from top to bottom and spray twice each season. However, the past season half the orchard only was sprayed twice, the other half only once, the second spraying being applied about two weeks after the first, when we use lime and sulphur only, and then five gallons instead of six, in each tank of water. We use angle nozzles, the better to direct the spray into the calyxes. The orchard was mowed twice during the summer, early in June and the middle of July. A heavy growth of clover covers most of the orchard, and none is ever removed, all is left to decay just as it is left by the mowers. The next thing in line to take our attention is thinning the fruit. The past season we thinned the Wealthy and top-worked varieties only; another season, we expect to carry this work to every tree in the orchard. The trees were gone over twice in the season, although the bulk of the work is done at the first operation. We use thinning shears made expressly for the purpose. By the end of July the trees in many instances were carrying maximum loads, and unless rendered assistance by propping in some way, the limbs, great numbers of them, must soon break. To get props to prop hundreds of trees, needing from five to six up to a dozen per tree, and apply them, looked like a big job. To purchase lumber for props the price was prohibitive; to get them from the woods was impossible. We finally solved the problem by purchasing bamboo fish poles, sixteen and twenty feet long, and by using No. 12 wire, making one turn around the pole at the required height, turning up the end of the wire to hold it and making a hook out of the other end of the wire, using about seven or eight inches of wire for each. These made excellent props at small expense, the ringlike excresences on the pole preventing the wire from slipping. We propped as many as four and five limbs at different heights on one pole. This method carried the heavily loaded trees through the season in good shape. Anyone afflicted with too many apples on their trees should try it. Next in line came the harvesting of the crop. We use the "Ideal Bottomless Bag" for a picking utensil, and almost all the fruit is picked from six foot step-ladders. We pack the apples in the orchard. Fortunately we have had the same people pick our apples year after year, from the first crop until the last one of the past season. [Illustration: Apples by the carload at Howard Lake.] In packing we aim to use the kind of package the market demands. The crop this season was all barreled. The pickers have been on the job long enough so that they are as able to discriminate as to what should go into a barrel and what should not as I am myself. However, our system is to always have about twice as many barrels open ready for the apples as there are pickers. The barrels are all faced one layer at least, and two layers if we have the time, and as the pickers come in with approximately half a bushel of apples in the picking sack, they swing the sack over the barrel, lower it, release the catch and the apples are deposited without bruising in any way. The next picker puts his in the next barrel, and so on, so that each succeeding picker deposits his apples in the next succeeding barrel. In that way I personally have the opportunity to inspect every half bushel of apples, or, I might say, every apple, as a half bushel of apples in a barrel is shallow, making inspection a very simple matter. When the barrels are filled they are headed up, put in the packing shed until sufficient have accumulated, and when that point is reached they are loaded out, billed to Minneapolis, where practically all our apples have been sold for years. All fruit up to date has been sold on a commission basis, the crop for the past season aggregating five carloads, or approximately 800 barrels. We feel that we have worked out a fairly good method to handle both our trees and our apples, but we have not reached the conclusion that our methods in any way guarantee us a crop of apples, although in ten years, or since the orchard came into bearing, we have never had a season that we did not have a fair crop of apples. In 1913 we sold seven carloads, in 1914 four carloads, in 1915 five carloads, and the trees as far as they are concerned promise us a fair crop for 1916. We are working as though this is assured, but in the final analysis it is up to the weather man. A Member: I would like to ask Mr. Simmons in regard to his wiring. We are raising our trees in the same manner, the open-headed trees, and I wanted to ask him where the central ring is placed, in the crotch of the tree or where? Mr. Simmons: The ring is suspended by the wires in the center of the tree. It makes an excellent arrangement. You can stand on that wire and gather the apples from the topmost limbs of the trees. The screw-eyes should be put in at what might be termed the center of effort or pull, when the limb is heavily loaded. If not put in high enough, it causes a rather too acute angle where the screw-eye is inserted and the limb is likely to break. A Member: We had considerable difficulty with broken branches. Mr. Ludlow: Are the rings put on the outside or the inside of the trees? Mr. Simmons: On the inside, so that the screw eyes all point towards the center of the tree. After three or four years you can't see the screw eye, it grows right into the tree. Mr. Ludlow: I want to ask if you recommend the bamboo poles for general propping of trees? Mr. Simmons: Yes, sir; most emphatically I would. It is the best and most economical prop you can use. Of course, it is the general opinion among expert fruit growers that the crop should never be too heavy for the tree. The bamboo prop is the best we found. With reasonable care, bamboo poles will outlast common lumber. It is the general opinion among expert fruit growers that the tree should carry all fruit possible, but should not be permitted to be loaded so heavy as to need propping. Mr. Dyer: I have an orchard of 70 acres and it would take a great many bamboo poles to prop that orchard. I use pieces of board, various lengths, 4 inches wide and 1 inch thick, of various lengths. I get them 14 to 16 feet long and sometimes I cut them in two. My trees are large, twenty-five and thirty and thirty-five years old, and that has been my most successful material to prop with. Mr. Simmons: What is the cost? Mr. Dyer: Well, you know what the lumber is, I paid about $24.00 a thousand. Mr. Simmons: When I tried to buy the props from the lumber yard they would have cost me twenty cents each. I bought the twenty foot bamboo poles for $7.00 a hundred and the sixteen foot poles for $4.50 a hundred. A Member: I didn't get where his orchard is located, and I would like to ask about the variety of apples he had the best success with. Mr. Simmons: The orchard is located at Howard Lake, forty-three miles west of Minneapolis. We grow Duchess, Patten's Greenings, Hibernals and Wealthys. Mr. Ludlow: What is your average cost per tree for thinning? Mr. Simmons: We have for years thinned the Wealthy trees and our top-worked varieties, but I never kept any accurate account of the cost of thinning. Mr. Ludlow: How old are your Wealthys? Mr. Simmons: Fourteen years old. Mr. Huestis: Mr. Simmons stated that he used the wire and the ring and the screw-eyes. If he used that, why does he need props? I used the same thing this summer on some Wealthys and thinned them besides, and I didn't need any props because I used the wire from the center ring to the branches. Mr. Simmons: Well, the wire supports support the main limbs but there are a great many laterals. For instance, you have the main limb going up here at an angle of 90 degrees and the limbs that come out of that are not supported. The props I use are supporting the laterals. Mr. Anderson: Are your returns satisfactory shipping to the Minneapolis market? Mr. Simmons: Always have been very satisfactory; that has been my only market. * * * * * FIGHTING MOTHS WITH PARASITES.--Over 12,000,000 specimens of two parasites which prey on the gipsy moth and brown-tail moth were released in 201 towns in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Rhode Island during the fall of 1914 and spring of 1915, according to the annual report of the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture. As a result of the successful establishment of colonies of these and other parasites which feed on the gipsy and brown-tail moths, marked progress is being made in reducing these pests. Effective co-operation is being afforded by the States, which carry on as much work as possible within the infested areas, thus allowing the Federal authorities to carry on field work along the outer border of infestation, so as to retard the gipsy moth's spread.--U.S. Dept. of Agri. Annual Meeting. 1915, S.D. State Horticultural Society. WM. PFAENDER, JR., NEW ULM, MINN., DELEGATE. Arrived at Huron, S.D., Monday night, January 17, 1916. The officers as well as the members gave me a very fine reception and, although I am a life member, I was made an honorary member of the society, and during my stay was entertained very agreeably. I attended all meetings. The society had three meetings each day, except Thursday, the 20th, when there was no meeting held in the evening. On account of the very cold weather the attendance from outside was not as large as it should have been. Some very interesting papers were read. Mr. E. D. Cowles, of Vermillion, in his paper on "What to do when your grape vines freeze back," advocated to break off the shoots (do not cut them off) near the old wood, so that new shoots would start from the same bud or eye and would produce a crop. The papers by the president, Rev. F. A. Hassold, "Relation of Horticulture to Home-Making" at the meeting, and "Community Effort in Rural Life" at the banquet, were very fine and much appreciated by the audience. Professor N. E. Hansen in his paper, "New Fruits," stated, among other things, that he had made a large number of crosses with Chinese sand pears and other pears, and that he expects to get from the crosses varieties that will be blight proof, and that he intends to continue experiments along this line. Two very able and much appreciated papers at the banquet were: "Landscape Gardening," by Miss Hazel J. Kent, and "Transforming a Place Into a Home," by Mrs. Geo. H. Whiting, both of Yankton, S.D. Governor Byrney was present at the banquet and in his address congratulated the horticulturists of South Dakota on what they have attained and encouraged them in their difficult undertakings. Your delegate was asked to give notes on "Minnesota Fruit Culture," which he did to the best of his ability. The discussions after each paper were interesting and instructive. The meeting was a very successful one and all present appreciated the fact that these gatherings assist in developing this great Northwest in horticulture, forestry and many other ways. Annual Report, 1915, Sauk Rapids Trial Station. MRS. JENNIE STAGER, SUPT. Warm weather this last spring came quite early, and with bated breath we waited for the usual frost, but still it came not. The plum orchard became a wilderness of bloom; the buds of the apple trees began coyly to unfold their dainty loveliness; pussy willows flaunted their sweetness on the air--while the birds sang their love notes from trees and bushes. Then frost came--not once, but night after night. Thus our hopes, which had risen with every promise of a bountiful harvest, fell with the thermometer far below zero. When fall came both plum and apple orchards made so poor a showing, not only here but all around this part of the country, that we had hardly enough fruit for our own uses. [Illustration: Mrs. Stager's grandchildren among the roses of one year's growth.] We had a great deal of rain, all through the spring and into the summer. Strawberries, that generally do well in wet weather, did not bless us with their usual abundance. Currants and gooseberries also left us in the lurch--but the Snyder blackberries were loaded with luscious fruit, while raspberries--why the berries of the Golden Queen bent the stalks down with their weight. Prof. Hansen's Sunbeams were covered with berries, as were all of the seedling raspberries sent from the Breeding Farm three years ago, Nos. six and seven, of the red ones, bore the largest and firmest berries. I had quite a time keeping the blossoms off the everbearing strawberries sent here in the spring from the State Breeding Farm. Although I had bought and planted three named--and very much extolled--other kinds of everbearers, none of them were as prolific in plants, and extra large berries, as those unnamed ones from the State Breeding Farm. We had our first berries from them in August. When we had our fair here, the last of September, I made quite a showing of them, from the size of a bean (green) to a crab apple (ripe), surrounded by leaves and blossoms. They were still covered with bloom when the hard frosts came. The two small hybrid plums sent did not make much growth. Most vegetables that have always grown so well in other summers did very poorly this year. Out of four hundred and seventy-five tomato plants, taken the best of care of by Inez, my granddaughter, for the state tomato contest, we did not get one bushel of good ripe ones. Lima and other table beans were planted three times (on account of rotting in the ground) and then did not ripen. No ripe corn. In fact, about all the vegetables that came to fruition were peas, cauliflower and cabbage. Of flowers, sweet peas, pansies and early lilies were fine, although growing things were late. Paeonies had very few flowers. However, roses were masses of bloom. Moss roses did the best ever, also large bushes of Rosa Rugosa (you see this year, we had neither the ubiquitous potato bug, rose bug, caterpillar or any other varmint to war against); quite a number gave us blooms all summer. Then most of them threw out strong new plants, as do the raspberries, from the roots. On the whole, with our bounteous harvest of grain and so forth in this blessed country, we can be thankful we are alive. * * * * * KEEP YOUTH ON THE FARM.--"What can we do to keep our young people free from the deceiving lure of the city and contented to remain on the farm?". The following was prepared by C. W. Kneale, of Niwot, Colo., a student in civics in the Colorado School of Agriculture, as a part of his regular class work. Young Kneale, although a student, has some excellent ideas which "Father" and "Mother" might do well to ponder carefully: "Get good books, magazines and farm papers for them to read. "Have some kind of lodges for them to go to, such as the Grange. "Arrange it so they can have a party or entertainment once in a while. "Go with them to church every Sunday. "Arrange it so they can have one or more picnics every year. "Teach them how to do all kinds of farm work, by giving them a small tract of land to farm for themselves and showing them how to raise their crops, and have them help you with your work. "Give them a horse which they can ride or drive when they haven't anything to do, or when they want to go anywhere. "Teach them to love and be kind to animals." Ravages of the Buffalo Tree Hopper. "Mr. Latham recently sent me some twigs of apple tree very badly injured with what we call the buffalo tree hopper. These scars are made entirely by the female in the act of egg-laying. This process of egg-laying takes place from the last part of July until the leaves drop in the fall. The eggs hatch the following spring. The young forms do not feed at all upon the apple but get their nourishment by sucking the juices from the weeds and grasses in the immediate neighborhood of the orchard. [Illustration: The Buffalo Tree Hopper and its work] "The injury of this particular tree hopper is bad because the insect in egg-laying makes two slits, side by side, afterwards poking the eggs beneath the bark. As the tree continues to grow, the area between the slits dies, making a very rough appearance of the bark and an area into which spores of disease and bacteria may enter. The twig that is badly scarred very often dies, and sometimes young trees just set out are marked so badly that they succumb. "The only practical remedy against such a pest is clean cultivation of the orchard, as one can readily work out from knowing the life history. It is possible that some of the sprays like Bordeaux mixture, or self-boiled lime-sulphur, sprayed and kept active on the trees during the month of August would deter these hoppers from laying eggs. However, we have had no practical experience along this line, although we do know that trees under clean cultivation are not affected."--A. G. Ruggles, Head of Section of Spraying and Tree Insects, University Farm, St. Paul. * * * * * MINNESOTA NO. 3 STRAWBERRY.--A communication from Peter Jackson, Cloquet, says: "I had my first trial of the Minnesota No. 3 strawberry last year and they did finely. I had one hundred twenty-five quarts from sixty plants." Who can do better than that? Growing Tomatoes in Northern Minnesota. REV. GEO. MICHAEL, WALKER, MINN. Sow seed in hotbed about April first, in rows five inches apart and five inches apart in each row. Transplant in garden one week after danger of frost is past. The day before transplanting soak the hotbed thoroughly with warm water. In taking them up to transplant use a sharp butcher knife; the ground thus cut out will form a cube five inches in diameter. This block, should be set in a hole ten to twelve inches deep. The ground around the block must be made very firm. This block will be four to six inches below the surface. _Fill the hole with warm rainwater_ and three or four hours later rake in loose dirt to fill the hole, being careful not to pack it in the least. _How to prepare the ground._ Manure heavily; plow very deep; harrow thoroughly. Then in forming the hills place two shovelfuls of fine manure and one-half shovelful of hen manure for each hill. Spade this in from twelve to eighteen inches deep and eighteen to twenty inches wide. Cultivate often. The plants should be staked at first to keep the wind storms from injuring them. When one and one-half feet high they should be trained over poles placed on each side of the row one and one-half feet from the ground. Plant hills four feet apart, and _train each plant to four or five vines_, cutting off all side shoots and a few of the leaves. _Never cut off_ the top of a vine to hasten the ripening. Make the ground _as rich as possible, plough deep, plant deep, set deep and prune carefully_. If you do not use poles or a trellis the vines thus managed should spread over the ground as pumpkin vines grow, and instead of "going all to vines" the tendency will be to go all to tomatoes. _A big story._ Over $3,000 per acre. In 1910 I had three rows each forty feet long and four feet apart, i.e., a row 120 feet long, or 480 square feet. More than $35.00 worth of ripe tomatoes were taken from these vines, the price never more nor less than five cents per pound. If 480 square feet will produce $35.00, 43,560 square feet would produce $3,175. During the tomato season I was away from home when a neighbor gathered bushels which are not counted in the above figures, and our family used and gave away several bushels more. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, Fourth Congressional District. J. K. DIXON, NORTH ST. PAUL, MINN. The fourth district fruit crops--with the exception of strawberries and raspberries--were conspicuous by their absence this season of 1915. A festive blizzard that came prancing our way the 17th of May effectually destroyed what promised to be a bumper crop of apples and plums. The trees were for the most part past the blossoming stage, and the fruit had started to develop. Currants and grapes met the same disastrous fate. Only in favored situations, adjacent to large bodies of water, were there any apples, plums, grapes or currants to speak of. [Illustration: Mr. J. K. Dixon, North St. Paul.] In my orchard, at North St. Paul, we burned wet straw smudges every second row on the outside of the orchard, allowing the wind to drift the smoke through trees. This was done by adding the wet straw at intervals to the burning piles in order to create a continuous dense smoke. When daylight appeared we noticed the ground covered with a beautiful blanket of frost, and decided two men smoking pipes would have been as effective treatment as the smudge. In this, however, I have since concluded we were mistaken. As the season advanced we noticed the first three or four rows in from the smudges gave us our only apples, whereas the further one went in the fewer were found, until they finally disappeared entirely. Question: If the above treatment had been given every second or third row throughout orchard, what would the results have been? Strawberries and raspberries proved their superior ability to withstand the assaults of King Boreas and Jack Frost. Strawberries were in blossom and were saved from total loss by a two or three inch blanket of wet snow that fortunately preceded the frost. Consequently they are reported as fair to good crop. Raspberries, owing to the abundant and regular rainfall, are reported from all over the district as a fair crop. One grower having one-half acre of the St. Regis everbearing red raspberry reports having ripe berries from the last week in June to the 8th day of October, when a big freeze-up put them out of commission. This one-half acre produced 2,000 pints, that sold for fancy prices. Also the everbearing strawberries are reported as making good and proving their claim to recognition as an established institution in the fruit world. A few of the largest growers report spraying with lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead. However, the rainfall was too abundant at the right time (or wrong time) to get best results. Very little blight is reported as present the past summer, and what little there was yielded readily to the pruning knife applied five or six inches below infected wood, being careful to sterilize tool in solution of corrosive sublimate. The most serious injury from blight is caused by its attacking tender sprout growths on trunks or large branches. The blight runs very rapidly down the tender wood, penetrating to the cambium layer, where it causes cankers, often girdling entire trunk and killing tree outright. This is especially true of the Virginia crab and Wealthy apple. Trees and plants came through last winter in A1 condition as a consequence of a mild winter, and this fall they go into winter quarters with abundance of moisture and well ripened wood. Considerable nursery stock was planted last spring with excellent results, due to plentiful supply of moisture from spring to fall. While fruit growing in Minnesota is not so extensively engaged in as in some reputed fruit growers' paradises we read about, I wish to state that the South and East (to speak in the vernacular) "has nothing on us." I have reliable information that the same freeze that cleaned us out up here in the North did the same trick for growers at Mobile, Alabama. Therefore, I advise members not to yield to discouragement. Plant and care for varieties recommended in the society planting list and emulate the society motto, "Perseverantia Vincimus." From replies to letters sent out the following list of varieties appears to be in favor as the most desirable to plant in this district: Apples: Wealthy, Okabena, Duchess, Patten's Greening. Crabs: Florence, Whitney, Lyman's Prolific. Plums: DeSoto, Hawkeye, Wyant, Wolf. Raspberries: King, Sunbeam, Minnetonka Ironclad. Currants: Perfection, Prince Albert, Long Bunch Holland, Wilder. Gooseberries: Carrie, Houghton, Downing. Grapes: Beta, Concord, Delaware. Hardy Shrubs: Spirea Van Houtii, Hydrangea P.G., Snowball, Syringa, Tartarian Honeysuckle, Lilac, High-bush Cranberry, Barberry, Sumac, Elderberry, Golden Leaf Elder, Buckthorn for hedges. Hardy Perennials--Flowers: Delphinium, Campanula, Phlox, Paeonies, Iris, Hermerocallis, Tiger Lilies. Tender Plants: Dahlias, Gladiolus. Annual Report, 1915, Mandan, N.D., Trial Station. W. A. PETERSON, SUPT., MANDAN, N.D. In the spring of 1914 a number of plums, grapes and raspberries were received from the Minnesota Fruit-Breeding Farm. The larger part of the plums were winter killed in 1914-15. Those that survive after a few more winters may be considered as practically hardy. Those remaining made a good growth in 1915, but did not bear. The grapes lived through the winter in good shape, although they had been covered. These are all Beta seedlings. The raspberries Nos. 3, 7, and 8, were partly covered and partly left exposed--all three numbers died to the ground when not protected. No. 4 was received in the spring of 1915 and made a good growth. Strawberry No. 1017 was received in spring 1915 and bore heavily this fall but made only a very few runners. Extensive experiments are being carried on in plant-breeding, pomology, vegetable gardening, arboriculture and ornamental horticulture, and in the course of time a lot of valuable information will be gathered. On the whole the season was backward in spring and the summer was abnormally cool. There was sufficient rainfall for all crops. Fruit Growing a Successful Industry in Minnesota. A. W. RICHARDSON, FRUIT GROWER, HOWARD LAKE, MINN. It is now about eighteen years since I conceived the idea of fruit culture as a competency for old age, being then, as now, employed as representative for some concern and required to travel over this state, earning a livelihood for myself and family. The nature of my first work on the road necessitated my attendance (a large portion of the time) at Minnesota farmers' institute meetings, where I came in contact with those gentlemen employed in that work, and among the number our friend Clarence Wedge, of Albert Lea, and other personal friends, such as O. C. Gregg, the founder of the institute work, Mr. Greely, Mr. Trow and others. It was among these gentlemen I got my first desire for a piece of land, and was advised by them several times to get a piece of land, and if I could not afford to buy a large piece, to buy a small piece, which latter course I was compelled to adopt. I became imbued with a desire to grow fruit and was particularly interested in the subject of horticulture, and eagerly devoured all the literature obtainable on the subject, and listened very attentively to all discussions on the subject at these meetings. In 1897 I moved to Howard Lake and succeeded Mr. E. J. Cutts in the nursery and fruit growing business. Mr. Cutts was well known to a great many. He died just prior to my residence in Howard Lake, where I got in my first practical experience in the fruit-growing business. After conducting this business for about twelve months, I disposed of it and bought a home in another part of town and at once set out about 200 apple trees and other small fruit. Gradually I acquired more land and set out more trees, until today I have about 1,600 apple trees, about 1,000 of which are at bearing age. I made one grand mistake however, as a great many other growers have done and are still doing, I planted too many varieties. I used the list of tried and recommended sorts issued by the State Horticultural Society (long before I became a member) and planted accordingly and, like many other growers, have my quota of Hibernals, Minnesotas, Marthas and other sorts which experience has demonstrated are not nearly as desirable as other varieties. I have demonstrated to my entire satisfaction that it is profitable and perfectly proper to grow also small fruits in a young orchard. In my second orchard, containing about 600 trees, I planted the trees 15x30 feet and later the same season set out raspberries 3x6 feet, occupying all the space in the rows and between the rows, and for two successive seasons I grew a third crop between the raspberries, which plan works admirably. One mistake I made, however, was in planting a little too close to the apple trees, requiring more hoeing around the apple trees to keep the raspberries in subjection, which could have been obviated to a large extent by not planting so closely. I grew raspberries about seven years in this orchard. My returns after the second year brought me $500.00 to $700.00 annually, and I sold enough plants to more than pay me for all the labor expended on the orchard, to say nothing of corn, beans, cabbage, etc., raised the first two years between the raspberries. Now the trees are about ten years old and all bearing. I have discontinued the cultivation and have seeded to clover, which we usually mow and allow to lie and rot. [Illustration: Residence of A. W. Richardson, at Howard Lake.] I figure that outside the investment I have brought my orchard into bearing with practically no expense, having had a revenue every year since planting the trees, which are composed of Patten Greening, Hibernal, Duchess, Wealthy, Peerless, Minnesota, Virginia, Okabena and Whitney. My last orchard of 625 trees consists principally of Wealthy, and trees are set 20x20, and I am following the same plan of growing a crop between. The year 1915 makes four crops taken from this young orchard, now four years old. About two more seasons will follow this year, and then about the time for bearing I will discontinue the planting of any crop and sow it to clover. I plant one or two year old trees trimmed to a whip, digging a much larger and deeper hole than is really necessary to accommodate the roots, but I am sure this plan gives the roots a much better start than if they are crowded into a small hole, and particularly if the ground is hardpan or similar soil. Pinching off the buds the following year or two, when you commence shaping your trees to your liking, is good, thus eliminating severe pruning. I have endeavored to follow up this annual pruning when possible, often being compelled to hire additional help for this purpose, as the nature of my regular business keeps me from home when I should be pruning. I am sure you will agree with me so far that "fruit growing in Minnesota is successful." Four years ago or more I decided that in order to receive the top price for the products off my place I must produce a first class article, and so to that end I have worked. I bought a gasoline power sprayer, costing me about $300--by the way, the first one in Howard Lake, although two of us there each bought one the same spring, and now there are three power sprayers in our village. I have demonstrated that it is possible to get the top price of the market in more ways than one by furnishing a first class article. You will ask me how it is possible for me to do this and be away from home so much. I have been ably assisted by my wife, who sees that my general directions are carried out as I have outlined. This year we have marketed something over 300 barrels and have received the top market price, netting me about $500.00. I tried out a new plan this year, selling through a reliable commission firm. I have heretofore sold direct to the retailer with splendid results. 1913 was a bumper year and the market flooded everywhere with poor unsprayed stuff. I sold about 250 barrels and received an average of $3.25 per barrel, F.O.B. Howard Lake, and in 1914 about the same amount was realized. There is always a good demand for a good article, carefully picked and honestly packed, discarding all bruised and scabby or wormy apples, or those undersized or less than 2-1/2 inches in diameter. This season I sprayed my trees three times, the first time early in April, using what is known as a dormant spray, using commercial lime-sulphur solution 32 degrees Baume, 20 gallons to a tank of 200 gallons of water, or four times as strong as the two subsequent sprayings, after the blossoms fall, at which later time I use in addition arsenate of lead, 10 pounds to a 200 gallon tank of water, and work under 200 pound pressure--and by doing thorough work can produce apples almost entirely free from any disease or worms. My last shipment of apples this year was October 2nd and consisted of 196 barrels, one-third each of Hibernals, Patten Greenings and Wealthys, which brought top prices. [Illustration: Mr. A. W. Richardson, Howard Lake.] I am a firm believer in co-operative marketing and think it is the only logical way to market any crop, but to conduct a successful marketing organization there should be stringent rules compelling all who join an association for marketing to spray thoroughly if nothing else, as I am firmly convinced that you cannot grow apples and compete with other localities without doing so, and doing so every year, whether a prospect for a good crop exists or not. I can prove this, as I only partly covered my entire orchard in 1913 with spraying. You could easily see which had been sprayed and which not. Excessive rain at the vital time prevented my completion of the work. I am convinced by experience, too, that the dormant spray, usually neglected by most growers, is very necessary and am sure better and healthier foliage is obtained by this practice, and by it the scale can be controlled in a large degree. I had eight to ten Patten's Greening trees that had been attacked by a disease called by some "oyster scale." The trees abnormally lost their foliage early in the season, and I had about decided they were dead when, after a dormant spray the following spring, they entirely revived and are now as healthy as any trees on my place. I have practiced top-working to some extent and for the past three or four years have been able to put down in my cellar, several bushels of Jonathan, Grimes Golden, Delicious and other varieties. Have now about 125 Jonathan trees top-worked on Hibernals, and except for some blight they have done splendidly. There is no room for discussion, no room for argument in any way, why fruit-growing in Minnesota is not a very successful business to be engaged in. I have demonstrated, I am sure, that if I can bring an orchard into bearing and hold down a good, fairly lucrative position at the same time and do so with very little expense, and others can do the some thing. Now I am going to criticise some one and let the criticism fall where it belongs. There has been a great injustice done the commercial fruit grower, or those trying to grow fruit commercially, by advising, urging, or anything else you choose to call it, the farmer or small homekeeper to buy more fruit trees and plants than this class of individual needs for his own use. In order to receive some returns for this surplus, he rushes it into town and sells it to the best advantage, delivered in sacks, soap boxes, etc., carelessly handled and bumped into town in a lumber wagon. The merchant is loaded up with a lot of unsalable stuff and often finds himself overloaded and barrels up some and sends it to the commission row and expects some returns, which vary from nothing to a very small amount. Why, last season I knew a large general merchandise concern in a town a little west of Howard Lake that thought they had struck a gold mine. They employed a packer or two, bought barrels, rented a building and bought this class of stuff right and left, offered at any old price, $1.50 per barrel to anything they could get, and sold clear up to the Canadian line. I saw the stuff a great many times after it reached its destination, and it was hardly fit for sale at any price. This indiscriminate selling of nursery stock by eager salesmen and nurserymen is doing more to hurt the commercial fruit growing industry than any one thing. The only salvation for the grower making his living out of the business is to produce a better article, better picked, better packed and marketed through the proper channels. This matter just referred to I have often discussed by the hour, and during the past winter my views were thoroughly endorsed by prominent men in the extension work of our state. In conclusion will say, comparing the fruit industry in Minnesota with that greatest of all industry, raising grain, it is so much easier (if ordinary care be exercised) to produce a finer article, more attractive in appearance, better packed and marketed properly, than the other fellow does, while in growing grain this is not the case, as all the grain is dumped into the hopper and bin, and the individuality of the grower is forever lost. The demand for the apple has increased wonderfully the last few years, and it is quite likely to be further increased owing to the European demand for American apples, which for the next fifteen or twenty years will increase by leaps and bounds, owing to the devastating of so many of the great orchard sections in parts of Austria and northern France. This authentic information came through Mr. H. W. Collingwood, many years editor of the Rural New Yorker, and according to Mr. Collingwood's idea there has been no time in the history of the United States when the outlook for commercial orchards was so bright. He advises the widespread planting of commercial orchards to meet this new demand which has shown itself already in Europe and will greatly increase after the war is over. [Illustration: A two-acre field of Dunlap strawberries on place of A. W. Richardson, at Howard Lake.] Mr. Ludlow: I would like to know what you advise for that commercial orchard, what varieties? Mr. Richardson: Wealthys, all the time. (Applause.) Mr. Ludlow: I would like to ask for the comparative prices you received for the three apples you mentioned, Wealthy, Greening and Hibernal. Mr. Richardson: The Hibernal sold for around $3.00 a barrel and the Wealthy sold for three something. Mind you, I never sold apples at all until this year to Minneapolis markets. I can sell all the apples I can grow myself without any trouble if I have the proper men to pick them and pack them at home. I had a son that was doing that until a few years ago, and he followed my instructions and would place nothing but first class stuff in the barrels and would sell my samples without any trouble and get the top market price. I run across down in my cellar some of last year's crop of Northwest Greenings, just two of them left, one of them partially decayed. Something I never had known to happen before. They lay in the cellar just wrapped up. Mr. Ludlow: It wasn't embalmed? Mr. Richardson: No, sir. Gentlemen, you need not be afraid of growing fruit in Minnesota. Mr. Ludlow: What peculiar method have you for keeping those apples? Mr. Richardson: Just wrapped in paper only. The President: What temperature do you keep in your cellar? Mr. Richardson: 40 degrees about this time. The President: You have a heater in your cellar? Mr. Richardson: Yes, sir, but this is shut off from that, though the pipes run through. A Member: Are your trees still as far apart as they were at first? Mr. Richardson: No, sir. I neglected to say that I sent East and got some roots, and I was advised to set them out between. I have part of my orchard set 15x16, but that is too close together. A Member: If you were going to do it again would you put them 30x30? Mr. Richardson: 20x20, that is, Wealthys, particularly. Of course, for the Hibernals, you got to put them farther apart. A Member: You mentioned the Delicious. What is your opinion of the Delicious? Mr. Richardson: My experience has been so little with them. I have about 150 Jonathan trees coming on that will be all right. * * * * * MARBLE PILLAR TO FAMOUS MCINTOSH TREE.--Perhaps one of the most curious monuments in existence has recently been built in Ontario by Canadians. The farmers have just erected a marble pillar to mark the site on which grew a famous apple tree. More than a century ago a settler in Canada named McIntosh, when clearing a space in which to make a home in the wilderness, discovered among a number of wild apple trees one which bore fruit so well that he cultivated it and named it McIntosh Red. The apple became famous, and seeds and cuttings were distributed to all parts of Canada, so that now the McIntosh Red flourishes wherever apples grow in the great dominion. In 1896 the original tree from which this enormous family sprang was injured by fire, but it continued to bear fruit until five years ago. Then, after 15 years, it died, and the grateful farmers have raised a marble pillar in honor of the tree which has done so much for the fruit growing industry of their land. The story of this apple tree illustrates the African proverb that though you can count the apples on one tree, you can never count the trees in one apple.--January Popular Science Monthly. Report of Committee on Horticultural Building. S. P. CROSBY, CHAIRMAN, ST. PAUL. As you know, at the last legislature there was a bill prepared and introduced asking for an appropriation of $40,000 to build a new home for this society. It was provided, that that home should be located on the grounds of University Farm or upon the grounds of the State Agricultural Society, and that was to be left to the discretion of the executive board of this society. The bill is a very well drawn bill, and the committee appeared before the legislature some four or five times. We went before the committee of the senate and before the committee of the house and senate, and as a matter of fact the result was that the bill never came out of the committee. The cry last year, as it is every year, was that of retrenchment and low taxes. Now, that is all right as a general proposition, but Minnesota is not a poor state. In the cities of course we think we have all the taxes we ought to have, and we think they are pretty high; perhaps you gentlemen living in the country think you have as high taxes as you ought to have, but that the state, for instance, has over $30,000,000 in the school fund, probably reaching up to fifty or sixty millions some day, with other figures which can be given here, shows that Minnesota is not a poor state. On the other hand, it shows that Minnesota is a rich state. Certainly there is no good reason why it should not provide a good home for this society, which has earned it and is nearly fifty years old. Now, ladies and gentlemen, I simply want to say one thing. Don't depend upon the committee to do all this work. While we didn't get our bill through last year we came away full of courage, and just as sure as night follows the day we are going to have a new home for this society one of these days. (Applause.) But I want it distinctly understood that every member of this society, men and women--and I certainly include the women because oftentimes they are the best politicians, and they know how to talk to people and get things--when the next legislature is elected must use his or her influence with the senators and representatives of the various districts of the state and make an impression upon them and get a promise out of them to vote for and support the bill. A bill will be introduced into the next legislature, and it will probably be this same bill, and if you don't forget this, but simply do your duty in seeing these representatives and taking the matter up, why there isn't very much doubt in my judgment but what we will be successful and have our bill passed. We have members, I think, in every county of the state, haven't we, President Cashman? The President: Yes. [Illustration: Mr. S. P. Crosby, St. Paul.] Mr. Crosby: If we only have two or three in some counties, if they would make an effort to see every representative and senator and talk the matter over, that is what is going to count. It is a year or something like that before the legislature meets again, but it don't want to be forgotten, and if every live member of this society will put his shoulder to the wheel, I don't think there is any possible doubt but what we will succeed and have the bill pass. We broke the ice last winter and got acquainted with some of the people. And another thing I want to say, and that is if that bill the next time is not reported favorably out of the committee I would be in favor for one of having it reported to the house or senate without any recommendation of the committee. I talked with probably fifteen or twenty, I should say, of the different members of the senate and house about that bill, and it had a great many friends both in the house and senate. Some of them came to me and said: "Crosby, why don't you put it in the house, and we will show you how we will vote." There was a whole lot of feeling that way, because if men investigate and find out what the society is standing for and what it has done they will know it is a perfectly meritorious bill. I think with a reasonable amount of work we will accomplish a great deal, and we shall succeed eventually in having the bill passed. Another matter that is proper to speak of now is to see where the members of this organization stand. I am going to tell you something. I didn't hear it personally myself, but I did hear it from Mr. Yanish. He is a man of veracity and he told me. He said in the last legislature the Hennepin delegation used all the strength they could against this bill. If it is a rivalry between the two cities, St. Paul and Minneapolis when we propose to put the building in neither Minneapolis or St. Paul, but practically midway between the two cities, if that rivalry can go to that extent, it seems to me mighty small business. We were very careful not to conflict in any way with the state university in getting any of those appropriations they were asking for. They wanted big sums of money. We didn't conflict with them, we didn't do anything against them. We made a gentlemanly campaign and put our case before the committee. There were a number of members who were favorable, but of course there were thousands of bills in there, and it didn't get out of the committees, as I said. We see more and more every year what great necessities there are for a home for this organization. We ought to have a building like as the plans given in Mr. Latham's last report, a building that would have a fine auditorium, a fine exhibit room, a place where we are at home instead of going from place to place and meeting at different places and not having the adequate facilities we ought to have. * * * * * STORE VEGETABLES FOR THE WINTER.--The basement is often the best place on the farm for storing vegetables, says R. S. Gardner, of the University of Missouri, College of Agriculture. It must be properly built, and the temperature, moisture, and ventilation conditions kept right if the best results are to be obtained. If it is too warm the vegetables will dry and shrivel, and if the ventilation is poor, drops of water will form and the vegetables will be more likely to decay. If there is a furnace in the cellar, the storage room should be far enough away so that it can be kept cool, and during very cold weather the door may be opened to prevent freezing.--Mo. Exp. Sta. Tomatoes for the Kitchen Garden. C. W. PURDHAM, MARKET GARDENER, BROOKLYN CENTER. The first and most important thing in raising tomatoes is good seed. To raise good tomatoes does not depend so much on the variety you have as it does on the seed. In the fall select your best tomatoes and save the seed. Then about the first of April sow your seed. You can sow them in a box behind the stove, and as soon as they are up give them all the sunlight you can. When they are about two inches high, have some four-inch flower pots and transplant, giving them a good thorough wetting before removing them from the seed box to the flower pots. By this time it will be warm enough to have a cold frame, which may be prepared by nailing four boards together any size desired. One three by six feet will hold about 150 plants. Shelter it well from the north and slope it a little to the south with enough dirt in the frame to hold your pots. You can cover them with storm windows or cloth tacked onto frames. Keep well covered nights and give all the sunlight possible through the day. After danger of frost is past, set them out. Sandy loam is best, which must be well pulverized and fertilized. After you have removed the plant from the pot and set it in the ground, place the pot about two inches from the plant, also about two inches deep in the ground. Then throw a small handful of dirt in each pot and fill with water as often as necessary. This is the best way of watering that I know. Mr. Sauter: What kind do you think is the best for an early variety? Mr. Purdham: Well, the Earliana is extensively raised and the Dwarf Champion. Mr. Sauter: What do you think of the Red Pear? Mr. Purdham: I don't know anything about that, but for a late variety of tomato the Ponderosa is quite a tomato; it is a very large tomato. Mr. Sauter: How about the Globe? Mr. Purdham: That is a good tomato. Mr. Sauter: What do you know of the paper cartons instead of flower pots? Mr. Purdham: I have never tried the cartons; I should think they would be all right. Mr. Miller: In saving your seed from year to year, is there any danger of the seed running out in time? Mr. Purdham: I don't think so. If you take your best tomatoes I think you will improve them. Mr. Miller: I should think the germination of that seed would run out? Mr. Purdham: That may be, I can't say as to that. There are people that make a specialty of studying that. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, First Congressional District. F. I. HARRIS, LA CRESCENT, MINN. In making a report for the First Congressional District, I will say at the beginning, that all my observations and interviews were taken in Houston and Winona counties, an especially favored locality this year, and I am well aware that the conditions and results are exceptional and do not form a just estimate for the district and are certainly very much above the average. The apple crop in the section named was a record breaker, and where trees were at all cared for and properly sprayed the quality and size of the fruit was very superior and remarkably free from insect pests and disease. [Illustration: Bridge on Lakeside Drive, at Albert Lea, in First Congressional District.] The yield of several orchards in this vicinity was from 1,000 to 15,000 barrels of marketable fruit, an increase of nearly 100 per cent above the largest previous crop. From this station twenty-one carload lots of apples, averaging 200 barrels per car, were shipped, besides nearly as many more sold in the local markets of La Crosse and Winona and shipped in small lots by freight and express. The prices obtained were in all cases good, considering that the varieties grown are mostly summer and fall and had to be sold in competition with Iowa and Illinois fruit. While all markets were over-supplied, the demand for the quality of fruit grown here in the commercial orchards was greatly in excess of the supply and attracted buyers from Chicago and the Twin Cities and has built a permanent market so long as the quality keeps up to this year's standard. At the same time, I am more than ever impressed with the necessity for some manner of utilizing the surplus and low grade fruit with which the local markets are flooded. It seems a great waste to have thousands of bushels of apples fed to hogs and left to rot on the ground which would be a large asset if converted into vinegar or canned. More than one-half the fruit brought from farms is only fit for such use and by being forced on the market serves to lower prices and demand for good fruit. I visited one farm orchard within twenty miles of here and saw at a low estimate 400 bushels of apples lying on the ground, all of which could have been utilized in a factory, but not having been sprayed were not fit for barreling, and the owner had turned the hogs in to get rid of them. This is a condition that is sure to become worse in view of the many small orchards recently set, besides the commercial orchards that are just coming into bearing. From the reports received, in reply to circulars sent out, I gather that the crop varied from nothing to 100 per cent and the quality in corresponding ratio, depending in most cases upon whether orchards were properly sprayed or neglected. Scab and other diseases caused a large proportion of the fruit set to drop, and the remainder was unsalable in unsprayed orchards. Considerable blight is reported in a number of orchards, especially where cultivated. Trees growing in sod were noticeably free from it. Practically nothing is being done to prevent its spreading. While cutting out the affected wood may in some cases check it, I am satisfied a better remedy will have to be found before it is wiped out. In my own orchard just a few trees located on low land and under cultivation were affected, and not a single case in sod. There is from all reports an abundance of moisture in the ground, and trees are in good condition to stand a hard winter, except that in some cases the buds started during the warm days of November. The crop of strawberries was generally a very light one on account of blossoms being injured by late frosts and winter killing, but a few correspondents report a full crop. Other small fruits, including currants, raspberries and blackberries, were a practical failure and light crop. The crop of grapes was very light and in only a few favored localities ripened before killing frosts. Plums, except in a few instances, were a failure, the exceptions being in case of the Hansen hybrids. [Illustration: Residence of S.H. Drum, Owatonna, in First Congressional District--a veteran member of the society] While more varieties of apples are successfully grown in this vicinity than elsewhere in the state, and some correspondents recommend a long list, my experience and advice is to set only a few varieties of known commercial value, and while far too many early apples are being grown, this condition is better than planting winter apples of unknown hardiness and quality. The Northwestern Greening is the most profitable winter apple here, but I understand it is not hardy in some localities in the state. * * * * * ALASKAN BERRY HYBRIDS.--At the Sitka Experiment Station in Alaska a strain of hardy strawberries is in the making, the result of crosses between the native of the Alaskan coast region and cultivated varieties. Several thousand seedlings have been grown, all very vigorous and most of them productive and of high quality. The native variety of the interior of Alaska is now to be used in similar crosses. The Cuthbert raspberry has been crossed with its relatives, the native Salmonberry (_Rubus spectabilis_ Pursh.) and the Thimbleberry (_R. parviflorus_ Nutt.). The only interesting fact so far developed is that the hybrids of the two species first named are almost entirely sterile. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, Seventh Congressional District. P. H. PETERSON, ATWATER, MINN. From the answers received on blanks sent out I find there was a fair crop of apples raised throughout this district, with the trees in good condition for winter. Wood is well ripened up, leaves all shed and plenty of moisture in the soil. [Illustration: A productive strawberry field at P. H. Peterson's Atwater fruit farm.] All report none or very little blight this year. Spraying is not done generally, but those few who do it are getting results. In our own orchard, which was sprayed twice last spring, we have not found one wormy apple. Plums, none or a very few. Mr. Bjornberg, of Willmar, reports the Surprise plum a full crop, others a total failure. Compass cherry bore a fair crop, but with me it rotted badly, as also did Prof. Hansen's plums, Sapa and Opata. Grapes: Not many are grown except the Beta, which bore a heavy crop in spite of the late spring frosts. Blackberries: Nothing doing. Raspberries and strawberries were a light crop. Strawberries especially were badly damaged by late spring frosts--with me they were nearly a total failure except the everbearing, which gave us a good crop. And I want to add that they are here to stay for home use, and possibly as a market berry. Plants are fully as hardy as the June-bearing sorts. No matter how many times the blossoms are frozen off in the spring they will come right out again and give us berries until it freezes up in the fall. Currants and gooseberries were a fair crop. From the reports I gather that less nursery stock has been planted here than usual, but with good results, as the season has been favorable for plantings. The fruit list recommended by the State Horticultural Society can be relied on in this locality. There is a good deal of interest shown here in top-working the better quality winter apples onto hardy trees with good results, and the Hibernal seems to be the best stock to use--it certainly ought not to be planted for any other purpose. The apple is a drug on the market, and those who planted largely of this variety find it difficult to dispose of the crop at any price. * * * * * STUDYING FRUITS IN ILLINOIS.--Many seedling apples are being grown at the Illinois Experiment Station. Reciprocal hybridizations between standard orchard varieties and various species of the genus Malus have been made, fifty-seven species and varieties which are not of commercial importance having been obtained from the Arnold Arboretum at Boston. Direct improvement through these violent crosses is not anticipated, but it is hoped to acquire valuable information regarding the affinities of the various species used, and also to produce material for use in back crossing. Reciprocal crosses between standard orchard varieties are also being made in large numbers, while a difficult piece of work has been attempted in the reciprocal crossing of different strains of the same variety, and different individuals of the same strain. C.S. Crandall writes: "This project has aimed at the selfing of particular individuals, and the use on trees here of pollen from trees of the same variety in orchards 100 miles away and grown under quite different conditions. Considerable effort has been expended in the prosecution of this project, but up to the present time we have recorded no successful pollinations. We have not as yet a very wide range of varieties, but as far as we have gone we have encountered complete sterility in the selfing within the individuals and in the attempt to use pollen of the same variety brought from a distance. The unfortunate feature about all the hybridizing work with apples is the mongrel character of the plants on which we work. We know nothing of the parentage of any of our varieties, and it seems quite useless to speculate on what the segregation of characters may be in crosses between different varieties. A further discouraging feature in apple breeding is the long period required to get results from any particular cross. Effort is being made to shorten this period by grafting scions of hybrid seedlings on dwarf stocks and growing the plants in pots. This will help some, but at best the attainment of results is some distance in the future. We are endeavoring to maintain a reasonably complete record of every step that is taken so that a complete history may be available for those who may later continue the work. "In pursuing the projects as outlined above there are a number of minor problems that are receiving some attention: such as the retention of the vitality of pollen, the period of receptivity, the seed production in hybrid fruits, and the time for and percentage of the germination of seeds. On all of these points we are accumulating considerable information that it is hoped may be of some practical value."--Journal of Heredity. Spraying the Orchard. HON. H. M. DUNLAP, SAVOY, ILLS. I don't know whether I am out of place with this topic of mine or not with a Minnesota audience, but I came through the exhibit rooms as I came up to the hall, and whether you spray or not you certainly need to, for I saw all sorts of fungous diseases upon your fruit. I presume that these are not the poorest specimens you have--very few people, you know, bring the poorest specimens they have to an exhibition place, Mr. President, and I presume that if these are the best you have the poorest must be pretty bad in the way of fungous diseases. Of course, people don't like to have their faults told them, but if we have anything the matter with us it is best for us to find out what the matter is and then get rid of it. It is better than to do as many did in the commercial fruit-growing states a number of years ago about the San Jose scale, those that were interested in having that fact suppressed, or at least thought they were interested in having the fact suppressed that they had San Jose scale within the confines of their state. They didn't want that information to get out, so they didn't discuss the matter of San Jose scale in their societies. In Illinois we took a different view of that proposition, and it was, that we had the San Jose scale and we thought the thing to do was to stamp it out, to get after it. So we agitated that subject in our society and talked about it. We had the state entomologist canvass the entire state to find out where the San Jose scale was doing its work and gave him authority to go in and spray those places or cut down the trees and get them out of the way. The effect of that work is very evident. The people of other states would point to us saying that they did not have the scale but that we had because we reported the fact, but I know they now have it a great deal worse than we do because of this neglect. In this matter of spraying and spraying materials, if we go back in history--we have to look for truth wherever we find it, whether it comes from low or high sources. As a matter of fact thieves and sheep ticks and ignorance are largely responsible for our spraying and the spraying materials of today. It doesn't sound very well in a scientific body to talk that way, but truth is truth wherever you find it, whether it comes from the university professor or from the farmer. If we recognize truth, from whatever source it comes, then we are open-minded and can take advantage of things that will be greatly to our benefit. In the matter of spraying materials: They were discovered through accident, in an effort to prevent thieving in the vineyards of Bordeaux, France. It seems that workmen on the way to their places of employment were in the habit of foraging on the vineyards of the farmers along the way. To prevent that some of the fruit growers conceived the idea it would be a good thing in order to scare them to get blue vitriol and mix it with water and spray it on the fruit along the roadside. Later in the season, very much to their surprise, they found that the grapes that were treated in that way were not affected with the brown rot. So they tried it again to see whether they were right about that being the cause, and it wasn't long before they used it for that purpose. They stopped the thieving, but they also discovered a scientific truth, that the Bordeaux mixture was a fungicide and that fact has been of immense value to the world since then. When the San Jose scale came into this country from the west, some man who had used sheep dip for sheep ticks, said: "If it is a good thing against sheep ticks, why isn't it good against this little vermin they call the San Jose scale?" He tried it on the trees, and he found that it was an effective remedy for the San Jose scale. So we have lime-sulphur today as one of the spray materials in very common use. Among other things the scientists told us we couldn't use lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead together, that they would have to be sprayed over the orchard in separate sprays, that is, we would have to go over the orchard with lime-sulphur and then again with arsenate of lead, that when you combined the two the chemical combination was such that it deteriorated the lime-sulphur. Some farmer who didn't know about that scientific proposition determined to put them both on together, and he found that it not only worked all right but that the two were really more effective when combined than if put on separately. So you see it was thieves, sheep ticks and ignorance that are responsible for three of our most successful ways of spraying at the present time. Now, scientific men have come in and given us a great deal of information along various lines in regard to spraying, and I don't decry science in any sense at all. These men, while they were not scientifically educated, discovered scientific truths, and it is truths we want after all. Just what your position on this spraying proposition is here in Minnesota, whether you have commercial orchards up here or not, I have not been able to discover. I presume that your plantings here are very largely that of the farmer and amateur rather than the commercial orchardist. In Illinois we have our large commercial orchards, and we have gotten beyond the question of whether it pays us to spray or not. For a man to be in the commercial apple business in Illinois and not spray means that he doesn't accomplish very much and his product doesn't bring him any profit. Now, whether you spray commercially or whether you spray for your family orchard in an amateur way, it doesn't matter so far as the spraying is concerned--you should spray in either case. If you have a community where you have few orchards and they are small, it behooves you to get together and buy a spraying outfit, combine with your neighbors and buy a good spraying outfit, and then have some man take that matter up who will do it thoroughly in that neighborhood and pay him for doing it. In that way, if you hire it done, it doesn't interfere with your farming operations and gets your spraying done on time. I have noticed this with stockmen and with grain farmers, men who are not directly interested in fruit but combine it with their regular business, that they consider fruit growing a side line and such a small part of their business that they usually neglect it altogether. In the matter of the spraying they keep putting it off until tomorrow. When the time arrives for spraying you must do it _today_ and not put it off until tomorrow. Time is a very essential element in spraying. To give you an illustration: A few years ago, in spraying a Willow Twig orchard, consisting of eighteen rows of trees, I sprayed nine rows of those trees, or about half of the orchard, we will say, the first part of the week, the first two days. And then there came on a two or three days' rain, and the balance of those eighteen rows was sprayed the very last of the week or the first of the following week. The two following sprayings went on just at the right time for them, but when it came to the harvesting of that crop the trees that were sprayed first, that were sprayed immediately after the bloom fell, produced 175 bushels of very fine No. 1 fruit, free from scab, while the other nine rows, equal in every respect so far as the trees are concerned and the amount of bloom there was, produced seventeen bushels of No. 2 fruit, no No. 1 fruit at all. The Willow Twig is one of those varieties that is very susceptible to scab, and of course this is a marked illustration of what happens if you don't spray at the right time. Notwithstanding the fact that the nine rows, the last ones, I speak of, were sprayed with the two following sprays at the same time that the other part of the orchard was sprayed, the results were entirely different because the first spraying, which was really the important one so far as the scab is concerned, was not put upon the tree at the right time. The scab fungus, which seems to appear on your apples out here, is one of the most insidious diseases we have in the whole fruit industry. I think that scab fungous disease is probably the one that affects you the most. Now, scab fungus will not be noticed particularly in the spring of the year. The time that those spores are most prevalent, the period of their movement as spores in the atmosphere and the lodging upon the fruit, is right at the beginning, right about the time of the blossoming or immediately following. For a period of about two weeks at blooming time and after is the time that you have that condition. And the trouble is--it is just like typhoid fever. You let typhoid fever get into a family, and they do not think anything of it except to take care of the patient properly if he has it, but it doesn't scare the neighbors, it does not interest them. But let the smallpox break out in a community, and everybody is interested and scared to death for fear they are going to get the smallpox. Well now, as compared with things of a fungous nature, the scab is a good deal like typhoid fever. The latter is insidious and it will destroy more--I take it there are more people die in the United States of typhoid fever every year than die of smallpox, ten to one. I haven't the statistics but I have that in mind, that it is a fact that they do, and yet there isn't half the fuss made about typhoid fever that there is about smallpox. Now, that is so about the scab fungous disease. In Illinois, to illustrate, we have what is called the bitter rot fungus in the southern part of the state. If any one has the bitter rot they are scared to death, they think they are suffering untold misfortune. The bitter rot attacks the apples when nearly grown. The ground is covered with the rotted apples, and you can see them in the trees, but this little bit of scab fungus, they do not seem to notice that. The reason is this, that scab comes from very minute spores that appear upon the apples in May or June, and as the summer advances they spread more and more. It depends, of course, upon the amount of moisture there is present, but it begins its work when the apples are very small. If it gets upon the stem of the apple it works around the stem and the apple drops off, and you have apples dropping from the time they are the size of peas until the very last of the fall, and while it looks in the month of June as if you are going to have a good crop of apples when it comes harvest time your crop has diminished greatly or to nothing, and you wonder where it has gone. With this scab fungus they just keep dropping, dropping, all through the season; whenever you have a little rain or wind these apples that are affected will drop off. You don't notice them very much because they go so gradually, one at a time or so, and you don't notice you are having any particular loss until it comes fall, and you find that your crop is very small. That is why I say, you should wake up to the fact that it is necessary for you to spray if you are going to have perfect fruit and plenty of it--and I doubt not you could increase the amount of fruit you have in the State of Minnesota by ten times in one year by simply spraying your orchards thoroughly at the proper time with fungicide. To do this, as I said, you must have a spraying outfit, individually or collectively, in your neighborhood, and if you get one individually you can take the contract to spray your neighbor's trees, if you wish, and get back enough to pay you for the outlay. If you have only a few trees and you have some one who understands it, you could just as well spray a few other orchards in the neighborhood and get your spraying done for nothing in that way, charging them enough to cover the cost and enough for some profit. That is done in some sections and is a very satisfactory way. The only way, however, that I would do this, if I were you, would be to enter into a joint arrangement of not less than five years, because if you do it from year to year, if a man has good fruit one year, he may say, "I guess I don't want to go to that expense this year; I will drop that." You know how it is. If you make a contract for five years then you can make your plans accordingly and get your material and your spraying outfit and everything. I wouldn't trust to a one-year plan because they get "cold feet," as the saying is, after the first year, and perhaps they have not noticed any great advantage and they back out, but if they keep it up five years they wouldn't be without it. In a small way it isn't necessary to have a high power, high pressure engine to do this spraying with. A _good_ hand pump, as they make them now, has a very efficient force in applying this spray. It is not the force with which the spray material is applied that makes it effective, so much as it is the thoroughness with which it is done. You have to do a thorough job. In spraying you are providing insurance for your apple crop. That is just what it means, and not to spray is like doing without fire insurance on your buildings. You do that, not because you want fire, but you are doing it for protection, you are going to be on the safe side. You are doing like the darkey woman when she was about to be married. She had been working as cook, and the day came for her to be married. That morning she brought a roll of bills down to the boss. She said: "Mr. Johnson, I wish you would keep this money for me. I's gwine to be married." He said: "Is that so? But why do you come to me with this? I should think having a husband you would have him take care of it for you." She said: "Lord a' massy. Do you think I was gwine to have that money around the house wid dat strange nigger there? No, sir." (Laughter.) That lady was taking the precaution of being on the safe side, and that is what we do when we spray our orchards, we are going to be safe. There are a great many kinds of spraying materials. There is the bordeaux, one of our best fungicides, but we find in Illinois that it also, while it is a good fungicide, has the effect sometimes of burning the fruit if the weather conditions are just right. If you have pretty fair weather conditions up here and don't have too much rain, you probably would not get your fruit affected too much, and if you are not growing it for market it doesn't matter so much because all it does is to russet the fruit. It doesn't do any particular harm except when the scab fungus is especially bad, for then it does injure the foliage more or less. On the whole, in Illinois, we are using the lime-sulphur in preference to the bordeaux, and our commercial orchard growers there have completely abandoned the bordeaux except for bitter rot fungus or blotch fungus, which comes late in the season. The spray just before the bloom is a very important one for the scab fungus. After you can see the pink of the bloom on the trees as they begin to look pink, before the blossoms open, put on your lime-sulphur, or you can use bordeaux mixture at that time if you prefer it, without injury to your fruit. (To be continued in April No.) Everbearing Strawberries. GEO. J. KELLOGG, JANESVILLE, WIS. A few words about this new breed. Progressive, Superb and Americus are the best three I have found in the last ten years--don't confound American with Americus. Pan-American was the mother of the whole tribe. This variety was found in a field of Bismark, by S. Cooper, New York, and exhibited all through the Buffalo World's Fair. There is where my first acquaintance with it was formed. From this one plant and its seedlings all the ten thousand everbearers have been grown. But Pan-American don't make many plants. There are a great many good kinds in the ten thousand, and a great many of them worthless. So look out when and where you buy. I have great hopes of your No. 1017, but kinds do not adapt themselves to all soils or climates. I have not found any success with the everbearers south of the Ohio. I have tried them three years in Texas. I sent plants to Bro. Loring, in California, and they failed to produce satisfactorily. Missouri grows almost all Aroma; California but two kinds commercially; Texas only Excelsior and Klondike for shipment. I hope our No. 3 Minnesota June-bearing and our No. 1017 Everbearing, will have as great a range as Dunlap. Friend Gardener, of Iowa, has a lot of "thousand dollar kinds." I hope some of them will do wonders. He sold 5,000 quarts of fruit after August 15. A firm at Three Rivers, Mich., this season advertised 30,000 cases in September, but perhaps it was only 3,000; I have known printers to make mistakes. My boy's beds of Superb, Progressive and Americus were loaded with ripe and green fruit and blossoms October 1st this year. Most, if not all, know the fruit must be kept off the everbearers the season of planting till the plants get established, usually two or three months, then let them bear. If you want all fruit, keep off the runners; if all plants, keep off the fruit. Beds kept over that have exhausted themselves will need rest till July to give big crops. Beds kept over will fruit a week earlier than the June varieties, rest a few weeks, then give a fall crop, but don't expect too much unless you feed them. There are ten thousand kinds of new everbearers, so don't buy any that have not been tried and proven worthy. There are thousands that are worthless. Friend Haralson only got No. 1017 out of 1,500 sorts. He has now 3,000 new kinds, set out four feet apart each way, he is testing. From what many growers are doing this breed will pay commercially, but it will be by experts. I have not time to advocate cultivation in hills or hedge rows; if you want big berries this is the way to get them. Be sure your straw mulch and manure mulch are free from noxious weed or clover and grass seeds. Everbearers need the same winter care as June varieties and a good deal more manure. Don't cover with asparagus tops unless free of seed. Put manure either fresh or rotted on the old bed with a manure spreader or evenly by hand. There is a possibility of manuring too heavily. [Illustration: A typical everbearing strawberry plant as it appears in September.] Mr. Durand: What is the best spray for leaf-spot and rust in strawberries? Mr. Kellogg: Cut it out and burn it, but then there are some sprays with bordeaux mixture that will help you, but you have got to put it on before the rust shows itself. Mr. Miller: I would like to ask Mr. Kellogg if he advises covering the strawberries in the winter after snow has fallen and with what success? Mr. Kellogg: If the snow isn't too heavy you can do it just as well after the snow comes as before, but if your snow comes early and is a foot deep you have got to wait until the January thaw before you can successfully mulch them. That snow will protect them until it thaws off, until the ground commences to freeze. If the snow comes early and stays late it is all the mulch you need. Mr. Franklin: Are oak leaves as they blow off from the trees on the strawberry beds, are they just as good to protect them as straw would be--when there are lots of oak leaves? Mr. Kellogg: If you don't put them on too thick. You don't want more than two inches of leaves. If you do they will mat down and smother your plants. Mr. Ludlow: Have you had any experience with using cornstalks that have been fed off, just the stalk without the leaves. Is that sufficient for a winter protection without the straw or leaves? I put on mine just to cover them. They are four inches apart one way and then across it the other way so as to hold it up and not get them smothered. Mr. Kellogg: That is all right. I have covered with cornstalks. Mr. Ludlow: Would it be policy to leave that on and let the strawberries come up through, to keep them clean? Mr. Kellogg: If you get the stalks on one way and haven't them covered too thick the other way, leave them on; the strawberries will come through. Mr. Gowdy: I would like to ask Mr. Kellogg what he thinks of planting different varieties together. Mr. Kellogg: It is a good plan. I spoke of Dunlap and Warfield. The Warfield is a pistillate. If you plant all Warfields you get no fruit. If you plant all Dunlap it will bear well but it will do better alongside of a pistillate, or it will do better alongside of some other perfect. It will do better to plant two or four kinds. They used to ask me what kinds of strawberries I wanted, and what was the best one kind. I told them I wanted six or eight in order to get the best kind. I want an early, and a medium, and a late, two of a kind. Mr. Gowdy: I planted one year three varieties with great success. Mr. McClelland: What time do you uncover your strawberries? Mr. Kellogg: I don't uncover them at all. If you got on four inches of mulch you want to take off enough so the plants can get through, but keep on enough mulch in the spring to keep your plants clean and protect from the drouth. Mr. McClelland: Will they come through the mulch all right? M. Kellogg: They will come through all right if it isn't more than two inches. If they shove up and raise the mulch open it up a little over the plants. Mr. Willard: I would like to ask the speaker, the way I understood him, why he couldn't raise as good strawberries on new ground as on old ground? Mr. Kellogg: The soil seems to be too loose. Now, that twenty-one acres I had, it was full of leaf-mold. It was six inches deep and had been accumulating for ages. I couldn't account for it only that it was too loose, and I had to work it down with other crops before I could grow strawberries. Mr. Willard: So it would be better to plant on old ground or old breaking than new? Mr. Kellogg: Yes, old ground that has been well manured, or old ground that has never been manured, will grow better strawberries than new soil, as far as I have tried it. New clover soil is a good soil. Mr. Wedge: It might add to the value of this discussion to state that Mr. Kellogg's soil at Janesville is rather light soil anyhow. I am under the impression that if his soil at Janesville which produced so poorly on new soil had been a heavy clay soil that the result would have been different. Mr. Kellogg: That twenty-one acres was clay after you got down to it and was in the woods; my other fields were out on the prairie. I don't think the light soil had anything to do with it, with my failure in the woods, I think it was the new soil. Mr. Sauter: Can the everbearing and the common varieties be planted together? Mr. Kellogg: Yes, if you are growing plants you want everything. Mr. Sauter: How far apart must they be planted? Mr. Kellogg: So their runners won't run together, and they won't mix. If the runners mix maybe you would get some crosses that are valuable. Mr. Clausen: I was just thinking it might interfere, that some one might not plant strawberries at all on account of new soil. I would say I have a neighbor, and he had entirely new soil. It was black oak and hickory--I have some of that myself. I never saw a better patch of strawberries than he had. I don't think I ever saw a better strawberry patch than he had of the everbearing kind, so I don't think it is just exactly the old soil. Mr. Willis: I have my strawberries on new ground, and they did very fine, couldn't be better. From a space of five feet square I got twenty-eight boxes, that is, of No. 3. Mr. Wedge: Forest soil or prairie? Mr. Willis: It was light clay. I have got about an acre and a half on new soil now, and they look very fine. Mr. Glenzke: What would be the consequence of the berries being planted after tomatoes had been planted there the year before? What would be the consequence as to the white grub that follows the tomatoes, and other insects? Mr. Kellogg: That white grub don't follow tomatoes, if the ground was clear of white grubs before. It is a three year old grub, and it don't come excepting where the ground is a marsh or meadow, and doesn't follow in garden soil, hardly ever. If the ground has been cultivated two years, you don't have any white grub. Mr. Glenzke: Part of this ground had been in red raspberries, and I found them there. This year I am going to put in tomatoes and prepare it for strawberries. Will that be all right? Mr. Kellogg: You may get some white grubs after the raspberry bushes if your raspberries have been two or three years growing. Potato ground is the best you can follow strawberries with. Mr. Rasmussen (Wisconsin): What trouble have you experienced with overhead irrigation with the strawberries in the bright sunshine? Mr. Kellogg: Everything is against it. You wet the foliage, and it is a damage to the plants. You can't sprinkle in the hot sun without damage. Mr. Rasmussen: I didn't mean in putting it on in that way, but where you use the regular spray system. We watered that way about seven years in the hottest sunshine without any difficulty, and I wondered if you ever put in a system and sprayed that way, as I think that is the only way to put water on. Mr. Kellogg: If you wait to spray after sundown it will be all right; the sun mustn't shine on the plants. Mr. Richardson: Mr. Yankee once said in this society if one man said anything another man would contradict it. So pay your money and take your choice. I sprinkle my strawberries in the hot sun, and I never had any damage done to the plants. His experience is different. Ours is a heavy clay loam. Mr. Kellogg: Tell the gentlemen about the peat soil, you had some experience with peat soil. Mr. Richardson: No, I never did. It wasn't peat, it was a heavy black clay and I had the best kind of strawberries, they came right through a tremendous drouth without any water at all. Mr. Kellogg: What did you use? Mr. Richardson: I used a common garden hoe. Mr. Willis: I heard some one talking about the grub worm. I read of somebody using fifty pounds of lime to the acre, slaked lime, and 100 pounds of sulphur to the acre in a strawberry bed, and he killed the insects. Mr. Kellogg: I think that wouldn't kill the grub; he has a stomach that will stand most anything. The only thing I know is to cut his head off. (Laughter.) Mr. Willis: Would it improve the plants, fertilize the plants, this lime? Mr. Kellogg: Lime and sulphur is all right, and the more lime you put on the better--if you don't get too much. (Laughter.) Mr. Sauter: I am growing the Minnesota No. 3, and also the No. 1017 as an everbearer. Is there any kind better than those two? Mr. Kellogg: I don't believe there is anything yet that has been offered or brought out that I have examined thoroughly that is any better than June variety No. 3, as grown by Haralson, and the No. 1017 of the everbearers. He had a number of everbearers that bore too much. There was No. 107 and No. 108, I think, that I tried at Lake Mills, which bore themselves to death in spite of everything I could do. Mr. Simmons: The question has come up two or three times in regard to peat soil for growing strawberries. Peat soil will grow strawberry plants first class, but the fruit is generally lacking. That is my experience. I grew some on peat soil for two or three seasons, and the plants grew prolific, but I didn't get any fruit. Mr. Ebler: I would like to ask Mr. Kellogg what treatment he would advise for a strawberry bed that through neglect has matted completely over, in which the rows have disappeared. Mr. Kellogg: Plow out paths and rake out the plants and throw them away and work the bed over to rows about two feet wide. President Cashman: I see you all appreciate expert advice. We have Mr. Kellogg well nigh tired. Mr. Kellogg: Oh, no; I can stand it all day. Mr. Cashman: I am sure you all agree that it is a great privilege to listen to Mr. Kellogg on this subject. If you will follow his advice very closely it will save you a great many dollars, even to those who don't grow more than an ordinary family strawberry bed. He has had forty or fifty years of experience, and he has paid large sums of money for that experience and now turns it over to you free of charge, and I hope you will all profit by it. Mr. Kellogg: I have grown probably 300 different varieties of strawberries, and the more kinds I grow the less money I make. (Laughter.) Mr. Wedge: I would like to ask Mr. Kellogg and I think we would all be interested in knowing when he began growing strawberries? Mr. Kellogg: Well, I don't hardly know. I didn't go into the business until 1852, but I commenced picking strawberries in 1835, and that was where the Indians had planted them. My father commenced growing strawberries when I was a boy, but when I got to be a man I went at it myself in 1852. (Applause.) _IN MEMORIAM--Mrs. Melissa J. Harris_ Passed January 29, 1916. Mrs. Melissa J. Harris, widow of the late John S. Harris, one of the charter members of our society and rightly called the godfather of the society, passed to her reward on January 29 last, at the age of eighty-five years. Since the death of her husband, which occurred in March, 1901, Mrs. Harris has made her home with some one of her four surviving children, all of whom live in the southeastern part of the state, not far from La Crescent, where Mr. and Mrs. Harris resided from 1856 up to the time of Mr. Harris' death, some forty-five years. [Illustration: Mrs. Melissa J. Harris.] Many of the older members of this society have enjoyed the hospitality of this kindly home, among them the writer, who passed a very pleasant day there, looking over the experimental orchards of Mr. Harris, some twenty years ago. No member of our society surpassed Mr. Harris in his zeal for its welfare, and he was ready to sacrifice anything apparently to advance its interests. If the card index of the reports of this society was examined it would be found that no member has begun to do the service for the society in the way of contributions to its program, reports on seedling fruits, experimental work, etc., that was done by him. His passing left a real void in the life of the association which has never really been filled. A splendid life size photo of Mr. Harris adorns the walls of this office; a reproduction from this in reduced size is opposite page 161, Vol. 1901 of our annual reports. The funeral services of Mrs. Harris were conducted in the Presbyterian church at La Crescent, the same building in which services were held for her husband, at which there were present from our society as representatives Mr. J.M. Underwood, the late Wyman Elliot, and the writer. Her body was laid to rest beside that of her husband in Prospect Hill Cemetery at La Crescent. Mrs. Harris is survived by four children, ten grandchildren, and nine great-grandchildren. Frank I. Harris, one of the two sons, is well known to our membership who attend the annual meetings or the state fair; another son, Eugene E., who is also a life member (Mr. Harris saw to it that both of his sons were made life members during his life time) has occasionally been with us. Mr. D.C. Webster, of La Crescent, at present in charge of one of the society trial stations, is a grandson of Mrs. Harris. Exhibitors at our meetings and at the state fair are all well acquainted with this valuable member of our organization.--Secy. EAT MINNESOTA APPLES. Contributed monthly by R. S. MACKINTOSH, Horticulturist, Extension Division, University Farm, St. Paul. FRUIT NOTES. Early spring is the best time to prune apple trees. More and more attention is being given to the pruning of young and old trees in order that they may be able to support large loads of fruit. Yet too many trees have been neglected and now look like brush heaps instead of fruit trees. Neglected trees should have all dead and interlocking branches removed this year. Next year a few more needless branches should be taken out and some of the others shortened. After this a little attention each year will keep the tree in good form. Each year the Agricultural Extension Division of the University of Minnesota arranges for pruning and spraying demonstrations in different orchards of the state. Communities wishing this kind of help, should at once send in petitions signed by fifteen or more persons interested in fruit growing. Send applications to Director, Agricultural Extension Division, University Farm, St. Paul. Pruning is a good subject for farmers' clubs to take up in March and April. Look out for rabbit injury this spring. Apple trees cost too much GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. _Cypripedia_, by Miss Clara Leavitt. The showy lady's slipper (C. hirsutum) is found in swamps and rich meadows. Old settlers tell of gathering the pink and white "moccasin flower" by the bushel, to decorate for some special occasion. Today we are trying to shield a few in their last hiding places. The draining of swamps and cutting of meadows has had much to do with their disappearance. The picking of the leafy stem by the ruthless "flower lover" cripples the plant for a season or more and frequently kills it outright. Attempts to transfer it to the home garden have succeeded for a year or so but rarely longer, perhaps because its native habitat is very difficult to duplicate. The small yellow lady's slipper (C. parviflorum), found in bogs, and the large yellow (C. parviflorum var. pubescens), growing on hillsides and in rich woods, as well as in swamps, are the most widely distributed and best known of this genus. They have often been transferred from the wild to the home garden. Where they have been given their native soil and environment the stock has increased and seedlings have developed. They have even been brought into conservatory or window garden and forced to flower in February. The crimson stemless lady's slipper (C. acaule) is found in drier woods and on the stump knolls of swamps in certain locations. It has with difficulty been established in a few gardens. The small white lady's slipper (C. candidum) occurs locally in boggy meadows. It is a very dainty plant. It grows in at least one wild garden. The ram's head lady slipper (C. arietinum) is very rare and local. It is a very delicate and pretty thing, purple and white in color. All of these species are to be seen in season in the Wild Garden of the Minneapolis Park System. * * * * * Committee on the protection of Cypripedia: Mrs. Phelps Wyman, chairman; Miss Clara Leavitt, Miss M. G. Fanning, Mrs. C. E. C. Hall, Mrs. E. C. Chatfield, Mr. Guy Hawkins. * * * * * Our plant exchange should be of great benefit to our members, such a fine beginning having been made last spring. Send a list of the plants you have for exchange and those you would like to receive to our secretary. These will be posted upon the bulletin board at our meetings, where exchanges can be arranged between the members. * * * * * March 23. Public Library, Minneapolis, 2:30 p.m. Meeting of Garden Flower Society. Program: Our Garden Enemies. Cultural Directions for Trial Seeds. Distribution of Trial Seeds. Minnesota Cypripedia. Have they responded to Cultivation? BEE-KEEPER'S COLUMN Conducted by FRANCES JAGER, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul. IMPORTANCE OF GOOD QUEENS. The government census of 1910 gives the average of honey production per colony for the State of Minnesota at five pounds per colony. Allowing for mistakes which were made in making up this census, there is no doubt that the average amount of honey produced by a colony is not nearly as high as efficient beekeeping would make it. When some well known beekeepers will average year after year fifty, seventy and even a hundred pounds per colony, there must be something wrong with those who fall far below this amount. There are many causes responsible for this failure of honey crops. Bad management, no management at all, antiquated or impossible equipment, locality, etc., are all factors contributing towards a shortage in the honey crop, but poor queens are the most universal cause of disappointment. The queen being the mother of the whole colony of bees, the hive will be what she is. If she is of a pure, industrious, gentle, hardy and prolific strain, the colony over which she presides will be uniform, hard working, easy to handle, easy to brave the inclemency of the weather and the severity of our winters, and populous in bees. The bees partake of the characteristics of the queen. The fact of the matter is, that more than 90% of our Minnesota queens are either black Germans or hybrids, neither of which lend themselves to pleasant and profitable beekeeping. Having been inbred for years will make them still less valuable, and most of them have been inbred for generations. Among many things in which the beekeepers of Minnesota should begin to improve their beekeeping possibilities, the necessity of good queens comes first. With a new strain of pure, gentle, industrious, leather colored Italian bees, their love for beekeeping should receive a new impetus, leading them to better equipment and better management. It was with this point in view that the University of Minnesota has secured the best breeding queens obtainable from which to raise several thousands of queens for the use of beekeepers of the state. These queens will be sold each year during the months of June, July and August at a nominal price of fifty cents each, and not more than three to each beekeeper. The University is ready to book orders now. There is such a demand for these queens that last year only one-quarter of the orders could be filled. Given three pure Italian queens to start with, a beekeeper may easily re-queen his whole bee-yard in the course of a year. Detailed printed instructions how to proceed will be sent out to all buyers of queens free of charge. Time has come to start bee-keeping on a more profitable basis, and the first step towards better success should be a new strain of queens. ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES By F.L. WASHBURN, Professor of Entomology, University of Minnesota. RABBITS; RABBIT-PROOF FENCES; FIELD MICE. Probably the thoughtful orchardist has before this date visited his orchard and trampled the deep snow down around his young fruit trees for a distance of two feet on all sides of each trunk, thus preventing rabbits from reaching the trunk above the protected part, or from eating the branches in the case of low-headed trees. Even at this date, this should be done where the snow lies deep. Frequent tramplings about the young trees also protects the trees from possible injury by field mice working beneath the snow. This leads us to speak of our experiences with so-called "rabbit-proof" fencing. In the summer time, when an abundance of food is everywhere offered, these small mesh fences are generally effective barriers, but, in the case of the low fences, drifting snow in winter permits an easy crossing, and in the case of the higher fences which have the narrow mesh at the bottom, gradually widening toward the top, it is possible for a rabbit to get his head and body through a surprisingly small space between the wires. The writer was astonished, late last autumn, previous to any snowfall, to see one of these pests, which had jumped from its "nest" in his (the writer's) covered strawberry-bed, run to the inclosing fence, which was provided with the long, narrow mesh above alluded to, raise himself on his hind feet and push his way through a space not more than three inches wide. It would seem, therefore, that one should accept with some reservation the assertion that these fences are actually "rabbit-proof." PREPAREDNESS FOR (INSECT) WAR. However one may regard the agitation for or against preparing this country for (or against) war, we are doubtless of all one mind as to the desirability of being prepared to successfully cope with the various insect-pests which are sure to arrive during the coming spring and summer to attack shrubs, fruit trees, berry bushes, melons, cucumbers and practically all of our vegetables. The Entomologist has every reason to be thankful that, early last spring, he laid in a supply of arsenate of lead, Black Leaf No. 40, commercial lime-sulphur, tree tanglefoot, tobacco dust, also providing himself with an abundance of air-slaked lime and a spraying outfit suitable for use in a small experiment garden and orchard at Lake Minnetonka. All gardeners, particularly those who cannot quickly purchase such things on account of distance from a supply, should take time by the forelock and obtain materials now, that they may be ready at hand when very much needed. AN IMPORTANT DISCOVERY IN ENTOMOLOGY. An item of importance, and quite far-reaching in its significance is the fact (as reported at the recent meeting of entomologists at Columbus) that the odor in stable manure which attracts house flies, has been "artificially" produced, if that expression may be used, by a combination of ammonia and a little butyric acid. A pan of this, covered by cotton, attracted hundreds of flies which deposited their eggs thereon. The possibilities of making use of this new-found fact are most promising, and the discovery is especially significant in that it opens an immense and practically an untried field in entomological work; that is, the making use of different odors to attract different species of insects. A series of experiments in this direction with the Mediteranean fruit fly, also recently reported, have been most surprising but too extensive to permit of discussion here. * * * * * Nurserymen intending to import currants or gooseberries from Europe will be interested in learning that there is a possibility of a federal quarantine on shrubs of this genus grown abroad. State Entomologist Circular No. 36, issued in January, 1916, and entitled the "Red Rose Beetle," by S. Marcovitch (illustrated), is available for distribution. Application should be accompanied by one cent stamp. SECRETARY'S CORNER PLANT COMMERCIAL ORCHARDS.--It is well established that in certain localities at least in the state commercial orcharding is on a safe basis, offering reasonable financial profits if managed by those who take pains to inform themselves on the subject, and are then thorough going enough to practice what they know. This spring will be a good time to plant such an orchard. Orchard trees of suitable size were never more plentiful in the nurseries, and undoubtedly the sorts which you wish to plant can be readily purchased. Ask some of your nearest nurseries for prices as to 500 trees, either two or three years old, whichever you prefer. GIVE YOUR NEIGHBOR A CHANCE TOO.--This means that you should not be satisfied simply in having secured something of value to yourself, but pass on to others the valuable opportunity which you yourself are enjoying. It is a well established principle of life that the greatest happiness consists in giving happiness to others. As any member can do his neighbor a favor, without any expense to himself, and indeed with profit, by putting his neighbor in touch with the valuable facilities offered by the Horticultural Society, there is evidently a double reason why he should do so. For the small membership fee charged you can put into his hands all the material referred to on the next page. Read it over and lend your neighbor a helping hand. TIMELY NOTES IN OUR MONTHLY.--There will be in our monthly magazine during most of the rest of the months of the year five pages devoted to timely topics. The experience of the past year or two in this direction encourages us to believe that this will prove to be the most valuable portion of our monthly. One page, as heretofore, will be operated in the interest of garden flowers, edited by Mrs. E. W. Gould; another page, prepared by Prof. R.S. Mackintosh, under the head of "fruit notes," which subject indicates clearly its purpose. Prof. Francis Jager, the Apiarist at University Farm, will prepare another page, pertaining to the keeping of bees. Prof. F.L. Washburn, the State Entomologist, will have a page devoted to insect life as interesting the horticulturist. The fifth page will be handled by Profs. A.G. Ruggles and E.C. Stakman jointly devoted entirely to the subject of "spraying." Each issue of the magazine will contain these notes as applying to the month just following. They will be found well worth studying. ARE YOU A LIFE MEMBER?--Of course if you are interested in the work of the Horticultural Society and likely to live ten years you ought to be a life member. Experience with this roll for twenty-five years now as secretary of the society indicates that a life membership in the society is almost an assurance that you will prolong your days. A list of deaths in the life membership roll published year by year would indicate that our life members are going to be with us far beyond the average span of human life. Since publishing a list of new life members in the February Horticulturist, there have been added to this life list five names: Tosten E. Dybdal, Elbow Lake, Minn.; Gust Carlson, Excelsior; A.N. Gray, Deerwood; A.M. Christianson, Bismarck, N.D.; Chas. H. Lien, St. Cloud. If you have already paid your annual fee for this year, send us $4.00 more and your name will be placed on the life roll with the balance of $5.00 to be paid one year from how--or send $9.00, and that makes a full payment. [Illustration: HORTICULTURAL BUILDING (SHOWING NEW GREENHOUSES ATTACHED) AT UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. ANTHONY PARK, MINN.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 APRIL, 1916 No. 4 Dwarf Apple Trees. DR. O.M. HUESTIS, MINNEAPOLIS. I have here a sample of McIntosh Red grown on a standard tree--a beautiful apple and well colored. Here I have the same variety grown on one of my dwarf trees, not quite as well colored. Now, the dwarf tree that bore these apples has been planted two years; this is the second year of its growth in my own ground at Mound, on Lake Minnetonka. I have sixty dwarf trees, five of which have been in eight years, and they have borne six crops of apples. The last ones I got two years ago, and they were two years old when I got them. I planted five of these dwarf trees at the same time that I planted forty standards. The dwarfs have borne more fruit than the standards up to date. Of course, they have only been in eight years. The standards are Wealthy, Duchess, Northwestern Greening and one or two Hibernal and some crabs; the dwarf stock is the Doucin. It is not the Paradise stock, which is grown in England largely and some in France and Germany. My trees are a little higher than my head, and I keep them pruned in a certain way. One of my older trees the second year had ninety-six apples on it. It was a Yellow Transparent, and they came to maturity very well. Several of my trees are about four feet high. I had from twenty-five to fifty apples on them, and they all ripened nicely. The Red Astrachan and the Gravenstein and one Alexander had a few apples on them, and I notice that they are well loaded with fruit buds for another year, which will be the third year planted. The care of these trees is probably a little more difficult than that of the standard tree, or, at least, I give them special care. I have attempted to bud into some of these, but in my experience they do not take the bud very well. I can take a bud from one of the dwarfs and put it on a standard, and it will grow all right, but I can't take a bud from a standard and put it on a dwarf as successfully. I judge it is because it isn't as rapid growing as the Hibernal, for instance, would be. I notice the Hibernal is the best to take a bud because it is a rapid growing tree and an excellent one on which to graft. If I wanted to plant an orchard of forty or fifty acres I would plant standard trees and would put the dwarf between the rows, probably twelve feet apart. Mine are about ten feet apart, some of them a little more, but I have two rows eight feet apart each way, nine in each row, which forms a double hedge. I expect them to grow four feet high. I will prune them just as I wish to make a beautiful double hedge between two cottages. [Illustration: Residence of Dr. Huestis, at Mound, Lake Minnetonka.] In pruning those that have been in eight years I have tried to use the renewal system as we use it on grapes sometimes. I take out some of the older branches and fruit spurs that have borne two or three years. They must be thinned out. I counted twenty apples on a branch a foot long. I let them grow until they are large enough to stew and then take some off and use them, when apple sauce is appreciated. I thin them every year and get a nice lot of good fruit each year. I have noticed for two years that I have about ninety-eight per cent. of perfect apples, not a blotch nor a worm. I spray them all, first the dormant spray and then just as the blossoms are falling, and then one other spraying in two weeks and another spray three weeks later. Mr. Ludlow: Do you mulch the ground? Dr. Huestis: Well, I dig up the ground a little in the spring. The roots are very near the surface, not very penetrating, and I cultivate around the roots, but I am careful not to cut them. Every fall I put a good mulch of leaves and hay around them. I have been a little fearful they would winter-kill. I wouldn't lose one of them for ten dollars, and I think it well to mulch them, leaving a little space at the base. Mr. Andrews: Are the roots exposed in some cases? Dr. Huestis: Yes, I noticed on two of the older trees, those that have been in eight years and have borne six crops, you can see the roots on one side, the top is exposed a little, and I think it would be well to put a little dirt on those another year. The stock of these dwarf trees is slow growing with a rapid growing top, and that is what dwarfs them. I have transplanted one tree three times, which would make four plantings in eight years, and that tree bore almost as much fruit last year as any of them. In another case once transplanted I think the tree is better than the others that were left. [Illustration: Dwarf Yellow Transparent, bearing 96 apples, third year from planting at Dr. Huestis'.] As I said before, if I was planting an orchard I would put dwarf trees between, and by the time they had borne three or four crops, and you were expecting a crop of fruit from the standard trees--about seven years from the time you put them in--I would put the dwarf trees as fillers, costing about forty cents apiece, and by the time they are bearing nicely your friends would have seen those, and I believe would want them at the time you want to take them out. I believe I could sell any of mine for three or four dollars apiece. I think that would be one way of disposing of them after you wanted to take them out of the standard orchard on account of room. That is just a thought of mine. When I got my first ones eight years ago I gave one to a man who lives in North Minneapolis, at 1824 Bryant Avenue North. Any one can see it who lives up in that section. The first year he had twenty-nine apples, and it has borne each year since. The one which I have transplanted and which bore last year is a Bismarck. It is a little better apple, in my mind, than the Duchess. It is a good deal like the Duchess but is a better keeper and has a better flavor than the Duchess. [Illustration: Dwarf Bismarck, fourth year, at Dr. Huestis'] I would like to read a quotation to show that the dwarf tree is not a late thing. Recommending dwarf trees for gardens, "Corbett's English Garden," published in 1829, says: "I do hope if any gentleman makes a garden he will never suffer it to be disfigured by the folly of a standard tree, which the more vigorous its growth the more mischievous its growth to the garden." Marshall says, "The fewer standard trees in the garden the better." Also that the dwarfs are less trouble to keep in order and are generally more productive, and that "placed eight or nine feet distant, pruned and kept in easy manner, they make a fine appearance and produce good fruit." W.C. Drury, highly regarded as a modern English authority, writing in 1900 says: "For the private garden or for market purposes the dwarf, or bush, apple tree is one of the best and most profitable forms that can be planted." He also says: "The bush is one of the best forms of all, as it is of a pleasing shape and as a rule bears good and regular crops." Mr. Clausen: Don't you have trouble with the mice? Dr. Huestis: No, sir, have never seen any. Mr. Clausen: I had an experience a few years ago. My neighbor made a mistake; he was hauling straw around his apple trees, and he happened to take one row of mine. We had no fence between us--and he laid the straw around the trees. I found when I came to examine these trees in the spring they were all girdled around the bottom. I am afraid to mulch. Dr. Huestis: I never have taken any chances. Ever troubled with the mice at your place, Mr. Weld? Mr. Weld: A little. Dr. Huestis: I have never had any trouble with the mice. I always put on a lot of old screen that I take from the cottages that is worn out and put a wire around it so the mice can't get through it. We must protect from mice and rabbits. Mr. Kellogg: How soon do your dwarf trees pay for themselves? Dr. Huestis: I don't know. I reckon these four have paid about twelve per cent. on fifteen or twenty dollars this year, and they have right along. They have paid me better so far during the eight years than the standards. That might not apply in eight more years, but for a city lot, a man who has fifty square feet, how many apple trees could he put in that seventeen feet apart? Nine standard trees. In that same plot of fifty feet square he could put in sixty-four dwarfs, and it would be a nice little orchard. I think it is more adapted to the city man. The ordinary farmer would neglect them, and I should hate to see a farmer get them, but I would like to do anything for the man living in the city with only a small plat of land--my vocation being in the city, my avocation being in the country. Mr. Kellogg: Are those honest representations of the different apples from the dwarf and the standard? Dr. Heustis: I don't know. Those are a fair sample of those I found in a box on exhibit and are Red McIntosh. They are better colored than mine, most of them are like this (indicating). I find the Yellow Transparent that I have budded on the standard better on the dwarf than on the standard. Mr. Kellogg: Does it blight any? Dr. Huestis: No blight; there hasn't ever been a blight. I think that is one reason why I feel I could recommend them quite conscientiously. Other trees have blighted when the conditions were favorable. * * * * * TWENTY-FIVE BY SEVENTY FOOT PLOT WILL PRODUCE ENOUGH VEGETABLES FOR A SMALL FAMILY.--Even the smallest back yard may be made to yield a supply of fresh vegetables for the family table at but slight expense if two or three crops are successively grown to keep the area occupied all the time, according to the garden specialists of the department. People who would discharge a clerk if he did not work the year round will often cultivate a garden at no little trouble and expense and then allow the soil to lie idle from the time the first crop matures until the end of the season. Where a two or three crop system is used in connection with vegetables adapted to small areas, a space no larger than twenty-five by seventy feet will produce enough fresh vegetables for a small family. Corn, melons, cucumbers, and potatoes and other crops which require a large area should not be grown in a garden of this size. Half an acre properly cultivated with a careful crop rotation may easily produce $100 worth of various garden crops in a year. Plums That We Already Have and Plums That Are on the Way. _The Brown Rot (Monilia) a Controlling Factor._ DEWAIN COOK, FRUIT GROWER, JEFFERS. By the term "plums we already have" for the purpose of this paper we shall include only those varieties that have given general satisfaction over a large territory and for long term of years, and in the writer's opinion every one of such varieties are of full blooded, pure Americana origin. The DeSoto takes the lead of them all. It undoubtedly has more good points to its credit than any other plum we have ever grown. The Wyant and the freestone Wolf are considered as being the next two most popular varieties. These were all wild varieties, found growing in the woods of Wisconsin and Iowa many years ago. There are a few other Americana varieties that are nearly as good as are some of those enumerated, but at present we shall not attempt to name them. There are many otherwise fine varieties that are not included in this list of plums we already have, but because of a certain weakness of the blossom they require to be intermingled with other varieties, or the blossoms do not fertilize properly. They only bear well when conditions are very favorable. We class such varieties as being not productive enough. Many attempts, with more or less--generally less--success have been made to improve our native plums through the growing of seedlings. Mr. H.A. Terry, of Crescent, Iowa, has done more of such work in his day than any other one man. His method was to plant the Americana kinds, like the DeSoto, alongside of varieties of the Hortulana type, like the Miner, then growing seedlings from the best plums thus grown. From such cross bred seedlings Mr. Terry originated and introduced a great many very fine varieties. But where are they today? The Hawkeye and the Terry are about the only ones the general public knows very much about. I will venture this statement, that as far as I know there is no variety of native plum in which there is an intermingling of Hortulana or Chickasaw type that has proven productive enough to be generally profitable. The Surprise plum belongs to this type, as also does the Terry plum. The Terry plum we want to keep a while longer, not because it is a mortgage lifter for the growers but because of the extraordinarily large size of its fruit, as well as for its fine quality. There are many injurious insects and fungous diseases that tend to make life a burden to the man who tries to grow plums in a commercial way. Among the insects are the plum curculio and the plum tree borer, better known as the peach tree borer. The curculio sometimes destroys all of the fruit on the tree, and the borer very often will destroy the whole tree of any variety. Among the fungous diseases are the shot hole fungus and the plum pocket fungus, but the worst of all is that terribly destructive disease of the plum known as the brown rot. This brown rot fungus sometimes destroys the whole crop of certain varieties, besides injuring the trees sometimes as well. This one disease has done more to make plum growing unpopular than all other causes combined. Give us a cheap and efficient remedy, one that will destroy the rot fungus and not do injury to the foliage, buds or tree, and a long stride will have been made towards making plum growing popular as well as profitable. _Japanese hybrid plums._--Just now the Japanese hybrid varieties are attracting considerable attention. One prominent Minnetonka fruit grower said this to me about them: "Mr. Cook, what is the use of making all of this fuss about these new plums? Plums are only used for the purposes of making jelly anyway, and we can usually get a dollar a bushel for our plums, and they would not pay any more than that, no matter how large and fine they are." This brought me up with a jerk, and I have concluded that no matter how advanced a place in horticulture these new hybrid plums may eventually take, that there will always be a place for our native varieties, even if only for the purpose of making jelly. It seems to the writer that in view of the fact that after many years' attempt to improve our native plum through the process of seed selection--and we have made no material advancement in that line--that the varieties of plums that are on the way must almost of necessity be the product of the Americana and some of the foreign varieties of plums. Mr. Theo. Williams, of Nebraska, a few years ago originated a great many varieties of these hybrid plums. He claimed to have upward of 5,000 of them growing at one time. Only a few of them, however, were ever sent out. Of these the writer has been growing for quite a number of years the Eureka, Emerald, Stella, Omaha, B.A.Q. and some others. As a class they are all reasonably hardy for my section. They grow rapidly, bear early, usually the season after they are planted or the top grafts set. They set fruit more freely and with greater regularity, as the seasons come, than do the best of our native varieties. The fruit is of larger size and of firmer flesh, while the quality of some of them, like the B.A.Q., ranks rather low. The quality of others of them, like the Emerald, is almost beyond comparison. One year ago in answer to a question by the writer as to why the people of Iowa did not take more interest in the planting of these hybrid plums of Mr. Williams, Mr. C.G. Patten stated that it was because the plums rotted so badly on the trees. Now, Mr. Patten stated the situation exactly--most of these fine varieties are notoriously bad rotters. The brown rot seems to be a disease of moist climate. Nature's remedy is an abundance of sunshine and a dry atmosphere, but we cannot regulate the climate. Prof. Hansen has sent out a few varieties of these Japanese Americana hybrid plums, and our Supt. Haralson is doing a great work along this line. We can only hope--but cannot expect--that Mr. Hansen's hybrids or Mr. Haralson's hybrids as a class will prove more resistant to the brown rot than do those of Mr. Williams of the same class. We have hopes that from some of Mr. C.G. Patten's hybrids of the Americana and Domestica plum will come some varieties worthy of general planting, and also of Prof. Hansen's crosses of the Americana plum and the Chinese apricots. There is another class of hybrid plums that are something wonderful in their way, beginning to bear nearly as soon as they are planted, the very earliest of all plums to ripen its fruit, immensely productive and of finest quality. I refer to Prof. Hansen's sand cherry hybrid plums. My opinion is that Prof. Hansen has done all that man can do in the way of producing elegant varieties of this class of fruit. But there is the uncertainty, however, or perhaps I had better say the certainty, that the brown rot will take a good portion of the crop nearly every season--sometimes only a part of the crop, and other seasons it may take the entire crop of these fine sand cherry hybrid plums. Bordeaux mixture has been the one remedy advertised for years for the control of this disease, and however well it may work in the hands of experts of the various university farms, it has not proved uniformly successful in the hands of the ordinary fruit grower. Now, if some medicine should be invented, or some magic made, whereby the brown rot would be banished from our orchards then a great many of the fine varieties of hybrid plums would be transferred from the "plums that are on the way" to the list of "plums that we already have." The brown rot is a controlling factor. Mr. Kellogg: What do you know about the Surprise? Mr. Cook: Oh, I know a little more than I want to know about it. I have had the Surprise a good many years. Mr. Kellogg: You have been surprised with it? Mr. Cook: Yes, sir, I have been surprised quite a bit, but in the last two years since the plum crop failed there have been a few plums on the Surprise trees, but for a great many years when other plums bore heavily we got nothing. Mr. Hansen: Do you know of any plum that has never had brown rot? Mr. Cook: In my paper--as they only allowed me fifteen minutes I had to cut it short, and I didn't say very much about the brown rot. All the Americana plums, and all varieties of plums I have ever grown, have in some way been susceptible to the brown rot, but some have been more resistant than others. Now, that is one reason, I believe, why the DeSoto takes the lead. It is less subject to the brown rot. We have here a moist climate, and sunshine and dry atmosphere is the remedy, but some of these varieties have such a peculiar skin it is resistant to brown rot, and it seems certain, I don't know, if it is not on account of the thick skin. The Wolf has a thick skin and is subject to brown rot, but the DeSoto is not subject to that so much but more subject to the curculio. The Japanese hybrid plums, Mr. Williams said at one time--I saw in one of the reports--that he had Japanese plums enough to grow fifty bushels of plums, but he generally only got a grape basket full. He didn't think very much of them. In these sand cherry hybrids, I think Mr. Hansen has done all that man could do. Mr. Ludlow: What is the difference between the brown rot and the plum pocket fungus? Mr. Cook: Professor Stakman will tell you that in a later paper, but it is an entirely different disease. The brown rot will work the season through. It will commence on some varieties and work on the small plums and work on the plums half-grown and on the full-grown. The plum pocket fungus, it works on the plums in the spring of the year and sometimes takes the whole crop. The Terry plum, I think, a year ago, it took the whole crop. Mr. Kellogg: What is the best spray you know of, how often do you apply it and when? Mr. Cook: Which is that for, for the brown rot? Mr. Kellogg: Yes, for the plum generally. Mr. Cook: Oh, I don't know of any. Let me tell you something, the plum as a class is very susceptible to injury from sprays. I know when Professor Luger was entomologist there was some talk of spraying plums for curculio, and some tried it, and while it generally got the curculio it killed the trees, and Professor Luger said that the foliage of the plum was the more susceptible to injury from arsenical poisoning than that of any other fruit in Minnesota. The Japanese hybrid plums, I think, will take injury a little bit quicker than the native, and when you come to the sand cherry plums it is extremely dangerous to spray with anything stronger than rain water. Prof. Hansen: I want to talk about the lime-sulphur. We will probably have that in the next paper, only I want to say that seems to have taken the place of the Bordeaux mixture. Brown rot, that is something that affects the peach men too. In the state of Ohio in one year the peach men lost a quarter of a million dollars from the brown rot, the same rot that takes our plums. We are not the only ones that suffer from the brown rot. Well, they kept on raising peaches because they learned to control it, and if you are not going to spray I think you better give up. As to trying to get something that won't take the rot, it is something like getting a dog that won't take the fleas. (Laughter.) Mr. Older: I had considerable experience in putting out seedling plums. When large enough to get to bearing there wasn't a good one in the whole lot. I got some plums, the finest I could pick out, and three years ago they first came into bearing, and one of my neighbors went over there when they were ripe and said they were the best plums he had seen, but since then I have had none. I got some Emerald plums from Mr. Cook. They were nice plums, and when he came to see them he said, "I came to see plums, I didn't come to see apples," but the brown rot gets a good many of them. I had some last year, and just before they ripened the brown rot struck them, and it not only took all the fruit but got the small branches as well. I don't know what to do about the brown rot. Mr. Drum: I would say that my experience was something like Mr. Older's with the sand cherry crosses. They grew until they were large and I sprayed them with lime-sulphur. I couldn't see any injury from that until they were grown, nearly ripe, and then in spite of me in a single day they would turn and would mummy on the trees. I had a Hanska and Opata and the other crosses, and they bore well. They were right close to them, and the brown rot didn't affect them particularly. Mr. Ludlow: I would like to ask these experts what is the life of a plum tree. Now, an apple tree, we have them that have been bearing for forty years, but my plum trees that were put out less than twenty years ago, they got to be a thicket and they don't bear any large plums at all. I introduced years ago, if you remember, the Ocheeda plum, that come from seedlings that we found in the wild plum at Ocheeda Lake. It is a very fine plum. I had about twelve bushels this year, and I have never seen a bit of brown rot in that variety of plums, although the other varieties, if they bore at all, they were brown rotted all over. The Ocheeda plum has a very thin skin, and when the rain comes at the right time and the sun comes out they all split open. That is its fault. But my orchard is getting old; it is twenty years old. I had a young man work for me, and he left me and bought a new place. I told him he could take up all the sprouts he wanted of those Ocheeda plums. He did so and put out an orchard of them. I think that was about ten years ago. This year while my plums didn't average me, my Ocheedas didn't average, over an inch or an inch and an eighth in diameter from that old orchard--he had sold out and gone to California--but from that orchard a man that never thinks of cultivating sold three wagon loads of the finest plums I ever saw. Mr. Kellogg: How large were the wagons? (Laughter.) Mr. Ludlow: Well, the ordinary wagon box. He hauled them and sold them in town. That was from an orchard that had been left without any cultivation. Mr. Philips: I have heard George Kellogg say you could prove anything in the world in a horticultural meeting. I was glad to have Mr. Cook say a word in favor of the DeSoto. The first plum I ever bought was a DeSoto thirty-five years ago. I planted it and never saw any brown rot on it and had five bushels on it this year. George Kellogg saw it; I can prove anything by him. (Laughter.) Talking about Prof. Hansen's sand cherry crosses, I have a number of his trees. I have two in particular that are nice trees. My wife the last three years has selected her plums from these trees for preserving and canning. I never saw any brown rot on them. They are nice trees, and I propose to stick by Hansen as long as he furnishes as good stuff as that. The locality makes a great difference in this brown rot. Some of the smaller varieties of Prof. Hansen the brown rot takes. As some one has said, it will take the plums and the twigs after the plums are gone. It may be that the locality has something to do with it. Mr. Cook: A year ago I was talking with some gentlemen in the lobby of this hotel here and among them was a gentleman from the Iowa society, and I was trying to urge and tell them about the great value of some of those hybrid plums. Mr. Reeves said to me: "Mr. Cook, if you were going out into the woods to live and could only take one variety of plum with you, what variety would you take?" If he said five or six different varieties I would have made a different answer but he said only one variety, and I said it would be the DeSoto, and his answer was, "So would any other man that has right senses about him." Mr. Anderson: It was my pleasure some time ago, I think it was in 1896, to set out a few plum trees, DeSotos, and those trees grew and grew until they bore plums, and I was very much pleased with them. It was also my fortune about that time to sell plums that another man had grown, such varieties as the Ocheeda, the Wolf and the Wyant. They were such beautiful plums, and I obtained such beautiful prices for them, I was very much enthused over growing plums. I purchased a number of trees of that variety, but up to the present time I have never marketed a bushel of plums from any tree of that kind. The DeSotos bore plums until they died a natural death, which was last year. Mr. Goudy: I have one DeSoto in my orchard which is seven years old, never had a plum on it, never had a blossom on it. What shall I do? (Laughter.) Mr. Ludlow: Cut it out. Spraying Plums for Brown Rot. PROF. E. C. STAKMAN, MINN. EXP. STATION, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. The brown rot of plum is without doubt one of the important limiting factors in plum-growing in Minnesota. In seasons favorable to its development, losses of from twenty to fifty per cent. of the crop in individual orchards are not uncommon. Experiments on the control of the disease have been carried on by the sections of "Plant Pathology and Tree Insects and Spraying," of the Minnesota Experiment Station, since 1911. No accurate results could be obtained in 1912 and 1915 on account of crop failure in the orchards selected for experiment. Results are available for the years 1911, 1913 and 1914. Brown rot is caused by a fungus (_Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Wor._). Every plum grower knows the signs of the disease on the fruit. Blossoms, leaves and twigs may also be affected. The diseased blossoms become brown and dry, and fall from the tree; the diseased leaves become brown and may die. Young twigs may also be killed. Infection may occur at blossoming-time. The amount of blossom blight depends very largely on weather conditions; in fairly warm, moist weather there is usually more than in drier weather. The same is true of the rot on the fruit; during periods of muggy weather it may spread with amazing rapidity. The rot does not usually attack the fruit until it is nearly or quite ripe, although green plums may rot, especially if they have been injured. It is important to know that a large percentage of rotted plums have been injured by curculio. Counts have shown that in many cases as much as eighty-five per cent. of the rot followed such injury. Rotted plums should be destroyed for two reasons: (1) The spores produced on them may live during the winter and cause infection in the spring; (2) if the mummies fall to the ground, late in April or early in May of the second spring the cup fungus stage may develop on them. This cup fungus produces a crop of spores capable of causing infection. Spraying experiments, the summarized results of which are given here, show that the disease can be fairly well controlled even in badly affected orchards. Some of the experiments were carried on in the orchards at University Farm and some in commercial orchards. There were from twelve to forty-five trees in each plot, and the trees on which counts were to be made were selected before the rot appeared. The percentages given below refer to fruit rot and do not include blossom or twig blight. The object was to determine the times for spraying and the most effective spray mixtures. Details are for the most part omitted, and the results of various experiments are averaged. For convenience the times of spraying are designated as follows: 1. When buds are still dormant. 2. When blossom buds begin to show pink. 3. When fruit is size of a pea. 4. Two weeks after third spraying. 5. When fruit begins to color. It did not pay to apply Spray 1. In the plots on which applications 1, 2, 3 and 4 were made there was an average of 6.3 per cent. of rot, while in those from which Spray 1 was omitted there was an average of 6.7 per cent. rot, a difference so slight as to be negligible. Neither did Spray 4 seem to pay, there being an average of 10.9 per cent. brown rot when it was applied and 11.4 per cent. when it was omitted. The schedule finally adopted was therefore the application of Sprays 2, 3, and 5. Spray 2 is necessary to prevent blossom blight, although it has not always reduced the amount of rot on the fruit. Spray 5 is the most important in reducing the amount of rot. In all of the experiments during three years the average amount of rot in the sprayed plots which did not receive Spray 5, was 10.7 per cent. On the plots which received Spray 5, with or without the other sprays, the average amount of rot was 4.6 per cent., and the average on unsprayed plots was 34.8 per cent. Excellent results were sometimes obtained by applying only Spray 5, although this did not, of course, have any effect on blossom blight. In 1913 the amount of brown rot in one plot which received only Spray 5 was 3.3 per cent., while in the unsprayed plots it was 33.9 per cent. In 1914 the amount of rot was reduced from 38.8 per cent. in unsprayed plots to 6.5 per cent. in the plots to which Spray 5 was applied. Possibly Spray 3 could be omitted without seriously interfering with results; success in controlling the rot with Spray 5 alone seems to indicate this. It was hoped to settle the matter during the past summer, but spring frosts spoiled the experiment. For the present it seems advisable to recommend the application of Sprays 2, 3, and 5. In the first two, two and a half pounds of arsenate of lead paste, or one and one-fourth pounds of the powder should be added to each fifty gallons of spray mixture in order to kill the curculio. In the plots sprayed in this way in 1911 ninety-six per cent. of the fruit was perfect, while in the unsprayed plots only 81.6 per cent. was perfect, and in 1913 and 1914 the amount of brown rot was reduced from 34.8 per cent. to 4.6 per cent. Several growers have reported excellent results from these three applications, and there is no reason why other growers should not duplicate them. [Illustration: Brown rot of plums showing the small, grayish brown tufts of spores. Can be controlled by destroying mummies and thorough spraying.] The efficiency of various fungicides was tried. Self-boiled lime-sulphur, 8-8-50; commercial lime-sulphur, 1 to 40; 2-4-50 and 3-4-50 Bordeaux; iron sulphide made up with 1 to 40 commercial lime-sulphur, and iron sulphide made up with 10-10-50 self-boiled lime-sulphur were tried and all gave good results. Commercial lime-sulphur, 1 to 40, has been used in commercial orchards with excellent results, and it will probably be used more than the other spray mixtures because it is so easy to use. Possibly weaker solutions of lime-sulphur would do just as well as 1 to 40. This will be determined, if possible, during the summer of 1916. Good results were obtained only when a high pressure was maintained in spraying. There was a clearly observable difference between plots sprayed with low pressure and those sprayed with a pressure of more than 175 pounds. For large orchards a power sprayer is desirable; for small orchards a barrel sprayer with an air-pressure tank attached is large enough. Such an outfit can be bought for $35 or $40 and can do good work. The cost of spraying three times should not exceed fifteen cents a tree. The results from spraying orchards which contain a great deal of brown rot and have never before been sprayed will probably not be so good the first year as in better kept orchards, but by spraying regularly each season the disease can be well controlled. Mr. Cashman: Please state what you mean by 3-4-50 there. Mr. Stakman: 3-4-50 Bordeaux mixture means three pounds of bluestone or copper sulphate, four pounds of lime, and fifty gallons of water. The copper sulphate should be dissolved in twenty-five gallons of water, the best way being to put it into a sack and hang the sack in the water. The lime should be slaked and then enough water added to make twenty-five gallons of milk of lime. Here is where the important part of making up the spray comes in. Two people should work together and pour the milk of lime and the bluestone solution together so that the streams mix in pouring. It is very important that the mixing be thorough and the mixture should be used fresh. The President: Do you add any Paris green at any time or arsenate of lead? Mr. Stakman: Always add arsenate of lead two times, when the buds are swelling and when the plums are the size of green peas. The President: How much? Mr. Stakman: I would rather leave that to Professor Ruggles. We used from 2-1/2 to 3 pounds and Mr. Ruggles, I think, found 2-1/2 pounds was enough. The President: That is, 2-1/2 pounds to 50 gallons of water with the other ingredients? Mr. Stakman: Yes. Mr. Dyer: I would like to ask if you have ever used arsenate of lead for spraying plums? Mr. Stakman: In the experiments which we conducted in co-operation with Mr. Ruggles, of the Division of Entomology, we always used arsenate of lead in the first two sprayings to kill the curculio. Mr. Dyer: I had quite an experience, so I want to know what your experience was. Mr. Stakman: We never had any trouble with it. Mr. Dyer: I have had an experience of thirty years, and I have never seen or had on my place any brown rot, and I never was troubled with any curculio, and I practically always used arsenate of lead. Mr. Cashman: Isn't it a fact if you begin spraying your plum trees when they are young and spray them early, at the right time, you have very little trouble with the brown rot? And spray them every year? Mr. Stakman: Yes, that is it. You might be disappointed the first year if the orchard had never been sprayed, but by spraying year after year you finally cut it down. Mr. Cashman: You said a pressure of 200 pounds ought to be used? Mr. Stakman: Yes, but it isn't necessary to get an expensive power sprayer to keep up that pressure. There are sprayers on the market that cost from $30 to $40 which have a pressure tank by which the pressure can be maintained at from 175 to 250 pounds without any great amount of trouble, that is, for a small orchard. If you have a big enough orchard for a power sprayer, of course get it. Mr. M'Clelland: This summer my plum trees, the leaves all turned brown and came off. What is the reason? Mr. Stakman: When did it happen? Mr. M'Clelland: Along in August, I think; July or August. Mr. Stakman: What kind of soil were they on? Mr. M'Clelland: Clay. Mr. Stakman: Did you spray? Mr. M'Clelland: Yes, sir, I sprayed. Mr. Stakman: What did you use? Mr. M'Clelland: Lime-sulphur, I think. Mr. Stakman: Did the whole leaf turn brown? Mr. M'Clelland: Yes, sir, the whole leaf turned brown and came off. Mr. Stakman: How strong did you use the lime-sulphur? Mr. M'Clelland: Not very strong. Mr. Stakman: If you use very strong lime-sulphur you sometimes get such an effect on both plums and apples. Sometimes the leaves fall, and almost immediately you get a new crop of leaves. Mr. M'Clelland: This was in August. Mr. Stakman: There was a perfect crop of new leaves? Mr. M'Clelland: Yes, sir. Mr. Stakman: My only suggestion would be that you used the lime-sulphur too strong. That might account for it. Mr. Sauter: I never sprayed until this year. I tried it this year and with good results. I sprayed my apple trees at the same time, and I sprayed the plums with the same thing I sprayed the apple trees with. I had nice plums and nice apples; last year I had hardly any. Mr. Stakman: What did you use? Mr. Sauter: Lime-sulphur and some black leaf mixture. I used it on the plum trees and the apple trees, and afterwards I used arsenate of lead. Mr. Stakman: You didn't get any injury to the plum trees? Mr. Sauter: No, sir, we had nice plums. A Member: I have seventeen plum trees, and I have only sprayed with kerosene emulsion and the second time put in some Paris green, and I have never seen any of the brown rot, but there have been a good many of the black aphids on the plum trees, on the end of the branches. I cut them off and burned them. I didn't know whether that would be the end of it or not. Mr. Ruggles: Why don't you use "black leaf 40," 1/2 pint in 50 gallons of the spray liquid. It can be used in combination with arsenate of lead and lime-sulphur or arsenate of lead and Bordeaux mixture. If you wash them with black leaf 40 it will kill all the aphids. I did that myself this summer. A Member: Please give us a little better explanation of what black leaf 40 is. Mr. Ruggles: It is an extract of tobacco that is for sale by wholesale drug companies and stores, or you can get it from Kentucky, from the Tobacco Products Company, at Louisville, Ky., or Grasseli Chemical Co., St. Paul. I am not advertising, Mr. President, but they will send you a small package for seventy-five cents, about half a pint. Of course, that looks kind of expensive, but it will go a long way. I think possibly it is the best thing we have to combat lice. Mr. Stakman: Plum pocket is caused by a fungus which is supposed to infect mostly when the flower buds are just beginning to swell, especially in cold, wet weather. Plum pocket causes the fruit to overgrow and destroys the pit, and big bladder or sack-like fruits are produced instead of the normal fruit. The fungus that causes it gets into the twig and is supposed to live there year after year. Therefore pathologists usually recommend cutting out and burning affected branches and even trees that bear pocketed plums several seasons in succession. Our experiments with plum pocket have not extended far enough to enable me to say anything definite about it. Mr. Hall: With us in western Minnesota this year this plum pocket got all the plums that the frost didn't get. If we were to cut off the twigs we would have to chop off the trees. Mr. Stakman: When a tree becomes so badly infected that practically all of the branches produce pocketed plums year after year you can't expect very much normal fruit. Sometimes you might get some, but usually not very many. Mr. Graves (Wisconsin): Do you use your black leaf 40 in conjunction with your Bordeaux or lime-sulphur? Mr. Ruggles: Yes, you can. Mr. Graves: Doesn't it counteract the result? Mr. Ruggles: No, it does not. Mr. Stakman: I used this year lime-sulphur and black leaf 40 together. Mr. Graves: You say you got the same results from black leaf 40 in that mixture? Mr. Stakman: It killed the plant lice; that is all I wanted. Mr. Graves: We had some experiences that indicated that black leaf counteracted the other results. Mr. Stakman: Yes, sir, I think that has been the impression, but I think there have been some experiments more recently to show that the black leaf 40 can be used in conjunction with other sprays without counteracting their results. Mr. Richardson: Did you ever know the plum pocket to come unless we had cold weather about the time of blossoming and lots of east wind? Mr. Stakman: Yes, a little; I have seen it mostly when there was cold weather, however, and as I said before it usually isn't so serious unless there is cold, wet weather. Mr. Richardson: I settled out in Martin County, Minnesota, in 1866, and in all my experience I never saw plum pocket unless we had the right kind of cold weather at the time of the blossoming. I had my plums all killed and destroyed one year and never did anything for it, and when we had the right kind of weather I never had any trouble. Mr. Stakman: When you have cold, wet weather, as I mentioned before, infection takes place much more rapidly than it does at other times. There is some evidence to show that the fungus lives in the twigs and that affected ones should be cut out. Mr. Richardson: Yes, but these didn't bear any for four or five years, and when we got the right kind of weather I got good plums. Mr. Norwood: My experience is something like this man's. I have had my plums killed off as many as five years with the plum pocket and then had a good crop of plums. I sprayed with lime-sulphur. Mr. Stakman: When did you spray? Mr. Norwood: I spray just before the buds open. Mr. Stakman: The flower or leaf? Mr. Norwood: Flower, and then I spray when the plums are well started, just before they begin to ripen. Mr. Stakman: Were you spraying for the pocket or brown rot? Mr. Norwood: I used lime-sulphur and arsenate of lime. Mr. Stakman: Of course, spraying after buds open wouldn't do any good for the plum pockets at all. Mr. Norwood: I spray mainly for the brown rot, and I have pretty good luck. Mr. Cashman: Have you had any experience in using orchard heaters to save plums in cold nights? Mr. Stakman: I will ask Mr. Cady to answer that. Mr. Cady: No, I haven't tried to use them. Mr. Cashman: We tried it this year, and we saved our plum crop. We have tried it the last four years and saved our plum crop each year. We also sprayed each year and had a very good crop of plums when neighbors who had not sprayed had very few, and I am satisfied if we use the proper ingredients and spray properly at the right time, and occasionally use an orchard heater when there is any danger of freezing, that we will raise a good crop of most any plum that is hardy enough for this climate. A Member: What kind of heaters do you use? Mr. Cashman: We use oil heaters. We use crude oil, the same oil we use in our tractor engine. A Member: Where do you buy your heaters? Mr. Cashman: We have them made at the hardware store, of sheet iron, with a cover. We put about two gallons of oil in this heater. There is a small piece of waste that is used as a wick, which we light from a torch. It will heat quite a large space sufficiently for two or three hours and prevent frost. Mrs. Glenzke: Do you put a canvas over the tree or leave it uncovered? Mr. Cashman: We do not put anything over the tree. Mr. Stakman: What does your oil cost? Mr. Cashman: About eight or nine cents a gallon. Prof. Hansen: Just a thought occurred to me that out west on the Pacific coast where men have to get down to business in order to raise fruit they have these horticultural commissioners that have absolute police power to make orchard men clean up. They will come into your old orchard and pull it up and burn it and add it to your taxes, charge it up to you, if you don't clean up. The same sort of police power should prevail here. If a man has an old plum orchard that is diseased through and through, it won't do for him to tell his tale of woe year after year and not do anything. A county agent will come along and clean it up for him. After it is cleaned up it will be an easier proposition. If you are not going to keep up with the times and spray, then the county agent ought to have police power to burn the orchard. Either spray or go out of the plum business. * * * * * TO MAKE CONCENTRATED APPLE CIDER ON A COMMERCIAL SCALE.--The specialists of the fruit and vegetable utilization laboratory of the department have completed arrangements for a commercial test of the recently discovered method of concentrating apple cider by freezing and centrifugal methods. As a result, a cider mill in the Hood River Valley, Ore., will this fall undertake to manufacture and put on the retail market 1,000 gallons of concentrated cider, which will represent 5,000 gallons of ordinary apple cider with only the water removed. The new method, it is believed, makes possible the concentrating of cider in such a way that it will keep better than raw cider, and also be so reduced in bulk that it can be shipped profitably long distances from the apple growing regions. The old attempts to concentrate cider by boiling have been failures because heat destroys the delicate flavor of cider. Under the new method nothing is taken from the cider but the water, and the resultant product is a thick liquid which contains all the apple-juice products and which can be restored to excellent sweet cider by the simple addition of four parts of water. The shippers and consumers, therefore, avoid paying freight on the water in ordinary cider. In addition, the product, when properly barreled, because of its higher amount of sugar, keeps better than raw cider, which quickly turns to vinegar. The process, as described by the department's specialists, consists of freezing ordinary cider solid. The cider ice is then crushed and put into centrifugal machines such as are used in making cane sugar. When the cider ice is whirled rapidly the concentrated juice is thrown off and collected. The water remains in the machine as ice. At ordinary household refrigerator temperatures this syrup-like cider will keep perfectly for a month or six weeks, and if kept at low temperatures in cold storage will keep for prolonged periods. At ordinary house temperatures it, of course, will keep a shorter time. To make the concentrated syrup, the cider mill must add to its equipment an ice-making machine and centrifugal machinery, so that the process is not practicable on a small scale. The specialists are hopeful, however, that the commercial test soon to be inaugurated in Oregon will show that it will be possible for apple growers to concentrate their excess cider and ship it profitably to the far South or to other non-producing regions. The specialists also believe that it will enable apple producers to prolong the market for cider.--U.S. Dept. of Agri., Oct., 1914. How Mr. Mansfield Grows Tomatoes. MRS. JENNIE STAGER, SAUK RAPIDS. Somewhere around 1870 Mr. Wm. Mansfield, of Johnsons Creek, Wis., commenced to apply what Gov. Hoard, of Wisconsin, told him was "persevering intelligence," to the propagating and improving of the tomato, and he soon found out that the tomato was capable of almost unlimited improvement. He has made a specialty of the tree tomato, of which he says he has demonstrated to the world that in the Mansfield tree tomato he has produced one of the greatest wonders of the age. All who have seen them, tasted or grown them, with even a small degree of good sense, are loud in their praise for their good qualities: wonderful growth of tree, beauty of fruit, smoothness, solidity, flavor, earliness, etc. In giving directions how to grow them he says you should remember that if your brightest child is raised among Indians he is not likely to become president. Neither will the tree tomato if thrown on a brush pile, or just stuck in a poor, dry place and left to care for itself, be ready to jump on your table, on the Fourth of July, or any other month, a ripe, delicious, two-pound tomato. He says first get your seed of some reliable person, who can warrant it pure and all right. Then at the proper time, which in this climate would be some time in March, get some rich old earth for boxes in your house, hotbeds or greenhouse. Sow the seed, cover lightly, wet down every day and keep warm, with all the sun possible. When up ten days transplant to other boxes, six inches apart, and not less than four inches deep. Keep wet and give all the light and sun you can, and by the time it is safe to set them outside they should stand from twelve to twenty-four inches in height, with bodies half an inch thick. _To prepare the ground._--First select a place as near water as possible, and also, if you can, let your rows run east and west. Throw out dirt two spades deep, then put in three or four inches of night soil if you can get it, if not use hen manure and wood ashes, equal parts, or some other strong manure, in the bottom of trench. Then fill up the trench with the best dirt you can get, mixed with well rotted stable manure, as no fresh manure must come near the roots or bark to rot them. Now set out your plants without disturbing the dirt about the roots. Set eighteen inches apart in the row and have the dirt in the trenches a little lower than at the sides. Place a strong stake at each plant or a trellis and tie them to it as fast as set. Then if it does not rain use hard, soft, cold or warm water and give plenty each day. As your plants commence to grow, just above each leaf will start a shoot. Let only the top of the plant, and only one or two of the best branches grow, so as to have not over one or two of the best stems to run up. Now the buds for blossoms show themselves on the tops of the vines, and a few inches below. Just above each leaf, a shoot starts; nip off every one of these just as soon as they appear. As the lower leaves get brown and old pick them off. Train the fruit as it grows to the sun. Tie often and well. Let no useless wood grow. Give all the sun possible and water, water and then water. Then you can take the cake on tomatoes. [Illustration: Wm. Mansfield and his big tomatoes, Casselton, N.D.] Mr. Mansfield's record twenty-six years ago, at Johnsons Creek, Wis., was: Height of tomato tree, eleven feet. Weight of single tomato, two pounds six ounces. He says, since he has moved to North Dakota, his tomato has in no wise deteriorated. Annual Report, 1915, Central Trial Station. PROFS. LE ROY CADY AND R. WELLINGTON, UNIVERSITY FARM. Since the coming of Prof. Wellington to the Station to take up the pomological and vegetable divisions the work of this Station, has been divided, Prof. Wellington taking the fruit and vegetable experimental work, while Prof. Cady continues the work in ornamentals, and on that basis the reports will be made this year. _Ornamentals._--The campus of University Farm has been very much enlarged this year by the building of the Gymnasium, and consequent parking about it, and the grading of an athletic field. This will call for considerable planting work next spring. The season has been exceptionally good for the growth of all ornamental stock. All came through last winter in good shape. A late frost killed many of the early flowering plants, and this prevented the forming of fruit on such plants as barberry and wahoo. About 400 seedling paeonies flowered again this year. Some of these are promising. An excellent block of aquilegia was flowered. A trial ground of some hundred or more annuals was maintained and proved very interesting. It is hoped that many more annual novelties may be tried out this year. The perennial garden established last year was added to and furnished something of interest the whole season. It will be the aim of the Division to have in this garden all the annuals and perennials of value in this section. Some new shrubs were added by purchase and through the Bureau of Plant Industry. The hedges have proved an interesting exhibit again this year, and it is planned to add a number of new ones to the group next season. About seventy-five varieties of chrysanthemums were flowered this autumn and were much enjoyed by our visitors. _Fruit._--This year has been a very poor fruit year owing to the freeze on May 18, when the thermometer dropped to 26 degrees Fahrenheit. At that time a very promising crop of apples was frozen on the trees. Currants and gooseberries were also frozen on the bushes, and the young shoots were frozen on the grape vines. Later the grape vines sent out secondary shoots which bore a small crop of late maturing fruit. Regardless of the heavy freeze an apple was found here and there throughout the orchard, although no one variety seemed to be particularly favored. On one-year-old Compass and Dyehouse cherry trees a few fruits were borne, and a similar amount of fruit was produced on one-year-old Sapa and Skuya plums. The old plum seedling orchard, which is located to the south of the college buildings and is partially protected by a wooded hill to the north, gave about five per cent of a crop. The one-year-old raspberries and blackberries bore a small crop, and the new strawberry bed, containing over 150 varieties, yielded a good crop. Records were made on the blossoming dates of practically all the varieties grown at the Station, and complete descriptions were made of all the strawberry flowers, fruits and plants. [Illustration: Class in propagation at work at Minnesota State Agricultural College.] Plants were taken from the strawberry bed and used for setting out a new bed, which is located on level and uniform ground. By another year sufficient data should be at hand to report on the performance of the varieties tested. The aphids were very numerous and unfortunately caused the defoliation of all the currants with the exception of the blacks. A new sidewalk through the currant patch necessitated the transplanting of about one-half of the varieties, and so the prospect for a good currant crop next season is poor. The mildew attacked the Poorman gooseberry very severely but did practically no damage to the native varieties, as the Carrie and Houghton. Blight was a negligible factor, and what little appeared was removed as soon as noted. This year's rest, especially as it has been coupled with a good growing season, should be very favorable for an abundant crop in 1916. In summing up the varieties at the Trial Station, it is of interest to note that the following number are under observation: 235 apple, 1 apricot, 15 cherry, 3 peach, 6 pear, 70 plum, 23 blackberry, 3 dewberry, 14 red currant, 3 black currant, 2 white currant, 13 gooseberry, 26 grape, 4 black raspberry, 22 red raspberry, 1 purple raspberry and 157 strawberry. _Vegetables._--The vegetable work has been concentrated on the bean, cucumber, lettuce, pea, onion, potato and tomato. The chief work with the bean and pea has been to isolate desirable canning types from the present varieties. Selection has also been carried on with the lettuce, with the object of securing a head type which matures uniformly. Onion bulbs of various types have self-fertilized, and desirable fixed strains will be separated if possible. Incidentally, the inheritance of various types and colors of the onion is under observation. In the tomato the influence of crossing on yield and earliness has been studied. Increases nearly as high as five tons have been obtained, and the prospects are very bright for securing valuable combinations for gardeners who use greenhouses and high-priced land. Results of this work will probably soon be published in a station bulletin. [Illustration: Chrysanthemums in flower in University Farm greenhouses.] A better type of greenhouse cucumber is being sought by combining the European and White Spine varieties. From past experience the author knows that a uniform type that is well adapted to market purposes can be obtained, and the only question will be its productiveness. Unfortunately hybridizing was not performed early enough in the season, and disease prevented the making of crosses. This coming season the work will be repeated. The main work of the year has been on the potato, and the chief problem has been on the determination of the cause of degeneracy. Incidentally, many varieties have been tested, and the exchange of seed with the Grand Rapids, Crookston and Duluth stations has been started. If possible, the effect of varying climatic and soil conditions on the potato will be noted. A few vegetable varieties have been tested and among them the Reading Giant, a rust-proof asparagus, has proved promising. Malcolm, the earliest Canadian sweet corn, ripened very early and will be tested further. Washington, a late sweet corn ripening between Crosby and Evergreen, made an exceptionally good showing and may prove of much value for market purposes. The Alacrity tomato was found to be similar to the Earliana and superior in no way. Bonny Best and John Baer tomatoes produced smooth, desirable fruit and are deserving of a wide test. The much advertised "seed tape" was given a trial, and it proved satisfactory in most cases. For kitchen gardeners who are ignorant of planting distances, methods of planting and varieties, and who can afford to pay a higher price for their seed, the tape may prove of value, that is, if a high grade of seed is maintained. * * * * * A CORRECTION.--In O. W. Moore's interesting article on "Sexuality in Plants," which appeared in the November (1915) number of The Horticulturist, two errors were present. The first is merely typographical, as Kaelreuter's name, page 411, should be spelled Kolreuter. The second, however, is misleading, as it states that the process of fertilization is called "Mendel's Law." It is true that Mendel's Law is based upon fertilization, but it concerns simply the splitting up of certain characters into definite mathematical proportions. For example, Mendel found that when he crossed a yellow and green pea the first generation produced only yellow peas. These peas when self-fertilized split up into practically three yellows to one green. By self-fertilizing the progeny of the second generation it was found that one-third of the yellows bred true for yellow, and two-thirds of the yellows broke up into yellow and green, showing that they were in a heterozygous condition, and that all the greens bred true for green. At the present time this method of segregation has been proved to hold for many easily differentiated characters in both the animal and plant kingdom, but much more experimental work will have to be done before it can be said to hold for all inheritable characters.--Prof. Richard Wellington, University Farm. Rose Culture. MARTIN FRYDHOLM, ALBERT LEA, MINN. (Annual Meeting, 1916, So. Minn. Hort. Society.) Rose culture is one of the most fascinating occupations in the line of horticulture. But when you come to talking or writing about it you scarcely know where to begin or what to say, there passes before your eye an exhibition of such an amazing fragrance and beauty of varying colors. Even now as I am writing these lines I can see with my mind's eye every rose in my garden, some in their full glory, filling the air with the sweet fragrance; others just opening; others in bud; and so on in an ever pleasing variety. I have taken special interest in roses for some ten or twelve years and have grown a good many different varieties of them with success, good, bad and indifferent. I have succeeded well with some of the hybrid perpetual roses. At the present time I have in my garden Paul Neyron, General Jacquiminot, Ulric Brunner, Black Prince, Etoile De France, Frau Karl Droschky and Marshall P. Wilder, also others of which I have lost the names. Of climbing roses I have Crimson Rambler, Thousand Beauties, Prairie Queen and Dorothy Perkins. All the above named are everbloomers, except the climbers, and all need careful winter protection. _How to grow them._--Get two year old No. 1 plants and prepare your soil just like you would for your vegetable garden. If your soil is not particularly rich, spade in a liberal quantity of well rotted manure and mix well with soil. Set your plants and keep up clean cultivation all summer and give them plenty of water, and you will have an abundance of roses the first year. In the fall get some clean straw, bend your rose bushes over, put a fence post across on top of them to hold them down and then cover with straw to a depth of one foot. Or if you have a number of them planted in one row, make a long box about two feet wide and about twenty inches deep, fill about half full of straw, then place along side of the row of plants, bend your plants down lengthwise the row, then tip the box over them, put some straw around sides of box and on the outside put some posts or boards on to hold it down, when you will have the best protection possible. Right here I want to put in a word of warning, and that is, if you do not like to do extra work don't attempt to grow roses; in other words, if you are lazy they don't like you well enough to stay with you, for it means work and lots of it. We have, however, one class of roses which can be grown by every one who wants them, the hybrid Rosa Rugosa roses. Of them we have such as Blanche D. Caubet, pure white of large size, a perpetual bloomer; Sir Thomas Lipton, also white, a little smaller in blossom but perfectly double; Conrad Meyer, clear silvery pink, of large size, very double and of choicest fragrance, a continuous bloomer (needs some winter protection); New Century, rosy pink, shading to almost red in the center, good size and double. One of the hardiest is Hansa, deep violet red, very large, double and an exceedingly profuse and continuous bloomer, absolutely hardy. These five varieties can be considered as everybody's roses, because of the easiness and sureness with which they can be grown, taking into consideration the elimination of winter protection. Planting, preparation of ground and cultivation are the same as for all other roses. Do not imagine for a minute that they will do well in sod or grass. [Illustration: Martin Frydholm in his rose garden, at Albert Lea.] Another class of roses is the Baby Ramblers. For borders and bedding roses these I think surpass all others on account of the easiness by which they may be grown. And they are a perfect mass of blossoms from June till freezing. They need winter protection, but that is not difficult on account of the low growth and small size of plant. Above all do not forget that all roses need rich soil and lots of water. When your rose bushes are three years old you must begin to give some attention to trimming. Cut out some of the oldest wood before you lay them down in the fall, and if some of the shoots have grown very tall cut back about half, although these rank canes may give you the best roses the following season if you can protect them well enough so that they do not winter-kill. In this photograph which is shown here is one Ulric Brunner with one shoot extending two feet above my head and covered all along with the most magnificent roses I have ever had in my garden. The same thing I have done with the General Jacquiminot. Asparagus by the Acre. E. W. RECORD, MARKET GARDENER, BROOKLYN CENTER. First I am careful about selecting seed of a good variety. My choice is Palmetto, because it is hardy and the best seller on our market. In starting a bed I sow my seed as early as possible in the spring in rows about eighteen inches apart, and when the plants are well up I thin out to about an inch, so the roots will not be so hard to separate when ready to transplant. My experience has been that plants two years old are more easily handled than those one or three, because the one year plants are not matured enough, while the roots of the three year old have become too matured, and when separated too many of the roots are broken off. In preparing the ground for asparagus I plow and then harrow it and mark it off so the rows will be five feet apart. I plow a furrow from fourteen to sixteen inches deep, throwing the dirt both ways. Then with my cultivator I loosen up the bottom of the furrow. I place the plants in the furrow about eighteen inches apart, being careful to spread the roots evenly over the bottom of the furrow, putting a little dirt over them to hold them in place. With my cultivator I keep filling in the furrow, at the same time plowing out the middle to keep down the weeds. In fertilizing a bed of asparagus my experience has been that the best way is to plow a furrow between the rows, filling it with barnyard manure, then covering this with earth. Spreading the manure broadcast makes too many of the stalks grow crooked. I never cut my asparagus for market until the third year, and then only for a short time. By the fifth year the bed is strong enough to cut the whole season. When the season is over I cultivate often enough to keep down the weeds. I never cut the old stalks off until spring, because after the first freeze the stalks are hollow, and this would allow the frost to run down into the roots. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, Second Congressional District. JOHN BISBEE, MADELIA. A summer remarkable in many respects has passed. Many of our people have labored hard, and the rewards of that labor have been meager and unsatisfactory. Horticulture with all the other labors on the land has been rewarded like the other cultivators of the soil in our section of the state. I sent out twenty-five of the circulars and twenty were filled out and returned. Apple raisers report, four a good crop, the balance poor or none. Plums: One fair, others poor or none. Cherries: One good, all others poor. Grapes: One good, balance poor to none. Blackberries: One good, balance poor to none. Other fruits all poor. Nursery stock: One place reports one car load planted, the balance a few, all making good growth. Strawberries: Five report good crop, balance few to poor. Blight: Some reported but little efforts made to eradicate. Fruit trees did not suffer much last winter (1914-5). All report plenty of moisture in ground. Varieties of apples doing best: Wealthy, Duchess, Longfield, Salome, Spitzenberg, Northwestern Greening, Anisim, Malinda, Hibernal, Jonathan. Spraying neglected very largely. I am doing all of the top-working I can get done every spring. Am setting largely the Salome. I find the tree hardy here; a moderate bearer; apples fine and handsome; a good keeper; tree does not blight and grows very thriftily. It grows on a great share of the stocks in which I have placed it. My next best apple is the Spitzenberg. I am not placing many Wealthy scions, as I have about all I want of them. I tried thinning the fruit on some of my heavy bearers last summer and like it much. I think the best way to do it is to cut out the fruit spurs, as that can be done in the winter. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, Fifth Congressional District. CHAS. H. RAMSDELL, MINNEAPOLIS. The horticultural interests of the Fifth Congressional District (of which Minneapolis is the largest part) comprise three lines of activity, the raising of fruit, vegetables and flowers for home supply and profit, ornamental horticulture for pleasure and the city marketing of the produce of this and every other region, furnishing whatever is demanded by a large metropolitan market. Therefore, I will report along these lines. [Illustration: Chas. H. Ramsdell.] Judging from the reports of my correspondents throughout the country, the "freeze" in May was responsible for a rather complete absence of local fruit the past season. Sheltered orchards and those on the south side of any lake bore a small crop. Of apples, the Wealthy and Malinda are mentioned as bearing fairly well. Plums were entirely a failure, cherries are not raised to any extent, grapes and small fruits were not enough to supply the market as a whole. Raspberry and strawberry growing seems to be on the decline, owing to the prevalence of insect pests which do _not_ receive attention to keep them in check. The importance of this is all the more apparent, because with the shorter distances of this district being the rule, the danger from rapid spread is more pronounced. The growing conditions of the season have been of the best, and all stock goes into the winter in excellent shape with a good amount of soil moisture and a promise for better conditions next season. Several market reports have been received which give valuable information. Prices of fruit, vegetables and floral stock have been low in almost all cases. The public demand has been rather below normal, although it has been steady and fair in volume. There seems to be a good deal of complaint about the care of the railroads, etc., with fruit and perishable products, but, on the other hand, a good deal of local produce is not put up in good shape. The uniformly good packing of western fruit reveals the cause of its popularity on the local markets. Certain kinds of fruit almost glutted the market this season, notably Florida grape fruit, western box apples and peaches. I quote one market statement as very pertinent: If Minnesota apple growers would gather their apples before they are too ripe, carefully grade and pack uniformly through the barrel, thus making it possible for the wholesaler to ship out on orders, they would undoubtedly realize more for their product than to market them themselves in the usual manner in which apples are marketed. Ornamental horticulture in my district is making rapid progress. Large lots of nursery stock are yearly put in with excellent results. The influence and interest of the "Garden Flower Society" and of these horticultural meetings is nowhere more felt than in Hennepin County. The gardens of the Minneapolis park board, in Loring Park, at Lyndale Farmstead, and near the Parade and Armory, give the horticultural public much valuable information. Even the wild flower garden in Glenwood Park is yearly receiving an increasing number of visitors. The increasing use of perennials is creating a new gardening enthusiasm. The perennial exhibit at the summer meeting of the Horticultural Society was worthy of much study. Careful use of hardy evergreens is increasing also, adding value especially to our winter landscapes. This season has been very favorable to gardening work and steady has been the progress made. Greater care with insect pests, and better methods of preparing fruit for market seem to be the two greatest needs of the horticulturists of the Fifth District. * * * * * APPLE PRODUCTION AND PRICES.--According to the best authority available, the apple crop in the United States for 1915 promises to be about 22,500,000 barrels, says The Niagara County, New York, Farm Bureau News. This will be the lightest crop in several years, the 1910 crop being the next lightest, when about 24,000,000 barrels were produced. In comparison, the 1914 crop was about 45,000,000 barrels and the 1913 crop about 30,000,000 barrels. The above refers to the commercial crop that is marketed in closed packages, and should not be confounded with the recent estimate of the United States Department of Agriculture, which is understood to refer to the total production of apples, including those used for cider and shipped to the market in bulk. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, Sixth Congressional District. E. W. MAYMAN, SAUK RAPIDS. [Illustration: Residence of E. W. Mayman, at Sauk Rapids, Minn.] This district comprises quite a large area, and a large amount of fruit of various kinds is raised. Besides the reports received, I visited a good many places where fruit is being raised and intended visiting more except for unfavorable weather. From all sources the reports were that all fruit trees, vines and other plants came through the previous winter in good condition, and that all fruit trees budded and blossomed earlier than usual. April being such a warm month caused this condition--and indications were for a record-breaking crop. But this was all changed after the severe freeze of May 17th, which destroyed nearly all blossoms of apple and plum and what promise there was of cherry and grape. The frost again on June the 8th did great damage to raspberries and strawberries, currants and gooseberries. From all reports received and from my own observation at my place I can sum up briefly as follows: Apples not more than five per cent. of crop; crab apples, no crop; plums, from ten to fifteen per cent. of a crop; cherries, very few planted except the Compass and crop very light; grapes, not very extensively raised, Collegeville having the largest collection so far as I know, and at that place while the new growth had been frozen off still a second growth of new wood was formed and gave a light crop of fruit. Blackberries: No crop reported. Raspberries: There is in this immediate vicinity upwards of twenty acres or more planted of several varieties, but the crop was very light, and from other places the reports received were the same. Strawberries: There is also quite a large acreage planted in this vicinity, but the crop the past season was very poor, except for the everbearing variety planted for experimental purposes. This variety did well and continued to fruit to November 1st. Currants and gooseberries: Reports gave no crop to speak of, and at my place and in this vicinity while there is quite a large planting there was no fruit. This, of course, was owing to the frost as before stated. Very little nursery stock has been planted except in small quantities here and there, yet there is great interest taken in fruit raising. In regard to blight, none to speak of according to reports, and everything indicates a good healthy growth. As to spraying there seems to be little done along that line, although some orchards have been sprayed. All trees and shrubs and perennial plants planted the past season, as well as those previously planted, made an exceptionally good growth, owing, I think, to the cool, moist spring and continued cool summer. And, all wood maturing early, everything, I think, has gone into winter quarters in very good condition, and other things being favorable we may expect a good crop of everything next season. * * * * * The following poisoned wash has proved highly satisfactory in the West and promises to be one of the most popular methods of protecting trees from rabbits: _Poisoned Tree Wash._--Dissolve one ounce of strychnine sulphate in three quarts of boiling water and add one-half pint of laundry starch, previously dissolved in one pint of cold water. Boil this mixture until it becomes a clear paste. Add one ounce of glycerin and stir thoroughly. When sufficiently cool, apply to the trunks of trees with a paint brush. Rabbits that gnaw the bark will be killed before the tree is injured. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, Ninth Congressional District. MRS. H. E. WELD, MOORHEAD. The fruit crop in general throughout this district was not very good. The spring was late and cold with a heavy frost in June. Where the fruit trees were protected by a natural windbreak, we find the best conditions. Wilkin, Becker, Ottertail counties' reports indicate that the apple crop was small, but the fruit was of good quality. [Illustration: Residence of Louie Wentzel, Crookston, life member and vice-president in 1914] The varieties that are grown in this district in order of their importance and hardiness are the following: Hibernal, Duchess, Okabena, Patten's Greening and Wealthy. The hardier varieties of crabs are growing here. The Transcendent is the most popular crab. The Hyslop, Florence and Whitney are also grown. But very little blight is reported in this district. In localities where the trees have the protection of a windbreak there was a small crop of plums. The DeSoto, Forest Garden and Hansen hybrids are giving very good results. Even the wild plums were few, as the blossoms were hurt by frost. Where there was windbreak protection the Compass cherry tree looks healthy and has given a fair crop. Grapes have not been very generally planted. The Beta is the hardiest variety. The Concord does well where properly planted and cared for. Raspberry bushes made a good growth and look healthy; although damaged by frost there was a fair crop. Strawberries yielded fairly well where they were given attention. The Senator Dunlap, Warfield and everbearing plants should be more generally grown. Gooseberries and currants were just fair in some localities, in others the late frost destroyed all prospects of small fruits. The Houghton and Downing gooseberries, Red Dutch and White Grape currants are some of the varieties planted. In Ottertail, Wilkin and Beltrami counties a good deal of nursery stock has been planted and with very good success. Very little has been done in the way of spraying orchards, as trees are young. All fruits are going into winter in good condition, with fair amount of moisture in the ground and trees full of fruit buds. The hardy ornamental shrubs, honeysuckle, lilac, mock-orange and spirea Van Houttii can be grown here. Hardy perennial flowers that do well are peony, phlox, golden glow and bleeding heart. This northern section of the state is the land for the hardy perennials. Nowhere else do we get such beautiful colorings and bloom. Annual Report, 1915, Madison Trial Station. M. SOHOLT, SUPT. This season has been very good. We have had plenty of rain, so that all nursery stock set out this last spring has made a good growth. The first part of May a hard frost did quite a good deal of damage to small stock just planted or lined out in the nursery. This frost also damaged the blossoms on the fruit trees. The plum trees happened to be in full bloom when this frost came, so that froze them entirely, and so we did not get any plums to speak of. We also had a light crop of apples, especially of the early varieties. The Northwestern and Patten's Greening bore a good crop. The grapes also froze. I expected to get some fruit off those grape seedlings I received from the State Fruit-Breeding Farm three years ago, but they went with the rest of it. The plum trees I received this and two years ago are all doing well. They did not freeze back any when we had that hard frost; so far they seem to be hardy for this location. Had a medium crop of raspberries, also a light crop of currants and gooseberries. We had a good crop of strawberries. Seedling strawberry No. 3 is doing very well. Everbearing strawberries are doing nicely. We had a nice fall and plenty of rain, so that trees and shrubbery went into winter quarters in good condition. Growing Beans and Sweet Corn. P. B. MARIEN, ST. PAUL. Since it is one thing to grow beans and sweet corn and another to make money on them, I think from a market gardener's point of view my heading should have been "growing beans and sweet corn at a profit." I will talk of beans first, because while the two are planted at about the same time, beans make their appearance on the market long before sweet corn. Beans have a nitrogen gathering power and are therefore a soil-improving crop. They are to the gardener what clover is to the farmer. For early beans we have found that sandy soil well fertilized is by far the best. If possible it should be sloping toward the south, although we have had good success on level land well drained. One should have the best seed possible, and if you get hold of a good strain of seed that produces nice, velvety beans earlier than your neighbor, save as much of that seed as you can. Of course now that the price of seed is $10.00 to $14.00 a bushel one cannot be too particular. [Illustration: P. B. Marien, St. Paul.] Too much stress cannot be laid on the fact that to make money on beans one must have them on the market within a week after the first ones make their appearance. To do this one must plant them at the right time. The practical gardener knows that as he sits near the stove with the ground still frozen and a cold March wind blowing he cannot say "I will plant my beans on April 15 or on April 20." It is impossible to set a date for planting. After the ground has been plowed and well tilled he must wait until it is well warmed. Sometimes it pays to take a chance, but we always wait until the buds appear on the white oak trees. However there is nothing infallible about this rule, but it is the one we generally follow. As to kinds we have two wax beans which we have planted for many years: the Davis, which does well in wet weather, and the Wardwell Kidney, which does well in dry weather. Every variety of green beans we have ever grown has done well. Rows three feet apart, with the hills about six inches apart, three or four seed in a hill, might take up too much room on a small scale, but where one uses horses to cultivate, I think it is about right. Beans should be cultivated at least two or three times a week, and they should be hoed three times during the season. Never cultivate your beans while the dew is on, as it has a tendency to rust them. While St. Paul has not offered a very good market for medium and late string beans in the last few years, it is a good plan to have a patch come in about every ten days. Because you happen to get from $2.50 to $3.50 a bushel for your first beans this year, do not resolve to put the whole farm into beans next year, for they might come three or four days later than your neighbor's, and your profits might be like ours were one day last summer. I came to market with forty-eight bushels of beans. They cost twenty cents for picking. I sold thirty-two bushels at thirty cents and offered the remaining sixteen bushels at twenty cents, but found no sale for them. I brought them back home and to my surprise found two extra bushels, making eighteen instead of sixteen bushels. I concluded that someone had despaired of selling them and perhaps had poor success in trying to give them away and so forced them on me. However we consider we did well on our beans, as the first two pickings brought from $2.00 to $3.50 per bushel. Now a few words about sweet corn. Along about the 6th to the 12th of July the truck gardener should load his first sweet corn. Sweet corn is of American origin, having been developed from field corn, or maize. No large vegetable is so generally grown throughout the country, the markets of the cities taking large quantities, and immense areas being grown for canning purposes. Seed that fails entirely is not often found, but when one has a good strain that produces early corn it is best to save some. We generally have sweet corn to sell every day from about the middle of July until the first frost. To do this we plant every ten days from about the 20th of April to the 20th of June. Our early variety is the Peep-O'Day, which is planted about the same time as the early beans. We also plant the Golden Bantam at this time. This is followed by Red Cob Cory, Pocahontas and some more Bantam. Then about May 15th to 20th we plant early and late Evergreen, Bantam and Country Gentleman. [Illustration: A load of vegetables at Marien's ready for market.] Soil well adapted to common field corn will produce good sweet corn, thriving best on well fertilized land. Sandy soil is best for the early varieties. Sweet corn is often grown in drills, but we prefer the hills three feet apart, as it is easier to get an even stand, and cultivating both ways will push the crop. It should be cultivated shallow and never deep enough to hurt the roots. It is well to hoe it once. Sweet corn is one of the few vegetables which is quite free from serious injury from either insects or diseases. Sweet corn may be divided into three classes: early, medium and late. It is very important that the various kinds come in as early as possible, as a few days make a lot of difference in price. So you see that to make a profit on beans and sweet corn, four things are needed: good seed, planting at the right time, in the right kind of soil, and plenty of elbow grease--or hard work. A member: How far apart do you plant your beans in the row? Mr. Marien: The rows three feet apart and the hills six inches, putting three or four seeds in a hill. A Member: Don't you recommend testing your seeds before you plant them? Mr. Marien: Hardly the bean seeds. I don't remember of ever having found any poor bean seeds. A Member: I mean seeds generally, corn, etc.? Mr. Marien: Yes, sir, we do; we always test our seed. Mr. Goudy: What is your method of harvesting your beans? Mr. Marien: Well, we generally employ pickers, boys and girls, and we pay them about twenty-five cents a bushel when they are above a dollar and a quarter, and then we keep going down; as the price goes down we go down too; but we have paid as much as thirty cents when the price of beans was high and it is important to get many on the market the next day. [Illustration: Harvesting the hay crop at Marien's.] Mr. Anderson: What are your gross receipts per acre for beans? Mr. Marien: That is a hard question to answer, as sometimes it is very poor for the medium and late beans, and sometimes there aren't any receipts at all. (Laughter.) But the early beans sometimes go as high as $250.00 an acre. Mr. Anderson: How late can you plant them and be sure of a crop? Mr. Marien: We have planted them as late as the 15th of June. A Member: You mentioned Davis as your first variety. What is the second one? Mr. Marien: The Wardwell Kidney. We always plant the two varieties at the same time because if we strike a wet season then the Davis does well, and the Wardwell won't do as well in wet weather but will do better in dry weather. Mrs. Glenzke: Will you tell me the color of your beans? Are they golden wax? Mr. Marien: Yes, some golden wax and some green string beans. We haven't as good a market for the green ones. Mrs. Glenzke: Have they a string on the back? Mr. Marien: Some have and some have not. There is the Bountiful, or the Thousand to One; that is a small green string bean that hasn't any string. But they are very hard to pick; so we don't raise many of them. Mrs. Glenzke: Have you ever tried Golden Pod? Mr. Marien: I think that is a wax bean? Mrs. Glenzke: Yes. Mr. Marien: Oh, we don't like them, at least not on the St. Paul market, because they are hard to pick. I don't know how it is in the Minneapolis market. A Member: What is the best of the green kind? Mr. Marien: We find that the Bountiful is a very good bean; and then there is also the Red Valentine. A Member: Did you ever grow any Crusset Wax? Mr. Marien: No, sir, I have not. Of course, there are some kinds that are just the same, but they go under different names in different places. Different catalogs will catalog the same seeds in a different way. * * * * * BEWARE BLIGHT CURES.--Almost every year orchardists are persuaded to try some new, so-called "blight cure" or preventative, only to find later that they have wasted time and money in the experiment. Government regulations regarding fake remedies of this character are more strict than formerly, but there are still some agents trying to dupe the public into buying their wares. Blight, which is often referred to as apple blight, fire blight, or pear blight, is caused by bacteria which live in the sap of the tree, and the principle followed by the blight-doctor is to introduce something into the sap which will prevent the working of the bacteria. The remedies are applied in various ways. Sometimes the trunk is painted with a mixture of some kind, or holes are bored into the trunk and these filled with a powder. The orchardist is sometimes furnished with a box of nails as the first "course" and instructed to drive these into the roots of the trees. It is evident that anything introduced into the sap that is strong enough to kill the bacteria living there will likewise damage the cell tissue of the tree, and result in more harm than benefit. One powder that has been brought to the attention of the Experiment Station, sells for $3.00 per pound, and is administered in teaspoonful "doses." Such a preparation as this is probably harmless, but is a waste of time and money. It would have no effect on the tree or the blight. Some of the agents not only claim that their remedies will cure blight, but, due to ignorance or other causes, they also claim that trees treated will be immune from attacks of certain insects. Orchardists may rest assured that up to the present time, no real preventative or cure has been found for blight, and that the only way it can be controlled is by cutting it out.--Colorado Agricultural College. IN MEMORIAM--MRS. E. CROSS. Mrs. Erasmus Cross, of Sauk Rapids, and a member of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society since 1888 (27 years), passed away at that place on Tuesday, December 28th. On December 16th Mrs. Cross sustained a painful injury by falling on the floor and breaking her hip. Owing to her advanced age, eighty-two years, the limb could not be set without the use of chloroform, which could not be given on account of weakness of the heart. Death finally released her from her suffering. [Illustration: The late Mrs. E. Cross, daughter and grandaughters.] Mrs. Jane Cross was always very enthusiastic about the Horticultural Society and the good it was doing, not only for this but other states. The ills of her age had prevented her from attending the meetings these late years, though she often did so in earlier years, but she always sent her fee through the writer, and eagerly awaited her return from the meeting to hear of its stimulating success. Mr. Cross died about six years ago. Two sons, James, of St. Paul, and Robert, of Sauk Rapids, and two daughters, Mrs. Annie Nicholson, of Hamline, and Mrs. Emma Sovereign, of Sauk Rapids, mourn her loss. Our society has lost a most loyal friend.--Mrs. Jennie Stager, Sauk Rapids. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. Notes from Prof. Alway's interesting and instructive talk on "Maintaining the fertility of our gardens." Requisites for proper plant growth are warmth, ventilation, root room, the absence of harmful alkalies or animals that destroy the beneficial bacteria in the soil, water and plant food. By far the most important requisite for growth is water. More plants and crops fail because of the lack of a proper amount of it than from any other cause. Plenty of fresh air is needed by the plants, as they derive a portion of their food from it. They adapt themselves largely to conditions as to root-room, a plant thriving in a pot, but spreading to much greater root space when grown in the open with plenty of room. The more restricted the root space, the more food and water it will require. The fourth requisite for growth does not concern us as there are no alkali lands in the counties near the Twin Cities, and the harmful minute animals that destroy the beneficial bacteria in the soil are as a rule found only in greenhouses. The best fertilizer for the garden is the thorough use of the hose. Each year stable manures become harder to obtain, but the fertility of the garden can be maintained by the use of commercial fertilizers, which are more concentrated foods and are much easier to work with. The perfect plant food consists of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. We can obtain these in separate form and use as we need them. Nitrogen comes in the form of a salt, called nitrate of soda, and in dried blood. The nitrate of soda is very soluble in water and is taken up at once by the plant. It can be scattered upon the ground near but not touching the plant, as in the latter case it would burn it. It can also be dissolved in water--a tablespoonful to a pail--and the ground, but not the plant, watered. Dried blood is slower in action and requires warmth, so should not be used early in the season. Nitrogen promotes quick and luxuriant growth of leaves and stems and is good to use when a green growth of any kind is wished. In bone meal we find the phosphorus necessary to aid in the development of fine and many flowers, to expand root growth and to hasten maturity. It works slowly, so can be applied to the ground about a plant early in the season, and will be available in the ground the following year if enough is used. Equal parts of nitrate and bone meal can be used at the rate of one to two pounds to every one hundred square feet. Potash is almost off the market, as a result of the war, the main supply being imported from Germany. It can be obtained from hardwood ashes, and every bit of these should be saved for the garden and stored in a dry place where they will not become leached out by the action of water. _April Spraying._--Snowball bushes and others that have been troubled with aphides, or plant lice, the previous year should receive a thorough spraying of Black Leaf No. 40 (an extract of forty per cent. nicotine) before the leaf buds expand. For this early spraying, two tablespoonsful of the extract can be used to every gallon of water. It will stick to the branches better if some soap is dissolved in it. This spray will kill most of the eggs of these pests, which will be found near the leaf buds. When the leaves open another spraying should be given to kill all those that escaped the first treatment. For spraying after the leaves open use one tablespoonful to each gallon of water. * * * * * Meeting of the Minnesota Garden Flower Society, April 27th, St. Paul, Wilder Auditorium, Fifth and Washington Streets, 2:30 p.m. Native Plants in the Garden Shall We Collect or Grow Our Native Plants? Roadside Planting. BEE-KEEPER'S COLUMN. Conducted by FRANCIS JAGER, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul. Bees are kept both for profit and for pleasure. The old fashioned beekeeper with his hybrid bees, kept in immovable hives, logs or boxes, did not derive much profit from his bees. He kept them mostly for pastime. During the last fifteen years men with new methods of management and modern equipment have been rapidly superseding the picturesque old beekeepers. Modern beekeeping courses are now taught in connection with our institutions of learning, and young men full of energy and ambition are beginning to realize that beekeeping is offering one of the few opportunities to make a comfortable living with a comparatively small expense. Older beekeepers, both on the farm and professional men, also are beginning to study beekeeping. They attend short courses, subscribe to scientific bee papers and study bee literature. With increased study and knowledge the whole status of the beekeeping industry is just now undergoing a rapid change. Professional beekeepers, men who devote their whole time to beekeeping, are increasing, and more amateurs are turning to professional beekeeping every year. Organizations of beekeepers now exist in nearly every state. Their object is to spread knowledge among their members and to secure better prices for their product by co-operative marketing. Contrary to fears of more conservative beekeepers the demand for a first class article of honey is increasing more rapidly than the supply. A national organization of beekeepers and bee societies is taking up just now national problems in connection with their industry and has succeeded in making the government interested in this "infant industry." An appropriation of $200,000 has just been allowed by the agricultural committee of the Congress to develop beekeeping in localities where help is needed. The state of Minnesota allows an annual appropriation for beekeeping interests of $10,000, divided among the following branches: Bee inspection department, which takes charge of bee diseases, $2,000; state fair exhibits for premiums and maintenance of a bee and honey building in connection with our State Fair, $1,500. The Division of Bee Culture at the University Farm, which has charge of teaching, demonstration, extension work, research, queen rearing, correspondence, statistics and model apiaries, $6,500. Minnesota beekeepers should be grateful to those men who have helped them to raise their industry from a mere nothing, until we have become the acknowledged leaders in beekeeping among all the states of the Union. They, however, are rapidly following, nearly all states now have efficient bee inspection laws, and twelve universities have followed our lead and have included beekeeping in their curriculum. But we must not be satisfied with what we have accomplished. Out of $14,000,000 worth of honey which this state produces (by figuring) only $1,000,000 worth are gathered every year, and beekeeping in the state must grow to fourteen times its present proportions before it will be anywhere near its possibilities. ORCHARD NOTES. Conducted monthly by R. S. MACKINTOSH, Horticulturist, Extension Division, University Farm, St. Paul. Minnesota orchardists are preparing for a full crop of apples this year. From the experiences of last year with apple scab and codling moth, more thorough spraying is to be done. Senator Dunlap stated an experience he had in spraying that should be carefully considered by all apple men. Nine rows of trees were sprayed on Monday or Tuesday. Owing to bad weather the other rows could not be sprayed until Friday or Saturday. What was the result? He had 175 barrels of No. 1 fruit from first part and only seventeen barrels of No. 2 in rows sprayed later. Some are planning their orchard work for the season along the following lines: _First: Pruning._ To be done during the mild weather in March and April. Thin out all dead wood, interlocking branches, water-sprouts and shorten others. Pruning is to get the tree into better form to sustain a large load of fruit, to open the center to permit sunlight to get in to color fruit, and to permit of better spraying. There are too many trees in Minnesota that have never been touched by knife or saw. Such trees need attention, but the pruning should not be too severe at any one time. Begin this year to do a little pruning; next year do more; the year after a little more; and after that very little attention will be needed to keep the tree in good condition. While pruning look out for rabbit and mouse injury. If good trees have been injured do some bridge grafting as soon as you can. This means connecting the healthy bark above the wound with the healthy bark below. Small twigs cut from the same tree, that are long enough to span the wound, are cut wedge shaped on both ends, and these ends put under the healthy bark. If possible cover the wounded area with earth. If too high up tie the scions in place and cover all cut surfaces with grafting wax and cloth. Several scions should be put in if the tree is large. _Second: Spraying._ Three sprayings are needed on every bearing apple tree in Minnesota. First spray: When the center of buds show pink. Don't wait too long. Second spray: When the petals have fallen. Third spray: Ten to fifteen days after the second. Use lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead each time. It is important to do this at the right time, in the right way, and with the right materials. Right is the word and not left-undone. Further particulars will be found on the page devoted to spraying topics. _Third: Cultivation._ Follow the plan that is best suited to location. This may mean sod, part sod and cultivation, cultivation and mulch, mulch only, or cultivation and cover crop. Doubtless the last is the best in most instances. _Fourth: Thinning._ The thinning of apples in Minnesota has not been received with as much consideration as its importance demands. More attention will be given to this topic in subsequent issues. HOME GARDEN. What about the farm and home garden for 1916? Is the garden to receive the undivided attention of one or more members of each family, so that all members and guests may share its fruits? Let's make the home garden the best spot on every Minnesota farm in 1916. A conservative estimate of the actual value of the products from a half-acre garden is fifty dollars. In Minnesota there are over 150,000 farms. This would mean a total value of over $7,000,000. This does not include the value of the products of the village and city gardens. Careful estimates made in this state show that it costs about fifteen dollars for man and horse labor to take care of a garden of about three-fourths of an acre. Now for a BIG GARDEN MOVEMENT this year--for all the year. Not a big beginning kept up until the little weeds become big weeds. Is anyone going to allow weeds to outdo him? NOTES ON PLANT PESTS. Prepared by Section of Insect Pests, A. G. RUGGLES, and by Section of Plant Diseases, E. C. STAKMAN, University Farm. Buy spray materials as soon as possible. The orchardist will probably notice very little difference in the price of his spraying materials, like arsenate of lead and lime-sulphur, as compared with last year; but those who still think that Paris green is the only good stomach insecticide, will be astounded by this year's price. At the present time, in one pound lots, the retailer cannot sell Paris green for less than 50c per pound--over twice what it was last year. In large quantities, it is doubtful if it can be purchased for less than 45c per pound. Fortunately arsenate of lead, a better stomach insecticide than Paris green, has not advanced materially in price, the powdered form being obtained for about 25c per pound. One and one-half pounds of this powder is used in fifty gallons of spray mixture. In our experiments, we have found arsenate of lead superior to Paris green as a remedy for potato bugs and all orchard insects. It is not necessary, therefore, to allow any injurious biting insect to live simply because Paris green is high in price. Arsenate of lead, if properly applied at the right time, will keep any of these insects in check. A dormant wash does little good in controlling scab. Hence, on account of the high price of spraying compounds, do not spray when unnecessary. Many diseases of nursery stock are controlled by spraying. Begin spraying as soon as leaf buds unfold, with lime-sulphur 1-40 or Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50. Copper-sulphate has also advanced 15c or 16c per pound. Lime-sulphur has not advanced materially; therefore, plan to use lime-sulphur or some of the made-up (paste) Bordeaux instead of Bordeaux mixture, whenever possible. _Potatoes can not be sprayed with lime-sulphur._ The aphis problem is usually a very serious one, because they are such persistent little breeders. The trees or shrubs most affected are roses, snowball, currant, apple, plum and elm. The eggs of the plant lice pass the winter on the bark or buds of these plants and hatch as the buds begin to swell. Spray with the lime-sulphur (1-9) at this time. As soon as the leaves appear, spray with nicotine-sulphate as per directions on the container. If plum pocket was bad last year, the trees should be thoroughly pruned. Then spray with copper-sulphate, one pound to nine gallons of water, or lime-sulphur, one gallon with nine gallons of water, before the buds open. Follow with one to forty lime-sulphur or other spray as for brown rot. Control methods for plum pocket are not well worked out, so these methods cannot be depended upon entirely. Be sure and look over the apple trees carefully; cut out and burn all cankers. Black rot has been increasing in the state, and since a great deal of early infection may come from cankered limbs, it is important that cutting out and burning be resorted to. Last year the spring canker worm was just as active in the state as the fall canker worm; therefore, just as soon as possible, trees affected last year should be banded with the tree tanglefoot. The moths come out of the soil the first two weeks in April and at that time attempt to crawl up the trunks of the trees to lay their eggs on the limbs. When raspberries are uncovered, be sure to cut out and burn all dead canes missed last fall. The gray bark disease and anthracnose, also snowy tree cricket and red-necked cane borer, are controlled in this way. Plan to keep the young canes covered with a protective spray of resin-Bordeaux mixture. Try it on at least part of the patch. The benefit will not be apparent for a year. Spray currants and gooseberries as soon as leaf buds begin to unfold, with either Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50 or lime-sulphur 1-40, to prevent powdery mildew and leaf spots. For further information write to the section concerned. Inquiries will receive prompt attention. SECRETARY'S CORNER ANNUAL MEETING OF AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF NURSERYMEN.--Information has reached this office to the effect that this national association will hold its annual meeting in Milwaukee June 28th to 30th. This is so near by that it ought to bring a goodly number of Minnesota nurserymen in attendance. For particulars in regard to the matter address John Hill, 204 Granite Bldg., Rochester, N.Y. PASSING OF HANS KNUDSON.--Mr. Knudson, late of Springfield, Minn., was the originator of the Compass cherry, which has been generally planted throughout the Northwest these recent years. He grew this variety from a seed as a result of a handmade cross between the Miner plum and the sand cherry. Mr. Knudson had other seedlings of similar origin which we thought might be of value, but nothing has been since heard from them. News of his passing early in January has just come to this office. THE MCINTOSH RED.--I think the McIntosh is quite hardy as a top-worked tree; there are two in my old orchard set in 1894, and they have shown no signs of injury. They were grafted on crab whips, but they were planted on a knoll, that while clay was within twelve to fifteen inches of a deep bed of sand. They have been shy bearers, but I think on a clay subsoil, such as I now have, they might prove good bearers. I would not be afraid to risk them as to hardiness.--F. W. Kimball, Waltham, Minn. REPORTS FOR MINNEAPOLIS MEMBERS.--Every member of the society is entitled to a copy of the annual report if desired. As there are not as many copies printed, however, as there are members, if every one asked for a copy we should be in trouble at once. Copies are mailed as promptly as possible after receiving membership fee to all members except those living in Minneapolis and those who come in as members of some auxiliary society. Minneapolis members are requested to call at the society office and secure the copy to which they are entitled, which will then get into their hands in a good deal better shape than though it passed through the postoffice. Members of auxiliary societies are entitled to a copy of the report, but only upon the prepayment of postage, which would be seven cents to points within 150 miles of Minneapolis and ten cents outside that limit. SCIONS FOR TOP-WORKING.--Stark Bros. Nurseries, of Louisiana, Mo., have sent to us for use in testing on top-worked trees a quantity of scions of the following varieties: King David, Jonathan, Delicious, Stayman Winesap, York Imperial and Liveland Raspberry. These scions are to be used primarily to fill orders for top-working from members who have selected them as one of the plant premiums, No. 8. There will, however, be a considerable surplus, we believe, and as far as they hold out we shall be glad to send them out to members of the society who have trees for top-working, and know how to graft properly, upon receipt of postage stamps to the amount of postage and packing, which would be approximately ten cents. We are not sure that we can supply all who may ask for them, but to a limited extent we can do so. I would suggest promptness in making application for these scions. Address Secy. Latham. WHO IS GROWING MCINTOSH RED APPLE?--Information from an interested member of the society is called for as to what success, if any, has been had in growing the McIntosh Red top-worked on hardy trees here in Minnesota. Scions of this variety have been sent out several years by the society and probably some have already come into fruitage, or perhaps they have been secured from other sources. Replies will be published. Address Secy. Latham. NO PLANT PREMIUMS AFTER APRIL 1ST.--All members ordering plant premiums have undoubtedly noted this important condition that "all applications for plant premiums must be made prior to April 1st." This condition will be strictly adhered to, and those sending in selections for plant premiums after that date need not feel disappointed if they do not receive them. It is absolutely necessary to make a definite date beyond which no applications will be received in order to work out successfully the problem of distribution which faces us at that time. TO MEMBERS OF AUXILIARY SOCIETIES.--Occasionally a member of an auxiliary society writes to this office asking for a copy of the annual volume of the society. Members of auxiliary societies are entitled to this volume, but the State Society does not pay postage on it, the amount received from auxiliary societies for memberships not permitting this expense. Any member of any auxiliary society who wishes to have a copy of the annual volume mailed from this office should send with the application postage at the rate of seven cents if within one hundred fifty miles of Minneapolis, and ten cents to points in the state more than one hundred fifty miles from Minneapolis. BUY NURSERY STOCK AT HOME.--There are always more or less agents of foreign nurseries, that is nurseries located outside the state, canvassing for orders of nursery stock in our state, and many citizens are also tempted to reply to advertisements of outside nurseries who are trying to secure business in Minnesota. It is not my purpose to condemn these outside nurseries nor their methods of doing business, which in most cases undoubtedly are honorable and straight forward. But there is a real advantage in buying nursery stock at home, that is, from nurserymen located in our own state, and especially from nurserymen who are in the immediate vicinity. There is no class of goods that one can buy in connection with which there is such opportunity for mistake and fraud as in nursery stock. It is impossible for any but an expert to tell by the appearance of a tree or plant of any kind what the variety is, and either through mistake or purposely it is no uncommon thing for those purchasing trees to be disappointed as to the names of varieties when they come into fruitage or flower. If the nurseries are in our own state, or in our vicinity, it is a very easy matter to get at them, and they will almost uniformly be found willing to make good such blunders, or if they don't and the matter is worth while they can be made to do so. Don't place your orders outside of the state if the things you want can be purchased at home. You will find it a real advantage to act on this counsel. Especially in the case of strawberry plants the element of distance is a very important one as on account of their leafy character they heat and spoil readily. A few plants near home are often worth more to the recipient than a large shipment from abroad. NURSERYMEN OF MINNESOTA.--The secretary endeavors to keep a correct list of all those engaged in the nursery business in this state. As far as his personal acquaintance goes of course the list is known to be a correct one, but there are doubtless a number engaged in the nursery business in a small way of whom he does not know personally, and he would be glad to hear from any engaged in the nursery business who are not personally acquainted with him so that their names may be added to this list. The address of the secretary is always to be found on the front cover page of this magazine. THE SOCIAL ELEMENT AT OUR ANNUAL MEETING.--Those of our members who attended the last annual meeting could not have failed to note the large proportion of ladies in attendance at these meetings, not only at the one managed by the Woman's Auxiliary, but also at every other meeting during the four days session. You may be surprised to learn that approximately one-third of those who registered as purposing to attend the meeting belonged to the gentler sex, and the proportion in attendance was somewhere in that neighborhood. This is one of the delightful features of our annual gathering which is steadily increasing. More and more are the ladies attending our meetings, and in larger number are they becoming members of the association aside from any relation they may sustain as wives or daughters to those who are already members. This movement should be in every way encouraged, and we hope another year to be able to offer still more attractive accommodations in this direction. In planning for a new building for the society, this feature of our work should not by any means be lost sight of. I believe that very few organizations of this kind can boast so large an interest on the part of the ladies in the various branches of its work. DID YOU SELECT EVERBEARING STRAWBERRIES AS YOUR PREMIUM?--An altogether unexpected demand has been made upon us for the Everbearing Strawberries the society is offering as plant premiums to its members this spring. Probably twice as many plants have been called for as can be furnished in the amount asked for. Under the "right of substitution" which the society reserves in the matter of its plant premiums, probably plant premium No. 16 will be substituted for Nos. 17 and 18 if matters turn out as now appears, though the number of plants sent will be more than is offered under No. 16. As this everbearing strawberry, originated at the fruit-breeding farm, No. 1017, is a very prolific plant maker, a dozen plants, if the runners are allowed to grow, will make plants enough to set out a bed of them next year, large enough in all probability for family use. In the matter of June-bearing strawberry No. 3, offered as premium, there is undoubtedly stock enough to fill all orders including those asked for for which money has been sent, and we are in hopes that orders for raspberry No. 4 can be filled in their entirety, though it may be necessary to return money which has been sent for additional plants. In this distribution all members will be treated exactly alike and altogether in accordance with the conditions noted in connection with the list of premiums as found on page six of the society folder and on the inside front cover page of the magazine. [Illustration: VIEW IN FRUIT-BREEDING GREENHOUSE, STATE COLLEGE, BROOKINGS, S.D. This is Prof. N. E. Hansen's laboratory, where he works out his problems in cross-breeding. (See opposite page.)] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 MAY, 1916 No. 5 What is Hardiness? PROF. N. E. HANSEN, HORTICULTURIST, BROOKINGS, S.D. By the term hardiness is understood the capacity to resist against any special condition of environment. So in speaking of hardiness of the plant it may mean hardiness as to either cold, heat, drouth, fungus or insect trouble. In the present discussion hardiness against cold will be considered mainly, since that is the most difficult problem we have to meet in this horticultural field. It would be of great advantage could we determine by examination of the plant its power to resist cold. If we could determine by the looks of a new apple tree its power of resistance to our test winters, it would save us many thousands of dollars and much vexation of spirit. Some years ago the Iowa State Horticultural Society made a determined and praiseworthy effort to determine hardiness by some characteristic of the plant, especially in apple trees. A chemical test of the sap of hardy and tender varieties was made. The palisade cells of the leaf, and the cellular structure of the wood, were examined under high powers of the microscope to determine some means by which a tender variety could be distinguished from a hardy one, but no general rule or conclusion could be formulated. In a general way nurserymen and orchardists say that a variety that ripens its wood well in the fall shows it by the twigs being sturdy and not easily bent, while twigs that are not well ripened indicate lack of hardiness. The winter of 1884-85 was preceded by a late, wet autumn that kept trees of all varieties growing very late, so that winter came before the wood was ripened. In all the literature on this subject, I have been unable to find any method by which a hardy variety could be distinguished from a tender one of the same species, or, in other words, there is no correlation between morphology and hardiness. Although we do not know what determines hardiness, we may still go ahead with our experimental work. We do not really know what electricity is, but inventors in that line have enough of a theory on this subject so that they are able to work very successfully with this gigantic force of nature. We know there is a difference in hardiness between the red cedar of Tennessee and the red cedar of Minnesota, and that it is safest for us to plant the tree as it is found at the north. The same applies to many other trees that are found native over a wide area. At Moscow, Russia, the box elder as first imported was from St. Louis, and it winter-killed. Afterwards they got the box elder from Manitoba, and it proved perfectly hardy. Although botanically both are the same, yet there is a difference in hardiness. My way of securing hardiness is to work with plants that are already hardy. I like to work with native plums in my plant breeding experiments because there need be no concern about their hardiness. We know they are hardy, or they would not be here after thousands of years of natural selection in this climate. The other way of obtaining hardiness is by crossing a tender variety with a hardy one. When we cross the native plum with the Japanese plum, we obtain seedlings that combine in a fair measure the hardiness of the native plum with the size and quality of the Japanese plum. In many states of the Union the question of varieties for commercial orchards has been to a large degree settled. There is always room for a new apple, but for commercial purposes the varieties already in cultivation are sufficiently satisfactory as to size, color and quality as well as in keeping and shipping capacity. So the main effort in their horticultural societies is along other lines, such questions as marketing, packing, spraying, insects, fungi and orchard management. But in this region the winter apple question is still a vital one. Some promising winter apples have appeared recently, and it remains to be seen whether they will stand up under the next test winter. They are certainly satisfactory in size, color, quality and keeping capacity. The greatest question now presents itself in planting apple seed. What variety shall I choose? Some pedigrees may be like a blind alley, they will lead us nowhere. The commercial apples of the East and of the Pacific Coast are the survivors of millions of apple seedlings raised by immigrants from Western Europe during the past three centuries. They survived because they were the best. From time to time very good varieties are super-ceded by new ones that appear. From the ashes of millions of seedlings will arise, Phoenix-like, the creations that will dominate our future prairie pomology. Here in the Northwest thousands of farmers have already determined to a considerable extent what we may expect from planting the seed of certain standard varieties. [Illustration: The Waneta plum. A promising variety originated and introduced by Prof. N. E. Hansen.] Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa are full of seedlings of the Duchess. Some of the best are Okabena, Peerless, Patten's Greening, Milwaukee, Dudley, Pewaukee. A very large amount of Wealthy seed has been planted, especially in Minnesota. Many of these give promise, but in none do we appear to have obtained the true winter-keeping capacity. The Wealthy has given us the Lord's L, Evelyn, Lyman Sweet, Perfect and many more, observed at Minnesota state fairs from time to time. The Malinda has given us in the Perkins' seedlings a number of promising new varieties that evidently are true winter keepers. The fact that they appear hardy may come from the fact that the original orchard had hardy varieties, like the Duchess, standing near the Malinda. From the experience with these three varieties I would like to draw the conclusion that in order to get winter apples we should save the seed of winter apples, but it would not be safe to draw this conclusion without further experiments. There is an immense number of Ben Davis seedlings in Missouri and adjoining states, but none appear to have come into extensive commercial notice except the Black Ben Davis and Gano. But as near as I can learn we cannot obtain real hardiness from this line of descent, unless the Ben Davis in the mother orchard is standing near varieties like the Duchess. The seed of standard winter apples top-grafted on hardy stocks like Hibernal should be carefully saved as nature may have smiled with indulgence upon your efforts and created the desired variety. I am watching with great interest a tree of very vigorous, smooth growth, from seed of Talman Sweet top-grafted on Duchess. You would not expect to get anything hardy from seed of the Talman Sweet, but the entire hardiness so far of the young trees propagated from the original seedling, makes me impatient to see the fruit. A blend of Talman Sweet and Duchess ought certainly to bring something good, but they will not all be hardy or all good. The fact that there are so many different lines of pedigree available to us in our apple work, makes it all the more necessary for us to divide the work. Let us gather inspiration from the story of Johnny Apple-Seed--one of the patron saints of American horticulture--who about one hundred and twenty-five years ago forced his way through the wilderness of Indiana and Ohio and planted many bushels of apple seed as he went along, so that when settlers came they found their orchards ready for them. The story of John Chapman and his unselfish efforts in planting the seed of apples and other fruits in the American wilderness should give us courage and patience to give a little of our time to this work. Make a record of what seeds you plant, and when the seedlings are one year of age plant them out in a row where they can be cultivated. Select the best ones as they fruit and bring to the state fair or horticultural meeting. You may not win the grand prize, but you will have the satisfaction of having made some contribution to the common welfare. * * * * * In localities where cottontails are sufficiently abundant to be a continual menace, the safest and most nearly permanent method of securing immunity from their ravages is to fence against them. It has been found that woven wire netting of one and one-half inch mesh and thirty inches high will exclude rabbits, provided, that the lower border of the fence is buried five or six inches below the surface of the ground. In cases where a small number of trees are concerned, a cylinder of similar wire netting around each tree, if so fastened that it cannot be pushed up close against the tree, serves the purpose more economically. Standardizing Minnesota Potatoes. A. W. AAMODT, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. (Gideon Memorial Contest.) The potato is one of the large farm crops of the country, rating next to the cereals in importance. According to the census report of 1909, United States produced 389,194,965 bushels, and three-fourths of these were consumed in the states in which they were produced. The report also shows that the most extensive production was along the northern tier of states, from Maine to Minnesota. In 1909 the states ranked in production as follows: New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Maine, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Iowa, Illinois and Colorado. In the same year Minnesota ranked fourth in surplus production, producing sixteen per cent. of the potatoes which entered into interstate commerce. Wisconsin produced twenty per cent., Michigan twenty-four per cent. and Maine twenty-five per cent. [Illustration: Figure I. Rural New Yorker.] In Minnesota the largest part of these potatoes are grown in certain districts of the state, and according to the 1909 census the counties rank in respective order, namely: Hennepin, Isanti, Chisago, Clay, Anoka, Sherburne, Washington, Ottertail, Dakota, and Mille Lacs. This shows that the largest production is in the vicinity of St. Paul and Minneapolis, and the Red River Valley, especially in Clay County. The following statement shows the per cent. of increase in acreage from 1900 to 1910 and that the older districts are being rapidly outdone by the counties towards the northern part of the state: Clay, 455 per cent.; Sherburne, 254 per cent.; Polk, 136 per cent.; Todd, 109 per cent.; Hennepin, 83 per cent.; Anoka, 58 per cent.; Isanti, 26 per cent.; Chisago, 17 per cent. From these reports it is also evident that the distribution of the surplus is entirely towards the southern states, either as table stock or as seed potatoes, which in turn varies with the different years because of differences in crop yields. But as a general rule Maine, New York and Michigan supply the states in the east, east central and southeastern part of the country, Wisconsin the Chicago market and Minnesota the Mississippi Valley, especially Nebraska and Kansas. In addition Minnesota ships seed potatoes to many of the Southern states. [Illustration: Figure II. Burbank.] Because of these markets, potato shippers maintain that competition is extremely keen between the potato growing sections of this country. There can be no doubt that the only way Minnesota can meet her increase in yield and increase in demand is to determine whether or not she will expand her markets to the territory which is now being held by the other states. But before Minnesota can get these markets and obtain the better prices, she must standardize her potatoes. That is, Minnesota can obtain great improvement by adopting certain standards for the grading and sorting of potatoes. At a conference held in Chicago, last February, of representatives from the growing, shipping and marketing interests, the following recommendations for greater uniformity in potato shipments were made: _Size._--Market stock of round white varieties shall be graded over a screen which measures 1-7/8 inches in the clear. For long white varieties a screen of 1-3/4 inches, in the clear, is recommended. _Weight._--Stock running over twelve ounces is undesirable and not over five per cent. of this maximum weight should be allowed in first class shipments. [Illustration: Figure III. Burbank Russet.] _Quality._--Stock should be practically free from serious external imperfections, including late blight rot, common scab, sunburn, frost injury, bruises, knobbiness, second growth, etc. Stock should be mature and clean. _Varietal purity._--Commercial potato shipments should be graded to one variety. All indications show that Minnesota must grade and sort for commercial shipments of potatoes, and that a definite brand or grade designating a definite standard must be adopted in order to secure the highest prices. All inferior stock must be thrown out, and the best potatoes given a chance to make an attractive showing. The standing which Minnesota potatoes will have in the market will be determined a great deal by the grading, which is usually the work of the dealer, although some farmers do their own grading by hand. Ungraded potatoes injure the Minnesota potato trade and reduce the profits, as the freight is the same on dirt, small and unsound potatoes as it is on the fine stock. As much as a ton of dirt and culls is sometimes found in a car on the Chicago "team tracks" after the wholesale merchant has sacked all he is willing to accept. This freight, sorting charges and cost of disposing of refuse must be paid by some one. Co-operating to improve the sorting done at loading stations is a means of establishing a grade to meet competition and to reach new markets. [Illustration: Figure IV. Early Ohio.] Standardization also means grading to eliminate potatoes infected with disease, such as common scab and late blight, sunken discolorations or dry hard blisters, green, spongy and coarse stock. All of these defects tend to lower prices. In order to increase the value of the Minnesota potato we must also supply the market with the variety which it demands, and, furthermore, this variety must be free from mixture. Minnesota has already taken a step in this direction. The Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Minnesota Crop Improvement Association and the Minnesota Potato Growers' Association have recommended the following varieties and types to be selected and grown. The Rural New Yorker, as shown in Figure 1, is the leading round, white, late potato for Minnesota. It is a good yielding and keeping variety, fine in quality, an excellent market sort and suitable for almost any soil. Similar to the Rural New Yorker are the Carman No. 3 and Sir Walter Raleigh. The Green Mountain is a desirable white late potato, similar to the Rural New Yorker, but more oblong and with squarer ends. It is better suited to rich heavy soils than the Rural New Yorker, as they are not so likely to grow hollow. [Illustration: Figure V. Triumph.] Other similar varieties are the Carman No. 1, Green Mountain, Jr., and State of Maine. The Burbank (Fig. II) is a long, white, late potato of excellent quality and suitable only for rich, loose, loam soils. Thrives well upon new rich soils that are well supplied with humus. Other inferior varieties confused with the Burbank are the White Chief, White Star and Pingree. The Burbank Russet (Fig. III) is a long, russet, late potato differing mainly from the Burbank in its heavily russeted skin. Very fine for baking. Suitable for low, moist, friable and peaty soils. The Early Ohio (Fig. IV) is the leading early potato in Minnesota. The type is oval with a pinkish or flesh colored skin. It is particularly suited to the black, rich, friable soils. The Triumph (Fig. V) is a round, red, very early potato, valuable for southern seed trade. It suffers severely from drought, and, therefore, soils subject to this condition should be avoided. Similar or identical varieties are Red Bliss, Bliss, Triumph and Stray Beauty. The Irish Cobbler is a promising white, early, roundish potato of good quality, although inferior to the Early Ohio. It has not been sufficiently tested out, but is promising for southern seed trade. Similar variety is the Extra Early Eureka. The King is a broad, oblong, reddish potato. Very suitable for worn-out and sandy soils. Similar or identical variety is the Maggie Murphy. In conclusion I would have you to remember the main points of this paper which may be summarized as follows: First. That Minnesota is one of the leading potato producing states of the Union. Second. That Minnesota must establish a reputation for a continuous supply of well graded stock practically free from diseases and blemishes. Third. That Minnesota must create a general interest in better seed, true to name and type. Finally. Minnesota must secure the co-operation of all agencies interested in the production, distribution and utilization of potatoes to get better production, better grading and better marketing. * * * * * INSECTS HELP RAISE CROP.--It is well known that most of our crop plants will not form fruit and seed unless the flowers are properly pollinated. The principal carriers of pollen are wind and insects. In some plants, such as the beet, both wind and insects play an important part in the spread of pollen. In all cereals and grasses, and in the potato, the pollen is carried mainly by wind. In most of our common plants of garden, field, and orchard, insects are the chief and most effective carriers of pollen. The following is a list of insect-pollinated plants: Onions, asparagus, buckwheat, gooseberry, currant, cabbage, radish, turnip, raspberry, blackberry, strawberry, apple, pear, plum, cherry, peach, alfalfa, clover, melons, cucumbers and squashes. We are very dependent upon the bees and other insects for a good crop yield.--W. W. Robbins, Colorado Agri. College. Annual Report, 1915, Vice-President, Eighth Congressional District. FRANK H. CUTTING, DULUTH. This district embraces within its limits a very large area having different characteristics from a horticultural standpoint. Much of the land has a high elevation and is rolling or hilly, and much is low and comparatively level. A considerable portion is close to Lake Superior and other large bodies of water and, therefore, governed by conditions with respect to frost different from those controlling land not so situated. The quality or character of the soil is also varying. The foregoing considerations probably furnish the reason for the widely differing reports secured on the blanks distributed, and which were quite generally answered. This prompts the suggestion that before planting commercially or on a large scale one should personally conduct a series of experiments on land designed for use to test its adaptability for the fruits intended. We suffered a frost and hard freeze on the 18th day of May which greatly damaged the fruit buds; the temperature registered on that day at the United States Weather Office being 27°. The month of June was the coolest in forty-five years. The low temperature of the summer months and lack of sunshine resulted in a tardy development of fall fruits and a failure to mature them. Even the Beta grape and the Compass cherry did not ripen their fruit. The Opata plum, however, bore a large crop of ripe plums early in September. Very little blight has been reported. The weather report shows a deficiency of precipitation up to December 1 of 3.81 inches. However, the heavy rains in November immediately before the ground froze supplied sufficient moisture to enable trees and shrubs to stand the winter. The following list is suggested by the reports: Apples: Duchess, Okabena, Wealthy, Patten's Greening. Crab Apples: Florence, Early Strawberry, Virginia. Plums: Cheney, Aitkin, Compass, Opata. Grape: Beta. Cherries: Reports generally unfavorable. Blackberries: No kinds reported favorably. Raspberry: Minnetonka Ironclad, King, Cuthbert, Older. Strawberries: Dunlap; Everbearing--Progressive and Superb. Currants: Red Dutch, Perfection, Wilder, White Grape. Gooseberries: Carrie, Houghton, Downing. Hardy Perennial Flowers: Peonies, Phlox, Sweet William, Delphinium, Canterbury Bells, Foxglove, Oriental Poppies, Iceland Poppies. Hardy Shrubs: Snowball, Hydrangea, Lilac, Honeysuckle, High Bush Cranberry. Annual Report, 1915, Paynesville Trial Station. FRANK BROWN, SUPT. The summer of 1915 will long be remembered as the summer with no warm weather. There was a heavy frost the morning of June 10th. The season's rainfall was very heavy, but trees at the best made only a normal growth, and with many varieties, especially of forest trees, the growth was much less than the usual growth of even a dry season. Some fruit trees blossomed quite early, and the young fruit formed during a warm spell, and these trees were heavily loaded with fruit. This was especially noticeable with Wealthy, Duchess, Okabena and Whitney No. 20 apples, and with some of the Hansen hybrid plums. Other trees, fully as good bearers, blossomed a few days later and set no fruit at all, the frost killing the blossoms while not severe enough to harm the fruit already set. The cool weather of this past season has probably helped fruit growers more than it has hindered them, for had it been as hot as it usually is when we have such a tremendous rainfall, blight would most certainly have caused much trouble, but as it was we have had practically no blight at all. This season has again demonstrated very plainly the advantages of top-working, such trees making a better growth, and the fruit being more even, and less troubled with spots, scab, etc. The plums sent to this station the spring of 1913 bore no fruit at all this season, but the trees made a fair growth and all appear healthy except a few that froze back the winter of 1913-14. The plum trees sent from the central station the spring of 1914 made a very poor growth that season, owing undoubtedly to the fact that the roots were dry when reaching here, but this last season all but one made a splendid growth, and one No. 10, to my surprise, produced five plums that for beauty and eating qualities would place this variety in the front rank with the best in the state. We shall watch these trees with great interest and will report on their actions as they develop. The four trees of No. 1 plum, sent here the spring of 1915 from the central station, made a splendid growth, each tree developing fruit buds in abundance. Of the seven varieties of raspberries sent here the spring of 1913, three made good this last season. No. 2 bore a tremendous crop of very large fruit, in quality the best; No. 4 bore heavily, an all around good berry and apparently a good shipper; No. 7 produced a good crop, not quite as large as No. 2, but continued in bearing for a long period. Further testing will be necessary for these berries, but so far they look good. There is little to say about grapes, except the growth has been good, and the amount of fruit buds started immense, but the frost and unsuitable weather told the tale--we won't repeat it. Of strawberries we will say this: If the central station did nothing in five years except to produce the strawberry known as Minnesota No. 3, they have still done well. It is hardy, a good shipper, it is delicious with cream and sugar, a good canner, in fact a great big Senator Dunlap with no green core, but ripens to the tip. It is also a good plant producer. The strawberry known as No. 1017, planted last spring, did well. It is a wonderful plant producer, having a very heavy, dark green foliage, it seems to be a good bearer of large, dark red berries. With the wood on the fruit trees thoroughly ripened, and fruit buds in good condition, we may look ahead to the future with courage, believing that all things come to him that waits in Minnesota, providing he hustles while he waits. * * * * * RED ROSE BEETLE IS EASILY KILLED.--Did you ever wait patiently in the spring for your favorite Japanese rose to bloom and find when the buds were ready to burst that it was scaly and spotted around punctures made by the red rose beetle? Then did you vow once more to destroy the beetles when you saw the roses begin to wither from punctures made by the beetle in the stem? The destruction of the red rose beetle is simple, according to a circular recently issued by the Minnesota state entomologist, University Farm, St. Paul. The method is to cultivate the ground around the rose bush early this spring and cultivate it again in the late fall. This will destroy many of the beetles, for they live in the soil in the winter. Then a few of the pests can be hand-picked and destroyed. If they are still too thick, they may be removed next fall for safety to next year's blooms. The beetle lays its eggs in the hip of the rose. These can be seen after the rose is in full bloom as a black spot, covered over with no noticeable depression. The growing pests leave the old blossom by the middle of September and go into the soil until next spring. The bush should be examined in the latter part of August for any flower hips containing insect larvae and all found should be plucked and burned. A few hours' work will insure a beautifully blooming bush next year. Annual Report, 1915, Jeffers Trial Station. DEWAIN COOK, SUPT. The 1915 apple crop at this station was a complete failure, owing to the freezes of late May and early June. This apple failure, so far as I have been able to ascertain, was prevalent over the entire county of Cottonwood, although we could hear of plenty of apples being grown only a short distance over the county line in all directions excepting to the west of us. [Illustration: A windbreak at Dewain Cook's, mostly white willow.] The season has been one of cool weather and much rainfall, so much so that although we had no killing frosts this fall until October 5th, yet no corn or melons ripened in this vicinity. We quit spraying our fruit trees when the freeze came last spring and destroyed the apple crop, and the result has been that there was much scab on the foliage of many varieties of our apple trees. The Antonovka and the Hibernal seem to be about the healthiest in this respect. As to the fire blight there has been absolutely none at this station the season just passed. As for plums we got a few bushels in the final roundup, De Sotos, Wolfs and Wyants mostly. Of the Japanese hybrids, we got a few specimens of the B.A.Q. The Emerald bore freely, but the fruit mostly either was destroyed by the brown rot or cracked badly just as they were getting ripe. The Tokata, one of Hansen's hybrids, gave us specimens of very fine fruit. Of the apricot hybrids only the Hanska made any pretense of trying to bear anything, but the curculio got away with about all of them. When I made the midsummer report most of Hansen's sand cherry hybrids were promising a good crop, but with the exception of the Enopa and Kakeppa, from which we gathered a few quarts of fruits, we got nothing. The brown rot, assisted by the curculio, took them all. It sure looks as if we ever expect to make a general success with these sand cherry hybrids and with the Japanese hybrids, we will have to be better educated along the line of controlling this disease that is so very destructive to the fruit of some varieties of plums, especially of those varieties that have sand cherry or Japanese blood in them. [Illustration: A veteran white spruce at Mr. Cook's place.] [Illustration: Specimen Colorado blue spruce at Dewain Cook's.] We have to report a grand success with everbearing strawberry No. 1017, sent to this station from our State Fruit-Breeding Farm last spring. The season all through was favorable for that class of fruit. We kept all blossoms picked off till about the first of August, when we let everything grow, and there is a great number of new plants. These new plants, with a few exceptions, did not bear, but the old plants, the ones set last spring, we gathered from them, from about September 15 till the first hard frost, October 5th, a liberal crop of surprisingly fine fruit. The Americus, also an everbearing variety, treated exactly as we did Minnesota 1017, bore a great number of plants and some fruit in the fall. The berries were not so large as the 1017 nor so many of them. While it is a perfect flowering variety, most of the late blossoms blighted, which seems to be a weakness of this variety. On November 5th our strawberry beds were all given a mulching with loose oat straw for a winter protection. The several varieties of grape vines originating at the Minnesota State Farm on trial here have all made a vigorous growth. We have them all pruned and laid on the ground, and we intend to give them no other winter protection. They are in a sheltered location. In spite of the various freezes early in the season we got samples of fruit from most of the varieties. Minnesota No. 8 seems to be the earliest to ripen its fruit. The wild grape flavor is noticeable in all these varieties. The various varieties of plum trees sent here from the State Farm made vigorous growth the past season and are looking healthy with the exception of Minnesota No. 21. Of the five trees of this variety each one has a great many galls on the body of the tree. It is probably what is termed black knot, only the galls have not turned black yet. They are apparently of too recent growth for that. It is probable that we will plant other trees in their places next spring. * * * * * PAINTING OF SMALL TREE WOUNDS USELESS.--It has long been the custom for horticulturists to recommend, and fruit growers to use, dressings of various kinds on the wounds of trees when branches are removed in pruning. A few years ago the New York Experiment Station decided to conduct some experiments to determine whether such practice was really of any value or not. From results of this work, which have recently been published in bulletin form, it is concluded that the use of white lead, white zinc, yellow ochre, coal tar, shellac and avenarious carbolineum as coverings for wounds under five inches in diameter is not only useless, but usually detrimental to the tree. This is particularly true of peaches, and perhaps of some other stone fruits, which, according to recommendations, should never be treated at all. The substances mentioned often injure the cambium layer to such an extent that the healing of wounds is greatly retarded. Of the substances experimented with, white lead proved to be the best and is recommended wherever anything is used. But it is not thought worth while to use even white lead for wounds two or three inches or less in diameter, though it may be advisable to use it on wounds where very large branches have been removed. On the larger wounds, where much surface is exposed to decay, the white lead will help to keep out moisture and the organisms which cause decay. The smaller wounds, however, heal so quickly that the evil effects of the covering may more than offset the benefits derived from its use.--R.A. McGinty, Colorado Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colorado. Annual Report, 1915, Montevideo Trial Station. LYCURGUS R. MOYER, SUPT. About twenty-six years ago a plantation of white spruce was made at this station. The trees flourished for several years and bade fair to become a permanent success, but some six or eight years ago they began to fail and many of them have since died. The survivors are all in poor condition. It seems that this tree is not well adapted to prairie conditions, at least not to the prairies of Southwestern Minnesota. Its native range is much further north. Here it evidently suffers from heat and dryness. The Black Hills spruce is commonly regarded as belonging to the same species. It has not been tested nearly so long, but so far it seems to be entirely hardy. Something like thirty years ago a few trees of black spruce, a few trees of European larch and a few trees of balsam fir were planted here. They have long since disappeared. White pine planted at about the same time disappeared with them. A single tree of Scotch pine planted at about the same time, standing in the open, is gnarled and crooked and shows a great many dead branches. A forest plantation of several thousand Scotch pine, made something like twenty-two years ago, is still in good condition. Many of the trees are from twenty-five to thirty feet high. Some of the smaller trees have been over-topped and smothered out, but generally the trees seem healthy. A few hundred of the black, or Austrian, pine were set at the same time. They are about two-thirds of the height of the Scotch pine, but they are as healthy and vigorous trees as one would care to see. Some trees of rock, or bull, pine (Pinus scopulorum) were set at the same time. They have grown at about the same rate as the black pine and are healthy, vigorous trees. Norway spruce has done better here than white spruce, some old trees fruiting freely. The Colorado blue spruce (Picea pungens) seems to be our best spruce, and so far as tested the Black Hills spruce is a good second. Douglas fir has been planted in a small way in the parks, but it is young yet. It seems probable that the Scotch pines in the forestry plantation owe their comparatively good condition to the shelter they get from the hot winds from being planted close together, and from the fact that they are partly protected by the black pines planted to the west of them. The single tree of Scotch pine above referred to has had garden cultivation for thirty years, but it seems likely that it was injured by the same hot winds that killed the white pine and the larch. The Scotch pine is a native of Northern Europe, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Scotland, Normandy (near the ocean) and Germany and Russia around the Baltic, and all these countries have a moist, cool climate. The black pine is a native of Southern Europe, growing all the way from Southern Spain to the Taurus Mountains in Asia Minor. In its native habitat it has become accustomed to the hot winds that often sweep across the Mediteranean, the burning sirocco of the Great Sahara. The dwarf mountain pine, Pinus Montana, grows in the Pyrenees, in the Alps, in the Carpathians and in the Balkan Mountains, so that it, too, often encounters the hot winds that come across from the African deserts. It is probable that the ability of the black pine, the dwarf mountain pine, the Black Hills spruce, and the rock pine to flourish on the prairies of Southwestern Minnesota is due to the fact that all these trees have become accustomed to resisting the hot, dry winds that often reach them in their native habitats. The Norway spruce (Picea excelsa) in its many varieties is native to almost the whole of Europe, extending from north of the Arctic Circle to the Pyrenees and Balkan Mountains in Southern Europe. We could then expect that trees from the Pyrenees or from the Balkans might be so well accustomed to the hot winds from Africa as to make them resist, at least for some time, the hot winds of the prairies. And they do seem to stand better than the white spruce or the balsam fir or the white pine. Some report should be made on the material sent out for trial from the State Fruit-Breeding Farm. The strawberry, No. 1017, made a fine growth, and promised a large crop of fruit in September, but a few days of quite dry weather, following a very wet spell, ruined the crop at ripening time. The raspberry, No. 4, is a great producer of sprouts and multiplies enormously, but it seems to be a rather shy fruiter, and the fruit is not of the highest quality. It is intermediate in season. No. 5 is a much larger and better berry, although not quite so hardy. Both came through the winter, without covering, in good condition. No. 8 seems to resemble the old Columbian. It does not sucker much. It is a large, late berry of good quality. It was covered, so its hardiness is untested. Prof. Hansen's Oheta is a berry of much promise. It is of fine quality and fruits abundantly. The hybrid plums were sprayed with a commercial dust spray but not effectively enough, for the fruit all rotted. We shall try more thorough spraying next season. Patten's Greening, Oldenburg, Okabena and Simbrish No. 1 produced a good crop of apples. With us Okabena is undersized, of poor flavor and an extremely poor keeper. The Growing of Vegetables for Canning. M. H. HEGERLE, PRES. CANNING FACTORY, ST. BONIFACIUS. The state authorities, through the Agricultural Farm and other sources, are doing good work promoting and encouraging the growing of vegetables, but it seems more could be done towards the marketing and conservation of these vegetables after they are grown. The growing season for vegetables in this state is comparatively short, and although during that short period everybody eats vegetables, every grocer's show windows, and even the sidewalks, are used to display them, and a tremendous business is done, yet there are tons and tons of nice fresh vegetables go to waste, not only for the market or truck farmer but in every family garden--be the same ever so small, there is a steady waste going on, all of which could easily be conserved _by canning_. Canning is simply putting the fresh vegetables in tin cans or glass jars (the latter are much more expensive, but no better), steaming and sealing them and setting aside until wanted. By doing this every truck farmer, and any one having ever so small a garden, could conserve enough which otherwise would go to waste to keep them in real fresh vegetables all winter. Of course the thousands living in the cities having no garden can not do this and are therefore dependent on the canning factory for their fresh vegetables, and here is where my topic comes in, _the growing of vegetables for canning_. It is no trick to grow vegetables for home canning, any variety will do. You need not select a big lot of one kind, and you need not sort for size or color. Just take the surplus as you find it in your garden from day to day. All it needs is, it must be fresh and it must be thoroughly clean--but growing for the canning factory is different. To line up fifty to 200 growers to sow the same seed, to plant, harvest and bring to the factory just when in right condition, requires time and hard work. This really is the hardest problem the canning factory has to solve, and that is the reason why all successful canners grow at least part of their product. You must remember vegetables put in cans will come out just as you put them in. If you put in stale, tough, stringy beans you will be sure to find them there when you open the can, but if you put in fresh, tender beans, peas, corn or whatever else, you will find these exactly as you put them in, and it's immaterial whether you open this can the first, second or tenth year. We must not forget that vegetables properly sterilized and sealed will keep indefinitely, and they require no preservative of any kind. No canning factory uses any preservative, and no home cannery should use them. [Illustration: Upland Farm, St. Bonifacius, Minn.] There was a time when canning was considered an art or a secret. I remember receiving circulars offering for sale the secrets of canning, and while in the grocery business some twelve years ago I sold thousands of packages of canning compound. These canning compounds, after a thorough examination by our State Food Department, were found not only worthless but harmful if put in canned foods. _Remember_, to can vegetables successfully, it requires no canning compound or preservative of any kind, simply fresh and thoroughly clean vegetables. Fresh vegetables are a good, healthy food, we all know this; and besides they are cheaper than meat; therefore should be on our tables two or three times a day. But mind you, they must be fresh, and while for some of us during the growing season it is comparatively easy to get them fresh, yet during the rest of the year, say eight to ten months, real fresh vegetables in bulk are hard to find and high in price. A lot of so-called fresh vegetables shipped in from a distance at best require several days to make the rounds through the grower, the shipper, the jobber, the retailer--to our tables and are really not fresh. They have become stale, and by coming in contact with different kinds of material have lost their delicate flavor. Therefore to insure real fresh vegetables for our tables, at least during the winter months, we must take the canned article. All of us remember how most everything in the grocery line was handled in bulk, dried fruits, cereals of all kinds, coffee, tea, etc., was displayed on the counters, along the aisles and even outside along the sidewalk, handled and examined by any one and exposed to dust and flies. Just about the same way are vegetables in bulk handled today. Where is the grocer who would go back to those days, and where is the public that would patronize him? Mrs. Glenzke: What vegetables do you can? Mr. Hegerle: We can corn; beans, string and wax; apples, tomatoes, etc. Mrs. Glenzke: How do you manage to get the farmers to bring them in? In Wisconsin it was a failure. As you say, they came when they got their work done, and the whole bunch came there at one time. Mr. Hegerle: That is the hardest work, to get the growers to bring the vegetables when they are in the right condition and when they should be canned. Mrs. Glenzke: There are five canning factories in that neighborhood now, and there isn't a one of them that allows the farmers to bring their stuff. They rent the farmers' land for themselves. For miles and miles you can't find a farmer that hasn't rented his farm. Mr. Hegerle: You have to have the vegetables at the right time. Mrs. Glenzke: They use the farmer's team and give him all the assistance they can. It does away with having them all at one time. I have seen twenty-five farmers come at one time. I don't see how you manage it. Mr. Hegerle: We have had a lot of trouble, and we are growing some of our vegetables. Mrs. Glenzke: You can raise four successive crops of peas on the same ground, and you can make that work all right. They used to can squash, corn, tomatoes, and they have got down to peas entirely. A Member: Doesn't most of that trouble arise from the low prices? Mr. Hegerle: No, not entirely. The price when contracted is satisfactory, and we find in our experience in growing our own vegetables we can grow them cheaper than what we pay to the growers. But we wouldn't grow any if we could get the growers to bring them in when they are in the right shape. When corn is at a certain stage to make a good canned article it has got to be brought in that day, and if the farmer don't bring it, if he has a state fair on or a wedding or a funeral or something and delays it a day or two, then it is all off; that corn is lost. Mr. Sauter: I would like to know which is the best beans for canning, the yellow or the green? Mr. Hegerle: Well, we prefer the Refugee, both in wax and green. We prefer them because they are the best in flavor we have. Mr. Sauter: Which is the best, the flat or the round of the wax? Mr. Hegerle: Round is preferred by the trade, by the grocers or jobbers. I have kept the flat wax beans for my own use of those that we can. Mr. Sauter: Don't the flat ones bring a little more than the round ones? Mr. Hegerle: Well, probably the first or second picking, but you can't pick them as often as the other variety. The Refugee you can pick four or five or six times, and the flat beans can only be picked two times. Mr. Anderson: I would like to ask what you pay for beans for canning purposes? Mr. Hegerle: We pay from 3/4 of a cent up to 4 cents a pound. Sometimes a man brings in some that are almost too good to throw away, they are big and stringy, and rather than send them home we think we have got to take them and pay him something for them. We would rather not have them, and we usually dump them. Starting from that we pay up to three and four cents. Four cents for well sorted and mostly small beans. They have got to be graded, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Number 1 is the smallest, and they bring the best price. We pay in proportion to the number 1's and 2's in the load. Mr. Sauter: What tomato do you find the best for canning? Mr. Hegerle: Well, the Earliana. Mr. Sauter: Do you have any trouble with those bursting the cans? Mr. Hegerle: No, sir. Mr. Sauter: We had that trouble in canning for our own use. They burst the can, they expanded. Mr. Hegerle: That is the fault of the man, not of the tomato. Mr. Sauter: They were picked and canned the same day. Mr. Hegerle: Probably not sterilized enough. Sterilizing fruit is the main thing. A tomato is really one of the easiest things to can. Mr. Sauter: In other tomatoes we don't have that trouble. It seems to hurt the sale of them to the women folks. Mr. Hegerle: Sterilize them a little more. Mr. Sauter: About how long would you cook them? Mr. Hegerle: I am not the man at the wheel on that part. I don't know. We have a superintendent that handles that part of it. Top-Grafting. AN EXERCISE LED BY A. J. PHILIPS, WEST SALEM, WIS., AT 1915 ANNUAL MEETING OF THE SOCIETY. Mr. Philips: When I first talked top-working in Minnesota, Professor Green and some of the knowing ones felt a little leary about it, but I kept right on just the same. The most I have got out of top-working is the pleasure I have had, doing the work and seeing the fruit grow. I inherited a love for top-working from my father. He used to top-work some, and after I began planting trees my old friend Wilcox used to come and visit me, and he was strong on top-working on hardy roots. I used to make a little sport of the old man, but no more I guess than people have made of me for doing the same thing. He made me a proposition about forty years ago. He says, "You plant ten trees of a good variety to top-work on--I will pick them out for you--and then you top-work them with Wealthy, and then plant ten Wealthy trees right beside them on the same land and in the same rows, right together, and see which will do the best." At the end of ten years the Wealthy on their own roots had borne good crops but they began to fail, while the top-worked ones (on Virginia crab) were just at their best bearing at that time. Professor Green came and looked them over at the end of fifteen years. The first ten on their own roots were dead, and the others grafted on Virginia bore apples until they were twenty-five years old. That convinced me that top-working in certain cases would pay if done on a hardy stock. I have seen a Northwestern Greening tree that was crotched, split apart and lay down when it was loaded with apples, in Waupacca County, but when grafted onto a stock whose limbs grew out horizontal it will carry a load of fruit until it ripens without injury. I won a first prize at the Omaha exposition. My apples were not much better, but they were top-worked and were a little larger. I have some specimens here that show the practical difference. These grew on my own land. I found in showing apples in Milwaukee at their fairs that I could always get the best specimens from the top-worked trees. That convinced me that you could grow better fruit that way. Mr. Brackett: What age do you commence the grafting? Mr. Philips: I like to commence at two years old. I like to set a Virginia crab and let it grow one year and then commence top-working, and top-work about half the first year and the balance the second. Mr. Brackett: Is that in the nursery row? Mr. Philips: No, where I am going to have it grow. I have found the Virginia--and the Hibernal, too, either of them, very vigorous trees. The Virginia is very vigorous. You dig up a Virginia tree, and you find a great mass of roots; it has strength, and it grows fast. I have top-worked about forty varieties on the Virginia and some on Hibernal. Mr. Cady was there and looked it over, Prof. Green was there and Mr. Kellogg has been there a number of times--and I always ask them this question: If they found any trees where the top had outgrown the stock? I have never seen an instance where the top of the tree put onto a Virginia crab outgrew the Virginia. I have some in my garden now where the union is so perfect it takes a man with good eyesight to see where it is. [Illustration: A.J. Philips, West Salem, Wis. Photo taken in his eighty-second year.] Mr. Brackett: If you had Virginia trees twelve years old would you top-work them? Mr. Philips: Yes, sir, out towards the end of the limbs. Mr. Brackett: Suppose the limbs were too big on the stock you are going to top-work, how would you do then? Mr. Philips: I practice cutting off those larger limbs and letting young shoots grow. Mr. Dartt did a good deal of top-working, and he top-worked large limbs. I told him he was making an old fool of himself, but he wouldn't believe it. He would cut off limbs as large as three inches and put in four scions and at the end of two years they had only grown eight inches each. I have put in one scion in a Virginia limb that was about 3/4-inch in diameter, and had it that season grow eight feet and one inch. That is the best growth I ever had. The reason that my attention was called to the Virginia as being vigorous was, when I attended the meeting of this society about thirty years ago--I think it was at Rochester--Mr. A. W. Sias, who was an active nurseryman and one of the pioneers of this society, offered a premium of $5.00 for the best growth of a crab apple tree, and then, in order to win the money himself (which he did), he brought in some limbs of a Virginia that were six feet long that grew in one season; and I figured then that a tree that could make that growth in one season was a vigorous tree, which it is. Nothing can outgrow it, and that was one reason why I commenced using it. Mr. Brackett: I have one trouble in grafting the Wealthy to the Hibernal on account of its making that heavy growth. I lost some of them by blight on that account. Mr. Philips: Which was blighted, the Hibernal? Mr. Brackett: No, the Wealthy made such a big growth that it blighted. I cut the top back and put grafts in, and they made a good growth, but they blighted. Did you have any trouble like that? Mr. Philips: No, sir, I think my soil is different from yours. My soil is of a poor order, a heavy clay, and it don't make the growth. Mr. Brackett: How many of those large limbs could you cut off in one year and graft? Mr. Philips: Cut about half of the growth of the tree if not too large, don't cut enough to weaken the tree too much. Next year cut the balance off. Mr. Crosby: In grafting, suppose you get scions from an Eastern state, what time would you get those scions, say, from Maine; Maine is on a parallel with Minnesota? Mr. Philips: I prefer cutting scions in the fall before they freeze. Mr. Crosby: How would you keep those scions? Mr. Philips: I have tried a great many ways, in dirt and burying them in the ground, but the best way to keep them is to put them in boxes and put some leaves among them. Leaves will preserve them all winter if you keep them moist enough, wet them a little once in ten days just to keep them damp. Leaves are a more natural protection than anything else. Don't you think so, Mr. Brackett? Mr. Brackett: Yes, sir. Mr. Crosby: What kind of a graft do you usually make? Mr. Philips: I have put in some few whip-grafts but use the cleft-graft with the larger limbs. Mr. Wallace: Is the Patten Greening a good tree to graft onto? Mr. Philips: It is better for that than most anything else where I live. It is hardy and makes a good growth. If I had Patten Greenings, many of them, I would top-work them. The apple is not a good seller where I live. Mr. Kellogg: What was the condition of that tree where Dartt put in four scions? Mr. Philips: They grew eight inches each in two years, then died. Those scions were too weak to take possession of the big limb. It is like putting an ox yoke onto a calf. They can't adapt themselves. They hadn't strength to take hold of that limb and grow. That was a good illustration. Put a graft on a small limb, and it will assimilate and grow better than if you take a large one. Mr. Brackett: Where you put in more than one scion in a limb, is it feasible to leave more than one to grow? Mr. Philips: No, not if they grow crotchy. I let them grow one year to get firmly established and then I take off the lower one. I have trees in my garden I have done that with, and you couldn't see the crotch. It grows right over. Mr. Brackett: I have seen a great many of them where both of them were growing. Mr. Philips: It makes a bad tree, as bad as a crotchy tree. Mr. Kellogg: Isn't it better to dehorn it and get some new shoots to graft? Mr. Philips: Yes, sir, and if they are _very old_ the best way is to set out new trees. Mr. Crosby: In getting scions are there any distinguishing marks between a vigorous scion and one not vigorous? Mr. Philips: Nothing, only the general appearance. If I see a scion that looks deficient I pass it by. Mr. Erkel: Would it be practical to use water shoots for scions? Mr. Philips: I should rather not. I have always had scions enough to avoid using water shoots. They are an unnatural growth; I wouldn't use them. Take a good healthy scion. Mr. Kellogg: Would scions from bearing trees with the blossom buds on do you any good? Mr. Philips: Well, not with a blossom bud on; I wouldn't use such a scion. Some people say if you cut your scions from a bearing tree they will bear quicker, but I never saw any difference. Inasmuch as this question has been asked a great many times by people, what age to plant a tree, whether it is best to plant young trees or trees four or five years old, I will say I am in favor of young trees, and I am in favor of grafting a tree when it is young. Mr. Brackett: Isn't that a general opinion in the West where they make a business of planting large orchards? Mr. Philips: I think so. I think that is the case. Mrs. Cadoo: Can you graft onto a Martha crab and have success with that? Mr. Philips: I never had very good success with the Martha crab; it isn't vigorous enough. Mrs. Cadoo: We had a tree twelve years and got seven apples. Mr. Philips: Well, I think I got eight. (Laughter.) I believe with the Martha crab if you will plant it where there are other crab trees around it you get a pretty good crop, but not if you isolate it. I have an idea it is not self-fertilizing. I think that is the trouble with the Martha. It is a nice crab. Mr. Brackett: You showed the difference in size there, those top-worked and those not--don't you think that is because of cutting the top back? You throw a heavy growth in there, which makes the fruit that much larger? Mr. Philips: Well, it might be. Mr. Street: Have you had any experience in budding in August or first of September on those trees? Mr. Philips: Yes, sir, I do a little budding every year. Budding is a hard thing to do, that is, it is a particular thing to get the bud matured enough and still have sufficient sap to slip. Mr. Street: Would you put it on the top or bottom side of the limb? Mr. Philips: I would put it on the upper side of the limb every time, but I would put it a little further from the trunk of the tree than I would to graft for the reason, if the bud fails you have two chances, and you have that same limb to cut off and graft next year. [Illustration: Winesap apples top-worked on Peerless, grown at Northfield, Minn.] Mr. Johnson: I want to ask if it has a tendency to make the apple any earlier? Virginia crab is an early bloomer, and would grafting it with Wealthy make it bloom earlier? Mr. Philips: I hardly think so. I think it is a great deal as it was with the man that had the boots. Some told him his boots would wear longer if he greased them, and some one else told him they would wear longer if he did not. So he greased one and not the other, and the one that he greased wore fifteen minutes longer than the other. (Laughter.) I don't think it makes much difference. I tell you what it does do. You graft a McMahon onto a Virginia and instead of having the McMahon its usual color, you will get a very nice blush on it. Mr. Erkel: Is the Duchess a good stock to graft onto? Mr. Philips: I haven't found it very good. It is hardly vigorous enough for a stock. Mr. Erkel: You mentioned Patten's Greening a few minutes ago. Isn't that considered a rather short-lived tree? Mr. Philips: Not with me it hasn't been. I set some thirty years ago. I never had a Patten's Greening injured with the cold. It is very hardy. Mr. Street: How about the Brier's Sweet crab? I grafted some last year and had a larger percentage of the scions live on those than on the Hibernal. Mr. Philips: You wouldn't get as good a growth afterwards. The scions on the Virginia would grow better and have a better top. I don't think the Brier's Sweet is as vigorous as Virginia. Mr. M'Clelland: I grafted on 120 Hibernals this spring and got hardly one failure. Mr. Philips: You did good work. Mr. M'Clelland: Made a growth of three to four feet, some of them. Mr. Philips: That is good. Mr. M'Clelland: Have you anything as good? Mr. Philips: If I had Hibernals I would graft them, but if I had to set something on purpose for grafting I would set Virginias. I have had better success with that variety for stocks. Mr. Kellogg: Too big a growth on the graft is liable to be injured in the winter, is it not? Mr. Philips: Too vigorous a growth on the tree is liable to get injured in the winter anyway. I like to see a good growth. I like to see it grow and then pinch it back in the fall. You can pinch it back a good deal easier when it has made a good growth than to make it grow big enough. Mr. Street: I would like to know whether we should force all of the growth into the scion the first year where we graft on trees that have been set two years. Mr. Philips: One of the pleasures of doing top-working is to watch the growth of the grafts. I did a good deal of that on Sunday. You might do worse than communing with nature. You watch them same as you watch the growth of anything else, and if you think the graft is growing too fast let some of the shoots on the stock grow to take part of the sap, but if you think it is growing too slow and these shoots are robbing it, cut them off. I like a good growth on grafts; it looks more like doing business. Mr. Street: But the second year would you keep all of the growth in the graft? Mr. Philips: Yes, sir, the second year I would, and if it makes too large a growth pinch off the end. I put in some for a neighbor this season, and I go down and see to them every two weeks. If I thought they made too much growth in August I pinched them back so as to make them ripen up quicker. I don't like to have them grow too late; as Mr. Kellogg said, frost will get them. (Applause.) Spraying the Orchard. HON. H. M. DUNLAP, SAVOY, ILLS. (Continued from March No.) Then just as soon as your bloom falls, just as soon as the blossom petals fall, then you want to spray again. You should use arsenate of lead along with your lime-sulphur in both sprayings, because your arsenate of lead will take care of a great many insects that injure the fruit. The first spraying, immediately before the bloom, with arsenate of lead is for the curculio, what is called the Palmer worm, for canker worm--if you have any of them--the tent caterpillar, the leaf roller and various other insects that injure the fruit and the foliage. The spray just immediately after the bloom in addition to fungous is a codling moth spray. To get rid of the codling moth worm you use the arsenate of lead. The codling moth egg hatches shortly after the bloom falls, and the little worm instinctively goes into the blossom end of the apple, because that is the only place it can enter the apple at that particular time. Just why it does not enter on the side of the apple I can not say, but there is a little fuzz on the outer side of the apple at that stage of growth that perhaps prevents their getting in, and that fuzz as the apple grows larger disappears, so a little later they can enter on the side or at any other part of the apple that they choose. [Illustration: Hon. H. M. Dunlap, Savoy, Ills.] When the blossoms fall the apples stand upright on the tree, and the little pointed leaves that are on the blossom end of the apples, that we call the calyx, are all open, and at that time you can spray so as to get the arsenate of lead on the inside. Within a week or ten days after the bloom falls these sepals, or little leaf points, gradually close together until they are all closed up tight, and after that you can't get your spray in there. After the worm hatches he gets between the little leaves of the calyx and goes on the inside of the apple and into its center. You want to have your poison ready for Mr. Worm when he enters the blossom end of the apple, and the more thoroughly and more effectively you spray the better are the results. It has been said that if you spray thoroughly at that time, that that is the only spray you really need for the codling moth worm. I don't agree with that, as there is always a second brood of worms. I use the arsenate of lead along with the lime-sulphur for all these sprays, before the bloom and after the bloom, and if you don't spray more than three times you will be doing yourself a good service, and it will well pay you. In some parts of the country they spray as high as seven or eight times in the commercial orchards, but I would say in a farmer's orchard three times would be enough, once before the bloom and twice later, and you will notice the good results. There are other sprays besides these, but none perhaps of any importance to you up here except the winter spray for the San Jose scale, if you have that, and I noticed one or two specimens out there that seemed to have the scale upon them. That spray should be done either in the fall or early winter or late winter while the trees are dormant. That has to be put on of winter spray strength, using lime-sulphur or some of the other San Jose scale sprays without the arsenate of lead, as you don't need to use the lead with this spray. Now, as I stated to start with, these remarks ought to be appropriate to your needs and to make them so it would be a good deal better for me to give you the opportunity of asking questions or of discussing this question of spraying yourselves rather than for me to go into this subject any further and not know just exactly what you would like to listen to. If you have any questions to ask I would be glad to answer them if I can. Mr. Horton: What proportion of the lime-sulphur and arsenate of lead do you use? Mr. Dunlap: If we get the commercial brand of lime-sulphur we use it in the proportion of three gallons of that commercial mixture to 100 gallons of water and for the arsenate of lead in the same spray tank at same time we use four pounds of arsenate of lead to the 100 gallons. Mr. Horton: Have you ever carried over lime-sulphur from one year to another? Mr. Dunlap: Yes, sir, we often do that, carry it over until the next year. It wants to be kept where it will not freeze. Mr. Horton: Is there much danger of evaporation so it would be too strong to use next year? Mr. Dunlap: Your barrel should be kept bunged tight. Mr. Richardson: Mr. Dunlap fails to say anything about dormant sprays. Don't you use dormant sprays? Mr. Dunlap: I was just speaking about the dormant or winter spray. When you spray in the winter time use lime-sulphur or scalicide. Mr. Richardson: Another thing: I take a little exception to what Mr. Dunlap says in advocating buying a spraying machine collectively in the neighborhood, for the simple reason that it is necessary to spray at one particular time, at the vital time just before the blossoms fall and at the time they have fallen. We have found it almost impossible to do any spraying for anybody except ourselves at that time. We talked that matter over before we bought spraying machines. You said you wondered whether there were any apples grown here commercially. Out of our town we shipped this year eight car-loads of apples. We have three power sprays in our orchard, and we talked that matter over before we bought them, about buying collectively, and we decided it was absolutely impossible to do it. I don't think it is feasible for a small grower to depend on that kind of thing because he may be disappointed. My theory is for each one to have his own sprayer, large or small. Another thing, we find a pressure of 200 pounds is better than spraying without that pressure; we get better results. Mr. Dunlap: The gentleman misunderstood me. I said where you have just small orchards you could do it collectively. Of course, I do not advocate where a man has enough to have use for a spray machine for his own orchard that he get one collectively. That would be a great mistake, but where a man has only fifty trees in a neighborhood where there are no big orchards, it would be better for a dozen or more to combine. If you can get around with it in a week you will be all right but not longer than that. Mr. Richardson: I beg to differ with you just the same. I think if you want to spray you must spray at the time; it might rain the next day, and you might miss the whole season. Mr. Dunlap: There are a good many people who don't like to go to the expense of a spray machine just for fifty trees or 100 trees. If they would combine with a few neighbors they would do some spraying work, otherwise they wouldn't do any at all. If a man will buy a machine and do his own spraying, why, that is certainly the best thing to do, but if he won't do that it is better to combine with his neighbors and do it than for none of them to do it. Community spraying is the best thing to do if you have only small orchards. Mr. Dyer: What pressure would you recommend in spraying for codling moth where arsenate of lead is used? Mr. Dunlap: You can do effective spraying all the way from sixty pounds to 200 pressure. My preference is about 150 pounds. I have known instances where considerable injury was done by using too high pressure. We have sprayed at 225 pounds, but we have given that up. It is not as good as from 150 to 175 pounds. Mr. Dyer: I would like to know about what quantity of arsenate of lead and lime-sulphur combined would you recommend? How much of each? Mr. Dunlap: In 100 gallons of water we put three gallons of the concentrated solution of lime-sulphur, as we buy it commercially, three gallons to 100 gallons of water, that is, for the summer spray, and for the arsenate of lead we use four pounds of arsenate of lead to the 100 gallons. Mr. Dyer: In connection with that I would like to ask if you have used or would recommend pulverized lime-sulphur? Mr. Dunlap: I haven't used any. Mr. Dyer: Do you know anything about it? Mr. Dunlap: I think it is a more expensive proposition. Mr. Dyer: I never used any myself. I thought perhaps that might work better in connection with the arsenate of lead than the liquid. Mr. Dunlap: I couldn't say, I have always followed the policy of never departing from well-established lines of work until I am satisfied that the new one is absolutely all right. I have seen in our state men destroy the fruit from a forty or eighty acre orchard by taking up some new thing that was highly advertised and looked very attractive. It is not the same proposition, of course, but they tell us the devil comes in very attractive form. He comes with a swallow-tail coat and a red necktie and a buttonhole bouquet, and he looks very attractive. So it is with a lot of these things advertised; they look attractive but for our own good we ought to stick to the things we know and let the state experiment station try them and report upon them. Mr. Huestis: Does Mr. Dunlap attribute the general dropping of apples to the scab fungus? Mr. Dunlap: Not entirely. Mr. Huestis: Do you think that it weakens the stem of the apples? Mr. Dunlap: Yes, sir, the droppings of the apple is largely due to the scab fungus. Of course, some of the dropping occurs as the result of too much rain or too much dry weather, something of that kind, that is not attributable to scab fungus. Mr. Kellogg: Does spraying injure the bees? Mr. Dunlap: I have never had anybody prove to me that the bees were especially injured by spraying in the bloom. We do not practise spraying in the bloom, that is, we spray when we have about one-third of the bloom left on the trees. I have never had any injury, and we have orchardists who have bees in their orchards, and they go on spraying the same way. I do not believe bees are poisoned by the spray. Maybe I am mistaken about it, but I have never seen any conclusive proof of the bees being poisoned by the spray. It is possible they might collect it and carry it into the hives and might poison the brood in the hive. I don't know. I thank you. (Applause.) The Value of Horticulture to the Farm. MRS. CLARENCE WEDGE, ALBERT LEA. It is pleasant to have a good roomy subject. E. S. Martin said in Harper's Weekly as Christmas time approached, "There are just two places in the world, and one of these is home." I will paraphrase it by saying, "There are only two places in the world, and one of these is the farm." So the value of horticulture to the farm is a large subject. I passed a farm last summer that I shall never forget. It was quite unattractive, I believe, so far as variety of contour was concerned--quite level and commonplace. Right across the road from the house was a half-grown windbreak of golden willow. Against that as a background blazed out row upon row of the most brilliant flowers, graduated down to the edge of the road, and extending as far as half a city block or more. Think what a beautiful surprise for every one that turned that corner. I think the occupants of the house must have enjoyed sitting on their porch watching the people in the cars start with pleasure and turn to look as they flew past. That farmer (or his wife) knew something of the value of horticulture to the farm. Perhaps it was a device of the farmer's wife to divert the gaze of the passer-by from the porch, for you know we do stare shamelessly when we are on a joy ride. At any rate, that farm would not be forgotten by any one that passed it. The advertising that beauty spot gave his place would exceed in value a column a week in the county paper, and not cost a tenth as much. Lowell remarks, "Nature with cheap means still works her wonders rare." And there she stands with arms extended, offering the farmer all the wealth and beauty he will put forth his hand to take. Last fall I passed another farm down in Iowa, whose owner had tried to make his place conspicuous by putting a concrete wall and gateway in front of his house, and making lavish use of white paint in decorating his buildings and grounds. He succeeded, but I cannot help thinking that if he had put the money that useless concrete work cost into shrubbery and vines, it would have made his place twice as attractive. I dislike pretentious adornments to the farm, especially where the rest of the place doesn't measure up to them. Like Senator Blaine, who, at the time the Queen Anne style of architecture became popular, on being asked why he did not have his old fashioned house Queen Anned, replied that he did not like to see a Queen Anne front and a Mary Anne back. A farm home can be something better than a city park. One of the beautiful things that I shall always remember about Berlin was a way they had of bordering their parks and the enclosures of public buildings. They take tree-roses trimmed up to the height of a fence with a hemispherical head. Then they plant them around the edge of their grounds a rod or two apart, festoon chains from the top of one rose stalk to the top of the next, and where the chain touches the ground midway between them, they plant a little ivy which climbs up and conceals the chain and gives the appearance of festoons of vines between the rose trees. I thought them so lovely that when I married a nurseryman I thought I would persuade him to do something of that kind on our grounds, but he has convinced me that while that is all right for a city park, it would not be in good taste in a country place. It would look too artificial. The charm of a country place is its natural beauty. For the same reason we do not have any trimmed evergreens or hedges on our place. Moreover, the man who makes his living from the soil finds the upkeep of those decorations too pottering, and if he had money to hire it done he would rather put it into his automobile or into other improvements. The natural beauty that can be set about the farm home will become it better. Wild grape vines or woodbine draping the wire fences tempt the eye of the passer-by to linger, and they cost nothing. Once planted, they are there for a life-time. A walnut tree in a fence corner will grow to a fair size in ten years, in twenty it becomes a land-mark. A catalpa of a hardy strain will do the same thing in about half the time in our part of the state. Take an elder from your woods and plant it in an angle of your house, and it makes a luxurious growth that rivals the castor bean of the city park and does not need to be replaced the next spring. It certainly pays to go in for some kind of horticultural adornments for the farm. They are so easy and inexpensive to obtain and make such a happy difference to the farmer's family and to all who pass his way. When you have a specially prosperous year on the farm, save a little of the surplus for new trees or shrubs. But I remember passing another farm, all of twenty-five years ago, where horticulture may once have been of value to the farmer but had become a burden to him. There was a dense grove of willow down at one side, through which the drive leading to the barn was kept wet and muddy by the shade. On the other side rose a high grove of trees casting a gloomy shade on the house and poultry buildings, and a few odd shrubs straggled along the roadside and gave the place an unkempt look. Of all things, have sunshine! City people often have to sacrifice it, but no farmer is too poor to have it in plenty. Don't let your trees tyrannize over you. It is, perhaps, unnecessary to mention the value of a windbreak to a farm. If it has not been provided by nature it is an absolute necessity to plant one as a matter of economy. It saves fuel inside and gives comfort outside. The cows give more milk, and all the animals put on more fat, if they have a sheltered place to take their airing. It is also a good thing to set some bushes or small spruces along the foundation wall of the house on the windy side. They are ornamental in summer, and in winter they catch the snow and tuck the house in against the wind. When it comes to the garden, the "Value of Horticulture to the Farm" depends largely upon the farmer's wife, for a garden needs mothering as well as fathering. Few farmers have time to do more for a garden than the actual labor of plowing, planting, and cultivating, and digging the root vegetables in the fall. Somebody must watch the garden, go through it nearly every day, poison the cabbage worms and potato bugs, keep the asparagus and cucumbers picked, watch for the maturing of peas and beans, and dispose of any surplus either by canning or sending to market. To visit the garden only when you wish to gather some particular vegetable is like milking the cow only when you happen to want some milk. A garden well tended puts the farm far ahead of the city home for luxuries of the table and cuts the cost of living in two. Fresh vegetables and cream are expensive articles in the city, inaccessible to any but the well-to-do, but it does not take a very thrifty farmer to have them, providing he has a thrifty wife. But to be a real helpmeet she must have an overall skirt and a pair of rubber boots. Then the dewy mornings will be as much of a pleasure to her as to her husband, and she can do her garden work in the cool of the day. A garden is especially valuable to a farm, because the farm is usually somewhat isolated and must depend more or less upon its own resources for freshness and variety of food. A good garden on the farm will almost abolish the tin can, and strike off a large part of the grocer's bill, to say nothing of making the farmer live like a king. The Strawberry Weevil. As strawberries are about to blossom, it would be well to keep a look-out for a shortage in the number of blossoms, for this is the first indication of the work of the strawberry weevil. Because of the diminutive size of the insect, few are acquainted with it, so that the shortage of blossoms or failure of the crop is often attributed to frost, hail, climatic conditions or some other agency. Upon close examination, the buds will be found to be severed from the stem, some lying beneath on the ground, others being still attached by a few shreds in a drooping manner. Further examination around the buds may reveal a small snout beetle, which is the cause of the injury, it being about one-tenth inch long and marked with two dark spots on each wing cover. The females oviposit in the buds, and then cut them off when oviposition is completed, in order to protect the larva within, which later develops to the adult beetle. [Illustration: Showing beetle of strawberry weevil and the damage it inflicts.] The strawberry weevil has been especially injurious around the vicinity of Hopkins the past summer. It was not uncommon to find fields with from forty to ninety per cent. of the buds cut, and as the earliest and most mature buds, which would be the first to ripen, are among those cut, the losses inflicted may be quite serious. The weevil not only injures the cultivated strawberry, but is found to attack the buds of the red raspberry, dewberry and wild strawberry. It is a singular fact that only the staminate varieties are injured, especially those which furnish considerable pollen, since this constitutes the chief food supply of both larvae and adults. _Life History._--The weevil appears as soon as the buds begin to form and soon after deposits an egg within the bud. She then immediately crawls down the stem and proceeds to sever the bud. The eggs hatch within five or six days, and in about three or four weeks the footless grubs become full-grown, coming out as adults about five days later. This new brood, upon emerging, will attack the leaves, making numerous small holes on the under surface, soon after picking time. As early as August 25 the beetles were found to go into hibernation last summer, within the strawberry fields, being found especially among the dead leaves. The older beds were found to be more seriously infested because of the fact that they wintered over in the small fields. _Control._--Since the weevils do not disperse readily, and since they hibernate within the fields, the one crop system and the plowing up of the beds immediately after picking would probably do away with the injury entirely. This one crop system could be followed for about two years, when it might be advisable to return to the two crop system if the weevils have disappeared. On April 18, 1916, the weevils were located by the writer underneath the straw, and beginning to move about. From observations last year, it would be advisable to remove the straw from one or two rows in order to hasten the maturity of the buds, and keep the straw on the remainder of the patch in order to force the weevils to the uncovered row. They could then be destroyed either by plowing under or burning. Some recent experiments by Prof. Headlee, State Entomologist of New Jersey, appear to have been successful against the strawberry weevil. A dust spray of a mixture of arsenate of lead one pound, and sulphur one pound, was used as a repellent, giving almost perfect protection. The material was applied twice, April 30th and May 6th. The writer will be glad to co-operate with the growers, if they find the presence of the weevil in their strawberry beds.--S. Marcovitch, Section of Economic Entomology, Division of Economic Zoology, University Farm. Secretary's Annual Report, 1915. A. W. LATHAM, SECRETARY. Twenty-five years is a long time to look forward to, but it does not seem so long when you look back, and yet when I review the changes that have taken place in the Horticultural Society since I assumed the position of secretary twenty-five years ago the way seems long indeed. In the year 1890 very nearly all of the old members of the society, those who had contributed their time and money to bring it into existence and keep it alive for its first twenty-four years were still on the membership roll and doing loyal work for the association. As year by year passed these veterans of the association one by one dropped away until at the present time the number of those in that class who are still with us here are so few in number that it becomes almost a vanishing point. In the year 1897 a photograph was taken of "ten veterans of horticulture," a copy of which is hanging in the secretary's office, and of these ten the only one now with us is that loyal friend and supporter of the society, Seth H. Kenney, of Waterville, now eighty years of age and too feeble to attend this meeting. Going back to a date still earlier, covering the first few years of the association, the only working members of the society as far as the secretary recalls are J. M. Underwood, C. M. Loring and himself. This is the order of nature, and we should remember only with gratitude and affection those who have served before us and with us and passed on. At the close of this, the forty-ninth year of the society, we find the membership roll somewhat larger in number than at any previous period in its history, there being on the annual roll 3,079 members, and on the life roll 311 members, of whom 30 are honorary. There have been added to this roll the past year one honorary life member, Mr. Lycurgus R. Moyer, of Montevideo, and 20 paid life members. The number of deaths appearing on this life roll during the past year is fortunately only two, Mr. E. A. Webb, editor and manager of "The Farmer," who had been a member since 1906, and V. A. Neil, of Minneapolis, whose death occurred prior to the 1914 annual meeting but had not been spoken of heretofore. As usual a considerable number of sources have contributed towards this large membership roll. The auxiliary societies, of which there are 10 have brought upon this roll in all 878 members. One new auxiliary society has been added to the number this year, organized in St. Paul under the name of "Horticultural, Poultry and Improvement Association of West St. Paul." An auxiliary society maintained at Crookston for a number of years seems to be no longer in existence and should probably be taken from the list of auxiliaries. The farmers' institutes have not contributed as largely to the membership roll as some previous years, on account in part of the fact that the work heretofore done by farmers' institutes is being done in farmers' clubs and schoolhouse meetings of farmers, which does not offer as good an opportunity for securing memberships, though the service to the cause of horticulture is probably even better. Through this source the society has received this year 146 memberships. Many of the nurserymen have contributed liberally to the membership this year, memberships that were given by them to their customers in accordance with an arrangement made with this office. In all from this source have come upon our roll 172 memberships. The State Fruit-Breeding Farm continues to be the object of permanent central interest in our association. Unfortunately the frosts of last spring interfered with the fruiting of the thousands of trees which under other circumstances would have borne fruit, many of them for the first time, so that practically few advances have been made the past year in breeding new tree fruits except in preparation for the future. In small fruits it was different, and the list of these worthy of trial which are standing the climate well is a growing one. Our membership are exceedingly interested in these new fruits as manifested by the large number called for through the distribution of plant premiums. In all there were sent out this year 2,594 lots of these plant premiums. There is a growing interest in top-grafting late-keeping varieties of apples as indicated by the large number of calls made on this office for scions for this purpose the past season. The seedling contests continue and the interest in growing seedlings continues as well, there having been a call during the past year from this office for a considerable number of packages of apple seeds by our membership. So far no apple seedling has appeared to which we could award the $1,000 prize offered by the society for a winter apple. Referring to the seedling contest inaugurated some years ago, the first $100 premium in connection with which should have been awarded three years ago, it appears that the time limit for the fruitage of these seedlings was made too short. The fourth premium comes due at this meeting, but no claimants have as yet come forward for any of these premiums. Probably it will be thought a wise thing to do to continue these awards during later years when these seedling trees will come into bearing. The "acre orchard" contest entered into a year ago last spring in which there 35 entries finally materialized into a smaller number than anticipated, reports having come into the office last year from 23 contestants. The reports for the current year are now being received but not all at hand. The executive board provided conditions under which these orchards should be conducted and the prizes awarded, which conditions will be found published in the 1914 report of the society on page 45. Trial stations are continuing their work and are being used principally now as far as new material is concerned in testing of fruits from the State Fruit-Breeding Farm. To this list has been added the government station at Mandan under the management of A. W. Peterson, reports from which point will also be made to our association from time to time, as well as from the trial stations connected with University Farm, all of which stations have been added also to our society list. Arrangements are being perfected for the purpose of extending to our membership opportunity to use the books from the society library, which is now increased to about 3,300 volumes. This list has been published in the 1915 report of the society, and we shall be prepared early in the year to send out books to all who desire them according to the regulations, which will be published in an early number of our monthly. The society is maintaining its card indexes and adding year by year to the amount of material which they represent. One of these cards indexes contains the names and titles of all the articles published in the society's annual reports and is indexed also with the names of the writers, the index being prepared in this double manner. Another card index contains the list of books in our library, and the third one, indexed by subjects, the bulletins on horticulture coming from the various state experiment stations and the U.S. Department of Agriculture. These indexes are invaluable for their various purposes and may be used by the membership at their volition. The society maintained an office at the late state fair, at which a considerable number of memberships were received and a large number of members met by the secretary and other officers of the society. We believe this was an excellent move and should be continued in the future. As to the horticultural exhibit at the state fair, while the secretary has no official connection with it, it should be spoken of as a very satisfactory exhibition indeed and well handled. The building as a whole, covering all branches of horticultural work, was a real credit to the various interests represented and well deserves all the time and expense lavished upon it. Probably the most important event of the year with which the secretary was officially connected was the effort made to secure an appropriation from the state legislature in session last winter for the construction of a building for the uses of the Horticultural Society. The building committee, with which the secretary served, held a number of meetings with members of the Board of Regents and various committees at the state legislature, at which a considerable number of our membership besides those regularly on the committee were in attendance and took part in appeals in the interest of the building. The secretary's service in this connection was largely the effort made to enlist the co-operation of the membership in the way of getting them to write letters or talk personally with the members of the legislature upon the subject, and an appeal was sent out through the mails to all of our membership with this object in view. The response was a most liberal one, far beyond our expectations. Some of the members of the legislature received over thirty letters from their constituents asking their support to this measure. There was not a single member of the legislature who did not receive some communications about this matter. In all there were sent in this manner to members of the legislature 1,594 letters. While our efforts to secure this building failed, it was, as we believe, largely on account of the prevailing and unusual sentiment for economy which permeated the legislature to an extraordinary degree, and we have reasonable assurance that a similar effort with the next legislature will bring us success. In regard to this matter the chairman of the building committee speaks more fully. The financial report follows and to this your attention is respectfully requested. Secretary's Financial Report, 1915. A. W. LATHAM, SECRETARY. RECEIPTS. Balance $91.62 G. W. Strand, Treasurer 685.96 Life membership fees 190.00 Books sold 14.10 Cuts sold 7.50 Banquet tickets sold at 75c each 138.00 Garden Flower Society, account premiums 65.00 Annual fees, 1914 8.00 Annual fees, 1915 3,004.00 Annual fees, 1916 263.00 --------- $4,467.18 DISBURSEMENTS. Postage $717.33 Office rent 420.00 Telephone 55.45 Premium books 113.61 Office supplies 28.36 Plant premiums 105.14 Assistance in office 719.21 Printing 247.16 Expenses annual meeting, 1914 90.73 Expenses annual meeting, 1915 76.84 Expenses summer meeting, 1915 14.64 Banquet 152.75 Reporting annual meeting 174.99 Expenses vice-presidents 29.17 Expenses superintendents, trial stations 50.59 Assistance annual meeting 1914 100.50 Expenses delegates, etc., meeting, 1914 224.07 Expenses delegates to other societies 30.29 Discounts, membership fees, auxiliary societies, etc. 825.54 Examining officers' books 10.00 Treasurers salary, 1914 25.00 Collecting checks 10.00 Plans of horticultural building 40.00 Officers' bonds, 1915 15.00 Forestry Association 50.00 Insurance on library sundries 8.00 Sundries 20.68 Balance 112.13 --------- $4,467.18 GENERAL STATEMENT, DECEMBER 1, 1915. Balance in Hennepin County Bank December 1, 1914 $177.38 Interest in 1915 $11.24 --------- Total $188.62 Loring Fund, including interest 140.60 Balance with secretary 112.13 Balance with treasurer 4,906.00 --------- Total $5,347.35 SUMMER MEETING, 1916. Premium List, Summer Meeting, 1916. No Duplicating of Varieties Permitted. OUT-DOOR ROSES. 1st 2d 3d 4th prem. prem. prem. prem. Collection--three blooms of each named variety, to be shown in separate vases $6.00 $4.00 $2.00 $1.00 Collection of named varieties--three blooms of each, in separate vases, amateurs only 6.00 4.00 2.00 1.00 Three named varieties, white--each variety in a separate vase, three blooms of each, each bloom on a separate stem 2.00 1.00 .50 Three named varieties, pink--each variety in a separate vase, three blooms of each, each bloom on a separate stem 2.00 1.00 .50 Three named varieties, red--each variety in a separate vase, three blooms of each, each bloom on a separate stem 2.00 1.00 .50 Collection of Rugosa and Rugosa Hybrids--each variety (consisting of one cluster of blooms on a single stem) in a separate vase 2.00 1.00 .50 Most beautiful rose in vase 1.00 Largest rose in vase 1.00 Seedling rose to be shown by the originator. (Not previously exhibited in competition.) Bronze medal donated by the American Rose Society. Basket of out-door roses and foliage, arranged for effect without ribbon, not to exceed twelve inches in diameter 3.00 2.00 1.00 The following named varieties of roses to be entered separately and shown in separate vases, three to five blooms in each vase. Prince Camile deRohan, General Jacqueminot, Margaret Dickson, M. P. Wilder, Jules Margottin, Magna Charta, Paul Neyron, Madam Gabriel Luizet, Baroness Rothschild, Anna de Diesbach, Ulrich Brunner, John Hopper, Rosa Rugosa (pink and white), Baron deBonstetten, Karl Druski, Madam Plantier, Grus an Teplitz. Each, 1st prem., 75 cents; 2nd prem., 50 cents; 3rd prem., 25 cents. PEONIES. 1st 2d 3d 4th prem. prem. prem. prem. Vase of Festiva Maxima, 6 blooms $2.00 $1.00 $0.50 " " flesh or light pink " " " " " " " medium or dark pink " " " " " " " white " " " " " " " red " " " " " Collection--three blooms of each named variety in separate vases $6.00 $4.00 $2.00 $1.00 Collection--three blooms of each named variety in separate vases, amateurs only 6.00 4.00 2.00 1.00 Seedling peony, three blooms 3.00 2.00 1.00 .50 Collection--one bloom of each variety, shown each in a separate vase; for amateurs owning no more than ten varieties 2.00 1.00 .50 ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS. 1st prem. 2d prem. 3d prem. 4th prem. Vase of Arabis $1.50 $1.00 $0.50 " " Canterbury Bells " " " " " Dielytra " " " " " Delphinium " " " " " Evening primrose (Oenothera) " " " " " Forget-me-not " " " " " Foxglove " " " " " Gailardias " " " " " Grass pinks " " " " " Iceland poppies " " " " " Iris " " " " " Lilies " " " " " Lupine " " " " " Nasturtiums " " " " " Oriental poppies " " " " " Pansies " " " " " Perennial coreopsis " " " " " Pyrethrum " " " " " Shasta daisies " " " " " Sweet peas " " " " " Sweet William " " " Collection--named perennials, in separate vases $6.00 $4.00 $2.00 $1.00 Collection of annuals and perennials in separate vases (not to exceed 12) by amateurs who have never taken premiums on flowers 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 Vase of flowers grown and exhibited by child 2.00 1.00 .50 Vase of any kind of flowers not named in this list. (An exhibitor may make any number of entries desired under this head) 2.00 1.00 .50 Vase of flowers arranged for artistic effect 1.50 1.00 .50 Basket of outdoor-grown flowers, arranged by exhibitor 3.00 2.00 1.00 STRAWBERRIES. One quart of each variety, to be shown on plate, not in box. 1st prem. 2d prem. 3d prem. 4th prem. Collection (not less than six varieties) $5.00 $4.00 $3.00 $2.00 Collection of three named varieties 3.00 2.00 1.00 .50 The following varieties of strawberries to be entered separately: 1st prem. 2d prem. 3d prem. 4th prem. Bederwood, Dunlap, Crescent, Splendid, Clyde, Warfield, Lovett, Enhance, Glen Mary, Haverland, Progressive, Superb, Americus, each $1.00 $0.75 $0.50 $0.25 Best named variety not included in the above list 2.00 1.00 .50 Seedling, originated by exhibitor 3.00 2.00 1.00 GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. *Notices of our May, June, July and August meetings will be mailed to members. Being exhibition meetings, the dates will depend upon weather conditions. It is suggested that in cases where plants have not already been exchanged, the informal exhibition of spring flowers, our May meeting, be also "Exchange Day," and that plants for exchange be brought to that meeting. A SHAKESPEARE GARDEN. So wide an interest in the commemoration of the tercentennial celebration of Shakespeare's death has been awakened by the "Drama League of America" that there will be many old English gardens planted in 1916,--gardens containing as many as possible of those flowers mentioned in his plays. Not all of these many flowers and shrubs could be grown in our climate, some mentioned, such as nettles, burdocks, plantains and other weeds, would be entirely out of place in a garden, soon overrunning it. It must be remembered, too, that in Shakespeare's time herbs and wild flowers were cultivated in most gardens, that many considered beautiful then are now almost forgotten, and that some have been so far surpassed by their improved hybrids, the originals would not now be cultivated. We have not attempted, therefore, to include all of the flowers so lovingly mentioned by the poet, but have used only those that will prove beautiful and hardy in Minnesota, making a planting that will prove, with proper care, permanent. Were each plant labeled with its proper quotation the garden would prove much more interesting, e.g., "There's rosemary, that's for remembrance--" Hamlet, marking the plant of that name. _Annuals._--Gillyflowers (Ten weeks' stocks); Love in Idleness (Pansy, Viola tricolor); Mallow (Lavatera splendens); Marigold (Calendula officinalis); Poppy (Somniferum, Opium poppy). _Trees._--Hemlock, Hawthorne. _Vines._--Honeysuckle, Scarlet Trumpet. _Bulbs._--Scilla Nutans (Hyacinthus nonscriptus); Daffodils; Saffron (Crocus santious); Crown Imperial (Frittilaria Imperialis); Lily, Candidum, Turk's Cap (Scarlet Martagon), Orange Lily (Croseum), Spectabile, Tigrinum. _Herbs._--Balm (Lemon Balm); Camomile (Anthemis); Caraway; Dian's Bud (Wormwood, Artemisia Absinthium); Fennel (Foeniculum officinalis); Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis); Lavender (Lavendula vera); Marjoram (Origanum vulgare); Mint; Milfoil (Yarrow); Parsley; Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis); Rue (Ruta graveoleons); Savory; Thyme (1, Thymus vulgaris, 2, Thymus Serpyllum). _Perennials._--Aconite (Napellus); Balm (Bee-balm); Brake; Carnation (Bizarre Dianthus caryophyllus); Clover (Crimson Trifolium incarnatus); Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris); Cowslip (Primula veris); Crowflower (Ragged Robin, Lychnis floscuculi); Cuckoo Buds (Butter cups, Ranunculus acris); Daisies (Bellis perennis); Eryngium M. (Sea Holly); Flax; Flower de luce (Iris Germanica, blue); Fumitory (Dicentra spectabilis; Bleeding Heart); Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia); Larksheel (Delphinium elatum, Bee Larkspur); Peony; Pinks (Dianthus Plumarius); Violet (Viola Odorata). _Roses._--Brier (Eglantine Rose), Provencal (Cabbage Rose), Musk, Damask, White Provence, York and Lancaster. For appropriate quotations to mark each flower the little book, "Shakespeare's Garden," by J.H. Bloom, will be found very helpful. Our other authorities have been Biesley and L. Grindon, all of which are in the Public Library. MRS. N. S. SAWYER. MRS. E. W. GOULD. ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES By F. L. WASHBURN, Professor of Entomology, University of Minnesota. SUGGESTIONS TO PARTIES PLANNING TO PURCHASE NURSERY STOCK. It may be quite out of place to offer any suggestions along this line to readers of this magazine, and yet some buyers may find help in the following: For evident reasons it pays to buy Minnesota stock where possible, stock which has been tried out and found to be hardy, rather than purchase new varieties, glowingly described in catalogues. Always buy from an inspected nursery. For evident reasons it pays to buy from nurseries near at hand, so that the time elapsing from the shipping of the trees or shrubs and the planting is small. Further, it is always desirable, if possible, to buy from the nurseryman himself, a responsible party, rather than from an agent. It is further very desirable to personally pick out your own stock in a visit to the nursery. When the goods are received, see that they bear an inspection certificate for the current year. The plants should be in good condition and show that the roots are protected from air and wrapped in moist packing material. The condition of the received goods indicates the carefulness of the nurseryman or the contrary. Do not allow trees or shrubs to lie neglected after being received, where the roots will dry out. If you are not ready to plant they should be at once heeled in, first divesting them of their wrappings. If any injurious insects, like scales or fungus-looking growths, are found on the trees, the same should be reported to the Experiment Station. After planting the trees and shrubs, they should receive the best of care in regard to cultivation. Finally, refuse to accept any raspberry or blackberry plants showing crown gall on roots or crowns. * * * * * CROWN GALL ON RASPBERRIES BLACKBERRIES. All the nurserymen are able to recognize crown gall, and whatever we may think regarding its effect or lack of effect upon apple, we know by personal observation that it may and does cause the death of raspberries. This disease of course is, unfortunately, very common--almost universally present in our nurseries. The public, generally, are so well aware of its injurious effect upon canes that they are indignant when any such stock is received from nurseries. It behooves all nurserymen, therefore, for the sake of their own business interests if nothing else, to be extremely careful that no diseased stock of any kind is sent to patrons. * * * * * THE DESTRUCTION OF A CARLOAD OF DISEASED POTATOES. The State Entomologist, by virtue of being a collaborator with and agent for the United States Horticultural Board, supervised the destruction by burning of 403 sacks of potatoes, seven per cent. of which, according to the testimony of our Plant Pathology Division, were infested with powdery scab. The Great Northern Railroad, which had brought the potatoes from Canada, were given the choice by Federal authorities, either to return the potatoes to Canada or destroy them by burning, under our supervision. They chose the latter procedure and the use of the Minneapolis crematory was secured for this purpose. Ninety sacks of this same shipment which were illegally unloaded at Casselton, N. Dak., were buried by North Dakota authorities. It is to be hoped that this disease does not find its way into the potato belt in the Red River Valley. NOTES ON PLANT PESTS. Prepared by Section of Insect Pests, A. G. RUGGLES, and by Section of Plant Diseases, E. C. STAKMAN, University Farm. The first real spraying of the apple orchard should be given just as the center bud of the flower cluster begins to show pink. The material to use in the spraying compound is lime-sulphur (1 to 40) plus arsenate of lead, 1-1/2 pounds of the powder, or three pounds of the arsenate of paste to fifty gallons of the made-up lime-sulphur. If done properly this will get the scab of the apple, blossom blight or the brown rot in the plum, and is the most important spray for plum pocket. The arsenate of lead in the mixture will control the young of leaf eating insects and precocious plum curculios. The second most important spraying of the year is given within a week after the blossoms fall, the same spraying compound being used. This spraying kills many of the germinating spores of such things as apple scab and also is the important spray for codling worm as well as for the plum curculio and for leaf eating insects. Watch carefully for the hatching of plant lice eggs. The ideal time to spray for these is just after hatching, and before the young lice become hidden in the bud scales or in the curl of the leaves. The spraying material to use at this time is a sulphate of nicotine. Plow the plum orchard as soon as possible in order to turn under mummied plums, which are responsible for much of the primary infection of brown rot. Plowing the apple orchard early to turn under the old leaves is also essential in preventing scab spreading to the flower stalks. Cultivate the vineyard in order to turn under the mummies. Practice clean cultivation from the very beginning in order to help control black rot and downy mildew. If the rot or mildew was very bad in the previous years, early spraying with the Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50 is very important. Keep the radishes, cauliflowers, and cabbages covered with a poison spray from April 30 to May 20 to prevent the ravages of the cabbage maggot. This should be applied once a week in fair weather, and twice a week in rainy weather. The spray is made as follows: Lead arsenate, three-fourths ounce; New Orleans molasses, one-half pint; water, one gallon. Look over the seedling cabbages carefully and destroy all which show any sign of wilting or rotting. Cut out apple twigs badly injured by the buffalo tree hopper and burn them immediately. Watch for plant lice on lettuce in cold frames. To combat the insects the plants should be sprayed with nicofume liquid, one teaspoonful to a gallon of water. BEE-KEEPER'S COLUMN Conducted by FRANCIS JAGER, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul. COMB HONEY, EXTRACTED HONEY, AND INCREASE. The practical beekeeper must decide at the beginning of the honey season whether he wishes to produce extracted honey, comb honey or merely to increase the number of his colonies. The manner of management of his apiary will depend upon such decision. At any rate a modern outfit, pure bred colonies in modern ten or eight frame hives, is required for successful beekeeping no matter in what line of bee industry he may feel inclined to engage. For production of extracted honey the ten frame hive is to be preferred. Bees are less inclined to swarm in a ten frame hive, and two ten frame supers as a rule will be required where three eight frame supers would otherwise be necessary. In successful extracted honey production swarming may be reduced to a minimum if during the dandelion and fruit trees honey flow, and in the beginning of white clover flow, once a week an empty drawn comb be inserted into the middle of the brood nest. As soon as the brood chamber has eight frames of brood the queen excluder is added and an extracting super added filled with white extracting combs. If the beekeeper does not care to raise his extracted honey in snow white combs only, the excluder may be omitted, but the result will be that the queen will lay eggs throughout the whole hive, thus rendering extracting difficult on account of brood present. When raising extracted honey on a large scale two extracting supers may suffice for each colony. When the one next to the brood chamber is filled it is extracted at once, the top one taking its place next to the brood. The extracted super when empty is then given back to the bees and placed on top. When the second super is filled the process is repeated. This process of extracting honey requires a period of four or five weeks. All supers are removed at the end of the honey flow. The last full super, however, should not be extracted but saved for the feeding of light colonies in the fall and spring. The easier way to produce extracted honey is to have enough supers, say three or four for each colony. The first is added during the dandelion or fruit blossom flow as soon as the colony is strong enough to readily enter into it. When this super is nearly full and the combs can be seen through the top bars to whiten, another super is added next to the brood chamber, and the partly filled super is raised. When this second super begins to get well filled, a third and a fourth super is added on top. In the latitude of Minneapolis it is not advisable to insert a super next to brood chambers after July 4th, or two weeks before the end of the honey flow, because such procedure would result in a large amount of uncapped honey. Comb honey should not be produced where the honey flow is slow and intermittent. Weak colonies will not produce comb honey profitably. In making up supers only A 1 sections should be used, with full sheets of extra thin foundation and three-eighths inch bottom starters of thin foundation. Care should be taken to fasten the foundation very solidly, else heat and weight of bees will cause it to drop. One or more bait sections should be used in the first comb honey super to induce the bees to enter into it more readily. Bait sections are the half finished, unmarketable sections of the previous season. One to four are used near the center of each super. (To be continued in June No.) [Illustration: THE HOME OF THE LADY SLIPPER--MOCCASIN FLOWER. THE MINNESOTA STATE FLOWER.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 JUNE, 1916 No. 6 The State Flower and State Flag of Minnesota. E. A. SMITH, VICE PRES. JEWELL NURS. CO., LAKE CITY. The material in this paper has been gathered from several sources, part of which has never before been published. It is presented not so much in the spirit of criticism as it is in the spirit of making the best of a mistake which the writer believes occurred when the moccasin flower was designated as the state flower of Minnesota. Last spring an acquaintance of mine was rambling through the woods and came across the Cypripedium, or the Moccasin flower, or the Lady slipper, the state flower of Minnesota. He sent me a few specimens. Although I had lived in the state of Minnesota for a number of years, this was the first time that I had ever seen the state flower or known anything about it. The incident set me to thinking, and I went to work to find out what I could about this flower. I herewith present that information as briefly as possible. There are forty-one states in the Union that have a state flower. Other states have the matter under consideration. This fact alone would indicate that a state flower is of some importance as an emblem, or it would not be so generally considered by the various states. In most instances the flower was selected by a vote of the public school scholars of the respective states. The vote was then submitted to the state legislature and a resolution adopted making the state flower legal. I submit to you the question: Are school children qualified to choose a flower as an emblem of the state? Do they understand the conditions required in the state and the purpose of the selection sufficiently well to enable them to select intelligently? Do the children in your school know what flower is common in the northern part of the state as well as in the southern part of the state? In Minnesota, however, the state flower was not chosen by the school children of the state, but upon petition of the Woman's Auxiliary Board of World's Fair Managers a resolution was introduced into the senate February 4th, 1893, by the late Senator W.B. Dean, providing that the wild Lady Slipper, or the Moccasin flower, Cypripedium calceolus, be accepted and the same designated and adopted as the state flower, or the floral emblem of the state of Minnesota. This resolution was also adopted in the house the same day. A few years later upon petition of the Nature Club of Minneapolis the variety was changed to the Reginae or Spectabile, variety. [Illustration: The Lady Slipper--Minnesota State Flower. Somewhat under size.] The mystery of the selection in this state is, why was a flower chosen which is not common to any part of the state? We therefore have a state flower, beautiful in itself, but without special appeal to the people because it is comparatively unknown. There are about forty species of the Cypripedium belonging to the north temperate zone. Several of these species occur in the northern United States and Canada, east of the Rocky Mountains, which are found in the state of Minnesota. It is called the Moccasin flower because it resembles the Indian shoe. This plant grows preferably in cool and moist woods or in bogs. It flowers principally during the months of May and June. The varieties differ in color, being deep red, pink, yellow, white and variegated. All of the species, however, are very beautiful. The varieties more commonly found in Minnesota are, Acaule, rose purple; Candidum, small white; Arietinum, red and white; Parviflorum, small yellow; Pubescens, large yellow; and Spectabile, description of which is as follows: Plants stout, leaves oval, acute; sepals, roundish, white; petals, oblong, white; labellum, white or pale pink purple. Very showy. It is unfortunate that the Minnesota State Flower does not take kindly to civilization and cultivation, as it is very difficult to transplant. About ten years ago at Lake City, Minnesota, we tried to propagate the moccasin flower. We dug the roots and transplanted them in ground especially prepared in a nearby grove where we could watch their development, but the plants were a failure. A state flower should be one of the common flowers of the state, so familiar to all, that its name would suggest a picture of the flower itself. Probably not 10 per cent of the people of the state have ever seen it. On this account it is to be regretted that this variety was chosen as the flower emblem of the state. A state flower, like the state flag, should be accessible and familiar to everyone, and yet, probably, the state flag of Minnesota is a stranger to many residents of the state, for Minnesota did not have a state flag until 1893. An emblem should mean something to the individual. The family coat of arms and the iron cross are distinctive emblems. The shamrock in sentiment is as dear to an Irishman as his native land. If an emblem means something to the individual, how much more it ought to mean to the state and nation. The flag is an emblem of loyalty and patriotism. Men fight for it. They lay down their lives for it because it stands for home and country. I fancy if men did not know what the flag looked like, the fight would not be a very fierce one. Do you know what the state flag of Minnesota looks like? A description of it can be found in the Legislative Manual for 1915. This flag bears a wreath of white moccasin flowers (Spectabile) upon a blue background, in the center of which is the state seal. The design was chosen by a committee of six ladies. It is appropriate and beautiful, and was designed by Mrs. Edward H. Center, of Minneapolis. The state should furnish an attractive picture of the state flower and the state flag to every high school in the state, free of charge. The influence would be good, creating a deeper loyalty to the state. Wisconsin State Horticultural Society. REMARKS AT ANNUAL MEETING BY SECY. F. CRANEFIELD, MADISON, WIS. President Cashman: We have with us today, Prof. Cranefield, secretary of the Wisconsin Society. I am sure everybody will be pleased to hear from him. Mr. Cranefield: Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen: I thank you, Mr. President, for your very kind introduction. I know you meant well when you introduced me as professor, but I really must plead "not guilty" to the charge. There was a time, long ago, when I was connected with our Agricultural College, in a minor relation, that I was not in a position to resent it, but I have reformed since, and as secretary of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society I am trying to live down the past. It goes without saying that I am glad to be here. I want to come as long as you will let me come. We of the Wisconsin society are watching you closely to see if we can by any means learn the secret of your success, and to that end we are here in considerable force. Our president is here, and the managers of two of our largest co-operative fruit shippers associations also. Frankly, we want to beat you if we can. You have the biggest and the best society in the country, and we have the second biggest and next best, and we are striving for first place. Having now disposed of the usual compliments befitting the occasion I will aim to tell you of a few things we are trying to do in the Wisconsin society. The efforts of our society during the past ten years have been directed quite largely to the development of commercial fruit-growing in the state. While we have not overlooked nor forgotten the home owner we have been working to take commercial orcharding out of the hands of the farmer and put it in the hands of specialists, and we are succeeding. We have today about thirty thousand acres of purely commercial orchards in Wisconsin and more coming. We discourage by every means at command the planting of fruit trees by the man who is engaged in general farming except sufficient for his own use. Further, in this campaign we aim to concentrate our efforts on certain districts so as to build up fruit centers. For instance we have in Door County, that narrow little neck of land between Green Bay and Lake Michigan, over seven thousand five hundred acres of orchards, apple and cherry. Along the Bayfield shore line we have another splendid fruit district almost, if not quite, as well known as Hood River and worth vastly more. In the southwestern corner of the state along the valley of the Kickapoo River, on the high bluffs on either side of the river, have been planted a thousand acres of apples and cherries in the past five years. While not all of this development is directly due to the Horticultural Society, ours has been the moving spirit. The Kickapoo development is due wholly to the work of the society. In this way we are establishing an industry that will be a tremendous asset to the state. There was a time when dairying was but a feeble industry in Wisconsin, and now we lead. Our society also aids in the development of marketing associations. In doing these things we also aid the farmer and home owner, for whatever is best in the commercial orchard is best in the home orchard. Spraying, pruning and cultivation as practiced by the expert serve as models for the farmer who has but two dozen trees. The other activities of our society are similar to yours. We publish a magazine, as you do; we hold two conventions, as you do; in fact our work, and no less our interests, are the same as yours, and I most sincerely hope that the very pleasant relations that have existed between the societies may continue for all time. Marketing Fruit Direct. H. G. STREET, HEBRON, ILL. In studying this subject, the direct marketing of fruit, let us first see how much it includes. Does it include simply marketing alone? Or does the success of it depend principally upon the varieties of fruit set out together with the after cultivation, pruning and spraying? First of all you must interest people in your work by producing something that they really want, and half of your problem will then be solved. There are any number of places in the northwest where the demand far exceeds the supply. I do not mean for the common run of fruit full of worms and covered with scab, but, instead, strictly No. 1 fruit of the very best varieties. About 1901, through the advice of my uncle, Dr. A. H. Street, of Albert Lea, I joined your society, and through the experience of your members I learned many valuable lessons. Perhaps the one that impressed me the most was that of grafting our choicest varieties upon hardy crab stocks so as to make them hardy enough to withstand our hardest winters, and by so doing it nearly insures us against total failures in the fruit crop and especially against losing the trees outright. [Illustration: Mr. H. G. Street, of Hebron, Ills.] This top-working of course will not do all; we still have to assist Nature by proper spraying, pruning, cultivating, etc. Doing all in your power to secure a crop each year to supply the trade you have already worked up is a big item in holding it. While studying your conditions, together with those of Wisconsin and Illinois, I became very much interested in the native plums as well as in the apple industry. Therefore I also set out some three acres of the following varieties: Surprise, Terry, Wyant, Hammer and Hawkeye, also some of the Emerald and Lombard. As this was then new business to me, I had fallen into no deep ruts, and of course I took it for granted that all horticulturists practiced what they preached. Therefore I pruned, sprayed, etc., according to directions, and in due time the fruits of my labor commenced to show up, and they certainly were attractive to the eye as well as to the taste. [Illustration: Wolf River apple tree twelve years old, bearing eighteen bushels, in H. G. Street's orchard.] As our supply increased our demand increased also, so that for the past five years our average plum crop has been around 2,000 baskets (the 8-lb. grape basket) and all sold readily at 25 to 35 cents retail. We are located at Hebron, Illinois, eight miles south of Lake Geneva, Wis., on the Chicago & Lake Geneva Railway, which makes an ideal location for a fancy trade. During plum harvest it is nothing uncommon to have fifty to 100 visitors a day. These customers include all classes, from the Chicago millionaires to the common laborers, and all receive the same cordial reception. We make it a point never to allow them to think that we are close with our fruit--not even the neighborhood boys, as they are our best friends. What they buy we charge them a good fair price for and never fail to give all new customers a few choice samples of best varieties. By the latter part of the plum season our big red Wolf River apples commence to show up and cook well; also Wealthy and McIntosh commence to get ripe enough to eat, and the demand each year has far exceeded the supply. So far we have had very few poor apples, but we always sort them into three grades, the third grade being made up into cider to sell while sweet. The second grade we sell as such for immediate use. The firsts of the McIntosh we have sold at $2.00 to $2.50 per bushel, Wealthy, Jonathan and Grimes at $1.50 to $2.00, while Wolf, N. W. Greening, Salome, Winesap, Milwaukee, etc., have averaged us $1.25 per bushel. We are always very careful not to have any bruised, diseased or ill shaped specimens in our first grade. The President: Can you tell us something more about your experience in marketing direct? Do you sell all the fruit you raise on the place? Mr. Street: We sell about all the fruit that we raise direct to the consumer. When we first started we started with strawberries, and about half of our crop went to the merchants, and he would retail it for 20 per cent, but to any one that came there for it we would charge the full retail price, same as he had to charge, and we never had any trouble with any of the stores that we dealt with. If we have any seconds or anything we don't like to put out to the stores we sell them to our customers and charge them whatever we think would be right for them. As to plums, about two-thirds of those would sell right direct to customers coming there, the rest we supplied to the stores at 20 per cent discount so that they could retail them at the same price that we retail them for. Since the apples have begun to bear it seems that two-thirds of the people want the McIntosh, and almost everyone is satisfied with its flavor. They average a little larger with us than the Wealthy, and some of them you can hardly tell from the Wealthy unless you know just about what the fruit is. Last year we kept them until about February or possibly later, but an apple with as good a flavor as that you cannot keep from being eaten up. The President: I suppose that is automobile trade? Mr. Street: A great deal of it is. The President: How did you get it? By advertising? Mr. Street: No, by doing something so much different from what anybody else is doing you get people to talking. I think the Wolf River apple together with the Terry and Surprise plums have been the cause of getting started. Of course, the McIntosh now is helping out, too. You give a person a few Wolf River, not for eating but for cooking, and then give him a Wealthy or something like that to eat--they will be looking at the big Wolf River and eating the other and seem to be well satisfied and always come back. Whenever we sell to the stores we always gauge our prices so that the majority of their customers will take our fruit before taking the shipped in fruit from Chicago. We find with grapes we can charge about five cents a basket more than they retail the Michigan grapes for. [Illustration: View in eleven year old orchard of H. G. Street.] For native plums we get more than they do for the Michigan fruit. We have had quite a good many of the Burbank plums, but we cannot sell over one-third as many as we do of the natives. A Member: You don't ship them, so don't consider the packing? Mr. Street: The only ones we ship are those ordered by people coming there or by letter. If they want a bushel we pack them in a bushel box. If they want three or six bushels then we pack them in barrels. Mr. Anderson: Where are you located? Mr. Street: Just south of the Wisconsin state line. Mr. Anderson: I am located 100 miles west of here, and I shipped out 400 bushels of apples to the Dakotas last year direct. Mr. Richardson: How many growers are there in your neighborhood growing fruit commercially? Mr. Street: I do not know of any who spray, cultivate and prune according to the best methods within about 100 miles. We always make it a point to give our customers good fruit, so that we are not afraid to recommend it. Then there is another advantage. If they come right there, and we have any seconds we can tell them just what they are, and if they want them we can sell them for what they are worth, but if we are putting them into a store, I prefer not to put in seconds. Mr. Kochendorfer: I think that is the advantage of disposing on a public market. You have a chance to sell the inferior goods without any coming back. Mr. Street: The main thing is to use improved methods and try to outdo the other fellow. Cultivate a little more thoroughly, put in your cover crop, not over-fertilize but all you possibly can; give the dormant spray; spray before bloom very thoroughly and again after bloom; two weeks after that again, about July 15th. Mr. Richardson: How many apple trees have you? Mr. Street: We now have ten acres in apples, but most of them are young, about three acres in bearing. Mr. Richardson: I would like to ask the gentleman if in a small place that way he hasn't a better local market than we have here in the larger cities. Around Lake Minnetonka they raise grapes, but we get most of our grapes from Ohio and Indiana. I have wondered why it is that these grapes go to another market when they can just as well go to the Minneapolis market. You know as well as I do anyone buying fruit in the Twin Cities always buy fruit grown in Ohio or Indiana. Mr. Street: I do not know why it is, but so far we haven't realized that we have any competition. We charge for our best eating apples fully as much as the stores have to charge for the Western fancy packed fruit. There is not a worm hole or speck of disease on the No. 1, and really I can't see how they can compete after raising the fruit in the West and packing and shipping it to Chicago and then out there. The price they would have to charge there would make us a good fair price; in fact, a good big price. A Satisfactory Marketing System. G. A. ANDERSON, RENVILLE. I have marketed this fall some over 400 barrels of apples, mostly Wealthy, Duchess and Northwestern Greening. Three hundred barrels of these were shipped direct to local merchants in Dakota and western Minnesota towns in small shipments of a few barrels at a time or as fast as they could sell them. I started this way of marketing during the big crop of 1913 and this year again, getting nearly all of my old customers back and many new ones. I secured satisfactory prices, and for my location I believe I have solved the marketing problem. One does not pay much attention to the marketing as long as enough only for local demand is produced, but when one has a surplus to dispose of the marketing problem looms rather large. I have tried several times shipping to commission firms, but have never received satisfactory returns. A Successful Cold Storage for Apples. H. F. HANSEN, ORCHARDIST, ALBERT LEA. Mr. Clarence Wedge: I want to preface this short paper with the statement that Mr. Hansen is a man who has worked himself up from the very bottom of the horticultural ladder. He came to Albert Lea a very poor man, and I think supported himself for some time by trapping and fishing and such work as he was able to do. He is a man with a great tendency to investigate and to work out problems for himself. By his thrift and persevering investigations he has brought himself into a fine property and great success. He is the market gardener in our part of the country and a credit to his kind. (Mr. Wedge reads the paper.) When my orchard, near the city of Albert Lea, began to bear heavy crops of fruit, I found it very desirable to hold the Wealthy and other kinds that ripen at the same time until after the farmers had marketed their fruit. We have a very good cold storage in Albert Lea that is open to the public, but the price they charge is sixty cents per barrel for two months' storage, which is more than the fruit will bear, and so I began to think of putting up a cold storage of my own. My first one was built underground with pipes for ice and salt to cool it, something like the system that I am now using. But I found out in the first season that it takes a great deal of ice to offset the heat that is coming in from the ground at the sides and bottom of the cellar. And so I built the storage which I am now using entirely above ground, using the basement under it for storing cabbage and vegetables. I built this in 1913, the size 28x56 feet, using cement blocks for the basement, where the cabbages are stored. The cold storage above this is built as follows: First, an ordinary frame building with 2x4 inch studdings sheathed on the outside with drop siding with No. 3 flooring. Inside of this sheathing 2x4 inch studs placed flatwise, sheathed on the inside with No. 3 flooring, and the six-inch space back of the studs filled with sawdust. On the outside of this firing strips one-half foot are nailed, which are covered with linofelt. One-half foot firing strips are nailed inside of this, and these also covered with linofelt. To this again one-half foot firing strips are added, to which are nailed metal lath, and the whole is plastered with cement. The floor both above and below is made of 2�12 joists, with No. 3 flooring nailed below the joints, the space between which is then filled with ten inches of saw dust, leaving an air space of two inches at the upper edge of the joists. The joists are then covered with linofelt and then the linofelt covered with No. 3 flooring. On the north and west sides I found it necessary to add one more waterproof coat of linofelt in order to make sure of keeping out the frost. I have so far only finished up for cold storage one-half of the room, using the other half for a packing room, so that my present facilities are only 28�28 feet. This room is cooled by eight inch pipes of galvanized iron, extending from the attic above to troughs near the floor, that are sloping so as to carry off the melted ice. These pipes are on both sides about two feet apart. The ice is pulled up into the attic by horsepower and broken up small enough into pieces to feed the pipes. The amount of salt used with the ice depends upon how fast we want the ice to melt. A large quantity of salt cools the storage down quicker. In practice I find that it takes one hour for a man to elevate a ton of ice, chop it up and fill the pipes. They hold something over a ton and must be filled every other day in ordinary September weather. It will not do to let the pipes remain less than one-half full. When the ice gets down that far, we have to fill again. The total cost of my storage when it is entirely furnished up and the present capacity doubled will be about $3,000.00. At present it holds 2,000 standard size apple boxes. I find that it only pays to put in good fruit that in ordinary seasons will keep until the first of March and hold its flavor well and give good satisfaction on the market. Icing stops about the middle of November. The cost per box for storage is as follows: Ice and salt, ten cents. Interest on investment, six cents. I have figured out carefully the entire cost of growing and storing apples, and find out that leaving out the interest on the value of the land, it will approximate forty-eight cents per bushel. This includes cultivation, spraying, packing, and picking. The question which now interests me is whether we can grow fruit good enough and stand the expense and compete with apples grown in the other good fruit sections of the country. Mr. Older: I had the pleasure of visiting this plant with Mr. Wedge, and this man had quite a good many boxes of as fine apples as you would wish to see. This was along the latter part of February, and they were in fine condition. He had a lot of Jonathans and Yankees and some other varieties I don't remember, grown on top-worked trees there. The Plum Curculio. EDWARD A. NELSON, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. (Prize Winner at Gideon Memorial Contest.) The small crescent-shaped punctures, so common on apples, plums, peaches and other fruits, are made by a small snout-beetle known as the plum curculio. The beetles issue from their winter quarters at about the time the trees are in full bloom and feed on the tender foliage, buds and blossoms. Later they attack the newly set fruit, cutting small circular holes through the skin in feeding, while the females, in the operation of egg-laying, make the crescentic cuts so characteristic of this species. The egg, deposited under the skin of the fruit, soon hatches into a very small whitish larva or grub, which makes its way into the flesh of the fruit. Here it feeds greedily and grows rapidly, becoming, in the course of two weeks, the fat, dirty white "worm" so well known among fruit growers. The curculio is a native of North America and for more than 150 years has been known as an enemy of fruits. Our early horticultural literature abounds with reference to its depredations. In more recent times the great increase in planting of fruits, brought about to supply the increased demand, has permitted it to become much more abundant than formerly, and the plum curculio constitutes at the present time one of the most serious insect enemies of orchard fruits. Statistics gathered of its depredations show that it is distributed over much of the area of the United States. Its western limit is, roughly, a line drawn through the centers of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas. East of this line the entire United States is infested except the southern third of Florida and the northern half of Maine. Is the plum curculio causing much damage to the fruit growing industry of this country? That it is is shown by the National Conservation Committee in its report in Volume III, page 309, where it states that the average annual loss in late years to only three fruits is as follows: Apples $3,257,806 Peaches 4,088,814 Plums 1,244,149 ---------- Grand Total $8,590,769 Just think of it! A total loss each year to only three fruits of over $8,500,000. This amount is a heavy drain upon the fruit growing industry of this country. During the past twenty-five or thirty years the total damage caused by this insect, to the various fruits which it attacks, would, on a conservative estimate, probably be not less than $100,000,000. These figures show the absolute need of the adoption of effective remedial measures against this insect so as to lessen this loss. But before we can hope to combat this insect systematically and successfully it is necessary to know its life history and habits. [Illustration: The curculio in its stages of growth, and its fruit injury.] There are four distinct stages in its life cycle: (1) The egg, (2) the larva, or "worm," (3) the pupa, and (4) the adult, or beetle. The curculio passes the winter in the adult stage under accumulations of partly decayed leaves, among the closely-packed dried grass of sod-covered orchards, and probably wherever suitable protection from the winter may be found. Its depredations are usually worse near woods, so it probably finds here very suitable places for wintering. In the spring, when the fruit buds are unfolding, the beetles begin to emerge from their winter quarters and feed to some extent on the blossoms and tender leaves of the fruit trees. Mating soon begins, and by the time the fruit is well set the beetles make this fruit the chief object of their attention. The circular punctures in the skin are feeding punctures, while the crescent-shaped ones are egg-laying punctures. A single egg is deposited in a puncture, although several may be placed in a single fruit. From one to eight eggs may be deposited daily by an individual female, which may be continued for several months. The great majority of the eggs, however, are deposited by the end of eight weeks. These eggs hatch in from three to seven days, being influenced greatly by the weather. The egg hatches into a larva, or "worm," which bores into the fruit. It becomes full-grown in from twelve to twenty days and bores out of the fruit. It enters the soil, burrows to a depth of one-half to two inches, and forms an earthern cell in which to pupate. In three or four weeks it emerges as a full grown beetle and attacks the ungathered fruit and the foliage. On the approach of cold weather the beetle seeks a protected place in which to pass the winter. The character of the injury is very nearly alike in all fruits. In the plum the fruit often falls to the ground before mature. In seasons of short crops very little fruit may remain to ripen. The punctures cause the fruit to become mis-shaped and to exude masses of gum. The ripe fruit becomes "wormy." The late varieties may be seriously injured by the new generation of adults. In the apple the injury to the fruit is about the same as in the plum, except that the infested fruit is not so likely to fall to the ground and that the egg rarely hatches into the grub there. The fruit becomes knotted and pitted. The late varieties may also be injured by the new generation of adults. In the peach, cherry and other stone fruits, the injury closely resembles that of the plum. Although the plum curculio has some natural enemies that tend to reduce its numbers somewhat, yet they are not important enough to be considered as effective means of control. Some of these natural enemies are parasites of various kinds, birds, chickens and the like. There are several remedial measures practiced, varying in their degree of effectiveness. Away back in the early days of horticulture in this country, when the curculio became very abundant rewards were offered for an effective method of combating it. Several were proposed, but only a few were at all effective. The best of these methods is what is called "jarring." The curculio has the habit of falling to the ground and "playing 'possum" when disturbed. This led to the practice of holding or spreading sheets beneath the tree and then striking the tree a sudden, forcible blow with a padded pole or mallet in order to dislodge the beetles. The trees were jarred daily from the time the calyx or "shuck" began to slip from the newly set fruit until the beetles had disappeared, or for at least four or five weeks. This was practiced to quite an extent, but it takes too much time and is too expensive. A still better remedy is clean cultivation. Experiments have shown that as high as 76.75 per cent. of the pupae may be destroyed by means of thorough cultivation. The mere breaking of the pupal cell, leaving the earth in contact with the body of the pupa, is fatal to many. Others are killed by the crushing action of the earth as it is stirred. Others are exposed to the elements and subject to the attacks of their enemies, such as ants and birds. Sunlight is quickly fatal to them, and exposure to the air on a warm day in the shade is also fatal to them. Observations show that the insect is in the pupal condition in the ground in from fifty to sixty-five days after the falling of the blossoms of such fruit as apples and plums. Data have been presented to show that the minimum time spent in the ground is about twenty days. Shallow cultivation should begin, therefore, in about eight or nine weeks after blossoming. It is best to cultivate every week or oftener for six or seven weeks. It is very necessary that this cultivation should reach immediately beneath the spread of the limbs, as most of the curculios are found here, having dropped from the fruit above and burrowed into the soil where they fell. The third method of combating the curculio, the method most commonly used and most generally recommended, is spraying with arsenical poisons. The spray most generally used is arsenate of lead. The most economical and effective way is to add arsenate of lead to Bordeaux mixture. The Bordeaux is mixed in the following proportions: three pounds of copper sulphate (blue vitriol), four pounds of lime, and fifty gallons of water. To this amount of Bordeaux mixture three pounds of arsenate of lead are added. In place of Bordeaux mixture lime-sulphur may be used. If the insecticide is used alone, three pounds of arsenate of lead in fifty gallons of water make an effective spray. It is best to spray three times, the first spraying coming just before the blossoms open, the second coming ten days later, and the third another ten days later. The cost is from ten to fifteen cents per tree for the three sprayings. This cost is lessened when combined with other sprays. While spraying greatly reduces the injuries inflicted, yet it is apparent that account must be taken of other factors, such as the relative abundance of insects as compared with the amount of fruit present on the trees. With a small fruit crop and an abundance of curculios, the most thorough spraying in the world will not serve to bring through a satisfactory amount of sound fruit. While spraying is undoubtedly the most important aid and, if persisted in from year to year, may answer for its control, as its effects are cumulative, yet it is clear that other control measures should also be employed. In all cases which have come under observation the insects have always been found most abundant in orchards which are in sod or are poorly cared for and allowed to grow up more or less in weeds and trash. Also, orchards near woods always suffer severely, especially along the border. As opposed to this condition is the notably less injury in orchards kept free from weeds and trash. In such cases spraying usually given for other insects, as the codling moth, serves to keep the curculio well under control. In fact, it may be said as a general statement that the curculio will never become seriously troublesome in orchards given the usual routine attention in cultivation, spraying and pruning now considered essential in successful fruit growing. Serious losses from the curculio are almost conclusive evidence of neglect, which is best and most quickly corrected by the adoption of proper orchard practice. * * * * * AN ANTIDOTE FOR WASP STINGS.--It not infrequently happens that persons biting unguardedly into fruit in which a wasp is concealed receive stings in the mouth or throat. Such stings may be exceedingly dangerous and even fatal since the affected tissues swell rapidly and this is liable to cause difficulty in swallowing and breathing. An effective antidote is employed in Switzerland. The sting is rubbed vigorously with garlic, or, if it is too deep in the throat for this treatment, a few drops of the juice from bruised garlic are swallowed. If garlic is not to be obtained onion may take its place, but is a less active agent. The efficacy of this simple remedy was verified by a Swiss specialist, who found it important enough to be presented at a session of the Vaudois Society of Medicine. Increasing the Fertility of the Land. PROF. F. J. ALWAY, DIVISION OF SOILS, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. I have been asked to speak on "Increasing the Fertility of the Land." To speak on such a subject is sometimes a rather delicate matter because some people consider they have a soil so good that you can't increase its fertility. With some of the prairie soils, when they were first plowed up that wouldn't have been so very far amiss. Take those black prairie soils with the grayish yellow clay subsoil, with an abundance of lime in it, which you find in a large part of the state, including a large part of Hennepin County, and you have as good a soil as you may expect to find anywhere on the earth's surface. But you can't keep a soil up to its full limit of fertility, no matter how good it is, unless you frequently treat it with something. [Illustration: Prof. F. J. Alway.] When a soil is well supplied with lime there are three things that are liable to be deficient. If it is not well supplied with lime there may be four, but the bulk of your soils are good enough so far as lime is concerned. Those three are potash, which is abundant and will be abundant 100 years from now, phosphoric acid, or phosphorus, with which our soils are fairly well supplied, and nitrogen, which comes from the vegetable matter. In nitrogen our prairie soils are remarkably rich when first plowed up. The phosphoric acid and the potash you can not lose unless they are taken away in the form of crops, but the nitrogen may be lost without even taking off crops. All you have to do is to cultivate your soil, when part of the nitrogen becomes soluble in water and is carried down by the rain into the water-table unless you have plants growing with roots to take it up; a large part escapes into the air. So when your black prairie soil has been under cultivation for twenty years, as an orchard, usually from one-half to one-third of the original nitrogen has escaped, most of it into the air, only the smaller part being carried off in the crops. That is the one thing that orchardists and horticulturists have to concern themselves about first of all, so far as soil fertility is concerned. I see that the first of the questions for me to answer deals with that. "What crop do you consider the best green manure?" There are two kinds of green manures. One is represented by rye. Rye takes up the nitrogen that is in the soil, and when it dies leaves behind what it took out of the soil; the next crop can get this. By plowing under the rye crop you do not increase the amount of nitrogen, the most important element of fertility in the soil. We have a better green manure than that, better than rye or oats or barley or any of those plants that properly belong to the grass family; namely, the members of the clover, bean or pea family--all of these plants which are called legumes, which have pods and which have flowers shaped like butterflies. As these grow they take up nitrogen from the air; the bacteria which make their home on the roots of those plants take the nitrogen from the air and give it to their host plants. The plants receive this nitrogen, store it in themselves, and when the crop is plowed under you have a great amount of nitrogen added to the soil. Now, a clover crop of an acre growing from spring until the freeze-up in the fall may take out of the air as much as 120 pounds of nitrogen. One hundred and twenty pounds of nitrogen, bought in the form of commercial fertilizer from Swift & Company, or Northrup, King & Company, would cost you $24.00. The clover has taken that much out of the air. If the crop were pastured off, the greater part of this nitrogen would be returned to the soil; when you plow the clover under still more nitrogen is taken from the air by bacteria that live upon the decaying plant material, and you may have $48.00 worth of nitrogen per acre added to the soil by simply growing clover for one year. Any kind of green manure crop that bears pods is good. Vetches are good, and soy beans are among the best for orchards. Clover, if you give it time to make a good growth, is as good as anything. The next question is--"Should apple raisers use commercial fertilizers?" Now, the apple tree, when it is growing on good soil, makes such a vigorous root development that it is hard to get any commercial fertilizer to help it. On poor soils it, like any other kind of plant, will respond to fertilizers. Some of the eastern experimental stations have been carrying on investigations with commercial fertilizers for a great many years to see whether in apple orchards these will cause an increase in the yield or an improvement in the quality of the fruit. On good soils, even after ten or twelve years' fertilization they have been found to have no effect except in the case of nitrogen, and this can be better supplied in the form of a green manure plowed under than in any other way. That is to say, keep your orchard clean until the last of July or first of August, sow your green manure crop, let it grow until freeze-up and stay there during the winter time. It holds the snow and so affords some winter protection. In the spring plow it under, and you plow under all the nitrogen that the plants had collected the previous year. Then keep your orchard clean during the summer time, until in July or August you again sow the green manure crop. [Illustration: Applying ground limestone to an acid soil to determine whether liming will be profitable. Half of the field is left unlimed.] The fertilizers that I get more inquiries about than any others are the phosphates--bone meal, acid phosphate and rock phosphate. Horticulturists have read that striking results are being obtained with these on certain crops in the eastern and central states, and they want to know whether the same fertilizers will pay here. Some inquire about potash fertilizers. With the latter there is no doubt but that the results we would obtain would, even under ordinary circumstances, not pay. At the present time potash costs about ten times what it does in times of peace. Sulphate of potash, which ordinarily brings $45.00 per ton, is now quoted at $450. This puts its use out of the question. The phosphoric acid fertilizers are no higher now than usual. They cost, according to the kind, from $9.50 to $25.00 per ton. Some of them are produced near here--in South St. Paul. With tree crops, apple, plum and pear, we need expect no increased yield from the use of phosphates, unless it be on our very poorest soils. On certain crops, like the bush fruits--the currants and the raspberries, we might get a distinct benefit. I cannot give a definite answer to that. I can tell you what results they have obtained in New York state, what they have obtained in Pennsylvania or Illinois or Maine, but what results we would get in Minnesota we do not know. We can't apply their results to our conditions. The only thing we can do is to carry on such experiments here, and they have not yet been started. That brings me to a third question I have here. "What experiments are being conducted by the University of Minnesota with orchard and other horticultural crops?" We realized the importance of this matter and plans were prepared. Then, as you know the last legislature was economical. It decided that one of the best places to make a cut would be in the funds for experimental work; when these funds were reduced we not only could start no new experiments but even had to cut off some of the old ones. For that reason these fertilizer experiments have to wait until the next legislature or the one after. I hope the next legislature will make such an appropriation that they may be begun. Now, for the next question. A man states that he can secure at a very low rate limestone from one of the Minneapolis companies producing crushed limestone for road-making purposes and wants to know whether it will pay him to haul it to his farm. Well, if you do not have any other work for your teams it may pay you. However, if your time is valuable, you had better take some samples of the soil and send them in to the experiment station. Just address them to the Soils Department or Soils Division. Then we can decide whether it is worth while trying some of the limestone. We cannot tell you whether it will pay; we can tell you whether it is likely to pay, or whether it is likely to be a waste of energy, or whether it is so doubtful that you ought to give it a fair trial. On perhaps two-thirds of the fields in Hennepin County it would be a waste of money and energy; on about half of the others, we may say, it is almost certain to be a good investment at a dollar a ton. On the remaining portion we simply can't say. On these, chances are even whether it would pay. No crops are injured by limestone, so you are safe in putting it on. Practically all crops are benefited by it on sour soils and especially the vegetable crops. The next question is--"Are the black peat or muck soils first class? Do they need anything besides drainage?" Some of them, a very few, produce really good crops when they are drained, plowed and brought under ordinary cultivation without fertilization, but only a few. Nearly all of them need commercial fertilizer, and until a bog covered with peat soil has been carefully examined to ascertain the depth of the peat, the difficulty of drainage, and the character of the peat (because peats differ greatly within a few miles of each other) it is unwise to attempt to reclaim it. Within three miles of the experiment station we have three bogs very different in character. One, about half a mile from the buildings, is heavily charged with lime. Another has an exceedingly small quantity of lime so that profitable crop production of any kind would be out of the question without a heavy application of ground limestone or quicklime. Still another one stands between these two. One of them can be reclaimed without any great expense, but with the one it would be a very expensive matter to fertilize and treat with lime after it had been drained. Those are the questions that have been given me. Are there any other questions? Mr. McCall: What is peat lacking in? Mr. Alway: Practically all peats are lacking in potash. If the peat layer be very shallow, six inches, twelve inches, sometimes even twenty-four inches, the plants are able to get their roots down through the peat and get their potash from the underlying clay or loam. In that case no fertilizer is needed. Some of the peats lack lime, some of them lack lime, potash and phosphoric acid, and some these three and nitrogen also, so that you either have to apply some commercial form of nitrogen or grow legumes as green manures. Mr. Kellogg: What was the trouble where I couldn't raise strawberries on new wood soil? Mr. Alway: I couldn't answer that. Mr. Kellogg: The leaf mold was six or eight inches deep. Mr. Alway: Was it any deeper than that? Mr. Kellogg: I don't know, it may have been down a foot, and the leaf mold had been accumulating there for ages. Mr. Alway: In some cases the peat is so thoroughly decayed that it looks like leaf mold and it may be a foot or two feet deep. Mr. Kellogg: This was no peat, it was just wood soil. I could not raise anything-- Mr. Alway: Did the plants grow? Mr. Kellogg: Yes, the plants grew and wintered well but didn't bear worth a cent. Mr. Alway: Did they make lots of runners? Mr. Kellogg: Oh, fairly good, but right over the fence in the next field that had been worked for twenty-five years I got 260 bushels of strawberries to the acre; never had any manure on it. Mr. Alway: The more leaf mold the more nitrogen; if you have too much nitrogen it may develop the vine and fail to form fruit or seed. Mr. Ludlow: On heavy black prairie soil, three feet deep, where I am growing eighty bushels of corn to the acre, I want to put in strawberries, and I have a lot of wood ashes, dry wood ashes, not leached ashes, but dry wood ashes. Would it be worth while to put that on or would that overdo the thing? Would it be policy to put that on? Mr. Alway: It is not likely to do any harm, and it is likely to do some good. Wood ashes contain chiefly lime and potash. The potash will be a distinct benefit. The lime isn't of any particular benefit to this crop on most soils. For strawberries it is slightly harmful on our ordinary soils that are originally well supplied with lime. Mr. Ludlow: On another piece a ways from that I put out a young orchard, and in order to start the trees well I had covered the ground half an inch deep with wood ashes around those trees. I noticed that the weeds grew there twice as quick as they did when I got away from the wood ashes. Mr. Alway: There you have the benefit of the potash and the lime. If you put lime in the orchards it will make the clover and most of the other green manure crops grow better, and thus you gain in nitrogen from the lime; you gain in potash as it comes from the wood ashes. Mr. Brackett: Have you ever found any ground with too much leaf mold on it to grow good strawberries? Mr. Alway: I have not. Mr. Brackett: I remember when I broke out my place where I am living now I had a place where the leaves had collected and rotted until I would say there was eight or ten inches of leaf mold. When you went across it you would sink in almost to your shoe tops. On that piece of ground I grew 11,000 quarts of strawberries to the acre in a year, the largest yield I had ever grown on that leaf mold. You can never get too much leaf mold. There must have been something else besides the leaf mold. Mr. Alway: In case a crop does not give a satisfactory yield it may be due to other things than the soil, and until we eliminate the other possible causes we can't safely blame it to the soil. Mr. Moyer: What do those black soils in the western part of the state need? They have a whitish deposit on top. Mr. Alway: Drainage. That is alkali. Mr. Kochendorfer: I have a ten-year apple orchard that I disked last year and kept it tolerably clean this spring. There were a lot of dandelions sprung up that I mowed down the middle of July, and since then they have grown up again. Will they take nitrogen the same as clover? Mr. Alway: They won't take any from the air. They will act like so much rye, but when they die and decay nitrogen will be gathered from the air and added to the soil by bacteria that live upon the decaying vegetable matter. Mr. Kellogg: Did you ever hear of them dying? Mr. Alway: Dandelions? If they are plowed under. A Member: Is it practicable to grow soy beans in this soil? Can they be gotten at a reasonable price, and can we mature them here? Mr. Alway: They mature here without any serious difficulty. There are a great many different varieties. If you order them from a distant seed house you may get a variety that will mature in Louisiana but not in Minnesota. A Member: How about cowpeas? Mr. Alway: Cowpeas are disappointing thus far north. In Minnesota they are not nearly as satisfactory as the soy bean. In an unusually warm summer they are satisfactory. A Member: With the soy bean do you have to plow in the whole of it? Mr. Alway: Yes. The whole plant ought to be plowed under. A Member: Would it be practicable to feed soy beans in an orchard? Mr. Alway: Yes. You don't get quite the same benefit from the green manure when you pasture as when you plow under. A Member: How about the hairy vetch? Does it grow here? Mr. Alway: Yes. It grows here. It is not a bad crop at all. * * * * * POISONING TREE SCALE.--We take the following from _Scientific American_ as worth consideration by the owners of orchards and lawns: A correspondent in _Science_ relates the following rather startling experiment in killing tree scale by poisoning the sap of the tree. He says: "I have in my ground a plant of Spanish broom about a dozen years old and with a trunk about four inches in diameter which has for several years been seriously infested by cottony cushion scale (_Icerya purchasi_). I have tried various sprays, have put scale-eating beetles on the tree, and at one time cut all the branches off and sprayed the trunk several times in the attempt to get permanently rid of this scale, but up to last winter it seemed that all attempts were in vain. In February of this year, when the broom was very thickly covered with the scale, I bored a three-eighths inch hole in the trunk to a depth of about three inches, filled the hole nearly full of crystals of potassic cyanide, and plugged it up. In two days the scale began to fall from the tree and in a few days all appeared dead. Others hatched and attacked the tree, but lasted only a short time, and the tree has since been free from scale and very vigorous." NOTICE OF SUMMER MEETING, 1916 A JOINT SESSION OF THE MINNESOTA STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY AND ITS AUXILIARIES, THE MINNESOTA STATE GARDEN FLOWER SOCIETY, THE MINNESOTA STATE BEE KEEPERS SOCIETY AND THE MINNESOTA STATE FLORISTS SOCIETY. Will be held FRIDAY, JUNE 23rd, 1916, in the Gymnasium, at University Farm, St. Paul. THE GYMNASIUM BUILDING in which this meeting is to be held has recently been constructed and only finished suitable for the uses of this gathering within the past year. The grounds about it are still in part in an unfinished condition. Directly south of this building are the football grounds, originally a marshy tract, now filled in and leveled off, with hillsides sloping upwards some thirty to forty feet on either side, well shaded. These slopes would be excellent places for the picnic dinner and the afternoon session except for the fact that they have recently been seeded and are not yet in condition for use. The main room in the gymnasium building, which is a very large room--at least three times as large as the one occupied by our exhibit last year--will be used for the fruit and flower display, and exhibitors can have access to this hall early in the forenoon, though visitors will be barred from the exhibition hall until 12:00 m. to give ample opportunity for placing and judging the display. The exhibition will remain in place undisturbed until 9:00 o'clock p.m. The flowers will be distributed to the various hospitals in the Twin Cities. THE PREMIUM LIST accompanying this notice is practically the same as last year, there being only a few minor changes, to which it will not be necessary to refer here. The season, up to the time of writing this notice at least, having been a favorable one we are anticipating a large display of flowers, probably the finest ever shown at any of our summer gatherings, and as the weather is always pleasant on the occasion of our summer meeting a large gathering of members and visitors is also assured. DEMONSTRATIONS.--There will be a number of demonstrations at the farm, one by Prof. Francis Jager, the apiculturist, at 11:30 o'clock, at the Apiary Building. No special subject has been announced for this, but it is certain to be a profitable occasion for those interested in bee culture. Professors connected with the entomological and pathological departments will conduct experiments in spraying at some point near the Main Building. Undoubtedly there will be other demonstrations, which may be announced before the meeting or in regard to which announcements will be found posted at the gymnasium. GUIDES TO THE GROUNDS.--Guides will be in attendance to escort visitors about the grounds to various points of interest. These guides will be prepared to answer questions pertaining to the various branches of educational work at the farm. Those who wish to take advantage of this service will meet the guides at the gymnasium at 10:30 a.m. and 3:30 p.m. The guides will wear suitable badges. PICNIC DINNER.--In regard to the picnic dinner, which will occupy the time between noon and 2:00 o'clock, we are not quite sure as to where it will be held, but probably near the dining hall. Should the weather be unfavorable of course there is plenty of room inside the gymnasium building. Lemonade, ice cold, will be provided in quantity at the gymnasium building to meet the needs of the picnickers. AFTERNOON MEETING.--At 2:00 p.m. the afternoon session of the meeting will be held at some point in or around the gymnasium building, depending on the weather at that time and somewhat also on the weather between now and then as to the condition the grounds may be in. REACHING THE GROUNDS.--Take the Como-Harriet or Como-Hopkins car in either St. Paul or Minneapolis, get off at Doswell Avenue, and a walk of approximately one-half mile will bring you to University Farm grounds. To reach the gymnasium go north on Cleveland Avenue, which is the avenue running along the west side of University Farm, past the University Farm buildings until you come to the last building, which you will recognize as the gymnasium by its size. The grounds between Cleveland Avenue and the gymnasium are in an unfinished condition, but visitors will readily find their way across. If you prefer to ride all the way to the grounds get off at Eustis Avenue, which the conductor will point out to you. From that place cars run every fifteen minutes into the Farm grounds, an extra fare of five cents being charged. Ask the conductor to let you off at the gymnasium building, which you will reach from the street car after a short walk over ground still ungraded and where no special path has been provided. Getting off at that point, however, saves a long walk from the terminal station. If in doubt as to the way, follow the sign of the arrow. VISIT TO STATE FRUIT-BREEDING FARM.--This farm is located at Zumbra Heights, twenty-two miles west of Minneapolis on the Minneapolis and St. Louis railroad. The train leaves depot at 8:35 a.m. Return can be made by way of Zumbra Heights landing on Lake Minnetonka and the lake steamers via trolley line to Minneapolis, or by waiting until mid-afternoon a train can be secured returning to the city on the railroad. One or more of the professors will go out Saturday morning, June 24th, to accompany any who may desire to take advantage of this opportunity to visit the Fruit Breeding Farm in a body. There are many things of interest there, the special timely feature at this season being the fruiting of a large field of No. 3 strawberries, which variety gives promise of being the coming commercial berry of the Northwest. ENTRIES.--All entries must be received by the secretary not later than Monday, June 19th. No entries whatever will be received at the meeting. The exhibitors are urged to send in their entries at as early a date as possible, under no circumstances later than the date noted above. Entry blanks will be furnished by the secretary on application. EXHIBITS.--All exhibits must be in place and properly labeled by 11:30 a.m. to compete for premiums. The exhibitors must be members of the society and growers of the articles exhibited. Any one may become a member upon payment of the annual fee of $1.00. Fruits and flowers shown become the property of the association. Premium List, Summer Meeting, 1916. No Duplicating of Varieties Permitted. OUT-DOOR ROSES. 1st prem. 2d prem. 3d prem. 4th prem. Collection--three blooms of each named variety, to be shown in separate vases $6.00 $4.00 $2.00 $1.00 Collection of named varieties--three blooms of each, in separate vases, amateurs only 6.00 4.00 2.00 1.00 Three named varieties, white--each variety in a separate vase, three blooms of each, each bloom on a separate stem 2.00 1.00 .50 Three named varieties, pink--each variety in a separate vase, three blooms of each, each bloom on a separate stem 2.00 1.00 .50 Three named varieties, red--each variety in a separate vase, three blooms of each, each bloom on a separate stem 2.00 1.00 .50 Collection of Rugosa and Rugosa Hybrids--each variety (consisting of one cluster of blooms on a single stem) in a separate vase 2.00 1.00 .50 Most beautiful rose in vase 1.00 Largest rose in vase 1.00 Seedling rose to be shown by the originator. (Not previously exhibited in competition.) Bronze medal donated by the American Rose Society. Basket of out-door roses and foliage, arranged for effect without ribbon, not to exceed twelve inches in diameter 3.00 2.00 1.00 The following named varieties of roses to be entered separately and shown in separate vases, three to five blooms in each vase. Prince Camile deRohan, General Jacqueminot, Margaret Dickson, M.P. Wilder, Jules Margottin, Magna Charta, Paul Neyron, Madam Gabriel Luizet, Baroness Rothschild, Anna de Diesbach, Ulrich Brunner, John Hopper, Rosa Rugosa (pink and white), Baron deBonstetten, Karl Druski, Madam Plantier, Grus an Teplitz. Each, 1st prem., 75 cents; 2nd prem., 50 cents; 3rd prem., 25 cents. PEONIES. 1st prem. 2d prem. 3d prem. 4th prem. Vase of Festiva Maxima. 6 blooms $2.00 $1.00 $0.50 " " flesh or light pink " " " " " " " medium or dark pink " " " " " " " white " " " " " " " red " " " " " Collection--three blooms of each named variety in separate vases $6.00 $4.00 $2.00 $1.00 Collection--three blooms of each named variety in separate vases, amateurs only 6.00 4.00 2.00 1.00 Seedling peony, three blooms 3.00 2.00 1.00 .50 Collection--one bloom of each variety, shown each in a separate vase; for amateurs owning no more than ten varieties 2.00 1.00 .50 ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS. Vase of Arabis $1.50 $1.00 $0.50 " " Canterbury Bells " " " " " Dielytra " " " " " Delphinium " " " " " Evening primrose (Oenothera) " " " " " Forget-me-not " " " " " Foxglove " " " " " Gailardias " " " " " Grass pinks " " " " " Iceland poppies " " " " " Iris " " " " " Lillies " " " " " Lupine " " " " " Nasturtiums " " " " " Oriental poppies " " " " " Pansies " " " " " Perennial coreopsis " " " " " Pyrethrum " " " " " Shasta daisies " " " " " Sweet peas " " " " " Sweet william " " " Collection--named perennials, in separate vases $6.00 $4.00 $2.00 $1.00 Collection of annuals and perennials in separate vases (not to exceed 12) by amateurs who have never taken premiums on flowers 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 Vase of flowers grown and exhibited by child 2.00 1.00 .50 Vase of any kind of flowers not named in this list. (An exhibitor may make any number of entries desired under this head) 2.00 1.00 .50 Vase of flowers arranged for artistic effect 1.50 1.00 .50 Basket of outdoor-grown flowers, arranged by exhibitor 3.00 2.00 1.00 STRAWBERRIES. One quart of each variety to be shown on plate, not in box. 1st prem. 2d prem. 3d prem. 4th prem. Collection (not less than six varieties) $5.00 $4.00 $3.00 $2.00 Collection of three named varieties 3.00 2.00 1.00 .50 The following varieties of strawberries to be entered separately: 1st prem. 2d prem. 3d prem. 4th prem. Bederwood, Dunlap, Cresent, Splendid, Clyde, Warfield, Lovett, Enhance, Glen Mary, Haverland, Progressive, Superb, Americus, each 1.00 $0.75 $0.50 $0.25 Best named variety not included in the above list 2.00 1.00 .50 Seedling's, originated by exhibitor 3.00 2.00 1.00 GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. _Photographic contest_--Open to all members of the Garden Flower Society. Class I. Photograph showing best garden arrangement or planting effect. List of flowers and shrubs to accompany picture. First prize--Twenty-five perennial plants. Second prize--Twelve iris. Class II. Photograph showing individual plant in bloom. A growing plant in bloom will be preferred to one in a vase. First prize--Twenty-five perennial plants. Second prize--Twelve iris. Class III. Photograph showing wild flower in bloom. Directions governing Class II to be followed. First prize--Twenty-five perennial plants. Second prize--Twelve dahlia tubers. Any number of pictures may be entered in each class, but only one prize in each class will be given an exhibitor. When possible have photographs 5x7 inches or 4x5 inches, although size will not bar an otherwise meritorious picture. Photographs in Classes I and II should be confined to the garden of the exhibitor. All pictures are to be in the hands of our secretary by November first, and are to become the property of the society. The prizes will be delivered the following spring. The pictures will be on exhibition at our annual meeting in December. * * * * * These directions in The Garden Magazine are so good they are quoted verbatim: NEXT TO SEED PLANTING the most important part of the gardener's work is skill in the technique of transplanting. How often do you hear concerning some gardener, that if he "only touches a thing, it is bound to live?" There is no "king's touch" in the garden game. People who "love" plants are more successful with them, merely because such persons take greater care in handling them. The first essential in transplanting is to have good plants. They should be well hardened off (see March Reminder, covering cold-frames); this applies to plants in flats and in pots even more than to those growing in frames. In buying plants, select stocky, compact, dark colored ones in preference to very large ones. PREPARE THE SOIL as carefully as though you intended to sow seeds. Mark out the rows, and if fertilizer is to be used, mix it thoroughly with the soil before beginning transplanting. Then prepare the plants carefully. Unless they are very small, cut back the largest leaves about one-half with an old pair of scissors. With a small trowel or an old knife, cut them out of the frame or flat in which they are growing, keeping as much soil as possible with each. (If not in flats, cut them out as you use them in the garden.) If they are in pots, knock them out carefully and pack into flat for convenience in handling. Paper pots, which produce the best plants, are not removed before planting. Water thoroughly the day before planting, so that the soil will be in the best condition for handling; but for several days before planting, it is well to keep the plants "on the dry side," as they will then re-establish themselves more quickly when set out. (To be continued) ENTOMOLOGICAL NOTES By F. L. WASHBURN, Professor of Entomology. University of Minnesota. A SILVER PRUNE IN BLOOM AT MINNETONKA. May 19, 1916.--The writer has a small silver prune grafted on hardy root, which he obtained from Mr. Arrowood, Nevis, Minn., now in bloom at his experimental garden at Minnetonka--not many flowers, it is true, but in bloom just the same. This tree is not more than two feet high, and was somewhat protected by a rabbit protector and high snow. Other plums in the Entomologist's orchard, (one acre) are now nearly full of bloom: Hanska, Skuya, Opata and other Hansen hybrids, as well as trial plums from the University fruit breeding farm. We have top worked this spring Hibernals, and Patten's Greenings with Stark's Delicious, Grimes Golden, King David and Johnathan. One-half of this land slopes sharply to the north and the other half more gently to the south, clay, loam with clay subsoil, offering favorable conditions for orchard work as well as work with grapes, small fruits and vegetables. Of grapes we have started Concord, Worden, Moore's Early, Agawam, Brighton, Iona, Lindley, Salem, Barry, Herbert, Isabella, Green Mountain, and others. We have even had the temerity to try Loganberries from the Pacific coast, and have some in fruit at present. A heavy covering of soil next winter will possibly protect these plants during the cold weather. THE WHITE PINE BLISTER RUST IN MINNESOTA. This disease has just been found on a few White Pines in two Minnesota nurseries. The trees in one of these nurseries came from Wisconsin, shipped into that state from the east. Absolute identification has been furnished by the Plant Pathology Division of the Agricultural College. The state entomologist has already in the field a force of men who will inspect every nursery in the state where white pines are grown. THE ENGLISH SPARROW PEST. We have experienced some success in the use of a sparrow trap, catching from 11 to 25 in half a day. It must be noted, however, that this does not occur every day, and further, that the young birds are most easily caught. Both old and young evidently learn to avoid the trap. Another party who has used this trap also reports success even greater than ours. Other parties report an average catch of ten birds a day for nearly four months. One can also, if on a farm, resort to shooting them singly, or, better, when gathered together feeding. In fact, they may be baited with grain for a few days (preferably in the fall or winter) and previous to the use of the shotgun. This accustoms them to gathering in a close flock. Eggs and nests may be repeatedly destroyed, if placed within reach. A well-directed stream of water from a hose is helpful in making them desert their roosts, at least for a while. Dearborn (Farmers' Bulletin No. 493, U.S. Dept. of Agr.) describes a nest-box trap. Sparrows may also be poisoned, but this calls for extreme care. In this case it is interesting to learn that one experimenter fed a large number of sparrows killed by poisoning to a pet cat with no ill effects to the latter. We have picked them from cornices upon our house at dusk with the aid of a small collecting gun or pistol, firing a very light charge of shot, but found that the shot marred the house, and were therefore obliged to discontinue the practice. In addition to trapping sparrows with approved sparrow traps the following recipe has recently come to our notice: "Feed good cracked corn a few days; then substitute poisoned cracked corn made as follows: Soak one quart of cracked corn in water; take it out and let it get about half dry. Dissolve one ounce of strychnia in hot water. Soak corn in this until it swells and then dry completely." BEE-KEEPER'S COLUMN. Conducted by FRANCIS JAGER, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul. COMB HONEY, EXTRACTED HONEY, AND INCREASE. (Continued from May No.) Colonies run for comb honey are very much inclined to swarm. Swarming with the resulting division of forces is incompatible with profitable comb honey production. The colony must be kept together for best results. The following methods are used by well known beekeepers. 1. At the beginning of the honey flow let the colony cast a natural swarm. After hiving the bees on starters or full sheets of foundation and giving them a little brood to prevent them from swarming out again, the swarm is put in the place of the parent colony, which is removed to one side two or three feet. The seventh day the old colony is moved over to the opposite side of the swarm two or three feet. Two weeks after, all the bees are shaken in front of the swarm, and the hive with wax and honey removed. Thus the desire of bees for swarming has been satisfied, and the colony is still working together. 2. Make a shaken swarm. During the dandelion honey flow add an extracting super to your comb raising colony to give bees room to store. At the beginning of the honey flow set the whole hive a little aside and put a new bottom board on the place thus vacated. On this bottom board place the extracting super from your colony. Find the frame with the queen and put it in the middle of this new brood chamber, bees and all. Then shake all the bees from the old brood chamber into the new. The brood in the old hive thus left orphans may be piled up on top of some weaker colony in your yard who will take care of it. Five such supers with brood may be piled on top of one such colony, and they will be the strongest in the yard for storing extracted honey during the basswood or other late honey flow. This honey will be very handy for feeding your bees in the fall and spring. Now add a comb honey super to your shaken swarm. Add more supers when necessary, below before July 4th, on top after that date. Remove all comb honey supers at once at the end of the honey flow to have them white and clean. 3. When your colony is very strong at the beginning of the honey flow--about June 10th--remove the queen, either by killing her or by starting a new colony with her with two frames of brood. The seventh day cut out all queen cells but one--be sure not to leave two. This will re-queen your apiary, will prevent swarming for that season, will put a large number of bees into the field--there being no larvae to feed, will prevent thousands of bees from being hatched after they are of no use as gatherers of honey, and the honey needed for raising those bees will go into the supers. (Continued in July No.) SECRETARY'S CORNER NOTICE OF SUMMER MEETING will be found on pages 257-259 of this magazine. Don't overlook it--and be sure to come. Great show of flowers and a fine day is assured--that is our record to date. THE SECRETARY'S OFFICE during the summer month, will be open as usual except Saturday afternoon, but the secretary will be in regularly only on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays. THE STATE ENTOMOLOGISTS REPORT ON NURSERY INSPECTION in 1915 has been issued as circular No. 37. It contains a list of all inspected nurseries in the state; and also six full page photographs illustrating the nursery industry in Minnesota. Copies can be obtained by writing F.L. Washburn, St. Anthony Park, Minn. A GOOD YIELD OF EVERBEARING STRAWBERRY PLANTS.--Mr. J. J. Kunkel, of Kimball, Minn., writes under date of May 13th: "The three everbearing strawberry plants I received of you in 1915 made about 250 young plants, of which I replanted this spring about 200. We had a few berries, but did not expect berries as we let all runners grow." Who has done better than that in growing No. 1017 everbearing strawberry plants? A FARMER ON THE BOARD OF REGENTS.--We are much pleased to note the appointment of a real farmer in the person of C. W. Glotfelter, of Waterville, as a member of the Board of Regents of the Minnesota State University. Mr. Glotfelter is well known throughout the state as late president of the Minnesota State Agricultural Society, and is at present occupying the same position with the Minnesota Crop Breeders' Association. He is a farmer in every sense, as he lives upon a farm which he has himself worked personally a great many years. We feel that the horticultural and agricultural interests of the state are especially well cared for by this board in having Mr. Glotfelter in its membership. WYMAN ELLIOT'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIBRARY.--A short time since Mrs. Elliot, widow of the late Wyman Elliot, sent to this office as a contribution to our library all of the horticultural and agricultural books which belonged to Mr. Elliot. There were in all 397 volumes, nearly all of them bound in cloth. The larger portion of these were reports of other horticultural and agricultural societies, most of which the Horticultural Society already had in the library. There were, however, some forty or fifty very valuable reference books, or books on specific subjects of a horticultural character, and a considerable number of reports of other societies which we did not have, in all amounting to seventy-seven volumes. These have been placed mostly in two cases by themselves which will be marked with Mr. Elliot's name, and, of course, each one of these volumes has an inscription of similar character on the fly leaf. The remainder of these books, 320 in number, are being sent to University Farm library for use there as far as they need them, and they will be likely to know where to place to advantage any that they have no personal use for. There are plenty of libraries in the state that would be glad indeed to receive some of these volumes, and we hope that in this way Mr. Elliot's name will appear in the catalog of many of our public libraries. NEW LIFE MEMBERS.--There have been quite a number of names added to the life membership roll of the society during the year 1916 and since the last public record was made of this sort. The names of the following persons have now been added to the permanent roll of the society: Ludvig Lima, Montevideo; Mrs. Florence Burlingame, Grand Rapids; A.L. Negstad, Arlington, S.D.; C. P. Bratnober, 1419 Harmon Place, Minneapolis; Miss Anna M. Johnson, Lafayette; H. J. Appleby, Minneiska; Hans M. Johnson, Pipestone; Christ Effertz, Norwood; O.J. Oyen, Watson; F.E. Older, California State Normal School, Los Angeles, Cal.; Erick Sparre, Elk River; E. H. Mazey, 3029 Ewing So., Minneapolis. There is still room in this list for others, and why not instead of paying annual membership year after year make one payment and have done with it? RESOLUTION ABOUT STATE FLOWER.--The following resolution was unanimously adopted at a meeting of the Minnesota Garden Flower Society, held during the annual session of the State Horticultural Society, in December last. Resolved, That whereas, The State of Minnesota has adopted a state flower, which, on account of its being a native of the woods and bogs, is not generally known or recognized, and Whereas, The State of Minnesota in 1893 adopted by legislative vote a state flag, which emblem is not generally known to the residents of the state, and believing that familiarity with the state flower and the state flag will do good and create loyalty to the state and union; Be It Resolved, That we, the Minnesota State Horticultural Society, do hereby petition and pray the state legislature of Minnesota, to have printed an attractive picture of the state flower and the state flag, properly framed, and present it to the high schools of the state, with the request that it be placed upon the wall of their assembly room. Also, that it be furnished free of cost, to such other public buildings as may be deemed advisable. PROGRAM, "FARMERS' WEEK."--During "Farmers' Week" at University Farm, January 1-7, 1917, there will be scheduled several conferences which fruit and vegetable growers should find of value to them in their work. These conferences deal with all of the problems of the grower, but special afternoons are given to the small fruits, the tree fruits, and vegetables. Next January will be the third conference of the fruit growers, the second for the vegetable growers, and the first for the small fruit growers as a separate branch of the fruit work. Mr. W. G. Brierly, Chairman of the Division of Horticulture, University Farm, is working on programs for these conferences for next January. He will be very glad to have any one interested write to him for information or to suggest topics for discussion. The program for the vegetable growers' conference will be drawn up by a joint committee from the St. Paul and Minneapolis vegetable growers, working with Mr. Brierly. The committee is planning to meet at the time of the summer meeting of the Horticultural Society and will, of course, welcome any suggestions as to topics and speakers. These conferences are for all growers interested and are free to all. There has been some difficulty heretofore in that very few suggestions as to program have been offered by the growers themselves. If you have any problems or matters which you would like to have discussed at these conferences, now is the time to make your suggestions. [Illustration: SOUTH END OF EXHIBITION HALL AT LATE SUMMER MEETING. The flower exhibit is mostly in north end of hall, and not showing in this picture.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 JULY, 1916 No. 5 My Neighbor's Roses The roses red upon my neighbor's vine Are owned by him, but they are also mine, His was the cost, and his the labor, too, But mine, as well as his, the joy their loveliness to view. They bloom for me, and are to me as fair As for the man who gives them all his care. Thus I am rich, because a good man grew A rose-clad vine for all his neighbors' view. I know from this that others plant for me, And what they own, my joy may also be. So why be selfish, when so much that's fine Is grown for you, upon your neighbor s vine! --_Anon_ SUMMER MEETING, 1916. Minnesota State Horticultural Society A Joint Session with its Auxiliaries, the Minnesota State Garden Flower Society, the Minnesota State Bee-Keepers Society and the Minnesota State Florists Society. A. W. LATHAM, SECY. There seems to be something almost uncanny in the unbroken sequence of pleasant days that have greeted the annual summer meeting of the Horticultural Society in the last quarter of a century. For days before this meeting it seemed assured that we should this year at least have an unpleasant day for our gathering, and even the day before and night before were most unfavorable. Friday morning, June 23rd, however, opened up bright and beautiful, warm and pleasant, as nature can smile, and continued so throughout the day. The meeting was in accord with these favorable circumstances, and I believe brought out more and better flowers and more, though no better, people, both as exhibitors and in attendance, than any previous similar gathering the association has held. The exhibition was installed in the new gymnasium at University Farm, a room sufficiently large so that it not only accommodated the exhibition with wide aisle space, but also found plenty of room for the placing of chairs for the afternoon meeting. Tables were arranged around three sides of the hall, which were used for the displays of perennials and roses. The peonies were shown on several tables in the north center of the hall and besides these there were exhibits of some of the choicest of the peonies made upon the floor, so arranged that visitors could walk amongst them and look down upon them and see them at their best. One table was occupied with the strawberry exhibit, which, however, was a small one on account of the lateness of the season, though the Fruit-Breeding Farm showed some forty or fifty plates of No. 3, the new June-bearing berry of such large popularity, and a few everbearers. The number of entries was, I believe, in excess of any previous meeting, amounting altogether to 521. Most of the old exhibitors at our summer meeting were present and some few of the newer ones. The effort which was made this year to secure a completed exhibit at 11:30 proved to be a success, and by the lunch hour the judges had gotten well along with their work and the hall was opened to the public to inspect the display. At 12:00 o'clock or thereabouts the members and their friends gathered upon the lawn near the station dining hall, where there were plenty of trees and green grass, and partook of the noon repast, for which purpose the station provided coffee and also lemonade, the latter a new feature in our bill of fare. The regular afternoon meeting was held at 2:00 o'clock in the same hall in which the exhibit was placed. This was largely attended, some two or three hundred taking advantage of the opportunity to listen to those who found place on this extempore program. Our society reporter took some notes of what transpired at the meeting, but they were only partial notes, and what here follows in regard to what took place is only in the nature of extracts. President Cashman was in the chair as usual and in a few words extended greeting to the society saying, amongst other things: "This occasion is always looked forward to with a great deal of pleasure. We meet those engaged in similar lines of work, we discuss the problems with which we have to contend, our joys and our sorrows. We come here to meet our friends--and my experience has been that there are no truer or more loyal friends than those found amongst the horticulturists. The true horticulturist is a lover of nature, a lover of the beautiful and all that goes with it. He looks for nothing except the best that can be found in human kind. Such are the men and women that belong to the Horticultural Society." As representing the University Farm, whose hospitality in a large sense the society was enjoying, Dean Woods gave us a hearty welcome in his happy way, and what follows is typical of the kindly things he said: "We always have pleasant days and pleasant memories because those who study flowers and fruits and the beauties of nature are the ones from whom one can get inspiration to understand and to know what nature means. Any one who can listen to the sounds of nature, any one who can see in flowers the spirit of life struggling upwards has the true spirit of the horticulturist and is always welcome here." Mr. A. Brackett, of Excelsior, being called upon, had something to say about strawberry culture, and in the course of his remarks showed several plates of different varieties of strawberries. What follows is the substance of his talk on this subject. "We have here what we call the No. 3 strawberry produced at the Experimental Farm. I believe from my experience that it is going to take the place of all of our common June-bearing strawberries. It is a deep rooter, fine large plant and a nice, solid berry, and I have never seen any blight or rust on the plants. I think that it will pay for all the expense that has ever been paid out for the farm, that one berry will pay for it, it will be of that much value to the people of Minnesota. The everbearing strawberry has come to stay, and for private use you do not need to plant any other variety. The everbearing strawberry will ripen its fruit at least a week ahead of almost any other berry we have, and then it will continue bearing until the frost kills it. I had at least twenty bushels of fruit from my plants last year, and I secured from one-quarter acre fifty-three cases and sold them at $4.80 a case. They talk about what they can raise in California, but we can do better here, and I believe if you will stick to these three varieties, the Americus, Superb and Progressive, you will not need to plant any other variety. The Americus has the best flavor but it isn't as large. Of the Superb nearly all of the berries are large, very few small ones, but they haven't got the flavor. "There is one thing about this new strawberry, it can not bear the year around, that is, during the summer, unless the ground is very rich. I think I put on one-half acre of the everbearing strawberries twenty-five loads of fertilizer. You have got to make the ground rich to carry these plants through and produce the berries. I use a narrow row on the hill system. I cut my rows down in the spring, dig up the plants and leave the row four inches wide and plants six inches apart. This brings more berries and better plants." Prof. C. B. Waldron, of Fargo, N.D., horticulturist at the Fargo Agricultural College for a quarter century, who has rarely missed being with us at any summer gathering, being called upon, among other things said: "There are a good many things that affiliate people together in groups of one kind or another. It used to be that if people had the same belief about eternal punishment, etc., that they would group themselves together, but nowadays we find people grouping themselves according to more natural methods. I think people grouping themselves together for a common love of trees, fruits and flowers makes a more natural bond of affiliation, and when I find a man that knows the names of many of our beautiful flowers I feel drawn to him at once. I can't seem to tire of that person's company, no matter what political party he belongs to. These things that I speak of seem to be a more natural and harmonious relationship to build our friendship upon than almost anything else. I know that I always look forward days and weeks ahead to meetings like this, where I can meet with people who love and admire and cherish the things that I find my greatest delight in." The superintendent of the Fruit-Breeding Farm, Mr. Chas. Haralson, spoke briefly of the work at the Fruit-Breeding Farm, which he is conducting with such distinguished success. His statement was altogether too brief when one knows the vast amount of detail work that is being done there in development of new fruits: "The work at the Fruit-Breeding Farm is carried on just the same as usual. We are working on strawberries, plums, apples, grapes somewhat and several other fruits like gooseberries and currants. The best success we have had so far in the new varieties is with strawberries, raspberries and plums. It takes only a few years to run through a generation of these, and we can get them selected quicker than apples. The plum crop is very light this year, especially on the hybrid plums, on account of winter-killing, that is, the buds killed during the winter. They never did that before, but this year they have done it to a great extent. The strawberry crop is very good and so are the raspberries now coming on. Probably as many as 2,000 apple seedling trees are bearing this year, so we will have a little chance for selection in the line of apples. In grapes we are working with most of the seedlings from the Beta and some hybrids, and we have a few of the Beta seedlings that are very good. One red variety compares favorably with any of the cultivated varieties. It is perfectly hardy so far. And we have two or three varieties of black nearly as large as Moore's Early or Concord. "We also have a number of seedlings of pears, but we are not very far advanced with them yet. Pears stand the winter fairly well, although they winter-kill to a certain extent. When they are weakened through the winter and growth starts in the spring they blight. Blight is the worst part of our work with pears." Prof. R. S. Mackintosh, of University Farm, was caught on the floor, and as usual took opportunity to tell people they ought to eat more apples and something about how to get them. This seems to be a subject that is ever in his mind and which he is persistently working to good advantage. "You folks that are hungry and want apples or apple pie want to get busy about the middle of August and eat up your surplus apples in Minnesota. It is a shame that farmers, fruit growers, etc., have spent years trying to grow apples in Minnesota and then we cannot get enough people to eat the apples. We are going to carry on the clearing house as we did last year, and if you want apples let us know. We can grow apples the same as we can grow peonies and strawberries, but it is a little hard to get them distributed properly." Mr. A. M. Brand, of Faribault, who had an extraordinary exhibit of seedling peonies at the meeting, pronounced by our peony expert, Mr. C.S. Harrison, "second to none in the world," was introduced and talked briefly along the line of seedling peony production, as follows: "There is a great deal of encouragement in what we have been able to accomplish down there at Faribault along the line of producing something fine in peonies. Sixteen years ago we started out with the idea of improving upon the stock that we already have. We had a little red peony, a very nice peony, originated by Mr. Terry down in Iowa, called Rachel, and starting out with that as a mother plant we have produced some of the finest roots that there are in cultivation. By using lots of the seed of Rachel we have been able to produce this Mary Brand, considered by many of the peony growers as one of the finest red peonies in the world. A great many people that raise nice peonies think they have to go to the trouble of hand fertilization. That isn't necessary. We started out with such varieties as Rachel, and by letting the bees and the elements do the fertilizing for us we were able to produce varieties like this. Here is the new seedling that we brought out this year and named Ruth--a pink peony. As a rule we plant about a peck of seed every year, and out of that peck of seed it probably brings us 10,000 seedlings, and out of this 10,000 we get one good seedling, and this is the only good seedling that we have produced this year. This is a seedling that comes from Rosa Fragrans. When we picked this seedling from the bed of seedlings we considered this the finest seedling that we had, and it has never come good from that time to this, and it is ten years since we have been trying this seedling, which will show you when you are growing seedlings that the first time a seedling blossoms and comes splendid you mustn't be too enthusiastic about it. The next year it may be worth nothing. You have got to try a seedling in every way to find out whether it is worth sending out. As a rule it takes us ten years from the time that a seedling first blossoms until we send it out. Ninety per cent of all the peony seedlings that you grow will be singles, one out of 10,000 seedlings will be fair and one out of 100,000 seedlings will be extra good--so you see that those which we have produced give us some encouragement. I wouldn't advise many of you to go into the seedling business, although you might produce one good seedling out of a handful of seed. "If you plant a peony on the lawn you have to fertilize it heavily. You can't have your lawn right up to the stalks of the peony. If you want a peony on the lawn you must give it two feet of ground. Most of the peonies that are brought here are taken out of fields that are cultivated with a horse cultivator. If you want your flowers on the lawn and don't want to cultivate them you have to use lots of fertilizer. You must not use too much. Fertilize heavy about once in three years. Don't fertilize every fall. Fertilize in the fall, and the next spring spade the manure in and then don't use any manure for three or four years. Plant peonies any time from the first of September until the time it freezes up and plant any time in the spring until the growth starts on the plants. If you plant in the spring you are just six months ahead of planting in the following September, though September is really the best time to plant. If a peony clump becomes old, as large around as a tub, and you still want it to stand in the same place I would cut out half of the stalks as they come up, and then to get still larger blossoms after the stalks have come up I would pinch the side buds also." [Illustration: A fringe of peonies at the summer exhibit.] Mrs. Crawford, of Indiana, a peony grower of much experience there, who came to Minneapolis for the purpose of attending our flower meeting, we understand, told us something about how peonies are grown in her section, an interesting and practical talk, part of which follows: "In Indiana we have a sour, black clay soil. We fertilize with crushed limestone and leaves. I fertilize with the leaves that fall in the autumn after the leaves have begun to rot. I cover them without cutting the tops. Then in the spring when they begin to bud we go over them on our knees and work the leaves all in with a trowel. I have 3,000 plants, but with the assistance of the men we have we get it done, and grow fine peonies. In regard to manure, I never feel that I can put any fertilizer within two feet. The rows are from three to four feet apart. We never use any fertilizer that will come in contact with the stems, as when the flowers are cut off it leaves the stem hollow, and if the manure gets in the stem it works down the stem into the roots and leaves a hollow root in time. We never use in our part of the state any fertilizer that will come in contact with the stems except leaves. When the streets are cleaned in the fall I pile the leaves on the back lot. I have fourteen or fifteen loads hauled in. This is scattered over the peonies. I want to compliment you on having very fine peonies, some of them finer than I have ever seen, and I hope you will all be as enthusiastic about raising peonies as I am. Is it necessary to burn the tops when they are cut off? I consider that the ashes from the tops aid in fertilizing. I pile them up in little piles and burn them and sprinkle the ashes over the peonies. Frequently when I dig around a peony and I feel that the soil has become exhausted I throw in a handful of garden peas, and when they get about a foot high I spade them under for fertilizer." Mr. D. W. C. Ruff, of St. Paul, had a wonderful showing of peonies of named varieties, most of them very expensive from a money standpoint, they having cost him prices varying from $5.00 to $40.00 a root, and judging by the character of the flowers which he held up for the audience while he talked about them they were well worth the money. I regret that we are unable to give a verbatim report of his talk, with the names of the varieties, but this information must be secured from him at some later time. In part he said: "I have spent the last fifteen years in making a good collection of peonies. I have gone all over the world for peonies and have brought together some of the finest peonies from all the noted growers and horticulturists. In my collection I have over 400 hundred varieties, that is, what I am growing at my home. I have brought here today of course a great many peonies of the later varieties. I have brought these here from an educational standpoint so that the people might see some of the rare ones that they might have heard about or read about and see them and know of these varieties. Last year I made an exhibit and showed hundreds of them. This year I have brought just a few choice things." Rev. C. S. Harrison spoke in his usual inspiring way, but with such force and speed that our stenographer was unable to pick him up, which we sincerely regret. We all know Mr. Harrison as an enthusiast in flowers. He has met with us year after year at both annual gatherings. While he is eighty-three years old yet what he has to say and the way he says it still have the ring and inspiration of youth. He proposed the organization of a peony society for the Northwest, and a show of hands indicating there was material present to perfect such an organization the plans were laid therefor. Our reporter got this far: "I have attended the national peony shows of Boston and New York, and they cannot hold a candle to your peonies, mark that! There is something in your soil and in your climate which brings them to the front." Prof. F. L. Washburn was to tell us something about the white pine blister rust, but he failed to inflict upon us a long technical talk, and from what he said all the reporter got was this, from which however one could well judge what was in his thought. "We have found in Minnesota a disease on the white pine called the 'white pine blister rust.' One stage of this disease is on the gooseberry or currant, that is, we find it now on the white pine and going to the gooseberry or currant. We went to the governor, state treasurer and state auditor and obtained $1,000 for use in fighting this besides our regular appropriation." Mr. J. M. Underwood, of Lake City, without whom the program would be incomplete, spoke a few closing words as follows: "We have had such a splendid program, and I know you are anxious to look at these beautiful flowers, and all I have time to say, and a disposition to say, is that I think we owe a great obligation to the Garden Flower Society, a splendid organization auxiliary to the State Horticultural Society. I think you ought to all be members of that Garden Flower Society. It is a wonderful working organization, and I think the ladies that are in charge of it deserve a great deal of credit and should be complimented as being foremost on the program. There is a great deal that I could say, but I know there isn't time for it, and I thank you." In the meantime many more visitors had come into the hall to view the display, which continued on exhibition until 9:00 o'clock in the evening. Prof. Cady, who had general charge of the arrangements at the meeting, reports that at least one thousand people saw the display, and we think that it was well worth while to have kept it open until that hour. Representatives from a number of the hospitals were present after the meeting and took the flowers away to be used to cheer the sick in both Minneapolis and St. Paul. The total amount of awards at this meeting were $178.75. A list of these awards with the names of the judges follows in a separate article. No one person took any large amount of premiums, they were well distributed amongst a dozen and a number of others who received smaller amounts. Mrs. H.B. Tillotson, who has a wonderful flower garden near Eureka, Lake Minnetonka, received premiums of $17.00, which is the largest amount paid to any one person, although there were a number of others who received slightly smaller amounts. Award of Premiums, Summer Meeting, 1916. ROSES. Collection, B. T. Hoyt, St. Paul, fourth premium, $1.00. Collection named varieties, amateurs, Thos. Redpath, Wayzata, second premium, $4.00. Collection named varieties, amateurs, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, First premium, $6.00. Collection named varieties, amateurs, Mrs. D. W. C. Ruff, St. Paul, third premium, $2.00. Three named varieties, white, Thos. Redpath, Wayzata, first premium, $2.00. Three named varieties, pink, Thos. Redpath, Wayzata, first premium, $2.00. Collection Rugosa and R. Hy., B. T. Hoyt, St. Paul, first premium, $2.00. Most beautiful rose, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, first premium, $1.00. Largest rose, Mrs. D. W. C. Ruff, St. Paul, first premium, $1.00. Seedling, B. T. Hoyt, St. Paul, first premium, Bronze medal donated by American Rose Society. Basket outdoor roses arranged for effect, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, first premium, $3.00. Basket outdoor roses arranged for effect, Mrs. D. W. C. Ruff, St. Paul, second premium, $2.00. Basket outdoor roses arranged for effect, Mrs. John Gantzer, St. Paul, third premium, $1.00. Mdm. Plantier, Thos. Redpath, Wayzata, first premium, $0.75. Gen. Jack, B. T. Hoyt, St. Paul, first premium, $0.75. Gen. Jack, Mrs. G. T. Brown, St. Paul, second premium, $0.50. Magna Charta, Mrs. G. T. Brown, St. Paul, first premium, $0.75. Ulrich Brunner, Mrs. G. T. Brown, St. Paul, first premium, $0.75. Baroness Rothschild, Mrs. G. T. Brown, St. Paul, first premium. $0.75. Mdm. Plantier, Mrs. G. T. Brown, St. Paul, second premium, $0.50. AUG. S. SWANSON, Judge. PEONIES. Flesh or light pink, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, third premium, $0.50. Medium or dark pink, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, third premium, $0.50. White, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, second premium, $1.00. Festiva Maxima, B. T. Hoyt, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. Medium or dark pink, B. T. Hoyt, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. Festiva Maxima, John E. Stryker, St. Paul, first premium, $2.00. Light pink, John E. Stryker, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. Dark pink, John E. Stryker, St. Paul, first premium, $2.00. Red, John E. Stryker, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. Flesh or light pink, D. W. C. Ruff, St. Paul, first premium, $2.00. White, D. W. C. Ruff, St. Paul, first premium, $2.00. Red, D. W. C. Ruff, St. Paul, first premium, $2.00. Collection, 3 blooms, professional, B. T. Hoyt, St. Paul, first premium, $6.00. A. M. BRAND, C. J. TRAXLER, Judges. Collection, three blooms, amateur, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, fourth premium, $1.00. Collection, three blooms, amateur, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, third premium, $2.00. Collection, three blooms, amateur, John E. Stryker, St. Paul, first premium, $6.00. Collection, three blooms, amateur, Mrs. E. W. D. Holway, Excelsior, second premium, $4.00. OLAF J. OLSON, Judge. Seedling, B. T. Hoyt, St. Paul, fourth premium, $0.50. Seedling, Crimson No. 1, 1916, A. M. Brand, Faribault, third premium, $1.00. Seedling, Ruth, A. M. Brand, Faribault, first premium, $3.00. Seedling, No. 245, A. M. Brand, Faribault, second premium, $2.00. D. W. C. RUFF, Judge. ANNUALS AND PERENNIALS. Dielytra, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, third premium, $0.50. Forget-me-nots, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Gailardias, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, third premium, $0.50. Grass Pinks, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, second premium, $1.00. Iceland Poppies, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, second premium, $1.00. Dielytra, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, first premium, $1.50. Delphinium, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, third premium, $0.50. Foxgloves, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, second premium, $1.00. Grass Pinks, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, first premium, $1.50. Delphinium, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, second premium, $1.00. Foxgloves, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, third premium, $0.50. Iris, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, third premium, $0.50. Gailardias, Guy C. Hawkins, Minneapolis, second premium, $1.00. Dielytra, Anna E. Rittle, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. Iceland Poppies, Mrs. E. W. Gould, Minneapolis, third premium, $0.50. Gailardia, E. A. Farmer, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Foxgloves, Mrs. J. F. Fairfax, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Iceland Poppies, Mrs. J. F. Fairfax, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Iris, Mrs. E. W. D. Holway, Excelsior, first premium, $1.50. Delphinium, Mrs. H. A. Boardman, St. Paul, first premium, $1.50. Forget-me-nots, Mrs. H. A. Boardman, St. Paul, third premium, $0.50. Iris, John S. Crooks, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. Canterbury Bells, Mrs. Chas. Krause, Merriam Park, second premium, $1.00. Grass Pinks, Mrs. Chas. Krause, Merriam Park, third premium, $0.50. Canterbury Bells, J. A. Weber, Excelsior, first premium, $1.50. Forget-me-nots, Vera P. L. Stebbins, second premium, $1.00. Oriental Poppies, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Pansies, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Pyrethrum, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, second premium, $1.00. Sweet Peas, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Sweet William, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, second premium, $1.00. Shasta Daisies, Elizabeth Starr, Excelsior, third premium, $0.50. Lilies, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, third premium, $0.50. Oriental Poppies, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, second premium, $1.00. Pansies, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, second premium, $1.00. Lilies, Guy C. Hawkins, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Perennial Coreopsis, Guy C. Hawkins, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Pyrethrum, Guy C. Hawkins, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Lupine, Mrs. E. W. Gould, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Shasta Daisies, Mrs. G. T. Brown, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. Sweet William, Mrs. J. F. Fairfax, Minneapolis, third premium, $0.50. Lupine, Mrs. H. A. Boardman, St. Paul, third premium, $0.50. Oriental Poppies, Mrs. H. A. Boardman, St. Paul, third premium, $0.50. Pyrethrum, Mrs. H. A. Boardman, St. Paul, third premium, $0.50. Shasta Daisies, Miss Flora Moeser, St. Louis Park, first premium, $1.50. Lilies, Mrs. Chas. Krause, Merriam Park, second premium, $1.00. Pansies, Mrs. Chas. Krause, Merriam Park, third premium, $0.50. Lupine, Miss Marion Prest, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. Sweet William, J. A. Weber, Excelsior, first premium, $1.50. JOHN HAWKINS, JOHN A. JANSEN, Judges. Collection named perennials, J. A. Weber, Excelsior, first premium, $6.00. Collection named perennials, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, second premium, $4.00. Collection named perennials, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, third premium, $2.00. MRS. H. A. BOARDMAN, MRS. WM. CRAWFORD, Judges. Vase of flowers by child, Mrs. F. E. Kidd, Minneapolis, first premium, $2.00. Vase of flowers by child, Matilda Gantzer, St. Paul, second premium, $1.00. MARTHA A. WYMAN, Judge. Vase of any kind flowers, Mrs. Frank Moris, Lake Elmo, second premium, $1.00. Vase any kind flowers, Miss Marjorie Knowles, St. Paul, first premium, $2.00. Vase any kind flowers, Miss Flora Moeser, St. Louis Park, third premium, $0.50. J. A. Boies, Judge. Vase of flowers arranged for artistic effect, Mrs. F. E. Kidd, Minneapolis, second premium, $1.00. Vase of flowers arranged for artistic effect, Mrs. S. A. Gile, Minneapolis, first premium, $1.50. Vase of flowers arranged for artistic effect, F. H. Ellison, Minneapolis, third premium, $0.50. Basket outdoor grown, Elizabeth Starr, Excelsior, third premium, $1.00. Basket outdoor grown, Mrs. S. A. Gile, Minneapolis, second premium, $2.00. Basket outdoor grown, Mrs. H. A. Boardman, St. Paul, first premium, $3.00. M. EMMA ROBERTS, CARRIE L. WILKERSON, Judges. STRAWBERRIES. Collection, six varieties, H. G. Groat, Anoka, first premium, $5.00. Collection, three named varieties, H. G. Groat, Anoka, first premium, $3.00. Collection, three named varieties, E. A. Farmer, Minneapolis, second premium, $2.00. Progressive, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, first premium, $1.00. Bederwood, H. G. Groat, Anoka, first premium, $1.00. Dunlap, H. G. Groat, Anoka, second premium, $0.75. Crescent, H. G. Groat, Anoka, first premium, $1.00. Warfield, H. G. Groat, Anoka, first premium, $1.00. Warfield, Mrs. M. A. Rohan, Minneapolis, second premium, $0.75. Senator Dunlap, J. F. Bartlett, Excelsior, first premium, $1.00. Minnesota No. 3, J. F. Bartlett, Excelsior, first premium, $1.00. Minnesota No. 3, A. Brackett, Excelsior, second premium, $0.75. Americus, A. Brackett, Excelsior, first premium, $1.00. Progressive, A. Brackett, Excelsior, second premium, $0.75. Superb, A. Brackett, Excelsior, first premium, $1.00. Best named variety, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson, Excelsior, first premium, $2.00. Best named variety, H. G. Groat, Anoka, second premium, $1.00. Best named variety, Mrs. John Gantzer, St. Paul, third premium, $0.50. Seedling, A. Brackett, Excelsior, first premium, $3.00. THOMAS REDPATH, Judge. Experiment Work of Chas. G. Patten, Charles City, Ia. GEO. J. KELLOGG, LAKE MILLS, WIS. June 6.--I have just spent four days with our friend Patten. He has 7,000 surprises on seventeen acres of experiment orchard dating back to 1868--every tree of the 7,000 has a history. For twenty-eight years he has been working on the Chinese sand pear and has brought out a race that is blight-proof, perfectly hardy and of good size and quality. He is not yet satisfied, but has 5,000 cross-bred seedlings of many crosses that are about three feet high, ready for transplanting in orchard rows next spring--and he has not room to set them. The state of Iowa does not appreciate his labor or value the work he has done and is doing; they are not giving him the money or men to carry on this work. Beside the pear experiments he has hundreds of crosses of apples that are very promising and just coming into bearing. These are scattered all through that orchard of 7,000 trees, with the pears, and nearly as many plum crosses. Some plums are heavily loaded this year that are of wonderful value, and one of the great points is that they have escaped the bad weather in blooming time, while all our standard varieties failed--and I believe the hardiness of bloom will insure fruit on his best kinds when others fail in bad weather. He is breeding form of tree in all these fruits--see his paper in the last volume of Iowa Hort. Report. His crop of apples is light, but many crosses show some fruit. Some pears and plums are loaded. Eugene Secor says, "Patten is greater than Burbank." * * * * * WINDBREAKS ON FARM PAY DIVIDENDS.--Windbreaks are usually more or less ornamental on a farm, and add to the contentment of the owner. But it is not generally known that windbreaks actually pay dividends. At least studies made a few years ago in Nebraska and Kansas indicate that windbreaks are profitable. The state forester will soon study their influence in this state. It must be admitted that windbreaks occupy space that could be profitably devoted to agricultural crops, and that the roots of the trees and their shade render a strip of ground on either side of the windbreak relatively unproductive. Yet in spite of these drawbacks, efficient windbreaks undoubtedly do more good than evil. The windbreak reduces the velocity of the wind, and, consequently, the loss of soil water from evaporation from the soil surface and from the field crops. This is equivalent to additional rainfall, just as "a dollar saved is a dollar made." It seems from investigations made by the United States Forest Service that the greater yield of field crops and apples behind the protection of a good windbreak is enough to warrant every farmer in the prairie states in planting windbreaks.--W.J. Morrill, Colo. Agri. College. MIDSUMMER REPORTS, 1916. Collegeville Trial Station. REV. JOHN B. KATZNER, SUPT. The weather conditions of last winter were not any too favorable for plants and fruit trees. In fact the cold was at times severe and long continued, reaching its maximum with 38 degrees below for one day. The total subzero weather for the winter amounts to 489 degrees, of which January figures with 285 and February with 168 degrees below. This is some cold, no doubt, and yet our hardy fruit trees did not suffer. But other trees not quite hardy suffered more than usual. This is particularly noticeable on my German pear seedlings. The wood of the branches as well as of the stem had turned black down to the ground. All the imported European varieties of pears are dead and ready for the brush pile. Prof. N.E. Hanson's hybrid pears have suffered just a little. This, however, may be due to the unripe condition of the wood rather than to cold. They had been grafted on strong German pear stock, made a vigorous growth and were still growing when the frost touched them. Another season they may be all right. All our cherry trees, too, are almost dead and will be removed and their place used for a trial orchard. It was of great advantage to plants and trees that we had much snow, giving them good protection in root and stem two feet up. But this deep snow helped the rabbits also in reaching the lower branches of the apple trees. They were very active during the winter months and did much damage by biting off the buds and smaller twigs from those branches, but did no injury to the bark of trees otherwise. Spring was rather cold and late. Up to the middle of May there was not much growth of any kind. But we started work at the station as soon as the ground could be worked. Apple and plum grafts made last winter were set out. The orchard was gone over and trees pruned where needed. The grape vines were uncovered and tied up on the trellis. A liberal dressing of manure was worked in around vines growing on poor soil. More than a hundred Alpha grape vines were planted along a students' walk for their future benefit. The everbearing strawberries were looked after and a new bed was started. Some apple trees were planted in the orchard to replace others. Quite a number of German pear seedlings were grafted with hardy varieties an inch below ground. We expect this will give us healthy and hardy trees and fruit in due time. [Illustration: Patten's No. 108 in blossom at Collegeville Station.] A friend of mine sent me from Los Angeles, Cal., four fine large cherry trees: the Tartarian, Napoleon Bigarreau and Early Richmond. These are one year old budded trees; they have made in the congenial climate of California a growth of about eight feet and are an inch through the stem. They arrived the first week in March. It was cold yet and the ground covered with a foot of snow. As we could not plant them, we applied water to the roots and kept the trees unpacked in the cool root cellar till planting time. They are growing now, but next spring we expect to see their finish. Another variety of sweet cherries was sent to the trial station from the mountains of Pennsylvania and planted in the nursery, but we expect that will meet the same fate. From the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture we have obtained scions of a pear, No. 26485, which were used in budding some German pear seedlings, as also ten plants of Prunus Tomentosa No. 38856. This is a Chinese bush cherry, and though the fruit is of little value, yet the plant is said to be quite ornamental. In forestry work 200 arbor vitae were set out, more for ornamental effect, and in open places of the woods several thousand Scotch pine were planted. This planting was also extended partly around the opposite lake shore to improve the landscape during the winter months, when everything looks bleak and dreary. This station has received quite a liberal supply of new stock for trial from the Minn. State Fruit-Breeding Farm, viz.: June bearing strawberry No. 3, everbearing kind No. 1017, raspberry No. 4 and everbearing sorts Nos. 30 and 31; of plums, Nos. 35, 9, 21, 1, and sand cherry crossed with Climax; of apples, six Malindas, Nos. 38, 32, 29, 25, 12 and 12. They are fine large trees and were planted in the trial orchard. Ten smaller apple trees which we received were set out in the nursery and after a year or two will find their place in the orchard. These trees are labeled: Gilbert, Winesap, Russet Seedling, then Nos. 90, 271, 269, 16, 7045 and A1. All of this stock has been carefully planted and is now doing well. The only variety of fruit trees which bloomed before the 20th of May was the Akin plum. Most all other trees were getting ready to bloom, but it was really too cold for them to open their flowers. From that time on the blooming became more general among the plums and later among the apples. The trees which did not bear last year were full of flowers. Some of the new plums, too, had quite a number of blossoms, and we are watching with great interest what the fruit will be, as we intend to propagate the best ones in a small way for home use. Of small fruits we have now on trial five varieties of raspberries and also three sorts of strawberries, Nos. 3, 4 and Progressive. This will give us a good chance to judge of their relative value as to hardiness, quality and quantity of fruit. The truck garden is taken care of as usual, but is far behind other years in growth and development of vegetables on account of the cold spring. If it were not for our greenhouse and hotbeds, I think we would yet be without radishes and lettuce. The same may be said in regard to the planting of our lawns. The plants were all ready in the greenhouse, but the planting had to be deferred as long as there was danger of frost. The flower beds on the lawns were finally planted, the designs are very good, but it will take some time yet till their beauty can be seen and enjoyed. Judging from present conditions, we may get a pretty good crop of fruits. The time for the late spring frosts passed by without doing any harm. The weather during blooming was favorable for setting a good crop of apples and plums. The grapes, too, show up well and promise a good crop, and the strawberries and currants are doing splendidly. Jeffers Trial Station. DEWAIN COOK, SUPT. June 13.--_Plums_--Much rainy weather during the blooming period was undoubtedly the main reason why the plum crop of 1916 will not amount to very much. Only a few of the Americana have set any fruit whatever. However, the Terry and the Wyants carry considerable fruit. Of the Japanese hybrids the B.A.Q. and Emerald have set some fruit--also the Stella. Of the hybrid plums originating at the Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm there are only a few scattering specimens on any of them. Most of them have set no fruit whatever. Minn. No. 6, one tree, is in a dying condition from winter-killing. Hansen's hybrids have mostly set some fruit, but not freely. The Hanska, Toka, Opata and Wohanka are among those varieties making the best showing of fruit. While in a general way we consider the rains during the blooming period responsible for the almost failure of the 1916 plum crop, but, to be a little more specific, the blight of the plum bloom, or rather the brown rot fungus, was more generally prevalent and more generally destructive than at any previous season. As for the fungous disease known as plum pocket, we have not seen one this season. It has been entirely absent. As for spraying to control the brown rot fungus, we have and are doing the best we know. With the exception of about twenty-five large plum trees that we have made into a hog pasture and could not get at very well with our gasoline spraying outfit, we sprayed about all our plum trees (and other fruit trees as well) twice before blooming, once just as the fruit buds began to swell and again just before they bloomed, with lime-sulphur solution. We are now spraying the third time, adding arsenate of lead to the lime-sulphur. Of grapes sent me from our State Fruit-Breeding Farm all varieties are looking fine. The Beta we gave no winter protection, but all of the others we covered with strawy manure. We did this as all the other varieties winter-killed the first winter after planting, and we did not like to take any chances with them. Minn. No. 3 strawberry is doing itself proud. We consider it the best all round variety we have ever grown and are planting almost exclusively on our own farm. The everbearing Minn. 1017 continues to hold place as first best. We set out some 400 plants of this variety this spring, and they are making runners freely. Judging from last season, we expect a large crop of fine fruit from them next September, as well as a great quantity of new plants. Apples are in a very satisfactory condition. I need to say but little about varieties. All kinds of bearing size bloomed full, and most kinds have set full of fruit. Of such kinds as Okabena, Duchess and Wealthy, it looks as though practically every blossom turned into an apple. We received several seedling apple trees from Mr. Chas. Haralson, of the State Fruit-Breeding Farm. They were all set out, and all are growing. La Crescent Trial Station. D. C. WEBSTER, SUPT. June 17, 1916.--We received this spring, from the Fruit-Breeding Farm, plants for trial as follows: Malinda Nos. 12, 25, 29, 32, 38, 269, Russett Seedling, Gilbert Winesap, Nos. 7045, No. 90, No. ----, No. A 1, everbearing raspberry Nos. 30, 31, and strawberry No. 3. We also received from other sources Waneta and Lokota plum. Everything received for trial this year lived and is growing well. Of the plums received in 1914, No. 6 died last winter. Those remaining about all bloomed, but only a very little fruit set on the following: Nos. 3, 5, 8, 10, 14, 20. Native plums have set no fruit this year. Apple trees top-worked last year did poorly. The trees worked two years ago did finely and already have quite the appearance of real apple trees. Some are setting fruit this year, and we anticipate a few fine specimens of Jonathan and Delicious this fall from them. In the orchard which blighted so badly two years ago, several trees died from that cause. A great many are in a ragged condition from the pruning necessary, and we note with considerable anxiety the occasional appearance of that dreaded enemy a few days ago. Last year we had what might be called a full crop of apples, and consequently did not expect them to do much this year. However, they had a fairly good bloom, and about one-half of the trees have set a fair crop. We sprayed twice with so far satisfactory results. Strawberries in this vicinity were badly injured by ice in winter where not covered. Ours were covered and now promise a good yield. Began picking the 14th inst. We set quite a patch of everbearers No. 1017 this spring. They bore last fall but chickens picked most of the berries. Superb were unsatisfactory and winter-killed where not covered. Carrie gooseberry has set full of berries and plants look fine. All other trees and shrubbery in general at this station are in good condition. Mandan, N.D., Trial Station. (Northern Great Plains Field Station.) W.A. PETERSON, SUPT. All plants at this station went into the winter with favorable soil moisture conditions. Many plants, however, made a late growth and were still in growing condition late in September. The winter was a long and severe one, although there was more snow than usual. The early spring was severe, being both windy, cold and dry. Up to date (June 9th) there have been very few calm days. Three or four very severe dust storms did considerable damage by blowing out seeds and blighting the tender new growth of many plants. The winter of 1915-16 in this section can be called a test winter, as much winter-killing both in root and top has resulted. A large proportion of the apple and plum orchard (60% to 75%) killed out. There was no mulch or protection in these orchards. Practically all grapes killed out, even though protected. A few Beta are alive at the crown. Asparagus (unprotected) suffered severely. All raspberries had been covered with dirt. They came through perfectly and promise a good crop. Strawberries wintered successfully. The South Dakota variety came through perfectly, even when not mulched. All are in full bloom now. Practically all of Prof. Hansen's plum hybrids killed out entirely, or are dead to trunk or crown. A large number of seedlings of Chinese apricot, Chinese peach, native grapes, Juneberries and bullberries passed through the winter with little or no injury. About 1,000 Beta seedlings, lined out as one year seedlings in the spring of 1915, winter-killed, with the exception of about seven or eight plants. Paradise apple stocks wintered safely. Soft maples that winter-killed to the ground in the preceding year are good to the tips this spring, even though they had made four to six feet of new growth last summer. Many new plantings have been made this spring, especially along plant-breeding lines. Extensive experiments have also been started with fruit trees, shelter-belt trees, ornamental shrubs and perennial flowering plants to determine the factors that influence the hardiness of plants. Strawberry No. 1017, from the Minnesota Fruit-Breeding Farm, made an excellent showing in 1915, and all plants bore some fruit. Only a few runners were made, however. All plants were potted in fall, so no data has been secured on their hardiness. Several hundred more plants of this variety were set out this spring and they made an excellent stand. Montevideo Trial Station. LYCURGUS R. MOYER, SUPT. _Syringa Japonica._--The Japanese tree lilac has often been recommended by this station, but last winter was unusually severe, and an old tree obtained from Prof. Budd, nearly thirty years ago, now shows several damaged branches. Younger trees on our grounds and in the city parks show no injury. Perhaps this tree cannot be expected to live to be much more than thirty years of age nor attain a much greater height than thirty feet. The old tree is throwing up new stems from its roots and may rejuvenate itself. _Caragana._--The small shrubby caragana (Caragana pygmaea) was unusually fine this spring when in full bloom. We received it from Prof. Budd many years ago. It does finely in the clay banks of Lincoln Parkway in this city, but it is seldom offered by nurserymen. Caragana frutex, formerly called Caragana frutescens, is a somewhat taller shrub and not quite so floriferous. It makes a fine screen. Both of these shrubs are addicted to root sprouting, and might not please those who care for a stiff, formal garden. Both may be readily propagated from root cuttings. _Roses._--Hansen's Tetonkeha rose at this writing is in full bloom and is a very striking object. It grows to the height of about four feet and needs no protection. The flowers are large and of a deep pink color. It seems to be as hardy as the old yellow rose of our gardens, that rose being now, too, at its best. Among other garden roses Paul Neyron is in a rather weak condition, Ulrich Brunner is doing a little better, while Mme. Georges Bruant is doing still better. Rosa pratincola grows on our grounds naturally, and we have brought in from the edges of the timber Rosa Engelmanni and Rosa Maximilliani. A friend in Duluth has sent us Rosa Sayi, and we obtained Rosa Macounii from the Bad Lands of North Dakota. These roses, as well as the more common Rosa blanda, make an interesting addition to the hardy border. _Delphinium Formosum._--We obtained a plant or two of the old tall larkspur almost thirty years ago. The old plants persisted several years, and seedlings have grown up from self-sown seed, and the plantation is now as attractive as ever. _Chrysanthemum Uliginosum._--The giant daisy has been here for a long time and needs but little attention. The clumps should be taken up and divided occasionally. It is one of our best late fall flowers. _Philadelphus._--Philadelphus pubescens came through the winter without injury. Philadelphus zeyheri suffered a little. Philadelphus coronarius came through in fair condition in a rather protected border, but Philadelphus Lemoinei was frozen back nearly to the ground. [Illustration: Giant daisy, or chrysanthemum uliginosum.] _Physocarpus._--Physocarpus opulifolius came through the winter with no more than its ordinary injury. _Lonicera._--The old climbing honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens) came through the winter very much damaged, but our native honeysuckle is in fine condition. The bush honeysuckles are all hardy. The one known as Lonicera bella alba does not differ very much from the common white form of the Tartarian honeysuckle. _Prunus Triloba._--The double flowering plum has always been hardy with us, and usually has been a splendid bloomer in the latter part of April, but last winter was so severe that it did not bloom at all this spring. _Catalpa._--Another strange feature of the winter was that Catalpa speciosa came through entirely uninjured. _Viburnum._--Viburnum pekinensis came through in fine condition as well as its close relative, the high bush cranberry. The common snowball did not suffer so much from aphis this year as usual. Viburnum lentago, which grows in the river valleys here naturally, is doing finely. _Syringa._--Among the bushy lilacs Syringa ligustrina, Syringa Chinensis, Syringa josikea and Syringa villosa all bloomed fully. The varieties of the common lilac, known as Ludwig Spaeth, Charles X, Senator Vollard and the one that Prof. Budd brought from Russia and called by him Russian lilac, were all very satisfactory. This last variety has pink flowers and is a very choice variety of Syringa vulgaria. _Amelanchier._--The large Juneberry, probably Amelanchier Canadensis, was a very attractive object in April, when its purple-colored young leaves contrasted with its white bloom. The dwarf Juneberry, with their villous young leaves and white flowers, are very attractive in April and should receive more attention from our planters. _Dictamnus._--The gas plant (Dictamnus fraxinilla) becomes more attractive from year to year. It is one of the hardy plants which needs scarcely any attention to keep the weeds away. The pink form is very showy when in flower, and the plant is very attractive after the flower is gone. _Iris._--A rather large collection of Siberian iris is very attractive just now. The city has found it a very desirable, hardy plant to set in the park. _Apples._--A very good tree for park planting seems to be the crabapple, known as Malus seboldii. It is very attractive when in bloom, and the fruit as it ripens takes on a rich warm color that is very interesting. Okabena is promising a light crop, which may be advantageous, as when this variety bears freely the apples are apt to be undersized. A Thompson seedling is promising a full crop as well as most of the other common varieties. The Wealthy on Malus baccata is bearing a full crop. _Hybrid Plums._--The common varieties of plums are promising a very good crop, except Surprise, which is not bearing at all this year. Minnesota No. 10 is the only one of the new seedlings bearing a full crop. No. 18 has a light crop. No. 8 is thrifty and promising and so is No. 10. No. 20 suffered from the winter. Plums No. 1 and 2 are both promising. Plum No. 11 was injured by the rabbits. Hansen's No. 3769, Sansota, is bearing a light crop. _Raspberries._--Raspberry No. 8 is promising a full crop. It is a very late variety. Hansen's Oheta is one of our best berries. _Gooseberries._--Western Minnesota is not well adapted to the cultivation of gooseberries, nor do currants do very well. The Carrie gooseberry is promising a full crop, and some of the older varieties are doing better than usual, perhaps on account of the unusually cool season. Nevis Trial Station. JAS. ARROWOOD, SUPT. June 16, 1916.--Apples came through the past winter in fairly good shape, especially the stock we have grown at this place. There has been some loss with stock that has been brought from outside nurseries from top killing, and there have been some sun scalds where trees have been exposed to the southwest sun, mostly among the limbs and crotches. There will be a fair crop of apples, as they seem to be setting fairly good. There has been considerable top-working done this spring with fair success. [Illustration: Mr. James Arrowood alongside a seedling of the Transcendent in early bloom.] Our native plums have all come through the winter in good shape, with only a small setting of plums, on account of so much rain. In regard to the plums we received from the Breeding Station in 1913: the number of plums was eighteen; all grew except two, and those killed back each year. They were No. 2. All the rest have grown, but no fruit up to date except on No. 7. That fruited last year and also is loaded with fruit at this date. The trees received in 1914 all grew except two. They all made a fair growth but haven't yet set any fruit. The dozen trees that were sent me in 1915 have all made a good growth this last year. Two dozen grapes that were sent to me three years ago have not set fruit but have made a slow growth. Now in regard to small fruit, such as strawberries, we wish to say that No. 3 heads everything in the strawberry line for growth and berries. Its equal is not found in this section of the country. In regard to the everbearing we cannot say that they have done as well as we expected them to. The raspberries that we received three years ago have all done very well. No. 1 and No. 5 have done the best. Those berries have all stood out without covering through the winter. We have one acre of them now. They have not killed back at all and promise a big crop. We received this spring about one dozen apple trees which we will report on later. Currants and gooseberries promise a good crop. In regard to the shade trees and the evergreens they have all done remarkably well. We have more faith in the seedling fruits, such as apples and plums, for this section of the country. We believe our only hope will be through the seedlings. This was the late Prof. Green's prediction to me just before his death. Every year brings to mind his saying, that we must plant our own apple and plum seed if we ever expect any good results in Northern Minnesota. In regard to the Hansen plums--all seem to be doing well and are set full of fruit. We would also mention the Hansen sweet alfalfa, which is a wonder. It grows and spreads equal to quack-grass. Four years ago we received fifty plants, which were planted according to directions of the professor to set two feet apart and cultivate the first year. During these four years it does not appear that there has been a single plant killed out. It has spread from the seed and roots over two rods wide and six rods long and as thick as it can stand. Owatonna Trial Station. THOS. E. CASHMAN, SUPT. There is but little to report from the Owatonna Station at this time. Trees and plants came through the winter in good condition. The apple trees, Haralson's plum seedlings, No. 1017 everbearing strawberry, No. 4 raspberry and Beta grape seedlings came through the winter without injury. Trees that are old enough have blossomed well and are carrying a fair crop of fruit. A new lot of seedlings originated by Mr. Haralson at the Fruit-Breeding Station have been planted this year, and the station this year put in the following: Malinda Nos. 12, 17, 13, 58, 32, 29, 7, 18, 25, 3, 35, 38, W. 82; Malinda seedling, W. 132; Hilbut, Winesap, W. 79, No. 16, No. 269, W. 81, W. 100, W. 184, No. 90, W. 20 G., No. 243; No. 31 everbearing raspberries, Russet Selly, W. 36, W. 135, No. 272. They are starting off in good shape and will all make a good showing for the first year. We have done the usual spraying, first with lime-sulphur and a small portion of arsenate of lead while the trees were dormant, and just lately a good dose of arsenate of lead. The foliage of the trees is perfect, and bugs of all kinds are conspicuous by their absence. People who have not sprayed find their trees badly stripped of foliage. I am afraid of severe losses unless they get busy very soon. Spraying costs but little and must be done if we are to raise fruit. Paynesville Trial Station. FRANK BROWN, SUPT. The plums sent to this station the spring of 1914 wintered very nicely, blossomed very full and have set considerable fruit. The new growth on these trees is very satisfactory, and they seem to be healthy in all ways. No. 1 plum trees sent here last spring froze back quite badly, but as many other supposedly hardy trees did the same we are still in hopes that this was only an incident in a hard winter. [Illustration: A corner of the home orchard at the Paynesville Station.] No. 4 raspberry is still a favorite here; it winters perfectly, is a strong grower, and a good all around berry, both as a home berry, and as a shipper. Raspberries Nos. 2 and 7 are both good, but No. 2 lacks a little in hardiness, and we wish to test No. 7 more fully before reporting. The other raspberries, Nos. 1, 3, 5 and 6, are no good here. If I knew how to say more in favor of that grand strawberry Minn. No. 3 I should say it; with us it is the best of all the June-bearing berries, hardy, productive, a good canner and a good shipper. The spring of 1915 we received from the Central Station fifty plants labeled Minn. No. 1017. We considered it our duty to test these in all ways, so kept all berries picked off until July 1st, then allowed fruit and plants to form as they would, and the result was an immense crop of dark red fruit, of the finest quality, and over 600 strong, sturdy plants. These were transplanted this spring without the loss of a single plant, and at this date are certainly a fine looking bunch. The apple trees received this spring from the Central Station are all doing well. The trees and plants from that Station certainly speak volumes for the work being done by Supt. Haralson. Some trees and shrubs killed back quite badly the past winter, especially spirea Van Houtti was badly hurt. Fruit prospects are good, the cold backward spring held the fruit buds back until all danger of frost was over. Strawberries are especially fine this season, and bid fair to be a record crop. In fact, the horticulturists in this part of our state have much to be thankful for. Sauk Rapids Trial Station. MRS. JENNIE STAGER, SUPT. June 13--Starting with a late spring, which saved all sorts of blossoms from the frost, now in June we have promise of an unlimited amount of fruit. But with heavy rains almost every night, we cannot effect much with spraying. One spraying eliminated all worms so far from not only the currants and gooseberries, but the roses also, and once going through the orchards has done away with the few tent caterpillars that had started in their work. So on the whole we have hopes of a full harvest of not only tree but small fruits. Most vegetables are backward, as also flowers from seeds, but with so much to be thankful for how can any of us complain. * * * * * ALLEGED PEAR BLIGHT CURES ARE WORTHLESS--ORGANISM OF DISEASE LIVES UNDERNEATH BARK OUT OF REACH OF "CURE."--Fruit growers should not allow themselves to be induced to purchase and use worthless pear blight cures. Every year we hear of cures for pear blight being sold to fruit growers, but to the present time the experiment stations of the country have hunted in vain for any practical remedy that may be sprayed upon trees or used in any way for the cure of this typo for disease. The organism lives underneath the bark entirely out of reach of remedies that may be applied to the surface of the tree. I would strongly recommend to fruit growers that they do not spend any money for pear blight until they are able to learn through experiment stations, or the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D.C., that there is a remedy that can be used for the control of this disease.--C. P. Gillette, Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. West Concord Trial Station. FRED COWLES, SUPT. June 14.--The past winter was long and severe. Besides the severe cold, a heavy coat of ice remained a long time on trees of all kinds, causing much anxiety, but when the time came trees of all kinds were full of bloom and beauty. Most varieties of apples have set a full crop of fruit. Some trees which bore a heavy crop last year have little or none this year, but the general crop of apples will be heavy if it matures. Our trees top-worked to Jonathan and Northern Spy are bearing good this year; they show no signs of winter-killing. [Illustration: Side view of Mr. Cowles' home grounds.] Plums were full of bloom as usual, but have set little fruit. Some varieties--Sansota and Wyant--have a few scattering plums. Seedling No. 17 also has a few. The new seedlings from the Station are all growing good. The native plums in a thicket have more fruit than the named varieties. Strawberries have wintered well and give promise of a full crop. Some garden patches in the vicinity winter-killed badly. Minnesota Seedling No. 3 promises to be a good berry; the strong fruit stems keep the berries from the ground. The Progressive and Superb, of the everbearing type, are no longer an experiment, but are a success, and many farmers are planting them. Raspberries winter-killed some. The Herbert seems as hardy as any. Seedling No. 4 is also hardy. Gooseberries and currants are bearing as usual. Grapes have started rather late and will have a short season to mature. The early flowering shrubs bloomed very full this spring. Lilacs did extra well. The Persian lilac was very full and lasted a long time. Chas. X, Madam Chereau and Alphonse la Valle were fine. Villosa is just coming out; this is a beautiful variety. The tree lilac received from China a few years ago is going to bloom for the first time. The iris is just in full bloom, and the delicate colorings always please. Peonies are late this year, none being out at this time. A few Rugosas are the only roses out at this time, but they look promising for a little later. Orcharding in Minnesota. DISCUSSION LED BY PROF. RICHARD WELLINGTON, UNIVERSITY FARM. Mr. Sauter: I want to set out 500 trees; what kind shall I set out? I live at Zumbra Heights. Mr. Wellington: I would prefer some of the more experienced growers to speak on that question, but going over the recommendations of over 160 growers the Wealthy is recommended in practically all cases in preference to the other varieties. We know, however, that the Wealthy needs pollen from other varieties for fertilization of the blossom, so it would be foolish to put out 500 Wealthys. It is better to mix in some of the other varieties. If I was planting an orchard, probably seventy-five per cent. of the apples would be Wealthys. Mr. Sauter: And what next? Mr. Wellington: Well, that depends altogether on your market. If you can handle the Duchess apple, work the Duchess in; or if you wanted a few late apples, work in some of the other varieties. Mr. Sauter: Isn't the Okabena better than the Duchess? Mr. Wellington: It is a little later. Mr. Richardson: Four days later. Mr. Wellington: That would be my recommendation. I would put in the majority of the trees Wealthys and then work in some other varieties according to your market. Mr. Sauter: Isn't the Malinda and the Northwest Greening all right? Mr. Wellington: The Northwest Greening seems to be especially valuable in certain parts of the state. In some parts they winter injure, but it is a good late variety. Mr. Sauter: How is the Malinda? Mr. Wellington: Malinda is all right excepting in quality. It is lacking in quality. Mr. Sauter: Is it a good seller? Mr. Wellington: I couldn't tell you about that. Some of these other gentlemen could give you information on that point. It tastes more like cork than anything else, but after the other apples are gone we are not so particular about it. Mr. Dunlap: The speaker brought out one point that we tested out a great many years ago in Illinois, and I suppose it is really an important one here, and that is the protection against the winds with shelter-belts. Now, at the University of Illinois they planted out some forty acres to test that with all the varieties they could get together, and they planted spruce trees not only on the outside of the orchard but they planted them in through the orchard, dividing the orchards up into ten acre plots. Quite a number of the early planters of apples in Illinois also put windbreaks around their orchards with considerable detriment to their orchards. We find that we need air drainage there just as much as we need protection against the wind. If I were in Minnesota I might change my mind after studying the conditions, but if I was going to plant in Minnesota and I should plant evergreens I certainly would trim them up from the bottom so as to get air drainage. I have known of instances where orchards were protected and where there was air drainage they were all right, but where they were closely protected by the trees they were injured by the frosts by their starting too early in the spring. If you get a warm atmosphere around the trees you start your buds pretty early, several days earlier than they would if they had the right kind of air drainage, and it does seem to me that the experience we have had would be against close planting around an orchard for protection from frost, though you do want to protect them against winds, but air drainage, it seems, is not a detriment to orchards. (Applause.) Mr. Richardson: I wish to say that in my observation and my experience if I was putting in a windbreak I would put it on the south and west sides; I wouldn't have any on the north and east. Mr. Brackett: Our prevailing winds are from the south and west during the summer, and the Wealthy is an apple that is bad for falling off when it gets to a certain stage, and I think it is very necessary for us to have a windbreak on the south and west if we are going to protect our orchards here. Mr. Ludlow: The wind comes from the northwest generally in the winter, when we have storms, and if snow falls and it comes from the northwest, and the orchard is protected on that side by a windbreak, the windbreak will catch the snow and it will pile on top of the orchard, and I have known at least a dozen trees to be broken down by the storms of winter getting in that way. A Member: I think crab apple trees make a good windbreak, if they are set twice as close together as trees in the orchard. A Member: I think location has more to do with it than anything else. I have two or three orchards in mind where five years ago, when we had that hard frost, they had an abundance of apples, and it was protected from the northwest. I have another orchard in mind that was protected from the north and northwest, and this year they had over 1,400 bushels of Wealthy apples. Mine wasn't protected particularly from the north, and I had no apples, but back of the buildings, there is where I had my apples. I tell you location has more to do with it than a windbreak in such a case. Mr. Drum: You all remember some ten or more years ago when the apple trees were in blossom, and we had a terrible snow storm and blizzard and freeze. My orchard was protected both from the southwest and the northwest and the north, and following that freeze my trees had the only apples that were left in that country. I think that protection from the north and northwest is just as essential, especially in a position where the winds have a wide sweep. My house and my orchard slope off to the northwest, and I have a full sweep of the northwest wind there for miles. The house was set as it were on a pinnacle. I think the protection from the northwest is fully as essential in such a position as any other. Mr. Whiting: This windbreak proposition is a question of locality. In the western part of the state, as well as in South Dakota--especially in South Dakota--we say that the south windbreak is decidedly the most important of any we can put in. We have more hot winds than you do here in the eastern part of Minnesota. You don't have that trouble, but in western Minnesota you are very much like we are in South Dakota. Mr. Ludlow knows the conditions, and I say you must take that into consideration. If you are in that locality the south windbreak is decidedly the most important of any. Then I would say the windbreak on the south, west and north are all of considerable importance. Of course, you can overdo it, you can smother your orchard. You must guard against that, but we have too much air drainage. In regard to the variety proposition, isn't it true that you are growing too many perishable apples in Minnesota? I know it is so in South Dakota. We are growing too many of these early varieties; we ought to grow more winter varieties. If you want to build up a large commercial apple business you have got to raise more keepers. You are planting too many early varieties. Mr. Dowds: I have been setting out apple trees more or less in different states for sixty years. If I was going to set out another orchard I would put windbreaks all around it, north, south, east and west, and the windbreak that I would use would be the yellow willow. It grows quick, it gives you a circulation of air, and it protects your trees. My experience in the last fifteen years has been that the yellow willow was the best windbreak that you can have around the house. Mr. Brackett: Mr. Whiting says, grow winter apples. I want to know what winter apples will bring the money that Wealthy bring. Mr. Whiting: That is a hard question, but isn't it a fact that you grow too many Wealthys? Don't you glut the market unless you have cold storage? You ought to work to that end just as much as possible; you ought to have more good keepers, better winter varieties. The Society Library. Books may be taken from the Library of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society by any member of the society on the following terms: 1. Only one book can be taken at a time. 2. Books with a star (*) before the title, as found in the published library list, are reference books and not to be taken from the library. 3. In ordering books give besides the name also the case and book numbers, to be found in the same line as the title. 4. Books will be sent by parcel post when requested. 5. When taking out, or sending for a book, a charge of ten cents is made to cover expense of recording, transmission, etc. 6. Books are mailed to members only in Minnesota and states immediately adjoining. When sent to points outside the state a charge of fifteen cents is made. 7. A book can be kept two weeks: If kept longer a charge of two cents per day will be made. 8. The library list, to December 1, 1915, is published in the 1915 annual volume of the society. Additions to this list will be published year by year in the succeeding annual volumes. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. Mr. H. H. Whetzel, of the plant disease survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, stationed at Cornell University, where the American Peony Society has its test grounds, has made a study of the stem-rot disease of the peony and has set forth the results in an address before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, from which the following has been culled: "The botrytis blight is by far the most common and destructive disease of the peony so far as known at present. This disease is frequently epidemic, especially during wet springs. It occurs wherever peonies are grown, apparently the world over. "This disease usually makes its appearance early in the spring when the stalks are coming up. Shoots will suddenly wilt and fall. Examination will show they have rotted at the base or just below the surface of the ground. The rotted portion will soon become covered with a brown coat of spores--much like felt. Generally it is the young stalks that are affected, though sometimes stalks with buds just opening will suddenly wilt and fall. It is thought the spores are carried through the winter on the old stubble, after the tops have been cut off. They are in the best position to give rise to a new crop of spores in the spring, and the new shoots become infected as they appear. "To eradicate this disease the old stubble should be carefully removed in the fall or early spring by removing first the soil from the crown so as not to injure the buds, and cutting off the old stalks. These should be burned and the soil replaced with clean soil or preferably sand. Whenever a shoot shows sign of the disease it should be cut off and burned. The buds must also be watched and any that begin to turn brown or black and die must also be cut off and burned, as spores will be found upon them, and these will be spread by the wind and insects. Spotted leaves should also be picked off. In wet seasons the peonies should be closely watched. For the small garden, with comparatively few clumps of peonies, this treatment will be entirely practical and effective." Bulbs should be ordered this month if you wish the pick of the new crop. There are two fall blooming bulbs that would add to our September and October gardens. One is the Sternbergia, or autumn daffodil, and the other is the autumn crocus. The bulbs should be planted in August and will blossom the same season. The daffodil is a clear yellow and is good for cutting. These bulbs must be ordered as early as possible. Lady bugs are our garden friends, destroying multitudes of aphides. They should never be killed. Have you the following all ready for use? For insects, bugs or worms that chew--or eat portions of plants--arsenate of lead, paris green or hellebore. For sucking insects, nicotine or kerosene emulsion. For diseases, bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. A good sprayer. * * * * * _Remember_ our photographic contest. BEE-KEEPER'S COLUMN Conducted by FRANCIS JAGER, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul. INCREASING COLONIES (CONTINUED FROM JUNE NO.) [Illustration: Prof. Francis Jager's apiary at St. Bonifacius.] To increase you must first make your colonies strong. One or more of your best colonies must be selected to raise queens for your increase unless you wish to buy your queen. Stimulate your queen raising colonies by feeding and not giving them any supers. The crowded condition will bring on an early swarming impulse, under which they will raise from twelve to twenty large, well developed queen cells each. The queens of your queen raising colonies should be clipped. When in due time a queen raising colony swarms, catch the queen and remove her and let the swarm return. Immediately after this swarm you may proceed to divide your other colonies from which you wish to increase. Put down on a permanent location as many empty hives as you have available queen cells in your colony that swarmed. Into one of these you put your removed breeding queen with two frames of brood and bees. Into each of the rest of the empty hives put two frames of brood with all adhering bees from your colonies you wish to increase. Be sure to leave the queens in the old hive after brood for increase with adhering bees has been removed. Thus you have now a number of new colonies with bees and two frames of brood but no queen. The rest of the hive may be filled with drawn comb or sheets of foundation. To prevent the bees from returning to the old home, stuff the entrance of the hive solidly with grass. In two days the grass will wilt and dry and the bees will come out automatically and stay in the new location--at least most of them. In the meantime being queenless they will be busy with raising queen cells on the two frames of brood. This occupation will make them contented, then on the seventh day cut out every one of their queen cells and give them a cell from your breeder colony. Your queen breeding colony on the seventh day after swarming will have ripe queen cells ready to hatch, with one queen probably out. If by listening in the evening you hear her "sing" and "peep" go next morning and remove all queen cells and give one to each of your newly formed colonies. They will be readily accepted, will hatch immediately, sometimes whilst you are removing them, but certainly the same or next day and begin laying in due time. From such colonies you may not expect any surplus honey, but they will build up rapidly and will be strong colonies to put away next fall. [Illustration: ADMINISTRATION BUILDING (MAIN BUILDING), UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. ANTHONY PARK, MINN.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 AUGUST, 1916 No. 8 How May University Farm and the Minnesota State Horticultural Society be Mutually Helpful in Developing the Farms and Homes of the Northwest? A. F. WOODS, DEAN AND DIRECTOR, DEPT. OF AGRI., UNIVERSITY OF MINN., ST. PAUL. The farm without its windbreaks, shade trees, fruits, flowers and garden, if it can be called a home at all is certainly one that needs developing and improving. There are many abiding places in the Northwest, as in every other part of the United States, that lack some essential part of them. The first and most important step with a view to correcting these conditions is to bring together those interested in home improvement to talk over problems and difficulties and to plan how to correct them and to interest others in the movement. This is what this great society with its auxiliary societies has been and is now doing most successfully. It is true that your work has been more particularly from the horticultural view point, but, as I said in the beginning, fruits and flowers are civilizing and home making influences. There should be more horticulturally interested people from the farms affiliated with this society. Each farmers' club should have a horticultural committee. There are now about nine hundred farmers' clubs in the state, and the number is increasing constantly. These clubs represent the communities in which the members live. They include men, women and children, farmers, preachers, teachers, every member of the community willing to cooperate. They start things in the community interest and follow them up. The Agricultural Extension Service of the University is in close touch with these clubs. The horticulturists of the service especially might help to arouse the interest of the clubs in this movement. This society might offer some prizes especially designed to interest the boys and girls of the farmers' clubs. Each club horticultural committee should have representation in this society. Some of the prizes might be memberships or trips to the annual meeting. Many members of this society are members of such clubs. They could take the lead in the movement. In this way the society would keep in touch with the homes and communities of the state, and all would grow together in horticultural grace--and the other graces that go with it. [Illustration: A Minnesota farm home with handsome grounds and modern conveniences.] The gospel of better homes is like every other gospel. It must be taken to those who need it and who know it not or are not interested. The extension service of the University is organized to carry the message of better homes, better farms, better social and business relations to the people who need it. Farmers' institutes, short courses, lectures, demonstration, farm supervision, judging at county fairs, boys' and girls' club work, institute trains, county agent service, indicate some of the kinds of work in progress. The press is also a powerful factor in this work. The Minnesota Farmers' Library, which is made up of timely publications on all matters of rural interest, has a mailing list of fifty-five thousand farmers. From six to twelve of these publications are issued each year. "University Farm Press News" reaches regularly six hundred papers in the state. "Rural School Agriculture," containing material especially adapted to the needs of the consolidated and rural schools, reaches practically every rural and consolidated school in the state each month. "The Visitor" is a special publication prepared for the use of the teachers of agriculture in the high schools of the state. The "Farmers' Institute Annual" is a manual of three hundred pages published each year in editions of fifty thousand and contains material of interest to every farmer. Many special articles are prepared for farm papers. Every department of the extension service and college and station is in touch with the farm homes of the state through correspondence, and much valuable work is accomplished in this way. The aim is always to work from the home as the center, and from that to the group of homes constituting the community, the township, the county and the state, in an ever-enlarging circle. [Illustration: A typical Minnesota consolidated school building.] The greatest opportunity for better homes and better farms and a better country life is in enlisting the children of the country in the movement. When I say the children of the country, I do not mean to exclude the children of the villages and towns whose tastes may lead them countryward. We should never stop or attempt to stop the free movement between the country and the city. It is good for both. The children of today will be the farmers and farm home makers and the business men and women of tomorrow. Are the children of the farmers looking forward with interest to farming as a business, and life in the country as attractive? The movement to the city in ever-increasing numbers is the answer, but it is the answer to what has been and now is, rather than to what is to be. A new day is dawning, in which the brightest minds and the choicest spirits will again choose to live in the open country and make there the ideal homes from which shall continue to come the life and vigor of the nation. But if it is to be so, the schools of the country must furnish real intelligent leadership and the country church must come again to spiritual leadership. We must all help to bring this about. Minnesota has a plan to accomplish this, and it is working out even better than we dared hope. Experience has shown that by consolidation or the cooperation of several districts, good results may be secured at no greater cost than the same type of school costs in town. The small school of today is expensive because it is inefficient. The consolidated school is giving the children of the country the education that they need and is doing it better than it can be done anywhere else. The consolidated school is becoming the rural community center. An important feature which has been adopted by many of the consolidated districts is the building of a home for the teachers in connection with the school. This home may be made typical of what the modern home should be, not expensive but substantial, artistic, convenient and sanitary. The grounds should be suitably planted with trees, shrubs and flowers, and there should be a garden. The school building is also made to fit the needs of the community. The larger rooms may be used for entertainments, farmers' club meetings, lectures, etc. There should be facilities for testing milk and other agricultural products, examining soils, etc. There should be a shop for wood and iron work, or at least a work bench and an anvil. There should be a library of good reading and a place to cook and bake and sew. There should be a typewriter, a piano or an organ, and such other conveniences for teaching and social center work as the community may wish and be able to secure, and, best of all, teachers living at the school who know how to operate the plant in every detail and to make it useful to the community. [Illustration: An ideal plan for consolidated school grounds.] There were nine of these schools five years ago in Minnesota. According to the last report of the Department of Public Instruction, there are 142 now, and the number is increasing constantly. The state as a state is behind the movement and is giving substantial aid, direction and supervision to these schools. When the forward movement was planned, plans were also made to train teachers and to give the teachers already in the service special work that would fit them to adjust themselves to the new needs. The normal schools and the high schools teaching agriculture, manual training and home economics have adjusted their courses to meet this new demand. Six years ago the work had hardly begun. Today there are 214 high and graded schools teaching home economics, 177 teaching agriculture, 125 teaching manual training, and of these 121 are preparing teachers especially for the rural schools. The College of Agriculture and Home Economics of the University of Minnesota is training the teachers in these subjects for the high schools and normal schools, and, in cooperation with the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Department of Agriculture has been conducting a summer school for rural teachers, where those already teaching and those planning to teach can get the training required to meet the new conditions and demands. Similar summer schools have been conducted in cooperation with the agricultural schools at Crookston and Morris. All together each year there are between 1,800 and 2,000 teachers taking these special courses. Every effort is made to bring to these teachers the view point of the new country life movement. This society and the members individually in their home communities should stand squarely behind this movement. They should become thoroughly informed regarding it. It is the cornerstone of the new country life. Finally I wish to call your attention again to the great educational opportunity which you are missing. If you could come into vital contact each year with more than 4,000 young men and women who are seeking for everything that will help them to be more useful citizens, would you do it? You could exert in that way an exceedingly great influence on the homes and future welfare of this state and nation. You can do it if you will come out and live with us the year round at University Farm. We should have a building there suited to your needs that we could all use as a great horticultural center, open the year round. You have already taken steps in this direction. I hope that conditions will be such that we can join hands to get it very soon. * * * * * SAN JOSE SCALE REQUIRES PROMPT ACTION--ORCHARD SHOULD EITHER BE DESTROYED OR SPRAYED BEFORE BUDS OPEN.--There are a few orchards in Colorado that are found to be infested with the San Jose scale. Owners of these orchards should determine upon one of two courses to pursue. The orchard should either be promptly cut down and destroyed, or the trees should be thoroughly treated with lime-sulphur solution or a good quality of miscible oil for the destruction of the scale before the buds open in the spring. If lime-sulphur is determined upon, the home-made article may be used, or the commercial lime-sulphur solutions may be used, in which case they should be diluted with water, in the proportion of one gallon of the commercial lime-sulphur to not more than ten gallons of water. The application should be made thoroughly, so that every bit of the bark of trunk and limbs is covered with the spray. If miscible oil is used, I would recommend using one gallon of the oil to each nineteen gallons of water. Hard or alkaline waters should be avoided, as sometimes the oil will not make a good emulsion with them. Use soft water, if possible.--C.P. Gillette, Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. The Horticulturist as King. C. S. HARRISON, NURSERYMAN, YORK, NEB. Some of the promises regarding our future stagger us with their vastness. "To him that overcometh will I grant to sit with me on my throne." But how is it down here? Thou "crownest him with riches and honor." Thou hast "put all things under his feet." Unto fields where feet of angels come not we are chosen as partners of the Heavenly Father to make this a more fruitful and beautiful world. In our life work much depends on our attitude regarding our calling. We can plod like an ox, or like Markham's semi-brute man with the hoe, and make that the badge of servitude to toil, or we can make it a wand in a magician's hand to call forth radiant forms of beauty from the somber earth to smile upon us and load the air with fragrance. We can live down in the basement of horticulture or in the upper story. Man is coming to his own. The savage trembled at the lightning stroke which shivered the mighty oak. Little knew he that here was a giant at play waiting to be tamed and harnessed so he could be the most obedient servant--ready at the master's beck to leap a continent, dive under the ocean, draw heavy trains, and run acres of machinery. Man reaches out his wand, and steam, gas, and oil rise up to do his will. If, with the advance of civilization, he wants beautiful things to adorn person or home, he finds subterranean gardens of precious gems almost priceless in value--gems that are immortals, flowers that never fade, prophets all of the "glory to be revealed." You have heard of the marvelous Persian garden of gems--four hundred feet in length and ninety feet wide--made to imitate the most beautiful blooms of earth. It cost millions upon millions. Do you know that it is in your power, with the advance of floriculture, to create gardens far more resplendent in beauty--great gardens of delight fit for the touch of angel's feet, while the whole is flooded with billows of sweetest perfume? Three years ago that was a patch of barren earth; now you have pulled down a section of paradise upon it and condensed there the tints of the morning, the splendors of the evening, the beauty of the rainbow, and the effulgence which flames in the mantles of the suns. I love to think of Nature as a person--first born daughter of God--her head white with the snows of the centuries, her cheeks radiant with the flush of recurrent springtime, emblems of eternal youth. She takes you by the hand, leads you into the forests, talks to you of the soul of the tree, tells you how intelligent it is. There is one standing in the open. It has performed a feat no civil engineer can emulate. Think of those roots so busily scurrying around in the earth, gathering food to send up the cambium highway to nourish the trees. See the taut cords thrown out to anchor it against the storms. Look at those trees on the outskirts. Among wild animals the strongest are on guard on the outside to protect the herd. So these sentinel trees guard their wards against the storms. Fool man cuts down the guards and the wards fall before the sweep of the storm. Mother Nature--dear, friendly soul--takes you into her holy of holies and reveals her mysteries. She makes a confident of you. She throws open her doors and shows you the wide vistas of a new land you may enter and glorify. Follow her direction, and what a friend you have! Cross her, thinking you know more than she does, and she laughs at you. She takes you into the garden and the nursery and discloses her wonders and helps you to work miracles. You plant seeds and bulbs, and beauty rises to greet you. Did you ever think of the royal position of the florist and horticulturist? The sacred poet speaks of the "labor of the olive." What a flood of light that opens upon us. "All things are yours." Let us go out into the grove you have planted. I once took off my hat to myself. While living in the Republican Valley, near the 100th meridian, I planted some bull pine seed. When the little trees were large enough, I transplanted them in rows six feet apart and started a miniature forest. Twenty-five years after I went to see them. The rows were straight. The trees had fine bodies six inches through. They were miniature columns in a temple, holding up a canopy of green. The ground was covered with a thick carpet of needles. It was one of the most pleasing sights I ever saw. Then I thought, "What if I had planted forty acres?" I would have had a Mecca to which horticultural pilgrims would have flocked from hundreds of miles. I planted the trees, and the faithful servants kept on working day and night, and that beautiful grove was the result. Every tree you plant is your servant, and how faithful it is--no shirking, always at it whether you are looking or not. Look at that cherry tree. How the tiny rootlets scurry through the soil--faithful children gathering food to send up to their mother. Look at that flood of bloom. Then the fruit grows till a mass of red gleams from the leafy coverts. There is a great difference between a patch of brown earth and your faithful Jonathan. What a marvel that little patch of soil, absolutely milked by those busy foragers, and the extracts of it glowing in red beauty on the tree. Talk of chemists! Those quiet rootlets surpass them all. [Illustration: Albert Victor iris, from Mr. Harrison's garden--about one-third size.] If you want to be in the realm of miracles, lay down your hoe awhile and sit among your flowers. Your brain devised the plan, your hand planted the seeds and bulbs. "Behold the lilies, how they grow." Now sit there and think it out. At your feet are artists no human skill may imitate. Two peonies grow side by side. Golden Harvest opens with yellow petals fading to purest white. In the center is a miniature Festiva Maxima--blood drops and all. How can those roots send up the golden tints, the snowy white and the red, and never have the colors mixed? Close by is a Plutarch, deep brilliant red. The roots intermingle. How is it possible to pick out of the dull soil, Nature's eternal drab, that brilliant color for your peony? There are your iris, the new sorts absolutely undescribable. There are a dozen different shades in a single bloom. But those blind artists at work in their subterranean studios never make a mistake. The standards must have just such colors, the falls just such tints, and where did they get that dazzling radiant reflex such as you see on Perfection, Monsignor and Black Knight? But it is always there shimmering in the sunlight. There is a fairy--a pure snowy queen. How was that sweetness and purity ever extracted from the scentless soil? Every bloom uncorks a vial of perfume which has the odor of the peach blossom. Did you ever sit down in your kingdom and see what a royal throne you occupied? What a reception your flowers give you! The ambrosia and nectar of the feasts of the deities of fable are overshadowed by the fragrance and sweetness of your worshippers. It would seem that every flower, like a royal subject, was bent on rendering the most exalted honor to her king. No company of maidens preparing for nuptials were ever arrayed like these. Each one is striving to do her best. The highest art ever displayed in the palaces of kings is no comparison to the beauty and splendor of your reception. By divine right you are supreme. The fertile soil puts her tributes at your feet; for you all the viewless influences of nature are at work; for you the sun shines and the showers fall. So brothers, don't creep but mount up as on eagle's wings. Invoice yourself and see how great you are! Don't live all the while in the basement--spend some time in the upper story of your calling! You are not making the earth weep blood. You are not spreading on the fields a carpet of mangled forms. You are not dropping ruin and death from the skies or polluting God's pure waters with submarines. You are not turning all your energies into the work of destruction, despoiling the treasures of art and the pride of the ages and turning the fairest portions of the earth into desolations. You are not changing yourselves into demons to gloat over starvation and ruin. You are soldiers of peace. Behind you was the somber earth. You touched it with the wand of your power, and beauty, health and pleasure sprang up to bless you. See what you have done! You have clothed the barrenness of the dreary plain with gardens, orchards and forests. You have been at work with God and glorified a vast empire, and now he has blessed the work of your hands. Instead of the air sodden with tears and tremulous with the wail of widows and orphans, you are welcomed with the joy of children and the delight of mothers. All along the lines of progress you receive the most cordial ovations, and when you pass on to the land where "everlasting spring abides", may you receive the royal welcome, "Well done, good and faithful servant." The Newer Fruits in 1915 and How Secured. PROF. N. E. HANSEN, STATE COLLEGE, BROOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA. Mr. Hansen: Mr. President and Fellow Members: This subject is not an entirely satisfactory one this year owing to the fact that we lost about three sets of tomato plants from frost, the last frost coming the ninth of June. These conditions, of course, are unusual, but it prevented the fruiting of a lot of new fruit seedlings which appeared promising. However, I decided to propagate two new plums because they had borne several excellent crops. One of these is a very late plum of good quality, with flesh of peculiar crisp texture, which ripens after all the other plums, about a week before frost. It is a combination of the Wolf plum with the Kansas sand plum (_Prunus Watsoni_). The tree is of late dwarf habit but very productive, and its late season may give it a place. Another plum which I decided to place in propagation is a hybrid of the wild plum of Manitoba with the Japanese plum. The mother tree was raised from wild plum pits received from Manitoba a few years ago. These bear very freely and are the earliest of the native plums. The tree is of low, dwarf habit. The fruit is not as large as my Waneta, which is a hybrid of the largest native plum, the Terry, (_Prunus Americana_), with the Apple, one of the best of Burbank's Japanese plums. But since the range of the plum Manitoba is so far north, it may give greater hardiness where that is needed. At any rate, it is of interest to know that the Manitoba native plum can be mated with the Japanese plum. Pears constitute my favorite line at present. "What can I do for hardy pears?" is a question I have been asked many times. The prairie northwest cannot raise pears owing to the cold or the blight. In my travels in Asia, including four tours of exploration in Siberia, I made a business of buying up basketfuls of pears in Manchuria, Mongolia, Western China and Eastern Siberia and saving the seed, giving the flesh away to the coolies, who were glad always to get the fruit. These have raised me many seedlings. In addition I have imported a lot of pears from Russia. [Illustration: Pyrus Simoni The hardy, blight-proof sand pear used by Prof. N.E. Hansen in breeding pears for the Northwest. A careful study of our eastern Arctic pears has been made recently by Mr. Alfred Rehder, botanist at Arnold Arboretum, and this form of sand pear is now called Pyrus Ovoidea instead of Pyrus Sinensis, or Pyrus Simoni.] The pears of northern China and eastern Siberia are usually called the Chinese sand pear and have been given various names, _Pyrus Sinensis_, _Pyrus Ussuriensis_, _Pyrus Simoni_. The form I am working with mainly was received in the spring of 1899 at the South Dakota Station under the name of _Pyrus Simoni_, from Dr. C.S. Sargent, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Boston, Massachusetts. Since the publication of Bulletin 159, of the South Dakota Experiment Station, April, 1915, in which I give a brief outline of this work, the pears of this region have been studied by Dr. Alfred Rehder of the Arnold Arboretum, and it now appears that the true name of _Pyrus Simonii_ should be _Pyrus Ovoidea_. These trees have proved perfectly hardy at Brookings and have never suffered from blight. Varieties of other pears have been top-grafted on this tree, and they have blighted, but the blight did not affect the rest of the tree. Mr. Charles G. Patten, Charles City, Iowa, also has a form of the Chinese sand pear which has proven immune to blight. In other places sand pears have been under trial which have suffered from winter-killing. However, I understand that the pear Mr. Patten has tapers toward the stem, while the pear received by me as _Pyrus Simonii_ tapers toward the blossom end. The actual source of seed is really of greater importance than the botanical name, as it is possible to get the seed from too far south, whereas we should plant only the northern form of the species. The fruits of _Pyrus Ovoidea_ correspond in size to the ordinary pear much like the Whitney crab-apple does to the apple. It is a real pear, juicy and sweet, but not high flavored. Other varieties of pears have been top-grafted on this tree and have blighted, but the blight did not affect the rest of the tree. During the many seasons I have had this pear the tip of one twig only showed a very slight trace the past season, but I did not determine it was really blight. It is practically immune. I have also worked the Birch-Leaved pear, _Pyrus betulifolia_, Bunge, a native of northern China, and a choice ornamental tree. Trees of this species were received from a nursery in Germany in the fall of 1896 and have proven perfectly hardy and quite resistant to blight. The fruit is quite small, usually less than one-half inch in diameter, covered with thick russet. _Betulifolia_ means birch-leaved, alluding to the shape of the leaf. Now, the pear is a difficult thing to work with on account of blight. What is blight? It is an American bacterial disease, not found in the home of the pear, Asia or Europe, so that during the 6,000 years of its cultivation of recorded history the pear has never had to meet the bacterial enemy known as blight. That is one of the reasons, I presume, why they have such strict quarantine in Europe against American trees. The question with pears is, will they stand blight or not? They are spending hundreds of thousands of dollars in California to keep out blight. Blight is a native of the northeast United States, and they are keeping it down on the Pacific slope, but they are always on the edge of the precipice. The whole pear culture of America is in an unsatisfactory state, owing to this danger. With these two northern pears as a foundation, I have endeavored to secure seedlings with fruit of large size and choice quality by hybridizing them with many of the best cultivated pears from Germany, France, England, Central Russia and Finland, as well as with some of the best varieties from the eastern pear-growing regions of the United States. The work has been done mostly under glass in our fruit-breeding greenhouse. Some of these fruits weighed one and one-fourth pounds. Some of the resulting seedlings are subject to blight, while many have thus far shown immunity. Since it is impossible to determine their relative immunity to blight except by distributing them for trial elsewhere, I sent out scions in the spring of 1915 of thirty-nine of these new seedlings to twenty-four men in several states. These varieties are under restrictions until fruited and deemed worthy of further propagation. [Illustration: Crossing work in pears--view in Prof. N. E. Hansen's Fruit-Breeding Greenhouse, State College, Brookings, S.D.] I did not know whether immunity to blight is a possibility or only an iridescent dream, so I made no charge for these scions. The only test of a pear seedling, the same as with the apple, is that of propagation. Furthermore, if you have but the one seedling tree you may lose it by accident; whereas, if you send it out to a number of good men, you cannot lose it. It should be distinctly understood that none of these new seedlings have borne fruit, but by what may be termed the projective efficiency of the pedigree I am satisfied that some of them will be valuable. In like manner, a horse-breeder depends so much on the pedigree in his colts that he is willing to enter them in a race. I believe something of value will come from this line of work. I do know that my _Pyrus Ovoidea_ is a pretty good, juicy little pear, a whole lot better than no pear at all. I hope these seedlings will keep up their immunity to blight. The original seedling trees certainly have had every chance to become affected by blight, as they were surrounded by blighting apple trees, crab-apple trees and pear trees, and no blight was cut out. I thought this was the best way, since that is the test they will have in the farmers' orchards when they go out from the nursery. _Hardy Pear Stocks._--Now we are up against the problem of stocks for these hardy pears. The quince is a standard dwarf stock, but it is not hardy enough for us. Last spring I planted 12,000 seedlings of the various commercial pear stocks, including imported French pear seedlings, American grown French pear seedlings, Kieffer pear seedlings and Japan pear seedlings. From one season's experience I like the Japan pear the best. The French pear seedlings, especially, did not do well. The Japan pear stock is coming into high favor in recent years on our Pacific slope, where it is sometimes called the Chinese blight-proof stock. The French pear stock is not in favor on our Pacific slope owing to their liability to blight. We may also expect from the French pear stock a decided lack of hardiness. The Japan pear stock is probably some form of the Chinese sand pear. The seed may come from too far south, whereas we should plant only the northern form of the species. This varying degree of hardiness in the Japan pear seedling of commerce I find discussed in a German horticultural paper. I have tried to establish a regular source of supply by importing the seed, but it is difficult indeed to do this. To avoid root-killing at the north we should mulch these Japan pear seedlings heavily until we get enough orchards of this truly hardy form, _Pyrus Ovoidea_, planted so we can raise our own stocks. I firmly believe we will extend pear culture on the North American continent clear to the Arctic Circle if we wish. For pear stocks I am going to try everything I can think of. Some years ago I worked pears on Juneberry stock from a hint given me many years ago by Professor J.L. Budd. These grew well and were in full bloom when five feet high, but were lost in clearing off a block of trees. I hope to try this again on a larger scale. The mountain ash and hawthorn are sometimes used, but both will be expensive and perhaps short-lived. The quince is the dwarf stock of commerce but would need to be very heavily mulched to prevent root-killing. Such dwarf pears are splendid in the back yard, or for training up against the side of the house; the fruit is fine and large, and the trees fruit the second year. The pear will root in nursery by grafting with a long scion on apple seedlings. I hope there will be much work done along this line. To sum up the question, I think there is a hardy pear in sight. We have the requisite pedigree back of it, and it seems that the quality we call immunity to blight is in some of these Chinese or Siberian pears. If we can combine the hardiness and blight-resistance of this Siberian pear with the large size and high quality of fruit of the European pear, with thousands of years of cultivation back of it, then we have the solution of the pear question in sight. Millions and millions of people are watching for a good hardy pear. (Applause.) * * * * * WARNING TO MUSHROOM GROWERS.--As the result of a serious case of mushroom poisoning in a mushroom grower's family recently, the mushroom specialists of the U.S. Department of Agriculture have issued a warning to commercial and other growers of mushrooms to regard with suspicion any abnormal mushrooms which appear in their beds. It seems that occasionally sporadic forms appear in mushroom beds, persist for a day or two, and then disappear. These are generally manure-inhabiting species and may be observed shortly after the beds have been cased. In the instance cited, however, these fungi appeared in considerable numbers at the time the edible _Agaricus campestris_ should have been ready for the market, and the dealer supposed it was probably a new brown variety and tried it in his own family. As a result, five persons were rendered absolutely helpless and were saved after several hours only through the assistance of a second physician who had had experience with this type of poisoning. In the opinion of the Department, this case is peculiarly significant and demonstrates that the grower must be able to distinguish _Agaricus campestris_ from any of the wild forms of mushrooms that may appear in the beds. Under the circumstances, the Department strongly urges every grower to make himself thoroughly familiar with the cultivated species. Complete descriptions, with pictures of poisonous and cultivated species, are contained in Department Bulletin 175, "Mushrooms and Other Common Fungi," which can be purchased for 30 cents from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Manufacture of Cider Vinegar from Minnesota Apples. PROF. W. G. BRIERLY, HORT. DEPT., UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. Cider making is an old process, carried on in a small way on the farm or more extensively in the commercial "quick process." From apple cider many different products are obtained, chief of these being vinegar and others being bottled cider, boiled cider, apple butter and, more recently, concentrated cider and cider syrup. This discussion will consider only the manufacture of vinegar. As a farm process, the making of cider vinegar utilizes an otherwise waste product, the culls or unmarketable varieties. It can be done on rainy days or when other work is slack. For the best results, however, as in any form of marketing, some vinegar should be made each year so that the market may be supplied regularly, and, further, to give the necessary experience which will mean a better quality of vinegar. As a commercial process we find the making of cider is a regularly conducted manufacturing enterprise in which a considerable amount of capital is needed. Expert knowledge of vinegar making, especially of the "quick process," is essential. On this basis it is not open to the apple grower and is a doubtful venture on a co-operative plan without the help of experts. Where a vinegar factory is established, however, it gives to the orchardist a means to dispose of his cull apples. Considering the process as it can be carried on on the farm, there are a number of distinct steps, all of which are important. The first step is to prepare for the work. Get a good machine, as it will pay for itself in the added extract of juice. A good machine need not cost more than $25 and may be had for less. Casks must be obtained and sterilized with live steam or sulphur fumes, washed thoroughly, and kept in a convenient place where they will not dry. It is best as well to have the convenience of running water to wash the apples if dirty and to clean up the machine occasionally. Cleanliness should be provided for and insisted upon, as dirty and decaying apples not only give undesirable flavors, but the bacteria and molds feed upon the sugar in the cider and greatly reduce the strength of the vinegar. This is one reason why a rainy day is a good time for cider making, as dust and flies are less and molds are not so abundantly "planted" in the cider. The next step is the grinding and pressing and is very simple. With an efficient machine the cider is quickly ready for the casks. Then follows the first fermentation, which very frequently is not properly managed, and poor vinegar results. The casks should be filled only two-thirds full, the bung left open but screened with cheesecloth or lightly fitted with a plug of cotton to admit air. Compressed yeast generally should be added, at the rate of one cake to each five gallons, first mixing the yeast in lukewarm water. If the cask is then placed in a warm place, at least sixty degrees--seventy degrees or more being better--we have the three requirements of proper fermentation, namely, air, warmth and yeast. This will give rapid fermentation, which will reduce the loss of sugars to a minimum. This fermentation should be allowed to go on until completed. If vinegar starts to form it will usually leave a residue of sugar and give a weaker vinegar. It will require from two weeks to a year to change all the sugars into alcohol, depending upon the management of the work. When finished the clear juice is "racked" or siphoned into a clean cask, through a straining cloth to insure the removal of all pomace or sediment. [Illustration: Prof. W. G. Brierly, Horticultural Dept., University Farm, St. Paul, Minn.] Then follows the fermentation to produce the acetic acid and finish the vinegar. A "starter" of "mother" can be used, but it is best to take out a gallon or more of the cider when "racking" and add a pint to a quart of a good grade cider vinegar. Let it stand in a warm place, well covered with cheesecloth, and in from four to ten days a granular, brownish cake should begin to form. This starter can then be put directly into the casks, a pint or more to each cask. If the starter develops a white, slimy coat, throw it out and start again. For all of this second stage of fermentation follow the same plan as at first. Fill the barrels not over two-thirds full, use a cotton plug or cheesecloth screen at the bung and keep at a warm temperature. The essentials again are air and warmth, with a good vinegar starter. Under these conditions the vinegar may be ready in from two to ten months. If the usual plan of "natural" fermentation is followed, and the cask is kept at a low temperature, it may be three years before the vinegar is ready. When the vinegar seems to be completed, send a sample to the State Dairy and Food Commission at the Capitol for analysis. If they say it is completed, "rack" off and strain again into clean barrels, this time filling full and driving in the bung. This will prevent loss from evaporation, and the vinegar can be sold at any time. The state law requires that cider vinegars sold in the state measure up to a certain standard--namely, four per cent. of acetic acid, 1.6 grams per 100 cc. of solids, and .25 grams per 100 cc. of ash. So much for vinegar making in general. For Minnesota conditions little is known about the definite behavior of any apple varieties. This has led to the study of vinegar making as a problem for the Experiment Station. The Division of Horticulture is carrying on variety tests to determine the yields of juice at different stages of maturity, the efficiency of types of presses, labor costs per gallon, and the production of vinegar from each variety to determine its value. The Division of Agricultural Chemistry makes analyses of the sweet cider to determine the composition and vinegar prospects, and also analyzes the vinegars at various stages. The work has been carried on for two seasons and is showing some interesting facts. These must, however, be checked with further work before definite statements can be published. As to machines, our results show that the press with press cloths will outyield nearly two to one the press with the barrel or drum. However, a strong grain sack used to catch the pomace and used to confine it in the drum will give a very satisfactory yield, but it requires a considerable amount of labor to do this. As to labor costs per gallon, we have as yet no definite figures except that one man can grind and press a minimum of eight to nine gallons an hour. Two men can raise the output to at least thirteen gallons. At 25 cents per hour the cost per gallon on this basis varies between two and four cents. As the apples are of little value, and the labor generally "rainy day" labor, this seems to give an inexpensive product. Our vinegars are as yet incomplete. The run of 1914 was very limited and of necessity stored in a cold cellar. It now tests two per cent. acetic acid, so is only half finished. As to variety yields, the results of the work of two seasons compare very closely and show generally that there is a variation from a minimum of a scant two gallons up to more than a pint over three gallons from forty pounds of each variety. The forty-pound quantity is taken as representative of the bushel by measure. The varieties leading cider production are--the Hibernal and Wealthy, which generally have given us about three gallons per forty pounds, the Duchess and Patten running slightly lower in cider yield. The Longfield, Lowland Raspberry, Charlamoff and Whitney rank in a third group, according to our trials. This does not mean, however, that those in the latter group are not usable, as the Charlamoff and Whitney are among the highest in sugar content. These figures are greatly modified if the apples have been in storage or are over-ripe. The chemical analyses of the ciders show that, in general, Minnesota apples do not contain relatively high percentages of sugars. This varies with the season and increases with maturity. The highest total sugar content in ripe apples has been found in the Charlamoff at 9.25 per cent., followed in order by Whitney, 9.08 per cent., Wealthy 8.81 per cent., Duchess 8.60 per cent., Patten 8.21 per cent., Hibernal 7.85 per cent., and Longfield at 7.17 per cent. The significance of these figures is seen when the statement is made that it usually takes two per cent. sugars to make one per cent. of acetic acid. With the majority of our apples we must work carefully, or the vinegar will not meet the state standard of four per cent. acetic acid. This is further substantiated by the report of the State Dairy and Food Commission that the vinegar samples sent to them rarely come up to the standard. From the data as we now have it we cannot draw definite conclusions, but in general it is safe to say that the making of vinegar from Minnesota apples is done on a close margin. This will mean careful work to get the most out of the fermentation, the use of yeast, warm cellars or store rooms and proper management of the casks as to filling and the entrance of air. The work is not expensive. There is a good demand for really good vinegar, and a market is provided for fruit which could not readily be sold in any other form. A Summer in Our Garden. MRS. GERTRUDE ELLIS SKINNER, AUSTIN. Summer in our garden begins with the arrival of the first seed catalogue in January, and closes the day before its arrival the next January. We may be short on flowers in our garden, but we are long on seed catalogues in our library. We do not believe in catalogue houses excepting seed catalogues. We find them more marvelous than the Arabian Nights, more imaginative than Baron Manchausen, and more alluring than a circus poster. We care not who steals the Mona Lisa so long as Salzer sends us pictures of his cabbages. The art gallery of the Louvre may be robbed of its masterpiece without awakening a pang in our breasts, if Dreer will only send us the pictures of those roses that bloom in the paint-shops of Philadelphia. Morgan may purchase the choicest collections of paintings in Europe and hide them from the public in his New York mansion, if May will send us pictures of watermelons, such as were never imagined by Raphael, Michael Angelo or Correggio. While the world watches the struggle for the ownership of some great railway system, the control of some big trust, the development of some enormous enterprise, we watch for the arrival of the seed catalogue to see which artist can get the most cabbages in a field, the most melons on a cart, or make the corn look most like the big trees of Yosemite. Don't talk to us of the pleasures of bridge whist, it is not to be compared with the seed catalogue habit. In the seed catalogue we mark all the things we are going to buy, we mark all the new things. There is the wonderberry, sweeter than the blueberry, with the fragrance of the pineapple and the lusciousness of the strawberry! We mark the Himalaya-berry--which grows thirty feet, sometimes sixty feet in a single season. Why, one catalogue told of a man who picked 3,833-1/2 pounds of berries from a single vine, beside what his children ate. Our Himalaya vine grew four inches the first season and died the first winter. We were glad it did. We did not want such a monster running over our garden. We wanted to raise other things. But we did not lose faith in our catalogues. We believe what they say just as the small boy believes he will see a lion eat a man at the circus, because the billboard pictures him doing it. If we ordered all the seeds we mark in the catalogue in January, we would require a township for a garden, a Rockefeller to finance it and an army to hoe it. We did not understand the purpose of a catalogue for a long time. A catalogue is a stimulus. It's like an oyster cocktail before a dinner, a Scotch high-ball before the banquet and the singing before the sermon. Salzer knows no one ever raised such a crop of cabbages as he pictures or the world would be drowned in sauer kraut. If the Himalaya-berry bore as the catalogues say it does we should all be buried in jam. You horticulturists never expect to raise such an apple as Lindsay describes; if you did, they would be more valuable than the golden apples of Hesperides. But when we get a catalogue we just naturally dream that what we shall raise will not only be as good but will excel the pictures. Alas, of such stuff are dreams made! We could not do our gardening without catalogues, but they are not true to life as we find it in our garden. We never got a catalogue that showed the striped bug on the cucumber, the slug on the rose bush, the louse on the aster, the cut worm on the phlox, the black bug on the syringa, the thousand and one pests, including the great American hen, the queen of the barnyard, but the Goth and vandal of the garden. But the best part of summer in our garden is the work we do in winter. Then it is that our garden is most beautiful, for we work in the garden of imagination, where drouth does not blight, nor storms devastate, where the worm never cuts nor the bugs destroy. No dog ever uproots in the garden of imagination, nor doth the hen scratch. This is the perfect garden. Our golden glow blossoms in all of its auriferous splendor, the Oriental poppy is a barbaric blaze of glory, our roses are as fair as the tints of Aurora, the larkspur vies with the azure of heaven, the gladioli are like a galaxy of butterflies and our lilies like those which put Solomon in the shade. Every flower is in its proper place to make harmony complete. There is not a jarring note of color in our garden in the winter time. Then comes the spring in our garden, a time of faith, vigilance and hard work. Faith that the seed will grow, vigilance that it is planted deep enough and has the right conditions in which to grow. Vigilance against frost, weeds and insects. Planting, sowing, hoeing, transplanting, coaxing, hoping, expecting, working--we never do half that we planned to do in the springtime--there are not enough days, and the days we have are too short. Then comes summer, real summer in our garden. Then flowers begin to bloom, and our friends tell us they are lovely. But we see the flaws and errors. We feel almost guilty to have our garden praised, so many glaring faults and shortcomings has it. The color scheme is wrong, there are false notes here and there. There are tall plants where short plants should be. There are spaces and breaks and again spots over-crowded. We water and hoe, train vines, prop plants, and kill the bugs, but we know the weak spots in our garden and vow that next summer we shall remedy every mistake. [Illustration: Mrs. Gertrude Ellis Skinner among her gladoli.] Then "summer in our garden" has an autumn. The garden is never so beautiful as when the first frost strikes it. Pillow-cases, sheets, shawls, aprons, coats and newspapers may for a brief time hold at bay the frost king, but he soon laughs at our efforts, crawls under the edges of the unsightly garments with which we protect our flowers, nips their petals, wilts their stems and blackens their leaves. We find them some morning hopelessly frozen. But the earth has ceased to give forth its aroma, the birds are winging southward, the waters of the brook run clear and cold, and the voice of the last cricket sounds lonesome in the land. We say to nature, "Work your will with our garden; the summer is over, and we are ready to plan for another season." And what have we learned from the "summer in our garden?" That no one can be happy in his garden unless he works for the joy of the working. He who loves his work loves nature. To him his garden is a great cathedral, boundless as his wonder, a place of worship. Above him the dome ever changing in color and design, beautiful in sunshine or storm and thrice beautiful when studded with the eternal lamps of night. The walls are the trees, the vines and the shrubs, waving in the distant horizon and flinging their branches on the sky line, or close at hand where we hear the voice of the wind among the leaves. A wondrous floor is the garden's cathedral of emerald green in the summer, sprinkled with flowers, of ermine whiteness in the winter, sparkling with the diamonds of frost. Its choir is the winds, the singing birds and the hum of insects. Its builder and maker is God. Man goeth to his garden in the springtime, and, behold, all is mystery. There is the mystery of life about him, in the flowing sap in the trees, the springing of the green grass, the awakening of the insect world, the hatching of the worm from the egg, the changing of the worm into the butterfly. The seed the gardener holds in his hand is a mystery. He knows what it will produce, but why one phlox seed will produce a red blossom and another a white is to him a miracle. He wonders at the prodigality of nature. In her economy, what is one or ten thousand seeds! She scatters them with lavish hand from ragweed, thistle or oak. If man could make but the single seed of the ragweed, he could make a world. The distance between a pansy and a planet is no greater than between man and a pansy. The gardener sees the same infinite care bestowed upon the lowest as upon the highest form of life, and he wonders at it. He looks into the face of a flower, scans the butterfly and notes the toadstool and sees that each is wonderful. From the time he enters his garden in the springtime until he leaves it in the autumn, he will find a place and a time to worship in his cathedral. He enters it with the seed in his hand in the spring, and as he rakes away the ripened plants in the autumn he finds something still of the mystery of life. A puff-ball is before him, and he muses on its forming. The little puff-ball stands at one end of the scale of life and he, man, at the other, "close to the realm where angels have their birth, just on the boundary of the spirit land." From the things visible in our garden we learn of the things invisible, and strong the faith of him who kneeling in adoration of the growing plant looks from nature to nature's God and finds the peace which passeth understanding. Bringing the Producer and Consumer Together. R. S. MACKINTOSH, HORTICULTURAL SPECIALIST, AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DIVISION, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. The introduction of Mr. Producer to Mr. Consumer directly, and not by proxy, is the chief desire of the present time. The fact remains, however, that in the vast majority of cases Messrs. Proxy & Co. is brought in and breaks up the direct personal contact. The development of complex marketing means specialization and in a large degree sets it apart from production. When specialization becomes dominant, then standardization becomes necessary. Each producer is unable to keep in touch with all such movements and consequently finds it hard to keep abreast of the times. In this age of rapid transit, specialization, scientific discoveries, and the improvements resulting therefrom, seem somewhat out of place when compared with our present marketing systems. This does not mean that our marketing is entirely out of joint, but it does mean that there is something the matter or so many would not be discussing it. The consumer hears what the producer received, the producer hears what the consumer paid, and then somebody gets to thinking and talking. Discussions lead to investigations, and investigations lead to conferences. Just lately a large conference was held in Chicago, and certain plans were formulated to attempt to unravel some of the evils that exist in marketing. So much has been said that the U.S. Department of Agriculture has begun certain investigations, and we hope that the workers will find ways to solve some of the troubles in a logical and, we hope, sane way. A year ago your committee on marketing reported that there were certain things needed, and an ideal system was suggested to correct these faults. One of the basic factors emphasized was standardization. Another committee reported on changes needed in the statutes regarding the weight of a bushel of apples. Congress has enacted a law which specifies the size of a barrel for apples. New York, Massachusetts and other states have enacted grading laws. Some states require that the fruit be free of certain insect and disease injuries. Several states have laws regulating commission men. Most states have laws which do not allow the sale of food products that are decayed. These are all steps toward the standardization that is so necessary. In other words, the several laws have been passed to correct some of the troubles which have come up when so many hands handle the products. These laws were not needed in olden times when the consumer went directly to the producer's door and there bargained for his wares. Minnesota is a state noted for co-operative enterprises. There are over two thousand such organizations doing more than $60,000,000.00 worth of business yearly. We know full well the value of the co-operative creameries and how butter has been brought up to a high standard. As citizens, we rejoice; as horticulturists, and citizens as well, we want our products to stand high in the estimation of others. I was much pained this summer while discussing the marketing of apples with several commission men to hear them say that they did not like to take local shipments. The reason was that the goods were usually below grade, and the returns did not always please the growers. It is evident that we must improve our methods in ways which will remove this stigma. Many of the commission men try to induce good grading and packing. They like to handle "top notch" goods, for it is cheaper to handle goods that move quickly than those that are a drag and require too much handling. The Agricultural Extension Division of the College of Agriculture is organized to give help, where help is needed, along a large number of agricultural lines. Realizing these facts, we have been trying to get the ear of the producer and consumer in an effort to get them to do certain things. On the one hand, we want to have good varieties, and to help this lectures and demonstrations are given in the care of the orchard, pruning, spraying, thinning, picking, grading, packing and marketing. On the other hand we want more people to eat Minnesota apples. It is a campaign of education and publicity. If one wishes to sell anything, he finds that he must advertise. He must advertise so much and in so many ways that people cannot help buying his wares. There are certain widely advertised articles that you must know, whether you are interested or not. One of these runs along the highways so often that you are shaken, even against your will, into consciousness of its existence, so that you cannot get along without having one, or at least seeing one. The latest edition seems to have put on feathers in the form of a white dove of peace. May it succeed. Advertising Minnesota apples has been attempted this past year. It was found necessary to provide a standard by which the buyer and seller could agree on apple grades. After consulting several persons, it was decided to adopt the following grades: "A" Grade.--Hand picked, normal shape, good color (at least one-third colored), free from dirt, disease and insect injuries, and well packed. Limit of defects allowed: Not more than 10% of all kinds nor 5% of any one kind. [Illustration: Prof. R. S. Mackintosh--Horticulturist connected with Extension Division, University Farm, St. Paul.] "B" Grade.--Hand picked, practically normal shape, practically free from dirt, disease and insect injuries, and properly packed. Limit of defects allowed: Not more than 15% of all nor 5% of any one kind. Only one variety and grade should be put in a package. In the grade specifications given, normal shape refers to the general form of well-grown specimens of the variety in question. For instance: The Wealthy is regular in outline and nearly round, while the Hibernal is somewhat flat and often irregular. In like manner the color must be typical of the variety, whether green, yellow or red. Red apples usually sell better than green or yellow varieties, although the quality may be even poorer. Fruit showing insect or disease injuries cannot be classed as well grown. Grading to size is very important. This is not specified because it depends upon the variety and season. Only apples above a selected minimum size, as 2-1/2 inches, the diameter at right angles to stem, should be placed in the same package. Defects refer to apples not up to grade in size, color or shape and having bruises, punctures, disease or insect injuries. _Fancy._--For persons having extra choice fruit, a fancy grade can be used. Well-grown specimens, hand picked, of normal shape, at least two-thirds colored, free from dirt, diseases and insect injuries and properly packed. Not more than 5% of combined defects allowed, of which only 2% can be of the same kind. Hundreds of letters were sent to persons in the state, telling them that we would maintain an information bureau or clearing house to help them in finding markets for their apples. Several growers replied, and the names of persons who were anxious to buy apples were given them. Nine farmers' clubs asked for information as to where Minnesota apples could be bought. This is a beginning, and it shows that there is need for some sort of an organization that can find out where apples are and who wants them. The intention has not been to interfere with the regular trade routes, but to give the growers information as to who wants apples. As you will notice, this does not bring the producer directly to the door of the consumer. There must be some one to act as a go-between in most cases. It was just stated that Minnesota is a state having a very large number of co-operative business organizations. Among these are about two hundred live stock shipping associations having a very simple form of organization. A number of persons in a community, having considerable stock to ship, come together, adopt a simple set of by-laws which provide for the selection of a manager, his compensation--usually a certain percentage on the gross receipts--and a small amount for losses which may occur. No capital stock is required--only the actual living stock. The manager ships the stock at certain times, and when the returns come in deducts the amounts provided for expenses and then returns to each shipper his proportionate amount. In this way the stock is sold at the terminal yards the same day and with other stock from many sections. It is a very simple, satisfactory way of marketing. The more I study and think of our apple situation, the more I am of the opinion that a very large part of our fruit could be marketed in a similar way. Some of our La Crescent friends ship together in carlots successfully. Why not others? This is the very best way to begin co-operation in a successful way. As Mr. Collingwood says: "Co-operation, like charity, should begin at home and be well nurtured." In other words, begin to co-operate at home in a small way and let the future large organizations take care of themselves. To be specific, let the growers in a community meet and form a fruit-shipping association with by-laws patterned after the successful stock-shipping associations. Then the fruit should be well grown, picked in time, graded thoroughly and honestly packed and marked. Haul at once to car. The manager will take charge and ship as he thinks best. Each package must have the customary identification marks, so the manager can keep an accurate record of all transactions. If, by chance, trouble comes up, the shippers can pool their interests, and send a representative to find out the trouble. Thus they can do together what each cannot do alone. Even this does not bring the consumers directly in contact with the producers. It is, however, a step nearer. The public auctions started in New York this season seem to have been successful, and it may mean an innovation which will improve marketing conditions in general. These auctions are held under the recently formed Department of Foods and Markets. The Department has contracted with a large auction company which advances the freight, conducts the sales, guarantees the accounts, and advances the net returns for the goods daily. The producer is able to get returns within two days. The total cost is 5% on the gross sales; 3% for the auction company and 2% for the Department of Markets for the advertising and for other overhead expenses. Posters have been issued to advertise New York State apples. As this Department has been working only for a short time, it is too early to tell whether it is a success in every way. We earnestly ask your co-operation in trying to solve the question of marketing Minnesota apples. All interested must assist in this important subject. * * * * * WORLD'S TALLEST TREES.--The tallest trees are the Australian eucalyptus, which attain a height of 480 feet. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. HARDY CHRYSANTHEMUMS. The new type of hardy chrysanthemums called "early-flowering" has been largely developed by a Frenchman named August Nonin, of Paris, who has devoted much of his life to perfecting this strain from seedlings of the old-fashioned "mums" of our grandmothers' gardens. It is considered by far the most satisfactory kind to grow out of doors, blossoming earlier than the pompons. A few of the best of these early-flowering types are: White--Crawford White, Dorothy, Milka and Normandie; yellow--E'toile d'Or, Carrie, October Gold; pink--Beaurepaire, Eden, Le Danube; red and bronze shades--Harvest Home, Firelight, A. Barham and Billancourt. These are the earliest bloomers of this type. Hardy pompons are still most largely grown for outdoor flowering, but of these there is also a choice, as the earliest bloomers are the most desirable to use. Lilian Doty, a large-flowered, clear, bright pink, is considered the very best of these. Donald and Minta are other good pinks. The earliest whites are Queen of the Whites, Waco, Grace and Myer's Perfection. Jeanette, Wm. Sabey, Golden Climax and Zenobia are the best yellows, and Julia Lagravere, Urith and Tiber the best crimson and bronze shades. There are many other beautiful pompons, but they bloom too late for practical out-of-door use. The single mums have of late been used successfully out-of-doors when early blooming varieties have been chosen. Of these Elsa, Gladys Duckham and Mensa are the earliest whites: Ivor Grant, Mrs. Southbridge and Mrs. Buckingham the earliest pinks; Josephine, Golden Mensa and Marion Sutherland the earliest yellows; and Silvia Slade, Ceddie Mason and Brightness the earliest crimson and bronze shades. As soon as it is warm enough in the spring the plants should be set out about twelve inches apart in rich garden soil, and kept pinched back during May and June to insure a stocky growth. If one has old clumps in the garden, they should be taken up and divided and set in new earth just as any old perennial plant would be treated. During the hot summer weather they should be well watered once a week and sprayed in the cool of the evening. This will keep down the black and green aphis, the worst enemies of mums. In case these pests become a menace a spray of tobacco water will end the trouble. A little bone meal or well rotted manure dug about the plants in August will help to produce fine blooms. A gardener who has never yet lost a plant through winter-killing treats them as follows: After they have finished blooming he cuts them down to about eight inches above the ground and lets the leaves blow in on the bed, covering to a depth of six or eight inches. Then he lays pine branches over the beds to prevent the leaves from blowing away. So treated, the plants will remain frozen all winter. They should in all cases be set in a well drained position, as they will not stand "wet feet." Uncover with the other perennials in the spring.--Mrs. E. W. Gould. BEE-KEEPER'S COLUMN. Conducted by FRANCIS JAGER, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul. The Minnesota honey crop of 1916 will probably be a record breaker. This brings up the question of how to market this crop to the best advantage. Let me state at once that the greatest obstacle to free and easy selling of honey is the careless, untidy, sometimes unsanitary way some bee-keepers put up their honey for the market--spoiling the appetite of the public for this most delicious of nature's foods not only for themselves but also for progressive and up-to-date bee-keepers. The result of this big honey crop will be to eliminate the No. 2 and No. 3 bee-keeper and his honey from the market until No. 1 has sold out his product. A short article like this cannot make a good bee-keeper out of a poor one, it can only serve as a reminder to those who know how "lest they forget." Moreover, the most careless and backward bee-keepers imagine that they are crackerjacks at their trade, thus putting themselves beyond the possibility of becoming anything. It takes a thousand hammer-blows to drive home a truth or a useful idea. If comb honey is your specialty observe the national grading and packing rules. They are printed in all bee papers and magazines, and have been given all possible publication to reach you. To obtain fancy comb honey your sections must have been made over strong colonies in No. 1 white, new sections with extra thin top and bottom starters. After the honey flow is over in your locality (which you can detect by the tendency of bees to rob and be cross) remove your comb honey at once. By leaving it on, travel stained and propolis spotted sections will result. The snow white finish of the comb will be discolored, the wood will assume that "used and handled" appearance which is not attractive to the buyer. The sections must be graded fancy, No. 1 and No. 2. Every section must be scraped around the edges and all propolis removed. Some bee-keepers even polish the wood of the section until it looks as clean as if it just came from the factory. After cleaning and grading put up your honey into standard shipping cases. Do not ship it in the super where it was raised nor in a soap box. If shipped to a distant market by freight or express, eight shipping cases must be packed together into one honey crate provided with handles. The tendency of late is to put up each comb in a separate paper box with transparent front to keep the honey free from flies and finger-marks. This practice deserves universal adoption. If you produce extracted honey you may leave your honey with bees for a week or two after the honey flow is over. Extracting should be done in hot weather, during August or early part of September. A modern hand or power extractor is an absolute necessity. There are still a few old timers who "butcher" their bees late in the fall, and render the honey by the "hand mash and sheet strain" method, but they are only relics of a poetical past and going fast. Honey to be extracted must be well capped over. If extracted too thin it will ferment and get sour. If left with bees too long it will be too thick and hard to extract. Extracting ought to be done in a bee-tight room to keep out robber bees. Extracted supers may be returned to the bees in the evening or piled up at a distance in a safe place for bees to clean out. Extracted honey must be left to stand in a settling tank for about a week, or until all air bubbles and wax particles have risen to the top. It should be put up into five gallon cans or barrels for wholesale trade. For retail trade it should be bottled when needed, else it will candy in the glass. Bottling it hot or heating it after bottling will delay crystallization for a considerable period. The bottles ought to be white, clean and labeled with your name. Each kind of container should be well packed in a wooden shipping case. Do not make it a practice to sell a large amount to a customer at once, sell rather smaller amounts at frequent intervals. ORCHARD NOTES. Conducted monthly by R. S. MACKINTOSH, Horticulturist, Extension Division, University Farm, St. Paul. Once in a while it is well to pause for a few moments to consider some of the results of past efforts. We have been growing apples in Minnesota in large quantities. Insects and diseases are causing more damage each year, and this has lead us to pay more attention to the prevention of these pests. A regular spraying program has been outlined, and many persons have adopted it. What are the results? It seems to us that the results of spraying at West Concord, Minn., should be made known to the readers of the MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST. It indicates very clearly the value of spraying and how someone in a community can take charge and diligently push for better methods. In this case the instructor in agriculture, with the aid of his superintendent and board of education, secured a power sprayer and began to spray the orchards in the vicinity. At first it was necessary to ask the owners if they might spray their trees. After three years, however, the owners appealed to Prof. Updegraff to have their trees sprayed. This year he had more work than he could manage. Demonstrations of this kind show the value of the work so vividly that the most skeptical gradually becomes convinced of its value. Several schools have purchased spraying outfits. We hope that we shall hear from more of them in the future. In many cases the spraying outfit is used for whitewashing the interior of barns and other buildings. Reports that come to the Agricultural Extension Division indicate that there will be a surplus of apples in some sections this year. We want to assist in the distribution of the surplus and shall continue the Apple Clearing House again this year. If you have more apples than you can sell locally please let the division know what you have to sell. Address the Agricultural Extension Division, University Farm, St. Paul. Apples for market must be graded and packed properly if they are to be sold through the regular trade routes. The barrel is the standard package in most parts of the country. The bushel basket is being used for early fruit in some markets. All fruit for sale should be _hand picked from the tree_ (not from the ground) and allowed to cool. Grade according to size and freedom from insect and other injuries. Pack carefully so as to avoid bruising. When cover is put on press firmly in place. Do not allow fruit to shake about while in transit. Pick early maturing fruit while more or less green. Ripe fruit will not keep well during hot weather. (See page 321 of this number.) Late August and September is the time when practically all our county fairs are held. It is hoped that the exhibits of fruits, vegetables and flowers will be large and of good quality. Follow the premium list very carefully. Put on the plate the right number of specimens. Pick apples so as to leave stems attached. Quality means specimens of perfect shape for the variety, free of insect or disease injuries, without bruises and well colored. Vegetables should be well selected in every particular. Select the specimens that you would like to use. The overgrown specimens are not always the best. [Illustration: A VALLEY LAWN WITH SHRUBBERY ON BORDER OF WOODS. FORMERLY OCCUPIED BY HENHOUSE AND YARDS. View on same grounds with garden pergola shown on page 331.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted In estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 SEPTEMBER, 1916 No. 9 The Pergola--Its Use and Misuse, Convenience and Expense. CHAS. H. RAMSDELL, LANDSCAPE ARCHITECT, MINNEAPOLIS. Let me take you by a brief word picture to Italy, the first home of the pergola as we see it hereabouts today. On the hills and vineyards above the sea, in that sunny land, I can see a beautiful home or villa, seemingly about to tumble off the rocky point on which it rests. Indeed, so scant is the space about the building that none is left for trees to shade the white house from the heat of the tropic sun. But shade must be had to break the glare of the noonday. The vine and the grape thrive amazingly near the sea, and this necessity evolved the pergola. It was compact, could be made straight or curving, short or long, usually narrow but still supporting to some height the delicate leaves and fruit of the grape. Thus, the Italian secured his shade and made an interesting walk or approach. Because of its open work and light proportions the views of the beautiful Italian sea and sunset were not blocked but thereby improved, each view framed in by the pergola pillars, with the picturesque tracery of the vine clinging to them. Here was its home, and here it was perfect in its setting. We Americans, in our zeal to secure all that's good, have brought it bodily to our homes. But like much else that's transplanted, we do not always look well to the new conditions as comparable to the old. The pergola is, however, too valuable a garden feature to do without. Our greater care should be to study our need, use the pergola when advisable for some other feature, like one of those illustrated on this sheet, when more appropriate. In construction the pergola is usually made of materials to match the house, sometimes masonry or stone pillars as well as those of wood. The rafters and lighter beams should be made of the most durable wood, preferably cypress, and carefully painted. The pillars may be of classic design or of more modern lines, but if they are of a thickness greater than one-seventh of their height, they are not proportionate to the light load they carry. Preferably, the columns rest on and are anchored to concrete or stone footings in the ground. The supporting rafters from pillar to pillar are the heavier construction, the cross beams, etc., the lighter. [Illustration: Pergola over garden gate, with planting to screen kitchen garden, in Minneapolis.] The surface of the ground beneath the pergola should be made of weather proof brick or tile floors. They shed the surface water and make it useable in damp weather, not possible with the turf. The cost of these structures is largely optional with the builder. One clever with carpenter's tools can build one at the cost of his time and lumber. The other limit cannot be set. Masonry pillars, cypress lumber, pavement of the floor, the size, cost of design, etc., will, upon occasion, bring up this cost to that of a small house. I have found a firm in Chicago who will ship one complete, ready to set up, following one's own design, or, after submitting standard designs and photographs of their work. They sell one 8 feet long, 7 feet 6 inches wide and 7 feet 6 inches high with 10-inch columns for $45.00, each additional 8-foot section $25.00, f.o.b., Chicago. The pictures shown of such a pergola are highly attractive. From this figure the cost runs up to $500.00 and even $1,000.00 for circular construction eight-four long and correspondingly heavy. Of course, one can secure low figures from any local millwork company if a good detailed design is available. In this way good distinctive work is possible. Its uses are infinite. It may serve to connect the architectural lines of the house with garage or other smaller building. It may lead from house to garden, or along an overlook walk along the river or lake. It may encircle a garden pool or an important statue. It can be made an approach to a band stand, or other park building. It will make part of the garden background, but should not be depended upon without the higher foliage so eminently desirable. [Illustration: A garden pergola erected last summer on clients' grounds south of Lake Harriet, Minneapolis--covering walk from house to garden, sixty five feet long.] Do not make the mistake of expecting a pergola to serve as a porch or outdoor place to sit or sleep. One needs the roof of a tea house to keep off the evening dews or occasional shower. It cannot be made a large feature of the grounds like a garden. It is not important enough. It will not, without trees and high shrubs behind it, make any background as will a garden wall or lattice. It is no barrier along a street or of any use as a fence or division line. And sometimes the lines of a house or building may be better carried by a rose arch or vine arch without the expense of a pergola. Thus you see it has its limited place, and its use must be decided upon with good taste and judgment. The pergola is almost incomplete without the growing vines on it. A four years' growth of Beta or Janesville grapes (which we don't have to lay down for winter), will give one a beautiful showing of the hanging fall fruit. The bittersweet is also good with yellow fall fruit. The several varieties of clematis are desirable if combined with the heavier growing grape or woodbine. The woodbine is good for its fall color, although weedy in growth. The Minnesota honeysuckle should be mentioned, also the Dutchman's Pipe and the Solanum, all good in a limited way. The climbing roses are all right to use, although they lack foliage background and have to be laid down every winter. However, I like to believe the man who designed the first pergola had the grape vine in his mind in so doing, for the two fit conditions like hand and glove. It is a structure of charming possibilities. Its lines curve as well as any other feature. Its proportions should be always light and graceful. It adds much to almost any garden or home grounds when carefully used. Its open work overhead typifies the freedom of the outdoors. It also recalls the vine and its growth to the light. And if we temper our enthusiasm with good sense, its use will be fortunate and the result a happy one. Packing and Marketing Apples. H. M. DUNLAP, PRES. ILL. ORCHARD CO., SAVOY, ILLS. The growing of apples is one problem, the marketing is another. The two are intimately related but entirely different. It is essential in obtaining the best results to first grow good apples for the market. This, like the darkey's receipt for rabbit soup, comes first. The darkey says, "first kotch your rabbit." Many a grower who understands fairly well how to produce good fruit is lost when it comes to selling it to an advantage to himself. You notice that I said "to himself." It is often done to the advantage of the buyer. Like most inventors the apple grower usually needs assistance in selling what he has produced. The grower who connects up with the best methods in this particular gets best results. No one can long be successful whose methods are not careful and honest in the packing of apples. _Equipment for Harvesting the Apple Crop._--There are some who insist that the only way to pick apples is to use a basket lined with cloth. These insist that the use of the basket in picking is the most careful method and that the bruising of the apples is reduced to a minimum. I have, however, seen apples handled very roughly in baskets. The picker hangs the basket on the tree, on the ladder rung, or sets it on the ground and then proceeds to shoot the apples into the basket from distances of one foot or six or eight feet away. The bottomless picking sack, with broad straps across the shoulders, has come into use within the past few years in many commercial orchards. My experience is that either the basket or sack is good if rightly handled, and either may be objectionable if care is not exercised. My own experience after using both is in favor of the sack. If care is used no more bruising will be done than with the basket, and it is far more expeditious. Both hands are at liberty for use in the picking. The sack should not be shifted about, and the picker should not be allowed to lean against the rungs of the ladder with the filled sack between. The sack should be lowered into the picking crate so that the apples have no drop in emptying the sack. Pointed ladders are the best for tall trees and less liable to injure the tree or turn turtle and upset the picker. A packing house is essential if best results are to be obtained, but many growers use the canvas-covered table in the orchard, picking and packing the product from sixteen to thirty-six trees at a sitting, and then moving the table to the next center, and in this way the entire orchard. In good weather this is not so bad as might seem, but at times the sun is very hot, or sudden showers saturate everything, and in the late fall the weather is too cold and frosty for comfort. On the whole, therefore, a good sized packing house or shed built at a convenient place in or near the orchard is the more desirable method of handling the crop. This building must be large enough to give room for a sorting table three feet wide by sixteen or more feet in length, or, better still, room for an apple grading machine of best pattern, which will occupy about three feet by twenty feet. There should be a space on one side or end of the building for unloading the bushel crates with which all well regulated orchards should be equipped, when they come from the orchard. These crates can be stacked up four or five deep, and there should be adequate room for these based on necessities. There should be room for at least a day's supply of apple barrels and a place to cooper them up by driving the hoops and nailing same. There should be enough room to face and fill barrels and head them up and to stack up enough for half a day's hauling ahead. The size of this building will depend upon whether you are barreling 100 barrels per day or 1,000 barrels. For the former a building 28x20 feet will answer very well. For the latter amount 60x100 feet would be none too large. This building should have skylights in the roof. I build these of ordinary greenhouse sash about 3x6 feet, usually putting in two of these in each building on the north or east side of the roof, according to the slope, and directly over the sorting end of the table. This will give you light an average of thirty minutes more each day and prolong the day's work that much, or at least make it possible to do better work on cloudy days and in the evenings. The building should be approachable on all four sides with the wagon, and doors either sliding or hinged should open at least ten feet wide for taking apples in and out. For example, I have my sheds arranged to take the fruit as it comes from the orchard on one side of the building. The number one apples go out one door, and in case I use a grader the number two go out another side. The cider apples also take their route. The fourth side is used for supplying empty barrels as needed. Thus you see the necessity for getting to all four sides. On the side where the filled barrels are loaded onto the wagon there should be a raised platform so that the loading can be carefully and easily done. A bin for the cider or vinegar apples should be built with a roof on same. Low-wheeled, platform wagons are needed to haul fruit from the orchard to the packing house. _The standard barrel of three bushels_ capacity is used generally by the commercial orchardist in preference to the box. Good hoops are growing scarcer every year, and some, including myself, are using two or four of the six hoops required of the twisted splice steel wire variety as being both safer and more economical. In transit or in storage they hold better and do not break and scatter the contents of the barrel over the car floor or storage warehouse. The best floor for the apple house is concrete. The next best is to cover the ground with coal cinders and lay 2x4 flat on the cinders, filling between them with cinders to a level and nailing the floor boards to these 2x4. This gives a good solid floor at little expense. The walls are of 4x4 uprights, about eight feet apart, resting on 8�8�12 concrete blocks with a half inch iron rod imbedded in the concrete and countersunk in lower end of upright 4�4 to keep the latter in place. Nail ties of 2�4 are used, and to these are nailed common lumber surfaced. The roof consists of 2�4 or 2�6 rafters, usually three feet apart, with 1�6 boards spaced about three feet apart as sheeting. The covering in this case is of galvanized corrugated iron, suitable length, of No. 26 gauge. The doors of this building should be on rollers, and with two or more double doors on each of the four sides to give plenty of light and easy access to and from the building. The roof and dry floor are the important parts of such a building, and you only need the walls as a support and occasionally to break off the wind when weather becomes chilly. What you should avoid in a packing house is narrow doors, dark interior and access from only one or two sides. _Picking._--I have found it most satisfactory to pick by the bushel, keeping a foreman in the orchard to see that crates are filled full, ladders and apples carefully handled. Each picker is provided with tickets of a certain number which corresponds to the one opposite his name on the sheet tacked to a small board or clip carried by the foreman. Each picker is assigned a tree, and his empty boxes are distributed to him from the wagon. When filled the number is tabulated by the foreman and loaded onto the wagon and hauled to the packing shed. Here they are stacked up and afterwards emptied onto the sorting tables or machine grader, and from thence into the barrels. _Hauling to Market._--The barrels when filled are not allowed to lie around, but are hauled immediately to the car or storage. Failure of winter apples to keep in storage may often be traced to the packing shed, where the apples stand in the crates or lie in the barrels for a number of days, perhaps a week or two in warm weather, before they are forwarded to storage. Sometimes delays occur at the storage owing to rush, and apples remain sometimes for a week or ten days in cars before they are unloaded. It behooves the grower not only to watch his own packing house for delays, but the storage company also. In one instance I lost $1,000 on five cars of apples that were without refrigeration five weeks owing to the storage warehouse not being completed. I knew nothing about this until two years afterwards. Hauling to the station is done on wagons or motor trucks equipped with a rack that permits the barrels being carried lying down, but supported at each end of the barrel so that the weight of the barrel does not come upon the bilge. They can be so racked up that one wagon will carry fifty-five barrels. A three-ton truck will carry forty barrels of apples and haul forty more on trailer. Such an outfit in one of my orchards makes five trips in one day a distance of four miles, traversing forty miles and carrying 400 barrels of apples. One and one-half miles of this is over a well-graded dirt road, and two and one-half over brick and concrete pavement. In our Clay County, Illinois, orchards we have two 12-25 gasoline tractors that are used for cultivating during the summer and for hauling apples in the fall. These machines easily haul 110 barrels of apples on two wagons and make two trips a distance of five miles from orchard to town. _Loading Cars._--I am surprised at the lack of knowledge of how to properly load barreled apples into cars. Over half the cars going to market are improperly loaded. The best way is to place all the barrels crosswise of the cars with lower tier to the right side of the car, and the second tier the left of the car with the bilge lying in the hollows of the lower tier. The third tier should be at the right side again directly over the lower tier. If a fourth tier is added they should be at the left and directly over the second tier. In this way your apples are loaded to carry with the least injury to the apples. Being uniformly loaded they are easily counted from the top after they are in the car, and your loader can verify his wagon load count after the apples are all in and thus prevent mistakes. _Packing Apples._--The packing season is a busy one. Often the grower finds himself short of help, and when this is hard to get he is sure up against it if he wants to do a good job of packing. First make your estimate of the crop you have to harvest. If inexperienced, get an experienced man to help you. You need this estimate for two reasons. You must determine the number of packages you need, which must be contracted for in advance, and you need to know how much labor you need to get the crop in within the time limit. You should not begin harvesting too early, for immature fruit, poorly colored, brings a lower price, and you do not want to be so late that the fruit mellows up or drops from the trees before it is gathered or is caught by a freeze. I will relate a little experience of mine in the latter connection. In the autumn of 1911 I had a heavy crop on a hundred and twenty acre orchard. The season was rainy, and we lost six days during October, which put us across the line into November with our picking. The last days of October or first of November brought a severe freeze when the mercury went to twenty, or twelve below freezing. This lasted two nights and one day. The apples were frozen absolutely solid through and through on the trees. As I had over 12,000 bushels, all Willow Twigs, unharvested, it was an anxious time for me. The second day was cloudy with the temperature at thirty-four degrees, just freezing, and the following night it remained at the same point, for we were enough interested to note the temperature. This continued up until noon of the third day, when the frost was out of the apples and we proceeded with our picking. These apples kept perfectly and were sold the next May at $4.50 per barrel. There was no perceptible difference between the apples picked before or after the freeze. Two years later my experience was different. We were caught with 1,000 bushels on the trees by an equally severe freeze. The sun came out bright the following morning, and by noon the temperature was up to fifty degrees. The apples turned brown and looked like they had been baked. They were good only for vinegar. The variety in both cases was Willow. In packing apples it is a good plan to use a corrugated paper cap on both ends of the barrel, in addition to a waxed paper next to the apples on the face end, stenciled with the name of the grower and his postoffice address. Use uniform sized apples for the face as much as possible, and of good color. The face is permitted to be 20 per cent. better than the contents. Drop facing I consider best for the second layer rather than double facing, as it holds the face apple in position better and presents a more solid face to the buyer when opened. The barrels should be filled uniformly from bottom to top with an even grade of fruit. No reputable packer will attempt any fraud upon the purchaser in this respect. In tailing off the barrel preparatory to putting in the head, the better way is to face the apples on their side in concentric rings with the color side of the apple up. I would not select these apples as to size or color, but let them correctly represent both as they run through the barrel. There can be no objection, however, to your putting the colored side of the apple up. We should always look as well as we can, and first impressions if good, while not always lasting, are desirable in the apple business of inspecting packages. In filling the barrel care must be taken to gently settle the apples into place by shaking the barrel from time to time as it is filled. After the bottom is faced off the corrugated cap is placed on the apples, with the smooth side next to the apples, and the head pressed into place. It is well to use headliners to secure the heads and not trust to the use of nails alone. Have some regard for the man who has to open these heads in storage or the salesroom. Try a few yourself if you never have, and you will use headliners for him who comes after if for no other reason. Mr. Kellogg: How do you get rid of the waste apples that would rot in the orchard? Mr. Dunlap: We have a large vinegar plant, and we convert the cider into vinegar and sell it as cider vinegar. We have sometimes shipped the fresh product of the cider mill to factories, where it is made into vinegar. Then there are evaporators for evaporating them. Take a certain grade of apples not good to grind up into cider, and they evaporate this grade of apples. Then there are canning factories that also take them. The cider mill is a very good way to work up your culls and then sell as vinegar. A Member: What do these apple graders cost? Mr. Dunlap: From $75.00 to $125.00. The price usually depends upon the equipment. A Member: Do you use clear cider for vinegar? Mr. Dunlap: I use clear cider for making vinegar, and if it is too strong to meet the requirements of the law we dilute it when we sell it. A Member: I would like to ask if you have any difficulty in getting your cider vinegar up to the requirements of the law? Mr. Dunlap: We do not have any trouble about that, except that made from summer apples. Any cider that will grade 18 or 24 with the saccharimeter in the fall of the year, when it is made, will make good vinegar. A Member: Do you pack all one-size of apples in a barrel? Mr. Dunlap: No. A Member: Do you use very nearly the same size apples in a barrel, or do you put large ones at the top and bottom? Mr. Dunlap: I have heard of growers doing that, but the only way to pack a barrel honestly is to select your facers--the law permits that they may have 20 per cent. advantage of the rest of the barrel. The rest of the barrel ought to be graded uniformly throughout. I don't mean by that they should all be apples of three or four inches diameter, but that they run above a certain figure with a minimum of 2-1/4 or 2-1/2, depending upon the variety you are packing. In running them over graders, which sizes them, all over that size go over the apron and into the barrel. A Member: Do you face both ends of the barrel? Mr. Dunlap: Yes, sir, we do. We do not undertake to select for the bottom or tail of the barrel apples as to size or color, but we do this--we lay those apples around in concentric rings and turn the color side or best looking side of the apple up and as nearly level as may be across the top and just the right height, so that when they are pressed into the barrel the barrel will be tight enough so as not to have the apples loose, and yet not have them bruised in the heading. It takes practice to do that just at the right height. The barrel should be shaken as it is being filled. If you do not shake often when being filled and settle the apples down so they reach the place where they belong, no matter how tight you make your barrel, when it gets into the car and on the train and in motion that constant shaking and jar will loosen the apples, and you will have a slack barrel. A Member: What sort of apples go to the canneries? Mr. Dunlap: That, of course, depends upon the season. If the season is such that the No. 2 apples are not worth any great amount of money, they will buy everything except cull stock below the strictly No. 1 apple and use them in the canning factory. If the price is high they will probably take the drops, those dropped in picking, or good sound drops. We usually make a practice of cleaning up our drops once a week off the ground in picking time. Before we begin picking we clean the ground entirely and run that through the vinegar factory, into the cider mill, and after that is done any apples that drop in picking they are disposed of in various ways, sometimes to the evaporator, sometimes to the canning factory and sometimes they are shipped in bulk if they are good sound apples and not injured in any way except perhaps for a few bruises. A Member: In debating the question of the grower and the cannery we are anxious to know just how far it is practical to use apples--what apples we can use after grading them, say, for instance, into Nos. 1 and 2? Can we use a deformed apple? For instance, do the canners in your country buy deformed apples--I mean lacking in roundness? Mr. Dunlap: They can use them; they are a little more expensive to handle when you put them on the fork to peel them. Of course, they have to use the knife on them afterwards in those places where they are not perfect, cutting out any imperfect spots on them. But as a rule they require pretty fair quality of apple for cannery and above a certain size. They wouldn't want to use anything less than two inches in diameter, and from that on, and they get as good apples as they possibly can. They have to limit themselves as to prices according to how much they can get for their product. A Member: What grader do you recommend? Mr. Dunlap: Well, I don't think that I care to advertise any grader. I am not interested in any. A Member: You are a long way from home, and it might enlighten the rest of us. Mr. Dunlap: There are several graders on the market, and for all I know, giving good service. I am using the Trescott, made in New York. A Member: What is the matter with the Hardy? Mr. Dunlap: I never used the Hardy--I don't know about that. Some of them will bruise the apples more than others. Mr. Sauter: What form of packing for apples will bring the best prices? Mr. Dunlap: I investigated that. I have packed as high as a couple of thousand boxes of apples, and I have taken the very best I had and barreled. I picked out the extra selects and boxed them. Then I took a No. 1 grade from those that that were left and the No. 2 grade, and my No. 1 grade in barrels were disposed of before I could sell my boxes at all in the market. The boxes were the last thing I could dispose of. Considering the extra cost of boxing I was out of pocket in selling them in boxes. Bushel baskets are all right, you can pack the basket with no more expense than packing a barrel. Mr. Brackett: What can a cannery afford to pay for apples? Mr. Dunlap: I have never been in the cannery business, I could not tell. Mr. Brackett: They are talking of starting a cannery where I live and I wondered what they can afford to pay. Mr. Dunlap: Some five or six years ago I sold a number of hundred bushels to canneries at 60 cents per hundred pounds. Whether they can afford to pay that or not I don't know. I haven't sold any to them for several years now. In fact, I should judge they couldn't afford to pay that for them because they went out of business. Mr. Brackett: In other words, they can't pay over 35 or 30 cents a bushel? Mr. Dunlap: I don't know what they can afford to pay. A Member: We had a canning factory that paid 40 cents a bushel of 50 pounds, that would be 80 cents a hundred. Mr. Brackett: Are they still in business? A Member: Yes, sir. Mr. Sauter: We had one that paid 52 cents a bushel. Mr. Dunlap: If they were to can these apples in Illinois and ship them up here they have got to pay freight to come in competition with your apples. Mr. Sauter: I sprayed last spring first with lime-sulphur, and my sprayer worked fine. I had a hand sprayer, but when I mixed the lime-sulphur and the arsenate of lead it almost stopped up. What was the matter, was it the mixture or the sprayer? Mr. Dunlap: Most all of these mixtures when you put them together ought to be more or less diluted. Mr. Sauter: How long must they stand dissolved? Mr. Dunlap: The lime-sulphur is in solution, and if you have that in your water tank the best way is to put your arsenate of lead in in the form of a paste and dilute it until you get it so that there is about two pounds of arsenate of lead to a gallon of water, and with that you can pour it into your tank and if you have an agitator in there you won't have any difficulty with it. In the early days of spraying when we used blue vitriol with lime, we tried a concentrated solution of the blue vitriol and lime and found we couldn't get it through the strainer, but by diluting it, putting our blue vitriol in one tank, and putting half of our water that we intended putting in the sprayer in that, and taking another tank and putting half the water and the lime in that and then putting the two together in this diluted solution, we didn't have any trouble, but in putting in the concentrated solutions together we had a sticky mess and all sorts of trouble. It would not go through the strainer. Mr. Sauter: How does the powdered arsenate compare with the paste? Mr. Dunlap: I haven't had any personal experience with the powder and I would have to refer you to the experiment station. Mr. Sauter: Powder mixes a great deal easier. Mr. Dunlap: Yes, sir. I had this experience with hydrated lime. The hydrated lime, as you know, comes in sacks and in the form of flour, and all you have to do is just to pour that into the water, and there is no trouble about mixing it at all. With lime from barrels that we used for making bordeaux, we would slake it and run it off into barrels, and there we diluted it so that we got two pounds to every gallon of water, our stock solution. But with the hydrated lime we can take so much out, so much by weight, and put it into the tank, and it dissolves right in the water. But we found this difficulty as between slaked lime and the hydrated lime. While the hydrated is very nice to use it did not possess the adhesive quality that the regular slaked lime did, and it would wash off the trees and take the vitriol solution with it, and we discontinued its use. Mr. Sauter: You think it best for anybody with a small orchard to make his own lime-sulphur solution? Mr. Dunlap: That depends on how he is equipped. It costs a great deal less to make your own solution than it does to buy it. Whether you could afford to do it or not depends upon the amount you spray and your equipment. You really ought to have, in making your own lime-sulphur, a steam boiler, although you can make it in an ordinary farm feed boiler. You can boil it right in that and turn it out after it is made, stirring it with a wooden paddle while cooking. I find that if we are equipped for it we will make a product that is equal to the imported product, but we ought to have a little more equipment. We ought to have steam and run this steam into our cooking vat to keep it boiling at the right temperature right along, and boil it for an hour, and then have a mechanical agitator in the bottom of the tub that keeps it stirred up, and keep the cover closed down as nearly tight as possible so as to exclude the air as much as possible, letting the surplus steam escape, and in that way we get a product as good as anything we are able to buy, at less than half the price. If one is using a great quantity that is the way to do it, but in small quantities I don't think it would pay to bother with it. (Applause.) Marketing Fruit at Mankato. P. L. KEENE, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. (Gideon Memorial Contest.) Mankato has a population of about twelve thousand and is just about within the car-lot market. In seasons of low production it can easily use all the fruit grown in the vicinity, but in seasons of good production some must be shipped out. This irregular supply makes it difficult to obtain a satisfactory method of marketing the fruit. Nearly all kinds of fruit are grown here. Apples, strawberries and raspberries are grown to the greatest extent. There are several orchards having from five hundred to a thousand trees, while many small fruit growers have several acres of strawberries and raspberries. Plums, blackberries, currants and gooseberries are grown on a smaller scale, so that there is seldom enough produced to make it necessary to ship them. The number of varieties grown is very great, as it is in almost every locality where the industry is relatively young. There are over forty varieties of apples grown on a more or less large scale. This makes the marketing problem still more difficult. Many of the growers are beginning to specialize in two or three varieties, such as Wealthy, Patten, Northwestern and Malinda. Last year some of the growers produced as many as five carloads. Small fruits are brought in by the wagon load during the heaviest part of the season, making it possible for the fruit houses to load a car in a day. The commercial growers use good, practical methods of culture, keeping the land well cultivated and using cover crops and mulch; but many of the small growers of half-way fruit men--those who do not specialize in fruit growing--neglect their orchards. Most growers properly prune and thin their trees and bushes, while many are beginning to spray. In the picking, grading and packing of the fruit is where the great majority fail. After they have grown the fruit carefully and successfully, they fail to properly harvest and dispose of it. This fault lies in the fact that they have specialized in the production of their product and have given little time or attention to the marketing of it. They realize, though, that success in fruit growing depends as largely upon proper marketing as upon proper growing. The first step in marketing is the picking of the fruit. Fruit, as any other product, should be picked at a certain time; and the grower who allows his fruit to remain on the tree or bush too long, as is often done with the apple, until his work is caught up, is the grower who receives unsatisfactory prices for his product. Many farmers bring windfalls and bruised apples mixed with the hand picked ones and expect as much as the grower who carefully picks his apples. The picking utensils are also often a cause of injury. Tin pails, wooden buckets and boxes are used to too great an extent. These naturally bruise more or less of the apples as they are put into the pails, especially if extreme care is not used. The pouring of the fruit from one receptacle into another is still another source of injury. The small fruit grower usually handles his fruit with greater care than the apple grower does, for the simple reason that improper handling of these fruits soon shows itself, and the grower may find that he is unable to dispose of his fruit. The most common cause of injury to small fruit is over-ripeness. [Illustration: P. L. Keene.] The improper sorting and grading of fruit is another cause of unprofitable returns. All bruised, wormy or injured apples should be discarded at picking time. The presence of only a few inferior fruits in a lot will bring the price down considerably. The same holds true with berries, and is even more important, for if one berry rots it soon spreads disease to the other berries. For this reason the sorting out of all inferior fruit is essential, even more so than grading. The grading aids in getting better prices but is not necessary for profitable results. If small fruit is well sorted, the growers claim that it is not necessary to grade it, for the fruit will then be fairly uniform. With apples, grading is distinctly beneficial. Many marketable apples may be blemished so that their appearance is hurt, while their keeping and shipping qualities are but slightly injured. The best grade must contain apples uniform in size, shape and color, and free from all blemishes. Hence it is readily seen why at least two grades are essential. The growers at Mankato do not grade their apples to more than one grade and this amounts only to sorting. The best of the commercial apple growers carefully sort out the small and injured fruits, but a large portion of the growers even neglect this to some extent. The method of packing the fruit is very variable, and in fact a large part of it is not packed at all. Most of the small fruit growers use the sixteen quart crate, while the apple, if it is packed at all, is packed in barrels. One requirement of a package is that it be clean, and if it must be clean a secondhand package cannot be used. Many fall down here by using secondhand, odd sized and dirty crates or barrels. The shipping crate should be kept out of the field and off of the ground. The place for it is in the packing house. The apple growers often take their barrels into the field to fill them and thus more or less soil them. This is not done to any great extent at Mankato, for most of the barrel packing is done at the fruit houses, the growers bringing in the apples loose in a wagonbox. This is a good system as the apples are only handled three times: from the tree to the picking basket, from the picking basket to the wagonbox, and from here into barrels. By this method the apples are sorted both at the picking and barreling time. If the apples are to be graded or packed at the farm, a packing house should be provided at or near the orchard. It is needless to speak of the slack and inefficient method of marketing apples in sacks, salt barrels and odd boxes; but this is still done by some half-way growers. They often have to either take the fruit back and feed it to the pigs or give it away. Even when they are able to sell it, they barely cover expense of picking and marketing. Several methods of selling their fruit are available to the growers around Mankato. The different methods used are (1) selling direct to consumer, (2) selling to stores, (3) selling to wholesale houses, (4) selling to commission men. The amount handled in the "direct to the consumer" way is rather large in the case of small fruit, but there is very little so-called "apple peddling" done. Some growers have regular customers whom they supply yearly with a barrel or more of apples, but this is usually some friend or relative. Some growers peddle out their summer apples by driving through the residence sections of the city and selling to anyone who wants to buy and in such quantities as they desire, but not all growers care to follow this plan. Sales are always made for cash, except perhaps where a person is a regular customer. This method is too unsatisfactory to be used for winter apples but is often advantageous in disposing of a large crop of summer apples. The fruit is not usually in very good shape, and is often that which the fruit dealers have rejected. The fruit is marketed in any package that happens to be handy, or loose, in the box, and is measured out usually in small quantities to the buyer. [Illustration: A load of apples from P.L. Keene's orchard, near Mankato] The handling of berries direct to consumer is much more systematized and therefore proves more satisfactory to both parties concerned. The majority of growers sell a considerable quantity in this way. They pack in sixteen quart crates, and usually will not divide a crate. The berries are for the most part delivered on order of the customer, for cash. Each grower has his regular customers, and some advertise to a limited extent. This method is usually satisfactory to the grower for he sells at a fixed price, and over that which he could get at the stores. He finds that it pays him to furnish good berries, for if he delivers a poor crate the lady receiving that crate is sure to make it known to her neighbors, while a good crate will add to his reputation. Therefore, the grower will take particular pains to have the boxes well filled with good berries and delivered promptly, in order to hold this trade. In compensation he receives a good price, regular customers and a sure market for his product. The amount handled through the stores is about equal to that handled direct to the consumer, but in some seasons it is not as great. The grower demands cash, for he can get it at the other places, while most of the stores prefer cash rather than a trade basis, on account of the bother of handling the trade checks. Some stores, by offering a higher trade price, try to draw trade, but this does not attract the commercial grower. It may, however, attract the half-way grower. Most stores do not try to handle more than they can dispose of themselves. It is the small grower who sells to the stores. The large grower cannot get the prices that will pay him to bother with the store trade, while the fruit houses do not want to handle the small fruit grower's product, for it is usually of inferior quality. Hence, the store trade is a necessity under present conditions, even though it is not a very satisfactory method. The apples are brought to the stores in the same packages as to the consumer direct. The berries are handled in the same packages, but the condition and quality are more apt to be inferior than with those sold to the consumer. The stores usually re-sort the fruit before they sell it. They very seldom ship fruit. In case they get more on their hands than they can sell, they either store it for a few days, or sell to the wholesale fruit houses. There is more fruit handled by either one of the two wholesale fruit houses than by any other single way in Mankato. They handle the bulk of the apple crop grown commercially but will not take inferior fruit. The small fruit growers market a considerable portion of their crops through them, especially in years when they have more than they can dispose of to consumers. The wholesale houses offer no fixed price, except it be in a contract with some individual grower whom they know will bring in good fruit. When a load comes in they look it over and bid on it. If the grower is satisfied with the price, he sells, and if not he tries the other house or the stores. The commercial growers usually bring in their apples loose in the wagon-box, and the apples are packed into barrels here. This insures a clean barrel, properly packed. It enables the buyer to look over the load as it is being unloaded. One or two growers have a reputation good enough that the houses will buy their fruit barreled. All small fruits are handled in the sixteen quart crates and are not repacked. The grower delivers them as up to grade on his reputation, which will not last long if he does not furnish good berries. The grower usually tells the wholesaler when they were picked and the condition they are in. They do a cash business only. Very little has been handled through the commission men of other cities. A few carloads have been shipped to Minneapolis, but returns were not as satisfactory as when sold to the wholesale houses. In shipping the grower has to take more risk and do more work, such as packing and loading the car, than when he sells to the wholesaler. Most growers prefer to sell to the houses than to do this extra work, which they are neither used to, nor capable of handling. Besides this, most growers do not have enough fruit at any one time to load a car. There is no co-operative association at the present time, but the growers were trying to organize one last winter. In a certain way there is an agreement among the small fruit growers, in that nearly all of them agree to market their fruit in the sixteen quart crate and stick to certain prices as far as possible, and not to cut prices under other growers. This applies especially to the "direct to the consumer" trade. There are no street venders to whom the growers can sell nor with whom they would have to compete, and there is no city market at Mankato. Storage conditions have not been developed. The wholesale houses have small storage rooms of their own, but do little storing of home grown products, as they ship them out as soon as they get a carload. The stores store a few days in case they get an over-supply on hand. The growers store apples in their own cellars, often keeping them until the following spring. A few city people buy apples in the fall and store for winter use, but it is not very satisfactory for the storage houses do not regulate the temperature accurately enough. * * * * * PRUNING OF CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES.--The main reason that currant and gooseberry bushes do not yield satisfactory crops from year to year is due to the lack of proper pruning. Both currants and gooseberries produce their fruit on canes that are at least two years old, the first season being generally utilized for the growing of the canes, the second for the formation of fruit buds or spurs, and the third a full crop may be expected. These canes will bear for two and even three years, but each year after the third they begin to show a decided decline--the fruit becomes smaller and less valuable. In order to keep the production up to the standard, the bush should be placed on the rotation basis, that is, each year a few new, strong shoots should be permitted to grow. All the rest should be cut out, and also each spring a like number of the oldest canes should be removed. In other words, we should grow the same number of new canes that we take out in old canes. In this way, we eliminate the old and exhausted canes and keep the bushes in strong, vigorous growth. Further, as the season progresses, all shoots beyond those that we wish to use for fruiting later on should be removed and not permitted to utilize the food supply that should go to the fruiting canes.--E.P. Sandsten, Col. Agri. College. Support for an Overloaded Fruit Tree. MISS NELLIE B. PENDERGAST, DULUTH. Some years ago the writer wearied of the many objectionable features connected with propping overloaded apple trees, and found relief in a new application of the maxim of modern charity--"help people to help themselves." The average apple tree is quite capable of supporting its load of fruit, with a little assistance in applying its strength. This is satisfactorily given by overhead supports. My method is as follows: Take a piece of gas pipe, the diameter depending on the size of the tree and consequent weight of the load, and long enough to extend some two or three feet above the tree. The required height would be governed by the spread of the branches and the distance between the trunk of the tree and the proper point for support of the limbs. The pipe is placed against the trunk of the tree, pushed a few inches into the ground, and tied in several places tightly to the tree. On the top (which must be screw-threaded) is screwed an ordinary gas pipe end. Heavy cords are then run through holes in the top piece and tied to the branches wherever needed--the same cord often being made to tie several branches which are in line perpendicularly. [Illustration: View of apple tree with fruit laden branches supported by pipe or wire.] The branches should be wrapped with a bit of burlap or other suitable padding under the cord, as otherwise the friction resulting from the inevitable swaying of the heavy limbs on windy days would result in rubbing the bark off and possibly entirely girdling the branch. Pads should also be placed between the gas pipe and the tree trunk wherever there is contact, and under the rope where tied. What Frisky is Telling the Veteran Horticulturist. CHAS. F. GARDNER, OSAGE, IOWA. I am your cunning little squirrel, and as you have named me Frisky and have adopted me as a regular member of your family, I will tell you some little things I know about horticulture, or more properly, forest tree planting. [Illustration: Our squirrel.] My ancestors from way back through geological ages have all been lovers of nut trees and especially conifers. If you knew of the great districts covered with valuable timber that have come into existence by reason of our planting of nuts and conifer seed, you would be very much surprised. While we gather large quantities of seed for use as food during the long, cold winter months, each one of us secretes several thousand seed annually, widely scattered, in good places for trees to grow. The most of these scattered seeds remain in the ground and germinate where they were planted. My grandfather on my mother's side has told me that some of his relatives in Scotland were once accused of doing considerable injury to plantations of firs and pines by gnawing off the top shoots, which you know make pretty good eating for a hungry little squirrel. Wasn't that a great thing to make a fuss about? I believe my grandpa knew as much as you do about the real existence and natural history of the mastodon, the megatherium, the paleotherium and the pterodactyl. In the planting of forest trees we were assisted by birds. I will name a few who helped us the most in this northern latitude, or, as you call it, "the blizzard belt." You showed me the other day two beautiful oak trees, on your grounds that were planted by crows. Bluejays are great seed planters, also mourning doves; and the wild pigeons, now extinct, were great planters of many nut trees. Almost every variety of birds has assisted us in the planting of the seeds of trees, bushes and, in fact, all plants that bear valuable fruits or nutritious seeds. [Illustration: Chas. F. Gardner at his best.] While I think of it, I will tell you that I was born in a beautiful nest, made of moss, twigs and dry leaves curiously interwoven in the fork of a tree at a considerable height from the ground. I had four little brothers and sisters. We loved each other dearly and had a good time all cuddled up in our sweet little home. I wish you would let me go and visit them sometime this summer. Now if you have no objection I will take a little nap.--Frisky. Top-Working. O. W. MOORE, VETERAN HORTICULTURIST, SPRING VALLEY. From my experience in fruit growing I have come to the conclusion that the best method to apply in starting a commercial orchard in this section of country would be to gather apple seed from Duchess and Hibernal apples and plant them, in order that we might grow hardy seedling roots to be used in making root-grafts. After growing these apple seedlings one year I would graft short pieces of their roots to long Hibernal scions, plant them out in the nursery row and grow them the first year as a whip or single shoot. The second year before growth starts in the spring I would cut those whips back to the height where I wanted to start the head of the tree. After growth starts rub off all the buds except from four to six at the top, these being left to form the head of the tree. The trunk of the tree below these buds should be kept clear of all growth at all times. By this method we get uniform trees, as the heads, or tops, are all of an equal distance from the ground and all run very nearly the same size. Now we have those trees two years old in the nursery row, and as a foundation for hardiness we have done our best. We have taken seed from our hardiest apples to grow our seedling roots; we have grafted Hibernal scions onto those roots, which is supposed to be the hardiest apple wood that we have. Still there is one point that has not been touched upon, and that is, that it is not to be supposed that all of those seedling roots from the seed of our hardiest apples will be hardy. You may ask why? Well, because mother nature does not do business that way. We hear now and then the remark, "He is a good mixer." Well, if any man or set of men can beat mother nature at mixing they will have to do better in the future than they have done in the past. But remember that we have the Hibernal as a scion above those roots, and that is the best apple wood to root from the scion that I know of. Some may ask, why not use the Virginia crab? I answer, for the reasons above stated, as I have tried both. Our trees are two years old now and are ready to be planted in the orchard where they are to remain. Grow them in orchards one year. But if from drouth or some other cause they do not make a satisfactory growth, grow them two years. Then top-work their four or six limbs about six inches from their forks to any kind of apple that you wish to produce in a commercial way--but leave all small growth below those unions the first year. The second year cut everything away but the scions. If the planter will follow the above methods I am willing to stake my reputation as a fruit grower that he will have an orchard that will stay with him and give satisfaction. Very many apple trees, especially seedlings, when they come to bearing age are found to be worthless or nearly so. If those trees are taken in hand at any time under ten years old they can be readily top-worked to some good apple and completely changed in two years' time. The first year work center limbs or leaders, leaving the lower growth to be worked the second year. The third year by cutting everything away but the growth of the scions we have the tree changed over to a better variety of fruit. As to the size of limbs to graft I have always made it a point to never work limbs over one inch in diameter. But from one inch down to whip-grafting size, limbs from three-quarters to one inch, we set two scions. The wound heals sooner with two scions than with one. If there is too much growth in a year or two, cut a part of it away just above the union. Evergreens. JENS A. JENSEN, ROSE CREEK. Why not grow evergreens in the place of willows? When I came to Mower County if there were any trees planted they were willows, a few Lombardy poplars and Balm of Gilead. Since 1890 there has been a great deal of planting of evergreens, especially around Austin and Rose Creek. Some people think it hard to grow evergreens. One mistake they make is in planting too large trees. Another is in planting them in June grass sod, a sod that will not wet down one inch in a rain that lasts twenty-four hours. Evergreens should be planted in cultivated land, and then they will grow surprisingly fast. Plant trees from one to two feet. If wanted for a windbreak, plant eight feet apart; if two rows are wanted, plant trees sixteen feet apart, in rows four feet apart, the trees planted alternately. Norway, White and Black Hills spruce, also White, Scotch and Jack pine are doing well here. IN MEMORIAM--EZRA F. PABODY EZRA F. PABODY was born in Vernon, Indiana, July 26th, 1838. His father's name was Ezra F. Pabody, and his mother's maiden name was Mabel Butler. Comrade Pabody was married in Oxford, Ohio, October 10th, 1866, to Emma A. Brown. [Illustration: Portrait of the late Ezra F. Pabody, from a photograph taken ten years ago.] His education was acquired by attending, first, the common schools at Vernon, Indiana, until he was sixteen years of age; and in September, 1854, he entered Hanover College, where he spent five years. In 1859, he entered Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, and graduated from that University in June, 1860. In September of that same year he entered Princeton Theological Seminary, where he studied for one year with a view to entering the ministry, but the condition of his health interfered with his carrying out this purpose. In 1861, having come to Minnesota, and as volunteers were being enlisted to crush the rebellion, which threatened our country with destruction, his spirit of patriotism impelled him to offer his services to aid in maintaining the government. Accordingly he enlisted at Fort Snelling, September 25th, 1861, and was enrolled in Company "A," Third Minnesota Volunteers. In November of that year he was appointed Hospital Steward of the Regiment, but he was unable long to endure the activities of the service, and on July 9th, 1862, was discharged on account of disability. However, his loyal spirit would not allow him to rest if there was a place where he might serve effectively, and accordingly, on August 24th, 1862, he enlisted again,--this time in the 79th Indiana Volunteer Infantry, and was assigned to duty as Hospital Steward, in which office he continued until discharged for disability December 18th, 1862. After his army service, he engaged in the drug business at Vernon, Indiana. In 1875 he removed to Minneapolis and here followed the same line of business until 1888. In August, 1890, he was prevailed upon to take up City Mission work in connection with Westminster Church, and was ordained to the Gospel ministry in 1900. Retiring from the active work of the ministry in 1903, he passed the remaining years of his life in his quiet home at Zumbra Heights, Lake Minnetonka, where the death angel found him September 21st, 1915, after a long period of illness. His memory will be lastingly perpetuated by the development of his city mission work, known as "Riverside Mission," a neglected portion of Minneapolis, embracing what is known as "The River Flats," where the inhabitants, mostly foreigners, and in need of religious instruction, were taught by this faithful missionary and his estimable and consecrated wife to speak and sing the language of Heaven. The faithful wife and co-laborer, one son, E. Fitch Pabody, and one daughter, Eleanor (Mrs. Ward H. Benton), all of Minneapolis, survive him. Mr. Pabody is, of course, best known to the members of this society on account of his service with it in the past thirteen years. While not one of the oldest members of the society from a point of years in his connection with the society, in point of service he ranks very high, for during all the period of his service he was always finding something to do for the association. Several times he was on the program, in a number of official capacities he served the society, and especially as a member of the reception committee during a number of our annual meetings was he of largest use to the association, and his courteous and kindly ways we especially remember. Mr. Pabody was very near to the writer personally, and his taking away is largely in the nature of a personal loss. Mr. Pabody had a great love for horticultural pursuits. His garden and orchard occupied very much of his thoughts during the later years of his life, when he lived on the shores of Lake Minnetonka. It is hard to part with these old members who have so much endeared themselves to us in these many thoughtful ways.--Secy. Bread Cast upon the Waters. C. S. HARRISON, YORK, NEB. The instance recited below has nothing particularly to do with horticulture but a good deal to do with a "horticulturist," C. S. Harrison, of York, Neb., that picturesque veteran in horticulture, who has been an attendant at our meetings now for so many years, adding such a strong interest to our annual gatherings. Mr. Harrison recited at our late meeting the incident referred to here--without the denouement, which came to him in California this winter, where he met Mr. Lindbergh, one of Minnesota congressmen. As a result of this incident we had Mr. Harrison with again at our late summer meeting.--Secy. In 1861 I was living in Sauk Center, Minn., where I preached the first sermon. I had a tract of country under my care 100 miles in extent and had all sorts of work to do. Ten miles from Sauk Center there was a sturdy Swede who was at one time speaker in one branch of the Swedish parliament and for a while secretary to the king. He moved to Minnesota about the year '60. It seems he had not learned the art of graft, and he was poor. He took up a preemption and built him a little log house 12�16. One day he took a load of logs to the mill and, stumbling, fell on the saw. This caught him in the back and split it open, and also took a stab at his right arm. It was hot weather and no surgeon within fifty miles. I followed him to his home; we did not think he could live. I picked out the sawdust and rags from his back and kept the wounded arm wrapped in cold water, and now for a surgeon I got a horse from a neighbor and a man to ride him. I said, "Don't hurt the horse but go as fast as it is safe." Twenty miles ahead I knew another man with whom he could exchange horses, and then another relay brought him to the doctor. Dr. Hunter proved to be a good surgeon. We had kept the patient with such care that with his clean habits and robust constitution he underwent the operation all right. I helped the doctor, and we took off the arm near the shoulder. I had a busy time until the surgeon came. I stayed with the man all day, then drove home ten miles and was by his side early. It took the doctor about three days to get there. The horses were poor, and the auto did not exist even in a dream. By the next December the old hero was out chopping rails with his left hand. How poor the people were! Every dollar had a big task before it. The good doctor only charged $20. I rode quite a distance--got a little here and there and paid the bill. A son of the old man, C. A. Lindbergh, is now representative in congress from the 6th district of Minnesota. We discovered each other this winter. I have kept up a pleasant correspondence. His daughter, Eva, who helps her father, has just written me that she is going to be married in Minneapolis in June, and she wants me to perform the ceremony. All the friends and relatives will be there, and she wants the man who saved her grandpa. Thus, after fifty-five years, stirring memories of the past are awakened and happy anticipations of the future.--C. S. Harrison. SECRETARY'S CORNER MORE EVERBEARING STRAWBERRIES.--Mr. Walter Ferguson, of Mankato, has pretty near the record number of strawberry plants raised last year. From four plants of No. 1017 everbearing strawberries he reports having raised several over six hundred. He says he reset twelve new plants in July and they produced over three hundred. ADVANCE PREMIUM LIST, ANNUAL MEETING, 1916.--Elsewhere in this number will be found an advance list of premiums to be offered on vegetables and apples at the coming annual meeting of the society. There will be practically no change from this list, though there may be slight additions to it. Possible exhibitors may feel safe to save material for exhibition in accordance with the premiums therein offered. PASSING OF J.F. BENJAMIN.--Members of the society who have attended our annual meetings for the last ten or more years will readily recall the face and figure of this very loyal member of the society, who was always at hand to serve in any capacity as opportunity came to him. Mr. Benjamin was a successful fruit grower, not only from a financial standpoint but from his love of the art. We hope to publish a suitable sketch of his life at some later date. MUNICIPAL CAMPS IN NATIONAL FORESTS.--The City of Fresno, California, has established a fifteen-acre camp in an adjoining national forest, providing low cost outings for the school children of that city and their parents. Los Angeles is doing something similar on even a larger scale, and other municipalities are following suit. Minnesota has splendid national forests, and the time may come when the state or some of the municipalities of the state may be able to make similar use of these forests for the benefit of our people who are not able to go to larger expense to secure needed summer outing. THE APPLE CROP.--The Department of Agriculture in its August 1st report forecasts an apple crop of seventy-one million barrels against seventy-six million last year and a yearly average for the past five years of sixty-six million. The favored regions in apple growing this year are in the New England states and the Pacific states, the Central states showing a very large falling off in the apple crop, anywhere from four-fifths to one-fourth of previous years. NATIONAL VEGETABLE GROWERS' ASSOCIATION.--It seems there is an association of this character, called "Vegetable Growers' Association of America," and it will hold its next annual meeting in LaSalle Hotel, Chicago, September 26-29. Representatives of local vegetable growers' associations' will probably do well to get in touch with this national gathering. If any go from this state the secretary will be glad to receive from them a report of the meeting. Marketing, soil fertility, heating, packing, spraying and other subjects will be covered on the program. For further information address James B. Foley, Secretary, 3100 South Spaulding Avenue, Chicago. APPLE TREES AS A WINDBREAK.--John W. Maher, of Devils Lake, N.D., in correspondence has spoken at two different times of the use of apple trees as one feature of windbreaks in his vicinity, using such varieties as Duchess, Patten's Greening, Hibernal, etc. In this connection he says "probably it is only the amateur horticulturist who sets a row of young apple trees in the stubble fields as a windbreak for apple grafts, but this has been done here and the windbreak is satisfactory. I believe that the apple is more hardy in this kind of soil than it is generally considered to be. If the apple tree is properly limbed so as to shade its trunk and larger limbs it is a real success." HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY PERIODICALS.--February, 1894, the first number of the monthly issued by this society was published and sent out to its members. Publishing the report in this way as a monthly was an experiment, which has proved to be a very successful one indeed, and this method of publication has now for a long time been a permanent feature of the work of this society. In 1894 the society had about six hundred members. The increase in the membership of the association since that period has brought the roll to high water mark this year at 3,700. At that time as far as we know no other horticultural society was publishing its report as a monthly. Quite a number of state societies are now doing something of this sort, though not exactly following the same plan as the Minnesota society, our report appearing as a monthly magazine and being bound up later with list of members, index, etc., making altogether the annual report. The only association that has exactly followed our plan is the Manitoba Society. Wisconsin, Kansas, Nebraska, Virginia and other associations not now recalled are sending out a monthly to their membership. Illinois and perhaps some others are publishing a quarterly. Some of the state boards of horticulture are publishing a monthly, notably the California board, and in some cases the state boards of agriculture are doing this also. The plan inaugurated by this society is being slowly popularized and will undoubtedly continue to be made use of more and more as the study and practice of horticulture develops in our country. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. GARDEN HELPS FOR SEPTEMBER. _September Meeting of the Garden Flower Society_ will be held on the twenty-first, at 2:30 p.m., at the Minneapolis Public Library. _Topics_, "Fall Work in the Garden." "Planting for Fall and Winter Effects." "Vines and Their Uses." Have you taken any photographs of your garden, its individual flowers, or wild flowers for our photographic contest? It is not too late yet to get good pictures. Every member is urged to enter this competition. _Plant peonies this month._ Old clumps of hardy perennials may be divided and reset early this month. Flowering bulbs intended to be in bloom at Christmas should be potted now. Grass seed for new lawns or bad places in old ones can be sown this month. The daffodil makes an early growth and should be planted this month. After the first killing frosts the tender roots, like cannas, gladioli, elephant's ears, and dahlias, can be lifted with a fork and spread out under cover to dry, then stored in a cool cellar, free from frost. Do not cultivate the soil after September first. All newly set plants should be mulched lightly. All litter about the garden can be cleared away. Any plants that have been infested with insects or diseased should be burned. Leave no harbors for the eggs of insects, such as old weeds, grasses or litter of any kind. Seeds of native plants which you wish to naturalize should be gathered and sowed immediately in a shaded, well drained location, where the soil has some humus. Lily-of-the-valley should be planted this month. Try planting a few sweet peas late in September or early October. Important September blooming flowers are phlox, Japanese anemones; perennial asters, or Michaelmas daisy, so-called because they are supposed to be at their best on Michaelmas Day, September 29th; helleniums, helianthus, hardy chrysanthemum, pyrethrum uliginosum, boltonia. If you have not these flowers, try and visit some garden where they are blooming in order to know what kinds to grow. Poppies for next June's blooming can be sown this month. Be prepared for the first early frosts, having ready to use some light covering, such as cheesecloth. The garden can be prolonged from two to six weeks by this slight protection. ORCHARD NOTES. Conducted monthly by R. S. MACKINTOSH, Horticulturalist, Extension Division, University Farm, St. Paul. A CONFERENCE OF HORTICULTURAL EXTENSION WORKERS. A conference of the Horticultural Extension leaders of Wisconsin, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, Iowa and Minnesota was held early in August at the Iowa State College, at Ames. The subject of apple and potato clearing houses was the chief question discussed. The work of this kind was started by Professor Greene in Kansas when they had the big apple crop in 1913. Later Iowa and Minnesota undertook similar work. It is expected that a co-operative plan will be formulated which will be of greater value than when each state works alone. The visiting members were very glad to have President Pearson discuss co-operation as he saw it while visiting a dozen or more countries in Europe. One hour was spent in an automobile tour of the grounds and farms. Considerable land from one to three miles from the main campus is now used for experimental work. One of the latest additions to the horticultural equipment is a cold storage plant and range of greenhouses, costing over sixty thousand dollars. HORTICULTURAL TOUR IN WESTERN IOWA AND EASTERN NEBRASKA. The horticultural societies of Iowa and Nebraska joined in an automobile tour of the orchards, vineyards, nurseries, and truck farms August 2 to 4. The first day was spent in and around Council Bluffs. Interest centered around the large Co-operative Grape Growers' Association. A grand picnic dinner was served by the ladies. This association has been in active operation for fifteen years. Professor Beach emphasized the value of the work that is being done, and especially the value of having a contented lot of people in a community mutually interested in one kind of work. On the return trip a stop was made at the experimental apple orchard that is conducted by the Horticultural Department of the Iowa State College. This orchard of 900 trees was leased in 1910 for ten years to determine if an old orchard that has been unprofitable could be made profitable. Careful records have been kept of expenses and of the size and grade of all fruits produced under the several soil treatments. To date six crops have been harvested from the 475 trees under experiment. The lowest was 1,700 bushels in 1911 and the largest was 6,000 bushels in 1915. It is estimated that there is about thirty per cent. of a crop on the trees this year. Demonstrations were given in spraying, dynamiting trees, treating trees affected with blister canker, and grading apples with a large grading machine. The second day was spent in orchards near Omaha. Some excellent orchards that have been very profitable were visited. It had been very dry in that region, consequently the fruit was undersized. The third day was spent in southwestern Iowa, from Hamburg to Glenwood. It is impossible to tell about all the good things seen on this trip. We saw all kinds of pruning, cultivated and "sod cultivated" orchards and, above all, corn, corn and more corn. At Shenandoah the nurserymen and seedsmen took charge of the party and entertained all in a very hospitable manner. There were ninety at the noon banquet. In the afternoon they showed us the large nurseries and seed warehouse. Toward the end of the trip we stopped at a 40-acre orchard, mostly Grimes Golden. A hailstorm had injured the fruit very much. One of the great lessons gained from the 150-mile automobile tour was the fact that _spraying_ is _one_ of the _most important orchard operations_. It was interesting to hear what some of the older orchardists would say when they saw fruit injured by scab. It is an important matter with them, because it means dollars to have disease-free fruit to market. [Illustration: VETERAN DOUGLAS FIR, STANDING MILES OUT FROM THE PROTECTING MOUNTAIN, EXPOSED TO ALL THE FIERCE WINDS OF THE PLAINS.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 OCTOBER, 1916 No. 10 Camping on the Yellowstone Trail. CLARENCE WEDGE, NURSERYMAN, ALBERT LEA, MINN. I suppose that civilization is the correct thing for mortals to aspire to. As a boy, while I hated it with a bitter hatred, I accepted it as inevitable because my elders approved it and because it seemed indissolubly linked to the school, the church and the things of good repute. As I grow older the yoke sits easier on my shoulders, but doubts have increased as to its necessary connection with the good, the true and the beautiful. It surely kills the sweet virtue of hospitality. In my home church lately there was a call for volunteers to entertain a visiting delegation, and I was interested in observing how perfectly the number that might be accommodated in any home was in inverse ratio to the size and furnishings of the house. High heeled shoes and hobble skirts, two-story starched collars and tile hats are fashion signs of civilization, but I cannot see why a ring in the nose and a tattooed arm might not have answered just as well. I am getting harder to convince that a broad foot, shaped on the lines laid down by the Creator, is less beautiful or desirable than the one-toe pointed shoe, decreed just now by our particular brand of culture, and today I would as lief defend the cult of the simple red man as the savagery that disgraces the lands across the water. Whatever the merits of the matter, for one month of the year we and our tent and automobile abandon ourselves to barbarism, and live as we please. This year we chose to spend our month on the Yellowstone Trail, the road that leads from the Twin Cities to the Yellowstone National Park, and which is different from other roads leading in the same direction mainly by its yellow mark, faithfully directing the traveler on his way and preventing the loss of time in getting directions at doubtful cross roads. Our party consisted of a young botanist, and his wife, my wife, myself and our small boy Alan. Our equipment consisted of a tent, 7x7 ft., weighing, stakes, poles, partition and all, 16-1/2 lbs.; a trunk on the running board made to hold bedding and grub box, and an oil cloth to use as a tent floor. Like the Indians we go light, and live the simple life while on the trail. We get off at six o'clock in the morning, eating our breakfast on the move as we get hungry; lunch at noon by the roadside, and camp early, seeking the most interesting spot, from the top of a butte to a pleasant river valley--and cooking the one square meal of the day by such a brushwood fire as we are able to gather. [Illustration: "Us" and some others at a mountain cabin.] For the first few days we try to provide some straw to temper the hard earth, but as the days go by, and we get used to roughing it, we sleep soundly with nothing but a blanket and oil cloth between us and mother earth. We pin back the tent door, and with the night wind fanning our faces, close our eyes to the stars and flickering campfire. Some who have never camped are afraid of bugs, snakes and wild animals. We have spent our vacation month this way for twenty-five years, have camped in most of the counties of Minnesota, and in Iowa, the Dakotas and Montana, and have never had but one unpleasant experience of the kind. That was one night when we pitched our tent after dark on the bottoms below Fort Snelling, and did not know till we had laid ourselves down that a colony of ants had pre-empted the spot before us. We did not get much sleep, but we had the comfort of feeling that they were nice, clean, self-respecting, self-defending ants. Would that our experience in hotels had been equally fortunate! [Illustration: A young Douglas fir.] Leaving the western boundary of the forests of Minnesota near Glencoe and going across the prairie and plains to the mountain forests of Montana is an interesting experience. The only trees in Western Minnesota and the Dakotas are those found along the lakes and water courses, and west of the Missouri the trees and shrubby growth, even in such places, becomes very scanty or entirely disappears, giving a weird appearance to one who has always associated water and trees together in his mind. As we draw near the Montana line, trees begin to appear on the tops of the buttes and high bluffs on the distant horizon. Traveling on the railroad I have wondered what they were. With our own private car we satisfied our curiosity by zig-zagging our way up to a camping place among them, the first night they came in sight. Of course they were our old friends, the Ponderosa pine, whose name will always be associated with our grand old man from Nebraska. They ought to be renamed the Harrison pine. How they endure the drouth and cold in a soil so poor that grass withers and dies out, and how they stand erect where every other living thing bows to the bleak winds and blizzards of the prairies, is one of the mysteries of plant life. What a splendid bonfire we made of their boughs that night, flaring as a beacon out over the ocean of prairie about us! The day before we had passed by hundreds of clumps of a beautiful blue lupine with finely cut foliage and profusion of color that rivaled any flower of its shade I have seen in cultivation. On the way home we gathered a handful of seed from which we shall hope to grow some plants at home. We tried to dig a few to transplant, but their roots seemed to go down, down, till with my short handled shovel, I got discouraged. The herbage of the plains has learned to dig deep for water. [Illustration: A camp by the Red River of the North, Mrs. Wedge sitting by a giant cottonwood. Our 16 lb. tent at the right.] Leaving the Yellowstone at Big Timber and striking across the plains to the Snowy Mountains, we found the Ponderosa pine, and soon the Flexilis pine, wherever a rocky ridge is lifted above the level of the plains, so that these trees were in sight a large share of the time, even far away from large rivers and groups of mountains. If a homestead anywhere in that state is not cozily protected by bright colored evergreens it is not because there is any difficulty in getting trees that will thrive in that soil. [Illustration: A young Ponderosa pine.] The Snowy Mountains are in the center of Montana, quite unsheltered from the other ranges of the Rockies. It is the meeting place of the flora of the mountains and the plains. I think it is the eastern limit of that peerless tree of the Rockies, the Douglas fir. I gave my impressions of this tree to the society a year or two ago. I am still more in love with it from what I again saw last August in its native Snowy Mountains, and from the bright, sturdy little trees that have been growing at my home in Minnesota for two years past, giving assurance of their willingness to be transplanted to our moister air. It is the coming evergreen for the prairies, and it will be a happy day for all who plant an evergreen west of the natural timber when the Douglas fir has displaced the trees that come from the cool, moist forests of Europe and the sheltered woods of our own lake regions. I think the Snowys are also about the eastern limit of the little broad-leaved evergreen called the Oregon grape, that I believe every one in Minnesota can grow for Christmas greens. From my first acquaintance with it I got the impression that it required shade, but this time I noted that it was growing all over the bare ridges that radiate from the mountains, wherever it was possible for a little snow to lodge. We can substitute a light sprinkling of straw when snow is lacking. It certainly does not require shade. The Mariposa lily is a unique flower that springs up in open places and produces a white blossom about the size and shape of the wild morning glory. It grows about a foot high and produces one or two flowers on each stalk. It must have a long period of bloom for ripe seed pods, and blooming plants were common at the same time in August. The Canadian buffalo berry and a dwarfish birch are two mountain plants of no small ornamental value for the plains. They may not endure the moister air near the Mississippi, but there we have already many useful natives, like the black haw and thorn apple, that are as yet almost unnoticed. [Illustration: Group of Douglas fir on the mountainside. Thirteen trees in a space of only two square rods. None less than two feet in diameter.] One of the principal charms about the great country traversed by the Yellowstone Trail is its newness and freshness. Millions of acres just as the Indian, the buffalo and the coyote left them--broad stretches as far as eye can reach without a sign of human habitation. But this is fast passing away. Out among the sage brush in land as poor and desert-like as could well be imagined, homes are being mapped out by the thousand, and crops of grain were grown this year that rival the best yield in any of the older states. The time is close at hand when the main highways will be built up and made so hard and smooth that two hundred and fifty miles will be made as easily as our average runs of one hundred and fifty. The way will be safer and speedier, but it will lack some of the spice of adventure, and it will be harder to realize the simple life about the camp fire that now seems to harmonize so well with the wildness of the plains. The Minnesota Orchard. A QUESTION AND ANSWER EXERCISE LED BY J. P. ANDREWS, NURSERYMAN, FARIBAULT. Mr. Andrews: This is a very important subject. We have been talking about it a long, long time, and we have advanced a little, ought to have advanced quite a little more, and this exercise is along the road of improvement in that line. Anything that is bothering us, anything that is in the way of our success with the apple orchard, ask what questions you can, not that I can answer them all, but there are some good orchardists around here that I know I can call on, in case I can not. In this exercise the questions come first, and it is for you fellows to start the ball rolling. There is one thing we are lacking, that is winter apples. We have enough of fall apples, seems to me, so we can get along very well, but we are looking for something a little better quality than Malinda and that will keep somewhere near as long. All these new seedlings that have been introduced in the past and big premiums offered, they seem to have stopped right there and we are not getting the benefit of but one or two. If they had been adapted to the north, as they should have been, we undoubtedly could have had several good varieties of apples that we could recommend for planting a considerable ways north of here that are good. As it is now we are really looking in this southern part of the country for keeping apples. I should think if we could get these new varieties of seedlings that are keeping well introduced into the Fruit-Breeding Farm and let Supt. Haralson handle them under number and send them off to the north of us a good ways, we could have them tested. Those that have exhibited these new seedlings and got premiums for them, they ought to be a little more free to get them in some shape so that they will be tested and we will learn their worth. They have their premiums, they got those simply because they are good keepers. Well, now, that isn't anything in their favor for Minnesota planting, not very much. Of course, good keepers, that is a good thing, good quality is another thing, but the first thing is hardiness, and the people who have been drawing these premiums have been seemingly backward in getting them in shape to test. They are afraid to put them out for fear somebody might steal them, but if Mr. Haralson had the handling of them under number nobody could steal them. You have got title to them and control them just as well as when you keep them right on your place where they haven't a chance to show whether they are hardy or not. There is the weak point in this seedling business for Minnesota, I think. But the apple orchards of Minnesota, if you are not all getting the good results that you want from your orchards, if you are not all getting a full crop, what is the reason? The last year and this year we have failed of getting a good crop of apples or almost any crop, whereas before, ever since the old orchard was planted in 1878, why, we have regarded the apple crop as really a very much surer crop than almost any of the farm crops, but the last two years we have failed to get a crop. I attribute the poor crop a year ago to such an excessive crop as we had the year before that. Two years ago everything was loaded, breaking down, because we didn't thin them as we ought to, and we could hardly expect very much the next year. This last year, you know we had frosts quite frequent up to about the 10th of June, I think that was the reason we had such a failure this year. Our own orchard is on ground that is about 225 feet above Faribault, so we have got air drainage, and we would expect to escape frosts on that account and have as good a crop as anybody else would in that neighborhood. But that wasn't the case. We didn't get any apples, and yet during county fair why there was quite a nice show of nice fruit that they had picked up a few here and a few there, where really their location seems to me could not have been any better than ours. I don't know what the reason was, but it was very patchy, and I didn't dream we would have such a good show of fruit as we did, and I couldn't tell where it came from. Mr. Philips: I think when the trees are loaded so heavily, if you would pick off a third of them you would get more out of the balance of the crop. Mr. Andrews: Yes, I think that. The question is, if we pick off a third of a heavy crop, if we have a heavy crop, if that wouldn't help the next crop. It surely would. Mr. Philips: Help that crop, too, in the price. Mr. Andrews: Yes, sir, it will pay that year besides paying the next year, too; it will pay double. Mr. Philips: It is a good plan any year. Mr. Andrews: Yes, we ought to do that, we are lacking in that work of thinning the fruit. We sometimes have a late frost that will take off part of them, thin them that way, or wind, or something of that kind, and we rather depend on that feature of it. Then in that time of the year we are very busy and liable to have some things neglected, and that seems to be the one that is almost always neglected. Mr. Brackett: Would you advocate the extensive planting of apples in this climate? Mr. Andrews: I would not. At the same time you take it in the southern part of the state I presume they can grow them there. They can grow there many things we can't think of growing in this part of the state unless it be along Lake Minnetonka. Mr. Older: Where you have an orchard ten years old, is it best to seed it down or still continue to cultivate it? In the west they have to cultivate. What is the best in this country? I know one man says it is best to keep on cultivating while it is growing, and another man says that that will kill the trees. I want to know which is the best. Mr. Andrews: I think cultivation is the thing that ought to be done until the trees get well to bearing, anyway, and then it furnishes nitrogen to the soil to seed it down to clover. If we don't do that we are very liable to neglect that element in the soil. The better way to my mind is to cultivate for eight or ten years, and then I do think it is all right perhaps, for farmers, I mean, who will neglect the cultivation if they depend on it. That is, if they make up their minds it is better to cultivate than it is to seed down, their trees are more apt to be neglected. During the busy part of the season they won't cultivate as constantly as they ought to. If they would do that I have not much doubt but what cultivation would be all right right along, if you will furnish that nitrogen that ought to be in the soil for the protection of the crop. Clover is the easiest way to get that, and the trees will be more sure to have the benefit of that if you sow to clover and grow a crop of hay and turn it under, possibly let it be into clover two years, but turn that under and cultivate for two or three years and then put into clover again. I think that would be preferable for the farmer, for the farmer especially, than it would to undertake to either cultivate all the time or seed down all the time. I don't believe it is a good thing to seed down where there are young trees growing and while the orchard is young. If you will plant your potatoes in that orchard between the rows and cultivate it, you will do the cultivating. I haven't got very much faith in the average farmer--I don't mean you horticulturists--but the average farmer. If he will plant trees and you advise him to cultivate them while they are young, they will be neglected after the first year or so. He may while the fever is on, he may cultivate them one year and the next year about half cultivate them, and the following years they will grow up to grass and weeds. Whereas, if he plants potatoes he gets just the right cultivation for the trees if he cultivates the ground enough to get a good crop of potatoes. Then in the fall when he digs the potatoes he loosens up the ground, and it takes up the moisture, and after the fall rains they go into winter quarters in good shape. It seems to me that is as near right as I could recommend. Mr. Hansen: What distance apart ought those apple trees to be? Mr. Older: Another question along that line. Suppose we concede that a young orchard ought to be cultivated until it gets eight or ten years old, then which is the best when you seed it to clover to cut the clover and throw the hay around the trees for a mulch or just take the hay away, or what? Mr. Andrews: I think it would be better to put the hay around the trees for mulching. If the hay is used and the barnyard manure is taken to the orchard that would fill the bill pretty well. Now, the distance apart? Grown trees really need about thirty feet apart each way. If you run the rows north and south and put them thirty feet apart, and sixteen feet or a rod apart in the row, with a view to taking out every other tree, you might have to go under bonds to take them out when they are needed to come out (laughter), or else you would leave them there until you hurt your other trees. If you would take out every other tree when they get to interfering after several years, eight or ten years, you can grow a double crop of apples in your orchard, but if you do the way you probably will do, leave them right there until they get too close, you will-- Mr. Hansen: Spoil all of them? Mr. Andrews: Yes. Then you better put them out a little farther apart, and, as I said, two rods apart each way I don't believe is too far. Our old orchard that we put out in 1877 is just on its last legs now. At that time, you know, we didn't know anything about what varieties to plant, we didn't have as many as we have now. The old orchard only had the Duchess and Wealthy for standards, and half of the orchard was into crabs, because I thought at that time crabs was the only thing that would be any ways sure of staying by us. Well, those trees are about through their usefulness now, the standards. They have borne well until the last two years, generally loaded, and they were put out at that time fourteen feet apart each way, breaking joints so that they didn't come directly opposite. And when they got to be twelve or fifteen years old, it was difficult to get through there with a team or with any satisfaction, it was rubbing the limbs too much. Then the next orchard we put out on the farm was twenty-four feet by fifteen or sixteen feet in the row, the rows twenty-four feet apart. I wish they were a little farther apart, although that hasn't bothered very much about getting through between the rows, but it shows that a tree that is any ways spreading in its habit really needs about two rods each way. Are there any other questions? Mr. Brackett: Do you think a Wealthy orchard under thorough cultivation, making a rank growth, do you think it is as hardy as an orchard seeded down, and do you think that a Wealthy orchard would blight more than other kinds? Mr. Andrews: If the ground is rich and under thorough cultivation it does tend to cause fire blight. I haven't followed it on anything but young orchards. When they have commenced to bear then we have generally seeded down and turned in the hogs, and we have rather neglected the cultivation after that. I do think that if we had cultivated a little more often it would have been better. Mr. Older: What do you consider the best to seed down with, clover or alfalfa? Mr. Andrews: I have never tried alfalfa. I don't see why it wouldn't be all right, if you don't try to keep it too long. It would furnish the nitrogen all right. Mr. Older: Which kind of seeding down would you prefer, what kind of clover? Would you want the Alsike clover or sweet clover for an apple orchard? Mr. Andrews: I haven't tried anything but the medium clover. The sweet clover I think would be rather a rank grower. Mr. Older: If you are going to mow it, why not mow the sweet clover same as the other? Mr. Andrews: That would be all right. If you were going to use it for mulching, I think it would be the thing, because it would be better for mulching than for feeding. Mr. Ludlow: I would like to give a little experience in putting in alfalfa in an orchard. We got the seed, the Grimm alfalfa, I think, is the name of it, and I got a good stand. We got seed from it the first year, and I sowed more, but there seemed to be something about the alfalfa that would draw the pocket-gophers from two miles around. The second year I think I had nineteen of my thriftiest apple tree roots all eaten off. I didn't know there was one in the field because there were no mounds at all. In the spring I found where they were at work, and I catch on an average of twenty pocket-gophers out of that mound every year. Talk about cultivating, the pocket-gophers will cultivate it, and the alfalfa is pretty much all eaten out and it has come into bluegrass. Mr. Harrison: That question as to alfalfa; the experience is always that the roots go too deep so it hurts the apple trees. Red clover seems to be the clover that is favored by most people. Mr. Andrews: Mr. Ludlow spoke of the pocket-gopher favoring alfalfa. We have a patch of alfalfa right near the apple trees. I don't remember that I have noticed any pocket-gophers work in that piece at all. On the opposite side of the road, where it is clover and timothy, why, they work there tremendously. I know Brother Ludlow was telling us a little while ago at dinner about pocket-gophers working on his place, and I wouldn't wonder if he is blessed with an extra colony of them there. Mr. Ludlow: I try to catch them all out every year. I catch out on an average about eighteen to twenty every fall, so as to catch them before they increase early in the spring. It seems as though they came from a distance. I know one came into my garden this year. I didn't know there was a gopher within a mile, and in one night he made four mounds in the middle of my strawberry bed. Mrs. Glenzke: Did you ever try poisoning them? Mr. Ludlow: No, I never did. I am most successful in catching them in a trap. Mr. Brackett: Have you got any pocket-gophers that do not make mounds? Do you understand that? Mr. Ludlow: No, sir, I don't understand that, but when they came in and killed the nineteen trees in the fall I hadn't seen a mound there. In the spring I found where they were at work, and then I went after them. City "Foresters" and Municipal Forests. PROF. E. G. CHENEY, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. Several cities in the state have appointed "city foresters." This is a step in the right direction, if it is a precursor to the establishment of municipal forests for these men to manage; otherwise it is a misnomer and can only be misleading to the people. The city governments, in an endeavor to create a complete park organization, have so far adopted this title from European practice without much regard to the duties of the officer. A forester handles trees in mass formations,--sometimes for timber production, sometimes for the protection of water-sheds, sometimes for aesthetic effect or park purposes,--but always in the mass. The handling of shade trees such as we have in our city streets is the work of an arborist. The planting of large ornamental trees, the pruning of the individual for formal effect, the filling of cavities and the bracing of weak parts, are no part of a forester's work; nor do they necessarily fall within his knowledge. An expert should undoubtedly be in charge of the work, but an expert arborist, not a forester. The title is, therefore, when combined with the present duties, unfortunate, because it gives the people--still struggling with a hazy conception of forestry--a wrong idea of the true character of the real forester's work. Two very obvious ways of avoiding the difficulty present themselves,--either to change the title or to change the duties. The former would probably be much easier of accomplishment, but the latter is without question the course which the city ought to pursue. Since the cities have adopted the title of "city forester," and so obtained a more complete park organization on paper, why not make the improvement real by adopting the rest of the European practice and creating city forests for these new officers to handle? That would indeed be a real improvement, and one without which any city park system is lamentably lame. Nearly every large city has some large park within in limits kept in a more or less natural condition as a recreation ground for its people, thus recognizing its influence for health and social betterment. How much it would increase this influence if there were a considerable tract of forest within easy reach of the city! How much better approach it would make to the city than the unsightly waste places so often encountered! How much better setting it would make for the suburban residence sections! Such a municipal forest is not a Utopian dream, but a practical thing well within the reach of almost any city. The law passed by the last legislature makes it possible for a city to purchase land for such a purpose either within or without the city limits. The activities of the present park boards show that money can be obtained to carry out such plans. The establishment of the forests would be less expensive than is generally imagined. The amount of money expended on the Gateway Park in Minneapolis would buy hundreds of acres of city land within fifteen miles of the city. With the aid of a municipal nursery, such as every park system should have, this land could be planted up at a total expense, for stock and labor, of six to eight dollars per acre. The cost of maintenance would be limited to the patrol of the tract to prevent fire and trespass. Of course, there might be no money revenue from the forest for many years, but in a comparatively short time it would begin to fulfill its purpose as a park, and once the timber is mature, there would be a continuous net annual income of from five to ten dollars per acre. Suppose that the city had 10,000 acres of such forest paying a net annual revenue--in addition to its full services as a park--of from $50,000 to $100,000 toward the maintenance of the other city parks, and it must be remembered that for every dollar of net revenue the forest would pay an additional dollar or more in wages to swell the coffers of the city;--certainly that would be something very much better than anything that the city has at present. St. Paul, with the bottom lands and cliffs on either side of the river between Hastings and Minneapolis, could make a beautiful and profitable park of what now threatens to develop into a monumental waste. Duluth could make a forest which would be unsurpassed in beauty and usefulness by any in the world out of the brushy, unoccupied, rock-bound hills as far west as Thompson. Mankato has a glorious chance for the same work along the Minnesota valley. Virginia and Hibbing could do nothing better than make such use of the rocky, mine-scarred hills in their vicinity. And so opportunity might be cited for almost any city in the state. For the municipal forest need not be confined to the big cities. In fact, in some respects the smaller city has an advantage over the larger place. Suitable land can usually be obtained near the city at a much more reasonable price and the revenue obtained bear a much larger ratio to the total expenses of the town. There are some small towns in Germany where the entire running expenses are paid by the revenues of the town forest, and one or two where the forest not only pays all of the taxes but also pays a cash pension to a number of the older inhabitants. Certainly our towns, looking forward to an endless and progressive existence, cannot afford to neglect this opportunity to develop a useful park, to provide a source of cheap wood and lumber for future generations and a substantial revenue for the city. Expert advice need not be employed until the size and revenue of the forest warrants it, for the State Forest Service stands ready to help--by the selection of land, the formulation of plans, and consultation--any city that is wise enough to take advantage of this law. The "city forester" can then be a forester indeed, and one of the good points of the European city government will have been adopted in fact as well as in name. The Salome Apple. H. W. HARRISON, ROCHESTER, MINN. SO. MINN. HORT. SOCIETY. The Salome apple is named after one of the faithful Bible characters, Salome, who was associated with Martha and Mary while our Savior was on earth and was also a witness of his crucifixion. Thus the name alone commands respect. It was originated in eastern Canada, and it was introduced here some twenty-five years ago by the Princeton Nursery Company of Illinois and has proven to be very hardy on different soils and locations. It is grown in the southern tier of counties of Minnesota and as far north as New Ulm. Like all good things it has had a hard fight to overcome its opponents. At the time it was introduced here there were Ben Davis and other tender varieties delivered in its place in certain localities. These not being hardy of course gave the Salome a black eye. Nevertheless it is an apple that should be grown extensively because of its hardiness, its clean appearance and upright growth, spreading just enough to admit air and light. Its fruit will keep in ordinary cellars until May or June. It is medium in size and color, red streaked with green and yellow. Flesh is yellow and sub acid. Like all winter varieties it is slow to come in bearing but yielding heavily when it does bear, whenever other varieties do. Let us not lose sight of this excellent fruit in our desire to produce something new and original. How May the State University and the Horticultural Society Best Co-Operate? GEO. E. VINCENT, PRESIDENT MINN. STATE UNIVERSITY, MINNEAPOLIS. Now, so far as I can understand, the only excuse for interpolating me in a program of this kind is that you are giving so much attention to technical subjects, you are working so hard, you need from time to time relief in order that you may not suffer from brain fever or any of the ailments of overstudy. I am confident from this point of view anything I may have to say will meet that need completely. The relationship between this society and the university strikes me as typically American. There are two ways of doing things--leaving public undertakings entirely to private initiative, to individuals, to voluntary groups; that is one plan. There is another plan which consists in putting everything into the hands of the state. Constituted authority takes charge of the whole life of the citizen's, all the activities and enterprise are made public, state affairs. Those are the two extremes. The dangers of those two methods are very obvious. Many enterprises left to private initiative will be done in haphazard fashion; there will be duplication and waste. When the state undertakes all these enterprises it changes the whole aspect. Public management may make for a certain efficiency, but it sooner or later undermines the initiative, the feeling of responsibility of the individual. We are a practical people, we compromise and combine the various methods of doing things. It is the typical American way to combine private initiative with a certain measure of state co-operation. The work for horticulture in the state of Minnesota has been developed under exactly these conditions. If I remember rightly, this society was organized in 1867. It has assumed a definite leadership in the development of horticulture in the state of Minnesota; the university has gradually been adapting itself, so to speak, to the work of this society. The society and the university have officially been in close relationship. I believe that in the early days the secretary was at the same time a university officer and for the last twenty-five years, I am told that at least one expert of the university staff has always been a member of the executive board of this society. This has made a personal bond. Then the society has done a great many important things. You have stood by at times when people were not perfectly certain about the importance of various kinds of scientific work. You have been steadfast. Sometimes it required courage to stand for the scientific ideals which the university was attempting to carry out in important work that had a bearing upon horticulture. And you have, of course, the chief responsibility and distinction of having seen to it that our fruit-breeding farm should be established. I believe you were also kind enough to pick out the site, although none of you were personally interested in the particular real estate ultimately purchased. So that we feel--we of the university feel--that the work of horticulture in this state is distinctly a co-operative undertaking, and that the leadership and enterprise and vision of this society have been the chief things that developed horticulture in Minnesota to the point it has reached. But we do believe that the co-operation of your university is an important and, we hope, from now on will be an increasingly important thing. Certain work is going on constantly at the University in the various departments, and that work is of distinct benefit because you recognize it. We had a good illustration a few minutes ago. The professor of soils was having his brains picked, as he had a perfect right to have, by you. You were asking him questions, and I noticed once or twice he said he didn't know. That must have inspired confidence in him; I have a good deal of faith in people who don't know it all. That shows two things--they have a sense of humor, and they expect to find out. There is something pathetic in a person who knows it all; it is a case of arrested development. So out of the department of soils you expect to get the result of careful and scientific study of the nature of soils. From the department of plant pathology you expect to learn about the various forms of plant diseases and the way in which these may be eliminated. From the department of entomology you expect to learn something about the troublesome insects, which are so universal an annoyance. I think they simply exist to test our character, to see whether we have courage to go on, bugs or no bugs. We do the best we can to become familiar with the habits of these nefarious creatures and let you know what we know. So I might call attention to one or two other departments--but you know how much is being accomplished. You get regular reports. You have a committee to visit and investigate our fruit-breeding farms. If I may judge from the reports which your committee makes--I don't know whether it is because it is one of your children and you are indulgent--your committee seems to think good things are being done and distinct progress recorded at the fruit-breeding farm. With your support and confidence we are enlarging the work there. It seems we should have more land in the early future, and we may ask for your co-operation in convincing the powers that be that such increase of territory is necessary. How many members have you? 3,407 members, I believe. Perhaps you have more since that number was given this morning. At any rate, there is a good number, and when you think of all the wisdom and all the experience that those 3,407 people have, it seems a great pity not to get it organized in better form. Come and pick some more brains while these brains are still available and organize this great mass of knowledge. Here is the next problem. Who are the people that are going to take your places? Who is to have a gold watch given him fifty years from now--or given to her fifty years from now? This thing is to go on, and how? It goes on by discovering in Minnesota the horticulturally-minded people in the state; you must always be on the lookout for people who are to do the big things. The great European governments are considering how they are going to keep their armies recruited, how the next generation is to be brought in and organized. That is the same problem in every nation. It is extremely necessary to put out dragnets for specialists. There are probably thousands of men in Minnesota who are horticulturists, they are dormant horticulturists, and your business and ours is to try to discover them. So the problem with us is how to get out the dragnet. You know there is a great biological principle that is illustrated in the lower types of animals. Millions of fish eggs are produced for every hundred that actually fertilize and amount to anything. So when you are looking for results in a great subject, when you are trying to discover people, when you are putting out a dragnet, you have to try a very large number with the hope of discovering the relatively few who really show the divine spark, who are really the men that you are looking for. It is a very interesting thing when you come to think about it, all the while we are looking for special ability in modern activities we do it by fashion. Fashion is something that victimizes the ladies. They do not care for fashion itself, it is thrust upon them from the outside. Most women conform to fashion on the principle of protective coloring; they do not care for it themselves, but they do not want to be conspicuous by not conforming; so they protect themselves that way. I consider fashion is a beneficial thing when you look at it the right way. By fashion all kinds of new things are started throughout the country, and you discover certain people who have a special aptitude. It becomes the fashion to do various things, and in many cases people become interested and develop their own special tastes and faculties. I am tremendously interested just now in rural education. We want a rural school that will be attractive. We are interested in getting houses for the teachers to be built right alongside the school house. Then there will be the garden in connection with the house, the flower garden and the tree planting. Some of us are looking forward to the time when the rural school will be the most charming spot in all the countryside, not a place from which the teacher escapes at the earliest possible moment on Friday to return reluctantly on Monday morning, but a place where she wants to remain, where the rural school will be the center of the community and community life. It will be an attractive place for the best kind of teacher. When we can get to that point we shall be able to establish in the rural regions an institution that will be a vital part of the whole community and a thing of joy and of beauty. That gospel might be extended to the tree planting on the farmstead. You know what the state art society had been doing. There is another dragnet. You have seen the Minnesota Art Journal, which is dealing with the problems in tree planting of the farm, planting around the farm house; That in connection with the modern farm house that has been suggested, these things have a very important bearing upon problems in which both you and the university are interested. And then we can look forward to the time when you will have your permanent home, if not on the farm grounds themselves at least near there, where we could co-operate and use the same building, so that while it would be yours you will feel that it is being utilized throughout the year in such a way that the expenditure of the money would be justified. There is a fine vista ahead of us, a vista of the things to be, accomplished by means of this American combination of private initiative and enterprise and idealism and the support of the state for certain details of work which can be best accomplished in that way. The Shelter Belt for Orchard and Home Grounds. A DISCUSSION LED BY JOHN W. MAHER, NURSERYMAN, DEVILS LAKE, N. DAK. Mr. Maher: The subject this morning is to be on "Shelter-Belt for Orchard and Home Grounds." I am satisfied, provided the "Home Grounds" include the whole farm. The entire farm needs shelter, particularly from the hot, drying winds and other destructive winds that uncover and cut down crops in springtime and carry away the fertile top soil; and the summer winds, hot winds, of course, that eat up the moisture; and those destructive winds that sometimes harvest our barley and other crops before they are cut. We need protection from all these winds, and in this latitude these winds blow uniformly from the southwest. So every farm should be protected from them by a substantial shelter-belt on the west and south sides, which can also be the farm wood-lot. [Illustration: Apple tree windbreak at Devil's Lake Nursery. Hibernal in the foreground. Patten's Greening in the distance.] There is another phase of protection that has been emphasized this year very much, and that is, protection against summer frosts and late spring frosts. A gentleman living at McIntosh, near Crookston, in this state, told me that corn matured up there wherever it was protected from the north wind. At the Devils Lake Nursery we had a 400-bushel per acre potato crop protected only by the blocks of nursery stock, whereas the yield in the vicinity was from nothing to fifty bushels per acre--and I believe if Mr. Andrews will inquire into the location of the good apple crops about Faribault he will probably find they were saved by similar shelter protection, or the natural lay of the land. Mr. Kellogg: What is your best windbreak? Mr. Maher: The evergreen is the best windbreak for the reason that it gives more shelter, retains its leaves in the winter and fewer rows of trees will make a good shelter-belt. The variety--that is, west of the timber line in Minnesota--I should say the best would be the Ponderosa pine, or bull pine, after that the jack pine may be, or else the Colorado blue spruce and the Black Hills spruce. Mr. Kellogg: Colorado spruce is too expensive to set out as a windbreak. Mr. Maher: Well, the green varieties. I don't see why they should be any more costly than the others. Of course, they are held at a higher price, but they make a good windbreak because they are easily grown and are perfectly hardy to stand the dry atmosphere and the hot winds. [Illustration: American Elm windbreak at Devil's Lake, N.D.] Mr. Kellogg: What is the reason there are so few of them really blue? Mr. Maher: I don't know. There is only a small percentage, probably 15 per cent., that are blue. I think the dryer atmosphere produces more blue than the more humid atmosphere. We have more blues in North Dakota than you will find even here. I believe it is the dry atmosphere and the intense sunlight that causes the blue, because the red cedar in North Dakota, the native red cedar, is really a silver cedar and has a blue sheen, or rather, a silver sheen. A Member: How large do the trees have to be to be of benefit? Mr. Maher: I have a friend out of Devils Lake who had 160 acres of flax destroyed by a spring wind that hits the earth at such an angle. It picked up the earth and cut the flax off, by reason of the clay hitting the little plant, except about a hundred foot strip along the west side, and that was protected by a growth of grass and weeds not to exceed a foot in height. So it depends on the kind of wind a great deal and the angle at which the wind strikes the grounds. Now, the distance that a windbreak will protect a field has been studied out and measured and demonstrated by a great number of men. Mr. McGee, at Indian Head, gave a great deal of thought and study to the windbreak proposition and measured the distances that the shelter-belt would shelter the crops, and he came to the conclusion that for every foot in height there would be an absolute protection for a rod in distance, and outside of that actual protection there would be a long distance that would be partially protected. The same study was made by a gentleman in Iowa--I can't call his name just now--and he came to practically the same conclusion as to the distance that the protection reached in proportion to the height of shelter-belt. [Illustration: Mountain Ash windbreak at Devil's Lake, N.D.] A Member: I want a shelter mostly for apple trees. Would it be five or six years before I receive any benefit, or seven or eight years? Mr. Maher: Plant your protection when you plant your apple trees, and you will have your protection sooner than you have your apples. If you are going to do that, don't put the shelter too close to the apple trees, which is a very common fault. A Member: How much distance would you allow for the roots? [Illustration: White Willow windbreak at Devil's Lake, N.D.] Mr. Maher: I should say not less than 100 feet, anyway. Mr. Moyer: I live in southwestern Minnesota, about thirty miles from the South Dakota line, and I think it is a mistake to recommend the white spruce for planting out there. The white spruce naturally grows towards the North Pole, it extends even up to the Arctic Circle. Twenty-four years ago I purchased a dozen white spruce from Robert Douglas, who was then alive, and planted them northwest of my house. About five years ago they began to fail, and now only two or three are alive, and they are covered with dead branches. I feel sure that the white spruce have been injured by the hot winds that come across the prairies from the southwest. I don't think they can stand it. There is a variety of white spruce that grows in the Black Hills, which I think will be decided to be a different species when botanists come to study it, that will stand our prairies. Another tree that we like is the Colorado blue spruce; it is hardy and grows excellently. About twenty-three years ago, when Professor Verner was at the head of the Forestry Department at Washington he sent me 8,000 evergreens, and I set them out. They were bull pine and the Scotch pine and Austrian pine. I was over to look at them the other day. The Scotch pine, which have been set now twenty-three years, are over thirty feet high, the Austrian pine about two-thirds as high, and the bull pine, Ponderosa, is about as high as the Austrian pine. He told me to set these trees about two feet apart each way. I thought that too thick, so I set them in rows six feet apart and about two or three feet apart in the rows. He wished me to alternate the planting with deciduous trees. He recommended that I add a few deciduous trees, green ash and box elder and a few elm, and I set them as far as they would go, but they didn't go very far in setting the 8,000 evergreens. Then I thought it would be a good idea to use the wolfberry that grows wild on the prairies. I set them alternately with some of the evergreens, but as they have a very liberal root system it was hard to get them out. The finest tree in the plantation is the Austrian pine, and if it continues to do as well as it has the last three or four years I think the Austrian pine is going to be a very valuable pine for shelter-belt. Mr. Kellogg: Have you tested the Douglas spruce? Mr. Moyer: Not to a great extent. It does well in some localities. [Illustration: Soft, or Silver, Maple windbreak--to be succeeded by permanent windbreak of Bur Oak--shown growing between man and boy.] Mr. Maher: I think the real test is to get them as near native to your place as you can. The area over which the white spruce grows is greater than that of any other spruce, possibly greater than any other evergreen, especially through the northern latitudes. I don't think there is any question about the Black Hills spruce being the white spruce that was left there growing when the other timber was destroyed, if we can adopt that theory. The white spruce from seed from the Northwest, from the British Columbia countries especially, is perfectly hardy with you. It is perfectly hardy with us at Devils Lake, which is a very much more severe test, whereas the white spruce from its southern limits may not be hardy even here. I think the Black Hills spruce is perfectly hardy. The distance north and south relatively is not so important with reference to growing trees as to get them from too far in the humid district. The white spruce that I would be afraid of would be the seed from New England and from the farther east limits of its growth, where the conditions are so much more humid. Mr. Kellogg: Do you find any trouble with too much protection for orchards? Mr. Maher: Where the protection is too close to the orchards I think it is very bad. It destroys the air drainage-- Mr. Kellogg: That is why they are liable to blight. Mr. Maher: And they blight also. The air drainage is interfered with, and you get blight, and you also smother the orchard. I don't know but what the apple and the Americana plum are about as hardy trees as we have anywhere. I don't make any attempt to protect them specially except from the south and west. I don't put any northern windbreak around any orchards I set out. Of course, we may lose a crop with a spring frost all right when northern protection might save it, but with us up in our country if we have a good spring frost it is usually heavy enough to catch them anyway. [Illustration: Norway Poplar windbreak at Devil's Lake, N.D.] I have a question here: How long should a shelter-belt be cultivated? Now, that is a point on which I think too much emphasis is placed. If you set out your trees as Judge Moyer did his, close together, inside of a few years they will take care of themselves, they will form forest conditions very quickly, and cultivation is not necessary any more. Of course, if you set your trees a great distance apart where there is nothing to protect them from the burning sun, and the ground bakes and dries, then you must cultivate or mulch, but I think cultivation much better than mulching. Another question: How many rows of trees make a good windbreak? My idea is that it takes twenty rows to make a good one--of deciduous trees, of course. Two or three rows of evergreens, planted not further than eight feet apart and with joints broken, probably makes as good a windbreak as the twenty rows of deciduous trees and take less ground. Mr. Horton: Wouldn't you have an open space in those trees? You wouldn't put them all together? Mr. Maher: If I had twenty rows of trees I would put them together. Mr. Horton: Would you have an open space outside of those twenty trees for the snow to lodge in? [Illustration: Ponderosa Pine windbreak--at Devil's Lake (N.D.) Nursery.] Mr. Maher: I have never known the snow to do any hurt in a twenty row windbreak. It distributes itself in there, and the more comes the better. Mr. Horton: I have seen them broken badly with the snow. Mr. Maher: That would be probably the poplars and trees that break easily. Mr. Horton: On my farm I put out a row of twenty trees. Outside of that I left a space on the north and west six rods wide, and I put out some golden willows outside of that, and that made an open space for the snow to fall in. Mr. Maher: That is a very good plan, to have a row of willows back of your shelter-belt, especially around the home and orchard and barn ground, to hold the snow back. Mr. Moyer: I found that the snow drifted into my evergreens but didn't break them. I used lilac bushes; I planted a long row. Lilacs are very common, and I got enough to plant a long row. They are now ten feet high, and it is a magnificent sight in summer. Mr. Maher: I know the lilac is a splendid thing, better than the golden willow, because they last longer. They are more hardy, and they make a better protection, and as far as wood goes from the golden willows you get nothing except branches unless it is the white willow. I have another question here: What would you plant around the garden? For a windbreak around the garden orchard, that should have an inside protection, and the shelter-belt itself should be too far away from the garden to be sufficient protection. Around the garden I would plant Juneberry or dogwood or any of those common native berry plants. They will afford the very best kind of protection, just as good as the lilacs and just as hardy, and at the same time will produce food for the birds and bring them about your garden and keep them with you and shelter them. Mr. Kellogg: The barberry-- Mr. Mahler: The barberry would be all right, but I prefer the Juneberry and the mulberry and the dogwood, because they come up a little higher. The barberry is all right. Mr. Kellogg: I had barberry, and I dug it all up. Mr. Maher: It spread too much? Mr. Richardson: I like the Russian mulberry. Mr. Maher: Yes, sir. Mr. Richardson: Is the mulberry hardy with you? Mr. Maher: No, sir. Mr. Moyer: The buckthorn makes a very good protection. Mr. Maher: Yes, sir. Mr. Huestis: How would the golden elder do as a hedge? Mr. Maher: It would be a protection, but it is liable to spread too much. Mr. Huestis: Do you know whether the mulberry is hardy in Minnesota or not? Mr. Maher: I think from here south it is hardy, especially southeast. Mr. Moyer: It occurs to me that the Tartarian honeysuckle is about as good as any thing you can plant for birds. It is perfectly hardy on the prairies and grows up ten or fifteen feet high. Mr. Maher: The Tartarian honeysuckle and several varieties of the bush honeysuckles are splendid, and they are hardy and will grow anywhere. A Member: Did I understand some one to say that the mulberry was not hardy? Mr. Maher: It was stated that it wasn't hardy in North Dakota. A Member: I put mulberry trees in my garden yard that have been bearing mulberries for years and years. Mr. Maher: I think the mulberry is hardy from here south and especially southeast. I don't think it would grow out on the prairie very far. Mr. Richardson: It grows on the prairies southwest of here. My Color Scheme. MRS. R. P. BOYINGTON, NEMADJI. "Oh, my garden lying whitely in The moonlight and the dew, With its soft caressing coloring, Breathing peace to all who view." Our garden color scheme this year was a number of red, white and blue pictures, these pictures being supported, on the different sides, by brilliant, oriental color effects. The first picture had for its north side the south side of the cottage, which was covered with climbing roses (American Pillars and Crimson Rambler). A bed of petunias, six feet wide and as long as the cottage, came next, and was separated from about four hundred delphiniums (belladonna) by a walk which was bordered on both sides by a row of candytuft and a row of forget-me-nots, blue as a baby's eye. To the south of the delphiniums was a great bank of bridal wreath chrysanthemums, white as the driven snow. A walk on the east had the same--candytuft and forget-me-not border. To the south and west of this picture were irises and Oriental poppies in all the gorgeous coloring of the Orient, with a small space on the west where hundreds of pansies nodded their lovely faces to the stately blue larkspurs. Are we sure, as has been said, that God forgot to put a soul in flowers? To the east, beyond the walk, is another picture--Shasta daisies and blue cornflowers. On the north side is a brilliant hedge of red sweet peas. On the east and south of this most exquisite picture are Iceland poppies, red pyrethrums, and here and there are clumps of dark red sweet william. In the early morn, just after the "morning stars have sung together," and the forces of day are slowly coming into action, this is a wonderous picture. On the north side of the cottage is a screened-in porch. Here cardinal climber gives its myriads of cheerful bloom, while blue lobelia and white anemones, with the porch boxes filled with vinca atmosphere of beauty and cheer to those who come and take the social cup that truly cheers. The broad lawn slopes north to the driveway. To the east, separating the lawn from the walk, which is west of the canna beds, is a border of dusty miller next the grass and one row each of blue anchusa and red snapdragon. The silver leaved poplars in the distance give a soft sheen to the whole picture. Away to the west is a spruce hedge and inside the hedge red hollyhocks and phlox with a great row of crimson poppies. A simple garden made of simple things, and yet as we go through it to our peony bed, that gorgeous flower, standing alone in its regal, queenly beauty, we do not wonder that when one of old walked with God it was in the cool of the evening and in a garden. "Where in all the dim resplendent spaces, The mazy stars drift through To my garden lying whitely in The moonlight and the dew." My Experience in Grape Culture. JOSEPH TUCKER, AUSTIN. SO. MINN. HORT. SOCIETY During fifteen years I have had in my garden several varieties of grapes, namely, the Concord, Worden, Moore's Early and a green grape (not certain of its name). All have done remarkably well whenever the season was reasonably favorable. I mean by that the absence of the late spring and the early fall frosts, which are the greatest drawbacks to grape culture. For that reason I would not advise anyone to undertake it as a business venture on a large scale. On the other hand, where it is desired to supply the family table with fresh fruit as long as it will keep, also to add a variety of jellies and preserves for the winter, a dozen of vines will supply an ordinary family with grapes whose flavor I have never seen surpassed. You who do not always expect money to grow on everything you touch, you who admire and love a plant or vine and feel well repaid for your labor to see it grow and bear fruit, you who have a vacant corner in your garden well adapted to that purpose, I urge you most earnestly to plant some grape vines, and I assure you that with some knowledge of their care and a determination not to fail you will succeed, and you will eventually be able to see a pretty sight--for, to my mind, nothing is handsomer than a well trimmed grape row with the ripening fruit. The soil that will grow corn will produce good grapes. My advice is to select early ripening varieties, for then you will only have the possible spring frost to contend with, and that is easy to guard against. Do not fail to adopt some system of pruning, for that is the most essential part of the secret to grow good grapes. Other necessary information will no doubt be furnished by any reliable nurseryman with whom you are dealing. I wish to say in conclusion that so far I have had no trouble from any insects attacking the vines or fruit, and I have always been able to produce fruit that commands the first premium wherever exhibited. Protect the Garden against Winter Weather. U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. At this season many inquiries come to the United States Department of Agriculture regarding the protection of garden plants and shrubs during the winter. Such flowers as peonies and hollyhocks will come up again the following year if they are properly protected during the winter, while others, like cannas and dahlias, which are more accustomed to warm climes, must have their roots or bulbs dug up and stored in a cellar. The department's specialists give the following suggestions for "putting the garden to bed": _Hardy Perennials._--Cover hardy perennials, such as peonies, larkspur, hollyhocks, columbines, iris, platycodons and perennial poppies, with a good coating of manure or other litter to a depth of 3 or 4 inches. In more southern localities this will hold the frost in the ground and keep the plant from alternately freezing and thawing; in more northern regions the manure will protect the plant from freezing to a depth that will cut off its water supply. _Cannas and Dahlias._--As soon as the tops of cannas, dahlias, gladiolus, caladiums and similar plants are killed by frost, dig up the roots or bulbs and store them in a cellar where the temperature will remain at 55 degrees, and should never go below 50 or above 60 degrees. Do not shake any more earth from the clumps of cannas and dahlias than is necessary in removing them from the ground. Place the plants on racks or in slat boxes so the air may circulate freely through them. No frost must reach the roots nor must they become too warm or dry. _Shrubs._--As a rule shrubs should not be trimmed in the fall. This process is timely immediately after the blooming period, if this is in the spring, as in the case of the snowball. If the shrubs bloom in the fall, as do some hydrangeas, the rose of Sharon, and some lilacs, they should not be cut directly after blooming but in the spring of the following year. Lilacs, snowballs and mock orange should be let alone during the winter, being neither trimmed nor covered with straw and manure. _Roses._--Almost all kinds of roses are hardy in the vicinities of Washington, D.C., and St. Louis and to the south of a line drawn between these points. From Washington northward local conditions influence the successful cultivation of certain varieties. Some roses, as the brier and rugosa, need no protection, but other varieties, such as the hybrid perpetuals, teas and hybrid-teas, need special care, particularly north of the fortieth parallel. Teas and hybrid teas hardly succeed in Chicago, although the hybrid-perpetuals grow as far north as Canada. All these classes do well on Long Island and in Boston near the sea when proper care is given them. These varieties in the vicinity of Washington need merely a little manure on the ground to prevent alternate freezing and thawing. Farther north, however, they should be treated as follows: Cut the tops to within 30 inches of the ground. Cover the roots with coarse manure or leaves or similar litter. Hold this in place by evergreen boughs which also acts as a protection. Brush from deciduous trees or shrubs may be substituted for the evergreen boughs except in the most northern regions. Mounds of earth about six or eight inches in height should be drawn about the base of the rose bushes to keep them from mice. As an added protection against mice, permit the ground to freeze slightly before winter protection is supplied. In fact, roses should not be protected until after the first light freeze, which may be expected in Washington, D.C., about the first of December, but earlier farther north. (Tops must be protected in Minnesota.--Sec.) _Climbing Roses._--In the latitude of Philadelphia and farther south climbing roses usually need no protection during the winter unless they are a particularly tender variety. Farther north these roses need protection similar to that given to the tea and hybrid tea roses. Where it is possible to do so, remove climbing roses from their supports, and cover the branches with a little dirt. A little fall trimming might be desirable to lessen the space occupied by the branches on the ground. Such side branches as are not to be needed for next season's blooming may be cut off. Such cutting off and shortening of the ends as would otherwise be done in the spring may be done in the fall before covering, merely for convenience. Growing Asparagus. A DISCUSSION LED BY E. W. RECORD, MARKET GARDENER, BROOKLYN CENTER. A Member: I want to ask if many put salt on asparagus? Mr. Record: Salt is very good, but I think only for the reason that it makes the plant tender and keeps down insects. But if I was to use anything to keep insects down I should use Paris green. Shorts or bran, that is the best for cutworms. Everybody knows that with the least scratch or mar on the side of the asparagus it will grow crooked, and then it is a pretty hard proposition to get it into the bunch ready for market in any kind of shape. A Member: Some have the idea that salt helps the growth of the plant. Mr. Record: Well, I never found it did. Mr. Baldwin: I would like to know how to control rust on the stems in the summer time. Mr. Record: Well, I can't answer, but I find that the Palmetto has less rust on it than any other variety. I have never been bothered with asparagus rust yet. Mr. Baldwin: After the bed gets to be a few years old the grass and weeds commence to come up. After you get through cutting, it is pretty hard work to get in there and clean them out. Do you find it the best way to hoe them after you get through cutting? Mr. Record: I will tell you. I cultivate right over the tops of the rows and keep on cultivating until the asparagus comes up and begins to sprout. By the time the weeds come up the second time, it is time to quit cutting. Mr. Baldwin: How deep do you put the plant below the surface in transplanting? Mr. Record: From twelve to fourteen inches. In the east they are growing asparagus, and they set out their plants, and they fill in and wait until the asparagus comes up and then they fill with rotted manure and never fertilize any more, but here there are very few that do that. I never did, but I find in putting on manure broadcast a year afterwards the shoots were very crooked. I did that one year only. After I put it on I thought I would have something good, and I didn't have anything. As soon as it comes up it starts to get crooked. Mr. Baldwin: You mean to say that putting manure on top makes the asparagus crooked? Mr. Record: That was my experience. Mr. Baldwin: I have always practiced that. I think what makes it crooked is cultivating the top and cutting the crowns off. A Member: When the weeds come in we disk it. Mr. Record: I never like to disk it. If your bed is very old you are liable to cut some of your crowns rather than to keep the weeds out. A Member: Your manure would be all gone then? Mr. Record: I know there was a man right adjoining me who had an asparagus bed, and he used a lot of rotten manure the summer before, and he got very little asparagus that was marketable. I asked him what the trouble was, and he said he didn't know. This year he had a good crop. I can't say it was the manure that did that, only it looks that way. A Member: How would you start a new planting? Mr. Record: I would plow my ground thoroughly and get it in good shape. A Member: Wouldn't fertilize the first season? Mr. Record: I would. I would fertilize my asparagus ground two years. A Member: I mean in preparing your patch for the new planting? Mr. Record: I would first plow and harrow and then fertilize. Plow both ways from fourteen to sixteen inches deep and with a fine cultivator loosen up the bottom of furrow and put in the plants and cover with a little earth. Then with the horse keep filling in the furrow. I saw this summer several men with hoes working. That is all right, but it takes a long time, especially with the proposition we are up against about hired help. I can do it just as well with the horse and four times as fast. The second year you can harrow it any way you want to. A Member: Common corn land, is that fit for raising asparagus? Mr. Record: Yes, sir, asparagus will grow on poor ground better than many other vegetables will. A Member: Will it improve that land by fertilizing with top dressing? Mr. Record: I think so. A Member: The heavy land I suppose wouldn't be good for it? Mr. Record: They raise good asparagus on clay land, but I don't think it will grow as good as on sandy soil. It is not quite so warm; it packs harder and I think more liable to grow crooked. A Member: I was called out to see a man's asparagus bed. He asked me what kind of ground I thought it must be, and I said a light soil. This man had a heavy clay, and it rained on it, and then the sun came out very hot and the top cooked, and when the little shoots were to come up they turned back. That ground wasn't good for asparagus. Mr. Record: It should have been harrowed well after that rain. A Member: You see he couldn't get in there. A Member: What fertilizer is good? Is bone meal good? Mr. Record: Any commercial fertilizer is good, I think. Bone meal is good. Mr. Crawford: Can you raise asparagus successfully in the shade or a partial shade? Mr. Record: Well, I wouldn't want too much. I have shade on both sides of mine; it is a hedge. I notice it isn't near so good next to the hedge as it is out in the middle of the bed, although shade on both sides protects it from the wind and makes it hotter. The hotter it is, the faster it will grow. Mr. Crawford: I asked the question because I have a west line shade several years old, trees are willow and box elder. Considerable of the ground is a loss to me, practically so, from that shade. Mr. Record: I don't think it is a very good place for asparagus. A Member: I would like to ask if a person on clay soil could use sawdust to work in? Mr. Record: Horse manure with sawdust, we use a great deal of that, that is, planing mill shavings. That is all right. That will loosen up the ground some, but when it is turned over, of course, it will harden up again if there comes a good hard rain on it. A Member: How many years have you maintained a bed? Mr. Record: Why, it will go from twelve to fourteen years, although the place that I am on now, I know that was good for twenty-five or twenty-six. It is practically gone now, but for twenty years it was good. But of late years it won't run over twelve to fifteen. Mr. Willard: I would like to ask something about changing an old asparagus bed to a new position. Mr. Record: I wouldn't advise you to use the old roots. You get a bed quicker by using plants that are two years old, and of course there are some plants better than others. I bought my plants in the east. Now they have good plants here, a good many of them, too, but I have never seen anything as good as I got for my last bed. The best way if I was going into it, being a market gardener, would be to go to some neighbor that had a good straight bed and get my own seed. It is very easy to save, and most anyone would give a man all he wanted and charge him nothing. All he would do would be to gather it up. Mr. Miller: I would like to ask--I only grow for kitchen garden and I presume most of us are in the same boat--we were told to plow a furrow deeply and fill it with good manure and to plant the roots with the crowns about four inches below the surface of the bed. Mr Record: Well, I wouldn't fertilize it first. I would, as I say, plow my furrow and loosen up the bottom of it, so that the plants will get a chance to get started. You know if you are plowing it out or shoveling it out it will get down to hard ground. That isn't so good. You loosen up the bottom and put your plants evenly over the ground and put in a little dirt, and if you have it a little barnyard manure. Mr. Miller: I suppose the idea of putting that in the bottom is that it is so hard to cultivate the manure on the top without doing as you mentioned? The Running Out of Varieties. PROF. C. B. WALDRON, HORTICULTURIST, AGRI. COLLEGE, N.D. There is no fact more familiar to gardeners, orchardists and farmers than the "running out" of varieties, and no question that is more obscure as to its causes. The possibility of deterioration of varieties is noted to a greater or less extent in all field and garden crops, particularly with those that are most highly developed, or which represent the greatest departure from the original species. It is evident that the cause must lie either in the environment which surrounds the variety or in the selection which it has received, or in a combination of the two. It is held also by some that aside from the influence of soil and climate, and in spite of the most rigid selection, there is an inherent tendency in varieties to depart in a more or less marked degree from the type in which they first appeared. This is particularly true of new varieties that have not yet become established. Almost before the plant breeder can determine their type they have broken up into so many distinct forms that it is impossible to get any further than the first generation. This has been noted several times with new varieties of squashes and other cucurbits, and to a similar but less marked degree with tomatoes and some other garden crops. These might well be termed evanescent varieties, and since they never become fixed or find their way into cultivation they are of interest only to the plant breeder. The influence of environment, particularly soil and climate, upon the size, quality and productiveness of certain garden crops is well known, though just what effect this may have in determining the hereditary character of a variety has never been very well worked out and is still a matter of much doubt. We know, for instance, that there is a tendency for corn grown in the middle or southern latitude to attain to a larger size and require a longer period for maturity than the same corn grown in the north. This tendency is shown in the first generation, but whether it appears as a constant hereditary character or not is still open to discussion. There are those who maintain that it is just as practical to develop a dwarf, early variety of corn in the middle latitudes with careful selection as it is to develop a variety of equal earliness when the planting is done in the north. These maintain that the reason the dwarf, early varieties of corn are not normally developed in the middle latitudes is because the selection in those places is usually made from the large plants which yield well, instead of from the small, early plants, such as would be naturally selected at the north. By the same reasoning it is held that the constant growing of any species or variety in the northern latitudes does not increase hardiness but only enables us to determine which is hardy, thereby enabling us by selection to increase the hardiness of our varieties. [Illustration: Cat-leaf weeping birch and shrubbery on campus of Agricultural College at Fargo, N.D.] We must admit that this reasoning has a sound scientific basis, its principal weakness at the present time being that there has not been enough experimental work done to determine how general and constant its application is. However true it may be as a scientific principle, we have on the other hand the undoubted fact that varieties of certain plants, like the cauliflower, are so strongly modified by environment that the varieties disappear altogether as such unless the breeding plants are grown under very definite conditions. It is well known that cauliflower seed can be grown, for instance, only in certain parts of Europe around the North Sea and to a limited extent in the vicinity of Seattle, and that cauliflower seed from any other region produces plants which not only lose all varietal characteristics but which scarcely resemble cauliflower at all. As an illustration of this same principle millet affords an excellent example. Grown at the north for a number of years, without change of seed, it becomes short with stiff straw and very large heads, yielding a large quantity of seed. When grown as far south as Tennessee for a period of five years only, it assumes a very different character, being tall and leafy with small heads and not very productive of seed. It might be possible by very rigid selection to develop a variety of millet that would tend to be tall and leafy even in the north, but it is doubtful if it would remain so, and the difficulty of keeping it up to type would be too great to make it profitable. All this is equivalent to saying that there are certain unstable varieties that are so influenced by climate that it is not good practice to try and keep them up to any given standard except when they are grown in regions which naturally develop the type that we are seeking to maintain. The more striking examples coming under this class are cauliflower, millet, onions, tobacco and some of the flowering plants. A few years ago it was supposed that the running out of varieties of celery was due to a similar cause, that is, to unfavorable environment. To this was ascribed the pithy quality that characterized some of the varieties. Upon further investigations, however, it was found that this pithy condition came about through carelessness in seed selection. There is a more or less inherent tendency in all celery to become pithy, and unless these plants are carefully excluded, the varieties will run out from that cause. The different varieties of tomatoes, egg plant and the cucurbits do not seem to be especially affected by soil and climate, and in such instances the varieties can be kept up only by rigid selection, no matter how favorable that environment is under which they are grown. With these plants there is always the inherent tendency to go back more or less to the wild state, and lapse of care in seed selection for a period of only a few years will result in a variety very different from the one which we had in the beginning. It will be seen from this that in some instances the best plan is for each farmer or gardener to develop his own strains of crops that he grows, while in other cases it is best to leave the selection to those that are working in a more favored environment so far as those varieties are concerned. There still remains to be considered the plants that are propagated asexually, like potatoes and all our cultivated fruits. From the fact that a number of our standard varieties of apples and some other fruits date back one hundred years or more, and are still as productive as at the beginning, it is evident that some asexually propagated varieties may be considered almost fixed or permanent. [Illustration: Niobe willow (Salix vitellina, var. pendula nova), on campus N.D. Agri. College, Fargo.] The buds or scions from which new trees are started are taken indiscriminately from the bearing trees, and since there is no great variation in them the varieties do not tend to change. Whether they could be improved by taking scions from only the most productive trees is still a question. There are some who consider this possible, but we do not yet have enough experimental evidence to establish it as a fact. So far it would seem that about the only crop which is propagated asexually that is likely to deteriorate, or is capable of improvement, is one that is directly modified by soil and climate. The potato is the most striking example of this class of crops. It is well known that the potato responds very readily in the matter of size, yield and quality to certain types of soil and climatic conditions. It is also known that the qualities thus acquired seem to be more or less permanent; that is, that potatoes brought from the north, especially those which have been grown in heavy soil, will produce a crop some ten days earlier and thirty per cent larger than a crop grown from seed produced in a region six hundred miles farther south. Early Ohio potatoes grown in North Dakota, when used for seed in southern Iowa, give a much larger and somewhat earlier crop than the native grown seed. This would indicate that the potato is bound to run out in a measure if grown continually in southern latitudes, and in this instance a change of seed, using always the seed from the northern latitudes and the heavier soil, is necessary, in order to keep the variety up to standard. [Illustration: Carnege library and flower beds at N.D. Agricultural College, Fargo.] It will be seen that while there is no question as to the fact of varieties running out, that they differ a great deal in this respect, and it is only through a knowledge of the facts covering each variety, or at least the varieties of each species, that would enable a grower to know what to do in order to keep a variety up to the highest standard. Mr. Kellogg: What is the matter with the old Wilson strawberry? Mr. Waldron: I think people forgot about it and began growing better varieties. I know there is an impression among strawberry growers that the Wilson strawberry has run out. I don't know. I know it has been supplanted by other varieties, and the general impression of most men is that it is because other varieties, better varieties, came in and that variety was neglected. Mr. Kellogg: It can be found in eastern catalogs now. Mr. Waldron: Isn't it as good now as it was? Mr. Kellogg: That is what I want to know. Mr. Waldron: I understand that it is from the people that have grown them. I don't know of any strawberry in my career from the first time that I have been working in strawberries that seems to be any poorer now than it was twenty-five or thirty years ago. The Wilson might be an exception. I know that has been referred to as an instance of deterioration of variety. The strawberry might be so dependent on climatic and soil conditions that it might be classed with the potatoes and not be in a class with the apples, which don't seem to deteriorate. Mr. Kellogg: Is there such a thing as a pedigreed strawberry plant that is taken from runners? Mr. Waldron: We have experiments going on at the agricultural college now. We set out a number of plants from strawberry growers that advertise a pedigreed strawberry, and beside those we have strawberry plants from growers who don't advertise them as pedigreed. This year we ought to get some returns on that; last year the patch was flooded out--we had very heavy June rains. We have about ten varieties from a large number of different growers, some supposed to be perfect and some not. We are going to have some report of them at the next horticultural meeting. I don't believe there is anything much in pedigreed strawberries. The President: In the state of North Dakota our friend here who has just spoken occupies the same position in the hearts and minds of the people of his state as do our friends Haralson, Hansen and Patten in this section. His work is along a little different line, his being almost purely an agricultural section, but he is a very practical man and is doing splendid work up there. Mr. Doty: I wish to say a word on this strawberry question. Some years ago the postmaster at Monticello wanted to know of me what kind of strawberries to set out; I was handling nursery goods at that time. I told him I would recommend to him the Wilson, the Warfield and the Haverland. The Wilson I would set in the center. He had six square rods. He set them out. The second year he invited me up to his patch and asked me to guess on how many strawberries he had raised on that patch. I said: "Six bushels"--I thought I would put it high. But he said: "I have picked twelve bushels from that patch." I said: "It can't be possible," and he said: "Come right into my shop here. I have a paper here and I put down every single quart of strawberries that I have sold here." I figured it up and found that he had twelve bushels out of that patch. I told him to set the Wilson in the center, the Warfield on one side and the Haverland on the other. He did so and that was the result, the best result that I have ever known. The President: How many years ago? Mr. Doty: Well, it was about fifteen years ago. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. October is one of the best months in which to plant shrubs. After the leaves show them to be dormant they can be safely moved and will become established before very cold weather. Each year we are learning that _more_ planting can be done in the fall if done early enough, and by so doing one escapes a part of the rush that comes in the spring. "Anything that is hardy can be moved in the fall," an old nurseryman once said to me, and it has been a safe rule to follow. But note the word "hardy" in his advice. All stock, either shrubbery or perennials, that are planted in the fall should be well mulched. The bulbs for the spring garden, except those that require early planting, will also need to be put in this month in order to make a good root growth before frost overtakes them. Here we are able to achieve exact results as they very seldom disappoint us as to color or time of blooming as some other plants do. Have you tried planting your bulbs with any of the ground cover plants that will take away the bare look that most bulb beds have? The arabis with its snowy blossoms is beautiful beneath the early tulips. The violas--with such a wide range of color--make lovely backgrounds for the later tulips, as also do the creeping phlox and the native lavender blue divaricata phlox. A bed of this beneath pale pink Darwin tulips is one of the lovely memories of last spring's garden. Another snowy white flower is the perennial candytuft, Iberis. Blooming at the same time and remaining lovely for a long period it combines well with any of the tall tulips or narcissi or daffodils. Alyssum saxatile, with its sheet of gold, and the dear forget-me-nots, both grow well beneath the tulips. The fine lacey tufts of meadow rue are lovely among the pink and white and rose tulips. Surely the bulb beds need not be bare. The very early blossoms are always the most welcome. So plant some bulbs, at least twenty-five, of scillas, snowdrops, snowflakes (Leucojum vernum). These, if left undisturbed, will increase greatly. The chionodoxas, grape hyacinths and crocuses are all well worth planting, but do not put the latter in the grass as they will not do well there in our climate. FOR OUR ROSE GROWERS. Members of the American Rose Society have been raising money to employ a trained plant pathologist to study diseases of roses. The work has been begun under Dr. L. M. Massey, of the New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. By co-operating with Dr. Massey all growers of roses will greatly increase the efficiency of the investigations. A rose disease survey will first be made. It is here that all rose growers can help by sending specimens of diseased plants, with a statement regarding varieties affected, nature and extent of the injury, time of appearance of the disease and any other things that have been noticed regarding it. Information for the control of the disease will be given by Dr. Massey. The following directions are given to those sending specimens: "The material sent should be freshly collected and should show various stages of the development of the disease. Where roots are sent it will usually be undesirable to enclose any soil. Where convenient specimens should be mailed so as to reach Ithaca the latter part of the week. Place leaves, buds, etc., between the leaves of an old newspaper, a few between each two sheets. Then roll into a tight bundle and wrap in stout paper. Attach one of the franked tags (which may be had upon request), on which you have written your name and address, and mail. It will go postage free--H.H. Whetzel, Head of the Department of Plant Pathology, New York State College of Agriculture, Cornell University, Ithaca." * * * * * Meeting of Garden Flower Society, St. Paul, Wilder building, 2:30 p.m., October 19. Topics: "How I Made My Garden Pay" and "Work of Garden Clubs." Reports of seed trials. [Illustration: DISTANT VIEW OF A FIELD OF THREE YEAR OLD SEEDLING PEONIES ON THE GROUNDS OF BRAND NURSERY CO., AT FARIBAULT, MINN.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 NOVEMBER, 1916 No. 11 Peonies--Old and New. A.M. BRAND, NURSERYMAN, FARIBAULT. About the first thing I can remember, as I look back over the years that are past, is my father's field of peonies, and of a man standing at a table with a large peony clump before him cutting it up into divisions. I remember wondering how such beautiful flowers could come out of such an ugly, dirty root. The bright little eyes, some red, some white and others pink interested me, and boy fashion I put many questions to the man about them. And then my father came by and noticing my interest in the matter, though a busy man, stopped and explained to me the process of dividing the roots. That was forty years ago, but from that day to this I have watched with ever increasing interest the growth and handling of peonies. I was but a small boy then, but I remember my father gave me his big pruning knife, and under his guidance I divided my first peony. And I thought I had done fairly well, for he patted me on the head and said it was well done and that some day I would make a nurseryman. The peony industry as far as the West was concerned was in its infancy then. We had few varieties--peony buyers had not yet become critical. I can remember of but four sorts: the white variety, Whitleyii, now called Queen Victoria; the red Pottsii and the two pinks, Fragrans and Humeii. Peonies were then sold as red peonies, white peonies and pink peonies, and that was all there was to it, and the customer felt very lucky if he got the color he ordered. But a wonderful change came over the industry along in the nineties. Some of the better varieties had worked west in different ways, and people began to waken to the fact that there were more than simply red peonies, white peonies and pink peonies. Such varieties as Festiva Maxima, Edulis Superba, Marie Lemoine, Eugene Verdier and the like came to us. Flower lovers slowly began to realize that the old, despised "piny" of mother's garden was a thing of the past, and that here in its stead we had a glorious and beautiful flower. And as the better varieties have continued to come from year to year, the interest in the flower has continued to increase until now I think I am safe in saying that in the colder portion of our country at least, and in our own state in particular, the interest manifested in the peony is greater than that taken in any other flower. And it is of this modern peony that I am asked to tell you--of its cultivation and care, how it is multiplied and how the new sorts are produced. Right here at the start I wish to correct an erroneous impression about the peony that has been spread broadcast throughout the land by means of not too carefully edited catalogues and misinformed salesmen. We often hear an agent say or we read in some catalogue, "When you have the peony planted all is done." Now this is not true. It comes a long ways from being true. I think the very results which the following out of this belief have brought about are accountable for the production of more poor peonies than all other causes put together. The peony, it is true, will stand more abuse than any other flower you can name and still give fairly good results, but if you want good peonies you must take good care of them. The planting season opens about the first of September in Minnesota--probably the middle of the month is safer--and it continues right up to the freeze-up in the fall and up to the middle of May in the spring. We have lifted peonies that have grown a foot in the spring, packed them carefully, shipped them to middle Wisconsin, and in the fall had the shipment reported as having done splendidly. September planted roots will bloom the following season. After that there is little choice between fall and spring planting. The peony root will stand lots of abuse after being thoroughly ripe, but still it is best to handle it with care. Keep it fresh and plump until planted. If accidentally it becomes shriveled, immerse for twenty-four hours in a pail of water. This will revive it. Remove from the water and plant immediately. The roots should be planted with the tops of the buds from two to three inches below the surface--not more than three inches at the most. Many times you will notice that you have a nice, thrifty looking plant, but that it does not bloom. Nine times out of ten if you examine into the matter you will find that your plant was set from six to eight inches deep--and this is why it didn't bloom. Another cause of peonies not blooming is their being planted in lawns where the soil is impoverished by the roots of large trees. The common method of propagation of established varieties is by division. Grafting is resorted to by professionals in some instances, but that does not interest us here. The peony will do well in any well drained soil, though a rich sandy loam is the best. It will give splendid results in heavy clay if well cultivated and if at the blooming season in case of drouth the plants are well watered. Of all soils a sandy one is the poorest for the production of bloom, although, on the contrary, for the rapid production of roots the lighter soils are ideal. Such soils not only produce roots much more rapidly than the heavier soils, but produce a root that divides easier and to better advantage. But it is with the cultivation of the plant that we are most interested. As I have said before, no plant will stand more abuse than the peony and still give fairly good results, but if given a good soil and then good cultivation we have no flower that will give us more satisfaction for the care we give it. When grown in large numbers peonies should be planted, if possible, so that the plants can be cultivated with a horse. Deep cultivation seems to bring the best flowers. Where we can give horse cultivation we start the cultivator just as early in the spring as we can. As a rule we start by the middle of April and keep it going through the plants once a week at least, and oftener if necessary, right up to the time when the buds start to open. Cultivation here ceases until the blooming season is over and is then resumed often enough to destroy all weeds up to the first of August. We use one and two-horse cultivators and run the shovels to within three or four inches of the plants and two to three inches deep. But few of us can cultivate in this way. Field cultivating methods are hard to apply to the lawn and garden. But we may get the same results in other ways. Clumps of peonies on the lawn should be so planted that a cultivated space encircling the plant at least a foot wide is left. This space should be covered in the fall with a mulch of well rotted barnyard manure which should be forked or spaded into the soil in the spring. And the soil about the plant should be thoroughly forked over, to a depth of two to four inches, three or four times before the blooming season. Where the plants are planted in borders and beds in the garden, mulch and cultivate in the same way, stirring the soil all about and between the plants. Care should be taken in applying the manure mulch not to get it directly over the plant if the tops have been cut back. The stems are hollow as they die out in the fall, and thawing snow and occasional rains of winter leach the strength out of the manure, and this filters down through these hollow stems and comes in contact with the roots and rots them. For the sake of protection the peony needs no winter mulch. For this latitude it is perfectly hardy. After the blooming season cut all the blossom stems back to the leaves for looks. Do not cut the leaf stalk back until about the middle of September. By that time the plant is dormant, and all top growth can be removed with perfect safety. Most of us are willing to spend this time and labor if we get results and to get the best results with peonies we must have good varieties. Of named peonies there are somewhere in the neighborhood of 2,000 varieties. Large collections now catalogue all the way from 250 to 500 sorts. From such collections it is hard for those not thoroughly familiar with the merits of the varieties to make an intelligent selection of moderate priced peonies for a small planting. For people so situated I make the following suggestion of varieties: _White_: Candissima, Festiva Maxima, Duchess de Nemours, Duke of Wellington, Couronne d'Or, Queen Victoria, Avalanche, Madam de Verneville, Mons Dupont, Marie Lemoine. _Pink_: Edulis Superba, Model de Perfection, Monsieur Jules Elie, Livingston, Mathilde de Roseneck, Alexander Dumas. _Light Pink_: Eugene Verdier, Delicatissima, Marguerite Gerard, Dorchester Eugene Verdier. _Red_: Richard Carvel, Felix Crousse, Meissonier, Rachel, Delachii, Purpurea Superba and Rubra Superba. So much for the old peonies. Now to the new ones. And the question naturally comes, why any new ones? With over 2,000 varieties shouldn't we be satisfied? No! Many of the varieties catalogued might be eliminated, and we should be the gainer thereby. I believe I am safe in saying that if the present list were cut down to 300 sorts it would cover all the varieties worth while. And there is such a great chance for improvement! So many beautiful varieties coming to us of late years beckon us on. Crousse, Dessert and Lemoine have set the pace, and we of America will not be left behind. [Illustration: Looking up the rows of a bed of our seedlings three years after transplanting. The white variety in the centre of the picture is Frances Willard, considered by us one of the world's best whites. At the time this picture was taken, the flowers were just opening, so one gets no idea of the size of the blooms after they open.] Either eighteen or nineteen years ago my father definitely set about the bringing forth of a line of new peonies. For years he had been experimenting with seedling apples. His immense collection of peonies gave him the idea of producing something better along that line. A great bed was planted out from which to collect seed. Hundreds of the best varieties obtainable were planted in this bed, two of each variety, with a very liberal use of the three varieties, Edulis Superba, Fragrans and Triumph de l'Ex. de Lille. Some twelve varieties of the most vigorous singles of all colors were also used. Bees and the elements were allowed to do the cross-fertilizing. In the fall of 1899 the first seed, amounting in all to about a peck, was harvested and planted. This seed was allowed to dry and was planted just before it froze up, directly into the field where the plants were to remain and bloom. The seed was planted about two inches deep, in rows two feet apart, with the seeds six inches apart in the row. Immediately after the ground froze a two-inch mulch of coarse slough hay was spread all over the field. This was removed in the spring and the field kept perfectly clean that season by hand weeding, as cultivation could not be practiced. No seed germinated that year. That fall the ground was again mulched, and this mulch removed early the next, or second, spring. This second season just as soon as nature began to quicken the little peonies began to pierce the soil. Standing at one end of the field and looking down the rows one could fairly see the little fellows burst forth from their long confinement and thrust their little red heads in serried ranks through the brown earth. They reminded one of line upon line of miniature red-coated soldiers on parade. A fourteen-tooth Planet Jr. horse cultivator was immediately started amongst them, and intense cultivation given the bed that season. By the end of the growing season the little plants were from two to four inches high. The next spring, the third from the planting of the seed, the young plants burst through the ground strong and robust. Cultivation was started immediately, as during the season before, and the plants made rapid growth. By the middle of May, most of them were eight inches high with an abundance of foliage. We noticed a few buds appear this season. The strong, vigorous development of the buds, of one plant in particular, continued to claim our attention, and we watched it with intense interest. Day by day the buds grew larger, and then finally a day came when the first petal lifted, and the next morning the petals spread forth in all their glory. It was a gem, we realized we had something first class. My father said after he had studied it a while, "It pays me for all my time, and money, and work. If I never get another as good I shall be satisfied." It was a beautiful dark red, very early, as good a red as Terry's Rachel. We named it Richard Carvel. Six other plants bloomed that season. One was of the Japanese type. The others singles. By the next spring the small plants were well established, and we knew by their vigorous growth that we might expect the most of them to bloom that season. Thorough cultivation was given from the start, and by the middle of May the bed was covered with a mass of buds. June came. The blooming season was at hand. Slowly the buds began to show color. Here and there over the field a petal began to lift. A short space of anxious waiting, and then a day came when it seemed as if the bed had been touched by a hand of magic, for from one end to the other it was one solid blaze of color. Before us were thousands upon thousands of flowers and no two alike. As quick as the flowers began to open we started to grade and mark them. It took two men working steadily for a week to inspect and mark this bed. Everything that looked choice was marked No. 1. Everything that looked as though it stood a chance of coming choice, if given a better chance, was marked No. 2. All other doubles were marked double with their color. And all singles were marked single with their color. When the digging season came those marked Nos. 1 and 2 were lifted and divided and each planted in a bed specially prepared for them. Each sort was staked. These plants were set in rows three and one-half feet apart and three feet apart in the row. Intense cultivation was given them for three years. The performance of each sort was recorded for each year. At the end of the third year those sorts which had come good two years out of the three were again lifted and planted in another soil and watched closely for another period of three years. This gave us a pretty definite knowledge of their behavior, made us acquainted with them. It toned down, as I might say, the enthusiasm with which we first selected them, allowed of our making careful comparison with the best sorts, and finally enabled us to keep what were really choice. We did not have any need for the others. Of the ones first selected as No. 1 from the seed bed, about thirty-five in number, we finally kept eight; of those marked No. 2, about sixty. We afterwards selected two as first class. Those plants simply marked double in the seed bed were planted in a regular field bed by themselves. Each plant was divided and staked. This bed was allowed to stand three years and the plants were carefully noted each year as they bloomed for varieties that we might have accidentally overlooked in the seed bed. Among these thousands of plants we found two sorts which we called first class. One of these, though it is sixteen years since the seed was planted, we are just about to send out. I have given you the history of this single bed because it shows about how the seedling peony must be handled. We have since varied our method in handling in a single respect. We no longer plant our seed direct in the field. We find it much better to plant broadcast in seed beds. These are much more economical to keep clean the first year. After the little seedlings are one year old or, better, after they are two years old, we lift them in September and plant them in a permanent bed. [Illustration: Our seedling Harriet Farnsley, a very late all one color pink. This variety is in bloom at the same time as Richardson's Rubra Grandiflora, at a time when most good peonies are gone. The flower from which this photo was taken measured seven inches across.] Now if any of you are tempted to grow peonies from seed let me warn you not to get too enthusiastic in anticipating results. The chances are that 999 out of every 1,000 will have to be discarded. Test thoroughly before you decide to keep. The flower my father and I both decided our best when it first bloomed we no longer keep. Our best flower is one we took no particular notice of the first two years it blossomed. But do not let me discourage you. Though eight or ten choice varieties may seem small returns, still there is a pleasure in the work that you cannot fail but feel. And when you go forth into your fields after your stocks of better sorts have increased so that you can have each kind blooming about you in long rows, and as you see first this beautiful variety and then that come into bloom, you feel well repaid for the years of waiting and the labor you have bestowed upon them. Mr. Brand: A great many people ask the question whether just as soon as the peony has blossomed they cannot cut the top off. It would be a great mistake to do so. Your peony growth does not complete its development until about the middle of September, and if you cut the top off just as soon as the plant has blossomed you are going to have a great many of them rot. We had a very striking illustration of this two years ago. Just as our peony season was closing we had a severe hailstorm which cut our peony beds right off down to the ground. We couldn't save the tops if we had wanted to. That fall when we dug our roots it was almost impossible to fill our orders, because the roots were in such terrible shape. The tops were removed before they ought to have been. Talking about disappointments with peonies, I think the peony I was most impressed with of all the seedlings we have had came good but once. That was eleven or twelve years ago. As I look back upon it I think this was the most beautiful flower we ever grew, but it never came good but that once. I was so impressed with its beauty that I took it from where it bloomed in the seedbed and planted it at my house in the garden. When it came on to bloom, it was a disappointment and has been such ever since. I still keep it, hoping that some year it may bloom again as it did that first year. Mr. Harrison: Not a bit of it. They are the most lying vegetable on the face of the earth. May I ask if Mr. Peterson, of Chicago, is here? He is an expert peony man. I presume we will all like to hear from him. Mr. Peterson: I haven't anything to add; if you want to ask questions I will be glad to answer them. The President: Ladies and gentlemen, you probably know that Mr. Peterson is one of the expert peony men of the United States. In fact, as far as fifteen years back we were able to get some of the newer and better varieties from this gentleman. I never had the pleasure of meeting him, but we want to meet you, Mr. Peterson. You have all heard of Mr. Peterson, the peony man of Chicago and a life member of this society. (Applause.) Mr. Peterson: I have nothing to add. I have been in the game a good many years. We have systematically kept track of over three hundred varieties since 1888, so that it may be if you have any questions to ask I might be able to answer them, and I would be glad to. The proposition that Mr. Brand has stated is actually within the facts. We have raised thousands of seedlings, and not one of them do we now grow. You see some of the Peterson seedlings listed in other people's catalogues, but I don't have one myself. A Member: What kind of varieties would you suggest for the ordinary home garden, best dozen varieties? Mr. Peterson: I would name for the white peonies, the Madam de Verneville, Avalanche, Couronnes d'Or; of the pale pink, Delicatissima, Marie Crousse, Grandiflora; of the red, Monsieur Martin Cohuzac, Monsieur Krelage, Felix Crousse; of the deep pink, Modeste Guerin, M. Jules Elie and Claire Dubois. I do think that Mr. Brand has some of exceptional merit that will probably be put in the red class. I don't know his others, but Felix Crousse is undoubtedly the best of its type in the red. A Member: Have you tried out the Baroness Schroeder? Mr. Peterson: I surely have. It is very fine, but it is a little changeable, not only in its habits but in its shade. If you want a perfect white, it isn't that, it is a nearly flesh white. I would say that the Madame Emile Lemoine is finer. A Member: Do you advise spraying for them? Mr. Peterson: No, but I tell you what was asked of me today, which is the secret of having no disease in our plants. Any two-year-old plant in our field that doesn't bloom, we dig it up and throw it away, and that will nip any trouble in the bud, and then you will not get any strain that is not blooming. If we see any other defect, any that won't head good, we take it up and throw it away. That one point I think all of you can well follow, and that is, to dig up every two-year-old plant that doesn't bloom and throw it away, that is, during the blooming season. Mr. Harrison: Some varieties will bloom and some won't. You have got to punish the whole on account of the few? Mr. Peterson: I do that. If I have a two-year-old plant that is blooming in a section I keep it and follow it up. Mr. Harrison: Any special rule about multiplying or dividing? Mr. Peterson: No, except to divide in September, even possibly the last week of August, and the earlier they are divided at that time when the eyes are large, the better it is. * * * * * CAN FRUIT WITHOUT SUGAR.--_Canning Specialists Say Boiling Water May Be Used Instead of Sirup._ Fruit for use in pies or salads or as stewed fruit can be put up or canned without the use of any sugar at all, according to the canning specialists of the department. They, therefore, advise those who, because of the high price of sugar, have been thinking of reducing the amount of fruit they put up to can as much of their surplus as possible by the use of boiling water when sugar sirup is beyond their means. Any fruit, they say, may be successfully sterilized and retained in the pack by simply adding boiling water instead of the hot sirup. The use of sugar, of course, is desirable in the canning of all kinds of fruits and makes a better and ready sweetened product. Moreover, most of the fruits when canned in water alone do not retain their natural flavor, texture and color as well as fruit put up in sirup. Fruit canned without sugar to be used for sauces or desserts must be sweetened. Fruit Retail Methods and Costs. CLARENCE W. MOOMAW AND M.M. STEWART, FRUIT AND PRODUCE MARKETERS, PORTLAND, OREGON. On studying the various phases of city apple marketing, special attention was given to retail methods and costs. The purpose of this study was chiefly to learn whether the wholesale supply controls the price. The cost of operation as a factor in determining retail prices also was investigated as far as possible. Retail apple distributors may be classed as follows: (a) Fruit-stand vendors. (b) Fancy grocers, fruiterers, etc., catering almost exclusively to high-class or fashionable trade and doing a very extensive credit business. (c) Grocers catering to a cheaper class of trade, largely upon a cash basis. (d) Hucksters or street peddlers. Relatively high prices were charged for apples purchased at fruit stands. Extra fancy Northwestern and Colorado Jonathans were sold to the dealers during October and November at prices ranging from $1 to $1.25 per box. Apples which grade 150 to the box retailed at two for five cents, or $3.75 per box. This meant a gross profit of about 250 per cent. In the ninety-six size, extra fancy Jonathans sold at three for ten cents, or $3.20 per box, showing a gross profit of about 200 per cent. In the East Side tenement section of New York City it was learned that by reason of the cheap prices prevailing and the heavy supply of apples arriving the peddlers were operating to the detriment of fruit stands. The fruit-stand dealers were selling only about one-third to one-half the quantity of fruit handled in former seasons. The pushcart and wagon peddlers as a rule buy packed or loose fruit cheap and go direct to the homes of the residents, selling at prices considerably below the fruit-stand men. The peddlers handle a large quantity, make quick cash sales, and pay no rents. Other dealers incur heavy operating expenses and generally sell not for the purpose of moving a large quantity, but for the highest price obtainable. Consequently, the movement is restricted. The largest profits were found usually in barreled apples. For instance, New York B grade, two inches minimum, approximately 600 apples to the barrel, sold for a cent each or $6 per barrel. These apples cost the retail dealer not over $2 per barrel delivered to his store, allowance being made for jobber's profit and drayage. The investigator saw "A grade" fruit, 2-1/2 inches minimum, averaging about 400 apples per barrel, which cost the retailer not over $3, being displayed for sale at two for five cents, or $11.25 per barrel. Such prices prevailed at no less than twenty-five retail stores visited in one day. Apples were being offered for sale at retail all over New York City at prices ranging from one cent each at the cheap corner fruit stands, to fifty cents and eighty cents per dozen at the fanciest fruit stores. In general, it may be said that the gross profits of fruit-stand vendors range from 100 to 250 per cent. Operating expenses other than rent in most cities except New York are not relatively high and all sales are on a strictly cash basis; hence the net profits on good fruit are large. Grocers catering to high-class trade buy only the best apples. Extra fancy Jonathans, Grimes, etc., preferably 138's and 150's size, were purchased at $1 to $1.25 per box. These apples were taken from the box and repacked in small splint trays similar to the peach basket used in a six-basket carrier. Each box of apples filled approximately ten trays. Each tray sold for thirty cents; hence the box brought $3, representing a gross profit of about $1.75. Extra fancy Delicious and Winter Banana, 72's size, purchased at $2 per box, retailed at five cents each, or $3.60 per box. Other sizes and varieties brought corresponding prices. No attempt was made by this class of grocers to stimulate consumption by temporarily reducing prices. The retail prices quoted above were maintained consistently throughout the 1914 season, regardless of prevailing jobbing prices. The large margins charged by the retailers, for the most part, were due apparently to the small amount of business handled, the perishable nature of the commodity, and the cost of operation. An elaborate and efficient delivery service must be maintained by the grocers, and many small deliveries are made each day at an actual loss to the dealer. A large proportion of the grocery-store patrons buy on credit and pay when it becomes convenient. Many of these accounts are never paid. Hence it becomes apparent that the good customer who pays his bill regularly each week, or who pays cash, must suffer for the shortcomings of others. However, there can be little doubt that reducing prices would materially increase consumption and in the end result in equally good profits for the dealers. Reduced prices and better business practice should prove to be very beneficial to grower, dealer and consumer. The profits derived from the sale of cheaper grades of apples to the poorer class of consumers are not so large. It was learned that those catering to such trade operated on a margin of 75 to 100 per cent. of the purchase price. Raspberries. F. C. ERKEL, FRUIT GROWER, ROCKFORD. Raspberries are so easily grown it is surprising we do not find more farmers and back lot gardeners in the city giving them attention. I believe more people would raise raspberries if they could be made to realize what great returns they would receive for a little work and care. As a commercial proposition raspberries are the poor man's friend, yielding large returns with very small investment and requiring but little land. I will attempt to give a few essentials in raspberry culture without going into detail, with the hopes that at least a few more patches of raspberries may be planted as a result of my effort. With the main points of raspberry culture given, there is no reason why any one with ordinary intelligence can not solve the details and meet with success. Raspberries have a little advantage over strawberries with the man who is not greatly enthused over small fruit culture. When once established the plantings do not have to be renewed annually but with ordinary care will last several years, in fact they will stand more Junegrass sod and weeds and general neglect and still produce results than anything else I know of unless it is apple trees. Another point in favor of raspberries over strawberries is that it is not quite so hard on the back to pick them, and when large quantities are grown it is easier to get pickers. Red raspberries will succeed on most any kind of soil so long as it is kept reasonably well fertilized and supplied with humus. They prefer a moist loam, and a northern slope is preferable to a southern slope because not so quickly affected by drought. Good drainage is necessary, and if planted on low ground where water is liable to stand at any time the ground should be tiled or otherwise drained. Raspberries may be planted either in the fall or spring, or the plants may be dug in the fall, heeled in outside, covered with mulch, or they may be stored in the cellar and planted in spring. Plants bought from a nursery in the spring should be unpacked immediately on arrival, the roots dipped in thin mud, then heeled in until permanently planted, even if the delay is but a day or two. The tops of the plants should be cut, leaving but a few inches, and if any blossoms appear the first season it would be better to remove them to prevent fruiting. It would be expecting too much of a newly transplanted plant to make much of any growth and produce fruit the same season. If allowed to fruit the first season but little fruit could be expected at best, and it would leave the plant dwarfed if indeed it were not killed outright. The suckers that come up the first season will produce the next season's crop, after which they die down and should be removed, other suckers taking their places annually. Not over two or three suckers should be allowed to each plant the first year; after the first year leave five to eight in each hill, depending on the kind of soil, fertility, etc. When plants are cheap and plentiful it is customary to use two in each hill to insure a good stand the first year, but it is reasonable to expect, however, where there are two root systems in each hill instead of one that in after years there would be more troublesome suckers to remove than if there was but one root in each hill, and this is no small matter with some varieties. To obtain planting stock large clusters of roots may be divided to propagate from, but these usually have but few fibrous roots and are not as good as first year's growth suckers, springing from roots near the parent plant. Red raspberries may also be propagated from root cuttings or even from seeds, the latter not coming true to variety, however. Plantings should preferably be made on ground plowed the fall previous, but spring plowed ground will answer if thoroughly disced, harrowed and planked and then repeated, to make the ground firm. If the ground is poor add a liberal dressing of well decayed barnyard dressing before plowing, or if not well decayed wait until after planting to apply the manure. Future cultivations will mix the dressing with the surface soil where the roots will be able to reach it, since raspberry plants are close surface feeders, and for this reason all cultivations should be shallow after the root system has formed. When the matted row system of planting is adopted, the late Prof. Green advised using a heavy mulch for two feet on each side of the rows to preserve moisture and discourage weed growth close to the plants, cultivating only a strip through the middle. Raspberries may be planted in rows five or six feet apart to allow cultivation both ways, or in rows seven feet apart with plants two or three feet apart in the rows with the idea of allowing a matted row and cultivating but one way after the first season. The matted row is hardly to be recommended unless one is willing to use a hoe rather freely to keep the plants free from weeds where the cultivator can not reach them, or unless he can provide a good, deep mulch to discourage weed growth. Rows should preferably run north and south, so the fruit will be shaded during the middle of the day, but this is not absolutely necessary. In setting the plants place them just a little deeper than they grew originally, carry them to the field in pails of water or thin mud, avoiding exposure of the roots to the air unprotected, but do not use water in the holes unless the ground is extremely dry. Firm the ground well close to the plant, and cultivate between rows all summer to preserve moisture, whether weeds are troublesome or not, up to September 1st and be sure to cultivate shallow after the roots begin to occupy the ground. Hills that grow exceedingly tall and rank may be cut back to about two and a half feet in height in the spring, or if one is willing to take the trouble to pinch off the end of the plants at this height during the growing season they will get bushy plants better able to hold up a load of fruit--besides cutting back has a tendency to produce larger fruit. We only grow two varieties of red raspberries, both of which are perfectly hardy without winter covering, so we have no suggestions to make or experiences to relate regarding winter protection. I am afraid I would be tempted to quit the business if I had to cover our raspberry bushes for winter protection. I think it would be as big a task as all the rest of the work combined except picking, and I let some one else do that part. For a home garden it is even more desirable to select a variety that is hardy without winter covering than when grown in a commercial way, for this is one of the tasks that is liable to be neglected unless one makes a business of it. In choosing a variety the other qualities to look for besides hardiness without winter covering are size, color, flavor, prolificacy and good shipping qualities. We are located only twenty-five miles northwest of Minneapolis, and one would naturally suppose we would market our berries there, but we get better prices in towns along the Soo railroad in western Minnesota and the Dakotas. Although our berries are a variety that crumble unless left on the bushes until ripe they do not spoil readily, which is probably due to the fact they are quite acid, and we ship to points in North Dakota nearly as far west as Chicago is east of us with very little loss. Wherever our berries have been introduced they have made friends, and there is hardly ever a time that we do not have standing orders for two or three times as many berries as we can furnish. We usually ship in flat cases, two boxes deep, twenty-four pints to a crate, which brought us $2.00, $2.25 and $2.50 per crate net, f.o.b. shipping point. There is but one other berry grower near us, so we do not have much difficulty in getting pickers. The first year we built a couple of small cottages to accommodate people from the city who might care to combine berry picking with a few days' outing, and it was surprising what a good class this proposition appealed to, but we now have enough local pickers to care for our crop. The profits in raspberry culture vary all the way from little or nothing above cost of production up to several hundred dollars per acre, depending on the season and how well cared for. Whether raspberry culture is a money making proposition or not in a commercial way, there certainly is no good reason why every farm or city garden should not have at least a few hills of raspberries for home use. Even leaving the matter of cost out of the question, there is a difference between fruit just off the bushes and that which has stood around in hot, dusty places several hours or longer waiting for a purchaser. Try it and be convinced! * * * * * TO INOCULATE SEED.--Coating the seed of legumes with inoculated soil before planting is a simple method of insuring soil inoculation at slight cost. County agents in Illinois have found ordinary furniture glue effective in holding particles of inoculated soil to the seeds. This method gives each individual seed some of the particles of inoculated soil, which it carries with it when it is planted. The scheme requires but a small amount of inoculated soil and costs but a few cents an acre. The method is described in Farmers' Bulletin 704 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dissolve two handfuls of furniture glue for every gallon of boiling water and allow the solution to cool. Put the seed in a washtub and then sprinkle enough of the solution on the seed to moisten but not to wet it (one quart per bushel is sufficient) and stir the mixture thoroughly until all the seed are moistened. Secure the inoculated soil from a place where the same kind of plants as the seed are growing, making sure that the roots have a vigorous development of nodules. Dry the soil in the shade, preferably in the barn or basement, and pulverize it thoroughly into a dust. Scatter this dust over the moistened seed, using from one half to one gallon of dirt for each bushel of seed, mixing thoroughly until the seed no longer stick together. The seed are then ready to sow. The Flower Garden. (AN EXERCISE LED BY G. C. HAWKINS, FLORIST, MINNEAPOLIS, AT THE 1915 ANNUAL MEETING.) Mr. Hawkins: We have a question box and I would be glad to have any one use it or rise and state their question. I will answer, giving my experience. The first question I will read is--"What would you advise about covering in the garden in a season like this?" There are now two questions to be answered. First, what kind of covering? Second, how much? The first question can be answered this way. Every garden is benefited by a good covering of well decayed manure. Second. Any light covering of straw or horse manure with plenty of straw in it is very good. Leaves make a good covering if they can be kept dry, but leaves when not covered get wet, pack down over a plant and too often do more damage than good. The advantage of covering, or mulching, is to prevent thawing and freezing. To keep plants frozen from fall until spring would be ideal. The ideal winter is one when the snow falls early and stays on during the winter. We should cover lightly the plants that need protection, and when the snow falls, as a warm blanket, the plants will come through the winter in perfect shape. Mr. Hawkins: We have a question box and would be glad to have any one use it, or rise and ask your question, and we will endeavor to answer it and give our experience along that line. Mr. Horton: What would you advise for plants that are infected with aphis? Mr. Hawkins: Spraying is one of the best things and for that we use a weak tobacco solution, so as to moisten the plants, a light mist will do the work. I want to tell a little experience in growing peonies. Last year I tried the experiment of using ground bone around them, which is one of the best fertilizers we have. It contains nearly all the elements of a perfect fertilizer. Just as soon as the little joints come out of the ground, dig a trench about three inches from the main bush, about two inches deep and fill with ground bone and watch the result. I carried this plan out with wonderful success, getting 350 perfect blossoms on twenty-five bushes. It takes bone about thirty days to commence to dissolve. The day of the automobile has brought need for a new fertilizer, and we must carefully select the best that can be had. We must turn back again to the green crops and the artificial fertilizers. This also works well with roses. Mr. Reckstrom: Would bone do that was bought for the chickens? Mr. Hawkins: Yes. You understand the finer the particles the quicker it commences to dissolve. A Member: Where can ground bone be obtained? Mr. Hawkins: All first class seedsmen have it from small packages of ten pounds to 100 pound sacks. Mr. Bell: I tried hardwood ashes, and that seemed to be the best thing I struck. There were some shrub lilacs that didn't blossom. One winter I just put the ashes right on, probably a bushel around the one large bush. After that I had plenty of blossoms. On peonies and roses the result seems to be very good. [Illustration: Residence of G. C. Hawkins, 2913 Fremont Avenue South, Minneapolis.] Mr. Hawkins: No question but what ashes are very fine, for the simple reason the potash in hardwood ashes is a very good fertilizer. I would like to ask some one to give his experience in regard to rust on the tiger lily and the phlox. The perennial phlox is one of the most beautiful flowers we have, and there has been considerable trouble this year with a rust which takes all the leaves off the stalk and is injurious to the blossoms. I did not find any successful remedy for it, and I would be very glad if some member would give his experience. Mrs. Sawyer: I think you will find bordeaux mixture is good as anything for the rust on phlox. There is another mixture given for use in the English gardens, but their conditions are not the same as ours. It seems that changing the location of the phlox may do it good. Phlox is a plant that wants free circulation of air. Sometimes they get crowded in the garden, and a combination of heat and moisture produces the rust. By changing them to some other ground sometimes it entirely disappears. Mr. Hawkins: Mrs. Sawyer thinks this would be a remedy, as they require a circulation of fresh air and keep down moisture. We know this, phlox should be divided every third year. If you lift some you will find in the middle a woody dry substance absolutely detrimental to a large, healthy growing phlox. If you take off the little plants that come at the outside of this and replant them you will find your flowers will be much larger the next year. If we leave bunches of phlox in the same place successive years they become small. If you separate them it will add vigor to your plant, and the flowers will do better. I would like to ask what success you have had with growing tritoma, the flame flower? Have you had any difficulty in raising them? Mrs. Tillotson: I have one blossom that seemed to take such a long time to get above the ground I wondered what was the matter with it. Mr. Hawkins: Mrs. Gould, can you give us any enlightenment? Mrs. Gould: I never raised them, I got some bulbs this year. I know you have to take them up in the winter and store them like gladiolus, and they do not require very heavy soil. Mrs. Countryman: Will yucca filamentosa ever blossom in a garden in St. Paul? Mrs. Sawyer: It will, but it doesn't always. It does blossom in Minnesota, but I know that people have a great deal of difficulty getting blossoms. Mrs. Countryman: I have five plants growing four years and have never seen a blossom yet. Mr. Hawkins: I have had two growing three years, and I never have seen the color of a blossom yet. A Member: What kind is that? Mr. Hawkins: It is the yucca filamentosa. It is an evergreen. It should throw up a tall stalk with large branches and plenty of white flowers, I think hundreds of flowers--that is the description. It is a beautiful thing in the garden anyway. Mrs. Countryman: I have seen them in blossom in California. Mr. Richardson: I have seen them blossom many times in Winnebago. Mrs. Countryman: Give us the culture instructions. Mr. Richardson: I grew in nursery rows some odd stuff, had the same culture that the nursery had. But when it blossomed one year I have been told on good authority it would be five years before that stalk would blossom again, only blossoms once in five years, but by having many stalks they don't all blossom at the same time. I have had them two or three years in succession but not on the same stalk. Mrs. Countryman: Do you cover them winters? Mr. Richardson: Never. Mr. Hawkins: I think the only reason why the yucca filamentosa doesn't do well is because it is a plant of the southwest and grows in a warmer climate. Mrs. Sawyer: I had a varied experience in growing those plants, and I took a great deal of pains to learn all I could from different sources and different people, and I believe our trouble is our late frosts, I think that is conceded by people who have really gone into the question thoroughly. Our late frosts injure them more than anything else. A little protection in the spring is what they need more than protection in winter, and we know that they don't want a wet place. Mr. Hawkins: I want to recommend a flower that should be very popular. It is perfectly hardy, blossoms for years, the hardy pyrethrum. It is a daisy-like flower, absolutely free from insects and a sure bloomer. We have plants in the garden that have bloomed six years. It comes in many shades, from white to deep crimson, blooms from the 15th of May to the 1st of July and makes a beautiful showing. In regard to iris, did any one have any trouble with their iris coming a little ahead of time last year and being frozen? Mrs. Sawyer: I guess they all froze off. I don't think it was because they were ahead of time; it was because of the frost. Mr. Hawkins: What would you recommend? Mrs. Sawyer: I don't think there is anything to do in weather like last spring, you can't cover anything away from a hard black frost like that was. [Illustration: G. C. Hawkins, of Minneapolis.] Mr. Hawkins: We have several hundred plants on a southern slope, and I thought perhaps the sun beating against the southern slope is what started them earlier. Mrs. Sawyer: Ours weren't on a southern slope, pretty near level, rather north than anything else, and they got frozen. A Member: What causes the rot in the iris? Mr. Hawkins: That depends upon the kind of iris. With the bulbous rooted iris, the bulb is filled full of water during the heavy rains, and if you add more water to it it simply decays. The Siberian and many of the fibrous rooted iris will stand a great deal of water. A Member: Does the German? Mr. Hawkins: The German is a bulbous root. As I said, it takes all the moisture it needs. That is one reason why iris never wilts down in a dry spell. It always looks fresh and green. A Member: I would like to say it is well not to plant the iris deep. The natural iris will lie almost on top of the ground, and they like to have the sun beat down on them. The iris likes to bask in the sun. Mr. Hawkins: This would prove to you that the bulb takes enough water to support it and doesn't need any more because it rests on the top and basks in the sun. Has any one tried anything new in the garden that will stand our climate? Mrs. Norton: I would suggest that hardy alum-root, or heuchera. It is a perfectly hardy perennial, can stand our worst winters without any covering, and it grows about so high from the ground (indicating two or three feet), with its geranium-like leaves, and the flower grows about three feet high, all covered with pink bells on the stems. It is a very decorative plant and perfectly hardy. I think it has been much neglected in the Northwest because it is so perfectly hardy and it increases very rapidly. I have over one hundred. Mr. Hawkins: I would like Mrs. Gibbs to say a word. Mrs. Gibbs: The only thing I can say is that I enjoy being around among other people's gardens. I think that is one of the best places to find out things that we want; so many times we buy something that sounds well, but when we have it planted it doesn't look as well. I think one of the best ways is to visit gardens and especially those that use labels. A Member: I would like to ask about the trollius. Mr. Hawkins: Has any one had experience in raising trollius? Mrs. Gould: I have had experience in not raising them. I planted three years, and after getting the seeds from all the seedsmen I discovered in a book on plants that the seed would have to be in the ground two years in order to germinate. I didn't know that and left them in only a few months. I think the only way is to buy the plants. It is a very beautiful plant, yellow and shaped like golden glow, belongs to the same family as the buttercup. A Member: I would like to ask about the hollyhocks. I saw such beautiful hollyhocks around Lake Minnetonka and I have never been able to make them winter. I would like to ask about that. Mr. Hawkins: We have three plants, hollyhocks, digitalis and canterbury bells, and nearly all have the same trouble with them. If we mulch them we are liable to have the center decay and the plants practically useless. It is a question of mulching them too much or not mulching them. I would like to have you speak up and tell us your experience. I have in mind a gentleman who raises splendid hollyhocks in the neighborhood of the lakes. Takes no care of them, and yet he had one this year seventeen feet high, which took care of itself and had any amount of blossoms. I tried that experiment several years myself of mulching them, and the crown rotted. These are three of the best flowers of the garden, and we ought to have some certain way of keeping them. A Member: Have you ever tried mulching them with corn stalks? Mr. Hawkins: Yes, I have tried it but lost them. A Member: I had very good luck with them that way. A Member: It is more a question of drainage than of mulching. Mr. Hawkins: That might be. Mrs. Gould: I wish simply to say that the trouble with winter grown hollyhocks and canterbury bells is that they will head so tall and must be kept dry. I always cover the hollyhocks and if I had the others I think I would cover them. I uncover mine early in the spring, and if it gets cold put on a little more straw. You are almost sure to uncover them the wrong time. With foxgloves I think it is almost unnecessary to cover them. Mr. Hawkins: In our gardens the hollyhocks form one of the best backgrounds we can have, beautiful, tall, stately stalks, and the canterbury bells, certainly nothing more beautiful than they. Then we come to the other, the digitalis, which is equally as beautiful. We must give our attention to the protection and growth of these in years to come because they are three of the beautiful things of the garden. It has been suggested that digitalis be potted and put inside the cold frame and leaves put over them. I think leaves are a splendid protection if you can keep them dry. If I were using them as a mulch I would keep out the water by covering with roofing paper to keep them dry. Mrs. Countryman: I am told on good authority that the hollyhock is a true perennial and not a biennial. Mrs. White: It is listed in the foreign catalogs as both a perennial and a biennial. Mrs. Countryman: Wouldn't the hollyhock come under the heading of being perennial but not a permanent perennial? Mr. Hawkins: It might be classed that way. There seems to be a difference of opinion as to just what it is. I have known them to come six or seven years in the same spot. * * * * * TIE TRAP FOR RABBITS.--An inexpensive and permanent sewer tile trap for cottontail rabbits has proved very effective in Kansas. To make the trap, proceed as follows: "Set a 12 by 6-inch 'T' sewer tile with the long end downward, and bury it so that the 6-inch opening at the side is below the surface of the ground. Connect two lengths of 6-inch sewer pipe horizontally with the side opening. Second grade or even broken tile will do. Cover the joints with soil so as to exclude light. Provide a tight removable cover, such as an old harrow disk, for the top of the large tile. The projecting end of the small tile is then surrounded with rocks, brush, or wood, so as to make the hole look inviting to rabbits and encourage them to frequent the den. Rabbits, of course, are free to go in or out of these dens, which should be constructed in promising spots on the farm and in the orchard. A trained dog will locate inhabited dens. The outlet is closed with a disk of wood on a stake, or the dog guards the opening. The cover is lifted and the rabbits captured by hand. "These traps are especially suitable for open lands and prairies, where rabbits cannot find natural hiding places. They are permanent and cost nothing for repairs from year to year. If it is desired to poison rabbits, the baits may be placed inside these traps, out of the way of domestic animals or birds. This trap also furnishes an excellent means of obtaining rabbits for the table, or even for market."--U.S. Dept. of Agri. Blueberry Culture. U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Blueberries thrive best on soils which are so acid that they are usually considered almost worthless for ordinary agricultural purposes. Blueberry culture, therefore, offers possibilities of profit to individual land-owners in districts in which the general conditions are especially hard and unpromising. Blueberries can not be grown in ordinary fertile soils. Although frequently confused, especially in the South and in the Middle West, blueberries and huckleberries are quite distinct. In New England the name "huckleberry" is restricted to berries which contain 10 large seeds with bony coverings like minute peach pits which crackle between the teeth, while the name "blueberry" is applied to various species of berries containing many but very small seeds. It is the latter, not the large-seeded huckleberry, which offers possibilities for profitable culture. At the present stage of the blueberry industry it is best to begin by transplanting the most promising wild bushes, selecting them for the size, flavor, color and earliness of the berry as well as for the vigor and productiveness of the bush. These plants can be propagated in various ways, which are described in detail in a professional paper of the department, Bulletin No. 334, by Frederick V. Coville. The aim of the cultivator should be to secure bushes which will produce large berries. These cost less to pick than small ones and bring a higher price on the market. A berry eleven-sixteenths of an inch in diameter has already been produced under field culture. The three fundamental requirements for successful blueberry culture are: (1) An acid soil, especially one composed of peat and sand; (2) good drainage and thorough aeration of the surface soil; and (3) permanent but moderate soil moisture. Next in importance to these essentials is a location such that the berries may reach the market without delay. The best prices are obtained about the beginning of the wild blueberry season. The main crop of wild blueberries comes from northern New England, Canada and northern Michigan. A location to the south of these areas where the berries will mature earlier is, therefore, to be desired for the commercial cultivator. One of the most promising districts now known is the cranberry region of New Jersey, where berries mature early and the shipping facilities to the market in Philadelphia, New York and Boston are good. Another important factor to be considered in selecting a location for a blueberry patch is the possibility of late spring freezes. For this reason the bottoms of valleys should be avoided. Freezing seldom injures the blueberry plant itself, but the fruit crop is often destroyed in this way. From past observations it appears that wild blueberries growing in or around bodies of water frequently escape the injurious effects of late spring freezes, and it seems, therefore, that a flooding equipment for blueberry plantations similar to those used for cranberry bogs may, under certain circumstances, prove commercially advantageous. At the present time, however, only a beginning has been made in blueberry culture. The yield and profits in field plantations from improved bushes have not as yet been ascertained. There is, however, one small planting in Indiana where complete records have been maintained for the past six years. This plantation was started in 1889 in a natural blueberry bog, which was first drained and then set with wild blueberry bushes transplanted without selection for individual productiveness or size of berries. On this plantation the yield per acre has averaged 1,741 quarts for the past six years. This average would have been somewhat higher except for the almost total failure of the crop in 1910, due to late spring freezes. An average of 14-1/2 cents a quart has been received for the berries and the net profit per acre is estimated at $116 a year. In this estimate allowance has been made for interest, taxes and depreciation. The expense for weeding, cultivation, and irrigation is placed at $20 an acre and the cost of picking at five cents a quart. * * * * * HOMEMADE FIRELESS COOKER.--A wooden or tin pail, lined with two thicknesses of paper and provided with a close-fitting cover, may be used for the outside container of the cooker. Allow for three inches of packing on all sides and at the bottom of the pail. A gallon oyster can will serve very well for the nest, which should be wrapped on the outside next to the packing with asbestos and a piece of asbestos placed under the bottom to prevent the scorching of the packing when hot soapstones are used. Shredded newspaper and excelsior make a good packing. Pack this very tightly around and to the top of the nest, the top of which should be about three inches below the lid of the outside container. A piece of cardboard cut to fit inside the lard can with a circle cut out of the center around the top of the oyster can or nest will hide the packing and make a neat finish. Place a three-inch cushion of unbleached muslin, stuffed tightly with excelsior, on top of the lid of the nest. When the top of the outside container is placed on and hooked down, it will be tight enough to cause a pressure. If a tin pail is used for the outside container, it may be enameled white, or a wooden pail stained brown, making a neat-looking appliance for any kitchen. Regular aluminum fireless-cooker utensils may be used for cooking the food in the nest, but any kind of a vessel with a close-fitting top and one that fits closely in the nest is suitable.--U.S. Dept. Agri. Hardy Perennials. MISS GRACE E. KIMBALL, WALTHAM. There has been very little in my work with hardy perennials that seems worth relating. For many years, in Austin, we had iris, peonies and phlox in our garden. While my love for flowers and outdoor work led me to spend all my time, outside of office hours, in the garden, the iris and peonies, especially, never gave any trouble but grew and blossomed in the most approved fashion. With the phlox we have had more trouble, sometimes in dry seasons not getting the bloom we should, and finally, the last year we were there, losing nearly all the roots we had. I am now inclined to think that had we divided and transplanted them some years before, we would not have lost them. It was only a few years ago that I began to realize that herbaceous perennials could, with success, be planted in the fall in our climate, and it was not until two years ago that I made any attempt at fall planting. That year I was quite successful, but last year, wishing to divide as close as possible, especially with the iris, I evidently overdid the matter, with the result that I lost many of my plants. However, I learned my lesson, and this year they were not divided so closely, and I am hoping that they will come through the winter all right. With the hardy perennials easily raised from seed my first experience was with the oriental poppy. I had greatly desired to have some in the garden and, not knowing that the fall was the time to plant them, ordered some one spring. They failed to grow, so the next year I attempted to raise them from seed, starting them in the house as I did my pansy seed. But I was far from successful in that way, and having read some articles on the difficulty of raising them from seed, also learning that they should be set out in the fall, I made up my mind they were not worth bothering with. However, father suggested I might succeed by planting the seed in the shade out of doors, and even though it was quite late in the summer I got more seed and sowed it broadcast in a hedge of lilacs, syringas and so forth, kept the ground moist, and in a short time had many plants coming up. I also had ordered a few to be shipped me in the fall. By fall my seedlings were large enough to be transplanted into boxes, to be moved as we were moving from Austin to Waltham. With those I had ordered for fall delivery, they were moved to our new place, the boxes sunk in the ground, and the next spring put into a hedge with other plants--for while they do not stand transportation very well in the spring, I have been successful in transplanting them from one part of our grounds to another at that season. Since coming to Waltham I have started the seeds of the poppy, larkspur, columbine and gaillardia in a grove near the house, where they are easily kept moist. If I get the seed in early in the spring, the plants are often large enough to transplant in the fall. However I like better to plant the seed later, about the time the first blossoms from each variety have ripened their seed. The seedlings will then be large enough to withstand the winter with a little protection and ready for spring transplanting. With a comparatively small amount of work, and very ordinary care, once the plants are set out anyone can have continuous bloom from early spring until frosts come, by setting iris, peonies, phlox, columbine, poppies, larkspur, gaillardia, giant daisy and painted daisy. Such a selection would make a big variety of color and form in the garden, and all but the first three kinds can be very easily raised from seed. Or not wishing so many kinds, one can have flowers all summer by a careful selection of several varieties of iris, peonies and phlox. Why Should We Grow Seedling Apples? ISAAC JOHNSON, WEST UNION, IA. There is no work in fruit growing that has more taken my attention and given me more pleasure than the growing of seedling apples. For many years I have been of the opinion that apples for this severe climate must be grown from seed. If we succeed in growing hardy, productive and good keeping varieties, they must be native, or raised at home. By experimental work along in this line of growing fruit we have come to this conclusion that fruit trees do best grow at home. In looking over the list of apples we grow this far north, we all know that the hardiest and the most productive kind are seedlings, either from Minnesota, Iowa or Wisconsin. Minnesota has the Wealthy, the banner apple; for early and late fall apple it has no equal. Wisconsin has the Northwestern Greening and the Wolf River, which are very large, showy and good market apples. We all know what Mr. Patten has done along in this line of growing seedlings. At the state horticultural meeting in Des Moines, December last, was exhibited one hundred varieties of seedlings and a large number of those, to my judgment, were good keepers and fine looking apples. Hundreds and hundreds of varieties of apples have been imported from Russia, and I for one have tested fifty or sixty of those Russian varieties, but at the state meeting, where I exhibited seventy-seven varieties, I was able to show only three Russian varieties, Longfield, Antinovka and Volga Cross. I think I have reason to ask what would we have for apples today if there had not been any seedlings raised? Why does the State of Minnesota offer one thousand dollars for a seedling apple tree that is as hardy as the Duchess with fruit as good as the Wealthy and that keeps as well as the Malinda? Because to get such a variety it must come from seed. Planting for Color Effects in the Garden. MRS. H. B. TILLOTSON, MINNEAPOLIS. The most attractive flower bed in my garden this year has been the one planted for a blue and white effect. From earliest spring, soon after the snow had gone, until now, October 4th, there has been something interesting and beautiful blooming there. In the middle of the summer it was one tangled mass of lilies, delphinium, phlox and gypsophila, their perfume filling the whole garden. As the lilies faded and the delphinium grew old and went to seed, the old stalks were cut away. The phlox and delphinium bloomed again in a little while, and in September the candidum lilies began to come through the ground, getting ready for next year. The bed is three feet wide by thirty long, and was covered last winter with loose straw and leaves, with a few cornstalks to hold them in place. Early in April this was raked off and the edges of the bed made straight, for the grass always grows in a little each year. The warm sunshine soon brought out the scilla and crocus, almost carpeting the whole bed. One would not think of the other things hiding under their leaves. The forget-me-nots began to look green along the edge, and up through the fading crocus and scilla came a few straggling grape hyacinths, blue and white, and one lonely plant of the Virginia cowslip (Mertensia)--more could have been used with good effect, for they too disappear after awhile. The Virginia cowslip staid in bloom until the forget-me-nots were a mass of blossoms, and the blue Darwin tulips (pink, really, with a blue spot in the bottom of the cup, just back of them) were in all their glory. In the middle of the bed the Madonna lilies, and belladona delphinium had covered the ground with green. In spots the wild violets were in blossom--they had crept in some way from the dirt--I think it had been taken from the woods near by. Watching each day, for the friends I knew would soon be coming, I found the first shoots of the hardy phlox, which I knew to be G. Von Losburg and Miss Lingard. Double blue bachelor buttons, self sown, were there, some transplanted to fill in the bare spots, and poppies; I didn't know what color they would be, for the wind and the birds had sown the seed; but the leaves were a beautiful grey-green, and I let them grow. I had almost given up the double baby breath (gypsophila paniculata, fl. pl.), but finally it came all the way down the bed, about every five or six feet, between the delphinium and the phlox. There were perhaps a dozen plants of phlox, a dozen of belladona delphinium and six baby breath through the middle of the bed, and on each side a row of the intense blue Chinese delphinium. Just outside these, and next to the forget-me-nots and tulips, are the bachelor buttons, and, coming through it all, a hundred candidum lilies, their waxy white blossoms glistening in the sunshine, and the perfume so heavy you knew they were there long before you could see them. The poppies, too, were there; they were double, like a peony, rose-pink with a white edge. I was glad I let them grow, for I don't think I ever saw a more beautiful sight. I let it all grow and bloom as long as it would, hating to touch it for fear of spoiling all. Finally I was obliged to clear away the old stalks, and it looked rather bare for a time. But I brought some white asters from the reserve garden. The Baron Hulot gladoli were soon in bloom. The phlox sent up tiny shoots for new bloom from the base of each leaf, and the second crop of bachelor buttons came along. White schizanthus along the edge, covered up the old forget-me-nots, and funkia lilies (subcordata) threw up their buds. The delphinium all began to bloom again, the grey-green leaves of the baby breath was still there, and soon my bed was all abloom again and staid so the rest of the summer. But never did it equal the glory of those first ten days of July. The Fall-Bearing Strawberries. CHARLES F. GARDNER, NURSERYMAN, OSAGE, IA. (SO. MINN. HORT. SOCIETY.) There are now such excellent varieties of fall bearing strawberries on the market that a person can have no good excuse for not planting some in his garden. Select the ground for the bed where you will get the whole benefit from the rays of the sun. I want no trees, bushes, or tall growing plants of any kind near the bed. The farther away, the better. The earth should be made quite rich with well rotted compost. I like the plan of preparing the bed a long time before you get ready to set your plants. You can then work the soil over, time after time, and every time kill a crop of weeds. More plants are set in the spring than any other time, but they will grow and do well if set in midsummer or any time after that up to the middle of October. Get through setting in September if you can. If you set later, in October, cover the plants with a slight covering of straw as soon as planted. Then afterwards, when you make a business of covering put on a little more, cover them nicely--but you are liable to kill them if you put on too much. Two inches deep I find to be about the right depth to go through our ordinary winters. I mean two inches after the straw has settled. I think many persons spoil their plants, or at least injure them severely, by putting on too heavy a coat of covering. I will also tell you to beware of using horse-manure as a covering for strawberries. Clean straw or hay is the best of covering. (Fall planting of strawberries not advisable in Minnesota.--Secy.) Most people do not trim the plants enough before they are set. All fruit stems should be cut off, if there are any, and the most of the old leaves removed, two or three of the youngest leaves on the plant is all that should be left. These will start right off into a vigorous growth, and you will soon have strong, healthy plants. I think it pays to put a small handful of tobacco dust on and around each hill. You can generally get it at your nearest greenhouse--or you can find out there where to send for it. Get enough to put it on two or three times during the early and latter part of summer. Do not select ground for your new bed that has been in strawberries; take ground that has never had strawberries on, or at least that two or three crops of some kind have been taken from it since it was covered with strawberry vines. After the plants are set, they should be well firmed; it is absolutely necessary that they should be very solid in the earth. They should not be too deep nor too shallow, one is as bad as the other. The crown buds should be in plain sight, after the ground is firmed and leveled, just in sight and no more. A little temporary hilling will do no harm, but the ground should be kept as level as possible. All cultivation should be shallow so as to not disturb the roots of the plants. This is also a very important item. Just remember that every plant loosened after it is set means death to the plant if it is not reset at once. Cultivate often when the ground is not too wet. Keep your bed entirely free of grass and weeds. This is easily done if all work is done when it should be. The time to kill weeds is when the seed first sprouts; don't wait until the weed plants are an inch or more high; if you do you will never keep them clean, and then you will never have success in your work. [Illustration: Chas. F. Gardner at work in his everbearing strawberry experiment grounds.] Cut all fruit stems off as fast as they appear, until your plants get well rooted, and then let them bear as much as they want to. But if some plants set an unusually large number it is well to cut out part of the fruit. If rightly thinned you will increase the yield in quarts. If fruit is the main object, after the plants are well located and begin to set fruit for your main crop, they can be mulched with clean straw or hay, carefully tucked up around each hill. This will keep the fruit clean and conserve the moisture in the soil, and you can stop cultivating. If plants are the main object, then you can not use the mulching, but must keep the cultivator going between the rows. Well informed growers of the strawberry plant generally have beds on purpose for fruit in one place, and in another place one to grow plants. No one will make a success in growing strawberries unless he can learn to detect the rogues that appear from time to time in strawberry patches or in the fields. These rogues are generally plants that have come up from the seed that has been scattered in one way and another over the bed. Berries are stepped on and mashed, other berries are overlooked and rot on the ground, but the seed remain and germinate when the time comes for it in the spring, and some of these plants are not destroyed by cultivation or by hoeing, and soon make trouble for the grower. No seedling will be like the original plants that were first set, and many of them will be strong growing plants, good runners but worthless for fruit. When you set a new lot of plants you get some of these seedlings, and that is how the mixture comes in. I have counted one hundred and fifty seedling plants around one old plant in the spring. Of course the most of these where good tillage is practised are destroyed, but some remain in spite of all you can do unless you pay the very closest attention and learn to distinguish rogues from the true named varieties. All rogues must be kept out if you keep the variety true to name. Of course once in a while a rogue will prove to be a valuable variety, as was the case when Mr. Cooper found the Pan American eighteen years ago, from which our fall varieties owe their parentage. If you want to be successful remember to keep in mind the value of constant selection and keeping your parent stock true to name. When you first set out your plants, go over them and examine them closely and see that everything is right. Then remember that the first sign of a good fall bearing variety is to see it throw out fruit stalks. You can cut these off, so that the stub of the fruit stem will show that it has sent up a flower stalk. You can see the stub. In this way in a small patch you can easily keep track of them. If some plants do not throw out fruit stems, mark them so you can tell them, and if they pass the season without trying to fruit, you must refrain from setting out any of the runners that appear, or there is liability of trouble. Let such plants alone for another year's trial. Then if they do no better, dig them up and destroy them. Once in a while they prove to be all right, but often they are worthless. Learn to tell a variety by a careful examination of the plant at different times during the season. Fix the general color of the leaf in your mind, its shape and size. Notice whether the fruit stems are long or short, whether the blossoms are above the leaves, in plain sight, or are hidden below. Are there many fruit buds to the stalk, or but few? Are the blossoms pistillate or staminate? Are the petals large or small? Are the stamens long or short? Are the anthers well or poorly formed? They should be plump and well filled before they are ready to open. Is the receptacle on which the pistils sit well formed and capable of being developed into a perfect berry, or do they look ungainly in shape? Are the petals pure white or slightly crimson? Are there many runners, or few, or none? Do the new runners bear blossoms and fruit? If so, when do they commence to bud and bloom? When do the berries begin to ripen? Notice the size and shape of the fruit, also the color. You can tell much from the taste of the berry. No two varieties taste exactly alike. Some are real sweet and some kinds real sour. Then there are all grades between. The perfume, or fragrance, of the fruit of the common strawberry when fully ripened under proper conditions of sunlight and moisture has long been esteemed and highly appreciated by mankind in general, and in this respect the fall-bearing strawberry varies greatly. The most of the varieties excel all common kinds as to perfume and that delicate strawberry flavor which nearly everybody loves so well. Once in a while a musk-scented variety is developed, like the Milo on our grounds, which as yet has never been sent out. By paying close attention to these things you can soon learn to distinguish many varieties at any time during the growing season. In 1898 Mr. Cooper found his seedling which he called the Pan American. From that small beginning there are now many varieties, perhaps thousands, that excel the parent plant, and perhaps a hundred varieties of great value. Some varieties have very superior merit. I will mention a few: Progressive, Peerless, Advance, Danville, Forward, Prince, Will, Milo, Nathaniel, 480, and there are others which might be mentioned. Good reports have reached me of kinds produced at your Horticultural Experiment farm by Prof. Haralson, but I have never tried them. My private opinion is that several kinds I have not mentioned will very soon take a back seat, as the saying is. The best varieties are bound to come to the front. The best advertisement one can have is the ability to ship thousands of quarts during the whole autumn. This season we shipped 22,565 quarts, mostly sold in pint boxes. They netted us from 12-1/2 to 18 cents per pint. At home we kept them on the market during the whole season at 15 cents per quart. We lost as many as 5,000 quarts by violent storms during the season. It was a fair season for growing plants, but there was too much water to grow the best of fruit. Heredity in Gladioli. G. D. BLACK, GLADIOLUS SPECIALIST, INDEPENDENCE, IA. (SO. MINN. HORT. SOCIETY.) As heredity is a comparatively new word, it may be well to define it at the beginning of this paper. Webster says "It is the transmission of mental or physical characteristics or qualities from parent to offspring, the tendency of an organism to reproduce the characteristics of the progenitor." Most of the species of gladioli are native in the temperate zone of Southern Africa, where they have grown for so long a time that they will reproduce themselves in a marked degree from seeds. Some have grown in the moist soils of the valleys for so many generations that they have become adapted to these conditions and will not thrive on the elevated plateaus and mountain slopes. Those which are native in the higher and cooler altitudes will not grow well in the lower lands. A species or variety becomes acclimated when it is grown in one locality for several successive generations, because it is one of nature's laws that it takes on new characteristics that improve it for existence there. These characters are changing more or less during each generation on account of environment. We can not aid nature in strengthening and improving the desirable qualities unless we follow nature's laws. By crossing two varieties that have certain desirable characters in common we may be able to make these characteristics more dominant. Much of the crossbreeding of the gladiolus has been done in such an unscientific manner that it is surprising that so much improvement has been made. This improvement is mostly the result of extra care and cultivation, and the selection of the best each generation. In order to retain the benefit of any extra care and cultivation it has to pass on as a heritage to the succeeding generation and is there incorporated among its characteristics. Each generation should be an advance toward the desired ideal. There is no doubt in my mind that the ruffling and doubling of the petals in flowers that have been under cultivation for several generations is caused by the extra feeding and care that they have received. Most species of gladioli in their wild state are small and lacking in beauty. Abnormal or freak varieties should not be selected as the best for breeding, because they are usually the result of a violent cross, and are nearly always weak as propagators and sometimes entirely sterile. Princeps has a very large flower, but the spike is short and only two or three blooms are open at one time. It was originated by Dr. Van Fleet by crossing Mrs. Beecher and Cruentus. Burbank crossed Princeps and America, and quite a number of the seedlings show the markings of Mrs. Beecher, one of their grandparents, but with shorter spikes. In this cross Princeps transmits the undesirable character of short spikes but leaves out the abnormal size of flower, and the best characters of America are lacking. The parentage of America is very much in doubt, as three prominent gladiolus breeders claim the honor of originating it. There are many characteristics to be considered when making selections for breeding besides the color and size of the flower. The bulbs of some varieties will stand considerable freezing while other varieties will not. This same characteristic is noticed in the foliage. The severe frost that killed our corn crop on August 30th so impaired Panama, Hiawatha and some others that very few blooms of these varieties opened afterwards. The foliage of some varieties remained green after a temperature of twelve degrees below freezing. A representative of a Holland bulb growing firm who called on me a few days ago says that Niagara is a very weak grower in Holland and Panama is a very vigorous grower. My experience with these varieties is just the reverse. This seems to show that sometimes the difference in climate may cause certain characters in the plant to act differently--if the Hollander is not mistaken. A few varieties are sometimes subject to blight and rust. Some are only slightly affected, and many others are entirely blight proof. There are so many characteristics to be considered by the scientific breeder that it is almost impossible to enumerate them all in this paper. There is yet a great work to be done in breeding out the undesirable traits and incorporating the improvements which we desire. Civic Improvement. MRS. ALBERTSON, PRES. CIVIC IMPROVEMENT LEAGUE, AUSTIN. This is a subject so broad and so closely connected with "The City Beautiful" one can hardly find a starting point, but we might begin with the one word--civic--which has drawn to itself many minds, much sober thought and from some much hard work. The fear was widespread that woman would work havoc if she attempted to spell the task, but how needless, for the word civic can be spelled with accuracy from whichever end approached. What was the beginning of the civic league and the city beautiful? It began at home, where most women's work begins. To have a beautiful home one must have the right kind of house. To have the beautiful house to make the beautiful home the setting must be made to correspond--so after the house, the lawn; after the lawn, the boulevard. Then the work spread. Streets needed cleaning, unsightly billboards had to be removed, perhaps an adjoining vacant lot had a careless owner whose pride needed pricking. So the need of a civic league grew, and now it has become a vital spark in many cities all over the Union. Minnesota has over thirty civic clubs doing specific work. Is it entirely the work for women? No. Is it entirely the work for men? No. It is a work for both. It is a work that is very contagious and a contagion that needs no quarantine. Civic league work envelopes many lines of improvement. Streets and alleys sometimes need to be reported to the proper committee of the city council; the disposal of rubbish and garbage has confronted many civic societies. There is nothing so conducive to unsanitary conditions and so disfiguring to a beautiful street as glimpses and often broad views of alleys and back yards that have become dump piles and garbage receivers. Besides the effect on one's love for cleanliness and beauty, it breeds disease--and so public sanitation was added to the civic league work. In some cities the societies are taking up the work of smoke abatement. I might say that we have a few offending chimneys in our own city beautiful. Every member of the city council should be a member of the civic league, for much more could be done by co-operation. There is great need of the civic improvement league and park board working together, for their aim is one--to make the city beautiful. The work that gives the most beauty to the city after the good foundation of cleanliness, public sanitation and removal of public nuisances is that done in the parks. I am glad cities are making larger appropriations for parks, and I hope our city will have more in the future, for there are great possibilities of making our city not only a city beautiful, but a most beautiful city. Parks should be well lighted, playgrounds for children are almost a necessity, the river banks should be kept clean--but most of all the natural beauties of a place must be preserved and trees should be planted. Shade is needed as a good background. There is nothing that will enhance a beautiful statue, fountain or other park ornament like a setting of good trees. If possible to have it there is no more attractive spot in a park than a lily pool. The old idea of laying out parks according to some geometrical pattern is giving way to the development of walk lines of practical use, recognizing both traffic requirements and the desirability of location for numerous park benches. What will lend more charm to a park than a beautiful drive bordered with noble trees leading up to some focal point or opening a way to some particular vista that would otherwise be lost! The park board should not limit its work to parks alone, but wherever there is a spot, triangle corner or any other kind of available place, there should be planted shrubs or flower beds. They soon become a public pride and cheer many passersby. We have a number of bright spots in our city, beginning in the spring with a beautiful bed of tulips. May another year bring us many more! One forgets the mud and the disagreeable days of spring in watching the bulbs thrust their little pointed noses through the cold earth and the development of the buds until they burst open into a blaze of color, flaunting their gorgeous heads in a farewell to old winter and giving a cheery welcome to the coming summer. BEE-KEEPER'S COLUMN. Conducted by FRANCIS JAGER, Professor of Apiculture, University Farm, St. Paul. If not already done the beekeeper should at once make his final preparations towards a successful wintering of bees. There are several conditions under which the bees winter well, all of which are more or less understood. The chief of these are a strong colony of young bees, sufficient amount of good stores, and the proper place to keep the bees. Bees that were queenless late in the fall or bees that had an old queen who stopped laying very early in the season, will have only few and old bees for wintering and will not have vitality enough to survive. Such colonies should be united with some other good colony or if too far gone they should be destroyed. Weak colonies should be united until they are strong enough to occupy and fill when clustered at least six frames. The best stores to winter bees on is pure honey capped over. Honey dew will kill the bees in winter. If you have any black honey in your hives you had better remove it and replace with white honey. A ten frame hive ready for winter ought to contain from 35 to 40 pounds of honey. A complete hive if put on a scale should weigh not less than from 50 to 60 pounds. The best way to supply food to the bees is to remove the dry combs and insert next to the cluster full combs of honey. Feeding sugar is a dangerous undertaking, and it should not be resorted to unless necessity compels one to do it, and then feeding should be done early in the season to allow the bees to invert the sugar, cap it over and consume such stores which are not capped over before winter. The hives that winter best are those which contain no uncapped honey in the frames. For the bulk of beekeepers cellar wintering in Minnesota is to be recommended. The things to be looked after in cellar wintering are: first, that the temperature of the cellar does not go much below 45 degrees, at least not for any length of time. Second, that the entrances are kept open and clear of dead bees and are guarded with four to the inch wire screen against mice. Third, that the moisture generated by the bees does not accumulate on the walls and covers of the hives. This is most essential. Moisture absorbing material should be used in place of a wooden cover, for instance flax board or gunnysacks, or a super filled with shavings over a queen excluder. The bees must have free passage over the top of the frames. We wintered the bees at University Farm without loss by using nothing else but the one inch flax board on top of the hive, which kept the hive positively dry all winter. Your cellar should be dark, should have some ventilation, and the bees should never be disturbed during their winter sleep. By following these recommendations, you will be delighted to find your bees in the spring in a most flourishing condition for next summer's work. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. After the frosts have killed the _dahlia_ foliage the tubers should be dug and stored before the cold becomes so great. They may be injured by it. The stems should be cut to about three or four inches of the roots, using a sharp knife, so as to make a clean cut. To the stems attach the label firmly. Loosen the earth about each clump before attempting to lift it, then run the spade or fork as far under it as possible and pry it gently out. In this way the tubes will not be broken or injured where they join the stem, which is the only place where they can make the next season's growth. Most of the soil will drop off as they dry. Lay the roots so that water will not have a chance to collect in the soft hollow stems, or crown rot may trouble you. A cool, dry shed is a good place in which to cure the roots. Lay them on boards and turn them occasionally so they will dry evenly. In a week's time they should be ready to store for winter, the best place being a frost-proof cellar. Unless this is very dry, it is best to have boards raised a few inches above the floor on which to lay them. This will allow a current of air to pass under them. If a damp cellar must be used, air slaked lime sprinkled under the boards will help to keep them dry. Cover them a little with dry sand. The best temperature is 40 degrees. _Cannas_ can be lifted and stored at once. Cut the stems off short, leaving enough to attach the labels to. They keep best if lifted with as much soil about them as possible. The clumps can be set close together, on boards arranged in the same way as for dahlias. They will stand a slightly warmer temperature than dahlias. _Tuberous begonias_, unlike dahlias and cannas, should be lifted without cutting the stems. They should be cured in the sun for at least two weeks and during that time turned to dry evenly and kept perfectly dry. A cold frame is a good place in which to do this. When the stems part readily from the bulbs, the latter can be packed in boxes and stored in any dry place where the temperature will not fall below 40 degrees. These are among the tenderest bulbs and should be the first to be lifted. _Gladioli_ should be lifted with their stems intact, tied in bundles and hung in a dry shed to dry. When thoroughly dry, the stems can be cut off and the bulbs packed in boxes and stored the same as the begonias. They are especially sensitive to heat, and if the air is too dry the bulbs will shrivel and lose much of their vitality. _Montbretias_ should be lifted out and stored in the same way as the gladioli. _Tuberoses_ should be lifted with the stems intact and spread out to dry or hung in a dry place. When thoroughly cured, cut off the stems close to the bulb and store in the same way as gladioli. _Caladium, or Elephant's Ears_, should be lifted without disturbing the stem or leaves. As the leaves dry they can be removed, but the stem should not be cut near the bulb, as this is the point of growth the following year. They can be stored with the dahlias and cannas and are not apt to shrivel, as the bulb is so large and fleshy. _Zephyrunthes, summer blooming hyacinths, tritomas, and tigridias_ should be lifted, cured, and stored in the same manner as gladioli. All of these are subject to rot, so it is well to examine them occasionally. If any rot is found, remove the affected bulbs, and if those remaining appear damp, dust lightly with air-slaked lime. Flowers of sulphur can also be used to dust them with to prevent this trouble. Should the bulbs be getting too dry, cover with sand. In our climate of extremes, it is necessary to examine them at intervals, and be prompt in the use of a remedy if any of these adverse conditions are discovered. * * * * * NOTICE. The November meeting of the Garden Flower Society will be held in the Minneapolis Park Board greenhouses, thirty-eighth street and Bryant avenue, November 16, 2:30 p.m. Take Monroe and Bryant car. St. Paul members will transfer from the Selby-Lake at Bryant avenue. This will be a chrysanthemum show, and a talk on hardy chrysanthemums will be given. SECRETARY'S CORNER MINNESOTA CROP IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION.--Will hold its annual meeting this year at Fairmont on Feb. 21-22-23. The seed growers of Minnesota would be especially interested in this meeting, at which there are to be a number of seed contests, particulars in regard to which are not at hand. They may be secured by addressing the secretary, Prof. C. P. Bull, University Farm, St. Paul, Minn. THE VEGETABLE GROWERS CONVENTION.--This convention, which is I understand an annual gathering of the vegetable growers of America, was largely attended in Chicago the last week in September. A report received of the meeting indicates an attendance of eight hundred vegetable growers, including two hundred fifty from the vicinity of Chicago. The city entertained them with an inspection trip, throughout Cook County and later a party of them went to Racine and visited the experimental gardens operated by Prof. R. L. Jones, of the Wisconsin University. Perhaps we may have a fuller report of this meeting from some of our Minnesota growers who were in attendance. THE SOCIAL ELEMENT AT OUR ANNUAL MEETING.--Making the West Hotel the headquarters of the society at the same time that the meeting is held in the building gives an especially good opportunity for renewing and cultivating acquaintance amongst the members in attendance. This was particularly noticeable last year, and without doubt one of the most enjoyable features of the gathering. Placing emphasis upon this, an additional room has been engaged for the coming meeting on the same floor and adjoining the rooms occupied last year, which will be fitted up especially for a reception room where members and their friends may gather and rest as they visit and talk of the many things of interest connected with our society and its work. A suitable sign will direct members to this reception room, and we anticipate that it will be made use of largely. THE PRIZE WINNER IN THE GARDEN AND CANNING CONTEST.--The Horticultural Society is offering $10.00 to pay railroad fare and traveling expenses to attend the annual meeting of our society by the boy or girl making the best record in the state in the "garden and canning contest" carried on by the Minnesota Extension Division. The successful contestant will tell in his or her way how it was that success was secured in the contest. Besides this prize of $10.00 each of the ten boys or girls scoring next highest in this contest will receive an annual membership for 1917 in the State Horticultural Society. The name of the successful contestant is not yet announced. DELEGATES FROM SISTER SOCIETIES.--Several delegates have been appointed from horticultural societies in adjoining states, notices of which have reached this office. Mr. D. E. Bingham, of Sturgeon Bay, Wis., is to represent the Wisconsin State Horticultural Society. Mr. Bingham has made fruit growing his life work, a man of large experience, whose services are in demand in that state also as an institute lecturer. We shall have an opportunity to profit by his experience at our meeting, as you will note by consulting the program. Mr. G. D. Black, of Independence, Ia., is to represent the Northeast Iowa Society. Mr. Black has been with us before and he will find many who recall his presence here in previous years. He is to give us on the program his later experience in connection with the growing of the gladioli, a work to which he has given large attention for many years. From South Dakota is coming the president of that society, Rev. S. A. Hassold, from Kimball, S.D. Other visitors from Iowa not officially sent to us who have signified an intention to be present are: Chas. F. Gardner, Osage, Ia.; E. M. Reeves, Waverly. Prof. S. A. Beach is also to spend the last two days of the annual meeting with us and his name will be found upon our program on several topics. No professional horticulturist in America is better or more favorably known than Prof. Beach, and our membership who are interested in orcharding should not fail to hear what he has to say on the subjects he presents. Mr. N. A. Rasmussen, of Oshkosh, Wis., is also to be with us and will be found several times on the program. Being an expert in market gardening we are going to work him to the limit while he is with us. We anticipate that Secretary Cranefield of the Wisconsin Society, will also spend the week with us. Prof. C.B. Waldron will be here as representative of the North Dakota Society, and also Prof. F.W. Broderick of Winnipeg as representing the Winnipeg Horticultural Society--and of course our Prof. N.E. Hansen, of South Dakota. All of these friends will be found on the program. There may be others, but this will do for a start. [Illustration: VIEW OVER VEGETABLE TABLE AND ACROSS FRUIT EXHIBIT AT 1916 MINNESOTA STATE FAIR. MR. THOS. REDPATH, SUPT. FRUIT EXHIBIT.] While it is not the intention to publish anything in this magazine that is misleading or unreliable, yet it must be remembered that the articles published herein recite the experience and opinions of their writers, and this fact must always be noted in estimating their practical value. THE MINNESOTA HORTICULTURIST Vol. 44 DECEMBER, 1916 No. 12 Perennial Garden at Carmarken, White Bear. J. W. TAYLOR, ST. PAUL. We have had so many inquiries about our garden as to how we make things grow, and as to the best plants to use, that we take pleasure in answering through the Horticulturist and giving the result of our experience in making an attractive perennial garden. Our soil is sandy loam, very quick and warm, except in one place where it is low and there is a heavy black soil over clay. It has been well enriched with well rotted manure and cultivated as much as possible every spring, where it could be done without disturbing plants and bulbs. The arrangement of flowers as regards the blending and careful selection so that one bloom does not kill another is the secret of a beautiful garden. Acres of flowers placed without any regard to color, no matter how expensive individual plants may be, is not pleasing to the eye. It is like a crowd of mixed people, and we know crowds are never beautiful. There is incompatibility among flowers as there is among people, and the compatible must be associated or there is no harmony. What do we raise and how do we do it? We will, in the space allowed, answer this as best we can. It is not necessary to spend a great lot of money if one uses good judgment and knows where to buy. Take that grand flower, the peony. One can spend as much money as one pleases on these. There is just now a fad regarding these flowers, and some rich people are paying as high as $30.00 a root for certain kinds, but it is not necessary. The most really lovely gardens I have seen in the East and West have not been filled with plants bought at fancy prices. We have some that originally cost us a good deal of money and which are now cheap, as for instance, the Henryii lily. We bought the first we heard of at one dollar and one-half each. Now they can be bought for thirty cents. In peonies, Baroness Schroeder, an ivory white, is selling for three dollars a root, while the most beautiful of all the whites according to my taste, Festiva Maxima, can be bought for fifty cents. The Kelways are all fine. The best cost about one dollar each. In our garden, among others, the Pallas, Edulis Superba, Golden Harvest, Madame Crousse and Queen Victoria, all fine, cost us fifty cents each. We have a row all around our garden of these splendid flowers, many varieties, some very rare, and nothing could be more gorgeous in color or more effective than this border. Hundreds of people came to see this peony show this year and were extravagant in their praise. The perfect harmony of arrangement was what pleased. We made many friends happy with armfuls of them to take home. That is the pleasure of your garden, the enjoyment one gets from making others happy. We especially notice how pleased the children were, the girls more so than the boys, perhaps, as they wandered along the paths fondling this or that bloom with loving fingers. With such an amount of bloom it is easy to send bouquets to the childrens' hospitals and to sick friends. We plant the peonies with the crown just under the earth, two feet apart. In the fall we cut off the old stalks and replace them over the plants after putting a good dressing of rotted manure on the beds. Another flower, which is very attractive, is the larkspur Belladonna, turquoise blue. It shows from a great distance as its heavenly blue meets the eye. When arranged in a vase with white flowers it makes the most beautiful, choice and refined bouquet we know of. The Formosum is a lovely dark blue and very striking. Give them plenty of water and some wood ashes to keep off the slugs. Cut off the stalks after blooming, about August first, and they will bloom again in autumn. We had this year a large clump of Madonna lilies and next to them a large bunch of larkspur. The effect was stunning. Just before the larkspur came the whole north end of the garden was aflame with Oriental poppies, hundreds of them. No other flower produces the effect upon one that this great proud, wonderful flower does. It is the queen of the show. We transplant this in September in ordinary soil. Or we sow the seeds in August and transplant the seedlings as soon as up. They need no protection, but we protect everything with straw and branches. The branches to keep the straw from packing too hard and keeping the air out. Protection of roses is necessary, of course. We had a great collection this season. Our plan is to cut them back to within a foot of the ground then fill a box with leaves and turn over them. We never lose a rose thus protected. Neither sun nor mice injure them. Another grand flower is Digitalis, or foxglove. These gladden your heart as the medicine made from them strengthens it. Get the mixed plants or seed, Gloxinia flora. When in bloom, look into their little gloves and note the wonder of nature's coloring. With us they grow six feet tall in black, heavy soil. They self-sow, and the plants of the present year bloom the next. A bed of these make a most gorgeous, dignified group in your garden. They are hardy with a very slight covering. Many with us self-sow and live through the winter without any protection. We made up a bed of these self-sowed in fall of 1915. They were a glory this summer. A few years ago every one said, don't waste your time on Japanese Iris. They thrive with us and bear blooms fully as large as a tea plate and of most exquisite beauty. We divide them every third year and in the spring cover them with old fertilizer and water them well. They grow in a heavy soil with some sand worked in. Our best varieties are Oriole, Distinction, Alice Kiernga, Beauty of Japan and Blue Flag. The Gladiolus is another bright and interesting addition to our floral family. The best we have are Marie de Ruyter, a pretty blue; Badenia, lavender; Golden King, a magnificent yellow; Florence, lilac blotched; Mazie, corn color; and Dawn, shell pink. Plant these bulbs in succession, three weeks apart, from April first, six inches deep, so they will stand up, and eighteen inches between rows. In this way you will have them until frost. For the house cut them when first bud comes out, and they will all blossom in water. A flower which attracts much attention with us is the Canterbury Bell, cup and saucer variety, in different colors. Very showy. This is not a perennial but a biennial. We plant our seeds in July and transplant in September or October. The Persicifolia in white and blue is a hardy perennial and grows on stalks two to three feet high, a great favorite among white flowers. In some soils they do not do well, but with us grow rampant. We prefer the white. We cut over two thousand stalks this summer from one hundred fifty plants. Of Tulips, which are so welcome in early spring, the Darwin leads all. We love them as we do the Stars of Bethlehem, the Hyacinths, Narcissi and the darling little blue flowers, Scilla Siberica, that come with the Snowdrops and Crocuses before the snow is gone. We thus have bloom from snow to snow. Always something bright, and that is another strong reason for a perennial garden. We have many calls from persons wishing to buy plants or seeds. We do not sell either, but gladly give away our surplus. We have furnished many gardens in this way all about us and thus added to the beauty of the surrounding country and made ourselves and others happy. Our collection of Lilies, Auratums, Speciosums, Tigers, Madonnas, are all planted six to eight inches deep and, after spreading manure are covered with straw, after frost. We cover all bulb beds with manure in the fall. Among lilies all but the Auratums last years, but these lose their vitality in two or three seasons. Plant all lilies in fall except Madonnas, which should be put in in August. Two fine flowers we would recommend to flower lovers: the Amaryllis Hallii, or, as we call it, the wonder flower, which grows a large bunch of leaves in spring and in June they all die down. In August there springs up a single stalk from the apparently dead plant, bearing a lily-like bunch of flowers of charming colors. It is as hardy as an oak. The other is the Dictamnus, or gas plant. Most beautiful and very hardy. Get one white and one pink and plant near each other. They are fine. Of course we have named but a small part of our collection, but will be glad to give any further information to our Horticulturist readers and will be glad to welcome them at our grounds any time. * * * * * CANNING FRUITS WITHOUT SIRUP.--Can the product the same day it is picked. Cull, stem, or seed, and clean the fruit by placing it in a strainer and pouring water over it until it is clean. Pack the product thoroughly in glass jars or tin cans until they are full; use the handle of a tablespoon, wooden ladle, or table knife for packing purposes. Pour over the fruit boiling water from a kettle, place rubbers and caps in position, partially seal if using glass jars, seal completely if using tin cans. Place the containers in a sterilizing vat, such as a wash boiler with false bottom, or other receptacle improvised for the purpose. If using a hot-water bath outfit, process for 30 minutes; count time after the water has reached the boiling point; the water must cover the highest jar in container. After sterilizing seal glass jars, wrap in paper to prevent bleaching, and store in a dry, cool place. If you are canning in tin cans it will improve the product to plunge the cans quickly into cold water immediately after sterilization. When using a steam pressure canner instead of the hot-water bath, sterilize for 10 minutes with 5 pounds of steam pressure. Never allow the pressure to go over 10 pounds. The Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm. CHAS. HARALSON, SUPT., EXCELSIOR. The Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm was established eight years ago, principally for breeding new varieties of fruit adapted to our climate and conditions. The aim of this work is to assist the people in getting better commercial varieties of the various fruits grown in the state, so that better returns could be secured for the people engaged in the various lines of fruit growing. Some of the plant-breeding work is beginning to show results, a few varieties of fruit are being distributed in a small way for trial in different localities. A great deal of work has been done with apples. Seedlings have been grown by the thousands every year with the idea of selecting some desirable varieties when the trees come into fruiting. Hardiness of tree, long keeping and good quality of fruit are the most desirable points we are looking for in our selections. A great deal of crossing under glass is being done with apples; a number of seedlings, the results of this crossing work, are planted every spring. Some of the six thousand Malinda apple seedlings planted seven years ago have fruited to some extent for the last three years. These show a great variation in fruit, both in color, quality and long keeping. Some of the fruit ripens with the Duchess, while others will keep until spring in good condition. There is a chance for some desirable varieties out of this lot, but it will take several years to determine whether we have anything better than the Wealthy. The Wealthy is by far our best commercial variety, but we are looking for something that will keep until spring. Gooseberries and currants are easily raised and are perfectly hardy with us, but we are working to get some improvement on these varieties. Many thousand seedlings are being grown for this purpose. Our native gooseberries are used in breeding work with the cultivated varieties to a great extent, as they are hardy, strong growers and resistant to mildew. As to cherries, we have none that are satisfactory. Some work has been carried on for several years, but we have not obtained anything of special value so far. The most promising combinations are Compass cherry crossed with the cultivated varieties. None of these have fruited, but we have some hope for a hardy cherry from these seedlings. Peaches and apricots are not hardy in Minnesota, and consequently nobody thinks of planting them. Some years ago we started crossing the sand cherry with peaches and apricots. The results were a number of seedlings, but all turned out to be worthless; the trees after several years growth were small, or grew mostly in bush form. They blossomed every spring but never set any fruit on account of some imperfection in the flowers. Four years ago we started to use the Compass cherry as the male parent, and this combination is more promising. The seedlings make a good growth and a fairly good sized tree, practically as hardy as the Compass cherry. The seedlings resemble the apricots and peaches in blossom, tree and foliage. This fruit will not be exactly an apricot or a peach, but may take the place of these fruits in a small way. [Illustration: No. 7 Hybrid Seedling Plum--from Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm, at Zumbra Heights.] The Compass cherry crossed with Prunus Pissardi, or purple leaf plum, is a very interesting combination. We have about fifty seedlings growing. Most of them have the purple foliage and bark, are very ornamental and can be used with effect for lawns and landscape planting where large shrubs are wanted. The grapes. The Vitis Labrusca, such as Concord, Worden, Moore's Early and many other varieties, are not hardy unless protected during winter. There is a demand for hardy grapes that do not need any winter protection. At the Fruit-Breeding Farm this problem has been taken up on a large scale. The Beta grape is hardy but lacks in size and quality. This variety has been used to grow many thousands of seedlings from, and also used in cross-breeding with the better varieties. A large percent of Beta seedlings come true to seed or nearly so. This gives us several hundred varieties equal to Beta, and some of them are quite an improvement in size and quality over the parent and practically as hardy as the wild grape. Many of these are worthy of propagation where hardiness is the main object. Very few of the hybrid grape seedlings have fruited, but indications are that in a few years we will have grapes equal in size and quality to any of our commercial varieties. Experiments are being carried on in a small way with pears, roses and nuts. Our native hazelnuts can be improved by selection and crossing with the filberts. The same is true with the Rosa Rugosa and our native roses. In breeding strawberries we probably have had better success than with any other fruit we have attempted to improve. The breeding work was done in the greenhouse during winter and early spring and seed planted as soon as berries were ripe. The plants were transplanted to flats and later planted out in the field, where they remained until fruiting, when the selections were made. We have fruited approximately 60,000 seedlings. These have been weeded out so there are about 400 left, and these will be cut down to a few of the best varieties. At present we have one everbearing and one June-bearing variety which have proven to be very productive, of good size, good quality and good plantmakers. These plants have been sent out as premiums to members of the State Horticultural Society for the last two years and will be distributed the same way next spring. In raspberries we have several varieties which are promising. King x Loudan, No. 4, is a variety that has been sent out as premium the last three years. This variety is amongst the hardiest, the berries are dark red, very large and the most productive of all the varieties growing on the place. This has also been sent out as premium through the Horticultural Society. In plums we probably have had the best success. Some of the first breeding work was with Burbank x (crossed with) Wolf and Abundance x Wolf. We have twenty-eight seedlings of Burbank x Wolf and forty-five Abundance x Wolf which have fruited several years. We have varying degrees of hardiness in these seedlings. Most of them have withstood our winters at the fruit farm without injury, as well as in most of the southern half of the state. Among the Abundance x Wolf hybrids eight of the seedlings are only partly hardy, while of the Burbank x Wolf only one or two have shown themselves to be particularly weak in this respect. Type of fruit. In general the Burbank type of fruit is dominant. The flesh of these hybrids runs quite uniformly yellow, varying in degrees, however, from a deep yellow to a yellowish green. Some of them have a yellow skin with a blush or a streak of red, while others are a deep red even before ripe. The fruit in size varies from both smaller and larger than the parents. Firmness characterises most of the hybrids. We are also getting good shipping quality, and in Burbank x Wolf No. 12 we have a plum measuring one and three-quarters inches and more in diameter and a perfect freestone. This plum will be used extensively in further plant-breeding. In shape of tree the two hybrids differ materially. The Burbank x Wolf hybrids make spreading trees more or less, while the Abundance x Wolf grows more upright and does not need quite as much room. * * * * * TENT CATERPILLAR.--As soon as small nests are detected, they should be destroyed. When in convenient reach, the nests may be torn out with a brush, with gloved hand, or otherwise, and the larvae crushed on the ground, care being taken to destroy any caterpillars which have remained on the tree. The use of a torch to burn out the nests will be found convenient when they occur in the higher parts of the trees. In using the torch great care is necessary that no important injury be done to the tree; it should not be used in burning out nests except in the smaller branches and twigs, the killing of which would be of no special importance. Nests in the larger limbs should be destroyed by hand, as the use of the torch may kill the bark, resulting in permanent injury. Tent caterpillars are readily destroyed by arsenicals sprayed on the foliage of trees infested by them. Any of the arsenical insecticides may be used, as Paris green, Scheele's green, arsenate of lead, etc. The first two are used at the rate of one-half pound to 50 gallons of water. The milk of lime made from 2 to 3 pounds of stone lime should be added to neutralize any caustic effect of the arsenical on the foliage. Arsenate of lead is used at the rate of 2 pounds to each 50 gallons of water. On stone fruits, such as cherry, peach, and plum, arsenicals are likely to cause injury to foliage and must be used with caution if at all. On such trees the arsenate of lead is preferable, as it is less injurious to foliage, and on all trees sticks much better. In spraying for the tent caterpillar only, applications should be made while the caterpillars are yet small, as they then succumb more quickly to poisons than when more nearly full grown, and prompt treatment stops further defoliation of the trees.--U. S. Dept. Agri. Color Combinations in the Garden. MISS ELIZABETH STARR, 2224 FREMONT SO., MINNEAPOLIS. English books on gardening set forth two principal methods of making a garden: first, to have each part perfect for a short time each year and then let it melt into the background for the rest of the season; second, to have every part of the garden showing some flowers all through the summer. These two methods suggest the impressionistic and miniature schools of painting. With the first method it is possible to get great masses of color and brilliant effects to be viewed at a distance, but it requires a great deal of space, with a perennial garden at least, for unfortunately most of our perennials are in their greatest glory for only a few weeks at a time. The second method fills more nearly the needs of the small garden, where the vistas are short and the individual plant is under close inspection. The greatest difficulty is this, that the amateur cannot resist the lure of a great variety of plants, and unless a vigorous thinning out is faithfully practiced and the habit of growth, the period of blooming, the height and color of each individual is carefully studied, the effect of the whole is very apt to be mussy and distracting to the eye, whereas the ideal garden is soothing in effect. I have only been studying the problem for the last five or six years, so that I am still decidedly an amateur, but I have kept a faithful record of the time of flowering of each variety I have grown in my garden and have discovered that the time of blooming does not vary more than five days for each plant no matter whether the season be wet or dry. With this record at hand I can arrange each part of my garden with a view to the succession of bloom throughout the summer. I can place plants with clashing colors side by side with the calm assurance that they will not clash because their periods of blooming do not overlap. In this way I can completely change the color of certain parts of my garden during the summer if I so desire. In studying combinations for the garden we must take into consideration the harmony and contrast of color, texture, form, height and the succession of bloom. We must also see that plants requiring the same soil and the same care are put together. In my garden I use both annuals and perennials but am limited in choice to those plants that are perfectly hardy, that will stand infinite neglect, drought, much wind, a stiff soil, that do not require especial protection in the winter, that will be in bloom all summer long and be beautiful. This, as I have found, is a rather difficult task. [Illustration: Perennial border. Edging of pinks and Shasta daisies, pink canterbury bells and Festiva Maxima peony. Behind, pyrethrum, uliginosum and hollyhocks. Blue flowering flax adds depth to the pink and white.] There is a great diversity of opinion as to how to set out plants. Some say, "Give each plant plenty of room; let it expand as much as it will." Others say, "Each six inches of ground should have its plant; set them so closely that no dirt will show between; in this way each individual plant will be finer than when set out singly and the leaves will form a shade for the ground." I have used the latter method, for, since we have no means of watering, the conservation of moisture is an important item. The chief objection is that there is a constant danger of overcrowding, and it requires a frequent resetting of plants as they increase in size from year to year. [Illustration: Yellow iris against the blue of distant hills.] I have a border on the north side of my garden that is six feet wide and about seventy feet long. It is my aim to keep this in bloom all through the summer long. There is a background of purple and white lilacs and cut-leaf spirea. The first thing that comes in the spring is poet's narcissus, then groups of Darwin tulips; both of these are naturalized and remain in the ground from year to year. Next comes the perennial blue flax, a half dozen plants set at intervals down the border, that every morning from mid-April until August are a mass of blue. Clumps of May-flowering iris and then June-flowering iris and four large peony plants make the border bright until the latter part of June, when alternating groups of field daisies and pink and red sweet williams are in full bloom at one end of the border, and summer-flowering cosmos holds sway at the other end, while the flax, bachelor's buttons and daisies fill the center with blue and white. By the middle of July the calendulas, coreopsis and annual larkspur make a vivid display where the narcissus was before. These four make a very good combination, for if the bed is well made and the narcissus planted deep, the coreopsis and larkspur seed themselves, and with the exception of a deep raking in the late fall the bed needs no attention except thinning out for three years, and it is in bloom for at least four months of the season. [Illustration: Pink and white pinks, field and Shasta daisies, canterbury bells and hollyhocks.] In this border I have at last found a place for the magenta phlox that usually fights with the whole garden. I put it in front of a single row of pink and white cosmos, flank it on one side with pink and white verbenas, on the other with mixed scabiosas and in front of all a single row of Shasta daisies. This combination pleases the family as well as the phlox. On the south side of the garden, against a low buckthorn hedge is a narrower border of sky-blue belladonna, delphinium, buttercups and achillea, with an edging of Chinese pinks. I had thought the complementary colors of the delphinium and buttercups would set each other off, but it is a very poor combination, for the foliage is so much alike that there is no contrast there, and when the plants are not in bloom it is almost impossible to tell which is which so as to take out the buttercups, whose yellow is too bright. Shasta daisies set off the delphiniums to perfection with the wonderful purity of their white and yellow and pleasing contrast of form, foliage and height. With Emperor narcissus bulbs set between the plants, there are flowers in the border the whole season. Another very poor combination that is in my garden, much to my sorrow, is hemerocallis and siberica iris. They started out about three feet from each other, but the hemerocallis spreads so quickly that now they form a mass that is almost impossible to break apart. Another mistake I made was to put Shasta daisies and field daisies near together. It is unfair to the smaller daisies, for although they are fully two inches in diameter, yet they appear dwarfed beside the giants. There is one point in my garden that is vivid throughout the summer. First comes the orange lilium elegans, then scarlet lychnis and later, tiger lilies. Another bit is gorgeous from the first of August until frost; it is made up of blue and white campanula pyramidalis, that grow quite five feet high, and Mrs. Francis King gladioli. An important thing to think of is the line of vision from each point of vantage of the house--the endwise view of a multicolored bed of fairy columbines against a light green willow from the sewing room window, from the library the blue of a Juniata iris swaying four feet up in the air in front of a sweet briar, from the front porch pale yellow Flavescens iris through a mist of purple sweet rockets. The garden is in its glory during the iris season. At a conservative estimate we have about twenty-five hundred of them in our little garden, ranging through all the colors of the rainbow and blooming from April until late June. They may easily make such an increase that it is baffling to cope with, but they are so beautiful and so amenable to the experimenting of an amateur that we feel as though we couldn't get enough of them. Last summer a wonderful effect was achieved by putting dark blue and mahogany-colored pansies beside Jacquesiana and Othello iris, this repeating the color and texture in different plants. [Illustration: Rocky Mountain columbine against the willow hedge, with perennial candytuft as edging.] We leave the garden through a wooden arch. Climbing over one side of this is a Thousandschon rose, and on the other side a Dr. Van Fleet grows rank. A wild clematis is planted beside each rose and fills the top of the arch. I am rather dubious about the combination, for I fear the clematis may grow so heavy that it will choke out the roses, but this summer at least it was beautiful, and another summer will come to try other combinations. Truck Crop and Garden Insects. AN EXERCISE LED BY PROF. WM. MOORE, ENTOMOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY FARM, ST. PAUL. There is one insect that probably all those who are in the market garden business are very much interested in, and that is the cabbage maggot. As you all know, in the spring of the year, after cabbages are put out, frequently you will find the cabbages slowly dying, one dying one day and two or three the next day, and so on until sometimes fifty per cent or more of the cabbages die. At first it is not exactly apparent what is killing the cabbages, but when one is pulled up it will be noticed that a little maggot is working in the root of the cabbage. This insect is commonly known as the cabbage maggot. For a number of years work has been carried on with the cabbage maggot, and all sorts of treatments have been tried, many without any great success. The unfortunate part is that usually the market gardener don't take much thought of this maggot until it is actually doing the injury, and at that time they are mighty difficult to handle. There have been several different treatments advised, one of which is fresh hellebore, about two ounces steeped in a quart of boiling water and then diluted to a gallon and poured upon the base of the plant. It will destroy the maggots, but hellebore is very expensive and, as probably most of you know, there isn't a great amount of profit in cabbage; so any treatment will have to be a cheap treatment, or you will use up your profit. During the last two years I have been working along a line which is entirely different from the treatment of the maggot, and that is based upon the fact that the fly which lays the egg which produces the maggot in the cabbage comes out early in the spring and flies about the field for probably a week or ten days or two weeks before it lays its eggs, and during that period it eats any sweet material which happens to be on hand. With this as a basis we thought we might be able to poison the flies and thus prevent injury from the maggots, and we have tried several different spray mixtures along that line. One mixture which we use is a mixture which is normally used against the fruit flies which are oftentimes injurious to fruit, particularly in the east and in tropical countries. This contains three ounces of arsenate of lead, two and half pounds of brown sugar and four gallons of water. The idea is to spray this in the field, spraying it on the plants as soon as the plants are put out in the field. We have more or less definite dates for the appearance of the flies in the field and for their disappearance again. But, as you know, the season varies, and the result is somewhat uncertain. So probably the best method is to base it upon the time you plant out your cabbage. In the early seasons you will plant your cabbages early, and in the late seasons later. So plant out your cabbage and then spray them every week until the 10th of May. You should spray them, not to cover the leaves with the poison, but merely sufficient so that there are a few drops of this poisoned material on the leaves so that the flies can eat it. Flies will come there and feed upon this mixture and die. It is rather peculiar that we started work here about the same time on the cabbage maggot that they started work on the onion maggot along similar lines in Wisconsin. I don't think that either knew that the other was working towards that end. They used a different mixture, one-fifth ounce of sodium arsenite, one-half pint of New Orleans molasses and one gallon of water. This was sprayed over the onions and was very successful in controlling the onion maggot. I tried their mixture this last year. They published some of their results last year, so it gave me an opportunity to watch their mixture in comparison with the lead arsenate. They claimed the lead arsenate did not act as quickly as the sodium arsenite. That is true, but when you have a ten-day period to kill the fly it don't make much difference whether it dies in ten hours or twenty-four. The flies are not doing any injury. If you take the lead arsenate and sugar and water and put it in a jar, the arsenate always sinks to the bottom, and if you were to test it that way, the fly would feed on the top and you might not get a quick result. But if you spray it on, the lead arsenate will kill as quickly as the sodium arsenite. There is an objection to the use of arsenite in that sodium arsenite is a soluble poison and will burn the leaves of the cabbage. Of course, that is not particularly serious as those are the first leaves the cabbages have and the cabbage soon gets over any slight injury, but many truck gardeners probably would object to that. In the onion you have a different shaped leaf, and the injury is not so apparent. Last summer I found that New Orleans molasses would give you a little bit better result than the sugar, and it is cheaper. The objection to the New Orleans molasses is the sticky nature of the material in handling. I might mention in regard to opening cans of New Orleans molasses. If you never opened one and try this treatment, be careful about opening the can. The lid is pushed down tight and under warm conditions, or if the molasses has been in a warm room there is a certain amount of fermentation and gas under pressure, and if you pry it open quickly you find the lid flies up in the air and you will probably be smeared over with molasses. I employed my spray, that is, one ounce of lead arsenate, one-half pint of New Orleans molasses and one gallon of water last season. The check plots had cabbages attacked by the maggots, probably 10 or 15 per cent of the plants dying from the attack. Last year was a very good season, that is, many of the plants seriously attacked put out roots again, and those were able to grow again in the sprayed plots. The infestation of the sprayed plots was probably about 30 to 40 per cent. of the plants, but they only contained probably one maggot each, which is very slight and not sufficient to do any damage. There is one market gardener whose cabbage patch we sprayed, I think, only a part of two rows, and we thought we would leave the rest of his patch as a control. Apparently the amount of material we put on there was sufficient to attract the flies from the whole field. Not a single cabbage died, and he was pleased with the result of the spray. Mr. Miller: What do you do for root aphis? Mr. Moore: Root aphis can very easily be controlled with tobacco extract. It is put upon the root of any plant that is affected, a tablespoonful to a gallon of water. There are a number of different tobacco extracts on the market. Some of them contain 15 per cent. of nicotine, some contain 20, some 25 and some 40, and I think there is one brand that contains 45 per cent. You will find that the brands that contain the most nicotine are the most expensive, but in proportion you use less material. Thus 20 per cent. tobacco extract would take two tablespoonfuls to the gallon, while 40 per cent. would take only one. It is the nicotine which is the working portion of it. Mr. Miller: Then you can use the black leaf forty? Mr. Moore: It is very good, it is 40 per cent. nicotine. There is another product put out by the same company, a black leaf, only 15 or 20 per cent. This is cheaper, but you have to use more of it. If anything probably the more expensive would be the cheaper in the long run. Mr. Wintersteen: The maggots that attack the radishes and turnips are the same as the cabbage maggot? Mr. Moore: Yes, sir. Mr. Wintersteen: Why is it I have no trouble with the cabbages, and yet I can raise no radishes or turnips in the same ground? Mr. Moore: The radishes and turnips are attacked and the cabbages are not? Mr. Wintersteen: Yes, sir. Mr. Moore: Which do you raise, early cabbages? Mr. Wintersteen: Yes, sir. Mr. Moore: What variety do you raise? Mr. Wintersteen: The Wakefield, generally. Mr. Moore: Some varieties of cabbages are not nearly so severely attacked as others. I think of the two that they would prefer radishes probably. Growing them side by side you find they infest the radishes. That was my experience last year. I grew the first generation of cabbages, and the second generation I took over into the radishes because I wanted to treat them there. Mr. Rasmussen: Did you say the same fly attacks the onion and the cabbage? Mr. Moore: The onion has two different flies, one which is black in color, with light colored bands across the wings, and that one passes the winter as a larva in the old onions left in the field. It is an injurious practice to leave old onions there to breed these maggots. If they were taken out and destroyed you could do away with that one. The cabbage fly is different. When you use the spray it would probably be all right to use the sodium arsenite for the onion and the lead arsenate for the cabbage. The type of leaf is entirely different, and on the cabbage you are apt to burn them with the sodium arsenite while the lead arsenate will give you practically the same result. Mr. Goudy: The cabbage butterfly, does that come from the same maggot? Mr. Moore: No; this maggot is on the root, the cabbage butterfly lays its eggs on the leaf. You get the cabbage worm from the cabbage butterfly. Mr. Goudy: What do you do for that? Mr. Moore: Paris green is used to a great extent, but many people have a horror of using Paris green. Last year, I think it was, I was called up on the phone by some one and I advised him to use Paris green. He said that he was afraid it might poison everybody. I explained to him there was no danger from it, as you know the cabbage leaves grow from the inside, not from the outside, and the spray would be on the outside leaves. Besides that, we usually spray early for the cabbage worm while the heads come on later. Mr. Goudy: Did you ever try capsicum, sprinkling that on the heads? Mr. Moore: No, sir. Mr. Goudy: I saved my cabbages one year by using that. Mr. Moore: Some people claim salt is good. One of the students mentioned it to me. One applied it by putting a spoonful around over the head, another dissolved a tablespoonful in about ten quarts of water and sprayed it on. Salt is rather injurious to vegetation as a rule. Of course, they only put it on the leaves, and the cabbage is a hardy plant. Air slaked lime is also good, but would have to be applied several times. With the arsenate you apply it once and kill all the brood. Mr. Ludlow: We took them all off of mine one year by using boiling hot water. Mr. Moore: Yes, sir; water is very good. The objection is, on a large scale it is not feasible. Mr. Miller: Slug shot is very good. Mr. Moore: Yes, sir; it doesn't contain very much poison, but it is sufficient to kill the cabbage worm. Mr. Cadoo: I used just simply wood ashes. Mr. Moore: The cabbage worm is one that is very easy to handle. A Member: I have always used salt. I think it makes a more firm and solid head, that is my theory, I don't know whether I am right or not. I have been doing that for years. Mr. Moore: I don't know. I never heard of the treatment with salt until two or three days ago when several students mentioned that they used salt. Some people won't use Paris green. There was one case a man said his wife wouldn't let him do it even if she knew it wasn't poison; she didn't like the idea of Paris green on cabbage. Mr. Ingersoll: Is there anything you can suggest to control the yellows in asters? Mr. Moore: The yellows in asters has been a problem which has been very amusing there at the farm. A man sends in an aster to the entomological department, we examine it and can't find anything that belongs to our department, and we send it to the plant pathological department, and they send it back to us. Last year we made a point in every case of yellows in asters to send some one to investigate and find out what was going on to produce it. In some cases it seemed to be a fungous disease. One case I know turned out to be a fungous disease, the very next one was due to plant lice on the roots of the asters. In that case I don't think you get quite the distinct yellows of the asters, but rather the plants wilt and become weak and finally die. That can very easily be controlled with tobacco extract, pouring it upon the buds of the plants. We do not know definitely about the yellows. We think it is more or less of a physiological disease of the plant, not due to an insect. This last year we have not found any what we would call the true yellows. There is an insect that produces similar trouble on other plants, a plant bug, which is hard to secure because it flies away. That is the reason we have been sending out to see exactly what is going on in the field, and we didn't see any evidence of their work this year. Another thing, it seems to be a year in which the asters did fairly well, and there was very little yellows. Mr. Ingersoll: You think that irregular watering might make any difference or very solid rooting? Mr. Moore: It might do something of the sort. The most we heard of the yellows was the year before last, and we were held up at the time with other work and could not investigate properly. Any one here that has yellows in asters next year, we would be very glad to hear from him and send some one out to find the cause. It wouldn't surprise me that it was something in the treatment of the aster. Mr. Cadoo: Do angleworms hurt house plants? Mr. Moore: Not as a rule. They do eat a small amount of vegetation, but ordinarily in a house plant, if you have, say, a worm in a pot, I think it is rather beneficial than injurious, because it keeps the soil stirred up. Mr. Rasmussen: What is the spray for the cabbage and onion maggot? Mr. Moore: Unfortunately I am a very poor person to remember figures, and I carry this around with me. One spray is three ounces of lead arsenate, two and a half pounds of brown sugar to four gallons of water, but we found that probably a little better spray was to use the New Orleans molasses instead of the sugar and the formula is: One ounce of lead arsenate, one-half pint of New Orleans molasses and one gallon of water. The spray that was used for the onion maggot and was devised over in Wisconsin is: One-fifth ounce of sodium arsenite, one-half pint of New Orleans molasses and one gallon of water. Mr. Rasmussen: The Wisconsin spray is what I used to spray my place several years, and I was wondering if it was the same. Mr. Moore: It was peculiar that they started to work on the onion maggot in Wisconsin at the same time we started on the cabbage maggot here. Mr. Rasmussen: We have controlled the onion maggots almost entirely, but the cabbage maggots are very difficult. Mr. Moore: In our control plots it controlled it very well. Our plants were infested only with a few maggots, but not sufficient to do any injury. The Wealthy Apple. F. H. BALLOU. (THE OPINION OF AN OHIO APPLE GROWER--FROM A BULLETIN ISSUED BY OHIO STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.) The value of a variety of apple commercially usually decides its place in the estimation of growers. Naturally the later maturing, longer keeping or winter varieties are generally accorded this preference. Orchardists in the southern part of Ohio doubtless would elect Rome Beauty queen of money makers, were the question put to a vote. Apple producers of northern Ohio or western New York would as surely vote for Baldwin. But what variety would you--Mr. Lover-of-apples-and-apple products--vote for and plant if but a single variety and space for but a single tree were available? After twenty years observation and enjoyment of apple precocity, apple dependability and all-around apple excellence throughout a long season, the writer continues annually to cast his ballot for Wealthy. [Illustration: Mr. Rolla Sfubbs, of Bederwood, Lake Minnetonka, under his favorite tree, the Wealthy.] True the Wealthy has its faults--so have all the other varieties of apples of individual choice--and so have we--the growers; but for early fruitage, prolificacy, excellence for culinary use, extended period of usefulness, richness and delicacy of flavor when ripened in a cool cellar and good keeping qualities when under proper conditions it is placed in cold storage, there are few if any varieties other than this that combine so many splendid and desirable characteristics. From mid-July to mid-September of the present year we have been using Wealthy for culinary purposes with steadily increasing enjoyment as their quality has gradually become finer and finer. At this writing, September 18, we have in the cellar attractively colored, well ripened, pink-and-white-fleshed Wealthy delightful for dessert use; and there are yet Wealthy--firm and crisp--on the trees for later autumn use if kept in the cellar, or early winter and holiday use if placed in cold storage. If we could have but one apple tree that tree would be a Wealthy. This statement is made with full knowledge and appreciation of the many other excellent varieties of various seasons, including Grimes, Jonathan, Stayman and Delicious. Law Fixes Standards for Containers for Fruits, Berries and Vegetables in Interstate Commerce. (TAKEN FROM "WISCONSIN HORTICULTURE," THE ORGAN OF WIS. STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.) Standards for Climax baskets for grapes, other fruits and vegetables, and other types of baskets and containers used for small fruits, berries, and vegetables in interstate commerce, are fixed by an act approved by the President August 31, 1916. The law will become effective November 1, 1917. The effect of the act will be to require the use of the standards in manufacturing, sale, or shipment for all interstate commerce, whether the containers are filled or unfilled. A large part of the traffic in fruits and vegetables in this country enters interstate commerce. The law relates only to the containers and will not affect local regulations in regard to heaped measure or other method of filling. A special exemption from the operations of the law is made for all containers manufactured, sold, or shipped, when intended for export to foreign countries, and when such containers accord with the specifications of the foreign purchasers, or comply with the laws of the country to which the shipment is destined. Standards of three capacities are fixed for Climax baskets--2, 4 and 12 quarts, dry measure. These containers, often known as "grape baskets," have relatively narrow, flat bottoms, rounded at each end, and thin sides flaring slightly from the perpendicular. The handle is hooped over at the middle from side to side. In addition to fixing the capacities of these standard baskets of this type, the law also prescribes their dimensions. The other standards are for "baskets or other containers for small fruits, berries, and vegetables." They are to have capacities only of one-half pint, 1 pint, 1 quart, or multiples of 1 quart, dry measure. Such containers may be of any shape so long as their capacities accurately accord with the standard requirements. The examination and test of containers to determine whether they comply with the provisions of the act are made duties of the department, and the Secretary of Agriculture is empowered to establish and promulgate rules and regulations allowing such reasonable tolerances and variations as may be found necessary. Penalties are provided by the act for the manufacture for shipment, sale for shipment, or shipment in interstate commerce of Climax baskets, and containers for small fruits, berries, and vegetables, not in accord with the standards. It is provided, however: That no dealer shall be prosecuted under the provisions of this act when he can establish a guaranty signed by the manufacturer, wholesaler, jobber, or other party residing within the United States from whom such Climax baskets, baskets, or other containers, as defined in this act, were purchased, to the effect that said Climax baskets, baskets, or other containers are correct within the meaning of this act. Said guaranty, to afford protection, shall contain the name and address of the party or parties making the sale of Climax baskets, baskets, or other containers, to such dealer, and in such case said party or parties shall be amenable to the prosecutions, fines, and other penalties which would attach in due course to the dealer under the provisions of this act.--Department of Agriculture. [Illustration: A PLANT-CHIMERA: TWO VARIETIES OF APPLE IN ONE. Golden Russet and Boston Stripe combined in the same fruit, as the result of a graft. Trees producing these apples bear only a few fruits of this combination; the rest of the crop belongs entirely to one or other of the two varieties concerned. The explanation of these chimeras is that the original buds of the scion failed to grow, after the graft was made, but an adventitious bud arose exactly at the juncture of stock and scion, and included cells derived from both. These cells grow side by side but remain quite distinct in the same stem, each kind of cell reproducing its own sort. From "Journal of Heredity," May, 1914. Published by the "American Genetic Association," Washington, D. C.] The Rhubarb Plant. LUDVIG MOSBAEK, ASKOV. Rhubarb, or pieplant, as it is more commonly called, is one of the hardiest and at the same time a most delicious fruit. When the stalks are used at the right stage and given the proper care by the cook, they are almost equal to fresh peaches. Rhubarb can be transplanted every month in the year, but the best time is early spring or August. There are especially two things rhubarb will not stand, "wet feet and deep planting." Most beneficial is good natural or artificial drainage and rich soil, made so by a good coat of manure, plowed or spaded in, and a liberal top dressing every fall, cultivated or hoed in on the top soil the next spring. Fifty plants or divisions of a good tender variety planted 3 to 4 feet apart will supply an average household with more delicious fresh fruit and juice for six months of the year than five times the space of ground devoted to currants, gooseberries or any other fruit, and if you have from 50 to 100 plants you can afford to pick the first stalk that sprouts up in April and still figure on having an abundance to keep you well supplied all summer. Do you really know what a delicious beverage can be made from the juice of rhubarb mixed in cool water? Take it along in the hayfield a hot summer day. And even if you can not keep it cool the acid contained in the juice still makes it a delicious and stimulating drink where you would loathe the taste of a stale beer. There are about a hundred other ways to prepare rhubarb, not forgetting a well cooled rhubarb mush served with cool milk in the evening or for that matter three times a day; nothing cheaper, nor healthier. The fresh acid contained in the rhubarb purifies the blood and puts new vigor in your body and soul, is better and cheaper than any patent medicines, and from the growth of 50 to 100 plants you can eat every day for six months and preserve enough in fresh, cool water in airtight jars to last you all winter. But you can do still better with your rhubarb. You can add three months more and make it nine months of the year for fresh, crisp, delicious fruit. I will tell you how. When your rhubarb gets 3-4 years old and very big and strong clumps of roots, divide some of the best and make a new planting and dig some of the balance before frost in the fall. Leave them on top of the ground until they have had a good freeze--this is very essential to success--then place the roots as you dug them in a dark corner in your cellar or in a barrel in your cellar, exclude all light, keep the soil moderately wet and after Christmas and until spring you will have an abundance of brittle, fine flavored stalks that are fully equal to and perhaps more tender than the outdoor grown. Years ago in Chicago I grew rhubarb in a dark house 36�80 ft., built for that purpose, and the stalks generally commanded a price of 12 to 15c a pound in the right market in January, February and March. It is better not to pull any stalks the summer you transplant, at least not until September. Next year in May and June you can have stalks from 1/2 to 1 pound and over. When you pull stalks don't take the outer two or three leaves but only the tender ones, and strip them off in succession so you do not come back to the same plants to pull for four to six weeks or more. Just as quick as the plant shows flower stems cut them off close to the ground and keep them off, never allow them to show their heads. I have grown rhubarb for market and for domestic use for about forty years, having one time as much as five acres, and I will assure you if you will follow directions you will appreciate rhubarb more than before and get out of it all it is worth. * * * * * TREES PLANTED BY MACHINE.--A machine which plants from ten to fifteen thousand forest trees seedlings a day is now being used at the Letchworth Park Forest and Arboretum, in Wyoming County, N. Y., according to officials of the Forest Service who are acting as advisers in the work. Previously the planting had been done by hand at the rate of 1,200 to 1,500 trees each day per man. The machine was designed to set out cabbage and tomato plants, but works equally well with trees. It is about the size of an ordinary mowing machine and is operated by three men and two horses. One man drives the team while the other two handle the seedlings. The machine makes a furrow in which the trees are set at any desired distance, and an automatic device indicates where they should be dropped. Two metal-tired wheels push and roll the dirt firmly down around the roots. This is a very desirable feature, it is said, because the trees are apt to die if this is not well done. Two attachments make it possible to place water and fertilizer at the roots of each seedling. Another attachment marks the line on which the next row of trees is to be planted. No cost figures are available yet, but officials say that the cost will be much less than when the planting is done by hand. It is stated that the machine can be used on any land which has been cleared and is not too rough to plow and harrow.--U. S. Dept. Agri. The Greenhouse versus Hotbeds. FRANK H. GIBBS, MARKET GARDENER, ST. ANTHONY PARK. In discussing the subject assigned me, I will only speak of hotbeds and hothouses as used for the purpose of growing vegetables and early vegetable plants. The hotbed is still very desirable where it is wanted on a small scale to grow early vegetables for the home or market, as the small cost for an outfit is very small as compared to hothouses. Sash 4�5 ft., which is the favorite size with market gardeners, can be purchased for about $2.00 each glazed, and a box 5�16 ft. to hold four sash can be made for $1.50, making an outlay less than $10.00 for 80 sq. ft. of bed. With good care sash and boxes will last eight years. Where the beds are put down in early February two crops of lettuce and one crop of cucumbers can be grown, and when the spring is late three crops of lettuce before outdoor lettuce appears on the market, when the beds are given over entirely to the cucumber crop. Lettuce at that time generally sells for 25c per dozen, and cucumbers from 50c down to 15c per dozen, according to the season. From three to five hundred cabbage, cauliflower or lettuce plants can be grown under each sash, or from 150 to 300 tomatoes, peppers or egg plants can likewise be grown under each sash, or where lettuce is grown to maturity six dozen per sash. The cost of the horse manure for the beds varies greatly, as some are situated where it can be secured very reasonably, while with others the cost would be prohibitive. The amount required also varies according to the season they are put down. When the beds are put down early in February, three cords of manure are necessary for each box. When they are put down March 1st, one-half that amount is needed. Where there is no desire to get the early market, and the beds are put down March 15th, one cord is plenty for each box. I have never tried to figure out just what the cost of putting down each box is, or what is the cost of ventilating and watering; but if they are neglected and the plants get burned or frozen, the cost is much more than if they were given proper attention, and, besides, much time is lost in getting another start, as they are generally left several days to see if the plants will recover, which they seldom do. The cost of hothouses varies so greatly for the size of the house that it is hard to draw a comparison. A modern steel frame house containing 10,000 sq. ft. of glass can be built for about $4,000.00, or a house one-half that size can be built for $10,000.00 and is no better than its cheaper rival. A small house say 16�80 ft., heated with a brick furnace and flue and hot water coil can be built for from $350.00 to $400.00, where one does not have to hire skilled labor. A hothouse of any size is very satisfactory, as in cold, stormy weather, when we can't even look into a hotbed, plants can be kept growing and there is always something we can do and be comfortable while we are doing it. It is impossible to use a hotbed all winter, as no matter how much manure is put into it in the fall it will cool out and be worthless long before spring. [Illustration: Showing hotbeds and greenhouse at F. H. Gibbs' market gardens.] With a good hothouse four crops of lettuce can be raised during the fall and winter, and a crop of cucumbers in the spring and early summer. Each crop of lettuce sells for from 20c to 25c per dozen; the plants are set six inches apart each way, making about four per square foot of bench room. The cucumber crop generally pays as well as two crops of lettuce and is usually planted to come into bearing early in June and kept bearing through July, or until the outdoor cucumbers are on the market. In the so-called summer just passed (1915), there were no outdoor cucumbers, and they were kept bearing through August and September. Cucumbers grown in hotbeds cannot be kept in bearing more than six weeks before the vines go to pieces and will not sell for as high a price as hothouse grown. With favorable weather I have always thought I could grow a crop of lettuce in less time in a hotbed than in a hothouse, but with cold, cloudy weather the advantage is on the side of the hothouse. Much less time is required to do the ventilating and watering in a hothouse than with beds, and the soil must be in the highest state of fertility for either one. While hotbeds will always be desirable in many localities on account of the small first cost, the days of the large commercial hotbed yard is passed, and there are now around Minneapolis 5,000 hotbed sash that will not be put down next spring, or if put down, used only on cold frames, all owing to the scarcity of fresh horse manure. While it is a great satisfaction to have a hothouse or hotbeds and grow vegetables in winter, the life of the market gardener is not one continuous round of pleasure, as lice, white fly, red spider and thrip, mildew and fungous rot are always ready for a fight, and the gardener must always be on his guard and beat them to it at their first appearance, or the labor of weeks will be lost. An Ideal Flower Garden for a Country Home. M. H. WETHERBEE, FLORIST, CHARLES CITY, IOWA. In laying out grounds for country homes or remodeling them, space should be of the first importance, and where space permits there is no better arrangement than a fine border on one side of the lawn with a driveway between the lawn and the border, leading from the street to the house and barns. The border should be wide enough to have a nice variety of shrubs for a background, and there should be space for the hardy perennials and bulbs, which should not be planted solidly but placed in clumps and arranged according to height and blooming season and as to color effect. I will mention a few of the hardy shrubs and plants that we can all grow with success. While the catalogues are filled with a large list of so-called hardy stock, we must remember that we live in a good sized country and what would be hardy in Southern Iowa, Missouri and Illinois, would not stand the winters of Northern Iowa or of Minnesota or other localities of the same latitude. In shrubs we can be sure of a variety of lilacs, snowballs, and hydrangea paniculata. Some of the newer varieties are fine and bloom in August, when few other shrubs are flowering. Spirea Van Houttii, best known as Bridal Wreath, we might include and a few of the hardy vines if a trellis or other support was given for them, such as clematis paniculata, coccinea and jackmani, the large purple and white honeysuckle, Chinese matrimony vine, etc. Among hardy roses, which are called the queen of all flowers, are the Rugosa type, which will stand the winters with no protection and continue to flower all summer. While the flowers of that type are single or semi-double, the bushes would be handsome without any flowers. This type also produces hips, which adds to their attractiveness, and these may be made into jelly in the fall if so desired. I would advise to plant some of the most hardy of the hybrid perpetual roses, such as General Jacqueminot, Magna Charta, Mrs. Chas. Wood, Mrs. John Lang, Mad. Plantier, with some of the climbers, such as the Rambler in variety, Prairie Queen, Baltimore Belle and, perhaps, some others, with the understanding that the hybrids and climbers should have protection in some form for the winter months. Then in hardy perennials there is such a variety to select from that one hardly knows where to begin or when to stop. Of course everyone wants a few peonies, and some of the hardy phlox, in such a variety of color. Then the delphinium, or hardy larkspurs, are fine bloomers. The blue and white platycodon are sure to flower, while the German iris are good and the Japan iris are fine flowers, but have to have good protection to stand our winters. For fine white flowers we have the showy achilleas in variety and gypsophila paniculata, called baby breath as a common name. Then we must have plenty of space for a variety of annuals, such as sweet peas, cosmos, pansies, verbenas, etc. Also, we would grow geraniums in variety, a few summer carnations, and the selection can be large or small, but almost every one will want some dahlia and gladiolus bulbs. Those that like yellow, or lemon, lilies can plant them and have a mass of flowers during June. The Japan lilies, especially the rubrum variety, are good bloomers and quite hardy. The Planting and Care of Hardy Perennials. MISS GRACE E. KIMBALL, WALTHAM. (SO. MINN. HORT. SOCIETY.) The most important essential in the planting of hardy perennials is the preparation of the ground. It must be deeply spaded or plowed and thoroughly pulverized. While most kinds of plants will do well in any good garden soil, most gardens need more or less fertilizer to make the ground good garden soil. So it is well at the time of spading or plowing to see that enough fertilizer is applied to insure good growth and blossom. But care must be used that no fresh stable manure comes in contact with the roots. If it must be used see that it is put in the bottom of the hole or trench dug for the plants, and covered several inches with earth. When the ground is well prepared and properly fertilized comes the planting, and as many plants need somewhat different handling, it is well for one starting a garden to understand just how each kind should be set. The iris, for instance, likes to be very near the surface of the ground. In fact it seems to delight in pushing the earth off the fleshy part of the root and basking in the sun, while the small roots lie very close to the surface. The oriental poppy must be planted with the crown well above the ground, or else when any moisture settles on it the crown will rot, and the plant die. The gaillardia, larkspur and columbine should be planted about as the oriental poppy with the crowns perhaps not quite as much above the ground, while the peony should be set so that the bud is covered two or three inches. Since fall planting of herbaceous perennials has come into prominence one can choose either spring or fall for most of their planting, as most plants do well set at either time. But the oriental poppy does not ship nor transplant well in the spring. It dies down after blossoming--one may think they have lost their plants then--and starts up again in August or September. Just as it is starting then seems to be the safest time to plant. August and September are considered the best months to do fall planting, although some advocate setting peonies until it freezes. Still I think it safer to plant earlier than that. If I were beginning a hardy garden, one that I could add to from time to time, I would try to set out in the fall plants that bloom in the spring or early summer, and in the spring those that bloom in the fall. Nothing is gained by setting iris or peonies in the spring, for nine times out of ten they will not bloom the same season they are set, while if set in the fall nearly all varieties of either the iris or peony will bloom the next year. On the other hand, phlox set in the spring scarcely ever fails to bloom in the late summer or early fall, and keeps it up until freezing weather. The phlox, however, should be taken up and divided every two or three years to obtain the best results. After planting comes the cultivating, which should be kept up all summer. Especially after a rain should the ground be stirred to keep it from baking. In exceedingly dry seasons by keeping a dust mulch around the plants one can avoid having to do much watering--for unless you water thoroughly at such a time it is better not to water at all. However, if it finally becomes necessary to apply water, the dust mulch has kept the ground in condition to absorb all the water that is used. In the fall after the ground has frozen a light covering of some kind should be thrown over the plants. This is to protect them from the thawing and freezing that takes place from time to time during the winter and early spring. After the first year, when the foliage has increased so as to be some protection, it is not as necessary to cover, although no doubt a little more covering would be beneficial. Some growers of the peony, however, advocate cutting off the leaves in the fall, and in such a case a covering would be necessary. We found a very satisfactory way for both covering and fertilizing was to throw a fork full of dressing around each plant in the fall and work it into the ground in the spring. IN MEMORIAM--J. F. BENJAMIN. PASSED JULY 15, 1916. AGED 59 YEARS. "John Franklin Benjamin was born at Belvidere, Illinois, May 6, 1857. That same year his parents moved to Hutchinson and he, at the age of five years, was one of the two score of little children who spent hours of terror in the stockade when it was attacked by the Indians on September 4, 1862. As he grew up he attended the Hutchinson school, his boyhood being spent on the farm. He was married in October, 1889, to Minnie L. Walker. The following year they moved to Pierce county, Neb., where Mr. Benjamin purchased and for ten years managed a large ranch. In 1890 they returned to Hutchinson and proceeded to open and improve Highland Home Fruit Farm, which was thenceforth Mr. Benjamin's abiding place until the summons came that ended all his earthly hopes and plans. "He was an active factor in farmers' co-operative society affairs and supported all movements for the moral and educational uplift of the community. He had been for many years a member of the M. E. church and of the Woodmen's and Royal Neighbors' camps and a valued and active member of each of these societies. [Illustration: John Franklin Benjamin.] "Mr. Benjamin left no children, and the wife who has been his devoted helpmate for twenty-seven years survives to face the coming years of bereavement alone. "His had been a useful life, a life of ceaseless and honorable toil, and that beautiful and valuable property, Highland Home Fruit Farm, largely the product of the work of his own hands, is a monument to his memory which will long endure to be admired and enjoyed by others as one of the model rural places of Minnesota. Few men in the space of twenty-five years have accomplished more than did J. F. Benjamin in establishing the fine, modern home, the large orchard and small fruit and flower gardens and well stocked farm, all of which he had tended with loving hands." Mr. Benjamin was well known by the members of this society who have attended its annual meetings within the last ten or fifteen years. During this period he has been an active member of the society, often serving on the program or in some other way as opportunity came to him. He was one of the most loyal members of the association, practicing what he preached, and doing all within his power to extend the usefulness of the society. I had a close personal acquaintance with Mr. Benjamin and the highest respect for his character and attainments. As a comparatively young man we anticipated his presence with us for a long period of time, but in this we are sadly disappointed. His wife in a recent letter says, "One of his greatest pleasures was cultivating and taking care of the flowers which surrounded his home. After a hard day's work in the field, he would labor with his flowers and shrubbery until far into the night. He enjoyed taking or sending flowers to the sick, and many bouquets of his choicest blossoms he gave his friends as they drove past or called to admire his beautiful grounds." In this spirit Mr. Benjamin labored to reach others and widen the wholesome influence of his life.--Sec'y. PROGRAM 50th ANNUAL MEETING Our Semi-Centennial Anniversary Minnesota State Horticultural Society, To be held in the West Hotel, Minneapolis, December 5, 6, 7, 8, 1916. A Great Program. Study this program carefully and select such features as you especially desire to participate in--but you are more than welcome to all. Discussion follows each topic. Discussions are "free for all," whether members or not. Ask questions or express opinions freely. DEMONSTRATIONS. These demonstrations will be given between 1:00 and 1:45 each day of the meeting in rooms adjoining the hall in which the meeting is held. They will be conducted by those whose names are here given, both of whom are connected with the Horticultural Department at University Farm. Grafting, Fred Haralson, Hort. Foreman. Pruning, Frank Daniels, Instructor In Hort. IMPORTANT. All participants on this program are limited to fifteen minutes except where a longer period is specifically mentioned. Time for discussion is allowed after each number. NOTICE OF BEE-KEEPERS' MEETING. The Minnesota State Bee-Keepers' Society will hold its annual meeting in the "Moorish Room," West Hotel, Minneapolis, on Tuesday and Wednesday, Dec. 5 and 6, 1916. Program can be had of L. V. France, University Farm, St. Paul. NOTICE.--A bell will be rung five minutes before the exercises begin in the Audience Room. Persons entering the audience room when any one is addressing the meeting from the platform are requested to take seats in the rear of the room, going forward only after the speaker has concluded--and thus avoid much confusion. TUESDAY MORNING SESSION. 10:00 o'clock. Every member attending should not fail to be in his seat promptly when this session opens. Invocation Rev. C. S. Harrison, York, Neb. Song Mr. Trafford N. Jayne, Minneapolis President's Annual Greeting Thos. E. Cashman, Owatonna Top-Working Young Apple Trees. E. G. Lee, St. Paul. Evergreens. C. S. Harrison, York, Neb. Preparing and Handling the Apple Crop. E. A. Smith, Lake City. My Prize Orchard. 1. Henry Dunsmore, Olivia. 2. E. W. Mayman, Sauk Rapids. Appointment of committees on award of premiums. TUESDAY AFTERNOON SESSION. 1:30 o'clock. A half hour "Question and Answer Exercise" on "Bees in the Garden and Orchard," led by J. Kimball, of Duluth. 2 o'clock. President Cashman in the Chair. Reception of Delegates. FRUITS. Strawberry Culture with Irrigation. N. A. Rasmussen, Oskosh, Wis., President Wisconsin State Hort. Society. Raspberry Culture. A. O. Hawkins, Wayzata. Raspberry Diseases in Minnesota. G. R. Hoerner, Asst. in Plant Pathology, University Farm, St. Paul. Everbearing Strawberry Field. A. Brackett, Excelsior. Everbearing Strawberries at Osage, Ia., in 1916. Chas. F. Gardner, Osage, Ia. Opening Up the Fruit Farm. D. E. Bingham, Delegate Wisconsin State Hort. Society, Sturgeon Bay, Wis. The Native Plum, Its Hybrids and Their Improvement. Dewain Cook, Jeffers. Winter Injury to Plums in 1916-17. M. J. Dorsey, Section of Fruit Breeding, University Farm. Lantern Talks. 1. Snapshots on the Road. Nurseries; Top-working; Blister Rust. Prof. F. L. Washburn, State Entomologist, University Farm. 2. Nature of Plant Diseases. G. R. Bisby, Asst. Plant Pathologist, University Farm. TUESDAY EVENING SESSION. 8:00 o'clock. MINNESOTA STATE FLORISTS' SOCIETY. Prof. LeRoy Cady, President, in the Chair. Program: Storing and Handling Gladiolus Bulbs. G. D. Black, Delegate, N. E. Ia. State Horticultural Society, Independence, Ia. Resources of Present-Day Florists. W. E. Tricker, St. Paul. Greenhouse Management. Prof. Wm. Moore, University Farm. Some Native Shrubs and Their Uses. E. Meyer, Minneapolis. WEDNESDAY FORENOON SESSION. 9:00 o'clock. A half hour question and answer exercise on "The Vegetable Garden," led by Alfred Perkins, Market Gardener, St. Paul. 9:30 o'clock. N. H. Reeves, Pres. Minneapolis Market Gardeners' Society, presiding. The Vegetable Garden. A Successful Cabbage Field. E. C. Willard, Mankato. Hotbeds and Cold Frames Nine Months In the Year. (30 min.) N. A. Rasmussen. Pres. Wisconsin State Hort. Society, Sturgeon Bay, Wis. Improvement of Vegetable Varieties by Selection. Richard Wellington, Horticulturist, University Farm. Some Phases of Onion Growing. W. T. Tapley, Asst. in Horticulture, University Farm. Irrigation in the Market Garden. C. E. Warner, Osseo. The Cultivation of Cabbages. Nic Lebens, Minneapolis. Growing Radishes. Chas. Hoffman, White Bear. A Winter Garden In the Cellar. N. A. Rasmussen, Sturgeon Bay, Wis. Home Canning. Mrs. Louis M. Glenzke, Hopkins. WEDNESDAY AFTERNOON SESSION. 1:30 o'clock. The Question and Answer Exercise to occupy this half-hour will be on "The Flower Garden," and led by Mrs. H. A. Boardman, St. Paul. 2:00 o'clock. President Cashman In the Chair. My Spraying Experience--four five-minute paper. 1. Harold Simmons, Howard Lake. 2. E. Yanish, St. Paul. 3. A. H. Reed, Glencoe. 4. J. J. Dobbin, Excelsior. Orchard Pests In Minnesota During 1916. 1. Diseases. Prof. E. C. Stakman. Head of Section Plant Pathology, University Farm. 2. Insects. A. G. Ruggles, Asst. Entomologist, University Farm. 3:15 o'clock. MINN. GARDEN FLOWER SOCIETY. Mrs. E. W. Gould, Pres., Minneapolis. Some New Plants at Home and Abroad. Professor N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. The Home Setting As the Architect Sees It. Mr. Harry W. Jones, Minneapolis. A Composite on Composites--Useful Plants for Fall Bloom. Mrs. Phelps Wyman, Minneapolis. Lantern Talk by E. G. Cheyney, Prof. of Forestry, State University. Illustrated with many views from the forest regions of Northern Minnesota. WEDNESDAY EVENING SESSION. 7:30 o'clock, Dec. 6, 1916. N. W. PEONY AND IRIS SOCIETY. Fifteen-minute musical program by orchestra. The Modern Iris. Mr. C. S. Harrison, York, Neb. Peonies, Their Care and Culture. Mr. John E. Stryker, St. Paul, Minn. Peonies for Pleasure. Mr. Lee Bonnewitz, Van Wert, Ohio. Peonies for Profit. Mrs. Wm. Crawford, La Porte, Ind. Peonies and Their Possibilities. Mr. D. W. C. Ruff, St. Paul, Minn. Music. Selection by Orchestra. General Discussion. THURSDAY FORENOON SESSION. 9:00 o'clock. A thirty-minute "Question and Answer" exercise on "Success in Orcharding," led by J. F. Harrison, a successful orchardist, Excelsior. 9:30 o'clock. President Cashman in the Chair. Evergreens for Prairie Homes. M. Soholt, Madison. Windbreaks by the Mile. T. A. Hoverstad, Minneapolis. Arrangement of Farm Buildings and Grounds for Convenience and Artistic Effect. E. M. Reeves, Waverly, Ia. Report of Committee on Fruit List. J. P. Andrews, G. W. Strand, T. E. Cashman. Adoption of Fruit List. Annual Reports. Report of Executive Board, J. M. Underwood, Chairman, Lake City. Report of Secretary, A. W. Latham. Report of Treasurer, Geo. W. Strand, Taylors Falls. On account of the very full program the annual reports of the vice-presidents, superintendents of Trial Stations and Auxiliary Societies, will be filed with the secretary for publication without reading. (See list on page 20.) The Successful Orchard. (30 min.) S. A. Beach, Prof. of Horticulture, Iowa State Agricultural College, Ames, Ia. Development of Horticulture in Western Canada. Prof. F. W. Brodrick, Horticulturist, Manitoba Agricultural College. Contestants, Gideon Memorial Fund--by Students at University Farm School. THURSDAY AFTERNOON SESSION. 1:30 o'clock. Discuss these subjects. "Ornamentation of Home Grounds" will be the subject of the half-hour "Question and Answer Exercise," led by C. H. Ramsdell, Landscape Architect, Minneapolis. 2:00 o'clock. President Cashman in the Chair. Horticultural Work with the Boys' and Girls' Clubs in Minnesota. T. A. Erickson, State Club Leader, University Farm. Boy or Girl prize winner in the state-wide garden and canning contest. Compulsory Spraying for Fruit Insects and Diseases. K. A. Kirkpatrick, Agricultural Agent, Hennepin County, Wayzata. Annual Election of Officers. 3:00 o'clock. Semi-Centennial Anniversary Session. J. M. Underwood, Lake City, Presiding. Song. Trafford N. Jayne. Some History. A. W. Latham, Secretary. The Heroes of Minnesota Horticulture. Clarence Wedge, Albert Lea. Personal Recollections. A. J. Philips, West Salem, Wis. The Ladies of the Society. Mrs. Jennie Stager, Sauk Rapids. Greeting from University Farm. A. F. Woods, Dean. The Minnesota Society and the Northwest. Prof. C. B. Waldron, Agri. College, N. D. Looking Ahead. C. S. Harrison, York, Neb. To conclude with a lantern slide talk, "Veterans of Minnesota Horticulture." Slides prepared by Prof. LeRoy Cady. FRIDAY FORENOON SESSION. 9:00 o'clock. A thirty-minute "Question and Answer Exercise" on the general subject of "Birds a Factor In Horticulture," led by R. E. Olmstead, Excelsior. 9:30 o'clock. President in the Chair. Potato Selection. P. E. Clement, Moorhead. Vinegar a By-Product of the Minnesota Orchard. W. G. Brierley, Horticulturist, University Farm. Our Horticultural Building. A consultation. Plant Breeders' Auxiliary. Clarence Wedge, President, in the Chair. Annual Report, 1916, Minn. Fruit Breeding Farm. Chas. Haralson, Supt., Excelsior. Report of Committee on Fruit Breeding Farm. S. A. Stockwell, Minneapolis. C. S. Harrison, Excelsior. Fruit Breeding. Prof. S. A. Beach, Horticulturist, Ames, Iowa. Pedigree in Plants. Prof. C. B. Waldron, Agricultural College, N. D. Origin and Development of Hardy, Blight Resisting Pears. Chas. G. Patten, Charles City, Ia. New Creations in Horticulture for 1916. Prof. N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. FRIDAY AFTERNOON. 1:30 o'clock. The "Question and Answer" half hour will be occupied with this subject, "The Home Orchard," led by Henry Husser, Minneapolis. 2:00 o'clock. The Minnesota Orchard. J. F. Bartlett, Excelsior. The New Farmers Fruit. Freeman Thorp, Hubert. (30 min.) The Unfruitful Tree and How to Correct It. (30 min.) Prof. S. A. Beach, Ames, Ia. Orcharding In Minnesota. Richard Wellington, Horticulturist, University Farm. The Minnesota Apple Crop in 1916. R. S. Mackintosh, Horticulturist, Extension Division, University Farm. 4:00 o'clock. Two-minute speeches by members. 4:30 o'clock. Closing remarks by the President. PREMIUM LIST, ANNUAL MEETING, 1916. Thos. Redpath, General Supt. Geo. W. Strand, Clerk. FLORAL DISPLAY. W. H. Bofferding, 710 No. 2nd St., Minneapolis, Supt. PLANTS. To be staged Monday p.m., Dec. 4, 1916. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. Collection of 12 specimen Palms $10.00 $7.00 $4.00 Collection of 12 specimen Ferns 10.00 7.00 4.00 Collection of 12 specimen Blooming Plants 12.00 9.00 6.00 (Covering 25 square feet.) CUT FLOWERS. To be staged before 10:00 a.m., Tuesday, Dec. 5. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 12 Roses, Red, any variety $3.00 $2.00 $1.00 12 Roses, Pink, any variety 3.00 2.00 1.00 12 Roses, White, any variety 3.00 2.00 1.00 12 Roses, Yellow, any var'ty 3.00 2.00 1.00 To be staged before 10:00 a.m., Wednesday, Dec. 6. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 12 Chrysanthemums, Yellow $4.00 $3.00 $2.00 12 Chrysanthemums, any other color 4.00 3.00 2.00 25 Carnations, Red, any variety 3.00 2.00 1.00 25 Carnations, Pink, any variety 3.00 2.00 1.00 25 Carnations, white, any variety 3.00 2.00 1.00 To be staged before 10:00 a.m., Thursday, Dec. 7. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. Basket arranged for effect, diameter not to exceed 12 inches $10.00 $7.00 $4.00 Best Bridal Bouquet--Diploma. Best Corsage Bouquet--Diploma. Best Bridesmaid's Bouquet--Diploma. VEGETABLES. Entries to be made by Tuesday, Nov. 28. N. H. Reeves, Mpls., Supt. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. Beets, 1 peck $3.50 $2.00 $1.00 $0.50 Cabbages, 3 heads 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Carrots, 1 peck 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Celery, 1 doz. stalks 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Celeriac, 1 doz. roots 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Lettuce, 1 doz. heads 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Onions, 1 peck Red 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Onions, 1 peck White 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Onions, 1 pk. Yellow 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Onions, 1 peck White Pickling 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Parsley, 1 doz. bnhs. 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Parsnips, 1/2 bushel 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Potatoes, 1 bu. early variety 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Pie Pumpkins, three specimens 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Radish, fresh, 1 doz. bunches 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Salsify, 1 doz. bnchs. 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Hubbard Squash, 3 specimens 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 White Turnips, 1 pk 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 Rutabagas, 1/2 bu 3.50 2.00 1.00 .50 EARLY WINTER SEEDLING.--The fruit shown must not have been kept in cold storage. Premium $50.00, to be divided pro rata. LATE WINTER SEEDLING.--Same conditions as for early winter seedlings except that if found necessary the fruit shown may be retained and final decision reserved until later in the winter. Premium $50.00 to be divided pro rata. In each of the above two classes the varieties receiving the three highest awards will be designated as having received the first, second and third premium respectively. APPLES (not including crabs). No inferior fruit can be shown. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. Each variety (may or may not have been in cold storage) included in the 1916 fruit list of the society, or in the 1916 premium list of the Minnesota State Fair $0.75 $0.50 $0.25 Collection, not to exceed ten nor less than six varieties $20.00 to be divided pro rata Pecks of Apples. Peck of any variety of apples, the fruit exhibited to be at the disposal of the society. An exhibitor may enter a peck of each of as many different kinds as he pleases. $25.00 to be divided pro rata. Top-Worked Apples. Collection of named varieties grown on scions top-grafted on other trees. Accompanying the name of each variety, shown on the same label (to be furnished by the management), must be noted the name of the variety on which it is top-worked. $25.00, to be divided pro rata. BOXES AND BARRELS OF APPLES. Must have been packed by the exhibitor. Only one variety (not less than 2-3/4 in. in diameter) can be shown in a box. Bushel boxes of the standard size must be used. Awards will be based on the quality of the fruit, packing, etc. SINGLE BOX of any variety of apples, including seedlings, $25.00, to be divided pro rata. Also 1st $15.00, 2nd $10.00, 3rd $5.00. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. BARREL of apples, any variety, $25.00, to be divided pro rata. Also $20.00 $15.00 $10.00 $5.00 GRAPES. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. Collection, not more than 10 nor less than 6 varieties $8.00 $6.00 $4.00 $100 SEEDLING APPLE PRIZE. The fifth prize of $100.00 will be awarded this season "for the best late winter seedling apple keeping till March 1st under ordinary cellar conditions" under the offer made first in 1905, restricted, of course, to the contestants who have duly registered. NUTS. 1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th. Each variety of edible nuts, one quart $1.00 $0.75 $0.50 $0.25 * * * * * Program Notes: You can become a life member of the State Horticultural Society by payment of $10.00, in two annual payments of $5.00 each if you prefer. This will entitle you to a file of our bound reports, a library in itself. The annual business meeting of the Minn. Garden Flower Society will be held Wednesday morning at 10:00 o'clock in an adjoining room. Are you a member of the Garden Flower Society? If you are growing flowers you should join it at once. Consult the secretary, Mrs. M. L. Countryman. Membership fees to be paid to the Assistant Secretary In the Hallway. GARDEN HELPS Conducted by Minnesota Garden Flower Society Edited by MRS. E. W. GOULD, 2644 Humboldt Avenue So. Minneapolis. The Garden Flower Society will have an all-day meeting at the Agricultural College the first Friday in January next. This meeting is to be held with the session of the Farmers' Short Course in Room 20, Horticultural Building. Arrangements will be made so that lunches may be had on the grounds, probably at the dining hall. The program covers a wide range of subjects, and as time will be given for discussion and answering of questions brought up, this will prove a most helpful meeting to all of our members. Our own annual meeting will be held on Wednesday, December sixth. The business meeting and election of officers being held in the morning, the program in the afternoon--at the West Hotel--in connection with the Horticultural Society. Will not each member make an especial effort to bring in a new member at that time or before? The only reason we have not a thousand members is because we and our work are so little known. If you will tell your friends who have gardens what we are doing, you will have no difficulty in helping us add to our membership. Since last January we have received sixty-six new members. Can't we make it an even hundred for this year? With _your help_, we _can_. The program for our annual meeting will be found in the official program, printed elsewhere in this number. Here is the program for the meeting at the Agricultural College, Friday, January 5th. Come and bring your garden problems with you. * * * * * (Program for Meeting, January 5, 1917, 10 a.m., Agricultural College.) 1. Perennials for Busy People Mrs. H. B. Tillotson 2. Perennials from Seed to Seed Mr. E. Meyer 3. Native Perennials for Garden Use Miss M. Fanning 4. Best Hardy Vines and Their Use Mrs. E. W. Gould 5. Best Annuals Mrs. H. A. Boardman 1:30 P.M. 1. Fruits for Ornamental Planting Mr. Phelps Wyman 2. Native Shrubs for the Home Grounds Mr. Paul Mueller 3. Proper Preparation of the Garden Soil Professor F. J. Alway 4. A Watering System for the Garden Mrs. C. E. Warner 5. Growing Bedding Plants for the Market Mrs. F. H. Gibbs 6. Growing Cut Flowers for the Market {Miss Sabra Ellison {Mr. F. H. Ellison 7. Special Purpose Plants-- Honey Plants Prof. Oswald Medicinal Plants Dr. Newcomb Question Box. SECRETARY'S CORNER THIS IS YOUR VACATION.--If you are a fruit grower or a flower grower or vegetable grower or interested in home life or in any of the varied matters directly or indirectly connected with horticulture, the annual meeting is just the place for you. _Make it a real winter vacation._ Bring your wife and others of the family if possible and stay with us at the West Hotel for the four days of the meeting. It will be one of the bright spots in your life, as you recall the pleasures of this great and fruitful gathering. ANNUAL SOCIETY BANQUET.--Special pains have been taken in preparing the program for this banquet on account of the fact that this is our anniversary session in part, and you will not be disappointed if you anticipate a rich treat, with two or three hundred of the most congenial people on earth, who will sit down to supper together at the West Hotel at 6:30 p. m., Thursday, December 7th,--a wholesome repast and an intellectual feast, don't miss it. You will feel that you really belong to the brotherhood after dining with us. DELEGATES TO THE ANNUAL MEETING.--Besides the delegates at our annual meeting from abroad referred to in the November number, there is to be with us also as representative of the Iowa State Horticultural Society, Mr. P. F. Kinne, of Storm Lake, Iowa. We have pretty good assurance also that Secy. Greene, of the Iowa Society, will visit with us at some time during the meeting, and we don't know how many more of the good Iowa people will find their way here. A late note from Chas. G. Patten assures us of his attendance at the meeting, when he will give us a full report of his experimental work in growing seedling pears at his station at Charles City, Iowa. We are looking forward confidently to something of large practical value from his work. PROGRAM OF ANNUAL MEETING.--The program of the coming annual meeting of the society will be found in an abbreviated form in this number of our magazine. It has been sent, however, in all its completeness, in a separate enclosure to all the members of the society, accompanied by a blank form to be filled out by members who purpose to attend and desire to have their names in the Badge Book, and also for those who renew their memberships. Quite a number of questions are asked on this blank form, and it is important that they should all be answered. It is especially important that the names of friends whom you would like to see members of the society should be given to the secretary on these blanks and at an early date so that copies of the program can be sent them in good season. The program, as you will note, is an exceedingly diversified one, special emphasis being laid on orcharding, vegetable growing and ornamental horticulture. An increasing interest in flower growing is emphasized by the programs of three auxiliary societies devoted to these branches of horticulture. _Aren't you coming to this splendid meeting?_ Study the program and consider the advantages of intercourse and companionship with those who have so much in common as the members of the Horticultural Society. Don't fail to _attend promptly the first session_, which is always a full one, right on the minute. JOURNAL OF ANNUAL MEETING, 1915 Minnesota State Horticultural Society Held on Second Floor of the West Hotel, Minneapolis, December 7, 8, 9 and 10, 1915. Tuesday Morning Session, 10 o'clock. Meeting was opened at 10 o'clock a.m., December 7, 1915, by President Thomas E. Cashman. Invocation was made by Rev. C. S. Harrison, of York, Nebraska, which was followed by a song by Mr. Trafford N. Jayne, of Minneapolis. The president then read his annual greeting. (See index.) President Cashman: How may University Farm and the Minnesota State Horticultural Society be mutually helpful in developing the farms and homes of the Northwest? by our good friend, the dean of agriculture of this state, Mr. A. F. Woods. (Applause.) (See index.) Discussion. President Cashman: Anything further before we pass to the next subject? If not, we will now call on one of our oldest members and one of our best friends, Mr. George J. Kellogg, of Wisconsin, who will tell us something about the strawberry business. (See index.) Discussion. President Cashman: I am sure we are all very much indebted to Mr. Kellogg. Now, we have another very good friend with us from Nebraska. He is going to tell us about "The Nurseryman as King." Mr. C. S. Harrison, of York, Nebraska. (See index.) President Cashman: This morning we heard from our good friend, Dean Woods, then we heard from Wisconsin and later from Nebraska. We have enjoyed all three, all very instructive and very entertaining, and we hope to hear from them again. We hope later to hear from another Wisconsin man, Mr. Philips. Those three men have always contributed a great deal to the success of our meetings. I understand that Wisconsin has sent another representative, Mr. A. C. Graves, of Sturgeon Bay. It has been announced that he is with us. If so, we will be pleased to have him come forward and have a word of greeting from him, representing the Wisconsin Horticultural Society. Mr. Graves: Mr. President and members of the Minnesota Horticultural Society: I am very pleased to be here this morning and listen to this program and these deliberations. I expect to spend some enjoyable days with you, and on behalf of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society I am pleased to bring to you their greetings on this occasion. Thank you. (Applause.) President Cashman: We hope to hear from you later, Mr. Graves, and would be pleased to have you take part in our deliberations. I presume that there are other delegates here, but if so they have not been announced. If there are others I hope they will hand their credentials to the secretary so we may call on them later. Meeting adjourned until 1:30 p.m. December 7, 1915, Afternoon Session. _The Minnesota Orchard._ Discussion led by J. P. Andrews, Faribault, Minn. (See index.) The President: Ladies and gentlemen, the time has now arrived to continue with the regular proceedings of the society. Mr. Rasmussen, president of the Wisconsin State Horticultural Society, is with us and will be on the program later, but we will have a few words from him now. (Applause.). Mr. Rasmussen (Wisconsin): Mr. President and members of the Minnesota Horticultural Society: I didn't expect to be caught this way. I was going to be real shrewd, I was not going to let you know I was coming. I told the secretary of our society not to let you know I was coming, but he notified your secretary that I was coming and that is the way they happened to get me on the program. I was going to sneak in and get all the good out of it and was not going to give anything back; I will admit that is not a fair game. I feel about like a fellow who had to make a talk at a banquet. He said he was not a speaker, but they insisted. They would not let him back out. So he got up and feeling kind of shaky, like I am now, he reached his hand down to get hold of his chair, as he thought, but touched his wife's shoulder, and she got up. She thought she had to. He started, "Ladies and gentlemen, this thing was forced on me. (Laughter.)" So this was kind of forced upon me. I know that your program is full so I will not detain you any longer. My time is tomorrow, and I will take you through my garden tomorrow. (Applause.) The President: We are all pleased to have Mr. Rasmussen with us, and we hope we will hear from him often during the deliberations of the meeting. I was pleased indeed to see so many present this forenoon. Secretary Latham thought he had plenty of room for all who might attend, but I don't think there was a vacant chair here this forenoon. I was pleased indeed to note so many new faces, so many young men present. You are the people we want to see. The older men have always contributed and done their part and have made these meetings a grand success, but it will soon devolve upon the younger men of this society to take their places. We want you to help them at these meetings, and I was glad that you did so this forenoon. We hope that the young men will feel at home and that they will continue to take part, that they will ask questions and tell us about their successes and their failures, and I hope the older members will help make it pleasant for these young men. We will take up the subject of fruits this afternoon, and I am now going to call on a plum specialist, a man that we look to to tell us about the plum troubles in this state, Mr. Dewain Cook, who will tell us about the "Plums We Already Have and Plums That Are on the Way--the Brown Rot a Controlling Factor," Mr. Dewain Cook, of Jeffers, Minnesota. (See index.) Discussion. The President: We have heard of some of the troubles of those that plant plum trees. The next speaker will probably tell us how to meet those troubles, how to combat the plum pocket fungus. We are fortunate to have with us a scientific man that makes a study of these subjects. I refer to Professor Stakman, of the University Farm, St. Paul. "The Control and Cure of Brown Rot, etc.," by Prof. E. C. Stakman. (See index.) Discussion. The President: I will now call on Mr. C. A. Pfeiffer, of Winona, to talk to us on "The Surprise Plum a Success." (See index.) Discussion. The President: "Thirty Years in Raspberries," by a gentleman that knows how to make money by the raising of raspberries, Mr. Gust. Johnson, of Minneapolis. (See index.) Discussion. The President: We will now call upon Mr. Simmons to tell us about "My Orchard Crop of 1915--from Start to Finish." (See index.) The President: As you know, Mr. Simmons is one of the most successful orchardists in Minnesota. Do you wish to ask him any questions? Discussion. Mr. Cashman: We are very much indebted to Mr. Simmons for this splendid paper and for his advice. We must hurry on to the next subject, which is "Fruit Growing a Successful Industry in Minnesota," by A. W. Richardson, Howard Lake, Minn. (See index.) The President: I am sure you will all agree this was a very instructive and interesting paper. We have about three minutes in which to discuss it. Discussion. Two lantern talks followed--one by Earl Ferris of Hampton, Ia., on "Evergreens," and one by A. G. Tolaas on "Diseases of the Potato." December 8, 1915, Morning Session. Discussion on "The Vegetable Garden," led by H. J. Baldwin, Northfield, Minn. (See index.) N. H. Reeves, president Minneapolis Market Gardeners' Association, in the chair. President Reeves: We will now have a paper on "Growing Beans and Sweet Corn," by P. B. Marien, of St. Paul. (See index.) Discussion. The President: We will now listen to a paper on "Growing Vegetables for Canning," by Mr. M. H. Hegerle, president of Canning Company, St. Bonifacius. Mr. Hegerle not being present, we will ask Mr. Rasmussen, president of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society, to tell us "How We Grow Vegetables in Oshkosh, Wisconsin." (Applause.) (See index.) President Reeves: Is Mr. Hegerle in the room? Mr. Hegerle: Yes. President Reeves: Then we will listen to Mr. Hegerle's talk on "Growing Vegetables for Canning." (See index.) Discussion. President Reeves: "Greenhouse vs. Hotbeds, Investment, Care and Result Compared," by Mr. F. H. Gibbs. (See index.) President Reeves: "Growing the Tomato," by C. W. Purdham, market gardener, Brooklyn Center. (See index.) Discussion. President Reeves: We will now listen to a paper by E. W. Record on "Asparagus by the Acre." (See index.) President Reeves: You will be entertained with a demonstration of the coldpack method of canning fruits and vegetables by Professor R. S. Mackintosh and Miss Mary L. Bull. After the demonstration the session adjourned until 1:30 o'clock p.m. December 8, 1915, Afternoon Session. Question and answer exercise on "The Flower Garden," led by Mr. G. C. Hawkins, of Minneapolis. The President: I regret to have to announce that one of the big guns who was to be with us on this afternoon's program, Professor J. C. Whitten, of Missouri, is unable to be with us on account of sickness. Secretary Latham received a letter from him just a short time ago, stating that he was sick abed and the doctor would not permit him to leave. We have another very able gentleman whom I will call upon at this time to take Mr. Whitten's place. His name is H. G. Street, of Hebron, Ill., who will tell us about "Marketing Fruit Direct." (Applause.) (See index.) Discussion. The President: We appreciate very much this fine paper by Mr. Street. We have another very important subject this afternoon. We will have a paper by Mr. W. G. Brierly, Assistant Horticulturist at the University Farm, on "The Manufacture of Cider Vinegar on the Farm." (Applause.) (See index.) Reading by Miss Mary Bonn. The President: We will now turn the meeting over to the Garden Flower Society and request the president, Mrs. Ruff, to take the chair. (In the absence of Mrs. Ruff, Mrs. E. W. Gould presided.) Mrs. Gould: Our first number will be a paper on the Minnesota State Flower, by Mr. E. A. Smith, of Lake City. (Applause.) Mr. Smith: I wish to add one word to the name of my paper and that is "Flag," so that it will read "Minnesota State Flower and State Flag." I have the two subjects so closely associated that I can not separate them. (See index.) Discussion. Mr. Smith: I now come to the point in my paper. I move you, Madam President, that the Minnesota State Horticultural Society and its auxiliary societies through its secretary present the following resolution to the next legislature of the state for adoption at that time: Resolved, that, whereas the State of Minnesota has adopted a state flower which, on account of its being a native of the woods and bogs, is not generally known or recognized and, whereas, the State of Minnesota in 1893 adopted by legislative vote a state flag, which emblem is not generally known to the residents of the state, and believing that familiarity with the state flower and the state flag will do good and create loyalty to the state and Union, be it resolved, that we, the Minnesota State Horticultural Society and auxiliary societies, do hereby petition and pray the state legislature of Minnesota to have printed an attractive picture of the state flower and the state flag, properly framed, and present a copy of it to each public school of the state with the request that it be placed upon the walls of the school room, also that it be furnished free of cost to such other public buildings as may be deemed advisable. I trust, Madam President, that this resolution will not only be seconded but it will meet with the unanimous approval of the society. Mr. Hawkins: I second the motion. Mrs. Gould: I do not know that we could vote with the Horticultural Society. This is not a meeting of that society but simply a meeting of the Flower Society. Will some one enlighten me? Miss White: Madam President, if we could not vote as a society, could we not vote to recommend this resolution to the Horticultural Society? A Member: Yes, or to the two societies to be taken up at their business meeting, perhaps. Miss White: Recommend it be passed by the parent society. A Member: Madam President, why should it not be the flag itself and not a picture of the flag? Mrs. Gould: Will you make that motion? Miss White: I move that the resolution as presented by Mr. Smith be endorsed by this Garden Flower Society and referred to the parent society for their adoption. I will offer that as a substitute. A Member: I second the motion. Motion was carried. Mrs. Gould: Our next subject is "The Pergola, Its Use and Misuse, Its Convenience and Expense," by Charles H. Ramsdell, of Minneapolis. (See index.) Mrs. Gould: Our next paper is "Hardy Perennials," by Miss Grace E. Kimball, of Waltham. (See index.) Mrs. Gould: This spring our president, Mrs. Ruff, offered prizes for the best papers on planting for color effect. The judges after reading these papers carefully selected three. Miss Starr is first, Mrs. Tillotson second and Mrs. Boyington third. These papers will now be read, Miss Starr giving the first one. (See index.) Mrs. Gould: Mrs. Tillotson will follow with her paper. (See index.) Mrs. Gould: Mrs. Wyman will read Mrs. Boyington's paper. Mrs. Boyington was unable to be with us today. (See index.) Mrs. Gould: Mrs. Countryman will read a paper written by Mr. Swanson on the judging of flowers. (See index.) Mrs. Gould: Our meeting will close with Professor Washburn's talk on "Bird Conservation," which will be given with slides and music. Professor Washburn gives lantern talk. December 9, 1915, Morning Session. Half hour question and answer exercise on "Truck Crop and Garden Insects," led by Professor Wm. Moore. (See index.) The President: The committee on fruit list has been working very hard trying to determine why we have particular varieties on the list and the changes, if any, that should be made. Mr. J. P. Andrews, the chairman of the committee, is the man who has been doing most of this work, and we will be glad to hear from him at this time. He is quite radical and in favor of many changes as you will note when he reads his report. Mr. Andrews: There are very few changes, and you know it has been the policy of this society rather to be conservative and not jump at anything until we know what it is. (Reads new fruit list.) Mr. Andrews: I move its adoption. Motion was seconded and carried unanimously. Mr. Andrews: I would like to call attention to the fact that a great many criticize that we do not change the list from time to time. I have thought that for a long time. Two or three years ago there was a little move towards making it so we could change it. We are putting up some nice, big premiums for late winter apples and early winter apples, and there are undoubtedly some seedlings that would be all right to put upon the list if we knew more about them. It seems to me it is foolish to pay those premiums and then drop it right there. We do not know any more about whether they are hardy or not than if they had been grown in Missouri. They may have grown well through some protection or favorable location, but when you commence grafting from a seedling it does not give satisfaction as a grafted tree and in different localities of the country. We want to know whether the new seedlings are hardy enough for this climate, not that they are simply of good quality to eat and perhaps will keep. We find that out here, but we do not find out anything about the hardiness. I think we ought to require a person who has produced a good seedling and gotten a good premium for it to send some of its scions to the superintendent of the Fruit-Breeding Farm for testing and let him send it out to points north of here, between here and the northern part of the state, to see how much hardiness it has. Hardiness is the quality we want more than anything else. We have gotten along so far with the Hibernal, and we ought not to be so particular about quality as about hardiness. They ought to be required to give Mr. Haralson a few of the scions or buds so that he could try them there at the fruit-breeding farm and send them out to more northern locations under number, so that the originator will be just as well protected, and it will add so much to the value of the new seedling that he ought to be anxious to do it instead of holding it back as is now done. I move you that we have some arrangement whereby those drawing the premiums for the first and second qualities, keeping qualities and eating qualities, etc., shall be obliged to give to Mr. Haralson something to work on, either scions or buds of those varieties, so that they can be tested in that way and we know what they are, otherwise it leaves it for any one to introduce a new variety just about on the same ground that some other varieties have been introduced in the state, made a nice, large thing for the man that introduced them to the public and sold them but afterwards proved a great disappointment to almost every man who ever planted them. I move that we make such an arrangement, and we recommend that the state fair do the same. Mr. Horton: I second the motion. The President: It is moved and seconded that some arrangement be made requiring people who enter seedling apples for prizes at the horticultural meeting and the state fair to furnish scions or buds of such varieties to the central station to Superintendent Charles Haralson that he may determine whether the trees are hardy and suitable for this climate or not. Mr. Andrews: We need this provision so that Superintendent Haralson could visit those trees and see what they looked like. Mr. Latham: I move that this matter be referred to the executive board to develop a workable plan to secure the purposes which Mr. Andrews has in view. The President: Do you accept that as a substitute? Mr. Andrews: I would if it wasn't for this one thing. It was left that way a year or two ago, and it hasn't amounted to a thing. I do not care if it is left to the executive committee if Mr. Latham will vouch for its being put through. Mr. Latham: Don't you remember as the result of that action we prepared forms to be used by those who examined the seedlings and decided what seedlings should be further tested and all that sort of thing. We have those forms for use if the committee wants to use them. Mr. Andrews: Those ought to be so as to hold the premium money back until we get some material to test. Mr. Latham: I will say a few words. It is not such a simple matter as it seems. Here come perhaps fifty people who have grown seedlings. We tell them we are very desirous that all the seedlings in the state that have promise of merit be shown. In the division of the premium money they do not get more than four or five dollars apiece, the best of them do not get more than eight or ten dollars. Then here comes a resolution which says, "Before you draw this money you have to furnish scions to the state fruit-breeding farm with the privilege of sending out to other stations in the state for testing." The average man who owns a seedling that is really a good thing begins to think about it, and we will not get what we want. If a man has a seedling that is better than the Duchess and Wealthy and has hardiness as well there are lots of buyers around here that have their eyes open. There has been a half a dozen I know of picked up in the last few years really first class, fine and hardy. Those trees are being tested out. It would be a splendid thing if we could get a really good seedling, as Mr. Andrews says, but a resolution of this kind will not result in doing what we want to do. I would like to have it referred to the executive board so they can work out a practical plan. Mr. Andrews is a member of the board. I renew my motion. Motion is seconded. The President: The original motion as given by Mr. Andrews is that those people offering seedlings for prizes, before they receive premiums-- Mr. Andrews: The first or second premiums, I said, because that would shut out all of the others. The President:--before receiving the first or second premiums, that they be required or that they will agree to furnish scions or buds for experimental purposes, these scions or buds to be sent to the central station to Mr. Haralson for the purpose of testing them out as to hardiness, under number. Now, the amendment made by Mr. Latham is to the effect that this matter be referred to the executive committee. We will first put the amendment that it be referred to the executive committee to work out a practical plan. Mr. Heustis: And report next year. The President: That they work out a practical plan and put it in operation. Was it your idea that we report next year or that the plan be put in operation? Mr. Latham: No objection to reporting next year. If they can work out a plan they can also put it in practical operation. Mr. Andrews: I do not think that I am after this now, gentlemen, any more than every one of you ought to be after it. We ought to know more about the hardiness of these trees. This list has stood almost identically the same list for eight or nine years, pretty nearly the same, and we are not getting ahead at all. We do not know any more about the hardiness of these trees we have been putting out than we did before. The amendment was carried. The President: This matter will therefore be referred to the executive board. The next in order is the annual report of the executive board, Mr. J. M. Underwood, of Lake City, chairman. Mr. Underwood is sojourning in the sunny south. He has sent a report, however, to Secretary Latham, and Mr. Latham has requested me to read it. This was written at St. Augustine, Florida. (See index.) The President: Any one wish to make any comments on this report? If not, we will pass to the report of the secretary, Mr. Latham. Mr. Latham: Do you wish to have the report read or have it published later? It will be published anyway. Mr. Miller: Let it be considered as read and approved and filed for publication. (See index.) Motion is seconded and carried. The President: We will now have the report of George W. Strand, treasurer. (See index.) The President: What will you do with the report of the treasurer? You have heard the reading of it. Upon motion the report was adopted and filed. The President: The next order of business would be the paper by Professor J. C. Whitten but Mr. Whitten is not present, I am sorry to say, and I am now going to call on Mr. O. M. Heustis as he is present to tell us about his "Dwarf Apple Trees." (See index.) The President: We are very much indebted to the doctor for his interesting talk. Is Professor Mackintosh in the room? I was going to ask him to read a paper on "Successful Cold Storage Plant for Apples," sent in by Mr. Hanson. I am sorry that Mr. Hanson is not able to be present, he is ill at home. Professor Mackintosh not being present, paper was read by Mr. Clarence Wedge. The President: Mr. Wedge will have a word for us at this time. He has a suggestion to make. Mr. Wedge: Ladies and gentlemen, fellow members: Once a year our society has been in the habit of bestowing the highest honor within its gift upon some of the members that have honored the society for so many years with their services and have made themselves in that way so valuable to the public that we feel that they deserve the highest recognition which we are able to give them as a society. It becomes my great pleasure at this time, standing in the place of my friend, Mr. Underwood, who is absent, to propose the following names to you which have been recommended by the executive board for this honor. There are five of them, the names are: John Bisbee, of Madelia; Charles Haralson, our superintendent at Excelsior; Mr. F. W. Kimball, of Waltham; Mr. John R. Cummins, of Minneapolis, and Mr. S. H. Drum, of Owatonna. Mr. Bisbee has undertaken and is carrying on one of the largest experiments in seedling apples in the Northwest. He seems to be a very quiet member among us, but he is one of the working members who are doing the things that the society most needs. I do not need to tell you anything about the work of Charles Haralson, the superintendent of our fruit-breeding farm at Zumbra Heights. His work has approved itself to us all so much that I think he really deserves the statement that was made by one of our older members that he has outdone Burbank. He certainly has for this part of the country. Mr. F. W. Kimball, a very dear personal friend of mine, has been carrying on experiments in orcharding for the past twenty-five years about, in the neighborhood of Austin, Minnesota, and has now removed to Waltham. His experiments there in top-working have been among the most useful and among the largest that have been undertaken in any part of the state. He perhaps deserve the same reputation in our state that our friend, Mr. Philips, has in Wisconsin. I do not want to say this to disparage anybody else, but he has certainly made a very large and very valuable addition to our knowledge of the value of top-working. Mr. John R. Cummins, of Minneapolis, whom we have with us this morning, is one who has been a very persistent experimenter in all lines. I remember particularly going to his place some ten or fifteen years ago and going over the remarkable collection of ornamental trees and plants that he was growing, many of which I did not think it was possible to grow at Albert Lea, and there he was succeeding with them and developing them at a point 100 miles north of us. We certainly owe him a deal of credit for his perseverance and his enterprise. We are glad that he is with us today. Mr. S. H. Drum, of Owatonna, is one who has also been one of our most faithful members, whose experiments have been in fruits, and he has brought great encouragement to us in the southern part of Minnesota. He has now moved to Owatonna and, not being content with the best, he has started out with a new plantation with two kinds of fruit, and I think he is topping the market with the very best. Mr. President, I move that these names be added to the list of honorary life members of the Minnesota Horticultural Society. There are several seconds to the motion. The President: A very fitting tribute, I am sure. Are there any remarks? The name of Mr. Cummins calls my attention to the fact that about twelve years ago he presented this society with the gavel that I hold in my hand. This gavel is made of black walnut grown by Mr. Cummins on his own place. I do not suppose that he made the gavel himself, but it is made of material raised on his own farm, and when this gavel comes down good and hard I want you to think of Mr. Cummins. Are you ready for the question, that those gentlemen suggested be made honorary life members? Motion is carried unanimously. The President: I am now going to call on the young men from the University Farm who are contestants for the Gideon Memorial Fund. (See index.) Contestants thereupon read their essays. The President: I will now ask the judges to retire and decide which of these young men is entitled to this prize money. For the benefit of some of the newer members who may not understand the situation I will say that some years ago a number of the members of this society believed that we should commemorate the good work done by Peter M. Gideon. A sum of money was raised to be known as the Gideon Memorial Fund. It was decided that that money be placed at interest and that the interest derived therefrom be offered as prizes to young men attending our agricultural school or college. They were to deliver addresses at the meetings of the Minnesota Horticultural Society, and the young men preparing the best papers and making the best talks would be awarded this prize money, the accrued interest from this fund. So we have annually three young men from the agricultural college that present papers or make addresses on subjects that are of importance to this society. This is a memorial for Peter M. Gideon, who has done such splendid work for the fruit raisers of the Northwest. While we are waiting for the report of the judges I will ask Mr. Ludlow to come forward and tell us about a letter that he received from Peter M. Gideon, November 2, 1885, and which was accompanied by Mr. Gideon's last catalog. Judges announce their decision. (Applause.) _Premiums Awarded to Gideon Memorial Contestants_: 1. The Plum Curculio--Edward A. Nelson. 2. Standardizing the Potato--A. W. Aamodt. 3. Marketing Fruit at Mankato--P. L. Keene. The President: I am now going to call on some of the delegates to this meeting. Mr. George H. Whiting, representing the South Dakota Horticultural Society, we will ask him to come forward and say a word. Mr. Whiting: Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen: I do not know why Mr. Cashman should ask me to come forward. I have not very much to say and could have said it back there just as well. Perhaps you will wish I had stayed back there. I will say it is a pleasure to me to be with the Minnesota horticulturists again. I have met with you quite a number of years but not in the capacity of delegate. I did not expect to be a delegate this time, thought I would leave the place for some younger man, but there seemed to be no other present, and so I had to accept. I rather felt as though I was not competent or did not care to take the responsibility of making a report. I am getting old and a little tired, and I do not like to do so much of that kind of work as I used to. However, I presume I will have to do the best I can and let it go at that. I will say you have a wonderful society here. It is a wonder to me sometimes how you keep up the interest, how to keep up so much interest in this work. There is no other state in the Union that has such a good, live society. I attended a great many of the state societies last year. I had the pleasure of attending the Missouri State Society. I can say that you discount them and then some. An old state like Missouri and a fruit state, you might say, it is supposed to be in the fruit belt, and still you fellows up north here have all the vim and the snap and determination to do things that those fellows do not do at all. It is more in the man, I think sometimes, than it is in the location. It used to be said that Minnesota was not a fruit state, you could not grow apples in Minnesota. Well, I believe Mr. Gideon said that if he could not grow apples in Minnesota he would not live there, something to that effect, and he did not intend to leave the state either. Now, you all know what success he made, and you that follow have a great deal to be thankful for the work he did, and you are hoping--and I presume you will be successful--to obtain an apple that is even better than the Wealthy. I am glad that you take so much interest in this matter of new seedlings. It will surely develop something some day, there is no question about it. Of course, you cannot tell when, and you cannot tell who will be the lucky man to get the thousand dollars, but undoubtedly there is more at stake than the thousand dollars; that is a very small item. I think I will not take up your time. It is getting on, and I have not thought of making any talk, have nothing prepared and nothing in my head. I thank you for your attention. (Applause.) The President: I am going to call on our good friend, Professor Hansen, secretary of the South Dakota Horticultural Society, who has done so much for us. Mr. Wedge: Mr. Hansen is not here. I just want to say a word that might interest some of the younger members of the society in regard to our friend who has just left the floor, Mr. Whiting, of Yankton. He is the original Dakota nurseryman, who went out in the days of the pioneers before I think there was any such thing as South Dakota, and he has stayed on the job ever since. That is not so wonderful, for others, lots of people, have stayed on the job, but he has made money out of the business and got rich. I think he deserves some very special praise. (Applause.) The President: Is Professor Waldron in the room? Here he comes. He is the leading light of North Dakota and a gentleman who has been with us before. (Applause.) Mr. Waldron: These people will think North Dakota is a dark place if this is a leading light. What is the occasion of this? The President: Tell us your troubles. Mr. Waldron: When we had a good wheat crop we did not have any troubles. We forget our other troubles whenever we can get something like 100 million bushels of wheat. Our horticultural troubles have been quite numerous. We had a frost every year, including July. We started in on the ninth day of June with a frost that killed everything in sight except a few cottonwood trees and things like that, but all of our tomatoes, which were in blossom by the way at that time because we had a favorable spring, and plums and apples went the same way. I think a few of the late blooming plums managed to survive. The frost in July did not hurt very much but the frost in August certainly finished us. Mr. Latham: The reporter is taking all that. Mr. Waldron: Our reputation is so good, we can own up to calamity once in a while. Of course, if our reputation was not better than others we would have to keep it dark, but inasmuch as nature favors us so continuously we can own up when we get bumped. The August frost put our corn out of business, so we are around with long fingers trying to steal seed corn. However, a great many of the people of the state are looking forward to the matter of planting trees as never before, and our farmers and citizens are taking more interest in general tree planting and beautifying the homes than in previous years. I had this term a large class of students in landscape gardening. They will go out to the places where they live and encourage the planting of trees and landscape gardening there. In this matter of general ornamentation the frosts or other calamities have not discouraged us. I think there were more trees grown and more ornamental work done this year than in any two previous years because the men have the money and are willing to spend it. I was out on a farm last week where a man insisted on buying a thousand evergreen trees. The nurseryman tried to sell him only five hundred, but he would not have it that way. He wanted a thousand. He said he had the money and was going to pay for them; so he planted the thousand trees. We do not recommend such rashness on the part of our farmers, but it shows when a farmer insists on having a thousand trees he is taking the beautifying of his grounds seriously. This is perhaps an extreme case, but we have others working along the same line. I certainly enjoy the privilege of being with you people here again as I have for the last quarter of a century, twenty-five years ago, when I was made an honorary member of this society, and I do not know of any prouder moment in my whole career than when you saw fit to honor me in that manner. I certainly would never forgive myself for the balance of the year if I failed to attend these meetings. (Applause.) Mr. Philips: Waldron is too modest. He has not told the best thing he ever did in North Dakota, so I shall. I visited him a good many years ago, and he had some interesting boys there, especially the oldest one, and I told him that if he was going to keep ahead of that boy he would have to hustle, and now that boy at nineteen has the ability to go to one of the southern states as a professor. So he didn't tell us the greatest thing he ever did. Maybe some of the credit is due to his wife; that is the way it is at my house. (Applause.) Mr. Waldron: I am so far behind that boy I am sort of jealous. I do not mention it. The President: The secretary of the Wisconsin Horticultural Society is with us, Professor Cranefield. Is he in the room? Mr. Cranefield: Mr. Graves, of Sturgeon Bay, is the duly accredited delegate to the society and probably you want to hear from him. The President: We heard from him two or three days ago, and we will hear from him again, but just now we want you to give us a few words. This is Professor Cranefield, who has contributed on previous occasions to the success of our meetings. (Applause.) (See index.) The President: I will now call on Professor Mackintosh, who is going to read a paper at this time. Mr. Mackintosh: Yesterday I had to start the ball rolling as a substitute for a man from Washington, and with the assistance of Miss Bull we kept most of you here until after 12 o'clock. Today I am put ahead of the program, so you won't hear me tomorrow afternoon. The subject is, "Bringing the Producer and Consumer Together." Mr. Mackintosh reads paper. (Applause.) The President: I regret very much that time will not permit us to discuss this very able paper. Secretary Latham has just called my attention to the fact that there has been but very few tickets bought for the banquet this evening. You understand it takes time to prepare food, and he has to announce just how many people would be present, and I sincerely hope that those of you who intend to attend the banquet (and I trust that will be every one present) will get your tickets immediately. It is the very best part of our program. Please get your tickets so that Secretary Latham may know how to prepare for you. At this time recess was taken until 1:30 o'clock p.m. December 9, 1915, Afternoon Session. Discussion on "The Topworked Orchard," led by A. J. Philips, Wisconsin. (See index.) The President: The next order of business will be the election of officers for the coming year. The secretary just handed me this slip which gives you an idea of the requirements in order to be eligible to vote for officers. (Reads extracts from constitution.) The first will be the selection of a president for the coming year. Nominations are in order. Mr. Bradley: Mr. President, it is said that republics are ungrateful, but it is not necessary for horticultural societies to be ungrateful. It has been, I think, in the past, and I hope it may continue to be in the future, the policy of this society to recognize the services of its officers and so we, I think, are justified in recognizing the distinguished and efficient services of our present presiding officer. I take great pleasure in placing in nomination for president of this society the Honorable Thomas E. Cashman. (Applause.) Nomination is duly seconded and there are no other nominations. Mr. Crosby: I move that the secretary be instructed to cast the unanimous ballot of this society for Thomas E. Cashman as president of this society. Motion is seconded and carried. Mr. Cashman: Friends, I deeply appreciate this honor that you have conferred upon me. I am always ready to contribute my mite towards the service of the people, but I am never happy unless I am convinced that I am able to give all that the position demands. Your selection of me as your presiding officer for the sixth time convinces me that you are at least satisfied with what I have been able to do for you and this, I assure you, makes me extremely happy. I will endeavor to show my appreciation by doing all that is within my power to further the interests of this society made up of men and women that cannot be excelled for intelligence, cleanliness of habits and honorable and right living. I know a great many horticulturists, not only of this state but of other states, and they, I assure you--and you know it yourselves--are far above the average. I therefore deem it a great honor to be known as the president of one of the best organizations, I do not care whether it is horticultural or otherwise, in this country today. I thank you. (Applause.) The President: I find there are two members of the executive board to be elected at this time, one to succeed Professor LeRoy Cady and another Mr. R. A. Wright, whose terms of office expire at this time. Mr. Cady and Mr. Wright are nominated to succeed themselves, nominations are seconded and upon motion the secretary cast the unanimous ballot of the society for Mr. Cady and Mr. Wright as members of the executive board for the coming three years. The President: The next will be the selection of a treasurer. Mr. George Strand is renominated, nomination is seconded and on motion the secretary cast the ballot of the society for Mr. George W. Strand for treasurer. The President: The secretary places in nomination the following men, as vice presidents of this organization. I will ask him to name the list. Vice-Presidents: C. E. Snyder, 1st Cong. Dist., Preston; S. D. Richardson, 2nd Cong. Dist., Winnebago; J. K. Andrews, 3rd Cong. Dist., Faribault; B. Wallner, Jr., 4th Cong. Dist., St. Paul; F. H. Nutter, 5th Cong. Dist., Minneapolis; Matt. Tschida, 6th Cong. Dist., St. Cloud; G. A. Anderson, 7th Cong. Dist., Renville; J. Kimball, 8th Cong. Dist., Duluth; A. L. Hanson, 9th Cong. Dist., Ada; A. W. Richardson, 10th Cong. Dist., Howard Lake. Secretary Latham reads names of nominees for vice presidents and places them in nomination. Nomination is seconded and upon motion the secretary is instructed to cast the ballot of the society for the persons named as vice-presidents. The President: The next number will be a speech by Mr. S. P. Crosby, chairman of the committee that was selected by this association to go before the legislature at the last session and try to secure an appropriation sufficient to build a home for this society. (See index.) The next gentleman on the program is our friend Clarence Wedge, who is going to tell us of his trip out to Yellowstone Park. (See index.) Mr. Wedge: Not exactly to Yellowstone Park. We came within a day's drive of the Yellowstone, but our interest and enthusiasm went in another direction this year. Mr. Wedge reads paper. The President: "Peonies New and Old," by Mr. A. M. Brand, of Faribault, one of the best peony specialists in the state. A Member: And of the world. (Applause.) (See index.) Discussion. The President: We have another noted horticulturist with us today from Illinois. You have all heard of the Senator Dunlap strawberry. The originator is with us today, Senator Dunlap, of Savoy, Illinois. He will be on the program tomorrow. I will be pleased to have the senator come forward and give us a word of greeting. Mr. Dunlap: I hardly think it is necessary for me to come forward. I will be on the program a couple of times, and you will hear all that you care to from me. I am very glad to be here with you. It has been some time since I met with your society, but I remember well the very pleasant time I had at that time. I came this week from the Michigan Horticultural Society, in session at Grand Rapids, and I was very loath to leave such an interesting meeting, but I knew when I came to Minneapolis I would be in just as interesting a meeting. I wish to disabuse your minds of the statements made by your honorable chairman through an error. I am not the originator of the Senator Dunlap strawberry. The Reverend Mr. Reisenour (?) is the originator of the strawberry, and he thought it was a thrifty, strong, healthy plant and would stand the name of Dunlap, so he gave it to the strawberry. (Laughter and Applause.) The President: I stand corrected. I have been misinformed, although I think you carry the honor. Our time is up. I have been requested to announce that the lantern talk given by Mrs. James Jennison will take place at the close of the Woman's Auxiliary meeting. Some very talented ladies are to speak this afternoon, and I hope you will all stay and listen to them. I will now turn the meeting over to the Women's Auxiliary and request Mrs. F. M. Powers, who will preside, to take the chair. Mrs. Powers: Just a continuation, I hope, of our good program that was begun this afternoon, and we will now listen to Mrs. Clarence Wedge, of Albert Lea, on the "Value of Horticulture to the Farm." Mrs. Wedge is not a stranger to horticulture nor to this society. (See index.) Mrs. Powers: Some one has said that the enemy of art is the enemy of nature, and art is nothing more than the highest sagacity and attainment of human nature. We have with us Mrs. Cyrus W. Wells, who has had considerable experience in this line and will give us the practical side. Mrs. Wells spoke on "Art Made Practical." Mrs. Powers: "The Day's Work," by Mrs. John B. Irwin. Mrs. Powers: According to our program we were to have one speaker tomorrow morning because we thought she could not be here at this time, but Mrs. Dunlap is here and will favor us now, if you please. Talk by Mrs. A. M. Dunlap on "Better Methods in the Home." Mrs. Powers: The last number on our program will be "The Highway Beautiful," by Mrs. Jennison. Mrs. Jennison gave a lantern talk. President Cashman: We have a very important question to be considered this afternoon, and, fortunately for us, it is going to be taken care of by one of our best men--"Breeding for Hardiness"--something this gentleman has been doing all his life. He has met with a great deal of success, and we are profiting by it. That gentleman is Professor N. E. Hansen, of Brookings, South Dakota. (Applause.) (See index.) The President: Mr. C. E. Older has some suggestions to make, and we will give him an opportunity to talk at this time. Mr. Older: Mr. President, and Ladies and Gentlemen: In a meeting of some of the leading exhibitors of the state fair yesterday they expressed quite a bit of dissatisfaction with the present manner of awarding premiums on commercial apples, that is, boxes of apples and one-layer boxes. The point was that it would be a good thing if the state could be divided so that the sections which are more favorable for the development of the apple would be in a section by themselves, and the balance of the state compete by itself. The following resolution was formulated to bring before this society, asking for their opinion oh the subject and discussion: Resolved, That we ask the state fair board that the state be divided into two sections for the purpose of exhibit at the State Fair, making two classes, one being the Wealthy apple and the other class comprising all other varieties of box and one layer apples, the state to be divided as follows: Beginning at the Mississippi river on the north line of Goodhue County and running west on the north line of Goodhue, Rice, Le Sueur and Nicollet Counties, thence running south on the west line of Nicollet, Blue Earth and Faribault. All those counties lying east and south of these lines are to constitute the first district, the balance of the state being known as the second district. We also ask the state fair board that first, second, third, fourth and fifth premiums be offered on all apples, and on all the next ten lower exhibits a certain premium be paid to all deserving exhibits. And we ask that premiums be offered on Everbearing Strawberries showing both bearing plants and fruit of the Progressive, Superb, and any other varieties. We also ask the state fair board that they make some practical arrangements to get the horticultural exhibits moved to the state fair from the depots in a more satisfactory and cheaper manner than the present arrangements. I move you that this resolution be adopted. Motion was seconded and carried unanimously. Meeting adjourned. December 10, 1915, Morning Session. The President: We are to have a talk on "Spraying the Orchard," by Senator Dunlap, of Illinois, this morning. (See index.) Discussion. Mr. Crosby: We thank Senator Dunlap for his able talk. I think that is the way to progress. If we do not do things right up-to-date we can learn how to do better from a competent man. The President: We all enjoyed the able talk of Senator Dunlap. He is president of the Orchard Association of Illinois. He is considered one of the most practical men down there, and we are very fortunate in having him with us and to listen to his valuable talk and experience. (Applause.) We will now listen to Professor Richard Wellington, who will tell us about "Orcharding in Minnesota." (Applause.) (See index.) Discussion. The President: I am going to suggest a little matter at this time which I am sure you will all approve of. It has been said by hundreds of men and women attending these meetings who have had an opportunity of enjoying the talks and papers and splendid program given here that we had the greatest horticultural society in the world. It is true that we have the largest membership of any horticultural society in the United States and, I presume, of the world. You will all agree with me that is due to the efforts of one man to a large extent. That man has been in our service and looked after our interests for twenty-five years. He is at his best all the time, cordial, kind, using good judgment, prevents friction among us, always working for the best interests of everybody belonging to the society and the interests of the state. As I said before, he has served us twenty-five years, and I think it only fitting at this time that we should show our appreciation in a way that will appeal better than words. It has been suggested that we purchase some little token and present it this afternoon. It is up to you as to how much you want to give or whether you want to give anything or not, but Mr. Crosby and Mr. Brackett will be at the door as you pass out this noon, and they will probably have a hat there and you can drop in what you want to, and we will buy something for him and present it this afternoon. (Great applause.) The President: Now we will turn the meeting over to the Plant Breeders' Auxiliary. I regret very much to have to announce that our good friend, Clarence Wedge, president of this auxiliary, is ill this afternoon and unable to occupy the chair. I understand there is no vice-president of the auxiliary, and I have been requested to continue as chairman during this meeting. We have a very important program, one of the very best we have had. Some of our best men are on this program and I hope you will all stay and attend the balance of this meeting. I am going to call on our good friend, Charles Haralson, superintendent of the Zumbra Heights farm, to tell us about "New Fruits Originated at the State Fruit-Breeding Farm." (Applause.) (See index.) The President: Professor C. B. Waldron, of North Dakota, finds it necessary to leave in a very short time, and he will therefore address you at this time instead of this afternoon. He will tell us about "Running Out of Varieties." (See index.) We will now listen to the report of the committee on examination of the Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm, Dr. O. M. Huestis, Chairman. (See index.) The President: The next speaker needs no introduction to a Minnesota audience, as the word "Hansen" is a household word and particularly in every agricultural community within the state, and the Hansen hybrids are eagerly sought for by practically everybody who plants trees. Professor Hansen has done a good work and is still accomplishing things. He will tell us what he has done during 1915. I regret the time is so short, but we will get Mr. Hansen to tell us more about his work. "Newer Fruits," Prof. N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D. Afternoon Session, at 1:30. Half-hour exercise, questions and answers on "Increasing the Fertility of the Land," led by Dr. F. J. Alway. (See index.) The President: Mr. Crosby has a word for us, and before continuing with the regular program I will ask him to come forward at this time. Mr. Crosby: Gentlemen of the Horticultural Society: Mr. Latham, please come this way. I have the honor, in behalf of the society, to inform you, as you probably know, that this is your silver wedding, but we are going it one better and make it a golden wedding for you today. We have come to the conclusion, you have been with this society for twenty-five years, and we think it is best that you be watched and chained. I have the honor of presenting to you, in behalf of the society, a gold watch and chain. That is all I have to say. (Applause.) Mr. Philips: Now for a speech. Mr. Latham: Wait a moment, I will see if it is worth it. (Laughter.) I hate to part with this old turnip. I have carried it forty-five years now, never broke a crystal on it, even. It is a good faithful companion. I do not know what I will do with this now unless I put it away in a safety vault somewhere. I do not think the Horticultural Society expects me to make a speech; they know I am not a talker. I could say something if the room were smaller, but my voice does not seem to carry very well. I am a good deal in the fix of the steamboat that carried passengers on the river up and down to the camp meeting there. They had a whistle on that boat that made a tremendous noise but when they blew it the boat had to stop. (Laughter.) If I talk loud enough to be heard here, my thinking works do not operate. (Laughter.) I hardly know how to express my appreciation of this gift, as showing the sentiment of the society towards me. Of course, I have tried to do what I could for the society. Sometimes, perhaps, I have gone a little too far, something like the man who was appointed in charge of a flag station. He had never done any such service as that, but he understood the business of a flagman was to stop trains. The first train that came along was a heavy express train, eight or ten or a dozen coaches, and he rushed out and flagged the train. The conductor got off, all in a hurry, and looked around. He did not see anybody but the flagman. He said: "Where are your passengers?" "Well," he says, "there ain't any passengers to get on, but I didn't know but somebody would like to get off." (Laughter.) Sometimes, perhaps, I have overreached myself here. Twenty-five years is quite a while to look back, and as I look over the faces of those present I can scarcely see one that was a member of the society twenty-five years ago when I became secretary. Mr. Long in his address before you at the banquet last night spoke of the meeting that he first attended of the horticultural society, held in what is now the Metropolitan Life, on the ground floor, and he spoke of the surroundings there. No fruit on exhibition. If a man had two or three apples in his pocket, he showed them around on the sly as though it was a crime to let people know there was such a thing and that he had a few at home he could eat. Quite a remarkable thing! That was the meeting of the horticultural society in which I was first elected secretary, and I recall well all the circumstances connected with it. So many of our members that I thought so much of in those days are gone. Of those who were present at that meeting, the only person left that I recall is Mr. Underwood. I had forgotten Mr. Long was there; I think he reported the meeting; I guess the first of our meetings that he reported, too. I am not going to make any more of an address. President Vincent is here and will address you. I thank you very much indeed. (Applause.) Mr. Vincent: I am very glad that I got in in time to be a witness to this delightful and gratifying little ceremony which has just taken place. I can not imagine anything more satisfying to a man who, in spite of all his modesty, knows he has done for twenty-five years good, genuine, valuable work than to have other people intimate in so pleasant a way that they are not entirely oblivious to what he has done. It always does one good to see efficient work recognized, and, while I cannot own, I am sorry to say, to an intimate personal acquaintance with Mr. Latham, I have come into association with him often enough to be able to share a little what you feel toward him and toward what he has done. The President: I am sure you will all be delighted to hear from the very popular president of one of the greatest universities in the United States, President George E. Vincent of Minnesota State University, who will now address you. (See index.) The President: I am sure we are very much indebted to President Vincent for this most scholarly and delightful speech. We hope he can continue with us during the afternoon. Owing to the fullness of our program this forenoon we are unable to discuss one of our most important subjects, and that was "The Elements of Hardiness," by Prof. M. J. Dorsey, member of the Fruit Breeding Section, of the University Farm. He will discuss that question at this time. (Applause.) (See index.) The President: Senator Dunlap, who so delightfully entertained us this morning and instructed us on the subject of "Spraying" will now speak to us on the subject of "Packing and Marketing Apples." (See index.) Discussion. The President: I am now going to call on a gentleman that hasn't said a word during our discussions and that is Mr. Weld, and request him to recite his favorite poem. Mr. Weld recites "The Three Warnings." The President: We have had a very interesting session, had a good time, everything has gone very nicely, but somehow there has been one thing lacking. The old friends from Iowa have not been with us with one exception, Mr. Ferris, who gave us the lantern talk on Tuesday, but Friend Gardner, Patten, Sherman and several others (I believe Sherman has been in town, but we have not seen him here) have been absent. The reason for it is that the Iowa people have been holding their annual meeting. But I am very glad that Mr. Gardner is with us this afternoon, and I am now going to call upon Mr. Charles F. Gardner, of Osage, Iowa. (Applause.) Mr. Gardner: Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen: I have attended your meetings so long that when I appear here before you I feel as though I had got home. I have attended every meeting of this society except two since this society held its annual meeting at Lake City the last time. That is when I joined the society, and since that time a great many things have taken place. Think it is seventeen or eighteen years ago, in that neighborhood. I was absent two years. I went to New Mexico, I went there to die, but luckily I escaped and came back home. I want to say this, that when I got back to this part of the country, if there was anything I thanked God for it was that I was spared to get back. I think there is no necessity of emigrating either from Minnesota or Iowa, and people that have traveled over the west and made a tour extending along the Pacific coast and finally get back into this country, this latitude, are generally pretty well satisfied and stay here. That is, providing they didn't spend all their money and can not get back here. Some of our citizens are now stranded out there and will come home whenever they can. In regard to the progress of horticulture in this length of time, I know you are very much interested in the work of Mr. Patten and a good many of you have trees that he originated. I want to say that the people of our state of Iowa have not really gotten their eyes open yet in horticultural ways. They only appropriated for our use $4,000. We have five societies, the state society--and then the state is divided into four sections. In the last few years our state society has appropriated to carry on, to help Mr. Patten carry on his work, we have appropriated and used $4,600. Before that time our society allowed $50.00 a year for station fees for quite a little while, then before that $25.00 a year. Last year we appeared before the legislature and tried to get some help to keep up that work and informed them that our money was getting short and that unless it was done we could not carry on that work. The legislature hardly winked an eye at our request. No money was appropriated, and of all the things that I ever hated to help do last week was to discontinue the Charles City station. For fear that some one might think we had gone back on Mr. Patten and that the work he has done will be lost to the world, I will say there is nothing of that kind. There is not a member of our society but would do anything in the world for Mr. Patten, to help him. It is just simply a fact that the money of our society is so nearly exhausted we had hardly enough to pay for the expenses of our meeting last week. We had a splendid meeting and never had such an exhibit of apples before. Perhaps we may have had as many apples on exhibit but not so many perfect ones. On the first opportunity we have we are going to see that Mr. Patten does not suffer. I would say that they are in pretty good shape to take care of Mr. Patten down there for a year or two, and we will not lose the valuable work he has done. As the meeting is drawing to a close I want to say in closing that if there is anything that does me good it is to come up here and look into your faces once a year, and I wish that I could see more of you. There is a kind of bond of brotherhood and a feeling that when I am here I am among friends and I have found that to be the case for almost twenty years. Thank you. (Applause.) The President: I have just discovered a question here that should be answered, if there is anyone here that can do so. "In my locality the basswood and box elders are infested with a scale-like substance that looks like cotton. Most of the trees of the varieties named are infested. What is it and is there a remedy?" Mr. Kellogg: That is no doubt the cottonwood bug that infects the soft maple. They come and work for about three years and then some insect comes in and cleans them out. The President: What is the remedy, Mr. Kellogg? Mr. Kellogg: You can use any spray for this bug. On forest trees it is out of reach, but arsenical spray will get them if you can reach them. Mr. Warner: Cotton maple scale. Professor Waldron recommends to spray with crude oil when the trees are dormant. We find it best to cut it back. The cottony appearance does not show until the second year and then the scale has really done its injury. The time to cut it, you will find a lot of small scales on the young twigs, and if they are cut off and a new growth forced you get rid of it. The President: I understand Prof. Broderick of the College of Winnipeg has been here. If he is here I wish he would come forward and give us a word. I understand he is the delegate from Winnipeg. (Applause.) Mr. Broderick: Mr. President, ladies and gentlemen: Before going away, I would like, as a member of the Manitoba society to express to you my great pleasure at being here and taking part in your excellent meeting. I had planned for a number of years to come down but circumstances have been such that I have been unable to be here. I might say that we in Manitoba, about 400 miles north of here, are interested in horticulture as well as you people in Minnesota. We have a fraternal interest in the work you are doing. A number of our members, I might say, are members of your society, and we are getting your excellent publication and following the work you are doing. Our problems up there are very similar to yours, and we feel that you can give us greater information than we can obtain from any other source. We appreciate the excellent work you are doing, and it has been of great interest to me to see the wide range of subjects you are covering. I was particularly interested this morning in the session of the plant breeders, as that is a line of work that we feel up in Manitoba has some possibilities for us. In a horticultural line we are confined very largely to the hardy varieties. We are working on improving the hardiness of our varieties, and the fruit growing as it is carried on with us very largely in a small way by the farmers and others interested through our province. We feel, however, that there are possibilities, and we are only too glad to get any information from you as to the work and progress that is being made in the matter of hardy fruits. We have been endeavoring to improve our native plums. I have had the station there at Winnipeg, and in connection with one of our nurserymen, Mr. Buchanan, we have been selecting hardy plums for a number of years, and we hope from that stock in crossing with the Japanese plums, as Professor Hansen suggested this morning, to prove that there are possibilities even as far north as Manitoba. I have heard Mr. Buchanan say on several occasions that he thought the possibilities of plum growing were fairly good in Manitoba. In small fruits we have possibilities. The currants and raspberries grow very well. We have not done so much in strawberries, but I know there are a number of growers in parts of the province that are making some very successful experiments in strawberries, and we hope in a few years to produce strawberries of a fairly good quality. The President: How is your wild strawberry? Mr. Broderick: I find that the wild strawberry does very well. We have around Winnipeg, where the college is located, a wild strawberry that does very well, and it is possible that we can do some work on improving the wild strawberry. We are looking to our hardy native fruits and the hardy importations we are making to establish varieties which are hardy and suited to our conditions. We are interested also in the work done in tree planting, and I followed with interest the discussion this morning as to windbreak protection. That has been a problem with us. The government of the Dominion has taken it over, and we find it is working out all right. Our Forestry Station at Indian Head sends out lots of trees free each year. These are planted, and they have a system of inspection. Certain requirements are made in regard to the preparation of the soil, methods of planting and caring for the plantation afterwards. A Member: What are the majority of your forest trees? Mr. Broderick: Forest trees are largely deciduous, the Manitoba maple, the ash, the elm and the willows. I was pleased to hear some one this morning mention the golden willow. That is one of the best trees we have. The Manitoba maple, of course grows all over that northern country, but we find that during recent years it has been becoming seriously infected with various kinds of pests. This year the aphis were serious. We are discouraging to a certain extent the Manitoba maple and planting other trees and are getting better results. The ash, the elm and willow are doing well. With the conifer trees, the Scotch pine, the white spruce, the balsam fir and the ridgepole pine are those which are growing. The improving of home grounds is another question that is interesting us. I do not think there is anything in this western country that is going to do more to make homes than this. So we are interested in all the work you are carrying on, and we appreciate the opportunity of coming here and meeting with you and listening to the excellent discussions you have. I might say that our annual meeting is held in February and if any of you happen to stray up there we would be only too glad to have you join with us. I thank you very much for the many courtesies extended to me on behalf of the Manitoba society. (Applause.) (Time was now taken up by two minute speeches of different members, after which the meeting was declared closed.) Records of Executive Board for 1916. Record of meeting held in secretary's office 8:00 p.m. Tuesday, Dec. 6, 1915. There were present Thos. E. Cashman, LeRoy Cady, Clarence Wedge, J. P. Andrews, R. A. Wright and A. W. Latham. In the absence of the chairman of the board, Mr. J. M. Underwood, Clarence Wedge was elected chairman pro tem. The following accounts were examined and approved and orders drawn in payment therefor. Geo. W. Strand, treasurer, premiums annual meeting, 1914, $596.50. Geo. W. Strand, treasurer, premiums summer meeting, 1915, $172.00. A. W. Latham, expenses secretary's office from June 1, 1915, to Dec. 1, 1915, $1,064.30. It was decided to present to the annual meeting of the society for action the following named persons for honorary life membership: John Bisbee, Madelia; J. R. Cummins, Minneapolis; S. H. Drum, Owatonna; F. W. Kimball, Waltham; Chas. Haralson, Excelsior. An appropriation of fifty-three dollars and 25-100 ($53.25) was made for the benefit of the Minnesota Forestry Association. Adjourned sine die, CLARENCE WEDGE, Chairman, pro tem. A. W. LATHAM, Secretary. * * * * * Record of meeting of the board held in West Hotel 12:30 p.m. Friday, Dec. 10, 1915. There were present at this meeting Thos. E. Cashman, LeRoy Cady, Clarence Wedge, J. P. Andrews, R. A. Wright and A. W. Latham. Thos. E. Cashman was elected chairman pro tem. J. M. Underwood was elected chairman of the board for 1916, and A. W. Latham was elected secretary at a salary of eighteen hundred dollars ($1,800.00) per annum. The salary of the treasurer was fixed at twenty-five dollars ($25.00) per annum. The board having under consideration the recommendation of grades of apples for use in packing for market, a committee consisting of Clarence Wedge, J. P. Andrews and R. A. Wright was appointed to take the question under consideration with authority to act for the board. The sum of eight hundred dollars ($800.00) was appropriated as a revolving fund for the use of the secretary of the society during the year 1916. The following resolution was presented by Clarence Wedge and unanimously adopted by the board. "Resolved: That the board favors the exclusive distribution of new varieties of fruits of probable commercial value originating at the State Fruit-Breeding Farm to members of the society and the trial stations of the state as at present practiced. "Resolved further--That when a variety of fruits originating at the fruit breeding farm has been sufficiently tested to establish its commercial value in the state, it shall be given a name and the State Fruit-Breeding Farm shall cease to propagate it for distribution." Adjourned sine die, THOS. E. CASHMAN, Chairman, pro tem. A. W. LATHAM, Secretary. * * * * * Record of meeting held in the secretary's office June 22, 1916. All members of the board were present except R. A. Wright. Mr. John P. Andrews was elected by the board as its representative in connection with the assessment of damages on account of nursery stock to be destroyed in certain Minnesota nurseries to protect from injury threatened by a disease called "white pine blister rust." Having under consideration the trial stations connected with the society it was decided to discontinue the station located at Madison, Minn., and locate a station at New Auburn, Minn., R. F. Hall, Supt., and another at Deerwood, Minn., L. P. Hall, Supt. The following resolution pertaining to Farmers' Institutes was unanimously adopted. "Resolved: That in our judgment the carrying out of the spirit and purpose of the motion adopted by the Farmers' Institute Board, Sept. 4, 1913, pertaining to 'the horticultural work on each institute corps'--to quite literally--cannot be fully performed except by providing for each institute corps some one who should in whole or in part represent horticulture, and who should be interested and willing to serve the Horticultural Society as indicated in said motion; and further, that reasonable opportunity for such service should be allowed at each place where an institute corps may be working." It was decided to appropriate $65.00 to be applied to the uses of the Minnesota State Forestry Association. The accounts of the Secretary from Nov. 30, 1915, to June 15, 1916, amounting to $4,112.82, were examined and approved, and an order drawn for the payment of that amount from the treasury, an equal amount to be covered into the treasury from the hands of the secretary. Adjourned sine die, J. M. UNDERWOOD, Chairman Executive Board. A. W. LATHAM, Secretary. Additions to Society Library, 1916. (For preceding list see page 492, Report 1916). Case. No. Am. Pomological Socy., An. Rep., 1873 3 8 Am. Pomological Socy., An. Rep., 1871 3 9 Am. Pomological Socy., An. Rep., 1885 3 10 *Cyclopedia of American Agri., Bailey. Vol. 1 3 24 *Cyclopedia of American Agri., Bailey. Vol. 2 3 25 *Cyclopedia of American Agri., Bailey. Vol. 3 3 26 *Cyclopedia of American Agri., Bailey. Vol. 4 3 27 *Cyclopedia of Practical Hort., Lowther, 1916. Vol. 1 4 1 *Cyclopedia of Practical Hort., Lowther, 1916. Vol. 2 4 2 *Cyclopedia of Practical Hort., Lowther, 1916. Vol. 3 4 3 *Cyclopedia of Practical Hort., Lowther, 1916. Vol. 4 4 4 *Plums of New York, Hedrick, 1915 1 1 *Grapes of New York, Hedrick, 1915 1 2 FROM LIBRARY OF WYMAN ELLIOT: Bureau of Ethnology. J. W. Powell 1 3 Minn. State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 44 13 *American Agriculturist. Vol. 10 4 8 Report of Secretary of Agriculture, 1889 4 10 Department of Agriculture. Report, 1877 4 11 Architecture of Country Houses. Downing 4 12 American Farmers Encyclopedia. Emerson 4 13 Michigan Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1886 4 13 Department of Agriculture, Report, 1856 5 14 Yearbook of Argiculture, 1855 4 15 American Forestry Association, Report, 1897 4 16 Department of Agriculture, Report, 1852-3 4 14 Food for Plants. Harris and Meyers 47 1 Western Farmer. Vol. 1 47 2 Western Farmer. Vol. 2 47 3 Western Farmer. Vol. 3 47 4 Minnesota State Horticultural Society, Report, 1869 47 5 State Entomologist, An. Rep., 1909-1910 47 6 American Pomological Society, An. Rep., 1903 47 7 American Pomological Society, An. Rep., 1869 47 8 Wisconsin State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1876 47 9 Wisconsin State Hort. Society, An. Rep., 1877 47 10 Wisconsin State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1891 47 11 State Experiment Station, Rep., Bulletins 47 12 Illinois Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1870 47 13 State Entomologist, Report, 1905 47 14 Indiana State Hort. Socy., Report, 1853 47 15 Minnesota Farmers Institute Annual, 1895 47 16 Minnesota Farmers Institute Annual, 1907 47 17 Minnesota Farmers Institute Annual, 1908 47 18 Western N. Y. Hort. Socy., Report, 1887 47 19 Making Horticulture Pay. M. G. Kains 47 34 Young Farmers Manual. S. E. Todd 47 33 Home for All. O. S. Fowler 47 32 American Weeds and Useful Plants. Wm. Darlington 47 31 How to Grow and Show Potatoes. Jas. Pink 47 30 How to Build Hot Houses. R. B. Leucars 47 29 Field Book of Manures. D. J. Browne 47 28 Woodwards Country Homes. G. E. & F. W. Woodward 47 27 Grape Growers Guide. Wm. Charlton 47 26 Botanical Ready Reference. J. M. Nickells 47 25 Landscape Gardening. Chas. H. J. Smith 47 24 Cranberry Culture. B. Eastwood 47 35 Book of Roses. Francis Parkman 47 23 Elements of Agriculture, Chemistry and Geology. J. F. W. Johnston 47 22 American Farm Book. R. L. Allan 47 21 Flower Garden. Jos. Beck 47 20 Handbook of Tree Planting. N. H. Egleston 47 38 Bulbs. E. S. Rand, Jr. 47 37 How to Cooperate. Herbert Myrick 47 36 Suburban Home Grounds. F. J. Scott 45 1 Trees of America. D. J. Browne 45 2 California Fruits. E. J. Wickson 45 3 Ill. State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1885 45 4 Farmers Universal Handbook 45 5 *Johnsons Dictionary of Gardening. David Landreth 45 6 Flowers for the Parlor and Garden. E. S. Rand, Jr. 45 7 Hedges and Evergreens. John A. Warder 45 8 The Farmers Miscellany. Geo. W. Marshall 45 9 The Western Fruit Book. F. R. Elliott 45 10 The Strawberry Culture. R. G. Pardee 45 11 Use of the National Forests. Gifford Pinchot 45 12 Ladies Companion to Flower Gardening. Downing 45 13 Map of Minnesota, 1854 45 29 Vegetable Plants. I. F. Tillinghast 45 28 Mysteries of Bee-Keeping Explained. M. Quinby 45 27 Grape Culturist. A. S. Fuller 45 26 Rural Economy. Boursingault's, by Geo. Law 45 25 Barn Plans and Out Buildings 45 24 New Creations in Plant Life. W. S. Harwood 45 23 The Farmers Side. W. A. Peffer 45 22 Villes' Chemical Manures. A. A. Fesquet 45 18 Johnsons Agriculture Chemistry. Jas. F. W. Johnston 45 21 A. B. C. of Agriculture. M. C. Weld 45 20 Land Drainage. J. P. Clipper 45 19 Peat and Its Use. S. W. Johnson 45 17 Forestry Tree Culturist. A. S. Fuller 45 16 American Poultry Yard. D. J. Browne 45 15 How Crops Grow. S. W. Johnson 45 14 N. J. Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 4 23 Royal Hort. Socy., Journal of, December, 1915 4 19 Society of American Florists, 1915 27 13 Wyoming State Bd. of Hort., An. Rep., 1915 27 14 Man. Hortl. and Forestry Assn., An. Rep., 1915 27 15 Kentucky Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 16 Markets for Oregon Fruits, 1914 27 17 Vermont State Hort. Socy., Report, 1915 27 18 Fruit Growers Assn. of Nova Scotia, Report, 1916 27 19 Illinois State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 20 Ontario Vegetable Growers Assn., An. Rep., 1915 4 21 The American Rose Manual. J. Harris McFarland, 1915 27 27 Horticultural Societies of Ontario, An. Rep., 1915 4 22 Georgia State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 21 Peninsula Horticultural Socy., An. Rep., 1916 27 22 Mass. Hort. Socy., Part 2, 1915 27 23 Nebraska Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 24 Virginia State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 25 Northern Nut Growers Assn., An. Rep., 1915 27 26 S. D. State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 4 20 Western N. Y. Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1916 27 28 Yearbook, Dept. of Agri., 1915 4 18 Plant Propagation. M. G. Kains 12 9 Productive Vegetable Growing. J. W. Lloyd 11 29 Backyard Farmer. J. W. Bolte 11 27 The Well Considered Garden. Mrs. Francis King 11 28 Planning and Planting Home Grounds. Warren H. Manning 11 26 Birds of Town and Country, National Geographic Socy 4 17 *Fruit Industry in New York. Part 1 27 35 *Fruit Industry in New York. Part 2 27 36 Kansas State Hort. Socy. 1914 and 1915 27 37 Ont. Entomological Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 38 Pomological & Fruit Growers Socy. of Quebec, An. Rep., 1915 27 39 Md. State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 40 Oregon State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 41 Royal Hort. Socy., Journal of, May, 1916 27 42 State Hort. Assn. of Pa., An. Rep., 1916 27 43 Iowa Hort. Socy., An. Report, 1915 27 44 Ala. State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1915 27 45 Mass. Hort. Socy., An. Rep., Part 1, 1916 27 46 Mass. Fruit Growers Assn., An. Rep., 1916 27 47 N. Y. State Fruit Growers Assn., An. Rep., 1916 27 48 Washington State Hort. Assn., An. Rep., 1916 27 49 Ohio State Hort. Socy., An. Rep., 1916 27 50 * * * * * CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH BOOKS MAY BE TAKEN FROM THE SOCIETY LIBRARY. Books may be taken from the library of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society by any member of the society on the following terms: 1. Not more than two books can be taken at a time. 2. Books with a star (*) before the title, as found in the published library lists, are reference books and not to be taken from the library. 3. In ordering books give besides the name also the case and book numbers, to be found in the same line as the title. 4. Books will be sent by parcel post when requested. 5. When taking out, or sending for a book, a charge of ten cents (to be paid in advance) is made to cover expense of recording, transmission, etc. 6. Books are mailed to members only in Minnesota and states immediately adjoining. When sent to points outside the state a charge of fifteen cents is made. 7. A book can be kept two weeks: If kept longer a charge of two cents per day will be made. 8. The library list, to December 1, 1915, is published in the 1915 annual volume of the society. Additions to this list will be published year by year in the succeeding annual volumes. MEMBERSHIP, 1916 Annual Members. Aarrestad N. O Hanley Falls, R. I. Aase, Martin Kenyon Abel, Nick Evansville Abbott, Geo. Newport Abbott, T. A. 487 Ashland, St. Paul Abeler, Wm. J. 196 Griggs St., St. Paul Abeler, Geo. L. 264 Dayton Ave., St. Paul Aberg, C. 3310 Wenonah Place, Mpls. Abbott, Mrs. A. W. 221 Clifton Ave., Mpls. Abrahamson, E. O. Lafayette Academy of Our Lady of Good Counsel Mankato Ackerknecht, W. E. 680 White Bear Ave., St. Paul Ademmer, B., Jr. New Prague Adams, Chas. W. 3212 Minnehaha Ave., Mpls. Adams, D. Albert Hutchinson Adams, Robt. Morris Adams, W. S. 1620 Jefferson St., Duluth Aelzant, Louie Brevator Affleck, C. A. Willmar Ahlsten, Mrs. Mary Dent Aiton, Geo. B. Grand Rapids Akers, Mary D. 1541 W. Minnehaha, St. Paul Alexander, Alfred Dawson Almquist, C. A. Capas Alme, O. T. Ulen Allen, Edgar New Auburn Allison, Prof. J. H. Univ. Farm, St. Paul Albertson, A. R. Paynesville Alden, E. M. Deer River Albrecht, O. E. 6th & Minnesota Sts., St. Paul Allis, W. H., Sec Aitkin Allen, Wilber R. Wells Albinson, Oscar 1718 11th Ave. S., Mpls. Alm, Arthur 686 Ivy St., St. Paul Aldrich, Malcolm 3205 Henn. Ave., Mpls. Albert, Henry So. St. Paul Alford, E. F. 2390 Woodland Ave., Duluth Allen, John S. 3017 Grand Ave., Mpls. Allen, P. L. 1912 3rd Ave. S., Mpls. Amborn, Elmer Box 147, Bangor, Wis. Ames, Mrs. Frank Sta. F., Mpls. Ammand, Ernest 2819 Polk. St., Mpls. Amundson, C. E. 409 Henn. Ave., Mpls. Ambauen, Rev. Jos. Freeport Amundson, P. C. Amery, Wis. Anderson, Louis R. 1, Gladstone Anderson, J. C. B. 1285 Portland Ave., St. Paul Anderson, Alex. P. 558 Everett Ave., Chicago Andrew, Harry 5327 S. Lyndale, Mpls. Anderson, Richard R. 4, Northfield Anderson, J. E. R. 5, Box 35, Hector Anderson, A. M. Gran Marais Anderson, Andy 935 Cherokee Ave., St. Paul Anderson, J. W. Mitchell, S. D. Anderson, Henning 1108 S. 4th St., St. Peter Anderson, Mrs. Andrew, S. Elm St., Owatonna Andrews, Theo. S. Bemidji Anvid, Olof Blackduck Anderson, Axel Hotel Leamington, Mpls. Andrews, Gen. C. C. Capitol, St. Paul Anderson, Miss Deborah 627 E. 17th St., Mpls. Anderson, John W. R. 3, Cokato Anderson, A. J. 161 E. Cook St., St. Paul Anderson, David 4044 Aldrich S., Mpls. Andrews, Mrs. W. E. Lake Wood, White Bear Anderson, Carl Vesta Anstett, Jake Preston Anderson, Fred Rush City Anderson, Wm. R. 4, Isanti Andrews, J. P. Faribault Anderson, S. A. 3801 Dupont N., Mpls Anderson, C. G. 1514 W. Lake St., Mpls. Anderson, G. F. W. Side Sta., R. 2, St. Paul Anderson, J. F. Lake City Anderson, Frank H. 2905 Fremont S., Mpls. Anderson, John 4315 Girard N., Mpls. Anderson, Andrew 865 Bidwell St., St. Paul Anderson, Mrs. John R. 2, Box 99, Isanti Anderson, Ernest Cove Anderson, John A. 715 Normal Ave., Valley City, N.D. Andrews, W. A. Walhalla, N. D. Anderson, L.P. Bemidji Anderson, Axel Dunnell Anderson, Henry Lake Wilson Anderson,, Alfred O. 914 St. Olaf Ave., Northfield Anderson, Wm. 1540 Kirkwin Ave., St. Paul Andreas, Reuben W. 71 Melbourne Ave., Mpls. Anderson, J. L. Clarkfield Anitzberger, Phil. 1245 Livingston Ave., W. St. Paul Anderson, Peter Eastwood Anderson, Victor Hastings Hotel, Mpls. Anfield, E. N. Clinton Anderson, B. E. Elbow Lake Armitage, C. W. Canby Arrowood, Jas. Nevis Arness, A. G. Benson Arkens, Edw. J. Park Rapids Archer, T. E. 1399 Raymond Ave., St. Paul Archer, Mrs. Marian 1399 Raymond Ave., St. Paul Arneson, M. Shelly Arctander, Ludwig 324 N. Y. Life Bldg., Mpls. Aronson, Geo. Box 135, South Park Asp, Arthur E. R. 11, Milaca Asplund, Chas. R. 1, Hopkins Ash, H. C. 15 Carlyle Ave., Duluth Asperstrand, Aug. Amery, Wis. Atwood, H. J. Hunters Park, Duluth Atcheson, Jas. Mapleton Atherton, Mrs. Isabella Newport Aune, Olaf Underwood Austin, Miss Mary J. 503 Sellwood Bldg., Duluth Austin, O. A. McVille, N. D. Aune, Theo. Glenwood Avery, Carlos State Capitol, St. Paul Ayers, H. B. Kimberly Ayers, C. O. 1025 17th Ave. S., St. Cloud Ayers, Ellsworth D. Pine City Badrann, Peter Harvey, N. D. Bailey, J. Vincent Dayton Bluff Sta., St. Paul Baillif, R. L. Sta. F, R. 3, Mpls. Baalson, H. E. Brooten Baglien, Hans H. Rothsay Baillif, C. E. Sta. F, R. 1, Mpls. Backus, Mrs. C. H. 580 Holly Ave., St. Paul Bagley, Mrs. Horace Towner, N. D. Bailey, Victor River Falls, Wis. Bailey, Phoebe D. 1023 17th Ave. S. E., Mpls. Bahe, H. G. Hastings Babcock, Mrs. J. B. Belgrade Baker, H. P. N. Y. State Col. of For., Syracuse, N.Y. Beath, P. A. Drake, N. D. Belker, Jake Maple Plain Beise, Dr. H. C. Windom Becker, Ernest Northland Baldwin, H. J. Northfield Baker, H. F. 4629 Lake Harriet Blvd., Mpls. Baney, J. W. Blackduck Baldwin, Miss L. O. 707 Cham. of Com., Mpls. Ballou, Herb 3316 10th Ave. S., Mpls. Baker, John W. R. 3, Maynard Baker, W. H. Reading Bannister, I. C. Stillwater Balfour, Donald C. Rochester Banning, Mrs. J. F. Juamba Baker, Bert Hoosick Falls, N. Y. Bamford, Geo. J. 1703 Sheridan Ave., St. Paul Baker, Miss Ida A. 4629 Lake Harriet Blvd., Mpls. Balcarek, V. L. Hyannis, Neb. Baldus, Jos. L. Montrose Baldwin, E. B. Care of Western Electric Co., St. Paul Baker, M. J. Deer River Bartram, Mrs. C. S. R. 1, White Bear Barclay, J. M. Madison Lake Barnstad, Ole Willmar Barnes, J. U. 705 Oneida Blk., Mpls. Barnard, A. H. 206 Lbr. Exchange, Mpls. Barott, J. E. Tamarack Barker, Mrs. S. E. R. 3, Excelsior Bartlett, J. F. Excelsior, Minn. Barrows, Walter A. Brainerd Bartholomew, O. A., Jr. 120 So. 5th St., Mpls. Barnes, Fred Northfield Bartlett, Mrs. E. A. R. 2, Hopkins Bartsch, Chas. G. R. 2, Mankato Bartholomew, R. L. Sta. F, R. 1, Nic. Ave., Mpls. Barton, Bert Republic, Mich. Barrett, Miss Alice Humboldt Ave. and 28th St., Mpls. Bardwell, Fred L. Excelsior Barthelemy, Ed St. Cloud Barnes, David 2123 Dunedin Ave., St. Paul Barker, Geo. H. 414 Owen St., Stillwater Barrows, Walter A., Jr. Brainerd Bates, W. K. Stockton Batho, Geo. 406 Maryland St., Winnipeg, Man. Baxter, Hector 4200 Park Blvd., Mpls. Baumgartner, Joe Robbinsdale Bassett, Mrs. H. S. Preston Bazille, E. W. 606 Carroll, St. Paul Bawman, F. J. 802 Edmond Ave. S. St. Paul Bauer, Geo. Deerwood Bawman, Mrs. J. N. Bricelyn Bawman, Wm. Hayfield Bathke, Fred 496 Aurora Ave., St. Paul Bass, Mrs. G. Willis 1811 Bryant No., Mpls. Bayle, P. J. Grand Marais Bell, F. W. Hopkins Becker, E. W. Excelsior Becker, J. C. Adrian Bell, F. J. Winona Beatty, L. R. Orr Beaver, H. M. Lake Park Bemis, V. E. Inkster, N. D. Beise, Geo. W. Morris Beckman, J. F. 310 Webster Ave., St. Paul Behrems, W. F. New Richmond, Wis. Bena, Lincoln A. R. 2, Hopkins Bell, J. F. Wayzata Bechtel, Esler E. 125 Cedar St., Hibbing Beck, C. J. 462 High Forest St., Winona Belzer, F. L. Glasgow, Mont. Benjamin, J. F. Hutchinson Berger, Geo. Arlington Berry, Frank Stillwater Berthelsen, Christ Albert Lea Berglund, Robt. Kensington Berg, H. S. Clarkfield Benson, A. O. Forest Service, Mont. Benton, Henry W. Sec. Bk. Bldg., Mpls. Berghold, Rev. Alexander Mooskirchen Steiermarck, Austria Bennett, C. A. Granite Falls Bernhardt, Thos. J. 815 Fidelity Bldg., Duluth Bend, C. M. Commerce Bldg., St. Paul Benson, Harry 4410 33rd Ave. So., Mpls. Bergh, Otto I. Grand Rapids Benner, T. W. No. St. Paul Bergstrand, H. 915 E. Lawson St., St. Paul Bernardy, Peter Taunton Berg, Arthur, 953 German Ave., W. St. Paul Bergstrom, N. A. 114 So. 18th Ave., E. Duluth Benson, Andrew Jackson Benson, Frank Stephen Bennett, S. M. Drake, N. D. Bergreen, Leslie Clarkfield Bethke, H. Franklin Betchwars, Frank Jordan Bessette, F. W. Orr Betzold, R. A. R. 1, St. Paul Best, H. G. Faribault Bayard, P. C. 2366 Carter Ave., St. Paul Baumhofer, Earl F. R. 3, Box 40, Hopkins Bates, J. H. 710 Somerset Blk., Winnipeg, Man. Bawden, Mrs. J. 831 W. 7th St., Duluth Bauer, Edward Cove Bayly, Mrs. J. W. 2419 E. 2nd St., Duluth Benke, Albert Dent Berlin, A. N. Crystal Lake, Ill. Berkner, Alfred Sleepy Eye, Ill. Bender, Louis Wheaton Berstrand, Dr. J. G. Menahga Bergman, Mrs. Wm. Comfrey Berdahl, A. A. Gernmell Biermann, Henry Glencoe Bisanz, Rudolph 1505 E. 24th St., Mpls. Bickert, W. J. Washburn, N. D. Biggs, S. Elizabeth Fairmount, N. D. Bisbee, Clinton West Sumner, Me. Bierwirth, Paul 1021 Winslow Ave., W. St. Paul Billings, H. H. Pine Island Bixly, Henry N. Richville Bimebsero, W. A. Hinton, Ia. Bittner, Geo. J. R. 2, Winona Bill, Ambrose 984 Gorman Ave., W. St. Paul Bjornlie, Thorwald Madison Bjornberg, G. J. Willmar Bjeldanes, N. H. Madison Blaker, Rev. C. D. 4420 Grimes Ave., Mpls. Blakestad, L Lyle Blackmore, Hon. J. C. Christchurch, N. Z. Bluhm, A. G. Biscay Blessing, David S. 4 N. Court St., Harrisburg, Pa. Black, G. D. Independence, Ia. Blomberg, Fred Crosby Blair, D. L. Winnebago Blodgett, Mrs. H. A. 856 Fairmount Ave., St. Paul Bloomer, Ed Sherburn Blombeck, Alfred Eagle Bend Blodgett, Mrs. F. S. 330 W. 3rd St., St. Paul Blase, Fred So. St. Paul Blackstad, Rudolph St. James Blaker, M. H. Palmyra, N. Y. Blood, Oscar F. Worthington Bly, C. W. Osakis Blair, Frank D. 26 Court House, Mpls. Blodgett, P. L. 2913 Emerson So., Mpls. Blazing, G. M. Deer River Bjork, Fred Buffalo Bjorge, Henry O. Lake Park Bjordal, Einar Wild Rice, N. D. Bosshard, Herman Moorhead Boardman, Mrs. H. A 1336 River Blvd., St. Paul Bollmann, Paul Balaton Boline, J. A. Clarissa Boelk, Ferd Lansing Bock, John Wabasso Born, Otto G. So. St. Paul Bongie, Louis Bradley St. Sta., St. Paul Bofferding, W. H. 1423 N. Emerson, Mpls. Boeglin, Louis Park Greenhouses, 38th & Bryant, Mpls. Borland, Robt. Excelsior Boll, Jos. St. Bonifacius Bondeson, Wm. Walnut Grove Bodreen, Chas. J. Stillwater, R. 1, Box 6 Bottenmiller, L. H. Bertha Bondhus, Thos. Storden Bothun, B. E. Thief River Falls Borreseh, Rev. Father Caledonia Borning, B. J. Echo, R. 2 Borgendale, H. L. Madison Boman, A. 2018 W. Supr. St., Duluth Boone, C. L. Care of Chase Bros. Co., Rochester, N.Y. Borchardt, A. W. Bellingham Booth, Wm. Eagle Bend Bosin, Mrs. F. W. Rapidan Borgerding, John Freeport Boraas, Julius 1319 E. Franklin, Mpls. Boche, Herman H. Sunfish Rd. and Butler Ave., W. St. Paul Botsford, F. P. Gilbert Boerger, Wm. A. St. Cloud Bowman, Dr. F. C. 119 6th Ave. W., Duluth Boyington, Mrs. R. P. Nemadji Bove, Peter St. F, R. 4, Mpls. Boyd, J. B. Willmar Bowen, Walter S. 347 Wabasha St., St. Paul Boysen, P. B. Steen Bozja, Rev. Vincent Morgan Boyd, Montelle M. Stephen Boyum, Iver A. Northfield Bourduas, Frank 933 So. Robert St., W. St. Paul Bowman, Mary Rothsay Boxlang, Mrs. B. J. Kenyon Boysen, Dr. Pelican Rapids Boyd, Byron Long Prairie Bovay, Arthur G. Lakefield Boswell, L. R. Mpls. Paper Co., Mpls. Brandt, P. C. Morris Brandt, P. A. Erskine Brand, A. M. Faribault Bradrud, Albert Spring Valley Braden, Mrs. Chas. E. 450 McKnight Bldg., Mpls. Brakke, Albert Wild Rice, N.D. Bradley, Geo. J. Norwood Bradbury, W. W. 1724 E. 3rd St., Duluth Brander, Mrs. J. R. 3, Hopkins Brabetz, N. F. 915 3rd Ave. So., Mpls. Brawnell, T. G. Grand Meadow Bratan, F. M. Grand Meadow Bray, N. J. Hovland Bradford, F. H. Farmington Bradley, Wm. Montpelier, N. D. Brainard, Harold Turtle River Bradley, Wilson Deerwood Brevig, A. L. Starbuck Briggs, H. W. Sanborn Briggs, Geo. A. St. Peter Bremer, John Lake City Bringmeier, Fred J. Cass Lake Brevig, C. L. Starbuck Breyer, P. P. 3318 4th St. No., Mpls. Brierley, Prof. W. D. Univ. Farm, St. Paul Bren, Daniel Hopkins Bredvold, Martin Greenbush Bren, Rev. Jos. Hopkins Brinkmann, Henry W. Glencoe Breening, H. C. Balaton Bremer, Leslie Cannon Falls Brimeyer, H. Slayton Brewer, I. C. St. Charles Bren, Adolph Hopkins Brewer, W. W. Orisko, N. D. Bren, Geo. J. Hopkins Bren, Jos. S. Hopkins Bren, Frank E. Hopkins Brinkman, Wm. 407 Erie St., St. Paul Breide, Fred Deer River Brown, Frank Paynesville Brown, Mrs. G. T. 646 Hague Ave., St. Paul Broberg, Peter New London Broman, Aug. Atwater Brunkow, Chas. A. Delano Brown, Aug. Winthrop Broden, Gust A. Murdock Brown, H. A. Brownsdale Brown, John A. Windom Brummer, Henry W. Renville Bruns, Henry Excelsior Brooks, W. W. Long Prairie Brogren, Olof Willmar Brownlie, J. Roy Care of Flathead Natl. Bk., Kalispell, Mont. Brodalen, H. A. Pelican Rapids Brown, A. F. 2120 Como Ave., W. St. Paul Brown, Clarence Z. 610 N. Y. Life, Mpls. Brown, Mrs. G. W. St. Louis Park Brown, Chas. G. Paynesville Broman, Axel Milaca Broker, Mrs. H. A. Collegeville Brodalen, G. A. Ottosen, Iowa Brumpton, Wm. Shevlin Bugbie, A. E. Paynesville Buchanan, D. P. Shoshone, Cal. Buhler, E. O. Capitol, St. Paul Bue, Thos. 3138 22nd Ave. S., Mpls. Buehler, John G. 434 Main St. N. E., Mpls. Buchloz, Aug. Osseo Bull, M. Royal Crown Soap Co., Winnipeg, Man. Bull, Geo. N. 4116 8th St. W., Calgary, Alta. Bullard, W. H. 95 E. 6th St., St. Paul Buol, Peter Wabasha Buckeye, J. Lakefield Bunn, T. H. Pine Island Brombach, Jos. 3010 15th Ave. So., Mpls. Brown, R. A. Lakefield Brown, Rev. Geo. W. Wilson, Wis. Brown, Clarence J. 629 Sec. Bk. Bldg., Mpls. Brown, Mrs. J. F. 2412 Garfield, So., Mpls. Brooker, H. W. Sauk Center Burkee, John A. Roseau Burnette, W. J. 1405 Como Ave. S. E., Mpls. Burow, W. P. La Crescent Burns, Mark. Cass Lake Burfield, Geo. E. Shevlin Burns, Chris Cass Lake Burke, T. J. Bemidji Burrows, Mrs. A. L., Box 355, White Bear Burbeck, E. W. 106 E. Winona St., Duluth Burquist, A. E. Lindstrom Burnett, John Torrey Bldg., Duluth Burns, John J. Hopkins Burkhard, Miss L. S. White Bear Lake Burness, B. 328 Security Bk. Bldg., Mpls. Burch, Edward P. 1729 James So., Mpls. Burch, Frank E. 754 Linwood Place, St. Paul Busch, Fred Lyndale Ave. S. and 50th St., Mpls. Bussey, L. M. 1814 Hamline Ave. S. E., Mpls. Buttrud, Mrs. J. H. 51 Luverne Ave., Mpls. Busch, Bernh. Lyndale Ave. S. and 50th St., Mpls. Buth & Co., W. F. 298 Univ. Ave., St. Paul Butterfield, F. J. Long Lake Bussey, W. H. 511 Beacon St., Mpls. Bute, Chas M. R. 4, Jackson Bush, O. D. Barron, Wis. Byrnes, Dr. W. J. 207 Masonic Temple, Mpls. Bye, C. M. New Brighton Bye, J. T. R. 1, New Brighton Byrne, Mrs. M. E. 6544 Fafayette Ave., Chicago Cairns, Miss Gertrude M. Ellsworth, Wis. Cant, W. A. Duluth Campbell, E. R. Excelsior Carniff, Mrs. Laura J. 185 W. Brompton St., W. St. Paul Canning, Richard Orchard Gardens, Mpls. Cadoo, H.T. 988 Gorman Ave., W. St. Paul Campbell, Mrs. B. B. Sta. F., Mpls. Cadwell, B. D. Hastings, Box 295 Callahan, John St. Charles Campbell, H. E. H. Willmar Cameron, John A. 2503 Lyndale No., Mpls. Campbell, D. G. 959 26th Ave. N.E., Mpls. Cady, E. N. Lewiston Cannon, Mrs. Newton Superior, Wis., 1517 John Ave. Campbell, Mrs. H. A. 55 E. 4th St., St. Paul Carlson, C. H. Fertile Carmen, C. A. Hankinson, N. D. Carruthers, J. T. Willmar Carlson, And. Grandy Carey, Geo. W. Lidgerwood, N.D. Carlson, C. W. Mound Carpenter, F. H. 121 W. Franklin, Mpls. Carlson, John Care of Carlson & Hasslen, Ortonville Carnahan, E. J. Longville Carter, A. N. Howard Lake Carlson, Mrs. Wm. 6005 London R., Duluth Carpenter, M. B. Hotel Aberdeen, St. Paul Carlson, Peter Mohall, N. D. Carlson, J. A. 3410 18th Ave. S., Mpls. Carlson, Rev. C. W. 711 10th Ave. So., Mpls. Carlson, John Kimball Carlson, Oscar 2739 15th Ave. S., Mpls. Carlson, Axel Manhattan Bldg., Fergus Falls Carll, Norman Waltham Carlson, G. D. R. 2, Buffalo Carlson, Janas R. 2, Esmond, N. D. Cary, H. E. Jenkins Carey, Mrs. F. R. R. 2, Robbinsdale Carr, M. J. 682 Stryker Ave., St. Paul Carver, J. 2312 17th Ave. So., Mpls. Carlson, Mrs. Jno. R. 3, Hopkins Carribou, Farris Twig Carlson, G. C. Tower Carlson, J. 3402 Cedar Ave So., Mpls. Catlin, T. J., M.D. Palisade Cash, W. H. H. New Lisbon, Wis. Case, L. S. 1413 Merc. Natl. Bank Bldg., St. Paul Cedergren. E. A. Lindstrom Cecil, R. E. Gen. Del., McKeesport, Pa. Cecka, John Lonsdale Charlson, S. Dennison Chamberlain, V. M. Spring Valley Chalberg, Chas. Kandiyohi Chapman, C. P. Dent Chatfield, Mrs. E. C. Mound Chase, Jas. J. Farmington Chamberlain, W. D. Albert Lea Chapman, Ed. A. Redwood Falls Chamberlain, Louis M. 54th St. and Pillsbury, Mpls. Charlton, R. 2049 Robinson, Regina, Sask. Chapman, Sidney 158 E. Haskel St., W. St. Paul Charvat, Frank Brocket, N. D. Chapman, R. W. Plainview Chase, Mrs. A. G. Faribault Chaffee, H. L. Amenia, N. D. Chamber of Commerce Brainerd Cheney, W. H. Olivia Christopherson, K. O. Zumbrota Christopherson, Chris Camden Place, Mpls. Cherney, J. W. Winslow and Arion Sts., W. St. Paul Chrystoph, John 525 2d St., Hudson, Wis. Chrudinsky, Mrs. Robt. J. Lakewood Chinn, W. P. Care Ella Mine, Gilbert Chinlund, H. A. 13th & S. Park St., Red Wing Cheyney, Prof. E. G. Univ. Farm, St. Paul Chute, L. P. Chute Bldg., Mpls. Cheney, Mrs. W. B. 4237 Washburn Ave., Mpls. Christman, W. F. 3804 5th Ave. S., Mpls. Christiansen, Peder C. Dagoner, Mont. Christenson, Chris R. 3, Box 39, Albert Lea Chradle, Mrs. W. E. Cleveland Chermack, W. R. Hopkins Christie, R. G. Canby Cherveny, John J. Zimmerman Chelmen, B. E. Georgeville Christenson, Abraham Deerwood Christenson, C. G. Deerwood Christopherson, Chas. G. 4116 45th Ave. S., Mpls. Cherveny, Joe Zimmerman Christenson, Miss Nancy Mandan, N. D. Chemak, Otto R. 1, Hopkins Christian, Jas. Sherburn Christensen, M. 951 Goff Ave., W. St. Paul Christensen, Aug. Little Falls Cherry, M. M. N. St. Paul Cinkl, Albert Blooming Prairie Child, F. S. R. 1, Hopkins Christy Color Printing Eng., Inc. 179 St. Paul St., Rochester, N.Y. Clemons, L. A. Storm Lake, Ia. Clarkson, Stewart F. St. Charles Clausen, P. Albert Lea Cleator, Frederic W. Forest Service, Republic, Wash. Cleator, W. P. 1400 Wash. Ave. N., Mpls. Clark, Mrs. A. Y. Box 237, White Bear Clague, Frank Redwood Falls Clark, R. J. Eden Prairie Clementsen, Nels Fertile Clausen, T. A. Lakeshore Greenhouses, Albert Lea Clark, Geo. S. 27 5th Ave. S., St. Cloud Clement, C. C. Mosier, Oregon Clapp, Edw. S. 770 Hamline Ave., N. St. Paul Clark, Jas. Williams Clark, Newell E. 5030 Emerson S., Mpls. Clark, E. E. Eden Prairie Clark, H. B. Pine Island Clausen, Hans Sleepy Eye Clum, Miss K. M. R. 4, St. Paul Clark, D. F. 2110 Bryant S., Mpls. Cleveland, Henry 603 15th Ave. E., Duluth Colling, Jas. H. Inkster, N. D. Coffin, W. F. Homer Converse, T. R. Stillwater Constance, Wm. Hopkins Colburn, Otis L. Excelsior Congdon, John S. R. 5, Box 83 Fort Collins, Colo. Colb, John F. 3442 20th Ave. S., Mpls. Coffin, E. C. 2449 Garfield Ave., Mpls. Colban, Walter H. 307 4th Ave., Pittsburgh, Pa. Coffman, G. W. Wadena Conrad, Maud A. Montevideo Congdon, J. W. 2620 Blaisdell, Mpls. Colburn, G. B. R. 6, St. Cloud Conklin, Marion Jamestown, N. D. Coffron, Geo. Box 74, Biwabik Cole, Geo. Penturen Conners, J. B. Hibbing Collins, J. C. Mound Cocker, Walter Lanesboro Colby, F. L. Enfield, N. H. Conrad, Emil R.R., Collis Commandros, Tom Golden Rule Floral Dept., St. Paul Colman, I. W. 519 11th Ave. S.E., Mpls. Coleman, D. A. R. 2, Aitkin Constance, Geo. I. Cumberland, Wis. Coffey, Mrs. J. A. Jamestown, N. D. Cobb, E. R. 175 E. Winona St., Duluth Cook, A. D. 225 Kasota Blk., Mpls. Corser, Fred 615 James N., Mpls. Cornwell, E. C. Minnesota City Cornell, T. H. 815 Fidelity Bldg., Duluth Cornetinson, C. O. Watson Cook, Geo. Menahga Cooper, Mrs. D. H. Winnipeg, Man. Cook, Geo. H. Care Golden Rule, Red Wing Cook, E. W. Cleveland Corwin, Ellis Cove Cornwell, L. L. Pine Island Cornell Univ. Library Ithaca, N.Y. Crowe, W. H. Osakis Crowell, Dr. I. G. Shell Lake, Wis. Cramer, Dr. Geo. P. 686 Syndicate Bldg., Mpls. Cross, Mrs. Jane Sauk Rapids Crooks, Mrs. John S. 803 Commerce Bldg., St. Paul Crooks, John S. 803 Commerce Bldg., St. Paul Crocker, F. E. Morgan Crossett, C. N. Faribault Cuzner, E. A. Univ. Ave. & 13th St. S.E., Mpls. Cutting, S. Carnegie, Man. Cummings, Geo. W. R. 3, Box 118, Mpls. Currie, W. A. 816 Summit Ave., Mpls. Cutler, W. R. Claremont, S. D. Cutler, John Glencoe Custer, C. C. Howard Lake Custer, Orrin O. Cokato Curtis, J. W. G. 810 Globe Bldg., St. Paul Cummins, Miss Beatrice Barnum Cutting, M. C. Care "The Farmer," St. Paul Curran, Dr. F. 2612 13th Ave. S., Mpls. Cushing, Luther S. Osceola, Wis. Cowles, F. J. West Concord Coultas, R. W. Worthington Cote, L. Grasston Covington, Thos. E. 1793 Ashland Ave., St. Paul Countryman, A. D. Appleton Countryman, Mrs. M. L. 218 S. Avon St., St. Paul Coy, Sherman L. Cloquet Cox, Wm. T. Capitol, St. Paul Cowling, C. N. 184 W. Robie St., St. Paul Courtney, M. J. Glencoe Cowling, Mrs. Chas. N. 184 W. Robie St., St. Paul Cox, L. A. 436 Syndicate Blk., Mpls. Cox, Hanford Ely Court, Harry Warroad Crassweller, Arthur 4230 E. Superior St., Duluth Cramer, Fred Mapleton Crane, R. E. Grand Meadow Crafts, Robt. H. Mound Crane, W. I. 810 Buch St., New York Crabtree, Mack H. Mott, N. D. Crewe, Percy S. Mohall, N. D. Crandall, H. H. Morristown Crane, Benj. W. Spring Valley Dahl, Louis D. Atwater Dablen, O. E. Albert Lea Dahl, F. A. Chisago City Danielson, Solomon Rothsay Dale, O. G. Madison Dahlheimer, Frank Anoka Dahl, H. P. Isanti Dalzell, W. E. Hinckley Daily, D. 2508 17th Ave. S., Mpls. Daniel, T. W. Care M. Thorson, R. 1, Wayzata Dahl, H. M. 929 Central Ave., Red Wing Dahlquist, C. A. Popple Dalberg, Mrs. A. O. Amery, Wis. Dangers, Fred Sleepy Eye Dahl, Mrs. A. O. 490 W. 4th St., Superior, Wis. Daigle, A. A. Forest Lake Danzl, Jos. J. Melrose Day, Stephen Northfield Davison, A. H. State House, Des Moines, Ia. Darling, Dr. C. H. 697 Endicott Arcade, St. Paul Davis, L. G. Sleepy Eye Davis, H. H. Placeville, Cal. Davis & Ferree Waukee, Iowa Darrow, Geo. M. Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D.C. Davenport, W. R. Dennison Davis, T. A. Esmond, N. D. Dasher, C. A. Buffalo Lake Deline, W. F. Cannon Falls Decker, J. S. Austin DeLong, T. R. Halliday DeForest, Geo. Owatonna DeCamp, J. L. Eureka Deighton, C. H. 902 Wolvin Bldg., Duluth Denson, W. A. Hasty Deatharage, Mrs. Robt. 2428 Portland Ave., Mpls. Deebach, Herman 364 Maple St., St. Paul Deebach, E. A. Dayton Bluff Sta., St. Paul DeLameter, Mrs. J. 4920 Morgan Ave. N., Mpls. Dempsey, Thos. St. Peter Dean, Harold Care Thorpe Bros., Andrus Bldg., Mpls. DeSmidt, A. A. Battle Lake Desmond, W. 3501 Portland Ave., Mpls. Derickson, G. P. 238 W. Franklin Ave., Mpls. DePuy, A. C. Park Rapids DeWolf, Mrs. D. F. 654 Hague Ave., St. Paul Dexter, Mrs. W. K. Mound Devore, F. J. 972 S. Robert St., St. Paul Deplages, N. J. R. 2, York, N.D. Dept. of Agric. Ottawa, Out. Diethelm, M. Victoria Dittbenner, R. C. Sleepy Eye Dickenson, W. C. Anoka Dixon, Jas. K. Box 6, North St. Paul Dille, Peter O. Dassel Dike, Henry B. Hotel Berkeley, Mpls. Dill, Joe Victoria Distad, O. O. Hayfield Dickinson, Sherman 3127 4th Ave. S., Mpls. Dittmer, Gus Augusta, Wis. Dillman, A. C. Newell, S. D. Dispatch Prtg. Co., C. F. Blandin, Mgr., St. Paul Dickey, Mrs. Agnes T. Esmond, N. D. Dixon, Dr. Frank Mora District Insp. of Forest Reserve Winnipeg, Man. Dill, Albert St. Bonifacius Dobbin, J. J. Excelsior Doll, P. J. 2303 Bryant Ave. N., Mpls. Dockham, A. T. Eagle Bend Dodge, Clayton J. Moose Lake Dobbin, W. J. Excelsior Dodge, E. J. Hector Doerfler, Jos. 1919 Fillmore St. N.E., Mpls. Dodgson, Sam Clearwater Dobble, Mrs. Edwin 1385 Raymond Ave., St. Paul Dodge, Ben Mankato Dobbs, David E. Indus Donaldson, Mrs. W. N. 216 Palmett Ave., Duluth Dodson, T. R. Nashwauk Dominican Fathers 18th Ave. and 24th St., Mpls. Doring, Rev. F. M. Rogers Dowler, W. A. Fort Williams, Ont. Dorr, W. F. 1132 Lbr. Ex., Mpls. Doyle, W. J. Fern Ave. and Lake St., St. Louis Park Dorland, W. H. Dayton Bluff Sta., R. 4, St. Paul Downing, W. J. Ronneby, R. 2 Downing, Lloyd St. Charles Doories, Mrs. A. Fridley Down, J. J. 303 Medical Blk., Mpls. Douglas, W. B. 805 Commerce Bldg., St. Paul Drake, Mrs. H. T. 435 Portland Ave., St. Paul Drisko, Mrs. E. M. 3913 Garfield, Mpls. Dreuttel, Albert Cleveland Drebert, Alexander F. 1769 Iglehart Ave., St. Paul Dtessely, L. J. Gatzke Durand, Albert Waseca Dunn, John W. G. 1033 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul Dunn, W. W. 2143 Princeton Ave., St. Paul Dubbelis, Joe Lincoln Dunning, Dr. A. W. 803 Lowry Bldg., St. Paul Dunning, Frank Anoka Dunsmore, Dr. F. A. 100 Andrus Bldg, Mpls. Duel, Robt. Sauk Center Duesterhoeft, Adolph 1021 Hall Ave., W. St. Paul Dunn, A. C. Duluth Duncan, Alvin Redwood Falls Dvorak, John Hopkins Dubbels, Chas. W. Viola Dunbar, S. J. Elkhorn, Wis. Dunlop, W. B. 2013 Waverly Ave., Duluth Dvorak, Frank Montgomery Dunsmore, Thos. Danube Dvorak, Alley Hopkins, R. 3 Duerr, Dr. W. P. Lake City Durham, Sabin Grygla Dybig, Nursery Colton, N. D. Dysinger, S. D. 24 W. 5th St., St. Paul Dykema, Ben Raymond Dyer, C. H. 2824 10th Ave. S., Mpls. Eastgate, J. E. Larimore, N. D. Earle, C. E. Park Rapids Earney, Andrew 2617 Western Ave., Seattle, Wash. Eberhart, A. L. Austin Ebersperger, Mrs. 2008 Girard N., Mpls. Eckenbeck, S. C. Appleton Eckberg, Aug. Winthrop Edlund, E. Detroit Eddy, C. T. R. 4, Willmar Edson, W. D. Libby Eddy, Vernon Hyland Sta. N., Mpls. Edwards, Frank Gilbert Edden, G. St. Croix Falls, Wis. Edgerton, Mrs. E. A. 2720 Bryant So., Mpls. Edwards, O. T. Grand Meadow Edny, F. S. Goodthunder Effertz, Peter Norwood Egnell, A. Howard Lake Eisengraler, Dr. G. A. Granite Falls Eidem, P. C. Clarkfield Eisenach, W. L. Aitkin Eklund, P. A. Willmar Ekelund, C. A. Hopkins Ellison, F. H. Linden Falls, R. 2, Mpls. Elliott, W. J. Albertville Ellingson, S. Sta. F., R. 4, Mpls. Elstrom, F. O. Atwater Elliott, P. P. Grand Rapids Elwell, J. T. 945 14th S.E., Mpls. Elliott, Miss Martha R. Stillwater, R. No. 5 Ellison, Miss Sabra Sta. F, R. 2, Linden Falls, Mpls. Elliott, H. J. Hopkins, R. 3 Elofson, J. S. Hasty Elsenpeter, H. J. Buffalo Elgren, Mrs. Harry Red Top Ely, Dr. Jas. O. Winnetka, Ill. Eliason, Alfred J. Corrall, R. 2 Ellingson, G. T. 2315 W. 10th St., Duluth Ellis, G. C. West Salem, Wis. Ehler, Geo. 880 Euclid St., St. Paul Emmans, N. H. 1736 James Ave. S., Mpls. Emberland, John 1989 Selby Ave., St. Paul Empy, Clarence L. Eureka Emerson, Byron T. 4314 Grimes Ave., Mpls. Emerson, John H. 1114 Argyle St., St. Paul Endsley, P. M. Minneapolis Engel, Rev. Peter 1456 Leland Ave., Chicago, Ill. Engel, Rev. Peter Collegeville Engleson, I. J. Montevideo Engman, A. E. Hallock, R. 1, Box 47 Englestad, Louisa Thief River Falls, R. 3 English, Mrs. C. E. 2691 Lake of Isles Blvd., Mpls. Engen, Gilbert A. Finley, N. D., R. 1 Emerson, A. F. Grand Portage Engel, A. W. Esmond, N. D. Enroth, A. L. Orr Erwin, D. A. Waseca Erkel, F. C. Rockford Erickson, Oliver Atwater Erne, F. X. 887 Goff Ave., St. Paul Erikson, E. D. Wegdahl Erikson, John W. Aitkin Erikson, C. O. Watson, Box 182 Erb, E. C. Red Wing Erling, Frank, Jr. 37 W. Belvidere St., W. St. Paul Essig, Aug. Sanborn Essene, Mrs. Anna 3421 Longfellow Ave., Mpls. Eshelby, E. C. 400 Shubert Bldg., St. Paul Escher, Sam'l C. Slayton Erickson, A. B. 114 Mill St., N., Fergus Falls Erickson, Chas. Northland Erickson, Wm. M. Courthouse, Red Wing Erickson, Emil H. R. 2, Maynard Erickson, L. W. 4541 35th Ave. S., Mpls. Erickson, Oscar Dalton Erickson, K. A. Pequot Erickson, May 2522 10th Ave. S., Mpls. Evans, John L. 424 2nd Ave. E., Duluth Everett, Mrs. G. W. Waseca Ewing, A. L. River Falls, Wis. Ewald, Julius Cumberland, Wis. Ewing, Prof. Jas. Northfield Cecil, E. E. McKeesport, Pa., Gen. Del. Fairfax, Mrs. J. F. 4869 S. Aldrich, Mpls. Faehn, F. J. Wallace, S. D. Fagerlie, I. F. Clarkfield Fabian, Edwin 1914 Jefferson Ave., St. Paul Fabian, Norman J. St. Paul Park Fairchild, D. L. 500 Lonsdale Bldg., Duluth Fabel, P. H. Buffalo Lake Fairchild, Mrs. D. L. Tamarack Fairfield, Chas. R. 1313 4th Ave. S., Mpls. Fairchild. L. G. Shevlin Farrar, F. F. White Bear Farmer, C. R. Ada Fanning, Miss Mary 756 E. 6th St., St. Paul Farmer, E. A. Sta. F., R. 2, Mpls. Farrell, D. H. New London, R. 2 Farel, Chas. A. Buffalo Farcier, Peter Buffalo Lake Farcier, V. E. Stewart Faurat, F. S. 816 5th Ave. S.E., Mpls. Farnham, Jas. M. St. Cloud, 503 St. German St. Farrar, O. R. Albert Lea, R. 4, Box 14 Featherston, S. T. Red Wing Ferodowill, F. X. Wayzata Felland, Prof. O. G. Northfield Feleen, Nels N. Willmar Fergerson, W. C. Litchfield Feesl, Vinz. Cor. Winslow & Arion, St. Paul Fell, Henry Janesville, R. 6 Fesenbeck, J. A. Cloquet Featherstone, J. S. Hastings Fieske, C. A. Sleepy Eye Finch, Mrs. Mary Care Duluth-News Tribune, Duluth Fisher, Thos. A. Waverly Hotel, Mpls. Fitzer, Chas. Robbinsdale Fink, Christian Waconia Fisher, Geo. A. 221 1st St. N., Mpls. Finke, E. H. Spring Valley Finkle, Miss Kate 2760 W. River Blvd., Mpls. Finke, E. R. Waterville Fischer, W. C. Linden Hills Sta., R. 3, Mpls. Fitzer, H. Luverne Fish, L. L. Wayzata, R. 2 Finstad, Jos. 1014 Edgerston St., St. Paul Fiedler, Mike J. Dent Fisher, Walter I. 2432 Girard So., Mpls. Fisher, F. J. Buffalo Lake Finnegan, Pat Thorp, Wis. Fjelde, G. J. Madison Flint, H. R. Dubois, Wyo. Flagstad, J. Sacred Heart Flint, Henry W. R. 4, Box 125, Tacoma, Wash. Flood, E. J. Newman Grove, Neb. Floreen, Swan Constance Flygare, Hans H. Atwater Flynn, A. E. 978 Allen Ave., St. Paul Flath, Jos. A. R. 28, Plymouth, Wis. Fletcher, Mrs. F. S. 3148 Irving So., Mpls. Flyen, Henry Dawson Flint, P. P. Osakis Ford, F. H. Maple Plain, R. No. 3 Ford, A. J. New Rockford, N. D. Folden, P. Rollag, R. No. 2 Foss, Elizabeth H. 501 E. River Blvd., Mpls. Forest Supervisor Ely Forest Supervisor Cass Lake Foerster, Fred E. 766 Rondo St., St. Paul Foley, T. H. Manchester Folske, Otto H. 132 W. Lucy St., W. St. Paul Fordyce, G. W. Newport Foster, I. D. Sandsone Fox, O. A. 1914 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul Foster, Mrs. Mary D. Foley Forsam, Albert Madison Forbes, B. W. 231 W. Winona St., Duluth Fritcher, C. E. Hancock Frye, P. H. Willmar Freeman, Gust E. Red Wing Freeman, C. H. Zumbrota Frydholm, Martin Albert Lea Fredrickson, Wm. Perley Frank, Albert D. Wood Lake Frederickson, C. A. Elk River, R. 3, Box 65 Freese, F. M. Bemidji Froshaug, David Albee, S. D. Freeman, Mrs. H. G. St. Louis Park France, L. V. 2309 Priscello Sta., St. Paul Frazier, T. F. Cloquet, 1116 Cloquet Ave. Fryer, Willis E. Mantorville Franzel Bros. 850 Laurel Ave., St. Paul Franklin, Mrs. Anna J. R. 1, Box 47, Fridley Frey, Math. Taunton Frey, Frank Taunton Fratke, Julius Pemberton French, W. L. Austin Freeman, Nels Scanlon Fraling, Rev. J. Stephen Froslan, Peder H. Flaxville, Mont. Frederickson, P. B. Davenport, N. D. Fruske, K. A. Brooten Freeman, Edmund Park Rapids Frazer, P. C. Pelican Rapids Frazer, H. E. Pelican Rapids Frey, Mrs. Frank St. Peter Frink, Mrs. E. L. Faribault Frey, Aug. J. 1519 E. 2nd St., Duluth Fraund, Mrs. S. 73 Western Ave. N., St. Paul Fuller, E. D. 3421 Longfellow S., Mpls. Fuller, F. E. Deerwood Fuller, H. M. Deerwood Fulcrut, S. G. Goodhue, R. 5, St. Paul Fuhrman, John Albany Fuller, E. E. 204 W. Winona St., Duluth Fuller, Mrs. C. A. Hopkins, R. 1 Fyfe, H. L. Drake, N. D. Galloway, J. E. Austin Gammell, Dr. H. W. Madison Galle, A. C. Madison Galletin, John M. 887 Gorman Ave. W., St. Paul Gaida, N. A. Holdingford Gafke, R. J. Woodstock, Ill. Gallagher, John Amery, Wis. Gallion, Orville Opstead Gastfield, A. F. Victor, Mont., R. 1, Box 210 Garlick, Eva E. Janesville Gaspard, J. P. Caledonia Gates, L. D. Winnebago Garlough, A. L. White Bear, R. 1 Gaylord, L. E. 981 Pacific Ave., St. Paul Ganzer, Mrs. John Como Phelan, St. Paul Garvey, Chas. H. 4453 Lyndale So., Mpls. Gardner, Franc E. 1704 Humboldt Bldg., Chicago, Ill. Garrott, Jane Bald Eagle, White Bear, care D. Keefe Gates, Stephen Hopkins, R. No. 3 Gantzer, Daniel Merriam Park, R. 1 Garber, M. J. Dent Garand, Dr. J. H. Dayton Gates, J. M. Pickwick Gesner, Frank 397 Brimhall St., St. Paul Gerdsen, Henry Waconia Gearty, T. G. Robbinsdale Gessner, Oscar Forest Lake, R. 2 George, E. S. Graetlinger, Ia. Germond, Miss M. 413 Exchange Bldg., Duluth Gerten, Frank L. South St. Paul Gerlach, Mrs. A. F. 1262 Dayton, St. Paul Gerber, A. H. 1594 Portland Ave., St. Paul Gerrish, Harry E. 822 Plymouth Bldg., Mpls. Gerhard, Ray C. 2712 So. Bryant, Mpls. Gembo, Elmer J. Wayzata Gerdes, Chas. 1916 Dupont So., Mpls. Gerhard, Gergen Cannon Falls George, R. R. Hopkins Germond, W. H. 3009 Nic. Ave., Mpls. Gertsmann, Frank Morgan Getty, D. C. Mapleton Gibbs, Miss Ida W. Merriam Park, R. No. 1, Box 107 Gibbs, A. B. Tower Gibbs, M. L. Echo, R. No. 2 Gibson, Thos. 1907 Waverly Ave., Duluth Gimmestad, M. O. Belview Gippe, Miss Louise Watson Gile, Mrs. S. A. 3136 Irving S., Mpls. Ginter, E. W. Stewartville Gillespie, May E. R. 1, Linden Hills, Mpls. Gilby, Jas. 3204 16th Ave. S., Mpls. Gillespie, Miss Anna 2528 38th Ave. S., Mpls. Gillespie, I. H. R. 1, Box 55, Anoka Gipson, E. H. Faribault Gjerset, Oluf Montevideo Glyer, Alfred Forest Lake Glaspell, Bernard Jamestown, N. D. Glessner, Mrs. Frank 3840 Sheridan Ave. S., Mpls. Glenzke, Louis M. Glen Lake via Hopkins Glass, Walter River Falls, Wis. Goodman, D. E. Faribault Goldsmith, Mrs. H. Cleveland Goelz, Mike Brooten Goltz, John Havana, N. D. Goldberg, B. M. 2418 E. 3rd St., Duluth Gooch, H. I. 3808 Woodland Ave., Duluth Goetz, Edgar A. 2186 Doswell Ave., St. Paul Gould, Mrs. Edward 2644 Humboldt S., Mpls. Gormley, J. 2727 Taylor St. N.E., Mpls. Gordon, W. A. 627 2nd Ave. S., Mpls. Gowdy, Louis 3751 Aldrich S., Mpls. Gough, E. Estevan, Sask. Gordon, C. H. Owatonna Goltz, A. L. Balaton Gotts, Oscar Maple Plain Gowdy, Miss Chestine Faribault Goss, Sam Atlantic, Ia. Grant, L. R. Battle Lake Gray, Elmer W. 3443 Pleasant Ave., Mpls. Grandahl, R. L. Red Wing Graves, D. N. Faribault Grasselli Chemical Co. St. Paul Granger, A. H. Correll Graff, Fred 2501 23rd Ave. S., Mpls. Grant, Harry C. Faribault Graham, L. G. 2338 Doswell Ave., St. Paul Granquist, Chas. 915 W. Abbott St., Stillwater Gray, N. H. Fergus Falls Greaza, A. E. R. 4, St. Paul Gregory, H. Jordan Green, Wm. Morgan Greening. C. F. Grand Meadow Greene, Dr. Chas. L. 324 Summit Ave., St. Paul Greene, Michael E. 617 Warrent St., St. Paul Green, F. M. Menahga Greene, Alfred Grand Meadow Grettum, Wm. 1417 8th Ave. E., Duluth Green, John C. 4730 London Rd., Duluth Gregg, Kenneth 112 Lbr. Exch., Mpls. Groat, H. G. Anoka Grimm, Ben 2418 E. 4th St., Duluth Griswold, A. A. Long Lake Grosse, E. A. La Moille Grover, Gust. A. Glyndon Grunig, A. C. Cloquet Griesgraber, Jos. 86 W. Morton, W. St. Paul Groff, N. S. West Side Sta., R. 1, W. St. Paul Griese, E. T. Hibbing Griffith, Edith 1307 4th Ave. S., Mpls. Gruhlke, Wm. H. Jackson Grier, Hazelton 1938 Robbyn Ave., Merriam Park Gronna, A. T. Waterville, Ia. Gruber, John Lakefield Grindeland, A. Warren Gryte, E. K. Ruthton Grunig, W. R. 225 Av. C, Cloquet Gunderman, H. Wabasha Gustafson, Alfred Long Prairie Gundlach, Miss Carrie M. White Bear Gustafson, W. H. Montevideo Gunn, D. M. Grand Rapids Gustafson, Frank A. Warman Gustner, E. R. 3, Hopkins Guthnecht, B. 879 Oakdale Ave. W., St. Paul Gullette, Albert 2622 Fillmore St. N.E., Mpls. Gustafson, Chas. R. 3, Duluth Gunderson, G. Box 127, Webster, S. D. Gulbranson, R. Thief River Falls Guthunz, Mrs. W. M. 1637 Hague Ave., St. Paul Hakel, Adolph Silver Lake Hadley, Emerson 123 Farrington, St. Paul Hagen, L. E. Fountain Haack, Chas. E. Mound Haakenson, Hjalmer Boyd Hagen, F. A. Lake City Hage, Paul J. Hanska Haecker, Prof. F. L. Exp. Sta., St. Paul Haas, Rev. L. 5115 9th St., St. Paul Haines, M. T. 177 Woodland Ave., Fairmont Hager, John 613 Van Buren, St. Paul Haeg, Mrs. E. H. R. 1, Sta. F, Mpls. Hackett, J. E. 187 Malcolm Ave. S.E., Mpls. Hahn, M. D. Amiret Haglund, O. N. Eastwood Hagen, Severt Waseca Hagnie, Donald 707 Fairmount Ave., St. Paul Haining, John. A. Brookston Haering, J. J. Jordan Haglund, Mrs. Aug. Red Top Haglund, Gust. Red Top Halverson, Alfred Spring Grove Hall, R. F. New Auburn Hallstrom, C. O. Box 185, Red Wing Hall, L. P. Deerwood Hall, Mrs. C. E. C. 3036 Portland Ave., Mpls. Hall, T. W. 251 Cham. of Com., Mpls. Halden, F. E. Mound Halbert, C. W. 203 Dispatch Bldg., St. Paul Halverson, L. Shevlin Halverson, Jacob Delavan Halvorsen, A. S. Albert Lea Halvorson, H. S. Brooten Hall, S. O. 621 Erie St. S. E., Mpls. Halverson, M. J. Medina, N. D. Hale, W. H. 1042 McKnight Bldg., Mpls. Hall, Stanley Grygla Hammer, F. O. 2144 Princeton St., St. Paul Hanselman, Jos. 1677 Adrian St., St. Paul Hanger, Jacob Wyoming Hanson, N. P. Hutchinson Hansen, Geo. W. 1104 Doud Ave., Bemidji Hanson, Henry Graceville Hanson, Albert T. R. 10, Fergus Falls Hanson, M. C. Clarkfield Hanson, Frank W. Box 711, Litchfield Hanover, R. F. Winona Hammer, E. A. St. Charles Hansen, Peter R. 1, Box 35, S. St. Paul Hanus, Adolph R. 2, Hopkins Hanlos, Augusta Donaldson, Wis. Hanson, R. B. Ladysmith, Wis. Hanna, M. M. D. & I. R. Ry., Duluth Hamustrom, C. J. New Brighton Handy, A. M. Granada Hansen, H. F. Albert Lea Hansen, Chris Albert Lea Hanson, Simon J. Dawson Hanson, Jas. F. Fertile Hanson, C. L. Fertile Hammer, M. E. Heiberg Hanson, L. O. R. 1, Box 68, Red Wing Hanson, A. L. Ada Ham, Geo. S. R. 2, Aitkin Hanson, H. C. Barnum Hansen, Phil Capitol, St. Paul Hanson, O. W. New Richland Hanson, O. M. R. 1, Ulen Hanson, Ivan Clarissa Hanford, Arthur 2027 Woodland Ave., Duluth Harrison, F. M. Glenwood Harrison, H. W. R. 6, Rochester Hartman, Frank Iona Harold, Geo. E. Maiden Rock, Wis. Harper, J. L. Lock Box 1006, Mpls. Hartwick, Ole Granite Falls Harris, A. W. Sleepy Eye Harseim, Louis B. Aitkin Hartig, Wm. Hopkins Harris, W. S. 2449 Pillsbury Ave., Mpls. Harnden, C. H. Fairmont Hardwick, Mrs. B. G. 4419 Fremont S., Mpls. Hastings, C. C. Buffalo Habison, E. H. 227 Anoka St., Duluth Harris, Mrs. John 3000 E. 25th St., Mpls. Hart, Frank Cleveland Harder, Fred 1044 Winslow Ave., W. St. Paul Hart, Frank W. Laporte Harris, Earl Litchfield Haskins, Geo. Burtrum Haseltine, Mrs. E. R. Excelsior Harper, Stanley J. Box 1625, Mpls. Harris, L. E. Atwater Harris, Van V. 1723 E. 6th St., Duluth Hawkins, Mrs. Alice M. 1523 Fremont N., Mpls. Hathaway, C. E. Northfield Hawkins, J. S. 1523 Fremont N., Mpls. Hawkins, John Box 495, Mpls. Hawkins, Mrs. J. C. Austin Hawkes, A. S. Waseca Hatcher, Frank Wayzata Hatledal, Ole O. Benson Hawkes, Chas. B. 20 E. 3rd St., St. Paul Hawkins, G. C. 2913 Fremont S., Mpls. Hawkes, H. B. Excelsior Haupt, C. F. 106 Concord St., St. Paul Hattenberger, Tony Shakopee Hayden, Chas. Blackduck Hatcher, Amos Delano Hawkins, Mrs. G. C. 2913 S. Fremont, Mpls. Hatcher, Lloyd F. Wayzata Hauenstein, Mrs. Regina 4428 Aldrich S., Mpls. Hayes, Chas. H. Clarissa Hazelton, D. C. Cutler Haven, G. A. Chatfield Hayes, Dr. E. W. Browns Valley Heinemann, R. E. Montevideo Hegerle, M. H. St. Bonifacius Heltemez, John Sauk Rapids Helger, Wm. C. 1955 Portland Ave., St. Paul Hegland, A. 2018 W. Superior St., Duluth Helgeson, C. T. Albert Lea Hellyar, A. B. 1718 Chicago Ave., Mpls. Heckle, Jos. 976 Bellows St., W. St. Paul Heller Bros. Albee, S. D. Heinsohn, Aug. LeSueur Heck, Geo. J. 418 Rice St., St. Paul Heier, Herman R. 1, Bertha Headman, P. W. Henning Hellerman, Gerhard Melrose Hellerman, Herman Melrose Heinrum, Mrs. Hawkon Lake Park Hector, Chas. J. 1209 E. 2nd St., Duluth Heins, Geo. N. Box 295, Sleepy Eye Headline, Francis R. 2, West Concord Helland, B. J. Clearbrook Heagy, Ralph 1687 W. Minnehaha St., St. Paul Healy, Mrs. Reginald J. 2105 Irving S., Mpls. Heikkila, Oscar Ely Henze, Jake Lewiston Henjum, Nels Frost Henderson, H. G. Lime Springs, Ia. Hendrickson, M. P. Montevideo Henry, P. Albert Lea Henry, Henley & Son 175 Concord St., St. Paul Henke, Gust. Buffalo Lake Henkel, Peter Watkins Henderson, R. L. Brady, Mont. Hennemann, Dr. H. F. Sauk Center Henningsen, Walter C. 5208 Chicago Avs., Mpls. Henjum, Ole Saum Hener, Willie Leonard, N. D. Hemphill, Henry Pillager Hendrickson, Ernest Mahtomedi Hendrickson, Henry Kratka Henry, Mrs. M. J. 1895 Iglehart Ave., St. Paul Hesselgrave, R. V. Winnebago Hershaug, Ed. Kenyon Hewitt, Cameron Fond du Lac Herman, A. C. 1613 Van Buren St., St. Paul Herscher, Laurence Renville Hewitt, Adelaide R. 1, Hopkins Heritage, Wm. Ely Herman, Jos. R. 2, Box 81, W. St. Paul Herds, John W. Lonsdale Hetle, E. Northfield Heuring, Mat. Rogers Hilborn, E. C. Valley City, N. D. Hicks, Wm. C. Cedar Hidde, Fred Herman Hillger, Rev. Aug. Rich Valley Hill, W. W. 146 W. 48th St., Mpls. Hill, F. C. Albert Lea Higbie, W. S. Eden Prairie Highby, L. P. H. Albert Lea Hillman, Wm. O. 396 Dewey Ave., St. Paul Hiller, Aric Excelsior Hibbard, Mrs. C. J. 3806 Sheridan S., Mpls. Hill, G. E. R. 1, White Bear Hildebrand, E. W. 967 Galvin Ave., W. St. Paul Hicks, Fred C. 1022 Court Merrill, Mitchell, S. D. Hillig, John Morgan Hidershide, Dr. Geo. N. Arcadia, Wis. Hintermister, J. H. 202 Dispatch Bldg., St. Paul Hinckley, C. N. R. 3, Osseo Hines, Ed., Lbr. Co. Chicago, Ill. Hitchcock, F. E. 401 Com. Bldg., St. Paul Hinkle, B. J. Little Falls Hinckley, C. S. Elbow Lake Hinras, M. Sleepy Eye Hislop, Walter 243 Sunfish Rd., W. St. Paul Hirt, John H. 4430 34th Ave. S., Mpls. Hjermstad, C. F. Red Wing Hjermstad, H. L. Red Wing Hobart, W. P. 4400 Dupont S., Mpls. Hofmann, E. L. Janesville Hoffman, Rev. C. Bruno, Sask. Hoff, J. M. 324 Hennepin Ave., Mpls. Hofenmeister, Alfons New Ulm Hoffman, Herman Dent Hoffman, G. Henderson Hoffman, L. J. Buffalo Hoffman, H. R. 526 5th Ave. S., Wausau, Wis. Hoffman, Mrs. C. S. 2334 Langdon, St. Paul Hoaglund, Hildur 5th St. S., Willmar Hoffman, Geo. J. Long Lake Hobbs, Arnold 610 N. Y. Life Bldg., Mpls. Holmberg, J. E. Avoca Holt, John E. Carver Holmgren, P. O. Hoffman Holten, John Fertile Holmberg, J. A. 1241 Edgerton St., St. Paul Holm, E. P. 20 W. 5th St., St. Paul Holmes, Mrs. Jos. T. R. 2, Box 17, Northfield Holt, John Wolverton Hollingsworth, Ralph 1107 13th Ave. S.E., Mpls. Holland, Ozra S. R. 1, Winona Holl, Dr. P. M. 2011 Chicago Ave., Mpls. Holtimier, John Excelsior Homan, Frank R. 1, Sauk Rapids Holasek, Winslow Hopkins Holmberg, A. R. Renville Homola, Frank J. R. 2, Hopkins Holstad, Hans 920 St. Olaf Ave., Northfield Holm, H. E. Opstead How, H. Esmond, N. D. Holst, John R. 1, S. St. Paul Holbrook, Miss Eleanor B. 5250 Penn Ave. S., Mpls. Horton, W. H. Alexandria Hornly, H. C. Cloquet Hostetter, A. B. Duluth Hoverstad, A. T. Maynard Howland, Clinton J. Northfield Howland, Mrs. Eleanor R. 1, Sta. F, Care E. Landis, Mpls. Hoss, Mrs. Nick New Ulm Hoyt, B. T. Hamline & Hoyt Aves., St. Paul Hove, John I. Northwood, Ia. Houghtelin, J. M. Chatfield Howard, Geo. F. 1281 Raymond Ave., St. Paul Hoyt, Edward Scotch Grove, Ia. Howe, Peter Kellogg Houghton, Jas. G. 3129 Clinton Ave., Mpls. Howlett, Mrs. D. D. R. 5, Oshkosh, Wis. Horton, Mrs. F. W. R. 1, White Bear Hosmer, Ralph S. Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N.Y. Horton, G. L. Litchfield Hostager, N. A. Zumbrota Hoslicker, F. S. Tappen, N. D. Hough, J. S. 500 Northern Crown Bk. Bld., Winnipeg, M. Howe, T. J. Clark, S. D. Hoppert, Walter O. R. 1, Bx. 198, W. St. Paul Hromatka, Joseph Hopkins Hoover, J. L. R. 2, Kensal, N. D. Hoyard, W. E. Henderson Horn, Chas. 244 Lewis St., Duluth House, Susan M. 201 W. Faribault St., Duluth Houston, Geo. S. 3833 Thomas Ave., Mpls. Hoyt, L. H. Fridley Hoyt, Arthur Fridley Hoyt, R. A. Lake City Huestis, Dr. O. M. 400 Central Ave., Mpls. Huff, Theo. A. Fergus Falls Huber, Frank Shakopee Hull, F. H. Brookpark Hubbell, C. H. 917 Marquette Ave., Mpls. Hubacheck, Mrs. F. R. Long Lake Huffman, Mrs. E. J. Nemadji Huckfield, B. E. 4116 Queen Ave. S., Mpls. Huber, Rev. A. T. Elbow Lake Hughes, H. J. Care Farm, Stock & Home, Mpls. Hughart, H. F. Hamel Huff, N. L. 1219 7th St. S.E., Mpls. Hulbert, A. M. Elk River Huey, W. G. 717 10th Ave. N., Fargo, N. D. Huff, B. J. Yola Hultquist, Esther M. Care Gowan-Lenning-Brown, Duluth Hubbard, W. A. Lake City Huldal, H. T. R. 1, Wilton Husser, Henry Minneiska Hummel, Prof. J. A. 2143 Commonwealth, St. Paul Hurtt, Wm. Hoople, N. D. Hundt, G. Tintah Humphrey, D. A. 3624 Blaisdell, Mpls. Hushka, Joseph Felton Hurd, Burton 652 S. Smith Ave., St. Paul Huyck, E. J. 44th & Central Aves., Mpls. Huttner, Miss R. 2, Glen Lake, Hopkins Hybergh, S. Hamel, Minn. Hynes, John F. R. 1, Moose Lake Innes, J. C. Luverne Ingebrigtsen, Iver J. Fertile Ingmundson, C. P. 121 2nd Ave. S., Jamestown, N. D. Ikier, Wm. Vernon Center Ingram, Carrie E. Sandstone Isaacson, O. A. Madison Innis, Geo. S. 1671 Hewitt Ave., St. Paul Ihfe, Fred 301 W. Brompton St., W. St. Paul Isensee, A. R. 3, Annandale Isidore, Mother M. Mankato Imlach, H. E. Estevan, Sask. Ingleston, R. F. 703 E. Nebr. Ave., St. Paul Imdicke, Ben Brooten Irish, Mrs. Addie Detroit Irving, John N. S. Park, St. Paul Ireland, John Shell Lake, Wis. Ingalk, Boyd Newport Ingales, Boyd Newport Jackson, P. T. 1722 Summit Ave., St. Paul Janzen, Abr. Mt. Lake Jackson, Peter Cloquet Jacobson, P. G. Madison Jaquith, O. O. Box 114, Pillager Jacobson, J. F. Madison Jager, Rev. Francis. St. Bonifacius Jacobson, Nels Wayzata Jackson, Jas. Woodstock Jacobs, Dr. J. C. Willmar Jacobson, Fred Rushford Jasmer, Paul A. Winona James, Dr. A. C. Springfield, Ill. Jahren, Rev. H. C. M. Grand Meadow Jaycox, L. I. Woodstock Jacobson, J. L. Madison Jarshaw, Sam Madison Jacobson, J. M. Hills Jacobson, T. M. Hills Jaeger, Jos. R. 3, St. Cloud James, J. Willis 1863 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul Jackman, C. F. R. 2, Box 7, Esterville, Ia. Jackson, Geo. R. Manchester, N. H. Jamison, Robt. Excelsior Jansen, D. E. Rogers Jackson, J. F. 216 Lbr. Exch., Mpls. Jackson, Miss Emma A. 4005 Drexel Blvd., Chicago, Ill. Jensen, A. P. Box 84, Askov Jerabek, Mrs. Mary Excelsior Jensen, Jens A. Rose Creek Jensen, Adolph 3315 17th Ave. S., Mpls. Jensen, J. P. Morgan Jensen, C. M. Albert Lea Jedlicka, Henry R. 3, Eagle Bend Jensen, Anton McIntosh Jenson, Jens H. Box 314, Hudson, Wis. Jenswald, John Duluth Jennison, Mrs. Jas. 4224 Fremont S., Mpls. Jenson, J. A. New London Jenson, N. A. Willmar Jensen, J. L. Menomonie, Wis. Jernberg, J. C. 1724 10th Ave. S., Mpls. Jensen, L. Clearbrook Jenson, W. F. Mankato Jepson, Mrs. J. H. 1323 Fremont N., Mpls. Johnson, J. P. Miami, Fla. Johnson, Gust J. Clarissa Johnson, P. G. 3300 Elliot, Mpls. Johnson, Dr. A. E. Cloquet Johnson, E. A. Maple Plain Johnson, Fred Jarretts Johnson, L. T. Spring Grove Johnson, O. B. New Richland Johnson, P. E. North Branch Johnson, Arnt R. 2, Viroqua, Wis. Johnson, Henry V. 614 E. Lawson St., St. Paul Johnson, A. W. 4405 Pleasant, Mpls. Johnston, Fred L. 1006 Laurel Ave., St. Paul Johnson, Jos. T. 1196 Jessie St., St. Paul Johnson, J. H. Doon, Ia. Johnson, C. A. R. 1, Box 48, Ogilvie Johnson, Clyde Bergville Johnson, Carl G. Little Falls Johnson, Isaac West Union, Ia. Johnson, O. W. Hawley Johnson, Lewis Box 238, Albert Lea Johnson, A. N. 4512 Drew Ave., Mpls. Johnson, F. W. Breckenridge Johnson, L. F. 1014 Bemidji Ave., Bemidji Johnson, G. G. 1510 E. 6th St., Duluth Johnson, O. H. R. 5, Box 56, Willmar Johnson, Chas. Eugene U. of M., Mpls. Johnson, P. J. 3931 Van Buren St. N.E., Mpls. Johnson, J. C. 3343 Fillmore St., Mpls. Johnson, W. W. Detroit Johnson, C. J. Box 37, Cushing Johnston, Rodney Maple Plain Johnson, L. H. Maynard Johnston, Wm. Eden Prairie Johnson, Selmer 807 W. College St., Rochester Johnson, F. W. R. 2, Braham Johnson, A. W. 1081. Hague Ave., St. Paul Johnson, Miss Carolyn 760 Linwood Place, St. Paul Johnson, Andrew R. 3, Box 3, Arnold Johnson, Henry L. R. 7, Fergus Falls Johnson, Alphonse E. R. 2, Stephen Johnson, Mrs. Charley Amery, Wis. Johnson, John J. Box 17, Naples, S. D. Johnson, Peter Box 17, Naples, S. D. Johnson, L. O. E. Butler Ave., St. Paul Johnson, Roy R. 1, Box 46, Brandon Johnson, Jos. Fridley Johnson, S. L. R. 3, Hopkins Johnson, Geo. Millarton, N. D. Johnson, Geo. Grygla Johnson, N. C. South Side Farm, White Bear Lake Jones, A. C. Duluth Jorgensen, I. B. Hutchinson Jones, Thos. C. Russell Jordin, Aug. New London Jones, J. Frank Redwood Falls Jordan, J. J. Shakopee Jones, G. P. Bagley Jorgenson, Bros. Clarkfield Jones, J. S. Madison Jones, S. J. 3736 Oakland Ave., Mpls. Jordin, John A. R. 8, Litchfield Jordan, Wm. Merriam Pk. Sta., St. Paul Jungbauer, Frank 1000 Winslow Ave., St. Paul Justin, Edw. J. Excelsior Juen, Louis 1063 Gorman Ave., W. St. Paul Katzner, Rev. Jno. B. Collegeville Kalbakken, Theo. St. Joseph, Wis. Kapler, Geo. R. Perham Kasper, Hans Grand Marais Kangas, Henry Floodwood Kaiser, Max Merriam Park Floral Co., St. Paul Kates, Mrs. Rose Litchfield Kalmbach, W. A. 302 Wolvin Bldg., Duluth Kaminsky, Jos. Box 445, Hopkins Kansal, John 2016 Minnehaha Ave., Mpls. Kallock, H. H. Oslo Kallberg, Jens Red Top Karpisek, Jos. 41 Harrison St., Bellaire, Ohio Kallestad, C. A. Ruthton Karsten, Miss Ida C. 432 Adams N.E., Mpls. Keasling, F. J. Zimmerman Keith, John A. Cass Lake Kelley, Elmer Sta. F., R. 1, Mpls. Kelly, W. J. Claremont, S. D. Keene, P. L. Mankato Kelley, Clark W. Devils Lake, N. D. Kees, A. A. Sta. F, R. 4, Mpls. Kelley, C. E. 240 E. Belvidere St., St. Paul Keiper, Chas. 260 Haskell St., W. St. Paul Keller, Henry Newport Keist, M. J. 1178 Conway St., St. Paul Kelley, Frank W. R. 1, Menomonie, Wis. Ketchum, C. S. Middlefield, Ohio Keyes, E. A. Excelsior Kenyon, J. M. Lamberton Kempe, Peter Red Wing Kenney, Dr. D. J. 5108 Newton Ave. S., Mpls. Keyes, Dr. C. R. 705 N. 57th Ave. W., West Duluth Kenning, T. A. 1815 26th Ave. N., Mpls. Kenety, W. H. Cloquet Forest & Exp. Sta., Cloquet Kerker, Mrs. Thos. 730 Aurora Ave., St. Paul Kendrick, J. W. 1804 Iglehart Ave., St. Paul Kerns, John Olivia Kendall, R. S. Loraine, Wis. Kimball, Rev. J. R. 1, Duluth Kinkade, W. S. Sioux Falls, S. D. Kinney, S. G. Faribault Kirk, Loren O. 716 4th Ave. S., Mpls. Kirk, E. B. 445 Laurel Ave., St. Paul Kittson, Norman 1017 Dayton Ave., St. Paul Kingsley, A. W. Bricelyn Kinsman, A. N. Austin Killmer, R. E. Pine City Kimball, E. L. 604 1st Natl. Bank Bldg., Duluth Kidd, Mrs. F. E. 1800 2nd Ave. N., Mpls. Kirkpatrick, K. A. Wayzata Kirchner & Renich 17 S. 7th St., Mpls. Kittleson, A. J. Madison Kirk Sisters Clearwater King, J. C. 1040 Drexel Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. Kinsman, C. D. Austin Kirby, Mrs. C. A. Heron Lake Kimball, Miss Grace E. Waltham Kidder, E. D. Marshall Kind, Wm. Melrose Kiger, H. E. Wheaton Kirkwood, W. P. 1376 Grantham St., St. Paul Klaksirk, Iver S. Underwood Klebs, J. C. Bertha Klebs, F. W. Eagle Bend Klabunde, Carl Spillville, Ia. Klodt, Frank R. 2, Staples Klunschmidt, Wm. F. Morgan Klucas, J. A. Buffalo Lake Klindt, Henry Litchfield Klein, M. H. Caledonia Klein, Albert R. 1, So. St. Paul Knight, E. W., 1202 N. 6th St. Estherville, Ia. Knowles, Mrs. M. A. Sawtelle, Cal. Knoblauch, W. Excelsior Knatvold, H. Albert Lea Knowles, Miss Marjorie 752 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul Knutson, Fred Albert Lea Knudson, Jacob Taopi Knapp, G. A. Deerwood Knapp, A. W. Mound Knutson, A. R. Pelican Rapids Knudtson, Andrew Brandon Kruggel, Miss Emma L. 2929 Fremont So., Mpls. Kraut, Emil Lester Prarie Krause, Chas. Merriam Park Krekelberg, Henry J. Dent Krogh, H. P. 1486 Hythe St., St. Paul Kremer, Geo. F. Grand Rapids Kroehler, T. J. Houston Kresta, Matt. Eden, S. D. Kraus, Geo. McGrath Korth, Albert Rothsay Kovar, Wansel Owatonna Kolisch, Aug. St. Louis Park Kotouc, Rev. A. St. Leo Koenig, G. A. Howard Lake Korth, Aug. Rothsay Koehler, D. Hector Kortsad, A. Newfolden Kochendorfer, K. K. South Park Kohler, Chas. Winona Krueger, John R. 6, Stillwater Krause, Mrs. Chas. R. 1, Merriam Park Kropp, Chas. O. Wadena Krueger, B. F. Niagara, N. D. Kroll, John Lake Benton Kreiziger, Frank 214 Cole St., Watertown, Wis. Krincke, Henry 46 W. Gessemini, St. Paul Kruger, Walter Paynesville Kunkel, Jos. J. Kimball Kullander, F. Q. Kensington Kuhns, A. M. Main & Plum, Red Wing Kuefler, Mrs. Anton Belgrade Kuyper, Mrs. John R. 5, Mondovie, Wis. Kueffner, Otto 63 No. Milton, St. Paul Kyrklund, C. H. Winthrop Koza, Jos. 917 Bellows St., W. St. Paul Koester, John V. 207 Iron Exchange, Mpls. Koelruck, Gustav Stewart Kozial, Miss Justine M. R. 3, Little Falls Koher, A. 133 W. Lucy, W. St. Paul Koutek, Jos. Butler & Stryker, W. St. Paul Kolbe, Ed Sleepy Eye Koerner, Olga 1377 Grantham, St. Paul Lamb, C. Sr. Baker Lumberson, L. Warren Lahn, Mrs. Geo. Rogers Lammers, Henry P., Jr. 639 Lafond, St. Paul Lagerquist, John F. Cushing Lagerquist, F. W. 701 Elmwood No., Mpls. Lamson, W. H. Hinckley Lake, A. F. Shenandoah, Ia. LaFrance, H. 225 Clifton, Mpls. Lahiff, Arthur 1412 14th Ave. So., Mpls Isadone, Rasmus Box 440, Cloquet Lake, Homer Homer Lambert, Edward V. Buffalo Lake Lamphere, Mrs. Chas. Frazee Laflin, J. C. Williams Lade, Halstein Fosston Lake, Shores Hubbard LaCroix, Wm. Deer River Langholz, J. A. Newport Landeen, A. F. Eagle Bend Larkin, T. H. 217 Ford Bldg., Great Falls, Mont. Larson, Emil V. Eagle Bend Laurin, John Renville Lange, Marie R. Willmar Larson, J. P. 4th St. E., Willmar Landscape Architect, Dept. Pub. Wks. Regina, Sask. Larsen, Raymond M. 214 Providence Bldg., Duluth Langlund, Nils Cedarbend Larson, C. F. Morgan Larson, L. U. Lowry Larson, Peter Box 208, Albert Lea Larson, L. R. 2, St. James Lane, J. W. Anoka Langseth, C. C. Worthington Larson, John Box 25, R. 1, Lafayette Langford, H. A. Blackduck Larson, W. E. Madison, Wis. Landahl, H. Little Falls Landeene, W. E. Elbow Lake Larson, Ole H. Hisega, S. D. Lanes, John O. Dawson Larson, L. B. St. Louis Park Lange, L. M. Cass Lake Lange, G. H. Lake City Langmaid, Abbie B. Granite Falls Larson, G. 1013 Winslow Ave., St. Paul Lauritson, A. Warrendale Greenhouse, Como Park, St. P. Law, K. B. 2237 Doswell, St. Paul Lawson, F. E. Goodhue Latsch, John A. Winona Lawson, M. H. Ellendale Lawson, F. L. Welch Lawrence, Alfred Box 115, Eldridge, N. D. Lawson, L. P. Isle Lawton, Chas. 2162 Dayton Ave., St. Paul Lawrence, Mrs. W. W. 2108 Woodland Ave., Duluth Latourelle, J. R. 1, Centuria. Wis. Lawrie, Jas. A. 401 Wolvin Bldg., Duluth Leiner, Dan'l Morris Lee, Geo. F. Hanska Leath, Fred Cleveland Leavitt, Miss Clara 2015 James So., Mpls. Leary, D. J. Brown's Valley Lee, E. G. 1787 Dayton Ave., St. Paul Lee, Ole N. Hayfield Lee, Iver A. Neilsville Leake, Mrs. C. W. No. St. Paul Lehnerts, Prof. E. H. "U. of M.," Mpls. LeDue, A. C. 10 No. 12th Ave., Duluth Leach, A. R. Faribault Lemieux, Mrs. M. A. Nebr. & Adams St., St. Paul Lee, Prof. Olav 1115 St. Olaf Ave., Northfield Leitch, Wm. Columbia Heights, Mpls. Leath, Mrs. Eleanor Okipee Farm, Linden Hills Leasman, Geo. W. Hector Lee, T. K. Benson Lee, J. A. Benson Ledvina, Joseph Pine City Lee, Eddie St. Cloud, Minn., R. 5 Le Fevre, A. 290 Emerson Ave., W. St. Paul Leonard, Dr. L. D. 515 Syndicate Blk., Mpls. Lenz, Rudolph Adrian Lerol, John A. Whalen Lewis, A. F. LeRoy Lewis, Chas. L., Jr. Shell Lake, Wis. Lewis, Meyer Box 6, Mpls. Leslie, A. W. 2124 Fremont So., Mpls. Lenander, Edwin Buffalo Lake Lewis, Bert Caledonia Leyde, H. G. Newport Leyde, G. F. Hewitt Leonard, Dr. W. E., 408 Donaldson Bldg., Mpls. Lerch, Bernard, Secy. Carpenters Farmers' Club, Togo Linden, Harry Belgrade Lippman, J. C. 1486 Hythe St., St. Paul Lietze, F. W. Mound Lieske, Robt. Pequot Lien, Ole L. Willmar Lindgren, A. W. 317 Kennilworth Ave., Duluth Lisler, Mrs. A. M. Grand Rapids Lippert, A. O. Bertha Lindsay, J. M. Austin Lightner, Mrs. W. H. 318 Summit Ave., St. Paul Lindstrom, John A. J. Lindstrom Linton, Robt. 1045 Everett Court, St. Anthony Park Lindsey, Geo. F. 1413 Mer. Natl. Bk. Bldg., St. Paul Linder, E. A. Warroad Lieberg, C. F. Clarkfield Limperich, Henry J. 503 6th Ave. No., St. Cloud Lindahl, J. A. Harris Lien, Andy Beaudette Lichtscheidl, John 627 Univ. Ave., St. Paul Lien, G. E. Maynard Lindholm, J. A. E. Glen Lake, Hopkins Linnell, Mr. J. E. Maple Plain Lindhe, H. E. Deer River Lindstam, S. F. St. Louis Park, R. No. 1. Libby, Merton R. Hopkins, R. No. 2 Lien, Thos. LeRoy Livingston, C. B. 267 Bryant No., Mpls. Linderholm, A. Belgrade Lindgren, Oscar Princeton, R. 4 Lippincott, Miss C. H. 3010 Hen. Ave., Mpls. Lindholm, C. J. 710 42nd Ave. N., Mpls. Light, C. W. 2339 St. John St., Regina, Sask. Lilleskov, Leonard Byron Lievere, B. A. 2910 Johnson St. NE., Mpls. Lowe, M. F. Buffalo Loegering, Aug. Long Prairie Lovold, E. J. 4125 31st Ave. S., Mpls. Loop, Leeman Dent Loftman, Oscar Fertile Lomis, C. P. St. Peter Logstrom, Reinhold Atwater Loegering, A. J. St. Peter Loye, C. C. 3537 19th Ave. S., Mpls. Lomen, O. O. Decorah, Ia., R. No. 1 Loss, Bj. Lake City Loudenback, F. M. Bagley Lowell, O. S. Buffalo Lott, K. F. 101 E. 8th St., St. Paul Lorenz, Otto 1187 Dale, St. Paul Lorentz, R. H. Howard Lake Long, Miss Avie 627 Penn Ave., Mpls. Lonsdale, Miss Persis G. Sauk Rapids Lobsinger, Anton 738 Cromwell Ave., St. Paul Lorenzen, Gust. Bagley, R. 2 Losleben, Rev. A. J. Norwood Long, Jesse L. 2107 5th Ave. N., Mpls. Lock, Frank Osseo, R. 1 Lofgren, Erick Red Top Lofgren, A. H. Tower Logan, Frank 701 Kenwood Pkway, Mpls. Lov, Chas. R. 3, Hopkins Lovering, Thos. Campbell Loucks, Chas. H. Mankato Luchan, H. J. Fertile Ludlow, H. J. Worthington Lundholm, Dr. E. M. 677 Univ. Ave., St. Paul Lundborg, Theo. A. Nisswa Lund, Geo. Excelsior Luitjens, A. Clara City Lucas, Dr. H. E. Champlin Lubich, Franz River Falls, Wis. Luitjens, D. G. Hopkins, R. No. 1, care of Chas. Asplund Lucas, Geo. A. 117 S. 6th St., Mpls. Lufi, O. C. La Crescent Lundberg, S. L. Red Wing, No. 1 Lund, Peter Stillwater, 512 Park Place Luhman, Henry Howard Lake Ludwig, Mrs. Frank 1894 Iglehart Ave., St. Paul Luedloff, Herman Cologne Luther, Otto Hills Lunden, H. O. Slayton Lund, C. F. Maple Plain Luhmann, J. C. 158 W. Wabasha St., Winona Lusk, W. F. 1453 Hythe St., St. Paul Lyness, Chas. E. New Richmond Lysen, Aug. O. Lowry Magnuson, J. E. 107 1st St. SE., St. Cloud Madison, Geo. C. Newport Mander, Frank C. 1535 Hastings Ave., St. Paul Manuel, Dr. K. Janie Masonic Temple, Mpls. Mace, Florence Duluth Mace, Clarissa E. Duluth Maass, Win. H. Waconia Mahlman, H. W. Plato MacLennan, R. Grand Rapids Manchester, Edwin V. Hopkins Mansfield, Miss C. Mankato Mace, R. E. 1631 E. 3rd St., Duluth Maney, Peter, Jr. Grygla Manz, F. W. Paynesville Magnuson, Swen Templeton, Cal. Malmsten, F. W. 2117 Western Ave., Mpls. Malmberg, E. W. Lafayette Mahler, Adolph Waseca Malmquist, G. Wayzata Malitor, Martin St. Cloud Malberg, P. B. Thief River Falls Mahler, C. Fairmont, N. D. Magnuson, I. E. Willmar Maddy, Mrs. Emma Annandale Macnab, J. C. Lombard St., Winnipeg, Can. Mann, R. T. Excelsior, R. 1 Malmberg, Chas. A. Lindstrom Manley, L. B. Torrey Bldg., Duluth Maher, Howard Devils Lake, N. D. Maine, M. F. 522 Met. Life Bldg., Mpls. Magie, Mrs. Frank 1710 London Rd., Duluth MacDonough, Mary Emerson, N. D. Mains, T. U. 3805 10th Ave. S., Mpls. Mailand, C. H. Newport Manthun, Reinhold Dent Manuel, R. W. 147 Orlin Ave. SE., Mpls. Majerns, Math. Brooten Magnuson, O. J. Isanti Mareck, Titus 420 Ridgewood Ave., Mpls. Marshall, Mrs. L. Emogene 3032 Irving So., Mpls. Martin, F. J. Excelsior Martens, John 2938 Bloomington Ave. S., Mpls. Martin, John H. 22 N. 4th St., Mpls. Marsh, V. P. Big Falls Mariem, P. B. Daytons Bluff, Sta. F, R. 4, St. Paul Marthaler, Henry South St. Paul Martenson, Alfred Maynard, R. 2 Maruska, John A. New Prague, R. 4, Box 78 Martin, Grant Redwood Falls Mathews, Mrs. Jas. H. Larimore, N. D. Mathisen, Geo. W. Windom Massee, A. W. Albert Lea Mayo, E. D. 2808 S. Fremont, Mpls. Maust, S. H. Canton Mayman, E. W. Sauk Rapids Matzke, Sil. So. St. Paul Mayland, A. W. Albert Lea Mathison, Thoger St. Paul Park Mattison, Dr. C. W. Swea City, Ia., Box 201 Mathes, E. H. Excelsior Mayman, Hattie A. Sauk Rapids Mattson, F. Terrace, B. C. Mayne, Prof. D. D. Univ. Farm, St. Paul Mason, Joe Long Lake Mather, O. L. 201 S. 21st Ave. E., Duluth May, Bernard Stewart Matzke, H. C. 1925 Jefferson St., Duluth May, Prof. J. H. River Falls, Wis. Masson, E. Deerwood Mathews, Oscar R. Newell, S. D. Mathews, Miss Harriet 807 W. College St., Rochester Mattocks, Brewer Jr. 911 Woodland Ave., Duluth Mawin, Geo. G. Warroad Mellinger, T. S. Pine Island Merrill, Geo. E. 4604 Washburn So., Mpls. Mense, F. G. 3941 Aldrich S. Mpls. Meeker, Mary K. 2548 Clinton Ave., Mpls. Meeds, A. D. 2424 Harriet Ave., Mpls. Meadow Lawn Farm St. Peter, R. No. 2 Meginess, Fred J. Winona Merritt, Mrs. John E. Aitkin Meisinger, Engelb. 1062 Stryker Ave., W. St. Paul Meelker, Ben Raymond Mendenhall, W. J. 1212 27th Ave. NE., Mpls. Mead, P. H. White Bear Lake Melson, John Deerwood Merritt, C. H. 519 Woodland Ave., Duluth Merritt, Neal R. Hinckley Meyer, Henry Blue Earth Meyer, J. H. Austin Meyer, C. H. 774 West Ave., Red Wing Meyer, Frank Excelsior, R. No. 1 Mesenbring, Otto Clayton, Wis., care Louis Schmidt Meyenburg, H. C. Montvideo Meyer, E. St. Louis Park, R. No. 1 Meyers, Rev. J. St. James Miller, W. L. 152 E. 5th St., St. Paul Metcalf, Dr. F. W. Winton Meyers, J. E. 515 N. 27th St., Mpls. Mills, D. L. Lake City Miks, Rev. A. St. Michael Mpls. Public Library Mpls. Miller E. B. Mpls., R. 1, Sta. F. Milne, H. A. Elmerado, N. D., R. No. 2 Mighton, S. R. Winnipeg, Man., Box 1393 Miller, H. J. Cologne Miner, H. P. 3022 Dupont So., Mpls. Mix, H. P. Lidgewood, N. D. Miller, Warren Verdi Mitchell, D.M. Owatonna Mitchell, W. B. 508 1st Ave. S., St. Cloud Minder, Emma Ortonville Michelson, Nels Austin Miller, Elbert W. R. 1, Anoka Mills, L. D. Garden City Miller, Hans F. P. 501 N. Greeley, Stillwater Middleton, E. C. Baudette Miller, T. E. Ely Mpls. Real Estate Bd. 633 Andrus Bldg., Mpls. Miller W. L. 152 E. 5th St., St. Paul Miller, O. A. Rainbow Hotel, Great Falls, Mont. Miller, S. J. Briarcombe Farm, Winona Mitchell, Mrs. Harry Halma Minn. Northern Nurs. Co. 1511 Raymond Ave., St. Paul Miller, Joseph Hopkins Miller, Chas. 4539 Morgan No., Mpls. Miller, Wm. J. Warroad, Box 442 Miller, Hjalmar S. Lindstrom Miller, E. Amery, Wis. Mielke, Geo. Sidney, Mont. Miller, Henry C. Sauk Center Mpls. Architectural Club 920 Nic. Ave., Mpls. Miller, Sarah A. Sauk Rapids Moehring, Otto Montevideo Moore, W. M. Forest Service, Santa Barbara, Cal. Moeser, Ed St. Louis Park Moore, Mrs. C. F. Worthington Moberg, Aron Lowry Moline, E. J. 2622 Henn. Ave., Mpls. Monson, N. L. Buffalo Lake Mondeng, Chas. 160 Newton Ave. N. Mpls. Moeser, Ernest St. Louis Park Montgomery, Katherine A. Bradley St. Sta., St. Paul, R. 4, Bx. 29 Montgomery, W. C. Excelsior, R. No. 3 Moore, John E. Louisville Moede, H. F. Buffalo Lake Moody, Geo. W. Amery, Wis. Moeser, Miss Flora St. Louis Park Molander, A. L. Bemidji Moline, Geo. Woodstock Molenar, John Raymond, R. 2 Monk, B. B. Minot, N. D. Moen, A. A. Bemidji, R. 2 Mojha, Joseph R. No. 1, Lonsdale Moore, E. V. Eagle Bend Moen, Albert O. Smithport Moberg, Oscar Lowry Moe, P. C. Mentor Morrison, Rev. J. D. 2131 E. Supr. St., Duluth Moran, C. B. Newport Morey, Geo. W. 3606 Van Buren St. NE., Mpls. Moris, Mrs. F. 180 Rondo St., St. Paul Morris, John R. Beaudette Morgan, Benj. H. 712 So. 5th St., Leavensworth, Kan. Morrill, E. W. Hopkins, R. 1 Morton, Mrs. E. H. St. Louis Park Mortz, Aug. Stewart Morlan, Ogden C. 4628 Colfax S., Mpls. Mortenson, J. P. New Richland Moritz, Isaac Hector Morrison, Mrs. Eugenia Excelsior Morley, Jas. Wahpeton, N. D. Morse, John H. 2511 Washburn Ave. S., Mpls. Morgan, R. M. Howard Lake Moen, Albert O. Terrace, R. 1, Box 42 Molsted, C. E. Valley City, N. D. Moffitt, Mrs. F. L. 508 Univ. Ave. SE., Mpls. Moses, Mrs. W. S. Wahkon Motter, J. P. Lamberton Mousel, Henry Canby Moss, W. F. Worthington Mosbjerg, Chr. 216 7th St. N., Mpls. Moulton, H. R. Windom Mott, F. R. Hibbing Moses, J. B. Jackson Munch, Mrs. E. W. Crookston Mullen, A. J. Custom House, Mpls. Mudd, Mrs. Neva Sandstone Munson, Nels Cokato Mulqueeneg, Mrs. Jas. Buffalo Munn, Mrs. M. D. Forest Lake Mundt, Fred Sunfish Rd., R. 2, W. St. Paul Mullen, John T. Litchfield Munsterteiger, Arthur Buffalo Mulroy, M. F. Brown's Valley Murray, J. W. Excelsior Murray, D. L. Blooming Prairie Murray, Chas. M. Princeton Musser, R. D. Little Falls Musser, C. R. 200 Mer. State Bk. Bldg., Muscatine, Ia. Murphy, Frederick P. Central Lake Murdock, H. E. 1961 Queen Ave. S, St. Paul Murray, Mrs. H. J. 812 Osceola Ave., St. Paul Mutny, John S. Gregory, S. D. Musil, F. J. Hector Musil, Rudolph Hector Murdock, E. C. 405 Scheffman Bldg., St. Paul Myrah, E. G. Spring Grove McBroom, J. K. Excelsior McBride, A. F. 1764 Marshall Ave., St. Paul McAllister, Geo. E. 2637 Emerson N., Mpls. McCullough, Francis Mound McCabe, Mrs. M. Sta. F., Mpls. McConachie, N. Perham McCallum, John Clinton, R. No. 1 McCoy, Dr. Mary 15 W. Supr. St., Duluth McCabe, W. J. 2125 Abbotsford Ave., Duluth McCullach, Jas. T. Washburn, N. D. McClintock, R. G. Willmar McCaleb, Seth Eyota McCathy, T. Caledonia McCabe, M. M. 2328 Roslyn Ave., Duluth McCall, Geo. W. Fort Williams, Ont. McCarthy, F. F. 2725 E. 6th St., Duluth McCormick, Miss Care Geo. H. Rogers, 2302 Blaisdell Ave., Mpls. McElroy White Bear, Bx 386 McDuffee, Herbert S. 2540 3d Ave. S., Mpls. McFadden, Dr. C. A. 6719 Tioga St., Duluth McGuire, A. J. Univ. Farm, St. Paul McGuire, S. H. Annandale McGonagle, Mrs. W. A. Hunter's Park, Duluth McGolerick, Bishop, Jas. Duluth McKusick, Miss Florence M. Stillwater McKee, Maude L. Hotel Waverly, Mpls. McMillan, F. G. No. 2, 5th St., SE., Mpls. McLeod, Neil A. 523 3d Ave. SE., Mpls. McMahon, J. A. Arago McLaughlin, Peter Hunter, N. D. McLarty, Jas. Neche, N. D., R. 2 McLean, Robt. C. 735 Palace Bldg., Mpls. McNair, C. I. Cloquet McNeil, Mrs. Alex Dayton McQuoid, Jas. Pipestone McQuire, Mrs. D. F. Hopkins McPherson, A. K. Walker McPhail, A. J. Hibbing Naslund, Adolph Tower, Bx 1448 Neils, Julius Cass Lake Neinabor, Chas. Round Lake Neal, J. A. P. 604 1st Nat. Bk. Bldg., Duluth Neilson, A. Mankato Nelson, C. N. Storden Nelson, Oscar W. Aitken, R. 2 Nelson, Chas. F. 1449 Hythe St., St. Anthony Park Nelson, C. G. Lindstrom Nelson, F. A. Atwater Nelson, Hans Fergus Falls Nelson, Jacob Beltrami Nelson, Hans Twin Valley Nelson, C. A. A. Park Rapids, Bx. 206 Nelson, Peter E. Montevideo Nelson, Anton Grasston Nelson, Mrs. Sim. Westbrook Nelson, Mrs. V. D. 2829 9th St. S., Mpls. Nelson, C. J. Willmar Nelson, Hugo C. Hibbing Nelson, Mrs. Wm. Box 143, Spooner Nelson, P. J. Clarissa Nelson, Chas. J. R. 1, Eagle Bend Nelson, S. R. Owatonna Nelson, A. N. R. 2, Box 116, Hopkins Nelson, E. 880 S. Robert St., W. St. Paul Nelson, Hon. E. M. Fairmount, N. D. Nelson, E. V. Box 111, Alta Dens, Cal. Nelson, M. O. 2530 Harriet Ave., Mpls. Nelson, Andrew Northland Nelson, Martin R. 1, Hopkins Nellermoe, F. G. Buffalo Lake Ness, H. H. 1900 Wash. N., Mpls. Newland, H. Custom House, Mpls. Newberg, A. Excelsior Newell, Wilfred Mayo Farm, Rochester Newmann, A. H. Sta. F., R. 3, Mpls. N.Y. State Col. of For. Syracuse, N. Y. Nesbitt, Mrs. Victoria K. 210 13th Ave. E., Duluth Neske, Mrs. Albert Waseca Neudecker, A. S. Clements Nesdahl, Ole Box 15, Shevlin Nettleton, C. H. Stockton Newhall, Mrs. H. F. 2702 Humboldt S., Mpls. Ness, Gabriel Hannaford, N. D. N.Y. State Ranger School Wanakena, N. Y. Nesbitt, Mrs. W. L. 4715 Fremont S., Mpls. Nelson, Henry Oslo Nelson, Alfred M. Hector Nelson, A. M. 5114 Elliot Ave. S., Mpls. Nelson, A. E. R. 1, Box 81, Felton Nelson, Geo. H. Hope, Minn., via Owatonna Nelson, Walter R. 2, Oslo Nelson, L. M. 2637 17th Ave. S., Mpls. Nelson, E. M. Fairmount, N. D. Nelson, Fred S. Maple Plain Nelson, S. C. Alexandria Nelsen, Leslie 953 Goff Ave., W. St. Paul Nelson, Carl A. Cokato Nelson, John Baudette Nieman, Chas. Hamburg, Wis. Niemeyer, C., 487 W. Calif. St., Pasadena, Calif. Nichols, S. S. 707 Cham. of Com., Mpls. Nichols, Mrs. C. H. 1920 Palace St., St. Paul Nielsen, N. Mankato Nickel, Geo. Reading Nicol, Henry C. Mail Carrier 30, St. Paul Nicholson, Mrs. Sam'l J. 5303 Nic. Ave., Mpls. Noble, A. S. Dent Norderhus, Paul S. Murdock Nolte, Henry Duluth Nordby, Ed. J. Renville Norval, Wm. Elk River Nordbye, O. W. Granite Falls Northern Pine Mfgrs. Assn., Lumber Ex. Minneapolis Norin, Dr. Frans L. Roseau Nousse, John 1346 Western No., W. St. Paul Nordine, John Lake City. Noble, Fred 287 E. Lucy St., St. Paul Nowlen, B. E. 2370 Chilcombe Ave., St. Paul Nordquist, E. D. Evansville Novak, Frank Lonsdale Nohava, Mathias Lonsdale Norton, John Lonsdale Norberg, Mrs. C. Eastwood Noehl, Nicholas R. 3, Dassel Norton, A. W. Cumberland, Wis. N.W. Nat. Bk. Information & Pub. Dept., Minneapolis Nutter, F. H. 710 Sykes Blk., Mpls. Nydahl, J. L. 715 21st Ave. So., Mpls. Nygaard, Thos. 953 40th Ave S.E., Mpls. Nyman, Col. M. R. 1401 1st Ave. So., Mpls. Nystrom, O. Eastwood Nysoeu, C. O. Pelican Rapids O'Brien Pat Renville O'Connor, Jas., Jr. Granite Falls Oberleiter, John Pequot Oberleiter, Mrs. Maria Pequot Oberg, Alma Mayer Olson, S. J. Grand Meadow Olson, Oscar A. Truman Olson, Wm. C. R. 2, Maynard Olson, Ova Boyd Olson, John A. Boyd Olson, Chas. R. 2, Lindstrom Olson, Miss Julia Aitkin Olson, Geo. W. Carver Olmstead, Mrs. E. W., 2727 Lake of Isles Blvd., Mpls. Olsen, Chesta Central Olsen, Peter Eastwood Olson, Paul 2538 Taylor St. N.E., Mpls. Olin, Miss Signe J., 328 No. 60th Ave. W. Duluth Olson, J. J. Central Lakes Odell, Mrs. R. R. 2836 Irwing So., Mpls. Oehring, C. C. Elkader, Ia. Oesch, Fred Winona O'Hara, Dr. P. Waverly Ohr, E. J. Sta. F, R. 3, Mpls. Ogren, G. C. Cambridge Oehler, Mrs. Ira C., 1766 St. Claire St. St. Paul Ogaard, Arthur J. Hettinger, N. D. Ogroskie, Paul Deer River Olson, Lewis R. 3, Kalispell, Mont. Oldenburg, Henry C. Carlton Olsen, H. P. R. 1, St. Louis Park Olson, Aug. R. Kennedy Olson, J. B. Willmar Oleson, Michael Montevideo Olson, Mrs. D. W. White Bear Olson, Peter M. R. 4, Zumbrota Olmstead, Rett E. Excelsior Olson, O. E. R. 2, Bx. 92, Braham Olney, Will Knox, N. D. Olson, O. J. 20 W. 5th St., St. Paul Olson, Edwin O. R. 2, Dent Olson, O. G. Porter Olson, C. H. Beltrami Olds, L. Pequot Ollinger, J. F. Hopkins Oldenberg, C. J. R. 1, Belle Plain Olson, Wm. G. Dunnel Olson, Oluf Burtrum Olson, Hjalmer C. Bx. 26, Ironwood, Mich. Olson, Mrs. Otto W. Eagle Bend Olson, Oscar Orr Old, Mrs. W. A., 5218 Washburn Ave. S. Minneapolis Olson, A. H. 912 W. Robert St., St. Paul Olson, Miss Margaret Wyoming Olson, Martin Lake City Olson, C. E. Underwood Oleson, Cris Cushing, Wis. Old, Mrs. M. E., 1399 W. Minnehaha St. St. Paul Oredalen, Ole Kenyon O'Neill, O. H. 608 Globe Bldg., St. Paul Opsata, C. Bemidji Omland, Erik McIntosh Orr, Grier M. 1040 Laurel Ave., St. Paul O'Neil, Wm. Cass Lake Orwell, C. S. Clarkfield O'Neill, Jas. M. Woodstock Oram, Martin 3240 16th Ave. S., Mpls. Orr, Mrs. G. M. 1040 Laurel Ave., St. Paul Ordway, Mrs. L. P. 523 Portland Ave., St. Paul O'Meara, Steve LeSueur Center Omann, M. E. Stewart Octhoudt, Geo. Eden Prairie Oppegaard, E. O. Sacred Heart Oregon Agri. Col. Library Corvallis, Ore. Orde, G. S. Riverdale Ave., Calgary, Can. Osborn, John Dassel Ostern, L. N. Montevideo Osborne, E. W. 323 B. P. Bldg., St. Paul Ottis, Frank J. 867 Forest, St. Paul Osborn, L. M. 3900 Sheridan S., Mpls. Orsborn, H. E. 2900 3rd Ave. S., Mpls. Osgood, H. E. St. Paul Otte, E. W. 821 S. Wabasha St. W. St. Paul Ostergren, E. A. N. St. Paul Ostrom, Mrs. C. J. Winthrop Otosa, A. L. R. 3, St. James Osborn, Frank H. R. 4, Albert Lea Otto, W. H. 958 S. Robert St., W. St. Paul Oswald, Wm. K. 122 10th St., Cloquet Ott, Adolph R. 2, Granite Falls Overgaard, P. H. Albert Lea Ouellette, C. A. 904 Arkwright St., St. Paul Owens, John 4452 Xerxes Ave. S., Mpls. Overn, A. V. Albert Lea Owens, John Cook Pabody, Mrs. E. F. 69 11th St. S., Mpls. Palzer, Casper Mazeppa Paine, F. W. 706 Sellwood Bldg., Duluth Palmer, Ezra Paynesville Palmer, S. E. Browerville Palke, Stephan Bryant, Wis. Parman, E. A. Hudson, Wis. Partridge, H. C. Owatonna Parker, C. W. Valley River, Man. Parsons, John B. Fergus Falls Parks, W. S. Thorp, Wis. Parsons, Frank Maple Plain Parker, Percy W. Dispatch Bldg., St. Paul Partridge, Van B. Owatonna Parks, Mrs. Walter Airlie Parker, Vern Pine Island Parks, Robt. Shell Lake, Wis. Parker, F. M. Garden City Parker, Ira J. Waverly Hotel, Mpls. Patten, J. W. Long Lake Patience, J. C. Little Falls Passmore, Miss C. W. R. 2, Box 14, Hopkins Paup, F. O. Sherburn Paterson, J. F. South Shore, White Bear Patterson, M. T. Ellendale Patterson, Mrs. J. O. 2814 James Ave. N., Mpls. Passehl, Fred R. 1, Montrose Peerless Rubber Mfg. Co. 555 Pierce Bldg., St. Louis, Mo. Peck, Mrs. E. W. Orchard Gardens, Savage Pentney, E. H. Manitou Peabody, Lloyd 645 Delavan Ave., St. Paul Peck, C. W. Redwood Falls Perl, H. J. 1029 Iglehart St., St. Paul Pearce, G. A. 3418 Allendale Ave., Duluth Peabody, F. C. Merrifield Peck, Harold J. Deer River Perry, Mrs. Gentz Amery, Wis. Perkins, T. L. R. 3, Red Wing Pervogal, H. J. 30 S. Clintworth St., St. Paul Pegenholf, Edward Maple Plain Pegenholf, John Maple Plain Peil, L. L. 121 N. P. Bldg., St. Paul Perkins, Paul H. 250 20th Ave. N., Mpls. Peck, Chas. Washburn, Wis. Peiffer, N. J. Al. Eden Valley Penney, John Cushing, Wis. Penning, Martin New Ulm Pederson, P. A. Beardsley Pengilly, Jas. R. 1, Osseo Perry, P. H. Excelsior Perkins, Thos. Race Track, Mont. Peek, C. M. Eureka Pedersen, A. W. Comfrey Pellet, F. A. Akeley Peachy, Mrs. Chas. Austin Pearson, Hjalmer R. 1, Welch Perkins, Alfred 1780 Wakefield Ave., St. Paul Penney, A. W. Stacyville, Ia. Peavey, L. J. R. 1, Osseo Pennington, E. 317 2nd Ave. S., Mpls. Peake, G. W. Univ. Farm, St. Paul Perkins, Mrs. W. F. 2426 Crystal Lake Ave., Mpls. Peck, C. C. Munsing, Mich. Pevy, E. P. Clearbrook Pederson, F. W. 1705 Lincoln Ave., St. Paul Peterson, Alvin Astoria, S. D. Peterson, Jos. Lake Crystal Peterson, P. H. Atwater Peterson, C. O. Willmar Peterson, Carl F. Storden Peterson, F. J. Waconia Peterson, O. M. Albert Lea Peterson, R. Waldo Canby Pew, Fremont C. R. 5, Mankato Peterson, Hans 3901 Van Buren St. N.E., Mpls. Peterson, Fred Albert Lea Peterson, L. E. R. 1, Stanchfield Peter, Justus Cor. Smith Ave. & Annapolis St., St. Paul Peterson, Jas. Blooming Prairie Peterson, Aug. 916 W. Maple St., Stillwater Peterson, John P. Aldrich Peterson, Chas. J. R. 2. Burtrum Peterson, Linder Box 103, Bessemer, Mich. Peterson, Mrs. C. A. 312 Everett Ave., Everett, Wash. Peterson, Axel Excelsior Peterson, F. W. 812 6th Ave. S. E., Mpls. Peterson, Peter Ruthton Peterriens, J. P. Echo Peterson, Oscar Buffalo Petry, Arthur C. 1102 Pacific St., St. Paul Peterson, Mrs. Martin R. 2, Kintyre, N. D. Peterson, J. 887 Gorman Ave., W. St. Paul Peterson, A. E. 3844 10th Ave. S., Mpls. Peterson, J. H. R. 1, Holdingford Pettengell, Ben Saum Peterson, Chas. J. Maynard Peterson, J. H. Fort Ripley Peterson, Hjalmar Box 561, Buffalo Peterson, Spurgeon Hayfield Peterson, Mrs. Victoria Eastwood Peterson, H. C. Sleepy Eye Peterson, Thos. 322 E. 3rd St., Duluth Pfister, J. M. Marietta Pfaender, Wm., J. New Ulm Pfeiffer, C. A. R. 1, Winona Pfeiffer, Fred Morton Pfaender, Walter C. New Ulm Pfeiffer, Mrs. C. E. Winona Phillips, H. Fort Williams, West Ont. Pineo, Dr. W. B. 507 Pillsbury Bldg., Mpls. Pimley, A. E. Park Rapids Pinkerton, S. W. 1430 Capitol Ave. St. Paul Pischner, August R. 8, Mankato Pickatta, Martin Stewart Pierce, E. B. 138 Seymour Ave. S.E., Mpls. Piringer, Frank 176 W. Bernard St., W. St. Paul Picha, John L. New Prague Pickle, Julia L. St. Croix Falls, Wis. Pierce, Mrs. Baxter Ashland, Mont. Pierce, P. P. 816 Delaware St., Mpls. Peterson, Peter Deer River Peters, H. P. Glenwood Platten, Will J. 218 Oakland Ave., Green Bay, Wis. Pladsen, Emil Milaca Plank, Mrs. Josephine Hopkins Plan, Chas. Enver Grove Plotner, Oscar Saum Platten, H. J. 419 Dousman St., Green Bay, Wis. Plainview Public Library Plainview Pond, E. R. R. 3, Mpls. Poppler, John Frazee Pond, D. S. Sta. F, R. 3, Mpls. Porter, J. N. 2947 Girard N., Mpls. Popelka, J. J. Ogilvie Porter, Amos Lake Benton Potts, Chas. W. Deerwood Poole, W. A. Forest River, N. D. Poore, Hamlin V. Bird Island Pommer, Mrs. Geo. 4311 Garfield Ave. S., Mpls. Poirier, L. S. 240 Lewis St., Duluth Pollack, Mrs. Robt. 5321 Avondale St., Duluth Pomije, Rev. H. D. Olivia Potter, A. H. 2847 Irving Ave. S., Mpls. Poussin, G. W. Onigum Powers, Frank W. 2816 Garfield Ave., Mpls. Powell, F. W. Willmar Posz, L. A. Winona Potter, N. C. Hector Powell, J. L. Pillager Poseley, H. E. Cove Powers, Prof. Wm. H. Agri. College, Brookings, S.D. Potter, B. F. S. 4400 Nokomis Ave., Mpls. Poucher, Thos. S. N. St. Paul Potter, W. L. Raymond Posivis, John Sherburne Prentice, Chas. D. R. 4, Highwood, St. Paul Prosser, L. W. LeRoy Prentice, S. L. Winona Pratt, Dr. C. C. Imanuel Hospital, Mankato Price, Mrs. W. L. Excelsior Preston, C. A. Hastings Pruett, Elmer W. Ely Premo, Alex 106 E. Annapolis, W. St. Paul Primus, John Melrose Pritchard, Robt. M. Box 186, Hibbing Prohl, John 3409 Traverse, Duluth Prinzing, D. S. Rushford Prime, F. G. R. 1, Wayzata Prest, Miss Marion 1713 Summit Ave., St. Paul Prodoehl, H. R. Olivia Probstfield, Mrs. Edmund Moorhead Prova, Mrs. Harry Kelliher Probett, Miss Ida 1917 Stevens Ave., Mpls. Prescott, Mrs. E. 337 E. Jessamine St., St. Paul Preisler, O. S. S. St. Paul Ptacek, C. J. Long Prairie Putnam, S. T. Battle Lake Public Library St. Paul Public Library Winnipeg, Man. Purdy, C. E. Lake St. W. & Excelsior Ave., Mpls. Purdham, C. W. R. 2, Osseo Puffer, H. M. 26th St. & 32nd Ave. S., Mpls. Putnam, R. W. Care Bank Pierce-Simmons, Red Wing Punderson, J. M. Northfield Pumper, Thos. A. Lonsdale Pudil, Jas. Hopkins Pugh, Mrs. Dana V. 109 Howell St., Duluth Putman, W. L. Pelican Rapids Quale, G. E. Willmar Quam, O. T. Nerstrand Quinn, Mrs. J. J. 4042 Wentworth Ave. S., Mpls. Quist, Wm. R. 6, Red Wing Quinn, J. H. Delano Quady. Wm. Blue Earth Quast, John Buffalo Lake Quigly, D. J. Litchfield Quandt, Wm. Buffalo Lake Quinlan, M. New Prague Quinn, J. A. Tower Rains, Dr. J. M. Willmar Rankin, Prof. A. W. 916 5th St. S.E., Mpls. Ramsdell, Chas. H. 812 N.Y. Life Bldg., Mpls. Rafelson, Anton Montevideo Ramey, E. W. Redwood Falls Ray, F. W. 959 40th Ave. N.E., Mpls. Ralston, Dr. J. F. Cavalier, N. D. Ramm, E. A. Winona Raths & Seavolt 447 Wabasha St., St. Paul Rand, B. R. Frazee Rauscher, John 673 Bidwell St., St. Paul Raub, Clark Winnebago Sahlfing, W. M. Cleveland Rarig, Prof. F. M. 63 Barton Ave. S.E., Mpls. Rauen, Mrs. P. J. White Bear Raddatz, Arthur Pine Island Rathlisberger, Chas. Slayton Ranney, H. F. Benson Raftery, W. H. Garrison, N. D. Reeder, G. S. Sauk Rapids Reed, John A. 707 Cham. of Com., Mpls. Rees, S. B., Jr. Linden Hills, R. 2, Mpls. Reeves, N. H. 3410 2nd St. N., Mpls. Reeves, Mrs. John Nemadji Reed, Calvin Care M. J. Johnson, Manning, N. D. Reese, L. A. Cumberland, Wis. Redpath, Geo. A. Big Sandy, Mont. Rector, S. M. Deer Creek Reeves, E. M. Waverly, Ia. Regnier, E. 1640 Montreal, St. Paul Ree, Selmer S. R. 1, Zumbrota Reeves, Mrs. H. G. Nemadji Reamer, J. L. 1921 Greysolon Rd., Duluth Reed, M. H. Hastings Rehbein, Ed R. 3, Duluth Reinking, Wm. Osseo Rekedal, S. E. Lucan Reichert, John 215 E. 7th St., Red Wing Reno, Nils Excelsior Revord, T. A. Austin Renner, Max St. Louis Park, Minn. Remel, Casper Menomonie, Wis. Reynolds, M. N. Turtle River Reif, Geo. H. White Bear Remsker, Rev. Peter Canby Reiland, Wm. R. 1, Box 10, W. St. Paul Rempel, Henry D. Mountain Lake Renney, S. E. 2636 Pillsbury, Mpls. Reinhardt, S. H. R. 3, Merriam Park Reynolds, J. W. Kelliher Reiten, Lars S. Hastings, N. D. Reynolds, Virginia A. 232 W. Franklin, Mpls. Rekkedal, Ole Minneota Reynolds, John Crystal Bay Reithner, C. W. Deer River Rhodes, Clarence H. The Pioneer Co., 3rd & Minn. St., St. Paul Richardson, Ira E. New Brighton Richardson, L. P. Comfrey Riehl, Frank Belle Plaine Richardson, A. W. Howard Lake Rieke, Adolph Fairfax Rice, F. C. Northfield Rice, L. H. Park Rapids Rice, C. F. 218 N. 5th St., Mpls. Rice, Millard Box No. 66, Berg, N. D. Richardson, Jerry Hastings Rice, Mrs. E. V. Dayton Riden, T. E. Shevlin Rieger, Rev. M. Hinckley Richardson, A. O. Menahga Riegel, J. M. Care Dispatch Ptg. Co., St. Paul Richards, J. W. 6029 London Rd., Duluth Richardson, H. C. 729 E. 6th St., Duluth Rice, H. J. Benson Richards, Mrs. Frank A. 1879 Dayton Ave., St. Paul Richardson, W. D. Care Swift & Co., Chicago Rink, Mrs. M. 894 Hastings Ave., St. Paul Risser, H. A. R. 2, Hopkins Rittle, Miss Anna E. 409 Marshall Ave., St. Paul Rittmaster, Harry 934 Allen St. W. St. Paul Ritchell, Wm. Sta. A., Minneapolis Ritchell, Mrs. Frank H. 3364 Hayes St. N.E., Mpls. Rising, Marion S. 787 Laurel Ave., St. Paul Risch, John Elkton, S. D. Ritchie, J. H. R. 2, White Bear Lake Rimstad, Ludvik Dawson Rindahl, C. L. Oklee Ritt, A. 401 Sinnen St., St. Paul Risk, Miss Mary M. R. 1, Adams, Wis. Risdale, P. S. Am. For. Assn., Washington, D. C. Robinson, Geo. W. 699 N. Snelling Ave., St. Paul Robinson, Chas. A. 4633 S. Xerxes Ave., Mpls. Robbins, H. M. Excelsior Robson, C. A. Red Wing Robertson, John Hot Springs, S. D. Roads & Forests 1406 Majestic Bldg., Detroit Roberts, C. M. 139 W. 40th St., Minneapolis Roberts, Miss Emma M. 14 E. 51st St., Mpls. Rogers, C. R. St. Anthony Falls Sta., Mpls. Rodgers, Dr. Emma White Bear Roe, C. E. 412 Providence Bldg., Duluth Rodecker, L. V. Gladstone Rohan, Mrs. M. A. 1004 Nicollet Ave., Mpls. Rockhill, Harlow Conrad, Ia. Rognlie, P. B. Esmond, N. D. Rogers, Mrs. Geo. N., 462 E. King St., Winona Roke, Rev. W. E. Verndale Roe, Fredrik Madison Rogers, T. C. 409 Hennepin Ave., Mpls. Rodenberg, Henry Mindora, Wis. Rogers, H. N. Farmington Rojina, Frank Univ. Farm, St. Paul Rockhill, Oscar Larchwood, Ia. Roche, Wm. Inkster, N. D. Rowell, H. H. S. Box 223 Lewiston, Idaho Ross, Norman M. Indian Head, Sask. Rosenwald, J. F. Madison Rosander, J. W. Wayzata Rosacker, Hans 19th Ave. and H. St. N. E. Mpls. Rolin, John Breckenridge Rowe, John Verndale Rosenquist, Mrs. J. O. 3216 Blaisdell Ave., Mpls. Rosenquist, Edwin Eagle Bend Ronnigen, Otto Madison Rossacker, Hans 1856 Stinson Blvd., Mpls. Rowley, J. A. Blooming Prairie Rokes, G. B. Woodstock Rosenberger, Peter 1003 Stryker Ave, St. Paul Rowe, Dr. A. T. Larimore, N. D. Rotty, Mrs. Clara R. 2, Hastings Rotty, John Sr. R. 2, Hastings Rowse, And. Simpson Rolvaag, Prof. O. E. Manitou Ave., Northfield Rosengren, Carl Sacred Heart Rovang, O. N. Dalton Rowe, W. H. St. James Rosholt, Mrs. Julius 1925 Penn Ave., Mpls. Rosenstein, David 118 Washington Ave., Mpls. Rowell, W. W. 3224 2nd Ave. S., Mpls. Rose, Logan Mankato Runals, Maj. D. E. Edgerton Ruff, Mrs. D. W. C. Bald Eagle Lake Rupley, Geo. 612 Lyceum Bldg., Duluth Russell, Dr. E. B. Excelsior Ruble, C. H. Albert Lea Russell, S. B. Rochester Reudlinger, C. N. 2924 Aldrich Ave., Mpls. Rucker, I. W. Aitkin Russell, Dr. Thos. Grand Rapids Running, Alvin Montevideo Rutherford, Geo. Clara City Rusten, Erland J. Box 25, R. 4, Beresford, S. D. Ruble, Harry E. Albert Lea Russell, Hans Warroad Rush, John H. Buffalo Lake Rue, E. B. Lakefield Rue, B. O. Lakefield Ruttger, Jos. Deerwood Rustin, J. O. Kelliher Ruenitz, Nis Sleepy Eye Rude, T. A. 320 3rd Ave. S., St. Paul Ruth, S. S. Deer River Rust, C. R. 1517 E. Superior St., Duluth Ryan, Timothy Hopkins Rysgaard, Jens Orchard Gardens, Savage Ryan, Geo. L. North St. Paul Ryden, P. Cambridge Salzer, Geo. 606 Plymouth Bldg., Minneapolis Salbach, F. C. 116 7th St. N., Great Falls, Mont. Sampson, L. F. Excelsior Saam, John 835 E. 6th St., St. Paul Salveson, Rev. Adolph Toronto, S. D. Salander, G. Donaldson's Greenhouse, Mpls. Saltnass, A. M. 3712 11th Ave. S., Mpls. Sabin, Bert Mission Samuelson, H. R. Box 28, R. 1, Lafayette Sahlin, Peter Red Top Samuelson, Fred Eastwood Sampson, Richard Excelsior Sand, Ole O. Elbow Lake Sawyer Mrs. N. S. Excelsior Sandrock, Wm. Houston Sayre, R. 108 E. 51st St. Sta., Chicago, Ill. Sartell, Mrs. Jos. St. Cloud Sandboe, I. A. Wegdahl Sane, Peter P. R. 1, Montevideo Salter, Lewis Morris Sandberg, C. M. Lake City Sauter, A. Excelsior Sands, Louis Agri. School, St. Paul Sawyer, C. W. 1400 Wash. Ave. N., Mpls. Sanford, Mort Faribault Sanborn, Louis 409 Lumber Exchange, Mpls. Sanderson, Oscar Albert Lea Satrang, I. I. Waterville, Ia. Sanders, J. H. Buffalo Lake Sanby, E. Elbow Lake Sanborn, Edward A. 1786 Marshall Ave., St. Paul Saunders, Mrs. Wm. Robbinsdale Sawyer, L. E. 2538 Fillmore St. N. E., Mpls. Saxson, C. R. Worthington Sandberg, John H. Pequot Saueressig, W. A. Drake, N. D. Sanford, M. W. Faribault Scott, Wm. G. R. 4, Winnipeg, Man. Schlemmer, A. Chisago City Schotzko, F. E. Springfield Schwerin, Henry Echo Scherber, J. D. Rogers Schreiner, Francis X. R. 2, W. St. Paul Schmidt, Edward R. 3, Mankato Schiffrer, Rev. Val. Madison Schmitz, Jacob Shakopee Schrooten, J. Fairmont Schumann, Carl Round Lake Scott, Z. D. Scott-Graff Lbr. Co., Duluth Schulcz, Peter Wells Schlemmer, C. H. 1602 Hague Ave., St. Paul Schnathorst, Wm. Frazee Schultz, L. S. Excelsior Schriber, Fred H. White Bear Lake Scott, Miss Zaidee A. 810 McKnight Bldg., Mpls. Scone, Mrs J. A. 2015 Girard Ave. N., Mpls. Schumaker, R. H. Bemidji Schroedel, John Sherburn Schumacher, Albert G. Fairfax Schultz, Wm. G. Elgin Schaffer, Arthur R. 5, Windom Scott, W. C. 2109 Doswell, St. Paul Schlegel, F. T. Chokio Schmickle, C. W. South Haven Schmitt, Adrian 629 2nd St. N. E., Mpls. Scobie, Frank Sleepy Eye Schmitt, Jos. E. Stryker and Butler St., W. St. Paul Schleusner, Ernest R. 5, Menomonie, Wis. Schulz, Joseph Lester Prairie Scobie, Bertha C., 4172 Eddy St., Chicago, Ill. Schultz, Mrs. O. W., 5019 1st Ave. S., Mpls. Scherf, Fred Osseo Schlomkey, Chas. Newport Scott, John T. 1486 Hythe St., St. Paul Score, John J. Wolf Butte, N. D. Schuneman, Wesley Schuneman & Evans, St. Paul Schulz, Carl Melrose Schroeder, C. A. Mankato Schaefer, Mrs. Henry Sta. F, R. 1, Mpls. Schuneman, Carl T. Schuneman & Evans, St. Paul Scott, E. B. Laporte Schweizer, Myron, 1185 Hague Ave., St. Paul Schechter, J. R. 6, Worthington Scott, C. G., Gowan Lenning Brown, Duluth Schnidt, Rev. Otto E. Decorah, Ia. Scanlan, John S. Long Prairie Schultz, Theo. R. 2, Monticello Scheffold, Rev. Geo. Wayzata Schoeneman, Wm. F. 1111 Goff Ave., W. St. Paul Schneider, J. J. Renville Schwarg, Mrs. P. J. Dodge Center Schneider, Rudolph C. 708 Osceola Ave., St. Paul Schmidt, Alois Hugo Sell, Chas. Delano Selvig, C. C. Willmar Seiler, J. M. Excelsior Secor, Eugene Forest City, Ia. Searles, Robt. Hammond, Wis. Seifert, Frank L. New Ulm Segrin, Frank Sauk Center Seines, O. E. Windom Seidl, John N. 1063 Goff Ave., W. St. Paul Selby, J. S. La Crescent Secor, A. J. Pipestone Sederstrom, Alfred R. 5, Montevideo Sebbe, Nels Box 21, Esmond, N. D. Seitz, W. A. Laurel, Mont. Severson, F. L. Stewartville Setterholm, L. W. Dale Severa, Emil 1677 Vincent Ave. N., Mpls. Senecal, J. W., 1307 Yale Place, Apt. 10, Mpls. Seymore, Mrs. M. T., 109 W. 3rd St., Duluth Seward, Fred Central Lake Shannon, R. Annandale Shepley, Mrs. E. L. 12 Summit Court, St. Paul Shave, Alfred S. Hawley Shattuck, G. W. Whalan Shaw, Robt. Finkley Shelley, T. E. Hanska Shenahan, F. C., Univ. of Minn., Minneapolis Sherwood, Geo. E. Kimball Shelland, Miss Ann Dept. Public Inst., Capitol, St. Paul Sherwood, W. C. Woodland Ave., Duluth Sherman Nursery Co. Charles City, Ia. Sharpless. Rev. S. F. Fergus Falls Shenk, Wm. J., 897 Oakland Ave., W. St. Paul Shenandoah Nurseries Shenandoah, Iowa Shepherd, A. K., 1963 Ashland Ave., St. Paul Shane, Danl. West Salem, Wis. Sharp, A. B. Lincoln Shaw, Dr. A. W. Buhl Sherman, E. D. Morgan Sherwood, M. W. Chatfield Shellum, Jacob Goodthunder Sharpsteen, Mr. 125 Cecil St. S.E., Mpls. Sheppard, F. J., 103 E. Lake St. Minneapolis Sheer, Otto Maple Plain Shaw Botanical Gardens St. Louis, Mo. Sheldrew, Geo. Grygla Shaw, Daniel Thief River Falls Shirley, H. L. Breckenridge Short, Mrs. John Wayzata Shoen, Mrs. Mary Comfrey Shivley, Lloyd R. Tower Shields, Miss Box 7, Shields, Pa. Shields, Martin M. Faribault Shoaff, T. H. Grand Rapids Shoquist, Isaac Clinton Simmons, W. A. 1620 So. Spring Ave., Sioux Falls, S. D. Simpson, Hon. David, N.Y. Life Bldg., Mpls. Sipher, Mrs. A. J. Aitkin Simmons, W. A. 1620 S. Spring Ave., Sioux Fals, S. D. Siehl, C. D. 4449 Beard Ave. S., Mpls. Simmons, Irwin Glenwood Sims, S. A. Excelsior Siegle, Simon Carver Sill, J. W. Belgrade Simison, Dr. C. W. Hawley Simon, Otto 1085 Goff Ave., W. St. Paul Sikes, S. R. 915 Wash. Ave. So., Mpls. Silliman, A. P. Hibbing Singer, Edw. Erie Signs, Mrs. C. E. 873 Ottawa St., St. Paul Sinclair, C. E. 225 Kasota Blk., Mpls. Silbernagel, Peter, Jr. Dent Simons, Orlando Glencoe Simek, Alois L. 306 State Ave., Owatonna Sigl, Cyrill M. Hopp, Mont. Sinclair, Mrs. E. L. 425 So. Prospect, Rochester Simmons, A. W. Forest Lake Sisler, A. M. Grand Rapids Sincock, W. J. 1025 Central Ave., Virginia Simmons, L. L. Grand Marais Sjoquist, John A. St. James Skytte, C. J. Fisher and Autumn St., St. Paul Skinner, J. W. Saum Skinnemoen, Ole Wendell Skoog, A. L. Carver Skorpen, Jens Valley City, N. D. Skrivseth, B. L. Buxton, N. D. Skogland, Clarence 1069 E. Ave., Red Wing Skinner, J. H. Austin Skretting, Rasmus Red Top Skaurud, H. O. R. 2, Twin Valley Sloan, F. G. Ellendale Slinner, L. Burtrum Sloan, Mrs. J. B. 1740 Laurel Ave., St. Paul Slack, H. W. 1736 Princeton Ave., St. Paul Smith, C. H. Faribault Smith, F. C. Plumb City, Wis. Smith, Mrs. W. S. 486 Portland Ave., St. Paul Smith, E. D. 213 Phoenix Bldg., Mpls. Smith, S. D. Stanton Smith, C. L. 2018 Hawthorn Ave., Mpls. Smith, T. C. Lakeville Smith, A. D. Redwood Falls Smith, L. Z. Mankato Smith, D. D. St. Paul Smith, Fred W. Bottineau, N. D. Smiley, R. W. 713 E. 2nd. St., Duluth Smith, B. W. 132 E. Lake St., Mpls. Smith, W. F. Sturgeon Lake Smith, Mrs. Geo. W. Dent Smith, Geo. D. Faribault Smith, Rev. F. J. St. Francis Smith, H. W. R. 2, Richville Smith, Wm. Richville Smith, Theo. Richville Smith, E. E. R. 2, South Haven Smith, C. W. Lakeville Smith, Joe J. Agri. College, N. D. Emith, A. C. 2095 Commonwealth Ave., St. Paul Smith, Mrs. Jessie E. Thief River Falls Smith, Geo. O. 2721 Minn. Ave., Duluth Simer, Jerome Spring Park Snyder, C. E. Preston Snell, H. D. 2354 Chilcomb Ave., St. Paul Snoke, Guy Wayzata Sorenson, S. Anoka Solem, O. A. Th. Halstad Solseth, Ed. A. Box 182, Watson Sorenson, Otto A. Albert Lea Soderlund, Nels Box 54, Alvarado Sommerfeld, F. W. Echo Solem, Peter Thief River Falls Soderholm, Ellis Atwater Sommers, Benj. 6th and Wacouta St., St. Paul Soderholm, C. Reading Soule, H. E. 417 Plymouth Bldg., Mpls. Southall, John Berlin, N. D. Solberg, A. J. Winger Sonnesyn, E. C. 1805 10th Ave. So., Mpls. Sorby, H. Montevideo Sovereign, Mrs. Emma Sauk Rapids Souther, Moses F. Hector Sorenson, Jens Alb. Armstrong Soesch, M. C. R. 1, Kimball Spates, S. R. Wayzata Sperr, Fred Donnelly Spadino, Fred St. Paul Park Spiten, O. G. Hayfield Sprague, Clifford Madelia Speelman, Mrs. S. A. Turtle River Spencer, G. H. 404 Hawthorn Rd., Duluth Sperl, John B. Box 71, R. 2, W. St. Paul Spicer, W. A. R. 2, Bagley Sprague, Mrs. Jas. W., 3120 Irving S., Mpls. Sperbeck, Frank R. 2, Winona Spielman, E. F. R. 5, Worthington Stai, Chas. R. 607 Torrey Bldg., Duluth Starr, Miss Elizabeth Minneapolis State Reformatory St. Cloud Stahl, H. H. Minot, N. D. Stakman, Prof. E. C. Univ. Farm, St. Paul Staar, John Grasston Stanley, T. W. Baudette Stassen, Win. A. Charlton Germs, St. Paul Stahl, Chas. Laporte Staley, G. M. Grand Rapids Stahl, F. J. Cottage Park, White Bear Steller, G. F. Excelsior Stevenson, A. P. Morden, Man. Steiner, John Iona Stewart, Prof. John St. Anthony Park Stelter, A. L. Rosemount Stemsrud, M. A. Madison Stebbins, Vera 320 Oak Grove St., Mpls. Stemple, Aug. St. Peter Stevens, H. G. Cloquet Steele, Wm. M. Mound Stewart, R. G. 1349 Reaney St., St. Paul Steere, W. S. R. 1, Savage Stevens, W. C. 3901 Thomas Ave. So., Mpls. Sten, John Red Wing Stennes, E. J. R. 6, Montevideo Steckel, Rev. L. W. Albert Lea Steene, Peter Lancaster Stephens, P. J. Estevan, Sask. Steenerson Van Hook, N. D. Stender, Mrs. Chas. Dent Stenlyem, Peter O. Esmond, N. D. Stevins, W. C. South Haven Stevens, S. Geo. Fond du Lac Stepanek, Fred Ogilvie Stepanek, Mrs. Joe Ogilvie Stevens, Mrs. J. W. 458 Holly Ave., St. Paul Stevenson, Miss Isabel Delhi Steele, W. R. Big Fork Stockwell, S. A. 304 Andrus Bldg., Mpls. Stork, W. E., 363 S. Cleveland Ave., St. Paul Street, H. G. Hebron, Ill. Strader, W. M. R. 6, Mankato Stowe, J. M. Hibbing Stryker, Mrs. J. E. Pioneer Press Bldg., St. Paul Stoa, Martin Albert Lea Stromsedt, O. N. Willmar Strand, A. K. Twin Valley Stryker, John D. Woodland Ave., Hunters Park, Duluth Stillwell, John A. Arago Stocker, Ben Sanborn Stull, L. B. Mazeppa Strate, E. B. 658 Plum St., St. Paul Storeim, Albert S. Ortonville Stone, A. L. Benson Stubbs, Milton Long Lake Strable, Karl 3038 Blaisdell Ave., Mpls. Stickney, L. A. Minnesota City Stranden, Ole G. Swift Stob, C. T. R. 2, Svea Stone, W. M. 16 So. 3rd St., Mpls. Stoleson, Theo. R. 1, Viroqua, Wis. Stromnar, J. A. Rollag Stob, G. Raymond Strachaners, Clarence 412 Syndicate Bldg., Mpls. Strissel, H. E. Fergus Falls Stowe, A. W. Laurel, Mont. Strauss, Mrs. Minnie 624 Ohio St., St. Paul Strong, Mrs. Saml. Hopkins Stromstad, Torval M. Shelly Strathern, John Rich Valley Stewart, Mrs. Nina Northfield Strey, A. C. Montrose Stocking, Wm. St. Peter Stockton, Mrs. C. M. Faribault Stromme, C. K. Hannaford, N. D. Strong, J. P. Excelsior Stone, E. E. Downing, Wis. Strandli, Erick Big Falls Stryker, John E. 816 Globe Bldg., St. Paul Sundberg, Chas. A. Worthington Sucker, Adolph Lewisville Sundheim, A. M. 3205 Park Ave., Mpls. Sundt, Ole M. Willmar Summerfield, Isaac 921 Goodrich Ave., St. Paul Summers, Mrs. L. Box 23-B, R. 1, Mansfield, Wash. Sullwold, H. A. 1773 Summit Ave., St. Paul Sullivan, John 361 Iglehart, St. Paul Svaboda, Frank Canby Svaboda, J. Browerville Swanson, Albert R. 1, St. Croix Falls, Wis. Swann, J. R. Madison Swanson, Chas. R. 2, No. St. Paul Swedberg, J. E. R. 2, Battle Lake Swanson, C. W. Box 29, R. 1, Lafayette Swanson, Alfred 584 Boxrud Ave., Red Wing Swan, Mrs. T. P. Mendota Swanson, Henry A. Cushing, Wis. Swanson, A. P. Box 268 Stevensville, Mont. Swedberg, P. W. Moose Lake Sweet, W. H. 1731 Chicago Ave., Mpls. Swensson, John Box 57, R. 2, Maynard Swart, J. W. 4051 Linden Hills Blvd., Mpls. Swenson, Gunder R. 3, New London Swenson, H. E. R. 1, Center City Swedberg, J. I. Madison Syrdal, R. R. Shelly St. John, A. M. Lakefield St. John, P. R. 3121 Humboldt So., Mpls. St. Clair, H. Estevan, Sask. Swanson, John W. Stephen Swanson, Wm. Dent Swedenberg, M. F. Lyndale Sta., Mpls. Swenson, Ed Spring Valley Swanson, Mrs. J. M. R. 1, Eagle Bend Swanson, F. M. Crete, N. D. Swedberg, Martin Tappan, N. D. Swenson, Emil Lafayette Swanson, Chas. S. W. Litchfield Swain, F. O. Lincoln Swanson, Mrs. Marie E. R. 1, St. Croix Falls, Wis. Swan, Frank Woodlake Sweet, Orla Alexandria Taylor, M. F. Anoka Talcott, Mrs. A. L. Westbrook Taylor, John W. 206 Globe Bldg., St. Paul Tallant, F. E. 711 Plymouth Bldg., Mpls. Tallafson, H. S. R. 5, Willmar Taylor, Thos. W. Eagle Bend Taylor, J. G. 932 Nicollet Ave., Mpls. Tavener, Mark Esmond, N.D. Taylor, J. B. Ipswich, S.D. Tavis, Fred Albert Lea Tappe, Chas. Box 6, R. 1, Sebeka Taylor, G. F. Excelsior Tauscheck, Jos. 966 Allen Ave., W. St. Paul Tanner, F. O. Brownsdale Tappan, W. M. Hibbing Taylor, Rev. Wm. Litchfield Taner, Geo. M. New Ulm Taylor, E. E. Merrifield Talland, G. M. 534 Woodland Ave., Duluth Taylor, Mrs. E. A. Box 26, Faribault Taylor, Wm. Faribault Terry, L. W. Howard Lake Teisberg, O. T. Zumbrota Tewes, Fred Mazeppa Teeple, David P. R. No. 3, Wells Tereau, Mrs. F. 430 Iglehart Ave., St. Paul Templeton, A. E. 602 Oneida Bldg., Mpls. Tenter, Henry Dent Tenter, Wm. Dent Temple, Lyle Morristown Tellin, Mattie Deer River Thompson, F. S. 234 Sec. Bldg., Mpls. Theilmann, Geo. Excelsior Thunstedt, John Willmar Thiebaut, Rev. C. Browns Valley Thompson, Torkel Louisburg Thorp, Col. Freeman Hubert Thomas, Chas. J. Frazee Thompson, Dr. C. S. W. 137-1/2 Main St., Helena, Mont. Throolin, P. J. 4018 Van Buren St., NE, Mpls. Thomas, E. L. Vergas Thornton, M. J. Deer River Thorpe, Ralph 2837 Central NE., Mpls. Thornton, F. C. Benson Thornton, M. P. Worthington Thompson, Robt. R. No. 5, Willmar Thompson, Fred. M Bricelyn Thompson, W. J. Pitt Thompson, R. C. Oneida Blk., Mpls. Thor, Herman Mound Thompson, M. J. Supt. Exp. Farm, Duluth Thompson, Harold Care of Lake Shore Greenhouses, Albert Lea Theilen, Chas. G. 3327 Morgan Ave. N., Mpls. Thompson, O. A. Murdock Thielman, P. R. St. Cloud Tharen, J. A. Hills Thener, John M. Adrian Thierschaefer, Jos. R. 6, Sauk Center Thomson, C. Jean 416 N. 18th Ave. E., Duluth Thompson, Thorwold Oslo Thomson, M. A. 426 Kennilworth Ave., Duluth Thompson, L. C. Ruthton Thomson, W. J. Shaunavon, Sask. Thorn, Geo. R. 2, Prescott, Wis. Tingley, W. J. Forest Lake Tillotson, Mrs. H. B. 1320 5th St. SE, Mpls. Tillisch, J. F. F. Renville Titus, S. L. 140 Endicott Arcade, St. Paul Tillisch, Mary A. Washburn Home, Mpls. Tiedt, Mrs. Fred Argyle Tilden, Miss M. B. Sta. F, Mpls. Tisdale, Mrs. G. E. 3144 Irving S., Mpls. Timmerman, Mrs. Wm. 381 E. Cook St., St. Paul Tjosvold, L. A. Willmar Torgerson, H. P. Astoria, S.D. Tomalin, W. H. Bx. 304, Regina, Sask. Totusek, Frank J. Silver Lake Towler, Robt. S. R. 1, Exceisior Torfin, Iver Wannaska Tollefson, Hogen R. No. 2, Clearbrook Tomlinson, W. H. LeSueur Tolberg, O. Edwin Winner Todd, J. E. Dept. of Prov. Secy., Toronto, Ont. Todji, Rev. Jos. Searles Tomlin, G. C. Edgeley, N.D. Tome, G. H. Pine Island Townsend, Mrs. Eddie Pine Island Tormanen, Peter R. 4, Cokato Torgrim, J. R. 621 W. 3rd Ave., Mitchell, S.D. Todd, J. A. 212 Victoria St., Duluth Tostenson, E. Jackson Torguson, G. C. Gleenwood Trumble, H. W. Sherburn Trabert, Chas. L., Secy. 2736 Elmwood Ave., Berkeley, Sal. Tripps, O. A. R. No. 3, St. Cloud Train, G. L. Chisholm Trafton, Gilbert H. Mankato Trask, Ebert Saum Trethewey, J. H. Virginia Trybe, Thos. Eagle Bend Trautz, Geo. 2108 Carroll Ave., St. Paul Trotler, A. 227 Spruce St., Virginia Tschieda, Matt St. Cloud Turner, H. H. Northfield Tuskind, C. O. Davenport, N.D. Turner, John Shakopee Tufte, Theo. T. Northwood, N.D. Tucker, Joe Austin Tull, W. H. Padus, Wis. Tyacke, Geo. Proctor Unze, Geo. Shakopee Unumb, P. O. Alexandria Ueland, M. K. Shelly Univ. of Wash. Seattle, Wash. Uptagraft, LeRoy West Concord Unkenholz, S. W. Mandan, N.D. Utsch, Herman Little Falls Univ. of Mo. Genl. Lib. Columbia, Mo. Unumb, E. O. Alexandria Umbstaetter, Mrs. Shields, Pa. Ulschmit, John Frazee Uelander, T. L. Crystal Bay Univ. of Ill. Library Chicago, Ill. Vangen, Peter O. Box 9, R. 1, Climax Vande Bogart, W. S. Zumbrota Van Vick, John Spiritwood, N.D. Vandermarck, Mrs. C. W. 818 Albert St., Crookston Vanstrum, John A. Clarkfield Vance, F. L. Popple Vander Veer, Geo. H. Center City Van Duzee, E. M. White Bear Lake Vanbeck, Henry 1843 Quincy St. NE., Mpls. Van Loon, John R. 2, La Crosse, Wis. Varden, Archie Care of Frank Bovey, Wayzata Van Doom, J. C. 836 Sec. Bldg., Mpls. Van Stone, I. M. 3322 Park Ave., Mpls. Vacinek, Vaclav R. 1, Pine City Veit, Fred Fergus Falls Verplank, E. E. R. 1, New Richland Velie, Chas. D. 225 Clifton Ave., Mpls. Vestre, Lars Boyd Velde, G. T. Granite Falls Vine, W. W. R. 1. Elgin Vinquist, Alfred B. Box 74, R. 3, Red Wing Vibert, F. D. The Pine Knot, Cloquet Viall, Roy Spring Valley Vierling, Ed. J. Shakopee Vine, P. O. Porter Va. & Rainy Lake Co. Virginia Viel, Raymond St. Laurent, Man. Vierling, M. A. 824 Hall Ave., St. Paul Vikse, Ole Ostrander Vibert, Percy Cloquet Vincent, G. E. Univ. of Minn., Mpls. Vincent, V. D. Commercial Club, Duluth Vikla, John P. Lonsdale Vikla, Wencel J. Lonsdale Vikla, Martin J. Lonsdale Vikla, Mathias R. Lonsdale Villaume, Eugene 123 W. Isabel, St. Paul Volkmer, Henry Holdingford Vollenweider, Henry La Crescent Vogt, C. F. St. Paul Von Herff, B. 1901 McCormick Bldg., Chicago, Ill. Voyler, Henry Vergas Vodden, John Argusville, N.D. Vorlicky, Jos. Thief River Palls, Wis. Vosejpka, John M. Lonsdale Voehl, H. W. Lakefield Vraspir, Frank R. 2, Hopkins Wade, R. H. Odin Wachlin, Wm. Faribault Wakefield, W., M. D. Lake Benton Wagner, Ed. R. 649 Charles St., St. Paul Waas, P. H. Dresbach Waite, Geo. Moorhead Wach, V. N. Lake Crystal Lake, Ill. Waite, Jas. F. Eureka Wagner, C. D. W. Winona St., Duluth Wang, Albert 926 Garfield Ave., Duluth Wands, Robt. W. Little Falls Walgren, Swan J. 3048 10th Ave. S., Mpls. Walden, J. M. Northfield Wallner, Berthold Jr. 200 Dodd Rd., St. Paul Waldholm, Mrs. Geo. Tintah Wallace, H. L. Grasston Walsh, W. P. Murdock Walz, Fred F. Egeland, N.D. Walters, J. J. Dupree, S.D. Walz, Theo. Watkins Walkup, J. E. 2416 Sheridan So., Mpls. Walton, Louis 351 Snively Rd., Duluth Waldal, Marius Plummer Waller, L. S. Waubun Wallin, O. Red Top Walters, Wm. Grand Portage Walker, Roy Sauk Rapids Wallace, John G. Solway Watt, John Leonard, N.D. Wampler, A. J. 134 E. 4th St., St. Paul Washburn, W. O. 63 So. Robert St., St. Paul Wattner, A. A. Canby Washburn, Prof. F. L. St. Anthony Park Wanous, Frank R. Glencoe Warren, Mrs. Geo. H. 3443 Irving S., Mpls. Wanlass, Jos. Jr. Bangor, Wis. Warner, Frank Snow Ball Watts, Arthur 2833 17th Ave. S., Mpls. Watt, Wm. Swift Warner, A. L. Duluth Washburn, C. O. Edgeley, N.D. Warren, A. A. R. 3, St. Cloud Warner, C. E. R. 1, Osseo Warner, Mrs. C. E. Box 85, R. 1, Osseo Wayne, Jens R. 4, Ellendale Wandrie, Otto Frazee Watson, Jas. T. 40th Ave. E. and Gilbert St., Duluth Warnock, R. W. Independence, Mo. Watson, Dwight H. Box 212, White Bear Lake Warner, Mrs. E. C. 3030 W. Calhoun Blvd., Mpls. Warren, Mrs. Clyde W. Sauk Rapids Warwick, Andrew 2525 13th Ave. S., Mpls. Watson, Mrs. J. L. 1173 Ashland Ave., St. Paul Wardian, Math. Holdingford Ward, Wesley Mapleton Wasserzieher, Edward Deerwood Watzke, Chas. Belgrade Ware, Mrs. Elizabeth 2885-1/2 Knox Ave., Mpls. Watson, Geo. P. International Falls Weld, J. O. 1601 Fremont N., Mpls. Welke, Sam Fall Creek, Wis. Wedge, Robt. C. Albert Lea Weld, Mrs. H. E. Moorhead Weinhagen, Chas. 361 Bates Ave., St. Paul Webster, J. K. St. James Wedge, A.G. Jr. Bemidji Wedge, L. P. Albert Lea Wenz, Chas. Hector Weflen, Chris Montevideo Weed, Ben B. Care of Weed, Parker & Co., St. Paul Wegmann, Theo. Lake Itasca Wendt, Chas. H. Blue Earth Webber, Mrs. C. C. Crystal Bay Webster, A. E. Dresbach Wellman, C. W. Dauphin, Man. Welke, Fritz R. 1, Eau Claire, Wis. Wentworth, R. J. R. 3, Robbinsdale Weber, J. A. Care of C. G. Goodrich, Excelsior Welp, Rev. Francis Alexandria Webber, C. C. Crystal Bay Weikert, Henry I. St. Paul Wenholz, Henry Buffalo Lake Wendelschafer, T. G. Cleveland Wenz, Ludwig B. Hector Weiler, Nick 871 Univ. Ave., St. Paul Westergaard, C. Buffalo, N.D. Westergaard, P. J. Belgrade Weyerhaeuser, F. E. 1413 Mer. Natl. Bank Bldg., St. Paul Westfield, Kasper Canby West Central School of Agri. Morris Wetzel, Aug. R. 1, St. Ignatius, Mont. Weyerhauser, C. A. Little Falls Wetherbee, M. H. Charles City, Ia. West, J. P. Rockford West, W. J. Hibbing West, Wm. L. 43 S. St. Albans St., St. Paul Werner, H. O. Agri. College, N.D. Wetzel, Mrs. Paul K. Deerwood Westcott, Geo. E. 1173 S. Robert St., St. Paul Westerfield, E. O. Fort Atkinson, Wis. Weum, C. O. Lincoln Wesiphall, C. D. R. 2, Romely Weston, Frank Clitheral Weum, Mrs. T. A. Kenyon Wessels, Percy Neche, N.D. Wetteland, T. Sunfish Rd. and Butler St., W. St. Paul Wermerskirchen, Rev. Father A. Hokah Wheeler, Miss Gerda Bruno Whetstone, Dr. Mary S. 738 E. 16th St., Mpls. Wheeler, Olin D.N.P.R.R. Office, St. Paul Wheeler, Jesse Excelsior Wein, Rev. H. J. Caledonia Week, F. D. Slayton Wenzel, Orrin J. 1718 Taylor Ave., St. Paul Whiting, Geo. H. Yankton, S.D. Whitney, Geo. G. 420 Germania Life, St. Paul White, Mrs. Emma V. 3010 S. Aldrich, Mpls. Whiting, D. J. Northfield Whyte, A. 662 Central Ave., St. Paul White, J. U. Brainerd Whitten, Thos. S. Winton Whipple, G. M. St. Louis Park White, H. H. Minnesota Transfer, Mpls. Whitney, Frank H. Truman Whittemore, Dr. M. K. Cloquet Whitney, N. J. Albert Lea Whiting, Mrs. Geo. H. Yankton, S.D. Whitchill, N. 1208 E. 26th St., Mpls. Whitney, E. H. Granada White, Mrs. Wm. G. 767 Goodrich Ave., St. Paul White, Mrs. Grace 347 W. Wabasha, Duluth Whorton, R. D. Huron, S. D. White, Henry R. Brainerd Whipple, Mrs. Estelle Grand Rapids Wickland, John Atwater Wiegel, H. A. Magnolia Widmoyer, W. S. La Crescent Wichman, Frank First Natl. Bank Bldg., St. Paul Wick, Oscar East Grand Forks Wickstrom, A. E. R. 1, Anoka Width, A. B. 2018 W. Superior St., Duluth Wicklund, Lawrence R. 6, Atwater Wiggins, Earl L. Baudette Wiffler, Fred Arcadia, Wis. Wier, John Campbell Wiggin, G. H. Cloquet Wieschmann, Albert Bertha Wilen, Chas. R. 3, Argyle Wilson, Oscar Underwood Willis, Rev. Francis Excelsior Wilbur, D. Floyd, Ia. Wille, F. W. 1046 Wakefield Ave., St. Paul Williams, M. Staples Will, O. H. Bismarck, N. D. Wilder, C. B. Floodwood Wilder, Mark L. R. 1, Kasota Wilwerding, Nick Box 25, R. 5, St. Cloud Willius, F 469 Laurel Ave., St. Paul Willard, D. E N. P. R. R., St. Paul Will, Wm. Beltrami Wilson, J. F. Cloquet Willard, E. C. Mankato Williams, Niles L. Dayton Bluff Sta., St. Paul Wildung, W. H. Howard Lake Will, Hugh Box 29, Mpls. Wilkelmi, F. W. Cloquet Willis, Robt. Marietta Willus, Chas. H. 4140 32nd Ave. S., Mpls. Wilson, John Rockford Wilcox, Mrs. Estelle 1122 Raymond, St. Paul Wild Floral Co., Frank Sarcoxie, Mo. Wilwerding, A. J. Freeport Williams, J. R. Elgin Willis, W. J. Y. M. C. A., Washington, D. C. Wilson, F. K. R. 1, Hopkins Wilson, Donald Mantorville Williams, Rev. E. M Northfield Wirth, Theo. 3956 Bryant So., Mpls. Witte, H. L. F. R. 3, Hopkins Wise, H. Appleton Wingate, Mrs. W. S. Excelsior Winkley, F. C. Minn. Loan & Trust, Mpls. Wintersteen, C. B. 3949 11th Ave. So., Mpls. Wise, H. R. Brainerd Winget & Keeler Chokio Winslow, H. H. Northome Winjum, G. K. Albert Lea Winter, E. F. Fergus Falls Winkler, Mrs. Mary Brooten Wister, John C Germantown, Phila., Pa. Windmiller, Miss Pauline Mankato Windhorst, Geo. W. Olivia Wolner, Rev. H. J. Virginia Wolfram, A. C. Belle Plain Wolner, Dr. O. H. Gilbert Wodny, Jas. 339 4th St., Cloquet Wolters, John 182 W. Bernard St., W. St. Paul Wolfinger, Jos. So. St. Paul Woestehoff, J. C. Blakeley Wolf, Chas. Cohasset Wilson, H. M. 1116 Harrison St., Superior, Wis. Willis, F. D. 75 E. Sycamore St., St. Paul Wilcox, J. P. R. 2, Excelsior Willis, R. J. 956 Grand Ave., St. Paul Wilkus, A. J. 909 Winslow Ave., W. St. Paul Williams, L. A. Pelican Rapids Wille, Otto L. 110 Bates Ave. St. Paul Wilson, E. B. 1815 Emerson No., Mpls. Williams, E. E. 1709. W. 2nd St., Duluth Williams, Dr. J. P. 3722 E. Lake St., Mpls. Wilkinson, F. L. White Bear Wilkinson, Mrs. R. J. Stillwater Wilhalm, Henry Jackson Wilwerding, J. M. Caledonia Wilson, John Homer Wilson, Mrs. Mary C. R. 1, Sta. F., Mpls. Woodruff, C. O. Excelsior Woodel, C. F. Austin Woodworth, W. D. Little Falls Wortman, H. J. Watkins Woods, Prof. Geo. B. Northfield Works, R. M. 2908 Fremont So., Mpls. Woodward, Philip M. R. 1, Onamia Woodman, M. H. Sutherland, Neb. Worden, Mrs. Lillian 256 Farrington, St. Paul Woods, W. A. Inverness, Mont. Woodland & Roadside 4 Joy St., Boston, Mass. Woods, Roy E. New Effington, S. D. Woods, J. H. Calgary, Can. Willis, Katon Deer River Wright, A. V. Mine Center, Ont. Wright, W. H. R. 3, Minneapolis Wright, Edward 2544 Woodland Ave., Duluth Wunderlich, Miss Susie Burns, Sask. Wulfsberg, Einar Elbow Lake Wyman, Mrs. A. Phelps 5017 3rd Ave. S., Mpls Wyse, Oliver Onamia Wygart, Wm. S. Newport Yahnke, W. A. Winona Yegge, C. M. Alpena, S. D. Yale Forest School New Haven, Conn. Young, Mrs. J. Onamia Youngstrom, O. J. Litchfield Young, J. C. 1523 Wash. St. N. E., Mpls. York, R. A. Sandwich, Ill. Yort, A. S. Box 35, Hopkins Young, A. F Lake City Young, Max M. 1777 Marshall Ave., St. Paul Zuercher, F. Excelsior Zrust, Anthony Silver Lake Zachritz, Geo. P. Excelsior Ziemer, Ernest St. Bonifacius Zisch, Chas. Dresbach Zimmerman, Eli 425 W. Superior St., Duluth Zumwinkle, Wm. Morton Zimbinski, Geo. 1243 Hewitt Ave., St. Paul Life Members. Adams, Mrs. Louisa J. 1827 Irving N., Mpls. Ahneman, Geo. F. Mazeppa Alin, Alex. Fullerton, N. D. Anderson, G. A. Renville Anderson, Rev. J. W. Minot, N. D. Andrews, C. H. Faribault Arneson, A. N. Wagdahl Arnold, L. B. 24 Butte Ave., Duluth Aspden, H. H. Excelsior Andrews, John K. Faribault Anderson, Mrs. E. Lake Park, R. 2 Andresen, A. S. 2607 E. Fifth St., Duluth Aamodt, A. W. Univ. Farm, St. Paul Appleby, H. J. Minneiska Bailey, E. G. R. 1, Excelsior Care W. C. Rockwood Baker, Geo. A. Janesville Barsness, J. A. Kenyon Bassett, A. K. Baraboo, Wis. Beebe, H. U. Lake City Benham, R. H. 215 Palace Bldg., Mpls. Benson, Edwin Jackson Berrisford, E. F. 386 Robert St., St. Paul Blain, H. J. Maple Plain Boler, Jno. Care Eli Larson, Sawyer, Wis. Boughen, W. J. Valley River, Man. Bouska, Frank Biscay Brady, T. D. Medford Briard, F. W. Gaylord Briggs, A. G. G. N. Ry., St. Paul Brink, C. C. West Union, Ia. Burton, Miss Hazel Deephaven Bacheller, T. T. Seney, Mich. Binger, Herman Renville Brush, Geo. H. R. Owatonna Bergstrom, A. G. Maple Plain Boucher, C. P. 201 E. 4th St., St. Paul Black, Robt H. Albert Lea Burlingame, Florence Grand Rapids Bratnober, C. P. 1419 Harmon Pl., Mpls. Cady, Prof. LeRoy Univ. Farm, St. Paul Carlisle, S. A. Wyoming Cashman, M. R. Owatonna Cashman, T. E. Owatonna Chambers, Rev. R. F. Jackson Cheney, John Morton Chrisman, Chas. E. Ortonville Christensen, P. C. Fairmount Clarke, Fred H. Avoca Cline, Wm. Bertha Cooper, Madison Calcium, N. Y. Crosby, S. P. 222 Miss. River Blvd., St. Paul Cutting, F. E. Byron Christianson, P. A. Hinckley Conard, Henry S. Grinnell, Ia. Cutting, Frank H. City Hall, Duluth Connor, E. M. Excelsior Carlson, John A Box 963, Thief River Falls Carlson, Gust. Box 339, R. 3, Excelsior Care John Washburn Christianson, A. M. Bismarck, N. D. Danforth, Wm. Randolph, Minn. Daniels, R. L. Davey, Dr. Flora M. 375 E. Grant St., Mpls. Dickerson, Wm. Elk Point, S. D. Doerfler, Rev. Bruno Muenster, Sask. Doughty, J. Cole Lake City Dressler, Otto 428 Russell N., Mpls. Drew, Prof. J. M. Univ. Farm, St. Paul Dunsmore, Henry Olivia Durbahn, A. Sleepy Eye Daniels, Frank P. 2112 Kenwood Pkwy., Mpls. DeGraff, Miss Marie I. Anoka Dybdal, Tosten E. Elbow Lake, Minn. Eddy, W. H. Howard Lake Ekloff, John Cokato Eliason, M. A. R. 2, Appleton Engman, Nels 4510 52d St. E. Mpls. Evans, Sheldon J. La Crescent Effertz, Christ Norwood Flannery, Geo. P. 2416 Blaisdell, Mpls. Fletcher, F. F. 2816 W. 44th St., Mpls. Fossum, G. Cottonwood Foster, Wesley S. 810 6th St. S. E., Mpls. Fournelle, Peter White Bear Lake Franklin, A. B. St. F, R. 1, Mpls. Fuller, F. C. Madison, S. D. Fulton, T. C. White Bear Lake Funke, J. L. Wabasha Fredine, J. O. Winthrop Fiebring, J. H. Milwaukee, Wis. Care Fiebring Chemical Co. Ferguson, Walker 1184 Woodland Ave., Mankato Gale, Ed. C. Security Bldg., Mpls. Gates, A. H. Rice Geiger, Wm. C. 520 W. Van Buren St., Chicago, Ill. Gjemse, L. J. Cannon Falls Gjestrum, M. L. Rhinelander, Wis. Glaeser, Mrs. Imelda Owatonna Gilbertson, G. G. Ruthton Galbraith, Raymond H. Care Butler Bros., Mpls. Guerney, D. B. Yankton, S. D. Gibbs, F. H. St. Anthony Park Gibbs, Mrs. F. H. St. Anthony Park Gunderson, Lawrence A. 6131 E. Superior St., Duluth Goebel, Herman Wildrose, N. D. Gray, A. N. Deerwood Graeve, Rev. Mathias Lismore Haatvedt, A. A. R. 1, Hoffman Hagen, O. W. Sleepy Eye Halbert, Geo. T. 648 Sec. Bldg., Mpls. Hall, D. S. Olivia Halvorson, Halvor Hills Hannah, Robt. Fergus Falls Harris, Geo. W. McHugh Harris, E. E. Onlaska, Wis. Harris, F. I. La Crescent Harrison, C. S. 829 York Ave., York, Neb. Harrison, J. F. Excelsior Hart, W. H. Owatonna Hartman, M. B. 661 Plum St., St. Paul Hawkinson, Chas. Wayzata Hawley, T. C. 504 E. Elm St., Lodi, Cal. Hermanson, Herman Hopkins Herrick, U. G. 731 Traffic Station, Mpls. Hilstad, O. C. Nicollet Hobart, A. W. 1412 W. 36th St., Mpls. Hoverstad, T. A. Care Soo Ry., Mpls. Howard, J. A. Hammond Hunter, C. C. 5700 Nicollet Ave., Mpls. Hendrickson, N. Audubon Holway, E. W. D. Excelsior Hjeltnes, K. Ulvik, Hardanger, Norway Heins, C. A. Olivia Haralson, Fred 1055 24th Ave. S. E., Mpls. Irish, Prof. H. C. 1227 Childress Ave. St. Louis, Mo. Jager, John 5241 Upton Ave. S., Mpls. Jerabek, J. S. Hutchinson Jewell, Mrs. B. Randall, Wis. Johannesson, L. Beltrami Johnson, A. A. Winnebago Johnson, Gust 2620 E. 22nd St., Mpls. Johnson, Rev. Saml. Princeton Johnson, Miss Anna M. R. 1, Lafayette Johnson, Hans M. Pipestone Kennedy, J. H. Sheyenne, N. D. Kerns, G. F. Fairmont Klingel, Rev. Clement St. Anthony, Ind. Knight, H. G. LeRoy Korista, J. S. Box 172, Hopkins Krier, T. N. Farmer, S. D. Kueker, Wm. Faribault Kurth, Wm. A. R. 9, Rochester Krog, Johan, Jr. Pleasant Grove Farm, Lake Benton Kugler, F. J. Grand Portage, Minn. King, E. C. Neshkors, Wis. Knutesen, Clarence R. 1, Box 200, Hopkins Krueger, O. F. 3017 Cedar Ave., Mpls. Larson, C. L. Winthrop Larson, Louis M. St. Louis Park Larson, Lars M. Faribault Lien, Thos. J. Delavan Lingen, Carl Starbuck Loftness, A. G. Thief River Falls Longyear, E. J. Excelsior Luce, E. C. Luverne Loring, A. C. 202 Clifton Ave., Mpls. Loring, Mrs. C. M. River Side, Cal. Lowe, J. W. Fairmont Ludescher, J. L. Frazee Lund, I. E. Hopkins Lundgren, Miss E. E. 591 Olive St. St. Paul Lyman, A. B. Excelsior Lyndgaard, Jorgen Lake Benton Lyon, Jay F. Elkhorn, Wis. Leding, Edward R. 1, Box 64, Gary Lawrence, Jas. G. Wabasha Lafot, Ed. W. Lakefield Lien, Chas. H. R. 3, St. Cloud Lima, Ludvig Montevideo Macauley, T. B. Montreal, Can. Mackintosh, Prof. R. S. 2153 Doswell, St. Paul Maher, John Devils Lake, N. D. Manda, W. A. Short Hills, N. J. Mann, W. P. Dodge Center Manner, C. J. Jerome, Idaho Manning, Warren H. N. Billerica, Mass. Marshall, F. F. R. 1, Grove City Marso, J. P. Canby Mayo, Dr. C. H. Rochester Melgaard, H. L. Argyle Melinat, Rev. Max. Odessa Miller, Albert R. 7, Box 24, Cannon Falls Mohr, C. J. Rapidan Mo, Hans Sleepy Eye Moorhead, W. W. Bethany, Mo. Mosbaek, Ludvig Askov Moyer, L. R. Montevideo Mueller, Paul L. 4845 Bryant S., Mpls. Mazey, E. H. 3029 Ewing Ave., Mpls. McComb, Richard Antler, Sask. McCulley, Preston Maple Plain McKibben, A. T. Ramey McKisson, G. D. Fairmont McKusick, John C. Marble McLeague, Rev. P. Stewart McVeety, J. A. Howard Lake McClelland, L. E. R. 3, Hopkins McKesson, J. H. 5106 S. Lyndale Ave., Mpls. McCall, Prof. Thos. M. Crookston McConnell, Roy E. St. Cloud Nehring, Edward Stillwater Nelson, A. A., Jr. 3222 16th Ave. S., Mpls. Nelson, B. F. 1125 5th St. S. E., Mpls. Nelson, John A. R. 2, Maynard Noren, Geo. Chisago City Norwood, F. F. Balaton Nussbaumer, Fred St. Paul Nelson, Iver Cottonwood Newman, G. A. 410 W. Olive St., Stillwater Norling, A. L. Elbow Lake Negstad, A. L. R. 5, Arlington, S. D. O'Connor, Patrick H. 1219 5th Ave. N., Mpls. Older, C. E. Luverne Onstine, Frank A. Harmony Ortmann, Rev. Anselm Richmond Orton, C. J. Marietta O'Callaghan, J. Eden Valley Oyen, O. J. Watson Older, F. E. 1127 N. Alexandria Ave., Los Angeles, Cal. Pattridge, C. A. Comfrey Paulson, Johannes Sta. F, Richfield, Mpls. Pederson, J. S. Walnut Grove Peet, Wm. Boston Blk., Mpls. Peterson, Geo. A. Canby Peterson, J. G. Kensington Peterson, K. K. Rothsay Peterson, R. M., Office of Markets Dept. of Agri., Washington, D. C. Peterson, W. A. Mandan, N. D. Peterson, Wm. A. 3400 Peterson Ave., Chicago, Ill. Pfaender, Max Mandan, N. D. Pond, H. H. Sta. F, R. 3, Mpls. Pond, I. W. Madelia Poore, Hamlin V. 817 10th Ave. S. E., Mpls. Pracna, Frank 236 Delmas Ave., San Jose, Cal. Prosser, E. M. Gully Perry, A. G. Care Butler Bros., Mpls. Quammen, Ole S. Lemmon, S. D. Randall, E. W. 315 Commerce Bldg., St. Paul Rennacker, C. J. Detroit Regeimbal, L. O. Roberts, Dr. T. S. 2303 Pleasant Ave. S., Mpls. Rood, A. J. Spring Grove Rowe, Chas. R. 3, Excelsior Ruff, D. W. C. 732 Globe Bldg., St. Paul Rydeen, Arthur R. Marietta Rice, J. A. Renville Rolf, Rev. W. F. R. 4, Sturgis, Mich. Reil, John H. Brownton Raymond, E. A. Wayzata Robinson, S. Roe 2217 Colfax Ave. S., Mpls. Saunders, Wm. Robbinsdale Savage, M. W. International Bldg., Mpls. Savs, Rev. Mathias Delano Sayre, A. M. Hills Schaupp, Chas. F. Rushford Schenck, A. A. 1203 Farnham St., Omaha, Neb. Schell, Otto New Ulm Schuster, Ed. W. Crookston Schmidt, Dr. G. Lake City Scott, Rev. W. T. Black River Falls, Wis. Scranton, Ellsworth Montrose Sebenius, John Uno Wolvin Bldg., Duluth Shellman, A. M. Hanska Sherman, E. M. Charles City, Ia. Siverts, Peter Canby Skaar, N. O. Zumbrota Slingerland, T. S. Kasson Slocum, A. M. Excelsior Smiley, Daniel Mohonk Lake, N. Y. Smith, E. A. Lake City Snyder, Harry 1800 Summit Ave., Mpls. Snyder, S. W. Center Point, Ia. Soholt, Martin Madison Speechly, Dr. H. M. Pilot Mound, Man. Spencer, N. V. Park Rapids Stacy, F. N. 3115 S. E. 4th, Mpls. Stager, Mrs. Jennie Sauk Rapids Stensrud, Hans Watson St. John, B. E. Bruce, Wis. Strand, G. W. Taylors Falls Swanson, Aug. S. Wayzata Swanson, J. H. R. 4, St. James Swennes, Knute Minneota Skotterud, E. O. Dawson Stevenson, M. J. Morris, Man. Sanders, T. A. Care Butler Bros., Mpls. Scherf, F. A. Court House, Red Wing Swanson, Law 205 Maria Ave., St. Paul Sparre, Erik Elk River Shogren, Fred M. Popple Tanner, Wm. Cannon Falls Teigen, Geo. Dooley, Mont. Teigland, J. L. Minneota Terry, Alfred Slayton Thomas, A. A. Sleepy Eye Thompson, Mrs. Ida 1305 Hewitt Ave., St. Paul Todd, Fred G. 10 Phillips Place, Montreal, P. Q. Trefethren, F. G. Stony Butte, Mont. Treinen, J. P. Miller, Mont. Trow, A. W. Glenville True, Fred O. R. 1, Good Thunder Turngren, L. E. Montrose Tonder, Sam R. 2, Wabasha Torgerson, T. Care Prairie Nurseries, Estevan, Sask. Underwood, Mrs. Anna B. Lake City Underwood, Roy D. Lake City Van Antwerp, Edward Dent Van Nest, R. A. Windom Voight, L. H. Hastings Volstad, Hon. A. J. Granite Falls Wagner, J. F. Box 13, California, Mo. Waldron, L. R. Agri. College, N. D. Warren, Geo. H. 3443 Irving S., Mpls. Warren, W. T. Slayton Webster, Mrs. W. F. 1025 S. E. 5th St., Mpls. Wendlandt, Wm. R. 5, Owatonna Wentzel, A. E. Crookston Wentzel, Louie Crookston Wentzel, Wm. F. Crookston Weston, W. S. Faribault Wheeler, C. F. Excelsior White, J. C. Mabel Williams, J. G. 931 Endicott St., Duluth Williams, M. M. Little Falls Wison, Harold S. Box 71, Monroe, N. Y. Wise, Geo. A. Minneapolis Wright, R. A. Excelsior Webster, D. C. La Crescent Wiehe, C. F. 1520 Jackson Blvd., Chicago Wyman, Willis L. Park Rapids Woods, A. F. U. Farm, St. Paul Wellington, R. U. Farm, St. Paul Wales, C. E. 601 N. W. Natl. Bank, Mpls. Ward, F. A. 1194th Ave. S., St. Cloud Wittig, W. W. Wyoming Weiss, Freeman 1602 N. Fremont, Mpls. Warren, O. B. Hibbing Yanish, Edward Box 262, St. Paul Yost, John L. Murdock Zeimetz, Thos. H. Wabasha Zabel, E. G. La Moure, N. D. Honorary Life Members. Bowen, Mrs. Jas. 327 Beacon St., Mpls. Brackett, A. Excelsior Brand, O. F. Pomona, Cal. Bush, A. K. 1014 SE., 7th St., Mpls. Cook, Dewain Jeffers Corp, Sidney Hammond Cummins, J. R. 3045 Second Ave., Mpls. Drum, S. H. Owatonna Gibbs, Oliver Melbourne Beach, Fla. Gardner, Chas. F. Osage, Ia. Hansen, Prof. N. E. Brookings, S. D. Haralson, Chas. Excelsior Henry, Forest Dover Kellogg, Geo. J. Janesville, Minn. Kenney, S. H. Waterville Kimball, F. W. Waltham Lacey, Chas. Y. 547 W. Ocean Ave., Long Beach, Cal. Latham, A. W. 3000 Dupont S., Mpls. Long, A. G. 4304 Scott Terrace, Morningside, Mpls. Loring, Chas. M. Riverside, Cal. Moore, O. W. Spring Valley Moyer, L. R. Montevideo Patten, Chas. G. Charles City, Ia. Perkins, T. E. Red Wing Philips, A. J. West Salem, Wis. Redpath, Thos. Wayzata Reed, A. H. Glencoe Richardson, S. D. Winnebago Schutz, R. A. LeRoy Smith, C. L. 1234 E. Lincoln, Portland, Ore. Tilson, Mrs. Ida E. West Salem, Wis. Underwood, J. M. Lake City Wedge, Clarence Albert Lea Wheaton, D. T. Morris Honorary Members for 1916. Rasmussen, N. A. Oshkosh, Wis. Bisbee, John Madelia Broderick, Prof. F. W. Agri. College, Man. Dunlap, H. M. Savoy, Ill. Ferris, Earl Hampton, Ia. Waldron, Prof. C. B. Agri. College, N. D. Street, H. G. Hebron, Ill. Lundberg, Gottfred Kennedy INDEX A Aamodt, A. W., Standardizing Minnesota Potatoes; 189 Albertson, Mrs., Civic Improvement; 435 Alway, Prof. F. J., Increasing the Fertility of the Land; 250 Anderson, G. A., A Satisfactory Marketing System; 242 Andrews, J. P., The Minnesota Orchard; 367 Annual Members, 1916; 512 Annual Meeting, 1915, A. W. Latham; 3 Arrowood, Jas., Supt., Annual Report, 1915, Nevis Trial Station; 77 Arrowood, Jas., Mid. Rep., Nevis Trial Station; 286 Asparagus by the Acre, E. W. Record; 164 Asparagus, Growing, a discussion; 390 Award of Premiums, Annual Meeting, 1915; 9 Award of Premiums, Summer Meeting, 1916; 274 B Ballou, F. H., Wealthy Apples; 461 Beans and Sweet Corn, Growing, Pierre B. Marien; 172 Bee-Keepers Column, Prof. Francis Jager; 86, 134, 179, 232, 262, 296, 327, 437 Bees, Wintering of, Prof. Francis Jager; 19 Benjamin, J. F., Biography of; 473 Bisbee, John, Annual Report, 1915, Vice-Pres. 2nd Cong. Dist.; 165 Black, G. D., Heredity in Gladioli; 433 Blueberry Culture, U. S. Department of Agriculture; 423 Boyington, Mrs. R. P., My Color Scheme; 387 Brand, A. M., Peonies Old and New; 401 Bread Cast upon the Waters, C. S. Harrison; 356 Brierley, Prof. W. G., Manufacture of Cider Vinegar from Minnesota Apples; 313 Brown, Frank, Annual Report, 1915, Paynesville Trial Station; 196 Brown, Frank, Midsummer Report, 1916, Paynesville Trial Station; 288 Brown Rot, Spraying Plums for, Prof. E. C. Stakman; 148 Buffalo Tree Hopper, Ravages of, Prof. A. G. Ruggles; 98 C Cady, Prof. LeRoy, Annual Report, 1915, Central Trial Station; 158 Camping on the Yellowstone Trail, Clarence Wedge; 361 Canning, The Growing of Vegetables for, M. H. Hegerle; 203 Cashman, Thos. E., Mid. Rep., Owatonna Trial Station; 287 Cashman, Thos. E., President's Greeting; 1 Central Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, Profs. LeRoy Cady and R. Wellington; 158 Cheney, Prof. E. C., City "Foresters" and Municipal Forests; 372 Cider, Apple, Concentrated, Department of Agriculture; 155 City "Foresters" and Municipal Forests, Prof. E. G. Cheney; 372 Color Effects in the Garden, Planting for, Mrs. H. B. Tillotson; 427 Color Combinations in the Garden, Miss Elizabeth Starr; 449 Collegeville Trial Station, Mid. Rep., Rev. Jno. B. Katzner; 277 Collegeville Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, Rev. J. B. Katzner; 14 Cold Storage for Apples, A Successful, H. F. Hansen; 243 Color Scheme, My, Mrs. R. P. Boyington; 387 Cook, Dewain, Plums We Already Have and Plums on the Way; 142 Cook, Dewain, Jeffers Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915; 198 Cook, Dewain, Mid. Report, Jeffers Trial Station; 280 Cowles, Fred, Supt., Annual Report, West Concord Trial Station; 64 Cowles, Fred, Mid. Report, West Concord Trial Station; 290 Cranefield, F., Secretary, Wisconsin State Horticultural Society; 236 Crosby, S. P. Report of Committee on Horticultural Building; 110 Cross, Mrs. E., In Memoriam; 177 Curculio, The Plum, Ed. A. Nelson; 245 Currants as a Market Garden Product, B. Wollner, Jr.; 22 Cutting, Frank H., Annual Report, 1915, Vice-Pres., 8th Cong. Dist.; 195 D Dixon, J. K., Vice-Pres., Report, 1915, 4th Cong. Dist.; 100 Duluth Trial Station, Annual Report, C. E. Roe, Supt.; 66 Dunlap, H. M., Packing and Marketing Apples; 333 Dunlap, Hon. H. M., Spraying the Orchard; 213 Dunlap, Hon. H. M., Spraying the Orchard, continued; 119 Dwarf Apple Trees, Dr. O. M. Huestis; 137 E Eat Minnesota Apples, Prof. R. S. Mackintosh; 132 Entomological Notes, Prof. F. L. Washburn; 135, 230, 261 Erkel, F. C., Raspberries; 413 Everbearing Strawberries, Geo. J. Kellogg; 125 Evergreens for Both Utility and Ornament, Earl Ferris; 29 Evergreens, Jens A. Jensen; 353 Executive Board, Annual Report, 1915, J. M. Underwood; 32 F Farm, The Value of Horticulture to the, Mrs. Clarence Wedge; 217 Ferris, Earl, Evergreens for Both Utility and Ornament; 29 Fertility of the Land, Increasing the, Prof. F. J. Alway; 250 Flower Garden for a Country Home, M. H. Wetherbee; 470 Flower Garden--a discussion, G. C. Hawkins; 417 Fruit-Breeding Farm, Report of Committee on State, Dr. O. M. Huestis and F. H. Gibbs; 24 Fruit-Breeding Farm, New Fruits Originated at Minnesota, Chas. Haralson, Supt.; 79 Fruit-Breeding Farm, Minnesota State, Chas. Haralson; 445 Fruit Judging Contest; 13 Fruit Growing a Successful Industry in Minnesota, A. W. Richardson; 103 Fruit Retail Methods and Costs, C. W. Moomaw; 411 Frydholm, Martin, Rose Culture; 162 G Garden, My Summer in a, Mrs. Gertrude Ellis Skinner; 317 Garden Helps, Mrs. E. W. Gould; 46, 85, 133, 178, 229, 260, 295, 326, 359, 400, 438, 479 Gardner, Chas. F., The Fall-Bearing Strawberries; 429 Gardner, Chas. F., What Frisky is Telling the Veteran Horticulturist; 350 Gibbs, F. H., Greenhouse versus Hotbeds; 467 Gibbs, F. H., Report of Committee on State Fruit-Breeding Farm; 24 Gladioli, Heredity in, G. D. Black; 433 Gould, Mrs. E. W., Garden Helps; 46, 85, 133, 178, 229, 260, 295, 326, 359, 400, 438, 479 Grape Culture, My Experience in, Jos. Tucker; 388 Gray, A. N., Marketing Fruit by Association; 27 H Hansen, Prof. N. E., What is Hardiness?; 185 Hansen, Prof. N. E., Newer Fruits in 1915, How Secured; 307 Hansen, H. F., A Successful Cold Storage for Apples; 243 Haralson, Chas., Supt., New Fruits Originated at Minnesota Fruit-Breeding Farm; 79 Haralson, Chas., Delegate, Annual Meeting, 1915, Wis. Hort. Society; 84 Haralson, Chas., Minnesota State Fruit-Breeding Farm; 445 Harris, F. I., Vice-President Report, 1915, 1st Cong. District; 114 Harris, Mrs. Melissa J., In Memoriam; 131 Harrison, C. S., Bread Cast Upon the Waters; 356 Harrison, C. S., Horticulturist as King; 303 Harrison, H. W., The Salome Apple; 374 Hawkins, G. C., Flower Garden--a discussion; 417 Hardiness, What is? Prof. N. E. Hansen; 185 Hegerle, M. H., Annual Report, 1915, Vice-Pres., 10th Cong. Dist.; 67 Hegerle, M. H., The Growing of Vegetables for Canning; 203 Horticultural Building, Report of Committee on, S. P. Crosby; 110 Horticulturist as King, C. S. Harrison; 303 How May State University and the Horticultural Society Best Co-Operate, Geo. E. Vincent; 375 Huestis, Dr. O. M., Dwarf Apple Trees; 137 Huestis, Dr. O. M., Report of Committee on State Fruit-Breeding Farm; 24 I Improvement, Civic, Mrs. Albertson; 435 In Memoriam, Mrs. E. Cross; 177 In Memoriam, Mrs. Melissa J. Harris; 131 Insects, Truck Crop and Garden, Prof. Wm. Moore; 455 J Jager, Prof. Francis, Bee-Keeper's Column; 86, 134, 179, 232, 262, 296, 327, 437 Jager, Prof. Francis, Wintering of Bees; 19 Jeffers Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, Dewain Cook; 198 Jeffers Trial Station, Mid. Report, Dewain Cook; 280 Jensen, Jens A., Evergreens; 353 Johnson, Gust, Thirty Years in Raspberries; 69 Journal, Annual Meeting, 1915; 481 K Katzner, Rev. Jno. B., Mid. Report, Collegeville Trial Station; 277 Katzner, Rev. J. B., Annual Report, 1915, Collegeville Trial Station; 14 Keene, P. L., Marketing Fruit at Mankato; 343 Kellogg, Geo. J., Everbearing Strawberries; 125 Kellogg, Geo. J., Experiment Work of Chas. G. Patten; 276 Kellogg, Geo. J., June Bearing Strawberries; 53 Kimball, Miss Grace E., Planting and Care of Hardy Perennials; 471 Kimball, Miss Grace E., Hardy Perennials; 425 L La Crescent Trial Station, D. C. Webster; 281 Latham, A. W., Annual Meeting, 1915; 3 Latham, A. W., Letters to Members from Secretary; 49 Latham, A. W., Secretary's Annual Report, 1915; 222 Latham, A. W., Secretary's Financial Report, 1915; 226 Latham, A. W., Secretary's Corner; 47, 87, 136, 182, 263, 357, 439, 480 Latham, A. W., Summer Meeting, 1916; 266 Letter to Members from Secretary A. W. Latham; 49 Library, The Society; 294 Lice, Plant, on Blossoms; 65 Library, Additions to, 1916; 509 Library, Conditions about Taking Books from; 511 Life Members; 535 M Mackintosh, Prof. R. S., Bringing the Producer and Consumer Together; 321 Mackintosh, Prof. R. S., Eat Minnesota Apples; 132 Mackintosh, Prof. R. S., Orchard Notes; 180, 321, 360 Madison Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, M. Soholt; 171 Mandan, N. D., Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, W. A. Peterson, Supt.; 102 Mandan, N. D., Trial Station, W. A. Peterson; 282 Marcovitch, S., Strawberry Weevil; 220 Marketing Fruit Direct, H. G. Street; 238 Marketing Fruit by Association, A. N. Gray; 27 Marketing Fruit at Mankato, P. L. Keene; 343 Marketing System, A Satisfactory, G. A. Anderson; 242 Marien, Pierre B., Growing Beans and Sweet Corn; 172 Mayman, E. W., Annual Report, 1915, Vice-Pres., 6th Cong. Dist.; 168 Mid-Summer Reports, Trial Stations; 277 Michael, Rev. Geo., Growing Tomatoes in Northern Minnesota; 99 Minnesota Orchard, The, J. P. Andrews; 367 Montevideo Trial Station, Mid. Report, L. R. Moyer; 283 Montevideo Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, L. R. Moyer; 201 Moomaw, C. W., Fruit Retail Methods and Costs; 411 Moore, Prof. Wm., Truck Crop and Garden Insects; 455 Moore, O. W., Top-Working; 352 Mosbaek, Ludvig, Rhubarb Plant; 465 Moyer, L. R., Annual Report, 1915, Montevideo Trial Station; 201 Moyer, L. R., Mid. Report, Montevideo Trial Station; 283 My Neighbor's Roses; 265 N Nelson, Ed. A., The Plum Curculio; 245 Nevis Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, Jas. Arrowood, Supt.; 77 Nevis Trial Station, Mid. Report, Jas. Arrowood; 286 Newer Fruits in 1915, How Secured, Prof. N. E. Hansen; 207 N. E. Demonstration Farm, W. J. Thompson, Supt.; 63 N. E. Iowa Horticultural Society, Annual Meeting, 1915, C. E. Snyder; 34 Notes on Plant Pests, A. G. Ruggles and E. C. Stakman; 121, 231 O Orchard Crop of 1915, My, Harold Simmons; 89 Orchard, My Experience with a Young, Roy Vial; 42 Orchard Notes, Prof. R. S. Mackintosh; 180, 328, 360 Orcharding in Minnesota, a discussion, Prof. Richard Wellington; 291 Orcharding in Minnesota, Prof. Richard Wellington; 36 Owatonna Trial Station, Thos. E. Cashman; 287 P Pabody, Ezra F., In Memoriam; 354 Packing and Marketing Apples, H. M. Dunlap; 333 Paynesville Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, Frank Brown; 196 Paynesville Trial Station, Mid. Rep., Frank Brown; 288 Pendergast, Miss Nellie B., Support for Overloaded Fruit Tree; 349 Pergola, Its Use and Misuse, Chas. H. Ramsdell; 329 Perennials, Hardy, Miss Grace E. Kimball; 425 Peterson, P. H., Vice-Pres. Rep., 1915, 7th Cong. Dist.; 117 Peterson, W. A., Mid. Rep., Mandan, N. D., Trial Station; 282 Peterson, W. A., Supt., An. Rep., 1915, Mandan, N. D., Trial Station; 102 Pfaender, Wm., Jr., An. Meeting, 1915, S. D. State Hort. Socy.; 95 Pfeiffer, C. A., Surprise Plum a Success; 58 Philips, A. J., Top-Grafting; 207 Plant Chimera; 464 Plums We Already Have and Plums on the Way, Dewain Cook; 142 Potatoes, Standardizing Minnesota, A. A. Aamodt; 189 Premium List, Summer Meeting, 1916; 227 President's Greeting, Thos. E. Cashman; 1 Program, Annual Meeting, 1916; 475 Protect the Garden against Winter Weather; 389 Purdham, C. W., Tomatoes for the Kitchen Garden; 113 Patten, Chas. G., Experiment Work of, Geo. J. Kellogg; 276 Peonies, Old and New, A. M. Brand; 401 Perennial Garden at Carmarken, White Bear, J. W. Taylor; 441 Perennials, Planting and Care of Hardy, Miss Grace E. Kimball; 471 Premium List, Summer Meeting, 1916; 258 Producer and Consumer Together, Bringing the, Prof. R. S. Mackintosh; 321 R Ramsdell, Chas. H., Pergola, Its Use and Misuse; 329 Ramsdell, Chas. H., An. Rep., 1915, Vice-Pres., 5th Cong. Dist.; 166 Raspberries, F. C. Erkel; 413 Raspberries, Thirty Years in, Gust Johnson; 69 Record, E. W., Asparagus by the Acre; 164 Records of Executive Board, 1916; 506 Rhubarb Plant, Ludvig Mosbaek; 465 Richardson, A. W., Fruit Growing a Successful Industry in Minn.; 103 Roe, C. E., Supt., Annual Report, Duluth Trial Station; 66 Rose Culture, Martin Frydholm; 162 Ruggles, Prof. A. G., Notes on Plant Pests; 181, 231 Ruggles, Prof. A. G., Ravages of Buffalo Tree Hopper; 98 Running Out of Varieties, The, Prof. C. B. Waldron; 394 S Salome Apple, The, H. W. Harrison; 374 Sauk Rapids Trial Station, Annual Report, 1915, Mrs. Jennie Stager; 96 Sauk Rapids Trial Station, Mid. Rep., Mrs. Jennie Stager; 289 Secretary's Annual Report, 1915, A. W. Latham; 222 Secretary's Corner; 47, 87, 136, 182, 263, 357, 439, 480 Secretary's Financial Report, 1915, A. W. Latham; 226 Shelter Belt for Orchard and Home Grounds, A discussion; 379 Simmons, Harold, My Orchard Crop of 1915; 89 Skinner, Mrs. Gertrude Ellis, My Summer in a Garden; 317 Smith, E. A. State Flower and State Flag of Minnesota; 233 Snyder, C. E., An. Meeting, 1915, N. E. Iowa Hort. Socy.; 34 Soholt, M., An. Rep., 1915, Madison Trial Station; 171 South Dakota State Horticultural Society, Annual Meeting, 1915, Wm. Pfaender, Jr.; 95 Spraying the Orchard, H. M. Dunlap; 213 Spraying the Orchard, Hon. H. M. Dunlap; 119 Stager, Mrs. Jennie, An. Rep., 1915, Sauk Rapids Trial Station; 96 Stager, Mrs. Jennie, How Mr. Mansfield Grows Tomatoes; 156 Stager, Mrs. Jennie, Mid. Rep., Sauk Rapids Trial Station; 289 Stakman, Prof. E. C., Notes on Plant Pests; 181, 231 Stakman, Prof. E. C., Spraying Plums for Brown Rot; 148 Standards for Containers for Fruits, etc., Dept. of Agri.; 462 Starr, Miss Elizabeth, Color Combinations in the Garden; 449 State Flower and State Flag of Minnesota, E. A. Smith; 233 Strand, Geo. W., Treasurer's Annual Report; 33 Strawberry, The Fall-Bearing, Chas. F. Gardner; 429 Strawberry Weevil, S. Marcovitch; 220 Strawberries, June Bearing, Geo. J. Kellogg; 53 Street, H. G., Marketing Fruit Direct; 238 Summer Meeting, 1916, Notice of; 257 Summer Meeting, 1916, A. W. Latham; 266 Support for Overloaded Fruit Tree, Miss Nellie B. Pendergast; 349 Surprise Plum a Success, C. A. Pfeiffer; 58 T Taylor, J. W., Perennial Garden at Carmarken, White Bear; 441 Thompson, W. J., Supt., N. E. Demonstration Farm; 63 Tillotson, Mrs. H. B., Planting for Color Effects in the Garden; 427 Tomatoes for the Kitchen Garden, C. W. Purdham; 113 Tomatoes, How Mr. Mansfield Grows, Mrs. Jennie Stager; 156 Tomatoes in Northern Minnesota, Growing, Rev. Geo. Michael; 99 Top-Grafting, A. J. Philips; 207 Top-Working, O. W. Moore; 352 Treasurer, Annual Report of, 1915, Geo. W. Strand; 33 Tucker, Jas., My Experience in Grape Culture; 388 U Underwood, J. M., Annual Report, 1915, Executive Board; 32 University Farm and Hort. Society, A. F. Woods; 297 V Vial, Roy, My Experience with a Young Orchard; 42 Vice-President's Report, 1915, 1st Congressional District, F. I. Harris; 114 Vice-President, 2nd Congressional District, Annual Report, 1915, John Bisbee; 165 Vice-President's Report, 1915, 4th Congressional District, J. K. Dixon; 100 Vice-President, 5th Congressional District, Annual Report, 1915, Chas. H. Ramsdell; 166 Vice-President, 6th Congressional District, Annual Report, 1915, E. W. Mayman; 168 Vice-President's Report, 1915, 7th Congressional District, P. H. Peterson; 117 Vice-President, 8th Congressional District, Annual Report, 1915, Frank H. Cutting; 195 Vice-President, 9th Congressional District, Annual Report, 1915, Mrs. H. E. Weld; 170 Vice-President, 10th Congressional District, Annual Report, 1915, M. H. Hegerle; 67 Vincent, Geo. E., How May State University and Horticultural Society Best Cooperate; 375 Vinegar from Minnesota Apples, Manufacture of Cider, Prof. W. G. Brierley; 313 W Waldron, Prof. C. B., The Running Out of Varieties; 394 Washburn, Prof. F. L., Entomologist Column; 135 Wealthy Apples, F. H. Ballou; 461 Webster, D. C., Mid. Rep., La Crescent Trial Station; 281 Wedge, Clarence, Camping on the Yellowstone Trail; 361 Wedge, Mrs. Clarence, The Value of Horticulture to the Farm; 217 Weld, Mrs. H. E., An. Rep., 1916, Vice-Pres., 9th Cong. Dist.; 170 Wellington, Prof. Richard, An. Rep., 1915, Central Trial Station; 158 Wellington, Prof. Richard, Orcharding in Minnesota, a discussion; 291 Wellington, Prof. Richard, Orcharding in Minnesota; 36 West Concord Trial Station, Annual Report, Fred Cowles, Supt.; 64 West Concord Trial Station, Fred Cowles; 290 Wetherbee, M. H., Flower Garden for a Country Home; 470 What Frisky is Telling the Veteran Horticulturist, Chas. F. Gardner; 350 Wisconsin Horticultural Society, Annual Meeting, 1915, Chas. Haralson, Delegate; 84 Wisconsin State Horticultural Society, F. Cranefield, Secretary; 236 Wollner, B., Jr., Currants as a Market Garden Product; 22 Woods, A. F., University Farm and Horticultural Society--Mutually Helpful in Developing Homes of the Northwest; 297 * * * * * Transcriber's note: Minor, obvious typos corrected. 
26142	----	produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) PEAT AND ITS USES, AS FERTILIZER AND FUEL. BY SAMUEL W. JOHNSON, A. M., PROFESSOR OF ANALYTICAL AND AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, YALE COLLEGE. FULLY ILLUSTRATED. NEW-YORK: ORANGE JUDD & COMPANY. 245 BROADWAY. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1866, by ORANGE JUDD & CO., At the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New-York. LOVEJOY & SON, ELECTROTYPERS AND STEREOTYPERS 15 Vandewater street N. Y. TO MY FATHER, MY EARLIEST AND BEST INSTRUCTOR IN RURAL AFFAIRS, THIS VOLUME IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED. S. W. J. CONTENTS. Introduction vii PART I.--ORIGIN, VARIETIES, AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF PEAT. PAGE 1. What is Peat? 9 2. Conditions of its Formation 9 3. Different Kinds of Peat 14 Swamp Muck 17 Salt Mud 18 4. Chemical Characters and Composition of Peat 18 a. Organic or combustible part 19 Ulmic and Humic Acids 19 Ulmin and Humin--Crenic and Apocrenic Acids 20 Ulmates and Humates 21 Crenates and Apocrenates 22 Gein and Geic Acid--Elementary Composition of Peat 23 Ultimate Composition of the Constituents of Peat 25 b. Mineral Part--Ashes 25 5. Chemical Changes that occur in the Formation of Peat 26 PART II.--ON THE AGRICULTURAL USES OF PEAT AND SWAMP MUCK. 1. Characters that adapt Peat for Agricultural Use 28 A. Physical or Amending Characters 28 I. Absorbent Power for Water, as Liquid and Vapor 31 II. " " for Ammonia 32 III. Influence in Disintegrating the Soil 34 IV. Influence on the Temperature of Soils 37 B. Fertilizing Characters 38 I. Fertilizing Effects of the Organic Matters, excluding Nitrogen 38 1. Organic Matters as Direct Food to Plants 38 2. Organic Matters as Indirect Food to Plants 40 3. Nitrogen, including Ammonia and Nitric Acid 42 II. Fertilizing Effects of the Ashes of Peat 46 III. Peculiarities in the Decay of Peat 50 IV. Comparison of Peat with Stable Manure 51 2. Characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that need correction 54 I. Possible Bad Effects on Heavy Soils 54 II. Noxious Ingredients 55 a. Vitriol Peats 55 b. Acidity--c. Resinous Matters 57 3. Preparation of Peat for Agricultural Use 57 a. Excavation 57 b. Exposure, or Seasoning 59 c. Composting 62 Compost with Stable Manure 63 " " Night Soil 68 " " Guano 69 " " Fish and other Animal Matters 70 " " Potash-lye & Soda-ash; Wood-ashes, Shell-marl, Lime 72 " " Salt and Lime Mixture 73 " " Carbonate of Lime, Mortar, etc 75 4. The Author's Experiments with Peat Composts 77 5. Examination of Peat with reference to its Agricultural Value 81 6. Composition of Connecticut Peats 84 Method of Analysis 86 Tables of Composition 88-89-90 PART III.--ON PEAT AS FUEL 1. Kinds of Peat that Make the Best Fuel 92 2. Density of Peat 95 3. Heating Power of Peat as Compared with Wood and Anthracite 96 4. Modes of Burning Peat 102 5. Burning of Broken Peat 103 6. Hygroscopic Water of Peat-fuel 104 7. Shrinkage 105 8. Time of Excavation and Drying 105 9. Drainage 106 10. Cutting of Peat for Fuel--a. Preparations for Cutting 107 b. Cutting by Hand; with Common Spade; German Peat Knife 108 " with Irish Slane--System employed in East Friesland 109 c. Machines for Cutting Peat; Brosowsky's Machine; Lepreux's Machine 113 11. Dredging of Peat 115 12. Moulding of Peat 116 13. Preparation of Peat-fuel by Machinery, etc 116 A. Condensation by Pressure 116 a. Of Fresh Peat 116 Mannhardt's Method 117 The Neustadt Method 119 b. Of Air-dried Peat--Lithuanian Process 120 c. Of Hot-dried Peat--Gwynne's Method; Exter's Method 121 Elsberg's Process 125 B. Condensation without Pressure 127 a. Of Earthy Peat 128 Challeton's Method, at Mennecy, France 128 " " Langenberg, Prussia 130 Roberts' " Pekin, N. Y. 132 Siemens' " Boeblingen, Wirtemberg 134 b. Condensation of Fibrous Peat--Weber's Method; Hot-drying 135 Gysser's Method and Machine 140 c. Condensation of Peat of all Kinds--Schlickeysen's Machine 144 Leavitt's Peat Mill, Lexington, Mass 146 Ashcroft & Betteley's Machine 148 Versmann's Machine, Great Britain 150 Buckland's " " 151 14. Artificial Drying of Peat 152 15. Peat Coal 157 16. Metallurgical Uses of Peat 162 17. Peat as a Source of Illuminating Gas 165 18. Examination of Peat with regard to its Value as Fuel 167 INTRODUCTION. In the years 1857 and 1858, the writer, in the capacity of Chemist to the State Agricultural Society of Connecticut, was commissioned to make investigations into the agricultural uses of the deposits of peat or swamp muck which are abundant in this State; and, in 1858, he submitted a Report to Henry A. Dyer, Esq., Corresponding Secretary of the Society, embodying his conclusions. In the present work the valuable portions of that Report have been recast, and, with addition of much new matter, form Parts I. and II. The remainder of the book, relating to the preparation and employment of peat for fuel, &c., is now for the first time published, and is intended to give a faithful account of the results of the experience that has been acquired in Europe, during the last twenty-five years, in regard to the important subject of which it treats. The employment of peat as an amendment and absorbent for agricultural purposes has proved to be of great advantage in New-England farming. It is not to be doubted, that, as fuel, it will be even more valuable than as a fertilizer. Our peat-beds, while they do not occupy so much territory as to be an impediment and a reproach to our country, as they have been to Ireland, are yet so abundant and so widely distributed--occurring from the Atlantic to the Missouri, along and above the 40th parallel, and appearing on our Eastern Coast at least as far South as North Carolina[1]--as to present, at numberless points, material, which, sooner or later, will serve us most usefully when other fuel has become scarce and costly. The high prices which coal and wood have commanded for several years back have directed attention to peat fuel; and, such is the adventurous character of American enterprise, it cannot be doubted that we shall rapidly develop and improve the machinery for producing it. As has always been the case, we shall waste a vast deal of time and money in contriving machines that violate every principle of mechanism and of economy; but the results of European invention furnish a safe basis from which to set out, and we have among us the genius and the patience that shall work out the perfect method. It may well be urged that a good degree of caution is advisable in entering upon the peat enterprise. In this country we have exhaustless mines of the best coal, which can be afforded at a very low rate, with which other fuel must compete. In Germany, where the best methods of working peat have originated, fuel is more costly than here; and a universal and intense economy there prevails, of which we, as a people, have no conception. If, as the Germans themselves admit, the peat question there is still a nice one as regards the test of dollars and cents, it is obvious, that, for a time, we must "hasten slowly." It is circumstances that make peat, and gold as well, remunerative or otherwise; and these must be well considered in each individual case. Peat is the name for a material that varies extremely in its quality, and this quality should be investigated carefully before going to work upon general deductions. In my account of the various processes for working peat by machinery, such data as I have been able to find have been given as to cost of production. These data are however very imperfect, and not altogether trustworthy, in direct application to American conditions. The cheapness of labor in Europe is an item to our disadvantage in interpreting foreign estimates. I incline to the belief that this is more than offset among us by the quality of our labor, by the energy of our administration, by the efficiency of our overseeing, and, especially, by our greater skill in the adaptation of mechanical appliances. While counselling caution, I also recommend enterprise in developing our resources in this important particular; knowing full well, however, that what I can say in its favor will scarcely add to the impulse already apparent among my countrymen. SAMUEL W. JOHNSON. _Sheffield Scientific School_,} _Yale College, June, 1866._ } FOOTNOTES: [1] The great Dismal Swamp is a grand peat bog, and doubtless other of the swamps of the coast, as far south as Florida and the Gulf, are of the same character. PART I. THE ORIGIN, VARIETIES, AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERS OF PEAT. 1. _What is Peat?_ By the general term Peat, we understand the organic matter or vegetable soil of bogs, swamps, beaver-meadows and salt-marshes. It consists of substances that have resulted from the decay of many generations of aquatic or marsh plants, as mosses, sedges, coarse grasses, and a great variety of shrubs, mixed with more or less mineral substances, derived from these plants, or in many cases blown or washed in from the surrounding lands. 2. _The conditions under which Peat is formed._ In this country the production of Peat from fallen and decaying plants, depends upon the presence of so much water as to cover or saturate the vegetable matters, and thereby hinder the full access of air. Saturation with water also has the effect to maintain the decaying matters at a low temperature, and by these two causes in combination, the process of decay is made to proceed with great slowness, and the solid products of such slow decay, are compounds that themselves resist decay, and hence they accumulate. In the United States there appears to be nothing like the extensive _moors_ or _heaths_, that abound in Ireland, Scotland, the north of England, North Germany, Holland, and the elevated plains of Bavaria, which are mostly level or gently sloping tracts of country, covered with peat or turf to a depth often of 20, and sometimes of 40, or more, feet. In this country it is only in low places, where streams become obstructed and form swamps, or in bays and inlets on salt water, where the flow of the tide furnishes the requisite moisture, that our peat-beds occur. If we go north-east as far as Anticosti, Labrador, or Newfoundland, we find true moors. In these regions have been found a few localities of the _Heather_ (_Calluna vulgaris_), which is so conspicuous a plant on the moors of Europe, but which is wanting in the peat-beds of the United States. In the countries above named, the weather is more uniform than here, the air is more moist, and the excessive heat of our summers is scarcely known. Such is the greater humidity of the atmosphere that the bog-mosses,--the so-called _Sphagnums_,--which have a wonderful avidity for moisture, (hence used for packing plants which require to be kept moist on journeys), are able to keep fresh and in growth during the entire summer. These mosses decay below, and throw out new vegetation above, and thus produce a bog, especially wherever the earth is springy. It is in this way that in those countries, moors and peat-bogs actually grow, increasing in depth and area, from year to year, and raise themselves above the level of the surrounding country. Prof. Marsh informs the writer that he has seen in Ireland, near the north-west coast, a granite hill, capped with a peat-bed, several feet in thickness. In the Bavarian highlands similar cases have been observed, in localities where the atmosphere and the ground are kept moist enough for the growth of moss by the extraordinary prevalence of fogs. Many of the European moors rise more or less above the level of their borders towards the centre, often to a height of 10 or 20 and sometimes of 30 feet. They are hence known in Germany as _high_ moors (_Hochmoore_) to distinguish from the level or dishing _meadow-moors_, (_Wiesenmoore_). The peat-producing vegetation of the former is chiefly moss and heather, of the latter coarse grasses and sedges. In Great Britain the reclamation of a moor is usually an expensive operation, for which not only much draining, but actual cutting out and burning of the compact peat is necessary. The warmth of our summers and the dryness of our atmosphere prevent the accumulation of peat above the highest level of the standing water of our marshes, and so soon as the marshes are well drained, the peat ceases to form, and in most cases the swamp may be easily converted into good meadow land. Springy hill-sides, which in cooler, moister climates would become moors, here dry up in summer to such an extent that no peat can be formed upon them. As already observed, our peat is found in low places. In many instances its accumulation began by the obstruction of a stream. To that remarkable creature, the beaver, we owe many of our peat-bogs. These animals, from time immemorial, have built their dams across rivers so as to flood the adjacent forest. In the rich leaf-mold at the water's verge, and in the cool shade of the standing trees, has begun the growth of the sphagnums, sedges, and various purely aquatic plants. These in their annual decay have shortly filled the shallow borders of the stagnating water, and by slow encroachments, going on through many years, they have occupied the deeper portions, aided by the trees, which, perishing, give their fallen branches and trunks, towards completing the work. The trees decay and fall, and become entirely converted into peat; or, as not unfrequently happens, especially in case of resinous woods, preserve their form, and to some extent their soundness. In a similar manner, ponds and lakes are encroached upon; or, if shallow, entirely filled up by peat deposits. In the Great Forest of Northern New York, the voyager has abundant opportunity to observe the formation of peat-swamps, both as a result of beaver dams, and of the filling of shallow ponds, or the narrowing of level river courses. The formation of peat in water of some depth greatly depends upon the growth of aquatic plants, other than those already mentioned. In our Eastern States the most conspicuous are the Arrow-head, (_Sagittaria_); the Pickerel Weed, (_Pontederia_;) Duck Meat, (_Lemna_;) Pond Weed, (_Potamogeton_;) various _Polygonums_, brothers of Buckwheat and Smart-weed; and especially the Pond Lilies, _(Nymphoea_ and _Nuphar_.) The latter grow in water four or five feet deep, their leaves and long stems are thick and fleshy, and their roots, which fill the oozy mud, are often several inches in diameter. Their decaying leaves and stems, and their huge roots, living or dead, accumulate below and gradually raise the bed of the pond. Their living foliage which often covers the water almost completely for acres, becomes a shelter or support for other more delicate aquatic plants and sphagnums, which, creeping out from the shore, may so develop as to form a floating carpet, whereon the leaves of the neighboring wood, and dust scattered by the wind collect, bearing down the mass, which again increases above, or is reproduced until the water is filled to its bottom with vegetable matter. It is not rare to find in our bogs, patches of moss of considerable area concealing deep water with a treacherous appearance of solidity, as the hunter and botanist have often found to their cost. In countries of more humid atmosphere, they are more common and attain greater dimensions. In Zealand the surfaces of ponds are so frequently covered with floating beds of moss, often stout enough to bear a man, that they have there received a special name "_Hangesak_." In the Russian Ural, there occur lakes whose floating covers of moss often extend five or six feet above the water, and are so firm that roads are made across them, and forests of large fir-trees find support. These immense accumulations are in fact floating moors, consisting entirely of peat, save the living vegetation at the surface. Sometimes these floating peat-beds, bearing trees, are separated by winds from their connection with the shore, and become swimming peat islands. In a small lake near Eisenach, in Central Germany, is a swimming island of this sort. Its diameter is 40 rods, and it consists of a felt-like mass of peat, three to five feet in depth, covered above by sphagnums and a great variety of aquatic plants. A few birches and dwarf firs grow in this peat, binding it together by their roots, and when the wind blows, they act as sails, so that the island is constantly moving about upon the lake. On the Neusiedler lake, in Hungary, is said to float a peat island having an area of six square miles, and on lakes of the high Mexican Plateau are similar islands which, long ago, were converted in fruitful gardens. 3. _The different kinds of Peat._ Very great differences in the characters of the deposits in our peat-beds are observable. These differences are partly of color, some peats being gray, others red, others again black; the majority, when dry, possess a dark brown-red or snuff color. They also vary remarkably in weight and consistency. Some are compact, destitute of fibres or other traces of the vegetation from which they have been derived, and on drying, shrink greatly and yield tough dense masses which burn readily, and make an excellent fuel. Others again are light and porous, and remain so on drying; these contain intermixed vegetable matter that is but little advanced in the peaty decomposition. Some peats are almost entirely free from mineral matters, and on burning, leave but a few _per cent._ of ash, others contain considerable quantities of lime or iron, in chemical combination, or of sand and clay that have been washed in from the hills adjoining the swamps. As has been observed, the peat of some swamps is mostly derived from mosses, that of others originates largely from grasses; some contain much decayed wood and leaves, others again are free from these. In the same swamp we usually observe more or less of all these differences. We find the surface peat is light and full of partly decayed vegetation, while below, the deposits are more compact. We commonly can trace distinct strata or layers of peat, which are often very unlike each other in appearance and quality, and in some cases the light and compact layers alternate so that the former are found below the latter. The light and porous kinds of peat appear in general to be formed in shallow swamps or on the surface of bogs, where there is considerable access of air to the decaying matters, while the compacter, older, riper peats are found at a depth, and seem to have been formed beneath the low water mark, in more complete exclusion of the atmosphere, and under a considerable degree of pressure. The nature of the vegetation that flourishes in a bog, has much effect on the character of the peat. The peats chiefly derived from mosses that have grown in the full sunlight, have a yellowish-red color in their upper layers, which usually becomes darker as we go down, running through all shades of brown until at a considerable depth it is black. Peats produced principally from grasses are grayish in appearance at the surface, being full of silvery fibres--the skeletons of the blades of grasses and sedges, while below they are commonly black. _Moss peat_ is more often fibrous in structure, and when dried forms somewhat elastic masses. _Grass peat_, when taken a little below the surface, is commonly destitute of fibres; when wet, is earthy in its look, and dries to dense hard lumps. Where mosses and grasses have grown together simultaneously in the same swamp, the peat is modified in its characters accordingly. Where, as may happen, grass succeeds moss, or moss succeeds grass, the different layers reveal their origin by their color and texture. At considerable depths, however, where the peat is very old, these differences nearly or entirely disappear. The geological character of a country is not without influence on the kind of peat. It is only in regions where the rocks are granitic or silicious, where, at least, the surface waters are free or nearly free from lime, that _mosses_ make the bulk of the peat. In limestone districts, peat is chiefly formed from _grasses_ and _sedges_. This is due to the fact that mosses (sphagnums) need little lime for their growth, while the grasses require much; aquatic grasses cannot, therefore, thrive in pure waters, and in waters containing the requisite proportion of lime, grasses and sedges choke out the moss. The accidental admixtures of soil often greatly affect the appearance and value of a peat, but on the whole it would appear that its quality is most influenced by the degree of decomposition it has been subjected to. In meadows and marshes, overflowed by the ocean tides, we have _salt-peat_, formed from Sea-weeds (_Algæ_,) Salt-wort (_Salicornia_,) and a great variety of marine or strand-plants. In its upper portions, salt-peat is coarsely fibrous from the grass roots, and dark-brown in color. At sufficient depth it is black and destitute of fibres. The fact that peat is fibrous in texture shows that it is of comparatively recent formation, or that the decomposition has been arrested before reaching its later stages. Fibrous peat is found near the surface, and as we dig down into a very deep bed we find almost invariably that the fibrous structure becomes less and less evident until at a certain depth it entirely disappears. It is not depth simply, but age or advancement in decomposition, which determines these differences of texture. The "ripest," most perfectly formed peat, that in which the peaty decomposition has reached its last stage,--which, in Germany, is termed _pitchy-peat_ or _fat peat_, (_Pechtorf_, _Specktorf_)--is dark-brown or black in color, and comparatively heavy and dense. When moist, it is firm, sticky and coherent almost like clay, may be cut and moulded to any shape. Dried, it becomes hard, and on a cut or burnished surface takes a luster like wax or pitch. In Holland, West Friesland, Holstein, Denmark and Pomerania, a so-called _mud-peat_ (_Schlammtorf_, also _Baggertorf_ and _Streichtorf_,) is "fished up" from the bottoms of ponds, as a black mud or paste, which, on drying, becomes hard and dense like the pitchy-peat. The two varieties of peat last named are those which are most prized as fuel in Europe. _Vitriol peat_ is peat of any kind impregnated with sulphate of iron (_copperas_,) and sulphate of alumina, (the astringent ingredient of alum.) _Swamp Muck._--In New England, the vegetable remains occurring in swamps, etc., are commonly called _Muck_. In proper English usage, muck is a general term for manure of any sort, and has no special application to the contents of bogs. With us, however, this meaning appears to be quite obsolete, though in our agricultural literature--formerly, more than now, it must be admitted,--the word as applied to the subject of our treatise, has been qualified as _Swamp Muck_. In Germany, peat of whatever character, is designated by the single word _Torf_; in France it is _Tourbe_, and of the same origin is the word _Turf_, applied to it in Great Britain. With us turf appears never to have had this signification. Peat, no doubt, is a correct name for the substance which results from the decomposition of vegetable matters under or saturated with water, whatever its appearance or properties. There is, however, with us, an inclination to apply this word particularly to those purer and more compact sorts which are adapted for fuel, while to the lighter, less decomposed or more weathered kinds, and to those which are considerably intermixed with soil or silt, the term muck or swamp muck is given. These distinctions are not, indeed, always observed, and, in fact, so great is the range of variation in the quality of the substance, that it would be impossible to draw a line where muck leaves off and peat begins. Notwithstanding, a rough distinction is better than none, and we shall therefore employ the two terms when any greater clearness of meaning can be thereby conveyed. It happens, that in New England, the number of small shallow swales, that contain unripe or impure peat, is much greater than that of large and deep bogs. Their contents are therefore more of the "mucky" than of the "peaty" order, and this may partly account for New England usage in regard to these old English words. By the term muck, some farmers understand leaf-mold (decayed leaves), especially that which collects in low and wet places. When the deposit is deep and saturated with water, it may have all the essential characters of peat. Ripe peat, from such a source is, however, so far as the writer is informed, unknown to any extent in this country. We might distinguish as _leaf-muck_ the leaves which have decomposed under or saturated with water, retaining the well established term leaf-mold to designate the dry or drier covering of the soil in a dense forest of deciduous trees. _Salt-mud._--In the marshes, bays, and estuaries along the sea-shore, accumulate large quantities of fine silt, brought down by rivers or deposited from the sea-water, which are more or less mixed with finely divided peat or partly decomposed vegetable matters, derived largely from Sea-weed, and in many cases also with animal remains (mussels and other shell-fish, crabs, and myriads of minute organisms.) This black mud has great value as a fertilizer. 4. _The Chemical Characters and Composition of Peat._ The process of burning, demonstrates that peat consists of two kinds of substance; one of which, the larger portion, is combustible, and is _organic_ or vegetable matter; the other, smaller portion, remaining indestructible by fire is _inorganic matter_ or _ash_. We shall consider these separately. a. _The organic or combustible part of peat_ varies considerably in its proximate composition. It is in fact an indefinite mixture of several or perhaps of many compound bodies, whose precise nature is little known. These bodies have received the collective names _Humus_ and _Geine_. We shall employ the term _humus_ to designate this mixture, whether occurring in peat, swamp-muck, salt-mud, in composts, or in the arable soil. Its chemical characters are much the same, whatever its appearance or mode of occurrence; and this is to be expected since it is always formed from the same materials and under essentially similar conditions. _Resinous_ and _Bituminous matters_.--If dry pulverized peat be agitated and warmed for a short time with alcohol, there is usually extracted a small amount of _resinous_ and sometimes of _bituminous_ matters, which are of no account in the agricultural applications of peat, but have a bearing on its value as fuel. _Ulmic_ and _Humic acids_.--On boiling what remains from the treatment with alcohol, with a weak solution of carbonate of soda (sal-soda), we obtain a yellowish-brown or black liquid. This liquid contains certain acid ingredients of the peat which become soluble by entering into chemical combination with soda. On adding to the solution strong vinegar, or any other strong acid, there separates a bulky brown or black substance, which, after a time, subsides to the bottom of the vessel as a precipitate, to use a chemical term, leaving the liquid of a more or less yellow tinge. This deposit, if obtained from light brown peat, is _ulmic acid_; if from black peat, it is _humic acid_. These acids, when in the precipitated state, are insoluble in vinegar; but when this is washed away, they are considerably soluble in water. They are, in fact, modified by the action of the soda, so as to acquire much greater solubility in water than they otherwise possess. On drying the bulky bodies thus obtained, brown or black lustrous masses result, which have much the appearance of coal. _Ulmin_ and _Humin_.--After extracting the peat with solution of carbonate of soda, it still contains ulmin or humin. These bodies cannot be obtained in the pure state from peat, since they are mixed with more or less partially decomposed vegetable matters from which they cannot be separated without suffering chemical change. They have been procured, however, by the action of muriatic acid on sugar. They are indifferent in their chemical characters, are insoluble in water and in solution of carbonate of soda; but upon heating with solution of hydrate of soda they give dark-colored liquids, being in fact converted by this treatment into ulmic and humic acids, respectively, with which they are identical in composition. The terms ulmic and humic acids do not refer each to a single compound, but rather to a group of bodies of closely similar appearance and properties, which, however, do differ slightly in their characteristics, and differ also in composition by containing more or less of oxygen and hydrogen in equal equivalents. After complete extraction with hydrate of soda, there remains more or less undecomposed vegetable matter, together with sand and soil, were these contained in the peat. _Crenic_ and _apocrenic acids_.--From the usually yellowish liquid out of which the ulmic and humic acids have been separated, may further be procured by appropriate chemical means, not needful to be detailed here, two other bodies which bear the names respectively of _Crenic Acid_ and _Apocrenic Acid_. These acids were discovered by Berzelius, the great Swedish chemist, in the water and sediment of the Porla spring, in Sweden. By the action upon peat of carbonate of ammonia, which is generated to some extent in the decay of vegetable matters and is also absorbed from the air, ulmic and humic acids are made soluble, and combine with the ammonia as well as with lime, oxide of iron, etc. In some cases the ulmates and humates thus produced may be extracted from the peat by water, and consequently occur dissolved in the water of the swamp from which the peat is taken, giving it a yellow or brown color. _Ulmates_ and _Humates_.--Of considerable interest to us here, are the properties of the compounds of these acids, that may be formed in peat when it is used as an ingredient of composts. The ulmates and humates of the alkalies, viz.: _potash_, _soda_, and _ammonia_, dissolve readily in water. They are formed when the alkalies or their carbonates act on ulmin and humin, or upon ulmates or humates of lime, iron, etc. Their dilute solutions are yellow, or brown. The ulmates and humates of _lime_, _magnesia_, oxide of _iron_, oxide of _manganese_ and _alumina_, are insoluble, or nearly so in water. In ordinary soils, the earths and oxides just named, predominate over the alkalies, and although they may contain considerable ulmic and humic acids, water is able to extract but very minute quantities of the latter, on account of the insolubility of the compounds they have formed. On the other hand, peat, highly manured garden soil, leaf-mold, rotted manure and composts, yield yellow or brown extracts with water, from the fact that alkalies are here present to form soluble compounds. An important fact established by Mulder is, that when solutions of alkali-carbonates are put in contact with the insoluble ulmates and humates, the latter are decomposed; soluble alkali-ulmates and humates being formed, and _in these, a portion of the otherwise insoluble ulmates and humates dissolve_, so that thus, in a compost, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, and even alumina may exist in soluble combinations, by the agency of these acids. _Crenates_ and _Apocrenates_.--The ulmic and humic acids when separated from their compounds, are nearly insoluble, and, so far as we know, comparatively inert bodies; by further change, (uniting with oxygen) they pass into or yield the crenic and apocrenic acids which, according to Mulder, have an acid taste, being freely soluble in water, and in all respects, decided acids. The compounds of both these acids with the alkalies are soluble. The crenates of lime, magnesia, and protoxide of iron are soluble, crenates of peroxide of iron and of oxide of manganese are but very slightly soluble; crenate of alumina is insoluble. The apocrenates of iron and manganese are slightly soluble; those of lime, magnesia, and alumina are insoluble. All the insoluble crenates and apocrenates, are soluble in solutions of the corresponding salts of the alkalies. Application of these facts will be given in subsequent paragraphs. It may be here remarked, that the crenate of protoxide of iron is not unfrequently formed in considerable quantity in peat-bogs, and dissolving in the water of springs gives them a chalybeate character. Copious springs of this kind occur at the edge of a peat-bed at Woodstock, Conn., which are in no small repute for their medicinal qualities, having a tonic effect from the iron they contain. Such waters, on exposure to the air, shortly absorb oxygen, and the substance is thereby converted into crenate and afterwards into apocrenate of peroxide of iron, which, being but slightly soluble, or insoluble, separates as a yellow or brown ochreous deposit along the course of the water. By further exposure to air the organic acid is oxidized to carbonic acid, and hydrated oxide of iron remains. Bog-iron ore appears often to have originated in this way. _Gein and Geic acid._--Mulder formerly believed another substance to exist in peat which he called _Gein_, and from this by the action of alkalies he supposed geic acid to be formed. In his later writings, however, he expresses doubt as to the existence of such a substance, and we may omit further notice of it, especially since, if it really do occur, its properties are not distinct from those of humic acid. We should not neglect to remark, however, that the word gein has been employed by some writers in the sense in which we use humus, viz.: to denote the brown or black products of the decomposition of vegetable matters. It is scarcely to be doubted that other organic compounds exist in peat. As yet, however, we have no knowledge of any other ingredients, while it appears certain that those we have described are its chief constituents, and give it its peculiar properties. With regard to them it must nevertheless be admitted, that our chemical knowledge is not entirely satisfactory, and new investigations are urgently demanded to supply the deficiencies of the researches so ably made by Mulder, more than twenty years ago. _Elementary Composition of Peat._ After this brief notice of those organic _compounds_ that have been recognized in or produced from peat, we may give attention to the elementary composition of peat itself. Like that of the vegetation from which it originates, the organic part of peat consists of Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. In the subjoined table are given the proportions of these elements as found in the combustible part of sphagnum, of several kinds of wood, and in that of a number of peats in various stages of ripeness. They are arranged in the order of their content of carbon. -----------------------------------+----------+-----+-------+-----+------- | |_Car-|_Hydro-|_Oxy-|_Nitro- |_Analyst._|bon._| gen._ |gen._| gen._ -----------------------------------+----------+-----+-------+-----+------- 1--Sphagnum } | Websky |49.88| 6.54 |42.42| 1.16 2--Peach wood } undecomposed |Chevandier|49.90| 6.10 |43.10| 0.90 3--Poplar " } | " |50.30| 6.30 |42.40| 1.00 4--Oak " } | " |50.60| 6.00 |42.10| 1.30 5--Peat, porous, light-brown, | | | | | sphagnous | Websky |50.86| 5.80 |42.57| 0.77 6-- " porous, red-brown. | Jæckel |53.51| 5.90 | 40.59 7-- " heavy, brown. | " |56.43| 5.32 | 38.25 8-- " dark red-brown, | | | | | well decomposed | Websky |59.47| 6.52 |31.51| 2.51 9-- " black, very dense | | | | | and hard. | " |59.70| 5.70 |33.04| 1.56 10-- " black, heavy, }best quality| " |59.71| 5.27 |32.07| 2.59 11-- " brown, heavy, }for fuel. | " |62.54| 6.81 |29.24| 1.41 -----------------------------------+----------+-----+-------+-----+------- From this table it is seen that sphagnum, and the wood of our forest trees are very similar in composition, though not identical. Further, it is seen from analyses 1 and 5, that in the first stages of the conversion of sphagnum into peat--which are marked by a change of color, but in which the form of the sphagnum is to a considerable extent preserved--but little alteration occurs in ultimate composition; about one _per cent._ of carbon being gained, and one of hydrogen lost. We notice in running down the columns that as the peat becomes heavier and darker in color, it also becomes richer in carbon and poorer in oxygen. Hydrogen varies but slightly. As a general statement we may say that the ripest and heaviest peat contains 10 or 12 _per cent._ more carbon and 10 or 12 _per cent._ less oxygen than the vegetable matter from which it is produced; while between the unaltered vegetation and the last stage of humification, the peat runs through an indefinite number of intermediate stages. Nitrogen is variable, but, in general, the older peats contain the most. To this topic we shall shortly recur, and now pass on to notice-- _The ultimate composition of the compounds of which peat consists._ Below are tabulated analyses of the organic acids of peat:-- _Carbon._ _Hydrogen._ _Oxygen._ Ulmic acid, artificial from sugar 67.10 4.20 28.70 Humic acid, from Frisian peat 61.10 4.30 34.60 Crenic acid 56.47 2.74 40.78 Apocrenic acid 45.70 4.80 49.50 It is seen that the amount of carbon diminishes from ulmic acid to apocrenic, that of oxygen increases in the same direction and to the same extent, viz.: about 21 _per cent._, while the hydrogen remains nearly the same in all. b. _The mineral part of peat, which remains as ashes_ when the organic matters are burned away, is variable in quantity and composition. Usually a portion of sand or soil is found in it, and this not unfrequently constitutes its larger portion. Some peats leave on burning much carbonate of lime; others chiefly sulphate of lime; the ash of others again is mostly oxyd of iron; silicic, and phosphoric acids, magnesia, potash, soda, alumina and chlorine, also occur in small quantities in the ash of all peats. With one exception (alumina) all these bodies are important ingredients of agricultural plants. In some rare instances, peats are found, which are so impregnated with soluble sulphates of iron and alumina, as to yield these salts to water in large quantity; and sulphate of iron (green vitriol,) has actually been manufactured from such peats, which in consequence have been characterized as _vitriol peats_. Those bases (lime, oxide of iron, etc.,) which are found as carbonates or simple oxides in the ashes, exist in the peat itself in combination with the humic and other organic acids. When these compounds are destroyed by burning, the bases remain united to carbonic acid. 5.--_Chemical Changes that occur in the formation of Peat._ When a plant perishes, its conversion into humus usually begins at once. When exposed to the atmosphere, the oxygen of the air attacks it, uniting with its carbon producing carbonic acid gas, and with its hydrogen generating water. This action goes on, though slowly, even at some depth under water, because the latter dissolves oxygen from the air in small quantity,[2] and constantly resupplies itself as rapidly as the gas is consumed. Whether exposed to the air or not, the organic matter suffers internal decomposition, and portions of its elements assume the gaseous or liquid form. We have seen that ripe peat is 10 to 12 _per cent._ richer in carbon and equally poorer in oxygen, than the vegetable matters from which it originates. Organic matters, in passing into peat, lose carbon and nitrogen; but they lose oxygen more rapidly than the other two elements, and hence the latter become relatively more abundant. The loss of hydrogen is such that its proportion to the other elements is but little altered. The bodies that separate from the decomposing vegetable matter are carbonic acid gas, carburetted hydrogen (marsh gas), nitrogen gas, and water. Carbonic acid is the most abundant gaseous product of the peaty decomposition. Since it contains nearly 73 _per cent._ of oxygen and but 27 _per cent._ of carbon, it is obvious that by its escape the proportion of carbon in the residual mass is increased. In the formation of water from the decaying matters, 1 part of hydrogen carries off 8 parts of oxygen, and this change increases the proportion of carbon and of hydrogen. Marsh gas consists of one part of hydrogen to three of carbon, but it is evolved in comparatively small quantity, and hence has no effect in diminishing the _per cent._ of carbon. The gas that bubbles up through the water of a peat-bog, especially if the decomposing matters at the bottom be stirred, consists largely of marsh gas and nitrogen, often with but a small proportion of carbonic acid. Thus Websky found in gas from a peat-bed Carbonic acid 2.97 Marsh gas 43.36 Nitrogen 53.67 ------ 100.00 Carbonic acid, however, dissolves to a considerable extent in water, and is furthermore absorbed by the living vegetation, which is not true of marsh gas and nitrogen; hence the latter escape while the former does not. Nitrogen escapes in the uncombined state, as it always (or usually) does in the decay of vegetable and animal matters that contain it. Its loss is, in general, slower than that of the other elements, and it sometimes accumulates in the peat in considerable quantity. A small portion of nitrogen unites with hydrogen, forming ammonia, which remains combined with the humic and other acids. PART II. ON THE AGRICULTURAL USES OF PEAT AND SWAMP MUCK. After the foregoing account of the composition of peat, we may proceed to notice: 1.--_The characters that adapt it for agricultural uses._ These characters are conveniently discussed under two heads, viz.: Those which render it useful in improving the texture and physical characters of the soil, and indirectly contribute to the nourishment of crops,--characters which constitute it an _amendment_ to the soil (_A_); and Those which make it a direct _fertilizer_ (_B_). A.--Considered as an amendment, the value of peat depends upon _Its remarkable power of absorbing and retaining water, both as a liquid and as a vapor_ (I): _Its power of absorbing ammonia_ (II): _Its effect in promoting the disintegration and solution of mineral ingredients, that is the stony matters of the soil_ (III): _and_ _Its influence on the temperature of the soil_ (IV). The agricultural importance of these properties of peat is best illustrated by considering the faults of a certain class of soils. Throughout the State of Connecticut, for instance, are found abundant examples of light, leachy, hungry soils, which consist of coarse sand or fine gravel; are surface-dry in a few hours after the heaviest rains, and in the summer drouths, are as dry as an ash-heap to a depth of several or many feet. These soils are easy to work, are ready for the plow early in the spring, and if well manured give fair crops in wet seasons. In a dry summer, however, they yield poorly, or fail of crops entirely; and, at the best, they require constant and very heavy manuring to keep them in heart. Crops fail on these soils from two causes, viz.; _want of moisture_ and _want of food_. Cultivated plants demand as an indispensable condition of their growth and perfection, to be supplied with water in certain quantities, which differ with different crops. Buckwheat will flourish best on dry soils, while cranberries and rice grow in swamps. Our ordinary cereal, root, forage and garden crops require a medium degree of moisture, and with us it is in all cases desirable that the soil be equally protected from excess of water and from drouth. Soils must be thus situated either naturally, or as the result of improvement, before any steadily good results can be obtained in their cultivation. The remedy for excess of water in too heavy soils, is thorough drainage. It is expensive, but effectual. It makes the earth more porous, opens and maintains channels, through which the surplus water speedily runs off, and permits the roots of crops to go down to a considerable depth. What, let us consider, is the means of obviating the defects of soils that are naturally too porous, from which the water runs off too readily, and whose crops "burn up" in dry seasons? In wet summers, these light soils, as we have remarked, are quite productive if well manured. It is then plain that if we could add anything to them which would retain the moisture of dews and rains in spite of the summer-heats, our crops would be uniformly fair, provided the supply of manure were kept up. But why is it that light soils, need more manure than loamy or heavy lands? We answer--because, in the first place the rains which quickly descend through the open soil, wash down out of the reach of vegetation the soluble fertilizing matters, especially the nitrates, for which the soil has no retentive power; and in the second place, from the porosity of the soil, the air has too great access, so that the vegetable and animal matters of manures decay too rapidly, their volatile portions, ammonia and carbonic acid, escape into the atmosphere, and are in measure lost to the crops. From these combined causes we find that a heavy dressing of well-rotted stable manure, almost if not entirely, disappears from such soils in one season, so that another year the field requires a renewed application; while on loamy soils the same amount of manure would have lasted several years, and produced each year a better effect. We want then to _amend_ light soils by incorporating with them something that prevents the rains from leaching through them too rapidly, and also that renders them less open to the air, or absorbs and retains for the use of crops the volatile products of the decay of manures. For these purposes, vegetable matter of some sort is the best and almost the only amendment that can be economically employed. In many cases a good peat or muck is the best form of this material, that lies at the farmer's command. I.--_Its absorbent power for liquid water_ is well known to every farmer who has thrown it up in a pile to season for use. It holds the water like a sponge, and, according to its greater or less porosity, will retain from 50 to 100 or more _per cent._ of its weight of liquid, without dripping. Nor can this water escape from it rapidly. It dries almost as slowly as clay, and a heap of it that has been exposed to sun and wind for a whole summer, though it has of course lost much water, is still distinctly wet to the eye and the feel a little below the surface. _Its absorbent power for vapor of water_ is so great that more than once it has happened in Germany, that barns or close sheds filled with partially dried peat, such as is used for fuel, have been burst by the swelling of the peat in damp weather, occasioned by the absorption of moisture from the air. This power is further shown by the fact that when peat has been kept all summer long in a warm room, thinly spread out to the air, and has become like dry snuff to the feel, it still contains from 8 to 30 _per cent._ (average 15 _per cent._) of water. To dry a peat thoroughly, it requires to be exposed for some time to the temperature of boiling water. It is thus plain, as experience has repeatedly demonstrated, that no ordinary summer heats can dry up a soil which has had a good dressing of this material, for on the one hand, it soaks up and holds the rains that fall upon it, and on the other, it absorbs the vapor of water out of the atmosphere whenever it is moist, as at night and in cloudy weather. When peat has once become _air-dry_, it no longer manifests this avidity for water. In drying it shrinks, loses its porosity and requires long soaking to saturate it again. In the soil, however, it rarely becomes air-dry, unless indeed, this may happen during long drouth with a peaty soil, such as results from the draining of a bog. II.--_Absorbent power for ammonia._ All soils that deserve to be called fertile, have the property of absorbing and retaining ammonia and the volatile matters which escape from fermenting manures, but light and coarse soils may be deficient in this power. Here again in respect to its absorptive power for ammonia, peat comes to our aid. It is easy to show by direct experiment that peat absorbs and combines with ammonia. In 1858 I took a weighed quantity of air-dry peat from the New Haven Beaver Pond, (a specimen furnished me by Chauncey Goodyear, Esq.,) and poured upon it a known quantity of dilute solution of ammonia, and agitated the two together occasionally during 48 hours. I then distilled off at a boiling heat the unabsorbed ammonia and determined its quantity. This amount subtracted from that of the ammonia originally employed, gave the quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained by the peat at the temperature of boiling water. The peat retained ammonia to the amount of 0.95 of _one per cent._ I made another trial at the same time with carbonate of ammonia, adding excess of solution of this salt to a quantity of peat, and exposing it to the heat of boiling water, until no smell of ammonia was perceptible. The entire nitrogen in the peat was then determined, and it was found that the dry peat which originally contained nitrogen equivalent to 2.4 _per cent._ of ammonia, now yielded an amount corresponding to 3.7 _per cent._ The quantity of ammonia absorbed and retained at a temperature of 212°, was thus 1.3 _per cent._ This last experiment most nearly represents the true power of absorption; because, in fermenting manures, ammonia mostly occurs in the form of carbonate, and this is more largely retained than free ammonia, on account of its power of decomposing the humate of lime, forming with it carbonate of lime and humate of ammonia. The absorbent power of peat is well shown by the analyses of three specimens, sent me in 1858, by Edwin Hoyt, Esq., of New Canaan, Conn. The first of these was the swamp muck he employed. It contained in the air-dry state nitrogen equivalent to 0.58 _per cent._ of ammonia. The second sample was the same muck that had lain under the flooring of the horse stables, and had been, in this way, partially saturated with urine. It contained nitrogen equivalent to 1.15 _per cent._ of ammonia. The third sample was, finally, the same muck composted with white-fish. It contained nitrogen corresponding to 1.31 _per cent._ of ammonia.[3] The quantities of ammonia thus absorbed, both in the laboratory and field experiments are small--from 0.7 to 1.3 _per cent._ The absorption is without doubt chiefly due to the organic matter of the peats, and in all the specimens on which these trials were made, the proportion of inorganic matter is large. The results therefore become a better expression of the power of _peat_, in general, to absorb ammonia, if we reckon them on the organic matter alone. Calculated in this way, the organic matter of the Beaver Pond peat (which constitutes but 68 _per cent._ of the dry peat) absorbs 1.4 _per cent._ of free ammonia, and 1.9 _per cent._ of ammonia out of the carbonate of ammonia. Similar experiments, by Anderson, on a Scotch peat, showed it to possess, when wet, an absorptive power of 2 _per cent._, and, after drying in the air, it still retained 1.5 _per cent._--[Trans. Highland and Ag'l Soc'y.] When we consider how small an ingredient of most manures nitrogen is, viz.: from one-half to three-quarters of one _per cent._ in case of stable manure, and how little of it, in the shape of guano for instance, is usually applied to crops--not more than 40 to 60 lbs. to the acre, (the usual dressings with guano are from 250 to 400 lbs. per acre, and nitrogen averages but 15 _per cent._ of the guano), we at once perceive that an absorptive power of one or even one-half _per cent._ is greatly more than adequate for every agricultural purpose. III.--_Peat promotes the disintegration of the soil._ The soil is a storehouse of food for crops; the stores it contains are, however, only partly available for immediate use. In fact, by far the larger share is locked up, as it were, in insoluble combinations, and only by a slow and gradual change can it become accessible to the plant. This change is largely brought about by the united action of _water_ and _carbonic acid gas_. Nearly all the rocks and minerals out of which fertile soils are formed,--which therefore contain those inorganic matters that are essential to vegetable growth,--though very slowly acted on by pure water, are decomposed and dissolved to a much greater extent by water, charged with carbonic acid gas. It is by these solvents that the formation of soil from broken rocks is to a great extent due. Clay is invariably a result of their direct action upon rocks. The efficiency of the soil depends greatly upon their chemical influence. _The only abundant source of carbonic acid in the soil, is decaying vegetable matter._ Hungry, leachy soils, from their deficiency of vegetable matter and of moisture, do not adequately yield their own native resources to the support of crops, because the conditions for converting their fixed into floating capital are wanting. Such soils dressed with peat or green manured, at once acquire the power of retaining water, and keep that water ever charged with carbonic acid: thus not only the extraneous manures which the farmer applies are fully economized; but the soil becomes more productive from its own stores of fertility which now begin to be unlocked and available. Dr. Peters, of Saxony, has made some instructive experiments that are here in point. He filled several large glass jars, (2-1/2 feet high and 5-1/2 inches wide) with a rather poor loamy sand, containing considerable humus, and planted in each one, June 14, 1857, an equal number of seeds of oats and peas. Jar No. 2 had daily passed into it through a tube, adapted to the bottom, about 3-1/4 pints of common air. No. 3 received daily the same bulk of a mixture of air and carbonic acid gas, of which the latter amounted to one-fourth. No. 1 remained without any treatment of this kind, _i. e._: in just the condition of the soil in an open field, having no air in its pores, save that penetrating it from the atmosphere. On October 3, the plants were removed from the soil, and after drying at the boiling point of water, were weighed. The crops from the pots into which air and carbonic acid were daily forced, were about _twice as heavy_ as No. 1, which remained in the ordinary condition. Examination of the soil further demonstrated, that in the last two soils, a considerably greater quantity of mineral and organic matters had become soluble in water, than in the soil that was not artificially aërated. The actual results are given in the table below in grammes, and refer to 6000 grammes of soil in each case:-- ACTION OF CARBONIC ACID ON THE SOIL. -----------------------------------+-----------+--------+------------ | _No. 1, | | | Without |_No. 2, | _No. 3, _Substances soluble in water, etc._| Artificial| Common | Air and | Supply of | Air | Carbonic | Air._ | Added._|acid added._ -----------------------------------+-----------+--------+------------ Mineral matters | 2.04 | 3.71 | 4.99 Potash | 0.07 | 0.17 | 0.14 Soda | 0.17 | 0.23 | 0.28 Organic matters | 2.76 | 4.32 | 2.43 | | | Weight of Crops | 5.89 | 10.49 | 12.35 -----------------------------------+-----------+--------+------------ It will be seen from the above that air alone exercised nearly as much solvent effect as the mixture of air with one-fourth its weight of carbonic acid; this is doubtless, in part due to the fact that the air, upon entering the soil rich in humus, caused the abundant formation of carbonic acid, as will be presently shown must have been the case. It is, however, probable that organic acids (crenic and apocrenic,) and nitric acid were also produced (by oxidation,) and shared with carbonic the work of solution. It is almost certain, that the acids of peat exert a powerful decomposing, and ultimately solvent effect on the minerals of the soil; but on this point we have no precise information, and must therefore be content merely to present the probability. This is sustained by the fact that the crenic, apocrenic and humic acids, though often partly uncombined, are never wholly so, but usually occur united in part to various bases, viz.: lime, magnesia, ammonia, potash, alumina and oxide of iron. The crenic and apocrenic acids (that are formed by the oxidation of ulmic and humic acids,) have such decided acid characters,--crenic acid especially, which has a strongly sour taste--that we cannot well doubt their dissolving action. IV.--_The influence of peat on the temperature_ of light soils dressed with it may often be of considerable practical importance. A light dry soil is subject to great variations of temperature, and rapidly follows the changes of the atmosphere from cold to hot, and from hot to cold. In the summer noon a sandy soil becomes so warm as to be hardly endurable to the feel, and again it is on such soils that the earliest frosts take effect. If a soil thus subject to extremes of temperature have a dressing of peat, it will on the one hand not become so warm in the hot day, and on the other hand it will not cool so rapidly, nor so much in the night; its temperature will be rendered more uniform, and on the whole, more conducive to the welfare of vegetation. This regulative effect on temperature is partly due to the stores of water held by peat. In a hot day this water is constantly evaporating, and this, as all know, is a cooling process. At night the peat absorbs vapor of water from the air, and condenses it within its pores, this condensation is again accompanied with the evolution of heat. It appears to be a general, though not invariable fact, that dark colored soils, other things being equal, are constantly the warmest, or at any rate maintain the temperature most favorable to vegetation. It has been repeatedly observed that on light-colored soils plants mature more rapidly, if the earth be thinly covered with a coating of some black substance. Thus Lampadius, Professor in the School of Mines at Freiberg, a town situated in a mountainous part of Saxony, found that he could ripen melons, even in the coolest summers, by strewing a coating of coal-dust an inch deep over the surface of the soil. In some of the vineyards of the Rhine, the powder of a black slate is employed to hasten the ripening of the grape. Girardin, an eminent French agriculturist, in a series of experiments on the cultivation of potatoes, found that the time of their ripening varied eight to fourteen days, according to the character of the soil. He found, on the 25th of August, in a very dark soil, made so by the presence of much humus or decaying vegetable matter, twenty-six varieties ripe; in sandy soil but twenty, in clay nineteen, and in a white lime soil only sixteen. It cannot be doubted then, that the effect of dressing a light sandy or gravelly soil with peat, or otherwise enriching it in vegetable matter, is to render it warmer, in the sense in which that word is usually applied to soils. The upward range of the thermometer is not, indeed, increased, but the uniform warmth so salutary to our most valued crops is thereby secured. In the light soils stable-manure wastes too rapidly because, for one reason, at the extremes of high temperature, oxidation and decay proceed with great rapidity, and the volatile portions of the fertilizer are used up faster than the plant can appropriate them, so that not only are they wasted during the early periods of growth, but they are wanting at a later period when their absence may prove the failure of a crop. B. The ingredients and qualities which make peat _a direct fertilizer_ next come under discussion. We shall notice: _The organic matters including nitrogen (ammonia and nitric acid)_ (I): _The inorganic or mineral ingredients_ (II): _Peculiarities in the decay of Peat_ (III), _and_ _Institute a comparison between peat and stable manure_ (IV). I.--Under this division we have to consider: 1. _The organic matters as direct food to plants._ Thirty years ago, when Chemistry and Vegetable Physiology began to be applied to Agriculture, the opinion was firmly held among scientific men, that the organic parts of humus--by which we understand decayed vegetable matter, such as is found to a greater or less extent in all good soils, and _abounds_ in many fertile ones, such as constitutes the leaf-mold of forests, such as is produced in the fermenting of stable manure, and that forms the principal part of swamp-muck and peat,--are the true nourishment of vegetation, at any rate of the higher orders of plants, those which supply food to man and to domestic animals. In 1840, Liebig, in his celebrated treatise on the "Applications of Chemistry to Agriculture and Physiology," gave as his opinion that these organic bodies do not nourish vegetation except by the products of their decay. He asserted that they cannot enter the plant directly, but that the water, carbonic acid and ammonia resulting from their decay, are the substances actually imbibed by plants, and from these alone is built up the organic or combustible part of vegetation. To this day there is a division of opinion among scientific men on this subject, some adopting the views of Liebig, others maintaining that certain soluble organic matters, viz., crenic and apocrenic acids are proper food of plants. On the one hand it has been abundantly demonstrated that these organic matters are not at all essential to the growth of agricultural plants, and can constitute but a small part of the actual food of vegetation taken in the aggregate. On the other hand, we are acquainted with no satisfactory evidence that the soluble organic matters of the soil and of peat, especially the crenates and apocrenates, are not actually appropriated by, and, so far as they go, are not directly serviceable as food to plants. Be this as it may, practice has abundantly demonstrated the value of humus as an ingredient of the soil, and if not directly, yet indirectly, it furnishes the material out of which plants build up their parts. 2. _The organic matters of peat as indirect food to plants._ Very nearly one-half, by weight, of our common crops, when perfectly dry, consists of _carbon_. The substance which supplies this element to plants is the gas, carbonic acid. Plants derive this gas mostly from the atmosphere, absorbing it by means of their leaves. But the free atmosphere, at only a little space above the soil, contains on the average but 1/2500 of its bulk of this gas, whereas plants flourish in air containing a larger quantity, and, in fact, their other wants being supplied, they grow better as the quantity is increased to 1/12 the bulk of the air. These considerations make sufficiently obvious how important it is that the soil have in itself a constant and abundant source of carbonic acid gas. As before said, _organic matter, in a state of decay_, is the single material which the farmer can incorporate with his soil in order to make the latter a supply of this most indispensable form of plant-food. When organic matters decay in the soil, their carbon ultimately assumes the form of Carbonic acid. This gas, constantly exhaling from the soil, is taken up by the foliage of the crops, and to some extent is absorbed likewise by their roots. Boussingault & Lewy have examined the air inclosed in the interstices of various soils, and invariably found it much richer (10 to 400 times) than that of the atmosphere above. Here follow some of their results: CARBONIC ACID IN SOILS. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Key: A - _Volumes of Carbonic acid in 100 of air in pores of Soil._ B - _Cubic feet of air in acre to depth of 14 inches._ C - _Cubic feet of Carbonic acid in acre to depth of 14 inches._ D - _Volumes of Carbonic acid to 100 of air above the soil._ E - _Cubic feet of air over one acre to height of 14 inches._ F - _Cubic feet of Carbonic acid over one acre to a height of 14 inches._ --------------------------------------------------------+-----+------+---- _Designation and Condition of Soil._ | A | B | C --------------------------------------------------------+-----+------+---- Sandy subsoil of forest |0.24 | 4,326| 14 Loamy " " " |0.82 | 3,458| 28 Surface soil " " |0.86 | 5,768| 56 Clayey soil of artichoke field |0.66 |10,094| 71 Soil of asparagus bed, unmanured for one year |0.79 |10,948| 86 " " " " newly manured |1.54 |10,948| 172 Sandy soil, six days after manuring, and three | | | days of rain.|2.21 |11,536| 257 " " ten " " " " " | | | " " " |9.74 |11,536|1144 Compost of vegetable mold |3.64 |20,608| 772 | | | _Carbonic Acid in Atmosphere_ | D | E | F |-----+------+---- |0.025|50,820| 14 --------------------------------------------------------+-----+------+---- From the above it is seen that in soils containing little decomposing organic matters--as the forest sub-soils--the quantity of carbonic acid is no greater than that contained in an equal bulk of the atmosphere. It is greater in loamy and clayey soils; but is still small. In the artichoke field (probably light soil not lately manured), and even in an asparagus bed unmanured for one year, the amount of carbonic acid is not greatly larger. In newly manured fields, and especially in a vegetable compost, the quantity is vastly greater. The organic matters which come from manures, or from the roots and other residues of crops, are the source of the carbonic acid of the soil. These matters continually waste in yielding this gas, and must be supplied anew. Boussingault found that the rich soil of his kitchen garden (near Strasburg) which had been heavily manured from the barn-yard for many years, lost one-third of its carbon by exposure to the air for three months (July, August and September,) being daily watered. It originally contained 2.43 _per cent._ At the conclusion of the experiment it contained but 1.60 _per cent._, having lost 0.83 _per cent._ Peat and swamp-muck, when properly prepared, furnish carbonic acid in large quantities during their slow oxidation in the soil. 3. _The Nitrogen of Peat, including Ammonia and Nitric Acid._ The sources of the nitrogen of plants, and the real cause of the value of nitrogenous fertilizers, are topics that have excited more discussion than any other points in Agricultural Chemistry. This is the result of two circumstances. One is the obscurity in which some parts of the subject have rested; the other is the immense practical and commercial importance of this element, as a characteristic and essential ingredient of the most precious fertilizers. It is a rule that the most valuable manures, _commercially considered_, are those containing the most nitrogen. Peruvian guano, sulphate of ammonia, soda-saltpeter, fish and flesh manures, bones and urine, cost the farmer more money per ton than any other manures he buys or makes, superphosphate of lime excepted, and this does not find sale, for general purposes, unless it contains several _per cent._ of nitrogen. These are, in the highest sense, nitrogenous fertilizers, and, if deprived of their nitrogen, they would lose the greater share of their fertilizing power. The importance of the nitrogen of manures depends upon the fact that those forms (compounds) of nitrogen which are capable of supplying it to vegetation are comparatively scarce. It has long been known that peat contains a considerable quantity of nitrogen. The average amount in thirty specimens, analyzed under the author's direction, including peats and swamp mucks of all grades of quality, is equivalent to 1-1/2 _per cent._ of the air-dried substance, or more than thrice as much as exists in ordinary stable or yard manure. In several peats the amount is as high as 2.4 _per cent._, and in one case 2.9 _per cent._ were found. Of these thirty samples, one-half were largely mixed with soil, and contained from 15 to 60 _per cent._ of mineral matters. Reducing them to an average of 15 _per cent._ of water and 5 _per cent._ of ash, they contain 2.1 _per cent._ of nitrogen, while the organic part, considered free from water and mineral substances, contains on the average 2.6 _per cent._ See table, page 90. The five peats, analyzed by Websky and Chevandier, as cited on page 24, considered free from water and ash, contain an average of 1.8 _per cent._ of nitrogen. We should not neglect to notice that peat is often comparatively poor in nitrogen. Of the specimens, examined in the Yale Analytical Laboratory, several contained but half a _per cent._ or less. So in the analyses of Websky, one sample contained but 0.77 _per cent._ of the element in question. As concerns the state of combination in which nitrogen exists in peat, there is a difference of opinion. Mulder regards it as chiefly occurring in the form of _ammonia_ (a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen), united to the organic acids from which it is very difficult to separate it. Recent investigations indicate that in general, peat contains but a small proportion of ready-formed ammonia. The great part of the nitrogen of peat exists in an insoluble and inert form: but, by the action of the atmosphere upon it, especially when mixed with and divided by the soil, it gradually becomes available to vegetation to as great an extent as the nitrogen of ordinary fertilizers. It appears from late examinations that weathered peat may contain _nitric acid_ (compound of nitrogen with oxygen) in a proportion which, though small, is yet of great importance, agriculturally speaking. What analytical data we possess are subjoined. PROPORTIONS OF NITROGEN, ETC., IN PEAT. ---------+-------------+------------+------------+---------+------------ | | | Total |Ammonia, | | | Analyst. | Nitrogen. |per cent.|Nitric acid. ---------+-------------+------------+------------+---------+------------ 1--Brown | | | | | Peat|Air dry (?) |Boussingault| 2.20 | 0.018 | 0.000 2--Black | | | | | Peat| " | " |Undetermined| 0.025 |Undetermined 3--Peat |Dried at 212°|Reichardt[4]| " | 0.152 | 0.483 4--Peat | " | " | " | 0.165 | 0.525 5--Peat | " | " | " | 0.305 | 0.241 6--Peat | " | " | " | 0.335 | 0.421 ---------+-------------+------------+------------+---------+------------ Specimens 3, 4 and 5, are swamp (or heath) mucks, and have been weathered for use in flower-culture. 3 and 4 are alike, save that 3 has been weathered a year longer than 4. They contain respectively 41, 56 and 67 _per cent._ of organic matter. Sample 6, containing 86 _per cent._ of organic matter, is employed as a manure with great advantage, and probably was weathered before analysis. It contained 85 _per cent._ of organic substance. More important to us than the circumstance that this peat contains but little or no ammonia or nitric acid, and the other contains such or such a fraction of one _per cent._ of these bodies, is the grand fact that all peats may yield a good share of their nitrogen to the support of crops, when properly treated and applied. Under the influence of Liebig's teachings, which were logically based upon the best data at the disposal of this distinguished philosopher when he wrote 25 years ago, it has been believed that the nitrogen of a fertilizer, in order to be available, must be converted into ammonia and presented in that shape to the plant. It has been recently made clear that nitric acid, rather than ammonia, is the form of nitrogenous food which is most serviceable to vegetation, and the one which is most abundantly supplied by the air and soil. The value of ammonia is however positive, and not to be overlooked. When peat, properly prepared by weathering or composting, is suitably incorporated with a poor or light soil, it slowly suffers decomposition and wastes away. If it be wet, and air have access in limited quantity, especially if _lime_ be mixed with it, a portion of its nitrogen is gradually converted into ammonia. With full access of air _nitric acid_ is produced. In either case, it appears that a considerable share of the nitrogen escapes in the free state as gas, thereby becoming useless to vegetation until it shall have become converted again into ammonia or nitric acid. It happens in a cultivated soil that the oxygen of the air is in excess at the surface, and less abundant as we go down until we get below organic matters: it happens that one day it is saturated with water more or less, and another day it is dry, so that at one time we have the conditions for the formation of ammonia, and at another, those favorable to producing nitric acid. In this way, so far as our present knowledge warrants us to affirm, organic matters, decaying in the soil, continuously yield portions of their nitrogen in the forms of ammonia and nitric acid for the nourishment of plants. The farmer who skillfully employs as a fertilizer a peat containing a good proportion of nitrogen, may thus expect to get from it results similar to what would come from the corresponding quantity of nitrogen in guano or stable manure. But the capacity of peat for feeding crops with, nitrogen appears not to stop here. Under certain conditions, _the free nitrogen of the air which cannot be directly appropriated by vegetation, is oxidized in the pores of the soil to nitric acid, and thus, free of expense to the farmer, his crops are daily dressed with the most precious of all fertilizers_. This gathering of useless nitrogen from the air, and making it over into plant-food cannot go on in a soil destitute of organic matter, requires in fact that vegetable remains or humified substances of some sort be present there. The evidence of this statement, whose truth was maintained years ago as a matter of opinion by many of the older chemists, has recently become nearly a matter of demonstration by the investigations of Boussingault and Knop, while the explanation of it is furnished by the researches of Schoenbein and Zabelin. To attempt any elucidation of it here would require more space than is at our disposal. It is plain from the contents of this paragraph that peat or swamp muck is, in general, an abundant source of nitrogen, and is often therefore an extremely cheap means of replacing the most rare and costly fertilizers. II.--With regard to the _inorganic matters of peat_ considered as food to plants, it is obvious, that, leaving out of the account for the present, some exceptional cases, they are useful as far as they go. In the ashes of peats, we almost always find small quantities of sulphate of lime, magnesia and phosphoric acid. Potash and soda too, are often present, though rarely to any considerable amount. Carbonate and sulphate of lime are large ingredients of the ashes of about one-half, of the thirty-three peats and swamp mucks I have examined. The ashes of the other half are largely mixed with sand and soil, but in most cases also contain considerable sulphate of lime, and often carbonates of lime and magnesia. In one swamp-muck, from Milford, Conn., there was found but two _per cent._ of ash, at least one-half of which was sand, and the remainder sulphate of lime, (gypsum.) In other samples 20, 30, 50 and even 60 _per cent._ remained after burning off the organic matter. In these cases the ash is chiefly sand. The amount of ash found in those peats which were most free from sand, ranges from five to nine _per cent._ Probably the average proportion of true ash, viz.: that derived from the organic matters themselves, not including sand and accidental ingredients, is not far from five _per cent._ In twenty-two specimens of European peat, examined by Websky, Jæckel, Walz, Wiegmann, Einhof and Berthier, eleven contained from 0.6 to 3.5 _per cent._ of ash. The other eleven yielded from 5.3 to 22 _per cent._ The average of the former was 2.4, that of the latter 12.7 _per cent._ Most of these contained a considerable proportion of sand or soil. Variation in the composition as well as in the quantity of ash is very great. Three analyses of peat-ashes have been executed at the author's instance with the subjoined results: ANALYSES OF PEAT-ASHES. ---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------- | A. | B. | C. Potash. | 0.69 | 0.80 | 3.46 Soda. | 0.58 | | trace. Lime. | 40.52 | 35.59 | 6.60 Magnesia. | 6.06 | 4.92 | 1.05 Oxide of iron and alumina. | 5.17 | 9.08 | 15.59 Phosphoric acid. | 0.50 | 0.77 | 1.55 Sulphuric acid. | 5.52 | 10.41 | 4.04 Chlorine. | 0.15 | 0.43 | 0.70 Soluble silica. | 8.23 | 1.40 } | Carbonic acid. | 19.60 | 22.28 } | 67.01 Sand. | 12.11 | 15.04 } | +-----------+-----------+---------- | 99.13 | 100.74 | 100.00 ---------------------------+-----------+-----------+---------- A was furnished by Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., and comes from a peat which he uses as fuel. B was sent by Mr. J. H. Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn. C was sent from Guilford, Conn., by Mr. Andrew Foote.[5] A and B, after excluding sand, are seen to consist chiefly of carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia. III. contains a very large proportion of sand and soluble silica, much iron and alumina, less lime and sulphuric acid. Potash and phosphoric acid are three times more abundant in C than in the others. Instead of citing in full the results of Websky, Jæckel and others, it will serve our object better to present the maximum, minimum and average proportions of the important ingredients in twenty-six recent analyses, (including these three,) that have come under the author's notice. VARIATIONS AND AVERAGES IN COMPOSITION OF PEAT-ASHES. _Minimum._ _Maximum._ _Average._ Potash 0.05 to 3.64 0.89 per cent. Soda none " 5.73 0.83 " Lime 4.72 " 58.38 24.00 " Magnesia none " 24.39 3.20 " Alumina 0.90 " 20.50 5.78 " Oxide of iron none " 73.33 18.70 " Sulphuric acid none " 37.40 7.50 " Chlorine " " 6.50 0.60 " Phosphoric acid " " 6.29 2.56 " Sand 0.99 " 56.97 25.50 " It is seen from the above figures that the ash of peat varies in composition to an indefinite degree. Lime is the only ingredient that is never quite wanting, and with the exception of sand, it is on the average the largest. Of the other agriculturally valuable components, sulphuric acid has the highest average; then follows magnesia; then phosphoric acid, and lastly, potash and soda: all of these, however, may be nearly or quite lacking. Websky, who has recently made a study of the composition of a number of German peats, believes himself warranted to conclude that peat is so modified in appearance by its mineral matters, that the quantity or character of the latter may be judged of in many cases by the eye. He remarks, (_Journal fuer Praktische Chemie, Bd. 92, S. 87_,) "that while for example the peats containing much sand and clay have a red-brown powdery appearance, and never assume a lustrous surface by pressure; those which are very rich in lime, are black, sticky when moist, hard and of a waxy luster on a pressed surface, when dry: a property which they share indeed with very dense peats that contain little ash. Peats impregnated with iron are easily recognized. Their peculiar odor, and their changed appearance distinguish them from all others." From my own investigations on thirty specimens of Connecticut peats, I am forced to disagree with Websky entirely, and to assert that except as regards sand, which may often be detected by the eye, there is no connection whatever between the quantity or character of the ash and the color, consistency, density or any other external quality of the peat. The causes of this variation in the ash-content of peat, deserve a moment's notice. The plants that produce peat contain considerable proportions of lime, magnesia, alkalies, sulphuric acid, chlorine and phosphoric acid, as seen from the following analysis by Websky. COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF SPHAGNUM. Potash. 17.2 Soda. 8.3 Lime. 11.8 Magnesia. 6.7 Sulphuric acid. 6.5 Chlorine. 6.2 Phosphoric acid. 6.7 _Per cent._ of ash, 2.5. The mineral matters of the sphagnum do not all become ingredients of the peat; but, as rapidly as the moss decays below, its soluble matters are to a great degree absorbed by the vegetation, which is still living and growing above. Again, when a stream flows through a peat-bed, soluble matters are carried away by the water, which is often dark-brown from the substances dissolved in it. Finally the soil of the adjacent land is washed or blown upon the swamp, in greater or less quantities. III.--_The decomposition of peat in the soil offers some peculiarities_ that are worthy of notice in this place. Peat is more gradual and regular in decay than the vegetable matters of stable dung, or than that furnished by turning under sod or green crops. It is thus a more steady and lasting benefit, especially in light soils, out of which ordinary vegetable manures disappear too rapidly. The decay of peat appears to proceed through a regular series of steps. In the soil, especially in contact with soluble alkaline bodies, as ammonia and lime, there is a progressive conversion of the _insoluble_ or _less soluble_ into _soluble_ compounds. Thus the inert matters that resist the immediate solvent power of alkalies, absorb oxygen from the air, and form the humic or ulmic acids soluble in alkalies; the humic acids undergo conversion into crenic acid, and this body, by oxidation, passes into apocrenic acid. The two latter are soluble in water, and, in the porous soil, they are rapidly brought to the end-results of decay, viz.: water, carbonic acid, ammonia and free nitrogen. Great differences must be observed, however, in the rapidity with which these changes take place. Doubtless they go on most slowly in case of the fibrous compact peats, and perhaps some of the lighter and more porous samples of swamp muck, would decay nearly as fast as rotted stable dung. It might appear from the above statement, that the effect of exposing peat to the air, as is done when it is incorporated with the soil, would be to increase relatively the amount of soluble organic matters; but the truth is, that they are often actually diminished. In fact, the oxidation and consequent removal of these soluble matters (crenic and apocrenic acids,) is likely to proceed more rapidly than they can be produced from the less soluble humic acid of the peat. IV.--_Comparison of Peat with Stable Manure._ The fertilizing value of peat is best understood by comparing it with some standard manure. Stable manure is obviously that fertilizer whose effects are most universally observed and appreciated, and by setting analyses of the two side by side, we may see at a glance, what are the excellencies and what the deficiencies of peat. In order rightly to estimate the worth of those ingredients which occur in but small proportion in peat, we must remember that it, like stable manure, may be, and usually should be, applied in large doses, so that in fact the smallest ingredients come upon an acre in considerable quantity. In making our comparison, we will take the analysis of Peat from the farm of Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., and the average of several analyses of rotted stable dung of _good quality_. No. _I_, is the analysis of Peat; No. _II_, that of well rotted stable manure:-- _I._ _II._ Water expelled at 212 degrees. 79.000 79.00 {Soluble in dilute solution } Org. { of carbonate of soda. 7.312 } Matter. {Insoluble in solution } 14.16 { of carbonate of soda. 12.210 } Potash. 0.010 0.65 Soda. 0.009 Lime. 0.608 0.57 Magnesia. 0.091 0.19 Phosphoric acid. 0.008 0.23 Sulphuric acid. 0.082 0.27 Nitrogen. 0.600 0.55 Matters, soluble in water. 0.450 4.42 To make the comparison as just as possible, the peat is calculated with the same content of water, that stable dung usually has. We observe then, that the peat contains in a given quantity, _about one-third more organic matter, an equal amount of lime and nitrogen_; but is _deficient in potash, magnesia, phosphoric and sulphuric acids_. The deficiencies of this peat in the matter of composition may be corrected, as regards potash, by adding to 100 lbs. of it 1 lb. of potash of commerce, or 5 lbs. of unleached wood-ashes; as regards phosphoric and sulphuric acids, by adding 1 lb. of good superphosphate, or 1 lb. each of bone dust and plaster of Paris. In fact, the additions just named, will convert _any fresh peat_, containing not more than 80 _per cent._ of water and not less than 20 _per cent._ of organic matter, into a mixture having as much fertilizing matters as stable dung, with the possible exception of nitrogen. It is a fact, however, that two manures may reveal to the chemist the same composition, and yet be very unlike in their fertilizing effects, because their conditions are unlike, because they differ in their degrees of solubility or availability. As before insisted upon, it is true in general, that peat is more slow of decomposition than yard-manure, and this fact, which is an advantage in an amendment, is a disadvantage in a fertilizer. Though there may be some peats, or rather swamp mucks, which are energetic and rapid in their action, it seems that they need to be applied in larger quantities than stable manure in order to produce corresponding fertilizing effects. In many cases peat requires some preparation by weathering, or by chemical action--"fermentation"--induced by decomposing animal matters or by alkalies. This topic will shortly be discussed. We adopt, as a general fact, the conclusion that peat is inferior in fertilizing power to stable manure. Experience asserts, however, with regard to some individual kinds, that they are equal to common yard manure without any preparation whatever. Mr. Daniel Buck, of Poquonock, Conn., says, of the 'muck,' over-lying the peat, whose composition has just been compared with stable manure, that it "has been applied fresh to meadow with good results; the grass is not as tall but thicker and finer, and of a darker green in the spring, than when barn-yard manure is spread on." A swamp muck, from Mr. A. M. Haling, Rockville, Conn., "has been used as a top-dressing, on grass, with excellent results. It is a good substitute for barn-yard manure." A peat, from Mr. Russell U. Peck, of Berlin, Conn., "has been used fresh, on corn and meadow, with good effect." Of the peat, from the 'Beaver Pond,' near New Haven, Mr. Chauncey Goodyear, says, "it has been largely used in a fresh state, and in this condition is as good as cow dung." Mr. Henry Keeler, remarks, concerning a swamp muck occurring at South Salem, N. Y., that "it has been used in the fresh state, applied to corn and potatoes, and appears to be equal to good barn manure:" further:--"it has rarely been weathered more than two months, and then applied side by side with the best yard manure has given equally good results." A few words as to the apparent contradiction between Chemistry, which says that peat is not equal to stable dung as a fertilizer, and Practice, which in these cases affirms that it is equal to our standard manure. In the first place, the chemical conclusion is a general one, and does not apply to individual peats, which, in a few instances, may be superior to yard manure. The practical judgment also is, that, in general, yard manure is the best. To go to the individual cases; second: A peat in which nitrogen exists in as large a proportion as is found in stable or yard manure, being used in larger quantity, or being more durable in its action, may for a few seasons produce better results than the latter, merely on account of the presence of this one ingredient, it may in fact, for the soil and crop to which it is applied, be a better fertilizer than yard manure, because nitrogen is most needed in that soil, and yet for the generality of soils, or in the long run, it may prove to be an inferior fertilizer. Again; third--the melioration of the physical qualities of a soil, the amendment of its dryness and excessive porosity, by means of peat, may be more effective for agricultural purposes, than the application of tenfold as much fertilizing, _i. e._ plant-feeding materials; in the same way that the mere draining of an over-moist soil often makes it more productive than the heaviest manuring. 2.--_On the characters of Peat that are detrimental, or that may sometimes need correction before it is agriculturally useful._ I.--_Bad effects on wet heavy soils._ We have laid much stress on the amending qualities of peat, when applied to dry and leachy soils, which by its use are rendered more retentive of moisture and manure. These properties, which it would seem, are just adapted to renovate very light land, under certain circumstances, may become disadvantageous on heavier soils. On clays no application is needed to retain moisture. They are already too wet as a general thing. Peat, when put into the soil, lasts much longer than stubble, or green crops plowed in, or than long manure. If buried too deeply, or put into a heavy soil, especially if in large quantity, it does not decay, but remains wet, and tends to make a bog of the field itself. For soils that are rather heavy, it is therefore best to compost the peat with some rapidly fermenting manure. We thus get a compound which is quicker than muck, and slower than stable manure, etc., and is therefore better adapted to the wants of the soil than either of these would be alone. Here it will be seen that much depends on the character of the peat itself. If light and spongy, and easily dried, it may be used alone with advantage on loamy soils, whereas if dense, and coherent, it would most likely be a poor amendment on a soil which has much tendency to become compact, and therefore does not readily free itself from excess of water. But even a clay soil, if _thorough-drained and deeply plowed_, may be wonderfully improved by even a heavy dressing of muck, as then, the water being let off, the muck can exert no detrimental action; but operates as effectually to loosen a too heavy soil, as in case of sand, it makes an over-porous soil compact or retentive. A clay may be made friable, if well drained, by incorporating with it any substance as lime, sand, long manure or muck, which interposing between the clayey particles, prevents their adhering together. II.--_Noxious ingredients._ a. _Vitriol peat._ Occasionally a peat is met with which is injurious if applied in the fresh state to crops, from its containing some substance which exerts a poisonous action on vegetation. The principal detrimental ingredients that occur in peat, appear to be sulphate of protoxide of iron,--the same body that is popularly known under the names copperas and green-vitriol,--and sulphate of alumina, the astringent component of alum. I have found these substances ready formed in large quantity in but one of the peats that I have examined, viz.: that sent me by Mr. Perrin Scarborough; of Brooklyn, Conn. This peat dissolved in water to the extent of 15 _per cent._, and the soluble portion, although containing some organic matter and sulphate of lime, consisted in great part of green-vitriol. Portions of this muck, when thrown up to the air, become covered with "a white crust, having the taste of alum or saltpeter." The bed containing this peat, though drained, yields but a little poor bog hay, and the peat itself, even after weathering for a year, when applied, mixed with one-fifth of stable manure to corn in the hill, gave no encouraging results, though a fair crop was obtained. It is probable that the sample analyzed was much richer in salts of iron and alumina, than the average of the muck. Green-vitriol in minute doses is not hurtful, but rather beneficial to vegetation; but in larger quantity it is fatally destructive. In a salt-marsh mud sent me by the Rev. Wm. Clift, of Stonington, Conn., there was found sulphate of iron in considerable quantity. This noxious substance likewise occurred in small amount in swamp muck from E. Hoyt, Esq., New Canaan, Conn., and in hardly appreciable quantity in several others that I have examined. Besides green-vitriol, it is possible that certain organic salts of iron, may be deleterious. The poisonous properties of vitriol-peats may be effectually corrected by composting with lime, or wood-ashes. By the action of these substances, sulphate of lime, (plaster of Paris) is formed, while the iron separates as peroxide, which, being insoluble, is without deleterious effect on vegetation. Where only soluble organic salts of iron (crenate of iron) are present, simple exposure to the air suffices to render them innocuous. b. _The acidity of Peats._--Many writers have asserted that peat and muck possess a hurtful "acidity" which must be corrected before they can be usefully employed. It is indeed a fact, that peat consists largely of acids, but, except perhaps in the vitriol-peats, (those containing copperas,) they are so insoluble, or if soluble, are so quickly modified by the absorption of oxygen, that they do not exhibit any "acidity" that can be deleterious to vegetation. It is advised to neutralize this supposed acidity by lime or an alkali before using peat as a fertilizer or amendment, and there is great use in such mixtures of peat with alkaline matters, as we shall presently notice under the head of composts. By the word acidity is conveyed the idea of something hurtful to plants. This something is, doubtless, in many cases, the salts of iron we have just noticed. In others, it is simply the inertness, "coldness" of the peat, which is not positively injurious, but is, for a time at least, of no benefit to the soil. c. _Resinous matters_ are mentioned by various writers as injurious ingredients of peat, but I find no evidence that this notion is well-founded. The peat or muck formed from the decay of resinous wood and leaves does not appear to be injurious, and the amount of resin in peat is exceedingly small. 3.--_The Preparation of Peat for Agricultural use._ a. _Excavation._--As to the time and manner of getting out peat, the circumstances of each case must determine. I only venture here to offer a few hints on this subject, which belongs so exclusively to the farm. The month of August is generally the appropriate time for throwing up peat, as then the swamps are usually most free from water, and most accessible to men and teams; but peat is often dug to best advantage in the winter, not only on account of the cheapness of labor, and from there being less hurry with other matters on the farm at that season, but also, because the freezing and thawing of the peat that is thrown out, greatly aid to disintegrate it and prepare it for use. A correspondent of The _Homestead_, signing himself "Commentator," has given directions for getting out peat that are well worth the attention of farmers. He says:-- "The composting of muck and peat, with our stable and barn-yard manures, is surely destined to become one of the most important items in farm management throughout all the older States at least. One of the difficulties which lie in the way, is the first removal of the muck from its low and generally watery bed; to facilitate this, in many locations, it is less expensive to dry it before carting, by beginning an excavation at the border of the marsh in autumn, sufficiently wide for a cart path, throwing the muck out upon the surface on each side, and on a floor of boards or planks, to prevent it from absorbing moisture from the wet ground beneath; this broad ditch to be carried a sufficient length and depth to obtain the requisite quantity of muck. Thus thrown out, the two piles are now in a convenient form to be covered with boards, and, if properly done, the muck kept covered till the succeeding autumn, will be found to be dry and light, and in some cases may be carted away on the surface, or it may be best to let it remain a few months longer until the bottom of the ditch has become sufficiently frozen to bear a team; it can then be more easily loaded upon a sled or sleigh, and drawn to the yards and barn. In other localities, and where large quantities are wanted, and it lies deep, a sort of wooden railroad and inclined plane can be constructed by means of a plank track for the wheels of the cart to run upon, the team walking between these planks, and if the vehicle is inclined to 'run off the track,' it may usually be prevented by scantlings, say four inches thick, nailed upon one of the tracks on each side of the place where the wheel should run. Two or more teams and carts may now be employed, returning into the excavation outside of this track. As the work progresses, the track can be extended at both ends, and by continuing or increasing the inclination at the upper end, a large and high pile may be made, and if kept dry, will answer for years for composting, and can be easily drawn to the barn at any time." b. _Exposure, weathering, or seasoning of peat._--In some cases, the chief or only use of exposing the thrown-up peat to the action of the air and weather during several months or a whole year, is to rid it of the great amount of water which adheres to it, and thus reduce its bulk and weight previous to cartage. The general effect of exposure as indicated by my analyses, is to reduce the amount of matter soluble in water, and cause peats to approach in this respect a fertile soil, so that instead of containing 2, 4, or 6 _per cent._ of substances soluble in water, as at first, they are brought to contain but one-half these amounts, or even less. This change, however, goes on so rapidly after peat is mingled with the soil, that previous exposure on this account is rarely necessary, and most peats might be used perfectly fresh but for the difficulty often experienced, of reducing them to such a state of division as to admit of proper mixture with the soil. The coherent peats which may be cut out in tough blocks, must be weathered, in order that the fibres of moss or grass-roots, which give them their consistency, may be decomposed or broken to an extent admitting of easy pulverization by the instruments of tillage. The subjection of fresh and wet peat to frost, speedily destroys its coherence and reduces it to the proper state of pulverization. For this reason, fibrous peat should be exposed when wet to winter weather. Another advantage of exposure is, to bring the peat into a state of more active chemical change. Peat, of the deeper denser sorts, is generally too inert ("sour," cold) to be directly useful to the plant. By exposure to the air it appears gradually to acquire the properties of the humus of the soil, or of stable manure, which are vegetable matters, altered by the same exposure. It appears to become more readily oxidable, more active, chemically, and thus more capable of exciting or rather aiding vegetable growth, which, so far as the soil is concerned, is the result of chemical activities. Account has been already given of certain peats, which, used fresh, are accounted equal or nearly equal to stable manure. Others have come under the writer's notice, which have had little immediate effect when used before seasoning. Mr. J. H. Stanwood says of a peat, from Colebrook, Conn., that it "has been used to some extent as a top-dressing for grass and other crops with satisfactory results, _although no particular benefit was noticeable during the first year_. After that, the effects might be seen for a number of years." Rev. Wm. Clift observes, concerning a salt peat, from Stonington, Conn.:--"It has not been used fresh; is too acid; even potatoes do not yield well _in it the first season_, without manure." The nature of the chemical changes induced by weathering, is to some extent understood so far as the nitrogen, the most important fertilizing element, is concerned. The nitrogen of peat, as we have seen, is mostly inert, a small portion of it only, existing in a soluble or available form. By weathering, portions of this nitrogen become converted into nitric acid. This action goes on at the surface of the heap, where it is most fully exposed to the air. Below, where the peat is more moist, ammonia is formed, perhaps simply by the reduction of nitric acid--not unlikely also, by the transformation of inert nitrogen. On referring to the analyses given on page 44, it is seen, that the first two samples contain but little ammonia and no nitric acid. Though it is not stated what was the condition of these peats, it is probable they had not been weathered. The other four samples were weathered, and the weathering had been the more effectual from the large admixture of sand with them. They yielded to the analyst very considerable quantities of ammonia and nitrates. When a peat contains sulphate of protoxide of iron, or soluble organic salts of iron, to an injurious extent, these may be converted into other insoluble and innocuous bodies, by a sufficient exposure to the air. Sulphate of protoxide of iron is thus changed into sulphate of peroxide of iron, which is insoluble, and can therefore exert no hurtful effect on vegetation, while the soluble organic bodies of peat are oxydized and either converted into carbonic acid gas, carbonate of ammonia and water, or else made insoluble. It is not probable, however, that merely throwing up a well characterized vitriol-peat into heaps, and exposing it thus imperfectly to the atmosphere, is sufficient to correct its bad qualities. Such peats need the addition of some alkaline body, as ammonia, lime, or potash, to render them salutary fertilizers. c. _This brings us to the subject of composting_, which appears to be the best means of taking full advantage of all the good qualities of peat, and of obviating or neutralizing the ill results that might follow the use of some raw peats, either from a peculiarity in their composition, (soluble organic compounds of iron, sulphate of protoxide of iron,) or from too great indestructibility. The chemical changes (oxidation of _iron_ and _organic acids_), which prepare the inert or even hurtful ingredients of peat to minister to the support of vegetation, take place most rapidly in presence of certain other substances. The substances which rapidly induce chemical change in peats, are of two kinds, viz.: 1.--animal or vegetable matters that are highly susceptible to alteration and decay, and 2.--alkalies, either _ammonia_ coming from the decomposition of animal matters, or _lime_, _potash_ and _soda_. A great variety of matters may of course be employed for making or mixing with peat composts; but there are comparatively few which allow of extensive and economical use, and our notice will be confined to these. First of all, the composting of peat with _animal manures_ deserves attention. Its advantages may be summed up in two statements. 1.--It is an easy and perfect method of economizing all such manures, even those kinds most liable to loss by fermentation, as night soil and horse dung; and, 2.--It develops most fully and speedily the inert fertilizing qualities of the peat itself. Without attempting any explanation of the changes undergone by a peat and manure compost, further than to say that the fermentation which begins in the manure extends to and involves the peat, reducing the whole nearly, if not exactly, to the condition of well-rotted dung, and that in this process the peat effectually prevents the loss of nitrogen as ammonia,--I may appropriately give the practical experience of farmers who have proved in the most conclusive manner how profitable it is to devote a share of time and labor to the manufacture of this kind of compost. _Preparation of Composts with Stable Manure._--The best plan of composting is to have a water tight trench, four inches deep and twenty inches wide, constructed in the stable floor, immediately behind the cattle, and every morning put a bushel-basketful of muck behind each animal. In this way the urine is perfectly absorbed by the muck, while the warmth of the freshly voided excrements so facilitates the fermentative process, that, according to Mr. F. Holbrook, Brattleboro, Vt., who has described this method, _much more muck can thus be well prepared for use_ in the spring, than by any of the ordinary modes of composting. When the dung and muck are removed from the stable, they should be well intermixed, and as fast as the compost is prepared, it should be put into a compact heap, and covered with a layer of muck several inches thick. It will then hardly require any shelter if used in the spring. If the peat be sufficiently dry and powdery, or free from tough lumps, it may usefully serve as bedding, or litter for horses and cattle, as it absorbs the urine, and is sufficiently mixed with the dung in the operation of cleaning the stable. It is especially good in the pig-pen, where the animals themselves work over the compost in the most thorough manner, especially if a few kernels of corn be occasionally scattered upon it. Mr. Edwin Hoyt, of New Canaan, Conn., writes:--"Our horse stables are constructed with a movable floor and pit beneath, which holds 20 loads of muck of 25 bushels per load. Spring and fall, this pit is filled with fresh muck, which receives all the urine of the horses, and being occasionally worked over and mixed, furnishes us annually with 40 loads of the most valuable manure." "Our stables are sprinkled with muck every morning, at the rate of one bushel per stall, and the smell of ammonia, etc., so offensive in most stables, is never perceived in ours. Not only are the stables kept sweet, but the ammonia is saved by this procedure." When it is preferred to make the compost out of doors, the plan generally followed is to lay down a bed of weathered peat, say eight to twelve inches thick; cover this with a layer of stable dung, of four to eight inches; put on another stratum of peat, and so, until a heap of three to four feet is built up. The heap may be six to eight feet wide, and indefinitely long. It should be finished with a thick coating of peat, and the manure should be covered as fast as brought out. The proportions of manure and peat should vary somewhat according to their quality and characters. Strawy manure, or that from milch-cows, will "ferment" less peat than clear dung, especially when the latter is made by horses or highly fed animals. Some kinds of peat heat much easier than others. There are peats which will ferment of themselves in warm moist weather--even in the bog, giving off ammonia in perceptible though small amount. Experience is the only certain guide as to the relative quantities to be employed, various proportions from one to five of peat for one of manure, by bulk, being used. When the land is light and needs amending, as regards its retentive power, it is best to make the quantity of peat as large as can be thoroughly fermented by the manure. The making of a high heap, and the keeping it trim and in shape, is a matter requiring more labor than is generally necessary. Mr. J. H. Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn., writes me:-- "My method of composting is as follows: I draw my muck to the barn-yard, placing the loads as near together as I can tip them from the cart. Upon this I spread whatever manure I have at hand, and mix with the feet of the cattle, and heap up with a scraper." Peat may be advantageously used to save from waste the droppings of the yard. Mr. Edwin Hoyt, of New Canaan, Conn., says:--"We use muck largely in our barn-yards, and after it becomes thoroughly saturated and intermixed with the droppings of the stock, it is piled up to ferment, and the yard is covered again with fresh muck." Mr. N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., writes:--"In the use of muck we proceed as follows: Soon after haying we throw up enough for a year's use, or several hundred loads. In the fall, the summer's accumulation in hog-pens and barn cellars is spread upon the mowing grounds, and a liberal supply of muck carted in and spread in the bottoms of the cellars, ready for the season for stabling cattle. When this is well saturated with the drippings of the stables, a new supply is added. The accumulation of the winter is usually applied to the land for the corn crop, except the finer portion, which is used to top-dress meadow land. A new supply is then drawn in for the swine to work up. This is added to from time to time, and as the swine are fed on whey, they will convert a large quantity into valuable manure for top-dressing mowing land." A difference of opinion exists as to the treatment of the compost. Some hold it indifferent whether the peat and manure are mixed, or put in layers when the composting begins. Others assert, that the fermentation proceeds better when the ingredients are stratified. Some direct, that the compost should not be stirred. The general testimony is, that mixture, at the outset, is as effectual as putting up in layers; but, if the manure be strawy, it is, of course, difficult or impracticable to mix at first. Opinion also preponderates in favor of stirring, during or after the fermentation. Mr. Hoyt remarks:--"We are convinced, that the oftener a compost pile of yard manure and muck is worked over after fermenting, the better. We work it over and add to it a little more muck and other material, and the air being thus allowed to penetrate it, a new fermentation or heating takes place, rendering it more decomposable and valuable." Rev. Wm. Clift, writes:--"Three or four loads of muck to one of stable manure, put together in the fall or winter in alternate layers, forked over twice before spreading and plowing in, may represent the method of composting." Mr. Adams White, of Brooklyn, Conn., proceeds in a different manner. He says:--"In composting, 20 loads are drawn on to upland in September, and thrown up in a long pile. Early in the spring 20 loads of stable manure are laid along side, and covered with the muck. As soon as it has heated moderately, the whole is forked over and well mixed." Those who have practiced making peat composts with their yard, stable, and pen manure, almost invariably find them highly satisfactory in use, especially upon light soils. A number of years ago, I saw a large pile of compost in the farm-yard of Mr. Pond, of Milford, Conn., and witnessed its effect as applied by that gentleman to a field of sixteen acres of fine gravelly or coarse sandy soil. The soil, from having a light color and excessive porosity, had become dark, unctuous, and retentive of moisture, so that during the drouth of 1856, the crops on this field were good and continued to flourish, while on the contiguous land they were dried up and nearly ruined. This compost was made from a light muck, that contained but three _per cent._ of ash (more than half of which was sand), and but 1.2 _per cent._ of nitrogen, in the air-dry state--(twenty _per cent._ of water). Three loads of this muck were used to one of stable manure. Here follow some estimates of the value of this compost by practical men. They are given to show that older statements, to the same effect, cannot be regarded as exaggerated. Mr. J. H. Stanwood, of Colebrook, Conn., says:--"Experiments made by myself, have confirmed me in the opinion that a compost of equal parts of muck and stable manure is equal to the same quantity of stable manure." Mr. Daniel Buck, Jr., of Poquonock, Conn., remarks:--"8 loads of muck and 4 of manure in compost, when properly forked over, are equal to 12 loads of barn-yard manure on sandy soil." Rev. Wm. Clift, of Stonington, Conn., writes:--"I consider a compost made of one load of stable manure and three of muck, equal in value to four loads of yard manure." Mr. N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., observes of a peat sent by him for analysis:--"We formerly composted it in the yard with stable manure, but have remodeled our stables, and now use it as an absorbent and to increase the bulk of manure to double its original quantity. We consider the mixture more valuable than the same quantity of stable manure." Again, "so successful has been the use of it, that we could hardly carry on our farming operations without it." Mr. Adams White, of Brooklyn, Conn., states:--"The compost of equal bulks of muck and stable manure, has been used for corn (with plaster in the hill,) on dry sandy soil to great advantage. I consider the compost worth more per cord than the barn-yard manure." _Night Soil_ is a substance which possesses, when fresh, the most valuable fertilizing qualities, in a very concentrated form. It is also one which is liable to rapid and almost complete deterioration, as I have demonstrated by analyses. The only methods of getting the full effect of this material are, either to use it fresh, as is done by the Chinese and Japanese on a most extensive and offensive scale; or to compost it before it can decompose. The former method, will, it is to be hoped, never find acceptance among us. The latter plan has nearly all the advantages of the former, without its unpleasant features. When the night soil falls into a vault, it may be composted, by simply sprinkling fine peat over its surface, once or twice weekly, as the case may require, _i. e._ as often as a bad odor prevails. The quantity thus added, may be from twice to ten times the bulk of the night soil,--the more within these limits, the better. When the vault is full, the mass should be removed, worked well over and after a few days standing, will be ready to use to manure corn, tobacco, etc., in the hill, or for any purpose to which guano or poudrette is applied. If it cannot be shortly used, it should be made into a compact heap, and covered with a thick stratum of peat. When signs of heating appear, it should be watched closely; and if the process attains too much violence, additional peat should be worked into it. Drenching with water is one of the readiest means of checking too much heating, but acts only temporarily. Dilution with peat to a proper point, which experience alone can teach, is the surest way of preventing loss. It should not be forgotten to put a thick layer of peat at the bottom of the vault to begin with. Another excellent plan, when circumstances admit, is, to have the earth-floor where the night soil drops, level with the surface of the ground, or but slightly excavated, and a shed attached to the rear of the privy to shelter a good supply of peat as well as the compost itself. Operations are begun by putting down a layer of peat to receive the droppings; enough should be used to absorb all the urine. When this is nearly saturated, more should be sprinkled on, and the process is repeated until the accumulations must be removed to make room for more. Then, once a week or so, the whole is hauled out into the shed, well mixed, and formed into a compact heap, or placed as a layer upon a stratum of peat, some inches thick, and covered with the same. The quantity of first-class compost that may be made yearly upon any farm, if due care be taken, would astonish those who have not tried it. James Smith, of Deanston, Scotland, who originated our present system of Thorough Drainage, asserted, that the excrements of one man for a year, are sufficient to manure half an acre of land. In Belgium the manure from such a source has a commercial value of $9.00 gold. It is certain, that the skillful farmer may make considerably more than that sum from it in New England, _per annum_. Mr. Hoyt, of New Canaan, Conn., says:-- "Our privies are deodorized by the use of muck, which is sprinkled over the surface of the pit once a week, and from them alone we thus prepare annually, enough "poudrette" to manure our corn in the hill." _Peruvian Guano_, so serviceable in its first applications to light soils, may be composted with muck to the greatest advantage. Guano is an excellent material for bringing muck into good condition, and on the other hand the muck most effectually prevents any waste of the costly guano, and at the same time, by furnishing the soil with its own ingredients, to a greater or less degree prevents the exhaustion that often follows the use of guano alone. The quantity of muck should be pretty large compared to that of the guano,--a bushel of guano will compost six, eight, or ten of muck. Both should be quite fine, and should be well mixed, the mixture should be moist and kept covered with a layer of muck of several inches of thickness. This sort of compost would probably be sufficiently fermented in a week or two of warm weather, and should be made and kept under cover. If no more than five or six parts of muck to one of guano are employed, the compost, according to the experience of Simon Brown, Esq., of the Boston _Cultivator_, (Patent Office Report for 1856), will prove injurious, if placed in the hill in contact with seed, but may be applied broadcast without danger. The _Menhaden_ or "_White fish_", so abundantly caught along our Sound coast during the summer months, or any variety of fish may be composted with muck, so as to make a powerful manure, with avoidance of the excessively disagreeable stench which is produced when these fish are put directly on the land. Messrs. Stephen Hoyt & Sons, of New Canaan, Conn., make this compost on a large scale. I cannot do better than to give entire Mr. Edwin Hoyt's account of their operations, communicated to me several years ago. "During the present season, (1858,) we have composted about 200,000 white fish with about 700 loads (17,500 bushels) of muck. We vary the proportions somewhat according to the crop the compost is intended for. For rye we apply 20 to 25 loads per acre of a compost made with 4,500 fish, (one load) and with this manuring, no matter how poor the soil, the rye will be as large as a man can cradle. Much of ours we have to reap. For oats we use less fish, as this crop is apt to lodge. For corn, one part fish to ten or twelve muck is about right, while for grass or any top-dressing, the proportion of fish may be increased." "We find it is best to mix the fish in the summer and not use the compost until the next spring and summer. Yet we are obliged to use in September for our winter rye a great deal of the compost made in July. We usually compost the first arrivals of fish in June for our winter grain; after this pile has stood three or four weeks, it is worked over thoroughly. In this space of time the fish become pretty well decomposed, though they still preserve their form and smell outrageously. As the pile is worked over, a sprinkling of muck or plaster is given to retain any escaping ammonia. At the time of use in September the fish have completely disappeared, bones and fins excepted." "The effect on the muck is to blacken it and make it more loose and crumbly. As to the results of the use of this compost, we find them in the highest degree satisfactory. We have raised 30 to 35 bushels of rye per acre on land that without it could have yielded 6 or 8 bushels at the utmost. This year we have corn that will give 60 to 70 bushels per acre, that otherwise would yield but 20 to 25 bushels. It makes large potatoes, excellent turnips and carrots." Fish compost thus prepared, is a uniform mass of fishy but not putrefactive odor, not disagreeable to handle. It retains perfectly all the fertilizing power of the fish. Lands, manured with this compost, will keep in heart and improve: while, as is well known to our coast farmers, the use of fish alone is ruinous in the end, on light soils. It is obvious that _any other easily decomposing animal matters, as slaughter-house offal, soap boiler's scraps, glue waste, horn shavings, shoddy, castor pummace, cotton seed-meal, etc., etc._, may be composted in a similar manner, and that several or all these substances may be made together into one compost. In case of the composts with yard manure, guano and other animal matters, the alkali, _ammonia_, formed in the fermentation, greatly promotes chemical change, and it would appear that this substance, on some accounts, excels all others in its efficacy. The other alkaline bodies, _potash_, _soda_ and _lime_, are however scarcely less active in this respect, and being at the same time, of themselves, useful fertilizers, they also may be employed in preparing muck composts. _Potash-lye_ and _soda-ash_ have been recommended for composting with muck; but, although they are no doubt highly efficacious, they are too costly for extended use. The other alkaline materials that may be cheaply employed, and are recommended, are _wood-ashes_, leached and unleached, _ashes of peat_, _shell marl_, (consisting of carbonate of lime,) _quick lime_, _gas lime_, and what is called "_salt and lime mixture_." With regard to the proportions to be used, no very definite rules can be laid down; but we may safely follow those who have had experience in the matter. Thus, to a cord of muck, which is about 100 bushels, may be added, of unleached wood ashes twelve bushels, or of leached wood ashes twenty bushels, or of peat ashes twenty bushels, or of marl, or of gas lime twenty bushels. Ten bushels of quick lime, slaked with water or salt-brine previous to use, is enough for a cord of muck. Instead of using the above mentioned substances singly, any or all of them may be employed together. The muck should be as fine and free from lumps as possible, and must be intimately mixed with the other ingredients by shoveling over. The mass is then thrown up into a compact heap, which may be four feet high. When the heap is formed, it is well to pour on as much water as the mass will absorb, (this may be omitted if the muck is already quite moist,) and finally the whole is covered over with a few inches of pure muck, so as to retain moisture and heat. If the heap is put up in the Spring, it may stand undisturbed for one or two months, when it is well to shovel it over and mix it thoroughly. It should then be built up again, covered with fresh muck, and allowed to stand as before until thoroughly decomposed. The time required for this purpose varies with the kind of muck, and the quality of the other material used. The weather and thoroughness of intermixture of the ingredients also materially affect the rapidity of decomposition. In all cases five or six months of summer weather is a sufficient time to fit these composts for application to the soil. Mr. Stanwood of Colebrook, Conn., says: "I have found a compost made of two bushels of unleached ashes to twenty-five of muck, superior to stable manure as a top-dressing for grass, on a warm, dry soil." N. Hart, Jr., of West Cornwall, Conn., states: "I have mixed 25 bushels of ashes with the same number of loads of muck, and applied it to 3/4 of an acre. The result was far beyond that obtained by applying 300 lbs. best guano to the same piece." The use of "_salt and lime mixture_" is so strongly recommended, that a few words may be devoted to its consideration. When quick-lime is slaked with a brine of common salt (chloride of sodium), there are formed by double decomposition, small portions of caustic soda and chloride of calcium, which dissolve in the liquid. If the solution stand awhile, carbonic acid is absorbed from the air, forming carbonate of soda: but carbonate of soda and chloride of calcium instantly exchange their ingredients, forming insoluble carbonate of lime and reproducing common salt. When the fresh mixture of quick-lime and salt is incorporated with _any porous body_, as soil or peat, then, as Graham has shown, _unequal diffusion_ of the caustic soda and chloride of calcium occurs from the point where they are formed, through the moist porous mass, and the result is, that the small portion of caustic soda which diffuses most rapidly, or the carbonate of soda formed by its speedy union with carbonic acid, is removed from contact with the chloride of calcium. Soda and carbonate of soda are more soluble in water and more strongly alkaline than lime. They, therefore, act on peat more energetically than the latter. It is on account of the formation of soda and carbonate of soda from the lime and salt mixture, that this mixture exerts a more powerful decomposing action than lime alone. Where salt is cheap and wood ashes scarce, the mixture may be employed accordingly to advantage. Of its usefulness we have the testimony of practical men. Says Mr. F. Holbrook of Vermont, (Patent Office Report for 1856, page 193.) "I had a heap of seventy-five half cords of muck mixed with lime in the proportion of a half cord of muck to a bushel of lime. The muck was drawn to the field when wanted in August. A bushel of salt to six bushels of lime was dissolved in water enough to slake the lime down to a fine dry powder, the lime being slaked no faster than wanted, and spread immediately while warm, over the layers of muck, which were about six inches thick; then a coating of lime and so on, until the heap reached the height of five feet, a convenient width, and length enough to embrace the whole quantity of the muck. In about three weeks a powerful decomposition was apparent, and the heap was nicely overhauled, nothing more being done to it till it was loaded the next Spring for spreading. The compost was spread on the plowed surface of a dry sandy loam at the rate of about fifteen cords to the acre, and harrowed in. The land was planted with corn and the crop was more than sixty bushels to the acre." Other writers assert that they "have decomposed with this mixture, spent tan, saw dust, corn stalks, swamp muck, leaves from the woods, indeed every variety of inert substance, and in _much shorter time than it could be done by any other means_." (Working Farmer, Vol. III. p. 280.) Some experiments that have a bearing on the efficacy of this compost will be detailed presently. There is no doubt that the soluble and more active (caustic) forms of alkaline bodies exert a powerful decomposing and solvent action on peat. It is asserted too that the _nearly insoluble and less active matters of this kind_, also have an effect, though a less complete and rapid one. Thus, _carbonate of lime_ in the various forms of chalk, shell marl,[6] old mortar, leached ashes and peat ashes, (for in all these it is the chief and most "alkaline" ingredient,) is recommended to compost with peat. Let us inquire whether carbonate of lime can really exert any noticeable influence in improving the fertilizing quality of peat. In the case of vitriol peats, carbonate of lime is the cheapest and most appropriate means of destroying the noxious sulphate of protoxide of iron, and correcting their deleterious quality. When carbonate of lime is brought in contact with sulphate of protoxide of iron, the two bodies mutually decompose, with formation of sulphate of lime (gypsum) and carbonate of protoxide of iron. The latter substance absorbs oxygen from the air with the utmost avidity, and passes into the peroxide of iron, which is entirely inert. The admixture of any earthy matter with peat, will facilitate its decomposition, and make it more active chemically, in so far as it promotes the separation of the particles of the peat from each other, and the consequent access of air. This benefit may well amount to something when we add to peat one-fifth of its bulk of marl or leached ashes, but the question comes up: Do these insoluble mild alkalies exert any direct action? Would not as much soil of any kind be equally efficacious, by promoting to an equal degree the contact of oxygen from the atmosphere? There are two ways in which carbonate of lime may exert a chemical action on the organic matters of peat. Carbonate of lime, itself, in the forms we have mentioned, is commonly called insoluble in water. It is, however, soluble to a very slight extent; it dissolves, namely, in about 30,000 times its weight of pure water. It is nearly thirty times more soluble in water saturated with carbonic acid; and this solution has distinct alkaline characters. Since the water contained in a heap of peat must be considerably impregnated with carbonic acid, it follows that when carbonate of lime is present, the latter must form a solution, very dilute indeed, but still capable of some direct effect on the organic matters of the peat, when it acts through a long space of time. Again, it is possible that the solution of carbonate of lime in carbonic acid, may act to liberate some ammonia from the soluble portions of the peat, and this ammonia may react on the remainder of the peat to produce the same effects as it does in the case of a compost made with animal matters. Whether the effects thus theoretically possible, amount to anything practically important, is a question of great interest. It often happens that opinions entertained by practical men, not only by farmers, but by mechanics and artisans as well, are founded on so untrustworthy a basis, are supported by trials so destitute of precision, that their accuracy may well be doubted, and from all the accounts I have met with, it does not seem to have been well established, practically, that composts made with carbonate of lime, are better than the peat and carbonate used separately. Carbonate of lime (leached ashes, shell marl, etc.), is very well to use _in conjunction with_ peat, to furnish a substance or substances needful to the growth of plants, and supply the deficiencies of peat as regards composition. Although in the agricultural papers, numerous accounts of the efficacy of such mixtures are given, we do not learn from them whether these bodies exert any such good effect upon the peat itself, as to warrant the trouble of making a _compost_. 4.--_Experiments by the author on the effect of alkaline bodies in developing the fertilizing power of Peat._ During the summer of 1862, the author undertook a series of experiments with a view of ascertaining the effect of various composting materials upon peat. Two bushels of peat were obtained from a heap that had been weathering for some time on the "Beaver Meadow," near New Haven. This was thoroughly air-dried, then crushed by the hand, and finally rubbed through a moderately fine sieve. In this way, the peat was brought to a perfectly homogeneous condition. Twelve-quart flower-pots, new from the warehouse, were filled as described below; the trials being made in duplicate:-- Pots 1 and 2 contained each 270 grammes of peat. Pots 3 and 4 contained each 270 grammes of peat, mixed-with 10 grammes of ashes of young grass. Pots 5 and 6 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, and 10 grammes of carbonate of lime. Pots 7 and 8 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, and 10 grammes of slaked (hydrate of) lime. Pots 9 and 10 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, and 5 grammes of lime, slaked with strong solution of common salt. Pots 11 and 12 contained each 270 grammes of peat, 10 grammes of ashes, and 3 grammes of Peruvian guano. In each case the materials were thoroughly mixed together, and so much water was cautiously added as served to wet them thoroughly. Five kernels of dwarf (pop) corn were planted in each pot, the weight of each planting being carefully ascertained. The pots were disposed in a glazed case within a cold grapery,[7] and were watered when needful with pure water. The seeds sprouted duly, and developed into healthy plants. The plants served thus as tests of the chemical effect of carbonate of lime, of slaked lime, and of salt and lime mixture, on the peat. The guano pots enabled making a comparison with a well-known fertilizer. The plants were allowed to grow until those best developed, enlarged above, not at the expense of the peat, etc., but of their own lower leaves, as shown by the withering of the latter. They were then cut, and, after drying in the air, were weighed with the subjoined results. VEGETATION EXPERIMENTS IN PEAT COMPOSTS. KEY A - _Weight of crops in grammes._ B - _Comparative weight of crops, the sum of 1. and 2. taken as unity._ C - _Ratio of weight of crops to weight of seeds, the latter assumed as unity._ -------------------------------------------+---------------+----+------- _Nos._ _Medium of Growth._ | A | B | C -------------------------------------------+---------------+----+------- 1 } | 1.61} | | 2 } Peat alone. | 2.59} 4.20 | 1 | 2-1/2 | | | 3 } | 14.19} | | 4 } Peat, and ashes of grass, | 18.25} 32.44 | 8 | 20-1/2 | | | 5 } | 18.19} | | 6 } Peat, ashes, and carbonate of lime, | 20.25} 38.44 | 9 | 25-1/2 | | | 7 } | 21.49} | | 8 } Peat, ashes, and slaked lime, | 20.73} 42.22 | 10 | 28-1/2 | | | 9 } | 23.08} | | 10 } Peat, ashes, slaked lime, and salt, | 23.34} 46.42 | 11 | 30-1/2 | | | 11 } | 26.79} | | 12 } Peat, ashes, and Peruvian Guano, | 26.99} 53.78 | 13 | 35-1/2 -------------------------------------------+---------------+----+------- Let us now examine the above results. The experiments 1 and 2, demonstrate that the peat itself is deficient in something needful to the plant. In both pots, but 4.2 grammes of crop were produced, a quantity two and a half times greater than that of the seeds, which weighed 1.59 grammes. The plants were pale in color, slender, and reached a height of but about six inches. Nos. 3 and 4 make evident what are some of the deficiencies of the peat. A supply of mineral matters, such as are contained in all plants, being made by the addition of _ashes_, consisting chiefly of phosphates, carbonates and sulphates of lime, magnesia and potash, a crop is realized nearly eight times greater than in the previous cases; the yield being 32.44 grammes, or 20-1/2 times the weight of the seed. The quantity of ashes added, viz.:--10 grammes, was capable of supplying every mineral element, greatly in excess of the wants of any crop that could be grown in a quart of soil. The plants in pots 3 and 4 were much stouter than those in 1 and 2, and had a healthy color. The experiments 5 and 6 appear to demonstrate that _carbonate of lime_ considerably aided in converting the peat itself into plant-food. The ashes alone contained enough carbonate of lime to supply the wants of the plant in respect to that substance. More carbonate of lime could only operate by acting on the organic matters of the peat. The amount of the crop is raised by the effect of carbonate of lime from 32.44 to 38.44 grammes, or from 20-1/2 to 25-1/2 times that of the seed. Experiments 7 and 8 show, that _slaked lime_ has more effect than the carbonate, as we should anticipate. Its influence does not, however, exceed that of the carbonate very greatly, the yield rising from 38.44 to 42.22 grammes, or from 25-1/2 to 28-1/2 times the weight of the seed. In fact, quick-lime can only act as such for a very short space of time, since it rapidly combines with the carbonic acid, which is supplied abundantly by the peat. In experiments 7 and 8, a good share of the influence exerted must therefore be actually ascribed to the carbonate, rather than to the quick-lime itself. In experiments 9 and 10, we have proof that the "_lime and salt mixture_" has a greater efficacy than lime alone, the crop being increased thereby from 42.22, to 46.42 grammes, or from 28-1/2 to 30-1/2 times that of the seed. Finally, we see from experiments 11 and 12 that in all the foregoing cases it was a limited supply of _nitrogen_ that limited the crop; for, on adding Peruvian guano, which could only act by this element (its other ingredients, phosphates of lime and potash, being abundantly supplied in the ashes), the yield was carried up to 53.78 grammes, or 35-1/2 times the weight of the seed, and 13 times the weight of the crop obtained from the unmixed peat. 5.--_The Examination of Peat (muck and marsh-mud) with reference to its Agricultural Value._ Since, as we are forced to conclude, the variations in the composition of peat stand in no recognizable relations to differences of appearance, it is only possible to ascertain the value of any given specimen by actual trial or by chemical investigation. The method _by practical trial_ is usually the cheaper and more satisfactory of the two, though a half year or more is needful to gain the desired information. It is sufficient to apply to small measured plots of ground, each say two rods square, known quantities of the fresh, the weathered, and the composted peat in order, by comparison of the growth and _weight_ of the crop, to decide the question of their value. Peat and its composts are usually applied at rates ranging from 20 to 40 wagon or cart loads per acre. There being 160 square rods in the acre, the quantity proper to a plot of two rods square (= four square rods,) would be one half to one load. The composts with stable manure and lime, or salt and lime mixture, are those which, in general, it would be best to experiment with. From the effects of the stable manure compost, could be inferred with safety the value of any compost, of which animal manure is an essential ingredient. One great advantage of the practical trial on the small scale is, that the adaptation of the peat or of the compost to the _peculiarities of the soil_, is decided beyond a question. It must be borne in mind, however, that the results of experiments can only be relied upon, when the plots are accurately measured, when the peat, etc., are applied in known quantities, and when the crops are separately harvested and carefully weighed. If experiments are made upon grass or clover, the gravest errors may arise by drawing conclusions from the appearance of the standing crop. Experience has shown that two clover crops, gathered from contiguous plots differently manured, may strikingly differ in appearance, but yield the same amounts of hay. The _chemical examination_ of a peat may serve to inform us, without loss of time, upon a number of important points. To test a peat for _soluble iron salts_ which might render it deleterious, we soak and agitate a handful for some hours, with four or five times its bulk of warm soft water. From a _good fresh-water peat_ we obtain, by this treatment, a yellow liquid, more or less deep in tint, the taste of which is very slight and scarcely definable. From a _vitriol peat_ we get a dark-brown or black solution, which has a bitter, astringent, metallic or inky taste, like that of copperas. _Salt peat_ will yield a solution having the taste of salt-brine, unless it contains iron, when the taste of the latter will prevail. On evaporating the water-solution to dryness and heating strongly in a China cup, a _vitriol peat_ gives off white choking fumes of sulphuric acid, and there remains, after burning, brown-red oxide of iron in the dish. The above testings are easily conducted by any one, with the ordinary conveniences of the kitchen. Those that follow, require, for the most part, the chemical laboratory, and the skill of the practised chemist, for satisfactory execution. Besides testing for soluble iron compounds, as already indicated, the points to be regarded in the chemical examination, are:-- 1st. _Water or moisture._--This must be estimated, because it is so variable, and a knowledge of its quantity is needful, if we will compare together different samples. A weighed amount of the peat is dried for this purpose at 212° F., as long as it suffers loss. 2d. The _proportions of organic matter and ash_ are ascertained by carefully burning a weighed sample of the peat. By this trial we distinguish between peat with 2 to 10 _per cent._ of ash and peaty soil, or mud, containing but a few _per cent._ of organic matter. This experiment may be made in a rough way, but with sufficient accuracy for common purposes, by burning a few lbs. or ozs. of peat upon a piece of sheet iron, or in a sauce pan, and noting the loss, which includes both _water_ and _organic matter_. 3d. As further regards the organic matters, we ascertain _the extent to which the peaty decomposition has taken place_ by boiling with dilute solution of carbonate of soda. This solvent separates the humic and ulmic acids from the undecomposed vegetable fibers. For practical purposes this treatment with carbonate of soda may be dispensed with, since the amount of undecomposed fiber is gathered with sufficient accuracy from careful inspection of the peat. Special examination of the organic acids is of no consequence in the present state of our knowledge. 4th. The _proportion of nitrogen_ is of the first importance to be ascertained. In examinations of 30 samples of peat, I have found the content of nitrogen to range from 0.4 to 2.9 _per cent._, the richest containing seven times as much as the poorest. It is practically a matter of great moment whether, for example, a Peruvian guano contains 16 _per cent._ of nitrogen as it should, or but one-seventh that amount, as it may when grossly adulterated. In the same sense, it is important before making a heavy outlay in excavating and composting peat, to know whether (as regards nitrogen) it belongs to the poorer or richer sorts. This can only be done by the complicated methods known to the chemist. 5th. The estimation of _ammonia_ (actual or ready-formed,) is a matter of scientific interest, but subordinate in a practical point of view. 6th. _Nitric acid_ and _nitrates_ can scarcely exist in peat except where it is well exposed to the air, in a merely moist but not wet state. Their estimation in composts is of great interest, though troublesome to execute. 7th. As regards the ash, its red color indicates _iron_. Pouring hydrochloric acid upon it, causes effervescence in the presence of _carbonate of lime_. This compound, in most cases, has been formed in the burning, from humate and other organic salts of lime. _Sand_, or _clay_, being insoluble in the acid, remains, and may be readily estimated. _Phosphoric acid_ and alkalies, especially _potash_, are, next to lime, the important ingredients of the ash. _Magnesia_ and _sulphuric acid_, rank next in value. Their estimation requires a number of tedious operations, and can scarcely be required for practical purposes, until more ready methods of analyses shall have been discovered. 8th. The quantity of _matters soluble in water_ has considerable interest, but is not ordinarily requisite to be ascertained. 6.--_Composition of Connecticut Peats_. In the years 1857 and 1858, the author was charged by the Connecticut State Agricultural Society[8] with the chemical investigation of 33 samples of peat and swamp muck, sent to him in compliance with official request. In the foregoing pages, the facts revealed by the laborious analyses executed on these samples, have been for the most part communicated, together with many valuable practical results derived from the experience of the gentlemen who sent in the specimens. The analytical data themselves appear to me to be worthy of printing again, for the information of those who may hereafter make investigations in the same direction.--See Tables I, II, and III, p.p. 89, 90, and 91. The specimens came in all stages of dryness. Some were freshly dug and wet, others had suffered long exposure, so that they were air-dry; some that were sent in the moist state, became dry before being subjected to examination; others were prepared for analysis while still moist. A sufficient quantity of each specimen was carefully pulverized, intermixed, and put into a stoppered bottle and thus preserved for experiment. The analyses were begun in the winter of 1857 by my assistant, Edward H. Twining, Esq. The samples 1 to 17 of the subjoined tables were then analyzed. In the following year the work was continued on the remaining specimens 18--33 by Dr. Robert A. Fisher. The method of analysis was the same in both cases, except in two particulars. In the earlier analyses, 1 to 17 inclusive, the treatment with carbonate of soda was not carried far enough to dissolve the whole of the soluble organic acids. It was merely attempted to make _comparative_ determinations by treating all alike for the same time, and with the same quantity of alkali. I have little doubt that in some cases not more than one-half of the portion really soluble in carbonate of soda is given as such. In the later analyses, 18 to 33, however, the treatment was continued until complete separation of the soluble organic acids was effected. By acting on a peat for a long time with a hot solution of carbonate of soda, there is taken up not merely a quantity of organic matter, but inorganic matters likewise enter solution. Silica, oxyd of iron and alumina are thus dissolved. In this process too, sulphate of lime is converted into carbonate of lime. The total amount of these soluble inorganic matters has been determined with approximate accuracy in analyses 18 to 33. In the analyses 1 to 17 the collective amount of matters soluble in water was determined. In the later analyses the proportions of organic and inorganic matters in the water-solution were separately estimated. The process of analysis as elaborated and employed by Dr. Fisher and the author, is as follows: I. To prepare a sample for analysis, half a pound, more or less, of the substance is pulverized and passed through a wire sieve of 24 meshes to the inch. It is then thoroughly mixed and bottled. II. 2 grammes of the above are dried (in tared watch-glasses) at the temperature of 212 degrees, until they no longer decrease in weight. The loss sustained represents the _amount of water_, (according to MARSILLY, Annales des Mines, 1857, XII., 404, peat loses carbon if dried at a temperature higher than 212 degrees.) III. The capsule containing the residue from I. is slowly heated to incipient redness, and maintained at that temperature until the organic matter is entirely consumed. The loss gives the total amount of _organic_, the residue the total amount of _inorganic_ matter. NOTE.--In peats containing sulphate of the protoxide of iron, the loss that occurs during ignition is partly due to the escape of sulphuric acid, which is set free by the decomposition of the above mentioned salt of iron. But the quantity is usually so small in comparison with the organic matter, that it may be disregarded. The same may be said of the combined water in the clay that is mixed with some mucks, which is only expelled at a high temperature. IV. 3 grammes of the sample are digested for half an hour, with 200 cubic centimeters (66.6 times their weight,) of boiling water, then removed from the sand bath, and at the end of twenty-four hours, the clear liquid is decanted. This operation is twice repeated upon the residue; the three solutions are mixed, filtered, concentrated, and finally evaporated to dryness (in a tared platinum capsule,) over a water bath. The residue, which must be dried at 212 degrees, until it ceases to lose weight, gives the _total amount soluble in water_. The dried residue is then heated to low redness, and maintained at that temperature until the organic matter is burned off. The loss represents the amount of _organic matter soluble in water_, the ash gives the quantity of _soluble inorganic matter_. V. 1 gramme is digested for two hours, at a temperature just below the boiling point, with 100 cubic centimeters of a solution containing 5 _per cent._ of crystallized carbonate of soda. It is then removed from the sand bath and allowed to settle. When the supernatant liquid has become perfectly transparent, it is carefully decanted. This operation is repeated until all the organic matter soluble in this menstruum is removed; which is accomplished as soon as the carbonate of soda solution comes off colorless. The residue, which is to be washed with boiling water until the washings no longer affect test papers, is thrown upon a tared filter, and dried at 212 degrees. It is the _total amount of organic and inorganic matter insoluble in carbonate of soda_. The loss that it suffers upon ignition, indicates the amount of _organic matter_, the ash gives the _inorganic_ matter. NOTE.--The time required to insure perfect settling after digesting with carbonate of soda solution, varies, with different peats, from 24 hours to several days. With proper care, the results obtained are very satisfactory. Two analyses of No. 6, executed at different times, gave _total insoluble in carbonate of soda_--1st analysis 23.20 _per cent._; 2d analysis 23.45 _per cent._ These residues yielded respectively 14.30 and 14.15 _per cent._ of ash. VI. The quantity of _organic matter insoluble in water but soluble in solution of carbonate of soda_, is ascertained by deducting the joint weight of the amounts soluble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of soda, from the total amount of organic matter present. The _inorganic matter insoluble in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda_, is determined by deducting the joint weight of the amounts of inorganic matter soluble in water, and insoluble in carbonate of soda, from the total inorganic matter. VII. The amount of nitrogen is estimated by the combustion of 1 gramme with soda-lime in an iron tube, collection of the ammonia in a standard solution of sulphuric acid, and determination of the residual free acid by an equivalent solution of caustic potash and a few drops of tincture of cochineal as an indicator. The results of the analyses are given in the following Tables. Table I. gives the direct results of analysis. In Table II. the analyses are calculated on dry matter, and the nitrogen upon the organic matters. Table III. gives a condensed statement of the external characters and agricultural value[9] of the samples in their different localities, and the names of the parties supplying them. TABLE I.-COMPOSITION OF CONNECTICUT PEATS AND MUCKS. KEY: A - _Soluble in water._ B - _Insol. in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda._ C - _Insol. in water and carbonate of soda._ D - _Total._ E - _Water._ F - _Nitrogen._ G - _Total matters soluble in water._ -------------------------+-----------------------+ | ORGANIC MATTER. | _From Whom and |-----+-----+-----+-----+ Whence Received_ | A | B | C | D | -------------------------+~~~~~v~~~~~+-----+-----+ 1. Lewis M. Norton. | | | | Goshen Conn. | 17.63 |34.79|52.42| 2. " " " | 60.02 |11.65|71.67| 3. " " " | 50.60 |29.75|80.35| 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles.| | | | " Milford Conn. | 65.15 |11.95|77.10| 5. " " " | 67.75 |16.65|84.40| 6. Samuel Camp. | | | | Plainville Conn. | 43.20 | 8.90|52.10| 7. Russell U. Peck. | | | | Berlin Conn. | 38.49 |30.51|69.00| 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop. | | | | Griswold Conn. | 42.30 |10.15|52.45| 9. J. H. Stanwood. | | | | Colebrook Conn. | 49.65 | 7.40|57.05| 10. N. Hart, Jr. | | | | West Cornwall Conn.| 55.11 |10.29|65.40| 11. A. L. Loveland. | | | | North Granby " | 38.27 | 2.89|41.16| 12. Daniel Buck, Jr. | | | | Poquonock " | 27.19 |48.84|76.03| 13. " " " | 33.66 |40.51|74.17| 14. Philip Scarborough | | | | Brooklyn Conn. | 51.45 |25.00|76.45| 15. Adams White. | | | | Brooklyn " | 54.38 |23.14|77.52| 16. Paris Dyer. | | | | Brooklyn " | 18.86 | 5.02|23.88| 17. Perrin Scarborough. | | | | Brooklyn Conn. | 43.27 |16.83|60.10| 18. Geo. K. Virgin. | | | | Collinsville Conn.| 2.21|20.57| 8.25|31.03| 19. " " " | 1.12| 9.19| 5.10|15.41| 20. " " " | 0.72| 9.31| 3.65|13.68| 21. S. Mead. | | | | | New Haven Conn. | 3.30|40.52| 8.20|52.02| 22. Edwin Hoyt. | | | | | New Canaan " | 2.84|13.42| 7.55|23.81| 23. " " " | 2.34|13.49| 8.05|23.88| 24. " " " | 1.15|17.29| 8.00|26.44| 25. A. M. Haling. | | | | | Rockville " | 3.43|52.15| 8.65|64.23| 26. " " " | 3.87|71.57| 8.44|83.88| 27. " " " | 3.87|44.04| 4.25|52.16| 28. Albert Day. | | | | | Brooklyn " | 2.45|46.25| 6.35|55.05| 29. C. Goodyear. | | | | | New Haven " | 1.80|45.42|10.35|57.57| 30. Rev. Wm. Clift | | | | | Stonington " | 3.33|51.68| 9.80|64.81| 31. Henry Keeler. | | | | | South Salem N. Y. | 2.13|45.12|12.05|59.30| 32. John Adams. | | | | | Salisbury Conn. | 1.71|42.87|10.65|55.23| 33. Rev. Wm. Clift. | | | | | Stonington " | 5.40|16.72| 7.25|29.37| | | |-----| | Average | | | 2.06| | -------------------------+-----------------------+-----+-----+----- | INORGANIC MATTER. | | | _From Whom and |-----+-----+-----+-----| | | Whence Received_ | A | B | C | D | E | F | G -------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- 1. Lewis M. Norton. | | | | | | | Goshen Conn. | | | |35.21|12.37| 1.28| 1.54 2. " " " | | | | 8.00|20.33| 1.85| 3. " " " | | | | 4.52|15.13| 1.90| 2.51 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles.| | | | | | | " Milford Conn. | | | | 3.23|19.67| 1.20| 1.63 5. " " " | | | | 2.00|13.60| .95| 3.42 6. Samuel Camp. |~~~~~v~~~~~| | | | | Plainville Conn. | 14.90 |14.80|29.20|18.70| 2.10| 2.50 7. Russell U. Peck. | | | | | | | Berlin Conn. | | | |13.59|17.41| 1.62| 2.61 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop. | | | | | | | Griswold Conn. | | | |34.70|12.85| 1.31| 1.64 9. J. H. Stanwood. | | | | | | | Colebrook Conn. | | | | 4.57|38.38| 1.23| 1.83 10. N. Hart, Jr. | | | | | | | West Cornwall Conn.| | | |14.89|19.71| 2.10| 6.20 11. A. L. Loveland. | | | | | | | North Granby " | | | |47.24|11.60| 1.00| .75 12. Daniel Buck, Jr. | | | | | | | Poquonock " | | | | 5.92|18.05| 2.40| 2.94 13. " " " | | | | 8.63|17.20| 2.40| 1.80 14. Philip Scarborough. | | | | | | | Brooklyn Conn. | | | | 7.67|15.88| 1.20| 1.43 15. Adams White. | | | | | | | Brooklyn " | | | | 9.03|13.45| 2.89| 5.90 16. Paris Dyer. | | | | | | | Brooklyn " | | | |67.77| 8.35| 1.03| 2.63 17. Perrin Scarborough. | | | | | | | Brooklyn Conn. | | | |25.78|14.12| 0.86|15.13 18. Geo. K. Virgin. | | | | | | | Collinsville Conn.| 0.32| 9.41|48.05|57.78|11.19| 0.64| 2.53 19. " " " | 0.28| 1.08|48.65|50.01|34.58| 0.34| 1.40 20. " " " | 0.25| 0.76|28.20|29.21|57.11| 0.28| .97 21. S. Mead. | | | | | | | New Haven Conn. | 2.60|10.02|23.90|36.52|11.46| 1.51| 5.90 22. Edwin Hoyt. | | | | | | | New Canaan " | 2.72|19.88|46.30|68.90| 7.29| 0.45| 5.56 23. " " " | 1.54|12.42|56.20|70.16| 5.96| 0.90| 3.88 24. " " " | 1.67|14.13|51.10|66.90| 6.66| 1.01| 2.82 25. A. M. Haling. | | | | | | | Rockville " | 0.35| 0.16| 4.90| 5.41|30.36| 1.62| 3.78 26. " " " | 0.23| | 1.98| 2.21|13.91| 1.32| 4.10 27. " " " | 0.51| 4.07| 5.05| 9.63|38.21| 1.88| 4.38 28. Albert Day. | | | | | | | Brooklyn " | 0.32| 0.65| 5.40| 6.37|38.58| 0.84| 2.77 29. C. Goodyear. | | | | | | | New Haven " | 0.35| 7.98|18.80|27.13|15.30| 1.68| 2.15 30. Rev. Wm. Clift | | | | | | | Stonington " | 2.82| | 5.86| 8.68|26.51| 0.95| 6.15 31. Henry Keeler. | | | | | | | South Salem N. Y. | 0.78| 3.79|16.70|21.27|19.43| 1.57| 2.91 32. John Adams. | | | | | | | Salisbury Conn. | 1.02| 1.33|14.35|16.70|28.07| 1.76| 2.73 33. Rev. Wm. Clift. | | | | | | | Stonington " | 7.40| 6.40|48.05|61.85| 8.78| 1.32| 2.80 | | |-----| | |-----|----- Average | | | 1.44| | | 1.37| 3.72 TABLE II.-COMPOSITION OF CONNECTICUT PEATS AND MUCKS. _Calculated in the dry state: the percentage of nitrogen calculated also on organic matters._ KEY: A - _In this table the matters soluble in water and the nitrogen are calculated to two places of decimals; the other ingredients are expressed in round numbers._ B - _Soluble in water._ C - _Insol. in water, but soluble in carbonate of soda._ D - _Insol. in water and carbonate of soda._ E - _Total._ F - _Total matters soluble in water._ G - _Nitrogen._ H - _Nitrogen in per cent. of the organic matter._ -------------------------+-----------------------+ | ORGANIC MATTER. | |-----+-----+-----+-----+ A | B | C | D | E | -------------------------+~~~~~v~~~~~+-----+-----+ 1. Lewis M. Norton. | | | | Goshen Conn. | 20 | 40 | 60 | 2. " " " | 75 | 15 | 90 | 3. " " " | 60 | 35 | 95 | 5. Messrs. Pond & Miles.| | | | " Milford Conn. | 81 | 15 | 96 | 5. " " " | 79 | 19 | 98 | 6. Samuel Camp. | | | | Plainville Conn. | 53 | 11 | 64 | 7. Russell U. Peck. | | | | Berlin Conn. | 46 | 37 | 83 | 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop. | | | | Griswold Conn. | 48 | 11 | 59 | 9. J. H. Stanwood. | | | | Colebrook Conn. | 75 | 11 | 86 | 10. N. Hart, Jr. | | | | West Cornwall Conn.| 69 | 13 | 82 | 11. A. L. Loveland. | | | | North Granby " | 43 | 4 | 47 | 12. Daniel Buck, Jr. | | | | Poquonock " | 33 | 60 | 93 | 13. " " " | 41 | 49 | 90 | 14. Philip Scarborough. | | | | Brooklyn Conn. | 61 | 30 | 91 | 15. Adams White. | | | | Brooklyn " | 63 | 27 | 90 | 16. Paris Dyer. | | | | Brooklyn " | 21 | 5 | 26 | 17. Perrin Scarborough. | | | | Brooklyn Conn. | 62 | 8 | 70 | 18. Geo. K. Virgin. | | | | Collinsville Conn.| 2.48| 23 | 9 | 35 | 19. " " " | 1.72| 14 | 8 | 23 | 20. " " " | 1.67| 22 | 8 | 32 | 21. Solomon Mead. | | | | | New Haven Conn. | 3.70| 48 | 9 | 60 | 22. Edwin Hoyt. | | | | | New Canaan " | 3.05| 14 | 8 | 26 | 23. " " " | 2.47| 14 | 8 | 25 | 24. " " " | 1.23| 18 | 9 | 28 | 25. A. M. Haling. | | | | | Rockville " | 4.90| 75 | 12 | 92 | 26. " " " | 4.50| 83 | 10 | 97 | 27. " " " | 6.24| 71 | 7 | 84 | 28. Albert Day. | | | | | Brooklyn " | 4.01| 76 | 10 | 90 | 29. C. Goodyear. | | | | | New Haven " | 2.11| 54 | 12 | 68 | 30. Rev. Wm. Clift | | | | | Stonington " | 4.56| 71 | 13 | 88 | 31. Henry Keeler. | | | | | South Salem N. Y. | 2.66| 56 | 15 | 73 | 32. John Adams. | | | | | Salisbury Conn. | 2.37| 59 | 15 | 76 | 33. Rev. Wm. Clift. | | | | | Stonington " | 5.93| 18 | 8 | 32 | -------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ -------------------------+-----------------------+-----+-----+----- | INORGANIC MATTER. | | | |-----+-----+-----+-----| | | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H -------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- 1. Lewis M. Norton. | | | | | | | Goshen Conn. | | | | 40 | 1.75| 1.46| 2.25 2. " " " | | | | 10 | | 2.32| 2.58 3. " " " | | | | 5 | 2.95| 2.23| 2.36 5. Messrs. Pond & Miles.| | | | | | | " Milford Conn. | | | | 4 | 2.03| 1.49| 1.55 5. " " " |~~~~~v~~~~~| | 2 | 3.97| 1.09| 1.12 6. Samuel Camp. | 18 | 18 | | | | Plainville Conn. | | | | 36 | 3.08| 2.58| 4.03 7. Russell U. Peck. | | | | | | | Berlin Conn. | | | | 17 | 3.27| 1.96| 2.34 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop. | | | | | | | Griswold Conn. | | | | 41 | 1.88| 1.50| 2.49 9. J. H. Stanwood. | | | | | | | Colebrook Conn. | | | | 14 | 2.77| 1.99| 2.15 10. N. Hart, Jr. | | | | | | | West Cornwall Conn.| | | | 18 | 7.75| 2.61| 3.21 11. A. L. Loveland. | | | | | | | North Granby " | | | | 53 | .85| 1.13| 2.43 12. Daniel Buck, Jr. | | | | | | | Poquonock " | | | | 7 | 3.58| 2.92| 3.15 13. " " " | | | | 10 | 2.16| 2.89| 2.23 14. Philip Scarborough. | | | | | | | Brooklyn Conn. | | | | 9 | 1.70| 1.42| 1.57 15. Adams White. | | | | | | | Brooklyn " | | | | 10 | 6.78| 3.33| 3.72 16. Paris Dyer. | | | | | | | Brooklyn " | | | | 74 | 2.85| 1.12| 4.31 17. Perrin Scarborough. | | | | | | | Brooklyn Conn. | | | | 30 |17.59| 1.00| 1.43 18. Geo. K. Virgin. | | | | | | | Collinsville Conn.| 0.35| 11 | 54 | 65 | 2.83| 0.72| 2.06 19. " " " | .43| 2 | 75 | 77 | 2.15| 0.51| 2.20 20. " " " | .58| 2 | 66 | 68 | 2.25| 0.65| 2.04 21. Solomon Mead. | | | | | | | New Haven Conn. | 2.92| 11 | 27 | 40 | 6.62| 1.70| 2.90 22. Edwin Hoyt. | | | | | | | New Canaan " | 2.92| 21 | 50 | 74 | 6.07| 0.48| 1.88 23. " " " | 1.63| 13 | 60 | 75 | 4.10| 0.95| 3.76 24. " " " | 1.79| 15 | 55 | 72 | 3.02| 1.08| 3.82 25. A. M. Haling. | | | | | | | Rockville " | .50| | 7 | 8 | 5.40| 2.32| 2.52 26. " " " | .27| | 2 | 3 | 4.77| 1.53| 1.57 27. " " " | .82| 7 | 8 | 16 | 7.06| 3.04| 3.64 28. Albert Day. | | | | | | | Brooklyn " | .52| 1 | 8 | 10 | 4.58| 1.36| 1.52 29. C. Goodyear. | | | | | | | New Haven " | .40| 9 | 22 | 32 | 2.51| 1.98| 2.91 30. Rev. Wm. Clift | | | | | | | Stonington " | 3.86| | 8 | 12 | 8.42| 1.29| 1.46 31. Henry Keeler. | | | | | | | South Salem N. Y. | .97| 5 | 21 | 27 | 3.63| 1.98| 2.64 32. John Adams. | | | | | | | Salisbury Conn. | 1.40| 2 | 20 | 24 | 3.77| 2.44| 3.18 33. Rev. Wm. Clift. | | | | | | | Stonington " | 8.13| 7 | 53 | 68 |14.06| 1.44| 4.49 -------------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- TABLE III.--DESCRIPTION, ETC., OF PEATS AND MUCKS. _No._ _Color._ 1. Lewis M. Norton |chocolate-brown,| | |. 2. " " | " " | | | 3. " " |light-brown, | | | 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles|chocolate-brown,| | | | | 5. " " |brownish-red, | | | 6. Samuel Camp |black, | | | 7. Russell U. Peck |chocolate-brown,| | | 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop |grayish-brown, | | | | | 9. J. H. Stanwood |chocolate-brown,| | | 10. N. Hart, Jr |brownish-black, | 11. A. L. Loveland |black, | | | 12. Daniel Buck, Jr |chocolate-brown,| | | 13. " " | " " | 14. Philip Scarborough | | | | 15. Adams White |chocolate-brown,| | | 16. Paris Dyer |grayish-black, | | | 17. Perrin Scarborough |chocolate-brown,| | | | | 18. Geo. K. Virgin |light | | brownish-gray | | | 19. " " |chocolate-brown,| | | 20. " " |black, | 21. Solomon Mead |grayish-brown, | | | | | 22. Edwin Hoyt |brownish-gray, | | | 23. " " | " | | | 24. " " | " | | | 25. A. M. Haling |chocolate-brown,| 26. " " | " " | 27. " " | " " | | | 28. Albert Day |dark-brown, | | | | | 29. C. Goodyear |black, | | | 30. Rev. Wm. Clift |chocolate-brown,| | | | | 31. Henry Keeler |light-brown, | | | 32. John Adams | " | | | 33. Rev. Wm. Clift |dark ash-gray, | | | _Condition at Time of Analysis, _No._ Reputed value, etc._ 1. Lewis M. Norton |air-dry, tough, compact, heavy; from bottom; | 3 to 4 feet deep; very good in compost. 2. " " | " tough, compact, heavier than 1, from | near surface; very good in compost. 3. " " | " coherent but light, from between 1 and | 2, very good in compost. 4. Messrs. Pond & Miles| " coherent but light, surface peat, | considered better than No. 5; good in | compost. 5. " " | " very light and loose in texture, from | depth of 3 feet, good in compost. 6. Samuel Camp | " hard lumps, half as good as yard manure, | in compost equal to yard manure. 7. Russell U. Peck | " is good fresh, long exposed, half as | good as barn-yard manure. 8. Rev. B. F. Northrop | " light, easily crushed masses containing | sand, has not been used alone, good in | compost. 9. J. H. Stanwood |moist, hard lumps, used fresh good after first | year; excellent in compost. 10. N. Hart, Jr |air-dry, hard lumps, excellent in compost. 11. A. L. Loveland | " hard lumps, contains grains of coarse | sand. 12. Daniel Buck, Jr | " coherent cakes, good as top dressing on | grass when fresh; excellent in compost. 13. " " | " light surface layers of No. 12. 14. Philip Scarborough | " after exposure over winter, has | one-third value of yard-manure. 15. Adams White | " hard lumps, good in compost, causes | great growth of straw. 16. Paris Dyer | " easily crushed lumps, largely admixed | with soil. 17. Perrin Scarborough | " well-characterized "vitriol peat;" in | compost, after 1 year's exposure, gives | indifferent results. 18. Geo. K. Virgin | " light, coherent surface peat; sample | long exposed; astonishing results on | sandy soil. 19. " " |moist, crumbly, contains much sand, four feet | from surface. 20. " " |wet. 21. Solomon Mead |air-dry, light, porous, coherent from grass | roots; long weathered, good; fresh, | better in compost. 22. Edwin Hoyt | " loose, light, much mixed with soil, | good in compost. 23. " " | " No. 22 saturated with horse urine, | darker than No. 22. 24. " " | " No. 22 composted with white fish, | darker than No. 23; fish-bones evident. 25. A. M. Haling |moist, fresh dug. 26. " " |air-dry, No. 25 after two year's weathering. 27. " " |moist, fresh dug, good substitute for yard | manure as top-dressing on grass. 28. Albert Day | " coherent and hard; fresh dug, but from | surface where weathered; injurious to | crops; vitriol peat. (?) 29. C. Goodyear |air-dry, very hard tough cakes; when fresh dug, | "as good as cow dung." 30. Rev. Wm. Clift |moist, from an originally fresh water bog, | broken into 100 years ago by tide, now | salt marsh; good after weathering. 31. Henry Keeler |air-dry, leaf-muck, friable; when fresh, appears | equal to good yard manure. 32. John Adams |moist, overlies shell marl, fresh or weathered | does not compare with ordinary manure. 33. Rev. Wm. Clift |air-dry, from bottom of salt ditch, where tide | flows daily; contains sulphate of iron. FOOTNOTES: [2] The oxygen thus absorbed by water, serves for the respiration of fish and aquatic animals. [3] This sample contained also fish-bones, hence the larger content of nitrogen was not entirely due to absorbed ammonia. [4] Reichardt's analyses are probably inaccurate, and give too much ammonia and nitric acid. [5] These analyses were executed--A by Professor G. F. Barker; B by Mr. O. C. Sparrow; C by Mr. Peter Collier. [6] _Shell marl_, consisting of fragments and powder of fresh-water shells, is frequently met with, underlying peat beds. Such a deposit occurs on the farm of Mr. John Adams, in Salisbury, Conn. It is eight to ten feet thick. An air-dry sample, analyzed under the writer's direction, gave results as follows: "Water 30.62 {soluble in water 0.70} Organic matter { } 6.52 {insoluble in water 5.82} Carbonate of lime 57.09 Sand 1.86 Oxide of iron and alumina, with traces of potash, magnesia, sulphuric and phosphoric acid 3.91 ------- 100.00 Another specimen from near Milwaukee, Wis., said to occur there in immense quantities underlying peat, contained, by the author's analysis-- Water 1.14 Carbonate of lime 92.41 Carbonate of magnesia 3.43 Peroxide of iron with a trace of phosphoric acid 0.92 Sand 1.60 ------ 99.50 [7] To the kindness of Joseph Sheffield, Esq., of New Haven, the author is indebted for facilities in carrying on these experiments. [8] At the instigation of Henry A. Dyer, Esq., at that time the Society's Corresponding Secretary. [9] Derived from the communications published in the author's Report. Trans. Conn. State Ag. Soc. 1858 p.p. 101-153. PART III. ON PEAT AS FUEL. 1.--_Kinds of peat that make the best fuel._ The value of peat for fuel varies greatly, like its other qualities. Only those kinds which can be cut out in the shape of coherent blocks, or which admit of being artificially formed into firm masses, are of use in ordinary stoves and furnaces. The powdery or friable surface peat, which has been disintegrated by frost and exposure, is ordinarily useless as fuel, unless it be rendered coherent by some mode of preparation. Unripe peat which contains much undecomposed moss or grass roots, which is therefore very light and porous, is in general too bulky to make an effective heating material before subjection to mechanical treatment. The best peat for burning, is that which is most free from visible fiber or undecomposed vegetable matters, which has therefore a homogeneous brown or black aspect, and which is likewise free from admixture of earthy substances in the form of sand or clay. Such peat is unctuous when moist, shrinks greatly on drying, and forms hard and heavy masses when dry. It is usually found at a considerable depth, where it has been subjected to pressure, and then has such consistence as to admit of cutting out in blocks; or it may exist as a black mud or paste at the bottom of bogs and sluices. The value of peat as fuel stands in direct ratio to its content of carbon. We have seen that this ranges from 51 to 63 _per cent. of the organic matter_, and the increase of carbon is related to its ripeness and density. The poorest, youngest peat, has the same proportion of carbon as exists in wood. It does not, however, follow that its heating power is the same. The various kinds of wood have essentially the same proportion of carbon, but their heating power is very different. The close textured woods--those which weigh the most per cord--make the best fuel for most purposes. We know, that a cord of hickory will produce twice as much heat as a cord of bass-wood. Peat, though having the same or a greater proportion of carbon, is generally inferior to wood on account of its occupying a greater bulk for a given weight, a necessary result of its porosity. The best qualities of peat, or poor kinds artificially condensed, may, on the other hand, equal or exceed wood in heating power, bulk for bulk. One reason that peat is, in general, inferior to wood in heating effect, lies in its greater content of incombustible ash. Wood has but 0.5 to 1.5 _per cent._ of mineral matters, while peat contains usually 5 to 10 _per cent._, and often more. The oldest, ripest peats are those which contain the most carbon, and have at the same time the greatest compactness. From these two circumstances they make the best fuel. It thus appears that peat which is light, loose in structure, and much mixed with clay or sand, is a poor or very poor article for producing heat: while a dense pure peat is very good. A great drawback to the usefulness of most kinds of peat-fuel, lies in their great friability. This property renders them unable to endure transportation. The blocks of peat which are commonly used in most parts of Germany as fuel, break and crumble in handling, so that they cannot be carried far without great waste. Besides, when put into a stove, there can only go on a slow smouldering combustion as would happen in cut tobacco or saw-dust. A free-burning fuel must exist in compact lumps or blocks, which so retain their form and solidity, as to admit of a rapid draught of air through the burning mass. The bulkiness of ordinary peat fuel, as compared with hard wood, and especially with coal, likewise renders transportation costly, especially by water, where freights are charged by bulk and not by weight, and renders storage an item of great expense. The chief value of that peat fuel, which is simply cut from the bog, and dried without artificial condensation, must be for the domestic use of the farmer or villager who owns a supply of it not far from his dwelling, and can employ his own time in getting it out. Though worth perhaps much less cord for cord when dry than hard wood, it may be cheaper for home consumption than fuel brought from a distance. Various processes have been devised for preparing peat, with a view to bringing it into a condition of density and toughness, sufficient to obviate its usual faults, and make it compare with wood or even with coal in heating power. The efforts in this direction have met with abundant success as regards producing a good fuel. In many cases, however, the cost of preparation has been too great to warrant the general adoption of these processes. We shall recur to this subject on a subsequent page, and give an account of the methods that have been proposed or employed for the manufacture of condensed peat fuel. 2.--_Density of Peat._ The apparent[10] specific gravity of peat in the air-dry state, ranges from 0.11 to 1.03. In other words, a full cubic foot weighs from one-tenth as much as, to slightly more than a cubic foot of water, = 62-1/3 lbs. Peat, which has a specific gravity of but 0.25, may be and is employed as fuel. A full cubic foot of it will weigh about 16 lbs. In Germany, the cubic foot of "good ordinary peat" in blocks,[11] ranges from 15 to 25 lbs. in weight, and is employed for domestic purposes. The heavier peat, weighing 30 or more lbs. per cubic foot in blocks, is used for manufacturing and metallurgical purposes, and for firing locomotives. Karmarsch has carefully investigated more than 100 peats belonging to the kingdom of Hanover, with reference to their heating effect. He classifies them as follows:-- A. _Turfy peat_, (_Rasentorf_,) consisting of slightly decomposed mosses and other peat-producing plants, having a yellow or yellowish-brown color, very soft, spongy and elastic, sp. gr. 0.11 to 0.26, the full English cubic foot weighing from 7 to 16 lbs. B. _Fibrous peat_, unripe peat, which is brown or black in color, less elastic than turfy peat, the fibres either of moss, grass, roots, leaves, or wood, distinguishable by the eye, but brittle, and easily broken; sp. gr. 0.24 to 0.67, the weight of a full cubic foot being from 15 to 42 lbs. C. _Earthy peat._--Nearly or altogether destitute of fibrous structure, drying to earth-like masses which break with more or less difficulty, giving lustreless surfaces of fracture; sp. gr. 0.41 to 0.90, the full cubic foot weighing, accordingly, from 25 to 56 lbs. D. _Pitchy peat_, (_Pechtorf_,) dense; when dry, hard; often resisting the blows of a hammer, breaking with a smooth, sometimes lustrous fracture, into sharp-angled pieces. Sp. gr. 0.62 to 1.03, the full cubic foot weighing from 38 to 55 lbs. In Kane and Sullivan's examination of 27 kinds of Irish peat, the specific gravities ranged from 0.274 to 1.058. 3.--_Heating power of peat as compared with wood and anthracite._ Karmarsch found that in absolute heating effect 100 lbs. of turfy, air-dry peat, on the average = 95 lbs. of pine wood. " fibrous " " " = 108 " " " earthy " " " = 104 " " " pitchy " " " = 111 " " The comparison of heating power by bulk, instead of weight, is as follows:-- 100 cubic ft. of turfy peat, on the average[12] = 33 cubic ft. of pine wood, in sticks. " " fibrous " " = 90 cubic ft. of pine wood, in sticks. " " earthy " " = 145 cubic ft. of pine wood, in sticks. " " pitchy " " = 184 cubic ft. of pine wood, in sticks. According to Brix, the weight per English cord and relative heating effect of several air-dry peats--the heating power of an equal bulk of oak wood being taken at 100 as a standard--are as follows, _bulk for bulk_:[13] _Weight per _Heating cord._ effect._ Oak wood 4150 lbs. 100 Peat from Linum, 1st quality, dense and pitchy 3400 " 70 " " 2d " fibrous 2900 " 55 " " 3d " turfy 2270 " 53 Peat from Buechsenfeld, 1st quality, pitchy, very hard and heavy 3400 lbs. 74 Peat from Buechsenfeld, 2d quality 2730 " 64 These statements agree in showing, that, while weight for weight, the ordinary qualities of peat do not differ much from wood in heating power; the heating effect of _equal bulks_ of this fuel, as found in commerce, may vary extremely, ranging from one-half to three quarters that of oak wood. Condensed peat may be prepared by machinery, which will weigh more than hard wood, bulk for bulk, and whose heating power will therefore exceed that of wood. Gysser gives the following comparisons of a good peat with various German woods and charcoals, equal weights being employed, and split beech wood, air-dry, assumed as the standard.[14] Beech wood, split, air dry 1.00 Peat, condensed by Weber's & Gysser's method,[15] air-dried, with 25 _per cent._ moisture. 1.00 Peat, condensed by Weber's & Gysser's method, hot-dried, with 10 _per cent._ moisture. 1.48 Peat-charcoal, from condensed peat. 1.73 The same peat, simply cut and air-dried. 0.80 Beech-charcoal. 1.90 Summer-oak wood. 1.18 Birch wood. 0.95 White pine wood. 0.72 Alder. 0.65 Linden. 0.65 Red pine. 0.61 Poplar. 0.50 Some experiments have been made in this country on the value of peat as fuel. One was tried on the N. Y. Central Railroad, Jan. 3, 1866. A locomotive with 25 empty freight cars attached, was propelled from Syracuse westward--the day being cold and the wind ahead--at the rate of 16 miles the hour. The engineer reported that "the peat gave us as much steam as wood, and burnt a beautiful fire." The peat, we infer, was cut and prepared near Syracuse, N. Y. In one of the pumping houses of the Nassau Water Department of the City of Brooklyn, an experiment has been made for the purpose of comparing peat with anthracite, for the results of which I am indebted to the courtesy of Moses Lane, Esq., Chief Engineer of the Department. Fire was started under a steam boiler with wood. When steam was up, the peat was burned--its quantity being 1743 lbs., or 18 barrels--and after it was consumed, the firing was continued with coal. The pressure of steam was kept as nearly uniform as possible throughout the trial, and it was found that with 1743 lbs. of peat the engine made 2735 revolutions, while with 1100 lbs. of coal it made 3866 revolutions. In other words, 100 lbs. of coal produced 351-45/100 revolutions, and 100 lbs. of peat produced 156-91/100 revolutions. One pound of coal therefore equalled 2-24/100 lbs. of peat in heating effect. The peat burned well and generated steam freely. Mr. Lane could not designate the quality of the peat, not having been able to witness the experiment. These trials have not, indeed, all the precision needful to fix with accuracy the comparative heating effect of the fuels employed; for a furnace, that is adapted for wood, is not necessarily suited to peat, and a coal grate must have a construction unlike that which is proper for a peat fire; nevertheless they exhibit the relative merits of wood, peat, and anthracite, with sufficient closeness for most practical purposes. Two considerations would prevent the use of ordinary cut peat in large works, even could two and one-fourth tons of it be afforded at the same price as one ton of coal. The Nassau Water Department consumes 20,000 tons of coal yearly, the handling of which is a large expense, six firemen being employed to feed the furnaces. To generate the same amount of steam with peat of the quality experimented with, would require the force of firemen to be considerably increased. Again, it would be necessary to lay in, under cover, a large stock of fuel during the summer, for use in winter, when peat cannot be raised. Since a barrel of this peat weighed less than 100 lbs., the short ton would occupy the volume of 20 barrels; as is well known, a ton of anthracite can be put into 8 barrels. A given weight of peat therefore requires 2-1/2 times as much storage room, as the same weight of coal. As 2-1/4 tons of peat, in the case we are considering, are equivalent to but one ton of coal in heating effect, the winter's supply of peat fuel would occupy 5-5/8 times the bulk of the same supply in coal, admitting that the unoccupied or air-space in a pile of peat is the same as in a heap of coal. In fact, the calculation would really turn out still more to the disadvantage of peat, because the air-space in a bin of peat is greater than in one of coal, and coal can be excavated for at least two months more of the year than peat. It is asserted by some, that, because peat can be condensed so as to approach anthracite in specific gravity, it must, in the same ratio, approach the latter in heating power. Its effective heating power is, indeed, considerably augmented by condensation, but no mechanical treatment can increase its percentage of carbon or otherwise alter its chemical composition; hence it must forever remain inferior to anthracite. The composition and density of the best condensed peat is compared with that of hard wood and anthracite in the following statement:-- _In 100 _Carbon._ _Hydrogen._ _Oxygen and _Ash._ _Water._ _Specific parts._ Nitrogen._ Gravity._ Wood, 39.6 4.8 34.8 0.8 20.0 0.75 Condensed peat 47.2 4.9 22.9 5.0 20.0 1.20 Anthracite 91.3 2.9 2.8 3.0 1.40 In combustion in ordinary fires, the _water_ of the fuel is a source of waste, since it consumes heat in acquiring the state of vapor. This is well seen in the comparison of the same kind of peat in different states of dryness. Thus, in the table of Gysser, (page 97) Weber's condensed peat, containing 10 _per cent._ of moisture, surpasses in heating effect that containing 25 _per cent._ of moisture, by nearly one-half. The _oxygen_ is a source of waste, for heat as developed from fuel, is chiefly a result of the chemical union of atmospheric or free oxygen, with the carbon and hydrogen of the combustible. The oxygen of the fuel, being already combined with carbon and hydrogen, not only cannot itself contribute to the generation of heat, but neutralizes the heating effect of those portions of the carbon and hydrogen of the fuel with which it remains in combination. The quantity of heating effect thus destroyed, cannot, however, be calculated with certainty, because physical changes, viz: the conversion of solids into gases, not to speak of secondary chemical transformations, whose influence cannot be estimated, enter into the computation. _Nitrogen_ and ash are practically indifferent in the burning process, and simply impair the heating value of fuel in as far as they occupy space in it and make a portion of its weight, to the exclusion of combustible matter. Again, as regards density, peat is, in general, considerably inferior to anthracite. The best uncondensed peat has a specific gravity of 0.90. Condensed peat usually does not exceed 1.1. Sometimes it is made of sp. gr. 1.3. Assertions to the effect of its acquiring a density of 1.8, can hardly be credited of pure peat, though a considerable admixture of sand or clay might give such a result. The comparative heating power of fuels is ascertained by burning them in an apparatus, so constructed, that the heat generated shall expend itself in evaporating or raising the temperature of a known quantity of water. _The amount of heat that will raise the temperature of one gramme of water, one degree of the centigrade thermometer, is agreed upon as the unit of heat._[16] In the complete combustion of carbon in the form of charcoal or gas-coal, there are developed 8060 units of heat. In the combustion of one gramme of hydrogen gas, 34,210 units of heat are generated. The heating effect of hydrogen is therefore 4.2 times greater than that of carbon. It was long supposed that the heating effect of compound combustibles could be calculated from their elementary composition. This view is proved to be erroneous, and direct experiment is the only satisfactory means of getting at the truth in this respect. The data of Karmarsch, Brix, and Gysser, already given, were obtained by the experimental method. They were, however, made mostly on a small scale, and, in some cases, without due regard to the peculiar requirements of the different kinds of fuel, as regards fire space, draught, etc. They can only be regarded as approximations to the truth, and have simply a comparative value, which is, however, sufficient for ordinary purposes. The general results of the investigations hitherto made on all the common kinds of fuel, are given in the subjoined statement. The comparison is made in units of heat, and refers to equal weights of the materials experimented with. HEATING POWER OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF FUEL. Air-dry Wood 2800 " Peat 2500 3000 Perfectly dry Wood 3600 " " Peat 3000 4000 Air-dry Lignite or Brown Coal 3300 4200 Perfectly dry Lignite or Brown Coal 4000 5000 Bituminous Coal 3800 7000 Anthracite 7500 Wood Charcoal 6300 7500 Coke 6500 7600 4.--_Modes of Burning Peat._ In the employment of peat fuel, regard must be had to its shape and bulk. Commonly, peat is cut or moulded into blocks or sods like bricks, which have a length of 8 to 18 inches; a breadth of 4 to 6 inches, and a thickness of 1-1/2 to 3 inches. Machine peat is sometimes formed into circular disks of 2 to 3 inches diameter, and 1 to 2 inches thickness and thereabouts. It is made also in the shape of balls of 2 to 3 inches diameter. Another form is that of thick-walled pipes, 2 to 3 inches in diameter, a foot or more long, and with a bore of one-half inch. Flat blocks are apt to lie closely together in the fire, and obstruct the draft. A fire-place, constructed properly for burning them, should be shallow, not admitting of more than two or three layers being superposed. According to the bulkiness of the peat, the fire-place should be roomy, as regards length and breadth. Fibrous and easily crumbling peat is usually burned upon a hearth, _i. e._ without a grate, either in stoves or open fire-places. Dense peat burns best upon a grate, the bars of which should be thin and near together, so that the air have access to every part of the fuel. The denser and tougher the peat, and the more its shape corresponds with that usual to coal, the better is it adapted for use in our ordinary coal stoves and furnaces. 5.--_Burning of broken peat._ [Illustration: Fig. 1--STAIR GRATE.] Broken peat--the fragments and waste of the cut or moulded blocks, and peat as obtained by plowing and harrowing the surface of drained peat-beds--may be used to advantage in the _stair grate_, fig. 1, which was introduced some years ago in Austria, and is adapted exclusively for burning finely divided fuel. It consists of a series of thin iron bars 3 to 4 inches wide, _a_, _a_, _a_, ... which are arranged above each other like steps, as shown in the figure. They are usually half as long as the grate is wide, and are supported at each end by two side pieces or walls, _l._ Below, the grate is closed by a heavy iron plate. The fuel is placed in the hopper _A_, which is kept filled, and from which it falls down the incline as rapidly as it is consumed. The air enters from the space _G_, and is regulated by doors, not shown in the cut, which open into it. The masonry is supported at _u_, by a hollow iron beam. Below, a lateral opening serves for clearing out the ashes. The effect of the fire depends upon the width of the throat of the hopper at _u_, which regulates the supply of fuel to the grate, and upon the inclination of the latter. The throat is usually from 6 to 8 inches wide, according to the nature of the fuel. The inclination of the grate is 40 to 45° and, in general, should be that which is assumed by the sides of a pile of the fuel to be burned, when it is thrown up into a heap. This grate ensures complete combustion of fuel that would fall through ordinary grates, and that would merely smoulder upon a hearth. The fire admits of easy regulation, the ashes may be removed and the fuel may be supplied without _checking the fire_. Not only broken peat, but coal dust, saw dust, wood turnings and the like may be burned on this grate. The figure represents it as adapted to a steam boiler. 6.--_Hygroscopic water of peat fuel._ The quantity of water retained by air-dried peat appears to be the same as exists in air-dried wood, viz., about 20 _per cent._ The proportion will vary however according to the time of seasoning. In thoroughly seasoned wood or peat, it may be but 15 _per cent._; while in the poorly dried material it may amount to 25 or more _per cent._ When _hot-dried_, the proportion of water may be reduced to 10 _per cent._, or less. When peat is still moist, it gathers water rapidly from damp air, and in this condition has been known to burst the sheds in which it was stored, but after becoming dry to the eye and feel, it is but little affected by dampness, no more so, it appears, than seasoned wood. 7.--_Shrinkage._ In estimating the value and cost of peat fuel, it must be remembered that peat shrinks greatly in drying, so that three to five cords of fresh peat yield but one cord of dry peat. When the fiber of the peat is broken by the hand, or by machinery, the shrinkage is often much greater, and may sometimes amount to seven-eighths of the original volume.--_Dingler's Journal, Oct. 1864_, _S._ 68. The difference in weight between fresh and dry peat is even greater. Fibrous peat, fresh from the bog, may contain ninety _per cent._ of water, of which seventy _per cent._ must evaporate before it can be called dry. The proportion of water in earthy or pitchy peat is indeed less; but the quantity is always large, so that from five to nine hundred weight of fresh peat must be lifted in order to make one hundred weight of dry fuel. 8.--_Time of excavation, and drying._ Peat which is intended to be used after simply drying, must be excavated so early in the season that it shall become dry before frosty weather arrives: because, if frozen when wet, its coherence is destroyed, and on thawing it falls to a powder useless for fuel. Peat must be dried with certain precautions. If a block of fresh peat be exposed to hot sunshine, it dries and shrinks on the surface much more rapidly than within: as a consequence it cracks, loses its coherence, and the block is easily broken, or of itself falls to pieces. In Europe, it is indeed customary to dry peat without shelter, the loss by too rapid drying not being greater than the expense of building and maintaining drying sheds. There however the sun is not as intense, nor the air nearly so dry, as it is here. Even there, the occurrence of an unusually hot summer, causes great loss. In our climate, some shelter would be commonly essential unless the peat be dug early in the spring, so as to lose the larger share of its water before the hot weather; or, as would be best of all, in the autumn late enough to escape the heat, but early enough to ensure such dryness as would prevent damage by frost. The peculiarities of climate must decide the time of excavating and the question of shelter. The point in drying peat is to make it lose its water gradually and regularly, so that the inside of each block shall dry nearly as fast as the outside. Some of the methods of hot-drying peat, will be subsequently noticed. Summer or fall digging would be always advantageous on account of the swamps being then most free from water. In Bavaria, peat is dug mostly in July and the first half of August. 9.--_Drainage._ When it is intended to raise peat fuel _in the form of blocks_, the bog should be drained no more rapidly than it is excavated. Peat, which is to be worth cutting in the spring, must be covered with water during the winter, else it is pulverized by the frost. So, too, it must be protected against drying away and losing its coherency in summer, by being kept sufficiently impregnated with water. In case an extensive bog is to be drained to facilitate the cutting out of the peat for use as fuel, the canals that carry off the water from the parts which are excavating, should be so constructed, that on the approach of cold weather, the remaining peat may be flooded again to the usual height. In most of the smaller swamps, systematic draining is unnecessary, the water drying away in summer enough to admit of easy working. In some methods of preparing or condensing peat by machinery, it is best or even needful to drain and air-dry the peat, preliminary to working. By draining, the peat settles, especially on the borders of the ditches, several inches, or even feet, according to its nature and depth. It thus becomes capable of bearing teams and machinery, and its density is very considerably augmented. 10.--_The Cutting of Peat._--a. _Preparations._ In preparing to raise peat fuel from the bog, the surface material, which from the action of frost and sun has been pulverized to "muck," or which otherwise is full of roots and undecomposed matters, must be removed usually to the depth of 12 to 18 inches. It is only those portions of the peat which have never frozen nor become dry, and are free from coarse fibers of recent vegetation, that can be cut for fuel. Peat fuel must be brought into the form of blocks or masses of such size and shape as to adapt them to use in our common stoves and furnaces. Commonly, the peat is of such consistence in its native bed, that it may be cut out with a spade or appropriate tool into blocks having more or less coherence. Sometimes it is needful to take away the surplus water from the bog, and allow the peat to settle and drain a while before it can be cut to advantage. When a bog is to be opened, a deep ditch is run from an outlet or lowest point a short distance into the peat bed, and the working goes on from the banks of this ditch. It is important that system be followed in raising the peat, or there will be great waste of fuel and of labor. If, as often happens, the peat is so soft in the wet season as to break on the vertical walls of a ditch and fill it, at the same time dislocating the mass and spoiling it for cutting, it is best to carry down the ditch in terraces, making it wide above and narrow at the bottom. b. _Cutting by hand._ The simplest mode of procedure, consists in laying off a "field" or plot of, say 20 feet square, and making vertical cuts with a sharp spade three or four inches deep from end to end in parallel lines, as far apart as it is proposed to make the breadth of the peats or sods, usually four to five inches. Then, the field is cut in a similar manner in lines at right angles to the first, and at a distance that shall be the length of the peats, say 18 to 20 inches. Finally, the workman lifts the peats by horizontal thrusts of his spade, made at a depth of three inches. The sods as lifted, are placed on a light barrow or upon a board or rack, and are carried off to a drying ground, near at hand, where they are laid down flatwise to drain and dry. In Ireland, it is the custom, after the peats have lain thus for a fortnight or so, to "foot" them, i. e. to place them on end close together; after further drying the "footing" is succeeded by "clamping," which is building the sods up into stacks of about twelve to fifteen feet long, four feet wide at bottom, narrowing to one foot at top, with a height of four to five feet. The outer turfs are inclined so as to shed the rain. The peat often remains in these clamps on the bog until wanted for use, though in rainy seasons the loss by crumbling is considerable. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--GERMAN PEAT-KNIFE.] Other modes of lifting peat, require tools of particular construction.... In Germany it is common to excavate by _vertical_ thrusts of the tool, the cutting part of which is represented above, fig. 2. This tool is pressed down into the peat to a depth corresponding to the thickness of the required block: its three edges cut as many sides of the block, and the bottom is then broken or torn out by a prying motion. In other cases, this or a similar tool is forced down by help of the foot as deeply into the peat as possible by a workman standing above, while a second man in the ditch cuts out the blocks of proper thickness by means of a sharp spade thrust horizontally. When the peats are taken out to the depth of the first vertical cutting, the knife is used again from above, and the process is thus continued as before, until the bottom of the peat or the desired depth is reached. In Ireland, is employed the "slane," a common form of which is shown in fig. 3, it being a long, narrow and sharp spade, 20 inches by six, with a wing at right angles to the blade. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--IRISH SLANE.] The peats are cut by one thrust of this instrument which is worked by the arms alone. After a vertical cut is made by a spade, in a line at right angles to a bank of peat, the slane cuts the bottom and other side of the block; while at the end the latter is simply lifted or broken away. Peat is most easily cut in a vertical direction, but when, as often happens, it is made up of layers, the sods are likely to break apart where these join. Horizontal cutting is therefore best for stratified peat. _System employed in East Friesland._--In raising peat, great waste both of labor and of fuel may easily occur as the result of random and unsystematic methods of working. For this reason, the mode of cutting peat, followed in the extensive moors of East Friesland, is worthy of particular description. There, the business is pursued systematically on a plan, which, it is claimed, long experience[17] has developed to such perfection that the utmost economy of time and labor is attained. The cost of producing marketable peat in East Friesland in 1860, was one silver groschen=about 2-1/2 cents, per hundred weight; while at that time, in Bavaria, the hundred weight cost three times as much when fit for market; and this, notwithstanding living and labor are much cheaper in the latter country. The method to be described, presupposes that the workmen are not hindered by water, which, in most cases, can be easily removed from the high-moors of the region. The peat is worked in long stretches of 10 feet in width, and 100 to 1000 paces in length: each stretch or plot is excavated at once to a considerable depth and to its full width. Each successive year the excavation is widened by 10 feet, its length remaining the same. Sometimes, unusual demand leads to more rapid working; but the width of 10 feet is adhered to for each cutting, and, on account of the labor of carrying the peats, it is preferred to extend the length rather than the width. Assuming that the peat bed has been opened by a previous cutting, to the depth of 5-1/2 feet, and the surface muck and light peat, 1-1/2 feet thick, have been thrown into the excavation of the year before--a new plot is worked by five men as follows. One man, the "Bunker," removes from the surface, about two inches of peat, disintegrated by the winter's frost, throwing it into last year's ditch. Following him, come two "Diggers," of whom one stands on the surface of the peat, and with a heavy, long handled tool, cuts out the sides and end of the blocks, which are about seventeen by five inches; while the other stands in the ditch, and by horizontal thrusts of a light, sharp spade, removes the sods, each of five and a half inches thickness, and places them on a small board near by. Each block of peat has the dimensions of one fourth of a cubic foot, and weighs about 13 pounds. Two good workmen will raise 25 such peats, or 6-1/4 cubic feet, per minute. A fourth man, the "Loader," puts the sods upon a wheel-barrow, always two rows of six each, one upon the other, and-- A fifth, the "Wheeler," removes the load to the drying ground, and with some help from the Bunker, disposes them flatwise in rows of 16 sods wide, which run at right angles to the ditch, and, beginning at a little more than 10 feet from the latter, extend 50 feet. The space of 10 feet between the plot that is excavating, and the drying ground, is, at the same time, cleared of the useless surface muck by the Bunker, in preparation for the next year's work. With moderate activity, the five men will lift and lay out 12,000 sods (3000 cubic feet,) daily, and it is not uncommon that five first-rate hands get out 16,800 peats (4200 cubic feet,) in this time. A gang of five men, working as described, suffices for cutting out a bed of four feet of solid peat. When the excavation is to be made deeper, a sixth man, the "Hanker," is needful for economical work; and with his help the cutting may be extended down to nine and a half feet; i. e. through eight feet of solid peat. The cutting is carried down at first, four feet as before, but the peats are carried 50 feet further, in order to leave room for those to be subsequently lifted. The "Hanker" aids here, with a second wheel-barrow. In taking out the lower peat, the "Hanker" stands on the bottom of the first excavation, receives the blocks from the Diggers, on a broad wooden shovel, and hands them up to the Loader; while the Wheeler, having only the usual distance to carry them, lays them out in the drying rows without difficulty. After a little drying in the rows, the peats are gradually built up into narrow piles, like a brick wall of one and a half bricks thickness. These piles are usually raised by women. They are made in the spaces between the rows, and are laid up one course at a time, so that each block may dry considerably, before it is covered by another. A woman can lay up 12,000 peats daily--the number lifted by 5 men--and as it requires about a month of good weather to give each course time (two days) to dry, she is able to pile for 30 gangs of workmen. If the weather be very favorable, the peats may be stacked or put into sheds, in a few days after the piling is finished. Stacking is usually practised. The stacks are carefully laid up in cylindrical form, and contain 200 to 500 cubic feet. When the stacks are properly built, the peat suffers but little from the weather. According to Schroeder, from whose account (Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 156, S. 128) the above statements are derived, the peats excavated under his direction, in drying thoroughly, shrank to about one-fourth of their original bulk (became 12 inches x 3 inches x 3 inches,) and to one-seventh or one-eighth of their original weight. c. _Machines for Cutting Peat._ In North Prussia, the Peat Cutting Machine of Brosowsky, see fig. 4, is extensively employed. It consists of a cutter, made like the four sides of a box, but with oblique edges, _a_, which by its own weight, and by means of a crank and rack-work, operated by men, is forced down into the peat to a depth that may reach 20 feet. It can cut only at the edge of a ditch or excavation, and when it has penetrated sufficiently, a spade like blade, _d_, is driven under the cutter by means of levers _c_, and thus a mass is loosened, having a vertical length of 10 feet or more, and whose other dimensions are about 24 � 28 inches. This is lifted by reversing the crank motion, and is then cut up by the spade into blocks of 14 inches � 6 inches � 5 inches. Each parallelopipedon of peat, cut to a depth of 10 feet, makes 144 sods, and this number can be cut in less than 10 minutes. Four hands will cut and lay out to dry, 12,000 to 14,000 peats daily, or 3100 cubic feet. One great advantage of this machine consists in the circumstance that it can be used to raise peat from below the surface of water, rendering drainage in many cases unnecessary. Independently of this, it appears to be highly labor saving, since 1300 machines were put to use in Mecklenburg and Pomerania in about 5 years from its introduction. The Mecklenburg moors are now traversed by canals, cut by this machine, which are used for the transportation of the peat to market.[18] [Illustration: Fig. 4.--BROSOWSKY'S PEAT CUTTER.] Lepreux in Paris, has invented a similar but more complicated machine, which is said to be very effective in its operation. According to Hervé Mangon, this machine, when worked by two men, raises and cuts 40,000 peats daily, of which seven make one cubic foot, equal to 5600 cubic feet. The saving in expense by using this machine[19] is said to be 70 _per cent._, when the peat to be raised is under water. 11.--_The Dredging of Peat._ When peat exists, not as a coherent more or less fibrous mass, but as a paste or mud, saturated with water, it cannot be raised and formed by the methods above described. In such cases the peat is dredged from the bottom of the bog by means of an iron scoop, like a pail with sharp upper edges, which is fastened to a long handle. The bottom is made of coarse sacking, so that the water may run off. Sometimes, a stout ring of iron with a bag attached, is employed in the same way. The fine peat is emptied from the dredge upon the ground, where it remains, until the water has been absorbed or has evaporated, so far as to leave the mass somewhat firm and plastic. In the mean time, a drying bed is prepared by smoothing, and, if needful, stamping a sufficient space of ground, and enclosing it in boards 14 inches wide, set on edge. Into this bed the partially dried peat is thrown, and, as it cracks on the surface by drying, it is compressed by blows with a heavy mallet or flail, or by treading it with flat boards, attached to the feet, somewhat like snow shoes. By this treatment the mass is reduced to a continuous sheet of less than one-half its first thickness, and becomes so firm, that a man's step gives little impression in it. The boards are now removed, and it is cut into blocks by means of a very thin, sharp spade. Every other block being lifted out and placed crosswise upon those remaining, air is admitted to the whole and the drying goes on rapidly. This kind of peat is usually of excellent quality. In North Germany it is called "Baggertorf," i. e. mud-peat. Peat is sometimes dredged by machinery, as will be noticed hereafter. 12.--_The Moulding of Peat._ When black, earthy or pitchy peat cannot be cut, and is not so saturated with water as to make a mud; it is, after raking or picking out roots, etc., often worked into a paste by the hands or feet, with addition of water, until it can be formed into blocks which, by slow drying, acquire great firmness. In Ireland this product is termed "hand-peat." In Germany it is called "Formtorf," _i. e._ moulded peat, or "Backtorf," _i. e._ baked peat. The shaping is sometimes accomplished by plastering the soft mass into wooden moulds, as in making bricks. 13.--_Preparation of Peat Fuel by Machinery, etc._ Within the last 15 years, numerous inventions have been made with a view to improving the quality of peat fuel, as well as to expedite its production. These inventions are directed to the following points, viz.: 1. _Condensation_ of the peat, so as bring more fuel into a given space, thus making it capable of giving out an intenser heat; at the same time increasing its hardness and toughness, and rendering it easier and more economical of transportation. 2. _Drying_ by artificial heat or reducing the amount of water from 20 or 25 _per cent._ to half that quantity or less. This exalts the heating power in no inconsiderable degree. 3. _Charring._ Peat-charcoal is as much better than peat, for use where intense heat is required, as wood charcoal is better than wood. 4. _Purifying from useless matters._ Separation of earthy admixtures which are incombustible and hinder draught. A.--_Condensation by Pressure._ _Pressing Wet Peat._--The condensation of peat was first attempted by subjecting the fresh, wet material, to severe pressure. As long ago as the year 1821, Pernitzsch, in Saxony, prepared peat by this method, and shortly afterwards Lord Willoughby d'Eresby, in Scotland, and others, adopted the same principle. Simple pressure will, indeed, bring fresh peat at once into much smaller bulk; but, if the peat be fibrous and light, and for this reason require condensation, it is also elastic, and, when the pressure is relieved, it acquires again much of its original volume. Furthermore, although pressure will squeeze out much water from a saturated well-ripened peat, the complete drying of the pressed blocks usually requires as much or more time than that of the unpressed material, on account of the closeness of texture of the surface produced by the pressure. The advantages of subjecting fresh peat to pressure in the ordinary presses, it is found, are more than offset by the expense of the operation, and it is therefore unnecessary to give the subject further attention. Fresh peat appears however to have been advantageously pressed by other mechanical means. Two methods require notice. _Mannhardt's Method_, invented about the year 1858, has been practically applied on the large scale at _Schleissheim_, Bavaria. Mannhardt's machine consists of two colossal iron rolls, each of 15 feet diameter, and 6-1/2 feet length, geared into each other so as to revolve horizontally in opposite directions and with equal velocity. These rolls are hollow, their circumference consists of stout iron plate perforated with numerous small holes, and is supported by iron bars which connect the ends of the roll, having intervals between them of about one inch. Each roll is covered by an endless band of hair cloth, stretched over and kept in place by rollers. The rolls are operated by a steam engine of 12 horse power. The fresh peat is thrown into a hopper, and passing between the rolls, loses a considerable share of its water, issuing as a broad continuous sheet, which is divided into blocks by an arrangement presently to be described. The cloth, covering the rolls, must have great strength, sufficient porosity to allow water to pass it freely, and such closeness of texture as to retain the fine particles of peat. Many trials have led to the use of a fabric, specially made for the purpose, of goat's hair. The cloth for each pair of rolls, costs $160. The peat at Schleissheim is about 5 feet in depth, and consists of a dark-brown mud or paste, free from stones and sticks, and penetrated only by fine fibers. The peat is thrown up on the edge of a ditch, and after draining, is moved on a tram-way to the machine. It is there thrown upon a chain of buckets, which deliver it at the hopper above the rolls. The rolls revolve once in 7-1/3 minutes and at each revolution turn out a sheet of peat, which cuts into 528 blocks. Each block has, when moist, a length of about 12 inches, by 5 inches of width and 1-1/4 inches of thickness, and weighs on the average 1-1/2 lbs. The water that is pressed out of the peat, falls within the rolls and is conducted away; it is but slightly turbid from suspended particles. The band of pressed peat is divided in one direction as it is formed, by narrow slats which are secured horizontally to the press-cloth, at about 5 inches distance from each other. The further division of the peat is accomplished by a series of six circular saws, under which the peat is carried as it is released from the rolls, by a system of endless cords strung over rollers. These cords run parallel until the peat passes the saws; thenceforth they radiate, so that the peat-blocks are separated somewhat from each other. They are carried on until they reach a roll, over which they are delivered upon drying lattices. The latter move regularly under the roll; the peats arrange themselves upon them edgewise, one leaning against the other, so as to admit of free circulation of air. The lattices are loaded upon cars, and moved on a tram-way to the drying ground, where they are set up in frames. The peat-cake separates well from the press-cloths; but the pores of the latter become somewhat choked by fine particles that penetrate them. They are therefore washed at each revolution by passing before a pipe from which issue, against them, a number of jets of water under high pressure. The blocks, after leaving the machine, are soft, and require 5 or 6 days to become air-dry. When dry they are dense and of good quality, but not better than the same raw material yields by simple moulding. The capacity of the rolls, which easily turn out 100,000 peats in 24 hours, greatly exceeds at present that of the drying arrangements, and for this reason the works are not, as yet, remunerative. The rolls are, in reality, a simple forming machine. The pressure they exert on the peat, is but inconsiderable, owing to its soft pasty character; and since the pair of rolls costs $8000 and can only be worked 3 to 4 months, this method must be regarded rather as an ingenious and instructive essay in the art of making peat-fuel, than as a practical success. The persevering efforts of the inventor may yet overcome all difficulties and prove the complete efficacy of the method. It is especially important, that blocks of greater thickness should be produced, since those now made, pack together too closely in the fire. _Neustadt Method._--At Neustadt, in Hanover, a loose-textured fibrous peat was prepared for metallurgical use in 1860, by passing through iron rolls of ordinary construction. The peat was thereby reduced two-thirds in bulk, burned more regularly, gave a coherent coal, and withstood carriage better. The peat was, however, first cut into sods of regular size, and these were fed into the rollers by boys. b. _Pressing Air-dried Peat._ Some kinds of peat, when in the air-dry and pulverized state, yield by great pressure very firm, excellent, and economical fuel. _Lithuanian Process._--In Lithuania, according to Leo,[20] the following method is extensively adopted. The bog is drained, the surface moss or grass-turf and roots are removed, and then the peat is broken up by a simple spade-plow, in furrows 2 inches wide and 8 or 10 inches deep. The broken peat is repeatedly traversed with wooden harrows, and is thus pulverized and dried. When suitably dry, it is carried to a magazine, where it is rammed into moulds by a simple stamp of two hundred pounds weight. The broken peat is reduced to two-fifths its first bulk, and the blocks thus formed are so hard, as to admit of cutting with a saw or ax without fracture. They require no further drying, are of a deep-brown color, with lustrous surfaces, and their preparation may go on in winter with the stock of broken peat, which is accumulated in the favorable weather of summer. In this manufacture there is no waste of material. The peat is dry enough for pressing when, after forming in the hands to a ball, it will not firmly retain this shape, but on being let fall to the ground, breaks to powder. The entire cost of preparing 1000 peats for use, or market, was 2 Thalers, or $1.40. Thirty peats, or "stones" as they are called from their hardness, have the bulk of two cubic feet, and weigh 160 lbs. The cost of preparing a hundred weight, was therefore, (in 1859,) four Silver-groschen, or about 10 cents. The stamp is of simple construction, somewhat like a pile driver, the mould and face of the ram being made of cast iron. The above process is not applicable to _fibrous peat_. c. _Pressing Hot-dried Peat._ The two methods to be next described, are similar to the last mentioned, save that the peat is _hot-pressed_. _Gwynne's Method._--In 1853, Gwynne of London, patented machinery and a method for condensing peat for fuel. His process consisted, first, in rapidly drying and pulverizing the fresh peat by a centrifugal machine, or by passing between rollers, and subsequent exposure to heat in revolving cylinders; and, second, in compressing the dry peat-powder in a powerful press at a high temperature, about 180° F. By this heat it is claimed, that the peat is not only thoroughly dried, but is likewise partially decomposed; _bituminous matters being developed, which cement the particles to a hard dense mass_. Gwynne's machinery was expensive and complicated, and although an excellent fuel was produced, the process appears not to have been carried put on the large scale with pecuniary success. A specimen of so-called "Peat coal" in the author's possession, made in Massachusetts some years ago, under Gwynne's patent, appears to consist of pulverized peat, prepared as above described; but contains an admixture of rosin. It must have been an excellent fuel, but could not at that time compete with coal in this country. _Exter's Method._[21] [Illustration: Fig. 5.--EXTER'S DRYING OVEN.] [Illustration: Fig. 6.--EXTER'S DRYING OVEN.] In 1856, Exter, of Bavaria, carried into operation on an extensive scale, a plan of preparing peat-fuel in some respects not unlike the last mentioned method. Exter's works, belonging to the Bavarian Government, are on the Haspelmoor, situated between Augsburg and Munich. According to Ruehlmann, who examined them at the command of the Hanoverian Government in 1857, the method is as follows:--1. The bog is laid dry by drains and the surface is cleared of bushes, roots, and grass-turf, down to good peat. 2. The peat is broken up superficially to the depth of about one inch, by a gang of three plows, propelled by a portable steam engine. 3. The peat is further pulverized by a harrow, drawn by a yoke of oxen. 4. In two or three days after harrowing, the peat is turned by an implement like our cultivator, this process being repeated at suitable intervals. 5. The fine and air-dry peat is gathered together by scrapers, and loaded into wagons; then drawn by rope connected with the engine, to the press or magazine. 6. If needful, the peat, thus collected, is further pulverized by passing it through toothed rollers. 7. The fine peat is now introduced into a complicated drying oven, see figures 5 and 6. It falls through the opening _T_, and is moved by means of the spirals along the horizontal floors _O_, _O_, falling from one to another until it emerges at _Q_. The floors, _O_, _O_, are made by wide and thin iron chambers, through which passes waste steam from an engine. The oven is heated further by hot air, which circulates through the canals _K_, _K_. The peat occupies about one hour in its passage through the oven and falls from _Q_, into the press, having a temperature of from 120° to 140°Fahrenheit. The press employed at Staltach is essentially the same as that now used at the Kolbermoor, and figured on p. 125. It is a powerful eccentric of simple construction, and turns out continuously 40 finished peats per minute. These occupy about one-fourth the space of the peat before pressing, the cubic foot weighing about 72 lbs. The peats are 7 inches long, 3 inches wide, and one half to three quarters of an inch thick, each weighing three quarters of a pound. Three presses furnish annually 180,000 cwt. of condensed peat, which is used exclusively for firing locomotives. Its specific gravity is 1.14, and its quality as fuel is excellent. Ruehlmann estimated its cost, at Haspelmoor in 1857, at 8-1/2 Kreuzers, or a little more than 6 cents per cwt., and calculated that by adopting certain obvious improvements, and substituting steam power for the labor of men and cattle, the cost might be reduced to 6-1/2 Kreuzers, or a little more than 4 cents per cwt. Exter's method has been adopted with some modifications at Kolbermoor, near Munich, in Bavaria, at Miskolz, in Hungary, and also at the Neustadt Smelting Works, in Hanover. At the latter place, however, it appears to have been abandoned for the reasons that it could be applied only to the better kinds of peat; and the expense was there so great, that the finished article could not compete with other fuel in the Hanoverian markets. Details of the mechanical arrangements at present employed on the Kolbermoor, are as follows: After the bog is drained, and the surface cleared of dwarf pines, etc., and suitably leveled, the peat is plowed by steam. This is accomplished in a way which the annexed cut serves to illustrate. The plot to be plowed, is traversed through the middle by the railway _x_, _y_. A locomotive _a_, sets in motion an endless wire-rope, which moves upon large horizontal pulleys _o_, _o_, stationed at either border of the land. Four gang plows _b_, _b_, are attached to the rope, and as the latter is set in motion, they break up the strip of peat they pass over, completely. The locomotive and the pulleys are then moved back, and the process is repeated until the whole field has been plowed. The plows are square frames, carrying six to eight shares and as many coulters. [Illustration: Fig. 7.] The press employed at Kolbermoor, is shown in figs. 8 and 9. The hot peat falls into the hopper, _b_, _c_. The plunger _d_, worked in the cavity _e_, by an eccentric, allows the latter to fill with peat as it is withdrawn, and by its advance compresses it into a block. The blocks _m_, once formed, by their friction in the channel _e_, oppose enough resistance to the peat to effect its compression. In order to regulate this resistance according to the varying quality of the peat, the piece of metal _g_, which hangs on a pivot at _o_, is depressed or raised, by the screw _i_, so as to contract or enlarge the channel. At each stroke of the plunger a block is formed, and when the channel _e_ is once filled, the peats fall continuously from its extremity. Their dimensions are 7 inches long, 3-1/2 wide, and 1-1/2 thick. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--EXTER'S PEAT PRESS.] Several presses are worked by the same engine at the Kolbermoor, each of which turns out daily 200 to 300 cwt. of peats, which, in 1863, were sold at 24 Kreuzers (16 cents), per cwt. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--EXTER'S PEAT PRESS.] C. Hodgson has patented in Great Britain a compressing-ram similar to Exter's, and works were put up at Derrylea, in Ireland, some years ago, in which Exter's process of manufacturing peat fuel appears to have been adopted. _Elsberg's Process._ Dr. Louis Elsberg, of New York City, has invented a modification of Exter's method, which appears to be of great importance. His experimental machine, which is in operation near Belleville, N. J., consists of a cylindrical pug-mill, in which the peat, air-dried as in Exter's method, is further broken, and at the same time is subjected to a current of steam admitted through a pipe and jacket surrounding the cylinder. The steamed peat is then condensed by a pair of presses similar to that just described, which are fed directly from the mill. In this way the complicated drying oven of Exter is dispensed with. Elsberg & Co. are still engaged in perfecting their arrangements. Some samples of their making are of very excellent quality, having a density of 1.2 to 1.3. The pressing of air-dry peat only succeeds when it is made warm, and is, at the same time, moist. In Exter's original process the peat is considerably dried in the ovens, but on leaving them, is so moist as to bedew the hand that is immersed in it. It is, in fact, steamed by the vaporization of its own water. In Elsberg's process, the air-dry peat is not further desiccated, but is made moist and warm by the admission of hot steam. The latter method is the more ready and doubtless the more economical of the two. Whether the former gives a dryer product or not, the author cannot decide. Elsberg's peat occurs in cylindrical cakes 2 inches broad, and one inch in thickness. The cakes are somewhat cracked upon the edges, as if by contraction, in drying. When wet, the surface of the cakes swells up, and exfoliates as far as the water has penetrated. In the fire, a similar breaking away of the surface takes place, and when coked, the coal is but moderately coherent. The reasons why steamed peat admits of solidification by pressure, are simply that the air, ordinarily adhering to the fibres and particles, is removed, and the fibres themselves become softened and more plastic, so that pressure brings them into intimate contact. The idea that the heat develops bituminous matters, or fuses the resins which exist in peat, and that these cement the particles, does not harmonize with the fact that the peat, thus condensed, flakes to pieces by a short immersion in water. The great advantage of Exter's and Elsberg's method consists in avoiding what most of the others require, viz.: the expensive transportation and handling of fresh peat, which contains 80 to 90 _per cent._ of water, and the rapid removal of this excess of water before the manufacture. In the other methods the surplus water must be slowly removed during or after condensation. Again, enough peat may be air-dried and stored during summer weather, to supply a machine with work during the whole year. Its disadvantages are, that it requires a large outlay of capital and great expenditure of mechanical force. Its product is, moreover, not adapted for coking. B.--_Condensation without Pressure._ The methods of condensing peat, that remain to be described, are based upon radically different principles from those already noticed. In these, little or no pressure is employed in the operations; but advantage is taken of the important fact that when wet or moist peat is ground, cut or in any way reduced to a pulpy or pasty consistence, with destruction of the elastic fibres, it will, on drying, shrink together to a coherent mass, that may acquire a density and toughness much greater than it is possible to obtain by any amount of mere pressure. The various processes that remain to notice are essentially reducible to two types, of which the French method, invented by Challeton, and the German, invented it appears by Weber, are the original representatives. The former method is only applicable to earthy, well-decomposed peat, containing little fibre. The latter was originally applied to fibrous moss-peat, but has since been adapted to all kinds. Other inventors, English, German, and American, have modified these methods in their details, or in the construction of the requisite machinery, rendering them more perfect in their execution and perhaps more profitable in their results; but, as regards the essential principles of production, or the quality of product, no advance appears to have been made beyond the original inventors. a. _Condensation of Earthy Peat._ _Challeton's Method_ consists essentially in destroying the fibres, and reducing the peat by cutting and grinding with water to a pulp; then slowly removing the liquid, until the peat dries away to a hard coherent mass. It provides also for the purification of the peat from earthy matters. It is, in many respects, an imitation of the old Dutch and Irish mode of making "hand peat" (_Baggertorf_), and is very like the paper manufacture in its operations. Challeton's Works, situated near Paris, at Mennecy, near Montanges, were visited in 1856 by a Commission of the Agricultural Society of Holstein, consisting of Drs. Meyn and Luetkens, and also by Dr. Ruehlmann, in the interest of the Hanoverian Government. From their account[22] the following statements are derived. The peat at Mennecy comes from the decay of grasses, is black, well decomposed, and occasionally intermingled with shells and sand. The moor is traversed by canals, which serve for the transport of the excavated peat in boats. The peat, when brought to the manufactory, is emptied into a cistern, which, by communicating with the adjacent canal, maintains a constant level of water. From this cistern the peat is carried up by a chain of buckets and emptied into a hopper, where it is caught by toothed cylinders in rapid revolution, and cut or torn to pieces. Thence it passes into a chamber where the fine parts are separated from unbroken roots and fibres by revolving brushes, which force the former through small holes in the walls of the chamber, while the latter are swept out through a larger passage. The pulverized peat finally falls into a cistern, in which it is agitated by revolving arms. A stream of water constantly enters this vessel from beneath, while a chain of buckets as rapidly carries off the peat pulp. All sand, shells, and other heavy matters, remain at the bottom of this cistern. The peat pulp, thus purified, flows through wooden troughs into a series of basins, in which the peat is formed and dried. These basins are made upon the ground by putting up a square frame (of boards on edge,) about one foot deep, and placing at the bottom old matting or a layer of flags or reeds. Each basin is about a rod square, and 800 of them are employed. They are filled with the peat pulp to the top. In a few days the water either filters away into the ground, or evaporates, so that a soft stratum of peat, about 3 inches in thickness, remains. Before it begins to crack from drying, it is divided into blocks, by pressing into it a light trellis-like framework, having thin partitions that serve to indent the peat in lines corresponding to the intended divisions. On further drying, the mass separates into blocks at the lines thus impressed, and in a few days, they are ready to remove and arrange for further desiccation. The finished peats from Challeton's works, as well as those made by the same method near Neuchatel, Switzerland, by the Messrs. Roy, were of excellent quality, and in the opinion of the Commission from Holstein, the method is admirably adapted for the purification and concentration of the heavy kinds of peat. In Holstein, a French company constructed, and in 1857 worked successfully a portable machine for preparing peat on this plan, but were shortly restrained by legal proceedings. Of their later operations we have no information. No data are at hand regarding the cost of producing fuel by Challeton's machinery. It is believed, however, that his own works were unremunerative, and several manufactories on his pattern, erected in Germany, have likewise proved unprofitable. The principle is, however, a good one, though his machinery is only applicable to earthy or pitchy, and not to very fibrous peat. It has been elsewhere applied with satisfactory results. _Simplified machinery_ for applying Challeton's method is in operation at Langenberg, near Stettin, in Prussia.[23] The moss-meadows along the river Oder, near which Langenberg is situated, are but a foot or so higher at the surface than the medium level of this river, and are subject to frequent and sudden inundations, so that draining and partial drying of the peat are out of the question. The character of the peat is unadapted to cutting by hand, since portions of it are pitchy and crumble too easily to form good sods; and others, usually the lower layers, at a depth of seven feet or more, are made up to a considerable extent of quite firm reeds and flags, having the consistence of half decayed straw. The earthy peat is manufactured after Challeton's method. It is raised with a steam dredger of 20 horse power, and emptied into flat boats, seven in number, which are drawn to the works by an endless rope operated by horse power. The works themselves are situated on a small sand hill in the middle of the moor, and communicate by canal with the dredger and with the drying ground. A chain of buckets, working in a frame 45 feet long, attached by a horizontal hinge to the top of the machine house, reaches over the dock where the boats haul up, into the rear end of the latter; and, as the buckets begin to raise the peat, the boat itself is moved under the frame towards the house, until, with a man's assistance, its entire load is taken up. The contents of one boat are six square yards, with a depth of one foot, and a boat is emptied in 20 minutes time. Forty to forty-four boatloads are thus passed into the pulverizing machine daily, by two chains of buckets. The peat-mud falls from the buckets into a large wooden trough, which branches into two channels, conducting to two large tubs standing side by side. These tubs are 10 feet in diameter and 2 feet deep, and are made of 2-inch plank. Within each tub is placed concentrically a cylindrical sieve, or colander, 8 feet in diameter and 2 feet high, made of 3/8 round iron, and it is within this that the peat is emptied. The peat is stirred and forced through the meshes of the sieve by four arms of a shaft that revolves 20 times per minute, the arms carrying at their extremities stiff vertical brooms, which rub the inside of the sieve. In these four tubs the peat is pulverized under addition of water; the fine parts pass the sieves, while the latter retain the coarse fibres, roots, etc. The peat-mud flows from the tubs into mills, made like a flour mill, but the "stones" constructed of hard wood. The "stones" have a diameter of 8 feet 6 inches; the lower is 8 inches; the upper 21 inches thick. The pressure of the upper "stone" is regulated by adjusting the level of the discharging channel, so that the "stone" may be more or less buoyed, or even fully floated by the water with which it is surrounded. The peat-substance, which is thus finely ground, gathers from the four mills into a common reservoir whence it is lifted by a centrifugal pump into a trough, which distributes it over the drying ground. The drying ground consists of the surface formed by grading the sand hill, on which the works are built, and includes about 30 English acres. This is divided into small plots, each of which is enclosed on three sides with a wall of earth, and on the fourth side by boards set on edge. Each plot is surrounded by a ditch to carry off water, and by means of portable troughs, the peat is let on from the main channel. The peat-slime is run into these beds to the depth of 20 to 22 inches, an acre being covered daily. After 4 to 8 days, according to the weather, the peat has lost so much water, which, rapidly soaks off through the sand, that its surface begins to crack. It is then thoroughly trodden by men, shod with boards 5 inches by 10 inches, and after 6 to 8 days more, it is cut with sharp spades into sods. The peats are dried in the usual manner. The works at Langenberg yielded, in 1863, as the result of the operations of 60 days of 12 hours each, 125,000 cwt. of marketable peat. It is chiefly employed for metallurgical purposes, and sells at 3-1/3 Silver-groschen, or nearly 8 cents per cwt. The specific gravity of the peat ranges from 0.73 to 0.90. _Roberts' Process._ In this country attempts have been made to apply Challeton's method. In 1865, Mr. S. Roberts, of Pekin, N. Y., erected machinery at that place, which was described in the "Buffalo Express," of Nov. 17, 1865, as follows:-- "In outward form, the machine was like a small frame house on wheels, supposing the smoke-stack to be a chimney. The engine and boiler are of locomotive style; the engine being of thirteen horse power. The principal features of the machine are a revolving elevator and a conveyer. The elevator is seventy-five feet long, and runs from the top of the machine to the ground, where the peat is dug up, placed on the elevator, carried to the top of the machine, and dropped into a revolving wheel that cuts it up; separates from it all the coarse particles, bits of sticks, stones, etc.; and throws them to one side. The peat is next dropped into a box below, where water is passed in, sufficient to bring it to the consistency of mortar. By means of a slide under the control of the engineer, it is next sent to the rear of the machine, where the conveyer, one hundred feet long, takes it, and carries it within two rods of the end; at which point the peat begins to drop through to the ground to the depth of about four or five inches. When sufficient has passed through to cover the ground to the end of the conveyer,--two rods,--the conveyer is swung around about two feet, and the same process gone through, as fast as the ground under the elevator, for the distance of two rods in length and two feet in width gets covered, the elevator being moved. At each swing of the elevator, the peat just spread is cut into blocks (soft ones, however) by knives attached to the elevator. It generally takes from three to four weeks before it is ready for use. It has to lie a week before it is touched, after the knives pass through it; when it is turned over, and allowed to lie another week. It has then to be taken up, and put in a shed, and within a week or ten days can be used, although it is better to let it remain a little longer time. The machine can spread the peat over eighteen square rods of ground--taking out one square rod of peat--without being moved. After the eighteen rods are covered, the machine is moved two rods ahead, enabling it to again spread a semicircular space of some thirty-two feet in width by eighteen rods in length. The same power, which drives the engine, moves the machine. It is estimated by Mr. Roberts, that, by the use of this machine, from twenty to thirty tons of peat can be turned out in a day." Mr. Roberts informs us that he is making (April 1866,) some modifications of his machinery. He employs a revolving digger to take up the peat from the bed, and carry it to the machine. At the time of going to press, we do not learn whether he regards his experiments as leading to a satisfactory conclusion, or otherwise. _Siemens' method._ Siemens, Professor of Technology, in the Agricultural Academy, at Hohenheim, successfully applied the following mode of preparing peat for the Beet Sugar Manufactory at Boeblingen, near Hohenheim, in the year 1857. Much of the peat there is simply cut and dried in the usual manner. There is great waste, however, in this process, owing to the frequent occurrence of shells and clay, which destroy the coherence of the peat. Besides, a large quantity of material accumulates in the colder months, from the ditches which are then dug, that cannot be worked in the usual manner at that time of the year. It was to economize this otherwise useless material that the following process was devised, after a failure to employ Challeton's method with profit. In the first place, the peat was dumped into a boarded cistern, where it was soaked and worked with water, until it could be raised by a chain of buckets into the pulverizer. The pulverization of the peat was next effected by passing it through a machine invented by Siemens, for pulping potatoes and beets. This machine, (the same we suppose as that described and figured in Otto's Landwirthschaftliche Gewerbe), perfectly breaks up and grates the peat to a fine pulp, delivers it in the consistency of mortar into the moulds, made of wooden frames, with divisions to form the peats. The peat-paste is plastered by hand into these moulds, which are immediately emptied to fill again, while the blocks are carried away to the drying ground where they are cured in the ordinary style without cover. In this simple manner 8 men were able to make 10,000 peats daily, which, on drying, were considerably denser and harder than the cut peat. The peat thus prepared, cost about one-third more than the cut peat. Siemens reckoned, this greater cost would be covered by its better heating effect, and its ability to withstand transportation without waste by crumbling. b. _Condensation of fibrous peat._ _Weber's method._ At Staltach, in Southern Bavaria, Weber has established an extensive peat works, of which Vogel has given a circumstantial account.[24] The peat at Staltach is very light and fibrous, but remarkably free from mineral matters, containing less than 2 _per cent._ of ash in the perfectly dry substance. The moor is large, (475 acres), and the peat is from 12 to 20 feet in depth. The preparation consists in converting the fresh peat into pulp or paste, forming it into moulds and drying it; at first by exposure to the air at ordinary temperature, and finally, by artificial heat, in a drying house constructed for the purpose. The peat is cut out by a gang of men, in large masses, cleared of coarse roots and sticks, and pushed on tram wagons to the works, which, are situated lower than the surface of the bog. Arrived at the works, the peat is carried upon an inclined endless apron, up to a platform 10 feet high, where a workman pushes it into the pulverizing mill, the construction of which is seen from the accompanying cut. The vertical shaft _b_ is armed with sickle-shaped knives, _d_, which revolve between and cut contrary to similar knives _c_, fixed to the interior of the vessel. The latter is made of iron, is 3-1/2 feet high, 2 feet across at top and 1-1/2 feet wide at the bottom. From the base of the machine at _g_, the perfectly pulverized or minced peat issues as a stiff paste. If the peat is dry, a little water is added. Vogel found the fresh peat to contain 90 _per cent._, of water, the pulp 92 _per cent._ Weber's machine, operated by an engine of 10 horse power, working usually to half its capacity only, reduced 400 cubic feet of peat per hour, to the proper consistency for moulding. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--WEBER'S PEAT MILL.] Three modes of forming the paste into blocks have been practiced. One was in imitation of that employed with mud-peat. The paste was carried by railway to sheds, where it was filled by hand into moulds 17 inches by 7-1/4 by 5-1/2 inches, and put upon frames to dry. These sheds occupied together 52,000 square feet, and contained at once 200,000 peats. The peats remained here 8 to 14 days or more, according to the weather, when they were either removed to the drying house, or piled in large stacks to dry slowly out-of-doors. The sheds could be filled and emptied at least 12 times each season, and since they protected from light frosts, the season began in April and lasted until November. The second mode of forming the peat was to run off the pulp into large and deep pits, excavated in the ground, and provided with drains for carrying off water. The water soaked away into the soil, and in a few weeks of good weather, the peat was stiff enough to cut out into blocks by the spade, having lost 20 to 25 _per cent._ of its water, and 15 _per cent._ of its bulk. The blocks were removed to the drying sheds, and set upon edge in the spaces left by the shrinking of the peats made by the other method. The working of the peat for the pits could go on, except in the coldest weather, as a slight covering usually sufficed to protect them from frost. Both of these methods have been given up as too expensive, and are replaced, at present, by the following: In the third method the peat-mass falls from the mill into a hopper, which directs it between the rolls _A B_ of fig. 11, (see next page). The roll _A_ has a series of boxes on its periphery _m m_, with movable bottoms which serve as moulds. The peat is carried into these boxes by the rolls _c c_. The iron projections _n n_ of the large roll _B_, which work cog-like into the boxes, compress the peat gently and, at last, the eccentric p acting upon the pin _z_, forces up the movable bottom of the box and throws out the peat-block upon an endless band of cloth, which carries it to the drying place. The peats which are dried at first under cover and therefore slowly, shrink more evenly and to a greater extent than those which are allowed to dry rapidly. The latter become cracked upon the surface and have cavities internally, which the former do not. This fact is of great importance for the density of the peat, for its usefulness in producing intense heat, and its power to withstand carriage. [Illustration: Fig. 11--WEBER'S PEAT MOULDING MACHINE.] The _complete drying_ is, on the other hand, by this method, a much slower process, since the dense, fissureless exterior of the peats hinders the escape of water from within. It requires, in fact, several months of ordinary drying for the removal of the greater share of the water, and at the expiration of this time they are still often moist in the interior. Artificial drying is therefore employed to produce the most compact, driest, and best fuel. Weber's _Drying house_ is 120 feet long and 46 feet wide. Four large flues traverse the whole length of it, and are heated with the pine roots and stumps which abound in the moor. These flues are enclosed in brick-work, leaving a narrow space for the passage of air from without, which is heated by the flues, and is discharged at various openings in the brick-work into the house itself, where the peat is arranged on frames. The warm air being light, ascends through the peat, charges itself with moisture, thereby becomes heavier and falls to the floor, whence it is drawn off by flues of sheet zinc that pass up through the roof. This house holds at once 300,000 peats, which are heated to 130° to 145° F., and require 10 to 14 days for drying. The effect of the hot air upon the peat is, in the first place, to soften and cause it to swell; it, however, shortly begins to shrink again and dries away to masses of great solidity. It becomes almost horny in its character, can be broken only by a heavy blow, and endures the roughest handling without detriment. Its quality as fuel is correspondingly excellent. The effects of the mechanical treatment and drying on the Staltach peat, are seen from the subjoined figures: _Lbs. _Specific per Cubic _Per cent of Gravity._ Foot._ Water._ Peat, raised and dried in usual way, 0.24 15 18 to 20 Machine-worked and hot-dried 0.65 35 12 Vogel estimates the cost of peat made by Weber's method at 5 Kreuzers per (Bavarian) hundred weight, while that of ordinary peat is 13-1/2 Kreuzers. Schroeder, in his comparison of machine-wrought and ordinary peat, demonstrates that the latter can be produced much cheaper than was customary in Bavaria, in 1859, by a better system of labor. Weber's method was adopted with some improvements in an extensive works built in 1860, by the Government of Baden, at Willaringen, for the purpose of raising as much fuel as possible, during the course of a lease that expired with the year 1865. [Illustration: Fig. 12.--GEYSSER'S PEAT MACHINE.] _Gysser's method._[25]--Rudolph Gysser, of Freiburg, who was charged with the erection of the works at Willaringen just alluded to, invented a portable hand-machine on the general plan of Weber, but with important improvements; and likewise omitted and varied some details of the manufacture, bringing it within the reach of parties of small means. In the accompanying cuts, (figs. 12, 13, and 14), are given an elevation of Gysser's machine, together with a bird's-eye view and vertical section of the interior mechanism. [Illustration: Fig. 13.] [Illustration: Fig. 14.] It consists of a cast iron funnel _c d i_ of the elevation, (fig. 12), having above a sheet iron hopper _a b_ to receive the peat, and within a series of six knives fastened in a spiral, and curving outwards and downwards, (figs. 13 and 14); another series of three similar knives is affixed to a vertical shaft, which is geared to a crank and turned by a man standing on the platform _j k_; these revolving knives curve upwards and cut between and in a direction contrary to the fixed knives; below the knives, and affixed to the shaft a spiral plate of iron and a scraper _m_, (fig. 13), serve to force the peat, which has been at once minced and carried downwards by the knives, as a somewhat compressed mass through the lateral opening at the bottom of the funnel, whence it issues as a continuous hollow cylinder like drain-tile, having a diameter of four inches. The iron cone _i_, held in the axis of the opening by the thin and sharp-edged support _g h_, forms the bore of the tube of peat as it issues. Two men operate the machine; one turning the crank, which, by suitable gearing, works the shaft, and the other digging and throwing in the peat. The mass, as it issues from the machine, is received by two boys alternately, who hold below the opening a semi-cylindrical tin-plate shovel, (fig. 15), of the width and length of the required peats, and break or rather wipe them off, when they reach the length of 14 inches. [Illustration: Fig. 15.] [Illustration: Fig. 16.] The formed peats are dried in light, cheap and portable houses, Fig. 17, each of which consists of six rectangular frames supported one above another, and covered by a light roof. The frames, Fig. 16, have square posts at each corner like a bedstead, and are made by nailing light strips to these posts. The tops of these posts are obtusely beveled to an edge, and at the bottom they are notched to correspond. The direction of the edges and of the notches in two diagonally opposite posts, is at right angles to that of the other two. By this construction the frames, being of the same size, when placed above each other, fit together by the edges and notches of their posts into a structure that cannot be readily overturned. The upper frame has a light shingled roof, which completes the house. Each frame has transverse slats, cast in plaster of Paris, 20 in number, which support the peats. The latter being tubular, dry more readily, uniformly, and to a denser consistence than they could otherwise. The machine being readily set up where the peat is excavated, the labor of transporting the fresh and water-soaked material is greatly reduced. The drying-frames are built up into houses as fast as they are filled from the machine. They can be set up anywhere without difficulty, require no leveling of the ground, and, once filled, no labor in turning or stacking the peats is necessary; while the latter are insured against damage from rain. These advantages, Gysser claims, more than cover their cost. [Illustration: Fig. 17.] The daily production of a machine operated by two men with the assistance of one or two boys, is 2500 to 3000 peats, which, on drying, have 9-1/2 to 10 inches of length, and 2-1/2 in diameter, and weigh, on the average, one pound each. c.--_Condensation of peat of all kinds._--_Weber's method with modified machinery._ [Illustration: Fig. 18.--SCHLICKEYSEN'S PEAT MILL.] _Schlickeysen's Machine._[26]--This machine has been in use in Germany since 1860, in the preparation of peat. It appears to have been originally constructed for the working and moulding of clay for making bricks. The principle of its operation is identical with that of Weber's process. The peat is finely pulverized, worked into a homogenous mass, and moulded into suitable forms. Like Gysser's machine, it forces the peat under some pressure through a nozzle, or, in the larger kinds through several nozzles, whence it issues in a continuous block or pipe that is cut off in proper lengths, either by hand or by mechanism It consists of a vertical cylinder, through the axis of which revolves a shaft, whereon are fastened the blades, whose edges cut and whose winding figure forces down the peat. The blades are arranged nearly, but not exactly, in a true spiral; the effect is therefore that they act unequally upon the mass, and thus mix and divide it more perfectly. No blades or projections are affixed to the interior of the cylinder. Above, where the peat enters into a flaring hopper, is a scraper, that prevents adhesion to the sides and gives downward propulsion to the peat. The blades are, by this construction, very strong, and not liable to injury from small stones or roots, and effectually reduce the toughest and most compact peat. Furthermore, addition of water is not only unnecessary in any case, but the peat may be advantageously air-dried to a considerable extent before it enters the machine. Wet peat is, indeed, worked with less expenditure of power; but the moulded peats are then so soft as to require much care in the handling, and must be spread out in single courses, as they will not bear to be placed one upon another. Peat, that is somewhat dry, though requiring more power to work, leaves the machine in blocks that can be piled up on edge and upon each other, six or eight high, without difficulty, and require, of course, less time for curing. The cut, (fig. 18), represents one of Schlickeysen's portable peat-mills, with elevator for feeding, from which an idea of the pulverizing arrangements may be gathered. In Livonia, near Pernan, according to Leo, two of Schlickeysen's machines, No. 6, were put in operation upon a purely fibrous peat. They were driven by an engine of 12 horse-power. The peat was plowed, once harrowed, then carted directly to the hopper of the machine. These two machines, with 26 men and 4 horses, produced daily 60,000 peats = 7500 cubic feet. 100 cubic feet of these peats were equal in heating effect to 130 cubic feet of fir-wood, and cost but two-thirds as much. The peats were extremely hard, and dried in a few days sufficiently for use. In 1864, five large Schlickeysen machines were in operation at one establishment at St. Miskolz, in Hungary. The smaller sizes of Schlickeysen's machine are easily-portable, and adapted for horse or hand-power. _Leavitt's Peat-condensing and Moulding Mill._[27]--In this country, Mr. T. H. Leavitt, of Boston, has patented machinery, which is in operation at East Lexington, Mass., at the works of the Boston Peat Company. The process is essentially identical with that of Weber, the hot-drying omitted. The fresh peat is pulverized or cut fine, moulded into blocks, and dried on light frames in the open air. The results claimed by Mr. Leavitt, indicate, that his machine is very efficacious. It consists, principally, of a strong box or cistern, three feet in diameter, and six feet high, the exterior of which, with its gearing, is shown in figure 19. The mill is adapted to be driven by a four horse-power engine. "The upper portion of the box is divided by a series of horizontal partitions, the upper ones being open latticework, and the lower ones perforated with numerous holes. The upright shaft, which rotates in the centre of the box, carries a series of arms or blades, extending alternately on opposite sides, and as these revolve, they cut the peat, and force it through the openings in the diaphragms. The lower portion of the box, in place of complete partitions, has a series of corrugated shelves extending alternately from opposite sides, and the peat is pressed and scraped from these by a series of arms adapted to the work. By this series of severe operations the air-bubbles are expelled from the peat, and it is reduced to a homogeneous paste. When it arrives at the bottom of the box, it is still further compressed by the converging sides of the hopper, and it is received in light moulds which are carried on an endless belt." Mr. Leavitt has patented the use of powdered peat for the purpose of preventing the prepared peat from adhering to the moulds. [Illustration: Fig. 19.--LEAVITT'S PEAT MILL.] This mill, it is asserted, will condense 40 tons of crude peat daily, which, at Lexington, is estimated to yield 10 to 14 tons of dry merchantable fuel. The cost of producing the latter is asserted to be less than $2.00 per ton; while its present value, in Boston, is $10 per ton. It requires seven men, three boys, and two horses to dig, cart, mill, and spread the peat. The machine costs $600, the needful buildings, engine, etc., from $2000 to $3000. The samples of peat, manufactured by this machine, are of excellent quality. The drying in the open air is said to proceed with great rapidity, eight or ten days being ordinarily sufficient in the summer season. The dry peat, at Lexington, occupies one-fourth the bulk, and has one-fourth to one-third the weight of the raw material; the latter, as we gather, being by no means saturated with water, but well drained, and considerably dry, before milling. _Ashcroft & Betteley's Machinery._ The American Peat Company, of Boston, are the owners of five patents, taken out by Messrs. Ashcroft & Betteley, for peat machinery. They claim to "make fuel equal to the best English Cannel coal," and really do make a very good peat, though with a rather complicated apparatus. The following statement is derived from the circular issued by the company. The machinery consists of the following parts:-- _First._--TRITURATING MACHINE--36 inches diameter, 4 feet 6 inches high, with arms both on the inside of this cylinder and on the upright revolving shaft. In the bottom of the cylinder or tub a large slide gate is fitted to work with a lever, so that the peat may be discharged, at pleasure, into the Combing Machine, which is placed directly under this Triturator. _Second._--COMBING MACHINE--Semi-circular vessel 6 feet long and 3 feet 6 inches in diameter. Inside, a shaft is placed, which is provided with fingers, placed one inch apart; the fingers to be 20 inches long, so as to reach within 2 inches of the bottom and sides of this vessel. Another shaft, of the same size and dimensions, is placed at an angle of 45°, 26 inches from the first shaft, with arms of the same dimensions placed upon this shaft, with the same spaces, and so placed that this set of arms pass between the first set, both shafts revolving in the same direction; the second shaft mentioned being driven at double the speed of the first. At the bottom of this Combing Machine is to be fixed a gate, to be operated by a lever, to deliver, at pleasure, the cleansed peat into the Manipulator or Kneading Machine. _Third._--MANIPULATOR.--A Tube of iron 7 feet long and 16 inches diameter, fitted with a shaft, with flanges upon it, to gain 6 inches in each revolution. _Fourth._--CONVEYOR.--This Conveyor, to be made with two endless chains and buckets of iron, with a driving shaft. The hopper, to receive the peat when first taken from the bog, to be placed below the surface of the ground, so that the top edge of the hopper may be level with the surface, that the peat may be dumped from the car by which it is taken from the bog, and carried to the hopper without hand labor; and this conveyor to be so arranged that the peat will be delivered into the Triturator without hand labor. _Fifth._--CONVEYOR.--Another conveyor, precisely like the one above described, is to be placed so as to convey the peat from the Manipulator into the Tank without hand labor. _Sixth._--TANK.--A tank 35 feet high and 15 feet in diameter; the bottom of this tank is made sloping towards the sides, at an angle of 65°, and is covered with sole tile or drain tile, and the entire inside of this tank is also ribbed with these tile; the ends of these pipes of tile being left open, so that the water which percolates through the pores of the tile, by the pressure of the column of peat, will pass out at the bottom, through the false floor of the tank into the drain, and the solid peat is retained in the tank. A worm is fixed in the bottom of this tank, which is driven by machinery, which forces out the peat in the form of brick, which are cut to any length, and stacked up in sheds, for fuel, after it is fully dried by the air. [Illustration: Fig. 20.--VERSMANN'S PEAT PULVERIZER.] _Versmann's Machine_[28]--This machine, see Fig. 20, was invented by a German engineer, in London, and was patented there in Sept., 1861. It consists of a funnel or hollow cone _b_, of boiler-plate, from one to two feet in diameter at top, and perforated with 200 to 300 small holes per square foot of surface, within which rapidly revolves an iron cone _a_, carrying on its circumference two spiral knives. The peat thrown in at the top of the funnel is carried down by the knives, and at once cut or broken and forced in a state of fine division through the holes of the funnel, as through a colander. The fine peat collects on the inclined bottom of the chamber _d_, whence it is carried by means of Archimedean screws to a moulding machine. The coarse stuff that escapes pulverization falls through _e_ into the cavity _c_. It may be employed as fuel for the engine, or again put through the machine. This machine effects a more perfect pulverization of the peat, than any other hitherto described. This extreme division is, however, unnecessary to the perfection of the product, and is secured at great expense of power. Through the opening at the bottom of the funnel, much unpulverized peat finds its way, which must be continually returned to the machine. Again, stones, entering the funnel, are likely to break or damage the spiral knives, which bear close to the walls of the funnel. The pulverized peat must be moulded by hand, or by a separate instrument. _Buckland's Machine_[29] is identical in principle with Versmann's, and in construction differs simply in the fact of the interior cone having spiral grooves instead of spiral knives. This gives greater simplicity and durability to the machine. It appears, however, to require too much power to work it, and can hardly equal other machines in the quantity of product it will deliver for a given expenditure. The ground peat yielded by it, must be moulded by hand, or by other machinery. This machine, we understand, has been tried near Boston, and abandoned as uneconomical. The machines we have described are by no means all that have been proposed and patented. They include, however, so the author believes, all that have been put into actual operation, at the date of this writing, or that present important peculiarities of construction. The account that has been given of them will serve to illustrate what mechanism has accomplished hitherto in the manufacture of peat-fuel, and may save the talent of the American inventor from wasting itself on what is already in use, or having been tried, has been found wanting. At present, very considerable attention is devoted to the subject. Scarcely a week passes without placing one or more Peat-mill patents on record. In this treatise our business is with what has been before the public in a more or less practical way, and it would, therefore, be useless to copy the specifications of new, and for the most part untried patents, which can be found in the files of our mechanical Journals. 14. _Artificial Drying of Peat._ As we have seen, air-dry peat contains 20 to 30 and may easily contain 50 _per cent._ of water, and the best hot-made machine peat contains 15 _per cent._ When peat is used as fuel in ordinary furnaces, this water must be evaporated, and in this process a large amount of heat is consumed, as is well understood. It is calculated, that the temperature which can be produced in perfectly burning full-dried peat, compares with that developed in the combustion of peat containing water, as follows:-- Pyrometric effect of perfectly dry peat 4000° F. " " peat with 30 _per cent._ of water 3240° " " " " 50 " " 2848° " But, furthermore, moist or air-dried peat does not burn in ordinary furnaces, except with considerable waste, as is evident from the smokiness of its flame. When air-dried peat is distilled in a retort, a heavy yellow vapor escapes for some time after the distillation begins, which, obviously, contains much inflammable matter, but which is so mixed and diluted with steam that it will not burn at all, or but imperfectly. It is obvious then, that when a high temperature is to be attained, anhydrous or full-dried peat is vastly superior to that which has simply been cured in the open air. Notice has already been made of Weber's drying-house, the use of which is an essential part of his system of producing peat-fuel. Various other arrangements have been proposed from time to time, for accomplishing the same object. It appears, however, that in most cases the anticipations regarding their economy have not been fully realized. It is hardly probable, that artificially dried peat can be employed to advantage except where waste heat is utilized in the operation. A point of the utmost importance in reference to the question of drying peat by artificial warmth is this, viz.: Although the drying may be carried so far as to remove the whole of the water, and produce an absolutely dry fuel, the peat absorbs moisture from the air again on exposure; so that drying to less than 15 _per cent._ of water is of no advantage, unless the peat is to be used immediately, or within a few days. The employment of highly dried peat is consequently practicable only for smelting-works, locomotives, and manufacturing establishments, where it may be consumed as fast as it is produced. A fact likewise to be regarded is, that artificial drying is usually inapplicable to fresh peat. The precautions needful in curing peat have already been detailed. Above all, slow drying is necessary, in order that the blocks shrink uniformly, without cracking and warping in such a way as to seriously injure their solidity and usefulness. In general, peat must be air-dried to a considerable extent before it can be kiln-dried to advantage. If exposed to dry artificial heat, when comparatively moist, a hard crust is formed externally, which greatly hinders subsequent desiccation. At the same time this crust, contracting around the moist interior, becomes so rifted and broken, that the ultimate shrinkage and condensation of the mass is considerably less than it would have been had the drying proceeded more slowly. Besides Weber's drying oven, the fuel for firing which is derived without cost from the stumps and roots of trees that are abundant on the moor, at Staltach, and which are thus conveniently disposed of, we have briefly to notice several other drying kilns with regard to all of which, however, it must be remarked, that they can only be employed with profit, by the use of waste heat, or, as at Staltach, of fuel that is comparatively worthless for other purposes. [Illustration: Fig. 21.--CARINTHIAN PEAT DRYING-KILN.] The _Peat Kilns_ employed at Lippitzbach, in Carinthia, and at Neustadt, in Hanover, are of the kind shown in fig. 21. The peat with which the main chamber is filled, is heated directly by the hot gases that arise from a fire made in the fire-place at the left. These gases first enter a vault, where they intermingle and cool down somewhat; thence they ascend through the openings of the brick grating, and through the mass of peat to the top of the chamber. On their way they become charged with vapor, and falling, pass off through the chimney, as is indicated by the arrows. The draught is regulated by the damper on the top of the chimney. To manage the fire, so that on the one hand the chimney is sufficiently heated to create a draught, and on the other waste of fuel, or even ignition of the peat itself is prevented, requires some care. In _Welkner's Peat Kiln_[30] (fig. 22) the peat, previously air-dried, is exposed to a stream of hot air, until it is completely desiccated, and the arrangement is such, that air-dried peat may be thrown in at the top, and the hot-dried fuel be removed at the bottom, continuously. In the cut, _A_ represents the section of a wooden cylinder about 10 feet wide and 6-1/2 feet deep, which surmounts a funnel of iron plate _A'_. The mouth of the funnel is closed by a door _n_; about 20 inches above the door the pipe _B_, which conducts hot air, terminates in the ring _a a_, through the holes in which, _e e_, it is distributed into the funnel filled with peat. The air is driven in by a blower, and is heated by circulating through a system of pipes, which are disposed in the chimney of a steam boiler. From time to time a quantity of dried peat is drawn off into the wagon _D_, which runs on rails, and a similar amount of undried peat is thrown in above. According to Welkner, a kiln of the dimensions stated, which cost, about $1800 gold, is capable of desiccating daily ten tons of peat with 20 _per cent._ of water, using thereby 2000 cubic feet of air of a temperature of 212° F. When the air is heated by a fire kept up exclusively for that purpose, 10 _per cent._ of the dried peat, or its equivalent, is consumed in the operation. At the Alexis Smelting Works, near Lingen, in Hanover, this peat kiln furnishes about half the fuel for a high furnace, in which bog iron ore is smelted. The drying costs but little, since half the requisite heat is obtained from the waste heat of the furnace itself. [Illustration: Fig. 22.--WELKNER'S PEAT DRYING KILN.] The advantages of this drying kiln are, that it is cheap in construction and working; dries gradually and uniformly; occupies little ground, and runs without intermission. Other drying ovens are described in Knapp's _Lehrbuch_ der _Chemischen Technologie_, 3. Aufl. Bd. 1, Theil 1, pp. 178-9; _Jahrbuch der Bergakademien Schemnitz_ und _Leoben_, 1860, p. 108, 1861, p. 55; Wagner's _Jahresbericht der Chemischen Technologie_, 1863, p. 748; Zerrenner's _Metallurgische Gasfeuerung in Oesterreich_; Tunner's _Stabeisen- und Stahlbereitung_, 2. Auflage, Bd. I, pp. 23-25. 15. _Peat Coal, or Coke._ When peat is charred, it yields a coal or coke which, being richer in carbon, is capable of giving an intenser heat than peat itself, in the same way that charcoal emits an intenser heat in its combustion than the wood from which it is made. Peat coal has been and is employed to some extent in metallurgical processes, as a substitute for charcoal, and when properly prepared from good peat, is in no way inferior to the latter; is, in fact, better. It is only, however, from peat which naturally dries to a hard and dense consistency, or which has been solidified on the principles of Challeton's and Weber's methods, that a coal can be made possessing the firmness necessary for furnace use. Fibrous peat, or that condensed by pressure, as in Exter's, Elsberg's, and the Lithuanian process, yields by coking or charring, a friable coal comparatively unsuited for heating purposes. A peat which is dense as the result of proper mechanical treatment and slow drying, yields a very homogeneous and compact coal, superior to any wood charcoal, the best qualities weighing nearly twice as much per bushel. Peat is either charred in pits and heaps, or in kilns. From the regularity of the rectangular blocks into which peat is usually formed, it may be charred more easily in pits than wood, since the blocks admit of closer packing in the heap, and because the peat coal is less inflammable than wood coal. The heaps may likewise be made much smaller than is needful in case of wood, viz.: six to eight feet in diameter, and four feet high. The pit is arranged as follows: The ground is selected and prepared as for charcoal burning, and should be elevated, dry and compact. Three stout poles are firmly driven into the ground, so as to stand vertically and equi-distant from each other, leaving within them a space of six or eight inches. Around these poles the peats are placed endwise, in concentric rows to the required width and height, leaving at the bottom a number of air-channels of the width of one peat, radiating from the centre outwards. The upper layers of peat are narrowed in so as to round off the heap, which is first covered with dry leaves, sods, or moss, over which a layer of soil is thrown. Dry, light wood being placed at the bottom of the central shaft, it is kindled from one of the canals at the bottom, and the charring is conducted as is usual in making wood coal. The yield of coal ranges from 25 to 35 _per cent._ of the peat by weight, and from 30 to 50 _per cent._ by volume. Gysser recommends to mould the peat for charring in the form of cylinders of 3 to 4 feet long, which, when dry, may be built up into a heap like wood. A great variety of ovens or kilns have been constructed for coking peat. At the Gun Factory of Oberndorf, in Wirtemberg, peat is charred in the kiln represented in the accompanying figure. The chamber is 9 feet high, and 5-1/2 feet in diameter. The oven proper, _b b_, is surrounded by a mantle of brick _a a_, and the space between, _c c_, is filled with sand. Each wall, as well as the space, is 15 inches in thickness, and the walls are connected by stones _d d_, at intervals of three feet. Above the sole of the kiln, are three series of air holes, made by imbedding old gun barrels in the walls. The door, which serves to empty the kiln, is a plate of cast iron, the sides of its frame are wider than the thickness of the wall, and by means of a board _e_, a box _m_ can be made in front of the door, which is filled with sand to prevent access of air. The peat is filled in through _i_, a channel being arranged across the bottom of the kiln, from the door _f_, for kindling. When the firing begins, the lowest air-holes and _i_ are open. When, through the lower gun barrels, the peat is seen to be ignited, these are corked, and those above are opened. When the smoke ceases to escape above, all the openings are closed, _m_, is filled with sand, _i_ is covered over with it, and the whole is left to cool. It requires about 8 to 9 days to finish the charring of a charge. Several kilns are kept in operation, so that the work proceeds uninterruptedly. [Illustration: Fig. 23.--OBERNDORFER PEAT CHARRING KILN.] [Illustration: Fig. 24.--WEBER'S CHARRING FURNACE.--TRANSVERSE SECTION.] [Illustration: Fig. 25.--WEBER'S CHARRING FURNACE.--LONGITUDINAL SECTION.] At Staltach, Weber prepares peat coal in a cylinder of sheet iron, which is surrounded by masonry. Below, it rests on a grating of stout wire. Above, it has a cover, that may be raised by a pulley and on one side is attached a small furnace, figure 24, the draught of which is kept up by means of a blower, or an exhauster, and the flame and hot gases from it, _which contain no excess of oxygen_, play upon the peat and decompose it, expelling its volatile portions without burning or wasting it in the slightest degree. The construction of the furnace, see fig. 24, is such, that the sticks of wood, which are employed for fuel, are supported at their ends on shoulders in the brick-work, and the draught enters the fire above instead of below. The wood is hereby completely consumed, and by regulating the supply of air at _a_ (fig. 25) by a sliding cover, and at _b_ by a register, the flame and current of air which enters the cylinder containing the peat, is intensely hot and accomplishes a rapid carbonization of the peat, but as before stated, does not burn it. In this furnace the wood, which is cut of uniform length, is itself the grate, since iron would melt or rapidly burn out; and the coals that fall are consumed by the air admitted through c. The hot gases which enter the cylinder filled with peat near its top, are distributed by pipes, and, passing off through the grating at the bottom, enter the surrounding brick mantle. Before reaching the exhaustor, however, they pass through a cooler in which a quantity of tar and pyroligneous acid is collected. Weber's oven is 15 feet in diameter, and 3-1/2 feet high; 528 cubic feet of peat may be coked in it in the space of 15 hours. The wood furnace is 2 feet in section, and consumes for the above amount of peat 3-1/2 cwt. of wood. So perfectly are the contents of the iron cylinder protected from contact of oxygen, that a rabbit placed within it, has been converted into coal without the singeing of a hair; and a bouquet of flowers has been carbonized, perfectly retaining its shape. The yield of coal in Weber's oven is nearly 50 _per cent._ of the peat by weight. Whenever possible, charring of peat should be carried on, or aided by waste heat, or the heat necessary to coking should be itself economized. In manufacturing and metallurgical establishments, a considerable economy in both the drying and coking may often be effected in this manner. On the bog of Allen, in Ireland, we have an example of this kind. Peat is placed in iron ovens in the form of truncated pyramids, the bottoms of which consist of movable and perforated iron plates. The ovens are mounted on wheels, and run on a rail track. Five ovens filled with peat are run into a pit in a drying house, in which blocks of fresh peat are arranged for drying. Each oven is connected with a flue, and fire is applied. The peat burns below, and the heat generated in the coking, warms the air of the drying house. When the escaping smoke becomes transparent, the pit in which the ovens stand is filled with water slightly above their lower edges, whereby access of air to the burning peat is at once cut off. When cool, the ovens are run out and replaced by others filled with peat. Each oven holds about 600 lbs. of peat, and the yield of coal is 25 _per cent._ by weight. The small yield compared with that obtained by Weber's method, is due to the burning of the peat and the coal itself, in the draught of air that passes through the ovens. The author has carbonized, in an iron retort, specimens of peat prepared by Elsberg's, Leavitt's, and Aschcroft and Betteley's processes. Elsberg's gave 35, the others 37 _per cent._ of coal. The coal from Elsberg's peat was greatly fissured, and could be crushed in the fingers to small fragments. That from the other peats was more firm, and required considerable exertion to break it. All had a decided metallic brilliancy of surface. 16.--_Metallurgical Uses of Peat._ In Austria, more than any other country, peat has been employed in the manufacture of iron. In Bavaria, Prussia, Wirtemberg, Hanover, and Sweden, and latterly in Great Britain, peat has been put to the same use. The general results of experience, are as follows:-- Peat can only be employed to advantage, when wood and mineral coal are expensive, or of poor quality. Peat can be used in furnaces adapted for charcoal, but not in those built for mineral coal. Good air-dry peat, containing 20 to 30 _per cent._ of water, in some cases may replace a share of charcoal in the high furnace. At Pillersee, in Austria, spathic iron ore has been reduced by a mixture of fir-wood charcoal, and air-dry peat in the proportions of three parts by bulk of the former to one of the latter. The use of peat was found to effect a considerable saving in the outlay for fuel, and enabled the production to be somewhat increased, while the excellence of the iron was in no way impaired. The peat was of the best quality, and was worked and moulded by hand. When the ore is refractory and contains impurities that must be fluxed and worked off in slag, a large proportion of air-dry peat cannot be used to advantage, because the evaporation of the water in it consumes so much heat, that the requisite temperature is not easily attained. At Achthal, in Bavaria, air-dry peat was employed in 1860, to replace a portion of the fir wood charcoal, which had been used for smelting an impure clay-iron-stone: the latter fuel having become so dear, that peat was resorted to as a make shift. Instead of one "sack," or 33 cubic feet of charcoal, 24 cubic feet of charcoal and 15 cubic feet of peat were employed in each charge, and the quantity of ore had to be diminished thereby, so that the yield of pig was reduced, on the average, by about 17 _per cent._ In this case the quality of the iron, when worked into bar, was injured by the use of peat, obviously from an increase of its content of phosphorus. The exclusive use of air-dry peat as fuel in the high furnace, appears to be out of the question. At Ransko, in Bohemia, _kiln-dried peat_, nearly altogether free from water, has been employed in a high furnace, mixed with but one-third its bulk of charcoal, and in cupola furnaces for re-melting pig, full-dried peat has been used alone, answering the purpose perfectly. The most important metallurgical application of peat is in the refining of iron. Dried peat is extensively used in puddling furnaces, especially in the so-called gas puddling furnaces, in Carinthia, Steyermark, Silesia, Bavaria, Wirtemberg, Sweden, and other parts of Europe. In Steyermark, peat has been thus employed for 25 years. Air-dry peat is, indeed, also employed, but is not so well adapted for puddling, as its water burns away a notable quantity of iron. It is one of the best known facts in chemistry, that ignited iron is rapidly oxidized in a stream of water-vapor, free hydrogen being at the same time evolved. In the high furnace, _peat-coal_, when compact and firm (not crumbly) may replace charcoal perfectly, but its cost is usually too great. When peat or peat-coal is employed in smelting, it must be as free as possible from ash, because the ash usually consists largely of silica, and this must be worked off by flux. If the ash be carbonate of lime, it will, in most cases, serve itself usefully as flux. In hearth puddling, it is important not only that the peat or peat-coal contain little ash, but especially that the ash be as free as possible from sulphates and phosphates, which act so deleteriously on the metal. The notion that, in general, peat and peat charcoal are peculiarly adapted for the iron manufacture, because they are free from sulphur and phosphorus, is extremely erroneous. Not infrequently they contain these bodies in such quantity, as to forbid their use in smelting. In the gas-puddling furnace, or in the ordinary reverberatory, impure peat may, however, be employed, since the ashes do not come in contact with the metal. The only disadvantage in the use of peat in these furnaces is, that the grates require cleaning more frequently, which interrupts the fire, and, according to Tunner, increases the consumption of fuel 8 to 10 _per cent._, and diminishes the amount of metal that can be turned out in a given time by the same quantity. Notwithstanding the interruption of work, it has been found, at Rothburga, in Austria, that by substitution of machine-made and kiln-dried peat for wood in the gas-puddling furnace, a saving of 50 _per cent._ in the cost of bar iron was effected, in 1860. What is to the point, in estimating the economy of peat, is the fact that while 6.2 cubic feet of dry fir-wood were required to produce 100 lbs. of crude bar, this quantity of iron could be puddled with 4.3 cubic feet of peat. In the gas furnace, a second blast of air is thrown into the flame, effecting its complete combustion; Dellvik asserts, that at Lesjoeforss, in Sweden, 100 lbs. of kiln-dried peat are equal to 197 lbs. of kiln-dried wood in heavy forging. In an ordinary fire, the peat would be less effective from the escape of unburned carbon in the smoke. In other metallurgical and manufacturing operations where flame is required, as well as in those which are not inconvenienced by the ingredients of its ash, it is obvious that peat can be employed when circumstances conspire to render its use economical. 17.--_Peat as a source of illuminating gas._ Prof Pettenkofer, of Munich, was the first to succeed in making illuminating gas from wood; and peat, when operated according to his method, furnishes also a gas of good quality, though somewhat inferior to wood-gas in illuminating power. It is essential, that well-dried peat be employed, and the waste heat from the retorts may serve in part, at least, for the drying. The retorts must be of a good conducting material; therefore cast iron is better than clay. They are made of the [symbol: D] form, and must be relatively larger than those used for coal. A retort of two feet width, one foot depth, and 8 to 9 feet length, must receive but 100 lbs. of peat at a charge. The quantity of gas yielded in a given time, is much greater than from bituminous coal. From retorts of the size just named, 8000 to 9000 cubic feet of gas are delivered in 24 hours. The exit pipes must, therefore, be large, not less than 5 to 6 inches, and the coolers must be much more effective than is needful for coal gas, in order to separate from it the tarry matters. The number of retorts requisite to furnish a given volume of gas, is much less than in the manufacture from coal. On the other hand, the dimensions of the furnace are considerably greater, because the consumption of fuel must be more rapid, in order to supply the heat, which is carried off by the copious formation of gas. Gas may be made from peat at a comparatively low temperature, but its illuminating power is then trifling. At a red heat alone can we procure a gas of good quality. The chief impurity of peat-gas is carbonic acid: this amounts to 25 to 30 _per cent._ of the gas before purification, and if the peat be insufficiently dried, it is considerably more. The quantity of slaked lime that is consumed in purifying, is therefore much greater than is needed for coal-gas, and is an expensive item in the making of peat-gas. While wood-gas is practically free from sulphur compounds and ammonia, peat-gas may contain them both, especially the latter, in quantity that depends upon the composition of the peat, which, as regards sulphur and nitrogen, is very variable. Peat-gas is denser than coal-gas, and therefore cannot be burned to advantage except from considerably wider orifices than answer for the latter, and under slight pressure. The above statements show the absurdity of judging of the value of peat as a source of gas, by the results of trials made in gas works arranged for bituminous coal. As to the yield of gas we have the following data, weights and measures being English:-- 100 lbs. of peat of medium quality from Munich, gave REISSIG 303 cub. ft. " air-dry peat from Biermoos, Salzburg, gave RIEDINGER 305 " " very light fibrous peat, gave REISSIG 379 to 430 " " Exter's machine-peat, from Haspelmoor, gave 367 " Thenius states, that, to produce 1000 English cubic feet of purified peat-gas, in the works at Kempten, Bavaria, there are required in the retorts 292 lbs of peat. To distil this, 138-1/2 lbs. of peat are consumed in the fire; and to purify the gas from carbonic acid, 91-1/2 lbs. of lime are used. In the retorts remain 117 lbs. of peat coal, and nearly 6 lbs. of tar are collected in the operation, besides smaller quantities of acetic acid and ammonia. According to Stammer, 4 cwt. of dry peat are required for 1000 cubic feet of purified gas. The quality of the gas is somewhat better than that made from bituminous coal. 18.--_The examination of Peat as to its value for Fuel_, begins with and refers to the air-dry substance, in which: 1.--Water is estimated, by drying the pulverized peat, at 212°, as long as any diminution of weight occurs. Well-dried peat-fuel should not contain more than 20 _per cent._ of water. On the other hand it cannot contain less than 15 _per cent._, except it has been artificially dried at a high temperature, or kept for a long time in a heated apartment. 2.--_Ash_ is estimated by carefully burning the dry residue in 1. In first-rate fuel, it should amount to less than 3 _per cent._ If more than 8 _per cent._, the peat is thereby rendered of inferior quality, though peat is employed which contains considerably more. 3.--_Sulphur_ and _phosphorus_ are estimated by processes, which it would be useless to describe here. Only in case of vitriol peats is so much sulphur present, that it is recognizable by the suffocating fumes of sulphuric acid or of sulphurous acid, which escape in the burning. When peat is to be employed for iron manufacture, or under steam boilers, its phosphorus, and especially its sulphur, should be estimated, as they injure the quality of iron when their quantity exceeds a certain small amount, and have a destructive effect on grate-bars and boilers. For common uses it is unnecessary to regard these substances. 4.--The quantity of _coal_ or _coke_ yielded by peat, is determined by heating a weighed quantity of the peat to redness in an iron retort, or in a large platinum crucible, until gases cease to escape. The neck of the retort is corked, and when the vessel is cool, the coal is removed and weighed. In case a platinum crucible is employed, it should have a tight-fitting cover, and when gases cease to escape, the crucible is quickly cooled by placing it in cold water. Coal, or coke, includes of course the ash of the peat. This, being variable, should be deducted, and the _ash-free coal_ be considered in comparing fuels. 5.--The _density_ of peat-fuel may be ascertained by cutting out a block that will admit of accurate measurement, calculating its cubic contents, and comparing its weight with that of an equal bulk of water. To avoid calculation, the block may be made accurately one or several cubic inches in dimensions and weighed. The cubic inch of water at 60° F., weighs 252-1/2 grains. FOOTNOTES: [10] The apparent specific gravity here means the weight of the mass,--the air-filled cavities and pores included--as compared with an equal bulk of water. The real specific gravity of the _peat itself_ is always greater than that of water, and all kinds of peat will sink in water when they soak long enough, or are otherwise treated so that all air is removed. [11] The "full" cubic foot implies a cubic foot having no cavities or waste space, such as exist in a pile, made up of numerous blocks. If a number of peat blocks be put into a box and shaken together, the empty space between the more or less irregular blocks, may amount to 46 _per cent._ of the whole; and when closely packed, the cavities amount to 30 _per cent._, according to the observations of _Wasserzieher_. (_Dingler's Journal_, Oct., 1864, p. 118.) Some confusion exists in the statements of writers in regard to this matter, and want of attention to it, has led to grave errors in estimating the weight of fuel. [12] The _waste space_ in peat and wood as commonly piled, is probably included here in the statement, and is usually about the same in both; viz.: not far from 40 _per cent._ [13] See note on the preceding page. [14] _Der Torf, etc._, S. 43. [15] See page 00. [16] On account of the great convenience of the decimal weights and measures, and their nearly universal recognition by scientific men, we have adopted them here. The gramme = 15 grains; 5 degrees centigrade = 9 degrees Fahrenheit. [17] Pliny, Hist. Nat. (Lib. XVI, 1) expresses his pity for the "miserable people" living in East Friesland and vicinity in his day, who "dug out with the hands a moor earth, which, dried more by wind than sun, they used for preparing their food and warming their bodies:" _captum manibus lutum ventis magis quam sole siccantis, terra cibos et rigentia septembrione viscera sua urunt_. As regards the "_misera gens_," it should be said that rich grain fields and numerous flourishing villages have occupied for several centuries large portions of the Duevel moor near Bremen. [18] For further account and plans of this machine see Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 176, S. 336. [19] Described and figured in Bulletin de la Societe d'Encouragement, August 1857, p. 513; also Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 146, S. 252. [20] Berg- und Huettenmænnische Zeitung, 1859, Nr. 26. [21] Henneberg's Journal fuer Landwirthschaft, 1858, S. 42. [22] Henneberg's Journal fuer Landwirthschaft, 1858, p.p. 42 and 83. [23] Dingler's Journal, Oct., 1864. [24] Dingler's Polytechnisches Journal, Bd. 152, S. 272. See also, Knapp, Lehrbuch der Chemischen Technologie, 3te Auflage, 1., 167. [25] Der Torf; seine Bildung und Bereitungsweise, von Rudolph Gysser, Weimar, 1864. [26] Dingler's Journal, Bd. 165, S. 184.; und Bd. 172, S, 333. [27] Scientific American, Feb. 10, 1866; also, Facts about Peat as Fuel, by T. H. Leavitt, 2d Ed., Boston, p. 23. [28] Dingler's Journal, Bd. 168, S. 306, und Bd. 172, S. 332. [29] Described in Journal of the Society of Arts, 1860, p. 437. [30] Bernemann & Kerl's Berg und Huettenmænnische Zeitung, 1862, 221. +-------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Typographical errors corrected in text: | | | | Page 6 Robert's changed to Roberts' | | Page 24 Jaeckel changed to Jæckel | | Page 47 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | | Page 49 connexion changed to connection | | Page 51 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | | Page 53 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | | Page 53 Russel changed to Russell | | Page 62 subtances changed to substances | | Page 67 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | | Page 89 5 changed to 4 | | Page 89 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | | Page 90 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | | Page 91 Poquonnock changed to Poquonock | | Page 116 artifical changed to artificial | | Page 127 developes changed to develops | | Page 149 Kneeding changed to Kneading | | Page 165 The symbol looks like a D | | lying on its back. | | | +-------------------------------------------+ 
27066	----	MAKING A LAWN _THE HOUSE & GARDEN MAKING BOOKS_ It is the intention of the publishers to make this series of little volumes, of which _Making a Lawn_ is one, a complete library of authoritative and well illustrated handbooks dealing with the activities of the home-maker and amateur gardener. Text, pictures and diagrams will, in each respective book, aim to make perfectly clear the possibility of having, and the means of having, some of the more important features of a modern country or suburban home. Among the titles already issued or planned for early publication are the following: _Making a Rose Garden_; _Making a Tennis Court_; _Making a Garden Bloom This Year_; _Making a Fireplace_; _Making Roads and Paths_; _Making a Poultry House_; _Making a Hotbed and Coldframe_; _Making Built-in Bookcases, Shelves and Seats_; _Making a Rock Garden_; _Making a Water Garden_; _Making a Perennial Border_; _Making a Shrubbery Group_; _Making a Naturalized Bulb Garden_; with others to be announced later. [Illustration: Lawn is probably the most important element in the setting for most country houses, yet all too frequently it is expected to make and take care of itself] MAKING A · LAWN · _By_ LUKE J. DOOGUE SUPERINTENDENT OF BOSTON PUBLIC GROUNDS DEPARTMENT [Decoration] NEW YORK McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY 1912 Copyright, 1912, by McBRIDE, NAST & CO. Published March, 1912 CONTENTS PAGE The Small Lawn, Old and New 1 The Treatment of Large Areas 8 Grass Seed 13 Sowing the Seed 24 Sodding 28 Good Loam and Fertilizers 31 Lawn-mower, Roller, and Hose 37 Weeds and Other Pests 46 THE ILLUSTRATIONS The Lawn is an Important Element in the Setting for a Country Place _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE A Path of Stepping-stones To Save Labor in Mowing 4 A Successful Covering of a Steeply Sloping Bank 14 Golf Course and Putting-green 20 The Result of a Cheap, Ready-made Mixture of Grass Seed 28 One of the Most Difficult Places To Make a Lawn--Under Large Shade Trees 34 The Necessity for an Occasional Cleaning of the Lawn-mower 40 The Only Sure Way To Eradicate Weeds 48 MAKING A LAWN Making a Lawn THE SMALL LAWN, OLD AND NEW To the thousands of anxious inquirers, seeking solution of lawn difficulties, it would be more than delightful to say that a fine lawn could be had by very hard wishing, but honesty compels one to change the words "hard wishing" to "hard work," in order to keep strictly within the truth. A well-made lawn is a testimonial to a hustler, whether the area is small or large. The majority of inquiries about lawn needs come from people having small places, from a few hundred to a few thousand feet, and the symptoms described can be divided into two classes: one where they want to make grass grow where it has never grown before, and the other where the call is for information to assist in restoring old lawns that have petered out. Let us take up the last condition first. Where grass has grown for some years it is conclusive evidence that there must be soil beneath, which, perhaps because of neglect, has ceased to supply the nourishment necessary to maintain the vigor of the sod growing upon it. As a consequence, weeds gradually creep in and finally crowd out every blade of grass. A condition like this is easily remedied and an improvement brought about in short order and at very small expense. In the first place make a general clearing up of the weeds and do it as thoroughly as possible. Take them out with a strong knife, cutting deep into the ground. An asparagus knife is the best for this purpose. If the place under treatment were to be spaded up, this weed-cleaning with the knife would not be necessary, but the object in this instance is to disturb the soil as little as possible. With the weeds out of the way, go over the whole place with a sharp rake and scratch the earth to the depth of half an inch. In doing this remember to be not too severe on spots where there is any grass growing, applying the rake lightly here. After the raking, sow grass seed thickly and evenly, raking it in, and finish by watering and rolling. Be sure to roll heavily, water regularly, and good results will surely come. This, in brief, is the most practical way to treat the conditions described. If, however, you should find that the ground shows patches of moss and sorrel, the treatment just suggested will not apply. The land is probably sour, and should be plowed up, limed, and allowed to lay rough all winter. Use about a bushel and a half of air-slaked lime to every thousand square feet. When the object is to make a lawn where there never has been one, the plow or the spade is the most effective weapon. It must be kept in mind that grass on a lawn is a great feeder, and no soil can be made too rich to supply its food requirements. A lawn is a permanent planting, not something that is to last merely for a season. [Illustration: Here is an interesting and ingenious scheme of getting a path over the lawn without increasing the labor of cutting. The stepping-stones are set flush with the ground] Start this work of preparation for a new lawn in the fall. Spade the land to the depth of two feet, or, better still, run a plow through it, if the size of the place warrants. Work in plenty of well-rotted manure, and during the winter the frost and snow will greatly improve conditions, killing the weeds, and mellowing the soil as nothing else can. In the spring, harrow and cross-harrow the plot, smooth out the surface, rake fine, and sow your seed. If, however, the soil is gravelly, there is no use trying to doctor it up with the expectation of getting good results. As has been said, you need a good loam in which to grow grass, so that if it is not good you must dig out what is there to the depth of two feet and replace it with suitable soil. There is no short-cut for reaching results with the aid of fertilizers, for all the chemicals in the land will amount to but little if the soil conditions are not proper to receive them. It is simply a question of supplying the material to get results. A NEW WAY TO RENOVATE A SMALL LAWN On a small place where the necessity for radical treatment is apparent, yet where it is not advisable to upset the premises at that particular time, results can be reached in a way that will be effectual. Take a round stick about an inch in diameter and three feet long, and sharpen one end of it. At frequent intervals about the grounds drive the stick to the depth of about two feet. Make many such holes, and into these ram a mixture of finely powdered manure, hardwood ashes, and bone meal. Cover the holes with loam, and on the top of each put a piece of sod and beat it down with the back of a spade. In a short time the good effects of this treatment will manifest themselves, and during the subsequent season the treatment can be extended to the parts not touched before. It practically means that the land will be as thoroughly renovated as if it had been plowed and harrowed. This is no fanciful idea, for the operation justifies results whenever tried. It is advisable to water liberally and regularly for some time. Of course this applies particularly to very small places, and nothing will be gained by treating large areas this way. Shrubs and trees are greatly benefited by this method of administering nourishment, and where old plants have grown for a long time and are seemingly stunted, this feeding will stimulate them to immediate growth. THE TREATMENT OF LARGE AREAS While it is a very simple matter to shape up a small grass plot, renovating it as to soil and all that is necessary to lay the foundation of a successful lawn, it becomes another matter when large areas are in question. Here it requires taste, experience, and familiarity with prevailing conditions to enable one successfully to get out of the problem all that there is in it. If we have not had the necessary experience, it would not be safe to venture upon doing the work without expert advice. Developing a large area means the making of a picture that, year in and year out, is to be before our eyes, and unless there is a most harmonious relation of all accessories--trees, contours, vistas, roads, and so on--there is sure to come a time of wearying monotony, caused by a realization of the fact that we had not been quite equal, through our lack of experience, to develop the place as it might have been developed. A piece of ground in the rough must first be shaped up by draining, removing trees or stones, planning roads and such things, before the smoothing process can be attempted, and it is in this roughing-out process where the future landscape picture is either made or destroyed. Here is where the professional landscape man can save you many dollars and much disappointment. I have seen so many sad results in cases of land development where too much confidence has been the stumbling-block on the road to success, that I feel justified in harping on the necessity of asking advice from those who are competent to give it. SAVING TREES Great consideration should be given to the matter of saving trees, whether these are large or small. Small trees can be handled like so much merchandise, and successfully moved from place to place. It is preferable to move these in winter. Dig about them so that there will be a ball of earth large enough to keep intact; then it is necessary merely to allow this ball to freeze up hard before tilting it onto a stone drag, shifting it and its fellows to positions that will most benefit the landscape. Large trees can be moved, but at considerable expense, and such work should be left to the professionals. They have the facilities and from experience the knowledge and knack of it, and this means much for success. Some companies will even give a bond to guarantee their work. Trees about which the grade is to be raised should be protected, so that the soil will not come within some distance of the trunk. A rough piling of stones about the tree, or a circle of drain pipe about it will give the needed protection. Trees play such a vital part in the adornment of a piece of land, whether large or small, that none that is needed should be sacrificed until every effort to save it has failed. DRAINING LAND Where the soil is soggy and retains too much moisture, this condition must be remedied before attempting to make it into a lawn. The remedy is found by draining, and this is done by digging ditches or laying tiles under ground at varying distances apart, all tending towards the lowest part of the land, to which the water must be induced to flow. The number of drains is to be determined by existing conditions. Land that could not be used before will, after a system of drainage has been installed, be so benefited that most anything can be grown upon it. Lawns made on such land are always luxuriant and resist the effect of drought even of long duration, drawing upon the supply of water that extends deep down below the surface. GRASS SEED So much has been written on the subject of lawn-making that about every one interested in this work is fully competent, theoretically at least, to carry through the process of land renovation and preparation, whether it be for a small lawn or an area consisting of acres. The subject along these lines has been exhaustively treated, but, strange to say, the equally important subject of grass seed has been rather neglected. While many amateurs can talk freely on the preparation of the land, they are not so confident when treating of grass seed. It seems strange that this is the case when so much depends on the suitability of the grass seed to the land for the making of a successful lawn. The only reason, as far as I can see, why people are not versed in this matter is that they have been frightened by the botanical names of grasses, which seem wholly unsuitable and too difficult of pronunciation for such commonplace things. There is, however, just as much individuality in a plant produced from a grass seed as in the choicest plant in a greenhouse. One kind of grass seed will produce a low-growing plant while another grows high; one wants a moist situation, another a dry one; some will germinate in the shade, others will not, and so on through the list. If a person knows each kind and its possibilities and requirements, he will be able to choose the grass best suited for his wants, and by careful trials arrange the mixtures with better success than the man in the wholesale house who is obliged to guess at what is best for his wants. Start out, then, in the primer class and tabulate some of the best grasses used for lawns, and tag them with both their names, the botanical and the common ones. [Illustration: For sloping banks and terracing, a mixture of Kentucky Blue, Rhode Island Bent, Creeping Bent, Sheep Fescue and White Clover, in the proportions given, will probably answer] Kentucky Blue Grass--_Poa pratensis_. Fine for lawns; grows slowly but vigorously almost everywhere but on an acid soil. Red Top--_Agrostis vulgaris_. Shows results more quickly than Blue Grass; will thrive on a sandy soil; fine in combination with Blue Grass. English Rye Grass--_Lolium perenne_. Grows quickly and shows almost immediate results; good to combine with the slow-growing Blue Grass. Various-leaved Fescue--_Festuca heterophylla_. Good for shady and moist places. Rhode Island Bent--_Agrostis canina_. Has a creeping habit; good for putting-greens, sandy soils. Creeping Bent--_Agrostis stolonifera_. Creeping habit; good for sandy places and to bind banks or sloping places. Combined with Rhode Island Bent for putting-greens. Crested Dog's-tail--_Cynosurus cristatus_. Forms a low and compact sward; good for slopes and shady places. Wood Meadow Grass--_Poa nemoralis_. Good for shady places; is very hardy. Red Fescue--_Festuca rubra_. Thrives on poor soils and gravelly banks. White Clover--_Trifolium repens_. Good for slopes; not to be recommended for a lawn. Sheep Fescue--_Festuca ovina_. Good for light, dry soils. Now, with so much as a reference library, you will have sufficient knowledge of the kinds of seeds to draw from to make combinations that will fit any situation. I would further suggest that you go to a wholesale house and get a sample of each of these seeds and examine them. Get just a little of each in an envelope. Make a comparative examination of the seeds, holding a little in the palm of the hand. As you look at each seed repeat its name a few times and recall its characteristics, and you will be surprised to find that on the second or third trial every name will suggest itself the moment your eyes rest on the seed. With a knowledge of the seeds you can then go to your dealer and tell him what you want--not necessarily what he thinks you want. You are then a better judge than he is. It is worth while following the subject farther, for the results will more than repay the trouble. Test the seeds. Make shallow boxes and fill them with loam, and sow each kind of seed just as you would on a lawn. Put a label at the head of the box and on it the time of sowing the seed. Do this with as many as you can. Then watch and make notes of the time it takes for germination. Note also the character of the blades. Having finished this you will have a very liberal education in the subject of grass. Should you not care to do as suggested above, you will be dependent on others to get what you most need. If you should go to a dozen people and ask them to suggest a combination of seeds, they would all give them readily to you, but no two proportions would be alike. If you should ask for a single grass, the majority would suggest Kentucky Blue Grass. For a single grass there is nothing better suited for all conditions. There is this objection to it, however: it is not a nervous man's grass. You cannot plant it to-day and have a lawn next month. If you can afford to wait, sow Kentucky Blue and your patience will be well rewarded. It makes a permanent lawn. To introduce the ready-made lawn, use a combination of Kentucky Blue, Red Top, and English Rye. The Blue Grass is slow, but the Rye and Red Top produce speedier results. The first month will see the newly seeded space a carpet of green. In time the Rye passes, the Red Top continues to cover, while the Blue Grass grows sturdier each day until it crowds everything out by virtue of its own strength. Use 12 lbs. of Kentucky Blue Grass, 5 lbs. of Red Top and 3 lbs. of English Rye Grass to the bushel, and sow 3½ to 4 bushels to the acre. This makes a reliable combination. It is common to hear people asking for grass that will grow in shady places, but it is always difficult to determine the degree of shade. A place may be shaded and yet suitable for growing grass, or it may be so shaded that no grass known could be made to germinate there. In places where there is no heavy dripping and where the ground is not absolutely dark, use the following: Kentucky Blue Grass, Wood Meadow Grass, Various-leaved Fescue, and Crested Dog's-tail. Use 35 per cent. of the first two and 15 per cent. of the last two. For conditions that require a quick-growing grass, and something that will bind and make a holding upon slopes under difficult conditions, the following is recommended: Kentucky Blue Grass, 30 per cent.; R. I. Bent, 30 per cent.; Creeping Bent, 25 per cent.; Sheep Fescue, 10 per cent., and White Clover, 5 per cent. This is one of the places where White Clover is an essential. Under these conditions it fulfils its mission perfectly. While all the named kinds may not flourish, there will be enough to make the work successful. [Illustration: The turf on a putting-green or tennis court must be dense and low, as well as tough. Rhode Island Bent and Creeping Bent in combination are frequently used on a sandy soil to stunt the growth] The turf on a putting-green must be dense and low, and tough enough to stand a lot of rough usage. A combination of Rhode Island Bent and Creeping Bent is about the best thing for this purpose. To check up, just refer back to your schedule and see what it says regarding the qualities of these grasses. The soil on a putting-green should be of a sandy nature. This keeps the grass stunted through lack of much food, and consequently better fits it for its purpose. Never buy grass seed by the bushel. Buy it by weight, or stipulate that there shall be so many pounds to the bushel. It will cost you a high price, but it will be far cheaper in the end than to buy something inexpensive that has more than a third of sweepings and useless bulk. You certainly lose nothing by buying the very best seed that your dealer can offer you. Do not be ashamed to ask for samples before buying, and also get samples from a number of places and compare the different seeds. Spread them out in your hand and see if they are clean and without chaff. A seed with a large proportion of dust and chaff is not worth buying. It should be your consideration to see whether you are getting what you pay for. If you show evidences of knowing the proper seeds you will receive a most respectful hearing from the tradesman. Do not balk at the price of re-cleaned seed. It means that you are going to get something for your money. It is worth much more than the seed sold in bulk that is not re-cleaned. SOWING THE SEED The nearest thing, by way of comparison, to a lawn is a bed of plants that you set out in your garden every spring. When you think it is planting time you go to this bed with spade or fork and turn the earth up from the deep bottom, putting in plenty of well-rotted manure, thus ministering to the soil according to its needs. Then you set out the plants, and if weeds grow up you dig them out, after which you water the spot intelligently. For this labor your reward comes to you in the shape of an abundance of bloom and foliage. Just as truly is a lawn a bed of plants needing an equal amount of treatment. Grass is nothing but a collection of thousands of little plants crowded together, which must have nourishment, and from which the weeds must be taken. Likewise the soil must be given water as it is needed and the earth must be made mellow for the roots, to a good depth. It makes no difference how much you pay for your grass seed, how good or bad it is, or what kind of fertilizers you use, if the bed is not properly prepared in the first place. Without this fundamental preparation, grass plants will not grow, or if they do, will not thrive. It is quite a trick to sow grass seed evenly so that it will germinate without giving the plot a spotty effect. It should be spread at the rate of about three bushels to the acre, and this sowing can be successfully done only on a quiet day. Even a very light wind is liable to pile up your seed on your neighbor's lot or on your own in places not wanted. Keep the seed in a pail while sowing, and, after taking a handful, bend close to the soil and let the seed feed through the fingers as the arm swings back and forth in a semicircle. This is very much easier to say than to do, but a little experience will make one quite proficient. To help still more, sow the seed two ways, one at right angles to the other. After sowing, rake lightly and then finish the work by putting a heavy roller over it. While thick sowing has the advantage of discouraging a growth of weeds, there is a limit that cannot be safely passed. Seed too thickly sown will mat and damp out, leaving great patches on the lawn. Do not exceed the quantity suggested above. Spring sowing should be done just as soon as the frost is out of the ground. This early sowing gives the young grass a chance to establish itself before the severe summer heat comes on. Careful watering is necessary, with a fine spray, and if regularly done will induce rapid germination. In watering do not wash out the seed by too heavy a stream. SODDING Like seeding, sodding should be done in the early spring or fall to get the best results. Oftentimes it is necessary to do the work in midsummer and this, while not advisable, can be successfully accomplished if the sods are laid soon after they are cut and then copiously watered every day until all danger of drying out has passed. In butting the sods together, use a wooden mallet, and pound the sod into close contact with the loam beneath, flattening all joints so that the growth will be uniform. [Illustration: The inevitable result of sowing a cheap, ready-made mixture of grass seed. It is worth while studying the qualities of the various elements and making your own mixture] On large seeded areas outline these with a border of sods, which gives a well-defined edge and trim appearance to the work. If you should know of a place where there is a particularly fine growth of grass, it would be a paying proposition to buy sufficient sods from it to answer your needs. Sods, cut and delivered, will cost about eight cents per square foot. This price may be shaded somewhat if the sods are bought in bulk and the cutting and carting is done by yourself. Under any circumstances the work will be expensive. On banks and terraces it is preferable to use sods rather than seeding. The sods can be held in place with wooden pegs driven through them seven or eight inches into the bank. Over this work scatter some seed and give a light dressing of loam; then pound the whole to an even surface. When the bank is too steep to hold the sods pegged in this way, they should be piled upon each other horizontally, so that the ends will form the surface of the bank. This effects the double purpose of creating a permanent sward and also a depth of ten inches of loam upon which it can feed. GOOD LOAM AND FERTILIZERS Loam is scarce; that is, _good_ loam is scarce. To help make up the deficiency, every one should form a compost heap, and into it pile leaves, lawn rakings, pieces of sod, and all such matter, all of which will be reduced in time by decomposition to the much-desired humus. A small quantity of this humus, mixed with fairly good loam, will make good loam of it all, and suitable for sustaining plant life. In the fall, when the leaves are falling from the trees, it is a good idea to gather up from the gutters the accumulated leaves and put them in the compost heap. There may be a little expense and trouble to it, but there is no question as to the fact that you will be fully repaid when you find the necessity for some real loam. Near cities loam of very inferior quality will cost at least $2 per cubic yard, and if one has a quantity of leaf-mould, made as suggested, and will mix it with this loam, a very desirable quality can be produced. The leaf-mould is the life of the soil and absolutely essential to satisfactory results. SPRING TOP-DRESSING A lawn that has been properly made will not suffer if it is not given a yearly dressing, for it will have sufficient food supply in the ground to keep it going for years. Strange as it may seem, many good lawns have been ruined by being given a heavy application of manure year after year. When a top-dressing is necessary on soil that is good, Canada hardwood ashes and bone meal will supply all the nourishment that is necessary. Spread the ashes thickly on the lawn until they show white on the grass, and do the work preferably before a rain, so that the nourishment may be washed into the soil. The Canada hardwood ashes, as usually found in the market, contain from one to five per cent. of potash, but to get the results you are looking for, the ashes should contain from seven to nine per cent. of potash. In purchasing this fertilizer in large quantities demand a guaranteed analysis, otherwise you are liable to get something little better than what you take out of your stove, and wholly useless for lawn purposes. There are good ashes on the market and they can be had if one goes after them vigorously enough and gives some indication of a knowledge of what good ashes are. When it is not possible to get what you are looking for, I would recommend mixing muriate of potash with finely sifted loam, and spreading it broadcast over the grass. This treatment is always efficacious, as you are absolutely sure of getting what is necessary for the land. MANURE TOP-DRESSING Many prefer to use a top-dressing of manure, regardless of conditions. It is sure to bring more or less weeds. If you decide to use it, however, get the thoroughly decomposed kind, as this means a minimum of weeds. I do not want to create the impression that I am trying to belittle the fertilizing value of manure. I believe in having a liberal quantity of it incorporated with the soil when the lawn is made, and I also believe that on such a soil Canada ashes and bone meal are very much more suitable to keep it up to pitch than is a top-dressing of manure. [Illustration: One of the most difficult places in which to make a lawn is under large shade trees. A combination of Kentucky Blue, Wood Meadow, Various-leaved Fescue and Crested Dog's-tail is usually successful] When manure is used for a top-dressing, do not get it on too thick, and do not leave it too long on the grass in the spring. Nothing is to be gained by either of these mistakes and much killing out is apt to result. There was a time, some years ago, when it was possible to buy sheep manure that was worth something, but at the present time it is sold in powder form, and invites a strong suspicion of adulteration and of containing very much more than what is being paid for. If it is possible for you to get good sheep manure, use that by all means. It is efficient, cleanly, and produces very few weeds. It is best used at the rate of about a ton to the acre. Nitrate of soda is a very vigorous stimulant and produces quick results. It is economical, requiring but small quantities to cover large areas. Spread broadcast, about 175 lbs. to the acre; or, dissolved, 3 lbs. to every 100 gals. of water. The dry application should be made always before a rainstorm, otherwise much burning is apt to result to the grass. For an occasional application it is all right to use this, but for year-in-and-year-out fertilizer, it should be alternated with other things. LAWN-MOWER, ROLLER, AND HOSE After you have your ground made, your seed sown and germinated, your trouble is not all over, for it is a critical period through which to carry the tender grass to a hardy condition. Young grass should not be cut before it is three inches high, and this means that a scythe should be used in preference to a lawn-mower, as it is difficult to get the blades high enough to allow this length. In cutting for the first time, try to do it on a cloudy day, as this will prevent any possibility of scorching or burning. After a few weeks the grass will have so toughened that it will be benefited by frequent cuttings--even twice a week. The roller should be used after every cutting, and although it may seemingly be working injury by crushing down the tender grass, it is in reality making sure a solid and compact sod. In the middle of the summer when the weather is very hot, be careful not to crop too close, as the roots are liable to be killed out by the sun. When cutting your grass you will find it a great saving to have some sort of a grass-catcher on your lawn-mower. One can be made easily, but very handy ones are sold at a small price. They prevent the wear and tear to a lawn that results from the hard raking necessary when not used. There is a good grass-catcher that fits into the back of all machines; it is very effective and costs about fifty cents. It so effectively catches all the grass that comes from the machine that little raking is afterwards necessary. If you prefer the rake it is best to use a wooden one, as iron teeth do great damage to a heavy sod. Where the grass is cut frequently the clippings may safely be left on the ground, but heavy grass should be always gathered up. THE LAWN-MOWER There are hundreds of makes of lawn-mowers on the market, but of these very few will stand the test of a season's hard usage. These few will be found to be the standard makes of good design, and costing a seemingly high price. When you can get a lawn-mower with a pound of tea you may be sure that it is time to be suspicious, regardless of the pretty paint and ornamentation that makes it a symphony of colors. A good mower means that your lawn will look well after being cut with it, and it also means that the first seemingly high cost will be all that you will be called upon to expend in years to come. Such a mower is practically indestructible. Once or twice during the season, give it an overhauling. Grass and grit will creep in, and unless it is removed the efficiency of the machine will be greatly reduced. It sounds like automobile parlance to say "Use good oil," but this really applies equally as strongly to a lawn-mower. Cheap oil is expensive in the long run, as it thickens up and clogs the bearings, and makes it impossible for the mower to do its best work. [Illustration: It is surprising what a lot of grass and dirt finds its way into the lawn-mower. Take it apart once a season to clean and oil] This may seem like straining a point to get down to such trivial details, but it is just these little things that go to make up the getting and keeping of a lawn. THE ROLLER Next to having good seed to sow, on properly prepared ground, the great essential in lawn-making is a proper kind of roller to use as occasion requires. Few people realize just how important a part a roller plays in the upkeep of any grass area, but it is no exaggeration to say that without one, successful results will be difficult if not impossible of achievement. Use a roller--a heavy roller--on your lawn early in the spring to repair the damage that the freezing and thawing has caused in the winter. The early rolling levels the surface, packs the earth about the grass roots and makes it possible for them to draw the moisture from deep down in the ground. A roller is to be used often, not once each season. Its consistent use means that you will have fewer weeds, thicker and better colored grass; the disfiguring moles will find the ground too difficult to burrow through, moisture will be retained longer, and a noticeably better condition will be noted throughout the whole lawn. The old-time stone roller was an instrument of torture, and almost wholly unsuited for lawn work as suggested. There are now on the market dozens of ball-bearing rollers that are very easily handled. The adjustable kind, in which there are compartments to hold either sand or water to vary the weight, is the kind that should be purchased. With it you have a roller light enough to use for seeding, or heavy enough for road work, and the prices are not prohibitive. THE HOSE The hose is a subject to which very little attention is given. Paradoxical as it may seem, all rubber hose is not rubber hose, and because of this many lawns suffer from want of water, because the supposedly rubber hose has proved, when most needed, to be a combination of paper and scrap. A first-quality hose will cost from twenty to thirty cents a foot--a frightful price when comparison is made to the bargain price of four cents a foot. The expensive kind will last for years, and even after it begins to show signs of wear it can be used many years longer by proper repairing. The cheap hose bursts once, and its usefulness is at an end, as the first burst is only a preliminary of total dissolution. When a good hose bursts it is best repaired by cutting entirely through it and removing the damaged part, and then joining the ends with a little brass sleeve that is easily inserted into each of the severed ends and which has reversed prongs to prevent its slipping out. This is one of the best ready-made menders on the market, and it prolongs the life of a hose for years. Keep your hose on a reel. Empty it of water before winding up, and never allow it to lie baking in the sun. This latter is a very common fault and is the cause of much good hose being spoiled. Another seemingly trivial yet important thing is to caution against so fastening the hose to the tap that it pulls away from it at right-angles. For ordinary purposes the half-inch size of hose is the best. It costs less in the first place, is more easily handled, and the wear and tear is much less than on the larger sizes. You never see a gardener using any spraying contrivance on the end of a hose. In his thumb and forefinger, which he skillfully moves over the flowing stream, he has a combination of sprayers that can produce the heaviest stream or the finest mist at will. This is to be recommended, but few will care to follow the course of training necessary to acquire the efficiency of the gardener. WEEDS AND OTHER PESTS Even if you paid a thousand dollars a bushel for your grass seed, and then spent as much more on the preparation of your land, you could not, I am sorry to say, escape having weeds. The thing to do when you have them is to get rid of them, and this is accomplished only by getting right after them with a persistence proportionate to the abundance of the weeds. The knife is the only real weapon for this. After digging out your weeds, sow in grass seed with the idea of making the grass grow so thick that there will be no place for the weeds to creep in. Dandelions and plantains are simple matters that can be handled easily, but where Crab Grass shows up, there is certainly work ahead to get the best of it. It is a destroyer of the first rank, a veritable pest. It is an annual that seeds itself each year and kills out under the first frost, leaving great bald spaces in the lawn to show where it has been. Even after it has been killed by the frost its baneful influence is not ended, for it has spread broadcast its seeds for the next year's crop. When you find it, dig it out. It means work and lots of it, but it is the only way to conquer it. Set the blades of the mower low, and after dragging the grass up with a rake, run the machine over it; and this should be done early in the year, before July. There is no weed to equal this as a nuisance. On newly-made lawns the weeds are easily removed, and they should be carefully watched so as not to allow them to get too far ahead. Chickweed is almost as bad as Crab Grass, and when you find the combination, Crab Grass and Chickweed, the simplest solution is to spade or plow the place up in the fall and leave it exposed for the winter. For the broad-leaved varieties of weeds there is a preparation of what is called sand on the market that I have tried with very good success. I sprinkle it on the weeds and within an hour afterwards they have shriveled and turned black. While it doubtless is very efficient in destroying the top growth, I am unable to say that it is at all injurious to the roots, and may, perhaps, even stimulate them to renewed growth the following season. However, my experience with it was a happy one, for just as soon as the weeds died down I sowed in grass seed, which quickly germinated. [Illustration: There is only one sure way of eradicating weeds, and that is by cutting them out with a knife as soon as they appear. Delay in the attack will give them time to bring up heavy reinforcements] WORMS, ANTS, AND MOLES Very often earthworms become very disfiguring on a grass plot. Where there are many present it is an indication that the earth is in poor condition, compacted, and needing humus. An application of strong lime-water will drive many to the surface, where they can be swept up; or a heavy rolling with a 1,500-lb. roller will do much to discourage them. It is surprising how much damage a colony of ants can do on a lawn. They should be looked after the first time they are noticed, for they work rapidly, and the longer neglected the more difficult it is to eradicate them. There are many remedies recommended, but the best one lies in the use of bisulphide of carbon. This is very effective, but it has come into such common use that a word of caution should be given as to its handling. It is very volatile and, when near flame, powerfully explosive, and should be handled with great care. Pour it into the runways of the ants, and then throw over these a mat. The fumes will speedily kill all the ants. A better way, however, is to drive a stick into the ground in several places where the colony is located, and in these holes pour the carbon, afterwards plugging the holes up tightly. Moles are frequently found on lawns, but they are not serious because they can be easily controlled by heavily rolling or by traps made to catch them. Where there is a suspicion of the presence of moles, no time should be lost in getting after them. They sometimes work for a long time before their destructive borings are evident, and then it will take much labor to get ahead of them. Keep the heavy roller going as an excellent preventive. 
27117	----	Wheat That One Man Could Grow and Harvest. Moreover, Tobacco Could Be Shipped More Economically Than Any Other Crop; Thus the Monetary Return Upon a Cargo Was Greater Than for Any Other Crop That Could Be Produced in the Colony. One Other Factor Must Not Be Overlooked. One of the Basic Aims of the English Colonial Policy Was the Development Of Colonial Resources, Which Would at the Same Time Create a Colonial Market for English Manufactures in the Colonies. Tobacco Proved To Be Virginia's Most Valuable Staple, and With Everyone Feverishly Growing the Plant, the Colony Became an Important Colonial Market. Virginia Purchased English Goods Delivered in English Ships With Her Tobacco, England Marketed Much of the Tobacco In Europe and Received Specie Or Goods That Could Be Sold Elsewhere. This Created a Market for English Manufactures, the English Merchant Fleet Profited From the Carrying Trade and There Was No Drain of Specie From England. THE TOBACCO PLANTATION: FROM JAMESTOWN TO THE BLUE RIDGE The cultivation of tobacco soon spread from John Rolfe's garden to every available plot of ground within the fortified districts in Jamestown. By 1617 the value of tobacco was well known in every settlement or plantation in Virginia--Bermuda, Dale's Gift, Henrico, Jamestown, Kecoughtan, and West and Shirley Hundreds--each under a commander. Governor Dale allowed its culture to be gradually extended until it absorbed the whole attention at West and Shirley Hundreds and Jamestown. [Illustration: _TOBACCO at Jamestown--1600's_ Courtesy of Sidney E. King] The first general planting in the colony began at West and Shirley Hundreds where twenty-five men, commanded by a Captain Madison, were employed solely in planting and curing tobacco. In 1616 the tobacco fever struck furiously in Jamestown. The following description indicates the impact of the "fever": there were "but five or six houses, the church downe, the palizado's broken, the bridge in pieces, the well of fresh water spoiled; the storehouse used for the church..., [and] the colony dispersed all about, planting tobacco." The "Noxious weed" was even growing in the streets and in the market place. By 1622 plantations extended at intervals from Point Comfort as far as 140 miles up the James River, and the planters were so absorbed in the cultivation of tobacco that they gave the Indians firearms and employed them to do their hunting. This boldness was shortlived, for the Indian Massacre of 1622 tended to narrow the area under cultivation for that year. Even so, the planters were able to produce 60,000 pounds of tobacco. Within a year after the massacre the settlers once again became very bold and extended cultivated areas even farther than before. Prior to the massacre, the planters had difficulty in clearing the ground of timber; afterwards, they took over the fields cleared by the Indians which were said to be among the best in the colony. Expansion was further facilitated by the "head-right" system, introduced in 1618, which gave fifty acres of land to any person who transported a settler to the colony. For the first twenty years after the landing at Jamestown, the settlers restricted themselves to the valley of the James and to the Accomac Peninsula. For the next thirty years there was a gradual expansion to the north and west along the banks of the James, York, and the Rappahannock rivers and their tributaries. By 1650 the frontiersmen had reached the Potomac. From Jamestown, settlements gradually spread up and down both banks of the James and its tributaries, the Elizabeth, Nansemond, Appomattox, and the Chickahominy. Then came the settlements along the York and its tributaries, the Mattapony and the Pamunkey; and finally, along the banks of the Rappahannock and the Potomac. The expansion into the interior did not take place until the Tidewater area had become fairly well settled. The tidal creeks and rivers afforded a safe and convenient means of communication while the country was thickly forested and infested with unfriendly Indians. By settling on the peninsulas, formed by the tidal creeks and rivers, it was easier to protect the early settlements once the Indians had been driven out. In 1629 there were from 4,000 to 5,000 English settlers, confined almost exclusively to the James River valley and to the Accomac Peninsula, where they cultivated about 2,000 acres of tobacco. By 1635 tobacco had almost disappeared in the immediate vicinity of Jamestown, as many of the planters moved to new land along the south bank of the York River. At this time there were settlements in the following eight counties: Henrico, located on both sides of the James River, between Arrahattock and Shirley Hundred; Charles City, also located on both sides of the James from Shirley Hundred Island to Weyanoke; James City, on both sides of the James from Chippoakes to Lawnes Creek, and from the Chickahominy River on the north side to a point nearly opposite the mouth of Lawnes Creek; Warrasquoke (Isle of Wight), contained the area from the southern limit of James City to the Warrasquoke River; Warwick and Elizabeth City, the rest of the remaining settlements on the James River; Charles River (York), all of the plantations on the south bank of the York River; and finally Accomac. The plantations were still more thickly grouped in James City than in any other county. By the late 1630's, attempts to reduce the amount of tobacco grown in the colony, by limiting the number of plants each person could plant, had caused many planters to leave their plantations in search of virgin soil in which more tobacco per plant could be grown. They frequently built temporary dwellings, as they expected to move on as soon as the land under cultivation showed signs of exhaustion. In 1648 planters in large numbers sought permission from Governor Berkeley and the Council to move across the York River, to take up the virgin and unclaimed land. Spreading north the frontiersmen had reached the Rappahannock and the Potomac by 1650, and settlers began moving into Lancaster County. In 1653 the first settlers established themselves in what is now King William County. Just before the end of the seventeenth century the tobacco industry had expanded into the lowlands all along the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers below the Fall Line. In 1689 the York River area produced the largest quantity of tobacco, the Rappahannock River area was second, the Upper James third, and the Accomac Peninsula last. While the production of tobacco continued to expand north and west, it made little headway in the sandy counties of Princess Anne and Norfolk. All during the seventeenth century expansion tended to extend in a northerly direction within the Tidewater region, but in the eighteenth century the movement was to the west in search of virgin soil. Planters began moving beyond the Fall Line soon after the turn of the century. Robert Carter of Nomini Hall patented over 900 acres of land above the Falls in 1707. It is generally agreed that the commercial production of tobacco began to expand beyond the Fall Line about 1720. In 1723 a traveler, who had just visited above the Falls, mentioned seeing many fields of tobacco. In the following year Robert Carter had hundreds of additional acres surveyed, in what is now Prince William County, as he extended his holdings above the Fall Line. The tobacco industry seems to have been fairly well established as far west as Spotsylvania, Hanover, and Goochland counties as early as 1730. In the year 1740 Elias and William Edmunds were among the first settlers in Fauquier County. They settled near what is now Warrenton and began producing tobacco of excellent quality, which soon came to be known as "Edmonium Tobacco." Ten years later large quantities were being produced in Albemarle (including present Nelson and Amherst counties), Cumberland, Augusta, and Culpeper counties. During the six-year period 1750-1755, tobacco production appears to have been centered equally in three areas: the Upper James River district, the York River district, and the Rappahannock River district. Each of the three districts exported about 83,000 hogsheads of tobacco, while the Lower James River district exported only about 10,000. Just prior to the American Revolution the tobacco industry began to expand rapidly south of the James River, especially to the south and west of Petersburg. One observer declared in 1769 that the Petersburg warehouses contained more tobacco than all the rest of the warehouses on the James or the York River. It was estimated that 20,000 hogsheads were being produced annually in that region alone. A considerable amount of tobacco was also being grown in the lower region of the Valley of Virginia. As the tobacco industry continued to expand into Piedmont Virginia, there was a gradual decline in the Tidewater area. The increase in population naturally caused a continual expansion of the tobacco industry from its meager beginnings at Jamestown, but this was not the major cause. The primary cause was the wasteful cultivation methods practiced by the planters. To obtain the greatest yield from his land the planter raised three or four consecutive crops of tobacco in one field, then moved on to virgin fields. This practice was begun on a relatively large scale as early as 1632 when a planting restriction of 1,500 plants per person was enacted, causing many planters to leave their estates in search of better land in an effort to increase the quality of their tobacco. As cheap virgin soil became scarce, planters left their lands in Tidewater to take up fresh acreage in the Piedmont, or they stayed at home and grew grain, some corn but mostly wheat. We can only generalize as to when and how extensive this substitution of wheat for tobacco may have been. There are those who believe that a permanent shift away from tobacco began as early as 1720 on the Eastern Shore of Virginia, while others state that it did not start until about ten years later. As early as 1759 all of the best lands in Virginia were reported to have been taken, and by the time of the Revolution the supply was said to have been completely exhausted. In 1771 there were rumors that at least one hundred of the principal Virginia planters had given up the tobacco culture entirely and converted their plantations to something more profitable. However, it is generally agreed that tobacco was not abandoned extensively in Tidewater before the Revolution. The first appreciable decline came during the Revolution and this trend continued until the tobacco was almost completely abandoned in Tidewater in the nineteenth century. The rise in demand for foodstuffs during the war caused planters to shift from tobacco in increasing numbers. Many of them only reduced their tobacco crop at first, but later abandoned it completely. After the Revolution wheat was substituted for tobacco quite extensively, but owing to the expansion into the Piedmont, Virginia's post-war tobacco production soon equalled that of the prewar years. Tobacco was still grown in Tidewater Virginia and some beyond the western boundary of the Piedmont, but by this time Tidewater had ceased to be the "tobacco country" of previous years. The production of tobacco continued to increase in the Piedmont and decrease in Tidewater, and Piedmont Virginia became more firmly established as Virginia's tobacco belt. This change was due partly to the fact that the virgin and fertile soils of the West kept tobacco prices so low that it could not be profitably produced on the manured worn out soils in the East. Tidewater was becoming full of old tobacco fields covered with young pine trees and the industry became concentrated largely in middle and southern Virginia. By 1800 Piedmont Virginia had definitely become the major tobacco producing area. [Illustration: Old Tobacco Warehouse, built 1680 at Urbanna, Virginia Courtesy of Mrs. H. I. Worthington] [Illustration: The mild species of tobacco which Rolfe imported from the West Indies. The harsh species of tobacco which Rolfe found the Indians cultivating. Courtesy of George Arents, and Virginia State Library] Expansion and new developments over a period of years brought about a fantastic increase in tobacco production. When its production was confined to the Tidewater area, Virginia produced about 40,000,000 pounds annually; by 1800 this amount had doubled. Virginia remained the leading producer of tobacco in the United States until the War Between the States, when she was replaced by Kentucky, owing to the devastating effects of the war in the Old Dominion. In the South the nature of the crop usually determines the number of acres that one person can cultivate successfully. Only a small number of acres of tobacco can be cultivated properly owing to its high value of yield per acre and the careful supervision required. The production of tobacco per acre does not appear to have changed very much in the long period from about 1650 to 1800, when 1,000 pounds per acre was considered a good yield. However, the amount that one man could produce increased during this period as the planters became more experienced and the plow and other implements came to be used more extensively. It has been estimated that in 1624 one man could properly cultivate and harvest only about one-half of an acre of tobacco, or about 400 pounds. At the beginning of the eighteenth century the average product of one man was from 1,500 to 2,000 pounds or in terms of acreage, from one and a half to two acres, plus six or seven barrels of corn. Around 1775 one man produced from 2,000 to 2,500 pounds of tobacco besides provisions. Thus it appears that during most of the Colonial period one man could cultivate one and a half to two acres of tobacco, plus provisions; but by the end of this period he had increased the productiveness of his own labor. MANAGEMENT OF THE CROP Cultivation practices during the early years at Jamestown appear to have been a combination of those used by the Indians and those of the farmers in England; modifications and new techniques were developed as the settlers became experienced planters. The early Jamestown settlers followed the Indian custom of planting the tobacco seed in hills as they did corn, although some probably followed the practice as described by Stevens and Liebault's _Maison Rustique_ or _The Country Farm_, published in London in 1606: For to sow it, you must make a hole in the earth with your finger and that as deep as your finger is long, then you must cast into the same hole ten or twelve seeds of the said Nicotiana together, and fill up the hole again: for it is so small, as that if you should put in but four or five seeds the earth would choake it: and if the time be dry, you must water the place easily some five days after: And when the herb is grown out of the earth, inasmuch as every seed will have put up his sprout and stalk, and that the small thready roots are entangled the one within the other, you must with a great knife make a composs within the earth in the places about this plot where they grow and take up the earth and all together, and cast them into a bucket full of water, to the end that the earth may be separated, and the small and tender impes swim about the water; and so you shall sunder them one after another without breaking them. This was perhaps the forerunner of the tobacco plantbed, as it appears from the above description that a half dozen or so plants were taken from each hill sown and transplanted nearby. Just when the planters stopped planting tobacco like corn is not known. Thomas Glover's _Account of Virginia_, written in 1671, is perhaps the first written account which mentions sowing the seeds in beds. He wrote, "In the Twelve-daies [before Christmas?] they begin to sow their seed in the beds of fine Mould..." A somewhat more detailed account was written in 1688 by John Clayton, an English clergyman visiting in Virginia. He relates that before the seeds were sown the planters tested the seed by throwing a few into the fire; if they sparkled like gunpowder, they were declared to be good. The ground was chopped fine and the seeds, mixed with ashes, were sown around the middle of January. To protect the young plants, the seedbed was usually covered with oak leaves, though straw was used occasionally. Straw was thought to harbor and breed a fly that destroyed the young plants, and if straw was used, it was first smoked with brimstone to kill this fly. Oak boughs were then placed on top of the leaves or straw and left there until the frosts were gone, at which time they were removed so that the young tender plants were exposed to allow them to grow strong and large enough to be transplanted. Post-Revolutionary plantbed practices were essentially those of the early colonial planters, with slight modifications as they became more experienced. In choosing plantbed sites, a sunny southern or southeastern exposure on a virgin slope near a stream was preferred. This enabled the planter to water his plantbed in case of a drought. The practice of burning the plantbeds over with piles of brush and logs prior to seeding was no doubt a seventeenth century custom, but the first available record was found in an account written during the Revolution. To clear land for cultivation, the settlers felled the trees about a yard from the ground to prevent the stump from sprouting and to cause the stump to decay sooner. Some of the wood was burnt or carried off and the rest was left on the field to rot. The area between the stumps and logs was then broken up with the hoe. In their ardent quest for more cleared land, the planters frequently cultivated old Indian fields, which the Indian had abandoned for one reason or another. Such land was always found to be of the best soil. Clayton stated that after the land was chopped fine, hills to set every plant in were raised to "about the bigness of a common Mole-hill...." A later account by William Tatham, relates that the hills were made by drawing a round heap of earth about knee high around the leg of the worker, the foot was then withdrawn and the top of the hill was flattened with the back of the hoe. In 1628 the hills were made at a distance of four and one-half feet, the distance was reduced to four feet by 1671, and by 1700, three feet became and remained the usual distance. The plants were considered large enough to be transplanted when they had grown to be about the "Breadth of a Shilling," usually around the first or second week in May. The earlier in May the better, so that the crop would mature in time to harvest before the frosts came. Planters usually waited for a rain or "season" to begin transplanting. One person with a container (usually a basket) of plants dropped a plant near each hill; another followed, made a hole in the center of each hill with his fingers, inserted the roots and pressed the earth around the roots with his hands. Several "seasons" and several drawings from the plantbeds were usually required before the entire crop was planted, which was frequently not until sometime in July. The tobacco was hoed for the first time about eight to ten days after planting, or to use a common expression, when the plants had "taken root." The tobacco was usually hoed once each week or as often as was deemed necessary to keep the soil "loose" and the weeds down. When the plants were about knee high they were "hilled up," as the Indian had done his corn, or the Englishman his cabbage, and considered "laid by." Frequently some of the plants died or were cut off by an earthworm; these vacant hills were usually replanted during the month of June, except when prohibited by law. This restriction was an attempt to reduce the amount of inferior tobacco at harvest time. Around 1800, plows were still rarely used in new grounds, but they appear to have been rather common in the old fields. George Washington used the plow to lay off his tobacco rows into three-foot squares, the hills were then made directly on the cross so that in the early stages of its growth the tobacco could be cultivated with the plow each way. The plow lightened the burden of cultivation by requiring less hoe work. When the plant began to bloom, usually six or seven weeks after planting, the plant was topped; that is, the top of the plant was pinched out with the thumb and finger nails. The number of leaves left on the plant depended largely upon the fertility of the soil. In the early days of the colony, planters left twenty-five or thirty leaves on a plant, by 1671 the number had been reduced to twelve or sixteen in very rich soil. Throughout the seventeenth century the General Assembly, in an attempt to reduce production, occasionally limited the number of leaves that could be left on a plant after topping. After around 1700, from five to nine leaves were left on the plant, depending on the strength of the soil. After topping, the plant grew no higher, but the leaves grew larger and heavier and sprouts or suckers appeared at the junction of the stalk and the leaf stem. If allowed to grow they injured the marketable quality of tobacco by taking up plant food that would have gone into the leaves. These suckers were removed by pinching them off with the thumb and finger nails. Owing to his laziness or ignorance, the Indian did not top his tobacco, though he did keep the suckers out. Tobacco that has been topped will produce a second set of suckers once the first growth has been removed. If the tobacco is not topped, only three or four suckers will appear, and these grow in the very top of the plant. During the course of the growing season the colonial planter had two sets of suckers to remove, from the junction of each leaf and from the bottom to the top of the plant, whereas the Indian had only a total of three or four per plant. Thus it appears that the planter learned from his own experience to top tobacco, and that it was a laborious though profitable task. It has been said that topping was first used as a means of limiting the production of tobacco to the very best grades by the planters as early as the 1620's. Only a planter with considerable experience could tell when the plant was ripe for harvest. This no doubt accounts for much of the inferior tobacco produced in the early days of the colony. Planters usually had their own individual methods of determining when a plant was ripe for cutting. Some thought the plants were ripe and ready to cut when a vigorous growth of suckers appeared around the root; others believed the plant was ripe when the top leaves of the plant became covered with yellow spots and "rolled over," touching the ground. Occasionally it had to be cut regardless of its maturity to save it from the frost. During the early days at Jamestown the tobacco was harvested by pulling the ripe leaves from the plants growing in the fields. The leaves were then piled in heaps and covered with hay to be cured by sweating. In 1617, a Mr. Lambert discovered that the leaves cured better when strung on lines than when sweated under the hay. This innovation was further facilitated in 1618 when Governor Argall prohibited the use of hay to sweat tobacco, owing to the scarcity of fodder for the cattle. It was probably this new method of curing that led to the building of tobacco barns, which were known to be in use at the time of the Indian Massacre in 1622. By 1671 the planters had stopped stringing the leaves on lines; the tobacco plant was cut off just above the top of the ground and left lying in the field for three or four hours, or until the leaves "fell" or became somewhat withered so that the plant could be handled without breaking the stems and fibers in the leaves. The plants were then carried into the tobacco barns, and hung on tobacco sticks by a small peg that had been driven into each stalk. During the early years of the eighteenth century the pegs were superseded by partially spliting the stalk and hanging it on the sticks. The use of fire in curing tobacco was also introduced during this century, but was rarely used before the Revolution. The earlier accounts refer to curing as the action of the air and sun. If the plant was large, the stalk was split down the middle six or seven inches below the extremity of the split, then turned directly bottom upwards to enable the sun to cause it to "fall", or wither faster. The plants were then brought to the scaffolds, which were generally erected all around the tobacco barns, and placed with the splits across a small oak stick about an inch in diameter and four and a half feet long. The sticks of tobacco were then placed on the scaffold. The tobacco remained there to cure for a brief period and then the sticks were removed from the outdoor scaffolds, carried into the tobacco barn and placed on the tier poles erected in successive regular graduation from near the bottom to the top of the barn. Once the barn was filled, the curing was sometimes hastened by making fires on the floor of the barn. Around 1800 the most common method was still air-curing, fire was used primarily to keep the tobacco from molding in damp weather. During the War of 1812 there was a considerable shift to fire-curing owing to the demand in Europe for a smoky flavored leaf. Fire-curing not only gave tobacco a different taste, but it also improved the keeping qualities of the leaf. The fire dried the stem of the leaf more thoroughly, thus eliminating the major cause of spoilage when packed in the hogshead for shipment. August and September were the favorite months for cutting and curing because the tobacco would cure a brighter color if cured in hot weather. Even today farmers like to finish curing their tobacco as early in September as possible. However, it was usually cold weather before all of the crop could be cut and cured. Occasionally frost would kill part of the crop before it was ripe enough to cut. In the early years of the tobacco industry there was little to the stripping process as the leaves were hung on strings to cure. The string was removed and the leaves were twisted and wound into rolls. The leaves were twisted by hand or spun on a small spinning machine into a thick rope, from which a ball containing from one to thirty pounds was made, though some were known to weigh as much as 105 pounds. The rolls were either wrapped in heavy canvass or packed in small barrels for shipping. In 1614 four barrels containing 170 pounds each were sent to England on the _Sir Thomas_. Tobacco was also shipped loose or in small bundles known as hands, and by 1629 a considerable number of hogsheads were being used. There seems to have been little grading in the early days. London Company officials frequently complained of the bad tobacco being mixed with the good, and early inspection laws required that the tobacco be brought to central locations and the mean tobacco separated from the bulk. After cutting became the common practice the leaves were stripped from the stalk and assorted according to variety and grade. By the 1680's the lowest grade was known as lugs. Sweet-scented and Oronoco were usually exported separately, and usually only the sweet-scented was stemmed. If the two varieties were mixed in a hogshead, it was purchased at the prevailing Oronoco prices, which were less than those paid for sweet-scented. The English merchant claimed that he had to sell all of it as Oronoco unless it were separated and that the cost of the labor required to separate it was equal to the higher price the sweet-scented would bring. These two varieties were probably seldom mixed except perhaps to fill the last hogshead of the season. The planters eventually came to realize the value of handling tobacco with care, for when good tobacco land became less plentiful, other means of improving the quality of tobacco became necessary. By 1665 most of the tobacco was shipped in hogsheads, but it was not until 1730 that the shipment of bulk tobacco was prohibited. Nor were the hogsheads made to any standard size until 1657, at which time they were required to be 43" � 26". In 1695 the standard size was raised to 48" � 30", and this remained the standard size until the 1790's. In 1796 the legal size was increased to 54" � 34"; this remained the legal size until the 1820's. The weight of the hogshead increased from time to time. In 1657 a hogshead of tobacco weighed about 300 pounds, 600 in the 1660's, 800 by 1730, 950 by 1765, and around 1,000 in the 1790's. These were supposed to have been the standard or legal weights, but regulations were not strictly enforced. As early as 1757 some of the hogsheads weighed as much as 1,274 pounds. By 1800 hogsheads averaged about 1,100 pounds. VARIETIES A complete story on the origin of the early varieties of tobacco would be a very significant contribution, since very little is known about them. Most writers agree that the tobacco cultivated by the English settlers was not the same _Nicotiana rustica_ grown by the Indians, but _Nicotiana tabacum_, the type found growing in South America and the West Indies. The difference between these two types was profound, both in taste and size. The plant native to Virginia was small, growing to a height of only two or three feet, whereas _Nicotiana tabacum_ grew from six to nine feet tall. As to taste, George Arents remarked, "the same difference in taste exists between these two species, as between a crab apple and an Albemarle pippin." All during the colonial period tobacco was classified into two main varieties, Oronoco and sweet-scented. Oronoco had a large porous pointed leaf and was strong in taste. Sweet-scented was milder, the leaf was rounder and the fibers were finer. We are also told that sweet-scented grew mostly in the lower parts of Virginia, along the York and James rivers, and later on the Rappahannock and on the southside of the Potomac. Oronoco was generally planted up the Chesapeake Bay area and in the back settlements on the strong land along all the rivers. Oronoco is thought to have originated in the vicinity of the Orinoco River valley in Venezuela. After being brought to a different environment and climate in Virginia, various varieties or strains of Oronoco were developed or came about naturally. In the late 1600's a very fair and bright large Oronoco, Prior, and Kite's Foot were mentioned. As the years passed planters came to distinguish other varieties such as Hudson, Frederick, Thick-Joint, Shoe-string, Thickset, Blue Pryor, Medley Pryor, White Stem, Townsend, Long Green, Little Frederic, and Browne Oronoco. A type of tobacco referred to locally as "yellow", had been growing on the poor, thin, and sandy soils in and around Pittsylvania County, Virginia, and Caswell County, North Carolina since the early 1820's. It was just another one of the many local varieties and attracted little attention until a very lucky accident occurred in 1839. A Negro slave on the Slade farm in Caswell County, North Carolina, fell asleep while fire-curing tobacco. Upon awakening, he quickly piled some dry wood on the dying embers; the sudden drying heat from the revived fires produced a profound effect--this particular barn of tobacco cured a bright yellow. This accident produced a curing technique that soon became known throughout the surrounding area in Virginia and North Carolina. This tobacco became known as "Bright-Tobacco", and this area the "Bright-Tobacco Belt". The many variations were due to the different environments, cultural practices, methods of curing and breeding; and each of these variations was given a name because of some particular quality it possessed, or was given the name of a person or place. The difference in the composition of the "Bright-Tobacco" grown in the poor sandy soil, such as that found in Pittsylvania County, caused the tobacco to cure bright. This so-called new type of tobacco was of the old Virginia Oronoco and if grown on heavier soils, it produced a much heavier bodied tobacco and would not make the same response when flue-cured. Only the tobacco grown in the soils such as that in the "Bright-Tobacco Belt" cured bright, which indicates that it was the soil and not the variety that caused the tobacco to be bright when cured. The origin and development of sweet-scented tobacco remains somewhat of a mystery, and we can only make conjectures as to what happened. Some authorities hold that the present day Maryland tobacco is descended from the sweet-scented of the Colonial days, while others believe it to be a descendant of Oronoco. It seems quite possible that there was only one variety of _Nicotiana tabacum_ when John Rolfe first began his experiments, and there is reason to believe that this first tobacco was sweet-scented. The name Oronoco probably came after the name sweet-scented had already been established. It also appears that sweet-scented disappeared as soon as the soils along the James, York, Rappahannock, and Potomac rivers were exhausted. George Arents, probably the foremost authority on the history of tobacco, in referring to Rolfe's first shipment to England wrote, "So fragrant was the leaf that it almost at once began to be known as 'sweet-scented.'" Ralph Hamor, in 1614, declared that the colony grew tobacco equal to that of Trinidad, "sweet and pleasant." Jerome E. Brooks wrote that Rolfe's importation of tobacco seed resulted in the famous Virginia sweet-scented leaf. Once the cultivation began to spread into the areas away from the sandy loam along the James and York rivers, the type of soil necessary for the production of the sweet-scented, other varieties began to develop. In 1688 John Clayton wrote, "I have observed, that that which is called Pine-wood Land tho' it be a sandy soil, even the sweet-scented Tobacco that grows thereon, is large and porous, agreeable to Aranoko Tobacco; it smokes as coursely as Aranoko." While on his visit to Virginia, Clayton visited a poor, worn-out plantation along the James River. The owner, a widow, complained to him that her land would produce only four or five leaves of tobacco per plant. Clayton suggested that one of the bogs on the plantation be drained and planted in tobacco. A few years later Clayton happened to meet this same lady in London, selling the first crop of tobacco grown on the drained bog. She related to Clayton that the product was "so very large, that it was suspected to be of the Aranoko kind...." In 1724 Hugh Jones observed that the farther a person went northward from the York or southward from the James, the poorer the quality of the sweet-scented tobacco, "but this maybe (I believe) attributed in some Measure to the Seed and Management, as well as to the Land and Latitude." John Custis in a letter to Philip Perry in 1737 wrote that he grew Oronoco on the Eastern Shore of Virginia using the same seed as he did for his sweet-scented York crop. It appears that as the sandy loam necessary for the growing of sweet-scented tobacco became exhausted and the planters expanded into the heavy fertile soils, the tobacco became the strong, coarse Oronoco. As virgin soil became scarce, Oronoco was no longer confined to the richest soils, nor was it thought to be less sweet-scented than its rivals. Toward the end of the eighteenth century tobacco inspectors found it so difficult to distinguish the various types, that they classed all tobacco as Oronoco. Thus it seems quite possible that both Oronoco and sweet-scented were originally one variety which became two, primarily because of the different soil composition. TRANSPORTATION TO MARKET In the early days of the colony the small ocean-going merchant vessel was the only method of transportation essential to marketing the tobacco crop. Such a small ship was able to anchor at many of the plantation wharves and load its cargo of tobacco. Next to fertility, the proximity to navigable water was the most important factor in influencing the planter in the selection of a tract of land. However, later expansion of the tobacco industry into the interior and the increase in the size of all ocean-going ships made some mode of transportation within the colony a necessity. When the ships could not get directly up to the wharf or enter shallow creeks on which many of the plantations were located, small boats called flats or shallops were used to transport the hogsheads to the anchored vessels. In 1633 the General Assembly provided that all tobacco had to be brought to one of the five warehouses--to be erected in specified localities--to be stored until sold. The planters objected immediately and petitioned the House of Burgesses to allow ships to come into every county, "where they will find at every man's house a store convenient enough for theire ladinge, we beinge all seated by the Riverside." The planters also complained that they had "... noe other means to export but by Boatinge." Carrying the tobacco for long distances in the shallop involved a risk, as well as an additional expense. By rolling the hogsheads directly on board a ship anchored at his own wharf or only a few miles away the planter eliminated the danger involved in transporting his tobacco in an untrustworthy, heavily laden shallop, and he also saved the increase in freight charges for delivery to the ships by the seamen. Freight rates were the same from his wharf to England as they were from any other point in the colony. In 1697 Henry Hartwell remarked, "they [the merchants] are at the charge of carting this tobacco ... [collected from the planter,] to convenient Landinge; or if it lyes not far from these landings, they must trust to the Seamen for their careful rolling it on board of their sloops and shallops...." A second common mode of transportation, according to Philip A. Bruce, was "not to draw the cask over the ground by means of horses or oxen, like an enormous clod crusher, the custom of a later period, but to propel it by the application of a steady force from behind." In 1724 Hugh Jones wrote, "The tobacco is rolled, drawn by horses, or carted to convenient Rolling Houses, whence it is conveyed on board the ships in flats or sloops." Thus it appears that by 1700 the Tidewater planters had adopted three methods of transporting their tobacco to market or to points of exportation: by rolling the hogshead, by cart, and by boat. By the middle of the eighteenth century planters in the Piedmont were rolling their tobacco to the distant Tidewater markets, whereas the Tidewater planter usually hauled his tobacco by wagon. Rolling tobacco more than 100 miles was not out of the ordinary. The ingenious upland planters placed some extra hickory hoops around the hogshead, attached two hickory limbs for shafts, by driving pegs into the headings, and hitched a horse or oxen to it. This method worked quite well except that the tobacco was frequently damaged by the mud, water, or sand. To prevent this, the hogshead was raised off the ground by a device called a felly. This device consisted of segments of wood fitted together to form a circle resembling the rim of a cartwheel; these segments were fitted around the circumference of the hogshead. The hogsheads used for rolling in this manner were constructed much more substantially than those wagoned or transported by boat. For the river trade the Piedmont planter once again relied upon his ingenuity. Around 1740 a rather unique water carrier was perfected by the Reverend Robert Rose, then living in Albemarle County. Two canoes fifty or sixty feet long were lashed together with cords and eight or nine hogsheads of tobacco were rolled on their gunwales crossways for the trip to Richmond. This came to be known as the "Rose method." For the return trip the canoes were separated and two men with poles could travel twice the distance in a day as four good oarsmen could propel a boat capable of carrying the same burden. Before 1795 boats coming down the James River from the back country landed at Westham, located just above the falls, and the tobacco was then carried into Richmond by wagon. There is the story of one planter who forgot to land his canoes at Westham. It seems that he left his plantation on the upper James with a load of tobacco and a jug full of whiskey. By the time he reached Westham the planter had consumed too much of the whiskey, and forgot to land at Westham. He rode his canoes, tobacco and all, over the Falls. Shortly thereafter he was fished from the waters downstream, wet and frightened, but sober. By 1800, owing to the fact that both the planters and buyers had become more concerned about the quality of tobacco, rolling tobacco in hogsheads began to decline sharply, although fifty years later a rare roller might still be seen on his way to market. The rivers and canals provided the most typical means of transportation. Wagons were used primarily as feeders to and from inland waters. The Potomac, Rappahannock, and York rivers were valuable colonial arteries, but played a less significant role after the Piedmont became the major producing area. The James and the Roanoke superseded them as the major arteries of transportation in the nineteenth century. The "Rose method" of water transportation, the lashing of two canoes together, had practically disappeared on the upland waters by 1800, being replaced by a small open flat-bottomed boat called the bateau, which carried a load of from five to eight hogsheads. Two planters, N. C. Dawson and A. Rucker, both of Amherst County, patented a bateau, in the early 1800's, which was a great improvement over the earlier ones. This bateau was from forty-eight to fifty-four feet long, but very narrow in proportion to its length. It was claimed that with a crew of three men these new "James River Bateaux" could make the round trip from Lynchburg to Richmond in ten days. They floated down the stream with ease, but worked their way back upstream with poles. Shortly before the turn of the eighteenth century canals had been constructed around the falls from Westham to Richmond, and the upland boats were able to load and unload their cargoes at the wharves in Richmond. In 1810 it was estimated that about one-fourth of the entire Virginia tobacco crop came down the James River and through the Westham Canal into Richmond. There were land and water routes in the Roanoke Valley that led to Petersburg. Tobacco was taken all the way to Petersburg by wagon, or carried by boat from the upper Roanoke and its tributaries to the falls at Weldon, North Carolina, and from there to Petersburg by wagon. Owing to the tobacco trade coming down the Roanoke, Clarksville became a small market town. In the Farmville area many of the planters sent their tobacco down the Appomattox River to Petersburg, rather than overland by wagon. Soon after 1800 the Upper Canal Company built a canal that connected Petersburg with the navigable waters of the Appomattox River. Virginia's waterways served her transportation problem well until they were superseded by the railroads in the ante-bellum days. ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSPECTION SYSTEM Within a few years after Rolfe's successful experiment in the cultivation of tobacco, it became necessary to inaugurate some means of improving the quality of the Virginia tobacco. Once it was discovered that tobacco could be successfully and profitably grown in Virginia, everyone wanted to grow it. Blacksmiths, carpenters, shipwrights, and even the minister frequently grew a patch of tobacco. Owing to inexperience in farming of any kind, plus the fact that the commercial production of tobacco was new even to most of the experienced farmers, much of the tobacco produced was of a very low quality. For centuries many planters seem to have placed quantity above quality in growing tobacco. Anyone could grow tobacco in certain quantities, but only a few could produce tobacco of superior quality. The first general inspection law in Virginia was passed in 1619 and provided that all tobacco offered for exchange at the magazine, the general storehouse in Jamestown, found to be very "mean" in quality by the magazine custodian was to be burnt. The magazine was abolished in 1620 and in 1623 this law was amended to provide for the appointment of sworn men in each settlement to condemn all bad tobacco. In 1630 an act was passed prohibiting the sale or acceptance of inferior tobacco in payment of debts. The commander of each plantation or settlement was authorized to appoint two or three experienced and competent men to help him inspect all tobacco, offered in payment of debts, which had been found "mean" by the creditor. If the inspectors declared the tobacco mean, the inferior tobacco was burned and the delinquent planter was disbarred from planting tobacco. Only the General Assembly could remove this disability. Owing to complaints that the commanders were showing partiality to planters on their own plantations, the act was amended in 1632; the commander's power of inspection was removed and his duty was limited to appointing two inspectors and making the final report. The appointment of inspectors was made compulsory in case of a complaint. The following year (1633) a more comprehensive measure was enacted. It provided that all inspections were to be made at five different points in the colony: James City, Shirley Hundred Island, Denbigh, Southampton River in Elizabeth City, and Cheskiack. Storehouses were to be built at these places and all tobacco was to be brought to these storehouses before the last day of December of each year. At these storehouses the tobacco was to be carefully inspected and all of the bad tobacco separated from the good and burned. This duty was to be performed once each week by inspectors under oath, one of whom was to be a member of the Council. All tobacco found in the barns of the planters after December 31 was to be confiscated, unless reserved for family use. All of those planning to keep tobacco for that purpose were required to swear to this fact before the proper officials before December 31. All debts were to be paid at one of these five storehouses, with the storekeeper as a witness. Before the end of the year (1633) two other such storehouses were authorized to be built,--one at Warrasquoke and the other at a point lying between Weyanoke and the Falls. In addition to the Councillors, members of the local courts were added as inspectors. The provision requiring the burning of unmerchantable tobacco may have been enforced, but the storehouses were never built. In 1639 all of the mean tobacco and half of the good was ordered destroyed. The legislature passed an act providing for the appointment of 213 inspectors, three were assigned to each district. These inspectors were authorized to break down the doors of any building if they had reason to believe that tobacco was being concealed within. This act was designed primarily to restrict the quantity of tobacco to be marketed owing to the flooded markets abroad and the resulting low prices. All of the inspection laws passed after 1632 were formally repealed in 1641. The only important inspection law left on the statute books was the one passed in 1630 requiring the plantation commander, who was later replaced by the county lieutenant, to appoint two or three inspectors to inspect tobacco sold or received in payment of a debt, upon complaint of the buyer or creditor that he had been passed some bad tobacco. The law remained on the books until 1730. After these early attempts to establish an effective inspection system, little further progress was made during the seventeenth century. Occasional acts aimed at controlling the quantity and quality of tobacco continued to be passed from time to time; such as laws prohibiting the tending of seconds, false packing, and planting or replanting tobacco after a certain date. As the tobacco industry continued to expand into the interior, the need and the difficulty of regulating the quality of the leaf increased. Owing to ignorance or indifference, the frontier planters seldom resorted to methods of improving the quality of the crop. They traded their tobacco in small lots with the outport merchants, those from ports other than London, mostly Scottish, who sold the inferior tobacco to the countries in northern Europe. In 1705 the Council proposed that an experienced and competent person be appointed in each county to inspect and receive all tobacco for discharge of debts in that county at specifically named storehouses and "at no other place." These county agents were to meet and select proper locations for building the storehouses. Owners of the land sites selected were to be given the privilege of building and renting these storehouses. If the owner did not choose to build, he could rent the land site to the county agent that he might build on it. If both refused to build, it was proposed that the county court should buy the land and erect the storehouse. Storehouses were already established on many of the land sites proposed. In 1680, to accelerate the growth of towns, the General Assembly had passed an act providing that fifty acres of land be laid out for towns at convenient landings and that storehouses be built in each, at which all goods imported had to be landed and all exports stored while awaiting transportation. The towns and storehouses were located in the following places in twenty counties: Accomac, Calvert's Neck; Charles City, Flower de Hundred; Elizabeth City, Hampton; Gloucester, Tindall's Point; Henrico, Varina; Isle of Wight, Pates Field on Pagan Creek; James City, James City; Lancaster, Corotomond River; Middlesex, Urbanna Creek; Nansemond, Dues Point; New Kent, Brick House; Norfolk, on the Elizabeth River at the mouth of the Eastern River; Northampton, Kings Creek; Northumberland, Chickacony; Essex, Hobb's Hole; Stafford, Pease Point, at the mouth of Deep Creek; Westmoreland, Nominie; and York, Ship Honors Store. Though none of the proposals were passed by the General Assembly in 1705, they were incorporated into later legislation and provided the basis for an effective inspection system. In 1712 the General Assembly once again decided it would be advantageous to have designated places in each county where tobacco and other products could be kept safe while waiting for transportation to England, and an act was passed providing that all houses already built and being used as public "rolling-houses", that is warehouses, within one mile of a public landing, be maintained by their respective owners. If there were no such warehouses at designated locations, the county courts were given the authority to order new ones built. If the owner of the site refused to build, the county could, after a fair appraisal, buy the land and build a warehouse at public expense. When and if the warehouse was discontinued, the land reverted to the original owner or his heirs. It is interesting to know that the warehouse built at Urbanna, in Middlesex County, in 1680, is still standing, and it is "America's only colonial built warehouse for tobacco still in existence". The owners were compelled to receive all goods offered, and were to receive storage rates for these services. For goods stored in casks of sixty gallons in size, or bales or parcels of greater bulk, the owners of the storehouses received twelve pence for the first day or the first three months and six pence for every three months thereafter. The owner of the warehouse was made liable for merchandise lost or damaged while under his custody. One of the most significant features of the 1730 inspection system was first introduced in 1713. Primarily through the efforts of Governor Spotswood, an act was passed providing for licensed inspectors at the various warehouses already established. To provide a convenient circulating medium, and one that would not meet with opposition from the English government, these inspectors were authorized to issue negotiable receipts for tobacco inspected and stored at these warehouses. Like many new and untried ideas, this law seemed somewhat radical and met a great deal of opposition. With Colonel William Byrd as their leader, the opposition was able to convince certain British officials that the added expense required by the act imposed an undue hardship on the tobacco trade. This local opposition combined with the pressure of the conservative London merchants caused the act to be vetoed by the Privy Council in 1716. The act of 1712, providing for the regulation of public warehouses, remained in force and became a part of the rather effective inspection system established in 1730. The act was amended in 1720 giving the county courts the authority to order warehouses inconvenient to the landings discontinued. These two pieces of legislation brought all of the public warehouses near convenient landings and made the warehouse movement flexible. From this point on, as the tobacco industry shifted from one area to another, the warehouse movement kept pace. From time to time established warehouses were ordered discontinued, or new ones erected; and occasionally warehouses ordered discontinued were revived. However, it appears that inspection warehouses were not permitted above the Fall Line until after the Revolution. In 1730 the most comprehensive inspection bill ever introduced, passed the General Assembly. The common knowledge that the past and present inspection laws had failed to prevent the importation of unmarketable tobacco, plus a long depression, had changed the attitude of many of the influential planters and merchants. Nevertheless, the act did meet with opposition from some of the English customs officials and a few of the large planters. Soon after the passage of this new inspection law a prominent planter wrote complainingly to a London merchant, "This Tobo hath passed the Inspection of our new law, every hogshead was cased and viewed by which means the tobacco was very much tumbled and made something less sightly than it was before and it causes a great deal of extraordinary trouble". There were complaints that the new law destroyed tobacco that used to bring good money. Still another planter complained that the planter's name and evidence on the hogshead had much more effect on the price of the tobacco than the inspector's brand. While some of the planters expressed their disapproval of the new inspection law verbally, others resorted to violence. During the first year some villains burned two inspection houses, one in Lancaster County and another in Northumberland. The inspection law passed in 1730 was frequently amended during the colonial period, but there were no changes in its essential features. The act provided that no tobacco was to be shipped except in hogsheads, cases, or casks, without having first passed an inspection at one of the legally established inspection warehouses; thus the shipment of bulk tobacco was prohibited. Two inspectors were employed at each warehouse, and a third was summoned in case of a dispute between the two regular inspectors. These officials were bonded and were forbidden under heavy penalties to pass bad tobacco, engage in the tobacco trade, or to take rewards. Tobacco offered in payment of debts, public or private, had to be inspected under the same conditions as that to be exported. The inspectors were required to open the hogshead, extract and carefully examine two samplings; all trash and unsound tobacco was to be burned in the warehouse kiln in the presence and with the consent of the owner. If the owner refused consent the entire hogshead was to be destroyed. After the tobacco was sorted, the good tobacco was repacked in the hogshead and the planter's distinguishing mark, net weight, tare (weight of the hogshead), and name of inspection warehouse were stamped on the hogshead. A tobacco note was issued to the owner of each hogshead that passed the inspection. These notes were legal tender within the county issued, and adjacent counties, except when the counties were separated by a large river. They circulated freely and eventually came into the possession of a buyer who, by presenting them at the warehouse named on the notes, exchanged them for the specified amount of tobacco. And these particular notes were thus retired from circulation. The person finally demanding possession of the tobacco was allowed to have the hogsheads reinspected if he so desired. If he was dissatisfied with the quality, he could appeal to three justices of the peace. If they found the tobacco to be unsound or trashy, the inspectors paid a fee of five shillings to each of the justices, and they were also held liable for stamping the tobacco as being good; should the tobacco be declared sound, the buyer paid the fee. Parcels of tobacco weighing less than 200 pounds in 1730, later increased to 350, and finally 950 pounds, were not to be exported, in such cases the inspectors issued transfer notes. When the purchaser of such tobacco had enough to fill a hogshead, the tobacco was prized and the transfer notes were exchanged for a tobacco note. The tobacco could then be exported. Such small parcels were often necessary to pay a levy, or a creditor, or it might have been tobacco left over from the crop after the last hogshead had been filled and prized. These tobacco notes provided the only currency in Virginia until she resorted to the printing press during the French and Indian War. By the end of the eighteenth century the reputation of the inspectors and the value of the tobacco notes began to decline, due primarily to lax inspecting. Exporters and manufacturers frequently demanded that their tobacco be reinspected by competent agents. The inspection law was allowed to expire in October, 1775, but it was revived the following October. During this period the payment of debts in tobacco was made on the plantation of the debtor, and if the creditor refused to accept the tobacco as sound and marketable, the dispute was referred to two competent neighbors, one chosen by each of the disputants. Prior to 1776 tobacco that was damaged while stored in the public warehouses was paid for by the colony, but provisions were made in 1776 that such a loss was to be borne by the owner of the tobacco. In 1778 this was amended to the effect that losses by fire while stored in the warehouses would be paid for by the state. Four years later, owing to the great losses that had been sustained by the owners of the tobacco, the inspectors were held liable for all tobacco destroyed or damaged, except by fire, flood, or the enemy. The state continued to guarantee the tobacco against the fire hazard until well into the nineteenth century. The law requiring "refused" tobacco to be burned in the warehouse kiln was repealed in 1805, and such tobacco could then be shipped anywhere within the state of Virginia. Stemmers or manufacturers were required to send a certificate of receipt of such refused tobacco purchased to the auditor of public accounts in Richmond. These receipts were then checked against the warehouse records of the amount of refused tobacco sold. Finally, in 1826, the General Assembly legalized the exportation of refused tobacco, provided the word "refused" was stamped on both ends and two sides of the hogsheads in letters at least three inches in length. In 1730 three inspectors were appointed for each inspection by the governor, with the advice and consent of the Council. This did not always mean that there were three inspectors at each warehouse at all times. Warehouses built on opposite banks of a creek or river were frequently placed under the same inspection; that is, the three inspectors divided their time at the two warehouses. In areas where the production of tobacco declined from time to time, two warehouses were frequently placed under the jurisdiction of one set of inspectors. And if the quantity of tobacco produced in that particular area necessitated separate inspections, the change was then made. The inspection system was very flexible in this respect. The inspectors were required to be on duty from October 1 to August 10 yearly, except Sundays and holidays. By 1732 it was discovered that it was unnecessary to have three inspectors on duty at all times. Consequently, the number of regular inspectors was reduced to two, but a third was appointed to be called upon when there was a dispute between the two regular inspectors as to the quality of tobacco. As the governor was able to choose the inspectors and place them at any warehouse within the colony, the local county people began to complain and demand that they be given more authority in this governmental function. This procedure tended to provide the governor with the opportunity to provide his friends with jobs regardless of their qualifications. In 1738 the General Assembly enacted legislation providing that the inspectors were to be appointed by the governor from a slate of four candidates nominated by the local county courts. Where two warehouses under one inspection were in different counties, two candidates were to be nominated by each county. This procedure remained unchanged until the middle of the nineteenth century. The salaries of the inspectors were regulated by the General Assembly, though the colony did not guarantee the sums after 1755. For the first few years each inspector received £60 annually, and if the fees collected were insufficient to pay their salary, the deficient amount was made up out of public funds. After 1732 it was found that this amount was too high and unequally allocated with respect to the amount of individual services performed, as some warehouses received more tobacco than others. So for the next few years salaries were determined on the basis of the amount of tobacco inspected and ranged from £30 to £50 annually. From 1755 to 1758 the inspectors received the amount set by the legislature only if enough fees were collected by the inspectors at their respective warehouses. During the next seven years the inspectors received three shillings per hogshead, plus six pence for nails used in recoopering the tobacco, instead of a stated salary. Out of this the inspectors had to pay the proprietors of the warehouse eight pence rent per hogshead. In 1765 the inspectors were again placed on a flat salary basis, and for the next fifteen years their salaries ranged from £25 to £70. After 1780 their annual salaries ranged from about $100 at the smallest warehouses to about $330 at the largest. WAREHOUSES 1730-1800 In most instances the warehouses were private property, but they were always subject to the control of the legislature. Regulations regarding the location, erection, maintenance and operation as official places of inspection were set forth by special legislation. Owners of the land sites selected were ordered to build the warehouses and rent them to the inspectors. If the land owner refused to build, then the court could order the warehouse built at public expense. Just how many warehouses were built at public expense is difficult to determine, probably only a few, if any, were built in this manner. The rent which the proprietor received usually depended upon the number of hogsheads inspected at his warehouse, though the rates were regulated by the General Assembly. In 1712 the proprietors received twelve pence for the first day or the first three months and six pence every month thereafter per hogshead. In 1755 the owners received eight pence per hogshead. During the Revolution the rate was raised to four shillings, but was lowered to one shilling six pence after the cessation of hostilities. At the beginning of the nineteenth century rent per hogshead, including a year's storage, was twenty-five cents. To keep pace with the movement of the tobacco industry, new warehouses were built and others discontinued from time to time. And by observing the warehouse movement it is possible to grasp a general picture of the decline of the tobacco industry in Tidewater Virginia. The expansion of the industry into Piedmont is more difficult to follow during this period owing to the fact that inspection houses were not permitted above the Falls until after the Revolution. In 1730 seventy-two warehouses located in thirty counties were ordered erected and maintained for the purpose of inspection and storage by the General Assembly. Twelve years later warehouses were erected in only one additional county, Fairfax. A few of those established in 1730 were discontinued, but twenty-six new ones had been erected by 1742, making a total of ninety-three in operation at that time. From 1742 to 1765 the total number of inspection houses increased by about six, but this does not reveal a complete picture of the warehouse movement. A closer examination shows a much greater shift in the movement. Sixteen new inspection warehouses were erected during this period, twelve of them near the Fall Line; in the meantime, ten of the old established warehouses far below the Falls were discontinued. After a year without an official inspection system the lapsed inspection law was revived in October, 1776; seventy-six of the warehouses were re-established as official inspection stations. Soon after the end of the war the number of inspections began to increase again, and it was chiefly through the efforts of a David Ross that inspection warehouses were permitted above the Falls. The first inspections seem to have appeared above the Falls in Virginia in 1785: one at Crow's Ferry, Botetourt County; one at Lynch's Ferry, Campbell County; and a third at Point of Fork on the Rivanna River, Fluvanna County. Tobacco inspected in the warehouses above the Falls could not be legally delivered for exportation without first being delivered to a lower warehouse for transportation and reinspection upon demand by the purchaser. There were a number of reasons why the inspection warehouses were restricted to Tidewater Virginia until after the Revolution. It was not until after the Revolution that a strong need and demand for them was felt above the Falls. Inadequate transportation facilities in the interior made exportation from upland inspections less feasible. It is also probable that the Legislature was opposed to upland inspections as it would be more difficult to control the inspections, spread out over a larger area, as rigidly as those concentrated in a smaller area. And no doubt Tidewater Virginia recognized the economic value of having all of the inspections located in its own section. However, the sharp decline in tobacco production in the Tidewater followed by an equal increase in the Piedmont made inspections above the Falls inevitable. Of the ninety-three inspection warehouses in operation in 1792, only about twenty were above the Fall Line; but by 1820 at least half of the 137 legal inspections were above the Falls. Of the forty-two new inspections established in the period 1800-1820 only three were in Tidewater Virginia; one in Prince George County in 1807, one in Essex County in 1810, and the third in Norfolk County in 1818, owing to the opening of the Dismal Swamp Canal. SALE OF THE LEAF Under the original plan of colonization the Virginia settlers were to pool their goods at the magazine, the general storehouse in Jamestown. All of the products produced by the settlers, and all goods imported into the colony were to be first brought to the magazine. In 1620 the London Company made plans to abolish the magazine and open the trade to the public. The colony was then forced to rely on peripatetic merchant ships which came irregularly. These casual traders dealt directly with the planters, going about from plantation to plantation collecting their cargo. These merchants were without agents in the colonies, and they relied solely upon the chance of selling their goods as they passed the various plantation wharves. They usually sold their goods on credit, expecting to collect their dues in tobacco on the return trip the next year. Occasionally the crops were small, or they discovered that most of the tobacco had been sold or seized by other traders, and consequently they were forced to wait another year to collect from their debtors. The planter soon discovered that he was in an equally precarious situation, and largely at the mercy of the merchant, for if he failed to sell on the terms offered, another ship might not come his way until the following year. The planter's bargaining power was also hampered by his ignorance of market conditions abroad. Such conditions encouraged the practices of engrossing and forestalling, by the merchants, to the point that much legislation was passed to prohibit such actions. Increasing competition by the Dutch traders gradually reduced the dependence of the planter on the casual trading merchant. The danger from pirates and frequent wars caused the English to inaugurate the convoy system, which also helped improve the market conditions. However, trading directly with the casual merchants was still common after 1625, and a few still operated as late as 1700. The consignment system developed along with the system of casual trading, and it also operated upon the practice of the ships collecting cargo from the various plantations. Importation was based on the same idea: the ship which gathered the planters' tobacco usually brought goods from abroad. Originally the merchant acted only as the agent of the planter. He advanced him the total cost necessary to export and market the crop abroad, sold the crop on his client's account and placed the net proceeds to the planter's credit. Soon the merchant was advancing the planter goods and money beyond the amount of his net receipts; the planter frequently discovered that he was at the merchant's mercy and was forced to sell on the merchant's terms. To make matters worse, the tobacco was sold by the merchants to retailers in England on long term credit at the planter's risk. If the retailer went bankrupt, or his business failed, the planter not only lost his tobacco but still had to pay the total charges, freight, insurance, British duties, plus the agent's commission, which amounted to about eighteen pounds sterling in 1730. Planters frequently complained that their tobacco weighed much less in England that it did when it was inspected and weighed in the colony. There were reports that the stevedores were supplying certain patrons in England with tobacco of superior quality obtained by pilfering. An agent in England was certainly not apt to look after a planter's crop as though it were his own. The gradual destruction of the fertility of the soil in the Tidewater country and the expansion of the tobacco industry into the back country made direct consignment less feasible. This, and the various other causes of dissatisfaction with the consignment system, led to the system of outright purchase in the colony. This new procedure was carried on largely by the outport merchants, especially the Scottish, who were doing quite a bit of illicit trading before the Union of 1707. Since the Tidewater business was controlled largely by the London merchants, the new Scottish traders penetrated the interior and established local trading posts or stores at convenient locations, many of which became the nuclei of towns. After the Union their share of the trade increased very rapidly, and at the beginning of hostilities in 1775 the Scots were purchasing almost one-half of all the tobacco brought to Great Britain. On the eve of the Revolution only about one-fourth of the Virginia tobacco was being shipped on consignment. The factorage system appears to have been introduced in Virginia around 1625, and was actually a part of the consignment system. A factor was one who resided in the colony and served as a representative and the repository of the English merchant. With the establishment of a repository in the colony, trade became more regular, debtors less delinquent, and the problem of securing transportation for exports or imports was mitigated. Some of the factors were Englishmen sent over by the English firms, others were colonial merchants or planters who performed for the foreign firms on a commission basis. As the tobacco industry expanded beyond the limits of the navigable waters, it became the custom of the planters located near such streams to act as factors for their neighbors in the interior. By 1775 the factorage system had developed to the extent that one planter found four firms at Colchester, eleven at Dumfries, and twenty at Alexandria which would buy wheat, tobacco, and flour in exchange for British goods and northern manufactures. The rise of a class of factors in Virginia, aided by the Scottish merchants, made it possible for the planters to break away from the London commercial agents. The Revolution cut the connection between England and the Virginia planters, but the factorage system was not destroyed. The merchants and businessmen in the former colonies simply replaced the English factors. Soon after the cessation of hostilities, England had reestablished her commercial predominance owing to the superior facilities and experience of British merchants in granting long term credits, and perhaps the preference of Americans for British goods. The British were again willing to extend to the planters the accustomed long term credits, but they were careful to grant it only to merchants of high standing. Lax inspecting caused the buyers to lose faith in the inspectors' reputation and guarantee. As early as 1759 tobacco was being sold by displaying samples. It was quite natural then for the buyers to begin visiting the warehouses as the tobacco was being inspected, to enable them to purchase the better hogsheads directly from the original owner. But it seems that even as late as 1800 such practices were only occasional. While lax inspections caused a few buyers to visit the warehouses, the presence of these buyers led many of the planters to bring their tobacco to the warehouses most frequented by the buyers. As these buyers paid higher prices for the better tobacco, the ultimate result was the development of market towns and the disappearance of the tobacco note. Within a decade after the turn of the nineteenth century Richmond, Manchester, Petersburg, and Lynchburg had become major market towns. PRODUCTION, TREND OF PRICES, AND EXPORTS When tobacco was first planted in Jamestown, Spanish tobacco was selling for eighteen shillings per pound. Virginia tobacco was inferior in quality, but it was assessed in England at ten shillings per pound. On the basis of these high prices the Virginia Company of London agreed to allow the Virginia planters three shillings per pound, in trade at the magazine in Jamestown, for the best grades. Even though it seemed that the London Company was getting the lions share, these prices proved to be very profitable for the colonists and the infant tobacco industry increased very rapidly. During the period 1615-1622 tobacco exports increased from 2,300 to 60,000 pounds, and by 1630 the volume had risen to 1,500,000. Meanwhile prices had fallen as rapidly as production and exports had increased. In 1625 tobacco was selling for about two shillings per pound, but in 1630 merchants were reported to be buying it for less than one penny per pound. It was quite obvious that the fall in prices was due to overproduction. The English first attempted to alleviate the condition in 1619 through monopolistic control. Negotiations were conducted with the Virginia Company of London, Henry Somerscales, and Ditchfield in 1625. All were opposed by the colony, except that of the London Company, because the colonists thought that the various proposals would benefit the King and a small group of court favorites at the expense of the planters. The next move was made by the colony. In an attempt to restrict the production of tobacco, Governor Wyatt ordered that production be limited to 1,000 plants per person in each family in 1621. These same instructions provided that only nine leaves were to be harvested from each plant. Similar laws were enacted in 1622 and again in 1629, but these laws were probably not strictly enforced as prices failed to improve. Undaunted by failure in its first attempt to cope with the situation, the General Assembly made several attempts at price fixing. In 1632 tobacco prices in the colony were fixed at six pence per pound in exchange for English goods; in 1633 it was increased to nine pence. The 1639 crop was so large that the legislature ordered all of the bad and half of the good tobacco destroyed; merchants were required to accept fifty pounds of tobacco per 100 of indebtedness. English goods were to be exchanged for tobacco at a minimum rate of three pence per pound. The minimum rate of the 1640 crop was fixed at twelve pence. Such legislation failed to meet with the approval of the home government and in 1641 tobacco averaged about two pence per pound. Following the depression of 1639 tobacco prices failed to rise above three pence, and probably never averaged more than two pence per pound for the next sixty years. To prevent the complete ruination of the tobacco planters, the General Assembly established fixed rates for tobacco in the payment of certain fees. In 1645 these fees were payable in tobacco rated at one and one-half pence per pound; ten years later the rate had increased only a half pence. The war with Holland, restrictions on the Dutch trade, and the plague in England brought forth another serious depression in the colonies in the 1660's. In 1665 the tobacco fleet did not go to the colonies on account of the plague in London. Tobacco prices dropped to one pence per pound. [Illustration: METHODS OF TRANSPORTING TOBACCO TO MARKET a, Upon canoes. b, By upland boats. c, By wagons. d, Rolling the hogshead.] [Illustration: PLANTATION TOBACCO HOUSES AND PUBLIC WAREHOUSES a, The common tobacco house. b, Tobacco hanging on a scaffold. c, The operation of prizing. d, Inside of a tobacco house, showing the tobacco hanging to cure. e, An outside view of a public warehouse. f, showing the process of inspection.] This new depression stirred the Virginia legislature. In 1662 the Assembly prohibited the planting of tobacco after the last of June, provided that Maryland would do the same. Maryland rejected the idea. This would have eliminated a great deal of inferior tobacco, for much of the tobacco planted in July seldom fully matures before it must be harvested to save it from the frost. The planters in both colonies continued to produce excessive crops and the depression became more acute. Led by Virginia, the North Carolina and Maryland legislatures prohibited the cultivation of tobacco in 1666. Lord Baltimore again refused to permit a cessation in Maryland, consequently Virginia and North Carolina repealed their legislation. Instead of cessation the Virginia crop was so large in 1666 that 100 vessels were not enough to export the crop. The possibility of another enormous crop in 1667 was eliminated by a severe storm that destroyed two-thirds of the crop. However, the glutted market resulting from the large crop grown in 1666 caused prices to fall to a half pence per pound. In the 1670's prices climbed to one and one-half pence, but a tremendous crop in 1680 glutted the market again. The crop was said to have been so large that it would have supplied the demand for the next two years, even if none were produced in 1681. The General Assembly once again came to the aid of the planter by rating tobacco in payment of debts at one and one-fifth pence in 1682, and two pence in payment of quit-rents in 1683. Once again Virginia renewed attempts to bring about a cessation of production, but the English government refused to permit such action claiming that it would stimulate foreign production and thereby reduce the revenue to the Crown. In April, 1682 the General Assembly convened but was prorogued by Lieutenant Governor Sir Henry Chicheley a week later, when it was apparent that the members were determined to discuss nothing but the cessation of tobacco. A week later a series of plant cuttings broke out in Gloucester County followed by others in New Kent and Middlesex counties. Approximately 10,000 hogsheads of tobacco were destroyed before these riots were put down by the militia. Probably as a result of this destructive act, prices rose to two and a half pence in 1685, but a bumper crop of over 18,000,000 pounds in 1688, the largest ever produced to that date, caused prices to drop to one penny per pound in 1690. Throughout most of the seventeenth century the tobacco planters were plagued with the problem of overproduction and low prices. To add to their woes the entire eighteenth century was one of periodic wars either in Europe or in America, or both. King William's War ended in 1697 and the following year tobacco prices soared to twenty shillings per hundred pounds and prices remained good for the next few years. The outbreak of Queen Anne's War and another 18,000,000 pound crop ushered in another depression. Several thousand hogsheads of tobacco shipped on consignment in 1704 brought no return at all, and the next year many of the planters sold their tobacco for one-fourth of a penny per pound. Instead of attempting to limit production in an effort to relieve the market conditions, these low prices caused the planters to increase production as they attempted to meet their obligations. In 1709 tobacco production reached an all-time high of 29,000,000 pounds. The Peace of Utrecht in 1713 seems to have brought little relief. Tobacco prices failed to improve until after the passage of the inspection act in 1730. In 1731 tobacco sold for as much as twelve shillings six pence per hundred pounds, despite the fact that Virginia exported 34,000,000 pounds. In a further attempt to improve the quality and the price of tobacco the General Assembly ordered the constables in each district to enforce the law forbidding the planters to harvest suckers. Anyone found tending suckers after the last of July was to be heavily penalized. These two measures seem to have produced the desired effects; in 1736 tobacco sold for fifteen shillings per hundred pounds. Unlike Queen Anne's War, King George's War seemed to stimulate tobacco prices and they remained relatively good for a number of years after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. During the early 1750's merchants paid up to twenty shillings per hundred pounds, even though Virginia had been exporting from 38,000,000 to 53,000,000 pounds annually. During the French and Indian War the belligerents agreed to continue the tobacco trade, but in spite of this arrangement there were unusual price fluctuations owing primarily to inflation and occasional poor crops. In 1755 a period of inflation was created when Virginia resorted to the printing press for currency. At the same time war operations hampered production and only about one-half of the usual annual crop was produced, and tobacco prices rose to twenty shillings per hundred weight. During the years of peace just prior to the American Revolution, tobacco averaged about three pence per pound and never fell below two pence. With the outbreak of hostilities the General Assembly prohibited the exportation of tobacco to the British Empire. Frequent overproduction and the numerous wars during the eighteenth century seem to have caused more violent price fluctuations than those of the previous century. Although the American colonies did not participate in all of the wars involving England, all of them had their effects upon the colonies. Virginia depended primarily upon England to transport her tobacco crop and during the war years there was a frequent shortage of ships used for the tobacco trade. As this cut off the tobacco supply to the foreign markets, many of them began to grow their supply of tobacco. The tobacco crops were small almost every year during the Revolution. Owing to the increase in the demand for foodstuffs many of the planters switched from tobacco to wheat. During the first year of the war tobacco exports dropped from 55,000,000 to 14,500,000 pounds. It has been said that for the entire period 1776-1782 Virginia's exports were less than her exports of a single year before the Revolution. Wartime prices and inflation caused tobacco prices to increase from eighteen shillings per hundred pounds in 1775 to 2,000 shillings, in Continental currency, in 1781. An official account in the latter part of 1780 related that twenty-five shillings per hundred pounds in specie was considered a very substantial price. A very small crop in 1782 was followed by one that topped any of the pre-war crops, and by 1787 prices had fallen to fifteen pence per pound. Prices dropped to $12.00 in 1791, and a period of relatively low prices continued until 1797 when prices increased as a result of an extensive shift from tobacco to wheat. In 1800 prices dropped to $7.40 per hundred pounds as Virginia exported a near record crop of over 78,000 hogsheads of tobacco. VIRGINIA TOBACCO PRICES AND EXPORTS, 1615-1789 A complete and accurate price table would be virtually impossible to compile. Some of these averages represent only single individual quotations, or the average of only two or three such quotations. These charts are intended to give the reader a general picture of the prices during the Colonial period. Year Average Price Average Price Pounds Exported per Lb. per Cwt. 1615 3s 2,300 1617 3s 20,000 1618 3s 41,000 1619 3s 44,879 1620 2s 6d 40,000 1621 3s 55,000 1622 3s 60,000 1623 2s 1625 2s 4d 1626 3s 500,000 1628 3s 6d 500,000 1629 1,500,000 1630 1d 1,500,000 1631 6d 1,300,000 1632 6d 1633 9d 1634 1d 1637 9d 1638 2d 1639 3d 1,500,000 1640 12d 1,300,000 1641 2d 1,300,000 1642 2d 1644 1-1/2d 1645 1-1/2d 1649 3d 1651 16s 1652 20s 1655 2d 1656 2d 1657 3d 1658 2d 1659 2d 1660 2d 1661 2d 1662 2d 1664 1-1/2d 1665 1d 1666 1-1/5d 1667 1/2d 1669 20s 1676 1-1/2d 1682 1-1/5d 1683 2d 1684 1/2d 1685 2-1/2d 1686 1-1/5d 1688 18,295,000 1690 1d 1691 2d 1692 1d 1695 1-1/2d 1696 1-1/5d 1697 1/2d 22,000,000 1698 20s 22,000,000 1699 20s 22,000,000 1700 10s average 1701 average 1702 20s 1704 2d 18,000,000 1706 1/4d 1709 1d 29,000,000 1710 1d 1713 3s 1715 2s 1716 11s 1720 1d 1722 3/4d 1723 1d 1724 1-1/2d 1727 9d 1729 10d 1731 12s 6d 34,000,000 1732 9d 34,000,000 1733 2d 34,000,000 1736 2d 34,000,000 1737 9d average 1738 3d average 1739 2d average 1740 34,000,000 1744 2d 47,000,000 1745 14s 38,232,900 1746 2d 36,217,800 1747 37,623,600 1748 16s 8d 42,104,700 1749 2d 43,880,300 1750 15s 43,710,300 1751 16s 43,032,700 1752 2d 43,542,000 1753 20s 53,862,300 1754 45,722,700 1755 2d 42,918,300 1756 20s 25,606,800 1757 3d 1758 3d 22,050,000 1759 35s 55,000,000 1760 55,000,000 1761 22s 6d 55,000,000 1762 11d 55,000,000 1763 2d 55,000,000 1764 12s 6d 55,000,000 1765 3d 55,000,000 1766 4s average 1767 3s 10d average 1768 22s 6d average 1769 23s average 1770 25s average 1771 18s average 1772 20s average 1773 12s 6d average 1774 13s average 1775 3-1/4d 55,000,000 1776 12s 14,498,500 1777 34s 12,441,214 1778 70s 11,961,333 1779 400s 17,155,907 1780 1,000s 17,424,967 1781 2,000s 13,339,168 1782 36s 9,828,244 1783 40s 86,649,333 1784 30s 10d 49,497,000 1785 30s 55,624,000 1786 19d 60,380,000 1787 15d 60,041,000 1788 25s 58,544,000 1789 15d 58,673,000 CONCLUSION The history of tobacco is the history of Jamestown and of Virginia. No one staple or resource ever played a more significant role in the history of any state or nation. The growth of the Virginia Colony, as it extended beyond the limits of Jamestown, was governed and hastened by the quest for additional virgin soil in which to grow this "golden weed." For years the extension into the interior meant the expansion of tobacco production. Without tobacco the development of Virginia might have been retarded 200 years. Tobacco was the life and soul of the colony; yet a primitive, but significant, form of diversified farming existed from the very beginning especially among the small farmers. Even with the development of the large plantations in the eighteenth century, there were quite a number of small landowners interspersed among the big planters in the Tidewater area, and they were most numerous in the Piedmont section. They usually possessed few slaves, if any, and raised mostly grains, vegetables and stock which they could easily sell to neighboring tobacco planters. The negligible food imports by the colony indicates that a regular system of farming existed. Nor was tobacco the sole product of the large tobacco plantations. This is indicated by the fact that practically all of the accounts of the product of one man's labor were recorded as so many pounds or acres of tobacco plus provisions. And had the plantations not been generally self-sufficient, the frequently extremely low prevailing tobacco prices would have made the agricultural economy even less profitable. Tobacco was a completely new agricultural product to most, if not all, of the English settlers at Jamestown. There were no centuries of vast experience in growing, curing, and marketing to draw upon. These problems and procedures were worked out by trial and error in the wilderness of Virginia. Tobacco became the only dependable export and the colony was exploited for the benefit of English commerce. This English commercial policy, plus other factors, caused the Virginia planter to become somewhat of an agricultural spendthrift. For nearly 200 years he followed a system of farming which soon exhausted his land. Land was cheap and means of fertilization was limited and laborious. By clearing away the trees he was able to move north, south, southwest, and west and replace his worn-out fields with rich virgin soil necessary to grow the best tobacco. While struggling with the problems involved in producing an entirely new crop about which they knew little or nothing, the colonists also had to feed themselves, deal with their racial problems, and maintain a stable local government as they continually expanded in a limitless wilderness. Out of all this chaos grew the mother and leader of the American colonies. Tobacco penetrated the social, political, and economic life of the colony. Ownership of a large tobacco plantation could take one up the social ladder; many of the men responsible for the welfare of the colony were planters, and everything could be paid for in tobacco. In 1620 the indentured servants were paid for with tobacco, the young women sent to the colonists to become wives were purchased by paying their transportation charges with tobacco. The wages of soldiers and the salaries of clergymen and governmental officials were paid in tobacco. After 1730 tobacco notes, that is warehouse receipts, representing a certain amount of money, served as currency for the colony. The development of the inspection system with its chain of tobacco warehouses hastened urbanization. Around many of these warehouses grew villages and settlements; some of these eventually became towns and cities. Richmond, Petersburg, Danville, Fredericksburg, Farmville, Clarksville and others were once merely convenient landings or locations for tobacco warehouses. Even today the fragrant aroma of cured tobacco still exists in a number of these places during the tobacco marketing season. The tobacco trade was largely responsible for the birth and growth of Alexandria, Dumfries, and Norfolk into important export-import centers. For her birth, growth, and colonial leadership, Virginia pays her respect to John Rolfe and the other brave settlers at Jamestown. Tobacco is still a vital factor in Virginia's economy. Of approximately 2,000,000 acres of cropland (pastureland excluded) in 1949, 115,400 were planted in tobacco which produced 124,904,000 pounds valued at $55,120,800 or twenty-three percent of the total value of all agricultural crops. Of the four largest agricultural products--poultry, tobacco, meat animals, and milk--tobacco ranked second only to poultry in terms of income in 1955. Poultry produced an income of $99,935,000, tobacco $84,128,000, meat animals $80,564,000, and milk $70,681,000. Peanuts and fruits were tied for fifth place, each producing an income of about $21,000,000. Of the many different industries in Virginia today only five--food, textile, wearing apparel, chemical, and the manufacture of transportation equipment--employ more workers than the tobacco manufacturers. In 1953 a total of $40,000,000, in salaries and wages, was paid to production workers in the tobacco manufacturing industry in Virginia. Although tobacco is no longer "king" in the Old Dominion, Virginia farmers produce enough of the "golden weed" each year to make one long cigarette that would stretch around the world fifty times. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This is to acknowledge the sources for the following illustrations: Methods of Transporting Tobacco to Market and Plantation Tobacco Houses and Public Warehouses--William Tatham, _An Historical and Practical Essay on the Culture and Commerce of Tobacco_, London, 1800; An Old Tobacco Warehouse--courtesy of Mrs. H. I. Worthington, Directress of the Ralph Wormeley Branch of the Association for the Preservation of Virginia Antiquities, Syringa, Virginia; Tobacco cultivated by the Indians and Tobacco imported from the West Indies--these two pictures were reproduced by permission of George Arents and courtesy of the Virginia State Library. The pictures were found originally in _Tobacco; Its History Illustrated by the Books, Manuscripts and Engravings in the Library of George Arents, Jr., together with an Introductory Essay, a Glossary and Bibliographic Notes_, by Jerome E. Brooks, Volume 1, (The Rosenbach Company, New York, 1937). However, the two pictures in this pamphlet were reproduced from _Virginia Cavalcade_, by courtesy of the Virginia State Library. I am also grateful to Dr. E. G. Swem for his critical reading of the manuscript and his helpful suggestions, and to my wife for her proficient typing of the manuscript. G. M. H. 
21682	----	THE FIELD AND GARDEN VEGETABLES OF AMERICA; CONTAINING FULL DESCRIPTIONS OF NEARLY ELEVEN HUNDRED SPECIES AND VARIETIES; WITH DIRECTIONS FOR PROPAGATION, CULTURE, AND USE. BY FEARING BURR, JR. ILLUSTRATED. BOSTON: CROSBY AND NICHOLS, 117, WASHINGTON STREET. 1863. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1863, BY FEARING BURR, JR., In the Clerk's office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. BOSTON: PRINTED BY JOHN WILSON AND SON, 5, WATER STREET * * * * * TO HON. ALBERT FEARING, President of the Hingham Agricultural and Horticultural Society, WHOSE EARNEST LABORS AND LIBERAL CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE CAUSE OF HUMANITY HAVE ENDEARED HIS NAME TO THE AGED POOR AND TO ORPHAN CHILDREN, AND WHOSE ACTIVE SERVICES HAVE EXERTED SO BENEFICIAL AN INFLUENCE ON AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS IN HIS NATIVE TOWN, This Volume is gratefully and respectfully Dedicated BY THE AUTHOR. * * * * * PREFACE. Though embracing all the directions necessary for the successful management of a Vegetable Garden, the present volume is offered to the public as a manual or guide to assist in the selection of varieties, rather than as a treatise on cultivation. Through the standard works of American authors, as well as by means of the numerous agricultural and horticultural periodicals of our time, all information of importance relative to the various methods of propagation and culture, now in general practice, can be readily obtained. But, with regard to the characteristics which distinguish the numerous varieties; their difference in size, form, color, quality, and season of perfection; their hardiness, productiveness, and comparative value for cultivation,--these details, a knowledge of which is important as well to the experienced cultivator as to the beginner, have heretofore been obtained only through sources scattered and fragmentary. To supply this deficiency in horticultural literature, I have endeavored, in the following pages, to give full descriptions of the vegetables common to the gardens of this country. It is not, however, presumed that the list is complete, as many varieties, perhaps of much excellence, are comparatively local: never having been described, they are, of course, little known. Neither is the expectation indulged, that all the descriptions will be found perfect; though much allowance must be made in this respect for the influence of soil, locality, and climate, as well as for the difference in taste of different individuals. Much time, labor, and expense have been devoted to secure accuracy of names and synonymes; the seeds of nearly all of the prominent varieties having been imported both from England and France, and planted, in connection with American vegetables of the same name, with reference to this object alone. The delay and patience required in the preparation of a work like the present may be in some degree appreciated from the fact, that in order to obtain some comparatively unimportant particular with regard to the foliage, flower, fruit, or seed, of some obscure and almost unknown plant, it has been found necessary to import the seed or root; to plant, to till, to watch, and wait an entire season. Though some vegetables have been included which have proved of little value either for the table or for agricultural purposes, still it is believed such descriptions will be found by no means unimportant; as a timely knowledge of that which is inferior, or absolutely worthless, is often as advantageous as a knowledge of that which is of positive superiority. That the volume may be acceptable to the agriculturist, seedsman, and to all who may possess, cultivate, or find pleasure in, a garden, is the sincere wish of the author. F. B., JR. HINGHAM, March, 1863. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. In the preparation of this work, I have received the cheerful co-operation of many esteemed personal friends, to whom I would here express my grateful acknowledgments. For many valuable suggestions with regard to the culture and general management of the Potato, as well as for much important information respecting nearly all of our American varieties of this vegetable, I am indebted to J. F. C. HYDE, Esq., of Newton, Mass.; whose long experience in the production of seedlings, as well as in the cultivation of established kinds, will give peculiar value to this portion of the volume. The illustrations, so excellent and truthful, are from the pencil of Mr. ISAAC SPRAGUE, of Cambridge, Mass.; whose fine delineations of animal as well as vegetable life have won for him the reputation of being "the first of living artists." I am peculiarly indebted to Rev. E. PORTER DYER, of Hingham, for much valuable advice and assistance; and cannot too fully express my obligations for the unvarying kindness and courteous manner in which repeated, and perhaps often unseasonable, requests for aid have been received and granted. My acknowledgments are also due to Hon. JOSEPH BRECK, author of "Book of Flowers," and late President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society; to CHARLES M. HOVEY, Esq., editor of "The Magazine of Horticulture," and President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society; to P. B. HOVEY, Esq., nurseryman and seedsman, of Cambridge, Mass.; and to DANIEL T. CURTIS, Esq., seedsman and florist, and for many years Chairman of the Committee on Vegetables of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. For information or other very acceptable assistance, I am also indebted to Rev. CALVIN LINCOLN, of Hingham; Rev. JOHN L. RUSSELL, of Salem, Mass.; JOHN A. BUTLER, Esq., of Chelsea, Mass.; EDWARD S. RAND, Jun., Esq., of Boston; Mr. AUSTIN BRONSON, of Enfield, N.H.; GEORGE W. PRATT, Esq., of Boston; JOHN M. IVES, Esq., of Salem, Mass.; Mr. JAMES SCOTT, of Hatfield, Mass.; Mr. ALONZO CRAFTS, of Whately, Mass.; Mr. JOHN C. HOVEY, of Cambridge, Mass.; Mr. ISAAC P. RAND, of Dorchester, Mass.; Mr. GEORGE EVERETT, of Concord, Mass.; and CALEB BATES, of Kingston, Mass. From a work entitled "Descriptions des Plantes Potagères, par VILMORIN, ANDRIEUX, et CIE., Paris;" from CHARLES M'INTOSH'S excellent "Book of the Garden;" the "Gardener's Assistant," by ROBERT THOMPSON; "Rogers's Vegetable Cultivator;" and "Lawson's Agriculturist's Manual,"--I have made liberal extracts; and lest, in the course of the volume, any omission of authority may occur where it should have been accredited, my indebtedness to the valuable publications above mentioned is here candidly confessed. In adapting directions for cultivation, prepared for one climate, or section of country, to suit that of another quite dissimilar, so much alteration of the original text has at times been found necessary, that I have not felt at liberty to affix the name of the original writer, but have simply added the usual marks denoting derivation of authority. ABBREVIATIONS AND AUTHORITIES. _Big._--Plants of Boston and Vicinity. By JACOB BIGELOW, M.D. Boston, 1840. _Bon. Jard._--Le Bon Jardinier pour l'Année 1859. Par A. BOITEAU et M. VILMORIN. _Corb._--The American Gardener. By WILLIAM CORBETT. Concord, Boston, and New York, 1842. _Cot. Gard._--The Cottage Gardener. By GEORGE W. JOHNSON and ROBERT HOGG. Weekly. London. _Count. Gent._--The Country Gentleman. By LUTHER TUCKER and SON. Weekly. Albany, N.Y. _De Cand._--The Candolle's Systema Naturale. By Prof. DE CANDOLLE. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1818, 1821. _Down._--The Fruit and Fruit-trees of America. By A. J. DOWNING. Revised and corrected by CHARLES DOWNING, 1858. _Gard. Chron._--The Gardener's Chronicle. Weekly. By Prof. LINDLEY. 1844 to the present time. _Gray._--Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States. By Prof. ASA GRAY. New York, 1857. _Hort._--The Horticulturist, and Journal of Art and Rural Taste. Monthly. By P. BARRY and J. JAY SMITH. Philadelphia. _Hov. Mag._--The Magazine of Horticulture, Botany, and Rural Affairs. By C. M. HOVEY. Boston. Monthly. 1834 to the present time. _Law._--The Agriculturist's Manual. By PETER LAWSON and SON. Edinburgh, 1836. _Lind._--A Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen Garden. By GEORGE LINDLEY. London, 1831. _Loud._--Encyclopædia of Gardening. By J. C. LOUDON. London, 1850. _Loud._--Encyclopædia of Agriculture. By J. C. LOUDON. London, 1844. _Low._--The Elements of Practical Agriculture. By DAVID LOW. London, 1843. _M'Int._--The Book of the Garden. By CHARLES M'INTOSH. 2 vols. Edinburgh and London, 1855. _Mill._--The Gardener's and Botanist's Dictionary. By PHILIP MILLER. Revised by Prof. MARTYN. London, 1819. _Neill._--Neill's Journal of a Horticultural Tour, &c. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1823. _New Am. Cyclopædia._--New American Cyclopædia. D. APPLETON & Co., New York. 16 vols. royal 8vo. 1857 to 1863. _Rog._--The Vegetable Cultivator. By JOHN ROGERS. London, 1851. _Thomp._--The Gardener's Assistant. By ROBERT THOMPSON. _Trans._--The Transactions of the London Horticultural Society. Commenced 1815, and continued at intervals to the present time. _Vil._--Description des Plantes Potagères. Par VILMORIN, ANDRIEUX, et CIE. Paris, 1856. * * * * * CONTENTS. CHAP. I.--_Esculent Roots._ The Beet. Carrot. Chervil, Turnip-rooted. Chinese Potato, or Japanese Yam. Chufa, or Earth Almond. German Rampion. Jerusalem Artichoke. Kohl Rabi. Oxalis, Tuberous. Oxalis, Deppe's. Parsnip. Potato. Radish. Rampion. Swede or Ruta-baga Turnip. Salsify, or Oyster Plant. Scolymus. Scorzonera. Skirret. Sweet Potato. Tuberous-rooted Chickling Vetch. Tuberous-rooted Tropæolum. Turnip. 1-121 CHAP. II.--_Alliaceous Plants._ The Cive. Garlic. Leek. Onion. Rocambole. Shallot. Welsh Onion. 122-148 CHAP. III.--_Asparaginous Plants._ The Artichoke. Asparagus. Cardoon. Hop. Oosung. Phytolacca. 149-169 CHAP. IV.--_Cucurbitaceous Plants._ The Cucumber. Egyptian Cucumber. Globe Cucumber. Gourd, or Calabash. The Melon. Musk-melon. Persian Melons. Water-melon. Papanjay, or Sponge Cucumber. Prickly-fruited Gherkin. Pumpkin. Snake Cucumber. Squash. 170-228 CHAP. V.--_Brassicaceous Plants._ Borecole, or Kale. Broccoli. Brussels Sprouts. Cabbage. Cauliflower. Colewort. Couve Tronchuda, or Portugal Cabbage. Pak-Chöi. Pe-Tsai, or Chinese Cabbage. Savoy. Sea-kale. 229-286 CHAP. VI.--_Spinaceous Plants._ Amaranthus. Black Nightshade. Leaf-beet, or Swiss Chard. Malabar Nightshade. Nettle. New-Zealand Spinach. Orach. Patience Dock. Quinoa. Sea-beet. Shepherd's Purse. Sorrel. Spinach. Wild or Perennial Spinach. 287-314 CHAP. VII.--_Salad Plants._ Alexanders. Brook-lime. Buckshorn Plantain. Burnet. Caterpillar. Celery. Celeriac, or Turnip-rooted Celery. Chervil. Chiccory, or Succory. Corchorus. Corn Salad. Cress, or Peppergrass. Cuckoo Flower. Dandelion. Endive. Horse-radish. Lettuce. Madras Radish. Mallow, Curled-leaf. Mustard. Nasturtium. Garden Picridium. Purslain. Rape. Roquette, or Rocket. Samphire. Scurvy-grass. Snails. Sweet-scented Chervil, or Sweet Cicely. Tarragon. Valeriana. Water-cress. Winter-cress, or Yellow Rocket. Wood-sorrel. Worms. 315-405 CHAP. VIII.--_Oleraceous Plants._ Angelica. Anise. Balm. Basil. Borage. Caraway. Clary. Coriander. Costmary. Cumin. Dill. Fennel. Lavender. Lovage. Marigold. Marjoram. Nigella. Parsley. Peppermint. Rosemary. Sage. Savory. Spearmint. Tansy. Thyme. 406-449 CHAP. IX.--_Leguminous Plants._ American Garden-bean. Asparagus-bean. Lima Bean. Scarlet-runner. Sieva. Chick-pea. Chickling Vetch. English Bean. Lentil. Lupine. Pea. Pea-nut. Vetch, or Tare. Winged Pea. 450-560 CHAP. X.--_Medicinal Plants._ Bene-plant. Camomile. Coltsfoot. Elecampane. Hoarhound. Hyssop. Licorice. Pennyroyal. Poppy. Palmate-leaved or Turkey Rhubarb. Rue. Saffron. Southernwood. Wormwood. 561-578 CHAP. XI.--_Mushrooms, or Esculent Fungi._ Agaricus. Boletus. Clavaria. Morchella, or Morel. Tuber, or Truffle. 579-591 CHAP. XII.--_Miscellaneous Vegetables._ Alkekengi, or Ground Cherry. Corn. Egg-plant. Martynia. Oil Radish. Okra, or Gumbo. Pepper. Rhubarb, or Pie-plant. Sunflower. Tobacco. Tomato. 592-652 INDEX 655 FIELD AND GARDEN VEGETABLES. CHAPTER I. ESCULENT ROOTS. The Beet. Carrot. Chervil, Turnip-rooted. Chinese Potato, or Japanese Yam. Chufa, or Earth Almond. German Rampion. Jerusalem Artichoke. Kohl Rabi. Oxalis, Tuberous. Oxalis, Deppes. Parsnip. Potato. Radish. Rampion. Swede, or Ruta-baga Turnip. Salsify, or Oyster Plant. Scolymus. Scorzonera. Skirret. Sweet Potato. Tuberous-rooted Chickling Vetch. Tuberous-rooted Tropæolum. Turnip. THE BEET. Beta vulgaris. The Common Beet, sometimes termed the Red Beet, is a half-hardy biennial plant; and is cultivated for its large, succulent, sweet, and tender roots. These attain their full size during the first year, but will not survive the winter in the open ground. The seed is produced the second year; after the ripening of which, the plant perishes. When fully developed, the beet-plant rises about four feet in height, with an angular, channelled stem; long, slender branches; and large, oblong, smooth, thick, and fleshy leaves. The flowers are small, green, and are either sessile, or produced on very short peduncles. The calyxes, before maturity, are soft and fleshy; when ripe, hard and wood-like in texture. These calyxes, which are formed in small, united, rounded groups, or clusters, are of a brownish color, and about one-fourth of an inch in diameter; the size, however, as well as depth of color, varying, to some extent, in the different varieties. Each of these clusters of dried calyxes contains from two to four of the true seeds, which are quite small, smooth, kidney-shaped, and of a deep reddish-brown color. These dried clusters, or groups, are usually recognized as the seeds; about fifteen hundred of which will weigh one ounce. They retain their vitality from seven to ten years. _Soil and Fertilizers._--The soil best adapted to the beet is a deep, light, well-enriched, sandy loam. When grown on thin, gravelly soil, the roots are generally tough and fibrous; and when cultivated in cold, wet, clayey localities, they are often coarse, watery, and insipid, worthless for the table, and comparatively of little value for agricultural purposes. A well-digested compost, formed of barnyard manure, loam and salt, makes the best fertilizer. Where this is not to be obtained, guano, superphosphate of lime, or bone-dust, may be employed advantageously as a substitute. Wood-ashes, raked or harrowed in just previous to sowing the seed, make an excellent surface-dressing, as they not only prevent the depredations of insects, but give strength and vigor to the young plants. The application of coarse, undigested, strawy manure, tends to the production of forked and misshapen roots, and should be avoided. _Propagation and Culture._--Beets are always raised from seed. For early use, sowings are sometimes made in November; but the general practice is to sow the seed in April, as soon as the frost is out of the ground, or as soon as the soil can be worked. For use in autumn, the seed should be sown about the middle or 20th of May; and, for the winter supply, from the first to the middle of June. Lay out the ground in beds five or six feet in width, and of a length proportionate to the supply required; spade or fork the soil deeply and thoroughly over; rake the surface smooth and even; and draw the drills across the bed, fourteen inches apart, and about an inch and a half in depth. Sow the seeds thickly enough to secure a plant for every two or three inches, and cover to the depth of the drills. Should the weather be warm and wet, the young plants will appear in seven or eight days. When they are two inches in height, they should be thinned to five or six inches apart; extracting the weaker, and filling vacant spaces by transplanting. The surplus plants will be found an excellent substitute for spinach, if cooked and served in like manner. The afterculture consists simply in keeping the plants free from weeds, and the earth in the spaces between the rows loose and open by frequent hoeings. Mr. Thompson states that "the drills for the smaller varieties should be about sixteen inches apart, and the plants should be thinned out to nine inches apart in the rows. The large sorts may have eighteen inches between the rows, but still not more than nine inches from plant to plant in the row. When large-sized roots are desired, the rows may be eighteen inches or two feet apart, and the plants twelve or fifteen inches distant from each other in the rows. But large roots are not the best for the table; and it is better to have two medium-sized roots, grown at nine inches apart, than one of perhaps double the size from twice the space. As a square foot of ground should afford plenty of nourishment to produce a root large enough for the table, the area for each plant may, therefore, be limited to that extent. If the rows are sixteen inches apart, and the plants thinned to nine inches in the row, each plant will have a space equal to a square foot. Such, of course, would also be the case if the rows were twelve inches apart, and the plants the same distance from each other in the row. But it is preferable to allow a greater space between the rows than between the plants in the row: for, by this arrangement, the leaves have better scope to grow to each side, and the plants so situated grow better than those which have an equal but rather limited space in all directions; whilst the ground can also be more easily stirred, and kept clean." _Taking the Crop._--Roots, from the first sowings, will be ready for use early in July; from which time, until October, the table may be supplied directly from the garden. They should be drawn as fast as they attain a size fit for use; which will allow more time and space for the development of those remaining. For winter use, the roots must be taken up before the occurrence of heavy frosts, as severe cold not only greatly impairs their quality, but causes them to decay at the crown. Remove the leaves, being careful not to cut or bruise the crown; spread the roots in the sun a few hours to dry; pack them in sand or earth slightly moist; and place in the cellar, out of reach of frost, for the winter. "The London market-gardeners winter their beets in large sheds, stored in moderately damp mould, and banked up with straw. Mr. Cuthill states that it is a mistake to pack them in dry sand or earth for the winter; and that the same may be said of parsnips, carrots, salsify, scorzonera, and similar roots. "The object here is, that the moist soil may not draw the natural sap out of the roots so readily as dry sand would do; and hence they retain their fresh, plump appearance, and their tenderness and color are better preserved. In taking up the roots, the greatest care must be exercised that they are neither cut, broken, wounded on the skin, nor any of the fibres removed; and, when the small-leaved varieties are grown, few, if any, of the leaves should be cut off."--_M'Int._ If harvested before receiving injury from cold, and properly packed, they will retain, in a good degree, their freshness and sweetness until the new crop is suitable for use. _Seed._--To raise seed, select smooth and well-developed roots having the form, size, and color by which the pure variety is distinguished; and, in April, transplant them eighteen inches or two feet apart, sinking the crowns to a level with the surface of the ground. As the stalks increase in height, tie them to stakes for support. The plants will blossom in June and July, and the seeds will ripen in August. In harvesting, cut off the plants near the ground, and spread them in a light and airy situation till they are sufficiently dried for threshing, or stripping off the seeds; after which the seeds should be exposed, to evaporate any remaining moisture. An ounce of seed will sow from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet of drill, according to the size of the variety; and about four pounds will be required for one acre. _Use._--"The roots are the parts generally used, and are boiled, stewed, and also eaten cold, sliced in vinegar and oil. They enter into mixed salads, and are much used for garnishing; and, for all these purposes, the deeper colored they are, the more they are appreciated. Some, however, it ought to be noticed, prefer them of a bright-red color; but all must be of fine quality in fibre, solid, and of uniform color. The roots are also eaten cut into thin slices, and baked in an oven. Dried, roasted, and ground, they are sometimes mixed with coffee, and are also much employed as a pickle. Mixed with dough, they make a wholesome bread; but, for this purpose, the white or yellow rooted sorts are preferred. The roots of all the varieties are better baked than boiled."--_M'Int._ The young plants make an excellent substitute for spinach; and the leaves of some of the kinds, boiled when nearly full grown, and served as greens, are tender and well-flavored. Some of the larger varieties are remarkably productive, and are extensively cultivated for agricultural purposes. From a single acre of land in good condition, thirty or forty tons are frequently harvested; and exceptional crops are recorded of fifty, and even sixty tons. In France, the White Sugar-beet is largely employed for the manufacture of sugar,--the amount produced during one year being estimated to exceed that annually made from the sugar-cane in the State of Louisiana. For sheep, dairy-stock, and the fattening of cattle, experience has proved the beet to be at once healthful, nutritious, and economical. _Varieties._--The varieties are quite numerous, and vary to a considerable extent in size, form, color, and quality. They are obtained by crossing, or by the intermixture of one kind with another. This often occurs naturally when two or more varieties are allowed to run to seed in close proximity, but is sometimes performed artificially by transferring the pollen from the flower of a particular variety to the stigma of the flower of another. The kinds now in cultivation are as follows; viz.:-- BARK-SKINNED. _Vil._ Oak Bark-skinned. [Illustration: Bark-skinned Beet.] Root produced entirely within the earth, broadest near the crown, and thence tapering regularly to a point; average specimens measuring four inches in their greatest diameter, and about one foot in depth. Skin dark brown, thick, hard, and wrinkled, or striated, sometimes reticulated or netted, much resembling the bark of some descriptions of trees; whence the name. Flesh very deep purplish-red, circled, and rayed with paler red, fine-grained, sugary, and tender. Leaves numerous, spreading, bright green, slightly stained with red; the leaf-stems and nerves bright purplish-red. An early and comparatively new French variety, of fine flavor, excellent for summer use, and, if sown as late as the second week in June, equally valuable for the table during winter. Not recommended for field culture. Sow in rows fourteen inches apart, and thin to six inches apart in the rows. BARROTT'S NEW CRIMSON. _Thomp._ Root similar in form to the Castelnaudary, but somewhat larger; smooth and regular, and not apt to fork. Flesh dark crimson, fine-grained and tender. Leaf-stalks yellow. BASSANO. Early Flat Bassano. Turnip-rooted Bassano. Rouge Plate de Bassano. _Vil._ Bulb flattened; six or seven inches in diameter by three or four inches in depth; not very regular or symmetrical, but often somewhat ribbed, and terminating in a very small, slender tap-root. Skin of fine texture; brown above ground; below the surface, clear rose-red. Flesh white, circled or zoned with bright pink; not very close-grained, but very sugary and well-flavored. Leaves numerous, erect, of a lively green color, forming many separate groups, or tufts, covering the entire top, or crown, of the root. Leaf-stems short, greenish-white, washed or stained with rose. An Italian variety, generally considered the earliest of garden-beets, being from seven to ten days earlier than the Early Blood Turnip-rooted. The flesh, although much coarser than that of many other sorts, is tender, sweet, and of good quality. Roots from early sowings are, however, not suited for winter use; as, when overgrown, they almost invariably become too tough, coarse, and fibrous for table use. To have them in perfection during winter, the seed should not be sown till near the close of June. In moist, favorable seasons, it succeeds well in comparatively poor, thin soil. Cultivate and preserve as directed for the Early Turnip-rooted. CATTELL'S DWARF BLOOD. Root small, regularly tapering. Flesh deep blood-red. Leaves small, bright red, spreading, or inclined to grow horizontally. Quality good,--similar to that of the Red Castelnaudary; which variety it much resembles in its general character. On account of its small size, it requires little space, and may be grown in rows twelve inches apart. COW-HORN MANGEL WURZEL. _Vil._ Serpent-like Beet. Cow-horn Scarcity. A sub-variety of the Mangel Wurzel, producing its roots almost entirely above ground; only a small portion growing within the earth. Root long and slender, two feet and a half in length, and nearly three inches in diameter at its broadest part; often grooved or furrowed lengthwise, and almost invariably bent and distorted,--the effect either of the wind, or of the weight of its foliage. Flesh greenish white, circled with red at the centre. Leaves of medium size, green, erect; the leaf-stems and nerves pale red or rose color. It derives its different names from its various contorted forms; sometimes resembling a horn, and often assuming a shape not unlike that of a serpent. The variety is much esteemed and extensively cultivated in some parts of Europe, although less productive than the White Sugar or Long Red Mangel Wurzel. EARLY MANGEL WURZEL. Early Scarcity. Disette Hâtive. _Vil._ Aside from its smaller size, this variety much resembles the Common Red Mangel Wurzel. Root contracted towards the crown, which rises two or three inches above the surface of the soil, and tapering within the earth to a regular cone. Skin purplish rose, deeper colored than that of the last named. Flesh white, circled or zoned with pale red. Leaves spreading, green; the leaf-stems rose-colored. It is remarkable for the regular and symmetrical form of its roots, which grow rapidly, and, if pulled while young, are tender, very sweet, and well flavored. Planted the last of June, it makes a table-beet of more than average quality for winter use. When sown early, it attains a comparatively large size, and should have a space of twenty inches between the rows; but, when sown late, fifteen inches between the rows, and six inches between the plants in the rows, will afford ample space for their development. EARLY BLOOD TURNIP-ROOTED. Early Turnip Beet. [Illustration: Early Blood Turnip-rooted] The roots of this familiar variety are produced almost entirely within the earth, and measure, when of average size, from four inches to four and a half in depth, and about four inches in diameter. Form turbinate, flattened, smooth, and symmetrical. Neck small, tap-root very slender, and regularly tapering. Skin deep purplish-red. Flesh deep blood-red, sometimes circled and rayed with paler red, remarkably sweet and tender. Leaves erect, not very numerous, and of a deep-red color, sometimes inclining to green; but the stems and nerves always of a deep brilliant red. The Early Blood Turnip Beet succeeds well from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico; and in almost every section of the United States is more esteemed, and more generally cultivated for early use, than any other variety. Among market-gardeners, it is the most popular of the summer beets. It makes a rapid growth, comes early to the table, and, when sown late, keeps well, and is nearly as valuable for use in winter as in summer and autumn. In common with most of the table sorts, the turnip-rooted beets are much sweeter and more tender if pulled before they are fully grown; and consequently, to have a continued supply in their greatest perfection, sowings should be made from the beginning of April to the last of June, at intervals of two or three weeks. The roots, especially those intended for seed, should be harvested before severe frosts, as they are liable to decay when frozen at the crown, or even chilled. Sow in drills fourteen inches apart; and, when two inches in height, thin out the plants to six inches apart in the drills. An acre of land in good cultivation will yield from seven to eight hundred bushels. GERMAN RED MANGEL WURZEL. Disette d'Allemagne. _Vil._ An improved variety of the Long Red Mangel Wurzel, almost regularly cylindrical, and terminating at the lower extremity in an obtuse cone. It grows much out of ground, the neck or crown is comparatively small, it is rarely forked or deformed by small side roots, and is generally much neater and more regular than the Long Red. Size very large; well-developed specimens measuring from eighteen to twenty inches in length, and seven or eight inches in diameter. Flesh white, with red zones or rings; more colored than that of the last named. Leaves erect, green; the stems and nerves washed or stained with rose-red. For agricultural purposes, this variety is superior to the Long Red, as it is larger, more productive, and more easily harvested. GERMAN YELLOW MANGEL WURZEL. Green Mangel Wurzel. Jaune d'Allemagne. _Vil._ Root produced half above ground, nearly cylindrical for two-thirds its length, terminating rather bluntly, and often branched or deformed by small side-roots. Size large; when well grown, measuring sixteen or eighteen inches deep, six or seven inches in diameter, and weighing from twelve to fifteen pounds. Skin above ground, greenish-brown; below, yellow. Flesh white, occasionally zoned or marked with yellow. Leaves of medium size, rather numerous, erect, very pale, or yellowish green; the stems and ribs light green. While young and small, the roots are tender and well-flavored; but this is a field rather than a table beet. In point of productiveness, it differs little from the Common Long Red, and should be cultivated as directed for that variety. HALF LONG BLOOD. Dwarf Blood. Fine Dwarf Red. Early Half Long Blood. Rouge Nain. _Vil._ [Illustration: Half Long Blood.] Root produced within the earth, of medium size, or rather small; usually measuring about three inches in thickness near the crown, and tapering regularly to a point; the length being ten or twelve inches. Skin smooth, very deep purplish-red. Flesh deep blood-red, circled and rayed with paler red, remarkably fine grained, of firm texture, and very sugary. Leaves small, bright red, blistered on the surface, and spreading horizontally. Leaf-stems short. An excellent, half-early, garden variety, sweet, and well flavored, a good keeper, and by many considered very superior to the Common Long Blood. When full grown, it is still tender and fine-grained, and much less stringy and fibrous than the last named, at an equally advanced stage of growth. It may be classed as one of the best table-beets, and is well worthy cultivation. IMPROVED LONG BLOOD. Long Smooth Blood. This is an improved variety of the Common Long Blood, attaining a much larger size, and differing in its form, and manner of growth. When matured in good soil, its length is from eighteen inches to two feet; and its diameter, which is retained for more than half its length, is from four to five inches. It is seldom very symmetrical in its form; for, though it has but few straggling side-roots, it is almost invariably bent and distorted. Skin smooth, very deep or blackish purple. Flesh dark blood-red, sweet, tender, and fine grained, while the root is young and small, but liable to be tough and fibrous when full grown. Leaves small, erect-red, and not very numerous. Leaf-stems blood-red. This beet, like the Common Long Blood, is a popular winter sort, retaining its color well when boiled. It is of larger size than the last named, grows more above the surface of the ground, and has fewer fibrous and accidental small side-roots. While young, it compares favorably with the old variety; but, when full grown, can hardly be said to be much superior. To have the variety in its greatest perfection for winter use, the seed should not be sown before the 10th of June; as the roots of this, as well as those of nearly all the table-varieties, are much more tender and succulent when very rapidly grown, and of about two-thirds their full size. Sow in drills fifteen inches apart, and thin to eight inches apart in the drills; or sow on ridges eighteen inches apart. LONG BLOOD. Common Long Blood. The roots of this familiar variety are long, tapering, and comparatively slender; the size varying according to the depth and richness of the soil. Skin dark purple, sometimes purplish-black. Flesh deep blood-red, very fine grained and sugary, retaining its color well after being boiled. Leaves rather numerous, of medium size, erect, deep purplish-red; the leaf-stems blood-red. One of the most popular of winter beets; but, for late keeping, the seed should not be sown before the middle of June, as the roots, when large, are frequently tough and fibrous. The Improved Long Blood is a variety of this, and has, to a considerable extent, superseded it in the vegetable garden; rather, it would seem, on account of its greater size, than from any real superiority as respects its quality or keeping properties. LONG RED MANGEL WURZEL. Red Mangel Wurzel. Marbled Field Beet. _Law._ Root fusiform, contracted at the crown, which, in the genuine variety, rises six or eight inches above the surface of the ground. Size large, when grown in good soil; often measuring eighteen inches in length, and six or seven inches in diameter. Skin below ground purplish-rose; brownish-red where exposed to the air and light. Leaves green; the stems and nerves washed or stained with rose-red. Flesh white, zoned and clouded with different shades of red. The Long Red Mangel Wurzel is hardy, keeps well, grows rapidly, is very productive, and in this country is more generally cultivated for agricultural purposes than any other variety. According to Lawson, the marbled or mixed color of its flesh seems particularly liable to vary: in some specimens, it is almost of a uniform red; while, in others, the red is scarcely, and often not at all, perceptible. These variations in color are, however, of no importance as respects the quality of the roots. The seed may be sown from the middle of April to the last of May. If sown in drills, they should be at least eighteen inches apart, and the plants should be thinned to ten inches in the drills. If sown on ridges, the sowing should be made in double rows; the ridges being three and a half or four feet apart, and the rows fifteen inches apart. The yield varies with the quality of the soil and the state of cultivation; thirty and thirty-five tons being frequently harvested from an acre. While young, the roots are tender and well-flavored, and are sometimes employed for table use. LONG WHITE GREEN-TOP MANGEL WURZEL. Green-top White Sugar. Long White Mangel Wurzel. Disette Blanche à Collet Verte. _Vil._ An improved variety of the White Sugar Beet. Root produced much above ground, and of very large size; if well grown, measuring nearly six inches in diameter, and eighteen inches in depth,--the diameter often retained for nearly two-thirds the length. Skin green, where exposed to light and air; below ground, white. Flesh white. Leaves green, rather large, and not so numerous as those of the White Sugar. Very productive, and superior to the last named for agricultural purposes; the quality being equally good, and the yield much greater. LONG YELLOW MANGEL WURZEL. Jaune Grosse. _Vil._ [Illustration: Long Yellow Mangel Wurzel.] Root somewhat fusiform, contracted towards the crown, which rises six or eight inches above the surface of the ground. Size remarkably large; when grown in deep rich soil, often measuring twenty inches in length, and five or six inches in thickness. Skin yellow, bordering on orange-color. Flesh pale yellow, zoned or circled with white, not close-grained, but sugary. Leaves comparatively large, pale green; the stems and nerves yellow; the nerves paler. The variety is one of the most productive of the field-beets; but the roots are neither smooth nor symmetrical, a majority being forked or much branched. In the vicinity of Paris, it is extensively cultivated, and is much esteemed by dairy farmers on account of the rich color which it imparts to milk when fed to dairy-stock. Compared with the German Yellow, the roots of this variety are longer, not so thick, more tapering; and the flesh is of a much deeper color. It has also larger foliage. PINE-APPLE SHORT-TOP. _Hov. Mag._ Root of medium size, fusiform. Skin deep purplish-red. Flesh very deep blood-red, fine-grained, as sweet as the Bassano, tender, and of excellent quality for table use. Leaves very short and few in number, reddish-green; leaf-stems and nerves blood-red. In its foliage, as well as in the color of the root, it strongly resembles some of the Long Blood varieties; but it is not so large, is much finer in texture, and superior in flavor. It is strictly a garden or table beet, and, whether for fall or winter use, is well deserving of cultivation. RED CASTELNAUDARY. _Trans._ This beet derives its name from a town in the province of Languedoc in France, where the soil is particularly adapted to the growth of these vegetables, and where this variety, which is so much esteemed in France for its nut-like flavor, was originally produced. The roots grow within the earth. The leaves are thickly clustered around the crown, spreading on the ground. The longest of the leaf-stems do not exceed three inches: these and the veins of the leaves are quite purple, whilst the leaves themselves are green, with only a slight stain of purple. The root is little more than two inches in diameter at the top, tapering gradually to the length of nine inches. The flesh, which is of a deep purple, and exhibits dark rings, preserves its fine color when boiled, is very tender and sweet, and presents a delicate appearance when cut in slices. Being small in its whole habit, it occupies but little space in the ground, and may be sown closer than other varieties usually are. Not generally known or much cultivated in this country. RED GLOBE MANGEL WURZEL. Betterave Globe Rouge. _Vil._ Root nearly spherical, but tapering to pear-shaped at the base; nearly one-third produced above ground. Size large; well-grown specimens measuring seven or eight inches in diameter, and nine or ten inches in depth. Skin smooth, and of a rich purplish rose-color below ground; brown above the surface, where exposed to the sun. Flesh white, rarely circled, with rose-red. Leaves pale green, or yellowish green; the stems and ribs or nerves sometimes veined with red. This variety is productive, keeps well, and, like the Yellow Globe, is well adapted to hard and shallow soils. It is usually cultivated for agricultural purposes, although the yield is comparatively less than that of the last named. In moist soils, the Yellow Globe succeeds best; and, as its quality is considered superior, it is now more generally cultivated than the Red. WHITE GLOBE MANGEL WURZEL. A sub-variety of the Yellow and Red Globe, which, in form and manner of growth, it much resembles. Skin above ground, green; below, white. Leaves green. Flesh white and sugary; but, like the foregoing sorts, not fine grained, or suited for table use. Productive, easily harvested, excellent and profitable for farm purposes, and remarkably well adapted for cultivation in hard, shallow soil. WHITE SUGAR. White Silesian. Betterave Blanche. _Vil._ [Illustration: White Sugar Beet.] Root fusiform, sixteen inches in length, six or seven inches in its greatest diameter, contracted towards the crown, thickest just below the surface of the soil, but nearly retaining its size for half the depth, and thence tapering regularly to a point. Skin white, washed with green or rose-red at the crown. Flesh white, crisp, and very sugary. Leaves green; the leaf-stems clear green, or green stained with light red, according to the variety. The White Sugar Beet is quite extensively grown in this country, and is employed almost exclusively as feed for stock; although the young roots are sweet, tender, and well flavored, and in all respects superior for the table to many garden varieties. In France, it is largely cultivated for the manufacture of sugar and for distillation. Of the two sub-varieties, some cultivators prefer the Green-top; others, the Rose-colored or Red-top. The latter is the larger, more productive, and the better keeper; but the former is the more sugary. It is, however, very difficult to preserve the varieties in a pure state; much of the seed usually sown containing, in some degree, a mixture of both. It is cultivated in all respects as the Long Red Mangel Wurzel, and the yield per acre varies from twenty to thirty tons. WHITE TURNIP-ROOTED. A variety of the Early Turnip-rooted Blood, with green leaves and white flesh; the size and form of the root, and season of maturity, being nearly the same. Quality tender, sweet, and well flavored; but, on account of its color, not so marketable as the last named. WYATT'S DARK CRIMSON. Whyte's Dark Crimson. Rouge de Whyte. _Vil._ Root sixteen inches long, five inches in diameter, fusiform, and somewhat angular in consequence of broad and shallow longitudinal furrows or depressions. Crown conical, brownish. Skin smooth, slate-black. Flesh very deep purplish-red, circled and rayed with yet deeper shades of red, very fine-grained, and remarkably sugary. Leaves deep red, shaded with brownish-red: those of the centre, erect; those of the outside, spreading or horizontal. The variety is not early, but of fine quality; keeps remarkably well, and is particularly recommended for cultivation for winter and spring use. Much esteemed in England. YELLOW CASTELNAUDARY. _Trans._ _Vil._ Root produced within the earth, broadest at the crown, where its diameter is nearly three inches, and tapering gradually to a point; the length being about eight inches. Skin orange-yellow. Flesh clear yellow, with paler zones or rings. Leaves spreading, those on the outside being on stems about four inches in length; the inner ones are shorter, numerous, of a dark-green color, and rather waved on the edges: the leaf-stems are green, rather than yellow. An excellent table-beet, being tender, yet firm, and very sweet when boiled, although its color is not so agreeable to the eye. YELLOW GLOBE MANGEL WURZEL. Betterave Jaune Globe. _Vil._ [Illustration: Yellow Globe Mangel Wurzel.] This is a globular-formed beet, measuring about ten inches in diameter, and weighing ten or twelve pounds; about one-half of the root growing above ground. Skin yellow, where it is covered by the soil; and yellowish-brown above the surface, where exposed to light and air. Flesh white, zoned or marked with yellow, close-grained and sugary. Leaves not large or numerous, rather erect, green; the stems and ribs paler, and sometimes yellowish. The Yellow Globe is one of the most productive of all the varieties; and, though not adapted to table use, is particularly excellent for stock of all descriptions, as the roots are not only remarkably sugary, but contain a considerable portion of albumen. It retains its soundness and freshness till the season has far advanced, does not sprout so early in spring as many others, and is especially adapted for cultivation in hard, shallow soil. The yield varies from thirty to forty tons per acre, according to soil, season, and culture; although crops are recorded of fifty tons and upwards. Sow from the last of April to the last of May; but early sowings succeed best. If sown in drills, they should be made twenty inches apart, and the plants should be thinned to ten inches apart in the drills; if sown on ridges, sow in double rows, making the ridges three feet and a half, and the rows sixteen inches apart. On account of its globular form, the crop can be harvested with great facility by the use of a common plough. YELLOW TURNIP-ROOTED. A sub-variety of the Blood Turnip-rooted, differing principally in color, but to some extent also in its form, which is less compressed. Leaves large, yellowish-green; the leaf-stems and nerves yellow. Flesh yellow, comparatively close-grained, sweet and tender. Not much cultivated on account of its color; the red varieties being preferred for table use. * * * * * THE CARROT. Daucus carota. The Carrot, in its cultivated state, is a half-hardy biennial. It is indigenous to some parts of Great Britain, generally growing in chalky or sandy soil, and to some extent has become naturalized in this country; being found in gravelly pastures and mowing fields, and occasionally by roadsides, in loose places, where the surface has been disturbed or removed. In its native state, the root is small, slender, and fibrous, or woody, of no value, and even of questionable properties as an article of food. _Soil, Sowing, and Culture._--The Carrot flourishes best in a good, light, well-enriched loam. Where there is a choice of situations, heavy and wet soils should be avoided; and, where extremes are alternatives, preference should be given to the light and dry. If possible, the ground should be stirred to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches, incorporating a liberal application of well-digested compost, and well pulverizing the soil in the operation. The surface should next be levelled, cleared as much as possible of stones and hard lumps of earth, and made mellow and friable; in which state, if the ground contains sufficient moisture to color the surface when it is stirred, it will be ready for the seed. This may be sown from the first of April to the 20th of May; but early sowings succeed best. The drills should be made an inch in depth; and for the smaller, garden varieties, about ten inches apart. The larger sorts are grown in drills about fourteen inches apart; the plants in the rows being thinned to five or six inches asunder. _Harvesting._--The roots attain their full size by the autumn of the first year; and, as they are not perfectly hardy, should be dug and housed before the ground is frozen. When large quantities are raised for stock, they are generally placed in bulk in the cellar, without packing; but the finer sorts, when intended for the table, are usually packed in earth or sand, in order to retain their freshness and flavor. With ordinary precaution, they will remain sound and fresh until May or June. _Seed._--To raise seed, select good-sized, smooth, and symmetrical roots; and as early in spring as the frost is out of the ground, and the weather settled, transplant to rows three feet apart, and fifteen inches apart in the rows, sinking the crowns just below a level with the surface of the ground. The seed-stalks are from four to six feet in height, with numerous branches. The flowers appear in June and July; are white; and are produced at the extremities of the branches, in umbels, or flat, circular groups or clusters, from two to five inches in diameter. The seed ripens in August; but, as all the heads do not ripen at once, they should be cut off as they successively mature. The stiff, pointed hairs or bristles with which the seeds are thickly covered, and which cause them to adhere together, should be removed either by threshing or by rubbing between the hands; clearing them more or less perfectly, according to the manner of sowing. If sown by a machine, the seeds should not only be free from broken fragments of the stems of the plant, but the surface should be made as smooth as possible. For hand-sowing, the condition of the seed is less essential; though, when clean, it can be distributed in the drill more evenly and with greater facility. The seeds of the several varieties differ little in size, form, or color, and are not generally distinguishable from each other. They will keep well two years; and if preserved from dampness, and placed in a cool situation, a large percentage will vegetate when three years old. In the vegetable garden, an ounce of seed is allowed for one hundred and fifty feet of drill; and, for field culture, about two pounds for an acre. An ounce contains twenty-four thousand seeds. _Use._--Though not relished by all palates, carrots are extensively employed for culinary purposes, and are generally considered healthful and nutritious. They form an important ingredient in soups, stews, and French dishes of various descriptions; and by many are much esteemed, when simply boiled, and served with meats or fish. "Carrots may be given to every species of stock, and form in all cases a palatable and nourishing food. They are usually given in their raw state, though they may be steamed or boiled in the same manner as other roots. "Horses and dairy-cows are the live-stock to which they are most frequently given. They are found in an eminent degree to give color and flavor to butter; and, when this is the end desired, no species of green-feeding is better suited to the dairy. To horses they may be given with cut straw and hay; and, thus given, form a food which will sustain them on hard work. They afford excellent feeding for swine, and quickly fatten them. When boiled, they will be eaten by poultry; and, mixed with any farinaceous substance, form an excellent food for them. They are also used for distillation, affording a good spirit." The varieties are as follow:-- ALTRINGHAM. _Law._ Altringham. Long Red Altringham. _Vil._ The Altrincham Carrot measures about fourteen inches in length, by two inches in diameter. It retains its thickness for nearly two-thirds its length: but the surface is seldom regular or smooth; the genuine variety being generally characterized by numerous crosswise elevations, and corresponding depressions. Neck small and conical, rising one or two inches above the surface of the soil. Skin nearly bright-red; the root having a semi-transparent appearance. Flesh bright and lively, crisp and breaking in its texture; and the heart, in proportion to the size of the root, is smaller than that of the Long Orange. Leaves long, but not large or very numerous. According to Lawson, it is easily distinguished from the Long Orange by the roots growing more above ground, by its more convex or rounded shoulders, and by its tapering more irregularly, and terminating more abruptly. It is, however, exceedingly difficult to procure the variety in its purity, as it is remarkably liable to sport, although the roots grown for seed be selected with the greatest care. It is a good field-carrot, but less productive than the Long Orange and some others; mild and well flavored for the table, and one of the best sorts for cultivation for market. Thompson states that "it derives its name from a place called Altrincham, in Cheshire, Eng., where it is supposed to have originated. In seedsmen's lists it is frequently, but erroneously, called the Altringham." EARLY FRAME. Early Forcing Horn. Earliest Short Forcing Horn. Early Short Scarlet. [Illustration: Early Frame.] Root grooved or furrowed at the crown, roundish, or somewhat globular; rather more than two inches in diameter, nearly the same in depth, and tapering suddenly to a very slender tap-root. Skin red, or reddish-orange; brown or greenish where it comes to the surface of the ground. Foliage small and finely cut or divided, not so large or luxuriant as that of the Early Horn. The Early Frame is the earliest of all varieties, and is especially adapted for cultivation under glass, both on account of its earliness, and the shortness and small size of its roots. It is also one of the best sorts for the table, being very delicate, fine-grained, mild, and remarkably well flavored. Where space is limited, it may be grown in rows six inches apart, thinned to three inches apart in the rows; or sown broadcast, and the young plants thinned to three inches apart in each direction. EARLY HALF-LONG SCARLET. Half-long Red. _Vil._ Root slender and tapering, measuring seven or eight inches in length, and two inches in its greatest diameter. Crown hollow. Skin red below the surface of the ground, green or brown above. Flesh reddish-orange, fine-grained, mild, and well flavored. Foliage similar to that of the Early Frame, but not abundant. The variety is remarkably productive; in good soil and favorable seasons, often yielding an amount per acre approaching that of the Long Orange. Season intermediate between the early garden and late field sorts. EARLY HORN. Early Scarlet Horn. Early Short Dutch. Dutch Horn. [Illustration: Early Horn Carrot.] Root six inches in length, two inches and a half in diameter, nearly cylindrical, and tapering abruptly to a very slender tap-root. Skin orange-red, but green or brown where it comes to the surface of the ground. Flesh deep orange-yellow, fine-grained, and of superior flavor and delicacy. The crown of the root is hollow, and the foliage short and small. The variety is very early, and as a table-carrot much esteemed, both on account of the smallness of its heart and the tenderness of its fibre. As the roots are very short, it is well adapted for shallow soils; and on poor, thin land will often yield a greater product per acre than the Long Orange or the White Belgian, when sown under like circumstances. Sow in rows one foot apart, and thin to four inches in the rows. FLANDER'S LARGE PALE SCARLET. _Vil._ Flander's Pale Red. Root produced within the earth, fourteen or fifteen inches long, three or four inches in diameter at the broadest part, fusiform, not very symmetrical, but often quite crooked and angular. The crown is flat, very large, and nearly covered by the insertion of the leaves. Flesh reddish-yellow, and rather coarse-grained. Foliage large and vigorous. The roots are formed early and with great certainty. It is also very productive, of large size, keeps remarkably well; and, though of coarse texture, one of the best sorts for cultivation for farm-purposes. It originated in Flanders, and is comparatively an old variety, but is little disseminated, and not grown to any extent, in this country. LONG ORANGE. Root long, thickest at or near the crown, and tapering regularly to a point. Size very variable, being much affected by soil, season, and cultivation: well-grown specimens measure fifteen inches in length, and three inches in diameter at the crown. Skin smooth, of a reddish-orange color. Flesh comparatively close-grained, succulent, and tender, of a light-reddish vermilion or orange color, the heart lighter, and large in proportion to the size of the root. Foliage not abundant, but healthy and vigorous, and collected into a comparatively small neck. The roots are usually produced entirely within the earth. If pulled while very young and small, they are mild, fine-grained, and good for table use; but, when full grown, the texture is coarser, and the flavor stronger and less agreeable. The Long Orange is more cultivated in this country for agricultural purposes than all other varieties. With respect to its value for stock, its great productiveness, and its keeping properties, it is considered the best of all the sorts for field culture. A well-enriched soil will yield from six hundred to eight hundred bushels per acre. The seed is usually sown in drills, about fourteen inches apart, but sometimes on ridges, eighteen or twenty inches apart, formed by turning two furrows together; the ridges yielding the largest roots, and the drills the greatest quantity. Two pounds of seed are usually allowed to an acre; but, if sown by a well-regulated machine, about one-half this quantity will be sufficient. LONG RED BELGIAN. Yellow Belgian. Yellow Green-top Belgian. [Illustration: Long Red Belgian Carrot.] Root very long, fusiform, contracted a little towards the crown, but nearly of uniform thickness from the top down half the length. Size large; when grown in deep soil, often measuring twenty inches in length, and nearly three inches in diameter. The crown rises four or five inches above the surface of the ground, and is of a green color; below the surface, the skin is reddish-yellow. Flesh orange-red. This variety, like the White, originated in Belgium. In Europe it is much esteemed by agriculturists, and is preferred to the White Belgian, as it is not only nearly as productive, but has none of its defects. LONG YELLOW. Long Lemon. Root fusiform, three inches in diameter at the crown, and from, twelve to fourteen inches in depth. Skin pale yellow, or lemon-color, under ground; but greenish on the top, or crown, which rises a little above the surface of the soil. Flesh yellow, the heart paler, and, like that of the Long Orange, of large size. While young, the roots are delicate, mild, and well flavored; but, when full grown, valuable only for stock. The Long Lemon is easily harvested, and is very productive, yielding nearly the same quantity to the acre as the Long Orange; which variety it much resembles in its general character, and with which it is frequently, to a greater or less extent, intermixed. LONG SURREY. Long Red. James's Scarlet. This variety much resembles the Long Orange: the roots, however, are more slender, the heart is smaller, and the color deeper. "It is popular in some parts of England, and is extensively grown over the Continent." LONG WHITE. Common White. Root produced entirely below ground, regularly fusiform, fifteen inches long, by about three inches in its largest diameter. Skin white, stained with russet-brown. Flesh white, and generally considered sweeter than that of the colored varieties. The Common White has been but little cultivated since the introduction of the White Belgian; a variety much more productive, though perhaps not superior either in flavor, or fineness of texture. NEW INTERMEDIATE. [Illustration: New Intermediate.] An English variety, comparatively of recent introduction. Root broadest at the crown, and thence tapering very regularly to a point. Size full medium; well-grown specimens measuring nearly three inches in diameter at the broadest part, and about one foot in length. Skin bright orange-red. Flesh orange-yellow, fine-grained, sweet, well flavored, and, while young, excellent for table use. Very hardy, and also very productive; yielding, according to the best English authority, a greater weight per acre than any other yellow-fleshed variety. PURPLE OR BLOOD RED. Violette. _Vil._ Root fusiform, and very slender, fourteen inches in length, by two inches and a half in diameter at the top or broadest part. Skin deep purple, varying to some extent in depth of shade, but generally very dark. Flesh purple at the outer part of the root, and yellow at the centre or heart; fine grained, sugary, and comparatively well flavored. Not much cultivated for the table, on account of the brown color it imparts to soups or other dishes of which it may be an ingredient. It is also inclined to run to seed the year it is sown. It has, however, the reputation of flourishing better in wet, heavy soil, than any other variety. SHORT WHITE. Blanche des Vosges. _Vil._ Root obtusely conical, seven or eight inches long, by about four inches in diameter at the crown, which is large, flat, greenish, and level with the surface of the ground. Skin white, tinted with amber, smooth and fine. Flesh yellowish-white, remarkably solid, and fine in texture; sweet and well flavored. Foliage rather finely divided, and as vigorous as the Long Orange. The Short White yields well, retains its qualities during winter, and is well adapted for cultivation in soils that are hard and shallow. STUDLEY. Long Red Brunswick. Root fusiform, very long, and regular; the crown level with the surface of the soil. In good cultivation, the roots attain a length of sixteen inches, and a diameter of nearly two inches. Color bright reddish-orange, like the Altrincham. An excellent table-carrot, but flourishes well only in deep, mellow soil. WHITE BELGIAN. Green-top White. Root very long, fusiform, eighteen to twenty inches in length, and four or five inches in diameter. In the genuine variety, the crown rises five or six inches from the surface of the ground; and, with the exception of a slight contraction towards the top, the full diameter is retained for nearly one-half of the entire length. Skin green above, white below ground. Flesh white, tending to citron-yellow at the centre or heart of the root; somewhat coarse in texture. Foliage rather large and vigorous. The White Belgian Carrot is remarkable for its productiveness, surpassing in this respect all other varieties, and exceeding that of the Long Orange by nearly one-fourth. It can be harvested with great facility, and gives a good return even on poor soils. The variety is not considered of any value as a table esculent, and is grown almost exclusively for feeding stock; for which purpose, it is, however, esteemed less valuable than the yellow-fleshed sorts, because less nutritious, and more liable to decay during winter. Since its introduction, it has somewhat deteriorated; and, as now grown, differs to some extent from the description given above. The roots are smaller, seldom rise more than two or three inches above the soil, and taper directly from the crown to the point. A judicious selection of roots for seed, continued for a few seasons, would undoubtedly restore the variety to its primitive form and dimensions. The same amount of seed will be required as of the Long Orange: and the general method of culture should be the same; with the exception, that, in thinning out the plants, the White Belgian should have more space. WHITE BELGIAN HORN. Transparent White. _Vil._ Root seven or eight inches in length, and two inches in its greatest diameter, tapering regularly from the crown to the point. Skin fine, clear white. Flesh very white, and almost transparent, mild, tender, and delicate. A French variety, remarkable for the peculiar, pure white color of its skin and flesh. * * * * * TURNIP-ROOTED CHERVIL. PARSNIP CHERVIL. Chærophyllum bulbosum. [Illustration: Turnip-rooted Chervil.] A hardy, biennial plant, from the south of Europe. The root is fusiform, four or five inches long, and nearly an inch and a half in diameter; skin, grayish-black; flesh, white. The leaves are compound, the leaflets very deeply cut, and the divisions of the upper leaves very narrow and slender. The flowers are white, and terminate the top of the plant in umbels, or large, circular, flat, spreading bunches. The seeds are long, pointed, furrowed, concave on one side, of a brownish color, and retain their power of germination but one year. An ounce contains sixty-five hundred seeds. _Soil and Cultivation._--The seeds may be sown in drills, in October or April, in the manner of sowing the seeds of the common carrot: preference to be given to rich, mellow soil. The roots will attain their full size by the following August or September, when they should be harvested. With a little care to prevent sprouting, they may be preserved until April. _Seed._--The roots intended for seed should be set in the open ground in autumn or in spring. The seeds will ripen in August, and should be sown within a month or two of the time of ripening; or, if kept till spring, should be packed in earth or sand: for, when these precautions are neglected, they will often remain dormant in the ground throughout the year. _Use._--The Tuberous-rooted Chervil promises to be a valuable esculent root. M. Vilmorin considered it worthy to be classed with the potato, though not equally productive. On his authority, upwards of six tons have been produced on an acre; an amount which he states may be greatly increased by a judicious selection of the best roots for seed. The roots, which are eaten boiled, are of a gray color, and nearly of the size and form of an Early Horn Carrot. The flesh is white, farinaceous, and of a flavor intermediate between that of a chestnut and a potato. * * * * * CHINESE POTATO, OR JAPANESE YAM. Dioscorea batatas. Stem twelve feet or more in length, of a creeping or climbing habit; leaves heart-shaped, though sometimes halberd-formed; flowers small, in clusters, white. "The root is of a pale russet color, oblong, regularly rounded, club-shaped, exceedingly tender, easily broken, and differs from nearly all vertical roots in being largest at the lower end." [Illustration: Chinese Potato, or Japanese Yam.] _Propagation and Cultivation._--The Chinese Potato requires a very deep, light, rather sandy, and tolerably rich soil; and this should be thoroughly stirred to the depth of at least two feet. No fresh manure should be used, but fine, well-decomposed compost applied, and deeply as well as very thoroughly incorporated with the soil; avoiding however, if possible, its direct contact with the growing roots. It is propagated either by small roots; by the top or neck of the large roots, cut off to the length of five or six inches; or by the small bulbs, or tubers, which the plants produce in considerable numbers on the stem, in the axils of the leaves. These should be planted the last of April, or as soon as the ground is in good working condition. Lay out the land in raised ridges two feet and a half or three feet asunder; and on the summit set the bulbs, or tubers, with the point or shoot upwards, eight or ten inches apart; and cover about an inch deep. Cultivate in the usual manner during the summer; and late in autumn, after the tops are dead, and just before the closing-up of the ground, take up the roots, dry them a short time in the sun, and store them in the cellar for use. The roots are perfectly hardy, and will sustain no injury from the coldest winter, if left unprotected in the open ground. During the second season, the growth of the old root is not continued, but gradually decays as the new roots are formed. A well-grown root will measure about two feet in length, and two inches and a half at its broadest diameter. _Use._--The flesh is remarkably white, and very mucilaginous in its crude state. The roots are eaten either boiled or roasted, and require rather more than half the time for cooking that is usually given to the boiling or roasting of the common potato. When cooked, they possess a rice-like taste and consistency, are quite farinaceous, and unquestionably nutritive and valuable for food. * * * * * CHUFA, OR EARTH ALMOND. EDIBLE CYPERUS. NUT RUSH. Cyperus esculentus. A perennial plant, from the south of Europe. The roots are long and fibrous, and produce at their extremities numerous small, rounded or oblong, jointed, pale-brown tubers, of the size of a filbert. The flesh of these roots, or tubers, is of a yellowish color, tender, and of a pleasant, sweet, and nut-like flavor. The leaves are rush-like, about eighteen inches high, a little rough, and sharply pointed. The flower-stalks are nearly of the same height as the leaves, three-cornered, hard, and leafless, with the exception of five or six leaflike bracts at the top, from the midst of which are produced the spikelets of flowers, which are of a pale-yellow color. _Propagation and Culture._--It is propagated by planting the tubers in April or May, two inches deep, in drills two feet apart, and six inches apart in the drills. They will be ready for harvesting in October. In warm climates, the plant, when once introduced into the garden, spreads with great rapidity, and is exterminated with much difficulty. In the Northern and Middle States, the tubers remaining in the open ground are almost invariably destroyed by the winter. _Use._--It is cultivated for its small, almond-like tubers, which, when dried, have somewhat the taste of the almond, and keep a long period. They are eaten either raw or roasted. "The plant grows spontaneously in the light, humid soils of Spain; and is cultivated in Germany and the south of France. The tubers are chiefly employed for making an orgeat,--a species of drink much used in Spain, Cuba, and other hot climates where it is known. When mashed to a flour,--which is white, sweet, and very agreeable to the taste,--it imparts to water the color and richness of milk."--_Hort._ * * * * * GERMAN RAMPION. TREE PRIMROSE. EVENING PRIMROSE. OEnothera biennis. The German Rampion, or Evening Primrose, common in this country to gravelly pastures and roadsides, is a hardy biennial plant, and, when in full perfection, measures three or four feet in height, with long, flat, pointed leaves, and large, yellow, fragrant flowers. The seed-pods are oblong, four-sided; the seeds are small, angular, of a brown color, and retain their germinative properties three years. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The seeds should be sown annually, in April, in a rich and shady situation; for if grown in a dry, sunny exposure, and sown very early in the season, the plants are inclined to run to flower during the summer: which renders the roots worthless; for they then become hard and fibrous. Sow in drills an inch deep, and fourteen inches apart; thin to six or eight inches in the rows; cultivate in the usual form; and, in September, the roots will be ready for use. For winter use, take up the roots before freezing weather, and pack in sand. For spring use, they may be taken directly from the ground. _To raise Seed._--Two or three plants, left in the ground through the winter, will yield an abundant supply of seeds the following summer. _Use._--The root is the only part used. This, when full grown, is generally from ten to twelve inches long, fusiform, occasionally with a few strong fibres, whitish on the outside, and white within. The thick, outer covering separates readily, and should be removed when the root is eaten in its crude state. It possesses a nutty flavor; but is inferior to the true Rampion, having a slight pungency. If required as a raw salad, it should be eaten while young. When the roots have attained their full size, they are usually dressed in the manner of Skirret and Scorzonera. * * * * * JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. Helianthus tuberosus. The Jerusalem Artichoke is a hardy perennial. In its manner of growth and flowering, it much resembles the common sunflower; of which, as its scientific term suggests, it is really a species. Stem six to eight feet high, very rough, and much branched; leaves alternate, large, rough, heart-shaped at the base, pointed at the ends, and indented on the borders; flowers large, yellow,--produced on the top of the plant, at the extremities of the branches. _Soil, Propagation, and Culture._--"It thrives best in a light, mellow soil, made rich by the application of old, decomposed manure; but the roots will flourish well if planted in any corner of the garden less suited for other descriptions of vegetables. To obtain fine roots, however, the soil should be trenched fifteen or eighteen inches in depth. "It is propagated by planting the small tubers, or offsets: the large tubers may also be cut or divided into several pieces, each having one eye, as practised with the potato. In April, or early in May, lay out the rows three feet apart, drop the tubers one foot apart in the rows, and cover three inches deep. As the plants come up, hoe the ground between the rows from time to time; and draw a little earth around their stems, to support them, and to afford the roots a thicker covering." _Taking the Crop._--The new tubers will be suitable for use in the autumn. In digging, great care should be taken to remove the small as well as the full-grown; for those not taken from the ground will remain fresh and sound during the winter, and send up in the spring new plants, which, in turn, will increase so rapidly, as to encumber the ground, and become troublesome. In localities where the crop has once been cultivated, though no plants be allowed to grow for the production of fresh tubers, yet the young shoots will continue to make their appearance from time to time for many years. _Use._--"The roots, or tubers, are the parts of the plant eaten. These are boiled in water till they become tender; when, after being peeled, and stewed with butter and a little wine, they will be as pleasant as the real Artichoke, which they nearly resemble both in taste and flavor." M'Intosh says that the tubers may be used in every way as the potato; and are suited to persons in delicate health, when debarred from the use of most other vegetables. _Varieties._--For a long period, there was but a single variety cultivated, or even known. Recent experiments in the use of seeds as a means of propagation have developed new kinds, varying greatly in their size, form, and color, possessing little of the watery and insipid character of the heretofore grown Jerusalem Artichoke, and nearly or quite equalling the potato in flavor and excellence. COMMON WHITE. Tubers large, and often irregular in form; skin and flesh white; quality watery, and somewhat insipid. It is unfit for boiling, but is sometimes served baked or roasted. It makes a very crisp and well-flavored pickle. PURPLE-SKINNED. A French variety, produced from seed. Tubers purplish rose-color; flesh dryer when cooked, and finer flavored, than that of the foregoing. RED-SKINNED. Like the Purple-skinned, produced from seed. Skin red. Between this and the last named there are various intermediate sorts, differing in shades of color, as well as in size, form, and quality. YELLOW-SKINNED. _Law._ The tubers of this variety are of a yellowish color, and are generally smaller, and even more irregularly shaped, than those of the Common White. They are, however, superior in quality, and of a more agreeable taste when cooked. * * * * * KOHL RABI. TURNIP CABBAGE. Brassica caulo-rapa. [Illustration: Green Kohl Rabi.] The Kohl Rabi is a vegetable intermediate between the cabbage and the turnip. The stem, just above the surface of the ground, swells into a round, fleshy bulb, in form not unlike a turnip. On the top and about the surface of this bulb are put forth its leaves, which are similar to those of the Swede turnips; being either lobed or entire on the borders, according to the variety. The seeds are produced the second year; after the ripening of which, the bulb perishes. _Sowing and Cultivation._--Mr. Thompson's directions are as follows: "Kohl Rabi may be sown thinly, broadcast, or in drills four inches apart, in April, May, or June. When the young plants are an inch or two in height, they may be transplanted into any good, well-enriched piece of ground, planting them eight inches apart, in rows fifteen inches asunder, and not deeper in the ground than they were in the seed-bed. Water should be given till they take fresh root, and subsequently in dry weather as required; for though the plants suffer little from droughts, yet the tenderness of the produce is greatly impaired by an insufficient supply of moisture. With the exception of stirring the ground and weeding, no further culture is required. The crop will be fit for use when the bulbs are of the size of an early Dutch turnip: when allowed to grow much larger, they are only fit for cattle. Of field varieties, the bulbs sometimes attain an immense size; weighing, in some cases, fourteen pounds." _Seed._--Take up a few plants entire in autumn; preserve them during winter in the manner of cabbages or turnips; and transplant to the open ground in April, two feet apart in each direction. The seeds are not distinguishable from those of the Swede or Ruta-baga Turnip, and retain their vitality from five to seven years. _Use._--The part chiefly used is the turnip-looking bulb, formed by the swelling of the stem. This is dressed and eaten with sauce or with meat, as turnips usually are. While young, the flesh is tender and delicate, possessing the combined flavor of the cabbage and turnip. They are said to keep better than any other bulb, and to be sweeter and more nutritious than the cabbage or white turnip. "In the north of France, they are extensively grown for feeding cattle,--a purpose for which they seem admirably adapted, as, from having a taste similar to the leaves of others of the species, they are found not to impart any of that peculiar, disagreeable taste to the milk, which it acquires when cows are fed on turnips." _Varieties._--These are as follow:-- ARTICHOKE-LEAVED. _Thomp._ _Vil._ Cut-leaved. Of German origin, deriving its name from the resemblance of the leaves to those of the Artichoke. Bulb small, and not smooth or symmetrical. The leaves are beautifully cut, and are very ornamental; but the bulb is comparatively of little value. Not much cultivated. EARLY DWARF WHITE. _Vil._ Bulb white, smaller than that of the Common White, and supported close to the ground. The leaves are also smaller, and less numerous. It is earlier, and finer in texture, than the last named; and, while young, excellent for the table. Transplant in rows fifteen inches apart, and ten inches asunder in the rows. EARLY PURPLE VIENNA. _Thomp._ _Vil._ This corresponds with the Early White Vienna, except in color, which, in this variety, is a beautiful purple, with a fine glaucous bloom. The leaf-stems are very slender, and the leaves smooth, and few in number. These two Vienna sorts are by far the best for table use. When taken young, and properly dressed, they form an excellent substitute for turnips, especially in dry seasons, when a crop of the latter may fail or become of inferior quality. EARLY WHITE VIENNA. _Thomp._ Dwarf, small, early; bulb handsome, firm, glossy, white, or very pale-green. The leaves are few, small, with slender stems, the bases of which are dilated, and thin where they spring from different parts on the surface of the bulb. The flesh is white, tender, and succulent, whilst the bulb is young, or till it attains the size of an early white Dutch turnip; and at or under this size it should be used. Set the plants in rows fifteen inches apart, and ten inches from plant to plant in the lines. GREEN. Similar to, if not identical with, the Common White. The bulbs are pale-green, attain a very large size, and the variety is hardy and productive. Not suited to garden culture, but chiefly grown for farm-purposes. PURPLE. _Thomp._ _Vil._ This variety differs little from the White, except in color; the bulb being purple, and the leaf-stems and nerves also tinged with purple. Like the White, it attains a large size, and is only adapted for field culture; the flesh being too coarse and strong-flavored for table use. WHITE. _Thomp._ _Vil._ Bulb large,--when full grown, measuring seven or eight inches in diameter, and weighing from eight to ten pounds; leaves rather large and numerous; skin very pale, or whitish-green; stem about six inches high. Hardy, very late, and chiefly employed for farm-purposes. The variety should be cultivated in rows eighteen inches apart, and the plants should stand one foot apart in the rows. * * * * * OXALIS, TUBEROUS-ROOTED.--_Law._ Tuberous-rooted Wood-sorrel. Oca. Oxalis crenata. Of the Tuberous-rooted Oxalis, there are two varieties, as follow:-- WHITE-ROOTED. Oca blanca. Stem two feet in length, branching, prostrate or trailing, the ends of the shoots erect; leaves trifoliate, yellowish-green, the leaflets inversely heart-shaped; flowers rather large, yellow,--the petals crenate or notched on the borders, and striped at their base with purple. The seeds are matured only in long and very favorable seasons. In its native state, the plant is perennial; but is cultivated and treated, like the common potato, as an annual. _Cultivation._--The tubers should be started in a hot-bed in March, and transplanted to the open ground in May, or as soon as the occurrence of settled warm weather. They thrive best in dry, light, and medium fertile soils, in warm situations; and should be planted in hills two feet and a half apart, or in drills two feet and a half apart, setting the plants or tubers an inch and a half deep, and fifteen or eighteen inches apart in the drills; treating, in all respects, as potatoes. The tubers form late in the season; are white, roundish, or oblong, pointed at the union with the plant, and vary in size according to soil, locality, and season; seldom, however, exceeding an inch in diameter, or weighing above four ounces. The yield is comparatively small. _Use._--The tubers are used as potatoes. When cooked, the flesh is yellow, very dry and mealy, of the flavor of the potato, with a very slight acidity. The tender, succulent stalks and foliage are used as salad. OXALIS, RED TUBEROUS-ROOTED. Oca colorada. Plant similar in habit to the White Tuberous-rooted; but the branches, as well as the under surface of the leaves, are more or less stained with red. Tubers larger than those of the last named, roundish, tapering towards the connection with the plant, and furnished with numerous eyes in the manner of the common potato; skin smooth, purplish-red; flesh often three-colored,--the outer portion of the tuber carmine-red, the central part marbled, and the intermediate portion yellow,--the colors, when the root is divided transversely, appearing in concentric zones, or rings. The flesh contains but little farinaceous matter, and possesses a certain degree of acidity, which, to many palates, is not agreeable. Propagated, and in all respects cultivated, like the White. Either of the varieties may also be grown from cuttings, which root readily. According to a statement from the London Horticultural Society's Journal, the acidity may be converted into a sugary flavor by exposing the tubers to the action of the sun for eight or ten days,--a phenomenon which is analogous to what takes place in the ripening of most fruits. When treated in this form, the tubers lose all trace of acidity, and become as floury as the best descriptions of potatoes. If the action of the sun is continued for a long period, the tubers become of the consistence and sweet taste of figs. Mr. Thompson states that the disagreeable acid taste may also be removed by changing the water when they are three-quarters boiled. The plants are tender, and are generally destroyed early in autumn by frost. The tubers must be taken up before freezing weather, packed in sand, and placed in a dry, warm cellar for the winter. DEPPE'S OXALIS. _Thomp._ _Vil._ Oxalis Deppei. A perennial plant from Mexico, very distinct from the tuberous-rooted species before described. Stalk about one foot in height, smooth and branching; leaves four together, the leaflets wedge-shaped, pale yellowish-green, the upper surface marked by two brownish lines or stains in the form of two sides of a triangle; flowers terminal, of a carmine-rose or pink-red color, stained with green at the base of the petals. "The roots are fleshy, tapering, white, and semi-transparent, and furnished on the top of the crown with a mass of scaly bulbs, sometimes amounting to fifty in number, by means of which the plant can be easily propagated. When well grown, the roots are about four inches in length, and from one inch to one inch and a half in thickness."--_Thomp._ _Soil and Culture._--"This Oxalis requires a light, rich soil, mixed with decayed vegetable matter; and it prefers a southern aspect, provided the soil is not too dry. "It may be raised from seed; but is generally propagated by planting the bulbs, which should be set the last of April or beginning of May, or when all danger of frost is over, six inches apart, in rows one foot asunder. The bulbs should be only just covered with soil; for thus they occupy a position, with regard to the surface, similar to that in which they are produced: and this seems indispensable, if fine roots are to be obtained. "The stems have been observed to spring up from a considerable depth; but, in this case, tap-roots were not formed. During summer, the soil must be kept moist in dry weather; otherwise, when rain falls abundantly, the sudden accession of water to the roots occasions their splitting. The plants should be allowed to grow as long as there is no danger from frost; but, previous to this occurring, they should either be taken up or protected. If protected from frost by frames or otherwise, the roots will continue to increase in size till near November. When taken up, the roots should be divested of the numerous bulbs formed on their crowns, and then stored up for use in a cool, dry place, but secure from frost. A similar situation will be proper for the small bulbs; or they may be kept in dry sand till the season of planting."--_Thomp._ The plant has been cultivated with the most complete success, with no especial preparation of the soil; merely planting the bulbs in shallow drills, the ground being dug and manured as for other kitchen-garden crops. _Use._--In a communication to the "Gardener's Chronicle," Prof. Morren gives the uses of the plant as follow:-- "The uses of the Oxalis are many. The young leaves are dressed like sorrel in soup, or as a vegetable. They have a fresh and agreeable acid, especially in spring. The flowers are excellent in salad, alone, or mixed with corn salad, endive of both kinds, red cabbage, beet-root, and even with the petals of the dahlia, which are delicious when thus employed. When served at table, the flowers, with their pink corolla, green calyx, yellow stripes, and small stamens, produce a fine effect. The roots are gently boiled with salt and water, after having been washed and slightly peeled. They are then eaten like asparagus in the Flemish fashion, with melted butter and the yolk of eggs. They are also served up like scorzonera and endive, with white sauce; and form, in whatever way they are dressed, a tender, succulent dish, easy to digest, agreeing with the most delicate stomach. The analogy of the root with salep indicates that its effect should be excellent on all constitutions." "The bright rose-colored flowers being very ornamental, the plant is sometimes employed as an edging for walks."--_Thomp._ * * * * * THE PARSNIP. Pastinaca sativa. The Parsnip is a hardy biennial, indigenous to Great Britain and some parts of the south of Europe, and, to a considerable extent, naturalized in this country. In its native state, the root is small and fibrous, and possesses little of the fineness of texture, and delicacy of flavor, which characterize the Parsnip in its cultivated state. The roots are fusiform, often much elongated, sometimes turbinate, and attain their full size during the first year. The flowers and seeds are produced the second year; the plant then measuring five or six feet in height, with a grooved or furrowed, hollow, branching stem. The flowers are yellow, in large spreading umbels five or six inches in diameter. The seeds ripen in July and August; are nearly circular; about one-fourth of an inch in diameter; flat, thin, very light, membranous on the borders, and of a pale yellowish-brown or yellowish-green color. They vary but little in size, form, or color, in the different varieties; and retain their vitality but two years. About six thousand seeds are contained in one ounce. _Propagation, Soil, and Cultivation._--It is always propagated from seed sown annually. _Soil._--The soil should be mellow, deep, and of a rich vegetable texture. "If in moderate condition by the manuring of the previous crop, it will be better than applying manure at sowing. Should it be necessary to do so, let the manure be in the most thorough state of decomposition; or, if otherwise, incorporate it with the soil, as far from the surface as possible. The Parsnip will grow in a stronger soil than the Carrot; and succeeds comparatively well when grown in sand, or even in peat, if well manured." _Preparation of the Ground, and Sowing._--"The seed should be sown as early in spring as the ground is in good working condition. As most of the varieties have long fusiform roots, ordinary ploughing will not stir the soil to a sufficient depth for their greatest perfection; and, as the amount of the crop mainly depends on the length of the roots, it is of the first importance to provide for this fact by making the ground fine and friable above and below, to the depth of at least fifteen inches: eighteen or twenty would be better. When the soil has thus been thoroughly pulverized, level off the surface, and rake it fine and smooth, and sow the seed in drills fourteen inches apart and an inch and a half deep; allowing half an ounce of seed for one hundred feet of drill, and from five to six pounds to the acre. When the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them out to about six inches in the rows; and, as they transplant readily, any vacant space can be filled by resetting the surplus plants. Keep the earth between the rows loose, and free from weeds, and also the spaces in the rows, until the leaves cover the ground; after which, little further care will be required. The roots will attain a good size by the middle of September, from which time a few may be drawn for present use; but the Parsnip is far best at full maturity, which is indicated by the decay of the leaf in October." _Harvesting._--The Parsnip sustains no injury when left in the open ground during winter; and it is a common practice to take up in the fall a certain quantity of roots to meet a limited demand in the winter months, allowing the rest to remain in the ground until spring. The roots thus treated are considered to have a finer flavor; that is to say, are better when recently taken from the ground. In taking up the crop in autumn, which should be done just previous to the closing-up of the ground, be careful to remove the soil to a sufficient depth, so as not to injure the roots. The thrust of the spade that easily lifts a Carrot without essential injury, will, if applied to the Parsnip, break the roots of nine in ten at scarcely half their length from the surface of the ground. As the roots keep much fresher, and retain their flavor much better, when taken up entire, the best method is to throw out a trench beside the rows, to the depth of the roots, when they can be easily, as well as perfectly, removed. They should be dug in pleasant weather, and laid on the ground exposed to the sun for a few hours to dry; "and when all the earth is rubbed off them, and their leaves cut off to within an inch of their crowns, they may be stowed away in sand, dry earth, or in any dry, light material most convenient." When thus packed, they will keep well in almost any location, either in the cellar or storehouse. If the roots which have remained in the ground during winter be taken up in spring, and the tops removed as before directed, they may be packed in sand or earth, and will remain fresh and in good condition for use until May or June. _To raise Seed._--In April, thin out the roots, that have been in the ground during the winter, to about eighteen inches apart; or, at the same season, select a few good-sized and symmetrical roots from those harvested in the fall, and set them eighteen inches apart, with the crowns just below the surface of the ground. They will send up a stalk to the height and in the manner before described, and the seeds will ripen in August. The central umbel of seeds is always the largest, and is considered much the best. _Use._--"The Parsnip is considered as a wholesome and nutritious article of food, and is served at table in various styles in connection with salted meats and fish. The roots, aside from this manner of using, form what may be called an excellent side-dish; when, after being boiled, not too soft, they are dipped in thin batter of flour and butter or the white of eggs, and afterwards fried brown." They contain a considerable portion of sugar, and are considered more nutritive than carrots or turnips. The roots form a common ingredient in soups; and are sometimes used for making bread, and also a kind of wine said to resemble Malmsey of Madeira. Aside from the value of the Parsnip as a table vegetable, it is one of the most economical roots for cultivation for farm purposes, as it not only produces an abundant and almost certain crop, but furnishes very nourishing food particularly adapted to and relished by dairy-stock. _Varieties._--The varieties, which are not numerous, are as follow:-- COMMON, OR DUTCH. _Trans._ Swelling Parsnip. Long Smooth Dutch. The leaves of this kind are strong and numerous; generally about two feet long or high. The roots are from twenty to thirty inches in length, and from three to four inches in diameter at the shoulder, regularly tapering to the end, occasionally producing a few strong fangs. The crown is short and narrow, elevated, and contracting gradually from the shoulder, which is generally below the surface of the ground. Seeds from America, Holland, and Germany, sown in the garden of the London Horticultural Society, all proved alike; though some were superior to others in the size of their roots, owing, it was thought, both to a careful selection of seed-roots and to the age of the seeds. It was found that new seeds uniformly produced the largest roots. EARLY SHORT-HORN. _M'Int._ A recently introduced variety, similar to the Turnip-rooted, but shorter. Very delicate and fine-flavored. GUERNSEY. _Trans._ Panais Long, of the French. The leaves of this kind grow much stronger and somewhat taller than those of the Common Parsnip. The leaflets are also broader. The only distinguishable difference in the roots is, that those of the Guernsey Parsnip are the larger and more perfect, being sometimes three feet long. Roots produced from seed obtained from Guernsey were evidently much superior to those which were grown from seed raised in other localities: from which it would appear that the Guernsey Parsnip is only an improved variety of the Common, arising from soil and cultivation in that island. Dr. M'Culloch states that, in Guernsey, its roots grow to the length of four feet. In its flavor, it differs little from the Common Dutch Parsnip. HOLLOW-CROWNED. _Trans._ Long Jersey. Hollow-crowned Guernsey. Hollow-headed. In this variety, the leaves are shorter and not so numerous as those of the Common Parsnip. The roots are oblong, about eighteen inches in length, and four inches in diameter at the shoulder, more swollen at the top, and not tapering gradually, but ending somewhat abruptly with a small tap-root. The crown is short, and quite sunk into the shoulder, so as to form a hollow ring around the insertion of the stalks of the leaves; and grows mostly below the surface of the ground. It is a good sort for general cultivation, especially as it does not require so deep a soil as either the Common, or Guernsey. There is little difference in the flavor or general qualities of the three varieties. SIAM, OR YELLOW. _Thomp._ Panais de Siam. This is said to be more tender and richer in flavor than any of the other varieties. It is mentioned by Dr. Neill in the "Encyclopædia Britannica," and is described by M. Noisette as being yellowish in color, and in form intermediate between the Guernsey and Turnip-rooted Parsnips. He also states that it is the most esteemed. It does not, however, appear to be known at the present day in this country. TURNIP-ROOTED. _Trans._ Panais Rond, of the French. [Illustration: Turnip-rooted Parsnip.] The leaves of this sort are few, and do not exceed twelve to sixteen inches in length. The roots are from four to six inches in diameter, tunnel-shaped, tapering very abruptly, with a strong tap-root; the whole being from twelve to fifteen inches in length. The rind is rougher than either of the other sorts; the shoulder very broad, growing above the surface of the soil; convex, with a small, short crown. It is much the earliest of the parsnips; and, if left in the ground, is liable to rot in the crown. The leaves also decay much sooner than those of most other sorts. It is particularly adapted to hard and shallow soils; and, from its coming into use much earlier than any other kind, very desirable. In flavor, it is mild and pleasant, though less sugary than the long-rooted kinds. The flesh, when dressed, is more yellow than that of any other variety. * * * * * THE POTATO. Solanum tuberosum. The Potato is a native of Central or Tropical America. In its wild or natural state, as found growing on the mountains of Mexico or South America, the tubers rarely exceed an inch in diameter, and are comparatively unpalatable. During the last half-century, its cultivation within the United States has greatly increased; and it is now considered the most important of all esculent roots, and next to the cereals in value as an article of human subsistence. _Soil._--The soils best suited to the Potato are of the dryer and lighter descriptions; pasture lands, or new land, with the turf freshly turned, producing the most abundant as well as the most certain crops. On land of a stiff, clayey texture, or in wet soils, they are not only extremely liable to disease, but the quality is usually very inferior. "On soils which have been long cropped and heavily manured, they rarely succeed well; and hence garden ground, in most cases, does not produce tubers of so good quality as those obtained from the fields." _Fertilizers._--"In good garden soil, the less manure that is used, the better flavored will be the produce; and it will also be much less affected by the disease. Therefore, whilst the malady prevails, or symptoms of it still remain, it is not advisable to apply much manure. "Amongst the fertilizers that are employed, may be enumerated, in addition to barnyard and stable manure, leaves, leaf-mould, peat-charcoal, and other carbonaceous substances, lime, gypsum, or plaster, and bone-dust. "Wood-ashes are useful in supplying potash and other inorganic substances required by the plant; and they may be advantageously applied where the soil contains a large amount of decayed vegetable matter. The same remark will also apply to lime, which is useful in destroying slugs and other vermin, which attack the tubers. Plaster, bone-dust, and superphosphate of lime, are best for humid soils. They induce earliness; and where this is an object, as it must be so long as the disease continues, they may be applied with considerable advantage."--_Thomp._ _Propagation._--"This is almost universally from tubers; the seed being seldom sown, except for the production of new varieties. With many it is a doubtful question, whether the tubers cut, or planted whole, yield the greater return. From experiments made in the garden of the London Horticultural Society at Chiswick, it was found, on the mean of two plantations,--one made early in the season, and the other about one month later,--that the produce from cut sets exceeded that from whole tubers by nearly one ton per acre. In the latter planting, the produce from whole tubers was somewhat greater than that from single eyes: but, in the early plantation, the cut sets gave nearly two tons per acre more produce than the whole tubers; the weight of potatoes planted being deducted in every case. "Another important consideration is, whether small tubers or large ones should be employed for making sets; for if, by using the former, an equally good crop could be obtained, a considerable saving in the expense of sets would be effected. Large tubers, however, are preferable, for the following reasons: In all plants, large buds tend to produce large shoots; and small or weak buds, the reverse. Now, the eyes of potatoes are true buds, and in small tubers they are comparatively weak: they consequently produce weak shoots, and the crop from such is inferior to that obtained from plants originating from larger tubers, furnished with stronger eyes; and this conclusion has been justified by the results of actual experiments. "The part of the Potato employed for planting is not a matter of indifference. It was found, by an experiment made in the garden of the Horticultural Society, that sets taken from the points of the tubers, and planted early in the season, yielded at the rate of upwards of three tons per acre more produce than was obtained from employing the opposite end of the tubers. In a plantation made a month afterwards, the difference was much less, but still in favor of the point, or top end, of the Potato."--_Thomp._ With regard to the quantity of seed per acre, great diversity of opinion exists among cultivators. Much, of course, depends on the variety, as some sorts not only have more numerous eyes, but more luxuriant and stronger plants, than others. Of such varieties, a much less quantity will be required than of those of an opposite character. From a series of experiments carefully made for the purpose of ascertaining the amount of seed most profitable for an acre, it was found that from six to eight bushels, if planted in hills, answered better than more: for, when too much seed was used, there were many small tubers; and where the tubers had been divided into very small parts, or single eyes, the plants were more feeble, and the yield less in number and weight, though usually of larger size. _Methods of Planting and Cultivation._--Potatoes are usually planted either in hills or ridges; the former method being the more common in this country. If planted in hills, they should be made from three feet to three and a half apart; the distance to be regulated by the habit of the variety under cultivation. If in ridges or drills, they may be made from two and a half to three feet apart; although some of the earlier and smaller kinds may be successfully grown at eighteen or twenty inches. "Of sets formed by the division of an average-sized tuber into four parts, three may be allowed a hill; or, if planted in drills, the sets may be placed from seven to twelve inches asunder,--the distance to be regulated by the habit or size of the plant. On light, warm land, the sets should be covered about four inches in depth; but in wet, cold soil, three inches will be sufficient. "As soon as the plants are fairly above the surface, hoeing and surface-stirring should be commenced. The earth should gradually be drawn about the hills, or along the ridges, at each successive hoeing, and every encouragement given to the side-roots to extend themselves: for nearly at their extremities the tubers are formed; so that deeply stirring the ground between the hills or ridges tends to their extension. This latter treatment, however, must not be carried beyond a certain stage in the growth of the plant, or after the tubers have reached a considerable size, as the extremities of the roots might be seriously injured. Some varieties of potatoes produce their tubers at a much greater distance from the stem than others. These are chiefly to be found among the later sorts. Most of the early kinds produce theirs close to the stem, or at the extremity of very short runners; seldom more than nine inches from the stalk of the plant." _Forcing._--This should be commenced from three to four weeks before the season for planting in the open ground. The earliest varieties should be chosen for the purpose, selecting whole tubers of medium size, and placing them close together, in a single layer, among half-decayed leaves or very light loam, on the surface of a moderate hot-bed. "When the shoots have attained the height of two or three inches, and the weather has become sufficiently mild, they should be carefully taken out, and divided into sets; in the process of cutting up the tubers, avoiding as much as possible doing injury to the small fibrous roots, and also to the growing shoots. These sets should then be planted out in hills or drills, in the usual manner and at the usual depth; if possible, leaving the upper portion of the young shoot just above the surface of the ground. Some care is requisite in planting out the sets, particularly in covering; for, if the soil is applied too rudely, the sprouts, which separate very easily from the tubers, are exceedingly liable to be broken off, and the set destroyed for early use. If severe cold or frosty weather occurs, the plants should be protected by straw, or any convenient, light material, placed along the drills or on the hills." _Taking the Crop, and Method of Preservation._--"The early varieties should be dug for use as they attain a suitable size; which, in warm exposure, will be about the beginning of July; and thence till the middle of August, in less favorable places. The practice of partially removing the soil from about the roots, and gathering the largest tubers, leaving the smaller ones, with the expectation that they will attain a larger size, is a mode of proceeding which seldom realizes the hopes of the cultivator; for the Potato, if once disturbed at the roots, seldom recovers the check. "When no apprehension is felt on account of disease, a week's delay in commencing on the crop will be found of great importance both to the bulk and quality; for just previous to the decay of the tops, if pleasant weather prevails and the ground is sufficiently moist, the tubers increase in size with great rapidity. "Late varieties usually constitute the great portion of the main crop, and are those which require most care in taking up and storing. So long as the plants continue green, the Potato should be allowed to remain in the ground; as this is quite indicative that the tubers have not arrived at full maturity." In the preservation of potatoes, it is of the first importance that they be excluded from light. If this is neglected, they become not only injurious, but actually poisonous; and this is especially the fact when they are allowed to become of a green color, which they readily will do on exposure to the light. In a state of complete darkness they should therefore be placed, the day they are taken out of the ground; and it were even better that they were stored in rather a damp state, than that they should be exposed for a day to the light with a view to dry them. Drying has a bad effect on the skin of the Potato; for, if subjected to this, the skin and part of the epidermis are made to part with their natural juices, which ever afterwards renders them incapable of absorbing moisture, even if presented to them. Fermentation is also an important evil to be guarded against, as it changes the whole substance of the Potato, and, so far as seed potatoes are concerned, destroys their vegetative principle. As security against this, they should be stored either in barrels or boxes, or in long, narrow ridges, with partitions of earth between. Potatoes once dried should never be again moistened until just before using. "Keeping potatoes has the effect of diminishing the quantity of starch contained in them. According to Mr. Johnson, those which in October yielded readily seventeen per cent of starch, gave, in the following April, only fourteen and a half per cent. The effect of frost is also to lessen the quantity of starch. It acts chiefly upon the vascular and albuminous part; but it also converts a portion of the starch into sugar: hence the sweetish taste of frosted potatoes."--_M'Int._ _Varieties._--Messrs. Peter Lawson and Sons describe one hundred and seventy-five varieties: and other foreign authors enumerate upwards of five hundred, describing the habit of the plant; size, form, and color of the tubers; quality and general excellence; and comparative value for cultivation. They are obtained from seeds; the latter being quite small, flat, and lens-shaped. One hundred and five thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their germinative properties three years. The process is as follows: "Select some of the largest and best berries, or balls, when fully ripe, which is denoted by the withering of the stalk; and separate the seeds from the pulp, and dry them thoroughly in the sun. These should be sown in the following spring, and the produce taken up in October. The tubers will then have nearly attained the size of small plums. The best of these should be selected, and the product of each plant carefully and separately preserved. In the month of April following, they should be planted at a distance from one another of from fifteen to eighteen inches; and, when they rise about two inches from the ground, they should be earthed up slightly with the hoe,--an operation which may be repeated during the season. When they have arrived at maturity, they are to be taken up, keeping the product of each stalk by itself; which product is again to be planted the ensuing spring. A judgment of the properties of the varieties will then have been formed, and those are to be reserved for cultivation which are approved of. It will be found, that, whatever had been the character of the parent stock, the seeds will produce numerous varieties, some white, some dark, in color, with tubers of different forms, round, oblong, and kidney-shaped, and varying greatly in the dryness, color, and farinaceous character, of the flesh."--_Low._ ASH-LEAVED EARLY. Stem nearly two feet in height, erect, with long, smooth, shining, and drooping foliage; flowers very seldom produced; tubers white, roundish, rough-skinned; flesh white, of medium quality. The variety is healthy, and remarkably early; well suited to open culture, but not adapted for growing under glass, on account of its tall habit. ASH-LEAVED KIDNEY. One of the earliest of the garden varieties, well adapted for forcing under glass or for starting in a hot-bed, and subsequent cultivation in the open ground. The plant is of spreading habit, and about eighteen inches in height; leaves small, recurved; tubers of medium size, kidney-shaped, white; flesh white, dry, and well flavored. Very healthy. Introduced. BISCUIT. _Law._ Plant two feet and a half high, spreading; leaves rather rough, large, and of a pale-green color; flowers whitish; tubers rather small, round, smooth, and of a light-brownish color. A very healthy variety, mealy, well flavored, and quite productive. The plants do not decay, nor do the tubers attain full maturity, until nearly the close of the season: the latter are, however, of good quality, and in perfection for the table soon after being harvested. BLACK CHENANGO. Black Mercer. Plant vigorous, and generally of healthy habit; tubers nearly of the form of the Lady's Finger, but of larger size; skin very deep purple, or nearly black; flesh purple, both in its crude state and when cooked; quality good, usually dry, and of good flavor. The Black Chenango is moderately productive, and withstands disease better than almost any other potato; but its dark color is objectionable. Compared with many of the recent varieties, it has little merit, and is not a profitable sort for extensive cultivation. BUCKEYE. A Western variety; grown also to a considerable extent in some parts of the Middle States. "It is a handsome, round potato; white throughout, except a little bright pink at the bottom of the eye. It is very early,--ripening as early as the Chenango; attains a good marketable size as soon as the Dykeman; cooks very dry and light; and is fine flavored, particularly when first matured. It throws up a very thick, vigorous, and luxuriant vine; grows compactly in the hill, and to a large size, yielding abundantly." For planting for early use, it is a promising variety: but for a late or medium crop, upon strong, rich ground, it is said to grow so rapidly, and to so great a size, that many of the tubers are liable to be hollow-hearted; which considerably impairs their value for table use. CALICO. Similar to the Pink-eyed; varying little except in color, which is mostly red, with occasional spots and splashes of white. It is in no respect superior to the last-named variety in quality, and cannot be considered of much value for agricultural purposes or for the table. CALIFORNIA RED. A bright-red potato from California. Tubers variable in form, from long to nearly round, rather smooth; eyes slightly depressed. It is one of the most productive of all the varieties; but, on account of its extreme liability to disease, cannot be recommended for general cultivation. CARTER. A medium-sized, roundish, flattened, white potato, once esteemed the finest of all varieties, but at present nearly or quite superseded by the Jackson White, of which it is supposed to be the parent. Eyes rather numerous, and deeply sunk; flesh very white, remarkably dry, farinaceous, and well flavored. Originated about thirty years ago, in Berkshire County, Mass., by Mr. John Carter. CHURCHILL. A variety said to have originated in Maine, and often sold in the market for the "State of Maine;" which it somewhat resembles in size, form, and color. Flesh yellow. Not a desirable sort. It is much inferior to the "State of Maine;" and, in many places, the latter variety has been condemned in consequence of the Churchill having been ignorantly cultivated in its stead. CRISTY. An early sort, of good quality, but rather unproductive. Shape somewhat long, though often nearly round; color white and purple, striped, and blended together. It is of no value as an agricultural variety; and, for table use, cannot be considered superior to many other varieties equally healthy and more prolific. CUPS. Introduced. Plant upright, stocky, surviving till frost; flowers pale purple; tubers pink or reddish, large, oblong, often irregular; flesh dry and farinaceous. Very healthy and productive, but better suited for agricultural purposes than for the table. DANVERS SEEDLING. Danvers Red. Plant healthy and vigorous. The large, full-grown tubers are long; and the smaller, undeveloped ones, nearly round. Color light red, with faint streaks of white; eyes moderately sunk; quality fair. This variety originated in Danvers, Essex County, Mass.; and, when first introduced, was not only of good size and quality, but remarkably productive. It has, however, much deteriorated; and is now, both as respects quality and yield, scarcely above an average. At one period, it had the reputation of being one of the best varieties for keeping, and of entirely withstanding the attacks of the potato disease. DAVIS'S SEEDLING. This variety originated in the town of Sterling, Mass.; and was early disseminated through the influence of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, at whose exhibitions it attracted much attention on account of its size and beauty. For general cultivation, it is probably one of the most profitable sorts known, as it yields abundantly, even with ordinary attention. Under a high state of cultivation, seven hills have produced a bushel of potatoes. The tubers are of good size, red, nearly round, though sometimes more or less flattened. Eyes deeply sunk, and not very numerous; flesh nearly white, slightly tinged with pink beneath the skin when cooked; quality good, being dry, farinaceous, and well flavored. It requires the full season for its complete perfection, and resists disease better than most varieties. As a winter potato, or for extensive cultivation for market, it is one of the best of all varieties; and commends itself to the farmer, both as respects quality and yield, as being greatly superior to the Peach-blow, Pink-eye, Vermont White, and many similar varieties, which so abound in city markets. DYKEMAN. Plant of medium strength and vigor, rarely producing seed or blossoms; tubers large, roundish, often oblong; color white, clouded at the stem-end and about the eyes (which are moderately sunk and rather numerous) with purple; flesh white, or yellowish-white, its quality greatly affected by season, and the soil in which the variety may be cultivated. In certain descriptions of rather strong, clayey land, the yield is often remarkably great, and the quality much above medium. In such land, if warm and sheltered, the tubers attain a very large size quite early in the season, and find a ready sale in the market at greatly remunerative prices. Under other conditions, it frequently proves small, waxy, and inferior in quality, and profitless to the cultivator. Notwithstanding these defects, its size, earliness, and productiveness render it worthy of trial. EARLY BLUE. Tubers of medium size, roundish, of a bright purple or bluish color; eyes moderately deep; flesh, when cooked, white, or yellowish-white, mealy, and well flavored. This old and familiar variety is one of the earliest of the garden potatoes, of fine quality, and one of the best for forcing for early crops. It retains its freshness and flavor till late in the spring; is of comparatively healthy habit; and, though but moderately productive, is worthy more general cultivation. EARLY COCKNEY. Plant of medium strength and vigor, recumbent, rarely blossoming, and usually ripening and decaying early in the season, or before the occurrence of frost; tubers white, large, roundish, rough; flesh yellowish-white, or nearly white, dry, farinaceous, and of good flavor; hardy, moderately productive, and recommended as a desirable intermediate variety for the garden or for field culture. Introduced. EARLY MANLY. Plant medium or small, rarely blossoming, and decaying early in the season; tubers of medium size, white, roundish; flesh yellowish-white, dry, mealy, and mild flavored. It yields well, and is a good variety for early garden culture. Introduced. FLOUR-BALL. Plant reclining, of rather slender habit, rarely blossoming; tubers of medium size, white, round, the skin quite rough or netted; flesh white, dry, farinaceous, and mild flavored. It yields abundantly, and is a good sort for the garden; but would prove less profitable for growing for the market than many other varieties of larger size. FLUKE KIDNEY. _Cot. Gard._ Plant vigorous, with luxuriant, deep-green foliage; continuing its growth till late in the season, or until destroyed by frost. The tuber is remarkable for its singular shape, of a flattened oval, frequently measuring eight or nine inches in length by nearly three inches in width. The peel is thin, and remarkably free from eyes; the surface, very smooth and even; the flesh is very dry, mealy, and farinaceous, exceedingly well flavored, and, in general excellence, surpassed by few, if any, of the late varieties. It is also healthy, hardy, and very productive; but is much better towards spring than when used soon after being harvested. The variety originated near Manchester, Eng., about the year 1844; and appears to be a cross or hybrid between the Lapstone Kidney and Pink-eye. In this country, the variety has never reached the degree of excellence it appears to have attained in England. With us the yield has been small, and it has suffered greatly from disease. The flesh is also yellow when cooked, and quite strong flavored. Not recommended for cultivation. FORTY-FOLD. An English variety. Plant healthy, ripening about the middle of September, rarely producing seed or blossoms; tubers white, of medium size, round; skin rough or netted; flesh white, comparatively dry, and well flavored. It yields abundantly; is a good kind for forcing; and, though the plants remain green until frost, the tubers attain a suitable size for use quite early in the season. An English sort, known as Taylor's Forty-fold, is quite distinct; the tubers being oval, much flattened, and of a reddish color. GARNET CHILI. Stem not long or tall, rather erect, sturdy, and branching; flowers abundant, pale purplish-white, and usually abortive; tubers red, or garnet-colored, very large, roundish, and comparatively smooth and regular; flesh white, dry, mealy, and, the size of the tuber considered, remarkably well flavored. The variety is healthy, yields abundantly, is greatly superior to the Peach-blow and kindred sorts for table use, and might be profitably grown for farm-purposes. The plants survive till destroyed by frost. GILLYFLOWER. Tubers large, oval, or oblong, flattened, white, and comparatively smooth; flesh white, dry, and of fair quality. The plants are healthy, and the variety is very productive: but it is inferior to many others for table use; though its uniform good size, and its fair form, and whiteness, make it attractive and salable in the market. It is similar to, if not identical with, the St. Helena and the Laplander. GREEN-TOP. Plant strong and vigorous; flowers dull white, generally abortive; tubers quite large, white, roundish, often irregular; eyes deep-set; flesh white, comparatively dry, and well flavored. The variety is productive, and of healthy, hardy habit; not early; the plants continuing green till destroyed by frost. Introduced. HILL'S EARLY. An old variety, very little, if at all, earlier than the White Chenango. Quality not much above mediocrity; its chief recommendation being its earliness. Skin and flesh yellowish-white; eyes rather deeply sunk; size medium; form roundish; moderately productive. It does not ordinarily cook dry and mealy; and, though desirable as an early potato for a limited space in the garden, cannot be recommended for general cultivation. IRISH CUPS. Tubers nearly round, yellowish-white; eyes deep-set; flesh yellow, and strong flavored when cooked. Unfit for table use. Aside from the difference in form, the variety somewhat resembles the Rohan. JACKSON WHITE. This comparatively new but very excellent variety originated in Maine; and is supposed to be a seedling from the celebrated Carter, which it much resembles. Tubers yellowish-white, varying in size from medium to large; form somewhat irregular, but generally roundish, though sometimes oblong and a little flattened; eyes rather numerous, and deeply sunk; flesh perfectly white when cooked, remarkably dry, mealy, farinaceous, and well flavored. The variety unquestionably attains its greatest perfection when grown in Maine, or the northern sections of Vermont and New Hampshire; but is nevertheless of good quality when raised in the warmer localities of New England and the Middle States. It is earlier than the Davis Seedling; comparatively free from disease; a good keeper; commands the highest market-price; and, every thing considered, must be classed as one of the best, and recommended for general cultivation. The plants are very erect, the flowers nearly white; and the balls, or berries, are produced in remarkable abundance. JENNY LIND. Rhode-Island Seedling. A variety of comparatively recent introduction. Plant very strong and vigorous; tubers of extraordinary size when grown in strong soils, long and somewhat irregular in form, thickly set on the surface with small knobs, or protuberances, above which the eyes are placed in rather deep basins, or depressions; color red and white intermixed, in some specimens mostly red, while in others white is the prevailing color; flesh yellow when cooked, and quite coarse, but esteemed by many as of good quality for table use. One of the largest of all the varieties, remarkably productive, quite free from disease, keeps well, and, as an agricultural potato, rivals the Rohan. Requires the full season. It sports more than any potato; being exceedingly variable in size, form, and color. LADY'S FINGER. Ruffort Kidney. _Law._ Stem from one foot and a half to two feet high, of straggling habit of growth; leaves smooth, and of a light-green color; blossoms rarely if ever produced; tubers white, smooth, long, and slender, and of nearly the same diameter throughout; eyes very numerous, and slightly depressed. A very old variety, of pretty appearance, long cultivated, and much esteemed as a baking potato; its peculiar form being remarkably well adapted for the purpose. It is, however, very liable to disease; and as many of the recently introduced seedlings are quite as good for baking, as well as far more hardy and productive, it cannot now be considered as a variety to be recommended for general culture. LAPSTONE KIDNEY. _M'Int._ Nichol's Early. A variety of English origin. M'Intosh describes it as being "decidedly the best kidney potato grown, and an excellent cropper. Tubers sometimes seven inches in length, and three inches in breadth. It is longer in coming through the ground in spring than most other varieties, and the stems at first appear weakly; but they soon lose this appearance, and grow most vigorously. It is a first-rate potato in August and September; and will keep in excellent condition till May following, without losing either its mealiness or flavor." LONG RED. Form long, often somewhat flattened,--its general appearance being not unlike that of the Jenny Lind, though of smaller size; color red; flesh marbled or clouded with red while crude, but, when cooked, becoming nearly white. The stem-end is often soggy, and unfit for use; and the numerous prongs and knobs which are often put forth on the sides of the tubers greatly impair their value for the table. A few years since, this variety was exceedingly abundant in the market, and was esteemed one of the best sorts for use late in spring and early in summer. It was also remarkably healthy and very productive, and was considered one of the most valuable kinds for general cultivation. It has somewhat improved in quality by age, although not now to be classed as a potato of first quality. The Jenny Lind and other varieties are now rapidly superseding it in most localities. MEXICAN. A very handsome white variety, long and smooth, like the St. Helena, but not quite so large; eyes very slightly depressed. It is of poor quality, quite unproductive, rots badly, and not worthy of cultivation. NOVA-SCOTIA BLUE. This old variety, at one period, was very extensively cultivated, and for many years was considered the most profitable of all the sorts for raising for market or for family use. Form nearly round, the larger specimens often somewhat flattened; color light blue; eyes moderately depressed; flesh white, dry, and good. It yields abundantly; but, in consequence of its great liability to disease, its cultivation is now nearly abandoned. OLD KIDNEY. Tubers kidney-shaped, white; flesh yellow, rather waxy, and of indifferent flavor. It is neither very productive, nor very valuable in other respects; and it is now little cultivated. PEACH-BLOW. Tubers similar in form to the Davis Seedling, but rather more smooth and regular; color red, the eyes not deeply sunk; flesh yellow when cooked, dry and mealy, but only of medium quality, on account of its comparatively strong flavor. It is hardy and quite productive; keeps well; and is extensively cultivated for market in the northern parts of New England and the State of New York, as well as in the Canadas. It is common to the markets of most of the large seaport cities; and, during the winter and spring, is shipped in large quantities to the interior and more southern sections of the United States. The Davis Seedling--which is quite as productive, and much superior in quality for table use--might be profitably grown as a substitute. PINK-EYED. Tubers nearly round; eyes rather large and deep; color mostly white, with spots and splashes of pink, particularly about the eyes; flesh yellow. The Pink-eyed is an old but inferior variety, hardly superior in quality to the Vermont White. Though quite productive, it is generally esteemed unworthy of cultivation. POGGY, OR PORGEE. Cow-horn. A dark-colored variety, extensively cultivated in the British Provinces, particularly in Nova Scotia; and, during the autumn, imported in considerable quantities into the principal seaports of the United States. It is of excellent quality, and by some preferred to all others, especially for baking; for which purpose, on account of its size and remarkable form, it seems peculiarly adapted. It is moderately productive, and succeeds well if seed is procured every year or two from the East; but, if otherwise, it soon deteriorates, even under good cultivation. Size above medium; form long, broadest, and somewhat flattened, at the stem-end, and tapering towards the opposite extremity, which is often more or less sharply pointed. It is also frequently bent, or curved; whence the name "Cow-horn," in some localities. Skin smooth; eyes not depressed; color dark-blue outside, white within when cooked. Not very hardy; requiring a full season for its complete perfection. Unless where well known, its color is objectionable; and it is generally less salable than the white-skinned varieties. QUARRY. A large, white, roundish, English potato, not unlike the variety universally known and cultivated many years since in this country as the Orange Potato. Plant vigorous, and of strong, stocky habit; flowers purple, generally abortive; flesh yellowish-white, of fair quality for table use. A hardy, very productive sort, which might be profitably grown for marketing and for agricultural purposes. The plants survive till frost. Not early. ROHAN. Tubers very large, in form much resembling the Jenny Lind,--the full-developed specimens being long, and the smaller or immature tubers nearly round; eyes numerous and deep-set; color yellowish-white, with clouds or patches of pink or rose; flesh greenish-white when cooked, yellowish, watery, and strong flavored. The plant is strong and vigorous, and continues its growth till destroyed by frost. The flowers are generally abortive. Mr. Hyde describes it as a variety famous in history, but infamous as a table potato, and fit only for stock. It formerly gave an immense yield, but now produces only moderate crops; and its cultivation is nearly abandoned. SHAW'S EARLY. _M'Int._ An English variety, much employed for forcing, and extensively cultivated in the vicinity of London for early marketing. It is, for an early sort, a large, beautiful, oblong, white-skinned potato. Its only fault is its hollow eyes. It is very productive. STATE OF MAINE. This variety, as implied by its name, is of Maine origin, and was introduced to general notice six or seven years ago. In form, the tubers are similar to the White Chenango, being long, smooth, and somewhat flattened; though the smaller and undeveloped bulbs are often nearly round. Eyes almost even with the surface, and quite numerous; color white, like the Jackson White. When cooked, the flesh is white, very dry, mealy, and of good flavor. It is quite early, but more liable to disease than the Davis Seedling and some other varieties. In Maine it is grown in great perfection, nearly equalling the Jackson White and Carter as a table potato. On light soil, it is only moderately productive; but on strong land, in high cultivation, yields abundantly. ST. HELENA. Laplander. An old and very productive variety. Plant erect, and of a bushy habit, about two feet and a half in height; foliage light green; flowers pale reddish-purple. The tubers are of an oblong form, and remarkably large; specimens having been produced measuring ten inches in length. Eyes numerous, but not deeply set; skin white and smooth; flesh white when cooked, mealy, and of fair quality. It is a very healthy variety, and not easily affected by disease; but belongs to that class of late field potatoes, the foliage of which does not in ordinary seasons decay until injured by frost, and the tubers of which generally require to be kept some time before they are fit for using to the greatest advantage. TAYLOR'S FORTY-FOLD. _Law._ Forty-fold. Plant about one foot and a half high, slender, and spreading in habit; foliage light green; flowers very rarely produced; tubers oval, much flattened, and of medium size; skin rough, and of a dull, reddish color. This variety is very dry and starchy, well flavored, and suffers comparatively little from disease. It is also very productive, and a good early sort for the garden; but not well adapted for field culture, or for cultivation for agricultural purposes. TOLON. Plant quite low and dwarf, decaying with the season; flowers lilac-purple, large and handsome, generally abortive; tubers of medium size, roundish, of a pink or reddish color; flesh yellow, dry, but not of so mild a flavor as many of the more recent kinds. Moderately productive. Introduced. VERMONT WHITE. A very fair and good-sized but poor variety, grown to a considerable extent in the northern and more interior portions of New England. Color white outside; but the flesh, when cooked, is yellow, soft, not dry, and strong flavored. It is a strong grower, and very productive, but rots badly. It commands only a low price in the market, on account of its very inferior quality; and cannot be recommended for general cultivation. VETO, OR ABINGTON BLUE. Tubers long, resembling in form those of the Long Red, and, like that variety, often watery at the stem-end after being cooked; color blue or purplish; flesh white; quality fair as a table potato. This variety originally was remarkably productive, and at one period was in very general cultivation; but now is rarely planted, as it is extremely liable to disease, and rots badly. WHITE CHENANGO. Chenango. Mercer, of New York. An old and familiar variety; at one period almost everywhere known, and generally acknowledged as the best of all varieties. As a potato for early planting, whether for family use or for the market, it was a general favorite; but, within a few years past, it has not only greatly deteriorated in quality and productiveness, but has been peculiarly liable to disease and premature decay of the plants. When well grown, the tubers are of good size, rather long, slightly flattened, and comparatively smooth; eyes slightly sunk; color white, with blotches of purple,--before cooking, somewhat purple under the skin; flesh, when cooked, often stained with pale purple; in its crude state, zoned with bright purple. Quality good; dry, mealy, and well flavored. The variety is considerably affected by the soil in which it may be cultivated; in some localities, being much more colored than in others. It is now rapidly giving place to new seedling varieties, quite as good in quality, and more healthy and productive. WHITE CUPS. Tubers long and flattened, somewhat irregular; eyes deeply sunk; skin yellowish; flesh white. It is a very handsome variety, of Maine origin, but is only moderately productive. It is also of ordinary quality, rots easily, and will probably never become popular. WHITE MOUNTAIN. Tubers large, long, white, smooth, uniformly fair and perfect. Appears to be nearly identical with the St. Helena and Laplander. It is very productive, and a good agricultural variety; but, for table use, can be considered only of second quality. WORCESTER SEEDLING. Dover. Riley. Tubers of a pinkish-white color, and similar in form to the Jackson White. Eyes deep-set; flesh white, more so than that of the Davis Seedling. It keeps well, and is an excellent variety for cultivation for family use, but less profitable than many others for the market. Stalks upright; blossoms pinkish, but not abundant. In quality, this comparatively old and well-known variety is nearly or quite equal to the Carter; and, besides, is much more productive. As a garden potato, it deserves general cultivation. Requires the full season. * * * * * THE RADISH. Raphanus sativus. The Radish is a hardy annual plant, originally from China. The roots vary greatly in form; some being round or ovoid, some turbinate, and others fusiform, or long, slender, and tapering. When in flower, the plant rises from three to four feet in height, with an erect, smooth, and branching stem. The flowers are quite large, and, in the different kinds, vary in color from clear white to various shades of purple. The seed-pods are long, smooth, somewhat vesiculate, and terminate in a short spur, or beak. The seeds are round, often irregularly flattened or compressed: those of the smaller or spring and summer varieties being of a grayish-red color; and those of the winter or larger-rooted sorts, of a yellowish-red. An ounce contains from three thousand three hundred to three thousand six hundred seeds, and they retain their vitality five years. _Soil, Propagation, and Cultivation._--All the varieties thrive best in a light, rich, sandy loam; dry for early spring sowings, moister for the summer. Like all annuals, the Radish is propagated by seeds, which may be sown either broadcast or in drills; but the latter method is preferable, as allowing the roots to be drawn regularly, with less waste. For the spindle-rooted kinds, mark out the drills half an inch deep, and five or six inches apart; for the small, turnip-rooted kinds, three-quarters of an inch deep, and six inches asunder. As the plants advance in growth, thin them so as to leave the spindle-rooted an inch apart, and the larger-growing sorts proportionally farther. "_For raising early Radishes without a Hot-bed._--Sow in the open ground the last of March or early in April, arch the bed over with hoops or pliant rods, and cover constantly at night and during cold days with garden-matting. In moderate days, turn up the covering at the side next the sun; and, if the weather is very fine and mild, remove it entirely." _Open Culture._--Sow in spring as soon as the ground can be worked. If space is limited, radishes may be sown with onions or lettuce. When grown with the former, they are said to be less affected by the maggot. For a succession, a small sowing should be made each fortnight until midsummer, as the early-sown plants are liable to become rank, and unfit for use, as they increase in size. Radishes usually suffer from the drought and heat incident to the summer; and, when grown at this season, are generally fibrous and very pungent. To secure the requisite shade and moisture, they are sometimes sown in beds of asparagus, that the branching stems may afford shade for the young radishes, and render them more crisp and tender. A good criterion by which to judge of the quality of a Radish is to break it asunder by bending it at right angles. If the parts divide squarely and freely, it is fit for use. _Production and Quantity of Seed._--To raise seed of the spring or summer Radishes, the best method is to transplant; which should be done in May, as the roots are then in their greatest perfection. Take them up in moist weather; select plants with the shortest tops and the smoothest and best-formed roots; and set them, apart from all other varieties, in rows two feet and a half distant, inserting each root wholly into the ground, down to the leaves. With proper watering, they will soon strike, and shoot up in branching stalks, producing abundance of seeds, ripening in autumn. One ounce and a half of seed will sow a bed five feet in width and twelve feet in length. Ten pounds are required for seeding an acre. The excellence of a Radish consists in its being succulent, mild, crisp, and tender; but, as these qualities are secured only by rapid growth, the plants should be frequently and copiously watered in dry weather. The varieties are divided into two classes; viz., Spring or Summer, and Autumn or Winter, Radishes. SPRING OR SUMMER RADISHES. These varieties are all comparatively hardy, and may be sown in the open ground as early in spring as the soil is in good working condition. The earliest spring Radishes are grown as follows: "In January, February, or March, make a hot-bed three feet and a half wide, and of a length proportionate to the supply required. Put upon the surface of the dung six inches of well-pulverized earth; sow the seeds broadcast, or in drills five inches apart; and cover half an inch deep with fine mould. When the plants have come up, admit the air every day in mild or tolerably good weather by tilting the upper end of the light, or sometimes the front, one, two, or three inches high, that the Radishes may not draw up long, pale, and weak. If they have risen very thick, thin them, while young, to about one inch apart. Be careful to cover the sashes at night with garden mats, woollen carpeting, or like material. Water with tepid water, at noon, on sunny days. If the heat of the bed declines much, apply a moderate lining of warm dung or stable-litter to the sides, which, by gently renewing the heat, will soon forward the Radishes for pulling. Remember, as they advance in growth, to give more copious admissions of air daily, either by lifting the lights in front several inches, or, in fine, mild days, by drawing the lights mostly off; but be careful to draw them on early, before the sun has much declined and the air become cool." EARLY BLACK. Noir Hatif. _Vil._ Bulb nearly spherical, slightly elongated or tapering, nearly of the size and form of the Gray Turnip-rooted; skin dull black, rough, and wrinkled; flesh white, solid, crisp, and piquant; leaves of the size of those of the Gray Turnip-rooted. Season intermediate between that of the last named and the Black Spanish. EARLY LONG PURPLE. Rave Violette Hative. _Vil._ A sub-variety of the Long Purple, earlier and of smaller size. EARLY PURPLE TURNIP-ROOTED. A few days earlier than the Scarlet Turnip-rooted. Size, form, and flavor nearly the same. EARLY SCARLET TURNIP-ROOTED. Rond Rose Hatif. _Vil._ Bulb spherical, or a little flattened,--often bursting or cracking longitudinally before attaining its full dimensions; skin deep scarlet; flesh rose-colored, crisp, mild, and pleasant; neck small; leaves few in number, and of smaller size than those of the common Scarlet Turnip-rooted. Season quite early,--two or three days in advance of the last named. As a variety for forcing, it is considered one of the best; but the small size of the leaves renders it inconvenient for bunching, and it is consequently less cultivated for the market than many other sorts. Extensively grown in the vicinity of Paris. EARLY WHITE TURNIP-ROOTED. Rond Blanc Hatif. _Vil._ Skin and flesh white; form similar to that of the Scarlet Turnip-rooted. It is, however, of smaller size, and somewhat earlier. An excellent sort, and much cultivated. GRAY OLIVE-SHAPED. Form similar to the Scarlet Olive-shaped. Skin gray; flesh white, crisp, and well flavored. GRAY TURNIP-ROOTED. Gray Summer. Round Brown. _Trans._ The form of this variety may be called round, though it is somewhat irregular in shape. It grows large, and often becomes hollow. It should, therefore, be used while young, or when not more than an inch or an inch and a half in diameter. The outside coat is mottled with greenish-brown, wrinkled, and often marked with transverse white lines. The flesh is mild, not so solid as that of many varieties, and of a greenish-white color. The leaves are similar to those of the Yellow Turnip-rooted, growing long and upright, with green footstalks. Half early, and a good variety for summer use. LONG PURPLE. _Thomp._ Root long, a large portion growing above ground; skin deep purple; flesh white, and of good flavor. The seed-leaves, which are quite large, are used as a small salad. The variety is early, and good for forcing. When the green tops are required for salading, the seeds should be sown in drills, as mustard or cress. LONG SALMON. _Trans._ Long Scarlet Salmon. This variety has been considered synonymous with the Long Scarlet; but it is really a distinct sort. The neck of the root rises about an inch above the ground, like that of the Scarlet, but it is of a paler red; and this color gradually becomes lighter towards the middle, where it is a pale-pink or salmon color. From the middle, the color grows paler downwards, and the extremity of the root is almost white. In shape and size, this Radish differs nothing from the Scarlet; nor does it appear to be earlier, or to possess any qualities superior to the Scarlet Radish, the beauty of which, when well grown, exceeds that of any other Long Radish. LONG SCARLET. _Thomp._ Early Scarlet Short-top. Early Frame. [Illustration: Long Scarlet Radish.] Root long, a considerable portion growing above the surface of the ground,--outside, of a beautiful, deep-pink color, becoming paler towards the lower extremity; flesh white, transparent, crisp, and of good flavor, having less pungency than that of the Scarlet Turnip; leaves small, but larger than those of the last-named variety. When of suitable size for use, the root measures seven or eight inches in length, and five-eighths or three-fourths of an inch in diameter at its largest part. The Long Scarlet Radish, with its sub-varieties, is more generally cultivated for market in the Eastern, Middle, and Western States, than any other, or perhaps even more than all other sorts. It is very extensively grown about London, and is everywhere prized, not only for its fine qualities, but for its rich, bright color. It is also one of the hardiest of the Radishes; and is raised readily in any common frame, if planted as early as February. OLIVE-SHAPED SCARLET. Oblong Rose-colored. _Thomp._ [Illustration: Olive Scarlet Radish.] Bulb an inch and a half deep, three-fourths of an inch in diameter, oblong, somewhat in the form of an olive, terminating in a very slim tap-root; skin fine scarlet; neck small; leaves not very numerous, and of small size; flesh rose-colored, tender, and excellent. Early, and well adapted for forcing and for the general crop. PURPLE TURNIP-ROOTED. This is a variety of the Scarlet Turnip-rooted; the size, form, color, and quality being nearly the same. The skin is purple. It is considered a few days earlier than the last named. SCARLET TURNIP-ROOTED. Crimson Turnip-rooted. [Illustration: Scarlet Turnip-Rooted.] Bulb spherical; when in its greatest perfection, measuring about an inch in diameter; skin fine, deep scarlet; flesh white, sometimes stained with red; leaves rather large and numerous. The variety is early, and deserves more general cultivation, not only on account of its rich color, but for the crisp and tender properties of its flesh. It is much esteemed in England, and is grown extensively for the London market. SMALL, EARLY, YELLOW TURNIP-ROOTED. Bulb of the size and form of the Scarlet Turnip-rooted; skin smooth, yellow; flesh white, fine-grained, crisp, and rather pungent; foliage similar to that of the scarlet variety; season ten or fifteen days later. WHITE, CROOKED. Tortillée Du Mans. _Vil._ Root very long; when suitable for use, measuring twelve inches and upwards in length, and an inch in diameter, nearly cylindrical, often irregular, and sometimes assuming a spiral or cork-screw form; skin white and smooth; flesh white, not so firm as that of most varieties, and considerably pungent; leaves very large. WHITE TURNIP-ROOTED. Bulb of the form and size of the Scarlet Turnip-rooted; skin white; flesh white and semi-transparent. It possesses less piquancy than the Scarlet, but is some days later. YELLOW TURNIP-ROOTED. _Trans._ Yellow Summer. Bulb nearly spherical, but tapering slightly towards the tap-root, which is very slender. It grows large,--to full four inches in diameter, when old; but should be eaten young, when about an inch in diameter. The flesh is mild, crisp, solid, and quite white. The skin is of a yellowish-brown color; and the leaves grow long and upright, with green footstalks. Half early, and well adapted for summer cultivation. LONG WHITE. White Italian. Naples. White Transparent. Root long and slender, nearly of the size and form of the Long Scarlet; skin white,--when exposed to the light, tinged with green; flesh white, crisp, and mild. It is deserving of cultivation, not only on account of its excellent qualities, but as forming an agreeable contrast at table when served with the red varieties. LONG WHITE PURPLE-TOP. A sub-variety of the Long White; the portion of the root exposed to the light being tinged with purple. In size and form, it differs little from the Long Scarlet. NEW LONDON PARTICULAR. Wood's Frame. This is but a sub-variety of the Long Scarlet; the difference between the sorts being immaterial. The color of the New London Particular is more brilliant, and extends farther down the root. It is also said to be somewhat earlier. OBLONG BROWN. _Trans._ The Oblong Brown Radish has a pear-shaped bulb, with an elongated tap-root. It does not grow particularly large; and, being hardier than most varieties, is well adapted for use late in the season. The outside is rough and brown, marked with white circles; the flesh is piquant, firm, hard, and white; the leaves are dark green, and rather spread over the ground; the footstalks are stained with purple. AUTUMN AND WINTER RADISHES. These varieties may be sown from the 20th of July to the 10th of August; the soil being previously made rich, light, and friable. Thin out the young plants from four to six inches apart; and, in the absence of rain, water freely. During September and October, the table may be supplied directly from the garden. For winter use, the roots should be harvested before freezing weather, and packed in earth or sand, out of danger from frost. Before being used, they should be immersed for a short time in cold water. _To raise Seed._--Seeds of the Winter Radishes are raised by allowing the plants to remain where they were sown. As fast as they ripen, cut the stems; or gather the principal branches, and spread them in an open, airy situation, towards the sun, that the pods, which are quite tough in their texture, may become so dry and brittle as to break readily, and give out their seeds freely. _Use._--All the kinds are used as salad, and are served in all the forms of the spring and summer radishes. _Varieties._-- BLACK SPANISH. _Trans._ Bulb ovoid, or rather regularly pear-shaped, with a long tap-root. At first the root is slender, and somewhat cylindrical in form: but it swells as it advances in age, and finally attains a large size; measuring eight or ten inches in length, and three or four inches in diameter. The outside is rough, and nearly black; the flesh is pungent, firm, solid, and white; the leaves are long, and inclined to grow horizontally; the leaf-stems are purple. It is one of the latest, as well as one of the hardiest, of the radishes; and is considered an excellent sort for winter use. LARGE PURPLE WINTER. _Trans._ Purple Spanish. The Large Purple Winter Radish is a beautiful variety, derived, without doubt, from the Black Spanish; and may therefore be properly called the Purple Spanish. In shape and character, it much resembles the Black Spanish: but the outside, when cleaned, is of a beautiful purple, though it appears black when first drawn from the earth; and the coat, when cut through, shows the purple very finely. The footstalks of the leaves have a much deeper tinge of purple than those of the other kinds. LONG BLACK WINTER. A sub-variety of the Black Spanish. Root long and tapering. With the exception of its smaller size, much resembling a Long Orange Carrot. LONG-LEAVED WHITE CHINESE. _Vil._ Root fusiform, sometimes inversely turbinate, about five inches in length, and an inch in diameter; skin white, and of fine texture; flesh fine-grained, crisp, and though somewhat pungent, yet milder flavored than that of the Black Spanish; leaves large, differing from most other varieties in not being lobed, or in being nearly entire on the borders. Its season is nearly the same as that of the Rose-colored Chinese. The plants produce but few seeds. PURPLE CHINESE. A sub-variety of the Scarlet, with little variation except in color; the size, quality, and manner of growth, being nearly the same. ROSE-COLORED CHINESE. _Vil._ Scarlet Chinese Winter. Bulb rather elongated, somewhat cylindrical, contracted abruptly to a long, slender tap-root; size full medium,--average specimens measuring about five inches in length, and two inches in diameter at the broadest part; skin comparatively fine, and of a bright rose-color; flesh firm, and rather piquant; leaves large,--the leaf-stems washed with rose-red. Season between that of the Gray Summer and that of the Black Spanish. WINTER WHITE SPANISH. Autumn White. Blanc d'Augsbourg. _Vil._ Root somewhat fusiform, retaining its diameter for two-thirds the length, sharply conical at the base, and, when well grown, measuring seven or eight inches in length by nearly three inches in its fullest diameter; skin white, slightly wrinkled, sometimes tinged with purple where exposed to the sun; flesh white, solid, and pungent, though milder than that of the Black Spanish. It succeeds best, and is of the best quality, when grown in light sandy soil. Season intermediate. * * * * * RAMPION. Campanula rapunculus. The Rampion is a biennial plant, indigenous to the south of Europe, and occasionally found in a wild state in England. The roots are white, fusiform, fleshy, and, in common with the other parts of the plant, abound in a milky juice; the lower or root leaves are oval, lanceolate, and waved on the borders; the upper leaves are long, narrow, and pointed. Stem eighteen inches or two feet in height, branching; flowers blue, sometimes white, disposed in small, loose clusters about the top of the plant, on the ends of the branches. The seeds are oval, brownish, and exceedingly small; upwards of nine hundred thousand being contained in an ounce. They retain their germinative property five years. The plant flowers in July of the second year, and the seeds ripen in autumn. There is but one variety. _Soil and Cultivation._--"Rampion prefers a rich, free, and rather light soil, in a shady situation. It is raised from seed, which should be sown where the plants are to remain, as they do not bear transplanting well. The sowing may be made in April, May, or the beginning of June: but sometimes plants from very early sowings are liable to run up to seed; and, when this is the case, the roots become tough, and unfit for use. The ground should be well dug, and raked as fine as possible. The seed may then be sown either broadcast or in drills, six inches apart, and about one-fourth of an inch deep. As the seeds are very small, it is advisable to mix them with fifteen or twenty times their bulk of fine sand, in order to secure their even distribution in the drills, and to prevent the plants from coming up too closely. The seed should only be very slightly covered with fine earth; and the seed-bed ought to be frequently watered with a fine-rosed watering-pot till the plants come up, which will be in about a fortnight. "When the young plants are about one inch high, they should be thinned out to four inches apart. After this, no further care is necessary than to water frequently, and to keep the ground free of weeds."--_Thomp._ _Taking the Crop._--The roots will be fit for use from October till April. They may be taken from the ground for immediate use; or a quantity may be taken up in autumn, before the closing-up of the ground, and packed in sand, for use during the winter. _To raise Seed._--Leave or transplant some of the best yearling plants, and they will produce an abundance of seed in autumn. _Use._--The roots have a pleasant, nut-like flavor; and are generally eaten in their crude state as a salad. "The leaves, as well as the roots, are occasionally used in winter salads." * * * * * RUTA-BAGA, OR SWEDE TURNIP. Russian Turnip. French Turnip. Brassica campestris Ruta-baga. _De Cand._ The Ruta-baga, or Swede Turnip, is supposed by De Candolle to be analogous to the Kohl Rabi; the root being developed into a large, fleshy bulb, instead of the stem. In its natural state, the root is small and slender; and the stem smooth and branching,--not much exceeding two feet in height. The bulbs, or roots, are fully developed during the first year. The plant flowers, and produces its seeds, the second year, and then perishes. Although considered hardy,--not being affected by even severe frosts,--none of the varieties will withstand the winters of the Northern or Middle States in the open ground. The crop should therefore be harvested in October or November, and stored for the winter, out of danger from freezing. Most of the sorts now cultivated retain their freshness and solidity till spring, and some even into the summer; requiring no particular care in their preservation, other than that usually given to the carrot or the potato. _Soil and Cultivation._--All the varieties succeed best in a deep, well-enriched, mellow soil; which, previous to planting, should be very deeply ploughed, and thoroughly pulverized by harrowing or otherwise. Some practise ridging, and others sow in simple drills. The ridges are usually formed by turning two furrows against each other; and, being thus made, are about two feet apart. If sown in simple drills, the surface should be raked smooth, and the drills made from sixteen to eighteen inches apart; the distance to be regulated by the strength of the soil. _Seed and Sowing._--About one pound of seed is usually allowed to an acre. Where the rows are comparatively close, rather more than this quantity will be required; while three-fourths of a pound will be amply sufficient, if sown on ridges, or where the drills are eighteen inches apart. The sowing may be made from the middle of May to the 25th of July; the latter time being considered sufficiently early for growing for the table, and by some even for stock. Early sowings will unquestionably give the greatest product; while the later-grown bulbs, though of smaller dimensions, will prove of quite as good quality for the table. _To raise Seeds._--Select the smoothest and most symmetrical bulbs, and transplant them in April, two feet asunder, sinking the crowns to a level with the surface of the ground. The seeds are very similar to those of the common garden and field turnip, and will keep from five to eight years. _Varieties._--The varieties are as follow:-- ASHCROFT. Bulb of medium size, ovoid, very smooth and symmetrical; neck very short, or wanting. Above ground, the skin is purple; below the surface, yellow. Flesh yellow, very solid, fine-grained, and of excellent flavor. It forms its bulb quickly and regularly; keeps in fresh and sound condition until May or June; and well deserves cultivation, either for agricultural purposes or for the table. COMMON PURPLE-TOP YELLOW. [Illustration: Common Purple-Top Yellow.] An old and long-cultivated sort, from which, in connection with the Green-top, have originated most of the more recent and improved yellow-fleshed varieties. Form regularly egg-shaped, smooth, but usually sending out a few small, straggling roots at its base, near the tap-root; neck short; size rather large,--usually measuring six or seven inches in depth, and four or five inches in its largest diameter; skin purple above ground,--below the surface, yellow; flesh yellow, of close, firm texture, and of good quality. It is very hardy; forms its bulb promptly and uniformly; and in rich, deep soils, yields abundantly. For thin and light soils, some of the other varieties should be selected. EARLY STUBBLE. Bulb round, smooth, and regular. The skin, where exposed to light and air, is of a brownish-green; but, where covered by the soil, yellow. The flesh is firm, and well flavored. The Early Stubble is recommended as forming its bulbs quickly and uniformly, and as being well adapted for late sowing. It yields abundantly; keeps well; is a good sort for the table; and, in some localities, is preferred to the Common Yellow for cultivation for farm purposes. GREEN-TOP YELLOW. In form and foliage, this variety resembles the Common Purple-top; but usually attains a larger size when grown in similar situations. Skin, above the surface of the soil, green; below ground, yellow. The flesh is solid, sweet, and well flavored, but inferior to that of the Purple-top. It keeps well, is of fair quality for the table, and, on account of its great productiveness, one of the best of all varieties for growing for feeding stock. GREEN-TOP WHITE. Bulb turbinate, smooth, and symmetrical. The skin above ground is of a fine, clear, pea-green; often browned or mellowed where exposed to the direct influence of the sun: below the surface of the ground, it is uniformly white. The flesh is also white, comparatively solid, very sweet, and of fair quality for table use. It differs from the Purple-top White, not only in color, but in size and quality; the bulbs being larger, and the flesh not quite so firm or well flavored. The Green-top White is productive; continues its growth till the season has far advanced; is little affected by severe weather; and, when sown in good soil, will yield an agricultural crop of twenty-five or thirty tons to an acre. LAING'S IMPROVED PURPLE-TOP. _Law. and Gen. Farmer._ This variety differs from most, if not all, of the varieties of Swedish turnips, in having entire cabbage-like leaves, which, by their horizontal growth, often nearly cover the surface of the ground. In form, hardiness, and quality, it is fully equal to any of the other sorts. Growing late in the autumn, it is not well adapted to a climate where the winter commences early. It has little or no tendency to run to seed in the fall; and even in the spring, when set out for seed, it is a fortnight later in commencing this function than other varieties of Ruta-bagas. It requires good land, in high condition; and, under such circumstances, will yield abundantly, and is worthy of cultivation. The bulb, when well grown, has an almost spherical form; a fine, smooth skin, purple above ground, yellow below, with yellow, solid, and well-flavored flesh. PURPLE-TOP WHITE. Bulb oblong, tapering toward the lower extremity, five or six inches in diameter, seven or eight inches in depth, and less smooth and regular than many of the yellow-fleshed varieties. The skin is of a clear rich purple, where it comes to air and light, but, below the ground, pure white; flesh white, very solid and fine-grained, sugary, and well flavored. The variety is hardy, productive, keeps remarkably well, is good for table use, and may be profitably grown for agricultural purposes. Upwards of twenty-eight tons, or nine hundred and sixty bushels, have been raised from an acre. RIVER'S. Root regularly turbinate, or fusiform, of full medium size, smooth, and with few small or fibrous roots; neck two inches long; skin, above ground, green, washed with purplish-red where most exposed to the sun,--below ground, yellow; flesh yellow, firm, sweet, and well flavored. Esteemed one of the best, either for stock or the table. Keeps fresh till May or June. SKIRVING'S PURPLE-TOP. Skirving's Improved Purple-top. Skirving's Liverpool. Southold Turnip, of some localities. Bulb ovoid, or regularly turbinate, and rather deeper in proportion to its diameter than the common Purple-top Yellow; surface remarkably smooth and even, with few fibrous roots, and seldom deformed by larger accidental roots, although, in unfavorable soils or seasons, a few coarse roots are put forth in the vicinity of the tap-root; size full medium,--five to seven inches in length, and four or five inches in diameter. Sometimes, when sown early in good soil, and harvested late, the average will considerably exceed these dimensions. Neck short, but, when grown in poor soil, comparatively long; skin, above ground, fine, deep purple,--below ground, yellow,--the colors often richly blending together at the surface; flesh yellow, of solid texture, sweet, and well flavored. This variety was originated by Mr. William Skirving, of Liverpool, Eng. In this country it has been widely disseminated, and is now more generally cultivated for table use and for stock than any other of the Swede varieties. The plants seldom fail to form good-sized bulbs. It is a good keeper; is of more than average quality for the table; and long experience has proved it one of the best sorts for cultivation on land that is naturally shallow and in poor condition. On soils in a high state of cultivation, upwards of nine hundred bushels have been obtained from an acre. In sowing, allow twenty inches between the rows, and thin to ten or twelve inches in the rows. SWEET GERMAN. [Illustration: Sweet German.] Bulb four or five inches in diameter, six or seven inches in depth, turbinate, sometimes nearly fusiform. In good soil and favorable seasons, it is comparatively smooth and regular; but, under opposite conditions, often branched and uneven. Neck two or three inches in length; skin greenish-brown above ground, white beneath; flesh pure white, of extraordinary solidity, very sweet, mild, and well flavored. It retains its solidity and freshness till spring, and often at midsummer has no appearance of sponginess or decay. As a table variety, it must be classed as one of the best, and is recommended for general cultivation. WHITE FRENCH. Long White French. [Illustration: White French.] The roots of this variety are produced entirely within the earth. They are invariably fusiform; and, if well grown, measure four or five inches in diameter, and from eight to ten inches in length. Foliage not abundant, spreading; skin white; flesh white, solid, mild, sweet, and delicate. It is not so productive as some other varieties, and is therefore not so well adapted to field culture; but for table use it is surpassed by few, if any, of its class. A rough-leaved, fusiform-rooted variety of the common garden-turnip: is known by the name of "White French" in many localities; but, according to the most reliable authority, that name has not only long been used in connection with, but properly belongs to, the white turnip above described. * * * * * SALSIFY, OR OYSTER-PLANT. Leek-leaved Salsify. Vegetable Oyster. Purple Goat's Beard. Tragopogon porrifolius. The Salsify is a hardy biennial plant, and is principally cultivated for its roots, the flavor of which resembles that of the oyster; whence the popular name. The leaves are long and grass-like, or leek-like; the roots are long and tapering, white within and without, and, when grown in good soil, measure twelve or fourteen inches in length, and rather more than an inch in diameter at the crown. _Soil and Cultivation._--The Oyster-plant succeeds best in a light, well-enriched, mellow soil; which, previous to sowing the seeds, should be stirred to the depth of twelve or fifteen inches. The seeds should be sown annually, in the same manner and at the same time as the seeds of the carrot and parsnip. Make the drills fourteen inches apart; cover the seeds an inch and a half in depth; and thin, while the plants are young, to four or five inches asunder. Early sowings succeed best; as the seeds, which are generally more or less imperfect, vegetate much better when the earth is moist than when dry and parched, as it is liable to become when the season is more advanced. Cultivate in the usual manner during the summer; and, by the last of September or beginning of October, the roots will have attained their full growth, and be ready for use. The plants will sustain no injury during the winter, though left entirely unprotected in the open ground; and the table may be supplied directly from the garden, whenever the frost will admit of their removal. A portion of the crop should, however, be taken up in autumn, and stored in the cellar, like other roots; or, which is perhaps preferable, packed in earth or sand. Roots remaining in the ground may be drawn for use till April, or until the plants have begun to send up their stalks for flowering. _Seeds,--production and quantity._--For the production of seeds, allow a few plants to remain during the winter in the open ground where they were sown. They will blossom in June and July. When fully developed, the stem is about three feet in height, cylindrical, and branching. The flowers are large, of a very rich violet-purple, and expand only by day and in comparatively sunny weather. As the flowers are put forth in gradual succession, so the heads of seeds are ripened at intervals, and should be cut as they assume a brownish color. The seeds are brownish,--lighter or darker as they are less or more perfectly matured,--long and slender, furrowed and rough on the sides, tapering to a long, smooth point at the top, often somewhat bent or curved, and measure about five-eighths of an inch in length. They will keep four years. An ounce contains three thousand two hundred seeds, and will sow a row eighty feet in length. Some cultivators put this amount of seed into a drill of sixty feet; but if the seed is of average quality, and the season ordinarily favorable, one ounce of seed will produce an abundance of plants for eighty or a hundred feet. _Use._--The roots are prepared in various forms; but, when simply boiled in the manner of beets and carrots, the flavor is sweet and delicate. The young flower-stalks, if cut in the spring of the second year and dressed like asparagus, resemble it in taste, and make an excellent dish. The roots are sometimes thinly sliced, and, with the addition of vinegar, salt, and pepper, served as a salad. They are also recommended as being remedial or alleviating in cases of consumptive tendency. There is but one species or variety now cultivated. * * * * * SCOLYMUS. Spanish Scolymus. Spanish Oyster-plant. Scolymus Hispanicus. In its natural state, this is a perennial plant; but, when cultivated, it is generally treated as an annual or as a biennial. The roots are nearly white, fleshy, long, and tapering in their general form, and, if well grown, measure twelve or fifteen inches in length, and an inch in diameter at the crown. When cut or bruised, or where the fibrous roots are broken or rubbed off, there exudes a thick, somewhat viscous fluid, nearly flavorless, and of a milk-white color. The leaf is large, often measuring a foot or more in length, and three inches in diameter, somewhat variegated with green and white, deeply lobed; the lobes or divisions toothed, and the teeth terminating in sharp spines, in the manner of the leaves of many species of thistles. When in flower, the plant is about three feet in height. The flowers, which are put forth singly, are of an orange-yellow, and measure an inch and a half in diameter. The seeds are flat, and very thin, membranous on the borders, of a yellowish color, and retain their vitality three years. An ounce contains nearly four thousand seeds. _Soil and Cultivation._--Any good garden loam is adapted to the growth of the Scolymus. It should be well and deeply stirred as for other deep-growing root crops. The seeds should be sown from the middle of April to the 10th of May, in drills an inch deep, and fourteen inches asunder. Thin the young plants to five inches distant in the rows; and, during the summer, treat the growing crop as parsnips or carrots. _Use._--It is cultivated exclusively for its roots, which are usually taken up in September or October, and served at table, and preserved during the winter, in the same manner as the Salsify, or Oyster-plant. They have a pleasant, delicate flavor; and are considered to be not only healthful, but remarkably nutritious. * * * * * SCORZONERA. Black Oyster-plant. Black Salsify. Scorzonera Hispanica. This is a hardy perennial plant, introduced from the south of Europe, where it is indigenous. The root is tapering, and comparatively slender,--when well developed, measuring about a foot in length, and an inch in diameter near the crown, or at the broadest part; skin grayish-black, coarse, somewhat reticulated, resembling the roots of some species of trees; flesh white; leaves long, ovate, broadest near the end, and tapering sharply to the stem. They are also more or less distinctly ribbed, and have a few remote teeth, or serratures, at the extremities. When in flower, the plant measures about four feet in height; the stalk being nearly cylindrical, slightly grooved or furrowed, smooth, and branched towards the top. The flowers are large, terminal, yellow; the seeds are whitish, longer than broad, taper towards the top, and retain their vitality two years. An ounce contains about two thousand five hundred seeds. _Soil and Culture._--Though a perennial, it is generally cultivated as an annual or biennial, in the manner of the carrot or parsnip. Thompson says, "It succeeds best in a light, deep, free soil and an open situation. It is raised from seed, which may be sown in drills one foot apart, covering with soil to the depth of half an inch. As it is apt to run to seed the same year in which it is sown, and consequently to become tough and woody," the planting should not be made too early, particularly in the warmer sections of the country. A second sowing may be made about four weeks from the first, "as a precautionary measure, in case the plants of the first sowing should run. The young plants, when three or four inches high, should be thinned out to eight inches asunder in the rows. Towards the middle or last of September, the roots will have attained sufficient size to be drawn for immediate use: others will come in for use in October and November. In the latter month, they will be in perfection; and, before the closing-up of the ground, a quantity may be taken up, and stored in sand for the winter. When the ground is open, the roots may be drawn from time to time, as required for immediate use. About the middle of April, the roots remaining in the ground will begin to run to flower; after which they soon become hard, woody, and unfit for the table. Before this takes place, however, they may be taken up, and stored in sand, where they may be kept for use till May or June." _To raise Seed._--Allow a few well-grown plants to remain in the ground during winter; or select a few good-sized roots from those harvested in autumn, and reset them in April, about eighteen inches apart, covering them to the crowns. The seed will ripen at the close of the summer or early in autumn. Seed saved from plants of the growth of two seasons is considered best; that produced from yearling plants being greatly inferior. _Use._--It is cultivated exclusively for its roots; no other portion of the plant being employed in domestic economy. The flesh of these is white, tender, sugary, and well flavored. They are boiled in the manner of the parsnip, and served plain at the table; or they may be cooked in all the forms of salsify or scolymus. Before cooking, the outer, coarse rind should be scraped off, and the roots soaked for a few hours in cold water for the purpose of extracting their bitter flavor. * * * * * SKIRRET. Crummock, of the Scotch. Sium sisarum. Skirret is a hardy perennial, and is cultivated for its roots, which are produced in groups, or bunches, joined together at the crown or neck of the plant. They are oblong, fleshy, of a russet-brown color without, white within, very sugary, and, when well grown, measure six or eight inches in length, and nearly an inch in diameter. The leaves of the first year are pinnate, with seven or nine oblong, finely toothed leaflets. When fully developed, the plant measures from three to five feet in height; the stem being marked with fine, parallel, longitudinal grooves, or lines. The flowers are small, white, and are produced in umbels at the extremities of the branches. The seeds, eight thousand of which are contained in an ounce, are oblong, of a greenish-gray color, and closely resemble those of the common caraway. They will keep but two years; and, even when newly grown, sometimes remain in the ground four or five weeks before vegetating. _Soil and Culture._--Skirret succeeds best in light, mellow soil, and is propagated by suckers, or seeds. The best method is to sow the seeds annually, as, when grown from slips, or suckers, the roots are liable to be dry and woody; the seeds, on the contrary, producing roots more tender, and in greater perfection. Sow the seeds in April, in drills one foot apart, and about an inch in depth; thin to five or six inches; and, in September, some of the roots will be sufficiently grown for use. Those required for winter should be drawn before the closing-up of the ground, and packed in sand. _To propagate by Slips, or Suckers._--In the spring, remove the required number of young shoots, or sprouts, from the side of the roots that have remained in the ground during winter, not taking any portion of the old root in connection with the slips; and set them in rows ten inches asunder, and six inches apart in the rows. They will soon strike, and produce roots of suitable size for use in August or September. _To raise Seeds._--The plants that have remained in the ground during the winter, if not disturbed, will send up stalks as before described, and ripen their seeds at the close of the summer. Two or three plants will yield all the seeds ordinarily required for a single garden. _Use._--The roots were formerly much esteemed, but are now neglected for those greatly inferior. When cooked and served as salsify or scorzonera, they are the whitest and sweetest of esculent roots, and afford a considerable portion of nourishment. There are no varieties. * * * * * SWEET POTATO. Spanish Potato. Carolina Potato. Convolvulus batatus. Ipomoea batatas. The Sweet Potato is indigenous to both the East and West Indies. Where its growth is natural, the plant is perennial; but, in cultivation, it is always treated as an annual. The stem is running or climbing, round and slender; the leaves are heart-shaped and smooth, with irregular, angular lobes; the flowers, which are produced in small groups of three or four, are large, bell-shaped, and of a violet or purple color; the seeds are black, triangular, and retain their vitality two or three years,--twenty-three hundred are contained in an ounce. The plants rarely blossom in the Northern or Middle States, and the perfect ripening of the seeds is of still more rare occurrence. The latter are, however, never employed in ordinary culture; and are sown only for the production of new varieties, as is sometimes practised with the common potato. _Soil, Planting, and Cultivation._--In warm climates, the Sweet Potato is cultivated in much the same manner as the common potato is treated at the North. It succeeds best in light, warm, mellow soil, which should be deeply stirred and well enriched. The slips, or sprouts, may be set on ridges four feet apart, and fifteen inches from plant to plant; or in hills four or five feet apart in each direction, three plants being allowed to a hill. During the summer, give the vines ordinary culture; and late in September, or early in October, the tubers will have attained their growth, and be ready for harvesting. The slips, or sprouts, are generally obtained by setting the tubers in a hot-bed in March or April, and breaking off or separating the sprouts from the tubers as fast as they reach four or five inches in height or attain a suitable size for transplanting. In favorable seasons, the plucking may be repeated three or four times. In setting out the slips, the lower part should be sunk from one-third to one-half the entire length; and, if very dry weather occurs, water should be moderately applied. _Keeping._--The essentials for the preservation of Sweet Potatoes are dryness and a warm and even temperature. Where these conditions are not supplied, the tubers speedily decay. By packing in dry sand, and storing in a warm, dry room, they are sometimes preserved in the Northern States until the time of starting the plants in spring. _Varieties._--Though numerous other varieties, less marked and distinctive, are described by different authors, and are catalogued by gardeners and seedsmen, the principal are as follow:-- KENTUCKY EARLY RED. _Murray._ Red Nansemond. Tubers red, or purplish-red, of medium size; flesh yellow, dry, sweet, and of good quality. A very prolific, hardy variety; recommended as the best red Sweet Potato for Northern culture. LARGE WHITE. Patate-blanche of the French. Tubers from six to ten inches in length,--thickest at the middle, where they measure from two to nearly three inches in diameter; weight from six ounces to a pound and upwards; skin dusky white; flesh nearly white, but with a shade of yellow. Not so fine-grained or so sweet as the Yellow or Purple, but quite farinaceous and well flavored. It requires a long season in order to its full development; but, being remarkably hardy, it will succeed well in any of the Middle States, and attain a fair size in the warmer sections of New England. NANSEMOND. Yellow Nansemond. A variety said to have originated in Nansemond County, Va.; whence the name. Tubers large, yellow, swollen at the middle, and tapering to the ends; flesh yellow, dry, unctuous, sweet, and well flavored. It is early fit for the table; matures in short seasons; is very productive; succeeds well in almost any tillable soil; and, having been long acclimated, is one of the best sorts for cultivation at the North,--very good crops having been obtained in Maine and the Canadas. PURPLE-SKINNED. New-Orleans Purple. Patate violette. _Vil._ Tubers swollen at the middle, and tapering in each direction to a point,--measuring, when well grown, from seven to nine inches in length, and from two to three inches in diameter; skin smooth, reddish-purple; flesh fine-grained, sugary, and of excellent quality. The plants attain a remarkable length, and the tubers are rarely united about the neck as in most other varieties. The Purple-skinned is early and productive, but keeps badly. It would probably succeed much better in cool climates than either the White or the Yellow. It is much grown in the vicinity of Paris. RED-SKINNED, OR AMERICAN RED. Tubers fusiform, long, and comparatively slender,--the length often exceeding twelve inches, and the diameter rarely above two inches; weight from three to ten ounces; skin purplish-red, smooth and shining; flesh yellow, very fine-grained, unctuous, sugary, and farinaceous; plant long and slender. This variety is early, quite hardy, very productive, and excellent, but does not keep so well as the yellow or white sorts. It is well adapted for cultivation in the cooler sections of the United States; where, in favorable seasons, the crop has proved as certain, and the yield nearly as abundant, as that of the common potato. ROSE-COLORED. _Vil._ Tubers somewhat ovoid, or egg-shaped, often grooved, or furrowed, and of extraordinary size. Well-grown specimens will measure eight or nine inches in length, and four inches or more in diameter; frequently weighing two and a half, and sometimes greatly exceeding three pounds. Skin rose-colored, shaded or variegated with yellow; flesh sweet, of a pleasant, nut-like flavor, but less soft or unctuous than that of the other varieties. It is hardy, remarkably productive, and, its excellent keeping properties considered, one of the best sorts for cultivation. YELLOW-SKINNED. Yellow Carolina. Tubers from six to ten inches in length, thickest at the middle, where they measure from two to three inches in diameter, and pointed at the extremities; weight varying from four to twelve ounces and upwards; skin smooth, yellow; flesh yellow, fine-grained, unctuous, and remarkably sugary,--surpassing, in this last respect, nearly all other varieties. Not so early as the Red-skinned or the Purple. When grown in the Southern States, it yields well; perfectly matures its crop; and, in color and flavor, the tubers will accord with the description above given. When grown in the Middle States, or in the warmer parts of New England, it decreases in size; the tubers become longer and more slender; the color, externally and internally, becomes much paler, or nearly white; and the flesh, to a great extent, loses the fine, dry, and sugary qualities which it possesses when grown in warm climates. * * * * * TUBEROUS-ROOTED CHICKLING VETCH. Tuberous-rooted Pea. Eatable-rooted Pea. Lathyrus tuberosus. Perennial; stem about six feet high,--climbing, slender, four-sided, smooth, and of a clear green color; flowers rather large, in bunches, of a fine carmine rose-color, and somewhat fragrant; pod smooth; seeds rather large, oblong, a little angular, of a brown color, spotted with black; root spreading, furnished with numerous blackish, irregularly shaped tubers, which are generally from an ounce to three ounces in weight. The roots are very farinaceous, and, when cooked, are highly esteemed. In taste, they somewhat resemble roasted chestnuts. Where the roots are uninjured by the winter, the plant increases rapidly, and is liable to become a troublesome inmate of the garden. * * * * * TUBEROUS-ROOTED TROPÆOLUM. _Thomp._ Ysano. Tropæolum tuberosum. This is a perennial plant from Peru, and deserves mention as a recently introduced esculent. It produces an abundance of handsome yellow and red tubers, about the size of small pears; the taste of which is not, however, very agreeable. On this account, a particular mode of treatment has been adopted in Bolivia, where, according to M. Decaisne, they are treated in the following manner:-- The tubers designated "Ysano," at La Paz, require to be prepared before they are edible. Indeed, when prepared like potatoes, and immediately after being taken up, their taste is very disagreeable. But a mode of making them palatable was discovered in Bolivia; and the Ysano has there become, if not a common vegetable, at least one which is quite edible. The means of making them so consists in freezing them after they have been cooked, and they are eaten when frozen. In this state it is said that they constitute an agreeable dish, and that scarcely a day passes at La Paz without two lines of dealers being engaged in selling the Ysano, which they protect from the action of the sun by enveloping it in a woollen cloth, and straw. Large quantities are eaten sopped in treacle, and taken as refreshment during the heat of the day. _Propagation and Culture._--The plant may be propagated by pieces of the tubers, in the same manner as potatoes; an eye being preserved on each piece. The sets should be planted in April or May, according to the season, about four feet apart, in light, rich soil. The stems may be allowed to trail along the ground, or pea-sticks may be placed for their support. In dry soils and seasons, the former method should be adopted; in those which are moist, the latter. The tubers are taken up in October, when the leaves begin to decay, and stored in sand. * * * * * THE TURNIP. English Turnip. Brassica rapa. The common Turnip is a hardy, biennial plant, indigenous to Great Britain, France, and other parts of Europe. The roots of all the varieties attain their full size during the first year. The radical leaves are hairy and rough, and are usually lobed, or lyrate; but, in some of the sorts, nearly spatulate, with the borders almost entire. The flowers are produced in May and June of the second year, and the seeds ripen in July; the flower-stalk rises three feet or more in height, with numerous branches; the leaves are clasping, and much smoother and more glaucous than the radical leaves of the growth of the previous year; the flowers are yellow, and are produced in long, loose, upright, terminal spikes; the seeds are small, round, black, or reddish-brown, and are very similar, in size, form, and color, in the different varieties,--ten thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality from five to seven years. _Propagation and Culture._--All the sorts are propagated by seeds; which should be sown where the plants are to remain, as they do not generally succeed well when transplanted. Sowings for early use may be made the last of April, or beginning of May; but as the bulbs are seldom produced in perfection in the early part of the season, or under the influence of extreme heat, the sowing should be confined to a limited space in the garden. The seeds may be sown broadcast or in drills: if sown in drills, they should be made about fourteen inches apart, and half an inch in depth. The young plants should be thinned to five or six inches asunder. For a succession, a few seeds may be sown, at intervals of a fortnight, until the last week in July; from which time, until the 10th of August, the principal sowing is usually made for the winter's supply. In the Middle States, and the warmer portion of New England, if the season is favorable, a good crop will be obtained from seed sown as late as the last week in August. _Harvesting._--Turnips for the table may be drawn directly from the garden or field until November, but must be harvested before severe freezing weather; for, though comparatively very hardy, few of the varieties will survive the winters of the Northern States in the open ground. _Seed._--As the various kinds readily hybridize, or intermix, only one variety should be cultivated in the same neighborhood for seed. Select the best-formed bulbs, and transplant them out in April, in rows two feet apart, and one foot apart in the rows, just covering the crowns with earth, or leaving the young shoots level with the surface of the ground. An ounce of seed will sow eight rods of land, and a pound will be sufficient for an acre. _Varieties._--The varieties are numerous, as follow:-- ALTRINCHAM. _Law._ Yellow Altrincham. Altringham. This is a yellow-fleshed, field variety, of rather less than average size. The bulb, however, is of a fine, globular shape, with a light-green top, very small neck and tap-root, and possessed of considerable solidity. BORDER IMPERIAL. Border Imperial Purple-top Yellow. Bulb five or six inches in diameter, nearly spherical, sometimes flattened, and usually very smooth and symmetrical; skin yellow, the upper surface of a bright purple; flesh yellow, firm, and sugary; leaves large. The variety is of English origin, and is recommended for its earliness and great productiveness. CHIVAS'S ORANGE JELLY. _Thomp._ Bulb of a handsome, round form, with a small top; the skin is pale orange; and the flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, and tender. It has very little fibre; so that, when boiled, it almost acquires the consistence of a jelly. It originated in Cheshire, Eng. COW-HORN. Long Early White Vertus. _Vil._ [Illustration: Cow-horn Turnip.] Root produced much above ground, nearly cylindrical, rounded at the end, ten or twelve inches in length, nearly three inches in diameter, and weighing from one and a half to two pounds. The skin is smooth and shining,--white below the surface of the ground, and green at the top; the flesh is white, tender, and sugary. Early, very productive, and remarkable for its regular form and good quality. As a field-turnip, it is one of the best; and, when pulled young, good for table use. During winter, the roots often become dry and spongy. DALES'S HYBRID. _Law._ This variety is of English origin, and is said to be a hybrid from the Green-top Swede and the common White Globe. Its prevailing traits are, however, those of the White Globe; inasmuch as its roots are similar in form and texture. Foliage strong and luxuriant; root large, oblong, pale yellow; the upper surface light green; neck and tap-root small. The form of the bulb, though generally oblong, is sometimes nearly globular; but its more material characteristics, large size, and luxuriance of growth, are uniformly the same. Its reputation as a turnip of very superior quality has not been sustained in this country. EARLY FLAT DUTCH. Early White Dutch. White Dutch. An old and well-known early garden variety; bulb round, very much flattened, and produced mostly within the earth; skin white, somewhat washed with green at the insertion of the leaves, which are of medium size. Before the bulb has attained its full dimensions, the flesh is fine-grained, tender, and sweet; but when ripe, especially in dry seasons, it often becomes spongy and juiceless: in which condition, it is of no value for the table; and, even for stock, is comparatively worthless. Average specimens measure about four inches in diameter, and two inches and a half in depth. EARLY YELLOW DUTCH. Yellow Dutch. This variety has a small, globular root, of a pale-yellow color throughout. It somewhat resembles the Yellow Malta, and is a good garden variety. The portion of the bulb above ground, and exposed to the sun, is washed with green. It is of medium size, early, tender, rather close-grained, and sugary; better suited for use in summer and autumn than for winter. By some, the variety is esteemed the best of the yellow garden turnips. FINLAND. _Law._ Yellow Finland. [Illustration: Finland Turnip.] This is a beautiful, medium-sized turnip, of a bright yellow throughout, even to the neck; somewhat similar to a firm Yellow Malta, but of finer color. The under part of the bulb is singularly depressed: from this depression issues a small, mousetail-like root. It is somewhat earlier, and also hardier, than the Yellow Malta. The flesh is tender, close-grained, and of a sweet, sugary flavor; the leaves are small, and few in number; bulb about two inches in thickness by four inches in diameter, weighing eight or ten ounces. An excellent garden variety. FRENEUSE. Root produced within the earth,--long, tapering, and rather symmetrical; size small,--average specimens measuring five or six inches in length, an inch and a half in diameter at the crown, and weighing eight or ten ounces; skin white, or yellowish-white; flesh white, dry, very firm, and sugary; leaves small, deep green, spreading. Half early, and one of the best of the dry-fleshed varieties. GOLDEN BALL. _M'Int._ _Vil._ Yellow Globe. [Illustration: Golden Ball.] Bulb produced mostly within the earth, nearly globular, and very smooth and symmetrical; skin bright yellow below ground, greenish above; leaves comparatively small, spreading; flesh pale yellow, sweet, and well flavored, but not so fine-grained as that of many other varieties. It is a good table turnip; and with the Robertson's Golden Stone, which it greatly resembles, the most valuable for cultivation, where large-sized garden turnips are required. Its size is about that of the last named. Average specimens measure four inches in diameter, nearly the same in depth, and weigh from twelve to fourteen ounces. GREEN GLOBE. _Law._ Green-top White Globe. Roots of a fine, globular shape, with a small neck and tap-root; very white below, and green above, the surface of the ground; of medium size, hardy, and firm in texture, but scarcely so much so as the Green Round; than which it arrives at maturity rather earlier. It is somewhat larger than the White Norfolk; has large, deep-green foliage; grows strongly; and produces extraordinary crops: but it soon becomes spongy, and often decays in autumn or early in winter. A sub-variety, of larger size and with softer flesh, is known by the name of Hungarian Green-top Globe. GREEN NORFOLK. _Law._ Green-top Norfolk. Green Round. A sub-variety of the White Norfolk, of nearly the same form and size; the bulb differing principally in the color of the top, which is green. The Norfolk turnips are all of a peculiar flattish form; rather hollowed towards their neck, as also on their under side. When grown to a large size, they become more or less irregular, or somewhat angular. The Green-top variety possesses these characters in a less degree than the White-top; and is generally round, flattened, but not much hollowed, on the upper or under surface. It is hardier than the White or Red varieties. GREEN TANKARD. _Law._ Roots more than half above ground; oblong, or tankard-shaped; of a greenish color, except on the under surface, which is white; flesh white and sweet, but of coarse texture. The term "Tankard" is applied to such common field turnips as are of an oblong shape, and the roots of which, in general, grow much above the surface of the ground. Such oblong varieties, however, as approach nearest to a round or globular form, are sometimes termed "Decanter," or "Decanter-shaped turnips." In good soils, the Green Tankard sometimes attains a weight of eight or ten pounds. As a garden variety, it is of little value. GREEN-TOP FLAT. Similar in size, form, and quality to the common Purple-top Flat; skin, above ground, green. Long grown in New England for feeding stock; and, in its young state, often used as a table turnip. Now very little cultivated. GREEN-TOP YELLOW ABERDEEN. _Law._ Green-top Yellow Bullock. An old and esteemed variety, similar in size and form to the Purple-top Yellow Aberdeen: the color of the top is bright green. LINCOLNSHIRE RED GLOBE. This variety is remarkable for its large, deep-green, luxuriant foliage. Bulb very large, roundish; skin, below ground, white,--above the surface, purple; flesh white, firm, and, when young, well flavored, and adapted to table use. It yields abundantly; is uniformly fair, and free from small roots; an average keeper; and deserving of cultivation, especially for agricultural purposes. LONG BLACK. Except in the form of its roots, this variety much resembles the Round Black. It possesses the same peculiar, piquant, radish-like flavor; and is served at table in the same manner. LONG WHITE MALTESE. Long White Clairfontaine. _Vil._ Roots eight or nine inches in length, an inch and a half in diameter, somewhat fusiform, and very smooth and symmetrical. The crown rises two or three inches above the surface of the ground, and is of a green color, except where exposed to the sun, when it often becomes purple or reddish-brown. Below the surface of the soil, the skin is of a dull or dirty white. Flesh white, moderately fine, tender, and of a sugary flavor. Half early. The variety has some resemblance to the Cow-horn; but is smaller, and the flesh not so white. PETROSOWOODSKS. Bulb of medium size, flattened,--comparatively smooth and regular; tap-root very slender, issuing from a basin; skin blackish-purple above and below ground, sometimes changing to yellow about the tap-root of large or overgrown bulbs; flesh yellow, fine-grained, and tender, if grown in cool weather, but liable to be fibrous and strong-flavored when grown during the summer months. The variety is early, and must be classed as a garden rather than as a field turnip. POMERANIAN GLOBE. Bulb globular, remarkably smooth and regular; the neck is small, and the skin white, smooth, and glossy; the flesh is white, close-grained, tender, and sweet; the leaves are large, and of a dark-green color, with paler or whitish nerves. Half early. When in perfection, the bulbs measure three and a half or four inches in diameter, about the same in depth, and weigh from fourteen to eighteen ounces. If sown early in good soil, and allowed the full season for development, the roots sometimes attain a weight of eight or ten pounds. It is generally cultivated as a field turnip, but is also sown as a garden variety; the roots being of good quality for the table, if pulled when about half grown. PRESTON, OR LIVERPOOL YELLOW. _Law._ An early sort, somewhat resembling the Yellow Malta: the bulbs attain a larger size, the foliage is stronger, and the basin, or depression, about the tap-root less deeply sunk. PURPLE-TOP FLAT. Red-top Flat. Bulb round, flattened, nearly one-half growing above ground; neck and tap-root small; skin reddish-purple where exposed to light and air, and white below the surface of the soil; flesh very white, close-grained while young, and of a sugary but often bitter taste. During winter, it usually becomes dry and spongy. Average specimens measure two and a half inches in depth, four or five inches in diameter, and weigh from sixteen to twenty ounces. This old and well-known variety, at one period, was the principal field as well as garden turnip of the Northern and Middle States. It is now, however, very little cultivated; being superseded by the Strap-leaved and other more desirable sorts. PURPLE-TOP STRAP-LEAVED. [Illustration: Purple-top Strap-leaved Turnip.] Bulb very flat, smooth, and regular in form, produced almost entirely above ground; tap-root slender; leaves few, upright, broad, rounded at the ends, and tapering to the neck, which is very small; skin above, clear, bright purple,--below, pure white, often finely clouded or shaded at the union of the colors; flesh clear white, firm, solid, sugary, mild, and remarkably well-flavored; size medium,--measuring about two inches and a half in depth by four or five inches in diameter, and weighing from ten to twelve ounces. Field-grown roots, with the benefit of a long season and rich soil, attain much greater dimensions; often, however, greatly deteriorating in quality as they increase over the average size. This variety is unquestionably one of the best of the flat turnips, either for the garden or field. It is early, hardy, very prolific, will thrive in almost any description of soil, is of excellent quality, and rarely fails to yield a good crop. It is the best of all the flat turnips for sowing among corn or potatoes, or upon small patches of the garden from which early pease or beans have been harvested. PURPLE-TOP YELLOW ABERDEEN. Purple-top Aberdeen. Purple-top Yellow Bullock. Bulb globular, reddish-purple above, and deep yellow below; tap-root very small; leaves deep green, comparatively short, and inclined to grow horizontally. In rich soil and long seasons, the bulbs sometimes attain a weight of eight or ten pounds; but specimens of average size measure about four inches in depth, nearly five inches in diameter, and weigh from sixteen to twenty ounces. The flesh is pale yellow, tender, sugary, and nearly equal to that of the Swedes in solidity. The variety is very hardy, and, although generally grown for farm purposes, is really superior to many sorts cultivated exclusively for table use. RED GLOBE. _Law._ An old, medium-sized, globular turnip, well suited for cultivation in light soil and on exposed or elevated situations. Skin red, where exposed to the sun,--below ground, white; flesh white, and finer in texture than that of the White Globe. It is not suited for table use; and is generally field-grown, and fed to stock. RED NORFOLK. Red-top Norfolk. Red Round. This is a sub-variety of the White Norfolk, the size and form being nearly the same. Skin washed, or clouded with red where exposed to the light. It is firmer in texture, and more regular in its form, than the last named; and, if there be any difference in size, this is the smaller variety. RED TANKARD. Bulb produced partially above ground, pyriform, eight or nine inches in depth, four or five inches in diameter, and weighing about three pounds; below ground, the skin is white,--above, purple or violet; flesh white, rather firm, sugary, and well flavored; foliage large. It is recommended for its earliness and productiveness, but must be considered a field rather than a table variety. ROBERTSON'S GOLDEN STONE. _M'Int._ _Vil._ An excellent, half-early variety; form nearly globular; color deep orange throughout, sometimes tinged with green on the top; size above medium,--average specimens measuring nearly four inches in depth, four inches in diameter, and weighing from sixteen to eighteen ounces; flesh firm, and well flavored. The Robertson's Golden Stone is remarkably hardy, keeps well, and is one of the best of the Yellows for autumn or winter use. ROUND BLACK. _Law._ Leaves few, small, and comparatively smooth; bulb produced almost or altogether under ground, of an irregular, roundish form, often divided, or terminating in thick branches at its lower extremity; skin black, and very tough; flesh white. The variety is extensively cultivated in some parts of Europe, and is much esteemed for its peculiar, piquant, somewhat radish-like flavor. It is sometimes served in its crude state as a salad. SIX WEEKS. _Law._ Autumn Stubble. Early Dwarf. Bulb produced much above ground, rather large, and of an irregular, globular form. It soon arrives at maturity; but, on account of its natural softness of texture, should always be sown late, and used before severe frosts. As descriptive of its earliness, it has received the above names; being suited for very late sowing, after the removal of early crops; or for making up blanks in turnip-fields, where the first sowing may have partially failed. It is well flavored, but soon becomes dry and spongy, and is unsuitable for use during winter. Skin white below the surface of the ground, greenish above. Field-grown specimens sometimes weigh three pounds and upwards. SMALL LONG YELLOW. Leaves very small, and spreading; root generally entirely under ground, small, and of an oblong or carrot shape, terminating abruptly at the point; skin pale yellow; flesh yellow, firm, dry, and sugary, with some degree of piquancy. It is a good variety for the table, and also a good keeper. SNOW-BALL. Navet Boule de Neige. _Vil._ The bulb of this variety is nearly spherical, very smooth and regular; size medium,--the average dimensions being four inches in diameter, four and a half in depth, and the weight about a pound. The neck is small, and the skin white. The flesh of the young bulbs is white, fine-grained, tender, and sugary; but, if overgrown or long kept, it is liable to become dry and spongy. The variety is early, and, though classed by seedsmen as a garden turnip, is well adapted for field culture; as it not only yields abundantly, but succeeds well when sown late in the season on land from which early crops have been harvested. STONE GLOBE. Bulb globular, and regularly formed, growing mostly beneath the surface of the ground. It belongs to the White-globe varieties, and is considered the hardiest and the best suited for winter use of any of its class. The leaves are larger, stronger, and deeper colored, than any of the White-globe sorts. Skin and flesh white; texture moderately close; flavor sweet, and its keeping properties good; size rather large. TELTOW, OR SMALL BERLIN. Teltau. This is said to be the smallest of turnips; its leaves not exceeding in number those of the radish. The root is fusiform or spindle-shaped, not very regular, and produced entirely under ground; skin dusky white; flesh dry, dull white, very fine-grained, piquant, and sugary; leaves erect, yellowish-green. Early. The roots measure three inches long by about an inch and three-fourths at their largest diameter, and weigh from three to four ounces. The Teltow Turnip is much esteemed on account of its excellent qualities, and is one of the best early garden varieties. According to Loudon, it is in high repute in France, Germany, and Holland; and is grown in the sandy fields around Berlin, and also near Altona, whence it is imported to the London market. It is, or was, grown in immense quantities in the neighborhood of Moscow. The peculiar flavor is in the outer rind. When used, it should not be peeled. It bears transplanting well; and may be set in rows one foot apart, and nine inches apart in the rows. WAITE'S HYBRID ECLIPSE. A recent variety, of English origin, introduced by Mr. John G. Waite, a seed-merchant of London. As figured and described, it is of large size, very richly colored, and remarkably smooth and symmetrical. At the crown, it is broad and round-shouldered, and measures about six inches in diameter; which size is nearly retained to a depth of eight or nine inches, when it contracts in a conical form to a tap-root. Color of upper portion, clear purple, richly clouded, and contrasting finely with the yellow on the lower part. It is represented as a turnip of excellent quality, and as being very productive. When cultivated in this country, it has generally fallen short of the excellence it is represented as attaining in England. It is apparently not adapted to the dry and warm summers of the United States. WHITE GLOBE. _Law._ Common Field Globe. Root globular; skin smooth, perfectly white; flesh also white; neck and tap-root small. Although this description embraces the principal characters of the White Globe, there is considerable variety in the turnips to which this name is applied, arising from the degree of care and attention bestowed by growers in selecting their seed-roots; and the shape is often not a little affected by the soil in which they are grown. Thus Globes of any kind, and particularly those of this variety, when grown on a very superior, rich soil, may be said to be forced beyond their natural size, and thereby acquire somewhat of a monstrous or overgrown appearance; losing, in a great measure, their natural symmetry. This variety is better adapted to field culture than to the garden, as it is altogether too coarse in texture for table use. It is a poor keeper, and, in unfavorable seasons, sometimes decays before the time of harvesting. Specimens have been grown weighing fifteen and even eighteen pounds. WHITE NORFOLK. White Round. A large English variety, somewhat irregular in form, but usually more or less compressed, and sometimes pyriform; the upper portion of the root being produced four or five inches above ground. Specimens sometimes measure ten or twelve inches in diameter. The leaves are large, and rather numerous; the skin white below the surface, and often white above, but sometimes washed with green; flesh white and coarse-grained, but sweet. Very late. It is but a sub-variety of the Common Flat Turnip, and oftentimes attains a most extraordinary size. For the garden, it possesses no value. It is grown exclusively as an agricultural or field turnip; but is very liable to rot; soon becomes spongy; and can only be classed as third-rate, even for feeding stock. WHITE STONE. Early Stone. White Garden Stone. This common and well-known garden turnip somewhat resembles the White Dutch; but has stronger foliage, is rounder in form, and finer in texture. A carefully selected and improved variety of this is known by the name of Mouse-tail Turnip; and, in addition, some catalogues contain varieties under the name of Red-topped Mouse-tail, &c. Skin and flesh white; size full medium, measuring three and a half to four inches in depth by four and a half or five inches in diameter. WHITE TANKARD. Navet Gras d'Alsace. _Vil._ Bulb pyriform, cylindrical at the crown, which, like that of the Red Tankard, rises two or three inches from the ground; skin white in the earth, green above; flesh white, tender, sweet, rather firm, and close-grained. Early. Vilmorin mentions two varieties; one having entire leaves, the other with lyrate or lobed leaves; giving preference, however, to the one with entire leaves. Like most of the Tankards, the variety seems better adapted to agricultural than to horticultural purposes. WHITE-TOP FLAT. Bulb similar in size and form to the Green-top Flat; leaves few and small; skin uniformly white; flesh white, firm, sugary, and well flavored. As a table variety, it is superior to the Purple-top Flat or the Green-top. WHITE-TOP STRAP-LEAVED. This is a sub-variety of the Purple-top Strap-leaved; differing little, except in color. The leaves are erect, few and small, somewhat lanceolate, and nearly entire on the borders; the bulb is of medium size, much flattened, green above ground, white below, and remarkably smooth and regular in form; tap-root very small; the flesh is white, very fine-grained, saccharine, mild, and excellent. Early, productive, and recommended as one of the best varieties for field or garden culture. The Strap-leaved Turnips appear to be peculiarly adapted to the climate of the Northern States, and are greatly superior in all respects to the Common White and Purple-top Flat varieties. Though of comparatively recent introduction, they have been widely disseminated; and, wherever grown, are highly esteemed. YELLOW MALTA. _M'Int._ Maltese. Golden Maltese. A beautiful, very symmetrical, small-bulbed, early variety, slightly flattened above, somewhat concave about, the tap-root, which, as well as the neck, is remarkably small; skin very smooth, bright orange-yellow; foliage small, and not abundant,--on which account the plants may be grown quite close to each other; flesh pale-yellow, fine-grained, and well flavored. It is a good garden variety, and one of the best of the Yellows for summer use. Average bulbs measure two inches in depth, four inches in diameter, and weigh about ten ounces. YELLOW SCARISBRICK. Bulb flattened, smooth, and regular; neck small; skin pale yellow,--above ground, green; flesh yellowish-white, tender, and sweet; leaves of medium size, very pale-green. Season late. Well-grown specimens measure four inches in diameter, and about three inches in depth. YELLOW STONE. Very similar to the Golden Ball or Yellow Globe. Compared with these varieties, the bulb of the Yellow Stone is produced more above ground, and the upper surface is more colored with green. One of the best of garden turnips. YELLOW TANKARD. _Vil._ Root somewhat fusiform, or of a long, irregular, tankard shape; the crown rising just above the ground. Average specimens measure seven or eight inches in length, three inches and a half in diameter, and weigh about twenty-four ounces. Skin yellowish-white below ground, green above; flesh pale yellow, firm, and sugary; leaves large. It is esteemed for the solidity of its flesh, and for its earliness and productiveness. A good variety for either field or garden. CHAPTER II. ALLIACEOUS PLANTS. The Cive. Garlic. Leek. Onion. Rocambole. Shallot. Welsh Onion. * * * * * THE CIVE. Chive. Allium schoenoprasum. The Cive is a hardy, bulbous-rooted, perennial plant, indigenous to France and Great Britain. The leaves, which are produced in tufts, are seven or eight inches in length, erect and cylindrical, or awl-shaped. The bulbs are white, oval, and of small size; usually measuring about half an inch in diameter. The flower-stalk rises to the height of the leaves, and produces, at its extremity, a globular group of purplish, barren flowers. _Propagation and Culture._--As the plant seldom, if ever, produces seeds, it is always propagated by a division of the roots, or bulbs. These are produced in compact groups, or bunches, seven or eight inches in diameter. "One of these groups may be divided into a dozen or more parts, each of which will, in a short time, form a cluster equal in size to the original. They should be planted in spring or autumn, in rows eighteen inches apart, and twelve or fifteen inches asunder in the rows. All the cultivation they require is to be kept free from weeds; and they will thrive in any common garden soil. A planting will last many years; but it is well to renew it every third or fourth year." _Use._--The young leaves are the parts of the plant used; but, whether used or not, to keep them in a fresh and tender condition, the plants should be frequently shorn to the ground. They possess the flavor peculiar to the Onion family; and are principally used in flavoring soups, and as an ingredient in spring salads. The leaves and bulbs are sometimes taken together, and eaten crude, as a substitute for young onions. In omelets, the Cive is considered almost indispensable. There are no varieties. * * * * * COMMON GARLIC. Allium sativum. This is a perennial plant, from the south of Europe. The root is composed of from ten to fifteen small bulbs, called "cloves," which are enclosed in a thin, white, semi-transparent skin, or pellicle. The leaves are long and narrow. The flower-stem is cylindrical, about eighteen inches in height, and terminates in an umbel, or group, of pale-pink flowers, intermixed with small bulbs. The seeds are black, and, in form, irregular; but are seldom employed for propagation; the cloves, or small bulbs, succeeding better. _Planting and Cultivation._--Garlic thrives best in a light, well-enriched soil; and the bulbs should be planted in April or May, an inch deep, in rows or on ridges, fourteen inches apart, and five or six inches apart in the rows. "All the culture necessary is confined to keeping the ground free from weeds. When the leaves turn yellow, the plants may be taken up; and, having been dried in the sun, they should be tied up in bunches by the stalks, and suspended in a dry, airy room, for use."--_Thomp._ _Use._--It is cultivated for its bulbs, or cloves, which possess more of the flavor of the onion than any other alliaceous plant. These are sometimes employed in soups, stews, and other dishes; and, in some parts of Europe, are eaten in a crude state with bread. "It is not cultivated to any considerable extent in this country; its strong flavor, and the offensive odor it communicates to the breath, causing it to be sparingly used in our cookery. "Where attention is paid to culture, the Common Garlic will attain a size of seven and a half inches in circumference, each bulb; whereas, when grown negligently and unskilfully, it does not attain half that size. Twenty ordinary bulbs weigh one pound."--_M'Int._ EARLY ROSE GARLIC. Early Pink. This is a sub-variety of the Common Garlic. The pellicle in which the small bulbs are enclosed is rose-colored; and this is its principal distinguishing characteristic. It is, however, nearly a fortnight earlier. For culinary purposes, it is not considered superior to the Common Garlic. Propagation and cultivation the same; though, in warm climates, the bulbs are sometimes planted in autumn. GREAT-HEADED GARLIC. _Vil._ Allium ampeloprasum. This species is a hardy perennial, and is remarkable for the size of its bulbs; which, as in the foregoing species and variety, separate into smaller bulbs, or cloves. The leaves and stem somewhat resemble those of the leek; the flowers are rose-colored, and are produced at the extremity of the stalk, in large, regular, globular heads, or umbels; the seeds are similar to those of the Common Garlic, but are seldom used for reproduction; the cloves, or small bulbs, being generally employed for this purpose. It is used and cultivated as the Common Garlic. * * * * * THE LEEK. Allium porrum. The Leek is a hardy biennial, and produces an oblong, tunicated bulb; from the base of which, rootlets are put forth in great numbers. The plant, when full grown, much resembles what are commonly known as "Scallions;" the lower, blanched portion being the part eaten. This varies in length from four to eight inches, and in diameter from less than an inch to more than three inches. The leaves are long, narrow, smooth, and pointed; and spread in opposite directions, somewhat in the form of a fan. The flower-stem proceeds from the centre of this collection of leaves, and is about four feet in height. The flowers are white, with a stripe of red, and are produced in terminal, globular groups, or umbels; the seeds are black, irregular, but somewhat triangular in form, and, with the exception of their smaller size, are similar to those of the onion. About twelve thousand seeds are contained in an ounce; and they retain their vitality two years. _Soil, Sowing, and Cultivation._--The Leek is very hardy, and easily cultivated. It succeeds best in a light but well-enriched soil. When fine leeks are desired, it can hardly be made too rich. It should also be thoroughly spaded over, and well pulverized to the depth of at least twelve inches. The seed should be sown in April, at the bottom of drills made six or eight inches deep, and eighteen inches asunder. Sow the seeds thinly, cover half an inch deep, and thin the young plants to nine inches distant in the drills. As the plants increase in size, draw the earth gradually into the drills, and around the stems of the leeks, until the drills are filled. By this process, the bulbs are blanched, and rendered tender and mild flavored. The seeds are sometimes sown broadcast, and in July transplanted to trenches, and subsequently cultivated, as before directed. The plants are also sometimes set on the surface, and afterwards earthed up to the height of six or eight inches in the process of cultivation. In October, the leeks will be suitable for use; and, until the closing-up of the ground, may be drawn from time to time as required for the table. For winter use, they should be preserved in earth or sand. Early leeks may be obtained by sowing the seeds in a hot-bed in February or March, and transplanting to the open ground in June or July. _Seed._--To obtain seed, some of the finest plants of the growth of the previous year should be set out in April, fifteen inches apart, and the stems sunk to the depth of three or four inches. "The seed ripens in autumn, and its maturity is known by the heads changing to a brown color. It is best preserved in the heads; and these should be cut off with a portion of the stalk a foot in length, tied in bunches, and hung in a dry, airy situation. In this manner, the seed will retain its vegetative powers for two or three years: after that time, it is not to be depended on."--_Thomp._ _Use._--"The whole plant, except the roots, is used in soups and stews. The white stems, which are blanched by being planted deep for the purpose, are boiled, served with toasted bread and white sauce, and eaten like asparagus." It has the flavor, and possesses the general properties, of the onion. _Varieties._-- COMMON FLAG. _Vil._ Long Flag. The stem, or blanched portion, of this variety is about six inches in depth, and an inch in diameter. The leaves are put forth in opposite directions, are comparatively erect, and of a glaucous-green color. The variety is remarkably hardy, and well suited for open culture. LARGE ROUEN. _Thomp._ Gros de Rouen. _Vil._ [Illustration: Rouen Leek.] Leaves very dark-green, broad, and of thick substance; stem rather short, but remarkably thick, sometimes measuring nearly four inches in diameter. It is now the variety most cultivated near Paris; and, since its general dissemination, has been much approved by all who have grown it. It is found to be the best kind for forcing, as it acquires a sufficient thickness of stem sooner than any other. In England, it is pronounced one of the best, if not the best, of all varieties. LITTLE MONTAGNE. _Vil._ Stem very short and slender; foliage deeper green than that of the Common Flag. It is the smallest of the leeks. Not much cultivated. LONDON FLAG. Large Flag. Broad Flag. English Flag. Gros Court. _Vil._ Stem about four inches in length, and nearly an inch and a half in diameter. The leaves are larger, of a paler color, and softer in their texture, than those of the Common Flag. The London-flag Leek is hardy, and of good quality. It is more generally cultivated in this country than any other variety. MUSSELBURGH. _Thomp._ Scotch Flag. Edinburgh Improved. Stem somewhat shorter than that of the London Flag, but of equal thickness. The swelling at the base has the same form. The leaves are broad and tall, and spread regularly in a fan-like manner. Their color is deeper than that of the Long Flag or the Large Rouen, but paler than the London Flag. Hardy, and of excellent quality. It originated in England. PROLIFEROUS LEEK. _Trans._ This is a viviparous variety of the common leek, producing young plants on its flower-stalk instead of flowers. The leaves are similar to those of the London Flag; and the plant, in its young state, before it runs to flower, exactly resembles it. The flower-scape is from two to three feet high, and supports a compact, irregular, globose umbel, composed of numerous small bulbs, intermixed with flowers. Some of these bulbs occasionally produce a second umbel, on scapes of from six to eight inches in length, but of much smaller dimensions than the principal one. The variety is cultivated in rows, like other leeks; and the bulbs will remain sound several months after they have ripened. SMALL EARLY NETHERLAND. _Thomp._ Small Summer Brabant. Leaves long, narrow, dark-green; stem small. On this account, it is not so valuable as many others for a main crop: besides, if sown at the same time, it is liable to run to seed before winter. A small sowing, however, may be made with advantage for early use. YELLOW POITOU. _Thomp._ Jaune du Poitou. _Vil._ A remarkably large variety; the leaves having sometimes measured five feet in length, and six inches in breadth. They are of a yellowish-green color. The underground or blanched portion of the stem is yellowish-white, and is more tender than that of any other variety. On this account, and also for its large size, it deserves cultivation. The great length of the leaves makes it important that more space should be allowed between the plants than is usually allotted to other varieties. * * * * * THE ONION. Allium cepa. The Onion is a half-hardy biennial plant: the roots and leaves, however, are annual; as they usually perish during the first year. The bulbs, for which the plant is generally cultivated, are biennial, and differ to a considerable extent in their size, form, and color. The flower-stalk, which is developed the second year, is from three to four feet in height, leafless, hollow, swollen just below the middle, and tapers to the top. The flowers are either white or rose-colored, and are produced at the extremity of the stalk in a regular, globular group, or umbel. The seeds ripen in August. They are deep blue-black, somewhat triangular, and similar in size and form in all the varieties. An ounce contains about seventy-five hundred seeds, which retain their vitality two years. _Soil and Cultivation._--The Onion requires a light, loamy, mellow soil; and, unlike most kinds of garden or field vegetables, succeeds well when cultivated on the same land for successive years. With the exception of the Top and the Potato Onion, all the varieties are raised from seed. Previous to sowing, the ground should be thoroughly spaded over or deeply ploughed, and the surface made smooth and even. The seed should be sown as early in spring as the soil may be in good working condition. Sow in drills fourteen inches apart, and half an inch in depth. When the plants are three or four inches high, thin them to two inches asunder; and, in the process of culture, be careful not to stir the soil too deeply, or to collect it about the growing bulbs. The onions will ripen in August, or early in September; and their full maturity will be indicated by the perfect decay of the leaves, or tops. The bulbs may be drawn from the drills by the hand, or by the use of a common garden-rake. After being exposed for a few days to the sun for drying, they will be ready for storing or the market. _Preservation._--The essentials for the preservation of the bulbs are a low temperature, freedom from frost, dryness, and thorough ventilation. _Seed._--For the production of seed, select the ripest, firmest, and best-formed bulbs; and, in April, transplant them to lines two feet and a half or three feet distant, and from nine to twelve inches apart in the lines, sinking the crowns just below the surface of the ground. As the plants advance in height, tie them to stakes for support. The seeds ripen in August: and the heads, or umbels, should be cut off when they assume a brown color; for then the capsules begin to open, and shed their seeds. After being threshed out, the seed should be exposed to the action of the sun until it is thoroughly dried; for, when stored in a damp state, it is extremely liable to generate heat, and consequently to lose its vitality. _Varieties._--Few of the numerous varieties are cultivated to any extent in this country. Many of the kinds succeed only in warm latitudes, and others are comparatively unimportant. The Danvers, Large Red, Silver-skin, and the Yellow seem peculiarly adapted to our soil and climate. The annual product of these varieties greatly exceeds that of all the other sorts combined. BLOOD-RED. _Thomp._ French Blood-red. Dutch Blood-red. St. Thomas. Bulb middle-sized, or rather large, flattened; skin dull red,--the coating next within glossy, and very dark red. The internal layers are palest at the base; and, except at the top, are only colored on their outsides. Each layer is paler than the one which surrounds it; till the centre is reached, which is white. It is a good keeper, but one of the strongest flavored of all varieties. It imparts to soups, or other dishes of which it may be an ingredient, a brownish or blackish color. BROWN PORTUGAL. _Thomp._ Brown Spanish. Cambrai. Oporto. A medium-sized, roundish, or flattened onion; neck small; skin yellowish-brown,--next interior layer not tinged with red. It is a popular variety in some parts of France; and is remarkable for its productiveness, excellent quality, and keeping properties. DANVERS. Danvers Yellow. [Illustration: Danvers Onion.] This comparatively recent variety was obtained by selection from the Common Yellow. It is somewhat above medium size, and inclined to globular in its form. Average bulbs measure three inches in diameter, and two inches and three-fourths in depth. The skin is yellowish-brown, but becomes darker by age, and greenish-brown if long exposed to the sun; the flesh is similar to that of the Yellow,--white, sugary, comparatively mild, and well flavored. The superiority of the Danvers Onion over the last named consists principally, if not solely, in its greater productiveness. When grown under like conditions, it yields, on the average, nearly one-fourth more; and, on this account, the variety is generally employed for field culture. It is, however, not so good a keeper; and, for shipping purposes, is decidedly inferior to the Yellow,--its globular form rendering it more liable to decay, from the heat and dampness incident to sea voyages. When cultivated for the market, the land is thoroughly ploughed, and well enriched with fine decomposed manure. The surface is then harrowed, and next raked free of stones, and lumps of earth. The seed is sown in April, usually by machines, in rows fourteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch in depth; three pounds of seed being allowed to an acre. The crop is treated in the usual form during the summer; and ripens the last of August, or early in September. When the tops have entirely withered, the bulbs are raked from the drills, and spread a few days in the sun for drying; after which they are sorted, and barrelled for storing or the market. The yield varies from five to eight hundred bushels per acre. DEPTFORD. _Thomp._ Brown Deptford. Very similar to, if not identical with, the English Strasburg. "It sometimes exactly agrees with the description of that variety: but it occasionally has a pale-brown skin, without any tinge of red; and, when this is the case, its flavor is milder than that of the last named." With the exception of its more globular form, the bulb much resembles the Yellow Onion of this country. EARLY SILVER NOCERA. Early Small Silver Nocera. White Nocera. _Thomp._ Blanc Hatif de Nocera. _Vil._ This is a very small variety of the Early Silver-skin, with a small, occasionally roundish, but generally oblate bulb. The skin is white; but the layers beneath are striped with bright-green lines. The leaves are very small. Sometimes the bulb has only a single leaf, frequently but two; and, if there are more than four, the plant has not its true character. It is an excellent sort for pickling; and is the smallest and earliest variety known,--being fifteen or twenty days earlier than the Early Silver-skin: but it is very liable to increase in size, and to degenerate. Very little known or cultivated in this country. EARLY RED WETHERSFIELD. A sub-variety of the Large Red Wethersfield, and the earliest of the red onions. Form and color nearly the same as the Large Red; bulb small, measuring about two inches and a half in diameter, and about an inch and a half in depth. It is close-grained; mild; a good keeper; forms its bulbs, with few exceptions, and ripens, the last of July; being three or four weeks earlier than the Large Red. Cultivated to a limited extent in various places on the coast of New England, for early consumption at home, and for shipment to the South and West. This variety and the Intermediate are very liable to degenerate: they tend to grow larger and later, approaching the original variety; and can be preserved in a pure state only by a careful selection of the bulbs set for seed. EARLY SILVER-SKIN. Blanc Hatif. _Vil._ This is a small early variety of the Silver-skin, measuring two inches and three-fourths in diameter, and an inch and three-fourths in depth. The neck is small, and the skin silvery-white. It is much esteemed for its earliness and mild flavor, and is one of the best of all varieties for pickling. When cultivated for the latter purpose, it should be sown and treated as directed for the Silver-skin. FUSIFORM, OR COW-HORN. Corné de Boeuf. _Vil._ This is a large onion, growing from eight inches to a foot in length. It tapers rather regularly from the base to the top, and is frequently bent or curved in the form of a horn; whence the name. Skin copper-red. It is late, lacks compactness, is very liable to degenerate, decays soon after being harvested, and must be considered more curious than useful. INTERMEDIATE RED WETHERSFIELD. An early variety of the common Large Red. Bulb of medium size, flattened; neck small; color deep purple. It is rather pungent, yet milder than the Large Red; keeps well; and is grown to a considerable extent, in certain localities in New England, for shipping. JAMES'S KEEPING. James's Long Keeping. De James. _Vil._ This is an English hybrid, said to have been originated by a Mr. James, an extensive market-gardener in Surrey, Eng. The bulb is pyriform, or pear-shaped; and measures four inches and upwards in depth, and two inches or more at its broadest diameter. Skin copper-yellow,--the coating next under it reddish-brown; flavor strong. It is not early, but is much prized for its long keeping; the bulbs not sprouting so early in spring as those of most varieties. LARGE RED. Wethersfield Large Red. [Illustration: Wethersfield Large Red Onion.] Bulb sometimes roundish, but, when pure, comparatively flat. It is of very large size; and, when grown in favorable soil, often measures five inches or more in diameter, and three inches in depth. Skin deep purplish-red; neck of medium size; flesh purplish-white, moderately fine-grained, and stronger flavored than that of the Yellow and earlier Red varieties. It is very productive; one of the best to keep; and is grown to a large extent, in many places on the seacoast of New England, for shipping to the South and West. It is almost everywhere seen in vegetable markets; and, with perhaps the exception of the Yellow or Danvers, is the most prominent of the sorts employed for commercial purposes. It derives its name from Wethersfield, Conn.; where it is extensively cultivated, and where it has the reputation of having originated. A sub-variety of the foregoing is cultivated in some localities, with nearly the same variation in form that exists between the Danvers and Common Yellow. It will probably prove somewhat more productive; but it is neither better flavored, nor to be preferred for its superior keeping properties. MADEIRA. Large Globe Tripoli. Romain. De Madère Rond. De Belle Garde. _Vil._ This is a roundish, obovate onion, of remarkable size, often measuring six inches and a half in depth, and six inches in diameter; neck thick and large; skin reddish-brown,--the layer next within, pale red. The variety is much prized for its extraordinary size, and for its mild, sugary flavor. The plants, however, often fail to form good bulbs; and, even when well matured, the latter are liable to decay soon after being harvested. It requires a long, warm season for its greatest perfection. The seed should be sown early, in drills sixteen inches apart; and the plants should be thinned to eight inches apart in the rows. Not suited to New England or the cooler sections of the United States. NEW DEEP BLOOD-RED. Brunswick Deep Blood-red. Rouge Très Foncé de Brunswick. _Vil._ Bulb very small, flattened,--two inches and a quarter in diameter, and an inch and a half in depth; neck small; skin deep violet-red, approaching black. A half early variety, remarkable for its intense purplish-red color. PALE RED. Rouge Pale, de Niort. _Vil._ Bulb roundish, flattened on the upper side, but not so much so as the Blood-red, of which this may be considered a variety; size medium, two inches and a half in diameter, one inch and three-quarters in depth; neck small; skin copper-red, much paler than that of the Blood-red. Compared with the last named, it is earlier and of milder flavor. This and the Blood-red are much esteemed by some for their extreme pungency and for their diuretic properties. PARIS STRAW-COLORED. Jaune des Vertus. _Vil._ A large, somewhat flattened variety, much cultivated about Paris; skin fine russet-yellow; neck small. It is not early, but very productive, and of excellent quality. PEAR-SHAPED. Bulb pyriform, measuring four inches and a half in depth, and two inches in diameter at the broadest part; neck small; skin copper-red. It is quite late, but is of good quality, and keeps well. POTATO ONION. Underground Onion. Bulb flattened, from two and a half to three inches in diameter, and about two inches in depth; skin copper-yellow; flavor sugary, mild, and excellent. It does not keep so well as many other varieties; but remains sound longer, if the leaves are cut two or three inches above the top of the bulb at the time of harvesting. The Potato Onion produces no seeds, neither small bulbs upon its stalks, in the manner of many of the species of the Onion family; but, if a full-grown bulb be set in spring, a number of bulbs of various sizes will be formed, beneath the surface of the ground, about the parent bulb. By means of these it is propagated, and an abundant supply often secured in localities where the varieties raised from seed frequently wholly fail, either from the maggot, effects of climate, or other causes. Like the other kinds of onions, it requires a rich, deep soil, well manured, and dry at the bottom. This should be deeply and thoroughly stirred, and then raised in ridges of moderate height, fifteen inches apart. In April, select the large bulbs, and set them on the ridges, ten inches apart, with the crown of the bulbs just below the surface of the ground. The subsequent culture consists in keeping them clean from weeds, and gathering a little earth about them from time to time in the process of cultivation. As soon as the tops are entirely dead, they will be ready for harvesting. It is very prolific, yielding from four to six fold. Such of the crop as may be too small for the table should be preserved during the winter, to be set in the following spring; planting them out in April, in drills one foot apart and three inches from each other in the drills, and sinking the crowns just below the surface of the ground. They attain their full size by September. SILVER-SKIN. White Portugal, of New England. Bulb of medium size, flattened,--average specimens measuring about three inches in diameter, and an inch and a half or two inches in thickness; neck very small; skin silvery-white. After the removal of the outer envelope, the upper part of the bulb is often veined and clouded with green, while the portion produced below ground is generally clear white. Flesh white, fine-grained, sugary, and remarkably mild flavored. It forms its bulb early and regularly, ripens off well, and is quite productive; an average yield being about four hundred bushels per acre. It is a very poor keeper; and this is its most serious objection. It is always preserved through the winter with much difficulty, and almost invariably decays if kept from light and exposed to dampness. The best method for its preservation is to spread the roots in a dry, light, and airy situation. The Silver-skin Onion is much esteemed in the middle and southern sections of the United States, and is cultivated to a considerable extent in New England. It is well adapted for sowing in August, or the beginning of September, for early use, and for marketing during the ensuing spring. Where the winter are mild, the crop, with slight protection, will sustain no injury in the open ground. In Europe it is much esteemed, and extensively grown for pickling, as its "white color, in contrast with the fine green veins, or lines, gives it a very agreeable appearance. For pickling, the seed should be sown very thickly, then slightly covered with fine soil, and afterwards rolled. If the seed is covered more deeply, the bulb, from not being quite on the surface, has a larger and thicker neck; so that it loses its finely rounded form, and is, moreover, less compact." This variety, erroneously known in New England as the "White Portugal," is unquestionably the true Silver-skin, as described both by English and French authors. The application of the term "Silver-skin" to the common Yellow Onion, as very extensively practised by seedsmen and market-men in the Eastern States, is neither pertinent nor authorized. STRASBURG. _M'Int._ Yellow Strasburg. Flanders. Dutch. Essex. This is the variety most generally cultivated in Great Britain. Its form varies from flat to globular, or oval; bulb large, three inches wide, and full two inches in depth; outside coating brown, of firm texture. Divested of this, the color is reddish-brown, tinged with green. Flavor comparatively mild. It is a very hardy sort, succeeds in cold localities, and keeps well. The Strasburg and Deptford Onions much resemble the common Yellow Onion of New England; and the difference between the sorts is not great, when English-grown bulbs of the first-named varieties are compared with the bulbs of the Yellow Onion, American-grown: but seeds of the Strasburg or Deptford, raised in England and sown in this country, almost invariably fail to produce plants that form bulbs so generally or so perfectly as American-grown seeds of the Yellow Onion. TOP OR TREE ONION. Egyptian. Bulb large, a little flattened; producing, instead of seeds, a number of small bulbs, or onions, about the size of a filbert, which serve as a substitute for seeds in propagation. The flesh is coarse; and the bulbs are very liable to decay during winter, unless kept in a cool and dry situation. The variety has been considered rather curious than useful. _Planting and Culture._--"Either the bulbs formed in the ground, or the small ones upon the stems, may be planted out in April or May. The former are set one foot apart in each direction, and the stem-bulbs four inches apart in rows eight inches asunder. Stems that bear heavily require to be supported. When ripe, the stem-bulbs should be dried, and kept free from damp in a cool place." TRIPOLI. _Thomp._ Flat Madeira. De Madère Plat. _Vil._ This is one of the largest varieties. The bulb tapers abruptly from the middle to the neck, and almost equally so to the base. It is five inches and upwards in diameter; color light reddish-brown,--beneath the skin, pale brownish-red, tinged with green. It requires the whole season, and in some localities is considered excellent for a late crop. The flesh is soft, and the bulbs soon perish after being taken from the ground. In its season, it is much esteemed for its mild and delicate flavor. Like the Madeira Onion, the plants fail to form bulbs so generally as other varieties. Not adapted to the climate of the Northern States. TWO-BLADED. _Thomp._ Double Tige. _Vil._ This variety derives its name from the fact that the small bulbs have generally but two leaves. The larger ones have more; rarely, however, exceeding four: but, unless by far the greater portion have only two leaves, either the seed or the cultivation is at fault. The bulbs are small, flat, light-brown, very firm, and attain maturity early; the neck is small, and the top of the bulb is depressed or hollowed around the stem. It keeps well, and is an excellent variety. WHITE GLOBE. _Thomp._ [Illustration: White Globe.] Form nearly ovoid, very regular and symmetrical; skin greenish-yellow, marked with rose-colored lines,--the pellicle changing to white on drying. The bulb measures about four inches in depth, and two inches and three-fourths in its largest diameter. It keeps well, and is an excellent variety. YELLOW GLOBE. Nearly allied to the preceding variety; the size and form being the same. Skin reddish-yellow. It is hardy, productive, of good flavor, keeps well, and deserves general cultivation. WHITE LISBON. Lisbon. _Thomp._ Early Lisbon. White Florence. A very large, globular onion, measuring four inches in diameter, and about four inches in depth; neck comparatively thick; skin smooth, thin, clear, and white. It is a late variety; and, although comparatively hardy, requires a long, warm season for its full development. Under the most favorable conditions, both with regard to soil and exposure, many of the plants fail to form a good bulb. On account of its hardiness, it is a good sort for sowing in the autumn for a supply of young onions for spring salads; or, if these young bulbs be set in the open ground in April, fine, large onions will be formed towards the end of summer. The variety is better suited to the climate of the Middle States than to that of the Northern and Eastern. WHITE PORTUGAL, OR SPANISH. _Thomp._ White Spanish. White Reading. Cambridge. Soufre D'Espagne. _Vil._ A very large, flat onion, measuring three inches and upwards in width by about two inches in depth; skin loose, of a pale-brown or yellowish-brown, falling off spontaneously, and exhibiting the next coating, which is greenish-white. It has a small neck, and is particularly mild flavored. One of the best for early winter use, but early decays. Very distinct from the White Portugal of the New-England markets. YELLOW ONION. Silver-skin of New England. [Illustration: Yellow Onion.] One of the oldest varieties, and, as a market onion, probably better known and more generally cultivated in this country than any other sort. The true Yellow Onion has a flattened form and a very small neck. Its size is rather above medium,--measuring, when well grown, from three inches to three inches and a half in diameter, and from two inches to two inches and a half in depth. Skin yellowish-brown, or copper-yellow,--becoming somewhat deeper by age, or if exposed long to the sun; flesh white, fine-grained, comparatively mild, sugary, and well flavored. It keeps well, and is very prolific: few of the plants, in good soils and seasons, fail to produce good-sized and well-ripened bulbs. For the vegetable garden, as well as for field culture, it may be considered a standard sort. The Danvers Onion, which is but a sub-variety of the common Yellow, may prove somewhat more profitable for extensive cultivation, on account of its globular form; but neither in its flavor nor in its keeping properties can it be said to possess any superiority over the last named. The term "Silver-skin," by which this onion is very generally though erroneously known throughout New England, has created great confusion between seedsmen and dealers. Much perplexity might be avoided if its application to the Yellow Onion were entirely abandoned. The genuine Silver-skin, as its name implies, has a skin of pure, silvery whiteness; and is, in other respects, very dissimilar to the present variety. When extensively cultivated for the market, it should be sown and subsequently treated as directed for the Danvers Onion. The yield per acre varies from four to six hundred bushels. * * * * * ROCAMBOLE. Allium scorodoprasum. This plant is a half-hardy perennial from Denmark, partaking of the character of both the leek and garlic. Bulbs or cloves similar to those of the common garlic, with much the same flavor, though somewhat milder; leaves large; flower-stalk about two feet high, contorted or coiled towards the top, and producing at its extremity a group of bulbs, or rocamboles, intermixed with flowers. _Propagation and Culture._--It is propagated by planting either the underground bulbs, or the small cloves, or bulbs, that are produced upon the stem of the plant. These should be set in April, in drills ten inches apart, and four or five inches asunder in the drills. In the following August they will have attained their full size, and may be used immediately; or they may be taken up, spread to dry, tied in bunches, and housed, for future consumption. All the culture required is the removal of weeds, and the occasional stirring of the soil. _Use._--"The cloves, or small bulbs, as well those from the stem as those beneath the surface of the ground, are used in the manner of shallots and garlics, and nearly for the same purposes." There is but one variety. * * * * * SHALLOT. Allium Ascalonicum. The Shallot (sometimes written Eschalot) is a native of Palestine,--the specific term "Ascalonicum" being derived from Ascalon, a town in Syria: hence also the popular English name, "Scallion." The root of the plant is composed of numerous small bulbs, united at their base; the whole being enclosed in a thin skin, or pellicle, varying in color in the different varieties. Leaves fistulous, or hollow, produced in tufts, or groups; flowers reddish, in terminal, compact, spherical bunches. The plants, however, very seldom blossom. _Soil._--"The soil best adapted for growing the Shallot is a light, rich, sandy loam; but, as such soils are scarce, any light, dry soil that has been cultivated and manured a year or two will answer." In wet soils, it is liable to be attacked by the maggot; and such location should, therefore, be avoided. _Propagation and Culture._--The roots of the Shallot, which are bulbous, are very readily increased by offsets. The bulbs are oblong, but somewhat irregular in their form, and seldom attain a large size. As they increase into clusters, they do not swell like roots that grow singly. They are propagated by dividing these clustered roots into separate offsets, and planting the divisions in April, in very shallow drills one foot apart; placing them about six inches apart in the drills, and covering them lightly with earth. Soot mixed with the surface-soil has been found of much service to prevent the maggot from committing extensive depredations upon this plant. The only after-culture required is that of keeping them clean from weeds, and occasionally stirring the ground. _Harvesting._--"As soon as the leaves decay, the bulbs will have attained their growth, and should then be taken up, and spread out in some dry loft; when, after being thoroughly dried and picked, they may be put in bags, boxes, or tied in bundles by the stalks. If kept from frost, they will remain fit for use for several months." _Use._--The largest of the bulbs are selected, and employed in the same manner as garlic or onions. "On account of the mildness of its flavor, when compared with that of other cultivated plants of the Onion family, it is preferred in cookery as a seasoner in soups and stews. It is also much used in the raw state: the cloves, or sections of the root, cut up into small pieces, form an ingredient in French salads; and are also sprinkled over steaks, chops, &c. The true epicure, however, cuts a clove or bulb in two, and, by rubbing the inside of the plate, secures the amount of relish to suit his palate. "Shallot vinegar is made by putting six cloves, or bulbs, into a quart bottle of that liquid; and, when sealed down, it will keep for years. The Shallot also makes an excellent pickle."--_M'Int._ _Varieties._-- COMMON OR SMALL SHALLOT. Échalote ordinaire. _Vil._ Bulbs about three-fourths of an inch in diameter at the base, elongated, and enclosed in a reddish-yellow skin, or pellicle; leaves small, ten or twelve inches high. This variety is early, keeps well, and is one of the best for cultivation. JERSEY. _Vil._ Bulbs of large size, measuring two inches in length, and rather more than an inch in diameter at the base; grouped like the other varieties, and enclosed in a light-brown pellicle, as fine in texture as the skin of an onion, which this Shallot much resembles in form and odor. Compared with the Common Shallot, it is more round, the neck is smaller, and it is also more close or compact. Leaves remarkably glaucous, not tall, but of good substance,--quite distinct in these respects from the Small or the Large sort. It also sometimes produces seeds; which is, perhaps, a recommendation, as these, when sown, frequently produce new varieties. It is one of the earliest of all the sorts; but is comparatively tender, and decays early. LARGE ALENÇON. Échalote grosse d'Alençon. _Vil._ Bulb very large, exceeding in size that of the Jersey Shallot; which variety it much resembles in form and color, and in being tender, decaying early, and sometimes running to seed. It is, however, not quite so early; and the leaves are longer and more glaucous. Flavor mild and pleasant. At the time of harvesting, the bulbs should be long exposed to the sun, in order that they may be thoroughly dried before packing away. "The bulbs are slow in forming, and the worst keepers, as, when stored, they soon begin to sprout." This variety, and also the Jersey Shallot, closely resemble the Onion. It is possible they may constitute a distinct species. LARGE SHALLOT. Échalote grosse. _Vil._ Bulbs about two inches in diameter at the base, elongated, and enclosed in a brownish-yellow skin, or pellicle; leaves fifteen to eighteen inches high. This variety, in size, much exceeds that of the Common or Small Shallot; and, though later in ripening, is nevertheless the first to be found in the market, as it forms its bulbs early in the season. Its keeping properties are inferior to the last named. LONG KEEPING. This resembles the Common Shallot; but is considered superior to that variety in its keeping properties, and in being less subject to the attack of the maggot. It is said that the variety may be kept two years. * * * * * WELSH ONION. Ciboule, of the French. Allium fistulosum. The Welsh Onion is a hardy perennial from Siberia. It is quite distinct from the Common Onion, as it forms no bulbs, but produces numerous elongated, angular, tunicated stems, not unlike scallions, or some of the smaller descriptions of leeks. The flower-stem is about eighteen inches high, swollen near the middle, and terminates in a globular umbel of greenish-white flowers. The seeds are small, black, somewhat irregular in form, and retain their vitality two years. About thirty-six thousand are contained in an ounce. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The seeds are sown in drills about half an inch in depth, and the crop subsequently treated as the Common Onion. There are two varieties:-- COMMON OR RED WELSH ONION. Skin, or pellicle, reddish-brown, changing to silvery-white about the base of the leaves; the latter being fistulous, and about a foot in height. Its principal recommendation is its remarkable hardiness. The seeds are sometimes sown in July and August for the young stems and leaves, which are used during winter and early in spring as salad. WHITE WELSH ONION. Early White. Ciboule Blanche Hative. _Vil._ This is a sub-variety of the Common Red. The skin is rose-white, and, like that of the last named, changes to silvery-white about the upper portion of the stem, or bulb; the leaves are longer, deeper colored, firmer, and less subject to wither or decay at their extremities, than those of the Common Red. The White is generally considered the better variety; as it is more tender, and milder in flavor, though much less productive. The Welsh onions are of little value, except in cold latitudes; and are rarely found in the vegetable gardens of this country. CHAPTER III. ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS. The Artichoke. Asparagus. Cardoon. Hop. Oosung. Phytolacca. * * * * * THE ARTICHOKE. Cynarus scolymus. [Illustration: Green Globe Artichoke.] The Artichoke is a hardy perennial. The stem is from four to five feet in height, with numerous branches; the leaves are of remarkable size, frequently measuring three feet, and sometimes nearly four feet in length, pinnatifid, or deeply cut on the borders, and more or less invested with an ash-colored down; the mid-ribs are large, fleshy, and deeply grooved, or furrowed; the flowers are large, terminal, and consist of numerous blue florets, enclosed by fleshy-pointed scales; the seeds (eight hundred and fifty of which are contained in an ounce) are of a grayish color, variegated with deep brown, oblong, angular, somewhat flattened, and retain their vitality five years. _Soil._--Select a light, rich, and rather moist soil, and trench it well; incorporating in the process a liberal portion of old, well-decomposed compost. Sea-weeds, kelp, rock-weed, and the like, where they can be obtained, are the best fertilizers; but, where these are not accessible, a slight application of salt will be beneficial. _Propagation._--Artichokes may be propagated either by seeds, or by slips, or suckers, from established plants. If by slips, they should be taken off in May, when they have grown five or six inches in height, and transplanted four or five inches deep, in rows four feet apart, and two feet apart in the rows. Water freely, if dry weather occurs before the young plants are established. Keep the ground loose by frequent hoeings; and in August or September the heads will be fit for use. Before severe weather, the plants should be covered with straw or stable-litter. As plants of one year's growth produce but few heads, and are also later in their development of these than established plants, it is the practice of many cultivators to set a few young slips, and to destroy an equal part of the old plantation, yearly. _Propagation by Seeds._--"Sow the seeds in April, in a nursery-bed; making the drills a foot apart, and covering the seeds an inch deep. When the plants are three inches high, transplant as before directed. Plants from seeds will seldom flower the first year."--_M'Int._ _To raise Seeds._--Allow a few of the largest central heads to remain; and, just as the flowers expand, bend over the stalk so as to allow the rain to run from the buds, as the seeds are often injured by wet weather. In favorable seasons, they will ripen in September. According to English authority, little dependence can be placed on seedling plants: many produce small and worthless heads, whilst others produce those of large size and of good quality. _Taking the Crop._--"All of the heads should be cut as fast as they are fit for use, whether wanted or not; as allowing them to flower greatly weakens the plants, as does also permitting the stems that produced the heads to remain after the heads are cut off. For pickling whole, the heads should be cut when about two inches in diameter; for other purposes, when they have nearly attained their full size, but before the scales of the calyx begin to open. For what is called 'bottoms,' they should be cut when they are at their largest size, and just as the scales begin to show symptoms of opening, which is an indication that the flowers are about to be formed; after which, the heads are comparatively useless."--_M'Int._ _Use._--The portions of the plant used are the lowest parts of the leaves, or scales, of the calyx; and also the fleshy receptacles of the flower, freed from the bristles and seed-down. The latter are commonly called the "choke," on account of their disagreeable character when eaten. Sometimes, particularly in France, the central leaf-stalk is blanched, and eaten like cardoons. The bottom, which is the top of the receptacles, is fried in paste, and enters largely into fricassees and ragouts. They are sometimes pickled, and often used in a raw state as a salad. The French also cut them into thin slices; leaving one of the scales, or calyx leaves, attached, by which the slice is lifted, and dipped in oil and vinegar before using. The English present the head whole, or cut into quarters, upon a dry plate; the guests picking off the scales one by one, which have a fleshy substance at the base. These are eaten after being dipped in oil and vinegar. What is called "artichoke chard" is the tender leaf-stalks blanched, and cooked like cardoons. The Italians and French often eat the heads raw with vinegar, oil, salt, and pepper; but they are generally preferred when boiled. _Varieties._-- DARK-RED SPINED. Bud very small. The variety is remarkable for the very long spines in which the scales terminate. For cultivation, it is inferior to the other sorts. EARLY PURPLE. Purple. Purple Globe. Artichaut Violet. _Vil._ Heads rather small, obtusely conical; scales short and broad, pointed, green at the base, tinged with purplish-red on the outside, towards their extremities, moderately succulent, and of good quality. The variety is early, but not hardy. In France, it is considered excellent in its crude state, served with vinegar and oil; but not so good cooked. GREEN GLOBE. Large Round-headed. Globe. A very large sort, much esteemed, and generally cultivated in England. Heads, or buds, very large, nearly round, and with a dusky, purplish tint. The scales turn in at the top, and the receptacle is more fleshy than that of most varieties. It is generally preferred for the main crop, as the scales, or edible parts, are thicker, and higher flavored, than those of any other artichoke. It is not a hardy variety, and requires ample protection during winter. GREEN, OR COMMON. French. Bud very large, of a conical or oval form; scales deep-green, thick, and fleshy, pointed at the tips, and turned outwards. Though it has not the same thickness of flesh as the Green Globe Artichoke, it is much hardier, more prolific, and one of the best sorts for cultivation. GREEN PROVENCE. Bud large; scales comparatively long and narrow, of a lively green color, erect, fleshy at the base, and terminating in a sharp, brownish spine, or thorn; leaves of the plant deep-green. Most esteemed in its crude state; eaten as a salad in vinegar and oil. LAON. Gros vert de Laon. _Vil._ Similar to the Common Green Artichoke, but of larger size. Scales rather loose and open, very deep-green, fleshy, and pointed. Much cultivated in the vicinity of Paris, and there considered the best. LARGE FLAT BRITTANY. Artichaut Camus de Bretagne. _Vil._ Bud of medium size, somewhat globular, but flattened at the top; scales closely set together, green, brownish on the borders,--short, thick, and fleshy at the base. Earlier than the Laon, but not so fleshy. Much grown in Anjou and Brittany. PURPLISH-RED. Bud conical; scales green towards their tips, and purplish-red at their base. Not very fleshy, and in no respect superior to the other varieties. * * * * * ASPARAGUS. Asparagus officinalis. Asparagus is a hardy, perennial, maritime plant. It rises to the height of five feet and upwards, with an erect, branching stem; short, slender, nearly cylindrical leaves; and greenish, drooping flowers. The seeds, which are produced in globular, scarlet berries, are black, somewhat triangular, and retain their germinative powers four years. Twelve hundred and fifty weigh an ounce. It is indigenous to the shores of various countries of Europe and Asia; and, since its introduction, has become naturalized to a considerable extent in this country. It is frequently seen in mowing-fields upon old farms; and, in some instances, has found its way to the beaches and marshes of the seacoast. _Propagation._--It is propagated from seed, which may be sown either in autumn, just before the closing-up of the ground; or in spring, as soon as the soil is in good working condition. The nursery, or seed-bed, should be thoroughly spaded over, the surface levelled and raked smooth and fine, and the seed sown, not very thickly, in drills twelve or fourteen inches apart, and about an inch in depth. An ounce of seed is sufficient for fifty or sixty feet of drill. When the plants are well up, thin them to three inches asunder; as they will be much stronger, if grown at some distance apart, than if allowed to stand closely together. Cultivate in the usual manner during the summer, and give the plants a light covering of stable-litter during the winter. Good plants of one year's growth are preferred by experienced growers for setting; but some choose those of two years, and they may be used when three years old. _Soil and Planting._--"A rich, sandy, alluvial soil, impregnated with salt, is naturally best adapted to the growth of Asparagus; and, in such soil, its cultivation is an easy matter. Soils of a different character must be made rich by the application of fertilizing material, and light and friable by trenching. Sand, in wet, heavy, clayey soil, is of permanent benefit. "The market-gardeners near London are aware of this; for, highly as they manure their ground for crops generally, they procure sand, or sandy mud, from certain parts of the Thames, for Asparagus plantations, where the soil is too heavy. "The ground should be thoroughly trenched to the depth of two and a half or three feet: and, in order to make it rich, a large quantity of manure should be incorporated, as well at the bottom as near the surface,--using either sandy mud; the scourings of ditches made into compost; rock-weed, or kelp, where they can be procured; decayed leaves, or leaf-mould; the remains of hot-beds, good peat, or almost any other manure not in too crude a state. "Where the soil is not so deep, and the subsoil coarse and rather gravelly, the ground is not trenched so deep; the bottom of the trench being merely dug over. Above this, however, a large quantity of manure is applied; and by this, with good after-management,--chiefly consisting in making the soil fine and light for the shoots to push through,--excellent crops are produced. "The ground should be divided into beds either three or five feet wide, with an alley or path of two feet in width between. The reason for having some of the beds so much narrower than the others is, that the narrow ones are sooner heated by the sun's rays, and consequently an earlier production is induced. "The distance between the rows in the beds may be regulated as follows: When the beds are three feet wide, two rows should be transplanted along them: each row should be a foot from the edge of the bed, and they will consequently be a foot apart. In beds that are five feet wide, three rows should be transplanted, also lengthwise,--one along the middle, and one on each side, a foot from the edge of the bed. The distance from plant to plant in the rows should not be less than one foot; at this distance, good-sized heads will be produced: but, if very large heads are desired for exhibition or competition, the plants should be fifteen, or even eighteen, inches asunder. "The transplanting may be performed either in April or May. The three-feet beds should be traced out to run east and west, or so as to present the side of the bed to the direct action of the sun's rays when they are most powerful. Asparagus, in beds so formed, pushes earlier in the season than it does in beds running north and south. For all except the earliest beds, the direction is immaterial; and they may run east and west, or north and south, as may be most convenient. "In proceeding to transplant, the beds, and paths, or alleys, should be marked off at the required distance. A stout stake should be driven at each corner of the beds, and from these the distances for the rows should be measured. There are various ways of transplanting. Some stretch a line, and cut out a trench only deep enough to allow the roots to be laid out without doubling; and they are spread out like a fan perpendicularly against the side of the cut, the crown of the plant being kept two inches below the surface of the ground. Some dig out a trench, and form little hillocks of fine soil, over which the roots are spread, extending like the sticks of an umbrella. Others make a ridge, astride which they set the plants, spreading their roots on each side of the ridge; and, again, some take off a portion of the soil on the bed, and, after the surface has been raked smooth, the roots of the plants are spread out nearly at right angles on the level. "The first method is the most expeditious, and is generally practised in setting extensive plantations: but, whatever plan be preferred, the crowns of the plants should all be on the same level; otherwise those that are too high would be liable to be injured by the knife in cutting." During the summer, nothing will be necessary but to keep the plants clear of weeds; and, in doing this, the hoe should be dispensed with as much as possible, to avoid injuring the roots. In the autumn, when the tops have completely withered, they should be cut down nearly level with the surface of the ground, and burned. The beds should then be lightly dug over, and three or four inches of rich loam, intermixed with well-digested compost, and salt at the rate of two quarts to the square rod, should be applied; which will leave the crowns of the roots about five inches below the surface. _Second Year._--Early in spring, as soon as the frost leaves the ground, dig over the beds, taking care not to disturb the roots; rake the surface smooth; and, during the summer, cultivate as before directed: but none of the shoots should be cut for use. In the autumn, after the stalks have entirely withered, cut down and burn as in the previous year; stir the surface of the bed, and add an inch of soil and manure, which will bring the crowns six or seven inches below ground,--a depth preferred, by a majority of cultivators, for established plantations. _Third Year._--Early in spring, stir the ground as directed for the two previous years. Some cultivators make a slight cutting during this season; but the future strength of the plants will be increased by allowing the crop to grow naturally as during the first and second years. In autumn, cut and burn as before; dig over the surface; add a dressing of manure; and, in the ensuing spring, the beds may be cut freely for use. Instead of transplanting the roots, asparagus-beds are sometimes formed by sowing the seeds where the plants are to remain. When this method is adopted, the beds should be laid out and trenched, as before directed, and about three inches of soil removed from the entire surface. The seed should then be sown in drills an inch deep, at the distances marked out for the rows, and covered with rich, light soil. When the seedlings are two or three inches high, they should be thinned to nine or twelve inches apart; and, in thinning, the weakest plants should be removed. In the autumn, cut down the plants after they have withered, stir and smooth the surface, and add a dressing of manure. In the spring of the second year, stir the surface again; and, during the summer, cultivate as before. In the autumn, the plants will be ready for the dressing; which consists of the soil previously taken from the bed, with sufficient well-digested compost added to cover the crowns of the roots five or six inches in depth. The after-culture is similar to that of beds from transplanted roots. "Asparagus-beds should be enriched every autumn with a liberal application of good compost containing some mixture of salt; the benefit of which will be evident, not only in the quantity, but in the size and quality, of the produce. The dressing should be applied after the removal of the decayed stalks, and forked in, that its enriching properties may be washed to the roots of the plants by winter rains. "In general, transplanted Asparagus comes up quite slender the first year; is larger the second; and, the third year, a few shoots may be fit for cutting. It is nearly in perfection the fourth year; and, if properly managed, will annually give an abundant supply during the life of the maker of a bed or plantation." _Cutting._--"The shoots should be cut angularly, from two to three inches below the surface of the ground; taking care not to wound the younger buds. It is in the best condition for cutting when the shoots are four or five inches above ground, and while the head, or bud, remains close and firm. "It is the practice to cut off all the shoots as they appear, up to the period when it is thought best to leave off cutting altogether. The time for this depends on the climate, season, nature of the soil, and strength of the plants. Where the climate is good, or when the season is an early one, cutting must be commenced early; and of course, in such a case, it ought not to be continued late, as the plants would thereby be weakened." In the Middle States, the cutting should be discontinued from the 10th to the 15th of June; and from the 15th to the 25th of the same month in the Eastern States and the Canadas. "If the plants are weak, they should be allowed to grow up as early as possible, to make foliage, and consequently fresh roots, and thus to acquire more vigor for the ensuing year. It is also advisable to leave off at an early period the cutting of some of the best of the beds intended for early produce, in order that the buds may be well matured early in autumn, and thus be prepared to push vigorously early in spring." Asparagus-beds will continue from twenty to thirty years; and there are instances of beds being regularly cut, and remaining in good condition for more than fifty years. _Seed._--"Select some of the finest and earliest heads as they make their appearance in the spring; tie them to stakes during the summer, taking care not to drive the stake through the crown of the plant. If for the market, or to be sent to a distance, wash out the seeds in autumn, and dry thoroughly; if for home-sowing, allow the seeds to remain in the berries till used." _Use._--The young shoots are boiled twenty minutes or half an hour, until they become soft; and are principally served on toasted bread, with melted butter. It is the practice of some to boil the shoots entire; others cut or break the sprout just above the more tough or fibrous part, and cook only the part which is tender and eatable. This is snapped or cut into small sections, which are boiled, buttered, seasoned, and served on toast in the usual form. "The smaller sprouts are sometimes cut into pieces three-eighths of an inch long, and cooked and served as green pease." The sprouts are also excellent when made into soup. It is one of the most productive, economical, and healthful of all garden vegetables. _Varieties._--"The names of numerous varieties occur in the catalogues of seedsmen: but there seems to be little permanency of character in the plants; such slight variations as appear from time to time being caused, to a considerable extent, by the nature of the soil, or by the situation in which the plants are grown. What are called the Red-topped and Green-topped may perhaps be somewhat distinct, and considered as varieties."--_Glenny._ Soil and location have unquestionably much influence, both as respects the quality and size of the sprouts. A bed of asparagus in one locality produced shoots seldom reaching a diameter of half an inch, and of a very tough and fibrous character; while a bed in another situation, formed of plants taken from the same nursery-bed, actually produced sprouts so large and fine as to obtain the prize of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. If any variety really exists peculiar in size, form, color, or quality, it cannot be propagated by seed. Large sprouts may afford seeds, which, as a general rule, will produce finer asparagus than seeds from smaller plants; but a variety, when it occurs, can be propagated only by a division of the roots. Mr. Thompson states, that on one part of Mr. Grayson's extensive plantation, on the south side of the Thames, near London, the so-called Grayson's Giant was produced; and in another section, the common sort: but, when both were made to change places, the common acquired the dimensions of the Giant, whilst the latter diminished to the ordinary size. Seeds of the following named and described sorts may be obtained of seedsmen, and will undoubtedly, in nearly all cases, afford fine asparagus; but they will not produce plants which will uniformly possess the character of the parent variety:-- BATTERSEA. _Rog._ Battersea is famed for producing fine asparagus, and the name is applied to the particular variety there grown. The heads are large, full, and close, and the tops tinted with a reddish-green color. It is probably intermediate between the Green and Purple-topped. GRAVESEND. _Rog._ Originated and named under like circumstances with the Battersea. The top is greener, and not generally so plump and close; but it is considered finer flavored. Both varieties are, however, held in great estimation. GRAYSON'S GIANT. This variety, as also the Deptford, Mortlake, and Reading, all originated and were named under the same conditions as the varieties before described. All are fine sorts; but the difference between them, and indeed between all of the kinds, if important, is certainly not permanent, so long as they are offered in the form of seeds for propagation. Mr. Grayson, the originator of this variety, produced a hundred sprouts, the aggregate weight of which was forty-two pounds,--the largest ever raised in Britain. GERMAN. Asperge d'Allemagne. _Vil._ This variety very nearly resembles the Giant Purple-topped. It is, however, considered a little earlier, and the top is deeper colored. GIANT PURPLE-TOP. Dutch. Red-top. Sprout white; the top, as it breaks ground, purple; size very large, sometimes measuring an inch and three-fourths in diameter, but greatly affected by soil and cultivation. A hundred sprouts of this variety have been produced which weighed twenty-five pounds. GREEN-TOP. This variety, when grown under the same conditions as the Giant Purple-top, is generally smaller or more slender. The top of the sprout, and the scales on the sides, are often slightly tinged with purple. The plant, when full grown, is perceptibly more green than that of the Giant Purple-top. From most nursery-beds, plants of both varieties will probably be obtained, with every intervening grade of size and color. * * * * * CARDOON. Chardon. Chardoon. Cynara cardunculus. In its general character and appearance, the Cardoon resembles the Artichoke. Its full size is not attained until the second year, when it is "truly a gigantic herbaceous plant," of five or six feet in height. The flowers, which are smaller than those of the artichoke, are produced in July and August of the second year, and are composed of numerous small blue florets, enclosed by somewhat fleshy, pointed scales. The seeds are oblong, a little flattened, of a grayish or grayish-green color, spotted and streaked with deep brown; and, when perfectly grown, are similar in size and form to those of the apple. About six hundred are contained in an ounce; and they retain their vitality seven years. _Soil, Propagation, and Culture._--The best soil for the Cardoon is a light and deep but not over-rich loam. It is raised from seed; which, as the plant is used in the first year of its growth and is liable to be injured by the winter, should be sown annually, although the Cardoon is really a perennial. It succeeds best when sown where the plants are to remain; for, if removed, the plants recover slowly, are more liable to run to seed, and, besides, seldom attain the size of those that have not been transplanted. The seed should be sown as early in spring as the weather becomes warm and settled, in drills three feet apart, an inch and a half in depth, and the young plants afterwards thinned to twelve inches asunder in the drills. The leaves are blanched before being used. It is sometimes raised and blanched as follows: Sow the seed at the bottom of trenches made about six inches deep, twelve inches wide, three feet apart, and of a length according to the supply required. At the bottom of the trench, thoroughly mix a small quantity of well-digested compost, and sow the seeds in small groups, or collections (three or four seeds together), at about twelve or fifteen inches apart, and cover them an inch or an inch and a half deep. When the young plants have acquired three or four leaves, they should be thinned out to single plants. During the summer, keep them free from weeds; and, as they require much moisture, it is well to water frequently, if the weather is very dry. In September, the plants will have attained their growth for the season, and be ready for blanching; which should be done in a dry day, and when the plants are entirely free from dampness. It is thus performed: The leaves of each plant are carefully and lightly tied together with strong matting; keeping the whole upright, and the ribs of the leaves closely together. The plant is then bound with twisted hay-bands, or bands of straw, about an inch and a half in diameter; beginning at the root, and continuing the winding until two-thirds or three-fourths of the height is covered. If there is no heavy frost, the leaves will blanch quickly and finely without further pains: but, if frosty weather occurs, it will be necessary to earth up about the plants, as is practised with celery; but care should be taken not to raise the earth higher than the hay-bands. One method of blanching is simply to tie the leaves together with matting, and then to earth up the plants from time to time like celery; beginning early in September, and adding gradually every week until they are sufficiently covered. Those, however, blanched by the banding process, are superior, both in respect to color and in the greater length of the parts blanched. Another practice is to earth up a little about the base of the plant, tie the leaves together with thread or matting, and then envelop the whole quite to the top with a quantity of long, clean wheat or rye straw, placed up and down the plant, and tied together with small cord or strong matting. The leaves will thus blanch without being earthed up, and speedily become white. This process is a good one, is economical, and presents a neat appearance. "In either of the methods, it is very necessary to be careful that the plants are perfectly dry before they are enveloped in their covering: they will otherwise rot." In about three weeks after being tied up, the cardoons will be fit for use. _Harvesting._--When the stems and midribs of the leaves are thoroughly blanched, they are ready for use. Until the occurrence of severe weather, the table may be supplied directly from the garden: but, before the closing-up of the ground, "the plants should be taken up, roots and leaves entire, and removed to the cellar; where they should be packed in sand, laying the plants down in rows, and packing the sand around them, one course over another, till finished. In this way, they not only keep well, but become more perfectly blanched." _To raise Seed._--Allow two or three plants to remain unblanched, and leave them in the ground during the winter, protected by straw or other convenient material. They will grow to the height, and flower and seed, as before described. One plant will afford sufficient seed for any common garden. _Use._--"The stems of the leaves, as well as the mid-ribs, when blanched, are used for soups, stews, and even for salads, in autumn and winter. The longer these parts of the plant are, and the more rapidly they are grown, the more they are esteemed, on account of their greater crispness, tenderness, and color." The "Gardener's Chronicle" gives the following directions for dressing them:-- "When a Cardoon is to be cooked, the solid stalks of the leaves are to be cut in pieces about six inches long, and boiled, like any other vegetable, in pure water (not salt and water), till they are tender. They are then to be carefully deprived of the slime and strings that will be found to cover them; and, having been thus thoroughly cleansed, are to be plunged in cold water, where they must remain until they are wanted for the table. They are then taken out, and heated with white sauce, or marrow. The process just described is for the purpose of rendering them white, and of depriving them of a bitterness which is peculiar to them. If this is neglected, the cardoons will be black, not white, as well as disagreeable." M'Intosh remarks, that, when skilfully prepared, they form an excellent and wholesome dish, deserving far more general notice. In France, the flowers are gathered, and dried in the shade; and, when so preserved, are used as a substitute for rennet, to coagulate milk. _Varieties._-- COMMON, OR LARGE SMOOTH. _Trans._ Smooth Large Solid. Plein Inerme. _Vil._ This kind grows from four to five feet high. The leaves are large and strong, though somewhat smaller than those of the Tours or Prickly Cardoon. They are of a shining-green color, with little appearance of hoariness on the upper surface, and generally destitute of spines; though some of the plants occasionally have a few small ones at the base of the leaflets. The Cardon _Plein Inerme_ of the French, which is described in the "Bon Jardinier" as a novelty, corresponds nearly with the Large Smooth or Common Cardoon. LARGE SPANISH. _Trans._ D'Espagne. _Vil._ Stem five or six feet high. The divisions of the leaflets are rather narrower, and somewhat more hoary, than those of the Common Cardoon. The ribs are longer, and the whole plant stronger and generally more spiny; though, on the whole, comparatively smooth. It is not, however, always very readily distinguished from the Common or Large Smooth Cardoon. It runs up to seed quicker than the other varieties. PUVIS. _Thomp._ Artichoke-leaved. Lance-leaved. Puvis de Bourg. _Vil._ The Puvis Cardoon is remarkable for its strong growth, the large size it attains, and the thickness of the mid-ribs of the leaves, which are almost solid. The leaves are thick, and not at all prickly, or very slightly so. The terminal lobe is very large, and lance-formed: whence the name. It is a fine variety, and of more tender substance than the Tours Cardoon. RED. _Trans._ Blood-ribbed. Red-stemmed. _Thomp._ Large Purple. The leaves of this variety are green, without any hoariness; long, narrow, and more sharply pointed than those of most of the other kinds. The ribs are large, solid, and tinged with red. A recent sort, excellent in quality, but wanting in hardiness. TOURS. _Trans._ Large Tours Solid. Cardon de Tours. _Vil._ The leaves of this variety are very hoary on the upper surface; the divisions are broad, sharply pointed, and terminate with rigid, sharp spines. Spines also grow, in clusters of from three to five, at the base of the leaflets; and are very strong, and of a yellowish color. This variety is not so tall as the Spanish or Large Smooth. The ribs are large and solid. The Tours Cardoon is cultivated by the market-gardeners around Paris; and, notwithstanding the inconvenience arising from its numerous and rigid spines, it is considered by them as the best, because of its thick, tender, and delicate ribs. * * * * * THE HOP. Humulus lupulus. The Hop is considered a native of this continent, and is found wild in all parts of the United States. The root is perennial, but the stems are annual. The latter are from ten to twenty-five feet in length, angular, rough, and twine from right to left. The leaves are placed opposite each other on the stem, on long, winding footstalks: the smaller ones are heart-shaped; the larger ones three or five lobed, veiny, and rough. The barren and fertile flowers are produced on separate plants: the former being very numerous and paniculated; the latter in the form of an ament, or collection of small scales, which are more or less covered with a fine, yellow powder called "lupulin." While several distinct sorts of the fertile or hop-bearing plant have been long in cultivation, only one variety of the male or barren plant is known. _Soil and Location._--Though it may be cultivated with success in a variety of soils, the Hop prefers a rich, deep loam, which should be thoroughly ploughed, and, if necessary, enriched with well-digested compost. In general, it may be said that "good corn-land is good hop-land." Hops, however, are reputed to be of better quality when raised on comparatively thin soils. _Propagation and Culture._--It is propagated by a division of the roots early in spring. When extensively cultivated, the plants are set in hills, five to seven feet apart, and three or four cuttings or slips allowed to a hill; but in garden culture, to procure the young shoots, the plants are set in rows about three feet apart, and one foot from plant to plant in the rows. _Use._--The plant is principally cultivated for its flowers, which are largely employed in the manufacture of malt liquors. The young shoots are cut in spring, when they are five or six inches in height, and eaten as salad, or used as asparagus, which they somewhat resemble in taste. * * * * * HOOSUNG, OR OOSUNG. _Hov. Mag._ A lettuce-like plant from Shanghai. Stems cylindrical, from two to three feet high, erect, light green, with a green, succulent pith; leaves oblong, tapering to the base, the uppermost clasping; the flowers are small, yellow, in panicles slightly drooping. If sown in April or May, the plants will ripen their seed in August. _Sowing and Cultivation._--Sow in a cool frame, in either April or May, or continuously, for a succession, at intervals during May, and transplant into the open ground in the usual manner of treating lettuces; making the rows about eighteen inches apart, and placing the plants about the same distance apart in the rows. The plants will be fit for use early in June. _Use._--The succulent stem is the part used. This is divested of its outer rind, and either simply boiled, with a little salt in the water, and dressed as asparagus, or stewed in soy, with salt, pepper, and butter added, or boiled in soup as okra. It is a very agreeable and pleasant addition to the list of vegetable esculents, and worthy of trial. The plant is very little cultivated; and there are no described varieties. * * * * * PERENNIAL PHYTOLACCA. Garget. Poke. Pigeon Berry. Phytolacca decandra. A hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, common by roadsides, in waste places, and springing up spontaneously on newly burned pine-lands. It has a branching, purplish stem, five to seven feet in height; and large, oval, pointed, entire leaves. The flowers are produced in July and August, in long clusters; and are of a dull-white color. The fruit consists of a flat, purple, juicy berry; and is sometimes used for dyeing purple. _Soil and Culture._--It will thrive in almost any soil or situation; and can be easily propagated from seed, or by dividing the roots. The plant requires little cultivation, and is so abundant in many localities as to afford an ample supply for the mere labor of gathering. _Use._--The young shoots are eaten early in the season, as a substitute for asparagus, which they resemble in taste. When treated in the manner of sea-kale, the flavor of the sprouts is scarcely distinguishable from that of asparagus. The root has reputed important medicinal properties; and, when taken internally, acts as a violent emetic. ANNUAL PHYTOLACCA. Phytolacca esculenta. An annual species, with foliage similar to the foregoing. It is much less vigorous and stocky in habit. The seed should be sown in April, in drills fifteen inches apart. The young shoots, or plants, are used in the manner of the species before described. CHAPTER IV. CUCURBITACEOUS PLANTS. The Cucumber. Egyptian Cucumber. Globe Cucumber. Gourd, or Calabash. The Melon. Musk-melon. Persian Melons. Water-melon. Papanjay, or Sponge Cucumber. Prickly-fruited Gherkin. Pumpkin. Snake Cucumber. Squash. * * * * * THE CUCUMBER. Cucumis sativus. The Cucumber is a tender, annual plant; and is a native of the East Indies, or of tropical origin. It has an angular, creeping stem; large, somewhat heart-shaped, leaves; and axillary staminate or pistillate flowers. The fruit is cylindrical, generally elongated, often somewhat angular, smooth, or with scattering black or white spines; the flesh is white or greenish-white, and is divided at the centre of the fruit into three parts, in each of which the seeds are produced in great abundance. These seeds are of an elliptical or oval form, much flattened, and of a pale yellowish-white color. About twelve hundred are contained in an ounce; and they retain their vitality ten years. _Soil and Culture._--Very dry and very wet soils should be avoided. Cucumbers succeed decidedly best in warm, moist, rich, loamy ground. The essentials to their growth are heat, and a fair proportion of moisture. They should not be planted or set in the open air until there is a prospect of continued warm and pleasant weather; as, when planted early, not only are the seeds liable to decay in the ground, but the young plants are frequently cut off by frost. The hills should be five or six feet apart in each direction. Make them fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter, and a foot in depth; fill them three-fourths full of thoroughly digested compost, and then draw four or five inches of earth over the whole, raising the hill a little above the level of the ground; plant fifteen or twenty seeds in each, cover half an inch deep, and press the earth smoothly over with the back of the hoe. When all danger from bugs and worms is past, thin out the plants; leaving but three or four of the strongest or healthiest to a hill. _Taking the Crop._--As fast as the cucumbers attain a suitable size, they should be plucked, whether required for use or not. The imperfectly formed, as well as the symmetrical, should all be removed. Fruit, however inferior, left to ripen on the vines, soon destroys their productiveness. _Seed._--"Cucumbers, from their natural proneness to impregnate each other when, grown together, are exceedingly difficult to keep true to their original points of merit;" and consequently, to retain any variety in its purity, it must be grown apart from all other sorts. When a few seeds are desired for the vegetable garden, two or three of the finest-formed cucumbers should be selected early in the season, and allowed to ripen on the plants. In September, or when fully ripe, cut them open, take out the seeds, and allow them to stand a day or two, or until the pulp attached to them begins to separate; when they should be washed clean, thoroughly dried, and packed away for future use. _For Pickling._--The land for raising cucumbers for pickling may be either swarded or stubble; but it must be in good condition, and such as is not easily affected by drought. It should be deeply ploughed, and the surface afterwards made fine and friable by being thoroughly harrowed. The hills should be six feet apart, and are generally formed by furrowing the land at this distance in each direction. Manure the hills with well-digested compost, level off, draw over a little fine earth, and the land is ready for planting. This may be done at any time from the middle of June to the first week in July. The quantity of seed allowed to an acre varies from three-fourths of a pound, upwards. In most cases, growers seed very liberally, to provide against the depredation of worms and bugs; usually putting six or eight times as many seeds in a hill as will be really required for the crop. When the plants are well established and beyond danger, the field is examined, and the hills thinned to three or four plants; or, where there is a deficiency of plants, replanted. As fast as the cucumbers attain the proper size, they should be plucked; the usual practice being to go over the plantation daily. In gathering, all the fruit should be removed,--the misshapen and unmarketable, as well as those which are well formed; for, when any portion of the crop is allowed to remain and ripen, the plants become much less productive. In favorable seasons, and under a high state of cultivation, a hundred and twenty-five thousand are obtained from an acre; while, under opposite conditions, the crop may not exceed fifty thousand. The average price is about a dollar and twenty-five cents per thousand. _Varieties._-- EARLY CLUSTER. Early Green Cluster. A very popular, early cucumber, producing its fruit in clusters near the root of the plant: whence the name. The plant is healthy, hardy, and vigorous; fruit comparatively short and thick. Its usual length is about five inches, and its diameter about two inches; skin prickly, green,--at the blossom-end, often paler, or nearly white,--brownish-yellow when ripe; flesh white, seedy, tender, and well flavored, but less crispy or brittle than that of many other varieties. It is a good early garden sort, and is very productive; but is not well adapted for pickling, on account of the soft and seedy character of its flesh. EARLY FRAME. Short Green. One of the oldest of the garden sorts, justly styled a standard variety. Plant healthy and vigorous, six to ten feet in length; fruit straight and well formed, five inches and a half long, and two inches and a half in diameter; skin deep-green, paler at the blossom-end, changing to clear yellow as it approaches maturity, and, when fully ripe, of a yellowish, russet-brown color; flesh greenish-white, rather seedy, but tender, and of an agreeable flavor. It is a few days later than the Early Cluster. The variety is universally popular, and is found in almost every vegetable garden. It is also very productive; succeeds well, whether grown in open culture or under glass; and, if plucked while young and small, makes an excellent pickle. EARLY RUSSIAN. This comparatively new variety resembles, in some respects, the Early Cluster. Fruit from three to four inches in length, an inch and a half or two inches in diameter, and generally produced in pairs; flesh tender, crisp, and well flavored. When ripe, the fruit is deep-yellow or yellowish-brown. Its merits are its hardiness, extreme earliness, and great productiveness. It comes into use nearly ten days in advance of the Early Cluster, and is the earliest garden variety now cultivated. Its small size is, however, considered an objection; and some of the larger kinds are generally preferred for the main crop. LONDON LONG GREEN. _M'Int._ Fruit about a foot in length, tapering towards the extremities; skin very deep-green while the fruit is young, yellow when it is ripe; flesh greenish-white, firm, and crisp; flavor good. This variety is nearly related to the numerous prize sorts which in England are cultivated under glass, and forced during the winter. There is little permanency in the slight variations of character by which they are distinguished; and old varieties are constantly being dropped from the catalogues, and others, with different names, substituted. Amongst the most prominent of these sub-varieties are the following:-- _Carter's Superior._--Recently introduced. Represented as one of the largest and finest of the forcing varieties. _Conqueror of the West._--Eighteen to twenty inches in length. It is a fine prize sort, and succeeds well in open culture. _Cuthill's Black Spine._--Six to nine inches in length, hardy, early, and productive. An excellent sort for starting in a hot-bed. Fruit very firm and attractive. _The Doctor._--Sixteen to eighteen inches in length, and contracted towards the stem in the form of a neck. In favorable seasons, it will attain a good size, if grown in the open ground. Crisp, tender, and well flavored. _Eggleston's Conqueror._--"Very prolific, good for forcing, of fine flavor, hardy, and a really useful sort. Specimens have been grown measuring twenty-eight inches in length, nine inches and a half in circumference, and weighing five pounds." _Flanigan's Prize._--An old, established variety; having been grown in England upwards of thirty years. Length fifteen inches. _Hunter's Prolific._--Length eighteen inches. Very crisp and excellent, but requires more heat than most other varieties. Spines white; fruit covered with a good bloom, and not liable to turn yellow at the base. _Improved Sion House._--This variety has received many prizes in England. Not only is it well adapted for the summer crop, but it succeeds remarkably well when grown under glass. _Irishman._--Length twenty-two to twenty-five inches. Handsome, and excellent for exhibition. _Lord Kenyon's Favorite._--Length twelve to eighteen inches. A fine sort for winter forcing. _Manchester Prize._--This, like the Nepal, is one of the largest of the English greenhouse prize varieties. It sometimes measures two feet in length, and weighs twelve pounds. In favorable seasons, it will attain a large size in open culture, and sometimes perfect its seed. _Nepal._--One of the largest of all varieties; length about twenty-four inches; weight ten to twelve pounds. _Norman's Stitchworth-Park Hero._--A recently introduced variety, hardy, long, handsome, very prolific, and fine flavored. _Old Sion House._--Length about nine inches. This is a well-tried, winter, forcing variety. Like the Improved Sion House, it also succeeds well in open culture. Quality good, though the extremities are sometimes bitter. _Prize-fighter._--Length about sixteen inches. Good for the summer crop or for exhibition. _Rifleman._--This variety is described as one of the best prize cucumbers. It has a black spine; always grows very even from stem to point, with scarcely any handle; carries its bloom well; keeps a good fresh color; and is not liable to turn yellow as many other sorts. Length twenty-four to twenty-eight inches. An abundant bearer. _Ringleader._--A prominent prize sort, about fifteen inches in length. It succeeds well, whether grown under glass or in the open ground. _Roman Emperor._--Length twelve to fifteen inches. _Southgate._--This variety has been pronounced the most productive, and the best for forcing, of all the prize sorts. It is not so late as many of the English varieties, and will frequently succeed well if grown in the open ground. _Victory of Bath._--Length about seventeen inches. Well adapted for forcing or for the general crop. LONG GREEN PRICKLY. Long Prickly. Early Long Green Prickly. This is a large-sized variety, and somewhat later than the White-spined. The plant is a strong grower, and the foliage of a deep-green color; the fruit is about seven inches in length, straight, and generally angular; skin dark-green, changing to yellow as the fruit approaches maturity,--when fully ripe, it is reddish-brown, and is often reticulated about the insertion of the stem; prickles black; flesh white, somewhat seedy, but crisp, tender, and well flavored. The Long Green Prickly is hardy and productive; makes a good pickle, if plucked while young; and is well deserving of cultivation. It differs from the London Long Green and the Long Green Turkey in its form, which is much thicker in proportion to its length; and also in the character of its flesh, which is more pulpy and seedy. LONG GREEN TURKEY. Extra Long Green Turkey. A distinct and well-defined variety; when full grown, sometimes measuring nearly eighteen inches in length. Form long and slender, contracted towards the stem in the form of a neck, and swollen towards the opposite extremity; seeds few, and usually produced nearest the blossom-end. The neck is generally solid. While the fruit is young, the skin is deep-green; afterwards it changes to clear yellow, and finally assumes a rusty-yellow or yellowish-brown. Flesh remarkably firm and crisp; exceeding, in these respects, that of any other variety. Very productive and excellent. Its remarkably firm and crispy flesh, and the absence of seeds, render it serviceable for the table after it has reached a very considerable size. For the same reasons, it may be pickled at a stage of its growth when other more seedy and pulpy sorts would be comparatively worthless. SHORT PRICKLY. Short Green Prickly. Early Short Green Prickly. This variety somewhat resembles the Long Prickly; but it is shorter, and proportionally thicker. Its length, when suitable for use, is about four inches. Skin prickly, green, changing to yellow at maturity; flesh transparent greenish-white, rather seedy, but tender, crisp, and fine flavored. The variety is very hardy and productive, comes early into fruit, and is one of the best for pickling. It is a few days later than the Early Cluster. UNDERWOOD'S SHORT PRICKLY. This is an improved variety of the common Short Prickly, and is the best of all the sorts for extensive cultivation for pickling. The plant is hardy and productive. The fruit, when young, is very symmetrical, and of a fine deep-green color. Its flesh is characterized by extraordinary crispness and solidity. When more advanced, the color becomes paler, and the flesh more soft and seedy. The fruit, at maturity, is yellow. WHITE SPANISH. The form of this variety is similar to that of the White-spined. The fruit measures about five inches in length, two inches in diameter, and is generally somewhat ribbed. When suitable for use, the skin is white; a characteristic by which the variety is readily distinguished from all others. The flesh is crisp, tender, and well flavored. At maturity, the fruit is yellow. WHITE-SPINED. Early White-spined. New-York Market. This very distinct variety is extensively grown for marketing, both at the North and South. The plants grow from six to ten feet in length; and, like those of the Early Frame, are of a healthy, luxurious habit. The fruit is of full medium size, straight, and well formed; about six inches in length, and two inches and a half in diameter. Skin deep-green; prickles white; flesh white, tender, crispy, and of remarkably fine flavor. As the fruit ripens, the skin gradually becomes paler; and, when fully ripe, is nearly white: by which peculiarity, in connection with its white spines, the variety is always readily distinguishable. The White-spined is one of the best sorts for the table; and is greatly prized by market-men on account of its color, which is never changed to yellow, though kept long after being plucked. It is generally thought to retain its freshness longer than any other variety, and consequently to be well fitted for transporting long distances; though, on account of its peculiar color, the freshness may be less real than apparent. For the very general dissemination of this variety, the public are, in a great degree, indebted to the late I. P. Rand, Esq., of Boston, whose integrity as a merchant, and whose skill as a practical vegetable cultivator and horticulturist, will be long remembered. * * * * * EGYPTIAN CUCUMBER. Hairy Cucumber. Round-leaved Egyptian. Concombre chaté. _Vil._ Cucumis chate. This is a tender, annual plant, with an angular, creeping stem, and alternate, somewhat heart-shaped, leaves. The flowers are axillary, about an inch in diameter, and of a pale-yellow color; the fruit is small, oblong, and very hairy. It is of little value as an esculent, and is rarely cultivated. The fruit is sometimes eaten in its green state, and also when cooked. According to Duchesne, the Egyptians prepare from the pulp a very agreeable and refreshing beverage. Plant and cultivate as directed for melons or cucumbers. * * * * * GLOBE CUCUMBER. Concombre des prophètes. _Vil._ Cucumis prophetarum. A tender annual from Arabia. Stem slender, creeping, and furnished with tendrils, or claspers. The leaves are about three inches in diameter, five-lobed, and indented on the borders; the flowers are axillary, yellow, and nearly three-fourths of an inch in diameter; the fruit is round, and rarely measures an inch in thickness; skin striped with green and yellow, and thickly set with rigid hairs, or bristles; the seeds are small, oval, flattened, and of a yellowish color. _Planting and Culture._--The seeds should be planted at the time of planting cucumbers or melons, in hills four or five feet apart, and covered about half an inch deep. Thin to two or three plants to a hill. _Use._--The fruit is sometimes eaten boiled; but is generally pickled in its green state, like the common cucumber. As a table vegetable, it is comparatively unimportant, and not worthy of cultivation. * * * * * CALABASH, OR COMMON GOURD. Bottle Gourd. Cucurbita lagenaria. The Calabash, or Common Gourd, is a climbing or creeping annual plant, frequently more than twenty feet in height or length. The leaves are large, round, heart-shaped, very soft and velvety to the touch, and emit a peculiar, musky odor, when bruised or roughly handled. The flowers, which are produced on very long stems, are white, and nearly three inches in diameter. They expand towards evening, and remain in perfection only a few hours; as they are generally found drooping and withering on the ensuing morning. The young fruit is hairy, and quite soft and tender; but, when ripe, the surface becomes hard, smooth, and glossy. The seeds are five-eighths of an inch in length, somewhat quadrangular, of a fawn-yellow color, and retain their vitality five years. About three hundred are contained in an ounce. _Cultivation._--The seeds are planted at the same time and in the same manner as those of the Squash. The Gourd succeeds best when provided with a trellis, or other support, to keep the plant from the ground; as the fruit is best developed in a pendent or hanging position. _Use._--The fruit, while still young and tender, is sometimes pickled in vinegar, like cucumbers. At maturity, the flesh is worthless: but the shells, which are very hard, light, and comparatively strong, are used as substitutes for baskets; and are also formed into water-dippers, and various other articles both useful and ornamental. The varieties are as follow:-- BOTTLE GOURD. _Vil._ Fruit about a foot in length, contracted at the middle, largest at the blossom-end, but swollen also at the part next the stem. There is a sub-variety, very much larger; but it is also later. HERCULES CLUB. Courge Massue d'Hercule. _Vil._ Fruit very long. Specimens are frequently produced measuring upwards of five feet in length. It is smallest towards the stem, and increases gradually in size towards the opposite extremity, which is rounded, and near which, in its largest diameter, it measures from four to five inches. Its form is quite peculiar, and is not unlike that of a massive club: whence the name. It is frequently seen at horticultural and agricultural shows; and, though sometimes exhibited as a "cucumber," has little or no value as an esculent, and must be considered much more curious than useful. It is of a pea-green color while growing, and the skin is then quite soft and tender; but, like the other varieties, the surface becomes smooth, and the skin very hard and shell-like, at maturity. POWDER-HORN. Courge Poire à Poudre. _Vil._ Fruit long and slender, broadest at the base, tapering towards the stem, and often more or less curved. In its general form, it resembles a common horn, as implied by the name. Its usual length is twelve or fourteen inches; and its largest diameter, nearly three inches. SIPHON GOURD. Courge Siphon. _Vil._ Fruit rounded, and flattened at the blossom-end; then suddenly contracted to a long, slender neck. The latter often bends or turns suddenly at nearly a right angle; and, in this form, the fruit very much resembles a siphon. Pea-green while young, pale-green when mature. Shell thick and hard. * * * * * THE MELON. Of the Melon, there are two species in general cultivation,--the Musk-melon (_Cucumis melo_) and the Water-melon (_Cucurbita citrullus_); each, however, including many varieties. Like the Squash, they are tender, annual plants, of tropical origin, and only thrive well in a warm temperature. "The climate of the Middle and Southern States is remarkably favorable for them; indeed, far more so than that of England, France, or any of the temperate portions of Europe. Consequently, melons are raised as field crops by market-gardeners: and, in the month of August, the finest citrons or green-fleshed melons may be seen in the markets of New York and Philadelphia in immense quantities; so abundant, in most seasons, as frequently to be sold at half a dollar per basket, containing nearly a bushel of fruit. The warm, dry soils of Long Island and New Jersey are peculiarly favorable to the growth of melons; and, even at low prices, the product is so large, that this crop is one of the most profitable."--_Downing._ Through the extraordinary facilities now afforded by railroads and ocean steam-navigation, the markets of all the cities and large towns of the northern portions of the United States, and even of the Canadas, are abundantly supplied within two or three days from the time of gathering: and they are retailed at prices so low, as to allow of almost universal consumption; well-ripened and delicious green-fleshed citron-melons being often sold from six to ten cents each. _Soil and Cultivation._--Both the Musk and the Water Melon thrive best in a warm, mellow, rich, sandy loam, and in a sheltered exposure. After thoroughly stirring the soil by ploughing or spading, make the hills six or seven feet apart in each direction. Previous to planting, these hills should be prepared as directed for the Squash; making them a foot and a half or two feet in diameter, and twelve or fifteen inches in depth. Thoroughly incorporate at the bottom of the hill a quantity of well-digested compost, equal to three-fourths of the earth removed; and then add sufficient fine loam to raise the hill two or three inches above the surrounding level. On the top of the hill thus formed, plant twelve or fifteen seeds; and, when the plants are well up, thin them out from time to time as they progress in size. Finally, when all danger from bugs and other insect depredators is past, leave but two or three of the most stocky and promising plants to a hill. When the growth is too luxuriant, many practise pinching or cutting off the leading shoots; and, when the young fruit sets in too great numbers, a portion should be removed, both for the purpose of increasing the size and of hastening the maturity of those remaining. "Keep the fruit from being injured by lying on the ground; and if slate, blackened shingles, or any dry, dark material, be placed beneath it, by attraction of the sun's rays, the fruit will ripen earlier and better." The striped bug (_Galereuca vittata_) is the most serious enemy with which the young melon-plants have to contend. Gauze vine-shields, though the most expensive, are unquestionably the most effectual preventive. Boxes either round or square, twelve or fifteen inches in depth, and entirely uncovered at the top, if placed over the hills, will be found useful in protecting the plants. The flight of the bug being generally nearly parallel with the surface of the ground, very few will find their way within the boxes, if of the depth required. Applications of guano, ashes, dilutions of oil-soap, and plaster of Paris, applied while the plants are wet, will be found of greater or less efficacy in their protection. The pungent smell of guano is said to prevent the depredation of the flea-beetle, which, in many localities, seriously injures the plants early in the season, through its attacks on the seed-leaves. * * * * * THE MUSK-MELON. Cucumis melo. Plant running,--varying in length from five to eight feet; leaves large, angular, heart-shaped, and rough on the upper and under surface; flowers yellow, one-petaled, five-pointed, and about an inch in diameter; seeds oval, flat, generally yellow, but sometimes nearly white, about four-tenths of an inch in length, and three-sixteenths of an inch in breadth,--the size, however, varying to a considerable extent in the different varieties. An ounce contains from nine hundred to eleven hundred seeds; and they retain their germinative properties from eight to ten years. _Varieties._--These are exceedingly numerous, in consequence of the great facility with which the various kinds intermix, or hybridize. Varieties are, however, much more easily produced than retained: consequently, old names are almost annually discarded from the catalogues of seedsmen and gardeners; and new names, with superior recommendations, offered in their stead. The following list embraces most of the kinds of much prominence or value now cultivated either in Europe or this country:-- BEECHWOOD. Fruit nearly spherical, but rather longer than broad,--usually five or six inches in diameter; skin greenish-yellow, thickly and regularly netted; flesh green, melting, sugary, and excellent. An early and fine variety. BLACK-ROCK CANTALOUPE. _Loud._ A large-fruited, late variety; form variable, but generally round, and flattened at the ends; size large,--ten inches in diameter, eight inches deep, and weighing eight or ten pounds. The skin varies in color from grayish-green to deep-green; becomes yellow at maturity, and is thickly spread with knobby bunches, or small protuberances. Rind very thick; flesh reddish-orange, melting, and sugary. It requires a long season for its full perfection. CHRISTIANA. This variety was originated by the late Capt. Josiah Lovett, of Beverly, Mass. Form roundish; size rather small,--average specimens measuring nearly the same as the Green Citron; skin yellowish-green; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, and of good quality. Its early maturity is its principal recommendation; the Green Citron, Nutmeg, and many other varieties, surpassing it in firmness of flesh, sweetness, and general excellence. It would probably ripen at the North, or in short seasons, when other sorts generally fail. CITRON. Green-fleshed Citron. Green Citron. [Illustration: Green Citron Melon.] Fruit nearly round, but flattened slightly at the ends,--deeply and very regularly ribbed; size medium, or rather small,--average specimens measuring about six inches in diameter, and five inches and a half in depth; skin green, and thickly netted,--when fully mature, the green becomes more soft and mellow, or of a yellowish shade; flesh green, quite thick, very juicy, and of the richest and most sugary flavor. It is an abundant bearer, quite hardy, and remarkably uniform in its quality. It is deservedly the most popular as a market sort; and for cultivation for family use, every thing considered, has few superiors. In common with the Carolina Water-melon, the Green Citron is extensively grown at the South for shipping to the northern portions of the United States; appearing in the markets of New York and Boston three or four weeks in advance of the season of those raised in the same vicinity in the open ground. EARLY CANTALOUPE. This variety possesses little merit aside from its very early maturity. It is a roundish melon, flattened a little at the ends, ribbed, and of comparatively small size; usually measuring about five inches in diameter. Skin yellowish, often spotted with green, and sometimes a little warty; rind quite thick; flesh reddish-orange, sweet, and of good flavor. It is exceedingly variable in size, form, and color. HARDY RIDGE. _Loud._ Fruit rather small, round, depressed, strongly ribbed, and irregularly warted all over its surface; skin dull yellow, mottled with dull green; flesh an inch thick, bright orange-red, sweet, and well flavored; rind thick; weight from three to four pounds. Not an early, but a productive variety. LARGE-RIBBED NETTED. Common Musk-melon. [Illustration: Large Netted Musk-melon.] Fruit very large, oval, strongly ribbed; skin yellow, very thickly netted, sometimes so closely as to cover nearly the entire surface; flesh salmon-yellow, remarkably thick and sweet, but not fine-grained or melting, when compared with the more recent and improved varieties. Hardy and productive. In good soil and favorable seasons, the fruit sometimes attains a length of fifteen inches, and weighs upwards of twenty pounds. MUNROE'S GREEN FLESH. _Vil._ A comparatively new variety. The fruit is nearly spherical, but tapers slightly towards the stem, and is rather regularly as well as distinctly ribbed. Its diameter is about five inches. Cicatrix large; skin greenish-yellow, thickly and finely netted over the entire surface; rind thin; flesh green, remarkably transparent, comparatively thick, very melting, and highly perfumed. NUTMEG. Fruit oval, regularly but faintly ribbed, eight or nine inches in length, and about six inches in its broadest diameter; skin pale-green, and very thickly netted; rind thin; flesh light-green, rich, sweet, melting, and highly perfumed. The Nutmeg Melon has been long in cultivation, and is almost everywhere to be found in the vegetable garden, though seldom in a perfectly unmixed state. When the variety is pure, and the fruit perfectly ripened, it is of most delicious excellence, and deservedly ranked as one of "the best." ORANGE CANTALOUPE. An oval variety, about six inches in length by five inches in diameter, rather prominently ribbed. Skin yellow, marbled with green, thickly netted about the stem, and sparsely so over the remainder of the surface; rind thick; flesh reddish-orange, sweet, highly perfumed, and of good flavor. Very early and productive. PINE-APPLE. Form roundish, inclining to oval, either without ribs or with rib-marking, very faintly defined; size small,--the average diameter being about five inches and a half; skin olive-green, with net-markings more or less abundant; rind thin; flesh green, melting, sweet, and perfumed. Season early. It is an excellent sort, easily grown, and very productive. PRESCOTT CANTALOUPE. _Vil._ Fruit generally somewhat flattened, but variable in form, deeply ribbed; size large,--well-grown specimens measuring eight or ten inches in diameter, and weighing from seven to nine pounds; skin thickly covered with small tubercles; color varying from grayish-green to clear-green, more or less deep, changing to yellow at maturity; rind very thick; flesh orange-red, sugary and melting, and of delicious flavor. There are numerous sub-varieties, as grown by different gardeners, varying somewhat in form, color, and time of maturity; all, however, corresponding nearly with the above description, though known by different names, as the "White," "Gray," "Black," "Prescott," &c. Much esteemed in France, and extensively grown by market-gardeners in the vicinity of Paris. SKILLMAN'S FINE-NETTED. This variety much resembles the Pine-apple. Form rounded, flattened slightly at the ends; flesh green, sugary, melting, and excellent. It has been pronounced "the earliest of the green-fleshed sorts." VICTORY OF BATH. A recently introduced variety of English origin. Fruit egg-shaped, faintly ribbed, rounded at the blossom-end, and slightly contracted towards the stem,--at the insertion of which, it is flattened to a small, plane surface; size medium,--about six inches deep, and five inches in diameter; skin green, clouded with yellow, and sparsely covered with fine net-markings; skin thin; flesh green. * * * * * PERSIAN MELONS. _Trans._ These differ remarkably from the varieties commonly cultivated. They are destitute of the thick, hard rind which characterizes the common sorts, and which renders so large a portion of the fruit useless. On the contrary, the Persian melons are protected by a skin so thin and delicate, that they are subject to injury from causes that would produce no perceptible effect on the sorts in general cultivation. As a class, they are not only prolific, but their flesh is extremely tender, rich, and sweet, and flows copiously with a cool juice, which renders them still more grateful. They are, however, not early; and, for their complete perfection, require a long and warm season. _Varieties._-- DAMPSHA. _M'Int._ Flesh dark-green near the skin, rather whitish towards the centre, quite melting, and of excellent flavor. The first-produced fruit in the season is somewhat cylindrical, bluntly pointed at both ends; the whole surface being prominently netted, and of a pale-yellow or dark-olive color. The secondary crop has the fruit more pointed and less netted, and the skin becomes much darker. Like the other varieties of winter melons, it may be preserved a long time after being taken from the vines, if suspended in a dry room. Weight four to five pounds. DAREE. _Trans._ This resembles the Geree Melon in color, as well as in many other respects. It is of the same form; but the rind, when netted, exhibits coarser reticulations. The flesh is white, thick, crisp, and melting; when fully ripened, very sweet, but rather insipid if imperfectly matured. It is always, however, cool and pleasant. GEREE. _Trans._ A handsome green fruit. In shape, it is oval, or ovate; and measures eight inches in length by four inches and a half in breadth. The skin is closely mottled with dark sea-green upon a pale ground, and is either netted or not. In the former case, the meshes are very close; by which character, it may be readily distinguished from the Daree. Stalk very short; flesh an inch and a half or two inches thick, bright-green, melting, very sweet, and highly flavored. Though perhaps equally rich, it is not so beautiful or so juicy as the Melon of Keiseng. A good bearer, but requires a warm, long season. GERMEK. _Trans._ Large Germek. A handsome large-sized, ribbed fruit, shaped like a compressed sphere; usually six inches in length, and from seven to nine inches in diameter. Skin deep-green, closely netted; flesh from an inch and a half to two inches thick, clear green, firm, juicy, and high flavored. This is an excellent variety, an abundant bearer, ripens early, and exceeds in size any of the Persian melons. GREEN HOOSAINEE. _Trans._ A handsome egg-shaped fruit, five inches long by four inches broad: when unripe, of a very deep-green; but, in maturity, acquiring a fine, even, light-green, regularly netted surface, which, on the exposed side, becomes rather yellow. The flesh is pale-greenish white, tender and delicate, full of a highly perfumed, pleasant, sweet juice; the rind is very thin; the seeds are unusually large. It is a variety of much excellence, a great bearer, and one of the hardiest of the Persian melons. GREEN VALENCIA. _M'Int._ A winter sort. Although not rich in flavor, it is firm, saccharine, and juicy; and upon the whole, if fully ripened, a more desirable melon than many of the summer varieties. ISPAHAN. _Trans._ Sweet Ispahan. This has been pronounced "the most delicious of all melons." The fruit is egg-shaped, varying in length from eight to twelve inches, and weighing from six to eight pounds; skin nearly smooth, of a deep sulphur-yellow; flesh nearly white, extending about half way to its centre, crisp, sugary, and very rich. It is a variety of much excellence, but is fully perfected only in favorable seasons. MELON OF KEISENG. _Loud._ A beautiful egg-shaped fruit, eight inches long, five inches wide in the middle, six inches wide at the lower extremity; very regularly and handsomely formed. Color pale lemon-yellow; flesh from an inch and a half to two inches and a quarter thick, nearly white, flowing copiously with juice, extremely delicate, sweet, and high flavored, very similar in texture to a well-ripened Beurré pear; rind thin, but so firm that all the fleshy part of the fruit may be eaten. It differs from the Sweet Ispahan in being closely netted. MELON OF SEEN. A fruit of regular figure and handsome appearance, seven inches long by five inches wide. Shape ovate, with a small mamelon at the apex; surface pale dusky yellow, regularly and closely netted, except the mamelon, which is but little marked; rind very thin; flesh from an inch and a half to two inches thick, pale-green, sometimes becoming reddish towards the inside, exceedingly tender and juicy; juice sweet, and delicately perfumed. A good bearer, but requires a long season. Named from Seen, a village near Ispahan; where the variety was procured. SMALL GERMEK. _Trans._ This ripens about a week earlier than the Large Germek, but is not so valuable a fruit. In form, it is a depressed sphere, with about eight rounded ribs. It measures four inches in depth by four inches and a half in width. The skin is even, yellowish, with a little green about the interstices, obscurely netted; the flesh is green, inclining to reddish in the inside, an inch and a half thick, juicy, and high flavored; skin very thin. The pulp in which the seeds are immersed is reddish. It is not a great bearer, and the vines are tender. STRIPED HOOSAINEE. _Trans._ Fruit oval and much netted, dark-green in broad stripes, with narrow intervals of dull white, which become faintly yellow as the fruit ripens; pulp externally green, but more internally pale-red, excessively juicy, and more perfectly melting than that of the famous Ispahan Melon. It is sweeter and higher flavored than any other Persian variety, but requires a long, warm season for its full perfection. * * * * * THE WATER-MELON. Cucurbita citrullus. Plant running,--the length varying from eight to twelve feet; leaves bluish-green, five-lobed, the lobes rounded at the ends; flowers pale-yellow, about an inch in diameter; fruit large, roundish, green, or variegated with different shades of green; seeds oval, flattened, half an inch long, five-sixteenths of an inch broad,--the color varying according to the variety, being either red, white, black, yellowish or grayish brown. An ounce contains from a hundred and seventy-five to two hundred seeds, and they retain their vitality eight years. The Water-melon is more vigorous in its habit than the Musk-melon, and requires more space in cultivation; the hills being usually made eight feet apart in each direction. It is less liable to injury from insects, and the crop is consequently much more certain. The seed should not be planted till May, or before established warm weather; and but two good plants allowed to a hill. The varieties are as follow:-- APPLE-SEEDED. A rather small, nearly round sort, deriving its name from its small, peculiar seeds; which, in form, size, and color, are somewhat similar to those of the apple. Skin deep, clear-green; rind very thin; flesh bright-red to the centre, sweet, tender, and well-flavored. It is hardy, bears abundantly, seldom fails to ripen perfectly in the shortest seasons, and keeps a long time after being gathered. BLACK SPANISH. Spanish. Form oblong; size large; skin very dark or blackish green; rind half an inch thick; flesh deep-red (contrasting finely with the very deep-green color of the skin), fine-grained, very sugary, and of excellent flavor. The variety is hardy, productive, thrives well, matures its fruit in the Northern and Eastern States, and is decidedly one of the best for general cultivation. Seeds dark-brown, or nearly black. BRADFORD. _W. D. Brinckle._ The Bradford is a highly prized, South-Carolina variety; size large; form oblong; skin dark-green, with gray, longitudinal stripes, mottled and reticulated with green; rind not exceeding half an inch in thickness; seed yellowish-white, slightly mottled, and with a yellowish-brown stripe around the edge; flesh fine red to the centre; flavor fine and sugary; quality "best." CAROLINA. Fruit of large size, and of an oblong form, usually somewhat swollen towards the blossom-end; skin deep-green, variegated with pale-green or white; flesh deep-red, not fine-grained, but crisp, sweet, and of fair quality; fruit frequently hollow at the centre; seeds black. This variety is extensively grown in the Southern States for exportation to the North, where it appears in the markets about the beginning of August, and to some extent in July. Many of the specimens are much less marked with stripes and variegations than the true Carolina; and some shipments consist almost entirely of fruit of a uniform deep-green color, but of the form and quality of the Carolina. Downing mentions a sub-variety with pale-yellow flesh and white seeds. CITRON WATER-MELON. Form very nearly spherical; size rather small,--average specimens measuring six or seven inches in diameter; color pale-green, marbled with darker shades of green; flesh white, solid, tough, seedy, and very squashy and unpalatable in its crude state. It ripens late in the season, and will keep until December. "It is employed in the making of sweetmeats and preserves, by removing the rind or skin and seeds, cutting the flesh into convenient bits, and boiling in sirup which has been flavored with ginger, lemon, or some agreeable article. Its cultivation is the same as that of other kinds of melons."--_New American Cyclopædia._ CLARENDON. _W. D. Brinckle._ Dark-speckled. Size large; form oblong; skin mottled-gray, with dark-green, interrupted, longitudinal stripes, irregular in their outline, and composed of a succession of peninsulas and isthmuses; rind thin, not exceeding half an inch; seed yellow, with a black stripe extending round the edge, and from one to three black spots on each side,--the form and number corresponding on the two sides; flesh scarlet to the centre; flavor sugary and exquisite, and quality "best." This fine melon originated in Clarendon County, South Carolina; and, when pure, may at all times be readily recognized by the peculiarly characteristic markings of the seeds. ICE-CREAM. A large, very pale-green sort; when unmixed, readily distinguishable from all other varieties. Form nearly round, but sometimes a little depressed at the extremities; rind thicker than in most varieties; flesh white, very sweet and tender, and of remarkably fine flavor; seeds white. It is prolific, and also early; and is remarkably well adapted for cultivation in cold localities, or where the seasons are too short for the successful culture of the more tender and late kinds. Its pale-green skin, white flesh, and white seeds, are its prominent distinctive peculiarities. IMPERIAL. _Down._ This variety is said to have been introduced from the Mediterranean. Fruit round, or oblate, and of medium size; skin pale-green, with stripes and variegations of white or paler green; rind thin; flesh pale-red, crisp, sweet, and of excellent flavor; seeds reddish-brown. Very productive, but requiring a warm situation and a long season for its complete perfection. MOUNTAIN SPROUT. This variety is similar to the Mountain Sweet. It is of large size, long, and of an oval form. Skin striped and marbled with paler and deeper shades of green; rind thin,--measuring scarcely half an inch in thickness; flesh scarlet, a little hollow at the centre, crisp, sugary, and of excellent flavor. Like the Mountain Sweet, it is a favorite market sort. It is not only of fine quality, but very productive. Seeds russet-brown. MOUNTAIN SWEET. A large, long, oval variety, often contracted towards the stem in the form of a neck; skin striped and marbled with different shades of green; rind rather thin, measuring scarcely half an inch in thickness; flesh scarlet, and solid quite to the centre; seeds pale russet-brown, but often of greater depth of color in perfectly matured specimens of fruit. A popular and extensively cultivated variety, quite hardy, productive, and of good quality. "For many years, it was universally conceded to be the best market sort cultivated in the Middle States, but of late has lost some of the properties that recommended it so highly to favor. This deterioration has probably been owing to the influence of pollen from inferior kinds grown in its vicinity." ODELL'S LARGE WHITE. _W. D. Brinckle._ Size very large, sometimes weighing sixty pounds; form round; skin gray, with fine green network spread over its uneven surface; rind nearly three-fourths of an inch in thickness; seeds large, grayish-black, and not numerous; flesh pale-red; flavor fine; quality very good. Productiveness said to exceed that of most other kinds. This remarkably large melon originated with a negro man on the property of Col. A. G. Sumner, of South Carolina. Its large size, and long-keeping quality after being separated from the vine, will recommend the variety, especially for the market. ORANGE. Form oval, of medium size; skin pale-green, marbled with shades of deeper green; rind half an inch in depth, or of medium thickness; flesh red, not fine-grained, but tender, sweet, and of good quality. When in its mature state, the rind separates readily from the flesh, in the manner of the peel from the flesh of an orange. When first introduced, the variety was considered one of the best quality; but it appears to have in some degree deteriorated, and now compares unfavorably with many other sorts. PIE-MELON. California Pie-melon. Plant running,--the foliage and general habit resembling the Common Water-melon, but yet distinguishable by its larger size, more hairy stem, and its more stocky and vigorous character; fruit oblong, very large, measuring sixteen inches and upwards in length, and from eight to ten inches in diameter; skin yellowish-green, often marbled with different shades of light-green or pea-green; flesh white, succulent, somewhat tender, but very unpalatable, or with a squash-like flavor, in its crude state. As intimated by the name, it is used only for culinary purposes. This melon should be cooked as follows: After removing the rind, cut the flesh into pieces of convenient size, and stew until soft and pulpy. Lemon-juice, sugar, and spices should then be added; after which, proceed in the usual manner of making pies from the apple or any other fruit. If kept from freezing, or from dampness and extreme cold, the Pie-melon may be preserved until March. RAVENSCROFT. _W. D. Brinckle._ Size large; form oblong; skin dark-green, faintly striped and marked with green of a lighter shade, and divided longitudinally by sutures from an inch and a quarter to two inches apart; rind not more than half an inch in thickness; seed cream-color, tipped with brown at the eye, and having a brown stripe around the edge; flesh fine red, commencing abruptly at the rind, and extending to the centre; flavor delicious and sugary; quality "best." This valuable water-melon originated with Col. A. G. Sumner, of South Carolina. SOUTER. _W. D. Brinckle._ Size large, sometimes weighing twenty or thirty pounds; form oblong, occasionally roundish; skin peculiarly marked with finely reticulated, isolated, gray spots, surrounded by paler green, and having irregular, dark-green, longitudinal stripes extending from the base to the apex; rind thin, about half an inch thick; seed pure cream-white, with a faint russet stripe around the edge; flesh deep-red to the centre; flavor sugary and delicious; quality "best." Productiveness said to be unusually great. This excellent variety originated in Sumpter District, South Carolina. * * * * * PAPANJAY, OR SPONGE CUCUMBER. Papangaye. _Vil._ Cucumis acutangulus. This is an East-Indian plant, with a creeping stem, and angular, heart-shaped leaves. The flowers (several of which are produced on one stem) are yellow; the fruit is ten or twelve inches in length, about an inch and a half in diameter, deeply furrowed or grooved in the direction of its length, forming ten longitudinal, acute angles; the skin is hard, and of a russet-yellow color; the seeds are black, rough, and hard, and quite irregular in form,--about five hundred are contained in an ounce. _Use._--The fruit is eaten while it is quite young and small; served in the manner of cucumbers, or like vegetable marrow. When fully ripened, it is exceedingly tough, fibrous, and porous, and is sometimes used as a substitute for sponge: whence the name. * * * * * PRICKLY-FRUITED GHERKIN. Gherkin. West-Indian Cucumber. Jamaica Cucumber. Cucumis anguria. This species is said to be a native of Jamaica. The habit of the plant is similar to that of the Globe Cucumber, and its season of maturity is nearly the same. The surface of the fruit is thickly set with spiny nipples, and has an appearance very unlike that of the Common Cucumber. It is comparatively of small size, and of a regular, oval form,--generally measuring about two inches in length by an inch and a third in its largest diameter; color pale-green; flesh greenish-white, very seedy and pulpy. The seeds are quite small, oval, flattened, yellowish-white, and retain their vitality five years. It is somewhat later than the Common Cucumber, and requires nearly the whole season for its full development. Plant in hills about five feet apart; cover the seeds scarcely half an inch deep, and leave three plants to a hill. The Prickly-fruited Gherkin is seldom served at table sliced in its crude state. It is principally grown for pickling: for which purpose it should be plucked when about half grown, or while the skin is tender, and can be easily broken by the nail. As the season of maturity approaches, the rind gradually hardens, and the fruit becomes worthless. In all stages of its growth, the flesh is comparatively spongy; and, in the process of pickling, absorbs a large quantity of vinegar. * * * * * THE PUMPKIN. Cucurbita pepo. Under this head, on the authority of the late Dr. T. W. Harris, should properly be included "the common New-England field-pumpkin, the bell-shaped and crook-necked winter squashes, the Canada crook-necked, the custard squashes, and various others, all of which (whether rightly or not, cannot now be determined) have been generally referred by botanists to the _Cucurbita pepo_ of Linnæus." The term "pumpkin," as generally used in this country by writers on gardening and agriculture, and as popularly understood, includes only the few varieties of the Common New-England Pumpkin that have been long grown in fields in an extensive but somewhat neglectful manner; the usual practice being to plant a seed or two at certain intervals in fields of corn or potatoes, and afterwards to leave the growing vines to the care of themselves. Even under these circumstances, a ton is frequently harvested from a single acre, in addition to a heavy crop of corn or potatoes. The Pumpkin was formerly much used in domestic economy; but, since the introduction of the Crook-necks, Boston Marrow, Hubbard, and other improved varieties of squashes, it has gradually fallen into disuse, and is now cultivated principally for agricultural purposes. _Varieties._--The following are the principal varieties, although numerous intermediate sorts occur, more or less distinct, as well as more or less permanent in character:-- CANADA PUMPKIN. Vermont Pumpkin. The Canada Pumpkin is of an oblate form, inclining to conic; and is deeply and regularly ribbed. When well grown, it is of comparatively large size, and measures thirteen or fourteen inches in diameter, and about ten inches in depth. Color fine, deep orange-yellow; skin or shell rather thick and hard; flesh yellow, fine-grained, sweet, and well flavored. Hardy, and very productive. Compared with the common field variety, the Canada is much more flattened in its form, more regularly and deeply ribbed, of a deeper and richer color; and the flesh is generally much sweeter, and less coarse and stringy in its texture. It seems adapted to every description of soil; thrives well in all climates; and is one of the best sorts for agricultural purposes, as well as of good quality for the table. CHEESE PUMPKIN. Plant very vigorous; leaves large, deep-green; fruit much flattened, deeply and rather regularly ribbed, broadly dishing about the stem, and basin-like at the opposite extremity. It is of large size; and, when well grown, often measures fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter, and nine or ten inches in depth. Skin fine, deep reddish-orange, and, if the fruit is perfectly matured, quite hard and shell-like; flesh very thick, yellow, fine-grained, sweet, and well flavored. The seeds are not distinguishable from those of the Common Field Pumpkin. The Cheese Pumpkin is hardy, remarkably productive, and much superior in all respects to most of the field-grown sorts. Whether the variety originated in this country, cannot probably now be determined; but it was extensively disseminated in the Middle States at the time of the American Revolution, and was introduced into certain parts of New England by the soldiers on their return from service. After a lapse of more than seventy-five years,--during which time it must have experienced great diversity of treatment and culture,--it still can be found in its original type; having the same form, color, size, and the same thickness, and quality of flesh, which it possessed at the time of its introduction. COMMON YELLOW FIELD PUMPKIN. Plant of vigorous, stocky habit, extending twelve feet and upwards in length; fruit rounded, usually a little more deep than broad, flattened at the ends, and rather regularly, and more or less prominently, ribbed. Its size is much affected by soil, season, and the purity of the seed. Average specimens will measure about fourteen inches in length, and eleven or twelve inches in diameter. Color rich, clear orange-yellow; skin, or rind, if the fruit is well matured, rather dense and hard; flesh variable in thickness, but averaging about an inch and a half, of a yellow color, generally coarse-grained, and often stringy, but sometimes of fine texture, dry, and of good quality; seeds of medium size, cream-yellow. The cultivation of the Common Yellow Field Pumpkin in this country is almost co-eval with its settlement. For a long period, few, if any, of the numerous varieties of squashes, now so generally disseminated, were known; and the Pumpkin was not only extensively employed as a material for pies, but was much used as a vegetable, in the form of squash, at the table. During the struggle for national independence, when the excessively high prices of sugars and molasses prevented their general use, it was the practice to reduce by evaporation the liquid in which the pumpkin had been cooked, and to use the saccharine matter thus obtained as a substitute for the more costly but much more palatable sweetening ingredients. When served at table in the form of a vegetable, a well-ripened, fine-grained pumpkin was selected, divided either lengthwise or crosswise; the seeds extracted; the loose, stringy matter removed from the inner surface of the flesh; and the two sections, thus prepared, were baked, till soft, in a common oven. The flesh was then scooped from the shell, pressed, seasoned, and served in the usual form. By many, it is still highly esteemed, and even preferred for pies to the Squash, or the more improved varieties of pumpkins; but its cultivation at present is rather for agricultural than for culinary purposes. CONNECTICUT FIELD PUMPKIN. A large, yellow, field variety, not unlike the Common Yellow in form, but with a softer skin, or shell. It is very prolific, of fair quality as an esculent, and one of the best for cultivating for stock or for agricultural purposes. LONG YELLOW FIELD PUMPKIN. Plant hardy and vigorous, not distinguishable from that of the Common Yellow variety; fruit oval, much elongated, the length usually about twice the diameter; size large,--well-grown specimens measuring sixteen to twenty inches in length, and nine or ten inches in diameter; surface somewhat ribbed, but with the markings less distinct than those of the Common Yellow; color bright orange-yellow; skin of moderate thickness, generally easily broken by the nail; flesh about an inch and a half in thickness, yellow, of good but not fine quality, usually sweet, but watery, and of no great value for the table. It is very hardy and productive; well adapted for planting among corn or potatoes; may be profitably raised for feeding out to stock; keeps well when properly stored; and selected specimens will afford a tolerable substitute for the Squash in the kitchen, particularly for pies. Between this and the Common Yellow, there are various intermediate sorts; and, as they readily hybridize with each other, it is with difficulty that these varieties can be preserved in a pure state. Only one of the sorts should be cultivated, unless there is sufficient territory to enable the cultivator to allow a large distance between the fields where the different varieties are grown. NANTUCKET. Hard-shell. "Nigger-head." Form flattened or depressed, but sometimes oblong or bell-shaped, often faintly ribbed; size medium or rather small; color deep-green, somewhat mellowed by exposure to the sun, or at full maturity; skin or shell thick and hard, and more or less thickly covered with prominent, wart-like excrescences; flesh comparatively thick, yellow, sweet, fine-grained, and of excellent flavor,--comparing favorably in all respects with that of the Sugar Pumpkin. It is a productive sort, and its flesh much dryer and more sugary than the peculiar, green, and warty appearance of the fruit would indicate. When cooked, it should be divided into pieces of convenient size; the seeds, and loose, stringy parts, removed from the inner surface of the flesh, and then boiled or baked in the skin or shell; afterwards scooping out the flesh, as is practised with the Hubbard Squash or other hard-shelled varieties of pumpkins. It is an excellent pie-variety, and selected specimens will be found of good quality when served as squash at the table. It will keep till February or March. STRIPED FIELD PUMPKIN. Habit of the plant, and form of the fruit, very similar to the Common Yellow Field Pumpkin. The size, however, will average less; although specimens may sometimes be procured as large as the dimension given for the Common Yellow. Color yellow, striped and variegated with green,--after being gathered, the green becomes gradually softer and paler, and the yellow deeper; flesh yellow, moderately thick, and, though by some considered of superior quality, has not the fine, dry, and well-flavored character essential for table use; seeds similar to the foregoing sorts. The Striped Field Pumpkin is a hardy sort, and yields well. It is, however, exceedingly liable to hybridize with all the varieties of the family, and is with difficulty preserved in an unmixed condition. It should be grown as far apart as possible from all others, especially when the seed raised is designed for sale or for reproduction at home. SUGAR-PUMPKIN. Small Sugar-pumpkin. [Illustration: Sugar-pumkin.] Plant similar in its character and general appearance to the Common Field Pumpkin; fruit small, eight or nine inches at its broadest diameter, and about six inches in depth; form much depressed, usually broadest near the middle, and more or less distinctly ribbed; skin bright orange-yellow when the fruit is well ripened, hard, and shell-like, and not easily broken by the nail; stem quite long, greenish, furrowed, and somewhat reticulated; flesh of good thickness, light-yellow, very fine-grained, sweet, and well flavored; seeds of smaller size than, but in other respects similar to, those of the Field Pumpkin. The variety is the smallest of the sorts usually employed for field cultivation. It is, however, a most abundant bearer, rarely fails in maturing its crops perfectly, is of first-rate quality, and may be justly styled an acquisition. For pies, it is not surpassed by any of the family; and it is superior for table use to many of the garden squashes. The facility with which it hybridizes or mixes with other kinds renders it extremely difficult to keep the variety pure; the tendency being to increase in size, to grow longer or deeper, and to become warty: either of which conditions may be considered an infallible evidence of deterioration. Varieties sometimes occur more or less marbled and spotted with green; the green, however, often changing to yellow after harvesting. * * * * * SNAKE OR SERPENT CUCUMBER. Cucumis flexuosus. Though generally considered as a species of cucumber, this plant should properly be classed with the melons. In its manner of growth, foliage, flowering, and in the odor and taste of the ripened fruit, it strongly resembles the musk-melon. The fruit is slender and flexuous; frequently measures more than three feet in length; and is often gracefully coiled or folded in a serpent-like form. The skin is green; the flesh, while the fruit is forming, is greenish-white,--at maturity, yellow; the seeds are yellowish-white, oval, flattened, often twisted or contorted like those of some varieties of melons, and retain their vitality five years. _Planting and Cultivation._--The seeds should be planted in May, in hills six feet apart. Cover half an inch deep, and allow three plants to a hill. _Use._--The fruit is sometimes pickled in the manner of the Common Cucumber, but is seldom served at table sliced in its crude state. It is generally cultivated on account of its serpent-like form, rather than for its value as an esculent. Well-grown specimens are quite attractive; and, as curious vegetable productions, contribute to the interest and variety of horticultural exhibitions. * * * * * THE SQUASH. All the varieties are tender annuals, and of tropical origin. They only thrive well in a warm temperature: and the seed should not be sown in spring until all danger from frost is past, and the ground is warm and thoroughly settled; as, aside from the tender nature of the plant, the seed is extremely liable to rot in the ground in continued damp and cold weather. Any good, well-enriched soil is adapted to the growth of the Squash. The hills should be made from eight to ten inches in depth, two feet in diameter, and then filled within three or four inches of the surface with well-digested compost; afterwards adding sufficient fine loam to raise the hill an inch or two above the surrounding level. On this, plant twelve or fifteen seeds; covering about three-fourths of an inch deep. Keep the earth about the plants loose and clean; and from time to time remove the surplus vines, leaving the most stocky and vigorous. Three plants are sufficient for a hill; to which number the hills should ultimately be thinned, making the final thinning when all danger from bugs and other vermin is past. The dwarfs may be planted four feet apart; but the running sorts should not be less than six or eight. The custom of cutting or nipping off the leading shoot of the running varieties is now practised to some extent, with the impression that it both facilitates the formation of fruitful laterals and the early maturing of the fruit. Whether the amount of product is increased by the process, is not yet determined. In giving the following descriptions, no attempt has been made to present them under scientific divisions; but they have been arranged as they are in this country popularly understood:-- _Summer Varieties._-- APPLE SQUASH. Early Apple. Plant running, not of stocky habit, but healthy and vigorous; fruit obtusely conical, three inches broad at the stem, and two inches and a half in depth; skin yellowish-white, thin and tender while the fruit is young, hard and shell-like when ripe; flesh dry and well flavored in its green state, and often of good quality at full maturity. The fruit is comparatively small; and, on this account, the variety is very little cultivated. BUSH SUMMER WARTED CROOKNECK. Early Summer Crookneck. Yellow Summer Warted Crookneck. Cucurbita verrucosa. [Illustration: Bush Summer Warted Crookneck Squash.] Plant dwarfish or bushy in habit, generally about two feet and a half in height or length; fruit largest at the blossom-end, and tapering gradually to a neck, which is solid, and more or less curved; size medium,--average specimens, when suitable for use, measuring about eight inches in length, and three inches in diameter at the broadest part; the neck is usually about two inches in thickness; color clear, bright-yellow; skin very warty, thin, and easily broken by the nail while the fruit is young, and suitable for use,--as the season of maturity approaches, the rind gradually becomes firmer, and, when fully ripe, is very hard and shell-like; flesh greenish-yellow, dry, and well flavored; seeds comparatively small, broad in proportion to the length, and of a pale-yellow color. About four hundred are contained in an ounce. The Bush Summer Crookneck is generally esteemed the finest of the summer varieties. It is used only while young and tender, or when the skin can be easily pierced or broken by the nail. After the fruit hardens, the flesh becomes watery, coarse, strong flavored, and unfit for table use. On account of the dwarfish character of the plants, the hills may be made four feet apart. Three plants will be sufficient for a hill. EARLY WHITE BUSH SCOLLOPED. White Pattypan. Cymbling. White Summer Scolloped. Pattison Blanc. _Vil._ This is a sub-variety of the Early Yellow Bush Scolloped. The plant has the same dwarf habit, and the fruit is nearly of the same size and form. The principal distinction between the varieties consists in the difference of color. By some, the white variety is considered a little inferior in fineness of texture and in flavor to the yellow; though the white is much the more abundant in the markets. Both of the varieties are hardy and productive; and there is but little difference in the season of their maturity. In the month of June, large quantities are shipped from the Southern and Middle States to the North and East, where they anticipate from two to three weeks the products of the home-market gardens; the facilities afforded by steam transportation rendering nearly profitless the efforts of gardeners to obtain an early crop. As the variety keeps well, and suffers little from transportation, the squashes are generally found fresh and in good order on their arrival. EARLY YELLOW BUSH SCOLLOPED. Cymbling. Pattypan. Yellow Summer Scollop. [Illustration: Early Yellow Bush Scolloped.] Plant dwarf, of rather erect habit, and about two feet and a half in height; leaves large, clear-green; fruit somewhat of a hemispherical form, expanded at the edge, which is deeply and very regularly scolloped. When suitable for use, it measures about five inches in diameter, and three inches in depth; but, when fully matured, the diameter is often ten or twelve inches, and even upwards. Color yellow; skin, while young, thin, and easily pierced,--at maturity, hard and shell-like; flesh pale-yellow, tolerably fine-grained, and well flavored,--not, however, quite so dry and sweet as that of the Summer Crookneck; seeds broader in proportion to their length than the seeds of most varieties, and of comparatively small size. Four hundred and twenty-five weigh an ounce. This variety has been common to the gardens of this country for upwards of a century; during which period, the form and general character have been very slightly, if at all, changed. When grown in the vicinity of the Bush Summer Crookneck, the surface sometimes exhibits the same wart-like excrescences; but there is little difficulty in procuring seeds that will prove true to the description above given. Like the Summer Crookneck, the scolloped squashes are used while young or in a green state. After the hardening of the skin, or shell, the flesh generally becomes coarse, watery, strong-flavored, and unfit for the table. The hills should be made about four feet apart, and three plants allowed to a hill. Season from the beginning of July to the middle or last of August. EGG-SQUASH. Cucurbita ovifera. An ornamental variety, generally cultivated for its peculiar, egg-like fruit, which usually measures about three inches in length, and two inches or two and a half in diameter. Skin, or shell, white. It is seldom used as an esculent; though, in its young state, the flesh is quite similar in flavor and texture to that of the scolloped varieties. "If trained to a trellis, or when allowed to cover a dry, branching tree, it is quite ornamental; and, in its ripened state, is quite interesting, and attractive at public exhibitions." Increase of size indicates mixture or deterioration. "It has been generally supposed, that the Egg-squash was a native of Astrachan, in Tartary. Dr. Loroche included it in a list of plants not natives of Astrachan, but cultivated only in gardens where it is associated with such exotics as Indian corn, or maize, with which it was probably introduced directly or indirectly from America. We also learn from Loroche that this species varied in form, being sometimes pear-shaped; that it was sometimes variegated in color with green and white, and the shell served instead of boxes. Here we have plainly indicated the little gourd-like, hard-shelled, and variegated squashes that are often cultivated as ornamental plants. "From these and similar authorities, it is evident that summer squashes were originally natives of America, where so many of them were found in use by the Indians, when the country began to be settled by Europeans."--_Dr. T. W. Harris, in Pennsylvania Farm Journal._ GREEN BUSH SCOLLOPED. Pattison Vert. _Vil._ Fruit similar in size and form to the Yellow or White Bush Scolloped; skin or shell bottle-green, marbled or clouded with shades of lighter green. It is comparatively of poor quality, and is little cultivated. GREEN-STRIPED BERGEN. "Plant dwarf, but of strong and vigorous habit; fruit of small size, bell-shaped; colors dark-green and white, striped. "An early but not productive sort, little cultivated at the North or East, but grown to a considerable extent for the New-York market. It is eaten both while green and when fully ripe." LARGE SUMMER WARTED CROOKNECK. A large variety of the Bush or Dwarf Summer Crookneck. Plant twelve feet and upwards in length, running; fruit of the form of the last named, but of much greater proportions,--sometimes attaining a length of nearly two feet; skin clear, bright yellow, and thickly covered with the prominent wart-like excrescences peculiar to the varieties; flesh greenish-yellow, and of coarser texture than that of the Dwarf Summer Crookneck. Hardy and very productive. The hills should be made six feet apart. ORANGE. Cucurbita aurantiaca. Fruit of the size, form, and color of an orange. Though generally cultivated for ornament, and considered more curious than useful, "some of them are the very best of the summer squashes for table use; far superior to either the scolloped or warted varieties." When trained as directed for the Egg-squash, it is equally showy and attractive. VARIEGATED BUSH SCOLLOPED. Pattison Panaché. _Vil._ Pale yellow, or nearly white, variegated with green. Very handsome, but of inferior quality. _Autumn and Winter Varieties._-- AUTUMNAL MARROW. _J. M. Ives._ Boston Marrow. Courge de l'Ohio. _Vil._ Plant twelve feet or more in length, moderately vigorous; fruit ovoid, pointed at the extremities, eight or nine inches in length, and seven inches in diameter; stem very large, fleshy, and contracted a little at its junction with the fruit,--the summit, or blossom-end, often tipped with a small nipple or wart-like excrescence; skin remarkably thin, easily bruised or broken, cream-yellow at the time of ripening, but changing to red after harvesting, or by remaining on the plants after full maturity; flesh rich, salmon-yellow, remarkably dry, fine-grained, and, in sweetness and excellence, surpassed by few varieties. The seeds are large, thick, and pure white: the surface, in appearance and to the touch, resembles glove-leather or dressed goat-skin. About one hundred are contained in an ounce. In favorable seasons, the Autumnal Marrow Squash will be sufficiently grown for use early in August; and, if kept from cold and dampness, may be preserved till March. Mr. John M. Ives, of Salem, who was awarded a piece of silver plate by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the introduction of this valuable variety, has furnished the following statement relative to its origin and dissemination:-- SALEM, MASS., Feb. 7, 1858. DEAR SIR,--As requested, I forward you a few facts relative to the introduction of the Autumnal Marrow Squash, the cultivation of which has extended not only over our entire country, but throughout Europe. It succeeds better in England than the Crooknecks; and may be seen in great abundance every season at Covent-Garden Market, in London. Early in the spring of 1831, a friend of mine from Northampton, in this State, brought to my grounds a specimen of this vegetable, of five or six pounds' weight, which he called "Vegetable Marrow." As it bore no resemblance to the true Vegetable Marrow, either in its form or color, I planted the seeds, and was successful in raising eight or ten specimens. Finding it a superior vegetable, with a skin as thin as the inner envelope of an egg, and the flesh of fine texture, and also that it was in eating early in the fall, I ventured to call it "Autumnal Marrow Squash." Soon a drawing was made, and forwarded, with a description, to the "Horticultural Register" of Fessenden, and also to the "New-England Farmer." In cultivating this vegetable, I found the fruit to average from eight to nine pounds, particularly if grown on newly broken-up sod or grass land. From its facility in hybridizing with the tribe of pumpkins, I consider it to be, properly speaking, a fine-grained pumpkin. The first indication of deterioration or mixture will be manifested in the thickening of the skin, or by a green circle or coloring of green at the blossom-end. More recently, I have been informed, by the gentleman to whom I was indebted for the first specimen, that the seeds came originally from Buffalo, N.Y., where they were supposed to have been introduced by a tribe of Indians, who were accustomed to visit that city in the spring of the year. I have not been able to trace it beyond this. It is, unquestionably, an accidental hybrid. Yours truly, JOHN M. IVES. Mr. F. BURR, Jun. CANADA CROOKNECK. The plants of this variety are similar in habit to those of the Common Winter Crookneck; but the foliage is smaller, and the growth less luxuriant. In point of size, the Canada Crookneck is the smallest of its class. When the variety is unmixed, the weight seldom exceeds five or six pounds. It is sometimes bottle-formed; but the neck is generally small, solid, and curved in the form of the Large Winter Crooknecks. The seeds are contained at the blossom-end, which expands somewhat abruptly, and is often slightly ribbed. Skin of moderate thickness, and easily pierced by the nail; color, when fully ripened, cream-yellow, but, if long kept, becoming duller and darker; flesh salmon-red, very close-grained, dry, sweet, and fine-flavored; seeds comparatively small, of a grayish or dull-white color, with a rough and uneven yellowish-brown border; three hundred are contained in an ounce. [Illustration] The Canada is unquestionably the best of the Crooknecked sorts. The vines are remarkably hardy and prolific; yielding almost a certain crop both North and South. The variety ripens early; the plants suffer but little from the depredations of bugs or worms; and the fruit, with trifling care, may be preserved throughout the year. It is also quite uniform in quality; being seldom of the coarse and stringy character so common to other varieties of this class. CASHEW. Cushaw Pumpkin. Somewhat of the form and color of the Common Winter Crookneck. Two prominent varieties, however, occur. The first is nearly round; the other curved, or of the shape of a hunter's horn. The latter is the most desirable. It is not cultivated or generally known in New England or in the northern portions of the United States; for though well suited to Louisiana and other portions of the South, where it is much esteemed, it is evidently too tender for cultivation where the seasons are comparatively short and cool. In an experimental trial by the late Dr. Harris, specimens raised from seed received from New Jersey "did not ripen well, and many decayed before half ripe." The Crooknecks of New England "may be distinguished from the Cashew by the want of a persistent style, and by their furrowed and club-shaped fruit-stems." COCOA-NUT SQUASH. Cocoa Squash. Fruit oval, elongated, sixteen to twenty inches in length, eight or ten inches in diameter, and weighing from fifteen to twenty pounds and upwards; skin thin, easily pierced or broken, of an ash-gray color, spotted, and marked with light drab and nankeen-brown,--the furrows dividing the ribs light drab; stem small; flesh deep orange-yellow, of medium thickness; seeds pure white, broader in proportion to their length than those of the Hubbard or Boston Marrow. The quality of the Cocoa-nut Squash is extremely variable. Sometimes the flesh is fine-grained, dry, sweet, and of a rich, nut-like flavor; but well-developed and apparently well-matured specimens are often coarse, fibrous, watery, and unfit for table use. The variety ripens in September, and will keep till March or April. CUSTARD SQUASH. [Illustration] Plant healthy and of vigorous habit, often twenty feet and upwards in length; fruit oblong, gathered in deep folds or wrinkles at the stem, near which it is the smallest, abruptly shortened at the opposite extremity, prominently marked by large, rounded, lengthwise elevations, and corresponding deep furrows, or depressions; skin, or shell, cream-white; flesh pale-yellow, not remarkable for solidity, or fineness of texture, but well flavored; the seeds are yellowish-white, and readily distinguished from those of other varieties by their long and narrow form. Under favorable conditions of soil and season, the Custard Squash attains a large size; often measuring twenty inches and upwards in length, eight or ten inches in diameter, and weighing from eighteen to twenty-five pounds. It is one of the hardiest and most productive of all varieties. Crops are recorded of fourteen tons from an acre. It is esteemed by some for pies; but, as a table squash, is inferior to most other sorts. Its great yield makes it worthy the attention of agriculturists, as it would doubtless prove a profitable variety to be cultivated for stock. From the habit of the plant, the form and character of the fruit, and its great hardiness and productiveness, it appears to be allied to the Vegetable Marrow. EGG-SHAPED, OR REEVES. _Thomp._ Fruit large, weighing from fifteen to twenty pounds; but in rich, highly manured soil, and with only a few on each plant, it may be grown to upwards of fifty pounds' weight. It is short, ovate, sometimes tapering rather abruptly. Skin, or shell, hard, of a reddish color; flesh firm, red, excellent in a ripe state cooked as a vegetable, or in any other way in which squashes are prepared. The stems run to a very great length, and bear all along most abundantly. Altogether, it is a sort highly deserving of cultivation. It was brought into notice by John Reeves, Esq.; who has contributed to horticulture many valuable plants from China, where he resided for many years. Plant in hills eight feet apart, and thin to two plants to a hill. HONOLULU. Plant twelve feet or more in length, remarkably strong and vigorous; leaves very large,--the leaf-stems often three feet and upwards in length; fruit large, oblate, depressed about the stem, broadly, and sometimes deeply, but in general faintly, ribbed; skin moderately thick, but not shell-like, of an ash-green color, striped and variegated with drab or lighter shades of green; flesh reddish-orange, very thick, of good flavor, but less dry and sweet than that of the Hubbard or Boston Marrow; seeds large, white. This recently introduced variety is hardy, productive, a good keeper, excellent for pies, and by some esteemed for table use. Specimens frequently occur of a reddish cream-color, striped and marked with drab or pale-yellow. HUBBARD. _J. J. H. Gregory._ [Illustration: Hubbard Squash.] Plant similar in character and appearance to that of the Autumnal Marrow; fruit irregularly oval, sometimes ribbed, but often without rib-markings, from eight to ten inches in length, seven or eight inches in diameter, and weighing from seven to nine pounds,--some specimens terminate quite obtusely, others taper sharply towards the extremities, which are frequently bent or curved; skin, or shell, dense and hard, nearly one-eighth of an inch thick, and overspread with numerous small protuberances; stem fleshy, but not large; color variable, always rather dull, and usually clay-blue or deep olive-green,--the upper surface, if long exposed to the sun, assuming a brownish cast, and the under surface, if deprived of light, becoming orange-yellow; flesh rich salmon-yellow, thicker than that of the Autumnal Marrow, very fine-grained, sweet, dry, and of most excellent flavor,--in this last respect, resembling that of roasted or boiled chestnuts; seeds white,--similar to those of the Autumnal Marrow. Season from September to June; but the flesh is dryest and sweetest during autumn and the early part of winter. The Hubbard Squash should be grown in hills seven feet apart, and three plants allowed to a hill. It is essential that the planting be made as far as possible from similar varieties, as it mixes, or hybridizes, readily with all of its kind. In point of productiveness, it is about equal to the Autumnal Marrow. "The average yield from six acres was nearly five tons of marketable squashes to the acre." Mr. J. J. H. Gregory, of Marblehead, Mass., who introduced this variety to notice, and through whose exertions it has become widely disseminated, remarks in the "New-England Farmer" as follows:-- "Of its history I know next to nothing, farther than that the seed was given to me by an aged female, about twelve years since, in remembrance of whom I named it; and that the party from whom she received it cannot tell from whence the seed came. I infer that it is of foreign origin, partly from the fact that the gentleman to whom I traced it is a resident of a seaport town, and is largely connected with those who follow the seas." ITALIAN VEGETABLE MARROW. _Thomp._ Courge Coucourzelle. This forms a dwarf bush, with short, reclining stems, and upright leaves, which are deeply five-lobed. The fruits are used when the flowers are about to drop from their ends. They are then from four to five inches long, and an inch and a half to two inches in diameter. When ripe, the fruit is from fifteen to eighteen inches in length, and about six inches in diameter. It is of a pale yellow, striped with green. It should, however, be used in the young, green state; for, when mature, it is not so good as many of the other sorts. It bears very abundantly; and, as it does not run, may be grown in smaller compass than the true Vegetable Marrow. MAMMOTH. Mammoth Pumpkin. Large Yellow Gourd, of the English. _Thomp._ Potiron jaune, of the French. Cucurbita maxima. This is the largest-fruited variety known. In a very rich compost, and under favorable conditions of climate, it grows to an enormous size. Fruit weighing a hundred and twenty pounds is not uncommon; and instances, though exceptional, are recorded of weights ranging from two hundred to nearly two hundred and fifty pounds. The leaves are very large, and the stems thick, running along the ground to the distance of twenty or thirty feet if not stopped, and readily striking root at the joints. The fruit is round, or oblate; sometimes flattened on the under side, owing to its great weight; sometimes obtusely ribbed, yellowish, or pale buff, and frequently covered to a considerable extent with a gray netting. Flesh very deep yellow; seeds white. It is used only in its full-grown or ripe state, in which it will keep for several months; and even during the winter, if stored in a dry, warm situation. The flesh is sweet, though generally coarse-grained and watery. It is used in soups and stews, and also for pies; but is seldom served like squash at the table. NEAPOLITAN. Courge pleine de Naples. _Vil._ Plant running; leaves small, smooth, striped and marked with white along the nerves; fruit nearly two feet in length, and rather more than five inches in its smallest diameter, bent at the middle, and broadly but faintly ribbed,--it increases in size towards the extremities, but is largest at the blossom-end, where it reaches a diameter of eight or ten inches; skin bright green; stem small; flesh bright, clear yellow; the neck is entirely solid, and the seed-end has an unusually small cavity; seeds dull white. The late Rev. A. R. Pope, in a communication to the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, describes it as follows: "New, very heavy; having a large, solid neck, and a small cavity for the seeds. Flesh sweet, dry, and somewhat coarse, but not stringy. Very superior for pies, and a good keeper." PATAGONIAN. A large, long Squash, prominently ribbed. It differs little in form or size from the Custard. Skin very deep green; flesh pale yellow; seeds of medium size, yellowish-white. The plant is a vigorous grower, and the yield abundant; but its quality is inferior, and the variety can hardly be considered worthy of cultivation for table use. It may, however, prove a profitable sort for growing for agricultural purposes. PURITAN. [Illustration: Puritan Squash.] Plant running, ten feet and upwards in length; leaves clear green, of medium size; fruit bottle-formed, fourteen or fifteen inches long, and about ten inches in diameter at the broadest part; neck solid, four or five inches in diameter; average weight eight to ten pounds; skin thin, usually white or cream-white, striped and marked with green, though specimens sometimes occur, from unmixed seed, uniformly green; flesh pale yellow, dry, sweet, mild, and well flavored; seeds of medium size, white. Season from August to January. This variety, long common to gardens in the vicinity of the Old Colony, retains its distinctive character to a very remarkable degree, even when grown under the most unfavorable circumstances. Seeds, obtained from a gardener who had cultivated the variety indiscriminately among numerous summer and winter kinds for upwards of twenty years, produced specimens uniformly true to the normal form color, and quality. It is hardy and productive, good for table use, excellent for pies, and well deserving of cultivation. SWEET-POTATO SQUASH. Plant very similar in character to that of the Hubbard or Autumnal Marrow; fruit twelve or fourteen inches long, seven or eight inches thick, sometimes ribbed, but usually without rib-markings; oblong, tapering to the ends, which are often bent or curved in the manner of some of the types of the Hubbard; stem of medium size, striated; skin ash-green, with a smooth, polished surface; flesh salmon-yellow, thick, fine-grained, dry, and sweet,--if the variety is pure, and the fruit well matured, its quality approaches that of the Hubbard and Autumnal Marrow; seeds white. The variety is hardy and productive, keeps well, and is deserving of cultivation. When grown in the vicinity of the last-named sorts, it often becomes mixed, and rapidly degenerates. In its purity, it is uniformly of one color; with perhaps the exception of the under surface, which is sometimes paler or yellowish. It has been suggested that this variety and the Hubbard may have originated under similar circumstances. TURBAN. Acorn. Giraumon Turban. Turk's-cap. Cucurbita piliformis. Plant running; leaves small, soft, slightly lobed on the borders; fruit rounded, flattened, expanding about the stem to a broad, plain, brick-red surface, of ten or twelve inches in diameter. At the blossom-end, the fruit suddenly contracts to an irregular, cone-like point, or termination, of a greenish color, striped with white; and thus, in form and color, somewhat resembles a turban: whence the name. Flesh orange-yellow, thick, fine-grained, sugary, and well flavored; seeds white, comparatively short, and small. The Turban Squash is not early, and should have the advantage of the whole season. "Its specific gravity is said to exceed that of any other variety. Its keeping properties are not particularly good; but its flavor, when grown on light, dry soil, will compare well with either the Autumnal Marrow or the Hubbard." It mixes very readily when grown in the vicinity of other varieties, is not an abundant bearer, and cannot be recommended for general cultivation. Dr. Harris states that "this variety--sometimes called the 'Acorn Squash,' because, when the fruit is small, it resembles somewhat an acorn in its cup--seems to be the _Cucurbita piliformis_ of Duchesne;" and he further adds, that "it sometimes grows to a large size, measuring fourteen or fifteen inches in transverse diameter, and looks like an immense Turkish turban in shape. Specimens raised in my garden in 1851 were little more than ten inches in diameter, and weighed ten pounds or more; having very thick and firm flesh, and but a small cavity within. They proved excellent for table use,--equal in quality to the best Autumnal Marrows. They keep quite as well as the latter." VALPARAISO. Porter's Valparaiso. Commodore Porter. Plant running; leaves large, not lobed, but cut in rounded angles on the borders; fruit oval, about sixteen inches in length, ten or eleven inches in diameter, slightly ribbed, and largest at the blossom-end, which often terminates in a wart-like excrescence; skin cream-white, sometimes smooth and polished, but often more or less reticulated, or netted; flesh comparatively thick, orange-yellow, generally dry, sweet, and well flavored, but sometimes fibrous and watery; seeds rather large, nankeen-yellow, smooth and glossy. The variety requires the whole season for its perfection. It hybridizes readily with the Autumnal Marrow and kindred sorts, and is kept pure with considerable difficulty. It is in use from September to spring. The variety, if obtained in its purity, will be found of comparative excellence, and well deserving of cultivation. Stripes and clouds of green upon the surface are infallible evidences of mixture and deterioration. The late Dr. Harris, in a communication to the "Pennsylvania Farm Journal," remarks as follows: "The Valparaiso squashes (of which there seem to be several varieties, known to cultivators by many different names, some of them merely local in their application) belong to a peculiar group of the genus _Cucurbita_, the distinguishing characters of which have not been fully described by botanists. The word 'squash,' as applied to these fruits, is a misnomer, as may be shown hereafter. It would be well to drop it entirely, and to call the fruits of this group 'pompions,' 'pumpkins,' or 'potirons.' It is my belief, that they were originally indigenous to the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the western coast of America. They are extensively cultivated from Chili to California, and also in the West Indies; whence enormous specimens are sometimes brought to the Atlantic States. How much soever these Valparaiso pumpkins may differ in form, size, color, and quality, they all agree in certain peculiarities that are found in no other species or varieties of _Cucurbita_. Their leaves are never deeply lobed like those of other pumpkins and squashes, but are more or less five-angled, or almost rounded and heart-shaped, at base: they are also softer than those of other pumpkins and squashes. The summit, or blossom-end, of the fruit has a nipple-like projection upon it, consisting of the permanent fleshy style. The fruit-stalk is short, nearly cylindrical, never deeply five-furrowed, but merely longitudinally striated or wrinkled, and never clavated, or enlarged with projecting angles, next to the fruit. With few exceptions, they contain four or five double rows of seeds. To this group belong Mr. Ives's Autumnal Marrow Squash (or Pumpkin); Commodore Porter's Valparaiso Squash (Pumpkin); the so-called Mammoth Pumpkin, or _Cucurbita maxima_ of the botanists; the Turban or Acorn Squash; _Cucurbita piliformis_ of Duchesne; the Cashew Pumpkin; Stetson's Hybrid, called the 'Wilder Squash;' with various others." VEGETABLE MARROW. _Thomp._ Succade Gourd. Courge à la moëlle, of the French. Plant twelve feet and upwards in length; leaves deeply five-lobed; fruit about nine inches long, and of an elliptic shape,--but it is sometimes grown to twice that length, and of an oblong form; surface slightly uneven, by irregular, longitudinal, obtuse ribs, which terminate in a projecting apex at the extremity of the fruit. When mature, it is of a uniform pale yellow or straw color. The skin, or shell, is very hard when the fruit is perfectly ripened; flesh white, tender, and succulent, even till the seeds are ripe. It may be used in every stage of its growth. Some prefer it when the flower is still at the extremity of the fruit; others like it older. When well ripened, it will keep well throughout the winter, if stored in a perfectly dry place, out of the reach of frost, and not exposed to great changes of temperature. To have Vegetable Marrows large and fine for winter, the young fruit should be regularly taken off for use; and, when the plant has acquired strength, a moderate quantity should be allowed to set for maturity. Sufficient for this purpose being reserved, the young fruit that may be subsequently formed should be removed for use in a very young state. The vines, or shoots, may be allowed to run along the surface of the ground; or they may be trained against a wall, or on palings or trellises. The seed should be planted at the same time and in the same manner as those of the Winter Crookneck or Boston Marrow. WILDER. Stetson's Hybrid. The Wilder Squash was produced about twelve years since, from the Valparaiso and the Autumnal Marrow, by Mr. A. W. Stetson, of Braintree, Mass.; and was named for the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, a gentleman widely known for his patriotic devotion to the advancement of agricultural and pomological science in the United States. The plant is a strong grower, and resembles that of the Valparaiso. The fruit is somewhat ovoid, but rather irregular in form, broadly and faintly ribbed (sometimes, however, without rib-markings), and varies in weight from twelve to thirty pounds and upwards; stem very large, striated or reticulated, and often turned at right angles near its connection with the fruit,--the opposite extremity terminates in the wart-like excrescence peculiar to the class; skin reddish-yellow, not unlike that of the Autumnal Marrow; the flesh is remarkably thick, of a salmon-yellow color, sweet and well flavored. In some forms of cookery, and especially for pies, it is esteemed equal, if not superior, to any other variety. When served in the customary manner of serving squash at table, it is inferior to the Hubbard or Autumnal Marrow. The seeds are white. WINTER CROOKNECK. Cuckaw. [Illustration: Winter Crookneck.] This is one of the oldest and most familiar of the winter varieties. Plant hardy and vigorous; fruit somewhat irregular in form, the neck solid and nearly cylindrical, and the blossom-end more or less swollen. In some specimens, the neck is nearly straight; in others, sweeping, or circular; and sometimes the extremities nearly or quite approach each other. Size very variable, being affected greatly both by soil and season; the weight ranging from six pounds to forty pounds and upwards. A specimen was raised by Capt. Josiah Lovett, of Beverly, Mass., and exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the weight of which was nearly seventy pounds. Color sometimes green; but, when fully mature, often cream-yellow. The color, like that of the Canada Crookneck, frequently changes after being harvested. If green when plucked, it gradually becomes paler; or, if yellow when taken from the vines, it becomes, during the winter, of a reddish cream-color. Flesh salmon-yellow, not uniform in texture or solidity, sometimes close-grained, sweet, and fine flavored, and sometimes very coarse, stringy, and nearly worthless for the table; seeds of medium size, grayish-white, the border darker, or brownish. About two hundred are contained in an ounce. It is a very hardy and productive variety; ripens its crop with great certainty; suffers less from the depredations of insects than most of the winter sorts; and, if protected from cold and dampness during the winter months, will keep the entire year. WINTER STRIPED CROOKNECK. This is a sub-variety of the common Winter Crookneck. Size large,--the weight varying from six to twenty-five pounds; neck large and solid; seed-end of medium size, and usually smooth; skin thin, very pale-green or light cream-white, diversified with lengthwise stripes and plashes of bright green,--the colors becoming gradually softer and paler after gathering; flesh bright orange, and, like that of the common Winter Crookneck, not uniform in texture or in flavor. Different specimens vary greatly in these respects: some are tough and stringy, others very fine-grained and well flavored. Seeds not distinguishable, in size, form, or color, from those of the Winter Crookneck. The variety is hardy, grows luxuriantly, is prolific, and keeps well. It is more uniform in shape, and generally more symmetrical, than the Winter Crookneck; though varieties occur of almost every form and color between this and the last named. As the plants require considerable space, the hills should not be less than eight feet apart. Two or three plants are sufficient for a hill. "The 'Crookneck Squash,' as it is commonly but incorrectly called, is a kind of 'pumpkin,'--perhaps a genuine species; for it has preserved its identity, to our certain knowledge, ever since the year 1686, when it was described by Ray. Before the introduction of the Autumnal Marrow, it was raised in large quantities for table use during the winter, in preference to pumpkins, which it almost entirely superseded. Many farmers now use it instead of pumpkins for cattle; the vine being more productive, and the fruit containing much more nutriment in proportion to its size. It varies considerably in form and color. The best kinds are those which are very much curved,--nearly as large at the stem as at the blossom-end,--and of a rich cream-color. It is said to degenerate in the Middle and Southern States; where, probably, the Valparaiso or some kindred variety may be better adapted to the climate."--_Dr. Harris._ CHAPTER V. BRASSICACEOUS PLANTS. Borecole, or Kale. Broccoli. Brussels Sprouts. Cabbage. Cauliflower. Colewort. Couve Tronchuda, or Portugal Cabbage. Pak-Chöi. Pe-Tsai, or Chinese Cabbage. Savoy. Sea-kale. * * * * * BORECOLE, OR KALE. Brassica oleracea sabellica. The term "Borecole," or "Kale," is applied to a class of plants, of the Cabbage family, which form neither heads as the common cabbage, nor eatable flowers like the broccoli and cauliflower. Some of the varieties attain a height of six or seven feet; but while a few are compact and symmetrical in their manner of growth, and of good quality for table use, many are "ill-colored, coarse, rambling-growing, and comparatively unpalatable and indigestible." Most of the kinds are either annuals or biennials, and are raised from seeds, which, in size, form, and color, resemble those of the cabbage. _Sowing._--The seeds are sown at the time of sowing the seeds of the cabbage or cauliflower, and in the same manner. Early plants may be started in a hot-bed, or the seeds may be sown in the open ground in April or May. In transplanting, treat the plants like young cabbages; setting them more or less remote, according to the size or habit of the variety. Though they are extremely hardy, and will endure quite a low temperature, they are generally harvested in autumn, before the closing-up of the ground. If reset in the following spring, they will furnish an abundance of tender sprouts, which, when cooked, are superior in flavor and delicacy to the cabbage, and resemble coleworts or Brussels sprouts. _Seeds._--"The plants for seed should be selected from those kept over winter, and in April set rather deeply in a spot well exposed to the sun, and in a sandy rather than stiff soil. The stems should be supported, to prevent breakage by the wind." J. E. Teschemacher gives the following directions for culture and use:-- "Sow, the middle or last of May, a small bed on a moderately rich soil, but in a well-exposed situation. Strong plants cannot be obtained from seedlings grown in the shade. When the young plants have six or eight leaves, prepare a piece of well-manured, open soil, plant the young seedlings six or eight inches asunder, water well, and shade for a few days against the hot sun. About a hundred plants are enough for a family. Towards the latter end of July, or middle of August, they should be thick, stocky plants, fit for final transplanting to the spots where they are to remain. They may be planted in the lines from which early crops of pease have been removed. The ground must be well manured, and the plants moved singly and carefully, with as much earth attached to the roots as possible. This last precaution is very necessary in all summer transplanting, as the only means of enabling the plants to bear the hot sun. In a garden, they should be well supplied with water for a few days; but in field-planting, where this is not possible, a moist time should be chosen. They will not show much signs of growth until the cool nights prevail: after that, they will grow rapidly. They will not boil tender or with much flavor until they have been frozen, or have experienced a temperature of about 28° Fahrenheit. _Use._--"The tender, upper part alone is eaten. They are often, but not always, frozen when cut; and, when this is the case, they should be put into a cool cellar or in cold water until the frost is out of them. It will take one-half to three-quarters of an hour to boil them tender. Put them into the boiling water; to which add a lump of soda. This rather softens them, and causes them to retain their green color. When done, press the water thoroughly out, chop them up with a knife, put them into a vessel to evaporate still more of the water, and serve with melted butter, pepper and salt. In Germany, they frequently boil a few chestnuts, and chop up with the Kale; between which and the stem and stalk of the Kale it is difficult to perceive much difference in taste. The beautiful curled leaves are quite ornamental. "From one hundred plants, pluckings for the table were made twice a week, from the middle of November to the middle of January; and these fresh from the open garden, although the thermometer in the time had indicated a temperature approaching to zero."--_Hov. Mag._ _Varieties._--The varieties, which are numerous, and in many instances not well marked or defined, are as follow:-- BUDA KALE, OR BORECOLE. _Thomp._ Russian Kale. Asparagus Kale. Manchester Borecole. Dwarf Feather Kale. Oak-leaved Kale. The Buda Kale somewhat resembles the Purple; but the stalk is shorter. The leaves are purplish, somewhat glaucous, cut and fringed. The variety is not only hardy and well flavored, but continues to produce sprouts longer than any other sort. It is sometimes blanched like sea-kale. CABBAGING KALE, OR BORECOLE. _Thomp._ Imperial Hearting. This is a new variety, and very much resembles the Dwarf Green Curled in the nature, color, and general appearance of the leaves: the heart-leaves, however, fold over each other, somewhat like those of a cabbage, but, on account of the curls of the margin, not so compactly. The quality is excellent. COCK'S-COMB KALE. Curled Proliferous Kale. Chou frisé prolifère. _Vil._ Stalk about twenty inches high. The leaves differ to a considerable extent in size, and are of a glaucous-green color. From the upper surface of the ribs and nerves, and also from other portions of the leaves, are developed numerous small tufts, or fascicles of leaves, which, in turn, give rise to other smaller but similar groups. The foliage thus exhibits a cock's-comb form: whence the name. The variety is hardy, but more curious than useful. COW-CABBAGE. Tree-cabbage. _Thomp._ Cesarean Borecole. Cesarean Cabbage. Chou Cavalier. This variety generally grows to the height of about six feet; although in some places it is reported as attaining a height of twelve feet, and even upwards. The leaves are large,--measuring from two and a half to nearly three feet in length,--smooth, or but slightly curled. It is generally grown for stock; but the young sprouts are tender and mild-flavored when cooked. Its value for agricultural purposes appears to have been greatly overrated; for, when tried in this country against other varieties of cabbages, the produce was not extraordinary. The plants should be set three feet or three feet and a half apart. DAUBENTON'S CREEPING BORECOLE. Chou vivace de Daubenton. _Vil._ Stalk four or five feet in height or length. The leaves are nearly two feet long, deep green; the leaf-stems are long and flexible. It sometimes takes root where the stem rests upon the surface of the ground; and, on this account, has been called perennial. The variety is hardy, and yields abundantly; though, in this last respect, it is inferior to the Thousand-headed. DWARF GREEN CURLED BORECOLE. _Thomp._ Dwarf Curled Kale. Green Scotch Kale. Dwarf Curlies. Chou frisé à Pied court. _Vil._ Canada Dwarf Curled. The Dwarf Green Curled is a very hardy but comparatively low-growing variety; the stems seldom exceeding sixteen or eighteen inches in height. The leaves are finely curled; and the crowns of the plants, as well as the young shoots, are tender and delicate, especially after having been exposed to the action of frost. The plants may be set eighteen inches apart. FIELD CABBAGE. Field Kale for mowing. Chou à Faucher. _Vil._ Leaves sixteen to eighteen inches in length, very dark green, deeply lobed, or lyrate, and hairy, or hispid, on the nerves and borders. The leaf-stems are nearly white. The variety produces small tufts, or collections of leaves, which are excellent for fodder, and which may be cut several times during the season. It is sometimes cultivated for stock; but, as a table vegetable, is of little value. FLANDERS KALE. _Thomp._ Chou Caulet de Flanders. _Vil._ This is a sub-variety of the Tree-cabbage, from which it is distinguished by the purplish color of its foliage. Its height is nearly the same, and the plant has the same general appearance. It is, however, considered somewhat hardier. GREEN MARROW-STEM BORECOLE. Chou Moellier. _Vil._ Stem green, about five feet high, clavate, or club-formed; thickest at the top, where it measures nearly two inches, and a half in diameter. This stem, or stalk, is filled with a succulent pith, or marrow, which is much relished by cattle; and, for this quality, the plant is sometimes cultivated. The leaves are large, and nearly entire on the edges; the leaf-stems are thick, short, white, and fleshy. It is not so hardy as most of the other varieties. The plants should be grown about three feet apart in one direction, by two feet or two feet and a half in the opposite. LANNILIS BORECOLE. Chou de Lannilis. _Vil._ Lannilis Tree-cabbage. Stem five feet high, thicker and shorter than that of the Cow or Tree Cabbage; leaves long, entire on the borders, pale-green, and very thick and fleshy. The leaf-stems are also thicker and shorter than those of the last-named varieties. The stalk is largest towards the top, and has the form of that of the Marrow-stem. It sometimes approaches so near that variety, as to be scarcely distinguishable from it. NEAPOLITAN BORECOLE. _Trans._ Neapolitan Curled Kale. Chou frisé de Naples. _Vil._ The Neapolitan Borecole is remarkable for its peculiar manner of growth, but is hardly worthy of cultivation as a table vegetable, or even for stock. The stem is short and thick, and terminates in an oval bulb, somewhat in the manner of the Kohl Rabi. From all parts of this bulb are put forth numerous erect, small leaves, finely curled on their edges. The whole plant does not exceed twenty inches in height. The leaves are attached to footstalks six or seven inches long. They are obovate, smooth on the surface, with an extraordinary number of white veins, nearly covering the whole leaf. The fringed edges are irregularly cut and finely curled, and so extended as nearly to conceal the other parts of the leaf. As the plant gets old, it throws out numerous small branches from the axils of the leaves on the sides of the bulb. The swollen portion of the stem is of a fleshy, succulent character, and is used in the manner of Kohl Rabi; between which and the Cabbage it appears to be intermediate. PALM KALE. Palm Borecole. Chou Palmier. _Vil._ Stalk six feet in height, terminating at the top in a cluster of leaves, which are nearly entire on the borders, blistered on the surface like those of the Savoys, and which sometimes measure three feet in length by four or five inches in width. As grown in France, the plant is remarkable for its fine appearance, and is considered quite ornamental; though, as an article of food, it is of little value. In England, it is said to have a tall, rambling habit, and to be little esteemed. The plants should be set three feet and a half apart in each direction. PURPLE BORECOLE. Red Borecole. Tall Purple Kale. Curled Brown Kale. Chou frisé Rouge Grand. _Vil._ With the exception of its color, the Purple Borecole much resembles the Tall Green Curled. As the leaves increase in size, they often change to green; but the veins still retain their purple hue. When cooked, the color nearly or quite disappears. It is remarkably hardy, and is much cultivated in Germany. RED MARROW-STEM BORECOLE. Red-stalked Kale. Stalk purplish-red, four and a half or five feet high, and surmounted by a cluster of large, fleshy leaves, on short, thick stems. The stalk is much larger than that of the Green Marrow-stem, and sometimes measures more than three inches in diameter. It is cultivated in the same manner, and used for the same purposes, as the last-named variety. TALL GREEN CURLED. _Thomp._ Tall Scotch Kale. Tall Green Borecole. Tall German Greens. Chou frisé grand du Nord. _Vil._ This variety, if unmixed, may be known by its bright-green, deeply lobed, and curled leaves. Its height is two feet and a half and upwards. Very hardy and productive. The parts used are the crowns of the plants; and also the tender side-shoots, which are produced in great abundance. These boil well, and are sweet and delicate, especially after frost; though the quality is impaired by protracted, dry, freezing weather. THOUSAND-HEADED BORECOLE. _Thomp._ Chou branchu du Poitou. _Vil._ Chou à Mille Têtes. The Thousand-headed Borecole much resembles the Tree or Cow Cabbage, but is not so tall-growing. It sends out numerous side-shoots from the main stem, and is perhaps preferable to the last-named sort. It is chiefly valuable as an agricultural plant, but may occasionally be grown in gardens on account of its great hardiness; but its flavor is inferior to all other winter greens. VARIEGATED BORECOLE. _Thomp._ Variegated Kale. Variegated Canadian Kale. Chou frisé panaché. _Vil._ This is a sub-variety of the Purple Borecole, growing about a foot and a half high. The leaves vary much in size, and are lobed and finely curled. They are also beautifully variegated, sometimes with green and yellowish-white or green and purple, and sometimes with bright-red and green. It is frequently grown as an ornamental plant, is occasionally employed for garnishing, and is sometimes put into bouquets. It is very good cooked after frost, but is not quite so hardy as the Purple Borecole. VARIEGATED COCK'S-COMB KALE. A variety of the Common Cock's-comb Kale, with the leaves more or less variegated with purple and white. It is not of much value as an esculent. WOBURN PERENNIAL KALE. _Thomp._ This is a tall variety of the Purple Borecole, with foliage very finely divided or fringed. The plant lasts many years, and may be propagated by cuttings, as it neither flowers readily nor perfects well its seeds. Its produce is stated to have been more than four times greater than that of either the Green or Purple Borecole on the same extent of ground. The weight of produce from ten square yards was a hundred and forty-four pounds ten ounces; but some of the large kinds of cabbages and savoys will exceed this considerably, and prove of better quality. The Woburn Perennial Kale can therefore only be recommended where the climate is too severe for the more tender kinds of the Cabbage tribe. * * * * * BROCCOLI. Brassica oleracea var. In its structure and general habit, the Broccoli resembles the Cauliflower. Between these vegetables the marks of distinction are so obscurely defined, that some of the white varieties of Broccoli appear to be identical with the Cauliflower. Botanists divide them as follows:-- "The Cauliflower has generally a short stalk, and white-ribbed, oblong leaves. The stem by which the flower is supported unites at the head of the primary branches into thick, short, irregular bundles, in the form of a corymb. It appears to be a degeneration of the _Brassica oleracea costata_, or Portugal Cabbage. "In the Broccoli, the stalk is more elevated; the leaf-nerves less prominent; the pedicles, or stems, connected with and supporting the flower, or head, less thick and close. They are also longer; so that, on becoming fleshy, they resemble in shape the young shoots of asparagus: hence the name of 'Asparagoides,' given by ancient botanists to Broccoli. It seems to be a degeneration of the 'Chou cavalier,' or tall, open Cabbage. "Cultivation, by improving the finer kinds of white Broccolis, is narrowing the distinctive marks: but, although so nearly alike, they must ever remain really distinct, inasmuch as they derive their origin from two very distinct types; viz., the Portugal Cabbage and the Tall Curled Kale. The Cauliflower also originated in the south of Europe, and the Broccoli in the north of Europe, either in Germany or Britain." _Seed._--Broccoli-seeds are rarely raised in this country; most of the supply being received from France or England. In size, form, and color, they are similar to those of the Cabbage or Cauliflower. An ounce may be calculated to produce about five thousand plants, although it contains nearly twice that number of seeds. _Sowing and Cultivation._--In New England, as well as in the Middle and Western States, the seeds of the later sorts should be sown in March or April, in the manner of early cabbages; whilst the earlier varieties may be sown in the open ground, from the middle to the last of May. If the sowing be made in the open ground, prepare a small nursery-bed not too directly exposed to the sun, and sow in shallow drills six or eight inches apart. The last of June, or as soon as the plants have attained sufficient size, transplant them into soil that is well enriched, and has been deeply stirred; setting them at the distance directed for the variety. If possible, the setting should be performed when the weather is somewhat dull, for then the plants become sooner established; but, if planted out in dry weather, they should be immediately and thoroughly watered. If the plants have been started in a hot-bed, they should be set out at the time of transplanting cabbages. The after-culture consists in hoeing frequently to keep the ground loose and clean, and in earthing up slightly from time to time about the stem. Some of the early varieties will be fit for use in September; whilst the later sorts, if properly treated, will supply the table till spring. The difficulties attending the growing of Broccoli in this country arise mainly from the extreme heat and dryness of the summer and the intense cold of the winter. Whatever will tend to counteract these will promote the growth of the plants, and tend to secure the development of large and well-formed heads. "When the heads of White Broccoli are exposed to light, and especially to the direct influence of the sun, the color is soon changed to a dingy or yellowish hue. It is, therefore, necessary to guard against this as much as possible by frequently examining the plants; and, when any heads are not naturally screened, one or two of the adjoining side-leaves should be bent over the flower-head to shade it from the light, and likewise to protect it from the rain. Some kinds are almost self-protecting; whilst the leaves of others spread, and consequently require more care in shading."--_Thomp._ _Taking the Crop._--"Broccoli should not be allowed to remain till the compactness of the head is broken, but should always be cut while the 'curd,' as the flowering mass is termed, is entire, or before bristly, leafy points make their appearance through it. In trimming the head, a portion of the stalk is left, and a few of the leaves immediately surrounding the head; the extremities being cut off a little below the top of the latter."--_Thomp._ _Preservation._--"They are sometimes preserved during winter as follows: Immediately previous to the setting-in of hard frost in autumn, take up the plants on a dry day, with the roots entire, and turn their tops downwards for a few hours, to drain off any water that may be lodged between the leaves. Then make choice of a ridge of dry earth, in a well-sheltered, warm exposure, and plant them down to their heads therein, close to one another; having previously taken off a few of the lower, loose leaves. Immediately erect over them a low, temporary shed, of any kind that will keep them perfectly free from wet, and which can be opened to admit the air in mild, dry weather. In very severe freezing seasons, an extra covering of straw, or other description of dry litter, should be applied over and around the shed; but this should be removed on the recurrence of moderate weather." They will keep well in a light, dry cellar, if set in earth as far as the lower leaves. _Seeds._--The seeds of Broccoli are not distinguishable from those of the Cauliflower. They, however, rarely ripen well in this country, and seedsmen are generally supplied from abroad. _Use._--The heads, or flowers, are cooked and served in all the forms of the Cauliflower. _Varieties._--These are exceedingly numerous; although the distinctions, in many instances, are neither permanent nor well defined. In 1861-62, a hundred and three nominally distinct sorts were experimentally cultivated at the Chiswick Gardens, near London, Eng., under the direction of Robert Hogg, Esq. In reporting the result, he says, "It is quite evident that the varieties of Broccoli, as now grown, are in a state of great confusion. The old varieties, such as Grange's and the Old Early White, have entirely disappeared, or lost their original character; whilst the distinctive names of Early White and Late White seem now to be possessed of no value, as, in some cases, the one is used for the other, and _vice versâ_." The kinds catalogued by seedsmen, and recommended for cultivation, are the following; viz.:-- AMBLER'S EARLY WHITE. _R. Hogg._ Similar to Mitchinson's Penzance, but easily distinguished by its winged leaves; those of the last named being interrupted. It is remarkably hardy, and produces a large, creamy-white head, very uniform in size. CHAPPELL'S LARGE CREAM-COLORED. Chappell's New Cream-colored. A very large and fine sort, earlier than the Portsmouth; flower cream-yellow. Sow in the open ground in May, and transplant three feet apart in each direction. DANISH, OR LATE GREEN. _Late Danish. Siberian._ The leaves of this variety are long, narrow, and much undulated; the leaf-stems are tinged with purple; the heads are of medium size, compact, exposed, and of a greenish color. It is one of the latest and hardiest of all varieties. DWARF BROWN CLOSE-HEADED. _Trans._ This variety resembles the Sulphur-colored; from which it probably originated. It is, however, earlier, and differs in the form, as well as in the color, of the flower. The leaves are small, not much waved, dark-green, with white veins: they grow erect, and afford no protection to the head. Most of the crowns are green at first; but they soon change to large, handsome, brown heads. The plants should be set two feet apart in each direction. EARLY PURPLE. _Trans._ Early Purple Sprouting. An excellent kind, of a deep-purple color. When the variety is unmixed, it is close-headed at first; afterwards it branches, but is liable to be too much branched, and to become green. The plant is from two to three feet high, and a strong grower; the leaves are comparatively short, spreading, and of a purplish-green color; the head is quite open from the leaves. Small leaves are sometimes intermixed with the head, and the plant produces sprouts of flowers from the alæ of the leaves. It succeeds best in rich soil, and the plants should be set three feet apart. EARLY SPROUTING. _M'Int._ Asparagus Broccoli. North's Early Purple. Italian Sprouting. Early Branching. A strong-growing, hardy sort, from two to three feet high. The leaves are spreading, much indented, and of a purplish-green color. The flower is close-headed, and, in the genuine variety, of a rich purple on its first appearance. It is, however, liable to lose its color, and to become greenish; and sometimes produces numerous small, green leaves, intermixed with the flower, particularly if grown in soil too rich. The variety is extensively grown by the market-gardeners in the vicinity of London. ELLETSON'S GIGANTIC LATE WHITE. Elletson's Mammoth. One of the largest and latest of the white broccolis. Leaves spreading; stem short. FINE EARLY WHITE. _Thomp._ Early White. Devonshire White. Autumn White. Plant tall, with erect, dark-green, nearly entire leaves. The heads are very white and close. This variety, in common with a few others, is sometimes cut in considerable quantities by market-gardeners previous to heavy frost, and preserved in cellars for the supply of the market. FROGMORE PROTECTING. _Hov. Mag._ Head pure white, scarcely distinguishable from the finest cauliflower; size large,--when well formed, measuring from seven to nine inches in diameter. A recently introduced sort, promising to be one of the best. The plants are extremely hardy and vigorous, and rarely fail to develop a large and fine head, having a rich, curdy appearance, and, as before observed, similar to a well-grown cauliflower. It is of dwarf growth; and the outer leaves, closing over the large head of flowers, protect it from the action of severe weather. GILLESPIE'S BROCCOLI. _Thomp._ A fine, white, early autumn variety, much grown about Edinburgh. GRANGE'S EARLY CAULIFLOWER BROCCOLI. _M'Int._ Grange's Early White. Hopwood's Early White. Marshall's Early White. Bath White. Invisible. This is an old variety, and, when pure, still stands in high estimation; having a head nearly as large and as white as a cauliflower. The leaf-stems are long and naked; the leaves are somewhat ovate, lobed at the base, very slightly waved, and, incurving a little over the flower, defend it from frost and wet. It is not a large grower; and, being upright in habit, may be grown at two feet distant. Hardy, and well deserving of cultivation. The London market-gardeners cultivate four varieties, of which this is the principal. GREEN CAPE. _Thomp._ Autumnal Cape. Maher's Hardy Cape. Leaves long and narrow; the veins and midribs green; the head is greenish, and generally covered by the leaves. This variety and the Purple Cape often become intermixed, and are liable to degenerate. They are, however, quite distinct, and, when pure, very beautiful. GREEN CLOSE-HEADED WINTER. _Trans._ Late Green. Siberian. Dwarf Roman. This new and excellent Broccoli is apparently a seedling from the Green Cape. The plants are dwarf; the leaves are large and numerous, with white veins. The flower grows exposed, is not of large size, and resembles that of the Green Cape. Its season immediately follows that of the last-named variety. HAMMOND'S WHITE CAPE. An excellent, pure white variety, obtained in England by cultivation and selection. KENT'S LATE WHITE.. _R. Hogg._ A remarkably hardy, dwarf-growing variety, with very dark-green foliage. Bouquet white, of good size, and well protected. KIDDERMINSTER. _R. Hogg._ Head large and handsome, of pure whiteness, and much exposed. It is evidently a form of "Willcove," and has, undoubtedly, emanated from that variety; but it is somewhat earlier. KNIGHT'S PROTECTING. _R. Hogg._ _M'Int._ Early Gem. The Gem. Lake's Gem. Waterloo Late White. Dilliston's Late White. Hampton Court. Invisible Late White. When pure, this variety is of a dwarfish habit of growth, with long, pointed, and winged leaves, which have a spiral twist about the head, and turn in closely over it, so as effectually to protect it from the effect of frost, and preserve it of a fine white color. It is remarkably hardy; and as the plants are of small size, with comparatively large heads, a great product is realized from a small piece of ground. LATE DWARF PURPLE. Dwarf Swedish. Italian Purple. Dwarf Danish. This is the latest purple Broccoli. The plants seldom rise above a foot in height. The flower, at first, shows small and green; but soon enlarges, and changes to a close, conical, purple head. The leaves are short and small, dark-green, with white veins, much sinuated, deeply indented, and form a regular radius round the flower. The whole plant presents a singular and beautiful appearance. MILLER'S LATE WHITE. _Thomp._ Miller's Dwarf. This is an old variety; but is considered by some to be the best late sort, if it can be obtained true. Hardy. Transplant two feet apart. MITCHELL'S NE PLUS ULTRA. _Thomp._ Hardy, and of dwarf habit; leaves smooth, glaucous, protecting the head, which is cream-colored, large, and compact. Transplant two feet apart. MITCHINSON'S PENZANCE. _R. Hogg._ Early White Cornish. Mitchinson's Early White. One of the best of the Spring Whites. The leaves are much waved on the margin, and enclose large and fine heads, which are nearly of a pure white color. Very hardy. PORTSMOUTH. _Thomp._ Cream-colored. Southampton. Maher's New Dwarf. Leaves large, broad, with white veins, spreading; although the central ones partially cover the flower, or head, which is buff, or cream-colored. It is a hardy sort; and the flower, which is produced near the ground, is said to exceed in size that of any other variety. The plants should be set three feet apart. PURPLE CAPE. _Trans._ Early Purple Cape. Purple Silesian. Howden's Superb Purple. Grange's Early Cape. Blue Cape. This has a close, compact head, of a purple color, and, in favorable seasons, comes as large as a cauliflower. The plants grow from a foot to a foot and a half in height, with short, erect, concave leaves, regularly surrounding the head. The veins and midribs are stained with purple. The head is exposed to view in growing; and, as it enlarges, the projecting parts of the flower show a greenish-white mixed with the purple color. When boiled, the whole flower becomes green. Excellent for general culture, as it is not only one of the finest varieties for the table, but the plants form their heads much more generally than many other kinds. It is the earliest of the purple broccolis. The seed should not be sown before the middle or last of May, and the plants will require a space of two feet and a half in each direction. SNOW'S SUPERB WHITE WINTER. _Thomp._ Gill's Yarmouth White. This variety is of dwarfish habit. The leaves are broad, with short stems; the heads are large, white, very compact, well protected by the incurved leaves, and equal in quality to those of the Cauliflower. By many it is considered superior to Grange's Early Cauliflower Broccoli. SNOW'S SPRING WHITE OR CAULIFLOWER BROCCOLI. _Trans._ Naples White. Early White. Adam's Early White. Neapolitan White. Imperial Early White. Grange's Cauliflower. Covent-Garden Market. Plant about two feet high, robust, and a strong grower. The leaves are large, thick-veined, flat, and narrow; and generally compress the head, so as to render it invisible when ready for cutting, and thus protect it from rain and the effects of frost. Head large, perfectly white. SULPHUR OR BRIMSTONE BROCCOLI. _Trans._ Late Brimstone. Fine Late Sulphur. Edinburgh Sulphur. Leaves with long stems; heads large, compact, somewhat conical, sulphur-colored, sometimes tinged with purple. Hardy. WALCHEREN BROCCOLI. _M'Int._ Comparatively new, and so closely resembling a cauliflower as to be scarcely distinguishable from it. The leaves, however, are more curled, and its constitution is of a hardier nature, enduring the cold, and also withstanding heat and drought better. Much esteemed in England, where, by successive sowings, it is brought to the table at every season of the year. WARD'S SUPERB. _R. Hogg._ This is a form of Knight's Protecting, but is from two to three weeks later. It is of a dwarfish habit of growth, closely protected by the spirally compressed leaves, with a good-sized and perfectly white head. One of the best of the late White Broccolis. WHITE CAPE. _Thomp._ Heads of medium size, white, and compact. WILLCOVE. _R. Hogg._ Late Willcove. The true Willcove is a variety perfectly distinct from every other of its season. The heads are very large, firm, even, and fine, and of a pure whiteness. They are fully exposed, and not protected by the leaves as most other broccolis are. On this account, the variety is more liable to be injured by the weather than any other late sort; and therefore, in severe seasons, it must be regarded as deficient in hardiness. "It derives its name from a small village near Devonport, Eng.; where it originated, and where the Broccoli is said to be grown in great perfection." * * * * * BRUSSELS SPROUTS. Thousand-headed Cabbage. Brassica oleracea var. [Illustration: Brussels Sprouts.] In its general character, this vegetable is not unlike some of the varieties of Kale or Borecole. Its stem is from a foot to four feet in height, and from an inch and a half to upwards of two inches in diameter. It is remarkable for the production of numerous small axillary heads, or sprouts, which are arranged somewhat in a spiral manner, and which are often so closely set together as entirely to cover the sides of the stem. "These small heads are firm and compact like little cabbages, or rather like hearted savoys in miniature. A small head, resembling an open savoy, surmounts the stem of the plant, and maintains a circulation of sap to the extremity. Most of the original side-leaves drop off as these small buds, or heads, enlarge."--_Thomp._ _Culture._--The plant is always raised from seeds, which, in size, form, or color, are scarcely distinguishable from the seeds of the Common Cabbage. These should be sown at the time and in the manner of the Cabbage, either in hot-beds in March or April, or in the open ground in April or May. When three or four inches high, transplant two feet apart in each direction, and cultivate as directed for cabbages and cauliflowers. In September, the early plantings will be fit for gathering; whilst the later plants will afford a succession that will supply the table during the winter. For the latter purpose, they should be harvested before severe freezing weather, and preserved in the cellar as cauliflowers and broccolis. They are quite hardy, easily grown, thrive well in New England or in the Middle States, and deserve more general cultivation. _To raise Seeds._--In the autumn, select two or three of the finest plants; keep them in the cellar, or out of the reach of frost, during winter; and in the spring set them in the open ground, two feet apart, and as far as possible from all flowering plants of the Cabbage family. Cut off the top shoot, and save the branches of pods that proceed from the finest of the small heads on the sides of the main stem. _Use._--The small heads are boiled and served in the manner of cabbages. They are also often used in the form of the cauliflower, boiled until soft, then drained, and afterwards stewed with milk, cream, or butter. _Varieties._--Two varieties are enumerated by gardeners and seedsmen; viz.:-- DWARF BRUSSELS SPROUTS. A low-growing sort, usually from eighteen inches to two feet in height. It differs from the following variety principally in size, though it is somewhat earlier. The dwarf stems are said to produce heads which are more tender and succulent when cooked than those obtained from taller plants. TALL OR GIANT BRUSSELS SPROUTS. Stem nearly four feet in height; plant healthy and vigorous, producing the small heads peculiar to its class in great abundance. It is somewhat hardier than the foregoing variety; and, on account of its greater length of stalk, much more productive. There is, however, very little permanency to these sorts. Much of the seed found in the market will not only produce plants corresponding with both of the varieties described, but also numerous intermediate kinds. * * * * * THE CABBAGE. Brassica oleracea capitata. The Cabbage is a biennial plant; and, though comparatively hardy,--growing at all seasons unprotected in England,--will not withstand the winters of the Northern States in the open ground. When fully developed, it is from four to five feet in height. The flowers are cruciform, generally yellow, but sometimes white or yellowish-white. The seeds, which ripen in July and August of the second year, are round, reddish-brown or blackish-brown, and retain their vitality five years. About ten thousand are contained in an ounce. _Soil and Situation._--"Though not particularly nice as to soil or situation, cabbages do best when grown in well-manured ground. In such soil, they are generally earlier than when raised in cold and stiff ground. But manure need not be profusely applied, if the ground is naturally of a fertile and open kind; for the flavor is generally better in such soil than where a great quantity of fertilizer is used." _Propagation._--All of the varieties are propagated from seed sown annually. For early use, a sowing may be made in a hot-bed in February or March; and, for winter use, the seed may be sown in a nursery-bed in the open ground in May or June. When five or six inches high, transplant to the distance directed in the description of the variety. In the hot-bed or nursery-bed, the plants should not be allowed to stand too thickly together, as this causes them to draw up weak and feeble. _To raise Seed._--At the time of harvesting, select a few of the most compact and best-formed heads possessing the characters of the pure variety; and, in the following April, set the plants entire, three feet apart in each direction. As they progress in growth, remove all of the side-shoots, and encourage the main sprout, that will push up through the centre of the head. Seeds from the side-shoots, as well as those produced from decapitated stems, are of little value. No cabbage-seed is really reliable that is not obtained from firm and symmetrical heads; and seed thus cultivated for a few successive seasons will produce plants, ninety per cent of which will yield well-formed and good-sized cabbages. American-grown seed is generally considered superior to that of foreign growth; and, when it can be obtained from a reliable seedsman or seeds-grower, the purchaser should not be induced by the difference in price to select the nominally cheaper, as there are few vegetables with which the character of the seed is of greater importance. _Varieties._--The varieties are numerous, and the distinction, in many instances, well-defined and permanent. Between some of the sorts, however, the variations are slight, and comparatively unimportant. ATKINS'S MATCHLESS. _M'Int._ This is a variety of the Early York: the head, however, is smaller and more conical, and the leaves are more wrinkled,--somewhat similar to those of the Savoys. It is of tender texture and delicate flavor; and, with the exception of its smaller size, is considered equal, if not superior, to the last-named variety. It is comparatively a recent sort, and seems to be desirable rather for its precocity and excellent quality than for its size or productiveness. Transplant to rows fifteen inches apart, and twelve inches asunder in the rows. BARNES'S EARLY. Barnes's Early Dwarf. This variety, in respect to season, size, form, and general habit, seems to be intermediate between, or a hybrid from, the York and Ox-heart. Head ovate, rather compact; texture fine and tender; flavor mild and good. Set in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. BERGEN DRUMHEAD. Large Bergen. Great American. Quintal. _Vil._ Large German Drumhead. Head remarkably large, round, flattened at the top, compact; the leaves are of a peculiar, glaucous-green color, of thick texture, firm, and rather erect; the nerves large and prominent; the outer leaves of the head are usually revoluted on the borders; the loose leaves are numerous, and rarely rise above a level with the summit of the head; the stalk is short. The Bergen Drumhead is one of the largest and latest of all the cabbages; and, when not fully perfected before being harvested, has the reputation, if reset in earth in the cellar, of heading, and increasing in size, during winter. It is a popular market sort; and, notwithstanding its extraordinary proportions, is tender, well flavored, and of more than average quality for family use. The plants should be set three feet apart. CHAMPION OF AMERICA. One of the largest of the recently introduced sorts; the whole plant sometimes attaining a weight of forty pounds and upwards. Head very large, flattened, somewhat resembling the Drumheads; outer leaves very few, succulent, and tender; stalk short; quality tender, mild, and well flavored. As a market variety, it has few, if any, superiors. It heads with great uniformity, and bears transportation well; but its large size is objectionable when required for the use of families numbering but few members. EARLY BATTERSEA. _Thomp._ Dwarf Battersea. Early Dwarf Battersea. The type of the Early Battersea is very old. When fully grown, the four outside or lower leaves are about sixteen inches in diameter; and, when taken off and spread out, their general outline is nearly circular. The stem is dwarfish, and the leaf-stalks come out quite close to each other; so that scarcely any portion of the stem is to be seen between them. The whole cabbage measures about three feet in circumference. The heart is shortly conical, with a broad base; near which it is about two feet in circumference, when divested of the outside leaves. The ribs boil tender. It is one of the best sorts for the general crop of early cabbages; is not liable to crack; and, when cut close to the stem, often puts forth a number of fresh heads, of fair size and good quality. EARLY CORNISH. Penton. Paignton. Pentonville. This is an intermediate sort, both in respect to size and season; and is said to derive its name from a village in Devonshire, Eng., where it has been cultivated for ages. The head is of full medium size, somewhat conical in form, and moderately firm and solid. The outside leaves are rather numerous, long, and of a pale or yellowish green color. Its texture is fine and tender, and its flavor mild and agreeable. It is three or four weeks later than the Early York. If reset in spring, this variety, like the Yanack, will send out from the stalk abundant tender sprouts, which will supply the table with the best of coleworts, or greens, for several weeks of the early part of the season. The plants are somewhat leafy and spreading, and require full the average space. The rows should be two and a half or three feet apart, and the distance between the plants in the rows full two feet. EARLY DRUMHEAD. This is an intermediate variety, about the size of the Early York, and a little later. The head is round, flattened a little at the top, firm and well formed, tender in texture, and well flavored. It is a good sort for the garden, as it heads well, occupies but little space in cultivation, and comes to the table immediately after the earlier sorts. The plants should be set in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. EARLY DUTCH TWIST. _M'Int._ An excellent cabbage of the smallest size. It is very early and delicate, and may be planted almost as close together as a crop of cabbage-lettuce. The first sowing should be made early; afterwards, sowings should be made at intervals of two or three weeks, which will secure for the table a constant supply of fresh and tender heads from July till winter. EARLY HOPE. A rather small, solid, oval-headed, early sort, nearly of the season of the Early York. Its color is bright-green, and its leaves rather erect and firm. In quality, it is not unlike the Small Early Ox-heart, and requires the same space in cultivation. The variety is comparatively new; and, though found on the catalogues of seedsmen, is little disseminated. EARLY LOW DUTCH. Early Dutch Drumhead. This well-known and standard variety has a round, medium-sized, solid head, sometimes tinted with brown at its top. The outside and loose leaves are few in number, large, rounded, clasping, blistered, and of a glaucous-green color; the ribs and nerves are small; the stalk is thick and short. It is rather early, tender, and of good quality; heads well; and is one of the best sorts for growing in a small garden for early table use. The plants should be allowed a space of two feet and a half between the rows, and nearly two feet in the rows. EARLY NONPAREIL. Head of medium size, bright-green, rather ovoid or egg-shaped, solid; the leaves are generally erect, roundish, concave, and of thick, firm texture; the stalk is comparatively short, and the spare leaves few in number; flavor mild and pleasant. By some, it is considered the best of the intermediate varieties. In many respects, it resembles the Small Ox-heart. EARLY SUGAR-LOAF. The color of this variety, and the form of its head, distinguish it from all others. The plant, when well developed, has an appearance not unlike some of the varieties of Cos lettuces; the head being round and full at the top, and tapering thence to the base, forming a tolerably regular, inverted cone. The leaves are erect, of a peculiar ashy or bluish-green hue, spoon-shaped, and clasp or cove over and around the head in the manner of a hood or cowl. Though an early cabbage, it is thought to be more affected by heat than most of the early varieties; and is also said to lose some of its qualities, if kept late in the season. Head of medium size, seldom compactly formed; and, when cut and cooked in its greatest perfection, tender and well flavored. Transplant in rows two feet apart, and from eighteen to twenty-four inches apart in the rows. EARLY WAKEFIELD. Head of medium size, generally somewhat conical, but sometimes nearly round, compact; leaves very glaucous; stalk small. A fine, early variety, heading readily. As the plants occupy but little space, it is recommended as a desirable sort for early marketing. EARLY YORK. According to Rogers, the Early York Cabbage was introduced into England from Flanders, more than a hundred years ago, by a private soldier named Telford, who was there many years in the reign of Queen Anne. On his return to England, he settled as a seedsman in Yorkshire: whence the name and celebrity of the variety. In this country, it is one of the oldest, most familiar, and, as an early market sort, one of the most popular, of all the kinds now cultivated. The head is of rather less than medium size, roundish-ovoid, close, and well-formed, of a deep or ash-green color, tender, and well flavored. The loose leaves are few in number, often revoluted on the border, and comparatively smooth on the surface; nerves greenish-white. The plants of the true variety have short stalks, occupy but little space, and seldom fail to produce a well-formed, and, for an early sort, a good-sized head. They require a distance of about eighteen inches between the rows, and fifteen or eighteen inches in the row. Its earliness and its unfailing productiveness make it a favorite with market-gardeners; and it still retains its long-established popularity, notwithstanding the introduction of numerous new sorts, represented as being as early, equally prolific, and surpassing it in general excellence. EAST HAM. From East Ham, in Essex, Eng. It is not a large, but a fine, early sort, not unlike the Ox-heart. The head is of an oval form, compact, and rather regular; the leaves are firm in texture, sometimes reflexed, or curved backward, but generally erect and concave; nerves pale greenish-white; stem very short. It is mild and delicate, and a desirable early variety. In setting the plants, allow two feet and a half between the rows, and two feet between the plants in the rows. GREEN GLAZED. American Green Glazed. Head large, rather loose and open; the leaves are numerous, large, rounded, waved on the borders, and slightly blistered on the surface; stalk comparatively long. Its texture is coarse and hard, and the variety really possesses little merit; though it is somewhat extensively grown in warm latitudes, where it appears to be less liable to the attacks of the cabbage-worm than any other sort. A distinguishing characteristic of this cabbage is its deep, shining-green color; the plants being readily known from their peculiar, varnished, or glossy appearance. LARGE LATE DRUMHEAD. American Drumhead. Head very large, round, sometimes flattened a little at the top, close and firm; the loose leaves are numerous, broad, round, and full, clasping, blistered, and of a sea-green color; the ribs and nerves are of medium size, and comparatively succulent and tender; stem short. The variety is hardy, seldom fails to form a head, keeps well, and is of good quality. In cultivation, it requires more than the average space, as the plants have a spreading habit of growth. The rows should not be less than three feet apart; and two feet and a half should be allowed between the plants in the rows. There are many varieties of this cabbage, introduced by different cultivators and seedsmen under various names, differing slightly, in some unimportant particulars, from the foregoing description, and also differing somewhat from each other, "but agreeing in being large, rounded, cabbaging uniformly, having a short stem, keeping well, and in being tender and good flavored." LARGE YORK. This is a larger cabbage than the Early York; which variety it somewhat resembles. The head, however, is broader in proportion to its depth, and more firm and solid; the leaves not connected with the head are more erect, of a firmer texture, not quite so smooth and polished, and the surface slightly bullated, or blistered. It also has a shorter stalk, and is two or three weeks later. The Large York seems to be intermediate between the Early York and the Large Late Drumheads, as well in respect to form and general character as to its season of maturity. It is recommended as being less affected by heat than many other kinds, and, for this reason, well adapted for cultivation in warm climates. It seldom fails in forming its head, and is tender and well flavored. LARGE OX-HEART. Large French Ox-heart. This is a French variety, of the same form and general character as the Small Ox-heart, but of larger size. The stalk is short; the head firm and close, and of a light-green color; the spare leaves are few in number, generally erect, and concave. It is a week or ten days later than the Small Ox-heart, forms its head readily, and is tender and well flavored. One of the best of the intermediate sorts. The plants should be set two feet apart in each direction. MARBLEHEAD MAMMOTH DRUMHEAD. _J. J. H. Gregory._ One of the largest of the Cabbage family, produced from the Mason, or Stone-mason, by Mr. Alley, and introduced by Mr. J. J. H. Gregory, of Marblehead, Mass. Heads not uniform in shape,--some being nearly flat, while others are almost hemispherical; size very large, varying from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter,--although specimens have been grown of the extraordinary dimensions of twenty-four inches. In good soil, and with proper culture, the variety is represented as attaining an average weight of thirty pounds. Quality tender and sweet. Cultivate in rows four feet apart, and allow four feet between the plants in the rows. For early use, start in a hot-bed; for winter, sow in the open ground from the first to the middle of May. Sixty tons of this variety have been raised from a single acre. MASON. _J. J. H. Gregory._ The Mason Cabbage, in shape, is nearly hemispherical; the head standing well out from among the leaves, growing on a small and short stalk. Under good cultivation, the heads will average about nine inches in diameter and seven inches in depth. It is characterized for its sweetness, and for its reliability for forming a solid head. It is also an excellent variety for cultivation in extreme Northern latitudes, where, from the shortness of the season, or in those sections of the South, where, from excessive heat, plants rarely cabbage well. Under good cultivation, nearly every plant will set a marketable head. Originated by Mr. John Mason, of Marblehead, Mass. POMERANIAN. This variety is of comparatively recent introduction. The head, which is of medium size, has the form of an elongated cone, and is very regular and symmetrical. It is quite solid, of a pale or yellowish green color, tender and well flavored, and remarkable for the peculiar manner in which the leaves are collected, and twisted to a point, at its top. The loose, exterior leaves are numerous, large, and broad; stalk rather high. It is not early, but rather an intermediate variety, and excellent either as an autumnal or winter cabbage. As it heads promptly and almost invariably, and, besides, is of remarkable solidity, it makes a profitable market cabbage; keeping well, and bearing transportation with very little injury. PREMIUM FLAT DUTCH. Large Flat Dutch. Head large, bluish-green, round, solid, broad and flat on the top, and often tinted with red or brown. The exterior leaves are few in number, roundish, broad and large, clasping, blistered on the surface, bluish-green in the early part of the season, and tinged with purple towards the time of harvesting; stalk short. It is one of the largest of the cabbages, rather late, good for autumn use, and one of the best for winter or late keeping, as it not only remains sound, but retains its freshness and flavor till late in spring. The heads open white and crisp, and, when cooked, are tender and well flavored. It requires a good soil, and should be set in rows not less than three feet apart, and not nearer together than thirty inches in the rows. As a variety for the winter market, the Premium Flat Dutch has no superior. It is also one of the best sorts for extensive culture, as it is remarkably hardy, and seldom fails in forming a good head. An acre of land, well set and cultivated, will yield about four thousand heads. ST. DENIS. _Vil._ Head of large size, round, a little flattened, solid; the exterior leaves are numerous, glaucous-green, clasping at their base, and often reflexed at the ends; the ribs and nerves are large and prominent; stem long. This variety is of good quality, seldom fails to form a head, and yields a large crop in proportion to the quantity of land it occupies. The plants should be set two feet and a half apart in each direction. SHILLING'S QUEEN. A half-early variety, intermediate in form and size between the York and Ox-heart. As a "second early," it is one of the best. It compares favorably with the Early Nonpareil, and is tender, mild, and delicate. Transplant in rows two feet and a half apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. SMALL OX-HEART. Coeur de Boeuf petit, of the French. _Vil._ Head below medium size, ovate or egg-shaped, obtuse, broad at the base, compact. The leaves are of the same bright green as those of the York Cabbage, round, of firm texture, sometimes revolute, but generally erect, and concave; the nerves are white, more numerous and less delicate than those of the last-named variety; the stalk is short, and the leaves not composing the head few in number. The Ox-heart cabbages--with respect to character, and period of maturity--are intermediate between the Yorks and Drumheads; more nearly, however, resembling the former than the latter. The Small Ox-heart is about ten days later than the Early York. As not only the heads, but the full-grown plants, of this variety are of small size, they may be grown in rows two feet apart, and sixteen inches apart in the rows. STONE-MASON. _J. J. H. Gregory._ An improved variety of the Mason, originated by Mr. John Stone, jun., of Marblehead, Mass. Head larger than that of the original, varying in size from ten to fourteen inches in diameter, according to the strength of the soil and the cultivation given it. The form of the head is flatter than that of the Mason, and but little, if any, inferior to it in solidity. Stem very short and small. Under good culture, the heads, exclusive of the outer foliage, will weigh about nine pounds. Quality exceedingly sweet, tender, and rich. A profitable variety for market purposes; the gross returns per acre, in the vicinity of Boston, Mass., often reaching from two hundred dollars to three hundred and fifty. The Mason, Stone-mason, and the Marblehead Mammoth, severally originated from a package of seeds received from England, under the name of the "Scotch Drumhead," by Mr. John M. Ives, of Salem, Mass. SUTTON'S DWARF COMB. _M'Int._ This is one of the earliest of all the cabbages. It is small and dwarfish in its habit, hearts well early in the season, and will afford a good supply of delicate sprouts throughout a large part of the summer. The plants require a space of only twelve inches between the rows, and the same distance between the plants in the rows. The seed of this variety, in common with other dwarfish and early sorts, should be sown more frequently than the larger growing kinds, so as to keep up a succession of young and delicate heads, much after the manner of sowing lettuce. VANACK. _Lind._ This variety was introduced into England from Holland, more than a century ago, by a wealthy Dutch farmer of the name of Vanack. Though often found upon the catalogues of our seedsmen, it has not been extensively grown in this country, and perhaps is really but little known. Head somewhat irregular in shape, broad at the base, and terminating in rather a sharp point; color palish-green, the ribs and nerves of the leaves paler. The exterior leaves are large, spreading, deep-green, and strongly veined. It is tender in texture, sweet and delicate in flavor, cabbages early and uniformly, and, when kept through the winter and reset in spring, pushes abundant and fine sprouts, forming excellent early coleworts, or greens. Lindley pronounces its quality inferior to none of the best cabbages. Transplant to rows two feet and a half apart, and two feet apart in the rows. VAUGIRARD CABBAGE. _Thomp._ Chou de Vaugirard. _Vil._ A large, late, but coarse, French variety. The head is generally round; leaves deep-green,--those of the outside having the veins sometimes tinged with red. The plants should be set three feet apart in each direction. WAITE'S NEW DWARF. _Hov. Mag._ Heads small, but solid and uniform in shape. It has little of the coarseness common to the larger varieties, and the flavor is superior. One of the finest early cabbages, and one of the best sorts for the market. It occupies but little space compared with some of the older kinds, and a large number of plants may be grown upon a small piece of ground. WINNIGSTADT. Pointed Head. This is a German variety, somewhat similar to the Ox-heart, but more regularly conical. Head broad at the base, and tapering symmetrically to a point, solid, and of the size of the Ox-heart; leaves of the head pale or yellowish green, with large nerves and ribs; the exterior leaves are large, short, and rounded, smooth, and of firm texture; the stalk is short. It is an intermediate sort, immediately following the Early York. A large proportion of the plants will form good heads; and as these are not only of remarkable solidity, but retain their freshness well during winter, it is a good variety for marketing, though rather hard, and somewhat deficient in the qualities that constitute a good table-cabbage. It requires a space of about eighteen inches by two feet. _Red Varieties._--These are comparatively few in number, and generally used as salad or for pickling. When cooked, they are considered less mild and tender than the common varieties, besides retaining a portion of their color; which, by many, is considered an objection. EARLY DWARF RED. Early Blood Red. Small Red. Head nearly round, generally of a deep-red or dark-purple color. The leaves on the outside of the plant are not numerous, rather rigid or stiff, green, much washed or clouded with red; stalk short. It is about ten days earlier than the Large Red Dutch, and is quite variable in form and color. The seed should be sown early; and, when transplanted, the rows should be about two feet apart, and the plants eighteen inches in the rows. The variety is seldom served at the table, cooked in the manner of other sorts; for, when boiled, it has a dark and unattractive appearance. It is almost invariably shredded, and with the addition of vinegar, olive-oil, mustard, or other seasoning, served as a salad. LARGE RED DUTCH. The most familiar as well as the most popular of the red varieties. The head is rather large, round, hard, and solid; the leaves composing-the head are of an intense purplish-red; the outer leaves are numerous, red, with some intermixture or shades of green, firm in texture, and often petioled at the union with the stalk of the plant, which is of medium height. On account of its dark color when cooked, it is seldom used in the manner of the common cabbages. It is chiefly used for pickling, or, like the other red sorts, cut in shreds, and served as a salad; though any solid, well-blanched, small-ribbed, white-headed sort will answer for the same purpose, and perhaps prove equally tender and palatable. The Large Red Dutch is one of the latest of cabbages, and should receive the advantage of nearly the entire season. Make the sowing, if in the open ground, as soon as the soil is in good working condition, and transplant or thin to rows two and a half or three feet apart, and two feet apart in the rows. The heads may be kept fresh and sound until May. SUPERFINE BLACK. _Thomp._ Small, like the Utrecht Red, but of a still deeper color. When pickled, however, the dark coloring matter is greatly discharged, so that the substance is left paler than that of others originally not so dark. It is, therefore, not so good for pickling as other sorts which retain their color and brightness. UTRECHT RED. _Thomp._ Chou noirâtre d'Utrecht. A small but very fine dark-red cabbage. * * * * * THE CAULIFLOWER. Brassica oleracea var. The Cauliflower, like the Broccoli, is strictly an annual plant; as it blossoms and perfects its seed the year in which it is sown. When fully grown or in flower, it is about four feet in height, and in character and general appearance is similar to the Cabbage or Broccoli at a like stage of growth. The seeds resemble those of the Cabbage in size, form, and color; although not generally so uniformly plump and fair. From ten to twelve thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their germinative properties five years. _Soil._--"Much of the delicacy and excellence of the Cauliflower depends on the quickness of its growth: therefore, to promote this, the soil cannot be too highly enriched or too deeply cultivated; and, as all the tribe thrive best in new soil, the deeper the ground is dug, and the more new or rested matter that is turned up for the roots, the better." _Sowing and Culture._--The seed may be sown in a hot-bed in March, at the same time and in the same manner as early cabbages, and the plants set in the open ground late in May; or the seed may be sown in the open air in April or the beginning of May, in a common nursery-bed, in shallow drills six or eight inches apart; and, when sufficiently grown, the plants may be set where they are to remain. They need not all be transplanted at one time; nor is it important when, except that, as soon as they are large enough, the first opportunity should be improved for beginning the setting. "Cauliflowers, after transplanting, require no particular skill during summer, and not much labor. The soil, however, must be kept free from weeds, and stirred with the hoe from time to time. As the plants increase in size, a little earth should be drawn about their roots from the middle of the row; and, in continued dry weather, an application of liquid manure will be very beneficial." The leaves are sometimes gathered, and tied loosely over the tops of the heads, to facilitate the blanching. _Taking the Crop._--Cauliflowers raised by open culture will generally come to the table in October. Such as have not fully perfected their heads, may, just as the ground is closing, be taken up by their roots, and suspended, with the top downward, in a light cellar, or other place secure from frost; by which process, the heads will increase in size, and be suitable for use the last of December or first of January. "Cauliflowers are ready for cutting when the heads have attained a good size, and while they are close, firm, and white. They may even be cut before they have attained their full size; but it is always advisable to cut them before the heads begin to open, as the flavor is at this stage much more delicate and agreeable. In taking the crop, the stalks should be cut immediately under the lowest leaves, and the upper parts of these should be cut away near the flower-head. "It is not size that constitutes a good Cauliflower, but its fine, white, or creamy color, its compactness, and what is technically called its 'curdy' appearance, from its resemblance to the curd of milk in its preparation for cheese. When the flower begins to open, or when it is of a frosty or wart-like appearance, it is less esteemed. In the summer season, it should not be cut long before using." _Use._--"The heads, or flowers, are considered one of the greatest of vegetable delicacies, when served up at the table either plain boiled, to be eaten with meat, like other Brassicæ, or dressed with white sauce, after the French manner. It is much used as a pickle, either by itself, or as forming an ingredient in what is called 'mixed pickles.' It may also be preserved a considerable time when pickled in the manner of 'sour-krout.' It also forms an excellent addition to vegetable soups."--_M'Int._ _Preservation during Winter._--The best way to preserve them during winter is to take them up late in the fall, with as much earth as possible about their roots, and reset them in earth, in a light, dry cellar, or in any other light and dry location secure from frost. _Varieties._--These are comparatively few in number; the distinctions, in many instances, being quite unimportant. In the color, foliage, general habit, and even in the quality, of the entire list, there is great similarity. EARLY LONDON CAULIFLOWER. London Particular. Fitch's Early London. Stem tall; leaves of medium size. It has a fine, white, compact "curd," as the unexpanded head is termed; and is the sort grown in the vicinity of London for the early crop. It is comparatively hardy, and succeeds well when grown in this country. The plants should be set two feet and a half apart. EARLY PARIS CAULIFLOWER. Head rather large, white, and compact; leaves large; stalk short. An early sort. In France, it is sown in June, and the heads come to table in autumn. ERFURT'S EARLY CAULIFLOWER. Erfurt's Extra Early. Leaves large, long, waved, and serrated on the borders; stalk of medium height; head large,--measuring from seven to ten inches in diameter,--close, and compact. From the experience of a single season, this variety promises to be one of the best for cultivation in this country. Specimens exhibited under this name, before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, measured fully ten inches in diameter; the surface being very close, and the heads possessing the peculiar white, curdy character so rarely attained in the climate of the United States. The plants seldom fail to form a good-sized and symmetrical head, or flower. LARGE ASIATIC CAULIFLOWER. _Thomp._ Originally from Holland. It is a fine, large, white, compact variety, taller and later than the Early London Cauliflower; it has also larger leaves. If sown at the same time, it will afford a succession. LE NORMAND. _R. Hogg._ Plant about fifteen inches high, with winged leaves, which are broad, and taper abruptly towards the base. They are toothed and waved on the margin, and expose a head which is about nine inches in diameter, and of a creamy color. It is earlier than the Walcheren, and is readily distinguished from it by the waved and toothed margin of the foliage. MITCHELL'S HARDY EARLY CAULIFLOWER. A new variety. Bouquet not large, but handsome and compact. It is so firm, that it remains an unusual length of time without running to seed or becoming pithy. A desirable sort for private gardens and for forcing. STADTHOLD. _Vil._ A new variety, introduced from Holland. Flower fine white, and of large size. Not early. WAITE'S ALMA CAULIFLOWER. A new variety, represented as being of large size, and firm; surpassing in excellence the Walcheren. WALCHEREN CAULIFLOWER. _Thomp._ Early Leyden. Legge's Walcheren Broccoli. This has been cultivated as a Broccoli for more than ten years; though originally introduced by the London Horticultural Society, under the name of Early Leyden Cauliflower. Stem comparatively short; leaves broad, less pointed and more undulated than those of the Cauliflower usually are. The difference in constitution is, however, important; as it not only resists the cold in winter, but the drought in summer, much better than other cauliflowers. In hot, dry summers, when scarcely a head of these could be obtained, the Walcheren Cauliflower, planted under similar circumstances, formed beautiful heads,--large, white, firm, and of uniform closeness. WELLINGTON CAULIFLOWER. Messrs. Henderson and Son describe this Cauliflower as the finest kind in cultivation; pure white; size of the head over two feet; in growth, very dwarfish,--the stem not more than two or three inches from the soil. It is one of the hardiest varieties known, and is said to withstand the extreme variations of the climate of the United States. An excellent sort for early planting and for forcing. * * * * * COLEWORT, OR COLLARDS. _Loud._ Collet. The Colewort, strictly speaking, is a plant distinct from the other varieties of Cabbage. It is of small habit, and attains sufficient size for use in a few weeks. It is eatable from the time it has four or six leaves until it has a hard heart. Loudon says the original Colewort seems to be lost, and is now succeeded by what are called "Cabbage Coleworts." These are cabbage-plants in their young state; and, when cooked, are quite as tender and good as the true Colewort. In growing these, all that is necessary is to sow the seed of almost any variety of the common green cabbages in drills a foot apart, and half an inch deep. For a succession, sowings may be made, at intervals of two weeks, from the last of April to the last of August. In the Southern States, the sowings might be continued through the winter. When cultivated for sale, simply allow them to stand till there is enough to be worth bunching and eating. They are boiled and served at table as greens. ROSETTE COLEWORT. A small but remarkably neat variety; the whole plant, when well grown, measuring twelve inches in diameter, and having the form of a rose not completely expanded,--the head corresponding to the bud still remaining at the heart, or centre; stalk small and short. The plants may be grown twelve inches asunder. * * * * * COUVE TRONCHUDA, OR PORTUGAL CABBAGE. _Trans._ Portugal Borecole. Large-ribbed Borecole. Trauxuda Kale. Though a species of Cabbage, the Couve Tronchuda is quite distinct from the common head varieties. The stalk is short and thick; the outer leaves are large, roundish, of a dark bluish-green, wrinkled on the surface, and slightly undulated on the borders; the mid-rib of the leaf is large, thick, nearly white, and branches into veins of the same color; the plant forms a loose, open head, and, when full grown, is nearly two feet high. _Culture._--It should be planted and treated like the Common Cabbage. The seeds may be sown early in frames, and the plants afterwards set in the open ground; or the sowing may be made in the open ground in May. The plants require two feet and a half between the rows, and two feet between the plants in the rows. The seeds, in size, form, and color, resemble those of the Cabbage, and will keep five years. One-fourth of an ounce will produce about a thousand plants. _To raise Seed._--In the autumn, before severe weather, remove two or three plants entire to the cellar; and, in April following, reset them about two feet apart. Cut off the lower and smaller side-sprouts as they may appear, and allow only the strong, central shoot to grow. The seeds will ripen in August. _Use._--Different parts of the Couve Tronchuda are applicable to culinary purposes. The ribs of the outer and larger leaves, when boiled, somewhat resemble sea-kale in texture and flavor. The heart, or middle of the plant, is, however, the best for use. It is peculiarly delicate, and agreeably flavored, without any of the coarseness which is so often found in plants of the Cabbage tribe. DWARF COUVE TRONCHUDA. _Trans._ Murcianâ. Dwarf Portugal Cabbage. Dwarf Trauxuda Kale. Much earlier and smaller throughout than the Common Couve Tronchuda. Stem from fifteen to eighteen inches high. The leaves are of medium size, rounded, smooth, and collected at the centre of the plant into a loose heart, or head. When the lower leaves are taken off for use, the plant, unlike the former variety, throws out numerous sprouts, or shoots, from the base of the stem, which make excellent coleworts, or greens. It is, however, wanting in hardiness; and appears to be better adapted for early use than for late keeping. _Soil and Cultivation._--Both of the varieties require a well-manured soil. The seeds of the Dwarf Couve Tronchuda may be sown early in frames, and the plants afterwards set in the open ground; or the sowing may be made, in May or June, where the plants are to remain. They should be two feet apart in each direction. FRINGED TRONCHUDA. Stem short; leaf-stems thicker and larger than those of the Common Couve Tronchuda, but not so fleshy and succulent. The leaves expand towards their extremities into a spatulate form, the edges being regularly lobed and curled. They are of a glaucous or bluish green color, and form a sort of loose heart, or head, at the centre of the plant. Its only superiority over the common varieties consists in its more hardy character. The Fringed Tronchuda is, however, very succulent, and of good quality; and is cultivated to some extent in France, particularly in the vicinity of Paris. WHITE-RIBBED TRONCHUDA. White-ribbed Avilès Cabbage. White-ribbed Portugal Cabbage. Chou à Côtes blanches d'Avilès. This variety nearly resembles the Dwarf Portugal Cabbage, or Dwarf Couve Tronchuda, if it is not identical. It has white ribs, and forms a close heart. It should be planted, and in all respects treated, as the Dwarf Portugal Cabbage. * * * * * PAK-CHÖI. _Vil._ Chinese Cabbage. Brassica sp. An annual plant, introduced from China. The root-leaves are oval, regular, very smooth, deep-green, with long, naked, fleshy, white stems, somewhat similar to those of the Swiss Chards, or Leaf-beets. When in blossom, the plant measures about four feet in height, and the stem is smooth and branching. The flowers are yellow; the seeds are small, round, blackish-brown, and, in their general appearance, resemble those of the Turnip or Cabbage. An ounce contains about ten thousand seeds, and they will keep five years. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The seed should be sown in April or May, and the plants may be grown in hills or drills. They are usually sown in rows, and thinned to twelve inches apart. _Use._--The leaves are eaten boiled, like cabbage; but they are much more tender, and of a more agreeable flavor. * * * * * PE-TSAI. Chinese Cabbage. Brassica chinensis. The Pe-Tsai, like the Pak-Chöi, is an annual plant, originally from China. The leaves are of an oval form, rounded at the ends, somewhat blistered on the surface; and, at the centre, are collected together into a long and rather compact tuft, or head. The plant, when well grown and ready for use, has somewhat the appearance of a head of Cos Lettuce, and will weigh six or seven pounds; though, in its native country, it is said to reach a weight of upwards of twenty pounds. Towards the end of the summer, the flower-stalk shoots from the centre of the head to the height of three feet, producing long and pointed leaves, and terminating in loose spikes of yellow flowers. The seeds are small, round, brownish-black, and resemble those of the Common Cabbage. They retain their vitality five years. An ounce contains eight thousand seeds. _Cultivation._--Sow in April or May, and thin or transplant to rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot apart in the rows. _Use._--It is used like the Common Cabbage, and is sweet, mild-flavored, and easy of digestion. The young plants are also boiled like coleworts or spinach. * * * * * SAVOY. Savoy Cabbage. Brassica oleracea, var. bullata. _Dec._ This class of cabbages derives its popular name from Savoy, a small district adjoining Italy, where the variety originated, and from whence it was introduced into England and France more than a hundred and fifty years ago. The Savoys are distinguished from the common head or close-hearted cabbages by their peculiar, wrinkled, or blistered leaves. According to Decandole, this peculiarity is caused by the fact, that the pulp, or thin portion of the leaf, is developed more rapidly than the ribs and nerves. Besides the distinction in the structure of the leaves, the Savoys, when compared with the common cabbages, are slower in their development, and have more open or less compactly formed heads. In texture and flavor, they are thought to approach some of the broccolis or cauliflowers; having, generally, little of the peculiar musky odor and taste common to some of the coarser and larger varieties of cabbages. None of the family are hardier or more easily cultivated than the Savoys; and though they will not quite survive the winter in the open ground, so far from being injured by cold and frosty weather, a certain degree of frost is considered necessary for the complete perfection of their texture and flavor. _Soil._--They succeed best in strong, mellow loam, liberally enriched with well-digested compost. _Sowing._--The first sowing may be made early in a hot-bed, and the plants set in the open ground in May, or as soon as the weather will admit. Subsequent sowings may be made in drills, in the open ground, in May, or early in June. When the seedlings are five or six inches high, thin or transplant to about three feet apart. _Harvesting._--During the autumn, take the heads directly from the garden, whenever they are required for the table; but they should all be taken in before the ground is deeply frozen, or covered with snow. No other treatment will be required during the winter than such as is usually given to the Common Cabbage. _To raise Seed._--In April, select a few well-formed, good-sized heads, as near types of the variety as possible; and set them entire, about two feet apart. If small shoots start from the side of the stalk, they should be removed; as only the sprout that comes from the centre of the head produces seed that is really valuable. All varieties rapidly deteriorate, if grown from seeds produced by side-shoots, or suckers. The seeds, when ripe, in form, size, and color, are not distinguishable from those of the Common Cabbage. An ounce contains ten thousand seeds, which will generally produce about three thousand plants. _Varieties._-- DRUMHEAD SAVOY. Cape Savoy. Head large, round, compact, yellowish at the centre, and a little flattened, in the form of some of the common Drumhead cabbages, which it nearly approaches in size. The exterior leaves of the plant are round and concave, clasping, sea-green or bluish-green, rise above a level with the top of the head, and are more finely and less distinctly fretted or blistered on the surface than the leaves of the Green Globe. Stalk of medium length. The Drumhead Savoy seldom fails to heart well, affords a good quantity of produce, is hardy, and, when brought to the table, is of very tender substance, and finely flavored. It is considered one of the best of the large kinds; and, wherever cultivated, has become a standard sort. It keeps well during winter, and retains its freshness late into the spring. As it requires nearly all of the season for its complete development, the seed should be sown comparatively early. Transplant to rows at least three feet apart, and allow nearly the same distance between the plants in the row. EARLY DWARF SAVOY. Early Green Savoy. Head small, flattened, firm, and close; leaves rather numerous, but not large, deep-green, finely but distinctly blistered, broad and rounded at the top, and tapering towards the stalk or stem of the plant, which is short. It is not quite so early as the Ulm Savoy; but it hearts readily, is tender and of good quality, and a desirable sort for early use. It requires a space of about twenty inches in each direction. EARLY FLAT GREEN CURLED SAVOY. _Thomp._ A middle-sized, very dwarf, and flat-headed variety; color deep-green; quality tender and good. The plants should be set fifteen or eighteen inches asunder. EARLY LONG YELLOW SAVOY. Chou de Milan Doré a Tète Longue. _Vil._ Similar to the Golden Savoy, and, like it, an early sort. It has, however, a longer head, and does not heart so firmly. In flavor and texture, as well as in its peculiar color, there is little difference between the varieties. Cultivate in rows eighteen inches apart, and fifteen or eighteen inches apart in the rows. EARLY ULM SAVOY. New Ulm Savoy. Earliest Ulm Savoy. _M'Int._ A dwarfish, early sort. Head small, round, solid; leaves rather small, thick, fleshy, and somewhat rigid, of a fine, deep-green, with numerous prominent blister-like elevations. The loose leaves are remarkably few in number; nearly all of the leaves of the plant contributing to the formation of the head. It very quickly forms a heart, which, though not of large size, is of excellent quality. It is, however, too small a sort for market purposes; but, for private gardens, would, no doubt, be an acquisition. In the London Horticultural Society's garden, it proved the earliest variety in cultivation. Being one of the smallest of the Savoys, it requires but a small space for its cultivation. If fifteen inches between the rows, and about the same distance in the rows, be allowed, the plants will have ample room for their full development. FEATHER-STEM SAVOY. _M'Int._ This curious and useful variety has been in existence for several years, and is said to be a cross between the Savoy and the Brussels Sprouts. It is what may be called a sprouting Savoy; producing numerous shoots, or sprouts, along the stem. A sowing should be made the last of April, and another from the middle to the 20th of May, and the plants set out as soon as they are of suitable size, in the usual manner of Savoys and other winter greens. GOLDEN SAVOY. Early Yellow Savoy. _M'Int._ A middle-sized, roundish, rather loose-headed variety; changing during the winter to a clear, bright yellow. The exterior leaves, at the time of harvesting, are erect, clasping, of a pale-green color, and coarsely but not prominently blistered on the surface; stalk short. The Golden Savoy comes to the table early, hearts readily, is of very tender substance when cooked, and of excellent quality; though its peculiar color is objectionable to many. It requires a space of about eighteen inches between the rows, and fifteen to eighteen inches between the plants in the rows. GREEN GLOBE SAVOY. Green Curled Savoy. Large Green Savoy. One of the best and one of the most familiar of the Savoys; having been long in cultivation, and become a standard sort. The head is of medium size, round, bluish or sea green on the outside, yellow towards the centre, and loosely formed. The interior leaves are fleshy and succulent, with large and prominent midribs,--the exterior leaves are round and large, of a glaucous or sea green color, and, in common with those of the head, thickly and distinctly blistered in the peculiar manner of the Savoys; stalk of medium height. The variety possesses all the qualities of its class: the texture is fine, and the flavor mild and excellent. On account of its remarkably fleshy and tender character, the inner loose leaves about the head will be found good for the table, and to possess a flavor nearly as fine as the more central parts of the plant. It is remarkably hardy, and attains its greatest perfection only late in the season, or under the influence of cool or frosty weather. As the plants develop much less rapidly than those of the Common Cabbage, the seed should be sown early. Transplant in rows two and a half or three feet apart, and allow a space of two feet and a half between the plants in the rows. LONG-HEADED SAVOY. _Vil._ Chou Milan à Tète Longue. A comparatively small variety, with an oval, long, yellowish-green, but very compact head; leaves erect, inclining to bluish-green, long and narrow, revoluted on the borders, and finely fretted or blistered on the surface; stem rather high. It is hardy and of excellent quality, but yields less than many other sorts. It is, however, a good kind for gardens of limited size, as it occupies little space, and cabbages well. The plants may be set eighteen inches apart in one direction by about fifteen inches in the opposite. MARCELIN SAVOY. _Thomp._ A new sort, allied to the Early Ulm, but growing somewhat larger. Though not so early, it is next to it in point of earliness; and, if both sorts are sown at the same time, the Marcelin will form a succession. It is a low grower; the leaves are dark-green, finely wrinkled and curled; the head is round, compact, and of excellent quality. When cut above the lower course of leaves, about four small heads, almost equal in delicacy to Brussels Sprouts, are generally formed. This sort is exceedingly hardy; and, on the whole, must be considered a valuable acquisition. The plants should be set eighteen inches by twelve inches apart. TOUR'S SAVOY. Dwarf Green Curled Savoy. _M'Int._ Pancalier de Tourraine. _Vil._ Head small, loose, and irregular; leaves numerous, bright-green, rigid, concave or spoon-shaped; the nerves and ribs large, and the entire surface thickly and finely covered with the blister-like swellings peculiar to the Savoys. It has some resemblance to the Early Dwarf Savoy; but is larger, less compact, and slower in its development. A useful, hardy, smallish sort, adapted to small gardens; requiring only eighteen or twenty inches' space each way. Excellent for use before it becomes fully cabbaged. YELLOW CURLED SAVOY. _Thomp._ Large Late Yellow Savoy. White Savoy. Dwarf, middle-sized, round; leaves pale-green at first, but quite yellow in winter; the heart is not so compact as some, but of tender quality, and by many preferred, as it is much sweeter than the other kinds. It is later and hardier than the Yellow Savoys, before described. * * * * * SEA-KALE. Crambe maritima. Sea-kale is a native of the southern shores of Great Britain, and is also abundant on the seacoasts of the south of Europe. There is but one species cultivated, and this is perennial and perfectly hardy. The leaves are large, thick, oval or roundish, sometimes lobed on the borders, smooth, and of a peculiar bluish-green color; the stalk, when the plant is in flower, is solid and branching, and measures about four feet in height; the flowers, which are produced in groups, or clusters, are white, and have an odor very similar to that of honey. The seed is enclosed in a yellowish-brown shell, or pod, which, externally and internally, resembles a pit, or cobble, of the common cherry. About six hundred seeds, or pods, are contained in an ounce; and they retain their germinative powers three years. "They are large and light, and, when sold in the market, are often old, or imperfectly formed; but their quality is easily ascertained by cutting them through the middle: if sound, they will be found plump and solid." They are usually sown without being broken. _Preparation of the Ground, and Sowing._--The ground should be trenched to the depth of from a foot to two feet, according to the depth of the soil, and well enriched throughout. The seeds may be sown in April, where the plants are to remain; or they may be sown at the same season in a nursery-bed, and transplanted the following spring. They should be set or planted out in rows three feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. _Culture._--"After the piece is set, let the plants be kept very clean. The earth should be occasionally stirred, when the rains have run the surface together; and, when the plants come up, let them have their own way the first season. As the plants will blossom the second season if let alone, and the bearing of seed has a tendency to weaken every thing, take off the flower-buds as soon as they appear, and not allow the plants to seed. When the leaves begin to decay in autumn, clear them all off, and dig a complete trench between the rows, and earth up the ridges: that is, all the soil you take out must be laid on the plants, so as to pile or bank up eight inches above the crowns of the roots, thus forming a flat-topped bank a foot across; widening a little downwards, so that the edges shall not break away. In doing this, the piece is formed into alternate furrows and ridges; the plants being under the centre of the ridges. "As the weather gets warm in the spring, these banks should be watered; and, when the surface is broken by the rising plant, remove the earth, and cut off the white shoots close to their base: for these shoots form the eatable portion; and, being blanched under ground, they are tender and white, and from six to eight inches long. The shoots should be cut as soon as they reach the surface; because, if the shoot comes through, the top gets purple, and the plants become strong-flavored. As all of the shoots will not appear at once, the bed should be looked over frequently, and a shoot cut whenever it has broken the surface of the soil; for, if not taken early, it soon becomes nearly worthless. In the process of cutting the shoots, the earth becomes gradually removed; and the tops of the plants, coming to the surface again, put forth other shoots, which must be allowed to grow the remainder of the summer, only taking off the blossom-shoots as before. When, at the fall of the year, the leaves turn yellow, and decay, earth up again, after clearing the plants of their bad leaves and removing every weed. Before earthing up, fork the surface a little, just to break it up, that the earth may better take hold, and form a regular mass."--_Glenny._ _Pot-forcing and Blanching._--"The ground, once planted, is as good for pot-forcing as for any thing; except that, for pot-forcing, it is usual to plant three plants in a triangle, about nine inches apart. The plants are cleared when the leaves decay, and the ground is kept level instead of being earthed up. Pots and covers (called 'sea-kale pots') are placed over the plants, or patches of plants, and the cover (which goes on and off at pleasure) put on. These pots are of various sizes; usually from ten to fourteen inches in diameter, and from a foot to twenty inches in height. If proper sea-kale pots cannot be procured, large-sized flower-pots will answer as substitutes; the pots being put over the plants as they are wanted, generally a few at a time, so as to keep up a succession. Dung is placed all over them; or, if no dung can be had, leaves are used: and they ferment and give out heat as genial, but not so violent, nor do they command so much influence, as the dung. Some may be placed on in February, and some in March. The dung is removed from the top to admit of seeing if the plant is started; and, by timely examination, it is easily seen when the plant is ready for use. The shoots are as white, when thus treated, as when grown by the other method, because of the total darkness that prevails while they are covered; but there is more air in the empty pots than there possibly could be in the solid earth, and it is considered that the vegetable is not so tender in consequence. However, the greater bulk of Sea-kale is so produced."--_Glenny._ _Taking the Crop._--"The blanched sprouts should be cut when they are from three to six inches in length, and while stiff, crisp, and compact. They should not be left till they are drawn up so as to bend, or hang down. The soil or other material used for excluding the light should be carefully removed, so as to expose the stem of the sprout; and the latter should be cut just below the base of the petioles or leaf-stem, and just enough to keep these attached."--_Thomp._ The Sea-kale season continues about six weeks. "Cutting too much will finally destroy the plants. With one good cutting the cultivator should be satisfied, and should avoid the practice of covering and cutting a second time. The proper way is to cut the large, fine shoots, and leave the smaller ones that come afterwards to grow stronger during the summer." _Use._--"The young shoots and stalks, when from the length of three to nine inches, are the parts used. These, however, unless blanched, are no better than the coarser kinds of Borecole; but, when blanched, they become exceedingly delicate, and are much prized. The ribs of the leaves, even after they are nearly fully developed, are sometimes used; being peeled and eaten as asparagus. In either state, they are tied up in small bundles, boiled, and served as cauliflowers."--_M'Int._ _To obtain Seed._--"Select some strong plants, and allow them to take their natural growth, without cutting off their crowns, or blanching. When the seed is ripe, collect the pods, dry them, and put them into open canvas-bags. The seeds keep best in the pods."--_Thomp._ CHAPTER VI. SPINACEOUS PLANTS. Amaranthus. Black Nightshade. Leaf-beet, or Swiss Chard. Malabar Nightshade. Nettle. New-Zealand Spinach. Orach. Patience Dock. Quinoa. Sea-beet. Shepherd's Purse. Sorrel. Spinach. Wild or Perennial Spinach. * * * * * AMARANTHUS. Chinese Amaranthus. Chinese Spinach. A hardy, annual plant, introduced from China; stem three feet in height, much branched, and generally stained with red; leaves variegated with green and red, long, and sharply pointed; the leaf-stems and nerves are red; the flowers, which are produced in axillary spikes, are greenish, and without beauty; the seeds are small, black, smooth, and shining,--twenty-three thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their power of germination four or five years. _Soil and Cultivation._--Any good garden-soil is adapted to the growth of the Amaranthus. Before sowing, the ground should be thoroughly pulverized, and the surface made smooth and even. The seed may be sown in April, or at any time during the month of May. It should be sown in very shallow drills, fourteen to sixteen inches apart, and covered with fine, moist earth. When the plants are two inches high, thin to five or six inches apart, and cultivate in the usual manner. They will yield abundantly during most of the summer. _Use._--The leaves are used in the manner of Spinach, and resemble it in taste. _Varieties._-- EARLY AMARANTHUS. Amarante Mirza. _Vil._ This plant is a native of the East Indies; and in height, color, and general habit, resembles the Chinese Amaranthus. It is, however, somewhat earlier, and ripens its seed perfectly in climates where the Chinese almost invariably fails. Its uses, and mode of cultivation, are the same. HANTSI SHANGHAI AMARANTHUS. Amarante Hantsi Shanghai. _Vil._ Introduced from China by Mr. Fortune, and disseminated by the London Horticultural Society. It differs little from the preceding species; and is cultivated in the same manner, and used for the same purposes. Annual. * * * * * BLACK NIGHTSHADE. Morelle, of the French. Solanum nigrum. An unattractive, annual plant, growing spontaneously as a weed among rubbish, in rich, waste places. Its stem is from two to three feet high, hairy and branching; the leaves are oval, angular, sinuate, and bluntly toothed; the flowers are white, in drooping clusters, and are succeeded by black, spherical berries, of the size of a small pea; the seeds are small, lens-shaped, pale yellow, and retain their vitality five years,--twenty-three thousand are contained in an ounce. _Propagation and Culture._--It is raised from seed, which may be sown in April or May, or in autumn. Sow in shallow drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and thin to six or eight inches in the drills; afterwards keep the soil loose, and free from weeds, in the usual manner. _Use._--The French, according to Vilmorin, eat the leaves in the manner of Spinach; while Dr. Bigelow asserts that it has the aspect and reputation of a poisonous plant. On the authority of American botanists, it was introduced into this country from Europe. By European botanists, it is described as a plant of American origin. * * * * * LEAF-BEET, OR SWISS CHARD. Sicilian Beet. White Beet. Beta cicla. The Leaf-beet is a native of the seacoasts of Spain and Portugal. It is a biennial plant, and is cultivated for its leaves and leaf-stalks. The roots are much branched or divided, hard, fibrous, and unfit for use. _Propagation and Cultivation._--It is propagated, like other beets, from seed sown annually, and will thrive in any good garden soil. The sowing may be made at any time in April or May, in drills eighteen inches apart, and an inch and a half deep. "When the plants are a few inches high, so that those likely to make the best growth can be distinguished, they should be thinned out to nine inches or a foot apart, according to the richness of the soil; more room being allowed in rich ground. Some, however, should be left at half that distance, to make up by transplanting any vacancies that may occur. The ground should be kept clean, and occasionally stirred between the rows; taking care not to injure the roots. In dry weather, plenty of water should be given to promote the succulence of the leaves."--_Thomp._ _Taking the Crop._--"The largest and fullest-grown leaves should be gathered first; others will follow. If grown for Spinach, the leaves should be rinsed in clean water, and afterwards placed in a basket to drain dry; if for Chard, or for the leaf-stalks and veins, these should be carefully preserved, and the entire leaves tied up in bundles of six or eight in each."--_M'Int._ _Seed._--During the first season, select a few vigorous plants, and allow them to grow unplucked. Just before the closing-up of the ground in autumn, take up the roots; and, after removing the tops an inch above the crown, pack them in dry sand in the cellar. The following spring, as soon as the ground is in working order, set them out with the crowns level with the surface of the ground, and about two feet and a half apart. As the plants increase in height, tie them to stakes, to prevent injury from wind; and in August, when the seed is ripe, cut off the stems near the ground, and spread them entire, in an airy situation, till they are sufficiently dried for threshing out. The seed, or fruit, has the appearance peculiar to the family; although those of the different varieties, like the seeds of the Red Beet, vary somewhat in size, and shade of color. An ounce of seed will sow a hundred feet of drill, or be sufficient for a nursery-bed of fifty square feet. _Use._--"This species of Beet--for, botanically considered, it is a distinct species from _Beta vulgaris_, the Common or Red Beet--is cultivated exclusively for its leaves; whereas the Red Beet is grown for its roots. These leaves are boiled like Spinach, and also put into soups. The midribs and stalks, which are separated from the lamina of the leaf, are stewed and eaten like Asparagus, under the name of "Chard." As a spinaceous plant, the White Beet might be grown to great advantage in the vegetable garden, as it affords leaves fit for use during the whole summer."--_M'Int._ The thin part of the leaves is sometimes put into soups, together with sorrel, to correct the acidity of the latter. The varieties are as follow:-- GREEN OR COMMON LEAF-BEET. Stalks and leaves large, green; the roots are tough and fibrous, and measure little more than an inch in diameter; leaves tender, and of good quality. If a sowing be made as soon in spring as the frost will permit, another in June, and a third the last of July, they will afford a constant supply of tender greens, nearly or quite equal to Spinach. For this purpose, the rows need be but a foot apart. LARGE-RIBBED CURLED. Curled Leaf-beet. Stalks white; leaves pale yellowish-green, with broad mid-ribs, large nerves, and a blistered surface like some of the Savoys. It may be grown as a substitute for Spinach, in the manner directed for the Common or Green-leaved variety. LARGE-RIBBED SCARLET BRAZILIAN. Red Stalk Leaf-beet. Poirée à Carde rouge. _Vil._ Leaf-stalks bright purplish-red; leaves green, blistered on the surface; nerves purplish-red. A beautiful sort, remarkable for the rich and brilliant color of the stems, and nerves of the leaves. LARGE-RIBBED YELLOW BRAZILIAN. Yellow-stalked Leaf-beet. Poirée à Carde jaune. _Vil._ A variety with bright-yellow leaf-stalks and yellowish leaves. The nerves of the leaves are yellow, like the leaf-stalks. The color is peculiarly rich and clear; and the stalks are quite attractive, and even ornamental. Quality tender and good. SILVER-LEAF BEET. Great White-leaf Beet. Swiss Chard. Sea-kale Beet. Large-ribbed Silver-leaf Beet. Stalks very large; leaves of medium size, erect, with strong, white ribs and veins. The leaf-stalks and nerves are cooked and served like Asparagus, and somewhat resemble it in texture and flavor. It is considered the best of the Leaf-beets. * * * * * MALABAR NIGHTSHADE (WHITE). Climbing Nightshade. White Malabar Spinach. Baselle blanche. _Vil._ Basella alba. From the East Indies. Though a biennial plant, in cultivation it is generally treated as an annual. Stem five feet and upwards in length, slender, climbing; leaves alternate, oval, entire on the borders, green and fleshy; flowers in clusters, small, greenish; seeds round, with portions of the pulp usually adhering,--eleven to twelve hundred weighing an ounce. They retain their vitality three years. LARGE-LEAVED CHINESE MALABAR NIGHTSHADE. Large-leaved Malabar Spinach. Baselle à Très Large Feuille de Chine. _Vil._ Basella cordifolia. A Chinese species, more vigorous and much stronger in its general habit than the Red or the White. Leaves as large as those of Lettuce,--green, round, very thick, and fleshy; flowers small, greenish; seeds round, nearly of the same form and color as those of the White variety, but rather larger. The species is slow in developing its flower-stem, and the best for cultivation. * * * * * RED MALABAR NIGHTSHADE. Red Malabar Spinach. Baselle Rouge. _Vil._ Basella rubra. From China. Properly a biennial plant, but, like the White species, usually cultivated as an annual. It is distinguished from the last named by its color; the whole plant being stained or tinted with purplish red. In the size and color of the seeds, and general habit of the plant, there are no marks of distinction, when compared with the White. _Propagation and Cultivation._--All of the species are easily grown from seeds; which may be sown in a hot-bed in March, or in the open ground in May. They take root readily when transplanted; and may be grown in rows like the taller descriptions of pease, or in hills like running beans. Wherever grown, they require a trellis, or some kind of support; otherwise the plants will twist themselves about other plants, or whatever objects may be contiguous. All are comparatively tender, and thrive best, and yield the most produce, in the summer months. _Use._--The leaves, which are put forth in great profusion, are used in the form of Spinach. The juice of the fruit affords a beautiful but not permanent purple color. * * * * * COMMON NETTLE. Large Stinging Nettle. Urtica dioica. The Common Nettle is a hardy, herbaceous perennial, growing naturally and abundantly by waysides and in waste places, "but is seldom seen where the hand of man has not been at work; and may, therefore, be considered a sort of domestic plant." It has an erect, branching, four-sided stem, from three to five feet in height; the leaves are opposite, heart-shaped at the base, toothed on the borders, and thickly set with small, stinging, hair-like bristles; the flowers are produced in July and August, and are small, green, and without beauty; the seeds are very small, and are produced in great abundance,--a single plant sometimes yielding nearly a hundred thousand. _Propagation and Culture._--The Nettle will thrive in almost any soil or situation. Though it may be propagated from seeds, it is generally increased by a division of the roots, which may be made in spring or autumn. These should be set in rows two feet apart, and a foot apart in the rows. _Use._--"Early in April, the tops will be found to have pushed three or four inches, furnished with tender leaves. In Scotland, Poland, and Germany, these are gathered, as a pot-herb for soups or for dishes, like Spinach; and their peculiar flavor is by many much esteemed. No plant is better adapted for forcing; and, in winter or spring, it may be made to form an excellent substitute for Cabbage, Coleworts, or Spinach. Collect the creeping roots, and plant them either on a hot-bed or in pots to be placed in the forcing-house, and they will soon send up an abundance of tender tops: these, if desired, may be blanched by covering with other pots. If planted close to a flue in the vinery, they will produce excellent nettle-kale or nettle-spinach in January and February." Lawson states that "the common Nettle has long been known as affording a large proportion of fibre, which has not only been made into ropes and cordage, but also into sewing-thread, and beautiful, white, linen-like cloth of very superior quality. It does not, however, appear that its cultivation for this purpose has ever been fairly attempted. The fibre is easily separated from other parts of the stalk, without their undergoing the processes of watering and bleaching; although, by such, the labor necessary for that purpose is considerably lessened. Like those of many other common plants, the superior merits of this generally accounted troublesome weed have hitherto been much overlooked." * * * * * NEW-ZEALAND SPINACH. _Loud._ Tetragonia expansa. This plant, botanically considered, is quite distinct from the common garden Spinach; varying essentially in its foliage, flowers, seeds, and general habit. It is a hardy annual. The leaves are of a fine green color, large and broad, and remarkably thick and fleshy; the branches are numerous, round, succulent, pale-green, thick and strong,--the stalks recline upon the ground for a large proportion of their length, but are erect at the extremities; the flowers are produced in the axils of the leaves, are small, green, and, except that they show their yellow anthers when they expand, are quite inconspicuous; the fruit is of a dingy-brown color, three-eighths of an inch deep, three-eighths of an inch in diameter at the top or broadest part, hard and wood-like in texture, rude in form, but somewhat urn-shaped, with four or five horn-like points at the top. Three hundred and twenty-five of these fruits are contained in an ounce; and they are generally sold and recognized as the seeds. They are, however, really the fruit; six or eight of the true seeds being contained in each. They retain their germinative powers five years. _Propagation and Culture._--It is always raised from seed, which may be sown in the open ground from April to July. Select a rich, moist soil, pulverize it well, and rake the surface smooth. Make the drills three feet apart, and an inch and a half or two inches deep; and sow the seed thinly, or so as to secure a plant for each foot of row. In five or six weeks from the planting, the branches will have grown sufficiently to allow the gathering of the leaves for use. If the season should be very dry, the plants will require watering. They grow vigorously, and, in good soil, will extend, before the end of the season, three feet in each direction. _Gathering._--"The young leaves must be pinched or cut from the branches; taking care not to injure the ends, or leading shoots. These shoots, with the smaller ones that will spring out of the stalks at the points where the leaves have been gathered, will produce a supply until a late period in the season; for the plants are sufficiently hardy to withstand the effects of light frosts without essential injury. "Its superiority over the Common Spinach consists in the fact, that it grows luxuriantly, and produces leaves of the greatest succulency, in the hottest weather." Anderson, one of its first cultivators, had but nine plants, which furnished a gathering for the table every other day from the middle of June. A bed of a dozen healthy plants will afford a daily supply for the table of a large family. _Seed._--To raise seed, leave two or three plants in the poorest soil of the garden, without cutting the leaves. The seeds will ripen successively, and should be gathered as they mature. _Use._--It is cooked and served in the same manner as Common Spinach. There are no described varieties. * * * * * ORACH. Arrach. French Spinach. Mountain Spinach. Atriplex hortensis. Orach is a hardy, annual plant, with an erect, branching stem, varying in height from two to four feet, according to the variety. The leaves are variously shaped, tut somewhat oblong, comparatively thin in texture, and slightly acid to the taste; the flowers are small and obscure, greenish or reddish, corresponding in a degree with the color of the foliage of the plant; the seeds are small, black, and surrounded with a thin, pale-yellow membrane,--they retain their vitality three years. _Soil and Culture._--It is raised from seed sown annually. As its excellence depends on the size and succulent character of the leaves, Orach is always best when grown in a rich, deep, and moist soil. The first sowing may be made as soon in spring as the ground is in proper condition; afterwards, for a succession, sowings may be made, at intervals of two weeks, until June. When the ground has been thoroughly dug over, and the surface made fine and smooth, sow the seed in drills eighteen inches or two feet apart, and cover three-fourths of an inch deep. When the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them to ten or twelve inches apart, and cultivate in the usual manner. Orach is sometimes transplanted, but generally succeeds best when sown where the plants are to remain. In dry, arid soil, it is comparatively worthless. _To raise Seed._--Leave a few of the best plants without cutting, and they will afford a plentiful supply of seeds in September. _Use._--Orach is rarely found in the vegetable gardens of this country. The leaves have a pleasant, slightly acid taste, and, with the tender stalks, are used boiled in the same manner as Spinach or Sorrel, and are often mixed with the latter to reduce the acidity. "The stalks are good only while the plants are young; but the larger leaves may be picked off in succession throughout the season, leaving the stalks and smaller leaves untouched, by which the latter will increase in size. The Orach thus procured is very tender, and much esteemed." A few plants will afford an abundant supply. _Varieties._-- GREEN ORACH. _Trans._ Dark-green Orach. Deep-green Orach. _Mill._ The leaves of this variety are of a dark, grass-green color, broad, much wrinkled, slightly toothed, and bluntly pointed; the stalk of the plant and the leaf-stems are strong and sturdy, and of the same color as the leaves. It is the lowest growing of all the varieties. LURID ORACH. _Trans._ Pale-red Orach. Leaves pale-purple, tinged with dark-green,--the under surface light-purple, with green veins, slightly wrinkled, terminating rather pointedly, and toothed on the borders only toward the base, which forms two acute angles; the stalk of the plant and the stems of the leaves are bright-red, slightly streaked with white between the furrows,--height three feet and upwards. PURPLE ORACH. _Trans._ Dark-purple Orach. Plant from three to four feet in height; leaves dull, dark-purple, more wrinkled and more deeply toothed than those of any other variety. They terminate somewhat obtusely, and form two acute angles at the base. The stalk of the plant and the stems of the leaves are deep-red, and slightly furrowed. The leaves change to green when boiled. RED ORACH. _Trans._ Dark-red Orach. Bon Jardinier. Leaves oblong-heart-shaped, somewhat wrinkled, and slightly toothed on the margin: the upper surface is very dark, inclining to a dingy purple; the under surface is of a much brighter color. The stems are deep-red and slightly furrowed; height three feet and upwards. This is an earlier but a less vigorous sort than the White. The leaves of this variety, as also those of most of the colored sorts, change to green in boiling. RED-STALKED GREEN ORACH. _Trans._ Leaves dark-green, tinged with dull-brown, much wrinkled, toothed, somewhat curled, terminating rather obtusely, and forming two acute angles at the base; the stalk and the stems of the leaves are deep-red, and slightly furrowed; the veins are very prominent. It is of tall growth. RED-STALKED WHITE ORACH. _Trans._ Purple-bordered Green Orach. _Miller._ Leaves somewhat heart-shaped, of a yellowish-green, tinged with brown. Their margin is stained with purple, and a little dentated or toothed in some cases, but not in all. The stalk and the stems of the leaves are of a palish-red, and are slightly furrowed, as well as streaked with pale-white between the furrows. The plant is of dwarfish growth. WHITE ORACH. _Trans._ Pale-green Orache. _Neill._ White French Spinach. Yellow Orach. Leaves pale-green or yellowish-green, much wrinkled, with long, tapering points, strongly cut in the form of teeth towards the base, which forms two acute angles; the stalk of the plant and the stems of the leaves are of the same color as the foliage. It is comparatively of low growth. * * * * * PATIENCE. Herb Patience. Patience Dock. Garden Patience. Rumex patientia. This plant is a native of the south of Europe. It is a hardy perennial, and, when fully grown, from four to five feet in height. The leaves are large, long, broad, pointed; the leaf-stems are red; the flowers are numerous, small, axillary, and of a whitish-green color,--they are put forth in June and July, and the seeds ripen in August. The latter are triangular, of a pale-brownish color, and will keep three years. _Soil and Cultivation._--"The plant will grow well in almost any soil, but best in one that is rich and rather moist. It may easily be raised from seed sown in spring, in drills eighteen inches asunder; afterwards thinning out the young plants to a foot apart in the rows. It may also be sown broadcast in a seed-bed, and planted out; or the roots may be divided, and set at the above distances. "The plants should not be allowed to run up to flower, but should be cut over several times in the course of the season, to induce them to throw out young leaves in succession, and to prevent seed from being ripened, and scattered about in all directions; for, when this takes place, the plant becomes a troublesome weed."--_Thomp._ It is perfectly hardy, and, if cut over regularly, will continue healthy and productive for several years. In the vicinity of gardens where it has been cultivated, it is frequently found growing spontaneously. _Use._--"The leaves were formerly much used as Spinach; and are still eaten in some parts of France, where they are also employed in the early part of the season as a substitute for Sorrel; being produced several days sooner than the leaves of that plant."--_Thomp._ Its present neglect may arise from a want of the knowledge of the proper method of using it. The leaves are put forth quite early in spring. They should be cut while they are young and tender, and about a fourth part of Common Sorrel mixed with them. In this way, Patience Dock is much used in Sweden, and may be recommended as forming an excellent spinach dish. * * * * * QUINOA (WHITE). _Law._ White-seeded Quinoa. Goose-foot. Chenopodium quinoa. An annual plant from Mexico or Peru. Its stem is five or six feet in height, erect and branching; the leaves are triangular, obtusely toothed on the borders, pale-green, mealy while young, and comparatively smooth when old; flowers whitish, very small, produced in compact clusters; seeds small, yellowish-white, round, a little flattened, about a line in diameter, and, on a cursory glance, might be mistaken for those of millet; they retain their vegetative powers three years; about twelve thousand are contained in an ounce. _Sowing and Cultivation._--It is propagated from seeds which are sown in April or May, in shallow drills three feet apart. As the seedlings increase in size, they are gradually thinned to a foot apart in the rows. The seeds ripen in September. In good soil, the plants grow vigorously, and produce seeds and foliage in great abundance. _Use._--The leaves are used as Spinach or Sorrel, or as greens. In some places, the seeds are employed as a substitute for corn or wheat in the making of bread, and are also raised for feeding poultry. _Varieties._-- BLACK-SEEDED QUINOA. The stalks of this variety are more slender, and the leaves smaller, than those of the White-seeded. The plant is also stained with brownish-red in all its parts. Seeds small, grayish-black. It is sown, and in all respects treated, like the White. The seeds and leaves are used in the same manner. RED-SEEDED QUINOA. _Law._ Chenopodium sp. This variety, or perhaps, more properly, species, is quite distinct from the White-seeded. It grows to the height of six or eight feet, and even more, with numerous long, spreading branches. The leaves are more succulent than those of the last named, and are produced in greater abundance. When sown at the same time, it ripens its seeds nearly a month later. Its foliage and seeds are used for the same purposes as the White. Sow in rows three feet apart, and thin to fifteen inches in the rows. * * * * * SEA-BEET. _Trans._ Beta maritima. The Sea-beet is a hardy, perennial plant. The roots are not eaten; but the leaves, for which it is cultivated, are an excellent substitute for Spinach, and are even preferred by many to that delicate vegetable. If planted in good soil, it will continue to supply the table with leaves for many years. The readiest method of increasing the plants is by seeds; but they may be multiplied to a small extent by dividing the roots. The early-produced leaves are the best, and these are fit for use from May until the plants begin to run to flower; but they may be continued in perfection through the whole summer and autumn by cutting off the flower-stems as they arise, and thus preventing the blossoming. There are two varieties:-- ENGLISH SEA-BEET. The English Sea-beet is a dwarfish, spreading or trailing plant, with numerous angular, leafy branches. The lower leaves are ovate, three or four inches in length, dark-green, waved on the margin, and of thick, fleshy texture; the upper leaves are smaller, and nearly sessile. Sow in April or May, in rows sixteen or eighteen inches apart, and an inch in depth; thin to twelve inches in the rows. The leaves should not be cut from seedling plants during the first season, or until the roots are well established. IRISH SEA-BEET. This differs from the preceding variety in the greater size of its leaves, which are also of a paler green: the stems are not so numerous, and it appears to be earlier in running to flower. The external differences are, however, trifling; but the flavor of this, when dressed, is far superior to that of the last named. It requires the same treatment in cultivation as the English Sea-beet. * * * * * SHEPHERD'S PURSE. Thlaspi Bursa pastoris. A hardy, annual plant, growing naturally and abundantly about gardens, roadsides, and in waste places. The root-leaves spread out from a common centre, are somewhat recumbent, pinnatifid-toothed, and, in good soil, attain a length of eight or ten inches; the stem-leaves are oval, arrow-shaped at the base, and rest closely upon the stalk. When in blossom, the plant is from twelve to fifteen inches in height; the flowers are small, white, and four-petaled; the seeds are small, of a reddish-brown color, and retain their vitality five years. _Propagation and Cultivation._--It is easily raised from seed, which should be sown in May, where the plants are to remain. Sow in shallow drills twelve or fourteen inches apart, and cover with fine mould. Thin the young plants to four inches asunder, and treat the growing crop in the usual manner during the summer. Late in autumn, cover the bed with coarse stable-litter, and remove it the last of February. In March and April, the plants will be ready for the table. _Use._--It is used in the manner of Spinach. "When boiled, the taste approaches that of the Cabbage, but is softer and milder. The plant varies wonderfully in size, and succulence of leaves, according to the nature and state of the soil where it grows. Those from the gardens and highly cultivated spots near Philadelphia come to a remarkable size, and succulence of leaf. It may be easily bleached by the common method; and, in that state, would be a valuable addition to our list of delicate culinary vegetables." In April and May it may be gathered, growing spontaneously about cultivated lands; and, though not so excellent as the cultivated plants, will yet be found of good quality. * * * * * SORREL. Rumex. sp. et var. Sorrel is a hardy perennial. The species, as well as varieties, differ to a considerable extent in height and general habit; yet their uses and culture are nearly alike. _Soil and Cultivation._--All of the sorts thrive best in rich, moist soil; but may be grown in almost any soil or situation. The seeds are sown in April or May, in drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and covered half an inch in depth. The young plants should be thinned to twelve inches apart; and, in July and August, the leaves will be sufficiently large for gathering. The varieties are propagated by dividing the roots in April or May; and this method must be adopted in propagating the dioecious kinds, when male plants are required. "The best plants, however, are obtained from seed; but the varieties, when sown, are liable to return to their original type. All the care necessary is to hoe the ground between the rows, when needed to fork it over in spring and autumn, and to take up the plants, divide and reset them every three or four years, or less frequently, if they are growing vigorously and produce full-sized leaves." All of the sorts, whether produced from seeds or by parting the roots, will send up a flower-stalk in summer; and this it is necessary to cut out when first developed, in order to render the leaves larger and more tender. The plants will require no special protection or care during the winter; though a slight covering of strawy, stable litter may be applied after the forking-over of the bed in the autumn, just before the closing-up of the ground. _Use._--It enters into most of the soups and sauces for which French cookery is so famed, and they preserve it in quantities for winter use. It forms as prominent an article in the markets of Paris as does Spinach in those of this country; and it has been asserted, that, amongst all the recent additions to our list of esculent plants, "we have not one so wholesome, so easy of cultivation, or one that would add so much to the sanitary condition of the community, particularly of that class who live much upon salt provisions." The species and varieties are as follow:-- ALPINE SORREL. Oseille des Neiges. _Vil._ Rumex nivalis. A new, perennial species, found upon the Alps, near the line of perpetual snow. The root-leaves are somewhat heart-shaped, thick, and fleshy; stem simple, with verticillate branches; flower dioecious. It is one of the earliest as well as the hardiest of the species, propagates more readily than Alpine plants in general, and is said to compare favorably in quality with the Mountain Sorrel or Patience Dock. COMMON SORREL. R. acetosa. This is a hardy perennial, and, when fully grown, is about two feet in height. The flowers--which are small, very numerous, and of a reddish color--are dioecious, the fertile and barren blossoms being produced on separate plants; the seeds are small, triangular, smooth, of a brownish color, and retain their germinative properties two years. An ounce contains nearly thirty thousand seeds. Of the Common Sorrel, there are five varieties, as follow:-- BELLEVILLE SORREL. Broad-leaved. Oseille Large de Belleville. _Vil._ Leaves ten or twelve inches long by six inches in diameter; leaf-stems red at the base. Compared with the Common Garden Sorrel, the leaves are larger and less acid. The variety is considered much superior to the last-named sort, and is the kind usually grown by market-gardeners in the vicinity of Paris. It should be planted in rows eighteen inches apart, and the plants thinned to a foot apart in the rows. BLISTERED-LEAF SORREL. _Trans._ Radical leaves nine inches long, four inches wide, oval-hastate or halberd-shaped, growing on long footstalks. The upper leaves are more blistered than those attached to the root; the flower-stems are short. The principal difference between this variety and the Common, or Broad-leaved, consists in its blistered foliage. It is slow in the development of its flower-stem, and consequently remains longer in season for use. The leaves are only slightly acid in comparison with those of the Common Sorrel. It is a perennial, and must be increased by a division of its roots; for being only a variety, and not permanently established, seedlings from it frequently return to the Belleville, from whence it sprung. FERVENT'S NEW LARGE SORREL. Oseille de Fervent. _Vil._ An excellent sort, with large, yellowish-green, blistered leaves and red leaf-stems. It is comparatively hardy, puts forth its leaves early, and produces abundantly. The rows should be eighteen inches apart. GREEN OR COMMON GARDEN SORREL. Root-leaves large, halberd-shaped, and supported on stems six inches in length. The upper leaves are small, narrow, sessile, and clasping. A hardy sort; but, on account of its greater acidity, not so highly esteemed as the Belleville. Sow in rows fifteen inches apart, and thin to eight or ten inches in the rows. SARCELLE BLOND SORREL. Blond de Sarcelle. _Vil._ This is a sub-variety of the Belleville, with longer and narrower leaves and paler leaf-stems. It puts forth its leaves earlier in the season than the Common Sorrel, and is of excellent quality. The seed rarely produces the variety in its purity, and it is generally propagated by dividing the roots. ROUND-LEAVED ON FRENCH SORREL. _Thomp._ Roman Sorrel. Oseille rond. _Vil._ R. scutatus. This is a hardy perennial, a native of France and Switzerland. Its stem is trailing, and from twelve to eighteen inches in height or length; the leaves vary in form, but are usually roundish-heart-shaped or halberd-shaped, smooth, glaucous, and entire on the borders; the flowers are hermaphrodite, yellowish; the leaves are more acid than those of the varieties of the preceding species, and for this reason are preferred by many. The variety is hardy and productive, but not much cultivated. It requires eighteen inches' space between the rows, and a foot in the rows. There is but one variety. MOUNTAIN SORREL. Oseille verge. _Vil._ R. montanus. The leaves of this variety are large, oblong, of thin texture, and of a pale-green color; the root-leaves are numerous, about nine inches long and four inches wide, slightly blistered. It is later than the Common Garden Sorrel in running to flower; and is generally propagated by dividing the roots, but may also be raised from seeds. The leaves are remarkable for their acidity. This is the _Rumex montanus_ of modern botanists, though formerly considered as a variety of _R. acetosa_. BLISTERED-LEAVED MOUNTAIN SORREL. This variety is distinguished from the Green Mountain Sorrel by its larger, more blistered, and thinner leaves. The leaf-stems are also longer, and, as well as the nerves and the under surface of the leaf, finely spotted with red. It starts early in spring, and is slow in running up to flower. GREEN MOUNTAIN SORREL. This is an improved variety of the Mountain Sorrel, and preferable to any other, from the greater size and abundance of its leaves, which possess much acidity. It is also late in running to flower. The leaves are large, numerous, ovate-sagittate, from ten to eleven inches long, and nearly five inches in width; the radical leaves are slightly blistered, and of a dark, shining green color. It can only be propagated by dividing the roots. The plants require a space of eighteen inches between the rows, and a foot from plant to plant in the rows. * * * * * SPINACH. Spinacia oleracea. Spinach is a hardy annual, of Asiatic origin. When in flower, the plant is from two to three feet in height; the stem is erect, furrowed, hollow, and branching; the leaves are smooth, succulent, and oval-oblong or halberd-shaped,--the form varying in the different varieties. The fertile and barren flowers are produced on separate plants,--the former in groups, close to the stalk at every joint; the latter in long, terminal bunches, or clusters. The seeds vary in a remarkable degree in their form and general appearance; those of some of the kinds being round and smooth, while others are angular and prickly: they retain their vitality five years. An ounce contains nearly twenty-four hundred of the prickly seeds, and about twenty-seven hundred of the round or smooth. _Soil and Cultivation._--Spinach is best developed, and most tender and succulent, when grown in rich soil. For the winter sorts, the soil can hardly be made too rich. It is always raised from seeds, which are sown in drills twelve or fourteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch in depth. The seeds are sometimes sown broadcast; but the drill method is preferable, not only because the crop can be cultivated with greater facility, but the produce is more conveniently gathered. For a succession, a few seeds of the summer varieties may be sown, at intervals of a fortnight, from April till August. _Taking the Crop._--"When the leaves are two or three inches broad, they will be fit for gathering. This is done either by cutting them up with a knife wholly to the bottom, drawing and clearing them out by the root, or only cropping the large outer leaves; the root and heart remaining to shoot out again. Either method can be adopted, according to the season or other circumstances."--_Rogers._ _To raise Seed._--Spinach seeds abundantly; and a few of the fertile plants, with one or two of the infertile, will yield all that will be required for a garden of ordinary size. Seeds of the winter sorts should be saved from autumn sowings, and from plants that have survived the winter. _Use._--The leaves and young stems are the only parts of the plant used. They are often boiled and served alone; and sometimes, with the addition of sorrel-leaves, are used in soups, and eaten with almost every description of meat. "The expressed juice is often employed by cooks and confectioners for giving a green color to made dishes. When eaten freely, it is mildly laxative, diuretic, and cooling. Of itself, it affords little nourishment. It should be boiled without the addition of water, beyond what hangs to the leaves in rinsing them; and, when cooked, the moisture which naturally comes from the leaves should be pressed out before being sent to the table. The young leaves were at one period used as a salad."--_M'Int._ _Varieties._-- FLANDERS SPINACH. _Trans._ This is a winter Spinach, and is considered superior to the Prickly or Common Winter Spinach, which is in general cultivation during the winter season in our gardens. It is equally hardy, perhaps hardier. The leaves are doubly hastate or halberd shaped, and somewhat wrinkled: the lower ones measure from twelve to fourteen inches in length, and from six to eight in breadth. They are not only larger, but thicker and more succulent, than those of the Prickly Spinach. The whole plant grows more bushy, and produces a greater number of leaves from each root; and it is sometimes later in running to seed. The seeds are like those of the Round or Summer Spinach, but larger: they are destitute of the prickles which distinguish the seeds of the Common Winter Spinach. For winter use, sow at the time directed for sowing the Large Prickly-seeded, but allow more space between the rows than for that variety; subsequent culture, and treatment during the winter, the same as the Prickly-seeded. LARGE PRICKLY-SEEDED SPINACH. Large Winter Spinach. Epinard d'Angleterre. _Vil._ Leaves comparatively large, rounded at the ends, thick and succulent. In foliage and general character, it is similar to some of the round-seeded varieties; but is much hardier, and slower in running to seed. It is commonly known as "Winter Spinach," and principally cultivated for use during this portion of the year. The seeds are planted towards the last of August, in drills a foot apart, and nearly an inch in depth. When well up, the plants should be thinned to four or five inches apart in the drills; and, if the weather is favorable, they will be stocky and vigorous at the approach of severe weather. Before the closing-up of the ground, lay strips of joist or other like material between the rows, cover all over with clean straw, and keep the bed thus protected until the approach of spring or the crop has been gathered for use. LETTUCE-LEAVED SPINACH. Epinard à Feuille de Laitue. _Vil._ Epinard Gaudry. Leaves very large, on short stems, rounded, deep-green, with a bluish tinge, less erect than those of the other varieties, often blistered on the surface, and of thick substance. It is neither so early nor so hardy as some others; but it is slow in the development of its flower-stalk, and there are few kinds more productive or of better quality. The seeds are round and smooth. For a succession, a sowing should be made at intervals of two weeks. "A variety called 'Gaudry,' if not identical, is very similar to this." SORREL-LEAVED SPINACH. Leaves of medium size, halberd-formed, deep-green, thick, and fleshy. A hardy and productive sort, similar to the Yellow or White Sorrel-leaved, but differing in the deeper color of its stalks and leaves. SUMMER OR ROUND-LEAVED SPINACH. Round Dutch. Epinard de Hollande. _Vil._ Leaves large, thick, and fleshy, rounded at the ends, and entire, or nearly entire, on the borders. This variety is generally grown for summer use; but it soon runs to seed, particularly in warm and dry weather. Where a constant supply is required, a sowing should be made every fortnight, commencing as early in spring as the frost leaves the ground. The seeds are round and smooth. Plants from the first sowing will be ready for use the last of May or early in June. In Belgium and Germany, a sub-variety is cultivated, with smaller and deeper-colored foliage, and which is slower in running to flower. It is not, however, considered preferable to the Common Summer or Round-leaved. WINTER OR COMMON PRICKLY SPINACH. Epinard ordinaire. _Vil._ Leaves seven or eight inches long, halberd-shaped, deep-green, thin in texture, and nearly erect on the stalk of the plant; seeds prickly. From this variety most of the improved kinds of Prickly Spinach have been obtained; and the Common Winter or Prickly-seeded is now considered scarcely worthy of cultivation. YELLOW SORREL-LEAVED SPINACH. White Sorrel-leaved Spinach. Blond à Feuille d'Oseille. _Vil._ The leaves of this variety are similar in form and appearance to those of the Garden Sorrel. They are of medium size, entire on the border, yellowish-white at the base, greener at the tips, and blistered on the surface. New. Represented as being hardy, productive, slow in the development of its flower-stalk, and of good quality. * * * * * WILD OR PERENNIAL SPINACH. Good King Henry. Tota Bona. Goose-foot. Blitum Bonus Henricus. A hardy perennial plant, indigenous to Great Britain, and naturalized to a very limited extent in this country. Its stem is two feet and a half in height; the leaves are arrow-shaped, smooth, deep-green, undulated on the borders, and mealy on their under surface; the flowers are numerous, small, greenish, and produced in compact groups, or clusters; the seeds are small, black, and kidney-shaped. _Propagation and Culture._--"It may be propagated by seed sown in April or May, and transplanted, when the plants are fit to handle, into a nursery-bed. In August or September, they should be again transplanted where they are to remain, setting them in rows a foot apart, and ten inches asunder in the rows, in ground of a loamy nature, trenched to the depth of fifteen or eighteen inches, as their roots penetrate to a considerable depth. The following spring, the leaves are fit to gather for use; and should be picked as they advance, taking the largest first. In this way, a bed will continue productive for several years. "Being a hardy perennial, it may also be increased by dividing the plant into pieces, each having a portion of the root and a small bit of the crown, which is thickly set with buds, which spring freely on being replanted. "Most of the species of this genus, both indigenous and exotic, are plants of easy cultivation, and may be safely used as articles of food."--_M'Int._ _Use._--The same as Spinach. CHAPTER VII. SALAD PLANTS. Alexanders. Brook-lime. Buckshorn Plantain. Burnet. Caterpillar. Celery. Celeriac, or Turnip-rooted Celery. Chervil. Chiccory, or Succory. Corchorus. Corn Salad. Cress, or Peppergrass. Cuckoo Flower. Dandelion. Endive. Horse-radish. Lettuce. Madras Radish. Mallow, Curled-leaf. Mustard. Nasturtium. Garden Picridium. Purslain. Rape. Roquette, or Rocket. Samphire. Scurvy-grass. Snails. Sweet-scented Chervil, or Sweet Cicely. Tarragon. Valeriana. Water-cress. Winter-cress, or Yellow Rocket. Wood-sorrel. Worms. * * * * * ALEXANDERS. Alisanders. Smyrnium olusatrum. A hardy, biennial plant, with foliage somewhat resembling that of Celery. Stem three to four feet high, much branched; radical leaves pale-green, compound,--those of the stem similar in form, but of smaller size. The branches of the plant terminate in large umbels, or spherical bunches of yellowish flowers; which are succeeded by roundish fruits, each of which contains two crescent-shaped seeds. _Sowing and Culture._--It thrives best in light, deep loam; and is raised from seed sown annually. Make the drills two and a half or three feet apart, and cover the seeds an inch deep. When the plants are two or three inches high, thin to twelve inches apart; or sow a few seeds in a nursery-bed, and transplant. _Blanching._--When the plants are well advanced, they should be gradually earthed up about the stems in the process of cultivation, in the manner of blanching Celery or Cardoons; like which, they are also gathered for use, and preserved during winter. _To raise Seed._--Leave a few plants unblanched; protect with stable-litter, or other convenient material, during winter; and they will flower, and produce an abundance of seeds, the following summer. _Use._--It was formerly much cultivated for its leaf-stalks; which, after being blanched, were used as a pot-herb and for salad. They have a pleasant, aromatic taste and odor; but the plant is now rarely grown, Celery being almost universally preferred. PERFOLIATE ALEXANDERS. Smyrnium perfoliatum. A hardy, biennial species, from Italy; stem three feet in height, grooved or furrowed, hollow; leaves many times divided, and of a yellowish-green color; flowers, in terminal bunches, yellowish-white; seeds black, of the form of those of the common species, but smaller. It is considered superior to the last named, as it not only blanches better, but is more crisp and tender, and not so harsh-flavored. * * * * * BROOK-LIME. American Brook-lime. Marsh Speedwell. Veronica beccabunga. Brook-lime is a native of this country, but is also common to Great Britain. It is a hardy perennial, and grows naturally in ditches, and streams of water, but is rarely cultivated. The stem is from ten to fifteen inches in height, thick, smooth, and succulent, and sends out roots at the joints, by which the plant spreads and is propagated; the leaves are opposite, oval, smooth, and fleshy; the flowers are produced in long bunches, are of a fine blue color, and stand upon short stems,--they are more or less abundant during most of the summer, and are followed by heart-shaped seed-vessels, containing small, roundish seeds. _Cultivation._--It may be propagated by dividing the roots, and setting the plants in wet localities, according to their natural habit. It will thrive well when grown with Water-cress. _Use._--The whole plant is used as a salad, in the same manner and for the same purposes as Water-cress. It is considered an excellent anti-scorbutic. * * * * * BUCKSHORN PLANTAIN. Star of the Earth. Plantago coronopus. A hardy annual, indigenous to Great Britain, France, and other countries of Europe. The root-leaves are put forth horizontally, and spread regularly about a common centre somewhat in the form of a rosette; the flower-stem is leafless, branching, and from eight to ten inches high; flowers yellow; the seeds are quite small, of a clear, brown color, and retain their power of germination three years,--nearly two hundred and thirty thousand are contained in an ounce. _Soil and Cultivation._--It succeeds best in a soil comparatively light; and the seed should be sown in April. Sow thinly, broadcast, or in shallow drills eight inches apart. When the plants are about an inch high, thin them to three or four inches apart. _Use._--The plant is cultivated for its leaves, which are used as a salad. They should be plucked while still young and tender, or when about half grown. * * * * * BURNET. _Mill._ Poterium sanguisorba. Burnet is a hardy, perennial plant, indigenous to England, where it is found on dry, upland, chalky soils. When fully developed, it is from a foot and a half to two feet in height. The leaves proceeding directly from the root are produced on long stems, and are composed of from eleven to fifteen smaller leaves, which are of an oval form, regularly toothed, and generally, but not uniformly, smooth. The branches, which are somewhat numerous, terminate in long, slender stems, each of which produces an oval or roundish bunch of purplish-red, fertile and infertile flowers. The fertile flowers produce two seeds each, which ripen in August or September. These are oblong, four-sided, of a yellowish color, and retain their vitality two years. Thirty-five hundred are contained in an ounce. _Sowing and Culture._--The plant is easily propagated by seeds, which may be sown either in autumn or spring. Sow in drills ten inches apart, half or three-fourths of an inch deep; and thin, while the plants are young, to six or eight inches in the row. If the seeds are allowed to scatter from the plants in autumn, young seedlings will come up plentifully in the following spring, and may be transplanted to the distances before directed. In dry soil, the plants will continue for many years; requiring no further care than to be occasionally hoed, and kept free from weeds. It may also be propagated by dividing the roots; but, as it is easily grown from seeds, this method is not generally practised. _Use._--The leaves have a warm, piquant taste, and, when bruised, resemble cucumbers in odor. They are sometimes used as salad, and occasionally form an ingredient in soups. The roots, after being dried and pulverized, are employed in cases of internal hemorrhage. It is very little used in this country, and rarely seen in gardens. _Varieties._--There are three varieties; the distinctions, however, being neither permanent nor important. HAIRY-LEAVED BURNET. Leaves and stems comparatively rough or hairy; in other respects, similar to the Smooth-leaved. Either of the varieties may be propagated by dividing the roots. LARGE-SEEDED BURNET. This, like the others, is a sub-variety, and probably but a seminal variation. SMOOTH-LEAVED BURNET. Leaves and stems of the plant comparatively smooth, but differing in no other particular from the Hairy-leaved. Seeds from this variety would probably produce plants answering to both descriptions. * * * * * CATERPILLAR. Chenille, of the French. _Vil._ Scorpiurus. All of the species here described are hardy, annual plants, with creeping or recumbent stems, usually about two feet in length. The leaves are oblong, entire on the borders, broadest near the ends, and taper towards the stem; the flowers are yellow, and quite small; the seeds are produced in caterpillar-like pods, and retain their vitality five years. _Cultivation._--The seeds may be planted in the open ground in April or May; or the plants may be started in a hot-bed, and set out after settled warm weather. The rows should be fifteen inches apart, and the plants twelve or fifteen inches apart in the rows; or the plants may be grown in hills two feet and a half apart, and two or three plants allowed to a hill. _Use._--No part of the plant is eatable; but the pods, in their green state, are placed upon dishes of salads, where they so nearly resemble certain species of caterpillars as to completely deceive the uninitiated or inexperienced. _Species._--The species cultivated are the following; viz.:-- COMMON CATERPILLAR. Chenille grosse. _Vil._ Scorpiurus vermiculata. Pod, or fruit, comparatively large. The interior grooves, or furrows, are indistinct, or quite wanting: the exterior grooves are ten in number, and well defined. Along the summit of these furrows are produced numerous, small, pedicelled tubercles, quite similar to those of some species of worms or caterpillars; and these small tufts, in connection with the brownish-green color and peculiar coiling of the pods, make the resemblance nearly perfect, especially if seen from a short distance. The seeds are large, oblong, flattened at the ends, and of a yellowish color. A well-developed fruit will measure about three-eighths of an inch in diameter; and, when uncoiled, nearly an inch and a half in length. FURROWED CATERPILLAR. Chenille rayée. _Vil._ Scorpiurus sulcata. Fruit rather slender, furrowed, grayish-green within the furrows, and brown along the summits. Four of the exterior furrows are surmounted with numerous small, obtuse, or rounded tubercles; and the pods are coiled in the manner peculiar to the class. The seeds resemble those of the Prickly Caterpillar, but are of larger size. PRICKLY CATERPILLAR. _Vil._ Small Caterpillar. Scorpiurus muricata. Pod, or fruit, a fourth of an inch in diameter, curved or coiled; longitudinally furrowed, with numerous, small, erect, tufted points, regularly arranged along the surface. It is of a brownish-red color, with shades of green; and, when well grown, bears a remarkable resemblance to some species of hairy worms or caterpillars. The seeds are large, long, wrinkled, and of a yellowish color. VILLOUS OR HAIRY CATERPILLAR. Chenille velue. _Vil._ Scorpiurus subvillosa. This species resembles the Prickly Caterpillar, but is a little larger. The most marked distinction, however, is in the small points, or tubercles, placed along the longitudinal ridges, which in this species are recurved, or bent at the tips. The seeds are larger than those of the foregoing species. * * * * * CELERY. Smallage. Apium graveolens. Celery, or Smallage, is a hardy, umbelliferous, biennial plant, growing naturally "by the sides of ditches and near the sea, where it rises with wedge-shaped leaves and a furrowed stalk, producing greenish flowers in August." Under cultivation, the leaves are pinnatifid, with triangular leaflets; the leaf-stems are large, rounded, grooved, succulent, and solid or hollow according to the variety. The plant flowers during the second year, and then measures from two to three feet in height; the flowers are small, yellowish-white, and are produced in umbels, or flat, spreading groups, at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are small, somewhat triangular, of a yellowish-brown color, aromatic when bruised, and of a warm, pleasant flavor. They are said to retain their germinative powers ten years; but, by seedsmen, are not considered reliable when more than five years old. An ounce contains nearly seventy thousand seeds. _Soil._--Any good garden soil, in a fair state of cultivation, is adapted to the growth of Celery. _Propagation._--It is always propagated by seed; one-fourth of an ounce of which is sufficient for a seed-bed five feet wide and ten feet long. The first sowing is usually made in a hot-bed in March: and it may be sown in the open ground in April or May; but, when so treated, vegetates slowly, often remaining in the earth several weeks before it comes up. "A bushel or two of stable manure, put in a hole in the ground against a wall or any fence facing the south, and covered with a rich, fine mould three or four inches deep, will bring the seed up in two weeks." If this method is practised, sprinkle the seed thinly over the surface of the loam, stir the soil to the depth of half an inch, and press the earth flat and smooth with the back of a spade. Sufficient plants for any family may be started in a large flower-pot or two, placed in the sitting-room, giving them plenty of light and moisture. _Cultivation._--As soon as the young plants are about three inches high, prepare a small bed in the open air, and make the ground rich and the earth fine. Here set out the plants for a temporary growth, placing them four inches apart. This should be done carefully; and they should be gently watered once, and protected for a day or two against the sun. "A bed ten feet long and four feet wide will contain three hundred and sixty plants; and, if they be well cultivated, will more than supply the table of a common-sized family from October to May." "In this bed the plants should remain till the beginning or middle of July, when they should be removed into trenches. Make the trenches a foot or fifteen inches deep and a foot wide, and not less than five feet apart. Lay the earth taken out of the trenches into the middle of the space between the trenches, so that it may not be washed into them by heavy rains; for it will, in such case, materially injure the crop by covering the hearts of the plants. At the bottom of the trench put some good, rich, but well-digested compost manure; for, if too fresh, the Celery will be rank and pipy, or hollow, and will not keep nearly so long or so well. Dig this manure in, and make the earth fine and light; then take up the plants from the temporary bed, and set them out carefully in the bottom of the trenches, six or eight inches apart."--_Corb._ It is the practice of some cultivators, at the time of setting in the trenches, to remove all the suckers, to shorten the long roots, and to cut the leaves off, so that the whole plant shall be about six inches in length. But the best growers in England have abandoned this method, and now set the plants, roots and tops, entire. _Blanching._--"When the plants begin to grow (which they will quickly do), hoe on each side and between them with a small hoe. As they grow up, earth their stems; that is, put the earth up against them, but not too much at a time, and always when the plants are dry; and let the earth put up be finely broken, and not at all cloddy. While this is being done, keep the stalks of the outside leaves close up, to prevent the earth getting between the stems of the outside leaves and inner ones; for, if it gets there, it checks the plant, and makes the Celery bad. When the earthing is commenced, take first the edges of the trenches, working backwards, time after time, till the earth is reached that was taken from the trenches; and, by this time, the earth against the plants will be above the level of the land. Then take the earth out of the middle, till at last the earth against the plants forms a ridge; and the middle of each interval, a sort of gutter. Earth up very often, not putting up much at a time, every week a little; and by the last of September, or beginning of October, it will be blanched sufficient for use."--_Corb._ Another (more recent) method of cultivation and blanching is to take the plants from the temporary bed, remove the suckers, and set them with the roots entire, ten inches apart in the trenches. They are then allowed to grow until they have attained nearly their full size, when the earth for blanching is more rapidly applied than in the previous method. "Many plant on the surface,--that is, marking out the size of the bed on ground that has been previously trenched; digging in at least six or eight inches of rich, half-decayed manure, and planting either in single lines four feet apart, or making beds six feet broad, and planting across them, setting the rows fourteen inches apart, and the plants eight inches apart in the lines. They may be earthed up as they advance, or not, until they have attained the height of a foot."--_M'Int._ M'Intosh gives the following method, practised by the Edinburgh market-gardeners: "Trenches, six feet wide and one foot deep, are dug out; the bottom is loosened and well enriched, and the plants set in rows across the bed, fourteen inches asunder, and the plants nine inches apart in the rows. By this means, space is economized, and the plants attain a fair average size and quality. The same plan is very often followed in private gardens; and, where the new and improved sorts are grown, they arrive at the size most available for family use. This is one of the best methods for amateurs to grow this crop. They should grow their plants in the temporary or nursery beds until they are ten inches or a foot high, before planting in the trenches; giving plenty of water, and afterwards earthing up once a fortnight." Some allow the plants to make a natural growth, and earth up at once, about three weeks before being required for use. When so treated, the stalks are of remarkable whiteness, crisp, tender, and less liable to russet-brown spots than when the plants are blanched by the more common method. _Taking the Crop._--Before the closing-up of the ground, the principal part of the crop should be carefully taken up (retaining the roots and soil naturally adhering), and removed to the cellar; where they should be packed in moderately moist earth or sand, without covering the ends of the leaves. A portion may be allowed to remain in the open ground; but the hearts of the plants must be protected from wet weather. This may be done by placing boards lengthwise, in the form of a roof, over the ridges. As soon as the frost leaves the ground in spring, or at any time during the winter when the weather will admit, Celery may be taken for use directly from the garden. _Seed._--Two or three plants will produce an abundance. They should be grown two feet apart, and may remain in the open ground during the winter. The seeds ripen in August. _Use._--The stems of the leaves are the parts of the plant used. These, after being blanched, are exceedingly crisp and tender, with an agreeable and peculiarly aromatic flavor. They are sometimes employed in soups; but are more generally served crude, with the addition of oil, mustard, and vinegar, or with salt only. The seeds have the taste and odor of the stems of the leaves, and are often used in their stead for flavoring soups. With perhaps the exception of Lettuce, Celery is more generally used in this country than any other salad plant. It succeeds well throughout the Northern and Middle States; and, in the vicinity of some of our large cities, is produced of remarkable size and excellence. _Varieties._-- BOSTON-MARKET CELERY. A medium-sized, white variety; hardy, crisp, succulent, and mild flavored. Compared with the White Solid, the stalks are more numerous, shorter, not so thick, and much finer in texture. It blanches quickly, and is recommended for its hardiness and crispness; the stalks rarely becoming stringy or fibrous, even at an advanced stage of growth. Much grown by market-gardeners in the vicinity of Boston, Mass. COLE'S SUPERB RED. _M'Int._ This is comparatively a new sort, of much excellence, and of remarkable solidity. It is not of large size, but well adapted for cultivation in the kitchen-garden and for family use; not so well suited for marketing or for exhibition purposes. It has the valuable property of not piping or becoming hollow or stringy, and remains long without running to seed. The leaf-stalks are of a fine purple color, tender, crisp, and fine flavored. A well-grown plant will weigh about six pounds. COLE'S SUPERB WHITE. Much like Cole's Superb Red; differing little, except in color. An excellent sort, hardy, runs late to seed, and is one of the most crisp and tender of the white sorts. Stalks short and thick. DWARF CURLED WHITE. Céleri Nain frisé. _Vil._ Leaves dark-green, curled, resembling those of Parsley, and, like it, might be employed for garnishing. Leaf-stalks rounded and grooved, comparatively crisp and solid, but not fine flavored. It is quite hardy, and, in moderate winters, will remain in the open ground without injury, and serve for soups in spring. Its fine, curled foliage, however, is its greatest recommendation. EARLY DWARF SOLID WHITE. _Thomp._ Céleri plein, blanc, court, hâtif. _Vil._ Rather dwarf, but thick-stemmed. The heart is remarkably full; the leaf-stalk solid, blanching promptly. There is, in fact, much more finely blanched substance in a plant of this variety than in one of the tall sorts, and the quality is excellent. It comes into use rather early, and is one of the hardiest of the White varieties. ITALIAN CELERY. _Thomp._ Large Upright. Giant Patagonian. A tall, strong-growing, erect sort; leaf-stems deeply furrowed, sometimes a little hollow; leaves large, deep-green, with coarse, obtuse serratures. It is not so crisp as the Common White Solid; and is suitable only for soups, or where very tall Celery is desirable. LAING'S IMPROVED MAMMOTH RED CELERY. This is considered the largest variety yet produced; specimens having attained, in England, the extraordinary weight of eight or ten pounds, and at the same time perfectly solid. It is nearly perennial in its habit, as it will not run to seed the first year; and is with difficulty started to blossom even during the second, when planted out for the purpose. Color bright-red; flavor unsurpassed, if equalled. MANCHESTER RED CELERY. _Thomp._ Manchester Red Giant. This variety scarcely differs from the Red Solid. It has, however, a coarser habit, with a somewhat rounder stalk; and, this being the case, the heart is not so compact. It is grown largely for marketing, and is excellent for soups and stewing. NUTT'S CHAMPION WHITE CELERY. _M'Int._ Originated with Mr. Nutt, of Sheffield. It attains, under good management, in good soil, a large size, and, this considered, is of excellent quality; very white, and not apt to run to seed. RED SOLID. _Thomp._ New Large Red. New Large Purple. Tours Purple. Céleri violet de Tours. The plant grows to a large size, full-hearted, with a thick stem. Leaf-stalks thick, deeply furrowed, and very solid, of a dark-red or purplish hue where exposed, rose-colored where partially blanched; but the perfectly blanched portion is pure white, more so than the blanched part of the White varieties of Celery. It is also crisp, of excellent flavor, and unquestionably the best variety of Red Celery. SEYMOUR'S SUPERB WHITE. _Thomp._ Seymour's Superb White Solid. A large-sized, vigorous-growing variety; in good soils, often attaining a height of nearly three feet. The stalks are solid; flat at the base, where they overlap, and form a compact, crisp, and, with ordinary care, a well-blanched heart of excellent quality. It succeeds best, as most other sorts do, in rich, moist soil; and when so grown, and properly blanched, will yield a large proportion of Celery, of a pure white color, and of the best quality. It is one of the best sorts for extensive culture for the markets, as it is also one of the best varieties for small gardens for family use. It blanches readily; and, with little care, will supply the table, from the last of September, through most of the winter. SEYMOUR'S WHITE CHAMPION. A variety represented as being superior to Seymour's Superb White. The stalks are broad, flat at the base, and form a compact, well-blanched, crisp heart. SHEPHERD'S RED. _Thomp._ Shepherd's Giant Red. Much like the Manchester Red, but has flatter stems: consequently, it is more compact, and blanches sooner and more perfectly, than that variety; to which, for these reasons, it is preferred by growers for competition. SMALL DUTCH CELERY. Céleri à couper. _Vil._ Leaf-stems small, hollow, crisp, and succulent; sprouts, or suckers, abundant. It is seldom blanched; but the leaves are sometimes used for flavoring soups. The seeds should be sown thickly, and on level beds. The plants often resprout after being cut. Not much cultivated. SUTTON'S WHITE SOLID. _M'Int._ A very large yet solid-growing variety, exceedingly white and crisp. TURKEY OR PRUSSIAN CELERY. Giant White. Céleri turc. _Vil._ Turkish Giant Solid. A remarkably large variety, resembling the Common White Solid. Leaf-stalks long, large, erect, fleshy, and solid; leaves large, with rounded serratures, and of a glossy-green color. It is one of the largest of the White sorts, and is considered superior to the Common White Solid. WALL'S WHITE CELERY. _Thomp._ An improved variety of the Italian, esteemed by growers for competition, where quantity, not quality, is the principal consideration. WHITE LION'S-PAW CELERY. _M'Int._ Lion's-paw. A short, broad, flat-stalked variety, of excellent quality; crisp and white. Its short, flat, spreading habit gave rise to its name. WHITE SOLID. _Thomp._ Céleri plein, blanc. _Vil._ Fine White Solid. This variety is of strong and rather tall growth; leaf-stalks generally solid, but when grown in rich, highly manured soil, they sometimes become slightly hollow; leaves large, smooth, bright-green; serratures large and obtuse. It blanches readily, is crisp, of excellent quality, and comes into use earlier than the Red sorts. It is generally cultivated in the Northern States, not only on account of its hardiness, but for its keeping qualities. As a market variety, it is one of the best. * * * * * CELERIAC, OR TURNIP-ROOTED CELERY. This variety forms at the base of the leaves, near the surface of the ground, a brownish, irregular, rounded root, or tuber, measuring from three to four inches in diameter. The leaves are small, with slender, hollow stems. In favorable exposures and rich soil, the roots sometimes attain a weight of more than three pounds. It is much hardier than the common varieties of Celery. _Propagation._--It is propagated from seeds, which may be sown in the open ground in April or May, in shallow drills six or eight inches apart. "When the young plants are three inches high, they should be removed, and set on the surface (not in trenches), in moderately enriched soil. They should be set in rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot from each other in the line. At the time of transplanting, all of the small suckers, or side-shoots, should be rubbed off,--a precaution to be kept in view throughout its growth,--as the energies of the whole plant ought to be directed to the formation of the bulb-like root."--_M'Int._ _Subsequent Cultivation._--The growing crop will require no peculiar treatment. When the bulbs are two-thirds grown, they are earthed over for the purpose of blanching, and to render the flesh crisp and tender. Cool and humid seasons are the most favorable to their growth. In warm and dry weather, the bulbs are small, comparatively tough, and strong flavored. _Taking the Crop._--Some of the bulbs will be ready for use in September; from which time, till the last of November, the table may be supplied directly from the garden. Before severe weather, the quantity required for winter should be drawn, packed in damp earth or sand, and stored in the cellar. _To save Seed._--Give to a few plants, taken up in the autumn, as much light and air as possible during the winter, keeping them cool, but not allowing them to freeze; and, in April, set them in the open ground, eighteen inches apart. The seed will ripen the last of the season. It is often used in the manner of the seed of the Common Celery for seasoning soups. _Use._--The root, or bulb, is the part of the plant eaten: the flesh of this is white, and comparatively tender, with the flavor of the stalks of Common Celery, though generally less mild and delicate. It is principally valued for its remarkable hardiness and for its keeping properties. Where the common varieties of Celery are grown or preserved with difficulty, this might be successfully grown, and afford a tolerable substitute. The bulbs are sometimes eaten boiled, and the leaves are occasionally used in soups. CURLED-LEAVED CELERIAC. Curled-leaved Turnip-rooted. Céleri-rave frisé. _Vil._ This is a variety of the Common Celeriac, or Turnip-rooted Celery; like which, it forms a sort of bulb, or knob, near the surface of the ground. It is, however, of smaller size; usually measuring about three inches in diameter. The skin is brown, and the flesh white and fine-grained; leaves small, spreading, curled. It is in no respect superior to the Common Turnip-rooted, and possesses little merit aside from the peculiarity of its foliage. Cultivate, preserve during winter, and use as directed for the common variety. EARLY ERFURT CELERIAC. Céleri-rave d'Erfurt. _Vil._ A very early variety. Root, or bulb, not large, but regular in form. Its earliness is its principal merit. CHERVIL. Chærophyllum cerefolium. Common or Plain-leaved. A hardy, annual plant, from the south of Europe. Stem eighteen inches to two feet in height; the leaves are many times divided, and are similar to those of the Common Plain Parsley; the flowers are small, white, and produced in umbels at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are black, long, pointed, longitudinally grooved, and retain their vitality but two years,--nearly nine thousand are contained in an ounce. "This is the most common sort; but, except that it is hardier than the Curled varieties, is not worthy of cultivation." CURLED CHERVIL. _M'Int._ A variety of the Common Chervil, with frilled or curled leaves; the distinction between the sorts being nearly the same as that between the Plain-leaved and Curled-leaved varieties of Parsley. The foliage is delicately and beautifully frilled; and, on this account, is much employed for garnishing, as well as for the ordinary purposes for which the plain sort is used. Being a larger grower, it requires more room for its development; and the plants should stand a foot apart each way. When intended for winter use, it should have the protection of hand-glasses, frames, or branches of trees placed thickly around or amongst it. In very unfavorable situations, it is well to pot a dozen or two plants, and shelter them under glass during the winter. FRIZZLED-LEAVED OR FRENCH CHERVIL. _M'Int._ Double-curled. Cerfeuil frisé. _Vil._ An improved variety of the Curled Chervil,--even more beautiful; but wanting in hardiness. It succeeds best when grown in the summer months. _Propagation and Cultivation._--Chervil is raised from seeds; and, where it is much used, sowings should be made, at intervals of three or four weeks, from April till July. The seeds should be sown thinly, in drills a foot apart, and covered nearly an inch in depth. _Use._--It is cultivated for its leaves, which have a pleasant, aromatic taste; and, while young and tender, are employed for flavoring soups and salads. * * * * * CHICCORY, OR SUCCORY. Wild Endive. Cichorium intybus. A hardy, perennial plant, introduced into this country from Europe, and often abounding as a troublesome weed in pastures, lawns, and mowing-lands. The stem is erect, stout, and branching, and, in its native state, usually about three feet in height,--under cultivation, however, it sometimes attains a height of five or six feet; the radical leaves are deep-green, lobed, and, when grown in good soil, measure ten or twelve inches in length, and four inches in width; the flowers are large, axillary, nearly stemless, of a fine blue color, and generally produced in pairs; the seeds somewhat resemble those of Endive, though ordinarily smaller, more glossy, and of a deeper-brown color,--they will keep ten years. The plants continue in blossom from July to September; and the seeds ripen from August to October, or until the plants are destroyed by frost. _Soil, Sowing, and Cultivation._--As the roots of Chiccory are long and tapering, it should be cultivated in rich, mellow soil, thoroughly stirred, either by the plough or spade, to the depth of ten or twelve inches. The seed should be sown in April or May, in drills fifteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch deep. When the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them to eight inches apart in the rows; and, during the summer, cultivate frequently, to keep the soil light, and the growing crop free from weeds. _Blanching._--Before using as a salad, the plants are blanched, either by covering with boxes a foot in depth, or by strips of boards twelve or fourteen inches wide, nailed together at right angles, and placed lengthwise over the rows. They are sometimes blanched by covering with earth; the leaves being first gathered together, and tied loosely at the top, which should be left exposed to light. _To save Seed._--In the autumn, leave a few of the best plants unblanched; let them be about eighteen inches asunder. Protect with stable litter; or, if in a sheltered situation, leave them unprotected during winter, and they will yield abundantly the ensuing summer. _Taking the Crop._--When the leaves are properly blanched, they will be of a delicate, creamy white. When they are about a foot high, they will be ready for use; and, as soon as they are cut, the roots should be removed, and others brought forward to succeed them. "In cutting, take off the leaves with a thin slice of the crown, to keep them together, as in cutting sea-kale. When washed, and tied up in small bundles of a handful each, they are fit for dressing."--_M'Int._ _Use._--It is used as Endive; its flavor and properties being much the same. Though rarely grown in this country, it is common to the gardens of many parts of Europe, and is much esteemed. The blanched leaves are known as _Barbe de Capucin_, or "Friar's Beard." _Varieties._-- IMPROVED CHICCORY, OR SUCCORY. Chicorée sauvage améliorée. _Vil._ Leaves larger than those of the Common Chiccory, and produced more compactly; forming a sort of head, or solid heart, like some of the Endives. The plant is sometimes boiled and served in the manner of Spinach. VARIEGATED OR SPOTTED CHICCORY. _Vil._ This is a variety of the preceding, distinguished by the color of the leaves, which are veined, and streaked with red. In blanching, the red is not changed, but retains its brilliancy; while the green becomes nearly pure white,--the two colors blending in rich contrast. In this state they form a beautiful, as well as tender and well-flavored, salad. IMPROVED VARIEGATED CHICCORY. _Vil._ A sub-variety of the Spotted Chiccory, more constant in its character, and more uniform and distinct in its stripes and variegations. When blanched, it makes an exceedingly delicate and beautiful garnish, and a tender and excellent salad. Either of the improved sorts are as hardy, and blanch as readily, as the Common Chiccory. LARGE-ROOTED OR COFFEE CHICCORY. Turnip-rooted Chiccory. This variety is distinguished by its long, fleshy roots, which are sometimes fusiform, but generally much branched or divided: when well grown, they are twelve or fourteen inches in length, and about an inch in their largest diameter. The leaves have the form of those of the Common Chiccory, but are larger, and more luxuriant. Though the variety is generally cultivated for its roots, the leaves, when blanched, afford a salad even superior to some of the improved sorts before described. Vilmorin mentions two sub-varieties of the Large-rooted or Coffee Chiccory; viz.:-- BRUNSWICK LARGE-ROOTED. Roots shorter than those of the Magdebourg, but of greater diameter; leaves spreading. MAGDEBOURG LARGE-ROOTED. Roots long, and comparatively large; leaves erect. After several years' trial, preference was given to this variety, which proved the more productive. _Sowing and Cultivation._--For raising Coffee Chiccory, the ground should first be well enriched, and then deeply and thoroughly stirred by spading or ploughing. The seeds should be sown in April or May, in shallow drills a foot apart, and the young plants thinned to three or four inches apart in the rows. Hoe frequently; water, if the weather is dry; and in the autumn, when the roots have attained sufficient size, draw them for use. After being properly cleaned, cut them into small pieces, dry them thoroughly in a kiln or spent oven, and store for use or the market. After being roasted and ground, Chiccory is mixed with coffee in various proportions, and thus forms a pleasant beverage; or, if used alone, will be found a tolerable substitute for genuine coffee. The roots of any of the before-described varieties may be used in the same manner; but as they are much smaller, and consequently less productive, are seldom cultivated for the purpose. It is an article of considerable commercial importance; large quantities being annually imported from the south of Europe to different seaports of the United States. As the plant is perfectly hardy, of easy culture, and quite productive, there appears to be no reason why the home demand for the article may not be supplied by home production. Of its perfect adaptedness to the soil and climate of almost any section of this country, there can scarcely be a doubt. * * * * * CORCHORUS. Corette potagère, of the French. Corchorus olitorius. An annual plant from Africa; also indigenous to the West Indies. Stem about two feet high, much branched; leaves deep-green, slightly toothed, varying in a remarkable degree in their size and form,--some being spear-shaped, others oval, and some nearly heart-shaped; leaf-stems long and slender; flowers nearly sessile, small, yellow, five-petaled; seeds angular, pointed, and of a greenish color,--fourteen thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality four years. _Soil, Propagation, and Culture._--The plant requires a light, warm soil; and should have a sheltered, sunny place in the garden. It is grown from seed sown annually. The sowing may be made in March in a hot-bed, and the plants set in the open ground in May; or the seed may be sown the last of April, or first of May, in the place where the plants are to remain. The drills, or rows, should be fifteen inches apart, and the plants five or six inches apart in the rows. No further attention will be required, except the ordinary labor of keeping the soil loose and the plants clear from weeds. _Use._--The leaves are eaten as a salad, and are also boiled and served at table in the form of greens or spinach. They may be cut as soon as they have reached a height of five or six inches. * * * * * CORN SALAD. Fetticus. Lamb's Lettuce. Mâche, of the French. Valeriana locusta. This is a small, hardy, annual plant, said to derive its name from its spontaneous growth, in fields of wheat, in England. It is also indigenous to France and the south of Europe. When in flower, or fully grown, it is from twelve to fifteen inches in height. The flowers are small, pale-blue; the seeds are rather small, of a yellowish-brown color, unequally divided by two shallow, lengthwise grooves, and will keep six or eight years. _Soil and Culture._--It is always grown from seed, and flourishes best in good vegetable loam, but will grow in any tolerably enriched garden soil. Early in April, prepare a bed four feet wide, and of a length according to the quantity of salad required; having regard to the fact, that it is better to sow only a small quantity at a time. Rake the surface of the bed even, make the rows across the bed about eight inches apart, sow the seed rather thinly, and cover about one-fourth of an inch deep with fine, moist soil. If dry weather occurs after sowing, give the bed a good supply of water. When the young plants are two inches high, thin them to four inches apart, and cut or draw for use as soon as the leaves have attained a suitable size. As the peculiar value of Corn Salad lies in its remarkable hardiness, a sowing should be made the last of August or beginning of September, for use during the winter or early in spring; but, if the weather is severe, the plants must be protected by straw or some other convenient material. Early in March, or as soon as the weather becomes a little mild, remove the covering, and the plants will keep the table supplied until the leaves from fresh sowings shall be grown sufficiently for cutting. _Seed._--To raise seed, allow a few plants from the spring sowing to remain without cutting. They will grow up to the height and in the manner before described, and blossom, and ripen their seed during the summer. An ounce of seed will sow a row two hundred feet in length, and about five pounds will be required for an acre. _Use._--The leaves, while young, are used as a salad; and in winter, or early in spring, are considered excellent. They are also sometimes boiled and served as Spinach. _Varieties._-- COMMON CORN SALAD. Root-leaves rounded at the ends, smooth, three or four inches long by about an inch in width. The younger the plants are when used, the more agreeable will be their flavor. LARGE ROUND-LEAVED. Leaves larger, of a deeper green, thicker, and more succulent, than those of the foregoing variety. It is the best sort for cultivation. The leaves are most tender, and should be cut for use while young and small. LARGE-SEEDED ROUND. _Vil._ This is a sub-variety of the Large Round, and is much cultivated in Germany and Holland. The leaves are longer, narrower, and thinner, and more tender when eaten; but the Large Round is preferred by gardeners for marketing, as it bears transportation better. The seeds are about twice as large. ITALIAN CORN SALAD. _Vil._ Valerianella eriocarpa. The Italian Corn Salad is a distinct species, and differs from the Common Corn Salad in its foliage, and, to some extent, in its general habit. It is a hardy annual, about eighteen inches high. The radical leaves are pale-green, large, thick, and fleshy,--those of the stalk long, narrow, and pointed; the flowers are small, pale-blue, washed or stained with red; the seeds are of a light-brown color, somewhat compressed, convex on one side, hollowed on the opposite, and retain their vitality five years,--nearly twenty-two thousand are contained in an ounce. It is cultivated and used in the same manner as the species before described. It is, however, earlier, milder in flavor, and slower in running to seed. The leaves are sometimes employed early in spring as a substitute for Spinach; but their downy or hairy character renders them less valuable for salad purposes than those of some of the varieties of the Common Corn Salad. * * * * * CRESS, OR PEPPERGRASS. Lepidium sativum. The Common Cress of the garden is a hardy annual, and a native of Persia. When in flower, the stem of the plant is smooth and branching, and about fifteen inches high. The leaves are variously divided, and are plain or curled, according to the variety; the flowers are white, very small, and produced in groups, or bunches; seeds small, oblong, rounded, of a reddish-brown color, and of a peculiar, pungent odor,--about fourteen thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their germinative properties five years. _Soil and Cultivation._--Cress will flourish in any fair garden soil, and is always best when grown early or late in the season. The seed vegetates quickly, and the plants grow rapidly. As they are milder and more tender while young, the seed should be sown in succession, at intervals of about a fortnight; making the first sowing early in April. Rake the surface of the ground fine and smooth, and sow the seed rather thickly, in shallow drills six or eight inches apart. Half an ounce of seed will be sufficient for thirty feet of drill. _To raise Seed._--Leave a dozen strong plants of the first sowing uncut. They will ripen their seed in August, and yield a quantity sufficient for the supply of a garden of ordinary size. _Use._--The leaves, while young, have a warm, pungent taste; and are eaten as a salad, either separately, or mixed with lettuce or other salad plants. The leaves should be cut or plucked before the plant has run to flower, as they then become acrid and unpalatable. The curled varieties are also used for garnishing. BROAD-LEAVED CRESS. A coarse variety, with broad, spatulate leaves. It is sometimes grown for feeding poultry, and is also used for soups; but it is less desirable as a salad than most of the other sorts. COMMON OR PLAIN-LEAVED CRESS. This is the variety most generally cultivated. It has plain leaves, and consequently is not so desirable a sort for garnishing. As a salad kind, it is tender and delicate, and considered equal, if not superior, to the Curled varieties. CURLED CRESS. Garnishing Cress. Leaves larger than those of the common plain variety, of a fine green color, and frilled and curled on the borders in the manner of some kinds of Parsley. It is used as a salad, and is also employed as a garnish. It is very liable to degenerate by becoming gradually less curled. To keep the variety pure, select only the finest curled plants for seed. GOLDEN CRESS. _Trans._ This variety is of slower growth than the Common Cress. The leaves are of a yellowish-green, flat, oblong, scalloped on the borders, sometimes entire, and of a much thinner texture than any of the varieties of the Common Cress. It is very dwarf; and is consequently short, when cut as a salad-herb for use. It has a mild and delicate flavor. When run to flower, it does not exceed eighteen inches in height. It deserves more general cultivation, as affording a pleasant addition to the varieties of small salads. The seeds are of a paler color, or more yellow, than those of the other sorts. NORMANDY CURLED CRESS. _M'int._ A very excellent variety, introduced by Mr. Charles M'Intosh, and described as being hardier than the other kinds, and therefore better adapted for sowing early in spring or late in summer. The leaves are finely cut and curled, and make not only a good salad, but a beautiful garnish. The seed should be sown thinly, in good soil, in drills six inches apart. In gathering, instead of cutting the plants over, the leaves should be picked off singly. After this operation, fresh leaves are soon put forth. It is difficult to procure the seed true; the Common Curled being, in general, substituted for it. * * * * * CUCKOO FLOWER. Small Water-cress. Cardamine pratensis. A hardy, perennial plant, introduced from Europe, and naturalized to a limited extent in some of the Northern States. Stem about fifteen inches high, erect, smooth; leaves deeply divided,--the divisions of the radical or root leaves rounded, those of the stalk long, narrow, and pointed; the flowers are comparatively large, white, or rose-colored, and produced in erect, terminal clusters; the seeds are of a brown color, small, oblong, shortened on one side, rounded on the opposite, and retain their vegetating powers four years,--nearly thirty thousand are contained in an ounce. _Soil._--It succeeds best in moist, loamy soil; and should have a shady situation. _Propagation and Cultivation._--It may be propagated from seeds, or by a division of the roots. The seeds are sown in April or May, in shallow drills a foot asunder. The roots may be divided in spring or autumn. _Use._--The leaves have the warm, pungent taste common to the Cress family; and are used in their young state, like Cress, as a salad. Medically, they have the reputation of being highly antiscorbutic and of aiding digestion. There are four varieties:-- _White Flowering._--A variety with white, single flowers. _Purple Flowering._--Flowers purple, single. Either of these varieties may be propagated from seeds, or by a division of the roots. _Double Flowering White._--Flowers white, double. _Double Flowering Purple._--A double variety, with purple blossoms. These varieties are propagated by a division of the roots. Double-flowering plants are rarely produced from seeds. * * * * * THE DANDELION. Leontodon taraxacum. The Dandelion, though spontaneously abundant, is not a native of this country. Introduced from Europe, it has become extensively naturalized, abounding in gardens, on lawns, about cultivated lands; and, in May and June, often, of itself alone, constituting no inconsiderable portion of the herbage of rich pastures and mowing-fields. It is a hardy, perennial plant, with an irregular, branching, brownish root. The leaves are all radical, long, runcinate, or deeply and sharply toothed; the flower-stem is from six to twelve inches and upwards in height, leafless, and produces at its top a large, yellow, solitary blossom; the seeds are small, oblong, of a brownish color, and will keep three years. _Soil and Cultivation._--Although the Dandelion will thrive in almost any description of soil, it nevertheless produces much the largest, most tender, and best-flavored leaves, as well as the greatest crop of root, when grown in mellow, well-enriched ground. Before sowing, stir the soil, either by the spade or plough, deeply and thoroughly; smooth off the surface fine and even; and sow the seeds in drills half an inch deep, and twelve or fifteen inches apart. If cultivated for spring greens, or for blanching for salad, the seed must be sown in May or June. In July, thin out the young plants to two or three inches apart; cultivate during the season in the usual form of cultivating other garden productions; and, in April and May of the ensuing spring, the plants will be fit for the table. For very early use, select a portion of the bed equal to the supply required; and, in November, spread it rather thickly over with coarse stable-manure. About the beginning of February, remove the litter, and place boards or planks on four sides, of a square or parallelogram, in the manner of a common hot-bed, providing for a due inclination towards the south. Over these put frames of glass, as usually provided for hot-beds; adding extra protection by covering with straw or other material in intensely cold weather. Thus treated, the plants will be ready for cutting two or three weeks earlier than those in the open ground. When grown for its roots, the ground must be prepared in the manner before directed; and the seeds should be sown in October, in drills fourteen or fifteen inches asunder. In June following, thin out the young plants to two or three inches apart; keep the ground loose, and free from weeds, during the summer; and, in October, the roots will have attained their full size, and be ready for harvesting, which is usually performed with a common subsoil plough. After being drawn, they are washed entirely clean, sliced, and dried in the shade; when they are ready for the market. _Use._--The Dandelion resembles Endive, and affords one of the earliest, as well as one of the best and most healthful, of spring greens. "The French use it bleached, as a salad; and if large, and well bleached, it is better than Endive, much more tender, and of finer flavor." The roots, after being dried as before directed, constitute an article of considerable commercial importance; being extensively employed as a substitute for, or mixed in various proportions with, coffee. It may be grown for greens at trifling cost; and a bed twelve or fourteen feet square will afford a family an abundant supply. Under cultivation, and even in its natural state, the leaves of different plants vary in a marked degree from each other, not only in size, and manner of growth, but also in form. Judicious and careful cultivation would give a degree of permanency to these distinctions; and varieties might undoubtedly be produced, well adapted for the various purposes for which the plant is grown, whether for the roots, for blanching, or for greens. * * * * * ENDIVE. Chicorium endivia. Endive is a hardy annual, said to be a native of China and Japan. When fully developed, it is from four to six feet in height. The leaves are smooth, and lobed and cut upon the borders more or less deeply, according to the variety; the flowers are usually of a blue color, and rest closely in the axils of the leaves; the seeds are small, long, angular, and of a grayish color; their germinative properties are retained for ten years; nearly twenty-five thousand are contained in an ounce. _Soil._--All of the varieties thrive well in any good, mellow garden soil. Where there is a choice of situations, select one in which the plants will be the least exposed to the effects of drought and heat. _Propagation._--The plants can be raised only from seed. This may be sown where the plants are to remain; or it may be sown broadcast, or in close drills in a nursery-bed for transplanting. If sown where the plants are to remain, sow thinly in shallow drills a foot apart for the smaller, curled varieties, and fifteen inches for the larger, broad-leaved sorts. Thin out the plants to a foot asunder as soon as they are large enough to handle, and keep the ground about them, as well as between the rows, loose, and free from weeds, by repeated hoeings. If required, the plants taken out in thinning may be reset in rows at the same distances apart. If sown in a nursery-bed, transplant when the young plants have eight or ten leaves; setting them at the distances before directed. This should be done at morning or evening; and the plants should afterwards be watered and shaded for a few days, until they are well established. The first sowing may be made as early in spring as the weather will permit; and a sowing may be made a month or six weeks after, for a succession: but as it is for use late in autumn, or during the winter and spring, that Endive is most required, the later sowings are the most important. These are usually made towards the end of July. _Blanching._--Before using, the plants must be blanched; which is performed in various ways. The common method is as follows: When the root-leaves have nearly attained their full size, they are taken when entirely dry, gathered together into a conical form, or point, at the top, and tied together with matting, or any other soft, fibrous material; by which means, the large, outer leaves are made to blanch the more tender ones towards the heart of the plant. After being tied in this manner, the plants are sometimes blanched by earthing, as practised with Celery or Cardoons. This process is recommended for dry and warm seasons: but in cold, wet weather, they are liable to decay at the heart; and blanching-pots, or, in the absence of these, common flower-pots, inverted over the plants, will be found a safe and effectual means of rendering them white, crisp, and mild flavored. "Some practise setting two narrow boards along each side of the row; bringing them together at the top in the form of a triangle, and afterwards drawing earth over them to keep them steady. Some cover the dwarfish sorts with half-decayed leaves, dry tanner's bark, sand, coal-ashes, and even sawdust; but all of these methods are inferior to the blanch-pot or the tying-up process." _Time required for Blanching._--In summer weather, when vegetation is active, the plants will blanch in ten days; but in cool weather, when the plants have nearly attained their growth or are slowly developing, three weeks will be required to perfect the operation. _Harvesting, and Preservation during Winter._--"Before frost sets in, they must be tied up in a conical form, as before directed; and all dead or yellow leaves must be taken off. Then take them up with a ball of soil to each, and put them into light earth in a cellar or some warm building. Put only the roots into the earth. Do not suffer the plants to touch each other; and pour a little water round the roots after they are placed in the earth. If they are perfectly dry when tied up, they will keep till spring."--_Corb._ _Seed._--Two or three vigorous plants, left unblanched, will yield sufficient to supply a garden of ordinary size for years. Half an ounce will sow a seed-bed of forty square feet. _Use._--"The leaves are the parts used, and these only when blanched to diminish their natural bitterness of taste. It is one of the best autumn, winter, and spring salads."--_M'Int._ _Varieties._--The descriptions of many of the varieties have been prepared from an interesting paper read before the London Horticultural Society by Mr. Matthews, clerk of the society's garden. The different sorts are divided into two classes,--the "Batavian" and the "Curled-leaved." BATAVIAN ENDIVES. Under the Batavian Endives are included all the varieties with broad leaves, generally rounded at the points, with the margin slightly ragged or torn, but not curled. These are called, by the French, _Scarolles_. As most of the sorts require more room than the Curled-leaved kinds, the rows should be about fourteen inches apart, and the plants thinned out from nine to twelve inches in the rows. BROAD-LEAVED BATAVIAN ENDIVE. Common Yellow Endive, of the Dutch. Leaves yellowish-green, large, long and broad, thick and fleshy, the edges slightly ragged: when fully grown, they are about ten inches long, and an inch wide at the base; increasing regularly in width towards the end, and measuring five or six inches in diameter at the broadest part. The leaves of the centre of the plant are of the same form, but shorter, and much paler. The plants form but little heart of themselves; but the length of the outer leaves is such, that they tie up well for blanching. In quality, as well as in appearance, it is inferior to the Curled sorts; and its flavor is not so mild and agreeable as that of some of the other kinds of Batavian endives. CURLED BATAVIAN ENDIVE. _Thomp._ The leaves of this variety are neither so large nor so broad as those of the Broad-leaved Batavian Endive: they grow flat on the ground, and are curled at their edges. The whole appearance of the plant is very different from the Common Broad-leaved; approaching the Curled endives, in general character. The heart, which forms of itself, is small, and lies close to the ground. The plants require twelve or fourteen inches' space between the rows, and eight or ten inches in the row. LARGE BATAVIAN ENDIVE. Scarolle grande, of the French. This differs from the Small Batavian Endive in the size and shape of its leaves, which are broader and more rounded: they are a little darker, but yet pale. The inner ones are turned over like the small variety, though not so regularly; but form a large, well-blanched heart, of good flavor. This and the Small Batavian will blanch perfectly if a mat is laid over them, and do not require to be tied up. Both the Small and the Large sorts are considered hardier than the Curled varieties. LETTUCE-LEAVED OR WHITE BATAVIAN ENDIVE. Scarolle blonde. _Vil._ Leaves broad and large, obtuse, ragged at the edges, of a paler color and thinner texture than either of the other Batavian sorts; the exterior leaves are spreading, fourteen inches long, two inches wide at the base, and, growing regularly broader to the end, measure six or seven inches in diameter at the widest part; the central leaves are short, and the head is less compact than that of the Common Broad-leaved; the seeds are of a paler color than those of the Green Curled Endive. To blanch it, the leaves must be tied up; and it should be grown for summer use, as it is comparatively tender, and will not endure severe weather. It is best if used while young; for, when fully developed, the leaves are not tender, and, if not well blanched, are liable to have a slightly bitter taste. Sow in May or June, in rows fifteen inches apart, and thin to a foot in the rows; or transplant, giving the plants the same space. SMALL BATAVIAN ENDIVE. Scarolle courte, of the French. Leaves whitish-green, broad, of moderate length, and slightly cut at the edges. The inner leaves are numerous, and turn over like a hood at the end; forming a larger head than any of the other kinds. It is one of the best of the endives, and a valuable addition to our winter salads. It blanches with little trouble; and is mild and sweet, without being bitter. CURLED ENDIVES. Curled endives are those with narrow leaves, more or less divided, and much curled. They are usually full in the heart. The French call them, by way of distinction, _Chicorées_. DUTCH GREEN CURLED ENDIVE. This approaches the Large Green Curled Endive in appearance and growth; but the divisions of the leaves are deeper, the outer leaves are broader, not so much curled, and the inner ones more turned into the heart: the outer leaves are about ten inches long. It blanches well, and is hardy. GREEN CURLED ENDIVE. Small Green Curled Endive. Leaves six or seven inches long, finely cut, and beautifully curled; the outer leaves lying close to the ground, the inner ones thickly set, forming a compact heart. Easily blanched, very hardy, and well adapted for winter use. The leaves are longer, and of a darker-green color, than those of the Green Curled Summer Endive, and will tie up much better for blanching. It is a fortnight later. Sow in rows a foot or fourteen inches apart, and thin to six or eight inches in the row. It may be quickly blanched by simply covering the plant with a deep flower-pot saucer. In summer, while the plants are growing vigorously, the process will be completed in about a week: later in the season, two-weeks, or even more, may be necessary. GREEN CURLED SUMMER ENDIVE. Leaves not quite so large as those of the Green Curled; finely and deeply cut: the outer ones are five or six inches long, and grow close to the ground; the inner are short, numerous, curled, and form a close, full heart. It is much the smallest of any of the kinds, and is somewhat tender. The outer leaves are so short, that they will not tie up; but blanch well by being covered simply with a flat garden-pan, as directed for the Green Curled. This variety is distinguished from the last named by its shorter, broader, deeper cut, and less curled leaves: the head is more solid at the centre, and is also much harder. The seeds should be sown early; for, if sown late, the plants are liable to be affected by dampness and wet weather, and to rot at the heart. Cultivate in rows twelve or fourteen inches apart, and eight or ten inches apart in the rows. ITALIAN GREEN CURLED ENDIVE. Leaves from ten to twelve inches long, deep-green, narrow, and divided to the mid-rib. They grow erect, and the segments are much cut and curled. It is a well-marked variety; readily distinguished by the length of the leaf-stalks, and the pinnatifid character of the leaves. It blanches well, and is of good quality. LARGE GREEN CURLED ENDIVE. A sub-variety of the Common Green Curled, of stronger growth, and larger hearted. The exterior leaves are ten or twelve inches long, looser and more erect than those of the last named: the inner ones are less numerous, and not so much divided. It is hardy, blanches quickly, and is not liable to decay at the heart. LONG ITALIAN GREEN CURLED. Leaves long, deeply divided, and more upright in their growth than those of the Large Green Curled; the divisions of the leaves are large, and toothed, or cut, but are not curled; the heart-leaves are few and short. The variety is quite distinct; and, though not so neat and regular as some others, it is of excellent quality, and recommended for cultivation. PICPUS FINE CURLED ENDIVE. _Vil._ Exterior leaves seven or eight inches long, deeply lobed; the lobes divided in the same manner as those of the Common Green Curled. The inside leaves are finely cut, and much curled; and form a kind of head more compact than that of the Green Curled, but comparatively loose-hearted. It blanches well and quickly, and is a good variety; though neither its foliage nor its general habit presents any very distinctive peculiarities. RUFFEC CURLED. Chicorée frisée de Ruffec. _Vil._ This variety attains a remarkable size, much exceeding that of the Common Green Curled. The leaves sometimes measure nearly a foot and a half in length. Quality tender and good. STAGHORN ENDIVE. Early Fine Curled Rouen. _Vil._ A recently introduced variety. The leaves are deep-green, divided into numerous segments, not frilled or curled, but much cut or jagged at the points, the borders having a branched appearance; whence the name. The leaves gradually shorten towards the centre of the plant, are more finely cut, and become closer together; thus forming a moderately firm heart, or head; less compact, however, than that of the Green Curled Summer Endive. It is well adapted to humid climates, is hardier than the Common Green Curled, and is preferred by market-gardeners for cultivation in autumn and winter. TRIPLE-CURLED MOSS ENDIVE. _M'int._ Winter Moss Endive. Chicorée mousse. _Vil._ This is a sub-variety of the Staghorn Endive, and comparatively of recent introduction. It is a unique sort, exceedingly well curled; and, when the variety is genuine and the plant well developed, has an appearance not unlike a tuft of moss. It is liable to degenerate; and, though sometimes classed as a Winter Endive, is less hardy than many other sorts. It may be grown in rows a foot apart, six inches being allowed between the plants in the rows. WHITE CURLED OR EVER-BLANCHED ENDIVE. _Vil._ Leaves pale yellowish-green, nearly white when young, ten inches long, rather narrow, lobed, cut, and beautifully frilled, or curled, on the borders; the upper surface of the mid-ribs generally tinged with red. The leaves of the centre are not numerous, and much curled: resting upon those of the exterior, they form no head, but leave the heart loose and open. It is distinguished from all others by its color; both the leaves and the seeds being paler than those of any other sort. Its principal recommendation is signified in the name; but it should be used while young, cut and served in the form of lettuce. It is then tender and of good quality; though the plants yield a small amount of salad, compared with many other sorts. When fully grown, the leaves become tough, and often bitter. As a variety for winter culture, it is of little value. * * * * * HORSE-RADISH. Cochlearia armoracia. Nasturtium armoracia. Horse-radish is a hardy perennial, introduced from Europe, growing naturally along old roads, and about gardens and waste places in long settled towns. The root is white within and without, long, nearly cylindrical, and from an inch to two inches and a half in diameter; stalk two feet or more in height, smooth and branching; the radical leaves are from fifteen to eighteen inches in length, oval-oblong, and toothed on the margin,--those of the stalk narrow, pointed, smooth, and shining; the flowers are white, and are put forth in June; the seed-pods are globular, but are very rarely formed, the flowers being usually abortive. There is but one variety. _Propagation and Culture._--"Propagation is always effected by planting portions of the roots, which grow readily. The soil most conducive to it is a deep, rich, light sand, or alluvial deposit, free from stones or other obstructions; as, the longer, thicker, and straighter the roots are, the more they are valued. There is scarcely another culinary vegetable, of equal importance, in which cultivation is, in general, so greatly neglected as in this. It is often found planted in some obscure corner of the garden, where it may have existed for years; and is only visited when needed for the proprietor's table. The operation of hastily extracting a root or two is too often all that is thought of; and the crop is left to fight its way amongst weeds and litter as best it may."--_M'Int._ A simple method of cultivation is as follows: Trench the ground eighteen inches or two feet deep, and set the crowns or leading buds of old roots, cut off about three inches in length, in rows a foot apart, and nine inches from each other in the rows; cover six inches deep, and cultivate in the usual manner during the summer. The shoots will soon make their appearance, and the large leaves of the plant completely occupy the surface of the bed. After two seasons' growth, the roots will be fit for use. _Taking the Crop._--Its season of use is from October till May; and, whenever the ground is open, the table may be supplied directly from the garden. For winter use, take up the requisite quantity of roots in November, pack them in moist sand or earth, and store in the cellar, or in any situation out of reach of frost. _Use._--The root shredded or grated, with the addition of vinegar, is used as a condiment with meats and fish. It has an agreeable, pungent flavor; and, besides aiding digestion, possesses other important healthful properties. * * * * * LETTUCE. Lactuca sativa. Lettuce is said to be of Asiatic origin. It is a hardy, annual plant, and, when fully developed, from two to three feet in height, with an erect, branching stem. The flowers are compound, yellow, usually about half an inch in diameter; the seeds are oval, flattened, and either white, brown, or black, according to the variety,--nearly thirty thousand are contained in an ounce, and their vitality is retained five years. _Soil._--Lettuce succeeds best in rich and comparatively moist soil; and is also best developed, and most crisp and tender, if grown in cool, moist weather. A poor soil, and a hot, dry exposure, may produce a small, tolerable lettuce early in spring, or late in autumn; but, if sown in such situations during the summer months, it will soon run to seed, and prove nearly, if not entirely, worthless for the table. The richer the soil may be, and the higher its state of cultivation, the larger and finer will be the heads produced; and the more rapidly the plants are grown, the more tender and brittle will be their quality. _Propagation._--It is always grown from seeds, which are small and light; half an ounce being sufficient to sow a nursery-bed of nearly a hundred square feet. It is necessary that the ground should be well pulverized and made smooth before it is sown, and the seeds should not be covered more than a fourth of an inch deep. _Cultivation._--Some recommend sowing where the plants are to remain, in drills from ten to fifteen inches apart, and thinning the plants to nearly the same distance in the lines; adapting the spaces between the drills, as well as between the plants in the drills, to the habit and size of the variety in cultivation. Others recommend sowing in a small nursery-bed, and transplanting. The process of transplanting unquestionably lessens the liability of the plants to run to seed, and produces the largest and finest heads. The first sowing in the open ground may be made as soon in March or April as the frost leaves the ground; and, if a continued supply is desired, a sowing should afterwards be made, at intervals of about four weeks, until September. "During spring, the young crops must be protected from frost, and in summer from drought by copious manure-waterings and frequent stirring of the ground between the plants. In the growing season, every stimulant should be applied; for much of the excellence of the crop depends on the quickness of its growth." _Forcing._--Lettuce is now served at table the year round; not, of course, of equal excellence at all seasons. Sowings are consequently required for each month: those intended for the spring supply being made from December to February; about twelve weeks being required for its full development, when reared in the winter months. The seed is sown rather thinly, broadcast, in a hot-bed; and, when the plants have made two or three leaves, they are pricked out to three or four inches apart in another portion of the bed,--thus affording them more space for growth, and opportunity to acquire strength and hardiness. When two or three inches high, they are finally transplanted into yet another part of the bed, at distances corresponding with the size of the variety, varying from ten to fourteen inches in each direction. As the plants increase in size, the quantity of air should be increased; and water should be given, whenever the surface of the bed becomes dry. In severe cold or in cloudy weather, and almost always at night, straw matting (made thick and heavy for the purpose), woollen carpeting, or a similar substitute, should be extended over the glass, for the retention of heat. Some practise transplanting directly from the nursery-bed to where the plants are to remain; but the finest Lettuce is generally obtained by the treatment above described. "Lettuces are sometimes required for cutting young, or when about two inches high. These are termed, by the French, _Laitues à couper_. The small, early sorts (such as the Hardy Hammersmith and Black-seeded Gotte) are preferred for this purpose; but any sort that is green or pale-green, and not brown or otherwise colored, will do. They should be sown in the open ground about once a week, or every ten days, from April, throughout the season. In winter, they are best raised on heat. They should be sown rather thickly in drills six inches apart."--_Thomp._ _To save Seed._--"This should be done from plants raised from early sowings. The finest specimens should be selected; avoiding, however, those that show a disposition to run quickly to seed. Those that heart readily, and yet are slow to run up, are to be preferred. Care should be taken that no two different varieties be allowed to seed near each other, in order that the sorts may be kept true. The seed which ripens first on the plant is the best: therefore it should be secured, rather than wait for the general ripening. The branchlets which first ripen their seed should be cut of­f, and laid on a cloth in the sun; or, when the forward portion of the seed is as near maturity as will safely bear without shaking of­f, the plants should be carefully pulled up, and placed upright against a south wall, with a cloth under them to perfect their ripening. The seed should in no case be depended on without trial. Plants from seeds two years old heart more readily than those from one-year-old seed."--_Thomp._ _Use._--"Lettuce is well known as one of the best of all salad plants. It is eaten raw in French salads, with cream, oil, vinegar, salt, and hard-boiled eggs. It is also eaten by many with sugar and vinegar; and some prefer it with vinegar alone. It is excellent when stewed, and forms an important ingredient in most vegetable soups. It is eaten at almost all meals by the French; by the English after dinner, if not served as adjuncts to dishes during the repast; and by many even at supper. In lobster and chicken salads, it is indispensable; and some of the varieties furnish a beautiful garnish for either fish, flesh, or fowl. "In a raw state, Lettuce is emollient, cooling, and in some degree laxative and aperient, easy of digestion, but containing no nourishment." _Varieties._--These are exceedingly numerous. Some are of English origin; many are French and German; but comparatively few are American. The number of kinds grown to any considerable extent in this country is quite limited. Cultivators generally select such as appear to be best adapted to the soil and climate of their particular locality; and, by judicious management, endeavor to give vigor and hardiness to the plants, and to increase the size, compactness, and crispy quality of the head. Some of the varieties have thus been brought to a remarkable degree of perfection; the plants producing heads with as much certainty, and nearly as well proportioned and solid, as those of the Common Cabbage. They are generally divided into two classes; viz., Cabbage lettuces and Cos lettuces. _Cabbage Lettuces._-- BROWN DUTCH. Black-seeded. _Vil._ Head of medium size, rather long and loose; the leaves, which coil or roll back a little on the borders about the top of the head are yellowish-green, washed or stained with brownish-red,--the surplus leaves are large, round, waved, green, washed with bronze-red, and coarsely, but not prominently, blistered; diameter twelve to fourteen inches; weight about eight ounces. This Lettuce cabbages readily, forms a good-sized head, is tender, of good quality, hardy, and tolerably early. It does not, however, retain its head well in dry and warm weather; and, as it is little affected by cold, seems best adapted to winter or very early culture. It resembles the Yellow-seeded Brown Dutch, but is not so early, and the head is looser and larger. BROWN SILESIAN OR MARSEILLES CABBAGE. _Vil._ Brown Batavian. Head green, tinted with brown, remarkably large,--not compactly, but regularly, formed; ribs and nerves of the leaves large and prominent; the leaves disconnected with the head are large, bronze-green, coarsely blistered, and frilled and curled on the margin. The diameter of a well-grown plant is about eighteen inches, and its weight twenty-eight ounces. The seeds are white. This Lettuce, though somewhat hard, is brittle and mild flavored, but is better when cooked than when served in its crude state as a salad. It is a hardy, late sort; succeeds well in winter, and retains its head a long period; but is rarely employed for forcing, on account of its size,--one of the plants occupying, in a frame or hot-bed, the space of two plants of average dimensions. BROWN WINTER CABBAGE. _Vil._ Large Brown Winter. Head of medium size, green, washed or stained with brownish-red, regularly formed, and moderately compact; the exterior leaves are round and short, much wrinkled, and coarsely blistered. When grown in winter or in cool weather, the plants measure fourteen inches in diameter, and weigh from fourteen to sixteen ounces. The seeds are white. Hardy, and well adapted for winter culture. The heads are not so firm as those of some varieties; but they are well retained, blanch white and tender, and are of excellent flavor. EARLY OR SUMMER CAPE. Royal Cape. Head roundish, usually well formed, and moderately close and firm; the outer leaves are large, loose, golden-green, undulated, and coarsely blistered; the interior leaves are more finely blistered, and nearly of the same color as those of the outside; head, when divided, yellowish to the centre; the plants, when fully grown, measure nearly a foot in diameter, and weigh from six to ten ounces. The variety is not well adapted for forcing or for early culture in the open ground. As a summer Lettuce, it is one of the best; enduring the heat well, and not running soon to seed. Though not so crisp and brittle as some of the winter or spring grown varieties, it is comparatively well flavored and of good quality. It is similar to the Summer or Royal Cabbage. EARLY SIMPSON. Hâtive de Simpson. _Vil._ Head large, pale-green, a little irregular in its form, and only of medium solidity; the outside leaves are large and broad, plaited, and much blistered; diameter fourteen or fifteen inches; weight twelve or fourteen ounces; seeds white. This Lettuce is brittle, and of excellent flavor; but its head is not compactly formed. Its season is near that of the Versailles Cabbage; but it runs quicker to seed. It is said to be an American variety, and is much grown in the vicinity of New York City for marketing. EARLY WHITE SPRING OR BLACK-SEEDED GOTTE. _Trans._ A small spring Cabbage Lettuce, growing close to the ground. Its heart is hard and firm, and measures about four inches in diameter when stripped of its outer leaves; color pale-green; the leaves are thin, nearly round, rugose, and waved on the margin. This Lettuce comes early into use, and, besides, is of excellent flavor; but its chief merit is, that it remains longer than almost any other sort before running to seed, and even sometimes bursts before the flower-stem is formed. It is one of the smallest of the Cabbage lettuces, and somewhat resembles the Tennis-ball; from which, however, it differs in the leaves being more curled and of a lighter-green color, and by not running to seed so soon by three weeks or a month. The variety has black seeds; and this fact should be particularly attended to in obtaining it from seedsmen, as the White-seeded Gotte lettuces run much sooner to flower. Various other Gotte lettuces are described by authors. "All are of great merit, but are little cultivated in the United States. Where small, hard, compact, and delicate sorts are required, this class should be selected." ENDIVE-LEAVED. _Vil._ Laitue chicorée. This variety forms no head. The leaves are finely frilled and curled, and spread regularly from a common centre in the form of a rosette. A well-developed plant resembles Curled Endive. It appears to be nearly identical with the Green Curled Lettuce. The seeds are black, and smaller than those of any other variety. ENGLISH ENDIVE-LIKE CURLED-LEAVED. _Vil._ Like the Common Green Curled Lettuce, this variety forms no head. The plant has the form of a rosette, and the foliage a silvery-gray appearance. The leaves are short, undulated on the border, but not frilled and curled like the Common variety; nerves purplish; the heart of the plant is large and full; seeds black. This Lettuce is hardy, tender, and well flavored, and equal, if not superior, to the Common Green Curled, both in respect to quality and its adaptation to winter culture. GREEN CURLED. Curled. Endive-leaved. Boston Curled. The Green Curled strongly resembles, if it is not identical with, the Endive-leaved. When well grown, the plant measures about ten inches in diameter, and is one of the most beautiful of all the lettuces. The exterior leaves are finely frilled and curled, and of a rich, golden-green color; the central leaves are smaller, but frilled and curled like those of the exterior. When in perfection, the plants have the form of a rosette, and make an excellent garnish. The seeds are white. It is hardy, well adapted for forcing, and is extensively grown in the vicinity of Boston, Mass., for early marketing. As respects its value for the table, it cannot be considered equal to many of the Cabbage varieties, as it is deficient in crispness, and tenderness of texture,--qualities essential in all salad plants. Its recommendations are its hardiness, its adaptation to early culture and forcing, and particularly its beautiful appearance. Market-gardeners and cultivators make three sub-varieties, which are known as "Single-curled," "Double-curled," and "Triple-curled;" the difference consisting in the finer frilling, or curling, of the last named. A well-grown plant resembles some varieties of Endive; whence the term "Endive-leaved." GREEN WINTER CABBAGE. Hardy Winter Cabbage. Morine. _Vil._ Head pale-green, of medium size, round and regular, firm and solid; leaves of the head much wrinkled, and coarsely blistered; the outside leaves are broad and large, glossy-green, wrinkled and blistered like those composing the head. Winter-grown plants will measure in their full diameter about twelve inches, and weigh from fourteen to sixteen ounces. Seeds white. The Green Winter Cabbage Lettuce is tender, and of excellent flavor, particularly if cultivated in cool weather. It is hardy, forms its head promptly and uniformly, is slow in the development of its flowers, and must be classed as one of the best of the hardy, winter varieties. HAMMERSMITH HARDY. _M'Int._ Hardy Green Hammersmith. Early Frame. Early Dwarf Dutch. Green Dutch. A popular, old variety, with a comparatively small, dark-green head. The leaves are much wrinkled, concave, thick, and fleshy; the seeds are white. It is considered the hardiest sort in cultivation, and is one of the best for growing in winter or for forcing. When raised in spring, late in autumn, or in cool, moist weather, the plants attain a diameter of nearly ten inches, and weigh from six to eight ounces; but summer-grown specimens are much smaller, rarely measuring more than six or seven inches in diameter, or weighing above three or four ounces. In warm, dry weather, it soon runs to seed. ICE CABBAGE. _Trans._ This variety belongs to the division of the Silesian or Batavian lettuces, and must not be confounded with the White Cos. The leaves are of a light shining green, blistered on the surface, much undulated, and slightly jagged on the edges, nearly erect, eight inches long, and five or six inches broad; the outer leaves spread a little at the top, but grow close at the heart. It blanches without tying up, and becomes white, crisp, and tender. The Ice Cabbage Lettuce comes into use with the White Silesian, from which it differs, as it also does from any other of its class, in being much more curled, having a lucid, sparkling surface (whence probably its name), and not turning in so much at the heart. It lasts as long in crop as the White Silesian. IMPERIAL HEAD. Turkey Cabbage. Union. A large and excellent variety, but inferior to the Versailles or the Ice Cabbage. Head large, regular, a little oblong, of a dull, pale-green color, and not compactly formed; the outside leaves are large, rounded, undulated or waved on the borders, thin in texture, and of a soiled or tarnished light-green color; diameter fourteen inches; weight twelve to fifteen ounces; seeds white. This is a crisp and tender lettuce, though sometimes slightly bitter. It is not early, and soon shoots up to seed; but is quite hardy, and well adapted for winter cultivation. The Imperial Head, or Imperial Cabbage Lettuce, with white seeds, was at one period more generally cultivated in small gardens than any other variety; and though some of the recently introduced sorts excel it, not only in size, but in tender consistency and flavor, the Imperial is still extensively cultivated and much esteemed. With the exception of the color of its seeds, it resembles the Turkey Cabbage. INDIA. Large India. Head large, moderately compact; leaves large, with coarse and hard mid-ribs and veins. Its recommendation is its remarkable adaptedness to summer culture; as it withstands heat and drought, and retains its head to a remarkable degree before running to seed. For the table, it is inferior to many other sorts; although the large ribs and veins of the leaves are comparatively brittle, and of tender texture. LARGE BROWN CABBAGE OR MOGUL. Grosse brune paresseuse. _Vil._ Large Gray Cabbage. Mammoth. Head remarkably large, round, regularly formed, grayish-green, tinted or washed with reddish-brown at the top: the leaves not composing the head are large, plaited, coarsely blistered, of a grayish-green color, stained here and there with spots of pale-brown. The diameter of a well-grown plant is about fourteen inches, and its weight nearly a pound; seeds black. The Large Brown Cabbage Lettuce is crisp and tender, but is sometimes slightly bitter. Its season is near that of the Versailles; but it is slower in forming its head, and sooner runs to flower. It is hardy, good for forcing and well adapted for cultivation during winter. In summer, the heads are comparatively small, and loosely formed. LARGE RED CABBAGE. Rouge charteuse. _Vil._ Head green, washed with red, of medium size, regularly but loosely formed; the exterior leaves are large, undulated, blistered, and stained with brownish-red, like those of the head; diameter thirteen or fourteen inches; weight twelve ounces; seeds black. Its season is near that of the Large Brown Cabbage. When grown in warm weather, the head is small, and the plant soon runs to seed: in winter, the head is much larger, more solid, and longer retained. It resembles the Brown Dutch, but differs in the deeper color of the leaves. LARGE WINTER CABBAGE OR MADEIRA. Laitue passion. _Vil._ Head of medium size, regular in form, not compact, green, washed with red at the top: the leaves not composing the head are broad and large, a little undulated or waved on the border, plaited or folded at the base, thin in texture, somewhat blistered, and stained with spots of clear brown. When grown in winter, or in cool, moist weather, the plants will measure about a foot in diameter, and weigh nearly a pound. Seeds white. It is quite brittle, though not remarkable for tenderness of texture; hardy; succeeds well when grown in cold weather; and remains long in head before shooting up to seed. Season, the same with that of the Green Winter Cabbage. MALTA OR ICE CABBAGE. Ice Cos. Drumhead. White Cabbage. De Malte. _Vil._ In its general character, this variety resembles the White Silesian. The head is remarkably large, somewhat flattened, compact, pale-green without, and white at the centre; the outer leaves are large and broad, glossy-green, and coarsely blistered; the mid-ribs and nerves are large and prominent. The extreme diameter of a full-grown plant is about sixteen inches, and the weight from twenty to twenty-four ounces. The seeds are white. The variety heads readily, blanches naturally, and is crisp, tender, and well flavored. It is hardy, but not early; and remains long in head without running to seed. It is extensively cultivated in England; and in some localities succeeds better, and is of finer quality, than the White Silesian or Marseilles Cabbage. The name is derived from the glazed or polished surface of the leaves. NEAPOLITAN. Naples Cabbage. Plant dwarfish; head of large size, round, regularly formed, solid,--when in perfection, resembling a well-developed cabbage; the exterior leaves are broad and large, green, frilled on the margin, and coarsely blistered. If well grown, the plants will measure sixteen inches in diameter, and weigh from twenty to twenty-four ounces. Seeds white. The Neapolitan Lettuce blanches naturally, is well flavored, and so slow in the development of its flower-stalk, that the heads are sometimes artificially divided at the top to facilitate its growth, and to secure the seeds, a supply of which is always obtained with difficulty; as, aside from the tardiness of the plant in flowering, the yield is never abundant. It is not so good for forcing as many others, and must be classed as a summer rather than as a winter variety. PALATINE. _Vil._ Brown Cabbage. A variety of medium size, with a round, somewhat depressed head, stained with red about the top. The foliage is yellowish-green, strongly marked or clouded with brownish-red. Extreme diameter of the plant ten or eleven inches; weight about twelve ounces. The seeds are black. It is remarkably crisp and tender; of excellent flavor; yields a large quantity of salad in proportion to its size; flourishes well at all seasons, even during winter; and must be classed as one of the best, and recommended for general cultivation. SPOTTED CABBAGE (BLACK-SEEDED). Sanguine à graine noire. _Vil._ The heads of this variety are of medium size, round and regular in their form, and comparatively solid; the sides are brownish-red, but at the crowns the color is changed to clear, bright-red; the outer leaves are short, broad, and round, and strongly marked or clouded with brownish-red, like those composing the head. If grown in winter or in cool weather, the plants attain a diameter of about twelve inches, and will weigh twelve ounces. It retains its head longer than almost any other variety; and, though sometimes slightly bitter, is considered superior to the White-seeded. Compared with the last-named, the head is not so well formed, the foliage is deeper colored, and it is not so well adapted for forcing or for cultivation during winter. SPOTTED CABBAGE (WHITE-SEEDED). Sanguine à graine blanche. _Vil._ Head yellowish-green, spotted and clouded with brownish-red, of medium size, round and regular. The surplus leaves are small and numerous, round, prominently blistered, copper-green, streaked and variegated with brownish-red. Summer-grown plants will measure ten inches in diameter, and weigh about eight ounces. Winter-grown plants, or those grown in cool and moist weather, will give an increase of the diameter, and weigh nearly a pound. It is a brittle, well-flavored lettuce, hardy, and well adapted for growing in frames during winter. When grown in the summer months, the head is seldom well formed, and the plants soon run to seed. STONE TENNIS-BALL. Gotte lente à monter. _Vil._ Plant quite small, with a uniformly green, regular, solid head; all of the leaves to the heart being strongly wrinkled and coarsely blistered. The exterior leaves are comparatively few and small, green, undulated, and prominently blistered. Summer-grown plants measure six or seven inches in diameter, and weigh about three ounces. When grown early or late in the season, or under the influence of cool and moist weather, the plants attain a larger size; often measuring nine or ten inches in diameter, and weighing eight ounces. The seeds are black. The Stone Tennis-ball hearts well, is of excellent quality, and, in proportion to its size, yields a large quantity of salad. It retains its head a long period, even in warm weather, without shooting up to seed; and, as most of the leaves of the plant are embraced in the head, it occupies but a small space of ground in cultivation. Hardy and early. SUMMER CABBAGE. Large White Cabbage. Royal Cabbage. Summer Blond. _Vil._ Sugar Cabbage. Foliage pale yellowish-green; head of medium size, round, somewhat flattened, firm and close; the leaves composing it are wrinkled and blistered,--those of the outside being frequently torn and broken on the margins about the crown. The entire diameter of a well-grown plant is about twelve inches, and the weight from ten to twelve ounces. The seeds are white. It is one of the best sorts for summer cultivation, as it not only forms its head readily in warm and dry weather, but remains long in head before running to flower. For forcing, or for sowing early in the season, some other varieties would succeed better. Though sometimes slightly bitter, it is crisp, tender in texture, appears to be adapted to our climate, and is recommended for cultivation. TENNIS-BALL. Green Ball. Button. Capuchin. Hardy Hammersmith. _Vil._ One of the oldest and most esteemed of the Cabbage lettuces. The head is below medium size, dark-green, remarkably solid if grown in cool weather, but often loose and open-hearted if cultivated during the summer months; the surplus leaves are few in number, deep-green, slightly curled, and broadly, but not prominently, blistered; the seeds of the genuine variety are black. The Tennis-ball Lettuce is remarkable for its extreme hardiness. Winter-grown plants, or those raised in cool, moist weather, will measure about ten inches in diameter, and weigh eight ounces; whilst those raised under opposite conditions rarely exceed seven or eight inches in diameter, or weigh more than four or five ounces. It is slow in running to seed, and the head blanches white and tender. "It requires little room in frames in winter, and yields a great return in spring, as almost the whole plant is eatable." A large Cabbage Lettuce, tinted with brown about the head, is erroneously known in some localities as the "Tennis-ball." TURKEY CABBAGE. Similar to the Imperial Head; the principal if not the only difference consisting in the color of the seeds, which are black. VERSAILLES. _Vil._ Swedish. Blond Versailles. Sugar-lettuce. Head pale yellowish-green, large, long, and compactly formed; the exterior leaves are large, numerous, wrinkled, and coarsely blistered. When in its greatest perfection, the extreme diameter of the whole plant is about fourteen inches, and its weight twelve or fourteen ounces. The seeds are white. This variety forms its head quickly and uniformly; cabbages white and crisp; is slow in shooting up to seed; flourishes in almost every description of soil, and at all seasons, except, perhaps, in extreme cold; and, though sometimes slightly bitter to the taste, is crisp, tender, and of good quality. With the exception of its paler color, it resembles the Neapolitan. It is one of the best of all varieties for summer cultivation. VICTORIA OR RED-BORDERED. _Vil._ An excellent early and hardy variety. The head is of medium size, tinted or washed with red at the top, round and regular in form, and comparatively solid; leaves large, yellowish-green, wrinkled, and blistered. If grown in summer, the plants measure eight or nine inches in diameter, and weigh four ounces. In cool weather, the plants attain a diameter of twelve inches, and weigh from ten to twelve ounces; seeds white. The Victoria Lettuce is larger than the Tennis-ball, heads freely, and is crisp and well flavored. When sown in summer, it soon runs to flower; but, in cool weather, the heads are well retained. WHITE GOTTE (BLACK-SEEDED). _Vil._ A small, low-growing, yellowish-green Cabbage Lettuce, with a comparatively loose head. The plants rarely measure more than six inches in their full diameter, or weigh above four ounces. It is one of the earliest of all the lettuces, crisp, of good flavor, and well adapted for forcing or for frame culture. Besides the distinction in the color of the seeds, it differs from the White-seeded White Gotte in its smaller and more loosely formed heads. WHITE GOTTE (WHITE-SEEDED). _Vil._ White Tennis-ball. This variety has a small, long, firm, and close head; and is uniformly of a yellowish-green color. The outer leaves are small, light greenish-yellow, waved on the borders, and prominently blistered. The plant is of small dimensions; rarely measuring more than six or seven inches in diameter, or weighing above three ounces. The variety is early, crisp, and well flavored, but soon runs to seed, and is much better adapted for growing in winter, or for forcing, than for cultivation in the summer months. WHITE SILESIAN, OR WHITE BATAVIAN. _Vil._ Drumhead Cabbage. Large Drumhead. Spanish. One of the largest of the Cabbage lettuces. Head golden-green, tinted with brownish-red about the top, regularly but not compactly formed. The outer leaves are large and broad, yellowish-green, bordered with brown, wrinkled, and coarsely blistered. When well grown, the entire diameter of the plant is about eighteen inches, and its weight twenty ounces. The seeds are white. This variety appears to be adapted to all seasons. It is hardy, retains its head well, withstands heat and drought, blanches white and crisp, and is of excellent flavor. It succeeds well in frames; but, on account of its large size, is not a profitable sort for forcing. A variety, known as the "Tennis-ball" in some localities, is very similar to this; and the "Boston Cabbage" of New England, if not identical, seems to be but an improved form of the White Silesian. WHITE STONE CABBAGE. Large Golden Summer Cabbage. Head of medium size, yellowish-green, stained with brownish-red, firm and solid. When fully developed, the entire diameter of the plant is about fourteen inches, and its weight sixteen ounces. The seeds are white. This lettuce is brittle, of tender texture and good quality, though it is sometimes slightly bitter. It is hardy, heads readily, is slow in running to flower, succeeds well in warm and dry weather, and is also well adapted for frame-culture or for forcing. YELLOW-SEEDED BROWN DUTCH. _Vil._ White Dutch. American Brown Dutch. Head of medium size, yellowish-green, variegated with red, rounded at the top, and tapering to a point at the base; compact; seeds yellow. A half-early sort, of good quality, hardy, and well adapted for winter culture, or for sowing early in spring. It somewhat resembles the Black-seeded Brown Dutch: but, apart from the difference in the color of the seeds, its foliage is more blistered, and more colored with red; and the plant produces numerous sprouts, or shoots, about the base of the head. * * * * * COS LETTUCES. These are quite distinct from the Cabbage lettuces before described. The heads are long, erect, largest at the top, and taper towards the root,--the exterior leaves clasping or coving over and around the head in the manner of a hood, or cowl. As a class, they are remarkable for hardiness and vigor; but the midribs and nerves of the leaves are comparatively coarse and hard, and most of the kinds will be found inferior to the Cabbage lettuces in crispness and flavor. They are ill adapted for cultivation in dry and hot weather; and attain their greatest perfection only when grown in spring or autumn, or in cool and humid seasons. _Varieties._-- ALPHANGE OR FLORENCE COS (BLACK-SEEDED). _Vil._ In the form of the head, and in its general character, this variety resembles the White-seeded. Both of the sorts are remarkable for size, for hardiness and healthy habit, for the length of time they remain in head before running to seed, and for the brittle and tender character of the ribs and nerves of the leaves. Besides the difference in the color of the seeds, the head of this variety is smaller, and the foliage paler, than that of the White-seeded. ALPHANGE OR FLORENCE COS (WHITE-SEEDED). _Vil._ Magnum Bonum Cos. Head large, long, not compact, and forming well only when the exterior leaves are tied loosely together. The midribs and nerves of the leaves are large, but brittle, and of tender texture. It is ten or twelve days later than the Green Paris Cos, retains its head well, is hardy and of healthy habit, but is deficient in flavor, and inferior to either of the Paris sorts. ARTICHOKE-LEAVED. _Vil._ This variety forms no head; and, in its foliage and general habit, is quite distinct from all of the Cos varieties. The leaves are numerous, twelve or fourteen inches long; of a lively-green color, often stained with brownish-red; erect, narrow, pointed, and toothed on the margin, like those of the Artichoke. Before blanching, the leaves are slightly bitter; but mild, crisp, and tender, with no savor of bitterness, after being blanched. The seeds are black. The plant grows uprightly, groups its leaves together, and thus blanches the interior parts spontaneously; but a much larger portion will be fit for use, if the leaves are collected, and tied loosely about the tips in the manner of treating Cos lettuces. It is remarkably hardy, slow in running to flower, and the seeds may be sown till August. Late in the season, it is mild and pleasant, and furnishes a tender salad when most of the Cos lettuces become bitter and strong-flavored. BATH GREEN COS. _M'Int._ This variety has much merit as a hardy, winter, green sort; and is nearly related to the Brown Cos, but is less brown on the outer leaves: but, while that has white seeds, the seeds of this variety are black. Hence there are found, upon the catalogues of seedsmen, Black-seeded Bath, or Brown Cos; and White-seeded Bath, or Brown Cos; the latter seeming to be the hardiest, while the former appears to be the best. BROWN COS. Bath Cos. Sutton's Berkshire Brown Cos. Wood's Improved Bath Cos. Bearfield Cos. White-seeded Brown Cos. This is one of the oldest of the Cos lettuces, and considered the hardiest of the class. The head is of large size, pointed, not compact, and requires to be tied in order to obtain it in its greatest perfection; the leaves are of a copper-green color, stiff and firm, toothed and blistered; the seeds are white. The Brown Cos blanches white and tender, and is exceedingly crisp and well flavored; but the dark-brownish color of the exterior leaves is deemed an objection, and it is often displaced by really inferior varieties. In weight and measurement, it differs little from the Green Paris Cos. Extensively cultivated and much esteemed in England. GRAY PARIS COS. _Vil._ Head of the form of an inverted cone; green, with a grayish tone about the top; compact, and forming well without tying. The exterior leaves are numerous, deep-green, erect, firm, and prominently blistered. The full diameter of the plant is nearly twelve inches, and its weight about twenty ounces; the seeds are white. The Gray Paris Cos is brittle, and of tender texture; but is considered inferior to the other Paris Cos sorts, and is but little cultivated. GREEN PARIS COS. _Vil._ Kensington Cos. Sutton's Superb Green Cos. Wellington. Ady's Fine Large. Head inversely conical, compact; leaves deep-green, erect, firm, hooded or cowl-formed towards the ends, and serrated on the margin; the ribs and nerves are large and prominent. When fully grown, the entire diameter of the plant is fifteen or sixteen inches, and its weight twenty-four ounces; the seeds are white. It is considered one of the best of the Cos lettuces; and, though not so hardy as the Brown Cos, is a good variety for forcing, and furnishes a tender, well-flavored head during summer. Whether for spring, summer, or autumn, it is an excellent sort. It attains a large size, is of a fine green color, and, "from the manner in which the outer leaves cove over the interior ones, blanches well without having to be tied together." It has a tender, brittle leaf; is some days earlier than the White Paris; and is the principal variety employed by the market-gardeners of Paris for cultivating under glass. GREEN WINTER COS. _Vil._ Head elongated, somewhat of the form of the preceding variety; deep-green, and not forming well, unless the exterior leaves are tied together at the tips; the outer leaves are large, erect, concave, toothed on the margin, and prominently blistered; the seeds are black. It blanches well; but the ribs and nerves of the leaves are comparatively coarse and hard. Well adapted to winter culture; but, as a summer lettuce, of little value. MONSTROUS BROWN COS. _Vil._ Two-headed. Head of remarkable size, long, loose, and open; leaves large, equalling in size those of the Alphange or Florence Cos; green, washed with brown; pointed; seeds white. The plant sends out numerous side-shoots, or suckers; and sometimes produces several distinct heads: these, however, are generally loosely formed, and not of the fine, tender quality of the Paris varieties. OAK-LEAVED COS. Romaine à Feuille de Chêne. _Vil._ The Oak-leaved Lettuce produces no head, but forms a loose and open heart at the centre of the plant. The leaves are numerous, bronze-green, and deeply cut, or lobed, on the margin, in the form of the leaves of some species of the oak; the seeds are black. The plants put forth fresh sprouts after having been cut; but the quality is inferior, and the variety is rarely cultivated. RED WINTER COS. Foliage deep-brown, smooth, and glossy,--gathered at the centre of the plant into a loose heart, rather than head; seeds black. The hardiness of this lettuce is its principal merit. It is little affected by severe weather; and, as a sort for winter culture, is desirable. When grown in summer, it is of poor quality. SPOTTED COS (BLACK-SEEDED). Red-spotted. Bloody. Aleppo. Panachée à Graine noire. _Vil._ This variety is similar to the White-seeded, and, like it, forms no head: the leaves are green, much stained or clouded with brownish-red, erect, firm, rounded at the ends, concave or spoon-shaped, and grouped at the centre into a long and comparatively close heart. It is crisp and well flavored, but attains its greatest perfection only when the outer leaves are tied loosely together about the top of the plant. SPOTTED COS (WHITE-SEEDED). _Vil._ Like the preceding, this variety forms no head; but the interior leaves are formed into an erect, oblong, close heart, which, by tying the exterior leaves together, becomes white, crisp, and of excellent flavor. Though late, it is hardy, remains long in head before running to seed, and is well worthy of cultivation. WAITE'S WHITE COS. _M'Int._ An excellent variety, apparently intermediate between the Green Paris and White Paris; not of quite so deep a green as the former, yet deeper than the latter. With regard to its comparative excellence, it is considered fully equal to the Paris Cos varieties; as it is grown as easily, and is equally crisp and tender. Size and weight nearly the same. WHITE BRUNOY COS (BLACK-SEEDED). _Vil._ Leaves of large size, yellowish-green, pointed, slightly undulated, entire on the borders, and often revoluted like those of the White-seeded. It rarely produces a head; or, if so, it is loose and open. Its greatest perfection is obtained by collecting the exterior leaves about the top of the plant, and tying them loosely together. The variety is not considered superior to the White-seeded, though both of the sorts are inferior to the Paris Cos or Florence sorts. WHITE BRUNOY COS (WHITE-SEEDED). _Vil._ The heads of this variety are long and loose, and rarely form well unless the exterior leaves are tied loosely together. It somewhat resembles the Alphange in the form and character of its foliage, though the head is longer and larger. The plant attains a remarkable size, is hardy, and of good quality; but soon runs to seed, and appears to be a winter rather than a summer lettuce. WHITE PARIS COS. _Vil._ _M'Int._ London White Cos. Sutton's Superb White Cos. The head of this variety has the form of the Green Paris, and blanches well without tying; the outside leaves are erect, yellowish-green, and rather numerous. The extreme diameter of the entire plant, when well grown, is about fourteen inches, and its weight nearly twenty-four ounces. The seeds are white. This is the sort most generally grown by the London market-gardeners, millions of it being produced annually within a few miles of London alone; and it has been adopted almost exclusively, by the gardeners of Paris, for cultivation in the open air. Next to the Green Paris Cos, this is the best, the largest, and the longest in running to seed, of all the summer lettuces. It is tender, brittle, and mild flavored, less hardy and a few days later than the Green Paris Cos. ENDIVE-LEAVED LETTUCE. _Trans._ Lactuca intybacea. The leaves of this species have the form of those of some of the varieties of Endive; whence the name. They are small, pale-green, broad towards the ends, cut and irregularly lobed on the borders. While young, the plants have the appearance of Green Curled Endive. As it runs to flower much earlier than the Spinach Lettuce, it is less esteemed than that variety. The seeds should be sown thickly, in shallow drills ten or twelve inches apart; and the plants should be cut for use when they are three or four inches high. PERENNIAL LETTUCE. _Vil._ Lactuca perennis. This species is a native of Europe; and, in habit and duration, is distinct from all others. The leaves are about ten inches long, of a glaucous or sea green color, thick and fleshy, deeply cut or divided on the margin, and spread regularly from the centre of the plant in the form of a rosette. When fully developed, the plant is two feet and a half high; separating into numerous branches, which terminate in large purple flowers. The seeds, which are of a brownish-black color, are sown in drills fifteen inches apart; and the plants should be thinned to six inches apart in the drills. The leaves are eaten as salad; but, when so used, they should be blanched, either by earthing up or by tying the plant together. They are also sometimes eaten boiled as Spinach or Endive. SPINACH LETTUCE. _Trans._ Oak-leaved Lettuce. Lactuca quercina. The leaves of this species are six inches long, pale yellowish-green, lyrate, with obtuse and entire divisions: when fully developed, they somewhat resemble those of the oak, as implied by the name. The plants form no heart, or head; and are never cultivated singly like the Cabbage or Cos lettuces. The leaves are produced in moderate abundance, and are crisp and well flavored. The seeds should be sown, like those of the Endive-leaved, thickly, in drills; and, when the lower leaves are four or five inches long, they may be cut for use. If not taken off too closely, the plants will afford a second cutting. The seeds are sown early with other spring salads. * * * * * MADRAS RADISH. Raphanus sp. The roots of the Madras Radish are sometimes eaten while they are quite young and small; but they soon become fibrous, strong flavored, and unfit for use. The plant is generally cultivated for its pods, which sometimes measure ten or twelve inches in length: these are solid, crisp, and tender, and, while young, are used for pickling and for salad; being much superior for these purposes to those of the Common Radish. When cultivated for its pods, the seeds should be sown in drills two feet apart, and the plants thinned to nine inches in the drills. * * * * * MALLOW, CURLED-LEAVED. Malva crispa. An annual plant, introduced from Europe, and occasionally found growing spontaneously in the vicinity of gardens where it has been once cultivated. The stem is frequently more than six feet in height; the leaves are nearly five inches in diameter, smooth, and of a rich green color, lobed, and beautifully frilled or curled on the borders; flowers axillary, white, and small; the seeds are somewhat kidney-shaped, of a yellowish-brown color, and retain their powers of germination five years. _Cultivation._--The seeds are sown the last of April or beginning of May, and covered about an inch deep. The plants require much space, and should be grown at least eighteen inches asunder. The best method is to drop a few seeds where the plants are to grow; or to rake in a few seeds sown broadcast, and transplant. _Use._--No part of the plant is considered suitable for food; but the elegantly curled leaves are employed for garnishing desserts. * * * * * MUSTARD. BLACK MUSTARD. Brown Mustard. Red Mustard. Sinapis nigra. Black Mustard is a hardy, annual plant, introduced from Europe. In some localities, it grows naturally in great abundance; and is regarded as a troublesome weed, though its seeds furnish the common table mustard. Its stem is four or five feet in height, round, smooth, and branching; the leaves are lobed and toothed on the margin,--the radical or lower ones rough, those of the upper portion of the stalk smooth; the flowers are numerous, rather large, bright-yellow; the pods are erect, somewhat four-sided, and are set closely against the sides of the stalk; the seeds are small, round, brownish-black, and retain their germinative powers many years; nearly eighteen thousand are contained in an ounce. _Propagation and Cultivation._--It is raised from seeds, about four quarts of which will be required for sowing an acre. It is sometimes grown in the vegetable garden, but is generally cultivated in fields for its seeds, which, as before remarked, furnish the common table mustard. The sowing is usually made from the middle of April to the middle of May. After making the surface of the ground fine and smooth, sow broadcast, or thinly in shallow drills fourteen or fifteen inches apart; cultivate during the season in the usual manner; and, in August, the crop will be ready for harvesting. Cut the stalks at the ground before the pods shed their seeds; and spread in a dry, light, and airy situation, till they are sufficiently dried for threshing. When grown for salad in the vegetable garden, it should be sown, and cut for use, as directed for White Mustard. "If the seed is covered to the depth of three inches or more, it will lie dormant, and retain its powers of vegetation for ages: from which circumstance, together with the liability of the seed to become shaken out in the harvesting of the crop, such lands as are once employed for the growing of Mustard cannot be fairly cleaned of it for a considerable length of time, and only by judicious fallowing or fallow-cropping, with repeated hoeing and weeding."--_Law._ _Use._--Besides the use of the flour of the seeds as a condiment, the seed-leaves are used as salad, in the manner of those of the White species; and the young plants, cut to the ground, are used as spring greens, either boiled alone, or mixed with Spinach. CHINESE OR PEKIN MUSTARD. _Vil._ Sinapis Pekinensis. A hardy annual, introduced from China. Stem four feet high, with remarkably large leaves; the flowers, which are produced in loose, terminal spikes, are yellow and showy; the seeds are small, and retain their vitality five years. _Cultivation._--The seeds are sown in April or May, in shallow drills ten or twelve inches apart. If cultivated for its seeds, the drills should be eighteen inches or two feet apart, and the plants thinned to six or eight inches in the drills. _Use._--The leaves are employed in salads, in the manner of Cress; and they are also sometimes boiled and served as Spinach. CABBAGE-LEAVED MUSTARD. Moutarde à feuilles de Chou. _Vil._ Sinapis sp. A hardy, annual, Chinese plant, similar in habit to the species last described. Stem from three to four feet high; leaves large, roundish, lobed, and wrinkled; flowers yellow; the seeds are small, reddish-brown or black, and retain their powers of germination a long period. _Cultivation and Use._--This species is cultivated in the same manner, and is used for the same purpose, as the Chinese Mustard. CURLED MUSTARD. West-India Cress. A comparatively small species. Stem two feet and a half high; flowers bright-yellow; seeds small, blackish-brown,--scarcely distinguishable from those of the Black Mustard. The leaves are of medium size, greenish-yellow, broadest near the ends, deeply and finely cut on the borders, and beautifully frilled, or curled: they make an excellent garnish; and, when used as salad, have a pleasant, cress-like flavor. CUT-LEAVED MUSTARD. Moutarde lacinée. _Vil._ In its general character, this species resembles the Chinese or Pekin Mustard: the leaves, however, are much smaller, and divided quite to the mid-rib. When young, the leaves make an excellent small salad; having the warm, pleasant flavor of Cress. WHITE MUSTARD. Sinapis alba. White Mustard is a hardy annual, introduced from Europe, and occasionally found growing spontaneously in the vicinity of fields and gardens where it has been once cultivated. The stem is three feet and upwards in height; the leaves are large, deeply lobed, and of a rich, deep-green color; the flowers are large, yellow, produced in loose, terminal spikes; the seeds are yellow, much larger than those of the preceding species, and retain their vitality five years,--seventy-five hundred are contained in an ounce. _Propagation._--White Mustard is always raised from seeds; about four quarts of which will be necessary for seeding an acre. When grown for salad, an ounce will sow forty feet of drill. _Soil and Cultivation._--It succeeds best in rich, loamy soil; which, previously to sowing, should be thoroughly pulverized. When cultivated in the vegetable garden for salad or greens, the first sowing may be made as early in the season as the frost will admit. Sow the seeds thickly, in drills eight or ten inches apart; and cover half an inch deep with fine mould. Remove all weeds as they make their appearance; and, in continued dry weather, water freely. The plants should be cut for use while in the seed-leaf; as, when much developed, they become strong, rank, and ill-flavored. For a succession, a small sowing may be made every week until September. In field culture, the seeds are sometimes sown broadcast; but the more common method is to sow in drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart. When the crop is ready for harvesting, the plants are cut to the ground, stored and threshed, as directed for Black Mustard. _Use._--The plants, before the development of the rough leaves, are used as salad: when more advanced, they are boiled and eaten as Spinach. The flour of the seeds furnishes a table mustard of good quality; though the seeds of the Black species possess greater piquancy, and are generally employed for the purpose. The seeds of both species are much used in medicine, and are considered equally efficacious. * * * * * NASTURTIUM. Indian Cress. Capucine, of the French. Tropæolum, sp. et var. This plant is a native of Peru; and, though generally treated as an annual, is a tender perennial. When cultivated for its flowers or seeds, it should be planted in poor, light soil; but when foliage and luxuriant growth are desired, for the covering of arbors, trellises, and the like, the soil can hardly be made too rich. The planting should be made in April or May. As the seeds are quite large, they should be covered two inches deep. When planted in drills, they are made three feet apart, and the young plants thinned to six inches apart in the drills. The growing crop may be supported by staking or bushing, as practised with pease; or the taller-growing sorts may be shortened in, which will induce a strong, stocky habit of growth. While the plants are young, they will require some attention, in order that they may be properly attached to the stakes or trellises provided for their support; after which, little care need be bestowed, beyond the ordinary stirring of the soil, and keeping the ground free from weeds. _Use._--The unexpanded flower-buds, and the seeds while young and succulent, have a warm, aromatic taste, and are pickled and used as capers. The young shoots are eaten as salad; and the flowers, which are large and richly colored, are used for garnishing. Few ornamental plants are better known or more generally cultivated than the Nasturtium. The species and varieties are as follow:-- TALL NASTURTIUM. Tropæolum majus. Stem from six to eight feet high, succulent; leaves alternate, smooth, rounded,--the leaf-stems being attached to the disc, or under-surface; flowers large, on long stems, yellow,--the two upper petals streaked and marked with purple; the seeds are large, somewhat triangular, convex on one of the sides, of a drab or pale-brown color, and retain their germinative properties five years,--from a hundred and eighty to two hundred are contained in an ounce. DARK-FLOWERING. A variety of the preceding; differing only in the brown color of the flowers. Cultivation and uses the same. VARIEGATED. Also a sub-variety of the Tall Nasturtium, with orange-yellow flowers; each of the petals being stained or spotted with purple. Other varieties occur, differing in color, but equally useful for the purposes before described. SMALL NASTURTIUM. Dwarf Capucine. Tropæolum minus. Much smaller, in all respects, than the common Dwarf variety of _Tropæolum majus_; the stem rarely measuring more than two feet in length, or rising above a foot in height. The flowers are yellow; the lower petals with a blotch of scarlet at their base, and the upper ones delicately striped with the same color. It yields abundantly; and, though the pods are comparatively small, they are generally preferred to those of the Tall Nasturtium for pickling. * * * * * PICRIDIUM. Garden Picridium. Picridium vulgare. A hardy, annual plant, from the south of Europe. Stem eighteen inches high; leaves six to eight inches long, irregular in form, but generally broad at the ends, and heart-shaped and clasping at the base; flowers yellow, compound, produced in clusters; the seeds are long, slightly curved, four-sided, brown or blackish-brown, and retain their vitality five years. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The seeds should be sown in April or May, in drills a foot apart, and half an inch in depth. As the plants, when allowed to run to seed, produce but little foliage, it is necessary, in order to secure a continued supply of fresh leaves, to cut or nip off the flowering-shoot as it makes its appearance. Under proper management, the leaves grow rapidly, and are produced in great abundance. _Use._--The leaves have a pleasant, agreeable flavor; and, while young and tender, are mixed in salads. * * * * * PURSLAIN. Portulaca. Purslain is a hardy, annual plant. Most of the cultivated kinds are but improved forms of the Common Purslain (_P. oleracea_), introduced into this country from Europe, and so troublesome as a weed in most vegetable gardens. Stem usually about a foot in length, succulent and tender; leaves fleshy, broad and round at the ends, and tapering to the stalk; flowers yellow, resting closely in the axils of the leaves; the seeds are black, exceedingly small, and retain their germinating powers ten years. _Soil, Propagation, and Culture._--Purslain thrives well in all soils,--dry, wet, or intermediate; and is propagated by seeds sown in shallow drills at any time from April to July. _Use._--The plants may be cut for use when they have made a growth of four or five inches. They are mixed in salads, eaten boiled as Spinach, or pickled. The species and varieties are as follow:-- COMMON PURSLAIN. Portulaca oleracea. Abundant in gardens, cultivated fields, and waste grounds. The Green and the Golden Purslain are improved sub-varieties. The Common Purslain is used in all the forms in which the cultivated sorts are used; and, though some of the latter are considered more succulent, the difference in quality will scarcely repay the cost of cultivation, where the present variety would be the ceaseless competitor for the supremacy. GOLDEN PURSLAIN. Pourpier doré. _Vil._ P. oleracea var. aurea. Similar to the Green Purslain, but differing in the paler or yellowish color of the stalks and leaves. GREEN PURSLAIN. Pourpier vert. _Vil._ Leaves an inch and three-fourths in length, and upwards of an inch in width, deep-green. LARGE-LEAVED GOLDEN PURSLAIN. P. sativa. Leaves pale yellowish-green, larger than those of the preceding sorts. The plant is a strong grower, and the leaves attain a remarkable size; but the stalks are often comparatively tough and hard, and, for salad purposes, much inferior to those of the Green or Golden varieties. * * * * * RAPE. This plant is generally cultivated for its seeds, like Mustard. It is, however, sometimes grown for salad; the seeds being sown in April, and, for a succession, once in three or four weeks till August or September. Sow thickly, in drills ten or twelve inches apart, and cover half an inch deep. The soil should be rich and moist, in order to induce a rapid growth, and thus to give a tender, succulent character to the young leaves; these being the parts eaten. They are served like Lettuce, or boiled and treated as Coleworts or Spinach. For mixing with Cress or Lettuce, the plants are cut to the ground before the development of the second leaves. The species are as follow:-- ANNUAL ROUGH-LEAVED SUMMER RAPE. _Law._ Turnip Rape. Brassica rapa. Root fusiform, small, hard, and woody; radical leaves lyrate, vivid green, and without any appearance of the glaucous bloom for which the biennial sorts are so distinguished; the stem-leaves are slightly glaucous, smooth, or nearly so,--the lower ones cut on the borders, the upper entire; the seeds are small, and similar to those of the common field turnip, of which it seems to be either a variety, or the source from which the latter has been derived. COMMON OR WINTER RAPE. _Law._ Cole-seed. Brassica napus. Biennial; root long, tapering, hard, and woody, like that of the species before described. The leaves are smooth, thick, and fleshy, and of much the same form as those of the Annual Rough-leaved Summer Rape; this species, however, being readily distinguished, when young, by its uniformly smooth leaves. The seeds, also, are larger than those of the last-named species; but this is not to be relied upon as a distinguishing characteristic, as the size of the seeds, in this as in most other plants, is liable to be materially altered by the soil as well as by the previous culture of the seed-stock. The seeds are sown in summer, and the crop ripens the following year. It is not adapted to the climate of the Northern States. In England, the foregoing species are extensively cultivated both for forage and for seed; the latter being used to a limited extent for feeding birds, but chiefly for the production of rape-seed oil. GERMAN RAPE. _Law._ Annual or Early Rape. Smooth-leaved Summer Rape. Brassica præcox. The German Rape somewhat resembles the Common or Winter. It differs in being of annual duration; in its more deeply divided leaves, more erect pods, and smaller seeds. It would unquestionably succeed well in almost any part of the Northern or Middle States, and might prove as remunerative a crop as corn or wheat. The seeds should be sown in May; and the plants should be treated and the crop harvested, in all respects, as Mustard. It is sometimes sown broadcast, but generally in drills. When sown broadcast, eight or ten pounds of seed will be required for an acre; if in drills, three or four pounds will be sufficient. The yield varies from twenty to forty bushels per acre. SUMMER RAPE. _Law._ Colza. Wild Navew. Brassica campestris. A biennial plant, with a tapering, hard, and fibrous root. The radical leaves are lyrate and roughish when young; those of the stem clasping, or heart-shaped, at base, and of an oblong form,--all somewhat fleshy, of a dark-green color, with a glaucous bloom. The seeds are larger than those of the Ruta-baga, or Swedish Turnip, but in other respects not distinguishable. This species is sometimes termed _Brassica campestris olifer_, or Oil-rape, from its being considered the best sort of rape for cultivating for oil; and to distinguish it from the _Campestris Ruta-baga_, or Swedish Turnip, which is only a variety of this species. It is not sufficiently hardy for cultivation in the Northern States. * * * * * ROCKET. _Vil._ Garden Rocket. Roquette, of the French. Brassica eruca. A hardy, annual plant, from the south of Europe. Stem about two feet high; leaves long, lobed or lyrate, smooth and glossy, succulent and tender; flowers pale citron-yellow, with blackish-purple veins, very fragrant, having the odor of orange-blossoms; the seeds are small, roundish, brown, or reddish-brown, and retain their vitality two years,--fifteen thousand are contained in an ounce. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The seed is sown thinly, in shallow drills a foot asunder. The first sowing may be made as early in spring as the frost will permit; afterwards, for a succession, a few seeds may be sown at intervals of three or four weeks. In poor soil and dry seasons, the leaves are liable to be tough and acrid: the seeds should, therefore, be sown in rich loam, and the plants thoroughly watered in dry weather; as, the more rapid and vigorous the growth, the more succulent and mild-flavored will be the foliage. _Use._--The leaves, while young and tender, are eaten as salad. * * * * * SAMPHIRE. _Thomp._ _Mill._ Sea-fennel. Parsley-pert. St. Peter's Herb. Crithmum maritimum. This is a half-hardy, perennial plant, common to rocky localities on the seacoast of Great Britain. Stalk from a foot to two feet in height, tender and succulent; leaves half an inch long, somewhat linear, glaucous-green, fleshy; flowers in terminal umbels,--small, white, or yellowish-white; the seeds are oblong, yellowish, and, though somewhat larger, resemble those of Fennel,--they retain their germinative power but one year. The plant blossoms in July and August, and the seeds ripen in September and October. _Cultivation._--"It is rather difficult to cultivate in gardens; and the produce is never so good as that obtained from the places where it naturally grows. It may be propagated either by dividing the plant, or by sowing the seed in April or in autumn, soon after it is ripe. The latter period is preferable; for, if kept till spring, the seed does not germinate so well. "It succeeds best in a light, sandy, or gravelly soil, kept constantly moist, and sprinkled occasionally with a little sea-salt or barilla, or watered with a solution of these substances, in order to supply the plant with soda, which is a necessary element of its food. It will grow still better if planted or sown among stones at the foot of walls, with a south or east aspect. This, and an occasional watering, with a solution of sea-salt, will give conditions nearly the same as those under which the plant naturally grows. As it is rather delicate, and liable to be injured by frost, it should be protected by dry litter or leaves during the winter. Towards the end of summer, the leaves may be cut for use."--_Thomp._ _Use._--The leaves have a warm, pleasant, aromatic flavor; and, when pickled in vinegar, are used in salads and as a seasoning. GOLDEN SAMPHIRE. _Thomp._ Inula crithmifolia. A hardy perennial, growing, like the preceding, naturally, on the marshes and seacoast of Great Britain. The stalk is a foot and a half in height, erect, with clusters of small, fleshy leaves; flowers yellow, in small, umbel-like clusters. _Propagation and Cultivation._--It may be propagated by seeds, or by a division of the roots. It thrives best in a shady situation, and requires frequent watering. If salt be occasionally dissolved in the water, it will promote the growth of the plants, and render the branches and foliage more succulent and tender. _Use._--The fleshy leaves and the young branches are pickled in vinegar, and added to salads as a relish. The plant, however, has none of the pleasant aromatic flavor of the true Samphire, though often sold under the name, and used as a substitute. * * * * * SCURVY-GRASS. Cochlearia officinalis. This is a hardy, annual, maritime plant, common to the seacoast of France and Great Britain. The root-leaves spread regularly from a common centre, are heart-shaped, fleshy, smooth, and glossy,--those of the stem sessile, oblong, and toothed on the margin; the stalks are numerous, and from six inches to a foot in height; the flowers are small, white, and produced in compact groups, or clusters; the seeds are small, oval, a little angular, and retain their vitality three years. _Soil, Sowing, and Cultivation._--It succeeds best in moist, sandy soil; and flourishes in shady situations. Sow the seeds in August, soon after they ripen, in shallow drills eight or ten inches apart; and, while the plants are young, thin them to five or six inches apart in the rows. The plants taken up in thinning may be transplanted, and new beds formed if occasion require. The growing crop should be kept free from weeds, and liberally watered in dry weather. In the following spring, the leaves will be fit for the table. Those plants not cut for use will flower in June, and the seeds will ripen in July. The seeds seldom vegetate well if sown late in spring, or during warm, dry weather. _Use._--The radical leaves are used as a salad, and are sometimes mixed with Cress. When bruised, they emit an unpleasant odor; and have an acrid, bitter taste when eaten. The plant is more generally used for medicinal purposes than as an esculent. * * * * * SNAILS. Snail Trefoil. Medicago orbicularis. From the south of Europe. It is a hardy, annual plant, with reclining steins, compound or winged leaves, and yellow flowers. The pods, or seed-vessels, are smooth, and coiled in a singular and remarkably regular manner. As they approach maturity, they gradually change to a dark-brown color; and, seen from a short distance, have the appearance of snails feeding on the plant. The seeds are large, flat, somewhat kidney-shaped, of a yellowish-brown color, and retain their powers of germination five years. They are usually sold in the pods, but should be taken out before planting. _Sowing and Culture._--It is propagated by seeds, which should be sown in April or May where the plants are to remain. Sow in drills fifteen inches apart. The plants should be thinned out where they are too close, and kept clean from weeds; which is all the culture they require. They will blossom in July, and the seeds will ripen in autumn. _Use._--Though entirely inoffensive, no part of the plant is used for food. The pods resemble some species of snails in a remarkable degree, and are placed on dishes of salad for the purpose of exciting curiosity, or for pleasantly surprising the guests at table. * * * * * SWEET CICELY. Sweet-scented Chervil. Osmorrhiza odorata. Scandix odorata. A hardy perennial. When fully grown, the stalk is three feet or more in height; the leaves are large, and many times divided; the stems and nerves downy; the flowers are white, fragrant, and terminate the stalks in flat, spreading bunches, or umbels; the seeds are large, brown, and retain their vitality but one year. _Sowing and Culture._--It is usually grown from seeds; and is of easy cultivation, as it thrives in almost any soil or situation. When allowed to scatter its seeds after ripening in the autumn, the plants will spring up spontaneously in great numbers in the following April or May, and may then be transplanted where they are to remain; or the seed may be sown in October, in beds, making the rows fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and thinning the plants to a foot apart in the rows. When practicable, the seed should be sown in the autumn; as it seldom vegetates well, unless subjected to the action of the winter. After the plants have become established, they will require only ordinary treatment, and yield abundantly. _Use._--"In England, the leaves were formerly put into salads; but the strong flavor of aniseed, which the whole plant possesses, renders them disagreeable to most persons. It is now not cultivated in Britain; but the leaves and roots are still used in France: the former for the same purposes as those of Chervil; the latter in soups, to which they are said to communicate an agreeable taste."--_Thomp._ In this country, it is sometimes cultivated with other aromatic plants; but its use in soups, or as a seasoner or garnish, is very limited. * * * * * TARRAGON. Artemesia dracunculus. A hardy, perennial plant, said to be a native of Siberia. Stalk herbaceous, about three feet in height; the leaves are long, narrow, pointed, smooth, and highly aromatic; the flowers are small, somewhat globular, greenish, and generally infertile. There is but one variety. _Soil, Planting, and Culture._--As the plants seldom produce seed, Tarragon is usually propagated by dividing the roots. Select a warm and comparatively dry situation; stir the ground deeply and thoroughly; and, in April, set the roots in rows fifteen inches apart, ten or twelve inches apart in the rows, and cover two or three inches deep. They will soon send up vigorous shoots, which may be cut for use the first season. It is sometimes increased by cuttings, set three or four inches deep in moist earth. If seeds can be obtained, they should be sown in April or May, in a nursery-bed or in a common frame. Sow in shallow drills six or eight inches apart; and, when the plants are three or four inches high, set them out as directed for the roots. They will early become strong and stocky, and may be used in August or September. The plants are more healthy, yield more abundantly, and are of finer quality, when not allowed to run to flower. _Use._--"Tarragon is cultivated for its leaves and the points of its young shoots; both of which are used as ingredients in salads, soups, stews, pickles, and other compounds. Tarragon vinegar, so much esteemed as a fish-sauce, is made by infusion of the leaves in common vinegar. It is also added to most salads to correct their coldness. Three or four plants will be sufficient for a family."--_M'Int._ * * * * * VALERIANA. _Vil._ Fedia cornucopiæ. Valeriana cornucopiæ. This is an annual plant, with a smooth, branching stem about fifteen inches high. The leaves are oblong, stemless, thick, and fleshy, and of a bright, glossy-green color; the flowers are numerous, large, rose-colored, showy, and ornamental; the seeds are oblong, yellowish, somewhat vesiculous, and retain their vitality five years,--twenty-two hundred are contained in an ounce. _Soil and Culture._--It succeeds best in a light, warm soil. Prepare a bed four feet and a half wide, spade it thoroughly over, rake the surface smooth and fine, and sow the seed in drills fourteen inches apart. The first sowing should be made the last of April, or early in May; and afterwards, for a succession, sow a row or two every fortnight till July. _Use._--It is used as a salad, and is said to be superior to the Common Fetticus, or Corn-salad. When in blossom, the plant presents a beautiful appearance, and well deserves a place in the flower-garden. * * * * * WATER-CRESS. Sisymbrium nasturtium. Nasturtium officinale. Water-cress is a hardy, aquatic perennial; and is found growing naturally, in considerable abundance, about ponds, and in ditches and small running streams. When in blossom, the plant is about two feet in height, or length; the leaves are winged, with five or six pairs of rounded leaflets, and, in deep water, are often immersed, or float upon the surface; the flowers are small, white, four-petaled, and terminate the stalks in loose spikes; the seeds are very small, reddish-brown, and retain their powers of germination five years,--nearly a hundred and twenty thousand are contained in an ounce. _Planting and Culture._--"Water-cress is of the best quality when grown in running streams and gravelly soil." The roots may be planted in spring, in situations where the water is from four to eight inches deep. After they are established, the plants will rapidly increase, both from the natural distribution of the seeds and the spreading of the roots, and soon entirely cover the surface of the water with foliage. It may be grown with trifling cost in any small collection of water, and can be easily introduced by dropping a few plants about the borders at the time of the ripening of the seeds. In many localities, it is found growing in spontaneous abundance; and one of the best and most healthful of salads may be obtained for the mere labor of gathering. _Varieties._--There are three described varieties,--the Green-leaved, the Small Brown-leaved, and the Large Brown-leaved. These differ slightly, if at all, in flavor; though the Brown-leaved is generally preferred: having a fine appearance, and a small proportion of stalk to the leaves, it is most salable in the market. The variations in foliage and habit do not appear to be caused by the quantity or quality of the water in which the plants are grown, as the three kinds are found growing together. "The Green-leaved is the easiest of cultivation, and the Small Brown-leaved is the hardiest. The Large Brown-leaved is the best, and is the only one which can be well grown in situations where shallow water is not to be obtained."--_Trans._ _Gathering and Use._--"The shoots are _cut_ for market, not _broken_ off, as is the usual mode of gathering Cress in its natural state, and which is found to be very injurious to the plants in the beds. After they have been cut about three times, they begin to stock; and then, the oftener they are cut, the better. In summer, it is necessary to keep them very closely cut; and in water of a proper depth, and with a good soil, each bed supplies a gathering once a week." It is extensively employed as an early spring salad; and, on account of its warm and pleasant taste, is by many persons preferred to all other salad plants. * * * * * WINTER-CRESS. Barbarea. American Winter-cress. Belle-Isle Cress. Scurvy-grass, of some localities. Barbarea præcox. Stems from twelve to fifteen inches high; leaves lyrate, the terminal lobe round; flowers small, in erect, loose, terminal spikes, or groups; the seeds are small, wrinkled, of a grayish color, and retain their vitality three years. Introduced from Europe, and naturalized in the Northern States. COMMON WINTER-CRESS, OR YELLOW ROCKET. Barbarea vulgaris. This species somewhat resembles the foregoing; and, like it, grows naturally in moist, shady situations. It is distinguished by its longer, more erect, and more slender pods. _Soil and Cultivation._--Both of the species are hardy, perennial plants; and are raised from seeds, which should be sown in April or May, in shallow drills a foot apart. For a succession, a few seeds may be sown at intervals of three or four weeks till August. For winter use, sow, and subsequently cultivate, as Winter Spinach. _Use._--As soon as the plants have made sufficient growth, they may be cut for use. The outer leaves should be first gathered, and the flower-stalks cut or nipped off as they make their appearance, in order to render the plants strong and stocky, and to promote the growth of the leaves; these being the parts of the plants used. They are served as Cress, which they resemble in flavor. * * * * * WOOD-SORREL. Oxalis acetocella. Wood-sorrel is a hardy, perennial plant; growing naturally in woods, in cool and shaded situations. The leaves are radical, inversely heart-shaped, and produced three together at the extremity of quite a long stem, or petiole; the flower-stalk is entirely leafless, and supports a solitary bell-shaped flower, the petals of which are white, finely lined or striped with purple; the seed-vessels are of an oblong form, five-angled, and, when ripe, burst open by the touch, in the manner of those of the _Impatiens noli me tangere_, or Common Balsam, of the flower-garden; the seeds are quite small, and of a reddish-brown color. The flowers are produced in May and June, and the seeds ripen in July. _Propagation and Culture._--It may be propagated either by seeds or by dividing the roots. The soil should be rich and moist; and the seeds may be sown in April or May, in shallow drills ten or twelve inches apart; or the roots may be divided in spring or autumn, and set in rows the same distance asunder. _Use._--The leaves possess a pleasant, acid taste; and are mixed with salads, to which they impart an agreeable, refreshing flavor. The plant is considered one of the most valuable of all vegetables cultivated for their acid properties. * * * * * WORMS. Astragalus hamosus. A hardy, annual plant, indigenous to the south of Europe. Stem ten or twelve inches long, recumbent; leaves pinnate, with ten or twelve pairs of quite small leaflets; flowers yellow, produced five or six together at the extremity of quite a long stem, or peduncle; the seed-pods are about two inches long, nearly a fourth of an inch thick, peculiarly bent or curved, and contain ten or twelve brown seeds. There is but one species or variety cultivated. _Sowing and Culture._--The plants may be started by sowing the seeds in a hot-bed in March, or the seeds may be sown in the open ground in May. They are cultivated in rows fourteen inches apart, and ten or twelve inches apart in the rows; and are also grown in groups, or hills, three or four together. The plants blossom in July, and the pods attain their growth in August and September. _Use._--The pods, in their green state, much resemble some descriptions of worms; and, like Caterpillars (_Scorpiurus_) and Snails (_Medicago_), are sometimes placed on dishes of salad to excite curiosity, or for pleasantly surprising the guests at table. Though inoffensive, they are seldom eaten. CHAPTER VIII. OLERACEOUS PLANTS. Angelica. Anise. Balm. Basil. Borage. Caraway. Clary. Coriander. Costmary. Cumin. Dill. Fennel. Lavender. Lovage. Marigold. Marjoram. Nigella. Parsley. Peppermint. Rosemary. Sage. Savory. Spearmint. Tansy. Thyme. ANGELICA. Angelica archangelica. Angelica is a native of Hungary and Germany, and is also indigenous to Great Britain. It is a hardy, biennial plant, with a cylindrical, hollow, herbaceous stem four or five feet high. The radical leaves are from two to three feet long, compound, or divided in threes, purplish-red at the base; flowers small, pale-yellow, in large, terminal, spherical umbels; the seeds are of a yellowish color, oblong, flattened on one side, convex on the opposite, ribbed, thin, and membraneous on the borders, and retain their germinative power but a single season,--nearly six thousand are contained in an ounce. _Soil and Culture._--The plants thrive best in damp, and even wet, localities; but may be grown in any good, well-enriched soil. As the seeds soon lose their vitality, they should be sown in August, immediately after ripening. Make a small bed, sow the seeds in drills ten inches apart, and cover three-fourths of an inch deep. In this seed-bed allow the young plants to remain until the following spring, when they should be set out two feet asunder in each direction. The stalks will be fit for use in May and June of the following year. If the flower-stem is removed as it makes its appearance, the plants will put forth fresh sprouts from the sides of the root, and survive three years; but when allowed to blossom, and to perfect their seeds, the plants soon after perish. _Use._--Angelica was formerly used, after being blanched, as a salad, like Celery. In the vicinity of London, it is raised to a considerable extent for confectioners,--the tender leaf-stalks and flowering-shoots serving as a basis for sweetmeat. The seeds are sometimes employed for flavoring liquors. * * * * * ANISE. Pimpinella anisum. This is an annual plant, originally from Egypt. Though but little cultivated in this country, neither our soil nor climate is unsuitable; and it might be successfully, if not profitably, grown in the Middle and warmer parts of the Northern States. Large quantities of the seeds are raised on the Island of Malta and in some parts of Spain, and thence exported to England and America for the purpose of distillation or expression. The stem is from a foot and a half to two feet high, and separates into numerous slender branches; the leaves are twice pinnate,--those of the upper part of the stalk divided into three or four narrow segments; the flowers are small, yellowish-white, produced in large, loose umbels, at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are of a grayish-green color, oblong, slightly bent or curved, convex and ribbed on one side, concave on the opposite, and terminate in a small bunch, or knob,--nearly nine thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality three years. _Culture._--Anise is raised from seeds sown annually, and thrives best in light, rich, comparatively dry soil, and in a warm, sunny situation. As early in spring as the appearance of settled warm weather, lay out a bed four feet and a half wide, and as long as may be desired; spread on a thin dressing of well-digested compost, and spade it thoroughly in with the soil; then rake the surface fine and even, and sow the seed thinly in drills twelve inches apart and an inch deep, allowing an ounce of seed for a hundred and fifty linear feet. When the plants are an inch high, thin them to five or six inches apart; and, as they increase in size, keep the ground between the rows loose, and the spaces between the plants free from weeds. Towards the close of the season, the seed will be ripened sufficiently for harvesting; when the plants should be pulled up, and spread in a sunny place until dry. The seed should then be threshed from the heads, riddled and winnowed, and again exposed to the sun, or spread in a dry, airy room, to evaporate any remaining moisture; when they will be ready for use or the market. In field culture, the grower should follow substantially the same method, with the exception of laying out the ground; omitting, in this particular, its division into beds. After the land has been well prepared, the seed can be sown with great facility by a common sowing-machine, adjusted as when employed for sowing carrots. At the time of harvesting, the plants may be cut near the surface of the ground, or even mowed; thereby avoiding much of the inconvenience arising from the soil that adheres to the roots when the plants are pulled up. There are no varieties. _Use._--The seeds and leaves are used both in medicine and cookery. The green leaves are employed in salads, and for seasoning and garnishing, like Fennel. The seeds have a fragrant odor, a pleasant, warm taste, and are highly carminative. Large quantities are used for distillation and in flavoring liquors, and also for expressing for their essential oil. * * * * * BALM. Melissa officinalis. A hardy, perennial plant, from the south of Europe. The stalk is four-sided, branching, and from two to three feet high; leaves opposite, in pairs, ovate, toothed on the borders; the flowers are small, nearly white, produced in spikes, or clusters, at or near the top of the plant. _Soil, Propagation, and Culture._--Any warm, mellow, garden soil is suited to its growth. It is generally propagated by dividing the roots, which may be done either in spring or in autumn. After thoroughly stirring the soil, set the roots in rows fifteen inches apart, and a foot apart in the rows. Under good management, the plants will soon completely cover the surface of the ground, and the bed will not need renewal for many years. _Gathering._--If required for drying, the plants should be cut as they come into flower, separating the stems at the surface of the ground. They should not be exposed to the sun in drying, but placed in an airy, shady place, and allowed to dry gradually. The leaves, in their green state, may be taken directly from the plants as they are required for use. _Use._--The plant has a pleasant, lemon-like odor; an agreeable, aromatic taste; and, in flavoring certain dishes, is used as a substitute for lemon-thyme. It is beneficial in hemorrhage, and other diseases of the lungs; and, in the form of tea, constitutes a cooling and grateful diluent in fevers. A mixture of balm and honey, or sugar, is sometimes applied to the interior of beehives, just previous to receiving the swarm, for the purpose of "attaching the colony to its new settlement." * * * * * BASIL. Ocymum. There are two species of Basil cultivated in gardens; viz., the Common Sweet Basil (_O. basilicum_) and the Small Bush Basil (_O. minimum_). Of the Common Sweet Basil, there are three varieties; and of the Bush Basil, two varieties. They are all annuals, and are grown from seeds, which are black, small, oblong, and retain their vitality from six to ten years. COMMON SWEET BASIL. Large Sweet Basil. Ocymum basilicum. Stem from a foot to a foot and a half in height; leaves comparatively large, green, ovate, sharply pointed; flowers white, in whorls at the extremities of the stems and branches. The whole plant, when bruised, is highly aromatic; having the odor and flavor of cloves. The seeds of the Common Sweet Basil, and also those of the two following varieties, may be sown in a hot-bed in March, and the plants set out in May in rows a foot apart, and five or six inches apart in the rows; or the seeds may be sown in the open ground the last of April or early in May, and the plants thinned while young, as directed for transplanting. In removing the plants from the hot-bed, retain as much of the earth about the roots as possible; water freely as soon as transplanted, and also in dry weather; and they will soon yield an abundance of tender stems and leaves. _Varieties._-- PURPLE BASIL. Basilic grand violet. _Vil._ Leaves and flowers purple. When grown in sunny situations, the leaf-stems and young branches are also purple. In other respects, the variety is similar to the Common Sweet Basil. Its properties and uses are the same. LETTUCE-LEAVED BASIL. _Vil._ The leaves of this variety are large, pale-green, wrinkled and blistered like those of some kinds of Lettuce: whence the name. It resembles the foregoing varieties in taste and odor, and is used for the same purposes. BUSH BASIL. Ocymum minimum. The Bush Basils are small, low-growing, branching plants; and are propagated and cultivated like the Common Sweet Basil. GREEN BUSH BASIL. Basilic fin vert. _Vil._ Stem about eight inches high; leaves small, green, oval; flowers white, produced in whorls about the upper portion of the principal stalk and towards the extremities of the branches. PURPLE BUSH BASIL. Basilic fin violet. _Vil._ Leaves purple. In other respects, similar to the Green Bush Basil. _Use._--The leaves and young branches have a strong, clove-like taste and odor, and are used in highly seasoned soups and meats. They are also sometimes added to salads. For winter use, the stalks are cut while in flower, dried, powdered, and preserved, like other pot-herbs. * * * * * BORAGE. Borago officinalis. Borage is generally classed as a hardy annual, though it is sometimes biennial. Stem two feet high; the leaves are oval, alternate, and, in common with the stalk and branches, thickly set with stiff, bristly hairs; the flowers are large and showy,--they are red, white, or blue, and often measure more than an inch in diameter; the seeds are large, oblong, slightly curved, and retain their germinative property three years. _Soil and Cultivation._--Borage thrives best in light, dry soil. The seeds are sown in April or May, in drills ten or twelve inches apart, and half an inch deep. They should be sown quite thinly, or so as to secure a plant for every six or eight inches; to which distance they should be thinned. When a continued supply is required, a second sowing should be made in July. The plants seed abundantly; and, when once introduced into the garden, spring up spontaneously. _Use._--The plant is rarely cultivated and little used in this country. It is sometimes employed as a pot-herb, and the young shoots are occasionally mixed in salads. They are also sometimes boiled and used as Spinach. The flowers make a beautiful garnish, and it is well worthy cultivation as an ornamental plant. "The stalks and foliage contain a large proportion of nitre; and, when dried, burn like match-paper." _Varieties._--There are several varieties, differing slightly, except in the color of the flowers; the Red-flowering, White-flowering, and Blue-flowering being the principal. A variety, with variegated foliage, is described by some authors. Miller states that "they generally retain their distinctions from seeds." * * * * * CARAWAY. Carum carui. The Common Caraway is a hardy, biennial plant; a native of various parts of Europe; and, to a considerable extent, naturalized in this country. The root is long and tapering, of a yellowish-white color, and about three-fourths of an inch in diameter near the crown or at its broadest part; the flesh of the root is white, fine-grained, with a flavor not unlike that of the carrot; the flower-stalks are put forth the second season, and are about two feet and a half in height, with numerous spreading branches; the leaves are finely cut, or divided, and of a deep-green color; the flowers are small, white, and produced in umbels at the ends of the branches; the seeds, which ripen quite early in the season, are of an oblong form, somewhat curved, furrowed, slightly tapering towards the extremities, of a clear olive-brown color, and pleasant, aromatic flavor and odor,--nearly eight thousand five hundred seeds are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality three years. _Soil and Cultivation._--Caraway is one of the hardiest of plants, and succeeds well in almost any soil or situation. In the coldest parts of the United States, and even in the Canadas, it is naturalized to such an extent about fields and mowing lands, as to be obtained in great abundance for the mere labor of cutting up the plants as the ripening of the seeds takes place. When cultivated, the sowing may be made in April or May: but, if sown just after ripening, the seeds not only vegetate with greater certainty, but the plants often flower the ensuing season; thus saving a summer's growth. Sow in drills twelve or fifteen inches apart, and cover half an inch deep. When the plants are well up, thin to six or eight inches apart, and keep the ground loose, and free from weeds. The seeds will ripen in the July of the year after sowing. For other methods of culture, see CORIANDER. _Use._--It is principally cultivated for its seeds, which constitute an article of some commercial importance; a large proportion, however, of the consumption in this country being supplied by importation from Europe. They are extensively employed by confectioners, and also for distillation. They are also mixed in cake, and, by the Dutch, introduced into cheese. It is sometimes cultivated for its young leaves, which are used in soups and salads; or as a pot-herb, like Parsley. The roots are boiled in the manner of the Carrot or Parsnip, and by some preferred to these vegetables; the flavor being considered pleasant and delicate. There are no described varieties. * * * * * CLARY. _Loud._ Clary Sage. Salvia sclarea. Clary is a hardy, biennial plant. It is indigenous to the south of Europe, and has been cultivated in gardens for upwards of three centuries. The radical leaves are large, rough, wrinkled, oblong-heart-shaped, and toothed on the margin; stalk two feet high, four-sided, clammy to the touch; flowers pale-blue, in loose, terminal spikes; seeds round, brownish, and, like others of the family, produced four together,--they retain their vitality two years. _Sowing and Culture._--It is generally grown from seeds, which are sown annually in April or May, in drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and half or three-fourths of an inch deep. When the young plants are two or three inches high, thin them to ten or twelve inches apart, and treat the growing crop in the usual form during summer. The leaves will be in perfection in the ensuing autumn, winter, and spring; and the plants will blossom, and produce their seeds, in the following summer. _Use._--The leaves are used for flavoring soups, to which they impart a strong, peculiar flavor, agreeable to some, but unpleasant to most persons. It has some of the properties of Common Sage, and is occasionally used as a substitute. The plant is seldom employed in American cookery, and is little cultivated. * * * * * CORIANDER. _Law._ Coriandrum sativum. A hardy annual, supposed to have been introduced from the south of Europe, but now naturalized in almost all temperate climates where it has once been cultivated. Stem about two feet in height, generally erect, but, as the seeds approach maturity, often acquiring a drooping habit; stem-leaves more finely cut or divided than those proceeding directly from the root, and all possessed of a strong and somewhat disagreeable odor. The generic name is derived from _Koris_ (a bug), with reference to the peculiar smell of its foliage. Flowers white, produced on the top of the plant, at the extremities of the branches, in flat, spreading umbels, or bunches; seeds globular, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, of a yellowish-brown color, with a warm, pleasant, aromatic taste,--they become quite light and hollow by age, and are often affected by insects in the manner of seed-pease. Though they will sometimes vegetate when kept for a longer period, they are not considered good when more than two years old. _Propagation and Cultivation._--Like all annuals, it is propagated from seed, which should be sown in April or May, in good, rich, mellow soil well pulverized. Sow in drills made fourteen or sixteen inches asunder and about three-fourths of an inch in depth, and thin to nine inches in the rows. It soon runs to flower and seed, and will be ready for harvesting in July or August. In the south of England, Coriander is generally cultivated in connection with Caraway; eighteen pounds of Caraway seed being mixed with fifteen pounds of Coriander for an acre. The Coriander, being an annual, yields its crop the first season. After being cut, it is left on the field to dry, and the seeds afterwards beaten out on cloths; the facility with which these are detached not admitting of the usual method of harvesting. An unquestionably preferable mode of cultivation would be to sow them both in drills alternately, by which means the Caraway would be more easily hoed and cleaned after the removal of the Coriander. _Use._--It is generally cultivated for its seeds, which are used to a considerable extent by druggists, confectioners, and distillers. In the garden, it is sometimes sown for its leaves, which are used as Chervil in soups and salads; but, when so required, a sowing should be made at intervals of three or four weeks. There are no varieties. * * * * * COSTMARY, OR ALECOST. Balsamita vulgaris. Costmary is a hardy, perennial plant, with a hard, creeping root, and an erect, branching stem two or three feet high. The radical leaves, which are produced on long footstalks, are oval, serrated, and of a grayish color,--those of the stalk are sessile, smaller than the radical ones, but similar in form; the flowers are deep-yellow, in erect, terminal, spreading corymbs; the seeds are small, slightly curved, and of a grayish-white color. HOARY-LEAVED COSTMARY. _Loud._ A variety with deeply divided and hoary leaves, less fragrant than the preceding. _Propagation and Cultivation._--Costmary may be cultivated in almost any description of soil or situation. It is sometimes grown from seeds, but is generally propagated by dividing the roots, which increase rapidly, and soon entirely occupy the ground. They are taken up for planting out either in spring or autumn, and should be set two feet apart in each direction. By occasionally thinning out the plants as they become too thick, a bed may be continued many years. _Use._--The plant has a soft, agreeable odor, and is sometimes used as a pot-herb for flavoring soups. The leaves are used in salads, and also for flavoring ale or beer: hence the name "Alecost." * * * * * CUMIN. Cuminum cyminum. Cumin is a native of Egypt. It is a tender, annual plant, from nine to twelve inches high. The leaves are deep-green, and divided into long, linear segments, not unlike those of Fennel; the flowers are white or pale-blue, and produced in small umbels at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are long, furrowed, of a pale-brownish color, and somewhat resemble those of Anise,--about seven thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their power of germination three years. _Soil and Cultivation._--Cumin requires a light, warm-loamy soil. The seed should be sown about the beginning of May, in drills fourteen inches apart and half an inch deep. When the plants are well up, they should be thinned to three or four inches apart in the lines. The treatment of the growing crop, and the usual method of harvesting, are the same as directed for Anise or Coriander. The seed is sometimes sown broadcast; the soil being first finely pulverized, and raked smooth and even. This may be successfully practised upon land naturally light and warm, if free from weeds. Though a native of a warm climate, Cumin may be successfully grown throughout the Middle States, and in the warmer portions of the Northern and Eastern. _Use._--The plant is cultivated for its seeds, which are carminative, and used as those of Caraway and Coriander. They are sometimes employed for flavoring spirits. The plant is rarely grown, and the seeds are but little used, in the United States. There are no varieties. * * * * * DILL. _Loud._ Anethum graveolens. Dill is a hardy, biennial plant. There is but one species cultivated, and there are no varieties. The stem is erect and slender, and the leaves are finely divided; the flowers are produced in June and July of the second year, and the seeds ripen in August. The plant resembles Fennel in its general character, though smaller and less vigorous. _Propagation and Cultivation._--Dill flourishes best in light soil, and is propagated from seeds sown annually. As these retain their vitality but a single year, and, even when kept through the winter, vegetate slowly, they are frequently sown late in summer, or early in autumn, immediately after ripening. The drills are made a foot apart, and the seeds covered half an inch deep. The young plants should be thinned to six inches apart in the rows; and the leaves may be gathered for use from July till winter, and in the following spring till the plants have run to flower. _Use._--"The whole plant is strongly aromatic. Its leaves are used to give flavor to pickles, particularly cucumbers; and occasionally are added to soups and sauces: the seeds are also employed for flavoring pickles. All parts of the plant are used in medical preparations." * * * * * FENNEL. Foeniculum. Three species of Fennel are cultivated, differing not only in habit, but, to some extent, in their properties. The stems vary in height from two to four feet, and are smooth and branching; the flowers are yellow, in terminal umbels; the seeds are oval, ribbed, or furrowed, generally of a light, yellowish-brown color, and retain their vitality from three to five years. _Soil, Sowing, and Culture._--A light, dry soil is best adapted to the growth of Fennel; though it will thrive well in any good garden loam. It is generally raised from seeds, which may be sown in August, just after they ripen, or in April and May. They are generally sown in drills fifteen or eighteen inches apart, and about three-fourths of an inch deep,--the young plants being afterwards thinned to twelve or fifteen inches apart in the drills; or a few seeds may be scattered broadcast on a small seed-bed, raked in, and the seedlings, when two or three inches high, transplanted to rows, as before directed. Fennel is sometimes propagated by a division of the roots and by offsets. This may be performed either in spring, summer, or autumn. Set the roots, or shoots, fifteen inches apart in each direction; and they will soon become stocky plants, and afford an abundance of leaves for use. When cultivated for its foliage, the flowering-shoots should be cut off as they may make their appearance, to encourage the production of fresh shoots, and to give size and succulency to the leaves. The species and their peculiar uses are as follow:-- COMMON OR BITTER FENNEL. Foeniculum vulgare. A perennial species, with deep, strong, fleshy roots; stem three or four feet high, with finely divided leaves. The flowers are put forth in July, and the seeds ripen in August: the latter are about one-sixth of an inch long, of a greenish-brown color, and, in common with the leaves, of a decidedly bitter taste. _Soil, Sowing, and Culture._--This species may be grown in almost any soil or situation. Sow the seeds soon after ripening, or early in spring. The plants require no other care than to be kept free from weeds. _Use._--The young leaves are used for flavoring soups and sauces, and are sometimes mixed in salads. The seeds are carminative, and the roots and leaves have reputed medicinal properties. DARK-GREEN LEAVED. _Loud._ A variety with deep-green foliage. Its uses, and modes of culture, are the same as those of the foregoing species. FLORENCE OR ITALIAN FENNEL. _Mill._ Finochio. Sweet Azorian Fennel. Foeniculum dulce. Quite distinct from the Common Fennel, and generally cultivated as an annual. The stem, which is about eighteen inches high, expands near the surface of the ground; and, when divided horizontally, presents an oval form, measuring four or five inches in one direction, and two inches in the opposite. The flowers are produced in umbels, as in the other species. The seeds are slender, yellow, somewhat curved, sweet and pleasant to the taste, and of an agreeable, anise-like odor. _Sowing and Culture._--The plant should be grown in well-enriched, mellow soil. Sow the seeds in April or May, thinly, in shallow drills from eighteen inches to two feet apart. Half an ounce of seeds will be sufficient for fifty feet of drill; or, by transplanting when they spring up too thickly, will furnish seedlings for a hundred feet. The plants should be eight or ten inches apart; and, when the stems have attained a sufficient size, they should be earthed up for blanching, in the manner of Celery. Two or three weeks will be required to perfect this; and, if properly treated, the stems will be found white, crisp, tender, and excellent. Plants from the first sowing will be ready for use in July and August. For a succession, a few seeds may be sown in June, or early in July. _Use._--The blanched portion of the stem is mixed in soups, and also used as a salad. It is served like Celery, with various condiments; and possesses a sweet, pleasant, aromatic taste. It is a popular vegetable in some parts of Europe, but is rarely cultivated in this country. SWEET FENNEL. _Mill._ Malta Fennel. Foeniculum officinale. By some writers, this has been described as a variety of the Common Fennel; but its distinctive character appears to be permanent under all conditions of soil and culture. The leaves are long and narrow, and, compared with those of the last named, less abundant, and not so pointed. The stem is also shorter, and the seeds are longer, more slender, and lighter colored. _Sowing and Cultivation._--It is propagated and cultivated as the Common Fennel. _Use._--It is used in all the forms of the last named. The seeds have a sweet, pleasant, anise-like taste and odor, are strongly carminative, and yield an essential oil by distillation. LAVENDER. Lavendula spica. Lavender is a hardy, low-growing, shrubby plant, originally from the south of Europe. There are three varieties; and they may be propagated from seeds by dividing the roots, or by slips, or cuttings. The seeds are sown in April or May. Make the surface of the soil light and friable, and sow the seeds in very shallow drills six inches apart. When the seedlings are two or three inches high, transplant them in rows two feet apart, and a foot apart in the rows. The slips, or cuttings, are set in April, two-thirds of the length in the soil, and in rows as directed for transplanting seedlings. Shade them for a few days, until they have taken root; after which, little care will be required beyond the ordinary form of cultivation. The roots may be divided either in spring or autumn. Though Lavender grows most luxuriantly in rich soil, the plants are more highly aromatic, and less liable to injury from severe weather, when grown in light, warm, and gravelly situations. _Use._--Lavender is sometimes used as a pot-herb, "but is more esteemed for the distilled water which bears its name, and which, together with the oil, is obtained in the greatest proportion from the flower-spikes which have been gathered in dry weather, and just before the flowers are fully expanded. The oil of lavender is obtained in the ratio of an ounce to sixty ounces of dried flowers."--_Law._ "In the neighborhood of Mitcham, in Surrey, England, upwards of two hundred acres are occupied with Lavender alone."--_Thomp._ _Varieties._-- BROAD-LEAVED LAVENDER. _Mill._ Spike Lavender. Compared with the Common Lavender, the branches of this variety are shorter, more sturdy, and thicker set with leaves; the latter being short and broad. The Broad-leaved Lavender rarely blossoms; but, when this occurs, the leaves of the flower-stalk are differently formed from those of the lower part of the plant, and somewhat resemble those of the Common variety. The stalks are taller, the spikes lower and looser, and the flowers smaller, than those of the last named. COMMON OR BLUE-FLOWERING LAVENDER. Narrow-leaved Blue-flowering. A shrubby, thickly-branched plant, from a foot to upwards of three feet high, according to the depth and quality of the soil in which it is cultivated. The leaves are opposite, long, and narrow; flowers blue or purple, in spikes. The whole plant is remarkably aromatic; but the flowers have this property in a greater degree than the foliage or branches. The plants are in perfection in July and August, and are cut for drying or distillation, close to the stem, as the blossoms on the lower part of the spikes begin to change to a brown color. NARROW-LEAVED WHITE-FLOWERING. A sub-variety of the Common Lavender, with white flowers. It is of smaller growth and less hardy than the last named, though not so generally cultivated. Its properties and uses are the same. * * * * * LOVAGE. Ligusticum levisticum. Lovage is a hardy, perennial plant, with a hollow, channelled, branching stem six or seven feet high. The leaves are winged, smooth, deep, glossy-green, and somewhat resemble those of Celery; the flowers are yellow, and produced in large umbels at the extremities of the branches; the seeds are oblong, striated, of a pale, yellowish-brown color, and retain their germinative powers but one year. _Soil, Propagation, and Culture._--Lovage requires a deep, rich, moist soil; and is propagated either by seeds or dividing: the roots. The seeds should be sown in August, or immediately after ripening; as, when sown in spring, they seldom vegetate well. When the young plants have made a growth of two or three inches, they should be transplanted three feet apart in each direction; and, when well established, will require little care, and continue for many years. The roots may be divided in spring or autumn; and should be set three feet apart, as directed for seedling plants; covering the crowns three inches deep. _Use._--Lovage was formerly cultivated as an esculent; but its use as such has long been discontinued. It is now cultivated for its medicinal properties; both the seeds and roots being used. The latter are large, fleshy, dark-brown without, yellowish within, and of a peculiar, warm, aromatic taste. They are sliced and dried, and in this state are used to some extent by confectioners. The seeds are similar to the roots in taste and odor, but have greater pungency. In appearance and flavor, the plant is not unlike Celery. There are no varieties. * * * * * MARIGOLD. Pot Marigold. Calendula officinalis. This hardy annual is a native of France and the south of Europe. Aside from its value for culinary purposes, its large, deep, orange-yellow flowers are showy and attractive; and it is frequently cultivated as an ornamental plant. The stem is about a foot in height; the leaves are thick and fleshy, rounded at the ends, and taper to the stalk; the flowers are an inch and a half or two inches in diameter, yellow,--differing, however, in depth of color, and single or double according to the variety; the seeds are large, light-brown, much curved and contorted, and very irregular both in their size and form. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The plant is of easy culture. The seeds are sown in autumn, just after ripening; or in April, May, or June. Make the drills a foot apart; cover the seed three-fourths of an inch deep; and, when the plants are an inch or two inches high, thin them to eight or ten inches apart. Plants from the first sowing will blossom early in July, and continue in bloom until destroyed by frost. _Gathering._--The flowers are gathered when fully expanded, divested of their calyxes, and spread in a light, airy, shaded situation until they are thoroughly dried. They are gathered as they come to perfection; for, when the plants are allowed to ripen their seeds, they become much less productive. _To raise Seed._--Leave one or two of the finest plants, without cutting the flowers; and, when the heads of seed begin to change from a green to a brownish color, cut them off, spread them a short time as directed for drying the flowers, and pack away for use. _Use._--The flowers are used in various parts of Europe for flavoring soups and stews, and are much esteemed. Though often grown as an ornamental plant, the flowers are but little used in this country for culinary purposes. The varieties are as follow:-- COMMON ORANGE-FLOWERED. Flowers single, deep orange-yellow, high-flavored. It is considered the best variety for cultivation. LEMON-FLOWERED. This differs from the foregoing in the paler color of the flowers, which are also less aromatic. The plants are not distinguishable from those of the Common Orange-flowered. DOUBLE ORANGE-FLOWERING. Of the same color with the first named, but with fine, large, double ornamental flowers. The petals are flat, and rest in an imbricated manner, one on the other, as in some varieties of the Anemone. It is more productive, but less aromatic, than the Single-flowering. DOUBLE LEMON-FLOWERING. A variety of the second-named sort, with double flowers like those of the preceding. To raise good seeds of either of the double-flowering kinds, all plants producing single flowers must be removed as soon as their character is known. When the single and double-flowering plants are suffered to grow together, the latter rapidly deteriorate, and often ultimately become single-flowering. CHILDING, OR PROLIFEROUS MARIGOLD. _Loud._ This variety produces numerous small flowers from the margin of the calyx of the large central flowers. It is quite ornamental, but of little value as an esculent. * * * * * MARJORAM. Origanum. COMMON MARJORAM. Origanum vulgare. A perennial species, with a shrubby, four-sided stem, a foot and a half high; leaves oval, opposite,--at the union of the leaves with the stalk, there are produced several smaller leaves, which, in size and form, resemble those of the Common Sweet Marjoram; the flowers are pale-red, or flesh-colored, and produced in rounded, terminal spikes; the plants blossom in July and August, and the seeds ripen in September. _Propagation and Culture._--It may be grown from seeds, but is generally propagated by dividing the roots, either in spring or autumn. Set them in a dry and warm situation, in rows fifteen inches apart, and ten or twelve inches from plant to plant in the rows. The seeds may be sown in a seed-bed in April or May, and the seedlings transplanted to rows as directed for setting the roots; or they may be sown in drills fifteen inches apart, afterwards thinning out the young plants to ten inches apart in the drills. There is a variety with white flowers, and another with variegated foliage. _Use._--The young shoots, cut at the time of flowering and dried in the shade, are used as Sweet Marjoram for seasoning soups and meats. The whole plant is highly aromatic. SWEET MARJORAM. Knotted Marjoram. Origanum majorana. Sweet Marjoram is a native of Portugal. Though a biennial, it is always treated as an annual; not being sufficiently hardy to withstand the winters of the Middle or Northern States in the open ground. The plant is of low growth, with a branching stem, and oval or rounded leaves. The flowers, which appear in July and August, are of a purplish color, and produced in compact clusters, or heads, resembling knots: whence the term "Knotted Marjoram" of many localities. The seeds are brown, exceedingly small, and retain their germinative properties three years. _Sowing and Cultivation._--Sweet Marjoram is raised from seeds sown annually in April, May, or June. Its propagation, however, is generally attended with more or less difficulty, arising from the exceeding minuteness of the seeds, and the liability of the young seedlings to be destroyed by the sun before they become established. The seeds are sown in drills ten or twelve inches apart, and very thinly covered with finely pulverized loam. Coarse light matting is often placed over the bed immediately after sowing, to facilitate vegetation; and, if allowed to remain until the plants are well up, will often preserve a crop which would otherwise be destroyed. The seeds are sometimes sown in a hot-bed, and the plants set out in May or June, in rows twelve inches apart, and six inches apart in the rows. _Gathering._--The plants, when in flower or fully developed, are cut to the ground; and, for winter use, are dried and preserved as other pot-herbs. _Use._--Sweet Marjoram is highly aromatic, and is much used, both in the green state and when dried, for flavoring broths, soups, and stuffings. POT MARJORAM. Origanum onites. A perennial species, from Sicily. Stem a foot or more in height, branching; leaves oval, comparatively smooth; the flowers are small, of a purplish color, and produced in spikes. _Propagation and Cultivation._--The species is propagated, and the crop in all respects should be treated, as directed for Common Marjoram. The properties and uses of the plant are also the same. Both, however, are much inferior to the Sweet Marjoram last described. WINTER SWEET MARJORAM. _Corb._ Origanum heracleoticum. A half-hardy perennial, from the south of Europe. Stem eighteen inches high, purplish; the leaves are opposite, oval, rounded at the ends, and resemble those of Sweet Marjoram; the flowers are white, and are put forth in July and August, in spikelets about two inches in length; the seeds ripen in September. _Propagation and Culture._--It may be grown from seeds, but is generally propagated by dividing the roots either in the spring or fall, and planting the divisions ten inches apart, in rows eighteen inches asunder. It succeeds best in dry localities, and requires no other attention than to have the soil kept loose, and free from weeds. There is a variety with variegated leaves, but differing in no other respect from the foregoing. _Use._--The leaves and young branches are used in soups, and stuffing for meats; and should be cut when just coming into flower, and dried in the shade. * * * * * AROMATIC NIGELLA. Four Spices. Allspice. Black Cumin. Quatre Epices, of the French. Nigella saliva. A hardy, annual plant from the East Indies. Stem twelve to eighteen inches high, with alternate, sessile, finely divided leaves; the flowers are large, white, variegated with blue; the seeds, which are produced in a roundish capsule, are somewhat triangular, wrinkled, of a yellowish color, and pungent, aromatic taste,--about thirteen thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality three years. There is a species cultivated, the seeds of which are black. _Soil and Cultivation._--It is always raised from seed, and thrives best in light, warm soil. The seed may be sown from the middle of April to the middle of May. Pulverize the soil well, make the surface smooth and even, and sow in drills twelve or fourteen inches apart and about half an inch deep. When the plants are two inches high, thin them to five or six inches apart in the rows. During the summer, cultivate in the usual manner, keeping the soil loose, and watering occasionally if the weather be dry; and in August or September, or when the seed ripens, cut off the plants at the roots, spread them in an airy situation, and, when sufficiently dried, thresh out; after which, spread the seed a short time to evaporate any remaining moisture, and they will be ready for use. _Use._--The seeds have a warm, aromatic taste; and are employed in French cookery, under the name of _quatre épices_, or "four spices." * * * * * PARSLEY. Apium petroselinum. Parsley is a hardy, biennial plant from Sardinia. The leaves of the first year are all radical, compound, rich, deep-green, smooth, and shining. When fully developed, the plant measures three or four feet in height; the flowers are small, white, in terminal umbels; the seeds are ovoid, somewhat three-sided, slightly curved, of a grayish-brown color and aromatic taste,--seven thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality three years. _Soil and Propagation._--Parsley succeeds best in rich, mellow soil, and is propagated from seeds sown annually; an ounce of seed being allowed to a hundred and fifty feet of drill. _Sowing._--As the seed vegetates slowly,--sometimes remaining in the earth four or five weeks before the plants appear,--the sowing should be made as early in spring as the ground is in working condition. Lay out the bed of a size corresponding to the supply required, spade it deeply and thoroughly, level the surface (making it fine and smooth), and sow the seed in drills fourteen inches apart, and half an inch deep. When the plants are two or three inches high, thin them to eight or ten inches apart; being careful, in the thinning, to leave only the best and finest curled plants. According to Lindley, the finest curled kinds will rapidly degenerate and become plain, if left to themselves; while, on the other hand, really excellent sorts may be considerably improved by careful cultivation. The best curled Parsley is obtained by repeated transplantings. When the seedlings are two inches high, they are set in rows ten inches apart, and six inches apart in the rows. In about four weeks, they should be again transplanted to where they are to remain, in rows eighteen inches apart, and fourteen inches apart in the rows. When thus treated, the plants become remarkably close, of a regular, rosette-like form, and often entirely cover the surface of the ground. When grown for competition or for exhibition, this process of transplanting is thrice and often four times repeated. _Seed._--In autumn, select two or three of the finest curled and most symmetrical plants; allow them to remain unplucked; give a slight protection during winter; and, in the following summer, they will yield abundantly. Much care is requisite in keeping the varieties true. This is especially the case with the curled sorts. The seed-growers, who value their stock and character, select the best and finest curled plants, and allow no others to flower and seed. When the object is to improve a variety, but few seeds are saved from a plant; and, in some cases, but few seeds from a head. _Use._--The leaves of the curled varieties afford one of the most beautiful of garnishes: they are also used for flavoring soups and stews. The seeds are aromatic, and are sometimes used as a substitute for the leaves; though the flavor is much less agreeable. _Varieties._-- DWARF CURLED PARSLEY. Curled Parsley. Sutton's Dwarf Curled. Usher's Dwarf Curled. A fine, dwarfish, curled variety, long cultivated in England. In some gardens, it is grown in such perfection as to resemble a tuft of finely curled, green moss. It is hardy, and slow in running to seed, but liable to degenerate, as it constantly tends to increase in size and to become less curled. From the Dwarf Curled Parsley, by judicious cultivation and a careful selection of plants for seed, have originated many excellent sorts of stronger growth, yet retaining its finely curled and beautiful leaves. MITCHELL'S MATCHLESS WINTER. _Thomp._ A fine, curled sort, larger than the Dwarf Curled; and, on account of its remarkable hardiness, recommended as one of the best for winter culture. MYATT'S TRIPLE-CURLED. Myatt's Garnishing. Myatt's Extra Fine Curled. Windsor Curled. The leaves of this variety are large and spreading, bright-green above, paler beneath. When true, the foliage is nearly as finely curled as that of the Dwarf, though the plant is much larger and stronger in its habit. PLAIN PARSLEY. _Thomp._ Common Parsley. The leaves of this sort are plain, or not curled; and the plant produces them in greater quantity than the curled sorts. It is also somewhat hardier. For many years, it was the principal variety grown in the gardens of this country; but has now given place to the curled sorts, which, if not of better flavor, are generally preferred, on account of their superior excellence for garnishing. RENDLE'S TREBLE GARNISHING. _Trans._ A variety of the Dwarf Curled, of larger size; the leaves being as finely curled and equally beautiful. HAMBURG OR LARGE-ROOTED PARSLEY. _M'Int._ Turnip-rooted Parsley. A variety of the Common Plain Parsley, with stronger foliage. Though the leaves are sometimes used in the manner of those of the Common Parsley, it is generally cultivated for its fusiform, fleshy roots. To obtain these of good size and quality, the soil should not be too rich, but deeply and thoroughly trenched. Sow the seeds in April or May, in drills a foot or fourteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch deep; and, when the seedlings are two or three inches high, thin them to six or eight inches apart in the rows. Cultivate during the season as carrots or parsnips; and, in October, the roots will have attained their growth, and be suitable for use. Take them up before the ground closes, cut off the tops within an inch or two of the crowns, pack in earth or sand, and store in the cellar for winter. _To raise Seeds._--Reset a few roots in April, two feet apart; or leave a few plants in the open ground during the winter. They will blossom in June and July, and ripen their seeds in August. _Use._--The roots are eaten, boiled as carrots or parsnips. In connection with the leaves, they are also mixed in soups and stews, to which they impart a pleasant, aromatic taste and odor. NAPLES OR CELERY-LEAVED PARSLEY. Neapolitan Parsley. Celery Parsley. This variety somewhat resembles Celery; and, by writers on gardening, is described as a hybrid between some of the kinds of Celery and the Large-rooted or Hamburg Parsley. With the exception of their larger size, the leaves are similar to those of the Common Plain Parsley. _Use._--The leaves are sometimes employed for garnishing; but are generally blanched, and served as Celery. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The plants are started in a hot-bed in March, or the seeds may be sown in a seed-bed in the open ground in May. When the seedlings are four or five inches high, transplant to trenches two feet apart and six or eight inches deep, setting the plants a foot apart in the trenches; afterwards gather the earth gradually about the stems, in the process of cultivation; and, when they are sufficiently grown and blanched, harvest and preserve as Celery. _To raise Seeds._--Leave two or three plants unblanched. They should be eighteen inches asunder, and may remain in the open ground during winter. They will flower, and yield a plentiful supply of seeds, the following summer. * * * * * PEPPERMINT. Mentha piperita. Peppermint is a hardy, perennial plant, introduced from Europe, and growing naturally in considerable abundance along the banks of small streams, and in rich, wet localities. Where once established, it spreads rapidly, and will remain a long period. Stem smooth, erect, four-sided, and from two to three feet in height; leaves opposite, ovate, pointed, toothed on the margin; flowers purplish, or violet-blue, in terminal spikes; the seeds are small, brown, or blackish-brown, and retain their vitality four years. _Propagation and Culture._--It may be grown from seeds; but this method of propagation is rarely practised, as it is more readily increased by dividing the roots. The agreeable odor, and peculiar, warm, pleasant flavor, of the leaves are well known. The plant, however, is little used as a pot-herb, but is principally cultivated for distillation. For the latter purpose, the ground is ploughed about the middle of May, and furrowed in one direction, as for drill-planting of potatoes; making the furrows about eighteen inches apart. The best roots for setting are those of a year's growth; and an acre of these will be required to plant ten acres anew. These are distributed along the furrows in a continuous line, and covered sometimes with the foot as the planter drops the roots, and sometimes by drawing the earth over them with a hoe. In about four weeks, the plants will be well established, and require hoeing and weeding; which is usually performed three times during the season, the cultivation being finished early in August. "The cutting and distilling commence about the 25th of August, except in very dry seasons, when it stands two or three weeks longer, and continues until the 1st of October; during which period the plant is in full inflorescence, and the lower leaves begin to grow sear. It is raked together in small heaps; when it is suffered to wilt ten or twelve hours, if convenient. "The next year, little is done to the mint-field but to cut and distil its product. During this (the second) year, a few weeds make their appearance, but not to the injury of the crop; though the most careful of the mint-growers go through their fields, and destroy them as much as possible. The second crop is not so productive as the first. "The third year, little labor is required other than to harvest and distil the mint. The stem is coarser than before, and the leaves still less abundant. The weeds this year abound, and are not removed or destroyed; half or more of the product of the field often being weeds. "The fourth year, the field is ploughed up early in the spring; and this 'renewing' is sometimes done every third year. "The fifth year, without any further attention, produces a crop equal to the second; after which, the field is pastured and reclaimed for other crops. "The first year produces the best quality of oil, the highest yield per acre, and the greatest amount to the quantity of herbage."--_F. Stearns._ * * * * * ROSEMARY. Rosmarinus officinalis. Rosemary is a half-hardy, shrubby plant, from three to six feet in height. The leaves vary in form and color in the different varieties; the flowers are small, generally blue, and produced in axillary clusters; the seeds are brown, or blackish-brown, and retain their vitality four years. _Propagation and Cultivation._--Like most aromatic plants, Rosemary requires a light, dry soil; and, as it is not perfectly hardy, should have a sheltered situation. The Common Green-leaved and the Narrow-leaved are best propagated by seeds; but the variegated sorts are propagated only by cuttings or by dividing the roots. The seeds are sown in April, in a small nursery-bed; and the seedlings, when two or three inches high, transplanted in rows two feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. When propagated by cuttings, they should be taken off in May or June, six inches long, and set two-thirds of the length in the earth, in a moist, shady situation: when well rooted, transplant as directed for seedlings. The roots may be divided in spring or autumn. _Use._--It is sometimes employed, like other pot-herbs, for flavoring meats and soups. It is used in the manufacture of "eau de Cologne," and its flowers and calyxes form a principal ingredient in the distillation of "Hungary Water." Infusions of the leaves are made in some drinks, and the young stems are used as a garnish. There are four varieties, as follow:-- COMMON OR GREEN-LEAVED. Leaves narrow, rounded at the ends,--the upper and under surface green; the flowers are comparatively large, and deep-colored. The plant is of spreading habit; and, in all its parts, is more strongly aromatic than the Narrow-leaved. It is decidedly the best sort for cultivation. GOLD-STRIPED. A variety of the Common or Green-leaved, with foliage striped, or variegated with yellow. This and the Silver-leaved are generally cultivated as ornamental plants. The Gold-striped is much the hardier sort, and will succeed in any locality where the Common Green-leaved is cultivated. NARROW-LEAVED. The plants of this variety are smaller and less branched than those of the Common or Green-leaved, and are also less fragrant; the leaves are hoary beneath, and the flowers are smaller and of a paler color. It is used in all the forms of the Common or Green-leaved, but is less esteemed. SILVER-STRIPED. This is a sub-variety of the Common or Green-leaved, and the most tender of all the sorts. It is principally cultivated for its variegated foliage; the leaves being striped, or variegated with white. Like the Gold-striped, it can only be propagated by slips or by dividing the roots, and must be well protected during winter. * * * * * SAGE. Salvia. Sage is a low-growing, hardy, evergreen shrub, originally from the south of Europe. Stem from a foot and a half to two feet high,--the leaves varying in form and color in the different species and varieties; the flowers are produced in spikes, and are white, blue, red, purple, or variegated; the seeds are round, of a blackish-brown color, and retain their power of germination three years,--nearly seven thousand are contained in an ounce. _Soil and Propagation._--Sage thrives best in light, rich, loamy soil. Though easily grown from slips, or cuttings, it is, in this country, more generally propagated from seeds. These may be sown on a gentle hot-bed in March, and the plants set in the open ground in June, in rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot asunder in the rows; or the seeds may be sown in April, where the plants are to remain, thinly, in drills eighteen inches apart, and three-fourths of an inch deep. When the plants are two inches high, thin them to a foot apart in the rows; and, if needed, form fresh rows by resetting the plants taken up in thinning. If grown from cuttings, those from the present year's growth succeed best. These should be set in June. Cut them four or five inches in length, remove the lower leaves, and set them two-thirds of their length in the earth. Water freely, and shade or protect with hand-glasses. By the last of July, or first of August, they will have taken root, and may be removed to the place where they are to remain. It may also be propagated by dividing the roots in spring or autumn, in the manner of other hardy shrubs. _Gathering and Use._--Sage should be gathered for drying before the development of the flowering-shoots; and, when cultivated for its leaves, these shoots should be cut out as they make their appearance. When thus treated, the product is largely increased; the leaves being put forth in much greater numbers, and of larger size. It is sometimes treated as an annual; the seeds being sown in April, in drills fourteen inches apart, and the plants cut to the ground when they have made sufficient growth for use. The leaves are employed, both in a green and dried state, for seasoning stuffings, meats, stews, and soups. Sage is also used for flavoring cheese; and, in the form of a decoction, is sometimes employed for medical purposes. _Species and Varieties._-- BROAD-LEAVED GREEN SAGE. Balsamic Sage. _Mill._ Stems shrubby, less erect and more downy than those of the succeeding species; the leaves are comparatively large, broad, heart-shaped, woolly, toothed on the margin, and produced on long footstalks,--those of the flower-stalks are oblong, sessile, and nearly entire on the borders; the flowers are small, pale-blue, and much less abundant than those of the Common Sage. It is rarely employed in cookery, but for medical purposes is considered more efficacious than any other species or variety. COMMON OR RED-LEAVED. Purple-top. Red-top. Salvia officinalis. This is the Common Sage of the garden; and with the Green-leaved, which is but a sub-variety, the most esteemed for culinary purposes. The young stalks, the leaf-stems, and the ribs and nerves of the leaves, are purple: the young leaves are also sometimes tinged with the same color, but generally change by age to clear green. The Red-leaved is generally regarded as possessing a higher flavor than the Green-leaved, and is preferred for cultivation; though the difference, if any really exists, is quite unimportant. The productiveness of the varieties is nearly the same. The leaves of the Green Sage are larger than those of the Red; but the latter produces them in greater numbers. GREEN-LEAVED. Green-top. A variety of the preceding; the young shoots, the leaf-stalks, and the ribs and nerves of the leaves, being green. There appears to be little permanency in the characters by which the varieties are distinguished. Both possess like properties, and are equally worthy of cultivation. From seeds of either of the sorts, plants answering to the description of the Red-leaved and Green-leaved would probably be produced, with almost every intermediate shade of color. NARROW-LEAVED GREEN SAGE. _Mill._ Sage of Virtue. Leaves narrow, hoary, toothed towards the base; the spikes of flowers are long, and nearly leafless; flowers deep-blue; the seeds are similar to those of the Red-leaved, and produced four together in an open calyx. Compared with the Common Red-leaved or Green-leaved, the leaves are much narrower, the spikes longer and less leafy, and the flowers smaller and of a deeper color. The variety is mild flavored, and the most esteemed of all the sorts for use in a crude state; as it is also one of the best for decoctions. "At one period, the Dutch carried on a profitable trade with the Chinese by procuring the leaves of this species from the south of France, drying them in imitation of tea, and shipping the article to China, where, for each pound of sage, four pounds of tea were received in exchange."--_M'Int._ VARIEGATED-LEAVED GREEN SAGE. A sub-variety of the Green-leaved, with variegated foliage. It is not reproduced from seeds, and must be propagated by slips or by dividing the roots. VARIEGATED-LEAVED RED SAGE. This is but an accidental variety of the Common Red-leaved Sage, differing only in its variegated foliage. It can be propagated only by cuttings or by a division of the roots. * * * * * SAVORY. Saturjea. The cultivated species are as follow:-- HEADED SAVORY. Saturjea capitata. A perennial plant, with a rigid, angular, branching stem a foot and a half high. The leaves are firm, pointed, and, when bruised, emit a strong, pleasant, mint-like odor; the flowers are white, and are produced in terminal, globular heads; the seeds are quite small, of a deep-brownish color, and retain their vitality three years. It may be propagated from seeds or by dividing the roots; the latter method, however, being generally practised. The young shoots are used in all the forms of Summer Savory. SHRUBBY SAVORY. Saturjea viminea. A shrub-like, perennial species, cultivated in the same manner as the Winter Savory. The plant has the pleasant, mint-like odor of the species first described, but is little used either in cookery or medicine. SUMMER SAVORY. Saturjea hortensis. An annual species, from the south of Europe. Stem twelve or fifteen inches high, erect, rather slender, and producing its branches in pairs; the leaves are opposite, narrow, rigid, with a pleasant odor, and warm, aromatic taste; the flowers are pale-pink, or flesh-colored, and are produced at the base of the leaves, towards the upper part of the plant, each stem supporting two flowers; the seeds are quite small, deep-brown, and retain their vitality two or three years. _Propagation and Cultivation._--Summer Savory is always raised from seeds, sown annually in April or May. It thrives best in light, mellow soil; and the seed should be sown in shallow drills fourteen or fifteen inches apart. When the plants are two or three inches high, thin them to five or six inches apart in the rows, and cultivate in the usual manner during the summer. When the plants have commenced flowering, they should be cut to the ground, tied in small bunches, and dried in an airy, shady situation. For early use, the seeds are sometimes sown in a hot-bed on a gentle heat, and the seedlings afterwards transplanted to the open ground in rows, as directed for sowing. _Use._--The aromatic tops of the plant are used, green or dried, in stuffing meats and fowl. They are also mixed in salads, and sometimes boiled with pease and beans. It is sold in considerable quantities at all seasons of the year, in a dried and pulverized state, packed in hermetically-sealed bottles or boxes. WINTER SAVORY. _Thomp._ Saturjea montana. A hardy, evergreen shrub, with a low, branching stem about a foot in height. The leaves are opposite, narrow, and rigid, like those of the preceding species; the flowers resemble those of the Summer Savory, but are larger and of a paler color; the seeds, which ripen in autumn, are small, dark-brown, and retain their vitality three years. _Propagation and Culture._--"It may be raised from seed sown in April or May; but is generally propagated by dividing the plants in April, or by cuttings of the young shoots taken off in April or May. The cuttings should be planted two-thirds of their length deep, on a shady border, and, if necessary, watered until they take root. When well established, they may be planted out a foot apart, in rows fifteen inches asunder. Some may also be planted as an edging. "The plants should be trimmed every year in autumn, and the ground between the rows occasionally stirred; but, in doing this, care must be taken not to injure the roots. Fresh plantations should be made before the plants grow old and cease to produce a sufficient supply of leaves." _Use._--It is used for the same purposes as Summer Savory. The leaves and tender parts of the young branches are mixed in salads: they are also boiled with pease and beans; and, when dried and powdered, are used in stuffings for meats and fowl. * * * * * SPEARMINT. Green Mint. Mentha viridis. A hardy, perennial plant, introduced from Europe, and generally cultivated in gardens, but growing naturally in considerable abundance about springs of water, and in rich, wet localities. The stem is erect, four-sided, smooth, and two feet or more in height; the leaves are opposite, in pairs, stemless, toothed on the margin, and sharply pointed; the flowers are purple, and are produced in August, in long, slender, terminal spikes; the seeds are small, oblong, of a brown color, and retain their vitality five years,--they are generally few in number, most of the flowers being abortive. _Soil, Propagation, and Culture._--It may be grown from seed, but is best propagated by a division of the roots, which are long and creeping, and readily establish themselves wherever they are planted. Spearmint thrives best in rich, moist soil; but may be grown in any good garden loam. The roots may be set either in the autumn or spring. Where large quantities are required for marketing in the green state, or when grown for distillation, lay out the land in beds three or four feet in width, and make the drills two or three inches deep and a foot apart. Having divided the roots into convenient pieces, spread them thinly along the drills, and earth them over to a level with the surface of the bed. Thus treated, the plants will soon make their appearance; and may be gathered for use in August and September. Just before severe weather, give the beds a slight dressing of rich soil; and, the ensuing season, the plants will entirely occupy the surface of the ground. _Use._--Mint is sometimes mixed in salads, and is used for flavoring soups of all descriptions. It is often boiled with green pease; and, with the addition of sugar and vinegar, forms a much-esteemed relish for roasted lamb. It has also much reputed efficacy as a medicinal plant. CURLED-LEAVED SPEARMINT. A variety with curled foliage. It is a good sort for garnishing; but, for general use, is inferior to the Common or Plain-leaved species before described. Propagated by dividing the roots. * * * * * TANSY. Tanacetum vulgare. Tansy is a hardy, perennial, herbaceous plant, naturalized from Europe, and abundant by roadsides and in waste places. Its stem is from two to three feet high; the leaves are finely cut and divided, twice-toothed on the margin, and of a rich, deep-green color; flowers in corymbs, deep-yellow, and produced in great abundance; the seeds are small, of a brownish color, and retain their vitality three years. _Soil and Cultivation._--Tansy may be grown in almost any soil or situation, and is propagated from seeds or by dividing the roots; the latter method being generally practised. In doing this, it is only necessary to take a few established plants, divide them into small pieces or collections of roots, and set them six inches apart, in rows a foot asunder, or in hills two feet apart in each direction. They will soon become established; and, if not disturbed, will completely occupy the ground. In most places, when once introduced, it is liable to become troublesome, as the roots not only spread rapidly, but are very tenacious of life, and eradicated with difficulty. When cultivated for its leaves, the flowering-shoots should be cut off as they make their appearance. It is but little used, and a plant or two will afford an abundant supply. _Use._--The leaves have a strong, peculiar, aromatic odor, and a bitter taste. They were formerly employed to give color and flavor to various dishes, but are now rarely used in culinary preparations. The plant possesses the tonic and stomachic properties common to bitter herbs. There are three cultivated varieties, as follow:-- CURLED-LEAVED TANSY. Double Tansy. Tanacetum vulgare, var. crispum. This differs from the Common Tansy in the frilled or curled character of the leaves, which have some resemblance to the leaves of the finer kinds of Curled Cress or Parsley. They are of a rich green color, and are sometimes employed for garnishing. In the habit of the plant, color of the flowers, odor and flavor of the leaves, the variety differs little, if at all, from the Common Tansy. It is more beautiful than the last-named; and, in all respects, much more worthy of cultivation. Propagated only by dividing the roots. LARGE-LEAVED TANSY. Leaves larger than those of any other variety, but much less fragrant. It is of little value, and rarely cultivated. VARIEGATED-LEAVED. A variety with variegated foliage. Aside from the peculiar color of the leaves, the plant differs in no respect from the Common Tansy: it grows to the same height, the flowers are of the same color, and the leaves have the same taste and odor. It must be propagated by dividing the roots; the variegated character of the foliage not being reproduced from seeds. * * * * * THYME. Thymus. Two species of Thyme are cultivated for culinary purposes,--the Common Garden Thyme (_T. vulgaris_) and the Lemon or Evergreen Thyme (_T. citriodorus_). They are hardy, perennial plants, of a shrubby character, and comparatively low growth. They are propagated from seeds and by dividing the roots; but the finest plants are produced from seeds. Of the Common Garden Thyme, there are three varieties:-- BROAD-LEAVED. The Broad-Leaved Thyme is more cultivated in this country than any other species or variety. The stem is ten or twelve inches high, shrubby, of a brownish-red color, and much branched; the leaves are small, narrow, green above, and whitish beneath; flowers purple, in terminal spikes; the seeds are black, and exceedingly small,--two hundred and thirty thousand being contained in an ounce; they retain their vitality two years. _Propagation and Cultivation._--When propagated by seeds, they are sown in April or May, thinly, in shallow drills ten or twelve inches apart. When the plants are up, they should be carefully cleared of weeds, and thinned to eight or ten inches apart, that they may have space for development. They may be cut for use as soon as they have made sufficient growth; but, for drying, the stalks are gathered as they come into flower. If propagated by dividing the roots, the old plants should be taken up in April, and divided into as many parts as the roots and tops will admit. They are then transplanted about ten inches apart, in beds of rich, light earth; and, if the weather be dry, watered till they are well established. They may be cut for use in August and September. _Use._--The leaves have an agreeable, aromatic odor; and are used for flavoring soups, stuffings, and sauces. NARROW-LEAVED. _Mill._ The stalks of this variety are shorter than those of the Broad-leaved; the leaves also are longer, narrower, and more sharply pointed; and the flowers are larger. It is propagated, cultivated, and used as the Broad-leaved. VARIEGATED-LEAVED. A sub-variety of the Broad-leaved, with variegated foliage. It is generally cultivated as an ornamental plant; and is propagated only by dividing the roots, as directed for the Broad-leaved. LEMON THYME. _Loud._ Thymus citriodorus. A low, evergreen shrub, with a somewhat trailing stem, rarely rising more than six or eight inches high. It is readily distinguished from the Common or Broad-leaved by the soft, pleasant, lemon-like odor of the young shoots and leaves. It is used for flavoring various dishes, and by some is preferred to the Broad-leaved. The species is propagated from seeds by dividing the roots, and by layers and cuttings. Seedling plants, however, are said to vary in fragrance; and, when a choice stock can be obtained, it is better to propagate by dividing the plants. CHAPTER IX. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. American Garden-bean. Asparagus-bean. Lima Bean. Scarlet-runner. Sieva. Chick-pea. Chickling Vetch. English Bean. Lentil. Lupine. Pea. Pea-nut. Vetch, or Tare. Winged Pea. * * * * * AMERICAN GARDEN-BEAN. French Bean. Kidney-bean. Haricot, of the French. Phaseolus vulgaris. The Common Garden-bean of the United States is identical with the French or Kidney Bean of England and France, and is quite distinct from the English or Garden Bean of French and English catalogues. The American Garden-bean is a tender, annual plant from the East Indies, with a dwarfish or climbing stem and trifoliate leaves. The flowers are variable in color, and produced in loose clusters; the seeds are produced in long, flattened, or cylindrical, bivalved pods, and vary, in a remarkable degree, in their size, form, and color,--their germinative powers are retained three or four years. As catalogued by seedsmen, the varieties are divided in two classes,--the Dwarfs, and the Pole or Running Sorts. _Dwarfs._--The plants of this class vary from a foot to two feet in height. They require no stakes or poles for their support; and are grown in hills or drills, as may suit the taste or convenience of the cultivator. All of the varieties are comparatively tender, and should not be planted before settled, mild weather. They succeed best in warm, light soil; but will flourish in almost any soil or situation, except such as are shaded or very wet. When planted in drills, they are made about two inches deep, and from fourteen to twenty inches apart. The seeds are planted from three to six inches apart; the distance in the drills, as well as the space between the drills, being regulated by the habit of the variety cultivated. If planted in hills, they should be three feet apart in one direction, and about two feet in the opposite. If the variety under cultivation is large and vigorous, four or five plants may be allowed to a hill; if of an opposite character, allow twice this number. _To raise Seed._--Leave a row or a few hills entirely unplucked. Seed is of little value when saved at the end of the season from a few scattered pods accidentally left to ripen on plants that have been plucked from time to time for the table. BAGNOLET. A half-dwarf, French variety. Plant strong and vigorous, with remarkably large, deep-green foliage; flowers bright lilac; the pods are straight, seven inches long, half an inch wide, streaked and spotted with purple when sufficiently grown for shelling in their green state, nankeen-yellow when fully ripe, and contain six seeds, which are nearly straight, rounded at the ends, a little flattened on the sides, three-fourths of an inch long, a fourth of an inch thick, and of a violet-black color, variegated or marbled with drab. About sixteen hundred beans are contained in a quart; and, as the plants are vigorous growers, this amount of seed will be sufficient for three hundred feet of drill, or for nearly three hundred hills. If planted in drills, they should be made twenty inches apart, and two plants allowed to a linear foot. The variety is not early, and requires the entire season for its full perfection. When sown as soon as the weather is suitable, the plant will blossom in about seven weeks. In sixty days, pods may be plucked for use; and the crop will be ready for harvesting in fifteen weeks from the time of planting. For its green pods, the seeds may be planted until the middle of July. The Bagnolet is of little value as a shelled-bean, either green or ripe. As a string-bean, it is deservedly considered one of the best. The pods are produced in great abundance; and are not only tender, succulent, and well flavored, but remain long on the plants before they become tough, and unfit for use. If the pods are plucked as they attain a suitable size, new pods will rapidly succeed, and the plants will afford a continued supply for several weeks. BLACK-EYED CHINA. Plant fifteen inches high, less strong and vigorous than that of the Common Red-eyed China; the flowers are white; the pods are comparatively short, usually about five inches long, green and straight while young, straw-yellow when sufficiently advanced for shelling, yellow, thick, hard, and parchment-like when ripe, and contain five or six seeds,--these are white, spotted and marked about the eye with black, of an oblong form, usually rounded, but sometimes shortened at the ends, slightly compressed on the sides, and measure half an inch in length, and three-eighths of an inch in thickness. A quart contains fifteen hundred beans, and will plant a drill, or row, of two hundred feet, or a hundred and fifty hills. The variety is early. When sown at the commencement of the season, the plants will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for the table in seven weeks, pods for shelling in ten weeks, and ripen in eighty-seven days. It yields well, ripens off at once, and, on account of the thick, parchment-like character of the pods, suffers much less from wet and unfavorable seasons than many other sorts. As a string-bean, it is of fair quality, good when shelled in the green state, and farinaceous and mild flavored when ripe. BLUE POD. A half-dwarf variety, growing from two to three feet high, with a branching stem, deep-green foliage, and white flowers. The pods are five inches long, pale-green while young, light-yellow as the season of maturity approaches, cream-white when fully ripe, and contain five or six seeds. Its season is intermediate. If sown early, the plants will blossom in seven weeks, afford pods for stringing in eight weeks, green beans in ten or eleven weeks, and ripen their seeds in ninety-seven days. It is a week earlier than the White Marrow, and ten days in advance of the Pea-bean. Plantings may be made as late as the last week in June, which will yield pods for the table in seven weeks, and ripen the middle of September, or in about twelve weeks. The ripe seed is white, oblong, flattened, rounded on the back, often squarely or angularly shortened at the ends, half an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick: twenty-seven hundred will measure a quart. It is a field rather than a garden variety; though the green pods are tender and well flavored. If planted in drills two feet apart, five pecks of seed will be required for an acre; or four pecks for the same quantity of ground, if the rows are two feet and a half apart. If planted in hills, six or eight seeds should be put in each; and, if the hills are three feet apart, twelve quarts of seed will plant an acre. The Blue Pod is the earliest of the field varieties; more prolific, more generally cultivated, and more abundant in the market, than either the Pea-bean or the White Marrow. It is, however, much less esteemed; and, even in its greatest perfection, is almost invariably sold at a lower price. On account of its precocity, it is well suited for planting in fields of corn, when the crop may have been partially destroyed by birds or insects, and the season has too far advanced to admit of a replanting of corn. In field-culture, Blue-pod beans are planted till the 25th of June. CANADA YELLOW. Round American Kidney. _Law._ The plants of this variety are from fourteen to sixteen inches high, and of medium strength and vigor; flowers lilac-purple; the pods are five inches long, nearly straight, green while young, yellow at maturity, and contain from four to six seeds. Season intermediate. If sown early, the plants will blossom in six or seven weeks, supply the table with pods in eight weeks, green shelled-beans in ten weeks, and ripen off in ninety days. When planted after settled warm weather, the variety grows rapidly, and ripens quickly; blossoming in less than six weeks, and ripening in seventy days, from the time of planting. For green shelled-beans, the seeds may be planted till the middle of July. The ripe seeds are of an ovoid or rounded form, and measure half an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in thickness. They are of a yellowish-drab color, with a narrow, reddish-brown line about the eye; the drab changing, by age, to dull nankeen-yellow. About seventeen hundred are contained in a quart; and this amount of seeds will plant two hundred and fifty feet of drill, or a hundred and seventy-five hills. The variety is quite productive, and excellent as a shelled bean, green or dry. The young pods are not so tender as those of many other sorts, and are but little used. CHILIAN. Plant sixteen or eighteen inches high, sturdy and vigorous; foliage large, deep-green, wrinkled; flowers pale-lilac; the pods are five inches and a half long, slightly curved, pale-green while young, yellowish-white when ripe, and contain five seeds. If planted early in the season, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for the table in about eight weeks, and ripen in a hundred days, from the time of planting. The ripe seeds are of a clear, bright pink, or rose color; gradually becoming duller and darker from the time of harvesting. They are kidney-shaped, a little flattened, and of large size; generally measuring three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch thick. Twelve hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will be sufficient for planting a row or drill of two hundred feet, or for a hundred and twenty-five hills. The variety is healthy, and moderatively productive; not much esteemed for its young pods, but is worthy of cultivation for the large size and good quality of the beans; which, either in the green or ripe state, are quite farinaceous and mild flavored. CRESCENT-EYED. Height fourteen or fifteen inches; flowers white,--the upper petals slightly stained with red; the pods are five inches and a half long, pale-green and somewhat curved when young, yellowish-white when fully ripe, and contain five seeds. Season intermediate. If planted early, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for stringing in eight weeks, supply the table with green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in about ninety days. When planted and grown under the influence of summer weather, pods may be plucked for the table in fifty days, and the crop will ripen in about twelve weeks. The beans, when ripe, are white, with a large, rose-red patch about the eye; the colored portion of the surface being striped and marked with brownish-red. The fine rose-red changes by age to a brownish-red, and the red streaks and markings become relatively duller and darker: they are somewhat kidney-shaped, and measure three-fourths of an inch in length and three-eighths of an inch in thickness. A quart contains nearly thirteen hundred seeds, and will plant a hundred and fifty hills, or a row of two hundred feet. The variety yields well, and the green pods are tender and well flavored. It is, however, generally cultivated for its seeds, which are of large size and excellent quality, whether used in a green or ripe state. DUN-COLORED. Plant of vigorous, branching habit, sixteen inches in height, with broad, deep-green foliage and purplish-white flowers; the pods are five inches and a half long, half an inch broad, green and nearly straight while young, yellow and slender when fully ripe, and contain five or six beans. The ripe seeds are dun-colored or dark-drab, usually with a greenish line encircling the eye, kidney-shaped, five-eighths of an inch long, and about a fourth of an inch thick. A quart contains about seventeen hundred beans, and will plant a row of two hundred and twenty-five feet, or a hundred and seventy-five hills. It is one of the earliest of the dwarf varieties; blossoming in about six weeks, producing young pods in seven weeks, and ripening in eighty-five days, from the time of planting. When sown after settled warm weather, pods may be gathered for use in six weeks; and, for these, plantings may be made until the 1st of August. As a shelled-bean, green or dry, it is of little value, and hardly worthy of cultivation. As an early string-bean, it is one of the best. The pods are not only succulent and tender, but suitable for use very early in the season. It is also quite prolific; and, if planted at intervals of two weeks till the last of July, will supply the table to the last of September. The variety has long been cultivated in England and other parts of Europe, and is much esteemed for its hardiness and productiveness. DWARF CRANBERRY. Plant vigorous; and, if the variety is pure, strictly a Dwarf, growing about sixteen inches high. As generally found in gardens, the plants send out slender runners, eighteen inches or two feet in length. The flowers are pale-purple; the pods are five inches long, sickle-shaped, pale-green in their young state, nearly white when ripe, and contain five or six seeds. The ripe seeds are smaller than those of the running variety, but of the same form and color: sixteen hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant nearly two hundred feet of drill, or a hundred and seventy-five hills. The genuine Dwarf Cranberry is not one of the earliest varieties, but rather an intermediate sort. If sown as soon as the weather will admit, the plants will blossom in seven or eight weeks, and the young pods may be gathered for use in nine weeks. In favorable seasons, the crop is perfected in about ninety days. If planted in June, the variety will ripen in ten weeks. It is hardy and productive; and the young pods are not only succulent and tender, but are suitable for use at a more advanced stage of growth than those of most varieties. The beans, in their green state, are farinaceous and well flavored, but, after ripening, are little used; the color being objectionable. A variety with a brownish-red, oval, flattened seed, half an inch in length, is extensively known and cultivated as the Dwarf Cranberry. It is ten or twelve days earlier, the plants are smaller and less productive, the young pods less tender and succulent, and the seeds (green or ripe) less farinaceous, than those of the true variety. With the exception of its earlier maturity, it is comparatively not worthy of cultivation. DWARF HORTICULTURAL. Variegated Dwarf Prague. Stem about sixteen inches high; plant of vigorous, branching habit; flowers purple; pods five inches long, green while young, but changing to yellow, marbled and streaked with brilliant rose-red, when sufficiently advanced for shelling in their green state. At maturity, the clear, pale-yellow is changed to brownish-white, and the bright-red variegations are either entirely obliterated, or changed to dull, dead purple. If well formed, the pods contain five (rarely six) seeds. It is a medium or half-early sort; and, if planted as soon as the weather becomes favorable, will blossom in seven weeks, produce pods for the table in about eight weeks, and ripen in ninety-five or a hundred days. Planted and grown in summer weather, the variety will produce green pods in seven weeks, and ripen in ninety days. The ripe seeds resemble those of the running variety in form and color; but they are smaller, a little more slender, and usually flattened slightly at the sides. When pure, they are egg-shaped; and a much compressed or a longer and more slender form is indicative of degeneracy. Fourteen hundred beans are contained in a quart; and this quantity of seed will be sufficient for planting a row of a hundred and seventy-five feet, or a hundred and forty hills. The Dwarf Horticultural Bean is quite productive, and the young pods are tender and of good quality. It is, however, not so generally cultivated for its young pods as for its seeds, which are much esteemed for their mild flavor and farinaceous quality. For shelling in the green state, it is one of the best of the Dwarfs, and deserves cultivation. DWARF SABRE. Dwarf Case-knife. Dwarf Cimeter. A half-dwarf, French variety, two and a half to three feet high. As the running shoots are quite slender, and usually decay before the crop matures, it is always cultivated as other Dwarf sorts. Foliage large, wrinkled, and blistered; the flowers are white; the pods are very large, seven to eight inches long, and an inch in width, often irregular and distorted, green while young, paler as the season of maturity approaches, brownish-white when ripe, and contain seven or eight seeds. The ripe bean is white, kidney-shaped, flattened, often twisted or contorted, three-fourths of an inch in length, and three-eighths of an inch in width: about twelve hundred are contained in a quart. As the variety is a vigorous grower, and occupies much space, this quantity of seed will plant a row of two hundred feet, or two hundred and twenty-five hills. Season intermediate. The plants blossom in seven weeks, produce young pods in about eight weeks, pods for shelling in their green state in eleven or twelve weeks, and ripen in ninety-seven days, from the time of sowing. If cultivated for its green pods, the seeds may be planted to the middle of July. The Dwarf Sabre is one of the most productive of all varieties; yielding its long, broad pods in great profusion. From the spreading, recumbent character of the plants, the pods often rest or lie upon the surface of the ground; and, being unusually thin and delicate, the crop often suffers to a considerable extent from the effects of rain and dampness in unfavorable seasons. The young pods are remarkable for their tender and succulent character; and the beans, both in a green and dried state, are mild and well flavored. It is hardy, productive, of good quality, and recommended for cultivation. DWARF SOISSONS. A half-dwarf, French bean, similar in habit to the Dwarf Sabre. While young, the plants produce slender runners, two feet or more in length; but, as they are generally of short duration, the variety is cultivated as a Common Dwarf. The flowers are white; pods six inches long, pale-green at first, cream-yellow when sufficiently advanced for shelling, dull cream-white when fully ripe, and contain five, and sometimes six, beans. The variety is comparatively early. Plants, from seeds sown in spring, will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for use in seven weeks, and ripen in ninety days. If planted and grown in the summer months, the crop will be ready for harvesting in eleven weeks; and sowings for the ripe seeds may be made till the beginning of July. Seeds white, kidney-shaped, flattened, often bent or distorted, five-eighths of an inch long, three-eighths of an inch wide, and a fourth of an inch thick: fifteen hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant a drill two hundred and twenty-five feet in length, or about two hundred hills. The variety is productive, and the young pods are of fair quality; the seeds are excellent, whether used green or ripe; the skin is thin; and they are much esteemed for their peculiar whiteness, and delicacy of flavor. EARLY CHINA. China. Red-eyed China. Plant fifteen inches high, with yellowish-green, wrinkled foliage, and white flowers; the pods are five inches long, green and straight while young, yellowish-green as they approach maturity, yellow when fully ripe, and contain five (rarely six) beans. The ripe seeds are white, colored and spotted about the eye with purplish-red, oblong, nearly cylindrical at the centre, rounded at the ends, six-tenths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch thick: sixteen hundred and fifty measure a quart, and will plant two hundred feet of drill, or two hundred hills. If planted early in the season, the variety will blossom in six weeks, afford young pods for use in seven weeks, green beans in ten weeks, and ripen in eighty-five days. When planted and grown in summer, the crop will ripen in eleven weeks; and plants from seeds sown as late as the first of August will generally afford an abundant supply of tender pods from the middle to the close of September. The Early China is very generally disseminated, and is one of the most popular of the Dwarf varieties. It is hardy and productive; but the young pods, though succulent and tender, are inferior to those of some other varieties. The seeds, green or ripe, are thin-skinned, mealy, and mild flavored. EARLY RACHEL. A low-growing, branching variety, twelve to fifteen inches high; flowers white; the pods are five inches and a half long, green while young, becoming paler or greenish-yellow as they approach maturity, cream-white when ripe, and contain five seeds. Planted early in the season, the variety will blossom in about seven weeks; and, in eight weeks, the young pods will be fit for use. Pods for shelling may be plucked in ten weeks, and the crop will ripen in eighty days. For the green pods, the seeds may be planted till the middle or twentieth of July. The ripe seed is yellowish-brown, white at one of the ends, kidney-shaped, often abruptly shortened, five-eighths of an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick: nearly two thousand are contained in a quart. The Early Rachel is hardy, and moderately productive, and, as an early string-bean, may be desirable; but as a shell-bean, green or dry, it is of little value. In common with many other early sorts cultivated as string-beans, the pods, though crisp and tender at first, soon become too tough and parchment-like for use. In general, the pods of the later sorts remain crisp and tender a much longer period than those of the earlier descriptions. EARLY VALENTINE. Valentine. Plant about sixteen inches high, with small, yellowish-green leaves and white flowers; the pods are comparatively short, usually four and a half or five inches long, sickle-shaped, almost cylindrical, green while young, yellow when ripe, and contain five seeds. The variety is productive, and quite early, though not one of the earliest. When sown at the commencement of the season, the plants will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for use in about seven weeks, and ripen in thirteen weeks, or ninety days, from the time of planting. If planted after the beginning of summer weather, pods may be gathered for the table in fifty days, and the beans will ripen in eleven weeks. The beans, when ripe, are of a pale-pink color, marbled or variegated with rose-red, becoming duller and browner by age, oblong, nearly straight, sometimes distorted and irregular as if pressed out of their natural shape, often more or less shortened at the ends, five-eighths of an inch long, three-eighths of an inch wide, and about the same in thickness. A quart will contain eighteen or nineteen hundred seeds; which will be sufficient for a hundred and seventy-five hills, or for a drill, or row, of two hundred or two hundred and twenty-five feet. The Early Valentine is generally cultivated for its tender and very fleshy pods, which remain long on the plants without becoming hard and tough. They make an excellent, brittle pickle; and, when cooked, are equal to those of any other Dwarf variety. The shelled-beans, either in their green or ripe state, are little esteemed. The variety has long been grown in England and other parts of Europe, and is common to gardens in almost every section of the United States. GOLDEN CRANBERRY. Canadian. Round American Kidney. Height about sixteen inches; flowers purple; the pods are five inches and a half long, five-eighths of an inch broad, somewhat irregular in form, yellow when ripe, and contain five seeds. Season intermediate. Early plantings will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for the table in eight weeks, and ripen in ninety days. The ripe seeds are pale greenish-yellow, with an olive-green line encircling the eye; roundish-ovoid, three-eighths of an inch long, and nearly the same in thickness. A quart contains nearly eighteen hundred seeds, and will plant a row, or drill, of two hundred feet, or two hundred and twenty-five hills. As a string-bean, or for shelling in the green state, it is inferior to many other varieties, and is little cultivated for use in these forms; but as a variety for baking, or for cooking in any form when ripe, it is much esteemed, and recommended for cultivation. Hardy and productive. LONG YELLOW SIX-WEEKS. Six-weeks. Yellow Six-weeks. Yellow Flageolet. _Vil._ The plants of this familiar variety are of vigorous, branching habit, and from fourteen to sixteen inches high; the flowers are pale-purple; the pods are five inches long, six-tenths of an inch broad, often curved or sickle-shaped, green at first, gradually becoming paler, cream-yellow when ripe, and contain five (rarely six) beans. It is one of the earliest of the Dwarf varieties. Spring plantings will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for the table in seven weeks, and ripen in eighty-seven days. Summer plantings will afford pods for the table in about six weeks, and ripen in sixty-three days. When planted as late in the season as the last of July or first of August, the variety will afford an abundant supply of tender pods from the middle to the last of September. The ripe seeds are pale yellowish-drab, with an olive-green line about the eye; the drab rapidly changing by age to dull yellowish-brown. They are kidney-shaped, rather straight, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch thick. About fourteen hundred beans are contained in a quart, and will plant a row of two hundred feet, or a hundred and fifty hills. It is quite productive, and an excellent early string-bean, but less valuable as a green shelled-bean, or for cooking when ripe. On account of the tender and delicate character of the pods, the ripe seeds are often injured by damp or continued rainy weather. A popular, early garden-bean, much cultivated both in this country and in Europe. MOHAWK. Early Mohawk. Stem about eighteen inches high, sturdy and branching; foliage large, deep-green, wrinkled, and blistered; flowers pale-lilac; the pods are five inches and a half long, five-eighths of an inch wide, and generally contain five seeds,--while young they are green, and nearly straight; as they approach maturity they become paler; and, when ripe, are frequently streaked and spotted with purple. The ripe seeds are variegated with drab, dull purple, and different shades of brown; the brown and dull purple prevailing: they are kidney-shaped, and measure nearly three-fourths of an inch in length, and three-eighths of an inch in width. A quart contains about fourteen hundred and fifty seeds, and will plant a hundred and seventy-five feet of drill, or a hundred and seventy-five hills. It is about a week later than the earliest varieties. Spring plantings will blossom in about seven weeks, produce pods for the table in eight weeks, and ripen in a hundred days, from the time of sowing. In ordinary seasons, the variety will ripen perfectly if planted the last week in June; and will yield an abundance of pods for the table, if the planting be made as late in the season as the last of July. The Early Mohawk is quite productive, and one of the hardiest of the Dwarf varieties. It is well adapted for early planting, and is extensively grown by market-gardeners as an early string-bean. The young pods are comparatively tender, and of good quality; and, if gathered as they become of suitable size, the plants will continue to yield them in great abundance. The shelled-beans, green or dry, are less esteemed, and considered inferior to many other varieties. NEWINGTON WONDER. A healthy, vigorous variety, with deep-green foliage and bright-purple flowers. The plants often produce slender, barren runners, eighteen inches or two feet in length; but they are generally of short duration, and the variety is treated as other Dwarfs. The pods are small and straight; usually about four inches long, and nearly half an inch broad. They are pale-green at first; and afterwards change to yellowish-white, tinted or washed with bright pink. At maturity they are dusky-drab, sometimes clouded or shaded with purple, and contain six or seven beans. The ripe seeds are pale brownish-drab, with a yellowish-brown line about the eye; oblong, flattened, shortened at the ends, nearly half an inch long, and a fourth of an inch deep: about thirty-six hundred are contained in a quart. As the seeds are comparatively small, and the plants of spreading habit, this amount of seeds will plant a row four hundred feet in length, or four hundred hills. The variety is not early, and, when cultivated for its seeds, should have the benefit of the whole season; though, with favorable autumnal weather, the crop will ripen if planted the middle of June. Spring plantings will blossom in eight weeks, produce young pods in nine weeks, and ripen in a hundred and six days. The Newington Wonder is remarkably prolific; and, in its manner of growth and general character, resembles the Tampico or Turtle-soup. As a string-bean, it is one of the best. The pods, though not large, are crisp, succulent, and tender, and produced in great abundance throughout most of the season. The seeds, in their green state, are small, and of little value for the table: when ripe, they afford an excellent substitute for the Tampico or Turtle-soup; the difference, aside from the color, being scarcely perceptible. The Newington Wonder of English and French authors appears to be, in some respects, distinct from the American variety. It is described as very dwarf, about a foot high, early and productive; pods dark-green, moderately long, not broad, thick and fleshy; seeds quite small, light chestnut-colored. PEA-BEAN. Plant vigorous, much branched, and, like the Blue Pod and White Marrow, inclined to send up running shoots; foliage comparatively small, deep-green; flowers white; the pods are about four inches long, half an inch wide, nearly straight, green when young, paler as they approach the season of ripening, yellowish when fully ripe, and contain five beans. It is comparatively a late variety. When planted in spring, it will blossom in fifty days, afford green pods in fifty-eight days, and ripen in about fifteen weeks. In favorable autumns, it will ripen if planted as late as the 20th of June; but it is not so early as the Blue Pod or White Marrow, and, when practicable, should have the advantage of the entire season. The ripe seeds of the pure variety are quite small, roundish-ovoid, five-sixteenths of an inch long, a fourth of an inch in width and thickness, and of a pure yet not glossy white color: about forty-four hundred seeds are contained in a quart. As a garden variety, it is of little value, though the young pods are crisp and tender. It is cultivated almost exclusively as a field-bean. If planted in rows or drills two feet apart, three pecks of seeds will be required for an acre; or eighteen quarts will seed this quantity of land, if the rows are two feet and a half apart. When planted in hills, eight seeds are allowed to a hill; and, if the hills are made three feet apart, eight quarts will plant an acre. The yield varies from fourteen to twenty bushels, according to soil, season, and cultivation. The Pea-bean, the White Marrow, and the Blue Pod are the principal if not the only kinds of much commercial importance; the names of other varieties being rarely, if ever, mentioned in the regular reports of the current prices of the markets. If equally well ripened, and, in their respective varieties, equally pure, the Pea-bean and the White Marrow command about the same prices; the former, however, being more abundant in the market than the latter. By many, and perhaps by a majority, the Pea-bean is esteemed the best of all baking varieties. POTTAWOTTOMIE. The plants of this variety are remarkable for their strong, vigorous habit, and large, luxuriant foliage. The flowers are flesh-white; the pods are six inches long, green at first, then mottled and streaked with lively rose-red on a cream-white ground (the markings changing to purple at maturity), and contain five (rarely six) seeds. The variety is comparatively late. If sown early in the season, the plants will flower in seven weeks, afford pods for shelling in eleven weeks, and ripen in a hundred days, from the time of planting. The ripe seeds are of a light creamy-pink color, streaked and spotted with a red or reddish-brown: the soft, flesh-like color, however, soon becomes duller and darker, and at last gives place to a dull, cinnamon-brown. They are kidney-shaped, fully three-fourths of an inch long, and about three-eighths of an inch broad. About a thousand will measure a quart, and will plant a row two hundred feet in length, or a hundred and twenty-five hills. On account of the large size and spreading habit of the plants, five seeds will be sufficient for a hill; and, in the rows, they should be dropped five or six inches from each other. The young pods are inferior to most varieties in crispness, and tenderness of texture; and are comparatively but little used. The seeds are remarkably large, separate easily from the pods, and, green or ripe, are remarkably farinaceous and well flavored, nearly or quite equalling the Dwarf and Running Horticultural. RED FLAGEOLET. Scarlet Flageolet. A half-dwarf, French Bean, two to three feet high; flowers pale-purple; the pods are six inches and a half long, somewhat curved, green while young, pale-yellow at maturity, and contain five or six seeds. It is one of the latest of the Dwarf varieties. If sown early, the plants will blossom in seven weeks, and pods may be gathered for use in about nine weeks; in thirteen weeks the pods will be sufficiently advanced for shelling, and the crop will be ready for harvesting in a hundred and ten days. It requires the whole season for its full perfection; but, for its young pods or for green beans, plantings may be made to the last week in June. The ripe beans are blood-red when first harvested, but gradually change by age to deep-purple: they are kidney-shaped, nearly straight, slightly flattened, three-fourths of an inch long, three-eighths of an inch broad, and nearly the same in thickness. Fifteen hundred seeds are contained in a quart. The Red Flageolet yields abundantly; and the young pods are not only of good size, but remarkably crisp and tender. If plucked as they become fit for use, the plants continue to produce fresh pods for many weeks. The green beans are farinaceous, and excellent for table use; but are seldom cooked in their ripened state. RED-SPECKLED. Plant branching, and of strong growth,--nearly a foot and a half high; foliage remarkably large; flowers pale-purple; pods five inches and a half long, nearly straight, green while young, paler with occasional marks and spots of purple when more advanced, yellowish-white when ripe, and containing five (rarely six) seeds. Season intermediate. Plants from seeds sown after settled warm weather will blossom in six weeks, and green pods may be plucked for use in fifty days. For shelling in their green state, pods may be gathered in ten weeks, and the crop will ripen off in ninety days. For its young pods, or for green beans, plantings may be made to the last week in June; but the crop will not mature, unless the weather continues favorable till the 1st of October. The ripe seeds are variegated with deep-red and pale-drab, the red predominating; kidney-shaped, nearly straight, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch deep. A quart contains fourteen hundred and fifty seeds, and will plant a row of two hundred and twenty-five feet, or a hundred and fifty hills. The variety is hardy and productive. It is extensively cultivated as a garden-bean in England and France, and has been common to the gardens of this country for nearly two centuries. The young pods are of medium quality; but the seeds, green or dry, are mealy and well flavored. On account of the parchment-like character of the pods, the seeds seldom suffer from the effects of wet weather. REFUGEE. Thousand to One. Plant sixteen to eighteen inches high, and readily distinguished from most varieties by its small, smooth, deep-green, and elongated leaves; flowers purple; pods five inches long, nearly cylindrical, pale-green while young, greenish-white streaked with purple when sufficiently advanced for shelling, yellow when ripe, and usually yielding five beans. The Refugee is not an early sort. The plants blossom in seven weeks, produce young pods in eight weeks, and ripen in eighty-seven days, from the time of sowing. Plantings for the ripened product may be made till the middle of June; and for the green pods, to the middle of July. The ripe seeds are light-drab, with numerous spots and broad patches of bright-purple, nearly straight, cylindrical at the middle, tapering to the ends (which are generally rounded), five-eighths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch thick. Eighteen hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant a row two hundred and fifty feet in length, or two hundred hills. The variety is hardy, yields abundantly, and the young pods are thick, fleshy, and tender in texture. As a string-bean, or for pickling, it is considered one of the best of all varieties, and is recommended for general cultivation. The seeds are comparatively small, and are rarely used either in a green or ripened state. RICE. _Vil._ Half-dwarf, about two feet high; flowers white; pods very small, scarcely more than three inches in length, and only two-fifths of an inch in width, usually containing six seeds. The variety requires a full season for its perfection. Plants from seeds sown early in spring will blossom in seven weeks, yield young pods in ten weeks, and ripen in a hundred and twelve days. The ripe seeds are very small, and of a peculiar yellowish-white, semi-transparent, rice-like color and appearance. They are quite irregular in form, usually somewhat oblong or ovoid, often abruptly shortened at the ends, three-eighths of an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick. Nearly five thousand are contained in a quart. The young pods are tender and excellent; but the green beans are small, and rarely used. The ripe seeds are peculiar, both in consistency and flavor: they are quite brittle and rice-like; and, when cooked, much relished by some, and little esteemed by others. ROB-ROY. Plant half-dwarf,--early in the season, producing slender, transient, barren runners two or three feet in length; flowers purplish-white; the pods are five inches long, often produced in pairs, yellow as they approach maturity, yellowish-white when ripe, and contain five or six seeds. It is one of the earliest of the Dwarfs. Spring plantings will blossom in six weeks, produce pods for the table in seven weeks, and ripen in eighty-two days. If planted in June, pods may be plucked for use in six weeks, and the crop will be ready for harvesting in sixty-eight days. The ripe seeds are clear, bright-yellow; the surface being generally veined, and the eye surrounded with an olive-green line. They are of an oblong form, nearly straight on the side of the eye, rounded at the back, five-eighths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch deep. Fifteen hundred seeds are contained in a quart, and will be sufficient to plant a row of two hundred feet, or a hundred and fifty hills. The Rob-Roy generally matures in great perfection; being seldom stained or otherwise injured by rain or the dampness of ordinary seasons. It is also one of the earliest of the Dwarf varieties, but desirable as a string-bean rather than for its qualities as a green shelled-bean, or for cooking when ripe. If cultivated for its pods only, plantings may be made until the first of August. ROUND YELLOW SIX-WEEKS. Round Yellow. Dwarf Yellow. Fourteen to sixteen inches high; flowers pale-purple; pods about five inches long, half an inch broad, pale yellowish-green as they approach maturity, and, when fully ripe, remarkably slender, and more curved than in their green state,--they contain five or six beans. The variety is early; blossoming in six weeks, producing young pods in seven weeks, and ripening in ninety days, from the time of planting. When planted in June, pods may be plucked for use in seven weeks, and the crop will be ready for harvesting in eighty days. For its green pods, plantings may be made to the last of July. The ripe seeds are orange-yellow, with a narrow, reddish-brown belt, or line, encircling the eye; oblong or ovoid, half an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch thick. A quart contains two thousand seeds, and will plant a row two hundred and twenty-five feet in length, or two hundred and twenty-five hills. As an early string-bean, the variety is worthy of cultivation, but is little used, and is really of little value, as a shelled-bean, green or ripe. It has been common to the gardens of this country for more than a century; and, during this period, no apparent change has taken place in the character of the plant, or in the size, form, or color of the seed. SOLITAIRE. A French variety. The ripe seeds are similar to those of the Refugee; but the plants are quite distinct in foliage and general habit. Its height is about eighteen inches; the flowers are purple; the pods are six inches long, slender, nearly cylindrical, green at first, paler and streaked with purple when more advanced, and contain six seeds. It is not early. Spring plantings will blossom in sixty days, produce pods for the table in seventy days, and ripen in about fifteen weeks. It may be planted for its green pods until the first of July. The beans, when ripe, are variegated with light-drab and deep-purple, the purple prevailing. They are often straight, sometimes curved, nearly cylindrical at the eye, usually rounded, but sometimes shortened, at the ends, three-fourths of an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick: two thousand measure a quart. On account of the size and branching character of the plants, more space must be allowed in cultivation than is usually given to Common Dwarf varieties. If planted in rows, they should be at least eighteen inches apart, and the plants eight or ten inches from each other in the rows; and, if planted in hills, they should be thinned to four or five plants, and the hills should not be less than three feet apart. It is not much esteemed as a shelled-bean, either green or ripe. As a string-bean, it is one of the best. Its pods are long, cylindrical, remarkably slender, succulent, and tender. It is also a very prolific variety, and the pods remain for an unusual period without becoming tough or too hard for the table. Recommended for cultivation. SWISS CRIMSON. Scarlet Swiss. _Vil._ Plant vigorous, often producing running shoots; flowers pale-purple; pods nearly straight, six inches long, pale-green while young, yellow streaked with brilliant rose-red as they approach maturity, and containing five (rarely six) seeds. It is comparatively a late variety. If planted as early as the weather will permit, the plants will blossom in seven weeks, the young pods will be ready for use in nine weeks, and the crop will be ready for harvesting in a hundred and five days. Planted and grown in summer weather, it will produce young pods in sixty days, and ripen in thirteen weeks. Plantings for the green seeds may be made to the first of July. The ripe seeds are clear bright-pink, striped and spotted with deep purplish-red: the pink changes gradually to dull, dark-red, and the variegations to dark-brown. They are kidney-shaped, comparatively straight, somewhat flattened, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch broad. Thirteen hundred seeds are contained in a quart, and will plant a row two hundred feet in length, or a hundred and fifty hills. It is hardy and productive, and, as a shelled-bean, of excellent quality, either in its green or ripened state. As a variety for stringing, it is not above medium quality. TURTLE-SOUP. Tampico. Plant vigorous, producing numerous slender, barren runners two feet or more in length; flowers rich deep-purple; pods five inches long, green and sickle-shaped while young, pale greenish-white stained with purple when more advanced, yellow clouded with purple when ripe, and containing five or six seeds. The variety is quite late, and requires most of the season for its full perfection. Plants from early sowings will blossom in eight weeks, the young pods will be sufficiently grown for use in ten weeks, and the crop will ripen in a hundred and eight days. As the young pods are tender and of excellent quality, and are also produced in great abundance, a planting for these may be made as late as the last week in June, which will supply the table from the last of August till the plants are destroyed by frost. The ripe seeds are small, glossy-black, somewhat oblong, and much flattened: thirty-six hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant four hundred feet of drill, or three hundred and fifty hills. It is very productive, and deserving of cultivation for its young and tender pods; but is of little or no value for shelling while green. The ripened seeds are used, as the name implies, in the preparation of a soup, which, as respects color and flavor, bears some resemblance to that made from the green turtle. VICTORIA. This is one of the earliest of the Dwarf varieties. Early plantings will blossom in six weeks, yield pods for the table in seven weeks, produce pods of suitable size for shelling in about ten weeks, and ripen in eighty-four days. When planted after the season has somewhat advanced,--the young plants thus receiving the benefit of summer temperature,--pods may be gathered for the table in about six weeks, and the crop will ripen in sixty-three days. Stalk fourteen to sixteen inches high, with comparatively few branches; flowers purple; pods four and a half to five inches long, streaked and spotted with purple, tough and parchment-like when ripe, and containing five or six seeds. The ripe seeds are flesh-colored, striped and spotted with purple (the ground changing by age to dull reddish-brown, and the spots and markings to chocolate-brown), oblong, somewhat flattened, shortened or rounded at the ends, five-eighths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch thick: fourteen hundred are contained in a quart. The variety is remarkably early; and, on this account, is worthy of cultivation. For table use, the young pods and the seeds, green or dry, are inferior to many other sorts. WHITE'S EARLY. A remarkably hardy and vigorous variety, eighteen to twenty inches high. Flowers white, tinged with purple; pods five inches and a half long, curved or sickle-shaped, green at first, yellowish-white striped with purple when fully ripe, and containing five seeds. Early plantings will blossom in about six weeks, young pods may be plucked for use in seven weeks, and the crop will ripen in eighty-two days. If planted as late in the season as the first week in July, the variety will generally ripen perfectly; and, when cultivated for its green pods, plantings may be made at any time during the month. The ripe seeds are either drab or light-slate,--both colors being common,--marked and spotted with light-drab. In some specimens, drab is the prevailing color. They are kidney-shaped, irregularly compressed or flattened, nearly three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch deep. A quart contains about sixteen hundred seeds, and is sufficient for planting a row two hundred and fifty feet in length, or two hundred hills. This variety, as an early string-bean, is decidedly one of the best, and is also one of the hardiest and most prolific. The pods should be plucked when comparatively young; and, if often gathered, the plants will continue a long time in bearing. As a shelled-bean, either in its green or ripened state, it is only of medium quality. The long peduncles, or stems, that support its spikes of flowers, its stocky habit, and fine, deep-green, luxurious foliage, distinguish the variety from all others. WHITE FLAGEOLET. From sixteen to eighteen inches high, of strong and branching habit. Flowers white; pods five inches and a half long, sickle-shaped, green while young, yellowish-white at maturity, and containing six (rarely seven) seeds. It is a half-early variety; blossoming in six weeks, yielding pods for the table in seven weeks, pods for shelling in eleven weeks, and ripening in ninety days, from the time of planting. Later plantings will ripen in a shorter period, or in about eighty days; and, if cultivated as a string-bean, seed sown as late in the season as the last week of July will supply the table from the middle of September with an abundance of well-flavored and tender pods. The ripe bean is white, kidney-shaped, flattened, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch broad: about twenty-two hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant a drill, or row, of two hundred and seventy-five feet, or nearly three hundred hills. The White Flageolet is very productive, and is recommended for cultivation: the young pods are crisp and tender, and the seeds, green or ripe, are farinaceous, and remarkable for delicacy of flavor. WHITE KIDNEY. Kidney. Large White Kidney. Royal Dwarf. The plants of this variety are from sixteen to eighteen inches high, and readily distinguishable, from their large and broad leaves, and strong, branching habit of growth; the flowers are white; the pods are somewhat irregular in form, six inches long, green at first, yellow when ripe, and contain five (rarely six) beans. The White Kidney-bean is not early: it blossoms in seven weeks, produces young pods in nine weeks, pods for shelling in eleven weeks, and ripens in a hundred and ten days, from the time of planting. The ripe seeds are white, more or less veined, pale-yellow about the hilum, kidney-shaped, nearly straight, slightly flattened, fully three-fourths of an inch long, and about three-eighths of an inch thick: from twelve to thirteen hundred are contained in a quart; and this quantity of seeds will plant a hundred and seventy-five feet of drill, or a hundred and forty hills. As a string-bean, the variety has little merit; but as a shelled-bean, green or ripe, it is decidedly one of the best of the Dwarfs, and well deserving of cultivation. The seeds are of large size, pure white, separate readily from the pods, and are tender and delicate. WHITE MARROW. White Marrowfat. Dwarf White Cranberry. White Egg. Plants vigorous, much branched, and inclined to produce running shoots; flowers white; pods five inches long, nearly three-fourths of an inch broad, pale-green at first, then changing to clear yellow, afterwards becoming pure waxen-white, cream-yellow when ripe, and containing five seeds. When planted at the commencement of favorable weather, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for the table in eight weeks, and ripen in a hundred and five days. When grown for the ripened product, the planting should not be delayed beyond the 20th of June. Planted at this season, or the last week in June, the crop will blossom the first week in August; and, about the middle of the month, pods may be gathered for the table. By the second week in September, the pods will be of sufficient size for shelling; and, if the season be ordinarily favorable, the crop will ripen the last of the month. It must not, however, be regarded as an early variety; and, when practicable, should be planted before the 10th of June. The ripe seeds are clear white, ovoid or egg-shaped, nine-sixteenths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch thick. In size, form, or color, they are scarcely distinguishable from those of the White Running Cranberry. If well grown, twelve hundred seeds will measure a quart. As a string-bean, the White Marrow is of average quality: but, for shelling in the green state, it is surpassed by few, if any, of the garden varieties; and deserves more general cultivation. When ripe, it is remarkably farinaceous, of a delicate fleshy-white when properly cooked, and by many preferred to the Pea-bean. In almost every section of the United States, as well as in the Canadas, it is largely cultivated for market; and is next in importance to the last named for commercial purposes. In field-culture, it is planted in drills two feet apart; the seeds being dropped in groups, three or four together, a foot apart in the drills. Some plant in hills two and a half or three feet apart by eighteen inches in the opposite direction, seeding at the rate of forty-four quarts to the acre; and others plant in drills eighteen inches apart, dropping the seeds singly, six or eight inches from each other in the drills. The yield varies from twenty to thirty bushels to the acre, though crops are recorded of nearly forty bushels. YELLOW-EYED CHINA. Plant sixteen to eighteen inches high, more branched and of stronger habit than the Black or Red Eyed; flowers white; pods six inches long, nearly straight, pale-green while young, cream-white at maturity, and containing five or six seeds. It is an early variety. When sown in May, or at the beginning of settled weather, the plants will blossom in six weeks, afford string-beans in seven weeks, pods for shelling in ten or eleven weeks, and ripen in ninety days, from the time of planting. From sowings made later in the season (the plants thereby receiving more directly the influence of summer weather), pods may be plucked for the table in about six weeks, and ripened beans in seventy-five days. Plantings for supplying the table with string-beans may be made until the last week in July. The ripe beans are white, spotted and marked about the eye with rusty-yellow, oblong, inclining to kidney-shape, more flattened than those of the Red or Black Eyed, five-eighths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch in breadth: fifteen hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant two hundred feet of drill, or a hundred and fifty hills. The plants are large and spreading, and most productive when not grown too closely together. The Yellow-eyed China is one of the most healthy, vigorous, and prolific of the Dwarf varieties; of good quality as a string-bean; and, in its ripened state, excellent for baking, or in whatever manner it may be cooked. It also ripens its seeds in great perfection; the crop being rarely affected by wet weather, or injured by blight or mildew. * * * * * POLE OR RUNNING BEANS. As a class, these are less hardy than the Dwarfs, and are not usually planted so early in the season. The common practice is to plant in hills three feet or three and a half apart; though the lower-growing sorts are sometimes planted in drills fourteen or fifteen inches apart, and bushed in the manner of the taller descriptions of pease. If planted in hills, they should be slightly raised, and the stake, or pole, set before the planting of the seeds. The maturity of some of the later sorts will be somewhat facilitated by cutting or nipping off the leading runners when they have attained a height of four or five feet. CASE-KNIFE. This variety, common to almost every garden, is readily distinguished by its strong and tall habit of growth, and its broad, deep-green, blistered leaves. The flowers are white. The pods are remarkably large; often measuring nine or ten inches in length, and nearly an inch in width. They are of a green color till near maturity, when they change to yellowish-green, and, when fully ripe, to cream-white. A well-formed pod contains eight or nine seeds. Early plantings will blossom in seven or eight weeks, yield pods for stringing in about ten weeks, green beans in twelve or thirteen weeks, and ripen in a hundred and five days. Later plantings, with the exclusive advantage of summer weather, will supply string-beans in seven weeks, pods for shelling in eight or nine weeks, and ripen in ninety-six days. Plantings for the green beans may be made till nearly the middle of July; and, for the young pods, to the 25th of the month. The ripe seeds are clear white, kidney-shaped, irregularly flattened or compressed, often diagonally shortened at one or both of the ends, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch deep. A quart contains about fifteen hundred seeds, and will plant a hundred and seventy-five hills. It is one of the most prolific of the running varieties. As a shelled-bean, it is of excellent quality in its green state; and, when ripe, farinaceous, and well flavored in whatever form prepared. The large pods, if plucked early, are succulent and tender, but coarser in texture than those of many other sorts, and not so well flavored. The Case-knife, in its habit and general appearance, much resembles the Sabre, or Cimeter, of the French; and perhaps is but a sub-variety. Plants, however, from imported Sabre-beans, were shorter, not so stocky, a little earlier, and the pods, generally, less perfectly formed. CORN-BEAN. Stem six feet and upwards in height; flowers bright-lilac; the pods are five inches and a half long, green while young, cream-white at maturity, and contain six or seven seeds. The variety is late, but remarkable for hardiness and productiveness. The shelled-beans, green or ripe, are little used; the young pods are crisp, succulent, and excellent for the table; and the variety deserves more general cultivation. If plucked as fast as they become of suitable size, the plants will continue to produce them in abundance for six or eight weeks. The ripe seeds are chocolate-brown, somewhat quadrangular, flattened, half an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch broad. In size and form, they somewhat resemble grains of Indian corn: whence the name. Twelve hundred and fifty seeds are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and twenty-five hills. HORTICULTURAL. Marbled Prague. _Vil._ London Horticultural. Stem six feet or more in height; flowers purple; the pods are from five to six inches long, nearly three-fourths of an inch broad, pale-green while young, greenish-white streaked and blotched with brilliant rose-red when more advanced, much contorted, hard, parchment-like and very tenacious of their contents when ripe, and enclose five or six seeds. When planted at the commencement of the season, the variety will blossom in about seven weeks, produce pods for stringing in nine weeks, green beans in twelve weeks, and ripen in a hundred days. Plantings made during the last week in June will mature their crop, if the season be favorable. For the green beans, plantings may be made until the last of June; and, for the young pods, until the first of July. The ripe beans are flesh-white, streaked and spotted with bright-pink, or red, with a russet-yellow line encircling the eye. They are egg-shaped, rather more than half an inch in length, and four-tenths of an inch in width and depth. From the time of ripening, the soft, flesh-like tint gradually loses its freshness, and finally becomes cinnamon-brown; the variegations growing relatively duller and darker. A quart contains about eleven hundred seeds, and will plant a hundred and twenty-five hills. The Horticultural Bean was introduced into this country from England about the year 1825. It has now become very generally disseminated, and is one of the most popular of the running sorts. As a string-bean, it is of good quality; shelled in its green state, remarkably farinaceous and well flavored; and, when ripe, one of the best for baking or stewing. It is hardy and productive, but is liable to deteriorate when raised many years in succession from seed saved in the vegetable garden from the scattered pods accidentally left to ripen on the poles. To raise good seed, leave each year a few hills unplucked; allowing the entire product to ripen. INDIAN CHIEF. Wax-bean. Butter-bean. Algerian. D'Alger, of the French. Stem six or seven feet high, with large, broad foliage and purple flowers; the pods are five inches long, nearly as thick as broad, sickle-shaped, green at first, but soon change to a fine, waxen, semi-transparent cream-white,--the line marking the divisions being orange-yellow. At this stage of growth, the color indicates approaching maturity; but the pods will be found crisp and succulent, and are in their greatest perfection for the table. When ripe, they are nearly white, much shrivelled, and contain six or seven seeds. When cultivated for the ripened product, the seed should be planted as early in the season as the weather will permit. The plants will then blossom in eight or nine weeks, afford young pods in about eleven weeks, pods for shelling in thirteen or fourteen weeks, and ripen in a hundred and twenty-four days. Plantings for green pods may be made until the first of July. At the time of harvesting, the seeds are deep indigo-blue, the hilum being white. They are oblong, often shortened abruptly at the ends, half an inch long, nearly the same in depth, and three-tenths of an inch thick. Fourteen hundred seeds measure a quart, and will plant a hundred and seventy-five hills. Its fine, tender, succulent, and richly colored pods are its chief recommendation; and for these it is well worthy of cultivation. They are produced in profuse abundance, and continue fit for use longer than those of most varieties. In moist seasons, the pods remain crisp and tender till the seeds have grown sufficiently to be used in the green state. The ripe seeds are little used. MOTTLED CRANBERRY. A comparatively strong-growing, but not tall variety. The flowers are white; the pods are short and broad, four inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch wide, yellow at maturity, and contain four or five seeds. If planted early, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield pods for the table in eight or nine weeks, green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in a hundred days. When planted after settled warm weather, it will ripen in ninety days. The ripe seeds are white, the eye surrounded with a broad patch of purple, which is also extended over one of the ends: they are of a rounded-oval form, half an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch in width and thickness. A quart contains fourteen hundred and fifty seeds, and will plant a hundred and fifty hills. As the plants are of dwarfish character, the seeds are sometimes sown in drills; a quart being required for two hundred feet. The Mottled Cranberry is moderately productive, and the young pods are tender and well flavored: the seeds, while green, are farinaceous, and, though of good quality when ripe, are but little used. MOTTLED PROLIFIC. Plant branching, healthy, and vigorous, six feet or more in height; flowers purple; the pods are four inches and a half long, usually produced in pairs, green at first, washed with purple when more advanced, light-brown at maturity, and contain six seeds. It is a late variety. Plantings made during the first of the season will not produce pods for use until the last of July, or beginning of August; but, if these are plucked as they become of suitable size, the plants will continue in bearing until destroyed by frost. The ripe beans are drab, thickly and minutely spotted with black, and also distinctly marked with regular lines of the same color. They are of an oblong form, flattened, often squarely or diagonally shortened at the ends, nearly half an inch in length, and three-tenths of an inch in width. A quart contains thirty-one hundred seeds, and will plant about three hundred hills. As a shelled-bean, in its green or ripened state, the variety has little merit. Its recommendations are its fine, tender pods, its remarkable productiveness, and its uniformly healthy habit. PRÉDHOMME. _Vil._ Introduced from France. Plant four or five feet high, with broad, deep-green, blistered foliage and white flowers; the pods are nearly cylindrical, three inches long, green while young, cream-white when ripe, and contain from six to eight seeds, set very closely together. The ripe beans are dull-white, veined, oblong, often shortened at the ends, a third of an inch long, and nearly a fourth of an inch in width and thickness. A quart contains about thirty-five hundred seeds, and will plant three hundred and fifty hills. Early plantings will blossom in eight weeks, afford pods for the table in about ten weeks, and ripen in a hundred and eight days. It may be planted for its green pods to the first of July. It is of little value as a shelled-bean in its green state. When ripe, it is of good quality, and, as a string-bean, one of the best; the pods being very brittle, succulent, and fine flavored. They remain long upon the plants without becoming tough and hard; and are tender, and good for use, until almost ripe. On account of their thin and delicate character, the seeds, in unfavorable seasons, are often stained and otherwise injured by dampness at the time of ripening. PRINCESS. _Vil._ A French variety. Plant six feet or more in height, with lively-green foliage and white flowers; the pods are five inches long, pale-green while young, yellow at maturity, and contain six or seven, and sometimes eight, seeds. The ripe bean is white, egg-shaped, two-fifths of an inch long, and a fourth of an inch thick: nearly three thousand are contained in a quart, and will plant three hundred and fifty hills. The variety somewhat resembles the Prédhomme; but the seeds are larger and brighter, the pods are longer, the seeds are less close in the pods, and it is some days earlier. It ripens in about three months from the time of planting. A good sort for stringing, and of excellent quality when ripe. RED CRANBERRY. This is one of the oldest and most familiar of garden-beans, and has probably been longer and more generally cultivated in this country than any other variety. The plants are five or six feet high, of medium strength and vigor; flowers pale-lilac. The pods are quite irregular in form; often reversely curved, or sickle-shaped; four inches and a half long; yellowish-green while young; clear-white when suitable for shelling; yellowish-white, shrivelled, and contorted, when ripe; and contain five or six seeds. Its season is intermediate. If planted early, the variety will blossom in seven weeks, yield young pods in nine weeks, green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in ninety-five days. In favorable seasons, the crop will ripen if the seeds are planted the last of June; but, for the young pods or for green beans, plantings may be made to near the middle of July. Seeds clear, deep-purple, the hilum white, round-ovoid, slightly compressed, half an inch long, and about three-eighths of an inch in depth and thickness. Fourteen hundred and fifty seeds are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and fifty hills. It is a hardy and productive variety, principally grown as a string-bean. The pods are succulent and tender; and these qualities are retained to a very advanced stage of growth, or until quite of suitable size for shelling. The dark color of the bean, which is to some extent imparted to the pods in the process of cooking, is by some considered an objection; and the White Cranberry, though perhaps less prolific, is preferred. As a shelled-bean, it is of good quality in its green state; but, in its ripened state, little used, though dry and farinaceous. RED ORLEANS. Scarlet Orleans. Five to six feet high; flowers white; the pods are sickle-shaped, five inches long, green when young, often tinged with red when more advanced, yellow at full maturity, and contain five or six seeds, packed closely together. It is one of the earliest of the running varieties. Spring plantings will blossom in about seven weeks, afford pods for the table in eight weeks, green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in eighty-five-days. Planted later in the season, pods sufficiently large for stringing may be gathered in six weeks, and the crop will begin to ripen in about seventy days. As a string-bean, the variety may be planted until the first of August. At the time of harvesting, the ripe seeds are of a bright blood-red color, but change rapidly by age to brownish-red. They are of an oblong form, often squarely or diagonally shortened at the ends by contact with each other in the pods, half an inch long, and three-tenths of an inch broad. A quart, which contains nearly twenty-four hundred seeds, will plant about two hundred and seventy-five hills. The Red Orleans is quite prolific, and a desirable sort for soups and stews. The young pods are tender, and well flavored; but its remarkable precocity must be considered its chief recommendation. French writers describe the ripe seeds as exceeding the above dimensions; but specimens received from Paris seedsmen correspond in size, form, and color with the description before given. RHODE-ISLAND BUTTER. Plant seven feet and upwards in height, with large, broad, deep-green, wrinkled foliage; flowers blush-white; the pods are six inches long, nearly three-fourths of an inch broad, green while young, paler when more advanced, cream-white and much shrivelled when ripe, and contain seven seeds. If planted early in the season, green pods may be plucked for the table in nine or ten weeks, pods for shelling in twelve weeks, and the crop will ripen in a hundred and twenty-three days. Planted early in June, the pods will generally all ripen; but, if the planting is delayed to the last of the month, the crop will but partially mature, unless the season prove more than usually favorable. The vines will, however, yield a plentiful supply of pods, and also of green beans. The seeds, at maturity, are cream-yellow, with well-defined spots and stripes of deep yellowish-buff. They are broad-kidney-shaped, flattened, five-eighths of an inch long, and nearly half an inch broad. The cream-yellow gradually changes by age to brown, and the markings become relatively darker. Fourteen hundred seeds are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and fifty hills. The variety yields abundantly; and the large pods are tender, succulent, and excellent for table use. The beans, in their green state, are of good quality, though little used when ripe. SABRE, OR CIMETER. Stem seven or eight feet high; leaves broad, large, deep-green, and much wrinkled or corrugated; flowers white; pods large, broad, and thin, curved at the ends in the form of a sabre, or cimeter, green when young, cream-white when ripe, and contain eight beans. The variety will blossom in eight weeks, afford young pods for the table in ten weeks, green beans in eleven weeks, and ripen in a hundred days, from the time of planting. If sown in June, the crop will mature in ninety days. Plantings for the green seeds may be made till the last of June, and for the young pods to the middle of July. The ripe seeds are clear-white, kidney-form, three-fourths of an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch broad. Sixteen hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and sixty hills. The Sabre Bean is remarkably productive; the young pods are crisp and tender, excellent for table use, and good for pickling; the seeds, green or dry, are farinaceous, and of delicate flavor and appearance. In height and foliage, size and form of the pods, color and size of the ripe seeds, it resembles the Case-knife. The principal difference between the varieties is in the earlier maturity of the Sabre. SOISSONS. _Vil._ Introduced from France. Stem six feet or more high; foliage large, broad, wrinkled; flowers white; the pods are eight inches long, three-fourths of an inch broad, sword-shaped, yellowish-green when near maturity, yellowish-white when ripe, and contain six or seven seeds. The variety requires the whole season for its full perfection. If planted early, it blossoms in nine weeks, produces young pods in eleven weeks, and ripens off in gradual succession till the plants are destroyed by frost. If cultivated for its young pods, plantings may be made to the last week in June. The ripe seeds are remarkably large,--often measuring nearly an inch in length and half an inch in breadth,--pure, glossy-white, kidney-shaped, and generally irregularly compressed. Seven hundred are contained in a quart, and will plant about eighty hills. The young pods, while quite young and small, are crisp and tender, and the ripe seeds are farinaceous and well flavored. It is also an excellent sort for shelling in the green state; but the plants are not hardy, and thrive well only in warm soil and sheltered situations. Under ordinary culture, many of the pods are imperfect, and frequently contain but two or three seeds. WHITE CRANBERRY. Stem five or six feet high; flowers white; the pods are five inches and a half long, pale-green while young, striped and marbled with red when near maturity, yellowish-buff when ripe, and contain five or six beans. It is not an early variety. From plantings made at the usual season, young pods may be gathered in about nine weeks, pods for shelling green in twelve weeks, and ripened beans in a hundred and five days. For stringing, or for shelling in a green state, the variety may be planted the first of July; but, in ordinary seasons, few of the pods will reach maturity. The ripe seeds are white, egg-shaped, sometimes nearly spherical, half an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch in breadth and thickness. In size, form, and color, they strongly resemble the Dwarf White Marrow; and are not easily distinguished from the seeds of that variety. About twelve hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and twenty-five hills. The White Cranberry is hardy, yields well, and the young pods are tender and well flavored. For shelling green, it is decidedly one of the best of all varieties; and for baking, or otherwise cooking, is, when ripe, fully equal to the Pea-bean or White Marrow. WILD-GOOSE. Plant seven or eight feet high, of healthy, vigorous habit; flowers bright-purple; the pods are sickle-shaped, pale-green at first, cream-yellow streaked and marbled with purple when ripe, and contain six seeds, closely set together. The variety requires the entire season for its full perfection. When planted early, it will blossom in nine weeks, produce young pods in eleven weeks, green beans in thirteen weeks, and ripen in a hundred and twenty days. If planted and grown under the influence of summer weather, the plants will blossom in seven weeks, yield young pods in nine weeks, green beans in twelve weeks, and ripen in a hundred days. Plantings for the green seeds may be made to the middle of June, and for the young pods to the first of July. The ripe beans are pale cream-white, spotted with deep purplish-black (the cream-white gradually changing by age to cinnamon-brown), round-ovoid, four-tenths of an inch long, and about three-eighths of an inch in width and thickness. A quart contains nearly seventeen hundred seeds, and will plant two hundred hills. The variety has been long cultivated both in Europe and this country. It is hardy and productive. The young pods are of fair quality; and the seeds, green or ripe, are excellent for table use, in whatever form prepared. YELLOW CRANBERRY. Five to six feet high, with yellowish-green foliage and pale-purple flowers: the pods are five inches long, three-fourths of an inch broad, often sickle-shaped; pale-green at first; cream-yellow, shrivelled, and irregular in form, like those of the Red variety, at maturity; and contain five or six seeds. It is a few days later than the White Cranberry, and nearly two weeks later than the Red. Planted at the commencement of the season, it will blossom in eight weeks, yield pods for the table in about ten weeks, pods for shelling in twelve or thirteen weeks, and ripen in a hundred and ten days. Early summer-plantings will blossom in seven weeks, produce pods for the table in less than nine weeks, and ripen in about a hundred days. When grown for the ripened crop, it should have the advantage of the entire season; but, when cultivated for its young pods, plantings may be made till the first of July. Seeds yellow, with a narrow, dark line encircling the hilum: round-ovoid, half an inch long, and three-eighths of an inch in breadth and thickness: thirteen hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant a hundred and twenty-five hills. The variety is hardy and prolific; of good quality as a string-bean, or for shelling in the green state. When ripe, the seeds are nearly equal to the White Marrow for baking, though the color is less agreeable. * * * * * ASPARAGUS-BEAN. Long-podded Dolichos. Dolichos sesquipedalis. The Asparagus-bean, in its manner of growth, inflorescence, and in the size and character of its pods, is quite distinct from the class of beans before described. It is a native of Tropical America, and requires a long, warm season for its full perfection. The stem is from six to seven feet high; the leaves are long, narrow, smooth, and shining; the flowers are large, greenish-yellow, and produced two or three together at the extremity of quite a long peduncle; the pods are nearly cylindrical, pale-green, pendent, and grow with remarkable rapidity,--when fully developed, they are eighteen or twenty inches long, and contain eight or nine seeds. These should be sown as early in spring as the appearance of settled warm weather; and the plants will then blossom in ten or eleven weeks, afford pods for use in fourteen weeks, and ripen off their crop in gradual succession until destroyed by frost. The ripe seeds are cinnamon-brown, with a narrow, dark line about the hilum; kidney-shaped, half an inch long, and a fourth of an inch broad: nearly four thousand are contained in a quart, and will plant four hundred and fifty hills. The seeds are quite small, and are rarely eaten, either in a green or ripe state. The variety is cultivated exclusively for its long, peculiar pods, which are crisp, tender, of good flavor, and much esteemed for pickling. It is, however, much less productive than many of the running kinds of garden-beans, and must be considered more curious than really useful. * * * * * LIMA BEAN. Phaseolus lunatus. Stem ten feet or more in height; leaves comparatively long and narrow, smooth and shining; flowers small, greenish-yellow, in spikes; the pods are four inches and a half long, an inch and a quarter broad, much flattened, green and wrinkled while young, yellowish when ripe, and contain three or four beans. The Lima is one of the latest, as well as one of the most tender, of all garden-beans; and seldom, if ever, entirely perfects its crop in the Northern States. Little will be gained by very early planting; as the seeds are not only liable to decay before vegetating, but the plants suffer greatly from cold, damp weather. In the Northern and Eastern States, the seeds should not be planted in the open ground before the beginning of May; nor should the planting be delayed beyond the tenth or middle of the month. In ordinary seasons, the Lima Bean will blossom in eight or nine weeks, and pods may be plucked for use the last of August, or beginning of September. Only a small proportion of the pods attain a sufficient size for use; a large part of the crop being prematurely destroyed by frost. The ripe seeds are dull-white or greenish-white, with veins radiating from the eye; broad, kidney-shaped, much flattened, seven-eighths of an inch long, and two-thirds of an inch broad. A quart contains about seven hundred seeds, and will plant eighty hills. The pods are tough and parchment-like in all stages of their growth, and are never eaten. The seeds, green or ripe, are universally esteemed for their peculiar flavor and excellence; and, by most persons, are considered the finest of all the garden varieties. If gathered when suitable for use in their green state, and dried in the pods in a cool and shaded situation, they may be preserved during the winter. When required for use, they are shelled, soaked a short time in clear water, and cooked as green beans: thus treated, they will be nearly as tender and well flavored as when freshly plucked from the plants. The seeds are sometimes started on a hot-bed, in thumb-pots, or on inverted turf, or sods, cut in convenient pieces; and about the last of May, if the weather is warm and pleasant, transplanted to hills in the open ground. By the following method, an early and abundant crop may be obtained in comparatively favorable seasons:-- "As soon in spring as the weather is settled, and the soil warm and in good working condition, set poles about six feet in length, three feet apart each way, and plant five or six beans in each hill; being careful to set each bean with its germ downward, and covering an inch deep. After they have grown a while, and before they begin to run, pull up the weakest, and leave but three of the most vigorous plants to a hill. As these increase in height, they should, if necessary, be tied to the stakes, or poles, using bass-matting, or other soft, fibrous material, for the purpose. When they have ascended to the tops of the poles, the ends should be cut or pinched off; as also the ends of all the branches, whenever they rise above that height. This practice checks their liability to run to vines, and tends to make them blossom earlier, and bear sooner and more abundantly, than they otherwise would do." In tropical climates, the Lima Bean is perennial. GREEN LIMA. A sub-variety of the Common Lima, differing principally in the pea-green color of the seeds. As generally found in the market, the seeds of the Common and Green Lima are more or less intermixed. By some, the Green is considered more tender, and thought to remain longer on the plants without becoming hard, than the White. The habits of the plants are the same, and there is no difference in the season of maturity. A careful selection of seeds for planting, and skilful culture, would undoubtedly give a degree of permanency to this difference in color; which appears to be the principal, if not the only, point of variation. MOTTLED LIMA. This, like the Green, is a sub-variety of the Common Lima. The ripe seeds are dull-white or greenish-white, mottled and clouded with purple. In the habit of the plant, in the foliage, pods, form, or size of the seeds, or season of maturity, there are no marks of distinction when compared with the Common Lima. * * * * * SCARLET-RUNNER. Phaseolus multiflorus. From South America. Though nearly allied to the Common Kidney-bean, it is considered by botanists a distinct species; differing in its inflorescence, in the form of its pods, and particularly in the fact that the cotyledons, or lobes of the planted seed, do not rise to the surface of the ground in the process of germination. It is, besides, a perennial plant. The roots are tuberous, and, though small, not unlike those of the Dahlia. If taken up before frost in the autumn, they may be preserved in a conservatory, or warm parlor or sitting-room, during winter, and reset in the open ground on the approach of warm weather; when new shoots will soon make their appearance, and the plants will blossom a second time early and abundantly. The plants are twelve feet or more in height or length, with deep-green foliage and brilliant scarlet flowers; the latter being produced in spikes, on long footstalks. The pods are six inches long, nearly an inch broad, somewhat hairy while young, sickle-shaped and wrinkled when more advanced, light reddish-brown when ripe, and contain four or five seeds. It requires the whole season for its perfection, and should be planted as early as the weather will admit. The plants will then blossom in seven or eight weeks, produce young pods in nine weeks, green seeds in twelve weeks, and ripen in a hundred and fifteen days. The ripe seeds are lilac-purple, variegated with black, or deep purplish-brown,--the edge, or border, little, if any, marked; hilum long and white; form broad-kidney-shaped; size large,--if well grown, measuring seven-eighths of an inch long, six-tenths of an inch broad, and three-eighths of an inch thick. About five hundred and fifty are contained in a quart, and will plant eighty hills. In this country, it is usually cultivated as an ornamental, climbing annual; the spikes of rich, scarlet flowers, and its deep-green foliage, rendering the plant one of the most showy and attractive objects of the garden. Though inferior to some of the finer sorts of garden-beans, its value as an esculent has not been generally appreciated. The young pods are tender and well flavored; and the seeds, green or ripe, are much esteemed in many localities. "In Britain, the green pods only are used; on the Continent, the ripened seeds are as much an object of culture; in Holland, the Runners are grown in every cottage-garden for both purposes; while, in France and Switzerland, they are grown chiefly for the ripened seeds. In England, they occupy a place in most cottage-gardens, and are made both ornamental and useful. They cover arbors, are trained over pales and up the walls of cottages, which they enliven by the brightness of their blossoms; while every day produces a supply of wholesome and nutritious food for the owner. The French, now enthusiastically fond of this legume, at one time held it in utter detestation." PAINTED LADY-RUNNER. A sub-variety of the Scarlet-runner, with variegated flowers; the upper petals being scarlet, the lower white. The ripe seeds are paler, and the spots and markings duller. Cultivation and uses the same. WHITE-RUNNER. A variety of the Scarlet-runner. The plants are less vigorous, the pods are longer and less wrinkled, and the flowers and seeds pure white. The green pods are used in the same manner as those of the Scarlet-runner, and are similar in texture and flavor; but the shelled-beans, either green or ripe, are generally considered superior to those of the Scarlet variety. They are sometimes seen in vegetable markets under the name of the "Lima;" and are probably often cultivated, as well as purchased and consumed, as the Lima. The White-runner beans, however, are easily distinguished by their greater thickness, more rounded form, and especially by their uniform whiteness. * * * * * SIEVA. Carolina. Saba. West-Indian. Small Lima. Carolina Sewee. Phaseolus lunatus, var. The Sieva is a variety of the Lima, attaining a height of ten or twelve feet. The leaves and flowers resemble those of the Common Lima. The pods, however, are much smaller, and remarkable for their uniform size; generally measuring three inches in length, and about seven-eighths of an inch in width: they are green and wrinkled while young, pale yellowish-brown when ripe, and contain three, and sometimes four, seeds. Though several days earlier than the Lima, the Sieva Bean requires the whole season for its complete maturity; and even when planted early, and receiving the advantage of a warm summer and a favorable autumn, it is seldom fully perfected in the Northern States: for, though much of the crop may ripen, a large portion almost invariably is prematurely destroyed by frost. The variety will blossom in eight weeks from the time of planting, afford pods for shelling in twelve weeks, and ripen from near the middle of September till destroyed by frost. The seeds are white or dull yellowish-white, broad-kidney-shaped, much flattened, five-eighths of an inch long, and nearly half an inch broad. A quart contains about sixteen hundred, and will plant about a hundred and fifty hills. The Sieva is one of the most productive of all varieties. The young pods, however, are tough and hard, and are never eaten. The beans, in their green or ripe state, are similar to the Lima, and are nearly as delicate and richly flavored. It is from two to three weeks earlier than the last named, and would yield a certain abundance in seasons when the Lima would uniformly fail. As a shelled-bean, green or dry, it must be classed as one of the best, and is recommended for cultivation. MOTTLED SIEVA. A sub-variety of the Common Sieva; the principal if not the only mark of distinction being in the variegated character of the seeds, which are dull-white, spotted and streaked with purple. It is sometimes described as being earlier than the Common variety; but, from various experiments in the cultivation of both varieties, there appears to be little if any difference in their seasons of maturity. The color and form of the flower are the same as the Sieva; the pods are of the same size and shape; and the leaves have the same elongated form, and smooth, glossy appearance. * * * * * CHICK-PEA. Egyptian Pea. Cicer arietinum. The Chick-pea is a hardy, annual plant, originally from the south of Europe, but also indigenous to the north of Africa and some parts of Asia. The stem is two or three feet high, erect and branching; the leaves are pinnate, with from six to nine pairs of oval, grayish, toothed leaflets; the flowers resemble those of the Common Pea, and are produced on long peduncles, generally singly, but sometimes in pairs; the pods are about an inch long, three-fourths of an inch broad, somewhat rhomboidal, hairy, inflated or bladder-like, and contain two or three globular, wrinkled, pea-like seeds. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The seed should be sown in April, in the manner of the Garden-pea; making the drills about three feet apart, an inch and a half deep, and dropping the seeds two inches asunder in the drills. All the culture required is simply to keep the ground between the rows free from weeds. The crop should be harvested before the complete maturity of the seeds. _Use._--"The Pease, though not very digestible, are largely employed in soups, and form the basis of the _purée aux croutons_, or bread and pea soup, so highly esteemed in Paris." They are also extensively used, roasted and ground, as a substitute for coffee. There are three varieties, as follow:-- RED CHICK-PEA. A variety with rose-colored flowers, and red or brownish-red seeds. WHITE CHICK-PEA. Both the flowers and seeds white; plant similar to those of the other varieties. YELLOW CHICK-PEA. This variety has white blossoms and yellow seeds. The plant, in height, foliage, or general habit, differs little from the White or the Red Seeded. * * * * * CHICKLING VETCH. _Law._ Lentil, of Spain. Cultivated Lathyrus. Lathyrus sativus. Stem three or four feet high or long, attaching itself to trellises, branches, or whatever may be provided for its support, in the manner of pease; the leaves are small and grass-like; flowers solitary, smaller than those of the Common Pea, and generally bright-blue; the pods are an inch and a half long, three-fourths of an inch broad, flattened, winged along the back, and enclose two compressed but irregularly shaped seeds of a dun or brownish color and pleasant flavor. _Cultivation and Use._--The seeds are sown at the time and in the manner of the taller kinds of garden-pease. The plant is principally cultivated for its seeds, the flour of which is mixed with that of wheat or rye, and made into bread. It is also fed to stock; and, in some localities, the plants are given as green food to horses and cattle. "In 1671, its cultivation and use were prohibited on account of its supposed pernicious properties; as it was thought to induce rigidity of the limbs, and to otherwise injuriously affect the system." WHITE-FLOWERED CHICKLING VETCH. A variety with white flowers and seeds. The foliage is also much paler than that of the Common Chickling Vetch. Other species of the genus also produce farinaceous seeds suitable for food, but in too small quantities to admit of being profitably cultivated in this country. * * * * * ENGLISH BEAN. Horse-bean. Garden-bean, of the English. Vicia faba. [Illustration: English Bean.] The English Bean differs essentially from the Common American Garden or Kidney Bean usually cultivated in this country; and is classed by botanists under a different genera, and not as a distinct species, as intimated in the "American Gardener." Aside from the great difference in their general appearance and manner of growth, the soil, climate, and mode of cultivation, required by the two classes, are very dissimilar: the American Garden-bean thriving best in a light, warm soil, and under a high temperature; and the English Bean in stiff, moist soil, and in cool, humid seasons. The English Bean is a native of Egypt, and is said to be the most ancient of all the now cultivated esculents. It is an annual plant, with an upright, smooth, four-sided, hollow stem, dividing into branches near the ground, and growing from two to four feet and upwards in height. The leaves are alternate, pinnate, and composed of from two to four pairs of oval, smooth, entire leaflets; the flowers are large, nearly stemless, purple or white, veined and spotted with purplish-black; the pods are large and downy; the seeds are rounded, or reniform, flattened, and vary to a considerable extent in size and color in the different varieties,--they will vegetate until more than five years old. _Soil and Planting._--As before remarked, the English Bean requires a moist, strong soil, and a cool situation; the principal obstacles in the way of its successful cultivation in this country being the heat and drought of the summer. The seeds should be planted early, in drills two feet asunder for the smaller-growing varieties, and three feet for the larger sorts; dropping them about six inches from each other, and covering two inches deep. A quart of seed will plant about a hundred and fifty feet of row or drill. _Cultivation._--"When the plants have attained a height of five or six inches, they are earthed up slightly for support; and, when more advanced, they are sometimes staked along the rows, and cords extended from stake to stake to keep the plants erect. When the young pods appear, the tops of the plants should be pinched off, to throw that nourishment, which would be expended in uselessly increasing the height of the plant, into its general system, and consequently increase the bulk of crop, as well as hasten its maturity. This often-recommended operation, though disregarded by many, is of very signal importance."--_M'Int._ _Taking the Crop._--The pods should be gathered for use when the seeds are comparatively young, or when they are of the size of a marrowfat-pea. As a general rule, all vegetables are most tender and delicate when young; and to few esculents does this truth apply with greater force than to the class of plants to which the English Bean belongs. _Use._--The seeds are used in their green state, cooked and served in the same manner as shelled kidney-beans. The young pods are sometimes, though rarely, used as string-beans. _Varieties._-- DUTCH LONG POD. Plant from four to five feet high, dividing into two or three branches; flowers white; pods horizontal, or slightly pendulous, six or seven inches long, about an inch in width, three-fourths of an inch thick, and containing five or six large white or yellowish-white seeds. Not early, but prolific, and of good quality. DWARF FAN, OR CLUSTER. Early Dwarf. Bog-bean. A remarkably dwarfish, early variety, much employed in forcing. Stem about a foot high, separating near the ground into two or three branches; flowers white; the pods, which are produced in clusters near the top of the plant, are almost cylindrical, three inches long, three-fourths of an inch thick, and contain three or four small, oblong, yellow seeds. It is one of the smallest and earliest of the English Beans, and yields abundantly. EARLY DWARF CRIMSON-SEEDED. _Vil._ Vilmorin's Dwarf Red-seeded. Plant sixteen inches high, separating into two or three divisions, or branches; the flowers resemble those of the Common varieties, but are somewhat smaller; the pods are erect, three inches and a half long, three-fifths of an inch wide, half an inch thick, and contain three or four seeds, closely set together, and nearly as large in diameter as the pod. The ripe seeds are bright brownish-red or crimson, thick, shortened at the back, and depressed at the sides: six hundred and fifty will measure a quart. The variety is principally esteemed for its dwarfish habit and early maturity. EARLY MAZAGAN. Early Malta. This variety, though originally from Mazagan, on the coast of Africa, is one of the hardiest sorts now in cultivation. Stem from two to three feet high, and rather slender; pods four to five inches long, containing four or five whitish seeds. The Early Mazagan is much less productive than many other sorts; but its hardiness and earliness have secured it a place in the garden, and it has been cultivated more or less extensively for upwards of a century. EVERGREEN LONG POD. _M'Int._ Green Genoa. Green Long Pod. Green Nonpareil. This variety grows from three to four feet high. The pods are long, somewhat flattened, and generally contain four rather small, oblong, green seeds. It is an excellent bearer, of good quality, and but a few days later than the Common Long Pod. The variety is much esteemed on account of the fine, green color of the beans; which, if gathered at the proper time, retain their green color when dressed. In planting, make the drills three feet apart, and two inches and a half deep; and allow two plants for each linear foot. GREEN CHINA. From two to two feet and a half high; pods long, cylindrical, containing three or four beans, which remain of a green color when dry. It is recommended for its great productiveness and late maturity. GREEN JULIENNE. _Vil._ Plant about three feet and a half high, usually divided into four branches; the pods are erect, four inches long, three-fourths of an inch thick, and contain two or three small, oblong, green seeds. Early and of good quality. GREEN WINDSOR. Toker. Stem three feet high, separating into two, and sometimes three, branches; flowers white; pods erect, often horizontal, four inches and a half long, an inch and a quarter wide, and containing three large, green, nearly circular, and rather thick seeds. The latter retain their fresh, green color till near maturity, and, to a considerable extent, when fully ripe; and, on this account, are found in the market, and used at table, after most other varieties have disappeared. The variety resembles the Common Broad Windsor; but the seeds are smaller, and retain their green color after maturity. Eleven or twelve well-developed seeds will weigh an ounce. HORSE-BEAN. _Law._ Scotch Bean. Faba vulgaris arvensis. Stem from three to five feet high; flowers variable in color; the ripe seeds are from a half to five-eighths of an inch in length by three-eighths in breadth, generally slightly compressed on the sides, and frequently a little hollowed or flattened at the end, of a whitish or light-brownish color, occasionally interspersed with darker blotches, particularly towards the extremities; eye black; average weight per bushel sixty-two pounds. An agricultural sort, generally cultivated in rows, but sometimes sown broadcast. It is not adapted to the climate of the United States, though extensively and profitably grown in England and Scotland. JOHNSON'S WONDERFUL. _Law._ An improved variety of the Broad Windsor, recently introduced, and apparently of excellent quality. The pods are long, and contain six or eight beans, which are similar in size and form to the Windsor. LONG-PODDED. _Law._ Lisbon. Hang-down Long Pod. Early Long Pod. Sandwich. Turkey Long Pod. Sword Long Pod. Stems from three to five feet high; pods six to seven inches long, an inch and a fourth broad, rather pendulous, and containing four or five whitish, somewhat oblong, flattened seeds, about an inch in length, and five-eighths of an inch in breadth. The variety has been long in cultivation, is remarkably productive, and one of the most esteemed of the English Beans. It is about a week later than the Early Mazagan. MARSHALL'S EARLY DWARF PROLIFIC. _M'Int._ Plant from eighteen inches to two feet high, separating into numerous branches. It resembles the Early Mazagan; but is two weeks earlier, and much more productive. The pods are produced in clusters near the ground, and contain four or five seeds, which are larger than those of the last named. RED OR SCARLET BLOSSOMED. Stem three or four feet high, separating near the ground into four branches; flowers generally bright-red, approaching scarlet, but varying from pale to purplish-red and blackish-purple, and sometimes to nearly jet-black; the pods, which differ from all other varieties in their dark, rusty-brown color, are erect, four inches long, nearly an inch broad, and contain three and sometimes four seeds. The variety is remarkably hardy and productive; but less esteemed than many others, on account of its dark color. It deserves cultivation as an ornamental plant. RED WINDSOR. _Law._ _M'Int._ Scarlet Windsor. Dark-red. This variety resembles the Violet or Purple; growing about four feet high. The pods are narrower than those of the Broad Windsor, and contain about the same number of seeds: in the green state, these are darker than those of the Violet, but change to scarlet when fully grown, and to deep-red when ripe. The Red Windsor is late, but prolific, and of good quality. It is, however, little cultivated, on account of its dark and unattractive appearance. The seed weighs about thirty-one grains. ROYAL DWARF CLUSTER. _M'Int._ A very Dwarf, and comparatively new variety; growing only twelve or fourteen inches high. It produces its pods in clusters, three or four beans in each pod, which are smaller than Marshall's Early Prolific. On account of its branching habit, it should not have less than ten or twelve inches in the line, which is nearly its proper distance between the rows. Much esteemed for the delicacy and smallness of the beans while young, and considered one of the best of the early Dwarf sorts. TOKER. _Law._ Large Toker. Height about five feet; pods rather long, and very broad, containing three or four beans of a whitish color,--differing from the Common Windsor in being of an elongated, oval form. This is a medium late sort, and an excellent bearer, but considered somewhat coarse, and therefore not so much esteemed as the Windsor. The ripe seed weighs thirty-six grains. VIOLET OR PURPLE. Violette. Stem about four feet high, with two or three ramifications; flowers white; pods generally erect, sometimes at right angles, a little curved, four inches or upwards in length, an inch and a fourth in width, four-fifths of an inch thick, containing two and sometimes three seeds. When ripe, the beans are large, not regular in form, rather thin, of a violet-red color, changing by age to a mahogany-red; the size and shape being intermediate between the Long Pod and Broad Windsor. The variety is of good quality, and productive; but less desirable than many other sorts, on account of its dark color. WHITE-BLOSSOMED LONG POD. _Law._ The flowers of this sort differ from all others in being pure white; having no spots on the large upper petal, or on the wings or smaller side petals. It is liable to degenerate; but may easily be distinguished, when in flower, by the above characters. Stem about four feet high; pods long, nearly cylindrical, and slightly pendulous, generally containing four and sometimes five seeds, which are black or blackish-brown, three-fourths of an inch long, and half an inch broad. It is a moderate bearer, and of excellent quality; but not used in an advanced state, on account of its color. The variety possesses the singular anomaly of having the whitest flowers and the darkest seeds of any of the English Beans. The seed weighs about twelve grains. WINDSOR. White Broad Windsor. Taylor's Large Windsor. Kentish Windsor. Mumford. Wrench's Improved Windsor. Stem about four feet high; flowers white; pods generally horizontal or inclined, five inches long, an inch and a fourth wide, seven-eighths of an inch thick, and containing two or three beans; seeds large, yellowish, of a flat, circular form, an inch broad, but varying in size according to soil, culture, and season. A quart contains from two hundred and fifty to two hundred and seventy-five seeds. This familiar sort is much esteemed and extensively cultivated. It is considered the earliest of the late Garden varieties; and excellent as a summer bean, on account of its remaining longer fit for use than any other, with the exception of the Green Windsor. It is a sure bearer; and, as the pods are produced in succession, pluckings may be made from day to day for many weeks. The seeds are the heaviest of all the English Beans; nine well-grown specimens weighing an ounce. LENTIL. _Law._ Ervum lens. A hardy, annual plant, with an erect, angular, branching stem a foot and a half high. The leaves are winged, with about six pairs of narrow leaflets, and terminate in a divided tendril, or clasper; the flowers are small, numerous, and generally produced in pairs; the pods are somewhat quadrangular, flattened, usually in pairs, and enclose one or two round, lens-like seeds, the size and color varying in the different varieties,--about four hundred and fifty are contained in an ounce, and their power of germination is retained three years. _Cultivation._--"The soil best adapted for the Lentil is that of a dry, light, calcareous, sandy nature." When cultivated as green food for stock, it should be sown broadcast; but, if grown for ripe seeds, it should be sown in drills,--the last of April or beginning of May being the most suitable season for sowing. _Use._--"The Lentil is a legume of the greatest antiquity, and was much esteemed in the days of the patriarchs. In Egypt and Syria, the seeds are parched, and sold in shops; being considered by the natives as excellent food for those making long journeys. In France, Germany, Holland, and other countries of Europe, it is grown to a considerable extent, both for its seeds and haum. The former are used in various ways, but principally, when ripe, in soups, as split pease. When given as green food to stock, it should be cut when the first pods are nearly full grown." _Varieties._-- COMMON LENTIL. _Law._ Yellow Lentil. This variety is considered superior to the Large Lentil, though the seeds are much smaller. In the markets of Paris, it is the most esteemed of all the cultivated sorts. Its season is the same with that of the last named. GREEN LENTIL. Lentille verte Du Puy. _Vil._ The Green Lentil somewhat resembles the Small Lentil, particularly in its habit of growth; though its stem is taller and more slender, and its foliage deeper colored. The principal distinction is in the color of the seeds, which are green, spotted and marbled with black. LARGE LENTIL. _Law._ Flowers small, white, generally two, but sometimes three, on each peduncle; the pods are three-fourths of an inch long, half an inch broad, flattened, and generally contain a single seed, which is white or cream-colored, lens-shaped, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and an eighth of an inch in thickness. The plant is about fifteen inches high. It is one of the most productive of all the varieties, though inferior in quality to the Common Lentil. ONE-FLOWERED LENTIL. Ervum monanthos. The stem of this quite distinct species is from twelve to fifteen inches high; the flowers are yellow, stained or spotted with black, and produced one on a foot-stalk; the pods are oval, smooth, and contain three or four globular, wrinkled, grayish-brown seeds, nearly a fourth of an inch in diameter. About five hundred and fifty seeds are contained in an ounce. The One-flowered Lentil is inferior to most of the other sorts; but is cultivated to some extent, in France and elsewhere, both for its seeds and herbage. RED LENTIL. _Law._ Seeds of the size and form of those of the Common Lentil, but of a reddish-brown color; flowers light-red. Its season of maturity is the same with that of the last named. SMALL LENTIL. _Law._ Lentille petite. _Vil._ Seeds about an eighth of an inch in diameter; flowers reddish; and pods often containing two seeds. This is the "Lentille petite" of the French; and is the variety mostly sown for green food in France, although its ripe seeds are also used. It is rather late, and grows taller than any of the other sorts, except the Green Lentil. When sown in drills, they should be from ten to fifteen inches apart, and the plants about four or five inches distant in the rows. The Lentils are of a close, branching habit of growth; and a single plant will produce a hundred and fifty and often a much greater number of pods. * * * * * LUPINE. Lupinus. The Lupines are distinguished among leguminous plants by their strong, erect, branching habit of growth. Of the numerous species and varieties, some are cultivated for ornament, others for forage, and some for ploughing under for the purpose of enriching the soil. The only species grown for their farinaceous seeds, or which are considered of much value to the gardener, are the two following:-- WHITE LUPINE. _Law._ Lupinus albus. An annual species, with a sturdy, erect stem two feet high; leaves oblong, covered with a silvery down, and produced seven or eight together at the end of a common stem; the flowers are white, in loose, terminal spikes; the pods are straight, hairy, about three inches long, and contain five or six large, white, flattened seeds,--these are slightly bitter when eaten, and are reputed to possess important medical properties. "The White Lupine was extensively cultivated by the Romans for its ripened seeds, which were used for food; and also for its green herbage, which was employed for the support of their domestic animals." It is of little value as an esculent; and, compared with many other leguminous plants, not worthy of cultivation. The seeds should be sown where the plants are to remain, as they do not succeed well when transplanted. Sow early in May, in drills sixteen to eighteen inches apart; cover an inch and a half deep, and thin to five or six inches in the rows. YELLOW LUPINE. _Law._ Lupinus luteus. The Yellow Lupine is a native of Sicily. It is a hardy annual, and resembles the foregoing species in its general character. The flowers are yellow; the pods are about two inches long, hairy, flattened, and enclose four or five large, roundish, speckled seeds. It blossoms and ripens at the same time with the White, and is planted and cultivated in the same manner. This species is grown in Italy for the same purposes as the White, but more extensively. It is also grown in some parts of the south of France, on poor, dry grounds, for cutting in a green state, and ploughing under as a fertilizer. * * * * * THE PEA. Pisum sativum. The native country of the Pea, like that of many of our garden vegetables, is unknown. It is a hardy, annual plant; and its cultivation and use as an esculent are almost universal. To give in detail the various methods of preparing the soil, sowing, culture, gathering, and use, would occupy a volume. The following directions are condensed from an elaborate treatise on the culture of this vegetable, by Charles M'Intosh, in his excellent work entitled "The Book of the Garden:"-- _Soil and its Preparation._--The Pea comes earliest to maturity in light, rich soil, abounding in humus: hence the practice of adding decomposed leaves or vegetable mould has a very beneficial effect. For general crops, a rich, hazel loam, or deep, rich, alluvial soil, is next best; but, for the most abundant of all, a strong loam, inclining to clay. For early crops, mild manure, such as leaf-mould, should be used. If the soil is very poor, stronger manure should be employed. For general crops, a good dressing may be applied; and for the dwarf kinds, such as Tom Thumb, Bishop's New Long Pod, and the like, the soil can hardly be too rich. _Seed and Sowing._--A quart of ripe pease is equal to about two pounds' weight; and contains, of the largest-sized varieties, about thirteen hundred, and of the smaller descriptions about two thousand, seeds. A pint of the small-seeded sorts, such as the Daniel O'Rourke, Early Frame, and Early Charlton, will sow a row about sixty feet in length; and the same quantity of larger-growing sorts will sow a row of nearly a hundred feet, on account of being sown so much thinner. A fair average depth for covering the seed is two and a half or three inches; though some practise planting four or five inches deep, which is said to be a preventive against the premature decay of the vines near the roots. As to distance between the rows, when pease are sown in the usual manner (that is, row after row throughout the whole field), they should be as far asunder as the length of the stem of the variety cultivated: thus a pea, that attains a height or length of two feet, should have two feet from row to row, and so on to those taller or lower growing. They are sometimes sown two rows together, about a foot apart, and ten, twenty, or even fifty feet between the double rows; by which every portion of the crop is well exposed to the sun and air, and the produce gathered with great facility. There is no loss of ground by this method; for other crops can be planted within a foot or two of the rows, and this amount of space is necessary for the purpose of gathering. A common practice in ordinary garden culture is to sow in double rows twelve or fourteen inches apart, slightly raising the soil for the purpose. When so planted, all of the sorts not over two feet in height may be successfully grown without sticking. When varieties of much taller growth are sown, a greater yield will be secured by bushing the plants; which is more economically as well as more strongly done if the planting is made in double rows. The staking, or bushing, should be furnished when the plants are three or four inches high, or immediately after the second hoeing: they should be of equal height, and all straggling side-twigs should be removed for appearance' sake. _Early Crops._--The earliest crops produced in the open garden without artificial aid are obtained by judicious selection of the most approved early varieties, choosing a warm, favorable soil and situation, and sowing the seed either in November, just as the ground is closing, or in February or March, at the first opening of the soil; the latter season, however, being preferable, as the seed then vegetates with much greater certainty, and the crop is nearly or quite as early. Great benefit will be derived from reflected heat, when planted at the foot of a wall, building, or tight fence, running east and west. It is necessary, however, when warm sunshine follows cold, frosty nights, to shade the pease from its influence an hour or two in the morning, or to sprinkle them with cold water if they have been at all frozen. They are sometimes covered with a narrow glass frame of a triangular form, and glazed on both sides, or on one only, according as they may be used on rows running from north to south, or from east to west. In the latter case, such frames may have glass in the south side only. _Subsequent Cultivation._--"When the crop has attained the height of about five inches, a little earth should be drawn around the stems, but not so closely as to press upon them: it should form a sort of ridge, with a slight channel in the middle. The intention here is not, as in many other cases, to encourage the roots to diverge in a horizontal direction (for they have no disposition to do so), but rather to give a slight support to the plants until they take hold of the stakes that are to support them. Those crops which are not to be staked require this support the most: and they should have the earth drawn up upon one side only, that the vines may be thrown to one side; which will both facilitate the operation of gathering, and keep the ground between them clear at the same time, while it supports the necks of the plants better than if the earth was drawn up on both sides." _Mildew._--One of the most successful cultivators (T. A. Knight) says, "that the secondary and immediate cause of this disease is a want of a sufficient supply of moisture from the soil, with excess of humidity in the air; particularly if the plants be exposed to a temperature below that to which they have been accustomed. If damp and cloudy weather succeed that which has been warm and bright, without the intervention of sufficient rain to moisten the ground to some depth, the crop is generally much injured by mildew." "While engaged in the production of those excellent pease which bear his name, he proved this theory by warding off mildew by copious waterings of the roots. The fashionable remedy, at present, is the application of sulphur. This, no doubt, subdues the disease, but does not remove the cause."--_M'Int._ _Gathering._--The crop should be gathered as it becomes fit for use. If even a few of the pods begin to ripen, young pods will not only cease to form, but those partly advanced will cease to enlarge. _Use._--"In a sanitary point of view, pease cannot be eaten too young, nor too soon after they are gathered; and hence people who depend on the public markets for their supply seldom have this very popular vegetable in perfection, and too often only when it is almost unfit for use. This is a formidable objection to the use of pease brought from long distances. It is, of course, for the interest of the producer to keep back his pease till they are fully grown, because they measure better, and, we believe, by many are purchased quicker, as they get greater bulk for their money. This may be so far excusable on the part of such: but it is inexcusable that a gentleman, having a garden of his own, should be served with pease otherwise than in the very highest state of perfection; which they are not, if allowed to become too old, or even too large."--_M'Int._ "Pease, in a green state, are with difficulty sent to a distance, as, when packed closely together, heat and fermentation speedily take place. This is one of the causes why pease from the South, or those brought by long distances to market, are discolored, devoid of flavor, and, worst of all, very unwholesome to eat. Pease intended for long transportation should be packed in open baskets (not in boxes or tight barrels), and laid in layers not more than two inches thick; and, between such layers, a thick stratum of clean straw or other dry material should be placed." _Varieties._--These are very numerous, and, like those of the Broccoli Lettuce, not only greatly confused, but often based on trifling and unimportant distinctions. From experiments made a few years since in the gardens of the London Horticultural Society, under the direction of Mr. Thompson, who planted no less than two hundred and thirty-five reputed sorts (all of which were then enumerated in seedsmen's catalogues), only twenty-seven of the number were selected as being really useful. About the same time, upwards of a hundred sorts were grown by Mr. M'Intosh, from which twelve were selected as being truly distinct and valuable. "New sorts are yearly introduced: and it would be injudicious not to give them a fair trial; for as we progress in pea-culture, as in every other branch of horticulture, we may reasonably expect that really improved and meritorious sorts will arise, and be substituted for others that may be inferior." AUVERGNE. _Cot. Gard._ White Sabre. White Cimeter. The plant is of moderately strong habit of growth, producing a single stem from four to five feet high, according to the soil in which it is grown; and bears from twelve to fifteen pods. These are generally single, but sometimes in pairs; when fully grown, four inches and a half long, and over half an inch broad; tapering to the point, and very much curved. They contain from eight to ten peas, which are closely compressed, and of the size of the Early Frames. Even the small pods contain as many as six or seven peas in each. The ripe seed is white. Plants from seed sown May 1 were in blossom June 26; and the pods were sufficiently grown for plucking, July 12. The Auvergne Pea was introduced from France into England some years ago by the London Horticultural Society. Although it very far surpasses most of the varieties of the White Pea, it has never become much disseminated, and is very little known or cultivated. It is, however, a most characteristic variety, and always easily distinguishable by its long, curved pods. It is one of the most productive of all the garden pease. BATT'S WONDER. _Trans._ Plant three feet in height, of robust growth; foliage dark-green; pods narrow, nearly straight, but exceedingly well filled, containing seven or eight peas of medium size, which, when ripe, are small, smooth, and of a bluish-green color. Planted May 1, the variety will flower about July 1, and the pods will be fit for use the middle of the month. The variety withstands drought well, and the pods hang long before the peas become too hard for use. It is an excellent pea for a second crop. BECK'S PRIZE-TAKER. _Trans._ Prize-taker. Rising Sun. Plant four and a half to five feet in height; pods roundish, curved or hooked near the end, well filled, containing seven to eight middle-sized peas of a fine green color when young, and mixed olive and white when ripe. Sown May 1, the variety will blossom June 25, and the pods will be suitable for plucking about the 12th of July. It is one of the best varieties for the main crop. Similar to, if not identical with, Bellamy's Early Green Marrow. BEDMAN'S IMPERIAL. _Cot. Gard._ The plant generally produces a single stem, which is from three to four feet high; the pods are usually in pairs, but sometimes single, three inches and a quarter long, five-eighths of an inch broad, somewhat curved, and terminate abruptly at the points. Each pod contains six to seven peas, which are of an ovate form, and about a third of an inch in their greatest diameter. The ripe seed is pale-blue. Planted May 1, the variety blossomed the last of June, and furnished pease for use about the 18th of July. For many years, this variety stood foremost among the Imperials; but is now giving place to other and greatly superior sorts. BELLAMY'S EARLY GREEN MARROW. _Cot. Gard._ Plant of strong and robust habit of growth, sometimes with a single and often with a branching stem, four and a half or five feet high, and producing from twelve to eighteen pods: these are in pairs, rarely single, three inches and a half long, seven-tenths of an inch broad, slightly curved, thick-backed, and terminate abruptly at the point. The surface is smooth, and of a very dark-green color. They contain, on an average, from six to seven large bluish-green peas. The ripe seed has a mixed appearance; some being dull yellowish-white, and others light olive-green, in about equal proportions. Plants from seed sown the first week in May were in blossom the last week in June, and pods were plucked for use about the middle of July. The variety is highly recommended, both as a good bearer and a pea of excellent quality, whether for private use or for marketing: for the latter purpose it is peculiarly adapted, as the pod is of a fine deep-color, handsomely and regularly shaped, and always plumply filled. BISHOP'S EARLY DWARF. _Law._ Pods single or in pairs, about two inches long, bent back at both ends, and increasing in size towards the middle; pea about a fourth of an inch in diameter, and irregularly shaped, cream-colored, with blotches of white, particularly about the eye. The plant grows little more than a foot high, and is fairly productive. Early sowings will give a supply for the table in about ten weeks. This once-popular, Early Dwarf sort is now rapidly giving place to Bishop's New Long-podded,--a more prolific and much superior variety. BISHOP'S NEW LONG-PODDED. Stem about two feet high; pods nearly straight, almost cylindrical, containing six or seven white peas. It is an early variety, an abundant bearer, of excellent quality, and in all respects much superior to the Common Bishop's Early Dwarf. Planted the 1st of May, it will blossom June 14, and yield pease for the table the 10th of July. M'Intosh describes it as "a most abundant bearer, producing a succession of pods during most of the pea-season. Like all pease of its class, it requires a rich soil, and from four to six inches between the seed in the line. It is one of the most valuable sorts for small gardens and for domestic use. It originated in England with Mr. David Bishop; and is a hybrid between Bishop's Early Dwarf and one of the Marrowfats, carrying with it the characters of both its parents." BLACK-EYED MARROW. Plant about five feet high, strong and vigorous; pods generally single, sometimes in pairs, three inches and a quarter in length, three-fourths of an inch in breadth, becoming rough or wrinkled on the surface as they approach maturity, and containing about six large, round, cream-white or brownish-white black-eyed seeds, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Its season is nearly the same with the Dwarf and Missouri Marrow. If sown the 1st of May, the plants will blossom the 28th or 30th of June, and yield pease for the table about July 15: the crop will ripen the last of the same month. This is a very prolific as well as excellent variety. It is little cultivated in gardens at the North, though sometimes grown as a field-pea in the Canadas. In the Middle States, and at the South, it is a popular market-sort, and its cultivation is much more extensive. The dark color of the eye of the ripened seed distinguishes the variety from all others. BLUE CIMETER. _Thomp._ Sabre. Dwarf Sabre. Blue Sabre. New Sabre. Beck's Eclipse. Plant about three feet high; pods generally in pairs, well filled, long, roundish, gradually curved from the stem to the point, or cimeter-shaped; seeds of good quality, larger than those of the Prussian Blue, from which the variety doubtless originated, and to which, when grown in poor soil, it has a tendency to return. If planted the 1st of May, it will blossom about the 28th of June, and the pods will be suitable for plucking about the middle of July. It bears abundantly, but not in succession; and, for this reason, is much prized by market-gardeners. The most of the pods being fit to pluck at the same time, the crop is harvested at once, and the land immediately occupied with other vegetables. BLUE IMPERIAL. Dwarf Blue Imperial. Plant strong and vigorous, four feet in height, with large, healthy foliage; pods single and in pairs, three inches and a quarter in length, three-fourths of an inch in breadth, containing six or seven large peas. The ripe seed is somewhat indented and irregularly compressed, three-eighths of an inch in diameter, and of a greenish-blue color. With respect to season, the variety is intermediate. If planted the 1st of May, it will blossom the 26th of June, and the pods will attain a size fit for plucking about the 12th of July. It is very hardy; yields abundantly; thrives well in almost any description of soil or situation; and, though not so sweet and tender as some of the more recent sorts, is of good quality. It vegetates with much greater certainty, and its crops are more reliable, than the higher-flavored varieties; and these qualities will still secure its cultivation by those who prefer a certain and plentiful supply of fair quality, to a precarious and limited yield of extraordinary sweetness and excellence. It has long been grown in this country, and is considered a standard variety. BLUE PRUSSIAN. _Cot. Gard._ Dwarf Blue Prussian. Prussian Blue. Green Prussian. Plant of a vigorous but not robust habit of growth, with a single stem about three feet high, which is sometimes branching. The pods are generally produced in pairs, but are also sometimes single, and vary from twelve to sixteen on each plant. They are from two and three-fourths of an inch to three inches long, three-fourths of an inch wide, somewhat curved, and rather broader towards the point, where they terminate abruptly. They contain about seven peas, which are four-tenths of an inch long, seven-twentieths of an inch wide, about the same in thickness, and compressed on the sides, from being so close together. The ripe seed is blue. Sown the 1st of May, the plants blossomed June 28, and yielded pease for use the middle of July. It produces abundantly, and is a valuable sort for late summer use. "It is unquestionably the parent of the Blue Imperial and all like varieties." BLUE SPANISH DWARF. _Cot. Gard._ Groom's Superb. Blue Fan. Plant from a foot and a half to three feet high. The pods are single and in pairs, in about equal proportion, two inches and a half long, containing from six to seven peas each. The ripe seed is pale-blue. Plants from sowings made the first of May will blossom the last of June, and yield pease for use the middle of July. It is a useful variety for small gardens, as it is a low grower and a fair bearer; but it is now much surpassed by Bishop's Long-podded and Burbridge's Eclipse, both of which are considered more prolific and better flavored. BRITISH QUEEN. _Cot. Gard._ Hair's Defiance. Tall White Mammoth. Erin's Queen. The plant is of a showy and robust habit of growth, from six to seven feet high, sometimes with a single stem, but generally branching within nine inches or a foot of the ground, and frequently furnished with two and even three laterals, which are of the same height as the whole plant. The pods begin to be produced at the first joint above the first lateral shoot, and are in number from thirteen to eighteen on each plant. They are generally single, but frequently in pairs, from three inches and a quarter to three inches and three-quarters long, rather flattened and broad when first fit to gather, but becoming round and plump when more advanced. They are quite smooth, of a bright-green color, slightly curved, wavy on the upper edge, and contain from five to seven exceedingly large peas, which are not so close together as to compress each other. The ripe seed is white, large, and wrinkled. Sown the 1st of May, the plants will blossom about the 30th of June, and pods may be plucked for use about the 15th of July. They will ripen off about the 1st of August. This is one of the best late peas in cultivation. It belongs to the class known as Wrinkled, or Knight's Marrow; but is much superior in every respect to all the old varieties usually called Knight's Marrows, being much more prolific and richly flavored. As an intermediate variety, it deserves a place in every garden. BURBRIDGE'S ECLIPSE. _Cot. Gard._ Stubbs's Dwarf. Plant a robust grower, always with a simple stem, attaining the height of a foot and a half to about two feet; pods in pairs, rarely single, and from three inches to three inches and a quarter long, seven-tenths of an inch broad, perfectly straight, and of equal width throughout, with a slight waving on the upper edge,--they contain from five to seven peas, which are ovate, nearly half an inch long, a third of an inch broad, and the same in thickness. Seed was planted May 1, the plants blossomed June 26, and pods were plucked for use July 14. This may be classed among the valuable contributions which have been made to the list of peas during the last few years. Unlike most of the dwarf varieties, it is a most productive sort; and thus its dwarf character is not its chief recommendation. For private gardens, or for cultivation for market, few peas surpass this and Bishop's Long-podded. CARTER'S VICTORIA. _Trans._ Carter's Eclipse. Plant six to seven feet high; pods large, slightly curved, containing seven or eight large peas, which are sweet and of excellent quality. The ripe seeds are white, and much shrivelled or wrinkled. Plants from seeds sown May 1 blossomed July 1, and the pods were fit for plucking the 18th of the month. The variety continues long in bearing, and the peas exceed in size those of Knight's Tall White Marrow. It is one of the best late tall peas. CHARLTON. _Cot. Gard. Law. Thomp._ Early Charlton. The original character of this variety may be described as follows:-- Plant about five feet high, and of vigorous growth; leaves large, with short petioles; tendrils small; pods broad, containing six or seven peas of excellent quality. They are rather larger than those of the Early Frame, with which this is often confounded. The Early Charlton may, however, be distinguished by its stronger habit of growth, flat pods, larger seeds, and by being fit for use about a fortnight later than the Early Frame; so that, when sown at the same time, it forms a succession. According to the Messrs. Lawson, this is the oldest, and for a long period was the best known and most extensively cultivated, of all the varieties of white garden-pease. Its history can be traced as far back as 1670; and from that time till about 1770, or nearly a century, it continued to stand first in catalogues as the earliest pea, until it was supplanted by the Early Frame about 1770. It is further said by some to be the source from which the most esteemed early garden varieties have arisen; and that they are nothing else than the Early Charlton Pea, considerably modified in character from the effects of cultivation and selection. Although this idea may seem far-fetched, it is not improbable, especially when we take into consideration the susceptibility of change, from cultivation and other causes, which the Pea is ascertained to possess. Thus if the Early Charlton, or any other variety, be sown for several years, and only the very earliest and very latest flowering-plants selected for seed each season, the difference in the time of ripening between the two will ultimately become so great as to give them the appearance of two distinct varieties; and by sowing the earlier portion on light, early soils, and the later on strong, black, coarse, or low soils, the difference will become materially increased. It is therefore probable, that the Early Frame, with its numerous sub-varieties (including the Dan O'Rourke, Prince Albert, Early Kent, and a multitude of others), may have originated in the Charlton, though some of them differ essentially in their habit of growth. The various names by which it has been known are Reading Hotspur, Master's or Flander's Hotspur, Golden Hotspur, Brompton Hotspur, Essex Hotspur, Early Nicol's Hotspur, Charlton Hotspur, and finally Early Charlton; the last name becoming general about 1750. An English writer remarks, "that the variety now exists only in name. That which is sold for the Early Charlton is often a degenerated stock of Early Frames, or any stock of Frames which cannot be warranted or depended upon, but which are, nevertheless, of such a character as to admit of their being grown as garden varieties. The Early Charlton, if grown at all by seed-growers as a distinct variety, is certainly cultivated to a very limited extent." Of the popular American improved early sorts, the Hill's Early, Hovey's Extra Early, Landreth's Extra Early, are hardy, as well as very prolific; and are not only well adapted for private gardens, but may be recommended as the most profitable kinds for cultivating for early marketing. In an experimental trial of these kinds with the Early Daniel O'Rourke, and some of the most approved of the earliest foreign varieties, they proved to be nearly or quite as early, fully as prolific, continued longer in bearing, and were much more stocky and vigorous in habit. CHAMPION OF PARIS. _Cot. Gard._ Excelsior. Paradise Marrow. Stuart's Paradise. Plant of vigorous growth, with a simple stem five to six feet high, rarely branched, producing from eight to ten pods. These last are generally single, but sometimes in pairs, from three inches and a quarter to three inches and three-quarters long, and five-eighths of an inch wide. They are curved almost as much as those of the Cimeter; and, when near maturity, become quite fleshy, wrinkled, and thick-backed. They contain from six to seven large peas, which are close together without being compressed. The ripe seed is white, medium-sized, somewhat flattened and pitted. If sown May 1, the plants will blossom June 28, and the pods will be ready for plucking July 16. This is a very excellent pea, an abundant cropper, and considerably earlier than the Auvergne and Shillings Grotto; to both of which it is also greatly superior. CLIMAX. _Trans._ Napoléon. Plant three feet and a half high, of robust habit; pods single or in pairs, three inches long, containing five or six peas; when ripe, these are of medium size, pale-blue or olive, sometimes yellowish, shaded with blue, and, like the Eugénie, much wrinkled and indented. If sown the beginning of May, the variety will blossom about the 15th of June, pods may be plucked for use the 10th of July, and the crop will ripen the 25th of the same month. English catalogues represent the Napoléon as being "the earliest blue pea in cultivation, podding from the bottom of the haum to the top, with fine large pods." In a trial growth, it proved early and productive; not only forming a great number of pods, but well filling the pods after being formed. In quality it is tender, very sweet and well flavored, resembling the Champion of England. Its season is nearly the same with that of the Eugénie, and the variety is well deserving of cultivation. Mr. Harrison, the originator of the Eugénie and Napoléon, states that both of the peas were originally taken from one pod. DANTZIC. _Law._ Plant six to seven feet high, branching; pods in pairs, two and a half inches long, half an inch broad, compact, and slightly bent. When ripe, the seed is the smallest of all the light peas, quite round or spherical, of a bright-yellow color, beautifully transparent, with whitish eyes. If sown the 1st of May, the plants will blossom the 8th of July, afford pease for the table about the 25th of the same month, and ripen from the 10th to the middle of August. It is not a productive variety, and is seldom cultivated in England or in this country; but is grown extensively on the shores of the Baltic, and exported for splitting, or boiling whole. DICKSON'S FAVORITE. _Trans._ Dickson's Early Favorite. Plant five feet high, stocky, vigorous, and very prolific; pods ten to twelve on a stalk, long, round when fully grown, curved, hooked at the extremity, but not so much so as in the Auvergne,--to which, in many respects, it bears a strong resemblance. The pods are remarkably well filled, containing from eight to ten peas of medium size, round, and very white. Planted the 1st of May, the variety blossomed June 25, and pods were gathered for use the 12th of July. This pea is highly deserving of cultivation as a second early variety. DILLISTONE'S EARLY. _Cot. Gard._ The plant is of slender habit of growth, produces a single stem two feet high, and bears, on an average, from seven to nine pods: these are smaller than those of the Dan O'Rourke, generally single, but occasionally in pairs, almost straight, and contain seven peas each. The seed, when ripe, is white. Sown at the time of the Dan O'Rourke, the plants were a mass of bloom three days before the last named had commenced blossoming, and the crop was ready for gathering seven days before the Dan O'Rourke. This is undoubtedly the earliest pea known, and is quite seven or eight days earlier than the Dan O'Rourke, which has hitherto been regarded as the earliest variety. A striking feature of Dillistone's Early is, that its changes take place at once. It blooms in a mass, its pods all appear together, and the whole crop is ready to be gathered at the same time. In the Chiswick Garden, England, where a hundred and sixteen varieties were experimentally cultivated, during the season of 1860, under the supervision of Robert Hogg, LL.D., this variety was beginning to die off, when the Dan O'Rourke was yet green and growing. DWARF MARROW. Dwarf White Marrow. Dwarf Marrowfat. Early Dwarf Marrowfat. Plant from three to four feet in height, generally with a single stem, but sometimes branching; pods somewhat flattened, generally single, but sometimes produced in pairs, three inches to three inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch broad at the middle, tapering with a slight but regular curve to both ends, and containing about six closely-set peas: these are cream-colored and white; the white prevailing about the eye, and at the union of the two sections of the pea; not perfectly round, but more or less compressed, slightly wrinkled, and measuring nearly three-eighths of an inch in diameter. Planted the 1st of May, the variety blossomed the last of June, and afforded pease for the table the 15th of July. The Dwarf Marrow is hardy and productive. Though not so sweet or well flavored as some of the more recent sorts, its yield is abundant and long continued; and, for these qualities, it is extensively cultivated. The variety, however, is rarely found in an unmixed state; much of the seed sown under this name producing plants of stronger habit of growth than those of the true Dwarf Marrow, and more resembling the Tall White variety. EARLY DAN O'ROURKE. Dunnett's First Early. Waite's Dan O'Rourke. Carter's Earliest. Sangster's Number One. _Cot. Gard._ Plant from three and a half to four feet high,--in general habit not unlike the Early Frame, of which it is probably an improved variety; pods usually single, two inches and three-fourths long, containing five or six peas. When fully ripe, the pea is round, cream-colored, white at the eye and at the junction of the cotyledons, and nearly a fourth of an inch in diameter. Plants from seeds sown May 1 were in bloom June 7, and pods were gathered for use from the 25th of the month. The Dan O'Rourke is remarkable for its precocity; and, with the exception of Dillistone's Early and one or two American varieties, is the earliest of all the sorts now in cultivation. It is hardy, prolific, seldom fails to produce a good crop, appears to be well adapted to our soil and climate, is excellent for small private gardens, and one of the best for extensive culture for market. Its character as an early pea can be sustained only by careful culture, and judicious selection of seeds for propagation. If grown in cold soil, from late-ripened seeds, the variety will rapidly degenerate; and, if from the past any thing can be judged of the future, the Dan O'Rourke, under the ordinary forms of propagation and culture, will shortly follow its numerous and once equally popular predecessors to quiet retirement as a synonyme of the Early Frame or Charlton. EARLY FRAME. _Thomp._ Early Dwarf Frame. Early Double-blossomed Frame. _Law._ Essex Champion. Single-blossomed Frame. Plant three to four feet in height; pods in pairs, slightly bent backwards, well filled, terminating rather abruptly at both ends, and about two and a half inches long by from three-eighths to half an inch in breadth. The pease, when fully ripe, are round and plump, cream-colored, white towards the eye and at the union of the cotyledons, and measure nearly a fourth of an inch in diameter. Sown the 1st of May, the variety blossomed June 20, and the pods were ready for plucking the 6th of July. This well-known pea, for a long period, was the most popular of all the early varieties. At present, it is less extensively cultivated; having been superseded by much earlier and equally hardy and prolific sorts. "The flowers sometimes come single, and sometimes double; the stalk from the same axil dividing into two branches, each terminating in a flower: hence the names of 'Single-blossomed' and 'Double-blossomed' have both been occasionally applied to this variety." EARLY HOTSPUR. Early Golden Hotspur. Golden Hotspur. Superfine Early. Reading Hotspur. Similar to the Early Frame. Mr. Thompson represents it as identical. The Messrs. Lawson describe it as follows: "Pods generally in pairs, three inches long, half an inch broad, nearly straight, and well filled; pea similar to the Double-blossomed Early Frame, but rather larger." EARLY WARWICK. Race-horse. Once at the head of early pease: now considered by the most experienced cultivators to be identical with the Early Frame. EARLY WASHINGTON. Cedo nulli. A sub-variety of the Early Frame; differing slightly, if at all, either in the size or form of the pod, color and size of the seed, or in productiveness. Once popular, and almost universally cultivated: now rarely found on seedsmen's catalogues. EUGÉNIE. Plant about three feet in height, with pale-green foliage; pods single or in pairs, three inches long, containing five or six peas. When ripe, the peas are of medium size, cream-colored, and much shrivelled and indented. Plants from sowings made May 1 were in blossom June 14, green pease were plucked July 10, and the pods ripened from the 18th to the 25th of the same month. English catalogues describe the variety as being "the earliest white, wrinkled marrow-pea in cultivation; podding from the bottom of the stalk to the top, with fine large pods." In a trial-growth, it proved hardy and very prolific; and the pease, while young, were nearly as sweet as those of the Champion of England. The pods were not remarkable for diameter; but, on the contrary, were apparently slender. The peas, however, were large; and, the pods being thin in texture, the pease, when shelled, seemed to be equal in diameter to the pods themselves. As a new variety, it certainly promises well, and appears to be worthy of general cultivation. It will come to the table immediately after the earliest sorts, and yield a supply till the Marrows are ready for plucking. FAIRBEARD'S CHAMPION OF ENGLAND. _Cot. Gard._ Champion of England. Plant of strong and luxuriant habit of growth, with a stem from five to six feet in height, which is often undivided, but also frequently branching. The laterals are produced within about eighteen inches of the ground, and sometimes assume a vigorous growth, and attain as great a height as the main stem. They produce pods at the first joint above the lateral, and are continued at every succeeding joint to the greatest extremity of the plant. The pods are generally single, but frequently in pairs, about three inches and a half long, slightly curved, and terminate abruptly at the point; the surface is quite smooth, and the color light-green till maturity, when they become paler and shrivelled. They contain six or seven quite large peas, which are closely packed together and compressed. The ripe seed is wrinkled, and of a pale olive-green. Sown the 1st of May, the plants were in flower June 25, and pods were gathered for use the 12th of July. This variety was originated in England, by Mr. William Fairbeard, in 1843; and, with the Early Surprise, came out of the same pod,--the produce of a plant found in a crop of the Dwarf White Knight's Marrows, to which class it properly belongs. It is, without doubt, one of the most valuable acquisitions which have been obtained for many years; being remarkably tender and sugary, and, in all respects, of first-rate excellence. The rapid progress of its popularity, and its universal cultivation, are, however, the best indications of its superiority. The variety was introduced into this country soon after it was originated, and was first sold at five dollars per quart. FAIRBEARD'S NONPAREIL. _Cot. Gard._ Stem branching, three and a half to four feet high, with a habit of growth and vigor similar to the Early Frames. The pods are full and plump, but do not become thick-backed and fleshy as they ripen, like those of the Frames. They contain from six to eight peas, which are close together, much compressed, and of that sweet flavor which is peculiar to the Knight's Marrows. The ripe seed is small and wrinkled, and of the same color as the other white, wrinkled pease. The variety was originated by Mr. William Fairbeard, who also raised the Champion of England. It is earlier than the last-named sort, nearly as early as the Frames, and a most valuable acquisition. FAIRBEARD'S SURPRISE. _Cot. Gard._ Early Surprise. Surprise. The plant of this variety is of a free but not robust habit of growth, and always with a simple stem, which is about four feet high. The pods are produced at every joint, beginning at about two feet and a half from the ground. They are generally single, but sometimes in pairs, three inches long, slightly curved, but not quite so much as those of the Champion of England. They contain from six to seven peas, which are of good size, but not so sweet as those of the last-named sort. The ripe seed is somewhat oval, and of a pale, olive-green color. The variety is a day or two earlier than the Champion of England. It originated from the Dwarf White Knight's Marrow, and was taken from the pod in which was found the Champion of England. FLACK'S IMPERIAL. _Cot. Gard._ Flack's Victory. Flack's Victoria. Flack's New Large Victoria. The plant is of a robust habit of growth, with a stem which is always branching, and generally about three feet in height; the pods are numerous, varying from twelve to eighteen on a plant, generally produced in pairs, but often singly, three inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch broad, and considerably curved,--terminating abruptly at the point, where they are somewhat broader than at any other part. Each pod contains from six to eight very large peas, which are of an ovate shape, half an inch long, seven-twentieths of an inch broad, and the same in thickness. The ripe seed is blue. Plants from seed sown May 1 will blossom June 28, and supply the table July 15. It is one of the most prolific peas in cultivation; grows to a convenient height; and, whether considered for private gardens or for market supplies, is one of the most valuable varieties which has been introduced for years. GENERAL WYNDHAM. _Cot. Gard._ The plant is of a robust habit, six to seven feet high, and frequently branched; the foliage is dark-green and blotched; the pods are either single or in pairs, and number from ten to fourteen on each plant,--they contain eight very large peas, which are of the deep, dull-green color of the Early Green Marrow. The ripe seed is white and olive mixed. This is a valuable acquisition, and was evidently procured from the Ne Plus Ultra; but it is a more robust grower, and produces much larger pods. The plant continues growing, blooming, and podding till very late in the season; and, when this is in the full vigor of growth, the Ne Plus Ultra is ripening off. The pease, when cooked, are of a fine, bright-green color, and unlike those of any other variety. HAIR'S DWARF MAMMOTH. Plant strong and vigorous, from three to three feet and a half high, branching, with short joints; pods single or in pairs, broad, comparatively flat, containing about six very large peas, which are sugary, tender, and excellent. The ripe seeds are shrivelled, and vary in color; some being cream-white, and others bluish-green. Sown May 1, the plants will blossom July 1, and the pods will be ready for use the 15th of the same month. Very prolific, and deserving of cultivation. HARRISON'S GLORY. _Trans._ Plant three feet high, of a bushy, robust habit of growth; pods rather short, nearly straight, and flattish, containing five or six medium-sized peas, of good quality: when ripe, the seeds are light-olive, mixed with white, and also slightly indented. If planted May 1, the variety will flower June 23, and the pods will be fit for gathering about the 10th of July. A good variety; but, like Harrison's Glory, the pods are frequently not well filled. HARRISON'S PERFECTION. _Trans._ Plant three feet in height, of vigorous habit; pods small, straight, containing five peas of good size and quality. Sown the 1st of May, the variety will flower June 23, and the pods will be fit for plucking about the 12th of July. The only defect in this variety is, that the pods are often not well filled. When growing, it is scarcely distinguishable from Harrison's Glory; but, in the mature state, the seeds of the former are smooth and white, while those of the latter are indented, and of an olive-color. KING OF THE MARROWS. Plant six feet in height, stocky, and of remarkably vigorous habit; pods single or in pairs, containing five or six large seeds, which, when ripe, are yellowish-green, and much shrivelled and indented, like those of the Champion of England. If planted May 1, the variety will blossom the last of June, and pods for the table may be plucked about the 15th of July. Though comparatively late, it is one of the best of the more recently introduced sorts, and well deserving of general cultivation. When the pods are gathered as fast as they become fit for use, the plants will continue to put forth new blossoms, and form new pods for an extraordinary length of time; in favorable seasons, often supplying the table for five or six weeks. It is very tender and sugary, and little, if at all, inferior to the Champion of England. In common with most of the colored pease, the ripe seeds, when grown in this country, are much paler than those of foreign production; and, when long cultivated in the climate of the United States, the blue or green is frequently changed to pale-blue or yellowish-green, and often ultimately becomes nearly cream-white. KNIGHT'S DWARF BLUE MARROW. A dwarfish sub-variety of Knight's Marrows, with wrinkled, blue seeds. KNIGHT'S DWARF GREEN MARROW. Knight's Dwarf Green Wrinkled. Plant about three feet high; pods in pairs, three inches long, three-fourths of an inch wide, flattish, and slightly bent. The ripe pease are of a light bluish-green color. It differs from the foregoing principally in the height of the plant, but also to some extent in the form of the pods. KNIGHT'S DWARF WHITE MARROW. _Law._ Knight's Dwarf White Wrinkled Marrow. Plant three feet high; pods in pairs, three inches long, three-fourths of an inch wide, straight, or nearly so, well filled, and terminating abruptly at both ends; pea, on an average, about three-eighths of an inch in diameter, flattened, and very much wrinkled; color white, and sometimes of a greenish tinge. It is a few days earlier than the Dwarf Green. KNIGHT'S TALL BLUE MARROW. A sub-variety of Knight's Tall Marrows, with blue, wrinkled, and indented seeds. It resembles the Tall White and Tall Green Marrows. KNIGHT'S TALL GREEN MARROW. _Law._ _Thomp._ Plant from six to seven feet in height, of strong growth; pods large, broad, and well filled; the seed, when ripe, is green, and much wrinkled or indented. If planted the first of May, the variety will blossom towards the last of June, and supply the table the middle of July. The peas are exceedingly tender and sugary; the skin also is very thin. "From their remarkably wrinkled appearance, together with the peculiar sweetness which they all possess, Knight's Marrows may be said to form a distinct class of garden-pease; possessing qualities which, together with their general productiveness, render them a valuable acquisition, both to cultivators and consumers." If planted not less than six feet apart, these pease will bear most abundantly from the ground to the top: they also yield their pods in succession, and are the best for late crops. KNIGHT'S TALL WHITE MARROW. Knight's Tall White Wrinkled Marrow. Height and general character of the plant similar to Knight's Tall Green Marrow. Pods in pairs. The ripe seed is white. Very productive and excellent. MATCHLESS MARROW. _Cot. Gard._ This is a good marrow-pea, but now surpassed by the improved varieties of the Early Green Marrow. It possesses no qualities superior to that variety, and is not so early. The plant grows from five to six feet in height; and the pods contain about seven large peas, which are closely compressed together. MILFORD MARROW. _Cot. Gard._ The plant is of a strong and robust habit of growth, always with a single stem, attaining the height of four and a half or five feet, and producing from twelve to sixteen pods, which are almost always in pairs, three inches and three-quarters long, and three-quarters of an inch wide. They do not become broad-backed, thick, or fleshy, but rather shrivelled, and contain from six to seven very large peas, which are roundish and somewhat compressed, half an inch long, nearly the same broad, and nine-twentieths thick. Its season is near that of Bellamy's Early Green Marrow; if planted May 1, blossoming June 28, and being fit for plucking about the middle of July. MISSOURI MARROW. Missouri Marrowfat. Plant three feet and a half or four feet high, strong and vigorous, generally simple, but sometimes divided into branches; pods single and in pairs, three inches long, wrinkled on the surface as they ripen, nearly straight, and containing about six peas, rather closely set together. When ripe, the pea is similar to the Dwarf Marrow in form, but is larger, paler, more wrinkled, and much more regular in size. Plants from seed sown May 1 were in blossom the 30th of June, and pods were gathered for use the 14th of July. It is a few days later than Fairbeard's Champion of England, and nearly of the season of the Dwarf Marrowfat, of which it is probably but an improved or sub-variety. It is of American origin, very productive, of good quality, and well deserving of cultivation. NE PLUS ULTRA. _Cot. Gard._ Jay's Conqueror. This is comparatively a recent variety. It belongs to the wrinkled class of pease; is as early as Bellamy's Green Marrow; and possesses, both in pod and pea, the same fine, deep, olive-green color. The plant is of strong and robust habit of growth, six to seven feet high, with a branching stem. It begins to produce pods at two or two and a half feet from the ground; and the number, in all, is from twelve to eighteen. The pods are generally in pairs, three inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch wide, very plump and full, almost round, slightly curved, and terminate abruptly at the end. Their color is deep, bright-green, and the surface smooth. They contain seven very large peas, each of which is half an inch long, nearly the same broad; and, although they are not so closely packed as to compress each other, they fill the pods well. When sown the first of May, the variety will blossom the last of June, and afford peas for use the 15th of July. It is one of the best tall Marrows in cultivation. The ripe seed is mixed white and olive. NOBLE'S EARLY GREEN MARROW. _Cot. Gard._ A sub-variety of Bellamy's Early Green Marrow. It is a much more abundant bearer; producing from eighteen to twenty pods on a plant, which are singularly regular in their size and form. PRINCE ALBERT. Early Prince Albert. Early May. Early Kent. Plant from two and a half to three feet in height, usually without branches; pods generally in pairs, two inches and a half in length, half an inch broad, tapering abruptly at both ends, slightly bent backwards, and well filled; pea, when fully ripe, round, cream-colored, approaching to white about the eye and at the line of the division of the lobes, and measuring about a fourth of an inch in diameter. Sown May 1, the plants blossomed June 15, and pods were plucked for use July 6. The Prince Albert was, at one period, the most popular of all the early varieties, and was cultivated in almost every part of the United States. As now found in the garden, the variety is not distinguishable from some forms of the Early Frame; and it is everywhere giving place to the Early Dan O'Rourke, Dillistone's Early, and other more recent and superior sorts. QUEEN OF THE DWARFS. _Cot. Gard._ A very dwarfish variety, from six to nine inches high. Stem thick and succulent; foliage dark bluish-green. Each plant produces from four to six pods, which are of a curious, elliptic form, and contain three or four large peas. Ripe seed white, of medium size, egg-shaped, unevenly compressed. The plants are tender; the pods do not fill freely; and the variety cannot be recommended for cultivation. RINGWOOD MARROW. Flanagan's Early. Early Ringwood. _Cot. Gard._ Beck's Gem. Plant three and a half to four feet high, usually simple, but sometimes sending out shoots near the ground. The pods are single and in pairs; and, as they ripen, become thick and fleshy, with a rough, pitted, and shrivelled surface: they contain from six to seven large peas, which are nearly round, and about seven-tenths of an inch in diameter in the green state. The ripe seed is white. The variety is comparatively early. If planted May 1, it will blossom about the 25th of June, and the pods will be ready to pluck about the 10th of July. A very valuable sort, producing a large, well-filled pod, and is a most abundant bearer. It has, however, a peculiarity, which by many is considered an objection,--the pod is white, instead of green, and presents, when only full grown, the appearance of over-maturity. This objection is chiefly made by those who grow it for markets, and who find it difficult to convince their customers, that, notwithstanding the pod is white, it is still in its highest perfection. So far from being soon out of season, it retains its tender and marrowy character longer than many other varieties. A new sort, called the "Lincoln Green," is said to possess all the excellences of the Ringwood Marrow, without the objectionable white pod. ROYAL DWARF OR WHITE PRUSSIAN. _Cot. Gard._ Dwarf Prolific. Poor Man's Profit. Plant of medium growth, with an erect stem, which is three feet high, generally simple, but occasionally branching. The pods are usually single, but sometimes in pairs, nearly three inches long, half an inch broad, almost straight, and somewhat tapering towards the point. The surface is quite smooth, and the color bright-green. They are generally well filled, and contain from five to six peas, which are ovate, not compressed, four-tenths of an inch long, a third of an inch broad, and the same in thickness. The ripe seed is white. Plants from seed sown the 1st of May will blossom June 25, and supply the table about the middle of July. The crop will ripen the 25th of the same month. This is an old and prolific variety, well adapted for field culture, and long a favorite in gardens, but now, to a great extent, superseded. SEBASTOPOL. Plant of rather slender habit, three feet and a half in height; pods usually single, two inches and three quarters in length, containing from five to seven peas, which, when ripe, are nearly round and smooth, cream-colored, and scarcely distinguishable, in their size, form, or color, from the Early Frame and kindred kinds. If planted May 1, the variety will blossom June 16, afford pods of sufficient size for shelling about July 7, and ripen the 20th of the same month. It is early, very productive, of superior quality, and an excellent sort for growing for market, or in small gardens for family use. In an experimental cultivation of the variety, it proved one of the most prolific of all the early sorts. SHILLINGS GROTTO. _Cot. Gard._ Plant with a simple stem, four feet and a half to five feet high; the pods are generally single, but frequently in pairs, three inches and a half long, about half an inch wide, slightly curved, and, when fully matured, assuming a thick-backed and somewhat quadrangular form. Each pod contains, on an average, seven large peas. The ripe seed is white. A great objection to this variety is the tardiness with which it fills; the pods being fully grown, and apparently filled, when the peas are quite small and only half grown. Though considered a standard sort, it is not superior to the Champion of England; and will probably soon give place to it, or some other of the more recent varieties. SPANISH DWARF. _Cot. Gard._ Early Spanish Dwarf. Dwarf Fan. Strawberry. Plant about a foot high, branching on each side in the manner of a fan; and hence often called the "Dwarf Fan." The pods are sometimes single, but generally in pairs, two inches and a half long, half an inch broad, terminate rather abruptly at the point, and contain from five to six rather large peas. The ripe seed is cream-white. Sown May 1, the plants were in blossom June 26, and pods were plucked for use July 14. The Spanish Dwarf is an old variety, and still maintains its position as an Early Dwarf for small gardens, though it can hardly be considered equal to Burbridge's Eclipse or Bishop's Long-podded. There is a variety of this which is called the Improved Spanish Dwarf, and grows fully nine inches taller than the old variety; but it possesses no particular merit to recommend it. TALL WHITE MARROW. Large Carolina. Tall Marrowfat. Plant six to seven feet in height, seldom branched; pods three to three inches and a half long, three-fourths of an inch broad, more bluntly pointed than those of the Dwarf variety, and containing six or seven peas. When ripe, the pea is nearly of the color of the Dwarf Marrow, but is more perfectly spherical, less wrinkled, and, when compared in bulk, has a smoother, harder, and more glossy appearance. Planted May 1, the variety will blossom near the 1st of July, and will come to the table from the 15th to the 20th of the same month. It is a few days later than the Dwarf. In this country, it has been longer cultivated than any other sort; and, in some of the forms of its very numerous sub-varieties, is now to be found in almost every garden. It is hardy, abundant, long-continued in its yield, and of excellent quality. In England, the variety is cultivated in single rows three feet apart. In this country, where the growth of the pea is much less luxuriant, it may be grown in double rows three feet and a half apart, and twelve inches between the single rows. TAYLOR'S EARLY. Similar in habit, production, and early maturity, to the Early Dan O'Rourke. THURSTON'S RELIANCE. _Cot. Gard._ Plant strong and robust, six to seven feet high; pods generally single, but occasionally in pairs, and from three inches and a half to four inches and a quarter long. They are broad and flat, shaped like the pods of the Blue Cimeter, and contain seven or eight very large peas. Ripe seed white, large, and unevenly compressed. This is a quite distinct and useful pea; an abundant bearer; and the pods are of a fine deep-green color, which is a recommendation for it when grown for market. It comes in at the same time as the Auvergne and Shillings Grotto, but is of a more tender constitution. TOM THUMB. Beck's Gem. Bush Pea. Pois nain hatif extra, of the French. Plant of remarkably low growth, seldom much exceeding nine inches in height, stout and branching; pods single, rarely in pairs, two inches and a half in length, half an inch broad, containing five or six peas, which are cream-yellow, and measure about a fourth of an inch in diameter. Planted the 1st of May, the variety blossomed the 12th of June, and the pods were of suitable size for plucking July 4. In the color of its foliage, its height and general habit, the variety is very distinct, and readily distinguishable from all other kinds. It is early, of good quality, and, the height of the plant considered, yields abundantly. It may be cultivated in rows ten inches apart. Mr. Landreth, of Philadelphia, remarks as follows: "For sowing at this season (November, in the Middle States), we recommend trial of a new variety, which we have designated 'Tom Thumb,' in allusion to its extreme dwarfness. It seldom rises over twelve inches, is an abundant bearer, and is, withal, quite early. It seems to be admirably adapted to autumn sowings in the South, where, on apprehended frost, protection may be given: it is also equally well suited to early spring planting for the same reason. It is curious, as well as useful; and, if planted on ground well enriched, will yield as much to a given quantity of land as any pea known to us." It is a desirable variety in the kitchen garden; as, from its exceeding dwarfish habit, it may be so sown as to form a neat edging for the walk or border. VEITCH'S PERFECTION. _Trans._ Plant three feet and a half to four feet high, of strong, robust growth, somewhat branched; pods ten or twelve on a stalk or branch, large, flat, straight, containing six or eight large peas, which are very sugary and excellent. The ripe seeds are large, of a light olive-green color; some being nearly white. Planted the 1st of May, the variety will be in flower June 28, and the pods will be fit for use about the middle or 20th of July. It is one of the best pease for main or late crops. VICTORIA MARROW. _Thomp._ Plant from six to seven feet high; pods remarkably large, nearly four inches in length, generally in pairs, straight, roundish, well filled, containing from six to eight peas of extraordinary size and of good quality. The ripe pease are olive-green. The Victoria Marrow is not early. Planted May 1, it will blossom the last of June, and be fit for the table from the middle of July. This variety bears some resemblance to Knight's Tall Marrow; but, like nearly all others, it is less sugary. Those who have a fancy for large pease will find this perhaps the largest. WARNER'S EARLY EMPEROR. _Thomp._ Warner's Early Conqueror. Early Railway. Early Wonder. Beck's Morning-star. Early Emperor. This variety grows somewhat taller, and is a few days earlier, than the Prince Albert: the pods and pease are also somewhat larger. It is an abundant bearer; and, on the whole, must be considered a good sub-variety of the Early Frame. WOODFORD'S MARROW. _Cot. Gard._ Nonpareil. Plant of strong and robust habit of growth, like a vigorous-growing Marrow; rising with a stem three feet and a half high, which is sometimes simple, but generally branching at about half its height from the ground. The pods begin to be produced at little more than half the height of the plant; and, from that point to the top, every joint produces single or double pods, amounting, in all, to ten or twelve on each. They are single or in pairs, in nearly equal proportions, about three inches and a half long, seven-tenths of an inch broad, quite smooth, and of a dark-green color. When ready to gather, they are rather flattened, but become round as they ripen. They contain, on an average, seven peas, which are of a dark olive-green color, rather thick in the skin, and closely packed; so much so as to be quite flattened on the sides adjoining. Sown May 1, the variety blossomed June 28, and pease were gathered for the table July 17. This is a very characteristic pea, and may at once be detected from all others, either by the ripe seed or growing plants, from the peculiar dark-green color, which, when true, it always exhibits. It is well adapted for a market-pea; its dark-green color favoring the popular prejudices. * * * * * EATABLE-PODDED OR SUGAR PEASE. String-pease. Skinless Pease. Pisum macrocarpum. _Dec._ In this class are included such of the varieties as want the tough, inner film, or parchment lining, common to the other sorts. The pods are generally of large size, tender and succulent, and are used in the green state like string-beans; though the seeds may be used as other pease, either in the green state or when ripe. "When not ripe, the pods of some of the sorts have the appearance of being swollen or distended with air; but, on ripening, they become much shrivelled, and collapse closely on the seeds." The varieties are not numerous, when compared with the extensive catalogue of the kinds of the Common Pea offered for sale by seedsmen, and described by horticultural writers. The principal are the following:-- COMMON DWARF SUGAR. _Law. Vil._ Dwarf Crooked-podded Sugar. Stalk about two feet high, dividing into branches when cultivated in good soil; flower white; pods single or in pairs, six-seeded, three inches long by five-eighths of an inch broad, crooked or jointed-like with the seeds, as in all of the Sugar Pease, very prominent, especially on becoming ripe and dry; pea fully a fourth of an inch in diameter, white, and slightly wrinkled. The variety is quite late. Sown the beginning of May, the plants blossomed the last week in June, and pods were gathered for use July 17. It is prolific, of good quality as a shelled-pea, and the young pods are tender and well flavored. EARLY DWARF DUTCH SUGAR. _Vil._ Early Dwarf de Grace. Plant about twenty inches high, branching; leaves of medium size, yellowish-green; flowers white; pods two inches and three-quarters in length, half an inch wide, somewhat sickle-shaped, swollen on the sides, flattened at the lower end, and containing five or six peas, which, when ripe, are roundish, often irregularly flattened or indented, wrinkled, and of a yellowish-white color. The variety is the lowest-growing and earliest of all the Eatable-podded kinds. If sown at the time of the Common Dwarf Sugar, it will be fit for use twelve or fourteen days in advance of that variety. It requires a good soil; and the pods are succulent and tender, but are not considered superior to those of the Common Dwarf Sugar. GIANT EATABLE-PODDED. _Vil._ Giant Sugar. Stalk four to five feet high; leaves large, yellowish-green, stained with red at their union with the stalk of the plant; flower reddish; pods transparent yellowish-green, very thick and fleshy, distended on the surface by the seeds, which are widely distributed, curved, and much contorted, six inches long, and sometimes nearly an inch and a half in diameter,--exceeding in size that of any other variety. They contain but five or six seeds, which, when ripe, are irregular in form, and of a greenish-yellow color, spotted or speckled with brown. It is about a week later than the Large Crooked Sugar. LARGE CROOKED SUGAR. _Thomp._ Broadsword. Six-inch-pod Sugar. Plant nearly six feet in height, and branching when grown in good soil; the leaves are large, yellowish-green; flowers white; pods very large,--measuring from four to five inches in length and an inch in width,--broad, flat, and crooked. When young, they are tender, and easily snap or break in pieces, like the young pods of kidney-beans; and are then fit for use. The sides of the pods exhibit prominent marks where pushed out by the seeds, even at an early stage of growth. The ripe pease are somewhat indented or irregularly compressed, and of a yellowish-white color. It is one of the best of the Eatable-podded sorts, and is hardy and productive. It is, however, quite late; blossoming, if sown May 1, about the last of June, and producing pods for use in the green state about the 20th of July. PURPLE-PODDED OR AUSTRALIAN. _Law._ Blue-podded. Botany-bay Pea. Plant five feet high, generally without branches; pods usually in pairs, flattened, with thick, fleshy skins, and commonly of a dark-purple color; but this characteristic is not permanent, as they are sometimes found with green pods; in which case, they are, however, easily distinguished from those of other pease by their thick and fleshy nature. When ripe, the pease are of medium size, often much indented and irregularly compressed, and of a light, dunnish, or brown color. Season intermediate. It is very productive, and seems possessed of properties which entitle it to cultivation. RED-FLOWERED SUGAR. _Vil._ Chocolate. Stem four or five feet in height, generally simple, but branching when grown in rich soil; leaves long, yellowish-green, tinged with red where they connect with the stalk of the plant; flowers pale-red; pods three inches long, seven-tenths of an inch broad, more or less contorted, containing six to eight peas; seed comparatively large, pale-brown, marbled with reddish-brown. Season nearly the same as that of the Common Dwarf Sugar. It is productive, remarkably hardy, and may be sown very early in spring, as it is little affected by cool and wet weather; but the green pease are not much esteemed, as they possess a strong and rather unpleasant flavor. The green pods are tender and good; and, for these, the variety may be worthy of cultivation. TAMARIND SUGAR. Late Dwarf Sugar. Tamarind Pea. Plant similar to the Common Dwarf Sugar, but of more luxuriant habit, and with larger foliage; flowers white; pods single or in pairs, six to eight seeded, very long and broad,--often measuring four inches in length and an inch in breadth,--succulent, and generally contorted and irregular in form. A few days later than the Common Dwarf Sugar. Hardy, prolific, and deserves more general cultivation. WHITE-PODDED SUGAR. _Vil._ Stem four to five feet high; leaves yellowish-green, and, like those of the Giant Eatable-podded, stained with red at their insertion with the stalk; flowers purple; pods nearly three inches long, five-eighths of an inch wide, sickle-shaped and contorted, of a yellowish-white color, containing five or six peas. The ripe seeds are irregularly flattened and indented, of a greenish-yellow color, marbled or spotted with brown or black. The variety is quite late. Sown May 1, the pods were not fit for use till July 24. The pods are crisp and succulent, though inferior in flavor to most of the Eatable-podded varieties. YELLOW-PODDED SUGAR. _Vil._ Stem three to four feet high; leaves large, yellowish-green; flowers white, tinted with yellow; pods four inches long, tapering slightly at the ends, greenish-yellow, thick and fleshy, containing six or seven peas, widely separated. The ripe seeds are oblong, rather regular in form, and of a creamy-white color. It is one of the earliest of the Eatable-podded sorts; coming to the table, if planted May 1, about the middle of July. It is of good quality, but not hardy or productive; and seems to have little to recommend it, aside from the singular color of its pods. * * * * * PEA-NUT. Ground Bean. Earth Nut. _Vil._ Pindar Nut. Ground Nut. Arachys hypogea. A native of Africa, and also of Central and Tropical America. It is an annual plant; and the stem, when full grown, is about fifteen inches in height. The leaves are pinnate, with four leaflets, and a leafy, emarginate appendage at the base of the petioles; the flowers are yellow, and are produced singly, in the axils of the leaves; the fruit, or pod, is of an oblong form, from an inch to an inch and a half in length, rather more than three-eighths of an inch in diameter, often contracted at the middle, but sometimes bottle-formed, reticulated, and of a yellowish color; the kernels, of which the pods contain from one to three, are oblong, quite white, and enclosed in a thin, brown skin, or pellicle. A remarkable peculiarity of this plant is, that the lower blossoms (which alone produce fruit), after the decay of the petals, insinuate their ovaries into the earth; beneath which, at the depth of several inches, the fruit is afterwards perfected. The seed, or kernel, retains its germinative property but a single season; and, when designed for planting, should be preserved unbroken in the pod, or shell. _Soil and Cultivation._--The Pea-nut succeeds best in a warm, light, loamy soil. This should be deeply ploughed and well pulverized, and afterwards laid out in slightly raised ridges two feet apart. As the plants require the whole season for their perfection, the seed should be planted as early in spring as the weather becomes suitable. Drop nine inches apart in the drills, and cover an inch and a half or two inches deep. Weeding must be performed early in the season; as, after the blossoming of the plants, they are greatly injured if disturbed by the hoe, or if weeds are removed about the roots. It is rather tropical in its character, and cannot be cultivated with success either in the Northern or Middle States. "The seeds are sometimes dibbled in rows, so as to leave the plants a foot apart each way. As soon as the flowers appear, the vines are earthed up from time to time, so as to keep them chiefly within the ground. When cultivated alone, and there is sufficient moisture, the yield of nuts is from sixty to seventy-five bushels to the acre. If allowed to grow without earthing up, the vines will yield half a ton of hay to the acre. They are killed by the first frost; when the nuts will be mature, and ready for use." _Varieties._-- AFRICAN PEA-NUT. A comparatively small, smooth, and regularly formed sort. Shell thin, usually enclosing two kernels. WILMINGTON PEA-NUT. Carolina. Similar to the African. The pods, however, are longer, and the shell is thicker and paler. They rarely contain less than two, and often enclose three, kernels. Extensively cultivated in the Carolinas and Gulf States. TENNESSEE PEA-NUT. Pods large, thick, and irregular in form; the reticulations very coarse and deep. The pods usually contain two kernels. Less esteemed than either of the preceding varieties. * * * * * VETCH, OR TARE. Vicia sativa. The Vetch, or Tare, in its properties and habits, somewhat resembles the Common Pea. There are numerous species as well as varieties, and the seeds of all may be used for food; but they are generally too small, or produced too sparingly, to repay the cost of cultivation. The only variety of much importance to the garden is the following:-- WHITE TARE, OR VETCH. _Law._ Lentil, of Canada. Napoléon Pea. Annual; stem slender and climbing, about three feet high, the leaves terminating in a branching tendril, or clasper; flowers purplish; pods brown, slender, containing from eight to twelve seeds, or grains, which are globular, sometimes slightly flattened, smooth, and of a yellowish-white color; they retain their germinative quality three years; an ounce contains about six hundred seeds. In France and Canada, the seeds are used as a substitute for pease, both green and ripe, in soups and other dishes. They are also ground, and made into bread; but in this case their flour is generally mixed with that of wheat, or other of the edible grains. The seeds may be sown in drills, in April or May, in the manner of garden-pease, or broadcast with oats for agricultural purposes. _Varieties._-- SUMMER TARE, OR VETCH. An agricultural variety, grown at the north of England and in Scotland. It is sown broadcast, and cultivated as wheat or barley. Both the haum and seed are used. WINTER TARE, OR VETCH. Extensively grown in England and Scotland; usually sown in autumn, mixed with rye, for early spring food for stock. The seeds are smaller than those of the summer variety. Not sufficiently hardy to survive the winters of the Northern States. * * * * * WINGED PEA. Red Birdsfoot Trefoil. _Mill._ Lotus tetragonolobus. A hardy, creeping, or climbing, annual plant, fifteen or eighteen inches in height, or length; leaves trifoliate; flowers large, solitary, bright-scarlet; pods three inches and a half long, with four longitudinal, leafy membranes, or wings; seeds globular, slightly compressed, yellowish-white. _Use._--The ripened seeds are sometimes used as a substitute for coffee; and the pods, while young and tender, form an agreeable dish, not unlike string-beans. It is often cultivated as an ornamental plant; and, for this purpose, is generally sown in patches, four or five seeds together on the border, where the plants are intended to remain. When grown as an esculent, sow in double drills an inch and a half deep, and two feet apart; the single rows being made twelve inches from each other. CHAPTER X. MEDICINAL PLANTS. Bene-plant. Camomile. Coltsfoot. Elecampane. Hoarhound. Hyssop. Licorice. Pennyroyal. Poppy. Palmate-leaved or Turkey Rhubarb. Rue. Saffron. Southernwood. Wormwood. * * * * * BENE-PLANT. Oily Grain. Sesamum, sp. This plant is said to have been introduced into this country from Africa by the negroes. It is cultivated in the south of Europe, and in Egypt is grown to a considerable extent for forage and culinary purposes. It is a hardy annual, with an erect, four-sided stem from two to four feet high, and opposite, lobed, or entire leaves; the flowers terminate the stalk in loose spikes, and are of a dingy-white color; the seeds are oval, flattened, and produced in an oblong, pointed capsule. _Propagation and Cultivation._--It is propagated from seeds, which should be sown in spring, as soon as the ground has become well settled. They may be sown where the plants are to remain; or in a nursery-bed, to be afterwards transplanted. The plants should be grown in rows eighteen inches or two feet apart, and about a foot apart in the rows. The after-culture consists simply in keeping the ground loose, and free from weeds. The plant is said to yield a much greater amount of herbage if the top is broken or cut off when it is about half grown. _Use._--"The seeds were at one time used for food; being first parched, then mixed with water, and afterwards stewed with other ingredients. A sort of pudding is made of the seeds, in the same manner as rice; and is by some persons much esteemed. From the seeds of the first-named sort an oil is extracted, which will keep many years without having any rancid smell or taste. In two years, the warm taste which the new oil possesses wears off, and it becomes quite mild and pleasant, and may be used as a salad-oil, or for all the purposes of olive-oil. Two quarts of oil have been extracted from nine pounds of the seeds." The properties of the plant are cooling and healing, with some degree of astringency. A few of the leaves, immersed a short time in a tumbler of water, give it a jelly-like consistence, without imparting color or flavor; and in this form it is generally used. There are three varieties:-- BIFORMED-LEAVED. _Mill._ Plant larger than that of the Oval-leaved; the lower leaves are three-parted, while those of the upper part of the stalk are oval or entire. OVAL-LEAVED. Stem about two feet high, with a few short branches; the leaves are oblong, and entire on the borders. TRIFID-LEAVED. _Mill._ Taller and more vigorous than either of the preceding. The upper as well as the lower leaves are trifid, or three-parted. * * * * * CAMOMILE. Anthemis nobilis. This is a half-hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, growing wild in various parts of England, by roadsides and in gravelly pastures. Its stems rest upon the surface of the ground, and send out roots, by which the plants spread and are rapidly increased. _Soil and Culture._--Camomile flourishes best in light, poor soil; and is generally propagated by dividing the roots, and setting them in rows a foot apart, and eight or ten inches from each other in the rows. They will soon entirely occupy the ground. _Gathering._--The flowers should be gathered in a dry day, and when they are fully expanded. They are generally spread in an airy, shady situation for a few days, and afterwards removed to a heated apartment to perfect the drying. COMMON CAMOMILE. The flowers of this variety are single. Though considered more efficacious for medicinal purposes, it is not so generally cultivated as the Double-flowering. Its leaves are finely cut, or divided; and, when bruised, emit a peculiar, pungent odor. It may be grown from seeds, or slips, and from divisions of the plants, or roots. DOUBLE-FLOWERING CAMOMILE. A variety of the foregoing, with large, white, double flowers. The leaves are of the same form, but milder in their odor and taste. It is equally hardy with the Single-flowering, and much more ornamental. Though generally considered less efficacious than the last named, it is generally cultivated for use and the market on account of the greater bulk and weight of its flowers. It is propagated by slips, with a few of the small roots attached. Both of the sorts are classed as hardy perennials; but, in the Northern and Eastern States, the plants are frequently destroyed in severe winters. _Use._--"The flowers, which are the parts principally used, have long been in high repute, both in the popular and scientific Materia Medica, and give out their properties by infusion in either water or alcohol. The flowers are also sometimes used in the manufacture of bitter beer, and, along with Wormwood, made, to a certain extent, a substitute for hops. In many parts of England, the peasants have what they call a 'Camomile seat' at the end of their gardens, which is constructed by cutting out a bench in a bank of earth, and planting it thickly with the Double-flowering variety; on which they delight to sit, and fancy it conducive to health."--_M'Int._ It is considered a safe bitter, and tonic; though strong infusions, when taken warm, sometimes act as an emetic. * * * * * COMMON COLTSFOOT. Tussilago farfara. A hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant. The leaves are all radical, roundish-heart-shaped, and from five to seven inches in diameter; the flower-stem (scape) is six or seven inches high, imbricated, and produces a solitary yellow flower, which is about an inch in diameter. The plants blossom in February and March, before the appearance of the leaves, and often while the ground is still frozen and even covered with snow. _Propagation and Culture._--Coltsfoot thrives best in rich, moist soil. It may be propagated from seeds, but is generally increased by dividing its long, creeping roots. The plants require little attention, and will soon occupy all the space allotted. _Gathering and Use._--The leaves are the parts of the plant used, and are generally cut in July and September. They should not be exposed to the sun for drying, but spread singly in an airy, shaded situation. They are esteemed beneficial in colds and pulmonary disorders. * * * * * ELECAMPANE. Inula helenium. A hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, introduced from Europe, but growing spontaneously in moist places, by roadsides, and in the vicinity of gardens where it has been cultivated. Stem from three to five feet high, thick and strong, branching towards the top; the leaves are from nine inches to a foot in length, ovate, toothed on the margin, downy beneath; the flowers are yellow, spreading, and resemble a small sunflower; the seeds are narrow, four-sided, and crowned with down. The plants blossom in July and August, and there is but one variety cultivated. _Propagation and Culture._--It is generally propagated by dividing the roots; but may be grown from seeds, which are sown just after ripening. The plants should be set in rows two feet asunder, and a foot from each other in the rows. _Use._--Elecampane is cultivated for its roots, which are carminative, sudorific, tonic, and alleviating in pulmonary diseases. They are in their greatest perfection when of two years' growth. * * * * * HOARHOUND. Marrubium vulgare. Hoarhound is a hardy, herbaceous, perennial plant, introduced from Europe, and naturalized to a considerable extent in localities where it has been once cultivated. Stem hoary, about two feet high; leaves round-ovate; flowers white; seeds small, of an angular-ovoid form and grayish-brown color. _Propagation and Cultivation._--The plant prefers a rich, warm soil; and is generally propagated by dividing its long, creeping roots, but may also be raised from seeds. When once established, it will grow almost spontaneously, and yield abundantly. _Gathering and Use._--The plants are cut for use as they come into flower; and, if required, the foliage may be cut twice in the season. The leaves possess a strong and somewhat unpleasant odor, and their taste is "bitter, penetrating, and durable." The plant has long been esteemed for its efficacy in colds and pulmonary consumption. * * * * * HYSSOP. Hyssopus officinalis. Hyssop is a hardy, evergreen, dwarfish, aromatic shrub, from the south of Europe. Three kinds are cultivated, as follow:-- COMMON OR BLUE-FLOWERING. More generally found in gardens than either of the following varieties. The stems are square and tender at first, but afterwards become round and woody; the leaves are opposite, small, narrow, with six or eight bract-like leaves at the same joint; the flowers are blue, in terminal spikes; seeds small, black, oblong. RED-FLOWERING HYSSOP. Quite distinct from the Common or Blue-flowering. The stem is shorter, the plants are more branching in their habit, and the spikes more dense or compact; flowers fine red. It is not so hardy as the White or the Blue Flowering, and is often injured by severe winters. WHITE-FLOWERING HYSSOP. This is a sub-variety of the Common Blue-flowering; the principal if not the only mark of distinction being its white flowers. Its properties, and modes of culture, are the same. _Soil and Cultivation._--The plants require a light, warm, mellow soil; and are propagated from seeds, cuttings, or by dividing the roots. The seeds are sown in April; and, when the seedlings are two or three inches high, they are transplanted to rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot from each other in the rows. The roots may be divided or the slips set in spring or autumn. _Use._--The plant is highly aromatic. The leaves and young shoots are the parts used, and are cut, dried, and preserved as other pot-herbs. "Hyssop has the general virtues ascribed to aromatic plants; and is recommended in asthmas, coughs, and other pulmonary disorders."--_Rog._ * * * * * LICORICE. Glycyrrhiza glabra. Licorice is a hardy, perennial plant. The roots are fleshy, creeping, and, when undisturbed, attain a great length, and penetrate far into the earth; the stem is herbaceous, dull-green, and about four feet high; leaves pinnate, composed of four or five pairs of oval leaflets; flowers pale-blue, in terminal spikes. The fruit consists of short, flattened pods, each containing two or three kidney-shaped seeds. _Soil, Propagation, and Culture._--"Licorice succeeds best in deep, rich, rather sandy, or in alluvial soil. The ground should be well enriched the year previous to planting: and it should either be trenched three feet deep in autumn, laid in ridges, and allowed to remain in that state till spring; or it may be trenched immediately before planting. The former method is the preferable one. "Licorice is propagated by portions of the creeping stem (commonly termed 'the creeping root'), from four to six inches in length, each having two or three buds. These are planted in March or April, or as soon as the ground can be well worked, in rows three feet apart, and eighteen inches from each other in the rows; covering with earth to the depth of two or three inches. Every year, late in autumn, when the sap has gone down and the leaves have turned yellow, the old stems should be cut down with a pruning-knife to a level with the ground. At this time, also, the creeping stems are forked up, cut off close to the main stems, and preserved in sand, or in heaps covered with straw and earth, for future plantations. The roots will be ready for taking up three years after planting. This should be done towards winter, after the descent of the sap. A trench three feet must then be thrown out, and the roots extracted; after which, they may be stored in sand for use."--_Thomp._ _Use._--The roots are the parts of the plant used, and these are extensively employed by porter-brewers. "The sweet, mucilaginous juice extracted from the roots by boiling is much esteemed as an emollient in colds." * * * * * PENNYROYAL. Hedeoma pulegioides. The American Pennyroyal is a small, branching, annual plant, common to gravelly localities, and abounding towards autumn among stubble in dry fields from whence crops of wheat or rye have been recently harvested. The stem is erect, branching, and from six to twelve inches high; the leaves are opposite, oval, slightly toothed; flowers bluish, in axillary clusters; seeds very small, deep blackish-brown. _Sowing and Cultivation._--In its natural state, the seeds ripen towards autumn, lie dormant in the earth during winter, and vegetate the following spring or summer. When cultivated, the seeds should be sown soon after ripening, as they vegetate best when exposed to the action of frost during winter. They are sown broadcast, or in drills ten or twelve inches asunder. When the plants are in full flower, they are cut off, or taken up by the roots, and dried in an airy, shaded situation. _Use._--Pennyroyal possesses a warm, pungent, somewhat aromatic taste, and is employed exclusively for medical purposes. An infusion of the leaves is stimulating, sudorific, tonic, and beneficial in colds and chills. This plant must not be confounded with the Pennyroyal (_Mentha pulegium_) of English writers, which is a species of Mint, and quite distinct from the plant generally known as Pennyroyal in this country. * * * * * POPPY, OR MAW. Papaver somniferum, var. nigrum. A hardy annual, growing naturally in different parts of Europe, and cultivated to a considerable extent in Germany for its seeds, which, under the name of "Maw-seed," are an article of some commercial importance. Stem five or six feet high, branching; leaves smooth, glaucous, clasping, and much cut or gashed on the borders; flowers large, terminal, purple and white; the bud pendent, or drooping, until the time of flowering, when it becomes erect. The petals soon fall to the ground, remaining on the plant but a few hours after their expansion; and are succeeded by large, roundish heads, or capsules, two inches and upwards in diameter, filled with the small, darkish-blue seeds for which the plant is principally cultivated. _Soil, Sowing, and Culture._--"The soils best suited to the growth of the Poppy are such as are of medium texture and in the highest state of fertilization. As the seeds are small, and consequently easily buried, the land should be well pulverized by harrowing and rolling. The seeds are sown in April, in drills about half an inch in depth, and twenty inches or two feet distant from each other. The young plants are afterwards thinned out to from six to ten inches' distance in the rows, and the whole crop kept free from weeds by frequent hoeing. "The period of reaping is about the month of August, when the earliest and generally the largest capsules begin to open. The plants are then cut or pulled, and tied in small bundles, taking care not to allow the heads to recline until they are carried to the place allotted for the reception of the seed; which is then shaken out, and the sheaves again set upon their ends for the ripening of the remaining capsules. "In Germany and Flanders, a mode of obtaining the first crop is to spread sheets by the side of the row, into which the seeds are shaken by bending over the tops of the plants: these are then pulled, tied in bundles, and removed; when the sheets are drawn forward to the next row, and so on, until the harvesting is completed."--_Law._ _Use._--Maw-seed is imported to some extent from different parts of Europe, and is principally used in this country for feeding birds. OIL-POPPY. _Law._ Gray Poppy. Papaver somniferum olifer. Stem three feet high, smooth and branching; flowers dull-red, or grayish; capsules very large, oblong; seeds of a brownish color, and produced in great abundance. It is chiefly cultivated in Italy, the south of France, Germany, and Flanders. _Use._--"The oil of the seeds of the Poppy is of an agreeable flavor; and, in Europe, is chiefly applied to domestic purposes, for which it is esteemed nearly equal to that of the Olive. Its consumption in this country is comparatively trifling; being principally used for the finer kinds of oil-painting and by druggists." OPIUM, OR WHITE POPPY. _Law._ P. somniferum, album vel candidum. Plant strong and vigorous,--the stem, in favorable situations, reaching a height of five or six feet; flowers large, white, and of short duration; seed-pods globular, of large size, often measuring upwards of two inches in diameter; seeds small, white, ripening in August and September. _Sowing and Cultivation._--"Being an annual plant, the Poppy, when sown in spring, matures its seed the last of summer or early in autumn. It is of easy culture, and can be successfully grown in any section of the Northern or Middle States. It may be sown at any time during the month of April, or the first week in May. The best method of cultivating the plant is in rows two feet and a half apart; and, on the poppies attaining a few inches in height, they are hoed out to a distance from one another of six or eight inches. "Opium is obtained from the capsules or heads of seed, and is extracted after they are fully formed, but while yet green. The process is simple, and may be taught to children in an hour. "Two or more vertical incisions are made in the capsule with a sharp knife or other instrument, about an inch in length, and not so deep as to penetrate through the capsule. As soon as the incisions are made, a milky juice will flow out, which, being glutinous, will adhere to the capsule. This may be collected by a small hair-brush such as is used by painters, and squeezed into a small vessel carried by the person who collects the juice. The incisions are repeated at intervals of a few days all round the capsule, and the same process of collecting the exuded juice is also repeated. "The juice thus collected is Opium. In a day or two, it is of the consistence to be worked up into a mass. The narcotic matter of the plant may also be collected by boiling; but it is only the exuded juice that forms pure Opium. "In the opium countries of the East, the incisions are made at sunset by several-pointed knives or lancets. On the following day the juice is collected, scraped off with a small iron scoop, and deposited in earthen pots; when it is worked by the hand until it becomes consistent. It is then formed in globular cakes, and laid in small earthen basins to be further dried. After the opium is extracted from the capsule, the plant is allowed to stand, and ripen its seeds. "The seeds of the Poppy have nothing of the narcotic principle, and are eaten by the people of the East as a nourishing and grateful food; and they yield, by expression, an oil which is regarded as inferior only to that of the olive."--_Law._ The expense of labor forms the principal objection to the cultivation of the Poppy in the United States for its opium. As, however, the plants succeed well, and can be easily and extensively grown in any section of the country; and as the process of extraction, though minute, is yet simple,--the employment of females or children might render its production remunerative. * * * * * PALMATE-LEAVED RHUBARB. _Law._ Turkey Rhubarb. Rheum palmatum. This species is readily distinguished by its deeply divided or palmate leaves, and is generally considered as that from which the dried roots chiefly used in medicine are obtained. Like the Pie Rhubarb, it requires a deep, rich soil, which should be thoroughly stirred, and put in as fine a state of cultivation as possible, before setting the plants. These should be placed about three feet apart in each direction, and kept free from weeds during the summer. They will not be ready for taking up until five or six years old. The roots are thick and succulent, with a brownish skin and bright-yellow flesh, streaked or variegated with red. After being dug, they are washed clean, cut in rather large pieces, and dried either by the sun, or in kilns formed for the purpose; when they are ready for use. Rhubarb from Turkey and the neighboring countries is generally preferred; but it is said its superiority, to a great degree, is attributable to the manner in which it is dried and prepared for market. It is propagated by seed, or by a division of the roots. * * * * * RUE. Ruta graveolens. Rue is a hardy, shrubby, nearly evergreen plant, and thrives best in poor but dry and warm soil. It is propagated by seeds, or slips, and by dividing the roots. The seeds are sown in April, and the roots may be separated in spring or autumn. The plants should be set about eighteen inches apart in each direction. When extensively cultivated, they are set in rows eighteen inches apart, and a foot asunder in the rows. _Use._--"Rue has a strong, unpleasant odor, and a bitter, pungent, penetrating taste. The leaves are so acrid as to irritate and inflame the skin, if much handled. Its efficacy as a vermifuge is unquestioned; but it should be used with caution. It was formerly employed in soups; and the leaves, after being boiled, were eaten pickled in vinegar." The plant is rarely used in this country, either as an esculent or for medical purposes. The kinds cultivated are the following:-- BROAD-LEAVED RUE. Stem shrubby, four or five feet high; leaves compound, of a grayish-green color and strong odor; flowers yellow, in terminal, spreading clusters; the fruit is a roundish capsule, and contains four rough, black seeds. At one period, this was the sort principally cultivated, and is that referred to in most treatises on medicine. More recently, however, it has given place to the Narrow-leaved, which is much hardier, and equally efficacious. NARROW-LEAVED RUE. Stem three or four feet high; foliage narrower than that of the preceding, but of the same grayish color, and strong, peculiar odor; the flowers are produced in longer and looser clusters than those of the Broad-leaved, and the seed-vessels are smaller. Now generally cultivated because of its greater hardiness. * * * * * SAFFRON. _Law._ Safflower. Carthamus tinctorius. A hardy, annual plant, with a smooth, woody stem, two and a half or three feet high; leaves ovate, spiny; flowers large, compound, bright-orange, or vermilion; seeds ovate, whitish, or very light-brown, a fifth of an inch long, and a tenth of an inch thick. _Soil and Cultivation._--It grows best on soils rather light, and not wet; and the seed should be sown the last of April, or early in May, in drills about two feet apart and an inch deep. When the plants are two inches high, they should be thinned to six inches apart in the rows, and afterwards occasionally hoed during the summer, to keep the earth loose, and free the plants of weeds. _Use._--"It is cultivated exclusively for its flowers, from which the coloring-matter of Saffron, or Safflower, is obtained. These are collected when fully expanded, and dried on a kiln, under pressure, to form them into cakes; in which state they are sold in the market. It is extensively cultivated in the Levant and several countries of Europe, particularly France, Spain, and Germany; in the latter of which, the first gathering of flowers is obtained in the beginning of September; and others, for six or eight weeks following, as the flowers expand. It flowers somewhat earlier in this country, and seems well adapted to our climate. "Though the color of the petals is of a deep-orange, they are used for dying various shades of red; the yellow matter being easily separated from the other. The flowers of Saffron are employed in Spain and other countries for coloring dishes and confectioneries; and from the seed a fixed oil is obtained, somewhat similar to that of the Sunflower: for which purpose alone, it does not, however, seem deserving of cultivation." It was formerly much used in medicine in cases of humors and diseased blood. * * * * * SOUTHERNWOOD. Artemesia abrotanum. A hardy, shrubby plant, about three feet high. The leaves are pale-green, and cut, or divided, into narrow, thread-like segments; the flowers are numerous, small, yellow, drooping; the seeds resemble those of the Common Wormwood, and retain their germinative properties two years. The plant is generally propagated by dividing the roots in the manner of other hardy shrubs. _Use._--The leaves have a strong, resinous, somewhat aromatic and rather pleasant odor, and are quite bitter to the taste. The root is seldom used; but the leaves and young branches are employed in the same manner and for the same purposes as those of the Common Wormwood. * * * * * WORMWOOD. Artemesia. The cultivated species are as follow:-- COMMON WORMWOOD. Artemesia absynthium. This species, everywhere common to gardens in this country, is a native of Great Britain. It is a hardy, perennial, shrubby plant, two or three feet in height. The leaves are deeply cut, or divided, pale-green above, and hoary beneath; the flowers are small, numerous, pale-yellow; the seeds are quite small, and retain their powers of germination two years. The leaves, when bruised, have a strong, somewhat pungent, yet aromatic odor, and are proverbial for their intense bitterness. ROMAN WORMWOOD. Artemesia pontica. This species somewhat resembles the foregoing: but the roots are smaller, less woody, and more fibrous, and the stalks are shorter, and more slender; the leaves are smaller, more finely cut, or divided, pale-green above, and hoary on the under surface, like those of the Common Wormwood; the flowers, which are produced on the upper branches, are small, and of a pale-yellow color; seeds similar to those of the above species, retaining their vitality two years. It is generally preferred to the Common Wormwood for medicinal purposes, as the taste is more agreeable, and its odor less pungent. SEA WORMWOOD. Artemesia maritima. Indigenous to Great Britain, and common to the seacoast of Holland and the low countries of Europe. Roots creeping, tough, and fibrous; stalks two or three feet high, and, like the roots, tough and woody; leaves numerous, long, narrow, and hoary; flowers yellow, produced on the small branches towards the top of the plant; seeds similar to those of the Common Wormwood. The leaves are somewhat bitter to the taste, and, when bruised, emit a strong, pleasant, aromatic odor. _Soil and Cultivation._--All the species are hardy, aromatic perennials; and, though they will thrive in almost any soil, their properties are best developed in that which is warm, dry, and light. They are generally propagated, as other hardy shrubs, by dividing the plants; but may be raised from seeds, or slips. The seeds are sown in April, in shallow drills; and the seedlings afterwards transplanted to rows two feet apart, and a foot from each other in the rows. _Use._--"An infusion of the leaves and tops of the Common Wormwood is used as a vermifuge, tonic, and stomachic; and the leaves are found to be beneficial to poultry."--- _Thomp._ Most of the other species possess the same properties in a greater or less degree, and are used for the same purposes. CHAPTER XI. MUSHROOMS, OR ESCULENT FUNGI. Agaricus. Boletus. Clavaria. Morchella, or Morel. Tuber, or Truffle. Although many experiments have been made in the culture of different species of edible Fungi, "only one has yet been generally introduced into the garden, though there can be no doubt the whole would finally submit to and probably be improved by cultivation. Many of them are natives of this country, abounding in our woods and pastures; and may be gathered wild, and freely enjoyed by those who have not the means of raising them artificially. In Poland and Russia, there are about thirty sorts of edible Fungi in common use among the peasantry. They are gathered in all the different stages of their growth, and used in various ways,--raw, boiled, stewed, roasted; and being hung up, and dried in stoves or chimneys, form a part of their winter's stock of provisions. "Mushrooms are not, however, everywhere equally abundant, owing as well to climate as to the more general cultivation of the soil: the character of many of the sorts is, therefore, not perfectly known, and most of them are passed over as deleterious. Indeed, the greatest caution is requisite in selecting any species of this tribe for food; and we can advise none but an experienced botanist to search after any but the common and familiar sort (_Agaricus campestris_) for food."--_Loud._ * * * * * COMMON MUSHROOM. _M'Int._ _Rog._ Champignon. Agaricus campestris. [Illustration: Common Mushroom.] This Mushroom, when it first appears, is of a rounded or button-like form, of a white color, and apparently rests on the surface of the ground. When fully developed, "the stem is solid, two or three inches high, and about half an inch in diameter; its cap measures from an inch to three and sometimes even upwards of four inches in diameter, is of a white color, changing to brown when old, and becoming scurfy, fleshy, and regularly convex, but, with age, flat, and liquefying in decay; the gills are loose, of a pinkish-red, changing to liver-color, in contact with but not united to the stem, very thick-set, some forked next the stem, some next the edge of the cap, some at both ends, and generally, in that case, excluding the intermediate smaller gills." Loudon says that it is most readily distinguished, when of middle size, by its fine pink or flesh-colored gills and pleasant smell. In a more advanced stage, the gills become of a chocolate color; and it is then more liable to be confounded with other kinds of dubious quality: but the species which most nearly resembles it is slimy to the touch, and destitute of the fine odor, having rather a disagreeable smell. Further, the noxious kind grows in woods, or on the margin of woods; while the true Mushroom springs up chiefly in open pastures, and should be gathered only in such places. _Cultivation._--"This is the only species that has as yet been subjected to successful cultivation; though there can be little doubt that all or most of the terrestrial-growing sorts would submit to the same process, if their natural habitats were sufficiently studied, and their spawn collected and propagated. In this way, the Common Mushroom was first brought under the control of man. "The seeds of the Common Mushroom, in falling from the gills when ripe, are no doubt wafted by the wind, and become attached to the stems and leaves of grasses and other herbage; and notwithstanding they are eaten by such animals as the horse, deer, and sheep, pass through their intestines without undergoing any material change in their vegetative existence: and hence, in the dung of these animals, when placed together, and kept moderately dry, and brought to a slight state of fermentation, we discover the first stage of the existence of the future brood of mushrooms. This is practically called 'spawn,' and consists of a white, fibrous substance, running like broken threads through the mass of dung, which appears to be its only and proper _nidus_."--_M'Int._ It is prepared for use as follows:-- "In June and July, take any quantity of fresh horse-droppings,--the more dry and high-fed the better,--mixed with short litter, one-third of cow's dung, and a good portion of mould of a loamy nature; cement them well together, and mash the whole into a thin compost, and spread it on the floor of an open shed, to remain until it becomes firm enough to be formed into flat, square bricks; which done, set them on an edge, and frequently turn them till half dry; then, with a dibble, make two or three holes in each brick, and insert in each hole a piece of good old spawn about the size of a common walnut. The bricks should then be left till they are dry. This being completed, level the surface of a piece of ground, under cover, three feet wide, and of sufficient length to receive the bricks; on which lay a bottom of dry horse-dung six inches thick; then form a pile by placing the bricks in rows one upon another, with the spawn-side uppermost, till the pile is three feet high; next cover it with a small portion of warm horse-dung, sufficient in quantity to diffuse a gentle glow of heat through the whole. When the spawn has spread itself through every part of the bricks, the process is ended, and the bricks may then be laid up in a dry place for use. Mushroom-spawn thus made will preserve its vegetative power many years, if well dried before it is laid up; but, if moist, it will grow, and exhaust itself."--_Trans._ The next step to be taken is the formation of the bed; in the preparation of which, no dung answers so well as that of the horse, when taken fresh from the stable: the more droppings in it, the better. The process recommended by Rogers is as follows:-- "About July or August is the general season for making mushroom-beds, though this may be done all the year round. A quantity of the dung mentioned should be collected and thrown together in a heap, to ferment and acquire heat; and, as this heat generally proves too violent at first, it should, previously to making the bed, be reduced to a proper temperature by frequently turning it in the course of the fortnight or three weeks; which time it will most likely require for all the parts to get into an even state of fermentation. During the above time, should it be showery weather, the bed will require some sort of temporary protection, by covering it with litter or such like, as too much wet would soon deaden its fermenting quality. The like caution should be attended to in making the bed, and after finishing it. As soon as it is observed that the fiery heat and rank steam of the dung have passed off, a dry and sheltered spot of ground should be chosen on which to make the bed. This should be marked out five feet broad; and the length, running north and south, should be according to the quantity of mushrooms likely to be required. If for a moderate family, a bed twelve or fourteen feet long will be found, if it takes well, to produce a good supply of mushrooms for some months, provided proper attention be paid to the covering. "On the space marked for making the bed, a trench should be thrown out about six inches deep. The mould may be laid regularly at the side; and, if good, it will do for earthing the bed hereafter: otherwise, if brought from a distance, that of a more loamy than a sandy nature will be best. "Whether in the trench, or upon the surface, there should be laid about four inches of good litter, not too short, for forming the bottom of the bed; then lay on the prepared dung a few inches thick, regularly over the surface, beating it as regularly down with the fork; continue thus, gradually drawing in the sides to the height of five feet, until it is narrow at the top like the ridge of a house. In that state it may remain for ten days or a fortnight, during which time the heat should be examined towards the middle of the bed by thrusting some small sharp sticks down in three or four places; and, when found of a gentle heat (not hot), the bed may be spawned: for which purpose, the spawn-bricks should be broken regularly into pieces about an inch and a half or two inches square, beginning within six inches of the bottom of the bed, and in lines about eight inches apart. The same distance will also do for the pieces of spawn, which are best put in by one hand, raising the manure up a few inches, whilst with the other the spawn can be laid in and covered at the same time. "After spawning the bed, if it is found to be in that regular state of heat before mentioned, it may be earthed. After the surface is levelled with the back of the spade, there should be laid on two inches of mould,--that out of the trench, if dry and good, will do; otherwise make choice of a rich loam, as before directed. After having been laid on, it is to be beaten closely together; and, when the whole is finished, the bed must be covered about a foot thick with good oat or wheat straw; over which should be laid mats, for the double purpose of keeping the bed dry, and of securing the covering from being blown off. In the course of two or three days, the bed should be examined; and, if it is considered that the heat is likely to increase, the covering must be diminished for a few days, which is better than taking it entirely off. "In about a month or five weeks,--but frequently within the former time, if the bed is in a high state of cultivation,--mushrooms will most likely make their appearance; and, in the course of eight and forty hours afterwards, they will have grown to a sufficient size for use. In gathering, instead of cutting them off close to the ground, they should be drawn out with a gentle twist, filling up the cavity with a little fine mould, gently pressed in level with the bed. This method of gathering is much better than cutting, as the part left generally rots, and breeds insects, which are very destructive, both in frames and on mushroom-beds. "Where a mushroom-bed is to remain permanently, a covered shed will be found convenient. "Sometimes it happens that a bed suddenly ceases to produce any mushrooms. This arises from various causes, but principally from the cold state of the bed in winter, or from a too dry state in summer. In the former case, a slight covering of mulchy hay laid over the bed, and on that six or eight inches of well-worked, hot dung, and the whole covered lightly with the straw that was taken off, will most likely bring it about again. In the latter instance, moisture, if required, should be given moderately, two or three mornings; when, after lying about an hour, the whole may be covered up, and be found of much service. In summer, most mushroom-beds in a bearing state require more or less slight waterings. Soft water should be used for the purpose: spring water is of too hard and too cold a nature; and, when at any time applied, checks vegetation. In summer time, a gentle shower of rain, on open beds that are in bearing and seem dry, will add considerably to their productiveness. "A mushroom-bed seldom furnishes any abundance after two or three months: it has often done its best in six or seven weeks. Heavy rains are most destructive to mushrooms: therefore care should be taken to remove the wet straw, or litter, and directly replace it with dry. Hence the utility of a covered shed, or mushroom-house." In addition to the foregoing, the following native species may be eaten with perfect safety, if gathered young and used while fresh:-- AGARICUS COMATUS. "An excellent species, much employed for making catchup; but should be used in a young state. It is found growing abundantly on stumps of trees, appearing both in spring and autumn." AGARICUS DELICIOSUS. _M'Int._ Sweet Mushroom. Found in September and October, growing under fir and pine trees. It is of medium size, yellowish, zoned, with deep orange on the top, somewhat resembling _A. torminosus_ (a deleterious species), but readily distinguished from it, as its juice is, when fresh cut, quite red, afterwards turning green, while that of the latter is white and unchangeable. Sir James Edward Smith says it well deserves its name, and is really the most delicious mushroom known; and Mr. Sowerby is equally high in its praise, pronouncing it very luscious eating, full of rich gravy, with a little of the flavor of mussels. AGARICUS EXQUISITUS. _Badham._ St. George's Mushroom. _M'Int._ Agaricus Georgii. This species often attains a weight of five or six pounds. It is generally considered less delicate than the common cultivated mushroom (_A. campestris_); but in Hungary it is regarded as a special gift from the saint whose name it bears. Persoon describes it as superior to _A. campestris_ in smell, taste, and digestibility; on which account, he says, it is generally preferred in France. It is found abundantly in many places, generally growing in rings, and re-appearing for many successive years on the same spot; and, though sometimes met with in old pastures, is generally found in thickets, under trees. AGARICUS PERSONATUS. Blewits. Blue Hats. _Cooke._ This is one of the species occasionally sold in Covent-Garden Market, London. When mature, it has a soft, convex, moist, smooth pileus, with a solid, somewhat bulbous stem, tinted with lilac. The gills are dirty-white, and rounded towards the stem. The _Agaricus personatus_ constitutes one of the very few mushrooms which have a market value in England. It is quite essential that it should be collected in dry weather, as it absorbs moisture readily, and is thereby injured in flavor, and rendered more liable to decay. AGARICUS PRUNULUS. _Vitt._ _M'Int._ This is found only in spring, growing in rings on the borders of wood-lands; at which time abundance of its spawn may be procured, and may be continued in the same way that the spawn of the common cultivated Mushroom is; namely, by transplanting it into bricks of loam and horse-dung, in which it will keep for months. This mushroom is used both in its green and dried state. In the latter it constitutes what is called "Funghi di Genoa," and is preserved by being simply cut into four pieces, and dried in the air for a few days; when it is strung up, and kept for use. AGARICUS OREADES. Fairy-ring Agaricus. There is little difficulty in distinguishing this mushroom, which is found growing in rings. The pileus is of a brownish-ochre color at first; becomes paler as it grows older, until it fades into a rich cream-yellow. Dr. Badham says, "Independent of the excellent flavor of this little mushroom, two circumstances make it valuable in a domestic point of view,--the facility with which it is dried, and its extensive dissemination." It may be kept for years without losing any of its aroma or goodness. * * * * * BOLETUS. _Fries._ Of this, two species are considered eatable,--the _B. edulis_ and the _B. scaber_; the former resembling the Common Mushroom in taste, and the latter of good quality while in a young, fresh state, but of little value when dried, as it loses much of its odor, and becomes insipid, and unfit for use. * * * * * CLAVARIA. All the species are edible, and many of them indigenous to our woods; being usually found in damp, shady places. * * * * * THE MOREL. _M'Int._ Morchella esculenta. [Illustration: The Morel.] In its natural state, the Morel is found growing in orchards, damp woods, and in moist pastures. Its height is about four inches. It is distinguished by its white, cylindrical, hollow, or solid, smooth stem; its cap is of a pale-brown or gray color, nearly spherical, hollow, adheres to the stem by its base, and is deeply pitted over its entire surface. It is in perfection early in the season; but should not be gathered soon after rain, or while wet with dew. If gathered when dry, it may be preserved for several months. _Use._--The Morels are used, like the Truffle, as an ingredient to heighten the flavor of ragouts, gravies, and other rich dishes. They are used either fresh or in a dried state. _Cultivation._--Its cultivation, if ever attempted, has been carried on to a very limited extent. Of its capability of submitting to culture, there can be little doubt. If the spawn were collected from its natural habitats in June, and planted in beds differently formed, but approximating as nearly as possible to its natural conditions, a proper mode of cultivation would assuredly be in time arrived at. Persoon remarks that "it prefers a chalky or argillaceous soil to one of a sandy nature; and that it not unfrequently springs up where charcoal has been burned, or where cinders have been thrown." "The great value of the Morel--which is one of the most expensive luxuries furnished by the Italian warehouses, and which is by no means met with in the same abundance as some others of the Fungi--deserves to be better known than it is at present." The genus comprises a very few species, and they are all edible. * * * * * COMMON TRUFFLE. Tuber cibarium. [Illustration: The Truffle.] On the authority of our most distinguished mycologists, the Common Truffle has not yet been discovered within the limits of the United States. It is said to be found abundantly in some parts of Great Britain, particularly in Wiltshire, Kent, and Hampshire. It is collected in large quantities in some portions of France, and is indigenous to other countries of Europe. The following description by Mascall, in connection with the engraving, will give an accurate idea of its size, form, color, and general character: "The size rarely much exceeds that of a large walnut. Its form is rounded, sometimes kidney-shaped, and rough with protuberances. The surface, when the truffle is young, is whitish; but, in those that are full grown, it is either blackish or a deep-black. The color of the inside is whitish, with dark-blue and white, gray, reddish, light-brown or dark-brown veins, of the thickness of a horse-hair, which are usually variously entangled, and which form a kind of network, or mat. Between the veins are numerous cavities, filled with mucilage, and small, solid grains. These scarcely visible glands were formerly said to be the seeds, or germs, of the young truffles. The less the inside of the Truffle is colored with dark veins, the more tender and delicious is its flesh. "The blackish, external rind is hard, and very rough, by means of fine fissures, grains, and protuberances; and forms, with its small facets (which are almost hexagonal), an appearance by which it somewhat resembles the fir-apples of the larch. Whilst the truffle is young, its smell resembles that of putrid plants, or of moist, vegetable earth. When it has nearly attained its full growth, it diffuses an agreeable smell, which is peculiar to it, resembling that of musk, which lasts only a few days: it then becomes stronger; and the nearer the fungus is to its dissolution, which speedily ensues, so much the more unpleasant is its odor, till at last it is quite disagreeable and putrid. Whilst young, the flesh is watery, and the taste insipid: when fully formed, its firm flesh, which is like the kernel of the almond, has an extremely aromatic and delicious taste; but as soon as the fungus begins to decay, and worms and putrescence to attack it, its taste is bitter and disagreeable." Many attempts have been made in Great Britain, as well as in other parts of Europe, to propagate the Truffle by artificial means; but all experiments thus far, if they have not totally failed, have been attended by very unsatisfactory results. _Use._--Like the Common Mushroom, it is used principally in stuffings, gravies, and sauces, and in other very highly seasoned culinary preparations. It has long been held in high esteem by epicures and the opulent; but, from its extreme rarity, has always commanded a price which has effectually prohibited its general use. It has been truthfully remarked, "that few know how to raise it, and fewer still possess the proper knowledge to prepare it for the table." PIEDMONTESE TRUFFLE. _Thomp._ Tuber magnatum. This species is the most celebrated of all the truffles, and always commands an enormous price. It occurs abundantly in the mountains of Piedmont, and probably nowhere else. TUBER MELANOSPORUM. _Thomp._ This is the Truffle of the Paris markets. It is richly scented, and also greatly superior in flavor to the common sorts. Other genera and species of Fungi are considered harmless, and are occasionally used for food. Some of the edible kinds, however, in size, form, color, and organization, so closely approach certain poisonous or deleterious species, as to confuse even the most experienced student. None of the family (not excepting even the common cultivated Mushroom) should therefore be gathered for use, except by those who may possess a thorough knowledge of the various species and their properties. CHAPTER XII. MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLES. Alkekengi, or Ground Cherry. Corn. Egg-plant. Martynia. Oil Radish. Okra, or Gumbo. Pepper. Rhubarb, or Pie-plant. Sunflower. Tobacco. Tomato. * * * * * ALKEKENGI. Strawberry Tomato. Winter Cherry. Ground Cherry. Barbadoes Gooseberry. Physalis edulis. A hardy annual plant from Central or Tropical America. Stem angular, very much branched, but not erect,--in good soils, attaining a length or height of more than three feet; leaves large, triangular; flowers solitary, yellow, spotted or marked with purple, and about half an inch in diameter; fruit rounded or obtuse-heart-shaped, half an inch in diameter, yellow, and semi-transparent at maturity, enclosed in a peculiar thin, membranous, inflated, angular calyx, or covering, which is of a pale-green color while the fruit is forming, but at maturity changes to a dusky-white or reddish-drab. The pedicel, or fruit-stem, is weak and slender; and most of the berries fall spontaneously to the ground at the time of ripening. The seeds are small, yellow, lens-shaped, and retain their germinative properties three years. The plants are exceedingly prolific, and will thrive in almost any description of soil. Sow at the same time, and thin or transplant to the same distance, as practised in the cultivation of the Tomato. On land where it has been grown, it springs up spontaneously in great abundance, and often becomes troublesome in the garden. _Use._--The fruit has a juicy pulp, and, when first tasted, a pleasant, strawberry-like flavor, with a certain degree of sweetness and acidity intermixed. The after-taste is, however, much less agreeable, and is similar to that of the Common Tomato. By many the fruit is much esteemed, and is served in its natural state at the table as a dessert. With the addition of lemon-juice, it is sometimes preserved in the manner of the plum, as well as stewed and served like cranberries. If kept from the action of frost, the fruit retains its natural freshness till March or April. PURPLE ALKEKENGI. Purple Ground Cherry. Purple Strawberry Tomato. Purple Winter Cherry. Physalis sp. This species grows naturally and abundantly in some of the Western States. The fruit is roundish, somewhat depressed, about an inch in diameter, of a deep purple color, and enclosed in the membranous covering peculiar to the genus. Compared with the preceding species, the fruit is more acid, less perfumed, and not so palatable in its crude state, but by many considered superior for preserving. The plant is less pubescent, but has much the same habit, and is cultivated in the same manner. TALL ALKEKENGI. Tall Ground Cherry. Tall Strawberry Tomato. Physalis pubescens. Stem about four feet high, erect and branching; leaves oval, somewhat triangular, soft and velvety; flowers yellow, spotted with deep purple; fruit yellow, of the size of the Common Yellow Alkekengi, enclosed in an angular, inflated calyx, and scarcely distinguishable from the last named. It is grown from seeds, which are sown like those of the Tomato. It is later, and much less prolific, than the species first described. * * * * * CORN. Zea mays. _Garden and Table Varieties._-- ADAMS'S EARLY WHITE. A distinct and well-marked table variety. Ears seven to eight inches in length, two inches in diameter, twelve or fourteen rowed, and rather abruptly contracted at the tips; kernel white, rounded, somewhat deeper than broad, and indented at the exterior end, which is whiter and less transparent than the interior or opposite extremity. The depth and solidity of the kernel give great comparative weight to the ear; and, as the cob is of small size, the proportion of product is unusually large. In its general appearance, the ear is not unlike some descriptions of Southern or Western field-corn; from which, aside from its smaller dimensions, it would hardly be distinguishable. In quality, it cannot be considered equal to some of the shrivelled-kernelled, sweet descriptions, but will prove acceptable to those to whom the peculiar, sugary character of these may be objectionable. Though later than the Jefferson or Darlings, it is comparatively early, and may be classed as a good garden variety. Much grown for early use and the market in the Middle States, but less generally known or cultivated in New England. BLACK SWEET. Slate Sweet. Plant, in height and general habit, similar to Darling's Early; ears six to eight inches in length, uniformly eight-rowed; kernels roundish, flattened, deep slate-color, much shrivelled at maturity. Early. The variety is sweet, tender, and well flavored; remains a long period in condition for use; and, aside from its peculiar color (which by some is considered objectionable), is well worthy of cultivation. BURR'S IMPROVED. Burr's Sweet. An improved variety of the Twelve-rowed Sweet. The ears are from twelve to sixteen rowed, rarely eighteen, and, in good soils and seasons, often measure eight or ten inches in length, nearly three inches in diameter, and weigh, when in condition for the table, from eighteen to twenty-two ounces; cob white; kernel rounded, flattened, pure white at first, or while suitable for use,--becoming wrinkled, and changing to dull, yellowish, semi-transparent white, when ripe. The variety is hardy and productive; and, though not early, usually perfects its crop. For use in its green state, plantings may be made to the 20th of June. The kernel is tender, remarkably sugary, hardens slowly, is thin-skinned, and generally considered much superior to the Common Twelve-rowed. It is always dried or ripened for seed with much difficulty; often moulding or decaying before the glazing or hardening of the kernel takes place. If the crop is sufficiently advanced as not to be injured by freezing, it will ripen and dry off best upon the stalks in the open ground; but if in the milk, or still soft and tender at the approach of freezing weather, it should be gathered and suspended, after being husked, in a dry and airy room or building, taking care to keep the ears entirely separate from each other. DARLING'S EARLY. Darling's Early Sweet. Stalk about five feet in height, and comparatively slender; the ears are from six to eight inches in length, an inch and a half in diameter, and, when the variety is unmixed, uniformly eight-rowed; the kernels are roundish, flattened, pure white when suitable for boiling,--much shrivelled or wrinkled, and of a dull, semi-transparent yellow, when ripe; the cob is white. The variety is early, very tender and sugary, yields well, produces little fodder, ears near the ground, and is one of the best sorts for planting for early use, as it seldom, if ever, fails to perfect its crop. In the Middle States, and in the milder sections of New England, it may be planted for boiling until near the beginning of July. The hills are made three feet apart in one direction by two feet and a half in the opposite; or the seeds may be planted in drills three feet apart, dropping them in groups of three together every eighteen inches. EARLY JEFFERSON. Stalk five to six feet high, producing one or two ears, which are of small size, eight-rowed, and measure six or eight inches in length, and about an inch and a half in diameter at the largest part; cob white; kernel white, roundish, flattened,--the surface of a portion of the ear, especially near its tip, often tinged with a delicate shade of rose-red. The kernel retains its color, and never shrivels or wrinkles, in ripening. The variety is hardy and productive, but is principally cultivated on account of its early maturity; though, in this respect, it is little, if at all, in advance of Darling's. The quality is tender and good, but much less sugary than the common shrivelled varieties; on which account, however, it is preferred by some palates. It remains but a short time tender and in good condition for boiling; soon becoming hard, glazed, and unfit for use. GOLDEN SWEET. Golden Sugar. Stalk and general habit similar to Darling's Early; ears six to eight inches long, an inch and a half or an inch and three-fourths in diameter, regularly eight-rowed; the kernel, when ripe, is semi-transparent yellow. The variety is apparently a hybrid between the Common Yellow or Canada Corn and Darling's Early. In flavor, as well as appearance, both of these varieties are recognized. It does not run excessively to stalk and foliage, yields well, is hardy, and seldom fails to ripen perfectly in all sections of New England. For boiling in its green state, plantings may be made until the last week of June or first of July. In respect to quality, it is quite tender, sweet, and well flavored, but less sugary than most of the other sugar or sweet varieties. OLD COLONY. _Hov. Mag._ This variety was originated by the late Rev. A. R. Pope, of Somerville, Mass. At the time of its production, he was a resident of Kingston, Plymouth County, Mass.; and, in consequence of the locality of its origin, it received the name above given. In a communication at the close of the sixteenth volume of the "Magazine of Horticulture," Mr. Pope describes it as follows:-- "It is a hybrid, as any one can readily perceive by inspection, between the Southern White and the Common Sweet Corn of New England; and exhibits certain characteristics of the two varieties, combining the size of the ear and kernel and productiveness of the Southern with the sweetness and tenderness of the Northern parent. "The stalks are from ten to twelve feet in height, and of corresponding circumference. They are also furnished with brace-roots (seldom found upon the common varieties of Sweet Corn); and the pistils are invariably green, and not pink, as in the Southern White." The ears are from five to seven inches in length, and the number of rows varies from twelve to twenty; the kernels are very long or deep; and the cob, which is always white, is quite small compared with the size of the ear. When ripe, the kernels are of a dull, semi-transparent, yellowish white, and much shrivelled. The ears are produced on the stalk, four or five feet from the ground. It is very productive, but late; and though it will rarely fail in the coldest seasons to yield abundant supplies in the green state for the table, yet it requires a long and warm season for its complete maturity. For cultivation in the Southern States and tropical climates, it has been found to be peculiarly adapted; as it not only possesses there the sweetness and excellence that distinguish the Sweet Corn of the temperate and cooler sections, but does not deteriorate by long cultivation, as other sweet varieties almost invariably are found to do. PARCHING CORN (WHITE KERNEL). Pop-corn. Stalk six feet high, usually producing two ears, which are from six to eight inches long, quite slender, and uniformly eight-rowed; cob white; kernel roundish, flattened, glossy, flinty, or rice-like, and of a dull, semi-transparent, white color. When parched, it is of pure snowy whiteness, very brittle, tender, and well flavored, and generally considered the best of all the sorts used for this purpose. In some parts of Massachusetts, as also in New Hampshire, the variety is somewhat extensively cultivated for commercial purposes. Its peculiar properties seem to be most perfectly developed in dry, gravelly, or silicious soils, and under the influence of short and warm seasons. In field culture, it is either planted in hills three feet apart, or in drills three feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the drills. The product per acre is usually about the same number of bushels of ears that the same land would yield of shelled-corn of the ordinary field varieties. Increase of size is a sure indication of deterioration. The cultivator should aim to keep the variety as pure as possible by selecting slender and small-sized but well-filled ears for seed, and in no case to plant such as may have yellow or any foreign sort intermixed. The value of a crop will be diminished nearly in a relative proportion to the increase of the size of the ears. PARCHING CORN (YELLOW). A yellow variety of the preceding. It retains its color to some extent after being parched; and this is considered an objection. It is tender, but not so mild flavored as the white, and is little cultivated. The size and form of the ears are the same, and it is equally productive. RED-COB SWEET. Ears about eight inches in length by a diameter of two inches,--usually twelve but sometimes fourteen rowed; kernels roundish, flattened, white when suitable for boiling, shrivelled, and of a dull, semi-transparent white when ripe; the cob is red, which may be called its distinguishing characteristic. Quality good; the kernel being tender and sweet. It remains long in good condition for the table, and is recommended for general cultivation. Season intermediate. A sub-variety occurs with eight rows; the form and size of the ear and kernel resembling Darling's Early. RICE (RED KERNEL). This is a variety of the White Rice, with deep purplish-red or blood-red kernels. The ears are of the same size and form. Its quality, though inferior to the white, is much superior to the yellow. Productiveness, and season of maturity, the same. RICE (WHITE KERNEL). Stalk six feet or more in height; ears five or six inches long, an inch and a half in diameter, somewhat conical, broadest at the base, and tapering to the top, which is often more or less sharply pointed; the cob is white; the kernels are long and slender, angular, sharply pointed at the outward extremity, as well as to some extent at the opposite, and extremely hard and flinty. They are not formed at right angles on the cob, as in most varieties of corn, but point upward, and rest in an imbricated manner, one over the other. The variety is hardy and prolific; and, though not late, should have the benefit of the whole season. For parching, it is inferior to the Common Parching Corn before described, though it yields as much bulk in proportion to the size of the kernel, and is equally as white: but the sharp points often remain sound; and it is, consequently, less crisp and tender. RICE (YELLOW KERNEL). Another sub-variety of the White Rice; the ear and kernel being of the same form and size. It is equally productive, and matures as early; but, when parched, is inferior to the White both in crispness and flavor. STOWELL'S EVERGREEN. Stowell's Evergreen Sweet. Stalk from six to seven feet in height, and of average diameter; ears of a conical form, six or seven inches long, and two inches and a quarter in diameter at the base; kernels long or deep, pure white when suitable for boiling, of a dull, yellowish-white, and much shrivelled when ripe; cob white, and, in consequence of the depth of the kernels, small in comparison to the diameter of the ear. The variety is intermediate in its season; and, if planted at the same time with Darling's or equally early kinds, will keep the table supplied till October. It is hardy and productive, very tender and sugary, and, as implied by the name, remains a long period in a fresh condition, and suitable for boiling. TUSCARORA. Turkey Wheat. Plant five to six feet in height, moderately strong and vigorous; ears eight-rowed, and of remarkable size,--exceeding, in this respect, almost every sort used for the table in the green state. In good soil, they are often a foot and upwards in length, and from two inches and three-fourths to three inches in diameter at the base. The kernel, which is much larger than that of any other table variety, is pure white, rounded, flattened, and, when divided in the direction of its width, apparently filled with fine flour of snowy whiteness; the cob is red, and of medium size. In point of maturity, the Tuscarora is an intermediate variety. In its green state, it is of fair quality, and considered a valuable sort by those to whom the sweetness of the sugar varieties is objectionable. In their ripened state, the kernels, to a great extent, retain their fresh and full appearance, not shrivelling in the manner of the sugar sort, though almost invariably indented at the ends like some of the Southern Horse-toothed field varieties. When ground in the ripe state, it is much less farinaceous and valuable for cooking or feeding stock than the fine, white, floury appearance of the kernel, when cut or broken, would seem to indicate. TWELVE-ROWED SWEET. A large, comparatively late variety. Stalk seven feet high; the ears are from ten to fourteen rowed, seven to nine inches long, often two inches and a half in diameter in the green state, and taper slightly towards the top, which is bluntly rounded; cob white; the kernels are large, round or circular, sometimes tooth-shaped, pure white when suitable for the table, dull white and shrivelled when ripe. The variety is hardy, yields a certain crop, and is sweet, tender, and of good quality. It is the parent of one or two varieties of superior size and excellence, to which it is now gradually giving place. _Field Varieties._-- CANADA YELLOW. Early Canada. Ear small, about seven inches in length, symmetrical, broadest at the base, and tapering to the tip, uniformly eight-rowed, in four double rows; kernel roundish, smooth, and of a rich, glossy, orange-yellow color; cob small, white; stalk four to five feet high, slender; the leaves are not abundant, and the ears, of which the plant very rarely produces more than two, near the ground. On account of the small size of the ear, the yield per acre is much less than that of almost any other field variety; twenty-five or thirty bushels being an average crop. The dwarfish character of the plants, however, admits of close culture,--three feet in one direction by two or two and a half in the opposite,--affording ample space for their full development; four plants being allowed to a hill. Its chief merit is its early maturity. In ordinary seasons, the crop will be fully ripened in August. If cultivated for a series of years in the Eastern or Middle States, or in a latitude much warmer than that of the Canadas, the plant increases in size, the ears and kernels grow larger, and it is slower in coming to maturity. DUTTON. Early Dutton. Ears nine or ten inches long, broadest at the base, tapering slightly towards the tip, ten or twelve rowed, and rarely found with the broad clefts or longitudinal spaces which often mark the divisions into double rows in the eight-rowed varieties,--the outline being almost invariably smooth and regular; kernel as broad as deep, smooth, and of a rich, clear, glossy, yellow color; cob comparatively large, white; stalk of medium height and strength, producing one or two ears. One of the handsomest of the field varieties, nearly as early as the King Philip, and remarkable for the uniformly perfect manner in which, in good seasons, the ears are tipped, or filled out. In point of productiveness, it compares favorably with the common New-England Eight-rowed; the yield per acre varying from fifty to seventy bushels, according to soil, culture, and season. Much prized for mealing, both on account of its quality, and its peculiar, bright, rich color. In cultivation, the hills are made three feet and a half apart in each direction, and five or six plants allowed to a hill. HILL. Whitman. Whitman's Improved. Webster. Smutty White. Old-Colony Premium. Stalk six feet or more in height, moderately strong at the ground, but comparatively slender above the ear; foliage not abundant; the ears are produced low on the stalk, often in pairs, are uniformly eight-rowed, well filled at the tips, and, when fully grown, ten or eleven inches in length; cob white, and comparatively small; kernel dusky, transparent-white, large and broad, but not deep. The Hill Corn is nearly of the season of the Common New-England Eight-rowed, and is unquestionably the most productive of all field varieties. In Plymouth County, Mass., numerous crops have been raised of a hundred and fifteen bushels and upwards to the acre; and, in two instances, the product exceeded a hundred and forty. This extraordinary yield is in a degree attributable to the small size of the plant, and the relative large size of the ear. The largest crops were obtained by planting three kernels together, in rows three feet asunder, and from fifteen to eighteen inches apart in the rows. No variety is better adapted for cultivation for farm consumption; but for market, whether in the kernel or in the form of meal, its dull, white color is unattractive, and it commands a less price than the yellow descriptions. From the most reliable authority, the variety was originated by Mr. Leonard Hill, of East Bridgewater, Plymouth County, Mass.; and was introduced to public notice in 1825-6. Though at present almost universally known as the "Whitman," it appears to have been originally recognized as the "Hill;" and, of the numerous names by which it has since been called, this is unquestionably the only true and legitimate one. ILLINOIS YELLOW. Western Yellow. Stalk ten feet or more high; foliage abundant; ears high on the stalk, single or in pairs, twelve to sixteen rowed, eleven to thirteen inches long, broadest at the base, and tapering gradually towards the tip, which is bluntly rounded; kernel bright-yellow, long and narrow, or tooth-formed, paler at the outer end, but not indented; cob white. The variety ripens perfectly in the Middle States, but is not suited to the climate of New England. ILLINOIS WHITE. Western White. Similar in its general character to the Illinois Yellow. Kernel rice-white; cob generally white, but sometimes red. KING PHILIP, OR BROWN. Improved King Philip. Ears ten to twelve inches in length, uniformly eight-rowed when the variety is pure or unmixed; kernel copper-red, rather large, somewhat broader than deep, smooth and glossy; cob comparatively small, pinkish-white; stalk six feet in height, producing one or two ears, about two feet and a half from the ground. In warm seasons, it is sometimes fully ripened in ninety days from the time of planting; and may be considered as a week or ten days earlier than the Common New-England Eight-rowed, of which it is apparently an improved variety. Very productive, and recommended as one of the best field sorts now in cultivation. In good soil and favorable seasons, the yield per acre is from seventy-five to ninety bushels; although crops are recorded of a hundred and ten, and even of a hundred and twenty bushels. As grown in different localities, and even in the product of the same field, there is often a marked variation in the depth of color, arising either from the selection of paler seed, or from the natural tendency of the variety toward the clear yellow of the New-England Eight-rowed. A change of color from yellowish-red to paler red or yellow should be regarded as indicative of degeneracy. Said to have originated on one of the islands in Lake Winnipiseogee, N.H. NEW-ENGLAND EIGHT-ROWED. Stalk six or seven feet high, producing one or two ears, which are from ten to eleven inches long, and uniformly eight-rowed; kernel broader than deep, bright-yellow, smooth and glossy; cob comparatively small, white. The variety is generally grown in hills three feet and a half apart in each direction, and five or six plants allowed to a hill; the yield varying from fifty to seventy bushels to the acre, according to season, soil, and cultivation. It is a few days later than the King Philip, but ripens perfectly in the Middle States and throughout New England; except, perhaps, at the extreme northern boundary, where the Canada Yellow would probably succeed better. It often occurs with a profuse intermixture of red, sometimes streaked and spotted, sometimes copper-red, like the King Philip, and occasionally of a rich, bright, clear blood-red. As the presence of this color impairs its value for marketing, and particularly for mealing, more care should be exercised in the selection of ears for seed; and this, continued for a few seasons, will restore it to the clear yellow of the Dutton or Early Canada. Many local sub-varieties occur, the result of selection and cultivation, differing in the size and form of the ear; size, form, and color of the kernel; and also in the season of maturity. The Dutton, Early Canada, King Philip, and numerous other less important sorts, are but improved forms of the New-England Eight-rowed. PARKER. A variety remarkable for the extraordinary size of the ears, which, if well grown, often measure thirteen or fourteen inches in length: they are comparatively slender, and uniformly eight-rowed. Cob white and slim; kernels bright-yellow, rounded, broader than deep. Productive, but some days later than the Common New-England Eight-rowed. WHITE HORSE-TOOTH. Southern White. Stalk twelve feet or more in height, with large, luxuriant foliage; ears single, often in pairs, short and very thick, sixteen to twenty-two rowed; kernel remarkably large, milk-white, wedge-formed, indented at the outer end; cob red. YELLOW HORSE-TOOTH. Southern Yellow. Plant similar to that of the White Horse-tooth; kernel very large, bright-yellow, indented; cob red. Extensively cultivated throughout the Southern States, but not adapted to the climate of the Middle or Northern. * * * * * EGG-PLANT. Solanum melongena. The Egg-plant is a native of Africa, and is also indigenous to Tropical America. It is a tender annual, with an erect, branching stem, and oblong, bluish-green, powdered leaves. The flowers are one-petaled, purple, and produced on short stems in the axils of the branches; the fruit is often somewhat oblong, but exceedingly variable in form, size, and color; the seeds are small, yellowish, reniform, flattened, and retain their germinative properties seven years. _Soil._--The Egg-plant will thrive well in any good garden soil, but should have the benefit of a sheltered situation. _Sowing and Culture._--The seed should be sown in a hot-bed in March, at the time and in the manner of sowing tomato seed. The young plants are, however, more tender; and should not be allowed to get chilled, as they recover from its effects very slowly. The plant being decidedly tropical in character, the seedlings should not be transplanted into the open ground until the commencement of summer weather; when they may be set out in rows two feet apart, and two feet asunder in the rows. Keep the ground free from weeds, earth up the plants a little in the process of cultivation, and by the last of August, or beginning of September, abundance of fruit will be produced for the table. If no hot-bed is at hand, sufficient seedling plants for a small garden may be easily raised by sowing a few seeds in March in common flower-pots, and placing them in the sunny window of the sitting-room or kitchen. In favorable seasons, a crop may be obtained by sowing the seeds in May in the open ground, and transplanting the seedlings, when two or three inches high, in a warm and sheltered situation. _Use._--"It is used both boiled and stewed in sauces like the Tomato. A favorite method among the French is to scoop out the seeds, fill up the cavity with sweet herbs, and fry the fruit whole."--_M'Int._ A common method of cooking and serving is as follows: Cut the fruit in slices half an inch thick; press out as much of the juice as possible, and parboil; after which, fry the slices in batter, or in fresh butter in which grated bread has been mixed; season with pepper, salt, and sweet herbs, to suit; or, if preferred, the slices may be broiled as steaks or chops. _Varieties._-- AMERICAN LARGE PURPLE. [Illustration: American Large Purple Egg-plant.] Fruit remarkably large,--often measuring eight inches in depth, seven inches in diameter, and weighing four or five pounds; skin deep-purple, with occasional stripes of green about the stem; plant hardy and stocky. The American Large Purple is more generally cultivated in this country than any other variety. The plants produce two (and rarely three) fruits; but the first formed are invariably the best developed. It is similar to, if not identical with, the Round Purple of English and French authors. CHINESE LONG WHITE. _Vil._ Quite distinct from the Common White or the Purple. Plant of low growth, with comparatively pale foliage; fruit white, eight or nine inches long, two inches and a half in diameter, and often more or less curved, particularly when the end is in contact with the ground. It is later than the White or Purple varieties, and nearly of the season of the Scarlet-fruited. To obtain the fruit in full perfection, the plants must be started in a hot-bed. GUADALOUPE STRIPED. _Vil._ Fruit nearly ovoid, smaller than the Round or Long Purple; skin white, streaked and variegated with red. LONG PURPLE. _Trans._ The plants of this variety are of the height of the Round Purple, but are subject to some variation in the color of the branches and in the production of spines; flowers large, purple, with a spiny calyx; the fruit is oblong, somewhat club-shaped, six or eight inches in length, sometimes straight, but often slightly bent; at maturity, the skin is generally deep-purple, but the color varies much more than the Large Round; it is sometimes pale-purple, slightly striped, sometimes variegated with longitudinal, yellowish stripes, and always more deeply colored on the exposed side. It is early, of easy culture, hardy and productive, excellent for the table, thrives well in almost any section of the Northern States, and, if started in a hot-bed, would perfect its fruit in the Canadas. NEW-YORK IMPROVED. A sub-variety of the Large Round, producing the same number of fruits, which are generally of a deeper color, and average of larger size. The leaves are often spiny; and, if the variety is genuine, the plants will be readily distinguished from those of the last named by their more dense or compact habit of growth. It is, however, comparatively late, and better suited to the climate of the Middle States than to that of New England; though it is successfully cultivated in the vicinity of Boston, Mass., by starting the plants in a hot-bed, and setting them in a warm and sheltered situation. ROUND PURPLE. _Trans._ Large Round Purple. Plant from two to three feet high, branching, generally tinged with purple, producing two and sometimes three fruits; the leaves are large, downy, oblong, lobed on the borders, with scattered spines on the midribs; flowers large, pale-purple,--the flower-stem and calyx invested with purple spines; the fruit is obovate, four or five inches in diameter, six or seven inches deep, slightly indented at the apex, and of a fine deep-purple when well matured,--specimens sometimes occur slightly striped or rayed with yellowish-green. The American Large Purple, if not the same, is but an improved form of this variety. SCARLET-FRUITED EGG-PLANT. _Hov. Mag._ A highly ornamental variety, introduced from Portugal. The plant attains the height of three feet, with leaves about six inches long. In general appearance, it resembles the Common Egg-plant; but the fruit, which is about the size of a hen's egg, is of a beautiful scarlet. It is rarely if ever used for food, but is principally cultivated for its peculiar, richly colored, and ornamental fruit, which makes a fine garnish. The variety is late, and comparatively tender. The seeds should be started early in a hot-bed, and the plants grown in a warm and sheltered situation. WHITE EGG-PLANT. Fruit milk-white, egg-shaped, varying from three to five inches in length, and from two inches and a half to three inches and a half in diameter. It is the earliest, hardiest, and most productive of all varieties. The plants frequently produce five or six fruits each; but the first formed are generally the largest. If sown in the open ground early in May, the plants will often perfect a portion of their fruit; but they are most productive when started in a hot-bed. The fruit is sometimes eaten cooked in the manner of the Purple varieties, but is less esteemed. * * * * * MARTYNIA. Unicorn Plant. _Gray._ Martynia proboscidea. [Illustration: The Martynia.] A hardy, annual plant, with a strong, branching stem two feet and a half or three feet high. The leaves are large, heart-shaped, entire or undulated, downy, viscous, and of a peculiar, musk-like odor when bruised or roughly handled; the flowers are large, bell-shaped, somewhat two-lipped, dull-white, tinged or spotted with yellow and purple, and produced in long, leafless racemes, or clusters; the seed-pods are green, very downy or hairy, fleshy, oval, an inch and a half in their greatest diameter, and taper to a long, comparatively slender, incurved horn, or beak. The fleshy, succulent character of the pods is of short duration: they soon become fibrous, the elongated beak splits at the point, the two parts diverge, the outer green covering falls off, and the pod becomes black, shrivelled, hard, and woody. The seeds are large, black, wrinkled, irregular in form, and retain their germinative properties three years. _Sowing and Cultivation._--The Martynia is of easy cultivation. As the plants are large and spreading, they should be two feet and a half or three feet apart in each direction. The seeds may be sown in April or May, in the open ground where the plants are to remain; or a few seeds may be sown in a hot-bed, and the seedlings afterwards transplanted. _Gathering and Use._--The young pods are the parts of the plant used. These are produced in great abundance, and should be gathered when about half grown, or while tender and succulent: after the hardening of the flesh, they are worthless. They are used for pickling, and by many are considered superior to the Cucumber, or any other vegetable employed for the purpose. * * * * * OIL RADISH. _Law._ Raphanus sativus. A variety of the Common Radish, particularly adapted for the production of oil, and distinguished by the name _R. sativus olifer_, or Oil Radish. Its stems are dwarf, from a foot and a half to two feet in height, much branched, spreading, and produce more seed-pods than the Common Radish. It is grown rather extensively in China for its oil; from whence it has been introduced into and cultivated in some parts of Europe: but it does not appear with any particular success, though much has been said and written in its favor. It seems best suited for southern latitudes, where it may be sown in September, and harvested the following May or June: but, in the northern portions of the United States, it will be found too tender to withstand the winter; and the seed will therefore require to be sown in spring. The oil is obtained from the seed, and is considered superior to rape-seed oil, but is extracted with greater difficulty. * * * * * OKRA, OR GUMBO. Ocra. Hibiscus esculentus. Okra is a half-hardy annual, from Central America. Stem simple, sometimes branched at the top, and from two to six feet in height, according to the variety; the leaves are large, palmate, deep-green; the flowers are large, five-petaled, yellowish on the border, purple at the centre; the seed-pods are angular, or grooved, more or less sharply pointed, an inch or an inch and a half in diameter at the base, and from four to eight inches in length; the seeds are large, round-kidney-shaped, of a greenish-drab color, black or dark-brown at the eye, and retain their power of germination five years. _Soil, Sowing, and Cultivation._--Okra may be raised in any common garden soil, and is propagated by seeds sown in April or May. The Dwarf varieties may be grown in rows two feet apart, and a foot from each other in the rows; but the taller sorts require a space of at least three feet between the rows, and nearly two feet from plant to plant in the rows. Keep the soil about the plants loose and open; and, in the process of cultivation, earth up the stems slightly in the manner of earthing pease. The pods will be fit for use in August and September. It requires a long, warm season; and is most productive when started in a hot-bed, and grown in a warm, sheltered situation. _Use._--The green pods are used while quite young, sliced in soups and similar dishes, to which they impart a thick, viscous, or gummy consistency. Thus served, they are esteemed not only healthful, but very nutritious. The ripe seeds, roasted and ground, furnish a palatable substitute for coffee. _Varieties._-- BUIST'S DWARF OKRA. _Count. Gent._ A variety recently introduced by Mr. Robert Buist, of Philadelphia. Height two feet; being about half that of the old variety. Its superiority consists in its greater productiveness, and the little space required for its development; while the fruit is of larger size and superior quality. It is said to produce pods at every joint. DWARF OKRA. [Illustration: Dwarf Okra.] Stem two feet and a half high, sometimes branched at the top, but generally undivided; leaves large, and, as in all varieties, five-lobed; flowers yellow, purple at the centre; pods erect, obtusely pointed, nearly as large in diameter as those of the Giant, but generally about five inches in length. It is the earliest of the Okras, and the best variety for cultivation in the Northern and Eastern States. Between this and the Tall, or Giant, there are numerous sub-varieties; the result both of cultivation and climate. The Tall sorts become dwarfish and earlier if long cultivated at the North; and the Dwarfs, on the contrary, increase in height, and grow later, if long grown in tropical climates. The seeds of all the sorts are similar in size, form, and color. PENDENT-PODDED. The plants of this variety differ slightly, if at all, from those of the Common or Dwarf Okra. It is principally, if not solely, distinguished by the pendulous or drooping character of its pods; those of all other sorts being erect. TALL OR GIANT OKRA. White-podded. Stem five to six feet in height; pods erect, sharply tapering to a point, eight to ten inches in length, and about an inch and a half in diameter near the stem or at the broadest part. With the exception of its larger size, it is similar to the Dwarf; and, if long cultivated under the influence of short and cool seasons, would probably prove identical. It yields abundantly, but is best adapted to the climate of the Middle and Southern States. * * * * * PEPPER. Capsicum. Capsicum annuum. Of the Capsicum there are many species, both annual and perennial; some of the latter being of a shrubby or woody character, and from four to six feet in height. As they are mostly tropical, and consequently tender, none but the annual species can be successfully grown in open culture in the Middle States or New England. The _Capsicum annuum_, or Common Garden-pepper, is a native of India. The stalks vary in height from a foot to nearly three feet; the flowers are generally white or purple; the pods differ in a remarkable degree in size, form, color, and acridness; the seeds are yellow, nearly circular, flattened, and, like the flesh or rind of the fruit, remarkable for their intense piquancy,--nearly forty-five hundred are contained in an ounce, and their vitality is retained five years. _Propagation and Cultivation._--The plants are always propagated from seeds. Early in April, sow in a hot-bed, in shallow drills six inches apart, and transplant to the open ground when summer weather has commenced. The plants should be set in warm, mellow soil, in rows sixteen inches apart, and about the same distance apart in the rows; or, in ordinary seasons, the following simple method may be adopted for a small garden, and will afford an abundant supply of peppers for family use: When all danger from frost is past, and the soil is warm and settled, sow the seeds in the open ground, in drills three-fourths of an inch deep, and fourteen inches apart; and, while young, thin out the plants to ten inches apart in the rows. Cultivate in the usual manner, and the crop will be fit for use early in September. _Use._--"The pod, or fruit, is much used in pickles, seasonings, and made dishes; as both the pod and seeds yield a warm, acrid oil, the heat of which, being imparted to the stomach, promotes digestion, and corrects the flatulency of vegetable aliments. The larger and more common sorts are raised in great quantities, by market gardeners in the vicinity of populous towns, for the supply of pickle-warehouses." _Species and Varieties._-- BELL-PEPPER. Large Bell. Bull-nose. [Illustration: Bell-pepper.] Plant two feet and upwards in height, stocky and branching, the stem and branches often stained or clouded with purple; leaves large, on long stems, smaller, smoother, and less sharply pointed, than those of the Squash-pepper; flowers white, sometimes measuring nearly an inch and a half in diameter. The pods, which are remarkably large, and often measure nearly four inches deep and three inches in diameter, are pendent, broadest at the stem, slightly tapering, and generally terminate in four obtuse, cone-like points. At maturity, the fruit changes to brilliant, glossy, coral red. The Bell-pepper is early, sweet and pleasant to the taste, and much less acrid or pungent than most of the other sorts. In many places, it is preferred to the Squash-pepper for pickling, not only because of its mildness, but for its thick, fleshy, and tender rind. In open culture, sow in May, in drills sixteen inches apart, and thin the plants to twelve inches in the drills. In England, they are pickled as follows: The pods are plucked while green, slit down on one side, and, after the seeds are taken out, immersed in salt and water for twenty-four hours; changing the water at the end of the first twelve. After soaking the full time, they are laid to drain an hour or two; put into bottles or jars; and boiled vinegar, after being allowed to cool, poured over them till they are entirely covered. The jars are then closely stopped for a few weeks, when the pods will be fit for use. In this form, they have been pronounced the best and most wholesome of all pickles. BIRD-PEPPER. _Vil._ Stem fifteen to eighteen inches high; leaves very small; flowers white, about two-thirds of an inch in diameter; pods erect, sharply conical, an inch and three-quarters long, about half an inch in diameter, and of a brilliant coral-red when ripe. The variety is late. If sown in the open ground, some of the pods, if the season be favorable, will be fit for use before the plants are destroyed by frost; but few will be fully perfected unless the plants are started under glass. The Bird-pepper is one of the most piquant of all varieties, and is less valuable as a green pickle than many milder and thicker-fleshed sorts. It is cultivated in rows fourteen inches apart, and ten or twelve inches asunder in the rows. If sown in the open ground, make the rows the same distance apart, and thin the young plants to the same space in the rows. The "Cayenne Pepper-pot" of commerce is prepared from Bird-pepper in the following manner: "Dry ripe peppers well in the sun, pack them in earthen or stone pots, mixing common flour between every layer of pods, and put all into an oven after the baking of bread, that they may be thoroughly dried; after which, they must be well cleansed from the flour, and reduced to a fine powder. To every ounce of this, add a pound of wheat-flour, and as much leaven as is sufficient for the quantity intended. After this has been properly mixed and wrought, it should be made into small cakes, and baked in the same manner as common cakes of the same size; then cut them into small parts, and bake them again, that they may be as dry and hard as biscuit, which, being powdered and sifted, is to be kept for use." CAYENNE PEPPER. C. frutescens. The pods of this variety are quite small, cone-shaped, coral-red when ripe, intensely acrid, and furnish the Cayenne Pepper of commerce. Like the other species of the family, it is of tropical origin; and being a perennial, and of a shrubby character, will not succeed in open culture at the North. Both the green and ripe pods are used as pickles, and also for making Chili vinegar or pepper-sauce; which is done by simply putting a handful of the pods in a bottle, afterwards filled with the best vinegar, and stopping it closely. In a few weeks, it will be fit for use. The process of preparing Cayenne Pepper is as follows. The pods are gathered when fully ripe. "In India, they are dried in the sun; but in cooler climates they should be dried on a slow hot-plate, or in a moderately heated oven: they are then pulverized, and sifted through a fine sieve, mixed with salt, and, when dried, put into close, corked bottles, for the purpose of excluding the air. This article is subject to great adulteration, flour being often mixed with it; and, still worse, red lead, which is much of the same color, and greatly increases the weight. "A better method is to dry the pods in a slow oven, split them open, extract the seeds, and then pulverize them (the pods) to a fine powder, sifting the powder through a thin muslin sieve, and pulverizing the parts that do not pass through, and sifting again, until the whole is reduced to the finest possible state. Place the powder in air-tight glass bottles; but add no salt or other ingredient whatever."--_M'Int._ The pods of either of the long-fruited sorts, or those of the Cherry-pepper, prepared as above, will furnish a quality of "Cayenne" Pepper greatly superior to that ordinarily sold by grocers, or even by apothecaries and druggists. The larger and milder kinds, powdered in the same manner, make a wholesome and pleasant grade of pepper of sufficient pungency for a majority of palates. CHERRY-PEPPER. Capsicum cerasiforme. [Illustration: Cherry-pepper.] Stem twelve to fifteen inches high, strong and branching; leaves comparatively small, long, narrow, and sharply pointed; flowers white, three-fourths of an inch in diameter; pod, or fruit, erect, nearly globular or cherry-form, and, at maturity, of a deep, rich, glossy, scarlet color. It is remarkable for its intense piquancy; exceeding in this respect nearly all the annual varieties. It is not so early as some of the larger sorts; but in favorable seasons will perfect a sufficient portion of its crop in the open ground, both for seed and pickling. For the latter purpose, the peppers should be plucked while still green, put into a common jar or wide-mouthed bottle, and vinegar added to fill the vessel. In a few weeks, they will be fit for use. When in perfection, the plants are very ornamental; the glossy, coral-red of the numerous pods presenting a fine contrast with the deep-green foliage by which they are surrounded. A variety occurs with larger, more conical, and pendent pods. The plant is also much larger, and quite distinct in its general character. CHERRY-PEPPER. Yellow-fruited. This is a variety of the Red Cherry. The plants have the same general habit, require the same treatment, and perfect their fruit at the same season. There is little real difference between the sorts, with the exception of the color of the fruit; this being clear yellow. To preserve either of these varieties for use in the dry state, all that is necessary is to cut off the plants close to the roots when the fruit is ripe, and hang them, with the fruit attached, in any warm and dry situation. They will retain their piquancy for years. CHILI PEPPER. _Vil._ Pods pendent, sharply conical, nearly two inches in length, half an inch in diameter, of a brilliant scarlet when ripe, and exceedingly piquant; plant about eighteen inches high; leaves numerous, of small size, and sharply pointed; flowers white, nearly three-fourths of an inch in diameter. Sow in a hot-bed in April, and transplant to the open ground in May, about fourteen inches apart in each direction. Requires a long, warm season. LONG RED PEPPER. [Illustration: Long Red Pepper.] Fruit brilliant, coral-red, generally pendulous, sometimes erect, conical, often curved towards the end, nearly four inches in length, and from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter; skin, or flesh, quite thin, and exceedingly piquant. Stalk about two feet high; foliage of medium size, blistered and wrinkled; flowers an inch in diameter, white. The variety yields abundantly, but attains its greatest perfection when started in a hot-bed. The ripe pods, dried and pulverized as directed for Cayenne Pepper, make an excellent substitute for that article. The plants, with ripe fruit, are very ornamental. LONG YELLOW. _Vil._ Pods pendent, long, and tapering, three to four inches in length, and about an inch in their greatest diameter. At maturity, they assume a lively, rich, glossy yellow; and the plants are then showy and ornamental. Stem two feet and upwards in height, slightly colored with purple at the intersection of the branches and insertion of the leaf-stems; leaves of medium size, smaller and paler than those of the Long Red; flowers white, nearly an inch in diameter. Like the last named, it is very piquant. It is also late; and, to obtain the variety in perfection, the seed should be started in a hot-bed in April. PURPLE OR BLUE PODDED. Black-podded. Fruit erect, on long stems, bluntly cone-shaped, two inches and a half in length, and a half or three-fourths of an inch in diameter at the broadest part. Before maturity, the skin is green or reddish-green, clouded or stained with black or purplish-brown; but, when ripe, changes to rich, deep, indigo-blue. Plant two feet or upwards in height, more erect and less branched than other varieties, and much stained with purple at the intersection of the branches and at the insertion of the leaf-stems; leaves of medium size, or small, long, and sharply pointed; leaf-stems long, deep-green; flowers white, tipped with purple, about three-fourths of an inch in diameter; flower-stems long, purple. A rare, richly colored, and beautiful pepper, but not cultivated or of much value as an esculent. For its full perfection, a long, warm season is requisite. The plants should be started in a hot-bed in March or April, and transplanted in May to the open ground, fifteen inches apart. QUINCE-PEPPER. Piment cydoniforme. _Vil._ This variety is similar to the Sweet Spanish; but the fruit is rather longer, and its season of maturity is somewhat later. Its flavor is comparatively mild and pleasant; but, like the Sweet Spanish, it is not generally thick-fleshed. At maturity, the fruit is a brilliant coral-red. ROUND OR LARGE RED CHERRY-PEPPER. Rond. _Vil._ Cerise grosse. This is but a sub-variety of the Common Red Cherry-pepper, differing only in its larger size. It is quite late, and should be started in a hot-bed. SQUASH-PEPPER. Tomato-shaped. Fruit compressed, more or less ribbed, about two inches and three-quarters in diameter, and two inches in depth; skin smooth and glossy,--when ripe, of a brilliant coral-red; flesh thick, mild and pleasant to the taste, though possessing more piquancy than the Large Bell or Sweet Spanish. Plant about two feet high, stout and branching; leaves broad and large; flowers white, an inch and a quarter in diameter; fruit drooping, the fruit-stem short and thick. The Squash-pepper is extensively grown for the market, and is most in use in the pickle warehouses of the Eastern and Middle States. In field-culture, the plants are started in hot-beds in April, and, after the beginning of summer weather, transplanted to the open ground, fourteen to eighteen inches apart, according to the quality of the soil. The fruit is generally sold by weight; and an acre of land, in a fair state of cultivation, will yield about three tons,--a bushel of the thick-fleshed sort weighing nearly thirty-two pounds. An excellent pickle may be made by preparing the peppers in the manner directed for the Bell variety. As grown by different market-men and gardeners, there are several sub-varieties of the Squash-pepper, differing both in form and in the thickness of the flesh; the latter quality, however, being considered of the greater importance, as the thick-fleshed sorts not only yield a greater weight to the acre, but are more esteemed for the table. The Squash-pepper succeeds well when sown in the open ground in May, in drills fourteen inches apart. The plants should be ten or twelve inches apart in the rows; for, when grown too closely, they are liable to draw up, making a weakly, slender growth, and yield much less than when allowed sufficient space for their full development. Low-growing, stocky, and branching plants are the most productive. SWEET MOUNTAIN PEPPER. This variety resembles the Large Bell, if it is not identical. The Sweet Mountain may be somewhat larger; but, aside from this, there is no perceptible difference in the varieties. SWEET SPANISH. Piment monstreux. _Vil._ Fruit obtusely conical, often four inches in length, and nearly three inches in diameter,--brilliant glossy scarlet at maturity; stem strong and sturdy, two feet or more in height; leaves large, but narrower than those of the Large Bell; flowers white, and of large size,--usually an inch and a half in diameter; fruit sometimes erect, but generally drooping. Though one of the largest varieties, the Sweet Spanish is also one of the earliest. The flesh is sweet, mild, and pleasant; and the variety is much esteemed by those to whom the more pungent kinds are objectionable. When prepared in the same form, it makes a pickle equally as fine as the Large Bell. The Sweet Spanish Pepper succeeds well if sown in the open ground in May. Make the rows sixteen inches apart, and thin the plants to a foot apart in the rows. YELLOW SQUASH-PEPPER. _Vil._ Yellow Tomato-formed. Fruit similar in form to the Squash-pepper, but of smaller size, erect or pendulous; orange-yellow at maturity. The variety is later than the last named; much less productive; and, for pickling, is comparatively not worthy of cultivation. * * * * * RHUBARB. Pie-plant. Rheum sp. et var. This is a hardy, perennial plant, cultivated almost exclusively for its leaf-stalks. Its general character may be described as follows: Root-leaves large, round-heart-shaped, deep-green, and more or less prominently blistered; leaf-stems large, succulent, furrowed, pale-green, often stained or finely spotted with red, varying from two to three inches in diameter at the broadest part, and from a foot to three feet in length. The flower-stalk is put forth in June, and is from five to seven feet in height, according to the variety; the flowers are red or reddish-white, in erect, loose, terminal spikes; the seeds are brown, triangular, membranous at the corners, and retain their germinative properties three years. _Soil and Cultivation._--Rhubarb succeeds best in deep, somewhat retentive soil: the richer its condition, and the deeper it is stirred, the better; as it is scarcely possible to cultivate too deeply, or to manure too highly. It may be propagated by seeds, or by a division of the roots; the latter being the usual method. When grown from seeds, the plants not only differ greatly in size and quality, but are much longer in attaining a growth suitable for cutting. "Whether grown from seed, or increased by a division of the roots, a deep, rich soil, trenched to the depth of two or even three feet, is required to insure the full development of the leaf-stalks; for upon their size, rapidity of growth, and consequent tenderness of fibre, much of their merit depends. The seed should be sown in April, in drills a foot asunder; thinning the plants, when a few inches high, to nine inches apart. In the autumn or spring following, they will be fit for transplanting in rows three feet asunder, and the plants set three feet apart. If propagated by dividing the roots, it may be done either in autumn or spring; the same distance being given to the sets that is allowed for seedling plants. As, however, some of the varieties grow to a much larger size than others, a corresponding distance should be accorded them, extending to five feet between the rows, and three feet from plant to plant. "The plants should be set out singly, and not in threes, as is so often done. For the first year, the ground between the rows may be cropped with lettuce, turnips, beans, or similar low-growing crops; but, after the second year, the leaves will cover the whole space, and require it also for their full development."--_M'Int._ _After-Culture._--This consists in keeping the soil well enriched, open, and clear of weeds; and in breaking over the flower-stalks, that they may not weaken the roots, and consequently reduce the size and impair the quality of the leaf-stalks. _Gathering the Crop._--"This is usually done in spring; commencing as soon as the stalks have attained a serviceable size. No leaves, however, should be plucked the first year, and only a few of the largest and first formed during the second; and this plucking should not be made too early in the season, because, in that case, the plants would be weakened. From the third year, as long as the roots or plantations last, it may be gathered with freedom. A plantation in good soil, and not overmuch deprived of its foliage, will last from ten to fifteen years. "When the leaves are about half expanded, they may be plucked for use; but, when the largest returns are expected (as in the case of market-gardens), they should be allowed to attain their full size. In removing them, they should be pulled off close to the base, and not cut, to prevent an unnecessary escape of sap, which, in all succulent plants, flows more copiously from a clean cut than from one slightly lacerated or torn. The footstalks should then be separated from the leaves, and tied up in bundles of suitable size for market."--_M'Int._ Rhubarb is sometimes blanched. This may be effected without removing the plants, by means of sea-kale pots, or by empty casks open at the top, put over the crowns in March. It can, however, be more perfectly done by taking up the roots, and placing them in some dark place, with a temperature of 55° or 60°; where they should be slightly covered with soil to prevent them from drying. When so treated, they are much more tender, crisp, and delicate than when grown exposed to the sun and air: but the quality is greatly impaired; the pulp, though somewhat acid, being generally comparatively flavorless. _Use._--As before remarked, it is cultivated for its leaf-stalks; which are used early in the season, as a substitute for fruit, in pies, tarts, and similar culinary preparations. When fully grown, the expressed juice forms a tolerably palatable wine, though, with reference to health, of doubtful properties. "As an article of commercial importance in the vegetable markets, it is of very recent date. In 1810, Mr. Joseph Myatts, of Deptford, England, long known for his successful culture of this plant, sent his two sons to the borough-market with five bunches of Rhubarb-stalks, of which they could sell but three." It is now disposed of by the ton, and many acres in the vicinity of nearly all large towns and cities are devoted exclusively to its cultivation. _Varieties._--These are very numerous, as they are readily produced from the seed; but the number really deserving of cultivation is comparatively limited. Old kinds are constantly giving place to new, either on account of superior earliness, size, productiveness, or quality. The following are the prominent sorts cultivated:-- CAHOON. Leaves remarkably large, often broader than long, and more rounded than those of most varieties; stalk short and thick,--if well grown, measuring from twelve to sixteen inches in length, and three inches or more in diameter; skin thick, uniformly green. Its remarkable size is its principal recommendation. The texture is coarse, the flavor is harsh and strong, and it is rarely employed for culinary purposes. In some localities, it is cultivated to a limited extent for the manufacture of wine; the juice being expressed from the stalks, and sugar added in the ratio of three pounds and a half to a gallon. This wine, though quite palatable, has little of the fine aroma of that made from the grape; and, if not actually deleterious, is much less safe and healthful. Any of the other varieties may be used for the same purpose; the principal superiority of the Cahoon consisting in its larger stalks, and consequently its greater product of juice. DOWNING'S COLOSSAL. A large variety, nearly of the size of Myatt's Victoria. It is described as being less acid than the last named, and of a fine, rich, aromatic flavor. EARLY PRINCE IMPERIAL. Stalks of medium size; recommended by D. T. Curtis, Esq., Chairman of the Vegetable Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, as in all respects the best flavored of any variety ever tested; and commended for general cultivation, as particularly adapted to the wants of the family, if not to the wishes of the gardener, to whom size and productiveness are more than flavor. It invariably turns red in cooking, which makes it preferable for the table as a sauce. When cooked, it is of the color of currant-jelly, and remarkably fine flavored. In 1862, it received the first prize of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, as the best for family use. ELFORD. _Thomp._ Buck's Rhubarb. An early sort, well adapted for forcing. The stalks are rather slender, covered with a thin skin of a bright-scarlet color; and their substance throughout is of a fine red, which they retain when cooked, if not peeled,--a process which, owing to the thinness of the skin, is not considered necessary. Even when grown in the dark, the stalks still preserve the crimson tinge. It was raised from the seed of _Rheum undulatum_. HAWKE'S CHAMPAGNE. A new variety, said to equal the Prince Albert in earliness, and also to be of a deeper and finer color, and much more productive. It forces remarkably well; is hardy in open culture; and commands the highest market prices, both from its great size, and fine, rich color. MITCHELL'S ROYAL ALBERT. _Thomp._ Stalks large, red, and of excellent flavor. Early and prolific. MYATT'S LINNÆUS. Linnæus. A medium-sized or comparatively small variety, recently introduced. "Besides being the earliest of all, and remarkably productive as well as high flavored, and possessing little acidity, it has a skin so thin, that removing it is hardly necessary; and its pulp, when stewed, has the uniform consistence of baked Rhode-Island Greenings; and it continues equally crisp and tender throughout the summer and early autumn." One of the best sorts for a small garden or for family use. MYATT'S VICTORIA. Victoria. Leaves large, broader than long, deep-green, blistered on the surface, and much waved or undulated on the borders. Leaf-stalks very large, varying from two inches and a half to three inches in their broadest diameter, and frequently measuring upwards of two feet and a half in length: the weight of a well-developed stalk, divested of the leaf, is about two pounds. They are stained with red at their base, and are often reddish, or finely spotted with red, to the nerves of the leaf. It has rather a thick skin, is more acid than many other varieties, and not particularly high flavored: but no kind is more productive; and this, in connection with its extraordinary size, makes it not only the most salable, but one of the most profitable, kinds for growing for the market. It requires a deep, highly-manured soil; and the roots should be divided and reset once in four or five years. It is about a fortnight later than the Linnæus. NEPAL. Rheum Australe. _Thomp._ Rheum Emodi. The leaf-stalks attain an immense size, but are unfit for use on account of their strongly purgative properties: but the leaves, which are frequently a yard in diameter, are useful in covering baskets containing vegetables or fruit; and for these the plant is sometimes cultivated. TOBOLSK RHUBARB. Early Red Tobolsk. Leaves comparatively small; leaf-stalks below medium size, stained with red at the base. It is perceptibly less acid than most varieties, and remarkable for fineness of texture and delicacy of flavor. * * * * * SUNFLOWER. Tall Sunflower. Annual Sunflower. Helianthus annuus. Stem from five to eight feet or more in height; leaves heart-shaped, rough, three-nerved; flowers very large, terminal, nodding; the seeds are large, ovoid, angular, or compressed, nearly black, sometimes striped with white, and retain their germinative properties five years. The plant is a native of South America. DWARF SUNFLOWER. _Law._ H. Indicus. This species, which was introduced from Egypt, differs from the last principally in its more dwarfish habit of growth, but also in being less branched. The flowers are much smaller, and generally of a lighter color. _Soil and Cultivation._--The Sunflower will thrive in almost any soil or situation, but succeeds best on land adapted to the growth of Indian Corn. It is always grown from seed, which should be sown in April, or the beginning of May, in drills three feet apart. When the plants are well up, they should be thinned to a foot asunder, and afterwards cultivated in the usual manner; stirring the ground occasionally, and keeping the plants free from weeds. The flowers appear in July, and the seeds ripen in August and September. The central flower is first developed; attains a larger size than any that succeed it; and ripens its seeds in advance of those on the side-branches. The heads of seeds should be cut as they successively mature, and spread in a dry, airy situation for three or four weeks; when the seeds will become dry and hard, and can be easily rubbed or threshed out. _Use._--"The seeds of both species yield an oil little inferior to that of the Olive for domestic purposes, and which is also well adapted for burning. In Portugal, the seeds are made into bread, and also into a kind of meal. They are also sometimes roasted, and used as a substitute for coffee; but the purpose for which they seem best adapted is the feeding of domestic fowls, pheasants and other game. The greatest objection to its culture is, that it is a most impoverishing crop, particularly the Large or Common Tall species."--_M'Int._ * * * * * TOBACCO. Nicotiana, sp. All the species and varieties of Tobacco in common cultivation are annuals; and most, if not all, are natives of this continent. "Like other annual plants, it may be grown in almost every country and climate, because every country has a summer; and that is the season of life for all annual plants. In hot, dry, and short summers, like the northern summers of Europe or America, Tobacco-plants will not attain a large size; but the Tobacco produced will be of delicate quality and good flavor. In long, moist, and not very warm summers, the plants will attain a large size,--perhaps as much so as in Virginia; but the Tobacco produced will not have that superior flavor, which can only be given by abundance of clear sunshine, and free, dry air. By a skilful manufacture, and probably by mixing the Tobacco of cold countries with that of hot countries, by using different species, and perhaps by selecting particular varieties of the different species, the defects in flavor arising from climate may, it is likely, be greatly remedied." The species and varieties are as follow:-- CONNECTICUT SEED-LEAF. Peach-leaf. Virginia Tobacco. Nicotiana tabacum. [Illustration: Connecticut Seed-leaf.] Leaves oblong, regularly tapering, stemless and clasping, eighteen inches to two feet long, and from nine to twelve inches in diameter. When fully developed, the stem of the plant is erect and strong, five feet high, and separates near the top into numerous, somewhat open, spreading branches; the flowers are large, tubular, rose-colored, and quite showy and ornamental; the capsules are ovoid, or somewhat conical, and, if well grown, nearly half an inch in their greatest diameter; the seeds, which are produced in great abundance, are quite small, of a brownish color, and retain their germinative properties four years. This species is extensively cultivated throughout the Middle and Southern States, and also in the milder portions of New England. In the State of Connecticut, and on the banks of the Connecticut River in Massachusetts, it is a staple product; and in some towns the value of the crop exceeds that of Indian Corn, and even that of all the cereals combined. GUATEMALA TOBACCO. A variety with white flowers. In other respects, similar to the foregoing. Numerous other sorts occur, many of which are local, and differ principally, if not solely, in the size or form of the leaves. One of the most prominent of these is the Broad-leaved, which is considered not only earlier and more productive, but the best for manufacturing. _Propagation._--It is propagated by seeds sown annually. Select a warm, rich locality in the garden; spade it thoroughly over; pulverize the surface well; and the last of April, or beginning of May, sow the seeds thinly, broadcast; cover with a little fresh mould, and press it well upon them either by the hoe or back of the spade. As they are exceedingly minute, much care is requisite in sowing, especially that they should not be too deeply covered. When the plants appear, keep them clear of weeds, and thin them out sufficiently to allow a free growth. A bed of seedlings nine or ten feet square will be sufficient for an acre of land. If preferred, the plants may be raised in drills eight inches apart, slightly covering the seeds, and pressing the earth firmly over them, as above directed. When the seedlings are four or five inches high, they are ready for transplanting. _Soil and Cultivation._--Tobacco requires a warm, rich soil, not too dry or wet; and, though it will succeed well on recently turned sward or clover-turf, it gives a greater yield on land that has been cultivated the year previous, as it is less liable to be infested by worms, which sometimes destroy the plants in the early stages of their growth. The land should be twice ploughed in the spring; first as soon as the frost will permit, and again just previous to setting. Pulverize the surface thoroughly by repeated harrowing and rolling, and it will be ready to receive the young plants. The time for transplanting is from the 1st to the 20th of June; taking advantage of a damp day, or setting them immediately after a rain. If the ground is not moist at the time of transplanting, it will be necessary to water the plants as they are set. "The ground should be marked in straight rows three feet apart, and slight hills made on these marks two feet and a half apart; then set the plants, taking care to press the earth firmly around the roots. As soon as they are well established, and have commenced growing, run a cultivator or horse-hoe between the rows, and follow with the hand-hoe; resetting where the plants are missing. The crop should be hoed at least three times, at proper intervals; taking care to stir the soil all over. "When the plants begin to flower, the flower-stem should be broken or cut off; removing also the suckers, if any appear; leaving from twelve to sixteen leaves to be matured." _Harvesting and Curing._--In ordinary seasons, the crop will be ready for harvesting about the beginning of September; and should all be secured by the 20th of the month, or before the occurrence of frost. The stalks must be cut at the surface of the ground, and exposed long enough to the sun to wilt them sufficiently to prevent breaking in handling. They should then be suspended in a dry, airy shed or building, on poles, in such a manner as to keep each plant entirely separate from the others, to prevent mouldiness, and to facilitate the drying by permitting a free circulation of the air. Thirty or forty plants may be allowed to each twelve feet of pole. The poles may be laid across the beams, about sixteen inches apart. "When erected for the purpose, the sheds are built of sufficient height to hang three or four tiers; the beams being about four feet apart, up and down. In this way, a building forty feet by twenty-two will cure an acre and a half of Tobacco. The drying-shed should be provided with several doors on either side, for the free admission of air." When the stalk is well dried (which is about the last of November or beginning of December), select a damp day, remove the plants from the poles, strip off the leaves from the stalk, and form them into small bunches, or hanks, by tying the leaves of two or three plants together, winding a leaf about them near the ends of the stems; then pack down while still damp, lapping the tips of the hanks, or bunches, on each other, about a third of their length, forming a stack with the buts, or ends, of the leaf-stems outward; cover the top of the stack, but leave the ends or outside of the mass exposed to the air. In cold weather, or by mid-winter, it will be ready for market; for which it is generally packed in damp weather, in boxes containing from two to four hundred pounds. A fair average yield per acre is from fourteen to eighteen hundred pounds. _To save Seed._--"Allow a few of the best plants to stand without removing the flowering-shoots. In July and August, they will have a fine appearance; and, if the season be favorable, each plant will produce as much seed as will sow a quarter of an acre by the drill system, or stock half a dozen acres by transplanting." A single capsule, or seed-pod, contains about a thousand seeds. GREEN TOBACCO. Turkish Tobacco. Nicotiana rustica. Leaves oval, from seven to ten inches long, and six or seven inches broad, produced on long petioles. Compared with the preceding species, they are much smaller, deeper colored, more glossy, thicker, and more succulent. When fully grown, the plant is of a pyramidal form, and about three feet in height. The flowers are numerous, greenish-yellow, tubular, and nearly entire on the borders; the seed-vessels are ovoid, more depressed at the top than those of the Connecticut Seed-leaf, and much more prolific; seeds small, brownish. [Illustration: Green Tobacco.] The Green Tobacco is early, and remarkably hardy, but not generally considered worthy of cultivation in localities where the Connecticut Seed-leaf can be successfully grown. It is well adapted to the northern parts of New England and the Canadas; where it will almost invariably yield an abundance of foliage, and perfect its seeds. "It is very generally cultivated, almost to the exclusion of the other species, in the north of Germany, Russia, and Sweden, where almost every cottager grows his own Tobacco for smoking. It also seems to be the principal sort grown in Ireland." There are several varieties, among which may be mentioned the Oronoco and the Negro-head, both of which have the hardiness and productiveness common to the species, but are not considered remarkably well flavored. The plants should be started in spring, and transplanted as directed for the Connecticut Seed-leaf; but, on account of its smaller size and habit, two feet, or even twenty inches, between the plants, will be all the space required. * * * * * TOMATO. Love-apple. Solanum lycopersicum. The Tomato is a native of South America. It is a half-hardy annual, and is said to have been introduced into England as early as 1596. For a long period, it was very little used; and the peculiar, specific term, _lycopersicum_, derived from _lykos_, "wolf," and _persicon_, "a peach" (referring to the beautiful but deceptive appearance of the fruit), more than intimates the kind of estimation in which it was held. It first began to be generally used in Italy, subsequently in France, and finally in England. In this country, its cultivation and use may be said to have increased fourfold within the last twenty years; and it is now so universally relished, that it is furnished to the table, in one form or another, through every season of the year. To a majority of tastes, its flavor is not at first particularly agreeable; but, by those accustomed to its use, it is esteemed one of the best, as it is also reputed to be one of the most healthful, of all garden vegetables. When fully grown, the Tomato-plant is from four to seven feet and upwards in height or length, with a branching, irregular, recumbent stem, and dense foliage. The flowers are yellow, in branching groups, or clusters; the fruit is red, white, or yellow, and exceedingly variable in size and form; the seeds are lens-shaped, yellowish-white, or pale-gray,--twenty-one thousand are contained in an ounce, and they retain their vitality five years. _Propagation._--The Tomato is raised from seeds, which should be sown in a hot-bed in March, or in the open ground as soon as the frost will permit. As the plants, even in the most favorable seasons, seldom perfectly mature their full crop, they should be started as early and forwarded as rapidly as possible, whether by hot-bed or open-air culture. If the seeds are sown in a hot-bed, the drills should be made five inches apart, and half an inch deep. When the plants are two inches high, they should be removed to another part of the bed, and pricked out four or five inches apart, or removed into small pots, allowing a single plant to a pot. They are sometimes twice transplanted, allowing more space or a larger pot at each removal; by which process, the plants are rendered more sturdy and branching than they become by being but once transplanted. As early in May as the weather is suitable, the plants may be set in the open ground where they are to remain, and should be three feet apart in each direction; or, if against a wall or trellis, three feet from plant to plant. Water freely at the time of transplanting, shelter from the sun for a few days or until they are well established, and cultivate in the usual form during summer. If sown in the open ground, select a sheltered situation, pulverize the soil finely, and sow a few seeds in drills, as directed for the hot-bed. This may be done in November (just before the closing-up of the ground), or the last of March, or first of April. In May, when the plants are three or four inches high, transplant to where they are to remain, as before directed. In gardens where tomatoes have been cultivated, young plants often spring up abundantly from the seeds of the decayed fruit of the preceding season. These, if transplanted, will succeed as well, and frequently produce fruit as early, as plants from the hot-bed or nursery-bed. Sufficient plants for the garden of a small family may be started with little trouble by sowing a few seeds in a garden-pan or large flower-pot, and placing it in a sunny window of the sitting-room or kitchen. If the seed is sown in this manner about the middle or 20th of March, the plants will be of good size for setting by the time the weather will be suitable for their removal. _Forcing the Crop._--"The ripening of the fruit may be hastened by setting the plants against a south wall or close fence. As the plants increase in size, they must be nailed or otherwise attached to the wall or fence; and, if the weather be dry, liberally watered. When the two first trusses of bloom have expanded over each shoot, the shoot should be stopped by pinching off the portion which is beyond the leaf above the second truss, and no more lateral shoots should be suffered to grow; but the leaves must be carefully preserved, especially those near the trusses of bloom. The number of shoots on each plant will vary according to the strength and vigor of the particular plant; but three or four will be quite enough, leaving about half a dozen trusses of fruit. "As the fruit ripens, it must be well exposed to the sun. There will be nothing gained by allowing a great many fruit to ripen. The number above given will be sufficient, and the tomatoes will be much earlier and larger than if they were more numerous." _Culture and Training._--A convenient, simple, and economical support for the plants may be made from three narrow hoops,--one twelve, another fifteen, and the third eighteen or twenty inches in diameter,--and attaching them a foot from each other to three stakes about four feet in length; placing the lower hoop so that it may be about ten inches from the surface of the ground after the stakes are driven. The adjoining figure illustrates this method of training. It secures abundance of light, free access of air, and, in skilful hands, may be made quite ornamental. [Illustration: Hoop-training of the Tomato.] [Illustration: Trellis-training.] Or a trellis may be cheaply formed by setting common stakes, four feet in length, four feet apart, on a line with the plants, and nailing laths, or narrow strips of deal, from stake to stake, nine inches apart on the stakes; afterwards attaching the plants by means of bass, or other soft, fibrous material, to the trellis, in the manner of grape-vines or other climbing plants. By either of these methods, the plants not only present a neater appearance, but the ripening of the fruit is facilitated, and the crop much more conveniently gathered when required for use. The French mode of raising tomatoes is as follows: "As soon as a cluster of flowers is visible, they top the stem down to the cluster, so that the flowers terminate the stem. The effect is, that the sap is immediately impelled into the two buds next below the cluster, which soon push strongly, and produce another cluster of flowers each. When these are visible, the branch to which they belong is also topped down to their level; and this is done five times successively. By this means, the plants become stout, dwarf bushes, not above eighteen inches high. In order to prevent their falling over, sticks or strings are stretched horizontally along the rows, so as to keep the plants erect. In addition to this, all laterals that have no flowers, and, after the fifth topping, all laterals whatsoever, are nipped off. In this way, the ripe sap is directed into the fruit, which acquires a beauty, size, and excellence unattainable by other means."--_Gard. Chron._ _Varieties._--These are quite numerous. Some are merely nominal, many are variable or quite obscure, and a few appear to be distinct, and, in a degree, permanent. The principal are as follow:-- APPLE-TOMATO. Apple-shaped. Fruit somewhat flattened, inclining to globular, depressed about the stem, but smooth and regular in its general outline. The size is quite variable; but, if well grown, the average diameter is about two inches and a half, and the depth two inches. Skin deep, rich crimson; flesh bright-pink, or rose-color,--the rind being thick and hard, and not readily reduced to a pulp when cooked. [Illustration: Apple-tomato.] The Apple-tomato is early, hardy, productive, keeps well, and, for salad and certain forms of cookery, is much esteemed; but it is more liable to be hollow-hearted than any other of the large varieties. In form, as well as in the thick, tough character of its rind, it resembles the Bermuda. BERMUDA. This is a red or rose-colored, apple-formed sort, extensively imported from Bermuda into the Middle and Northern States in May and the early summer months. Like the preceding variety, it varies considerably in size,--some specimens measuring little more than an inch in diameter; while others from the same plant, matured at nearly the same season, frequently exceed a diameter of two inches and a half. It possesses a thick, rather tough rind, which rarely becomes pulpy in the process of cooking; and, besides, is quite light and hollow-hearted. In size and form, it somewhat resembles the Apple-tomato. When cultivated in New England or the Middle States, it has little merit, either for its productiveness or early maturity. FEJEE. Fruit quite large, red, often blushed or tinged with pinkish-crimson, flattened, sometimes ribbed, often smooth, well filled to the centre; flesh pink, or pale-red, firm, and well flavored; plant hardy, healthy, and a strong grower. Seeds received from different reliable sources, and recommended as being strictly true, produced plants and fruit in no respects distinguishable from the Perfected. FIG-TOMATO. Red Pear-shaped Tomato. [Illustration: Fig-tomato.] A small, red, pyriform or pear-shaped sort, measuring from an inch and a quarter to an inch and a half in length, and nearly an inch in its broadest diameter. Flesh pale-red, or pink, very solid and compact, and generally completely filling the centre of the fruit. Like the Plum-tomato, it is remarkably uniform in size, and also in shape; but it is little used except for preserving,--other larger varieties being considered more economical for stewing, making catchup, and like purposes. The variety is usually employed for making tomato-figs, which are thus prepared:-- "Pour boiling water over the tomatoes, in order to remove the skin; after which, weigh, and place in a stone jar, with as much sugar as tomatoes, and let them stand two days; then pour off the sirup, and boil and skim it till no scum rises; pour it over the tomatoes, and let them stand two days as before; then boil, and skim again. After the third time, they are fit to dry, if the weather is good; if not, let them stand in the sirup until drying weather. Then place them on large earthen plates, or dishes, and put them in the sun to dry, which will take about a week; after which, pack them down in small wooden boxes, with fine, white sugar between every layer. Tomatoes prepared in this manner will keep for years."--_Mrs. Eliza Marsh, in Hov. Mag._ GIANT TOMATO. _Hov. Mag._ Mammoth. An improved variety of the Common Large Red, attaining a much larger size. Fruit comparatively solid, bright-red, sometimes smooth, but generally ribbed, and often exceedingly irregular; some of the larger specimens seemingly composed of two or more united together. The fruit is frequently produced in masses or large clusters, which clasp about the stem, and rest so closely in the axils of the branches as to admit of being detached only by the rending asunder of the fruit itself; flesh pale-pink, and well flavored. Like most of the other varieties, the amount of product is in a great degree dependent on soil, culture, and season. Under favorable conditions, twenty-five pounds to a single plant is not an unusual yield; single specimens of the fruit sometimes weighing four and even five or six pounds. The Giant Tomato is not early, and, for the garden, perhaps not superior to many other kinds; but for field-culture, for market, for making catchup in quantities, or for the use of pickle-warehouses, it is recommended as one of the best of all the sorts now cultivated. GRAPE OR CLUSTER TOMATO. Solanum sp. This variety, or more properly species, differs essentially in the character of its foliage, and manner of fructification, from the Garden Tomato. The leaves are much smoother, thinner in texture, and have little of the musky odor peculiar to the Common Tomato-plant. The fruit is nearly globular, quite small, about half an inch in diameter, of a bright-scarlet color, and produced in leafless, simple, or compound clusters, six or eight inches in length, containing from twenty to sixty berries, or tomatoes; the whole having an appearance not unlike a large cluster, or bunch of currants. The plants usually grow about three feet in height or length; and, in cultivation, should be treated in all respects like those of other varieties. Flowers yellow, and comparatively small. Early. Though quite ornamental, it is of little value in domestic economy, on account of its diminutive size. LARGE RED TOMATO. [Illustration: Large Red Tomato.] Fruit sometimes smooth, often irregular, flattened, more or less ribbed; size large, but varied much by soil and cultivation,--well-grown specimens are from three to four inches in diameter, two inches and a half in depth, and weigh from eight to twelve ounces; skin smooth, glossy, and, when ripe, of a fine red color; flesh pale-red, or rose-color,--the interior of the fruit being comparatively well filled; flavor good. Not early, but one of the most productive of all the varieties; the plants, when properly treated, producing from twelve to fifteen pounds each. From the time of the introduction of the Tomato to its general use in this country, the Large Red was almost the only kind cultivated, or even commonly known. The numerous excellent sorts now almost everywhere disseminated, including the Large Red, Oval, Fejee, Seedless, Giant, and Lester's Perfected, are but improved sub-varieties, obtained from the Common Large Red by cultivation and selection. LARGE RED OVAL-FRUITED TOMATO. A sub-variety of the Large Red. Fruit oval, flattened, much less ribbed, more symmetrical, and more uniform in size, than the last named; well-grown specimens measure about four inches in one direction, three inches in the opposite, and two inches in depth; skin fine, deep-red, smooth and shining; flesh paler, the interior of the fruit well filled with pulp, and, when cooked, yielding a large product in proportion to the bulk. Prolific and well flavored, but not early; ripening at the time of the Large Red. The variety is exceedingly liable to degenerate, constantly tending towards the Large Red; and can only be maintained in its purity by exclusive cultivation, and a continued use of seeds selected from the fairest, smoothest, best ripened tomatoes, having the peculiar oval form by which the variety is distinguished. LARGE YELLOW. Plant, in its general character, not distinguishable from the Large Red. The fruit also is quite similar in form and size; the principal mark of distinction being its color, which is a fine, clear, semi-transparent yellow. Flesh yellow, well filling the centre, and perhaps a little sweeter or milder than the Red; though generally not distinguishable when stewed or otherwise prepared for the table. The variety is hardy, yields abundantly, and comes to perfection with the Large Red. It is, however, not generally cultivated; the Red descriptions being more commonly used, and consequently better adapted for cultivation for the market. MEXICAN. Fruit large, comparatively smooth, frequently of an oval form, bright-red, often tinted with rose or bright-pink; flesh pink, solid, filling the fruit to the centre. It is similar to, if not identical with, the Perfected. PERFECTED. Lester's Perfected. Pomo d'Oro Lesteriano. A recently introduced and comparatively distinct variety. Plant remarkably healthy and vigorous, often attaining a height or length of six or eight feet, and, in strong soil, of more than ten feet; fruit pinkish-red, or rose-red, of large size, comparatively smooth and regular, flattened, remarkably solid and well filled to the centre, and, when cooked, yielding a large return in proportion to its bulk; flesh firm, well flavored, with comparatively few seeds intermixed. In this last respect, not unlike the Seedless. When started at the same time, it ripens two weeks after the early varieties, and continues to yield in great abundance until the plants are destroyed by frost. It is considered one of the best sorts for cultivation for the market, and by many is preferred to all others for the garden. On the authority of a recent writer, the variety has already, to some extent, degenerated. Impure seed, or the influence of some peculiar locality, may have furnished grounds for the statement; but if the variety is genuine or unmixed, it will, in almost any soil or exposure, commend itself by its hardiness, solidity, and great productiveness. RED CHERRY-TOMATO. A small, red Tomato, nearly spherical, and about half an inch in diameter. The fruit is produced in great profusion, in large bunches, or clusters; but is comparatively of little value, on account of its small size. It is sometimes used as a preserve, and by some is esteemed for pickling. RED PLUM-TOMATO. Fruit bright-red or scarlet, oval, solid, an inch and a quarter or an inch and a half in depth, and about an inch in diameter; flesh pink, or rose-red, mild and well flavored; seeds comparatively few. The variety is remarkable for its symmetry and for its uniform size. When ripe, the fruit is not easily distinguished from some varieties of scarlet plums. It is hardy, early, and yields abundantly: but the fruit is employed principally for pickling and preserving; its small size rendering it of little value for stewing or for catchup. Mixed with the Yellow, they make a fine garnish, and are excellent for salad. ROUND RED. A small, round, red variety, measuring about an inch in diameter. It is one of the earliest of all the cultivated sorts, but of little value except for pickling or preserving. ROUND YELLOW. Of the size and form of the foregoing, differing only in color. SEEDLESS. Very similar to, if not identical with, the Perfected. Fruit almost rose-red, solid, and with comparatively few seeds. TREE-TOMATO. _Vil._ _Hov. Mag._ New Upright. Tomate de Laye. A new variety, raised from seed by Grenier, gardener to M. de Fleurieux, at a place in France called Chateau de Laye (whence the name), and introduced by M. Vilmorin of Paris. It is distinct from all others; rising quite erect to the height of two feet or upwards, with a stem of remarkable size and strength. The branches are not numerous, and comparatively short, usually eight or ten inches in length,--thus requiring no heading-in; leaves not abundant, rather curled, much wrinkled, very firm, closely placed on the sturdy branches, and of a remarkably deep, shining-green color; fruit bright-red, of large size, comparatively smooth, and well filled to the centre,--in many respects, resembling the Perfected, though more regular in form. From the peculiar, tree-like character of the plants, the variety is remarkably well adapted for cultivation in pots; but its late maturity greatly impairs its value as a variety for forcing. It is a slow grower, tardy in forming and perfecting its fruit, and, for ordinary garden culture, cannot be recommended as being preferable to the Perfected and other earlier and much more prolific varieties. It has been described as strictly self-supporting: but, though the fruit is produced in a remarkably close and almost clasping manner about the sturdy stem and branches, its weight often brings the plants to the ground; and consequently, in exposed situations, it will be necessary to provide stakes, or some similar means of support; though the plants never exhibit the rambling, recumbent character of the Common Tomato. WHITE TOMATO. Plant similar in habit to the Large Red; fruit large, generally ribbed, often irregular, but sometimes comparatively smooth. Its distinguishing characteristic is its color, which, if the fruit be screened by foliage or if grown in the shade, is almost clear white; if much exposed to the sun, it assumes a yellowish tinge, much paler, however, than the Large Yellow. Flesh yellowish, more watery than that of the Large Red, and of a somewhat peculiar flavor, much esteemed by some, and unpalatable to others. The variety is hardy, remarkably productive, as early as the Large Red, and equally large and solid: but its color, before and after being cooked, is unattractive; and it is rarely seen in the markets, and seldom cultivated for family use. WHITE'S EXTRA EARLY. Early Red. Extra Early. A medium-sized Red variety, generally round, but frequently of an oval form, flattened, sometimes ribbed, but comparatively smooth, and, when fully matured, of a deeper color than the later Red sorts. Average specimens measure about two inches and a half in diameter, and an inch and a half in depth. The plants are moderately vigorous, and readily distinguished by their peculiar curled and apparently withering foliage. Flesh pale-red, quite firm, mild, not very seedy, and well filling the fruit, which is considerably heavier than the Apple-shaped. When cooked, it yields a much greater product, in proportion to its size, than the last-named and similar hollow-hearted varieties. Productive, and of good quality. Planted at the same time with the Common Red varieties, it will ripen about two weeks earlier. An excellent sort for the garden, and recommended for general cultivation. In order to retain this or any other early variety in its purity, seed for planting should be saved from the smoothest, best formed, and earliest ripened fruit. Few of the numerous kinds now cultivated possess much permanency of character; and rapidly degenerate, if raised from seed taken from the scattered, irregular, and comparatively immature tomatoes remaining upon the plants at the close of the season. YELLOW CHERRY-TOMATO. A yellow variety of the Red Cherry-tomato,--differing only in color. Quite showy, but of little value for culinary purposes. YELLOW PEAR-SHAPED TOMATO. Yellow Fig-tomato. A sub-variety of the Red Pear-shaped, with a clear, semi-transparent, yellow skin and yellow flesh. Like the preceding, it is little used except for preserving and pickling. YELLOW PLUM-TOMATO. A variety of the Red Plum, of the same size and form, and equally symmetrical; distinguished only by the color of its skin, which is a fine, clear, transparent yellow. It is used principally for preserving; its small size rendering it comparatively valueless for use in any other form. When the two varieties are intermixed, the colors present a fine contrast; and a basket of the fruit is quite a beautiful object. INDEX. Agaricus campestris, 580. " comatus, 585. " deliciosus, 585. " exquisitus, 585. " Georgii, 585. " oreades, 587. " personatus, 586. " prunulus, 586. Alecost, 416. Alexanders, 315. Perfoliate, 316. Alisanders, 315. Alkekengi, 592. Purple, 593. Tall, 593. Alliaceous Plants, 122. Allium ampeloprasum, 124. " Ascalonicum, 143. " cepa, 129. " fistulosum, 147. " porrum, 125. " sativum, 123. " schoenoprasum, 122. " scorodoprasum, 143. Allspice, 429. Amaranthus, 287. Chinese, 287. Early, 288. Hantsi Shanghai, 288. Mirza, 288. American Brooklime, 316. American Garden-bean, 450. American Winter-cress, 403. Anethum graveolens, 418. Angelica, 406. " archangelica, 406. Anise, 407. Annual Phytolacca, 169. Anthemis nobilis, 563. " nobilis flore pleno, 563. Apium graveolens, 321. " petroselinum, 430. Arrach, 296. Arachys hypogea, 556. Aromatic Nigella, 429. Artemesia abrotanum, 576. " absynthium, 576. " dracunculus, 400. " maritimum, 577. " pontica, 577. Artichoke, 149. Camus de Bretagne, 153. Common, 152. Dark Red-spined, 152. Early Purple, 152. French, 162. Globe, 152. Green, 152. Green Globe, 152. Green Provence, 153. Gros Vert de Laon, 153. Laon, 153. Large Flat Brittany, 153. Large Round-headed, 152. Purple, 152. Purple Globe, 152. Purplish-red, 153. Violet, 152. Asparaginous Plants, 149. Asparagus, 153. Asperge d'Allemagne, 161. Battersea, 160. Deptford, 161. Dutch, 161. German, 161. Giant Purple-top, 161. Grayson's Giant, 161. Gravesend, 161. Green-top, 161. Mortlake, 161. Reading, 161. Red-top, 161. Asparagus officinalis, 153. Astragalus hamosus, 405. Atriplex hortensis, 296. Avilès Cabbage, 275. Balm, 409. Balsamita vulgaris, 416. Barbadoes Gooseberry, 592. Barbarea præcox, 403. " vulgaris, 403. Basella alba, 292. " cordifolia, 292. " rubra, 293. Basil, 410. Bush, 411. Common, 410. Fin Vert, 411. Fin Violet, 411. Grand Violet, 410. Green Bush, 411. Large Sweet, 410. Lettuce-leaved, 411. Purple, 410. Purple Bush, 411. Bean, American Garden, 450. Dwarf varieties, 450. Bagnolet, 451. Black-eyed China, 452. Blue Pod, 453. Canada Yellow, 454. Canadian, 463. Chilian, 455. China, 460. Crescent-eyed, 455. Dun-colored, 456. Dwarf Case-knife, 459. Dwarf Cimeter, 459. Dwarf Cranberry, 457. Dwarf Horticultural, 458. Dwarf Sabre, 459. Dwarf Soissons, 460. Dwarf White Cranberry, 479. Dwarf Yellow, 472. Early China, 460. Early Mohawk, 464. Early Rachel, 461. Early Valentine, 462. Golden Cranberry, 463. Kidney, 478. Large White Kidney, 478. Long Yellow Six-weeks, 464. Mohawk, 464. Newington Wonder, 465. Pea, 467. Pottawottomie, 468. Red-eyed China, 460. Red Flageolet, 469. Red-speckled, 469. Refugee, 470. Rice, 471. Rob-Roy, 472. Round American Kidney, 454, 463. Round Yellow, 472. Round Yellow Six-weeks, 472. Royal Dwarf, 478. Scarlet Flageolet, 469. Scarlet Swiss, 474. Six-weeks, 464. Solitaire, 473. Swiss Crimson, 474. Tampico, 475. Thousand to One, 470. Turtle-soup, 475. Valentine, 462. Variegated Dwarf Prague, 458. Victoria, 476. White's Early, 476. White Egg, 479. White Flageolet, 477. White Kidney, 478. White Marrow, 479. White Marrowfat, 479. Yellow-eyed China, 480. Yellow Flageolet, 464. Yellow Six-weeks, 464. Beans, Running or Pole, 481. Algerian, 484. Asparagus, 494. Butter, 484. Carolina, 499. Carolina Sewee, 499. Case-knife, 481. Cimeter, 490. Corn, 482. D' Alger, 484. Green Lima, 496. Horticultural, 483. Indian Chief, 484. Lima, 495. London Horticultural, 483. Long-podded Dolichos, 494. Marbled Prague, 483. Mottled Cranberry, 485. Mottled Lima, 497. Mottled Prolific, 485. Mottled Sieva, 500. Painted Lady-runner, 499. Prédhomme, 486. Princess, 487. Red Cranberry, 487. Red Orleans, 488. Rhode-Island Butter, 489. Saba, 499. Sabre, 490. Scarlet Orleans, 488. Scarlet-runner, 497. Sieva, 499. Small Lima, 499. Soissons, 491. Wax, 484. West-Indian, 499. White Cranberry, 491. White-runner, 499. Wild-goose, 492. Yellow Cranberry, 493. Bean, English, 503. Bog, 505. Cluster, 505. Dark-red, 509. Dutch Long Pod, 505. Dwarf Fan, 505. Early Dwarf, 505. Early Dwarf Crimson-seeded, 505. Early Long Pod, 508. Early Malta, 506. Early Mazagan, 506. Evergreen Long Pod, 506. Green China, 507. Green Genoa, 506. Green Julienne, 507. Green Long Pod, 506. Green Nonpareil, 506. Green Windsor, 507. Hang-down Long Pod, 508. Horse-bean, 503, 507. Johnson's Wonderful, 508. Kentish Windsor, 511. Large Toker, 510. Lisbon, 508. Long-podded, 508. Marshall's Early Dwarf Prolific, 508. Mumford, 511. Purple, 510. Red-blossomed, 509. Red Windsor, 509. Royal Dwarf Cluster, 509. Sandwich, 508. Scarlet-blossomed, 509. Scarlet Windsor, 509. Scotch, 507. Sword Long Pod, 508. Taylor's Large Windsor, 511. Toker, 507, 510. Turkey Long Pod, 508. Vilmorin's Dwarf Red-seeded, 505. Violet, 510. Violette, 510. White-blossomed Long Pod, 510. White Broad Windsor, 511. Windsor, 511. Wrench's Improved Windsor, 511. Bean, French, 450. Bean, Kidney, 450. Beet, 1. Bark-skinned, 6. Barrott's New Crimson, 7. Bassano, 7. Betterave Blanche, 17. Betterave Globe Rouge, 16. Betterave Jaune Globe, 19. Cattell's Dwarf Blood, 8. Common Long Blood, 13. Cow-horn Mangel Wurzel, 8. Cow-horn Scarcity, 8. Disette Blanche à Collet Verte, 14. Disette d'Allemagne, 10. Disette Hative, 8. Dwarf Blood, 11. Early Blood Turnip-rooted, 9. Early Flat Bassano, 7. Early Half Long Blood, 11. Early Mangel Wurzel, 8. Early Scarcity, 8. Early Turnip Beet, 9. Fine Dwarf Red, 11. German Red Mangel Wurzel, 10. German Yellow Mangel Wurzel, 11. Green Mangel Wurzel, 11. Green-top White Sugar, 14. Half Long Blood, 11. Improved Long Blood, 12. Jaune d'Allemagne, 11. Jaune Grosse, 15. Long Blood, 13. Long Red Mangel Wurzel, 13. Long Smooth Blood, 12. Long White Green-top Mangel Wurzel, 14. Long White Mangel Wurzel, 14. Long Yellow Mangel Wurzel, 15. Marbled Field, 13. Oak Bark-skinned, 6. Pine-apple Short-top, 15. Red Castelnaudary, 16. Red Globe Mangel Wurzel, 16. Red Mangel Wurzel, 13. Rouge de Whyte, 18. Rouge Nain, 11. Rouge Plate de Bassano, 7. Serpent-like, 8. Turnip-rooted Bassano, 7. White Globe Mangel Wurzel, 17. White Silesian, 17. White Sugar, 17. White Turnip-rooted, 18. Whyte's Dark Crimson, 18. Wyatt's Dark Crimson, 18. Yellow Castelnaudary, 19. Yellow Globe Mangel Wurzel, 19. Yellow Turnip-rooted, 20. Beet, Leaf, 289. Beet, Sea, 302. Belle-Isle Cress, 403. Bene-plant, 561. Biformed-leaved, 562. Oval-leaved, 562. Trifid-leaved, 562. Beta cicla, 289. " maritima, 302. " vulgaris, 1. Black Cumin, 429. Black Nightshade, 288. Black Oyster-plant, 95. Black Salsify, 95. Blitum Bonus Henricus, 313. Boletus edulis, 587. " scaber, 587. Borage, 412. Blue-flowering, 412. Red-flowering, 412. Variegated, 412. White-flowering, 412. Borago officinalis, 412. Borecole, or Kale, 229. Asparagus, 231. Branchu du Poitou, 236. Buda, 231. Cabbaging, 231. Canada Dwarf Curled, 233. Caulet de Flanders, 233. Cesarean, 232. Cesarean Cabbage, 232. Chou à Faucher, 233. Chou à Mille Têtes, 236. Chou Cavalier, 232. Chou de Lannilis, 234. Chou Frisé de Naples, 234. Chou Frisé Prolifère, 232. Chou Moellier, 234. Chou Palmier, 235. Chou vivace de Daubenton, 232. Coxcomb, 232. Cow-cabbage, 232. Curled Brown 235. Curled Proliferous, 232. Daubenton's Creeping, 232. Dwarf Feather, 231. Dwarf Curled, 233. Dwarf Curlies, 233. Dwarf Green Curled, 233. Field Cabbage, 233. Field Kale, 233. Flanders, 233. Frisé à Pied Court, 233. Frisé Grand du Nord, 236. Frisé Panaché, 237. Frisé Rouge Grand, 235. Green Marrow-stem, 234. Green Scotch, 233. Imperial Hearting, 231. Lannilis, 234. Lannilis Tree-cabbage, 234. Manchester, 231. Neapolitan, 234. Neapolitan Curled, 234. Oak-leaved, 231. Palm, 235. Purple, 235. Red, 235. Red Marrow-stem, 236. Red-stalked, 236. Russian, 231. Tall Green, 236. Tall Green Curled, 236. Tall German Greens, 236. Tall Purple, 235. Tall Scotch, 236. Thousand-headed, 236. Tree-cabbage, 232. Variegated, 237. Variegated Canadian, 237. Variegated Coxcomb, 237. Woburn Perennial, 237. Bottle Gourd, 179, 180. Brassica campestris, 394. " campestris Ruta-baga, 86. " caulo rapa, 38. " chinensis, 276. " eruca, 395. " napa, 393. " oleracea, 238, 249, 251. " oleracea bullata, 277. " oleracea sabellica, 229. " præcox, 394. " rapa, 104, 393. Brassicaceous Plants, 229. Broccoli, 238. Adam's Early White, 247. Ambler's Early White, 241. Asparagus, 242. Autumn White, 243. Autumnal Cape, 244. Bath White, 244. Blue Cape, 246. Brimstone, 247. Cauliflower, 247. Chappell's Large Cream, 241. Chappell's New Cream, 241. Covent-Garden Market, 247. Cream-colored, 246. Danish, 241. Devonshire White, 243. Dilliston's Late White, 245. Dwarf Brown Close-headed, 242. Dwarf Danish, 245. Dwarf Roman, 244. Dwarf Swedish, 245. Early Branching, 242. Early Gem, 245. Early Purple, 242. Early Purple Cape, 246. Early Purple Sprouting, 242. Early White, 243, 247. Early White Cornish, 246. Edinburgh Sulphur, 247. Ellertson's Gigantic Late White, 243. Ellertson's Mammoth, 243. Fine Early White, 243. Fine Late Sulphur, 247. Frogmore Protecting, 243. Gem, 245. Gillespie's, 243. Gill's Yarmouth White, 247. Grange's Cauliflower, 247. Grange's Early Cape, 246. Grange's Early Cauliflower, 244. Grange's Early White, 244. Green Cape, 244. Green Close-headed Winter, 244. Hammond's White Cape, 244. Hampton Court, 245. Hopwood's Early White, 244. Howden's Superb Purple, 246. Imperial Early White, 247. Invisible, 244. Invisible Late White, 245. Italian Purple, 245. Italian Sprouting, 242. Kent's Late White, 245. Kidderminster, 245. Knight's Protecting, 245. Lake's Gem, 245. Late Brimstone, 247. Late Danish, 241. Late Dwarf Purple, 245. Late Green, 241, 244. Late Willcove, 248. Maher's Hardy Cape, 244. Maher's New Dwarf, 246. Marshall's Early White, 244. Miller's Dwarf, 246. Miller's Late White, 246. Mitchell's Ne Plus Ultra, 246. Mitchinson's Early White, 246. Mitchinson's Penzance, 246. Naples White, 247. Neapolitan White, 247. North's Early Purple, 242. Portsmouth, 246. Purple Cape, 246. Purple Silesian, 246. Siberian, 241, 244. Snow's Spring White, 247. Snow's Superb White Winter, 247. Southampton, 246. Sulphur, 247. Walcheren, 248. Ward's Superb, 248. Waterloo Late White, 245. White Cape, 248. Willcove, 248. Brook-lime, 316. American, 316. Brussels Sprouts, 249. Dwarf, 250. Giant, 250. Tall, 250. Buckshorn Plantain, 317. Burnet, 318. Hairy-leaved, 319. Large-seeded, 319. Smooth-leaved, 319. Cabbage, 251. American Drumhead, 258. American Green Glazed, 258. Atkins's Matchless, 252. Barnes's Early, 253. Barnes's Early Dwarf, 253. Bergen Drumhead, 253. Champion of America, 253. Chou de Vaugirard, 265. Coeur de Boeuf Petit, 262. Dwarf Battersea, 254. Early Battersea, 254. Early Cornish, 254. Early Drumhead, 255. Early Dutch Drumhead, 256. Early Dutch Twist, 255. Early Dwarf Battersea, 254. Early Hope, 255. Early Low Dutch, 256. Early Nonpareil, 256. Early Sugar-loaf, 256. Early Wakefield, 257. Early York, 257. East Ham, 258. Great American, 253. Green Glazed, 258. Large Bergen, 253. Large Flat Dutch, 261. Large French Ox-heart, 260. Large German Drumhead, 253. Large Late Drumhead, 258. Large Ox-heart, 260. Large York, 259. Marblehead Mammoth Drumhead, 260. Mason, 260. Paignton, 254. Penton, 254. Pentonville, 254. Pointed-head, 265. Pomeranian, 261. Premium Flat Dutch, 261. Quintal, 253. Shilling's Queen, 262. Small Ox-heart, 262. St. Denis, 262. Stone-mason, 263. Suttons's Dwarf Comb, 264. Vannack, 264. Vaugirard, 265. Waite's New Dwarf, 265. Winnigstadt, 265. Cabbage: Red Varieties, 266. Chou Noirâtre d'Utrecht, 267. Early Blood-red, 266. Early Dwarf-red, 266. Large Red Dutch, 266. Small Red, 266. Superfine Black, 267. Utrecht Red, 267. Calabash, or Common Gourd, 179. Bottle Gourd, 179, 180. Courge Massue d'Hercule, 180. Courge Poire à Poudre, 181. Courge Siphon, 181. Hercules Club, 180. Powder-horn, 181. Siphon, 181. Calendula officinalis, 425. Camomile, 563. Common, 563. Double-flowering, 563. Campanula rapunculus, 84. Capsicum, 616. Capucine, 388. Dwarf, 390. Caraway, 413. Cardamine pratensis, 344. Cardoon, 162. Artichoke-leaved, 166. Blood-ribbed, 166. Cardon de Tours, 166. Common, 165. D'Espagne, 165. Lance-leaved, 166. Large Purple, 166. Large Smooth, 165. Large Spanish, 165. Large Tours Solid, 166. Plein Inerme, 165. Puvis, 166. Puvis de Bourg, 166. Red, 166. Red-stemmed, 166. Smooth Large Solid, 165. Tours, 166. Carolina Potato, 99. Carrot, 20. Altrincham, 23. Altringham, 23. Blanche des Vosges, 29. Blood Red, 29. Common White, 28. Dutch Horn, 25. Earliest Short Forcing Horn, 24. Early Forcing Horn, 24. Early Frame, 24. Early Half Long Scarlet, 25. Early Horn, 25. Early Scarlet Horn, 25. Early Short Dutch, 25. Early Short Scarlet, 24. Flander's Large Pale Scarlet, 26. Flander's Pale-red, 26. Green-top White, 30. Half-long Red, 25. James's Scarlet, 28. Long Lemon, 27. Long Orange, 26. Long Red, 28. Long Red Altringham, 23. Long Red Belgian, 27. Long Red Brunswick, 30. Long Surrey, 28. Long White, 28. Long Yellow, 27. New Intermediate, 28. Purple, 29. Short White, 29. Studley, 30. Transparent White, 31. Violette, 29. White Belgian, 30. White Belgian Horn, 31. Yellow Belgian, 27. Yellow Green-top Belgian, 27. Carthamus tinctorius, 575. Carum carui, 413. Caterpillar, 319. Common, 320. Furrowed, 320. Grosse, 320. Hairy, 321. Prickly, 321. Rayée, 320. Small, 321. Velue, 321. Villous, 321. Cauliflower, 267. Early Leyden, 271. Early London, 270. Early Paris, 270. Erfurt's Early, 270. Erfurt's Extra Early, 270. Fitch's Early London, 270. Large Asiatic, 270. Legge's Walcheren Broccoli, 271. Le Normand, 271. London Particular, 270. Mitchell's Hardy Early, 271. Stadthold, 271. Waite's Alma, 271. Walcheren, 271. Wellington, 272. Celeriac, 331. Curled-leaved, 332. Early Erfurt, 332. Frisé, 332. Rave d'Erfurt, 332. Celery, 321. à couper, 329. Boston-Market, 326. Cole's Superb Red, 326. Cole's Superb White, 326. "Dwarf-curled White, 326. Early Dwarf Solid White, 327. Fine White Solid, 330. Giant Patagonian, 327. Giant White, 330. Italian, 327. Laing's Improved Mammoth Red, 327. Large Upright, 327. Lion's Paw, 330. Manchester Red, 328. Manchester Red Giant, 328. Nain Frisé, 326. New Large Purple, 328. New Large Red, 328. Nutt's Champion White, 328. Plein Blanc, 330. Plein Blanc Court Hatif, 327. Prussian, 330. Red Solid, 328. Seymour's Superb White Solid, 328. Seymour's White Champion, 329. Shepherd's Giant Red, 329. Shepherd's Red, 329. Small Dutch, 329. Sutton's White Solid, 329. Tours Purple, 328. Turc, 330. Turkey, 330. Turkish Giant Solid, 330. Violet de Tours, 328. Wall's White, 330. White Lion's Paw, 330. White Solid, 330. Chærophyllum bulbosum, 31. " cerefolium, 333. Champignon, 580. Chardon, 162. Chardoon, 162. Chenille, 319. Chenopodium quinoa, 301. Chervil, 333. Common, 333. Curled, 333. Double-curled, 333. French, 333. Frisé, 333. Frizzled-leaved, 333. Parsnip, 31. Plain-leaved, 333. Sweet-scented, 399. Turnip-rooted, 31. Chiccory, 334. Brunswick Large-rooted, 337. Coffee, 336. Improved, 335. Improved Variegated, 336. Large-rooted, 336. Magdebourg Large-rooted, 337. Sauvage améliorée, 335. Spotted, 336. Turnip-rooted, 336. Variegated, 336. Chickling Vetch, 502. White-flowered, 503. Chick-pea, 501. Red, 502. White, 502. Yellow, 502. Chinese Amaranthus, 287. " Cabbage, 275, 276. " Potato, 32. " Spinach, 287. Chives, 122. Chufa, 34. Ciboule, 147. Cicer arietinum, 501. Cichorium endivia, 347. " intybus, 334. Cive, 122. Clary, 414. Sage, 414. Clavaria, 587. Climbing Nightshade, 292. Cochlearia armoracia, 356. " officinalis, 397. Cole-seed, 393. Colewort, 272. Rosette, 273. Collards, 272. Collet, 272. Coltsfoot, 564. Colza, 394. Concombre chaté, 178. des prophètes, 179. Convolvulus batatus, 99. Corchorus, 338. " olitorius, 338. Corette potagère, 338. Coriander, 415. Coriandrum sativum, 415. Corn, 594. Corn: Garden varieties, 594. Adam's Early White, 594. Black Sweet, 594. Burr's Improved, 595. Burr's Sweet, 595. Darling's Early, 596. Darling's Early Sweet, 596. Early Jefferson, 596. Golden Sweet, 597. Golden Sugar, 597. Old-Colony, 597. Parching Corn, white kernel, 598. Pop Corn, 598. Pop Corn, yellow, 599. Red-cob Sweet, 599. Rice, Red Kernel, 600. " White Kernel, 600. " Yellow Kernel, 600. Slate Sweet, 594. Stowell's Evergreen, 601. Stowell's Evergreen Sweet, 601. Turkey Wheat, 601. Tuscarora, 601. Twelve-rowed Sweet, 602. Corn: Field varieties, 602. Brown, 605. Canada Yellow, 602. Dutton, 603. Early Canada, 602. Early Dutton, 603. Hill, 604. Illinois White, 605. Illinois Yellow, 605. Improved King Philip, 605. King Philip, 605. New-England Eight-rowed, 606. Old-Colony Premium, 604. Parker, 607. Smutty White, 604. Southern White, 607. Southern Yellow, 607. Webster, 604. Western White, 605. Western Yellow, 605. White Horse-tooth, 607. Whitman, 604. Whitman Improved, 604. Yellow Horse-tooth, 607. Corn Salad, 339. Common, 340. Italian, 340. Large Round-leaved, 340. Large Seeded Round, 340. Costmary, 416. Hoary-leaved, 417. Couve Tronchuda, 273. " à Côtes Blanches, 275. " Dwarf, 274. " Fringed, 275. " Large-ribbed, 273. " White-ribbed, 275. Crambe maritima, 283. Cress, or Peppergrass, 341. Broad-leaved, 342. Common, 342. Curled, 342. Garnishing, 342. Golden, 343. Normandy Curled, 343. Plain-leaved, 342. Crithmum maritimum, 396. Crummock, 97. Cuckoo Flower, 344. Double Purple Flowering, 344. Double White Flowering, 344. Purple, 344. White, 344. Cucumber, 170. Carter's Superior, 174. Conqueror of the West, 174. Cuthill's Black Spine, 174. Doctor, 174. Early Cluster, 172. Early Green Cluster, 172. Early Frame, 173. Early Long Green Prickly, 176. Early Russian, 173. Early Short Green Prickly, 177. Early White-spined, 177. Eggleston's Conqueror, 174. Egyptian, 178. Extra Long Green Turkey, 176. Flanigan's Prize, 174. Globe, 179. Hairy, 178. Hunter's Prolific, 174. Improved Sion House, 174. Irishman, 175. Jamaica, 199. London Long Green, 173. Long Green Prickly, 176. Long Green Turkey, 176. Long Prickly, 176. Lord Kenyon's Favorite, 175. Manchester Prize, 175. Nepal, 175. New-York Market, 177. Norman Stitchworth-park Hero, 175. Old Sion House, 175. Prize-fighter, 175. Rifleman, 175. Ringleader, 175. Roman Emperor, 175. Round-leaved Egyptian, 178. Serpent, 206. Short Green, 173. Short Green Prickly, 177. Short Prickly, 177. Snake, 206. Southgate, 175. Sponge, 198. Underwood's Short Prickly, 177. Victory of Bath, 175. West-Indian, 199. White Spanish, 177. White-spined, 177. Cucumis acutangulus, 198. " anguria, 199. " chate, 178. " flexuosus, 206. " melo, 183. " prophetarum, 179. " sativus, 170. Cucurbita aurantiaca, 212. " citrullus, 192. " lagenaria, 179. " maxima, 219. " ovifera, 210. " piliformis, 222. " pepo, 200. " verrucosa, 208. Cucurbitaceous Plants, 170. Cultivated Lathyrus, 502. Cumin, 417. " cyminum, 417. Cynara cardunculus, 162. Cynarus scolymus, 149. Cyperus esculentus, 34. Dandelion, 345. Daucus carota, 20. Deppe's Oxalis, 43. Dill, 418. Dioscorea batatas, 32. Dolichos sesquipedalis, 494. Earth Almond, 34. Earth Nut, 556. Eatable-podded Pease, 552. Eatable-rooted Pea, 103. Edible Cyperus, 34. Egg-plant, 607. American Large Purple, 609. Chinese Long White, 609. Guadaloupe Striped, 610. Large Round Purple, 611. Long Purple, 610. New-York Improved, 610. Round Purple, 611. Scarlet-fruited, 611. White, 611. Egyptian Cucumber, 178. Egyptian Pea, 501. Elecampane, 565. Endive, 347. Endives, Batavian, 349. Broad-leaved, 349. Common Yellow, 349. Curled, 350. Large, 350. Lettuce-leaved, 351. Scarolle Blonde, 351. Scarolle Courte, 351. Scarolle Grande, 350. Small, 351. White, 351. Endives, Curled, 351. Chicorée Frisée de Ruffec, 354. " Mousse, 355. Dutch Green Curled, 352. Early Fine Curled Rouen, 354. Ever-blanched, 355. Green Curled, 352. Green Curled Summer, 352. Italian Green Curled, 353. Large Green Curled, 353. Long Italian Green, 353. Picpus Fine Curled, 354. Ruffec Curled, 354. Small Green Curled, 352. Staghorn, 354. Triple-curled Moss, 355. White Curled, 355. Winter Moss, 356. English Bean, 503. English Turnip, 104. Ervum lens, 512. " monanthos, 513. Esculent Roots, 1. Evening Primrose, 35. Faber vulgaris arvensis, 507. Fedia cornucopiæ, 401. Fennel, 419. Bitter, 420. Common, 420. Dark Green-leaved, 420. Florence, 420. Italian, 420. Malta, 421. Sweet, 421. Sweet Azorian, 420. Fetticus, 339. Finochio, 420. Foeniculum dulce, 420. " officinale, 421. " vulgare, 420. Four Spices, 429. French Bean, 450. French Spinach, 296. French Turnip, 86. Garden Bean, American, 450. Garden Bean, English, 503. Garden Patience, 299. Garden Picridium, 390. Garden Rocket, 395. Garget, 168. Garlic, 123. Common, 123. Early Pink, 124. Early Rose, 124. Great-headed, 124. German Rampion, 35. Gherkin, 199. Globe Cucumber, 179. Glycyrrhiza glabra, 567. Golden Samphire, 397. Good King Henry, 313. Goosefoot, 301, 313. Gourd, 179. Green Mint, 444. Ground Bean, 556. Ground Cherry, 592. " Purple, 593. " Tall, 593. Ground Nut, 556. Gumbo, 614. Hairy Cucumber, 178. Haricot, 450. Hedeoma pulegioides, 569. Helianthus annuus, 632. " Indicus, 632. " tuberosus, 36. Herb Patience, 299. Hibiscus esculentus, 614. Hoarhound, 566. Hoosung, 168. Hop, 167. Horse-bean, 503, 507. Horse-radish, 356. Humulus lupulus, 167. Hyssop, 566. Blue-flowering, 566. Common, 566. Red-flowering, 567. White-flowering, 567. Hyssopus officinalis, 566. Indian Cress, 388. Inula crithmifolia, 397. " helenium, 565. Ipomoea batatas, 99. Jamaica Cucumber, 199. Japanese Yam, 32. Jerusalem Artichoke, 36. Common White, 37. Purple-skinned, 38. Red-skinned, 38. Yellow-skinned, 38. Kale (see "Borecole "), 229. Kidney-bean, 450. Kohl Rabi, 38. Artichoke-leaved, 40. Cut-leaved, 40. Early Dwarf White, 40. Early Purple Vienna, 40. Early White Vienna, 40. Green, 41. Purple, 41. White, 41. Lactuca intybacea, 382. " perennis, 383. " quercina, 383. " sativa, 357. Lamb's Lettuce, 339. Large-ribbed Borecole, 273. Large Stinging Nettle, 293. Lathyrus sativus, 502. " tuberosus, 103. Lavender, 422. Blue-flowering, 423. Broad-leaved, 423. Common, 423. Narrow-leaved Blue-flowering, 423. Narrow-leaved White-flowering, 423. Spike, 423. Lavendula spica, 422. Leaf-beet, or Swiss Chard, 289. à Carde Rouge, 291. Carde Jaune, 291. Common, 291. Curled, 291. Great White, 292. Green, 291. Large-ribbed Curled, 291. Large-ribbed Scarlet Brazilian, 291. Large-ribbed Silver, 292. Large-ribbed Yellow Brazilian, 291. Red-stalked, 291. Sea-kale, 292. Silver-leaf, 292. Swiss Chard, 292. Yellow-stalked, 291. Leek, 125. Broad Flag, 127. Common Flag, 126. Edinburgh Improved, 127. English Flag, 127. Gros Court, 127. Gros de Rouen, 127. Jaune du Poitou, 128. Large Flag, 127. Large Rouen, 127. Little Montagne, 127. London Flag, 127. Long Flag, 126. Musselburgh, 127. Proliferous, 128. Scotch Flag, 127. Small Early Netherland, 128. Small Summer Brabant, 128. Yellow Poitou, 128. Leak-leaved Salsify, 92. Leguminous Plants, 450. Lentil, 512. Canada, 558. Common, 512. Green, 513. Large, 513. One-flowered, 513. Petite, 514. Red, 514. Small, 514. Verte du Puy, 513. Yellow, 512. of Spain, 502. Leontodon taraxacum, 345. Lepidium sativum, 341. Lettuce, 357. Lettuces, Cabbage, 361. American Brown Dutch, 375. Black-seeded Gotte, 363. Blond Versailles, 373. Boston Curled, 364. Brown, 370. Brown Batavian, 361. Brown Dutch, Black-seeded, 361. Brown Silesian, 361. Brown Winter, 362. Button, 372. Capuchin, 372. Curled, 364. De Malte, 369. Drumhead, 369, 374. Early Cape, 362. Early Dwarf Dutch, 365. Early Frame, 365. Early Simpson, 363. Early White Spring, 363. Endive-leaved, 364. English Endive-like Curled-leaved, 364. Gotte lente à Monter, 371. Green Ball, 372. Green Curled, 364. Green Dutch, 365. Green Winter, 365. Grosse Brune Paresseuse, 367. Hammersmith Hardy, 365. Hardy Green Hammersmith, 365. Hardy Hammersmith, 372. Hardy Winter Cabbage, 365. Hative de Simpson, 363. Ice, 366, 369. Ice Cos, 369. Imperial Head, 366. India, 367. Laitue Chicorée, 364. Large Brown Cabbage, 367. Large Brown Winter, 362. Large Drumhead, 374. Large Golden Summer, 375. Large Gray, 367. Large India, 367. Large Red, 368. Large Winter, 368. Large White, 371. Madeira, 368. Malta, 369. Mammoth, 367. Marseilles, 361. Mogul, 367. Morine, 365. Naples, 369. Neapolitan, 369. Palatine, 370. Passion, 368. Red-bordered, 373. Rouge Charteuse, 368. Royal, 371. Royal Cape, 362. Sanguine à Graine Blanche, 370. Sanguine à Graine Noire, 370. Spanish, 374. Spotted, Black-seeded, 370. Spotted, White-seeded, 370. Stone Tennis-ball, 371. Sugar, 371, 373. Summer Blond, 371. Summer Cabbage, 371. Summer Cape, 362. Swedish, 373. Tennis-ball, 372. Turkey Cabbage, 366, 373. Union, 366. Versailles, 373. Victoria, 373. White, 369. White Batavian, 374. White Dutch, 375. White Gotte, Black-seeded, 374. White Gotte, White-seeded, 374. White Silesian, 374. White Stone Cabbage, 375. White Tennis-ball, 374. Yellow-seeded Brown Dutch, 375. Lettuces, Cos, 376. Ady's Fine Large, 378. à Feuille de Chêne, 380. Aleppo, 380. Alphange, Black-seeded, 376. Alphange, White-seeded, 376. Artichoke-leaved, 377. Bath, 378. Bath Green, 377. Bearfield, 378. Bloody, 380. Brown, 378. Endive-leaved, 382. Florence, Black-seeded, 376. Florence, White-seeded, 376. Gray Paris, 378. Green Paris, 378. Green Winter, 379. Kensington, 378. London White, 382. Magnum Bonum, 376. Monstrous Brown, 379. Oak-leaved, 380, 383. Panachée à Graine Noire, 380. Perennial, 383. Red-spotted, 380. Red Winter, 380. Spinach Lettuce, 383. Spotted, Black-seeded, 380. Spotted, White-seeded, 381. Sutton's Berkshire Brown, 378. Sutton's Superb Green, 378. Sutton's Superb White, 382. Two-headed, 379. Waite's White, 381. Wellington, 378. White Brunoy, Black-seeded, 381. White Brunoy, White-seeded, 381. White Paris, 382. White-seeded Brown, 378. Wood's Improved Bath, 378. Licorice, 567. Ligusticum levisticum, 424. Lima Bean, 495. Green, 496. Long-podded Dolichos, 494. Lotus tetragonolobus, 559. Lovage, 424. Love-apple, 639. Lupine, 514. White, 515. Yellow, 515. Lupinus albus, 515. " luteus, 515. Mâche, 339. Madras Radish, 384. Malabar Nightshade, 292. Baselle Blanche, 292. Baselle Rouge, 293. Large-leaved Chinese, 292. Red, 293. Très Large Feuille de Chine, 292. White, 292. Malabar Spinach, 292. Mallow, Curled-leaved, 384. Malva crispa, 384. Marigold, 425. Childing, 426. Common Orange-flowered, 426. Double Lemon-flowering, 426. Double Orange-flowering, 426. Lemon-flowered, 426. Pot, 425. Proliferous, 426. Marjoram, 427. Common, 427. Knotted, 427. Pot, 428. Sweet, 427. Winter Sweet, 429. Marsh Speedwell, 316. Martynia, 612. " proboscidea, 612. Marrubium vulgare, 566. Maw, 569. Medicago orbicularis, 398. Medicinal Plants, 561. Melissa officinalis, 409. Melon, 181. Melon, Musk, 183. Beechwood, 184. Black-rock Cantaloupe, 184. Christiana, 184. Citron, 185. Common Musk, 186. Early Cantaloupe, 185. Green Citron, 185. Green-fleshed Citron, 185. Hardy Ridge, 186. Large-ribbed Netted Musk, 186. Munroe's Green Flesh, 186. Nutmeg, 187. Orange Cantaloupe, 187. Pine-apple, 187. Prescott's Cantaloupe, 187. Skillman's Fine-netted, 188. Victory of Bath, 188. Melon, Persian varieties, 188. Dampsha, 189. Daree, 189. Geree, 189. Germek, 190. Green Hoosainee, 190. Green Valencia, 190. Ispahan, 190. Large Germek, 190. Melon of Keiseng, 191. Melon of Seen, 191. Small Germek, 191. Striped Hoosainee, 192. Sweet Ispahan, 190. Melon, Water, 192. Apple-seeded, 193. Black Spanish, 193. Bradford, 193. California Pie, 197. Carolina, 194. Citron, 194. Clarendon, 194. Dark-speckled, 194. Ice-cream, 195. Imperial, 195. Mountain Sprout, 195. Mountain Sweet, 196. Odell's Large White, 196. Orange, 197. Pie, 197. Ravenscroft, 198. Spanish, 193. Souter, 198. Mentha piperita, 435. " viridis, 444. Miscellaneous Vegetables, 592. Morchella esculenta, 588. Morel, 588. Morelle, 288. Mountain Spinach, 296. Murciana, 274. Mushroom, 580. Blewits, 586. Blue Hats, 586. Common, 580. Di Genoa, 587. Fairy-ring, 587. St. George's, 585. Sweet, 585. Musk-melon, 183. Mustard, 385. à Feuille de Chou, 386. Black, 385. Brown, 385. Cabbage-leaved, 386. Chinese, 386. Curled, 387. Cut-leaved, 387. Lacinée, 387. Pekin, 386. Red, 385. White, 387. Napolean Pea, or Vetch, 558. Nasturtium, 388. Dark-flowering, 390. Small, 390. Tall, 389. Variegated, 390. Nasturtium armoracia, 356. " officinale, 401. Nettle, 293. New-Zealand Spinach, 295. Nicotiana, 633. " tabacum, 634. " rustica, 637. Nigella sativa, 429. Nut Rush, 34. Oca, 41. Blanca, 42. Colorado, 42. Ocra, 614. Ocymum basilicum, 410. " minimum, 411. OEnothera biennis, 35. Oily Grain, 561. Oil Radish, 613. Okra, 614. Buist's Dwarf, 615. Dwarf, 615. Giant, 616. Pendent-podded, 616. Tall, 616. White-podded, 616. Oleraceous Plants, 406. Onion, 129. Blanc Hatif, 133. Blanc Hatif de Nocera, 132. Blood-red, 130. Brown Deptford, 132. Brown Portugal, 131. Brown Spanish, 131. Brunswick Deep Blood-red, 136. Cambrai, 131. Cambridge, 141. Corné de Boeuf, 134. Cow-horn, 134. Danvers, 131. Danvers Yellow, 131. De Belle Garde, 135. De James, 134. De Madère Plat, 140. De Madère Rond, 135. Deptford, 132. Double Tige, 140. Dutch, 139. Dutch Blood-red, 130. Early Lisbon, 141. Early Red Wethersfield, 133. Early Silver Nocera, 132. Early Silver-skin, 133. Early Small Silver Nocera, 132. Egyptian, 139. Essex, 139. Flanders, 139. Flat Madeira, 140. French Blood-red, 130. Fusiform, 134. Intermediate Red Wethersfield, 134. James's Keeping, 134. James's Long-keeping, 134. Jaune des Vertus, 136. Large Globe Tripoli, 135. Large Red, 134. Lisbon, 141. Madeira, 135. New Deep Blood-red, 136. Oporto, 131. Pale-red, 136. Paris Straw-colored, 136. Pear-shaped, 136. Potato, 136. Romain, 135. Rouge Pale, de Niort, 136. Rouge très Foncé de Brunswick, 136. Silver-skin, 137. Silver-skin of New England, 142. Soufre d'Espagne. 141. Spanish, 141. Strasburg, 139. St. Thomas, 130. Top, 139. Tree, 139. Tripoli, 140. Two-bladed, 140. Underground, 136. Wethersfield Large Red, 134. White Florence, 141. White Globe, 140. White Lisbon, 141. White Nocera, 132. White Portugal, 137--141. White Reading, 141. White Spanish, 141. Yellow, 142. Yellow Globe, 141. Yellow Strasburg, 139. Oosung, 168. Orach, 296. Dark-green, 297. Dark-purple, 298. Dark-red, 298. Deep-green, 297. Green, 297. Lurid, 298. Pale-green, 299. Pale-red, 298. Purple, 298. Purple-bordered Green, 299. Red, 298. Red-stalked Green, 299. Red-stalked White, 299. White, 299. White French Spinach, 299. Yellow, 299. Origanum heracleoticum, 429. " marjorana, 427. " onites, 428. " vulgare, 427. Osmorrhiza odorata, 399. Oxalis, 41. " acetocella, 404. " crenata, 41. " Deppei, 43. " Deppe's, 43. " Red Tuberous-rooted, 42. " Tuberous-rooted, 41. " White-rooted, 42. Oyster-plant, 92. Pak-Chöi, 275. Palmate-leaved Rhubarb, 573. Papangaye, 198. Papanjay, 198. Papaver somniferum, 569. Parsley, 430. Celery, 434. Celery-leaved, 434. Common, 433. Curled, 432. Dwarf Curled, 432. Hamburg, 433. Large-rooted, 433. Mitchell's Matchless Winter, 432. Myatt's Extra Fine Curled, 432. Myatt's Garnishing, 432. Myatt's Triple-curled, 432. Naples, 434. Neapolitan, 434. Plain, 433. Rendle's Treble Garnishing, 433. Sutton's Dwarf Curled, 432. Turnip-rooted, 433. Usher's Dwarf Curled, 432. Windsor Curled, 432. Parsley-pert, 396. Parsnip, 45. Common, 49. Dutch, 49. Early Short Horn, 49. Guernsey, 49. Hollow-crowned, 50. Hollow-crowned Guernsey, 50. Hollow-headed, 50. Long Jersey, 50. Long Smooth Dutch, 49. Panais de Siam, 50. Panais Long, 49. Panais Rond, 50. Siam, 50. Swelling, 49. Turnip-rooted, 50. Yellow, 50. Parsnip Chervil, 31. Pastinaca sativa, 45. Patience, 299. Patience Dock, 299. Pea, 516. Auvergne, 520. Batt's Wonder, 521. Beck's Eclipse, 524. Beck's Gem, 545, 549. Beck's Morning-star, 551. Beck's Prize-taker, 521. Bedman's Imperial, 521. Bellamy's Early Green Marrow, 522. Bishop's Early Dwarf, 522. Bishop's New Long-podded, 523. Black-eyed Marrow, 523. Blue Cimeter, 524. Blue Fan, 526. Blue Imperial, 524. Blue Prussian, 525. Blue Sabre, 524. Blue Spanish Dwarf, 526. British Queen, 526. Brompton Hotspur, 529. Burbridge's Eclipse, 527. Bush, 549. Carter's Earliest, 533. Carter's Eclipse, 528. Carter's Victoria, 528. Cedo Nulli, 535. Champion of England, 536. Champion of Paris, 530. Charlton, 528. Charlton Hotspur, 529. Climax, 530. Dantzic, 531. Dickson's Early Favorite, 531. Dickson's Favorite, 531. Dillistone's Early, 532. Dunnett's First Early, 533. Dwarf Blue Imperial, 524. Dwarf Blue Prussian, 525. Dwarf Fan, 547. Dwarf Marrow, 533. Dwarf Marrowfat, 533. Dwarf Prolific, 546. Dwarf Sabre, 524. Dwarf White Marrow, 533. Early Charlton, 528. Early Dan O'Rourke, 533. Early Double-blossomed Frame, 534. Early Dwarf Frame, 534. Early Dwarf Marrowfat, 533. Early Emperor, 551. Early Frame, 534. Early Golden Hotspur, 535. Early Hotspur, 535. Early Kent, 544. Early May, 544. Early Nicol's Hotspur, 529. Early Prince Albert, 544. Early Railway, 551. Early Ringwood, 545. Early Spanish Dwarf, 547. Early Surprise, 537. Early Warwick, 535. Early Washington, 535. Early Wonder, 551. Erin's Queen, 526. Essex Champion, 534. Essex Hotspur, 529. Eugénie, 535. Excelsior, 530. Fairbeard's Champion of England, 536. Fairbeard's Nonpareil, 537. Fairbeard's Surprise, 537. Flack's Imperial, 538. Flack's New Large Victoria, 538. Flack's Victoria, 538. Flack's Victory, 538. Flander's Hotspur, 529. Flanagan's Early, 545. General Wyndham, 539. Golden Hotspur, 529, 535. Green Prussian, 525. Groom's Superb, 526. Hair's Defiance, 526. Hair's Dwarf Mammoth, 539. Harrison's Glory, 539. Harrison's Perfection, 540. Hill's Early, 529. Hovey's Extra Early, 529. Jay's Conqueror, 544. King of the Marrows, 540. Knight's Dwarf Blue Marrow, 541. Knight's Dwarf Green Marrow, 541. Knight's Dwarf Green Wrinkled Marrow, 541. Knight's Dwarf White Marrow, 541. Knight's Dwarf White Wrinkled Marrow, 541. Knight's Tall Blue Marrow, 541. Knight's Tall Green Marrow, 542. Knight's Tall White Marrow, 542. Knight's Tall White Wrinkled Marrow, 542. Landreth's Extra Early, 529. Large Carolina, 548. Lincoln Green, 546. Matchless Marrow, 542. Master's Hotspur, 529. Milford Marrow, 543. Missouri Marrow, 543. Missouri Marrowfat, 543. Napoléon, 530. Ne Plus Ultra, 544. New Sabre, 524. Noble's Early Green Marrow, 544. Nonpareil, 551. Paradise Marrow, 530. Pois Nain Hatif Extra, 549. Poor Man's Profit, 546. Prince Albert, 544. Prize-taker, 521. Prussian Blue, 525. Queen of the Dwarfs, 545. Race-horse, 535. Reading Hotspur, 529, 535. Ringwood Marrow, 545. Rising-sun, 521. Royal Dwarf, 546. Sabre, 524. Sangster's Number One, 533. Sebastopol, 547. Shillings Grotto, 547. Single-blossomed Frame, 534. Spanish Dwarf, 547. Strawberry, 547. Stuart's Paradise, 530. Stubb's Dwarf, 527. Superfine Early, 535. Surprise, 537. Tall Marrowfat, 548. Tall White Mammoth, 526. Tall White Marrow, 548. Taylor's Early, 549. Thurstan's Reliance, 549. Tom Thumb, 549. Veitch's Perfection, 550. Victoria Marrow, 550. Waite's Dan O'Rourke, 533. Warner's Early Conqueror, 551. Warner's Early Emperor, 551. White Cimeter, 520. White Prussian, 546. White Sabre, 520. Woodford's Marrow, 551. Pease, eatable-podded or string, 552. Australian, 554. Blue-podded, 554. Botany-Bay, 554. Broadsword, 554. Chocolate, 555. Common Dwarf, 552. Dwarf Crooked-podded, 552. Early Dwarf de Grace, 553. Early Dwarf Dutch, 553. Giant, 553. Large Crooked, 554. Late Dwarf, 555. Purple-podded, 554. Red-flowered, 555. Six-inch Pod, 554. Tamarind, 555. White-podded, 555. Yellow-podded, 556. Pea, Tuberous-rooted, 103. Pea-nut, 556. African, 558. Carolina, 558. Tennessee, 558. Wilmington, 558. Pennyroyal, 569. Pepper, 616. Bell, 617. Bird, 618. Black-podded, 623. Blue-podded, 623. Bull-nose, 617. Cayenne, 619. Cerise Grosse, 624. Cherry, 620. Cherry Yellow-fruited, 621. Chili, 622. Cydoniforme, 623. Large Bell, 617. Large Red Cherry, 624. Long Red, 622. Long Yellow, 622. Monstreux, 625. Purple-podded, 623. Quince, 623. Rond, 624. Round, 624. Squash, 624. Sweet Mountain, 625. Sweet Spanish, 625. Tomato-shaped, 624. Yellow Squash, 626. Yellow Tomato-formed, 626. Peppergrass, 341. Peppermint, 435. Perennial Phytolacca, 168. Perennial Spinach, 313. Persian Melons, 188. Pe-Tsai, 276. Physalis edulis, 592. " pubescens, 593. Phaseolus lunatus, 495, 499. " multiflorus, 497. " vulgaris, 450. Phytolacca decandra, 168. " esculenta, 169. Picridium, 390. " vulgare, 390. Pie-plant, 626. Pigeon Berry, 168. Pimpinella anisum, 407. Pindar Nut, 556. Pisum sativum, 516. " macrocarpum, 552. Plantago coronopus, 317. Poke, 168. Poppy, 569. Gray, 571. Oil, 571. Opium, 571. White, 571. Portugal Borecole, 273. Portugal Cabbage, 273. Portulaca, 391. " oleracea, 392. " oleracea var. aurea, 392. " sativa, 392. Potato, 51. Abington Blue, 72. Ash-leaved Early, 57. Ash-leaved Kidney, 58. Biscuit, 58. Black Chenango, 58. Black Mercer, 58. Buckeye, 59. Calico, 59. California Red, 59. Carter, 59. Chenango, 72. Churchill, 60. Cow-horn, 69. Cristy, 60. Cups, 60. Danvers Red, 60. Danvers Seedling, 60. Davis's Seedling, 61. Dover, 73. Dykeman, 61. Early Blue, 62. Early Cockney, 62. Early Manly, 62. Flour-ball, 63. Fluke Kidney, 63. Forty-fold, 63, 71. Garnet Chili, 64. Gillyflower, 64. Green-top, 64. Hill's Early, 64. Irish Cups, 65. Jackson White, 65. Jenny Lind, 66. Lady's Finger, 66. Laplander, 71. Lapstone Kidney, 67. Long Red, 67. Mercer, of New York, 72. Mexican, 67. Nichol's Early, 67. Nova-Scotia Blue, 68. Old Kidney, 68. Peach-blow, 68. Pink-eyed, 68. Poggy, 69. Porgee, 69. Quarry, 69. Rhode-Island Seedling, 66. Riley, 73. Rohan, 70. Ruffort Kidney, 66. Shaw's Early, 70. State of Maine, 70. St. Helena, 71. Taylor's Forty-fold, 71. Tolon, 71. Vermont White, 72. Veto, 72. White Chenango, 72. White Cups, 73. White-Mountain, 73. Worcester Seedling, 73. Poterium sanguisorba, 318. Pot Marigold, 425. Prickly-fruited Gherkin, 199. Pumpkin, 200. Canada, 201. Cheese, 201. Common Yellow Field, 202. Connecticut Field, 203. Hard-shell, 204. Long Yellow Field, 203. Nantucket, 204. Nigger-head, 204. Small Sugar, 205. Striped Field, 204. Sugar, 205. Vermont, 201. Purple Goat's Beard, 92. Purslain, 391. Common, 392. Doré, 392. Golden, 392. Green, 392. Large-leaved Golden, 392. Vert, 392. Quatre Epices, 429. Quinoa, 301. Black-seeded, 301. Red-seeded, 302. White, 301. White-seeded, 301. Radish, 74. Radishes, Spring or Summer, 76. Crimson Turnip-rooted, 80. Early Black, 76. Early Frame, 79. Early Long Purple, 77. Early Purple Turnip-rooted, 77. Early Scarlet Short-top, 79. Early Scarlet Turnip-rooted, 77. Early White Turnip-rooted, 77. Gray Olive-shaped, 77. Gray Summer, 78. Gray Turnip-rooted, 78. Long Purple, 78. Long Salmon, 78. Long Scarlet, 79. Long Scarlet Salmon, 78. Long White, 81. Long White Purple-top, 81. Naples, 81. New-London Particular, 81. Noir Hatif, 76. Oblong Brown, 82. Oblong Rose-colored, 79. Olive-shaped Scarlet, 79. Purple Turnip-rooted, 80. Rave Violette Hative, 77. Rond Blanc Hatif, 77. Rond Rose Hatif, 77. Round Brown, 78. Scarlet Turnip-rooted, 80. Small Early Yellow Turnip-rooted, 80. Tortillée du Mans, 80. White Crooked, 80. White Italian, 81. White Transparent, 81. White Turnip-rooted, 81. Wood's Frame, 81. Yellow Summer, 81. Yellow Turnip-rooted, 81. Radishes, Autumn and Winter, 82. Autumn White, 84. Black Spanish, 82. Blanc d'Augsbourg, 84. Large Purple Winter, 83. Long Black Winter, 83. Long-leaved White Chinese, 83. Purple Chinese, 84. Purple Spanish, 83. Rose-colored Chinese, 84. Scarlet Chinese Winter, 84. Winter White Spanish, 84. Rampion, 84. Rape, 393. Annual, 394. Annual Rough-leaved Summer, 393. Cole-seed, 393. Colza, 394. Common, 393. Early, 394. German, 394. Smooth-leaved Summer, 394. Summer, 394. Turnip, 393. Wild Navew, 394. Winter, 393. Raphanus, 384. " sativus, 74, 613. Red Beet, 1. Red Birdsfoot Trefoil, 559. Rheum, 626. Australe, 631. Emodi, 631. Rhubarb, 626. Buck's, 630. Cahoon, 629. Downing's Colossal, 629. Early Prince Imperial, 629. Early Red Tobolsk, 632. Elford, 630. Hawkes's Champagne, 630. Linnæus, 630. Mitchell's Royal Albert, 630. Myatt's Linnæus, 630. Myatt's Victoria, 631. Nepal, 631. Tobolsk, 632. Victoria, 631. Rocambole, 143. Rocket, 395. Garden, 395. Roquette, 395. Rosmarinus officinalis, 436. Rosemary, 436. Common, 437. Green-leaved, 437. Gold-striped, 437. Narrow-leaved, 438. Silver-striped, 438. Rue, 573. Broad-leaved, 574. Narrow-leaved, 574. Rumex, 304. " acetosa, 306. " montanus, 308. " nivalis, 305. " patientia, 299. " scutatus, 308. Russian Turnip, 86. Ruta-baga Turnip, 86. Ruta graveolens, 573. Safflower, 575. Saffron, 575. Sage, 438. Balsamic, 439. Broad-leaved Green, 439. Common, 440. Green-leaved, 440. Green-top, 440. Narrow-leaved Green, 441. Purple-top, 440. Red-leaved, 440. Red-top, 440. Sage of Virtue, 441. Variegated Green-leaved, 441. Variegated Red-leaved, 441. Salad Plants, 315. Salsify, 92. Salvia officinalis, 440. " sclarea, 414. Samphire, 396. Saturjea capitata, 442. " hortensis, 442. " montana, 443. " viminea, 442. Savory, 442. Headed, 442. Shrubby, 442. Summer, 442. Winter, 443. Savoy, 277. Savoy Cabbage, 277. Cape, 278. Chou Milan Doré à Tête Longue, 279. Chou Milan à Tête Longue, 281. Drumhead, 278. Dwarf Green Curled, 282. Earliest Ulm, 279. Early Dwarf, 279. Early Flat Green Curled, 279. Early Green, 279. Early Long Yellow, 279. Early Ulm, 279. Early Yellow, 280. Feathered-stem, 280. Golden, 280. Green Curled, 281. Green Globe, 281. Large Green, 281. Large Late Yellow, 283. Long-headed, 281. Marcelin, 282. New Ulm, 279. Pancalier de Tourraine, 282. Tours, 282. White, 283. Yellow Curled, 283. Scandix odorata, 399. Scarlet-runner Bean, 497. " Painted-lady, 499. " White-runner, 499. Scolymus, 94. Scolymus Hispanicus, 94. Scorpiurus, 319. " muricata, 321. " subvillosa, 321. " sulcata, 320. " vermiculata, 320. Scorzonera, 95. " Hispanica, 95. Scotch Bean, 507. Scurvy-grass, 397, 403. Sea-beet, 302. English, 302. Irish, 303. Sea-fennel, 396. Sea-kale, 283. Serpent Cucumber, 206. Sesamum sp., 561. Shallot, 143. Common, 145. Echalote Grosse, 146. Echalote Grosse d'Alençon, 146. Echalote Ordinaire, 145. Jersey, 145. Large, 146. Large Alençon, 146. Long-keeping, 146. Small, 145. Shepherd's Purse, 303. Sicilian Beet, 289. Sinapis alba, 387. " nigra, 385. " Pekinensis, 386. Sisymbrium nasturtium, 401. Sium sisarum, 97. Skinless Pease, 552. Skirret, 97. Smallage, 321. Small Water-cress, 344. Smyrnium olusatrum, 315. " perfoliatum, 316. Snails, 398. Snail Trefoil, 398. Snake Cucumber, 206. Solanum lycopersicum, 639. " melongena, 607. " nigrum, 288. " tuberosum, 51. Sorrel, 304. Alpine, 305. Belleville, 306. Blistered-leaf, 306. Blistered-leaf Mountain, 308. Blond de Sarcelle, 307. Broad-leaved, 306. Common, 306. Common Garden, 307. Fervent's New Large, 307. French, 308. Green, 307. Green-Mountain, 309. Mountain, 308. Oseille de Fervent, 307. Oseille des Neiges, 305. Oseille Large de Belleville, 306. Oseille Rond, 308. Oseille Verge, 308. Roman, 308. Round-leaved, 308. Sarcelle Blond, 307. Southernwood, 576. Spanish Potato, 99. Spanish Oyster-plant, 94. Spanish Scolymus, 94. Spearmint, 444. Curled-leaved, 445. Spinacea oleracea, 309. Spinaceous Plants, 287. Spinach, 309. à Feuille de Laitue, 312. Blond à Feuille d'Oseille, 313. Common Prickly, 313. d'Angleterre, 311. d'Hollande, 312. Flanders, 311. Gaudry, 312. Large Prickly-seeded, 311. Large Winter, 311. Lettuce-leaved, 312. Ordinaire, 313. Round Dutch, 312. Round-leaved, 312. Sorrel-leaved, 312. Summer, 312. White Sorrel-leaved, 313. Winter, 313. Yellow Sorrel-leaved, 313. Sponge Cucumber, 198. Squash, 206. Squash (Summer Varieties), 207. Apple, 207. Bush Summer Warted Crookneck, 208. Cymbling, 208, 209. Early Apple, 207. Early Summer Crookneck, 208. Early White Bush Scolloped, 208. Early Yellow Bush Scolloped, 209. Egg, 210. Green Bush Scolloped, 211. Green Striped Bergen, 211. Large Summer Warted Crookneck, 211. Orange, 212. Pattison Blanc, 208. Pattison Panache, 212. Pattison Vert, 211. Pattypan, 209. Variegated Bush Scolloped, 212. White Pattypan, 208. White Summer Scolloped, 208. Yellow Summer Scolloped, 209. Yellow Summer Warted Crookneck, 208. Squash (Autumn and Winter Varieties), 212. Acorn, 222. Autumnal Marrow, 212. Boston Marrow, 212. Canada Crookneck, 214. Cashew, 215. Cocoa, 215. Cocoa-nut, 215. Commodore Porter, 223. Courge à la Moëlle, 225. Courge Coucourzelle, 219. Courge de l'Ohio, 212. Courge Plein de Naples, 220. Cuckaw, 226. Cushaw Pumpkin, 215. Custard, 216. Egg-shaped, 217. Giraumon Turban, 222. Honolulu, 217. Hubbard, 218. Italian Vegetable Marrow, 219. Large Yellow Gourd, 219. Mammoth, 219. Mammoth Pumpkin, 219. Neapolitan, 220. Patagonian, 221. Porter's Valparaiso, 223. Potiron Jaune, 219. Puritan, 221. Reeve's, 217. Stetson's Hybrid, 225. Succade Gourd, 225. Sweet Potato, 222. Turban, 222. Turk's Cap, 222. Valparaiso, 223. Vegetable Marrow, 225. Wilder, 225. Winter Crookneck, 226. Winter Striped Crookneck, 227. Star of the Earth, 317. Strawberry Tomato, 592. Purple, 593. Tall, 593. St. Peter's Herb, 396. String-pease, 552. Succory, 334. Sugar-pease, 552. Sunflower, 632. Annual, 632. Dwarf, 632. Tall, 632. Swede or Ruta-baga Turnip, 86. Ashcroft, 87. Common Purple-top Yellow, 88. Early Stubble, 88. Green-top White, 89. Green-top Yellow, 88. Laing's Improved Purple-top, 89. Long White French, 92. Purple-top White, 90. River's, 90. Skirving's Improved Purple-top, 90. Skirving's Liverpool, 90. Skirving's Purple-top, 90. Southold, 90. Sweet German, 91. White French, 92. Sweet Cicely, 399. Sweet Potato, 99. American Red, 101. Kentucky Early Red, 100. Large White, 100. Nansemond, 101. New-Orleans Purple, 101. Patate Blanche, 100. Patate Violette, 101. Purple-skinned, 101. Red Nansemond, 100. Red-skinned, 101. Rose-colored, 102. Yellow-Carolina, 102. Yellow Nansemond, 101. Yellow-skinned, 102. Sweet-scented Chervil, 399. Swiss Chard, 289. Tanacetum vulgare, 445. Tansy, 445. Curled-leaved, 446. Double, 446. Large-leaved, 447. Variegated, 447. Tare, 558. Summer, 559. White, 558. Winter, 559. Tarragon, 400. Tetragonia expansa, 295. Thlaspi Bursa Pastoris, 303. Thousand-headed Cabbage, 249. Thyme, 447. Broad-leaved, 447. Common, 447. Evergreen, 447. Lemon, 449. Narrow-leaved, 448. Variegated, 448. Thymus citriodorus, 449. " vulgaris, 447. Tobacco, 633. Broad-leaved, 635. Connecticut Seed-leaf, 634. Green, 637. Guatemala, 635. Negro-head, 638. Oronoco, 638. Peach-leaf, 634. Turkish, 637. Virginian, 634. Tomato, 639. Apple, 643. Apple-shaped, 643. Bermuda, 643. Cluster, 646. Early Red, 651. Extra Early, 651. Fejee, 644. Fig, 644. Giant, 645. Grape, 646. Large Red, 646. Large Red Oval, 647. Large Yellow, 647. Lester's Perfected, 648. Mammoth, 645. Mexican, 648. New Upright, 650. Perfected, 648. Pomo d'Oro Lesteriano, 648. Red Cherry, 649. Red Pear-shaped, 644. Red Plum, 649. Round Red, 649. Round Yellow, 649. Seedless, 650. Tomate de Laye, 650. Tree, 650. White, 651. White's Extra Early, 651. Yellow Cherry, 652. Yellow Fig, 652. Yellow Pear-shaped, 652. Yellow Plum, 652. Tota Bona, 313. Tragopogon porrifolius, 92. Trauxuda Kale, 273. Tree Primrose, 35. Tropæolum, 388. " majus, 389. " minus, 390. " tuberosum, 103. Truffle, 589. Common, 589. Piedmontese, 590. Tuber cibarium, 589. " magnatum, 590. " melanosporum, 590. Tuberous-rooted Chickling Vetch, 103. Pea, 103. Tropæolum, 103. Wood-sorrel, 41. Turkey Rhubarb, 573. Turnip-rooted Celery, 331. Turnip, 104. Altrincham, 106. Altringham, 106. Autumn Stubble, 115. Border Imperial, 106. Border Imperial Purple-top Yellow, 106. Chiva's Orange Jelly, 106. Common Field Globe, 118. Cow-horn, 107. Dale's Hybrid, 107. Decanter, 110. Early Dwarf, 115. Early Flat Dutch, 107. Early Stone, 119. Early White Dutch, 107. Early Yellow Dutch, 108. Finland, 108. Freneuse, 108. Golden Ball, 109. Golden Maltese, 120. Green Globe, 109. Green Norfolk, 110. Green Round, 110. Green Tankard, 110. Green-top Flat, 110. Green-top Norfolk, 110. Green-top White Globe, 109. Green-top Yellow Aberdeen, 111. Green-top Yellow Bullock, 111. Hungarian Green-top Globe, 109. Lincolnshire Red Globe, 111. Liverpool Yellow, 112. Long Black, 111. Long Early White Vertus, 107. Long White Clairfontaine, 111. Long White Maltese, 111. Maltese, 120. Mouse-tail, 119. Navet Boule de Neige, 116. Navet Gros d'Alsace, 119. Petrosowoodsks, 112. Pomeranian Globe, 112. Preston, 112. Purple-top Aberdeen, 114. Purple-top Flat, 112. Purple-top Strap-leaved, 113. Purple-top Yellow Aberdeen, 114. Purple-top Yellow Bullock, 114. Red Globe, 114. Red Norfolk, 114. Red Round, 114. Red Tankard, 115. Red-top Flat, 112. Red Mouse-tail, 119. Red-top Norfolk, 114. Robertson's Golden Stone, 115. Round Black, 115. Six-weeks, 115. Small Berlin, 117. Small Long Yellow, 116. Snow-ball, 116. Stone Globe, 116. Tankard, 110. Teltau, 117. Teltow, 117. Waite's Hybrid Eclipse, 117. White Dutch, 107. White Garden Stone, 119. White Globe, 118. White Norfolk, 118. White Round, 118. White Stone, 119. White Tankard, 119. White-top Flat, 120. White-top Strap-leaved, 120. Yellow Altrincham, 106. Yellow Dutch, 108. Yellow Finland, 108. Yellow Globe, 109. Yellow Malta, 120. Yellow Scarisbrick, 121. Yellow Stone, 121. Yellow Tankard, 121. Turnip Cabbage, 38. Turnip-rooted Chervil, 31. Tussilago farfara, 564. Unicorn Plant, 612. Urtica dioica, 293. Valeriana, 401. " cornucopiæ, 401. " locusta, 339. Valerianella eriocarpa, 340. Vegetable Oyster, 92. Veronica beccabunga, 316. Vetch, or Tare, 558. Napoléon Pea, 558. Summer, 559. White, 558. Winter, 559. Vicia faba, 503. " sativa, 558. Water-cress, 401. Water-melon, 192. Welsh Onion, 147. Ciboule Blanche Hative, 147. Common, 147. Early White, 147. Red, 147. White, 147. West-Indian Bean, 499. West-Indian Cress, 387. West-Indian Cucumber, 199. White Beet, 289. Wild Endive, 334. Wild Navew, 394. Wild Spinach, 313. Winged Pea, 559. Winter Cherry, 592. Purple, 593. Winter Cress, 403. Common, 403. Wood-sorrel, 404. Worms, 405. Wormwood, 576. Common, 576. Roman, 577. Sea, 577. Yellow Rocket, 403. Ysano, 103. Zea mays, 594. 
25935	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ 43rd Annual Report OF THE Northern Nut Growers Association Incorporated AFFILIATED WITH THE AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY _Annual Meeting at_ ROCKPORT, INDIANA August 25, 26 and 27, 1952 Table of Contents Officers and Committees 1952-53 4 State and Foreign Vice Presidents 5 Constitution and By-laws 7 Call to Order, Forty-Third Annual Meeting 11 Address of Welcome--Hilbert Bennett 11 Business Session 15 Treasurer's Report--Carl Prell 18 Committee Reports 21 President's Address--L. H. MacDaniels 27 The Future of Your Nut Planting--W. F. Sonnemann 32 The Value of a Tree--Ferd Bolten 35 Methods of Getting Better Annual Crops on Black Walnut. Panel discussion led by W. W. Magill 38 The 1952 Hickory Survey--H. F. Stoke 46 A Discussion of Hickory Stocks--Gilbert L. Smith 49 Filbert Varieties. Panel discussion led by G. L. Slate 53 My Experiences with Chinese Chestnuts--W. J. Wilson 62 Persian Walnuts in the Upper South--H. F. Stoke 66 Varieties of Persian Walnuts in Eastern Iowa--Ira B. Kyhl 69 Commercial Production and Processing of Black and Persian Walnuts--Edwin L. Lemke 71 Black Walnut Processing at Henderson, Kentucky--R. C. Mangelsdorf 73 Nut Shells: Assets or Liabilities--T. F. Clark 77 The Propagation of Hickories--Panel discussion led by F. L. O'Rourke 81 A Promising New Pecan for the Northern Zone--J. W. McKay and H. L. Crane 89 The Hickory in Indiana--W. B. Ward 91 The Merrick Hybrid Walnut--P. E. Machovina 93 Producing Quality Nuts and Quality Logs--L. E. Sawyer 94 Colchicine for Nut Improvement Programs--O. J. Eigsti and R. B. Best 99 An Early Pecan and Some Other West Tennessee Nuts--Aubrey Richards 101 Scab Disease in Eastern Kentucky on Busseron Pecan--W. D. Armstrong 102 Further News about Oak Wilt--E. A. Curl 102 Life History and Control of the Pecan Spittle Bug--Stewart Chandler 106 Insect Enemies of Northern Nut Trees--Howard Baker 112 Tuesday Evening Banquet Session Resolutions and Election of Officers 118 Chestnut Breeding--Arthur H. Graves and Hans Nienstaedt 120 Effect of Vermiculite in Inducing Fibrous Roots on Tap Rooting Tree Seedlings--Herbert C. Barrett and Toro Arisumi 131 Eastern Black Walnut Survey 1951--H. F. Stoke 133 Crath's Carpathian English Walnuts in Ontario--P. C. Crath 136 Nut Tree Plantings in Southeastern Iowa--Albert B. Ferguson 146 Rockville as a Hickory Interstock--Herman Last 147 A Fruitful Pair of Carpathian Walnut Varieties in Michigan--Gilbert Becker 147 Suggested Blooming Data to be Recorded for Nut Tree Varieties--J. C. McDaniel 148 Note on Chinese Chestnuts--Harwood Steiger 149 Scott Healey--An Obituary 149 A Letter from Dr. W. C. Deming 150 Sweepstakes Award in Ohio Black Walnut Contest--L. Walter Sherman 152 Attendance Record, Rockport, Ind. 1952 156 Membership List--Northern Nut Growers Association 158 Officers for 1952-53 President Richard B. Best, Eldred, Illinois Vice-President George Salzer, Rochester, New York Secretary Spencer B. Chase, Norris, Tennessee Treasurer Carl F. Prell, South Bend, Indiana Directors Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Ithaca, New York Dr. William Rohrbacher, Iowa City, Iowa EXECUTIVE APPOINTMENTS 1952-53 Program Committee: Dr. J. W. McKay, Royal Oakes, Gordon Porter, Gilbert Becker, A. A. Bungart, W. D. Armstrong. Local Arrangements: George Salzer, Victor Brook. Place of Meeting Committee: R. P. Allaman, Dr. Lloyd L. Dowell, Edwin W. Lemke, Alfred L. Barlow. Publication Committee: Professor George L. Slate, Professor Lewis E. Theiss, Dr. L. H. MacDaniels. Varieties and Contests Committee: Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, J. C. McDaniel, Sylvester M. Shessler, H. F. Stoke, Royal Oakes. Standards and Judging Committee: Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Dr. H. L. Crane, Louis Gerardi, Spencer Chase, Professor Paul E. Machovina. Survey and Research Committee: H. F. Stoke (With all the state and foreign vice-presidents). Exhibits Committee: Sylvester M. Shessler, Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, H. F. Stoke, Royal Oakes, A. A. Bungart, J. F. Wilkinson. Root Stocks Committee: Professor F. L. O'Rourke, J. C. McDaniel, Albert F. Ferguson, Dr. Aubrey Richards, Louis Gerardi, Dr. Arthur S. Colby, Max Hardy, Gilbert Smith. Auditing Committee: Raymond E. Silvis, Sterling A. Smith, Edward W. Pape. Legal Advisor: Sargent H. Wellman. Finance Committee: Sterling A. Smith, Ford Wallick, Edward W. Pape. Necrology: Mrs. Herbert Negus, Mrs. C. A. Reed, Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman. Nominating Committee: (Elected at Rockport, Indiana), Max Hardy, Gilbert Becker, Dr. William Rohrbacher, Professor George L. Slate, J. Ford Wilkinson. Membership Committee: George Salzer (With all the state and foreign vice-presidents). State and Foreign Vice-Presidents Alabama Edward L. Hiles, Loxley Alberta A. L. Young, Brooks Arkansas W. D. Wylie, Univ. of Ark., Fayetteville Belgium R. Vanderwaeren, Bierbeekstraat, 310, Korbeek-Lo British Columbia, Canada J. U. Gellatly, Box 19, Westbank California Thos. R. Haig, M.D., 3021 Highland Ave., Carlesbad Colorado J. E. Forbes, Julesburg Connecticut A. M. Huntington, Stanerigg Farms, Bethel Delaware Lewis Wilkins, Route 1, Newark Denmark Count F. M. Knuth, Knuthenborg, Bandholm District of Columbia Ed. L. Ford, 3634 Austin St., S. E. Washington 20 Florida C. A. Avant, 960 N. W. 10th Ave., Miami Georgia William J. Wilson, North Anderson Ave., Fort Valley Hawaii John F. Cross, P. O. Box 1720, Hilo Hong Kong P. W. Wang, 6 Des Voeux Rd., Central Idaho Lynn Dryden, Peck Illinois Royal Oakes, Bluffs (Scott County) Indiana Edw. W. Pape, Rt. 2, Marion Iowa Ira M. Kyle, Box 236, Sabula Kansas Dr. Clyde Gray, 1045 Central Ave., Horton Kentucky Dr. C. A. Moss, Williamsburg Louisiana Dr. Harald E. Hammar, 608 Court House, Shreveport Maryland Blaine McCollum, White Hall Massachusetts S. Lathrop Davenport, 24 Creeper Hill Rd., North Grafton Michigan Gilbert Becker, Climax Minnesota R. E. Hodgeson, Southeastern Exp. Station, Waseca Mississippi James R. Meyer, Delta Branch Exp. Station, Stoneville Missouri Ralph Richterkessing, Route 1, Saint Charles Montana Russel H. Ford, Dixon Nebraska Harvey W. Hess, Box 209, Hebron New Hampshire Matthew Lahti, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro New Jersey Mrs. Alan R. Buckwalter, Route 1, Flemington New Mexico Rev. Titus Gehring, P. O. Box 177, Lumberton New York Stephen Bernath, Route No. 3, Poughkeepsie North Carolina Dr. R. T. Dunstan, Greensboro College, Greensboro North Dakota Homer L. Bradley, Long Lake Refuge, Moffit Ohio Christ Pataky Jr., 592 Hickory Lane, Route 4, Mansfield Oklahoma A. G. Hirschi, 414 North Robinson, Oklahoma City Ontario, Canada Elton E. Papple, Cainsville Oregon Harry L. Pearcy, Route 2, Box 190, Salem Pennsylvania R. P. Allaman, Route 86, Harrisburg Prince Edward Is. Canada Robert Snazelle, Forest Nursery, Route 5, Charlottetown Rhode Island Philip Allen, 178 Dorance St., Providence South Carolina John T. Bregger, P.O. Box 1018, Clemson South Dakota Herman Richter, Madison Tennessee W. Jobe Robinson, Route 7, Jackson Texas Kaufman Florida, Box 154, Rotan Utah Harlan D. Petterson, 2076 Jefferson Ave., Ogden Vermont A. W. Aldrich, R. F. D. 2, Box 266, Springfield Virginia H. R. Gibbs, Linden Washington H. Lynn Tuttle, Clarkston West Virginia Wilbert M. Frye, Pleasant Dale Wisconsin C. F. Ladwig, 2221 St. Lawrence, Beloit CONSTITUTION of the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, INCORPORATED (As adopted September 13, 1948) NAME ARTICLE I. This Society shall be known as the Northern Nut Growers Association, Incorporated. It is strictly a non-profit organization. PURPOSES ARTICLE II. The purposes of this Association shall be to promote interest in the nut bearing plants; scientific research in their breeding and culture; standardization of varietal names; the dissemination of information concerning the above and such other purposes as may advance the culture of nut bearing plants, particularly in the North Temperate Zone. MEMBERS ARTICLE III. Membership in this Association shall be open to all persons interested in supporting the purposes of the Association. Classes of members are as follows: Annual members, Contributing members, Life members, Honorary members, and Perpetual members. Applications for membership in the Association shall be presented to the secretary or the treasurer in writing, accompanied by the required dues. OFFICERS ARTICLE IV. The elected officers of this Association shall consist of a President, a Vice-President, a Secretary and a Treasurer or a combined Secretary-treasurer as the Association may designate. BOARD OF DIRECTORS ARTICLE V. The Board of Directors shall consist of six members of the Association who shall be the officers of the Association and the two preceding elected presidents. If the offices of Secretary and Treasurer are combined, the three past presidents shall serve on the Board of Directors. There shall be a State Vice-president for each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the Association, who shall be appointed by the President. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION ARTICLE VI. This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or copy of the proposed amendments having been mailed by the Secretary, or by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS (Revised and adopted at Norris, Tennessee, September 13, 1948) SECTION I.--MEMBERSHIP Classes of membership are defined as follows: ARTICLE I. ANNUAL MEMBERS. Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who pay annual dues of Three Dollars ($3.00). ARTICLE II. CONTRIBUTING MEMBERS. Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who pay annual dues of Ten Dollars ($10.00) or more. ARTICLE III. LIFE MEMBERS. Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who contribute Seventy Five Dollars ($75.00) to its support and who shall, after such contribution, pay no annual dues. ARTICLE IV. HONORARY MEMBERS. Those whom the Association has elected as honorary members in recognition of their achievements in the special fields of the Association and who shall pay no dues. ARTICLE V. PERPETUAL MEMBERS. "Perpetual" membership is eligible to any one who leaves at least five hundred dollars to the Association and such membership on payment of said sum to the Association shall entitle the name of the deceased to be forever enrolled in the list of members as "Perpetual" with the words "In Memoriam" added thereto. Funds received therefor shall be invested by the Treasurer in interest bearing securities legal for trust funds in the District of Columbia. Only the interest shall be expended by the Association. When such funds are in the treasury the Treasurer shall be bonded. Provided: that in the event the Association becomes defunct or dissolves, then, in that event, the Treasurer shall turn over any funds held in his hands for this purpose for such uses, individuals or companies that the donor may designate at the time he makes the bequest of the donation. SECTION II.-DUTIES OF OFFICERS ARTICLE I. The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and Board of Directors, and may call meetings of the Board of Directors when he believes it to be the best interests of the Association. He shall appoint the State Vice-presidents; the standing committees, except the Nominating Committee, and such special committees as the Association may authorize. ARTICLE II. Vice-president. In the absence of the President, the Vice-president shall perform the duties of the President. ARTICLE III. Secretary. The Secretary shall be the active executive officer of the Association. He shall conduct the correspondence relating to the Association's interests, assist in obtaining memberships and otherwise actively forward the interests of the Association, and report to the Annual Meeting and from time to time to meetings of the Board of Directors as they may request. ARTICLE IV. Treasurer. The Treasurer shall receive and record memberships, receive and account for all moneys of the Association and shall pay all bills approved by the President or the Secretary. He shall give such security as the Board of Directors may require or may legally be required, shall invest life memberships or other funds as the Board of Directors may direct, subject to legal restrictions and in accordance with the law, and shall submit a verified account of receipts and disbursements to the Annual meeting and such current accounts as the Board of Directors may from time to time require. Before the final business session of the Annual Meeting of the Association, the accounts of the Treasurer shall be submitted for examination to the Auditing Committee appointed by the President at the opening session of the Annual Meeting. ARTICLE V. The Board of Directors shall manage the affairs of the association between meetings. Four members, including at least two elected officers, shall be considered a quorum. SECTION III.--ELECTIONS ARTICLE I. The Officers shall be elected at the Annual Meeting and hold office for one year beginning immediately following the close of the Annual Meeting. ARTICLE II. The Nominating Committee shall present a slate of officers on the first day of the Annual Meeting and the election shall take place at the closing session. Nominations for any office may be presented from the floor at the time the slate is presented or immediately preceding the election. ARTICLE III. For the purpose of nominating officers for the year 1949 and thereafter, a committee of five members shall be elected annually at the preceding Annual Meeting. ARTICLE IV. A quorum at a regularly called Annual Meeting shall be fifteen (15) members and must include at least two of the elected officers. ARTICLE V. All classes of members whose dues are paid shall be eligible to vote and hold office. SECTION IV.--FINANCIAL MATTERS ARTICLE I. The fiscal year of the Association shall extend from October 1st through the following September 30th. All annual memberships shall begin October 1st. ARTICLE II. The names of all members whose dues have not been paid by January 1st shall be dropped from the rolls of the Society. Notices of non-payment of dues shall be mailed to delinquent members on or about December 1st. ARTICLE III. The Annual Report shall be sent to only those members who have paid their dues for the current year. Members whose dues have not been paid by January 1st shall be considered delinquent. They will not be entitled to receive the publication or other benefits of the Association until dues are paid. SECTION V.--MEETINGS ARTICLE I. The place and time of the Annual Meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the Board of Directors shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the President and Board of Directors. SECTION VI.--PUBLICATIONS ARTICLE I. The Association shall publish a report each fiscal year and such other publications as may be authorized by the Association. ARTICLE II. The publishing of the report shall be the responsibility of the Committee on Publications. SECTION VII.--AWARDS ARTICLE I. The Association may provide suitable awards for outstanding contributions to the cultivation of nut bearing plants and suitable recognition for meritorious exhibits as may be appropriate. SECTION VIII.--STANDING COMMITTEES As soon as practical after the Annual Meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint the following standing committees: 1. Membership 2. Auditing 3. Publications 4. Survey 5. Program 6. Research 7. Exhibit 8. Varieties and Contests SECTION IX.--REGIONAL GROUPS AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES ARTICLE I. The Association shall encourage the formation of regional groups of its members, who may elect their own officers and organize their own local field days and other programs. They may publish their proceedings and selected papers in the yearbooks of the parent society subject to review of the Association's Committee on Publications. ARTICLE II. Any independent regional association of nut growers may affiliate with the Northern Nut Growers Association provided one-fourth of its members are also members of the Northern Nut Growers Association. Such affiliated societies shall pay an annual affiliation fee of $3.00 to the Northern Nut Growers Association. Papers presented at the meetings of the regional society may be published in the proceedings of the parent society subject to review of the Association's Committee on Publications. SECTION X.--AMENDMENTS TO BY-LAWS ARTICLE I. These by-laws may be amended at any Annual Meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present provided such amendments shall have been submitted to the membership in writing at least thirty days prior to that meeting. Forty-Third Annual Meeting Northern Nut Growers Association August 25, 26, 27, 1952 Spencer County Court House, Rockport, Ind. The opening session of the Forty-third Annual Meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association convened at 9:20 o'clock, a.m., at the Spencer County Court House, President L. H. MacDaniels presiding. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The gavel with which we open this forty-third annual meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association has some historical significance. It was made from a pecan tree which grew in the orchard of Mr. Thomas Littlepage in Maryland, near the city of Washington, and it has been the custom of the Association to open its meetings with that gavel. The forty-third meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association will be in order. To open the session we will have the presentation of the colors. You will all stand, please, and remain standing through the invocation. (Colors presented by Boy Scouts and the invocation given by the Reverend William Ellis of Rockport.) PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: At this time we will call on Mr. Hilbert Bennett to bring us greetings from the people of Rockport. Mr. Bennett of Rockport. Address of Welcome HILBERT BENNETT, _Rockport, Ind._ Some are here that were here in 1935 and 1939. I was on the Citizen's Committee in each of those years. It was the purpose of the Citizen's Committee to take notice of your coming and to try to make you appreciate our interest in you and in your coming. Why was I on that Committee in 1935? Why was I on that Committee in 1939? Why am I on that Committee in 1952? I will tell you. When I was a boy two other young men, somewhat older than I, were young men in the same township and somewhat closely located. I knew those boys and I knew them well. You came to know them and know them well. One of those boys was the late Thomas P. Littlepage, a charter member of this Association. It was my good pleasure to teach school with him. We attended College together. At college we roomed together. We attended conventions together and were close personal friends. I think I was in position to know him and know him well. The other boy was R. L. McCoy. We too, were close personal friends. We too, taught school in the same territory and contemporary with T. P. Littlepage. Prior to any organization of the N.N.G.A. I went with these two boys (men by that time) on trips of investigation and inspection of certain nut trees about which they had heard and which they wanted to examine. If the trees examined met the proper standards, they wanted to use them in propagation. If not they would pass them up. Another boy somewhat younger than myself and the two above mentioned boys, joined most heartily into the nut discussions and investigations and explorations of promising clues. With them he helped to run down clues when they would hear of a promising prospect. The jungles were never too dense, the distance too far, the road too muddy or rough, for those three characters to run down in those horse and buggy days, any prospect in which they were interested. This boy also became a member of your most valued organization. I have a special interest in this boy. I was, especially closely associated with him and his family. He went to school to me. My signature appears on his Common School Diploma. Their home was my home whenever I sought to make it so. I was free to come and go. I came a lot. Ford Wilkinson, the third character, and I have been close friends ever since. Another one of your fine members became a good friend of mine. He came into our county and planted a farm to nut trees and nut production. It is now the largest nut orchard in the county. I am informed that at that time it was the largest nut farm of hardy northern varieties in the world. I got acquainted with him early and became endeared to him. It was none other than the late Harry Weber. When it became known that you were to meet here in 1935, it was a natural sequence that Ford Wilkinson, knowing that I would gladly help in any way I could and knowing I was his genuine friend saw fit to place me on the Citizen's Committee. If he had not, I positively would have climbed aboard anyway. You couldn't have driven me out with a peeled hickory club. I was just going to be in on it whether or no. Whether I performed well in 1935 or whether he couldn't find any one else to serve in my place, I never knew; but he again placed me on the Committee in 1939. Now here I am in 1952 an old broken down fossil, broken in health, but not in spirit, of little consequence to anybody or anything, I am still on the Committee. That answers the question of some of you of why that old man Bennett is always on the local committee and that you have wondered if there is no other person in this whole community that will serve but him. No, friends, we have many who would gladly serve and I doubt not that would serve much more efficiently. I have prepared a short "skit" that I wish to present. * * * * * 1st. _Introducing Joan Flick, of Washington, D. C._ I am a pecan plucked from a small orchard planted by a retired business man. He had some surplus ground near his premises that was too rough for easy cultivation. He thought that he would plant it to pecans so that his family and his children's families would have nuts for their own use and pleasure. He took good care of the trees. He fertilized them every year and sometimes oftener. In the course of a few years he not only had more pecans than all of the families could use, but he sold hundreds of pounds of nuts from these trees. He developed a commercial orchard unconsciously. 2nd. _Palma Smith of Cincinnati, Ohio._ I am the hican, I have no commercial value of consequence. I demonstrate the ability, the interest, the development and the possibilities of improvement by the determined efforts of the members of your association. Knowing your ability and determination to make improvements in nut culture, I have every feeling that in the not too distant future you will develop me into a profitable commercial product. 3rd. _Sandra Wright of Rockport, Indiana._ I am the walnut, a most valuable tree for fine fruit and fine timber for many uses. I have been noted for my fine grain and my ability to take a fine polish. Our forefathers immediately found the walnut to be the choice timber out of which to build fine furniture, gun stocks, home furnishings and many other things that required high grade material. We have never lost sight of its significance. Thin shelled nuts, easily cracked, and hulled out in halves have been developed. Walnuts will grow almost any where. Originally it was a common forest tree and would continue to be if it had the opportunity. There is little danger of the walnut becoming extinct. It is too valuable. I suggest that you plant liberally to high grade walnut trees. 4th. _Jo Ann Hall of Rockport, Indiana._ I am the once popular beech under whose folds thousands of picnickers have gathered and enjoyed life's most savory and pleasant moments. I have built thousands of American homes and farm barns. I have built thousands of miles of old farm plank fences. I have built car load after car load of beautiful, useful and valuable furniture. In the early period of this country I furnished mast for thousands of swine that fed many families. I have filled many minor places of usefulness. As sad as it is to do and as much as I hate to do so, I am now bidding you a last farewell. Self interest, the slowness of my growth and the impracticability of propagation of this once valuable tree leaves but one course, that I pass to my reward with the firm hope that the other trees now being developed, and grown will fill all of the purposes for which I have been so useful, and fill them with increased usefulness. With this sad but necessary adieu, I bid you one and all goodbye. 5th. _Pattie Jones of Rockport, Ind._ I am the oak, the sturdy oak, the king of the forests. I am stout. They make beams, spars, sills, fulcrums and what not from me that require strength. I grow fairly fast. I came into usefulness as the world came into need of heavy timbers. I am dainty and refined as well as strong. I am used in making fine flooring, fine furniture and many other useful things. Please do not discard me from production. Please do not let me pass into oblivion. I am very very valuable. I deserve to be perpetuated. 6th. _Marcia Smith of Cincinnati, Ohio._ I am a pecan plucked from the tree of a man who in the early years of his married life planted pecan trees in unused spots on his farm that were unsuitable for cultivation. As the trees grew into nut bearing trees his family of children grew. In the October days, with great gaiety, glee and happiness, the children would gather the fruit of those trees. The children grew to maturity and went to the city to work; but when those October days came they returned home and with similar happiness as of their youth they gathered the nuts from those trees. With pleasure I say I am one of those trees. 7th. _Jean Morris, Joyce Morris and Sandra Wright, all of Rockport, Indiana._ We are a group of clusters, the filbert, the pecan and the walnut. We came from a nut farm within the bounds of Spencer County. This farm was planted and developed by a former enthusiastic member of your wonderful organization. He spent much time and energy in behalf of your organization. He developed the largest nut orchard in the county. I refer to Harry Weber, who came from a neighboring state and endeared himself to this community by his superb manhood, his genial disposition and his intense interest in his subject matter. We commend his efforts to others. 8th. _Virginia Mae Daming of Rockport, Ind._ She was carrying the former Reports of the N.N.G.A. This cluster is plucked from a "Tree" of great magnitude and significance. Today it has its roots firmly set in Rockport, Indiana. Its branches reach from the Atlantic to the Pacific, from Canada to Mexico. Its influence is felt throughout the world. Its inception was in Spencer County, Indiana, not specifically detailed, but in the main, by boys that were reared among the native nut trees of this community of which there were many. It was born in the great City of New York under the care of the late Thomas P. Littlepage, Dr. Wm. C. Deming, Dr. Robert T. Morris and Prof. John Craig. It was nurtured throughout the land of the detailed history you know much more than I. It has had an enormous growth. It is a most meritorious organization. Language will not express the extent of its benefits to humanity and to civilization. It adds to the comfort of untold thousands of happy homes. It furnishes employment for thousands of people. It furnishes food of vital importance to many families. It is the main stay in the manufacture of all kinds and grades of furniture. It furnishes food for thought. It keeps the scientific and investigating minds busy in the constant development and improvement of its processes and benefits. Its possibilities are boundless. That this "Tree" may continue to grow and develop in the future as it has in the past in the interest of humanity and help us to realize its importance and help us to continue its forces in accord with nature and nature's God is my earnest prayer. May God bless you one and all. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Thank you very much, Mr. Bennett. You have made us feel most welcome in Rockport, as you have before on two other occasions. I don't believe that there is any other man who has welcomed this organization three times in the same locality. We also thank you for bringing in the trees and the children to greet us on this occasion. It isn't very often that the trees themselves come into the assembly room to greet us, and we appreciate your effort in doing this for us. We will now proceed with the business of the Association. There appears to be no record of the members elected to serve on the nominating committee for this session. As near as we can determine this committee is as follows: Mr. Silvis, Mr. Allen, Mr. Wilkinson, Mr. McKay and Mr. Gerardi. Is there a motion to approve these names? The committee was approved by vote. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: This Committee will bring in a slate of officers of the Association for the next year at our final business session. I will now call for the reports of standing committees. There are eight of these. The Program Committee. Royal Oakes is the chairman. The fact that we are having a meeting indicates the functioning of the Program Committee. MR. OAKES: I believe I have nothing to report at this moment. I would like to say the other members did a good part of the committee work. PRESIDENT MACDANIELS: We appreciate the part that all of you have played in arranging these meetings. The Publications Committee, Editorial Section. Dr. Theiss, I believe, is not here. Dr. Theiss received the manuscripts and either had them read or read them himself. The Printing Section of the Publications Committee, Mr. Slate. MR. SLATE: Our proceedings are on the press and probably will be finished and in the mail this week. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The Place of Meeting Committee. Mr. Allaman is the chairman. In the absence of Mr. Allaman, I present the invitation secured by Mr. Salzer, to meet in Rochester, New York in 1953. Their convention bureau offers very attractive facilities and the invitation is seconded by the Mayor, Joseph J. Naylor, the president of the Rochester Convention and Publicity Bureau, the President of the Rochester Hotel Association, the President of the Junior Chamber of Commerce of Rochester, and the Deputy Commissioner of the Rochester Parks, which just about covers the board. It doesn't seem to me worthwhile to read all of this material. What it boils down to is that Rochester would be a very good place to meet. The Rochester parks are very interesing places to go, and as I understand it, there are facilities which would not be expensive to the Association. Is that true, Mr. Salzer? MR. SALZER: Yes, there would be no charge for exhibit rooms if they are held in the hotel, because we are classed as a scientific organization. And we would have the facilities of the Bausch Memorial Museum. There would be facilities for showing moving pictures or slides, and for an exhibit. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: It would be in order at the present time to take definite action on this Rochester invitation, if you care to do so. A motion would be in order to accept. It has been moved, seconded, and carried that we have our 1953 convention in the City of Rochester, the dates will be determined by the Board of Directors. The general thinking of the Board of Directors is that we will go to Lancaster, Pa. again in 1954, and in 1955 come back into the Middle West. Mr. Allaman has been working on the Lancaster proposal and I think there has been some spade work done in Michigan already. Have you anything to say about that, Mr. O'Rourke? MR. O'ROURKE: We will be very glad to have you at Michigan State College at any time. Unfortunately, however, we do not have any nut plantings there. The nut plantings are either in the eastern part of the state or the western part. It's quite a drive either way. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I don't think we have to make a commitment at this time, but it is something to be brought to the attention of the Place of Meeting Committee. I think we might have a little further explanation from Mr. Best about his bacon breakfast. MR. BEST: We said in our membership drive that anyone who would go out and work would bring home the bacon, and we further fortified the deal that we were going to furnish the bacon here at Rockport at this session. So in the morning over at Cotton's restaurant we will have bacon, all you want to eat, and the only requirement is that you either got a member last year in the membership drive we have been working on, or that you tried to get a member. That's all that's necessary. MR. GRAVATT: You have spoken about the meeting in 1954. As you know, I have represented this country at the International Chestnut Meeting for two years. There has been some talk about the possibility of the N. N. G. A. inviting the International Chestnut Meeting to meet in this country in 1954 or '55. At the last meeting the delegates from Japan recommended that they meet in the United States in 1954. The matter is not decided, and I think if you will put off decision about Lancaster until later, it would be a little better. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The committee on Standards and Judging, Mr. Spencer Chase. MR. SPENCER CHASE: Mr. President, we contemplated having a report on hickory standards for this meeting, but because of circumstances beyond our control, we didn't get the project under way. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I will call on our secretary at this time for the report of the meeting of the directors. MR. McDANIEL: There were several things brought up last night at the meeting of the Board of Directors of the Northern Nut Growers Association. One matter was the subscription to the American Fruit Grower magazine which we give our membership. The American Fruit Grower had been selling subscriptions to the Association for its members at 30 cents a year. Since the first of July this year their rate is 50 cents. The opinion of the directors and committee members present last night was that we should drop that subscription to the American Fruit Grower for our members. It will be sent to all members who join for this year and up to the beginning of the next fiscal year. After October 1st, no subscriptions to the American Fruit Grower through the Association. Do we have any discussion on this proposal? (Considerable discussion followed.) PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I suggest that we hear the report of the Board of Directors and then act on the various items one by one in executive session. MR. McDANIEL: You have heard something about the membership drive, and we will have more on that later. The directors suggested that we encourage more memberships, contributing memberships and sustaining memberships in the Association at $5.00 and $10.00 per year. Some of us feel we can't pay any more than $3.00 for our membership; others will be able to support the organization financially by taking memberships at the $5.00 or $10.00 rate, and we are still offering our life membership at $75.00. Another matter discussed was offering the set of 34 volumes of back reports in The Nutshell at the price of $20.00 for the 34 volumes now available. We suggest also that the Association authorize the appointment of a Publicity Committee to work with the Membership Committee in attracting new members. That is about all I have as the report of the directors' meeting last night, Mr. President. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: This matter of the Board of Directors reporting to the business session is a pattern which I think is a good one. The proposition has been placed before you as to whether or not you wish to continue our affiliation with the American Fruit Grower magazine. As you will recall, the reason the question comes up at the present time is that they have raised their rate from 30 cents a member to 50 cents a member, which is 50 cents of our $3.00, which with the 50 cents secretarial expenses leaves but $2.00 to run the society. As the Treasurer will explain to you later, we are in somewhat of a financial difficulty. It has been moved and seconded that the Association subscription to the American Fruit Grower be discontinued. This matter is up for discussion. MR. MCDANIEL: We have much more space available in The Nutshell than in the American Fruit Grower, and there is the possibility of more frequent publication. MR. DOWELL: If we could actually get it bi-monthly or quarterly, in place of the Fruit Grower, I think most all of us would be better informed and actually have more information. And The Nutshell is a very excellent means of showing somebody what the organization is about. You give them a copy of the American Fruit Grower, and if he is interested in nuts, most copies aren't going to convince him of much. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I think this question is related to the appointment of a Publicity Committee which will explore what can be done to secure more publicity and give more information about nuts to our members than has been possible in the Fruit Grower. The members of the Board of Directors felt that $300-plus is a high price to pay for what we got out of The American Fruit Grower. (The question was called for.) The motion is passed without dissent. The question of authorizing the appointment of a Publicity Committee is introduced mainly as a matter for your information, also because it's much better if the society as such were to authorize such a committee. Do I hear such a motion? Moved by Mr. Salzer, seconded by Colby and passed that the appointment of a Publicity Committee be approved. I will ask for the report of the Treasurer, Mr. Prell. Treasurer's Report MR. PRELL: Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen, Mr. Best has asked that I help in connection with his report. That certainly is not because I can make his report better than he can, but probably because a new member is not a new member until his check has arrived and has been recorded, and I happen to have those figures. I will be happy to do that, but perhaps we should start first with the report that the President has asked for, the Treasurer's report. I imagine that you are uninterested in an itemized, detailed report of receipts and expenditures; I imagine you are interested in the question: How are we doing? We are not doing too well. The annual report for this year indicates that our financial condition is not satisfactory. For the second successive year we have spent more money than we have taken in, and that would be the third successive year, if it hadn't been for the fact that due to the lateness of the publication in 1950--that it, the annual report--we did not pay for an annual report that year. That means there are three years in a row that we have gone downhill. The picture is not entirely black, however. There are some bright spots. For instance, all our bills are paid. Second, we have money in the bank. Third, our $3,000 investment in Government bonds is still intact, and fourth, our deficit this year was less than it was last year, which may indicate that we have already touched bottom and are starting up. The cause of our deficit is easy to put your finger on. We are operating on budgets that are ten years old, and costs have gone way, way beyond. Dues were increased several years ago, but even at that time they were not increased adequately, and since then costs have skyrocketed. The membership situation is not too bad, though the cost situation is bad. The two don't jibe at all. The reason we have a lesser deficit this year than last is Mr. Best's work and the work of his vice-presidents in increasing the membership, and the results of that work; I think, have only begun to show. Specifically, we came within $417 of collecting enough money this year to pay our expenses. It was over $500 last year, making a total of a thousand dollars that we have spent above our receipts. While we have some money in the bank, there will be a bill due in about 30 days on the publication of the annual report, that will be mailed within the next few days. And that will take all the money that is in the bank, plus what we are able to collect in dues immediately, and I hope that many of them are paid at once. But that still leaves us without money to operate through the year, and by January, unless conditions change, we will be borrowing money. The Board of Directors has discussed this. They have some thoughts on the subject which will be presented to you by Dr. MacDaniels. I think that one of the obvious things that you all think of and I may mention is the matter of increased membership. That's an obvious solution, and as I said a minute ago, it's a very possible solution. The work that was started by Mr. Best last February is only now beginning to bear fruit. New memberships, even as late as this for this year, in August, are coming in very, very well. I personally see no reason why the membership cannot be increased to a thousand members next year, providing all of us bring in a member or two. I asked a friend of mine on The Country Gentleman for some data on state population compared to farm population. I forget just exactly now how it runs on various states, but I do recall Indiana. We have a population here of four million people. There are about 700,000 of these people on 166,000 farms. The farms in this state produce a wealth of $75,000,000 a year. With 700,000 farmers in this state and population of 4,000,000 with a wealth of $75,000,000 a year, it would seem to me that the State of Indiana should have more than only 39 members. Out of that group we should certainly increase that ten times. We should have 400 members, and if the same proportion is carried throughout the nation, why, this organization can easily obtain a roll of 7500 to 10,000 members. A thousand members next year should be a pushover. So much for the financial report. Mr. Best's campaign started last February. His vice-presidents were given material and the inspiration to work for new members, and they responded. For Mr. Best I compiled the list of the new members who have been brought in, with the people who have brought in the greatest number, but that thing went galley-west in the last few days by the strong finishers. Mr. Best himself came in yesterday with a pocket full of 11 new members, and he already had a couple on the list. Up to that time--and I am not giving credit to the Secretary, because several of the members that show his sponsorship have come naturally through his office. So disregarding the sponsored members of the Secretary, Spencer Chase was top man, up until Mr. Best upset him yesterday, followed by Dr. Rohrbacher, who was a late finisher with members who were not recorded in this report. All through the year it was a battle between Pennsylvania and Illinois as to who would have the greater number of members. Illinois, with 36 members, hopped up to 60, and Mr. Best's 11 make 71. And just this morning they got two others from Illinois, making 73. So I think Illinois has the second place position firmly nailed down. Last year we had 563 members all together. This year now we have 170 new members. We can't add that to 563, because in every organization there is a loss of membership every year, and it's to be expected that our membership should have a 10 per cent turnover through circumstances of people leaving their places where they have their nut tree plantings, deaths and other circumstances. So there was a net gain of 86 members to date. TREASURER'S REPORT August 25, 1951 to August 18, 1952 RECEIPTS Membership Dues $1,907.00 Sales of Annual Reports 190.00 Interest on U. S. Bonds 37.50 Donations 48.95 U.S.P.O. Unused Balance, Permit 3.05 Petty Cash 1.97 TOTAL $2,188.47 DISBURSEMENTS 41st Annual Report (Pleasant Valley) $1,375.86 Plates and printing, 900 copies $1,271.16 Envelopes, 2500 31.65 Mailing 73.05 The Nutshell 86.55 Printing & mailing Vol. 4, No. 3 28.64 Printing & mailing Vol. 5, No. 1 57.91 American Fruit Grower 191.60 582 Subscriptions at 30¢ 174.60 34 Subscriptions at 50¢ 17.00 Urbana Meeting 163.68 General Expenses 20.28 Reporting & Transcribing 143.40 Secretarial Help, 50¢ per member 317.00 Stationery and Supplies 179.81 Association Promotion 114.91 Application Folder, 5000 90.02 Supplemental Folder, 650 17.69 Things-of-Science 7.20 Secretary's Expense 77.23 Treasurer's Expense 94.04 Dues, American Horticultural Society 5.00 TOTAL $2,605.68 Cash on deposit, First Bank, South Bend $1,313.78 Disbursements 2,605.68 $3,919.46 -- -- -- -- On hand August 26, 1951 $1,730.99 Receipts 2,188.47 $3,919.46 -- -- -- -- U. S. Bonds in Safety Deposit Box $3,000.00 I know that Mr. Best has still some more material that he will supply to any of you who are anxious to go out and help in getting the new members. It's only a matter of every person getting a couple, or like Spencer Chase getting 10. That would put us well toward our goal of a thousand members, on which the Association probably can operate without deficit. I thank you. (Applause.) PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Thank you very much, Mr. Prell. We are very much indebted to you for your business-like handling of the affairs of the society. It is sometimes bitter to know the facts, but the only way that we are ever going to get anywhere is by knowing the facts and facing them. Either fortunately or unfortunately we are not like the federal government, which can go on piling up deficits. We have to do as each one of us as individuals has to do: If our operating-expense exceeds income, we either have to get more income or cease out-go. That is the situation under which we are confronted at the present time. A little later we can take up some of the things we have in mind. Did you have a further report, Mr. Secretary? I think probably the Treasurer stole some of the thunder that you might otherwise have. MR. MCDANIEL: He did that, and the Membership Committee also. You know something of the activities of the secretary's office during the current year, a matter of getting out three issues of The Nutshell and assisting with the editing of the annual report, which I hope you will receive about the time you get home. One other activity in which the Secretary participated, in addition to the usual task of answering letters to beginning nut growers, was this project "Things of Science". Perhaps Dr. McKay could tell us more about that. Is Dr. McKay in the room? Will you come up now? DR. MCKAY: We being near Washington, were, of course, the logical people to come in contact with this suggestion early when it was made. As a matter of fact, the very beginning of this movement goes back to Harry Dengler. Some of you may know of him. He is Extension Forester at the University of Maryland and is also Secretary of the American Holly Association. Harry Dengler was very much interested in this "Things of Science" program and happened to mention to the Science Service paper, of which Watson Davis is editor, that it would be a desirable thing to work up a test on nuts. For the benefit of those of you who do not know what "Things of Science" is, it is a movement sponsored by Science Service, located in Washington, D. C, whereby 12,000 subscribers to "Things of Science" receive every month a little kit through the mails dealing with all kinds of subjects in science. It is usually a little box, as in the case of the one on nuts, or it may be simply an envelope with some things in it to taste. The idea is to give people all over the country who are interested enough to pay $5.00 a year one kit a month, each one dealing with a different phase of science. Many groups subscribe to this service; for instance a boy scout troop, libraries and industrial plants. So it goes to literally many thousands more people than the 12,000 actual subscribers that it has. So when Science Service came to us and said, "Would you be interested in helping us work up a kit on nuts", naturally, we wanted to do what we could towards helping these people, and our first thought was this organization as an official sponsor for it. So we contacted the directors, the officers, Dr. MacDaniels and J. C. McDaniel, and as a result, the Northern Nut Growers, through its board of directors, because we had no other means to authorize it, went ahead and sponsored this move. To do it, we approached the California Walnut Growers Association, the California Almond Growers Association, the Northwest Nut Growers Association, and the Southeastern Pecan Growers Association, with the idea of having their names mentioned in the kit, and in return they would furnish samples to distribute. The Northern Nut Growers Association furnished the hickory nut samples. The kit was composed of, as I recall, six different kinds of nuts--Persian walnuts and almonds from California, filberts from the Northwest, Pecans from the Southeast, hickory nuts from the Northern Nut Growers Association, and pistachio nuts furnished through the Department of Agriculture by Captain Whitehouse at Beltsville. He secured the pistachio nuts from the trees in California. The kit was composed of a little box about four inches long, an inch and a half deep and three inches wide, containing two or more nuts of the various kinds, together with a brochure that we helped the science people work up. Dr. MacDaniels and the various cooperating groups worked up this brochure of information. The kits include a set of directions for the subscriber to follow in using the material. There are several different possibilities, all along the lines of scientific experimentation. The idea is to get these youngsters and young people to become familiar with different kinds of nuts. I think that's all I should say, Mr. President. That covers pretty well the effort that was made and those who made the effort. (Applause.) PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Thank you very much, Dr. McKay. This project is one in which there were deadlines as to time, and we had to work rather fast. Air mail, special delivery, the long distance telephone and telegraph played quite a part in it. The Science Service was paying the cost of assembling and mailing. The only cost to the Association was for the hickory nuts. MR. MCDANIEL: We were late on that and unable to get the quality nuts we would like, but we did get enough to fill the kits, not all of which were worthy. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We would like to have secured Carpathian walnuts, but the nuts from known sources of supply were so discolored with husk maggot that we were ashamed to send them out. We were not able to locate and to furnish any considerable amount of any kind of northern nuts. Twelve thousand of these kits went out, and each one of them is in a position where it probably contacted a dozen or more on the average, so that I am sure as a result of the effort a great many people not only became more familiar with nuts and their various sources and uses, but also learned that the contest was sponsored by the Northern Nut Growers Association. Mr. Prell, who knows something about advertising, thought it was a very worthwhile project. That completes the reports of the officers and of the committees. We will now take ten minutes recess. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The session will be in order. As your treasurer said, there are several other things which we discussed in the directors' meeting. We discussed this matter of how, the situation being such as it is, the Association could improve its position through gaining more members and through either making more money or cutting down expenditures. The Publicity Committee was one of those suggestions, who were to explore this matter of getting better publicity for less money. That is, whatever publicity we got from the American Fruit Grower cost us about $300, and we think we can do a lot better in some other way. Another matter was to place the financial situation of the society squarely before the membership and ask that as many as could and felt so inclined take out a contributing or a sustaining membership. We felt quite strongly that raising the dues was not the answer, because there are a lot of people sort of on the fringe who don't work too actively for the society but who do take out regular memberships but who, if we raised the dues even another 50 cents, would probably fail to renew their memberships. So that at least for the present we are not going to go ahead on that basis, unless you want that to come up for further discussion. Another point which we, I think, should explore was the matter of advertising in the proceedings. Some other associations, the pecan association, particularly, as Dr. McKay pointed out, make a substantial part of their revenue from advertising in the proceedings. We have tried that before, but times have changed, and I think it should be considered again. Then the matter of speeding up sales of sets of the proceedings to libraries, that is, further publicity in The Nutshell about sets that are for sale and, perhaps, circularizing the library lists to sell complete sets, or as complete as we have. Another matter that might be explored is having some kind of a "give-away program", some inducement for those who take out memberships for the first time. Other societies do it in one way or another. Unfortunately, our material does not lend itself to that sort of thing as well as some others, but we might be able to give nuts of Carpathian strains that could be used as seed nuts, or perhaps the hybrid hazels. MR. MCDANIEL: One suggestion made in a letter from Dr. Crane was to distribute hybrid walnuts to grow to fruiting size. That might be explored if there is a source of enough seedlings or seed nuts of Juglans Regia crossed with Juglans Nigra. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We would welcome any further suggestions which you may have, either as to saving money or making money, or increasing our membership, which amounts to making money, of course. Another thing that might be done to present the possibilities of nut growing to your communities is to sponsor exhibits at your own county or state fairs. Mr. Slate wanted to make a comment along these lines. MR. SLATE: That matter of urging sustaining and contributing memberships has been mentioned by you. I think it would be one of the best things we could do to send a statement of our financial condition to the members of the Association pointing out the need for additional funds and suggesting that all who can possibly afford it take out sustaining and contributing memberships. It seems to me that this is just about the only alternative to increasing the dues. I am not sure whether an increase in the dues would result in the loss of many members or not. Perhaps they are getting rather used to the higher price level, and it might be well to have an expression of opinion from some of those here as to whether they thought there would be serious objections to an increase in the dues. Surely, there are many who can afford to carry sustaining or contributing memberships. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: That is the opinion of the Board of Directors. Mr. Slate has raised a question as to the validity of the conclusion of the Directors regarding the advisability of raising the dues. Our thinking was that to raise the dues beyond the present level would result in sufficient loss of membership to offset any gain in revenue. The last time we raised the dues what was the effect? MR. MCDANIEL: When we raised the dues to $3.00 we had a membership of 650. It dropped to about 580; a loss of 60 or 70. MR. PRELL: We in effect raised dues 50 cents this morning. It won't affect new members, but it may cause some of the older ones who are members to drop. They know that at present 50 cents of their dues are going to the Fruit Grower; now they aren't getting the Fruit Grower. MR. MACHOVINA: They were getting for $2.50 what they will now get for $3.00. PRESIDENT MACDANIELS: Any other discussion? MR. KINTZEL: I have given this problem of increasing the membership quite a bit of thought, and have an idea which might be used. Let's see by a show of hands how many live in the city but own farms outside of the city. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The question is how many live in the city but have farms outside. Sixteen or 17, probably about 20. MR. KINTZEL: You might call me a city farmer. Like many other city people, I own a small farm near the city in which I live, which is Cincinnati, Ohio. I am intensely interested in the work of the N.N.G.A. There must be many others who, too, are owners of land but who use the land for experimental farming and to get a little diversion from the daily grind in the busy, noisy city. These people would consider it a favor to have their attention called to the interesting work of our organization. A practical plan for getting in touch with this reservoir of future members is to secure the names and addresses of such land owners from the records at the various county court houses fringing the cities. A personal letter should be written to these future members. A friendly invitation to join the N.N.G.A. should be extended, and a printed brochure describing and explaining its work and objects should be included. I believe that by working systematically on the city dweller, who also owns acreage outside the city limits, we could give our membership list a big boost. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: That is a good suggestion for the Membership Committee. Is there anything further? MR. CALDWELL: This is not a suggestion, but a comment following up the idea of the previous speaker. In Syracuse there was a woman with an estimated 160 acres of land, who about 15 or 16 years ago became interested in planting hybrid chestnuts. Unfortunately, the land was not suitable for raising chestnuts and the two or three hundred trees she planted failed to grow. I don't think there are two alive there now. So you will have to be a little bit careful in encouraging city people to plant nut trees. She spent a lot of money and right now if you mention that, she will just practically tear you apart. She wasted money and time, so be careful in getting people going too strong unless you are sure the trees are going to grow for them. MR. SNYDER: According to the chart outside, cutting off the Fruit Grower will leave us just a few cents per member in the red. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Right. MR. SNYDER: Well, don't we have $3,000 in bonds? What are they for, if it isn't to tide us over a hard period like this? PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: That is a suggestion for the Board of Directors. MR. SNYDER: If inflation keeps up, the bonds will be worth nothing. We might as well use them up. I would suggest we use every method to balance the budget without them, but if necessary, use some of them up. If it is necessary, use the bonds to balance the budget. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The question of whether or not we use the bonds, I think, would have to be considered very carefully. I think one of the Ohio men has a suggestion. MR. DOWELL: This discussion would follow along with that on membership. The active members of the Ohio section were organized back in 1946, and in 1948 the national body put in its by-laws a provision that there could be state sections formed. That is Article 1 and also Article 2, that you could have affiliated bodies. Now, as far as I know, there is no other state section. MR. MCDANIEL: Michigan has one, now. MR. DOWELL: Michigan has not actually affiliated yet, and when it does come in it will be an affiliated society. According to the by-laws it will not be necessary for all its members to be members of the N. N. G. A. Now, we feel that some strong state section is the main support in membership interest and a lot of other lines, and I think that if you check the rolls you will find where you have had a state organization, whether it's affiliated or otherwise, particularly Ohio and Michigan, that our membership has not really dropped down in total numbers. Of course, there is a turnover every year. If it has dropped down, it's been slight in comparison with the overall drop down. MR. MCDANIEL: Ohio is only holding its own now. You have one more member than you had a year ago. MR. DOWELL: That's right, we are holding our own, and previous to this last run, the total number in the Association was down a hundred. That has not dropped in Ohio, which has the state section. Neither has it recently in Michigan, which has recently organized the Michigan Nut Growers. The Executive Committee of the Ohio section wishes to present the following resolution for the consideration of this body: RESOLUTION "WHEREAS we feel that membership in a state section has been a definite advantage in maintaining and increasing membership in the National Organization, as has been demonstrated in the Ohio Section of the N. N. G. A.; WHEREAS a National Organization becomes strong because of its strong local sections which help maintain interest; THEREFORE the National Organization should encourage and foster the formation of local sections. We therefore submit the following motion: That the N. N. G. A. amend its constitution to provide for the organization of local sections. These amendments should include the following provisions: 1. Membership in the N. N. G. A. shall be a requirement for full membership in the local section; however this shall not exclude local sections from accepting associate members. 2. That each member of the N. N. G. A. shall automatically become a member of a local section when he resides in a location where a recognized local section exists. 3. Wherever a local section has become established, the local chairman shall serve as vice president of the N. N. G. A. for that area. 4. The N. N. G. A. shall refund to the treasurer of each local section ten percent (10%) of the N. N. G. A. dues paid annually by members of that section." PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I conclude that you are presenting this for the consideration of the Association. It would be an amendment to the by-laws, I take it, rather than the constitution. Such an amendment would have to come up for consideration at the next meeting after consideration by the Board of Directors; either that, or else vote on it by mail. MR. DOWELL: It is purely a motion now, if passed or rejected. But if it is passed, then previous to the Rochester meeting, the proposal would have to be in a suitable form to be either passed or rejected for the by-laws. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We have this resolution in printed form. That will be transmitted to the Board of Directors for consideration at the next meeting. MR. DOWELL: We make it as a motion that the mass accept or reject it here. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The motion is, then, to accept the resolution and present it to the Board of Directors. Is that right? Is there a second? MR. KINTZEL: I second it. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Are there further remarks? If not, all in favor, signify by saying "Aye." (Chorus of "ayes"). Opposed? (None.) It is carried. MR. O'ROURKE: I am very sorry I was not recognized before the vote was taken. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I am sorry. MR. O'ROURKE: I am speaking, I think, for the Michigan Nut Growers, of which we have quite a group here today, and we are quite anxious to maintain an independent state organization. We feel that it is perfectly all right for this motion to have been adopted as it has been, if there will be no attempt made to delete that section which now refers to affiliation. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I think there would be no attempt to do that. MR. O'ROURKE: Is that clearly understood that there will be no attempt made to delete the section on affiliation? MR. DOWELL: That is the understanding. Now, there are two ways in the present by-laws. Now, this would either be a third or replace the first. It would have nothing to do with affiliating groups. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I think that is right, and I think the thing to do, Mr. Dowell, would be to be sure that the new president is apprized of the Michigan point of view in that regard. He will be the chairman of the new Board of Directors, and this is simply a motion to consider it. It doesn't go any further than that. Is there any further business to come before this group at this time? If not, the other item on the agenda, as it is stated, I believe, is a presidential address. The Forward Look Presidential Address, by L. H. MacDaniels As the retiring president of our Association, it is a time honored custom and a privilege to give what is often referred to as the presidential address. I do not have in mind giving an address but rather to consider with you informally the present situation of the Northern Nut Growers Association and to give my ideas as to what we might do to improve our position and forward the purposes for which the Association was organized in 1910. Time does not permit recounting the history of the development of the Association. This has been done on several previous occasions. I will, however, go back to the 1945 report in which under the title "Where Do We Go from Here" I tried to pick up various aspects of the condition of the Association immediately following the war and point out areas to which special attention should be given at that time. Considering our situation in 1952, it appears that many of our problems are about the same as they were in 1945 although in some areas definite progress has been made. A quick look at our problems then and now is perhaps pertinent to the present discussion. One of these is variety evaluation. This still remains one of the important areas where we need much more information particularly as to the success or failure of different named clones of nut trees in various regions. Perhaps it is time for us to carefully summarize whatever data we have accumulated as to the adaptation of varieties or at least make plans for extending a program of evaluation. Since 1945 our survey committees have been active and have secured information that will certainly be helpful. The problem of judging standards has been clarified somewhat. It is my personal opinion that the judging schedule for varieties of black walnuts worked out with the assistance of Dr. S. S. Atwood is on a sound basis and might well receive much wider use. Following along somewhat the same pattern, suggested schedules have been proposed for the hickories and butternuts. These should receive further consideration and adoption, if approved at least on a tentative basis. A schedule for Persian walnuts is very much needed as indicated by the recent contest in which confusion occurred related to there being no recognized standards of evaluation. With the Persian walnut such matters as the method of cracking and the importance of such characters as sealing of nuts, recovery of whole halves and others should be agreed upon. Our procedure in naming varieties is still somewhat chaotic. Possibly we should adopt the general pattern of the American Pomological Society. Their example of setting up an approved list of varieties for planting on a regional basis is worthy of consideration. Even though such a list were tentative and incomplete, a start which would embody the best information we have would be valuable. Securing new varieties of, hardy nut trees through breeding has made some progress. Most encouraging is the work of the Federal Experiment Station at Beltsville where Doctor Crane and Doctor McKay and their associates are using modern techniques in securing new varieties of hardy nut trees. Some progress in hybridization, of course, has been made, particularly with the filberts, the hybrids developed by J. F. Jones, G. L. Slate, S. H. Graham, Heben Corsan and some others, showing great improvement over previous European varieties in their adaptability to the northern United States. At the present time there are filbert varieties of hybrid origin better than those in the nursery trade which should be propagated and made available. Work with the Chinese chestnuts has also been valuable. It is my opinion, which I believe is shared by most of those who are familiar with progress in securing new varieties, that we are not likely to find in the wild, varieties or clones which show any marked improvement over those already found and named. There is, of course, always the possibility of the "perfect nut" arising as a chance variation. The recent walnut and hickory contests, however, have been somewhat disappointing for they have not discovered any variety of black walnut better than the Thomas for instance, or a hickory much better than some of those located years ago. This does not mean that members of the Association should not keep a sharp lookout for new varieties occurring spontaneously which will be better than existing sorts. It does mean, however, that if real "breaks" are to be secured, it will be necessary to apply some of the more effective techniques which are known in the plant breeding field. Any such program is a long time project and can only be effectively attempted by experiment stations, or by some of the young men, who begin now to make crosses under the direction or at least with the advice of those who are familiar with plant breeding techniques. Progress has been made in the Association organization. The constitution has been thoroughly overhauled and amended, particularly to provide for regional groups. Certainly such groups are to be encouraged and have done and will do much to strengthen the national organization in the various states. It is my personal opinion that these regional groups can be of particular value in working with the experiment stations and legislatures to promote the interests of the Association. The state associations should be on the alert to build on the interests of conservation departments as related to wildlife preserves and sportsmen's clubs and other agencies which put the growing of nut trees in proper perspective. I am not at all in favor of securing either federal or state support for every minor project which comes along. However, the Northern Nut Growers Association need make no apologies for its program, particularly as it is related to the conservation of our natural resources; to the promotion of better living on the farm and those values which are real and great, even though they do not show up large in dollar value of crops produced. Unfortunately, projects in nut growing have been started in various states, particularly Ohio and Michigan only to be eliminated before they really got under way because of lack of support. Experiment station directors, if they are confronted with a shortage of funds, are likely to run the blue pencil through items which cannot be backed up with economic considerations. The approach of the Northern Nut Growers Association it seems to me should not be to seek support on an economic basis but rather on the basis of better living on the farm, improvement of gardens and farmsteads and the advantages of growing nut trees as compared with any other horticultural activity. There has been a real increase in the importance which is given to this approach in recent times and an active state association, which can keep in touch with local conditions and call on the national association for additional support, will certainly be of great assistance in the future. I personally am not in favor of any sort of a set up by which the national association gives a kick back of national dues to a regional association. The dues are inadequate for the national association at the present time. Looking at the whole situation with some perspective, it would seem that the regional associations might contribute to the national association rather than the reverse. If the constitution and by-laws of the Association are not such as to make affiliation with the national association and the formation of regional associations easy, they can readily be changed to secure the very best pattern that can be devised. Perhaps one of the most acute problems with which the Association is faced is the struggle to keep financially solvent. We are all aware of our changing economy, particularly the increased costs of printing and in fact of everything that our organization uses or needs, even postage. In my thinking, the finances of the Association are much the same as those of an individual, who is confronted with expenditures that exceed his income. The things that have to be done are obvious and the same in both cases. One is to spend less and the other is to secure more funds. In the judgment of your directors and executive committee, expenditures have been reduced as low as is safe in order to keep a going organization. Members join the Association for the value which they get out of it and a large part of this value is in the form of reports, newsletters, information made available and the organization of annual meetings. If these services were discontinued or curtailed, membership falls off. This has been the experience of other plant societies, of which there are many. In my judgment retrenchment is not the answer in the present situation. Securing additional funds is the best forward-looking policy. The question comes up as to how this may be done. Experience in our Association and I believe other associations as well, has shown that $3.00 is about as far as dues can be raised. There comes a point with every society when, if the dues are increased, there is a falling off of membership, which more than offsets the gain. Other obvious procedures are: (1) increasing the number of members; (2) providing different types of memberships to encourage larger contributions; (3) gifts; and (4) special fund raising projects. Of these various ways and means, certainly increasing the number of members is by far the more promising. The overhead of the association is not increased with additional memberships anywhere near in proportion to the contributions of those members. This is particularly true for additional copies of the report and general office expense. The drive for new members under President Best's leadership has produced gratifying results and I believe if this is continued effectively through the next few years, a membership increase can be secured that will assure the Association's balancing its budget. Somewhere in the neighborhood of a thousand paid memberships would solve most of our financial difficulties. Provision is already made for different types of memberships and it is to be hoped that many who can do so will join the contributing member class at least until we are out of our present financial woods. Other societies raise considerable revenue through special projects such as the sale of publications of one kind or another, seed distribution or slide rental. The type of material with which the Northern Nut Growers Association deals is not comparable to some of these other organizations but certainly the possibilities of revenue through special projects need to be explored. Research with northern nut trees is exceedingly important from the standpoint of accomplishing the objectives of the Association. The matter of breeding new varieties has already been touched on. Other types of research are such that a large part must be carried on by experiment stations which have a continuing program. Much has been done in securing observational information by Association members themselves but some problems are such that they must be continued over a long period of time and set up with adequate checks and provision for securing significant data. Otherwise the results are of no real value. Granted we need all the sound observational experience that all the members can bring to our problems, there are still aspects of culture of northern nut trees that need continuing program of scientific research. Fortunately, much of the cultural information secured with nut crops of economic value is directly applicable to northern nut trees. This is true of the work with northwestern filberts, western walnuts, southern pecans and even the tung industry. There comes a point, however, when information thus gained needs to be checked under the specific conditions where the crops are grown and very little research has been done in the northern states where the hardy nuts are important. Of special importance to the northern nut growers is the control of diseases and insects. At the present time the bunch disease of walnuts is becoming increasingly more troublesome and very little is known as to how this is spread or how it may be controlled. In my own filbert planting, the hazel bud mite during past years has made the crop practically a failure. Little apparently is known as to the life history of this insect or when miticides might be applied. Examples such as the bunch disease and mite damage are multiplied many times with other diseases of local or regional importance. In my thinking our best hope for getting something done is to encourage the Departments of Entomology and Plant Pathology in the experiment stations to take up these disease and insect problems, which might be attacked by graduate students as thesis subjects, even though the economic importance is not great. As I see the situation of the Association, there is need for its members to produce more nuts of better quality. Nothing intrigues the interest of potential members as much as actually seeing and tasting locally grown samples of nuts of superior varieties. On several occasions I have tried to assemble collections of nuts for exhibit or to buy them for one purpose or another and found great difficulty in finding sources of supply. This was particularly true in the fall of 1951 when we were trying to assemble nuts for "The Things of Science" project. We wanted very much to secure Carpathian walnuts that could be sent out and used for seed purposes. There was no source to which we could turn. In several possible sources of supply, husk maggots had so infested the crop that the nuts were discolored and unattractive. It might have been possible to secure enough black walnuts to include in the kit but the problem of state quarantines against the bunch disease could not be easily adjusted. Finally I believe the Northern Nut Growers Association is doing a very significant work. Our emphasis at the present time at least might very well be on nut growing as a hobby and for conservation, for better shade trees and for better living on the farms and homesteads rather than to emphasize the commercial angles. This will come in time if it can really be demonstrated that growing northern nut trees is a profitable venture. In these days of job specialization everyone needs a hobby and an outlet for special interests. I know of few other fields of endeavor for those who like growing things than the rewards that are to be found in the growing of hardy nut trees. MONDAY AFTERNOON SESSION The Monday afternoon session was convened at one o'clock p.m. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The afternoon session will please be in order. The first paper this afternoon will be, "The Future of Your Nut Planting," Mr. W. F. Sonnemann, Vandalia, Illinois. The Future of Your Nut Planting W. F. SONNEMANN, _Vandalia, Ill._ Ladies and gentlemen, it is a great pleasure to appear before the Northern Nut Growers Association. I am just a sprout as far as nut growing is concerned, when we consider the age of some of our old hickory nut trees. About 25 years ago, I became interested in nut growing and, in particular, the river-bottom hickory nut tree. Then we had so many nut trees growing in the bottom that we never thought of trying to plant a tree or look after one. People could gather all the nuts they wanted and often the trees were cut just to get the nuts. They'd lay a stick of dynamite at the base of the tree to shake the nuts off. After a few years of that, I thought we might do something to save the nut trees for the future generations. That's when I first started to plant some nuts. Incidentally, I made a big mistake, by not joining the Northern Nut Growers Association. Naturally, I wanted the largest pecan I could find. I went to the St. Louis market and bought and planted nice Papershell pecans--very nice pecans, but the trees do not mature their crop. Mr. McDaniel and I tried to top-work them, but that's a big job. Had I joined the Northern Nut Growers Association, I could have avoided a lot of those mistakes. There are some things that I found out in practicing law that can very well apply to nut growing. If you will pardon the reference to personal experience, I can bring forth to you about four situations. One, a good, close friend of mine had a vacant lot close to his home. He had been planting nut trees and papaw trees and persimmon trees for years. On this vacant lot he had a 25-year-old Busch walnut growing back on the alley, on the lawn was a beautiful Japanese flowering cherry, and there were two pecan trees in the yard proper. He sold the lot to a neighbor whose wife was just crazy about flowers, little dreaming that those trees would ever be cut down. I don't believe the ink of the recorder had been cooled or dried before that English walnut was cut down, the Japanese cherry grubbed out of the front lawn, and one of the pecan trees was cut. It just about broke the old owner's heart, and all he could say was, "I am just disappointed in my neighbors." And now there is a house being erected there, and the pecan tree that was 12 inches in diameter was cut. That could have been prevented, had this man given thought to the future. Another man, named Hagen, who was instrumental in getting me interested in nut growing, had a nice group of river-bottom shellbark trees growing in his field. One of these has been propagated and named the Hagen, and although it isn't a good cracking quality, it's a very large nut. A pipe line was laid close to that field, and this man had the fore-*sight to put a clause in this pipe-line right of way which gave him the protection of collecting adequate damages for the destruction of the trees. Didn't even need a lawyer, which is something bad for the law business. It is a suggestion, that when a pipe line, or telephone company is buying a right of way, it is possible to protect your interests in valuable trees. Another instance of protecting nut trees was when the new U. S. Highway 40 was built across Illinois. I had the job of condemning the right of way and when the engineer and I were out walking over it we noticed a fine group of hickory nut trees on the hillside. I remarked what a nice group of trees it was. He said, "Yes, that's going to be a borrow pit up there." I said, "You mean they are going to destroy those trees?" He said, "Yes, dirt from this borrow pit will make the fill across this bottom." I said, "Why can't we get the dirt somewhere else? Dirt is dirt." And the engineer said, "Well, that's the plans." We had a little contrariness there, and I had to threaten to drop the case as far as that tract of land was concerned. If you fight long enough and hard enough in such cases you may find some other person who is interested in nut trees. We did; we found an engineer higher up, and that group of hickory trees is now a picnic area. They used a borrow pit somewhere else, and it gives me a great pleasure to drive past that group of hickory trees and see them still standing there. In the fall of the year you'd be surprised at the number of people at that picnic area, and they keep those hickory nuts picked up clean as fast as they fall. In our county hospital just started they happened to select a piece of ground I own an interest in for a county hospital. On that are some good hickory nut trees. I told them they'd never get the land until they made some arrangements in regard to those nut trees. The engineer that designed that hospital must have had some sense, because they are building a canopy around one of the trees adjacent to that hospital, and have arranged to cut only one scrub oak. The other trees will be mentioned in the deed with restrictive covenants to protect them. If you sign anything a company gives you, you are liable to have anything cut on your land. Remember the saying that "the big print gives it to you and the fine print takes it away." And it's the fine print you want to watch in all your right of ways or in your condemnation proceedings. I know a man who had almost 160 acres of river-bottom hickories. During his lifetime he was very careful about those trees. He would cut the brush around the trees and harvest those hickory nuts as if it was a crop of corn or beans. Upon his death his children were scattered over the various states. They didn't care anything for this hickory grove. It's been cut. Now there is a bulldozer in there trying to clean out those hickory stumps. They are not making much progress. All you now have in that farm is 160 acres of old tree stumps, wild honey-suckle vines, poison ivy and poison oak, and even a coon hunter gripes when he has to take his dogs through there on a coon hunt. Those heirs care nothing about it. In selling land it doesn't make any difference whether it's a sale to a neighbor, or to a friend or a stranger, you should protect any trees that you have growing upon that land by what we term a covenant running with the land, and that means if a deed is made it will provide that certain trees shall not be cut within a certain period of time. In one case where I am forced to sell some land I am protecting the trees for 10 years. Each of these situations requires research under your own state laws. I had hoped to be able to tell you something definite and precise as to each situation, but when I considered the membership in the Northern Nut Growers, the many states it covers and the great difference in the state laws, it's just impossible to lay your hand upon one set of facts that governs. You should consult your attorney who is dealing with your transactions and tell him specifically what you have in mind and what you want to protect. He will know whether your state recognizes covenants running with your land and what provision can be made to protect trees that you want to save or secure damages. Remember, in any transaction, if it is not in the written instrument that you sign, it's just an oral agreement that you make on the side, and it doesn't mean a thing. It has to be in the paper that you sign. As I mentioned briefly, in what they call "eminent domain", the state has a right to take property for public use. The only thing you can do there is just get your head square and fight, and if you are stubborn enough, you may find someone in the organization that you are dealing with who has some interest in trees. They may not be members of the Northern Nut Growers Association or any tree association, but there are some people who appreciate trees and who do realize how long it takes to have a nice pecan tree or nice hickory nut tree growing. If they call you contrary, that you won't give in to anything, let them call you contrary, let them call you nuts, but you can protect your trees and make sure that their future is secure. What will happen to your trees after you are dead? Each individual's situation has to be considered separately. In many states you can provide by will to whom you want your nut planting to go, or you can, by making a trust, give the trees to trustees with certain powers and duties to care for and manage them for a period of time or perpetually, depending on the laws of your state. Usually it is limited to the life of some person or 21 years. In that length of time if your heirs or the person you desire these trees to go to have not educated themselves to the value of the tree, then the planting will be lost anyway. In all of these cases and all the transactions that you make, if you value your trees--and you surely do when you will carry water for them and plant them and dig that large hole for those roots--it is worth while to look after them during the trees' lifetime, not your own lifetime. And if you will consult with your attorney, particularly mention those trees to him and just exactly what your ideas are, I think you will be assured that you will have a future for nut trees. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Sonnemann. Are there any questions you wish to ask on this subject. Here is a chance to get free legal advice on the spot. That's unusual. DR. GRAVATT: There is one point I'd like to bring out, backing up what the gentleman just said. You know we introduced back in 1928 to 1936 very large numbers of Chinese and Japanese chestnuts. Most of them went out to state forestry departments and such; somewhere around a half million trees. We have had some very valuable cooperative orchard plantings, which have been lost because something happened to the man, he moved away, sold his property, or died. With these gentlemen who have passed away, experimental orchard plantings and other trees were part of their lives, but their children, or whoever inherited the property, had no interest in continuing the work. We have had the same experience with some agricultural experiment stations where one of the horticulturists is interested in the plantings, but has moved away, and we have lost our plantings. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Thank you, Dr. Gravatt. Mr. Becker, do you wish to say something about the Reed Memorial? MR. BECKER: This is just a word of appreciation to a number of the Northern Nut Growers members who have helped out with the C. A. Reed Memorial. When we organized the Michigan Nut Growers Association last January it was Professor O'Rourke's idea to have a memorial at Mr. Reed's home town, which is Howell, Michigan. With Mrs. Reed's approval we planned as our first project, planting a nut tree with a suitable plaque in memory of the late Dr. Reed. As a followup, we issued a little bulletin asking for contributions toward the memorial. We sent these out to people who knew Mr. Reed, many of whom are among this group. Response has been gratifying and we now have approximately $95 toward the tablet. On Arbor Day a Michigan variety of shagbark hickory called the Abscoda was planted at Howell on the library grounds. The services were conducted with the cooperation of the Michigan State College and the Livingston County garden group. This is a word of appreciation and also to explain what we have done. Thank you. (Applause.) PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We will go on to the next paper, "The Value of a Tree," Ferdinand Bolten, Linton, Indiana. Mr. Bolton. (Applause.) MR. BOLTEN: Members of the Northern Nut Growers Association and ladies and gentlemen: I am just a farmer. I am not a speech-maker, like the lawyer here who makes his living talking. I make my living farming, and I have some ideas, views that I'd like to bring before you. The Value of a Tree FERD BOLTEN, _Linton, Ind._ Members of the Northern Nut Growers Association, ladies, and gentlemen. It may be a little unusual for a fruit grower and farmer to be on this program; however, I have lived a lifetime working with trees on the same farm I was born on sixty-six years ago last May. We have one hundred acres of orchard, several varieties of nut trees, including English walnut, pecans, hybrid pecans or hicans, hickories, filberts, hazelnuts, heart nuts, butternuts, black walnuts; also, persimmons, pawpaws, hybrid oaks and many of the native forest trees. In operating a farm this size, you naturally get a lot of experience and headaches. A very good friend of mine told me a joke that I think fits in with my farm very well. He said a fruit grower delivered a load of apples to the insane asylum. One of the inmates was helping unload the apples. The inmate kept talking about apples, so the grower asked him if he was ever on a fruit farm. The inmate replied that he was before he came to the asylum and, in return, asked the grower if he had ever been in the asylum. The grower replied that he had not. Then the inmate said, "Mr., I have been both places, and I can tell you something. It is a lot nicer here than it is on a fruit farm". My subject is, THE VALUE OF A TREE A tree out of its natural habitat sometimes becomes worthless. As an extreme example, the orange tree in Indiana has no commercial value and the apple tree in Florida has no commercial value. Therefore, it seems that we should, in Indiana, endeavor to develop better trees in the trees which are at home here. This includes the native hickory and the black walnut, hazels, filberts and the pecans in Southern Indiana. Personally, I am spending quite a bit of time with the Crath Carpathian English or Persian Walnut. Last winter, I lost seven out of fifty trees from some cause, after they had gone through the winter of 1950 and 1951, at a temperature of nineteen below zero without injury. It may have been they were caught last fall by a hard freeze in full foliage, early before the apples were all picked; and, again, it may be blight. I hope not. But this I do know, the hickory and black walnut in their natural habitat were not injured. I wonder why hickories are so erratic in their bearing habits. Could it be the winter rest period? For example, the peach has to have from seven hundred hours, in some varieties, to twelve hundred hours, in others, of below forty-five degrees temperature, or they will not set a good crop of fruit. The value of a variety of peach in Georgia sometimes is determined by the number of hours of rest period below forty-five degrees that the variety has to have. It has happened that the same variety of peach has produced a good crop in Northern Georgia and a poor crop in Southern Georgia. Where the winter was not as cold in Indiana we never lose crops from the lack of enough cold weather; we lose them from sub-zero temperatures. So you see, the value of a variety in Georgia is different to Indiana. The value of a tree may be in the wood or in the food its produces, or its beauty in winter. Many a picture is taken of evergreens covered with snow. Its value may be its beauty in summer, or the coloring of its leaves in the fall. There is also a sentimental value; a limb that is just right for a child's swing, the Constitutional Elm at Corydon, or the Harrison Oak at North Bend, Ohio. They have a historical value and are visited by many people. A man said to me some time ago, "I wonder why God made the hicans the cross between the pecans and the hickory?" There may be a valuable nut tree show up in the second or third generation of the hybrid trees when certain characteristics begin to revert to the parent trees. I have on my farm some hybrid oaks grafted, and am very anxious to see them produce acorns so I can plant them and watch the results. This hybrid originated in the Greene and Sullivan County Forest in Indiana, and is called the Carpenter Oak after Mr. Carpenter, the district forester. It is, apparently, a cross between the shingle oak and the pin oak because it is comparable with both of them. The value of a tree is not always the one that wins first prize in the show. The best plate of nuts in the show may not be from the most valuable tree, because it may be biennial in bearing habits, it may be a shy bearer, it may be an early bloomer and subject to frost. My most productive Crath Carpathian tree is not the best walnut and would not get anywhere in the show, but it is hardy, blooms late, and is productive; so its value is in these traits. The number of chromosomes in the Crath Carpathian walnut may be different. There is quite a difference in the size of nuts produced on individual trees. This indicates that there may be a difference in chromosome count. If this is true, it will be a great help in improving the size of the nuts produced. It may be of value in pollination. The triploid apple needs to be pollinated by the diploid variety. By setting them close together, you get a much better set of fruit. Sometimes I think trees are as temperamental as people. Some trees, especially the apple, lose their value because they are subject to certain diseases. Some are susceptible to scab, blight, codling moth, rots, blotch, and other diseases, to a point where they become worthless as commercial varieties. The honey locust has been considered one of the trees on farms to be destroyed, because it was thought to be worthless. Now, its value is being found in the correcting of sugar deficiency in dairy cattle. The pods of the honey locust are one of the best foods to correct sugar deficiency and cattle like them and eat them freely. I have on my farm a thornless honey locust that produced ten bushels of pods one year. The honey locust is also a legume and produces nitrogen which, in turn, is used by the pasture grasses and makes more pasture for the cattle. The mulberry tree that ripens when cherries are ripe has a value in the fact that every mulberry eaten by a bird saves a cherry and the birds are valuable because they destroy insects that cause the worms in cherries. After observing trees for years, I am convinced that there are certain strains or families of trees in the forest that have outstanding traits. Those traits in growth might be dwarfs or they may be giants; they may have short lives or long lives, like different varieties of apples. The fruit or seeds may be large or small. I believe as reforestation progresses there will be certain trees located which have value as seed trees and which will improve the forest equal to the improvement in livestock on the farms today. The razor back hog that roamed the forest is gone and has been replaced by animals much improved; yet, the forest in which it roamed is the same. Now we are turning to man made forests and a chance to improve them by selecting the more valuable trees for our source of seed. In the native hickory and black walnut, there is a great need for more interest in searching for and preserving the most valuable trees for their cracking quality, flavor, and productivity. There have been and are now, nut trees on farms that were valuable trees, but were known only to the owner and the small boys of the community. These trees should have been preserved for posterity, but many of them are lost forever. In forestry, a tree's value may be in its ability to re-seed itself. In the kinds of pine, the Virginia pine is one of the best, and also, one of the youngest to produce seed cones. I have counted twenty-five cones on a five year old Virginia Pine tree. In forestry, the red cedar is good to re-seed itself in the area in which it grows. The maple ash, cotton wood, and poplar also grow freely from nature's seeding. Every tree that grows has a value. The leaves help purify the air; the persimmon and the tree with a wild grapevine are food for wild life. The old hollow tree is a refuge for the coon and o'possum and other wild life. I have a hollow white oak on my farm I let stand because a family of squirrels is raised in it every year. I also have a bee tree and the bees help pollinate my fruit trees so they produce better. A world without trees would be a desolate place. The value of a park is in its trees. I have spoken of the value of trees for the preservation of wild life, but how do trees affect the life of man and how does man affect tree life? Man is the builder or destroyer of tree life; although the tree is the oldest living thing in plant or animal life, man is master over trees. A man came into my farm office one day and said, "Everything in this room either grew from the earth or was mined from the earth." How about everything in this room? The furniture, the clothing you wear, the ring on your finger, the glass in the windows, etc.? Let us think for a minute, what are the things of the greatest value in this room? We have an organization, The Northern Nut Growers Association. It did not grow from the earth, there is knowledge of science here, there are doctors' degrees (I wish I had one), there is ambition, honesty, love, pride, and patriotism. Man's knowledge is the key. What he leaves alone or what he destroys. So the greatest value is man's knowledge. After all, the greatest values are the things that come from the minds and the hearts of men. By man's efforts, we find or develop these valuable trees. The value of a home is increased by trees. The love of trees and the pride in owning a home is hard to separate. The privilege in America to own a home and plant a tree on your own ground is of great value. It has been said that he, who plants a tree, is truly a servant of God. I sometimes wonder if this great value of the privilege of owning a piece of ground and building a home and planting a tree is in danger of being lost under the present creeping grip of socialism and communism. This privilege of planting and owning a tree is of greater value than any tree, and we must not lose this valuable inheritance in America. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Mr. Magill, are you all set with your program? MR. MAGILL: Yes, sir. This is to be a discussion of "Methods of Getting Better Annual Crops on Black Walnut--A symposium led by W. W. Magill (Kentucky)--Discussion by a panel made up of W. G. Tatum, Spencer Chase, W. B. Ward and Mr. Schlagenbusch." Will those men come here? We will get started. My business in life is Extension peddler down in Kentucky, working on fruits and nuts and berries, and naturally that takes me into a good many counties. We have 120, and I have been in all of them. Some places didn't have anything, so no reason to go back. But I pick up a lot of conversation, people give you ideas and things to think about. We were talking about the conditions of the world--everybody's got a good job and plenty of money and biggest incomes that the country has ever known. That's true, but if you take down in the hills and hollows into some places that I go and you take the financial status of certain of those families, it's not measured in thousands of dollars, some cases not hardly measured in hundreds of dollars. It's measured in terms of gratuities and things to eat and not measured by greenbacks, and the families don't pay income tax. Last fall I was out on a farm in the foothills some 70 miles from Lexington, in a place that most of you folks wouldn't want to live in and call home, a little farm, probably 16 acres, with a widow lady probably 65 years old, living there with her daughter. And among other things, she said, "Mr. Magill, I understand that you are supposed to know something about nuts. See that tree standing right out there?" She says, "I will give you a $20 bill if you will tell me how to make that nut tree bear annual crops." Well, I was a little bit surprised. I listened, and I got to asking her questions. Some member of the family had gone to Chicago years ago, and she knew about all the black walnut packing firms in Kentucky. This relative had worked in the market, and had indicated she could get a dollar a pound for all the nut meats she would pick out and send to this relative in Chicago. And that nut tree meant about 30 to 35 dollars a year when it had a crop but only bore every other year. Well, that drove home just a little more to me than ever before the question of why certain nut trees bore and others didn't bear. To that lady there it meant $30 the year it bore and no income from that tree on the year it didn't bear. And she stood there beside the home and pointed out other trees that bore regularly. And she said, "Why do they bear regular crops and this good tree that makes so many fine, big kernels bears every other year?" That's a challenge I am throwing out to this audience today to all the members on this panel. I am hoping that Pappy Ward or Friend Chase will answer that question completely. The thing I have in mind, is that in a group like we have here today, as many nuts as we have got here, if we think about this question and talk to the folks back home, I believe in a year or two we can have worked out and have printed in the records of the report some pretty reasonable answers as to why nut trees don't bear, or why they bear heavy crops on certain years and are off certain years. Mr. Ward, I know you have observed this over a period of years. What, in your opinion, is the one factor that is more responsible for this alternate bearing of black walnuts? Why Black Walnuts Fail to Bear Satisfactory Crops W. B. WARD, _Department of Horticulture, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind._ When man or nature, and sometimes both, change the natural habits of a tree, most anything can happen. There are years when the black walnut sets very few fruits either on the seedling trees or trees of named varieties. Some few trees have alternate years of production, while other trees bear annually and some not at all. Good results and good crops may be expected only when several factors are normal and conditions favorable. After twenty years of keeping records and observations on nut trees and through correspondence with other growers, I consider the main reason for crop failure or light production to be climatic conditions and the weather for an entire year. The black walnut produces a pistillate flower at the end of the present season's growth. The staminate flowers, or catkins, come from last year's wood. Good growing conditions are desirable for wood growth and fruit bud formation and any retarding of growth the previous season means little or no production. Winter injury to wood and bud, diseases or insects attacking the foliage, soil moisture, and summer temperatures will lower tree vitality. There are times when strong vigorous trees fail to fruit which could be due to a high or low carbohydrate-nitrogen balance. Soil type, plant food, age of tree, and location will have some influence on annual or even biennial production but yet are not the all important reasons for light crops. The pollen of the black walnut is mostly wind borne as few insects ever visit the flowers and pollination is dependent on wind borne pollen. Trees planted in groups and close together are generally more productive than trees planted in orchard rows even as close as 40' by 40'. When the weather is cold and rainy during bloom, one should not expect much of a crop. The staminate flowers opened early in Indiana the years of 1950, 1951, and 1952. The weather was more or less ideal during the time the catkins had elongated and about ready to shed pollen. This warm spell was followed by a fairly cool weather and considerable rain, which delayed the opening of the pistillate flowers, consequently the pollen dried and was lost before the pistil was receptive. The few walnut trees in the University plantation have always had the best of care. The trees have been mulched, fertilized (both through root and leaf feedings), sprayed, cultivated and seeded to grass with the grass clipped. The trees are some distance away from other seedling walnuts and a bit off the beaten path of the right direction of the spring winds. The varieties are Ohio, Stambaugh, Stabler, Rohwer, and Thomas. When the spring weather is balmy at flowering time, the trees bear a respectable crop but let the weather change to cool and moist and then that is the time one begins to think about calling up the sawmill to see if there is any need for some good walnut logs. MR. MAGILL: That's a mighty good discussion. I see Mr. Ward has been observing walnut trees closer than I assumed he had. Mr. Chase, I know you have seen a lot of things in Tennessee that you are not going to tell us about, but I suggest that you discuss some of the things you have observed about walnut trees bearing anywhere. MR. CHASE: Alternate bearing has been a problem with fruits and nuts since time immemorial. I know a tremendous amount of work has been done with the apple, which has a definite biennial bearing habit. There have been all sorts of things tried to make it bear annual crops, and as far as I know, there has not been anything effective developed along that line. Of course, there are varieties of apples that tend to bear annual crops. As Mr. Ward brought out--he took all my thunder, so I don't have much to say--a tree may set a heavy crop of nuts one year because frost or poor pollination the year before destroyed the crop so that a large amount of carbohydrates were built up in the tree. Now, the tree in producing a heavy crop of well filled nuts utilizes every bit of carbohydrates it has stored and can manufacture. While it is doing this the terminal bud is being formed for next year's crop, and if there isn't a sufficient amount of carbohydrates in the tree at that critical period, there is not likely to be a flower bud formed. This is not limited just to walnuts, but occurs with nearly all fruits and nuts, with the possible exception of the chestnut. We made a study which was reported in the 1946 report by Mr. Zarger in which he reported the bearing habits of some 135 trees over a 10-year period, and there were definite bearing cycles, or bearing habits. It was not always an on year followed by an off year, but possibly two years in a row, then nothing. There were some trees that went three years without a crop, then a crop. Very few, however, had annual crops, and the annual crops were heavy or moderately heavy, followed by what we consider a light crop. These trees were scattered through seven states and, of course, conditions were not the same. They were all seedling trees, but careful records were kept on the bearing habits. There was a group of trees that could not be classified into any definite bearing habit. In those instances we suspected unfavorable weather at pollination time, but as a general rule, in our section I don't believe we are concerned with that factor. The Thomas, which we can watch carefully in a nearby orchard, is definitely on one year and off the next. Quite a few are on one year and off two years. We haven't found any way to make that an annual crop, because when it sets a crop, it sets a bumper crop, and there is simply not enough food in the tree to set a sufficient number of fruit buds for the following year's crop. I am sure that a lot of you folks have observed this, and I think, Mr. Magill, that you might sound out some of them. MR. MAGILL: Going back to an observation I made as a kid, money didn't grow in bushes around our place, and back in those days you could go out and kill ten rabbits and sell them for 8 cents apiece, and if you only used 4 cents apiece for ammunition, you have made 40 cents off of the deal and had $20 worth of fun, and that was a good day's work. You remember those days, Pappy? Back in those same times, I used to get money out of hauling black walnuts to an old corn sheller and having people who didn't have an interest in the corn sheller sell them for 50 cents a bushel. That was also pin money. Come in mighty useful. We had a certain group of trees on the farm I was raised on that bore every other year, and I can think of two fields where we rearranged the fences in such a way as to make pasture fields out of them, and two of those trees were where 15 or 20 cattle pastured. These were the only shade trees, and naturally they manured those trees. And I recall for a few years I was getting annual crops from them. Apparently they got something supplied by cattle that they didn't have otherwise. Others in the foothills of Kentucky, have come to the same conclusion. I know a man who has pecan holdings in Alabama. He told me up to the time he got the farm the trees had a few blooms but wouldn't set pecans. He applied 15 mineral elements and claims to have got results from it. I have talked to at least three people in my travelling around who tried the same treatment on pecans, one in Georgia, one in Alabama and one in Mississippi. They reported that they had improved yield on pecans by using complete mineral fertilizer. That's in addition to nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. I am foolish enough to think that that nice, young orchard of Mrs. Weber's would make an excellent place to try it. I understand that the trees are not behaving as well as they should. I'd like for Ford Wilkinson to be made chairman of a committee to see that they are fertilized according to some kind of a schedule that could be worked out and do some observing. That is one of the few places I know of in the several states that would be as adequately laid out. I'd like to see a complete fertilizer including nine or ten mineral elements used. I don't mean spend a lot of money, but you can do a lot of observing for relatively few dollars. I just throw that out as a hint. I would like to open up this discussion. Mr. Bolten talked a while ago about things he was growing out of the ground, or out of minerals. Everything comes from the ground, and I reckon you'd say this Northern Nut Growers Association is a little like Topsy, it just developed, as the fellow about the weeds. He said they weren't created, they just come all at once. Now I believe that out of this Northern Nut Growers assembly here that we have got some keen observers that might have something on their minds they want to tell us about. Who wants to speak first? MR. CALDWELL: This is just an observation I am throwing out for the benefit of those who are here. I spent some time in China, and I was interested in the fact that their walnuts there produced yearly crops. In trying to find out why they produced yearly crops, I also discovered that their persimmons, their plums and their peaches did the same thing. The reason for that apparently goes back to their mythology. They believe in signs and doing certain things according to certain seasons of the year, and one of the things that they did was to gather together in the dark of the moon on one particular night at a certain time and beat the living daylights out of these trees with big bamboo clubs. I wouldn't suggest that people here do that, but it's been known to foresters quite a while that by transplanting or severely pruning or girdling trees that you could produce fruits on these trees the following year. Apparently the Chinese so injured the cambium during the severe beating that they have caused that wound stimulus to induce the formation of flower buds for the following year. By so doing in their English or Persian walnuts they did have yearly crops. I have seen this myself, and I checked back to see why. Perhaps they could explain it. The only explanation we made was not fertilizing, but in the wounding of the cambium. Now, perhaps there could be something done of that nature for walnuts, but I wouldn't suggest getting around and beating the trees up. MR. MAGILL: In that connection, one man in Kentucky got the same answer. He said about five years ago a cyclone came through there and blew the chimney off the house and uprooted a number of apple trees and leaned over three walnut trees, and he said they have borne five crops in succession. Now, this is the same story that you have got there. MR. STOKE: I'd just like to remark that I think that's a sort of negative approach. I noticed a boy who had an apple tree that was about to die. He girdled it and got a tremendous crop of blossom. You probably have secured the same results. That is one of Nature's ways to perpetuate itself. But I think there a constructive angle in those trees that respond to nitrogenous fertilizer or manure. I believe the secret, if there is a secret, is that a tree in bearing a crop exhausts itself more or less. It recuperates the following year and then is ready to bear another crop. And the way to meet that situation is to fertilize heavily, especially with nitrogen, the season of the heavy crop so that you will have not only enough leaf growth to produce that crop, but to build up nutrients the following year. I believe that will help break the cycle and establish more regularity. Some trees do that themselves; that is, they will bear a moderate crop every year. I have the Land walnut at home. It bears every year. Certain chestnuts will bear every year, not excessive crops, but Hobson bears a pretty good crop every year. I believe the secret of breaking that on-and-off cycle is to fertilize heavily the year of production not the year of non-production. If you apply nitrogen on the off year you produce perhaps an excess of wood growth that year and overbearing the following year. MR. MAGILL: Referring to apples, any of you apple growers well know that the Golden Delicious and York Imperial grow crops in alternate years. Now, you come along with hormone sprays and take half or two-thirds of the young fruits off soon after the trees blossom and throw them into regular production. That's the same thing that you are talking about, Mr. Stoke. I never heard of anybody thinning walnuts. I don't know whether they do or not. A lot of things I don't know, but I don't know of anybody ever thinning walnuts, except squirrels. MR. WARD: Last year a lady from Kokomo, Indiana, wrote me that she had a very fine walnut tree growing near Mr. Bolten's place in Greene County, and as far as she could remember that tree had borne an annual crop for the past 70 years. I wrote to Mr. Bolten asking him to investigate. If I remember correctly, these trees were grown in the poorest possible place. Is that right, Mr. Bolten? MR. BOLTEN: Yes. MR. WARD: There were two or three trees right close together that had a nice crop and the ground was covered with a lot of nice nuts which Mr. Bolten thought worth propagating, and he has a tree already started. We have other varieties that we call the Saul, the Goose Creek and the Alley, which are all seedlings and which have produced almost every year with about the same size of crop. In our own planting, at the University, we have tried a lot of things without telling anybody about it. Every once in a while the boys mow the orchard, and have bruised and barked a lot of these trees with no effect whatever on bearing. We have time and time again taken the Stambaugh, Ohio, Thomas, Stabler, and Aurora and have given them a good shot of fertilizer in the spring after a rain, and have produced wonderful growth in all of those years but still had only a light crop. A few years ago some of the boys were spraying the apple orchard with Nu-Green and Urea at the rate of 5 pounds to 100 gallons of water, and had a little extra. They said, "Well, we don't like Ward's nut trees over there, we will put this stuff on them, and if it kills them, that's all right, and if they live, that's all right, too." They gave them some feeding throughout the summer and we haven't found any different results. MR. STOKE: May I say just one more thing to clarify my suggestion? I was assuming that potash and phosphate were present in sufficient quantity. What I wanted was leaf growth to store up energy and nutrients for the following year and to apply that on the year of heavy crop, so besides maturing the crop, it will provide that leaf growth, and not in the year of no crop. MR. WARD: We have tried that both ways, and going back, Mr. Stoke, again to the lack of pollination, it seems like both the pistillate and staminate flowers are there, but they just don't set a crop of fruit. MR. STOKE: One thing more I wanted to say, and it slipped my mind. We know any tree that grows too rapidly will not produce seed nor fruit, and excess nitrogen on apple or walnut or anything else will not cause the formation of fruit buds, but the normal amount is necessary for the formation of buds. MR. MCDANIEL: We have even got alternate bearing on persimmons in Urbana now. Trees that bore extremely heavily didn't bloom this year. MR. MAGILL: We hill-billies have been taking a pass at that. I wonder if Dr. Slate couldn't give us some scientific facts about this. How about it, Slate? DR. SLATE: Mr. Caldwell's remarks about the beating of the walnut trees in China reminds me of an ancient saying that, "A dog, a woman, a walnut tree, the more you beat them the better they be." MR. DAVIDSON: One of my seedlings began to bear seven years ago, and has borne steadily every year exceptionally large crops. It never failed until this year, and the only explanation that I can give is that just as the bloom was incepted we had continuous rains. There was no pollination of that tree, whereas other trees that were receptive at other times are pretty well filled. Out of two or three thousand trees you will find some exceptional ones. I have some that bear fairly good crops but do not fill. Walnut trees are just as different from each other as are apple trees. There are some things you can't do anything about at all, and weather is one of the things. One shouldn't be too much mystified by an occasional failure, because it may be due to continuous rains during the period of pollination and when they are receptive. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: This matter of alternate bearing is one that has plagued the pomologist for a great many years, and one in which we made little progress, with apples for example, until with hormone sprays the trees could be thinned very early in the year. Any thinning done after the fruit was the size of your thumb was too late. However, now that the fruit can be thinned when it is very young, real progress is being made in securing annual bearing on varieties that previously were a serious problem in alternate bearing. The failure to fruit is due to many different factors. Some of these are external such as frost and rain at pollen shedding. There is nothing you can do about these. Other factors are internal and determine the formation of fruit buds. If the tree is carrying an exceptionally heavy crop, the chances are it will not have enough of the material which determines the setting of buds to form buds for the following year. With the apples we can do something about this by thinning the crop at the time it blooms. With walnuts, I don't see how we are going to do it. Fertilization is another approach. Certainly we should make conditions just as favorable as possible for growth and for the development of the buds and by all means control insects and diseases. If you do not have a good leaf surface good crops will not be set the next year. It's a complex problem, but I don't think it is insoluble. DR. MCKAY: Mr. Chairman, in connection with this matter of annual bearing of black walnut trees we believe that in doing all sorts of things you will not influence the yielding of most of our black walnut varieties. The black walnut, _Juglans nigra_ is probably--some of us think, at least--constituted genetically in such a way that the varieties we have do not yield annual crops simply because they are not constituted that way. I know some of you may disagree with me, but one of the greatest arguments for this idea is the fact that in some of our other nut species we do have varieties that are genetically heavy producers. For instance, we have a selection of Chinese chestnuts right now that will bear annual crops on the poorest soil under any conditions imaginable. You can graft scions of that tree on other stocks and plant them anywhere you choose under differing conditions and it will have a heavy set of burs. It may not fill the nuts, it may not attain the size, but genetically speaking, inherently it is a heavy bearer. Perhaps our black walnut species are inherently not annual producers. This is hard to prove, I admit, because the breeding of the species takes so long that we cannot actually demonstrate it. We have felt also that the black walnut species as a whole does not have the characteristics of thin shells and good cracking qualities that we want. For this reason we have begun a program of crossing the black walnut with the English or Persian walnut, in order to get the thin shell that we want from the other species. Perhaps the same thing is true in the question of yield and the species as a whole does not have the characteristic of yielding heavy annual crops. MR. MAGILL: I think we can readily see that we haven't settled this problem but it is time to close the discussion. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The next paper that we have is by H. F. Stoke of Roanoke, Virginia, "Survey on Hickory Varieties." Mr. Stoke is the chairman of our Survey Committee. Last year he brought us very valuable information about walnuts, and this year he is going to talk about the hickories. Mr. Stoke. MR. STOKE: They delegated the job to the Survey Committee to make a hickory survey for this year, using the different state and provincial and national vice-presidents to collect the data. I am going to read this. The 1952 Hickory Survey By the Survey Committee H. F. STOKE, _Chairman_ In compiling this report the pecan has been omitted from the list. As it is the most important member of the hickory group it was felt that the national and state pecan associations are far more competent to compile complete and reliable data on the species than is this organization. The response by our vice-presidents to the questionnaire sent out has been rather disappointing, replies having been received from slightly less than half their number. It is apparent that interest in the hickory is considerably less than in the black walnut, which was surveyed in 1951. Perhaps the most beloved and widely distributed of the hickories is the shagbark, _Carya ovata_. It is reported from Massachusetts on the east to southeastern Minnesota, southward to Texas and eastward to the Carolinas where it mingles with and is sometimes confused with the scalybark. In the opinion of many the superb distinctive flavor of its nuts is not equaled by those of any species. The domain of the Shellbark or Kingnut _C. laciniosa_ lies within the same area but is slightly less extensive. Like the pecan, it is partial to the rich alluvial bottom lands along streams and is seldom found elsewhere. It occurs rarely in Virginia and North Carolina, and there only in the Appalachian area. The Scalybark or southern Shagbark, _C. Carolina septentrionalis_, is reported only by Virginia, West Virginia and the Carolinas. The White Hickory or Mockernut, _C. alba_, covers the South and is reported as far north as Pennsylvania, Ohio and Indiana and, rarely, in Michigan. It is found from the Atlantic coast to east Texas. The widely distributed Bitternut, _C. cordiformis_, covers virtually the same territory as the shagbark. The Sweet Pignut, _C. glabra_, is reported from New Hampshire to Wisconsin and southward to North Carolina. Its south-westward occurrence has not been defined in reports received. In addition to these better-known species, the Water Hickory, _C. aquatica_, is reported from Louisiana, and the Black Hickory, _C. buckleyi_, from Indiana and Texas. In an unusually full report Indiana lists all of sixteen hickory species and sub-species as appearing in The Flora of Indiana, a book by Mr. Charles Deam, former State Forester. The list follows. 1. _C. pecan_ 2. _C. cordiformis_ 3. _C. ovata_ 3a. _C. ovata_, var, _fraxinifolia_ 3b. _C. ovata_, var. _nuttali_ 4. _C. laciniosa_ 5. _C. tomentosa (alba)_ 5a. _C. tomentosa_ var. _subcoriacea_ 6. _C. glabra_ 6a. _C. glabra_ var. _megacarpa_ 7. _C. ovalis_ 7a, b, c. _C. ovalis_ var. _odorata_ 7d. _C. ovalis_ var. _obovalis_ 7e. _C. ovalis_ var. _obcordata_ 8. _C. ovalis_ var. _pallida_ 9. _C. ovalis_ var. _buckleyi_ Doubtless many sub-species and variants are actually hybrids of obscure ancestry. Virginia has many such. There is no reason to doubt that the hickories will grow anywhere ecological conditions approximate those of their native habitat. This is true in the Pacific coast states. Mr. Julio Grandjean, of Hillerod, Denmark, reports that there are several white hickories, _C. alba_ or _C. tomentosa_, growing in the Horsholm Royal Park that were planted about 1790. There is no reason to believe that such northern species as the shellbark and shagbark would not also succeed. He reports winter-killing of pecans from southern sources. Inasmuch as extreme winter temperatures in Denmark are less than in some places where the pecan is grown here, it would appear that the more northern strains should succeed there, though lack of summer heat would prevent the maturing of nuts. There appears to be much less interest in planting hickories on home grounds than the value of the species justifies. Only five states, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania and West Virginia, indicated any local interest. In each case the shagbark was the preferred species. Apparently we must still depend on the much-abused squirrel for the future of the hickory. R. E. Hodgson of the Southeast Experiment Station, Waseca, Minn., reports 15 named varieties of hickory under test, but no evaluation of their worth can be made as yet. Dr. R. T. Dunstan of Greensboro, North Carolina, has also a considerable number of hickory varieties under more advanced test. Results have been highly variable. He finds that Schinnerling has filled poorly; Whitney and Shaul are "Excellent growers and highly satisfactory bearers." Whitney, however, with a kernel of superb quality, cracks poorly and the husk is thick and heavy. Shaul is reported as having a rather thin kernel and cracking poorly, also. Romig, that has been late in coming into bearing, is described as producing a large, handsome nut of good quality that cracks unusually well. Grainger, good in other respects, has borne light crops as also have Glover and Weschcke. Fox is described as superb in every respect except cracking quality. Among the hicans, Burton is declared to be outstanding in vigor and health of tree, and production of good regular crops of delicious nuts that crack well. It is interesting to note that in his extensive hickory experiments Dr. Dunstan is using pecan stocks. He uses the bark-slot method of grafting and hot wax compounded of 10 parts resin, 2 parts beeswax and one part Kieselguhr. Both method and wax he finds highly successful. Dr. Dunstan also reports a Mahan pecan grafted on a white or mockernut hickory stock that produces heavy crops of well-filled nuts. This is an exceptional performance for this variety. Mr. Fayette Etter, of Pennsylvania, supports Dr. Dunstan in the use of pecan stocks for hickories. He states that the young trees grow more rapidly in the nursery, transplant better, and grow faster thereafter than when on hickory stocks. Mr. A. G. Hirschi, of Oklahoma reports that in the hilly "blackjack" country of southeastern Oklahoma the scrub has been cleared away and a 40-acre project of grafting the native hickory (probably white or mockernut) with pecan has been established. The land has been terraced and is cropped with cotton. The results have been so satisfactory that this plot in one year carried off more prizes on pecans than any other entry within the state. Mr. Harald E. Hammar reports from Louisiana that there has been some grafting of pecan on hickory, species not specified. The older trees show a decided overgrowth of the hickory stock by the more vigorous pecan, in some cases the diameter being almost double above the graft of that below. In virtually all cases of topworking hickory on pecan, or vice versa, the bark slot graft has been used. In point of preference of named varieties, Michigan suggests Abscoda, Ohio suggests Stafford, while Pennsylvania recommends Glover, Goheen, Whitney and Weschcke, in that order. In naming the insects and diseases that attack the hickories, Pennsylvania offers the following rather appalling list: Nut curculio Hickory shuckworm Galls Spider mites Twig girdlers Fall web worm Pecan phylloxera Black pecan aphids Flathead apple borer Other unnamed borers Those that know Mr. Etter will understand that this formidable list is due to his excellent powers of observation and his integrity rather than to the likelihood that the state of Pennsylvania is worse plagued with insects than others. Dr. Dunstan lists leaf-spot along with some of those listed above, but adds that none are generally serious. This is corroborated by other reporters. Wild nuts are generally harvested for home use. Commercial marketing, reported by Pennsylvania, Indiana, West Virginia, Virginia and North Carolina, is in all cases local. Usually the nuts are marketed whole, but occasionally home-picked kernels are sold. Good stands of second-growth shagbark hickory are reported in Pennsylvania. Kansas reports limited shellbark and bitternut stands. West Virginia reports considerable stands of young shagbark and pignut, while North Carolina reports small stands of mockernut. The industrial use of hickory reached its height in the horse and buggy days. Nothing equalled its strong, tough wood for the wheels and running gears of horse-drawn vehicles. Old-timers will recall "hoop poles", tall slender young saplings of shagbark hickory that were split and fashioned with the "drawshave" into barrel hoops. The market for hickory still remains, however. It is universally used for hand tool handles, if obtainable. In the mountains of the South hickory "splints" are still woven into imperishable baskets and chair seats. Louisiana insists it is still the only fuel for roasting barbecue and there is, indeed, no finer wood fuel of any species. Those propagating hickory trees for sale and distribution should be given every encouragement. They are contributing a real patriotic service. No tree is more characteristically American. Except for a related species in China, it is found nowhere else in the world. In beauty, utility and durability no tree has greater appeal. Who plants a hickory plants for generations unborn. MR. STOKE: If there are any misstatements, I'd be glad to have them publicly corrected. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Stoke. The comment that you made that there wasn't as much enthusiasm about the hickory as about the black walnut, although true, is not the way I personally feel about it. I have at Ithaca a number of trees of various kinds of nuts, and I think that the enjoyment I get out of the hickories, which we grow, is as great or greater than that from the black walnuts. The Davis hickory is one of the best that matures, the Wilcox--that's an Ohio nut--probably has a bushel and a half of nuts in the shuck this year, and the Kentucky will give a pretty good record. Of about 20 varieties, those are the only ones which amount to anything, and we have a fairly good selection. There was a good deal said about stocks in Mr. Stoke's discussion. We have a short paper here by Gilbert Smith on his experience with stocks, and I have asked Mr. Chase to read it. Mr. Smith began topworking seedling trees on a side hill many years ago and has trees of good size at the present time. MR. CHASE: This is a short discussion of several species of hickory which Mr. Smith has used as stocks to graft named varieties. A Discussion of Hickory Stocks Gilbert L. Smith, _Rt. 2, Millerton, N. Y._ This is a discussion of several species of hickory as stocks on which to graft the named varieties of shagbark, shellbark and hybrid hickories. We have never had any experience grafting pecan as we are too far north for it. This paper is limited to the species with which we have had experience. SWEET PIGNUT, _Carya ovalis_ This species will be discussed first because it is the poorest stock of any of the hickory species which we have used. This is probably because it is a tetraploid while the shagbark, shellbark and hybrids are diploids. We have grafted many of the named varieties of hickory onto pignut stocks, using several thousand scions. We have found only one variety (the Davis shagbark) that will grow on pignut stock. We have heard of one or two others but have never tried them. Nearly all varieties grow well the first season but fail to leaf out the following spring. They appear to winterkill. Davis has continued to grow on it for over fifteen years but growth is slower than on shagbark or bitternut stocks. PIGNUT, _Carya glabra_ I have never been able to positively identify this species of pignut. Pignuts growing here vary considerably in roughness of the bark, some being smooth while others are as rough as the shagbark. In other respects they are essentially the same, all having seven leaflets per leaf. However, I have observed a very few pignut trees having smooth bark and five leaflets per leaf. The leaves are finer and smaller than on the seven leaflet trees. These may be the _glabra_ species, but if so, grafting results have been no better on these than on the seven leaflet trees. As nursery stock the pignuts are worthless. However if one has some nice young pignut trees growing where he wants them, it is feasible to graft them to Davis or some other variety which has proven its ability to grow on pignut stocks. It is not advisable to graft hickory trees growing in dense woods. MOCKERNUT, _Carya alba_ While the mockernut is also a tetraploid, it is a somewhat better stock than the pignuts, in that more of the named varieties will grow on it and as the mockernut is faster growing than the pignut, such grafts will usually grow faster. It is of little value as a nursery stock, but if one has young mockernut trees growing where hickory trees are wanted, they would be somewhat better to graft than would pignut trees. One would at least have a larger selection of varieties and the grafts would grow faster. PECAN, _Carya illinoiensis_ While we have read many favorable reports on the use of the pecan as a stock on which to graft shagbark, shellbark and hybrid hickories, our own experiences with it have not been very favorable. This may be due to the fact that we have used only two varieties of shagbark on pecan-stocks and may have happened to use two varieties that are not well adapted to pecan. Pecan seedlings are much faster growing than are shagbark seedlings and for this reason would be valuable as a nursery stock if satisfactory in other respects. BITTERNUT, _Carya cordiformis_ All of our experiences with bitternut as a stock, both in the nursery and as young trees growing in permanent locations, have been very favorable. We have heard reports of grafts failing on bitternut stocks after a few years growth. All such reports have come from regions considerably farther south than our location. It may be that the bitternut does not thrive as well in the South as it does here. Bitternut seedlings are much faster growing than are shagbark seedlings. This is of considerable value in the nursery. SHAGBARK, _Carya ovata_ The shagbark makes the best stock on which to graft the named varieties of shagbark, shellbark and hybrid hickories. However it has one very serious drawback in that young shagbark seedlings are so very slow growing. It usually takes five or more years to grow a shagbark stock from seed to a size large enough to graft in the nursery row. However, when shagbark stocks are large enough to be grafted, all of the named varieties we have grafted onto it have grown well. SHELLBARK, _Carya laciniosa_ We have never had any experience with shellbark seedlings as stocks, but as it is so similar to the shagbark, I expect that it would make a good stock. The production of grafted hickory trees is a serious problem in the nursery, taking many years to grow the stocks and the grafted trees are difficult to transplant, resulting in a high rate of mortality. However, the grafting of young hickory trees growing in a permanent location is not difficult, and such grafts will grow much faster and bear younger than will grafted hickory trees from a nursery. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: My experience with bitternut stock with only two varieties, the Strever #1 and the Champigne, has not been good. The grafts have been stunted, the stocks have tended to sprout and make vigorous growth, and the fruiting has been sparse. Neither have I had success with the pecan stock with only three varieties. The trees have been very slow coming into bearing and have made rather stubby growth. MR. MCDANIEL: I was about to remark that we have had similar experience at Urbana with bitternut stock with pecan and shagbark varieties. It warps the shagbark and very likely those trees won't live long. We have already lost the Weschke hickory grafted on bitternut. MR. CRAIG: Have you tried hickory on pecan? The pecan is O. K. there. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Tomorrow we are to have a round table on hickory propagation and suggest that further discussion of stocks might be left until then. Has anyone any comments on hickory varieties? MR. KEPLINGER: (North Central Michigan) I was born and raised in Saginaw County where the Saginaw River is fed by five or six different runs and you have prairie farms. More hickories grow there than any place in the United States--enormous size. We think we have better hickories than anyone. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Why couldn't you send some in for testing? Mr. Becker would be glad to take them. Any other discussion on hickory varieties? How many are growing the Wilcox? (5 hands). How many find it a good variety? (Two). How many have Davis? (Three). The shucks are fairly thin, compared with the Wilcox. Who else has a variety that is doing very well? We ought to have a hickory show here sometime and see who has the best hickory. DR. MCKAY: I'd like to ask if anyone has the variety Lingenfelter. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We have it at Ithaca; doesn't mature. DR. McKAY: We have two varieties at Beltsville that are outstanding as far as bearing is concerned. One is Lingenfelter, which has been a consistent bearer for us for a number of years, and the variety Shaul, that was mentioned in Mr. Stokes' report and has been mentioned here before, is a very good producer. MR. MCDANIEL: What species is the Shaul, is it _ovata_ or _laciniosa_? DR. MCKAY: It's _ovata_. It's a shagbark, as also is Lingenfelter. The one characteristic that is outstanding with these two varieties with us is the fact that they bear while they are young trees; from the time our trees were as tall as one's head, they have been full of nuts. MR. MCDANIEL: Have you fruited the Weschke at Beltsville? DR. MCKAY: No. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: How about the Barnes? MR. STOKE: I have been growing it on mockernut or white hickory. It produces moderate crops and is the one that came into bearing about first on mockernut. In fact, I have several varieties on mockernut that haven't borne yet. It's been on there about 12 years. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The Barnes, with us, has yielded more at a younger age than any other variety, but it never filled. It began early and bore heavy crops, but the season is not long enough or hot enough. MR. STOKE: In Virginia they fill well, but they are not easily extracted. The shell is rather thin and fills well. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I don't want to prolong this discussion longer than seems profitable. DR. MCKAY: Did I understand you to mention the variety Schinnerling? MR. GERARDI: I have got that at home. That's one that's bearing, but if it's that variety I have there, I wouldn't give it yard room. DR. MCKAY: It is also one of our best. We have three, the Shaul, the Lingenfelter that I mentioned, and the third one is Schinnerling, all three of which are extremely heavy bearers and the three hickory varieties that we are interested in. MR. GERARDI: How big is that Schinnerling? DR. MCKAY: It's an average-sized nut. MR, GERARDI: Big as your thumb? DR. MCKAY: Oh, yes, about an inch long, I'd say. MR. BECKER: I was wondering about the Stratford. That's not supposed to be a pure shagbark, but it's the only one we've got, I think, that bears. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I have the Stratford. It grows very well, but it doesn't quite fill. What does it do with you? MR. SNYDER: It's not been doing well the last year or two. Of course, none of them have for that matter. Used to bear tremendous crops and filled well. I wouldn't say it's the best quality of any tree, but it's easy to graft and bears young. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: That's been my experience, that it was a young bearer and bears fairly consistently. If there is no other discussion, on the hickories, we will close that discussion. We stand adjourned until this evening at 7:20. Adjournment at 4:30 o'clock, p.m. MONDAY EVENING SESSION Called to order at 7:20 p.m. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We will call on Dr. McKay as chairman of the Nominating Committee to present the slate of officers for the next year. Dr. McKay. DR. MCKAY: Mr. Chairman, the Nominating Committee, as you know, is charged with the responsibility of selecting a slate of officers that will be presented to the meeting. The committee, composed of myself as chairman, Mr. Allaman, Mr. Silvis, Mr. Ford Wilkinson and Mr. Gerardi, have the following slate of officers for next year: For president, Mr. R. B. Best; for vice-president, Mr. George Salzer of Rochester; for secretary, Mr. Spencer Chase; for treasurer, Mr. Carl Prell. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: You have heard the report of the Nominating Committee. At this time we will entertain further nominations from the floor, if any. The only action to be taken now is to accept the report of the Nominating Committee. Do I hear such a motion? The motion to accept the report was moved, seconded and carried. Going on with the program of the evening, are you ready to show the film? MR. MCDANIEL: The film comes to us from the Northwest Nut Growers now located in Portland, Oregon. They are an organization for marketing filberts, and you will see, "The Filbert Valleys", the title. I haven't seen it myself and don't know exactly what the contents are. We will look at it now and judge for ourselves. The film, "The Filbert Valleys", was shown. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We appreciate very much your running it. The next item will be our discussion of filbert varieties and their culture. Mildred Jones, who was to be here, could not come. She telephoned the last minute that she was ill and could not be with us. I have asked George Slate to be the moderator in the discussion, with his panel, D. C. Snyder, Raymond Silvis, A. M. Whitford, Louis Gerardi and H. F. Stoke. MR. SLATE: I just learned when I arrived here that I was to be on this discussion group, and I learned a few minutes ago that I was to lead it, so I can assure you that this is wholly unrehearsed, and I may have to flounder around a bit before we get things running smoothly. I thought I might review the variety situation rather briefly. We have done quite a lot of variety testing of filberts at Geneva; in fact, about the only nut cultural work we have done at Geneva has been the filbert project. We started out with about 25 or 30 varieties that we secured from American nurseries, many of them from a firm in Rochester which imported them from Germany. Later we added varieties from England, France and Germany. I picked up nearly all the varieties that I could locate until we had about 120 varieties growing there at Geneva. These were there for some years, and it became evident that many of them were not of great value. Then we had a hard winter in 1933 and 1934, and although it did not kill the trees, most of them were blackhearted and began going back soon after that. However, I felt at that time that I knew enough about the varieties to discard most of them. Many of them were discarded because they had poor nuts, many of them were unproductive, and many of them lacked hardiness of catkins. I laid a great deal of emphasis on the hardiness of catkins in testing the varieties. Out of that variety test were three varieties which we considered to be most satisfactory of the lot. These were Cosford, an English variety, rather a small nut but very thin-shelled. The catkins were hardy and one of the heavier croppers of the lot. Medium Long, a nut which I believe originated as a seedling in Rochester, was another one, and Italian Red, which later proved to be Gustav's Zellernuss, a German variety, was another. As a result of that variety test it became evident that varieties from Germany, many of which originated in the colder portions of Germany and Northern Germany, were distinctly more hardy than the varieties that we got from French sources and English sources. In some of the proceedings of the Association published during the '30's I have reported on the different varieties and their hardiness and those varieties that I thought were most valuable. I don't recall the names of many of those German varieties. These three varieties which we consider the best of the lot were turned over to the New York Fruit Testing Association to propagate and distribute, because they were not available from American nurseries. I am not sure how many of them were available from other sources, but they are still available from the Fruit Testing Association. Then out of that variety test a grading project developed. We got our start from about 500 seedlings that Clarence Reed sent us in the early '30's. We made crosses there at Geneva, using the Rush variety of _Corylus americana_ as the seed parent in many cases. We also made some crosses between _Corylus avellana_ varieties, and with these seedlings from Mr. Reed and seedlings of our own crossing, we have grown about 2,000 filbert seedlings there at Geneva. These have all been evaluated and discarded, except possibly 30 or 35 selections still on hand, some of them being propagated for a second test planting. Stock of one or two has been turned over to the Fruit Testing Association for increase and eventual naming and introduction. The work of the United States Department of Agriculture was along similar lines. Mr. Reed did not send us all of his seedlings. A number of them were fruited at Beltsville, and from that work at Beltsville I believe two varieties have been named, Reed and Potomac. I am not sure whether they are available yet from commercial sources. MR. MCDANIEL: Two of them are. MR. SLATE: Mr. Graham of Ithaca, a long-time member of this Association and very much interested in filberts, had also made some crosses and raised several hundred seedlings. He used the Winkler variety as a seed parent. I believe he raised some seedlings of the Jones hybrids, which would make that material second generation stock from the original cross between Rush and the _avellana_ varieties. Mr. Graham's planting was in rather a cold area; he had considerable winter killing. Eventually filbert blight got into his planting, and it really cleaned house. There were a very few seedlings in his planting which remained free of filbert blight. I think it is a fairly safe guess to say that they were probably very resistant to blight. So far these have not been propagated to any extent. There are a few cultural problems. The ones that we have encountered at Geneva have been winter injury, particularly of the catkins, and also some of them have not been as hardy in wood as we would like. We have had no trouble with filbert blight, presumably because we are isolated from the wild hazel, which harbors this blight. Dr. MacDaniels has had trouble with his planting at Ithaca with filbert mite. With this introduction, which is mostly varieties and breeding, because that seems to be my interest, I'd like to call on some members of the panel to get their experiences. Mr. Snyder raises nut trees in Iowa where winter injury is probably much more serious than we have at Geneva. At Geneva we have a fairly respectable climate and can get a crop of peaches about nine years out of ten. In Iowa they have a lot more sunshine, and I think probably sharper drops of temperature than we have at Geneva. I'd like to have Mr. Snyder tell us what his experiences have been with filbert varieties. MR. SNYDER: I really didn't know that I was to be on this panel until I got here. I thought I was on the hickory panel. As Mr. Slate says, our climate is more severe that that at Geneva. We can get the very hardiest peaches to bear about two years out of three, and the trees are severely injured in between. So that will give you a little idea as to the climate in that respect. We made quite a planting at one time, maybe 30 of the Jones hybrids, and they did quite well for several years, and then between the winter-killing and the blight most of them are dead now. The Winkler, of course, is an Iowa nut and was introduced by our people and did very well for a number of years but has backed out on us the last several years, too, I believe due to this same mite trouble that Dr. MacDaniels reports in New York. They just don't bear. The bushes are quite healthy, and we get plenty of catkins, but we don't get any nuts to amount to anything. We have a little bush of the Mandchurian hazel. It isn't worth mentioning as a nut producer, but it does have very attractive foliage and seems to be entirely healthy, produces perhaps three to five nuts a year on a bush as high as your head. You may be familiar with it. The foliage is very distinct from anything I know. The leaves are truncate at the end, cut off quite square, with just a little point in the middle. MR. SLATE: I don't have that. MR. SNYDER: That is standing our conditions all right, and several years ago Mr. Reed sent us what he said at the time were Chinese tree hazels, but later he retracted and said that they were not Chinese tree hazels but they were hybrids of the Chinese tree hazel. There were four of those plants; one of them was a tremendous grower. It would grow six feet or more a year and commence bearing in a year or two. But the blight hit it and cleaned it out. There is only one left now, one of the slower-growing ones, and while it promises to become a tree, it is a very irregular-growing one. I think it had half a dozen nuts on this year. The Turkish tree hazel, of which I have two trees, were very badly damaged by a very severe hailstorm 12 or 15 years ago, which completely peeled off the bark on one side. That was in early July, and we were afraid to cut them off and let them grow up new for fear it would kill them. They have finally developed into quite beautiful upright trees. Also they have more than one stem from the bottom. One of them produces a great abundance of catkins, but neither of them has produced any nuts yet, and they are 14 feet high or more, good-sized trees and very attractive. The foliage is very beautiful, and it remains healthy. I don't know that there are any other varieties that I can name. MR. SLATE: We have had several of the Turkish tree hazels, _Corylus colurna_, growing at Geneva for two or three years. They came from the Rochester State Park. We have one tree which Mr. Bixby imported from China, as _Corylus chinensis_, but recently I had it checked by Dr. Lawrence of the Bailey Hortorium and he assured me that it was _Corylus colurna_. I think these make a very handsome tree. I like that rough, corky bark they have as they get older. The trees in Highland Park at Rochester are the largest, perhaps, in the country, certainly the largest that I know anything about. They are at least as large as a very large apple tree. They have been fruiting for some years. The trees at Geneva have not fruited very much. I don't think you can expect much in the way of nuts until the tree is about 15 years old. This year one of our trees has a number of nuts on it. The nuts are too small and too thick-shelled to be of any great value for nuts. Now, Mr. Whitford, you have had some experience with the filbert varieties. Which one would you recommend? MR. WHITFORD: I haven't had a whole lot of experience with the filberts, but we had some of the old varieties, like Barcelona and DuChilly, and they didn't bear many nuts, and eventually they went out with blight. And we have some of the Potomac and Reed, about five years old, and they don't bear well as yet. I don't know what the outcome is going to be on the Potomac and Reed. They make a nice ornamental bush, anyway, and that's about the sum and substance of my experience with filberts. MR. SLATE: The Barcelona and DuChilly at Geneva have not been very satisfactory. During the first two years Barcelona outyielded the other varieties, but as the trees became older they experienced winter injury. DuChilly or Kentish Cob makes a small tree, but the nut is about the best of the nuts. There is a German variety not in circulation in this country, Langsdorfer, which is much like DuChilly, but it seems to make a much better tree. I think if they were put into circulation it might be a good substitute here in the East for DuChilly variety. Let's hear from you, Mr. Gerardi. I know you are testing filbert varieties now. MR. GERARDI: Yes, I have DuChilly and Kentish Cob. So far, at our place we have no blight or mite damage to speak of. The original plantings were the Bixby and Buchanan. We have them yet, and they are still as healthy as the day we put them out. They show no damage; even the Winkler hazel has had no damage or disease. It may be the soil, although we have them on high ground and low ground both. Among the newer ones this year the Reed has the most on. The Potomac, though it is the strongest grower of the two, has less nuts. Although it appeared to me that the catkins were all killed in February of this year, still we have some nuts. The Jones hybrids, when the catkins are killed, have very few, if any nuts. Some years we have a crop, if some of the catkins are held back and bloom late. Winter killing in February before they have had a chance to pollinate, has been our main trouble. If we could get a variety that this wouldn't bother, we'd have what we are looking for. MR. MCDANIEL: The Winkler will bloom for you almost every year. Doesn't the Winkler hold its catkins most years? MR. GERARDI: Yes, sir, I'd say at our place the Winkler has never failed entirely. Even though the catkins are killed, they still bear quite regularly. MR. MCDANIEL: I can say that for it at Urbana. MR. WHITFORD: The catkins might have been killed, but you might have had some cross-pollination from other sources. MR. GERARDI: There is a chance of that, of course. There is a wild hazel within a quarter of a mile, but apparently the wild hazel bloomed first. They were on a south slope and naturally came out first. I tried to keep them on the north slope, or on the cool side of any particular planting, because if you can hold them back more, you have got a better chance. If you plant them on the south side, you rarely get anything. MR. SLATE: The hybrids bloom later than the _avellana_ varieties, and they mature nuts later. Is that your experience? MR. GERARDI: That's true, I will admit your hybrids are a little later blooming, because your American hazel nuts around our place bloom very early, sometimes in January in full bloom. MR. SLATE: _C. avellana_ starts blooming in March and blooms for about a month. Some years when you have had considerable open weather, they have bloomed as early as the middle of February. They will, of course, stand considerable freezing when they are in bloom. As regards the pollination, I believe about all the information we have is the work that was done at the Oregon Experiment Station a number of years ago. All of the varieties tried were self-unfruitful or self-incompatible. The term, "self-sterile" is often used, but I think it is a little more exact to say self-unfruitful or self-incompatible. They are not sterile, because the pistillate flowers are normal and so is the pollen produced by the staminate flowers. It's just a question of inability of the pollen to fertilize the pistillate flowers on the same variety. We know nothing about the pollination requirements of any of these _Corylus avellana_ or _Corylus americana_ hybrids. We do know that when the cross is made that the _Corylus americana_ variety must be the seed-parent. The cross doesn't work the other way around. That's about all we know about the cross-pollination of these filberts. MR. SAWYER: We have had them to bloom in April or the first week in May. MR. SLATE: The seedlings? MR. SAWYER: The seedlings. MR. SLATE: What is the origin of the seedlings? MR. SAWYER: They are the natives. MR. SLATE: The native _C. rostrata_, or _C. cornuta_ to some botanists, it seems to me has nothing that we want in the way of a nut, if we can possibly grow these other varieties, the _americana_ selections or the hybrids. It's a miserable little nut with that long, prickly husk. It's very difficult to get the nut out of it. For that reason, I have never been very much interested in it. MR. SAWYER: How is the Ryan? MR. MCDANIEL: Mr. Gellatly out in British Columbia has named several hybrids between _avellana_ and the _Corylus cornuta_. Have you seen it? MR. SLATE: No, I haven't seen it. MR. MCDANIEL: They described them in their catalog. MR. COLBY: I have preference for the Winkler hazel, as you know. I bought and put them in the greenhouse several years ago and shook the pollen on the pistils and got a full set. So I felt that was self-fruitful. MR. SLATE: That was pretty good evidence, then, that it was self-fruitful. Now, Mr. Silvis, you raise nut trees, and the climate is somewhat like that in Western New York, perhaps a little milder in the winter. What have you to say about the filbert varieties? MR. SILVIS: It's Warmer, and in spite of all the statistics of previous gentlemen, I find that _avellana_ types which I had growing in my back yard three years ago produced pollen on January the 25th. It was unseasonably warm. It was 70 degrees, and most of the pollen was dispersed. And this year I found the wild hazel pollen much later than the early types, due to the different situation. The wild ones which I had seen were growing in semi shade under tall trees, and my bushes and plants are growing in the back yard south of our house. And I think I have the largest planting in the State of Ohio, about two dozen plants, and I am in production. Besides numerous seedlings, I have the following varieties: Italian Red, Cosford, Medium Long, DuChilly. They are in bearing. Italian Red and DuChilly planted together, I believe, are good for one another for the production of nice filbert nuts. I have, from scion wood you sent me several years ago, Cosford, and now on their own roots Neue Riesenuss, and what I thought the tag said, not "Langsdorfer," but Langsberger. MR. SLATE: There is a Langsdorfer, and I think there is another variety which Langsberg is part of the name. I am not sure, I will have to look that up. MR. SILVIS: Well, I have it as Langsberger. I have shown last evening the picture of Harry L. Pierce's orchard at Willamette in Oregon, or in Salem, Oregon. I have one of his trees with staminate blooms only, no pistillate blooms. But I also have what Fayette Etter in Pennsylvania calls his Royal, and I just cannot get two fellows together with paper and pencil to determine whether those two Royals are the same, but I am hoping to find out whether the two Royals are identical. I had Fayette Etter find me scion wood, and now I have it growing as a graft and layered on its own roots. I think you people do yourselves an injustice by not learning to graft and learning to work with the filbert. You only have to have three compatible plants. If you have more, you will have more nuts. I see no reason why anyone who owns a city lot cannot grow filberts. They are much easier to take care of, and you are not going to prejudice the plant by having it associate with its wild cousin, and I think you will find a lot of enjoyment in the filbert bush. MR. SLATE: What variety do you think is best? What two or three would you plant? MR. SILVIS: For eating I like DuChilly, and the catkin is hardy with me, and I am between the 40th and 41st parallel. I'd say anyone who lives from Iowa to the East Coast within one hundred miles north or south of the 40th parallel should have the same luck that I have. And as to a group planting, I would suggest, as you recommended to me when we first started out the Medium Long, Cosford and Italian Red. If you want only two bushes, Italian Red and DuChilly will work well together. MR. MCDANIEL: Do you have Medium Long? MR. SILVIS: Yes, I do. MR. MCDANIEL: Is that doing well? MR. SILVIS: I don't think it fruits as well as Cosford or DuChilly. That's been my experience. My DuChilly was plastered with nuts last year and this year, and I believe it's due to the Italian Red which New York Fruit Testing Laboratory sold me. MR. SLATE: Thank you. MR. WHITFORD: Do you fertilize those bushes? MR. SILVIS: Due to the fact I have started to mulch with sawdust I have been using nitrate and rock phosphate, so my teeth don't fall out when I chew them. MR. SLATE: I crack mine with a hand cracker, I don't crack them with my teeth. DR. COLBY: Mr. Chairman, we can grow filberts. How does the chairman keep the squirrels from eating them? MR. STOKE: I will tell you that. MR. SLATE: Mr. Stoke raises his nut trees in the Sunny South, and he has problems down there that we don't have up north. I think he has to worry a lot more about winter killing than we do way up north where we are in Central New York. What's been your experience with some of the varieties and what are your principal cultural problems with the filberts? MR. STOKE: I wish to answer Dr. Colby's query about squirrels. I find that squirrels are very highly allergic to these BB caps or the CP caps used in a 22 rifle. It works. In my back yard there is a Brixnut filbert, which originated in Oregon. I guess it's been there 15 years. There are four trunks to it, the largest about 16 inches in diameter. One of those I grafted to Giant, as a pollinizer for Brixnut. It's similar in shape, somewhat smaller in spite of its name, but it's pretty effective. Then about ten years ago there was an old gentleman from Halsey, Oregon. I don't know whether any of you have corresponded with him or not. He bought the Breslau Persian walnut--I pretty nearly said the English walnut, and I'd have been disgraced--and furnished me scions and I got a start of it from him. Russ sent me some scions from a filbert he called Jumbo. You will see it out on the table there. It's rather a long nut, little larger than DuChilly and not quite so flat, that I grafted in there. It absolutely is hopeless as a pollinizer for anything, because it loses its staminate blossoms by Christmas. But the Hall's Giant pollinizes them, and it's the best filbert I have, all things considered. This year off that one scion--of course, it's four inches in diameter--I got about 7 quarts of nuts, and they began ripening at least three weeks ago, and the crop is all off now. And the foliage is unusually heavy, almost in clusters, and it drops cleanly and freely from the husks, and I think it is a very nice filbert. Whether it's a recognized variety in the West I have no idea, and I haven't corresponded with the old gentleman for some years, and he probably has passed on by this time, because he was an elderly man and not in good health at the time I had my correspondence with him. I consider that an excellent filbert, and I think anyone wishing to plant filberts should investigate with the Oregon nurseries or Washington nurseries and see if that is a recognized variety. I tried to find out once and failed so far. I do not have it on its own roots. I hope that I will have it rooted in another year. In my back yard also I have one that I bought in Oregon. That's as tall as up to that beam, maybe almost to the ceiling, very vigorous growth, larger nut than Longfellow, thicker nuts and also longer. But I think the thing he sold me was a graft and the graft died and this came from the root. It bears very sparingly, but it's a very large nut, and I wondered why it was always so spare, and I caught it blooming in December, staminate blossoms in December this year. So that's that. Ten miles east of my home, east of the Blue Ridge Mountains in the granitic, very heavy clay soil of what we call the Piedmont down there, I have a planting that was made 15 years ago of filberts, some on their own roots and some that I grew on the Turkish tree hazel stocks. Those grew well, and the main advantage was they put up no suckers. You had a nice clean trunk, and you didn't have that problem of getting rid of the sprouts all the time. And it looked very good for a while. I find where you graft that way, the stocks get old and do not renew themselves, and eventually the life will be shorter than if you had a shrub that might last for a century, when you are renewing your stalks when they reach maturity and cease to grow enough to be productive. Two years ago I had most of the standard varieties you mentioned here in that planting, about three-quarters or perhaps an acre planted in between chestnut trees. Planted the chestnut trees 40 feet apart and then interplanted with the filberts at 20 feet. Two years ago we had an unusually wet season, and the blight, of which I had had some before, hit hard and virtually ruined the whole planting. And in addition to that, we have leaf miner. It's an insect that lays a tiny egg in the leaf and develops a little larva or worm that eats out the chlorophyll between the two membranes of the leaf, just hollows it out and makes unsightly spots in there and, of course, kills that portion of the leaf. But the blight, known as the eastern filbert blight, according to Mr. Gravatt, has just ruined that planting. Some of the trees have been killed outright, and most of the tops are either dead or dying. This year the blight wasn't apparently active on the living part, because it was very dry up until the first of August, and since then it's been very wet. That's what happened to my filberts there. Now, in that same location I have some younger, second-generation or third-generation plantings that I grew from scions from the Jones hybrids and so far those have not been attacked by the blight and not much by the leaf miner. I used them to replace some of the others that had died several years ago, so they are right in there together. About the best I have of those are also on exhibit out there and marked as the Jones Hybrid. At the same time I put out some seedling Colurna or the Turkish tree hazel in that same plot. They were attacked somewhat but not badly by the blight. Today you'd never know they had any blight. They look healthy, and as has already been said, they make a beautiful tree. And if you want an avenue of trees on a drive that don't spread too wide and run up like Lombardi poplar, they'll beat Lombardi poplar all to pieces. And if you crowd them a little, they will grow up like a spire and retain their branches, so you really have a tree. There was one in the J. F. Jones yard at Lancaster that I think was at least 14 inches in trunk diameter 20 years ago when I saw it. Do you know whether that is still there at the Jones place, that Turkish tree hazel, Mrs. Weber? MRS. WEBER: Where is it located? MR. STOKE: It's right near the house, it seems to me between the house and the side near the barn. DR. MCKAY: Mr. Stoke, that tree is gone. We were there last fall. MR. STOKE: But it was a very nice tree, and for shade it's very nice. The Manchurian hazel has been spoken of, and I might mention that, because I have dabbled in everything, I guess. I got seed from the University of Nanking along with some other things, and those seedlings were quite variable. The nuts compared rather favorably with the American hazel. Some were thick-shelled, but they will average almost as good as the American hazel, and they bore quite freely for me until I let the bushes get right thick. They will send out suckers and make a very spreading growth. If you dig them out and leave a piece of root in the ground, it will come up just like sassafras or persimmon will on that piece of root. But it is an attractive bush, and mine has a reddish-brown little spot in the middle of the leaf in most cases. It seems to be characteristic of that strain that I have. The nuts were quite variable and, as I say, they bore right well until I let them get too thick. I believe that's all. MR. SLATE: I neglected to answer your question, Dr. Colby, but the squirrels have not been much of a problem with our filberts at Geneva, strange as it may seem. They have never taken a very high percentage of the crop. We have a Lancaster heartnut, and they clean up every nut on that tree every year before the end of August. I'd like to comment on this matter of the name of Halle's Giant, I think you called it. I think the name is Halle, the German town where the variety originated. I prefer the name Halle, because calling it Hall's Giant is more or less a sign its origin is a man named Hall. MR. STOKE: In some catalogs it is one way and some the other. MR. SLATE: We have other items on the program tonight, and as the Latin student said, "Tempus is fugiting very fast," so I think we had better turn the meeting back to Dr. MacDaniels. PRESIDENT MACDANIELS: The next two talks have slides to be shown, and it is suggested that you take about ten minutes, take a stretch and then come back when the slide projector is set up. My Experiences With Chinese Chestnuts W. J. WILSON, _Fort Valley, Ga._ When I was asked to appear on this program to tell my experiences as a grower of chestnuts, I felt like a child, appearing before a group of grown-ups to tell them how to make marriage succeed. When I see the sages of chestnut knowledge seated before me I realize that I can only relate my experiences and ask your advice. My father was a pioneer peach and pecan grower; he loved trees and has told me time after time that if I ever made more than just a living, farming, it would have to come from trees, not row crops. He was what I would call a self-educated man. He had small chance of formal education, being the sickly son, one of eight sons and three daughters, of a couple who eked out an existence on the poor, unproductive, sandy, soils of Crawford County, Georgia, growing the one and only cash crop of those days, cotton. The combined wages of these boys often amounted to more cash money than their own cotton crop returned because the supplier got most of the money from their own crop. They helped neighbors pick out their cotton crops after finishing their own. Grandfather must have liked to experiment in his limited way. Each spring as Grandfather would plant his small patch of Spanish peanuts and yellow corn, Grandmother would tongue-lash him, saying, 'so long as you fool away your time with Spanish peanuts and yellow corn you will remain a poor man. Time has proven Grandfather right and Grandmother wrong. Spanish peanuts is a huge industry; most of our hybrid corns, which have added millions of bushels to our yields are yellow. My father wasted his time back at the turn of the century planting a peach orchard on his best cotton land. He planted pecans each winter, beginning about 1912, often to the ribbing of friends who still worshipped at the feet of King Cotton. One told him that he had a pecan tree or two about his home and the damn flying squirrels ate all of the nuts. Another told him that if he wanted a load of stove wood he would just as soon cut down a pecan tree as any other kind. At his death in 1942, my father had planted six hundred acres of pecan orchards, each acre having been interplanted with peaches, to produce income while the pecans were reaching bearing age. I give you this background so that you may better understand my attitude toward chestnut growing. The scale on which I have set out on chestnut growing I know to some of you will seem rather bold or foolhardy. About ten years ago I found that the U. S. D. A. Pecan Experiment Station at Albany, Georgia had a small chestnut orchard. Max Hardy, was doing the chestnut work and was so much interested in them that I caught fire and have been burning ever since. When I found that the harvest came between the peach harvest and the pecan harvest it fitted right into my kind of farming. The fact, that it was a possible tree crop made chestnut growing still more attractive to me. Max suggested that I join the N. N. G. A. when I complained that I couldn't find much information on chestnuts. I attended my first convention at Norris. I have tried to make most of them since that time. Of all the discussions at the Norris meeting, the one that stuck in my mind was whether nurseries should recommend seedlings or grafted trees. I thought then, and still think, that for commercial production one must have varieties, because seedlings are so variable. I believe, that when, chestnut growing comes of age, the major part of the production will go through processing plants. It will be a great advantage to have nuts of uniform quality and size, which is and will be impossible with seedlings. Of the fifteen trees that I planted in 1946, only one fruited in 1951. It bore only 3-1/4 pounds of nuts. The other fourteen did not fruit. This year there are a few scattering burs at seven years of age, on those that I did not graft this spring. I am now too old to wait seven or eight years for a chestnut tree to begin bearing. These trees came from a Virginia nursery. The trees I planted in 1947, I started grafting in 1950, to Nanking, Meiling, and Kuling, and finished this spring, except for a few replants. I also grafted ten trees in 1950 to Abundance. These tops bore the second year, several bearing good burs the same year the scions were set. These grafted trees are anxious to go to work, because they bloom in the spring and again in late July and early August. I have used the in-lay bark, modified cleft, the cleft, and what I call a saddle graft, bevelling two sides of the stock and splitting the scion, thus slipping the split scion down over the prepared stock. I have had equally good take on all types of grafts used. In 1948 I planted two hundred seedlings bought from Max Hardy, grown from seed from the Experiment Station orchard. I believe the production record of this orchard has been given to this convention at previous meetings. You will recall that the off-type trees were rogued, leaving the parent trees of Nanking, Kuling and Meiling and others of good bearing habits. In 1951 four trees out of this lot, were outstanding in precocity. The earliest started dropping nuts the fifteenth of August and bore 7-1/4 pounds. The next matured September 5th and produced 8-1/2 pounds. The third tree is unusual. I noticed it the 4th of October. The ground was covered with nuts, but only an occasional bur. All of the burs were wide open and still on the tree. The crop weighed 6-1/2 pounds. The fourth tree I found on the 5th of October with all of its nuts on the ground, the tree retaining the burs. The yield of this tree was 4-1/2 pounds. Mind you, this was the fourth summer after planting. These trees have repeated this year with another good heavy crop. The other trees in this block bore from none to one or two pounds of nuts in 1951. This year less than ten trees in the block are not bearing. Next spring these ten will be growing new tops, because their present tops are not satisfactory. I noticed that one tree in this block bloomed long after the rest this spring, several weeks in fact. It might have possibilities in northern areas because of its late blooming. Of the eleven hundred trees planted in 1950, one bore nuts in 1951. I didn't know it until this spring, when I was pruning the trees in this block, and found nuts on the ground under this tree. It is bearing a good crop this year for its size and age. There are a number of these trees bearing this year. Dr. Crane in a hurried inspection of these trees this summer thought those trees bearing were offspring of a certain tree in the Philema orchard. I do not give my chestnut trees special care. They are fertilized and cultivated the same as young peach orchards. We try to bring in a peach orchard the third summer, with enough fruit to make it worth spraying. I see no reason to wait seven or eight years to get a chestnut orchard into bearing. If you will keep down competition from weeds, cultivate frequently, and give the tree plenty of nitrogen you will be surprised at the growth it will make. I set the trees twenty-four feet each way, with the idea of thinning later when they begin to crowd. In this way I will get higher acre yields in the early years. When they reach maturity I will have them thinned down to forty-eight feet each way. As they reach heavy bearing the rate of growth will slow down and I will adjust the nitrogen to keep them from becoming too vegetative. So far the only insects that have bothered me are caterpillars that ordinarily feed on wild maypops, or passion flowers. These caterpillars will defoliate a tree. The only tree that I have lost from winter-killing was one defoliated by the caterpillars early last fall. It may become necessary for me to spray for these worms if they become too plentiful. I do not come before you as an authority on chestnut growing. I feel that to force myself to do my best I should plant enough trees to make me find out how to handle them. In the rush and bustle of peach and pecan growing if I had only a few chestnut trees I might decide that not much was involved, and neglect the chestnuts. I know that with two thousand trees already planted and some of them bearing I am going to make a great effort to make the project profitable. I have decided that chestnut growing has possibilities as a tree crop in my section, and is worth my time and effort. I know there are many problems ahead, but so did my father when he planted peaches and pecans many years ago. I am still meeting new problems with them each year. Problems go hand in hand with the fruit and nut business. It is the fellow who is willing to try to work them out who has a chance to profit. If I wait until all the problems are solved I will never grow chestnuts. The day that I decide that I know all the answers about growing peaches, pecans or chestnuts, is the day I start going broke. I have been badly bent several times while I was struggling to find an answer. Each year starts full of hope, with visions of a nice fat bank balance when the jobs are all done. Then the problems start and if I can lick enough of them, I come through with the right to see if I can't do a still better job next year, despite the risks of too much rain, not enough rain, hail, insects and diseases. I have found that each year from 15 to 50 million pounds of chestnuts are imported from Europe. The same blight that destroyed our native chestnuts, is going full tilt in Italy and other European countries. If the blight runs its course as it did in this country, it will not be many years until we will not have chestnuts from Europe. I am going to grow some to fill this gap. In 1950 Dr. McKay sent me eight trees, four Meiling, two Nanking, two Kuling. Two Meiling and two Nanking to be planted together, two Meiling and two Kuling together. Each combination to be isolated so that the nuts produced would be of known crosses. These trees bloomed this spring and two of them set a few burs. Next year I hope to turn over to Dr. McKay nuts from these trees to be planted, and grown to fruiting age. I now have about one hundred and sixty grafted trees. I intend to fruit my seedlings with the hope that among them I will find trees superior enough to be given variety status. I will then top-work the rest to varieties. At present I intend to plant more trees each winter until I have at least one hundred acres of orchards. If and when the weevil moves in I will have the equipment on hand to spray, using the same equipment on peaches or pecans. I would like to see this Association ask that more research on chestnut production be done by the U. S. D. A. It will not be done until we ask for it. The men in the department are not in position to do much asking for additional funds. It is the responsibility of groups like the N. N. G. A. and the Southeastern Chestnut Grower's Association. We are in need of more breeding and selection of new, and better adapted varieties. We need processing research, marketing research, and research in the field of production. We are not going to get it done until we insist on it good and strong. This spring, at Fort Valley, Georgia, the Southeastern Chestnut Grower's Association was formed. We hold our convention in March and will be glad to have everyone interested in chestnut growing, marketing, processing or research, attend our convention. I think in time this organization will want to become affiliated with the N. N. G. A., to the mutual benefit of both. I will be glad to have any of you visit my orchards and show me how to grow chestnuts, I am constantly searching for information. PRESIDENT MACDANIELS: We thank Mr. Wilson very much for his talk, and we think it does take a lot of courage to embark on an experiment of that kind. In view of the lateness of the hour, unless somebody objects, we will adjourn until tomorrow morning at 8:30. At 9:40 o'clock, p.m., the meeting adjourned. TUESDAY MORNING SESSION (Called to order at 8:30 o'clock, a.m., President L. H. MacDaniels presiding.) Persian Walnuts in the Upper South H. F. STOKE, _Roanoke, Va._ My experience with the Persian walnut has been acquired in the Roanoke district of south-west Virginia. It is located 300 miles from the Atlantic seaboard and my trees are at an approximate elevation of eleven hundred feet. Roanoke is on the same parallel as Springfield, Missouri, and about thirty miles south of Rockport, Indiana. This experience covers a period of more than twenty years with named varieties and seedlings of the species. I shall here attempt to present some findings that may be of some value to others similarly located. For the sake of brevity I shall put the cart before the horse, the findings before the facts from which they are derived. For the upper south and, in my opinion, for the middle west, late vegetating and blossoming is of prime importance for success with the Persian walnut. No matter how vigorous, prolific and precocious the tree may be, nor how fine the nuts, the variety is worthless for anything except shade if the crop is destroyed by normal spring frosts. In the second place is winter hardiness. This is of two kinds; resistance to extreme cold, and resistance to the wooing of warm winter days that starts premature activity, followed by a destructive freeze. My experience with the Payne variety is a case in point. Having read some place of the vigor, precocity and heavy bearing of the new variety, then called the Payne Seedling, I secured some scions of it from its originator and worked it on a young black walnut. The variety was already making a name for itself in Northern California and Oregon, not only because of its bearing habits but for the superb quality of its nuts. During the first few years it did well despite its early starting in the spring, and bore heavy crops; then disaster fell. One spring the tree failed to leaf out at the usual time. On examination I found that it had winter-killed back to five-year wood. The winter had been unusually cold, and the tree could not take it. Pruned back, the belated new growth did not fully mature before winter so in turn was damaged, a phenomenon that recurred from year to year. Exit Payne as a Virginia prospect. An example of the other type of winter injury was that of my first Crath Carpathian. I secured scions of this variety from Rev. P. C. Crath in 1929. The parent tree had been growing and bearing in the vicinity of Toronto and was apparently fully hardy. The scions grew vigorously on the young black walnut stock on which it was worked, and completed their longitudinal growth early in July, giving ample time for the ripening of the wood before winter. After several years I noticed the bark on the south side of the trunks dead from so-called sun-scald. Activity had been induced by the warmth of the winter sun, followed by freezing. After some years the wood was killed back to limbs the thickness of one's wrist, and this has been again repeated. The tree was hardy in Ontario, but not in Virginia. The nut of this variety, which to me is the Crath, is much superior to the average Carpathian, and I think might be well worth while in the north-east and along the Great Lakes, but not in the upper South nor the Mid-West. Besides their winter weaknesses, both the Payne and Crath start too early in the spring for my conditions. Broadview and Lancaster both blossom here in mid-season and, since both have a rather long period of producing pistillate blossoms, they seldom fail to produce a crop when properly pollenized. Franquette and Mayette, both highly recommended as being late vegetating and producing excellent nuts, have offered me some difficulties of another order. With Franquette the chief trouble has been to get a suitable pollenizer. Like the Mayette, its pistillate blossoms appear ten days or more after the staminate blossoms and self-pollination is not effected. I tried King, recommended as a pollenizer, but it was too early to be reliably effective. When Franquette is properly pollenized it, with Payne, is one of the heaviest bearers. Mayette in Virginia produces a fine, healthy, vigorous tree, but it refuses to produce pistillate blossoms. A dozen nuts is an average crop for a tree that should produce a bushel. It, like Franquette, demands a late pollenizer, but the pistillate blossoms are simply not there. Neither of these two late varieties have ever suffered winter injury with me, nor have been damaged by spring frosts. I will not attempt to go into detail regarding all the varieties and seedlings that I have tried through the years; Eureka, that ranks with Mayette and Franquette for lateness, but refuses to bear, apparently for want of pollination; Chambers that was recommended along with King for pollenizing the late bloomers but not fully successful; Breslau, with its huge nuts but slow growth, in addition to an assortment of Carpathian seedlings. Of the latter my Caesar is one of the more promising with its vigorous growth, large thin-shelled nuts and ability to pollenize itself in some seasons. Gilbert Becker has reported it passing through Michigan winters unhurt. As matters now stand, I believe Bedford, Caesar and Lancaster have proven the most satisfactory varieties to date under my conditions, although some seedlings I have grown appear even more promising. Chief of these are several that I grew from open-pollenized nuts of the Lancaster, which I am here exhibiting. You will note that the one I designate as L-2 is an extremely large nut, considerably larger than its seed parent which it somewhat resembles. L-8 is of somewhat similar type, but smaller. L-3 and L-6, on the other hand, are of entirely different type. Much smaller, they are smooth, thin-shelled and well filled, with kernels running 50% by weight and of high quality. They resemble their seed parent, Lancaster, not at all but in type are much nearer Bedford, their probable pollen parent. Another one of these seedlings, L-7, resembles Caesar, its probable pollen parent, far more than it does its seed parent. Some years ago I hand-pollenized several blossoms of Broadview, using pollen from my original Crath. One of the seedlings from these hand-pollenized nuts resembles Crath much more than Broadview, the seed parent. I have it here as C x B 2. Aside from the apparent profound influence of the pollen parent on the offspring, there is the unexplained fact at that with the exception of L-8, all these seedlings are later vegetating than the seed parents and any of the suspect pollen parents. Of the Lancaster seedlings L-2, L-3 and L-6 are fully as late as Franquette and Mayette, blooming well after the first of May. Inasmuch as there were no Persians producing pollen anywhere near that time I can only believe that these nuts were pollenized by the black walnut on which they were top-worked. I intend to plant some of these nuts, and expect to produce hybrids. This brings up the enticing subject of breeding Persian walnuts adapted to one's own conditions. I have no suggestions to offer scientists, but offer the following for the benefit of amateurs like myself. If your grounds are cluttered up with varieties, as are mine, ingratiate yourself to some friend who has an isolated young black walnut tree by volunteering to convert it to the production of Persian walnuts. Select two varieties whose characteristics you desire to blend and that will pollenize each other, and grow seedlings from the resulting nuts. You can check results in as little as four years by taking buds from the seedlings at two years and placing then on black walnut. Creative work, this. You will get the thrill of your life--if you are that kind of a person--and may produce something well worth while. Persian walnuts are self-pollenizing if pistillate and staminate blossoms occur at the same time, but such usually is not the case. Crath, Breslau, Caesar and King produce their pistillate blossoms some days before their staminate blossoms shed their pollen, while Payne, Lancaster, Broadview, Franquette and Mayette produce their blossoms in reverse order. Of all those I have tested only Bedford can be depended to produce both types of bloom simultaneously and certainly and fully pollenize itself. It is enlightening to keep a record of the blossoming time of each variety relative to others, but dates should all be recorded for the same year. Warm, early spring induces early blooming; late, cool weather delays blossoming. By my records, Payne pistillates were receptive May 3 in 1935, April 28 in 1937 and March 31, in 1945, a variation of over a month. All varieties vary with the season, but the variation is greatest with the early varieties. There has been little disease among my Persian walnuts except that in wet seasons leaves and nut shucks are sometimes attacked by a fungous blight. In the city there has been no insect injury worthy of note. In the country, adjacent to wooded areas, insect injury is sometimes serious. Pests include spittle bugs, stink bugs and other insects that attack young leaves and tender growth. These check the leaders and cause late multiple growths that may fail to mature and hence winterkill. In such locations the butternut curculio also attacks and destroys the young nuts. Avoid wooded areas if choosing a site for a Persian walnut orchard. The most destructive pest with which I have had to contend has been the large black-bird or purple grackle. Oddly enough they are much worse in the city than in the country. As soon as the young are grown, about the middle of June, they appear in flocks and attack the nuts of the Persian walnut. At first, before the shell has hardened, they penetrate the nut apparently for the nectar which is the substance of the immature kernel. When the shell can no longer be penetrated they continue to eat away the husk, which is equally fatal to the nut. This continues until late in July, when the squirrels take over. Fortunately squirrels are highly allergic to a bullet from a 22 rifle. In pointing out some of the hazards encountered in growing Persian walnuts in the East the writer has not intended to be discouraging but helpful. Persian walnuts of good quality can be grown in this section; full understanding of the factors involved make it possible, I believe, to grow them successfully on a commercial scale. Varieties of Persian Walnuts in Eastern Iowa Ira B. Kyhl, _Sabula, Iowa_ There are a great many varieties of Persian walnuts, many of which originated in the region of the Carpathian mountains and other parts of Europe and a few varieties in the United States and Canada. I believe that some varieties now grown in the United States and Canada which originated in Europe may have come from the same tree as they appear to have the same shape, thickness of shell and flavor. I have as many as four varieties that are identical. The Persian walnut has always been my favorite nut. I started with 2 or 3 varieties and now have 35 or 40 varieties and 200 trees most of which are doing well. Some are superior in hardiness and vigor. In eastern Iowa at 42 degrees N. latitude minimum winter temperatures vary from 25 to 32 degrees below zero. Usually the minimum is 12 to 15 degrees below zero, but last winter it was 25 degrees below zero for several days. Only the hardier varieties will endure -25 degrees without injury, but -12 to -15 does not injure any variety very much. Schafer is my favorite variety and it was not injured at -25 degrees. I have several of these trees, some from seeds, some top-worked on black walnut and the others grafted trees from a nursery. It grafts easily, grows rapidly and bears a fine nut. A top-worked tree of Colby withstood -25 degrees without injury and is one of the most vigorous trees I have. Fifteen seedlings from Crath Mayette and Crath Franquette seeds from the late G. H. Corsan, of Toronto, Canada, are developing into very fine trees, but are not yet bearing. One of the first varieties planted, Broadview, grew rapidly and produced nuts after two mild winters, but the several trees of this variety killed to the ground after the -25 degrees of last winter. Crath No. 1, Crath No. 39, and Breslau grew well until last winter when they were killed. Three Breslau seedlings did not winterkill. Rumanian Giant, the first tree I grafted, killed back somewhat, but is recovering. This variety produces the largest nut I have seen and it fills well. Top-worked trees of other varieties that were not injured last winter are Crath No. 5, Crath No. 12, SG No. 5, Crath No. 29, Graham and Crath Special. Seedlings in the nursery row that stood severe temperature are Carpathian D, NWF Nos. 1 and 3, FB O and FB OO, Fort Custer, Hansen, Jacobs and others. MR. STOKE: Does the black walnut bloom at the same time that the Persian walnut blooms? DR. MCKAY: It bloomed near the end of the receptive period. MR. STOKE: That first experiment of yours was trying to pollinize the black walnut with the Persian, but the reciprocal cross may be quite different, as Jones proved with the filberts. DR. McKAY: That could be. We have no large amount of data on the reciprocal cross. These cases where it is said that the black walnut pollinates the Persian regularly and is producing good crops of nuts, I would consider doubtful until I see the seedlings, their growth and characteristics. Yesterday Mr. Bolten asked the question whether or not some walnuts that have large nuts could possibly be tetraploid or polyploid. A number of years ago I examined the chromosomes of one of these large fruited varieties, and it had the same chromosome number as the others, namely sixteen pairs or thirty two. The whole question of chromosome number in nut varieties and species is as follows. So far as we know, all of the species have a constant number within the genus except the hickories where we have tetraploid species and diploid species. All of the species of _Castanea_, as far as we know, have the same chromosome number, and all of the varieties within each species have the same number. In the Oaks, which are related to chestnuts, we have an extremely large genus in which there is a great constancy of number. The pines, and all other cone-bearing trees make up another very large group in which chromosome numbers are constant. Exactly the opposite situation is found in the related family of alders and willows where the chromosome number is very variable. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Unless there is some special question or comment on this subject, we will go on to the next item. MR. LEMKE: There was a panel discussion about four years ago, and they were talking about what nuts to grow, and one of the men said, "Before you offer a man a good nut, give him a good nut cracker." That's been on my mind for some time. Commercial Production and Processing of Black and Persian Walnuts EDWIN W. LEMKE, _Washington, Mich._ Sometime ago a group of nut minded men associated with Spencer B. Chase announced their findings on the quality of the wild black walnut growing in the area of Norris, Tenn. Nuts were gathered from 151 wild walnut trees. After judging, the group came to the conclusion that only one tree had a flavor that was considered by their standards as good. It is these good nuts that caused the formation of the N.N.G.A. When we speak of the good nut it gives the word commercial an entirely different meaning. It by necessity excludes most of wild black walnut kernels processed by the large cracking plants of Kentucky and Tennessee. The large crackers are willing to pay better prices for the improved black walnut but were they to rely on this source of supply they could not stay in business very long. To produce and process, I chose the Thomas and Ohio variety and I have met with some success. The black walnut can be made to bear in the first and second year after grafting but this is but a novelty feature. Jones from whom I purchased my trees, told me that the black walnut could be classed with the Northern Spy Apple for coming into bearing. This has proven true. Commercial production of the improved black walnut is by its very nature small scale production. Because of this fact only small scale machines to process these nuts are feasible. Since 1916 I have had time to reflect on the problem of the three basic machines needed. These are the huller, cracker and kernel picker. Fortunately for me I learned the machinist trade and had a machine shop at my disposal. I tried every way to hull the black walnut and finally accepted the commercial potato peeler as the best principle. I built several crackers and at last accepted the Wiley cracker as the best commercial cracker. The third machine is the picker which has yet to be assembled. This picker is copied after The Kenneth Dick machine with some variations in the separation process. Let me briefly explain these three basic machines. As the nuts are gathered in the orchard they are brought to the huller in bushel crates. The huller is located in a separate room. This room has the floor depressed to catch the removed hulls that are flushed outdoors with the aid of running water. The cylinder of this huller is 30 inches in diameter and 14 inches high. It is made of 3/16ths boiler plate. Three inches from the bottom of the cylinder is a revolving disc smaller than the inside of the cylinder. The disc being small enough it allows a 5/8th opening around the inside of the cylinder. It is this opening that permits the hulls to drop to the floor. The nuts are held captive because there is no opening in the cylinder for them to leave until the discharge door is opened on the side of the cylinder. The cover of the cylinder has a 10 inch feed hole into which the nuts are fed. A 10 inch furnace pipe elbow runs from the hole to the serving trough into which the nuts are poured. A 10 inch pusher is used to shove the nuts into the huller and serves to keep the feed hole closed while the nuts tumble around. The disc runs at 250 RPM which is the proper speed to do a good job. While the nuts tumble around a stream of water is used to wash the hulls free from the nuts and force the removed hulls to the floor below. The disc is supported by a 1-3/8 inch diameter shaft that runs through the disc and is held central as it revolves in a flange containing a 3/4 ball bearing that fits into the end of the concave in the shaft. Up four feet from the disc is a link self aligning bearing that allows the shaft and disc to turn like a gyroscopic top. The shaft's pulley has 'V' belts connected to a 3/4 h.p. motor. I have hulled up to 40 bushels of clean nuts in 8 hours. The nuts after hulling are placed on drying trays indoors where temperatures are better controlled. The principal of this huller is that it separates the hull by centrifugal force. The hull drops down through the opening between cylinder and disc while the nuts riding on disc are discharged at right angles to the fall of hull. The machine is a separator. The next basic machine is the cracker. This cracker is the Wylie cracker in principle and is made in Eugene, Oregon. Simply explained it could be likened to two pages in a book. One page is perpendicular while the other page is off the perpendicular about 7 degrees. The first page which is the anvil is fixed save for adjustments for nuts of varying size. The other page or hammer riding up and down through an inch and one quarter of travel is fixed to a crank below. Both of these pages or plates are heavy cast iron plates that are fluted and cause the nut to be cracked against these saw toothed flutes and while being cracked are revolved down through the plates. The plate moving at an angle forces the nut finally through a 3/8 inch opening where they fall into a rotary sieve. The sieve has three sizes of mesh. 5 mesh, 2 mesh and 3/4 mesh. The larger pieces go on through and are returned to the cracker. This cracker will crack up to 500 pounds per hour, and uses a 3/4 h.p. motor. The last of the three basic machines is the picker. I have not yet built the picker but a number of the parts have already been machined and before long it will be a reality. The Kenneth Dick, picker, of Peebles, Ohio is the best for small orchards. It is essentially a separator using a conveyor belt which carries the cracked nuts to needles that pick up the kernels and deposit them on trays that at the timed moment accept the black walnut kernels. The discarded shells remain on conveyor and travel to the end and fall into a receptacle. After this process, further inspection becomes necessary but up to the present it is the best we have. The black walnut is a messy nut to fool with but with the proper machines it soon becomes a pleasure to work with it. I can work all day hulling nuts and finish with clean unstained hands. Processing the Persian walnut is a simple matter as compared with the black walnut. My Persian nuts are gathered and placed on drying trays. Most of the nuts fall free from hull and the stick tights are discarded as inferior. N.N.G.A. members need but write to the agricultural colleges in California, Oregon and Washington and a list of publications will be sent. One of the latest machines being offered is one that picks the nut from the orchard floor with a speed with which no human can compete. It has not only removed the back ache but the human back as well. The Persian walnut industry in the Pacific Coast states is big business. There is only one organization that can and does disseminate the necessary knowledge and experience that will give the northern grown nut its proper place in the American diet. That is the Northern Nut Grower's Assn. You newer members have become heirs to knowledge based on the experiences of others which represents not only blood, sweat and tears but a lot of good hearty belly laughs. When one becomes nut conscious there is no turning back. It gives life a new approach and a finer meaning. Black Walnut Processing at Henderson, Kentucky R. C. MANGELSDORF, _St. Louis, Mo._ MR. MANGELSDORF: Mr. Walker and Mr. McDonald are unable to be here today, and I don't know if I can fill their shoes or not, because I am not in the purchasing or processing end of the black walnut business. We started this black walnut shelling operation a season ago at Henderson, Kentucky, with the idea of processing the nuts there and transporting the kernels to St. Louis for final processing and marketing. At Henderson, Kentucky we are located outside the city limit, and we have no fire protection, and as a result, the insurance rates on our building, storage sheds, and black walnuts in storage have been so high that we are looking around for possible plant location sites where we can reduce that expense of operation. Another factor in our operation there is the transportation of raw material to our cracking site. If we have to transport black walnuts, which give an approximate 10 per cent yield, any distance, the freight adds materially to the cost per pound of the finished material. That is, if we have to pay 10 cents per hundred additional freight cost in transporting them from outlying districts to the cracking plant, that adds a cent a pound to the cost of the finished kernels. All such factors, have to be given weighty consideration, because our business is primarily concerned with making money for the stockholders. If we don't make money for the stockholders, they are not interested in seeing us continue the operation. Mr. Walker and Mr. McDonald at the present time are out on a crop inspection trip and also making surveys of locations and availability of buildings or sites that might be more advantageous than the one at Henderson, Kentucky. It may be that we will continue the operation there, making modifications in the building, which will result in lower insurance rates. At the present time, with the new crop coming on, we are in a chaotic state of affairs, because we just don't know exactly what's the best path to follow in our operation at Henderson, Kentucky. Are there any questions? DR. MCKAY: Will you tell us something about how you handle the nuts in your plant, how they are hulled and cracked, and so forth? MR. MANGELSDORF: It's a similar operation to what Mr. Lemke described. The nuts are brought in in burlap bags by the farmers and growers and are put in storage in cribs. The plant at Henderson, Kentucky, was a popcorn processing plant, with a large crib under roof where the nuts are stored. After the moisture content is reduced somewhat, they pass through a tumbling drum to remove any of the extraneous hulls and other dirt that might be adhering. After the nuts are completely freed of all this extraneous matter, they are passed through a series of cracking rollers with screens. The nuts are cracked, by passing between two rollers like a wringer then passed over a shaker screen, the free nut meats passing through the screen. The large material that comes off of the screen is then passed between more closely spaced cracking rollers and then further sifted and screened. Then the various materials that have passed through the screens are run through a Smalley picker. This is nothing more than metal pins on a series of fingers rotating on a roller that presses against a sponge rubber roller. The nut meats adhere to the prongs or points. The shells, not being penetrated by the points of the pins, are not picked up. Then there is a comb that picks off the adhering kernels from the picker prongs. That's the principle of most of the shelling operations of the black walnuts. I don't believe any major changes have been made in the processing of black walnuts in the last ten years. DR. COLBY: How do you remove the hulls? MR. MANGELSDORF: We try to buy only hulled walnuts, the farmer and the grower removing the hulls in a tumbler and selling to us only the dehulled walnuts. The kernels are packed in cartons and shipped to St. Louis for final picking of remaining shells and off-colored nut meats and graded for color, size and quality. After this grading separation is made, they are either packed in our 4-ounce vacuum-packed tins or 30-pound bulk cartons which are then sold through the trade. MR. WALLICK: What percentage of kernels do you get? MR. MANGELSDORF: I think our operation at Henderson, Kentucky this past season for all of the nuts that were grown and gathered in this locality was about 9.48 per cent yield of black walnut kernels by weight. MR. WHITFORD: Do you get any improved varieties, such as Thomas, Stabler or Ohio? MR. MANGELSDORF: No. With most of the nuts that we gather in our marketing operation very little attention is paid to variety or source. We don't try to differentiate and store them separately, but everything is processed as it is brought together. MR. MCDANIEL: Do you have any indication that you get a better quality nut from one county or one area than you do from another? MR. MANGELSDORF: That is a question that I can't answer, because I am in the research and development end of the business, and have very little to do with the purchasing and marketing of the nuts themselves. MR. LEMKE: What do you do when you strike a day that is very humid and the nuts start getting moldy? MR. MANGELSDORF: That is a bugaboo. I always say you don't have to be nuts to be in the nut business, but it sure helps a little bit. All the nuts that I have ever had any dealing with seem to be very susceptible to mold growth. If the moisture content of the nuts is above a critical level, mold growth takes place in the shell at a very fast rate. The only thing we can do in a case like that is to get the kernels in to St. Louis and destroy the mold growth or spores on the surface before it can grow so that the fungous mycelium is visible to the eye. The black walnut and pecan, if you examine them under the microscope, all seem to have mold growth on the surface of the kernels. I am inclined to believe that the nut kernel is not completely sterile in the shell and that through some manner or means the mold spores have been introduced onto the kernel, because immediately after shelling examination of these nuts under a microscope, will show some fungous mycelium on the surface of the kernels. DR. MCKAY: One comment is that the pellicle of a black walnut or a pecan, is very hygroscopic. It tends to absorb moisture readily, whereas the kernel itself, being high in oil, does not take up water readily. That, apparently, is why there may be evidences of mold growth on the kernel though it may not be actually penetrating. It is only superficial, growing on the pellicle of the kernel, not on the kernel itself. MR. MANGELSDORF: Right. DR. MCKAY: Black walnut kernels are outstanding in their resistance to heat and will get rancid very slowly under conditions of high heat--not humidity. For example, we had some nuts in our attic for two summers in a place where it gets very hot, yet dry. Those nuts are in very good eating condition today. I don't know about pecans. MR. MANGELSDORF: That's very true of black walnuts. Pecans have to be carried throughout the season in our cracking operations under refrigeration, but the black walnuts we can store out in any shed with tin roof. The temperature gets very hot, and it seems to have no effect whatever on the edibility or rancidity of the nut kernel. MR. STOKE: You spoke of storing the whole nuts in large bins. There you may have an extreme amount of mold, too, if the nuts are damp. MR. MANGELSDORF: We try to have storage conditions such that air has free passage through the bulk of nuts. The mold and the yeast are there and when they start to grow, their metabolism throws off quite a large amount of heat. As a result the molding process is speeded up like a chain reaction, and before long the nuts will be worthless for shelling. MR. MANGELSDORF: We had nuts until just a few weeks ago from our last season's gatherings. That's almost a whole year. MR. SALZER: Can you tell me if the farmer is paid by the weight of the nuts, or does he receive his pay after the kernels are shelled out? Does he receive more money if it contains a higher percent of kernels? MR. MANGELSDORF: He receives his pay on the basis of the whole nut that he delivers to the plant, and we try to exercise some control over the quality of the delivery. Samples are taken and cracked, and if most of the nuts are rotten or the quality is very low, we may reject buying that entire lot, or we may discount the lot of nuts a certain amount, depending upon the percentage of the nut meats that are salvaged. MR. MURPHY: Do you pay a premium for cultivated nuts? MR. MANGELSDORF: That I can't answer, but I don't believe that they have this past season. I wouldn't want to go on record as to that. There is a tremendous difference in the flavor of what we call the "eastern" black walnut in comparison with the California or western black walnut. We think that the flavor of the California walnut is not at all comparable to the eastern black walnut. MR. MCDANIEL: You don't notice any difference, do you, between the Missouri and the Kentucky nuts? MR. MANGELSDORF: No, not in my experience, but there is a tremendous difference in flavor between the eastern and western. MR. ROHRBACHER: On what basis do you buy black walnuts? MR. MANGELSDORF: I understand that each individual sale is an individual "horse-trading" deal, the price paid, depending upon the quality of nuts, moisture content, color and other factors. Of course, our aim is to buy the nuts as cheaply as possible and the object of the fellow selling the nuts is to get the greatest return that he can from what he has to offer. So we try to reach a happy medium in our dealings, and a lot of concessions might be made one way or the other with special lots that are offered for sale. MR. WHITFORD: What sizes and grades of kernels do you have? MR. MANGELSDORF: We have the large, medium, small and granules. Granules are very small pieces. Usually the prices paid for the nuts are not determined, actually, until the crop starts to move. Everybody has an idea what the market price will be for the nuts, but nothing is crystallized or brought to a focus until the first nuts are actually on the market. Then the nuts sold are examined as to quality, giving some idea of the future quality of deliveries that might be made in that section, and then prices can be established. As I say, it's a nutty business. I haven't grown very many gray hairs yet, but I expect to have many before I am through. And each new problem that arises in this nut business, when you reach a solution for it, invariably there are two other problems that are created, and if you are not wide awake, one of these problems can be much greater than the one that you just had a solution for. MR. DAVIDSON: Do you know anything as to the bearing of black walnuts this year as compared to previous years? MR. MANGELSDORF: Mr. Walker and Mr. McDonald are out at the present time making a crop inspection tour of the various localities, and I have had no report as to what the condition of the crop will be this year. MR. WHITFORD: Which grades bring the highest prices? MR. MANGELSDORF: The large particles of kernel demand a premium over the smaller sizes. That is one of the discrepancies in the shelling operation, that the material that costs us the least money to produce gives the largest returns. When you have small pieces, the operation of removing the last remaining shells and off-colored particles is much greater than with the large kernels. One large kernel amounts to considerable weight and you may have to pick up many small particles to represent the same weight. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We appreciate very much your talk, Mr. Mangelsdorf. One thing that interested me was your statement that having large pieces was an advantage. That question has been argued on the floor of these conventions a number of times and there have been those who claimed that the larger pieces were all ground up anyway and that the varieties from which you can recover large pieces were of no particular merit commercially. The next paper is, "Nut Shells--Asset or Liability?", T. S. Clark of the United States Department of Agriculture, Regional Laboratory, Peoria, Illinois. Nut Shells--Assets or Liabilities T. S. CLARK, _Northern Regional Research Laboratory_,[1] _Peoria, Illinois_ ABSTRACT. The value of nut shells as materials for agricultural and industrial use is discussed. Problems of plant location, shell collection, processing, and hazards are considered. Applications and specifications are illustrated. We are particularly pleased that the Northern Nut Growers Association is presenting this opportunity for a discussion of nut shell utilization. The Northern Regional Research Laboratory feels that it has played an important role in what is now becoming a new industry of increasing magnitude. For the benefit of those who are not already acquainted with the Laboratory, permit me to digress momentarily to explain briefly its organization and functions. The Northern Regional Laboratory at Peoria, Illinois, is one of four large research laboratories established by an act of Congress in 1938 and placed under the administration of the Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry. The function of these laboratories is to conduct research and to develop new chemical and technical uses as well as new and expanded markets for the farm commodities and byproducts of the regions in which the laboratories are located. The commodities studied at the Northern Regional Research Laboratory are the oilseeds, cereal grains and agricultural residues which include corncobs, stalks, straws, sugar cane bagasse, hulls and shells of nuts and fruit pits. Because of the great similarity in chemical and physical characteristics of the residues all research on these materials is conducted at the Northern Laboratory. During the time that the Northern Laboratory has been actively investigating shell materials and other agricultural residues we have been in direct communication with operators of shell grinding plants; some of these have been visited. We have received numerous letters and calls for information and assistance in solving grinding problems, or in using the ground products. Through these contacts and our experiences we have learned much about the factors that lead to success or failure in this utilization. Ten plants are now producing a variety of ground shell products useful in both agriculture and industry. When the Northern Laboratory was organized, only one plant, established originally by the California Walnut Growers Association, was grinding nut shells. This plant, following a number of operational difficulties and administrative changes, now processes 40 tons or more of shells per day and produces a wide variety of ground products including exceedingly fine flours for use in plastics and plywood adhesives. It has been said that this plant processes all of the English walnut and apricot pit shells and 80 percent of the peach pit shells available in California. The Laboratory has attempted to determine the amount of shells and pits available commercially in different areas. Data of this nature has been obtained for the larger cracking plants but there are many small operations for which we lack this information. "Agricultural Statistics" compiled and published annually by the U. S. Department of Agriculture provide an excellent source of information regarding production and, in many cases, the disposition of farm commodities. For example, the production of pecans in 1951, presented by states, totaled more than 73,000 tons for the 10 states reported. However, no data were available regarding marketings in-shell, or the quantities remaining on the farms or in the orchards. Thus, the quantity of pecan shells actually available for processing can be determined only through surveys of cracking plants. Only limited information is available concerning black walnut shells and this has been obtained through the cooperation of shellers or crackers. In some areas fruit pits, such as apricot and peach pits, accumulate at canneries or freezing plants. Similarity in character of the pit shells to those of the nuts permits their use in plants grinding nut shells. Thus, the supply of raw material in any area may be augmented by inclusion of fruit pit shells. Collection of nut shells for grinding operations is a relatively simple procedure, particularly where grinding is done at a cracking plant. Where shells must be collected over large areas both rail and truck transportation are used. If fruit pits are considered, provisions should be made for removal of residual flesh or pulp before the pits leave the canneries. In the cases where the pits have been cut during processing of the fruits, the released kernels should be removed before shipping the shells. Pit kernels are valuable for their oil content. Shell Use During World War II The production and maintenance schedules set up during World War II resulted in the development and expansion of uses for ground shell materials. Fine flours from walnut shells were needed as extenders in plywood adhesives. Soft grits from various shells were used by the Army Air Forces in the air-blast method for cleaning airplane engines and parts. Grits were required for deburring metal stampings and flash-removal from molded plastics. These uses have expanded considerably to meet civilian needs since the war. Grinding Nut Shells and Fruit Pits As uses for ground shell products were developed the Laboratory sought advice of grinding equipment manufacturers for information on the design and construction of suitable grinding plants. Only limited tests had been made and data were not readily available in any published form. Consequently the Laboratory undertook an extensive study on grinding nut shells and fruit pits as part of its research on agricultural residues. These studies were not limited to grinding only, but included methods of separation and classification based on physical characteristics of the raw materials; the relation of associated mechanical operations; a consideration of the hazards; the problems of labor, management, and merchandising. A number of fires have occurred in plants grinding nut shells, corncobs, stock feeds, and similar materials. In most cases the causes of fire have been other than the grinding operation. From a consideration of the causes of fires a number of safety precautions have been developed. Good plant housekeeping is paramount. This is essential, not only because of influence of dust and dirt on the maintenance of motors and equipment, but because of the highly explosive nature of shell dusts. The U. S. Bureau of Mines has cooperated closely with the Northern Laboratory in evaluating the explosive hazards of the shell dusts. Many of the present operators of shelling-grinding plants have benefited from the information and assistance available from this Laboratory. The cooperation of equipment manufacturers has aided considerably in extending the scope of the Laboratory's studies. The Northern Laboratory has published bulletin AIC-336, "Dry Grinding Agricultural Residues, A New Industrial Enterprise" that summarizes the research conducted to date. This is the first time that such data on engineering and design has been assembled and published to cover this field. Copies of the bulletin may be obtained by addressing requests to the Northern Regional Research Laboratory, Peoria, Illinois. Plants designed to produce at least 1-1/2 tons per hour of ground shell products will cost upwards of $60,000. A well-engineered plant of such size will require three to five men per shift. Among other factors, the working capacity of a grinding plant depends upon the quantity of shells available and the ability of the organization to merchandize its products. The plant should be located in an area in which at least 5,000 tons of nut shells or fruit pits are annually available at low transportation costs. Uses of Shell Products The more important uses for nut shell products, together with their specifications for particle size, are shown in Table 1. Table 1.--Uses for ground nut shells and fruit pits +------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ | Applications | Size | | | | | Deburring, cleaning, burnishing and polishing | | | in metal stamping, electroplating and | No. 10 to No. 50 | | plastics industries | | | Soft-grit blasting | No. 10 to No. 30 | | Fillers for plastics and plywood adhesives | Finer than No. 100 | | Insecticide diluents and carriers | Finer than No. 140 | | Explosives | No. 10 to No. 100 | | Fur cleaning | No. 10 to No. 100 | | Poultry litter and mulch (almond and peanut) | 1/4 to 3/4 inch | | Fillers for fertilizers (almond and peanut) | Finer than No. 20 | +------------------------------------------------+--------------------+ Experience shows that no matter how nut shells or fruit pit shells are ground both under- and oversize particles will be produced. The hard, friable character of most of the nut shells makes their reduction to fine size particles less difficult than for tough materials, such as corncobs, or fibrous materials such as woods. Shells from almonds because of their bulk and very fibrous nature are somewhat less convenient to handle than other shells. Good business practice shows that sales outlets should be found for each fraction so that grinding expenses can be kept at a minimum. Because there are some differences in physical characteristics of nut shells and fruit pits all shell products do not necessarily meet the same specifications, nor have the same uses. Industrial Cleaning and Finishing Oil, dirt, corrosion products, stain, paint, grease and the like can be removed from metal surfaces by air-blasting with soft grits prepared from shells of walnuts, pecans, peach pits, and similar residues. This method was developed originally for the Navy to use grits from corn-cobs for cleaning aircraft engines and parts. The method is inexpensive and foolproof because surfaces are cleaned without change of dimensions. No pitting or abrasion, such as produced by sand blasting, occurs. The method is particularly useful with mild steel, nonferrous metals, alloys, and parts that must be maintained at close tolerances. Modifications of the blast method are used in finishing molded plastics, metal die-castings, and machined parts. One manufacturer of precision instruments states that his company saves $100,000 a year in finishing parts with shell grits. Many stamped metal articles and molded plastics are deburred, cleaned, burnished, and polished by tumbling in drums containing shell grits. Various grades of grits are required depending upon the nature of the pieces being finished. Fillers for Plastics and Plywood Glues The Laboratory has studied the use of shell flours for use in plastics and plywood glues. Many of these flours are now in regular commercial use. Flours for these applications are prepared in various grades, all finer than 100-mesh. Use of these flours not only improves the properties of the final products but also reduces the cost of the products. Molded plastics prepared with fine flour from English walnut shells have exceptionally fine surface finish. Insecticide Carriers The insecticide field provides a good outlet for shell flours. Flour from walnut shells was the first of this type of material to be used for this purpose. Often the active ingredient in a finished insecticide is present in quantities of less than 1 percent. Custom grinders should plan to recover the flour as a co-product of their operations rather than attempting to grind to flour alone. Explosives Large amounts of shell grits and meal are used as diluents in the manufacture of dynamite. Material for this use ranges in size from No. 10 to No. 100, the requirements of the individual manufacturers falling within much narrower limits as to size. Fur Cleaning Furriers have found that various ground shell products are very effective agents for cleaning furs. Size requirements for this purpose are broad, the limits being dependent upon the cleaning equipment maintained by the furrier. The natural oils present in some shell products are considered advantageous for this application. Sundry Applications Stock bedding, poultry litters, fillers in feeds and fertilizers, mulches, charcoal, tannin and abrasives in hand soaps are some of the other products that are prepared from nut shells. The shell products cannot be used interchangeably but must be selected in accordance with their chemical and physical properties. I hope that the foregoing brief discussion has conveyed to you the potential value that lies in the piles of shells accumulating at the cracking plants, and that these accumulations can be converted from expensive wastes to profitable products. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: One of the laboratories of the Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry, Agricultural Research Administration, United States Department of Agriculture.] The Propagation of the Hickories (Panel Discussion led by F. L. O'Rourke, East Lansing, Mich.) MR. O'ROURKE: I hope that we can have a rather stimulating session on hickory propagation this morning. Last year we had a session which was supposed to take in propagation of all nut tree species. However, we never got away from Chinese chestnuts. It was Chinese chestnuts from the start to the finish. The Program Committee this time thought that we should limit it to one group, and they chose the hickories. I have compiled a review of all the literature pertaining to the hickories and passed it out yesterday afternoon. I hope that some of you have had a chance to read it and will have some questions to ask us this morning. In order to really have some help, I am going to call upon Mr. Louis Gerardi of Illinois, Mr. Ferguson of Iowa, Mr. Max Hardy of Georgia, Mr. Ward of Indiana, and Mr. Wilkinson also of Indiana and Mr. Bernath of Poughkeepsie, New York. The subject matter of the panel will be limited to the propagation of hickories, which includes the pecan. Who has some questions that they'd like to bring up? MR. SALZER: Which varieties will grow on fairly wet soil? MR. O'ROURKE: That is a question pertaining to culture, rather than propagation, but we can still allow it. Which varieties--I presume you mean species, is that correct?--will grow on fairly wet soil? I think Mr. Ward has a little bit of black soil in that good, old state of Indiana. MR. SALZER: I mean soil that doesn't dry well in the spring. I have one spot that's too wet for chestnuts. MR. WARD: I wouldn't put any hickory nuts on it. You are going to find it is going to be very difficult for if the soil is the least bit heavy or wet, the hickory nut does not do well at all. In the Wabash bottoms there is a lot of this black soil that is overflowed every year, and some of the finest hickory nuts and some of the finest pecans that you can find in the country are there. Sometimes I have seen water marks on those hickory trees several feet from the ground in the spring of the year and sometimes in the summer, yet they come through with a good crop of nuts. Underneath it is a strata of gravel so that the soil drains out in a hurry. MR. SALZER: This has subsoil drainage. MR. WARD: The soil around Rochester is very heavy like what we call slashland type of soil here in Indiana, and where this occurs we find that the hickory nut does very, very poorly. I wouldn't advise putting them on such soils. The black walnut will grow a lot better in places like that. MR. GERARDI: In Illinois we have that deep, black soil and we just call it plain gumbo. It's all filled-in soil, and I never have reached the bottom. It's at least 20 feet thick. And these swamp hickories--I think Reed was the one that called them swamp hickories--thrive there. They can be two months under water six foot deep, and still bear wonderful crops. You can get a wagon load of them in that mucky soil. MR. CALDWELL: The hickory in New York State which will stand the most moist conditions is the bitternut hickory, and with that root stock you may be able to get some of the others through. The shagbark will withstand considerable moisture if it has deep soil. The bitternut does well on shallow soil or the soil that is made shallow by high water. MR. O'ROURKE: The bitternut, then, will survive wet conditions. This is of interest as far as root stocks are concerned. I am wondering if anyone would like to report on the ability of the pecan to take wet soil conditions. MR. WILKINSON: They will turn out all right if they have dry feet during the summer months, but they will not stand wet feet all summer. MR. O'ROURKE: Will the bitternut do better, or would the mockernut? MR. WILKINSON: I am not well enough versed on that to say. But the pecan, I have seen them stand under water for weeks at a time two or three times during the winter, water 20 feet deep and not affect them at all. But if they are around in a place where the water stands in July and August, they won't take it. MR. O'ROURKE: Any other discussion on stocks that will take wet soil conditions? If not, let us take up Mr. Beckert's question: When do you take scion wood of the shagbark hickory? Who would like to answer that? Mr. Gerardi? MR. GERARDI: The time I like best, the time it can be done in our particular area is the latter part of February. Leave it on the tree as long as you can before any sap rises. MR. O'ROURKE: You would say probably 10 days to 2 weeks before the bud scales would break? MR. GERARDI: That's right, before any growth begins. MR. O'ROURKE: Any other comment on that? Dr. McKay? DR. MCKAY: I want to ask the question about which there is difference of opinion. Do pecan seed have a rest period, and is there any difference between pecans and hickory in that respect? MR. HARDY: I am not sure that I can answer the question exactly. Most pecans planted for seed have been allowed to dry before they are harvested, and it is general practice to stratify them either in sand for planting in the spring or planting them immediately in the fall. I am inclined to think that there is very little rest period in pecans and that if they were planted immediately from the tree that perhaps they would begin to grow almost immediately. DR. MCKAY: I think that's true. The seed will germinate quickly. But can you plant dry seed any time during the winter? MR. HARDY: Once they are dried I think they must go through after-ripening conditions. MR. O'ROURKE: Do I understand you correctly that you do feel that the pecan must be after-ripened? MR. HARDY: Yes, if permitted to dry. MR. O'ROURKE: The work of Burdette in Texas a great many years ago has indicated that the pecan seed does not have a rest period. Mr. Wilkinson, what has been your experience in germinating pecan seeds? MR. WILKINSON: I usually like to either plant or stratify soon after gathering, although one time I had some off the shelf of a grocery store in March and got excellent results. One thing more about time of cutting graft wood. I never like to cut it for at least 48 hours after a freezing temperature, regardless of time. I would rather cut it in April with the buds green than to cut it in the first of March right after a freeze. I have had excellent results just this spring cutting extra graft wood with green buds on. But if you cut it within 48 hours after a freezing temperature, you might just as well throw it away. MR. O'ROURKE: I am very glad you brought that out. Irrespective of whether it be pecan or hickory, I believe it would work the same, that the scion wood should be cut when it is moist, and that is not the condition after a freeze, when it is in very dry condition. Let's get back to this seed propagation now. I am asking anyone here, can you throw any light at all on the need for stratification of pecan or hickory seed of any species. MR. CALDWELL: I have read in several publications that hickories should be stratified over the winter period before planting for spring germination. I always find things a little bit different, so a year ago at the greenhouse I took seven different sources of seed of shagbark hickory, _Carya ovata_ and one source of _Carya ovalis_. Some of those seeds germinated within three weeks from the time I put them in, and after a month and a half I had a full stand in all cases. I don't think that more than 2 per cent of the seeds failed to germinate. They were planted in warm greenhouse, with a minimum of, about 68 degrees at night and about 90 during the day. They were planted in a combination of peat and garden soil; no special care other than water. I have had no trouble since the seedlings have continued to grow, even though the seeds were planted only two and a half inches deep. So it may be that there is no need for stratifying hickories. MR. O'ROURKE: Your experience is the exact duplication of Dr. Lelia Barton's of the Boyce-Thompson Institute. She found that hickory seeds germinated from three weeks, as you did, to a number of months, when put in a warm greenhouse. Apparently the difference in time is related to the thickness of the seed coat or possibly to an inhibitor in the pellicle rather than to any need for after-ripening. I think that Burdette in Texas also pointed out that thick-shelled pecans took longer to germinate than thin-shelled pecans. MR. PATAKY: If you take a nut of any kind and let it dry and plant it, you will get quicker germination than if you plant it soon after harvest. I don't see any difference in taking a nut and planting it and stratifying it. If planted the rodents will get it, but if you put it in something all winter, it will be there in the spring. I don't see any reason for planting a nut in the fall, taking a chance of rodents getting at them. If you plant them in the spring, they come up so much quicker that the rodents don't have a chance to get at them. They got nearly all of mine that I planted in the fall. MR. HARDY: A good many nuts don't have any rest period requirements. I think it probably is a matter of convenience as to the manner in which they are handled. I have talked with nurserymen in the South. If they get the nuts in the fall they may either plant them in the fall or stratify them over winter and then plant them in the rows in the spring. If they get them in the spring, they soak them for a day or two days in water before planting. Perhaps the dry nut is slow in taking up moisture direct from the soil, and they are primarily interested in getting a uniform stand of trees so that they handle it in such a manner that all the nuts will grow at the same time. And I believe many will agree that a dry nut planted in the spring will show considerable variation as to the time in which they appear above ground. MR. O'ROURKE: The suggestion of soaking them in water a few days is well taken, because a great many have recommended it. Most folks recommend changing the water daily. By changing the water you replace the oxygen which would be in the water, and you also eliminate any toxic substances which may have leached out of the shells during the preceding 24 hours. DR. MCKAY: I'd like to mention the reason for raising this question. Dr. Crane has the idea that there is no definite rest period in the pecan nut; if they are soaked in water they will sprout at any time. I decided I would test that hypothesis, so I stratified one group of nuts of about four pounds. Another lot of four pounds I kept in the laboratory dry all winter long. Then I planted the two lots of nuts this spring together, side by side, in the cold frame. Today there is not a single seedling growing out of the dry lot, and there is a perfect stand in the group that was stratified. To me that means that there is a definite rest period in the pecan seed. I don't see how you can get away from it. MR. O'ROURKE: I am going to stick my neck out a little bit. I have absolutely no basis to make this statement, but it does give us something to think about. That is the greater the distance towards the north that certain species of plants may have migrated or disseminated, the greater the rest period requirement. That is a protective device for a species to persist in northern climates, because if it were not for this rest period, those seed would germinate in the fall of the year, and the young seedlings would be frozen out immediately. But by having the rest period requirement over winter, the seedlings do not germinate until the following spring, and the plant can persist. I am speaking now in general of northern plants. I am wondering if the pecan species in itself may not be variable in that the southern pecan does not need a rest period, and the northern pecan is beginning to develop the rest period requirement. MR. HARDY: Mr. Chairman, I am inclined to think there may be some other factor entering into the picture there. A pecan carried through winter in a dry condition at normal room temperatures would be liable to develop quite a bit of rancidity by spring. Furthermore, nuts that have been held over so long in a dry condition may still be good and may germinate the second year. I'd hesitate to destroy that planting until next spring, and to my notion that does not indicate dormancy so much as it would possibly indicate the inhibition of growth by some other products developed during that storage period. MR. O'ROURKE: You have brought up a very important point and something we should not neglect. It may be that drying to a certain degree will induce dormancy, a grievously overworked word, but you know what I mean. It may take two years for the seed to germinate, as Mr. Hardy has suggested. If you can leave them in that cold frame over this winter, maybe you can tell us next year just what happened. MR. PATAKY: If we take nature's way, watch a squirrel plant a hickory or black walnut. He will bury it about an inch deep, and it will stay moist all winter long, the same as if it were stratified. But if you take a nut and store in a hot place you are going to slow up or kill that germ. You can do that very easily in a chestnut. Take a little advice from nature itself in the locality where you are. If you are in the South, that nut can start growing in the fall, and it probably won't hurt it, but if you are in the North, you don't want to start a nut growing in the winter, because it's going to get winter killed. MR. O'ROURKE: In all probability the amount of oxygen about the germinating seedling might be quite a factor. The shallow planted seed will have more oxygen available than deep planted seed, everything else being equal. If we are finished with the discussion or germination of seeds, we can go on to the next question, that of a suitable root stock for hickory--and that could keep us here for two or three days. Have you had some experience, Mr. Ferguson? MR. FERGUSON: We use the pecan and the shagbark as root stock for the hickory group. Formerly we have used some of the bitternut, but we do not use it any more. Some of the hickories will grow well on pecan, and some are not satisfactory at all. What they will do in old age is hard to tell. We have a few in the orchard down in Mr. Snyder's farm. I think we have Stratford on pecan, which is not satisfactory. Pecan grows too fast for the Stratford, and some way or other it just doesn't work. MR. O'ROURKE: Are you familiar with Mr. Lassiter's stock work? MR. FERGUSON: He has used the Rockville as an intermediate stock on pecan. The Rockville is a hybrid of the pecan and the shellbark. MR. O'ROURKE: Mr. Lassiter sent us a letter in which he stated that he had a good variety of shagbark that when grafted on the Rockville intermediate stock produced much better nuts than on pecans alone. Is that due to the exceptional vigor of Rockville which apparently is a hybrid and may have hybrid vigor? Again, we can only guess. This interstock problem is a big problem. We now have some evidence that pecan is not always satisfactory for all varieties of hickory, although Mr. Dunstan at Greensboro, North Carolina, states it's been satisfactory for every variety he has worked upon it. MR. HARDY: I am inclined to believe that root stocks and scion varieties worked in the north and grown in the north or worked in the south and grown in the south may not react the same. MR. WILSON: I think you are right on that. MR. O'ROURKE: Mr. Gilbert Smith's report of yesterday indicated a pecan was not satisfactory with him in New York State, and that may bear out the comment that Mr. Hardy has made. MR. GERARDI: Well, I think that is true enough, myself. In southern Illinois I find that the bitternut hickory root for shellbark or shagbark don't seem to be satisfactory at all. With the shagbark on pecan, the variety of shagbark makes a difference. Some varieties of shagbark, and shellbark hickories seem to do all right, and then again others don't. It's going to need further study to determine what varieties will stand on pecans, what will stand on bitter hickories, or what will stand on regular ovata stock. I think that the nurseryman's wisest way is to use stocks of the same species as the scion and then he is on the safe side. Because the bitter hickory grows faster, the nurseryman may find it advantageous to grow the bitter hickory stock in preference to the other two. MR. O'ROURKE: The bitter stock makes a hickory big enough to graft in two or three years. MR. GERARDI: In two or three, and four or five for the shagbark. Shagbark or shellbark varieties on bitternut may grow for three or four years and then die. The pecan does well on the bitter hickory and the bitter hickory on the pecan, but I have no reason to grow any bitter hickory because I don't like the nut. I think it's a waste of time to fool with it that way. As far as the hybrid pecans are concerned, the pecan root is certainly the right stock to use on all hybrids. They grow very satisfactorily and bear well. MR. WHITFORD: I have Gerardi and McAllister hybrids growing on pecan, and the Downing overgrows the pecan. MR. O'ROURKE: To summarize some of this information that we have gathered this morning on root stocks, it seems that different clones behave differently on the same stock. That is true, we know, with other plants, such as apple. Instead of saying that shagbark is not compatible with pecan, perhaps we should say that the Davis or the Wilcox variety of shagbark is not compatible with a certain type of pecan. It's going to take years of effort to find out the truth of the matter. MR. WARD: Sometimes you will find that a two-year-old scion, if you can get a dormant bud coming, is better than the matured wood from last year. I'd just like to get an opinion from some of the growers what they use for topworking stocks for grafting. MR. FERGUSON: I think one thing quite important is to get scion wood that has a good layer of wood around the pith, whether one-year wood or two-year wood. At the base of the year's growth it will have a lot more wood in it. At the tip the wood around the pith is thin. MR. O'ROURKE: Some years ago Dr. MacDaniels stated that a good scion may be made with the tip of the scion in the one-year wood and the base of the scion in the two-year wood. Mr. Bernath at Poughkeepsie, New York, has done some bench grafting of hickory. Why other people have not done so, I do not know, and I'd like Mr. Bernath to tell us briefly just why he likes to bench graft hickory. MR. BERNATH: I like it because I do my work in the wintertime under glass. I have no time in the spring to fuss with outside grafting. So if you gentlemen would like to hear it, I will tell you all about it. Many years ago when I learned my profession, we had difficulty in finding a method to graft oaks. We finally did find a method that would take and which I have found successful with hickories. The stocks are dug in the fall and stored heeled in earth. When I am ready to graft I put them on a table, along with the scion wood and start grafting. I use the side graft at the crown leaving a short spur above the graft. Leave them unwaxed and layer them in moss peat in a glass covered frame in the greenhouse with some ventilation. In three or four weeks' time, when the union has formed and just before the leaves come out, take them out and plant them in a cold frame outside. Of course you have to put glass on it to protect them from frost, as well as intense sun. Here you can use part peat and part soil. Leave them there for one year in those frames, with partial shade, until they get fairly high so they shade each other. They can then be set in the nursery row. MR. O'ROURKE: Mr. Bernath, I know there are some folks here who are nurserymen and who are interested in the cost of production of a finished tree. Do you feel that you can produce a tree to transplant any height you want to select, five, six feet, so on, as cheaply according to this method of bench grafting in the greenhouse as if you bud it or graft it in a nursery row? MR. BERNATH: That's a question. I have never kept a record of that. It is all right for a young man who is able to get down on his hands and knees and graft, but for me that wouldn't do. MR. FERGUSON: What temperature do you use in the frames? MR. BERNATH: About 65. Sun heat naturally will raise it. Care must be used to ventilate the frames in the greenhouse to prevent condensation soaking the grafts. MR. FERGUSON: Do you carry higher temperatures for walnuts? MR. BERNATH: All of them about the same. You follow the method just the same as nature. If you follow nature, you will never go wrong. But you have to watch out for fungus in the case, because if you have excessive temperature, the fungus disease will get in your case and ruin the whole thing. MR. WARD: I presume, Mr. Bernath, when you set out a tree and get a hundred per cent stand it's going to reduce your cost. MR. BERNATH: Yes, because you have a better take, because you have everything under control, moisture, heat, ventilation, and so on. MR. BECKERT: Are the hickory stocks potted before you graft, or are you grafting bare roots? MR. BERNATH: Hickory and oaks are bare rooted. They are too long to pot. MR. SHESSLER: How many years are lost in this method of bench grafting compared with field grafting trees in the nursery row? MR. BERNATH: Quite a few. The gentleman is right, if you graft outside where the tree remains, you get a big growth on it. MR. SHESSLER: In other words, a tree grafted out in the field will have nuts on it three years sooner? MR. BERNATH: Yes if you leave it where it is. But if you transplant it, look out for a large tree. It is likely to fail. Bench grafted trees transplant easily. The roots are limited and little of the root system is destroyed. MR. WILKINSON: I have been propagating for about 39 years, and I have grafted thousands of pecan trees in my nursery, and I have only a few trees growing from grafts. Budding is much more successful with me. Several times I have had up to a 90 per cent stand by budding. MR. GERARDI: I have tried bench grafting but it sets you back three years in the nursery to get a tree of equal size compared to grafting in the nursery row. If you want a small tree, it's all right. And then again, it's your help situation. If you have got to set them out, they handle the grafts like brush, and I don't like that. Hickory is not hard to graft in the field. I think if you set 10 you get 9 to grow. For scions I go back on two-year wood and oftentimes on three-year wood where there are buds. I don't have trouble at all. With pecans, you have a little more difficulty, because the wood is more pithy inside and doesn't grow so well. MR. BERNATH: With any tree, I don't care what it is, give me one-year growth, this year's growth, and I am going to have wonderful success. When you take the old wood you have to be sure that you have buds. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: This last discussion certainly shows that, there is more than one way to get results. The fact remains that all these different men are producing hickory and other trees by various different means of grafting and budding. They have their own techniques which worked. What there is behind it from a scientific basis we probably don't understand too well at the present time. I now call on Dr. McKay to present his paper. Dr. McKay. A Promising New Pecan for the Northern Zone J. W. MCKAY and H. L. CRANE[2] In late 1949 Professor A. F. Vierheller, Extension Horticulturist at the University of Maryland, College Park, obtained two small pecans from an exhibit at the Prince Georges County Fair, Upper Marlboro, Maryland, which he sent to the Office of Nut Investigations at Beltsville, Maryland. These nuts were very thin shelled and contained solid, well developed kernels very light in color and attractive. We gave them no particular heed until the fall of 1951, when the authors together with Professor Vierheller, P. E. Clark, County Agent of Prince Georges County, visited the tree on which they had been produced. We found also a number of other pecan trees nearby. All of them were on an old southern Maryland estate known as Brookfield. The present owner is John C. Duvall, whose address is Naylor, a small southern Maryland community located about 25 miles southeast of Washington, D. C. in the heart of the tobacco growing area. _Origin of the Duvall trees_: The present trees probably grew from nuts sent to Maryland from the vicinity of Iron Mountain, Missouri, by a friend of the Duvall family named Mrs. Mary Medora Johnson. Mrs. Johnson had lived in Maryland as a neighbor of the Duvall family and when she moved to Missouri she apparently was so impressed with the native pecan that she sent nuts to her friends in Maryland for planting. This must have happened about 1850 since the oldest trees at Brookfield are estimated to be about 100 years old and Mrs. Johnson was a friend of John C. Duvall's grandmother. In terms of the human life span the trees are thus three generations removed from the time of planting, a time period which fits fairly well the estimated age of 100 years based upon size of the trees. _Description_: The three largest trees are approximately equal in size and undoubtedly represent the original planting. The eight other trees are all smaller and could well have originated as seedlings of the original three. Five of the largest trees have been given numbers 1 to 5 and will be referred to by number. Duvall No. 1, 2 and 5 are the three large trees situated more or less in a circle surrounding the old mansion, each about 100 yards from the others. The smaller trees are located more or less between and around the larger ones, the old mansion being on a slight knoll in the center of the planting. The original dwelling of Brookfield is now crumbling ruins, part of the building being more than 200 years old, according to Mr. Duvall, who lives in a modern new country home across the road from the original mansion. The three large trees have a diameter at breast height of approximately 4 feet and all of them have a branch spread of more than 150 feet. They are 75 to 100 feet tall. All of the trees have very narrow and pointed leaflets characteristic of Texas and southwestern varieties, and they are remarkably free of insect pests and diseases. The nuts from this group of seedlings are variable in size and appearance as might be expected of those from any group of pecan seedlings. However, one of the most striking characteristics of all the nuts is that the kernels are solid and well developed. This is an unusual characteristic for pecans grown in the latitude of Washington, D. C. In all of the varieties that are usually grown in this area none which regularly fill their nuts well are known. Another outstanding characteristic of all of the nuts produced by these seedlings is the bright, attractive color of the kernel. In fact, when the nuts of Duvall No. 1 are promptly harvested and dried in the fall, the kernels are almost white. Nuts that stayed on the ground 6 months during the winter of 1951-52 were harvested in late March 1952 and the kernels were still in good condition. Some of the nuts were on display at the Rockport meetings. Small size of nut is without question the chief undesirable characteristic of these trees. Duvall No. 5 produces the largest nuts of all the seedlings but they are so small that more than 100 are required to weigh a pound. Duvall No. 1 produces the smallest nuts and almost 200 are required to weigh a pound. _Past Yields_: The one characteristic that sets these trees apart from all other pecan trees that we have observed in the Maryland area is that they yield heavy crops of nuts every year. We have known the trees only since the fall of 1951 but have observed two crops and Mr. Duvall has observed their performance for many years. In the fall of 1951 Duvall No. 2 yielded an estimated 8 to 10 bushels of nuts. Mr. Duvall harvested 3 bushels and he knew that 3 bushels were harvested by friends of the family. An unknown quantity estimated at several bushels was plowed under when wheat was sown shortly before we visited the tree in the fall of 1951. The tree had a heavy set of nuts in August 1952 and Mr. Duvall predicted that it would probably yield as much this year as last. He told us that the three oldest trees always have had annual crops of nuts except for 1 or 2 years when one of the trees failed to produce as much as usual. He could not remember which of the trees produced the light crops but he was certain that light crops were borne at only very infrequent intervals. _Sweeney Tree_: The two nuts originally sent us by Professor Vierheller were produced by a tree growing approximately 200 yards from the nearest Duvall tree on a part of the farm recently subdivided and now occupied by a tenant named Sweeney. Mrs. Sweeney placed the plate of nuts on exhibit at the Prince Georges County Fair and from this plate Professor Vierheller procured the sample which he sent. Hence this tree has become known informally as the Sweeney tree. Its nuts are very long and pointed but in other respects resemble very closely those produced by the other trees. The Sweeney tree is undoubtedly a seedling of one of the three large Duvall trees. This tree also has an impressive yield record, as Mrs. Sweeney said that she has harvested a bushel or more of nuts from the tree every year during the ten or more years that she has lived on the place. In 1952 the Sweeney tree was bearing a heavy crop of nuts. _Soil_: The trees growing on soil that is classified as Sassafras fine sandy loam in the heart of the southern Maryland tobacco growing district. This soil type, one of the best agricultural soils of the area, is not generally regarded as one of high fertility. This soil is well drained and aerated and friable to a considerable depth, thus permitting the trees to root deeply. None of the trees are growing under crowded conditions since they are located around the margins of the building sites of the old homestead. The question now is whether grafted trees propagated from the best of the Duvall seedlings will yield heavy crops of well filled nuts that will mature early under other conditions of soil and climate in other localities. We are inclined to believe that some or all of these trees may represent a line of pecan genetically constituted to bear heavy crops of nuts every year under conditions in Maryland. If trees propagated from the Duvall trees will perform elsewhere in the northern zone there will be available for this area a new type of pecan that we feel will be distinctly worthwhile notwithstanding the small size of the nuts. Present varieties of the so-called northern pecan grown in the northern zone perform erratically at best and when many of the varieties produce crops the nuts fail to mature and fill properly. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 2: Horticulturist and Principal Horticulturist, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland.] The Hickory in Indiana W. B. WARD, _Department of Horticulture, Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind._ Mr. Charles C. Deam, forester, naturalist and botanist, in his book "Trees of Indiana," revised 1952, lists seven distinct types of hickory in the state and nine sub species. As Deam is approaching his 87th year (August 30), he makes this statement: "I thought I knew trees, and hickories especially, but at this time when I can hardly see and write I find there is a great need for reclassification." What is true in Indiana is no doubt true in other areas where _Hicoria_ grows--each year new seedlings and hybrids are found that just step out of any previous description and a new tree may result or change the published data. Some trees develop five leaflets, while others have seven and nine leaflets. The bark may be smooth, rough, scaly, or shag. The nuts will vary in size and form with a thin to quite thick shell. This, of course, applies to the seedlings as the grafted or budded varieties vary only with the location, season, and growing conditions. The present classification, according to Deam, is as follows: 1. _Carya pecan_--Pecan. 2. _C. cordiformis_--Bitternut. 3. _C. ovata_--Shagbark and 2 sub species--_fraxinifolia_ and _nuttali_. 4. _C. laciniosa_--Bigleaf Shagbark (Shellbark). 5. _C. tomentosa (alba)_--Mockernut--one sub species. 6. _C. glabra_--Pignut and sub species--Black Hickory. 7. _C. ovalis_--Small-Fruited Hickory and 5 sub species. 8. _C. pallida_ } 9. _C. buckleyi_ } --Minor species of lesser importance. The hickory species thrive in Indiana, doing very well in all sections except in certain portions of the northwestern part of the state and on muck or sandy soils. The tree loves company or does well alone. When the hickory stands alone, the trees are well formed and make a good specimen tree. Many hickory trees are found growing in the river bottom land from Central to Southern Indiana with fewer trees found north of a line extending from Terre Haute through Indianapolis to Richmond. This southern area also contains the largest population of pecans. There are some woods that contain only pecan trees while a mile or so away no pecans are found but all are hickories and occasionally some woods contain both pecan and hickory. The trees in the woods areas, many of which seem to be the same species, produce a wide variety of fruits. When the trees are more closely examined there is a difference in the bark, the branch, the leaf, pubescence, shape of nut and shell structure. As there are all seedling trees in this particular woods, several outstanding trees have been checked and especially as to cracking qualities of the nuts. At harvest time a hammer is part of the equipment and the nuts are cracked at the tree and the tree marked for discard or further consideration. Future Possibilities of the Hickory The hickory nut has not reached the popularity of the pecan, although the hickory contains more protein and slightly less fat, carbohydrates, and calories per pound than the pecan. Where the pecan does not fruit, the better hickories, which are hardy, fill the need. The named varieties are good and trees are available from some nurserymen. The propagators have developed a few new crosses but man is far behind nature in this work. The many new seedling trees scattered all over the regions where the hickory grows require only propagation and distribution for wider acclaim. The development of a new hickory is a long-time process, yet may be hastened by first planting the nuts for new seedlings and when the growth is mature to bud or graft the seedling on large rootstocks. When old trees have been top-worked it is only two or three years' time until the fruit develops and, if worthy of propagation, much time may be saved by this method. Most of the hickories have either 32 or 64 chromosomes, except pecan which varies from 20 to 24 to possibly 32. The chances of making suitable crosses between the pecan and hickory are most difficult yet it appears that these chance crosses result from time to time as in the hican through natural cross pollination. How extensive will be the plantings of the hickories is yet to be determined but it is a known fact that many people, especially north of the route of Federal Highway 40, prefer the hickory to the pecan. This may be due to the fact that from childhood the hickory was the local fruit. The fruit and tree hold great promise for the future. If the hickories are to be of commercial importance, the work must be done by all concerned and not left to a few eager individuals to carry on the work alone. MR. MACHOVINA: Mr. Chairman, members of the Association, I hope you will bear with me if I run 30 seconds over. Perhaps I had better point out that my training is that of an engineer and not a botanist, hence this report on the Merrick tree is that of a layman. I have not bothered to go into detail on the various features of the tree, such as leaves, buds, and so forth, because I have slides which you will see afterwards. The Merrick Hybrid Walnut P. E. MACHOVINA, _Columbus, Ohio_ The Merrick hybrid walnut is a natural cross between Persian and black walnut and is distinguished from most other such hybrids by the good crops it usually bears. The tree is located in Rome Township, Athens County, Ohio, on property owned by Mr. M. M. Merrick a farmer and fruit grower. In August, 1950, Mr. Merrick first described his "English" walnut to the writer and arrangements were made to view the tree. Most striking at first sight was the large crop of nuts. The general outward appearance of the tree suggested it to be pure Persian; however, upon closer examination, mixed parentage became evident. As a hybrid, the tree's history was a matter of interest and the owner was happy to supply what information he could. Mr. Merrick purchased the property on which the hybrid is located, in 1921. A few years prior to this, the previous owner had planted six Persian walnut trees obtained from a nursery in northern Ohio. These young trees bore their first crop of nuts during Mr. Merrick's first year of ownership. It is known that the nursery owners were also proprietors of a commercial Persian walnut orchard located in the vicinity of Niagara Falls. With this combination of date and orchard location, it seems not illogical to presume that the six nursery trees were of the Pomeroy strain. From Mr. Merrick's description of the nuts produced by these trees, they appear to have been two each of three different grafted varieties. In the early nineteen-thirties, Mr. Merrick planted several nuts from the Persian trees and raised a number of seedlings. One of these seedlings, transplanted to its present location, is the subject of this discussion and is presumed to be a cross between one of the six Persians and a native black walnut. During the late nineteen-thirties, all of the trees, Persians and seedlings, with the single exception of the existing hybrid, were killed by an unusually hard winter. The Merrick hybrid walnut, now about 20 years of age, is an extremely vigorous and healthy tree. Its height is between 55 and 60 feet and its spread nearly as great. Trunk diameter is at present about 12 inches at breast height. The location of the tree is very favorable, being near the crest of a high ridge and with protection from the northwest by the house. A chicken yard is near and the kitchen drain empties close by to supply moisture. In nearly all aspects excepting the nut itself, the tree favors its pistillate parent. This is evidenced by the general shape of the tree, by the texture and color of the bark of limbs and twigs, and by the shape and color of the leaves, the buds, the flowers, and the nut hull. Hybridity is indicated by the (usually) eleven leaflets to the leaf stem, by the nut, and in the disintegration of the hull which, after falling, quickly changes into a most disagreeable, dark-brownish, semi-liquidlike mess. The nut itself is much more like a Persian walnut in appearance than a black walnut. The shell surface is slightly rougher and somewhat darker than most Persian nuts. The suture of the Persian parent is prominent. Black walnut parentage is exhibited by the thick shell, the interior configuration and in the flavor of the small kernel. Nut size varies somewhat with diameters ranging from 1 to 1-1/4 inches and lengths ranging from 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 inches. The bloom, which is strikingly like that of pure Persian trees, is always profuse and precedes that of the surrounding native black walnuts by a week or two. In the two years during which the writer has observed the tree, the greater part of the staminate bloom has preceded the pistillate by several days. This was noticeably the case during the current year, and either this, or the rainy weather, has resulted in a small set of nuts which the owner states to be unusual. During the years observed, the tree appeared to be self-pollinating. It is recognized, of course, that the Merrick hybrid is worthless as a producer of edible nuts. The possible value of the tree lies in opportunities it offers in being the forbearer of more worthwhile progeny. We know of the vast possibilities in hybridization. We know of the difficulties involved in obtaining nuts from controlled crosses between Persian and black walnut trees; and we know that seedling trees raised from the nuts of such crosses are almost always sterile. The Merrick hybrid, yielding good crops, offers possibilities both in crossbreeding and in the raising of seedling trees from the nuts of the tree itself. In the latter connection, Drs. Crane and McKay, of the U.S.D.A., requested several pounds of Merrick nuts for planting purposes this spring. The writer himself planted five such nuts, of which four germinated. Of the four trees, one died early in the season, while the remaining three have thrived. The heights attained by the three remaining trees thus far this season are 1, 2, and 3 feet, respectively. These trees have the general appearance of young Persian seedlings. The only crossbreeding attempted thus far ended in failure when a storm destroyed most of the bags prior to application of pollen. Persian pollen was used on the few bloom remaining covered but, unfortunately, no nuts were set. The experiment will be continued. Also, the Merrick will be topworked onto producing walnuts, both Persian and black, in the hope of obtaining nuts from which interesting and perhaps better second generation hybrids can be raised. An interesting point of conjecture on which to terminate this report, and one to which nut experts will likely give little credence, may be found in a statement made by Mr. Merrick and vouched to by Mrs. Merrick. The statement is to the effect that the nuts borne by the Merrick during its early years, that is, prior to the time the adjacent Persians were killed, were of much better quality, being more like Persian walnuts both in appearance and in flavor. We've heard of "pollen influence" with chestnuts. Did it occur here? TUESDAY AFTERNOON SESSION Producing Quality Nuts and Quality Logs L. E. SAWYER, _Director, Division of Forestry and Reclamation, Indiana Coal Producers Association_ I was trained as a forester and having worked at the profession for nearly thirty years, my first thought of trees is for their utility in building or in cabinet work. In school we were taught that the fruit of forest trees was a by-product. Its economic importance was not emphasized nor was the possibility of establishing stands of some species specifically for the production of their fruit. Through the years the value of the nut crop from some species has increased so that the fruit is now the primary crop and any wood materials that may be derived are the by-product. This production of valuable food and necessary materials of high quality for the building of quality furniture and interior finish is a combination that will work well together. Black walnut, the most highly utilized of any of our native timber for furniture, veneer, and cabinet work is becoming increasingly more difficult for the mills to obtain in larger sized logs. Native chestnut, almost completely destroyed in our timbered areas by the chestnut blight, is in demand for interior finish. Pecan, which has had only a limited use in the past, is now enjoying a market for the manufacture of flooring. The production of nuts from plantations or orchards of these three species will no doubt produce greater economic returns for many years after the initial planting than could be derived from the sale of the trees for the wood they contain. There will come a time in the life of any tree when it is no longer a profitable producer and should be replaced by a younger, more thrifty tree. When that time comes, the tree to be removed will have no economic value unless it contains products that industry can use. With the thought in mind that the wood from the tree is to have some future economic value the trunk of the tree should be kept free of all limbs to a height of about nine feet above the ground. The development of a large spreading top above that point will be desirable for nut production. The space below that top will give ample head room for maintenance work in the orchard and that clear length of trunk will produce a high quality log eight feet long. That is the minimum standard length normally used by the lumber industry. Some shorter lengths are utilized by the veneer industry but those lengths usually command a lower unit price. The production of figured walnut could be combined with the production of one log per tree but it would take several more years to bring the trees to nut producing age. Mr. Wilkinson has successfully demonstrated that the figure of the Lamb Walnut does carry over through a graft or bud. A double budding operation should not be difficult to perform. It would simply consist of budding the figured stock on the root at as low a point as possible, then when the figured growth has reached sufficient height, of budding again to the desired variety for nut production. This procedure would no doubt require a few additional years before the first crop of fruit would be harvested but it would produce an extremely valuable log when the tree is finally cut. I would be remiss in my present job if I did not bring the revegetation program of the Indiana coal stripping industry into the discussion. That industry produces over fifty percent of the coal mined in Indiana today and is recovering coal that could not be mined by any other means. In driving to Rockport many of you no doubt passed by areas of newly mined land, rough, barren desolate looking areas with no vegetation. They have the appearance of complete desolation and give the impression that those lands are forever lost. In that same vicinity you no doubt passed plantations of pine, or mixture of pine or Locust with our native deciduous species. Those too were mined areas that a few short years ago were just as desolate in appearance as the bare areas you saw. These plantations are the direct result of a reclamation program started by the members of the Indiana Coal Producers Association, a program that has attracted national attention. The first record of an attempt at the reclamation of coal mine spoil is here in Indiana. In 1918, the Rowland Power Company, now owned by the Maumee Collieries Company, planted peach, apple and pear trees on mined land in Owen county. The records show that for a period of years the trees thrived and were good producers. Then, because the topography was rough and no spraying was done, disease and insects took their toll of the peaches and apples. Seedlings of the original apple and peach tree still grow on the area. The original Kieffer pear trees still stand and produce large crops of fruit. In 1926, the larger, more far sighted companies began a definite program of reforestation of their mined lands under the direction of Ralph Wilcox, at that time assistant State Forester and fortunately our State Forester today. That voluntary program was carried on until 1941 when the Indiana Coal Producers Association, the Association of the mining companies, sat down with representatives of the Indiana Department of Conservation, representing the state, and the Indiana Farm Bureau, representing the people, and drafted a bill which was enacted into law. This law required each company to obtain a permit from the state to operate and required that each company revegetate an area each year equal to 101% of the area they had mined. To insure compliance, a bond was required. This law remained in effect for ten years. In 1951, representatives of those same groups again sat down together and drafted several amendments to the original act. Some grading is now required where areas lie adjacent to public roads. Access roads must be provided and areas to be devoted to pasture must be graded so that they can be traversed with agricultural machinery. Under this program, sponsored by Industry, the Farm Bureau, and the Department of Conservation, 79% of the area that has been mined to date has been successfully revegetated. The remaining 21% is a natural lag and represents lands newly mined or areas that have not weathered to the point where they will support revegetation. The demand for recreation lands and home sites where water is available is constantly increasing. At least 13% of the revegetated area is now being used for public recreation or for home sites. Near the more heavily populated sections the price commanded by mined territory containing good lakes often exceeds the value of the land before it was mined. These lakes, formed in the final cuts and in low lying areas of the strip mines, furnish the only clean, clear water available for public recreation and fishing in the south western part of the state. The reforestation being carried on under the reclamation program consists of planting several species of pines, as well as a large variety of our native deciduous trees. The older plantations are being used as a guide as the research started in the last eight years has not progressed far enough to give conclusive results on many points. Until the last few years the Agricultural Experiment Station has devoted little or no time to the problem of reclaiming strip mine spoil. The area of the state that is involved, less than 1/4 of 1%, has been too small to justify the use of their limited funds. However, since funds have been made available to that Station, through the Industry, to establish research fellowships, the Station has given whole hearted cooperation. The information being obtained through these fellowships and through work being carried on cooperatively with the Central States Forest Experiment Station is going to answer many of the questions on reclamation we have been confronted with. Included in our reforestation has been a liberal scattering of black walnut. A breakdown of species is not available on much of the earlier work but since 1940, when accurate records have been maintained, we have planted 239,000 black walnut seedlings or seed. Initial survival is not high, averaging only about 50 percent but we still have a general distribution of seed trees that are providing a source of seed for natural reproduction. Trees from plantings made in 1927 to 1934 have grown well and we now have walnut trees over 10 inches in diameter and 60 feet in height. The average for all areas would probably not exceed 5 inches but individual trees have made remarkable growth. These trees are only seedlings, but they are bearing heavily and their fruit is sought by the local people. In 1946 and 1947, budded stock of walnuts and pecans and seedlings of Chinese chestnut were obtained from Mr. Wilkinson and were set out on six selected areas. A wide variety of sites were picked and a wide variation in both survival and growth has been obtained. No special treatment was given the areas where the trees were to be planted nor were the trees mulched or watered after planting. Even under these rugged conditions we have a survival of over 60 percent of all trees. The walnut trees now range from 5 to 12 feet in height and the pecans up to 6 feet. The chestnuts vary in form from low spreading plants 4-1/2 to 5 feet in height and as much as 8 feet across to well formed trees 8 to 10 feet tall. Pruning on all three species to produce a clear butt log has been started. Pasture seeding on areas high enough in available lime to support legumes is following a pattern laid down by three years of graduate study, financed by the Indiana Coal Producers Association, at Purdue and by work done by the Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station under a similar arrangement with the Illinois Coal Strippers Association. Unfortunately, we have only a small portion of the spoil area in Indiana that is suitable for the development of improved pasture. Not over 10 percent of the area mined to date is good enough and that percentage will decrease. Modern operations are deeper than the early ones and are exposing more hard rock and shale. Fortunately, most of these areas can be reforested after three or four years. In exceptional cases less than 5 percent of the area mined the exposed materials contain large amounts of sulfides. These break down into acid that in some cases require ten to twelve years to leach out before revegetation can be undertaken. The fact that these stands of trees established on raw spoil will produce merchantable timber has been proven. In 1951, an area was clear cut at the Enos mine in Pike county. The pines on this tract were planted in 1933-34. The products from that cutting, peeled posts and poles, were sold to the Indiana Wood Preserving Company at the rate of $335.59 per acre. An increase in value of $16.48 per acre per year. Pasture, forests and fishing are not the only products. Game of all varieties is abundant in the worked out areas. One of the largest herds of white tailed deer in the state, now referred to as the strip mine herd, is located in northern Warrick and southern Pike counties. In the Indiana deer season of 1951, the first open season since 1893, the second largest recorded kill came from the strip mine herd. The Pitman-Robertson report of the Division of Fish and Game carries the following comment on deer from that area. "The superiority of the diversified range of the strip mine herd was reflected in above average weights and measurements in most age classes." From the evidence at hand, there is every reason to believe that most of the mined area will again be highly productive forest land. It has completed the entire cycle of land use. Originally it supported magnificent stands of hardwood timber. This timber was cut and the lands devoted to farming. Poor management and erosion soon depleted the supply of top soil and many areas were abandoned to broom sedge, blackberries and gullies. Because it was close enough to the surface the coal has been removed and the areas replanted to many of the same species of trees. With this reestablishment of the forest cover and the creation of the lakes in the final cuts, we can again have our forest resource combined with fishing, hunting and other forms of outdoor recreation, some areas of pasture and, I believe, others that can be profitably devoted to the production of nut crops and the by-product of quality logs for the veneer and lumber industry. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: If you ever think you are going to sell your logs for veneer or lumber, don't nail hammocks or other things on the trees. The metal is very soon buried and causes no end of difficulty. We will go to the next paper, which is, "Colchicine as a Tool in Nut Breeding," Mr. O. J. Eigsti, Funk Brothers Seed Co., Bloomington, Illinois. MR. EIGSTI: Three years ago this project was conceived in a discussion between Mr. Best and myself. Then during the two-year period, all I did was turn over some Colchicine to Mr. Best. Mr. Best took the material, treated the trees and performed as well as any graduate student I had ever graduated in the 13 years that I was in university work. It is through his fine cooperation that we are able to start this project, and I look forward to this developing into a rather important nut breeding venture. But as you all know, it will take a long time. I have this paper written. It's only four pages double-spaced. Colchicine for Nut Improvement Programs O. J. EIGSTI and R. B. BEST, _Normal, Illinois, and Eldred, Illinois_ Colchicine (1, 2) as a plant breeders' tool is universally well known. Only limited use has been made of this technique for nut improvement. Early work was started by Dr. J. W. McKay, a member of the N.N.G.A., but numerous other problems demanded his attention and the Colchicine project was not carried to final completion. Other reports are at hand from Sweden and Japan but these results do not shed direct light on the problems under discussion today at Rockport, Indiana. Colchicine, acting on cell-division, ultimately causes a doubling of the number of chromosomes within those cells in contact with the substance at the time of division. Such changes are transferred to succeeding generations by the hereditary chain familiar to plant breeders. Several species of nuts are among this class of plants with doubled chromosomal numbers, however, such duplications occurred in nature. A report on this phase was given at a recent meeting of the N.N.G.A. Therefore such excellent nut producing species as the pecan are naturally doubled types, called polyploids. We find numbers such as 32 representative of a polyploid situation. Since colchicine is effective in doubling the chromosome number and that variations in chromosome number exist among species, the authors planned a series of experiments to determine the best methods of applying colchicine toward a nut improvement program. Seedlings of pecan were available and out of this experience a schedule is submitted that may be of use for other members of this association confronted with particular problems applicable to colchicine techniques. The most satisfactory schedule for doubling the number of chromosomes is given in a number of steps as listed below. 1) Select expanding vegetative buds in the earliest stages of development. 2) Use seedlings or branches from mature trees. 3) Prune leaves and probe to the growing cone without damage to tissue. 4) Pack a small wad of cotton into the terminal point. 5) Soak this cotton by dropping .2% aqueous solution of colchicine on same. 6) Add glycerine to cotton to improve penetration of colchicine. 7) Place drop of colchicine on cotton morning and evening for four days. 8) Remove cotton wading from bud on 5th day. 9) If sufficient tests at hand, allow cotton to remain on some buds. 10) Try for at least one hundred buds treated. 11) Observe growth during first season and also next season. 12) If treated bud dies, watch for growth among lower laterals. 13) Evidence of changes appears in the new leaves, darker, thicker, greener. 14) Conclusive evidence of doubling rests with microscopic and anatomical analysis which is a task for trained technicians only. The above procedures are suggestions for a start and everyone will wish to make changes suited to his particular needs. The concentration of colchicine need not be exact as in an analytical experiment in chemistry. One gram dissolved in 500 ml. water is an adequate and a sufficiently careful measurement. The local pharmacist or physician is well acquainted with colchicine in the practise of medicine since this drug is a standard for gout. Effective use may be made from two specific areas of plant breeding. First, doubling of chromosomes changes sterile hybrids into fertile individuals. This is a promising field and whenever such hybrids are discovered, efforts should be made to apply the colchicine technique. Second, doubling of the chromosome number makes possible hybridization of individuals heretofore unsuccessful in such effort. In both instances germ plasm of wide genetic difference is incorporated into a new propagating breeding stock. In the case of the sterile hybrid transformed into fertile individuals, no counting of chromosomes is necessary because restoration of fertility is evidence of changes in the chromosomal makeup. However, the second type of experiment requires microscopic analysis. There are a number of fundamental research problems in the plant sciences associated with the treatment of plants with colchicine. From horticultural subjects such as the apple,(3) pear, cranberries,(4) and grapes, it is obvious that periclinal chimeras will be of prime importance in analysis of results in treatment of nut trees. Following the treatment of a growing point with colchicine the outer layer of cells may be doubled by colchicine but the lower layers may remain unchanged. Or a reverse of this situation may obtain, and even other types. Since the formation of pollen takes place from a certain layer it is very important that such specific layers are changed. The course of plant breeding can be altered by these kinds of changes. To our knowledge, no investigations of periclinal chimeras have been made with nuts, following treatment with colchicine. Specific experiments were conducted at Eldred, Illinois in the spring of 1951 with seedlings of pecan. The cooperation of the R.B. Best Farms and Nut Plantation made this project possible. Several types of treatment were tried. Out of this experience the above schedule listed in 14 steps was developed. Other details may be obtained by contacting the authors direct. Observations of the new growth in 1951 and 1952 were made and the shape of leaves, color, texture and general appearance suggest that doubling of chromosomes has been induced. Up until the present time, no microscopic analysis has been made but this is a contemplated step and facilities are at hand to complete this work. While this paper is not a completed research, the authors hope that the presentation of technique will aid and stimulate interest in this new approach to nut improvement. In such instances where certain members may have a particular problem such as a true hybrid-sterile as a result of hybridity, it is hoped that the suggestions given in the above pages may lead into a new field of improvement. There are rewards in store for the plant breeder willing to master this new technique, but the mastery requires careful study and diligent work. Literature Cited 1. Eigsti, O. J. and Dustin, P.--Colchicine Bibliography. Lloydia 10: 65-114. 1947. 2. ----, ----.--Colchicine Bibliography. Lloydia 12:185-207. 1949. 3. Dermen, H.--Ontogeny of tissues in stem and leaf of cytochimeral apples. Am. Jour. Bot. 38:753-60. 1951. 4. Dermen, H. and Bain, H. F.--Periclinal and total polyploidy in cranberries induced by colchicine. Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38: 400. 1941. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The Resolutions Committee for this meeting is: John Davidson, chairman, and Dr. Rohrbacher working with him. If you have anything in mind that should be brought up in the resolutions, see one of these two men. The next paper is: An Early Pecan and Some Other West Tennessee Nuts AUBREY RICHARDS, M.D., _Whiteville, Tenn._ MR. RICHARDS: There came under my observation in the latter part of last summer a seedling pecan tree growing in the city limits of my home town. It seemed that this tree had been growing unnoticed for possibly 50 years, judging by the size of the tree. The outstanding thing about this tree and what called it to my attention was a patient who came into my office complaining with a backache from picking up pecans on the 20th day of August. I wrote my friend, Mr. J. C. McDaniel, about this pecan, and when he visited me during the Christmas holidays I gave him a sample. The only thing that he could say bad about the pecan was that it was slightly on the small side. I know personally that at least three or possibly four bushels of good quality nuts were harvested from that tree, most of them on the ground by the 20th of August. In my section the Stuart pecan, which we use more or less as a yard-stick, was ripe the latter part of October, and we thought that possibly this tree, since it had undergone an unusually low temperature the winter before of 20 below zero, might have possibilities. But let's dispense with this pecan and say that we believe in the old adage that one raindrop doesn't make a shower. It has a fair crop this year, and they are just as green as my Stuarts now. There is another tree that originated in West Tennessee which Mr. McDaniel chose to call this nut "Rhodes heartnut." This tree is 7 years old from a dormant bud on a 2-year-old black walnut seedling growing on my back yard. It bore two clusters its second growing season, and since that time it has borne annually, the crops increasing in proportion to the size of the tree. This year's crop consisted of 88 clusters of nuts, with an average nut count of 10.2 nuts per cluster, giving a total of almost 900 nuts on this 7-year-old tree. There is one more figure I'd like to give you. The count of clusters compared to the number of terminals we had this spring is better than 90 per cent clusters. I have a few bud sticks here cut from green water sprouts. That's the only kind I can find a sprout on. I brought them up to Mr. McDaniel. If anybody can talk Mr. McDaniel out of a bud he wanted to try, but I don't really know what plans he had for these bud sticks. The 7 or 8 other varieties of heartnuts I have growing don't have any that have clusters like the Rhodes. Scab Disease in Eastern Kentucky on the Busseron Pecan W. D. ARMSTRONG, _University of Kentucky, Princeton, Kentucky_ MR. ARMSTRONG: Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen: It is nice to be here at the Northern Nut Growers meeting. This is my second session. I attend all the pecan and nut sessions in the country. I have attended Georgia-Florida Pecan Growers Association and Oklahoma and Texas Pecan Growers Association. These plates that I have contain some of the Busseron pecans affected with pecan scab. The disease has shown up in Southeastern Kentucky, about a hundred miles southeast of Lexington, a hundred miles west of the Virginia line, and about a hundred miles north of the Tennessee line, on a straight line west of Roanoke, Virginia. These trees were planted in bottom soil, rather well drained, and they made a rapid growth. In the original planting there were two Green River pecans, one Major, one Busseron and two walnuts, a Stabler and a Thomas. About 1946 we noticed that all of the pecans on the Busseron were like these that we have here--did not mature, completely covered with scab fungus and dropped off the tree. The shells were so thin that you could just crush the whole pecan, hull, shell and all with no meats in them. The Major tree right beside it and the two Green River trees had none of this trouble, and they have none of it as yet. And each year now that this Busseron tree has borne there, practically all of the nuts have been like this. At the time we located this disease first in 1946, I sent samples to the U.S.D.A. at Washington and also to the Southeastern Pecan Laboratory at Albany, Georgia, and Dr. Cole, there identified it as pecan scab. I reported the presence of the disease to Mr. Wilkinson and to Dr. Colby and they were surprised to see the disease on Busseron in any location, and particularly that far north. In the south this disease frequently affects Schley, Delmas, Alley and Van Deman and some others. Formerly the trees were sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture. I think they are using Zerlate now. It's a problem to be reckoned with. It occurs on the nuts and on the leaves, and it is carried over winter on the stems and the one-year shoots. Further News About Oak Wilt E. A. CURL, _Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Ill._ In 1951 a review of the oak wilt situation was given in a paper, "Present Status of the Oak Wilt Disease", at the Forty-Second Annual Meeting of the N.N.G.A. at the University of Illinois. The following report is aimed at bringing up to date the present known distribution of the oak wilt disease, recent developments in scientific research on the disease, and possible control measures. The oak wilt disease is caused by the fungus _Chalara quercina_ Henry and is characterized by a very noticeable bronzing and wilting of leaves that drop prematurely. Brown streaks are usually present in the outer sapwood. These symptoms may be seen from June to September or until normal autumn colors of the foliage develop. More than 30 species of oak are known to be susceptible to the disease. Other susceptible genera of the family Fagaceae are Chinese chestnut, _Castanea mollissima_, golden chinquapin, _Castanopsis chrysophylla_, tanbark oak, _Lithocarpus densifiora_, and _Nothofagus_ from South America. The red and black oaks seem to be most susceptible and are often killed within 6 weeks after infection. Distribution During the past few years the oak wilt disease has spread with such rapidity and destructiveness among valuable forest and shade oaks in parts of the eastern half of the United States that its seriousness is now well recognized. At present oak wilt is known to be in the following states: Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, Illinois, Missouri, Indiana, northern Arkansas, eastern Kansas, southeastern Nebraska, Ohio, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, northwestern Virginia, western part of North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, northeastern Kentucky, western Maryland and southern Michigan. Aerial surveys for 1952 are not yet complete, but there are indications of extensive new infections in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia while the other states show a moderate increase in the number of infections. The first case of oak wilt in Illinois was seen in Rockford in 1942. Today 54 of the 102 counties in the state have oak wilt areas. The disease is present in both the extreme northern part and the southern-most tip of the state. Practically all wilt areas in the southern half of Illinois consist of 5 trees or less that appear to have died within the last 4 years, indicating a recent spread of the disease southward. A similar condition exists in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas. Developments in Research In 1942 a report from the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station revealed that the oak wilt disease was caused by a fungus, and research programs were started early in Wisconsin and Iowa. Neighboring states were quick to follow as surveys showed a wider distribution of the disease. Now almost every state in which oak wilt occurs is taking part in efforts to learn more about the disease and its causal agent so that practical control measures may be applied before the spread of the disease gets out of hand. The National Oak Wilt Research Committee at Memphis, Tennessee, supports in part an intensive oak wilt research program in coordination with several midwestern universities and with the U.S.D.A., Bureau of Forest Pathology. Until recently the causal fungus of oak wilt was known only in its asexual or imperfect form living in the sap stream of infected trees. The most important question to be answered now is how the fungus spreads over long distances from diseased to healthy trees. Before this could be accomplished, however, we had to know how the fungus escapes from the inside to the outside of diseased trees where it can be exposed to agents of dissemination. In the late summer of 1951 clearly visible mycelial mats of the oak wilt fungus were found in Illinois under the loose bark of wilt-killed trees. These mats were usually located beneath cracks in the bark; thus, they were exposed to the outside air and to visiting insects. Most wilt-killed trees contain beneath the bark numerous insect larvae of wood and bark boring beetles. Larvae were frequently found in direct contact with mycelial mats of the fungus. Larvae of the two-lined chestnut borer, _Agrilus bilineatus_, were most abundant, but larvae of species of the families Scolytidae and Cerambycidae were also present in large numbers. In addition to the mycelial mat under the bark there was often present a thick dark pad usually in the center of the mat. It is not known yet what part this pad plays in the life history of the fungus but we do know that it is produced by the same fungus which causes oak wilt. We also found in Illinois that the oak wilt fungus often develops into visible mats from chips of bark and wood that have been chopped from wilt-killed trees and allowed to lie on the moist forest floor. This should be remembered when considering sanitation as a partial means of controlling the disease. In 1951 the sexual or perfect form of the oak wilt fungus was produced on laboratory media in Missouri by crossing different strains of the fungus. The sexual form is recognized by the appearance of microscopic, black, short-beaked fruiting structures or perithecia that are filled with sticky ascospores. This sexual form is a species of _Endoconidiophora_. The sexual form of the fungus was first found in nature in Illinois in the autumn of 1951. The perithecia are produced on the mycelial mats beneath the loose and sometimes cracked bark of diseased oaks. Both the ascospores of the sexual form and the endospores or conidia of the asexual form will cause wilt if the spores are injected into oak trees. From the foregoing information it is apparent that several methods by which the disease might be spread over long distances are possible. First, and what seems to be most probable, is transmission by insects. Adult beetles, such as the two-lined chestnut borer, which emerge from dead trees in the spring and feed on the leaves of healthy trees might transmit the spores of the fungus. Other insects might feed on the fungus mats that are exposed through cracks in the bark and carry both the sticky ascospores and conidia to other trees. Additional agents that must be considered are woodpeckers, squirrels and air currents. Besides searching for the vector or vectors that spread the disease other important studies are in progress. Among these is the consideration of chemotherapy as a possible means of controlling oak wilt. For our purpose, plant chemotherapy may be defined as the control of disease by chemicals which are introduced into the plant. According to Dr. Paul Hoffman of the Illinois Natural History Survey, a number of chemicals have shown promise in curing small diseased oak trees when treated in a very early stage of the disease. In one instance, trees that were inoculated with the oak wilt fungus then treated with chemicals 2 years ago are still alive. The most promising results were obtained by injecting the chemicals into the soil where they are taken up by the roots and by applying chemicals directly to the foliage in a spray. Trunk injection showed least promise because of the limited distribution of the chemicals through the tree. The use of chemicals for curing wilt-infected trees is still in the early experimental stage and is not yet recommended as a practical control measure. In 1949 Wisconsin workers demonstrated the local spread of oak wilt through natural root grafts. They found that the poisoning of a single healthy tree with sodium arsenite often killed as many as 15 other trees nearby, indicating that their roots were connected. Recently the results of experiments in Wisconsin explained in part what causes the leaves of diseased trees to wilt. When a tree becomes infected it is stimulated to produce tyloses or swellings in the vessels of the wood. Therefore, the flow of water from the roots to the tree top is restricted and the leaves wilt and die. It is also known that the fungus itself produces a toxin which might be responsible for the actual killing effect on the tree. In Illinois experiments are being conducted with insects in relation to the spread of oak wilt. Insects of various species are collected from wilt-killed trees and allowed to run over or feed on laboratory cultures of the oak wilt fungus. The insects are then caged on parts of healthy trees to feed on the leaves. A single red oak treated in this way contracted the disease and died. This shows that the disease can be transmitted by an insect. Controlling the Disease The spread of oak wilt in local areas may be stopped by preventing the underground movement of the disease from tree to tree through natural root grafts. This can be done by (1) poisoning all healthy trees within 50 feet of diseased trees, (2) cutting a ditch 30 inches deep with a small trenching machine between diseased and healthy trees to sever root connections or (3) severing root connections with a tractor drawn plow on which a knife blade is attached. Unfortunately the use of such heavy equipment is not practical in rocky and hilly areas. Chemicals used for killing trees are sodium arsenite and ammate. Ammate is safe to use but does not kill trees as rapidly as the other poison. In some localities 2,4,5-T used as a trunk spray has given satisfactory results in killing small trees. If infected trees are left standing mycelial mats with their numerous spores develop under the loosening bark. It is therefore advisable to cut and burn all parts of diseased trees as soon as possible after symptoms appear. A combination trenching and eradication program was started in the summer of 1950 in the Forest Preserve District of Cook County in Illinois. According to Mr. Noel B. Wysong, Chief Forester, 2 newly wilted trees were found in the Forest Preserve in 1948, 72 trees in 1949, 141 trees in 1950, and 96 trees in 1951. The count for 1952 is not complete but a continued decrease in the number of new infections would indicate good control. There is no information on resistant species of oak. In very rare cases, however, trees have been observed to recover after showing symptoms in the early spring. Future Outlook Among the many things that we need to know yet about the oak wilt disease and its causal fungus one is outstanding. How does the disease jump from one infection center to healthy trees 200 yards, 2 miles or even 100 miles away? Although spread through root grafts may be controlled by severing root connections, the value of such a control measure is limited as long as the agent or agents responsible for long distance spread remain unknown. The discovery of other methods of spread might result in the development of control measures that are cheaper and less drastic than those known at present. A great deal remains to be done and research is increasing in the various states concerned. There is reason to believe that oak wilt can be checked before it reaches devastating proportions comparable to chestnut blight which wiped out our American chestnuts. MR. SLATE: What is the origin of the fungus? Is it a native fungus, or imported? MR. CURL: Yes, it is a native fungus, as far as we know. MR. SLATE: Any evidence that the fungus is mutating to make more virulent strains? MR. CURL: That's something that hasn't been found yet. There are several strains of the fungus, what we call strains, because they will form the sexual stage, and a strain alone will not. There is not too much known about that yet, the strain business. MR. GRAVATT: Just a word. We had a conference in Beltsville all day Sunday about the recent developments on the oak wilt. There has been very extensive spread in Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia and Maryland this year. We are very much alarmed about the situation. The Chinese chestnut is very severely affected. We have learned that in Missouri. One year there were three Chinese chestnuts killed by the fungus, the next year 60. The oak wilt is a serious threat to the chestnut orchards. Life History and Control of the Pecan Spittle Bug STEWART CHANDLER, _Associate Entomologist, Ill. Nat. History Survey, Urbana, Ill., Consulting Entomologist, Southern Illinois University_ Since it was a year ago that this subject of spittle bug was first brought to the attention of the Northern Nut Growers Association, it might be well to review briefly the high lights of that report. I told you at the annual meeting at Urbana, something of the life history. There are two broods, one appearing in June and one in July. The adult is a small sucking bug about an eighth to a quarter inch long. The species at that time was uncertain but now has been determined by specialists in that group as _Cercoptera achatina_ Germ. This insect, I reported, is not the same as the one occurring on meadow and other field crops, not only the species but the genus being different. The distribution was found to be in every area where pecans are grown. As to its importance I pointed out that in Illinois it had become very serious in the past three or four years, apparently causing a marked reduction in crop. Control measures were directed against the nymphal stage, which is protected by the spittle which the insect emits continuously while feeding. Three insecticides were tested at Anna, Illinois, Lindane, parathion, and tetra ethyl pyro phosphate, known as TEPP. Lindane proved to be approximately 95% efficient, parathion roughly 60% and TEPP about 10%. In 1952 the work was resumed in the orchard of Conrad Casper near Anna, Illinois and was begun at the Richard Best place at Eldred, 175 miles northwest. In 1952 five phases of the work with pecan spittle bug were undertaken as follows: 1. A study of the importance of the pecan spittle bug. 2. The hibernation of the insect. 3. Life history and occurrence of the various stages and broods of the insect in relation to nut development of the pecan. 4. Control measures. 5. Varietal susceptibility to the insect. 1. Importance of the insect _Hibernation Studies_ To learn to what extent if any the insect reduces the crop of pecans, terminal shoots from trees sprayed the previous season with three different materials were compared with the unsprayed check. These are shown in Table 1. Table 1. Pecan spittle bug effect of 1951 sprays on terminal shoots in spring of 1952 =================================================== Dead shoots Treatment per hundred Check 87 TEPP 62 Parathion 17 Lindane 4 =================================================== Since these terminals shoots later develop most of the nuts it would appear that the pecan spittle bug is responsible for much of the loss of crop under these heavy infestations. It was planned to follow this up with later examination of nuts, and this was done with the assistance of Mr. J. C. McDaniel, but unfortunately it was found that this was the off year and the crop was very small, so we could not definitely settle that point. This will be a job for the future. 2. Hibernation studies. In August of 1951, I introduced adult bugs into a cage placed over a branch of an unsprayed pecan tree for the purpose of determining whether there was possibly a third brood. Finding none the branch was removed and examined to study the hibernating eggs and the egg slits in which they were layed. The slits were not over a quarter inch long and frequently in pairs. Eggs were deep enough that they were rarely seen without opening the slits. Many slits were found containing egg shells, presumably from the previous brood, but possibly from a season earlier as the slits are corked over. Following this study branches were cut from the sprayed and unsprayed blocks and gone over very carefully to find the numbers and location of the egg splits and the numbers containing live eggs and egg shells. Each split would contain as many as 5 or 6 eggs. Table 2 show their numbers and locations, and Table 3 the effect of sprays on numbers of live eggs. Table 2. Pecan Spittle Bug Location of egg slits in branches ================================================================= Diameter of branches, inches 1/8 to 1/4 3/4 3/8 1/2 1/2 to 1 inch ----------------------------------------------------------------- Live eggs 2 9 3 1 0 Egg shells 5 42 94 23 0 ----------------------------------------------------------------- Table 3. Pecan Spittle Bug Effect of 1951 sprays on number of eggs Examinations made March 4, 1952 ======================================================= Inches wood Number of Slits with Treatment examined live eggs egg shells ------------------------------------------------------- Check 508 10 63 TEPP 795 5 25 Lindane 478 0 13 ------------------------------------------------------- 3. Life history and correlation of stages of insect and nut development. It was soon found that the pecan spittle bug was putting in its appearance earlier according to the calendar than in 1951 so an effort was made during the season to correlate insect life history and nut development during the season. Table 4 give some of the principal points in both. Table 4. Pecan Spittle Bug and Nut Development Anna, Illinois, 1952 -------------------------------------------------------------- Insect Date Tree -------------------------------------------------------------- Egg stage Apr. 24 Catkins 1/2 to 3/4 inch First nymphs May 5 Catkins 1 to 1-1/2 inch Many nymphs and spittle May 12 Catkins 2 to 3 inches Fruit buds Peak hatch May 20 Female flowers Spittle drying June 2 Nuts developing 1st. 2nd brood June 27 Hatch mostly over July 7 Spittle drying July 26 -------------------------------------------------------------- Another phase of life history which is of practical importance is the increase of second brood over first. Records were made both at Anna and at Eldred in unsprayed blocks at approximately the peaks of occurrence of nymphs and spittle, and are tabulated in Table 5. Table 5. Pecan Spittle Bug Infestation, first and second broods, 1952 Number of spittle masses per 100 terminals ========================================================== First brood, June Second brood, July ---------------------------------------------------------- Anna 41 62 Eldred 23 50 ---------------------------------------------------------- This table shows an increase of approximately 50% at Anna and 100% at Eldred. It is thought that a 3 inch flash flood which occurred at Anna might have reduced the first brood infestation somewhat after the counts were made and been responsible for no greater increase and possibly that the heat and drought in both places might have resulted in a reduction. Be that as it may the total infestation was not as severe in 1952 as in 1951. 4. Control. _First Brood Sprays_ It was originally planned to spray in both places but at Anna the owner sprayed all but the 1951 check block with parathion early and the infestation was reduced to the point where later hatch did not build up to a sufficient point that good results could be observed so no spraying was done at Anna till the second brood. At Eldred two materials only were available, Lindane and Dieldrin. At Eldred we had two difficulties in spraying. One was the type of machine with which I was not familiar and the other the inaccessibility of some of the trees. The machine is probably more fitted for field crop work than for large trees. It is called a Mechanical Aresol Generator, manufactured by the Hessian Microsol Corporation of Darien, Conn. The engine is a Wisconsin Air cooled motor made in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The machine was mounted on a platform and transported in the orchard on a truck. Two fifty gallon barrels constitute the tank. Due to the nature of the machine and to lack of agitation only liquid materials can be used in it. It uses a much smaller amount of material than I had been accustomed to, and my first job was to learn to what extent the materials must be concentrated to compensate for the small output and how to get a comparison with the amounts used in regular orchard sprayer. In concentrate tests on fruit trees we arrive at this by judging the number of gallons which a tree would normally receive with a standard sprayer. There was little background to go on with nut trees and the problem was further complicated by the arrangement of trees which were not planted but grafted in their original positions in the woods. A clump of trees which could not be approached individually might have to receive not much more material than one tree which could be hit from both sides. Sizes of trees also varied. It was decided to use only 25 gallon lots of material and even this small amount sprayed from 55 to 65 trees of varying sizes. It was soon seen that the tops of the moderate and large sized trees were not covered very well. For the first brood sprays at Eldred about six times as much material per 100 gallons was used as had been successful at Anna the previous season. The results are shown in Table 6. Table 6. Spittle Bug Control, Eldred, 1952 First brood, sprayed May 23, examined June 9 ========================================================= Treatment Amount in Spittle masses 100 gallons 800 terminals --------------------------------------------------------- Dieldrin 1 gal. of 18-1/2% 18 Lindane 1 gal. of 20% 27 Check ------ 189 --------------------------------------------------------- It will be seen that the reduction over the unsprayed blocks was about 90% with Dieldrin and 85% with Lindane. For second brood sprays at Eldred materials were increased to about 8 times normal in hopes of getting better results. In this test 10 trees were selected in each block that could be reached moderately well and sprayed separately before the entire block was sprayed. Records were made the day before spraying, 3 days after spraying, and 10 days after spraying. Four materials were available, making five blocks with an unsprayed check. The results of these sprayings are given in Table 7. Table 7. Spittle Bug Control, Eldred, 1952 Second brood, sprayed July 18 ============================================================ Treatment Amounts in In 200 terminals 100 gallons July 17 July 21 July 28 ------------------------------------------------------------ Lindane 6 qts. of 20% 123 24 2 BHC 10 qts. of 11.7% 98 11 0 Dieldrin 6 qts. of 18-1/2% 130 19 9 Toxaphene 8 qts. of 58% 107 16 3 Check ------ 99 98 47 ------------------------------------------------------------ Due to the natural reduction in the check by July 28 most attention probably should be given to the July 21 examination. This table shows approximately 92% reduction from Lindane, 87% with BHC, 85% from Dieldrin, and 85% from Toxaphene on July 21. At Anna trees are all very big, from 50 to 75 feet high. They are planted in rows. A regular orchard sprayer was used with 600 pounds pressure using one gun and sprayed from the top of the rig. Approximately 25 gallons was used per tree. As will be noted the dosage was much smaller than at Eldred, and for ordinary use these are probably the proper dosages. Table 8 gives the results of these tests. Table 8. Pecan Spittle Bug Control, Anna, 1952 ================================================================== Treatment Amounts in In 200 terminals 100 gallons July 10 July 14 July 22 ------------------------------------------------------------------ Lindane 1 lb. of 25% 214 1 1 BHC 2-1/2 lbs. of 10% 244 5 9 Dieldrin 1 and 1/3 pints of 18-1/2% 148 3 5 Toxaphene 1 qt. of 31% 146 22 21 Check 61 47 20 ------------------------------------------------------------------- The reduction in the check block July 14 may be due to proximity to the sprayed block which was not true in Eldred. This check was small. Table 8 shows on July 14 an approximate reduction of Lindane 99%, BHC 98%, Dieldrin 98%, and Toxaphene 85%. From these tests in both places it appears that we have a choice of three very good materials, Lindane, Benzene hexachloride called BHC and Dieldrin, and for that reason we can ignore the less efficient material, toxaphene. At Eldred, since first brood sprays were applied in a sizeable area records of infestation were made shortly before time to spray for the second brood to determine whether the first brood spraying would eliminate the need for second brood spraying. However, the infestation was found to be practically as great in this area as the unsprayed part of the woods. It appears that the control was not good enough to allow this. In part this was due to failure to reach the tops of the trees. Records were made in the lower parts. 5. Varietal susceptibility. At Anna where there was a limited number of trees, the orchards were plotted on paper and location of each tree with variety indicated records were made of each tree separately, in hopes that some varietal susceptibility would be shown. There is nothing very clear in this respect except that of the varieties in the Casper orchard, Butterick, Busseron, Indiana, Posey, Stewart, Osburn, Major, Green River, the Indiana and Posey may be a little more heavily infested than the others. At Eldred for the second brood infestation, the variety of each of the 10 record trees was reported, but there were so many varieties and they did not occur often enough in the five plots to make variety infestation data reliable. However, the rather high average on the Indiana variety did seem to corroborate the findings at Anna. There was some foliage burn in two of the record trees in the Dieldrin plot at Eldred, both being the variety Rockville. Another tree in another part of the plot was also found to be burned and also found to be the same variety, so it appears that this may be particularly susceptible to spraying especially in this concentrated form such as we used. There were no Rockville trees in any of the other plots, so we have no way of knowing whether the Lindane, BHC or Toxaphene would have done the same or not. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: The next paper, the last paper of the afternoon, is Control of Insects Injuring Nut Trees, by Howard Baker, U.S.D.A. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, Beltsville, Md. MR. BAKER: Mr. Chairman, members of the Northern Nut Growers Association: It is a great deal of pleasure to be back here speaking before a group of nut growers. Back some years ago my first assignment to a station of which I had charge was an investigation to count insects in Louisiana and Eastern Texas, so it is a pleasure to be back before a group of nut growers. Insect Enemies of Northern Tree Nuts HOWARD BAKER, _U.S.D.A., Agr. Res. Admin., Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine_ The small number of requests for information on insect pests of northern tree nuts received in the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine is a strong indication that such pests are of little concern to northern nut growers. This is fortunate, because intensive, all-season spray programs, such as are necessary to produce most other crops without serious losses due to insect injury, are laborious and expensive and not always as effective as desired. However, as your acreage is increased and as your trees become older and larger, insect problems are likely to increase in number and intensity and require more of your thought and attention. A somewhat similar situation prevailed in the pecan industry at one time in the South. I well remember the statement of one of the larger pecan growers in Louisiana to the effect that all the pleasure of growing pecans would be gone the day he had to start spraying to control insects and diseases. Only a short time later it became necessary for him to initiate a regular spray program. He still took great pride in growing pecans, however. It is well, therefore, for you to watch your trees closely for insect damage and keep informed concerning the habits and control of the species that show up in your plantings or in those of your neighbors. Because of the scattered nature of the northern nut industry, the small size of most plantings, and the more pressing demands for information on the control of pests of more intensively planted crops, it has not been possible for the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine to give attention to many of the pests of northern nuts. A great deal of work has been done on the pests of pecans in the South, and some work on those that attack filberts and chestnuts. In addition, some of the pests with which you are concerned, or others similar to them, are receiving attention in connection with studies of pests of tree fruits. The results of these studies will give you up-to-date information applicable to your particular problems. The timely use of insecticides is the most effective means of combating most injurious insects, but if spraying is not possible, other methods can often be used to prevent or reduce damage. A great many new insecticides have become available during the last six or seven years. Work with them has resulted in the development of treatments effective against a number of pests for which there was formerly no known means of control and markedly more effective treatments for the control of others. It is my purpose to bring to you as much of this new information as is applicable to your problems. Leaf-feeding Caterpillars The fall webworm[3] and the walnut caterpillar[4] are the leaf-feeding caterpillars most commonly reported as attacking northern tree nuts. Fall webworms[5] are the insects usually responsible for unsightly webs on or near the end of the branches of the trees during the summer and fall. They enlarge the webs as they need more leaves. When nearly full grown they scatter to complete their feeding. The full-grown caterpillars are a little more than an inch in length and are covered with long black and white hairs. They spend the winter in cocoons in trash on the ground or just below the surface of the soil. There are two broods a year in many areas, the second usually being the more numerous. Control can be obtained by applying a spray containing 3 pounds of lead arsenate with an equal quantity of hydrated lime (to prevent possible injury to the foliage), 2 pounds of 50-percent DDT wettable powder, or 2 pounds of 15-percent parathion wettable powder per 100 gallons of water. Apply the spray when the caterpillars are still small. Follow the precautions furnished with each package. Parathion is a particularly dangerous material to use. If you are not equipped to spray or have only a few trees, you can control this insect by removing the webs from the trees with a long-handled pruner or a long bamboo pole with a hook at the end. The walnut caterpillar feeds in groups, or colonies, and commonly eats all the leaves on small trees or on certain limbs on large trees. The winter is spent in cocoons in the ground. The moths appear late in the spring or early in the summer and lay masses of eggs on the underside of the leaves. From time to time as they grow, the stout, black caterpillars go down to a large limb or to the trunk of the tree to molt, or shed their skins. After molting they return toward the ends of the branches and resume their feeding. This insect can be controlled with the same spray treatments that are recommended for the fall webworm, and also by crushing or burning the caterpillars when they are clustered on the lower limbs or tree trunks. Pecan Phylloxera[6] Swellings called galls sometimes appear on leaves, leafstalks, succulent shoots, or nuts of the current season's growth of hickory and pecan. These galls are caused by small insects known as phylloxera, which are closely related to aphids, or plant lice. Several species are involved, but only one, known as the pecan phylloxera, causes serious damage. It causes twigs to become malformed, weakened and finally to die, and destroys the crop on the infested terminals. The insect passes the winter in the egg stage in protected places on the trees. The young appear in the spring about the time the buds begin to unfold. The phylloxera can be controlled by spraying the trees thoroughly with a mixture containing 3/4 pint of nicotine sulfate plus 2-1/2 gallons of lime-sulfur or 2 quarts of lubricating-oil emulsion to 100 gallons of water during the delayed dormant period or by the time buds show about an inch of green. Sprays containing 3 pounds of BHC (10-percent gamma) or 1-1/4 pounds of 25-percent lindane wettable powder per 100 gallons are also effective, and their use is increasing. Other materials have given good control when applied about the time the buds begin to swell. They are 36-percent dinitro-o-sec-butylphenol liquid, 3 quarts per 100 gallons, and a mixture of 40-percent dinitro-o-cyclohexylphenol powder, 2 pounds, and lubricating-oil emulsion, 5 quarts, per 100 gallons of spray. Do not use the dinitro materials after the buds begin to open. Twig Girdler A stout, brown beetle about 1/2 inch in length, known as the twig girdler,[7] often cuts off the twigs of hickory, pecan, and many other trees in the late summer and early fall. The larvae spend the winter in the cut twigs, which are gradually broken off and fall to the ground. Injury can be reduced by collecting and destroying the fallen twigs before the larvae complete development the following spring. Recent work on pecans in Florida indicates that most injury can be prevented by applying a spray containing 4 pounds of 50-percent DDT or 3 pounds of 15-percent parathion wettable powder per 100 gallons of water. Three applications appear to be necessary, the first when the injured branches are first noticed, usually sometime in August, and the second and third two and four weeks later. When handling parathion be sure to follow the precautions on the package. Weevils and Curculios Weevils and curculios are small, hard-shelled, grayish to brown beetles about 1/4 to 1/2 inch long, with stiff, slender snouts or beaks. They feed and lay eggs in the nuts and/or shoots of many kinds of nuts, including hickory, walnut, pecan, chestnut, hazelnut or filbert, and butternut. There are a number of species, but most of them attack only one kind of nut. The species usually called weevils most often lay eggs and injure the nuts from the time the meat begins to form until it is mature, whereas the group known as curculios generally emerge and cause most serious damage during the early part of the growing season, when the new shoots are developing and the crop starts to set and grow. The chestnut weevils are probably the weevils best known to most of you. E. R. VanLeeuwen, of the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, has added much to our knowledge of these weevils in recent years. Two species, the small chestnut weevil[8] and the large chestnut weevil,[9] are commonly present together and cause similar injury. The small chestnut weevil appears as an adult over a period of about 6 weeks beginning near the first of May in the vicinity of Beltsville, Md., but it does not lay eggs until about the middle of August. The larger species does not emerge until about the middle of August and begins to lay eggs soon thereafter. Eggs are laid in the developing nuts, and injury is caused by the feeding of the larvae therein. Most of the small weevils require two years to complete development, and most of the larger weevils but one year. Some control of these weevils can be obtained by collecting and destroying the infested nuts before the larvae leave them to enter the soil. Better control can be obtained by spraying the trees with DDT. Apply a spray containing 4 pounds of 50-percent DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons of water (3 level tablespoonfuls per gallon) 30 days before the first mature nuts are expected to drop, and make two additional applications at intervals of 7 days. If you are not equipped to spray, you may obtain some control by treating the soil under the trees with ethylene dibromide at a depth of 5 inches. Make injections at intervals of 1 foot in each direction and also in the center of each square formed by these injection holes. Place 1 milliliter of 40-percent ethylene dibromide or an equivalent quantity of another dilution in each hole. Make the application in the fall immediately after the nuts are harvested and close the injection holes by pressing with the foot. The soil should preferably be loose to a depth of 5 inches. The pecan weevil,[10] also known as the hickory nut weevil, often causes heavy losses of pecans and most species of hickory. Two or three years are required for the insect to complete its life cycle, but some specimens reach maturity every year. Adults emerge from the ground from the middle of July until early in September, according to locality and seasonal conditions. Injury is of two types--(1) that resulting from attack before the shell-hardening period in July and August, causing the young nuts to drop, and (2) that resulting from attack after kernel formation, the kernel being destroyed by the developing larvae, or grubs. Egg deposition in the nuts usually begins late in August. To control this weevil spray the trees twice with 6 pounds of 50-percent DDT or 40-percent toxaphene wettable powder per 100 gallons of water. Make the first application when at least six weevils can be jarred onto a sheet on the ground beneath any tree known to have been infested in previous seasons, and make the second 10 to 14 days later. The first application will be needed sometime between the last week in July and the first week in September. If the soil is hard and dry, it will delay emergence of the weevils. If you are not equipped to spray, you can reduce weevil injury about 50 percent by jarring the limbs of the trees lightly and gathering the weevils on a sheet during the period of emergence. The dislodged weevils will remain quiet on the sheet long enough to be picked up and destroyed. Begin jarring about the last week in July and confine it to two or three trees until the first weevils appear. Then jar all trees at weekly intervals until about the middle of September, when egg laying will have been largely completed. The butternut curculio[11] attacks native butternuts and introduced nuts of a similar type. It passes the winter as an adult in trash or other shelter it can find in the vicinity of nut trees. It is a small, hard-shelled, rough-backed snout beetle. Late in the spring it makes its way to the trees, and lays eggs in the young shoots. On hatching, the young larva penetrates into the young shoot or leaf stem or nut and feeds there, causing the leaf or nut to dry up and fall off. Upon completing development in the fallen leaf or nut, the mature larva enters the soil. After a month or so in the ground the adult emerges, feeds on the foliage for a while, and then enters hibernation. There is but one generation a year. The black walnut curculio[12] is similar to the butternut curculio in seasonal history, but it attacks principally the fruit of the black walnut and butternut, apparently preferring the former. The hickory nut curculio[13] is much like the preceding two species, but it attacks chiefly partly grown hickory nuts, causing a heavy dropping in midsummer. The hickory shoot curculio[14] attacks chiefly the shoots of various kinds of hickory. The damage is seldom of much importance except to newly transplanted trees. On pecan it attacks the unfolding buds and shoots. Pecans most commonly attacked are those that are uncultivated or are adjacent to woodlands containing native pecan and hickory trees. For many years these curculios have been controlled by spraying the trees soon after growth starts with lead arsenate, 2 pounds per 100 gallons, plus an equal amount of hydrated lime. One or two additional applications may be needed as new growth appears or as the nuts increase in size. Recent experimental work indicates that BHC or lindane may be more effective for controlling these insects. A spray containing 3 or 4 pounds of technical BHC (10-percent gamma) or 1-1/2 to 2 pounds of 25-percent lindane wettable powder per 100 gallons, applied when the buds show from 1/4 to 1 inch of green growth or when jarrings show adults are present, has given fairly good control. Walnut Husk Maggot The walnut husk maggot[15] attacks black and English walnuts, butternuts, and a few other nuts. The feeding of the larva, or maggot, in the husks impairs the quality of the kernels, discolors the shell, and often causes the shells to adhere to the nuts. It causes the most damage to English walnuts. This insect hibernates in the pupal stage in the ground. In midsummer it transforms to the adult fly stage, leaves the soil, and flies to the nut trees. After 1 to 3 weeks the flies lay eggs in the husks of the developing nuts. The eggs hatch in a week or 10 days, and the young maggots burrow within and throughout the husks of the nuts; they mature in the fall. The walnut husk maggot can be controlled by spraying the trees with lead arsenate or cryolite the latter part of July and again 3 to 4 weeks later. Use 2 or 3 pounds of lead arsenate plus an equal quantity of hydrated lime or 3 pounds of cryolite per 100 gallons of water. Filbert Moth The filbert moth,[16] a serious pest in some filbert orchards in Oregon, also causes some injury to chestnuts. Adult moths begin emerging toward the end of June and lay their eggs singly on the leaves beginning early in July. The newly hatched larvae tunnel through the husk and feed between the husk and the chestnut shell before entering the nut. This feeding produces a gummy substance, which causes the husk to adhere to the nut. The larvae may tunnel into the center of the kernel or excavate an irregular cavity in the side. They reach maturity about the time nuts are ripe, and then leave the nuts and construct cocoons in the soil in which to pass the winter. Control can be obtained by spraying the tree with lead arsenate or DDT early in July. Use 3 pounds of lead arsenate or 2 pounds of 50-percent DDT wettable powder in 100 gallons of water. Mites Two general types of mites sometimes damage nut trees, eriophyid mites and spider mites. The most important eriophyid mites are the wormlike gall mites and bud mites, most of which overwinter in the buds and cause deformities of the buds and leaves and otherwise limit their development. The spider mites may overwinter in the egg stage on the twigs or as adults in protected places on or beneath the trees. These mites feed primarily on the foliage. The filbert bud mite[17] is occasionally of economic importance as a pest of filberts in Oregon and has been of some concern recently in New York. It attacks the leaf and flower buds and catkins. Infested catkins become distorted, rigid, and brittle, and yield no pollen. In Oregon this pest has been controlled with 3 gallons of a dormant oil emulsion or 6-1/2 to 8 gallons of liquid lime-sulfur in water to make 100 gallons of spray just as the buds are opening. Related species of similar habits that attack walnuts have been controlled with 9 or 10 gallons of liquid lime-sulfur in water to make 100 gallons of spray applied at the time the buds break or soon thereafter. The feeding of the spider mites on the foliage of infested trees causes it first to have a bronzed or scorched appearance, and later to dry up and fall. These mites frequently become abundant following the use of some of the new organic insecticides, such as DDT and BHC, which destroy their natural enemies and perhaps have other effects on the trees favorable to mite activity. The European red mite, which overwinters on the trees in the egg stage, can be controlled by application of 3-percent oil-emulsion spray in the late-dormant period. The two-spotted spider mite and related species, as well as the European red mite if it is not controlled with the dormant spray, can be controlled with a spray containing 1 pound of a 15-percent parathion or 1-1/2 pounds of a 15-percent Aramite wettable powder per 100 gallons. Apply the spray before many leaves show the typical bronzing or leaf scorching. If the infestation is heavy, a second application may be necessary in about 8 or 10 days. Be sure to follow the precautions on the container, especially if you use parathion. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: We greatly appreciate your care in getting this thing together, and we know it is going to be a great help to us when we get it printed as a matter of reference. MR. O'ROURKE: I'd like to ask Dr. Baker if insects are getting stronger or if the chemicals are getting weaker. I refer to the rates of application. Formerly we were told that one-half pound of parathion for one hundred gallons and one pound of DDT would control almost all insects. I note the rates are going up. MR. BAKER: That's true, particularly with parathion. The first year that we tested parathion on any scale we thought a quarter to a half a pound would control mites for 30 days or more and would control curculio for 20 or 30 days, but the next year we used it we found that was a little optimistic. It seems that each year since we have had to use more of it or use it more often, or with mites, particularly, there are a number of instances where it just doesn't control them at all. Two years ago that came to notice in the Wenatchee area of Washington on apples. Mites in a certain orchard just couldn't be controlled with parathion. A year ago the area in the Pacific Northwest where that was true was extended and included several orchards of the Yakima Valley. This year it also includes orchards in the East, in New York. We have seen an orchard where two pounds of parathion and a hundred gallons of water just didn't have much effect on the mites, and we have had to use other materials. We hear of instances of codling moth on apples where DDT doesn't seem to be as good as it was in the beginning. I have talked with some of the people working on the problem, and they find that there is quite a difference between different brands of some of these insecticides. Possibly that is the answer. MR. MACHOVINA: After spraying for shuck maggot with DDT do you encourage the presence of mites? MR. BAKER: It's very possible that you might. That has happened where DDT has been used. With some of our work with chestnut weevils, mites seem to be a little more abundant where we used DDT. We have had reports of this happening in California where they used DDT on walnuts. So it is a possibility, and that's why I brought into the paper a little information on the control of mites. Session closed at 4:15 o'clock, p.m. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 3: _Hyphantria cunea_ (Drury).] [Footnote 4: _Datana integerrima_ G. & R.] [Footnote 5: _Clastoptera achatina_ Germ.] [Footnote 6: _Phylloxera devastatrix_ Perg.] [Footnote 7: _Oncideres cingulata_ (Say).] [Footnote 8: _Curculio auriger_ Casey.] [Footnote 9: _C. proboscideus_ F.] [Footnote 10: _Curculio caryae_ (Horn).] [Footnote 11: _Conotrachelus juglandis_ Lee.] [Footnote 12: _Conotrachelus retentus_ Say.] [Footnote 13: _Conotrachelus affinis_ Boh.] [Footnote 14: _Conotrachelus aratus_ Germ.] [Footnote 15: _Rhagoletis suavis_ Loew.] [Footnote 16: _Melissopus latiferreanus_ (Wlsm.)] [Footnote 17: _Phytoptus avellanae_ Nal.] TUESDAY EVENING BANQUET SESSION We will now have the report of the Resolutions Committee. MR. DAVIDSON: "To Royal Oakes, Chairman of the Program Committee, and to J. Ford Wilkinson, the City of Rockport and its hospitable people, the Northern Nut Growers Association extends its grateful greetings to you and to your loyal helpers, mentioning only a few; that is, Mrs. Negus, Mr. and Mrs. Sly, Mr. Richard Best, a group of people who say little and who do much, our very hearty thanks to you and to your helpers. We have had a splendid meeting, good attendance, good fellowship and tomorrow a good field trip. "RESOLUTION: The sincere and grateful appreciation of this Association is hereby tendered to J. C. McDaniel, who has so faithfully and fruitfully served it as Secretary for five years. Your creation of new avenues of service, such as _The Nutshell_ is sufficient evidence of your resourcefulness in a difficult and most important office. "RESOLUTION: Be it resolved, that this Association instruct its Secretary to communicate the following action to the responsible agencies of Federal and State authorities in all areas where the oak wilt disease is present or threatens: "'The oak wilt disease threatens severe damage to our eastern and southern oaks and Chinese chestnut trees. Recently reported spread of the disease in Ohio, West Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania indicates a very serious and critical situation. All state and federal authorities are urged to take prompt and appropriate action before it is too late.'" All NNGA members are asked to write to their state and federal senators and representatives urging immediate preventive measures against the spread and for the eradication of the oak wilt disease. Please write those letters. They are important. "To Dr. Deming, greetings and congratulations from your Association on the occasion of your 90th birthday, September 1, 1952. May your years continue to be golden and happy. May our organization deserve in the future the gifts of inspiration and accomplishment that you have had so large a part in giving it in the past." "To Dr. J. Russell Smith: The Northern Nut Growers assembled at Rockport send greetings and best wishes to you. We miss you this year and hope to see you at Rochester, New York, next year." "To Mildred Jones Langdoc. Mildred: We have missed you at our meeting. Your absence is noted by all who know you. May the illness in your home be short. May we see you and your family in Rochester in 1953." "RESOLUTION: On behalf of the members of the Northern Nut Growers Association the Secretary is asked to send our affectionate greetings to two well-loved, absent members, Mrs. C. A. Reed and Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman: 'Best wishes to you both for speedy recovery of good health and with our hope to see you next year.'" PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Is it your pleasure to adopt these resolutions all at once, or do you wish to separate them? I take it that you wish to adopt them, all at the same time, and to that end a motion to accept the report of the Resolutions Committee and to adopt the resolutions and to send the greetings would be appropriate. The report of the resolutions committee was accepted unanimously. MR. MCDANIEL: Before this meeting convened we planned a bud wood exchange at the convention. Mr. Gerardi and I brought some buds, and Mr. Richard brought a few of the Rhodes heartnut. We have persimmons, some buds of the new Crandall apple, and a few sticks of Chinese and hybrid chestnuts. They are for anyone who would like to experiment with them. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: Next year at Rochester we are going to have opportunity for putting on a considerable exhibit of nuts, and I think that it would be much to the advantage of the Association, if we could have an outstanding exhibit there where there is a good chance to have a large number of people see the exhibits and become interested. To that end I think that all of us who have nut trees bearing this fall, should save some samples with extra care; that is, clean them up, make them look attractive and have them on hand ready for the exhibit next fall. A good sample for exhibit should be about 10 or a dozen for black walnuts and the Persian walnuts and perhaps 20 to 25 for the hickories and the smaller nuts, the hazel, particularly. I think that we have a good chance next year to forward the cause of the Association, and certainly having these exhibits will be much to our advantage. At this time, towards the end of our session, it is our usual custom to elect our next year's officers. Before going on with that election, I would just like to say that I personally, as president of the Association during this year, wish to thank all of the other officers who have worked with me. It has been a pleasure to work with them and with the committee chairmen, and I think the meeting here at Rockport and the work during the year attest to their effective service. The Nominations Committee report. For president next year, Mr. R. B. Best; for vice-president, George Salzer of Rochester, New York; for Treasurer, Carl Prell of South Bend, Indiana, who continues in the office; and for Secretary Mr. Spencer Chase of Norris, Tennessee. The slate presented was elected unanimously. A nominating committee consisting of Max Hardy, Gilbert Becker, George Slate, Dr. William Rohrbacker, and Ford Wilkinson was unanimously elected for 1953. PRESIDENT MacDANIELS: I will now call upon our newly elected president to come forward. It is usual at these meetings for the retiring president to present the gavel to the incoming president, and here it is. This gavel is made of pecan wood presented to the Association by Mr. T. P. Littlepage, who was born in this locality. I hope you will have as much fun and pleasure as president of the Association as I have had. It's all yours. MR. WILKINSON: That gavel was made from the wood of a pecan tree. Mr. T. P. Littlepage planted the nut when he was 14 years old on a piece of land that he inherited as a boy. I cut the wood and sent it to him in Washington to have the gavel made of it. Chestnut Breeding Report for 1951-1952 ARTHUR H. GRAVES[18] and HANS NIENSTAEDT, _Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn._ Weather Conditions Two serious enemies of the chestnut, if we disregard parasitic organisms, are drought and extreme cold. The winter of 1950-51 was unusually mild--scarcely cold enough to freeze the ground. The precipitation was plentiful during the winter months so that the water table was sufficient to tide over a slightly dry June and a much more serious drought in September and early October. But the latter dry period came when the nuts were matured, or nearly so. The winter of 1951-52 was again mild except for a short cold spell at the end of January, with plentiful precipitation up to the first week of June, and then a long drought with the driest July since 1944. However, the heavy rainfall of August, 8.69 inches,[19] made amends for this, and with the normal rainfall of 3.48 inches of September, prepared the trees to endure the long drought of October and early November. This serious drought,[20] which resulted in disastrous forest fires filling the air with smoke over much of the New England States, came late, however, after the nuts were nearly matured, some of the early kinds being ripe as early as the first week in September. The excessive heat of July, in which month occurred the greatest number of days on record with a maximum temperature of 90 degrees or above, was probably the chief cause of somewhat smaller results from our cross pollination work. There is evidence, indeed, that for effective fertilization, considerable heat is needed, but not the extreme temperatures that occurred during this period. In spite of the mild winter of 1951-52, the attacks of _Cryptodiaporthe castanea_ (Tul.) Wehmeyer caused considerable twig blight, especially on our crosses of _Castanea mollissimax seguini_. This is not surprising since _C. seguini_ comes from a warmer region in China, but why these attacks should occur during a mild winter is a puzzle. Evidently other factors, such as the drought of the preceding fall, entered in. Hybridization in 1951 and 1952 A total of 2400 hybrid nuts was harvested in the 1951 season and 1690 in 1952. This compares with the 1259 nuts reported for 1950. The increased production over past years can in part be ascribed to a concentration of the efforts on a fewer number of different crosses; while 103 were made in 1950, the total was 77 in 1951 and 80 in 1952. The pollinations followed the same general program in the two seasons, the emphasis being on the Chinese � (Japanese � American) hybrids. This is our most promising timber tree hybrid, and it seems worthwhile to test it on a somewhat larger scale under forest conditions. Therefore, some of the best early crosses have been repeated, new parent trees are being tried and selected hybrids intercrossed. Back-crosses to the native chestnut with the C�JA hybrids were made in an attempt to improve the form of the hybrid. Another cross which has attained some importance in the last years is the hybrid between Japanese chestnut (forest type, from U.S.D.A.) and S-8, the latter being a hybrid between Japanese chestnut and _C. pumila_, the common chinquapin. This cross has a high degree of resistance and a sufficiently good form to make it a possible timber tree (Fig. 1). It is also a fairly good nut bearer with nuts which ripen early, perhaps due to the influence of the chinquapin parent (Fig. 2). Selected individuals of this hybrid were intercrossed, and some crossing with the native chestnut was done. In the last two seasons the total harvest from some older Chinese trees (26 yrs.) was recorded. The best tree yielded 25.0 lbs. in 1951 and 28.2 lbs. in 1952; on other trees the yield varied between 15 to 22 lbs. The average size of the nuts varies considerably from year to year on the same tree. On one Japanese tree the average weight per nut was 5.6 g. in 1951 and 14.5 g. in 1952; on a Chinese tree the same values were 7.7 g. and 15.1 g. Other trees showed a 20-40 per cent increase in the average weight per nut in 1952 over 1951. This seems to indicate a marked influence of the climatic conditions during the latter part of the growing season on the weight of the nuts. A long-term study of this relationship might yield some interesting results. [Illustration: Fig. 1. Hybrid of S-8 and _Castanea crenata_, U.S.D.A, forest type, 18 years old. About 35 ft. high. Good forest type and also good nut bearer. Blight resistant. Sleeping Giant Chestnut Plantation, Hamden, Conn. Photo by Louis Buhle, Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Sept. 26, 1952.] [Illustration: Fig. 2. Fruiting branches and nuts of S-8 � _crenata_, Sleeping Giant Chestnut Plantation. About 1/2 natural size. Photo by B. W. McFarland, Conn. Agric. Expt. Sta. Sept. 8, 1952.] Grafting A considerable amount of grafting has been done since 1949 and the results have been good. Two year old Chinese transplants are usually used as rootstocks and all grafting is done in the field. The best results have been obtained where the rootstock plant was transplanted one year prior to the grafting. The simple splicegraft, or the bark or rind graft are used, depending on the size of the scion compared to that of the rootstock, the latter technique being used when the stock is considerably larger than the scion. There is some evidence of incompatibility; thus, scions from Chinese trees, or hybrids that show a dominance of Chinese characters, give a higher percentage of takes when grafted on Chinese rootstocks than scions from the native chestnut, or from hybrids between Japanese and native chestnut. Some indications of incompatibility between European and Chinese chestnut in grafts have also been encountered where scions received through the cooperation of Dr. C. Schad, Centre de Recherches agronomiques du Massif Central, France, and Count F. M. Knuth, Knuthenborg, Denmark, were used, but in some cases these grafts were successful. Topworking, using the veneer crown graft, has been quite successful as long as sufficient sap drawers are left on the stock (Fig. 3). Inarching The senior writer has already explained in detail (2) the simple method by which blighted chestnut trees can be restored to health and vigor by cutting out blighted areas in the bark, painting them over, and inarching or ingrafting one or more basal shoots into the healthy bark above the lesion. We do this work from mid-April to mid-May, and make a systematic canvas of all the trees in all our plantations, inarching all those where if is necessary or might be advantageous. Each operation requires only a few minutes. Last year we put in many hundreds of inarches, altogether, which later showed nearly 100% "take". Owners of chestnut orchards should take advantage of this method of keeping valuable nut-bearing trees, although with cankered areas, in healthy, vigorous condition. We believe that, in cutting out the diseased bark, it is advisable to cut out also a few of the outer annual rings of wood (of course tangentially), especially if the canker is one of long-standing, since we know that the fungus eventually penetrates the outer rings of wood. Since that is true, the canker might enlarge later on from this same source of infection. Further it may also be possible for spores or bits of mycelium to be transported upward in the sap stream and cause new infections higher up in the tree. A thorough painting of the cut surfaces should go far toward remedying this situation. One can usually judge the extent of damage caused by the blight by the number and vitality of the basal shoots, a large number of basal shoots indicating a heavy attack. However, if the roots have been severely injured, perhaps by short-tailed mice, as sometimes happens, no basal shoots appear, in which case the tree is doomed. If no blight is present, but one or more basal shoots appear (sometimes due to shrubby ancestors), it is advisable to inarch these as an insurance against possible trouble in the future. This inarching process has not received the attention it deserves. There is absolutely no reason why, if this method is followed, there should be _any_ death from blight in resistant hybrids or in Japanese or Chinese chestnuts, barring, of course, cases where roots are attacked by mice (or _Phytophthora_ in warmer regions). Those of our trees in Connecticut which have been blighted have continued in health and nut-bearing ever since we began the inarching method in 1937 (Fig. 4). If the inarches become blighted, they can themselves be inarched, as shown. [Illustration: Fig. 3. Veneer crown grafting on chestnut. Photo by B. W. McFarland, Conn. Agric. Expt. Sta. May, 1952.] Research on Blight Resistance [Illustration: Fig. 4. Japanese-American Chestnut, 21 yrs. old, showing inarching begun 15 yrs. ago. Original trunk, long since dead and now rotting, shows in center. Kept alive and vigorous because valuable for hybrid vigor and future breeding. Sleeping Giant Chestnut Plantation, Hamden, Conn. Photo by Louis Buhle, Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Sept. 26, 1952.] A study has been made of the factors that cause the Chinese and Japanese chestnut to be resistant to the Endothia canker, and a close correlation was found between the tannin content of the bark and the relative resistance of the three species, i.e., Chinese, Japanese and American chestnut. The total tannin concentration in the bark of the Asiatic species is only slightly higher than in the American, and native trees can be found with as high a concentration as is found in the Asiatic. A similar overlap in resistance does not occur and it is therefore clear that the total tannin concentration as such cannot account for resistance. There is, however, good evidence that the tannins in the Asiatic species, as a result of the way in which they are bound to other colloids in the cells, are more soluble than in the American species. This, of course, would have a marked bearing on the effectiveness with which the tannins could check the spread of the parasite. Furthermore, it has been found that the types of tannins in the three species differ. In the American and Japanese species they are a mixture of catechol and pyrogallol tannins, while they appear to be pure pyrogallol tannins in the Chinese species. Considering the specificity of the enzyme systems of fungi it is quite possible that different tannins show different degrees of toxicity to a certain fungus. The following hypothesis has been suggested to explain the relative resistance of the three species: In the American chestnut bark the concentration of the available toxic tannin never reaches a level where it can stop the advancing parasite. The tannins in the Japanese species, although of the same type as in the native tree, are more soluble and reach a level toxic to the fungus. In the Chinese trees all the tannins of the bark belong to the toxic pyrogallol groups, and this, combined with their high solubility, results in the high degree of resistance in this species (4). The information available at present regarding the formation of tannins in plants is not conclusive. In some plants, apparently, they are formed in the leaves, and the presence of carbon dioxide and light is required; in other plants the tannin concentration can increase when the plants are grown in darkness (5). A more general formation of tannin in tissues with a high metabolic rate throughout the plant has also been suggested (3). It would be important to know the centers of origin of the tannins in the chestnut, their translocation, and whether they are translocated through or over graft-unions. In other words, will a susceptible scion when grafted on a resistant rootstock become more resistant because antibiotic substances formed in the roots of the resistant rootstock are translocated into the scion? From a number of older grafts of non-resistant Japanese-American hybrid scions on Japanese or Chinese rootstocks it appears that this indeed might be the case. These grafts, some of which are 16 years old, appear to be more resistant than the original hybrid tree, even if not as resistant as the rootstock. This would indicate the possibility that the antibiotic substances are produced in the roots and translocated into the scion. However, the possibility still remains that the compounds are formed also in the leaves and translocated to the base of the tree. To clarify this whole problem an experiment with Chinese-American grafts in different combinations is under way. Preliminary results show that antibiotic substances are formed in upper parts of the plants, but that they are not translocated downward across the graft union. Thus it was found that Chinese branches grafted on two year old American seedlings remained resistant, without the American seedlings showing any increase in resistance. In future experiments the upward translocation will be studied in detail on grafts of American scions on Chinese seedlings. Some Abnormal Conditions 1. _Sterility_ Sterility occurs quite commonly in interspecific hybrids either because the chromosomes fail to pair in meiosis or because the parent genes when brought together in the hybrid interact in some way deleterious to the formation of sex-cells. Furthermore, cytoplasmic sterility is likely to occur in a wide cross. Sterility has been encountered in several instances in American � Chinese and Japanese � American hybrids. In most cases it is a case of pollen abortion only; either anthers fail to develop completely as shown in Fig. 5, B, or the anthers develop but are much reduced in size and contain no functioning germ cells. Pollen sterility is not sporadic in a given individual: it is uniform throughout the flowering branches. The individual flowers are arranged on the catkin axis as in the normal flowers (Fig. 5). But when the flowers open, a hand lens reveals 3-5 tiny, membranous perianth-segments for each tiny flower, whitish in color, and more or less connected at their bases. A minute rounded mass appears in the center of the flower, perhaps primordia of abortive stamens, but this does not develop further. The catkin begins to take on a brownish color and at length the whole catkin, in case it is staminate, drops off. If it is androgynous, the staminate part drops off, or withers. These male sterile trees appear to have a normal, sometimes excessive, development of the females, and are quite prolific nut producers. Information on the occurrence of female sterility in the hybrid trees is incomplete, but the indications are that at least partial sterility is frequent. [Illustration: Fig. 5. A. Normal androgynous catkin (female flower at base); B. Androgenous catkin with sterile pollen. From Sleeping Giant Chestnut Plantation, Hamden, Conn. Photo by Mary Alice Clark, Conn. Agric. Expt. Sta. July, 1949.] 2. _Triploid Hybrid_ In 1934 we produced a cross of Chinese and American chestnut which proved to be unusual in several respects. The leaves are enormous--9 inches to 1 foot in length, and 4 or 5 inches in width. The hybrid is not particularly blight resistant but more so than its American parent. It died back from the blight about 1940 and the present tree has developed as a shoot from the old roots. The growth is rapid and vigorous. The flowers appear normal, but we have never been able to make a cross with its pollen, nor to effect fertilization of its pistillate flowers. It may be triploid, that is, with 3 sets of chromosomes instead of the normal double set, and this would account for its barrenness. In the spring of 1952 some of the vigorous shoots of this tree were successfully grafted on shoots from an old stump of Chinese chestnut, using the veneer crown graft method. The scions had not been taken when dormant, but were transferred directly from the tree to the stock in late April. This grafting was done in order to impart greater resistance, if possible, to the CA hybrid by means of the roots of the Chinese stock. 3. _Systemic Defect_ Since the early 1930's we have seen occasional individuals with abnormal foliage--somewhat mottled, usually curled and often misshapen. Thinking that a virus might be the cause of this trouble the senior author tried grafting some of the shoots on to healthy stocks. The grafts were in no case successful because the scions were too weak. Finally he succeeded in grafting a branch from an affected tree on to a branch of a normal individual. The only result was an increased vigor of the healthy branch. This year he rubbed juices from leaves of such an abnormal individual on to wounded healthy leaves, without result. Moreover, such sick individuals, although growing for years close to healthy trees, have never communicated the malady to their neighbors. Growth is comparatively slow, and there is much dying back or dying out of the slender branchlets. The evidence indicates that this is _not_ a virus trouble, but a systemic defect, probably caused by chromosome aberration or gene abnormality. It is significant that this trouble occurs only in hybrids. Such trees never flower. We have known four such cases, two of which are now dead. Similar types appear in other species as inherited deviations from normal. Insect Injuries A heavy attack from the spring canker worms developed in 1951, but spraying with DDT on May 24th prevented serious damage. No outbreak of canker worms appeared in the spring of 1952. The Japanese beetle has been very little in evidence. The principal bad actors are the mites, _Paratetranychus bicolor._ Although barely visible to the naked eye, the effect they produce of whitening the leaves is conspicuous, especially on the Chinese chestnut and its hybrids. These insects overwinter in egg form on the surface of the bark. Last winter they were so numerous on some of the trees that the bark had taken on a red color--especially on smooth-barked trunks just below a branch. An application of "Scalecide" on April 21, while the trees were still dormant, followed by two heavy applications of "Aramite" (6-7 lbs. per acre) on June 13th and 27th, gave good control for the rest of the summer. Spraying with DDT for weevils was done on August 18th and September 3rd in 1952 with good results. Cooperative Hybrid Chestnut Plantations In 1947 the first hybrid chestnut plantation under forest conditions was made in cooperation with the U.S.D.A. Bureau of Plant Industry, Division of Forest Pathology. The plantations are made in order to test the hybrids under normal forest conditions and different climatic conditions. In general, each plantation consists of about 100 trees, 50 U.S.D.A. hybrids and 50 Connecticut hybrids. The trees are planted at a 10' by 10' spacing, and the overstory is girdled at the time of planting in order to give the plants better light conditions without causing an abrupt change in the microclimate of the forest floor--a method developed by Dr. J. D. Diller of the Division of Forest Pathology (1). Ten plantations at 9 locations have been established since 1947. These are listed below: No. of Plots Location Year Established ------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 Edward Childs Estate, Norfolk, Conn. 1947 1 Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris, Tenn. 1947 1 Table Rock State Park, Pickens, S.C. 1948 1 Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio 1948 1 Upper Perkiomen Valley Park, Green Lane, Pa. 1949 1 So. Ill. Univ. Fish & Wildlife Service, Cartersville, Ill. 1949 1 Russ State Forest, Decatur, Mich. 1951 2 Nathan Hale State Forest, Coventry, Conn. 1951 1 Ouichata Nat'l. Forest, Hot Springs, Ark. 1952 ------------------------------------------------------------------- Connecticut State Ownership of Sleeping Giant Plantations On April 11, 1951, at a meeting at the "Little Red House", Sleeping Giant Mountain, the lands on the Sleeping Giant Mountain, Hamden, Connecticut, about 10 acres, on which about 1500 chestnut trees are now growing, including nearly every chestnut species known to science, and many valuable, blight resistant hybrids, were formally deeded over to the State of Connecticut by their owner, the senior writer of this report. The meeting was attended by officials of the Sleeping Giant Park Association, the Connecticut State Park and Forest Commission, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, and the Yale School of Forestry. The transfer to the State was made with the understanding that The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station would continue the chestnut breeding work. The whole region is now undergoing a fairly rapid housing development, and in the ordinary course of mortal events this plantation would have been divided into building lots within the next few decades. The State ownership will obviate this, and The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station sponsorship will assure a continuation of the breeding work. Literature Cited 1. Diller, J. D. Growing chestnuts for timber. 37th Ann. Rept. of Northern Nut Grower's Assn. for 1946. 66-68. 1947. 2. Graves, Arthur Harmount. A method of controlling the chestnut blight on partially resistant species and hybrids of _Castanea_. 41st Ann. Rept. of Northern Nut Growers Assn. 1950. 149-151. 1951. 3. Hauser, Willibald. Zur Physiologie des Gerbstoffes in der Pflanzenzelle. III. Protoplasma 27:125-130. 1936-37. 4. Nienstaedt, Hans. Tannin as a factor in the resistance of chestnut, castanea spp., to the chestnut blight fungus, _Endothia parasitica_. Phytopathology 43:32-38. 1953. 5. Nierenstein, M. The natural organic tannins. J. & A. Churchill. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 18: Also of The Division of Forest Pathology, U.S.D.A., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland.] [Footnote 19: Records furnished by the U.S. Weather Bureau at New Haven, Conn.] [Footnote 20: October, 1952, was among the six driest Octobers on record. These were: 1879, 1892, 1897, 1916 and 1924. From U.S. Weather Report, New York City.] Effect of Vermiculite in Inducing Fibrous Roots on Tap-Rooting Tree Seedlings HERBERT C. BARRETT[21] and TORU ARISUMI[22] When seedlings of nut trees and other tap-rooted species are transplanted from nursery to orchard, the percentage of survival in often quite low. Perhaps the chief reason for this failure is the marked and pronounced tendency of most tap-rooted plants to produce little or no fibrous, branched roots in lieu of the long, straight, and seldom branched tap roots. The common practice of undercutting seedlings during the dormant season to induce a branched root system requires additional labor, and often results in reduced growth and vigor during the following season. The use of hardware cloth or other close-meshed wire is effective, but this method also has the disadvantage of being relatively expensive for the nurseryman. Preliminary work carried on during the past two years has shown that with certain nut trees and other tap-rooted plants, it is possible to induce fibrous roots by growing such seedlings in vermiculite. The methods and results of this work are presented in this paper. Material and Methods Seeds of black walnut (_Juglans nigra_), Persian walnut (_Juglans regia_), Chinese chestnut (_Castanea mollissima_), pignut hickory (_Carya glabra_), shellbark hickory (_Carya laciniosa_), shagbark hickory (_Carya ovata_), pecan (_Carya illin_), pawpaw (_Asimina triloba_), and three persimmons (_Diospyros kaki_, _D. lotus_, and _D. virginiana_) were stratified in moist sawdust for three months at a temperature range of 35 to 40 degrees F. After this period of stratification the seeds of each species were divided into three lots and planted in flats 25 x 26 x 6 inches containing one of the following media: (1) sharp sand of the type used in potting soil, (2) potting soil, and (3) vermiculite. Seeds were kept moist with ordinary tap water and allowed to germinate and grow in the greenhouse. When the seedlings had grown two or three true leaves, they were carefully removed from the medium and examined for the type of root system developed. Results In the first eight species listed in Table 1, the differences between branched and tap-rooted seedlings were quite pronounced. The few tap-rooted seedlings growing in vermiculite medium showed some laterals and were less strongly tap-rooted than those in soil or sand. Pawpaws in soil and sand media were practically devoid of laterals, and their fibrous root system in vermiculite was not as pronounced as with the walnuts, hickories, and pecans. Of the species studied, the persimmons Table 1. Sand Soil Vermiculite Species Number of plants Tap rooted Fibrous Tap Fibrous Tap Fibrous Black Walnut 20 3 24 2 0 39 Persian Walnut 15 2 13 1 0 15 Chinese Chestnut 35 6 32 7 3 37 Pignut Hickory 19 0 22 0 3 16 Shellbark Hickory 9 0 8 0 0 13 Shagbark Hickory 27 0 25 0 2 28 Pecan 21 0 23 0 0 15 Pawpaw 102 0 140 0 20 85 D. kaki 6 2 5 3 0 10 D. lotus 20 11 18 7 0 30 D. Virginia 16 0 20 0 0 14 showed the least tendency to produce tap-rooted seedlings. Typical branched or fibrous-rooted seedlings grown in vermiculite are illustrated in Figure 1. [Illustration: Fig. 1. Seedlings grown in vermiculite medium. Left, _Juglans regia_; right, _Castanea mollissima_.] Summary The chief difficulty encountered in transplanting several nut tree and other commonly tap-rooted seedlings is thought to be due to the lack of a branched root system. The methods and results of a fairly simple technique of inducing fibrous roots, that of growing seedlings in vermiculite, have been presented. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 21: First Assistant in Plant Breeding, University of Illinois, Department of Horticulture.] [Footnote 22: Formerly Half-time Assistant in Plant Breeding, University of Illinois, Department of Horticulture.] Eastern Black Walnut Survey, 1951 H. F. STOKE, _Roanoke, Va._ The Northern Nut Growers Association, at its 1950 Annual Meeting, adopted a resolution directing that a survey covering the eastern American black walnut, _Juglans nigra_ be conducted during the ensuing year, and that the services of the State and regional Vice-presidents be utilized in making the survey. In carrying out this mandate fifty questionaires were sent out, and 37 replies were received. Of these, 33 were from the States, including the District of Columbia, three were from Canada, including British Columbia, Ontario and Prince Edward Island, respectively, and one was from Belgium. From these replies, as compiled, it is apparent that the natural range of the American black walnut may be defined approximately as follows: Beginning at the Atlantic seaboard at Massachusetts Bay curving slightly northward then westward across northeastern New York to Toronto and on westward across lower Ontario, Lake Huron, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, in which state the line curves south-westward, crossing about the northwest corner of Iowa. From this point the line runs approximately south across the eastern parts of Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas. As the line approaches the Gulf of Mexico it turns eastward, crossing the southern parts of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama and Georgia, back again to the Atlantic. The natural range of the black walnut may be said to have been limited on the north by winter cold, on the west by lack of sufficient rainfall and on the south by a winter climate too mild for the required dormant rest period. Where these limitations are removed the American black walnut appears to do well far out of its natural range. In its native state it seemed to thrive best along water-ways and in hollows among the hills and mountains, though it was also to be found on the uplands wherever the soil was fertile and other conditions favorable. The overflow of streams undoubtedly did much to distribute and plant the seed, aided always by the ubiquitous squirrel. Twenty-nine of the States reported the trees as thrifty and bearing well-filled nuts. Eastern Maryland reported the trees as thrifty but the nut crop light. Michigan reports the nuts as having been well filled formerly, but poor in recent years. West Virginia makes a similar report, and attributes poor crops to the presence of anthracnose, a fungus disease of the leaves causing early defoliation. The nut crop of the wild trees appears to be ungathered to a large extent, taking the country as a whole. Eleven states report whole husked nuts being marketed in a limited way and six report the marketing of home-produced kernels. Prices for the whole nuts are quoted as low as $2.00 per bushel, with a top of $5.00 per bushel for Kansas-produced named varieties. Accurate statistics as to whole nut and kernel production are not available. Tennessee reports black walnut cracking plants, as follows: One each at Lebanon and Morristown, and three located at Nashville. A West Virginia report estimates the State's kernel production at $200,000 per annum. A cracking plant in St. Louis is reported as processing 1-1/2 million pounds of whole nuts annually, for which it pays 5-1/2 cents per pound. Other cracking plants reported are one at Stanford, Kentucky, one at Broadway, Virginia and one or two in West Virginia, location unstated. No statement was received as to the amount of business done by these. A new one is starting operations at Henderson, Kentucky in 1951. Production of black walnut kernels as a home industry has languished since the Federal ruling that the kernels must be pasteurized as soon as produced. Most of such kernels are now consumed locally, so as not to run afoul of inter-state regulations. No epidemic has, as yet, been traced to such local use. A question designed to disclose what named varieties give the best results in the various localities was not very effective. Replies usually came in the form of lists of varieties being planted with little definite indication as to the ones that have proven superior. As might be expected, Thomas led the list by being mentioned 15 times. Elmer Myers was listed 9 times, Stabler 6, Ohio 6, Mintle 3, Snyder 2, (New York and Tenn.), Sifford 2, (Kentucky and Kansas), and the following one each: Adams, Grundy, Korn (Michigan); Rohwer, Vandersloot (Kansas); Sparrow, Victoria, Homeland (North Carolina); Ten Eyck (New Jersey); Creitz (Virginia); and Impit (British Columbia). A study of the geographical distribution of the preferred varieties fails to produce any significant conclusions as to the varieties best adapted to any specific state. Doubtless Thomas heads the list because it has had the longest and largest distribution. A New York state survey gave Thomas the preference 9 times, Snyder 7, Myers 4, Ohio 2, and one each to several other varieties. A similar survey in New Jersey gave Thomas preference 2, Stabler 2, Ten Eyck 1 and Ohio 1. One New Jersey correspondent reported Ohio as "excellent", another listed Ten Eyck as "fair", and a third reported Thomas as "terrible". One Kansas producer reports Thomas his best and Ohio his worst. Another Kansan reports the exact opposite. Pennsylvania reports Ohio as best, Stabler as worst. Her neighbor to the east, New Jersey, rates Stabler highly, as does Ohio, immediately to the west. The notable leaf-disease resistance of the Ohio variety is worthy of the consideration of planters in districts where early defoliation causes poor filling of the nuts. For a late comer, the thin-shelled Myers makes a strong showing, which may be significant. It is worth watching. Until there is wider planting and production of the named varieties, it will not be possible to name the varieties best adapted to any specific state or location, in the opinion of your reporter. The possibilities of profit in planting black walnut orchards have not been determined. From Pennsylvania comes the report that of the several black walnut orchards planted twenty-five years ago, only three are now being given care. A ten-acre orchard at Wharton, Md. that, presumably, was being given special care, is reported as nearly all dead--"too much commercial fertilizer, or the wrong kind." The report on several small West Virginia plantings is submitted as "inconclusive". The main general interest at present appears to be the planting of the better walnuts on home grounds and on the farm. Twenty-four states reported such use, with varying degrees of interest. Considering that the black walnut is our finest cabinet wood, and one of the best in the world, forestry planting may be truthfully said to be lagging deplorably. The state of Pennsylvania has shown some interest and made some small plantings. Ohio has done some planting. The Sunny Hill Coal Company of New Lexington, Ohio, is reported to have planted 5000 seedlings. In Indiana Ford Wallick has reported the planting of 14 bu. of seed, the seedlings to be budded later to the Lamb curly walnut. Tennessee and West Virginia report small plantings. Kansas reports some interest in planting walnuts on lands that have been destroyed for agricultural purposes by strip coal mining. As a whole, the forestry plantings of the walnut of the future, as of the past, appear mainly dependent on the untiring squirrel. There has never been an adequate supply of walnut timber since pioneer days when walnut logs were rolled together for burning in the clearing of land, or split for fence rails, nor is an adequate supply in sight for the future. In producing districts buyers are always ready to pounce on the owner of any walnut tree of marketable size. Prices paid are usually much lower than the real value of the timber, partly because the stand is so scattering as to prevent the use of efficient means of logging and transportation. Of all the agencies tending to destroy the black walnut, war is the most devastating. The superb qualities of the wood for the making of gun stocks causes the country to be combed more and more closely by buyers in each succeeding war. However, from the standpoint of human interest, the picture is not wholly dark. It is perhaps too much to expect that private enterprise will enter into the long-time investment necessary for extensive forestry plantings, but the states can and should do so in connection with their park and forestry programs. As already indicated some few states are working in that direction. Of perhaps more immediate concern and value are the possibilities of interesting the 4-H clubs and similar organizations of youth in making home and farm plantings. Refreshingly encouraging is the following excerpt from the report of the Arkansas state Vice-president, Mr. A. C. Hale, a vocational instructor of Camden, Arkansas. "When a student comes into the class of vocational agriculture in the ninth grade I try to get him to plant some black walnuts so they will get big enough to graft while he is in high school. The use of this method is helpful in getting many trees started. By grafting one or more of the Persian walnuts, interest is also added." "One way that has helped me get people started with a tree on the home grounds is to pot a few sprouted nuts and when a neighbor is sick take a seedling walnut instead of a flower. I usually go back to help with the transplanting of it." Such practical methods, if widely used, would bring far more valuable results than any legislative program. The Virginia Polytechnic Institute is showing some interest, and conducted a field clinic in top-working the walnut in the Shenandoah Valley area in the spring of 1951. County Agents have become interested, and a county-wide Black Walnut Contest will be held at Harrisonburg, Va., Nov. 9 and 10th of this year, in which VPI is collaborating. It is hoped this idea will spread. On Prince Edward Island, just off the Canadian east coast, there does not appear to be enough summer heat to mature the nuts, though the tree is grown somewhat on home grounds. In the fruit-growing sections of British Columbia the black walnut appears quite at home, trees of a diameter of from three to four feet being reported at Chilliwack, in the Fraser River valley. J. U. Gellattly also reports the walnut at Brooks and Medicine Hat, Alberta. Confirmation of the ability of the black walnut to stand extremely low temperatures is to be found in a letter of Aug. 22, 1951 from W. R. Leslie, Superintendent, Dominion Experiment Station, Morden, Manitoba, as follows: "Black walnut is doing fairly well in such places as the Provincial Horticultural Station, Brooks, Alberta, (P. D. Hargrave, Supt.), and at Portage la Prairie, Winnipeg and Morden, Manitoba. Apparently the black walnut enjoys a heavier soil than the butternut (or white walnut). The white has been more widely planted than the black. The Manchurian seems hardier than either and is the most rapid grower of the three _Juglans_ on test here. However, the two natives usually give us a fairly abundant crop of nuts." "Our source of black walnut was from around New Ulm, Minnesota; the butternut came from around Sault Ste. Marie, at the lower end of Lake Superior. I am not aware of either indigenous species being native closer than the points mentioned." Belgium reports the black walnut as thriving in door-yards and along roadways, where the nuts are mentioned as a menace to traffic. In conclusion it is urged that friends of conservation and a sound economy should lend their every effort to the extension of black walnut plantings. Some progress has been made since the days of pioneer plunder, but much remains to be done. Thanks are extended to all those who have contributed to this survey. Crath's Carpathian English Walnuts in Ontario [23]P. C. CRATH, _129 Felbrigg Ave., Toronto 12, Ontario_ Introduction The English Walnut (Juglans regia) in England is known as Persian walnut. Some think that the nuts originated in Persia. The primeval forests of English walnut trees, which in many places cover the southern as well as northern slopes of the Caucasian Mountains show that Caucasia is the country of the origin of those trees. But in the Western Carpathian Mountains in Europe geologists had excavated ancient walnuts in the salt rocks of the pits of Weliczka. In some places of the Eastern Carpathians walnuts could be found in a wild stage; and of course domesticated walnuts flourish in every Ukrainian orchard from the northern slopes of the Carpathians up to the southern banks of the Pripet River, and all over Ukraine as far as the Don. But there they could not be found in a wild form. Walnuts in such countries as Italy, Spain, France are probably of Persian origin. Since Canada was discovered by Cartier European settlers have many times tried to introduce the southern European walnuts in to the New World, but without success. Only in California, along the Ocean's shore, Europeans succeeded in acclimatizing some, as they think, "English Walnuts"; though in reality the California Walnuts are halfbreeds. In Old Ontario the people enjoyed the local wild black walnuts, butternuts and hickory. Up to the present English Walnuts are imported into this Province. When in 1917 I settled in Toronto and found that even in the southern part of the Province, so rich in different fruits, no English Walnuts grew there, I was amazed. In my old home in the Ukraine walnut trees were as common as elms in Ontario. And I have found that the Southern Ontario climate is warmer than the climate of Kiev or Poltava regions in Ukraine. It has seemed to me that English walnuts from the Carpathian region should thrive well around Toronto. My Experiments In my old home I have heard gardeners say: "Where apples grow, walnuts will grow there also." And around Toronto there I have seen nice apple orchards producing splendid fruits. The Ontario apple trees withstood winter colds well, and that fact encouraged me to try to plant English walnuts from Ukraine in the neighborhood of Toronto. At the end of the First World War Ukraine revolted against the Russian Empire and at the same time she was fighting for her independence with Poland. At that time my father's family lived in the city of Stanyslaviv at the northern foot of the Carpathians. I asked my sister to send me as many local English walnut seeds by mail as she could. Giving such an order to my sister I expected that the nuts would arrive not later than the end of October, just in time to be planted before the freeze up. This was in 1921. I remembered from my boyhood that planting of English walnut seeds was surrounded by some mystery. It seemed to me that people in Ukraine regarded it as a very difficult matter to cultivate walnut trees. Being under such a notion myself I asked a horticulturist how long the germination power of a walnut seed would last. He told me that it could prevail in a fresh walnut not longer than a week. He advised me in order to prevent walnuts from drying to dip them in melted parawax. Following that information I wrote my sister to parawax the walnut seeds before sending them to Canada. Owing to the Polish-Ukrainian war at that time the shipment of the walnut seeds got to Toronto not late in the Fall, as had been expected, but in February when the farm land around Toronto was frozen. And the worst of it was my sister did not parawax the nuts! Being sure the kernels were dead I allowed the children to do what they pleased with them. But before they cracked the last one my wife advised me to plant a dozen of the nuts in our flower pots, as she said, "for fun". I did it. Other nuts the children destroyed, and in spite of my sorrow and anguish in two weeks the walnut sprouts came up in the pots. Everyone of them came up, proving that you do not need to protect walnut germination by dipping the nuts into melted parawax. From the flower pots the walnut seedlings were transplanted that spring of 1922 into our city garden at 48 Peterboro Ave., Toronto. At least a thousand of the kernels of several varieties were thus destroyed and I was obliged to wait until another fall when the _Juglans regia_ nuts were sent again by my sister. They came also late in the winter and were dry as pepper. In the spring of 1923 I took the walnut seeds of the second shipment to the farm of my friend Mr. M. Kozak located a couple of miles north of the Scarboro Golf Club. There I soaked them in water in a tub for five days and then planted in rows 1-1/2 ft. apart, row from row, and the nuts 6 inches apart nut from nut and two inches deep. In a couple of weeks nearly every nut produced a sapling. I kept them well cultivated the whole summer, and in the Fall the seedlings were from six to eight inches tall. The nuts on the Kozak farm were of different varieties; some were small, some large, some were round, some oblong, some paper-thin-shelled, some hard shelled; some varieties had sweet kernels, some had a little slightly bitter taste, some were flat. According to their variety the bark of the seedlings, some of them at least, was shiny brown, while other varieties had their bark shiny dark green, light gray, light green. Now I have known how to produce walnut seedlings. Then another worry came--could the seedlings stand the Ontario winter? They had stood the winter of 1925-28 very well. Only the tops of those were spoiled, which were injured by buffalo tree hoppers. It seemed that the regular Ontario caterpillars did not like the sap of the English walnut foliage. But the worst enemies of the Carpathians was the bacterial disease. The leaves and young shoots curled, turned black, being infested by the disease. In such a case the spraying is needed. Acquaintance with the Vineland Government Experimental Farm Somehow, but very soon after I started my experiments with English Carpathian Walnuts in Ontario, Mr. James Neilson, the nut specialist in the Government Experimental Farm, Vineland, Ont. discovered me. By him I was introduced to the late Mr. G. H. Corsan of Islington, Ont. who was known as a prominent nut grower in Ontario. In the year 1924, when we met the first time, Mr. Corsan already was interested in the culture of black walnuts and butternuts, in hickories, pecans, hicans and filberts. Soon I transferred my English Carpathian walnut nursery to Corsan's place at Islington. Mr. Corsan, with a great deal of enthusiasm broadcasted my Carpathians all over the American continent, but under different names: English Walnuts, Persian, Russian, Carpathian, etc. Soon we were joined by a third walnut enthusiast Mr. L. K. Davitt, a teacher in a Toronto High School. Prof. C. T. Currelly the Founder and at that time the Director of the Royal Ontario Museum of Archeology in Toronto, also became interested in my walnut experiments. Then later on some other prominent Torontonians followed us and the Nut Growers Society of Ontario was organized. Americans also became interested in the Carpathian walnuts. First among them was a graduate from Cornell University, a farmer near Ithaca, N. Y., Mr. Samuel Graham. Mr. George Slate of the Geneva Experiment Station was one of the first Americans who early got interested in the Carpathians. There in the States is the Northern Nut Growers Association. Following Mr. Corsan I also became a member of the Association. My Research in English Walnuts in Ukraine From the year 1924 until 1936 I spent most of my time as a Presbyterian missionary in Western Ukraine, which was then under Polish occupation. From time to time I used to come to Canada on furlough. Every time, coming from Ukraine, I brought also a box or more of Carpathian English Walnuts for planting. Then I liked to tell Dr. Palmer, the Director of the Vineland Government Experimental Farm about my research in walnuts in Ukraine. In Western Ukraine my headquarters were in the city of Kolomyja, Province of Galicia, at the foot of the Eastern Carpathians. Thus I was in the center of the culture of the Carpathian walnuts. Though my circuit was very large (Provinces of Galician and Volynia) and there was a time when I served 30 congregations, nevertheless I had a little time also to study the English Walnuts in their native environments. Before starting the research in that country I decided for myself what in my conception should be the ideal English walnut. I have come to the conclusion that the nut should be of large size, thin shelled, its kernel well filled up, being of a pleasant sweet taste; inside of the nut there should be no partitions, thus allowing the kernel to roll out unbroken. Then I printed questionnaire blanks for each individual nut tree to be examined. Beside the above mentioned questions I added: What is the name and address of the owner of the tree, and its location? How old, tall and thick the trunk of tree is? How many pounds of the nuts the tree yielded that year? In what kind of soil does it thrive? What enemies attack it? What fertilizer, or manure, has been used in the particular case, or none? Is there in the nuts, leaves and bark any sign of cross-pollination? Regarding the grafting and budding I found that the local nut-growers had not the slightest idea how to go about it. They also did not care to prevent their walnut trees from cross-pollination. Soon I found that there in Galicia alone could be found several hundreds of varieties of Carpathian English walnuts. Anyway till 1935, I sent to Toronto 200 varieties of the Carpathians. Some of those English Carpathian walnuts were 2-1/2 inches long, or five nuts to a foot; others were only one third of an inch. Some very small Carpathians produced nuts in clusters, like grapes. In some Carpathians it was possible to detect cross-pollination with Asiatic walnuts by their harder shells, by partitions, by the shape of nuts, by the construction of the leaves and their odor, and in some cases by the color of bark. By kernels all the Carpathian halfbreeds are English walnuts, differing group from group by the taste. I remember that only in 1898 in the bourg of Loubni, and in 1933 in the City of Kolomyja I came across two trees which resembled our black walnut. In both towns some people used to live in America, and coming home they could bring with them some American nuts. In the region around Kossiv I came across groves of American black walnuts and butternuts. Those trees were planted there by the Austrian Government 75 or so years ago. Of course they did not cause all the hybridizing I mentioned above. Maybe the Asiatic nuts were brought in Eastern Carpathians when the Tartar hordes crossed the mountains in the region of Pokouttia (Kossiv) in the year 1242. Not far from Kossiv, westward, in the village of Kosmuch in the Carpathians 2500 feet above sea level I found English walnut trees of small size (15 feet tall, 6 inches thick) with light gray bark, producing 2 inch long nuts of speary shape, like our Canadian butternuts but of English Walnut shells and kernels. The kernels were tasty. There was no question but that they were halfbreeds, English plus Mongolian nuts. There in Kosmuch, not far from the historical Tartar Passage, through which in 13th century Ghengis Khan hordes invaded the Danube plains, in winter the temperature falls to 45 degrees below zero. Owing to the hardiness of the strain and pleasant taste of the nuts I picked up about 10 pounds of them to be tried in colder parts of Ontario, (and some of them already are bearing north of Toronto and true to the type.) I called the nuts Hutzulian Pointies, as they grow in Hutzulia the country of the Ukrainian Mountaineers. The year 1936. My last trip to Western Ukraine In Ontario farmers were slow to grasp the idea of cultivating my Carpathian English walnuts. Either they did not believe the English walnuts could thrive in this Province, or waited till my trees would start to bear. Nevertheless some thousand of my seedlings were planted here and there all over Ontario and smaller quantities in the Maritime Provinces, Manitoba and Alberta. The late Sir Wm. Mulock hired Mr. Corsan to graft with the Carpathian scions tops of many of his black walnut trees in Orillia, Ont. Fred Gaby, the engineer who built the Ontario Hydro, ordered through me from Ukraine 50 to 12 feet tall Carpathians of bearing age and planted them on 10 acres near Cooksville. Ont. Prof. Currelly has bought 25 acres near his estate west of Pt. Hope, Ont. for my use in experimental work. The late Col. McAlpyne planted one thousand of my yearlings on his estate at Fenelon Falls, Ont. Two young farmers, Papple Bros., in the Georgian Bay region also started an English Carpathian walnut orchard. In 1935 I moved my Carpathian walnut nursery from Islington to Prof. Currelly's estate, and Mr. L. K. Devitt sold his lot of the trees through the Dominion Seed Co., Georgetown, Ont. In the States, Mr. Carl Weschoke, a manufacturer in St. Paul, Minn., who in the year 1935 was elected the President of the Northern Nut Growers Association, also got interested in Carpathians. His son-in-law about that time started a walnut nursery on their estate some 30 miles east of St. Paul. That 1936 year Mr. Weschoke sponsored my expedition to Northeastern Poland (Northwestern Ukraine) to find the geographical line north of which English walnuts do not thrive in Europe. My expedition was successful. I discovered that northward from the Pripet River, which flows from west to east toward the Dneiper, English Walnuts could not be found. If I had come across there some English seedlings nearer to the Lithuanian boundary and the Baltic Sea shore, they would have been planted there recently and not before the year 1924. Farther north, though there English walnuts do not thrive, around the Lake Peipus I came across filberts not as bushes but as large trees. Every fall peasants in that district go in the woods and bring bags of filberts for winter use. Such filbert trees I found also in the Carpathian mountains near the Ukrainian settlement of Vizhnytza in the Province of Bukovina. West of the town of Sarny and south of the Pripet I came across a grove of 18 ancient English walnut trees. In the year 1648 when Ukrainian Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytzky led a war against Poland those trees already were 70 years old, and they still were bearing in 1936 when I visited that region. Indeed their limbs were broken and they presented a sad sight, but they proved how long the Ukrainian English walnut could live. The seeds of those ancient trees I also shipped to Mr. Weschcke. Beside that I brought to my sponsors thousands of selected walnut seeds, seedlings and scions. My English Carpathian walnut tree in the back yard of 48 Peterboro Ave. Toronto, Ont., being planted out there from the pot in the spring of 1922 started to produce nuts in 1929. The nuts were exactly to the type: oblong, pointy, inch and a half long, the shell semi-hard, partitions large, the kernel of pleasant taste. It started to produce female bloom when it was 4 years old, but till 1929 there were no catkins of male bloom. The crop of the nuts, that year and following years was usually carried away by marauding black squirrels. Other people who got from us the Carpathian English walnut seedlings reported that their plants also started to bear the seventh year or around that. But the Papple Bros. reported that they had a case when a seedling produced by them straight from the Carpathian walnut bore a nut in the second year of its life. On the other hand there were cases where some Carpathian English seedlings, as well as grafted ones, still produce no nuts though they are 15 years old and over. I think the cause lies in the soil. On the gravelly hills over Ithaca, N. Y. Carpathian walnuts are slow to bear, even being grafted. The undersoil in the valleys 6 miles north of Pt. Hope, Ont. is not favorable, not only for English walnuts but even for native black walnuts, though very favorable to hickories. On another hand, north-east of Toronto and near Unionville at the place called Hagerman Cornor on the farm of Mr. M. Artymko there is an orchard of 27 Crath's Carpathian English walnuts over 18 years old, each fruiting now every year. The trees are 25 feet tall, 5-6 inches thick, situated on a knoll of clay, well drained soil, lying open toward the northwest. When the trees were younger they were subject to attacks of the bacterial disease and their barks were cracked by frost. Now the trees are in nice shape, no trace of the bacterial disease injuries and the frost's scars disappearing. Some of those trees produced a bushel of the nuts each. Among Artymko's trees there is a tree bearing the walnut of giant type, and the tree--Hutzulian Pointie. The success of the Artymko's farm lies probably in the soil and its high elevation. There in Toronto Mr. T. H. Barrister, has in his backyard two Carpathian English Walnuts, producing nuts of the giant size--five nuts to a foot. The bacterial disease had touched them slightly, and the tree never has been sprayed. We should expect that the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph would find out what is the best soil for English walnuts and what fertilizer to be applied for them. Chicken wire fences should protect the walnut orchard from squirrels and the trees should be sprayed against bacterial disease. About walnut trees bearing and fertilizer--let us return to their native abode in the Carpathians. There in the village of Peestynka I have come across a large English walnut tree 40 feet tall and about 36 years old which, as I was informed by the people there, never fruited till the First World War. During the war an Austrian horse squadron had put a stall around the tree. The horses well manured the soil around there and since that time the tree was bearing nuts regularly and abundantly when I saw it in 1936. At Last Success! The year 1951 should be regarded as the final establishing of the culture of the Carpathian English walnuts in Ontario. The three decades of experimentation have passed leaving a splendid result. The fact is established that the Carpathian English walnuts have become aclimatized in South Ontario. This fall I had an opportunity to examine my walnut trees at many points in the Province. Everywhere I have seen the tree bearing. In Toronto in many a backyard, in Thorold South, in Welland, in Port Colboren, in Islington, near Port Hope on Prof. Currelly's estate, around Scarboro, Ont. and so on, the Carpathians are in good shape and all are bearing. The more the trees mature, the better they look. On the average they are 20 years old, 20 feet tall and 6 inches thick. The summer of 1951 in Ontario was more cloudy than usual, and it caused the Carpathian walnuts in this Province to turn out smaller than their size, should be about one quarter smaller. The people who knew Carpathian English walnut trees in Galicia agree that in Ontario the Carpathians grow more slowly than they do in their native land. It is not in Ontario, but on the University Farm at Madison, Wisconsin, one of our Carpathian trees is nearly 40 feet tall and bearing. In Galicia I had seen many a Carpathian walnut tree as high as 60 feet. Polish Government Interested in My Activity During the time of my activities, in the town of Kessiv, there used to live a famous physician, Dr. Tarnawski. Outside of his clinics he was much interested in the welfare of the country. My activities could not be hidden from his sight. "What does that "American" see in our nuts? Are there in America no nuts?" he asked. Soon I was introduced to him. It was in the fall of 1934. He was not well and in bed at that time. He liked to talk with me about the walnut culture and wished to know why I was collecting the nuts, scions and seedlings for Canada. And then it seemed to him impossible that there in Ontario and the northeastern states English walnuts were not yet cultivated. Then I turned his attention to the fact that in Poland they know little about their own trees. My challenge awoke him to activity, and through his intervention Starosta, the county governor, planted the first twenty-five acres with walnut seedlings along the south side of the highway leading from Kessiv to the town of Kooty. Dr. Tarnawski wrote also an article to a horticultural magazine on English walnuts on what he learned from me. When in the fall of 1936 I was going back to my home in Toronto, Dr. Tarnawski wrote about me to the Department of Agriculture in Warsaw introducing me to the minister. I had an opportunity to give a talk on the Carpathian English walnuts in the presence of many horticulturists in the Government Experimental Farm at Skieerniewice near Warsaw. Late in 1936 I came back to Canada and till the Second World War continued to cultivate the Carpathian walnuts and other horticultural material brought by me from Western Ukraine. The Second War cut me off from my field in Europe. A decade and a half has passed. The Carpathians have been acclimatized, have grown, and have been bearing nuts in Ontario. When such success has been achieved, it seems that there in Canada all the enterprise is forgotten. Of course, the Carpathian walnuts could not advertise themselves--they are "dumb critters." In the States the situation with the Carpathians is entirely different. Interest in them is growing steadily, and as I said previously the American nurseries have already put the Carpathians on the broad market. In 1950 at the annual meeting the Northern Nut Growers Association made me an Honorary Member of the Association. In 1951 the Association held a contest and the "Crath" Carpathians won most of the prizes. Culture of Crath's Carpathian English Walnut Trees 1. _Propagation by seeds_ Pick up the largest and heaviest nuts from a certain tree. Dry them in a windy place, but not in the sun. Gather the nuts into a jute bag and hang for the winter in a dry and cold place protected from squirrels. Around May 14th put the nuts into a vessel with lukewarm water, soak about one week. Prepare a bed of rich soil manured previously with horse manure. The land should not be of a wet kind. Plant the nuts in rows, 6 inches nut from nut, and two feet, row from row. Protect your nursery from squirrels. In a week or two the nuts should come up. Keep the nursery free from weeds. It will protect the seedling from the buffalo tree hoppers. If the signs of the bacterial disease are detected spray the seedlings at once. For the first winter leave the seedlings as they are in the field. The next spring dig them up, every one. Cut off the leading root of each plant and transplant the seedlings again in rows a foot apart seedling from seedling and two feet row from row. The amputation of the leading root causes the seedling to grow up instead of down and will make them start to bear nuts earlier. In Europe instead of cutting off the walnut seedling's main roots they put under them a flat stone, or start in an earthen pot. The next spring the walnut seedlings are ready for the permanent planting. Being permanently transplanted they should be cultivated at least two or three years. Whitewash the walnut trunks in the late fall to protect bark from bursting by the winter sun. Put a screen around the trunks to protect them from mice and rabbits. Though, if a walnut is gnawed by rodents do nothing about it, the tree will produce a stalk--a new one--from the root. 2. _Propagation by Grafting_ Take Canadian black walnut seedling, one or two years old early in the spring, if you have a greenhouse and can graft them one inch above the root line, tie up with raffia, cover with melted parawax and put in boxes covering each row with light soil mixed with the moss. After 20th of May when the danger of frost is over transplant in your nursery. The grafting of walnuts should be called a barking method. Cut off the upper part of the stock horizontally. Split the bark with your grafting knife as much as needed and lift up the bark as far as the wood and insert the scion. Tie up with raffia and do the rest as said previously. The top grafting on the large Canadian black nuts gives good results also. 3. _Budding_ We bud the walnuts in the middle of August. Regular "T" cut has to be done, the bud put in and wrapped with raffia. Then it should be covered with parawax and left for a couple of weeks. After that time the budding should be examined and the raffia removed. If the leaf by the bud remains green it indicates that the grafting is successful. The next spring, cut off the upper part of the stalk about two feet over the bud. You will tie up to it the budded shoot, which by the fall might be up to 6 feet high. Spraying and cultivating is required as has been said above. Owing to the fact that the budded plant in its first year continues to grow deep into fall and in many cases its upper part does not harden well, wrap the budding with straw for winter. 4. _Harvesting_ In the Carpathian Mountains when they gather the walnuts in the fall they mash them down with a very long and quite thin hazel sticks. Doing that they beat off the thin tops of the walnut branches. They say such an operation causes a better crop of the nuts next season. 5. _Giant Walnuts and their problems_ Some giant walnuts on the same tree have sometimes small kernels or withered ones. In the Carpathian Region they do not know what to do with such a problem. It seems to me that we in Canada have to solve it. Maybe it is because of the bacterial disease, or it may be a lack of the proper fertilizer. In Warsaw I have seen the giant walnuts sold not being dried. 6. _Reforestation with the Carpathian Walnuts_ Crath's Carpathian English walnuts could produce for Canada a very valuable forest and in shorter time than other trees do. We should always remember that in the Caucasian Mountains there are huge walnut forests. Some trees are of primeval age. Before the First World War English buyers often paid a Caucasian farmer from 5,000 to 10,000 rubles for a tree. Walnut Wine There in the Town of Kooty Mrs. Babiuk, a good wife of a local burgher told me about the walnut wine as follows: "In my girlhood in this region there raged an awful epidemic of cholera. Many people died. But those who drank the wine made of green English Walnuts did not die." The recipe that she gave me is as follows: Take equal parts of walnuts in which the shells are not yet hardened, and the same quantity of sugar. Cut each green walnut in half a dozen parts, mix them with the sugar. In a couple of days the juice will be extracted by means of the sugar and ensuing fermentation which continues about one month. In two months it is ready to be consumed. On my return to Canada I made wine from the Canadian black walnuts. The color of the wine was dark brown and quite pleasant. It stops stomach ache. Also we should not forget the walnut oil and the use of walnuts in confectionary. Walnut Candies Take equal quantities of walnut kernels and honey. Mix. Boil, watching that the honey does not over-run. Mix with a wooden spoon. In half an hour cool to see if the honey has turned into taffy. If not, boil longer. When it is ready put upon a wooden board, with a spoon. When cooled the candy is ready. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 23: Mr. Crath died late December 1952] Nut Tree Plantings in Southeastern Iowa ALBERT B. FERGUSON, _Center Point, Iowa_ Last year on our return from the Nut Growers Assn. tour, Mr. Snyder and I stopped to see the Schlagenbusch Brothers and their nut plantings. We thought at the time that it would be profitable to the Association to have a report on their work. Mr. Snyder and I went down a month ago to visit them again. Sidney and Carl Schlagenbusch live in the southeastern part of Iowa. The walnut orchard is on high land overlooking the Mississippi River bottom. The ground was formerly oak and hickory timber. Most of their other plantings are near the farm buildings which are just below the higher ground. The first planting of the walnut orchard was made in 1928 and was completed 8 or 10 years later. It consisted of 205 trees. Later additions have been made. There are about 325 grafted trees in the orchard at present, most of them of bearing age. The trees are spaced 50 feet by 50 feet in staggered rows. Some of the branches are beginning to touch. The diameter of the larger trees is 18 inches. The orchard is in grass which is not grazed close. The larger portion of the orchard is the Thomas variety. They have a selection of their own which was first in the Iowa contest a few years ago. I thought it outstanding, but they consider it a little small. The nuts are gathered in a wagon and run through a corn sheller, then cleaned in a device they made themselves. The nuts are then floated and dried. Over half of the crop is cracked and sold as kernels. They have been getting around a $1.20 per pound in Fort Madison. No crop to date has exceeded a thousand dollars in value. They also have several hickories and hybrids. The shellbark variety, Wagoner, is outstanding--the best I've seen. It is large, thin shelled, cracks easily, and is of good quality. A small tree grafted on shagbark is bearing well. They have the common varieties of pecans, a few chestnuts, a few English walnuts, Japanese walnuts and hybrids. The Winkler Hazel has not been very productive with them. They had several trees of Stabler, which were not satisfactory so they cut the trees off close to the ground and put 6 or 8 bark grafts in the stump. They saved the largest one as the main trunk and taking a graft or a large sprout from the opposite side of the stump, inarching it into the main trunk two or three feet up. This prevents the wind from blowing the graft off of the stump. It also makes it possible to utilize the strength of the roots from the opposite side of the stump. They had several trees worked this way which are now of good size. In addition to caring for their large farm, nut orchard and a choice herd of Hereford cattle, Carl has found time to do some breeding work with Oriental poppies from which he has made some very choice selections. They have also worked with several other perennials. Sidney and Carl Schlagenbusch are true horticulturists by nature and are fine folks. On the way home from this recent trip, we stopped to see Corliss Williams near Danville. His brother Wendell Williams, located the Winkler Hazel, before the first world war in which he served and never returned. We saw a Persian walnut, 25 or 30 years old, in Mr. Williams front yard. It was a U.S.D.A. introduction from Russia. It seems to be perfectly hardy, bears well and is of excellent quality. The shagbark hickories are plentiful in his locality. He has top-worked 200 or more, many of them to Burlington, which is productive and fills well with him. Rockville as a Hickory Interstock HERMAN LAST, _Steamboat Rock, Iowa_ As a nut-grower I am afraid I have been over-rated; I make my living tilling the soil and dabble in my nut grove only when I can find a few moments to spare--in fact all I know about nuts and nut-grafting, I owe to my good friend, Edgar Huen. I shall always remember that balmy May morning 25 years ago when Mr. Huen came over with a kit full of hickory scions, and suggested we go out in my pasture and do some grafting. In that bag were Stratford, Rockville, Des Moines, Marquette, Hagen and Monahan. We grafted all that day--that is Mr. Huen did the grafting and I watched him. Today these trees are living monuments of our work. The only tree of these varieties that has ever borne enough nuts to feed a squirrel is the Stratford. Meanwhile I have been doing a little grafting myself. I acquired a few pecans for understocks but the only variety that was congenial with pecan as far as I knew was Rockville, but it produced no nuts--it was just a nice tree to look at. One spring my brother-in-law who lives just across the line in Missouri sent me some shellbark scions from a tree in his pasture. I grafted these scions on a pecan and they took off like a house on fire. This variety proved to be a rugged individual and bore every year but the nuts were no good--all cavities like a true shellbark. Then one spring morning I grafted some of these shellbark scions on Rockville; the grafts took and I soon noticed a transformation. The grafts had blended with the understock and the offspring was different from either parent. The best part of the new hybrid was that it bore abundantly and the nuts are of fine quality. To those who have some young Rockville trees for top-working, I can furnish a limited amount of scionwood of this shellbark which I have named my Super X, it being so rugged and hardy. To me the grafting of trees is a noble work. Someone has said that he who plants a tree is a true lover of his race and I don't know of anything that will live longer in the memory of our children and those who follow in our footsteps than a row of hickories laden with nuts. A Fruitful Pair of Carpathian Walnut Varieties in Michigan GILBERT BECKER, _Climax, Mich._ I would like to tell you briefly my experience with the difficulties of Persian walnut pollination. It took 8 years before I got any nuts, although they had nutlets time and again! It was after I had Crath #1 bearing, that all proceeded to fruit, and then heavier every year, until 1951 when the freeze of November 1950 eliminated the nuts. Crath #1 has done so well that I feel it well worthy of being a commercial prospect for us. The size and shape are so attractive. (The accuracy of the numbering was once questioned by Mr. Stoke, so I do not know if it is the same No. 1 that others have had from Crath. This was named by Prof. Nielson. It definitely is not Broadview, as Stoke at first thought.) My Crath #1 had over four bushels of hulled and unhulled nuts (as they are picked up, after shaking) this fall. It was grafted on black walnut in 1938. At my folks' place I planted a grafted Crath #1, and a Carpathian "D", side by side. There are no other Persian walnuts near, and they have always had nuts, since they started to bear. I feel that this is a proper combination. I do not know whether the blooming periods overlap. Suggested Blooming Data to be Recorded for Nut Tree Varieties J. C. MCDANIEL, _Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, Ill._ Such experiences as Mr. Becker's (extracted from a letter to me) are well worth knowing, and we need similar information for several years and at different locations, for all the promising Persian seedlings and new varieties. I would suggest that all of us who have them flowering in our plantings (even if only one tree) make an effort in 1953 to record as much as possible of the phenological data on them. A form such as the following might be used, for flowering, fruiting, and related data. Year: 19_____ Location: ____________________ Data by: _______________ First freeze previous fall: (Date) _______________ Minimum temperature previous winter: _____°F. on (Date) _______________ Last killing frost this spring (Date) ______________________________ +---------+-----+-------+---------+--------+---------+----------+-----+-------+ |Variety |Age |Date |First |End |Date |Nuts |Yield|Remarks| |(or |of |from |catkins |of |pistils |harvested | | | |seedling |tree |new |shedding |shedding|appear |(date) | | | |No.) |or |growth |(date) | |receptive| | | | | |graft|scion | | | | | | | +---------+-----+-------+---------+--------+---------+----------+-----+-------+ |1. | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+-------+---------+--------+---------+----------+-----+-------+ |2. | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+-------+---------+--------+---------+----------+-----+-------+ |3. | | | | | | | | | +---------+-----+-------+---------+--------+---------+----------+-----+-------+ Under "Remarks" could be recorded such information as the distance and direction to trees furnishing pollen in the period when a given variety has sticky appearing pistils, the abundance of pollen shed, apparent winter killing of catkins, etc. The list of items could be expanded, if desired, but it is thought that those included here are among the most important in determining the potential performances of varieties and variety combinations in specific climates. A compilation of such data for a period of about three years, supplemented with data on the nuts themselves, would be of very practical value as a basis for selecting varieties most promising to plant or propagate. The same data form would be applicable to other walnuts, hickories, pecans, and filberts, and perhaps to a lesser extent with chestnuts. Note on Chinese Chestnuts HARWOOD STEIGER, _Redhook, N. Y._ My earliest Chinese chestnuts are ripening. Stoke Hybrid is earliest and the nuts are so attractive, too bad they are not better in quality. It is an exciting time here as there are always a few seedlings that are ripening for the first time. Honan, which ripens later, has been one of my best grafted trees. One of my seedlings has very large nuts, very early ripening, nuts are now falling, and it is prolific, nearly every burr has from two to three large to very large nuts. The quality seems good. We like the large nuts as they are easier to peel and we like them boiled and served as a vegetable. The boiled nuts keep well when frozen. I think this tree is superior to any of my grafted and named varieties. Scott Healey--An Obituary Scott Healey was born December 3, 1881, in Wheatley, Ontario, Canada, and came to Otsego, Michigan, in 1904. He married in 1908. Mr. Healey was a chiropractor for a number of years. In 1921, Mr. Healey and his cousin, Lewis Healey, formed the Healey & Healey Lumber and Coal Company, in Otsego, which they operated together until a few years ago, when Mr. Healey retired due to ill health. Mr. Healey was a director of the State Savings Bank in Otsego for many years. He was a member of the first Baptist Church in Otsego. He became interested in nut culture while the late Professor James A. Neilson was nut specialist at the Michigan State College. Mr. Healey planted a nut orchard of about eighty grafted nut trees in 1933, which Professor Neilson helped him plan. Most of the trees were black walnut varieties, chiefly Thomas. However, there were some Ohio, Stabler, Allen, Crietz, Stambaugh, Ten Eyck, and Rohwer trees. There were also some filberts, several Chinese chestnuts, and some heartnuts he had raised from seed. One nice tree of the McCallister hican makes good shade, but has never borne any nuts. He did some topworking in a large black walnut tree in the backyard, where he got a Persian walnut to grow. Mr. Healey was very much interested in nut culture, and had planned on having a nut grove for a hobby to keep him busy when he retired. Mr. Healey joined the Northern Nut Growers Association in 1933. He and his wife attended the Battle Creek meeting one year later. They also attended the Rockport, Indiana meeting in 1935, and the one at Geneva, New York in 1936.--"The rest of the time he couldn't go or was in too poor health to go." They sold their home, with the nut planting, to a young couple, Mr. and Mrs. Lewis Lovett, in 1948, moved into Otsego; and retired. Mr. Healey died, January 18th, 1952 at their winter home in Port Richey, Florida. Surviving are his wife, Mabel, and one son, Virgil. GILBERT BECKER A Letter from Dr. W. C. Deming, the Only Living Charter Member of the Association Northern Nut Growers Association, Dear Old Friends: The 42nd Annual Report has recently come to me. Think of it, the 42nd Annual Report! How familiar to me are a great many of the names of the officers and members! I can even recall the very features of many of them. I am myself now ninety years old and practically house-bound. Though yesterday, a day almost like summer, I did take a taxi and a drive through the park amid the brilliant foliage, with Miss Dorothy Hapgood, who by the way is a member of our association a thing with which I may have had something to do. Recently I was in the Veterans Hospital at Newington for a couple of weeks. The doctors called it "_polycythemia_", the direct opposite of "_anaemia_", did 10 phlebotomies taking 5 pints of blood which they said they used for transfusions on ward patients, much to my gratification. I now have in, or had put in me, a dose, of radio-active phosphorus P32 which, they assure me will be getting in its good work for the next three months. Nothing like being up to date, even if valetudinarian. You have made me Dean of the association. In the beginning Clarence Reed was always back of me with his abilities and vast fund of information. Although I believe I am, by virtue of my office, exempt from dues and entitled to the annual reports, I wish my five children to be at least once represented in the membership. I append their names and addresses: Hawthorne, the eldest, is with the Gen. Electric Co. in New York. I don't know what he does but presume that with the other New York millionaires he is busy accumulating wealth. This hint may guide you in soliciting alms for the association some day. His home is in Hamilton Lane, Larien, Conn. But I don't know if he knows a nut from a lunatic. He has two kids, one now preparing for Korea. God preserve him. Benton is already a member. He has a few acres in the town of Avon, Conn. where, among the rocks and the native rattlesnakes and copperheads he tells me he has Chinese chestnuts growing. Recently he got two of the copperheads. He is an energetic chap. He rises at 4 a.m. and drives the several miles into Hartford where he broadcasts from 7 to 8, for people's breakfasts, I suppose, and is released at 10 a.m. He has just contracted for a television program once a week in New Haven. Olcott is a consul in the U.S. Embassy in Tokio, transferred from a similar position in Siam. If there is something you want from Japan I guess he is your boy. Mention my name! He has a lovely wife and three children. Una King, my elder daughter, whose husband was killed in an accident, interviews VIP's on the same radio station as brother Ben. Joan Howe (Mrs. Paul) and her husband, who is in a bank in New York, live in my old home on Umpawaug Hill, Redding, Conn. She writes of having had a crop of black walnuts from one of the trees I planted. I've forgotten all the others there may be there. Nothing of value I guess. Joan has two daughters. Ben has a son and daughter. That makes five children I'm responsible for and they have acknowledged the eleven grandchildren for me. I want you to make four of my children (Ben is already ensnare) members of the association, for which I will enclose a check for $12.00 (if I don't forget.) (The many typing mistakes of this letter are due mostly to the age of the machine, not mine.) My two sisters who live in our old home in Litchfield and who are close behind me in years, recently sent me a handful of nice chestnuts, Chinese, from a tree 40 feet or more high in our backyard. They have to divide them, very unequally, with the squirrels. The only other noteworthy trees in our little place are a few papaws. Asimina triloba, too shaded to bear. This fruit might be worthy of a little attention from the nut growers. The dictionary speaks of several other species of papaw. Any of you who have outgrown the labor of caring for nut trees might find interest in mycology in which I found diversion and edibles for a while. Only beware the deadly Amanita and others of that ilk. I cannot adequately express to you my heartfelt joy at the prosperity of our association. For one thing the great increase in the membership, for another the birth of three branch state associations, but above all the success in the production of nuts. In my time we had mostly, if not entirely, the promising production of specimen nuts only. We had nothing like the Jacobs Persian walnut with its imposing spread and its production of 200 pounds of nuts in one season; Mr. Kyhl's orchard with its many varieties of Persian walnuts; his success in grafting and his reporting of a tree which bears three or four bushels of heartnuts yearly; Mr. Best's 5,000 grafted pecan trees; Mr. Hirshi's chestnuts; the splendid results of the Persian walnut contests; and the almost spectacular increase in the number of nurseries selling grafted nut trees of many varieties. These facts, and many that I have not mentioned, make it certain that nut growing is now a firmly established and surely increasing industry. You may be sure that these facts give me great delight. Some years ago while I was in possession of a mind as good as it had been at any time, I did a little grafting of nut trees in a commercial way for people at their country places, and I had the nerve to charge them fifty dollars a day. What's more I got paid and never got kicked, nor did I hear mutterings or see scowls. But then, you see, there was no other grafter, of the kind, around my part of the country. Almost a monopoly and, of course, a wicked one. But here my mind goes blank. I can't recall what luck I had with the grafting, nor can I recall the name of a single one for whom I did such work. I strongly advise every one of you to have a good book in which you keep personal and geographic records of all your work with nut growing. All the details are vividly in your mind now, but when you get to be ninety you may find them, as I do, faded away and all washed up. Please go on with the good work. Some more good friends have just taken me for a round trip to Litchfield where my little sister, who is 84, has just partly circumvented the squirrels and by going out very early in the morning to the chestnut tree has succeeded in getting a good big double handful of chestnuts, nice big ones. She also called to my attention a good-sized Persian walnut which she says I once grafted on a black walnut and this year was quite well covered with nuts which she says the squirrels cut off while green, and she says they were helped by one of the black plumaged birds. Some time ago she gave me one of the nuts and I tried to husk it with my knife. But it was too immature. They would have matured this fall, I think but for the pests. _William C. Deming_ Sweepstakes Award in Ohio Black Walnut Contest L. WALTER SHERMAN, _Canfield, Ohio_ This I believe, is the third report to the Northern Nut Growers Association concerning the black walnut contest held in Ohio in 1946. The first report was given soon after the close of the contest. During the year following the contest (1947), I visited each of the ten prize winning trees, photographing them, and getting as complete a case history of each as was possible. This, the third report, concerns mainly the process used to determine the winner of the $50.00 sweepstakes award given in 1951 for the best performance of a black walnut tree for a five-year period. The owners of the ten prize-winning trees in the 1946 contest were asked to report the amount of crop harvested each year as well as to send in samples of the nuts for a cracking test. Complete data were recorded each year from the samples just as they had been for the 1946 contest. The average weight of nut, recovery of kernel at first cracking, total kernel content, and per cent of kernel content were recorded. From these data tables and charts were compiled to make a visual comparison between the various nuts. Walnuts other than the prize winners were not excluded from this five-year competition and quite a few were submitted. However, only one of them, the "Chamberlin" was of special merit and it was given a place on these charts. No samples or crop records were received from the Davidson (sixth prize) and the Jackson (tenth prize) nuts, and so they are not shown on all the charts. One sample from the 1949 crop of Penn walnuts was lost to a pilfering squirrel, and the 1949 data used on the chart for the Penn walnut was therefore the average of all other samples of this variety. The weight of total crop harvested in 1949, however, is actual. Table No. 1 gives the average weight in grams of the sample nuts. The Duke, (first prize) was the largest nut of all, in 1945, averaging just over 27 grams; but the Orth, in 1948, averaged almost a gram more. The Kuhn, which was the smallest of the eight nuts in 1946 and again in 1950, was the largest nut in 1949, and its size in 1949 was exceeded only four times by any of the other nuts during the contest. The nuts were large in size during the off year when only a small crop was produced and they were small when there was a heavy crop. In table No. 2 the weight in grams of the kernel recovered on first crack, secured without the aid of nut pick, is recorded. In this comparison the Duke, because of large size, might be expected to be an easy winner and it was in 1946 and in 1950; but in 1948, though second in average weight of nut for that year, it was in fifth place in recovery of kernel at first cracking. Table No. 3 records the average weight in grams of the kernels. Here the Duke, due largely to its size, is a consistent winner in all three years it produced nuts. However, in 1949, a small crop year for the Kuhn, the nuts of this variety were large and contained more kernel than the Duke did in 1948 or in 1950. The per cent of kernel in the nuts as recorded in table No. 4 is interesting. The Burson, which was the smallest nut in 1947, had the highest per cent of kernel and also had the highest total kernel content of any sample in that year. Evidently the per cent of kernel is higher in well-filled nuts and this is largely determined by the weather and available food supply late in the season. A comparison of the numerical score of the various nuts, figured out according to the T.V.A. score system, is given in Table No. 5. By this system, no variety had a consistent high score, but each varied greatly from year to year. The nut characters studied so far in charts 1 to 5 inclusive have varied so much from year to year that any judgment based on these characters for any one year could not be relied upon. What characteristic of a black walnut, then, can be used in evaluating it? In table No. 6 the percentage of the total kernel that is recovered at first cracking is given. Oliver and Penn show considerable consistency in that they remain above 91 per cent in all samples, but look at the Kuhn. It was perfect in 1950 but in 1948 only 65 per cent of the kernel was recoverable in the first cracking and Duke was nearly as bad, varying from 69 to 98 per cent recovery. After careful study of these six charts, I am sure you will have to admit that any judgment of a black walnut variety based on these characters only is none too dependable. These are the nut characters that we have been using in our contest! Some further method of evaluation is needed! Individual nut characters alone are not enough. A good farmer is concerned in quality of his produce but quantity is of more importance for financial success. The Elberta peach well illustrates this. There are many peaches of better quality, but the Elberta peach is a prolific producer and this is one reason more Elberta peaches are raised than any other variety. Quality without quantity means little. With this in mind, the $50.00 sweepstakes prize was offered for the tree with the best five-year record. The judges interpreted this to mean the most pound of kernels produced that were recovered on first crack. Going back over the records, we find some trees have been much more productive than others. At first it would seem unfair to compare the crop from trees of different size and age, but this time luck was with the judges. Take a look at Table No. 7 which gives the ages and sizes of the trees. There is not too much difference in size or age to make reasonable comparisons possible. However, it should be clearly understood that only trees of the same age growing in the same orchard and receiving the same care can be accurately compared. The trees we are dealing with were in different localities, with vast differences in soil conditions, air drainage, climate, etc. Table No. 7 gives the total production for the five-year period for each tree, in bushels, the total amount of kernel as well as the amount of kernel recovered at first cracking. Only five trees had produced over four bushels of nuts each during the five year period. The Oliver tree produced 1.8 bushels and 25 pounds more kernels than the Penn tree. The Kuhn tree, though producing four bushels less nuts than the Penn tree, did produce 4.1 pounds more kernels, with the same amount recovered on first cracking from the nuts of each tree--almost a photo finish for second place. The sweepstakes award of $50.00 was therefore given to Mrs. Oliver Shaffer, of Lucasville, Ohio, who sent in the Oliver entry. Referring to the case histories of these trees as written up in 1947, you will find that the Oliver, Kuhn, Penn, and Orth trees were reported on favorable sites, while the Duke and Burson were on very unfavorable ones so that the above results are only what might have been expected. The Orth tree, however, is in a favorable location and better production could have been expected of it. Table 1. Size, as Weight of Unshelled Walnuts (Approximate). ==================================================================== Grams 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 Average[24] per nut -------------------------------------------------------------------- 28 Orth 27 Duke Duke 26 Penn Oliver Orth Duke Kuhn 25 Penn Orth Duke Duke Athens Penn Williamson Penn Penn 23 Orth Williamson Oliver Oliver Oliver Orth Williamson Kuhn Duke 22 Oliver Chamberlin Burson Williamson 21 Oliver Penn Athens Kuhn Burson Burson Burson Burson, Athens Burson Kuhn Athens 20 Athens Chamberlin Williamson 19 Kuhn 18 Chamberlin 17 16 Kuhn ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Judges for the contest were C. W. Ellenwood and O. D. Diller of the Ohio Experiment Station and L. Walter Sherman, then with the Department of Agriculture, Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 24: Average of five years for Duke, Oliver, Burson and Kuhn; four years for Penn, which was not cracked in 1949, but interpolated in charts. Note: To save time and the expense of redrawing and reproduction, these seven tables are printed instead of Mr. Sherman's graphic charts. With a ruler and pencil, lines can be drawn through the "D's of Duke", and so forth, to give an approximation of the original graphs.--Editor.] Table 2. Kernel Recovery at First Crack, in Grams Per Nut (Approximate). ======================================================================== Grams 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 Average[25] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 7 Duke Orth Orth 6 Williamson Duke Penn, Kuhn Duke, Orth Williamson Duke Oliver Athens Kuhn Burson, W'ms. Athens Duke 5 Burson, Williamson Ch'lin Athens, Burson Orth, Oliver Penn, Burson Penn Burson, Kuhn Kuhn, Oliver Athens Orth Oliver, Kuhn Penn Oliver, Penn Ch'lin Duke Bur., Wms., Ath. Oliver Chamberlin 4 Kuhn -------------------------------------------------------------------------- FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 25: See note with Table 1.] Attendance Register, Rockport, Ind., 1952 Ontario, Canada O. Filman, Aldershot District of Columbia Howard Baker, Washington Mr. & Mrs. E. L. Ford, Washington Florida Mrs. R. B. Pattie, St. Augustine Georgia Max B. Hardy, Leesburg Mr. & Mrs. W. J. Wilson, Fort Valley Illinois Mr. & Mrs. R. B. Best, Eldred C. R. Blyth, Urbana S. C. Chandler, Carbondale T. F. Clark, Peoria A. S. Colby, Urbana E. A. Curl, Urbana Albert Dahlberg, Chicago O. J. & Karl Eigsti, Normal Mr. & Mrs. O. H. Fuller, Joliet Mr. & Mrs. Louis Gerardi, Caseyville J. C. McDaniel, Urbana Mrs. R. E. Norris, Shawneetown Mr. & Mrs. Royal Oakes, Bluffs Elizabeth Sonnemann, Vandalia Mr. & Mrs. W. F. Sonnemann, Vandalia A. M. Whitford, Farina Cullen Zethmayr, Westmount Gordon Zethmayr, West Chicago Indiana Ralph Andrews & Son, John, Marion Howard Bloomethol, Evansville Ferd Bolton, Linton L. E. Cooper, Rockport Virginia M. Darning, Rockport K. A. Dooley, Marion Peter Glaser, Evansville Jo Ann Hall, Rockport A. W. Hamilton, Vincennes Ray Kaufman, Peru Charles Myer, Evansville George Oberman, Evansville Edward W. Pope, Marion Carl Prell, South Bend Adolph Risko, Monticello L. E. Sawyer, Terre Haute Ralph Schruber, New Albany Barbara Sly, Rockport Mr. & Mrs. Raymond Sly, Rockport J. E. Talbott, Linton Ford Wallick, Peru Mr. & Mrs. W. B. Ward, West Lafayette J. F. Wilkinson, Rockport Iowa A. B. Ferguson, Center Point E. F. Huen, Eldora Ira M. Kyhl, Sabula Elizabeth Rohrbacher, Iowa City Wm. Rohrbacher, Iowa City D. C. Snyder, Center Point Kentucky Mr. & Mrs. Robert Alvis, Henderson W. D. Armstrong, Princeton W. W. Magill, Lexington J. E. McClure, Owensboro Maryland John Flick, Riverdale G. F. Gravatt, Beltsville J. W. McKay & Family, College Park Mr. & Mrs. Herbert Negus, Hyattsville Michigan Mr. & Mrs. Gilbert Becker, Climax J. A. Becker, Climax W. N. Beckert, Jackson Ralph Emerson, Detroit Frank J. Keplinger, Farwell Edwin W. Lemke, Detroit Mr. & Mrs. F. L. O'Rourke, East Lansing L. L. Ricky, East Lansing Missouri H. W. Guengerich, Louisiana R. E. Mangelsdorf, St. Louis New York Mr. & Mrs. S. Bernath, Poughkeepsie David Caldwell & family, Syracuse L. H. MacDaniels, Ithaca Mr. and Mrs. George Salzer, Rochester Rodman Salzer, Rochester G. L. Slate, Geneva Alfred Szego, Jackson Heights Ohio G. E. Craig, Dundas F. L. Davell & family, Masillon Mr. & Mrs. John Davidson, Xenia John A. Gerstenmaier, Massillon Edward A. Grad, Cincinnati Frank M. Kintzel, Cincinnati Shumzo Kodera, Columbus & Tokyo, Japan Paul E. Machovina, Columbus Christ Pataky, Jr., Mansfield Sylvester Shessler, Genoa Mr. & Mrs. R. E. Silvis, Massillon Mr. & Mrs. John Underwood, Urbana Martha Weber, Cincinnati Pennsylvania Mr. & Mrs. R. P. Allaman, Harrisburg W. S. Clarke, Jr., State College John Rick, Reading Tennessee Spencer Chase, Norris H. O. Murphy, Chattanooga Dr. & Mrs. Audrey Richard, Whiteville Mr. & Mrs. W. J. Robinson, Jackson Virginia Bessie J. Gibbs, Linden H. R. Gibbs, Linden Miss Eloise Saddler, Fazewell H. F. Stoke, Roanoke Northern Nut Growers Association Membership List As of February 24, 1953 * Life member ** Honorary member § Contributing member + Sustaining member ALABAMA East Alabama Nursery, Auburn. Chestnut, pecan and persimmon nurserymen +Hiles, Edward L., Hiles Repair Shop, Loxley. Auto repair Long, Pope M., Box 33, Cordova. Real Estate ARKANSAS +Hale, A. C., Fairview School, Camden Schlan, Mrs. Agnes, Rt. 2, Mountainburg Vaile, Joseph E., Dept, of Horticulture, U. of Ark., Fayetteville Wade, Clifton, Forest Ave., Fayetteville. Attorney Wylie, W. D., Dept, of Entomology, U. of Ark., Fayetteville. Entomologist BELGIUM Vanderwaeren, R., Bierbeekstraat, 217, Korbeek-Lo. Horticultural Adviser CALIFORNIA Andrew, Col. James W., Box 12, Hamilton A. F. B. Brand, George, See Nebraska +Buck, Ernest Homer, Three Arch Bay, 16 N. Portola, South Laguna Fulcher, E. C., 5707 Fulcher Ave., North Hollywood +Haig, Dr. Thomas R., 3021 Highland Dr., Rt. 2, Box 2357, Carlsbad Gililland, Guy S., L.V.S.R. Box 342, Lucerne Valley Jeffers, Harold W., Lt. U.S.N., USS Dixie, AD 14, c/o F.P.O., San Francisco Kemple, W. H., 216 W. Ralston St., Ontario Linwood Nursery, Rt. 2, Box 476, Turlock Pentler, Dr. C. F., 1322 Martin Ave., Palo Alto. American Friends Service Committee Pozzi, P. H., 2875 S. Dutton Ave., Santa Rosa. Brewery worker, farmer Serr, Dr. E. F., Jr., Agr. Experiment Sta., Davis. Pomologist Stewart, Douglas N., 633 F St., Davis Sullivan, C. Edward, Garden Highway, Box 447, Yuba City Welby, Harry S., 500 Buchanan St., Taft. Private and Corp. Hort. CANADA Collens, Adam H., 42 Seaton St., Toronto 2, Ontario **Crath, Rev. Paul C, 129 Felbrigg Ave., Toronto 12, Ontario English, H. A., Box 153, Duncan, B. C. Farmer, fruit and nut grower Gage, James M., 76 Water St. E., Burlington, Ontario Gellatly, J. U., Box 19, Westbank, B. C. Plant breeder, fruit grower, nurseryman Harrhy, Ivor H., Rt. 7, St. Thomas, Ontario. Fruit grower and poultry Holmes, B. T., 320 Deloraine Ave., Toronto, Ontario Housser, Levi, Rt. 1, Beamsville, Ontario. Fruit farmer +Lefevre, H. E., 354 St. Catherine St. E., Montreal 18, Quebec Lossing, Elgin, Norwich, Ontario *Neilson, Mrs. Ellen, 5 Macdonald Ave., Guelph, Ontario Papple, Elton E., Rt. 1, Cainsville, Ontario Porter, Gordon, Rt. 2, Harrow, Ontario. Chemist Smith, Edward A., Box 6, Sparta, Ontario. Farmer +Snazelle, Robert, Forest Nursery Rt. 5, Charlottetown, P.E.I. Nursery Supt. Trayling, E. J., 509 Richards St., Vancouver, B. C. Jeweller Wagner, A. S., Delhi, Ontario +Walker, J. W., McCarthy & McCarthy, 330 University Ave., Toronto 1, Ontario Wharton, H. W., Rt. 2, Guelph, Ontario. Farmer White, Peter, 30 Pear Ave., Toronto 5, Ontario Willis, A. R., Rt. 1, Royal Oak, Vancouver Island, B. C. Accountant Woods, David M., 48 S. Front St., West Toronto, Ont. Vice Pres., Gordon McKay, Inc. Young, A. L., Brooks, Alberta. Dairy farmer COLORADO Boyd, A., 1232 Clayton, Denver. Salesman +Forbes, J. E., Julesburg. Banker CONNECTICUT Corcoran, H. F., International Silver Co., 169 Colony St., Meriden Daniels, Honorable Paul C. See Ecuador David, Alexander M., 480 S. Main St., West Hartford Deming, Benton H., Radio WTHT, Hartford Deming, Hawthorne, Hamilton Lane, Darien **Deming, Dr. W. C, Litchfield. Dean of the Association Frueh, Alfred J., Rt. 1, Sharon +Graves, Dr. Arthur H., P.O. Box 129, Wallingford. Consulting Pathologist, Conn. Agr. Expt. Station, New Haven Hapgood, Miss Dorothy A., 745 Farmington Ave., Hartford Henry, David S., Blue Hills Farm, Rt. 2, Wallingford Howe, Mrs. Paul, Umpawang Hill, Rt. 1, West Redding *Huntington, A. M., Stanerigg Farms, Bethel. Patron King, Mrs. Una, 57 Meadowbrook Rd., West Hartford *Newmarker, Adolph, Rt. 1, Rockville Pratt, George D., Jr., Bridgewater Schukoske, John A., Rt. 2, Box 257, Saybrook Rd., Middletown White, George E., Rt. 2, Andover. Farmer DELAWARE Brugmann, Elmer W., 108C Thomas Dr., Monroe Pk., Wilmington. Chemical Engineer +Logue, R. F., Gen. Mgr., Andelot, Inc., 2098 Du Pont Bldg., Wilmington DENMARK Butzow, O., 49 Bredgade, Copenhagen Carøe, Mr. J. F., "Meulenborg", Helsingor Granjean, Mr. Julio, Hillerod Knuth, Count F. M., Knuthenborg, Bandholm Pers, Mr. Plantageejer E., Edelgaard, Vejstrup Reventlow, Johan Otto, Damgaard, Fredericia Sørensen, Director K. Kaae, Dyrehavevej 22, Klampenborg DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA American Potash Inst., Inc., 1102 16th St., N. W., Washington Ford, Edwin L., 3634 Austin St., S. E. Washington 20 Kaan, Dr. Helen W. See Md. Reed, Mrs. Clarence A., 7309 Piney Branch Rd., N. W., Washington 12 Woycik, Dr. Peter W., 1835 I St., N. W. Washington. Dentist ECUADOR, SOUTH AMERICA Daniels, The Honorable Paul C. American Ambassador, American Embassy, Quito O'Rourke, Prof. F. L., Trop. Agric. Exp. Sta., Pichilingue, c/o U.S. Consul, Guayacil FLORIDA +Avant, C. A., 940 N. W. 10th Ave., Miami. Real Estate, Loans, (Pecan orchard in Ga.) +Estill, Gertrude, 153 Navarre Dr., Miami Springs GEORGIA Avant, C. A., Jr., Rt. 2, Box 253, Albany Cannon, J. W., Jr., Cordele Funsten R. E. Company, Sandison, Arthur O., P.O. Box 1046, Albany +Hardy, Max B., Leeland Farms, P.O. Box 128, Leesburg. Nurseryman farmer Hunter, Dr. H. Reid, 561 Lake Shore Dr., N.E., Atlanta. Teacher, nut farmer Noland, S. C, Box 1747, Atlanta 1. Owner, Skyland Farms Sasseville, Exra M., 605 Rhodes Bldg., Atlanta Wilson, William J., North Anderson Ave., Fort Valley. Peach and pecan grower HAWAII Keaau Orchards, John F. Cross, Mgr., P.O. Box 1720, Hilo. Macadamia growers HONG KONG +Wang, P. W., China Prod. Trading Corp., 6 Des Voeux Rd., Central IDAHO Bailey, Robert G., 332 Main St., Lewiston. Print Shop Dryden, Lynn, Peck. Farmer Hazelbaker, Calvin, Rt. 1, Box 382, Lewiston Horn, Anton S., 920 N. 20th St., Boise. Ext. Horticulturist ILLINOIS Allbright, R. D., Allbright Nurseries, 4237 Western Ave., Western Springs Allen, Theodore R., Delavan. Farmer Anderson, Ralph W., Rt. 3, Morris Andrew, Col. James W. See California Anthony, A. B., Rt. 3, Sterling. Apiarist Baber, Adin, Kansas Barrow, J. M., P.O. Box 54, Urbana §Best, R. B., Columbia Seed Co., Eldred. Farmer Best, Mrs. R. B., Columbia Seed Co., Eldred Best, R. C., Eldred Best, R. L., Eldred Best, Virgil, Rt. 4, Mattoon §Blyth, Colin R., Math. Dept. U. of Ill., Urbana *Boll, Herschel L., 2 Hort. Field Lab. U. of Ill., Urbana. Pomologist Booth, Earl, Rt. 2, Carrollton Borchsenius, Wayne L., Rt. 2, Sheridan Brock, Arthur S., 1733 N. McVicker Ave., Chicago 39 Canterbury, C. E., Cantrall Carlson, Dr. R. J., 320 Sherman Ave., Macomb Chandler, S. C, Southern State Univ., Carbondale Churchill, Woodford M., 4323 Oakenwald Ave., Chicago 15 Clark, Thomas F., Northern Regional Research Lab., Peoria. Chemical Engineer Colby, Dr. Arthur S., Univ. of Ill., Urbana Crabb, Richard, Box 306, Wheaton +Dahlberg, Dr. Albert A., 5756 Harper Ave., Chicago 37 +Daum, Philip A., 203 N. Sixth St., Carrollton Decker, Honas H., R.F.D. Rutland. Factory worker Dietrich, Ernest, Rt. 2, Dundas. Farmer Dinkelman, L. F., State St. Rd., Belleville Dopheide, Henry A., 1331 Jackson St., Quincy Douglass, T. J., 309-1/2 North St., Normal Draner, Willard G., Rt. 1, Mendota. Farmer Eigsti, Dr. O. J., Funk Bros. Seed Co., Bloomington. Research Botanist Estill, Mrs. Harry, Power Farms, Cantrall Fordtran, E. H., Rt. 2, Box 197A, Palatine Frey, Frank H., 2315 W. 108th Place, Chicago 43. Asst. to V. P., CRI & P RR Frey, Mrs. Frank H., 2315 W. 108th Place, Chicago 43. Housewife +Fuller, Owen H., 1005 Oneida St., Joliet Gerardi, Louis, Rt. 1, Caseyville. Nut and fruit nurseryman Gettings, Wm. A., Rt. 1, Eldred Glidden, Nansen, W. Lincoln Highway, DeKalb Govaia, R. M., O.D., Room 19, Greer Block, Vandalia. Optometrist Grefe, Ben, Rt. 4, Box 22, Nashville. Farmer Griffith, Chris, W. Filmore St., RFD, Vandalia Hall, E. L., Rt. 1, Drew Ave., Hinsdale Hall, Dr. William A., 25 S. Broadway, Aurora *Heberlein, Edwin W., Rt. 1, Box 72A, Roscoe Helmle, Mrs. Herman C, 526 S. Grand Ave. W., Springfield Hermerding, Ted, Russell Miller Millg. Co., Jerseyville *Hockenyos, G. L., 213 E. Jefferson St., Springfield Hoelscher, Bernard, Rt. 5, Mt. Sterling Ikesty, Q. J., Funk Bros. Seed Co., Bloomington Jennings, Charles L., Box 321, Grayville *Jungk, Adolph E., Rt. 1, Jerseyville Kammarmeyer, Glenn, 1711 E. 67th St., Chicago 49 Knoeppel, J. A., Bluffs *Kreider, Ralph Jr., Rt. 1, Hammond. Farmer Krug, Carl B., Rt. 2, El Paso. Farmer Kruse, William, Honey Lee Apiaries, Godfrey. Apiratist Langdoc, Mrs. Mildred Jones, P.O. Box 136, Erie. Nursery, farm, housewife Laatz, Mrs. Lenore, Rt. 3, Morris Leighton, L. C., Arthur McDaniel, J. C., Hort. Field Lab. Univ. of Ill., Urbana. Horticulturist McDaniel, J. C., Jr., Urbana McKee, Mrs. Myrtice, Mt. Morris Marsh, Mrs. W. V., Rt. 2, Aledo Moeser, William V., Rt. 1, Belleville *Musgrave, Carl, 5200 S. Laflin St., Chicago 9. Machinist Newman, Roy, P.O. Box 51, Martinsville. Orchardist *Oakes, Royal, Bluffs *Opat, Joseph C., Opat Chinchilla Ranch, Rt. 3, Hinsdale. Pharmacist, Chinchilla Rancher Peers, Frank B., Box 321, Highland Park Pierson, Stuart E., Carrollton. Bank President Price, Harold G. Sr. See Utah Raab, Irvin M., Rt. 4, Belleville Ried, Robert J., 1137 Winona St., Chicago 40 *Reisch, Louis C., Rt. 4, Carrollton. Farmer Robbins, W. J., 885 N. La Salle St., Chicago 10. Insurance Robertson, Virgil E., Virginia. Retired farmer Schubert, Kenneth, Rt. 1, Millstadt Seng, Chas. W. & Son, 920 Lafayette Ave., P.O. Box 247, Mattoon Sokolowski, F. W., M.D., 2503 Donald Ave., Alton *Sonnemann, W. F., Experimental Gardens, Vandalia. Lawyer, farm operator Sparks, Maurice E., 1508 Ash, Lawrenceville Turner, Jonathan B., Fayett Co. Farm Bureau, So. 5th St., Vandalia Voiles, William, Eldred Vortman, Elmer, Rt. 1, Bluffs Whale, Fred, Rt. 1, Fieldon Whitford, A. M., Farina. Nurseryman Wright, William, Vandalia Zethmayr, Gordon, Rt. 1, Box 130, West Chicago INDIANA Andrew, John, Matter Park Rd., Marion. Student *Andrew, Ralph, Matter Park Rd., Marion Aster Nut Products, Inc., George Oberman, Mgr., 1004 Main St., Evansville 8 Babcock, Dan, Rt. 14, Box 342, Indianapolis 44 Bauer, Paul J., 123 South 29th St., Lafayette Boller, G. Evert, Rt. 6, Box 101, Marion. Farmer Bolten, Ferd, Rt. 3, Linton. Farmer, fruit and nut grower Boyer, Clyde C., Nabb Buchner, Dr. Doster, 533 W. Washington Blvd., Ft. Wayne. Physician and surgeon Clark, C. M., C. M. Clark & Sons Nursery, Rt. 2, Middletown. Nurseryman, fruit farmer Cole, Charles W. Jr., Madison Rd., Rt. 6, Box 112A, South Bend Coleman, Robert G., Indiana Farmers Guide, Huntington. Field Editor, The Indiana Farmer's Guide Cunningham, Earl E., 612 E. 4th St., Anderson Doeden, Johan, Rt. 4, Attica. Farmer *Dooley, Kenneth A., Rt. 2, Marion. Gardener Eagles, A. E., Eagles Orchards, Wolcottville. Walnut grower, apple orchardist Eisterhold, Dr. John A., 314 Southeast Riverside Dr., Evansville 8. Medical doctor *Fateley, Nolan W., 26 Central Ave., Franklin. Auditor and cashier Glaser, Peter, Rt. 9, Box 328, Koering Rd., Evansville *Grater, A. E., Rt. 2, Shipshewana Harrell, Franklin M., Rt. 1, Griffith Jasperson, Marion E., Rt. 1, Box 819, Indianapolis 44. Clerk Johnson, Raymond M., 8605 Manderlay Dr., Indianapolis Kaufman, Ray, Rt. 4, Peru Kem, Dr. Charles E., Rt. No. 3, Box 52, Richmond Kenworthy, Owen, Rt. 3, Crown Point. Farmer Kyburz, Benjamine E., Rt. 1, Idaville Larue, A. R., Box 147, Bloomington Layman, J. C., Rt. 1, Peru Lennon, Robert E., Rt. 1, Warren Letsinger, J. E., 1202 Lower Huntington Rd., Ft. Wayne 6. Electrical engineer Lukemeyer, Edwin J., 825 Line St., Evansville Moldenhauer, Carl J., Rt. 7, Huntington Neimeyer, Harry D., West Lebanon. High school principal and farmer Newman, Jesse D., Jr., Rt. 2, Culver Oare, William T., 650 Associate Bldg., South Bend 1 *Pape, Edw. W., Rt. 2, Marion §Prell, Carl F., 1414 E. Colfax Ave., South Bend 17. NNGA Treasurer. Office: 825 J.M.S. Bldg., South Bend 1 Reed, Frank, Daleville. Toolmaker Rehm, Walter T., Rt. 4, Logansport Richards, E. E., 2912 York Rd., South Bend. Studebaker Corp. Risko, A., Tioga Orchards, Monticello *Russell, A. M., Jr., 2721 Marine St., South Bend 14 Schram, Emil, Rt. 1, Peru Schreiber, Ralph, 245 Cherry St., New Albany *Shafer, John, Jr., 3031 N. Roselawn Dr., Logansport Skinner, Dr. Chas. H., Rt. 1, Thorntown Sly, Miss Barbara, Rt. 3, Rockport Sly, Donald R., Rt. 3, Rockport. Nurseryman, nut tree propagator Summers, Floyd, Rt. 2, Box 68, Winchester Talbott, John E., Rt. 3, Linton §Wallick, Ford, Rt. 4, Peru Ward, W. B., Horticulture Bldg., Purdue Univ., Lafayette. Ext. Horticulturist Westerhouse, George F., E. Ohio St., Monticello Whitsel, Gilbert L., Jr., Rt. 3, Peru Wichman, Robert P., Rt. 3, Washington. General farming Wilkinson, J. F., Indiana Nut Nursery, Rt. 3, Rockport. Nurseryman Wittick, Eugene C., Box 68A, Rt. 4, Valparaiso Woodward, Howard, Rt. 3, Syracuse IOWA Berhow, Seward, Berhow Nurseries, Huxley Boice, R. H., Rt. 1, Nashua. Farmer Cole, Edward P., 419 Chestnut St., Atlantic Eads, Carroll, RFD, Miles. Farmer Eller, W. E., Eldora Ferguson, Albert B., Center Point. Nurseryman *Ferris, Wayne, Hampton. President of Earl Ferris Nursery Goodwin, William T., 1121 S. Riverside Dr., Iowa City Greig, John E., Box 157, Estherville Hoke, Russell O., Rt. 2, Anamosa. Laborer Huen, E. F., Eldora. Farmer *Inter State Nurseries, Hamburg. General nurserymen Iowa Fruit Growers Assn., c/o Sec'y. State House, Des Moines 19 *Kaser, Mrs. J. D., Winterset Kern, Dr. W. R., 741 Rundell St., Iowa City Kosek, Frank J., 87 Sixteenth Ave., S.W., Cedar Rapids Kyhl, Ira M., Box 236, Sabula. Nut nurseryman, farmer, salesman Lysinger, Addison, Lomoni *Martzahn, Frank A., Rt. 1, Davenport. Farmer McLeran, Harold F., Mt. Pleasant. Lawyer Meyer, Clemens, Rt. 1, West Union Orr, J. Allen, 4000 W. 4th St., Sioux City 17 Petsel, George E., 815 W. Park Rd., Iowa City Rohrbacher, Dr. William M., 811 E. College St., Iowa City. Practice of Medicine Schlagenbusch Bros., Rt. 2, Fort Madison. Farmers Snyder, D. C., Center Point. Nurseryman, nuts and general Tolstead, W. L. See Nebraska Troyer, Ralph, Rt. 4, Kalona *Wade, Miss Ida May, Rt. 3, La Porte City. Bookkeeper Welch, G. L., Mt. Arbor Nurseries, Shenandoah White, Herbert L., Box 264, Woodbine. Rural Mail Carrier *White, Rev. L. P., Greeley Williams, Wendell V., Rt. 1, Danville. Farmer Williams, R. Alan, 1890 8th Ave., Maion JAPAN Deming, Olcott, U. S. Embassy, Tokyo Yoshizaki, Chiaki, International Collaboration of Farmers Ass'n., 17 Ichi Bancho Chiyodaku, Tokyo KANSAS Baker, Fred C., Troy. Entomologist Borst, Frank E., 1704 Shawnee St., Leavenworth §Breidenthal, Willard J., Riverview State Bank, 7th & Central, Kansas City 1. Bank President Funk, M. D., 600 W. Paramore St., Topeka. Pharmacist Gray, Dr. Clyde, 1045 Central Ave., Horton. Osteopathic Physician Harris, Ernest, Box 20, Wellsville. Farmer Jackson, Walter, Osage City Leavenworth Nurseries, Carl Holman, Proprietor, Rt. 3, Leavenworth. Nut nurseryman Mondero, John, Lansing Stark, M. F., Hawthorne Pl., Hiawatha. Supt. City Schools Thielenhaus, W. F., Rt. 1, Buffalo. Retired postal worker Underwood, Jay, Riverside Nursery, Uniontown *Wales, Max, 1534 MacVicar St., Topeka KENTUCKY Alves, Robert H., 302 Clay St., Henderson Armstrong, W. D., Western Kentucky Exp. Sta., Princeton. Horticulturist Bray, Terrell, Bray Orchards, Bedford Funsten, R. E. Company, Robert Walker, P.O. Box 142, Henderson Hopson, J. R., Rt. 2, Cadiz Magill, W. W., Horticulture Dept., Univ. of Ky., Lexington *Miller, Julien C., 220 Sycamore Dr., Paducah Moss, Dr. C. A., Box 237, Williamsburg. Bank President *Rouse, Sterling, Rt. 1, Box 70, Florence. Fruit grower, nurseryman Shakelford, Thomas B., P.O. Box 31, Compton Tatum, W. G., Rt. 4, Lebanon. Commercial orchardist Usrey, Robert, Star Rt., Mayfield Widmer, Dr. Nelson D., Lebanon LOUISIANA Hammer, Dr. Harald E., USDA Chemical Lab., 606 Court House, Shreveport 47. Chemist Smith, Dr. C. L., USDA Pecan Laboratory, 607 Court House, Shreveport Perrault, Mrs. H. D., Rt. 1, Box 13, Natchitoches MAINE Hamilton, Mrs. Benj. P., Waterboro MARYLAND Barrett, Harvey E., P. E., 17 Maple Ave., Catonsville 28. Naval Architect Crane, Dr. H. L., USDA Plant Industry Sta., Beltsville. Principal Horticulturist, USDA Dengler, Harry William, Ext. Forester, Univ. of Md., College Park Diller, Dr. Jesse D., USDA Plant Industry Sta., Beltsville. Forest Pathologist *Eastern Shore Nurseries, Inc., P.O. Box 743, Easton. Chestnut growers §Gravatt, G. F., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville. Forest Pathologist Jones, George R., Rt. 2, Aberdeen Kaan, Dr. Helen W., 8335 Grubb Rd., Silver Spring. Research Associate Kemp, Homer S., Bountiful Ridge Nurseries, Princess Anne. General nurseryman McCollum, Blaine, White Hall. Retired from Federal Government McKay, Dr. J. W., Plant Industry Sta., Beltsville. Horticulturist *Negus, Mrs. Herbert, 5031 56th Ave., Roger Hgts., Hyattsville *Porter, John J., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown. Farm Owner Quill Farm, Attn. Philip S. Parkinson, Barclay *Shamer, Dr. Maurice E., 3300 W. North Ave., Baltimore 16. Physician MASSACHUSETTS Babbitt, Howard S., 221 Dawes Ave., Pittsfield. Service station owner & farmer Barthelmes, George A., Rt. 1, Leicester. Machinist *Bradbury, Rear Adm. H. G., Hospital Point, Beverly Brown, Daniel L., Esq., 60 State St., Boston *Bump, Albert H., P.O. Box 275, Brewster *Davenport, S. Lothrop, 24 Creeper Hill Rd., North Grafton. Farmer, fruit grower *Faulkner, Luther W., RFD, Westford Fitts, Walter H., 39 Baker St., Foxboro. General foreman, instrument company *Ganz, Dr. Robert Norton, 262 Beacon St., Boston Kendall, Henry P., Moose Hill Farm, Sharon *Kerr, Andrew, Lock Box 242, Barnstable La Beau, Henry A., North Hoosic Rd., Williamstown. Engineer Murphy, John D., 19 Boulevard Rd., Wellesley Rice, Horace J., 515 Main St., Wilbraham, Attorney *Russell, Mrs. Newton H., 12 Burnett Ave., South Hadley Stewart, O. W., 75 Milton Ave., Hyde Park 36 Vance, Dr. Robert G., 262 Beacon St., Boston 16. Physician Viera, Manuel, Main St., Vineyard Haven *Wellman, Sargent H., Esq., Windridge, Topsfield Wood, Miss Louise B., Pocasset, Cape Cod York, Stanley E., 480 Branch St., Mansfield. Supervisor MICHIGAN Allen, Howard H., 2925 Francis St., Jackson Andersen, Charles, Rt. 2, Box 236, Scottville. Nurseryman Armstrong, Dr. Robt. J., Rt. 8, Box 83, Kalamazoo. Physician, farmer Barlow, Alfred L., 13079 Flanders Ave., Detroit 5. Secretary, MNGA *Becker, Gilbert, Climax. President, MNGA *Beckert, W. M., Mich. Dept. of Conservation, P.O. Box 451, Jackson Boylan, P. B., Rt. 1, Cloverdale Breitmeyer, Howard T., 12955 Dale Ave., Detroit 23 Bumler, Malcolm R., 2500 Dickerson, Detroit 15. Insurance trustee Burgart, Harry, Michigan Nut Nursery, Box 33, Union City. Nurseryman Burgess Seed & Plant Co., 67 E. Battle Creek St., Galesburg Burr, Redmond M., 320 S. 5th Ave., Ann Arbor. Railroad telegrapher Chester, Dr. William P., 742 MacCabees Bldg., Detroit 2 Corsan, H. H., Rt. 1, Hillsdale. Nurseryman Dennison, Clare, 4224 Avery, Detroit 8 *Desmet, Mrs. Agnes, 14450 Houston Ave., Detroit 5 Dillow, Harold R., P.O. Box 479, Franklin Drake, Virgil, Rt. 2, Bangor 2 Emerson, Ralph W., 161 Cortland Ave., Highland Park 3 Estill, Miss Gertrude. See Florida Groos, Alfred P., Rt. 1, Gladstone Hagelshaw, W. J., Rt. 1, Box 394, Galesburg. Grain farmer, contractor *Hav, Francis H., Ivanhoe Pl., Lawrence. Farmer Hubbard, W. G., Box 146, Hudsonville. Dealer, bottled gas Johnson, Leonard A., 620 E. Buno Rd., Rt. 3, Milford. Mechanical engineer Kennedy, Robert M., 45354 Deneweth Rd., Mt. Clemens Keplinger, Frank J., Farwell Klever, Edward F., Rt. 2, Grant Korn, G. J., 345 N. Burdict St., Kalamazoo *Lee, Michael, P.O. Box 16, Milford Lemke, Edwin W., 2432 Townsend Ave., Detroit 14. Engineer, nut orchardist Long, Louis C, 6117 State Rd., Goodrich Maycock, Harry J., 580 Fairground St., Plymouth Michigan Nut Growers Association, 13079 Flanders Ave., Detroit 5 *Miller, Louis, 417 N. Broadway, Cassopolis. Forester Nitschke, Robert A., Tilbury Pl., Birmingham O'Rourke, Prof. F. L. See Ecuador Pickles, Arthur W., 760 Elmwood Ave., Jackson Prushek, E., Rt. 3, Niles. Plant breeding Ricky, Lowell L., 1009A Birch St., East Lansing Schmidt, Wilhelm G., 22037 Poinciana, Detroit 19. Printer Simons, Rev. R. E., Flat Rock *Somers, Lee, Rt. 1, Perrinton. Farmer, nurseryman Sweet, Dale V., 530 South Capitol, Lansing *Tate, D. L., 959 Westchester Way, Birmingham Tolles, G. S., Rt. 5, South Haven Ullrey, L. E., Rt. 1, Vicksburg Wieber, Giles E., Fowler *Wyman, Miles L., 40 North St., Highland Park 3. Certified public accountant MINNESOTA *Dubbels, Charley, Elgin Hodgson, R. E., Department of Agriculture, S.E. Experiment Station, Waseca Hormel, Jay C., Austin Sanders, Parker D., Fifth & Jefferson Sts., Redwood Falls Wedge, Don., Rt. 2, Albert Lea. Wedge Nursery Weschcke, Carl, 96 S. Wabasha St., St. Paul. Proprietor Hazel Hills Nursery Co. MISSISSIPPI *Gossard, A.C., U.S. Hort. Field Sta., Rt. 6, Meridian. Horticulturist *King, John Andrews, Tolten Rd., Lodi Meyer, James R., Delta Branch Exp. Sta., Stoneville. Cytogeneticist MISSOURI Bauman, Ivan T., Bauman Brokerage Co., 4350 Taft Ave., St. Louis Biggs, Dutton, 248 Elm Ave., Glendale 22 Brecheisen, Paul, 5641 Forest Ave., Kansas City Buck, Charles L., LaCrosse. Farmer Degler, Roy H., 1305 Moreland Ave., Jefferson City Funsten, R. E. Company, Don Walker, 1515 Delmar Blvd., St. Louis 3 Hay, Leander, Gilliam Heuser, Wesley E., Rich Hill Howe, John, Rt. 1, Box 4, Pacific Huber, Frank J., Weingarten. Farmer *James, George, James Pecan Farms, Brunswick Lambert, J. O., Laclede. Farmer *Logan, George F., Oregon Marquardt, Fred, Rich Hill §Nicholson, John W., Ash Grove. Farmer Ochs, C. Thurston, Box 291, Salem. Foreman in garment factory Oliver, L. P., 511 Monroe Ave., Campbell Owens, LeRoy J., Willow Springs Richterkessing, Ralph, Rt. 1, St. Charles. Farmer Rose, Dr. D. K., 230 Linden, Clayton 5 Sims Fruit & Nursery Farms, Hannibal Stark Bros. Nursery & Orchard, Atten: H. W. Guengerich, Louisiana Stephens, A. F., G. M., & O. R. R., 721 Olive St., St. Louis. Gen. Agr. Agt. Tainter, Nat A., 420 Jackson St., St. Charles Wuertz, H. J., Rt. 1, Pevely Wylie, Wilber J., 902 Grand Ave., Doniphan. Assistant Postmaster MONTANA Ford, Russell H., Dixon NEBRASKA *Brand, George, Rt. 5, Lincoln Brandenburgh, A. R., Rt. 2, Bellwood 3 Caha, William, 350 W. 12th, Wahoo Hess, Harvey W., The Arrowhead Gardens, Box 209, Hebron Manning, Arch J., 4202 Emmet St., Omaha 3 Sherwood, Jack, Nebraska City Tolstead, W. L., Dept. of Botany, Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln Ziegenbein, Mrs. Helen M., Box 671, Wasau. Housewife NEW HAMPSHIRE Demarest, Charles S., Lyme Center *Lahti, Matthew, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro. Investment banker NEW JERSEY Anderegg, F. O., Rt. 3, Sommerville Audi, Dr. Eugene J., 466 S. Maple Ave., Glen Rock Blake, Dr. Harold, Box 93, Saddle River Bottoni, R. J., 41 Robertson Rd., West Orange. Pres. of Harbot Die Casting Corp. Buckwalter, Alan R., Jr., Rt. 1, Box 47, Flemington Buckwalter, Mrs. Alan R., Rt. 1, Box 45, Flemington Cherry, George D., Paulsdale, Hooten Rd., Moorestown Cox, Philip H., Jr., 30 Hyde Rd., Blodmfield Cumberland Nurseries, William Well, Prop., Rt. 1, Millville. Nurserymen *Donnelly, John H., Mountain Ice Co., 51 Neward St., Hoboken Dougherty, William M., Broadacres-on-Bedens, Box 425, Princeton. Sec'y. U.S. Rubber Co. *Ellis, Mrs. Edward P., Strawberry Hill, Rt. 1, Box 137, Keyport Grosshans, George, 1309 Summit Terrace, Linden Lamatonk Nurseries, A. S. York, Prop., Neshanic Station. Nut Nursery Lehman, Edwin L., 811 N. 4th St., Camden 2 Lippencott, J. C., 15 Mundy Ave., Spotswood McDowell, Fred, 905 Ocean Ave., Belmar Parkinson, Philip P. See Quill Farm, Maryland Ritchie, Walter M., Rt. 2, Box 122R, Rahway *Rocker, Louis P., The Rocker Farm, Box 196, Andover. Farmer Schroeder, Harold W., Rt. 2, Boonton *Sheffield, O. A., 283 Hamilton Place, Hackensack. Dun & Bradstreet Sorg, Henry, Chicago Ave., Egg Harbor City. Manufacturer Van Doren, Durand H., 310 Redmond Rd., South Orange. Lawyer NEW MEXICO Gehring, Rev. Titus, Box 117, Lumberton NEW YORK Barton, Irving, Box 13, Montour Falls. Engineer Bassett, Charles K., 2917 Main St., Buffalo 14. Manufacturer Beck, Paul E., Becks Guernsey Dairy, Transit Rd., E. Amherst. Dairy Executive *Benton, William A., Wassaic. Farmer, Benton and Smith Nut Nursery Bernath, Mrs. Stephen, Rt. 3, Poughkeepsie Bernath, Stephen, Bernath's Nursery, Rt. 3, Poughkeepsie. Nurseryman *Brook, Victor, 171 Rockingham St., Rochester 7. Sales Engineer Brooks, William G., Brooks Nut Nurseries, Monroe. Nut tree nurseryman Caldwell, David H., N.Y. State College of Forestry, Syracuse. Instructor in wood technology *Cassina, Augustus, Valatie Center, Bernard M., 51 Van Buren St., Massapequa Park Conner, Mrs. Charles J., 460 Flint St., Rochester 11 Dunckel, Lewis A., 2023 S. Salina St., Syracuse 5 *Feil, Harry, 1270 Hilton-Spencerport Rd., Hilton. Building contractor Ferguson, Donald V., L. I. Agr. & Tech. Inst., Farmingdale Flanigen, Charles F., 16 Greenfield St., Buffalo 14. Executive manager Freer, H. J., 20 Midvale Rd., Fairport. Typewriter sales and service *Gibson, Stanfard J., 56 Fair St., Norwich *Glazier, Henery S., Jr., 1 S. William St., New York 4 Gould, Mrs. Gordon, 419 E. 57th St., New York 22 Graham, S. H., Bostwick Rd., Rt. 5, Ithaca. Nurseryman Granjean, Julio. See Denmark *Hasbrouck, Walter, Jr., 19 Grove St., New Paltz. Post office clerk Hill, Francis I., Sterling. Letter carrier Hirshfeld, Dr. J. W., 109 W. Upland Rd., Ithaca Hirshfeld, Mrs. J. W., 109 W. Upland Rd., Ithaca Ingalls, Chester W., 82 Chestnut St., Cooperstown *Irish, G. Whitney, Fruitlands, Rt. 1, Valatie *Kettaneh, F. A., 745 5th Ave., New York 22 Knipper, George M., 333 Chestnut Ridge Rd., Churchville Knorr, Mrs. Arthur, 15 Central Park, W., Apt. 1406, New York 23 Kortright, W. E., Rt. 1, Liberty §Kraai, Dr. John, 84 S. Main St., Fairport. Physician Larkin, Harry H., 199 Van Rennsselaer St., Buffalo 10 *Lewis, Clarence, 1000 Park Ave., New York Lowerre, James, Rt. 3, Middletown *MacDaniels, Dr. L. H., Cornell Univ., Ithaca. Head, Dept. of Floriculture and Ornamental Hort. Metcalfe, Ward H., 710 Five Mile Line Rd., Webster. Fruit grower *Metcalfe, Mrs. Ward H., 710 Five Mile Line Rd., Webster. Fruit grower Miller, J. E., Canandaigua. Nurseryman *Montgomery, Robert H., 1 E. 44th St., New York Mossman, Dr. James K., Black Oaks, Ramapo Newell, Palmer F., Lake Rd., Rt. 1, Westfield Norman, Norman B., 64 Rocklidge Rd., Hartsdale O'Brien, Esmonde M., 25 South St., P.O. Box 2169, New York 4 Perrault, Mrs. H. D., 5400 Fieldston Rd., Riverdale 71, New York Pura, John J., Rt. 82, Hopewell Junction. Prison Guard Renshaw, Alfred, Fiddler's Lane, Loudanville Reynolds, C. L., Rt. 2, Binghamton Roat, Gordon J., Rt. 1, Canandaigua Salzer, George, 169 Garford Rd., Rochester 9. Milkman, chestnut tree grower Salzer, Rodman G., 169 Garford Rd., Rochester 9 *Schlegel, Charles P., 990 So. Ave., Rochester 7 *Schlick, Frank, Munnsville Schlick, John, Mill Rd., Vernon Center Schmidt, Carl W., 180 Linwood Ave., Buffalo Shannon, J. W., Box 90, Ithaca Sheffield, Lewis J., 61 N. Magnolia St., Pearl River §Slate, Prof. George L., Exp. Station, Geneva. Fruit Breeder Smith, Jay L., Nut Tree Nursery, Chester *Spahr, Dr. Mary B., 116 N. Geneva St., Ithaca Steiger, Harwood, Red Hook. Artist-designer *Szego, Alfred, 35-50 78th St., Jackson Heights, New York Volcko, Andrew, 607 W. Colvin St., Syracuse 5. Postoffice clerk Wadsworth, Millard E., Rt. 5, Oswego *Wheeler, Robert C., 36th St., Albany *Wilson, Frank C, 27 Liberty St., Arcade Windisch, Richard P., W. E. Burnet Company, 11 Wall St., New York 5 *Wissman, Mrs. F. de R. Retired NORTH CAROLINA Andrus, E. Rex., Rt. 1, Franklin. Farmer Bass, Claude D., Rt. 1, Kenley. Farmer *Dunstan, Dr. R. T., Greensboro College, Greensboro Ellis, W. J., Rt. 2, Advance. Bricklayer Finch, Jack R., Rt. 1, Bailey. Farmer Henry, W. V., Rt. 2, Candler McCain, H. C., Box 794, Tryon Moorman, L. L., 801 N. Washington St., Rutherfordton Poe, D. W., P.O. Box 807, Hickory NORTH DAKOTA Bradley, Homer L., Long Lake Refuge, Moffit. Refuge Manager OHIO Ackerman, Lester, Rt. 3, Ada Allaman, William W., Trotwood Antioch College, Glen Helen Dept., Yellow Springs Barden, C. A., 215 Morgan St., Oberlin. Real Estate Beede, D. V., Rt. 3, Lisbon Bitler, W. A., Rt. 1, Shawnee Rd., Lima. General contractor Borchers, Perry E., 412 W. Hillcrest Ave., Dayton 6 Boye, Dr. E. L., 26 Wildfern Dr., Youngstown Brewster, Lewis, Rt. 1, Swanton. Vegetable grower Bridgwater, Boyd E., 68 Cherry St., Akron 8. V.P. Bridgewater Machine Co. Bungart, A. A., Avon. Secretary, O.N.G. Bussey, Roy K., Jr., 1056 Florida Ave., Akron 14 Button, Fred, Rt. 2, McArthur Cinadr, Mrs. Katherine, 13514 Coath Ave., Cleveland 20. Housewife Clark, Richard L., 1517 Westdale Rd., South Euclid 21. Sales manager Cook, H. C., Rt. 1, Box 149, Leetonia Cornett, Charles L., R.R. Perishable Inspection Agency, 27 W. Front St., Cincinnati. Inspector Craig, George E., Dundas. Fruit and nut grower Cunningham, Harvey E., 420 Front St., Marietta Daley, James R., Rt. 3, Foster Park Rd., Amherst. Electrician Davidson, John, 234 E. Second St., Xenia. Writer Davidson, Mrs. John, 234 E. Second St., Xenia Davidson, William J., 234 E. Second St., Xenia Diller, Dr. Oliver D., Dept, of Forestry, Ohio Exp. Sta., Wooster Donaldson, Robert G., Rt. 3, Wooster Dowell, Dr. Glenn C, Jr., 116 26th St., NE, Canton 4 *Dowell, Dr. Lloyd L., 529 North Ave., NE, Massillon. Physician Farr, Mrs. Walter, Rt. 1, Kingsville Fickes, Mrs. W. R., Rt. 1, Wooster Garden Center of Greater Cleveland, East Blvd. at Euclid Ave., Cleveland 6 §Gerber, E. P., Kidron Gerstenmaier, John A., 13 Pond S. W., Massillon. Letter carrier Goss, C. E., 922 Dover Ave., Akron 20 Grad, Dr. Edward A., 1506 Chase St., Cincinnati 23 Hake, Hanrey, Edon Hammock, Edwin H., 345 E. State St., Columbus 15 *Hansley, C. F., Box 614, Sugar Grove Heinzelman, Edward G., 267 Southern Ave., Chillicothe *Hill, Dr. Albert A., 4187 Pearl Rd., Cleveland 9 Hinde, John G., Rt. 1, Sandusky Hlywiak, Andy, 2214 S. Tod Ave., Warren *Hornyak, Louis, Rt. 1, Wakeman Houlette, William R., Rt. 2, Columbiana Howard, James R., 2908 Fleming Rd., Middletown *Irish, Charles F., 418 E. 105th St., Cleveland 8. Arborist Jacobs, Homer L., Davey Tree Expert Co., Kent Kappel, Owen, Bolivar *Kerr, Dr. S. E., Rt. 1, North Lawrence *Kintzel, Frank M., 2506 Briarcliffe Ave., Cincinnati 13. Principal, Cincinnati Public Schools Kodera, Shunzo, 47 E. 12th Ave., Columbus 1 Laditka, Nicholas G., 5322 Stickney Ave., Cleveland 9. Electrician Leaman, Paul V., Rt. 1, Creston Lechleitner, Rev. R. D., 270 Westview Ave., Worthington Lemmon, R. M., 577 Vinita Ave., Akron 20 Lippa, Julius, 4464 Lee Hts. Rd., Warrenville Heights Lorenz, R. C., 121 N. Arch St., Fremont Lynn, Edith, Rt. 2, Canfield *Machovina, Paul E., 1228 Northwest Blvd., Columbus 12. College professor Manbeck, Willard O., 1359 Croyden Rd., Cleveland 24 McKinster, Ray, 1632 South 4th St., Columbus 7 Meister, Richard T., Editor, American Fruit Grower, Willoughby Meister, Robert T., Sre. Def., APO 58, c/o Postmaster, New York. Farm in Ohio *Metzger, A. J., 724 Euclid Ave., Toledo 5 Oches, Norman M., Rt. 1, Brunswick. Mechanical Engineer Osborn, Frank C., 4040 W. 160th St., Cleveland 11. Tool and die maker Page, John H., Box 34, Dundas *Pataky, Christ, Jr., 592 Hickory Lane, M.R.S., Mansfield. Chairman, O.N.G. Pattison, Aletheia, 5 Dexter Pl., E. W. H., Cincinnati 6 Pomerene, Walter H., Rt. 3, Coshocton. Agricultural Engineer Pomeroy, Howard A., 4803 Rambo Lane, Toledo 13 Purdy, Clyde W., 19 Public Sq., Mt. Vernon *Ranke, William, Rt. 1, Box 248, Amelia Robb, Harry C., Rt. 4, Carrollton Rogers, T. B., P.O. Box 296, Lakemore *Rummel, E. T., 16613 Laverne Ave., Cleveland 11. Sales manager Scarff's Sons, W. N., New Carlisle. Nurserymen *Schoenberger, L. Roy, Green Pines Farm, Rt. 2, Nevada Seas, D. Edward, 721 So. Main St., Orrville Sebring, R. G., 1227 Lincoln Rd., Columbus Shelton, Dr. Elbert M., 1468 W. Clifton Blvd., Lakewood 7 Sherman, L. Walter, 220 Fairview Ave., Canfield *Shessler, Sylvester M., Genoa. Farmer Short, Robert M., 122 E. Park St., Westerville. High school teacher *Silvis, Raymond E., 1725 Lindbergh Ave., N.E., Massillon. Realty Smith, Sterling A., 630 W. South St., Vermillion. Telegrapher, NYC RR Spring Hill Nurseries Co., Tipp City. General nurserymen Steinbeck, A. P., Rt. 2, Ravenna. Rubber worker, Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. Stevens, Robert T., Jr., Rt. 1, Lucas *Stocker, C. P., Lorain Products Corp., 1122 F St., Lorain Swope, Wilmer D., Rt. 3, Box 183, Leetonia Thomas, Fred, 773 Bedford Rd., Masury Toney, Hewitt S., Rt. 2, Cedarville. Mathematician Toops, Herbert A., 1430 Cambridge Blvd., Columbus 12. College Professor Underwood, John, Rt. 4, Urbana Urban, George, 4518 Ardendale Rd., South Euclid 21. Mayor Van Voorhis, J. F., 215 Hudson Ave., Apt. B 1, Newark Von Gundy, Clifford R., 851 Nordyke Rd., Cincinnati 30 *Walker, Carl F., 2851 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland 18. Consulting engineer Warren, Herbert L., 518 W. Central Ave., Delaware Weaver, Arthur W., RFD Box 196B, Cass Rd., Maumee Wheatly, Robert, 406 3rd St., Marietta *Williams, Harry M., 221 Grandon Rd., Dayton 9. Engineer *Williams, L. F., Box 386, Mt. Vernon Yates, Edward W., 3108 Parkview Ave., Cincinnati 13. Mechanical engineer Yoder, Emmet, Smithville. Farmer Zimmerman, Erle C., 145 Firestone Bldg., Akron. Chemist OKLAHOMA Butler, Roy J., Rt. 2, Hydro. Farmer, cattleman Cesar, Farin G., State Board of Agr., 122 State Capitol Bldg., Oklahoma City Cross, Prof. Frank B., Dept. of Hort., Oklahoma A&M College, Stillwater Dean, Marion, Jr., Tuxedo Rd., Bartlesville Gray, Geoffrey A., 1628 Elm Ave., Bartlesville Hartman, Peter E., Hartsdale Nursery Co., 3002 S. Boston Pl., Tulsa 5. Nurseryman Hirschi's Nursery, 1124 N. Hudson, Oklahoma City. Dry cleaning business, nurseryman Hughes, C. V., Rt. 3, Box 614, Oklahoma City Keathly, Jack, Marland Mayfield, W. W., General Delivery, Sallisaw Meek, E. B., Rt. 3, Box 16, Wynnewood Pulliam, Gordon, 1005 Osage Ave., Bartlesville Riter, John R., 115 E. 1st St., Bartlesville OREGON Bebeau, A. V., Box 136, McNary Countryman, Peter F., Rt. 1, Box 275, Ontario Graville, Ed, Rt. 3, Box 263, Junction City Miller, John E., 2200 S. W. Childs Rd., Oswego Pearcy, Harry L., H. L. Pearcy Nursery Co., Rt. 2, Box 190, Salem. Nurseryman Smith, Earl G., Rt. 1, Newberg. Manager, Dundee Nut Growers Trunk, John E., Gen. Mgr., Northwest Nut Growers, 1601 N. Columbia Blvd., Portland 11 PENNSYLVANIA Allaman, H. C., 1812 So. Pine St., York *Allaman, R. P., Rt. 86, Harrisburg. Farm superintendent *Amsler, E. W., 707 Main St., Clarion Anthony, Roy D., 125 Hillcrest Ave., State College. Retired Horticulturist *Arensberg, Charles F. C., First National Bank Bldg., Pittsburgh 22. Chinese chestnut Banks, H. C., Rt. 1, Hellertown Beard, H. K., Rt. 1, Sheridan. Insurance agent Beck, Dr. William M., 200 Race St., Sunbury Berst, Charles B., 11 W. 8th St., Erie. Inspector, Lord Mfg. Co. Blittle, George, 107 Lincoln Highway, Penndel Bowen, John C., Rt. 1, Macungie Brewer, J. L., Yellow House *Bricker, Calvin E., Rt. 1, Mercersburg Brown, Morrison, Ickesburg Burket, J. Emory, Rt. 1, Claysburg. Fruit grower §Clarke, William S., Jr., P.O. Box 167, State College Clewell, Gen. Edgar L., Dimde Farms, Rt. 2, Harrisburg. Retired U. S. A. Comp, Alton, 5 No. 2nd St., Newport Damask, Henry, 1632 Doyle St., Wilkinsburg 21. Telephone man Deagon, Arthur, 61 E. Main St., Mechanicsburg Ebling, Aaron L., Rt. 2, Reading Etter, Fayette, P.O. Box 57, Lemasters. Foreman, Electric company Gardner, Ralph D., 4428 Plymouth St., Colonial Park, Harrisburg. Assistant State Fire Marshall Glasgow, Joseph M., 406 S. Second St., Bellwood Good, Orrin S., 316 N. Fairview St., Lock Haven. Retired Gorton, F. B., Rt. 1, East Lake Rd., Harborcreek. Electrical contractor, Chestnut & evergreen nurseryman Hales, Alfred R., Jr., Apt. 9 C, Cloverleaf Village Apts., Pittsburgh 27 Halsey, A. Louise, 63 Walnut St., Forty Fort *Hammond, Harold, 903 So. Poplar St., Allentown Hartman, Dr. G. W., Keystone Hospital, 3rd & Briggs Sts., Harrisburg *Hostetter, L. K., Rt. 1, Bird in Hand. Farmer, black walnut grower Hughes, Douglas, 1230 E. 21st St., Erie Hull, Miss Margaret L., 1910 N. 2nd St., Harrisburg Johnson, Robert F., 1630 Greentree Rd., Pittsburgh 20 Jones, Mildred M. See Mrs. Langdoc, Illinois *Kaufman, Mrs. M. M., Box 69, Clarion Kirk, H. B., 1902 North St., Harrisburg Knouse, Charles W., Colonial Park, Harrisburg. Coal dealer Krone, Herbert B., Rt. 2, Box 330, Lancaster Krone, Mrs. Herbert B., Rt. 2, Box 330, Lancaster Leach, Will, Rt. 1, Box 45, Scranton. Lawyer *Mattoon, H. Gleason, Box 304, Narberth. Consultant in Arboriculture *McKenna, Philip M., P.O. Box 186, Latrobe Mecartney, J. Lupton, 918 W. Beaver Ave., State College. Pomologist *Miller, Elwood B., Mill & Chapel Sts., Hazleton Miller, Robert O., 3rd & Ridge Sts., Emmaus Moyer, Philip S., 80-82 U.S.F. & G. Bldg., Harrisburg. Attorney Murray, James A., Rt. 3, Cambridge Springs. Teacher Niederriter, Leonard, 1726 State St., Erie Nonnemacher, H. M., 128 Front St., Alburtis. Line foreman, Bell Tele. Co. of Penna. Oesterling, H. M., Rt. 1, Marysville *Reidler, Paul G., Front & Chestnut Sts., Ashland. Manufacturer of textiles Reighard, E. Don, Box 247, Rt. 2, Nut Hill Nursery, Halifax. Nurseryman Rhoades, Frank S., Rt. 1, Sigel *Rick, John, 438 Penna. Sq., Reading. Fruit grower and merchant Ritter, C. Marshall, Dept. of Horticulture, Penna. State College, State College Schaible, Percy, Box 68, Upper Black Eddy Schieferstein, William B., Box 457, Temple Shreffler, Mrs. W. B., 144 W. Main St., Clarion Smith, Dr. J. Russell, 550 Elm Ave., Swarthmore. Retired teacher, writer Smyth, C. Wayne, 1 Prospect St., Troy. Attorney Springer, Herbert W., 218 Penrose St., Quakertown Stewart, E. L., Pine Hill Farms Nursery, Rt. 2, Homer City Theiss, Dr. Lewis E., 110 Univ. Ave., Lewisburg. Retired professor §Thompson, Howard A., 311 W. Swissvale Ave., Pittsburgh 18 Tomm, Joseph G., Rt. 2, McDonald Toomy, T. Luke, Wila §Twist, Frank S., Box 127, Northumberland. Salesman Washick, Dr. Frank A., Welsh & Veree Rds., Philadelphia 11. Surgeon Weaver, William S., Weaver Orchards, Macungie Weinrich, Whitney, Engle Rd., Rt. 20, Media. Chemical engineer *Wister, John C, Scott Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore. Horticulturist *Wright, Ross Pier, 235 W. 6th St., Erie. Manufacturer Zimmerman, Mrs. G. A., R. D., Linglestown RHODE ISLAND *Allen, Philip, 178 Dorance St., Providence Loomis, Charles B., 61 Elisha St., East Greenwich SOUTH CAROLINA Bregger, John T., Soil Conservation Service, Clemson Gordon, G. Henry, Union Dry Cleaning Co., 13 Main St., Union. Returned Mariner SOUTH DAKOTA Hanson, Oliver G., Rt. 2, Box 194, Yankton +Richter, Herman, Madison. Farmer TENNESSEE Alpine Forest Reserve, Atten: J. Edwin Carothers, Alpine. Forester Byrd, Benjamin F., Jr., M.D., Granny White Pike, Nashville. Surgeon Caldwell, Sam, Rt. 4, Holt Rd., Nashville 11. Radio and writer Carter, Oscar W., M.D., 2610 Woodlawn Dr., Nashville. Surgeon +Chase, Spencer B., T. V. A., Norris. Horticulturist Collier, Robert H., Lutie Rd., Rt. 2, Knoxville. Public administration Cox, Dr. T. S., 103 Hotel Ave., Fountain City. Dentist +Dulin, Charles R., Brownsville. Fruit grower Dye, Mrs. Sherman, Howell Nurseries, Sweetwater. Chestnut & ornamental nursery Garrett, Dr. Sam Young, 1902 Hayes St., Nashville. Surgeon Hardy, J. H., 1315 Mennekahda Pl., Chattanooga 5. Accountant +Holdeman, J. E., 855 N. McNeil St., Memphis 7 Hoyt, Prof. Garner E., Byan University, Dayton Jones, D. T., Rt. 2, Midway McSwain, Barton, M.D., 3514 Hampton Rd., Nashville. Surgeon Mattern, Don H., 513 Union Bldg., Knoxville +Meeks, Hamp, Jackson Elec. Dept., Jackson. Electrical engineer Murphy, H. O., 12 Sweetbriar Ave., Chattanooga. Fruit grower Patterson, Dr. R. L., Suite 207, Interstate Bldg., Chattanooga Richards, Dr. Aubrey, Whiteville. Physician Roark, W. F., Malesus. Farmer, chestnut grower Robinson, W. Jobe, Rt. 7, Jackson. Farmer Saville, Chris, 118 Church St., Greeneville Sells, Paul S., 700 Boylston St., Chattanooga Shipley, Mrs. E. D., 3 Century Court, Knoxville 16 Southern Nursery & Landscape Co., Winchester. General nurserymen Waterhouse, Carmack, P.O. Box 258, Oak Ridge. Engineer Zarger, Thomas G., T.V.A., Norris. Forester TEXAS Arford, Charles A., Box 1230, Dalhart. R.R. engineer, amateur horticulturist Florida, Kaufman, Box 154, Rotan Hander, Nelson H., Star Rt., Belton Kelly, Paul, Box 428, Seymour +Kidd, Clark, Arp Nursery Co., P.O. Box 867, Tyler. Nut nurseryman Lancaster, Carroll T., Rt. 2, Box 206, Palestine. Electrolux dealer Mason, G. L., Rt. 3, Hico. Farmer Praytor, T. J., Box 667, Seymour Reasonover, J. Roy, Rt. 2, Kemp Rubrecht, J. F., Plant Experiment Station, Box 302, Paris Shelton, David, Box 369, Gonzales Thomas, J. W., Overton Winkler, Andrew, Rt. 1, Moody. Farmer and pecan grower Winkler, Charlie, Rt. 1, Moody UTAH Burton, J. O., Meadow. Rancher Dabb, Clifford H., Rt. 3, Box 448, Ogden Ericksen, Keith, 883 N. State St., Orem Petterson, Harlan D., 3910 Raymond Ave., South Ogden. Highway engineer Price, Harold G., Sr., 1270 E. Crystal Ave., Salt Lake City 6. (Farm in Illinois) Shurtleff, Wm. H., D.D.S., Rt. 3, Box 384, Ogden VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., Rt. 2, Box 266, Springfield Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven. Perpetual member, "In Memoriam." Johnson, John R., Deer Valley Farm, Townshend Reynolds, T. H., 79 Main St., Middlebury Spahr, Dr. Mary B., Stannard (See New York) VIRGINIA Acker Black Walnut Corp., Box 263, Broadway. Walnut processors Burton, George L., 722 College St., Bedford Cooper, Lawrence E., Belle Meade. Nurseryman-landscaper Curthoys, George A., P.O. Box 34, Bristol Dickerson, T. C., Jr., 316 56th St., Newport News Filman, O., Box 3551, Va. Tech. Station, Blacksburg (temporary from Ontario) Gibbs, H. R., Linden. Carpenter, wood worker Jenkins, Marvin, Brightwood. Farmer Jones, E. W., Virginia Tree Farm, Woodlawn Lee, Dr. Henry, 806 Medical Arts Bldg., Roanoke 11 Miller, T. R., Sword's Creek. Farmer Moore, R. C., Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg 13 Narten, Perry F., 6110 N. Washington Blvd., Arlington 5. Geologist Pinner, Henry, P.O. Box 155, Suffolk +Stoke, H. F., 1436 Watts Ave., N. W., Roanoke Stoke, Mrs. H. F., 1436 Watts Ave., N. W., Roanoke Stoke, Dr. John H., 21 Highland Ave., S.E., Roanoke 13 Thompson, B. H., Rt. 4, Harrisonburg. Manufacturer of nut crackers Trump, V. A., Crewe WASHINGTON Bechtoe, O. W., Coulee City. Farmer Eliot, Craig P., P.O. Box 158, Shelton. Electrical engineer, farmer Erkman, John O., 2113 Symons, Richland. Physicist Fulmer, W. L., 505 Boylston, N., Seattle 2. Lily grower Latterell, Miss Ethel, 408 N. Flora Rd., Greenacres. Greenhouse worker Linkletter, Frank D., 2131 8th Ave., Seattle 1. Retired Naderman, G. W., Rt. 1, Box 353, Olympia. Caretaker of summer resort Ross, Verel C., 4025 Rucker Ave., Everett Shane Bros. Nut Growers, Vashon §Tuttle, H. Lynn, Lynn Tuttle Nursery, The Heights, Clarkston. Nut nurseryman WEST VIRGINIA Bartholmew, Miss Elizabeth Ann, W. Va. Univ., Morgantown +Cook, Dr. E. A., 106 First St., Oak Hill Eckerd, John K., 305 William St., Martinsburg. Engineer, steam +Engle, Blaine W., Mutual Fire Ins. Co. of W. Va., Goff Bldg., Clarksburg *Frye, Wilbert M., Pleasant Dale. Retired Gold Chestnut Nursery, Mr. Arthur A. Gold, Cowen. Chestnut nurseryman Haines, Earl C., Shanks Haislip, Fred, P.O. Box 1620 Logan. Farmer §Hale, Dr. Daniel, Princeton Hartzell, Benjamin, Shepherdstown Howard, Mrs. Carl E., The Charleston Gazette, Charleston. Garden editor +Long, J. C., Box 491, Princeton. Civil engineer McDonald, Dr. Walter, Augusta McGraw, S. L., Athens McNeill, John Hanson, Box 531, Romney. Chem. engineer +Miller, Edward, Romney Mish, Arnold F., Inwood. Associational farmer Pease, Roger W., Dept, of Hort., Univ. of W. Va., Morgantown +Reed, Arthur M., Glenmont Nurseries, Moundsville. Prop., Glenmount Nurseries Williams, Mrs. Dan, Romney WISCONSIN Conway, W. M., 2105 Jefferson St., Madison Coulson, L. W., Rt. 1, Slinger Eiler, William, Benton Jach, Peter, 8613 No. 60th St., Milwaukee 16 Ladwig, C. F., Rt. 2, Beloit. Grocer and farmer Martinson, John L., 408 N. Lake, Madison Mortensen, M. C., 2117 Stanson Ave., Racine Raether, Robert, Rt. 1, Augusta Running, M. H., 5220 N. 29 St., Milwaukee 9 Snowden, Dr. P. W., The Monroe Clinic, Monroe W. F. HUMPHREY PRESS INC. GENEVA, N. Y. 
27548	----	THE ART OF PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF THE Cucumber and Melon; IN A SERIES OF DIRECTIONS FOR THE BEST MEANS TO BE ADOPTED IN BRINGING THEM TO _A COMPLETE STATE OF PERFECTION_. * * * * * BY THOMAS WATKINS, _Many Years Foreman with Mr. Grange, of Hackney, and now with W. Knight, Esq. Highbury Park._ * * * * * LONDON: PUBLISHED BY HARDING, ST. JAMES'S STREET; AND SOLD BY GRANGE AND DULLY, FRUITERERS, COVENT GARDEN; MASON AND SON, SEEDSMEN, FLEET STREET; WARNER AND CO. SEEDSMEN, CORNHILL; GARRAWAY, NURSERY AND SEEDSMAN, NEAR MARYLAND POINT, STRATFORD, ESSEX; AND BY THE AUTHOR, AT HIGHBURY. 1824. * * * * * PRINTED BY S. CAVE, ISLINGTON GREEN. * * * * * THE ART OF PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF THE Cucumber and Melon. ADVERTISEMENT. The author begs to inform the purchasers of this work, that it was originally his intention to have given an engraving of the particular description of cucumber and melon, which he has been so successful in bringing to a state of perfection; and, in fact, a plate was executed, at a considerable expense, for that purpose. Finding, however, that although accurate in its representation of _fine_ fruit, it did not pourtray the difference, nor convey the precise idea of those qualities which constitute the superiority of the author's; and aware that such would have been obvious to every experienced gardener, the design was necessarily abandoned, trusting, that as it was merely intended for an embellishment, its deficiency will not render the work less valuable to the profession. CONTENTS. The Cucumber Seed-bed for October Page 1 The Fruiting Frame for early Plants 14 The Seed-bed for January 43 On the Culture of the late Cucumber 46 On the Hand-glass Cucumber 51 Dimensions of the Boxes and Lights for early and late Cucumbers 59 On the Culture of early and late Melons 65 Dimensions of the Boxes and Lights for ditto 83 Preface. Having, when young, imbibed a particular inclination to study the culture of the cucumber and melon, under the direction of my father, whose character as an early framer was in high repute, I assiduously tried every experiment which was calculated to improve upon his system, by bringing them to a more complete state of perfection. In marking the progress of their growth, I usually committed to writing those plans which I had found to have been productive of beneficial effects. The result of these remarks has proved the compilation of the following treatise, undertaken at the request of several horticulturists, who have expressed their desire to become acquainted with the process of my mode of cultivation. Considering it superfluous to enlarge this work by unnecessary or controversial observations, I have confined myself entirely to those directions, upon which I have uniformly acted; and have endeavoured to reduce them into as plain and simple a form as possible; at the same time observing to omit nothing which can be of utility in this difficult and hitherto imperfectly understood branch of horticulture. Several gardeners, who are now very eminent in their profession, have placed themselves under my tuition, and I flatter myself are perfectly satisfied that the instruction they received, was fully adequate to the compensation required; and perfectly convinced them of the superiority of my mode of culture. I here pledge myself, that the advice given to such practitioners is contained in the following directions. My principal object in the different experiments I have tried, has always been to discover an easy, as well as a certain method of maturing these delicate plants, and, in consequence, have avoided, as much as possible, any artificial means that might be attended with difficulty or expense. The only writer I know upon this subject, with the exception of Abercrombie, whose system is now totally exploded, is Mr. M'Phail, gardener to Lord Hawkesbury. This gentleman published a treatise in the year 1795, in which he strenuously recommends brick pits for cucumbers and melons, as far superior to the dung bed. It will be obvious, however, to every person who has perused that work, that the plan was adopted merely through deficiency of knowledge in the proper management of the dung bed; for Mr. M'Phail asserts, that upon first attempting to produce early cucumbers in Lord Hawkesbury's garden, he completely failed, and was, in consequence, induced to apply to some horticulturist in the neighbourhood, to whom he paid a gratuity of five guineas for his instruction. The principal thing he appears to have been taught, was to keep the burning heat of the dung about the roots of the plants down by the continual application of water into the bed; which, however, he found insufficient to preserve them in a thriving state, throughout the winter months. This caused him to assert that it was out of the power of any person to keep a dung bed sweet, and consequently impracticable to rear them at that time of the year. To this I have only to observe, that the following directions will prove a contradiction; for if they are strictly attended to, no fear need be entertained of their vigorous growth, either from the premature season, or the inclemency of the weather. In December and January, although their health is certain, I must allow that they do not grow so fast as in other months; and this is the particular time when difficulty is experienced by those who are unacquainted with the proper means to be adopted, although, perhaps, their efforts may have been attended with far more trouble than the rules here prescribed. The dung bed is certainly of the greatest importance both in the culture of the cucumber and melon; and want of knowledge in the management is generally the cause of the loss of the plants in the winter season, by the settlement of a cold moisture upon them, which cannot be removed without assistance from the sun: particular attention, therefore, to the directions given upon that point is highly necessary; indeed, it cannot be too strongly impressed on the mind of the horticulturist that upon this greatly depends the success of his endeavours to mature them to any degree of perfection. In the remarks upon preserving the plants from a cold moisture, in the most inclement weather, I have called to assistance what may be technically termed an artificial sun; and as this most material point may be perfectly understood I shall here describe it more particularly. Keep the bed always wrapped up to nearly the top of the box with hay, straw, or any kind of sweet litter; observing that hay, however damaged, is certainly preferable; this will have the desired effect in promoting a top heat, and obviating the difficulty above-mentioned, in keeping the plants perfectly dry. To those who are unacquainted with the management of a dung bed, a brick one certainly appears more advantageous, in being attended with less trouble to the horticulturist, though infinitely with more expense, both in the building and consumption of dung: this, however, is a mistaken idea, for nothing certainly can be more congenial to the growth of either the cucumber or melon than a sweet steam heat: this essential requisite, which may always be obtained by the process hereafter described, can be but partially promoted in brick pits; for although water, in its necessary application, may create a steam heat, it soon evaporates; and the heat of the linings having to pass through the bricks and tiles, it becomes dry, and quite incapable of affording any nourishment to the plants. The limited space in which the plants are confined in their growth by brick pits, is also a very great objection to this mode of culture. That they derive their chief support from the extremity of the roots must be obvious to every one, and if these are concentred in the middle of the bed, and thereby rendered incapable of expanding over the flues as in the dung bed, they must be certainly deprived of that vigour which is natural to them from a free and uninterrupted growth, and where they experience the whole of the benefit that can arise from the bed in which they are placed. In short, the dung bed in so many instances is superior to brick pits, that competition in the culture of either the cucumber or melon by the latter plan would be entirely useless; for whether in the vigour of the plants, quickness of growth, or production of fine fruit, the dung bed, systematically attended to, as described in this treatise, will prove beyond doubt, that the most expensive means are not always attended with the most beneficial results. In the following directions, the first thing I have taken notice of, is the early cucumber, as being the most difficult, and consequently the most particular in its process of culture. Strict attention and perseverance in the method prescribed, cannot fail to bring them to a complete state of perfection within the time limited. Secondly--The necessary directions will be found for promoting the growth of such cucumbers as are sown in January. It is here necessary to observe, that this is the most preferable season for those which are not required so very early; as the increasing temperature of the weather in the course of their growth, affords facility for their being matured with a greater degree of strength. Thirdly--The method of bringing to perfection the late frame, or spring sown cucumber. The directions upon this head will be found extremely useful, both to young practitioners, and those who are not professed horticulturists. Many gentlemen who cultivate their own gardens, and are desirous of possessing a cucumber bed, will find the information here given of great utility. Fourthly--In treating upon the process necessary for the management of the hand-glass cucumber in the summer months, I have offered an improved system, which will be found of considerable importance to gardeners in general in enhancing the value of their fruit, by rendering it much superior to that produced by the common method. The directions I have given with regard to the melon, will be found to explode all that difficulty which gardeners have usually imagined exists in the production of this choice fruit. The description given of my method of culture, will at once evince the simplicity of its process, and show the certainty of its result. Having explained the motives which induced me to undertake this work, I have only to observe, that the system has been productive of great advantage to myself, in enabling me to supersede my contemporaries in several annual shows, by obtaining the prize; and, to render this effective to every person, the principal thing required, as before mentioned, is attention and perseverance in the rules prescribed; and those who adopt them will, I am confident, acknowledge their utility, and be sensible of the benefits that must eventually arise from a practical improvement in this particular branch of horticulture. THOMAS WATKINS. Highbury Park, January 30, 1824. THE ART OF PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF THE Cucumber and Melon. * * * * * ON THE MANAGEMENT REQUIRED IN THE CULTURE OF EARLY CUCUMBERS. * * * * * THE SEED-BED FOR OCTOBER: _To be sown from the 10th to the 20th of the Month._ One load of horse-dung, or twenty barrows-full, will be sufficient for a one-light box, and let it be put together at least three weeks before making the bed, in a round or square heap, being particular in well treading it down. If the dung is dry, it will be necessary to give it some water; if very dry, a dozen pots will be required. Let it lay in this state a week, and then turn it, shaking the outsides of the heap into the middle, and give it some more water. In doing this, it is requisite that the heap should be well shook to pieces, and trod down. Let it lay another week, at the expiration of which, observe the same directions as before given, applying the quantity of water in proportion to the dry nature of the dung. At the end of the third week, it will be in a proper condition to make use of, as by that time it will be sufficiently moist and hot, the necessary state in which it should be, before the formation of the bed. As much depends upon the nature of the dung, and its proper condition, great attention should be paid, and some judgment exercised in the means best calculated to prepare it for a state of fermentation. The most certain method that can be adopted, and likely to ensure a beneficial result is, in the summer months, to pack the dung you intend to make use of for the October seed-bed as close together as possible, taking care to keep it dry, that it may retain its virtue. This sort of dung is far preferable to that newly made, being less rank and not so liable to burn; and when under a state of preparation, by turning and moistening, as before described, it will be in a much better condition than any that can be fresh procured.[1] Before forming the bed, let the bottom be made in the following manner:--Raise the ground about six inches above the level with road sand or mould, upon the top of which place some fagots, or other kind of wood, to the height of a foot, in order that the bed may be well drained. If there is an insufficiency of dung, you can add a foot of dry rubbish, such as strawberry or asparagus halm, or any other loose stuff. Let the bottom be extended nine inches wider than the frame you intend to make use of, the height of the bed being at the back four feet, and in the front, three feet nine inches. Beat it well down with a fork; then put the box on, and fill it three parts full with the shovellings of the dung that is left; after which, place on the light, and let it be close shut down. As soon as you discover the heat rising, admit air by opening the frame about an inch: when it increases, so as to become very hot, admit more air, by extending the aperture to two inches. It must remain in this situation about a week; then fork it up above a foot deep, and if caked together, or in the least dry, give it more water. From two to four pots is generally sufficient; but the quantity must be regulated by the state of the bed. Here it is necessary to observe, that moisture is of most important consequence to the seed-bed, and nothing is so well calculated to sweeten and cleanse it from impurity as water. In two or three days after forking up, it will be necessary to take off the box and light, for the purpose of making the bed even. In doing this, stir it up from about the depth of a foot, and shake it to pieces; then put on the box again, and give the light one or two inches of air, according to the temperature of the weather. It will now be necessary to wrap up the bed with straw, pea-halm, or hay, about eighteen inches wide at the bottom, drawing it in gradually to a foot wide, within three inches of the top of the box. In three or four days stir up the bed in the same manner as before, observing that if it be in the least dry, or inclined to a burning heat, to give it three or more pots of water, as shall seem necessary. It must be stirred up again in three or four days, and beat down gently with a fork, when it will be in a fit state to receive the old tan or mould in which the seed is to be deposited. A seed-bed should always lay a fortnight or three weeks before the seed is attempted to be sown; as many evil consequences are to be apprehended from sowing it before, from the firing of the bed, or the impure nature of the dung. If this be not strictly attended to, the plants will not be brought to that degree of perfection, as might reasonably be expected from a bed in its proper heat and condition.[2] After the bed has been laid and dealt with according to the foregoing directions, spread two barrows-full of old tan or light mould all over the surface, having it a little deeper in the middle than at the sides. Old tan is certainly more preferable than mould, though either will answer the purpose. Let it be put in the frame the day before the seed is sown, and cover the bed up with a single mat at night, taking care to shut it down until the morning, that the heat may be properly drawn up. Take some forty-eight size pots, and mix a quantity of leaf mould with a sixth proportion of road sand, not sifted fine. The sifting mould to a fine degree is an error too prevalent in horticulture, and ought particularly to be avoided, from its great tendency to bind. It is very requisite that a cucumber should have a good digestion, and in order to accomplish this, it will be necessary to cover the holes at the bottom of the pots with broken pieces; then strew a little of the rough siftings of the mould over it, and fill them up within half an inch of the brim with the prepared mould and sand. Shake it down a little, and sow the seed[3] from eighteen to twenty-four in a pot, just covering it with a little mould; then give it a small quantity of water, which for the first time may be cold, but great care must be taken in the subsequent waterings, that it be chilled to about the warmth of new milk. The seed being sown, plunge the pots in the bed up to the rim, and give them about half an inch of air. At night they must be covered with a single mat, taking care to turn it up at at the back, that the steam may pass freely from the bed. Let the air be continued both night and day. After the seed has been sown three days, it will be up, when the pots must be unplunged, placed on the surface, and some water given to them. They will now require upwards of an inch of air, both night and day, which will cause the plants to grow stuggy, or dwarfish, and prevent their drawing. In about three days give them some more water in the morning, and they will be ready to pot off in the afternoon. Plants should be always potted off when young, as they strike more freely in the pots; and, in doing this, the following directions should be attended to. Put the mould in the bed to chill, the day before potting off, and let it be of the same description as that in which the seed was sown. If the pots are old and dirty, wash them, and be careful in having them properly dried before they are made use of. Take some old rotten turf, or a little of the coarse siftings of the leaf mould, and place a small quantity over the tile at the bottom of every pot; then fill them about one-third full, put three plants in each, and cover the roots about an inch. The pots must not be plunged, but placed on the surface, and some water given them with a fine rose. It is necessary to have a small pot on purpose to water the plants, which will contain about three quarts, and has a hollow fine rose, which is much better calculated to water the plants regularly than a spreading one. Be particular in watering them regular, which will be requisite every two or three days, for the space of three weeks or a month at latest, when they will be in a proper condition to ridge out. After the plants have been potted three days, add a little mould to them, and repeat it every two or three days, for about a fortnight, until the pot is quite filled. Much attention should be paid to this method of putting in the mould, which experience has convinced the author is far superior to the usual practice of filling the pots in the first instance up to the seed-leaves of the plants. By the gradual mode of filling, the plant is prevented from shanking, and is certain in its growth of being dwarfish and strong, which cannot be insured by the common method, as it tends considerably to weaken the plant, and renders it very liable to fog off, before taking root. By potting them low, and only just covering the roots at first, the stems of the plants become hardened, and strike very freely upwards: as the tap roots of a cucumber always decay when forced with a strong bottom heat. It will be necessary, after the plants have been potted about a week, to examine the bed, for the purpose of ascertaining whether there is any fire heat. If such should be found to be the case, and the directions as before given with regard to moisture have been strictly attended to, it can only exist in the tan, which must immediately be supplied with water, and, the day following, stirred well up together and levelled, placing the pots upon the surface. In another week again examine the bed, and if any fire heat still remains, attend to it as above; if not, stir up the tan, and plunge the pots about half way down; being, however, guided in this by the temperature of the bed, as plants sown in October do not require so much heat as those in the three following months. Observe, when the plants have been potted two or three days, to stir the mould in the pots, round the plants, and likewise the tan, with a sharp-pointed stick, which will contribute to freshen the plants, and prevent any thing of a mouldy nature from injuring them. As soon as they have made the first rough leaf, top them, by taking out the break that appears next, which may be easily done with the thumb and finger, or a sharp-pointed stick. In little more than a fortnight, they will be in a fit state to top down; and in three weeks from the time of sowing, ready to ridge out. At this time of the year, the bed will not require any lining; but observe, that as the wrapping sinks, it will be necessary to increase it, pressing it down close to the box, and keeping it within one-third of the top. If the plants are not ridged out when three weeks old, plunge them up to the rim, until the fruiting frame is ready for their reception, which ought to be at the latest when they are a month or five weeks old. If it should happen, however, that the frame is not perfectly sweet, by no means ridge them out until it is in a proper condition. After they are a month old, increase the lining at the back and front, about four or five barrows-full each, applying it in the following manner:--Remove the wrapping down to the bottom, and extend the dung to the width of two feet, and three parts as high as the bed; drawing it in to about eighteen inches at the top. Cover the lining with the litter four inches wide from the bottom, and three parts as high as the box, being particularly careful in stopping up the inside, by pressing the tan close to the box, about three inches above the bottom. As the lining sinks, add a little wrapping to the top, formed of hay, or old litter that is quite sweet. FOOTNOTES: [1] Dung put together in the above manner, will retain its virtue from six to nine months. [2] The heat required in October sown plants, while growing in the seed-bed, is from sixty-five to seventy degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. Should that temperature be exceeded in this season, they will draw up very long: but after being ridged out, more heat will become necessary; that is to say, from seventy to eighty degrees: and the same is to be observed with young plants raised in the three following months. [3] Some gardeners are very particular in having seed that is three or four years old, imagining that new will grow too vigorous, and not show fruit or set so well; but in this they are much mistaken, the Author knowing, from experience, that new seed, or at least not more than two years old, is the best calculated for bringing to perfection both the cucumber and melon; possessing the advantage of a greater freedom in growth, and much finer fruit than can be derived from old seed. THE FRUITING FRAME, _For Plants sown in October, November, December, and January._ Four loads of dung will be sufficient for a three-light box, and the same in proportion to the number you intend to make use of. Let it be put together a fortnight before the seed is sown; be very particular in giving it plenty of water, and pack it close together. After it has laid a week turn it, and if dry, moisten it with water. Let it continue in this state another week, when the same directions as before given must be observed; and, in a week more, the bed will be in a fit condition to make up. The bottom must be prepared in the same manner as directed for the seed-bed; then form the bed of dung four feet three inches at the back, by four feet in the front, allowing for a cavity of about ten inches between each box; then place the boxes on, and put the shovellings inside, in the proportion of two or three barrows-full to a light. In forming the bed, it is the best plan to make it in layers of about a foot each, which will cause the dung to be much better mixed, than if all finished at first, of an equal height. Be very particular in separating the dung, and breaking it to pieces, afterwards beating it well down with a fork. After the bed has been thus prepared, put the lights on, and shut them down close until the heat begins to rise. When such is the case, give them about an inch of air; and in three or four days wrap the bed all round with dry litter or useless hay, eighteen inches wide from the bottom, sloping it in to about a foot as high as the bed, which will greatly tend to promote a regular heat. As the careful wrapping up of the bed is an essential requisite, means must be taken to keep it close, and protect it from any injury that may arise in consequence of tempestuous weather, this may be accomplished by means of sharp-pointed sticks, with hooks in the form of a peg, and about the size and length of a broom-stick. Thrust these through the litter into the bed, about half way up, one to each light, at the back and front, and two at each end. After the bed has been made about a week or ten days, take off the boxes and lights, in order to level it, and let it have from four to six inches fall from the back to the front; in this, however, you must be in some degree guided by the form of the boxes, which it is necessary should have a good fall, that the plants may derive benefit from the sun; then fork up the bed about a foot deep, and again place on the boxes and lights, giving nearly two inches of air, both night and day. In about four or five days it will be necessary to again fork it up, and give it some water, in the proportion of two pots to a light. This must be repeated every two or three days, until the bed is perfectly sweet, which is usually the case in three or four weeks, applying water during that time, according to the state of the bed. When you find that the bed is properly purified, put in the sifted leaf mould. A three-light box will require a large barrow-full; the quantity for a one-light being about four shovels. After this, add to the wrapping some sweet litter or hay, increasing it to nearly the top of the boxes, and apply about two pots of water to each of the cavities, taking care to fill them up to nearly the tops of the boxes, with short sweet mulshy litter. This is a point but very little known, yet of the greatest importance in the culture of cucumbers; for when the weather begins to grow severe, if there is no cavity, and the boxes are placed close together, in the usual manner, the outsides are very liable to become damp, and the cold, penetrating through, is certain of doing the plants material injury. Put a pot of plants in the middle of a three-light box, and at night admit nearly two inches of air, covering them with a single mat; and if on the following day the plants look well, they may be safely ridged out. It is requisite that both the boxes and lights should be painted every year, at least a month before they are wanted for use; but if this cannot be conveniently done, be particular in washing them with boiling water, in which some unslacked lime must be mixed. This will in some measure answer the purpose of paint in effectually destroying the vermin, or the eggs which may have been deposited in the crevices of the wood. After the plants are ridged out, wash them every morning, on the outside, and about once a week in the inside, which will tend to reflect the light, and cause them to thrive much better. When you wash the outside, push them down about two or three inches, which will prevent the water from perishing the lining at the side of the boxes. If the plants have received no injury, and are able to bear the heat of the bed, ridge them out, letting the hills be about nine inches high, covering the roots about an inch round, and being an inch higher than they were when in the pots. If there is any surplus mould, rake it with the hand all over the bed; then water the plants, taking care, at the same time to sprinkle the bed regularly upon the surface. Close them down for the space of ten minutes, and then admit an inch of air. If the weather is mild, in an hour it may be increased to two inches, and a single mat only will be requisite at night. If, however, the weather is windy, cover them at night with a double mat, or a single one and a little hay. Be very particular in allowing them plenty of air, especially of a night, taking care, however, to regulate this by the temperature of the weather. If there is much wind, they will of course require less air; but, at all events, it is better to give too much than otherwise, more particularly at the first ridging out, as the weather at this season being frequently subject to sudden changes, which, should it occur in the night, and the plants are too confined, or the least rankness existing in the bed, they are sure to experience material injury, which, at this time of year, it is very improbable they will ever recover; or, if with extreme difficulty, they should be brought round, they can never be expected to grow to any degree of perfection. Stir up the bed every day for a fortnight to the depth of about nine inches, with a hand-fork, and if you discover any fire-heat, immediately give water to the part affected, that being the only effectual remedy that can be applied. Be careful in forking close to the bottom of the hills, and if you ascertain that it fires much in this place, bore several holes at the bottom of the hills, and apply plenty of water. Have a sharp-pointed stick, about six or eight inches long, for the purpose of stirring the mould round the plants, in a similar manner to hoeing a crop in a garden. This will very much refresh the plants, and should be attended to while they are young, for at least two months the day after they have been watered. As soon as the roots begin to be visible through the hills, add three shovels-full of unsifted mould at a time to each hill, being very careful not to mould too freely, until the beginning of February, as the plants from the middle of December to the middle of January, lie in a dormant state; consequently, too large a quantity of mould at this season, will be attended with ill effects, in stagnating the roots, and preventing the heat of the bed rising in a free and proper manner. This being the season when plants are most exposed to injury, and are frequently lost, great care and attention is necessary for their preservation from the effects of the cold, in wrapping the linings well up, and giving a good top covering. If the weather is intense, they will require eight or nine inches covering of hay, and water only once a week. As soon as the plants are first ridged out, have dung in for a lining, which should always be put in the front and sides first. When the dung has been put together a week, turn it, and at the end of another it will be fit for use; one load being sufficient for a three-light box. After the plants have been ridged out a fortnight, or three weeks at the farthest, it will be necessary to line the bed to the width of about two feet, and three parts as high as the bed, inclining with a slope of about six inches towards the top. When the dung has been put about half way up, tread it, and then add the remainder, beating it well down with a fork. Cover the lining with litter about three or four inches thick at the outside, and within one or two inches of the top of the box; then place a board at the top about nine inches wide, which will keep it close, and assist in drawing up the heat. Be particularly careful in stopping the inside next to the box, when you make a fresh lining, and beat it close down with the hand about two or three inches above the bottom. When a fresh lining has been added, have the dung in readiness for the back, which will be required about a fortnight afterwards. It should be formed about two feet six inches wide, well trod down, and wrapped up in the same manner as the front, within three inches of the top of the box. Be careful that the litter is not rank; old useless hay, or litter that has been some time laying by, will be preferable. The same directions must be attended to in stopping up the inside of the box, as with the front. As soon as the heat of the lining in any degree affects the bed, and you discover that the inside, where it has been stopped, begins to get dry, give it some water in the evening, just before covering up, for about a week or ten days, which will be the means of keeping the rankness down, and causing a sweet steam heat to rise. As the lining settles, press it down with a spade next the box, and add more litter upon the top, which should be done every other day, observing that when you increase one lining to have the dung in readiness for the next; each lining not being calculated to last more than a month or five weeks; though the back one will not want renewing quite so often as the front. When you apply the second front lining, it will be necessary to bore the bed with a hedge-stake or mop-stick, making five holes to a three-light box; that is, one under each hill, and two under the bars: bore them straight rather better than half way up the bed, so that when the second back lining is applied, holes may be bored exactly opposite to the others. This will cause a free circulation of the heat from one lining to the other, and prove not only of great service in regulating the temperature of the bed, but of equal advantage in draining off the surplus water. Take care when you add a fresh lining, to keep the holes open. As the linings draw the boxes down, they will require rising with boards and bricks. In order to accomplish this, it will be necessary to provide some small pieces of board, rather larger than a brick, placing one of each, with a brick, under the corners of the boxes; and, as the bed settles, increase the number of bricks. When you raise the boxes, stop up the bed with rotten moist dung, and close up the inside about two or three inches above the bottom of the box. The plants should be always topped when young, at the first joint, as before directed; then let them run two joints twice following;[4] afterwards keep them topped at the first joint, except it be blind, which may be easily ascertained by close examination; if you find such to be the case, let it run another joint before it is topped. It is necessary that the plants should be continued in leaf mould until the middle of January, as there is no other in which they will thrive so well at that season of the year. Their peculiar and tender nature bears a strong resemblance to young children, in the care requisite for their nurture and growth. They require light nourishment, that will easily digest; and no soil is so well calculated for this purpose as leaf-mould, mixed with a little grit; from its excellent properties in absorbing the water. In ridging out the plants, one thing must be attended to in the preparation of the bed, which has not been before mentioned. Hollow the bed out to the depth of about four inches in the middle, so that if the weather is cold or windy, the dung may be pulled down half way up the hills, when it will be nearly level about the bed; but as soon as the weather becomes mild, it must be drawn away again, or otherwise the heat will be too violent for the roots. As mould is added to the roots, draw the dung away level with the bottom of the hill; then put it half way up again, being, however, regulated in this by the heat of the bed, and the temperature of the weather. After the hills cover nearly three parts of the bed, take the dung out which has been placed round them, and level it with nearly the bottom of the box, leaving three or four inches round the sides to keep out the rankness from the linings, as before directed. In covering up the plants, a single mat will be sufficient, until they have been ridged out a fortnight, unless the weather is windy or very cold; in such case, make use of a double mat or a little hay; be careful, at the same time, not to give them too much covering at first, as it will draw the plants, and cause them to grow very weak; in this, however, you must be in some degree guided by the heat of the bed, and the temperature of the weather. When there is a good heat, and the weather is still, they will require less; but if there is much wind, or the air is very cold, it must of course be increased. It seldom occurs that plants require much covering until a fortnight before Christmas, when it will be found necessary, if the weather is moderate, to cover them from four to six inches. Instances have occurred, when the author has been obliged to increase the covering to a foot in thickness, from the intense cold; but this, however, is seldom the case; and from four to six inches may generally be considered sufficient from December to April. As the sun increases, and the nights become milder, reduce the covering to three or four inches, until May; from whence to June a single mat, or a little hay or litter will be sufficient. If the weather is now seasonable, and the nights warm, they will not require any covering, but should this not be the case, it is better to continue it even until Midsummer. Take particular care when covering up, after a fresh lining has been put to the bed, that the mats or hay does not hang over the lights for at least a fortnight, as such will draw the rank steam into the bed, and kill the plants. The linings should be continued until the weather is fine and settled, which may be expected in the middle of May; but should the weather be cold and unfavourable, it may be necessary to retain them until the middle of June. In about the third week of the month of January, the plants will require stronger food; and half bog and half leaf mould may be applied. Should there be a difficulty in obtaining bog earth, procure the top spit of light meadow earth, and lay it up for twelve, or, at the least, six months before it is wanted for use. When you mould towards the outside, it may be still stronger, mixing rotten dung or leaf mould, in the proportion of one-fourth, with bog or light meadow earth; observing, however, not to mould up the plants level until some time after fruit has been cut. The beginning of March is the proper time to mould up full. Let a cavity be left at the back and front of the box of about two inches, to prevent the roots from being injured on the outside of the box by the linings; and to cause the heat to rise freely from the bed. It is very necessary that the plants should be kept thin of vine, as being material in the growth of fine fruit; and as they extend towards the outside of the bed, do not suffer them to run more than one joint at a time. Keep the leaves thinned, by taking out the oldest first, in order that they may stand single, and not one over the other; to accomplish which it will be necessary to peg them out. When taking off the leaves, cut them close to the vine, not leaving a long stalk, as that will rot and injure the plants. When they are laid, be particular in having the plants down close to the mould, as early as possible, in order that they may strike root; at the same time being careful not to bury the vine. In doing this, place a little mould round the side of the vine first, leaving the top uncovered until it is a little hardened, and the roots begin to strike. When such is the case, cover the vine all over, and then you may continue laying within one joint of the extremity. It is here necessary to observe, that very few are acquainted with the advantages that may be derived from laying the plants in a proper manner. Many even, who are in the habit of observing this method, practice it so slightly, that little if any benefit results from it; and by far the greatest number of horticulturists take no notice of it whatever. Laying is certainly a most material point in the culture of the early cucumber; and it is impossible to ensure a good crop without a strict attention to it: in fact, the Author principally attributes his success in the production of fine fruit, to his extreme care in this particular. It should be done every fortnight or three weeks after the plants have come into bearing; and, if continued in a regular manner, good fruit may be obtained until October. Some imagine that October sown plants will soon be worn out, after producing a few cucumbers early; but this is a mistaken idea, for, if the laying is continued regularly, they will bear good fruit equally as long as any young plants sown in the spring. Leaf-mould, mixed with a little road sand, is the best thing to lay them in until the latter end of March, when you may add a stronger soil, composed of one-fourth of leaf-mould or rotten dung, mixed with bog or light meadow earth. Soft water is essentially necessary for the plants, as hard is almost certain of producing the canker, unless particular means are adopted to prevent it. In some situations it may be impossible to obtain soft water; in such a case, let the water stand in a tub for at least twenty-four hours; if two or three days even it will be the better, as in that time it will be in some degree softened by the sun, and the raw coldness expelled from it. After the plants have come into bearing, sheeps dung is an excellent thing to mix with the water, if used in a moderate manner. The following proportion will be necessary:--To six pots of water put in the tub one shovel-full of dung; let this be stirred up continually for the space of two or three days, and when wanted for use, it must be again well stirred up. In watering with this mixture, be particular in having a small thin spouted pot, without a rose, so that it may be easily poured under the leaves. A gallon or six quarts will be a sufficient quantity for one light, and in watering be careful that it is not sprinkled over the leaves. Sheeps dung, mixed with the water, will be found very beneficial to the plants, if used moderately, as too great a freedom will tend to injure them. When the plants are first ridged out, they will require water every third day, until about the middle of December; and when applied, it must be sprinkled all over the plants and bed, observing to give a larger quantity where the heat seems most to prevail. In general more water is requisite at the back than the front: unless there is much heat in the front from the middle of December until the middle of January, once in five or six days will be sufficient to water the plants. Round the side of the box, and at the back, however, should be watered every night, while there is much heat. About two or three quarts of water at each time to a light will be sufficient for the plants until the middle of January and from that time more will be necessary. In applying the water you must be guided in a great measure by the state of the weather. Take the opportunity of watering when the sun is out, and then close them down for about a quarter of an hour or more, according to the season of the year. At all times, before watering, admit double the usual quantity of air about a quarter of an hour previous to the application, for the purpose of hardening the plants. Water may be applied at any time of the day, if the heat is good, but the most preferable time is certainly about eleven o'clock in the morning, particularly as the season advances towards the months of April and May, and the weather becomes more temperate, and the sun has greater power. After they are watered, shut them down for about ten minutes or a quarter of an hour, and let them have the benefit of a clear sun; then shade them with a mat for two or three hours, and shut the frame close down, in order that a moist sweet steam heat may be produced, which will cause the fruit to swell very quick. At one or two o'clock take off the mat and admit a little air. When the sun is clear and the weather hot, let them be shaded from eleven to two o'clock; some evergreen boughs or pea-sticks are very good things. Should the above directions be found inconvenient to attend to, the difficulty may be obviated by adopting the following method. After the plants are watered in a morning, shut them down, for the space of about ten minutes, then give them a little air; in about the same time increase it, and so gradually until the proper quantity is admitted. The gradual admission of air is extremely important, and ought, therefore, to be particularly attended to. The frames should never be shut down too long in the morning of the spring and summer months; a little air should be given at eight o'clock, if the weather is fine, in an hour it will be necessary to increase it; afterwards attending to it according to the state of the weather. In order to produce fine fruit in the early part of the season, that is in February and March; let only one grow on a plant at a time. Keep the male blossoms rubbed off when young, to prevent their weakening the plants; the best method of doing which is with a small pointed stick. As soon as the plants begin to show fruit, leave a few male blossoms to set the fruit with. If this be not attended to in the early part of the season[5] the fruit will not swell off, as it is the female blossom alone that bears it, and if these be not impregnated with the male they will prove unfruitful. The female flower may easily be distinguished from the male, by the appearance of the fruit at the bottom of the blossom which the other does not possess. When the female flower is in full bloom, take a male blossom which is in full bloom also, and hold it in one hand, with the other split it down, and tear off the flowers, being careful at the same time not to injure the male part; then hold the male blossom between the forefinger and thumb of the right hand, while the female flower is held between the middle and forefinger of the left hand; then put the male blossom in the centre of the female, and the farina will adhere to it, and have the desired effect; should it, however, happen to fall out after it is done, it is of no consequence whatever, as the impregnation is received the instant it is put in. The proper time to set the fruit is in the morning, as it always comes in bloom at night, and if left until the afternoon the blossom of the fruit closes a little, in consequence of which it is doubtful whether fruition will be effected. In order to ascertain whether the male blossom is good; after you have prepared it as above described for use, draw the farina, or genitals, across the thumb-nail, and if good, it will leave a glutinous substance resembling gum. As soon as the fruit becomes the size of your finger let no more than one be upon a plant at a time to swell off, and when beginning to grow crooked give the stalk end a twist, place them on their backs, put a peg to the side, and the heat of the bed will soon draw them down and make them straight. A cucumber is a plant that requires much water, particularly when bearing fruit: it will be necessary then to give from one to two gallons each time according to the heat of the bed, and temperature of the weather. If the season is fine and the heat good they will require water every other day, but if the weather is dull, and the heat slack, be very cautious in applying the water lest they should get the canker, which is a dangerous disorder, and very difficult to be removed. The best thing in such a case is to give a strong heat, and be very moderate in the application of water. After the plants have been ridged out a fortnight it will be necessary to shut them down in the afternoon, about an hour before they are covered up. They will, however, require air in the night, generally till the fruit is cut, and even then if the weather is mild; for by being kept close at night when there is a strong heat, the fruit is liable to change colour and become of a yellow cast. The plants should be uncovered in a morning by eight o'clock, or nine at farthest, in the winter, and six or seven as the season advances, unless the weather is very cold or windy, when they may remain an hour longer than usual. Should the frame be infested with woodlice, place some cabbage-leaves or a small quantity of hay in the bed, which will answer the purpose of a trap to collect them, when they may be easily destroyed by boiling water. Care, however, is necessary in this expedient, for should the plants have taken root at the side of the box, the hot water will materially injure them; but if the plants are kept healthy, little danger is to be apprehended from this description of vermin, as they always like a sickly stagnated plant to a thriving vigorous one. Mice are sometimes extremely troublesome, but may be destroyed by procuring from a Chemist some ground ox vomicæ, and applying it in the following manner. Mix the drug with some water, stir it up well, and let it boil about ten minutes; take it off the fire and put in some wheat or cucumber seed, letting it steep for ten or twelve hours; or spread some ox vomicæ not boiled upon bread and fresh butter, place this in the bed near the holes at which they enter, which will effectually extirpate them. With regard to the time of cutting fruit[6] from October sown plants, much depends upon the weather, some seasons being much finer than others. Fruit from the October seed has been cut off by the Author as early as the middle of January, while at another time it has been as late as the beginning of March; he, however, is well satisfied if it is ready to cut by the middle of February: indeed, upon an average this may be fairly considered as the probable time for its mature growth. It is not advisable in any young beginner to sow seed in November or December until about the twentieth of the latter month, as plants grown in that season are very liable to be retarded in their growth, while those sown from about the twentieth of December to the beginning of January will grow much stronger and quicker, as they possess the advantage of the increase of the season. An experienced framer, however, can grow plants at any time of the year, and from those sown at the above time, he may expect to cut fruit by the twentieth of March or towards the latter end of that month, according to the weather; much depending upon that and the situation of the framing grounds, which should at all times be open to the sun, and defended from the winds. FOOTNOTES: [4] The Author would recommend January-sown plants, after having been topped at the first joint, to run four joints, then topped again at the first joint, when they will generally show fruit, and, if properly attended to, will swell off to seven or eight inches in length, as the first shows do not come so fine as those afterwards. Do not let more than one fruit swell upon a plant at a time, as more will cause them to grow ill-shaped, and not near so fine. [5] There is no necessity for setting the fruit beyond the latter end of May, as by that time the bees will find their way to the frames, and prove equally effective. [6] The Author has tried several sorts, but at present only makes use of three kinds of frame cucumber, which he considers preferable to all the others. One is a long black prickly fruit, with a fine bloom and short handle, well filled up. It will sometimes grow for table to the length of fifteen inches, and usually from eleven to twelve. It is an excellent bearer, but not so well adapted for October sowing as the other two kinds, from its tender qualities, being thin leaved and less hardy: it is, however, a very good sort for January and spring sowing. The other two kinds very much resemble each other, and will frequently grow to the length of twelve inches, filled up in the handle, black, prickly, and carry a good bloom. Their usual dimensions are from eight to ten inches; being thick-leaved and particularly hardy. Both these are well calculated for the October bed, and excellent bearers for spring sowing. The Author obtained them both by impregnating; and those who purchase the work of him, may be accommodated with a few of the seeds of either of the above, gratis. THE SEED-BED FOR JANUARY. _To be sown in the beginning of the Month._ As this is the season in which Gardeners in general sow seed for cucumbers, it will be necessary to take notice of a few directions which vary from the October seed-bed. At this time of the year young plants are much slower in their growth, and more difficult to be reared than in October, consequently they require a stronger bottom bed, though made in the same manner as above directed. The dung must undergo the same process in working, but should be six inches higher; it will also require more wrapping and covering, particularly if the weather is very cold; in this, however, as before, you must be guided by the temperature of the season; taking care not to cover too much at first. For the first fortnight a double mat will be sufficient; and after that, if the weather is intense, increase the covering, by adding hay to the thickness of six or nine inches, with a mat over it. Air should be admitted night and day, according to the state of the weather; but they may be closed down for about an hour, before covering up, after they are a fortnight old. The plants should be ridged out young, at least when they are a month old; but be very particular in having the fruiting-frame perfectly sweet before they are placed in it, as it is much better to keep them in the pots a week, or even a fortnight, beyond the time, than to ridge them out before the bed is in a proper condition. Be careful in keeping a good heat; in having the lining applied in proper time; and in well wrapping them up. The lining will be required when they are three weeks old at the back and front. It should be two feet wide about half way up the bed, and lined with litter to the width of six inches, for the purpose of keeping the lining in a proper condition: wrap it up also within three inches of the top, drawing it in gradually to about eighteen inches wide. With the exception of the foregoing directions, the method of treatment must be exactly the same as given in the Seed-bed for October. ON THE MANAGEMENT REQUIRED IN THE CULTURE OF THE Late Cucumber. The proper time to sow for late cucumbers, that is, such as are grown in boxes and lights, and have no necessity for linings, is from the middle of March to the middle of April; and after that time seed may be put in for the hand-glass. Those that are sown in the middle of March will require stronger beds than those sown a fortnight or three weeks afterwards, and should be made from two feet six inches to three feet high; while the latter will not require beds higher than two feet. Let a trench be dug the size of the frame, about eighteen inches deep, and if the soil is light and rich that is thrown out, the bed may be formed of it; but if a strong loam it will not answer the purpose. As soon as the bed is made tread it down well, make it even, and let it have about six inches fall from the back to the front; then place on the boxes and light; and when the heat rises, admit from one to two inches of air. In about a week it will be necessary to put the mould in for the hills in the proportion of a barrow-full to a light. This must be levelled about an inch all over the bed to prevent the rank steam from injuring the plants. On the following day they may be ridged out, when the mould must be pressed with the hands close down round the roots of the plants; and water applied, which should be at the same time sprinkled regularly all over the bed. Add now plenty of air, night and day, until the bed becomes perfectly sweet, which is generally the case in about a week; after which they may be shut down at night. Let the topping be the same as directed for the Seed-bed in October; if the soil is light and rich, have a bank on the outside about a foot or eighteen inches wide, and as high, or even higher than the bottom of the box. This will prove a great support to the plants; be the means of producing an abundant crop of fruit; and obviate the necessity of laying; which must otherwise be the case if this plan is not adopted, or the boxes are unusually large. Should laying, however, be preferred, great attention must be paid to it, and the same method adopted as prescribed for the early cucumber. Particular care is requisite in the culture of the late cucumber to preserve it from the canker; the best means that can be adopted to prevent this injury is to keep them thin of vine, and always apply soft water. This should be given in the morning, or, if not then convenient, never later than three o'clock in the afternoon, when the vines will have an opportunity of drying before night: a fine day should always be taken advantage of for this purpose, which will tend considerably to accelerate their growth. Admit a double quantity of air for a quarter of an hour before watering; and while the nights continue cold, be careful in keeping them covered up. In some seasons, when the weather is inclement, it will be necessary to observe this even until Midsummer. By strict attention to the foregoing directions, no danger need be apprehended from the canker, as it generally proceeds from a cold chill; suffering the plants to grow too thick of vine, which keeps them continually moist; and not admitting a sufficient quantity of air necessary to harden them. In ridging out the plants, put two in small lights and three in larger ones; and when the roots appear through the hills, add mould to them; observing, that they will require moulding up much quicker than those grown at the early season: in fact, after they have been ridged out about a fortnight or three weeks, it will be necessary to mould them up fully. If the weather is fine, from one to two gallons of water for each light will be necessary every two or three days. Keep them pegged and laid about once a fortnight; and be particular also in having them thin of vine, topped at the first joint; then allowing them to run four, and afterwards topping them again at the first, as before mentioned in the January sown plants. By observing these directions, a good crop of fruit may be ensured, which will be ready to cut in about a month or five weeks after they have been ridged out. ON THE MANAGEMENT REQUIRED IN THE CULTURE OF THE Hand-glass Cucumber. The best time to sow for the hand-glass cucumber is from the middle of April to the beginning of May; though they may be sown from the tenth of April until the middle of May; and the plants may be grown in the early cucumber or melon beds. When they are potted off, put three plants in each pot, being particular in not filling them more than three parts full, as they are very liable at this time of the year to draw up long in the stem. Merely cover the roots with mould at first; in the course of two or three days add a little more; and in about a week fill up the pots to the brim. It is necessary to give them as much air as possible; and to have them placed at the back of the bed, as near the glass as convenient. They must be well supplied with water, and let them be topped at the first joint. By this mode of treatment, you may have strong stuggy plants, fit to put under the hand-glass in three weeks; at all events, they should not be kept in the pots longer than a month, as there is a probability, if that time is exceeded, of their being stinted in the growth. The soil best calculated to ridge them out in, is a light rich earth. If the soil is of a strong loamy nature, add some leaf mould or rotten dung to it, and mix it up well together. Dig a trench about a foot in depth, and three feet wide, and let the bed be made up about a foot above the level, that is, two feet from the bottom of the trench; tread it down well, level it, and apply some water if it is dry; then put the mould on, and let it be dug a spit deep, and eighteen inches wide on each side of the trench; afterwards put some dung or leaf mould on, and dig it in. Level the mould down, so that the bed will be about six feet wide, and nine or ten inches deep, taking care to leave it a little higher in the middle, where the dung is placed, in order that the mould may not settle, and become lower in the centre, which will have a tendency to injure the plants by absorbing the water, which is most required at the outsides. It is an excellent plan, if the ground is disengaged two or three months previous to the time it is wanted for the cucumber bed, to mark it out six feet wide, and put in six inches of dung or leaf mould, and lay it up in ridges of two feet six inches in width, and a foot in depth. When wanted for use, level it down, and dig a trench three feet wide for the dung, levelling it as before directed. This method, if it can be conveniently attended to, is certainly preferable to the other, as it allows an opportunity of incorporating the dung and mould together. If hot dung cannot be easily obtained, it may be dispensed with, provided the seed is not sown earlier than the month of May. Let the ground be ridged up as before directed, and when wanted for use, level it down; then mark out six feet wide beds for each, and three feet alleys; afterwards place the line to the middle of the ridge, and mark out three feet six inches, which must be the distance from the centre of each glass. Take out two spadesful of the mould, level it on the ridge, and put one spadeful of light rich earth in its place, for the purpose of receiving the seed. If the natural soil is light and rich, take out one spadeful, making it round and hollow, about eight inches wide; then sow the seed from eight to twelve under each glass. If the mould is dry, apply water to the seed, place the glasses on, and shut them down close, observing as they become dry, to sprinkle them with water. After the seed has been up about a week, it will be necessary to thin them out, in the proportion of six plants to each glass; and in the week following reduce them to three, which is the proper number to be grown together finally for a crop. When they are thus divided, put some light mould round the stems of the plants, which should be done at two different times, allowing a week to elapse between each application, and filling up the hollow that is left. As soon as they have made two rough leaves, top them at the second joint. This is a plan which may be adopted with success. Hot dung is also of great advantage, as it will cause them to come into bearing nearly a month sooner than would otherwise be the case. After the plants have been topped, as above directed, let them run to six joints, and then top them again, when they will show fruit, which may be topped at the first joint. If the hand-glasses are large, fruit will be ready to cut very early. Be particular in not suffering them to run to too much vine; six joints is quite sufficient at the first, and afterwards always keep them topped at the first or second joint. By strict attention to this mode of treatment, you may ensure a more abundant crop, and much finer fruit, than can be calculated upon from the usual method of suffering the vine to grow to a considerable length, which tends materially to weaken and exhaust the plant. Let them be kept under the glasses as long as possible, without danger of injuring them, admitting a small quantity of air in the day-time, when the weather is warm, by means of a piece of wood, in the form of a wedge, about seven inches long, five inches wide, flat, and about three inches at the top. This will enable you to rise or fall the glass according to the quantity of air necessary to be admitted. Before placing the vine outside the glasses, it will be necessary to admit a larger portion of air, both night and day, for three or four days, in order to harden the plants; then mulch the bed all over with litter, which will cause the fruit to be kept clean, and the roots moist, an essential requisite in the culture of cucumbers. Though moisture is so extremely necessary, yet at all times in the application of water you must be regulated by the temperature of the season. If the weather is hot and dry when they come into full bearing, from three to four gallons of water will be required to each glass every two or three days, if the soil is light, but if of a strong loamy nature, less will be sufficient. Lay out the vines regular, peg them down, and place four half bricks, that is, one to each corner, under the frame of the glass; or another method may be adopted, in raising the glass to the south by means of a piece of stick, about the thickness of a broom-stick, a foot in length, with three notches cut in it, about two inches apart, for the purpose of resting the glass upon. This plan is far preferable to the former, in materially accelerating the growth of the fruit, by preventing too great a current of air; besides possessing the advantage of easier access to the plants, when there is a necessity for examining them. It is, however, requisite when this method is adopted, that the ridges should always front the south. If the above directions are strictly attended to, and the season is in any degree favorable, a plentiful crop of fine fruit may be expected. DIMENSIONS OF THE BOXES AND LIGHTS FOR Early and Late Cucumbers. _Three-light Boxes for October sowing._ The boxes should be made of good seasoned deal, one inch and a half thick, ten feet seven inches long, four feet three inches wide, and one foot eight inches deep at the back, and eleven inches in the front. The bars to be three inches wide, to have two narrow slips two inches in height, and one slip at each end. The bars to be fluted on each side of the slips, with oak corners, five inches wide. The lights to be four feet three inches and a half long, three feet six inches wide, and the back rail two inches and three quarters wide; the front to be three inches, and the sides two inches and a half; with three bars, rounded off to a point inside, three quarters of an inch wide. To be made of good seasoned deal, and to have horns both in the back and front. The squares must be formed of strong crown glass, leaded and cemented; let there be five in length, the one in front being five inches long. A small iron bar must be passed in the middle, under the lead of each light, which must also have iron handles. _One-light Box for October sowing._ This must be in length four feet eight inches, three feet seven inches wide, one foot eight inches deep at the back, and eleven inches in the front. The lights to be half an inch longer than the box; and in all other respects the same as those before described. _For January sowing._ The boxes to be ten feet seven inches long, four feet eight inches wide, one foot eight inches deep at the back, and eleven inches in the front. The bars and slips the same as for October. The lights to be four feet eight inches and a half long, and three feet six inches wide, with four bars, six squares long, rabitted, puttied, and a small piece of lead across to every square. In other respects to be the same as those for October. _For Spring sowing._ The boxes to be one foot two inches deep at the back, and eight inches in the front. In other respects, the boxes as well as the lights for spring sowing, must be the same as those directed for the January seed-bed. Both boxes and lights should have three coats of paint, white inside, and a dark lead colour on the outside. ON THE CULTURE OF THE EARLY AND LATE Melon. ON THE MANAGEMENT REQUIRED IN THE CULTURE OF Early and Late Melons. For early melons have three loads of dung for a three-light box; but if you have previously grown early cucumbers, the old linings will be useful for the melon bed, by mixing a proportion of one half of fresh dung with it. This, in fact, will be better than all fresh, as it requires only once turning, whereas new dung should be turned twice. In gentlemen's gardens there is generally an abundance of leaves, and sometimes a scarcity of dung; when such is the case, leaves, mixed with an equal proportion of dung, may be used very successfully for the early melon; and for the late one all leaves, from trees or shrubs, will answer the purpose, particularly where there are brick pits. Let the dung be put together for a week, and lay the same time before it is turned. Be careful that the bottom is dry where the bed is built; raise it with mould or road sand to the height of six or eight inches, and allow the bottom to be eight or nine inches longer and wider than the box, so that when the bed is made, it may be drawn up in a gradual manner to about three or four inches wider than the box, observing at the same time to beat it well down with a fork. Let it be about three feet nine inches at the back by three feet six inches in the front; should there, however, happen to be a scarcity of dung, a foot of strawberry or asparagus halm, fagots, or pieces of wood, or, indeed, some of each, may be added at the bottom of the bed. If the dung is dry, apply water to it, that it may be properly moistened; and after the bed is formed, let it be again watered, as the plants will not thrive so well, nor the linings have the proper effect, if the bed is kept too dry. The bed should be made three weeks or a month before the plants are put into it, and must be perfectly sweet before they are ridged out. When the bed is in a proper condition, hollow it out in the middle to the depth of four inches, and put a large barrow-fall of mould to each hill, pressing it down close with the hand about a foot deep. The day before you intend to ridge out, put a pot of plants in the bed, to prove whether it is sweet, which, if you ascertain to be the case, and the box is large, ridge them out, three plants to a light; but if small two will be sufficient. The proper time to sow the seed for an early crop is about the middle of January; and the early cucumber bed will do very well for the purpose. Those sown at this time will be fit to cut in the first or second week of May; but if there is no particular necessity for fruit so early, the beginning of February is a preferable season to sow, when they will be ready to cut by the latter end of May or the beginning of June. The Early Cantaloupe is the best sort for an early crop. Let them be sown in leaf mould, about eighteen or twenty seeds in a forty-eight size pot; immediately apply water, and plunge the pots in a good sharp heat. As soon as the seed makes its appearance, which will be in the course of about three days, if it is good, un-plunge the pots and give them a little water. In two or three days more they will be fit to pot off, which ought always to be done when about a week old, as they strike much more freely when potted off young. Let the soil for potting off the plants be half leaf mould, and half light loam or bog earth. The best season to sow for a second crop is the beginning of March, and well calculated for the Stroud Rock, Scarlet Rock, White-seeded Rock, Green Flesh, and, in fact, many others of nearly the same description, though under different names, which they have derived from those gardeners who have cultivated them by impregnating one with the other. It is by no means, however, advisable to sow the Black Rock before the latter end of March, as it is only calculated for a late melon, and should be grown in large boxes, two plants to a light. This, though a fine looking fruit, and well flavoured, will not suit those whose object is to produce a large quantity; for, by attempting to grow more than two in a light, they will not rock, nor arrive to any degree of perfection.[7] The Stroud Rock is a particular favourite with the Author, who has produced fruit of this kind upwards of seven pounds in weight, though the common size varies from three to five. This description of melon is not generally known, although it is a fine looking and excellent flavoured fruit: it possesses a thin skin, orange-coloured flesh, and the rind is very dark. The Scarlet Rock is, however, the finest flavoured melon that can be produced, though small in its growth, seldom exceeding the weight of three pounds, and commonly from one to two. The flesh is of a deep scarlet colour, and it is rather inclined to rock. The Early Cantaloupe is the most productive melon in bearing; but in order to obtain them good flavoured no more than one fruit must be suffered to swell on a plant at a time, except the lights are large, when two may be allowed, that is, six in a light; but if, however, the plants are confined to one fruit, a second crop may be obtained. The White-seeded Rock is a very fine melon in appearance, and much approved of by some gardeners for its qualities in ripening early for a rock; but it will not, however, keep long, soon loses its flavour, and the colour changes very yellow; it is also extremely tender in its growth, and very inferior in flavour to the Stroud Rock; neither is it so handsome a fruit, so well-flavoured, nor does it ripen any sooner. The Green Flesh is a fine flavoured melon, with a thin skin, but generally small in its dimensions. The Author has, however, a sort of this kind that will grow from three to five pounds in weight. The Black Rock melon should not be sown later than the latter end of May; the Stroud and Scarlet Rock may be sown as late as the tenth of June; and the Early Cantaloupe about the twentieth of June. In order to produce fine fruit, be particular in having a good depth of earth, from a foot to eighteen inches will be necessary. When the hills are made for the very early melons, one large barrow-full of mould will be sufficient, which must be pressed down close with the hand. Those that are sown in March will require one barrow-full and a half, and those afterwards two. In applying this mould, put one barrow-full in first, and tread it down; then add the remainder, and press it close down with the hand. Procure some good holding loam of a greasy nature, such as is generally found in the marshes, which is the most preferable kind of soil for melons, and let it be well weathered before using. It ought to lay twelve, or at the least six months. Mix this with a sixth proportion of good rotten dung or leaf mould, and let it be turned over two or three different times, that it may be properly sweetened and incorporated together; taking care, however, that it is not broken too fine. The mould intended for the hills of the first crop should be lighter than for those grown afterwards, being composed of light loam, mixed with a sixth part of leaf mould or rotten dung; or an equal proportion of stiff loam and leaf mould. As mould is added after the plants have been ridged out, let it be trod down close, and take particular care that the roots are never exposed to the sun, but as soon as they make their appearance through the hills, increase the mould, in the proportion of a barrow-full to each hill for the early melon, and two, or even more, to the later one. In watering the plants, as the season advances, you must be regulated by the composition of the soil, and the temperature of the weather. If the soil is stiff, it will not require half the quantity that should be applied to light mould. If the weather is warm, much water is necessary, but if cold very little should be given, as too much moisture at that time will create the canker. Heat being materially requisite for preserving the growth of the melon, great care must be taken in keeping the bed well supplied with linings, which must be added until the weather becomes fine and settled; they will generally be required until the beginning of June; but if the season is even then cold, it is better to continue them longer. In covering up the early plants, at the first ridging out, a single or double mat will be sufficient; after that add a little hay, and increase it if the weather is cold. This should be continued until the middle of June, or later, if the season is unfavourable. Many gardeners being unacquainted with the proper mode of training and topping the melon, and thereby finding it extremely difficult to set the fruit, the Author will here give the method always pursued by himself, which, if strictly observed, will be found to be attended with far less trouble, and more certain in its effect than the plan generally adopted. When the plants are potted off, top them at the second break; that is, let them grow to two leaves; then take out the break, which in some kinds is in the centre, and in others in the second leaf. If you require the fruit very fine, two plants will be sufficient in a light; but should there be no particular necessity in that respect, and the lights are sufficiently capacious, three may be matured extremely well. Have four runners to a light; that is, if two plants, two runners to each; but if three, two runners to one plant, and one to each of the other two. If the lights are large, they may be suffered to run to eight joints; but if, on the contrary, the lights are confined, six will be sufficient; and all other breaks that come out at home, with the first break that issues from the runners, should be effectually taken away, in order that the others may derive strength and nourishment. As soon as they make the first breaks from the runners, which by some are denominated cross bars, top them at the first joint, and in most sorts they will generally show fruit; but if it should so happen that this does not succeed, top them again, when they are certain of showing fruit at the second. If they are impregnated in the same manner as prescribed in the directions for the cucumber, there will be no difficulty in setting the fruit, which will also show much bolder, and possess greater strength when topped in close. Every description of melon will be brought to a greater degree of perfection, by being suffered to swell off on the first shows, which can alone be effected by keeping them thin of vine: if this is particularly attended to, no apprehension need be entertained of the fruit being small or delicate, as, in proportion to the quantity of vine, so it decreases the strength and vigour of the plants. Great care is necessary in watering the plants: when they are young, it should be applied with a rose; but as soon as the runners are extended all over the bed, that may be dispensed with. If the weather is dull, a small quantity of water will be sufficient; and if very fine, more must be applied carefully without a rose, which will be found beneficial in causing them to set more freely.[8] An insufficiency of moisture is an error too prevalent with many gardeners in the culture of the melon, and indeed the inferiority of their fruit, both in weight and flavour, may be greatly attributed to want of judgment in this particular; for if the plants are kept thin of vine, the necessity of which has been before stated, they are of course more open to the air, and the sun has greater power in drying up the soil, consequently the plants will become exhausted, and the fruit will ripen before its growth is properly matured. The Early Cantaloupe melon, if left to its full time, will be five weeks from the period of setting before it ripens; the Stroud about six; the Scarlet seven; and the Black Rock upwards of seven; there will, however, be some difference between those forced early with bottom heat, and those grown late; the early ones coming to perfection three or four days, or even a week before the other. The proper time to sow for under-ground melons, that is, such as are grown without linings, is from the twenty-fifth of March to the twentieth of June; observing, at the same time, that those which are sown in March will require stronger beds than those that are set three weeks or a month later. The beds for the first should be formed of good dung, well worked, and three feet in height; whereas the latter will only require two feet. Dig a trench the size of the frame, about eighteen inches deep; and if the soil is a strong good holding loam, it will answer the purpose for any description of rock melon; they requiring a strong soil to bring them to perfection; a light loam, however, may be used for the Early Cantaloupe. As soon as the bed is formed, tread it down well, make it even, and let it have about six inches fall from the back to the front; then put on the boxes and lights, and when the heat rises to its proper height, which will be in the course of three or four days, put the mould in for the hills, in the proportion of two barrows-full to a light, levelling it about an inch all over the bed, for the purpose of preventing the rank steam from injuring the plants. On the following day they may be ridged out, and watered, being very particular in sprinkling the bed regularly over. Admit air freely both night and day at first, until the bed is purified, and becomes perfectly sweet; this will be the case in about a week, when they may be shut down at night. Let the topping and training be the same as directed for the early ones. If the soil is strong, and of a binding nature, a bank may be made on the outside, at the back and front, about a foot or eighteen inches wide, which will prove a great support to the fruit, and cause them to grow much larger and finer; but if the soil is light and rich, by no means make a bank, nor ridge out the plants in it, as mould of that description is not at all adapted for the production of fine melons. The only one that will in any degree thrive in light rich soil is the Early Cantaloupe; but any kind of the rock description will never come to perfection. It is here necessary to observe that it is impossible ever to obtain fine or good flavoured fruit, if more than one is suffered to swell on a plant at a time, as that support which is essential and ought to be directed to one object, by becoming divided, is insufficient for the perfection of more, and naturally weakens the fruit, and renders it of little or no value. Many horticulturists experience much difficulty from the effects of the red spider and canker in melons; the former being caused by keeping them too dry, and the latter arising from too much moisture. In order to avoid these evils, the following directions should be particularly attended to. When the weather is hot, or there is a strong bottom heat, it is necessary to be free in the application of water, especially round the sides of the boxes; for when the plants cover the bed, it will not be requisite to give any in the centre over the stems. When the plants cover the surface of the bed always water without a rose, observing that it should be invariably done in the morning, and when the weather is fine, so as to allow the vines to get dry before night, which will not be the case, if it is applied in the afternoon; and should the following day be dull, and perhaps continue so for three or four, the vines will remain wet, and then there is every probability of their getting the canker, which entirely proceeds from a cold chill, created by unnecessary moisture. The canker is a very destructive disorder, and extremely difficult to eradicate. The only means that can be adopted, or likely to prove beneficial, is to keep the plants as dry as possible, and to give a good heat; being careful, at the same time, not to run into the other extreme, and create the red spider. If, however, the plants are kept thin of vine, and water is applied in the manner before directed, no fear need be entertained of either of the above disorders. FOOTNOTES: [7] The Author has in his possession a sort of this description, from which he has produced fruit upwards of ten pounds in weight. [8] As the season advances, and the sun becomes powerful, it will be necessary to shade them from the extreme violence of the heat. Mats are generally made use of, but the Author considers evergreen boughs far preferable, as the former entirely precludes the sun, whereas the latter is beneficial to the plants, in admitting it partially. This will be generally requisite from about ten until two; and at that time, in proportion to the degree of shade, a larger quantity of air must be admitted. DIMENSIONS OF THE BOXES AND LIGHTS FOR Early and late Melons. _Boxes and Lights for the first early Melons._ The wood-work should be of the same thickness, as those directed for early cucumbers, and the boxes of the same length; but two feet deep at the back, five feet wide, and one foot three inches in the front. _For Melons sown from the middle of February until the latter end of March, grown with linings._ The boxes and lights to be the same in thickness, length, and depth; five feet six inches wide; four bars to a light, with a small iron bar across the middle, in the inside, under the lead-work. _For late Melons, grown without Linings._ The boxes and lights to be the same as those before described, with the exception of being eighteen inches deep at the back, by eleven inches in the front. _Brick Pits._ Let these be formed of nine inch brick-work, sunk one foot under-ground; five feet high at the back, by three feet six inches in the front, from the bottom; and six feet wide in the inside. Let the lights be three feet eight inches wide. THE END. PRINTED BY S. CAVE, ISLINGTON GREEN. 
26013	----	+------------------------------------------------------------------------+ |DISCLAIMER | | | |The articles published in the Annual Reports of the Northern Nut Growers| |Association are the findings and thoughts solely of the authors and are | |not to be construed as an endorsement by the Northern Nut Growers | |Association, its board of directors, or its members. No endorsement is | |intended for products mentioned, nor is criticism meant for products not| |mentioned. The laws and recommendations for pesticide application may | |have changed since the articles were written. It is always the pesticide| |applicator's responsibility, by law, to read and follow all current | |label directions for the specific pesticide being used. The discussion | |of specific nut tree cultivars and of specific techniques to grow nut | |trees that might have been successful in one area and at a particular | |time is not a guarantee that similar results will occur elsewhere. | +------------------------------------------------------------------------+ Northern Nut Growers Association Incorporated Affiliated with the American Horticultural Society 41st ANNUAL REPORT Annual Meeting at PLEASANT VALLEY, NEW YORK August 28, 29 and 30, 1950 TABLE OF CONTENTS _Cross-pollinating Chestnut Trees_ 3 Officers and Committees, 1950-51 6 State and Foreign Vice-Presidents 7 Attendance at the 1950 Meeting 8 Constitution 11 By-Laws 12 Proceedings of the Forty-first Annual Meeting. Starting on 15 Secretary's Report--J. C. McDaniel 15 Treasurer's Report--Sterling A. Smith 16 Report of Publications--Lewis E. Theiss 18 Discussion of Time and Place of Meeting 19 Report of Nominating Committee 20 President's Address--Mildred Jones Langdoc 22 Association Sends Greetings to Dr. Deming 24 Talk by the Oldest Member---George Hebden Corsan 25 The 1949 Persian Walnut Contest with Notes from Persian Walnut Growers--Spencer B. Chase 27 Plans for the 1950 Carpathian Walnut Contest--Spencer B. Chase 30 Carpathian Scions for Testing 32 The Persian Walnut in Pennsylvania and Ohio--L. Walter Sherman 34 Notes on Persian Walnuts in England--Sargent Wellman 40 Prospects for Persian Walnuts in the Vicinity of St. Paul, Minn.--Carl Weschcke 43 Discussion on Persian Walnut Climatic Adaptation 46 Grafted Black and Persian Walnuts in Michigan--Gilbert Becker 48 The Carpathian Walnut in Indiana--W. B. Ward 51 Notes on Nut Growing in New Hampshire--Matthew Lahti 55 Is the Farmer Missing Something?--John Davidson 56 How to Lose Money in Manufacturing Filbert Nut Butter--Carl Weschcke 60 Filberts, Walnuts and Chestnuts on the Niagara Peninsula--Elton E. Papple 63 Nut Varieties: A Round Table Discussion--H. L. Crane, Chairman 66 SECOND DAY'S SESSION Discussion on the Bunch Disease of Walnuts 89 The Japanese Beetle and Nut Growing--J. A. Adams 92 Insecticides for Nut Insects--E. H. Siegler 100 _Nut Insects and Injuries_ 103, 105, and 107 Observations of Effects of Low Temperatures in the Winter 1949-1950 on Walnuts and Filberts in Oregon and Washington--John H. Painter 109 Effects of the Winter of 1949-1950 on Nut Trees in British Columbia--J. U. Gellatly 113 Recipes--J. U. Gellatly 116 Description of Filazel Varieties--J. U. Gellatly 116 Experiments with Tree Hazels and Chestnuts--J. U. Gellatly 118 Our Experience with Hickory Nut Varieties--Gilbert L. Smith 120 How About the Butternut?--L. H. MacDaniels 125 Progress in Nut Culture at the Pennsylvania State College--W. S. Clarke, Jr. 132 Nut Tree Culture in Missouri--T. J. Talbert 134 Chestnut Breeding: Report for 1950--Arthur Harmount Graves 145 A Method for Maintaining Blight--Susceptible Chestnut Trees--Arthur Harmount Graves 149 Experiences with Chestnuts in Nursery and Orchard in Western New York--George Salzer 152 Chestnuts in Upper Dutchess County, New York--Alfred Szego 154 Demonstration of Method of Propagating Nut Trees in Greenhouse--Stephen Bernath 156 Experiences in Nut Growing Near Lake Erie--Ross Pier Wright 165 Discussion of Mulches 168 Nominating Committee Elected 170 Resolutions 171 Report of Auditing Committee 172 Election of 1950-51 Officers 173 Note on the Annual Tour, August 30, 1950 175 Obituaries 176 Letters 177 List of Members, etc. 184 Officers of the Association 1951 ~President~--William M. Rohrbacher, M.D., 811 E. College, Iowa City, Iowa ~Vice-President~--Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York ~Treasurer~--Sterling A. Smith, 630 W. South St., Vermilion, Ohio ~Secretary~--J. C. McDaniel, Dept. of Horticulture, U. of I., Urbana, Illinois ~Additional Directors~--Mildred Jones Langdoc (Ill.) and H. F. Stoke (Va.) ~Nominating Committee~--Dr. H. L. Crane, (Chairman) Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland; Spencer B. Chase, Norris, Tenn.; Raymond E. Silvis, Massillon, Ohio EXECUTIVE APPOINTMENTS, 1950-51 ~Program~--Dr. A. S. Colby, Chm. (Ill.); J. C. McDaniel (Ill.); Prof. Geo. L. Slate (N. Y.); Royal Oakes (Ill.); Prof. W. D. Armstrong (Princeton, Ky.); Dr. H. L. Crane (Md.); D. C. Snyder (Ia.); W. W. Magill (Ky.); Prof. F. L. O'Rourke (Mich.); Ira M. Kyhl (Ia.); H. Gleason Mattoon (Pa.) ~Publications~--Editorial Section: Dr. Lewis E. Theiss, Chm. (Pa.); Dr. W. C. Deming (Conn.); Dr. J. Russell Smith (Pa.); Prof. George L. Slate (N. Y.); H. F. Stoke (Va.); John Davidson (O.); Dr. L. H. MacDaniels (Dept. of Floriculture and Ornamental Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.) Printing Section--John Davidson, Chm. (O.); J. C. McDaniel (Ill.); Prof. George L. Slate (N. Y.); Carl F. Prell (Ind.) ~Place of Meeting~--J. F. Wilkinson, Chm. (Ind.); R. P. Allaman (Pa.); John A. Gerstenmaier (O.) ~Varieties and Contests~--Spencer B. Chase, Chm. (Tenn.); G. J. Korn, (Mich.); J. F. Wilkinson (Ind.); A. G. Hirschi (Okla.); L. Walter Sherman (Mich.); Sylvester Shessler (O.); Dr. L. H. MacDaniels (N. Y.); Fayette Etter (Pa.); Gilbert L. Smith (N. Y.) Standards and Judging Section of this Committee--Spencer B. Chase, Chm. (Tenn.); Dr. L. H. MacDaniels (N. Y.); Dr. J. Russell Smith (Pa.) ~Survey and Research~--H. F. Stoke, Chm. (Va.); and the State and Foreign Vice-presidents. ~Membership~--D. C. Snyder, Chm. (Ia.); Stephen Bernath (N. Y.); Sterling A. Smith (O.); Raymond E. Silvis (O.); Carroll D. Bush (Wash.) ~Exhibits~--J. F. Wilkinson, Chm. (Ind.); R. P. Allaman (Pa.); Fayette Etter (Pa.); A. G. Hirschi (Okla.); G. J. Korn (Mich.); H. F. Stoke (Va.); G. H. Corsan (Ont.); Edwin W. Lemke (Mich.); Carl Weschcke (Minn.) ~Necrology~ Mrs. Herbert Negus, Chm. (Md.); Mrs. C. A. Reed (D. C.); Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman (Pa.) ~Auditing~ Raymond E. Silvis (O.); Carl F. Walker (O.) ~Finance~ Sterling A. Smith, Chm. (O.); Carl Weschcke (Minn.) ~Legal Adviser~ Sargent Wellman (Mass.) ~Official Journal~ American Fruit Grower, Willoughby, Ohio State and Foreign Vice Presidents Alabama Edward L. Hiles, Loxley Alberta, Canada A. L. Young, Brooks Belgium R. Vanderwaeren, Bierbeekstraat, 310, Korbeek-Lo British Columbia, Canada J. U. Gellatly, Box 19, Westbank California Thos. R. Haig, M.D., 3021 Highland Ave., Carlsbad Connecticut A. M. Huntington, Stanerigg Farms, Bethel Delaware Lewis Wilkins, Route 1, Newark Denmark Count F. M. Knuth, Knuthenborg, Bandholm District of Columbia Edwin L. Ford, 3634 Austin St., S.E., Washington, 20 Florida C. A. Avant, 960 N.W. 10th Avenue, Miami Georgia William J. Wilson, North Anderson Ave., Fort Valley Hong Kong P. W. Wang, 6 Des Voeux Rd., Central Idaho Lynn Dryden, Peck Illinois Royal Oakes, Bluffs (Scott County) Indiana Ford Wallick, Route 4, Peru Iowa Ira M. Kyhl, Box 236, Sabula Kansas Dr. Clyde Gray, 1045 Central Avenue, Horton Louisiana Dr. Harald E. Hammar, 608 Court House, Shreveport Maryland Blaine McCollum, White Hall Massachusetts S. Lathrop Davenport, 24 Creeper Hill Rd., North Grafton Michigan Gilbert Becker, Climax Minnesota R. E. Hodgson, Southeastern Exp. Station, Waseca Mississippi James R. Meyer, Delta Branch Exper. Station, Stoneville Missouri Ralph Richterkessing, Route 1, Saint Charles Nebraska Harvey W. Hess, Box 209, Hebron New Hampshire Matthew Lahti, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro New Jersey Mrs. Alan R. Buckwalter, Route 1, Flemington New Mexico Rev. Titus Gehring, P. O. Box 177, Lumberton New York George Salzer, 169 Garford Road, Rochester 9 North Carolina Dr. R. T. Dunstan, Greensboro College, Greensboro North Dakota Homer L. Bradley, Long Lake Refuge, Moffit Ohio A. A. Bungart, Avon Oklahoma A. G. Hirschi, 414 N. Robinson, Oklahoma City Ontario, Canada George H. Corsan, Echo Valley, Toronto 18 Oregon Harry L. Pearcy, Route 2, Box 190, Salem Pennsylvania R. P. Allaman, Route 86, Harrisburg Prince Edward Island, Canada Robert Snazelle, Forest Nursery, Rt. 5, Charlottetown Rhode Island Philip Allen, 178 Dorance St., Providence South Carolina John T. Bregger, P. O. Box 1018, Clemson South Dakota Herman Richter, Madison Tennessee W. Jobe Robinson, Route 7, Jackson Texas Kaufman Florida, Box 154, Rotan Utah Harlan D. Petterson, 2076 Jefferson Avenue, Ogden Vermont Joseph N. Collins, Route 3, Putney Virginia H. R. Gibbs, Linden Washington Carroll D. Bush, Grapeview West Virginia Wilbert M. Frye, Pleasant Dale Wisconsin C. F. Ladwig, 2221 St. Laurence, Beloit Attendance at the 1950 Meeting Pleasant Valley, New York Dr. J. Alfred Adams, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Route 33, Poughkeepsie, New York Mr. R. P. Allaman, 8032 16th St., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Mrs. R. P. Allaman, 8032 16th St., Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Mr. R. D. Anthony, State College, Pennsylvania Mrs. Lillian V. Armstrong, 40 Earl Street, Toronto, Canada (Now Mrs. George Hebden Corsan) Mr. Richard Barcus, Massillon, Ohio Mr. Alfred L. Barlow, 13079 Flanders Ave., Detroit 5, Michigan Mrs. Irene M. Barlow, 13079 Flanders Avenue, Detroit 5, Michigan Miss Betty Barlow, 13079 Flanders Ave., Detroit 5, Michigan Mr. Leon Barlow, 13079 Flanders Ave., Detroit 5, Michigan Mrs. Alice M. Bernath, Pleasant Valley, New York Mr. Stephen Bernath, R. D. 3, Poughkeepsie, New York Mr. Charles B. Berst, Erie, Pennsylvania Mr. Harold Blake, Saddle River, New Jersey Mr. Harold Blake, Jr., Saddle River, New Jersey Mrs. Katherine Blake, Saddle River, New Jersey Mr. George Brand, R. D. 45, Lincoln, Nebr. (Now in California) Mr. William G. Brooks, Monroe, New York Mrs. Alan R. Buckwalter, Flemington, New Jersey Mr. Redmond M. Burr, 320 S. 5th Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan Mrs. R. M. Burr, 320 S. 5th Avenue, Ann Arbor, Michigan Mr. David H. Caldwell, 217 W. Hickory Street, Canastota, New York (New York State College of Forestry) Mr. Spencer B. Chase, Norris, Tennessee Mr. William S. Clarke, Jr., Box 167, State College, Pennsylvania Dr. Arthur S. Colby, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Mrs. Arthur S. Colby, Urbana, Illinois Mr. George Hebden Corsan, Echo Valley, Toronto 18, Ontario Mr. George E. Craig, Dundas, Ohio Dr. H. L. Crane, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland Mrs. H. L. Crane, Hyattsville, Maryland Mr. L. H. Dowell, 529 North Avenue, N.E., Massillon, Ohio Mr. Aaron L. Ebling, R. D. 2, Reading, Pennsylvania Mr. Ralph W. Emerson, Highland Park, Michigan Mr. Edwin L. Ford, Washington, D. C. Mr. Wilbert M. Frye, Pleasant Dale, West Virginia Mr. Charles Gerstenmaier, Massillon, Ohio Mr. John A. Gerstenmaier, Massillon, Ohio Mrs. J. A. Gerstenmaier, Massillon, Ohio Mrs. Bessie J. Gibbs, Linden, Virginia Mr. H. R. Gibbs, Linden, Virginia Mr. Ralph Gibson, Williamsport, Pennsylvania Mr. S. H. Graham, Bostwick Road, Ithaca, New York Mrs. S. H. Graham, Bostwick Road, Ithaca, New York Mr. Henry Gressel, R. D. 2, Mohawk, New York Mrs. Nora Gressel, R. D. 2, Mohawk, New York Mr. Earl C. Haines, Shanks, West Virginia Mr. Walter Hasbrouck, New Paltz, New York Mrs. Walter Hasbrouck, New Paltz, New York Mr. Andrew Kerr, Barnstable, Massachusetts Mr. Frank M. Kintzel, Cincinnati, Ohio Mr. Ira M. Kyhl, Sabula, Iowa Miss Bertha Landis, 425 Marion Avenue, Mansfield, Ohio Mr. James D. Lawrence, R. D. 3, Middletown, New York Mr. Frederick L. Lehr, Hamden, Connecticut Mr. James Lowerre, R. D. 3, Middletown, New York Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, Ithaca, New York Prof. J. C. McDaniel, 104 Horticultural Field Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois Mr. J. W. McKay, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland Mr. Elwood Miller, Hazleton, Pennsylvania Mrs. Elwood Miller, Hazleton, Pennsylvania Mr. Louis Miller, Cassopolis, Michigan Dr. James K. Mossman, Ramapo, New York Mrs. Herbert Negus, Mount Ranier, Maryland Mr. Royal Oakes, Bluffs, Illinois Mrs. Royal Oakes, Bluffs, Illinois Mr. F. L. O'Rourke, Hidden Lake Gardens, Michigan State College, Tipton, Michigan Mr. John H. Page, Dundas, Ohio Mr. Philip P. Parkinson, 567 Broadway, Newark, New Jersey Mrs. Philip P. Parkinson, 567 Broadway, Newark, New Jersey Mr. Christ Pataky, Jr., Mansfield, Ohio Mrs. Christ Pataky, Mansfield, Ohio Mr. Gordon Porter, Windsor, Ontario Mrs. Penelope Porter, Windsor, Ontario Mrs. C. A. Reed, 7309 Piney Branch Road, Washington 12, D. C. Mr. John Rick, 438 Penn Street, Reading, Pennsylvania Dr. William M. Rohrbacher, Iowa City, Iowa Mrs. Elizabeth I. Rohrbacher, Iowa City, Iowa Mr. George Salzer, Rochester, New York Mrs. George Salzer, Rochester, New York Mr. Rodman Salzer, Rochester, New York Mr. L. Walter Sherman, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Mrs. L. W. Sherman, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (The Shermans now in Michigan) Mr. Raymond E. Silvis and Family, Massillon, Ohio Mr. George L. Slate, Geneva, New York Mr. Douglas A. Smith, Vermilion, Ohio Mr. Gilbert L. Smith, Millerton, New York Mr. Jay L. Smith, Chester, New York Mr. Sterling A. Smith, 630 W. South Street, Vermilion, Ohio Mr. Harwood Steiger, Red Hook, New York Mrs. Sophie H. Steiger, Red Hook, New York Mr. H. F. Stoke, 1436 Watts Avenue, Roanoke, Virginia Mrs. H. F. Stoke, 1436 Watts Avenue, Roanoke, Virginia Mr. Alfred Szego, 77-15A 37th Avenue, Jackson Heights, New York, N. Y. Prof. T. J. Talbert, Columbia, Missouri Dr. Lewis E. Theiss, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania Dr. Frank A. Washick, Philadelphia 11, Pennsylvania Mr. Harry R. Weber, Cincinnati, Ohio Mr. Sargent H. Wellman, Topsfield, Massachusetts Mrs. Laura L. Whiteford, Pleasant Valley, Duchess County, New York Mr. J. F. Wilkinson, Rockport, Indiana, Mr. William J. Wilson, Fort Valley, Georgia Mrs. William J. Wilson, Fort Valley, Georgia Mrs. G. A. Zimmerman, Route 1, Linglestown, Pennsylvania Complete membership list is in back of this volume. CONSTITUTION of the NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION, INCORPORATED (As adopted September 13, 1948) NAME ~Article I.~ This Society shall be known as the Northern Nut Growers Association, Incorporated. It is strictly a non-profit organization. PURPOSES ~Article II.~ The purposes of this Association shall be to promote interest in the nut bearing plants; scientific research in their breeding and culture; standardization of varietal names; the dissemination of information concerning the above and such other purposes as may advance the culture of nut bearing plants, particularly in the North Temperate Zone. MEMBERS ~Article III.~ Membership in this Association shall be open to all persons interested in supporting the purposes of the Association. Classes of members are as follows: Annual members, Contributing members, Life members, Honorary members, and Perpetual members. Applications for membership in the Association shall be presented to the secretary or the treasurer in writing, accompanied by the required dues. OFFICERS ~Article IV.~ The elected officers of this Association shall consist of a President, Vice-president, a Secretary and a Treasurer or a combined Secretary-treasurer as the Association may designate. BOARD OF DIRECTORS ~Article V.~ The Board of Directors shall consist of six members of the Association who shall be the officers of the Association and the two preceding elected presidents. If the offices of Secretary and Treasurer are combined, the three past presidents shall serve on the Board of Directors. There shall be a State Vice-president for each state, dependency, or country represented in the membership of the Association, who shall be appointed by the President. AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION ~Article VI.~ This constitution may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting, notice of such amendment having been read at the previous annual meeting, or copy of the proposed amendments having been mailed by the Secretary, or by any member to each member thirty days before the date of the annual meeting. BY-LAWS (Revised and adopted at Norris, Tennessee, September 13, 1948) SECTION I.--MEMBERSHIP Classes of membership are defined as follows: ~Article 1. Annual members.~ Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who pay annual dues of Three Dollars ($3.00). ~Article 2. Contributing members.~ Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who pay annual dues of Ten Dollars ($10.00) or more. ~Article 3. Life members.~ Persons who are interested in the purposes of the Association who contribute Seventy Five Dollars ($75.00) to its support and who shall, after such contribution, pay no annual dues. ~Article 4. Honorary members.~ Those whom the Association has elected as honorary members in recognition of their achievements in the special fields of the Association and who shall pay no dues. ~Article 5. Perpetual members.~ "Perpetual" membership is eligible to any one who leaves at least five hundred dollars to the Association and such membership on payment of said sum to the Association shall entitle the name of the deceased to be forever enrolled in the list of members as "Perpetual" with the words "In Memoriam" added thereto. Funds received therefor shall be invested by the Treasurer in interest bearing securities legal for trust funds in the District of Columbia. Only the interest shall be expended by the Association. When such funds are in the treasury the Treasurer shall be bonded. Provided: that in the event the Association become defunct or dissolves, then, in that event, the Treasurer shall turn over any funds held in his hands for this purpose for such uses, individuals or companies that the donor may designate at the time he makes the bequest of the donation. SECTION II.--DUTIES OF OFFICERS ~Article 1.~ The President shall preside at all meetings of the Association and Board of Directors, and may call meetings of the Board of Directors when he believes it to be to the best interests of the Association. He shall appoint the State Vice-presidents; the standing committees, except the Nominating Committee, and such special committees as the Association may authorize. ~Article 2.~ Vice-president. In the absence of the President, the Vice-president shall perform the duties of the President. ~Article 3.~ Secretary. The Secretary shall be the active executive officer of the Association. He shall conduct the correspondence relating to the Association's interests, assist in obtaining memberships and otherwise actively forward the interests of the Association, and report to the Annual Meeting and from time to time to meetings of the Board of Directors as they may request. ~Article 4.~ Treasurer. The Treasurer shall receive and record memberships, receive and account for all moneys of the Association and shall pay all bills approved by the President or the Secretary. He shall give such security as the Board of Directors may require or may legally be required, shall invest life memberships or other funds as the Board of Directors may direct, subject to legal restrictions and in accordance with the law, and shall submit a verified account of receipts and disbursements to the Annual meeting and such current accounts as the Board of Directors may from time to time require. Before the final business session of the Annual Meeting of the Association, the accounts of the Treasurer shall be submitted for examination to the Auditing Committee appointed by the President at the opening session of the Annual Meeting. ~Article 5.~ The Board of Directors shall manage the affairs of the association between meetings. Four members, including at least two elected officers, shall be considered a quorum. SECTION III.--ELECTIONS ~Article 1.~ The Officers shall be elected at the Annual Meeting and hold office for one year beginning immediately following the close of the Annual Meeting. ~Article 2.~ The Nominating Committee shall present a slate of officers on the first day of the Annual Meeting and the election shall take place at the closing session. Nominations for any office may be presented from the floor at the time the slate is presented or immediately preceding the election. ~Article 3.~ For the purpose of nominating officers for the year 1949 and thereafter, a committee of five members shall be elected annually at the preceding Annual Meeting. ~Article 4.~ A quorum at a regularly called Annual Meeting shall be fifteen (15) members and must include at least two of the elected officers. ~Article 5.~ All classes of members whose dues are paid shall be eligible to vote and hold office. SECTION IV.--FINANCIAL MATTERS ~Article 1.~ The fiscal year of the Association shall extend from October 1st through the following September 30th. All annual memberships shall begin October 1st. ~Article 2.~ The names of all members whose dues have not been paid by January 1st shall be dropped from the rolls of the Society. Notices of non-payment of dues shall be mailed to delinquent members on or about December 1st. ~Article 3.~ The Annual Report shall be sent to only those members who have paid their dues for the current year. Members whose dues have not been paid by January 1st shall be considered delinquent. They will not be entitled to receive the publication or other benefits of the Association until dues are paid. SECTION V.--MEETINGS ~Article 1.~ The place and time of the Annual Meeting shall be selected by the membership in session or, in the event of no selection being made at this time, the Board of Directors shall choose the place and time for the holding of the annual convention. Such other meetings as may seem desirable may be called by the President and Board of Directors. SECTION VI.--PUBLICATIONS ~Article 1.~ The Association shall publish a report each fiscal year and such other publications as may be authorized by the Association. ~Article 2.~ The publishing of the report shall be the responsibility of the Committee on Publications. SECTION VII.--AWARDS ~Article 1.~ The Association may provide suitable awards for outstanding contributions to the cultivation of nut bearing plants and suitable recognition for meritorious exhibits as may be appropriate. SECTION VIII.--STANDING COMMITTEES As soon as practical after the Annual Meeting of the Association, the President shall appoint the following standing committees: 1. Membership 2. Auditing 3. Publications 4. Survey 5. Program 6. Research 7. Exhibit 8. Varieties and Contests SECTION IX.--REGIONAL GROUPS AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES. ~Article 1.~ The Association shall encourage the formation of regional groups of its members, who may elect their own officers and organize their own local field days and other programs. They may publish their proceedings and selected papers in the yearbooks of the parent society subject to review of the Association's Committee on Publications. ~Article 2.~ Any independent regional association of nut growers may affiliate with the Northern Nut Growers Association provided one-fourth of its members are also members of the Northern Nut Growers Association. Such affiliated societies shall pay an annual affiliation fee of $3.00 to the Northern Nut Growers Association. Papers presented at the meetings of the regional society may be published in the proceedings of the parent society subject to review of the Association's Committee on Publications. SECTION X--AMENDMENTS TO BY-LAWS ~Article 1.~ These by-laws may be amended at any Annual Meeting by a two-thirds vote of the members present provided such amendments shall have been submitted to the membership in writing at least thirty-days prior to that meeting. REPORT OF THE PROCEEDINGS at the Forty-First Annual Meeting of the Northern Nut Growers Association, Inc. Held at PLEASANT VALLEY, DUTCHESS COUNTY, NEW YORK on AUGUST 28, 29 and 30, 1950 TOGETHER WITH OTHER PAPERS ON NUT CULTURE MONDAY MORNING SESSION The meeting was called to order by the Vice-President, Dr. L. H. MacDaniels, in the absence of the President. DR. MacDANIELS: I have here the official gavel of The Northern Nut Growers Association, which was sent to me by Mildred Jones Langdoc, who unfortunately is not able to come to this meeting. She, of course, is our president. She expected to come until fairly recently but on her doctor's orders changed her plans and wrote to me a very short time ago asking me if I would preside at this meeting. Does anyone present know the history of this gavel? MR. GEORGE SLATE: It was presented to the Association by Mr. Littlepage, and was made from Indiana pecan wood. DR. MacDANIELS: But anyway here it is, and we declare the Association in session. This morning the meeting is quite brief. We will start the meeting with the report from the Secretary, Mr. McDaniel. Secretary's Report J. C. McDaniel MR. J. C. McDANIEL: My report before the meeting will be very brief. It may be extended a little later for the publication. The last count for this Association's membership made last week shows the Association has 575 paid members, plus 20 subscribers and one foreign exchange membership, totalling 596. There have been a few more members come in since then, so I might say we have in round figures about 600 members to date in 1950, a few less than last year. I probably owe the members an explanation on the delay in the printing of the Fortieth Annual Report. That was finally taken up by the printing company and should be printed by now. It was ready to put on the press--in fact, some of it was on the press when I left Nashville two weeks ago, and we have every reason to believe that it will be ready for mailing in about another week. The Treasurer said he heard me say that six months ago. That's six months nearer to being the truth now. I requested that the printer send up two copies, whether they are bound or not, so they may be in to show you later during the meeting. I believe that's about all I will say at this time, Mr. President. DR. MacDANIELS: This matter of the report not being here I know is the cause of considerable dissatisfaction, and it arises out of our attempt to get the report printed cheaply. We have had the same trouble before. The Corse Press did this at one time and did it cheaply, because they would work it in with the other business. The last time they did it, and other business was so heavy that it was delayed. The printers who do it at Nashville also did the Legislative printing and other things cut in, so that it was not carried on. Now, I think that we have some ideas in mind for printers for the next issue, so that if we get the papers in on time, the report will be coming out fairly promptly. Is the Treasurer ready with his report? Mr. Sterling Smith. Treasurer's Report Sept. 1, 1949 to Aug. 25, 1950 RECEIPTS: Annual Membership Dues $1,689.55 (Contributing Members: Arp Nursery Co. and Mr. Hjalmar W. Johnson $10.00 each) Life Membership (Herschel L. Boll) 75.00 Contributions Mr. A. M. Huntington 50.00 Mr. Geo. L. Slate 2.00 Sale of Reports 186.00 Interest on U. S. Bonds 31.25 Worcester County (Mass.) Hort. Society 25.00 Advertisement 5.00 Miscellaneous 18.00 ------- Total Income $2,081.80 DISBURSEMENTS: U. S. Bond "G" $ 500.00 American Fruit Grower Subscriptions 224.00 Supplies, Stationery, etc. for Secretary 96.75 Secretary's 50c per Member 275.00 Secretary's Expense 88.00 Treasurer's Expense 66.52 Reporting Beltsville Meeting 60.00 Mr. Reed's Memorial 10.00 Bank Service Charge 3.33 Miscellaneous 21.00 ------- Total Disbursements $1,344.60 Cash on deposit at Erie County United Bank $2,292.97 Petty Cash on Hand 12.70 Disbursements 1,344.60 --------- Total $3,650.27 On Hand Sept. 1, 1949 $1,568.47 Receipts Sept. 1. 1949, to Aug. 25, 1950 2,081.80 --------- Total $3,650.27 U. S. Bonds in Safety Deposit Box $3,000.00 DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Smith. I think it is usual to accept the report and then refer it, I believe, to an auditing committee. A MEMBER: I so move. DR. MacDANIELS: It is moved that the report be accepted and turned over to the auditing committee. MR. SZEGO: Second. DR. MacDANIELS: Seconded. Any remarks? (No response.) (A vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) DR. MacDANIELS: I'd like to appoint Mr. Royal Oakes and Mr. Weber as Auditing Committee, and I think they report at the final business session, which comes at the banquet. I will say that matter of $25.00 I didn't know anything about, except now I recall the circumstances. At the convention I took over what was left of the exhibits--nobody wanted them--and took them back to Ithaca, thinking I would send them to the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. I didn't have time to do that, but I did send them to Worcester (Mass.) Horticulture Society, and apparently I was out of the country and they sent the award to the Treasurer, and that accounts for the $25.00. It's the first I have heard of it, but anyway, we have it. The treasurer's report indicates we have some little surplus in the treasury, but after our report is paid for, that will be reduced to the amount of about $800.00. That is the net surplus at the present time, and if we face the facts of the matter, it means that we are not living within our income, that is, with printing costs going up. The reports used to cost $600.00, instead of $1400.00, and what not. The reason we have kept going has been the use of life memberships and the extra contribution of Mr. Archer Huntington. The matter of deficit financing seems to be good for the Government, but I don't think it is any good for the society. I think, however, we can adjust our affairs so as to get along. It is proposed we make a change in the by-laws which will set up another type of membership. That is, at the present time we have an annual membership of $3.00 and a contributing membership of $10.00 and life membership for $75.00. Taking the pattern from some other societies, it at least was discussed that we put up a membership of $5.00, which was a sustaining membership, and anybody who felt that he could do that easily could do so, not receiving any additional benefits, except, perhaps, a star in front of his name,--just considering it a contribution to the society. What we had in mind is that we know that there are some of the membership that find the $3.00 is plenty high enough. There are others to whom probably it means another dinner, or something of that kind, and it doesn't make so much difference. And what we propose to do is to make it easy for those who can to give that additional support. That amendment will be proposed at the last business meeting in some form, and it will have to go over until the next meeting, according to our constitution, which provides for the amendment of the by-laws. Mr. Secretary, do we have a report of the editor? MR. J. C. McDANIEL: Yes, I have that here, a short report from Dr. Lewis E. Theiss, who will be at the meeting in the morning. Report of Publications and Publicity DR. LEWIS E. THEISS, Chairman The annual Report, which should be issued very soon, will speak for itself. Delay more than usual was occasioned by an effort to make the publication fully complete. To that end, printing was held up so that, for one thing, we could include Dr. J. Russell Smith's remarkable summary or survey of nut experimentation in the U. S. and Canada. We cannot overemphasize the great services of our secretary, Mr. McDaniel, in the preparation of this work. He collected the material, forwarded it to me for editing, did much editing himself, secured the printing contract, and in general oversaw the production of the volume. To edit the manuscripts for a book of this size is in itself quite a chore. Proof reading is a great burden. In the preparation of this Report, we have had the hearty cooperation and help of Mrs. Herbert Negus (Md.); Professor George Slate (New York); Dr. A. S. Colby (Ill.); Mr. Spencer Chase (Tenn.); and Mr. Alfred Barlow (Mich.). We are indebted to all of these members for their fine support. We hope that this present issue will be a worthy successor to the many fine ones that have preceded it. LEWIS E. THEISS, Chairman Publications Committee Read at meeting 8/28/50. MR. J. C. McDANIEL: I might say, by the way, it will be 8 pages larger than last year's, totalling 232 pages. DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Secretary. The question is going to arise as to the size of our report. That is, the reports up to the last two have been something less than 200 pages, I believe. This one is running over considerably, and the question comes up as to whether or not we should economize by reducing the size of the report. It was the general opinion of the Directors in discussing the matter that perhaps somewhat closer editing should be done, but we realize that for many members of the Association the report is the one tangible thing that they get out of the whole picture and that the reports should be kept, certainly, at a good length and high grade. I think those are all of the officers' reports. Are there reports of the committees? Program Committee, Mr. Slate, do you have a brief report? MR. GEORGE L. SLATE: The report of the Program Committee has been published, and the programs are on this table in the rear of the room. DR. MacDANIELS: Brief and to the point. In other words, Mr. Slate has written around to the persons who are going to be on the program, sort of cranking them up. This society is in a situation where its members don't just flock to the call of requests for papers, and they have to be solicited. Well, Mr. Slate has done a very good job of soliciting papers, and the report speaks for itself in the program which has been prepared. Reports of any special committees? Do we have a committee on contests?--of the Carpathian walnut contest? MR. McDANIEL: I believe that will be taken up in the afternoon program. DR. MacDANIELS: The matter of old business. Do we have any old business, Mr. Secretary? MR. McDANIEL: I don't know of any that's carried over now. Discussion on Time and Place of Meeting DR. MacDANIELS: Coming to new business. There is always the time and the place of the next convention. I think that that is usually in the hands of a committee, but in the open meeting the matter is discussed, and we are open for any suggestions. I have heard that Dr. Colby of Illinois is going to have a suggestion that we come to Illinois. MR. McDANIEL: That's my understanding, and he should be here a little later. DR. MacDANIELS: Anybody else have any suggestions? I think, with regard to our time and place of meeting, we have in mind alternating between the East, and the Middle West. The center of membership appears to be about Central Ohio, is that right? And I don't think we have gone any farther west than Center Point, Iowa. MR. WEBER: That was back in 1930. DR. MacDANIELS: That probably is about as far West as we are going to get, unless we get a lot of members out farther. Now, suggestions that have been made have been that next year the meeting would be in Illinois--at the University of Illinois--and the year following somewhere in the East, possibly Pennsylvania, although we haven't been invited to Pennsylvania. I don't know whether we can get one or not. And the next year west again, possibly Michigan, and beyond that we haven't thought. But I think there is a real advantage in having time blocked out in advance for at least two years so that people can make their plans as to where they will go. That is, I think often in planning vacations and what not, it goes that far ahead. MR. JAY SMITH: Mr. Chairman, the last week in August seems to be better than the first week in September, from the point of view of the school openings in early September. MR. WELLMAN: I think we should wait a little while and see what kind of attendance we get at this meeting this time of the year. MR. RICK: If we could arrange it, we'd like to appeal to the membership to have a meeting in Lancaster County. I think Mr. Hostetter has quite a number of things that could be shown and perhaps some others in the neighborhood that might make it quite interesting. DR. MacDANIELS: We can refer that to the committee. MR. ALLAMAN: Mr. President, I think that is a very fine suggestion. One of our nut growers in Pennsylvania lives in Lancaster County, and he has told me he has 29,000 nut trees, including filberts, and is still planting. DR. MacDANIELS: That sounds almost like the Government debt, only not quite. We will let that matter go until the committee reports when Dr. Colby arrives. Is there any other business which we ought to transact at this time? If not, I think the next item is the president's address, which has just arrived. Mrs. Bernath just brought it in. It just came in under the wire, I guess. DR. CRANE: Mr. Stoke has just come in. DR. MacDANIELS: We will have the report of the nominating committee, Mr. Stoke. Report of Nominating Committee MR. STOKE: We bore in mind when we were making nominations for the presidency that we will probably hold our next meeting in the West, so we have nominated Dr. William Rohrbacher of Iowa for president, and Dr. MacDaniels, our perennial vice-president be nominated again and hope that we get him across next year as president. He has served a pretty good apprenticeship. Our secretary, J. C. McDaniel, has been nominated for re-election and Sterling Smith as treasurer. The last two ex-presidents will be on the Board of Directors. Those, with the other officers named, constitute our entire Board of Directors. DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Stoke. You have heard the report of the nominating committee. DR. CRANE: Move that they be accepted. MR. ALLAMAN: Second. DR. MacDANIELS: Are there remarks? (No response.) If not, we will take a vote. (Whereupon, a vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) DR. MacDANIELS: The election comes at the time of the banquet, and nominations may be made from the floor at the time of election. Dr. Colby, I believe, came in. Do you want to say something about Illinois as a meeting place for next year. Dr. Colby of the University of Illinois. DR. COLBY: I don't know whether there was any malice aforethought in that committee nomination! Before I left Urbana a few weeks ago, Dean H. P. Rusk of our College of Agriculture asked me to invite you people to come to Urbana, Illinois for your meeting next year. So that, Mr. President, is an official invitation. We hope that you can all come. I see some of our Illinois friends here, and we are all working together to provide an interesting meeting at that time. Now, as to the date, that will have to be settled a little later. DR. MacDANIELS: Thanks very much, Dr. Colby. That makes it official. MR. WEBER: Mr. President, I move we accept the invitation. MR. JAY SMITH: I second. DR. MacDANIELS: Moved and seconded we go to Illinois, the time to be arranged by the committee. Any remarks? (No response.) (Whereupon, a vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) DR. MacDANIELS: That fixes that, and the time will depend somewhat on the availability of dormitories. If the meeting is held the last week in August, the dormitories would be available, would they not? Mr. Weber: Get away from the Labor Day problem, too. DR. MacDANIELS: Any other business? Has anyone else come in in the meantime who has a report? If not, we will go ahead with the next item, which is the President's Address, and I will ask Mr. Weber of Cincinnati to read this. I am much pleased to do this because of Mr. Weber's friendship for the president. President's Address MILDRED JONES LANGDOC, Erie, Illinois I have been a member of this organization for a good many years, and I have always had a deep interest in its success. Our members are in a position to encourage the planting of good varieties of nut trees which may some day be appreciated even more for food and other uses as our population increases than we as a nation appreciate them today. Tree crops are a means of conserving our soils, both from the point of erosion and moisture holding content. I like the opportunity we have to be far-sighted in encouraging the planting of nut trees which will play a large part in the future well-being of our country. Our N.N.G.A., as it is today, has been built on the unselfish efforts of a number of far-sighted men who had an ideal and a will to see that ideal accomplished. I think I was fortunate to know a number of the early founders of the organization either through their visits to my home where my father and they would talk their favorite subject of nut varieties known, just found, or the ideal variety they hoped they'd locate--perhaps in the next nut contest. In lighter mood--usually around the dinner table--they would sometimes reminisce about this joke or that which some member played on another. Altogether our early founders and officers were really great men, bringing experiences from various walks of life. Today we have a still wider variety of occupations listed among our membership, and an even greater opportunity to make acquaintances and friends. I hope every member will make full use of his leisure time here at this convention to make new acquaintances and to renew old ones. Knowing the members as I do, I know you will treasure these acquaintances during your entire lifetime. The Association can serve its members in a number of ways, but I would place special emphasis on our reports carrying from year to year a progressive report on varieties. In other words, I think our survey reports are one important part of our means of learning about the performance of varieties in various sections of the country where they are being tried. I would urge every member to make a definite effort to co-operate with the survey committee in sending the information they require, because these men making the survey are busy men, too, just like the rest of us, and they have to make a real effort to find time to tabulate the information they receive, and they want to receive more, so they are willing to do their part to tabulate the information which will help us as an organization to be more definite about encouraging or discouraging the planting of a certain variety. There is a question in my mind whether the very best nut so far as cracking quality is concerned will be the best variety for the average home planter. I think we should consider whether the variety will bear good crops consistently, and if it doesn't bear well--why? Perhaps it is a matter of soil condition which can be corrected, a matter of a variety being planted in a climate where it cannot bear well, and perhaps elevation above sea level is another factor. We may even find with the hickories and walnuts that certain varieties will perform better with certain other varieties as pollinators. When we think of these things there is much to be done in the evaluation of varieties, although there has been a start in the right direction. It seems to me that nut contests at regular intervals help to stimulate interest in better varieties of nuts and we do gain a certain amount of free advertising through newspapers and magazines. The results of the contest should state, in my opinion, the comparison of the varieties selected as the best of the contest with the ratings of varieties already named and now in propagation. This would mean using the same score card always. Remembering that the very best rated cracking nut is not always the best bearing variety, it would help to accompany this variety report with data as to the location of the tree--soil it is growing in--soil type--good drainage or a damp location--rainfall during the year--days between frost--whether the tree has had good care or not--whether it's a heavy bearer--and any other information which may have a bearing upon the health and vigor of the tree. If notes can be taken on the blooming and bearing habit of other trees of the same species close by which may influence this particular variety through cross-pollination, then we would have a good record immediately on each variety. I realize in stating the above that we must rely on the human mind which colors and evaluates everything our senses perceive, so it's up to us as individuals to try constantly to train ourselves to evaluate a variety as it really is. I feel that much of the success of our organization in the gathering of nut tree varieties has been due to an honest effort towards reporting only facts and we will do well to enlist the aid of our college trained scientific minds to help us individuals in asking ourselves the necessary questions about our nut tree varieties. According to the phrase "Life begins at 40," we are now just beginning to live as an organization. Let us then examine every means to set our course towards the definite goal of evaluating the worth of all the named varieties of northern grown nut trees, let us report our findings without prejudice, let us continue to make our annual reports so necessary as a clearing house for the year's progress in nut culture, so valuable, that anyone interested in nut culture can't afford not belonging to and being an active part of our group. I would especially like to see other active state groups as the Ohio group all bringing together their yearly information in one book form--our Annual Report. The Ohio group deserves special recognition on the wisdom of their officers to work towards a unified northern nut growers group, each helping the other where they can. I want to express my appreciation to our Secretary, Mr. McDaniel, for his work this year which can be doubly appreciated by those who know the excellent job he has performed in spite of many adversities. I hope he will continue as Secretary. Our Treasurer, Mr. Smith, has been right on the job, and we can all be of special help to him by sending or giving to him here and now our dues for the coming year. We would not waste any time by paying our dues promptly, but we would save a tremendous amount of time for him. We can in this way make his association and work for us most pleasant and in that way show him how much we appreciate his help. I express the hope that Mr. Smith will be our Treasurer for a long time. I want to thank the Board of Directors and all of the committees who have labored so faithfully during the year. Our convention program for this year is evidence that our Program Committee has spent much time in thought, correspondence and work and we all appreciate and give them our hearty thanks. Since I cannot be with you this year, Dr. MacDaniels has consented to occupy the Chair and the 41st annual meeting will now go forward under his able direction. I am with you in thought. Sincerely, MILDRED JONES LANGDOC * * * * * MR. WEBER: By the way, since I am on the floor and I am on my feet, I will pass this attendance record. Will you all please sign your names and addresses. It doesn't bind you to anything. MR. CORSAN: You might tell the audience--there are some strangers here--who the president is whose address you just read. MR. WEBER: I read her name, the former Mildred Jones, whose father was the late J. F. Jones who was one of the pioneers in the propagating of nut trees, and was formerly living in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, three miles south of Lancaster on U. S. 222. His daughter continued his work after his death, has since married and is now living out at Erie, Illinois, which is west of Chicago near the Mississippi River. Her name now is Langdoc. DR. MacDANIELS: Our president brought out two points in which I most heartily concur. One is our search for new varieties and the evaluation of varieties, and the other, the more extensive rating of the varieties we already have. There will be this round-table this evening on evaluation of varieties, of which Dr. Crane will be the chairman. Association Sends Greetings to Dr. Deming DR. McKAY: I'd like to bring up this matter--I'd like to make this in the form of a motion, that in view of the long and active service of Dr. W. C. Deming to this organization, I think it would be appropriate for this organization to send him greetings. I would like to make that in the form of a motion. MR. BERNATH: I second it. DR. MacDANIELS: Moved and seconded to send Dr. Deming greetings from the meeting. We had hoped that he would be here. He may come yet, unless somebody knows definitely to the contrary. George Slate saw him a while ago and said he hopes to get here.[1] [1] Dr. Deming was present at the lunch stop on the Wassaic State School grounds during the third day's tour.--Ed. MR. WEBER: I have just been informed that Dr. Deming will be 89 years old on September first. DR. MacDANIELS: That's something. How old is Mr. Corsan? MR. WEBER: The question arises: How old is Mr. Corsan? The gentleman is here, and he will speak for himself. Talk by the Oldest Member MR. CORSAN: I don't know how old I am. I know I was born near Rockport, New York, and my father brought me across the river to Hamilton, Ontario, when I was seven, and according to my aunts and uncles and people who told me, they say I was born June 11, 1857. So here I am kicking around, but I am not blowing how long I will live. I don't know, but I will try my best. I have joined the Vegetarian Society many years ago, and I am still hanging onto that idea, and I hope that we have a vegetarian banquet some of these times, because nearly all vegetarian associations are very deeply interested in the Northern Nut Growers Association. That's what they all told me at the convention at Lake Geneva last August a year ago. And I just came back from visiting Rodale. I thought I'd see Rodale. He looks a good deal like this gentleman here (indicating Mr. Bernath), our friend here, about the size and appearance of him. But he is of the greatest ancestry in the world. He is Jewish, and he doesn't know exactly how to eat, because he has jowls and dewlaps and he is too fat, but he is a very fine man; beautiful, clear, honest eyes, he has, and I hope to have him consider the planting of nut trees on his place. He has a disgraceful looking place in comparison to mine. This year my place is just loaded down with nuts, except filberts. Last year I had so many filberts that I have half a ton left over yet. And I want to see people beautify the country. I started off one day with a thought that came to my head. I heard that there were a half a million widows and orphans buried in the Hudson Hill Cemetery. And I thought: Why, those dead people can be working; they can be doing something. Let them feed the roots of the Japanese heartnut. And as a try, I sent them 1100 seeds just as a start. And the Japanese heartnut, a stranger to this country, isn't anywhere near any other nut, and it grows true to form, and a lot of the trees are much hardier up on Lake Ontario. It does not grow well on the north of the lake, but south of the lake it grows enormous crops every year, and the nuts come out whole. But there is a better shaped nut without that kind of groove in the center, and it's the father or the mother--father, probably--of the finest heartnuts in the world, and there is nothing that beats a heartnut for eating. Every time I sell heartnuts to eat I have ruined myself, because they won't eat any other nut. So that shows just exactly what the general public thinks of it. Even Italians. There I have a half a ton of filberts. I bring the heartnuts down to Florida, the Fairchild and my hybrid trees and butternuts and Japanese heartnuts, and I have a package of almonds and another package of brazil nuts, and I let them taste those. They are woody in comparison to our heartnuts and hybrids. They are not anything, they are just like so much wood in comparison. Now, I have received from John W. Fowler, Secretary to Albert Williams of the Department of Corrections on 100 Center Street. New York, a beautiful letter accepting those nuts, and I had my housekeeper--I was down in Florida--send them to them early in February, and they are planted. And the breezes going up and down the Hudson are going to wave the two-foot-long leaves of the most beautiful deciduous trees in the world, the Japanese heartnut, healthiest, hardiest nut in the world, and these dead people will be feeding them. Just think! five thousand children without a name or number. Now, they have erected a monument just recently, but the real monuments are the living trees. I am going to send them a lot more, because I want to see them working. I might come back and eat some of these nuts myself. * * * * * DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Corsan. (Applause.) DR. MacDANIELS: Mr. Corsan is certainly well on his way to being a hundred, and I think if eating nuts and other vegetables will do that, more of us ought to pay attention. I think we voted on that motion. I think it was unanimous that we send this greeting to Dr. Deming in his eighty-ninth year. (The following telegram was sent to Dr. Deming: "AT THIS FORTY-FIRST ANNUAL MEETING OF THE NORTHERN NUT GROWERS ASSOCIATION IN CONVENTION ASSEMBLED AT PLEASANT VALLEY, NEW YORK, THE MEMBERS SEND YOU THEIR LOVE AND ALSO EXTEND THEIR BEST WISHES FOR YOUR CONTINUANCE OF GOOD HEALTH.") Any other business? MR. McDANIEL: There is one elective committee that probably will need to be acted on, which is always done at the meeting before, and that's the nominations committee for next year. That's elective. DR. MacDANIELS: The Resolutions Committee. Mr. Allaman, will you take chairmanship for that? And Mr. Porter of Windsor, will you help Mr. Allaman on the Resolutions Committee? MR. PORTER: Do I act now, in this meeting? DR. MacDANIELS: Yes, during the time you are here work out with Mr. Allaman the resolutions that pertain to this particular meeting. Anything else? If not, this first session is adjourned. Meet again promptly this afternoon at one o'clock, (Whereupon, at 10:40 o'clock, a.m., the meeting was recessed, to reconvene at 1:00 o'clock, p.m. of the same day.) MONDAY AFTERNOON SESSION DR. MacDANIELS: I will call the meeting to order, the afternoon session. This afternoon we have the session given over mostly to the Carpathian walnut. The first paper, by Spencer Chase of Norris, Tennessee. MR. CHASE: First, with the president's permission, I thought perhaps a short report of the 1949 contest would be in order. As you probably recall, we conducted a Persian walnut contest last year for Northern Nut Growers members only. In this contest we had 31 entries submitted. The 1949 Persian Walnut Contest with Notes from Persian Walnut Growers SPENCER B. CHASE, Contest Chairman Tennessee Valley Authority Norris, Tennessee The Persian Walnut Contest of 1949 attracted 31 entries from Association members. The following sent nut samples: E. W. Lemke (Michigan) (4), Ray McKinster (Ohio) (1), S. Shessler (Ohio) (2), F. S. Hill (N. Y.) (3), R. C. Lorenz (Ohio) (1), Benton and Smith Nut Tree Nursery (N. Y.) (16), A. S. Colby (Illinois) (2), E. M. Shelton (Ohio) (1), and N. W. Fateley (Indiana) (1). The Contest Committee appreciates their interest in this informal contest. It was not practical for all of the judges to convene at one place to evaluate the samples. Therefore, the following system was used: One nut from each sample was sent to H. F. Stoke (Va.), Gilbert Becker (Michigan), G. J. Korn (Michigan), and J. C. McDaniel. These four judges were asked to select the best five of the 31 entries. The Chairman then made the final selections based on their findings. Therefore, the samples were actually subjected to five evaluations. The results indicate that this method was very satisfactory. First place went to the sample submitted by Ray McKinster, Columbus, Ohio., It is significant that four of the five judges selected this sample as the best entry. Mr. McKinster reports that his tree is a Carpathian obtained as seed from the Wisconsin Horticultural Society in 1939. The 11 year old tree has a circumference of 26 inches at the base and has withstood 17 degrees below zero without injury. It began bearing in 1944 and yielded approximately one-half bushel in 1949. The yield is an estimate since squirrels play havoc with the crop. The nuts weighed 12.9 grams with 6.8 grams of kernel. Four judges considered this an outstanding Carpathian. Second place went to a sample submitted by Sylvester Shessler, Genoa, Ohio. Three judges selected this sample for second place, one placed it first and the other selected it for third place. Again it was significant that the judges were in close agreement. The parent tree is growing in Clay Center, Ohio, and is estimated to be 50 years old. It began bearing in 1920. It yielded an estimated two bushels in 1947, three pecks in 1948, and one bushel in 1949. It has withstood 15 degrees below zero without damage. The source of this seedling is unknown. The nut weighed 8.8. grams with 5.2 grams of kernel. The nut is round with a smooth shell and has a very attractive kernel. This selection has been named ~Hansen~. Third place, after some disagreement, also went to Mr. Shessler for his entry now named ~Jacobs~. This sample received one vote for second place and one for third place. Two judges agreed on another sample for third place but in a comparative test involving more nuts the Jacobs sample was selected. The nut weighed 12.8 grams with 6.0 grams of kernel. The parent Jacobs tree is located in Elmore, Ohio, and is estimated to be 70 years old. Bearing since 1915, it yielded an estimated 300 pounds in 1947, 100 pounds in 1948, and 200 pounds in 1949. The tree has withstood 15 degrees below zero. The seed which produced this tree came from Germany. Fourth and fifth places were awarded to samples S-66 and S-XD submitted by Benton and Smith Nut Tree Nurseries, Millerton, N. Y. Three judges selected these two entries for fourth and fifth places while the other two judges selected other entries. S-66 weighed 13.3 grams with 6.2 grams of kernel. S-XD weighed 12.6 grams with 7.1 grams of kernel. Both selections were raised from Carpathian walnuts obtained from the Wisconsin Horticultural Society in 1935. The nuts entered in the contest came from 9-year old grafted trees located at the Wassaic State School, Wassaic, N. Y. They began bearing a few nuts at six years of age. Both have withstood 34 degrees below zero. In addition to the five prize winners other entries are worthy of mention. Four additional Benton, and Smith selections (S-61, S-25, S-9, S-32), selection Illinois 10 from Dr. Colby, and a sample from Mr. Lorenz were all considered in the first five by at least one judge. The Carpathian sample from N. W. Fateley was outstanding for size of nut and kernel. Unfortunately, the kernels were shriveled. Since this sample arrived late all of the judges did not have an opportunity to evaluate it. Mr. Lemke also entered a very large Persian walnut. It was considered for third place by two judges but was discarded in the final judging because of shriveled kernels. Both of these large selections should be tested further. It must be borne in mind that in this, as in all similar contests, only nut characteristics of one year's crop could be evaluated. Whether these selections are adapted to our varying conditions will have to be determined. In other words, this contest should be considered as a preliminary exploration and not as a final selection of suitable varieties. Following is a summary table containing data on the prize winners: Results of Persian Walnut Contest -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Nut Kernel Kernel Rank Entry Name and Address Weight Weight Per- centage -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 No. 1 Ray McKinster, 1632 S. 4th St., Columbus 7, Ohio 12.9 6.8 52.7 2 Hansen S. M. Shessler, RFD, Genoa, Ohio 8.8 5.2 59.6 3 Jacobs S. M. Shessler, RFD, Genoa, Ohio 12.8 6.0 46.8 4 S-66 Benton & Smith Nut Tree Nursery, Rt. 2, Millerton, New York 5 S-XD Benton & Smith Nut Tree Nursery, Rt. 2, Millerton, New York 15.6 7.1 45.8 -------------------------------------------------------------------------- To obtain information on the culture of hardy Persian walnut a questionnaire was sent to members known to have experience with ~Juglans regia~. The following information, based on the reports of thirteen growers, should prove valuable to those interested in testing Persian walnut. The members contacted are testing 35 named varieties in addition to many seedlings. Of the varieties, Broadview appears to be represented in more plantings than any other variety. Gilbert Becker (Michigan) has most of the named Crath selections in addition to seedlings. H. F. Stoke (Virginia) has a large assortment of Crath and other Persian varieties. Fayette Etter (Pennsylvania) reports that he has approximately 150 Persian walnut trees while Royal Oakes (Illinois), Sylvester Shessler, and Gilbert Becker each report 60 trees. Many others have from 25 to 40 grafts or trees while Ray McKinster has only one seedling Carpathian which took top honors in the contest. Most of these members have been testing Persian varieties for more than 13 years. Mr. Stoke has some trees 20 years old. ~Yields~--Most trees reported on began bearing at five to eight years. Topworked trees start bearing several years sooner. It is generally agreed that Persian varieties bear annually. Many trees are bearing only small nut crops. Lack of pollination is given as a reason for these low yields. In addition, winter injury and spring frosts can seriously reduce nut crops. Apparently, none of the trees have borne more than a bushel of nuts at 12 years of age. Accurate records of nut crops were generally lacking. Since this is a very important factor in the selection of varieties, growers should keep accurate yield records for each variety. Where pests are a factor in reducing final yield, a crop estimate should be made early in the season. ~Varieties~--Mr. Stoke considers Bedford, Broadview and Lancaster best under his conditions. Mr. Becker's choice is McDermid but he thinks Crath No. 1 a potential commercial variety. Mr. Oakes likes Crath No. 1 and Ill. No. 3. Mr. Etter lists Burtner and Alleman as his best varieties. Mr. Fateley especially favors one tree because of nut and bearing qualities. Other growers have not as yet evaluated their varieties. ~Hardiness~--Only several growers in the colder regions felt that lack of winter hardiness was a serious limiting factor with their varieties. Those with winter temperatures ranging from 10 to 23 degrees below zero report little damage. Spring frosts are serious to many, especially in the southern states. ~Pests~--Several insects causing damage to Persian walnut were reported. The butternut curculio was most frequently mentioned. Others included leaf hoppers, tent caterpillars, and husk maggots. Few effective control measures have been developed. Squirrels are an ever present threat to nut crops in some localities, as are blackbirds. ~Cultural Practices~--Most growers apply varying amounts of fertilizer or manure to their trees in some form or other. Few mulch their trees. All do some pruning, mainly of a corrective nature. ~Pollination~--Most growers agree that usually, but not always, pistillate flowers are produced several years before the occurrence of catkins. Generally, Persian varieties do not adequately pollinate themselves but exceptions are reported. The problem is one of variable dichogamy. Some varieties shed pollen before pistillate flowers are receptive; others shed pollen when pistillate flowers are no longer receptive. This unfortunate situation probably explains the low yields experienced by some growers. Mr. Stoke lists the flowering dates of 13 varieties in the 1942 NNGA Annual Report which clearly illustrates dichogamy in Persian walnut. Some varieties are considered sufficiently self-pollinating to produce at least light crops. However, this may be influenced by weather conditions. During an unusually warm spring catkins develop more rapidly than terminal growth containing the pistillate flowers. Mr. Stoke reports that ~Bedford~ produces both flowers simultaneously and that ~Caesar~ is practically self-pollinating. Mr. Etter finds ~Burtner~ fully self-pollinating and ~Alleman~ partially. Mr. McKinster's tree is apparently self-pollinating. To overcome dichogamy it is necessary to have varieties which pollinate one another. Again Mr. Stoke's list referred to above is useful in selecting varieties for cross-pollination. Mr. Becker finds that ~Crath No. 1~ and ~Carpathian D~ pollinate each other under his conditions. More information on the pollination of Persian varieties is definitely needed. Members are urged to record the flowering date of their varieties. Such information will be very helpful in variety selection. ~Handling the Nut Crop~--The nuts are harvested and dried promptly. Methods of drying vary. Some have drying screens in which the nuts are placed several layers deep. Some dry the nuts in the sun; others prefer a shady place. Following drying, the nuts are stored in a cool place. At least one grower has enough walnuts to sell locally; others feel that local markets would take all they could produce. Many of the growers sell the nuts for seed purposes. Of course, all have a supply for home use. ~Future Prospects~--Growers see good prospects for Persian walnut in most of their respective regions if improved varieties are developed. Many growers are planning to increase the size of their plantings with promising varieties. Others would like more trees but lack the necessary space. The 1949 contest uncovered several very promising selections. The 1950 National Contest should produce many more. (Applause.) DR. MacDANIELS: I believe, Mr. Chase, your second paper has to do with the 1950 Carpathian walnut contest, which is just a matter of explanation, I take it, as to what is going to happen. Plans for the 1950 Carpathian Walnut Contest SPENCER CHASE, Norris, Tenn. MR. CHASE: The 1950 contest plans have not been fully formulated. Our main problem will be one of advertising. Our good secretary has agreed to help out on that. Mr. Sherman and Dr. Anthony have agreed to help out in their region. I was successful in getting Mr. Neal of the ~Southern Agriculturist~ to promise to give us a little Southern publicity on contest. MR. McDANIEL: I wrote him; also wrote Mr. Niven of the ~Progressive Farmer~ at Memphis and Chet Randolph with the ~Prairie Farmer~ at Chicago. MR. CHASE: As I say, we plan on handling it the same as we did the 1949 contest. It will be simply the submission of entries. We may want to consider the method of judging a little further. The problem of prize money needs to be resolved, how much the Association is going to offer--feels that they could stand to offer--for first, second, or how many prizes we are going to have. That's about all that we have to report now concerning the contest. But we do need, before we can proceed too far, some commitment on prize money. Last year we did not offer prizes simply because it was for the membership, and there has been some question whether prizes are necessary. Of course, it wasn't necessary from the Association standpoint, but it probably will stimulate some others not in the Association to submit samples from their trees. Do any of the contest committee or members have any suggestions? We'd be very happy to have them. DR. MacDANIELS: Will this include all Persian walnuts? MR. CHASE: That was another problem that came up the last time, and we talked about it as being a Carpathian contest, and we decided, who can tell a Carpathian from another Persian, and we decided to make it a Persian walnut contest. DR. MacDANIELS: No Persian walnut will be refused? MR. CHASE: Yes, sir. DR. MacDANIELS: Should they be sent to you? MR. CHASE: Yes. DR. MacDANIELS: Mr. Spencer Chase at Norris. MR. CHASE: Then, shall we exclude the Northwestern states? MR. McDANIEL: Last year we limited it to those trees which stood at least zero temperature. That would eliminate most of California, at least. DR. MacDANIELS: That makes sense. MR. SHERMAN: How many nuts are expected? MR. CHASE: Last year we asked and received fifteen. We'd like to have twenty-five. That gives us a better opportunity for the tasting department. We have a lot of tasters. We don't have many crackers, but a lot of tasters. MR. McDANIEL: I found that the mice in the State Capitol at Nashville weren't very particular as to variety. They took to any that were open. DR. MacDANIELS: Are we men, or are we mice? MR. CHASE: In case you didn't notice, downstairs we have all the entries in the contest with the exception of some which human mice got from me, two samples, I believe. But all the rest I managed to save. And I, of course, have not seen too many Persian walnuts, being down there where the spring frost gets them. I was very favorably impressed by the appearance of all these samples. We simply picked five, as I said, and pointed out that this should be considered a preliminary finding and not definite, but all those samples were fine. Some were, of course, more bitter to the taste than others. That's where we lost a lot of nuts, trying to find out the least bitter. But many were an improvement on the commercial varieties, as far as I was concerned. I think if we all get active on hunting out these Persians the way we have blacks, we can make very good progress. MR. McDANIEL: Even on appearance I think some of them beat what you see in the stores. MR. CHASE: Yes, on appearance. Of course, some of them were handed back and forth and competing against each other, that's what happened. DR. McKAY: I'd like to ask how much importance you ascribe to tree characteristics and not the nut itself. MR. CHASE: I asked for that information and tabulated it, and it didn't mean much. We found we couldn't do it. So then we came back to the nut first. Carpathian Scions for Testing~ There is one other point I might mention. Last year you may recall that I reported on our planting of Carpathian seedlings at Norris, some 500 of them, which were frosted every single year. We have babied them along now for almost ten years, and I don't see any prospects of getting any nuts on them. Now, among those 500 there must be one good one, and I will be very happy to collect scion wood of all those trees and send it to members who are willing to top-work them and see what they will do. So if any of you folks are interested in some of these varieties--not varieties yet, but seedlings--I'd like to see them fruit, and I am sure we never will at Norris. DR. MacDANIELS: Where did you get the seed? MR. CHASE: From the Wisconsin State Horticultural Society. DR. MacDANIELS: In other words, it's just as good seed as any other. MR. FRYE: You are in a frost pocket. MR. CHASE: The whole place is a frost pocket. They are up on the hill--the frosty spot. A MEMBER: When were they planted? MR. CHASE: In the spring of 1939. MR. CORSAN: Let me understand that. You say there are 500 trees that did nothing at all? MR. CHASE: We have approximately 500 of the Crath seedlings, and each year they are frosted. MR. CORSAN: Let me explain that. I have had the same trouble. Mr. Crath, not knowing the nature of my place, put some of the best nuts in wet places, in frost pockets, but he had two rows of one kind of nut that grew very rapidly the first year, but they are not any bigger now, and that was many years ago, back in 1935 they were planted. And there were about 80 varieties he got from Russia, he being able to speak four Russian dialects, his father being the Burbank of Russia and the gardener to the Czar, he had a lot of information, and he knew just what he was doing. But he was too hopeful and got some varieties from the foothills, some up a little higher, some up half way, some up towards the snow line, and they are tremendously hardy. Now, I have given these nut trees away to people south of Lake Ontario. You see, I am north of Lake Ontario, and those are around St. Catherines. There trees will grow and succeed. I have been told there is no check by frost on them. I have given a lots of those away. But with me they are absolutely worthless north of the Lake, and there is a vast difference in them. Now, I thought, looking at a great, big nut, the Rumanian giant, thought sure a nut that big would be bitter. I thought sure that it wouldn't be hardy, but at any rate, I planted a few, and I have a nearly perfect reproduction of those nuts, and one is very hardy and very productive, and the other is not quite so hardy. It's a huge nut and not so productive. However, size has nothing to do with it. I noticed a certain type and shape of nut was sometimes quite tender, and then again the same shape of nut but different variety was quite hardy. I sold a lot of trees in varying sizes, keeping the small and the runts and those that were injured by the tractor and other trees for myself, but I have enough varieties every year to come down and see some wonderful results. For instance, I slashed one up badly to dwarf it, and it had a little, wee nut that big (indicating). When I cracked that nut, the shell was crammed full of meat, and it was exceedingly sweet, and it tasted like a hickory nut. So I cut my own throat, as it were. * * * * * DR. MacDANIELS: Mr. Chase's problem right now is to get these trees out somewhere where they can be tested further, and he has asked any of you if you want scions to get in touch with him. MR. CORSAN: I say, send them south. DR. MacDANIELS: The farther south you go the worse they are. MR. H. F. STOKE: May I also say a word? Also send them north. Sometimes the winter sun will start the growth activity, and then wind comes along and kills it. The original Crath that was started in Toronto, I had it killed back to five-year-old wood thick as my wrist one winter, when the sun moved it to activity. It was hardy in Toronto, but it wasn't hardy in Roanoke, Virginia. DR. MacDANIELS: Let's have a showing of hands of those who have that trouble, starting in the spring and freezing back. (Showing of hands.) About five or six. * * * * * The next paper will be, "The Persian Walnut in Pennsylvania and Ohio," Mr. L. Walter Sherman. MR. SHERMAN: Ladies and gentlemen, Mr. Chairman: First I'd like to tell you who I am. Some of you have been to my place and know who I am, but last fall Pennsylvania started something new--a little bit different. They put on a survey of the nut trees of Pennsylvania. Two of us were selected for the job, and I would like to introduce Dr. Anthony--stand up so they can see. He and I were the two that were selected to put on the tree crop survey of that State of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania is a big state, and there is lots to see. They not only made it a survey of the nut trees, but any trees that are potential food for wildlife. Well, that made it the acorns and the honeylocust and, well, what have you, How big a job they hung on two fellows! Well, we have done the best we can, and we want to bring you this afternoon just a little of those results. The Persian Walnut in Pennsylvania and Ohio L. WALTER SHERMAN, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture Tree Crop Survey, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania As members of the Northern Nut Growers Association, most of you are familiar with the early history of the Persian walnut, its introduction into the United States by the early settlers, and how it finally found a home in California. You also know of the more recent introduction into this country of nuts and other material from the Carpathian Mountains by the Rev. Mr. Crath, who was assisted by members of your organization. (1) These recent Crath introductions are supposed to be much hardier than the former ones, and probably able to establish themselves in northern United States and southern Canada. When the Pennsylvania legislature authorized a survey of the nut trees of the state, very few people realize the foothold that the Persian walnut already had in Pennsylvania. Early in this survey, we visited Fayette Etter, who is Pennsylvania's Luther Burbank with nut trees. He is well informed concerning the Persian walnut in his section, and he surprised us by his estimate of several thousand trees in his county of Franklin. The adjoining counties of Adams, York, and Lancaster, along the southern border of the state, have fully as many trees of this species, so it is a very conservative estimate that there are ten thousand of these trees in Pennsylvania. These are located, for the most part, in the southeastern corner of the state below one thousand feet elevation. Local grown Persian walnuts were found on sale last fall in the farm markets of York, Lancaster, and Harrisburg and at many grocery stores. Wherever we found such local nuts on sale, we asked where and by whom they were grown. Many of them came from Halifax and Linglestown, in Dauphin County; from Lampeter, Lancaster County; and from Seven Valleys, York County. Farther investigation revealed the facts that in all but one of the centers of production, the trees were seedling trees and that there were from four to 23 trees planted relatively close together. In one instance, a lone tree produced the nuts being sold, and in another case the nuts were from several grafted trees. The lone tree, which produced three bushels in 1949, was of interest. Investigation revealed that the nearest Persian walnut tree was at least a city block distant. Was this lone tree self pollinating or receiving pollen from a tree this far away? We still are not sure of the answer. Jacob Houser, of Lampeter, was selling Pomeroy seedling nuts and nuts from three Rush Persian walnuts grafted on black walnut stock. They were growing close enough for cross-pollination. Driving through the counties of southeastern Pennsylvania, we found many thousand seedling Persian walnut trees as shade trees about the farm homes. Investigations revealed that most of these trees never produced any nuts. Repeatedly we are told that, "my tree never has any nuts, but a certain tree on an adjoining farm always produces," or "I have two trees, one of which bears quite regularly but the other never has borne." They are the same age and both seem to be growing equally well. Some produce only a few handfulls of nuts when they should be producing five to ten bushels, judging by their size. You as nut growers know the answer, but the general public does not. Even some of you have made the mistake of planting one tree by itself and expecting it to produce. This seldom happens. Mixed plantings of several varieties or several seedlings planted close together is the safe rule to plant by. I know of one planting of ten grafted trees of one variety of Persian walnuts, now twenty years old, that has never produced any nuts even though they are planted so that cross-pollination would be expected. In 1950 only a few catkins developed. These produced pollen early and were on the ground before the pistilate bloom opened and was receptive. I never saw a nicer pistillate bloom on any Persian walnuts than these trees had, yet not a single nut set. They are in the center of a fifty-five acre black walnut orchard, and when the pistillate bloom was at its peak, the black walnuts surrounding were shedding pollen. Do not try to tell me that native black walnuts will satisfactorily pollinate the Persian walnut. After this demonstration, I know different. Were all the Persian walnut trees of Pennsylvania properly pollinated, the crop of nuts, in my estimation, would be increased a hundredfold over what it is normally. Lack of pollination is probably the greatest factor causing non-production in our Persian walnuts. It is far more important that the fertility factor which is so important in production of the common black walnut. (2) Fayette Etter and Milo Paden both feel that the Broadview variety is self-pollinating, but even this variety may prove to be benefited by cross pollination. The Persian walnut has developed in Pennsylvania and Ohio in a rather interesting pattern. Trees planted fifty to a hundred and fifty years ago managed to live and produce nuts. From these trees, seedlings were grown and planted by neighbors and friends. These trees and their seedlings in turn have now grown to producing age. Some few that produce good crops of nuts you hear about, but the vast majority are just non-producing shade trees. Until you look for them you little realize how numerous they are. At Linglestown, Dauphin County, however, we find a striking exception to this. Here all the trees are productive. The question there is not why don't my trees produce, but is quite spirited as to who harvests the largest crop and best nuts. About seventy-five years ago Alfred Kleopfer planted some Persian walnuts of unknown origin, but probably from Germany. He grew three trees which were planted, one beside the village blacksmith shop, one across the street, and the third at a neighbor's. One tree lived for only a short time. The blacksmith shop has been replaced by a modern dwelling but the walnut tree was saved and has grown to be a tree 6' 6" in circumference and probably 60 feet high. The one across the street is of nearly equal size but the top has been damaged by storm and the tree is not as tall. These two trees were able to cross-pollinate and one tree was especially productive. Miles Bolton recognized its value and began growing seedling trees and distributing them to his neighbors. Some of them were quite skeptical and even refused to take them as a gift and plant them. However, he got the village pretty well planted to Persian walnut trees, so that today there are 145 nice trees within the village, and two small orchards on farms nearby. Standing in the village square, one can see at least six Persian walnut trees higher than the house tops. Pollination is not a problem, and all trees are good producers. Young trees are in demand for planting, and seedling trees, coming up in the flower beds, compost piles, fence corners, and other places where squirrels have hidden nuts, are carefully transplanted to permanent locations. The story of the development of the Persian walnut at Linglestown, with minor variations of course, can be repeated many times in southeastern Pennsylvania. In Linglestown, the development has been concentrated within a village, whereas in most places it has been spread over a farming community, with less opportunity for cross-pollination. The result has been a very high percentage of barren trees. However, Persian walnut seedling trees have taken over and are making good in this milder climate area of Pennsylvania. About the same can be said of northern Ohio, though the development is probably 50 years behind that in Pennsylvania. The climate there apparently is not so well suited to the Persian walnut, and fewer trees have been able to thrive. A few, however, are growing nicely and their seedlings are rapidly spreading. The Jacobs tree at Elmore, Ohio, produced 300 pounds of nuts in 1947, at 30 years of age, and many nuts from this tree are being planted. The Ohio Nut Growers are propagating vegetatively from the outstanding trees and rapid development is taking place. Named varieties are thus being developed from superior trees, and future success will be based on these named varieties rather than on seedlings. During the last few years, some of the seedlings developed from the Crath Carpathian importations are coming into bearing in parts of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and wherever I have seen them they look very promising indeed. The Crath Carpathians are doing well at Mt. Jackson, Lawrence County, Pennsylvania, along with Broadview, for Riley Paden and Howard Butler. A. W. Robinson, of Pittsburgh, has five trees of Crath seedlings, two of which are in bearing. All these trees seem to be perfectly hardy. The nuts of course vary, but all are good. Riley Paden, at Mt. Jackson, is grafting Broadview on black walnut stock, and for him this variety is doing well. He has about forty trees of it from two to fifteen years of age. His prize fifteen-year-old tree produced one bushel of nuts in 1949. A sample of these nuts is on the table for your inspection. Paden says he can grow Broadview anywhere peaches will do well. Fayette Etter at Lemasters, Franklin County, considers Broadview too bitter flavored for him. He thinks Burtner, which is a local seedling, superior for his section to all other varieties that he has tested. With an estimated ten thousand Persian walnut seedlings growing in Pennsylvania, the Pennsylvania nut growers are faced with a big task to sort out the best and get them tested in different sections of the state. We should find the best half dozen varieties for each section. The Persian walnut is established in Pennsylvania and in northern Ohio. There are not just a few scattered trees having a hard time to survive but there are many thousands of them, growing vigorously, some producing big crops of fine nuts, others not producing any. They are ready now for the intelligent development you can give to them. Nature has gone about as far as she will without your assistance. The job now is up to you nut growers. REFERENCES (1) Northern Nut Growers Annual Report Vol. Page Persian walnuts history of in Penna. Rush 5 93 history of in Cal. Reed, C. A. 6 51 introduction of Carpathian. Crath 27 103 distribution of Carpathian. Rahmlow 27 112 survey in Penna. Fagan 6 23 (2) Persian walnut protandrous. Craig 2 106 Discussion MR. FRYE: How about butternuts for pollenization? MR. SHERMAN: I don't know. I have one hybrid, and that's a sample downstairs that I think is an English walnut crossed with a butternut. The nut looks like a butternut; the tree looks like an English walnut, but it has the butternut bark. They will occasionally pollinate, I think, but don't depend on them. MR. CORSAN: I'll tell you how you can tell. That butternut-English walnut cross is the most powerful tree I ever came across, especially for good wood. I got a tremendous one. MR. STOKE: I produced, I think, 22 seedling trees from the Lancaster Persian walnut. About five per cent are hybrids. There was one strong-growing black � Persian hybrid that I am sure of. There are three or four very dwarfish trees that undoubtedly were crossed with the heartnut. They were all dwarf. I haven't been able to get one to bear. I have had one grafted five or six years on a black walnut, but that was the heartnut and not the butternut. MR. SHERMAN: That study of the hybrid is another story and really doesn't belong in this discussion at all. MR. CORSAN: Here is a point on that. When they are only that high (indicating)--if they are only babies, I can tell them. You know, occasionally. Look at the leaflets on the compound leaf, and if there are over seven, they are hybrids, and if they are extra vigorous growing, they are hybrids, because they occasionally pollenize. MR. SHERMAN: Those are all characteristics of the hybrids, but here is what I want to bring out now, and Dr. Anthony is going to stress it on his chestnuts a little bit later: You people have a wealth of material to select from. Nature has gone about so far, and I am just a believer enough in what the Bible says, that God made the heavens and the earth and put man here to tend and keep it, and made him master of everything above the earth and every creeping thing on the earth and everything beneath the earth, and it is up to you fellows to direct intelligently this mass of material you have to direct. You have got nuts growing where they are hardy, you have got big nuts, you have got little nuts, you have got everything under the sun you can think of. What more do you want for a nice job ahead? It's up to you fellows to do. It's going to be not a one-year job, not a two-year job, not a five-year job; you will be at this, and your children and your grandchildren. MR. CORSAN: Make you live long. MR. SHERMAN: Maybe you will live long enough, but it's a century's job, and not the job for one man's lifetime. (Loud applause.) DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Sherman. Any questions? MR. CHASE: Yes, sir. I want to ask Mr. Sherman, should I be thinking about receiving 10,000 entries in this contest? MR. SHERMAN: No, because there aren't 10,000 trees producing. Out of that 10,000 maybe there are a thousand of them producing. The nine thousand others are nothing but shade trees, and never produce any nuts. You don't hear of them, but if you travel through York, Lancaster, and Adams Counties down there and look for Persian walnuts, you will find them on--I was going to say 50 per cent of the farm homes. You can see them along the road everywhere. My wife travels with me a good deal of the time. She will say, "Why don't you stop and look at that Persian walnut? There are some over there. Why don't you stop there?" A MEMBER: Don't they bloom a month later than most of the others? MR. CORSAN: Did you find a good French variety? MR. SHERMAN: But those French varieties--I can't take you to a good French variety in Southeastern Pennsylvania that has been producing the nuts. They produce the nuts, but folks won't even pick them up. A MEMBER: They are good for pollen. MR. SHERMAN: If you want a good pollenizer go to Fayette Etter and get his Burtner. It's a very late pollen producer. This year I took some buds from his Burtner and put them in the top of those ten trees in that 55-acre black walnut orchard to see if I can't do something. Maybe it won't stick--maybe I hadn't better tell you. MR. CORSAN: Mr. Chairman, there is one point raised by the last speaker that's not understood; that the young black walnut trees, when they first blossom, they come out with a mass of male blossoms. Then the English walnut, when it comes out, it sometimes comes out with a mass of pistillate flowers which people might not know are the female flowers. They make the nuts, but there is not even one catkin. I have seen that time and again. Those trees in Russia would be dependent upon larger trees to pollinate them. But here you have young trees, and you have to wait till they get a certain growth, and then they produce their catkins. DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Corsan. The next paper, by Mr. J. F. Wilkinson of Rockport, Indiana, "Observations and Experiences with the Persian Walnut in Southern Indiana." Mr. Wilkinson. (Paper not available for this Report.) DR. MacDANIELS: We have a choice of doing several different things. There are several other papers we have here, the authors of which are not present. Then the other possibility would be to go on and have some papers that require the use of the lantern, as long as we have this all fixed up. Perhaps the thing to do is to have Dr. Anthony's paper on chestnuts, using the lantern, and then have these other papers on the Persian walnut summarized after that. Does that seem to be a reasonable thing to do? (Chorus of yeses.) DR. MacDANIELS: We will go ahead on that basis, then. Dr. Anthony has the talk on chestnuts. (This talk, withdrawn for revision, may appear in next Report.) MR. CORSAN: Dr. Anthony, I knew Captain Sober very well, and he showed me quite a group--a double handful--of Korean sweet chestnuts. They were a little thicker than the native Pennsylvania chestnut, they are rounder and a little larger, but they weren't as large as some of the Chinese or nearly as large as the Japanese. What about those nuts, because, you see, the blight killed all his Paragon chestnuts--you know, the cross between the European and the American chestnuts--killed them all off completely, as it did with me. DR. ANTHONY: In our detective work we were instructed to follow down that plantation. Mrs. Sober is still alive, living in Lewisburg. The planting has practically disappeared. I am going over there next week. It is still with the man who wrote "Chestnut Culture in Pennsylvania." MR. CORSAN: It broke his heart. DR. ANTHONY: We are going over there next week, but I think that whole planting has disappeared. When these things change hands, another man comes in who is not interested, and things disappear very rapidly. (Continue with paper.) MR. CORSAN: I want to tell you how to keep the deer out of the chestnut orchard. Plant filberts five feet apart all around the place, and after while just put one single electrified wire five feet from the ground, and the deer won't get in through that. DR. ANTHONY: Glad to hear that, because deer is one of our problems. (Continue with paper.) DR. ANTHONY: There is a tree beside the blacksmith shop, and the old man used to go there early in the morning as a boy to get chestnuts. Today he has taken down the old blacksmith shop and built a home, but he preserved that tree in Linglestown. It practically covers his house, six feet six inches in trunk circumference, 60 feet high and a spread of 60 feet. It isn't too long before we will have chestnuts that big to eat alongside the old blacksmith shop. DR. MacDANIELS. It is about three o'clock. We will take a five-minute recess. (Whereupon, a short recess was taken.) DR. MacDANIELS: For the first paper after the recess, we will call on Sargent Wellman to speak to us about the Persian walnuts in England. Mr. Wellman. Notes on Persian Walnuts in England SARGENT WELLMAN, Topsfield, Massachusetts MR. WELLMAN: Members of the Association: I was fortunate enough to be in England last summer, and I agreed that I would say a few words about nut growing there. What I am really going to do is largely to read you a few things from some articles that I found there. I was very much impressed with the little interest that there is in nut growing in England, and I was very much surprised at it. Of course, you all know that the walnut grows there. The chestnut grows there. There are some fine, marvelous trees in Kew Gardens, of course, that I saw, and if you read the English poets, you will remember how they talk about chestnut blossoms on chestnut trees, but curiously enough, there is now very little interest. MR. McDANIEL. When they speak of the blossom, they speak of the horsechestnut, do they not? MR. WELLMAN: Not always, but there are pink flowered horsechestnuts in France, particularly, whole avenues of pink ones. The cob nut, as they call the filbert, is very common there, grown in hedges. One year when I was in England previously I brought home a few in my pocket, and I have a seedling which grew from one of those, which is comparable to the filberts I have, but apparently there is no interest in that, so far as I can see--I mean, any investigation and any experimentation and encouragement of its planting. But there is about the walnut. That's the one nut tree in which they are interested. I picked up two reports, both of them made by Elizabeth M. Glenn, who is the woman connected with the East Malling Station down in Kent and is the one person who is doing more with walnut work than anybody else, as far as I could find out. Unfortunately, the day I was there she was on vacation, so I couldn't see her, but they were very kind to me and took me around and showed me everything. As you know, the East Malling Station is the place where they have done all that work with apple root stocks. This one is a reprint from the annual report for the East Malling Station for 1946. And then "The Men of the Trees," which is a forestry society there which some of you may have heard of, have reprinted in the Autumn, 1949, number another article by Elizabeth Glenn on "The Selection and Propagation of Walnuts." And I think if I make a few comments and read a few things from these, you will be interested. She says, "The earliest record of a walnut tree in England is 1562, but remains of walnut shells have been found in Roman villas, and it is probable that the Romans planted some nuts and raised trees in this country." She says, "There is a large tree of it"--black walnut--"at Kew, near the entrance to the Rock Garden." Of course there are some rootstocks, and they are all specimen trees, but they are not used for nuts. She says somewhere here, "In this country the nuts are of little value, although in America they are used for confectionery purposes." The East Malling Station is really a fruit research station, as I said, and they are the ones who are primarily interested in walnut crops and not timber production. "However, there is no reason why a tree shouldn't produce both good crops and good timber." "The French, have been grafting walnuts for well over 100 years, and the famous Grenoble nuts all come from grafted trees of named varieties." She emphasizes the fact that almost all of the English walnuts are grown on seedling trees and are very much inferior to those that come from the Continent and from this country. And of course that was the purpose of their work, to encourage the use of grafted trees. I was interested in this sentence: "The late Mr. Howard Spence began the survey and collection of good varieties growing in this country and abroad, and collaborated with East Malling in the trial of selected varieties." He was always interested in our society and was an honorary member of it for a good many years prior to his death. I was interested in the fact that the problems that they have over there in the way of climate and some other things are very similar to our problems. She speaks a good deal about the matter of climate. I will come to that as I go along. "Work on walnuts, started at East Malling in 1925, soon showed that the budding or grafting of walnuts out of doors was far too chancy in this climate to be relied upon as a means of raising young trees," so that all their grafting is done in the greenhouse, and they don't try to do anything outdoors. "Outdoor grafting can be done successfully only where the mean temperature from May to September is above 65° F." Then she gives a description of the greenhouse grafting, bringing in the seedlings and potting them in November, in the fall, and then starting along in February in grafting, and then taking them out and planting them in the spring. I won't go into that; there is nothing particularly interesting I think, for us about that. Patch budding she also describes.... She says it's a much cheaper method than grafting under glass but at the moment the results are far less reliable. "The walnut will tolerate a wide range of soils so long as the drainage is good and the soil is not too acid. Lime should be applied before planting, unless there is plenty present in the soil. "The site should not be in a valley or frost hole, because, although the dormant tree is quite hardy and can stand severe frost, the young growths and catkins are very easily killed by spring frosts." They are talking about the same problem we have. In fact, in spite of the fact that the weather is warmer than in Boston and New England, they don't have the severe winters, but they do have this late frost. Manuring. They recommend mulching with farmyard manure or compost put on the soil and worked in and no artificial nitrogen because that again gives too much late growth, and you have trouble with killing back. She goes over the problems that we have been talking about this afternoon, about the time of leafing out in the spring and what the difference in the varieties is and the effects of that on the winter killing. Now, I am not going to read much more. I will just read over the names of the varieties which may interest you. This first article, the 1946 one, lists Franquette, Mayette, Meylanaise, Chaberte, Excelsior of Taynton, Northdown, Clawnut, and Secrett. The latter article, which was published last year, says that in 1929, with the help of Dr. Taylor, the Royal Horticultural Society held a walnut competition. "Over 700 entries were received and were subjected to severe tests. Most of the nuts were far below the required standards, but five Were selected for propagation and further tests. The owners of the trees from which these nuts came supplied scion wood to raise grafted trees for trial at East Malling." The best ones came from a tree which they called "Champion of Ixworth." The second one was called "Excelsior of Taynton," which was in the list I read previously. Another variety is called "Lady Irene." I am not going into the description of these varieties here, because if any of you are interested, you can get hold of these publications and get it. She lists the Stutton seedling and then the Northdown Clawnut. Also in this article she mentions the French varieties, of course, which were mentioned before. Well, I thought it might just interest you that in another part of the world they are doing the same sort of thing we are, and they are having the same sort of problems and working on it. (Applause.) DR. MacDANIELS: Several of these papers which were scheduled will be either summarized or read. One of them will be read now by Mr. Silvis of Ohio. The paper is by Carl Weschcke. Prospects for Persian Walnuts in the Vicinity of St. Paul, Minnesota CARL WESCHCKE Although I was asked to prepare a paper on the Carpathian walnut, I feel that my other experiences with Persian or so-called English walnut (the botanical name of which is _Juglans regia_) are also of some value to those who might be tempted to try this species of walnut in cold climates. When I first started my experiments with nut bearing trees, I included the English walnut among the possibilities for our section. Mr. J. F. Jones of Lancaster, Pennsylvania, gave me much information and a great deal of help in trying out what he considered hardy strains. There was a walnut tree in Boston, known as the Boston walnut, of which he sent scions, and which I grafted on butternut. This was about the year 1920, and was included in my grafting experiments together with black walnut, heartnut, hickories, and hybrids between hickory and pecan. Later on, he sent me scionwood from other known hardy varieties which I placed on butternut, and many of these made tremendous growths but were winterkilled the very first winter. None of the English walnut with which I continued experiments lived over the first winter until I received scionwood from Prof. James Neilson of Canada, who sent the Broadview. These Broadview scions were grafted on butternut and black walnut, and a few of the scions survived for possibly three seasons, even producing staminate and pistillate blossoms and small nuts which grew only to about the size of a quarter and then dropped off. Clarence A. Reed arranged to have some small seedling Chinese strain of _Juglans regia_ sent from Chico, California; these were planted in favorable places and survived a few winters. I also planted seeds of the Chinese strains which gave me no better results than the seedlings. Then I bought walnuts from A. C. Pomeroy, of Lockport, New York. These were even more tender than other varieties with which I had experimented, although they were very much publicized by Mr. Pomeroy in the Nut Grower during that era as being extra hardy, because they were growing near the south shore of Lake Erie. I next went to Mr. Jones, who was then selling quite a quantity of Wiltz Mayette and Franquette strains of English walnut grafted on black walnut. These proved to be among the most tender varieties I have ever tested here. Then he sent me scions of the Hall and Holden varieties, which he felt were considerably more winter hardy, but here they failed to survive even one winter. We have not neglected the Rush English walnut either, which was tested in a similar manner without any good practical results. This now brings us to the convention at Geneva, New York, in 1936 when the Rev. Mr. Crath and George H. Corsan presented a new strain of English walnuts, known as the Carpathian strain, originating in the Carpathian mountains in Poland. This so impressed me that after talking it over with my father we decided to finance a trip into the same region that Mr. Crath had been in, to locate new and better varieties for a real test. The story of the Rev. Mr. Crath's and my adventure along these lines, during the winter of 1936-37, has been printed in the records of the Northern Nut Growers Association, and I will bring out only the high spots that seem to be important 14 years later. In the shipments of hardy material collected were some 4,000 scions of possibly a dozen different good strains of what Mr. Crath considered hardiest and best. In addition to that, there were around 500 trees ranging in size from small whips of one foot long to some that were over eight feet; also there were some 400 pounds of nuts to be planted to produce seedlings. These nuts had been gathered from superior hardy trees with the expectation that the seedlings would produce nearly true imitations of their parents in the quality of their fruit and hardiness. These seedling nuts produced somewhat over 12,000 seedling trees, which were planted in about six large strips of land so as to give room for cultivation. The 500 trees received from Poland were planted in favorable locations and many of them are still alive. The scionwood was put on native butternut and black walnut. Some of it was grafted to young nursery stock, but most of it was put on large mature trees, being top worked. Grafting was started in April and continued into the early part of June. The later grafts were much more successful than the earlier ones, although some of the April grafts grew and flourished. Many of these grafts bore flowers and had little nutlets but none of them ripened nuts. After about three seasons some of the grafts that continued to live produced a few nuts. Three varieties were practically mature, and then the native insect pests caught up with them. Also, there was a black rot or wilt which I am fairly sure was walnut bacteriosis disease, although specimens sent out to competent authorities did not corroborate this diagnosis. What turned out to be the butternut curculio attacked all grafted and seedling trees with such vigor that there was no way to combat it. I sprayed some of the grafted specimens and kept it up for several years, trying to hold on to them, but it became too much for me and my equipment; I doubt now whether any amount of poison would have saved the trees because the butternut curculio is difficult to kill with poison. One of the varieties, known as the Kremenetz, grafted on black walnut, was sent to Harry Weber. It thrives and bears nice crops at his country estate in Cleves, Ohio, near Cincinnati. He has sent me scions of this variety, and this spring I grafted them back on black walnut, as the butternut curculio is not nearly as bad as it was when there was so much English walnut foliage for them to feed on (this foliage is their choice over all other foliage). These insect pests also wiped out several heartnut varieties which came from J. U. Gellatly, of Westbank, B. C, Canada; for next to English walnuts the curculio loves heartnut foliage and its new branch growth. We have about 60 to 70 acres of woods which contain a large percentage of butternut, therefore it is next to impossible to wipe out their native food. I doubt very much whether this would have benefited the situation at all, as the curculio would have then centered all its activities on the English walnut foliage and perhaps have attacked hickories, pecans, and black walnuts, on which they sometimes try their appetites. Hybrids between butternut and black walnut are viciously attacked by this curculio. Hybrids between English walnut and other species of walnut which I have here also become a prey to curculio. So there is no trick species which would be immune to their attack. The English walnut usually vegetates too early in the spring to escape some of our late frosts. Because this new growth generally contains the flowers, the fruiting of such trees would be very unreliable and only occasional. We even have trouble with black walnut and butternut in this respect. The hickory is much better, and the pecan is even later in respect to vegetation. I mention this because even though everything had gone well it is doubtful whether reliable crops of English walnuts would ever have been produced from the so-called hardy Carpathian series. A year or so following the experiment with the Carpathian walnut, I imported about 100 pounds of seeds from Austria. They came in two different lots: one of them was more expensive than the other seed, and it proved to be much the hardier. The larger lot of smaller seeds was not as hardy. Although we have several hundred trees of this better seed lot which remain alive, they are no better off in any respect than the Carpathian seedlings. In fact, I could not see much difference between the behavior of these seedlings and the behavior of the Carpathian walnut strain. While in California in 1939 I picked up about five pounds of seeds from a hardy tree growing in the Sierra Nevadas in Sonora, also some native black walnuts. These survived a few years but finally were winter-killed entirely, root and all. The Carpathians are never killed out entirely but continue to grow from the root systems, even though they are frozen back to the ground; but the insect and the fungus have destroyed many thousands of the original group of trees so that there are today perhaps between 1000 and 2000 living trees, which sprout up each spring and kill back each fall with clock-like regularity. Among these; However, are a few outstanding varieties which extend some hope that there may be among these survivors one or more trees which resist the butternut curculio and have become acclimated, to such an extent that they do not entirely kill back but only a little of their new growth is killed. These specimens usually are the ones that make a shorter growth during the summer, in fact have more of a tendency to be a genuine dwarf type of tree. Three such seeding trees were known to have sprouted from exceptionally large and very thin-shelled walnuts, which I believe the Rev. Mr. Crath calls the giant type. I will now summarize and express my own private opinion regarding the future possibilities of introducing the English walnut into such an extreme northern latitude as we are in. First, experiments started thirty years ago, which period gives a reasonable period of time that any man should feel is necessary to devote to giving a species a try-out. Secondly, we have used material from every reasonably known source. Third, persons in charge had a reasonable amount of skill and success with other varieties to have insured success if the material had been responsive. My opinion, for what it may be worth, is that the species is out of its range in this northern latitude, more particularly because it is too tender to fight its own battles as to insect life which attacks it, particularly the butternut curculio. Grasshoppers, leaf eating insects, and worms of different sorts, also attack it more than they do other nut tree foliage. The possibilities of a break in the strong cycle of insect life is a hopeful prospect which we are helping by breeding tens of thousands of toads and frogs. This might allow some, of the more vigorous specimens to acquire sufficient size to overcome this weakness. In my opinion, the climate itself is not the main governing factor which would kill out all hope of raising English walnuts here; but certainly, coupled with the disastrous attack of insect life and susceptibility to blight, these three foes are almost insurmountable. And then in view of the early vegetating habit of these species, there is the possibility that even though you had a hardy tree, immune to insects, you would never get much fruit. Discussion DR. MacDANIELS: Remember, the climate up around St. Paul is a bit rugged, and I think that work of that kind is certainly of value to give us an idea of the limits at which we can grow these trees, but I don't think that we have by any means explored the whole field. In the Morris collection at Ithaca there is a little Persian walnut about the size of the end of this finger (indicating), a very small nut, that was given to Dr. Morris by a consul from the interior of Asia up in the Himalaya Mountains in Tibet, from of an elevation of about 10,000 feet. That little walnut had a hard shell, harder than some of our shellbark hickory nuts, and a bound kernel that I would say was much less promising than many of the nuts which we discard. Somewhere, it seems to me, in this vast range of material we ought to be able to find some variety or clone of these species that would be adapted to practically every part of the United States. There at Ithaca we have the difficulties with the Persian walnut mainly of winter cold. That is the absolute low temperature that wipes out the trees, now that I have seen them come and go in my place there and in the vicinity. The old Pomeroy strain is killed at about 20 below zero Fahrenheit. It stayed there in fairly good condition up in the Lockport region until the extreme cold of 1933-34. Once the temperatures went down to nearly 30 below zero, except for a small region around the Niagara peninsula, where it hit only 12. Those trees are still there in that little circumscribed area around Niagara, and we saw a picture of one of them in Mr. Sherman's collection. But the Pomeroy trees, I have learned--I haven't seen them myself--were practically wiped out, as were the others, in what was thought to be the protected area along Lake Erie. I remember the trees on the Whitecroft farm along Keuka Lake. Some of you saw those when the Nut Growers Association met at Geneva. They are on a bench close to Keuka Lake, which up to 1933-34 had not been frozen over for many years. They had grown, produced good crops, were in excellent condition, but that year the temperature went down to about 30 below zero and stayed there for a number of days. The lake froze over, and the trees were severely damaged. A California redwood which was there--had been there for 80 years--was killed outright, and so it goes. Now, just for these Carpathian strains it seems to me that we have pretty well--perhaps you might say--licked this question of winter cold; that is, at least down to perhaps 30, 35 below zero Fahrenheit, but we certainly haven't licked the problem of early vegetation. That is, it starts out with warm days in the spring, the shoots get about this long (indicating), you get temperature going down to, say, 26, 27, 28, and your shoots are all killed back and you have lost your year's crop. So that's the problem which in the selection of varieties for this northern country, we have got to keep in mind, as I think that's one thing to look for among your Carpathian trees. It's one which will mature its foliage in the fall fairly early and which does not start out too quickly in the spring. Now, we know there are some that don't start out in the spring, like these Chinese types, but what we want is a combination of short-season, late-starting, winter-hardy walnuts, and I think we can find them if we keep at it. I didn't start out to talk so long, but I thought that was perhaps a sort of a summary of some of these things which we are looking for. DR. CRANE: I'd just like to make a few comments. There is one thing that you have got to be very careful about, I think, in watching for these late-blooming Persian walnut trees that start in to grow, in Oregon, particularly, although the same thing is true in some areas of California where we are growing large quantities of Persian walnuts. You know that a deficiency of boron will cause trees to go into a condition which the growers out there now call "sleepers." They will stay dormant for quite a long period of time in the spring before they start growth. That's due to a severe boron deficiency. Now, we have a lot of boron deficiency here in the East, and in areas in which we have trouble with growing vegetables, like cauliflower that has a hollow stem, or beets or turnips that split and crack, or where we have so-called drouth spot or internal corking in apples, you can be sure that you can't grow a Persian walnut, because the boron requirement alone is many, many times that of an apple or of most vegetables. In Oregon on the same soils where we are growing apples, we put on a half a pound of borax per tree to control boron deficiency on apples. On walnuts we have to use anywhere from five to ten or twelve pounds for a tree of the same size. We have to have a boron content in walnuts very, very much higher than that of apples. We have got to be careful about that. So if you do find late-sleeping walnut trees, or walnut trees that are late in starting to grow, you will probably find that is a result of boron deficiency. MR. CORSAN: Mr. Chairman, I visited the Pomeroy Nursery in 1934. I had, in my own planting, about a score of trees and they were a most amazing sight. The big trees were all seriously damaged by that 1933-34 winter, as were all Ben Davis apple orchards. So what amazed both of us was the fact that Pomeroy's young trees weren't dead.[2] Of the Pomeroy, all the big trees were dead. I ordered some more from him, and I planted them, but the trees froze down to the ground. Just as a very few varieties of the Crath Carpathians did. They froze twigs and they froze buds and sometimes they froze the trunk. Only a couple of Carpathian varieties froze down to the ground, but every one of the Pomeroy did. I was quite sorry, because I had a Chinese English walnut from North China that was extremely hardy and lived through that winter almost undamaged. The nut, though, had a bitter tang, and Pomeroy's nuts were quite sweet and delicious, but I haven't a Pomeroy on the place. They are all stone dead. [2] See Mr. Gellatly's paper in this volume.--Ed DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, Mr. Corsan. Mr. Harry Weber will give us a paper by Gilbert Becker on Persian and black walnuts in Michigan. Grafted Black and Persian Walnuts in Michigan GILBERT BECKER, Climax, Michigan The performance of grafted Persian walnuts in southwestern Michigan has been so satisfactory that I would not hesitate to recommend them, in preference to grafted black walnuts. One of the nicest things about grafted Persian walnuts is that when they start to produce nuts, they bear _every_ year--there is not an off-season, as with the black walnut. Our locality may be especially suitable to them. Our skies are cloudy, and it is cool through much of the spring, thus preventing early growth before conditions are right for the buds to develop unhampered by late spring frosts. We have had an occasional late freeze that caused the lower nuts to drop, while the higher ones remained on the tree, unharmed. In this article I would like to answer briefly our most often asked question, as to which varieties do we think best from our experience with them? Our climate must be quite different from that found around Ithaca, New York, because we have never had winter injury in certain Persian varieties, as occurs in that area. (And we had 26 below zero in February, 1949.) An instance of this difference is in regard to the McDermid variety, which happens to be our choice. We honestly believe the Crath No. 1 variety to have great commercial possibilities, because of its heavy production of large, thin-shelled nuts, of average quality. The Broadview is another. The Carpathian "D", apparently, pollinates the Crath No. 1 well. This one, however, is small, with a very white kernel that is sweet. We have many other varieties producing, some with their first crop this year; but we are not able to recommend any of them yet. The black walnut varieties must be rather limited, because of the brooming disease trouble; so we select from those that are quite able to resist it, or that seem immune to the trouble. The Thomas and Grundy varieties lead with us, and two other local nuts, the Adams and the Climax, rate high in our estimation. We have some nice grafts of the Homeland bearing their third crop, which we like very much, and they appear disease free. The Elmer Myers, Michigan, and other varieties are now badly affected with brooming disease. Several years ago I reported on my observations on the brooming disease. Now, I wish to report a little more upon the subject, especially in regard to how certain varieties have withstood its ravages. I hesitate to make any estimation as to how prevalent the disease is in the wild black walnut today, for it could be quite a controversial subject, with some claiming I was very wrong. Anyway, many of our native walnuts are now affected. Outward appearances are often very deceiving; but, when one cuts the top off a seedling and attempts to graft it, he may be amazed at the broomy growth that soon appears from the stock, should his graft fail to take. Trees that appear healthy, but have made slow or poor growth are often affected. Short, twiggy, upright growth that soon becomes dead or partly so, and arises from the main framework of an apparently healthy tree, is one of the signs that disease is there. I have claimed there are two, or possibly, three forms of brooming disease, and I am still as convinced as ever. The so-called "witches-broom," as commonly seen in the Japanese walnut, is the form most people seem to think of. The second form is the rapid-growing type, that lops, or arches downward, is gray or green in color of wood, is very brittle and easily broken in the wind, ripping off good sized limbs, and winter-injures badly. An investigation, will, however, show much dead wood comes before severe weather. This form has some broomy, upright growth, like the first, but it is never bunched. The other, or possibly, the third form, is the latent type that doesn't seem to do much harm, merely causing poorly filled nuts. The latent form is difficult to note, and can be detected only by the many short, dead, or partly dead, upright twigs scattered along the main framework of older trees. Cutting off part of the top will cause the typical growth to arise, thus identifying itself. Early observation showed that certain walnut varieties were almost unaffected, or could even be immune, to the brooming disease. Different limbs of a large tree were topworked to the Thomas and the Allen varieties of black walnut. The Allen "took" the disease at once, while the Thomas grew thriftily and has always produced good crops of nuts. Later, the Calhoun variety was grafted on some lower limbs, and has remained healthy. The diseased Allen grafts are still in the tree, are now 15 years old, and are more or less alive, but in very poor condition, with the signs as found in what I call the latent form. In 1938, the McDermid Persian walnut was grafted into this same tree, and its grafts produced good crops of nuts. I wish to cite another instance of how little the Persian walnut is affected, regardless of variety. In 1938 a large black walnut near the house was grafted with Persian grafts, on stubs that had failed the previous year. The tree had the second, or rapid growing form, of brooming disease. I have pictures showing how badly the 1938 grafts took the rapid growing form of growth; while two 1937 Persian grafts showed no signs of trouble. The tree started to bear in 1941, and has made remarkable growth. It is now one of the nicest Persian walnut trees I have, bearing heavily every year. It is about 30 feet tall and 20 feet broad, with no apparent signs that it was ever affected. I feel we should recognize the fact that eradication of brooming disease is impossible; but one should plant, or graft, those varieties known to bear good crops in spite of this trouble. The Thomas and Grundy black walnuts do very well here, as well as the two local nuts mentioned. I do not know of any Persian varieties affected. I do not have any Persian trees with the typical broomy bunch, as is so often seen in the Japanese walnut, and its hybrids. The native black walnuts, when affected, seem to fail to fill properly, are immature, and watery, black veined, and worthless at harvest time, shriveling to a dark, hard, kernel when cured. I think this answers the oft-asked question, "Why do not my black walnuts fill as they used to?" There is a strange relation to the filling of the native black walnut and the days of 1934 and 1935, when we had the great walnut caterpillar scourge!--when the trees were stripped of all their leaves. Ever since, we have had the brooming disease to contend with. One could jump to the conclusion that improper filling and this trouble were caused by a lack of certain nutrients; but seedlings in nursery rows are often affected, even where they are given every care. At one time this spring I thought I had found a new way of "bench-grafting" walnuts. Seven grafts, on black root, were made in December, and were planted directly in a frost-proof coldframe, as lilacs can be grafted. All seven grafts made good growth, that is, over three inches, by early May, but failed later. There is only one alive today, I do not think this an impossible method, but there must be a better way of handling to give success, such as attention to shading and careful watering. One may find more on this subject in "Propagation of Trees, Shrubs, and Conifers," by Wilfrid G. Sheat. In our greenhouse work we have used several nutrient preparations, with poor to good results. There is one that has proved quite remarkable, and may be of use to the nut grower. Our concern has been to promote greener, healthier leaves, and the product "Ra-Pid-Gro" is most outstanding. Our tests in regards to nut growing are very limited. A pan of Chinese chestnut seed mixed in pure sand was set under the greenhouse bench last winter. The seed sprouted too early to be planted out, and trees have been left inside. Since the sand had no food value, Ra-Pid-Gro was applied to the leaves, allowing the drippings to go into the sand throughout the summer. Today, the little seedlings are indeed nice. Outside, a Persian walnut had yellow-toned leaves, and Ra-Pid-Gro was applied--now the leaves are green! It is amazing how quickly yellow leaves will become green. This appears to be a very useful product. _I believe we can have scions too dormant to graft!_ Last winter I had to make a new scion-box for storage, so copied it after the Harrington method, sinking it in the ground north of some evergreens. Scions have kept perfectly--maybe too perfectly--because they were absolutely dormant at grafting time, and have given poor success. It was rather late to save scionwood when I received an order to cut some of Mr. Hostetter's "Special Thomas" wood, so I cut a little extra for myself, and some wood from a little seedling Persian walnut that I wished to hasten by topworking. The buds were very much swollen that day, and the terminal buds were partly expanded. At grafting time I was quite surprised to find the wood I had cut late to be in exactly the same condition as it was the day I cut it. When grafted, every scion grew--all nine grafts made of the little Persian walnut were smaller than a lead pencil--and were _pithy_ as well! This experience is so encouraging, I hope to have most of my wood in this advanced condition another year. Absolutely dormant wood might well be brought out of storage several days before grafting, in order to get it adjusted from winter to summer conditions. DR. MacDANIELS: I think Dr. Crane is going to talk about the bunch disease tomorrow morning and will give us some indication about the work that has been done with that. This matter of dormancy of scions we could probably get into an argument about, but that isn't the subject right now. MR. CORSAN: I find that you mustn't go cutting back much. They don't like to be pruned. They are an open tree that grows a branch here, a branch there. They don't get anything like the dense branches of, say, the Turkish tree hazel. They are the very opposite, and they don't want to be pruned, and if you go pruning them, they are likely to have the witches'-broom. MR. McDANIEL: There is another paper by Mr. Ward of Lafayette, Indiana, "The Carpathian Walnut in Indiana." The first part of it, the introduction, covers pretty much the same thing we have heard before from some of the other speakers about the Carpathian strains in this country. The Carpathian Walnut in Indiana W. B. WARD Extension Horticulturist, Purdue University West Lafayette, Indiana The Carpathian or hardy Persian walnuts (_Juglans regia_), as grown in Indiana, are nearly all seedling trees resulting from the desire of some hobbyists to try something new. Other than a few exceptions, most of the seedling trees were planted during the period of 1934 to 1938. Credit is due to the Wisconsin Horticultural Society in offering the seedling nuts for sale and from these plantings numerous trees grew and fruited. A few test winters, with the temperature as low as minus 20 degrees F., left only those trees hardy in wood and bud. The seedling trees under observation have been fruiting for the past six to eight years, with some trees producing as much as five to six bushels of nuts per year. The tree grows best in well drained, fertile soil and a bluegrass sod. Small amounts of nitrate fertilizer, about the same quantity used on fruit trees, have stimulated growth and no doubt have helped in the sizing up of the nuts. The tree does not do well under cultivation or mulching, as winter injury to the tree has been recorded when compared to bluegrass sod. There is also a possibility that the tree will respond to applications of liquid or soluble nitrates when mixed in spray materials. Six walnut trees were sprayed with "Nu Green" on May 9th and May 28th, 1950, using the same mixture as is recommended for apples--five pounds per 100 gallons of spray mix. These trees were observed weekly, and by late August had made more growth and gave better response than trees in comparable unsprayed rows. As the walnut trees are of different varieties, no definite comparisons may be drawn, but the trees so sprayed outgrew the unsprayed plot, although both plots had received a spring application of fertilizer of equal amount. Set of Fruit Depends on Pollination The best yields of fruit are found on trees that have a good pollinator close by. Oftentimes the catkins of the Persians dry up, fail to shed pollen when the pistillate flowers are receptive or fail to produce staminate flowers. It was noted early this spring that the catkins on the Persians were very few. Pollen was gathered from the butternut (_Juglans cinerea_) for pollinating the pistillate flowers that opened early. The mid-season flowers were pollenized with black walnut (_Juglans nigra_), and the later blooms were fertilized with pollen from the heartnut (_Juglans sieboldiana cordiformis_). Many of the pistillate flowers were bagged and remained receptive for a long period. The best set of fruit on trees this year is on trees that have either the black walnut or the heartnut near by as pollinizers. The pollen from the butternut seemed to dwarf the fruit size on those trees where the pistillate flowers were bagged in the Purdue planting. We have little doubt that the Persian walnut develops a preponderance of pistillate flowers and relies on pollen from kindred species for a good set of fruit. Nut Displays Have Educational Value The interest in the Persian walnut in Indiana has developed to the extent that several commercial fruit growers have set out small acreages. Most of the trees are seedlings from trees previously fruited, although several growers have budded or grafted the better seedlings on the native black walnut. The public has become enthused through the various displays at local and state fairs and through the state nut show now being held annually. The exhibits have brought out some very desirable seedlings, each listed under the owner's name. Some of the seedling nuts have averaged about two inches in diameter, and 12 year old trees have produced as much as 50 pounds of cured nuts. The largest Persian walnut tree found in Indiana is at Lafayette, it being 12 inches in diameter and possibly 40 feet high. This tree has been fruiting for the past 15 years. There are probably five or six bushels of nuts on this large tree at the present time. This tree was placed as a yard tree for its ornamental value and for the fruit. Numerous persons have inquired about the Persian walnut as a specimen tree in their landscaping program and the demand far exceeds the supply. As many of the elms, oaks, and some chestnuts are going out from disease troubles, the Persians may be used as a replacement. The food value of the walnut compares very favorably with that of other native nuts, according to Dr. A. S. Colby, of the University of Illinois. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- % Water % Protein % Fat % Carbo- % Ash No. Calories hydrate per Pound Persian walnut 2.8 16.7 64.4 14.8 1.3 3305 Black walnut 2.5 27.6 56.3 11.7 1.9 3105 Hickory nut 3.7 15.4 67.4 11.4 2.1 3495 Pecan 3.0 11.0 71.2 13.3 1.5 3633 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Nut Data Important in Classification Three students enrolled in Horticulture have classified several of the seedlings. Paul Bauer, 1947-48, and Edward Burns and Gilbert Whitsel, 1949-50, have been using such information for their special project work as graduate and undergraduate students. These workers found a difference in the habits and performance of the seedling trees and two such examples follow. Nut Data Sheet 1. Common Name: _Fateley No. 1_ 2. Scientific Name: _Juglans regia_ 3. Source or Owner: _Nolan Fateley_ City: _Franklin_ State: _Indiana_ 4. Average Size: inches 1.7x1.8 5. Average Number Per Lb.: 23 6. Average Wt. Each Nut: 15.8 _gm._ 7. Shell Texture: _Wrinkled and furrowed_ Crackability: _Very good, thin shell_ Separation: _Very good_ Average Wt. Per Nut: 7.1 _gm._ 8. Kernel Color: _Light tan_ Quality: _Very good, bland_ Average Wt. Per Nut: 8.7 _gm._ 9. Percent Kernel: 40.5% 10. Remarks: _Exceptionally large, well formed kernel, appealing taste. Bore 50 lb._ _1949. Tree set as 1 year seedling 1939._ (_Carpathian strain._) Nut Data Sheet 1. Common Name: _Fateley No. 3_ 2. Scientific Name: _Juglans regia_ 3. Source or Owner: _Nolan Fateley_ City: _Franklin_ State: _Indiana_ 4. Average Size: inches 1.3x1.54 _long_ 5. Average Number Per Lb.: 34 6. Average Wt. Each Nut: 12.3 _gm._ 7. Shell Texture: _Smoothly wrinkled_ Crackability: _Very good, paper thin shell_ Separation: _Very good to best_ Average Wt. Per Nut: 6.9 _gm._ 8. Kernel Color: _Light tan_ Quality: _Good, desirable taste_ Average Wt. Per Nut: 6.4 _gm._ 9. Percent Kernel: 54.5% 10. Remarks: _Fairly large, well filled, attractive shape and size with a thin shell. This seedling placed first at the Indiana State Fair and the State Nut Show, 1949. Tree medium in size, planted as one year seedling in 1939. This tree bore 24 pounds of cured nuts in 1949 and has been in good production for 7 years. (Carpathian strain.)_ The descriptions given of the two Fateley trees are typical of some of the forty seedlings coming from various parts of Indiana, as shown in the following list. The distribution of the Persian walnut to the public depends on the ability of the nurserymen to propagate and list the available varieties or unnamed seedlings. There is a great demand and a wonderful opportunity for the hardy Persian walnuts all over the Middle West or where apples will produce, not only for the nutritious fruits but for the ornamental value and for something different. Indiana Counties with Carpathian Walnuts Under Observation and Test (North to South and West to East on Map) Northern Porter (on Lake Michigan) Elkhart (adjoins Michigan) La Grange (adjoins Michigan) Kosciusko Whitley Allen (adjoins Ohio) Miami (Peru here) Wells Central Tippecanoe (Lafayette here) Carroll Howard Grant Delaware Henry Wayne (adjoins Ohio) Marion (Indianapolis here) Rush Johnson (Franklin here) _Southern_ Greene (Linton here) Monroe (Bloomington here) Brown Gibson (adjoins Illinois) Pike Posey (adjoins Illinois and Kentucky) Vanderburg (Evansville here) Warrick Spencer (Rockport here) Harrison (Last 5 counties are on Ohio river, opposite Kentucky.) DR. MacDANIELS: Is Mr. I. W. Short of Taunton, Massachusetts here, or does he have his paper here? MR. McDANIEL: I haven't received it. There is a paper here, however, "Notes on Nut Growing in New Hampshire," by Matthew Lahti of Boston, Massachusetts. Mr. Wellman. MR. WELLMAN: This is very short. It is just a report of bad winters in New Hampshire. Mr. Lahti I knew in Boston. His farm is in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, about 75 or a hundred miles north of Boston. Notes on Nut Growing in New Hampshire MATTHEW LAHTI, Wolfeboro, New Hampshire I will bring up to date my experience on nut growing in Wolfeboro, N. H., and supplement my reports for the years 1947 and 1948. We had late frosts this spring, so that there is not a peach on any of my peach trees this year. This may also account for the fact that there are no black walnuts either on the Tasterite, the wood of which has withstood the winters very well, or on the Thomas. The Thomas black walnut which I reported in 1948 as having suffered no winter injury the previous winter, apparently did suffer considerable damage, which became evident later. It has borne no nuts since, and there is a lot of dead wood this year and the leaves are sickly looking. I am afraid that the tree is going to die. The filberts, Medium Long, Red Lambert, and No. 128 Rush x Barcelona, which started to bear in 1947, have since then borne a few nuts each year, but the crop is not heavy enough to recommend them for planting in our climate. While the wood suffers no winter injury, the catkins for the most part get winter killed and, consequently, there is a very sparse crop. What is needed for northern latitudes is a filbert that will ripen in our fairly short growing season, and whose catkins are immune to winter kill. The Winkler seems to be more hardy than the others, but the nuts do not ripen. This year even the Winkler catkins were killed, although the catkins of a wild hazel growing nearby were not. I have two Crath Persian walnuts planted in 1938 which are the survivors of perhaps a dozen seedlings. These two trees have shown no injury. One is bearing seven nuts this year for the first time, and the other one, bearing for the second year, has 80 nuts on it at the present time. Last year the squirrels got all the nuts so that I could not evaluate them, but I will take precautions to save some this year. The Broadview Persian walnut has thirty nuts on it this year, but the wood of the Broadview definitely is not hardy in our climate. Summing up my experience with the various nut trees as previously reported, I would say that our climate is not suited for commercial nut growing, but for home use named varieties of butternuts and hickories that crack out easily and possibly one or two of the Crath walnuts should give satisfactory results. My chief difficulty with hickories has been the poor union at the graft, resulting in slow starvation and death in a few years. I have only three left out of approximately 25 trees that I have planted. MR. CORSAN: A professor from the University of New Hampshire wrote to me that they were very much interested in planting a nut arboretum. Does anybody know what result came of it? I sent them some hybrids of the Japanese heartnut (female blossom) crossed with our native butternut (male blossom). DR. MacDANIELS: I guess they are somewhat interested. They have very little possibility of growing very much except the butternuts, and sometimes hybrid filberts. MR. WELLMAN: I have a friend who is up a little farther north than that, in Woodsville, and they have been urging him to set out filberts for wildlife food there, and he has shown me some of those that he has started. It's been quite a movement up there. I don't know how wide. He has about a hundred seedlings that are used for propagation by the state. Is the Farmer Missing Something? JOHN DAVIDSON, Xenia, Ohio (Read by title) The farmer is a specialist; a producer of edible crops. Like any other specialist, his thinking tends to be channeled along the lines of his specialty, to the exclusion of other lines. For example, the average farmer probably knows little and cares less about teleology, metaphysics, or, let us say, forestry. He is a farmer. He makes his living by raising crops. And yet, a better knowledge and practice of forestry will not only make him a better farmer wherever he is located but, in certain locations, this knowledge and practice is absolutely essential to his continued existence. In a recent decision of the U. S. Supreme Court upholding a decision made by the Supreme Court of the State of Washington, a principle has been approved which may have a profound influence upon our future well-being. It affirmed the constitutionality of a Washington State law which requires the owners of land used for commercial logging to provide for its reforestation. Such a law is novel indeed. What? May private owners of the earth's resources not use or destroy them as they see fit? The court, in effect, says they have no such right. In the court's own words, the "inviolate compact between the dead, the living, and the unborn requires that we leave to the unborn something more than debts and depleted natural resources. Surely, where natural resources can be utilized, _and at the same time perpetuated_ for future generations, what has been called 'constitutional morality' requires that we do so." The New York Times, in commenting upon this revolutionary but perfectly sane decision, says: "Time is truly running short; the annual cut of saw-timber, with natural losses, is 50% greater than annual growth.... If the individual forestland owner is too lazy, short-sighted, or indifferent to act, the Federal Government will have to enter the picture." It is a complex picture. The American farm owner is, by every implication, also involved along with the forestland owner. He, too, has a duty to the unborn, but it is an opportunity as well as a duty. It is only because of what J. Russell Smith calls his insane obstinacy, that the average farmer is now operating a one-story agriculture in place of a two-story agriculture. If he were thinking and doing more about his debt to the unborn, he would also be serving himself better. I am convinced that the farmer is the key man in forest husbandry. And the best way to interest him in tree planting is through his specialty--through _crop_ production. A _two-story_ agriculture! Tree crops along with other crops! The farmers' education along this line has been very inadequate. We have been very stupid. Can we never learn to begin, as Hitler began--as the Russians are even now beginning--with the nation's children? Perhaps we are learning a little. It is heartening to know that school and community forests are fast increasing in number, notably in New England. When fully used and well managed, they can work a revolution in the thinking of the young people who are so fortunate as to have some of their schooling out in the open. These future American leaders are learning at first hand through the ways of the woods how to make the work of their hands live far beyond the span of their lives. Perhaps, as the result of this training early in life, a new interest among the farmers will emerge and some of our sins of omission will be remedied. As a planter of trees for the future, the American farmer, both of yesterday and today, has notoriously, thoughtlessly, and disastrously failed both his children and himself. By all standards, he should be the first-ranking tree planter of the land. As a matter of fact, it is practically impossible to interest the average farmer at all. State experiment stations and forestry departments make some effort to stimulate interest in the planting of trees by furnishing seedling stocks of forest trees at nominal prices and by issuing occasional bulletins. However well intentioned and, within their limits, well done these bulletins may be, the fact remains that in proportion to their numbers, farmers are still not notable planters of trees. Perhaps one reason for this failure is that most of the literature upon the subject seems aimed at lumbermen, and not at farmers. As to the bulletins which are aimed primarily at the farmer, examples of advice on forestry which is given in these rather too specialized and somewhat near-sighted publications are typically of the following kind: "Fence off the woodlot and never pasture it," "Use your best land for field crops; your waste land for trees." "You are interested in nuts? You can not have nuts and timber, too." It is evident that these rules are prepared by foresters--not farmers. Is it any wonder that the inquiring farmer finds them rather frustrating? It should be remembered that practices which are valid and helpful in the care of an already existing forest or woodlot where mature growth is periodically harvested and where young sprouts are encouraged for replenishment may be of little use in the management of an entirely new planting of certain kinds of trees where cultivation, at least for a time, is necessary. Deep-rooted trees, for example. Such rules have been of little use to me in my own planting of American black walnuts upon an Ohio farm. Indeed, to have followed them would have been disastrous. My planting is not large. It is modest enough to be within the power of nearly any farmer. It has been treated as a farmer would treat it, without too much pampering. We now have a few more than three thousand trees planted upon forty acres. Most of them are now fifteen years old. Here are some of the things we have learned in fifteen years from our trees: 1. Trees spaced 80 feet apart in good deep soil have not made as much growth as seedling black walnut trees spaced 8 feet apart in rows 20 feet apart, also in good soil. However, these wider spaced trees are grafted pecans and Persian walnuts. 2. The seedling trees which stand in good soil have made surprisingly good growth. Some better than 8 inches diameter, breast height. One measured tree has grown 7 feet 1/2 inch this year to date--Aug. 20. (No fertilizer used, but cultivated.) Those which stand in shallow, thin soil are dwarfs, worthless. Walnuts have deep taproots. They need deep, rich earth. 3. Trees grown from planted seed make the best timber trees. Upon the other hand, if production of known quality is the primary objective, grafted trees of known varieties must be planted. The seedling _of good parentage_ is an exciting gamble. It may be, and usually is a commonplace producer of nuts. Upon the other hand, it is more likely than the tree of poor parentage to win a place among the named varieties, set aside for propagation by budding or grafting upon other stocks. 4. Walnut seedlings like human beings tend to show marked inherited trends, erratic and undependable though they may be. Thus, seedlings grown from vigorous and upright trees _tend_ to be vigorous and upright. Conversely, trees of poor parentage, either as timber or nut producers, will tend to reproduce the poor characteristics of their parent. This is more markedly true where the parent tree stands isolated from the pollen of other walnut trees of the same species. 5. I have found no real evidence that walnuts of our planting are toxic to other trees standing immediately beside them. To test this, we planted a few apple, peach, and plum trees in the walnut rows. They still stand literally arm in arm. This is, of course, all wrong. No tree should be so crowded. The apple trees monopolize space by excessive lateral growth. The plums send up unwanted shoots from their roots. The peach trees are passing out. Two or three of the apple trees are half dead. Others still live, but I am not very hopeful that, after the walnut trees are more mature, any of the apples will survive. The usual diseases and insects, plus shading by the walnuts seems to account for most if not all of the dead trees to date. 6. Grass growth is excellent right up to the trunks of all of the trees. It has never been necessary for us to lose the use of the land upon which the trees are planted. While the trees were young, of course, no pasturing was permitted. The land between the rows was cultivated. In these strips we raised berries and other crops. Now that the trees are tall enough to be beyond the danger of damage from livestock, we graze the pasture under and between the trees. No damage is evident from trampled earth (the walnuts are deep-rooted) and the hazard of fire is eliminated because there is now no need to mow excessive grass, weeds, or brush. 7. The most precocious seedling walnuts began to bear nuts at about 7 years of age. New bearers are coming in each year. All are still counted as adolescent trees, yet, last fall, picking up the nuts from none but trees marked for their better quality of nuts, we gathered some 40 bushels of nuts in the shell. 8. Today, we can count about 2,000 walnut trees which promise to be of good timber quality 35 years hence. At a reasonable estimate, 1,000 trees will then survive, be 50 years old, be worth $50.00 each, at present prices. Total, $50,000.00. This represents an annual increment in value of $1,000.00 per year for the 20 acres which are closely planted to black walnuts. Can the average farmer _save_ that much in his lifetime? Can even the exceptional farmer do it on 20 acres? With as little investment of money and work? If so, how? Any farmer can do as well, or better, without losing a single immediately productive acre. Why doesn't he? The answer is in the very nature of the farmer's business. As has already been said, he is primarily a producer of food. If trees stand in the way, he chops them down. He has always chopped them down. It has become a habit. If the farmer is to be persuaded to change his ways and turn to planting trees, instead of destroying them, I repeat, the entering wedge into his interest will be, I believe, through dual-purpose trees--trees for food crops, as well as for timber crops. Of these species, the black walnut of eastern America is probably the most outstanding one of all, at least in the mid-section of America. The butternut--"white walnut"--flourishes better in the north. The chestnut is another--a tree almost literally raised from the dead by the efforts of a few miracle workers like Dr. Arthur H. Graves of the Connecticut Experiment Station, who, with others of his kind, has been in the throes of producing a blight-resistant, tall-growing hybrid timber tree out of the bushy Chinese chestnut, a producer of the sweetest of nuts. The pecan, too, is being pushed northward. Great groves of wild pecans have firmly established themselves along the Ohio River. Their timber is fair; not wonderful. The mulberry tree is still another. The American species produces a timber which is remarkably durable under ground. Its fruit is not sufficiently appreciated. It makes an unsurpassed jam or jelly or pie when combined with a tart fruit like the cherry, grape, or currant. And who does not know the precious wood of the wild cherry? Its rosy warmth of color is the pride of the "antique" connoisseur; its fruit beloved by birds and squirrels; its juice, the secret of the cherry cordial. Even that foreigner, the Persian "English" walnut, of Carpathian strains, is pushing north into Canada and the East Coast region. Its wood, too, under the name of "Circassian," is famous for its figured beauty[3]. [3] Some of the "Circassian walnut" is another genus, the wingnut (Pterocarya).--Ed. One might go on and on with a list of trees and tree crops easily available, mostly native, all of which should be both figuratively and actually right down the farmer's alley. Perhaps the education which can come through the agency of many school forests will in good time turn the attention of young and impressionable minds to the potential wealth to be found in the trees. Normally, the young, who, of all people, should be forward-looking, are least concerned with the long-term future. They are not given to making plans or building estates for their grandchildren. As a consequence, the planting of trees is traditionally taken over by the aged, or at least by the mature. This is all wrong. The young farmer who plants interesting trees is preparing for some of the most exciting and prideful moments in the years which follow. And he is also building, at low cost, and with little labor, a priceless estate. How to Lose Money in Manufacturing Filbert Nut Butter CARL WESCHCKE, St. Paul, Minnesota Inasmuch as there are so many words of wisdom and advice showing the reader how to make money in different ways, I have started a new line of caption with the hope that it might serve as a warning for those who would stick their necks out, as the term applies to those people who venture beyond safe margins of restraint. Since this is a recital of facts, and since Professor George L. Slate has requested me to report on my experiences, I submit the following for what interest it may hold for the readers. Most ventures are backed by optimism of some sort or other, coupled with some experience, capital, hopes, and ambition. The project which sparked the entrance into the manufacture of filbert butter was the success that I was having with hybridizing our best native hazels with the best known filberts, such as crossing of the wild American hazel with Barcelona, DuChilly, Italian Red, Purple Aveline, Red Aveline, White Aveline, also filbert strains from J. U. Gellatly of Westbank, B. C., Canada, and strains from J. F. Jones, hybrids, European strains of filberts from the Carpathian mountains, and any right pollen which could be obtained from known filbert parents. Today we have over 2,000 seedling hybrids of which between 500 and 600 have come into bearing. Some of these are really surprising varieties of the combination hazels and filberts, but a complete history of the hybridization work and the results really deserve a separate account to be published some time in the future. I merely mention this because the success of these plants in producing nuts leads me to contemplate the future production of these hybrid nuts, called Hazilberts,[4] on a large scale. [4] Another coined name, by Mr. Gellatly, is "Filazel." My problem was to engineer a scheme whereby I could interest farmers in setting out small acreages of these plants and guarantee that there would be a market when the plants produced nuts, which would be in about three years from the time they were planted. Seeing that the filbert producers in the west were struggling for a better market, since conditions were not too favorable for the filbert in its competition with the foreign nuts and the California produced Persian walnut, I decided that nuts in the shell were a little bit old-fashioned. Many of our prominent members of the NNGA have from time to time advised the marketing of nut kernels rather than nuts in their natural containers, and I thought a step in the right direction would be to manufacture a ready-to-eat product from the kernels. And what could be nicer than a butter similar to peanut butter? So I began scouring the market for a grinding machine that would grind filberts to the consistency of a smooth peanut butter. My first machine was a Hobart peanut grinder. When buying this machine the mistake I made was to let the agent of the manufacturer demonstrate how good it was to grind Spanish peanuts; I should have had it tested on filberts as they are much tougher, even though they do carry more oil. This machine was installed, but it was a complete failure and I decided to buy more expensive machinery, and also put in a cracking plant and buy the nuts by the ton or carload, if necessary, directly from the growers on the Pacific Coast or through their organization, the Northwest Nut Growers. I located a satisfactory machine for the purpose, which required about 7 horse power to run. Since this was during the war and no motors of the right speed and power were available at the time, I set up my own generating plant, using a 25 kilowatt generator driven by a Diesel engine which generated direct current so that I could use direct current motors which I already had among my machinery supplies. Then a separating machine, which required a 10 horse power motor just to operate the fan, which is part of that equipment, was purchased. Also, a nut cracking machine was secured from a West Coast manufacturer. Along with tanks and containers and other necessary equipment, all set up in a little factory building I had available for that purpose, I commenced the manufacture of filbert butter on a commercial scale. The product was declared by every one to be excellent. We were quite sure of this since we had taken pains to buy up any product that purported to be a nut butter, and had tested those products in many ways to assure ourselves that we had a product superior to anything that we could find on the market at that time. The Owens Illinois Glass Company designed our label and gave us the benefit of their experience with containers. Then we placed our initial order for glass containers and re-shipping cases. Every detail in handling this material was properly taken care of, to insure that if the orders came rolling in we would be able to supply the demand and have our shipments reach the consumer in first class shape. Then we initiated an advertising campaign, coupled with sampling, and received many fine letters which encouraged us to hire a salesman who sold the product to the stores in the Twin City area so as to have proper distribution. Advertising was done also in two national magazines, so we sat back, hopefully anticipating the big orders that we were soon to receive. The reorders from the local stores came in slowly, too slowly for our set-up. We received suggestions from the store keepers and from other persons that perhaps the product was too high priced, so we made experiments in other towns where we set the price so low that there was no profit. In fact, there would be a loss of money were we to do business on that basis. Yet there was no stimulation of sales due to this reduction in price. Many good suggestions came in; among these was the suggestion that the product lent itself nicely to an ice cream topping; by mixing it with honey or with syrup we interested our largest manufacturer of ice cream in this locality and he did a lot of experimental selling. He was very cooperative. He also sold it in his branch stores as milk shakes; everybody liked it. No complaints whatsoever except that the manager said it was too expensive to compete with a chocolate flavor on which he made much more money. Finally this whole thing fizzled out and was discontinued. The next experiment was with candy; as a candy center it was one of the finest tasting confections that had ever been made, but the oil which would ooze through the chocolate coatings prevented the practical use of it. You see, the filbert has about 65% oil, and when it is ground into a fine, creamy butter, this oil will come out and sometimes be an inch or more in depth over the top of the butter in the glass container in which it was marketed. So we investigated several methods by which we could eliminate the oil. We could pour it off and sell the oil separately; we could emulsify the product with the addition of certain emulsifiers, so as to keep the oil mixed with the starch and protein of the filbert nut. We tried many ways; there is only one method that we haven't used and that is to combine solidified or hydrogenized peanut oil with the filbert butter in order to prevent this liquid oil from rising to to the top of the product. The reason we did not do this is quite apparent--we did not want to mix peanuts and filberts, as we considered peanut butter a cheaper and inferior product. We could not hope to compete with peanut butter with the prices already set for peanut butter recognized by the trade. Among the products that came to our attention, however, was one which had both filbert butter and solidified peanut oil in it. When we tested this product among many of our friends, they declared it tasted too much like peanut butter. It spoiled the delicate, fine flavor of the natural filbert butter (which we were marketing without adding any sort of seasoning, and without roasting the product the way peanuts are roasted before they are ground into butter.) Now, if any of you readers think that we have left out something important which would have insured the success had we done it that way, we would certainly like to hear from you, or we have some nice machinery that we will sell cheap in case you want to experiment with it yourself. I would be the last one to condemn the future possibility of producing a commercial nut butter, and yet it is strange that the only successful nut butter is not a nut butter at all. Peanut butter is not a nut butter because peanuts are a legume like a pea or bean. To my knowledge, we do not have any nut butters on the market today with the exception of the cashew nut butter, which recently had a distribution in our locality, but which seems now to have run its course much as our products did. We bought the cashew butter and tried to interest everybody to use it, just to see whether it was any different than our product in its popularity. In our meager tests we found that the filbert butter was slightly more popular than the cashew, since the cashew reminded people too much of peanuts again. It was also very expensive. However, there must be a way to make a satisfactory butter out of filberts or hybrid nuts, as they carry the hope of the cheapest nut product, which is fundamentally necessary to manufacture a popular food item. The method of propagation of the Hazilbert is by layers instead of grafting--layering is a cheaper and more satisfactory method. Also, the nuts are the most satisfactory to crack as they have no inner partitions which would require intricate machinery to extract the kernel. Their keeping quality is excellent; we have tested this out over a number of years, and filbert butter properly processed will easily keep a year without turning rancid or having an unfavorable flavor. The tonnage of nuts that can be produced on an acre of land is unbelievably high. I have measured individual plants and their production, and the area that they covered, and it is safe to say that we can expect to produce a ton of nuts in the shell per acre in favorable locations on good deep soil. Even at 10c per pound for the nuts this is a good return. New methods of gathering the nuts after they fall from the involucre or husk are being discovered and improved by the western growers from time to time, so that the old expensive method of hand-picking is being eliminated. This should make the filbert even cheaper to harvest. It is not my intention here to discourage the manufacture of filbert butter, but to point out the difficulty that I have had personally to promote the idea in a commercial way. Neither is it my intention to stimulate too much interest in the planting of the new filbert varieties which are still under test. I feel that it is necessary to test a plant for at least a five-year period before it can be singled out as a plant to propagate. We have not yet reached the point where we care to sell these plants, as much better ones might crop up among the untested plants, which number over 1000, and which have never yet had a chance to bear so as to show what they can do. At some future time I expect to write an article on filbert hybrid culture (Hazilberts) for the whole central, north, and northeastern part of the United States, and at that time I believe that tests will have progressed to such a point that recommendations can be made. DR. MacDANIELS: There was one more paper that the Secretary has that was not scheduled, from Mr. Elton E. Papple, of Ontario. Title, "Filberts, Walnuts, and Chestnuts on the Niagara Peninsula." Filberts, Walnuts and Chestnuts on the Niagara Peninsula ELTON E. PAPPLE, Cainsville, Ontario My brother and I have been interested in growing nut trees for some time, and have had some interesting experiences and some success. A few years ago, Mr. Slate sent us from Geneva some varieties of filberts which he considered quite hardy. We purchased some from Mr. Gellatly in Westbank, British Columbia, some from Mr. Troup, Jordan Station, Ontario (near Vineland); also from J. F. Jones Nursery, then in Lancaster, Pa. Mr. Slate sent us scionwood and we grafted these scions in the spring and layered them shortly afterwards. By the following spring they were rooted well enough to be planted out in the nursery row. This gave us our material to work with, and about the third year we started making crosses between different varieties. The first year we obtained quite a few crosses, and had a good number of these seeds to germinate in the spring after taking from stratified storage and planting them in the nursery row. These trees have now started to come into bearing, and they promise to be better than their parents in some instances. We made a number of crosses since, but we have been very busy and the young trees of these crosses have just about perished through neglect. In this last lot we had a cross of the filbert on the beak or horn hazel[5], and of a cluster of three, had one to grow, which in turn was promptly eaten off by a rabbit or rodent of some description. The reason for this cross originally, was that, so far as we could see in the last fifteen years the male catkins never winter-kill; whereas filbert trees are subject to this hazard. Some of the filbert varieties have the ability to withstand changeable weather and not lose all of their catkins. Others will winter-kill in the wood as well. We have removed all our Barcelona and Du Chilly trees because they winter-killed almost one hundred percent. [5] Corylus rostrata.--Ed. With the experience we have had with filberts, we believe that before they could be commercialized, it would be necessary to have hardy catkins that will withstand changeable weather: not altogether resistance to extreme cold, but to temperatures that vary from warm to freezing in a few hours. A mulch does help where the warm period is for a short duration; but last winter we had a week or more of warm weather in January, with rain and then a cold snap. Even then, some of the catkins on the German varieties and others came through fairly well. Selection of varieties for machine cracking or eating from the shell should determine varieties one should grow, but hardiness should be the key factor in selecting varieties. The following table shows some of the crosses we made. Most of these seedlings have borne a few nuts to date, but we cannot give anything definite as to whether the catkins are hardier than those of the parents. Table of Crosses: Female Male Italian Red Medium Long " " Red Lambert Medium Long " " Cosford " " " Vollkugel Comet Cosford " Vollkugel Craig Red Lambert Gellatly Vollkugel Carey Red Lambert Fertile de Coutard " " Barcelona Vollkugel Seedling (W) Red Lambert " (E) Vollkugel I would like to make a few remarks on our heartnut and Carpathian walnut trees. Most of the heartnut varieties came from B. C. and we think that Mr. Gellatly has some of the best obtainable anywhere in North America. The Bates heartnut from J. F. Jones Nursery seems to be very hardy here, and quality of nut is very good. We have found--comparing a heartnut rootstock which grows two weeks later in the fall than some of our black walnuts--that the same variety of heartnut will live one hundred percent on black walnut stock and winter-kill severely on the heartnut rootstock. We believe that the root system for the north, either heartnut or black, should be carefully selected for its growth habits before considering its use as material for rootstock in grafting or budding. I might add here that we also found that if the variety of heartnut was not hardy, it did not help any in regard to hardiness to use black walnut at the rootstock. There is a good crop of heartnuts on the trees here this year. In grafting Carpathian walnuts on black, we found that some varieties graft or take more readily than others. Also some would give a better union. The Broadview winter-kills with us, but it is not hard to graft it almost one hundred percent. We have quite a number of the Carpathians bearing and they seem to be quite hardy, of good size and quality, and bear every year. As the catkins were killed on all but one variety, due to the unseasonable weather experienced last winter, there will be only a light crop. The hardy variety has late blooming male catkins which might account for its catkin hardiness. It is of good size and excellent flavor. Possibilities for commercial planting of these Carpathian varieties in the north appear promising in favored localities. Our Chinese chestnut trees seem to be hardy and this year have produced a few burs for the first time. We have planted out about sixty young trees this year and they are all growing nicely. The weather has been wet and just the thing to get them started. Our hickory trees, which we grafted, are growing well and we set some more out last year. When we started grafting hickories, we had one hundred percent failure, but kept at it until we got almost a perfect take. The hickory seems very slow in forming a union. A lot can happen to the graft before it gets started. Filberts graft as easily as apple. Our findings in grafting nut trees are that any amateur can graft apple trees, but nut trees are something different. We have a number of odds and ends besides what has been mentioned. Being a member of the N.N.G.A. has helped us in growing nut trees, and the information in the Annual Reports should help anyone who has just become interested in growing nut trees. The information is up-to-date and fairly accurate. All one has to do is apply his findings to his own planting. MR. CORSAN: Doctor, in that same neighborhood is a man who called on me who has a nut aboretum of 40 acres on Grand Island in the Niagara River. That's above Niagara Falls, of course. I thought he'd call again, but I didn't get his name, or at least I have lost it, and what do you think he is growing in the way of nuts? Can anybody guess: A MEMBER: Coconuts! A MEMBER: Peanuts! MR. CORSAN: I am growing coconuts in Florida--but on that one 40-acre tract on Grand Island, New York--he lives in Buffalo--he is growing evergreen nuts from Swiss stone pine (_Pinus cembra_), Korean pine, Philippine pine, _Pinus Lambertiana_, _Pinus Monophylla_, _Pinus edulis_ and Digger pine (_Jeffreyi_). He is growing these evergreen pine nuts, and he says he is making very good success of it. MR. STERLING SMITH: Chas. F. Flanigen is his name. He's a member. MR. WEBER: I'd like to ask the members, or those present, whether they have failed to sign the registry of attendance. DR. MacDANIELS: That ends the formal program this afternoon. It's always been a criticism that things are too crowded. We have an opportunity now for about half an hour to visit, look over exhibits and then later on we will meet at six o'clock at The Stone Chimney. (Whereupon, at 4:35 p.m., the Monday afternoon session was closed.) MONDAY EVENING SESSION DR. MacDANIELS: Without any question at all, I think, the most important single consideration in determining the planting of nuts is the matter of varieties, and I know that Dr. Crane has some ideas along that line which he wishes to develop, and without any further talk on my part, I will introduce Dr. Harley Crane, United States Department of Agriculture. (Applause.) Nut Varieties: A Round Table Discussion H. L. CRANE, Chairman DR. CRANE: Mr. President, members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association: I think it is, without a question of doubt, of the greatest importance that we consider this question of varieties. After all, a variety of any plant, in my opinion--which I think can be well supported--is the most important thing that anyone can consider when it comes to planting or developing a nut tree or a fruit tree or anything in the fruit line. We can cultivate and fertilize and spray and do everything that is needed to be done today in a modern fruit or nut orchard farm, but if the variety is not suited to the climate, if it is not a good variety, all our efforts that we make towards developing a good tree and bringing it into fruiting are wasted. I know that every one of you appreciates old varieties of corn and just what has been done in our new varieties of hybrid corn, how hybrid corn has changed the variety situation. Now it's hybrid this and hybrid that, because hybrid varieties are generally superb. Now, at this time in our nut work we are a long way yet from growing good hybrid varieties, and I feel that there has been an effort on the part of a lot of people to capitalize on the word "hybrid," because hybrid corn has been such a success; and we figured that by carrying it over into other plants, particularly the nut trees, we would get the same remarkable performance from hybrid nuts that we do from hybrid corn. But that is not the case. We will come to that some day in the future, maybe--not in our lifetime, but we will have hybrid varieties, because, after all, our great improvements that have come in most of our plants, in corn and in wheat, and in other plants, have come through the mixing of the genes, or the characters that we have differing between species. In our nuts, now, with the exception of hicans, we are still dealing with pure species, and most, if not quite all, of our hicans are worthless at the present time, largely because of sterility. A good variety is the most outstanding thing that a horticulturist can get or can have, because of the fact that it does have the character in it which will make good growth. It will set a lot of nuts, it will carry them through to maturity and it fills them, and if a variety doesn't do that, it's not a good variety. Then after we get the nuts filled, cracking quality, eating quality or oil content, and all these things come next. Now, this brings us next to the very important consideration of how are we going to get a new good variety? Well, we can do that by selecting from seedling nuts, or we can make controlled pollinations, crossing different varieties, or varieties of different species, planting the nuts or growing new trees and then selecting out of them those that have the desirable characters. But the first thing that we have got to do after we have either selected the nut or made the hybrid and selected the nut is to evaluate the nut as to whether it does have the first character, or proper characters, that we ought to have in the nut. Does the crop ripen evenly? Whether it hulls readily or comes free of the husk is a minor consideration, provided that the nut itself has the desired characteristics. By that I mean, does it have a good, large kernel which is well filled and bright in color, or good flavor free from any objectionable characters? How about its shell, percentage of shell in relation to kernel? Those are some of the things that we have first got to consider. That's what we can do in holding our contests to find good varieties. Those are the ones submitted by growers and others. They are in competition with nuts from other sources, and then the committee, or someone, goes over and rates them, and places them, just as has been done by Mr. Chase and others in their Carpathian walnut contest for members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. Now, at the present time we have no standard method for evaluating the nut. It's the opinion of the judges that do the scoring or rating which determines the placing that the nuts get. Well, now, that's one of the things that we members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association have been working on for a long while, but we still haven't arrived at any definite place. Well, then, what's the next step that we take up? The next thing we do, some growers find out that a Persian walnut from Mr. Shessler, for example, placed second in the contest this year. They will get some scions from Mr. Shessler, or somebody else, and they will make a few grafts and grow some trees, and then they will make a study of these nuts and find out how well they do and what they are like under their conditions, and that's about as far as it goes. Well, now, we cannot continue to do that kind of a job, as I see it. If we go back over the reports of the Northern Nut Growers' Association we will find that this matter of varieties is discussed in a very large majority of the papers that have been presented. But those that have taken part in investigations and in advising the public, like those in the Extension Services of the colleges, those teaching in the universities, those doing research, like myself, anybody who has to answer correspondence from would-be nut growers, almost always get the question, "What variety should I plant?" Then they put it up to me or Dr. McKay, or Dr. Colby, and think that you could just name right and left, and they ask, "What varieties shall we plant?" They put you right down on the spot. Here you are, you are supposed to be a real expert, know all things, and they are asking you for advice, and they will take that advice and carry it out. Now, today it puts a fellow in an awfully hot spot, because as you read the reports of the Northern Nut Growers' Association you find that there is absolutely no unanimity of opinion. Every grower is absolutely certain in his ideas, and they are different from every other grower's. Well, you can't recommend them all. It's really impossible. Now, this is one of the things that the Northern Nut Growers have been dealing with all of these years. This is the forty-first annual meeting. You'd have thought in 41 years we'd have come up with something, but we haven't yet. Now, I feel that it's about time that we stop and take stock of our situation. I am not going to do the talking tonight, I am just making a few suggestions and trying to direct the thought a little bit. But one of the nuts that we have done so much with and have said so much about in our reports is the black walnut. It's very interesting to read the reports on varieties of black walnuts and how those who have grown black walnuts differ in their opinion, regardless. Well, I don't know. When I get a letter coming in from most anywhere in the country wanting to know what variety of black walnut to plant, do you know what I tell them? MR. CALDWELL: Let them find out for themselves. DR. CRANE: No, sir, they will never find out, not in their lifetime. I tell them to plant Thomas. Thomas, Thomas Thomas! Why? MR. KINTZEL: Because we know more about that than any other. DR. CRANE: That is right. I expect there are four or five times as many Thomas walnuts propagated and sold by nurserymen in the United States as all other varieties. MR. CORSAN: It always has a bigger crop, too. DR. CRANE: It bears, that's one thing. It may not always fill, but Thomas is a good variety. But we in the Nut Growers' Association haven't the nerve to come out and say the Thomas is a good variety. It has its faults. I know I am going to be wrong in a lot of cases by planting Thomas. MR. CORSAN: But don't plant it outside the peach belt. DR. CRANE: Well, the peach belt is an awful lot of territory. I know I am going to be wrong, but I know I am going to be safer with Thomas variety than I would be with some of the others. Now, I think that it's time, and I think that the biggest thing that the Northern Nut Growers' Association can do is to give very serious thought and take action at this meeting some way looking towards the Association's giving consideration to methods and means whereby we can properly evaluate varieties that we have that are growing so that we can recommend and tell others the varieties that they should grow. You know, here is the situation exactly. In the territory of the Northern Nut Growers we don't have a commercial industry at the present time. I doubt if there is a single family of the Northern Nut Growers who are here that depend on the sale of nuts for their living. Well, when your living depends on something, you take an awful lot of interest in it. And that has been true in the case of apples, for example. I don't know how many there are, but twenty years ago or more there have been fifteen or sixteen thousand apple varieties that have been described and have been planted and propagated, and you can name all of the commercial apple varieties grown in the United States almost on the fingers of your hands. That is, the important ones. Oh, the list has grown, would probably take in 200, but that 190 hardly make a drop in the bucket as compared to the ten big ones. Well, the same thing is true with peaches. The Elberta peach just is completely outstanding. It's a big commercial peach. Now, in all of the Association here, almost every paper that is presented always has some commercial aspect mentioned in the paper, but we could never have any commercial industry as long as we are fooling with a lot of these varieties with nobody giving them the serious consideration that they deserve, in an effort to properly evaluate them. This evaluation of a variety is our problem. I have given an awful lot of thought to it over the years and how to get around it, how to come up with the proper answers within the near future so that we can be of help to others and stop a lot of our amateurs, those who are attracted to the industry, from making mistakes and getting discouraged. That is the problem. And that is the thing that I want all of you to be thinking about tonight and help us with the suggestions. Now, we could just start almost, I expect, in dogfights, if we were to conduct this round table to get to discussing the different qualities or desirability or other aspects among varieties, and each fellow would be right, because I know there wouldn't be agreement. It would make an interesting round table, but I don't know how constructive it would be. So I have tried in these preliminary remarks to get you to thinking about this problem, of evaluation. Now, there is one other way that we could go about it. For years we have had in the Northern Nut Growers Association a group of officers that are known under the title of State Vice-Presidents, and I think if you judge by their performance in the past, the main reason that we have had these State Vice-presidents is that we were attempting to confer some honor on somebody, the honor being in having them so designated and their names published as State Vice-presidents in the proceedings. In many cases their performance hasn't warranted that honor, because, after all, a vice-president is supposed to be a working vice-president, not an ornament. The ornament is supposed to be the president, if we have any such thing. At least, that's what I have heard. I have never been president. And I have thought that if in the consideration of our State Vice-presidents we select the ones who are particularly active and very much interested in this variety problem and in the Northern Nut Growers' Association, that we might take up this variety problem and get us information by two ways. One would be through surveys made in their states by contact with the growers, either personal contacts or by letters. Then those reports could be assembled, and we could have our variety committee over all, so the Association could attempt to evaluate. That would be one start. Another thing would be that our State Vice-president in collaboration with the President, would appoint a state committee. Now, we have a lot of growers in some states that are vitally interested. In Pennsylvania, for example, and in Ohio and New York we have a lot of growers who are members of this or state associations that are vitally interested in this thing. You have a State Vice-president appointing a committee in collaboration with the president of the National to evaluate the variety situation as it exists in their state. Now, we would expect them to do some honest work on this thing and come up with a report in which the different members could agree. Then we would be nearer getting unanimity of opinions. We have got to get this some way so that we can agree upon what we do with the answers to individuals better than we have been doing in the past. There may be some error to this. Well, you see, I know that some of you must be familiar with the New Jersey Peach Testing Association. I am not sure just what the name of it is, but it's something like that. A MEMBER: New Jersey Peach Council. DR. CRANE: It has been a great power and a great help in regard to the selection and evaluation of peach varieties in the State of New Jersey. In New Jersey the experiment station has had a peach breeding program going for a number of years. They have done outstanding work, and they have brought out some very good varieties. Well, the station has selected the good ones and discarded the poor ones, or what they thought were the poor ones. They call in members of this Peach Growers' Council, and they have the peaches evaluated. They are passing them on to the fruit growers. "Do you think, in your opinion, that this would be a good peach for us to grow? Is it better? Does it have better flavor than other peach varieties?" They will, out of that group, select some of these new ones, maybe. Then the New Jersey Experiment station will see to it that the trees of these varieties are propagated, and they are given to the members of that Association in order that they can plant them under their conditions and grow them to fruiting and see how they do. Well, then, this committee still continues to evaluate them, and if the members of the Association say, "Well, that's a variety we should grow," then they will grow it. If they feel it isn't as good as some they already have, they throw it away and that's the end of it. But they don't clutter up the variety situation with a lot of poor stuff. And they make profits, because always two heads are better than one, even though one is a sheep's head, as the old saying goes. Well, when you get four or five or more in a group and they agree, you can be sure that their opinion is far better than five individual opinions or judgments. I am very anxious to see that tonight we agree in open discussion of this whole variety evaluation problem and that we start work some way, somehow, towards working out some means whereby we can properly and more effectively and more quickly evaluate our varieties than we have up to this time. Now, that's the end of my story. The talk and the rest of it is up to you folks. Mr. Anthony and Mr. Sherman have been working over here in Pennsylvania. They have found a lot of new material known only to a few people. They are just wringing their hands over there to know how in this wide world this stuff can be evaluated, the good saved, and that which is not worthy of doing anything with, well, "just pass it up" and let it go. That's the way we make profits. Their experience is no different from all the rest. We have nut growers with whom I have had correspondence in years past who want to propagate material that this Association should have flatly condemned years ago, because the majority of the group here knows it is worthless, but they just haven't done it. Now, it's time that we change this thing, or I will tell you frankly in a lot of ways the Nut Growers' Association has become a social institution, rather than one which we learn from and recommend practices to the new groups that are coming on to keep them from making mistakes. Now, I have talked from the bottom of my heart tonight, and I want some of the rest of you here to express your opinions and give suggestions as to how we might do that. MR. WEBER: Dr. Crane, I think I will start the ball rolling, and I think Ohio has taken the lead in the very thing you have been talking about. It's the Northern Ohio group. They have been very active in finding out the better nut varieties that were suitable to Ohio conditions, both the black walnuts and the hickories. They have conducted contests, both for black walnut and hickories. They practice what they preach. They have traded their information. They are up in the northern part, and I am down in the southern part, too far to be included with them, so I am not blowing my own horn; I am blowing it for the other fellows. And I think they are a worthwhile group, and if you look to the membership in this Association in Ohio, I think it has the largest membership. And you get that Northern Ohio group, they test out varieties, and a man will fight for a particular one in his group against the variety from another. And so they are not afraid to stand up and say what they think. But having done that, we need the aid of our different state agriculture groups. You must have a place where they can go and put those trees on a testing ground so the people can go there and see them. You can go there to this Ohio experiment station and you will see this variety growing, or you go over to the other branch and see this variety growing, and then when they find the state has taken it up, it gives them confidence more than a fellow blowing his horn for one variety against another variety. You have to get the members in their own states to form their own local organizations and carry out what you have been talking about here and find out in their particular states which are the best varieties. And then you get a starting point, and each individual state's agricultural experiment station should take it up, follow it up, if they have the funds. Where if one individual gives his mite and then his health fails or life fails, why, he has contributed his mite, and it will be perpetuated. But if it's on my place or someone else's place, the next fellow doesn't appreciate it, and if they need the wood handy, down comes that tree. It has no memories from then on, and it's not perpetuated. So I think some of the Northern Ohio members--I think Mr. Smith is here, are there any other members? Silvis--deserve a lot of credit. MR. McDANIEL: I would like particularly to hear if the Northern Ohio group has got together on a discard list. Have they agreed on any one variety they don't want to plant? MR. STERLING SMITH: I am glad you brought out the black walnut. I am more familiar with it than with other species, and I have been personally thinking along your line for several years. We have in black walnuts probably over 200. I started to count them up one time. I got 196, and I know there were more than that, I don't know how many. And among those nearly 200 varieties of black walnuts I am confident there must be 150 at least that aren't worth being grown--that is, in Northern Ohio. They may be good in some other places, or they may be worthwhile for experimental purposes. But to grow them for commercial means or for home use, they are not good varieties. And I have suggested to different ones eliminating them, or trying to work out, say, maybe 25 or 50 and then from those 50 try to pick out ten. There has not much been done on it. There is a lot of difficulty in a situation like that. DR. CRANE: That's right. MR. STERLING SMITH: Here is one thing: What one person has varieties which correspond with what his neighbor or somebody ten miles down the road will have? We will take Grundy, for example, or Rohwer, some of those. Two or three of them might have that, but the ten or fifteen other members in the near vicinity won't have that variety. That's one of the difficulties. And I have thought personally that there should be some sort of committee set up along the line you suggested, not necessarily on state lines, but more on zone or regional lines. DR. CRANE: Yes, sir, that's what I mean. MR. STERLING SMITH: Because those suitable in Northern Ohio wouldn't necessarily be suitable in Southern Ohio, and so with any of the states along that tier of states. And I think there should be some type of committee set up to judge these different varieties as far as we can, and also to enlarge their testing plan. Mr. Shessler, I believe, has somewhere in the neighborhood of 100 under test, maybe three or four of the same tree. For myself, I don't know exactly what I do have, somewhere between 40 and 50 varieties, but there are only about 10 or 12 of them bearing. And I have of late years started working on that line, having sort of a test orchard, having one or two trees of the several varieties so I can find out what to plant. Not too many years ago I was in the position of the amateur who wanted to know what to plant. Should I plant Stabler, Ohio, Thomas? It was just like you spoke about concerning the inquiries that you have. I have earnestly read all the reports and have earnestly looked where I could get them in time for the current year. I read so I would know what the new varieties are and what different people's opinions on them were. And I think there should be a central committee, probably like you suggested. And another suggestion I would like to make would be that before we permit, as far as possible, any further new varieties of black walnut to be mentioned or published, that they be passed upon by several of the members, oh, maybe ten of the members, at least, to learn what their opinion is before they are mentioned. Lots of times one or two persons have a good opinion of the nut, and immediately something is published about it, and as you say, immediately a half dozen fellows write for it, as in your Persian walnut contest. And it would be better if that nut weren't allowed to be named until it has been passed upon by a qualified group of, we will say, experts. And that same condition should be carried out with the Persian walnut and the hickories and northern pecans and other groups of nuts we are interested in. MR. CORSAN: I'd like to suggest that we get started on this matter of varieties, because we can say an awful lot and then say nothing. I have tested a great many varieties of black walnuts, and as soon as I hear people talk about the Stabler walnut, I know they know nothing about nuts at all, because the Stabler has a crop on it only about once in twenty years, and then it's a small crop. It's a very good nut to eat and crack, but it's not for crops. As this gentleman says, the Thomas. We all know the Thomas. There is one point about the Thomas, you have got to keep it within just the northern limits of the peach belt where the peach will grow. There are years that come around when the Thomas will not mature. The frost will come on. It has a very thick outer shell, the hull, and the hull comes off the nut itself quite clean. And then we hear people talking about the Ohio. Now, what about it? Well, it's a monster nut when you look at it on the tree, but knock the thick hull off of it, the strong, sturdy hull, and there's only a little nut in it. Yet you have something that cracks well enough. The nuts I would condemn right away are the Ohio and Stabler. No doubt about it. Now the Cresco, very, very rich! That tree will actually kill itself, just overbearing. You know a tree can kill itself. Some people kill themselves having 24 or 30 children, but that's about what that tree will do. Then we have the nut that years ago I saw, the Snyder, and I said to Mr. Snyder, "Look, it's a sure nut." He said, "Never saw it." He looked at it, examined it, and it's a marvelous nut. I think I have the backing of our friend, Mr. Gilbert Smith. I think he'd back me in saying that that is one of the best nuts in the world, even with the Thomas. But we don't quite want to reduce--comb down the list of varieties like the apple grower has. When you go to Boston and ask a peddler or hawker about "apples," he won't know what you are talking about. Apples?--they wonder what the word is. It is "McIntosh." They will go around the street shouting, "McIntosh, McIntosh." You won't hear the word "apple" in Boston, it's "McIntosh." Now, let's get down to nuts, and let us know our nuts. MR. CALDWELL: (New York State College of Forestry.) I suppose this is my first time at a meeting of this sort, and probably I should observe with a critical mind. But when you speak about a committee to pass upon varieties, immediately I start wondering exactly what you mean by a variety, and then I start wondering what your approach is in picking that so-called variety. First of all, a "variety" that you use is not really a variety. It is just a vegetation of one particular tree that you happened upon. You decided by chance it was a tree you wanted to use and then passed it around to your friends and decided you want it. DR. CRANE: I want to correct you, for one reason: It is truly a horticultural variety or clone that has just as much standing or identity as the botanist's or forester's "variety." MR. CALDWELL: It is a clone, and I agree with you, but a variety seems-- DR. CRANE: You are speaking from the forester's point of view. * * * * * MR. CALDWELL: That's why I make this other statement. DR. CRANE: When you have got something by controlled breeding, you don't know when you have got it. That's the whole story in a nutshell. Now, I am going to tell you about using controlled breeding. We started almond breeding in California, where we have one of the biggest commercial nut industries in the country. We started almond breeding in 1920 with the best known almonds. In the 30 years of almond breeding we have introduced two varieties. We had a panel of 125 commercial almond growers who decided on those two varieties out of more than 20,000 known controlled crosses that were made of trees that were grown to fruiting. But it took a panel of 125 commercial growers to determine whether or not these two varieties, the Jordanolo and the Harpareil, were commercial varieties. Those two varieties were planted. The nurserymen planted them, the grower took them over, and they couldn't grow enough trees to supply the demand. These two varieties have been introduced for commercial planting now for 14 years. Of the two, one has stood the test of time, and it stands now as probably the second most important almond variety in all the United States, has been taken to foreign countries and is being extensively propagated. One of them made the grade, the Jordanolo. The Harpareil is still in the running, but it is down with the 30 or 40 varieties that are of lesser importance. MR. CALDWELL: Can you reproduce that result? DR. CRANE: No. MR. CALDWELL: Then you don't know what that is or the happenstance that got it. DR. CRANE: Certainly, because you don't know about breeding nut trees. MR. CALDWELL: That's what I say should be learned. DR. CRANE: In the first place, the chromosomes are so small and there are so many, that you can't identify them, and you can't tell which genes, and they have got a heterozygous population, and the variety is self-sterile and has to be cross-pollinated, so there is only one way from a horticultural standpoint by which we can do anything, and that is through clones. DR. MacDANIELS: I think we are getting a little bit off. DR. CRANE: We are off, way off. DR. MacDANIELS: How to get a new variety I don't think is what we are trying to decide this evening. As I have looked at this whole field of what we are trying to do, I think we have analogies that we can point to. I think any project of this kind in nut varieties goes through various stages. The first is finding what material there is that is available that you can use. The next is the evaluation of that material to see what's worth keeping, and setting up your standards of what you are trying to get, and then from then on out perhaps breeding that sort of thing. Now, as far as we are concerned, it seems to me the Northern Nut Growers' Association made a pretty good stab at surveying the materials available. In other words, I think an additional nut contest is not going to turn up the perfect nut. That is, we have one contest after another, and the ones that win the first prizes as the best nuts we can find are not markedly better. There is no great difference away from the average that we have had in the others. I think that's a valuable thing to keep going along so we don't miss a trick and let anything be lost. But the next thing is to take these things that we have selected and evaluate them, and it seems tome that's exactly where we stand at the present time. I also think that we should not in this situation get ideas that are too big. That is, if you get something that's impossible, you are licked before you start. If you have got to wait before you do anything and make a complete study of chromosomes of any one of these nut trees, 99.44 percent of the Northern Nut Growers Association might as well quit doing it. I am not capable of doing it, and Dr. McKay is probably the only one that is capable of looking at these things from that standpoint. But we have, it seems to me, to use the machinery we have and take some definite action which will be of some value within a year or perhaps two. I agree that this idea of putting the State Vice-presidents to work is a very good thing. I think each one could if we could find the right man--take his state and divide it into two parts, and also take in groups of growers of nut trees that are members, and all the others that we can find, and get their pooled opinions on what varieties are available, together with the record of these varieties in that particular locality. Then I think on the basis of one of the committees we have, that is, our standards and judging subcommittee, we could set that up in such a way that they could evaluate things about which there is some doubt. But before we do that, we have got to clear the decks and adopt judging standards, standards by which we wish to work or to evaluate different varieties. I don't know whether anyone else has done more judging than I have or not, but I know I have given this a lot of attention through the years. We had one system of judging which was worked out some years ago and was based on previous judging systems, and they went to a point where it seemed to me and to the others who were working along with me that they just didn't have any real basis in the factual situation that warranted its continuance; that is, a system which was based on percentages of kernel and penalties for empty nuts or flavor, and other things which could not be effectively measured. And they quit with that system and started out on a new tack. And to do that we got Dr. Atwood, who is head of the Department of Plant Breeding Genetics at Cornell, to go through some extensive tests which he applied as a biometrical statistical method, to find out what is the sample which will give you specific results and then to measure the qualities that give you what you want. And I think we are nearer that than before. But I think the schedules are relatively simple and haven't been used to any great extent. They need further testing. But it seems to me that the Association as such must decide whether we want that schedule, making it an official schedule and going ahead on that basis. Now, a judging schedule for nuts will not tell you anything about the tree; it will just tell you the characteristics of the sample. That's the first thing you want to find out: Is the nut itself intrinsically the type of thing you want to deal with? Then whether the tree bears annually or whether it alternates, or what diseases it is subject to. Those are other matters. So I think this is a way out, or at least I suggested the plan we could go along with of putting the vice-presidents to work and setting up a committee under the title of judging and standards and try to bring out a report at the next session. It seems to me that would be right practical. Where we go from there in production of new varieties I think should be a subject for a round table discussion sometime. I think the gentleman in forestry has a good idea. I think we will get a long way if you have proper control of the first elements of the first varieties, and from them we can build up. But it seems to me we have to be practical about things that we can do, then go ahead and do them. DR. CRANE: Thank you, thank you. DR. COLBY: I would like to add one point, that we must "zone" all these varieties. In a state as long as Illinois, over 400 miles long, growing conditions are different in the south than in the north. In the north we don't find that Thomas fills out very well and that's true also at Urbana in the central section of the state. Beck and Booth and some of the smaller nuts do fill out. The zones I mentioned may well run across several states where environmental conditions are similar. I recall a little survey I made when I was honored by being president of your association several years ago, in which I tried to list all of the work that was in progress at the different national and state experiment stations, and most of those stations were carrying on some work in nut growing. I am sure that if you check that matter now, several years later, you would find that many more are carrying on investigations of that nature. They have expanded as much as their facilities will permit. For example, just the other day I visited the station at the University of New Hampshire, and there they were growing chestnut trees from seed that had been brought in from Korea. Little trees just two years from the seed were full of burs this year. Whether they are going to fill a place in New Hampshire remains to be seen. They were not as yet attacked by blight, but, of course, the trees were small, and there were no cracks in the bark as yet. I am sure that most of the station workers know that you at Beltsville are extremely interested in testing new nuts as they become available. In cooperation with other workers it may be found that this variety is good in ~this~ zone and that variety is good in ~that~ zone. Nurserymen might well include maps of such zones in their catalogs. DR. ANTHONY: Now that the experiences of the Northern Ohio growers has been brought up and you have mentioned many times your own experience as the Northern Nut Growers, I think the Northern Ohio group, a closely knit group, rather closely geographically related, has worked for almost twenty years, and hasn't gotten too far, and this organization has worked for 41 years and hasn't gotten too far. So that if we want to get anywhere, we must have a more closely knit organization with a better financial backing back of it and a better sense of responsibility back of it. DR. CRANE: That's right. DR. ANTHONY: You have mentioned the New Jersey Peach Council. We have been talking to our own Pennsylvania nut growers just as we have been talking to you today, telling them that they had a marvelous opportunity in all of these seedlings that we have been finding around the state. I think we have got them quite stirred up. But now they are considering the possibilities of organizing along the line of New Jersey Peach Council, a nut tester's council, which will be an off-shoot and part of the Pennsylvania Nut Growers Association. Now, why have such a thing? Why have it in Pennsylvania? Why not have it as an organization of the Northern Nut Growers. The problem of varieties actually in its final analysis is a local problem. We have one area in Pennsylvania where on one side of the river it's McIntosh and the other side of the river it's Stayman. There are meteorological differences on each side of the Susquehanna River at Scranton-Wilkes Barre where the varieties shift. In the northern area we go from the northern hardwood with the beech-birch-sugar maple, into the oaks right in the state, with a third of the state in the northern hardwoods and the rest of the state in the oaks. We have no idea that any one variety of black walnuts or English walnuts or chestnuts will fill our needs any more than we know that any one apple will fill our needs, that one grape or one cherry will fill our needs, even one peach, not even the Elberta. So it comes down to a regional problem, and for that reason I think that the state should be the logical center for your close knit organization to test your varieties. There is another reason. I don't believe that any group of growers facing a problem of this magnitude can get very far unless you secure continuity by tying your organizations in some way to your state experiment station. I think you have got to have your continuity by making your tie-up there. DR. CRANE: That's right. DR. ANTHONY: I have said a number of times in our own group that one of the great disadvantages of our amateur nut growers in Pennsylvania is that most of them are 70 years old or older. That's fine for them, but it's hard on the industry, because just the time that they should be giving us the most valuable returns, they aren't there. So to secure the continuity you want, you are going to have to tie in your experiments with the experiment station. You are going to have to make a group, you are going to have to incorporate, because you are going to face the problem of propagation. You might have one good tree, and it's of no value for you, and you have got to plant it in more than one spot to know how good it is. If the Delicious apple or Grimes Golden had appeared in our seedling blocks, we'd have thrown them away. I know we have thrown many things out at Geneva which in other places might have survived. We took a number of those and planted them in Pennsylvania and found them worthy of naming. That means you have got to propagate in more than one place and you have got to propagate in conditions where you know you have got the demand. And all of that means that you have got to have a tight legal organization. Valuable as the Northern Nut Growers Association is, I don't think you are going to get it out of your present organization. I think you have got to find some way to condense your stuff into some tighter organization. In Pennsylvania I think it's going to be a nut tester's council, legally organized, financially responsible, tied up to the experiment station, if we can make it just as the New Jersey council is. The New Jersey council was a success because they had the best possible tie-up between Morris Plains, 15 or 20 miles on the other side, and a good nursery in between. That's why they made a success. The New York State Fruit Testing Association is a success because they have had continuity. Mr. King has been manager of that association for 25 years, I think, and you have a legal organization doing its own propagation where they know the material is true to name. Use your vice-presidents all you can, use every committee that you have but you have to have something that's tighter. DR. CRANE: Thank you. Just one comment that I want to make. You have suggested an awful big camel to get over. Now, we are trying to start. If we could just get a little start towards the end we could grow into it. DR. ANTHONY: We have got to start. MR. O'ROURKE: I am one of those unfortunate ones who is supposed to know everything when an inquiry comes in to the college. I happen to have the privilege of answering the nut inquiries at Michigan State College. The first thing people want to know is, "what varieties do I plant?" The second is, "Where do I buy them?" I am very sorry to say I can answer neither one of those questions at the present time satisfactorily to myself, nor to the people of the State of Michigan, and I feel that we do need action, and we need it quick in order that we can select a certain number of varieties that we can conscientiously recommend to the grower, and also a very few varieties to recommend to the nurserymen of the state so that they will propagate them and make them available to prospective customers. MR. SLATE: I want to support Mr. Anthony's remarks that there are too many old men testing nut tree varieties. DR. ANTHONY: Not too many, no. MR. SLATE: And there are too many squirrels involved. If a man gets the idea that he is going to take up the nuts, by the time he accumulates a collection of nuts, when these come into bearing the squirrels get most of the nuts, and they don't seem to be very much concerned about evaluation. Then the man dies and the collection goes to pot. There must be some continuity, and as far as I can see, that will have to come through state experiment stations. Now, just how you are going to get the experiment stations started in testing nut tree varieties, I don't really know. Many of the projects at the experiment stations are there because they are catering to the larger industries in the state, and sometimes the projects are there because somebody in an administrative position has an idea which he wishes to see developed. Now, I would like to comment on the remark of our forester friend here, and I think he won't take offense at what I am going to say. It seems to me that the foresters are not in a good position to criticize the horticulturists. The forester's knowledge of variety improvement for a long, long time has been based upon the problem of lots of seed from certain geographical areas, and I feel sure that foresters as a class have only very, very recently become aware of the importance of the clone as we use it in horticulture. Now, horticulturists, that is, pomologists, nut culturists, people who deal with ornamentals, have been keenly aware of the horticultural clone for a long, long time. There have been brought improvements into our cultivated plants through the hybridization of clones that all of the horticulturists are familiar with. The blueberry work done by the Department of Agriculture is probably the most striking example of this work, because it was all carried out during the lifetime of one man. I feel that we will not get much further in searching for wild nuts. We have had contests for hickories and black walnuts, and I doubt whether we have made any very substantial increases. I feel certain, and I know there are a number here who will back me up, that future improvements, if they are to be really substantial--that is, if they are to be substantial advances over what we already have--such improvements will have to come through breeding work. DR. McKAY: Mr. Chairman, I have been listening to these remarks, and I have been trying to think of some comment that could be made in connection with some practical suggestions that we could arrive at tonight, a starting point, perhaps, in connection with the chairman's remarks about doing something tonight at this meeting. I'd like to say that it seems to me that the thing we could probably do right now to start things off would be to have this regional committee or this group that represents a wide area, decide on, say, five varieties based on all the evidence that can be obtained as to which five would be most likely to succeed over a wide area. Now, the chairman has commented at length on our lack of unanimity when it comes to varieties. I think most of that problem has come out of the fact that our information is all based on little, piecemeal bits of work done here and there, and it does not refer to variety testing over a wide area. Now with all due respect to Dr. Anthony's remarks about varieties being a local situation, we still have, as mentioned by the chairman, the apple situation. The varieties in the final analysis are going to be adopted over a wide area, and if our nurserymen and all our growers could know or understand that these five varieties have been selected by opinion of people that ought to know that those five varieties stand the best chance to succeed over a wide area, then we would have something definite to tie to. The way it is now, we in our office feel that Thomas is probably the most widely adapted variety of black walnut we have, and probably the best performing variety. We are not sure, but that's our opinion. I might mention another variety, the Stabler. I think most people would agree that that is a variety that used to be thought well of, yet is no more, and so it is out of the picture. Those two varieties we have information about, based on a wide area of territory. Now, it seems to me, coming down to something specific, what we could do here, or as soon as we can get to it, would be to have a large committee, a committee representing opinion over a wide area, come to some conclusion about the five varieties that will be the ones to test and to grow over a wide area and give our nurserymen or our growers something to tie to in the matter of selecting varieties to grow. DR. CRANE: Thank you, Dr. McKay. There is one other comment that I want to make. I think that if we were to take a vote tonight in here, get an expression on the variety Stabler, we'd say, "Yes, it's a curious nut, it's a curiosity. Some trees sometimes bear single-lobe nuts in varying proportions. It is a fine nut when you get it, but they don't bear enough and they don't bear regularly enough. That is the criticism of the Stabler." Yet we have nurserymen, lots of them, that are propagating Stabler and still selling them to people. MR. McDANIEL: I know one nursery which has recently discontinued it. That's Armstrong, way out in California. MR. CALDWELL: Why doesn't it produce a good nut? Can you answer that question? DR. CRANE: It does produce a good nut ~when~ it produces. MR. CALDWELL: If it doesn't produce all the while, why doesn't it? If you can solve that-- DR. CRANE: Why didn't you grow up to a six-foot-six guy weighing 250 pounds? MR. CALDWELL: It would be physically impossible for me to do so with my constitution, which is what I am trying to apply to the nut trees. MR. WILKINSON: Don't condemn it over all territories[6]. At my place, the Stabler produces nuts as regular as the Thomas, and in the nursery it outsells the Thomas two to one, if not more. I have handled nut sales for Mr. Weber's orchard, one of the largest black walnut orchards in the United States. When the people come there we will crack a Stabler walnut to make a customer out of them, and we have to get on to something else to keep them from buying all the Stablers first. And if I were planting a hundred walnut trees today, the majority of them would be Stabler. They have been bearing since 1918 when I started producing Stabler walnuts. [6] The territory giving best reports on Stabler lies along the Mississippi and Ohio rivers from about Cincinnati to no farther south than Memphis.--J.C.McD. DR. CRANE: That's what we are talking about tonight. MR. CALDWELL: Yet your committee throws the thing out. MR. CHASE: I'd like to say a few words. First off, I am in agreement with the idea of some sort of a regional testing set-up. Now here we are getting into discussion about individual varieties, and that is not the purpose of this, as I understand, but all of you gentlemen have been propagating the various varieties simply because one has become available to you at a certain time, and you have grafted it. Our committee on varieties, of which I am a member, probably should be criticized, because we have not gathered that information from the folks who have grafted trees, and they are scattered over the region. We don't need the regional set-up, it's already set up. In other words, if we have varieties to be tested, we could have selected members in our group to graft it, if they do not already have it grafted. In a few years we can get some pretty definite information on a few varieties. Now, in 1938, in our work we recognized the advisability of quickly doing something about the 100-and-some varieties existing in the proceedings, and finally we have culled that down to, I think, 43, which, on the basis of nut characteristics only, are very close together. Now, we started out in 1938 and established four or five test plantings containing the first ten varieties. Ten trees of ten varieties, a hundred trees in the planting. It took quite an area. Since that time we have set out variety test plantings of 43 varieties scattered over seven states at various geographical locations within the seven states. MR. KINTZEL: How many trees do you have in a planting now? MR. CHASE: Twenty-five now. Twenty-five of five varieties. This work is being carried on at the state experiment stations in the Tennessee Valley. In fact, they have become more and more interested in the testing program which we have been trying to get them interested in, and we hope to have some information for our region on some of these varieties, the better varieties as we consider them. But back to this problem. I think it is very simple to set out. I think the Varieties Committee--I believe Dr. Crane is chairman-- DR. MacDANIELS: You are chairman. MR. CHASE: No. It has a job on its hands: first to find out what our members have. Certainly they are spread over the region we are interested in, aren't they? Well, it simply becomes a secretary's job to canvass our membership to find out which varieties we have, so that the Varieties Committee can go to work. Let's be realistic. We are not going to influence all the experiment stations to do this work. It is not going to be practicable for them. They probably would very much like to do it, but it's not in the picture, as I see it now. Therefore, we are not going to wait, as our forester would have us wait, until we breed one. Let's get these good ones that we have got and cull them out so Dr. Crane can answer a letter without having a guilty conscience. DR. CRANE: That's right. Folks, I want to make one comment on Mr. Chase's remarks--also Mr. Slate's remarks, about tying this work up to the experiment stations. There is one thing that, in my experience, we can't place too much dependence on. Of course, in the Department of Agriculture our main interests that we are likely to contend with are our four major nut industries in the country. That is pecans, Persian walnuts, filberts and almonds. In the case of those, we can get very little help from the experiment stations, with the possible exception of California. MR. CORSAN: There is lots of truth in that. DR. CRANE: They haven't got the interest in it. They haven't got the money, they haven't got the support. They depend more on the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Well, the Department of Agriculture can't carry it. Hence, it comes back to growers. The grower organizations, even in the great state of California, with all their great wealth and abundance, go to the California experiment stations more than to any other experiment stations in the United States. But the commercial growers out there have already set up organizations for the testing of these varieties and for trial plantings. You can't come back to the experiment stations and just as has been pointed out, many of the experiment stations have only one or two or, at most, three different kinds of nuts of their own. They have got to go out just the same as we do ~with the growers~; we co-operate with them. And we have already got a lot of these experimental plantings. There is Sterling Smith with--I have forgotten how many he said--60 walnut varieties, and Mr. Shessler with a hundred, there in Ohio. I'd like to know from Sterling Smith and Mr. Shessler which are the best five walnut varieties. MR. KINTZEL: In that section? DR. CRANE: In that section, that's what I want to know. MR. CORSAN: That's what we are here for tonight. Let us talk it over. MR. WEBER: Put the question to him, Dr. Crane, and let him tell you what he thinks to be his best five. Put him on the spot right now. DR. CRANE: That would be just a waste of time, because that would be his opinion. It's just like what Mr. Wilkinson says, that if he were planting a hundred walnut trees they would be Stablers. MR. WEBER: In his particular locality. MR. CORSAN: And he may be quite right in that locality. I am not going to dispute it. DR. CRANE: But we want to know how some other folks agree with him and study this situation over and find out why Stabler was doing its stuff right there. MR. CALDWELL: That's what I asked you. DR. CRANE: And how much evidence did he base his conclusion on? That's what we have got to discover. MR. CORSAN: I base my conclusion on the experiment station that put out the Redhaven peaches. Dr. George Slate here has made a very big point, and it went to pot. Those words there are what we have got to be careful about, that our institution doesn't go to pot. I have started affairs that went with a fury, and when I let go of them, they just went to pot. Take Michigan State College's Bird Sanctuary, the W. K. Kellogg Bird Sanctuary. What is it now? A colorless affair. It's gone to pot, and we want to see that the nut growers don't allow ~their~ institutions to go to pot. DR. CRANE: That's right: You hit the nail on the head, there, but it's up to the nut growers to see that they don't. And how many experiment stations or their actions have been influenced by the Northern Nut Growers Association? MR. CORSAN: I have built upon the experience of J. F. Jones and Neilson and Professor Slate and all of them. Now, here is what I did. I picked out a section of land that floods every spring, about four times the width of this room and has sometimes eight feet of water. Now, nobody is going to build houses on that and tear my nut trees down. They are there forever, and it will always be a nut haven, and nobody will be able to destroy it. Now I have got to be careful to see that it doesn't go to pot, as Professor Slate said, by selecting some brains to succeed me, to carry on. Is that right, Professor Slate? PROFESSOR SLATE: (Nods.) MR. SILVIS: We can't spend too much time thinking about the atomic bomb. We can't think too much about getting an organization to start this, it just takes somebody to go ahead and do it. We don't need experiment stations to develop the nut, either. The nut was here a long time before the experiment station was ever developed. I wrote in a letter here two or three or maybe four years ago--I think it was after the Norris meeting, to every vice-president in NNGA that commercial possibilities of a nut must first be apparent before any experiment station is interested, because then money is involved, capital has been invested. Before capital can be invested must come coordination. Coordination is labor. That's grafting or flowering, or whatever you want to call it--back-breaking exercise. I still think we have the organization here. We don't need to argue about any more organization. We have organization right here in our own State Vice-presidents. I tried to bring that out, the suggestion as to the fact that I thought maybe the State Vice-president would serve on a perpetual committee, if he lived into perpetuity, to get these zones within his state. If Illinois is 400 miles long and he has 16 zones of climate, let him get 16 plantings of the same kind of a nut in those 16 zones. The same way with Texas, the same way with Montana or Ohio. MR. SHERMAN: I think both Mr. Stoke and Mr. Davidson thought that it might be a good idea to give somebody a job instead of an honorary position by naming a State vice-president for that sort of a job. Now, we have got to start somewhere, and that would be a good place to start: give somebody something to do, like some of these other dead people that will feed these nuts that Corsan was telling us about this afternoon. But the commercial possibilities are always apparent. You can subsidize them, you know. If you can get enough money behind it, you can subsidize it. I think our problem still is the same as it was before: We are still trying to find out what the other guy has that's better than our own. And if we have got five nuts that are any good, I'd like to know about them myself. DR. CRANK: That's right. MR. SILVIS: I will make this statement in favor of the Homeland black walnut--if we are on black walnuts. I came in a little late on account of the mud here. The Homeland is growing in Massillon, and Mr. Stoke sent me the scions. All it did was produce staminate bloom. I gave some of the wood to John Gerstenmaier in Massillon. It is doing very well. I also favor the Thomas black walnut, and I think the hickories and everything else have commercial possibilities. Just let somebody go ahead and correlate these factors. Life is very short. I have copies of these letters, four letters out of 50 or 60 that I prepared. DR. CRANE: Mr. Jay Smith. We are going to have to limit this to not over three minutes' time. MR. JAY SMITH: My experience is somewhat limited. I have a few seedling trees that are good, and I have a few named varieties that seem to be good. I just want to point out one reason why we should have a number of varieties. One of my choice varieties in my back yard has five nuts on it this year, and it has produced a good crop other years. And the answer seems to be that the pollen came out during a period of very rainy weather and the tree did not fertilize. Now, other trees apparently blossomed before or after, mostly after, but this one was a rather early blooming tree, and I have more nuts on other types of trees. One of my good seedling trees has very few nuts on this year. Possibly that might be for a similar reason. So regardless of how good these varieties may be, we must have several varieties. Don't put all your eggs in one basket. I have some good filberts that came from Geneva, and they have had trouble with wood damage due to the beetles laying eggs in the wood, and the beetles may possibly have come from nearby willows. And I have had some of the willow growing, too, because I thought it looked nice. Now I have cut down all of the willow, and there is some birch in the neighborhood, and I understand the birch harbors this same thing, some variety of Agrilus beetle,[7] and we have a lot of angles to work on in order to get rid of our drawbacks. And we have the matters of season and soil and elevation. It's quite a big problem. [7] Agrilus anxius Gory, the bronze birch borer. DR. CRANE: It ~is~ a big problem, but we will never settle it the way we are going. We have got to do better. MR. STOKE: I don't know whether I have anything that is really pertinent to say. The thought I had in mind should have come sooner. That is: Why are we growing nuts? There are two angles from which we can approach that, two natural angles. Here is the angle of the amateur that wants to grow nuts to eat. After all, that's what I suppose they are for. There is the commercial grower who wants to grow them to make a profit, and I think we should approach our subject, evaluation of nuts, from either one of those two angles, or work along two different channels. I think that's very necessary. You take the Elberta peach. If you want a peach in your back yard, you are not going to plant Elberta peaches to eat. If you want to make a commercial success, you are going to plant the Elberta, if you know anything about it. Are we commercial nut growers, or do we grow them for home consumption? Go downstairs and look at the nuts we judged last year and the eye appeal of some that didn't rate at all would sell those nuts ahead of the prize winner. But if you want to grow them to eat, those three prize winners are the best nuts down there. And if we thrash over this field, I think we have got a definite idea of what we are after, and I think we should have had that to start with. DR. CRANE: That's right, and there is one other point of view, too. There is a third reason for growing nut trees. That is simply for the ornamental value. That hasn't been dealt with. MR. WELLMAN: I'd just like to ask a question. There has been some reference to apples here. I don't know very much about it, but I understand that the American Pomological Society got out a list of apples nearly a century ago, which they have kept changing and adding to and subtracting from over all of that time. Is there any analogy there that would help us in anything we can do? They made mistakes and put apples on there that they are sorry they put on and they have had to take off. People don't use those varieties in one part or another part of the country for some reason. Is there any reason why we shouldn't follow some suggestion such as that, stick our necks out and go ahead? DR. CRANE: That is right, no reason in the world why you can't. MR. SHERMAN: I'd like to do some commenting. You are doing here tonight what you have done at the last meeting. You have talked varieties. I thought the purpose of that was to get a committee appointed some way, some organization that will say, "Here are certain varieties that should be tested. Make arrangements to propagate those varieties and have them tested." I made a demonstration right downstairs here; some of you witnessed it. You have got some black walnuts that you are cracking. I went out to the car and got some that would crack in four nice quarters that laid out. I tried it again. Sure, they cracked and cracked good. Where can I get some trees? There are a lot of you right here who would take them just that quick (snapping fingers), take them home and test them. This meeting was to get an organization or discuss a means of getting an organization that will get those trees propagated and spread out for testing. Now, I think it's just as simple as A, B, C. It's a prolonged job. You have got to have an organization that's going to perpetuate itself for the next century, because if you start that organization right it will be here a hundred years from now, and you will be just as busy a hundred years from now as you are right now. What that committee has got to be, whether it is a statewide or a nationwide, Northern Nut Growers or Pennsylvania Nut Growers or Ohio Nut Growers, is a committee of five--I will say five, you can make it 10 or 15--that will say, "Now, for Ohio here are ten varieties that we think should be tested. Get 50 trees of each of those ten propagated and spread out over Ohio and find out where they will grow." That will apply for some of Western Pennsylvania, too. It isn't just state lines, understand, but the main thing is to get that variety tested before your nurseryman is spreading it all over everywhere. And how can you get it tested? You have got to have some trees propagated, and you have got to have some nurseryman who knows about the propagation. And I will say a lot of you nurserymen, and there are a lot of you here, take it or leave it, don't know how to propagate a decent black walnut tree. I have had them sent to me with a 6-inch sprout growing in the top of a club. I have had others two years old with a nice whip five feet high, one-year-old growth. You have got to have good trees. You have got to have a nurseryman who knows how to propagate those ten and send them out. Now, the next meeting was to find out what sort of an organization you have got to have to get that done, not talk about a Stabler, whether this is good or that is good. That's what you have been doing for 40 years. MR. SLATE: It takes more than a committee, it takes land, labor, tools, supervisory people. MR. SHERMAN: I can point to 25 members that will take ten varieties that they will test--and pay for them. MR. O'ROURKE: I would like to say, are we going to wait until we test all of those varieties? We have no information to answer all those letters that are coming in. We want something, not tomorrow, we want something today, that we can give them, information which, at least to the best of our knowledge of today is accurate. And the only way we can get that accurate information is to get a committee together in each region. MR. SHERMAN: That won't take care of the future. That will answer our present questions to the best of our knowledge, but we want an organization that will take care of the future. DR. CRANE: There is one other thing that I should mention. We in the Department of Agriculture have released a number of new varieties. We have got others coming on, not only your chestnuts, but filberts and others, pecans, and so on. But we haven't got any organization in any way, shape or form. We can put these out with the growers who test them, but gee whiz, we have put them out and put them out; and look what kind of information we get. We haven't got facilities or the money or anything else to follow up. We have got to have some organization some way, somehow, that could take this material and test it, at least give some idea as to how it performed. Now, then, the question is what kind of an organization? If the Northern Nut Growers is not the one that should do it, what kind of an organization can be effective to do it? MR. CORSAN: Now I'd just like to say one more thing tonight. That chestnut blight, I honestly believe, was a godsend to this country. I can remember way back when I'd go into a store and buy a lot of these Paragon chestnuts in New York City in the finest grocery store, and they were crammed full of weevils. Now, the chestnut blight came, and it has about annihilated the weevil, because there was no chestnut to weevil in. And I would like to have some report about the weevil. MR. WILSON: They are in Georgia. MR. McDANIEL: They are in Virginia and Indiana. DR. MacDANIELS: Mr. Chairman, I suppose I should have the chair. This is a committee of the whole. DR. CRANE: That's right. DR. MacDANIELS: I have a right to speak, DR. CRANE: That's right. DR. MacDANIELS: I say we have always come down to the point, here we are, where do we go from here and what do we do next? There, in a word, "Here we are." Lots of discussion, much of it irrelevant. I will just propose, along the lines I spoke before, that what comes out of this is that We recommend to the incoming president to organize a survey and testing campaign along the lines that seem to meet with some agreement; namely, getting the state vice-presidents busy in finding out the regional evaluation of different varieties. Supposing we try black walnuts; just one species for this year, and that he organize his state according to zones and come up with that information with regard to that state. And the other thing would be that these findings be sent to the committee. We have a committee on surveys and one on judging and standards, and let that be compiled by them jointly or set up in some way that would seem to be effective and come up next year with this overall evaluation along those lines. I'd make that motion. DR. COLBY: Second the motion. DR. MacDANIELS: Any discussions? DR. ANTHONY: In Pennsylvania two of us have worked full time for a year, and I am not sure we'd be able to evaluate the black walnut yet. DR. CRANE: We are not evaluating the black walnut, though. DR. ANTHONY: You are asking one man to do that, your vice-president. DR. CRANE: He is to appoint a committee. DR. MacDANIELS: Any way he chooses to mark them out. DR. ANTHONY: He is organizing a nut tester association. DR. MacDANIELS: No, an evaluation association. As I would say, you have the Ohio Association already formed; that would be their problem to come up with an answer for their state. We have the Pennsylvania organization already organized. They will come up with some sort of evaluation: No. 1, Thomas, No. 2, whatever it is, No. 3, whatever it is. Now, in your other states we don't have an organization; do it some other way. I don't care how they do it. DR. CRANE: There are some others in these other states, too, that are already formed. Any other discussion? (Whereupon, a vote on the motion was called for, and it was carried unanimously.) MR. SILVIS: Just one thing. It was made with the express purpose that we start maybe just the black walnut. At the same time in certain areas you may as well raise a hickory or a Persian right along with the black walnut, or the filbert. MR. McDANIEL: No objection, but this year we are surveying the black walnut named varieties only. MR. SALZER: I am just a buck private in the rear rank, but we have been having little local meetings in New York, and they appointed me vice-president for the State of New York, the Empire State, and here Ohio has their organization, Pennsylvania has their organization. What am I going to do? I can work Western New York, but I have got to have someone to help me in Eastern New York. DR. MacDANIELS: Take the membership list and take the men who can do it. DR. CRANE: There are a lot of good men in Eastern New York. Now, if there isn't anything else, I will turn the meeting back to Dr. MacDaniels. DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, Dr. Crane. I think these talks are good for the soul. We can let our hair down and know what we all think. And I do think it's important that we do make some progress on this particular problem. I think this is one way to do it. There may be a half dozen ways and other ways better, but at least you have to agree on something and go on from there. Now, the meeting in the morning begins at nine o'clock, the full program. If there is no further business, then, this session is adjourned. (Whereupon, at 10 o'clock, p.m., the meeting was adjourned, to reconvene at 9 o'clock, a. m. the following day, August 29, 1950.) TUESDAY MORNING SESSION August 29, 1950 DR. MacDANIELS: I want to make the remark that this isn't church, you can sit up front if you want to. The first paper this morning has to do with a nut tree disease that is bothering a good many of us, I think, particularly in Michigan, as you recall from Mr. Becker's paper, the Bunch Disease of Walnuts, by Dr. H. L. Crane and Dr. J. W. McKay. I don't know which one is going to give it. Dr. McKay? The Bunch Disease of Walnuts Discussion (Manuscript too late for publication.) (Drs. Crane and McKay reported that there had been little further development in knowledge regarding the walnut bunch disease since 1948, when G. F. Gravatt and Donald C. Stout of the U.S.D.A. Division of Forest Pathology reported on it with illustrations at the N.N.G.A. meeting (see our report for 1948 pp. 63-66.) Since then the state of California has prohibited the entry of all walnut nursery trees and scions from the Rocky Mountain states or farther east.--Ed.) DR. CRANE: I'd like to make one additional remark. You see, we call this trouble "bunch disease" rather than "brooming," to distinguish it from other diseases that are caused by known parasites. We have a disease very similar to this one affecting walnuts and pecan and hickory, and that one has been studied more carefully than has the bunch disease. It is unquestionably caused by virus, and in our pecan orchards we have a situation that exists that is a parallel to what it is in the black walnut. The variety Stuart practically never has shown any symptom of the bunch disease. Yet it performs very much like a lot of our black walnuts do. They just don't bear; they don't have the proper foliage; they don't make the proper kind of growth. So we are not sure whether they are symptomless carriers, that is, in terms of the lack of expression of virus growth and this bunchy condition on them. Really, we feel that all people that are interested in the walnuts and that are trying to grow them should make careful observations on these trees to study just what the situation is, how it develops, and note the performance of these trees that become diseased; because we feel that it's a much more serious thing than people appreciate at the present time. In much of Eastern Shore Maryland and of the area around Washington and Beltsville and over in Virginia, a great majority of the trees are affected by it, particularly Japanese walnuts of all types and the butternuts. I feel it is so bad on Japanese walnuts and butternuts that they shouldn't be propagated in the area. MR. McDANIEL: I had the bunch growth developed on a new species this year in my planting in north Alabama, a 12-year-old tree of ~Juglans rupestris~. It is a growth that looks practically the same as the bunch disease on the Japanese walnut. I believe that's the first time it's been observed on that species. There are no butternuts or Japanese walnuts on the farm. There are dozens of black walnuts (seedlings and several varieties) none of which show the bunch symptoms. However, it is typically developed on some Japanese trees a few miles away. At Whiteville, Tenn., Dr. Aubrey Richards has a suspicious looking tree among some two year old seedlings of ~Juglans major~ from Arizona seeds. MR. CHASE: I'd like to add to that, too, Mac. In our walnut arboretum we had some ~rupestris~, and I had been suspicious of its being diseased for a number of years. I finally have decided that it had the bunch disease, and those trees down at Norris have all passed out. MR. McDANIEL: My tree came from Norris, 10 years ago. DR. MacDANIELS: ~Juglans rupestris~ killed by the disease. MR. STOKE: Just because this is a little contradictory to what you have heard, I want to say that my experience has been this: I have an old nursery--well, there is a butternut in the row and also heartnut--Japs. One of those Japs has had the bunch disease for six or eight years. None of the others has been affected. It was a variety I wanted to perpetuate. I took an apparently healthy scion from that and put it on another tree, and that grafted tree also had the disease. But there has been no evidence of contagion from this Jap to the other Japanese, butternuts and black walnut in the same planting in the immediate neighborhood--in fact, they crowd each other. That's a statement of fact. I spoke a little while ago of an old black walnut tree that had that disease for a number of years and none other in that planting had it. MR. O'ROURKE: Is there any correlation between the age of the tree and the expression of the disease? DR. McKAY: It's been our observation that we haven't had it in our nursery to any extent. We have seen it in the nursery of J. Russell Smith on Persian walnut. It, to my knowledge, is the only place where we have seen it on nursery trees. It may be that our nursery happened to be free of the inoculum, because it's been about a mile from the orchards. MR. O'ROURKE: Would you by any chance think it might be seed borne? DR. McKAY: We have no information on that virus. MR. GILBERT SMITH: I have one statement to put in at this time. Dr. Crane questioned whether the Japanese walnut should be grown. I wonder if the Japanese walnut might not be a safeguard in the area where they don't have the disease, in that you will detect the disease the quickest on the Japanese walnut, and in that way anyone would become wise to it, rather than if it was in the black walnut. It might be so insidious that it could be well spread before persons knew they had it at all. I wonder if the Japanese walnut, through its quickness in showing the disease, might not be a safeguard to the other walnuts? DR. MacDANIELS: That's a technique that's used with some other plants. MR. CORSAN: I go on the principle that a tree that's well fed might not resist every disease, but it will resist a great many diseases and most of the diseases, if it's well fed. Now, the feeding of trees is very important. I noticed that in going back and forth between Florida and Toronto. I examine the pecan situation every fall and spring, and just to think of Stuarts--you know the size of Stuart pecan--coming in good, big crop of nuts that size (indicating with fingers). Can you see that? And you know that is less than half the size the Stuart should be. It's a great nut for cracking by machinery. In fact, a lot of people grow nothing but Stuart. And last year they had such a crop. Last year I pointed to a farm right near the highway. "Do you see that? For years I have been trying to get you to put that sawdust, which is nearly 40 feet high in a pile, around your pecans and see the vast difference in your pecans." You know there was no rain down there all last summer, and the pecans were half the proper size. Now, that sawdust would keep the moisture in. I am a great believer in the use of sawdust. It's a tree product itself and it has some of the constituents of what the pecan should feed on. As Dr. Waite told us one time in Washington--you will probably remember the remark he made about the pecan trees in an orchard which were absolutely fruitless year after year. He went through that orchard, and he saw a pecan here and a pecan there that had a good, big crop right among the empty trees. He examined them and found signs driven into the trees, and some of the signs were put up with zinc covered nails. Those signs that had the steel covered nails had no nuts on, but those that had zinc in had a huge crop. It excited the growth of the female blossom. Now, we have got an awful lot to discover, as you gentlemen say in this nut culture, way beyond the imagination of the human mind. DR. MacDANIELS: We had better limit discussion to this particular problem. Is there more comment? MR. McDANIEL: On that problem, I have observed the brooming in the heartnut seedlings about three years old, which were seedlings of the Fodermaier variety growing at Norris in the late 30's. Brooming developed in some of them in either the second or third year from seed. DR. MacDANIELS: That answers their remark about the young trees. MR. SLATE: A plant that is well fed and making very vigorous growth may be more attractive to the insect vector. Therefore, a healthy tree might take it. MR. McDANIEL: These trees were very vigorous. DR. MacDANIELS: How many growers of nut trees have this bunch disease on their property? MR. KINTZEL: Black walnuts? DR. MacDANIELS: On anything at all. (Showing of hands.) There are at least a dozen. When Mr. Burgart up in Michigan finds out that the limiting factor practically cleans him out, there is this question of bunch disease with witches'-broom resulting from ground deficiency. I know in the Wright plantings in the vicinity of Westfield they had brooming trees of the Japanese walnut which apparently recovered after treatment with zinc. And, of course, we know on the West Coast you get witches'-broom in the Persian walnut which cannot be cured by zinc. Is there any other discussion on this point? (No response.) We will go on to the next paper. MR. CORSAN: Anybody passing through Toronto can drop in and see my Japanese walnuts with 24 to the cluster and not a sign of bunch disease. DR. MacDANIELS: Yes, you may not have the bunch disease near you. We hope you haven't. The next paper is by J. A. Adams, who is from the Experiment Station here at Poughkeepsie. This experiment station is a branch of the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station. I believe that's right, isn't it, Mr. Adams? MR. ADAMS: That's right, and it is concerned primarily with the fruits down here in this region. DR. MacDANIELS: His subject is "Some Observations on the Japanese Beetle on Nut Trees." Let me say Mr. Adams would like to show some slides, but it didn't seem feasible to close this window down. The Japanese Beetle and Nut Growing J. A. ADAMS Associate Professor of Entomology, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva and Poughkeepsie, New York It is a pleasure to attend this meeting of the Northern Nut Growers. Association and to take part in your program. I shall discuss the Japanese beetle as it seems to affect nut culture, and outline our methods of control. The Japanese beetle evidently came into this country in the soil about some roots of plants imported to a nursery near Philadelphia nearly 40 years ago. Since 1916, its distribution, habits, and control have been closely studied by the federal Japanese Beetle Laboratory at Moorestown, New Jersey. The insect has become generally distributed in the coastal area, as far north as Massachusetts, as far south as Virginia, and as far west as West Virginia. Beyond these limits, it has established local colonies in New Hampshire, Vermont, Western New York, Ohio, Michigan, and North Carolina. In most of the states affected there is an investigator who, like myself, carries on local studies, more or less in cooperation with the federal laboratory. In New York we now have, in addition to the generally infested areas on Long Island and in the Hudson Valley, about 50 isolated infestations in the central and western parts of the state. Might I have a showing of hands by those who have Japanese beetle already? (Showing of hands.) There is quite a sprinkling of you who have them. Many of you do not have them yet, but, since the insect is spreading every year, you can expect them some day, especially if you live in the Northeast. It is expected that this pest will not thrive in the drier central States, but it might become established in the Pacific States some day, unless prevented. You can see these beetles anywhere in and around Poughkeepsie. From Poughkeepsie I have watched them spread in the past few years to Pleasant Valley and eastward. This morning as I parked my vehicle by this building I picked these specimens from the smartweed, ~Polygonum persicaria~. (Passing of specimens.) These insects also feed on the flowers and foliage of purple loosestrife, ~Lythrum salicifolia~, so plentiful and showy in our swampy fields. The most conspicuous damage is done to the foliage of wild grape vines. You will observe this when you visit Mr. Stephen Bernath's nut plantation. You will note the conspicuous defoliation of the vines on the fence rows. Willow is another host heavily attacked. I believe you have the beetles at your plantation at Wassaic, Mr. Smith? MR. GILBERT SMITH: Plenty of them. DR. ADAMS: You will also observe the damage at Mr. Smith's place. You will see that it is strictly a matter of skeletonization of the leaves. A MEMBER: They eat the fruit, too. DR. MacDANIELS: You have damage on fruit. A MEMBER: They eat berries. DR. ADAMS: Yes, but on nut plants the damage above ground is confined to leaf skeletonization. It varies widely, depending on the kind of nut plant. Before visiting Mr. Bernath's planting, I sought out the botanical names of the commoner nut plants in Dr. MacDaniels' Cornell Extension Bulletin No. 701, on "Nut Growing." Of the ~Juglans~ species, the black walnut, ~J. nigra~, is sometimes heavily attacked. There are large black walnut trees near one of our peach orchards. I have seen hordes of beetles gather in these trees in July and August, skeletonizing the leaves until the defoliation reached 40% or more. Late in August the beetles seemed to leave the walnut foliage and descend upon the ripening peaches. The heart nut, ~J. sieboldiana~ var. ~cordiformis~, was moderately fed upon at Mr. Bernath's nursery. The butternut, ~J. cinerea~, is only lightly attacked, as a rule. The hickories and pecans are not attacked to any appreciable extent, but at least some of the chestnuts are very attractive to this pest. I have seen shoots of ~Castanea dentata~ with their foliage reduced to lace. Some of the small Chinese chestnuts, ~C. mollissima~, at Mr. Bernath's place, were about one-fourth defoliated in mid-August. The hazels seem to be attractive to these beetles. When the Japanese beetle spreads to Prof. Slate's plantings of ~Corylus~ at Geneva, we may get more information on varietal preferences. I find that exposed foliage of ~C. americana~, the common wild hazel here, is sometimes fairly heavily fed upon. I am holding up to the window a portion of a hazel bush; you can see that the leaves along one side are skeletonized. It is probable that the species, hybrids, and varieties of ~Corylus~ will show the same marked variation in susceptibility that is shown in so many other genera of plants. Among the oaks, the pin oak, ~Quercus Palustris~, and the English oak, ~Q. robur~, are commonly one-third defoliated while the common white and red oaks are almost immune. Among the maples--to go farther afield from nuts--the Norway, ~Acer platanoides~, and the Japanese, ~A. palmatum~, are often severely injured, where the sugar maple, ~A. saccharum~, is only lightly injured and the delicate-leaved red maple and silver maple, ~A. rubrum~ and ~A. saccharinum~, remain untouched. Since the Japanese beetle is here to stay, and to spread, these differences are worth considering where plant materials are being selected for new ornamental plantings. In our bulletin on Japanese beetle (Cornell Extension Bulletin 770) we have to warn the reader that planting chestnuts may bring him trouble with the Japanese beetle, trouble which he would not have with flowering dogwood, ~Cornus florida~, or the common lilacs, ~Syringa vulgaris~, which are immune to this pest. It may be, however, that some of the chestnuts carry immunity factors. In the U. S. Department of Agriculture Circular No. 547, published in 1940, "Feeding Habits of the Japanese Beetle," by I. M. Hawley and F. W. Metzger, ~Castanea crenata~, the Japanese chestnut, is listed with beech and chestnut oak as "generally lightly injured." I understand you consider the nut of this species poor, but if resistance factors are in the genus, there can be hope of finding or developing a chestnut resistant to Japanese beetle. We might be able to do with chestnuts what has been done with poplars. The common poplars range from the Lombardy, ~Populus nigra italica~, which is heavily damaged by the beetle, to the white, ~P. alba~, which is immune. The forest geneticist, E. J. Schreiner, has written an article, "Poplars can be bred to order," which appears on pages 153 to 157 in "Trees," the Yearbook of Agriculture for 1949, published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Schreiner provides an interesting diagram of random planting of 102 poplar hybrids, in plots of 50 trees each, representing 30 parentages. He writes, "Japanese beetle infestation was heavy in ~1947~; as late as September 9 beetles were as numerous as 10 to 12 per leaf on the most susceptible plants. Although the insects were feeding everywhere on the sparsely scattered weeds growing under the hybrids, beetle feeding was found on only nine hybrids, representing four parentages. Three of these parentages include hybrids that were entirely free of beetle feeding during the entire infestation." Among five hybrids of ~P. charkowiensis~ and ~P. caudina~, three were highly susceptible, one moderately susceptible and one was non-susceptible. Japanese beetles, when infesting rows of plants of the same variety, usually occur unevenly on the individual plants. Some of the factors have to do with the vigor or color of the tree. In my observation on peach, I have repeatedly seen a sickly, yellow and half-wilted tree with thousands of beetles in it, while other similar but healthy trees in the same row averaged only a few hundred beetles. You can make one branch of a tree more attractive to the insects than the rest of the branches by partly girdling it or permitting borers or cankers to damage the base of the branch. This observation suggests that the increased sugar content raises the attractiveness of the leaf. It coincides with what is already known that extracts of plants preferred by the Japanese beetle have, in general, a higher sugar content, or more of a fruit-like odor than those not attacked. (Metzger et al, Jour. Agric. Research, ~49~ (11): 1001-1008. 1934. Washington, D. C.) There are other observations you can easily make yourselves. The Japanese beetle avoids shade, except on the hottest days, and its feeding in dense trees shows up most in the tops; its feeding on uniform plantings tends to show up most in the edge rows. Nursery-size trees are more extensively defoliated than larger ones. At this point we must consider that the insect usually has to fly into a planting from the outside, for it breeds chiefly in lawns and meadows. If the foliage mass of the nut planting is small and the grass areas nearby are large, the beetles are likely to do heavier damage than where the planting is very large and grass areas negligible. A small planting in a suburban area, beside a large golf course, cemetery or dairy farm, is going to be more heavily attacked than a large one set in a clearing in the woods. ~Control of the adult:~ The safest, most direct measure is to pick or knock the beetles off the plants, preferably in the early morning, when they are cool. They may be dropped in a pail with a little kerosene in it. Some plants can be shielded with thin nets which can be placed on them by day. We do not recommend Japanese beetle traps. These yellow traps, which are baited with geranoil and other essential oils, can draw beetles in from a considerable distance but we have found that, possibly because many beetles miss the trap, the population of beetles remains high near the trap, in spite of heavy daily catches. Although the use of one trap to the acre on a block 10 miles square would probably get results, the use of a few traps on a small nut planting is likely to be disappointing. A MEMBER: Will birds or any kind of poultry eat them? DR. ADAMS: Yes, poultry will eat them, as far as they can reach. Certain birds, of course, will feed on them to some extent, but birds, in summer, seem to have plenty of other things to eat, and they certainly leave plenty of beetles in plain sight uneaten. We can see that the birds are a fairly constant helpful factor, but are not to be relied upon to prevent injury occurring in a beetle outbreak. Rotenone, which, I believe, is one of your main insecticides in nut culture, is fairly effective on Japanese beetles. It kills the beetles hit with the spray and gives protection for several days thereafter. If you apply it often enough, rotenone can take care of the plants so that they don't become disfigured by the beetles. Using cube powder, you may apply five ounces of 4% rotenone in 10 gallons of water. Of course, in many cases there is no objection to using DDT wetable powder or dusts, unless you are afraid of a mite problem arising after DDT is used. If DDT can be sprayed on the plants, it needs to be applied only about three times during a summer, or sometimes only twice. For plants that are growing very fast, the new growth, of course, has to be kept treated. You may prefer to spray once heavily over all the plants in July and then, after that, keep the beetles off by spraying or dusting the new growth, during August. For more directions see U.S.D.A. Farmers Bulletin No. 2004. Now, there are new chemicals that will kill Japanese beetles very quickly. Parathion will kill them, but its toxicity necessitates great care in handling and, on peaches, we find it protects the plants for only a few days. Chlordane, which has a very important use in connection with these insects in the grub stage, is not recommended above ground; it is too brief in its action. Methoxychlor may be used instead of DDT. It is less effective, but much less poisonous, and should be applied more frequently. Now, the other aspect of control is to try to reduce beetle production over the whole area so that you don't have so many beetles flying in to the plants during the summer and you don't have to spray so frequently, if at all. This is the phase to which I wish to give particular attention, after we consider the life history. ~Life history:~ The Japanese beetles in the adult stage are in evidence here from late June to late September, or, roughly, for the summer season. The adults lay their eggs in the soil, mostly in lawns, mowed grassy fields and pastures. The adults die but the eggs give rise to tiny, bluish-gray larvae which feed chiefly on grass roots. The larvae grow through the fall and spring, and, if more numerous than about 40 to the square foot in September, or about 25 in April and May, can cause severe lawn damage. MR. CORSAN: That's the stage when the pheasants and starlings eat them. DR. ADAMS: Yes, in the grub stage. MR. CORSAN: I see thousands of starlings gorging themselves. DR. ADAMS: Yes, scratching birds, crows and skunks can take them out; the starlings make a hole the size of a pencil point to do so. In our survey areas grub populations sometimes seem to drop rapidly in May, when the birds are feeding their nestlings. In June, the surviving larvae mostly change into pupae, and by July they are appearing as beetles. From the lawns and grassy fields they readily fly to weeds, shrubs, grapevines and trees. They fly at least a few hundred yards, if need be, to find their host plants. Well kept, sunny, lawns with good, moist soil, which carry 40 grubs to the square foot in the fall may still have plenty at transformation time in early summer. A lawn of 5,000 square feet could thus produce 100,000 beetles. Yards, roadways and pastures commonly produce as many as six beetles to the square foot, which means a quarter million to the acre. ~Chemical control in the grub stage:~ In New York we suggest that on a home property the more valuable sections of permanent lawn be grub-proofed with chemicals as soon as there are 5 to 10 grubs to the square foot. This grub-proofing has two effects: (a) it stops beetle production from that lawn, and (b) it prevents the lawn grass being damaged by the grubs of this and other annual grub species and by the birds and animals, including moles, which damage grubby turf. For grub-proofing I prefer to use chlordane. It may be applied in a spray, at 8 ounces of 50% wettable powder to 1,000 square feet, or it may be purchased in the more bulky 5% form and applied dry with a two-wheeled lawn fertilizer spreader. For each 1,000 square feet I take 5 pounds of 5% chlordane and, since it tends to clog the spreader, I mix it in a cardboard drum with 5 pounds of a dry, granular material such as the activated-sludge fertilizer known as "Milorganite." The ten pounds of mixture is then spread on the 1,000 square feet, half east and west, half north and south. If applied in the fall or early spring there will be no beetles coming out in July and no grubs for several years. DDT at 6 pounds of 10% DDT to 1,000 square feet will give an even longer grub-proofing effect. Our plots so treated in 1944 are still grub-free. The possible trouble with DDT is that it is too nearly permanent, and if you should plow up a piece of lawn treated with it and try to raise tomatoes or strawberries, you might find the soil too toxic. ~Biological control in the grub stage:~ The chemical grub-proofing of the sunny parts of the front or main lawn on a property is desirable for the reasons stated, but it does not usually stop more than a fifth of the beetle production around the property, because there are usually plenty of neighbors' lawns, pastures, public grounds, and other beetle-producing turf areas nearby. How are you to reduce the beetle crop on these places, mostly on ground you don't control? Here is where biological control comes in, something which I feel will appeal to you in this group. The parasitic insects known as spring Tiphia, imported from the Orient and well established on hundreds of estates, golf courses, and cemeteries around Philadelphia and New York, may be introduced in your vicinity when grubs reach about 5 to the square foot. The parasites, which are like flying ants, appear above ground in spring and feed on honey-dew. The female burrows in the soil and attaches her eggs singly to Japanese beetle grubs. A maggot hatches and consumes the grub. I have charge of the distribution of these parasites in New York. I like to liberate at least one colony in each village or town division. Some of you may help me plan the liberation for your vicinity, possibly on a cemetery near your place. The colonies enlarge to about a square mile in 10 years, and may cut beetle production by 50%. Another biological agent which can be added to grub-carrying turf is the bacterium causing Japanese beetle grubs to turn milky white and die. A powder is made from diseased grubs and talc and this milky disease spore inoculum is applied with a teaspoon in dots or spots over the turf. The important point is that the spore powder must be used on a plot where there are grubs to get the disease, and not on chemically grub-proofed soil. Milky disease spore powder is sold under three brand names, "Japidemic," "Japonex" and "Sawco-Japy." One-half pound, suitably applied, will cost you about $2.50 and be an act of good citizenship, for the disease slowly spreads to any grubby soil in surrounding properties. I can supply addresses of the producers and detailed reprints of my studies. Discussion MR. McDANIEL: Does this disease affect any other beetles we have in America, besides the Japanese? MR. ADAMS: Yes, one other species; it causes some sickness in the grubs of the turf pest known as the Oriental beetle. MR. McDANIEL: How about the green June beetle? DR. ADAMS: No, unfortunately, it doesn't work on that beetle, which is a pest on Long Island and in the South. A MEMBER: How much area would a (1/2-pound) can like that treat? DR. ADAMS: It depends. You can apply a half-pound to a quarter acre, or any smaller space you want to put it on. If you want to put spots down closer together, say every three feet, it will treat about 1,000 square feet. It suggests on the label that you do. But if you treat a plot on a large field, I'd recommend you put it out at about a teaspoonful every ten feet. In other words, I wouldn't put less than a half-pound on the plot set aside for it on my place. The application is just a starter to introduce the disease in the area, and it doesn't matter too much whether you spot it at 10-foot intervals on a pasture or put it at fairly close intervals on an area about the size of this room. The point is that it mustn't be broadcast, because that spreads the spores too thin. Grubs don't get the disease if they eat only a few spores. We assume that where you put the spots down on the ground the grubs under those spots will get the disease and wander off and die. When a grub dies, it multiplies the number of spores up to many millions. That portion of soil becomes infective, and more grubs going through the infective portions carry the disease to intervening areas until the whole piece of turf is unhealthful to these grubs. Droppings of birds feeding on sick grubs spread the disease. MR. FRYE: One application is all that's needed? DR. ADAMS: One application is all that's needed. Control is slight at first, but increases with the passage of the years. MR. CORSAN: Quail feed on them. Why can't we have quail around the farms instead of shooting them? DR. ADAMS: I would be for that, but we have to find other methods for a lot of people. Besides, we need something that will intercept some of the grubs in the fall, before they get big. After all, by the time the quail are interested in them, they have already done some damage in the ground. In the ground the grubs can do two kinds of damage. They can make turf loose so it can be rolled back like a rug. Second, if you should plow up a piece of sod that has many grubs in it and try to plant row crops or nursery stock, they may eat the roots off the planting in the spring. DR. McKAY: I'd like to ask what effect low temperature has on them and how far north you think will be their limit? DR. ADAMS: The soil temperature at which the grubs begin to die in hibernation is 15 degrees, and I have never seen the soil temperature that low here under turf. (I operate a soil thermograph on my lawn.) A MEMBER: How far down do they go? DR. ADAMS: They hibernate at 4 to 8 inches in the ground. It's rare to have it drop below 27 degrees at these depths. MR. STERLING SMITH: What do you mean, Fahrenheit? DR. ADAMS: That is Fahrenheit. A MEMBER: That's frozen solid. That's at 32 degrees. DR. ADAMS: The deeper soil will drop only a few degrees below freezing. The soil here usually remains no lower than 32 degrees, except within an inch or two of the top. A MEMBER: Do you think soil temperature is going to be a limiting factor? DR. ADAMS: I think the limiting factor northward is the coolness of the summers. In Northern Japan their life history gets altered because of the shortness of the summer, and I think in the Adirondack area they won't be serious for that reason. MR. WEBER: Will this spore powder kill other kinds of grubs that are in the sod? DR. ADAMS: Not to any practical extent. It does not control the grubs of the "June bugs," or brown June beetles, or what are called "white grubs." MR. LOWERRE: Would the DDT kill the parasitic wasps? DR. ADAMS: Turf treated with chlordane or DDT is grub-proofed and is not of any use to the flying parasites as a place to lay eggs, or for bacteria to multiply. So we don't want to put chemicals on top of biological control plots. For instance, on an average home property I would treat the front lawn, the more valuable piece, with chemicals so that it would be 100% grub-proofed to protect the turf and to take that much turf out of beetle production. Then on the back lawns or grassy fields adjoining, I would apply at least a half-pound of this milky disease material, and in that way provide a complete treatment; the parasites can be added on some large public turf area nearby. And don't think you are going to stamp the Japanese beetle out just by spraying all the adult beetles you see each summer on the cultivated plants, because there are lots more on the shade trees, weeds and vines. A new book, "The Insect Enemies of Eastern Forests," contains a great deal of information on the insects feeding on nut trees. Unfortunately, it isn't indexed to crops, so you can't look up "walnut" and find what insects bother you. You have to know what the insect is, and you will find it with its insect family. That is U. S. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publication 657, by George E. Craighead. Price $2.50, from the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. MR. CORSAN: What in the world has become of the black walnut caterpillar, that big, black fellow with the grey hairs? DR. ADAMS: Maybe they are at a low point in a cycle. Mr. Bernath will show you a few of them. MR. CORSAN: He might show me a few of them, but I have been pestered with them for years, and this year I haven't got any. DR. ADAMS: I suppose natural conditions have taken care of them for a while, but they will come back again. (Applause.) DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, very much, sir. We will take a few minutes recess now. (Whereupon, a short recess was taken.) Editor's Note: The following paper which was delayed, was originally scheduled for our 1949 Report. Insecticides for Nut Insects E. H. SIEGLER United States Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Administration Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine Fortunately, the growers of nuts do not have to combat a large number of injurious insect species. However, some species do at times cause a heavy loss of nuts and may also damage the vegetation growth of the trees. Injury by insects will vary from year to year, due to various causes, and insects frequently show varietal host preferences. Timely use of insecticides is the most effective means of combating many harmful species. Until the beginning of World War II a rather limited number of insecticides was available, such as lead arsenate, cryolite, nicotine, mineral oil emulsions, and rotenone. Some injurious insects were satisfactorily controlled through the timely application of one or the other of these materials, or combinations of them; others survived in damaging numbers in spite of all attempts to suppress them. During and since World War II, both in the United States and abroad, work on insecticides has been stepped up markedly. As a result, many new insecticides have been developed and are available for general use. The first of the new insecticides about which we heard was DDT. Actually, the compound itself was not a new one, since it was prepared by a German student chemist in 1874. However, no use was found for it until 1939, when a Swiss chemist found it promising as an insecticide against the Colorado potato beetle. It was first tested in the United States a few years later. Since the successful introduction of DDT, promising new insecticides have become available more frequently and in greater numbers than ever before. Among these materials are certain chlorinated hydrocarbons related to DDT. These include methoxychlor and TDE, neither of which is, on the whole, as useful as DDT but both of which are of value and have an important advantage over DDT in that they are reported to be less toxic to warm-blooded animals. Other new chlorinated hydrocarbons include benzene hexachloride, synthesized in 1828 and first tested against insects in France in 1941 and discovered about the same time in England; chlordane, developed in the United States a few years ago; and toxaphene. Several organic phosphorus compounds, including hexaethyl tetraphosphate, tetraethyl pyrophosphate, and parathion, have also been developed. Technical benzene hexachloride is a mixture of several isomers, the gamma isomer being the most toxic to insects. The practically pure isomer is known as lindane. A handicap to the general use of benzene hexachloride on fruit is its tendency to cause off-flavor condition when applied too close to harvest. Lindane is less likely to cause off-flavor in fruit than technical benzene hexachloride but may not overcome this fault altogether. The organic phosphate insecticides, like DDT, were first found of value in Europe and were introduced into the United States after the close of World War II. Parathion in particular shows great promise for the control of many insect pests. Although these compounds are very poisonous and must be handled strictly in accordance with the manufacturers' recommendations, a recent announcement by Arnold J. Lehman, of the Food and Drug Administration, indicates that their residues are not likely to be harmful. He has stated that "parathion is not stored in the tissues to an appreciable extent--it is rapidly destroyed by the tissues of the body which in turn is an added mechanism for the prevention of tissue accumulation." Residues of hexaethyl tetraphosphate and tetraethyl pyrophosphate persist for only a short time and residues of parathion drop to a low level within 10 to 14 days after application. This information, however, does not make it unnecessary for the user to observe strictly all warnings and precautions issued by the manufacturers of parathion and of other organic phosphates. Serious effects and deaths have occurred though excessive exposures to parathion. General Information Regarding the Use of the New Organic Insecticides ~Handling the insecticides.~ All the new organic insecticides, the organic phosphates in particular, are to some degree toxic not only to many insects but to man and animals as well. Even the most toxic ones can be used, however, without harmful effects on the operator, provided all the cautions issued by the manufacturer are properly followed. Special care must be taken in handling concentrated insecticides preparatory to making diluted spray or dust applications. ~Spray concentrations.~ DDT has been used more extensively than any of the other newer insecticides and for this reason there is considerable information relative to the spray concentrations known to be effective against insects susceptible to it. For spray purposes DDT is generally employed at the rate of 1-1/2 to 4 pounds of 50 percent wettable powder per 100 gallons of water. Parathion is being used at 1/2 to 1-1/2 pounds of 15 percent wettable powder per 100 gallons of water for mites and up to 2 pounds to 100 gallons of water for insects more resistant to it. The occurrence of injury to the foliage and fruit of some varieties of apples when this insecticide is used is under investigation. Benzene hexachloride (10 percent gamma isomer, wettable) is being used at 2 to 4 pounds, and sometimes less depending upon the insect, per 100 gallons of water. Wettable mixtures containing 25 percent of lindane (approximately pure gamma isomer) are used at dosages which would give an equivalent quantity of the gamma isomer in the diluted spray. Chlordane is usually employed at the rate of 2 to 3 pounds of 50 percent wettable powder and toxaphene at 2 to 4 pounds of 40 percent wettable powder per 100 gallons. These insecticides are also being sold for use as dusts, either ready to use or in a more concentrated form which can be reduced to dusting strength through the addition of inert material. ~Spray Residues.~ Spray residues are not important on nut crops, but on fruits it is important to time the insecticide applications so that harmful residues are avoided. Animals should not be allowed to graze vegetation beneath trees recently treated. Instructions on the packaged insecticide should be followed. ~Effect on beneficial insects.~ Since the more potent of the newer organic insecticides are toxic to many parasitic and predatory insects, all of which help to reduce the populations of injurious species, these insecticides, if used, must be largely relied upon to effect control by themselves. Often no immediate assistance is forthcoming from beneficial insects after these materials have been used. Nut Insect Investigations Except for studies on the chestnut weevils, nut insect investigations by the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine are being conducted primarily on the pecan at southern laboratories. Many of the remarks in this paper are therefore based on information obtained from these laboratories. In view of the short time the new organic insecticides have been available, work to determine their place in nut insect control programs is largely in the experimental stage. Much further work will be necessary before detailed instructions can be given for their general use. Insects Attacking the Nuts ~The Pecan weevil.~ The adult of the pecan weevil[8] is a snout beetle that attacks not only pecan throughout the South but also hickory in the eastern half of the United States. During mid-season, previous to the formation of the kernel, nuts are frequently punctured for feeding purposes. This results in failure of the nuts to complete their development. The principal injury, however, is caused by grubs that develop from eggs laid in the nuts after the kernels have formed. This is usually during September on pecans in the South. The grubs feed on the kernels and may consume them completely (Fig. 1). [8] ~Curculio caryae~ (Horn). Applications of sprays containing 6 pounds of 50 percent DDT wettable powder per 100 gallons of water just previous to and during the oviposition period have proved effective against this pest. [Illustration: Fig 1.--Nut infested with larvae of the pecan weevil.] [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Larva of the butternut curculio in Japanese walnut shoot.] [Illustration: Fig. 3--Adults of the walnut husk maggot on black walnut. Enlarged.] [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Adult of a leaf-footed bug. Enlarged.] [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Defoliation caused by the black pecan aphid.] Nut curculios. Several species of curculios, such as the butternut curculio[9] (Fig. 2) and the hickorynut curculio,[10] infest the fruit of these and other nut trees. Their life histories and methods of attack are somewhat alike and for the purpose of this report the butternut curiculio is given as an example. This insect lays its eggs in both the young shoots and nuts, which usually drop as a result of the injury. The larvae then develop to maturity within the dying tissues after which they enter the soil and transform to adults. Subsequently they leave the soil to pass the winter above ground protected from low temperatures by weeds or other vegetation. [9] ~Conotrachelus juglandis~ Lee. [10] ~Conotrachelus affinis~ Boh. Lead arsenate, 4 pounds per 100 gallons of water, has been relied upon in the past for control of various nut curculios. Among the newer insecticides, benzene hexachloride (6 percent gamma), 4 to 6 pounds per 100 gallons, has shown promise against a shoot curculio on pecans when applied soon after the trees start growth in the spring. ~Hickory shuckworm.~ The hickory shuckworm[11] is another serious pest of pecan and hickory nuts. Early in the year, previous to the hardening of the shells, the kernels are eaten. This injury causes many of the nuts to drop. In the fall, the later generations tunnel within and feed upon the shucks only. The affected nuts are usually smaller than normal; in addition the shells are often stained and are more difficult to separate from the husks. [11] ~Laspeyresia caryana~ (Fitch). Extensive experimentation in the control of this insect has been carried out without much success. No effective insecticide treatment can be recommended for its control. ~Walnut husk maggot.~ The adult of the walnut husk maggot[12] is a fly (Fig. 3); it is related to other injurious fruit flies such as the apple maggot, Mediterranean fruit fly, and the oriental fruit fly, which has recently been found in Hawaii. Adults emerge from the soil and fly to the trees in midsummer. Egg laying follows in 1 to 3 weeks, the eggs being deposited on the husks of several kinds of nuts. The maggots feed within the husks. Not only is the quality of infested nuts lowered, but, in addition, the husks are more difficult to remove. A closely related species is particularly damaging to the Persian or English walnut in California. [12] ~Rhagoletis suavis~ Loew. Lead arsenate, 2 to 4 pounds per 100 gallons of water, in combination with an equal quantity of hydrated lime is quite effective in destroying the adults of the walnut husk maggot when applied at the time they are present. ~Stinkbugs and leaf-footed bugs.~ There are a number of stinkbugs and leaf-footed bugs (Fig. 4), in addition to the species mentioned,[13][14] which are responsible for important injuries to pecans, filberts, and other nuts. These insects puncture the immature nuts with their beaks. The punctured areas become spongy, somewhat dark in color, and are bitter to the taste; on pecan the typical injury is referred to as black pit and kernel spot. [13] ~Nezara vizidula~ (L.). [14] ~Leptoglossus phyllopus~ (L.). Crops of favorable host plants such as cowpeas and soybeans should not be planted in or adjacent to nut orchards subject to attack by these sucking bugs. In general, orchard sanitation should be practiced. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Galls produced by the pecan phylloxera.] [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Injury to young pecan tree by the fall webworm.] [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Larvae of the walnut caterpillar.] [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Caterpillar of the hickory tussock moth.] [Illustration: Fig. 10.--Rose chafer beetles on chestnut blossoms.] Insects Attacking the Foliage ~Black pecan aphid.~ Pecan trees at times suffer sufficient damage from the black pecan aphid[15] to cause considerable defoliation (Fig. 5) during the latter part of the season. The injury to foliage in its earlier stages consists of irregularly shaped yellowish areas which turn brown when the tissues die. [15] ~Melanocallis caryaefoliae~ (Davis). This aphid is usually controlled with nicotine sulfate (40 percent nicotine), 3/8 pint plus summer oil emulsion, 2 quarts per 100 gallons of spray. Parathion and benzene hexachloride have given good results in experimental work but are not yet generally recommended. ~Pecan phylloxera.~ The pecan phylloxera[16] is related to aphids. It attacks principally the vegetative parts of the tree such as the leaves, petioles, and shoots on which galls (Fig. 6) are produced. Pecans, hickories, and other species of nuts are subject to infestation. [16] ~Phylloxera devastatrix~ Perg. In the past a spray of nicotine sulfate (40 percent nicotine) 13 ounces combined with either lime-sulfur solution, 2-1/2 gallons per 100 gallons of water, or lubricating-oil emulsion, 2 quarts per 100 gallons, applied in the late dormant period has been the standard recommendation. In recent experiments in the South with some of the new organic sprays, benzene hexachloride and some of the dinitro compounds have indicated good promise. ~Fall webworm,~[17] ~walnut caterpillar,~[18] ~and hickory tussock moth.~[19] The caterpillars of these species (Figs. 7, 8, 9) are frequent pests on the foliage of nut trees. They often defoliate entire branches. [17] ~Hyphantria cunea~ (Drury). [18] ~Datana integerrima~ (G. and R.) [19] ~Halisidota caryae~ (Harr.) The best time to apply control measures is as soon as possible after the caterpillars hatch. The insects can be readily destroyed with lead arsenate, 3 pounds, or DDT (2 pounds) of 50 percent wettable powder, per 100 gallons, applied when they appear. Other new organic insecticides may also be effective but have not been widely tested. ~The rose chafer and Japanese beetle.~ Adults of the rose chafer[20] (Fig. 10) and the Japanese beetle[21] are voracious feeders on the foliage of nut trees and must be destroyed if severe injury is to be avoided. [20] ~Marcordactylus subspinosus~ (F.). [21] ~Popillia japonica~ Newm. Fortunately these insects may now be controlled by spraying with DDT, 2 pounds of 50-percent wettable powder per 100 gallons of water, when the beetles appear. In the case of the Japanese beetle a second application may be necessary if the infestation is heavy. ~Spider mites.~ Nut trees, especially those which have been sprayed with DDT, may become seriously injured by various species of mites.[22] DDT is very toxic to the natural insect enemies of plant-feeding mites and therefore the mites build up to injurious numbers. [22] ~Tetranychus~ sp. and others. Of the various miticides recently tested on pecan, a spray of parathion was the most promising. In some recent tests for the control of spider mites on chestnut trees, 1-1/2 pounds of 15 percent parathion wettable powder per 100 gallons of water was effective. Do not use parathion unless you observe all the precautions contained on the package label of the material. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Larva of the twig girdler. Enlarged.] [Illustration: Fig. 12.--Adult of the flatheaded apple tree borer. Enlarged.] [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Larvae of the flatheaded apple tree borer.] [Illustration: Fig. 14.--Scars on trunk of pecan tree caused by cutting out flatheaded apple tree borers from their tunnels.] [Illustration: Fig. 15.--Adult of the buffalo treehopper. Enlarged.] [Illustration: Fig. 16.--Twig scarred as a result of egg laying by the buffalo treehopper.] Insects Attacking the Trunk and Branches A number of insects cause important damage to the trunk and branches of nut trees. ~Obscure scale and others.~ The obscure scale[23] infests a variety of nut trees. On pecan the chief injury results from attacks on branches under three inches in diameter. [23] ~Chrysomphalus obscurus~ (Comst.). The obscure scale and other scale insects can be controlled with lubricating-oil emulsion during the dormant period. However, nut trees are often susceptible to oil damage, especially at 3 percent concentration. Since healthy trees are more resistant to oil injury, it is therefore advisable to watch for scale infestations so as to spray them before the trees are weakened. ~Twig girdler.~ Nut trees are sometimes attacked by the twig girdler[24] (Fig. 11). This beetle lays eggs in the twigs, which are girdled so as to stop the flow of sap that would normally prevent hatching. The girdled twigs usually become detached from the trees and as a result the nut-bearing wood is reduced. [24] ~Oncideres cingulata~ (Say). The standard recommendation for control of this insect has been to gather and destroy the infested twigs in the orchard and from any infested trees nearby. Recent tests on pecan in northern Florida indicate that DDT and parathion may be effective against this insect. Three applications (the first on August 26 when the first girdled twigs were observed and the others on September 9 and 23) of DDT, 4 pounds of 50 percent wettable powder per 100 gallons of water, or parathion, 3 pounds of 15 percent wettable powder per 100 gallons, gave complete control. Further experiments will be required to determine the minimum effective concentration of spray and the number of applications needed for control. It is suggested that DDT be used for the control of this insect until more information is available on how to handle and to use parathion. ~Flatheaded apple tree borer.~ The adult beetle of the flathead apple tree borer[25] (Fig. 12) deposits its eggs throughout the summer season, preferably in the small grooves of bark on the unshaded portions of the trunk of pecan and other trees. The borers (Fig. 13) hatch and tunnel through the bark to the cambium layer. Young trees may readily be girdled (Fig. 14). [25] ~Chrysobothris femorata~ (Oliv.). To avoid this insect as far as possible, orchard sanitation should be practiced and the trees should be kept in a healthy condition. In some plantings wrapping the trunks with paper or burlap to protect against egg laying and maintaining low branches to shade the trunk have been helpful. Cutting out the borers with a knife has also been resorted to; trunk washes have likewise been used but have not been very effective. ~Buffalo treehopper and periodical cicada.~ Buffalo treehoppers[26] (Fig. 15) and the periodical cicada[27] weaken twigs by inserting their eggs in them. The injured bark becomes roughened as it heals (Fig. 16), and the growth of the limb is retarded. [26] ~Ceresa bubalus~ (L.). [27] ~Magicicada septendecim~ (L.). Pruning of weakened twigs is recommended for wood injured by the cicada. If treehoppers are a pest, clean cultivation will help. Cover crops of cowpeas or clovers should not be planted. In preliminary tests two or three applications of tetraethyl pyrophosphate (20 percent), 3/4 pint per 100 gallons of water, have given promising results in controlling the periodical cicada. The first application should be made after the cicadas appear and the others as needed to prevent damage. Observations on Effects of Low Temperatures in Winter 1949-1950 on Walnuts and Filberts in Oregon and Washington JOHN H. PAINTER Horticulturist, United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Administration, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, Oregon State College, Corvallis, Oregon In western Oregon and Washington, where the Japan Current is supposed to keep the winter temperatures moderate, something happens every now and then and we get really severe winters. We can't blame it on the "A" bomb because we had severe winter injury in 1919 and 1935 long before the "A" bomb. The last two winters have been exceptionally cold, but this past winter of 1949-1950 was much more severe than the previous one. In 1948-1949, the cold came rather suddenly in the latter part of December. In the past winter, 1949-1950, the real cold came on January 30, with temperatures ranging from 10 to 30 degrees below zero F. Most official temperatures were higher; but at Corvallis the official temperatures were taken at least 60 feet above the ground level, on the roof of the Agricultural Building, which is over a steam-heated building and is old enough to be not very well insulated. This cold continued in somewhat modified form for a week. During the previous winter the lowest temperature recorded in the nut growing areas was about 10 to 11 degrees above zero F., and the severe cold lasted for only a couple of days. In both winters the ground was fairly well covered with snow, but with considerably more snow this past winter than the previous winter. No apparent damage to Persian walnuts was observed as a result of the cold in the 1948-1949 winter, but in certain low-lying areas catkins of Barcelona and Daviana filberts were killed, especially those of the latter. Considerable dieback of filberts occurred; but during the following growing season recovery was effected and at the end of the summer very little evidence of winter injury was visible. The injury resulting from the cold weather of the past winter was much more severe than that of the previous winter. Whereas filberts were the only nut trees injured in 1948-1949, they escaped with relatively little damage in 1949-1950 in comparison with Persian walnuts. On February 11, 1950, ten days after the really severe week, several walnut growers of long experience held grave fears for the entire industry. Peach and apple trees, which seem to exhibit winter injury more quickly than walnuts, showed so much damage then that walnut growers thought the injury to the Persian walnut would be even worse. From February 11, 1950, to the present date (July 30) I have been making observations from time to time in different locations with special attention to walnuts and with some to filberts. It is thought that certain of these observations might be of interest to nut growers in other areas, even though there is nothing particularly new or startling about them. They do, however, tend to show how surprisingly well the Persian walnut trees can withstand severe cold if it occurs after they have once gone into dormancy. Generally speaking, the winter injury to walnuts has been spotty. No areas of great size have been either free of injury or severely injured. Usually, where a difference in severity of damage is found between areas close together, some reason for the difference can be found, but it is not always evident on the surface. Injury to Walnuts With the possible exception of southern Oregon, it is safe to say that 100 percent of the walnut trees in Oregon and Washington suffered some twig injury as a result of last winter's cold. In many cases the subsequent dieback of the twigs may extend only a few inches, but sometimes the injury involves not only the past season's growth but that of three or even four years back. As might well be expected, this twig injury of necessity has meant the loss of many terminal and lateral buds which bear the female flowers; so for that reason, if for no other, this twig injury has assumed serious aspects. In many cases the catkins were severely injured even where there was little or no twig injury. The catkins of the Persian walnut seem to be extremely sensitive to cold. Many Persian walnut trees in Oregon this year failed to produce any catkins at all. Some produced very few normal catkins, but some half-developed and deformed catkins. An examination of these partially injured catkins, however, revealed the fact that they did produce some pollen. It will always remain a mystery to me how as many walnuts were pollinated and set as there were, with the scant crop of catkins. In practically every orchard examined, where the temperature got as low as minus 10 degrees F., the pith cells were blackened. This is not uncommon in other tree crops following severe winter injury. Fairly good peach crops have been borne in Georgia on trees that had the pith cells completely blackened. In the case of walnuts this year, many growers were considerably worried by the fact that even the wood tissue outside the pith region was black and watersoaked. However, to date (July 30, 1950) this condition has not proven serious; as long as the cambium cells were not injured no real trouble has developed. In some cases under observation, even where some injury to the cambium cells was known to have existed, enough live ones have been left to effect recovery. Compared to peach, holly, and even apple trees the Persian walnut has put up a marvelous fight to recover from the injury sustained. Factors Accentuating Winter Injury in Walnuts After the several months of observation, certain factors appear invariably to account for excessive damage to walnut orchards. Elevation seems to be a principal factor. The hillside orchards or those on upland sites (soils) were far less injured than the river-bottom or valley-floor orchards, even though the latter may be on a better soil as far as fertility is concerned. My early prediction of 50 percent of a crop in the hillside orchards seems now to have been about 10 percent short, unless other factors become involved. On the other hand, my early prediction of 25 percent of a crop in the valley-floor orchards has been close to correct. Of course, certain valley-floor orchards with a combination of adverse factors won't have even a 5 percent crop. Older orchards were more severely hurt than younger orchards with otherwise similar conditions. This is possibly due to the lack of vigor and of reserve material, resulting from crowding and competition for elements of nutrition. The size of the crop the preceeding year seems invariably to have had an effect upon amount of damage done. The matter of reserves is again involved. Two orchards that bore a reduced crop last year because of spring frost injury have come through much better than some other similar orchards, at practically the same elevation and age, that bore a crop last year. Two adjacent hillside orchards show considerable difference in degree of winter injury and crop prospects for this year. It is believed that this difference was due to the fact that in one orchard 35 percent of the crop was destroyed by blight last year, in comparison with a 1 percent loss in the other. The owners and I estimate that there is at least 20 percent larger crop this year in the orchard which had the heavy loss from blight last year. In several orchards where different levels of fertilization have been used by the grower, it appears that the more liberal the application of fertilizer, particularly nitrogen, the less severe was the winter damage sustained. At the college orchard in Corvallis, the one tree that got no additional nitrogen last year and that bore the heaviest crop of nuts is outstandingly the most severely winter injured of the 17 trees involved. Only two varieties of walnuts have been studied, Franquette and Mayette, and some Carpathian seedlings in one orchard. Here in Oregon the Mayette seems to have generally withstood the winter injury better than the Franquette. It is my belief that they are just naturally a little more vigorous than the Franquette. Yet they never seem to overproduce as the Franquette sometime does. Last year was the "on" year for Franquettes and that might easily account for the generally apparent better condition of the Mayettes this year. Carpathians Resist Winter Best Near Ontario, Oregon, I saw 7 seedling Carpathian walnut trees early this spring. They were leafed out and the catkins were elongated before any Franquettes, even in the Willamette Valley, had started breaking buds. No sign of winter injury was apparent on the Carpathian trees at that time, yet Franquettes at the Malheur Experiment Station, a mile away, were obviously killed to the groundline. The owner, Mr. Peter Countryman, says these trees are often damaged by spring frosts but they always produce some nuts. A letter dated August 4, from Mr. Countryman, indicates that a hard frost on the morning of April 24 when the temperature dropped to 22 degrees, did considerable damage to the new growth and catkins on the lower half of the Carpathian walnut trees. He estimates not to exceed one-third of a crop on these Carpathian trees this year; but he says that since the freeze the trees have made good growth, the new terminals being about 18 inches in length and the nuts on them are very large. To sum up the walnut situation, then, the encouraging thing is that no walnut orchards have been called to my attention that were completely killed. Several badly neglected orchards and two orchards where it is said that the temperature dropped lower than minus 25 degrees F. are so severely damaged that it is impractical to try to save them, but even these are not completely killed. Injury to Filberts From the less comprehensive observations made on filberts following the severe winter just past, it appears in general that when the filbert tree has gone into dormancy it is more tolerant of cold than the walnut. The difference of one month in time of occurrence of the cold in the two winters seems to have had more bearing on the damage to filberts than the difference in temperature. In the Forest Grove, Oregon, area, and in Clark County, Washington, filbert trees, however did suffer severely from the cold last winter, but these two areas were the "cold spots" of the Northwest. It seems as if the same factors that accentuate winter damage in walnuts work in a similar way on filberts, except that the elevation factor does not seem to be of so great importance. Age of tree, level of nutrition, and size of preceeding year's crop seem to be more important than elevation. Young filbert orchards, on either hillside or valley-floor sites, seem to be much less severely hurt than older orchards on the same sites. It is the acreage of _young_ filbert trees that will make good the agricultural statistician's estimate of 40 to 50 percent of a filbert crop this year. I have seen one 32-acre orchard of 24-year-old filbert trees that was injured beyond repair, but they were crowded and unfertilized. At the very same location a 14-acre orchard of 15-year-old filberts with adequate spacing was not seriously injured, even though the trees were not fertilized. One other orchard in a poor location and on waterlogged soil, which has had little or no care, has likewise been lost. Filberts definitely were hurt in the two "cold spots" previously mentioned, but official reports of minus 18 degrees F. were common in that area. There was a noticeable difference in damage to catkins between Daviana and DuChilly. Very few Daviana catkins produced pollen; but DuChilly seemed to be fairly normal. Injury in filberts was confined mostly to the catkins and twigs. Excessive sucker growth up and down the main trunk and branches has taken place in the filberts, as is the case in walnuts. In neither walnuts nor filberts was there much splitting of the bark on the trunk. This was probably because there was no sudden fluctuation in temperatures and sunshine was not excessive during the critically cold days. It has been previously stated that the filbert is possibly more tolerant of cold than the walnut. In spite of this there probably has been more extensive damage to filberts than to walnuts; but it must be remembered that filberts are the principal nut crop in those two "cold spots." Not many walnuts are grown there, but the ones that are were likewise injured. Editor's Note: Mr. Gellatly's following papers were read by title. Effects of the Winter of 1949-50 on Nut Trees in British Columbia J. U. GELLATLY Box 19, Westbank, B. C. (Orchard at Gellatly, B. C.) Our district is just recovering (in August) from the effects of the toughest winter we have experienced here in the past 50 years. This gave the weather test to the tune of -22° F., official. The unofficials were of 30 to 40 below--depending on distances and location from Okanagan Lake, a deep body of water three to four miles wide and eighty miles long. This lake rarely freezes over completely, especially near our section; so the open water acts as a thermostat during most winters. But the past one pulled a new stunt and it froze over completely giving zero winds a vast open sweep, so that to be near the lake was a disadvantage, for it was colder there than it was farther back, in more sheltered locations. Heartnuts and Hybrids The bright spot in the nut tree picture is our heartnut trees. They all came through in good shape, making rampant growths and carrying a heavy crop. These include: 2 Walters, 4 O.K. Heart, 1 Canoka, 1 Slioka, 1 Rover, 2 Calendar, 1 Westoka, 1 Nursoka, 1 Aloka, 1 Symoka, 15 select unnamed bearing seedlings, yet on trial. All are promising. Also we have three of the Elfin paper shell heartnut hybrids. I have failed to find a good pollinator for these Elfins, so they are shy croppers, although producing plenty of the female blooms. All of the above trees are 6 inches in diameter and up to 20 inches. Then come the Buart nuts. I coined this name to designate the hybrids I had made having the butternut (~J. cineria~) as the pollen parent and Calendar heartnut (~J. sieboldiana cordiformis~) as the mother tree. Possibly the seven best of these are: Leslie, Dunoka, Fioka, Okanda, Kingsbury, Penoka, Flavo. These trees are all carrying crops and most of them are making good growth. Filberts Ackerman, Brag, Comet, Craig, Holder, Petoka, Carey, Baroka, Barcelona, Bawdin, Firstoka (Gellatly No. 1). These have made a good showing, as the majority of the trees or bushes under 4 to 6 inch crown diameter of these varieties, are doing well and carrying good crops, while many above these diameters suffered in varying degrees from slightly to severely, apparently regardless of variety, location, or soil on which they grew. It may be noted that all these varieties have been hardy in the past, but age was adding up and age evidently had somewhat to do with their inability to take the punishment they got this past winter. For all my large Bing and Lambert cherry trees were severely injured or entirely winter killed, as were nearby peaches, apricots, pear, and some apple trees, particularly in the larger sizes, while many of these younger trees were uninjured, except that they are fruitless this season. Soft Shell Walnuts (Juglans regia) Broadview variety on Gellatly Farm, of 20 bearing trees, all suffered winter injury for first time in 20 years. This injury varied all the way from freezing back two to three feet of all higher branches and twigs, to an actual loss of one-third to two-thirds of entire tree and trunk. At date of writing all are staging a good comeback with no care but a "wait-and-see" policy as to final treatment. There was so much loss as to involve too much work if pruning and after care of sprouts were undertaken. It was decided to leave the dead limbs and branches as a protection to the fast growing new sprouts, which, without this protection, would probably have been badly damaged by wind and rain storms. Even large birds lighting on these new sprouts might break them down. The dead limbs will be gradually removed later, as the new limbs harden up and take over. Many of these will be left as supports for at least two years, when I expect most of these trees will be back in production, if we get a return to normal (minus 10° F.) winters, many will produce in 1951, as the new wood is showing a good growth of catkins. Although all bearing trees on my place were injured, the younger trees in my nursery were not hurt to any noticeable extent. At Summerland Experimental Station, 25 miles south of Gellatly, grow two large Broadview walnut trees supplied by myself. I had grafted on these black walnut roots (~J. nigra~) at the ground line, in every respect like my own. These trees are carrying a good crop. One shows slight winter injury, the other none at all. The official low for their location was 22° below F. with nearby unofficials to 30° below. Their present location is at least 200 feet above lake level, and on very well drained sandy loam. Mine are about 30 feet above the lake and on somewhat heavier loam. I note that trees on my more gravelly soil came through in the best shape at official-22° F., unofficial 24 to 28 below. My Broadview that made best survival had grown the previous year in a chicken yard. Ground was well scratched over and droppings incorporated in top 4 inches of soil. Tree was flood irrigated three or four times in dry season. On this tree only outer new branches were killed and tree gives every indication of being back in crop in 1951 season. The crop record on this tree is from 1945 and reads '45--35 pounds; '46--75 pounds; '47--91 pounds; '48--36 pounds; '49--100 pounds. Weight is for clean, undried, and partly dried nuts at time of picking up. Some of the other Broadview trees have higher crop records, although of same age and size, with possibly a bit better soil, in same grove. One tree in six years, '44 to '49 inclusive, had an average of 74 pounds per year; another had an average for the same years of 104 pounds per year. Just recently I made a special trip to see how the parent Broadview tree had wintered. I found it had sustained severe damage to two-thirds of the upper part of the trunk and main branches. The lower third was staging a good comeback, despite unofficials of 35 to 40 below zero F. as reported by neighboring farmers. The following varieties of soft shell bearing walnut trees were also winter injured: Munsoka, badly, top two-thirds of trunk; Linoka, badly, top two-thirds of trunk; Myoka (Jumbo type) one-third of top branches; Geloka (Jumbo type) frozen to ground line but sprouts two feet high now growing. On Sirdar (a Jumbo type long nut), only outer tips of branches were killed. This was a surprise to me, as it is a second generation seedling of Italian source. The parent tree grew and cropped well for many years on bench land at Sirdar, in southern interior of B. C. until the winter of 1935-36, when it was so badly damaged that the owner had it removed. I rather looked for a similar fate in this one. There is this difference: mine was not as old nor had it been cropping heavily as yet. The season here is barely long enough to develop fully the kernels of Sirdar. Crath Carpathian Walnut No. 46 This walnut was grafted on black walnut (~J. nigra~) root in 1944 and planted here on low loam soil in 1945. It never has been hardy under our conditions, winter killing some every winter since it was planted. This past winter it was killed to below snow line 18 inches above union, whereas Broadview trees alongside, which are the same in every respect, never were injured until this past winter. Then only minor damage to soft new growth was done. So it looks as though Broadview is still the best bet for our conditions. I am of the opinion that extreme temperature is not the sole determining factor in causing winter injury to nut or other trees. This opinion is based on the behavior of trees that have winter killed continuously while in certain soil, but on being moved to another spot having enriched soil of similar make-up and drainage located only 200 yards away, have never winter killed since removal, and have taken much worse winters, including the one just past. The fact that many of our introductions grow and thrive 150 to 200 miles north of here, where temperatures drop to minus 35° to 40°, with occasional drops to 54° below zero. Check this on your map of Interior of B. C. on 53° latitude at Quesnel, B. C. I see a geology map lists that district as sedimentary and volcanic rocks. My informant grows butternuts, chestnuts, and filberts. Another grower at Clinton, located on 50° latitude, central B. C. with temperatures to minus 40° F., grows Japanese and black walnuts, also Pioneer almond. We are sure that the same temperatures with our conditions would kill most of our trees. Recipes J. U. GELLATLY Walnut Honey Sandwich 1 Teaspoon crystallized Honey (the coarser the crystal the better) 3 Broadview walnut half kernels or quarters. Place honey on one-half kernel, then stick the other half on the honey, making a small sandwich, or kernel covered ball of honey. This is a delightful confection. Potato Nut Soup 1. Grate 1 tablespoon onion. 2. Grate 1 good-sized potato. Place in double boiler, stir while adding boiling water, to a thin paste. Stir until cooked clear like corn starch pudding. Add hot whole milk to bring to creamy soup. At this stage add one-fourth cup filbert kernels. First put nuts through one of the new nut planing gadgets. These are better than the old grinder shredders or choppers, as shavings are so thin and soft they just melt in hot liquid. (Also delightful on ice cream or fresh fruit.) Have potatoes well cooked before adding milk or nut flakes. Cooking nuts too long sets up some chemical change that thins the creamy texture of the soup. Description of Filazel Varieties[28] [28] Since the Peace River hazel is apparently ~Corylus rostrata~ these filbert hybrids of Mr. Gellatly belong to a different category from the "hazilberts" of Mr. Weschcke and the "Mildred filberts" which had ~C. americana~ parentage.--J. C. McD. J. U. GELLATLY The name (Filazel) I coined to designate those crosses I had made, having the Peace River hazel as the mother tree and Craig and others of our large filberts as the pollen parent. Peoka Has thin shell. Clean, well-filled kernel. Is heavy cropper and free husker. Nuts mature early. Are well filled by August fifth with shells starting to brown. Fully ripe by August tenth to fifteenth. Manoka One of the best of my first selections. Very attractive, heavy cropper, well-filled kernels by August first, shells coloring by August fifth. Ripe and falling August fifteenth. Fernoka Good cropper of roundish nuts, having short open husks and good clean kernels. Myoka In clusters 1 to 6. Has short open husks. Leaves color well in the fall. Has ornamental value. Fairoka One to 7 nuts in cluster in fancy frilled and rolled back husk. Nuts roundish, of fair size and color. Flavor, good. Leaves color well in fall. Has ornamental value. Maroka Medium-sized nut exposed in clusters 4 to 6. Open husk, folded back. Ureoka Medium size for Filazel. Thin-shelled roundish nut, 4 to 6 in clusters. Very short, partially closed husk. Orvoka Two to 5 nuts in cluster. Clean kernels. Husk half-inch longer than nut. Has open side. Good cropper. Brenoka Long husk like parent hazel, but lacking prickles of the wild. Medium sized nut in clusters, 1 to 4. Eloka Two to 4 in cluster. Medium sized nut with clean kernels in open husks. No. 500 Four to 10 nuts in cluster. Has short open husk. Good-sized nut of Barcelona type. Is a good cropper of clean kernels. Shell heavy. No. 502 Largest Barcelona type Filazel that has fruited to date. Clusters contain 4 to 8 nuts enclosed in heavy medium-length closed husks. No. 503 One to 9 nuts in cluster, having clean, full kernels in thick shells enclosed in short open husks. No. 505 One to 6 nuts in cluster, having closed, medium length husks. A good cropper. No. 509 Two to 6 roundish nuts in long closed husks free of prickles so common on wild hazels. A good cropper. The parent hazels used for these crosses mature the nuts by the first of August and were winter hardy at-60° F. in Peace River, Alberta. Other Hazels Manchurian short bush hazel, distinctive clipped off top on leaf with some colored (of reddish hue). This bush retains leaves all winter, and would make a good protective covering for wild life. Has well-flavored, clean kernels fully developed by August seventh, 1950. Kernel is enclosed in heavy, squat shells encircled with distinctive short closed husk, as if folded together just covering nut. The leaf shape and markings carry through and appear in the young seedlings. Experiments with Tree Hazels and Chestnuts J. U. GELLATLY Corylus jacquemontii (Smooth Bark) India Tree Hazel Tree No. 1. Location--N.W. corner Lot 6, subdivision Lot 487, Scions from Kew Botanical Garden, England. Top grafted on Craig filbert 10 feet from ground line. This made good annual growth and compatibly well adjusted unions, which after many years are still in line and not readily detected except by difference in color and character of bark--the grafted top being smooth and lighter of color than Craig stock. Although stocks were bearing when cut for grafting, and scions were from bearing trees and had catkins on when received, grafts were trained to take over and become the main growth and leading tree from the Craig crown. This grafted tree did not produce catkins or nuts for four or five years, but branches on the stock went right on bearing, as did also other Craig sections on same root crown or filbert clump used for grafting above tree hazel. At date of writing, and following the severest winter of the past 45 years, when temperatures dropped to -24° F., followed by brief, bright sunshine and rapid rise of temperature, all ungrafted filberts of over three to four inches in diameter are dead or nearly so, while suckers 2-1/2 inches in diameter and smaller are quite sound and making good growth. So, also, are the stocks or sections top grafted to the tree hazel--even the larger 4 to 4-1/2 inches in diameter trunks. I ask why, as by all ordinary results the grafted trees should have been the easiest damaged. This tree, and the other sections of filberts on same crown, had cropped for three years past, so that from that angle they should have been on an equal footing. Only a few clusters of nuts grew on this ~Corylus jacquemontii~ this 1950 season. Data on tree size: Height 32 feet--was grafted about 10 feet above ground line. Circumference of tree--12 inches above ground is 15 inches. At 4 inches below the graft, it is 10 inches, and the same four inches above graft union, which is very uniform, and if this combination could be reversed we would have an ideal non-suckering stock for commercial filbert orchards. ~Jacquemontii~ also buds well on cork bark ~C. colurna~ tree hazel. Corylus jacquemontii Smooth Bark India Tree Hazel on Cork Bark Turkish Tree Hazel Corylus colurna Stock Tree No. 2 Location--S.W. corner of Lot 6, subdivision Lot 487. Budded August 15, 1941, at six feet from ground line, to one inch two year growth. Two years later top was removed and bud made to take over leadership. From then on it made good growth. Removal of top was not done at one operation, but first year leader was cut one-third way through, on long slope from bud downward on both sides, and allowed to callus over one year. Second year leader was cut further and when callused, top was then removed. This treatment gave good coverage of wound on trunk. Tree bore first crop 1949, eight years after budding. Nuts 1/2 inch in diameter, moderate shell of roundish form, well filled, with good flavor, clean kernels. August 4, 1950--Tree has a base circumference at ten inches above ground of 18-1/2 inches--at six feet above, 14 inches--below union circumference is 14 inches, while four inches above union it is 11 inches. No evidence of any winter injury after taking a-24° F. temperature. No crop this year, but has a good crop of catkins showing for 1951. Corylus hetrophyllia Japanese Tree Hazel Tree No. 3. Location--N. W. corner of Lot 6, subdivision Lot 487. Scions from Kew Botanical Gardens, England, top grafted on Craig Filbert stocks 10 feet from ground line. Made very good union. Present circumference four inches below union is 7-3/4 inches, and four inches above union is 8 inches. The bark on this graft is similar to the Craig on which it is growing but lighter in color. There is no winter injury in evidence at this date except a very much lighter crop than usual. Has small, oval, light-colored nut of good flavor and color--clean kernels. Corylus colurna (Thin Bark) Turkish Tree Hazel, also Cork Bark Tree No. 4. Source of Scions--Oregon, U.S.A. Top graft on Craig stock six feet above ground. This Craig filbert clump has several divisions. Main one now six inches above ground. Has a circumference of 20 inches, and just above this branches into four main limbs of similar size, which at a height of six feet were grafted--two to the thin bark above, and two to the cork bark type. The thin bark type have made very compatible unions--well healed over. The circumference four inches below the graft is now 9-1/2 inches and at similar distance above is now 10 inches. July, 1950:--These are bearing a few nuts, following a winter temperature of-24° F. Although the two branches worked to the cork bark type have no crop this season, they have over-grown graft unions, and the tops are oversize for stocks. Circumference four inches below union is now 7 inches, and at same distance above is 9 inches. Both these types have thick shelled roundish nuts which are hard to get out of the husks, and so far have many blank nuts. India tree hazels also contain many blanks and are very difficult to separate from the husks. Trees are all hardy and vigorous. Best of 25 seedling ~C. colurna~ (cork bark tree hazels). Circumference twelve inches above ground line is 31 inches, and at six feet above ground is 25 inches. Height about forty feet. On August 3, 1950, I climbed thirty feet into upper branches to see if there was any crop, but none was to be seen, but heavy crop of catkins was developing for 1951. I have many hybrids from all of these tree hazels and filberts, nearing the bearing age, and they give interesting promise of new strains, as all sorts of crossing are evident. Tibet Hazel (C. tibicia) Vigorous grower, upright, good cropper, fair size round nuts. Clean kernels, nut clusters, 4 to 6 nuts in open medium husks. Nuts fall free. These clusters differ from usual run of filberts or hazels in that each husk is separate on short neck from center of cluster. Timber Type Tree Chinese Chestnut (Castanea mollissima) Seed secured direct from China. All select large nuts. So far, only a very few produce trees that yield nuts of as large size as those planted. All that have are timber type trees. All the bush or dwarf spreading type trees yield small to medium-sized nuts, all of good quality and flavor. (Selection to 1950 date referred to.) One Chinese Chestnut Selection Named Skioka. Most promising timber type to date of this group of seedlings. Has one straight trunk 38 feet tall, base circumference 1 foot above ground, is 22 inches; and 6 feet above ground line circumference is 15 inches. To date, tree is sparse cropper. Started bearing in 1945, with three very large sized nuts in large fleshy burs. It has borne every year since, with gradual increase in number. In 1949 it matured 12 large nuts of 1-5/8 inch diameter. A good peeler and solid kernel. I have four other trees of similar size and all winter hardy this past winter, at 24° below. Skioka is the most promising to date of the four as to size of nut. Bush or Peach Tree Type of C. mollissima Of this type I have about 30 trees. Many seem 100% hardy and came through in good shape. However, for some years they, with the tree type, seemed to be having trouble with some soil deficiency or else some excess of soil salts which caused a lot of leaf fading, followed by browning and drying up. Some trees almost defoliate themselves, while others nearby and alongside are O.K., possibly due to individual tolerance of conditions. * * * * * DR. MacDANIELS: The first paper after recess has to do with the varieties of hickory nuts. I know of no one who is in a better position to talk on this subject on their performance here in this part of New York State than Gilbert L. Smith of Millerton. He began a number of years ago topworking trees on a hillside and propagating trees as a nurseryman and probably is, as far as I know, one of the best men in nut shade trees and hickory varieties that there is anywhere in the country. Mr. Gilbert Smith. MR. SMITH: I am no good at making a speech, so I am just going to read this. This is our experience with hickory varieties so far. That's just up to date, but not any further. Our Experience with Hickory Nut Varieties GILBERT L. SMITH, Route 2, Millerton, N. Y. Because we are located so far north, 41° 45' North Latitude, we have paid particular attention to the earliness of ripening of the various varieties of hickory. While we have living grafts of more than a hundred named varieties of hickory, only a comparative few have started to bear nuts. Of these, I will give a brief discussion, starting with the earliest and going through the list in order of their ripening. ANTHONY, shagbark--We believe that this is Anthony No. 1 but as there are four or five varieties named Anthony with a number following the name, we are not absolutely sure. This variety has ripened very early with us. It is rather small but cracks very well and has borne well with us. We consider it to be an excellent variety. WESCHCKE, shagbark--Is our second earliest variety so far. It is also rather small, with a distinctive shape, tapering from a rather broad blossom end to a sharp point at the stem end. Our graft has had one very good crop, but it is younger than many of our other grafts. We consider it a very good variety. CROWN POINT, shagbark--Is our third variety in order of ripening. This is a rather small nut with some of them being very small; that is, there is quite a variation in the size of the nuts. It cracks quite well and is of very good quality. It has also borne as well or better than any other variety we have under test. We have never propagated it for sale as we have hardly thought it quite good enough. In fourth place of ripening order, we have four ties, namely; Bauer, Cedar Rapids, Hines, and Independence. BAUER, shagbark--Has borne well, is of good size, good quality and cracks well. It is also a very good shaped nut. We consider it to be one of the very good hickories. CEDAR RAPIDS, shagbark--While our graft of this variety has borne but moderately, we consider it to be a very good variety. It is of good size, cracks well, is of good quality and attractive shape. HINES, shagbark--While our graft of this variety has borne well, cracks well and is of good quality, it is so small that we have never propagated it for sale. INDEPENDENCE, shagbark--The nuts of this variety are so small that we have paid little attention to it. FOX, shagbark--This variety is in fifth place in order of ripening. Fox won first prize in the 1934 N.N.G.A. contest. But there is a deep mystery connected with this variety as subsequent crops, grown on grafts, have not produced nuts of such top qualities. There have been many theories advanced but no one has solved the mystery yet. One theory is that there is bud variation in the parent tree and that Mr. Fox, quite naturally, cut scion wood from the lower parts of the tree, which were most readily accessible. During the war, I secured a special allotment of gasoline and made the trip to Fonda, N. Y., to cut scions from all parts of the tree. The scions from the various parts of the tree were labeled separately and were grafted on stocks in our test orchard. While not all of these grafts lived, we have living grafts from nearly all parts of the tree. I note that at least one of these grafts has nuts on it this year. If there is bud variation we hope that we will have at least some grafts of the superior Fox nuts. In spite of all this, Fox is an excellent variety, being of good size, cracks well, and is of very good quality. While it is fifth in order of ripening, it is still an early hickory and will succeed considerably farther north than our location. In sixth place we have two varieties, namely; Clark and Stocking. CLARK, shagbark--Our graft of this variety has borne well, the nuts being of good size, crack well and are of good quality. We consider it to be a very good variety. STOCKING, shagbark x bitternut--While our graft has grown very well, it has produced but very few nuts. We were not very greatly impressed with these. In seventh place in order of ripening, we have two varieties, Camp No. 2 and Stratford. CAMP NO. 2, shagbark--We did not find this variety good enough to interest us very much. Subsequent crops may show up better. STRATFORD, not sure whether shagbark or hybrid[29]--Our Stratford graft has been poorly tended and has had little chance to show its merits. So while it has an excellent reputation, we know very little about it. However we have several good sized grafts of it, growing in nursery row, which have several nuts on this year, so we will find out more about it soon. [29] It is a bitternut hybrid.--Ed. In eighth place we have three varieties; Proper, Shaul, and Wilcox. While being in eighth place, these are still medium early varieties. PROPER, shagbark--This is a little known variety, our graft is rather young and we have had too few nuts to form any opinion of this variety as yet. SHAUL, shagbark--While this is a very good nut, being of good size, cracks well and of good quality, our graft on shagbark stock has grown slowly and it is the one variety so far that we have found will not do well on our bitternut stocks. WILCOX, shagbark--So far this is our favorite variety. The graft has grown into a fine tree and has borne good crops of nuts which are of good size, crack almost perfectly and are of very good quality. MINNIE, shagbark--While we have not had a crop of this variety since starting to keep a ripening record, it ripens about the same time as Wilcox and is a very good variety. Ninth on our list we have two varieties; Davis and Peck Hybrid. It so happens that I discovered both of these varieties. DAVIS, shagbark--First prize winner in the New York and New England Contest of 1934. Incidentally, a sample of Fox nuts was awarded tenth place in this same contest. You will note that this was the same year in which Fox won first place in the N.N.G.A. Davis has pretty well lived up to expectations. Grafts of this variety are rapid growers. It is the only variety we have ever succeeded in making live on pignut stocks. While the grafts are slower growing on pignut stocks, they have lived for several years and have borne nuts. But as the squirrels have stolen all of the nuts, we do not know how they compare with the nuts grown on other stocks. Our grafts of Davis have borne well, the nuts are of good size and crack well, although not as well as those of Wilcox. It is also of very good quality. We consider it to be a top rate nut. PECK HYBRID, shagbark x bitternut--The nuts of this variety are large, thin shelled, crack well and are of good quality. It also bears well. The drawback is that only about one third to one half of the nuts are well filled. I can take freshly shucked nuts of this variety and by placing them in water can pick out a sample of nuts that are just about as good hickory nuts as you can find anywhere, but these will be only about one third of the nuts involved. For this reason we have never propagated it for sale. In tenth place we have three varieties; Berger, Strever, and Triplett. BERGER, shellbark--While this variety is quite small for a shellbark, it is quite large when compared with the shagbarks. Our graft of the Berger has borne fairly well, cracks well and is of very good quality. Incidentally our graft is the true Berger. There was some mix-up with the Berger wood, and some who thought they had Berger found that they had something else when their trees started to bear. STREVER, shagbark--The original tree of this variety is growing near Pine Plains here in Dutchess County, on the Old Strever Homestead. This property was later sold to people named Owre, who tried to have the variety named after them. I believe that Strever is the more proper name. While this variety is of good size and quality, it has not cracked quite well enough to rate it as a top flight hickory. TRIPLETT, shagbark--This is a large shagbark which cracks well and is of good quality. Our graft bears well. I believe that it was discovered by Dr. Deming and the late Mr. Beeman. This is a variety which can well bear considerable attention in the future. We are propagating some of the trees for sale. In eleventh place we have nine varieties, namely: Bridgewater, Griffin, Hagen, Harman, Kirtland, Lingenfelter, Manahan, Oliver, and Wampler. BRIDGEWATER, shagbark--A large fine variety, cracks well, yields well and is of good quality. This is another discovery of Dr. Deming's and Mr. Beeman's. We have started to propagate it for sale. GRIFFIN, shagbark--I have mislaid my comments on this variety and cannot remember much about it, except that it is of good size and bears well. HAGEN, shagbark--We have not had enough nuts of this variety to enable us to form an opinion of it. HARMAN, shagbark--A large nut. We did not think much of our first crop of this variety but the second crop was very good. KIRTLAND, shagbark--This is a fine large nut, but with the one good crop, we have had, only about half of the nuts were well filled. The other half were floaters, only partly filled. LINGENFELTER, shagbark--Here again we have had too few nuts to enable us to form an opinion. Mr. Reed thought very well of it. MANAHAN, shagbark--This nut is of southern origin and I fear that we are too far north for it. However we have had one crop that was very good. All other crops have not been matured. It is evidentally a very good nut where it can be grown. OLIVER, shagbark--Too few nuts to form an opinion. WAMPLER, shellbark--Too few nuts to form an opinion. In twelfth place on our list, in order of ripening, we have Bowman and Redcay. These are both shellbarks and the nuts have not been well filled, as borne on our grafts. In last place on our list, we have a southern shagbark, Booth, and two hicans, Bixby and Burlington. We have not been able to form an opinion of Booth. Bixby and Burlington have, so far, been very shy bearers and the nuts have not been well filled. They are of very large size and very excellent quality. The time elapsed between the earliest and latest ripening of these different hickory varieties was 36 days. The time between the different steps were about three days. I do not give the dates because they will vary from year to year. In early years, Anthony has been ripe very early in September. Summarizing this report shows that our tests so far indicate that the following varieties are good and well worthy of propagation: Anthony (probably No. 1), Weschcke, Bauer, Cedar Rapids, Fox, Clark, Wilcox, Minnie, Davis, Berger, Triplett, Bridgewater, Manahan (farther south). Instead of listing these 13 varieties alphabetically or in order of their merits, I have listed them in order of their ripening, earliest first, and so on. Those varieties in the first half of the list can be grown in locations considerably farther north than our location, which is 41° 45' North Latitude, while those in the last half of the list are not likely to be adapted to locations farther north than ours. You will note that five of these varieties are not well known, but are good varieties. They are, namely; Bauer, Cedar Rapids, Clark, Triplett, and Bridgewater.[30] [30] The Bridgewater pollenizes the male-sterile Weschcke variety in Wisconsin. See Mr. Weschcke's discussion, pp. 193-95 in NNGA Report for 1948.--Ed. This is only a preliminary or progress report, and should not be taken as final in any respect. Neither does it cover all or near all, of the top-rate hickory varieties. For instance, you will note, the variety named Glover has not been mentioned. This is because our grafts of it have not started to bear yet, so we have no comparable basis for including it in this report. Yet there can be no question as to the merits of Glover, for it is one of the very best. There are, no doubt, many other very excellent varieties not mentioned here. The hickory is the slowest growing, takes the longest to start to bear, is the nurseryman's headache (it taking about five years to grow stocks large enough to graft or bud, during which time they should have been transplanted at least twice to develop a better root system), they are about (the hardest of the nut species to transplant and their nuts are one of the smallest of the nut species only the filbert and the chestnut being as small). Yet because of their delicious flavor and other good qualities, hickories are probably the favorite nut of more people than any other of the nut species that can be grown in the northern part of this country. (Applause.) DR. MacDANIELS: I think we need more reports of that kind to get us oriented with our hickory varieties. I think when we get through with the walnut survey that the hickory nut survey would be next. MR. CORSAN: Hickory was Dr. Charles S. Sargent's favorite tree, and he planted poison ivy under all of them, and it's there yet and they can't get rid of it. He wanted to keep the boys from gathering the nuts. DR. MacDANIELS: I have poison ivy under some of mine, but not for that purpose. MR. McDANIEL: It grows under all good trees. DR. MacDANIELS: The next paper is one which George Slate kind of foisted off on me. He came around and said he thought something more should be said about the butternut and asked if I would get out a report and discuss the standards for evaluation. That is the reason for this paper, which I will read. It will take only about ten minutes. How About the Butternut? DR. L. H. MacDANIELS, Ithaca, New York The purpose in presenting this paper is to summarize what is known about the butternut in the light of my own experience, and to find out from you in discussion what additional facts are available and what some of the problems in the culture of butternuts may be. A good summary by S. H. Graham is to be found in the 34th Annual report of the Northern Nut Growers Association, and short reports appear elsewhere. In general, however, judging from the proceedings of this Association, the butternut has not received much attention through the years. The lack of interest in the butternut indicates unsatisfactory experience with this nut on the part of those who have tried to grow and use it. An analysis of its good and bad characteristics is in order. Of all the species of nuts with which the Association is concerned, the butternut is the most hardy and the most likely to succeed on poor soil. In general, the trees are easy to transplant, are early bearing, sometimes within two years from the graft, and are easy to grow. The flavor of the butternut is very distinctive and palatable, and usually much more flavorful than similar nuts derived from the Japanese butternut and the heartnut. Some people consider the butternut flavor the best of all nuts. On the other hand, the butternut has a reputation for being short lived because of susceptibility to various diseases. The seedling trees which are usually sold are slow in bearing. The common wild nuts are hard to crack with a hammer, and the better named varieties are not well known or widely grown. The trees also have a reputation for being difficult to propagate. Of these faults, probably the difficulty of propagation and cracking are the most important in restricting its use. Botanically the butternut (_Juglans cinerea_) belongs to a group of species within the genus Juglans that bears its fruit in long clusters or racemes, as contrasted with the walnut group which bears nuts singly or in clusters of two or three. The butternuts also have the fruit and leaves covered with sticky hairs instead of being smooth. The group is further characterized by having a cushion of hairs above the leaf scars and pointed terminal buds on the twigs. Other species within the group are the Japanese butternut _J. Sieboldiana_, its variety _cordiformis_, the heartnut, and several less well known species including _J. mandshurica_ and _J. cathayensis_, both native to central Asia. These closely related species apparently hybridize with each other, but accurate information as to the nature and extent of such hybridization is not available. The natural geographical range of the butternut covers a broad area of Northeastern North America, extending from New Brunswick southward to the mountains of Georgia and westward to Western Ontario, Dakota, and Arkansas. In this range it is most frequent in calcareous soils, reaching its best development in rich woodland, but persisting on poorer upland soils also. It thus has the most northern range of our native nut species, along with the Pignut, _Carya glabra_, and one species of hazelnut, _Corylus rostrata_. The other related species are of variable and uncertain hardiness and are not reliable in this northern range. It is recognized that the butternut has little commercial value except as it is used in the New England states, particularly in Vermont, where it is combined with maple sugar in making maple-butternut candy. Anyone who has travelled through the New England states is familiar with the roadside advertising of this excellent product. On the general market, butternut kernels are not sold in quantity comparable to those of the black walnut, but are somewhat comparable to the kernels of the hickory which also do not have a commercial outlet except locally. The greatest use of the butternut is, and will continue to be, for the home grounds and local consumption. I think it is highly probable that if the easy cracking varieties already named were better known, they would be much more widely planted. The common wild butternuts are really difficult to handle. They crack only after considerable hammering with a heavy hammer and then, when cracked, the kernels shatter to such an extent that recovery is very unsatisfactory for the labor expended. After butternuts have been gathered from the wild with some enthusiasm during the fall months, they often remain in the cellar or attic without ever being used. Even the squirrels and the rats will not go to the bother of extracting the kernels if other nuts are available. For best results the nuts are usually cracked with a heavy hammer, the nut being held vertically against a solid vice or block, so it can be hit on the end. A glove to protect the fingers holding the nut is useful if many are to be cracked. Good results can be secured by holding the nut on its side and tapping it on the suture. This, however is difficult, as it necessitates shucking the nut and even then it is difficult to identify the suture. Through the years many varieties of butternut have been named. Mr. R. L. Watts in the 35th annual report of the Association lists 26 names, and I am sure there are others. I personally have had experience with only three or four varieties. One of these, the Crax-ezy, has borne good crops and the nuts crack well. Another one, which I have named the Johnson, coming from Tonawanda, New York, cracks well but is a smaller nut. At one time I had Thill variety topworked on _Juglans Sieboldiana_ stock, but the stock was killed by cold winter. Samples of Kinnyglen and Mandeville were furnished by Mr. Graham for testing. We do not, however, have any comparative rating of many varieties based on comparative tests, nor are there recognized standards of quality. In order to set up standards of quality for butternuts, the following tentative schedule for judging has been worked out along the same lines as the schedule for judging black walnuts. Twenty-five nuts are used in a sample and the score is made up of the weight in grams of the kernels recovered on the first crack, plus total weight of kernels divided by 2, plus 1/2 point for each whole half kernel recovered. A nut should not be considered worthy of propagation unless practically all of the kernels come out in whole halves. Proposed Schedule For Testing Butternuts 25 Nut Samples Score = Wt. kernels first crack + total wt. kernels ÷ 2 + no. whole halves ÷ 2. Weight Total Kernels Weight 1st crack Kernels No. Variety Grams Grams Halves Score Remarks Kinnyglen 52.0 57.5 36 98.8 Crax-ezy 48.0 56.0 44 98.0 Mandeville 53.6 66.0 10 91.6 Johnson 38.5 45.5 40 81.3 Seedling No. 1 36.5 45.0 7 62.5 Seedling No. 2 26.0 43.0 22 58.5 Seedling No. 3 20.0 44.5 10 47.3 In this schedule the crackability of the sample is measured by the weight of first crack and the number of halves. The yield of kernels is measured by the total weight of kernels in the sample. The first crack includes only those kernels that either fall out or can be removed easily with the fingers. The remaining kernels are rescued with a pick or by recracking. In my judgment, the score accurately measures the merit of the samples. In the Mandeville, the large size is measured by the weight of kernels which in part offsets poor cracking quality. Poor cracking is usually caused by the edges of the halves being curved so as to be bound in the shell. Much more testing should be done to determine the value of the schedule. Opinions regarding the ease of propagation of the butternut differ, but mostly it is considered difficult to propagate, with often complete failure. This merely means that the matter is not well understood. In my own experience I have had just about as many failures as successes, and must confess that I do not have much idea of what has been responsible for either success or failure. Best results have been secured by using inlay or bark slot grafts on stubs about 2 inches in diameter. This agrees with the experience of Mr. Burgart, of Michigan, and Mr. Weshcke, of Minnesota, who report that grafts must be made several feet from the ground and not at the crown. Shield budding has apparently not been satisfactory. Mr. D. C. Snyder writes that chip budding is more successful. It is recommended by others and I agree that grafting should be done early, just as growth starts rather than later when trees are in leaf. Special care must be used in tying the new shoots of the graft to braces to prevent breakage by wind or birds. The butternut wood is very brittle and the grafts are often lost by breakage. The whole matter of butternut propagation merits further careful study. Butternut varieties may be grafted on black walnut, butternut, or _J. Sieboldiana_ stocks. Mr. Burgart, Mr. Weschcke, and Mr. D. C. Snyder consider black walnut to be better than the others, giving a more vigorous long lived tree. Varieties on butternut stocks are apparently relatively short lived and _J. Sieboldiana_ stocks have a different growth rate and are not hardy. Mr. Burgart uses bark slot grafts on black walnut seedling stocks, 2-3 years old. Butternut trees on their own roots transplant relatively easily because there is no taproot as with the black walnut and the hickory, and there are many fibrous surface roots that can be lifted when the tree is dug. Black walnut stocks are not difficult to manage, particularly if the taproots are cut on the seedlings. Culture is no special problem. Mulching and supplying nitrogenous fertilizer is good practice. The butternut has the reputation of being susceptible to disease and hence being short lived as a tree. Whether or not this is actually the case is perhaps questionable. Many butternut trees, particularly those in favorable situations of soil and moisture, live to be of large size and old age. Trees on poorer, thinner soils apparently die off earlier than those under better conditions. In any case, it is well recognized that the butternut has a shorter life span on the average than the black walnut, which frequently lives to a large size and old age. There are two common diseases of the butternut. One is leaf spot caused by the fungus _Marsonia_, which defoliates the trees fairly early in the season and probably predisposes them to injury from other fungous attack. This is the same leaf spot that attacks the black walnut leaves. The other disease, which may cause trouble, is a fungous walnut blight known more specifically as Melanconis blight. It has not been established that this disease is an active parasite. The evidence indicates rather that it attacks trees that are already somewhat weakened by defoliation or other injury. It is a fact that many of the dead limbs on butternut trees are found to be affected with the disease. It is a matter of observation that trees growing under favorable conditions are less damaged by the disease than those growing under poor conditions of soil and water, therefore, keeping trees vigorous is good practice. As with other nut tree species, there are troublesome insects. One of these, the butternut snout beetle or curculio, attacks both the butternut and the Japanese walnut. Control has apparently been secured by dusting foliage with DDT. Sometimes the leaves of butternuts are badly distorted with galls caused by mites. The bunchy top or witches'-broom caused by a virus, that is serious on the Japanese walnut, _Juglans Sieboldiana_, does not appear to be so virulent on butternut. This, however, is a matter of personal observation and is not based on a thorough study. In conclusion, let me say that in my judgment, the butternut is worthy of more attention than it has had so far received, particularly by home owners in the northern states who would like to have trees in their yards that will bear nuts under conditions that are unfavorable for most other kinds. If it were publicized that varieties are available that will crack out in halves with relatively little effort, the chances are that with these facts in mind those interested in nut trees would give the butternut much more attention. The difficulty at the present time seems to be related to a lack of knowledge as to the relative merit of different varieties and a scarcity of trees because of difficulty of propagation. If we have time and the chairman will permit, I would welcome comments on the propagation problem and would also like to obtain any information on the merit of the named varieties. Let me also state that if any of you have a sample of 30 nuts of any named variety in this or last fall's crop that you can spare, I would be much pleased to have you send it to me for testing. Discussion MR. STOKE: It grows in New Brunswick, and I have had specimens from north of Lake of the Woods. MR. CORSAN: They grow at Brooks, Alberta. I have the Helmick and it grows 14 to the cluster, has a thin shell and heavy meat, and the leaves are persistent. They don't drop off the first of September. That's the Helmick. It's grafted on black walnut stock, and the black walnut stock comes up like that (indicating) and the Helmick recedes. DR. MacDANIELS: The black walnut overgrows it. There are about 40 varieties, and I would like very much to get hold of any of the samples I can get. MR. CORSAN: Go up to Silver Bay, Lake George, and on the shore there the Indians have bred the butternut, and it's 10 to the cluster among those trees by Silver Bay, Lake George, New York. Ernest Thompson Seaton and I examined that grove years ago. DR. MacDANIELS: Wish we had them where we could get at them. Any other comment on the butternut? MR. McDANIEL: The Helmick is considered to be a "butter-jap" seedling of heartnut, possibly the other parent was a butternut. DR. MacDANIELS: That is something we will have to decide in the Association, whether or not we are going to throw in these hybrids and the heartnut along with the butternuts in standards or try to keep them separate. MR. CORSAN: Hybrid heartnut cross is very, very superior in every way to the butternut in my estimation, except for hardiness. MR. STOKE: That is a hybrid. I have it. The Mitchell hybrid. DR. MacDANIELS: The ordinary run of seedlings are not worth keeping, no question about that, and it's too much work to recover the kernels. There are several announcements I'd like to make. One has to do with this hall. It is the American Legion hall, which they do not charge rent for. They do, however, and will expect some sort of a token of appreciation that will be fairly substantial. There is no provision for that in the budget, so any of you who are feeling a little mellow and flush, if you want to approach the treasurer with a contribution towards the use of this hall, that will be appreciated; otherwise, the matter will have to be settled out of the treasury as such. MR. CORSAN: How about a dance in this hall? DR. MacDANIELS: If we stay over, we might do something like that. Then there is the other matter, and that is the prize for the proposed Carpathian walnut contest. There is no prize money available at the present time. If any of you wish to provide a first, second, or third prize, we might even tag it with your name, if that would be possible. I think probably they will be able to get some publicity backing through farm papers and what not, but still if we have a backlog of prize money, why, that's much to your advantage. Do you want to say anything further on that, Mr. Chase? MR. McDANIEL: Mr. Sherman, I believe, has a word. MR. SHERMAN: Not in this connection. MR. PATAKY: Do any of the members here have shelled butternuts or hickory nuts that they would sell? If they do, I'd like to get their names and get in touch with them. I do have a demand for some shelled butternuts which I have trouble getting, and I do have trouble getting shelled hickory nuts. It is for the Wideman Company out of Cleveland. I got shelled butternuts before the war, but since the war they don't have the trade, but if they could get them, I think that would be the company that would take them. The Wideman Company of Cleveland, Ohio. They are a big wholesale house. Write to Christ Pataky, Mansfield, Ohio, R.D. 4. MR. KINTZEL: Do you sell them in the shell? MR. PATAKY: I do sell them in the shell, too, but there are a lot of people who won't buy them in the shell. We do have a demand for them, not too much on the butternut, but we do have for hickory nuts. I think we could sell a lot more hickory nut meats than hickory nuts even at the difference of the price. I know the price was quite high before the war. They paid somewhere around a dollar a pound before the war for shelled ones, and we even sold them at a profit for that, and we haven't been able to get any since the war. I don't know what happened, whether the kids are too busy playing basketball or football. DR. MacDANIELS: They get too much for mowing lawns. MR. WEBER: There is a nut crackery at Mitchell, Indiana. The man who cracks them cracks hickory nuts and puts them out in his name, John Eversol. Mr. Wilkinson can tell you exactly what his name is. He was down there last year. He is cracking walnuts, and in addition cracks hickory nuts and puts them in fine shape. MR. CORSAN: Isn't it true that nuts have more Vitamin E than any other food in the world, and isn't Vitamin E the greatest antidote against anemia? DR. MacDANIELS: I wouldn't know. You have a medical man here? DR. WASHICK: I don't think you are right. MR. CORSAN: In the West they say Vitamin E is a cure for anemia and they are having wonderful success, and they claim there is more vitamin E in nuts than any other food. I don't know, they are keeping me alive. ~Editor's Note~: Green walnuts are rich in Vitamin C. See 1942 Report, page 95. DR. MacDANIELS: You are Exhibit 1. I think Mr. Salzer has slides he wanted to show this afternoon. MR. SALZER: I had a few. Perhaps we can use those blankets and just fix up, perhaps, a few of these windows in front, and I think we could probably show the slides. DR. MacDANIELS: If you can leave the blankets here for a short time, we will get them later. Any other questions? I think our lunch is ready for us downstairs. We will come back up here at one o'clock. (Whereupon, at 11:50 o'clock, a. m., the meeting was recessed, to reconvene at 1 o'clock of the same day.) TUESDAY AFTERNOON SESSION DR. MacDANIELS: Calling the afternoon session to order. This afternoon I am going to turn the gavel over to our good friend, Spencer Chase, to carry on. MR. CHASE: Thank you, thank you. All of us are interested in the various experiment stations doing more work with nut trees, and we are very fortunate this afternoon in having two experiment stations represented, and we will first hear from Bill Clarke from Penn State, who will talk on, "Progress in nut culture at the Pennsylvania State College." Mr. Clark. Progress in Nut Culture at the Pennsylvania State College W. S. CLARKE, JR., State College, Pennsylvania Work in nut growing at the Pennsylvania State College was formally begun in 1946, when a project on this subject was approved by the college authorities. A few acres of land were set aside for this work, and the following spring about half an acre was planted with a few nut trees of different species. At the present time an area of about twenty acres is set aside for nut plantings, although a few spots on this land are not plantable on account of rock outcrops. We now have out in the field sixty black walnuts, all but three of them named varieties, which were received from Tennessee in 1949. Seventeen varieties are represented in this collection. In the nursery are more than 200 seedling black walnuts. These were planted from nuts gathered from local trees in the fall of 1946. They were transplanted at the end of their first season and have remained in their present position for three years. They were planted largely for the sake of experience in handling the nuts and the young trees. Some of them have been grafted, and this year a few grafts of Thomas and Stabler were successful. On account of their size, all these trees will have to be taken out at the end of the present growing season. About twenty Persian walnuts have been received from the United States Department of Agriculture. These are all budded trees, the buds having been taken from special selections with the best nuts from trees originally introduced from northern Europe and central Asia. Three out of four seedling Persian walnuts and one out of two Japanese walnuts planted in 1947 have survived and are included in our planting. One named variety of butternut is in our collection, and a number of seedlings in our nursery. It has been our experience that walnut trees can be moved rather easily. The percentage of loss in transplanting has been negligible. On account of an emergency, this spring we had to move several walnuts which were already in full leaf. Some of the leaves were trimmed off, and the trees have survived and have even made some additional growth. On our grounds is one Chinese chestnut left from a planting of eight in 1930. It was killed back to the ground in 1934 after winter temperatures of close to 30 degrees below zero, but it has since grown up to be a tree of moderate size. It suffered considerable injury to buds and twigs in 1948 from temperatures down to 23 degrees below zero, but has since recovered. In several years it has borne a crop of burs, but no other tree is available for cross-pollination, and the nuts have seldom filled. Twelve seedling Chinese chestnut trees from different sources have been planted, and an area of several acres has been set aside to extend the work on chestnuts. A start has been made toward a collection of filberts. Five named varieties of European filberts were planted in 1947. All have suffered from winter injury, but only one tree has been killed outright. Very few nuts have been produced. About 25 seedlings of European filberts and 25 of the American were received from Tennessee two years ago. About 90% have survived and are growing nicely. Several other species of nuts have been tried without success. Two trees of the red hickory were set out several years ago, but they failed to leaf out. Four young trees of the golden chinkapin of the Pacific Coast were planted and grew well the first summer, but all four were killed by the first freeze in the fall. About a pound of nuts of the Turkish tree hazel were planted several years ago; these failed to come up the first year. The next winter the mice and rabbits discovered them and ate up most of the planting. A few germinated, but most of these were lost in transplanting, and today only two are left of the entire lot. MR. CHASE: Thank you, Mr. Clarke. (Applause.) Discussion MR. SHERMAN: I'd like to say, just before you leave this subject, that the speaker barely mentioned the fertilization experiment that was started in Pennsylvania on black walnuts. I think the members of the nut survey stuck their necks out and got their heads hit a little bit when we said that the black walnut as an orchard industry in Pennsylvania was sick. We hadn't been able to find crops of black walnuts. We found individual trees, but we couldn't find orchards of black walnuts, and as a result of that, this fertilization experiment was started, in a 55-acre black walnut orchard with Ohio, Stabler and Thomas varieties. The owner, Truman Jones, said, "I don't care what you do with the Stablers, you can't hurt them, anyway; they are no good to begin with." But this orchard, evidently from all outward appearances, has been growing very slowly for quite a number of years. It isn't the size it should be, and we think the main trouble there is lack of fertility, and that's the reason why this fertilization experiment was started. It's quite an ambitious experiment. It takes in about 93 trees in the center of a 55-acre planting of black walnuts. They haven't had a crop, I think, for five or six or seven years. They don't have a crop this year, but we are hoping that some of them next year will have a crop, but if not then the year following. They are asking about the cultivation. There has been no cultivation there in the orchard for a number of years. It's down in a pretty heavy bluegrass sod. In a portion of that we put the disc in on the tractor and disced and redisced until we got what we thought was a pretty fair seedbed. They found that vertical profile a mixture, and we are hoping to have clover sod instead of bluegrass sod. That's combined with fertility work. I won't take time to go into that, but I think this group is interested in knowing that there is quite an extensive fertility experiment on black walnuts to see why the large plantings are not producing. I might say in this connection, Mr. Hostetter isn't here this afternoon, hasn't been here, but he has a dandy bang-up nice crop of nuts this year, and Ohio and Thomas are his main varieties. MR. CRAIG: Did he use any fertilizers? MR. SHERMAN: Yes, the fertilizer was disced in, and he tried to disc under that bluegrass sod and get that rotting under there. There are quite a few ramifications to that program. MR. CORSAN: Did you mention Turkish tree hazel? MR. CLARKE: Yes, we have two trees of it left. MR. CORSAN: It takes two years to sprout from the time you plant the seed. Have you tried the European beechnuts in your locality? MR. CLARKE: No, we haven't. MR. CORSAN: It will produce far more than the American beechnut and is more successful in every way. They can be gotten from Holland quite cheaply. They sell the European beech, and they are beautiful and loaded with nuts and the Europeans think far more of them than the Americans do. The cut-leaf beech is an European beech, and I have seen the tree in Southern Michigan and at the Old Soldiers' Home at Dayton, Ohio, loaded with nuts. And frequently, not just once in every 13 years, like our beechnut. And they are a bigger nut. Nut Tree Culture in Missouri T. J. TALBERT, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. The wide interest now being shown in the planting of nut trees throughout the State emphasizes the need of information on nut culture. Although nut trees may be grown with less care and attention than fruit trees, yet to be successful in starting plantings a knowledge of successful practices developed by the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station at Columbia should prove of great value. The information which follows applies particularly to the native black walnuts, butternuts, hardy northern pecans, hickories, chinkapins, and hazelnuts. All these nut plants are native to Missouri and may do well if given proper attention in the various districts of the state to which they are adapted. NUTRITIVE VALUE OF NUTS Nuts are now given in the diet a higher rating than ever before. This is true because recent studies in nutrition show that they supply not only the elements needed for health and growth, proteins, oils, and carbohydrates but also an abundance of vitamins A, B1, and G. In fact, the nuts compare very favorable with meats in rankings for the above vitamins. Most of the nuts are especially noteworthy in high vitamin A and B1 content. It is also believed generally that nuts contain nearly all of the mineral essentials demanded for the promotion of healthy nutrition. Moreover, nuts are usually palatable in the raw stage and are prized most highly for dessert purposes. The black walnut is particularly outstanding because it retains its flavor after cooking. Nuts now have a very extensive use in the preparation of confectioneries, cakes, breads, and salads. They enhance the flavor of many other foods. The value of nuts as food accessories has long been recognized. They also supply so much body fuel in so compact a form that they are particularly well suited for the use of mountain climbers, "hikers," and even soldiers engaged in long marches and maneuvers. USES FOR NUT TREES ~As Shade Trees~--If during the past 40 or 50 years, a large portion of the shade trees planted had been nut trees like the native walnut, pecan, hickory, chestnut, and chinkapin of the better varieties, it is easy for anyone to see that great benefits would have resulted. ~For Highway Planting~--No other native trees lend themselves so admirably to highway use as the so-called northern or native pecan, the black walnut, and the hickories. These nut trees are all generally well-shaped, reach considerable heights particularly on fertile soils, are stately in appearance, and add beauty and attractiveness to the landscape wherever they are grown. SOILS AND FERTILIZERS ~Soils Needed for Good Growth~--The nut trees adapt themselves to a very wide range of soil conditions. In fact, few other trees are capable of such a wide range of adaptability to soil types. The uplands usually planted to corn and wheat and the flood plains of the river basins may both be well suited to nut growing. For good growth and production deep well-drained soils are required. Under proper conditions the trees develop rapidly, have an extensive root system, and eventually may reach a great age. Furthermore, nut trees cannot grow successfully on wet poorly-drained land where water stands on or just beneath the surface a considerable portion of the year. Lowlands which may be found well adapted to the growth of willow and gum trees, may be too wet and sour for the growth of nut trees. It would also be well to avoid dry, very thin, and very sandy soils. In their native range the pecan, hickory, and walnut thrive on the alluvial soils of the Missouri and Mississippi River Valleys. They grow well also on the upland sandy loam soils adapted to the growth of corn, oats, and wheat. All of these nut trees are usually influenced more by the fertility, humus, and moisture content of the soil, than by any particular soil type. ~Fertilizers for Nut Trees~--The deep rich alluvial soils of river and creek valleys do not present the same fertilizer problems as light and heavy upland soils. Manure supplemented with superphosphate at the rate of about 20 to 30 pounds to a ton should prove to be a satisfactory fertilizer on depleted soils. It is spread in a circle around the trees extending out about twice the spread of the branches and plowed or harrowed into the soil. A moderate application would range from 8 to 12 tons to the acre. Leguminous cover crops are particularly valuable for building up the nitrogen and humus content of the soil when plowed under. Their judicious use with non-leguminous cover crops and supplemented with commercial fertilizers to increase the tonnage for plowing under, will usually bring good returns in growth and production. CARE OF THE PERMANENT PLANTINGS Since but few diseases and insects attack nut trees in Missouri, very little if any spraying work will be required while the trees are young. As the trees grow older, however, it may be necessary to give pest control more attention. Caterpillars that infest the foliage of the trees in late summer and early fall can usually be destroyed by cutting off the comparatively few branches on which the worms have clustered and burning them. The pest may also be destroyed on high branches by means of torches. If the trees can be sprayed thoroughly, arsenicals and other insecticides used in spraying apple orchards will be found very effective while the worms are small. As in the care of a young apple or peach orchard, it is important that the young trees for at least the first two or three years be given cultivation and some fertilization on lands of lower fertility if a good growth is not being made. A heavy mulch of straw or litter around the trees may prove very satisfactory. Moreover, livestock should be kept away from the trees until they are established and the branches of sufficient height to be out of danger of injury. It is a serious mistake to plant or grow from seed small nut trees and leave them unprotected from farm animals. If the land is to be grazed, each tree may be guarded with strong posts and barbed or woven wire spaced about 8 to 10 feet from the trees. Once the young nut orchard is thoroughly established and growing thriftily, grass may be grown beneath the trees and furnish nearly as much hay or pasture as though the trees were not present. If livestock is allowed to graze in the orchard, which is a questionable practice while the trees are young, the trees should be pruned and trained to fairly high heads. ~Spacing for Nut Trees~--The growing of nut trees for timber alone requires a spacing of about 25 to 35 feet apart with other species of trees common to the area growing up later between the nut trees to facilitate the development of tall clean trunks. Under such conditions nut production is inhibited and harvests may be comparatively small. Nut trees grown mainly for nut production rather than for timber may be planted 60 to 80 feet apart on the square plan. The Thomas black walnut may bear a few nuts the second year following transplanting. Different varieties and species of grafted walnuts, pecans, and hickories often begin bearing from two to four years after setting. Chestnut seedlings may also bear in the second or third year. Black walnuts from seed sometimes bear a few nuts at 8 to 10 years of age. Profitable bearing, however, may not be expected in the average nut orchard until the trees are at least 10 to 12 years old. PRUNING WALNUT, PECAN AND HICKORY NUT TREES For the most part these nut trees do not require heavy pruning. Superfluous branches, dead limbs, and unsymmetrical ones, should be removed from time to time while the trees are young and becoming established. A uniform top is desirable. The pruning is begun when the trees are 2 or three years old by removing the lowest branches. The rule is to cut away only one branch a year. But trees making a very strong growth may stand more pruning and those making a poor growth may need none. Cultivation and other orchard practices may be greatly simplified in commercial plantings by pruning and training the tree heads to heights of six or eight feet. Even then the lower branches will ultimately be pressed downward by the weight of nuts and foliage when bearing begins. Regular annual pruning is required generally to prevent the limbs from interfering with orchard practices. Furthermore, branches lower than six or eight feet high, should be subdued by cutting back while the trees are young. These limbs should be removed ~only~ when the trees have become anchored strongly enough in the soil to prevent the directions of the trunk being influenced by the prevailing winds. THE BLACK WALNUT There is something about the distinctive flavor of our native black walnut kernels that appeals to the American people. And there is much about the black walnut tree itself that makes it much admired and respected. It grows rapidly, and yet it is one of our most valuable timber trees. It is an excellent tree for the grounds about the home. Not only does it yield an annual crop, but it is a lovely shade tree--beautiful to look at--and has the further advantage that the lawn grasses grow well beneath it. ~Has Wide Distribution~--It is a very cosmopolitan tree in that it will thrive almost anywhere if given half a chance. From lower Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific Coast, it may be found in various states of production. On the fertile lands, however, of the Mississippi and Ohio River basins it reaches perhaps its highest development. The 10 high ranking states in walnut lumber production are as follows, in order of their importance: Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, Iowa, Tennessee, Arkansas, Indiana, and Texas. ~Valuable Timber Tree~--Some of the main or principal uses of the wood may be enumerated as follows: For the making of gun stocks, it stands supreme. Since walnut does not warp or swell when wet it does not interfere with the action of the gunlock in gun stocks. The wood also may be made into a sharp edge and fit snugly against the metal parts, while the dark color and beautiful grain produces an attractive implement. It is a standard and a favorite for musical instruments notably pianos and organs; sewing machine tables, cases, small airplane propellers, picture frames, caskets, cabinet work, moldings and many forms of ornaments. The shells of the nuts were, during World War I, manufactured into carbon and used for gas masks. The wood possesses unusual and rare combinations of qualities which make it superior in the manufacturing of the articles mentioned above. Its freedom from warping, checking, or splitting when subjected to alternate wetting and drying is an unusual quality. It works easily with all kinds of tools, has remarkable durability in the presence of wood-decaying fungi and insects. Moreover, it is hard, durable, heavy, stiff and strong. The dark color of the wood does not allow soiling stains to show and the grain of the wood and its texture make it easy to grip. ~Produces a Nutritious Food~--The kernels of the black walnut are now used not only in candy making but to a large extent in breads, cakes, salads, waffles, and other forms of food. In the cities the kernels are sold yearly in increasing amounts not only from wholesale and retail grocers but by street venders as well. One may often find the kernels for sale at food stands and in other places where fruits and vegetables are sold. ~Changing Seedling Trees to Named Varieties~--On nearly every farm, walnut trees are growing along ravines, fence rows, and on rough land which is more or less out of the way and inaccessible. Most of these may be top-worked by one or more methods to the named and more desirable kinds of black walnuts without imparing the value of the timber. In 5 to 7 years seedling trees ranging in age from 15 to 40, if topworked, may produce crops equal to untreated trees. Still younger and smaller trees from one to 10 or 12 years old, may generally be top-worked with less difficulty than older trees. ~Results from Top-working Experiments~--Cleft grafting work performed at the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station has been very successful. In fact, walnut top-working has been but little if any more difficult than apple or pear top-working. With reasonable care and fairly good technique the grafting operation is not difficult to perform. It is believed, however, that the common practice in top-working pecan, hickory, and walnut has been to dehorn too severely. This may induce insect and disease injury which often results in a very poor tree after 10 or 12 years. For good results, six inches in diameter should be the maximum size of the limb for top-working. ~Encourages New Industry~--A wider interest in black walnut kernels has caused a new industry to spring up. This consists of nut cracking or shelling establishments which have been located in the walnut growing districts. The plants in many instances buy walnuts in large quantities. The nut meats are removed and sold at wholesale, usually in barrel lots containing 180 pounds of nut meats. In most districts the new industry is in operation for most of the year. Power driven machines feeding from large hoppers are used for cracking the nuts. Nearly all the workers pick the meats from the cracked nuts. Women are generally employed and are paid on a piece-work basis or by the pound. Moreover, employees are often given a premium for nut meats removed from the shells with the "halves" unbroken. This new black walnut industry has increased and heightened the interest in planting the trees for both nut and timber production. Consequently, in the districts where these nut cracking mills have been established, many producers are planting either small or large blocks of black walnut trees. In some cases the plantings are made up of grafted or budded trees of named varieties, while in others the nuts are planted and the seedlings later top-worked to the kinds desired. The named varieties and better seedling sorts bring the highest price in the form of nuts and as kernels. In fact, the nuts of the named varieties usually sell for twice the price paid for the average seedling nuts. Some of the chief varieties most highly prized for their thin shells, weight of kernels, cracking quality, and flavor are Thomas, Stabler, Tucker, Ohio, and Miller. To obtain a marketable and paying product, care in the gathering, husking and extracting of kernels, is necessary. Culling the nuts and cracking none but the good ones are also important. Through such methods, many producers are able to supply city markets and roadside stands with kernels which sell readily and at good prices. ~Returns from Trees~--Walnut trees will give returns in general in proportion to the care given. They are fairly rapid growers under good culture. At an age of 20 years the trees may reach a height of 35 feet with 50 feet at 30 years and about 70 feet at 50 years. In other words, a growth of about 2 feet a year for 20 years is not unusual. After this age the trees slow down gradually to about a foot of growth a year. It is estimated that walnut trees from 60 to 70 years of age will produce on the average from 100 to 150 board feet of lumber. Trees of such an age may also produce an average of all the way from four or five bushels of nuts per tree each year up to as many as ten to fourteen or more bushels per year. THE BUTTERNUT Among our native walnuts the butternut is valued highly especially for home use. On the markets, however, the rough shell and comparatively small size of the kernel have in general tended to keep prices low and the demand limited. There are now prospects for the introduction and growing of superior hybrid varieties. Grafted varieties which bear particularly good nuts are becoming more available through nut nurseries. The trees may become very large in height, spread and trunk diameter. They are attractive and stately in appearance and it is the hardiest member of the walnut genus as its native range extends well into Canada. The bark is gray in color and the wood is soft. Heartwood decay is common in old trees, although they may reach great age. The species has a rather restricted range within the Eastern states, but it occurs naturally as far west as eastern Kansas and Nebraska. In Missouri, its growth is confined largely to the central and northern areas where black walnuts are plentiful. The nuts are oblong, sharp-pointed at the apex, cylindrical, bluntly rounded at the base, rough and jagged over the surface, and as a rule thick-shelled. In spite of this, some varieties have good shelling quality, and the kernels possess usually a rich, agreeable flavor. In confections the butternut kernel may compete successfully with the popular flavor of the black walnut kernels. The butternut may be propagated and grown successfully by adopting the practices suggested for the culture of the black walnut. As is true with the black walnut it may be inter-grafted upon other walnuts or used as a stock for them, but its propagation, particularly as an understock, is more difficult. THE PECAN The pecan is a member of the hickory group and its range in this continent extends from Iowa to Mexico. Other hickories extend into Canada. The hickories are valuable for both nuts and timber. Fifteen different species of the hickory group have been recorded. Of these only three or four produce nuts of outstanding value. In nut production, the pecan hickory is the most important of all the hickories. For crop value of nuts it rivals the Persian (English) walnut and the tree is one of the largest east of the Rocky Mountains. The pecan tree is native to the south and south central parts of the United States and it is found in the forests as a native tree throughout Missouri. Commercial production within the state may reach 800,000 pounds or more in good crop years, and according to the State-Federal Crop Reporting Service there are now about 88,000 pecan trees in the State of bearing age. All of these consist of seedling groves except the comparatively recent orchard plantings of the southeastern area. Commercial culture of standard varieties in the United States is confined largely to Georgia, Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi and Florida. The natural habitat is along streams and on river bottom lands. At the present time the commercial varieties consist mainly of the large so-called "paper-shell" sorts of southern origin. These require a comparatively long growing season for their development. Consequently the southern types may not be productive in the more northern regions. The cultural range of the pecan may be divided into two rather large belts, known as southern and northern. In fact, pecan culture is sometimes designated as "southern" and "northern" due to differences in size of nut, thickness of shell, and time required for maturity of nuts. The approximate northern limit of the southern area is near the extreme southeastern boundary line between Missouri and Arkansas. The northern belt extends into Nebraska and Iowa and includes approximately the entire state of Missouri. The chief difference between these areas is the length of the growing season. In general, the southern or "paper-shell" varieties require from 240 to 250 days to mature their nuts, while the northern varieties which produce usually nuts of smaller size with somewhat thicker shells need from 180 to 200 days. VARIETIES There is no factor in pecan growing of greater importance than the proper selection of varieties for planting. Fertile soils and good culture will not make poor varieties profitable or low yielding kinds fruitful. Only in southeast Missouri are the southern varieties such as Stuart, Pabst, Moneymaker, Success, Schley, and others a success. This is true because the fruit buds of these varieties in other sections of Missouri are generally killed by winter cold. Furthermore even if they escape the winter cold, the growing periods for all sections except southeast Missouri may not be long enough for the full maturity of the nuts. Since none of the sorts adapted to the southern belt are sufficiently hardy to justify their planting in Missouri except in the southeastern section, growers in other parts of the state should confine their interests and selections to the so-called northern varieties. Some of the best of these are the Major, Niblack, Giles, Indiana, Busseron, Greenriver, and Posey. Chance seedlings which have not been named are now and then found that may be equally as worthy or better for planting locally than any of the named varieties listed above. In fact, these suggested sorts were derived from chance seedling trees. Producers generally, therefore, should be on the lookout for seedling trees of merit. When so discovered, the Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station at Columbia will be glad to make tests free of charge and report upon the cracking percent, amount of kernel, appearance, flavor, texture, quality, oil content, etc. The nuts produced by the hardy varieties adapted generally to Missouri conditions are usually smaller in size and have somewhat thicker shells but may possess equally as high or even higher oil content and kernel quality than the southern sorts. The better varieties of this group, however, rank high enough to compete favorably on the markets of the country in both shelled and unshelled state with the southern varieties. A full crop of pecans would run from 30 to 35 carloads, the majority of which are produced along the Mississippi river in the bottom lands from Ste. Genevieve southward. Heavy shipments are made in a good year especially from Ste. Genevieve, St. Mary's, Menfro, Caruthersville and Hornersville, and in these sections are some of the largest and best nuts. Pecans are found along the Mississippi river from St. Charles north to Hannibal, but too generally in that area the trees are scarce and the production smaller, with nuts of thicker shells. Pecan trees are also found growing wild along the Missouri river bottom as far west as Lexington, and up the Grand river bottoms to Chillicothe, and the nuts in this area are about the size of those in the north Mississippi valley section, but are sweet with high oil content. There is a pecan production district along the Osage river and the Kansas border, with heavy shipping section at Rockville and Schell City. Missouri pecans are classed as Westerns in the commercial market. They are favored by the confectionery trade. A great many native trees are found in the south Mississippi section, but there is a growing interest in budded pecan trees, especially around Caruthersville. The total of the budded varieties of pecan trees in Missouri does not constitute more than approximately one per cent of the total of growing trees. Many years ago a large acreage of the bottom lands along the Mississippi river were thick with immense, heavy-producing pecan trees--but most of this pecan timber was cut down either for fuel wood or saw timber. Short-sighted people have been known to chop down trees simply to secure the nuts. THE HICKORIES The native hickories of Missouri have been held in high esteem since early settlements were established. They are notorious on account of their slow rate of growth yet they offer greater possibilities to nut growers than is usually believed. As shade trees they have a high ranking. Promising varieties may now be had by obtaining scions from superior bearing seedling trees and from young named and grafted trees in the nurseries of commercial concerns. Grafted trees may come into bearing in three or four years after the operation. Perhaps as many as five species are native of Missouri. The big shellbark or kingnut is common to the south and southwest regions, but its range is not as wide as others. The shagbark which is the most valuable nut producer of all the hickories, is rather widely distributed particularly in northern and central Missouri. Numerous varieties have been described and named because of their particular merits. Shellbark nuts may be large and attractive, but are often poorly filled. The pignut, mockernut, and bitternut have a rather general distribution especially in the central and northern parts of the state. These nuts are not considered of great value except for their hybrids with other species. Perhaps the most natural type of hybrid occurring among the hickories is crosses between the shagbark and shellbark, one of the best varieties of which is Weiker. The pecan and shellbark hybrids include McAllister, Nussbaumer, and Rockville, while the Burton is believed to be a pecan-shagbark cross. The natural crosses of the pecan and hickory found in the wild have not been entirely satisfactory. The trees vary greatly in fruitfulness and the nuts in thickness of shells, size, shape, and kernel quality. A strong tendency to produce nuts with imperfect kernels is common among the pecan-shellbark crosses. Local varieties selected from the wild may have merit for use in top-working hickories or pecans. The pecan is suggested because it makes a good stock for the hickories and as it grows more rapidly. Some of the best of the older named sorts for planting or for use in top-working appear to be the following: Barnes, Fairbanks, Stanley, Weiker, Kentucky, Swain, Laney, Kirtland, and Rieke. THE CHINKAPINS The chinkapin is related closely to the chestnut and resembles it strikingly in most of the important characteristics. It occurs in two well known forms. West of the Mississippi River, the Ozark chinkapin tree may reach a height of sixty feet in good soil, while the other form (Allegany chinkapin) in the eastern range grows to a height of about 15 feet. Each may be grafted or budded upon the other without difficulty. Named varieties of the chinkapin are not available at this time. The Japanese, Chinese, and European chestnuts are introduced species. The blight disease has almost wiped out the great American chestnut forests of the East. As yet, however, the malady has not been introduced into Missouri. (The oak wilt, however, has been found there.--Ed.) The chinkapin of this area is highly resistant to the blight and some of the hybrids carry the resistant quality and bear nuts of good size and high quality. The native chinkapin forests especially of southwest Missouri are valued highly not only for their nuts but particularly for post timber. The native chinkapin tree in Missouri grows to large size in good soil and it may be found as one of the largest forest trees on the stony ridge lands of southwestern sections of the Ozark Mountains. The nuts are very much like those produced by chestnut trees except they are smaller. In flavor and quality the nuts may be found equal or superior to the chestnuts. Both the chinkapin and chestnut may be grafted or budded one upon the other. In fact, the western chinkapin may be used successfully as a stock for the chestnut. The European chestnut is very susceptible to the blight. A very large coarse nut is produced by the Japanese chestnut and it does not blight quite as readily as the American sorts. The Chinese chestnut is the most resistant to blight and it is admired for its beauty as a lawn tree. Promising varieties include Abundance, Nanking and Meiling. Some desirable varieties of the American and hybrid chestnuts for growing in Missouri are as follows: Boone, Fuller, Paragon, Progress, Rochester, and Champion. FILBERTS AND HAZELNUTS The European filbert which is grown so successfully in Oregon and Washington has not been generally successful in Missouri. This has been due mainly to winter injury, resulting either in the killing of the staminate catkins by cold, or of the developing catkins by late spring freezes and frosts. For good fruiting they need cross pollination. Some of the well-known and popular filbert varieties are Barcelona, Du Chilly, Medium Long and Italian Red. Rush, Winkler, and others, are partly or purely American hazelnuts. The native hazelnut which may be found throughout the State is hardy and generally a fairly regular cropper. Seedling nuts, while not as large usually as the Northwestern filbert, are found now and then that approach them closely in size and cracking quality. Furthermore, the native seedling nut kernels may excel occasionally in flavor and quality. Interested nut growers are, therefore, urged to perpetuate the most promising hazelnuts of the wild by simple layerage. Until hardier varieties of the filbert are found, the chief attention may be well spent on the propagation and culture of the native seedling sorts of merit. As yet none of the Missouri native seedlings have been described, named and propagated for sale and distribution. Tip or simple layering seems to be the most satisfactory method of propagating the hazelnut and filbert. Shoots or suckers, one-year old and arising from the base of the plant are used. They are left attached to the mother plant and are bent over until the ends of tips rest upon the soil. To encourage root growth, the underside of the branch to be covered with soil is frequently notched or ringed. The part of the branch in contact with the moist soil is then covered leaving a small portion of the end protruding. The branches are sometimes pegged down with forked sticks or weighted with stones. After one season's growth, the branch should be established with roots and top. It is then cut from the parent and removed for transplanting to its permanent location. Well, now, my good friends, I have talked about five or ten minutes longer than I intended to, but you just listened so attentively you encouraged me, so it's your fault. I am happy to be here. Show me an organization like the Northern Nut Growers Association, as full of vim and vigor and vinegar and going ahead, and I will show you a successful organization. Thank you. MR. CHASE: Thank you, Professor Talbert, for a very nice message. I am still a little angry at Professor Talbert because I realize now that if he had accepted my invitation to come to another good southern state two years ago our meeting would have been a much better one at Norris. Now, we have several papers here which deal with chestnuts, and there seems to be a good deal of interest among the membership concerning chestnuts this year, and perhaps before we get into chestnuts for nut production we might hear a short resume of Dr. Graves' breeding work for timber type chestnut. This problem of chestnut for timber purposes, of course, accounts for the presence of Chinese and Japanese chestnuts in the country today, and yet most of our efforts to establish chestnut plantings for timber purposes have been unsuccessful. You heard from Dr. Diller last year concerning these efforts. This paper will deal with the breeding work which is now under way by Dr. Graves in Connecticut, and I have asked Dr. McKay to give us a brief digest of this paper. Chestnut Breeding Work: Report for 1950 ARTHUR HARMOUNT GRAVES Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Conn. and Division of Forest Pathology, U.S.D.A. Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland In southern Connecticut the 1950 season for vegetative growth and development was excellent except for the dry period in September. The chief fault lay in much more cloudy weather than usual,[31] and the deficiency in sunlight coupled with a slightly lower average temperature in the spring, and cool nights, combined to delay the chestnut flowering season for as much as ten days. The main body of our cross pollination experiments did not begin until July 4, whereas last year it began on June 23 and 24, and was nearly completed by July 4. [31] For example, the report of the U. S. Weather Bureau at New Haven, Conn., for May, 1950, says, "The feature of the month was the lack of sunshine which retarded the growth of crops in this area." See also report of the New York City Station for April, 1950. This year 103 crosses were made, not all different combinations, but each one with either different or reciprocal parents. The principal combination was a cross of Japanese chestnut with Chinese-American or American-Chinese, a mixture that in recent years has given excellent results. This year also, as in the past, our CJA's were crossed with American chestnut. [Illustration: Fig. 1. Cross pollinating Chinese chestnuts. Sleeping Giant Plantation, Hamden, Conn. Trees near left of center and at left, with drooping catkins, are Japanese-American hybrids. Photo July 13, 1950, by B. W. McFarland.] ~Cooperation with Italy.~ A considerable part of the cross pollination work this year has been undertaken for the benefit of the Italian authorities, namely experiment stations at Florence and Rome. This has been done at the suggestion of the Division of Forest Pathology, Beltsville, Md., which has been working along the same line. As is now generally known, the chestnut blight was discovered in Italy in 1938, and has been making rapid headway in a country 15 percent of whose forests are in chestnut. To the Italians the chestnut means much as an article of food. They use the timber also, and the various ages of coppice growth in many ways[32]. Particular effort this year has been directed toward the breeding of promising nut-bearing types for them and especially resistant strains that bear large nuts like the cultivated European chestnut. [32] Graves, Arthur Harmount. Breeding Chestnut Trees: Report for 1946 and 1947. 38th Ann. Rept. Northern Nut Growers Assn. p. 85. 1947. Now, we have found that many of our Chinese chestnuts are practically immune to the blight. Even if the disease does appear, in most cases it is in the outer bark only, and is soon healed over. Moreover, the Chinese chestnut has a large nut, comparable in size to the cultivated Europeans with pollen from our best Chinese trees, and at the same successful crosses of the European and Chinese are made. Last fall, as a result of an article in the _New Haven Register_ by Mr. A. V. Sizer, I learned of two European chestnut trees of bearing age in New Haven back yards. So, this summer we have crossed these Europeans with pollen from our best Chinese trees, and at the same time have taken the pollen from one of them (in the other the pollen was sterile) and applied it to the female flowers of our Chinese trees. Most of the resulting nuts have been sent to the Italian scientists in the hope that some of them will develop into desirable nut-producing, disease-resistant hybrids. Some will be retained for testing here. If the resulting trees are not sufficiently blight-resistant, they will be crossed again with the Chinese. In the summer we received by air mail from Dr. Aldo Pavari, of the _Stazione Sperimentale di Selvicoltura_ in Florence, Italy, two tubes of pollen of the European chestnut, _Castanea sativa_, of the varieties _pistolese_ and _selvatico_. These pollens were also applied to our best Chinese trees. They resulted in 12 good nuts which have been shipped to Dr. Pavari. Further, we have on our Sleeping Giant Plantation, Hamden, Conn., several hybrids, now 16 years old, of the Seguin and the Chinese chestnuts, the former species being also a native of China, but dwarf and everblooming and remarkably prolific. These hybrids are excellent as nut producers, since they inherit the large-sized nut of the mollissima parent, combined with the increased productivity of the Seguin parent. Furthermore they are extremely blight-resistant.[33] These hybrids have therefore been intercrossed among themselves this year, chiefly for the benefit of the Italian people. One hundred and eight nuts from reciprocal crosses of these hybrids were shipped to Italy. Also, in response to a request, we sent nuts of our best Chinese and Japanese trees and of the _mollissima-seguini_ hybrids to M. C. Schad of the _Station d'Amelioration du Chataignier_, Clermont-Ferrand, France. [33] These hybrids will shortly be put on the market, under the sponsorship of the Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. and the Division of Forest Pathology, U.S.D.A. As regards the everblooming habit of the Seguin parent, that character seems to be lost or at least partly suppressed. A second flowering of one of the hybrids usually occurs in August. ~Other crosses.~ Two Chinese-American trees in our plantation at the White Memorial Foundation near Litchfield, Conn., bore a considerable number of female flowers this year for the first time. They have been crossed with the fine Japanese tree of Mr. A. N. Sheriff at Cheshire, Conn., figured in my report for 1948-49. (P. 92, fig. 3, of 40th Rept. of N.N.G.A.) From them, 75 nuts were harvested of the combination CAxJ. Four crosses were made on the trees at Redding Ridge, Conn., in the cooperative plantation of Mr. Archer M. Huntington, resulting in 73 nuts. Also, the resistant Americans on Painter Hill, Roxbury, Conn., were again crossed with CJA's and Chinese from our Sleeping Giant Plantation and from these were obtained 247 nuts. Finally, we have this year succeeded in making a cross between _Castanea henryi_, the Henry Timber Chinkapin from southern and central China, which is said to attain a height of 90 feet, and _C. mollissima_, the Chinese chestnut. Since _henryi_ blooms very early, much before our _mollissima_, the Division of Forest Pathology mailed us pollen of _C. mollissima_, which reached us just in time to be applied to _henryi_. Seven good nuts of this cross were gathered. Altogether, as the overall result of our cross pollination work, we harvested 1259 nuts, more than twice as many as obtained in any other year since we began this work in 1930. ------------------------------------------------------ TABLE 1 Heights of Some of Largest Trees, as of Oct. 1, 1950. All at Sleeping Giant Plantation, Hamden, Conn. Species or Height Hybrid Location Age in yrs. in ft. Remarks ----------------------------------------------------------------------- J � A Row 4 Tree 10 19 30 Repeatedly inarched J � A " 4 " 4 14 33 Grafted on Jap. stock, Apr. 1937 J � A " 4 " 12 19 29 Repeatedly inarched J " 7 " 5 20 23 C " 1 " 4 24 30-3/4 CJA " 60 " 39 13 29 CJA " 61 " 48 13 24 CJA " 8 " 8 4 14 Grafted on Chinese stock, spring, 1947. Fruited this yr. 1st time. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ J=_Castanea crenata_ A=_Castanea dentata_ C=_Castanea mollissima_ ~Nuts, Scions and Pollen Received.~ During the fall of 1949 we received nuts from New Hampshire, Mass., Conn., N. Y., N. J., W. Va., N. C., Ohio, and Ill. Scions were received in March and April from Mr. R. M. Viggars of the Bartlett Tree Expert Co. station at Wilmington, Del. (_C. dentata_); and from Messieurs Schad and G. A. Solignat, _Centre de Recherches Agronomiques_, Clermont-Ferrand, France, (_C. crenata_ and _sativa_.) During June and July, pollen of _C. dentata_ came from Mr. E. J. Grassmann, Elizabeth, N. J., Mr. Paul Maxey, Montcoal, W. Va., Mr. Malcolm G. Edwards, Asheville, N. C.; _C. mollissima_ and _dentata_ from the Division of Pathology, U.S.D.A.; _C. sativa_, vars. _pistolese_ and _selvatico_ from Dr. Aldo Pavari, _Stazione Sperimentale di Selvicolture,_ Florence, Italy; and _C. pumila_ and _dentata_ from Mr. Alfred Szego, Flushing, N. Y. This list is presented as evidence of the widespread interest in our work. It is a pleasure to acknowledge this cooperation and to thank the many donors. We are especially glad to report that several "catches" have been made with the C. sativa scions from France and those of the tall _mollissimas_ at Mt. Cuba, Del., from Mr. Viggars. May I again caution those who send us nuts not to allow them to become dried out. The embryos, when dried, are killed. The nuts should be wrapped in moist cotton, peat moss, or something similar, and mailed to me not later than a few days after harvesting, at 255 South Main Street, Wallingford, Conn. ~Insects, bad and good.~ The cankerworms were rather destructive in May at our Sleeping Giant Plantation (not at the others) but fortunately later than usual. The mite, _Paratetranychus bicolor_, attacked the leaves of some of the trees on the Sleeping Giant Plantation rather late in the season, so that on September 8 we sprayed with the Station's power sprayer, using Aramite effectively. Shade and humidity seem to favor the spread of this pest. Japanese beetles appeared but have never been very destructive with us. As happened last year, we sprayed twice for the weevils, August 14 and September 8, with excellent results. This spring in early June, four hives of bees were placed in one of our Sleeping Giant Plantations by bee experts of the staff of the Conn. Expt. Station. Improved results in pollination and the resulting nut harvest cannot be affirmed with only one season's trial. A Method of Controlling the Chestnut Blight on Partially Resistant Species and Hybrids of Castanea ARTHUR HARMOUNT GRAVES Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven and Division of Forest Pathology, U.S.D.A. Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland This method has been in use since 1937 on our chestnut plantations, and has been so remarkably successful that we believe all chestnut growers should be thoroughly acquainted with it. [Illustration: Fig. 1.] Whenever chestnut trees are attacked by the blight fungus, suckers arise below the lesion, and if the lesion is at or near the base of the tree, as often happens, these suckers grow from the base of the tree, i.e. at the root collar. It is then a simple matter to cut out the diseased bark of the lesion with a sharp knife, paint over the wound, and graft the tip of one or more of these suckers _above_ the lesion, into the healthy bark. Of course the sucker must be long enough to reach the healthy part of the bark above the lesion. It is measured roughly by the eye and then cut off at a proper length, usually a little longer than seems necessary. The tip is then sharpened into two beveled surfaces coming up to a thin sharp transverse edge like a long wedge. (Fig. 1a.) The tip edge must be very sharp in order to push up easily between the bark and wood. Now, or rather, before trimming the sucker, in the healthy bark above the blight lesion cut an inverted T, making the cut into the bark as far as the wood and then cut a gradual slope from the surface of the bark down to the horizontal part of the inverted T. Next, lift the bark gently from the wood above the horizontal cut and insert the end of the sucker. If the sucker, or scion, is slightly longer than the upper end of the cut, it can be bent outward at the same time that the scion is being inserted and thus a spring is secured making it easier to force the scion up between bark and wood. I should add that if the lesion is not at the base of the tree, suckers usually arise just below it in any case, and these can be inarched in the same way as the basal shoots. [Illustration: Fig. 2 Fig. 2 Showing inarching method of controlling the chestnut blight a Chinese-Japanese hybrid chestnut, 13 yrs. old, infected toward base with Chinese type of blight, i.e. in outer bark only. Right: sucker inarched in spring of 1946; left, inarched spring of 1950. (The black figure resembling an arrow, about half way up, is accidental, being a cluster of labels.) b. Grafted tree (the large tree of Japanese-American chestnut on Japanese stock); graft made in 1937 where finger is pointing; left: inarch of 1947, itself inarched near base in 1950; right, inarch of 1949. c. Japanese-American hybrid chestnut with principal inarch made in 1943; other later inarchings showing in part. All photos by Louis Buhle, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, and loaned courtesy of the Garden.] The next step is to bind together the parts being grafted, winding strong, cotton string firmly around the cut with its scion enclosed, covering practically all of the vertical cut of the inverted T. Finally, melted paraffin--not too hot--is applied to the union, every part being carefully covered in order to exclude air and thus prevent drying out. We use Clarke's melter which, with adjustment of the flame, will keep the paraffin at a temperature slightly above the melting point and thus will not get too hot. Grafting wax may also be used instead of paraffin. The best time to perform the operation in Connecticut is during April or early May. Our first scions or inarches, grafted in 1937, are now 6 inches in diameter at ground level and constitute the main tree. If they become blighted, other suckers are inarched into them, and so on. The purpose of the inarching is to restore the communication between leaves and roots, which is so essential to the life and health of the tree, and which the diseased bark of the blight lesion interrupts, eventually causing girdling and death of the trunk or branch attacked. A series of these inarchings of different ages is shown herewith. (Fig. 2.) On our plantations we no longer dread the chestnut blight, since we can usually circumvent it by this method. However, with the American chestnut, because the fungus advances rapidly in this species, the girdling is often completed before the scions can take hold. Therefore, with that species or with the least resistant hybrids the method is often though not always ineffectual. This method of grafting is not new. It is similar to bridge grafting and has been known and practiced for centuries. The only credit we can claim is for its application to the chestnut blight as a method of control. MR. CHASE: We will now hear from Mr. George Salzer, Rochester, New York, "Experiences with Chestnuts in Nursery and Orchard in Western New York." Mr. Salzer. Experiences with Chestnuts in Nursery and Orchard in Western New York GEORGE SALZER, Rochester, New York My work with Chinese chestnut trees during the past ten years has been most interesting. The first trees were grown in our back-yard garden; then, when more seed was available locally, a building lot was purchased for use as a nursery. Seed is planted in the spring because when fall planting was tried, the rodents took most of the nuts. Up until last year, chestnut seed was stratified in perforated cans in the open ground with fairly good results. Last fall, we tried the method used and described by Dr. Crane and Dr. McKay in the 1946 report of this Association. Crimp top cans were used with nail holes in the top and bottom. Instead of using regular storage facilities, the cans were stored in a concrete block storage pit built below the floor of the garage. This proved very successful. Not only were the nuts in excellent condition for eating in the spring, sweet and of good flavor, but a much larger percentage of the seed germinated. This storage pit also serves to hold trees dormant and in good planting condition from digging time in March until early June. Last year, many young seedlings were lost during the dry weather and hand weeding between the trees was next to impossible. This spring, we tried the method of planting used and described by Mr. Sam Hemming in the 1947 report of this Association. We planted the seed in a narrow trench two inches deep; then filled the trench with saw dust; level with the surface. The saw dust serves as a mulch to hold moisture for the young seedlings and hand weeding between trees is reduced to a minimum. It is also possible to use the wheel cultivator between the saw dust marked rows before the shoots appear. This was a great help in controlling early weed growth. We were troubled with cutworms cutting off the new seedlings close to the ground, the same as they cut off young tomato plants. We controlled them by using a poison-bran bait as described in Leaflet Number Two issued by the Department of Agriculture. All trees are grown from seed of trees growing in the Rochester area. These had their origin from north of Pekin, China. Most of the trees are three years old when sold and have been transplanted at least once. This gives us a good sized tree that transplants well and should bear some chestnuts in three or four years. Sales are to people in our locality, although a few mail orders have been filled. So far, we have had no complaints. These are all seedling trees and until grafting or budding of named varieties becomes stabilized, I believe we should concentrate on growing large numbers of seedlings at a price within the reach of all who want chestnut trees. This spring some large chestnut seed received from a southern grower was planted for experimental purposes. I will bring them into bearing to learn whether they will bear as large a nut in our climate as they do in the southern states, and whether the kernel will be as sweet and have as good flavor as those grown in upstate New York. I have yet to see a tree growing in the Rochester area bearing as large a nut as those grown in the southeast, and all the large nuts I have tasted did not seem to be as sweet as ours. Probably the old saying "the smaller the nut, the sweeter the nut" is true. Of course these are all seedling trees, but by this time we should know whether size of nut and sweetness of kernel are determined by climate or individual trees. Our largest trees are eleven-year old seedlings of unknown origin. One is, I believe, outstanding. It started bearing when four years old and has consistently been a good producer. The nut is real chestnut in color and good size, running about seventy to the pound. I have not found a tree in this area bearing a larger nut. The kernel is sweet and the flavor excellent. The tree has good shape and limb structure, always sending up a central leader. This is the tree I would like to propagate. Small Nuts Sell Better Last fall, I tried a selling experiment with chestnuts for eating, and sold small quantities of small and medium sized nuts at the rate of $1.50 a pound. However, no one seemed interested in the larger ones. They thought they were European chestnuts that sold here for $.25 a pound. I did not have many for sale, but I am convinced there is a market for good sweet chestnuts. It seems useless to compete with those imported from Italy. Ours are far superior, and many who remember the American chestnut, will, I believe pay a luxury price for good quality chestnuts. In 1946, we purchased a 10-1/2 acre piece of land, 16 miles southwest of Rochester for the purpose of planting a chestnut orchard. This land had not been worked for about twelve years. The soil is heavy and fertile, typed as Poygan clay loam. Bed rock is sixty feet below the surface. The following spring, we planted about 300 trees and each year more are set out. There are now about 700 trees from two to five years old, and most of them are growing well. The rows are twenty feet apart and the trees stand fifteen to twenty feet apart, in the row. I know this will be too close when the trees are full grown, but we have the trees and I want to bring as many into bearing as possible, searching for the ideal tree. We also expect to lose some trees through wild life and other causes. Many of the first trees planted were lost the following year due to excessive rainfall, poor surface drainage, rabbit and meadow mouse damage. In 1948 two 400 foot drainage ditches were dug across the property. This made it possible to plant trees successfully on most of the land. However, another ditch is needed to eliminate a low spot, then all of the land can be used. The meadow mouse that girded so many trees could not be controlled by the use of poison bait and the rabbit also did considerable damage. Through the wild life service of the Department of the Interior, we obtained a repellant that was effective. It is distributed in the eastern states by the Rodent Control Fund of the University of Massachusetts. We have used it now for two years and have no more mouse or rabbit damage. The woodchuck does considerable damage even though we have eliminated all their dens on our land. They come in to feed from the neighboring areas and will have to be controlled by shooting. Deer are also present but have as yet caused no damage. Probably, they are waiting for the trees to grow larger. Last spring, new growth on the trees was killed by a late freeze--a most unusual occurance for this area. This was caused by an excessively warm April, followed by below-freezing temperature in the middle of May. It was the first time in the memory of the oldest residents that black locust and native black walnut trees were damaged by a spring freeze. However, most of the trees recovered, but their growth was retarded. This spring several of the trees blossomed, but set no burs. In a few years, I hope to have more to report on this orchard project. (Here was shown a chestnut tree picture.) MR. SALZER: If anyone has any comments, if they think it has good limb structure, that's what we are looking for. MR. SHERMAN: We could tell you better if we could see it when it's dormant. MR. WEBER: What sort of a cultivator do you use? MR. SALZER: Wheel cultivator. MR. WEBER: Why don't you get a Wheelmaster? You may not want to cultivate as often as if you had a power one. MR. CHASE: We shall now have another chestnut paper by Alfred Szego of Long Island. Chestnuts in Upper Dutchess County, New York ALFRED SZEGO 77-15A 37th Ave., Jackson Heights, New York City Pulvers' Corners, a collection of farmhouses, a gas station and ice cream parlor is located about 8 miles from the northern Connecticut border not too far from the southwestern tip of Massachusetts. The Berkshire hills roll through here and at this point we find ourselves at approximately the northern limits of the deciduous hardwood forest belt. Here the American chestnut is native formerly growing in great abundance until stricken a mortal blow by the invincible chestnut blight. Just a few hundred feet north of here on a hilltop, I started in 1945, a different kind of nut tree plantation. Placing main emphasis on the chestnut, a start was made on the cultivation of the thousands of sprouts and seedlings on my 43 acre coppice forest. A cluster of ~Castanea dentata~ seedlings that appeared promising was selected. The following practices proved fairly successful in keeping a few trees healthy, and bringing one into bearing in 1950. For the interest of fellow members working along a similar line, I enumerate the following practices. 1. Clean and thorough tree surgery, cutting out blight cankers immediately upon discovery. 2. Removal of all very blight susceptible nearby sprouts and the burning of all infected branches and material. 3. Artificial watering during drought periods. 4. Application of superphosphate, muriate of potash and trace elements. Es-Min-El was used in our case. Our soil tests high in nitrogen. 5. Removal of all overstory trees and other interfering growth. It may be noted that the importance of hygiene and sanitation cannot be stressed too strongly. Our own native chinkapin, ~Castanea pumila~ when brought up north proves itself a delightful subject. Outside of the weevil-infested area, it becomes a hardy producer of superb little chestnuts. This species offers great promise to the plant breeder because of its very early bearing (3-4 years from seed). Perhaps hybridization with ~Castanea mollissima~ varieties may bring something very fine and valuable. This species is tender during its first year but perfectly hardy afterwards. Northern growers require special techniques to grow chinkapins from seed. The strains of Chinese chestnut, ~Castanea mollissima~ in most cases do not seem extremely happy here. The trees appear to sustain varying degrees of winter injury. The tips of the branches often freeze. Usually the branch comes into leaf on the lower part first and then upwards. However, a few individuals appear perfectly hardy. The outlook is excellent for the discovery of exceptional individuals suitable for the northern zones. The Japanese chestnut, ~Castanea crenata~ shows very good adaptation to this region. Although my trees of this species are young, very vigorous growth indicates some value here. Unfortunately, the nuts have a bad after-taste when eaten raw thus limiting its commercial possibilities. I have noticed this undesirable characteristic in tasting hybrid nuts derived from trees possessing ~Castanea crenata~ parentage. I was informed at Beltsville that the hybrid known as S8, a cross between ~Castanea pumila~ and ~C. crenata~, was rejected for its poor quality nuts. I have established many other species of chestnuts and their hybrids. Some of these are from seed obtained from the Bell experimental plot of the U.S.D.A. at Glenn Dale, Maryland. Seed from this source has produced a much better grade of seedlings than those from anywhere else. A somewhat different version of the tin can planting method is now being used here. Number two size and larger tin cans have a few punctures made with a hammer and nail in the bottom. These have their tops removed, of course, and after being filled with loose soil, are used as pots in which to start chestnuts. In the early spring germinating chestnuts are removed from jars, kept in my refrigerator. One is planted in each can flat side down, barely beneath the soil level. After the season has warmed up these "canned plants" are set out in a trench, buried to the rim. Rock wool is placed around the stems of the seedlings covering the soil and the nut. This has acted as a rodent deterrent. The "canned plants" are then, at leisure, set out in their permanent places. Just before doing this an ordinary beer can opener is used to enlarge the punctures in the bottom of the can to permit the roots to penetrate better. In a few years the can should disintegrate entirely and at no time will interfere with root growth. By holding the chestnuts under refrigeration and not planting in the fall I have kept my plantings free of the chestnut weevils. I found that by planting the flat side down, the stem seems to go down very easily, and the sprout coming up from it seems to go up more easily, also. Discussion MR. RICK: Are they planted permanently in the can? MR. SZEGO: Yes, they are planted in the can. The can will disintegrate in two or three years. MR. RICK: Don't you have those in rows? MR. SZEGO: No, I sometimes place them on the grass. The morning dew seems to provide enough moisture to carry through the dry spells. But, again, I live in a mountainous area. This may not apply out in Oklahoma. MR. CHASE: Next on the program is a demonstration of his method of propagating nut trees in pots in the greenhouse by Mr. Bernath, who has been very successful with this method. Mr. Bernath. Demonstration of Method of Propagating Nut Trees in Greenhouse STEPHEN BERNATH, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Here is the way I handle the nut trees when we propagate under glass in the greenhouse. These are two-year seedlings potted up. That root is cut away and any large lateral roots that are too large to bend well we cut them off, and we take all the fibrous roots we can and put them in this pot. Put your soil around it first, and when you have it nearly full, just the same as if you take your son and lay him on your knee and spank the butt good and put the soil around the roots. Then pack it with your thumb and your potting is done. (Taking scion) I use only one bud. One bud is good as a dozen. (Cutting-with pruning knife.) MR. WEBER: How do you cut above the bud that you use above the graft? MR. BERNATH: If the nodes are far enough apart I put it farther, but I like to put it as short as I can but allow not less than half inch or an inch or more on top, and you cut it away after the union has taken and the growth started. Sometimes some of them may have a growth of two inches before you take them out of the case. They are not uniform. Some of them are way in advance of some of the others. Some of them are tardy, slow. This is my budding knife, here, which is about 40 years old. MR. CHASE: The question is asked, this isn't the time of year that you would do this, is it? MR. BERNATH: No, sir. I start in January. You can continue into April. You can take a batch out and put another batch in. MR. RICK: How many weeks, usually, before you graft, after these are put in the case? MR. BERNATH: I would say that with most of your varieties it's from four to six weeks, with the exception of ornamentals. That will take six to eight, sometimes longer, but nut trees generally come on quickly. I have known them to have two inches of growth, I think, in three weeks. (Sharpening knife.) A MEMBER: You are like the violinist. You have to tune up first. MR. BERNATH: Yes, and never forget to wipe your knife. And remember not to put your finger on the fresh cut. (Cutting). Here is the cut before I insert the scion. In cutting your scion wood, now here is the butt. Cut on the inside. When you cut on this side it throws the bud a little bit far out because it's on an angle. You know about the depth of the cut here, and you go like this: (Cutting). A MEMBER: Do you come down to a pretty good point? MR. BERNATH: (Holding up scion.) A MEMBER: Is that a side graft you are making there? MR. BERNATH: Yes. (Inserting scion in cut.) Now, on this one I am going to use a rubber strip. DR. MacDANIELS: Hold it up so we can see the whole thing as you have it stuck in there. That is a side graft with the bud next to the stock. MR. BERNATH: That's right. MR. RICK: The scion was cut on both sides, was it, or one side? MR, BERNATH: Yes, on both sides. MR. WEBER: Wedge shape. MR. KINTZEL: An inch below the bud. MR. BERNATH: (Wrapping graft) Here is where your thumb comes into play. As you put this on, start right here (stretching rubber). See how far that can stretch? You cross it and you can take your finger off. Now release it. Have your finger on it. Put this finger right here. All right, you see you get under, pull right up there. There it is, the graft is done. MR. EMERSON: You don't use any wax? MR. BERNATH: No wax whatsoever. Never use any. MR. CORSAN: Or any latex? MR. BERNATH: No, nothing at all. MR. RICK: How do you slope this? MR. BERNATH: I have a little, miniature box here, and that would represent a bench in the greenhouse. (Demonstrating). Here is another one (taking another scion). MR. CORSAN: That's used by dentists and plastic surgeons. MR. BERNATH: Now watch the difference. If the scion wood happened to be smaller than your stock, you cut accordingly. In other words, you are not going in as far. See (showing). Or else you can cross it. Now, just a minute, we will get that (making cut in stock; slicing scion off diagonally). You don't go up as high on this side. Now, then, you take it, if you are a pretty good hand with a knife. That's all right, even if it's not shaped at all. There it is (inserting in cut). But one thing--I want to warn you, if you want to follow this, be careful not to rub the bud off in handling it. If you do, you might as well throw it away, because you are licked. MR. WEBER: That is one reason for having the bud face the stock? MR. BERNATH: No, but makes a better growth. Persian walnut, I find, unless it's way far down on the trunk of a tree, will not form adventitious buds. Now, you can do it with a chestnut. You can rub the main bud off and you will find two or three of them coming, or more, right around that place. But one of these walnuts will not form an adventitious bud, so you might as well throw it away, or if you knock off even the new growth on it, you might as well dump it, because it will not form a tree. Now here is a tape that I use. MR. KINTZEL: Rubber tape? MR. BERNATH: No, no, cloth. MR. STOKE: That's about the same as surgical tape? MR. BERNATH: Made especially for grafting, Mr. Stoke. Now, you have to watch it closely because this is a tricky thing. MR. CORSAN: This is not called Scotch Tape? MR. BERNATH: No, this is made especially for grafting. You can get this from some of the boys. MR. WEBER: A. M. Leonard and Son, Piqua, Ohio. MR. RICK: That will require more attention than the rubber. The rubber takes care of itself, where this one you have to take off. MR. WEBER: No, this decays. MR. BERNATH: You start right here on the stock. Now you make sure that the scion-- MR. WEBER: You start at the top? MR. BERNATH: The top, always on the top. MR. WEBER: And that has a tendency to keep the scion worked down, whereas if you started at the bottom you might push it up. MR. BERNATH: You have quite a pressure right around there--watch it, because it will tear, and if it tears with you, why, it's so hard to get straightened out--and then press together. MR. WEBER: And you don't wax either the top, or anything? MR. BERNATH: No. Now, the reason for leaving this under stock that long: if you are not careful, fungus growth will set in. If you cut right here, then the whole thing is affected with it, see. Wrap it firmly and that is there on both sides, and when the union forms and the growth begins here, when you take them out of the case, for instance, now, you take a sharp pair of shears and cut as close as you can. (Removes top of understock.) Never mind if you cut the cloth, it doesn't make any difference. Just cut it right there. Snip it right off. But that is when you take them out of the grafting case. A MEMBER: Wouldn't it also be all right to leave that stub on to tie your sprout to so it won't want to break? MR. BERNATH: No, you might be better off if you had a stake. Put a stake on the side of it. When everything is right that surface will callus over right quickly. It may not seem so. It does make a perfect union unlike a graft of some other types. MR. WEBER: When you make that cut of the excess understock, you don't even wax? MR. BERNATH: No. You can if you want to, but I don't wax. Just leave it like that. Now the next operation. Here is this miniature greenhouse. It's moist peat. That's just about the right substance. Would anybody like to look at this? Don't get it too wet. Just walk right up here. MR. WEBER: It feels as if it's ground up. MR. BERNATH: It is. MR. CORSAN: Mr. Bernath, would that be the right stuff to put sweet chestnuts in in the fall? MR. BERNATH: You mean for sprouting? MR. CORSAN: Yes. MR. BERNATH: That would be all right. MR. CORSAN: That's not too damp? MR. BERNATH: No. MR. CORSAN: I have put it in that and had the greatest success. MR. CHASE: Now, folks, let's everybody sit down, and please keep quiet and try to absorb what's going on here. We can't have 10 or 15 individual conversations going on. MR. BERNATH: Now here we have two pots grafted. Now, of course, the bench in the greenhouse is wider and longer. Here is what you do. You start the first row, just move the peat back like that, and you lay them in like that, one after the other, the pots on the side. MR. WEBER: With the bud side up? MR. BERNATH: That's right. Now, you go right along. When you come to the next row, here is what you do (piling up peat) like that. If you want to cover the scion, all right; if you don't, perfectly all right. You can put electric heating coils under it. MR. RICK: Is there any advantage in sloping the top? Would it matter if it was flat? MR. BERNATH: No, no, doesn't matter. This just happened to be an old melon box. I had started melons early in the spring. Now, while the grafts are in the process of forming the unions, that is, when the cambium begins to form, you do not water until you take these out of the case. Add no more water, but make sure your pots are moist enough. For instance, in this one, there is plenty of moisture for the period of incubation. MR. KINTZEL: How long? Couple of weeks? MR. BERNATH: No. Sometimes they start to grow in three weeks, but generally four weeks, maybe a little over. Sometimes less; depends on everything. MR. SHERMAN: What temperature in the greenhouse? MR. BERNATH: Well, if you note in the springtime when the trees are beginning to grow, you know the night temperature goes down, while daytime may go up to 75, 80 in the spring. All right, you follow nature, and you'll never go wrong. Now, the temperature, at night, if it does go down around the fifties, or even less, doesn't do any harm. That's the house temperature. But under the benches where you have your heat coils, that's of course, at least 60, maybe a little better, and, of course, in daytime it may--well, it's all right if it goes up to 70, 75. Then, of course, you have to ventilate through the house, and as a matter of fact, under the benches. Take a lot of bags and nail them along the walk to keep the heat under the benches. That gives you the bottom heat. Now, as I understand, some of our members have tried this method, but they applied too much heat. They burned them. If they didn't burn them, fungus growth set in, because there's high humidity in that box. You will see the moisture condensation on the glass. Drops of water accumulate, and that's a thing you will have to guard against. So every morning give it at first about a 5-minute period when you take a dry cloth and wipe the surface moisture off the glass, the under side, to prevent the water from dripping on the unions here, to keep it dry. Then as you go along you can increase that period, but not over 15 minutes, until around the fourth week, you can generally put a stick under the glass to give more ventilation. When you see that the union is formed and everything is all right, take the glass off, take your grafts out and stand them up straight, and from there on you can water them, but not before. And then you cut these stocks off right there as close as you can get it, sort of an upward movement, like that (demonstrating with knife). MR. WEBER: It doesn't make any difference if you cut the rubber band that's on it or not? MR. BERNATH: No, not too much, if it's callused up good, if the union is hard enough. And then, of course, you put the glass on, and then you keep these grafts in the greenhouse. But don't forget now, something that is important, when you graft these. Here we have a greenhouse over us. This little box represents the batch of grafts. Don't forget you have to shade them. If you didn't shade these, they would burn to a crisp. I have lost several hundred blue spruce grafts by going away on a day when it was cloudy and I forgot to tell Mrs. Bernath, "If the sun comes out, raise the sash." When I came home, this part of the greenhouse was shaded; now, in this corner here I think it was around 250 beautiful grafts but the next day I was going to take them out. They were burnt to a crisp. I saved a few trees right where it was shady. MR. CALDWELL: The blue spruce are grafted by the same method? MR. BERNATH: Yes, I use this method for inside grafting for everything. MR. CALDWELL: Use this method for shagbarks the same way? MR. BERNATH: Yes, same way with hickories and oaks. MR. WEBER: What sort of shading element do you use? Anything real tight, or how? MR. BERNATH: Yes, air tight. The grafting case has got to be air tight. MR. WEBER: The shade? MR. BERNATH: Oh, any kind of cloth, cheesecloth, muslin. I know that will do it. MR. CHASE: Whitewash? MR. BERNATH: That's all right, too. If you use whitewash, I would recommend using white lead with gasoline and just spray it on. That will help a lot, but I generally use a cloth for shade. MR. O'ROURKE: Why do you place the scions so that the bud is on the inside? MR. BERNATH: It makes a straighter tree. The other way it's inclined to grow out this way (indicating). It grows toward the stock, makes a straighter tree. MR. STOKE: I think there is one more advantage there. On the edge next to the stock you get a better contact than you do on that lip on the outside, and it leads more directly into the bud. DR. CRANE: Less danger, too, that that bud will rub off. MR. BERNATH: Keep them shaded, but only 50 per cent shade. And then in about two weeks you take the shade off, let the sun shine on it. It doesn't hurt--over the glass. And then you take these pots when danger of frost is over, plant them out, in nursery rows, or, if you want to put them in permanent places, it's perfectly all right. Take this, put your finger under like that (demonstrating), give her a tap, and the ball comes out of the pot in your hand. And if it's permanent, plant it down to here; cover the union. MR. WEBER: And the scion eventually forms its own root? MR. BERNATH: It will. You will find that pot will be filled up with fibrous root. MR. SZEGO: When do you take the tape off? MR. BERNATH: Don't take it off at all. It will decay. MR. MILLER: But the same graft can't be used outside without grafting wax, can it? MR. BERNATH: Yes, you have to wax outside. That's right, you have to use wax. Otherwise the grafting method is the same for top-working. MR. MILLER: Because in there you have it air tight. Outside you have to wax. MR. BERNATH: You can't do it without wax, not outside. But budding you can do without wax outside. This is a whole plant right here. That's a whole plant root, and this is right in this four-inch pot. That tap root is cut away and all the lateral roots, finer roots, put right in there and put in soil like any transplanted plant. DR. ROHBACHER: When do you put that stock in the house? MR. BERNATH: If you want to start work in January, towards the end of December after the understock has had the rest period. You can store them, unless you are in a place where you don't get much frost in your ground. DR. ROHBACHER: You have to dig those up in the fall? MR. BERNATH: You have to dig these up about three weeks before you want to graft. There is another point I should have been wide awake enough to tell you in the beginning: when you put these in the bench put them in peat moss like that, because otherwise it would be next to impossible to keep those plants moist enough. MR. WEBER: That's standing upright. MR. BERNATH: Upright until you graft. That's only the understock. Watch them closely, say about two weeks, and you may test it. In other words, knock these out and examine the root system. When you see those little white rootlets beginning to grow like thin macaroni, white, most of them, that's a sign that you had better get busy grafting. MR. WEBER: But not until you see the edges of those roots poking through. MR. RICK: And the stock isn't in the case until you are ready to graft? MR. BERNATH: They are in the benches, but not in the case. No outside cover except just the glass of the house. That's about all there is to it. It isn't much. MR. RICK: It's been a wonderful demonstration. MR. SZEGO: When do you cut your scion wood? MR. BERNATH: Oh, I get scion wood from December on, late December, January and February. MR. RICK: It would be all right just to go out to the tree and cut your scions and bring them in and the next day graft? MR. BERNATH: Yes. Well, no. I like to store them a little bit, for the reason that the starches will form. It's amazing how wood will act after you cut it, provided it doesn't dry out. All those cells, you know, in that they form what we call a certain type of starch. You can do it all right with apple trees and pear trees. You can put it right on the tree right from the tree, but I wouldn't advise it on the nut trees. MR. RICK: Do you keep your scions cool until you are ready to use them? A MEMBER: My way of keeping it is in fresh sawdust. That's the best means. MR. WEBER: Do you dampen it any? MR. BERNATH: Yes. And I have nothing but an earth cellar where I store my scion wood, and they keep well until June. MR. RICK: To prevent fungus would it be a good idea to dip them in a weak solution of Bordeaux? MR. BERNATH: I never tried it. I couldn't say. That's one reason why sometimes some of our members here wonder why I write and say, "Please do not wax." I do not want a waxed scion. As far as I am concerned, I would throw them right out. I wouldn't bother to graft them. MR. CORSAN: You just put them in damp sawdust? MR. BERNATH: Yes, put them in damp peat or even damp newspaper, wrap it and ship it. (Newspaper is very good for this purpose.--J. C. McD.) MR. CORSAN: And no waxing. MR. BERNATH: No. MR. STOKE: I agree with you. I got some scions that were waxed, and the scion was beautifully green and every bud was dead. MR. BERNATH: That's it again. The reason for that is that you have to heat the wax to make it thin enough, and the reaction of the heat is bad for the scion wood. MR. STOKE: I don't believe it's that alone. I believe a bud can't go without air for a great length of time. It is a living organism and needs the air. Those scions had come from Europe, and every one was dead. MR. BERNATH: Mr. Silvis will tell you how he keeps his scions good. MR. SILVIS: Through Goodrich Chemical Company I was interested in what Dr. Shelton, another Ohio member who is a chemist, had available, an emulsion called "Goodrite Latex VL-600." That's the agricultural and horticultural designation for its use. Otherwise, industrially it's known as Geon 31 XX, and some other names. MR. CORSAN: That is the latex that congeals quickly? MR. SILVIS: Yes. It's water soluble and makes a very stiff; impervious water barrier on everything it becomes attached to. Therefore, if you dipped the entire scion--usually I go out and cut scion wood and maybe even as late as the next day dip it in the latex. Then after it's dried for five minutes, I can take and throw it in the garage and leave it there until June, July and August, and I can take it to the refrigerator, the same thing. I think the refrigerator is the best place. MR. SHERMAN: You know last March, at the Ohio meeting there was some wood dipped there, and the latter part of May I came through and picked up a piece and brought it in to Harrisburg in the back of my car in the window where it was cooked in transportation, and it made two inches of growth in the Harrisburg office just lying on my desk. MR. SILVIS: I have seen it happen, and it doesn't restrict the growth. I have had it on filberts, Persian walnut, and hickory. Then when I cut my stock by using a simple splice graft, in grafting it I use a rubber band, same rubber band they used here, tie it and just forget about it. You don't need the additional shading, and you don't need additional waxing. DR. MacDANIELS: Can you use that material as a wax? Do you put on additional wax? MR. SILVIS: It isn't necessary in a splice graft, because you have got a good union. DR. MacDANIELS: Suppose you haven't got a good union? MR. SILVIS: I wouldn't use it anyway, because you are covering the cut portion pretty well anyhow. MR. RICK: Is this outside or inside? MR. SILVIS: I would say outside. You dip the wax at 70 degrees temperature. Any colder than that would allow it to congeal. It's thick. I am not sure about this, but I think you can dilute it with about eight parts water, if you wish, six or eight parts water to one part latex. It still will make a complete coverage. That's for scion storage, and it does eliminate making boxes in some places where they have storage problems. It eliminates the storage problem and eliminates waxing immediately after grafting. MR. WEBER: Your method completely shuts off the air from the bud the same as waxing would do. MR. SILVIS: And any water going in. MR. STOKE: I was wondering how long you kept it. You said it was soluble in water. You mean before it sets up? MR. SILVIS: Before it sets up. MR. LOWERRE: That's if it's a suspension. It is some time before the water sets up. MR. STOKE: Retaining moisture and yet being soluble, and that's the thing I wanted to clarify. MR. SILVIS: If you leave it out, it is a dispersal, let's call it, but it appears like shellac after it is dry. (Editor's Note: See fuller discussion in 1949 Report, pp. 30-37.) MR. CHASE: I think we all owe Mr. Bernath a vote of thanks for showing us this. (Applause.) We will visit his place tomorrow, and if you have additional questions, I am sure he will be glad to answer them for you. He has left the grafting case over here for anyone to see. MR. SHERMAN: In case of heavy rain tomorrow, what are the plans? MR. SALZER: Wear rubbers. MR. CHASE: We are not going to have any rain tomorrow. (He was right.--Ed.) We have a short paper here that I have asked Dr. Anthony to summarize for us, "Experiences in Nut Growing Near Lake Erie," by Ross P. Wright, Erie, Pennsylvania. DR. ANTHONY: Mr. Wright is a very interesting man and has a very interesting plantation. He is a manufacturer and fortunately has a son who is mature and married and as interested in the work as he, so there is a continuity that we are pretty sure of. Experiences in Nut Growing Near Lake Erie ROSS PIER WRIGHT, Erie, Pennsylvania This report should be made by my son Richard Wright. He is in charge of the farm but is on a trip to Europe with his family and will not return in time for your meeting. The farm is located in the Chautauqua Grape Belt; due to the proximity of Lake Erie, which acts as a heat reservoir, it is not as a rule bothered by the late frosts in the Spring or early frosts in the Fall, this making it a very satisfactory climate for Concord grapes. Peaches are also grown commercially. The village of Westfield is located on the main road between Erie and Buffalo, and the Wright family has lived there for the past 136 years. We have several hundred acres and really started the endeavor more with the idea of seeing if nuts might be profitably grown, without any idea of going into the nut business. In 1915, 35 years ago, we planted a three acre plot with several varieties of nut trees obtained from nurseries. They were black walnuts, hickories, hazel nuts, pecans, English walnuts, and Japanese heartnuts. The black walnuts are native of Westfield and the trees we planted have done well. The only hickories that survived were two Siers hickories. We did not think much of them until recently as they did not fill out any too well, but the last three or four years they have for some reason decided to fill better. Due to the extremely thin shell they are very easily cracked and at the moment we think quite highly of these Siers hickories. We have a nut cracker made by the Dazey Corporation of St. Louis, Missouri, which costs $5.00 or $6.00. It is very effective with the Siers but does not crack thick shelled hickories very well. On the other hand it is ideal for pecans and English walnuts. The filberts in this field are not very satisfactory, with the exception of the Winkler hazel. These usually bear very well. The trouble with the filberts is that the catkins are quite prone to winter kill but the Winkler hazel seems to be more hardy. There again we think more of them since we have used the Dazey Nut Cracker. The Winkler nuts are rather small and have quite a hard shell and if a hammer is used it is quite likely to crush the kernel. The English walnuts we planted at that time were not of a hardy type and were prone to winterkill. There are really only two stunted trees left. The pecans do not winterkill but the nuts do not fill. The Japanese heartnuts we planted were successful. One of them we consider very satisfactory and is worthy of propagation. We call it the Lobular heartnut. In the Spring of 1923, 27 years ago, we obtained a half bushel of heartnuts from our representative in Japan and planted them. Three years later we interplanted some of the trees in a four acre field in which we were planting as permanent trees some Snyder and Thomas black walnuts. Reporting on that field as it is today we will say that these walnuts and heartnuts, up to five years ago, bore very well indeed and the nuts filled properly, but the last few years the nuts have not filled properly although they have received nitrate of soda. We are somewhat in a quandry as to the reason for it. Adjoining the field is a black walnut tree, probably 150 years old, which always bore nuts and they have always filled up to the last few years. In this field where the majority of the seedling heartnuts have been planted there was the usual interesting difference in the nuts. Some were of the true heartnut variety, some had the rough shaggy shell and shape of a butternut and others were round and looked like English walnuts. Some of the heartnut trees have developed a disease called witches'-broom or bunch disease. There does not, to date, seem to be any cure for it. We used some heavy applications of zinc sulphate and thought the trouble had improved but the improvement seems to have been only temporary. In this field also are the trees which Clarence Reed designated as the Wright heartnut and the Westfield heartnut. In 1933 to 1935, 15 to 17 years ago, we grafted about 35 hickories with various varieties. They were grafted in a grove of hickories which were on our farm and which were perhaps eight inches in diameter. This endeavor did not prove to be much of a success. Some of the grafts died after a year or two and the others which have continued to live do not appear to bear to any extent. We would have to mark that particular endeavor down as very close to a failure. Perhaps if we had given the grafting endeavor more attention we might have had different results but we are in the manufacturing business in Erie, Pennsylvania, and really look upon the Westfield, New York, farm as a type of relaxation. In those years 1933 to 1935 industry was experiencing a major distress and I am afraid most of our attention was given to our factory rather than our farm. In fact, that situation applies very largely to all of our nut endeavors. There is an old Scotch saying "The eye of the master fattens the kine," and during the last 15 or 20 years when we in industry have experienced a tremendous depression followed by a war it has meant that those interested have had to watch their manufacturing plants to the detriment of their other interests regardless of how much they regretted it. In 1934, 16 years ago, we became interested in chestnuts as a possible commercial crop. We purchased a quantity from J. Russell Smith, interplanting them in a vineyard we expected to pull out as it was getting too old. Two years later, through the cooperation of Clarence Reed, Dr. Gravatt, also others at Beltsville, Maryland, we got some 2,000 seedlings of various types, some being hybrids. As some of these bore we planted what we thought were the best nuts in a nursery and at present have about 3000 chestnut trees ranging from three years old up to 16 years. There is some blight occasionally showing which appears to be on the hybrids. About 35 acres of the chestnuts were interplanted in vineyards which we were planning to pull out. During the war, however, the price of grapes was quite high and we left the grapes, pulling the last of them out this Spring. Due to cultivation of the grapes an appreciable number of the nut trees were cut out accidentally, and have later been filled in with seedlings, with the result that the orchard has a rather peculiar appearance. The mature trees, this year, have been doing, we think, very well, and a great majority of them are bearing from a light crop to a rather heavy crop. Up to date we have had no trouble with worm in our chestnuts. In fact we have not found a single wormy chestnut. This interests us appreciably, as when the old American chestnuts were common on our farm it would seem as if hardly a chestnut escaped a worm hole if you kept them long enough. If you ate the chestnuts immediately it wasn't so bad--the worms were probably too small to be observed. We understand that in some sections Chinese chestnuts are attacked by worms but I repeat we haven't had one to date. Our chestnuts are planted largely in Volusia clay loam on fields where chestnuts formerly flourished. This soil is not fertile, as soils go, and the trees will probably not grow as large nor will they grow as fast as if planted in a more fertile soil. At first we used a spacing of 36 feet but we now use 24 feet, which we think will be satisfactory for our farm. Since the chestnuts have come into bearing and the project has become to some extent a commercial one, we are more interested in doing what we can for the trees. We are convinced that the mulching process is to be recommended. There is some sawdust to be obtained in this section and as far as it goes we have covered the ground under the branches of the trees with a mulch of sawdust about five or six inches deep. We will not know how successful that is for a few years. We have planted the fields with a cover crop of rye grass and orchard grass, and this month are cutting it and throwing it under the trees. We have some adjoining fields which were in hay but which had rather run out. We are cutting these likewise and throwing the hay under the trees. We believe if we keep this practice up for a few years we will have a reasonable mulch under the trees. We have become interested in Reed canary grass. We have had a few sample patches of it and are going to plant a couple of outside fields with it to be used for mulch. It grows stronger than any other northern grass with which we are conversant, and therefore would produce more mulch. We are also giving the land two rather heavy applications of mixed fertilizer each year. We think the chief thing we have learned about chestnuts is that the first few years the trees should be cultivated, fertilized, watered, and mulched. You cannot handle them the way you could, for instance, Christmas trees by simply sticking them in a field of grass. The first year they should be watered every ten days if they require it, and watered the second year if there is a real drought. In closing we would say that as far as our immediate section is concerned, it is our guess that chestnuts are the only nuts which might appear to have commercial possibilities. Of course, at present, the nuts sell at quite a high price and I fear beyond their value. What will happen when the numerous orchards which have been planted in the last few years come into bearing is any man's guess. We do not believe that the black walnuts would ever prove a commercial success here, although they normally do well. Of course the trouble is the competition of the wild nuts from other sections. On the other hand, if some one had the time to give to working up a market for the improved black walnuts, he might get some profit out of it. If I were younger, I might want to try growing a number of Winkler hazel nuts. I think hazel nuts covered with chocolate make a very attractive candy, and here, in this section, the Winkler seems to be immune to blight and other troubles. This year, for the first time in our recollection, the frost got them and the crop is very light. I do not know just what to say about the heartnuts. They might not have enough flavor to suit some people, but when eaten with salt I think they are delicious. They are very free cracking. We have one, the Lobular, which as soon as they are cracked can be shaken out of the shell. I am disturbed however over the bunch disease to which some of them are subject. Please note that our remarks in regard to the commercial possibilities of these various nuts has reference to our farm at Westfield and to no other place. I regret I am not going to be at your meeting to endeavor to answer any question which might be asked. Discussion of Mulches DR. ANTHONY: Mr. Sherman and I were there a few years ago, and he has very definitely given up the heartnut and black walnut. Many trees in this area are affected with this bunch disease, which caused failure to set, and he has very definitely decided that he is out of those two nuts. MR. FRYE: That sawdust, how old must it be, and how green have you used? DR. ANTHONY: We have used sawdust in our fruit tree work. There is a period when I don't like it. When it's raw and going down, it uses a good deal of nitrogen. Also, if it gets dry, it will blow. Also when it gets dry it will run off with the water, and I would like to use it pretty well rotted down when I get it, and usually you can find old rotted piles. If you do use it on trees where nitrogen is a factor, you probably will have to use additional nitrogen. Now, with the chestnut where you want to mature them fairly early in the fall, it might work all right, because it will withhold the nitrogen in the breakdown of your sawdust. But apparently, it works pretty well. I think it was Mr. Sam Hemming who suggested using it in the rows. Most of our State Forests and Waters nurseries in their seedling beds, plant their seedlings, including chestnuts, make a mixture of sawdust and sand, about one of sawdust and two of sand, and then broadcast that right over their seeds. The seeds are broadcast on the firm soil, then this mixture of sawdust and sand is broadcast over the seeds. That gives a uniform planting of your seeds and gives a very nice protection. There is one place that I think sawdust works very nicely. Straw mulch, any material of that kind, in breaking down takes nitrogen from the soil. They are all good if you balance that loss of nitrogen that is lost during the period of breakdown. Now, there comes a time, if you put a mulch on the soil and let it stay there for six or eight years and keep building it up, when you pass imperceptibly from straw into soil, and when you reach that time, your breakdown of your straw is usually done without taking nitrogen from your soil itself, and from that time on you may release nitrogen. But until you get that imperceptible transformation from straw to soil, there is a time when the breakdown of the straw uses your nitrogen, which is all right, if it's late in the season, but not early. I'd want to watch my trees and get my nitrogen on early, then let the straw use it later on. A MEMBER: The migration of nitrogen--is there some such migration, and is it just in the case of the sawdust? DR. ANTHONY: You put it right on top, it's much worse. You can put it right on top and it will take a year or two to pass through that period where the utilization in the breaking down of the straw is greater than the release of nitrogen. If it's mixed in the soil, the tree gets more of it. MR. STOKE: How deep is that effect on the soil? DR. ANTHONY: We have used straw, hay, weeds, sawdust, chips, anything of the kind, putting on a 5 to 6-inch layer. As I say, it takes from one to three years to get through that period. Now, Massachusetts has the longest continuous use--all of New England has--of mulch, and they are reaching a point now where some of the mulches are ten years old where the release of nitrogen is too much and they get poor color on McIntosh. I think with the Chinese chestnut this is one thing we have got to watch to get good maturity. Going farther and farther south, you have more trouble. As you go to the north, our trees color more easily, and there you wouldn't want to force them, as our New England people find. They are releasing too much nitrogen late in the season. So I would not want to use long, continued mulch in the chestnut, I'd watch my maturity, and the minute they get a little slow in maturing, I'd quit. MR. BERST: How about corn cobs? MR. JAY SMITH: How about anything in the street, leaves? DR. ANTHONY: Anything like that, whether it's oak or maple. One goes down as quickly as the other. MR. CORSAN: On the way down here I called in to see Rodale, and we found him in a mass of brewer's hops and ground up corn cobs. He had them in the chicken house, and you know how a chicken house smells. He had no smell in the chicken house. We looked all through his place, and we saw another big pile of furs, mink, and such trimming off of them, a big pile about that high (indicating), and that will go down. He had everything under the sun in the way of mulch, but corn cobs ground up fine was the chief one in sight. Personally, I like to grow the mulch on the land right there. We can grow it--up to 10 ton of green mulch to the acre. I have done it many, many times. You have something there that goes down quickly. The very growing of that through the latter part of the summer also uses the nitrogen and hardens up your trees. Then we turn it down and within two to three weeks we have it reseeded, and so we are growing a constant supply in the soil-itself. You get the same effect as hauling in your mulch. It's cheaper, usually, and you get, I think, a little bit better control. Your mulches are not dry, they are turned under when--well, it's crimson clover in the red, right in the blossom. They go down very quickly. We leave as much as possible on the surface. I think it's a little cheaper and a little more satisfactory control. I put them on quite green. I find they rot much quicker. MR. CHASE: I will now turn the gavel back to Dr. MacDaniels, who will take over. DR. MacDANIELS: Thank you, very much, Mr. Chase. Perhaps we had better take a 10-minute recess. (Whereupon, a short recess was taken.) Nominating Committee Elected DR. MacDANIELS: We will proceed with the election of a nominating committee. That committee is elected. It is a committee of three, and the nominations come from the floor. The present nominating committee is Mr. Stoke, Mr. Sylvester Shessler, and Mr. Sterling Smith. Now, I guess it is a good plan to change the nominating committee, and I think we ought to have regional representation. I think that is important. Does anybody have a nomination? Say we start in the Middle West. A MEMBER: Mr. Silvis. DR. MacDANIELS: He will take it. That's middle. Another nomination from the farther west. MR. CHASE: Mr. Chairman, I nominate Dr. Crane. DR. MacDANIELS: That would be South Atlantic. MR. WEBER: I nominate Mr. Chase. DR. MacDANIELS: Do you wish to nominate more than three and have a ballot? MR. FRYE: I move nominations be closed. DR. MacDANIELS: Nominations closed. Do you move to have the secretary cast a unanimous ballot? DR. McKAY: So move, Mr. Chairman. MR. WEBER: Proceed with the election. DR. MacDANIELS: The motion is that nominations be closed and the secretary be instructed to cast a ballot for the slate as nominated. Any further discussion? If not, all in favor say "aye." (A vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) DR. MacDANIELS: Carried. Resolutions DR. MacDANIELS: Is the Resolutions Committee here? Mr. Allaman, I believe you are president of the Pennsylvania group, are you not? MR. ALLAMAN: Yes. "In the passing of Clarence A. Reed, who was a nut culturist of the United States Department of Agriculture, we not only lost a friend in the experimental field, but also a dear personal friend. Mr. Reed was keenly interested in all phases of nut culture, devoting practically his entire life to this work. We are more deeply indebted to him than can be expressed. Paraphrasing what Lincoln said of the dead soldiers at Gettysburg, it remains for us to continue the effort and build upon the foundation to which he so largely contributed. "Therefore, be it resolved that the secretary of this Association spread upon the record this resolution and send a copy to Mrs. Reed." DR. MacDANIELS: You have heard this resolution. I think it would be appropriate we move to accept and adopt this by a rising vote. (Whereupon, a rising vote was taken.) DR. MacDANIELS: There are two other resolutions Mr. Allaman will read. MR. ALLAMAN: "The Northern Nut Growers Association in its forty-first meeting expresses its appreciation for the fine accomodations for its meeting place supplied by Post No. 739 of the American Legion. The Association also desires to compliment the Post on its foresight in providing this community with such a satisfactory meeting place. "May it therefore be resolved that the secretary spread this upon the minutes and send a copy to the Legion." Another resolution: "We, the members of the Northern Nut Growers Association, express our keen appreciation of the very efficient services of Mrs. Stephen Bernath and Gilbert L. Smith and others for their splendid accommodations at this convention." DR. MacDANIELS: These two resolutions, do you wish to accept them or adopt them together? DR. CRANE: Move that they be adopted as a whole. DR. MacDANIELS: Moved that they be adopted together. Any discussion? If not, all in favor say "aye." (Whereupon, a vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) DR. MacDANIELS: Passed without dissent. Are there other resolutions anyone has from the floor? (No response.) Report of Auditing Committee DR. MacDANIELS: The auditing committee's report. MR. WEBER: I have it. "We have found from our examination of the treasurer's records that his accounts are in proper balance and that the statement of his bank account, issued by his bank as of August 11, 1950, shows he had on deposit in the Erie County United Bank of Vermilion, Ohio, the sum of $2280.37. We feel our treasurer, Mr. Sterling A. Smith, has faithfully discharged his duties during the current year and recommend his continuance in that office, nomination for which has already, of course, taken place. Royal Oakes, Chairman, Auditing Committee." (Applause.) DR. MacDANIELS: It all sounds very legal. I think it's all right. I take it that applause indicates the acceptance of the report. Unless I hear dissent, we will take that to be so. DR. CRANE: Move the report of the Auditing Committee be accepted. DR. MacDANIELS: O.K., we will make it legal. Who will second the motion? MR. STOKE: Second. DR. MacDANIELS: Moved and seconded that the Auditing Committee report be accepted. (A vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) Election of 1950-51 Officers DR. MacDANIELS: Next will be the election of officers, and we will ask the chairman of the Nominating Committee to give his report. Inasmuch as I am apparently concerned, I will hand the gavel to Mr. Chase for the election. MR. CHASE: We'd like to hear the report from the chairman of the Nominating Committee, Mr. Stoke. MR. STOKE: Most of you no doubt heard the report of the Nominating Committee at our first session, but we nominated Dr. William Rohrbacher of Iowa City, Iowa, for president, and for vice-president our perennial candidate here, who has disappeared from the scene, renominating Dr. L. H. MacDaniels. We hope to make him president next time. If he doesn't make it next time, I think we will have to throw him out. And for the secretary, our friend, Joe McDaniel. They are not relatives. And the treasurer, repeating officer, Sterling Smith. The secretaryship and treasurership shouldn't change any more often than necessary. MR. STERLING SMITH: I object. Before you move on that, I'd like to say that it isn't really legal, I think, that I should have been on the nominating committee, and being one of the officers, it would be very well taken on my part if there were any nominations from the floor. MR. CHASE: We are coming to that. Any objections that we have nominations from the floor? Are there any nominations for president? MR. WELLMAN: Move nominations be closed. MR. CHASE: Are there any other nominations for vice-president? (No response.) I am sure we must have one for the treasurer. (No response.) Do we have any for secretary? MR. CORSAN: Why not have the former Miss Jones president again? MR. STOKE: She becomes a member of the Board of Directors, and I think it would be out of order to elect her to another office. MR. CORSAN: I withdraw it. MR. CHASE: Now I will entertain your motion, Mr. Wellman. MR. WELLMAN: I move it. MR. CHASE: It has been moved that the slate by the nominating committee be accepted. DR. CRANE: Second. (Whereupon, a vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) MR. CHASE: Dr. MacDaniels, you may come in now. DR. CRANE: We moved that nominations be closed. We haven't accepted them. MR. STOKE: When you are through, I have a resolution to offer. DR. CRANE: Move that the report of the nominating committee be accepted and we proceed with the election by voice vote. All in favor of having the secretary cast a ballot for the slate nominated by our nominating committee please signify by saying "aye." (A vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) MR. STOKE: I would like to make a motion that we elect a parliamentarian, and I wish to nominate Dr. Crane. MR. STERLING SMITH: Second the motion. (A vote was taken on the motion, and it was carried unanimously.) MR. FRYE: We elected a parliamentarian last year. I wonder how it's coming on. DR. CRANE: I have a report on it. MR. WEBER: Mr. John Davidson, Xenia, Ohio. MR. McDANIEL: He was parliamentarian before we made him our president. MR. WEBER: That's passed on to Dr. Crane. MR. CHASE: Now, Dr. MacDaniels, you may come in. DR. MacDANIELS: Hope it's legal. Is there any further business? Do you think of any, Mr. Weber? MR. WEBER: Hold it open until after the banquet. Then if we think of something that we have left out, we haven't adjourned. DR. MacDANIELS: I will adjourn this particular session and give the gavel to our new president. MR. WEBER: We adjourn until this evening at the banquet. DR. ANTHONY: Before you bang it down, may I make one announcement? I thought you would be interested in an action that the Pennsylvania Nut Growers have taken. Mr. Allaman, it is O.K. to report that committee appointment? DR. MacDANIELS: The question is raised as to the time of the next meeting. The place has been decided. The time, I think, has to be left to be worked out with the authorities at Illinois, is that right? Do you want to say a word, Dr. Colby? DR. COLBY: It is difficult, if not impossible, to give an exact date right now, because we don't know at this time what our facilities for meeting rooms and lodging will be on any particular date in the latter part of the month of August. We will have to check and find out the best days, if that is agreeable to the group. DR. MacDANIELS: Does this group wish to express a preference as to the last week in August or the first week in September? In other words, it would be the week before Labor Day, or the week after. That wouldn't necessarily fix it, but it would give the committee, if there were no other restrictions as to available facilities, would be a guide for a choice. MR. WELLMAN: Call for a show of hands. DR. MacDANIELS: I will do that. Those who would prefer a meeting date comparable to this year? (Showing of hands.)[34] Those who prefer the week after Labor Day? (No hands raised.) [34] The 1951 meeting will be at the University of Illinois in Urbana, August 28 and 29, to be followed with a tour in western Illinois for those who can stay through the morning of August 31. MR. STERLING SMITH: Maybe those who prefer the after Labor Day date aren't here now. DR. ROHRBACHER: I just want to say I appreciate very much the honor that has been bestowed upon me. I appreciate the fact that the president is purely an emblem, a figurehead, but with the staff that's under him, it's the same as in the Post Office Department of the United States, the head receives all the salary and his understudies do all the work. So it's a very appropriate setting, and we should go forward under a very good staff of men that have been elected to the positions under that of the president. One thing I want to say in regard to the problem that came up last night that was discussed: that as the president, I can assure you that the vice-presidents are certainly not going to be emblems if they expect to continue on in their positions in the various states that are in the group, because the working out of this problem, the success of it, is going to depend on how well these vice-presidents carry out their work. I thank you. DR. MacDANIELS: We will close this session until tonight. I will give Dr. Rohrbacher the gavel. (Whereupon, at 4:50 o'clock, p.m., the Tuesday afternoon session of the Northern Nut Growers Association was closed.) Note on the Annual Tour, August 30, 1950 The third day of the Annual meeting, as is customary with the Association, was spent touring interesting nut plantings in the vicinity. The first stop was Bernath's Nursery, southwest of Pleasant Valley, where he has his greenhouse, young nut plants, and a number of fruiting trees. The second stop was on the grounds of the State School at Wassaic, where many grafted nut trees, particularly walnuts, are thriving, due to the interest and activity of Gilbert L. Smith, when he was on the staff there. A picnic lunch was served in the recreational area of the school grounds. Here Dr. W. C. Deming of Hartford, Conn., Dean of the Association, was on hand to greet many of his old friends. After lunch we visited Mr. Stephen Bernath's farm nut planting, then the topworked hickory woods on Mr. Wm. A. Benton's farm out of Millerton. At the Benton and Smith Nut Nursery, also on the farm, the tour was concluded. OBITUARIES Harry R. Weber Members were saddened to hear of the death, on his way home, of Harry R. Weber, who had taken an active part in the meeting at Pleasant Valley, as he did in most of the meetings since the very earliest years of the Association. We shall have a more complete obituary in the next volume. George B. Rhodes COVINGTON, Tenn., Dec. 16, 1950--Services for George B. Rhodes of Mt. Carmel who died Saturday at 5:15 p.m. at his home will be held Sunday afternoon at 3 at the Clopton Methodist Church. The Rev. David Olhansen, pastor of the church, assisted by the Rev. E. D. Farris of Henning will officiate. Burial will be in the Clopton Cemetery. Mr. Rhodes, who was 82, was born at Clopton, Tenn., and spent his entire lifetime in Tipton County. He was the first county agent of Tipton County. He was interested in the budding of pecans and had operated a nursery for the past 20 years. He was a member of the Clopton Methodist Church. He leaves his wife, Mrs. Ivie Drake Rhodes of Covington; two sons, Sol Rhodes of Tampa, Fla., and Marion Rhodes of Beverly Hills, Calif.; two daughters, Mrs. R. B. Davie of Covington and Mrs. Lillian Bringley of Memphis; two sisters, Mrs. Pauline Meacham of Senatobia, Miss., and Mrs. Mattie Nelson of Forrest City, Ark., and two brothers, Sam Rhodes of Bolivar, and Duke Rhodes of San Francisco, Calif.; seven grandchildren and five great grandchildren.--Reprinted from a Memphis paper. Mr. Rhodes' greatest contribution to nut growing was the discovery and first propagation of a heartnut variety mow called Rhodes. It is the most successful heartnut yet tried in western Tennessee, a reliable and heavy cropper, and one of the best cracking varieties of all known heartnuts. It deserves testing in other areas. Note: The following members of the N. N. G. A. have died recently, and we hope to have fuller obituaries on them in the next volume: Charles C. Dean, of Anniston, Ala. (Died September 21, 1950.) Henry Gressel, of Mohawk, N. Y. (Died in June, 1951.) W. N. Achenbach, of Petoskey, Mich. L. B. Hoyer, of Omaha, Nebr. Life Member Wang Is in Hong Kong In our 1942 Report there was a note that our only Chinese member, P. W. Wang, had probably died, since he had not been heard from since 1930. Mr. Wang, we are happy to report, has recently written to us from Hong Kong. Many of the nut trees he planted while secretary of the Kinsan Arboretum at Chuking (not Chungking) in Kiangsu Province had survived the Japanese invasions and were fruiting in 1945, but are now in Communist hands. Mr. Wang hopes some day to be able to send to America scions of a fine pecan (seedling of Teche variety) which he fruited at Chuking. Meanwhile, he wishes to have nut literature and catalogues sent to him at his present address: P. W. Wang, c/o China Products Trading Corporation, 6 Des Voeux Road, Central, Hong Kong. Letters Nuts in Quebec July 16, 1950 Dr. George L. Slate, Associate Professor, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York Dear Dr. Slate: I am very much flattered by your invitation to prepare a paper on nut culture in Quebec. My only regret is that for two reasons I am unable to comply with your request. The first is that I am quite ignorant on the subject. It is only lately that I have developed an interest in this matter when I suddenly found myself responsible for a so-called "arboretum" which is now mainly empty space that I am endeavoring to fill. The fact that shagbark hickory and butternut were common in our woods and that some of our neighbors have apparently flourishing individual trees of black walnut served to arouse my interest in the question. One neighbour has a tree of what he calls "French walnut" because they came from near Lyons, France, which are evidently the ordinary English or Persian walnut. Furthermore, I have been advised that there is quite a grove of black walnut near Lotbiniere, Quebec, which is on the south shore of the St. Lawrence not far from the city of Quebec. I understand that it was planted some seventy-five years ago and trees are now timber size. Indeed, I was told that the owner was offered a considerable sum during the war--the wood was wanted for gun stocks. I have not been there to verify this. However it occurred to me that it would be a good idea to get several specimens of various nut species that might grow here to place in the arboretum--this might incidentally give some information on what species would survive our winters. The second reason that I am unable to write any article on nut culture in Quebec is because as far as I know there is no nut culture here. Most of the trees I refer to were simply planted as ornamentals. I have never been able to locate anyone who has taken any particular interest in growing them for the nuts. I would like very much to extend my knowledge on the subject by attending your meeting at Poughkeepsie, New York, on August 28th to 30th, but unfortunately I will be absent in Nova Scotia on those dates. Following your information I secured some literature on northern nut culture and will look forward to receiving any further information along this line that may be forthcoming. Again thanking you for your courtesy and assuring you of my continued interest, I am, Yours very truly, W. H. BRITTAIN Vice-Principal, Macdonald College of McGill University Macdonald College, Quebec, Canada Note: I believe that perhaps the things mentioned in his second paragraph should be followed up.--H.L.S. Pecans Produce Poorly in Middle Atlantic States November 13, 1950 Dr. Lewis E. Theiss Lewisburg, Pennsylvania Dear Dr. Theiss: Speaking of pecans, we have harvested the first crop this year here on the station, from trees planted in 1932, of the varieties Indiana, Greenriver, Busseron and Major. Even though these nuts were not harvested until November 9 they are poorly filled. It seems that we just cannot mature them here in an average season. Our trees have not grown satisfactorily and although they may bloom, the nuts normally fail to mature. Our summers are not long enough and the day and night temperatures are not high enough uniformly to satisfactorily produce pecans even in this area. Very truly yours, H. L. CRANE Principal Horticulturist, Division of Fruit and Vegetable Crops and Diseases U. S. Plant Industry Station. Beltsville, Maryland ~Editor's Note:~ Dr Crane's experience is exactly similar to my own. The pecans in the grounds at my country home were well loaded with nuts this year, 1950. I doubt if a single nut was half filled.--L. E. T. Nut Tree Diseases in Europe and Turkey November 17, 1950 Dr. Lewis E. Theiss Lewisburg, Pennsylvania Dear Dr. Theiss: I have only recently returned from three and one-half months spent in Europe, primarily on chestnut problems, as a consultant for the Economic Cooperation Administration. The trip was made at the request and expense of European interests, except while I was up in the Scandinavian countries and at the 7th International Botanical Congress. I gave a paper at the Congress, entitled "The world-wide spread of forest diseases," in which chestnut blight received limited attention. In Italy, chestnut blight, ~Endothia parasitica~, was first reported at Genoa in 1938, although it started there much earlier. It is now widely distributed here and there as far south as the Naples area. No confirmed infections have been reported from Sicily, Sardinia, or French Corsica, though inspection work has been very, very limited. In all the places where I saw it, the disease was increasing rapidly, with numerous recently-blighted trees. It is expected that the disease will ultimately kill the 988,000 acres of coppice growth, which produces few nuts, and the 1,111,500 acres of grafted orchards. The time of death of isolated stands like the two islands and many other areas can be materially decreased by careful inspection and removal of the earliest infections, just as we have held the disease under control in the European chestnut orchards in California. It is doubtful if this will be done however, in spite of their large unemployment problem. As the blight continues its rapid spread over Italy, the production of nuts will steadily decrease. The Italian exports to this country will decrease, and the market for the rapidly expanding production of Chinese chestnuts in the eastern United States will improve. The Italian foresters are growing large quantities of Chinese chestnuts which they purchased in this country, but the difficulties of quickly reestablishing a large nut industry are very great. This Bureau, including Dr. Graves, has been sending pollen, scions, and plants of our selections to help with this work. It is of vital importance to have a sound economy in Italy to help prevent the Communists from taking over, and loss of their forest and nut orchards and part of their oaks from the blight will be a sad blow to their economy. The chestnut blight fungus in Italy is attacking three important European oaks, ~Quercus ilex~, ~Q. Pubescens~, and ~Q. sessiliflora~. These are more important in some countries than chestnuts. For instance, Spain has 3,705,000 acres of ~Q. ilex~ orchards, grown largely for acorn hog feed. This will interest Dr. Smith. Possibly the disease may be less destructive to oaks in other countries than I fear, my opinion being based on the examination of only a limited number of diseased oaks in Italy. I assume you have heard that Mr. Bretz of our Division has found that the oak wilt fungus has attacked some of our Chinese chestnuts in Missouri. What it will amount to, no one knows. The oak wilt continues to spread southward and eastward, and this year one infection was reported by the State authorities on oaks in your own Pennsylvania. In Switzerland, in Tessin province, which is along the Italian border, the blight is spreading rapidly. The disease undoubtedly is in Yugoslavia, as there is so much infection in nearby Italy, but I was not in Yugoslavia. In Spain, there are several infections of blight that came in on the original importations of chestnuts directly from Japan. I made two trips into Spain and the authorities there have promised to do everything possible to eradicate these small spot infections. In Denmark, England, France, Germany, Portugal, and Turkey no blight had been reported by the authorities with whom I conferred, but in most of these countries very little inspection work has been conducted. Any inspection for blight in southern Europe is complicated by the presence of the ink root rot disease, which from a distance looks like the blight. I remember one grafted orchard planting, in the Asia Minor part of Turkey, where a large proportion of the trees were dead or dying, with yellow leaves hanging, resembling the blight. Incidentally, here, as at a number of other places in different countries, orchards, forest, and nearby agricultural land was owned by the village itself. In southern France I was impressed by a most serious and widely distributed disease of Persian walnuts. Vigorously growing trees start to decline and within a year or two they are dead. The French authorities had no satisfactory explanation of the trouble. I informed them that it looked a lot like trees killed by ~Phytophthora cinnamomi~, the cause of the chestnut root and ink disease in America and Europe. This fungus also attacks both Persian and black walnuts and other trees (including apples) under certain conditions. Sincerely, G. F. GRAVATT Senior Pathologist, Division of Forest Pathology U. S. Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. Nut Work of the Minnesota Experiment Station March 27, 1950 Mr. Gilbert Becker, Climax, Michigan Dear Mr Becker: I have heard that not long ago you sent out a questionnaire relative to nut growing and grafting. Perhaps you would like to include the work which has been going on at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station since 1918. When this study was started, we had no information to give to many who came to us with questions on nut growing possibilities in this state. At no time have we attempted to promote commercial development as the interest here seems to be almost wholly amateur. Our first efforts, begun in 1918, were designed to test kinds and varieties which could be grown in Minnesota. Black walnut varieties such as Thomas, Ohio, Ten Eyck, Stabler and Miller were planted at University Farm. Also sweet chestnuts Boone, Rochester, Cooper, Paragon, Fuller and Progress were set out. Hickory varieties and hybrids planted in 1918 and 1919 were Kirtland, Weiker, Stanley, Siers, Hales and McCallister. We planted a few trees of the Franquette Persian walnut, the Indiana, Niblack and Posey pecans and a few filberts such as Minnas Zellernuss, Daviana, and Large Globe. Some seedling trees of the shagbark hickory also were set out in 1918 and 1919. To supplement this test somewhat similar collections were sent to cooperators in what seemed to be favorable locations. We had the usual difficulty in establishing these trees and winter temperature eliminated all the pecans, sweet chestnuts, Persian, walnuts and filberts. Some of the seedling hickories survived and have grown vigorously but after thirty-two years have borne no nuts. Since 1939 cooperative work has been under way with Professor R. E. Hodgson at the Southeast Experiment Station, Waseca. Efforts there mainly have been to establish varieties of black walnut and hickory by grafting. Black walnut and hickory varieties have been grafted also at the Fruit Breeding Farm, Excelsior. The accompanying record is taken from a report for the Experiment Station in 1949. It should tell you in brief the status of our investigations at present. Very truly yours, W. G. BRIERLEY University of Minnesota Department of Agriculture Division of Horticulture Nature and Extent of Work Done this Year All black walnut and hickory trees made fairly satisfactory growth in 1948 in spite of deficient rainfall. The "Gideon Seedling Hickories" (~Carya laciniosa~) planted in 1945 have become established at Waseca, Rochester, Lakeville, Mound and at the Fruit Breeding Farm. Attempts to establish nut varieties by top-working on seedling trees again met with poor success. At Waseca 5 of 14 hickory grafts and 4 of 25 black walnut grafts grew. At the Fruit Breeding Farm only 6 of 33 hickory grafts grew. In this case, the poor results were due in large part to use of an asphalt grafting compound which injured the callus tissue at the union. Better than usual success was obtained with black walnuts as 19 of 37 grafts grew. As in previous seasons, the best temperature for storage of scion wood was 34 to 36 degrees F. Major Results The best black walnut varieties for Minnesota are Thomas, Ohio, Stambaugh, Smith and Schwartz. Of these Thomas produces the best nuts, but the tree is somewhat straggly in growth. The Ohio produces large nuts of good quality and is by far the best tree in ornamental value. It also is the hardiest of all varieties tested as it has shown no injury during 16 winters. Of lesser value are Ten Eyck which apparently is not fully hardy, and Mintle in which quality is poor here. Varieties which have not shown sufficient merit to warrant recommendation here are Stabler, Monterey, and Clark. Varieties which have not fruited are Allen, Cochrane, Huber, Kraus and Myers. Practical Application of Results or Public Benefits Results obtained have been used frequently as basis for recommendations relative to kinds and varieties for planting, and for grafting methods. Scionwood of the better varieties has been distributed to interested growers. Progress of Work Success with walnut grafts under all conditions during 16 years at the Fruit Breeding Farm has averaged only 32 per cent. In individual seasons success has varied from zero to 54 per cent. Hickories not only are grafted with difficulty but also are very slow to reach bearing age. No nuts have been produced as yet from the following varieties grafted on the dates shown: Anthony (1939) Lingenfelter (1942) Burlington (1944) Gerardi hican (1944) Miller (1947) Barnes (1948) Last (1948) Marquette (1948) and Schinnerling (1948). Some seedling trees planted in 1948-1949 have produced no nuts in 32 years. Hickory varieties established at Waseca by grafting are Beaver (1939), Fairbanks (1939), Burlington (1939), Anthony (1947), Billeau (1947), Hagen (1947), Wilcox (1947), Last (1948). Marquette (1948) and Stratford (1948). A tree of Hales planted in 1921, which grew very slowly for several years has borne no nuts in 27 years. One tree of Fairbanks grafted in 1939 bore a few nuts in 1944 but has not borne since then. There has been a long-standing belief among horticulturists that grafts of ~Carya ovata~, the shagbark hickory are incompatible on bitter hickory ~C. cordiformis~. At Waseca, grafts of Beaver, Burlington and Fairbanks make in 1939 have healed completely and made excellent unions with the bitter hickory stock. That the varieties named are of hybrid origin may account for the compatibility apparent in this case. Vegetarian, 93, and Bride, 60, Honeymoon Among Bananas, Nuts MIAMI, Fla., Jan. 4--(UP)--A 93-year-old vegetarian and his 60-year old bride settled down today for a honeymoon among the nuts and bananas they say keep them young. George Hebden Corsan and Lillian Armstrong, whose pert looks belie her years, were married here Tuesday. Wedding guests were served orange juice and coconut cream milk. The bridegroom has been wintering here for the past 13 years. His home is Echo Valley, Islington, Toronto. His wife retired last month after 30 years of teaching in Toronto public schools. "I'm sure we'll be happy," Mrs. Corsan said. "We have mutual interests" Both credit their youthfulness and agility to vegetarianism, drinking gallons of fruit juices and staying outdoors as much as possible. Corsan, whose sturdy 155 pounds are stretched on a six-foot frame, can husk a coconut with his bare hands in less than two minutes, no mean feat. He operates a large experimental nut farm in Toronto, and has a 16-acre tract just south of here where he grows seven varieties of bananas and experiments with macadamia nuts, furnished him by the University of Hawaii. He works the farm singlehanded. Corsan says he taught another physical culturist, Bernarr MacFadden, to swim in 1909 when he was an instructor at a Brooklyn YMCA. He says swimming helps keep him in shape and takes a daily dip in the ocean. The Corsans will spend their honeymoon right on the nut farm. "We might have a few fights," he said. "But they won't last long. She's too young to fight. And besides, she can outrun an English hare." Broken Neck Fails to Halt Plans of "Youngster", 94 TORONTO, June 12--Physical Culturist George Hebden Corsan--just turned 94--says he is going to throw a birthday party Saturday, Right now he's in the hospital recovering from a broken neck suffered when he fell 20 feet from a tree May 27. Mr. Corsan--a vegetarian who once labeled medicine "a jumbled heap of ignorance"--didn't want to go to the hospital at all. But doctors thought he'd better, since the fracture was about like that suffered by a man hanged on the gallows. He agreed to go after being assured the visit would only be for X-rays. Since he's been in the hospital Mr. Corsan has fared--over the protest of dietitians--on nothing but orange juice. Yesterday he observed his birthday by eating a banana and a little black bread. Doctors said Mr. Corsan missed severing his spinal cord by a quarter inch and had two skull fractures. To almost any other person, they said, the injury would be fatal. Mr. Corsan was married for the third time last January in Florida.--Washington Evening Star, June 13, 1951. Membership List As of July 3, 1951 *Life member **Honorary member §Contributing member +Sustaining member ALABAMA Deagon, Arthur, 128 Broadway, Birmingham. ~Farm in Penna.~ Hiles, Edward L., ~Hiles Auto Repair Shop~, Loxley BELGIUM R. Vanderwaeren, Bierbeekstraat, 310, ~Korbeek-Lo.~ CALIFORNIA Armstrong Nurseries, 408 N. Euclid Avenue, Ontario ~General nurserymen, plant breeders~ Brand, George, U.S.N.G.B.C, Mob. 5, Port Hueneme Buck, Ernest Homer, Three Arch Bay, 16 N. Portola, South Laguna Deckard, L. A., 741 La Verne Avenue, Los Angeles 22 Flagg, Dr. Don P., 10365 Fairgrove Ave., Tujunga Haig, Dr. Thomas R., 3021 Highland Avenue, Carlsbad, California Linwood Nursery, Route No. 2, Box 476, Turlock Parsons, Charles E., Felix Gillet Nursery, P. O. Box 1025, Nevada City. ~Nurseryman~ Pentler, Dr. C. F., 806 Arguello Blvd., San Francisco 18. ~American Friends Service Committee~ Pozzi, P. H., 2875 S. Dutton Ave., Santa Rosa. ~Brewery worker~, ~farmer~ Serr, E. F., Agr. Experiment Station, Davis. ~Associate Pomologist~ Welby, Harry S., 500 Buchanan Street, Taft. ~Private and Corp. Hort.~ CANADA Brown, Alger, Route 1, Harley, Ontario. ~Farmer~ Collins, Adam H., 42 Seaton St., Toronto 2, Ont. Cornell, R. S., R.R. No. 1, Byron, Ontario Corsan, George H., Echo Valley, Toronto 18, Ontario. ~Nonagenarian.~ **Crath, Rev. Paul C., 299 Rosewell Ave., Toronto 12, Ontario Crisp, Dr. Allan G., Suite 204, 160 Bloor St. W., Toronto, Ontario English, H. A., Box 153, Duncan, B. C. ~Farmer~, ~fruit and nut grower~ Filman, O., Aldershot, Ontario. ~Fruit and veg. grower~ Gellatly, J. U., Box 19, Westbank, B. C. ~Plant breeder~, ~fruit grower~, ~nurseryman~ Goodwin, Geoffrey, Route No. 3, St. Catherines, Ontario. ~Fruit grower~ Harrhy, Ivor H., Route 1, Burgessville, Ont. ~Fruitgrower and poultry~ Housser, Levi, Route 1, Beamsville, Ontario. ~Fruit farmer~ *Neilson, Mrs. Ellen, 5 Macdonald Avenue, Guelph, Ont. Papple, Elton E., Route 3, Cainsville, Ont. Porter, Gordon, 258 McKay, Windsor, Ont. ~Chemist~ Smith, E. A., Sparta, Ont. Farmer Snazelle, Robert, Forest Nursery, Route No. 5, Charlottetown, P. E. I. ~Nursery Supt.~ Short, J. R., 70 Wickstead Ave., Leaside, Ont. Trayling, E. J., 509 Richards St., Vancouver, B. C. ~Jeweller~ Wagner, A. S., Delhi, Ont. Walker, J. W., c/o McCarthy & McCarthy, 330 University Ave., Toronto, Ont. Wharton, H. W., Route No. 2, Guelph, Ont. ~Farmer~ White, Peter, 30 Pear Ave., Toronto 5, Ont. Willis, A. R., Route No. 1, Royal Oak, Vancouver Island, B. C. ~Accountant~ Woods, David M., 48 South Front St., West, Toronto, Ont. ~Vice President, Gordon McKay, Ltd.~ Young, A. L., Brooks, Alta. CONNECTICUT Daniel, Paul C., Lakeville **Deming, Dr. W. C., 141 Fern St., Hartford. (Summer address: Litchfield) ~Dean of the Association~ Frueh, Alfred J., Route 2, West Cornwall Graves, Dr. Arthur H., 255 S. Main St., Wallingford. ~Consulting Pathologist, Conn. Agr. Expt. Station, New Haven, Conn.~ Henry, David, Blue Hills Farm, Route 2, Wallingford. *Huntington, A. M., Stanerigg Farms, Bethel. ~Patron~ Lehr, Frederick L., 45 Elihu St., Hamden *Newmaker, Adolph, Route No. 1. Rockville Pratt, George D., Jr., Bridgewater Risko, Charles, City Tobacco & Candy Co., 25 Crescent Ave., Bridgeport White, George E., Route No. 2, Andover. ~Farmer~ DELAWARE Brugmann, Elmer W., 1904 Washington St., Wilmington. ~Chemical Engineer~ Logue, R. F., Gen. Mgr., Andelot, Inc., 2098 du Pont Bldg., Wilmington Wilkins, Lewis, Route 1, Newark. ~Fruit grower~ DENMARK Granjean, Julio, Hillerod. (See New York.) Knuth, Count F. M., Knuthenborg. Bandholm DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA American Potash Inst., Inc., 1155-16th St., N.W., Washington Ford, Edwin L., 3634 Austin St., S.E., Washington Kaan, Dr. Helen W., National Research Council, 2101 Constitution Avenue, Washington. ~Research Associate~ Reed, Mrs. Clarence A., 7309 Piney Branch Rd., N.W., Washington 12 ECUADOR, SOUTH AMERICA Acosta Solis, Prof. M., Director del Departmento Forestal, Ministerio de Economia, Quito. (~Exchange.~) ENGLAND Baker, Richard St. Barbe, The Gate, Abbotsbury, Weymouth, Dorset. (~Founder, Men of The Trees.~) The Gardeners Chronicle, London. (~Exchange.~) FLORIDA Avant, C. A., 940 N.W. 10th Ave., Miami ~Real Estate, Loans.~ (~Pecan orchard in Ga.~) Estill, Gertrude, 153 Navarre Dr., Miami Springs. (Summer address under Mich.) GEORGIA Edison, G. Clyde, 1700 Westwood Ave., S.W., Atlanta. Hardy, Max, P. O. Box 128, Leeland Farms, Leesburg. ~Nurseryman~, ~farmer~ Hunter, Dr. H. Reid, 561 Lake Shore Dr. N.E., Atlanta. ~Teacher~, ~nut farmer~ Noland, S. C., Box 1747, Atlanta 1. ~Owner, Skyland Farms~ Wilson, William J., North Anderson Ave., Fort Valley. ~Peach and pecan grower~ HOLLAND Institute for Horticultural Plant Breeding. Herenstraat 25. Wageningen. (~Exchange~) HONG KONG *Wang, P. W., c/o China Products Trading Corp., 6 Des Voeux Rd., Central IDAHO Baisch, Fred, 627 E. Main St., Emmett Dryden, Lynn, Peck. ~Farmer~ Hazelbaker, Calvin, Route No. 1, Box 382, Lewiston ILLINOIS Albrecht, H. W., Delavan Allen, Theodore R., Delavan. ~Farmer~ Andrew, Col. James W. (See under Washington) Anthony, A. B., Route No. 3, Sterling. ~Apiarist~ Baber, Adin, Kansas Best, R. B., Eldred. ~Farmer~ Blodgett, Thomas, 3610 Pine Grove Ave., Chicago 13 Blough, R. O., Route No. 3, Polo Blyth, Colin R., Math. Dept., U. of I., Urbana. (Farm in northern Ontario) *Boll, Herschel L., 2 Hort. Field Lab., Univ. of Ill., Urbana. ~Asst. in Pomology~ Brock, A. S., 1733 North McVicker Ave., Chicago 39 Churchill, Woodford M., 4323 Oakenwald Ave., Chicago 5 Colby, Dr. Arthur S., U. of Illinois, Urbana Daum, Philip A., North Sixth St., Carrollton Dietrich, Ernest, Route No. 2, Dundas. ~Farmer~ Dintelman, L. F., State Street Road, Belleville Douglass, T. J., 309-1/2 North St., Normal Fordtran, E. H., Route No. 2, Box 197-A, Palatine Frey, Frank H., 2315 W. 108th Place, Chicago 43. ~Asst. to V. P., CRI & P RR.~ Frey, Mrs. Frank H., 2315 W. 108th Place, Chicago 43. ~Housewife~ Gerardi, Louis, Route No. 1., Caseyville. ~Nut and fruit nurseryman~ Grefe, Ben, Route No. 4, Box 22, Nashville. ~Farmer~ Heberlein, Edward W., Route No. 1, Box 72A, Roscoe Helmle, Herman C., 526 S. Grand Ave., W., Springfield. ~Div. Eng., Asphalt Inst.~ Hockenyos, G. L., 213 E. Jefferson St., Springfield. ~Business man~ Jungk, Adolph E., Route No. 1, Jerseyville, Illinois Kammarmeyer, Glenn, 1711 E. 67th St., Chicago 49 Kreider, Ralph, Jr., Route No. 1, Hammond. ~Farmer~ Langdoc, Mildred Jones (Mrs. Wesley W.) P. O. Box 136, Erie. ~Nursery~, ~farm~, ~housewife~ McDaniel, J. C., c/o Hort. Field Lab., U. of I., Urbana. ~Horticulturist. (Sec'y of Ass'n.)~ McDaniel, J. C., Jr., Urbana Oakes, Royal, Bluffs (Scott County) Pray, A. Lee, 502 N. Main St., LeRoy Robbins, W. J., 885 N. LaSalle St., Chicago 10. ~Insurance~ Sonnemann, W. F., Experimental Gardens, Vandalia. ~Lawyer~, ~farm operator~ Spencer, H. Dwight, 275 W. Decatur St., Decatur. ~Attorney~ Warnecke, Martin H., 714 First Avenue, Maywood Whitford, A. M., Farina. ~Nurseryman~ Zethmayr, Gordon, Route No. 1, Box 130, West Chicago INDIANA Aster Nut Products, Inc., George Oberman, Mgr., 1004 Main St., Evansville Bauer, Paul J., 123 S. 29th St., Lafayette Bolten, Ferd, Route 3, Linton. ~Farmer, fruit grower. (Carpathian walnut seeds.)~ Boyer, Clyde C., Nabb Buckner, Dr. Doster, 421 W. Wayne St., Ft. Wayne 2. ~Physician and Surgeon~ Clark, C. M., C. M. Clark & Sons Nurseries, Route 2, Middletown ~Nurseryman~, ~fruit farmer~ Dooley, Kenneth R., Route No. 2, Marion. ~Gardener~ Eagles, A. E., Eagles' Orchards, Wolcottville. ~Walnut grower~, ~apple orchardist~ Eisterhold, Dr. John. A., 220 Southwest Riverside Drive, Evansville 8. ~Medical Doctor~ Fateley, Nolan W., 26 Central Avenue. Franklin. ~Auditor and cashier. (Carpathian walnut seeds.)~ Glaser, Peter, Route No. 9, Box 328, Koening Road, Evansville Grater, A. E., Route 2, Shipshewana. §Johnson, Hjalmar W., Rt. 4, Valparaiso. ~V. P. Inland Steel Co.~ Pape, Edw. W., Route 2, Marion Prell, Carl F., 1414 E. Colfax Avenue, South Bend 17 Richards, E. E., 2712 South Twyckenham Drive, South Bend. ~Studebaker Corp.~ Russell, A. M., Jr., 2721 Marine St., South Bend 14 Skinner, Dr. Chas. H., Rt. 1, Thorntown Sly, Miss Barbara, Route No. 3, Rockport Sly, Donald R., Route 3, Rockport. ~Nurseryman,~, ~nut tree propagator~ Wallick, Ford, Rt. 4, Peru Ward, W. B., Horticulture Bldg., Purdue University, Lafayette. ~Ext. Horticulturist~, ~Vegetables~ Whitsel, Gilbert L., Jr., 515 S. 15th Street, Lafayette Wichman, Robert P., Route No. 3, Washington. ~General farming~ Wilkinson, J. F., Indiana Nut Nursery, Rockport. ~Nurseryman~ IOWA Berhow, Seward, Berhow Nurseries, Huxley Boice, R. H., Route No. 1, Nashua. ~Farmer~ Cole, Edward P., 419 Chestnut Street, Atlantic Ferguson, Albert B., Center Point. ~Nurseryman~ Ferris, Wayne, Hampton. ~President of Earl Ferris Nursery~ Huen, E. F., Eldora. ~Farmer~ Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg. ~General nurserymen~ Iowa Fruit Growers Assn., W. H. Collins, Sec'y, State House, Des Moines 19. ~Cooperative buying organization~ Kaser, J. D., Winterset. ~Farmer~ Knowles, W. B., Box 476, Manly Kyhl, Ira M., Box 236, Sabula. ~Nut nurseryman~, ~farmer~, ~salesman~ Martazahn, Frank A., Route No. 3, Davenport. ~Farmer~ McLeran, Harold F., Mt. Pleasant. ~Lawyer~ Orr, J. Allen, 535 Frances Bldg., Sioux City 17 Rohrbacher, Dr. William, 811 East College Street, Iowa City. ~Practice of Medicine~ (~President of the NNGA.~) Schlagenbusch Brothers, Route No. 2, Fort Madison. ~Farmers~ Snyder, D. C., Center Point. ~Nurseryman, nuts and general.~ Tolstead, W. L., Central College, Pella Wade, Miss Ida May, Route No. 3, LaPorte City. ~Bookkeeper~ Watson, Vinton C., 106 E. Salem St., Indianola Welch, H. S., Mt. Arbor Nurseries, Shenandoah White, Herbert, Box 264, Woodbine. ~Rural Mail Carrier~ Williams, Wendell V., Route No. 1, Danville. ~Farmer~ KANSAS Baker, Fred C., Troy. ~Entomologist~ Borst, Frank E., 1704 Shawnee Street, Leavenworth Breidenthal, Willard J., Riverview State Bank, 7th and Central, Kansas City. ~Bank President~ Funk, M. D., 612 W. Paramore Street, Topeka. ~Pharmacist~ Gray, Dr. Clyde, 1045 Central Avenue, Horton. ~Osteopathic Physician~ Harris, Ernest, Box 20, Wellsville. ~Farmer~ Leavenworth Nurseries, Carl Holman, Proprietor, Route No. 3, Leavenworth. ~Nut nurseryman~ Mondero, John, Lansing Thielenhaus, W. F., Route No. 1, Buffalo. ~Retired postal worker~ Underwood, Jay, Riverside Nursery, Uniontown KENTUCKY Alves, Robert H., Nehi Bottling Company, Henderson Armstrong, W. D., West Ky., Exp. Sta., Princeton. ~Horticulturist~ Magill, W. W., Horticulture Dept., U. of Ky., Lexington Miller, Julian C., 220 Sycamore Drive, Paducah Moss, Dr. C. A., Willlamsburg. ~Bank President~ Rouse, Sterling, Route No. 1, Box 70, Florence. ~Fruit grower~, ~nurseryman~ Tatum, W. G., Route 4, Lebanon. ~Commercial orchardist~ Tallaferro, Philip, Box 85, Erlanger Usrey, Robert, Star Route, Mayfield Walker, William W., Route No. 1, Dixie Highway, Florence LOUISIANA Hammar, Dr. Harald E., USDA Chemical Lab., 606 Court House, Shreveport ~Chemist~ Perrault, Mrs. Henry D., Route No. 1, Box 13, Natchitoches. ~Pecan grower~ MARYLAND Case, Lynn B., Route 2, Box 208, Federalsburg Crane, Dr. H. L., Bureau of Plant Industry Station, Beltsville. ~Principal Horticulturist, USDA.~ Eastern Shore Nurseries, Inc., P. O. Box 743, Easton. ~Chestnut growers~ Graff, George U., Harding Lane, Rt. 3. Rockville Gravatt, Dr. G. F., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville. ~Research Forest Pathologist~ Hodgson, William C., Route No. 1, White Hall. ~Farmer~ Kemp, Homer S., (Proprietor) Bountiful Ridge Nurseries, Princess Anne McCollum, Blaine, White Hall. ~Retired from Federal Government~ McKay, Dr. J. W., Plant Industry Station, Beltsville. ~Government Scientist~ +Negus, Mrs. Herbert, 4514 32nd Street, Mt. Rainier Porter, John J., 1199 The Terrace, Hagerstown. ~Farm Owner~ Shamer, Dr. Maurice E., 3300 W. North Avenue, Baltimore 16. ~Physician~ MASSACHUSETTS Babbit, Howard S., 221 Dawes Avenue, Pittsfield. ~Service station owner and part time farmer~ Bradbury, H. G., Hospital Point, Beverly Brown, Daniel L., Esq., 60 State Street, Boston Bump, Albert H., P. O. Box 275, Brewster Davenport, S. Lathrop, 24 Creeper Hill Road, North Grafton. ~Farmer~, ~fruit grower~ Fitts, Walter H., 39 Baker St., Foxboro. ~General foreman, instrument company~ Kendall, Henry P., Moose Hill Farm, Sharon Kerr, Andrew, Lock Box 242, Barnstable La Beau, Henry A., North Hoosic Road, Williamstown. ~Stat. engineer~ O'Brien, Howard C., 25 Irvington Street, Boston 16 Rice, Horace J., 515 Main Street, Wilbraham. ~Attorney~ *Russell, Mrs. Newton H., 12 Burnett Avenue, South Hadley Wellman, Sargent H., Esq., Windridge, Topsfield. ~Lawyer~ Weston Nurseries, Inc., Weston Wood, Miss Louise B., Pocassett, Cape Cod MICHIGAN Ainsworth, Donald W., 5851 Mt. Elliott, Detroit 11 Andersen, Charles, Route No. 2, Box 326, Scottsville, ~Nurseryman~ Barlow, Alfred L., 13079 Flanders Avenue, Detroit 5 Becker, Gilbert, Climax Boylan, P. B., Route No. 1, Cloverdale. ~Homesteader~ Bumler, Malcolm R., 2500 Dickerson, Detroit 15. ~Insurance trustee~ Burgart, Harry, Michigan Nut Nursery, Box 33, Union City. ~Nurseryman~ Burgess, E. H., Burgess Seed & Plant Company, Galesburg Burr, Redmond M., 320 S. 5th Avenue, Ann Arbor. ~General Chairman, The Order of Railroad Telegraphers, Pere Marquette District, C&O Ry. Co.~ Cook, Ernest A., M.D., c/o County Health Dept., Centerville Corsan, H. H., Route No. 1, Hillsdale. ~Nurseryman~ Dennison, Clare, 4224 Avery, Detroit 8 Emerson, Ralph, 161 Cortland Avenue, Detroit 3 Estill, Miss Gertrude. (See under Florida, Summer Address: Route 4, Box 762, Battle Creek) Hackett, John C., 3321 Butterworth Rd., S.W., R. R. 5, Grand Rapids 6 Haseler, L. M., Route No. 4, Box 130 South Haven Hagelshaw, W. J., Route No. 1, Box 394, Galesburg. ~Grain farmer~, ~contractor~ Hay, Francis H., Ivanhoe Place, Lawrence. ~Farmer~ **Kellogg, W. K., Battle Creek Korn, G. J., 309 N. Church Street, Kalamazoo 11. ~Shop worker~ Lee, Michael, P. O. Box 16, Milford Lemke, Edwin W., 2432 Townsend Ave., Detroit 14. ~Engineer~, ~nut orchardist~ McCarthy, Francis W., Box 392, Algonac Miller, O. Louis, 417 N. Broadway, Cassopolis. ~Forester~ O'Rourke, Prof. F. L., Hidden Lake Gardens, Tipton. ~Professor of ornamental horticulture, Mich. State College~ Pickles, Arthur W., 760 Elmwood Avenue, Jackson Prushek, E., Route No. 3, Niles. ~Plant breeding~ Sherman, L. Walter, 3308 Mackinaw St., Saginaw Simons, Rev. R. E., Flat Rock Somers, Lee, Route No. 1, Perrinton Tate, D. L., 959 Westchester St., Birmingham Ullrey, L. E., 1209 Cambridge Drive, Kalamazoo 27 MINNESOTA Hodgson, R. E., Dept. of Agriculture, S.E. Experiment Station, Waseca Tulare, Willis E., 300 3rd Avenue, S.E., Rochester Weschcke, Carl, 96 S. Wabasha St., St. Paul. ~Proprietor Hazel Hills Nursery Co.~ MISSISSIPPI Gossard, A. C., U. S. Hort. Field Station, Route No. 6, Meridian. ~Associate Horticulturist, USDA~ Meyer, James R., Delta Branch Experiment Station, Stoneville. ~Cytogeneticist (cotton)~ MISSOURI Bauch, G. D., Box 66, Farmington. ~Farm Forester~ Hay, Leander, Gilliam Howe, John, Route No. 1, Box 4, Pacific Huber, Frank J., Weingarten. ~Farmer~ James, George, James Pecan Farms, Brunswick Logan, George F., Oregon The M-F-D Co., 1305 Moreland Ave., Jefferson City Nicholson, John W., Ash Grove. ~Farmer~ Ochs, C. Thurston, Box 291, Salem. ~Foreman in garment factory~ Richterkessing, Ralph, Route No. 1. St. Charles. ~Farmer~ Rose, Dr. D. K., 230 Linden, Clayton 5 Stark Bros. Nursery & Orchard Co., Attn. Mr. H. W. Guengerich, Louisiana Wuertz, H. J., Route No. 1, Pevely NEBRASKA Brand, George. (See under California.) Caha, William, 350 W. 12th, Wahoo Hess, Harvey W., The Arrowhead Gardens, Box 209, Hebron Sherwood, Jack, Nebraska City NEW HAMPSHIRE Demarest, Charles S., Lyme Center Lahti, Matthew, Locust Lane Farm, Wolfeboro. ~Investment banker~ NEW JERSEY Anderegg, F. O., Pierce Foundation, Raritan Blake, Harold, Box 93, Saddle River Bottoni, R. J., 41 Robertson Road, West Orange. ~President of Harbot Die Casting Corp.~ Brewer. J. L., 10 Allen Place, Fair Lawn Buckwalter, Mrs. Alan R., Route. No. 1, Flemington Cox, Philip H., Jr., 30 Hyde Rd., Bloomfield Cumberland Nursery, William Wells, Proprietor, Route No. 1, Millville. ~Nurserymen~ Donnelly, John, Mountain Ice Company, 51 Newark St., Hoboken Dougherty, William M., Broadacres-on-Bedens, Box 425, Princeton ~Secretary, U. S. Rubber Co.~ Ellis, Mrs. Edward P., Strawberry Hill, Route No. 1, Box 137, Keyport Kass, Leonard P., 82 E. Cliff St., Somerville Lamatonk Nurseries, A. H. Yorks, Proprietor, Neshanic Station Lippencott, J. C., 15 Mundy Ave., Spotswood McDowell, Fred, 905 Ocean Avenue, Belmar Parkinson, Philip P., 567 Broadway, Newark 4. ~Engineer and appraiser~ Ritchie, Walter M., Route No. 2, Box 122-R, Rahway Rocker, Louis P., The Rocker Farm, Box 196; Andover. ~Farmer~ Sheffield, O. A., 283 Hamilton Place, Hackensack. ~Dunn & Bradstreet~ Sorg, Henry, Chicago Avenue, Egg Harbor City. ~Manufacturer~ Van Doren, Durand H., 310 Redmond Road., South Orange. ~Lawyer~ Williams, Herbert H., 106 Plymouth Ave., Maplewood NEW MEXICO Gehring, Rev. Titus, Box 177, Lumberton NEW YORK Barton, Irving Titus, Montour Falls. ~Engineer~ Bassett, Charles K., 2917 Main St., Buffalo. ~Manufacturer~ Beck, Paul E., Beck's Guernsey Dairy, Transit Road, East Amherst. ~Dairy Executive~ Benton, William A., Wassaic. ~Farmer, and Sec'y, Mutual Insurance Co.~ Bernath, Stephen, Bernath's Nursery, Route No. 3, Poughkeepsie. ~Nurseryman~ Bernath, Mrs. Stephen, Route 3, Poughkeepsie Bixby, Henry D., East Drive, Halesite, L. I. ~Executive V.P., American Kennel Club, N. Y. City~ Brook, Victor, 171 Rockingham Street, Rochester 7. ~Sales Engineer~ Brooks, William G., Monroe. ~Nut tree nurseryman~ Bundick, Clarkson U., 35 Anderson Ave., Scarsdale. ~Mechanical engineer~ Caldwell, David H., N. Y. State College of Forestry, Syracuse. ~Instr. in wood technology~ Carter, George, 428 Avenue A, Rochester 5 Cassina, Augustus, Valatie, Columbia County Feil, Harry, 1270 Hilton-Spencerport Road, Hilton. ~Building contractor~ Ferguson, Donald V., L. I. Agr. Tech. Institute, Farmingdale Flanigen, Charles F., 16 Greenfield St., Buffalo 14. ~Executive manager~ Freer, H. J., 20 Midvale Rd., Fairport. ~Typewriter sales and service~ Fribance, A. E., 139 Elmsdorf Ave., Rochester 11 Glazier, Henry S., Jr., 1 South William St., New York 4 Graham, S. H., Bostwick Road, Route No. 5, Ithaca. ~Nurseryman~ Granjean, Julio, c/o K. E. Granjean, 9406 6th Ave., Forest Hills Gressel, Henry, Route 2, Mohawk. ~Retired chief lock operator, N. Y. S. Barge Canal~ Hasbrouck, Walter, Jr., 19 Grove St., New Paltz. ~Post office clerk~ Hill, Francis S., Sterling. ~Letter carrier on rural route~ Iddings, William A., 1931 Park Place. Brooklyn 33 Irish, G. Whitney, Fruitlands, Route No. 1, Valatie. ~Farmer~ Kettaneh, F. A., 745 Fifth Ave., New York 22 Knipper, George M., 333 Chestnut Ridge Rd., Churchville Knorr, Mrs. Arthur, 15 Central Park, West, Apt. 1406, New York Kraai, Dr. John, Fairport. ~Physician~ Larkin, Harry H., 189 Van Rennsselaer Street, Buffalo 10 *Lewis, Clarence (Retired.) Lowerre, James, Route 3, Middletown *MacDaniels, Dr. L. H. Cornell University. Ithaca. ~Head, Dept. of Floriculture and Ornamental Hort.~ Miller, J. E., Canandaigua. ~Nurseryman.~ Mitchell, Rudolph, 125 Riverside Drive, New York 24. ~Mechanical engineer~ *Montgomery, Robert H., 1 E., 44th Street, New York Mossman, Dr. James K., Black Oaks, Ramapo Newell, Palmer F., Lake Road, Route No. 1. Westfield Owen, Charles H., Sennett. ~Superintendent of Schools~ Pura, John J., Green Haven, Stormville Salzer, George, 169 Garford Road, Rochester 9. ~Milkman~, ~chestnut tree grower~ Schlegel, Charles P., 990 South Ave., Rochester 7 Schlick, Frank, Munnsville Schmidt, Carl W., 180 Linwood Avenue, Buffalo Shannon, J. W., Box 90, Ithaca Sheffield, Lewis J., c/o Mrs. Edna C. Jones, Townline Road, Orangeburg Slate, Prof. George L., Experiment Station, Geneva. ~Fruit Breeder~ Smith, Gilbert L., Benton & Smith Nut Tree Nursery, Route 2, Millerton. ~Nurseryman~, ~retired teacher~ Smith, Jay L., Chester. ~Nut tree nurseryman~ Spahr, Dr. Mary B., 116 N. Geneva St., Ithaca Steiger, Harwood, Red Hook. ~Artist-designer~ +Szego, Alfred, 77-15 A 37th Avenue, Jackson Heights, New York Timmerman, Karl G., 123 Chapel St., Fayetteville Wadsworth, Willard E., Route No. 5, Oswego Wheeler, Robert C., 36 State Street, Albany Windisch, Richard P., c/o W. E. Burnet Company, 11 Wall St., New York 5 *Wissman, Mrs. F. De R. ~(Retired.)~ NORTH CAROLINA Brooks, J. R., Box 116, Enka Dunstan, Dr. R. T., Greensboro College, Greensboro Finch, Jack R., Bailey. ~Farmer~ Parks, C. H., Route No. 2, Asheville. ~Mechanic~ NORTH DAKOTA Bradley, Homer L., Long Lake Refuge, Moffit. ~Refuge Manager~ OHIO Ackerman, Lester, Route No. 3, Ada Glen Helen Department, Antioch College, Yellow Springs Barden, C. A., 215 Morgan Street, Oberlin. ~Real Estate~ Beede, D. V., Route No. 3, Lisbon Bitler, W. A., R. F. D. I, Shawnee Road, Lima. ~General contractor~ Borchers, Perry E., 412 W. Hillcrest Ave., Dayton 6 Brewster, Lewis, Route No. 1, Swanton. ~Vegetable grower~ Bridgewater, Boyd E., 68 Cherry St., Akron. ~V. P. Bridgewater Machine Co.~ Bungart, A. A., Avon Cinadr, Mrs. Katherine, 13514 Coath Ave., Cleveland 20. ~Housewife~ Clark, Richard L., 1517 Westdale Rd., South Euclid 21. ~Sales manager~ Cook, H. C., Route No. 1, Box 125, Leetonia Cornett, Charles. L., R. R. Perishable Inspection Agency, 27 W. Front St., Cincinnati. ~Inspector~ Craig, George E., Dundas (Vinton County). ~Fruit and nut grower~ Cranz, Eugene F., Mount Tom Farm, Ira Cunningham, Harvey E., 420 Front Street, Marietta Daley, Jame R., Route No. 3, Foster Park Road, Amherst. ~Electrician~ Davidson, John, 234 East Second Street, Xenia. ~Writer~ Davidson, Mrs. John, 234 East Second Street, Xenia Diller, Dr. Oliver D., Dept. of Forestry, Ohio Exp. Sta., Wooster Distelhorst, P. E., 3532 Douglas Road, Toledo 6 Dowell, Dr. Lloyd L., 529 North Ave., N. E., Massillon. ~Physician~ Farr, Mrs. Walter, Route No. 1, Kingsville Garden Center of Greater Cleveland, 11190 East Blvd., Cleveland Gerber, E. P., Kidron Gerstenmaier, John A., 13 Pond S. W., Massillon. ~Letter carrier~ Goss, C. E., 922 Dover Avenue, Akron 20 Grad, Dr, Edward A., 1506 Chase Street, Cincinnati 23 Hansley, C. F., Box 614, Sugar Grove. ~Contractor~ Hawk & Son Nursery, Route No. 2, Beach City. ~Chestnut trees~ Hill, Dr. Albert A., 4187 Pearl Road, Cleveland Hornyak, Louis, Route No. 1, Wakeman Howard, James R., 2908 Fleming Road, Middletown Irish, Charles F., 418 E. 105th St., Cleveland 8. ~Arborist~ Jacobs, Homer L., Davey Tree Expert Company, Kent Kappel, Owen, Bolivar Kerr, S. E., M. D., Route No. 1, North Lawrence Kintzel, Frank W., 2506 Briarcliff Ave., Cincinnati 13 ~Principal~, ~Cincinnati public schools~ Laditka, Nicholas G., 5322 Stickney Ave., Cleveland 9. ~Electrician~ Leaman, Paul Y., Route No. 1, Creston Lorenz, R. C., 121 North Arch Street, Fremont Machovina, Paul E., 1228 Northwest Blvd., Columbus 12. ~College professor~ McKinster, Ray, 1632 South 4th Street, Columbus 7 Meister, Richard T., ~Editor, American Fruit Grower~, Willoughby Metzger, A. J., 724 Euclid Avenue, Toledo 5 Oches, Norman M., R. D. 1, Brunswick. ~Mechanical Engineer~ Osborn, Frank C., 4040 W. 160th St., Cleveland 11. ~Tool and die maker~ Page, John H., Box 34, Dundas (Vinton County) Pataky, Christ, Jr., 492 Hickory Lane, Route No. 4, Mansfield. ~Produce market~, ~grocer~ Pattison, Aletheia, 5 Dexter Place, E. W. N., Cincinnati 6 Pomerene, Walter H., Route No. 3, Coshocton. ~Agricultural Engineer, Hydrological Research Station~ Purdy, Clyde W., 19 Public Square, Mt. Vernon Ranke, William, Route No. 1, Amelia Roberts, J. Pearl, Rt. 3, Freeport Rummel, E. T., 16613 Laverne Avenue, Cleveland 11. ~Sales manager~ Schoenberger, L. Roy, Green Pines Farm, Route No. 2, Nevada Seas, D. Edward, 721 South Main Street, Orrville Sebring, R. G., 1227 Lincoln Road, Columbus Shelton, Dr. Elbert M., 1468 W. Clifton Blvd., Lakewood 7 Shessler, Sylvester M., Genoa. ~Farmer~ Silvis, Raymond E., 1725 Lindbergh Avenue, N. E., Massillon. ~Realty~ Smith, Sterling A., 630 W. South Street, Vermilion. ~Telegrapher, NYC RR (Treasurer of the Assn.)~ Spears, Ernest G., 4326 Forest Ave., Norwood 6 Spring Hill Nurseries Company, Tipp City. ~General nurserymen~ Steinbeck, A. P., East Nimisilla Rd., North Canton. ~Rubber worker, Firestone Tire & Rubber Co.~ Stocker, C. P., Lorain Products Corp., 1122 F. Street, Lorain Stolz, Thomas O., 334 Claranna Ave., Dayton 9 Thiesing, J. R., 113 S. Washington, New Bremen Thomas, Fred, Route No. 1, Bedford Road, Masury Toops, Herbert A., 1430 Cambridge Blvd., Columbus 12. ~College Professor~ Underwood, John, Route No. 4, Urbana Urban, George, 4518 Ardendale Road, South Euclid 21. ~Mayor~ Van Voorhis, J. F., 215 Hudson Avenue, Apt. B-1, Newark Von Gundy, Clifford R., R. F. D. No. 8, Cincinnati 30 Walker, Carl F., 2851 E. Overlook Rd., Cleveland 18. ~Consulting engineer~ Weaver, Arthur W., R.F.D., Box 196B, Cass Rd., Maumee *Weber, Harry R., Esq. (Deceased.) Weber, Mrs. Martha R., Route No. 1, Mahawe Farm, Cleves Willett, Dr. G. P., Elmore Williams, Harry M., 221 Grandon Road, Dayton 9. ~Engineer~ Wischhusen, J. F., 15031 Shore Acres Drive, N. E., Cleveland 10 Yates, Edward W., 3108 Parkview Avenue, Cincinnati 13. ~Mechanical engineer~ Yoder, Emmet, Smithville OKLAHOMA Butler, Roy, Route No. 2, Hydro. ~Farmer~, ~cattleman~ Cross, Prof. Frank B., Dept. of Horticulture, Oklahoma A&M College, Stillwater. ~Teaching and Experiment Station Work~ Gray, Geoffrey A., 1628 Elm Ave., Bartlesville Hartman, Peter E., 3002 S. Boston Pl., Tulsa 5. ~Nurseryman~ Hirschi's Nursery (A. G. Hirschi), 414 North Robinson, Oklahoma City ~Dry cleaning business, nurseryman~ Hughes, C. V., Route No. 3, Box 614, 5600 N. W. 16th Street, Oklahoma City Keathly, Jack, Marland. ~Farmer~ Kissick, E. A., State Board of Agr., 122 State Capitol Bldg., Oklahoma City. ~Marketing Specialist~ Meek, E. B., Route 2, Wynnewood Pulliam, Gordon, 1605 Osage Ave., Bartlesville Scales, Charles D., 3200 N. W. 26th St., Oklahoma City 7 OREGON Miller, John E., Treasuredale, Route No. 1, Box 312-A, Oswego Pearcy, Harry L., Route 2. Box 190, Salem. ~H. L. Pearcy Nursery Co. (Nut trees.)~ PENNSYLVANIA Allaman, R. P., Route 86, Harrisburg. ~Farm superintendent~ Amsler, E. W., 707 Main St., Clarion Anthony, Roy D., 215 Hillcrest Ave., State College. ~Tree Crops Advisor, Pa. Dept. of Agr.~ Arensberg, Charles F. C., First Nat'l Bank Bldg., Pittsburgh 22 ~(Chinese chestnut seed grower.)~ Banks, H. C., Route No. 1, Hellertown Beard, H. K., Route No. 1, Sheridan. ~Insurance agent~ Beck, Dr. William M., 200 Race St., Sunbury Berst, Charles B., 11 W. 8th Street, Erie. ~Inspector, Lord Mfg. Co., Erie, Pa.~ Bowen, John C., Route No. 1, Macungie Brown, Morrison, Ickesburg Buckwalter, Geoffrey R., c/o F. H. Levey Co., Inc., 1223 Washington Ave., Philadelphia 47 Clarke, William S., Jr., P. O. Box 167, State College Colwell, Dr. Frederick A., R.F.D. No. 1, Collegeville Damask, Henry, 1632 Doyle Street, Wilkinsburg 21. ~Telephone man~ Ebling, Aaron L., Route No. 2, Reading Etter, Fayette, P. O. Box 57, Lemasters. ~General foreman for an electric company~ Gage, Charles K., 1429 Newman Road, Havertown Gardner, Ralph D., 4428 Plymouth St., Harrisburg. ~Assistant State Fire Marshal~ Good, Orren S., 316 N. Fairview Street, Lock Haven. ~Retired~ Gorton, F. B., Route No. 1, East Lake Road, Harborcreek. ~Electrical contractor~ Hammond, Harold, 903 South Poplar Street, Allentown Hershey, John W., Route No. 1, Downingtown. ~Nurseryman~ Hostetter, L. K., Route No. 3, Lancaster. ~Farmer~, ~black walnut grower~ Hughes, Douglas, 1230 East 21st Street, Erie Johnson, Robert F., 1630 Greentree Road, Pittsburgh 20 Jones, Mildred M. (See Mrs. Langdoc--under Illinois) Jones, Dr. Truman W., Walnut Grove Farm, Parksburg Kaufman, Mrs. M. M., Box 69, Clarion Knouse, Charles W., Colonial Park, Harrisburg. ~Coal dealer~ Laboski, George T., Route No. 1, Harborcreek. ~Fruit grower and nurseryman~ Leach, Will, 406-410 Scranton Life Bldg., Scranton 3. ~Lawyer~ Mattoon, H. Gleason, Box 304, Narberth. ~Consultant in Arborculture~ McKenna, Philip M., P. O. Box 186, Latrobe Mecartney, J. Lupton, 918 W. Beaver Ave., State College. ~Pomologist~ Miller, Elwood B., Mill and Chapel Sts., Hazleton Miller, Robert O., 3rd and Ridge Streets, Emmaus Moyer, Philip S., 80-82 U. S. F. & G. Bldg., Harrisburg. ~Attorney~ Niederriter, Leonard, 1726 State Street, Erie. ~Merchant~ Nonnemacher, H. M., Box 204, Alburtis. ~Line foreman, Bell Tel. Co. of Pa.~ Ranson, Flavel, 728 Monroe Avenue, Scranton. ~Farmer~ Reidler, Paul G., Ashland. ~Manufacturer of textiles~ Rick, John, 438 Penna. Sq., Reading. ~Fruit grower and merchant~ Schaible, Percy, Upper Black Eddy. ~Laborer~ Scott, J. Lewis. 5-A Camberwell Drive, R.F.D. No. 2, Pittsburgh 15 Shade, Earl L., 1027 E. 26th St., Erie Sherman, L. Walter. (See under Michigan.) Smith, Dr. J. Russell, 550 Elm Ave., Swarthmore. ~Retired teacher, writer and nurseryman~ Stewart, E. L., Pine Hill Farms Nursery, Route No. 2, Homer City Theiss, Dr. Lewis E., 110 University Ave., Lewisburg. ~Retired professor~ Thompson, Howard A., 311 West Swissvale Ave., Pittsburgh 18 Twist, Frank S., Box 127, Northumberland. ~Salesman~ Waite, Knighton V., M. D., Renton Washick, Dr. Frank A., S. W., Welsh & Veree Roads, Philadelphia 11. ~Surgeon~ Weaver, William S., Weaver Orchards, Macungie Weinrich, Whitney, P. O. Box 225, Wallingford. ~Chemical engineer~ Wister, John C., Scott Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore. ~Horticulturist~ Wright, Ross Pier, 235 W. 6th Street, Erie. Manufacturer Zimmerman, Mrs. G. A., R. D., Linglestown RHODE ISLAND Allen, Philip, 178 Dorance Street, Providence SOUTH CAROLINA Bregger, John T., Clemson. ~Research Supervisor (Soil Conservation), Orchard Erosion Investigations~ Gordon, G. Henry, 13-1/2 Main St., Union. ~Returned Mariner~ SOUTH DAKOTA Richter, Herman, Madison. ~Farmer~ TENNESSEE Alpine Forest Reserve, c/o J. Edwin Carothers, Alpine Boyd, Harold B., M. D., 3418 Waynoka St., Memphis 11. ~Physician~ Chase, Spencer, T. V. A., Norris. ~Horticulturist~ Garrett, Dr. Sam Young, 1902 Hayes St., Nashville. ~Surgeon~ Holdeman, J. E., 855 N. McNeil St., Memphis 7 Howell Nurseries, Sweetwater. ~Ornamental and chestnut nurserymen~ McDaniel, J. C. (See under Illinois) Meeks, Hamp, c/o Jackson Elec. Dept., Jackson. ~Electrical Engineer~ Murphy, H. O., 12 Sweetbriar Avenue, Chattanooga. ~Fruit grower~ Richards, Dr. Aubrey, Whiteville. ~Physician~ Roark, W. F., Malesus. ~Farmer~, ~chestnut grower~ Robinson, W. Jobe, Route No. 7, Jackson. ~Farmer~ Sammons, Julius, Jr., Pecan Row Farm, Whiteville. ~Farmer~, ~orchardist~ Saville, Chris, 118 Church St., Greeneville Shipley, Mrs. E. D., 3 Century Court, Knoxville 16. ~Housewife~ Smathers, Rev. Eugene, Calvary Church, Big Lick. Minister, farmer Southern Nursery & Landscape Co., Attn. Hubert Nicholson, Winchester. ~General nurserymen~ TEXAS Arford, Charles A., Box 1230, Dalhart. ~R. R. engineer~, ~amateur horticulturist~ Brison, Prof. F. R., Dept, of Horticulture, A. & M. College, College Station Florida, Kaufman, Box 154, Rotan Kidd, Clark, Arp Nursery Co., P. O. Box 867, Tyler. ~Nut nurseryman~ Winkler, Andrew, Route 1, Moody. ~Farmer and pecan grower~ UTAH Petterson, Harlan D., 2076 Jefferson Avenue, Ogden. ~Highway engineer~ VERMONT Aldrich, A. W., R.F.D. No. 3, Springfield Collins, Joseph N., Route No. 3, Putney. ~Civil engineer~, ~farmer~ ~Ellis, Zenas H., Fair Haven. Perpetual member, "In Memoriam."~ Holbrook, F. C., Scott Farm, Brattleboro VIRGINIA Acker Black Walnut Corp., Box 263, Broadway. ~Walnut processors~ Burton, George L., 722 College Street, Bedford Curthoys, George A., P. O. Box 34, Bristol Dickerson, T. C., 316-56th Street, Newport News. ~Statistician~, ~farmer~ Dudley, Charles L., Glen Wilton Gibbs, H. R. Linden. ~Carpenter~, ~wood worker~ Gunther, Eric F., Route No. 1, Box 31, Onancock. ~Retired business man~ Lee, Dr. Henry, 806 Medical Arts Building, Roanoke 11 Narten, Perry F., 6110 N. Washington Blvd., Arlington 5 Pinner, Henry, P. O. Box 155, Suffolk Stoke, H. F., 1436 Watts Avenue N. W., Roanoke Stoke, Mrs. H. F., 1436 Watts Avenue, N. W., Roanoke Stoke, Dr. John H., 21 Highland Avenue, S. E., Roanoke 13. ~Chiropractor~ Thompson, B. H., Harrisonburg. ~Manufacturer of nut crackers~ WASHINGTON Andrew, Col. James W., Hqts. 39 Wing, A.P.O. 942 c/o P. M., Seattle. (Farm in Illinois.) Bartleson, C. J., Box 25, Chattaroy. ~Office worker~ Brown, H. B., Greenacres Bush, Carroll D., Grapeview. ~Chestnut grower and shipper~, ~nurseryman~ Denman, George L., East 1319 Nina Avenue, Spokane 10. ~Dairyman~ Eliot, Craig P., P. O. Box 158, Shelton. ~Electrical engineer~, ~part time farmer~ Erkman, John O., Apt. 85, 1219 Washington Way, Richland. ~Physicist~ Kling, William L., Route No. 2, Box 230, Clarkson Latterell, Miss Ethel, 408 N. Flora Rd., Greenacres. ~Greenhouse worker~ Linkletter, Frank D., 115 4th Ave. North, Seattle 9. ~Retired~ Naderman, G. W., Route 1, Box 381, Olympia. ~Caretaker of summer resort~ Ross, Vevel C., 4025 Rucker Ave., Everett Shane Brothers, Vashon Shepard, Will, Chelan Falls Tuttle, Lynn, Nursery, The Heights, Clarkston. ~Nut nurseryman~ WEST VIRGINIA Cannaday, Dr. John E., Charleston General Hospital, Charleston 25. ~Physician~ Engle, Blaine W., Mutual Fire Ins. Co. of W. Va., Goff Bldg., Clarksburg Frye, Wilbert M., Pleasant Dale. ~Retired~ Gold Chestnut Nursery, c/o Mr. Arthur A. Gold, Cowen. Chestnut nurseryman Haines, Earl C., Shanks Long, J. L., Box 491, Princeton. ~Civil engineer~ Mish, Arnold F., Inwood. ~Associational farmer~ Reed, Arthur M., Moundsville. ~Proprietor, Glenmount Nurseries~ WISCONSIN Ladwig, C. F., 2221 St. Laurence, Beloit. ~Grocer and (hobby) farmer~ Mortensen, M. C., 2117 Slauson Avenue, Racine Raether, Robert, Route No. 1, Augusta (Eau Claire County) Subscribers and Standing Library Orders Brooklyn Botanic Garden Library, 1000 Washington Avenue, Brooklyn 25, N. Y. Clemson College Library, Clemson, South Carolina. Cleveland Public Library, Leta E. Adams, Order Librarian, 325 Superior Avenue, Cleveland 14, Ohio. Connecticut Agr. Exp. Sta., Genetics Dept., 123 Huntington St., New Haven 11, Conn. Cornell University, College of Agriculture Library, Ithaca, New York. Detroit Public Library, 5201 Woodward Avenue, Detroit 2, Michigan. University of Maine (Library), Orono, Maine. Library, University of Miami, Coral Gables 34, Florida. Library, University of New Hampshire, Durham, N. H. Oregon State College Library, Corvallis, Oregon. Peachey, Enos D., P. O. Box 22, Belleville, Pennsylvania. Rhode Island State College, Library Dept., Green Hall, Kingston, Rhode Island. Rutgers University, Agricultural Library, Nichol Avenue, New Brunswick, N. J. St. Louis Public Library, Olive, 13th and 14th Streets, St. Louis, Missouri. ADVANCE ORDERS FOR THE 41st ANNUAL REPORT Alabama Polytechnic Institute (Main Library), Auburn, Alabama. Massachusetts Horticultural Society Library, Horticultural Hall, 300 Massachusetts Ave., Boston 15, Massachusetts. North Carolina State College (D. H. Hill Library), Raleigh, North Carolina. Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Library, Room 101, Patterson Hall, State College, Pennsylvania. Purdue University Agr. Library, Lafayette, Indiana. 
27862	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) THE CAULIFLOWER BY A. A. CROZIER. THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY, TIMES BUILDING, NEW YORK. Copyright, 1891, BY A. A. CROZIER. Ann Arbor, Mich. [Illustration: EARLY ALABASTER.--(SEE PAGE 127).] "There has undoubtedly been more money made by the cultivation of the cauliflower per acre than by any other vegetable yet discovered." ISAAC F. TILLINGHAST, _Pennsylvania._ "There is no vegetable, the cultivation of which is more generally neglected than that of the cauliflower. This is not because it is not considered a valuable addition to any garden, but from a mistaken notion that it is a very difficult vegetable to raise." H. M. STRINGFELLOW, _Texas._ "I incline to think that there is a fortune in store for the energetic young man who finds a favorable locality for growing this vegetable near any one of our large cities and who makes a specialty of the work." PROF. E. S. GOFF, _Wisconsin._ CONTENTS. PAGE. INTRODUCTION. 5 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 9 THE CAULIFLOWER INDUSTRY.--In Europe. In the United States. Importation of Cauliflowers. 19 MANAGEMENT OF THE CROP.--Soil. Fertilizers. Planting. Cultivating. Harvesting. Keeping. Marketing. 25 THE EARLY CROP.--Caution against Planting it largely. Special Directions. Buttoning. 53 CAULIFLOWER REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES.--Upper Atlantic Coast. Lake Region. Prairie Region. Cauliflowers in the South. The Pacific Coast. 61 INSECT AND FUNGUS ENEMIES.--Flea Beetle. Cut Worms. Cabbage Maggot. Cabbage Worm. Stem Rot. Damping Off. Black Leg. 93 CAULIFLOWER SEED.--Importance of Careful Selection. Where the Seed is Grown. Influence of Climate. American Grown Seed. 107 VARIETIES.--Descriptive Catalogue. Order of Earliness. Variety Tests. Best Varieties. 125 BROCCOLI.--Differences between Broccoli and Cauliflower. Cultivation, Use, and Varieties of Broccoli. 189 COOKING CAULIFLOWER.--Digestibility. Nutritive Value. Chemical Composition. Receipts. 195 RECAPITULATION. 221 GLOSSARY. 223 REFERENCES. 226 INTRODUCTION. The cauliflower is one of the minor vegetables which is now attracting more than ordinary attention in this country, and being grown with remarkable success and profit in a few localities which have been found to be particularly adapted to it. With most of our gardeners, however, it is still considered a very uncertain and unprofitable crop. This is due not only to the peculiar requirements of the cauliflower as to soil and climate, but also to the want of familiarity on the part of most American gardeners with modern varieties and with methods of cultivation adapted to our climate. For a number of years, while engaged in market gardening and fruit growing in Western Michigan, the writer made a specialty of raising cauliflowers for the Grand Rapids and Chicago markets, planting from three to five acres a year. During this time most of the varieties offered by American seedsmen were tested, and the best methods of cultivation sought. On the whole, the cauliflower crop was found more profitable than any other, with the possible exception of peaches. There were partial failures, but these were due to causes which might have been foreseen and prevented. The experience gained at that time, and subsequent observation, have convinced the author that there are many parts of the country in which the climate and soil are adapted to this vegetable, but where its cultivation is yet practically unknown. The requirements for success with cauliflower will be found to be simple but imperative. A few direct experiments may be needed after one has gained the general information herein set forth, to enable one to determine whether it is best to continue or abandon its cultivation in his own locality. I have endeavored to treat the subject in a manner adapted to the diversity of conditions found within the limits of the United States. With no vegetable is it more important to have fixed rules for one's guidance than with the cauliflower; but these rules must of necessity be of the most restricted application; in fact, they require to be adjusted to almost each individual case. So, while I have not omitted to give minute, practical directions where they seemed necessary, I have endeavored to call attention to the circumstances under which they are to be employed, and must here caution the grower against following them too implicitly under different circumstances. This remark applies particularly to the selection of varieties and the dates of planting. Under the head of "Management of the Crop" will be found the most important information of general application, while in the chapter on "Cauliflower Regions" are given numerous records of experience from growers in all parts of the country, which will be found of special value for each locality. Those who desire direct information on particular points will consult the index and turn at once to the paragraphs which treat of soil, culture, enemies, marketing, best varieties, etc. It is unfortunate that confusion exists in regard to some of the varieties, but it seemed best to make the list as complete as possible, even at the risk of introducing a few errors. The confusion (which is more apparent than real), arises, in part, from seeds of certain varieties having been sold at times for those of others, and in part from the extreme liability of the varieties of the cauliflower to deteriorate or change. Errors from both these sources, when reduced to a minimum by the accumulation of evidence, reveal the fact that there are varieties and groups of varieties which have acquired well defined characters, and that the differences between the varieties are increasing rather than otherwise as time goes on. The selection of varieties for planting is a matter to be determined largely by the locality where they are to be grown. The differences between them lie mainly in their adaptation to particular purposes. There are almost none but what are good somewhere. I cannot omit to emphasize here the fact that the fall crop should be mainly relied upon in this country. It is a waste of time to attempt to have cauliflowers head in our hot summer months, and until our markets are better supplied than they now are with this vegetable, it will not often pay to do much with the spring crop. The time may come when, as in England, we may expect to have cauliflower and broccoli the year round, but it has not come yet. The chapter on cooking cauliflower should not be overlooked. One reason why there is such a limited demand for this vegetable in this country is that so few here know how to cook it. The methods of cooking it are simple enough, but there are many persons who always hesitate to try anything new, and as cauliflowers do not appear regularly in the market these people never learn how to use them. Those interested in extending the market for this vegetable will do well to devise special means for introducing it into families not familiar with it. The writer found that foreigners who had been accustomed to the use of cauliflower in the "Old Country" were his best customers. THE CAULIFLOWER. CHAPTER I. ORIGIN AND HISTORY. On the sea-coasts of Great Britain and other countries of western Europe, from Norway around to the northern shores of the Mediterranean (where it is chiefly at home) grows a small biennial plant, looking somewhat like a mustard or half-grown cabbage. This is the wild cabbage, _Brassica oleracea_, from which our cultivated cabbages originated. It is entirely destitute of a head, but has rather succulent stems and leaves, and has been used more or less for food from the earliest historic times. The cultivated plants which most resemble this wild species, are our different sorts of kale. In fact this wild plant is the original, not only of our headed cabbage in its different varieties, but also of all forms of kale, the kohl-rabi, brussels-sprouts, broccolis and cauliflowers. No more wonderful example than this exists of the changes produced in a wild plant by cultivation. Just when the improvement of the wild cabbage began is unknown, probably at least 4000 years ago. Of the cultivated forms of this species Theophrastus distinguished three, Pliny, six; Tournefort, twenty; and De Candolle, in 1821, more than thirty. For a long time this plant was used for food in a slightly improved state before heads of any kind were developed. Sturtevant, quotes Oliver de Serres, as saying that, "White cabbages came from the north, and the art of making them head was unknown in the time of Charlemagne." He adds that the first unmistakable reference to our headed cabbage that he finds is by Rullius, who in 1536 mentions globular heads, a foot and a half in diameter. It was probably about this time that the cauliflower, and several other forms of the species made their appearance. There is difference of opinion as to whether our cauliflowers or the broccolis were first to originate. London believed that the broccolis, which Miller says first came to England from Italy in 1719, were derived from the cauliflower. Phillips, in his "History of Cultivated Vegetables," said, in 1822, that the broccoli appears to be an accidental mixture of the common cabbage and the cauliflower, but of this he gives no proof. Sturtevant says: "It is certainly very curious that the early botanists did not describe or figure the broccoli. The omission is only explainable on the supposition that it was confounded with the cauliflower, just as Linnæus brought the cauliflower and the broccoli into one botanical variety." When broccolis came to England from Italy, they were at first known under the names "sprout-cauliflower," or "Italian asparagus." This, however, is not sufficient reason for believing that the broccolis are derived from the cauliflowers, as the word broccoli was, and still is, applied in Italy to the tender shoots of various kinds of cabbages and turnips. Some recent authorities have believed, since the broccoli is coarser than the cauliflower, more variable in character, more robust in habit, and requires a longer season, that it is the original form, of which the cauliflower is only an improvement. Thus, Vilmorin says: "The sprouting or asparagus broccoli represents the first form exhibited by the new vegetable when it ceased to be the earliest cabbage, and was grown with an especial view to its shoots; after this, by continued selection and successive improvements, varieties were obtained which produced a compact white head, and some of these varieties were still further improved into kinds which are sufficiently early to commence and complete their entire growth in the course of the same year; these last named kinds are now known by the name of cauliflowers." At the Cirencester Agricultural College, England, about 1860, broccolis were produced, with other variables, directly from seeds of the wild cabbage. These, and other considerations, make it seem doubtful that our broccolis have originated from our cauliflowers. Whatever the original form of the cauliflower may have been, it seems more probable that the broccolis now grown had a separate origin, either from the wild state or from some form of kale. Nearly all our present varieties of broccoli originated in England from a few sorts introduced from Italy. Cauliflowers, in name at least, are older than the broccolis, and were brought to a high state of development and widely distributed before the latter are mentioned in history. They were grown in the Mediterranean region long before they became known in other parts of Europe. Sturtevant finds no mention of the cauliflower or broccoli in ancient authors, the only indication of the kind being the use of the word _cyma_ by Pliny for a form of the cabbage tribe, which he thinks may have been the broccoli. Heuze states that three varieties of cauliflower were known in Spain in the twelfth century. In 1565 the cauliflower is reported as being extensively grown in Hayti in the New World. In 1573-5, Rauwolf, while traveling in the East, found the cauliflower cultivated at Aleppo, in Turkey. It seems to have been introduced into England from the Island of Cyprus, and it is mentioned by Lyte, in 1586, under the name of "Cyprus coleworts." Alpinus, in his work on the "Plants of Egypt," published in 1591, states that the only plants of the cabbage tribe which he saw in that country were the cauliflower and kohl-rabi. Cauliflower was also well known in Greece at an early day. Gerard published a figure of it in England in 1597. In 1612 it is reported as being cultivated in France, and in 1619 as being sold in the London market. In 1694 Pompes, a French author, is quoted as saying that, "It comes to us in Paris by way of Marseilles from the Isle of Cyprus, which is the only place I know of where it seeds." From this time on, its cultivation gradually extended throughout Europe. In England, especially, the cauliflower, as well as the broccoli, became a popular garden vegetable. Philip Miller, in his "Gardener's Dictionary," published in 1741, gives a long description of the method of growing this vegetable, though mentioning but one variety, while several varieties of broccoli are described. He says, however, that "cauliflowers have of late years been so far improved in England as to far exceed in goodness and magnitude what are produced in most parts of Europe." Prior to the French Revolution, (which began in 1778) cauliflower had, in fact, come to be largely exported from England into Holland, Germany and France; but soon after this it came to be more generally grown in those countries and was no longer imported, though English seed was still used. The numerous varieties of cauliflower now cultivated are of comparatively recent origin. Although some of the earliest writers on this vegetable mention two or more varieties, these were in some cases merely different crops produced by sowing the seed at different periods. In 1796, Marshall, in his English work on gardening, says that "cauliflower is sometimes distinguished into an early and late sort; though in fact there is no difference, only as the seed of that called 'early' is saved from the foremost plants." Phillips, in 1822, said: "Our gardeners furnish us with an early and a late variety, both of which are much esteemed." In 1831, Don, of England, in his work on botany and gardening ("History of Dichlamydeous Plants") describes fifteen varieties of broccoli and three of cauliflower. The latter were known as Early, Later or Large, and Red, the last being the most hardy. These three kinds differed but little in general character, and were all inclined to sport into inferior varieties. In 1832 there was still a discussion in England as to whether the early and late cauliflowers were really distinct, or differed only in time of sowing. John Rogers, in his "Vegetable Cultivator" (London, 1843), said: "There are two varieties of the cauliflower, the early and the late, which are alike in their growth and size, only that the early kind, as the name implies, comes in about a week before the other, provided the true sort has been obtained. There is, however, no certainty of knowing this, unless by sowing the seed from the earliest sorts, as is the practice of the London kitchen gardeners. The early variety was grown for a number of years in the grounds called the Meat-house Gardens, at Millbank, near Chelsea, and was of a superior quality, and generally the first at market. The late variety is supposed to have originated from a stock for many years cultivated on a piece of ground called the Jamaica level, near Deptford, and which produced uncommonly fine heads, but later than those at Millbank. Both soils are nearly similar, being a deep rich loam, on a moist subsoil, and continually enriched with dung. Both the varieties are of a delicate nature, being generally too tender to resist the cold of the winter season without the occasional aid of glasses or other means; and the sight of many acres overspread with such glasses in the vicinity of London gives a stranger a forcible idea of the riches and luxury of the capital." In France, in 1824, three varieties, differing mainly in earliness, were recognized, _le dur_, _le_ _demi-dur_ and _le tendre_. These names are still applied to well known French sorts. Victor Paquet, in his _Plantes Potagers_, published at Paris in 1846, says: "The greater number of varieties of cauliflower are white, but some are green or reddish. They are cooked in water, and dressed with oil or white sauce. We cultivate two distinct varieties, _tendre_ and _demi-dur_. The sub-varieties _gros_ and _petit Solomon_ are sorts of the _tendre_." Thus we see that early in the present century there were sorts differing at least in time of maturity which had originated by selection; and, although history does not show it, we must infer that even then there were distinct differences in the cauliflowers cultivated in different parts of Europe. From this time on cauliflowers from various localities were brought more into public notice and greater efforts were made toward their improvement. In 1845, C. M. Hovey, of Boston, said, that "the varieties of cauliflower have been greatly improved within a few years, and now not less than a dozen kinds are found in the catalogues." The most noted of those mentioned by him are Walcheren and Large Asiatic--varieties still in cultivation. Burr described ten sorts in 1863, and Vilmorin sixteen sorts in 1883. There are recorded in the present work the names of one hundred and forty varieties besides synonyms. Some of these varieties are no longer cultivated, and a few are too near other sorts to be considered worthy of a separate name; so that of the cauliflowers proper there may be said to be now in cultivation about one hundred distinct varieties. CHAPTER II. THE CAULIFLOWER INDUSTRY. In the United States, as already stated, the cauliflower industry is but little developed. This vegetable receives, for example, far less attention than is given to celery, though it is more easily grown. One may look over the recent files of some of our agricultural and horticultural papers for several years together and not find the cauliflower mentioned. In fact, more general attention was given the cauliflower in this country forty years ago than to-day. The disappointments of those who attempted to grow cauliflower at an early day, expecting to grow it, as in Europe, with as little trouble as cabbage, have led to an almost universal belief that the cauliflower is peculiarly unreliable in the United States. This, for a large portion of the country, is true; but it is beginning to be known that there are localities where, with proper management, it is almost as safe as any crop. It is by no means true that in Europe the cauliflower is everywhere grown with success. There are comparatively small areas, even in the most favorable portions of that continent, where it can be profitably grown. Although the climate of Europe, as a whole, is better for this vegetable than that of the United States, the greater success with the cauliflower there is due largely to the greater care exercised in choosing proper soil, in fertilization, and in irrigation. The area of cauliflower growing has largely increased in Europe within the past few years. In the vicinity of Angiers, France, the growing of cauliflower for market began about 1880. In a short time it reached an extent of several thousand hectares (a hectare is two and one-half acres). There is found in this region a loamy soil, such as is especially suitable for this vegetable. The land is thrown up into beds twenty-five or thirty feet wide, with ditches between for irrigation. The rows are placed two and one-half feet apart, and the plants one and one-half feet apart in the rows. On the approach of winter the plants which are still unheaded are ridged up with earth for protection in the same manner as celery. The crop fails from too cold or too wet weather, about one year in five. The heads are mostly sent to Paris, and sell there at from forty cents to $1 per dozen. Even at these rates the crop is a profitable one, often bringing $300 per acre after paying the cost of marketing. Land is worth from $24 to $40 per acre. For three or four weeks in spring there are sent from Angiers to Paris, on an average, forty car-loads per day. In the immediate vicinity of Paris large quantities of cauliflower are grown for market. In some parts of Germany the cauliflower is a very popular crop. Around Erfurt, which is nearly in the center of the empire, greater care is taken with its cultivation than probably anywhere else in the world, and large quantities are grown for seed. The late James Vick has told (Report Mich. Pom. Soc., 1874, p. 206,) how the low swampy land around Erfurt is thrown up into wide beds with ditches between, from which, every dry day, the water is dipped upon the plants. In Austria, also, cauliflower is a well-known vegetable, and several valuable varieties have originated in that country. Few seedsmen offer a more complete list of varieties than those of Vienna. In Italy the cauliflower has long been known, and in some places is a staple food of the poorer classes. Most of our standard late varieties are of Italian origin. In Holland, cauliflowers are grown not only for home use and for seed, but also for the early London market. Around London the cauliflower has been extensively grown for a longer time than anywhere else, and it is there regarded as one of the most important garden crops. A recent English writer says: "With the exception of the potato, I question whether there is another vegetable to be compared with the cauliflower for general usefulness." Hundreds of acres are devoted to it near London, a large portion being under glass for the early crop. Formerly the cauliflower crop was all cut and sent to market, with the exception of a small portion saved for seed; but of late, extensive fields are purchased entire by Crosse and Blackwell for pickling purposes. In the United States there are a few points where the growing of cauliflower for market is assuming considerable importance. On Long Island, in 1879, the crop was estimated by Oemler at 100,000 pounds, besides what was used for pickling. In 1885 Brill estimated the total crop of Suffolk County at about 125,000 barrels. In 1889, the value of the crop sold from Suffolk County was estimated at $200,000, nine-tenths of all the cauliflowers sent to the New York market being grown in that county. At Farmingdale and Central Park, in 1888, two pickle factories used five hundred barrels of cauliflowers, besides the usual proportion of other vegetables. Much of the crop from Long Island is now sent to markets beyond New York. Philadelphia receives but little good cauliflower except that which comes from Long Island. The same is true of the city of Washington. The receipts in the latter city from Long Island for the three fall months of 1890 were about 20,000 barrels. The Chicago market is seldom fully supplied with cauliflowers and the price there averages fully as good as anywhere in the country. Considerable amounts are grown near the city, and small quantities are shipped in from Michigan, Wisconsin, Central Illinois, and even from California. One pickle factory at Crystal Lake, near Chicago, contracted, in 1874, for 16 acres of cauliflowers, besides other produce. The pickle factories always furnish a market for any surplus when the price is low, or the heads have become disfigured in any way. In fact, the supply of home grown cauliflowers is always insufficient for pickling purposes, and large amounts have to be annually imported, notwithstanding the tariff, which, formerly ten per cent., ad valorum, is now forty-five per cent. Imported cauliflowers are brought mainly from Germany and Holland, and come packed in brine in 60 gallon casks. Large quantities of mixed pickles containing cauliflower are also imported. CHAPTER III. MANAGEMENT OF THE CROP. SOIL. Almost any soil will do for the cauliflower, providing it is moist and fertile. The requirements of this vegetable as to soil are practically the same as those for the cabbage, except, that as the cauliflower will stand less drouth, it should generally have a heavier and richer soil, and rather more room. A soil which produces cabbages with large and rather soft heads is likely to be good for cauliflowers; that is, it contains more vegetable matter than the right amount for producing hard heads of cabbage. Muck will answer for cauliflowers if it is not too wet or too dry; it should like any other soil be treated to a good coat of barn-yard manure--horse manure being preferable on such land, as it promotes fermentation. Small quantities of lime may also be applied for the same reason. The best soil is generally a strong sandy loam. Light sand or gravel is the poorest; and unless made very rich and artificially watered, it is useless to attempt to grow cauliflowers on such a soil in ordinary seasons. Heavy clay is less suitable for cauliflower than for cabbage, chiefly because on such a soil the plants are apt to be small and late. In a warm climate a heavier soil is required than in a cool one. The ground should, if possible, be fresh sod-land (preferably pasture) or at most one year removed from the sod. It is unsafe to plant cauliflowers after cauliflowers, or any other plant of the cabbage tribe, though it is sometimes successfully done. Newly cleared land, or land fresh from the sod, is even more desirable for cauliflowers than for cabbages. On new land the crop is not only less subject to disease and the attacks of insects, but its growth is likely to be more satisfactory, even without manure, or with only a moderate amount, than it is on old land, however well manured. FERTILIZERS. The cauliflower is a gross feeder, and land intended for this crop can hardly be made too rich. Barn-yard manure is usually employed, and there is nothing better for general use. Commercial fertilizers--potash, soda and phosphates--are also good, especially to promote heading. The wild plant from which the cauliflower is derived being a native of the sea-shore, common salt seems particularly adapted to it. Kelp, or sea-weed, is used with advantage where it can be obtained. If barn-yard manure is not too coarse, plowing it under in moderate amount will, in addition to its fertilizing effect, help to keep the land moist. Where the cabbage maggot is troublesome the use of fresh stable manure is thought to promote the attack of that insect, and therefore only well rotted manure is recommended. Of course a larger amount of manure may be safely applied if it is well rotted than if it is coarse and strawy. Liquid manure is used by many growers, being applied a few weeks before planting, and from time to time during the season. Water-closet contents, diluted or composted, and applied either in the liquid or powdered form, is one of the best of fertilizers for the cauliflower, but it should not be used too freely, or too late in the season. All coarse or concentrated fertilizers should be applied at least two weeks before the time for transplanting, and such as are applied on the surface should be well mixed with the soil. SOWING THE SEED. The preparation of the seed-bed will vary according to circumstances. I formerly grew the plants for the fall crop in beds elevated two or three feet above the ground, in order to escape the flea beetle, but in later years I have grown a portion of the plants in the open ground. This method requires less care, and is now usually practiced by large growers, though it sometimes fails, for the reason stated. Remedies for the flea beetle will be found in another chapter. The soil in which the plants are to be grown should be rich and fine, rather light, and improved, if necessary, with a little of the finest old rotted manure. A small amount of lime or ashes raked into the soil is a benefit, and is thought to prevent the attack of the cabbage maggot, though its value, if any, for this purpose, is slight. An old brush-heap burnt off makes a favorite place for sowing cauliflower and cabbage seed, but it is seldom that market gardeners care to go out of their way to get such a place. The large cauliflower growers of Long Island usually sow the seed in drills across one end of the field in which the crop is to be grown, raking into the soil before sowing, a moderate dressing of some commercial fertilizer. It is often recommended to sow the seed on the north side of a fence, or in some other partially shaded place. I have never seen any necessity for this, and once spoiled a quantity of plants by growing them in the partial shade of some large trees. At the South, as elsewhere stated, it is sometimes necessary to give the young plants shade during the middle of the day if they are started in the summer months. The seed should always be sown thinly, not only because it is expensive and none should be wasted, but in order that all may have room to develop into healthy and stocky plants. If the weather is at all dry it is well to lay boards, or some other covering, over the seed-bed until the plants begin to come up. This will insure speedy and uniform germination. If this is done the seed may be sown very shallow; otherwise it should be sown at least half an inch deep (or even deeper if the soil is light) and the soil pressed firm after sowing. Transplanting the young plants in the seed-bed will render them stocky and vigorous, and should always be practiced with the early crop, but if the seed is sown sufficiently thin it is unnecessary with out-door plants intended for the late crop. Some growers, including Mr. Gregory of Massachusetts, practice sowing the seed in hills in the open ground where the plants are to remain. Several seeds are placed in a hill to insure against loss. This method, however, will seldom be found desirable. To the above may be added the following excellent directions given by Mr. Francis Brill, of Riverhead, Long Island, in his pamphlet on the cauliflower: "Occasionally, by reason of drouth, and frequently by reason of the ravages of insects, great difficulty has been experienced in growing plants in spring and early summer, which seldom occurs in the fall--at which time, however, the same precautions may be used. Time was when we could circumvent the flea and louse on young plants by the use of lime, tobacco, ashes, soot, etc., but of late years they seem to have been so very abundant, and so materially aided in their work of destruction by the black grub below and the green grub above ground, that many complete failures have occurred in endeavors to grow plants. To avoid this I recommend that the ground intended for plants be plowed or spaded in the fall, and if stable manure is to be used, let it be well rotted and turned under at this time, and again work the soil early in the spring, at this time turning under a good dressing of potash salts; keep the ground free from weeds by occasional stirring until the time for sowing the seed, then lay out a bed six feet wide, and as long as you please; make the surface smooth, and enclose it with common boards ten or twelve inches in width set edgewise perpendicularly, one-half their width under ground and held in place by stakes driven at the joints and centres. Within this frame, beginning at either end, dig and thoroughly pulverize the soil by means of a spading fork, potato fork, or similar implement, watching closely for any grub worms which may not have been eradicated by the previous workings and which we now propose to keep out by means of the partially sunken boards. "Fertilizers may, at this time, be applied and forked under or raked in, using judgment as to method and quantity, which must be determined by the previous condition of the soil and the strength of the material used, remembering that it is not well to have any chemicals in too close proximity to the tender rootlets of the young plants; and while poor soil is no place in which to grow healthy plants, yet they should not be over stimulated, but the ground must be in proper condition to keep up a vigorous and healthy growth. Let this digging be done in the latter part of the afternoon when the sun has spent its force and the soil will not dry out too quickly; rake the bed as you go, and sow the seed while the surface soil is fresh and moist, using a ten-inch board as long as your bed is wide, which place five or six inches from the end or head of the frame, crosswise, and with a blunt stick, say three-fourths of an inch in diameter, draw a mark not more than one-half an inch deep along each edge of the board; sow the seed thinly in these marks, using the thumb and finger to guide it; then turning the board twice, sow two more rows, and so proceed until you have sown several rows, say 12 to 20, when they must be covered, using the back of a spade, drawing it with some pressure half way from each side of the bed. A very important part of this operation which must not be overlooked _is to get the seed in and covered while the ground is fresh and damp_; therefore complete the work in sections. At the distance given the hoe can be used and the soil stirred between the rows, which is quite essential to a proper growth of the plants, as well as necessary to keep down the weeds. "The sowing completed, the bed may be covered with old bags or cloth to retain the moisture, which, however, must be removed upon the first signs of the seed germinating; but what is better still, a shade of muslin can be used, supported by the upper edges of the frame and narrow strips laid across, which can remain until the plants are well above ground, when it should be removed, the plants sprinkled with tobacco dust, air slacked lime, ashes or common plaster, and a covering of mosquito netting be substituted for the muslin, which will admit light, air and sunshine, yet be a partial shade, and will help to protect the plants from insects. This cover may be removed during rainy weather, and, if you please, every night to give the plants the benefit of the dew. "I have decided objections to artificial watering of seed-beds, especially when the seed is first sown or in the early stages of growth of the plants, and this may generally be avoided by following the directions just given; but when circumstances may seem to demand otherwise, let the bed be prepared and in the afternoon thoroughly saturated, and toward evening the seed may be sown and covered as above described, but never water the bed after the seed has been sown until the plants are well up, for this has a tendency to pack the surface and cause it to bake and prevent proper germinating of the seed. After the plants are fairly above ground, light waterings at evening may be given, but must be avoided if possible. "I have not given these precautions for sowing seed in September for wintering over, for the reason that at that season of the year we are comparatively free from insects and drouths." WHEN TO SOW. The time for sowing will depend of course on the locality and variety. At the North, half early varieties, intended for the fall crop, are usually sown and set out about the same time as late cabbage. In Western Michigan, in latitude 43°, I have found that Early Paris sown about May 12, and set out about the 20th of June, begins to head in September, and forms its main crop in October, about the time desired. In the latitude of New York City the time for setting out the main crop is from June 20 to the 1st of August. Plants set as late as the 1st of August are intended to head just before winter, and must be of the earliest varieties. The large late varieties, like Autumn Giant, if used at all, must be started early and set out not later than the first of June, as they require the entire season. Several kinds are often sown to form a succession, but where one has tested a variety and found it adapted to his needs, it is often quite as well to rely upon it almost entirely, and make two or three sowings for a succession if desired. Even a single sowing, well timed, will generally furnish cuttings through the most favorable part of the season. If the seed is of the best quality, and the plants are of uniform size, and all set at the same time, neither too early nor too late, on soil of uniform character, they will in a good season form most of their heads within a short space of time, sometimes within a week; but generally in a given sowing, a few heads will form very early, then the bulk of the crop will come on during three or four weeks, while the remainder will hang on until late, perhaps until winter. No other crop is so much affected in time of maturity by the character of the season as the cauliflower, and even the most experienced growers sometimes fail in getting them to head at the time desired. The time for starting the plants for the early crop in the North is in February, and the method is described in full in another chapter. They should be set out, as stated, as soon as heavy freezing is past, say about the middle of April. The most unfavorable time of any, and yet the time when the inexperienced are most likely to set them, is about the middle of May, for early varieties set then usually head in August when it is seldom that heads can be obtained of good quality. PREPARING THE GROUND. Land intended for cauliflowers should be plowed deeply, as the cauliflower is a deep feeder and delights in a rich, cool subsoil; in fact, with no other plant of the cabbage family is a deep soil so important. The manure, of whatever kind, should be mainly spread upon the ground and plowed under, a smaller amount, in a finely divided state, being harrowed in upon the surface. The plowing should be done at least a month before the plants are to be set, and the land kept well harrowed or cultivated until that time in order to retain the moisture in the soil, and put it in the best condition for the growth of the plants. SETTING THE PLANTS. When the time comes for setting the plants it is a good plan to go over the surface with a planker in order to smooth it off, so the marking can be nicely done. This also packs the ground somewhat, so that the plants can be set more firmly. The land may be then marked out, crosswise first, three feet apart, then lengthwise three feet apart for Dwarf Erfurt and all small growing kinds, and four feet apart for Algiers and other large varieties. These are suitable distances for the late crop in ordinary cases, but where land is cheap, and little manure used, except sod turned under, four by four feet is none too much room for the large varieties. The early crop, on the other hand, which is always heavily manured, is sometimes set with the rows as close as two feet apart, and the plants twenty inches apart in the rows. The small size of the heads resulting from close planting is no actual loss, for small heads, if of good quality, are more popular than large ones, and bring a higher price in proportion to their size. The greatest danger from too close setting of the main crop is that the plants may fail to head at all. It is for this reason that cauliflowers are usually set farther apart than cabbages. The best time to set the plants is just before or after a rain, but they may be set at any time if the soil has been kept damp by frequent cultivation. In dry, clear weather the planting should be done only toward the close of the day. If it should be necessary to apply water at the time of setting, it should be thoroughly done, not less than a quart being placed in each hole which is to receive a plant. Water should never be applied after the plant is set unless loose earth is afterwards thrown over the place, for the compact surface left after the water has been absorbed dries out more rapidly than before. The plants to be set should not be too large or they will be liable to button, especially if the conditions are in any way unfavorable for growth. If large plants must be used extra pains should be taken in setting, in order that there may be as little check in their growth as possible. With cauliflowers, as with cabbages, large plants are the easiest to make live, but, for the reason stated, it is less desirable to use them. Setting the plants in shallow trenches, after the manner of celery, is sometimes practised in garden culture. This places the roots where the soil is cool and moist and enables the plants to be watered to good advantage. This method is mainly used in early spring planting, when, besides its convenience in irrigation, it also serves to protect the plants from cold winds. Planting between ridges, as elsewhere described, serves the same purpose of protection. In either case the surface is gradually brought to a level as the plants are cultivated. CULTIVATION. In cultivation everything depends on keeping up a steady, vigorous growth, for if the plants are checked in their growth, they are liable either to form small heads prematurely, or to continue their growth so late as to fail to head at all. Level cultivation is usually practiced, the same as in ordinary field crops. Drawing the earth to the stems, as sometimes recommended and practiced abroad, is unnecessary, though with tall growing varieties it serves a useful purpose in preventing the plants being blown over by the wind. Cultivation should continue until the leaves are so large that they are liable to be broken off, or until the plants are nearly ready to head. The application of a mulch of manure or litter at the time cultivation ceases, is an excellent practice, though seldom resorted to. It is important that deep cultivation should cease at the right time, even if the hoe has to be used afterward. The crop may be seriously injured, or at least delayed, by cultivation after the plants begin to head. At this time the ground should be undisturbed so that the roots may occupy the entire soil. Dry weather, and the compact nature of the soil after cultivation ceases, check the growth of the plants, and promote the formation of heads, providing the plants have attained a proper age and size. The influence of a firm soil in promoting heading is also seen in the success with which cauliflowers can frequently be grown after peas or other early crops. In autumn the first sharp frosts appear to be particularly efficacious in starting the plants to heading. IRRIGATION. After heading has commenced is the time when irrigation is most needed. An abundance of water at this time will add greatly, both to the quantity and quality of the product, particularly if some fertilizer is added at the same time. Irrigation is not often practiced in this country, except in the arid districts of the West, and occasionally, with the early crop, near a few of our large cities. In Europe, where labor is cheap, it is often resorted to, even where the water has to be carried by hand. Early in the season, if irrigation is needed, once a week is frequent enough to apply the water, but while the plants are heading it may be applied with advantage every day if the weather is dry. BLANCHING THE HEADS. The value of cauliflowers for use or market depends almost entirely on their being white and tender. To have them remain in this condition until fully matured, they must be protected from the sun. Heads which are left exposed become yellow in color, or even brownish purple if the sun is very hot. Such heads also acquire a strong, disagreeable flavor. There are various ways of covering the heads, but it is nearly always done with the leaves of the plant. Early in the season, when the weather is dry and warm, the work may be done during the heat of the day by lapping the leaves, one after another, over the head until it is sufficiently covered, tucking the last leaf under to hold all in place. Or the leaves may be fastened with a butcher's skewer, or any sharp stick. In Florida, orange thorns are employed for this purpose. Care must be taken not to confine the heads too closely, or they will grow out of shape, besides being liable to heat and become spotted. Later in the season, when the weather is cool and damp, the leaves will be too stiff to be bent down, and the head must then be protected either by placing over it leaves broken from the outer part of the plant, or from stumps from which the heads have already been cut, or by tying the leaves together above the head. The latter is the usual method, rye straw or bast matting being generally used for the purpose. Merely breaking down the inner leaves upon the head is unsatisfactory, as the growth, both of the leaves and the head, soon causes the head to become exposed. The artificial blanching of the head is most important early in the season, while the sun is hot, and the field should then be gone over as often as every other day for this purpose, taking two rows at a time. Later in the season, during damp, cloudy weather, heads will sometimes reach full size and still be of good color though entirely exposed. It is unsafe to leave them in this way, however, as a little change in color seriously affects their market value. Covering the heads appears also to cause them to grow larger and remain solid longer than they otherwise would, particularly early in the season. PROTECTING FROM FROST. Another object, late in the season, in covering the heads, is to protect them from frost. A frosted cauliflower is practically worthless for market, as it is nearly certain to turn black on the surface after one or two days' exposure. Freezing, in fact, is one of the most frequent sources of loss on cauliflowers late in the season, and as this is the most favorable time of the year for them to head, it is necessary to take particular care to guard against loss from this cause. We frequently have a few hard frosts early in October, which spoil such heads as are nearly mature, unless they have been protected. After this there may be a month or more of good weather, during which the bulk of the crop may come to maturity. The heads are protected from frost in the same manner as from the sun, but it is best not to have the leaves lie directly on the head. Protection is particularly needed as the heads approach maturity, as they are then more easily injured than while small. Heads which are well covered will usually stand eight or ten degrees of frost without injury, depending on the amount of cloudiness and moisture present. In cool, moist, cloudy weather, frosted heads will sometimes recover and show no injury. It is even possible for heads to become frozen solid and come out in good condition, but this rarely occurs, and requires that the thawing take place in the most favorable manner possible. Cutting the frozen heads with their leaves, throwing them in shallow heaps upon the ground, and covering with straw, will sometimes bring them out in good condition; also throwing them into water but little above the freezing point. The safest way, however, if possible, is to cook the heads at once, putting the frozen heads directly into boiling water. Treated in this manner they exhibit little or no effect of the freezing. The safest way, in case heavy freezing is apprehended, is to cut and remove to a place of safety all heads which have attained half their size or more. CUTTING THE HEADS. The frequency of cutting will depend on the season of the year. In summer, the heads will remain at the proper stage for cutting no more than a day or two, while late in autumn they may often be left a week before becoming overgrown. Frequent cutting is at all times desirable, however, as it is best to let the heads get as large as they will before becoming loose and warty. The gain in size not only increases their selling price, but the flavor also appears to improve as the heads approach maturity. Immature heads, though mild and tender, have less flavor than those which are full grown. It is better, however, to cut a head too soon than to leave it too long, for a small solid head will sell for more than a large loose one. To judge when a head has reached full size requires some experience. The size of course, will depend on that of the plant, but its size in proportion to that of the plant is perhaps the most common point by which one judges when it is ready to cut. The head, when it approaches maturity, rises within the leaves and bulges the latter outward, so that one can often tell at some distance which heads are about ready. The surface of the head, as it approaches maturity loses its polished appearance and becomes more distinctly grained. This change, if it does not go too far, does not detract from its appearance and value. To examine a head, do not untie the top, but part the leaves at the side. If there are signs of cracking or breaking it is ready to cut. The heads should be cut with about an inch of stalk and two or three full circles of leaves. A long thin-bladed knife is best to cut with. The best time of the day in which to cut the heads, if for home use, or a near market, is in the morning while the dew is on, as they will then remain longer in a fresh state than if cut latter in the day. If to pack for a distant market, the heads will carry and keep better if cut when dry, but on a cool day or toward evening. HANDLING. The heads must be handled with care to prevent the "flower" becoming bruised or soiled in any way. A bruise will turn black in a short time, the same as a frosted surface, and thus injure the sale of the head. The heads can be handled most safely if the leaves are left on, and these had best be left entire until the plants are taken to the packing shed; and for a near market they may even be left on to advantage until the plants are ready to be exposed for sale. The main object of their removal is in order that the heads may be readily inspected. TRIMMING. This is often done in the field, but, as just stated, it had better be delayed until the heads are carried to the place for packing. To trim them, take hold of a head near the butt with one hand, holding it upright against you, then with a turning motion, cut clear around the head, leaving the cut ends of the leaves projecting about an inch above the edge of the head. This exposes as much of the head as can be seen at one view, and the leaves as left protect the margin from bruises. The butt should be cut off smooth, and there should be left about two layers of leaves. The heads at the time of packing should be free from moisture, and if the leaves are a trifle wilted they will pack all the better. Flour barrels, or barrels of that size, are best to pack in, as cauliflowers are now usually sold at wholesale by the barrel. Barrel-crates of the same size are also coming into use, especially for the early crop, as the heads are liable to heat in hot weather if packed in close barrels. Each cauliflower at the time of packing is now usually wrapped in strong soft white paper, the edges of the paper being tucked between the leaves and head. The heads are then placed in the barrels, commencing at the outside, laying them upon their sides facing in, and filling the center with smaller heads. Continue each layer in this way until the barrel is a little more than full. Pack as solid as possible. Cover with canvass or bagging, putting it under the top hoop and pressing it down by driving down and nailing the hoop. Tea-chest matting, which usually costs nothing, may be used for covers if desired. It may be added that cauliflowers are sometimes packed in their own leaves, just as they come from the field, or all the leaves may be removed but one or two which are to be folded over the head. It usually pays, however, to use paper, but this must be white, or else when bruised it will stain the heads. Sometimes, when the cauliflowers are to be sold at retail, sugar-barrels are used to pack in, as they cost less than other barrels and are larger. They are always clean and sweet, and do not make too large a package, as cauliflowers are not heavy. Small slatted crates are also a favorite package in which to ship cauliflowers, particularly early in the season. Large crates, such as are sometimes used for cabbages, are entirely unsuitable. A method of packing cauliflowers for shipment employed in Denmark, is described as follows: "The heads are to be cut off in a dry state, but not wilted, and with only an inch of stalk. The leaves are to be removed, with the exception of a couple of the inner courses, which should be cut down to such a length as to meet when they are bent gently together over the head. Pack in clean, open neat-looking crates or boxes, in the bottom of which put a few leaves, and on these the cauliflower heads, which should be of a uniform size for each crate. Pack closely and firmly in layers, taking care, however, not to bruise the tender heads. All the heads in a layer should turn in the same direction, being laid sidewise, and the next layer in the opposite direction, respectively, with top and stem. On the top of the heads fill in with leaves until the cover will press the whole contents so tight as to prevent the heads from moving during transportation." The price of cauliflowers is less subject to fluctuation than that of most other vegetables. There is comparatively little competition between different localities, and about the only causes of low prices are temporary and local over-production, and forced sales caused by damaged stock. One year with another, a dollar and a half a dozen may be realized on good heads, which is more than double the average price of cabbages. Contracts are taken, however, at as low as fifty cents a dozen to supply pickle-factories. Under favorable conditions fully as large a percentage of cauliflowers will head as of cabbages, so that in a good location, with proper care, the cauliflower crop is a profitable one. It may be well to remind growers, however, that one should not attempt to sell a large quantity of cauliflowers in a small market, for even at a low price people will not buy largely of what they are not accustomed to using. But it is surprising to what an extent a market may be developed for this vegetable. No one who has once used the cauliflower will thereafter do without it, if it can be obtained at a reasonable price. There is absolutely no necessary limit to the market for this vegetable, providing reasonable care is exercised in creating and supplying the demand. The price in this country ought always to be maintained if possible at at least double that of cabbages, not only on account of the greater delicacy of the cauliflower, but because of the greater care needed in its production, and the uncertainty of the crop, owing to unfavorable seasons and other causes. I could easily quote examples of extraordinary profits made in growing the cauliflower, as well as instances of repeated failure. Cases of both kinds of experience are given elsewhere in the present volume. I have here only attempted to show what may be reasonably expected. KEEPING. More attention is being paid of late years to the keeping of cauliflowers in winter, and it is now customary with some to plant a small late crop for the purpose of winter heading. Most growers, however, will have more or less unheaded plants at the end of nearly every season which can be used for this purpose. William Falconer, of Long Island, sows Extra Early Erfurt about July 1, pots the young plants, and sets them in the open field after early potatoes have come off. In November the plants that show signs of heading are stripped of the larger outer leaves, then taken up and set close together in beds and covered with hot-bed sash. In cold weather straw or thatch is added. In this way the plants continue to give heads until February. Plants which have begun to head may be taken up in the same way and set in a cellar. Just enough moisture should be given to keep them from wilting, as, if too much is given, they are liable to rot. Fully headed cauliflowers are difficult to keep. If hung up in a cellar in the way cabbages are frequently kept, they wilt and become strong in flavor and dark in color. This may be remedied with a few heads by cutting off the stem a few inches below the head before they are hung up, hollowing out the stem and filling the hollow with water. It is said that the heads will keep in good condition for a long time if packed in slightly damp muck. A simple way of preserving partly headed plants out of doors is to take them up with as much earth as possible and set them close together in trenches, after the manner of celery, placing boards at the sides, and in cold weather a covering of straw overhead. In this way the heads are easily accessible and keep in good condition. A method employed in Scotland for preserving cauliflower is to bury them in a dry place, heads downward and roots exposed, in the ordinary manner of burying cabbages. They are said to keep well by this method from November to January. The leaves are folded over the heads to keep them from coming in contact with the soil. Another method, employed in Denmark, is to make a bed of moist sand about four inches deep in a cool room protected against frost; the floor had better be of asphalt, cement or the like. Toward the end of autumn the heads are cut with a piece of the stem three or four inches in length, which is stuck into the sand. All the leaves are removed except the inner course, which must be cut down pretty closely, and the heads then covered with flower pots. Still another method, employed where hard freezing is not anticipated, is to take up the plants and set them out in a slanting position close together out of doors with the heads to the north, as is done with cabbages. Pulling up the plants and throwing them on their sides will protect the heads from a moderate degree of cold, and can be resorted to upon the sudden approach of cold weather. Cutting the heads with plenty of leaves and throwing them in long low heaps, faces downward, will preserve them in the cool, damp weather of early winter for a considerable time, and the heads, even in this condition, will increase somewhat in size. It will sometimes happen, early in the season, that one desires to retard the development of the head until a convenient time for marketing. For this purpose the plants may be lifted, when the heads are nearly mature, and set under a shed or elsewhere in the shade. It may be well here to remind those who grow only a few plants in a garden, and who wish to prolong the season, that several cuttings may be taken from a single head if desired. A portion of the head should be left each time. Occasionally, but not often, a stump will sprout and form a second crop. A method of accelerating the formation of heads, which is practiced in Ireland, may also be worth recording. It consists in slitting the stalk from near the ground upward toward the heart, and placing a stick in the slit to prevent the parts reuniting. The soil is then drawn up around the cut, and the plant staked to prevent its breaking off. It is said that plants so treated will form their heads from six to eight days earlier than they otherwise would. CHAPTER IV. THE EARLY CROP. I cannot do better in treating of this crop than to first quote the following, by the late Peter Henderson, of New York City, from his work on "Gardening for Pleasure": "There is quite an ambition among amateur gardeners to raise early cauliflower, but as the conditions necessary to success with this are not quite so easy to command as with most other vegetables, probably not one in three who try it succeed. In England, and most places on the Continent of Europe, it is the most valued of all vegetables, and is grown there nearly as easily as early cabbages. But it must be remembered that the temperature there is on the average ten degrees lower at the time it matures (June) than with us; besides, their atmosphere is much more humid, two conditions essential to its proper development. I will briefly state how early cauliflowers can be most successfully grown here. First, the soil must be well broken, and pulverized by spading to at least a foot in depth, mixing through it a layer of three or four inches of strong well-rotted stable manure. The plants may be either those from seed sown last fall and wintered over in cold frames, or else started from seeds sown in January or February in a hot-bed or green-house, and planted in small pots or boxes, so as to make plants strong enough to be set out as soon as the soil is fit to work, which, in this latitude, is usually the first week in April. We are often applied to for cauliflower plants as late as May, but the chances of their forming heads when planted in May are slim indeed. The surest way to secure the heading of cauliflowers is to use what are called hand-glasses. These are usually made about two feet square, which gives room enough for three or four plants of cauliflower until they are so far forwarded that the glass can be taken off. When the hand-glass is used the cauliflowers may be planted out in any warm border early in March and covered by them. This covering protects them from frost at night, and gives the necessary increase of temperature for growth during the cold weeks of March and April; so that by the first week in May, if the cauliflower has been properly hardened off by ventilating (by tilting up the hand-glasses on one side) they may be taken off altogether and then used to forward tomatoes, melons or cucumbers. If the weather is dry the cauliflowers will be much benefitted by being thoroughly soaked with water twice or thrice a week. * * * The two best varieties of cauliflower we have found as yet [1875] are the Dwarf Erfurt and Early Paris." Notwithstanding the care required for the early crop, the same writer states in his earlier work on "Gardening for Profit," (published in 1867, during a period of high prices,) that "for the past four or five years cauliflowers [early] have been one of my most profitable crops. I have, during that time, grown about one acre each year, which has certainly averaged $1,500. On one occasion the crop proved almost an entire failure, owing to unusual drought in May; while, on another occasion, with an unusually favorable season, it sold at nearly $3,000 per acre. The average price for all planted is about $15 per 100, and as from 10,000 to 12,000 are grown to the acre, it will result in nearly the average before named--$1,500 per acre. Unlike cabbages, however, only a limited number is yet sold, and I have found that an acre of them has been quite as much as could be profitably grown in one garden." The above, by the late well-known New York seedsman and market-gardener, though written nearly forty years ago, is true to-day, so far as the general profitableness of the cauliflower is concerned, and the extra care required with the early crop. The chief condition of success with early cauliflowers is that they shall head before hot weather comes on. To this end the earliest varieties are chosen, and they are set as early as possible in the spring, and pushed rapidly forward, as stated, by using protection if necessary, and by high manuring. It is an advantage to set the early plants between ridges, as is done with early cabbage. The ridges hold the sun and keep off the cold winds, and the furrows between carry off the surface water. The plants are best set upon the south or east side of the ridges, near the base. A good furrow with an ordinary plow forms a sufficient ridge. Formerly it was thought necessary to start the plants in the fall, but since the newer early sorts have been produced, this is being abandoned. Fall sowing has never been as successful in the Northern United States as in England, and the failures to grow cauliflowers successfully in this country have often resulted from adhering to the methods employed in the Old World. Plants started in hot-beds in February, and properly hardened off, receive but little check when set out, and make a better growth than those which have been wintered over. In the latitude of Virginia and Maryland, wintering over the young plants may be resorted to, and for gardeners in that latitude the methods adopted in England will be well worth studying, even if they can not be literally followed. The time for sowing the seed should be so gauged that the plants shall be neither too large nor too small during the coldest months. If too small they will not be sufficiently hardy to winter over; if too large they will be likely to button instead of forming fully developed heads. When the young plants are transplanted into their winter quarters they should be set deeply, as the stem is the part most easily injured by cold; the same rule of planting deeply should be followed in the first plantings in the open ground in spring. Wintering in the open air in a warm sheltered situation is preferable, where it can be done, to wintering under frames, for plants so exposed will be most healthy and will continue their growth with least interruption in the spring. Plants wintered under glass require considerable room, and as much air as can be safely given. If pots are used, care must be taken not to have them too small, or to allow them to become entirely filled with the roots, for this will have a tendency to cause the plants to button. BUTTONING. I cannot perhaps do better than to mention here such other causes as have this same tendency. Anything which checks the growth of the plants when they are a few inches high is liable to produce this result--such as leaving them too long in the seed-bed, withholding water, poor soil, too much crowding. After the plants are set out, a cold rainy time or badly drained land may have the same effect; also a very hot time, if the soil is dry and the plants are not growing well. The check occasioned by the transplanting may also cause the plants to button, if they have become large, and the soil or weather is unfavorable. On this account it is unsafe to let cauliflower plants get as large as cabbage plants sometimes are when transplanted. I will close this topic by quoting two paragraphs from _The Garden_, an English journal from which I have already taken much valuable information. The first is by a person who signs himself "D. T. F.," who says: "Cambrian [a previous writer] attributes this to over-manuring, and no doubt this frequently causes buttoning, but over-frosting is quite as injurious as over-manuring; and the hard frost which we had here on the 1st of April seems to be sending all the exposed plants into buttons, whilst those protected only with glass lights seem safe and sound and are spreading their leaves wide and looking extremely promising." The next writer, Mr. Gilbert, adds: "The whole of my Early London cauliflowers have buttoned, but not the Walcheren, at least at present. I hear, too, this is the case in many parts of the country. I have for years noted that after a cold severe winter and a warm spring both cauliflowers and cabbages 'bolt,' but this season having been quite the reverse I thought they might have escaped." Another writer calls attention to the fact that plants which have been nursed or protected too much during winter are more apt to button when set out in the spring than those which have been more exposed. CHAPTER V. CAULIFLOWER REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. A comparatively small portion of the United States is well adapted to the growth of cauliflower. The climate for the most part is too dry. The districts suited to its cultivation are often of very limited area, and are determined by local causes affecting the distribution of moisture and the character of the soil. The manner of treating the crop, and the degree of care necessary for successful results, will therefore depend largely on the locality where it is grown. For the purpose of giving more definite information on these points, the country may be divided into the following cauliflower regions: THE UPPER ATLANTIC COAST. This includes the greatest number of localities where cauliflower culture has thus far been successfully conducted in the United States. The region is comparatively well watered, and contains a great diversity of soil and situation. More good markets are found here than elsewhere. The heart of this cauliflower region is now found upon the north shore of Long Island, where there is a strong soil, in a damp climate, within easy reach of the New York and other large markets. Two crops are grown here, the spring and fall. Wm. Falconer, of Queen's County, states that for the early crop he sows the seed in a hot-house in February, and gradually gives the plants more room and cooler quarters until they are ready for the open ground. The varieties he uses are Henderson's Snowball, Early Erfurt, Stadtholder and Lenormand. He has repeatedly attempted to grow the spring crop from fall-sown plants, but they have almost invariably buttoned, however late the seed was sown, or however slightly the plants were protected. Occasionally, also, the February-sown plants of Henderson's Snowball and Erfurt will button. For the main fall crop the same four varieties above mentioned are sown out of doors about May 18th, at the time of sowing late cabbage. For a later crop he makes another sowing a month later. These last usually begin to head about the last of November and are taken up and protected to furnish a supply during the winter. Mr. C. E. Swezey, of Suffolk County, says that more money is undoubtedly made to the acre on cauliflower than any other crop. He finds the early crop the most profitable, although the most expensive. For this crop he uses seventy-five tons of the best horse manure per acre, and for the late crop about half that amount. The variety he prefers is Henderson's Snowball, this with the Early Erfurt being the only kinds he uses. Francis Brill, in his book on "Farm Gardening and Seed Growing," said, in 1872, "For the past two years the farmers of the east end of Long Island, especially about the village of Mattituck, have planted largely of cauliflower, being incited by the successful experiments of some who have removed here from the west end, who were formerly engaged in growing vegetables for the New York markets. The past season the crop has succeeded admirably, and large profits have been realized by growers in this vicinity, and this by men, many of whom are inexperienced in the cultivation of this or any other vegetable for market; and, moreover, the most of it was grown at the worst possible season of the year. As a general rule, cauliflowers do not succeed well on old land, and much of the land hereabouts is new, and but little of it indeed has ever been used for cabbages or anything of this nature. But beyond a doubt it is the humid saline atmosphere of this section which makes the cultivation of this vegetable a success. Protracted drouths are here almost unknown, and even during the temporary absence of rain in the summer months the air does not seem so dry and withering, so to speak, as in sections more remote from the ocean, the Sound and the great salt water bays by which we are surrounded." The varieties he mentions are Early Erfurt and Early Paris for the first crop, the Nonpareil and [or] Half Early Paris for a succession, with Lenormand and Walcheren for late. The same author, in his work entitled "Cauliflowers and How to Grow Them," published in 1886, says: "The cultivation of cauliflower in the eastern towns of Suffolk County, N. Y., familiarly known as the east end of Long Island, was begun at Mattituck about sixteen years ago, upon a small scale, as an experiment, by one or two gardeners from the west end who were formerly engaged in growing vegetables for New York markets. The success which attended these experiments, and the subsequent efforts of some of our farmers, who by reason of reported great profits, were induced to take up the cultivation of this crop, has been an incentive to others, until at the present time an East End farm without an acre or more of cauliflower is an exception, while in the towns of Riverhead and Southold many farmers grow from five to fifteen acres each, and in the other towns of Suffolk County the business is largely on the increase. As a rule the crop has done well, subject of course to the ravages of insects, drouths, etc., which have at times been serious drawbacks; especially was this the case in 1884, when the crop was almost a total failure, but never before had we experienced such a protracted drouth or such an abundance of insects of every known species, and only those who were in advance of the drouth, or who had sown seed very late, succeeded in getting heads for market, but the few who were thus situated received almost fabulous prices for their product." The following year he says the crop was remarkably successful, more than 100,000 barrels being shipped from Suffolk county to the New York markets during the mouths of October and November. "Prices this year have ranged from ten dollars early in the season down to one dollar and twenty-five cents a barrel during the glut, when large quantities were sold to picklers at one cent per pound for clean trimmed clear curd or flower. As a rule early and very late cauliflowers bring the best prices. * * * * * Experience has taught us that stable manure applied at the time of planting, except for the earliest spring crop, is often injurious, and I advise applying stable manure plentifully to the crop of the preceding year, or otherwise let it be turned under at the fall plowing, or if well rotted at the first spring plowing, and at the time of planting apply commercial fertilizers, or, as they are sometimes called, patent manures, using whatever brand you may have the most confidence in. The competition between manufacturers has become so great that all are compelled to be at least partially honest, and several prepare a special fertilizer for cauliflower and cabbage which works admirably. Our best growers all use German potash salts, or Kainit, about 13 per cent. actual potash, one ton to the acre; or sulphate of potash, equal to 27 per cent. actual potash; or muriate of potash, equal to 45 per cent. actual potash, about one half a ton to the acre. The relative cost per ton, of these is $16.00 for Kainit, $38.00 for sulphate and $45.00 for muriate--these are present prices, but the market is subject to fluctuations. These should be evenly applied broadcast and turned under at the spring plowing, and from one half a ton to one ton of fertilizer to the acre should be applied in the same manner on the surface, and harrowed in at the last preparation of the soil. Of late many have been using fish guano, which is the scrap or flesh and bone refuse from the Menhaden oil-rendering establishments, in connection with potash salts, with excellent results; in fact Captain Edward Hawkins, of Jamesport, one of our most successful growers, uses nothing else, applying one ton of each to the acre. Very good cauliflowers have been grown by opening furrows, placing the fertilizer therein, and covering so as to form ridges; but I advise broadcast manuring and flat cultivation for this crop, as I am fully convinced that one acre in proper shape and condition will pay much better than two acres only half fertilized. Pure, fine ground bone, one ton to the acre, plowed under will be found beneficial, especially so in carrying the plants out at the time of heading, but it is scarcely stimulating enough for the early requirements of the plants. Well rotted stable manure may be used to advantage, freshly applied and plowed under, for early spring planting of cold-frame or hot-bed plants which are expected to mature before extremely hot-dry weather, but it has no special advantage except to warm up the soil. * * * The great crop with us is during the months of October and November, for which seed is sown from May 15 to June 25, and the plants set from the middle of June to the last of August according to the kind." The varieties named for spring planting are, "Erfurt Extra Dwarf Earliest," and "Small Leaved Erfurt," both being also good for the fall crop, the latter for this crop being sown as late as July 1st. The Algiers, a standard sort for fall, is sown from May 15 to June 1. Mr. Brill adds: "Every known sort has been tested by our growers, and I have had in one field eighty-six samples, comprising every known variety and sub-variety often repeated, grown from seed procured from every possible source, and with the exception of one or two sorts, which have done well under peculiarly favorable conditions and circumstances, all have been positively condemned except those above named." The varieties referred to are the Dwarf Erfurt strains (including Henderson's), the Algiers, and the Early and Half Early Paris--the latter two being now superceded by the former. C. H. Allen, in the _American Agriculturist_ for 1889, page 297, says: "No section of the United States seems so well adapted to the growing of the cauliflower as the northeastern part of Long Island, N. Y. For the earliest crop a piece of heavy sod ground is plowed during the month of April. It is then spread with fish scrap at the rate of one ton to the acre, which is thoroughly harrowed in. A strip is then prepared for sowing seed, by raking the ground until it is in good condition; the first sowing of seed is made May 15. The seed for the main crop is sown ten to twenty days later. When the plants are ready to set the ground is again plowed in an opposite direction from the first plowing and then spread with muriate of potash at the rate of half a ton to the acre, or if fish scrap cannot be procured, some standard fertilizer is used after the second plowing without the addition of muriate of potash. The Early Dwarf Erfurt and Snowball are the most popular varieties. The Algiers has been largely used, but for the past two or three seasons has done very poorly, and will not be grown in the future. The plants are set three feet apart each way. This applies to Erfurt and Snowball; Algiers requires the rows four feet apart." The _American Garden_ for 1889, page 59, says: "Almost nine-tenths of all the cauliflowers that come to the New York market are grown in Suffolk County on Long Island, and this industry is said to bring about $200,000 a year to the county. Success with cauliflower culture has been very indifferent in other parts of Long Island and elsewhere where tried." A New Jersey market-gardener described his experience as follows a few years ago in the New York _Tribune_: "Among the many uncertain crops, the cauliflower stands prominent, for very often under the best culture, it fails to produce a head on an acre, although the usual outlay for preparing and manuring the ground preparatory to planting will be at least twice as much as for a crop of late cabbage. But when a full crop of cauliflower is raised, the profits will average three times that of the cabbage in the same market. This being the case, it is not strange that every means known to the profession should be resorted to with the hope of getting year after year maximum crops of this vegetable. But, as yet, no plan has been discovered, under our burning July and August sun, that will make cauliflower head with certainty every season. Any practical man, with strong ground well manured, can every now and then raise a crop of cauliflower. But this partial success one year does very often prove a decided loss in the long run, for the reason that it often happens three times the amount realized from this crop will be spent in the attempt to raise another just like it, with the determination not to give up. This has been my experience, although the experiments are made now on a much smaller scale than formerly. Last year I set out 2,500 plants, and only marketed 500 from the patch; the failure was owing to late planting. To avoid any such mistake this year, the ground was made ready for planting early in July, and by the middle of the month some 1,800 plants set out. The ground in this case was richer and more mellow at the time of planting than last year, and the cultivation was about the same. At first these plants grew vigorously, but late in August they were checked from some unknown cause, and from this check they did not recover. Some of the lower leaves had turned yellow and dropped off, leaving the stalks almost bare, while others have made no new growth since. Judging from present appearances, there will not be twenty-five sizeable heads out of the 1,800 planted. This is rather discouraging, but one has to take the good with the bad in farming or gardening. Too late to remedy the error it was found that the variety planted was Walcheren instead of the Erfurt, a variety that has given me more profitable returns for the last six years than any other, unless it may be the Half Early Paris." In New England the crop is more uncertain than on Long Island. W. H. Bull, of Hampden County, Massachusetts, finds the crop profitable about one year in three. Formerly, he says, when cauliflowers were a new thing, any kind of a head would sell, but now only the best will bring a paying price. The loose, leafy, purple, or otherwise discolored heads produced in hot, dry weather, are hardly worth hauling to market. He finds the Extra Early Erfurt about as good as Henderson's Snowball. He sows the seed in April for a fall crop. If sown after the first week in May the plants fail to head before frost. Around Boston the cauliflower is grown quite successfully, and, as elsewhere stated, seed is occasionally produced there. The variety formerly grown for the main crop was an improved form of Early Paris, called Boston Market, but this is now displaced by the new Extra Early Erfurt strains. It may be mentioned here that around Montreal the fall crop is very successfully grown. THE LAKE REGION. In the region of the Great Lakes there are many localities having a suitable soil in which cauliflower may be grown to good advantage. The moist atmosphere, which renders much of this region so well adapted to the cultivation of fruit, favors the growth of the cauliflower. In this region the fall crop is the one mainly grown, and the half-early varieties, such as Early Paris and Early London have been chiefly used, though the earlier Erfurt varieties are now largely grown. Detroit, Grand Rapids, and other Michigan cities are comparatively well supplied with home-grown cauliflower. In Western Michigan there is considerable high, rolling land, of a deep loamy character, covered originally with a heavy growth of hard-wood timber. It was on such land as this, in Ottawa County, that the writer grew cauliflower very successfully between the years 1870 and 1884. The land had but recently been cleared of its timber, and it seldom received any other fertilizer than the heavy June-grass sod which was turned under. The method of preparing the ground was the same as for any other farm crop, and the plants, mainly of the Early Paris variety, were set out about the last of June, usually four feet apart each way. They were given good care, and generally began to head in September, at the time of the autumnal equinox, when there is usually a week or two of cool, rainy weather. Following this, early in October, there are generally a few hard frosts which injure some of the heads if they are not kept well covered and closely cut. The main cauliflower season then comes on, running through October and the first half of November. In a warm, late season nearly all the plants will have headed, and the heads have been sold before cold weather, but when winter comes on early, a portion of the plants will be still undeveloped; these are either gathered and stored, as elsewhere described, or used for feeding stock. My crop was marketed at Grand Rapids and Chicago, and was considered the finest sent to either of those cities. Its excellence was attributed mainly to the deep new fertile soil, which never suffered from drouth under proper cultivation, and to the moist climate, due to the surrounding forests and the proximity to Lake Michigan. At South Haven, on the immediate shore of Lake Michigan, the upland is mainly too heavy for the best growth of cauliflower. Mr. Sheffer says: (Mich. Ag. Rep. 1888, p. 287) "We have the advantage of cheap lands, cheap transportation to a boundless market, and a moist climate, all making celery and cauliflower desirable crops. For cauliflower, the proper soil is the first essential. If planted on uplands it will fail nine times out of ten, unless set so late as to head up just before winter. But it is better to grow it on low wet soils that can be ditched as far away as Philadelphia." In Kent County, with which I am familiar, the cauliflower is successfully cultivated by many gardeners, but, as the air is drier, more care is required there in selecting the soil, the crop being usually grown on bottom lands favorably situated with regard to moisture, and containing an abundance of vegetable matter. It is occasionally grown on muck, but such land is not as reliable as that of a heavier character. On the light, sandy, and gravelly uplands, which abound in this county, the cultivation of the cauliflower is seldom attempted, and always fails, except in unusually wet seasons, although when such land is heavily manured, the cabbage may be grown successfully. At Duluth, Minnesota, near the western end of Lake Superior, I have seen as fine cauliflowers growing as I ever saw anywhere. The soil was black loamy, upland. Mr. J. S. Brocklehurst, of Oneota, in the same county, considers his locality unsurpassed for the cauliflower. In Northern Wisconsin there is considerable territory which is excellent for cauliflower. In 1890, the first, second and third prizes offered by James Vick, for the best heads of Vick's Ideal were all awarded to growers in Eau Clare County, Wisconsin. The recent introduction of very early varieties is likely to have an important result in extending the cultivation of the cauliflower, in the extreme Northern States and Canada, where the soil and climate are in many places peculiarly adapted to it, but where the seasons are so short that it has not heretofore been successfully grown. Around Chicago much of the soil is unsurpassed for this vegetable, and large quantities of it are grown, but not enough to supply its local demand. The most successful cultivators of this vegetable near Chicago are the market gardeners in the Holland settlement south of the city, and the Germans on the north. All are more successful with the late crop than with the early. One of the most successful of these growers sometimes sets his plants as late as the first of August, using seed direct from friends in Holland. In Mahoning County, Ohio, which may be included, for convenience, in the Lake Region, Mr. Milton, who makes a specialty of the cauliflower, states that it is a good paying crop, but requires high cultivation, and if possible a moist soil. He states that he has tried all the varieties in cultivation, and finds a great difference in seed of the same variety from different growers. For the early crop he one year planted Henderson's Snowball, extra selected Early Erfurt, and Vick's Ideal, and found, owing to a drouth which set in just as the heads began to form, that the last variety was the only one which gave paying heads. For a late crop he generally uses Half-Early Paris, but has had good success with Algiers in a warm season. This variety must be started very early, however, in order to head before winter. THE PRAIRIE REGION. Prairie soil is usually well adapted to the cauliflower, and in favorable seasons a good crop is obtained, but such seasons are so little to be depended on in this region that cauliflower culture on a large scale is only profitable here under irrigation, or in restricted localities where the soil is naturally moist. The gardeners around St. Louis have good success in growing cauliflower on the bottom land. Professor L. R. Taft says, "During two of the years I lived in Missouri it was very hot and dry and on the heavy clay soil of most of the state cauliflower, as a field crop, was a failure. I had good success, however, by planting one foot apart in cold frames from which lettuce had been taken; they were watered as required and during the hottest weather were protected to some extent by means of lath screens." One disadvantage in this uncertainty of a crop in the West is its effect upon the market. A product which is rarely seen in the market brings a low price when abundant and fails to bring a high price in times of scarcity. Few people use it, and these do not become so accustomed to it as to be willing to pay a high price for it when it is scarce. Mr. Riche, of Iowa, tells in a report of the Iowa Horticultural Society, how, in 1884, he overstocked the Dubuque market with 8000 heads. A Mr. Smith relates how, a few years previous, he was obliged to sell 4000 heads for a little over one cent per head; yet in this same market more familiar products often bring high prices. Another Iowa gardener grew a field of cauliflower by mistake, having purchased the seed for cabbage, and found himself unable to sell the crop at all! In the irrigated districts of the West, cauliflower is grown to great perfection. One of the largest cauliflowers on record, four feet three inches in circumference, was grown in Colorado under irrigation in 1881. A moist atmosphere is less important than plenty of water at the root, especially at the time of heading, when it should be supplied, if possible, in small amount every day. The somewhat saline character of the soil in the dry regions also favors the growth of this crop whenever a sufficient supply of water is given. At the Colorado experiment station sixteen varieties were grown under irrigation in 1888 (see table under Variety Tests), of which Henderson's Snowball and Extra Early Erfurt gave the best results. At the Arkansas station, the following year, out of twelve varieties these two were the only ones that produced heads. At the South Dakota station, Henderson's Snowball and Haskell's Favorite, a variety apparently identical with it, gave good results. CAULIFLOWER IN THE SOUTH. The cauliflower, as a market crop, is but little grown in the South, but there is no good reason why it should not become extensively cultivated there. The chief hindrances to its cultivation in the South have been the lack of high priced local markets, and the liability of the heads to heat during transportation to the North. The most favorable localities for growing this vegetable in the South are near the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, especially near the mouths of rivers where there is an alluvial soil and a moist atmosphere. The cauliflower is better adapted than the cabbage to a warm climate, but heavier soil is required for it in the South than at the North. W. F. Massey, of the North Carolina experiment station, says that fall-sown plants are the only ones worth growing in that latitude. The seed should be sown in September. The crop should head not later than March or April, as the heat is too great after April for good heads. By forcing, the plants may be headed in the frames in winter. More heat and protection are needed for this than in merely keeping over the plants. When the plants are approaching full size a light dressing of nitrate of soda raked into the soil is used to push them along and check any tendency to button. Lettuce is usually grown in the frames between the plants while small. Dr. A. Oemler,[A] of Savannah, Georgia, says: "If this most delicate and most valuable member of the Brassica family, would 'carry' more safely at locations suitable for its cultivation, it would be one of the most important crops for the truck farmer. Although so situated, I have abandoned its culture, notwithstanding I have netted as high as $24.75 in New York per barrel for it, and the heads or 'curds' have sold at a gross average of thirty-seven cents each. Sometimes, however, it would continue to arrive in such bad order as not to be worth shipping. For the past two years its culture for the Northern market has been mainly confined to Florida. Coming so much earlier there, it is not exposed to heating in transit. The best varieties are Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt, the Snowball, and the very large growing Algiers. It should be marketable in March and April. The seed therefore should be sown in the latitude of Savannah about December first, under glass, and the plants transplanted about January tenth." Dr. Charles Mohr, of Mobile, Alabama, writes: "From my own experience I judge that this vegetable does not succeed as well in the southern part of this state as in its central and more northern parts. I have seen it raised of good quality in the gardens of Montgomery, and in the greatest perfection in the highlands of north Alabama at an elevation of about 500 feet above the Gulf--at Cullman, in a somewhat light loamy soil, well supplied with stable manure. In that locality the seeds are sown by the end of February in a cold frame, to allow protection of the young plants from frost, and the plants are transferred to the open land by the middle of March. They arrive at their perfection during the first half of the month of May. Another sowing is made during the first week of March to furnish a crop during the early part of June. In that locality this vegetable is raised only to meet a very limited home demand. My informant at Montgomery, who raises only a supply for his own use, writes: 'I have raised cauliflower here with success for a series of years, some of the heads weighing six to seven pounds. The soil of my garden is a light sandy loam, requiring heavy manuring, and frequent irrigation of the plants toward the time of heading; it cannot be said to be exactly suited to this vegetable. I get my seed (the White Snowball) from Peter Henderson, of New York, sow in December in hot-bed, transplant as soon as large enough to a cold frame, and transplant as soon as danger of frost is over, say about the first part or middle of March, to the open ground, which has been well prepared and manured with stable manure. I cultivate the same as for cabbage, and the crop matures about the first of May.' "One of the most successful market gardeners and truck farmers in this vicinity [Mobile], says: 'We have cultivated cauliflower for a long series of years, but find it much less profitable than the raising of cabbage; first, on account of its tenderness, making it liable to be injured in transportation to distant markets, and second, by reason of repeated failure of the crop in consequence of the too early advent of spells of hot and dry weather at the opening of the warm season. We sow in November in cold frame, keep well thinned out under glass until about the 20th of January, then transplant to the open ground, cultivating well with frequent watering if the weather should be dry. If the months of April and May are dry and hot the crop results in a failure, from which, in our dry and thirsty soil, no irrigation will save it. In favorable seasons we have fine results, raising heads from ten to sixteen inches in diameter. In the perpetually damp and inexhaustibly fertile soil of the alluvial lands in the Mobile River delta (marshes drained by ditching) the cauliflower is raised in the greatest perfection, and is ready by Christmas time for the home market, bringing fancy prices. In such localities the early varieties, particularly the Early Paris, are used, the seed being sown in August. Outside of these marshes the early varieties are not grown, as they produce only small and meagre heads. Among the later varieties we find Algiers and Lenormand the best, buying the seed from Vilmorin in Paris.'" Mr. J. N. Whitner, in his work on "Gardening in Florida," recommends Early Snowball, Extra Early Paris, and Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt. The seed is sown in boxes in autumn and protected from beating rains, and if sown before the middle of October the plants are also protected from the direct sun during the middle of the day. The main crop is planted out before the first of November, and harvested the following spring. In the northern portion of the state the plants are sometimes injured by the cold in winter. The crop is not yet extensively grown in that state. In regard to suitable soil, Mr. Whitner says: "In this state almost every truck farmer has some low rich spot of bottom, lake or river margin suitable for the production of the cauliflower. It must, however, be well drained land, and no matter how fertile it may _seem_ to be naturally, a liberal supply of manure will more certainly insure handsome flower heads." Mr. Frotzer, a New Orleans seedsman, says of the cauliflower: "This is one of the finest vegetables grown, and succeeds well in the vicinity of New Orleans. Large quantities are raised on the sea-coast in the neighborhood of Barataria Bay. The two Italian varieties are of excellent quality, growing to large size, and are considered hardier than the German and French varieties. I have had specimens brought to my store, raised from seed obtained from me, weighing sixteen pounds. The ground for planting cauliflower should be very rich. They thrive best in rich, sandy soil, and require plenty of moisture during the formation of the head. The Italian varieties should be sown from April till July; the latter month and June is the best time to sow the Early Giant. During August, September and October, the Lenormand, Half Early Paris and Erfurt can be sown. The Half Early Paris is very popular, but the other varieties are just as good. For spring crop the Italian kinds do not answer, but the Early French and German varieties can be sown at the end of December and during January, in a bed protected from frost, and may be transplanted into the open ground during February and as late as March. If we have a favorable season, and not too dry, they will be very fine; but if the heat sets in soon, the flowers will not attain the same size as those obtained from seeds sown in fall, and which head during December and January." In the _Texas Farm and Ranch_, H. M. Stringfellow, of Hitchcock, Galveston County, gives an account of his success with American grown (Puget Sound) seed of Henderson's Snowball cauliflower. He says: "After two years careful trial, I have found this seed every way superior to the original imported stock, good as that was, for our hot climate. The plants are much more robust, make equally as compact but larger heads, and what is most remarkable, they mature here fully two weeks or more ahead of the imported seed. Nearly every plant will make a marketable head, and they always sell for fully double as much as cabbage. "These American seeds begin to head about the first of November, and are nearly all gone by Christmas, which gives ample time to get the crop off in any part of Texas. "The cauliflower is emphatically a fall vegetable and seems to require for its perfect development a gradually decreasing temperature. The seed should be sowed from the first to the fifteenth of July, in a frame. Make the ground very rich, and if you use salt, which I consider almost an essential for this crop, turn it under deeply at the first plowing. In fact, salt and potash had better be deeply worked into the soil always, as it will not do for either to come in contact with the roots of a newly set plant. "Until recently I have always thought that it would injure a plant to set it in soil to which cottonseed meal had been lately applied. But experiments made in the last few weeks prove that it is not only not injurious, but that cabbage plants grow off with wonderful vigor when the meal was applied the day before the plants were set. "It will pay to subsoil for cauliflower, in order to give them all the moisture possible, though they will stand a drouth in the fall equally as well as a cabbage." In this connection may be mentioned the following account of cauliflower growing at Durango, Mexico, sent to the _Gardener's Chronicle_ in 1853: The writer says: "Of the culinary vegetables, none excel the cauliflower, which attains such a size that a single head measures 18 inches to 2 feet in diameter, and makes a donkey load. The gigantic cauliflower is not distinct from our European species, but is solely produced by a cultivation which necessity has dictated. Being one of the Northern vegetables that degenerate or bear no seed if not annually procured from Europe, it is propagated by cuttings. After the heads are gathered the stubs are allowed to throw out new shoots, which are again planted and have to grow two years, producing the second, the enormous heads." The following from Woodrow's "Gardening in India," (4th edition, Bombay, 1888), contains many interesting points of suggestive value for the extreme South: "Cauliflower, being a delicate plant, always needs great care and attention in its cultivation, but much less care is necessary in this country than in Europe. The soil most suitable is a rich friable loam, such as occurs in the black soil of the Duccan, the alluvial tracts in the basin of the Ganges or Nerbudda. Thorough working of the soil is necessary, and in stations where the market price of cauliflower is usually over four annas per head, as is the case in many parts of Southern India, the crop is well worth extra care in the preparation of the soil. This process should be begun shortly after the rains, when the soil is easily plowed or dug. It should then be turned up roughly to a depth of a foot or fifteen inches. A month later the clods should be broken with the mallet or clod crusher, and the plow put through the ground a second time. When the soil has weathered a few weeks, the scarifier or cultivator should be run over it once monthly until May. At that time good decayed cow dung or poudrette should be spread one inch deep, and any close growing crop which is not valuable, such as _sunn_, _tag_, _chanamoo_, or _Crotolaria juncea_, should be sown to keep down weeds and encourage the formation of nitric acid in the soil, which has been proved to be effected to a greater extent under a crop than on bare soil. During dry weather in August the crop should be pulled up and the ground plowed or dug and the crop buried in the trenches to act as green manure, and the land prepared for irrigation. The seed-bed should be prepared by thorough digging and mixing about an inch in depth of old manure; wood ashes and decayed sweepings having a quantity of goat or sheep dung in it is well suited for the seed-bed at this season. Cow dung is apt to have the larva of the dung beetle in it--a very large caterpillar which destroys young plants by eating through the stem under ground. The bed having been thoroughly watered, the seed may be sown broadcast or in lines, and covered with a quarter of an inch of fine, dry, sandy soil, and shaded from bright sunshine. When the seedlings appear, gradually remove the shade. The most convenient form of bed is not more than four feet in width, the length being sufficient for the ground to be planted. One ounce of seed is sufficient for a bed fifty feet square, which will give sufficient plants for an acre if the seed is good. Sowing should be made once in ten days, from the middle of August till the end of September. If the garden has been neglected, or the district remarkable for the quantity of grubs that yearly come out in August, spread a considerable part of the garden with a thick coating of stable litter or dry leaves and burn it, prepare the seed bed in the middle of the burnt space, and soak two pounds of saltpetre in water for one hundred square feet, and water the bed with it for at least two weeks before sowing the seed. When the seedlings have acquired about five leaves, and the ground to plant is ready, lift the young plants gently on a cloudy day, and plant them out two and one-half feet apart each way. If bright sunshine comes out, shade the newly moved plants with broad leaves, and water them daily with the watering pot for a few days, besides irrigating sufficiently to keep the soil moist. Afterwards, hoeing, picking grubs and replacing the losses from the seed-bed must be attended to. The selection of sorts is a serious matter in cauliflower culture, because many sorts grow only to leaves in some climates, and great loss has been met with by some people in consequence of getting the wrong variety. The variety known to English seedsmen as Large Asiatic, has established itself in the Northern Provinces, where a good head of cauliflower is procurable in December for one-half anna. In Bombay the same would cost ten times that sum. The seed of this variety is remarkably cheap in the districts it bears seed in. From Shajehanpore I bought large quantities at Rs. 2 per pound, while the price of seed from England was Rs. 2 per ounce. This sort is perfectly reliable when properly cultivated, but it is considered inferior in flavor and delicacy to English sorts, and its season is very short. It appears to run to seed when January comes, at whatever time it may have been sown, while English varieties come into use from the beginning of December to the end of February according to the date of sowing. Among European varieties, success will generally be met with by sowing Early London and Walcheren. The different Giant and Mammoth varieties advertised in seedsmen's catalogues should be grown as extras, and if one is found to suit the soil and climate of a particular station, it may be grown more extensively afterwards; my experience with those varieties has not been happy." THE PACIFIC COAST. Fine early cauliflowers are grown in California under irrigation, and marketed as far east as Chicago. Oregon and Washington include a large area adapted to cauliflower growing, and this favorable territory extends northward into Alaska. The cool, moist climate of the Upper Pacific coast resembles that of England, where cauliflowers are so extensively grown. There are few good markets yet in this region, but the rapid growth of the cities which exist affords promise of a large future demand for this vegetable, which is likely to come into more general use as it becomes better known. Professor E. R. Lake, of the Oregon experiment station, states that some parts of the Oregon coast are well adapted to the cauliflower, but that other interests and lack of transportation facilities have thus far prevented its cultivation for market, the bulk of the crop sold there coming from California. He adds that the Chinese in the vicinity of Portland cultivate this vegetable, but that their peculiar methods are not yet understood. Some ten years ago experiments were begun by one of our seedsmen in raising cauliflower and cabbage seed on the alluvial tide lands on the shore of Puget Sound. These lands, after being diked and drained, proved to be remarkably well adapted to the growth of the cauliflower and its seed. Others have since engaged in growing these seeds in the same region, and the business is assuming large proportions. An account of this enterprise may be found in the chapter on Seed. FOOTNOTES: [A] Dr. Oemler is the author of an excellent work entitled "Truck Farming in the South." His farm is on Wilmington Island, in the mouth of the Savannah River. CHAPTER VI. INSECT AND FUNGUS ENEMIES. The insect enemies of the cauliflower are the same as those which attack the cabbage and other related plants. The four here mentioned require to be specially guarded against. In preparing these notes I am indebted to Mr. L. O. Howard, of the Department of Agriculture, at Washington, for essential aid. FLEA BEETLE (_Phyllotrea striolata_, Fabr).--This insect, also known as the "ground flea" or "Jack," seldom attacks the plants except while growing in the open ground, and is most troublesome in warm, sheltered situations. A safe preventive, therefore, is to grow the plants in beds or frames elevated about three feet from the ground. The objection to this method, aside from the extra labor involved, is the necessity of almost daily attention to see that the soil does not dry out. A supply of water must be conveniently at hand if this method is used, and it is desirable also, to prevent the beds drying out too quickly, to have the earth at least eight inches deep. In hot-beds this insect is seldom troublesome, being probably repelled by the fumes from the manure used. When the seed is sown in the open ground, as practised by many large growers, an extra quantity should be used to ensure against almost certain loss of some of the plants by the flea beetle. The soil should be rich and fine, so that the plants will pass the critical stage as quickly as possible. Sowing radish seeds with the cauliflower is practised by some, as this seed costs but little, and the radishes, coming up first, are attacked by the fleas, which, to some extent, saves the cauliflowers. When the fleas appear, almost any kind of dust will keep them in check somewhat. Lime and ashes are used, but plaster, which adheres to the leaves better, seems equally good. I have had good success with rancid fish oil, mixed as thoroughly as possible with water and sprayed upon the plants. An emulsion made of the oil, in the same manner as hereafter described for kerosene, would enable it to be used to better advantage. A decoction of tobacco, or fine tobacco dust, are standard remedies for this insect. CUT WORMS.--Cauliflower plants being fully twice as valuable as cabbage plants, and it being of more importance to have them started at the proper time, it is necessary to give greater care to protect them from cut worms. Absolutely clean land contains no cut worms, but such land is seldom used on which to plant cauliflower. Sod land, which is generally used, is nearly always full of cut worms. A multitude of remedies have been proposed for this pest, but few of them are of much value. The worms are most abundant and destructive in the latitude of New York during the month of May. Fortunately, cauliflowers are usually set out either earlier than this, for the early crop, so that they become well established and out of reach before their depredations seriously begin, or else, for the late crop, they are set toward the last of June, after the worms have begun to pupate, and are no longer troublesome. Until recently, digging and killing the worms by hand seemed to be almost the only practical remedy. Of late years, trapping the worms under bunches of grass or cabbage leaves, scattered over the ground preparatory to setting the plants, has been successfully resorted to. An improvement upon this method, recommended by the Entomologist of the United States Department of Agriculture, is now in use, and gives excellent satisfaction. It consists in poisoning with Paris green the leaves used to trap the worms, so that there is no need to collect and kill the worms by hand. A good way to do this is to spray with Paris green, in the usual way, a patch of young clover, then cut it and scatter it in small bunches over the cauliflower field a day or two before setting the plants. For the protection of a few plants in the garden, an effectual preventive against cut worms is to surround the stem with a cylinder of paper or tin. This need not touch the plant. One should expect to lose some plants, however, by cut worms, and be prepared with good plants to fill the vacancies. CABBAGE MAGGOT (_Anthomya brassicæ_, Bouché)--Dr. J. A. Lintner, State Entomologist of New York, says of this insect: "This is probably the most injurious species of the _Anthomyiidæ_, as its distribution is very extensive, both in Europe and America, and it has shown at times such capacity for multiplication as to cause the entire destruction of cabbage crops. It commences its attack upon the young plants while yet in the seed-bed and continues to infest them, in several successive broods, until they are taken up in the autumn. The larvæ operate by consuming the rootlets of young plants, and by excoriating the surface and eating into the rind of older ones, or even penetrating into the interior of the root. When they abound to the extent of seriously burrowing the stalk the decay of the root frequently follows in wet seasons, and entire fields are thus destroyed." The same insect attacks the turnip, cauliflower, and probably other plants. A closely related species is very injurious to the radish. The presence of the insect most frequently becomes manifest upon the cauliflower about two weeks after the plants are set out, and is recognized by the plants ceasing to grow, and wilting or assuming a bluish appearance. Such plants should be at once removed, together with the earth immediately surrounding the root, and fresh plants which have been held in reserve set in their places. The only satisfactory remedies are preventive ones. The seed-bed should be composed of soil taken from the woods, or at least from some place where no cabbages or similar plants have been grown. But the most important precaution is to avoid growing the crop year after year upon the same ground, especially after the insect has made its appearance. The following remedy, given by Francis Brill, in his pamphlet on "Cauliflowers," is worthy of careful trial. Mr. Brill says: "The ravages of the root maggot have made the growing of early cauliflower, and even early cabbages in many sections, almost an impossibility, but there is a remedy, when the maggot has attacked the roots of the plants, which may be known by a tendency of the leaves to wilt and droop in the heat of the day, very much the same as when affected by club root. Dissolve Muriate of Potash (analyzing 45 per cent. actual potash) in water in the proportion of one tablespoonful to the gallon; or double the quantity of Kainit or common potash salts (13 per cent. actual potash). Apply this directly to the roots, about one gill to each plant, whether seemingly affected or not, for the maggot will have done much harm before the plant will show it, repeating the application as occasion may seem to require. In sections where these maggots have been prevalent it will be well to make a solution of half the above strength, and when the plants are nicely started apply in the same manner as a preventive. Care and judgment must be used not to overdo the matter, thereby killing the plants as well as the maggots. Experiment a little at first." H. A. March, of Washington, says: "The best thing that I have found for the maggot is a _poor_ grade of sulphur, sulphur before being purified, that _smells very strong_. Sprinkled over the plants it seems to drive the fly away." CABBAGE WORM (_Pieris rapæ_, Koch).--The imported cabbage worm, now known all over the country, is the most troublesome enemy which attacks either the cabbage or cauliflower, and the most difficult one with which to deal. It seldom wholly destroys the crop, and is generally a little less destructive after a few years than it is at first, being kept in check by its natural enemies. It never disappears, however, and its numbers cannot be materially diminished for any length of time by artificial means. Among the partial remedies in use are the following: 1. Catch the butterflies with a net when they first appear in spring, before they have laid their eggs. This may keep the insect in check for a year or two when it first makes its appearance, as the butterflies are comparatively slow fliers, and may be caught without much difficulty by a spry boy, especially in the morning when the air is damp. 2. Early in the season keep the young plants excluded from the butterflies, and the whole place free from everything else of the cabbage tribe, except one or more patches of rutabagas or rape, on which the butterflies will lay their eggs. This piece is to be then plowed under. 3. Hand pick the worms from the plants after they are set out, for the first one or two hoeings, or until the worms become very numerous. 4. Spray with kerosene emulsion, made by using two gallons of kerosene, one-half pound of common or whale oil soap, and one gallon of water. Dissolve the soap in the water, and add it, boiling hot, to the kerosene; then churn, while at least warm, for five or ten minutes, by means of a force pump and spraying nozzle, until the mixture loses its oiliness and becomes like butter. When used, dilute one part of the emulsion with about fifteen of water, and spray it upon the plants by means of a force pump and spraying nozzle. This emulsion is also excellent for the cabbage louse and many other insects. In the report of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1883 may be found a description and figure of a suitable spraying apparatus. 5. Pyrethrum, one ounce to four gallons of water; or, better still, mixed one part with about twenty parts of flour and applied while the dew is on, is an effectual remedy. 6. Hot water, at 130° Fah., will kill the cabbage worms and not injure the leaves. Boiling water, placed in sprinkling cans and taken directly to the field, will be about the right temperature by the time it can be applied. Experiments with a few plants may be needed to enable one to get just the right temperature to kill the worms and not injure the plants. 7. Take half a pound of London purple to thirty pounds of finely pulverized dust of any kind, the finer and drier the better; mix thoroughly, passing all through a meal sieve. Dash a small pinch into the heart of the plant, so that it will settle as dust on all the leaves. Repeat after every rain. Half a pound will serve for one application over forty acres. Store any that remains in a very dry place until again wanted. 8. Professor Gillette, of Colorado, finds the best remedy to be Paris green, thoroughly mixed, one ounce with six pounds of flour, and dusted lightly over the plants while the dew is on. FUNGUS DISEASES. There are several parasitic fungi which are more or less destructive to the cauliflower at different stages of its growth. The principal diseases of the cauliflower due to fungi are the following: STEM ROT.--This is an old disease, which attacks the cauliflower, cabbage and other vegetables in wet seasons. It has received various other names, such as "consumption," "humid gangrene," etc. Professor Comes,[B] who has studied this disease in Italy, believes it to be the same as the "humid gangrene" which occurs in Germany, and which is there attributed to the parasitic attack of the fungus known as _Pleospora Napi_. He finds this and other fungi present, but does not himself consider them the direct cause of the disease, which he attributes solely to the abundance of manure and moisture in the soil, and an excess of water in the plant, at a time when it is subject to sudden changes of temperature. Beyond a doubt, however, the real cause of the disease is the presence of one or more fungi, whose development is favored by the damp weather. The subject requires further study. In this country this disease has been reported from Michigan, New York, Maryland and Florida. On Long Island, in 1889,[C] the cauliflower crop was almost entirely destroyed by this disease, which was attributed to the heavy rains at the time the plants were heading. Some fields were a total loss, and from the best fields many of the heads spoiled before they reached the market. No satisfactory remedy is known for the disease. The avoidance of damp soils and locations would be of some benefit, but is hardly practicable with the cauliflower. Wide planting is practiced on Long Island in order to diminish the tendency to the disease. It undoubtedly has this effect to some extent, by permitting a more free circulation of the air, thus drying up the moisture on the plants and thereby lessening the opportunity for the germination of the spores. The increased distance may also diminish the chance of the spread of the spores from plant to plant. When this disease appears upon the early crop in hot-beds or cold frames it may be kept somewhat in check by giving as much air as possible, and taking care not to apply water to the leaves. DAMPING OFF.--This is usually due to a species of Pythium (a fungus closely related to that which causes the potato rot), which attacks the young plants soon after they germinate. The remedy is, to give the plants plenty of air until their stems become strong enough to resist its attacks. An additional precaution sometimes employed is to grow the plants in pans or small boxes and water them only by setting these in a tank of water of nearly the same depth, allowing the water to soak into the soil, but not touch the plants. The disease is seldom troublesome on plants grown thinly in the open air. If it makes its appearance, water thoroughly, but not too often, and sprinkle dry sand over the seed-bed among the plants.[D] BLACK LEG OR MILDEW.--This is a disease which attacks the stems of young plants which are being wintered over. It is undoubtedly due to one or more species of parasitic fungi, but I do not find that the subject has been studied. Doubtless the rupture of the bark by alternate freezing and thawing gives the fungi an opportunity to attack the plant. The disease is prevented and kept in check by keeping the seed-bed dry. An occasional dressing of sand, lime, wood-ashes or rubbish of any kind, is useful. FOOTNOTES: [B] _Bull. Soc. Bot. France, 1886_ (_Rev. Bib._, p. 128). La cancrena del Cavolo Fiore (_La gangrene humide du Chou-fleur_) par M. le Professor O. Comes (_Atti del R. Instituto del incorraggiamento alle Scienzie naturali._--Estratta dal Vol. IV, 3a serie, degli Atti Academici, 1885). [The Humid Gangrene of the Cauliflower.] "A disease which attacks the crops of cauliflower around Resina and at Torre del Greco, near Naples. The roots of the diseased plants remain sound, or at least appear so, but the subterranean parts of the stem are more or less seriously affected; the bark is disorganized, the wood situated beneath it more or less decomposed, and the pith destroyed for a variable length. Upon microscopic examination the vessels are found filled with gum. M. Comes recognizes in this disease all the symptoms of the affection which has been designated under the name humid gangrene. He thinks that it is the same disease which, by German authors, is attributed to the parasitism of _Pleospora Napi_, Fuckel, or to its conidiferous form, _sporidesmium excitosum_, Kuehn. But he considers the presence of these parasites as an accessory phenomenon, as well as that of _Cladosporium_ and _Macrosporium Brassicæ_. In his opinion the true cause of the alteration of the cauliflower is the humid gangrene, that is to say, a gummy degeneration and putrid fermentation of the tissues, caused by the abundance of manure in the soil and the excess of water in the plant at a time when it is subject to sudden changes of temperature. "This disease is not confined to cauliflowers; it is common in all garden vegetables, and is of the same nature as that which attacks tomatoes and which was described by this author in the same journal in 1884." [This disease is also mentioned by Victor Paquet, in his "Plantes Potagers" (London, 1846, p. 243), where it is attributed to stagnant moisture]. [C] _Country Gentleman_, 1889, p. 769, (from the _Port Jefferson Times_, Sept. 27): "Close upon the heels of a partial failure of the potato crop through rotting comes the news from various points on Eastern Long Island that the cauliflower crop has almost totally failed through the same cause. In Manorville the crop has not sufficiently developed in some of the fields to warrant picking, and in Mattituck and east of that place the rotting will result in an almost total loss. In a few cases there is not yet any indication of rot, but the farmers are afraid to tie the plants up lest rotting ensue. "In East Moriches, Orient, and the near vicinity, the yield will not be of sufficient value to pay for plowing the ground, not to speak of the other expenses which have been entailed. Through the Hamptons careful observations failed to reveal scarcely a single successful crop. "Last Saturday Henry T. Osborn, of East Moriches, tied up 2,000 heads and on Monday he cut enough to fill 30 barrels. He let them lie in his barn over night, and the next day not a barrel of them was fit for shipment to market. "George Cooper, of Mattituck, planted seven acres of cauliflower which he thinks will prove a total loss. And so on the reports come from many East End farmers. The recent heavy rains are generally assigned as the cause of the failure." [D] A series of articles upon "damping off" may be found in the _American Garden_ for 1889, pp. 347-9. CHAPTER VII. CAULIFLOWER SEED. With no vegetable is it more important to have good seed than with the cauliflower, and in none is there a greater tendency to deteriorate. On this account less dependence is to be placed upon named varieties than in some other cultivated plants, and greater need is required to secure carefully selected strains. Owing to peculiarities of soil, climate and season, and the different degrees of care given by the different growers, seeds of the same variety may be better from one source than from another. On this account, when a variety is found adapted to one's needs it is well to use the same variety, and obtain it from the same source year after year. Cauliflower seed is mostly grown in Europe, chiefly in Holland and Germany, to some extent in Italy and France, and less in England. One variety, the Large Asiatic, seeds abundantly in Northern India. There are a few localities where the seed is successfully grown in the United States. In Europe the dwarf early varieties are chiefly grown in the north, and the large late varieties at the south. In the south the seed is most easily grown, and southern seed brings the lowest price. McIntosh states that cauliflower seed seldom ripens in Scotland. In England, as I have said, it is grown to a limited extent, but not so much as that of broccoli. The seed plants are there selected in June, at the time of heading, and allowed to stand until the seed matures. Mr. Dean states that his Early Snowball produces in warm, early seasons better seed in England than anywhere else. Loudon, in his "Encyclopædia of Gardening" (5th Ed., 1827) quotes Neill, as saying that "Until the time of the French Revolution, quantities of English cauliflower were regularly sent to Holland and the low countries, and even France depended on us for cauliflower seed. Even now English seed is preferred to any other." A later English writer states that the English prefer Dutch seed and the Dutch English seed. Most of the seed now used in England, as well as nearly all of that sold in this country comes from Holland, France and Germany. The climate, especially of Holland and North Germany, is particularly favorable for the production of fine strains of seed, especially of the dwarf early varieties. McIntosh ("Book of the Garden," 1855, Vol. II, p. 116) says: "Our best cauliflower seed is imported from Holland, and for its quality we have much greater reason to thank the better climate than the growers, who are not over particular in the matter, as Dutch cauliflower seed is sure to sell." The Mediterranean varieties are generally large, and require for the most part too long a season to be popular and successful in this country. As dwarf varieties have been produced, the cultivation of this vegetable in Europe has extended farther north. As already stated, when the cauliflower was first cultivated in France the island of Cyprus was the only place where it was known to seed, and for a time the plant was known in England under the name of Cyprus Colewort. Although most of the seed used in the United States is still imported, American grown seed appears to give good satisfaction and is moderate in price. Professor W. J. Green, of the Ohio experiment station, who tested Puget Sound seed in 1889, reported as follows: "The most remarkable examples [of the superiority of Northern grown seed] are found in the Puget Sound cabbage and cauliflower seed, which show great vitality and consequent vigor in growth of plant. We have received numerous samples grown in that region by H. A. March and A. G. Tillinghast, brother of Isaac Tillinghast, the seedsman. These seeds were very large, full of vitality, and the plants uncommonly vigorous. At transplanting time the plants were nearly twice the height of others of the same variety, while the difference in color was very marked. This robust habit continued to manifest itself during a greater part of the season, but as maturity approached, the variation was less and less marked, until at last the others had caught up, and there was no perceptible difference." No change in time of maturity or habit of growth was noticed. Mr. Brill, of Long Island, states that to secure seed there it is best to winter over the partially headed plants in a cold frame or cellar, and set them out early in the spring. The summers are so warm there, however, that except in particularly favorable seasons but little seed forms. Several excellent early varieties have originated on Long Island, and there is reason to believe that hot, changeable climates, though unprofitable for the growing of seed, are particularly favorable for the production and maintenance of early sorts able to head in hot weather. It is perhaps for this reason that England, Denmark, and Central Germany have produced more early varieties than Holland, France and Italy. The dry calcareous soil of some parts of England appears to be particularly favorable to the production of early varieties. In the vicinity of Boston, cauliflower seed has been grown to some extent, especially the variety known as Boston Market, which was formerly very popular there. James J. H. Gregory writes me under date of March 3d, 1891, that he raised 60 pounds of seed of the Boston Market from 500 plants, where from the same number of plants of the Snowball and Extra Early Erfurt, grown under precisely the same conditions, he obtained less than a great spoonful. The seed was raised on an island used expressly for that purpose. It is a custom in England and Holland, where the season is too short for the seed to ripen perfectly, to diminish the number of seed-stalks on a plant by cutting out the centre of the head. The flower-stalks require to be supported by stakes, and when the seed is nearly mature, to be guarded from birds. A plaster cat is recommended as a good scare-crow, especially if its position is changed every few days, so that the birds will continue to think that it is alive. Cauliflower seed, as is well known, is smaller and inferior in appearance to cabbage seed, and always contains a considerable proportion, which is shrunken and worthless. This poor seed is removed from the crop as much as possible before it is sold. This shrunken condition arises from the fact that a large share of the flowers fail to set, and many of the pods only partly fill. Shrunken seed is no indication of inferiority of variety, in fact rather otherwise, for the most compact heads, being the most deformed from a structural point of view, give the least amount of good seed. Still, it is not necessarily true that the highest priced seed is always the best and most economical to use. A new variety, until it becomes well established, requires rigid selection, and this so reduces the amount produced that a high price can be obtained for all that is grown. An older variety, on the other hand, which has become so well established, and comes so true that nearly every head is perfect and will furnish good seed, can be supplied at a cheaper rate and may for a given purpose be equally good. As a rule it may be said that the newest and highest priced seeds are too expensive to use on a large scale, and the cheapest seeds are inferior in quality. One should not judge of the value of a variety wholly by the price at which its seed is sold. Most of the high priced varieties are dwarf kinds, which are becoming more and more popular in this country, but which produce comparatively little seed. Our varieties of cauliflowers have all been developed by means of selection. Desirable features have either been acquired by gradual selection through successive generations in a given locality; or some sudden variation has been preserved and perpetuated. Climate, as already stated, has had much to do in developing certain peculiarities. The varieties of Italy, France, Holland and Germany have in each case certain features common among themselves which can only be accounted for by the influence of the particular climate in which they are grown. It is, therefore, useless to attempt to maintain these characters wholly unchanged in other climates. Hardiness, earliness, certainty of heading, protection of the head by leaves, and shortness of stem, can all be increased by selection, but, as they are all likewise influenced by climate, the selection is more effective in some climates than in others. The varieties of the south of Europe are as a whole characterized by a long period of growth, tall stems, great vigor and hardiness, and by having the leaves inclined to grow upright and protect the head. The cauliflower crosses readily with the cabbage and other varieties and species of the genus Brassica. It does not usually flower at the same time, however, as other members of the genus, so the difficulty is not usually great in keeping it pure. In France the cauliflower has been crossed artificially with cabbage, turnip and rutabaga, in the attempt to obtain varieties of greater hardiness. Numerous peculiar forms were the result of these crosses, some of which were good cauliflowers, said to be of increased hardiness, but none of them have found their way into general cultivation. One of these, owing to a cross with the turnip, acquired the flavor of that vegetable. A full account of these crosses may be found in the _Revue Horticole_ for 1880. The following remarks, by Mr. A. Dean, of England, on a case of apparent crossing in the cabbage tribe will be read with interest: "A very pretty conical-headed plant of a Colewort was allowed to run to seed, but nothing else of the same family was known to be in flower for a distance of at least several hundred yards. The produce was saved and sown, and has been furnishing food for the table during the past winter, but what a progeny! Some were reproductions of the seed parent, but larger, and proved very handsome early cabbages; others were very fair Coleworts; others bad examples of Cottager's Purple Kale, others Green Kale, while others resembled sprouting Broccoli, both green and purple. One plant was an example of the once popular Dalmany sprouts, and there were many other plants that admitted of no classification. It is probable that bees, which travel long distances, had somewhere found some sprouting in Broccoli flower and had brought pollen from those to the Colewort plant in question." Spontaneous variation has given a number of curious forms of cauliflower, including one with several heads in the place of one, and another in which the head is flattened sidewise, like the garden cockscomb. These forms have not been cultivated. Cauliflower seed contains on an average about 7,000 seeds to the ounce, of which about one-half usually germinate, a much smaller per cent. than in cabbage. Long Island growers estimate two ounces of seed to the acre as a safe amount for the small varieties and an ounce and a half for the late varieties. It was formerly a common belief, especially in England, that old seed would be most likely to produce good heads. There is little evidence to support this belief, and just as little ground for the more recent belief held by some that old seed is particularly liable to produce loose worthless heads. Like all other seed cauliflower seed ought to be as fresh as possible; fresh seed always germinates best and gives the most vigorous plants. Seed two or three years old, however, is generally satisfactory, and it will often grow successfully at double that age. "CAULIFLOWER SEED GROWING ON PUGET SOUND." By H. A. March, Fidalgo Island, Puget Sound, Washington, in _Rural New Yorker_, 1888. "I am told by very good authority that cauliflower seeds had never been grown in the United States as a field crop to any extent until we made a success of it here on Puget Sound. In the first place a very cool, moist climate is necessary to cure [secure] seeds at all. That climate we have here on our low flat islands lying in the mouth of the Gulf of Georgia. We often have heavy fogs in the night, and always dews equal to a light shower every night all summer long. The first expense attending the raising of cauliflower seed is quite heavy. The soil must be a rich, warm loam facing the south, and it will be all the better for having a clay subsoil. We must have the land underdrained once in twenty feet, the drains being three feet deep, to give us a chance to work early in the spring, and also to take off the surplus water when we come to flood the land in July. "To prepare the land for the crop we start in September. After the fall rains have softened the soil, plow, harrow, roll, harrow again, then replow and work it again, until the soil is as fine as an onion bed. Now we throw it into ridges, six feet apart, and it is ready for work in early spring. For manure we sow 2,000 pounds of superphosphate and ground Sitka herring, equal parts of each, to the acre. With two horses and a Planet, Jr., cultivator we work the ridges until they are nearly level. By using two horses we straddle the ridge, and save tramping it where our plants are to go. "To get the plants, we sow the seeds about September 1, in rather poor soil, giving them plenty of room; the rows being a foot apart and the seeds sown thinly in the rows. This gives us stocky and hardy plants, which, we think, are less liable to damp off when transplanted. About November 1 we transplant the plants into cold frames, six inches apart each way, as we wish to keep them growing a little all winter. The glasses are kept on at night and through heavy rains. In case of a cold snap, we cover the glasses with mats; but that is not often necessary, for we seldom have a temperature colder than 16° above zero. Everything depends on good plants and an early start in the spring, for we raise two crops the same season, and an early frost on our unripe seed is sure to ruin the crop. Now, to set the plants out and make them grow from the start, a line is stretched along one of these flat ridges, a boy goes along, and with a three-foot marker marks the spots for the plants; a man follows with a hoe and makes a hole, about the size of a quart dish, to receive each plant. During the winter we have gathered up 200 or 300 tomato and oyster cans, melted off the tops and bottoms, leaving tubes about five inches long by three or four across. Now, armed with a light wheelbarrow with a wooden tray, containing from 50 to 75 of these cans, we go to the cold-frame (having well soaked it with water the night before); take a can, set it right down over the plant; press the can into the soil about two inches, and, with a light shove to one side, lift the plant without disturbing the roots; fill our tray and start for the field; run the barrow between two rows and set a can and plant in each of the holes just made. A boy follows with a watering pot containing _warm_ water, and pours a gill into each tube, which softens the soil so that the tubes can be lifted right out, leaving the plant standing in the hole. We brush a little dirt around the plant, and firm it with the blade of the hoe. "Now we have our plants set, and not one ever wilts in the hottest spring day. In two or three days the cultivator is started and kept a going once a week until the heads begin to form. We hand-hoe three or four times, besides fighting insects. The cabbage maggot is our worst enemy. "When the flowers commence to bloom out or form heads, is the most particular time. A man who thoroughly understands what a perfect cauliflower is, must now go through the field every two or three days and examine every head, and if there is any sign of its growing in quarters, or if a leaf is growing through the head, or if there is any looseness in its growth, the heads are staked and cut for market. For, as like produces like, it will never do to get seed from an inferior head, especially in the case of cauliflowers; for the seeds from these are more apt to run wild than any seed I ever grew. We usually set a Fottler cabbage in the place from which the poor plant has been cut, and it makes a fine head by fall. "By the middle of June we have the field clear of all inferior heads, and their places filled with late cabbages. About this time all the heads saved for seed are 'sponging out' preparing to throw their seed-stalks. Now is our time to help them. On the upper side of the field, we have wooden water tanks, each holding about 20,000 gallons of _warm_ water. The water is run into the tanks in the middle of the day through flat open troughs, which heat it up to about 70° Fah. It is taken through canvas hose over the field, and the soil is soaked to the subsoil. Now our underdrains come into play, for all of the surplus water is drained off in about three days, and we can start the cultivator. We cultivate close up to the plants. If we break the leaves off it doesn't matter, for they fall off anyway as soon as the seed stalks start. This watering gives the plants new life and they start off for a second crop, or become biennials the first year. The watering and cultivation are kept up once in 10 days until the seed-stalks are so large that they cannot be run through without breaking the plants. The seed ripens from the middle of September to the last of October, according to how good a start was made in the spring. "The expense and trouble are not over yet. The seed is ripening about the time our rainy season sets in, and we don't see the sun once a week on an average, so that our seed must all be dried by fire heat. Our dry-houses are 30 x 20 feet, and 18 feet high with 2 x 6 inch joists running across the houses in tiers, on which we hang the seeds for drying. A brick furnace is built in the middle of the house, with the flue running through the roof. "We usually make three cuttings. As soon as the pods on the center stalks begin to turn yellow, and the seed a light brown, we make our first cutting. From one to three plants are put in a pile and tied with binding twine. The bundles are taken to the dry-house on wheelbarrows, made with racks on purpose for carrying the seeds. A cloth is spread over the rack to catch any shelling seeds. A man carries about 100 bunches at a load and passes them up to a man in the house who hangs them on nails driven for the purpose. The seed is allowed to hang a few days to thoroughly ripen before firing up. We aim to keep the heat in the top of the house at about 80° until the seed and stalks are dry. "The bundles are now taken down and laid upon a cloth where they are crushed by walking on them. Grain sacks are then filled with the stalks and pods as full as they will tie up, and the contents are thrashed in the sacks with a flail. The seed is then sifted from the stalks and taken to the fanning-mill, and after putting it through the mill two or three times, we set the boys to rolling it. For this purpose we have a board two and a half feet long by one foot wide, with thin strips nailed on the sides to keep the seeds from rolling off. A boy sits down on a cloth with a pan of seed by his side, and holds one end of the board in his lap, while the other end rests on the cloth. He puts a handful of seed on the top end of the board and gently shakes it. All of the sound plump seeds run off on to the cloth, while the shriveled seeds, bits of stalk, dirt, weed seeds, etc., remain on the board. A smart Indian boy will clean ten pounds a day, at a cost of 50 cents and his board. Now the seed is sacked in double cotton sacks, holding about ten pounds each, and is ready for market." In a subsequent paper the same writer said, in answer to inquiries upon the subject, that the cauliflower and cabbage readily mixed, but that there was little danger of their doing so in his locality, as the cabbage was nearly out of flower before the cauliflower began to blossom. To make the matter certain, however, boys were sent to every neighboring cabbage patch to clip off all straggling late blossoms that remained. Only one variety of cauliflower, or strains of one variety, is grown by him for seed in any one year. The following letter from the same writer explains itself: "FIDALGO, Washington, April 3, 1891. "MR. A. A. CROZIER, Ann Arbor, Mich. "_Dear Sir_:--Your letter of inquiry received. In answer would say, I am the original cauliflower raiser in the Puget Sound country. In 1882 I discovered that by wintering the plants over in cold-frame, and keeping them growing all winter, those that were transplanted _without wilting_ would form heads, and then throw seed-stalks in time to form seed before frost, if they were continually wet with tepid water after heading. The first seed that was put on the market was sold by Francis Brill, Riverhead, L. I. Since then I have furnished some of the largest firms in the country with seed, and the seed has given perfect satisfaction. There is a secret in raising good seed that I don't care to give away. Several of my neighbors have tried to raise the seed, and I believe some of it has been put on the market, but it has proved inferior for the want of skill in knowing _which heads_ to seed from, as all heads will not do to seed from, even though they may appear perfect to an inexperienced eye. It's skilled labor that produces No. 1 seed. "I enclose you my circular, with reports from growers and dealers, also quite a few from the experiment stations. I have a large number that I have not printed, as they came too late for this year. The business has grown from a few pounds in 1882 to nearly 300 pounds in 1890. I think in the near future, that Puget Sound will grow all of the cauliflower seed that will be grown in the country. Cabbage seed is also grown to a large extent. I raised about two tons last year, and there probably will be ten tons raised on Puget Sound the coming summer. "Cabbage and cauliflower are grown to a considerable extent both in Oregon and Washington, though California sends our first to this market. "You ask me for an account of my Early Perfection or "No. 9." It was a _sport_ or a "stray seed," found among some Erfurt Earliest Dwarf imported seed, and being the first in the field to form a head by over a week, I naturally saved it for "stock seed," and as it propagated itself perfectly, and was perfection itself, I named it Early Perfection. I am not aware of another by the name of Perfection on the market--never saw it in the seedmen's catalogues. Early Padilla and Early Long Island Beauty, by Brill, are the same; they originated with me, are a selection from _Erfurt Large_, and are _early_ and _large_. "All of Tillinghast's Puget Sound cauliflower seed has been grown by me. I have also grown all that Francis Brill has put on the market. "D. M. Ferry & Co.'s Early Puritan originated with me, from a sport of Henderson's Snowball. I sold them the stock for two years. "Yours Truly, H. A. MARCH." CHAPTER VIII. VARIETIES. The varieties of cauliflower differ among themselves less than those of most other vegetables, and their characters are less firmly fixed. Their tendency to degenerate, especially under unfavorable conditions, and the readiness with which they may be improved by selection, has given rise within recent years to numerous so called varieties, some of them but slightly differing from those from which they originated. These have frequently received the names of the seedsmen who first sent them out. Many of these seedmen's varieties have dropped out of cultivation, as well as other varieties which have appeared from time to time, but which have not possessed sufficient distinctive merit. Some varieties, from not having been kept up to their original standard, have reverted to those from which they sprang, or become so like them that their names have come to be regarded as synonyms. Nevertheless, all such names have been brought together in the following catalogue, and all the obtainable information given concerning the varieties which they represent. The testimony given is sometimes contradictory, either from want of proper observation on the part of the writers quoted, or from differences in the seeds sold under the same name. This is necessarily somewhat confusing to one who is looking up the merits of a variety, but it will form a better basis for judgment than would a mere descriptive list, without reference to dates or authorities. It is practically impossible to make a satisfactory classification which will include all the varieties, and they have therefore been arranged here in alphabetical order, as being most convenient for reference. Nearly all of the most popular varieties have, however, characters sufficiently distinct so that they can be easily recognized. Some have short stems, others long; some are early, others late; some have upright leaves, others drooping; their color varies from grassy to bluish green; the heads vary from snow-white to cream-colored, and in two or three varieties classed with the cauliflowers they are reddish or purple, as in some of the broccolis. The form of the head varies from flat to conical. Most of our varieties have come from a few stocks whose characters, as well as those of their descendants, seem to have been largely determined by the locality in which they originated or have long been grown. The Algiers, Paris and Erfurt groups are examples. In each of these groups there is a series of varieties, differing mainly in size and earliness. In the Erfurt group the production of early varieties has been carried farthest, owing doubtless to the character of the climate, as well as the greater skill employed in their selection. The early varieties, particularly of this group, are characterized by having comparatively small, narrow and upright leaves, and a rather short stem. A partial list of varieties, arranged in the order of earliness, follows the catalogue. ADVANCE, see _Laing's Early Advance_. ALABASTER.--Introduced to the general public by Johnson Stokes in 1890. In their catalogue for that year these seedsmen say: "Our _Early Alabaster_ was originally a sport from the finest German strain of the selected Dwarf Erfurt, one extra fine head appearing some ten days in advance of any other in the crop of one of the largest and most expert cauliflower growers on Long Island in 1881. The seed of this was carefully saved by him, and from it our stock has been brought up." The seed of this variety has all been grown on Long Island, and it was all taken by Long Island gardeners until 1889, at which time there were said to be hundreds of acres of it in cultivation in Suffolk County, where it originated. [See Frontispiece.] ALGIERS, (Probably includes _Large Algiers_ and _Large Late Algiers_).--Vilmorin, in 1883, described Algiers as follows: "Extremely vigorous, stronger and better developed than the Giant Naples, [Veitch's Autumn Giant]; leaves very large, undulate, almost curly, of a very deep and reflective glaucous green; stem large and strong, rather tall; head remarkably large, fine and white. In habit of growth it approaches the Half Early Paris, but in time of maturity it agrees with the varieties of Holland and England. It is especially adapted to open-air culture in a warm climate." M. May, of France, placed it in 1880 just before Giant Naples in maturity, with a little shorter stem and little less ample foliage. He said: "Late, but of gigantic size; leaves large, long and numerous, of a glaucous green, and surrounding well the head, which becomes as large as those of our native varieties, and is snow-white and exceedingly fine. Specially suited to warm climates. In our country it may be sown in September, and gathered the following August." Rawson, a seedsman of New York, said in 1886: "A large and very popular late variety, and one of the very best for the market. This variety is largely grown for the New York market. It is one of the largest in cultivation, and always sure to head." Frotzer, of New Orleans, describes it as a French variety of the same season as Lenormand Short-stem, but a surer producer, having taken the place there of other second-early kinds since its introduction. At the Ohio experiment station it proved unsuited to the climate. A writer in the _American Agriculturist_ for 1889 stated that this variety was formerly largely grown in Suffolk County, Long Island, but that for the past two or three seasons it had done poorly, and would not be grown in the future. Its large size required the plants to be set four feet apart. ALLEAUME (_Early Alleaume_, _Dwarf Alleaume_).--This variety, originated by an intelligent market gardener of Paris; was, according to the originator, one of the best for cultivation under frames. Cultivated there in the open ground, that is to say, sown in June and planted out in July, it has given remarkably good results. It is a little below medium height, and has a very short stem. Its oblong leaves are of a light grayish green. The head is of medium size, very white, fine grained, of first quality, and early. It is a variety of great promise. This is the statement of the editor of _Revue Horticole_ in 1884. In 1888, Mr. Sutton, of England, calls it a distinct, dwarf, compact, French variety, having creamy-white heads, and coming in after Sutton's Favorite. In 1890, Vilmorin quotes it as a very early dwarf, short-stemmed variety, especially good for forcing. In 1885, W. A. Burpee offered an "Extra Early Alleaume," which he described as "stem very short, leaves long, _entire_ or _very little lobated_, of a grayish-green color, forming a close protection to the head, which is large, fine grained and pure white." This is probably the same variety as above. ALMA (_Waite's Alma_).--Hackett sells this as a new English variety of large size, firm, and surpassing in excellence the Walcheren. There was, however, a variety named Alma, probably the same, growing at Paris in 1857 (see _Jour. Cent. Soc. Hort. France_, 1857, p. 422). In 1865 Waite's Alma was considered by some to be merely the Early London, and by others to be the same as Walcheren; at least, seeds of these two varieties had been sent out for it. AMERICAN.--Seed of a very early variety bearing this name was sent by William Ingell, of Oswego County, New York, to the editor of the _Country Gentleman_, in 1861. Mr. Ingell, who named the variety, does not state whether he grew the seed or not. In 1889, Bailey's "Annals of Horticulture" contained the name "American," with _American Beauty_ as synonym. ANCIENT LENORMAND, see _Lenormand_. ASIATIC (_Early Asiatic_, _Large Asiatic_, _Large Late Asiatic_, _Dur d'Angleterre_).--These seem to be substantially one variety, the terms "early" and "late" being in this, as in some other cases, applied by different seedsmen to the same variety, when, as in this case, it is of intermediate season. Since the introduction of such extremely early sorts as the Extra Early Erfurt, this and other mid-season varieties are more often called "late." The Asiatic seems to have originated from the Early London, of which it is regarded as merely a stronger growing and later variety. The first mention I find of it is in _Hovey's Magazine_, in 1845, where Large Asiatic and Walcheren are called the two most noted varieties. In 1849 the same magazine states that it was sent out by the London Horticultural Society. In 1850 a writer in the _Gardener's Chronicle_ mentions this and Walcheren as his two favorite varieties. In 1854, J. D. Browne describes the Large, Late Asiatic in the report of the United States Department of Agriculture as larger and taller than Early London. In 1855 this variety is mentioned in the American edition of "Neill's Gardener's Companion" as having recently come much into use. As this edition was taken from the fourth Edinburgh edition, the actual date here referred to was probably much earlier. Three other varieties, scarcely differing in character, are mentioned--the Early, Late and Reddish-stalked. The Large Asiatic is now extensively grown in Northern India, where it seeds freely, but has a short season, and is not considered as delicate or fine in flavor as the ordinary English varieties. AUTUMN GIANT, see _Veitch's Autumn Giant_. BALTIC GIANT.--In Burpee's "How to Grow Cabbages and Cauliflowers" (1888), Mr. J. Pedersen, of Denmark, gives the following account of this variety: "A new variety of large, late cauliflower, originated in these northern regions, and which I propose to name Baltic Giant, is very hardy, of robust growth, and produces very large and solid dazzling white flower-heads. A friend of mine writes from the Baltic island of Bornholm that in mild seasons he has left this splendid late variety in the open ground as late as Christmas, only protected by a leaf or two bent over the heads." The variety is being tested in this country by W. A. Burpee & Co. BERLIN DWARF.--Rawson says: "In earliness, size and quality it resembles the Snowball." Gregory, in 1890, makes the same statement. BEST OF ALL.--An early variety mentioned in _Gardening Illustrated_, 1885, p. 438. BLACK SICILY (_Large Black_, _Dwarf Early Violet Broccoli_).--Vilmorin says: "In growth and appearance this variety somewhat resembles Algiers. Stem rather tall, leaves very large, broad and much crumpled, almost curly; differs from all other cauliflowers in the color of its head, which is violet, and with a grain much coarser than in other varieties, while it is sufficiently close, solid and large. Not very late; always grown in the open air, and ready to commence cutting in September." Mentioned in _Bon Jardinier_, in 1859, as one of the three principal Broccolis, with which it is generally and properly classed. BOSTON MARKET (_Improved Early Paris_).--This variety, which has now gone out of existence, was formerly extensively cultivated around Boston, where it originated by continued selection from the Early Paris. In the _American Journal of Horticulture_, for 1869, p. 92, is a figure and description. BURPEE'S BEST EARLY.--An improved type of Dwarf Erfurt, named and introduced by W. A. Burpee & Co. in 1886, after, as they say, sixteen years selection by one grower. It is said to be of dwarf, compact growth, with a short stalk, and large, solid, nearly globular heads, very early and certain to head. The Dingee & Conrad Company sell the same variety. At the Ohio experiment station in 1889, this variety was regarded as probably the same as Large Erfurt, rather large, and a few days later than Early [Extra Early] Erfurt, but quite as good in other respects. At the Colorado station, in 1888, "Burpee's Earliest" was noted for its large leaves and white, compact heads. It headed ten days later than Henderson's Snowball. CARRARA ROCK.--An extra selected strain of Erfurt, said by Wm. Elliott & Sons, of New York, to be the earliest and surest variety to head. CARTER'S DEFIANCE (_Early Defiance_).--Gregory considers this a fine variety for forcing or very early use. CARTER'S DWARF MAMMOTH.--An early variety, coming in just after Carter's Defiance. Plant dwarf, head very large, perfect in form and of fine color. CARTER'S EXTRA EARLY AUTUMN GIANT.--A variety said, in 1889, to have large, close, white heads, both flower and leaf being less coarse than those of Autumn Giant. CARTER'S MT. BLANC, see _Mt. Blanc_. CHALON PERFECTION. A variety mentioned in _Gardener's Monthly_, in 1886. Said to be as white as snow, almost as smooth as ivory, and to make good heads in soil of moderate fertility. Probably the same as Early Dwarf Chalon, which see. CHAPEL (_Chapel's Cream_).--Catalogued in Bailey's "Annals of Horticulture," in 1889. CLARK'S CHAMPION.--An imported English variety mentioned in _Vick's Magazine_ for 1887, p. 52, as being a little later than Snowball and Vick's Ideal. CYPRUS.--Said by Wolfner and Weisz, of Vienna, in 1888, to be a beautiful early sort. It is an old Holland variety. DANISH SNOWBALL.--Offered by Vaughn, in 1891, who says he has tested it for two seasons, and finds it a good, extra early sort. DEAN'S EARLY SNOWBALL.--This, the oldest, and for a long time the most popular of the Snowball varieties, has now been displaced in this country by Henderson's Snowball and other early sorts. It is often said to be earlier than Early Dwarf Erfurt, but at the Chiswick trials, in 1876, it did not prove to be so. A writer in the _Garden_, for 1880, places it third on the list of early varieties, placing Carter's Extra Early Defiance first, and Veitch's Extra Early second. It appears to be fully as dwarf as the earliest Erfurts, and to have a little larger head. It has been said, even by the introducer, to be the English duplicate of the Early Dwarf Erfurt, but there is no doubt of its distinctness from that variety, as was afterwards recognized. There was another German variety, however, name not given, at the Chiswick trials referred to, which was reported to be identical with Dean's Snowball. Mr. Dean says: "The Snowball may be told by one unfailing test, viz.: when the heads begin to burst into flower, they become suffused with a pretty purple tint." This variety was introduced into England in 1871, by Mr. A. Dean, from Denmark, where it was largely cultivated. It is still one of the best early varieties, especially for hot weather and light soils. Mr. Dean states that it is about the only variety of which seed can be grown in England, and he considers English-grown seed of this variety the best. DICKSON'S ECLIPSE, see _Eclipse_. DREER'S EARLIEST SNOWSTORM.--Henry A. Dreer, in 1890, says in his catalogue: "The earliest and best of all for forcing. It is dwarf, with short outer leaves, and can be planted two feet apart each way; always sure to make large, fine heads earlier than any other, and is the market-gardener's favorite. This variety must be kept growing constantly, as it will not stand a check at any period of its growth." In 1891, he writes that this variety is a strain of Extra Early Erfurt, the seed of which is grown at Erfurt, Germany. At the New York experiment station, in 1888, it produced heads fit for use eighteen days later than Henderson's Early Snowball, and Earliest Dwarf Erfurt. DWARF ERFURT (_Extra Early Erfurt_, _Early Dwarf Erfurt_, _Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt_).--These names all refer to practically the same variety, which is usually sold in this country under the name of Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt, and is now the most popular early variety grown. It is similar in habit to its parent, the Early Erfurt, but more dwarf, and the leaves smaller and more upright, allowing the plants to be set closer together. The heads are close and well formed, but do not remain solid long, owing largely to the hot weather in which they are generally formed. The best seed comes from Erfurt, Germany, but as the variety rapidly deteriorates, there is great difference between the selected and ordinary stocks. Johnson & Stokes say, in their catalogue for 1890, that their extra selected Early Dwarf Erfurt is distinct from the Early Dwarf Erfurt. Burpee calls his Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt "the finest of all early cauliflowers." He, as well as some other seedsmen, sell different qualities, "extra selected," "true," numbers "one" and "two," etc. French-grown seed sells for about half the price of German seed. At the Chiswick trials, in 1876, where all known varieties were grown, the Early Dwarf Erfurt proved to be the earliest variety grown. It is best grown as a summer variety, being rather tender for a late crop, though sometimes used. M. May, in the _Revue Horticole_, for 1880, describes this variety as follows: "Early Dwarf Erfurt. Very early, with light-colored, short, upright, spoon-shaped leaves, which surround the head well, but do not cover it. The head is well rounded, very regular, of remarkable whiteness, and very fine and close. It readily attains a diameter of fifteen to twenty centimeters [about five to seven inches]. This variety is especially adapted to forcing, as its small size permits it to be readily cultivated under glass. The best times for sowing it appear to be at the beginning of spring and the end of summer. One may also sow it in September to obtain a crop in April and May." Mr. J. Pedersen, of Denmark, speaks as follows of this variety in Burpee's work on "Cabbages and Cauliflowers:" "The success with cauliflowers depends greatly upon the right choice of varieties. This year, for instance, we have in this country suffered from drouth to an extent not known of for the last score of years, and yet I have seen a surprisingly grand field of cauliflowers, of an improved strain of the Early Dwarf Erfurt variety, grown in a stiff clayey soil, very dry in the surface, not in the best state of cultivation, and without any artificial watering whatever. The roots of the plants were 'puddled' when planted out; that was all. I do not believe that seven per cent., perhaps not five, of said field of thirty or forty thousand plants failed to make fine, large, solid, beautifully white and typical heads. Other varieties have either utterly failed, or made stunted, imperfectly developed heads." At the New York experiment station, in 1882, the Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt was slightly earlier than the Early Dwarf Erfurt, and produced double the proportion of good heads. The Ohio experiment station, in 1889, reported as follows: "The varieties or strains most highly recommended are Early Puritan, Early Padilla, Long Island Beauty, Early Sea Foam, Early Snowball and Vick's Ideal. These all appear to be nearly identical with Early [Extra Early] Erfurt, and may be considered as strains of that variety." As the Dwarf, or Extra Early, Erfurt has furnished a large share of the varieties now popular in this country, the following list of Erfurt varieties will be useful for reference. The first three are in the order of earliness; the others (descended from Dwarf Erfurt,) being alphabetical: Early Erfurt Mammoth. EARLY ERFURT. _Dwarf Erfurt._ Alabaster (Johnson & Stokes). Berlin Dwarf. Best Early (Burpee). Carrara Rock. Gilt Edge (Thorburn). Ideal (Vick). Imperial. Lackawanna (Tillinghast). La Crosse Favorite (Salzer). Landreth's First. Long Island Beauty (Brill). Model (Northrup). Padilla (Tillinghast). Prize (Maule)? Puritan (Ferry). Sea Foam (Rawson). Small-Leaved Erfurt. Snowball (Faust). Snowball (Henderson). Snowball (Thorburn). Snowstorm (Dreer). Snowstorm (Pearce)? EARLY.--At the New York experiment station in 1888, a variety called "Early," from the English Specialty & Novelty Seed Co., was the only one among nine varieties which failed to head. The Early London White is sometimes known as "Early." EARLY ALLEAUME, see _Alleaume_. EARLY DEFIANCE (Sutton), see _Carter's Early Defiance_. EARLY DUKE.--Mentioned as one of the best four early varieties for Central France in the _Annales de la Société d' Horticulture de l' Allier_ for 1852. See Lefevre. EARLY DUTCH.--An old variety, described by Vilmorin as follows: "A large hardy variety, suitable for field cultivation. Stem long and rather slender; leaves elongated, but very large, of a grayish green, somewhat undulated. This is one of the varieties in which the side of the leaf is bare at the base for a considerable distance. The head is hard and solid, yet very large. It is a half-late variety. In its original country it does better than the French varieties and it is cultivated on a grand scale around Leyden. Large quantities are shipped to England, where it is found in the London markets, together with cauliflowers from the coasts of France, and especially Great Britain. The name Dwarf Holland, which is given to this variety in Germany, can only be explained by comparison with other Holland varieties. In comparison with the French varieties it is tall." EARLY DWARF CHALON.--Vilmorin catalogues this as "new" in 1889, and says: "Stem very short, head rather large, grain white and very close. Specially recommended for open air culture." See Chalon Perfection. EARLY DWARF FORCING (Sutton).--No description. EARLY DWARF SURPRISE.--An early variety from Vilmorin, which headed well at the New York experiment station, in 1884. EARLY DWARF VIENNA.--Said by Wolfner and Weisz, of Vienna, to be an old superior sort, still grown for the first and second crop. EARLY ERFURT (_Erfurt_, _Large Erfurt_, _Large Early White Erfurt_, _Late Erfurt_).--This is still a popular variety, but less hardy and less valuable as a late sort than the improved varieties from the south of Europe; and as an early sort it has been displaced by its offspring, the Extra Early Erfurt, and the newer varieties derived from that. The heads of the Early Erfurt are large and fine-grained but more inclined to be open and leafy than those of Early Paris. It is a little earlier than that variety. Vilmorin describes the Early Erfurt as follows: "Very early, distinct, and valuable, but difficult to keep pure. Below medium height; stem rather short; leaves oblong, entire, rounded, and slightly undulated; of a peculiar light grayish green, which, added to their form and their rather erect position, gives to the plant an appearance somewhat resembling that of the Sugar Loaf. Head very white, fine grained, rapidly developed, but not inclined to remain long solid." The _Bon Jardinier_ mentions the Erfurt, in 1859, among the novelties as the earliest variety then known, being two weeks earlier than Salomon (Early Paris) and very suitable for forcing on account of its straight, upright leaves and earliness. EARLY ERFURT MAMMOTH (_New Erfurt Dwarf Mammoth_ [Burr], _etc_).--F. Burr, in 1886, said: "A recent sort with large, clear white flowers, of superior quality. The plants are low and close, and generally form a head, even in protracted dry and warm weather. It appears to be one of the few varieties adapted to the climate of this country." This form of Early Erfurt has not been kept distinct. EARLY FAVORITE.--A variety without description is sold under this name by A. B. Cleveland & Co. See also Haskell's Favorite. EARLY GERMAN.--"A new variety advertised in English Catalogues:"--(_Mag. of Hort._, 1838, p. 50). EARLY LA CROSSE FAVORITE.--John A. Salzer offers this as earlier than Henderson's Early Snowball, and "the earliest, finest, whitest and most compact grown." At the Ohio experiment station in 1889 it was apparently the same as the ordinary large Early Erfurt. Mr. Salzer writes me that it is a distinct type of his own originating from the Early Erfurt. EARLY LEYDEN, see _Walcheren_. EARLY LONDON (_London Particular_, _Fitch's Early London_, _Early English_, _Large Late_.)--An old sort, still quite popular in both the United States and England. Vigorous and hardy, with large, abundant, deep-green, undulated foliage; stem rather tall, but shorter than that of Early Dutch; head well formed and somewhat conical. Formerly the main variety grown as an early crop about London, but there are now varieties much earlier. Vilmorin regards it the same as Early Dutch, which is evidently an error. EARLY LONDON MARKET (Gregory), see _Early London_. EARLY LONDON WHITE (Sutton).--An early form of Early London, cultivated some twenty years ago, but now seldom heard of. EARLY PADILLA (_Long Island Beauty_).--The Early Padilla was named and sent out by Tillinghast in 1888, who says that it is a sport from Henderson's Snowball which originated on one of his seed farms on Padilla Bay, Puget Sound, in the State of Washington. Mr. H. A. March, of Fidalgo, Washington, who states that he grows all of Tillinghast's Puget Sound cauliflower seed, says that Early Padilla originated with him from the Large Erfurt, and was named by him the "American." It was published at first under this name in one of his circulars. Seed of the same was also supplied by him to Francis Brill, of Long Island, who named it and sold it as Long Island Beauty. At the New York experiment station in 1888, the Early Padilla equaled in earliness Henderson's Snowball, and was slightly surpassed by Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt, while the variety obtained as Long Island Beauty was the earliest of the nine early varieties on trial. At the Ohio experiment station in 1889, Long Island Beauty was called a very perfect strain of Early [Extra Early] Erfurt. Gregory said in 1890: "Of the thirteen varieties of cauliflower raised in my experimental plot in 1888, every specimen of the Long Island Beauty made fine heads, and the heads averaged larger than any other sort. It is among the very earliest.... Mr. Brill calls it, 'absolutely and unequivocally the best cauliflower in the world.'" EARLY PARIS (_Tendre de Paris_, _Salomon_, _Petit Salomon_).--An excellent sort, more largely grown for a fall crop in this country in the past than any other variety. Intermediate in season between half Early Paris and the new Extra Early Paris. As grown by the writer from seed obtained for several years of James Vick, the Early Paris was later than Early Erfurt, but more certain to head, the heads more globular, a little smaller, decidedly lighter in weight than those of that variety, of better quality, and almost entirely free from intermixed leaves. Sown about May 10, and set out the last of June, most of the plants formed their heads during October. As a summer variety it produces better heads than the Early Erfurt, but is less inclined to head early in the season. Described by Vilmorin as follows: "Plant small, rather tall; leaves comparatively narrow, nearly straight, a little deflexed at the extremity, and slightly wavy at the border; head of medium size, quickly formed, but remaining firm but a short time. This variety is particularly suitable for the summer crop; sown in April or May it heads in August or September." In this country, when used as a fall crop, no complaint is made of the heads not remaining firm. Sown in May in the latitude of New York it heads in September and October. M. May, of France, describes this variety as follows in the _Revue Horticole_ for 1880: "An early variety grown by gardeners in the outskirts of Paris. It has nearly the appearance of the Half Early Paris, but is smaller, with a little shorter leaves, which are more narrow and upright. It is sown in September, and Wintered over under hand glasses on a bank composed of manure from an old hot-bed and exposed to the south. The crop is then gathered during May. It may also be sown in March and gathered in July." Victor Paquet, in his work on Vegetables (_Plantes Potagers_), published at Paris in 1846, gives a full account of cauliflower culture and says: "We cultivate two distinct varieties, _tendre_ and _demi-dur_. The sub-varieties _gros_ and _petit_ Salomon are sorts of the _tendre_." Richard Frotzer, of New Orleans, catalogues the Extra Early and the Half Early, but not the Early Paris. Mr. Gregory, of Massachusetts, states that most of the seed sold in the United States as Early Paris is really the Half Early. In a recent letter he says: "The Early or Half Early Paris is now about dead, the various strains of Extra Early Erfurt, such as Snowball, Sea Foam, etc., having taking its place." D. M. Ferry & Co. sell a variety called "Early Paris or Nonpareil," the latter name having been first given by J. M. Thorburn & Co. to the Half Early Paris. There is no doubt, however, of the Early and Half Early Paris being two varieties. The former, which has so long been a favorite in the Northern States may still be relied upon, though in many cases, as stated, it is being displaced by the Extra Early Paris, and particularly by the Extra Early Erfurt and varieties derived from it. EARLY PICPUS.--Catalogued by Vilmorin in 1889 as a new early variety with large white heads, good for field culture. EARLY PURITAN.--A little the earliest of four varieties at the New York experiment station in 1889, the others being Early Erfurt, Snowball, and Vick's Ideal. At the Ohio station the same year it was considered to be a strain of Early [Extra Early] Erfurt and one of the best of its class. D. M. Ferry & Co., the introducers of this variety write me as follows regarding its history: "The Puritan cauliflower originated as the product of a particularly early, large-headed, and dwarf-growing plant found in a large crop of Snowball during the summer of 1886. The seed from this plant was saved, and selections made from the product until a sufficient quantity was secured. It was first noticed and selected by one of the largest cauliflower growers in this country, and great care was taken in selecting and seeding the plant. It is purely American, both in origin and growth." It appears from the letter of H. A. March, on page 122, that this variety originated with him from Henderson's Snowball, at Fidalgo, Washington. EARLY SNOWBALL.--Under this name Dean's Early Snowball is generally known in England, and this is probably the variety often sold as Snowball in the past in this country. Henderson's Early Snowball is, however, now sold under that name by many seedsmen, and is the one sent out as Early Snowball by the United States Department of Agriculture. Seedsmen sometimes prefix their own name, to the variety or strain of Snowball which they sell. All varieties bearing this or similar names are, so far as known, of the Dwarf Erfurt group. EARLY WALCHEREN, see _Walcheren_. ECLIPSE.--The first notice I find of this variety is in the _Gardener's Chronicle_ for 1877 (Vol. VIII), where it is mentioned as being sent out by Dickson Brown & Tait. It is similar to Veitch's Autumn Giant, but about three weeks earlier. It is said to be a fine variety, with large heads, well protected by the leaves, and to stand drouth well. At the Ohio experiment station in 1889, the heads were invariably loose and sprangled. ERFURT, see _Early Erfurt_.--The Erfurt varieties are characterized by light pea-green color, and stiff, more or less upright leaves. EXTRA EARLY ALLEAUME, see _Alleaume_. EXTRA EARLY DWARF FORCING.--Probably the _Dwarf Erfurt_. EXTRA EARLY ERFURT, see _Dwarf Erfurt_. EXTRA EARLY PARIS.--This variety is not described by Vilmorin in his _Plantes Potagers_, but it is probably the one given in his catalogue under the name of "Extra Earliest Paris (forcing)." It is catalogued by the leading American seedsmen without description. FAUST'S EARLIEST SNOWBALL.--H. G. Faust & Co., say in their catalogue for 1890: "Our Snowball cauliflower is undoubtedly the best in cultivation. It is the earliest grown, produces the finest snow-white heads, and its compact habit enables it to be planted closer together than any other variety." FAVORITE, see _Early La Crosse Favorite_, _Haskel's Favorite_, and _Early Favorite_. FRANKFORT GIANT, see _Veitch's Autumn Giant_. FRENCH, see _Large White French_ and _Half Early French_. FRENCH IMPERIAL (Thorburn), see _Imperial_. FROGMORE EARLY FORCING.--An old variety, described by F. Burr, in 1866, as follows: "Stem quite short, and plant of compact habit. The heads are large and close, and their color clear and delicate. Recommended as one of the best for forcing, as well as an excellent sort for early culture." In 1876, a writer in the _Country Gentleman's Magazine_ mentions it as the earliest variety grown, to be followed by Early London. It is now, however, but little used. GERRY ISLAND.--A variety said by Gregory to be a very reliable header, closely resembling Early Paris. At the Colorado experiment station, in 1888, it failed to head. GIANT MALTA.--Said to be a large, fine variety, with beautiful white heads of excellent flavor. Though dwarf, it is late, requiring six months in which to develop. GIANT NAPLES.--Described as synonymous with Veitch's Autumn Giant, by Vilmorin, in 1883, but he now catalogues it as a separate variety, similar to Veitch's Autumn Giant, but later. It is doubtless the original, of which the Autumn Giant is a slightly improved form. M. May said of Giant Naples, in 1880: "Very similar to Algiers, a little taller stem, and more fully developed foliage. Highly esteemed in Italy and Algeria. Requires the same culture as Algiers." GILT EDGE EARLY SNOWBALL (Thorburn).--This American variety was reported by the Pennsylvania experiment station in 1888, as having done well and formed good heads, free from intermixed leaves, where nearly all other sorts failed. "It is a superior selected strain of Early Snowball which originated on Long Island and is of the same type as the best strain of imported Dwarf Erfurt."--(Johnson & Stokes, 1891). GRANGE'S AUTUMN.--A variety mentioned in the _Gardener's Chronicle_, in 1870, as earlier and inferior to Veitch's Autumn Giant. HAAGE'S EARLY GERMAN.--Said by Wolfner and Weisz, of Vienna, to be an excellent short-stemmed variety for the open ground. HAAGE'S DWARF.--Said by Wolfner and Weisz, of Vienna, to have large, compact heads, which keep long in good condition. HAAGE'S NEW DWARF EARLY.--"The best for forcing."--(Frederick Adolph A. Haage, Jr., Erfurt, Germany, 1890). HALF EARLY FRENCH (Landreth, 1886).--Thorburn, in 1891, catalogued Half Early Large French, and in previous years Half Early Dwarf French. HALF EARLY GIANT ITALIAN.--A new variety catalogued without description by Vilmorin, Andrieux, & Co., in 1889. HALF EARLY LARGE WHITE FRENCH (Vilmorin, Andrieux & Co.)--No description. HALF EARLY PARIS (_Demi-dur de Paris_, _Gros Salomon_, _Nonpareil_).--Valuable for a late crop in this country, and now the most popular variety in the New Orleans market. Described by Vilmorin, of Paris, as follows: "Plant medium; leaves rather large, of a deep, slightly glaucous green, surrounding the head well, and gradually reflexed from the base to the apex; border undulate and coarsely dentate, stem rather short and stout; head very white, large, and remaining solid a long time. Formerly the most extensively cultivated for the Paris market, but now giving place to Lenormand Short-stem, and several new varieties." In the _Revue Horticole_ for 1880, M. May says: "This is the variety most cultivated around Paris, because it is suited to all seasons. It may be sown: (1) In September, to be gathered in May and June, being protected during winter like the Early Paris; (2) in February, in a hot-bed, or under hand-glasses or frames, to be gathered in June and July; (3) at the first of March, also in hot-bed, to be set out in April and gathered in July; (4) finally, it may be sown in June on a border of rich mold, and set out in July, without having been transplanted. This very simple method requires frequent waterings to yield good results. The crop is gathered from September to November." The name _Gros Salomon_, now given by Vilmorin and others as synonymous with Half Early Paris, was applied by Ribaud, in 1852, to a separate variety (_Annales de la Société d' Horticulture de l' Allier_, 1852, p. 59). For remarks on the synonym "Nonpareil," see that name. Mr. Gregory, of Massachusetts, says of the Half-Early Paris or _Demi-dur_: "This is the kind usually sold in this country as Early Paris, the true variety making so small a head as to be comparatively worthless here."--(Gregory, "Cabbages and How to Grow Them," 1870, p. 69). HALF EARLY ST. BRIEUC (_Demi-dur de St. Brieuc_).--"Plant large and strong; leaves quite large, elongated, undulate and of a deep green; stem long; head close, solid, and remaining a long time in good condition. This variety, which is extensively cultivated around St. Brieuc, [on the north coast of France] from which it is exported to Paris, and even to England, is quite hardy, and is well adapted to open-air culture."--(Vilmorin). The St. Brieuc was described by M. May, in the _Revue Horticole_, in 1880, as "a hardy, but late variety, inferior in its head to our Paris varieties, and not very generally cultivated." At the New York experiment station in 1886, this variety gave good results. HASKELL'S FAVORITE.--As grown at the South Dakota experiment station, in 1888, no difference was seen between this and Henderson's Snowball. Seed was sown in hot-bed April 10, the plants set out in well-manured soil, May 24, and the first heads cut July 13--from which time the plants continued to head along through the season. The introducer, George S. Haskell, of Rockford, Ill., writes: "The Early Favorite we sell is a variety I found in Holland a number of years ago. It has proved a very sure header in this section of the country, and will yield more than other sorts. It is not of the 'Erfurt family,' but about half way between the Early Paris and Erfurt." HENDERSON'S EARLY SNOWBALL.--A German variety, derived from the Dwarf Erfurt, introduced by Peter Henderson & Co., about 1878, and which has become very popular. Gregory, in 1890, said that it was not excelled by any other variety, unless it was Thorburn's Gilt Edge, and that it combined the best characteristics of Berlin Dwarf, Extra Early Erfurt, and Sea Foam. Henderson & Co. state that it is now grown for forcing more largely than any other variety. It is also considerably grown in field culture, not only for the early crop, for which it is especially suited, but also for the late crop, the plants being set out as late as the first of August. Its small size and reliability of heading are valuable features where suitable soil and culture are given. The high price of the seed and the lack of vigor in much of the seed of this and other Dwarf Erfurt varieties, have prevented their cultivation on as large a scale as they would otherwise be grown. This variety was formerly sold by many seedsmen simply as Early Snowball, and it is the one now usually referred to when the name Early Snowball is used, (See Early Snowball.) W. J. Green, of the Ohio experiment station, says of Henderson's Snowball: "This justly celebrated strain of Early [Extra Early] Erfurt is probably better known than the parent variety. The true Henderson's Early Snowball is unexcelled, but there are other strains, and other varieties even, that have been sent out under this name, which are very inferior." The stock of this variety is now all controlled Peter Henderson & Co., and is grown in Germany. Seed descended from Henderson's stock has been grown at Puget Sound, and is claimed to be as good as the original. Several other sorts, including Puritan, Padilla and Gilt Edge, have been derived from Henderson's Snowball, which sometimes mature quite as early as this variety. IDEAL, see _Vick's Ideal_. IMPERIAL.--May says, in the _Revue Horticole_, for 1880: "A variety which seems to have originated from the Early Dwarf Erfurt, being a little more vigorous, and producing a little larger heads, which is without doubt a result of culture, for in head and leaf it wholly resembles the Erfurt. It is an excellent variety, employed in the same manner as the Erfurt, and deserves extended cultivation." Vilmorin says: "This fine variety resembles the Dwarf Early Erfurt, but it is of deeper green, and every way larger. It is an early variety with beautiful white head, large and solid, and remarkable for its regularity of growth and product. When well grown it is certainly among the most desirable early varieties." Thorburn considers it one of the best for the main crop. It originated about 1870. It matured in one season eighteen days and in another thirty-two days before the Lenormand.--(_The Garden_, 1878, p. 2). IMPERIAL NOVELTY (Landreth), see _Imperial_. IMPROVED EARLY PARIS, see _Boston Market_. ITALIAN GIANT.--There are two or more forms of this variety in the market. For example: Vick sells "Italian Giant;" Gregory, "Italian Early Giant;" the Plant Seed Company, "Italian Early Giant Autumnal;" Vilmorin, "Half-Early Italian Giant (new);" Frotzer, "Late Italian Giant;" and Vilmorin, "Late Giant Italian Self-protecting." The early form or variety seems to be the most generally sold by our seedsmen, and is perhaps the one indicated when the simple name Italian Giant is used. Gregory calls the Early Italian Giant a "fine, large white-headed early Variety." Frotzer says it is not quite so late as the Late Italian, almost as large, and in every way satisfactory. The Late Italian Giant, he says, is grown to a considerable extent in the neighborhood of New Orleans, and is the largest of all the cauliflowers and should not be sown later than June, as it requires from seven to nine months to head. JOHNSON & STOKES' EARLY ALABASTER, see _Alabaster_. KING, see _Sutton's King_. KNICKERBOCKER.--An early Variety with "fine large compact snow-white heads of excellent flavor."--(E. & W. Hackett, Adelaide, Australia, 1889). LACKAWANNA.--All American variety sent out by Tillinghast, about 1884, and said to be a little larger and later than Henderson's Snowball. LANDRETH'S FIRST.--As grown at the New York experiment station in 1885, it was equal in earliness to the Early Dwarf Erfurt, and surpassed only by Henderson's Snowball. LARGE ALGIERS, see _Algiers_. LARGE ASIATIC, see _Asiatic_. LARGE ERFURT.--A name sometimes applied to the ordinary Early Erfurt, in distinction from the Dwarf Erfurt. LARGE EARLY DWARF ERFURT (Thorburn), see _Early Erfurt_. LARGE EARLY LONDON.--Failed to head at the New York experiment station, in 1882. In 1885 a small proportion of the plants headed; it was the latest among 38 varieties. LARGE EARLY WHITE ERFURT.--Brill calls this the lowest grade of the Erfurt type, succeeding admirably at times, but not to be depended on, and apt to grow with small fine leaves through the heads. See Early Erfurt. LARGE LATE ALGIERS, see _Algiers_. LARGE LATE ASIATIC, see _Asiatic_. LARGE LATE WALCHEREN (Dreer), see _Walcheren_. LARGE WHITE FRENCH.--A fine large white variety, catalogued by Gregory and others in 1890. Vilmorin calls it half-early. LARGEST ASIATIC.--Taller and larger than the common Asiatic, but apparently no longer grown. The _Gardener's Chronicle_ for 1848 mentions its being sold by Messrs. Schertzer, of Haarlem. LAING'S EARLY ADVANCE.--A writer in the _Gardener's Chronicle_, for 1891, p. 121, states that he has grown it for the past three years and finds it a good variety, with close white heads of moderate size, protected by many well-incurved leaves, and ready for use about five months from the time of sowing the seed. LATE DUTCH (_Large Late Dutch_).--Sold by several American seedmen. Probably distinct from Early Dutch. LATE LENORMAND SHORT-STEM, see _Lenormand Short-Stem_. LATE LONDON (Burpee and Ferry).--No description. See Asiatic and Large Early London. LATE PARIS (_Dur de Paris_).--This, said Vilmorin in 1883, is the latest variety cultivated by the market gardeners around Paris. It differs from the Half Early Paris, especially in being a little later, and in having its head remain hard and solid a long time; but it is also distinguished by the appearance of its foliage, which is quite abundant, elongated, very much undulated, and of an intense green. This variety is the least cultivated of the three generally grown at Paris. The gardeners use it only for the summer sowing to come at the end of the season. It is now being supplanted by other late sorts. LATE WALCHEREN, see _Walcheren_. LEFEVRE.--Said to have been one of the best four varieties for Central France in 1852, the others being _Demi-dur de Paris_ (Half Early Paris), Early Duke, and _Gros Salomon_. LE MAITRE PIED COURT.--As grown at the New York experiment station in 1885, it was rather early. Probably the same as the "Lemaitre" or Chambourcy Short-Stemmed, catalogued by Vilmorin in 1890. LENORMAND (_Ancient Lenormand_, _Late Lenormand_, _Lenormand Extra Large_, _Lenormand Mammoth_).--Vilmorin said, in 1883: "It is now a score of years since the attention of the trade was called to this variety, principally because of its beauty and its great hardiness against cold. The Lenormand is in appearance but little different from the Half Early Paris (_Demi-dur_). The leaves are only a little larger. It certainly requires a little less care than other varieties, but its chief merit is having given birth to the Lenormand Short-stemmed, which is to-day one of the most generally prized." M. May describes and figures this variety in the _Revue Horticole_ for 1880. In the _Journal of the Central Horticultural Society of France_ for 1857 is a report of a committee of that society upon this variety as grown on the grounds of M. Lenormand near Paris, it having been introduced by that gentleman in 1852 from Halle, in Central Germany, where it was then largely cultivated. The committee made a very flattering report, finding the Lenormand much finer than the other varieties, Half Early Paris, Erfurt, and Alma, growing in the same field. In this country the Lenormand was formerly a popular variety, being frequently mentioned, as long ago as 1858, with the Early Paris as one of the two best varieties. Since then it has been displaced by the following: LENORMAND SHORT-STEM.--This variety, derived from the Lenormand, is described by Vilmorin in 1883 as follows: "The aspect of this variety is very characteristic, and enables it to be distinguished easily from all others when it is well grown. The stem, extremely short, strong and stocky, is furnished down to the level of the earth with short, large, rounded leaves, slightly undulated except on the borders, very firm and stiff, and more spreading than upright; color deep green, slightly glaucous; head very large and solid, beautifully white, and keeping in condition a long time. This variety is early, productive, hardy against cold and drouth, and requires comparatively little room. Its rapid extention in cultivation within the last few years is not therefore surprising." [Illustration] To this it may be added that the variety is sold by nearly all our American seedmen and is a popular variety for a fall crop, especially at the South. Its large, solid, cream-colored heads are not however as well protected by the leaves as those of most other medium early or late sorts. LENORMAND'S SHORT-STEMMED MAMMOTH (_Lenormand's Extra Large Short-Stemmed_).--This appears to be a selection from the Lenormand Short-stem. It is offered under the second of the above names by Vilmorin, and under the first by Gregory and other American seedsmen. LONG ISLAND BEAUTY (Brill), see _Early Padilla_. At the Colorado station, in 1888, seeds of Long Island Beauty obtained from Low appeared to be an inferior stock, and gave heads which were loose and yellowish. For the origin of this variety see Early Padilla. MALTA GIANT (Burpee), see _Giant Malta_. MARTIN'S PRESIDENT.--As grown by Mr. R. Gilbert at Burghley, England, in 1885, this variety stood the exceptionally dry season better than Best of All, Snowball, Early Erfurt, or Veitch's Autumn Giant.--(_Gardening Illustrated_, 1885, p. 438). MAULE'S PRIZE EARLIEST, see _Prize_. MITCHELL'S HARDY EARLY.--Said by F. Burr, in 1866, to be "a new variety, bouquet not large, but handsome and compact. It is so firm that it remains an unusual length of time without running to seed or becoming pithy." MODEL.--The Northrup, Braslan & Goodwin Co., of Minneapolis, Minnesota, the introducers of this variety, say in 1891: "The history of our Model cauliflower we can give you in a few words: We have for several years been testing cauliflower seed from as many growers as possible, in order to secure a variety which we could identify with our name. We have never been fully satisfied until two years ago, when we received from a foreign grower a sample for trial. Upon testing this seed in our experimental grounds we found it so desirable that we arranged for the stock we are now selling, and which gives excellent satisfaction wherever grown. There are other varieties which produce as good heads and as early, but in our growths of this sort we have found a larger proportion of large, white, perfect heads than in any other strains we have tested." MOHAWK WHITE CAP (Nellis).--"Rather larger and later than Early [Extra Early] Erfurt and seems to be identical with Snowball from the same firm."--(Ohio Exp. Station, 1889) MT. BLANC.--Said by Buist, in 1890, to be one of the largest and finest for forcing, or the general crop. Stem medium; heads large, snow-white, well protected by the leaves, and of delicate flavor. At the Oregon experiment station, in 1890, Carter's Mt. Blanc resembled Perfection in growth, but had somewhat larger heads. NAPLES, GIANT, see _Veitch's Autumn Giant_. NARROW-LEAVED ERFURT, see _Small-Leaved Erfurt_. NE PLUS ULTRA.--A fine early variety, derived from the Giant Naples, having well-filled heads, often nine inches in diameter. Highly recommended by Wolfner and Weisz of Vienna, but little grown in this country. NONPAREIL.--In most American catalogues this is given as synonymous with Half Early Paris. Buist and Rawson catalogue it as a separate variety, and Brill mentioned it in 1872 as a distinct variety. At the New York experiment station, in 1885, a variety called Thorburn's Nonpareil matured among the half-early sorts at the same time as Lenormand Short-stem. J. M. Thorburn & Co. write me in 1891 that Nonpareil is a name which they gave to the Half Early Paris when they first introduced that variety to the trade in this country. NORTHRUP, BRASLAN & GOODWIN CO.'S MODEL, see _Model_. PADILLA, see _Early Padilla_. PALERMO VIOLET.--A variety catalogued by Wolfner and Weisz, of Vienna, in 1888. PAQUES.--A variety with fine white heads, usually classed with the Broccolis. Catalogued by Vilmorin, in 1890. PARIS, see _Early Paris_. PEARCE'S SNOW-STORM (_J. S. Pearce & Co.'s Snow-Storm_).--This variety, introduced by these seedsmen, of London, Canada, 1886, appears from their description to be a selection from the Dwarf Erfurt. PEARL (_Veitch's Pearl_).--A good second-early sort sent out about eight years ago; said by some to be too near King in character. It seems to be no longer grown. PERFECTION (_March's No. 9_).--Received from H. A. March, of Fidalgo, Washington, and grown at the Oregon experiment station in 1890, it was found to be equally good with Snowball, and similar in growth to Mt. Blanc, but with a little smaller head. Mr. March writes me as follows, under date of April 3, 1891: "My Early Perfection, or 'No. 9,' was a sport or, 'stray seed' found among some Erfurt Earliest Dwarf, imported seed; and being the first in the field to form a head by over a week, I naturally saved it for 'stock seed,' and as it propagated itself perfectly, and as it was perfection itself, I named it Early Perfection. I am not aware of another by the name of Perfection in the market." PICPUS EARLY HARDY.--At the New York experiment station in 1885 this proved to be a large, rather early sort. Vilmorin includes it in his latest catalogue, but it is not in the American catalogues. PRIZE (_Maule's Prize Earliest_).--An Erfurt variety sent out, by Wm. H. Maule, of Philadelphia. PURITAN, see _Early Puritan_. RAWSON'S EXTRA EARLY SEA FOAM.--Said by Rawson in 1886 to be the best forcing variety; dwarf, very compact, with large, firm, well-rounded heads, pure white, and of the best quality. At the Ohio experiment station in 1889 it appeared to be the same as Early [Extra Early] Erfurt. RICE'S GIANT SNOWBALL.--A late sort, which failed to head well at the New York experiment station in 1883. ST. BRIEUC, see _Half Early St. Brieuc_. SMALL-LEAVED ERFURT (_Earliest Dwarf Small-Leaved Erfurt_, _Narrow-Leaved Erfurt_).--This, according to Brill, differs from "Erfurt Extra Dwarf Earliest" in having very narrow, pointed leaves which grow perfectly upright, thus adapting it for close cultivation or for forcing. It grows rapidly, which adapts it for spring cultivation; and for a fall crop it may be sown later than any other variety--on Long Island usually as late as July 1st. SNOW'S WINTER WHITE.--A late variety usually classed with the Broccolis. SNOWBALL, see _Early Snowball_. STADTHOLDER.--Burr, in 1866, said, "A recent variety introduced from Holland.... In the vicinity of London, where it is largely cultivated for the mediate between the Early Dutch and Walcheren. The stem is a little shorter than that of other Holland cauliflowers [which have rather tall stems], and the leaves are more undulated on the border." The Stadtholder appears to be a good sort, but hardly equal to Autumn Giant and some others which protect the head better, and which have now largely displaced it in cultivation. It has never been grown to any extent in the United States. SURPRISE, see _Early Dwarf Surprise_. SUTTON'S FAVORITE.--Said by Sutton & Sons, of Reading, England, to be seven to twelve days earlier than Early London, of level and compact habit, and good to succeed Sutton's Magnum Bonum. SUTTON'S FIRST CROP.--Said to be the earliest to head, very dwarf and compact, having snowy white heads, and so few leaves that it may be planted closer than any other kind. SUTTON'S KING.--Said by Sutton & Sons to be "the best cauliflower for general use, coming in immediately after Sutton's Favorite. Plant dwarf and compact, with large, firm, beautifully white heads. Endures drouth well. Said to produce a greater weight on a given area than other market, it is considered equal, if not superior, to the Walcheren." Vilmorin describes it as follows: "Very near Early Dutch, being distinguished mainly by being a few days later, being thus inter-variety. Heads have been grown weighing 28 pounds." SUTTON'S MAGNUM BONUM.--Sutton in 1888 says: "We introduced this cauliflower to our customers last year as the finest and most delicately flavored variety we have grown." Heads large, firm, snowy white; plant medium early, of strong, dwarf, habit and broad leaves, which "are serviceable for shading the heads." SUTTON'S SNOWBALL.--A very early dwarf variety mentioned in the _Garden_ in 1875. TARANTO.--Offered as new by J. M. Thorburn, in 1891, and said to be very large and to resemble Autumn Giant. THORBURN'S EARLY SNOWBALL (Thorburn, 1890).--No description. THORBURN'S GILT EDGE.--Gregory says in 1890: "This is undoubtedly the finest strain of the Snowball variety. It is a little later and larger than the common Snowball, and can be left longer in the field without decaying. I considered it the best of all the dozen varieties raised in my experimental grounds this season." THORBURN'S NONPAREIL, see _Nonpareil_. THORBURN'S WONDERFUL.--At the New York experiment station in 1883 this variety matured with Veitch's Autumn Giant and Walcheren, and was larger than either of those. At the same station in 1885 a variety called Wonderful, probably the same, was the latest of 30 sorts, being sown March 30th, set out May 4th, and gathered Oct. 27th. VAUGHN'S EARLIEST DWARF ERFURT.--In his catalogue for 1891, Vaughn says that this is the highest priced and finest strain of the Earliest Dwarf Erfurt, imported from Erfurt Germany. This strain has been imported by him for several years. He remarks that many strains of Dwarf Erfurt are given special names by other seedsmen. VEITCH'S AUTUMN GIANT (_Autumn Giant_, _Giant Naples_, _Frankfort Giant_).--No other new variety of cauliflower has attracted so much attention as this. It was introduced into England about 1869, since when it has become very popular there for a late crop and for summer. It is rather too late for the ordinary fall crop in this country, though a favorite with some growers on both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It was described by Vilmorin in 1883, as follows, under the name Giant Naples, but is now sold by him as Autumn Giant: "Plant large and vigorous, stem rather tall, leaves abundant, somewhat undulated, of a deep green. The interior leaves turn in well over the head, which is very large, solid, and white. It is a late variety of the same period as Walcheren, but less hardy. At the north it can be employed for the latest crop in open air culture by being sown in April or May." In 1884 Vincent Berthault gave the following account of this variety in the _Revue Horticole_: "This variety is still rare and little known in France. I planted it last year for trial and obtained results which were the admiration of all who saw them. It was from my small crop that I took the four which I had the honor to present to the Central Horticultural Society of France at its meeting on August 25, 1883. Some of these cauliflowers were 35 to 38 centimeters [more than a foot] in diameter, and weighed, including stem and leaves, 12 to 13 kilograms [nearly 30 pounds] which is extraordinary for this time of the year, when it is difficult to obtain cauliflowers of even ordinary size. At one time I feared that their size was to the detriment of their quality, but it has proved otherwise, and in all respects they are excellent, and as good as beautiful. In fact they are perfect. "The general characters of the Autumn Giant differ materially from those of other varieties. "The young seedlings become at once very tall and upright, and even after being set out and planted as deep as the first leaves they quickly assume their usual stellate appearance, and for about six weeks they are simply furnished with eight or ten long narrow leaves borne on a long stem. So up to this time the plants are not very promising, and one is tempted to pull them up; but after this the plants rapidly change in appearance; a dozen new leaves are quickly developed, and the plants take on a half-upright form which recalls that of the Half Early Paris variety. As to the head, it is more conical than flat. The leaves sometimes attain a length of 90 centimeters [nearly three feet], by 40 centimeters broad. It is then that extra care should be given. The waterings ought to be copious and frequent, especially at the time of the formation of the heads, when I apply about 10 to 15 litres of water to each head every other day. This, which certainly contributed to the good result, is how I grew my plants. I chose good soil, which I prepared during the winter, placing in the bottom of the furrow a good thickness of manure, and a month before planting, or even at the time of doing so, I spread on the surface a covering of decomposed manure, which I incorporated with the soil by means of ordinary tillage. I visited the plantation every day, not only to destroy the caterpillars, but to cover the heads with leaves, which it was necessary to look after at least every other day in order to preserve the whiteness of the heads. These attentions are indispensable if one would secure a product of first quality, free from insects. As to sowing the seed, it may be begun about the 15th of September, and the plants wintered over under hand-glasses, or in frames, to be set out in March, when heads will be obtained in July. The plants of this sowing may also be set in hot-beds in January and February, but this only in default of other varieties, for they will be too tall and spreading. "It is in February, on a bed with mild heat and under glass, that I make my sowing to obtain plants which are to head in August and September, and which give my best returns. A final sowing may be made at the end of March or beginning of April; it matures its crop in October and November. "My opinion of the Autumn Giant is that it is destined to play an important part in the market-gardening of the country when, probably in the near future, there shall have been produced dwarf varieties analogous to those which we already possess from other sorts." VEITCH'S EARLY FORCING.--This variety "has small compact hearts, very close and white. The habit of the plant is dwarf and sturdy, and it is well adapted for forcing."--(_Gardening Illustrated_, 1885, p. 427). It is favorably mentioned by several writers in the _Gardener's Chronicle_ for 1884 and 1885. In the _Garden_ for 1882 Veitch's Early is said to be two weeks earlier than Early London. VEITCH'S PEARL, see _Pearl_. VEITCH'S SELF-PROTECTING.--Said by the _Gardener's Chronicle_, in 1874, to be a new variety, just tested by Mr. Veitch, much later than Autumn Giant, hardy, and very self-protecting. VICK'S IDEAL.--James Vick says in 1890: "We introduced the 'Ideal' to public notice in 1886, and claimed for it superiority to any other variety in the following points: Reliability of heading, size and solidity of heads, earliness, and protective habit of inner leaves." Further tests by himself and others he says substantiate these claims. The plants are said to be very dwarf, with erect outer leaves. At the New York experiment station, in 1889, it was a few days later than the three other varieties on trial. At the Ohio station the same year it was considered one of the best strains of Early [Extra Early] Erfurt. VIENNA CHILD.--Catalogued by Wolfner and Weisz, of Vienna, in 1888, at the highest price, as a fine new market-garden sort. VIENNA EARLY DWARF, see _Early Dwarf Vienna_. WAITE'S ALMA, see _Alma_. WALCHEREN.--This old German variety is intermediate in character between the true cauliflowers and the broccolis, and it has, from the first, been frequently called Walcheren Broccoli. There seems to have originally been two varieties, Early and Late. The earliest appearance of the name Walcheren that I have seen is in an advertisement of Walcheren cauliflower seed in the _Gardener's Chronicle_ for 1844. Since that time it has remained one of the most reliable and popular varieties with English growers. McIntosh, in his "Book of the Garden," in 1855, said that it was hard to get pure seed: "The true Walcheren is distinguished from all others by its bluntly rounded and broad leaves, and the closeness and almost snowy whiteness of its heads, even when grown to a large size." Others, before this, state that it was sold on the Continent under the name of Early Leyden. Burr, in 1866, records it as synonymous with both Early Leyden, and Legge's Walcheren broccoli or cauliflower. He describes it as resisting both cold and drouth better than other varieties, "stem short, leaves broad, less pointed and more undulated than those of the cauliflower usually are." Vilmorin described it in 1883 as synonymous with Walcheren Broccoli, known in Holland as Late Walcheren. He said: "The latest and most hardy of the cauliflowers, and therefore intermediate between the cauliflowers and the broccolis, with which latter it is often classed. Stem high and strong, leaves elongated, rather stiff and upright, abundant, and of a slightly grayish green. The head forms very late, and is fine, large, and very white, of fine close grain. The seed requires to be sown at Walcheren, [an island on the coast of Holland] in April, in order to be certain of heading before frost. If sown later it often passes the winter and heads early in the spring." Sibley, in 1887, sold this variety under the name of Early Walcheren, though giving it the usual characters and season of the ordinary late sort. Buist, in 1890, mentions it as a favorite, very hardy, late variety. It is sold by most of our seedsmen, but is less popular in this country than in England. Sutton, the English seedsman, describes it in his latest catalogue as an "excellent mid-season cauliflower." It is less liable to button in dry weather than most other varieties, but sometimes forms imperfect heads. WEBB'S EARLY MAMMOTH.--A variety advertised as follows by Webb & Sons of Wordsley, Stourbridge, England, in _The Garden_, Feb. 9, 1878: "An excellent compact variety; stands the drought remarkably well; heads large, firm, and beautifully white. The best of all for the main crop." WELLINGTON.--Introduced about 1860. Henderson & Co. describe it as the finest kind in cultivation; pure white; size of head over two feet in circumference, and as large as thirteen inches diameter; very dwarf, the stem not more than two or three inches from the soil, but with ample foliage; one of the hardiest varieties known, and said to withstand well the variable climate of the United States. C. G. Anderson & Sons of England, in 1880, claimed it to be earlier, white, and closer than Early London. A writer in the _New England Farmer_, in 1871, speaks of it as larger than either Early Erfurt or Early Paris. WONDERFUL, see _Thorburn's Wonderful_. ORDER OF EARLINESS. The following varieties cover the season, and are arranged in the order of earliness, as near as can be determined. Many well known kinds are omitted, and some little known sorts inserted, the only attempt being to form a scale of maturity: Early Dwarf Erfurt. Extra Early Paris. Early London. Asiatic. Early Erfurt. Early Paris. Lenormand Short-Stem. Late Paris. St. Brieuc. Algiers. Veitch's Autumn Giant. Giant Naples. Veitch's Self-Protecting. Late Italian Giant. Walcheren. VARIETY TESTS. NEW YORK EXPERIMENT STATION (_Geneva_).--In 1883 the following twenty-two varieties were sown April 16, and eleven plants of each variety set out May 15. One variety, however, Rice's Giant Snowball, was sown May 13, and set out June 20. Treatment was the same as for cabbage. --------------------------+---------+----------+---------+------------ | | | | Diameter | First | | | of largest VARIETY. | head in | No. of | No. of | head in | days. | plants. | heads. | inches. --------------------------+---------+----------+---------+------------ Algiers | 159 | 6 | 5 | 9 Algerian Late | 142 | 9 | 1 | 6 Berlin Dwarf | 124 | 8 | 2 | 5 Carter's Defiance | 124 | 7 | 6 | -- Carter's Dwarf Mammoth | 124 | 6 | 2 | 9 Earliest Dwarf Erfurt | 124 | 10 | 4 | 7 Erfurt Early Dwarf | 131 | 6 | 3 | 5 Early Dutch | 142 | 7 | 3 | 6 Early London | 129 | 6 | 4 | 9 Extra Early Paris | 142 | 3 | 2 | 9 Gerry Island | 133 | 3 | 3 | 6 Imperial | 119 | 8 | 7 | 10 Italian Giant White | 175 | 6 | 1 | 10 Large Late London | 128 | 6 | 5 | 7 Large White French | 105 | 8 | 8 | 6 Lenormand's Short-Stemm'd | 128 | 5 | 5 | 8 Rice's Giant Snowball | 152 | 7 | 1 | 4 Snowball | 128 | 5 | 4 | 6 Stadtholder | 128 | 6 | 5 | 9 Thorburn's Wonderful | 128 | 4 | 4 | 6 Veitch's Autumn Giant | 128 | 6 | 3 | 6 Walcheren | 128 | 3 | 3 | 6 --------------------------+---------+----------+---------+------------ In 1884, the following twenty varieties were grown. The seeds were sown in a green-house March 5 and 6, and the plants set out May 2. It appears from the table that some of the varieties called "late," formed heads earlier than others called "early." The Lenormand Extra Large was the earliest, forming its first head in 149 days, the Lackawanna heading a day later. None of the heads were extra large: ------------------------------+---------+-----------+----------- | First | | VARIETY. | head in | Plants | Number of | days. | survived. | heads. ------------------------------+---------+-----------+----------- Dwarf Erfurt | 182 | 4 | 4 Early Dutch or Early London | 180 | 5 | 4 Early Dwarf Surprise | 175 | 6 | 6 Eclipse | 162 | 7 | 6 Half-Early Large White French | 190 | 9 | 6 Half-Early Paris | 197 | 8 | 7 Imperial | 160 | 8 | 8 Lackawanna | 150 | 9 | 8 Large Algiers | 189 | 6 | 3 Large Late Asiatic | 156 | 4 | 4 Large Late Stadtholder | -- | 8 | 3 Late Giant Italian | 154 | 8 | 8 Late Paris | 170 | 4 | 3 Lenormand's Extra Large | 149 | 7 | 6 Lenormand's Short-Stemmed | 161 | 8 | 6 Paris Extra Early | 154 | 6 | 6 Sea Foam | 182 | 3 | 2 Veitch's Autumn Giant | 182 | 6 | 3 Very Dwarf Alleaume | 189 | 8 | 6 Walcheren | 182 | 6 | 4 ------------------------------+---------+-----------+----------- In 1885 the following varieties were planted in the green-house March 30, and sixteen plants of each, with a few exceptions, transplanted to the garden May 4. The plants of Algiers and Le Maitre Pied Court were transplanted May 20, and those of the Wonderful May 21. The plants were set in rows three and one-half feet apart, and eighteen inches apart in the rows. Many were destroyed by various causes, and though the places were twice reset there were many vacancies. As will be seen, Henderson's Early Snowball (from Henderson in 1885) was the earliest, forming the first head July 8, or ninety-seven days from sowing the seed. The heads also were rather above the average in size. Extra selected Dwarf Erfurt was the second in earliness and every plant headed. A notable fact brought out by this table is the effect of the early planting on the late and half-early varieties. It might be supposed, as these varieties require a long season, that this early planting would give the best results, enabling them to attain their full development. But it appears that it caused many of the plants to head prematurely when small, while it greatly prolonged the season of the variety. ---------------------------------+----------+---------+--------+---------- | | | | Average VARIETY. | First | No. of | No. of | diameter | head. | plants. | heads. | of head. ---------------------------------+----------+---------+--------+---------- Algiers | Aug. 14 | 22 | 19 | 7-½ Alleaume | Sept. 24 | 5 | 4 | 7 Autumn Giant | " 24 | 17 | 17 | 7 D'Alger | " 15 | 14 | 12 | 7-½ Demi dur de St. Brieuc | " 15 | 11 | 11 | 7 Early Dutch (dur d' Holland) | Aug. 25 | 12 | 8 | 5 Early Dwarf Erfurt (Thorburn) | July 13 | 11 | 11 | 5-½ Early Dwarf Erfurt (Vilmorin) | " 13 | 5 | 4 | 5-½ Early London | Aug. 25 | 16 | 12 | 7-½ Early Paris | July 25 | 11 | 6 | 5-½ Early Picpus | Aug. 5 | 12 | 10 | 8 Early Snowball | July 31 | 17 | 15 | 7 Extra E. Dw'f Erfurt (Hend'son) | Sept. 27 | 18 | 8 | 6 Extra E'ly Dw'f Erfurt (Thorb'n) | July 13 | 12 | 11 | 5-½ Extra Earliest Paris (Vilmorin) | Aug. 10 | 7 | 6 | 7-½ Extra Early Paris | July 25 | 13 | 6 | 6-½ Extra Selected E'ly Dwarf Erfurt | " 21 | 13 | 13 | 5 Half Early Dwarf French | " 25 | 12 | 7 | 7-½ Half Early Paris (Thorburn) | Aug. 24 | 12 | 11 | 6-½ Half Early Paris (Vilmorin) | Sept. 15 | 11 | 11 | 7 Henderson's Early Snowball | July 8 | 12 | 9 | 7-½ Imperial | Aug. 10 | 10 | 8 | 6-½ Landreth's First | July 13 | 6 | 5 | 5-½ Large Early London | Oct. 27 | 14 | 4 | 6 Large Late Asiatic | Aug. 25 | 11 | 7 | 8 Late Giant Naples | Oct. 17 | 5 | 3 | 4 Late Paris | Aug. 12 | 10 | 7 | 7-½ Late Stadtholder | Oct. 7 | 11 | 6 | 5-½ Le Maitre Pied Court | Aug. 14 | 15 | 13 | 7 Lenormand | Sept. 15 | 12 | 10 | 6-½ Len'm'd Short-stem'd (Hend'son) | Aug. 14 | 20 | 11 | 6 Len'm'd Short-stem'd (Vilmorin) | July 25 | 12 | 7 | 7 Purple Cape (Noir de Sicilie) | Aug. 10 | 12 | 8 | 6-½ Thorburn's Nonpareil | " 14 | 7 | 6 | 8-½ Veitch's Autumn Giant | Sept. 24 | 13 | 11 | 7-½ Walcheren (Henderson) | " 1 | 4 | 4 | 7-½ Walcheren (Vilmorin) | Aug. 5 | 6 | 6 | 7 Wonderful | Oct. 27 | 7 | 6 | 6 ---------------------------------+----------+---------+--------+--------- The following early varieties were tested in 1888. The seeds were all sown May 10, and the plants set out June 23, two by three and one-half feet. All the varieties headed well, except one called "Early," from the English Specialty and Novelty Seed Co., which formed no heads. -----------------------+--------------+---------+--------+----------- | Seeds | No. of | No. of | Fit for VARIETY. | from. | plants. | heads. | table use. -----------------------+--------------+---------+--------+----------- Dreer's E'st Snowstorm | Dreer. | 11 | 8 | Sept. 24 Earliest Dwarf Erfurt | Vaughn. | 9 | 5 | " 6 Extra E. Dwarf Erfurt | Tillinghast. | 9 | 4 | " 29 Gilt-edge Snowball | Thorburn. | 12 | 10 | Aug. 25 Henderson's E. Snowb'l | Henderson. | 12 | 8 | Sept. 6 Long Island Beauty | Tillinghast. | 11 | 8 | " 14 Long Island Beauty | Bragg. | 12 | 11 | Aug. 25 New Early Padilla | Tillinghast. | 11 | 8 | " 29 -----------------------+--------------+---------+--------+----------- At the same station, in 1889, the following varieties were tested. The seed was sown in frames April 23, and the plants set out June 22. The Early Erfurt and Early Snowball were from seed grown by H. A. March, of Fidalgo, Washington. --------------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------- | | Number | Fit for | Number | | Seed | of | table | of | Average VARIETY. | from | Plants | use | heads | diameter --------------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------- | | | | | Inches Early Puritan | Ferry. | 20 | Aug. 21 | 13 | 5-½ Early Erfurt | March. | 20 | " 22 | 19 | 8-½ Snowball. | March. | 20 | " 24 | 20 | 7-½ Vick's Ideal | Vick. | 20 | " 30 | 20 | 7 --------------+--------+--------+---------+--------+--------- The season of 1889 was uncommonly favorable for the cauliflower, and it will be seen from the above table that these varieties headed with greater uniformity and from two to four weeks earlier than the same or similar varieties the preceding year. COLORADO EXPERIMENT STATION (_Fort Collins_).--The following report, slightly condensed, from the report of the Colorado experiment station for 1888, will be useful for comparison: "Seed of sixteen varieties of cauliflower was sown April 12 in hot-bed and transplanted to the open ground May 7. They were irrigated at planting time, and on May 14 and 28, June 11, July 5 and 20, August 3 and 15 and on September 5. The area in crop was one-third of an acre and the stand nearly perfect. The plants were hoed twice and cultivated six times. The soil, a clay loam, was lacking in fertility for the best culture of the cabbage and the cauliflower. Of the varieties grown, Henderson's Snowball was the best, with the latter's Erfurt a good second. These two types, when well selected, are the only ones that can be relied upon to give profitable results in Colorado." It will be noticed in the table that Early Paris and Early London, two varieties which have long been popular at the East, entirely failed to head. --------------------+----------+---------+--------------------------------- VARIETY. |Seed from |Mature | REMARKS. --------------------+----------+---------+--------------------------------- Early Snowball. |Henderson.|July 20. |Heads compact, very white, leaves | | | smaller, very uniform. Extra E. Erfurt. |Henderson.|Aug. 6. |Heads fairly solid and white, | | | leaves large. Extra Early Paris. |Landreth. |Aug. 24. |Heads solid and white, leaves | | | very large. Early Paris. |Ferry. | |No heads formed. Early Snowball. |Landreth. |Aug. 6. |Heads compact, very white, plant | | | dwarf, small leaves. Gerry Island. |Gregory. | |No heads formed. Select Dwarf Erfurt |Landreth. |July 24.|Heads large and compact, very | | | white and uniform. Burpee's Earliest. |Burpee. |July 30.|Heads compact and white, leaves | | | large. Lenormand. |Landreth. |Sept. 20.|Heads solid and white, plant | | | vigorous and dwarf. Long Isl'd Beauty. |Low. |Aug. 24.|Heads loose, yellowish white, | | | inferior stock. Algiers. |Landreth. |Oct. 10.|Heads solid and large, plant | | | vigorous, leaves very large. Walcheren. |Landreth. | |No heads formed. Large L. Dutch. |Landreth. |Oct. 10.|Heads fairly compact, plant | | | vigorous & large. Late London. |Ferry. | |No heads formed. Landreth's First. |Landreth. |Aug. 24.|Heads solid, very white, of | | | superior quality. Vick's Ideal. |Low. |Aug. 6.|Heads solid, yellowish white, | | | leaves large. --------------------+----------+---------+--------------------------------- MICHIGAN EXPERIMENT STATION (_Lansing_).--The Michigan experiment station is connected with the Agricultural College, located at Lansing, at the geographical centre of the Lower Peninsula. It is, therefore, remote from any large body of water, and although the soil in that portion of the state is mainly a strong loam suitable for cauliflower, it is only in favorable seasons that good cauliflowers can be obtained. In the exceptionally favorable season of 1889, some of the sorts then prominently before the public, were grown at the college, all of which gave very good results, with the exception of Autumn Giant, which failed to germinate. The American grown seeds, from H. A. March, of Fidalgo, Washington, were large and plump and gave strong vigorous plants, and as good or better results than is usually obtained from imported seed. The following varieties were sown March 13, and set out May 14. It was difficult to detect any difference between Puritan, Gilt Edge, Denmark, Prize Earliest, Best Early, Snowball, and Erfurt, as they showed less variation than appeared between the same sorts from different seedsmen. The title "edible maturity" in the table refers to the period at which the heads might be cut for one's own use, that is when they had attained the size of one's two fists. "Marketable maturity" is when they had completed their growth and would remain solid no longer. ---------------------+---------+---------------+--------+----------+-------- | |Appearance of | | |Per cent | |young plants, |Edible |Mark't'ble|forming Varieties. | Source. |March 29. |Maturity|Maturity. |heads. ---------------------+---------+---------------+--------+----------+-------- Burpee's Best Early |Burpee. |Small; even. | Aug. 5| Aug. 10 | 100 Denmark |Vaughn. |Good; even. | July 26| Aug. 10 | 83 Earliest Dwarf Erfurt|Maule. |Good; even. | Aug. 27| Sept. 14 | 67 Erfurt Earliest Dwarf|March. |Small; even. | Aug. 10| Aug. 27 | 92 Early Snowball |Henderson|Very weak; | Aug. 5| Aug. 10 | 100 | | uneven. | | | Early Puritan |Ferry. |Small; even. | Aug. 7| Aug. 13 | 92 Gilt Edge |Thorburn.|Weak; uneven. | July 26| Aug. 8 | 93 Maule's Prize |Maule. |Small; somewhat| July 24| Aug. 8 | 83 Earliest | | uneven. | | | Snowball |March. |Good; even. | July 24| Aug. 8 | 100 ---------------------+---------+---------------+--------+----------+-------- THE BEST VARIETIES. The points to consider in selecting varieties are first, earliness or time of maturity; second, the certainty of their forming good heads. The importance of having well grown seed has already been mentioned. This being secured, the choice of varieties is largely a matter of circumstances. A variety which is good for one climate, or for one purpose, may not be good for another. For the early crop, an account of which has already been given, the earliest variety obtainable should be used, as our springs at the North are short enough at best. The Earliest Dwarf Erfurt strains include nearly all the earliest varieties now grown, and, for this country, at least, are the best. The typical variety is usually sold under the name Extra Early Dwarf Erfurt, and if properly selected seed is secured, this is nearly or quite as early as any of the strains which have received special names. Among the best of these latter are Henderson's Snowball, Thorburn's Gilt Edge, and Vick's Ideal, the latter a little the largest and latest. For growing under glass the first two of these varieties are as good as any. The earliest varieties are now often grown also for the fall crop, particularly at the North, by being sown late. Their greater certainty to head on time, and the increased number that can be grown on an acre, renders them especially valuable. A variety which in the past has given the most general satisfaction for the fall crop is Early Paris. Of the later maturing varieties, Veitch's Autumn Giant and Lenormand Short-stem, have been, and are still, popular, especially at the South. At present probably more than three-fourths of the cauliflowers grown in this country are of the new varieties of the Dwarf Erfurt group. For the North, especially, these are now the most reliable and are increasing in popularity. CHAPTER IX. BROCCOLI. The Broccolis are so similar to the cauliflowers that some account of them may be expected in a treatise on the latter vegetable. In fact, no important structural difference between the two vegetables exists, the broccolis being merely a more robust and hardy group of varieties, requiring a longer period for development, and adapted, in mild climates, to cultivation during the winter. They are, in fact, often called "winter cauliflowers." They receive but little attention in the United States, where the winters, at least at the north, in the vicinity of the leading markets, are too severe for the out-door growth of vegetables of any kind. For this reason cauliflowers, which come to maturity in a single season, are grown instead. The supply of these two vegetables, therefore, which in western Europe, by means of successive sowings of varieties of both cauliflowers and broccolis, may be maintained the year round, is here, owing to the conditions of our climate, confined chiefly to the seasons of the year in which cauliflower can be obtained. Although no sharp distinctions can be drawn between broccolis and cauliflowers, there are certain general differences which separate them. As has been said, the broccolis are all of them hardier than the cauliflowers, and require a longer time in which to develop, so that in climates having mild winters they are usually treated as biennials. In France, the seed which is sown about the first of May gives plants which head the following spring before the early cauliflowers come in. The plants are sometimes enabled to pass the winter more safely by being taken up and planted again in a slanting position. In the appearance of the heads no difference exists between cauliflowers and broccolis, except that the latter are usually smaller, less compact, and sometimes purple or sulphur colored. All cauliflowers (with one or two exceptions), have white compact heads. The stems of the broccolis are usually taller than those of cauliflowers, the leaves more numerous, larger, stiffer, but more undulated, more rounded at the apex, and more frequently having a distinct stem or petiole. The mid-ribs and principal veins are large and white, except in varieties having colored heads, when they have the same color as the head. The color of the leaves is always more glaucous, that is, of a darker and more bluish green, than is usual in the cauliflowers. Broccolis, especially the colored varieties, are sometimes said to be more tender in texture and finer in flavor than the cauliflowers. This, however, is due only to the fact that they usually head in cool weather. When grown under the same conditions the cauliflowers are milder than the broccolis, and although to some tastes the more pronounced flavor of the latter may be preferred, most persons use broccoli only because in the winter season fresh cauliflowers cannot be obtained. Nearly every one prefers cauliflower to broccoli, and the mild white varieties to the colored varieties of the latter vegetable. Broccolis sometimes acquire a bitter taste, the cause of which is not known. The methods of using the two vegetables are the same, except that the branching or sprouting broccolis are also cooked like asparagus. The early history of the broccoli has already been treated in connection with that of the cauliflower. The number of varieties of broccoli in cultivation is probably somewhat less than those of the cauliflower, but the differences between the varieties themselves are greater. Messrs. Sutton & Sons, of Reading, England, catalogue thirty-six varieties of broccoli and only eleven of cauliflower. Most of these varieties originated in England, where broccoli is more largely grown than anywhere else. Two groups of broccolis may be recognized, the "sprouting broccolis," which do not form compact heads, and the improved varieties with well formed heads, known as "cauliflower broccolis." The latter differ but little in any way from true cauliflowers. The requirements of cultivation for the broccolis are practically the same as those for cauliflowers. Their value depends mainly on their greater hardiness, and on this account they are likely, at the South where the winters are mild enough, to become more extensively cultivated. They do not, however, endure hot weather as well as cauliflowers, and on this account it is doubtful if they ever become as largely grown anywhere in this country as they are in England. The question of protecting them in winter, and the amount and kind of protection needed, depend of course on the severity of the winters. In Northern Florida, where cauliflowers are liable to be killed during winter, broccolis will stand out without any protection. In localities where but little protection is required, it may be afforded by loosening the roots and turning the plants down upon their sides. If more protection is needed they may be taken up and set in trenches and partly covered with straw and boards. Broccolis stand shipment better than cauliflowers. This is not only because they are generally handled in colder weather, but because they are somewhat coarser and firmer in texture. They do not sell for quite so good a price as cauliflowers. There are seven varieties catalogued by American seedsmen, of which the Early Purple Cape is the best adapted to our climate. CHAPTER X. COOKING CAULIFLOWER. "Of all the flowers in the garden, I like the Cauliflower best." DR. SAMUEL JOHNSON. Dr. Johnson appreciated good living, and therefore it is not surprising that he should have left on record this tribute to the most delicate and finely flavored of all the cabbage family. Cauliflower is so rarely seen in market in the United States, except in large cities, that comparatively few of our people are accustomed to using it. On this account a variety of receipts for cooking cauliflower are here given, in order to make the methods of using this excellent vegetable more widely known. Americans, especially, need to become familiar with its use; for to the English, French, and Germans, who have known it in the Old World, it needs no introduction. Cauliflower lends itself readily to both plain and fancy methods of cooking. It is easy of digestion, and is an especial favorite with those who, from any reason, are unable to readily digest cabbage. Besides, it is more nutritious than the cabbage, and it is not exceeded in this particular by any other garden vegetable. The following tables show the comparative composition of fresh cabbage and cauliflower, and the composition of the ash of the latter. It will be noticed that the percentage of ash and indigestible fibre is low in the cauliflower, and the amount of nitrogenous and starchy matter high. ANALYSIS OF CABBAGE AND CAULIFLOWER. (König's Nohrungsmittel, pp. 715, 717). --------------------------+----------+------------- | Cabbage. | Cauliflower. --------------------------+----------+------------- Water | 89.97 | 90.87 Nitrogenous bodies | 1.89 | 2.48 Fat | 0.20 | 0.34 Sugar | 2.29 | 1.21 Nitrogen free extract | 2.58 | 3.34 (starch, dextrine, etc.) | | Fiber | 1.84 | 0.91 Ash | 1.23 | 0.83 --------------------------+----------+------------- ANALYSIS OF CAULIFLOWER ASH. (Whitner's Gardening in Florida). Potassa 34.39 Soda 14.79 Lime 2.96 Magnesia 2.38 Sulphuric Acid 11.16 Silicic Acid 1.92 Phosphoric Acid 25.87 Phosphate of Iron 3.67 Chloride of Sodium 2.78 Cauliflower is not wholly free from the odor which renders the cooking of cabbage so unpleasant, but in this respect it is much less objectionable than cabbage. As with cabbage, this odor is in some cases more marked than in others, depending on the character of the soil, and the quantity and nature of the manure used. A small piece of red pepper added to the water in which cauliflower or cabbage is boiled prevents to a large extent this unpleasant odor and improves their flavor. To obviate the "strong" flavor which these vegetables acquire when large quantities of stable manure are used the heads should be parboiled in the morning of the day on which they are wanted. They are then put on a hair sieve and placed in the larder. Twenty minutes before they are wanted for the table they are to be reboiled steadily until the strong taste is gone. When cauliflowers are preserved in a shed or cellar they often become more or less wilted and strong in flavor, and can then be rendered palatable only by cutting them off from the stalks on the previous day and throwing them into cold, salted water, frequently changing it until they are wanted; in this way the heads become plumped up, and the strong disagreeable smell and taste which they have acquired is in some degree removed; but even under the most careful treatment they lose their fine, white cauliflower color. To remove any caterpillars or other insects which may have found lodgment in the cauliflower head it should be examined as carefully as possible, opening it a little if necessary. It should then be placed top down in cold salt water for an hour; or, better still, in cold water and vinegar. This is believed to be particularly effective in dislodging any insect life that may be present. If the heads seem badly infested, however, which they seldom are, the only safe way is to break them up before cooking. In cooking the heads whole, which is a favorite method, care is needed not to boil too long, so as to cause the head to come to pieces. To prevent any danger of breaking the head in cooking, it should be wrapped in cheese cloth or other similar material, in which it is to be handled. Cauliflower is in season in this country from June until December, but is most abundant during the month of October. Those found in market during the hottest summer months are apt to be dark in color, somewhat strong in flavor, and filled with small leaves. Broccoli is cooked in nearly all cases precisely as cauliflower. Porcelain lined or similarly guarded pots should be used in which to cook these vegetables, as iron is liable to impart to them a dark color. The use of earthenware vessels in which to cook vegetables of the cabbage tribe is recommended as follows by a writer in the _American Garden_: "To have any of the Brassicæ in proper flavor we must go to the German housewives and learn of them to cook cabbage, cauliflower, etc., in earthenware instead of metal. The German potters make stout boilers, like huge bean-pots, that hold six or eight cabbages, for restaurant cooking, and they are quite a different vegetable treated in this way. Try the experiment; put a cabbage in a stone jar with plenty of water, cover tight and boil till tender. I think it does not take as long to cook in this way as in ordinary kettles, the steady mild heat softening the tissues more steadily than the open boiling. And there is little or no smell to cabbage or onions cooked in a close stone pot in the oven. A cabbage baked in its own steam in such a pot and served with hot vinegar and butter is a high-flavored dish." A writer in the _Rural New Yorker_ sums up the prime requirements in cooking cauliflower as follows: "Four rules never to be deviated from may be laid down: first, that the cauliflower is to be soaked in salt and water for at least a half hour before cooking, in order to drive out any insects or worms that may be lurking among the flowerets; second, (if to be boiled) when ready for cooking the vegetable is to be plunged into salted, thoroughly boiling water; third, it is not to be cooked a moment after it becomes tender; fourth, to be served as soon as done. Neglect of any of these points is sure to result in failure, while a careful following of them will give a wholesome, delicate dish, and one that will be eaten with gusto and remembered with pleasure." A very simple method of serving cauliflower is with milk and butter, after the manner of cabbage, but a more elaborate white sauce generally accompanies it. This is the familiar drawn butter sauce, to which may be added a little vinegar or lemon juice, to give piquancy of flavor. Sometimes this sauce is varied by adding milk or cream to the flour and butter, when it is called "cream sauce." The receipts given below are chiefly from the following four recent works on cookery: "Good Living," by Sara Van Buren Brugière; G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London, 1890. "The Buckeye Cook-Book"; Buckeye Publishing Company, Minneapolis, 1887. "Our Home Cyclopedia," by Edgar S. Darling; Mercantile Publishing Company, Detroit, 1889. "Mrs. A. B. Marshall's Cookery Book"; Marshall's School of Cookery, London, 1888. 1. BOILED (_Gardener's Text Book_).--The head should be cut with most of the surrounding leaves attached, which are to be trimmed off when the time comes for cooking. Let it lie half an hour in salt and water, and then boil it in fresh water for fifteen or twenty minutes, until a fork will easily enter the stem. Milk and water are better than water alone [a little sweet milk tends to keep the heads white]. Serve with sauce, gravy or melted butter. 2. BOILED (_American Agriculturist_).--Boil in water, slightly salted--never with meat. When tender, which will usually be with twenty minutes cooking, take up and drain and cover with drawn butter (white sauce, made with butter, flour and water) and serve hot. They are usually eaten without other addition, but some dress with pepper and vinegar--the same as they do cabbage. 3. BOILED (_Good Living_).--Trim off the outside leaves, leaving one row around the flower. Cut an X in the stalk. Have a large pot of boiling water on the fire. Add enough milk to whiten the water; also one level teaspoonful of salt. The cauliflower should be left in vinegar and water for twenty to thirty minutes before boiling. This system is supposed to draw out any insects that may lurk within. Drain it thoroughly; tie it loosely in a piece of cheese-cloth large enough to cover it entirely. Put it into the boiling water, which must cover it well. Let it boil until quite tender, but be careful that it does not go to pieces. As cauliflowers vary very much in size, only a general idea of the time required can be given. One of ordinary size will take about forty minutes, perhaps more. When cooked lift it out by the cheese-cloth, drain very thoroughly, and set in a round dish. Make a cream sauce (No. 42), pour it over the cauliflower, cover, and let it stand for a few minutes for the sauce to penetrate. Then serve. _Or_, if a handsome specimen successfully boiled, serve it in a round dish with a white sauce (No. 41) served separately in a sauce-boat. Add a squeeze of lemon juice to the sauce before serving. Small cauliflowers will not require more than thirty minutes to boil. 4. BOILED (_Buckeye Cook Book_).--To each two quarts of water allow a heaping teaspoon of salt; choose close and white cauliflower; trim off decayed outside leaves, and cut stock off flat at bottom. Open flower a little in places to remove insects, which are generally found around the stalk, and let cauliflowers lie with head downward in salt and water for two hours previous to dressing them, which will effectually draw out all vermin. Then put in boiling water, adding salt in above proportion, and boil briskly for fifteen or twenty minutes over a good fire, keeping saucepan uncovered. Water should be well skimmed, and when cauliflowers are tender, take up, drain, and if large enough, place upright in a dish; serve with plain melted butter, a little of which may be poured over the flowers; or a white sauce may be used, made as follows: Put butter size of an egg into saucepan, and when it bubbles stir in a scant half teacup of flour; stir well with an egg-whisk until cooked; then add two teacups of thin cream, some pepper and salt. Stir it over the fire until perfectly smooth. Pour the sauce over the cauliflower and serve. Many let the cauliflower simmer in the same sauce a few moments before serving. Cauliflower is delicious served as a garnish around spring chicken, or with fried sweet-breads, when the white sauce should be poured over both. In this case it should be made by adding the cream, flour and seasoning to the little grease (half a teaspoon) that is left after frying the chickens or sweet-breads. 5. BAKED (_Buckeye Cook Book_).--Prepare as for boiling, and parboil five minutes; cut into pieces and put into a pie dish; add a little milk, season with salt, pepper and butter; cover with dry, grated cheese, and bake. 6. STEAMED (_Mrs. M. P. A. Crozier_).--Lay the nicely prepared cauliflower head in the deep dish from which it is to be served at table, sprinkle salt over it, place it in the steamer, cover closely, and steam till tender. Remove to the table, and pour over it rich, sweet cream, slightly salted and heated. 7. STEWED (_Gardener's Chronicle_).--Cut up your cauliflower into sprigs of convenient size to serve with a tablespoon, and throw them into cold water an hour before cooking. To stew them, have a stout, iron stewpan, white-enamelled inside--an ordinary tin saucepan or boiler will hardly do. Put a large lump of butter into your stewpan as you set it over a gentle fire; instead of butter you may use the fat taken from the top of cold roast meat gravy--that of beef or veal is preferable to that of mutton. As the grease melts, stir into it an onion chopped very fine, and a little flour and water; continue stirring until the whole is nicely browned; then put in your sprigged cauliflower, adding only just enough water or broth to cook it; season lightly with pepper and salt, and a very light dust of grated nutmeg, if not disapproved; let it stew gently till perfectly tender; when done the gravy should be so reduced as to be no more in quantity than is wanted to serve as sauce with the vegetable; for this reason the salt must be used with great moderation, otherwise, by concentration, the gravy would be converted into brine; transfer the cauliflower from the stewpan to a hot dish, and pour the reduced gravy over it. Note that by this method nothing is lost. The natural and nutritive juices of the vegetable, the sugar and albumen, are retained instead of being drawn out and diluted by boiling in several pints of water, and consequently wasted and thrown away. Note also that this receipt is founded (like the directions for many other good dishes) on the _roux_--flour browned in butter--which is one of the grand elements in French cookery. 8. STEWED (_Mr. S. J. Soyer_[E]).--Cauliflower butter, salt, sugar, two and one-third ounces of flour, half a pint of cream, one-eighth of the soup from the cauliflower. The cauliflower is cut into pieces, boiled slightly in salted water, taken out of the soup and put on a colander to drain. The butter and flour are baked together and thinned with the cream, and about the quantity of the soup above stated. The cauliflower is put into this sauce and again brought to a boil, whereupon it is served warm. 9. ESCALLOPED (_Rural New Yorker_).--Place a layer of the parboiled flowerets in a pudding dish, and cover them with cream sauce enough to moisten, with the addition of a little grated cheese, usually Parmesian; this is to be followed by another layer of this vegetable, and the whole covered with bread crumbs dotted with bits of butter. 10. ESCALLOPED (_Buckeye Cook Book_).--Boil till tender, drain well, and cut in small pieces; put in layers, with fine chopped egg, and this dressing: Half pint milk, thickened over boiling water, with two tablespoons flour and seasoned with two teaspoons salt, one of white pepper and two tablespoons butter; put grated bread over the top; dot it with small bits of butter and place it in the oven to heat thoroughly and brown. Serve in same dish in which it was baked. This is a good way to use common heads. A nicer way is to boil them, then place them whole in a buttered dish with stems down. Make sauce with a cup of bread crumbs beaten to froth with two tablespoons melted butter and three of cream or milk, one well-beaten egg, and salt and pepper to taste. Pour this over the cauliflower, cover dish tightly, and bake six minutes in a quick oven, browning them nicely. Serve as above. 11. WITH STUFFING (_Home Cyclopedia_).--Take a saucepan, the exact size of the dish intended to be used. Cleanse a large, firm, white cauliflower, and cut into sprigs, throw those into boiling salt water for two minutes; then take them out, drain, and pack them tightly with the heads downward, in the saucepan, the bottom of which must have been previously covered with thin slices of bacon; fill up the vacant spaces with a stuffing made of three tablespoonfuls of finely minced veal, the same of beef suet, four tablespoonfuls of bread crumbs, a little pepper and salt, a teaspoonful of chopped parsley, a teaspoonful of minced chives and a dozen small mushrooms, chopped fine. Strew these ingredients over the cauliflowers in alternate layers and pour over them three well-beaten eggs. When these are well soaked add sufficient nicely-flavored stock to cover the whole; simmer gently till the cauliflowers are tender, and the sauce very much reduced; then turn the contents of the saucepan upside down on a hot dish, and the cauliflowers will be found standing in a savory mixture. 12. WITH SAUCE (_Home Cyclopedia_).--Boil a large cauliflower--tied in netting--in hot salted water, from twenty-five to thirty minutes; drain, serve in a deep dish with the flower upwards, and pour over it a cup of drawn butter in which has been stirred the juice of a lemon and a half teaspoonful of French mustard, mixed up well with the sauce. 13. WITH CURRY SAUCE (_Mrs. Marshall_).--Blanch (see note to No. 19) and plain boil the cauliflower for fifteen to twenty minutes till tender, then cut it up into nice long pieces, each sufficient for one person; place the pieces in a sauté pan and pour the curry sauce (as for curry _á la simla_) over them; let it boil up, and then draw the pan to the side of the stove and let it stay there for ten or twelve minutes; dish the pieces up in the form of cutlets, pour the sauce over them, and garnish round the cauliflower with little bunches of grated cocoanut which have been warmed between two plates over boiling water. This is an excellent dish for luncheon or second course, or it may be served in place of an entrée. 14. WITH TOMATO SAUCE (_Good Living_).--Having boiled a medium-sized cauliflower, very carefully as directed (No. 3) place it on a round dish, after having thoroughly drained it. Have ready a rich tomato sauce (No. 40) pour it around (not over) the cauliflower, and serve as a separate course. This is a very pretty dish. 15. WITH TOMATO SAUCE (_Good Health_).--Boil or steam the cauliflower until tender. In another dish prepare a sauce by heating a pint of strained stewed tomatoes to boiling, thickening with a tablespoonful of flour, and salting to taste. When the cauliflower is tender, dish, and pour over it the hot tomato sauce. 16. WITH MUSHROOMS (_Buckeye Cook Book_).--Put in a frying pan, in hot fat, a few small mushrooms and part of a cauliflower, broken into sprigs. Sprinkle over them some grated cheese, and baste the whole well from time to time with the hot fat. 17. WITH BRUSSELS SPROUTS (_Mr. S. J. Soyer_).--Cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, dotter of egg, butter, a tablespoonful of cream, half a pint of sauce for vegetables, potato puré--that is, bouillon thickened with mashed potatoes and strained. Both cauliflower and sprouts are to be well cleaned, boiled separately in salt water and served on the puré, the cauliflower in the centre and the sprouts around it for garnishing. The sauce, to which is added the egg dotters, butter and cream, is poured hot over the cauliflower and sprouts. 18. AU GRATIN (_Good Living_).--Boil the cauliflower as directed. Set it in a round baking dish which can be sent to the table. For a moderate sized cauliflower make one pint of cream sauce (No. 42). Add to the sauce two heaping tablespoons each or grated Parmesian and Gruyère cheese and a dash of cayenne. Mix the sauce and pour it over the cauliflower, letting it penetrate all the crevices. Cover the top with fine grated bread crumbs, dot with butter, and bake twenty minutes. Serve in the same dish. 19. AU GRATIN (_Mrs. Marshall_).--Trim the cauliflower and blanch it[F]; put it to boil in boiling water till it is tender; then take up and drain. Butter the dish on which it is to be served and put on it about two tablespoonfuls of the sauce as below (No. 39); put the cauliflower on the sauce, then cover it over thickly with sauce, and smooth it all over with a palette knife; sprinkle it with browned bread crumbs; stand the dish in an ordinary baking tin containing about a pint of boiling water; place in the oven for about fifteen or twenty minutes, and when a nice golden color take it from the oven and sprinkle over it a very little grated Parmesian cheese. Stand the dish on another with a napkin, and serve very hot as a second course or luncheon dish. 20. AU GRATIN (_Mr. S. J. Soyer_).--Three cauliflower heads, salt, pepper, grated bread, two eggs, one-quarter pound grated Parmesian cheese, one-quarter pound grated Swiss cheese, one pint white sauce. The cauliflowers are boiled rare, taken out and drained off. White sauce and spices are boiled thick and the egg dotters and cheese mixed with it. The cauliflowers are cut to pieces and put in layers with sauce between, on a dish or silver saucepan, are sprinkled with grated bread and cheese, put fifteen minutes into a hot oven to be browned with a salamander. Serve as an independent dish. In place of "white sauce" butter and flour may be baked together and thinned with sweet milk. 21. CAULIFLOWER AU NATUREL (_Mr. J. S. Soyer_).--The stem of the white, solid cauliflower heads is cut off an inch from the head, and with a penknife is cleaned of the hard outer membrane, taking care to preserve the head as whole as possible; the head is then well rinsed in cold water, to which is added some vinegar to drive out larvæ and the like; it is then boiled in salt water until it is tender, when it is taken up to drain off on a sieve or colander. It is to be served high on a napkin, with melted butter, common sauce for vegetables, Dutch sauce, _velouté_ or _mâitre d'hôtel_ sauce. N. B.--For cauliflowers, and vegetables generally, the sauce ought to be rather thick, as it is impossible to have the vegetables run perfectly dry when they are to be served warm. 22. Á LA FRANCAISE (_Home Cyclopedia_).--After trimming properly, cut the cauliflower into quarters, and put into a stewpan and boil until tender; drain and arrange it neatly on a dish. Pour over it melted butter. 23. Á LA LOUIS XIV (_Mr. S. J. Soyer_).--Cauliflower, new-made butter, grated nutmeg, bouillon. The cauliflower is to be repeatedly washed in lukewarm water, boiled with bouillon and a little nutmeg, drained and then shaken with butter over a fire. To be served as soon as the butter is melted. 24. Á LA VARENNE (_Mrs. Marshall_).--Trim a cauliflower, and place it in salt and water for about one hour; then put it into cold water with a pinch of salt; bring to the boil, and then rinse the cauliflower and put it again into boiling water which is seasoned with salt, to cook till tender. When cooked, cut it in pieces and dish up in a coil; pour parsley sauce over, and garnish it round with braised carrots or a macedoine of vegetables, and place the cut up stalks of cauliflower in the centre. Serve for a luncheon or second course dish. 25. EN MAYONNAISE (_Mr. S. J. Soyer_).--Two heads of cauliflower, salt, pepper, sweet oil, estragon, chopped parsley, vinegar, oil-sauce. The cauliflowers are to be plucked apart and the stemlets cut off at proper lengths. Boil in water, and salt when nearly done. Drain off and let cool, and then marinate for an hour with oil, vinegar, spices, estragon and parsley. Drain on a sieve. To be served high on a dish, and oil sauce gradually to be poured over. If desired, the dish might be garnished with carrots or some other suitable vegetable. 26. SOUFFLE OF CAULIFLOWER, Á LA BARONNE (_Mrs. Marshall_).--Trim a nice cauliflower, put it to blanch (note to No. 19), then rinse it and put it into boiling water with a little salt, and let it cook till tender; take up again, drain, and cut it in neat pieces and place them in a buttered souffle dish with alternate layers of raw sliced tomatoes; season with a very little salt and white pepper, and fill up the dish with a souffle mixture prepared as below, and sprinkle over with a few browned bread crumbs; place a few pieces of butter here and there on the top, and bake in a moderate oven for thirty minutes, dish upon a paper with a napkin round, sprinkle it with a little chopped parsley, and serve for second course or luncheon. _Mixture for Cauliflower Souffle._--Mix two ounces of butter, one and a half ounces of fine flour, one and a half raw yolks of eggs, tiny dust of cayenne, a saltspoonful of salt, with not quite half a pint of cold milk; stir over the fire till it boils, then add three ounces of grated Parmesian cheese and the whites of three eggs that have been whipped stiff, with a pinch of salt, and use. 27. CAULIFLOWER SALAD (_Good Living_).--One pint cold boiled cauliflower, one teaspoon of chervil, chopped as fine as powder, one teaspoon of parsley, chopped as fine as powder, one teaspoon of tarragon or Maille vinegar, French dressing. Boil the cauliflower as directed (No. 3). Separate the flowerets, mix with the parsley, chives and dressing. Set aside one hour. Serve very cold. _Another_ (_Buckeye Cook Book_).--After boiling, let cool and dress with Mayonnaise, or any dressing preferred. 28. CAULIFLOWER OMELETTE.--Take the white part of a boiled cauliflower after it is cold, chop it very small, and mix with it a sufficient quantity of well beaten egg to make a very thick batter; then fry it in fresh butter, in a small pan, and send to the table hot. NOTE:--This omelette makes a fine dressing to pour hot over fried chicken when ready to send to the table. 29. CAULIFLOWER SOUP (_Mr. S. J. Soyer_). Two and a half quarts bouillon, one and a half pint milk, two or three cauliflowers, two and a half ounces butter, one and a half ounce flour, sugar, salt. The cauliflowers are cleaned, and boiled almost ready, taken out and put on a sieve, and the soup preserved. The butter and flour are baked together; and with the milk, bouillon, sugar and salt added to the decoction from the cauliflowers. These are then cut into proper pieces and put into the soup, which is subjected to a quick boil and then served with bread dumplings: crumbs of white bread moistened with milk, melted butter, dotter of eggs, and the whites beaten to a stiff froth--the mass rolled into balls, and boiled until they float. 30. CAULIFLOWER CREAM SOUP (_Rural New Yorker_).--Boil the cauliflower in salt water until nearly done. For a small head, bring another quart of water (or milk and water) to boil, adding half an onion, or a bit of spice if desired, and thicken it as for drawn butter sauce, with an ounce of butter and some flour. Boil the cauliflower in the liquid until soft, then put the whole through a colander; return to the fire, and add a cup of cream; simmer for five minutes, and serve at once, with squares of fried bread. 31. BROCCOLI (_American Garden_).--Broccoli is a pleasant change from cabbage and cauliflower, either as a salad or a side dish. To dress it, strip off the little branches, till the top one is left, then with a sharp knife peel off all the hard skin on the stalks and branchlets and throw them into water. When the water in the stewpan boils, put in the broccoli and cook till tender, salting in the last five minutes. Serve with toast dipped in the broccoli water, laying the stalks over it, and eat with vinegar and melted butter. Or, let it get cold, cut in small bits, and serve as salad with oil and vinegar, with lemon juice, garnished with nasturtium buds. Or, serve a large round of toast, the size of a dinner plate, moistened with broccoli water, salted and buttered, with nicely poached eggs laid on it, and sprigs of hot broccoli set thickly between, dusting with fine salt. Cauliflower and solid white cabbage may be served the same way. 32. EGG BROCCOLI (_Home Cyclopedia_).--Take half a dozen heads of broccoli, cut off the small shoots or blossoms and lay them aside for frying; trim the stalks short and pare off the rough rind up to the head, wash them well and lay them in salt water for an hour, then put them into plenty of boiling water (salted) and let them boil fast till quite tender. Put two ounces of butter into a saucepan, and stir it over a slow fire till it is melted; then add gradually six or eight well-beaten eggs and stir the mixture until it is thick and smooth. Lay the broccoli in the center of a large dish, pour the egg around it, and, having fried the broccoli blossoms, arrange them in a circle near the edge of the dish. 33. PICKLED (_Mrs. M. P. A. Crozier_).--Break at the natural divisions, steam till tender, and place in a jar of cold vinegar with mustard and red peppers. 34. PICKLED (_Gardener's Text Book_).--Place the heads in a keg, and sprinkle them liberally with salt. Let them remain thus for about a week, when you may turn over them scalding hot vinegar, prepared with one ounce of mace, one ounce of peppercorns, and one ounce of cloves to every gallon. Draw off the vinegar, and return it scalding hot several times until the heads become tender. 35. PICKLED (_Rural New Yorker_).--Break the heads into small sprays, throw them into a kettle of scalding brine; let them come to a boil, and drain carefully, so as not to break them; pack in stone or glass jars, and cover with scalding vinegar seasoned as follows: To one gallon of vinegar allow one cup of white sugar, half an ounce of mace, one ounce of peppercorns, two or three red pepper pods broken into bits, and a tablespoonful each of coriander seed, celery seed, and white mustard. Pour this hot over the cauliflowers and seal at once. Glass jars are the most convenient, as they may be examined frequently to see if their contents are keeping well. If not, repeat the scalding. In all pickles the vinegar should be two inches or more above the vegetables, as it is sure to shrink, and if the vegetables are not thoroughly immersed in vinegar they will not keep. 36. PICKLED (_Home Cyclopedia_).--Choose such as are firm, yet of their full size; cut away all the leaves and pare the stalks; pull away the flowers in bunches, steep in brine two days, then drain them, wipe them dry, and put them in hot pickle, or merely infuse for three days three ounces of curry powder in every quart of vinegar. _Another._ Slice, salt for two or three days, drain, spread upon a dry cloth before the fire twenty-four hours; put in a jar and cover with spiced vinegar. 37. MIXED PICKLES (_Home Cyclopedia_).--Three hundred small cucumbers, four green peppers, sliced fine, two large or three small heads of cauliflower, three heads of white cabbage sliced fine, nine large onions sliced, one large horseradish, one quart green beans cut one inch long, one quart green tomatoes sliced; put this mixture in a pretty strong brine twenty-four hours; drain three hours; then sprinkle in one-fourth pound black and one-fourth pound white mustard seed; also one tablespoonful black ground pepper; let it come to a boil in just vinegar enough to cover it, adding a little alumn; drain again, and when cold put in one-half pint ground mustard; cover the whole with good cider vinegar; add turmeric enough to color if you like. ACCESSORY RECEIPTS. 38. CAULIFLOWER SAUCE (_Good Living_).--Use either white or cream sauce, adding to it the flowerets of cauliflower previously boiled tender. Serve with boiled fowl, veal sauté, etc. 39. CAULIFLOWER SAUCE (_To accompany No. 19_).--One pint of thick Bechamel sauce, a quarter of a pound of grated Parmesian cheese, two tablespoonfuls of grated Gruyère cheese, two tablespoonfuls of cream, a little dust of cayenne pepper and a pinch of salt; mix well together, and use. 40. TOMATO SAUCE (_To accompany No. 14_).-- 6 large tomatoes, or 1 can, Butter, size of an egg, Bunch of parsley or thyme, 1 tablespoonful of butter, 2 chopped onions, Salt and pepper, Pinch of sugar, 2 tablespoonfuls of flour. Peel the tomatoes, and put into a sauce pan with butter, thyme, onions and parsley (and 1 clove of garlic chopped and fried in butter). Set over boiling water and stew very gently for three hours. Then press fruit and juice all through a sieve, rejecting only the seeds and herbs. Meanwhile prepare a roux, allowing 1 quart of sauce, 1 tablespoonful of butter, and 2 of flour, stirred together over the fire until light golden brown--no darker, or the color of the sauce will be injured. When the sauce is strained, remove the roux from the fire; stir in the sauce. Return it to the fire. Stir and boil 3 to 5 minutes, until rich and thick. Should the sauce be already quite thick with the pulp of the tomatoes, use less thickening. If served with fricandeau, veal sauté, or filet of beef, add the juices of the meat to the sauce. 41. WHITE SAUCE (_To accompany No. 3, etc._)-- 3 ounces of butter, 2 gills of water, 1 ounce of flour, Pepper and salt. Put 2 ounces of the butter in a stew pan; when it melts, add the flour. Stir for 1 minute or more, but do not brown. Then add by degrees the boiling water, stirring until smooth; pass it through a sieve; then add the rest of the butter, cut in pieces. When the butter is melted, serve immediately. This makes about one pint of sauce. You may add as a great improvement a little lemon juice or a few drops of vinegar. N. B.--If the sauce is to have other ingredients added it is best to have it very thick to begin with. 42. CREAM SAUCE (_To accompany Nos. 3 and 18_). 1 tablespoon of flour, 1 very large tablespoon of butter, 2 gills of new milk, ½ teaspoon of salt, Pepper to taste. Put ¾ of the butter in a sauce pan over the fire. As soon as it melts, add the flour; stir till blended. Be careful not to let it brown. Add the boiling milk, by degrees, to the flour and butter, stirring without ceasing. Boil 3 minutes. Remove from the fire; add salt, white pepper, and the rest of the butter; stir until the butter melts, and serve immediately. If it has to be kept, set it over a kettle of boiling water; leave the spoon in it; and every now and again stir it down or the top will form a scum. Do not let it boil after the last butter is added. Cream may be used instead of new milk. FOOTNOTES: [E] Chief Cook at the Court of Denmark. [F] Blanching anything is placing it on the fire in cold water until it boils, and after straining it off plunging it into cold water for the purpose of rendering it white. RECAPITULATION. The following recapitulation of the more important points connected with cauliflower culture will serve to fix them in mind: 1. The best localities for cauliflower growing are where the climate is cool and moist, as near some large body of water. 2. The cauliflower will stand nearly as much dry weather as ordinary crops while growing, providing it has a cool, moist time in which to head. 3. The best soil is a sandy loam, though any cool, moist, strong, fertile soil will answer. 4. While a cool, moist soil is desirable, thorough drainage is quite as essential as with any other crop. 5. An abundance of strong barn-yard or other manure is necessary, as the cauliflower is a gross feeder. 6. Deep and frequent tillage, that there may be no check in growth until the plants are nearly ready to head. 7. Tie or pin the leaves over the heads as soon as they appear, to keep them blanched and protect them from frost. 8. If any plants have failed to head on the approach of winter, remove them to a shed or cellar, and they will head there. 9. Guard against the flea beetle, cut worm, cabbage worm and cabbage maggot in the same manner as with cabbage. 10. With suitable varieties and proper care the cauliflower can generally be successfully grown wherever the cabbage thrives particularly well. GLOSSARY. BLIND.--To "go blind" is to lose the centre or growing point, and fail to head. It is generally due to climatic or insect injury. It is said to be frequently caused in the cauliflower by an insect resembling the turnip fly. Soot and lime are remedies. BLUES.--A dark-bluish appearance, accompanying arrested development, generally due to unfavorable weather, unsuitable soil or insects at the root. Cabbage and cauliflower plants which are set too early in the spring, especially if they are not well hardened off and are placed in a cold soil, are apt to assume this appearance. If cauliflowers remain long in this condition, they are liable either to fail to head, or to form small heads prematurely. BOLT.--A familiar term in England, applied to wheat when it heads out small and prematurely. Sometimes applied to cauliflowers when they head before they attain a proper age and size. See _Button_. BREAK.--To become loose or "frothy" preparatory to running up to seed. Said of a head of cauliflower; also of other plants as they begin to throw up their seed stalks. BUTTON.--TO form small heads prematurely, as often occurs when plants are left too long in the seed-bed. CURD.--The material composing the head of a cauliflower. Sometimes the heads individually are called "curds." DRAWN.--Having an abnormally long stem, owing to crowding, or too great heat, or too little light in the seed-bed. FLOWER OR BLOSSOM.--Terms often applied to the head in the cauliflower, either from its resemblance to a flower, or from a mistaken idea that it really is a flower. FLOWERET.--A term sometimes applied to one of the sprays or sub-divisions of a cauliflower head. FROTHY, see _Warty_. GLAUCOUS.--Pale bluish-green; sea-green. HEAD.--The edible part of a cauliflower, consisting of a mass of thickened flower-stems at an early stage of growth, before they have separated and elongated preparatory to forming flowers and seeds. Various other terms have been applied to it, such as "flower" or "blossom," "bouquet," "heart," and, by the French, "pomme" (apple), but sometimes also "tête" (head). HEART, see _Head_. LEAFY.--Having the head interspersed with rather small leaves. A tendency to this condition is found in some inferior varieties, and in many good varieties when they head in hot weather. MOSSY.--Having numerous minute leaves distributed over the head, giving it a "mossy" appearance. It is a condition of the same nature as the "leafy" state above mentioned, and produced by the same causes. ROGUE.--An undesirable sport. A cauliflower which, unlike the others in the field, runs immediately to seed without forming a head, would be called a "rogue." RUNNING.--Throwing up the flower-stalks preparatory to the production of seed. See _Break_. TURNING IN.--Commencing to head; a term originally applied to cabbages, but now extended to other plants which form heads of any kind. WARTY OR FROTHY.--A condition of the head in which the surface is covered with small prominences preparatory to running up to seed. WEATHER-PROUD.--An English term which signifies that plants are larger or more thrifty than proper for the time of year. Applied, for example, to wintered-over cauliflower plants during a warm, early spring. REFERENCES. In the following works and articles certain points in connection with the cauliflower and its cultivation are more fully treated than in the present work. BON JARDINIER, (1859, p. 449).--A good article on the origin and varieties of the cauliflower, and its cultivation in France. BRILL, FRANCIS.--"Cauliflowers and How to Grow Them," (16 pp., price twenty cents. Published by the Author, Riverhead, N. Y., 1886). A well written account of cauliflower growing on Long Island and the methods used. BURPEE, W. A.--"How to Grow Cabbages and Cauliflowers," (W. A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, 1890). A pamphlet of eighty-five pages, price thirty cents, consisting of prize essays on the Cabbage and Cauliflower, by Mr. G. H. Howard, of Long Island, N. Y., and Mr. J. Pedersen, of Denmark; together with directions for cooking these vegetables by Mr. S. J. Soyer, chief cook at the Court of Denmark; and a chapter on varieties by W. A. Burpee. DE CANDOLLE, AUGUSTIN PYRAMUS.--"Memoir on the Different Species, Races and Varieties of the Genus Brassica, and of the Genera Allied with it which are Cultivated in Europe" (read in 1821).--_Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London_, Vol. V, p. 1. DON, GEO.--"General History of Dichlamydeous Plants," (4 volumes, London, 1831). Volume I, pp. 233-241, contains a good account of the culture and varieties of broccoli and cauliflower. Fifteen varieties of broccoli and three of cauliflower are described. JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE AND COTTAGE GARDENER, (1878, p. 61).--A good article on the cultivation of cauliflower in England. LOUDON, J. C.--"Encyclopædia of Gardening" (5th edition, London, 1827). This standard work contains a very full account of the cauliflower and its allies, including quotations from various English authorities. MAGAZINE OF HORTICULTURE, (1839, p. 53).--A good article on the cultivation of the cauliflower in England. MAHER, JOHN.--"Hints relative to the Culture of the Early Purple Broccoli" (read in 1808).--_Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London_, Vol. I, pp. 116-120. An account of the culture and varieties of broccoli, with remarks on its improvement, and on the liability of broccoli and cauliflower to mix with cabbage. MCINTOSH, CHARLES.--"Book of the Garden" (2 volumes, London, 1853). The second volume contains the best account of cauliflower cultivation in England written up to that time. ROGERS, JOHN.--"The Vegetable Cultivator" (London, 1843). Contains a good account of the cauliflower and the methods of growing it in England. STURTEVANT, DR. E. L.--In his "History of Garden Vegetables," in the _American Naturalist_, this author gives the history of cauliflower and broccoli, including the earliest recorded evidences of their cultivation, and the names applied to these vegetables in different countries. The broccoli is treated in the volume for 1887, p. 438, and the cauliflower in the same volume, p. 701. SUTTON & SONS, Reading, England.--These seedsmen publish a work on Gardening, price five shillings, in which the subject of cauliflower culture in England is fully treated. VILMORIN--ANDRIEUX, ET CIE.--"_Plantes Potagers_" (Paris, 1883). This work by Vilmorin, Andrieux & Co., the Paris seedsmen, was translated into English, and published under the title of "The Vegetable Garden," by Murray, of London, in 1885. It contains full descriptions of varieties of cauliflower, based on trials at the experiment grounds of this firm at Paris, and also includes information on the cultivation of this vegetable in France. INDEX. Page. Analysis, 196 Blackleg, =105= Blanching, =39= Broccoli, 10, 11, 13, =189= Buttoning, =57= Cabbage, history, 9 Cabbage, wild, 9 Cabbage maggot, =96= Cabbage worm, =98= Cauliflower in United States, 19, 22, =61= Mexico, 85 Europe, 19 India, 86 Austria, 21 England, 21 France, 20 Germany, 21 Holland, 21 Italy 21 Long Island, =22=, =62= Puget Sound, 91, =115= Alabama, 80 California, 90 Colorado, 77 Florida, 82 Georgia, 79 Illinois, 23, 75 Iowa, 77 Louisiana, 83 Massachusetts, 71 Michigan, 72, 185 Minnesota, 74 Missouri, 76 New Jersey, 69 North Carolina, 78 Ohio, 75 Oregon, 90 South Dakota, 78 Texas, 84 Washington, 91, 115 Wisconsin, 74 Cauliflower industry, 19 Climate, 63, 72, 73, 78, 89, 90, 112, 116 Cooking, =195= Cross-fertilization, 113, 114, 121 Cultivation, =37= Cut worms, =94= Damping off, =104= Duty, see =Tariff= Earliness, order of, 177 Early cauliflower, =53= Failures, 19, 53, 69, 71 Fertilizers, =26=, 65, 68, 79, 85, 87, 116 Flea beetle, 27, 29, =93= Frost, effect of, =41= Fungi, =101= Glossary, 223 Harvesting, =42= History, =9= Importation of cauliflower, 23 Insects, 30, =93=, 87 Irrigation, 20, =38=, 77 Keeping, =48= Large heads, 77, 83, 86, 169, 171 Louse, 29, 100 Marketing, =47=, 55, 79, 81 Mildew, =105= Origin, =9= Packages, =45= Packing, =45= Pickles, 23, 216 Preparing the ground, =35=, 68, 87, 116 Price, =47=, 55, 65, 69, 79 Puget Sound seed, 109, 115, 185 Recapitulation, 221 References, 227 Rot, =101= Scale of maturity, 177 Seed, =107= in Cyprus, 109 Denmark, 110 England, 108, 110 France, 108 Germany, 108 Holland, 108 Scotland, 108 India, 89 Long Island, 110 Massachusetts, 110 Mexico, 86 Puget Sound, 109, 115, 185 Seed, amount needed, 88, 115 Seed, duration of vitality, 115 Seed, sowing, =27=, 33, 82, 87 Selling, see =Marketing= Soil, =25=, 72, 82, 86, 116 Soil, preparation of, =35=, 68, 87, 116 Sowing seed, =27=, 33, 82, 87 Tariff on cauliflower, 23 Terms, 223 Time to cut, 42 Time to sow, =33= Transplanting, =35=, 117 Trimming, =44= Varieties, 14, =125=, =187= Variety tests, =178= HOW TO EXTEND THE MARKET For Cauliflower. The market demand for any product is always a matter of growth. Peter Henderson said in 1867 that an acre of cauliflower was as much as could be profitably sold from one garden in the New York market. Now, five to fifteen acres in a single field is not an uncommon sight on Long Island. It is the business of the grower not only to supply the demand, but to create it. One way to increase the demand for cauliflower is to teach consumers the best methods of using it. We believe that if cauliflower growers could distribute freely to their customers the information found in the chapter on cooking in this work on Cauliflower it would result in largely increased sales. Accordingly we have reprinted this chapter as a separate pamphlet and offer it to market gardeners and others at the following very low rates: Single copies, ten cents, $5 per hundred. Sample copy free upon request to any purchaser of this book. Please give these a trial. REGISTER PUBLISHING COMPANY, ANN ARBOR, MICHIGAN Henderson's Early Snowball CAULIFLOWER. [Illustration] EARLY, LARGE AND A SURE HEADER. THE STANDARD VARIETY EVERYWHERE. Sold by all Dealers in Our Original Packages, SEALED WITH OUR RED TRADE MARK LABEL. PETER HENDERSON & CO., SEEDSMEN, 35 & 37 Cortland St.,--NEW YORK. MARCH'S PUGET SOUND CAULIFLOWER AND CABBAGE SEED. THE BEST IN THE WORLD. In every part of the country, from Maine to Oregon, it is pronounced good. High Testimony from High Sources. _Reports of the Experiment Stations_: Prof. W. J. Green, Ohio. Ag. Ex. Sta., says: Having tested your Snowball and Earliest Dwarf Erfurt, I do not hesitate, after careful trials, to say that your Cauliflower seed ranks with the very best. Not only does it show the effects of careful selection, but the seeds were very large and full of vitality, germinated quick, and produced plants of uncommon vigor, healthy in all stages of growth. If the seed sent us is a fair sample you need not hesitate to claim that it is as good as any that can be produced, as far as quality is concerned, and in vitality and consequent vigor of plants excelling imported seed by 25 per cent. I shall not hesitate to recommend Puget Sound Cauliflower seed, for I believe it to be The Best in the World. Prof. L. R. Taft, Mich. Ag. Col., writes: Dear Sir,--The Early Perfection ("Novelty No. 9") and American grown Snowball Cauliflower seed sent here for trial by you, as compared with nine other varieties, the following is the report. No. 8 is American Snowball, and No. 10 is Novelty No. 9 or Early Perfection: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 =8= 9 =10= 11 96 93 65 58 43 79 63 =96= 86 =99= 83 Germination. 90 68 66 48 17 58 33 =82= 76 =90= 60 Vegetation. 80 80 70 80 90 40 60 =90= 90 =100= 80 Vigor and heading The Early Perfection (No. 9) was one of the first to form heads, requiring fifty-three days from time of planting out. It gave fully as good and large heads as any of the other early kinds. I am particularly pleased with the high vegetative powers of your seeds, and the vigor of the plants. Mich. Ag. Col., Nov. 20, 1890. H. A. March, Fidalgo, Wash.: Dear Sir,--Your letter asking for a report of your Cabbage and Cauliflower Seed, is at hand. The Puget Sound strain of Early Wakefield Cabbage seed was so noticeably large that I weighed several samples of it and found that it averaged two and one-half times as large as the same variety from other seedsmen. In the seed-box we obtained 97 plants from 100 seeds. The plants were much stronger than those of any other variety. Twenty-five plants were put out, and every one formed a perfect head. They were very even in size and shape, averaging slightly larger than our other strains, with three days difference in their favor in earliness. Very truly, L. R. TAFT. _Prices half the price of imported seed of the_ SAME QUALITY. _Send for prices and testimonials to_ H. A. MARCH, FIDALGO, SKAGIT CO., WASH. Try American Grown Cauliflower Seed. [Illustration] TILLINGHAST'S P. S. STOCK. After many years costly of costly experimenting I believe I am now in position to supply a finer grade of Cauliflower seeds for less money than can be procured from any dealer who imports his stock. We have named ours TILLINGHAST'S EARLY PADILLA. _By mail post paid, 20cts. per pkt. $2.00 per oz. net_ Catalogue free on application _ADDRESS_ ISAAC F. TILLINGHAST, -- LA PLUME, PA. THE Stecher Lithographic Co. ROCHESTER, N. Y. 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The Wisconsin Farmer. A Sixteen Page, Sixty-Four Column AGRICULTURAL WEEKLY. DEVOTED TO FARM, HORTICULTURE, LIVE STOCK, DAIRYING, POULTRY, BEES, VETERINARY, HOME FIRESIDE AND MARKETS. OFFICIAL ORGAN OF THE WISCONSIN FARM INSTITUTES, AND STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. Containing full reports of the meetings and the best papers delivered. SUBSCRIPTION PRICE, $1.00 PER YEAR. --> SPECIMEN COPIES FREE. ADDRESS The Wisconsin Farmer, MADISON, WIS. IT PAYS to read The American Farmer Live Stock and Poultry Raiser. IT PAYS to advertise in the American Farmer Live Stock and Poultry Raiser. ITS 12,000 CIRCULATION GIVES AMPLE EVIDENCE OF ITS POPULARITY AND GUARANTEES EXCELLENT · RETURNS · TO · ADVERTISERS Its Premium offers are Unexcelled. IT IS THOROUGHLY PRACTICAL AND ESPOUSES The Farmer's Cause SAMPLE COPIES FREE. THE AMERICAN FARMER PUBLISHING CO., GEO. G. HILL, MANAGER. 125 Clark Street, CHICAGO, ILL. Do You Grow Flowers? I always have in stock a large collection of Roses, Geraniums, Fuchsias, Carnations, Chrysanthemums and Summer Bedding Plants. I can supply almost anything in the flower line at very reasonable prices. Don't buy until you see my Descriptive Price List. ALBERT H. CLARK, BOX 117, CAMBRIDGE, MD Do You Grow Strawberries? If you do, don't forget that I carry an immense stock. Strawberries are my specialty, as my entire time in summer is devoted to them. My plants are of thrifty growth, and true to name, and will satisfy the most skeptical. Don't buy until you see my prices. I have customers in every state. Can pack to go any distance. ALBERT H. CLARK, BOX 117, CAMBRIDGE, MD. The National Horticulturist. This is a live Horticultural Journal and should be in the hands of every Fruit Grower, especially if you grow strawberries. Our July issue will be worth dollars to every Strawberry Grower. Subscription price 25 cts. per year. We will send the National Horticulturist to any address for one year and 50 cts. worth of plants, your selection from my lists, for 40 cts. We make this liberal offer to induce you to try our paper and plants. Send for sample copies. ALBERT H. CLARK, Box 117, Cambridge. Md. THE Delaware Farm and Home Is especially devoted to the fruit growing and trucking interests of the Delaware and Chesapeake Peninsula, a region of country, which by its peculiar surroundings and climate, is invested with special interest to all. It is a large eight-page, forty-column paper, published weekly, at $1.00 per year. We could fill this page with testimonials as to its value but one or two will suffice: Dr. Erwin F. Smith, who is investigating the peach yellows subject, as the special agent of the Agricultural Department, wrote a short time ago: "THE FARM AND HOME is a good paper and is constantly improving. I read it with great interest every week and every number has something of special value to me." 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ATLANTA, GA. +-----------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Some inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in | | the original document have been preserved. | | | | Typographical errors corrected in the text: | | | | Page 29 exeprienced changed to experienced | | Page 31 two changed to too | | Page 32 y added to rain | | Page 43 looses changed to loses | | Page 44 towards changed to toward | | Page 72 varities changed to varieties | | Page 75 varities changed to varieties | | Page 85 plans changed to plants | | Page 105 Hamptnos changed to Hamptons | | Page 106 successfuly changed to successfully | | Page 108 varities changed to varieties | | Page 109 varities changed to varieties | | Page 110 varities changed to varieties | | Page 112 aquired changed to acquired | | Page 141 Surpise changed to Surprise | | Page 144 experimant changed to experiment | | Page 156 Thornburn changed to Thorburn | | Page 159 extraneous "a" removed | | Page 163 boquet changed to bouquet | | Page 174 varities changed to varieties | | Page 176 varities changed to varieties | | Page 180 varities changed to varieties | | Page 182 varities changed to varieties | | Page 183 preceeding changed to preceding | | Page 186 Varities changed to Varieties | | Page 206 downwards changed to downward | | Page 211 A changed to Á | | Page 212 rince changed to rinse | | Page 212 mayonaise changed to mayonnaise | | Page 224 boquet changed to bouquet | | Page 226 Jardenier changed to Jardinier | | Page 227 It changed to it | | Page 233 noticably changed to noticeably | | Page 236 HORTICULTRE changed to HORTICULTURE | | Page 239 Deleware changed to Delaware | | Page 239 Stutrevant changed to Sturtevant | +-----------------------------------------------+ 
28011	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) TOMATO CULTURE A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE TOMATO, ITS HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS, PLANTING, FERTILIZATION, CULTIVATION IN FIELD, GARDEN, AND GREENHOUSE, HARVESTING, PACKING, STORING, MARKETING, INSECT ENEMIES AND DISEASES, WITH METHODS OF CONTROL AND REMEDIES, ETC., ETC. By WILL W. TRACY _Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture_ _ILLUSTRATED_ NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1907 To Dr. F. M. Hexamer IN HONOR OF HIS LIFELONG EFFORTS FOR THE BETTERMENT OF AMERICAN HORTICULTURAL PRACTICE Copyright, 1907, by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY _All rights reserved_ [Illustration: WHERE NEW VARIETIES OF TOMATOES ARE DEVELOPED AND TESTED (By courtesy _American Agriculturist_. Photo by Prof. W. G. Johnson)] PREFACE This little book has been written in fulfilment of a promise made many years ago. Again and again I have undertaken the work, only to lay it aside because I felt the need of greater experience and wider knowledge. I do not now feel that this deficiency has been by any means fully supplied, but in some directions it has been removed through the kindness of Dr. F. H. Chittenden of the Bureau of Entomology, who wrote the chapter on insect enemies, and of W. A. Orton of the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, who wrote the chapter on diseases of tomatoes. I have made free use of, without special credit, and am largely indebted to, the writings of Doctor Sturtevant and Professor Goff, Professor Munson of Maine, Professor Halsted of New Jersey, Professor Corbett of Washington, Professor Rolfs of Florida, Professor Bailey of New York, Professor Green of Ohio, and many others. I have also found a vast amount of valuable information in the agricultural press of this country in general. I am also indebted to L. B. Coulter and Prof. W. G. Johnson for many photographs. My thanks are also due B. F. Williamson, who made the excellent drawings for this book under Professor Johnson's direction. Tomatoes are among the most generally used and popular vegetables. They are grown not only in gardens, but in large areas in every state from Maine to California and Washington to Florida, and under very different conditions of climate, soil and cultural facilities, as well as of requirements as to character of fruit. The methods which will give the best results under one set of conditions are entirely unsuited to others. I have tried to give the nature and requirements of the plant and the effect of conditions as seen in my own experience, a knowledge of which may enable the reader to follow the methods most suited to his own conditions and requirements, rather than to recommend the exact methods which have given me the best results. WILL W. TRACY. _Washington, April, 1907._ CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE v CHAPTER I BOTANY OF THE TOMATO 1 CHAPTER II HISTORY 14 CHAPTER III GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PLANT 20 CHAPTER IV ESSENTIALS FOR DEVELOPMENT 28 CHAPTER V SELECTION OF SOIL FOR MAXIMUM CROP 33 CHAPTER VI EXPOSURE AND LOCATION 38 CHAPTER VII FERTILIZERS 43 CHAPTER VIII PREPARATION OF THE SOIL 46 CHAPTER IX HOTBEDS AND COLD-FRAMES 51 CHAPTER X STARTING PLANTS 59 CHAPTER XI PROPER DISTANCE FOR PLANTING 68 CHAPTER XII CULTIVATION 76 CHAPTER XIII STAKING, TRAINING AND PRUNING 79 CHAPTER XIV RIPENING, GATHERING, HANDLING AND MARKETING 90 THE FRUIT CHAPTER XV ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES 97 CHAPTER XVI SEED BREEDING AND GROWING 112 CHAPTER XVII PRODUCTION FOR CANNING 117 CHAPTER XVIII COST OF PRODUCTION 121 CHAPTER XIX INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE TOMATO 123 CHAPTER XX TOMATO DISEASES 131 INDEX 148 ILLUSTRATIONS FIGURE PAGE 1. Where new varieties of tomatoes are developed and tested _Frontispiece_ 2. Tomato flowers 2 3. Two-celled tomato 3 4. Three-celled tomato 3 5. Currant tomato and characteristic clusters 5 6. Red cherry tomato 6 7. Pear-shaped tomato 8 8. Yellow plum tomato 9 9. One of the first illustrations of the tomato 11 10. An early illustration of the tomato 12 11. Typical bunch of modern tomatoes 27 12. Tomatoes trained to stakes in the South 35 13. Three-sash hotbed 52 14. Cross-section of hotbed 53 15. Cold-frames on hill-side 54 16. Transplanting tomatoes under cloth-covered frames 56 17. Spotting-board for use in cold-frames 61 18. Spotting-board for use on flat 62 19. Tomatoes sown and allowed to grow in hotbeds 69 20. Planting tomatoes on a Delaware farm 75 21. Training tomatoes in Florida to single stake 81 22. Tomato plant trained to single stake 82 23. Method of training to three stems in forcing-house and out of doors 83 24. Training on line in greenhouse 84 25. Ready to transplant in greenhouse 85 26. Training young tomatoes in greenhouse at New York experiment station 86 27. Tomatoes in greenhouse at the Ohio experiment station 87 28. Forcing tomatoes in greenhouse at New Hampshire experiment station 88 29. Florida tomatoes properly wrapped for long shipment 93 30. Greenhouse tomatoes packed for market 95 31. Buckeye State, showing long nodes and distance between fruit clusters 98 32. Stone, and characteristic foliage 99 33. Atlantic Prize, and its normal foliage 101 34. Dwarf Champion 103 35. A cutworm and parent moth 124 36. Flea-beetle 125 37. Margined blister beetle 125 38. Tomato worm 126 39. Tomato stalk-borer 127 40. Characteristic work of the tomato fruit worm 128 41. Adult moth, or parent of tomato fruit worm 129 42. Proper way to make Bordeaux 137 43. Point-rot disease of the tomato 140 TOMATO CULTURE CHAPTER I Botany of the Tomato =The common tomato= of our gardens belongs to the natural order _Solanaceae_ and the genus _Lycopersicum_. The name from _lykos_, a wolf, and _persica_, a peach, is given it because of the supposed aphrodisiacal qualities, and the beauty of the fruit. The genus comprises a few species of South American annual or short-lived perennial, herbaceous, rank-smelling plants in which the many branches are spreading, procumbent, or feebly ascendent and commonly 2 to 6 feet in length, though under some conditions, particularly in the South and in California, they grow much longer. They are covered with resinous viscid secretions and are round, soft, brittle and hairy, when young, but become furrowed, angular, hard and almost woody with enlarged joints, when old. The leaves are irregularly alternate, 5 to 15 inches long, petioled, odd pinnate, with seven to nine short-stemmed leaflets, often with much smaller and stemless ones between them. The larger leaflets are sometimes entire, but more generally notched, cut, or even divided, particularly at the base. [Illustration: FIG. 2--TOMATO FLOWERS ENLARGED ABOUT 2-1/2 TIMES. SECTION OF FLOWER SHOWN AT RIGHT (Drawn from a photograph by courtesy of Prof. L. C. Corbett)] =The flowers= are pendant and borne in more or less branched clusters, located on the stem on the opposite side and usually a little below the leaves; the first cluster on the sixth to twelfth internode from the ground, with one on each second to sixth succeeding one. The flowers (Fig. 2) are small, consisting of a yellow, deeply five-cleft, wheel-shaped corolla, with a very short tube and broadly lanceolate, recurving petals. The calyx consists of five long linear or lanceolate sepals, which are shorter than the petals at first, but are persistent, and increase in size as the fruits mature. The stamens, five in number, are borne on the throat of the corolla, and consist of long, large anthers, borne on short filaments, loosely joined into a tube and opening by a longitudinal slit on the inside, and this is the chief botanical distinction between this genus and _Solanum_ to which the potato, pepper, night shade and tobacco belong. The anthers in the latter genus open at the tip only. The two genera, however, are closely related and plants belonging to them are readily united by grafting. The Physalis, Husk tomato or Ground cherry is quite distinct, botanically. The pistils of the true tomato are short at first, but the style elongates so as to push the capitate stigma through the tube formed by the anthers, this usually occurring before the anthers open for the discharge of the pollen. The fruit is a two to many-celled berry with central fleshy placenta and many small kidney-shaped seeds which are densely covered with short, stiff hairs, as seen in Figs. 3 and 4. [Illustration: FIG. 3--TWO-CELLED TOMATO] [Illustration: FIG. 4--THREE-CELLED TOMATO] It is comparatively easy to define the genus with which the tomato should be classed botanically, but it is by no means so easy to classify our cultivated varieties into botanical species. We have in cultivation varieties which are known to have originated in gardens and from the same parentage, but which differ from each other so much in habit of growth, character of leaf and fruit and other respects, that if they had been found growing wild they would unhesitatingly be pronounced different species, and botanists are not agreed as to how our many and very different garden varieties should be classified botanically. Some contend that all of our cultivated sorts are varieties of but two distinct species, while others think they have originated from several. =Classification.=--The author suggests the following classification, differing somewhat from that sometimes given, as he believes that the large, deep-sutured fruit of our cultivated varieties and the distinct pear-shaped sorts come from original species rather than from variations of _Lycopersicum cerasiforme_: =Currant tomato, Grape tomato, German or Raisin tomato= (_Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium_, _L. racemiforme_) (Fig. 5).--Universally regarded as a distinct species. Plant strong, growing with many long, slender, weak branches which are not so hairy, viscid, or ill-smelling, and never become so hard or woody as those of the other species. The numerous leaves are very bright green in color, leaflets small, nearly entire, with many small stemless ones between the others. Fruit produced continuously and in great quantity on long racemes like those of the currant, though they are often branched. They continue to elongate and blossom until the fruit at the upper end is fully ripened. Fruit small, less than 1/2 inch in diameter, spherical, smooth and of a particularly bright, beautiful red color which contrasts well with the bright green leaves, and this abundance of beautifully colored and gracefully poised fruit makes the plant worthy of more general cultivation as an ornament, though the fruit is of little value for culinary use. This species, when pure, has not varied under cultivation, but it readily crosses with other species and with our garden varieties, and many of these owe their bright red color to the influence of crosses with the above species. [Illustration: FIG. 5--CURRANT TOMATO AND CHARACTERISTIC CLUSTERS] [Illustration: FIG. 6--RED CHERRY TOMATO] =Cherry tomato= (_L. cerasiforme_) (Fig. 6).--Plant vigorous, with stout branches which are distinctly trailing in habit. Leaves flat or but slightly curled. Fruit very abundant, borne in short, branched clusters, globular, perfectly smooth, with no apparent sutures. From 1/2 to 3/4 inch in diameter and either red or yellow in color, two-celled with numerous comparatively small, kidney-shaped seeds. Many of our garden varieties show evidence of crosses with this species, and by many it is regarded as the original wild form of all of our cultivated sorts. These, when they escape from cultivation and become wild plants, as they often do, from New Jersey southward, produce fruit which, in many respects, resembles that of this species in size and form; but they are generally more flattened, globe-shaped, with more or less distinct sutures on the upper side, and I have never seen any fruit of these wild plants which could not be readily distinguished from that of the true Cherry tomato. Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Director of the Florida experiment station, reports that among the millions of volunteer, or wild, tomatoes he has seen growing in the abandoned tomato fields in Florida, he has never seen a plant with fruit which could not be easily distinguished from that of the true Cherry tomato. Again, one can, by selection and cultivation, easily develop from these wild forms plants producing fruit as large and often practically identical with that of our cultivated varieties, while I have given a true stock of Cherry tomato most careful cultivation on the best of soil for 20 consecutive generations without any increase in size or change in character of the fruit. [Illustration: FIG. 7--PEAR-SHAPED TOMATO] [Illustration: FIG. 8--YELLOW PLUM TOMATO, SHOWING MOST USUAL FORM OF CLUSTER] =Pear (not Plum) tomato= (_L. pyriforme_) (Fig. 7).--Plant exceptionally vigorous, with comparatively few long, stout stems inclined to ascend. Leaves numerous, broad, flat, with a distinct bluish-green color noticeable, even in the cotyledons. Fruit abundant, borne in short branched or straight clusters of five to ten fruits. It is perfectly smooth, without sutures, and of the shape of a long, slender-necked pear, not over an inch in transverse by 1-1/2 inches in longitudinal diameter. When the stock is pure the fruit retains this form very persistently. The production of egg-shaped or other forms is a sure indication of impure stock. They are bright red, dark yellow, or light yellowish white in color, two-celled, with very distinct central placenta and comparatively few and large seeds. The fruit is inclined to ripen unevenly, the neck remaining green when the rest of the fruit is quite ripe. It is less juicy than that of most of our garden sorts but of a mild and pleasant flavor. This is considered, by many, to be simply a garden variety, but I am inclined to the belief that it is a distinct species and that the contrary view comes from the study of the impure and crossed stocks resulting from crosses between the true Pear tomato and garden sorts which are frequently sold by seedsmen as pear-shaped. Many garden sorts--like the Plum (Fig. 8), the Egg, the Golden Nugget, Vick's Criterion, etc.--are known to have originated from crosses of the Pear and I think that most, if not all, the garden sorts in which the longitudinal diameter of the fruit is greater than its transverse diameter owe this form to crosses with _L. pyriforme_. =Cultivated varieties= (_L. esculentum_).--This is commonly used as the botanical name of our cultivated varieties, rather than as the name of a distinct species. In western South America, however, there is found growing a wild plant of Lycopersicum which differs from the other recognized species in being more compact in growth, with fewer branches and larger leaves, and carrying an immense burden of fruit borne in large clusters. The fruit is larger than that of the other species but much smaller than that of our cultivated sorts; is very irregular in shape, always with distinct sutures, and often deeply corrugated and bright red in color. The walls are thin; the flesh is soft, with a distinct sharp, acid flavor much less agreeable than that of our cultivated forms of garden tomatoes. [Illustration: FIG. 9--ONE OF THE FIRST ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE TOMATO _Poma amoris_, (_Pomum aureum_), (_Lycopersicum_), 1581] [Illustration: FIG. 10--AN EARLY ILLUSTRATION OF THE TOMATO (From Morrison's "Historia Universalis," 1680)] This has commonly been regarded by botanists as a degenerate form of our garden tomatoes, rather than as an original species, but I find that, like _L. cerasiforme_ and _L. pyriforme_, it is quite fixed under cultivation, except as crossed with other species or with our garden varieties, and I believe it to be the original species from which our cultured sorts have been developed, by crossing and selection. Such crosses probably were made either naturally or by natives before the tomato was discovered by Europeans. The earliest prints we have of the tomato (Figs. 9 and 10) are far more like the fruit of this plant than that of _L. cerasiforme_, and the prints of many of the earliest garden varieties and of some sorts which are still cultivated in southern Europe, for use in soups, are like it not only in size and form, but in flavor. These facts make it seem far more probable that our cultivated sorts have come, by crossing, between this and other species rather than by simple development from _L. cerasiforme_. Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin, who has made a most careful study of the tomato, expressed the same opinion, writing that it seemed to him that our cultivated sorts must have come from the crossing of a small, round, smooth, sutureless type, with a larger, deep-sutured, corrugated fruit, like that of the Mammoth Chihuahua, but smaller. However this may be, I think that it is wise to throw all of our cultivated garden sorts, except the Pear, the Cherry, and the Grape--which I regard as distinct species--together under the name of _L. esculentum_, even when we know they have originated by direct crosses with the other species; and it is well to classify the upright growing sorts under the varietal names, _L. validum_, and the larger, heavier sorts, as _L. grandifolium_, as has been done by Bailey. (Cyclopedia of Horticulture.) CHAPTER II History The garden vegetable known in this country as tomato and generally as tomate in continental Europe, is also known as Wolf-peach and Love Apple in England and America, and Liebesapfel in Germany, Pomme d'Amour in France, Pomo d'oro in Italy, Pomidor in Poland. =Origin of name.=--The name tomato is of South American origin, and is derived from the Aztec word _xitomate_, or _zitotomate_, which is given the fruit of both the Common tomato and that of the Husk or Strawberry tomato or Physalis. Both vegetables were highly prized and extensively cultivated by the natives long before the discovery of the country by Europeans, and there is little doubt that many of the plants first seen and described by Europeans as wild species were really garden varieties originated with the native Americans by the variation or crossing of the original wild species. =Different types now common=, according to Sturtevant, have become known to, and been described by Europeans in about the following order: 1. Large yellow, described by Matthiolus in 1554 and called Golden apple. 2. Large red, described by Matthiolus in 1554 and called Love apple. 3. Purple red, described by D'el Obel in 1570. 4. White-fleshed, described by Dodoens in 1586. 5. Red cherry, described by Bauhin in 1620. 6. Yellow cherry, described by Bauhin in 1620. 7. Ochre yellow, described by Bauhin in 1651. 8. Striped, blotched or visi-colored, described by Bauhin in 1651. 9. Pale red, described by Tournefort in 1700. 10. Large smooth, or ribless red, described by Tournefort in 1700. 11. Bronzed-leaved, described by Blacknell in 1750. 12. Deep orange, described by Bryant in 1783. 13. Pear-shaped, described by Dunal in 1805. 14. Tree tomato, described by Vilmorin in 1855. 15. Broad-leaved, introduced about 1860. The special description of No. 10 by Tournefort in 1700 would indicate that large smooth sorts, like Livingston's Stone, were in existence fully 200 years ago, instead of being modern improvements, as is sometimes claimed; and a careful study of old descriptions and cuts and comparing them with the best examples of modern varieties led Doctor Sturtevant in 1889 to express the opinion that they had fruit as large and smooth as those we now grow, before the tomato came into general use in America, and possibly before the fruit was generally known to Europeans. Even the production of fine fruit under glass is not so modern as many suppose. In transactions of the London Horticultural Society for 1820, John Wilmot is reported to have cultivated under glass in 1818 some 600 plants and gathered from his entire plantings under glass and in borders some 130 bushels of ripe fruit. It is stated that the growth that year exceeded the demand, and that the fruit obtained was of extraordinary size, some exceeding 12 inches in circumference and weighing 12 ounces each. Thomas Meehan states in _Gardeners' Monthly_ for February, 1880, that on January 8, of that year, he saw growing in the greenhouses on Senator Cannon's place near Harrisburg, Pa., at least 1 bushel of ripe fruits, none of which were less than 10 inches in circumference,--a showing which compares with the best to be seen to-day. Throughout southern Europe the value of the fruit for use in soups and as a salad seems to have been at once recognized, and it came into quite general use, especially in Spain and Italy, during the 17th century; but in northern Europe and England, though the plant was grown in botanical gardens and in a few private places as a curiosity and for the beauty of its fruit, this was seldom eaten, being commonly regarded as unhealthy and even poisonous, and on this account, and probably because of its supposed aphrodisiacal qualities, it did not come into general use in those northern countries until early in the 19th century. =First mention= in America, I find of its being grown for culinary use, was in Virginia in 1781. In 1788 a Frenchman in Philadelphia made most earnest efforts to get people to use the fruit, but with little success, and similar efforts by an Italian in Salem, Mass., in 1802, were no more successful. The first record I can find of the fruit being regularly quoted in the market was in New Orleans in 1812, and the earliest records I have been able to find of the seed being offered by seedsmen, as that of an edible vegetable, was by Gardener and Hipburn in 1818, and by Landreth in 1820. Buist's "Kitchen Gardener" says: "In 1828-9 it (the tomato) was almost detested and commonly considered poisonous. Ten years later every variety of pill and panacea was 'extract of tomatoes,' and now (1847) almost as much ground is devoted to its culture as to the cabbage." In 1834 Professor Dunglison, of the University of Virginia, said: "The tomato may be looked upon as one of the most wholesome and valuable esculents of the garden." Yet, though the fruit has always received similar commendation from medical men, there has been constant recurring superstition that it is unhealthy. Only a few years ago there was in general circulation a statement that an eminent physician had discovered that eating tomatoes tended to develop cancer. This has been definitely traced to the playful question, asked as a joke by Dr. Dio Lewis, "Didn't you know that eating bright red tomatoes caused cancer?" In more recent years an equally unfounded claim has been made that tomato seeds were responsible for many cases of appendicitis and that it was consequently dangerous to eat the fruit. I give some quotations for tomatoes in Quincy Hall Market, Boston, with some for other vegetables, for comparison. The records show that during the week ending July 22, 1835, tomatoes were quoted at 50 cents per dozen, cabbage at 50 cents per dozen. For the week ending September 22, 1835, tomatoes were quoted at 25 cents per peck, lima beans, 12-1/2 cents per quart shelled, with comment that tomatoes are in much demand and a far greater quantity has been sold than in previous years. During the week ending July 22, 1837, tomatoes were quoted at 25 and 50 cents per peck, and the note that they are of good size and were well ripened and came from gardens in the vicinity would indicate that they had at that time early maturing varieties and knew how to grow them. From about 1835 till the present time the cultivation and use of tomatoes have constantly increased both in this country and in Europe, so that now they are one of the most largely grown of our garden vegetables. A suggestion as to the extent they are now grown in America is the fact that a single seed grower saved in 1903 over 20,000 pounds of tomato seed--an amount sufficient to furnish plants for from 80,000 to 320,000 acres, according to the care used in raising them, the larger quantity not requiring more care than the best growers commonly use. A careful estimate made by the _American Grocer_ shows that in 1903 the packing of tomatoes by canners in the United States amounted to 246,775,426 three-pound cans. In addition to the canned tomato, between 200,000 and 250,000 barrels of catsup stock is put up annually, requiring the product of at least 20,000 acres. It is probable that the area required to produce the fruit that is used fresh at least equals that devoted to the production for preserving, which give us from 400,000 to 500,000 acres devoted to this crop each year in America alone. The fruit is perhaps in more general use in America than elsewhere, but its cultivation and use have increased rapidly in other countries, particularly with the English speaking races. Large quantities are grown in Australia, and immense and constantly increasing quantities are grown under glass in England and adjacent islands, while _The Gardeners' Chronicle_ states that in 1903 between 600,000 and 800,000 pounds of fresh fruit were imported into England from other countries. CHAPTER III General Characteristics of the Plant =In the native home= of the tomato, in South America, the conditions of the soil, both as regards composition and mechanical condition, of the moisture both in soil and air, and those of temperature and sunlight, are throughout the growing season not only very favorable for rapid growth, but are uniformly and constantly so. Under such conditions there has been developed a plant which, while vigorous, tenacious of life, capable of rapid growth and enormously productive, is not at all hardy in the sense of ability to endure untoward conditions either in the character of soil, of water supply, or of temperature. A check in the development because of any unfavorable condition is never fully recovered from, but will inevitably affect the total quantity and quality of the fruit produced, even if subsequent favorable conditions result in the rapid and vigorous growth of the plant. I know of an instance where two adjoining fields belonging to A and B were set with tomatoes, using plants started in the same hotbed from the same lot of seed. The soil was of equal natural fertility and each field received about the same quantity of manure, though that given A's was all well decomposed and worked into the soil, while that given B's was fresh and raw and simply plowed in. A's field was put into the best possible tilth before setting the plants, and the management of the plants and their cultivation were such as to secure unchecked growth from the time they were pricked out into cold-frames and set in the field until the crop was matured. As long as the plants would permit, the soil was cultivated every few days and kept in a state of perfect tilth. B's field when the plants were set out was a mass of clods, as it had been plowed, when wet, some time before and never harrowed but once. The plants had been crowded forward as rapidly as possible in the cold-frame, and when set in the field were much higher than A's, but so soft that they were badly checked in transplanting and a great many of them died and had to be reset. The field received but one or two cultivations during the entire season. The growth of the plants in B's field was irregular and uneven instead of steady and uniform as in A's, and though some of the fruits were quite as large, they were not as uniform as A's while the yield per acre was not more than half as much nor the fruit of as good general quality. B had difficulty in disposing of his crop and often had to sell below the market, while A had no trouble in disposing of his at the highest prices for the day. B's crop was a financial loss, while A's returned a most satisfactory profit. The key to the most successful culture of the tomato is the securing, from the start to finish, of an unchecked uniform growth, though it need not necessarily be a rapid one. The failure to do this is, in my opinion, the principal reason for the comparatively small yield usually obtained, which is very much less than it would be with better cultural management. The tomato under conditions which I have repeatedly found it practicable to secure, not only in small plantings but in large fields, has proved capable of producing from 1,000 to 1,200 or even more bushels to the acre, and the possible yield per plant is enormous. As early as 1818 the Royal Horticultural Society of London reports the obtaining of over 40 pounds of fruit of marketable character from a single vine. An acre of such plants would give a yield of over 1,800 bushels of fruit, and many similar yields, and even greater ones, have been recorded for single plants. The yield commonly obtained, even in favorable locations, and by men who have grown tomatoes all their lives, is more often less than 200 bushels to the acre than more. The way to secure a better yield is to study carefully the nature and requirements of the plants and the adaptation of our cultural practice to them. =Life habit of the plant.=--The tomato could be described as a short-lived perennial, but its span of life is somewhat variable. Under favorable conditions it will develop from starting seed to first ripe fruit in from 85 to 120 days of full sunshine with a constant day temperature of from 75 to 90° F., and with one from 15 to 20° F. lower at night. The plants will ordinarily continue in full fruit for about 50 to 60 days, after which they generally become so exhausted by excessive production of fruit and the effects of diseases to which they are usually subject that their root action and sap circulation become weaker and weaker until they die from starvation. From Philadelphia southward gardeners expect that spring set plants will thus exhaust themselves and die by late summer, and they sow seed in late spring or early summer for plants on which they depend for late summer and fall crops. Under some conditions, particularly in the Gulf states and in California, tomato plants will not only grow to a much greater size than normal, but will continue to thrive and bear fruit for a longer time. Such a plant grown in Pasadena, Cal., was said to have been in constant bearing for over 10 months. Again, sometimes plants that have produced a full crop of fruits will start new sets of roots and leaves and produce a second and even a third crop, each, however, being produced on new branches and as a result of a fresh set of roots, those which produced the preceding crop having died and disappeared. The period of development, 85 to 120 days of full sunshine at a temperature above 75° F., has been given. The full sunshine and high temperature are essential to such rapid development, and in so far as there is a lack of sunshine from clouds or shade, or the day temperature falls below 75° F. the period will be lengthened, so that in the greater part of the United States the elapsed time between starting seed to ripened fruit is usually as much as from 120 to 150 days and often even longer. =Characteristics of the root.=--The roots of the tomato plant, while abundant in number, are short and can only gather food and water from a limited area. A plant of garden bean, for instance, is not more than half the size of one of the tomato, but its roots extend through the soil to a greater distance, gather plant food from a greater bulk of soil, seem better able to search out and gather the particular food element which the plant needs than do those of the tomato. This characteristic of the latter plant makes the composition of the soil as to the proportion of easily available food elements of great importance. Tomato roots are also exceedingly tender and incapable of penetrating a hard and compact soil, so that the condition of the soil as to tilth is of greater importance with regard to tomatoes than with most garden vegetables. Another characteristic of the tomato roots is that the period of their active life is short. When young they are capable of transmitting water and nutritive material very rapidly, but they soon become clogged and inefficient to such an extent as to result in the starvation and death of the plant. If the branches of such an exhausted plant be bent over and covered with earth they will frequently start new roots and produce a fresh crop of fruit, or if plants which have made a crop in the greenhouse be transplanted to the garden and cut back, a new set of roots will often develop and the plant will produce a second crop of fruit which, in amount, often equals or exceeds the first one. But such growths come only from new roots springing from the stem--never from an extension of the old root system. =Characteristics of the stem and leaves.=--The growth of the stem, and leaves of the young tomato plant is very rapid and, the cellular structure coarse, loose and open. A young branch is easily broken and when this is done it shows scarcely any fibrous structure--simply a mass of coarse cellular matter which while capable, when young, of transmitting nutritive matter rapidly, soon becomes dogged and inert. This structure not only makes the active life of the leaves short, like that of the roots, but necessitates a fresh growth in order to continue the fruitfulness of the plant and renders the leaves very susceptible to injury from bacterial and fungous diseases. The rapid growth also necessitates an abundance of sunlight. =Characteristics of the blossom.=--The inflorescence of the tomato is usually abundant and it is rare that a plant does not produce sufficient blooms for a full crop. The flowers are perfect as far as parts are concerned (Fig. 2) and in bright, sunny weather there is an abundance of pollen, but sunlight and warmth are essential to its maturing into a condition in which it can easily reach the stigma. The structure and development of the flower are such that while occasionally, particularly in healthy plants out of doors, the stigma becomes receptive and takes the pollen as it is pushed out through the stamen tube by the elongating style, it is more often pushed beyond them before the pollen matures, so that the pollen has to reach the stigma through some other means. Usually this is accomplished by the wind, either directly or through the motion of the plants. Under glass it is generally necessary to assist the fertilization either directly by application or by motion of the plant, this latter only being effective in the middle of a bright sunny day. In the open ground in cold, damp weather the flowers often fail of fertilization, in which case they drop, and this is often the first indication of a failing of the crop on large, strong vines. I have known of many cases where the yield of fruit from large and seemingly very healthy vines was very light because continual rains prevented the pollenization of the flowers. Such failures, however, do not always come from a want of pollen but may result from an over or irregular supply of water either at the root or in the air, imperfectly balanced food supply, a sapping of the vitality of the plants when young, or from other causes. Insects rarely visit tomato flowers and are seldom the means of their fertilization. =Characteristics of the fruit.=--The fruit of the original species from which our cultivated tomatoes have developed was doubtless a comparatively small two to many-celled berry, with comparatively dry central placenta and thin walls. In some species the cells were indicated by distinct sutures, forming a rough or corrugated fruit. It has improved under cultivation by increase in size, the material thickening of the cell walls, the development of greater juiciness and richer flavor and a decrease in the size and dryness of the placenta, as well as the breaking up of the cells by fleshy partitions resulting in the disappearance of the deep sutures and an improvement in the smoothness and beauty of the fruit. (Fig. 11.) The quality of the fruit is largely dependent upon varietal differences, to be spoken of later, but it is also influenced by conditions of growth--such as the proportion of the nutritive elements found in the soil, the proper supply of moisture, the degree and uniformity of temperature and, most of all, the amount of sunlight. Sudden changes of temperature and moisture often result in cracks and fissures in the skin and flesh, which not only injure the appearance but affect the flavor of the fruit. [Illustration: FIG. 11--TYPICAL BUNCH OF MODERN TOMATOES Contrast with Figs. 9 and 10] CHAPTER IV Essentials for Development =Sunlight.=--Abundant and unobstructed sunlight is the most essential condition for the healthy growth of the tomato. It is a native of the sunny South and will not thrive except in full and abundant sunlight. I have never been able to grow good tomatoes in the shade even where it is only partial. The entire plant needs the sunlight. The blossoms often fail to set and the fruit is lacking in flavor because of shade, from excessive leaf growth, or other obstruction. The great difficulty in winter forcing tomatoes under glass in the North comes from the want of sunlight during the short days of the winter months. Were it not for the short winter days of the higher latitudes limiting the hours of sunshine, tomatoes could be grown under glass in the northern states to compete in price, when the better quality of vine-ripened fruits is considered, with those from the Gulf states. Growers are learning that tomatoes can be profitably grown under glass during the longer spring days, and consumers are beginning to appreciate the superior quality of fruit ripened on the vine over that picked green and ripened in transit. At no time is this need of abundance of light of greater importance than when the plants are young and, if they fail to receive it, no subsequent favorable conditions will enable them to recover fully from its ill effects. It is not so much the want of room for the roots as of light for the leaves that makes the plants which have been crowded in the seed-beds so weak and unprofitable. I once divided 100 young tomato plants, about 2 inches high, into four lots of 25 each, numbering them 1, 2, 3 and 4. The plants of lots No. 1 and 2 were set equal distance apart in box A, and those of lots No. 3 and 4 in the same way in box B; both boxes being about 16 inches wide, 40 inches long and 4 inches deep. The two boxes were set together across the side bench of a greenhouse with the outer edge against a board wall some 2-1/2 feet high, so that the plants at the end of the box near the wall received much less light than those at the other end. They remained there about five weeks and then were taken out and the plants set in the open ground. During the five weeks box A, containing lots No. 1 and 2, was changed, end for end, every day so that those two lots of plants received nearly an equal amount of sunlight, but box B was not changed so that lot No. 3, at one end of the box, was constantly near the walk and in the full light, while lot No. 4, at the other end of the box, was constantly near the wall and in partial shade. The effect on the growth of the plants was very marked. The plants of lot No. 4 were nearly twice as high, but with much softer stems and leaves than those of lot No. 3. The plants received equal care when set side by side in the open ground and at the time the first fruit was gathered seemed of equal size and vigor, but the total yield of fruit of lots No. 1, 2 and 3 was very nearly the same and in each case at the rate of over 100 bushels an acre more than that from lot No. 4. This is but one of the scores of experiences which have led me to appreciate, in some degree, the necessity of plenty of sunlight for the best development of the tomato. =Heat.=--The plant thrives best out of doors in a dry temperature of 75 to 85° F., or even up to 95° F., if the air is not too dry and is in gentle circulation. The rate of growth diminishes as the temperature falls below 75° until at 50° there is practically no growth; the plant is simply living at a poor dying rate and if the growth, particularly in young plants, is checked in this way for any considerable time they will never produce a full crop of fruit, even if the plants reach full size and are seemingly vigorous and healthy. The plant is generally killed by exposure for even a short time to freezing temperature, though young volunteer plants in the spring are frequently so hardened by exposure that they will survive a frost that crusts the ground they stand in; but such exposure affects the productiveness of the plant, even if it subsequently makes a seemingly vigorous and healthy growth. Under glass, plants usually do best in a temperature somewhat lower than is most desirable out of doors. I think this is due to the inevitable obstruction of the sunlight and the lack of perfect ventilation. =Moisture.=--Although the tomato is not a desert plant and needs a plentiful supply of water, it suffers far more frequently, particularly when the plants are young, from an over-supply than from the want of water. Good drainage at the root and warm, dry, sunny air, in gentle motion, are what it delights in. Good drainage is essential not only to the best growth of the plant but to the production of any fruit of good quality. So important is this feature that though it can be readily proved that, other things being equal, the tomato will give larger yield and better fruit on well drained clay loam than on sandy soil, yet it is more generally and more successfully planted on sandy lands simply because they are usually better drained and on this account give better crops. While excess of water in the soil is most injurious to the young and growing plant, an abundance of it at the time the fruit swells and ripens is very essential, and a want of it at that time results in small and imperfect fruit of poor flavor. Excessive moisture in the air is just as injurious as at the root. In my personal experience I have known of more failures in tomato crops, at least in the northern states, to come from a season of persistent rains and damp atmosphere at the time when the plants should be in bloom and setting fruit than from any other climatic cause. =Food supply.=--The tomato is not a gross feeder nor is the crop an exhaustive one, but the plant is very particular as to its food supply. It is an epicure among plants and demands that its food shall not only be to its taste in quality but that it be well served. In order for the plant to do its best, or even well, it is essential that the food elements be in the right proportions and readily available. If there is a deficiency of any single element there will be but a meager crop of fruit, no matter how abundant the supply of the others. An over-supply of an element, especially nitrogen, is hardly less injurious and will actually lessen the yield of fruit though it may increase the size of the vine. Not only must the food be in right proportions but in such condition as to be readily available. Tomato roots have little power to wrest plant food from the soil. The use of coarse, unfermented manure is even more unsatisfactory with this than with other crops. The enormous yields sometimes obtained by English gardeners from plants grown under glass result from a supply of food of the right proportions and in solution, instead of incorporating it in a crude condition with the soil. =Cultivation.=--The tomato is grown in all parts of the United States and under very different conditions, not only as to climate and soil but as to the facilities for growing and handling the crop and the way in which it is done. What would be ideal conditions of soil and the most advantageous methods under some conditions would not be at all desirable in others. In some cases the largest possible yield an acre, in others fruit at the lowest cost a bushel, or at the earliest possible date, or in a continuous supply and of the best quality, is the greatest desideratum. It is impossible to give specific instructions which would be applicable to all these varying conditions and requirements; so I give general cultural directions for maximum crops with variations suggested for special conditions and requirements, and then the reader may follow those which seem best suited to his individual conditions. CHAPTER V Selection of Soil for Maximum Crop Large yields of tomatoes have been, and can be, obtained from soils of varying composition, from a gumbo prairie, a black marsh muck, or a stiff, tenacious clay, to one of light drifting sand, provided other conditions, such as drainage, tilth and fertility are favorable. The Connecticut experiment station and others have secured good results from plants grown under glass in a soil of sifted coal ashes and muck, or even from coal ashes alone, the requisite plant food being supplied in solution. But a maximum crop could never, and a full one very seldom, be produced on a soil, no matter what its composition, which could not be, or was not put into and kept in a good state of tilth, or on one which was poorly drained, sodden or sour, or which was so leachy that it was impossible to retain a fair supply of moisture and of plant food. Of the 10 largest yields of which I have personal knowledge and which ran from 1,000 to 1,200 bushels of fruit (acceptable for canning and at least two-thirds of it of prime market quality) an acre, four were grown on soils classed as clay loam, two on heavy clay--one of which was so heavy that clay for making brick was subsequently taken from the very spot which yielded the most and best fruit--one on what had been a black ash swamp, one on a sandy muck, two on a sandy loam and one on a light sand made very rich by heavy, annual manuring for several years. They were all perfectly watered and drained, in good heart, liberally fertilized with manures of proved right proportions for each field, and above all, the fields were put into and kept in perfect tilth by methods suited to each case; while the plants used were of good stock and so grown, set and cultivated that their growth was never stopped or hardly checked for even a day. These conditions as to soil and culture, together with seasons of exceptionally favorable weather, resulted in uniformly large crops on these widely different soils. [Illustration: FIG. 12--TOMATOES TRAINED TO STAKES ON A GEORGIA FARM] The composition of the soil, then, as to its proportions of sand or clay is of minor importance as regards a maximum yield or as to quality of the fruit, except as it affects our ability to put and keep the soil in good physical condition. The tomato crop, however, particularly when the plants are trimmed and trained to stakes, as is the usual practice in the South, as seen in Fig. 12, with crops grown for early shipment, necessitates in the trimming and training of the plants and the gathering of the fruit when it is in the right degree of maturity for shipment a great deal of trampling of the surface regardless of whether it is wet or dry. Consequently if the surface soil has any considerable proportion of clay there is danger of compacting and even puddling it by working when wet, to the great detriment of the crop. Again, a more or less sandy surface soil can be much more easily worked than one with a large proportion of clay. For these reasons our choice of a soil for the lowest cost a bushel and probably for a maximum yield should be a rich sandy or sandy loam surface soil overlying a well-drained clay sub-soil. I would prefer one which was originally covered with a heavy growth of beech and maple timber, though I should want it to be "old land" at the time. Tomatoes do not succeed as well on prairie soils, particularly if they are at all heavy, as they do on timbered lands, but one need not despair of a profitable crop of tomatoes on any soil which would give a fair crop of corn or of cotton. =For early-ripening fruit.=--Sometimes the profit and satisfaction from a tomato crop depend more largely upon the earliness of ripening than upon the amount of yield or cost of growing. In such cases a warm, sandy loam, or even a distinctly sandy soil, is to be preferred, as this is apt to be warmer and the fruit will be matured much earlier on it than on a heavier soil. It is essential, however, that it be well drained and warm. Often lands classed as sandy are really colder than some of those classed as clay, and such soils should be carefully avoided if early maturity is important. =For the home garden.=--Here we seldom have a choice, but no one need despair and abandon effort, no matter what the soil may be, for it is quite possible to raise an abundant home supply on any soil and that, too, without inordinate cost and labor. Some of the most prolific plants and the finest fruits I have ever seen were grown in a village lot which five years before had been filled in to a depth of 3 to 10 feet with clay, coal ashes and refuse from a brick and coal yard. In another instance magnificent fruit was grown in a garden where the soil was originally made up chiefly of sawdust mixed with sand, drawn on a foundation of sawmill edgings so as to raise it above the water of a swamp. Where one has to contend with such conditions he should make an effort to create a friable soil with a supply of humus by adding the material needed. A very few loads, sometimes even a single load, of clay or sand will greatly change the character of the soil of a sufficient area to grow the one or two dozen plants necessary for a family supply. In the two cases mentioned, the owner of the first named garden used both sand and sawdust to lighten his soil, while the second drew a great many loads of clay on his. =Growing under glass.=--I would make up a soil composed of about three parts rotted sod, two or three parts of well-rotted stable manure (and it is very important that it be well decomposed) and one part either of coarse, sharp sand, sandy loam or clay loam, according as the sod soil is light or heavy, the aim being to form a rich, light, open soil rather than one which is as heavy and compact as desirable for some plants. If sod soil is not available, of course, garden loam can be substituted, but it is very important that the soil be thoroughly mixed, and desirable that it be prepared sometime before it is to be used. Some growers use the same soil for several crops, simply adding some fresh manure; but, if so used, it is important that it be stirred and thoroughly re-mixed and sterilized. CHAPTER VI Exposure and Location In sections where there is danger of the plants being killed by early fall frosts before they have ripened their entire crop, exposure of the field is sometimes of importance in determining the marketable yield. A gentle inclination to the south, with a protection of higher land or timber on the sides from which frost or high winds are most likely to come, is the best. A steep descent to the south, shut in by high land to the east and west, so as to form a hot pocket, is not favorable for a maximum crop although it may give a smaller yield of early ripening fruit; nor is a small field entirely surrounded by forest desirable. I once knew of a field, of about two acres, sloping to the south and entirely surrounded by heavy timber, on which two or three tomato crops were failures when other fields on the same farm gave large yields, but after the timber on the south and east had been cut away this field generally gave the largest yield in the neighborhood. =Location.=--While exposure is in some cases an important factor in determining the total yield an acre, and so the cost, the location of the field as regards distance from marketing point and the character of the roads between them is of far greater importance in determining the cost and profit of crop, but one which is very often disregarded. The marketable product of an acre of tomatoes weighs from 3 to 30 tons, which is not only more than that of most farm crops, but the product is of such character that its value is easily destroyed by long hauls over ordinary roads. It has to be marketed within a day or two of the time it is in prime condition, regardless of the conditions of the roads or weather; so that it is quite deceptive to estimate the cost of delivery at the same rate a ton, as for potatoes or wheat, for it always costs more, and sometimes several times more, to deliver tomatoes than it would to deliver the same weight of less perishable crops. In most cases the cost of picking and delivery is one of the most important factors in determining profit and loss, particularly when the crop is grown for canning factories, where one often has to wait for hours for his team to unload. These conditions make it very important that the field be located within a short distance of, and connected by good roads with the point of delivery. =Early maturing fruit.=--Where early maturity is the great desideratum the exposure of the field is often very important. It should, first of all, be such as to secure comparative freedom from spring frosts so as to permit of early setting of the plants and the full benefit of the sunshine as well as protection from cold winds. There is often a great difference in these respects between fields quite near each other. Professor Rolfs, of Florida, mentions a case where the tomatoes in a field sloping to the southeast and protected on the north and west by a strip of oak timber were uninjured by a spring frost that killed not only all the plants in neighboring fields, but those in the same field farther away from the protecting timber. Such spots should be sought out and utilized, as often they can be used to great advantage. Immediate proximity to large bodies of water is sometimes advantageous in the South, but in the North it is often disadvantageous for early fruit because of the chilling of the air and the increased danger of spring frosts, although affording protection from those of early fall. Here, too, proximity of field to shipping point and distance and transportation rate to market are very important factors affecting profit on the crop. =The home garden.=--The south side of buildings or of tight fences and walls often furnishes a most desirable place for garden tomatoes, but the plants should be set at least 6 to 10 feet from the protection and not so as to be trained upon or much shaded by them, as the disadvantage of shutting off the light and circulation of the air, even from the north, would more than overbalance anything gained by the protection. =Growing under glass.=--In this country tomatoes are seldom grown under glass except during the darker winter months and the exposure of the house; the form of the roof and the method of glazing which will give the greatest possible light, are of importance, for tomatoes can not be profitably grown in a dark house. Just how the greatest amount of light may be made available in any particular case will depend upon local conditions, but every effort should be made to secure the most unobstructed sunlight possible and for the greatest number of hours each day. =Previous crop and condition.=--In field culture tomatoes should not follow tomatoes or potatoes. Both of these crops make use of large quantities of potash, and although a small part of that used by the plants is taken from the field in the crop, they inevitably reduce the proportion of this element in the soil--that is, in such condition as to be readily available for the succeeding crop. It is true that the deficiency in potash may be supplied, but it is not so easy to supply it in a condition in which it is possible for the roots of the tomato to take it in. Unlike potatoes, tomatoes do not do well on new land, whether it be newly cleared timber lands or new breaking of prairie. Clover leaves the land in better condition for tomatoes than any other of the commonly grown farm crops, while for second choice I prefer one of peas, beans, corn, or wheat in the order named. One of the most successful tomato growers I know of, whose soil is a rich, dark clay loam, prepares for the crop, as follows: Very late in the fall or early in the spring he gives a clover sod a heavy dressing of manure and plows it under. In the spring he prepares the ground by frequent cultivation and plants it with early sweet corn or summer squash. At the time of the last cultivation of these crops he sows clover seed, covering it with a cultivator having many small teeth, and rarely fails to get a good stand and a good growth of young clover before the ground freezes. In the spring he plows this under, running the plow as deep as possible and following in the furrow with a sub-soiler which stirs, but does not bring the sub-soil to the surface. He then gives the field a heavy dressing with wood ashes and puts it into the best possible tilth before planting his tomatoes. This grown usually harvests at least 500 bushels to the acre and has made a crop of over 1,000 bushels. =Early market.=--In some sections of the South where the soil is light and the growers depend almost wholly on the use of large quantities of commercial fertilizer, they seem to meet with the best success by using the same field for several successive crops, but in some places they succeed best with plantings following a crop of cowpeas or other green soiling crops plowed under, with a good dressing of lime. CHAPTER VII Fertilizers The experiences and opinions of different gardeners and writers vary greatly as to the amount and kind of fertilizer necessary for the production of the maximum crop of tomatoes. If the question were as to the growth of vine all would agree that the more fertilizer used and the richer the soil, the better. Some growers act as if this were equally true as to fruit, while others declare that one can easily use too much fertilizer and get the ground too rich not only for a maximum but for a profitable crop of fruit. I find that the amount an acre recommended by successful growers varies from 40 tons of well-rotted stable manure, supplemented by 1,000 pounds of complete fertilizer and 1,000 pounds of unleached ashes, to one of only 300 pounds of potato fertilizer. In my own experience the largest yield that I can recall was produced on what would be called rich land, and the application of fertilizer for the tomato crop was not in excess (unless possibly of potash) of that of the usual annual dressing. I think that in preparing a soil for tomatoes, as in selecting social acquaintances, the "new rich" are to be avoided. A soil which is rich because of judicious manuring and careful cropping for many years can scarcely be too rich, while one that is made rich by a single application of fertilizer, no matter how well proportioned, may give even a smaller yield of fruit because of its excessive use. Again, the proportions of the various food elements vary greatly in different locations. Professor Halstead finds that in his section of New Jersey the liberal use of nitrate of soda increases the yield and improves the quality, while in some localities of New York, Ohio, and the West, growers find that the yield of first-class fruit was actually lessened by its use. In some sections of the South liberality in the use of phosphates determines the amount and the quality of the crop, while at other points it seems to be of little value. In my own experience the liberal application of potash, particularly in the form of wood ashes, has more often given good results than the application of any other special fertilizer. If called upon to name the exact quantity and kind of manure for tomatoes, without any knowledge of the soil or its previous condition, I would say 8 to 10 tons of good stable manure worked into the soil as late as possible in the fall or during the winter and early spring and 300 to 600 pounds of commercial fertilizer, of such composition as to furnish 2 per cent. nitrogen, 6 per cent. phosphoric acid and 8 per cent. potash scattered and worked into the row about the time that the plants are set. The use of a large proportion of nitrogen tends to rank growth of vine and soft, watery fruit. The use of a large proportion of phosphoric acid tends to produce soft fruit with less distinctly acid flavor; of potash, to smaller growth of vine and firm but more acid fruit. I think that even more than with most crops it will be well for the farmer to experiment to determine the best and most economical fertilizer for his soil, setting aside five to ten plots of 1 to 4 square rods each and apply nitrate of soda, muriate of potash, wood, ashes, and phosphate alone and in different combinations. The results will suggest the combination which he can use to best advantage. In the majority of cases, however, where the soil is reasonably rich, expenditures for putting the ground in the best possible state of tilth will give larger returns than those for manures in excess of that which the land has usually received in the regular rotation for ordinary farm crops. =For the home garden.=--Usually a dressing of wood ashes up to a rate of 1 bushel to the square rod, well worked into the soil before the plants are set, and occasionally watering with liquid manure, will generally give the best returns of any special fertilization, it being assumed that the garden has been well enriched with stable manure. =Tomatoes under glass.=--Some growers recommend frequent waterings with liquid manure; others a surface dressing of sheep manure; still others a mulch of moderately well decayed stable manure. Plants growing under glass, particularly in pots or boxes, seem to be benefitted by so heavy a dressing that if applied to plants growing outside it would be likely to give excessive growth of vine with but little fruit. CHAPTER VIII Preparation of the Soil The proper preparation of the soil before setting the plants is one of the most essential points in successful tomato culture. The soil should be put into the best possible physical condition and to the greatest practicable depth. How this can be best accomplished will vary greatly with different soils and the facilities at the command of the planter. My practice on a heavy, dry soil is to plow shallow as early in the spring as the ground is fit to work, and then work and re-work the surface so as to make it as fine as possible. If I am to use any manure which is at all coarse, it is well worked in at this time. A week or 10 days before I expect to set the plants I again plow, and to as great a depth as practicable, without turning up much of the sub-soil, and if this has not been done within two years, follow in the furrows with a sub-soil plow which loosens, but does not bring the sub-soil to the surface. Then I work and re-work the surface, at the same time working in any dressing of well-rotted manure, ashes or commercial fertilizer that I want to use. I never regret going over the field again, if by so doing I can improve its condition in the least. On a lighter soil it might be better to compact rather than loosen as much as would give the best results with clay, but always and everywhere the soil should be made fine, friable and uniform in condition, to the greatest depth possible. One of the most successful growers has said that if he could afford to spend but two days' time on a patch of tomatoes he would use a day and a half of the two days in fitting the ground before he set the plants. It is my opinion that any working of the ground that serves to get it into better mechanical condition, if done economically, will not only increase the yield, but to such an extent as to lower the cost a bushel. T. B. Terry's teaching of the necessity for working and re-working the soil, if one would have the largest crops of potatoes of the best quality, is even more applicable to the culture of tomatoes. =Home garden.=--Here there is no excuse for setting plants in hard, lumpy soil. It should be worked and re-worked, not simply once or twice, but once or twice after it has been thoroughly worked. In short, the tomato bed should be made as friable as it is possible to make it and to as great a depth as the character of the sub-soil will permit. =Under glass.=--I would strongly advise that soil for tomatoes, whether it is to be used in solid beds or in pots or boxes, be thoroughly sterilized by piling it not over 15 inches deep or wide over iron pipes perforated with two lines of holes about one-sixteenth inch in diameter and 2 inches apart and filled with steam for at least a half hour. It can be sterilized, but far less effectively, by thorough wetting with boiling water. It should always be well stirred and aired before the plants are set in it. =Starting plants.=--From about the latitude of New York city southward, it is possible to secure large yields from plants grown from seed sown in place in the field, and one often sees volunteer plants which have sprung up as weeds carrying as much or more fruit than most carefully grown transplanted ones beside them. In many sections tomatoes are grown in large areas for canning factories, and as a farm rather than a market garden crop, individual farmers planting from 10 to 100 acres; and to start and transplant to the field the 25,000 to 30,000 plants necessary for a ten-acre field seems a great undertaking. Tomato plants, however, when young, are of rather weak and tender growth, and need more careful culture than can be readily given in the open field; and, again, the demand of the market, even at the canning factories, is for delivery of the crop earlier than it can be produced by sowing the seed in the field. For these reasons it is almost the universal custom of successful growers to use plants started under glass or in seed-beds where conditions of heat and moisture can be somewhat under control. I believe, however, that the failure to secure a maximum yield is more often due to defective methods of starting, handling and setting the plants than to any other single cause. In sections where tomatoes are largely grown there are usually men who make a business of starting plants and offering them for sale at prices running from $1 or even as low as 40 cents, up to $8 and $10 a 1,000, according to their age and the way they are grown; but generally, it will be found more advantageous for the planter to start his plants on or near the field where they are to be grown. =Tomato plants from cuttings= may be easily grown, but such plants, when planted in the open ground, do not yield as much fruit as seedlings nor is this apt to be of so good quality; so that, in practice, seedlings only are used for outside crops. Under glass, plants from cuttings do relatively better and some growers prefer them, as they commence to fruit earlier and do not make so rank a growth. Seedlings can be most easily started and grown, at least up to the time of pricking out, in light, well-ventilated greenhouses, and many large growers have them for this specific purpose. Houses for starting tomato plants should be so situated as to be fully exposed to the sun and not shaded in any way; be provided with heating apparatus by which a night temperature of 60 and up to one of 80° F. in the day can be maintained even in the coldest weather and darkest days likely to occur for 60 to 90 days before the plants can be safely set out in the open field; and the houses should be well glazed and ventilated. Houses well suited for this purpose are often built of hotbed sash with no frame but a simple ridge-board and sides 1 or 2 feet high, head room being gained by a central sunken path and the sash so fastened in place that they may be easily lifted to give ventilation or entirely removed to give full exposure to sunshine, or for storing when the house is not needed. Hotbed sash 3�6 feet with side-bars projecting at the ends to facilitate fastening them in place are usually kept by dealers, who offer them at from $1.50 to $3 each, according to the quality of the material used. A hot water heating apparatus is the best, but often one can use a brick furnace or an iron heating stove, connected with a flue of sewer or drain-pipe that will answer very well and cost much less. It requires but 6 to 10 square feet of bench to start plants enough for an acre, and a house costing only from $25 to $50 will enable one to grow plants enough for 20 acres up to the stage when they can be pricked out into sash or cloth-covered cold-frames in which they can be grown on to the size best suited for setting in the field. When a grower plants less than 5 acres it is often better for him to sow his seed in flats or shallow boxes and arrange to have these cared for in some neighboring greenhouse for the 10 to 20 days before they can be pricked out. CHAPTER IX Hotbeds and Cold-frames Plants can be advantageously started and even grown on to the size for setting in open ground in hotbeds. In building these of manure it is important to select a spot where there is no danger of standing water, even after the heaviest rains, and it is well to remove the soil to a depth of 6 inches or 1 foot from a space about 2 feet larger each way than the bed and to build the manure up squarely to a hight of 2 to 3 feet. It is also very important that the bed of manure be of uniform composition as regards mixture of straw and also as to age, density and moisture, so as to secure uniformity in heating. This can be accomplished by shaking out and evenly spreading each forkful and repeatedly and evenly tramping down as the bed is built up. Unless this work is well and carefully done the bed will heat and settle unevenly, making it impossible to secure uniformity of growth in different parts. Hotbed frames should be of a size to carry four to six 3�6-foot sash, and made of lumber so fastened together that they can be easily knocked apart and stored when not in use. They should be about 10 inches high in front and 16 or 18 inches at the back, care being taken that if the back is made of two boards one of them be narrow and at the bottom so that the crack between them can be covered by banking up with manure or earth. In placing them on the manure short pieces of board should be laid under the corners to prevent their settling in the manure unevenly. I prefer to sow the seed in flats or shallow boxes filled with rich but sandy and very friable soil, and set these on a layer of sifted coal ashes covering the manure and made perfectly level, but many growers sow on soil resting directly on the manure; if this is done the soil should be light and friable and made perfectly level. A perspective view of a three-sash hotbed is given in Fig. 13, and of a cross-section in Fig. 14. [Illustration: FIG. 13--THREE-SASH HOTBED] In some sections, particularly in the South, it is not always easy to procure suitable manure for making hotbeds, so these are built to be warmed by flues under ground, but I think it much better where a fire is to be used that the sash be built into the form of a house. A hotbed of manure is preferred to a house by some because of its supplying uniform and moist bottom heat--and one can easily give abundant air; but the sash can be built into the form of a house at but little more expense, and it has the great advantage of enabling one to work among the plants in any weather, while, if properly built, any desired degree of heat and ventilation can be easily secured. Except when very early ripening fruit is the desideratum, plants started with heat but pricked out and grown in cold-frames without it, but where they can be protected during cold nights and storms, will give better results than those grown to full size for the field in artificial heat. [Illustration: FIG. 14--CROSS-SECTION OF HOTBED] [Illustration: FIG. 15--COLD-FRAMES ON HILL-SIDE] =Cold-frames.=--In locations where tomatoes are much grown large areas are devoted to cold-frames covered either by sash or cloth curtains. Sash give much better protection from cold and on this account are more desirable, particularly where very early fruiting is wanted, but their first cost is much greater and the labor of attending to beds covered by them is much more than where cloth is used. Sash-covered beds should be of single width and run east and west, but if the beds are covered with cloth it is better that they be double width (12 feet) and run north and south. The front of the single and the sides of the double width beds should be 8 to 10 inches high, held firmly erect by stakes and perfectly parallel, both horizontally and vertically, with the back or with the central support. This should be 6 inches higher than the front. The cross strips, when sash are used, should be made of a 3-inch horizontal and a 1-1/2-inch vertical strip of 1-inch lumber nailed together very firmly in the form of an inverted T, the vertical pieces projecting 1 inch at each end and resting on the front and back of the bed and forming supports and guides for the sash. Some growers use vertical strips as heavy as 2�3 or 4 inches for stepping across the beds. When the plants are to be taken to the field, the sash and guides can be easily removed. (Fig. 15.) Ground to be covered with cold-frames should be made very friable and rich by repeated plowing and working in of a liberal dressing of well-rotted stable manure and wood ashes. In southwestern New Jersey, where immense areas of early tomatoes are grown, the soil of the beds for a depth of about 6 inches is removed and a layer 3 to 5 inches deep of well-rotted stable manure is placed in. That made of a mixture of manure from horses, cattle and hogs is preferred. It is important that the manure be so well rotted that it will not heat, and so dry that it will not become pasty when tramped into a firm, level layer. On this they place a layer of nearly 3 inches deep of rich, friable, moderately compact soil and prick out the plants into this. The roots soon bind the manure and soil together and by cutting through the manure so as to form blocks one can carry the plants to the fields with but very little disturbance of the root. =Cloth covers for beds= should be made of heavy, unbleached sheeting or light duck, and it is better that the selvage run up and down the bed rather than lengthwise. The cloth is torn into lengths of about 13 feet and then sewn together with a narrow double-stitched flat seam so as to form a sheet 13 feet wide and about 8 inches longer than the bed. The edges are tacked every foot to the strips about 2 inches wide by 7/8 inch thick with beveled outside edges and laid perfectly in line. A second line of strips is then nailed to the first so as to break joints with it and so that the two will form a continuous roller about a foot longer than the bed with the edge of the curtain firmly fastened in its center. The center of the curtain is secured to the central ridge of the bed by strips of lath. When rolled up, the rollers are held in place by loops of rope around their ends and when they are down they are held by similar loops to the notched tent-pins driven into the ground or to wooden buttons fastened to the sides and ends of the frame as shown in Fig. 16. [Illustration: FIG. 16--TRANSPLANTING TOMATOES UNDER CLOTH-COVERED FRAMES (Photo by Prof. W. G. Johnson)] Cloth covers are sometimes dressed with oil, but this is not to be recommended, though it is an advantage to have them wet occasionally with a weak solution of copper sulphate or with sea water as a preservative and to prevent mildew. Such covers, well cared for, may last five years or be of little use after the first, depending upon the care given them. They can be made from 50 to 200 feet long and two men can roll them up or down very quickly. When cloth covers are used the supporting cross-strips should not be over 3 inches wide nor more than 3 feet apart; sometimes the strips are made to bind the sideboard and ridge together by means of short pieces of hoop iron or of barrel hoop. These are so placed and nailed as to hold the upper edge of sideboards and of the central ridge flush with the cross-strips, thus forming a smooth surface for cloth to rest on and enabling one easily to "knock down" and remove the frames to facilitate the taking of the plants from the bed to the field and the storing of the frames for another season. =Flats for starting seeds.=--Any shallow box may be used or the plants sown directly in the beds without them, but flats of a uniform size are to be preferred--these will pack well on the greenhouse shelves; or in the hotbed we make them with 7/8 inch thick ends and 1/2 inch thick sides and bottom, the latter if of a single board having four half-inch holes for drainage and in any case having two narrow strips about 1/4 inch thick nailed across their bottoms so as to allow drainage water to escape freely when the boxes are set on hard, cool floors. Two or three such boxes, 35-1/2 inches long, 12 inches wide and 3 inches deep, will be sufficient to start plants enough for an acre. I like to use similar boxes only 4 inches deep for growing the plants after they are pricked out, particularly if this is to be done in a greenhouse, as by turning them we can equalize exposure to light and thus distribute the plants in the field where they are to be set with the least possible disturbance. One would need nearly 60 such boxes for plants enough for an acre. On account of the lessened necessity for watering when plants are set in beds rather than in boxes, many growers prefer to grow their plants in that way. CHAPTER X Starting Plants This has been the subject of a vast amount of horticultural writing, and the practice of different growers, and in different sections, varies greatly. I give the methods I have used successfully, together with reasons for following them, but it may be well for the reader to modify them to suit his own conditions and requirements. =Largest yield.=--Some 45 to 50 days before plants can be safely set in the open field the flats in which the seed is to be sown should be filled with light, rich, friable soil, it being important that its surface be made perfectly level, and that it be compact and quite moist, but not so wet as to pack under pressure. Sow the seed in drills 3/8 inch deep and 2 to 3 inches apart at the rate of 10 to 20 to the inch; press the soil evenly over them, water and place in the shade in an even temperature of 80 to 90° F. As soon as the seeds begin to break soil, which they should do in three to four days, place in full light and temperature of 75 to 80°, keeping the air rather close so as to avoid necessity of watering. After a few days reduce the temperature to about 65° and give as much air as possible. Some growers press a short piece of 2-inch joist into the soil of the benches, so as to form trenches 2 inches wide and about 3/8 inch deep, and so spaced as to be under the center of each row of glass, their sash being mostly made of five-inch glass. In this, by using a little tin box with holes in the top, like those of a pepper-box, they scatter seeds so that they will be nearly 1/8 to 1/4 inch apart, over the bottom of the 2-inch wide trench, and then cover. This has the advantage of evenly spacing the plants and so locating the rows that the plants will be little liable to injury from drip. Young tomato plants are very sensitive to over-supply of water and some of the most successful growers do not water at all until the plants are quite large and then only when necessary to prevent wilting. In 10 to 15 days, or as soon as the central bud is well started, the plants should be pricked out, setting them 3 to 6 inches apart, according to the size we expect them to reach before they go into the field; 5 inches is the most common distance used. I think it better to set the full distance apart at first, not to transplant a second time. It is very important that this pricking out should be done when the plants are young and small, though many successful growers wait until they are larger. The soil in which they are set, whether it be in boxes or beds, should be composed of about three parts garden loam, two parts well-rotted stable manure and one part of an equal mixture of sand and leaf mold, though the proportion of sand used should be increased if the garden loam is clayey. The soil in the seed-boxes or in the beds, when the seedlings are taken up, should be in such condition, and the plants be handled in such a way that nearly all the roots, carrying with them many particles of soil, are saved. The plants should be set a little, and but a little, deeper than they stood in the seed-box and the soil so pressed about the roots, particularly at their lower end, that the plants can not be easily pulled out. [Illustration: FIG. 17--SPOTTING-BOARD FOR USE IN COLD-FRAMES] Where plants are set in beds the work can be facilitated by the use of a "spotting-board" (Fig. 17). This should be about 1 foot in width, and have pegs about 3 inches long, 3/4 inch in diameter at the base and tapering to a point, fastened into the board the distance apart the plants are to be set. It should also have narrow projections carrying a single peg nailed to the top of board at each end, so that when these pegs are placed in the end holes of the last row the first row of pegs in the "spotting board" will be the right distance from the last row of holes or plants. By standing on this, while setting plants in one set of holes, holes for another set are formed. If the conditions of soil, air and plants are right and the work is well done, the plants will show little tendency to wilt, and it is better to prevent their doing so by shading, rather than by watering, though the latter should be resorted to if necessary. When plants are set in beds, some growers remove the soil to a depth of about 6 inches and put in a layer of about 2 inches of sifted coal ashes, made perfectly level, and then replace the soil. This confines the roots to the surface and enables one to secure nearly all of them when transplanting. The plants should be well established in 24 hours and after this the more light and air that can be given, without the temperature falling below 40° F. or subjecting the plants to cold, dry wind, the better. [Illustration: FIG. 18--SPOTTING-BOARD FOR USE ON FLAT (From W. G. Johnson)] One can hardly overstate the importance to the healthy growth of the young tomato plant of abundant sunshine, a uniform day temperature of from 60 to 80° F., or of the ill effects of a variable temperature, particularly if it be the result of cold, dry winds, or of a wet, soggy soil, the effect of over-watering. These points should be kept in mind in caring for the plants, and every effort made to secure, as far as possible, the first named conditions and to avoid the latter. The frames, whether they be covered with sash or cloth, but more particularly if with sash in sunshine and with curtains in dull days, should be opened so as to prevent their becoming too hot, and so as to admit air. And in a greenhouse full ventilation should be given whenever it is possible to do so without exposure to too low a temperature. If the plants are in boxes and on greenhouse shelves, it is important that these be turned end for end every few days to equalize exposure to light and give full exposure to the sun. The plants should be watered only when necessary to prevent wilting, and the beds should be covered during heavy rains. A "spotting-board" for use on flats is seen in Fig. 18. The most unfavorable weather conditions are bright sun combined with a cold wind, and cold storms of drizzling rain and frosty nights. Loss from the latter cause may often be prevented by covering the beds with coarse straw, which should always be provided for use in an emergency. Many growers provide a second curtain--an old one answers very well--to throw over the straw-covered beds. Beds so covered will protect the plants from frost in quite severe weather. Watering should especially be avoided for nearly three days before setting in fields; but six to twelve hours before it is well to water thoroughly, though not so as to make the soil at all muddy. About five days after pricking out and again about five days before the plants are to go into the field and five days after they are set, they should be sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. =Early ripening fruit.=--Here the aim is to secure, by the time they can be set in the field, plants which have come by an unchecked but comparatively slow rate of growth to the greatest size and maturity consistent with the transplanting to the field without too serious a check. The methods by which this is accomplished vary greatly and generally differ materially from those given above. The seed is planted much earlier and 60 to 90 days before it is at all safe to set plants in the open field; while a steady rate of growth is desirable, it should be slow and the plants kept small by a second and even third and fourth transplanting, and especial care taken to avoid the soft and irregular growth resulting from over-watering or over-heating. Any side shoots which may appear should be pinched out and a full pollination of the first cluster of the blossoms secured, either by direct application of pollen or by staking or jarring the plants on bright days; and finally, special efforts made to set the plants in the field as early and with as little check as possible. Growers are often willing to run considerable risk of frost for the sake of early setting. When one has sandy land a very profitable crop can sometimes be secured by sowing the seed very early, and growing the plants on in beds until the first cluster of fruit is set, then heeling them in, much as nursery trees are, but so close that they can be quickly covered in case of frost. As soon as it is at all safe to do so, they are set in the open ground, very closely, on the south side of ridges, so that only the upper one-third of the plant is exposed, the remainder being laid nearly level and covered with earth. So treated the plants will ripen the upper one or two clusters very early but will yield little more until late in the season, and it is generally more profitable to plow them up and put in some other crop as soon as the first clusters of fruit have ripened. Others pinch out the central bud as soon as it is well formed, usually within 10 days from the sowing of the seed. When this is done a great proportion of the plants will start branches from the axils of the cotyledons; these usually develop blossoms in the third to the fifth node and produce fruit much lower than in a normal plant. It is questionable if there is any gain in time from seed to fruit by this method, but it enables one to get older plants of a size which it is practicable to transplant to the field. In most cases it will be found more profitable and satisfactory so to grow the plants that by the time they can be safely set out of doors they will be in vigorous condition, about 6 to 10 inches tall, stout, healthy and well hardened off. Such plants will ripen fruit nearly, and often quite as early as older ones and will produce a constant succession of fruit, instead of ripening a single cluster or two and then no more until they have made a new growth. =For late summer and early fall.=--It is generally true in the South and often equally so in the North, that there is a more eager local demand for tomatoes in the late summer and fall months, after most of the spring set plants have ceased bearing, than in early summer. In Michigan I have often been able to get more for choice fruit in late October and in November than the best Floridas were sold for in May or early June, and certainly in the South the home use of fresh tomatoes should not be confined to spring set plants. For the fall crop in the South seed may be sown in late spring or up to the middle of July, in beds shaded with frames, covered with lath nailed 3 to 4 inches apart and the plants set in the field about 40 days from sowing, the same care being taken to put the ground into good condition as is recommended for the spring planted crop. A second plan, which has sometimes given most excellent results, is to cut back spring set plants which have ripened some fruit but which are not completely exhausted, to mere stubs, and spade up the ground about them so as to cut most of the roots, water thoroughly and cover the ground with a mulch of straw. Most of the plants so treated will start a new and vigorous growth and give most satisfactory returns. =Fruit at least expenditure of labor.=--When this is the great desideratum, many growers omit the hotbed and even the pricking out, sowing the seed as early as they judge the plants will be safe from frost, and broadcast, either in cold-frames or in uncovered beds, at the rate of 50 to 150 to the square foot and transplanting directly to the field. Or they may be advantageously sown in broad drills either by the use of the pepper-box arrangement suggested on page 60, or a garden drill adjusted to sow a broad row. In Maryland and the adjoining states, as well as in some places in the West, most of the plants for crops for the canners are grown in this way and at a cost of 40 cents or even less a 1,000. The seed should be sown so that it will be from 1/4 to 1/2 inch apart and the plants thinned as soon as they are up so that they will be at least 1/2 inch apart. Where seed is sown early with no provision for protection from the frost it is always well to make other sowings as soon as the last begins to break ground in order to furnish reserve plants, if the earlier sown lots be destroyed by frost. Others even sow the seed in place in the field, thinning out to a single one in a hill when the plants are about 2 inches high. Some of the largest yields I have ever known have been raised in this way, but the fruit is late in maturing and generally the method is not so satisfactory as starting the plants where they can be given some protection, and transplanting them to the field. =Plants for the home garden.=--These may be grown in pots or boxes set in the sunniest spot available and treated as has been described. In this way plants, equal to any, may be grown without the aid of either hotbed or greenhouse. It will generally be more satisfactory, however, to secure the dozen or two plants needed from some one who has grown them in quantity than to grow so small a lot by themselves. In selecting plants, take those which are short, stiff, hard, and dark green in color with some purple color on the lower part of the stem rather than those which are softer and of a brighter green, or those in which the foliage is of a yellowish green; but in selection it must be remembered that varieties differ as to the color of foliage, so that there may be a difference in shade which is not due to conditions. =Plants under glass.=--If to be grown in pots or boxes, "prick out," when small, into three-inch pots and as they grow re-pot several times so that when set in the pots or beds in which they are to fruit, they are stout plants 12 to 16 inches high. Plants propagated from cuttings give much better returns relatively under glass than out of doors. CHAPTER XI Proper Distance for Planting The best distance apart for the plants to be set in the field varies greatly with the soil, the variety, the methods of cultivation and other conditions. Plants set as close in rich clay soil as would give the best results in a warm, sandy one, or those of a strong growing sort, like Buckeye State, set as close as would be desirable for sorts, like Atlantic Prize or Dwarf Champion, would give little but leaves and inferior fruit. In field culture I like to space the plants so as to facilitate gathering the fruit, and recommend the following arrangement: Set the plants according to soil and the variety 2-1/2 to 4 feet apart in the row, omitting two or three in every 75 or 100 plants so as to form driveways across the rows. Set the first and second and the third and fourth rows, etc., 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 and the second and third and the fourth and fifth rows 5-1/2 to 6 feet apart. As the plants grow, those of the first and second and those of the third and fourth rows, etc., are thrown together and in many cases it will pay to have a pair of narrow horizontal strips or wires nearly 18 inches from the ground upon which they can be thrown. This arrangement of the plants allows us to continue to cultivate the wider spaces between the second and third and fourth and fifth, etc., rows, much longer, and tends to confine the necessary tramping and packing of the soil when gathering the fruit chiefly to these rows--an important point in case the soil is wet. The rows can be marked out the day before, but it is better to set the plants in the cross-rows and that these be marked out just ahead of the setters. In this arrangement the distances are equivalent to from 2-1/2�4 feet, requiring 4,300 plants to the acre, to 4�5 feet, requiring but about 2,100 plants. The latter distance is that most commonly used by New Jersey growers. [Illustration: FIG. 19--TOMATOES SOWN AND ALLOWED TO GROW IN HOTBEDS] =In the home garden.=--It will usually be more satisfactory to give each plant plenty of space, setting them 5 or 6 feet apart each way, except in the case of the dwarf sorts, which should be from 3-1/2 to 3 feet apart. A few plants at these distances will usually be much more satisfactory than more set nearer together, but the larger growing sorts should have at least 3 feet and the dwarf sorts 2 feet. When one has a hotbed or cold-frame it is often an advantage to set a row of tomato plants nearly 18 inches apart at the back end much earlier than they could be safely set in the open ground, and if these are allowed to grow on in place, as shown in Fig. 19, being pruned and tied to stakes, they will give some very early fruit. =In the greenhouse.=--Experience and practice differ as to the most desirable distance apart for plants under glass. But 2 feet apart, where quality is the main consideration, and 18 inches when quantity, if fair, is of more importance than extra quality. =Setting plants in the field.=--The economical and successful setting of plants in the field is an important element of successful tomato culture and is very dependent upon soil and weather conditions. It is assumed that the soil of the field has been put into the best possible condition of tilth, but its condition as to moisture is also very important. The worst condition is when it is wet and muddy, especially if it is at all clayey--not only is the cost of setting greatly increased, but plants set in such soil can seldom, by any amount of care, be made to do well, especially if a heavy beating rain or dry windy weather follows immediately; the condition is less unfavorable if a warm gentle rain or still moist weather follows. A dry cold wind, even if the day is cloudy and the soil in good condition, is also unfavorable, particularly if the roots of the plants are exposed. Wet soil, cold, dry air and wind are the conditions to be avoided. Moist, not wet, soil and still, warm air are to be desired; whether the day is sunny or not is less important. There is a certain definite time, which does not usually extend beyond a few days, when any lot of plants is in the best condition for setting in the field. It is hardly possible to describe this condition more than to say it is when the plants are as large as they can be without crowding and are in a state where they can best stand the shock of removal. It will always be a matter of judgment as to how long it is best to hold plants, which are in condition for setting, for favorable weather conditions. They can sometimes be held a few days, by scant watering and full exposure, or in some cases by taking from the bed and heeling in, as nurserymen do trees; but it is better to set when the weather is unfavorable or to run some risk from frost rather than to hold them in this way too long. The wise selection of time for setting is an important factor in securing a good and profitable crop. The South Jersey growers, to whom early ripening fruit is the great desideratum and who have a very warm soil, and grow plants so they are quite hardy and can be transplanted with little check, set them in the field very early, some seasons by the last of April; and if the plants can be got out so as to have two or three days of favorable weather to get established before it comes, they seem to be little hurt even by a quite severe frost. The first essential to successful transplanting is to have well-grown, healthy, hardy plants; the second is that they be in good condition for setting, which can be secured by giving them, for a few days before planting, a scant supply of water and fullest possible exposure to air and sun, and then a thorough wetting a few hours before they are to be set. The South Jersey plan of growing and setting plants gets them into the field in the best condition of any method I know. Two to five days before they expect to plant, the growers go over the beds and, by means of a hoe that has been straightened and sharpened to form a sort of spade, they cut through the soil and manure so as to divide the plants into blocks of six. A few hours before they are to plant, they saturate the bed with water. By means of a flattened shovel they can take up the blocks of plants and place them in a cart or low wagon so the soil is scarcely disturbed at all, the roots in the manure serving to bind the whole together. In the meantime furrows are opened along the rows and the cart driven to the field; the plants in the blocks are cut apart with a butcher knife placed in the furrow and the earth drawn about them. Plants set in this way often do not wilt at all, even in hot sunshine. When plants are grown in boxes these can be taken to the field and plants taken from them in much the same way and so that they will be disturbed but little. In setting the plants it should always be borne in mind that while sunshine on the leaves of a plant rarely does any injury, it is very injurious to the roots, and the exposure of the roots to the sun or to cold, dry wind, should be avoided in every practicable way, such as by carrying the plants to the field laid on the sides of a box, which is then carried with its bottom toward the sun so as to have the plants in the shade, always handling the plant in the shade of one's body, etc. It is well worth while to walk to the end of the row to commence work in order to secure this. It is attention to such details that distinguishes one whose plants nearly always do well from one who loses a large proportion of those he handles. =Fruit at the least expenditure of labor.=--The plants are prepared for setting by scant watering, and are taken up so as to secure as much root as possible with little soil adhering to them. Great care should be taken in taking the plants from the bed, and in handling them, _to avoid twisting the stems_, as to do so very seriously injures the plants, often to such an extent that they will fail to grow, no matter how carefully set out. Some growers dip the roots in a very thin clay mud, hardly thicker than thin cream, but I have not found this of advantage except, sometimes, when the roots are to be exposed for a longer period than usual and I do not recommend it for general use. In setting, holes are made either with a long dibble, in the hands of the one who distributes the plants, or by a short one, in the hands of the setter; the plants are dropped into them a little deeper than they had stood in the bed, the earth closed about the roots, by pressure from the side. Especial care should be taken that this is well done, particularly at the bottom; the earth should be so firmly pressed to the root that the plant cannot be easily pulled from the soil. In some sections transplanting machines (Fig. 20) are used and liked, but most planters prefer to set by hand and the additional cost is not great. An expert with one or two boys to assist in handling the plants can put out as many as 5,000 plants in a day. A machine requiring more help to run it can set from 15,000 to 20,000. =In the home garden=, when but a few plants are to be set, it will be better to put them in after 4 P. M. and use water in setting, but the wet soil should be covered with some dry earth to prevent its caking. =In the greenhouse.=--Plants are better set in the places where they are to fruit just before their first blossoms open and should be set in accordance with the suggestions given for transplanting to the field. [Illustration: FIG. 20--PLANTING TOMATOES ON A DELAWARE FARM (Photo by courtesy of _American Agriculturist_)] CHAPTER XII Cultivation =For maximum crop.=--As soon as plants are set the ground should be well cultivated to the greatest depth practicable. We should remember that the tomato needs for its best development a very friable soil, while the tramping necessary in setting out the plants and gathering the fruit tends to compact and harden the soil. Often transplanting has to be done when the soil is wet, and we need to counteract the injury from tramping by immediate cultivation; but, at the same time, we must avoid the disturbing of the plants any more than is necessary, and all of our cultivation should be done with these points in mind. Just how it can be done best will vary not only with the location and the facilities available, but with the weather conditions, so that it is not well to attempt to give explicit directions any further than that one can hardly cultivate too deeply for the first seven days nor too often for the first 30 days after the plants are set, provided he avoids turning the soil when it is too wet. Even walking through the field when the soil is wet is injurious and should be avoided, in proportion as the soil is a clayey one. =At least expenditure of labor.=--I hardly need add to or change the suggestions given above for tomatoes at least cost, for any cultivation wisely given will probably do as much to reduce cost per bushel by increasing the yield per acre as any other expenditure. _In the garden_ it is advisable that from the time the plants are set until the fruit ripens, the surface soil about them be stirred every evening when it is not actually wet. =In the greenhouse.=--The surface of the soil should be kept open by frequent stirring or, as is the practice of some successful growers, it may be covered with a mulch of partially rotted manure. The plants should be watered only as needed to prevent wilt, and special pains taken to guard against too much moisture either in the soil or in the air, particularly on dark days. The night temperature should be uniformly about 60° F. while in the day it should be 75°, and if it be bright and sunny it may go to 90° or even higher. Air should be given freely whenever feasible to do so without too greatly reducing temperature. A moderate degree of moisture should be maintained in the air, care being taken that it does not become too moist, especially during dark days. There is more danger from the air becoming too moist than from its becoming too dry, though either extreme is injurious. =Pollinating.=--The structure and relations of the parts of the tomato flower are such that while perfect pollination is possible, and in plants grown in the open air usually takes place without artificial assistance, it is not so likely to occur when plants are grown under glass, particularly in the winter months, and it is usually necessary to secure it by artificial means. With vigorous, healthy plants and on light, sunny days, it can be accomplished by jarring the plants near midday. This generally throws enough pollen into the air so that an abundance of it reaches each receptive stigma. With less vigorous plants and on dark days it is necessary to hand pollinate the flowers. This is done by gathering the pollen by means of jarring the plants, so that it falls into a watch crystal or other receptacle secured at the end of a wand, and then pressing the projecting pistils of other flowers into it so that they may become covered with the pollen. Some growers transfer the pollen with a camel's-hair-brush; others by pulling off the corolla and adhering anthers and rubbing them over the stigma of other flowers. Fruit rarely follows flowers that are not pollinated, and if it is incomplete the fruit will be unsymmetrical and imperfectly developed. As tomato flowers secrete but very little, if any, honey and are not attractive to insects, it is of no advantage to confine a hive of bees in the tomato house in the way which is so useful in one where cucumbers or melons are growing. CHAPTER XIII Staking, Training and Pruning Under favorable conditions of soil and climate, plants of most varieties of tomatoes will, in field culture, yield as much fruit if allowed to grow naturally and unpruned as if trained and pruned. This is especially true of the sorts of the Earliana type and on warm, sandy soils, while it may not be true of the stronger growing sorts, or on rich clay lands or where the fertilizer used contains an excess of nitrogen. In any case more fruit can be grown to the acre on pruned and staked plants because more of them can be gotten on an acre; and it is an advantage to grow them in that way because it enables us, by later cultivation, to keep the ground in good tilth longer; also it facilitates the gathering of the fruit; and last, but not least, it generally enables us to produce better ripened and flavored fruit. Staking and pruning used to be the almost universal practice in the South, but in many sections growers have abandoned it, claiming that they get as good or better results without it. In the North it is rarely used in field culture, though often used in private gardens and by some market gardeners, and both staking or tying up and pruning are essential to the profitable growing of tomatoes under glass. In the South, stout stakes from 1 to 2 inches in diameter and 4 to 5 feet long are driven into the ground so that they can be depended upon to hold the plants erect through the heaviest storms, as seen in Fig. 21. This is generally and wisely done as soon as the plant is set, though some growers delay doing so until the fruit is well set, claiming that the disturbance of staking, tying and pruning tends to hasten the ripening of the fruit. The plant is then tied up, the tying material being wrapped once about the stake and then looped about the plant so as to prevent slipping on the stake or choking the stem of the plant as it enlarges. Raffia is largely used and is one of the best tying materials, but short pieces of any soft, cheap string can be used. The tying up will need to be repeated as the stem elongates, which it will do very rapidly. In pruning the tomato we should allow the central shoot of the young plant to grow, and remove all of the side shoots which spring from the axils of the leaves and sometimes even from the fruit clusters, as seen in Fig. 22. It is very desirable that this be done when the branches are small, as there is then less danger of seriously disturbing the balance of the growing forces of the plant, and also because there is less danger of careless workmen cutting off the main shoot in place of a lateral, which would seriously check the ripening of the fruit. It is especially important that any shoots springing from the fruit cluster be removed as early as possible. For these reasons it is important that, if the plants are to be pruned at all, the field be gone over every few days. If the pruning is not well done it is a disadvantage rather than a help. [Illustration: FIG. 21--TRAINING TOMATOES IN FLORIDA TO SINGLE STAKE (Photo by courtesy of Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Director Florida Experiment Station)] [Illustration: FIG. 22--TOMATO PLANT TRAINED TO SINGLE STAKE] [Illustration: FIG. 23--METHOD OF TRAINING TO THREE STEMS IN FORCING-HOUSE AND OUT OF DOORS] Some growers allow two or three (Fig. 23) instead of one shoot to grow, selecting for the second the most vigorous of the shoots starting from below the first cluster of fruit. In some locations they stop or pinch out the main shoot just above the first leaf above the third or fourth cluster; in some soils it is an advantage and in others rather a disadvantage to do this. I have seldom practiced it. When fruit at the lowest cost a bushel is the desideratum, neither pruning nor staking is desirable. [Illustration: FIG. 24--METHOD OF TRAINING ON LINE IN GREENHOUSE] [Illustration: FIG. 25--READY TO TRANSPLANT IN GREENHOUSE (Redrawn from photo by New York Experiment Station)] [Illustration: FIG. 26--TRAINING YOUNG TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT NEW YORK EXPERIMENT STATION (Photo by courtesy Prof. U. P. Hedrick)] =For home gardens.=--In the home garden trellising and pruning are often very desirable, as they enable us not only to produce more fruit in a given area but of better quality. Many forms of trellis, have been recommended. Where the plants are to be pruned as well as supported, as they should always be in gardens, there is nothing better than the single stake, as described above. For a trellis without pruning, one to three stout hoops supported by three stakes so as to surround the plant which is allowed to grow through and fall over them, or two or more parallel strips supported about a foot from the ground on each side of a row of plants answer the purpose, which is simply to keep the plant up from the ground and facilitate the free circulation of the air among leaves and fruit. [Illustration: FIG. 27--TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT OHIO EXPERIMENT STATION (Photo by courtesy of C. W. Waid)] I have seen tomatoes grown very successfully by the side of an open fence. Two stakes were driven into the ground about 6 inches from the fence and the plant, but slanting outward and away from each other. The tops of the stakes were fastened to the fence by wooden braces, and then heavy strings fastened to the fence around the stakes and back to the fence, the whole with the fence forming a sort of inverted pyramidal vase about 3 feet across at the top. In this the plant was allowed to grow, but it would be essential to success that the fence be an open one. [Illustration: FIG. 28--FORCING TOMATOES IN GREENHOUSE AT NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION. NOTE CHARACTER OF BED ON THE GROUND FLOOR. (Photo by courtesy of Prof. H. F. Hall)] =In the greenhouse.=--Here pruning and training are essential. The plants may be supported by wires or strings (a coarse wool twine will answer), twisting the string about the plant as it grows. The growth is usually confined to a single shoot, though some growers allow two (Fig. 24); the method of pruning does not differ from that given for field culture, but it is more important that the plants be gone over often and the branches removed when small. If allowed to do so, branches would spring from the axil of each leaf and the plant would become a perfect thicket of slender branches and leaves and produce but little fruit. The main stem is sometimes pinched out after three or four clusters of fruit are set and the branch from the axil of the first leaf above is allowed to take its place. This tends to hasten the maturing of the fruit clusters already set. After several clusters have matured, or the main stem reaches the top of the house, some growers allow a shoot from the bottom to grow and as soon as fruit sets on it the first stem is cut away and this takes its place. Others prefer to remove the old plant entirely and set in young ones. A plant ready for transplanting is shown in Fig. 25. In figures 26, 27 and 28 are shown interior views of greenhouses at the New York station at Geneva, the Ohio station at Wooster, and the New Hampshire station at Durham. Note the strong, vigorous plants in Fig. 26; the method of utilizing tile for watering in Fig. 27; and the ground-floor bedding in Fig. 28. CHAPTER XIV Ripening, Gathering, Handling and Marketing the Fruit Tomatoes ripen and color from within outward and they will acquire full and often superior color, particularly about the stems, if, as soon as they have acquired full size and the ripening process has fairly commenced, they are picked and spread out in the sunshine. The point of ripeness when they can be safely picked is indicated by the surface color changing from a dark green to one of distinctly lighter shade with a very light tinge of pink. Fruit picked in this stage of maturity may be wrapped in paper and shipped 1,000 or 2,000 miles and when unwrapped after two or ten days' journey will be found to have acquired a beautiful color, often even more brilliant than that of a companion fruit left on the vine. Enclosing the fruit while on the vine and about half grown in paper bags has been recommended, and it often results in deeper and more even coloring and prevents injury from cracking, but the fruit so ripened, while more beautiful, is not so well flavored as that ripened in the sun. But Americans are said to taste with their eyes, so that in this country, fruit of this beautiful color will often out-sell that which is of better flavor though of duller color. The tomato never acquires its full and most perfect flavor except when ripened on the vine and in full sunlight. Vine and sun-ripened tomatoes, like tree-ripened peaches, are vastly better flavored than those artificially ripened. This is the chief reason why tomatoes grown in hothouses in the vicinity are so much superior to those shipped in from farther south. After it has come to its most perfect condition on the plant the fruit deteriorates steadily, whether gathered or allowed to remain on the vine, and the more rapidly in proportion as the air is hot and moist. That it be fresh is hardly less essential to the first quality in a tomato than it is to such things as lettuce and cucumbers. =Gathering.=--As is the case with most horticultural products, the best methods of gathering, handling and marketing the fruit vary greatly with the conditions under which the fruit was grown and how it is to be used, and it requires the best of judgment to gather it in the stage of maturity in which it will give the best satisfaction, under the conditions and for the purposes for which it is to be used. It is impossible to give exact rules for determining when the fruit is in the best condition. This can only be learned by experience, guided by a knowledge of the ripening habit of the fruit, which not only varies somewhat in different localities, but with different varieties. In the extreme South, fruit is picked for shipment before it shows more than the slightest tint of color at the blossom end; the depth of color which is considered as indicating shipping condition deepens as we go north and nearer market. Generally the fruit should be left on the vine no longer than will permit of its becoming fully ripe by the time it reaches its destination and is exposed for sale. When the fruit is to be shipped any distance the field should be gone over frequently, as often as every second or third day or even every day in the hight of the season, and care taken to pick every fruit as soon as it is in proper condition. When it is to be sold in nearby markets or to a cannery the exact stage of maturity, when picked, is not so important, although it is always an advantage not to gather until the fruit is well colored and before it begins to soften. Some growers for canneries make but three or four pickings, but in this case it is well to gather the ripest fruit separately. In picking and handling great care should be taken not to mar or bruise the fruit, and the stems should be removed as the fruit is picked to prevent bruising in handling. A bruise or mar may not be as conspicuous in a tomato as in a peach, but it is quite as injurious. It is a great deal better for pickers to use light pails rather than baskets, the flexibility of the latter often resulting in bruises. It is an advantage to have enough of these so that the sorting can be from the pail, but if this is not practical the fruit should be carefully emptied on a sorting table for grading. It should first of all be separated with regard to its maturity. A single fruit which is a little riper or greener than the remainder may make the entire package unsalable. It should also be graded as to freedom from blemishes or cracks, and as to size, form and color. It is assumed that the fruit for each package is to be of the same variety, but often there is quite a variation in different fruits from even the same vine; the more uniform in all respects the fruit in a package is the more attractive and salable it becomes. There is no fruit where careful grading and packing have more influence on the price it will command. [Illustration: FIG. 29--FLORIDA TOMATOES PROPERLY WRAPPED FOR LONG SHIPMENT (Photo by courtesy of _American Agriculturist_)] I know of a certain noted peach-grower in northern Michigan who grew, each year, some 2 to 5 acres of tomatoes for the Chicago market. It was his custom to pick out about one-tenth of the best of the fruit, putting it into small and attractively labeled packages; the remainder of the crop was sorted over and from one-tenth to one-fifth of it rejected and fed to stock or sold to a local cannery. The remainder was sent to Chicago with his selects, but as common stock, and usually brought more than his neighbors received for unsorted fruit; but the check he received for his selects was usually as large as that for his commons, thus giving him about 33-1/3 per cent. more for his crop than his neighbors received for their equally good, but unsorted, fruit--to say nothing of what he received for the rejected fruit and the saving of freight which, he said, was usually enough to pay the actual cost of sorting. Tomatoes are usually classed as vegetables but, when ripe, they require as careful handling as the most delicate fruits and are as easily and seriously injured by bruising and jarring. Just how this can be avoided and the fruit gotten from the vine to the possibly distant consumer in the best condition will vary in different cases. Tomatoes from the South (Fig. 29) are generally marketed in carriers which, though varying somewhat, are essentially alike and consist of an open basket or boxes of veneer holding about 10 pounds of fruit. When shipped, two, four or six of these are packed in crates made of thin boards, so as to protect the fruits but give them plenty of air. =Packing.=--Most of the fruit sent to New York and Philadelphia markets from New Jersey and other northern states is in boxes or crates holding about 5/8 of a bushel and so made as to facilitate ventilation when piled in cars or warehouses. Fruit for the canneries is usually picked and handled in bushel crates of lath. These various packages are usually sold in the flat and the grower puts them together as is convenient before the crop comes on; but in many sections where there are large shipments they are often put together by the package dealers. Fig. 30 shows tomatoes as packed by the Ohio experiment station. [Illustration: FIG. 30--GREENHOUSE TOMATOES PACKED FOR MARKET (By courtesy Ohio Experiment Station)] =Fruits after frost.=--Sometimes when there is a great quantity of partially ripe and full grown green fruit on the vines which is liable to be spoiled by an early fall frost, it can be saved by pulling the vines and placing them in windrows and covering them with straw. Of course the vines should be handled carefully to shake off as little fruit as possible. If the freeze is followed by a spell of warm, dry weather the fruit will ripen up so as to be quite equal to that shipped in from a distance. A second plan is to pull the vines and hang them up in a dry cellar or out-house, or lay them on the ground in an open grove of trees, or beneath the trees of an adjoining orchard. Still another plan is to gather the green fruit and spread it not more than two to four fruits deep in hotbed frames, which are then covered with sash. Local grocers are usually glad to pay good prices for this late fruit, and in seasons of scarcity I have known canners to buy thousands of bushels so ripened at better prices than they paid for the main crop. CHAPTER XV Adaptation of Varieties Whatever may be their botanical origin, the modern varieties of cultivated tomatoes vary greatly in many respects, and while these differences are always of importance their relative importance differs with conditions. When the great desideratum is the largest possible yield of salable fruit at the least expenditure of labor, the qualities of the vine may be the most important ones to be considered, while in private gardens and for a critical home market and where closer attention and better cultivation can be given, they may be of far less importance than qualities of fruit. =Habits of growth.=--Whether it be standard or dwarf, compact or spreading, is sometimes of great importance as fitting the sorts for certain soils and methods of culture. On heavy, moist, rich land, where staking and pruning are essential to the production of fruit of the best quality, it is of importance that we use sorts whose habits of growth fit them for it; while on warm, sandy, well-drained land, staking and pruning may be of little value, and a different habit of growth more desirable. We have sorts in which the vine is relatively strong growing with few branches, upright, with long nodes and small fruit clusters well scattered over the vine. They are usually very productive through a long season but generally late in maturing. Stocks of this type are sometimes sold, I think improperly, as giant climbing, or Tree tomato. The Buckeye State is a good type of these sorts. (Fig. 31.) [Illustration: FIG. 31--BUCKEYE STATE, SHOWING LONG NODES AND DISTANCE BETWEEN FRUIT CLUSTERS] Other varieties make a stout and vigorous but shorter growth, with more and heavier branches, shorter nodes and many small medium-sized clusters of fruit well distributed over the plant and which mature through a fairly long season. These sorts are usually very productive and our most popular varieties generally belong to this type, of which the Stone (Fig. 32) is a good representative of the more compact and the Beauty of the more open growing. [Illustration: FIG. 32--STONE, AND CHARACTERISTIC FOLIAGE] Other varieties form many short, weak, sprawling branches, with usually large and sometimes very large clusters of fruit produced chiefly near the center of the plant and which mature early and all together. Plants of this type will often mature their entire crop and die by the time those of the first type have come into full crop. The Atlantic Prize (Fig. 33) and Sparks Earliana are examples of this type. In sharp contrast with the above is the tomato De Laye, often called Tree tomato. This originated about 1862 in a garden at Chateau de Laye, France. In this the plant rarely exceeds 18 inches in hight, is single-stemmed or with few very short branches, the nodes very short, the fruit clusters few and small. From this, by crossing with other types, there has been developed a distinct class of dwarf tomatoes which are of intermediate form and character and are well represented by the Dwarf Champion (Fig. 34). Early maturity is sometimes the most important consideration of all, though, because of increasing facilities for shipping from the South, it is less commonly so than formerly. For shipping and canning it is generally, though not always, desirable that the crop mature as nearly together as possible, that it may be gathered with the fewest number of pickings and advantage taken of a favorable market; while for the home garden and market a longer season is desirable. [Illustration: FIG. 33--ATLANTIC PRIZE, AND ITS NORMAL FOLIAGE] =Foliage.=--Abundant, broad and close, or scanty cut and open foliage is sometimes of importance, according to whether the location, season and other conditions make it desirable that the foliage protect the fruit from the sun or admit the sunlight, with as little obstruction as possible, to the center of the plant. In different sorts, we have gradations from those in which the leaves are so deeply cut as to have a fern-like appearance, to those like the Magnus, or potato-leaved, in which the margin of each leaflet is entire, and from those in which the leaflets are so few and small as to scarcely shut out the light at all to those in which they are so numerous that the light can hardly penetrate to the center of the plant. The Atlantic Prize is an illustration of the scanty foliaged sorts, and the Royal Red or Buckeye State of those in which it is more abundant. As to color, the foliage varies from the dark blue-green of the Buckeye State to the light, distinctly yellowish-green of the Honor Bright. =Varietal differences as to fruit.=--These are often more important than those of vine. For canning, for forcing, and some other uses and for certain markets, a medium and uniform size is a very important quality, while in other cases uniformity is not important and the larger the individual fruits, provided they be well formed, the better. We have different sorts in which the size of the fruit varies from that of the Currant, which is scarcely 1 inch in circumference, to that of Ponderosa, of which well-formed specimens over 20 inches in circumference have been grown. [Illustration: FIG. 34--DWARF CHAMPION. NOTE CHARACTER OF FOLIAGE] =Shape.=--It is always desirable that the outline of the vertical section shall be a flowing line with a broad and shallow, or no depression at the stem end and as little as possible at the opposite point; but the relative importance of this, or whether the general outline shall be round or oval, either vertically or horizontally, forming a round, long or flat fruit, is largely determined by how the fruit is to be used, and by individual taste. A round fruit is best for canning; a long one is the most economical for slicing, though some prefer a flat one for this purpose. It is always desirable that the outline of the horizontal section shall be smooth, flowing and symmetrical, and if there be any distinct sutures that they shall be shallow and broad; but the relative importance of this, and whether the outline be round or oval, is wholly a matter of individual taste. Some people and markets prefer one shape and others a very different one. Size and smoothness of fruit are the factors which control price in some markets, while in others these points are quite secondary to color and character of flesh. We have sorts which vary from the perfectly spherical ones of the grape and cherry, to those in which the vertical diameter is less than a third of that of the horizontal section; and the pear-shaped in which the vertical diameter is twice or thrice that of the longest horizontal section, and from those in which the outline of both the vertical and horizontal sections is smooth and flowing to those in which the vertical section has a deep indentation at both the stem and opposite ends, and those in which the horizontal section is broken by deep indentures and sutures often disposed with great irregularity. For shipping long distances, for the rough handling, and for the easy preparation for the fruit for canning, a thick, tough skin is desirable, while for home use it is objectionable. Freedom from blemish or skin crack is also often an important quality, and we have sorts which vary greatly in these respects. The color of the skin, whether purple, red, yellow or white, is a matter of taste. In some markets the choice is given to purple fruit, like the Beauty, while in others it can only be sold at a reduced price. There are few who would care to use either yellow or white fruit for canning or cooking in any way, but many prefer them for slicing, or like to use them with the red for this purpose; we have sorts showing every gradation from white or light yellow in color through shades of red to dark purple-red, and still others which show distinct colors in splashings and shadings. =Character of flesh.=--Many consider that the greater the number of cells and the larger the proportion of flesh to that of pulp and seed the better. This may be true of itself, but the fruit-like acid tomato flavor which most people value is found chiefly in the pulp, and the fruit which has not a due proportion of pulp and flesh seems to be insipid and tasteless. Again, the division into many small cells is often connected with a large and pithy placenta and unevenness in maturity and coloring, which faults often more than overbalance any advantage from small cells and thick flesh. The size and character of the placenta are important qualities. In some sorts it is large, dry, pithy and hard, extending far into the fruit even to below the center; and sometimes seems to divide into secondary or branch placentas or masses of hard cellular matter, while in other varieties it is small and so soft and juicy as scarcely to be distinguished from the flesh. Usually, but not invariably, the large and pithy placenta is correlated with large-sized fruit having many cells; where this is the case it practically necessitates the cutting away and wasting of a large proportion of the fruit in preparing it for canning, so that the canners usually prefer round, medium-sized fruits. The character of the interior of the fruit varies greatly in different varieties. Both the exterior and divisional walls vary in thickness and in consistency. In some varieties they are comparatively thin, hard and dry; in others, thicker, softer and more juicy. In some cases there is but little interior wall, the fruit being divided into but few--even but two--cells of even size and shape, while in others there are many cells of varying size and shape. Varieties also differ greatly as to the amount, consistency and flavor of the pulp and the number of seeds. It requires from 300 to 500 pounds of ripe fruit to furnish a pound of seed of Ponderosa, while with some of the smaller, earlier sorts one can get a pound of seed from 100 to 200 pounds of fruit. =Coloring and ripening.=--Uniformity and evenness in coloring and ripening are an important quality. Tomatoes generally color and ripen from within outward, and from the point opposite the stem upward, but varieties differ in the evenness and rapidity with which this takes place. It is always desirable that the ripening be as even as possible and that there be no green and hard spots either at the surface or in the flesh, but often perfection in this respect is correlated with such lack of size and solidity as to counterbalance it. Rapidity in ripening, in a general way, is desirable for fruit to be used at home, and undesirable in that which is to be shipped. The time a tomato fruit will remain in usable condition and the amount of rough handling it will endure without becoming unsalable are most important commercial qualities depending largely upon the combined effects of the form and structure of the fruit, solidity and firmness of the flesh and ripening habit. In all these respects we have varieties which differ greatly, from the Honor Bright, which requires as much time to ripen, and when ripe is firm-fleshed and will remain usable as long as a peach, to those which 24 hours after reaching their full size are fully colored and ripe, and in 24 hours more are so over-ripe and soft that they will break open of their own weight. These are only some of the varietal differences of the tomato. Are such differences of practical importance? I think they are, and that a wise selection of the type best suited to one's own particular conditions and requirements is one of the most essential requisites of satisfactory tomato culture. How important it seems to practical tomato growers may be illustrated by an actual case. In a certain section of New Jersey the money-making crop is early tomatoes, and they are grown to such an extent that from an area with a radius of not exceeding 5 miles they have shipped as much as 15,000 bushels in one day, and the shipments will often average 8,000 bushels for days together. They have tried a great number of sorts, but have settled upon a certain type of a well-known variety as that best suited to their conditions and needs. Seeds of this variety which are supposed to produce plants of the exact type wanted can be bought from seedsmen for 10 cents an ounce and at much lower rates for larger quantities, but when one of the most successful growers of that locality, because of change of occupation, offered seed selected by him for his own use for sale at auction, it brought $3 an ounce. This price was paid because of the confidence of the bidders that the seed could be depended upon to produce plants of the exact type wanted for their conditions; and I was assured that the use of this high-priced seed actually added very largely to the profits from every field in that vicinity in which it was used, but the use of some of the same lot of seed by planters in Florida resulted in financial loss because the type of plant produced was not suited to their conditions and requirements. A wise answer can only be given after a study of each case, and no one can do this so well as the planter himself. He should know, as no one else can know, his own conditions and requirements, and should be able to form very exact ideas of just what he wants, and the doing so is, in my opinion, one of the most important requisites for satisfactory tomato growing. I also believe that it is as impossible for a man to answer offhand the question, "What is the best variety of tomato?" as for a wise physician to answer the question, "What is the best medicine?" =Varietal names= and descriptions mean something quite different in the case of plants like the tomato, which are propagated by seed, from what they do with plants like the apple and strawberry, which are propagated by division. In the latter case all the plants of the variety are but parts of the primal origination, and so are alike. A description is simply a more or less complete and accurate definition of what a certain immutable thing really is, but in the case of plants propagated by seed the variety is made up of all the plants which accord with a certain ideal. Bailey says, "Of all those which have more points of resemblance than of difference," and a description of the variety is of that ideal which in common practice is not fixed, but may and generally does vary not only with different people but from time to time. The only foundation for varietal names in plants of this class is an agreement as to the ideal the name shall stand for. Under modern horticultural practice when anyone has been able to secure seed most of which he is reasonably sure will develop into plants of a distinct type different from that of any sort known to him, he has a distinct variety, so that it is not surprising that we should find that American seedsmen offer tomato seed under more than 300 different names, and those of Europe under more than 200 additional, so that we have more than 500 varietal names, each claiming to stand for a distinct sort. Now it is quite possible--indeed, it is certain--that we might have 500 tomato plants each different in some respect, either of vine, leaf, habit of growth, or character of fruit, from any of the others and that these differences might make plants of one type better suited to certain conditions and uses than any other; but it is very certain that these 500 names do not stand for such differences. It is doubtless true that a portion--though I think but a small portion--of these different sorts exist simply as a matter of commercial expediency; but by far a greater part of them exist because one has found that plants of a certain character were better suited to some set of conditions and requirements than any sort with which he was acquainted, and having secured seed which he thought would produce plants of that character, has offered it as of a distinct sort. It is probable that a better acquaintance with sorts already in cultivation would have prevented the naming of many of these stocks as distinct varieties. What is of far more practical importance, the same name does not always stand for precisely the same type with different seedsmen, or even with the same seedsmen in different years; nor are the seedsmen's published descriptions such as would enable any one to learn from them just what type he will receive under any particular name, or which sort he should buy in order to get plants of any desired type. Seedsmen's catalogs are published and distributed gratuitously at great expense, and are issued, primarily, for the sake of selling the seeds they offer. They answer the purpose for which they are designed, in proportion as they secure orders for seeds. Will this be measured by the accuracy and completeness of their descriptions? I think that it needs but slight acquaintance with the actual results of advertising to answer in the negative, and whatever your answer may be, the answer given by the catalogs themselves is an emphatic no. In a recent case I looked very carefully through the catalogs of 125 American seedsmen who listed a certain variety which is very markedly deficient in a certain desirable quality, and found that but 37 of the 125 mentioned the quality in connection with the variety at all and of these but 7 admitted the deficiency, while 30 told the opposite of the truth. Even if a complete, exact and reliable description of a variety was published by disinterested persons, one could not be sure of getting seed from seedsmen which would produce plants of that exact type, since there is no agreement or uniformity among them as to the exact type any varietal name shall stand for. One way of getting seed of the exact type wanted is to do as the South Jersey growers did: go to work and breed up a stock which is uniformly of the type wanted; but this involves more painstaking care than many are willing to give, though I think not more than it would be most profitable for them to expend for the sake of getting seed just suited to their needs. A second and easier way is to secure samples of the most promising sorts and from the most reliable sources and grow them on one's own farm; select the stock which seems best for him and buy enough of that exact stock for several years' planting, and in the meantime be looking for a still better one. Tomato seed stored in a cool, dry place will retain its vitality for from three to seven years. CHAPTER XVI Seed Breeding and Growing The potentialities of every plant and its limitations are inherent, fixed and immutable in the seed from which it is developed and are made up of the balanced sum of the different tendencies it receives in varying degree from each of its ancestors back for an indefinite number of generations. A very slight difference in the character or the degree of any one of the tendencies which go to make up this sum may make a most material difference in the balance and so in the resulting character of the plant produced. Different plants, even of the same ancestry, vary greatly in prepotency or in the relative dominance of the influence they have over descendants raised from seed produced by them. In some cases all the plants raised from seed produced by a certain plant will be essentially alike and closely resemble the seed-bearing plant, while seed from another plant of the same parentage will develop into plants differing from each other and seemingly more influenced by some distant ancestor or by varying combinations of such influences than of those of the plant which actually produced the seed from which they were developed. Successful seed breeding can only be accomplished by taking advantage of these principles of heredity and variation, and by a wise use of them it is possible to produce seed which can be depended upon to produce plants of any type possible to the species. =The first essential for breeding= is to have a clear and exact conception of precisely what, in all respects, the type shall be and then the securing of seed which has come from plants of that exact character for the greatest possible number of generations, carefully avoiding the introduction by cross-pollination of tendencies from plants differing in any degree from the desired type. Secondly, seed should be used from plants which have been proven to produce seed, which will develop into plants like themselves or are strongly prepotent. A practical way to accomplish this in the tomato is as follows: By experiment and observation form a very clear conception of precisely the type of plant and fruits which is best suited to your needs. This may be done by the study of available descriptions of sorts, by conference with those who have had experience in your own or similar climatic and soil conditions and in raising fruit for the same purposes and, best of all, by trials of samples of different sorts and stocks on your own grounds. Having formed such a conception, write out the clearest possible description of exactly what you want and the ideal plant you are aiming at, stating as fully and minutely as possible every desirable quality and also those to be avoided. I consider not only the formation of an exact ideal, but the writing out of a most minute and exact description of precisely what in every particular the ideal plant should be and the rigid adherence to that exact ideal in selection, as the most important elements of successful seed breeding. Without it one is certain to vary from year to year in the type selected and in just so far as he does this, even if it be toward what might be called improvements or in regard to an unimportant quality, he undermines all his work and makes it impossible to establish a strain which can be relied upon to produce an exact type. With this description in hand, search out one or more plants which seem the nearest to the ideal. In doing this it should be kept in mind that the character of the seed is determined by the plant rather than by the individual fruit. Therefore, a plant whose fruit is most uniformly of the desired type should be chosen over one having a small proportion of its fruits of very perfect type, the others being different and variable. Save seed from one or more fruits from each of the selected plants, keeping that from each fruit, or at least each plant, separate. Give it a number and make a record of how nearly, in each particular, the plant and fruit of each number come to the desired ideal. I regard the saving of each lot separately and recording its characters as very important, even when all have been selected to and come equally close to precisely the same ideal. Quite often the seed of one plant will produce plants precisely like it, while that of another, equal or superior, will produce plants of which no two are alike and none like that which produced the seed, so that often the mixing of seed from different plants of the same general type, and seemingly of equal quality, prevents the establishment of a uniform type. The next year from 10 to 100 plants raised from each lot are set in blocks and labeled. As they develop the blocks are studied and compared with the original description of the desired type and that of each plant from which seed was saved, and the block selected in which all the plants come the nearest to the desired type, and which show the least variation. From it plants are selected in the same way and to the same type as the previous year. It is better to make selections from such a block than to take the most superior plants from all of the blocks, or from one which produced but one or but a few superlative ones, the rest being variable. It is also well to consider the relative importance of different qualities in connection with the degree to which the different lots approach the ideal in these respects. Such a course of selection intelligently and carefully carried out will give, in from three to five years, strains of seed greatly superior and better adapted to one's own conditions than any which it is possible to purchase. A single or but a very few selections may be made each year, and the superior value of the seed of the remainder of the seed blocks for use in the field will be far more than the cost of the whole work. =Growing and saving commercial seed.=--The ideal way is for the seedsman to grow and select seed as described above and give this stock seed to farmers who plant in fields and cultivate it, much as is recommended for canning, and save seed from the entire crop, the pulp being thrown away. Only a few pickings are necessary and the seed is separated by machines worked by horse power at small cost, often not exceeding 10 cents a pound. They secure from 75 to 250 pounds per acre, according to the variety and crop, and the seedsmen pay them 40 cents to $1 a pound for it. Some of our more careful seedsmen produce all the seed they use in this way; others buy of professional seed growers, who use more or less carefully grown stock seed. In other cases when the fruit is fully ripe it is gathered, and the seeds, pulp and skins, are separated by machinery; the seed is sold to seedsmen, the pulp made into catsup, and only the skins are thrown away. Still others get their supply by washing out and saving the seed from the waste of canneries. Such seed is just as good as seed saved _from the same grade of tomatoes_ in any other way, but the fruit used by the canneries is, usually, a mixture of different crops and grades, and even of different varieties, and consequently the seed is mixed and entirely lacking in uniformity and distinctness of type. Generally from 5 to 20 per cent. of the plants produced by seed as commonly grown either by the farmer himself or the seedsmen, though they may be alike in more conspicuous characteristics, will show varietal differences of such importance as to affect more or less materially the value of the plant for the conditions and the purposes for which it is grown. In a book like this it is useless to attempt to give long varietal descriptions even of the sorts commonly listed by seedsmen, since such descriptions would be more a statement of what the writer thought seed of that variety should be rather than of what one would be likely to receive under that name. CHAPTER XVII Production for Canning =Growing for canning= has many advantages over growing for market. Some of these are that it is not necessary to start the plants so early, that they can be grown at less cost, and set in the field when smaller and with less check, and on this latter account are apt to give a large yield. It is not necessary to gather the fruit so often, nor to handle it so carefully, while practically all of it is saleable. For these reasons the cost of production is lower and it is less variable than with crops grown for market. Still farmers and writers do not agree at all as to the actual cost. It is claimed by some that where the factory is within easy reach of the field the cost of growing, gathering and delivering a full yield of tomatoes need not exceed $12 to $18 an acre, while others declare they cannot be grown for less than $40. Nearly one-third of this cost is for picking and delivering, and varies more with the facilities for doing this easily and promptly and with the yield than with crops grown for market. A large proportion of the crops grown for canning are poorly cultivated and unwisely handled, so that the average yield throughout the entire country is very low, hardly exceeding 100 bushels an acre. But where weather and other conditions are favorable, and with judicious cultivation, a yield of 300 to 800 bushels an acre can be expected. I have known of many larger ones. A large proportion of the tomatoes grown for canning are planted under contract, by which the farmer agrees to deliver the entire yield of fruit fit for canning, which may be produced on a given area, at the contract price per bushel or ton. The canner is to judge what fruit is fit for canning and this often results in great dissatisfaction. To the grower it seems in many cases as though the quantity of acceptable fruit paid for was determined quite as much by the abundance or scarcity of the general crop as by the weight hauled to the factory. The prices paid by the factories for the past 10 years run from 10 to 25 cents a bushel, while canning tomatoes in the open market for the same period have brought from 8 to 50 cents a bushel, which, however, are exceptional prices. In all but two of the past 10 years uncontracted tomatoes could generally be sold, in most sections, for more than was paid on contract. I have given the price a bushel, though canning tomatoes are usually sold by the ton. The cost of the product of a well-equipped cannery is divided about as follows: fruit, 30 per cent.; handling, preparing and processing the fruit, 18 per cent.; cost of cans, labels, cases, etc., 43 per cent.; labeling, packing and selling, 0.035 per cent.; incidentals, 0.055 per cent. =Canning on the farm.=--While as a general proposition such work as canning tomatoes can usually be done at less cost in a central plant, yet in many cases the grower can profitably do this on the farm, thus saving not only the expense of delivery at the factory, but the dissatisfaction with weights credited and delays in receiving the fruit. But very little special apparatus or machinery (more than some form of boiler for supplying steam) is needed, and this and the cans can be readily obtained of dealers in canners' supplies. In Maryland and neighboring states many dealers furnish all necessary machinery, cans and other requisites and contract for the crop delivered in cans. Canning on the farm where the fruit is grown would be more generally practiced except for the popular demand that the canned product shall be brighter colored than it is possible to produce from fruit alone, and the necessary dyeing and other doctoring can be more easily and skilfully done at a central factory, though it is always at the sacrifice of flavor and healthfulness for the sake of appearance. Another advantage of canning on the farm is that it can be done with less waste of fruit. The hauling to the factory and delay in working the fruit result in a great deal of waste. The average cannery does not obtain more than 1,200 pounds of product from a ton of fruit, there being 800 pounds of waste, while with sound, ripe, perfectly fresh fruit, it is entirely practical to secure from 1,600 to 1,800 pounds of canned goods from a ton, and this saving in waste would more than counterbalance the gain from the use of the better machinery possible in the factory. =The process of canning= is simple and consists first of rinsing off the fruit, then in wire baskets or pails dipping it into boiling hot water to start the skins, which will require but two to four minutes. While they are still hot they should be peeled and imperfections cut out, then promptly placed in the cans, which should be fully filled; it is well to do this by adding the juice which has escaped while peeling, instead of water, as is done in the larger factories. This will give the canned fruit better color and lessen the need of dye. Place in a hot box for three to five minutes until heated through, wipe top of can clean and drop perforated cap in place, add flux and solder, seal cap in place with round capper, close perforation in cap with drop of solder. Place in box or kettle and steam or boil for 20 to 40 minutes. If the tomatoes were all ripe and none over-ripe, and have been kept hot from the time they went into the scalding kettle until the sealed cans are in the kettle, 20 minutes' cooking will make them surer to keep than 40 minutes would with fruit such as is commonly received at factories, or that which has been allowed to cool once or twice while in process. CHAPTER XVIII Cost of Production There are a few vegetables or fruits where the cost of production and the price received are more variable than with the tomato. The cost per acre for raising the fruit varies with the conditions of soil, facilities for doing the work economically and with the season, while that of marketing the product varies still more. Under usual conditions, the growing of an acre of tomatoes and the gathering and marketing of the fruit will cost from $18 to $90, of which from 15 to 40 per cent. is spent in fertilizing and preparing the ground, 5 to 10 per cent. for plants, 20 to 30 per cent. for cultivation, and 25 to 40 per cent. for gathering and handling the fruit. The last item, of course, varies somewhat with, but not in proportion to, the amount of the crop, as it costs proportionately less to gather a large than a small crop, and for canners' use than for market. The expense of shipping and marketing the crop varies so greatly according to the conditions and methods that I do not attempt to state the amount. The total yield of fruit runs from 200 to 600 or 700 bushels to the acre, a 200-bushel crop of tomatoes comparing as to amount with one of 25 bushels of wheat and a 700-bushel crop of tomatoes with one of 60 bushels of wheat; with the best and wisest cultivation and under the most favorable conditions one can as reasonably hope for one as for the other. Of this total yield, from 10 to 25 per cent. of the fruit should be such as, because of earliness and quality, can be sold as extras, and there is usually from 5 to 10 per cent., and sometimes a much larger per cent., which should be rejected as unsalable. The selected fruit should net from $1 to $5 a bushel, the common from 30 to 75 cents--making the returns for a 200-bushel yield well sold in a nearby market $70 to $350, and proportionately larger, for a better yield. In practice I have known of crops which gave a profit above expenses of over $1,000 an acre. This came, however, from exceptionally favorable conditions and skilled marketing, and I have known of many more crops where, though the fruit was equally large and well grown, the profit was less than $100. In this country a greenhouse is seldom used solely for the growing of tomatoes, but other crops--such as lettuce--are grown in connection with the tomatoes, so that it is impracticable to give the cost of production. As grown at the Ohio state experiment station--and the crop ripened in late spring or early summer and sold on the market of smaller cities--greenhouse tomatoes have yielded about two pounds a square foot of glass and brought an average price of 12 cents per pound. In other cases yields as high as 10 pounds a foot of glass and an average price of 40 cents a pound have been reported. CHAPTER XIX Insects Injurious to the Tomato By DR. F. H. CHITTENDEN Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture From the time tomato plants are set in the field until the fruit has ripened they are subject to the attacks of insects which frequently cause serious injury. On the whole, however, the tomato is not so susceptible to damage as are some related crops--such as the potato. =Cutworms.=--Of insects most to be feared and of those which attack the plants when they are first set out are cutworms of various species. The grower is as a rule quite too familiar with these insects, and no description of their methods is necessary, beyond the statement that they cut off and destroy more than they eat and re-setting is frequently necessary. The best remedy is a poisoned bait, prepared by dipping bunches of clover, weeds, or other vegetation in a solution of Paris green or other arsenical, 1 pound to 100 gallons of water. These baits are distributed in small lots over the ground _before_ the plants are set, the precaution being observed that the land is free for two or three weeks from any form of vegetation. This will force the hungry "worms" to feed on the baits, to their prompt destruction. A bran-mash is also used instead of weeds or clover, and is prepared by combining one part by weight of arsenic, one of sugar, and six of sweetened bran, with enough water added to make a mash. The baits are renewed if they become too dry, or they can be kept moist by placing them under shingles or pieces of board. [Illustration: FIG. 35--CUTWORM AND PARENT MOTH (_Feltia subgothica_) (From Chittenden, U. S. Department of Agriculture)] =Flea-beetles= attack the plants soon after they are set, and their injuries can be prevented by dipping the young plants before setting in a solution of arsenate of lead, about 1 pound to 50 gallons of water, or Paris green, 1 pound to 100 gallons. If this precaution has not been observed a spray of either of these arsenicals used in the proportion specified will suffice, repeating if the insects continue on the plants. In the preparation of the spray a pound of fresh lime to each pound of the arsenical should be added; or, better yet, Bordeaux mixture should be employed as a diluent instead of water. This mixture has some insecticidal value, is a most valuable fungicide, and is also a powerful deterrent of flea-beetle attack, acting to a less degree against other insects which are apt to be found on the tomato. In applying any spray a sprayer costing not less than $7 is a positive necessity. [Illustration: FIG. 36--FLEA-BEETLE Does great injury to young plants. Much enlarged. Actual size shown by line at right. (From Chittenden)] [Illustration: FIG. 37--MARGINED BLISTER BEETLE (From Chittenden)] =The Colorado potato beetle=, or "potato bug," sometimes injures tomatoes, but not as a rule when potatoes are available. This suggests the use of potatoes as a trap crop, planted in about three rows completely around the field of tomatoes. The arsenicals used in the same proportion as for flea-beetles will destroy the potato beetle. It is necessary to keep the trap potatoes well sprayed to prevent them from breeding on these plants and migrating to the tomatoes. Potato beetles can also be controlled by jarring them from the affected plants into large pans containing a little water on which a thin scum of kerosene is floating. =Blister beetles= may be controlled, under ordinary circumstances, by the same method employed against the Colorado beetle. When they are present in great numbers a good remedy consists in driving them with the wind from the cultivated fields into windrows of straw or similar dry material previously prepared along the leeward side of the field, where they will congregate and can be burned. [Illustration: FIG. 38--TOMATO WORM (_Protoparce sexta_) (_a_) Adult moth; (_b_) full-grown larva; (_c_) pupa--all reduced. (After Howard, U. S. Dept. Agr.)] =The tomato worms=, of which there are two common species closely resembling each other, are often abundant and destructive on tomato foliage, particularly southward. The arsenicals will kill them, or they can be held in check by hand-picking, a little experience enabling one to detect their presence readily. Turkeys are utilized in destroying these worms in the South. [Illustration: FIG. 39--TOMATO STALK-BORER (_Papaipema nitela_) (_a_) Female moth; (_b_) half-grown larva; (_c_) mature larva in injured stalk; (_d_) lateral view of abdominal segment; (_e_) pupa--all somewhat enlarged. (From Chittenden, U. S. Dept. Agr.)] =The stalk-borer=, as its name implies, attacks the stalk, and is an intermittent pest, though quite annoying at times. It is difficult to combat, but its injuries may be prevented by care in keeping down, and by _promptly_ destroying, the weeds after they are pulled or hoed out during the growing season. If weeds are left to dry the striped caterpillar of this species will desert them and enter cultivated plants. Ragweed and burdock are the principal foods of this insect, and special attention should be given to eradicate them where tomatoes are planted. Crop rotation is advisable where this can be conveniently practiced, and such plants as cabbage, radish and the like, onions, beets, asparagus and celery are suggested as alternates. When the plants are sprayed with arsenicals for other insects this will operate to a certain extent against the stalk-borer. [Illustration: FIG. 40--CHARACTERISTIC WORK OF THE TOMATO FRUIT WORM (_Heliothis obsoleta_) (Redrawn by Johnson from C. V. Riley)] [Illustration: FIG. 41--ADULT MOTH, OR PARENT OF TOMATO FRUIT WORM (From Chittenden, U. S. Department of Agriculture)] =The tomato fruit worm= (Fig. 40) known as the bollworm of cotton and the ear worm of corn, is frequently the cause of serious trouble to tomato growers, especially in the southern states, due to its pernicious habit of eating into and destroying the green and ripening fruit. For its control it is advisable not to plant tomatoes in proximity to old corn or cotton fields, nor should land be used in regions where this species is abundant until it has been fall or winter plowed. Sweet corn planted about the field before the tomatoes are set will serve as a lure for the parent moths to deposit their eggs, corn and cotton being favorite foods of this species and preferred to tomatoes. The fruit worm feeds to a certain extent on the foliage before penetrating the fruit, and it is possible to keep it in subjection by spraying with arsenicals as advised for the flea-beetles. It is suggested that arsenate of lead, being more adhesive than other arsenicals, should be used for the first sprayings, beginning when the fruit commences to form, repeating once or twice as found necessary, and making a last spraying with Paris green within a few days of ripening. This last poison will readily wash off and there is no danger whatever of poisoning to human beings, as has been conclusively proved in numerous similar cases. For the perfect success of this remedy the last spraying is essential, as those who have sprayed with an arsenical and have reported only partial good results have discontinued within about two weeks of the time of the ripening of the first fruit. =White fly or aleyrodes.=--These minute insects are familiar to most growers who raise tomatoes under glass. They can be held in control by vaporization or fumigation with tobacco or nicotine extracts, or by spraying with kerosene emulsion or the so-called whale-oil (fish-oil) soap. Care is necessary in using the extracts that the smudge does not become too dense and injure the plants. Before applying this remedy on a large scale a preliminary trial should be made following the directions on the packages, and reducing the amount if any ill results follow. Hydrocyanic acid gas, properly used, is also an excellent remedy for aleyrodes, aphides, "mealy-bug," and other soft-bodied insects which are sometimes troublesome on greenhouse tomatoes. For a complete account of the methods of making and handling hydrocyanic acid gas, see Professor Johnson's book entitled "Fumigation Methods," published by Orange Judd Company, of New York. Sent postpaid for $1.--[AUTHOR. CHAPTER XX Tomato Diseases By W. A. ORTON U. S. Department of Agriculture DISEASES NOT CAUSED BY FUNGI OR INSECTS The health of tomato plants is to a large extent dependent on the conditions under which they are being grown. The character and physical condition of the soil, the supply of water and plant food, the temperature and amount of sunlight, are all factors of the greatest importance in the growth and development of the crop. When there are variations from the normal in the case of any of these the plant adapts itself to the change as far as possible, but its functions may be so disturbed as to result in ill health or disease. It is in many cases difficult to draw a line between a natural re-action of the plant to its environment and a state of disease. For example, the trouble described in the next paragraph seems to fall into the first class. =Shedding of blossoms.=--The tomato is very liable to drop its buds and blossoms and in some instances partial or total crop failures have resulted. The principal causes are an over-rapid growth, due in many cases to an excess of nitrogenous fertilizers, unfavorable weather conditions, especially cold winds, continued rainy or moist weather, which hinders pollination, lack of sunlight, or extremely hot weather. Such shedding can be partially controlled by pruning away the lateral branches as soon as formed and topping the plants after the third cluster of fruit has set, and by a reduction in the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. A failure to set fruit in the greenhouse is often due to lack of pollination, which must be remedied by hand pollination. =Cracking of the fruit.=--The formation of cracks or fissures in the nearly mature fruit is due to variations in the water supply and other conditions affecting growth at this stage. If after the development of the outer portion of the fruit has been checked by drought there follows a period of abundant water supply and rapid growth, the fruit expands more rapidly than its epidermis and the latter is ruptured. Some varieties of tomatoes are much less subject to this trouble than others and should be given preference on this account. The grower, so far as lies in his power, should seek to maintain an uninterrupted growth by thorough preparation of the land, by cultivation or by mulching. If the half-grown fruits are enclosed in paper bags, cracking may be prevented, but at the risk of loss of flavor in the ripened fruit. =Leaf curl.=--The effect of pruning is to stimulate growth and to increase the size of the leaves, the effort of the plant being to maintain a balance between roots and foliage. With rapidly growing plants, especially in the greenhouse and garden where both high manuring and pruning have been practiced, more or less curling and distortion of the leaves may result without developing into serious trouble if the grower takes the hint and modifies his methods so as to permit a more balanced growth. On the other hand, the ill effects of over-feeding and pruning may reach a point where the plant is seriously crippled. =Edema.=--Under certain conditions plants in greenhouses or even in the open field, may absorb water through the roots faster than it can be transpired through the leaves, with the result that dropsical swellings or blisters occur on the leaves and more succulent stems. There is also a deformation of the foliage, much like the leaf-curl produced by over-feeding. This trouble, known as edema, occurs when the soil is warmer than the air, or during periods of moist, warm, cloudy weather, which checks transpiration. The grower should cease pruning, and withhold water, and in the field cultivate deeply. In the greenhouse, adequate ventilation should be given, keeping the house dry rather than moist. =Mosaic disease.=--The tomato is occasionally subject to a trouble allied to the mosaic disease of tobacco. It is characterized by a variegation of the leaves into light and dark green areas, usually accompanied by distortion and reduction in size. In severe cases a whole field may become worthless. While the nature of this malady is not fully understood, it is known to be due to a disordered nutrition of the young leaf-cells. It can be produced by severe pruning or by mutilation of the roots in transplanting, both of which should be carefully avoided. It is more likely to occur in seedlings that have made a soft, rapid growth on account of an excess of nitrogenous fertilizer or too high temperature. Close, clayey soils, on account of their poor physical condition, also favor the development of the disease after transplanting. =Western blight (Yellows).=--In the North Pacific and Rocky Mountain states, serious losses are annually caused by a disease apparently unlike any eastern trouble. It is marked by a gradual yellowing of the foliage and fruit. Development is checked, the leaves curl upward and the plant dies without wilting. The nature and cause of this disease is as yet unknown. It appears to be worst on new land. Experiments that have been made indicate that in older cultivated fields thorough preparation of the soil, manuring and cultivation, combined with care in transplanting to avoid injuring the roots and checking growth, will greatly restrict the spread of this blight. DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITES There are several fungous parasites of tomatoes, which, for the readers convenience, may be briefly mentioned and the treatment of all discussed together. The first three are indeed somewhat difficult to tell apart without a microscope, as they produce a similar effect on the leaves and all yield to the same treatment--thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture. =Leaf spot= (_Septoria lycopersici_ Speg.) has been widely prevalent and injurious during recent years. It produces small, roundish dark-brown spots on leaves and stems. The lower leaves are attacked first and gradually curl up, die and fall off. The vitality of the plant is reduced and it is only kept alive by the young leaves formed at the top. The fungus that causes early blight of potatoes (_Alternaria solani_ (E. & M.) J. & G.) occurs on tomatoes also, sometimes doing much injury. The spots formed are at first small and black, later enlarging and exhibiting fine concentric rings. A somewhat similar leaf-blight results from a species of _Cylindrosporium_, and other fungi may occur on diseased leaves. =Leaf mold= (_Cladosporium fulvum_ Cke.) is quite distinct from the foregoing in appearance. It does not cause such distinct spots but occurs in greenish brown, velvety patches of irregular outline on the under side of the leaves. The lower leaves are first attacked, and as the disease progresses they turn yellow and drop off. This is the principal fungous enemy of greenhouse tomatoes, but also does injury in gardens, particularly in Florida and the Gulf region. It is readily controlled by spraying. In the greenhouse care should be taken to ventilate well, without, however, allowing cold drafts to strike the plants. =Downy mildew= (_Phytopthora infestans_ DeBy.), the cause of the late blight of potatoes, will attack tomatoes during cool and very moist weather, which greatly favors its development. Such outbreaks sometimes occur to a limited extent in New England and serious losses are reported on the winter crop in southern California, but the disease has never been troublesome in other sections of the country, as it cannot develop in dry or hot weather. It affects the tomato as it does the potato, forming on the leaves dark, discolored spots, which spread rapidly under favorable conditions, killing the foliage in a few days. The fruit is also attacked and becomes covered with the mildew-like spore-bearing threads of the fungus. Bordeaux mixture properly applied is an efficient preventive. =Spraying tomatoes.=--It should be the invariable practice of the tomato grower to spray with Bordeaux mixture to prevent injury from any of these leaf-blights. This should be done while the plants are still healthy, as if put off until the disease appears the battle is half lost. Make the first application to the young plants in the seed-bed a few days before transplanting. Spray again within a week after the plants are set in the field, and repeat at intervals of ten days or two weeks until the fruit is full grown. Success in spraying depends mainly on the thoroughness of the work. The aim should be to cover every leaf with a fine mist. Do not drench the foliage but pass to the next plant before the drops run together and off the leaf. Use a nozzle that gives a fine spray and maintain a high pressure at the pump. _Preparation of Bordeaux mixture._--Formula: Copper sulphate (bluestone), 5 pounds; lime, 5 pounds; and water, 50 gallons. The copper sulphate may be either in crystals or pulverized. Dissolve by suspending the required amount in a coarse sack near the top of the water a few hours before it will be needed. The lime must be fresh stone lime of good quality. Slake thoroughly by the addition of small quantities of water at a time as needed, stirring until all small lumps are slaked. Strain both the lime milk and the copper sulphate or bluestone solution through a brass strainer of 18 meshes per inch and dilute each with half the water before mixing together. Do not use Bordeaux left over from the previous day. An old mixture or one made from the concentrated solutions has a poor physical condition. It settles more quickly, tends to clog the nozzle and does not adhere so well to the foliage. Failure to use the strainer results in endless trouble in the field from clogged nozzles. [Illustration: FIG. 42--PROPER WAY TO MAKE BORDEAUX (From W. G. Johnson)] When much spraying is to be done it is more convenient to keep the bluestone and lime in separate permanent stock solutions, as shown in Fig. 42, containing 2 pounds to the gallon of their respective ingredients. These will keep indefinitely, if the water evaporated is replaced, and may be used from as needed. _Spraying apparatus._--Tomato growers having only a small area to spray may use one of the numerous forms of hand-pumps or bucket sprayers now on the market. For larger fields it will be necessary to employ a barrel sprayer. This consists of a hand-pump mounted in a barrel or tank and equipped with two leads of 3/8 inch hose 25 feet long, each with a four-foot, extension made from 1/4 inch gas pipe, and a double Vermorel nozzle. The barrel should be carried in an ordinary farm wagon. Three men do the work. One is expected to drive and pump, while the other two manipulate the nozzles. The outfit is stopped while the plants within reach are sprayed, then driven forward about 30 feet and stopped again. On an average in actual field practice 3 to 4 acres a day can be sprayed in this way, applying 100 to 200 gallons of Bordeaux per acre. To keep the long hose off the plants two poles about 10 feet long may be pivoted to the bed of the wagon so as to swing at an angle over the wheel and carry the hose. The pump for this outfit should be of good capacity, with brass valves. A "Y" shut-off discharge connection on the pump is a convenience for stopping the spray at any time. The most satisfactory nozzles are those of the Vermorel type. It is cheapest in the long run to buy the best grades of pumps on the market. This outfit is excellently adapted for spraying small fields of potatoes and for general orchard work, and is invaluable on the average farm. =Phytoptosis.=--This disease is known to occur only in Florida, where it is sometimes common enough to require remedial treatment. The affected portions of the foliage are more or less distorted and covered with an ashy white fuzz. The general vigor and fruitfulness of the plants are greatly reduced. The name applied to this trouble denotes its cause, an extremely small mite (_Phytoptus calacladophora_ Nal.), which by its presence on the leaves or stems so irritates them as to result in the abundant development of modified plant hairs, which shelter the mites and form the fuzzy covering characteristic of the disease. A remedy for phytoptosis is available in the sulphur compounds. The following one is particularly recommended by Prof. P. H. Rolfs, to whom our knowledge of the disease is due: _Preparation of sulphur spray._--Place 30 pounds of flowers of sulphur in a wooden tub large enough to hold 25 gallons. Wet the sulphur with 3 gallons of water, stir it to form a paste. Then add 20 pounds of 98 per cent. caustic soda (28 pounds should be used if the caustic soda is 70 per cent.) and mix it with the sulphur paste. In a few minutes it becomes very hot, turns brown, and becomes a liquid. Stir thoroughly and add enough water to make 20 gallons. Pour off from the sediment and keep the liquid as a stock solution in a tight barrel or keg. Of this solution use 4 quarts to 50 gallons of water. Apply with a spray pump whenever the disease appears, and repeat if required by its later reappearance. The use of dry sulphur is also recommended. DISEASES OF THE FRUIT [Illustration: FIG. 43--POINT-ROT DISEASE OF THE TOMATO (Redrawn from N. Y. Expr. Sta. No. 125)] =Point-rot.=--This trouble, called also "blossom-end rot," and "black-rot," occurs on the green fruit at various stages of development, as shown in Fig. 43. It begins at the blossom end as a sunken brown spot, which gradually enlarges until the fruit is rendered worthless. The decayed spot is often covered in its later stages by a dense black fungous growth (_Alternaria fasciculata_ (C. & E.) J. & G. syn. _Macrosporium tomato_ Cke.), formerly thought to be the cause of the rot, but now known to be merely a saprophyte. Point-rot sometimes occurs in greenhouses, but is more common in field culture. It is one of the most destructive diseases of the tomato, but its nature is not fully worked out, and a uniformly successful treatment is unknown. It has been thought to be due to bacterial invasion, but complete demonstrations of that fact have not yet been published. The physiological conditions of the plant appear to be important. The disease is worst in dry weather and light soils, where the moisture supply is insufficient, and irrigation is beneficial in such cases. Spraying does not control point-rot so far as present evidence goes. =Anthracnose--ripe-rot=--(_Colletotrichum phomoides_ (Sacc.) Chest.), is distinguished from the point-rot by the fact that it occurs mainly on ripe or nearly ripe fruits, producing a soft and rapid decay. Widespread losses from this cause are not common, but when a field becomes infected a considerable proportion of the crop within a limited area may be destroyed if humid or rainy weather prevails. Preventive measures only can be employed. These should consist in collecting and destroying diseased fruit and in staking and trimming the vines to admit light and air to dry out the foliage. Bordeaux mixture applied after the development of the disease would be of doubtful efficiency and would be objectionable on account of the sediment left on the ripe fruit. DISEASES OF THE ROOT OR STEM =Damping off.=--Young plants in seed-beds often perish suddenly from a rot of the stem at the surface of the ground. This occurs as a rule in dull, cloudy weather among plants kept at too high a temperature, crowded too closely in the beds or not sufficiently ventilated. Several kinds of fungi are capable of causing damping off, under such conditions. _Preventive measures_ are of the first importance. Since old soil is often full of fungous spores left by previous crops, it is the wisest plan to use sterilized soil for the seed-bed. When the young plants are growing, constant watchfulness is required to avoid conditions that will weaken the seedlings and favor the damping off fungi. _Watering and ventilation_ are the two points that require especial skill. Watering should be done at midday, to allow the beds to drain before night, and only enough water for the thorough moistening of the soil should be applied. Ventilation should be given every warm day as the temperature and sunshine will permit, but the plants must be protected from rain and cold winds. Work the surface of the soil to permit aeration and do not crowd the plants too closely in the beds. If damping off develops something can be done to check it by scattering a layer of dry, warm sand over the surface, and by spraying the bed thoroughly with weak Bordeaux or by applying dry sulphur and air-slaked lime. =Bacterial wilt= (_Bacterium solanacearum_ Erw. Sm.).--This disease, which also attacks potatoes and eggplants and some related weeds, is one of the most serious enemies of the tomato. It is known to occur from Connecticut southward to Florida and westward to Colorado, but is most prevalent in the Gulf States, where it has greatly discouraged many growers. _Its most prominent symptoms_ are the wilting of the foliage and a browning of the wood inside the recently wilted stems. An affected plant wilts first at the top, or a single branch wilts, but later the entire plant yellows, wilts and dies. Young plants wilt more suddenly and dry up. The disease progresses more rapidly in plants that have made a succulent, luxurious growth, while those with hard, woody stems resist it somewhat. _The disease is due_ to the invasion of bacteria, which enter the leaves through the aid of leaf-eating insects, or through the roots. They plug the water-carrying vessels of the stem, shutting off the water and food supply of the plant. If the stem of a plant freshly wilted from this disease be severed, the bacteria will ooze out in dirty white drops on the cut surface. =Remedial measures= entirely satisfactory for the control of bacterial wilt have not yet been worked out. The best methods to adopt at present are the following: (1) _Rotation of crops._--The field evidence is that this disease is in many cases localized in old gardens or in definite spots in the field. It appears also that the infection left by a diseased crop can remain in the soil for some time. It is therefore advised that tomato growers should always practice a rotation of crops, whether any disease has appeared or not, and that in case bacterial wilt develops they should not plant that land in tomatoes, potatoes, or eggplants for three or four years. The length of rotation necessary to free the soil is not known, but will have to be worked out by the individual grower. (2) _Destruction of diseased plants._--The bacteria causing wilt not only spread through the soil but are carried by insects from freshly wilted to healthy plants. Diseased plants thus become dangerous sources of infection, and it is evident that all such should be pulled out and burned. This is particularly important at the beginning of the trouble when the eradication of a few wilting plants may save the remainder. (3) _Control of insects._--To lessen the danger from spread of wilt by insects, the measures advised in the next chapter for the control of leaf-eating insects should be adopted. In this connection it should be mentioned that the use of Bordeaux mixture for leaf blights, as previously recommended, has an additional value in that the coating on the leaves is distasteful to insects and helps to keep them away. (4) _Seed selection._--Work done at the Florida experiment station indicates that resistant varieties may be secured, but there are as yet none in commercial use. This is an important line for experimenters to follow up. There is no proof that the disease is spread through seed from diseased plants. =Fusarium wilt.=--This disease and the one following resemble the bacterial wilt so closely, as far as external characters go, that they are difficult to tell apart. The parasites, however, differ so materially in their nature and life history that the field treatment is quite different. There are also differences in geographical distribution that are important, for while the Fusarium wilt occurs occasionally throughout the southern states, it is known to be of general commercial importance only in southern Florida and southern California. _The symptoms of the disease_ are a gradual wilting and dying of the plants, usually in the later stages of their development. Young plants die, however, when the soil infection is severe. There is a browning of the woody portions of the stem, and when a section of this is examined under a compound microscope the vessels are found to be filled with fungous threads, which shut off the water supply. _The infection_ in the Fusarium wilt appears to come entirely from the soil. Little is known of its manner of spread, except that the cultivation of a tomato crop in certain districts appears to leave the soil infected so that a crop planted the next year will be injured or destroyed. The fungus does not remain in the soil for a very long time in sufficient abundance to cause serious harm. A rotation of crops that will bring tomatoes on the land once in three years has been found in Florida to prevent loss from Fusarium wilt. _This fungus does not attack any other crop_ than tomatoes, so far as known, though it is very closely related to species of Fusarium producing similar diseases in cotton, melon, cowpea, flax, etc. Fusarium wilt has not been found in fields and gardens in the northern states, but tomatoes in greenhouses there are sometimes attacked by it or a related Fusarium, which also occurs in England. When greenhouse beds are infected the soil for the next crop should be thoroughly sterilized by steam under pressure. =Sclerotium wilt.=--This disease resembles the two preceding in its effect on the plant, which wilts at the tip first, and gradually dies. Its geographical range is more restricted. It seems to be confined to northern Florida and the southern part of Georgia and Alabama, where it occurs in gardens and old cultivated fields. The fungus causing this wilt attacks the root and the stem near the ground, working in from the outside. There is not the browning of the wood vessels characteristic of the two preceding diseases. If an affected stem is put in a moist chamber made from a covered or inverted dish, there will develop an exceedingly vigorous growth of snow-white fungous mycelium which, after a few days, bears numerous round shot-like bodies, at first light-colored, then becoming smaller and dark-brown. These are the sclerotia or resting bodies of the fungus. This fungus, called _Sclerotium_ sp., or "Rolf's Sclerotium," is noteworthy because it attacks potatoes, squash, cowpea, and a long list of other garden vegetables and ornamental plants. The only satisfactory means of control is rotation of crops, using corn, small grain, and the Iron cowpea, a variety immune to this and other diseases. Susceptible crops should be kept from infected fields for two or three years. =Root-knot= (_Heterodera radicicola_ (Greef) Mül.) attacks tomatoes in greenhouses and is in some cases an important factor in southern field culture. It is caused by a parasitic eelworm or nematode, of minute size, which penetrates the roots and induces the formation of numerous irregular swellings or galls, in which are bred great numbers of young worms. The effect on the plant is to check growth and diminish fruitfulness, in advanced cases even resulting in death. _The remedy in greenhouse culture_ is thorough soil sterilization. In the open field this is impracticable and recourse must be had to a rotation with immune crops, which will starve out the root-knot. It must now be borne in mind that the root-knot worm can attack cotton, cowpea, okra, melons and a very large number of other plants. The only common crops safe to use in such a rotation in the South are corn, oats, velvet beans, beggar weed, peanuts, and the Iron cowpea. The use of other varieties of cowpea than the Iron is particularly to be avoided, on account of the danger of stocking the land with root-knot. Fortunately, the disease is serious only in sandy or light soils. =Rosette= (_Corticium vagum_ (B. & C.) var. _solani_ Burt.) is a disease of minor importance, which occurs in Ohio, Michigan, and scatteringly in other states. The fungus causing it (_Rhizoctonia_) attacks the roots and base of the stem, forming dark cankers. The effect on the plant is to dwarf and curl the leaves and to restrict productiveness. The potato suffers more severely from the same trouble. Rotation of crops and liberal application of lime to the soil are advised for the control of rosette in tomatoes. INDEX PAGE Adaptations of varieties, 97 as to habit, 97 as to foliage, 100 as to fruit, 102 Botany, 1 Canning, cost of, 118 on the farm, 118 Essentials for successful, 119 Catalog descriptions incomplete, 110 Characteristics of blossom, 25 Characteristics of fruit, 26 Development from original form, 26 Effect of conditions on, 26 Quality, 26 Characteristics of plant, 20 Checking of growth, effect upon, 20 Natural environment, 20 Uniform growth, importance of, 21 Characteristics of root, 23 Characteristics of stem and leaves, 24 Classification, 4 Cherry, 5 Cultivated varieties, 10 Currant, 4 Pear, 7 Cold-frames, construction, 53 Commercial importance of crop, 18 Cost of crop, per acre, 121 as grown for canners, 117 Covers for plant beds, 55 Cultivation, 76 Care and thoroughness necessary, 76 in greenhouse, 77 in home garden, 77 Diseases, 131 Bacterial wilt, 142 Blight, early, 135 Blight, leaf, 134 Blight, Western, 134 Cracking of fruit, 132 Damping off, 141 Edema, 133 Fusarium wilt, 144 Leaf curl, 132 Leaf mold, 135 Leaf spot, 134 Mildew, downy, 135 Mosaic disease, 133 Phytoptosis, 138 Point rot, 139 Root knot, 146 Sclerotium wilt, 145 Yellows, 134 Diseases, remedies for, 131 Bordeaux mixture, preparation of, 136 Preventatives of, 143 Spraying apparatus, 137 Spraying, importance of, 136 Sulphur spraying, 139 Distances for setting plants, 68 in field, 68 in greenhouse, 70 in home garden, 69 Drainage, importance of, 31 Essentials for best development, 28 Cultivation, 32, 76 Effect of shade, 28 Food supply, 31, 43 Heat, 30 Moisture, 30 Sunlight, 28 Exposure, 38 for early crop, 39 for greenhouse, 40 for home garden, 40 Fertilizers, 43 Amounts, 43 Character, 44 Experiments with, 45 for general application, 44 for greenhouse, 45 for home garden, 45 Flats, construction, 57 Gathering fruit, 91 Habit, 22 Handling fruit, 92 History, 14 Hotbeds, construction, 51 Hotbeds, growing fruit in, 70 House, construction, 49 Insects injurious to tomatoes, 123 Blister beetle, 125 Colorado potato beetle, 125 Cut worm, 123 Flea-beetle, 124 Stalk-borer, 127 Tomato fruit worm, 128 Tomato worm, 126 White fly, 130 Location of field as determining profit, 38 Manure Fall dressing, 41 for cold-frames, 55 for greenhouse soil, 37 for hotbeds, 51 in preparing ground, 46 Origin, 10 Origin of name, 14 Packing, 94 Pollinating, 77 Pollination, 25 Prices obtained at canneries, 118 for hothouse fruit, 122 for select field grown fruit, 122 Profits on crop, 122 Propagation of plants, 48 from cuttings, 49 from seed, 48, 49 in cold-frames, 53 in hotbeds, 51 in temporary greenhouses, 49 Pruning, 80 Ripening on the vines, 90 Ripening after frost, 95 Sash, cost, 49 for hotbeds, 52 for cold-frames, 53 Seed breeding, 112 Essentials to success, 113 Growing and saving commercial seed, 115 Methods followed, 115 Prices received, 116 Yields obtained, 116 Importance of breeding from individual plants, 114 Importance of exact ideals, 113 Methods recommended, 113 Principles underlying, 112 Setting plants, 70 Conditions favorable and unfavorable, 70, 71 in field, 70 in greenhouse, 74 in home garden, 74 New Jersey method, 71 Other methods, 73 Soil Composition, importance of, 24 Conditions essential, 41 Preparation, 41, 46 for greenhouse, 47 for home garden, 47 Soil Preparation, for main crop, 46 Importance of, 46 Selection, 33 for early crop, 36 for greenhouse, 37 for home garden, 36 for main crop, 34 Previous crop, 41 Sorting, 92 Staking, 79 Starting plants, 59 Effect of shade, 29 for early fruit, 63 for forcing, 67 for home garden, 67 for late crop, 65 in flats, 59 in greenhouse, 59 Pricking out, 60 Right conditions, 62 Spotting boards, 61 Unfavorable conditions, 63 Watering, 60 With least labor, 66 Succession, practice in the South, 42 Training, 79 for greenhouse, 88 for home garden, 85 Types, 14 Value, development of, 16 Variations, in foliage, 100 in fruit, 102 Coloring, 106 Flesh, 105 Ripening, 106 Shape, 102 in habit, 97 Varietal differences, as to foliage, 100 as to fruit, 102 as to growth, 97 Variety names, 108 Sources, 109 Varying application, 110 Watering, danger in, 30, 60 Yielding capacity, 22 Yield per acre, 117, 121 Yield per foot of greenhouse bench, 122 Transcriber's Notes The following typographical errors have been corrected: Page 61: "... necessary. When plants are set in ..." (had 'plans'). Page 107: "... these respects we have varieties ..." (had 'resepcts'). Page 117: "... the question, "What is the best ..." (had 'queston'). Page 148: "Mildew, downy, 135" (had 'downey'). Page 149: "Pollinating, 77" (had 'Pollenating'). Page 149: "Pollination, 25" (had 'Pollenation'). The archaic spelling of "hight" is as used throughout the original. '_' is used to denote italics, and '=' is used to denote bold typeface. 
28065	----	generously made available by Cornell University Digital Collections.) [Illustration: PECAN NUTS--uniform in size, color and shape. Variety, Curtis.] THE PECAN AND ITS CULTURE BY H. HAROLD HUME PETERSBURG, VIRGINIA THE AMERICAN FRUIT AND NUT JOURNAL 1906 Copyright, 1906. By H. HAROLD HUME. CONTENTS. PART I. Introduction. Botany. CHAPTER I. Commercial and Ornamental Importance of the Pecan. CHAPTER II. Native and Cultivated Range. CHAPTER III. Pecan Botany. PART II. Varieties. CHAPTER IV. Varieties. CHAPTER V. Pecan Judging. PART III. Cultural. CHAPTER VI. Propagation of the Pecan. CHAPTER VII. Top-working Pecans. CHAPTER VIII. Soils and their Preparation. CHAPTER IX. What Varieties to Plant. CHAPTER X. Purchasing and Planting Pecans. CHAPTER XI. Cultivation and Fertilization. CHAPTER XII. Pruning. PART IV. Harvesting. Marketing. CHAPTER XIII. Gathering, Storing and Marketing Pecans. PART V. Diseases. Insects. CHAPTER XIV. Fungous and other Diseases of the Pecan. CHAPTER XV. Insects Attacking the Pecan. PART VI. Uses. Literature. CHAPTER XVI. Pecan Kernels. CHAPTER XVII. Literature. ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. _Page_ Frontispiece, 2 An avenue shaded by pecan trees, 13 Pecan flowers, 21 A pecan nursery, 71 Budding tools, 73 A two-year top-worked pecan tree, 85 An old pecan tree top-worked, 88 The pecan bud moth, 136 The case-worm, 139 A pecan catocala, 141 FIGURES. Approximate pecan areas, 17 Money-maker, Post, San Saba, Bacon, 29 Curtis pecan, 32 Mammoth, Dalzell, Kennedy, 33 Frotscher pecan, 35 Georgia pecan, 36 Schaifer, Ideal, Ladyfinger, Atlanta, 41 Mantura pecan, 43 Pabst pecan, 46 Russell, Franklin, Kincaid, 49 Schley pecan, 51 Stuart pecan, 52 Success pecan, 53 Van Deman pecan, 55 Nussbaumer, 58 H. minima and two hybrids, 59 Schneck hybrid, 60 Grafting iron, Budding knife, 72 Scions, 76 Annular budding, 78 Veneer shield-budding, 79 Chip-budding, 80 Cleft grafting, Whip grafting, 81 One-year pecan in fruit, 82 Pecan tree grown on quicksand, 90 View of bud union, 99 View of whip graft, 100 Annular bud, 101 Rectangular planting system, 104 Hexagonal planting system, 105 Planting-board, 107 A nursery tree with good root system, 119 Taproot cut and uncut, 120 Spraying pecan trees, 131 Nut crackers of different types, 149 Woodson's power kernel extractor, 151 PREFACE. In the horticultural development of the country, new fruits, new groups of fruits, new fruit industries are coming into prominence. Our native fruits in particular are now receiving, in many parts of the country, a larger share of the attention which they have always merited, and none has proven itself more worthy of careful study and painstaking care than the pecan. Within the last ten or fifteen years it has rapidly emerged from a wild or semi-wild condition to the status of an orchard nut. The foundations of its culture were laid a considerable time ago, but only now is it coming to its own, its well merited standing among the fruits of the country. In any horticultural industry many questions must be asked of the plant, the soil, the climate, in short, of the plant in its environment. They must be answered aright, if the industry is to succeed. The newer the plant in cultivation, the more numerous the questions are, the more difficult to answer. In an endeavor to aid in solving some of the problems connected with the culture of the pecan this small volume has been prepared. Pecan culture has been the subject of careful study, observation and experimentation on the part of the author for a number of years and the results of these studies are presented in the following pages. To the many who have so kindly and willingly assisted in its preparation, my thanks are herein expressed. H. HAROLD HUME. Raleigh, N. C., Aug. 1, 1906. PART I. Introduction. Botany. THE PECAN AND ITS CULTURE. CHAPTER I. COMMERCIAL AND ORNAMENTAL IMPORTANCE OF THE PECAN. In all-around excellence, the pecan is equalled by none of the native American nut-bearing trees and certainly it is surpassed by no exotic species. It stands in the list of nut trees with but few equals and no superiors. With this fact known and admitted by all, it seems reasonable to suppose that the pecan will be grown and cultivated much more extensively than it now is. Its intrinsic worth deserves a large share of attention, more than it has received. At present it is gaining a position of so much importance as an orchard tree, that, ere long, it will become an extremely important item in the horticultural wealth of the Southern and Southwestern States. Large quantities of pecans are sold in the American markets. These are the product of uncultivated or forest trees. Many orchards of considerable size, planted with meritorious budded and grafted varieties, are now in bearing, but the product of these plantings is entirely used by what may be termed a private trade, either by seedsmen, or by private individuals for dessert purposes. Some day, varieties of pecans will become known in the markets just as varieties of grapes, apples or pears are known. People ask for Niagara or Concord grapes, Northern Spy or Greening apples, Bartlet or Seckel pears--ask for what they want, and know what they are getting. The day is far distant when Frotscher, Schley, San Saba, Curtis, Georgia or other varieties of pecans will be known by name by the purchasing public, asked for in the markets and recognized when procured. But that time must and will come, and until then there is no danger of the industry being overdone, and not even then, because our population is constantly growing; because the pecan nut is being put to a variety of new uses, and as yet the export trade is comparatively undeveloped. (See table, page 15.) It would seem then that the pecan might reasonably be expected to replace to a certain extent the foreign nuts in our own markets. According to the investigations of Woods and Merrill,[A] the pecan has a higher food value than either the walnut, filbert, cocoanut, almond or peanut. The results of their analyses are as follows: -------------------+---------+---------------------------------------+-------- | | EDIBLE PORTION. | | +------+--------+------+---------+------+-------- | Edible | | | |Carbo- | |Fuel | Portion.|Water.|Protein.|Fat. |hydrates.| Ash. |Value | | | | | | |per | | | | | | |Pound.[A] -------------------+---------+------+--------+------+---------+------+-------- |per cent.|pr ct.| pr ct. |pr ct.| pr ct. |pr ct.|Calories Pecans, kernels | 100.0 | 2.9 | 10.3 | 70.8 | 14.3 | 1.7 | 3445 Walnuts, kernels | 100.0 | 2.8 | 16.7 | 61.4 | 14.8 | 1.3 | 3305 Filberts, kernels | 100.0 | 3.7 | 15.6 | 65.3 | 13.0 | 2.4 | 3290 Cocoanuts, shred'd | | 3.5 | 6.3 | 57.3 | 31.6 | 1.3 | 3125 Almonds, kernels | 100.0 | 4.8 | 21.0 | 54.9 | 17.3 | 2.0 | 3030 Shelled Peanuts | 100.0 | 1.6 | 30.5 | 49.2 | 16.2 | 2.5 | 2955 -------------------+---------+------+--------+------+---------+------+-------- [Illustration: PLATE II. An Avenue Shaded by Pecan Trees.] It is a fact worthy of note that the average man requires 3,500 calories of energy each day, an amount which must be secured from food consumed. One pound of pecan kernels, according to the above analysis, would supply 3,445 calories, or only 55 calories less than the amount required per day. We are not, be it understood, pointing out this fact because we believe that the pecan alone would be a satisfactory food, though it is wholesome, nourishing and palatable and should be used in larger quantities than is usually the case, but simply to emphasize its high food value. According to the foregoing analysis, the pecan is richer in fat than any of the other nuts. Seventy per cent. of the kernels is fat. The pecan may at some time be in requisition as a source of oil--an oil which would doubtless be useful for salad purposes--but it is never likely to be converted into oil until the present prices of the nuts are greatly reduced. If we turn from the dietary value of the nut to the ornamental value of the tree, we cannot but be forcibly impressed with its value as a shade and ornamental tree. For these purposes it may be planted far outside the area in which fruit may be reasonably expected. If given good soil and sufficient food supply, it grows quite rapidly, making a stately, vigorous, long-lived tree. In its native forests it is a giant tree, sometimes reaching a height of upwards of two hundred feet with a trunk of six feet. Isolated specimens, grown in the open, come to maturity with wide-spreading branches and the whole tree has an exceedingly graceful appearance. Wherever it will succeed, no other shade tree is so worthy of attention as the pecan, and in the fruiting area, beauty and healthful shade may be combined with utility. As an orchard tree it is well worth planting. The ground in which the trees are planted may be cultivated in other crops for a number of years, thus reducing to a minimum the cost of maintaining the planting, and when the trees have come into bearing, the same area in trees will yield more in net returns than the same area in cotton or corn at the usual market prices. On the whole, considered from whatever standpoint we may choose, the pecan is a valuable tree, whether cultivated for its nuts or planted for shade or ornamental effect. Exports of Nuts from United States for Years 1900-1904 inclusive. +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | 1900 | 1901 | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | VALUE. | VALUE. | VALUE. | VALUE. | VALUE. | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | $156,490 | $218,743 | $304,241 | $299,558 | $330,366 | +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ Importations of Nuts into the United States for the Years 1899 to 1904 inclusive, according to the most authoritative statistics.[B] +---------------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 1899 1900 1901 | +----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ |VARIETY |Quant'y |Value. |Quant'y | Value. |Quant'y | Value. | |OF NUTS. |lbs. | |lbs. | |lbs. | | +----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ |Almonds |9,957,427|$1,222,587| 6,317,633| $949,083| 5,140,232| $946,138| |Cocoanuts.| | 625,789| | 702,947| | 804,233| |Walnuts | (a) | (a) | (a) | (a) | (a) | (a) | |Other | | 879,166| | 1,326,804| | 1,518,184| +----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ |Total Nuts| |$2,727,542| |$2,978,834| |$3,268,255| +----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ | 1902 1903 1904 | +----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ |VARIETY |Quant'y |Value. |Quant'y | Value. |Quant'y | Value. | |OF NUTS. |lbs. | |lbs. | |lbs. | | +----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ |Almonds |9,868,982|$1,240,886| 8,142,164|$1,337,717| 9,838,852|$1,246,474| |Cocoanuts.| | 832,383| | 908,242| | 971,852| |Walnuts | (a) | (a) |12,362,567| 1,106,033|23,670,761| 1,729,378| |Other | | 1,971,072| | 1,514,406| | 1,523,462| +----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ |Total Nuts| |$4,044,341| |$4,866,398| |$5,471,166| +----------+---------+----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+ FOOTNOTES: [A] Calculated from analysis. [B] Yearbook U.S. Dept. of Agr., 1903, page 686, and 1904, page 728. CHAPTER II. NATIVE AND CULTIVATED RANGE. The pecan is found as a forest tree in the moist bottom lands along the Mississippi river and its tributaries, from Indiana southward to Mississippi, and from Iowa to Texas and Mexico. This region (see Fig. 1) in which the pecan is, or has been found, native, reaches its northern limit at Davenport, Iowa. It skirts the Wabash as far north as Terre Haute, Indiana, and along the Ohio river nearly to Cincinnati, Ohio. From thence its range extends south to Chattanooga, Tenn., and on to Vicksburg, Miss. From Vicksburg it skirts the Gulf of Mexico at a distance of seventy-five to one hundred miles to Laredo, Texas; thence along the Salado river into Mexico. The western boundary embraces the headwaters of the Colorado river and returns more or less directly to Davenport, Iowa. On the outskirts of this area, it extends farthest in all directions along the streams and rivers, while on the drier intervening ground the line does not extend so far from the center of the region. Particularly is this true in Southwestern Texas, where the pecan is confined almost solely to river bottoms. CULTURAL AREA. The area in which the pecan is cultivated as an orchard tree is not confined to the limits of its native range. Plantings have been made outside its native home in New Mexico, California and Oregon in the West, and in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Southern Alabama and the Gulf regions of Louisiana, Mississippi and Texas. In many other States experimental plantings have been made. Leaving these out of consideration, however, it will be seen that in about twenty States the pecan is either found as a native tree in the forests or is cultivated in orchard form. The area corresponds in some measure with that in which cotton is grown, though it extends farther north and west than the cotton region. [Illustration: FIG. 1. Approximate Pecan areas. Native areas within solid line. Cultural area within dotted line.] The attempts which have been made from time to time to cultivate the pecan in the more northerly States have not proved successful. The tree has, in many cases, grown well, but fruit has not been produced. The pistils and stamens of the pecan are not found in the same flower but in different flowers borne some distance apart on new and one-year-old wood, respectively. Consequently, it frequently happens that the flowers are not matured at the same time, as a result of which pollination cannot take place. Moreover, late spring frosts often destroy one or both sets of flowers, and the result, as far as fruit is concerned, is the same in either case. As a result of these experiences, the pecan cannot be recommended as a nut-bearing tree north of its natural range in the Mississippi Valley, neither will it succeed at the high elevations in the Alleghany mountains. It reaches its most northerly cultural extension in the Mississippi valley and in the coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard. But it grows well and makes a good shade tree farther north, and at elevations far above its native range. Even then, however, the nuts from which these seedling shade trees are grown should be brought from the northern sections of its natural distribution. They are much more likely to withstand the rigorous cold of winter. Frequently the question is asked as to whether the pecan can be grown in a certain given locality. Such a question can be answered only in the most general way. The presence of the larger species of hickories in the vicinity may be used in some parts of the country as an indication of the success which might attend the planting of pecan trees, but such a guide should not be followed too implicitly, and even if the pecan tree should grow well, fruit might not be secured. The presence of pecan trees, single specimens perhaps, or two or three, in yards or about buildings here and there throughout a region, may be taken as a guide in the matter of planting, and no better can be had. Nothing will take the place of a practical demonstration in the way of a vigorous fruiting tree. CHAPTER III. PECAN BOTANY. The aborigines of the country used hickory nuts of different kinds as food, and in the region in which the pecan grows as a native tree, it was valued by them above all its relatives. Penicaut found in his travels that the Indians stored large amounts of pecans for winter use. The scientific name of the pecan is appropriately derived from two Indian words, "powcohiccora" and "pacan." In 1785, the pecan was described under the name _Juglans Pecan_, by Marshall in his Arboretum Americanum. In 1818, Thomas Nuttall, an English botanist, separated the hickories from the walnuts and butternuts, putting them under a new genus which he called _Carya_, naming the pecan _Carya olivaeformis_. Nuttall's classification was followed for many years until it was found that in the year previous to the publication of his work, 1817, C. S. Rafinesque, a French naturalist, had separated the hickories along the same lines as Nuttall and published them under the name _Hicoria_. In accordance with the laws of priority, Rafinesque's name, _Hicoria_, takes precedence over _Carya_. The family _Juglandaceæ_, embraces but two genera, _Juglans_ and _Hicoria_, the former including the walnuts and butternuts, and the latter the pecan and other hickories. With the exception of the Shellbark hickory, _Hicoria ovata_ Britton, and the Big shellbark, _Hicoria laciniosa_ Sargent, the pecan is the only one of the genus worthy of cultivation. _Family._ Juglandaceæ Lindl. Nat. Syst. Ed. 2, 180. 1836. Trees with alternate pinnate leaves and monoecious bracted flowers. Staminate flowers in long, drooping catkins, provided with three or more stamens and occasionally with an irregular-lobed perianth adnate to the bractlet and a rudimentary ovary. Anthers erect, with short filaments, two-celled; dehiscent longitudinally. Pistillate flowers bracted with a three to five, normally four-lobed calyx and sometimes with petals. Ovule solitary, erect, styles two, stigmatic along the inner surface. Fruit a bony nut, incompletely two to four-celled. Seed large, two to four-lobed, cotyledons corrugated, oily, without endosperm. _Genus._ Hicoria Raf. Med. Rep. (II) 5:352. 1808. Trees, with close or scaly bark, odd-pinnate leaves and serrate leaflets. Staminate flowers in slender drooping catkins, borne in groups of three, occasionally on the new shoots, but usually from buds just back of the terminal buds on last year's shoots, calyx naked, adherent to the bract, unequally two-third lobed or cleft; stamens with short filaments, three to ten in number. Pistillate flowers, two to eight, produced on a terminal peduncle, calyx four-parted, petals none, styles two to four, short, papillose. Fruit oblong, or obovoid, the husk separating into four parts; nut smooth or angled, bony, incompletely two to four-celled. Seed oily, sweet, edible or bitter and astringent. Natives of eastern North America and Mexico. _Species._ H. Pecan (Marsh.) Britton. Bull. Torr. Club, 15:282. 1888. Pecan, Illinois nut, a large tree, 75 to 170 feet in height and a diameter reaching 6 feet, with rough-broken bark. Young twigs and leaves pubescent, later nearly or quite glabrous; leaflets seven to fifteen, falcate, oblong--lanceolate, sharp-pointed, serrate, green and bright above, lighter below; staminate catkins five to six inches long, sessile or nearly so, sometimes borne near the base on the young shoots but usually from the uppermost lateral buds on last year's shoots; pistillate flowers terminal on shoots of the current season's growth, produced singly or in clusters of two to nine; fruit oblong cylindrical; husk four-valved; nut 3/4 to 2-1/2 inches in greatest diameter, roundish, or cylindrical and pointed, two-celled at the base, partition thin, bitter, seed deliciously sweet. Found native on the moist bottom lands along streams from Indiana south to Kentucky and from Iowa south to Texas, principally along the Mississippi and its tributaries, the Colorado river in Texas, and along some of its tributaries into Mexico. [Illustration: PLATE III. Pecan Flowers. Pistillate enlarged below.] POLLINATION. Since two kinds of flowers are produced on the pecan, one bearing the pistils, the other stamens, the pollen must be transferred from the latter to the former in order that pollination may take place. In many plants the pollen is transferred from one plant or flower to another by means of insects; but in the pecan there are no bright colors, no nectar, no scent to attract insects to carry pollen, but, instead, the wind is the carrying agent and it needs no attractions. Pollen is produced in large quantities, necessarily so, since much of it is wasted. Unfavorable weather conditions at time of blooming may, however, interfere seriously with pollination. Heavy winds or wind-storms, and rains of several days duration, may prevent the necessary and desired distribution of the pollen, as a result of which no fruit is formed. Sometimes the staminate blooms are destroyed by frost while the pistillate ones escape. It makes little difference which is destroyed, however, as in either case the result is the same--no fruit sets. The staminate flowers push out from the lateral buds at the same time the new shoot develops from the terminal one. The pistillate blossom does not appear until the terminal shoot has grown six or eight inches, and in the meantime it is protected by the unfolded leaves. The staminate bloom, on the contrary, is exposed from the first, having no leaves to protect it. In consequence it is much more likely to be cut off by frost. Dr. Trelease refers to several observations on proterandry (maturing of the pollen before the stigmas of the pistils) in the pecan. This, together with the unprotected condition of the staminate blooms, we believe, accounts in a large measure for the non-setting of fruit on the northern boundaries of the pecan area. The artificial or hand pollination of the pecan is an easy matter and offers an inviting field for those interested in plant breeding. Emasculation, or the removal of the stamens from the flowers necessary in breeding so many plants, is not necessary in the pecan. All that is needed is to cover the pistillate blossoms with a sack until they are matured. At this time the inner or stigmatic surfaces of the pistils will be exposed and ready for the pollen. The pollen, collected from adjoining trees in bloom or brought from a distance, can then be placed upon the stigmas and the sack replaced. When the fruit is set, the paper sack should be replaced by one of mosquito netting. Some careful work has already been done along this line, and it is hoped that many more will take up the work. Much yet remains to be desired, and varieties may be better adapted to different sections. The ideal, large, full-meated, thin-shelled, prolific and precocious variety of pecan has not yet been brought forward. It may be accidentally discovered; it may be produced and can be produced by systematic, painstaking work in breeding. It is hoped that the number of workers in this inviting field may be increased. Some may be deterred by the fact that it will take the seedlings so long to come into bearing. But scions may be taken from the seedlings raised from cross-bred nuts, top-worked on large trees, and fruit could be obtained in many cases in a period not exceeding five or six years from the seed. Those which would not produce fruit in six years in this way might perhaps as well be discarded. PART II. Varieties. CHAPTER IV. VARIETIES OF PECANS. While the list of varieties of pecans is comparatively small, yet a surprisingly large number of names has been used. The attempt has been made to collect all the names which have appeared in different publications. These have presumably all been applied to some pecan at some time or other, but many of them have never been propagated by budding or grafting and a very large proportion of them have been lost track of entirely. In short, they are now represented by names only. However, they are all given, for the reason that it would be well not to apply any of these names to other varieties. It might be well to emphasize the fact that many meritorious varieties would be the better for re-naming. In the original descriptions, it will be noted that the thickness of the shell is given in millimeters. A piece of the shell about the center of the side covering the back of the half kernels, was accurately measured. These measurements must not be regarded as absolute, but they are comparative. All nut illustrations are natural size. For the origin and synonomy of many varieties credit must be given to the excellent work of Mr. William A. Taylor, of the United States Department of Agriculture, who has probably done more than any one else to straighten out the tangled nomenclature of the pecan. CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES. Heretofore, no attempt has been made to group or classify the different varieties of pecans. Classification does not become necessary until the number of varieties has increased sufficiently. The following classification of the varieties with which the author is acquainted, is based entirely upon the shape of the nuts. No classification of those varieties of which descriptions are copied has been attempted, as the descriptions are frequently so meagre as to render it impossible: 1. _Varieties:_ Hound or roundish oblong. Types--Post, Hollis, Money-maker. Bacon, Bolton, Extra Early, Georgia, Hollis, Money-maker, Post, Randall, San Saba, Thomas. 2. _Varieties:_ Oblong, rounded at the base, blunt and quadrangular at the apex. Types--Pabst, Success. Frotscher, Pabst, Pegram, Perfection, Success, Sweetmeat. 3. _Varieties:_ Oblong in general outline, rounded, blunt and abruptly tipped at the base, and abruptly short-pointed at the apex. Types--Russell, Stuart. Alley, Carman, Capital, Franklin, Havens, Jacocks, James No. 1, Kincaid, Lewis, Moore, Morris, Russell, Stuart. 4. _Varieties:_ Oblong cylindrical to almost conical, rounded at the base, sloping from the middle or above to the sharp-pointed apex. Types--Jewett, Curtis, Schley. Clarke, Curtis, Daisy, Dalzell, Dewey, Hume, James' Giant, Jewett, Kennedy, Mammoth, Rome, Schley, Young. 5. _Varieties:_ Usually long in proportion to thickness, more or less pointed at both base and apex. Types--Atlanta, Ideal, Schaifer. Atlanta, Centennial, Delmas, Domestic, Ideal, James' Paper-shell, Ladyfinger, Longfellow, Louisiana, Monarch, Money, Schaifer, Van Deman. 6. _Hybrid Varieties:_ Nussbaumer, McCallister, Schneck, Pooshee, Westbrook. ALBA. Size below medium, cylindrical, with pointed apex; cracking quality good; shell of medium thickness; corky shell lining thick, adhering to the kernel; kernel plump, light colored; quality good. (Report Sec. Agr., 1893: 295, 1894). ALLEY. Size medium, 1-5/8 x 7/8; form ovate; color grayish-brown with a few purplish-black markings about the apex; base rounded, tipped; apex abruptly short-pointed, slightly four-angled; shell brittle, thin, .8 mm.; partitions thin; cracking quality excellent; kernel full, plump, bright straw-colored, sutures narrow, moderately deep, secondary sutures slightly marked; texture firm, compact fine grained; flavor sweet, delicate, pleasant; quality very good and a good keeper. Described from specimens received from Mr. Theo. Bechtel, Ocean Springs, Miss. ATLANTA. Size medium, 1-7/8 x 7/8 x 11/16 inches; ovate, compressed; color dull gray liberally specked with small, dark dots, splashed with purplish markings from middle to apex; base sloping, blunt-pointed; apex sloping, short-pointed; shell brittle, moderately thin; partitions rather thick, corky; cracking quality quite good; kernel full, plump, sutures narrow of medium depth, secondary sutures lacking; color light yellowish-brown, bright; texture solid, compact; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Originated by G. M. Bacon, DeWitt, Ga., and first catalogued about 1900. BACON. (Syn.: _Bacon's Choice_.) Size small, 1-1/4 x 7/8 inches; rounded, compressed toward the apex; color dull brownish-gray, thickly dotted with dark specks, liberally splashed with purplish-brown markings toward the apex; base rounded; apex abruptly blunt-pointed; shell thin, .85 mm.; cracking quality excellent; partitions thin, papery; kernel roundish, bright, light brownish-yellow, plump, full, smooth, sutures broad, of medium depth; flavor sweet, nutty, good; quality very good. A small pecan of good quality, originated by G. M. Bacon, DeWitt, Ga., and introduced by him in 1900. [Illustration: FIG. 2. Money-maker, Post, San Saba, Half Kernel of Bacon] BARTOW. Medium size, thin shell and fine flavor. (Bacon's Cat., page 29, 1904.) BEAUTY. Illustrated in "The Pecan and How to Grow It." (Stuart Pecan Co., 1893, p. 59, fig. 5.) BELLE. Medium, ovate, quality very good. (J. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904, p. 2.) BIEDIGER. Listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Pomology, 64, 1896. BILOXI. (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.) Medium size, cylindrical, pointed at each end; surface quite regular, light brown; shell thin; cracking quality medium; kernel plump, with yellowish-brown surface; free from astringency, of good quality, and keeps well without becoming rancid. Introduced several years ago by W. R. Stuart as Mexican Paper-shell, but the name has since been changed to Biloxi. (Report Sec. Agr., 1893. 295, 1894). BLACK JACK. Listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Pomology, 64, 1896. BOLTON. Size medium, 1-3/8 x 1 inches; ovate conical; color dull gray marked with purplish-brown blotches about the apex; base rounded; apex angled, blunt, sloping gradually from the center; shell thick, 1.9 mm.; partitions thick; cracking quality medium; kernel brownish-yellow, somewhat wrinkled; sutures broad, deep, inner surface wrinkled, broadly oval in outline, texture rather open; flavor sweet, nutty; quality good. Originated in Jefferson county, Florida. Described from specimens received from J. H. Girardeau, Monticello, Fla. BRACKETT. Named for our U. S. Pomologist. It is a very fine market pecan, unexcelled in richness of flavor, and has a thin shell. Trees are fine growers, heavy bearers, and with proper care and attention come into bearing at six years old. (Bacon's Cat., 1900). BRADLEY. Large, oblong, ovoid, shell thin, kernel plump, best. (J. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904, p. 2.) BRIDEX. Listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Pomology, 64, 1896. BULLETS. A decided novelty in pecans. As its name indicates, it is of bullet shape, being almost perfectly round. It has a fine flavor, shell is very thin. (Bacon's Cat., 1900). CAPITAL. Size medium to large, 1-7/8 x 7/8 x 3/4 inches; ovate oblong, compressed with well-marked sutures; color light-brown streaked and splashed with purplish-brown markings from center to apex; base rounded, blunt-tipped; apex abruptly short-pointed, nippled; shell brittle, of medium thickness, 1.3 mm.; partitions of medium thickness; cracking quality very good; kernel plump, filling the shell, brownish-yellow in color, primary sutures broad and fairly deep, secondary ones well defined, running almost the length of the kernel; texture rather open; flavor good; quality good. Described from specimens received from Mr. Theo. Bechtel, Ocean Springs, Miss. CARMAN. Size medium, 1-7/8 x 3/4 inches; oblong, compressed; color light yellowish-brown marked with splashes and blotches of brownish-black about the apex; base rounded, blunt-tipped; apex abruptly-pointed, shouldered and four-angled; shell brittle of medium thickness, 1.2 mm.; partitions thin; cracking quality very good; kernel long, slender, plump, straw-colored, sutures straight, narrow, shallow; texture firm, compact; flavor sweet, pleasant; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Prof. F. H. Burnette, Baton Rouge, La. Originated and introduced by Mr. S. H. James, Mound, La. CENTENNIAL. Size large, 2 x 7/8 x 3/4 inches; oblong, compressed, constricted in the middle, with well marked sutures; color grayish-brown, bright, marked with a few purplish markings in the grooves at the apex; base tapering to a blunt point; apex tapering, pointed, wedge-shaped, sometimes curved; shell medium thick, 1.5 mm.; partitions thin; cracking quality medium; kernel plump, full, brownish-yellow, bright, sutures rather small, straight, secondary ones marked by a line, surface rather wrinkled; flavor sweet, delicate; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Mr. J. F. Jones, Monticello, Fla. "The original tree stood on the Anita plantation of Mr. Amant Bourgeois, on the east bank of the Mississippi river in St. James Parish, La."[C] It was destroyed March 14, 1890, by the Anita Crevasse. Sixteen trees were grafted in 1846 and 1847 by the slave gardener, Antoine, of Mr. Telesphore J. Roman, owner of Oak Alley plantation. Two of these earlier trees are still standing. Nuts were exhibited at the Centennial Exposition, Philadelphia, in 1876, by Hubert Bonzano. Under the name Centennial, it was probably first catalogued by the late Richard Frotscher, of New Orleans, in 1885. CHIQUITA. Small, ovate, shell medium, best, long keeper. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, December 3, 1904, p. 2.) CLARK. Size medium to large, 1-3/4 x 7/8 inches; ovate oblong; color dull gray, with a few purplish spots about the apex; base rounded; apex blunt; shell brittle of medium thickness, 1.3 mm.; cracking quality medium; partitions thick, corky; kernel full and plump with narrow sutures of medium depth, light yellow in color and marked here and there with black dots; texture rather open; flavor good; quality good. Obtained of J. H. Girardeau, Monticello, Fla. COLORADO. Mentioned by Andrew Fuller in "The Nut-Culturist," 1896, p. 169. CURTIS. (Syn.: _Curtis No. 2_). Medium, 1-5/8 x 7/8 inches; ovate, conical, compressed; color brownish-gray, marked throughout with dark specks and a few purplish specks about the apex; base rounded; apex sloping, pointed; shell thin, .7 mm.; cracking quality excellent; partitions thin, smooth; kernel bright straw-colored, plump, full, with narrow sutures of medium depth; texture compact, firm; flavor sweet, rich, nutty; quality excellent. [Illustration: FIG. 3. Curtis Pecan.] The original tree of this variety is to be found in the grove of Dr. J. B. Curtis, Orange Heights, Fla. It was raised from seed secured from Arthur Brown, Bagdad, Fla., and planted in 1886. It is a meritorious variety, being prolific, of good appearance and excellent quality. DAISY. Medium to large, 1-7/8 x 13/16 x 3/4 inches; oblong cylindrical; color reddish-brown marked with a few purplish-brown spots about the apex; base rounded; apex abruptly tapering, rather short; shell brittle, thin .93 mm.; cracking quality fairly good; partitions thick; kernel light brownish-yellow, full, plump, with broad and very shallow sutures; texture firm and compact; flavor sweet, good; quality good. Obtained of S. W. Peek, Hartwell, Ga. DALZELL. Large, 2 x 7/8 x 3/4 inches; cylindrical flattened; dull grayish-brown, pebbled, marked with narrow splashes of purplish-brown from center to apex; base rounded; apex abruptly sharp-pointed, four-angled and shouldered; shell rather thick, brittle, 1.4 mm.; cracking quality medium; partitions thin; kernel long, narrow with deep sutures, yellowish-brown in color, texture firm and compact; flavor sweet, good; quality good. Obtained of S. H. Graves, Gainesville, Fla. The original tree[D] stands in a 14-acre grove, four miles south of Gainesville. The grove was planted in 1888, by Mr. J. R. Zetrour, now of Rochelle, Fla. DELMAS. Size large, 1-7/8 x 1 inches; ovate, marked with four distinct ridges; color dull dark gray marked with dark specks and blotches with purplish-black from center to apex; base sloping, rounded, blunt; apex abruptly short-pointed, four-angled; shell thick, brittle, 1.4 mm.; partitions thick, corky; cracking quality good; kernel bright light yellow, sutures broad, open, shallow, secondary ones almost lacking, sometimes slack at bottom end; texture rather open; flavor sweet; quality good. [Illustration: FIG. 4. Mammoth. Dalzell. Kennedy.] Described from specimens received from Mr. Theo. Bechtel, Ocean Springs, Miss. A large nut of fairly good quality, said in some cases to have been substituted for Schley, from which it is very distinct. DEWEY. Medium to large, 1-7/8 x 3/4 inches; ovate pointed; color dull gray, marked with splashes of purplish-brown; base rounded; apex sharp; shell brittle and thin, .88 mm.; cracking quality very good; partitions thin; kernel full, plump, smooth, bright light straw-colored, with narrow sutures of medium depth; texture firm and solid; flavor sweet, rich, good; quality very good. Specimens for description obtained of H. K. Miller, Monticello, Fla. Originated in Jefferson county, Fla. DEWITT. An oddity, having the shape of a spinning top. Shell is thin, and its rich meat is easily extracted on account of its peculiar shape. (Bacon's Cat. 1900.) DOMESTIC. Large, 2 x 3/4 inches; oblong ovate, compressed toward the base; color light reddish-brown, with splotches of purplish-brown throughout; base sloping, pointed; apex four-angled, abruptly blunt-pointed; shell brittle, thin, .95 mm.; cracking quality good; partitions thick, red, corky; kernel brownish-yellow, plump, full, wrinkled on the sides with straight, narrow, deep sutures and secondary ones fairly well developed; texture compact and fine grained; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Specimens for description obtained from Frank H. Lewis, Scranton, Miss. EARLY TEXAN. (Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex.) Size above medium, short, cylindrical, with rounded base and blunt conical crown; shell quite thick, shell lining thick, astringent; cracking quality medium; kernel not very plump, of mild nutty flavor; quality good. (Report Sec'y Agr., 1893: 295, 1894.) EGG. (Syn.: _Eggshell_.) Medium; ovate; shell thin; partitions thin; kernel plump; quality good. D. L. Pierson, Monticello, Fla. Grown from seed procured from Louisiana in 1889. (Hume, Bul. 54, Florida Exp. Station, 203, 1900.) EXCELSIOR. A variety reported by Ladd Bros., Stonewall, Miss. (Listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Pomology, 64, 1896.) EXTRA EARLY. Size medium to large, 1-3/8 x 1 inch; oblong ovoid abruptly-pointed; color grayish-yellow with small purplish blotches more or less over the whole surface; base rounded; apex abruptly-pointed, blunt; shell of medium thickness, 1.15 mm.; partitions of medium thickness; cracking quality good; kernel filling the shell, plump, smooth, sutures broad, open, deep, not clasping the shell, color brownish-yellow, texture open; flavor very good, quality fair. Described from specimens received from E. E. Risien, San Saba, Texas; not catalogued, so far as we are aware. FAUST. (O. D. Faust, Bamberg, S. C.) A pecan of large size; very long in shape; quite thin shell; kernel separating readily from shell; quality best. (Report Sec'y Agr., 1891, p. 395: 1892.) FAVORITA. A variety named and grown at one time by Arthur Brown, Bagdad, Fla. (Listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," U. S. Dept, Agr., Div. Pomology, 64, 1896.) [Illustration: FIG. 5. Frotscher Pecan.] FRANKLIN. Size medium large, 1-5/8 x 7/8 inches; ovate; color dull grayish-brown splashed about the apex with purplish-black; base rounded, blunt-tipped; apex blunt-pointed, four-angled; shell brittle, of medium thickness, 1.32 mm.; partitions thick; cracking quality good; kernel full, plump, bright brownish-yellow, primary sutures of medium width, deep, secondary ones almost lacking; texture rather coarse, fairly firm and compact; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from S. W. Peek, Hartwell, Ga. FROTSCHER. (Syn.: _Frotscher's Eggshell_, _Eggshell_, _Olivier_, _Majestic_.) Large, 1-5/8 x 1-7/8 inches; cylindrical, ovate; color bright yellowish-brown, with a few black splashes about the apex; base broad, rounded; .9 mm.; partitions thin; cracking quality excellent; kernel brownish-yellow, dark veined, frequently slack at one end; sutures of medium depth, rather narrow, secondary sutures well marked; texture dry, rather coarse; flavor good; quality fair to medium. The above description was made from specimens received from the J. Steckler Seed Co., New Orleans, La. The original tree stands in the garden of H. J. Pharr, Olivier, La.; the place was formerly owned by Oscar Olivier. The variety was first propagated by William Nelson, and catalogued as Frotscher's Eggshell, by Richard Frotscher, in 1885. The variety is precocious, productive, and succeeds over a wide range of country. [Illustration: Fig. 6. Georgia Pecan.] GEORGIA. (Syn.: _Georgia Giant_.) Size large, 1-1/2 x 1/8 x 1 inches; rounded ovate; color brownish-gray marked with splashes and dots of dark brown covering a good part of the surface; base rounded; apex tapering, blunt; shell brittle, medium in thickness, 1.3 mm.; cracking quality medium; partitions thick, corky, red; kernel bright reddish-brown, plump, full, rather deeply sutured, two secondary sutures fairly well developed; texture compact, fine grained; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Originated and introduced by G. M. Bacon, DeWitt, Ga. Said to be a precocious and prolific bearer. GEORGIA MELON. Size above medium, short, rather blunt at apex; cracking quality medium, shell thick; kernel plump, brown; meat yellow, moderately tender, pleasant, good. (Report Sec. Agr., 1893, 295: 1894.) GIANT. Named, and at cue time propagated, by Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex. (Listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," 64, 1896.) GONZALES. (T. V. Munson, Denison, Tex.) Above medium size, with firm, clean shell; quality excellent. Originated in Gonzales county, Tex. (Report Sec. Agr. 1893, 295: 1894.) GRAFF. Named, and at one time propagated, by Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex. (Listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," 64, 1896.) HALBERT. Very large, oval, shell thick, fair quality. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, p. 2, Dec. 3rd, 1904.) HAMILTON. (Syn.: _R. Hamilton_.) Illustrated in Farm and Ranch, Vol. 23, No. 49, p. 1, Dec. 3rd, 1904. HARCOURT. (Syn.: _Helen Harcourt_?) Size medium, short, slightly acorn-shaped; cracking qualities medium; Shell rather thick, but very smooth inside; kernel short, very plump; meat yellow; very tender; rich; very good. (Report Sec. Agr., 1893, 295: 1894.) HAVENS. Large. 1-7/8 x 1 x 7/8 inches; ovate, compressed; color dull gray specked and splashed with purplish-brown; base rounded, blunt-tipped; apex abruptly short-pointed, four-angled; shell brittle, thin, .85 mm.; partitions of medium thickness; cracking quality excellent; kernel very plump, full, brownish-yellow marked with dark specks, primary sutures narrow, deep, secondary ones very slightly marked, bottom ends of halves of kernel divided; texture solid, compact, fine grained; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Frank H. Lewis, Scranton, Miss. HOLLIS. (Syn.: _Post's Select in part._) Size medium, 1-3/8 x 1 inches; form roundish ovate, marked with four more or less prominent longitudinal ridges; color dull brownish-yellow, slightly splashed with purplish-brown about the apex; base rounded; apex roundish, blunt; shell thick, 1.6 mm.; partitions thick; cracking quality medium; kernel plump, filling the shell, quite smooth, broadly and deeply grooved, oval in outline, light brownish-yellow in color; texture fine grained; flavor delicate, good; quality good. Described from specimens received from Herbert Post, Fort Worth, Tex. The seed nuts of this variety have been sold under the name, "Post's Select." It originated at Bend, San Saba county, Texas. HUME. (Syn.: _Curtis No. 5._) Size medium, 1-1/2 x 7/8 inches; short, oblong cylindrical, marked with two longitudinal ridges; color grayish-brown marked with a number of short, narrow purplish-brown splashes; base rounded, very blunt-tipped; apex abruptly-pointed, flattened on two sides; shell thin, .8 mm.; partitions medium, corky; cracking quality very good; kernel full, plump, light yellowish-brown, marked and dotted with dark spots, sutures straight, narrow, of medium depth; texture firm, compact; flavor sweet, pleasant, quality very good. The original tree of this variety stands in the grove of Dr. J. B. Curtis, Orange Heights, Fla. It was grown from seed secured from Arthur Brown, Bagdad, Fla., in 1886. It is a shy bearer. IDEAL. Medium, 1-7/8 x 3/4 x 5/8 inches; oblong, somewhat compressed, slightly constricted in the middle; color bright grayish-brown marked with narrow strips of purplish-brown at the apex; base sloping, pointed; apex sloping, pointed; shell thin, brittle, .9 mm.; partitions medium thick; cracking quality good; kernel full, plump, smooth, bright straw-colored, sutures very narrow, shallow; texture compact, firm; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from S. W. Peek, Hartwell, Ga. IDLEWILD. Medium size, thick shell, kernel good. Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex. (Thomas' American Fruit Culturist, 21st ed. 452, 1903.) JACOCKS. (Syn.: _Jacocks' Mammoth._) Size large or very large, 1-7/8 x 1 inches; ovate, long; color bright yellowish-brown; base rounded, abruptly blunt-pointed; apex blunt, four-angled, slightly wedged; shell brittle, of medium thickness, 1.3 mm.; partitions very thick, corky, red; cracking quality medium; kernel light yellowish-brown, full or sometimes shrunken, sutures broad, of medium depth, secondary sutures well developed and fairly deep; texture open, rather coarse; flavor sweet, rather dry; quality fairly good. Introduced by Mrs. C. W. Jacocks, Formosa, Fla., from whom specimens were received. JAMES GIANT. Medium to large, 2 x 7/8 inches; ovate cylindrical; color brownish-gray, marked with a few purplish splashes about the apex; base rounded; apex abruptly sharp-pointed with four rather prominent ridges; shell thin, 1. mm.; cracking quality good; partitions medium thickness; kernel bright light yellow, with narrow deep sutures and well defined secondary sutures; texture firm, compact; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Obtained of Prof. F. H. Burnette, Baton Rouge, La. JAMES NO. 1. Size large, 2 x 13/16 x 3/4 inches; oblong, ovate, compressed; brownish-yellow in color with a few brownish streaks about the apex; base rounded, blunt-tipped; apex abruptly blunt-pointed, four-angled, nippled; shell thin, .8 mm.; partitions thin; cracking quality very good; kernel straw-colored, usually full and plump, though sometimes shrunken at one end, primary sutures broad, shallow, secondary ones well defined; texture solid, fine grained; flavor very good, sweet; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Prof. F. H. Burnette, Baton Rouge, La. Originated and introduced by S. H. James, Mound, La. JAMES PAPER-SHELL. Medium to large, 1-7/8 x 3/4 inches; cylindrical or slightly quadrangular, slender; color yellowish-brown marked with purplish splashes from center to apex; base rounded; apex abruptly-pointed, four-angled; shell thin, .96 mm.; partitions thin; cracking quality very good; kernel sometimes slack at one end, usually plump, smooth, bright brownish-yellow; sutures narrow, shallow; texture firm, compact; flavor very good, sweet; quality very good. Originated by S. H. James, Mound, La., and described from specimens received from Prof. F. H. Burnette, Baton Rouge, La. JEWETT. Large, 1-7/8 x 7/8 inches; obovate, flattened, angular, frequently constricted at the middle; color dull reddish-brown, marked with large purplish splashes; base rounded; apex blunt four-angled, frequently curved; shell brittle, thick; cracking quality very good; partitions of medium thickness; kernel bright straw-colored, plump, smooth, somewhat triangular, with broad, open, shallow sutures; texture firm, compact; flavor fair; quality medium. Obtained of Chas. E. Pabst, Ocean Springs, Miss. JUMBO. Size large, 1-5/8 x 7/8 inches; ovate, slightly tapering; color grayish-brown marked with a few narrow streaks about the apex; base rounded; apex four-angled, wedged, blunt-pointed; shell brittle, of medium thickness, 1.3 mm.; partitions thick, corky; cracking quality medium; kernel full, plump, straw-yellow in color, primary sutures broad, deep, secondary sutures almost lacking; texture fairly solid, fine grained; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Summit Nurseries, Monticello, Fla. KENNEDY. Large, 1-3/4 x 7/8 inches; ovate-conical, flattened; color dull brownish-gray, marked with a few narrow streaks of purplish-black about the apex; base rounded; apex sharp-pointed, flattened on two sides; shell of medium thickness, .98 mm.; cracking quality very good; partitions thin; kernel bright, plump, full, smooth with narrow sutures of medium depth and secondary ones marked by a line; texture firm and compact, flavor rich, sweet; quality excellent. Described from specimens received from Dr. J. B. Curtis, Orange Heights, Fla. Origin similar to Curtis. KENTUCKY GEM. Listed. (Burnette, F. H., Bul. La. Exp. Station, sec. ser. No. 69, 1902, p. 875.) KIDD. Illustrated in Farm and Ranch, Vol. 23, No. 49, Dec. 3, 1904, p. 1. KINCAID. Size medium to large, 1-5/8 x 1 inches; ovate compressed with well defined sutures; color light brownish-yellow, bright, marked with narrow splashes of purplish-black at the apex; base almost flattened, blunt-tipped; apex blunt-pointed, slightly wedged, four-angled; shell brittle, compact, thin, .98 mm.; partitions thick, corky; cracking quality very good; kernel very full and plump, smooth, bright, light straw-colored, primary sutures broad and deep, secondary sutures creased and very shallow; texture fine grained, solid, compact; flavor sweet, rich, good; quality excellent; a good keeper. Described from specimens received from E. E. Rislen, San Saba, Texas. This apparently is a very good variety of pecan. [Illustration: FIG. 7. Shaifer. Ideal. Ladyfinger. Kernel of Atlanta.] KRACK-EZY. Medium, ovoid, very thin shell, full of meat, best (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904, p. 2.) LADYFINGER. Size small, 1-1/2 x 5/8 inches; ovate pointed at both ends; color grayish-brown marked with a very few small narrow streaks about the apex; base pointed; apex pointed; shell thin, 1. mm.; partitions of medium thickness; cracking quality excellent; kernel small and narrow, plump full, smooth, sutures narrow and shallow; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from the Summit Nurseries, Monticello, Fla. Originated on the grounds of this nursery company in Jackson county, Fla. A small nut of very fine quality, but too small to be recommended for extensive planting. LAMAR. Large, oblong, pointed, medium shell, full, best. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 8, 1904, p. 2). LEWIS. Large, 1-5/8 x 7/8 inches; ovate, compressed; color bright yellowish-brown marked with purplish-brown blotches three-quarters of the distance back from apex; base rounded, blunt-tipped; apex blunt-pointed, slightly wedged; shell thin, .98 mm.; cracking quality good; partitions thick; kernel plump or sometimes shrunken at lower end, wrinkled on the sides, bright, light yellow in color, primary sutures broad, of medium depth, secondary ones very shallow, wrinkled; texture fine grained, solid; flavor sweet, pleasant; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Frank H. Lewis, Scranton, Miss. LONGFELLOW. Large, 1-7/8 x 7/8 inches; obovate, angular, sutured; color light yellowish-brown strongly marked with purplish-black splashes throughout; base sloping, rounded; apex shouldered, abruptly-pointed, flattened and quadrangular; shell of medium thickness, 1.15 mm.; partitions very thin; cracking quality good; kernel full, plump, somewhat wrinkled; light straw-colored, sutures narrow of medium depth; texture fine grained, compact; flavor sweet, rich, nutty; quality excellent. Described from specimens received from E. E. Risien, San Saba, Texas. A pecan of good quality and an excellent keeper. LOUISIANA. Size medium, 1-7/8 x 7/8 x 3/4 inches; oblong cylindrical; color grayish-brown, marked with splashes of purplish-black towards the apex; base rounded, sloping; apex sloping, pointed; shell rather thick, 1.4 mm.; partitions of medium thickness; cracking quality very good; kernel full, plump, dark yellow, sutures broad, shallow; texture firm, compact; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Summit Nurseries, Monticello, Fla. MAGNUM BONUM. Medium, ovate; shell thin; partitions thin; kernel plump, sweet; quality very good. (Hume, Bul. 54, Fla. Exp. Station, 1900, 207). MAMMOTH. (Syn.: _Steckler's Mammoth._) Large to very large, 2 x 1 inches; form ovate; color dull gray, pebbled, with a very few dark lines at the apex; base rounded; apex flattened, four-angled, blunt; shell thick, 1.4 mm.; cracking quality very poor; partitions corky, very thick; kernel bright yellowish-brown with broad, deep sutures and fuzzy lining adhering to kernel; texture coarse; flavor sweet and good; quality quite good. Obtained of J. Steckler Seed Company. [Illustration: Fig. 7a. The Mantura Pecan.] MANTURA. Size large, 2 x 13/16, 1-7/8 x 7/8 inches; oblong, oval; color dull reddish-brown liberally marked with large, irregular black splashes; base taper-pointed, blunt; apex sharp-pointed, nippled; shell very thin, .78 mm.; brittle, dense; cracking quality very good; partitions thin; kernel dark straw-colored, plump, smooth, oval, with open sutures of medium depth; texture firm, solid; flavor sweet, nutty; quality very good indeed. Described from specimens received from Wm. N. Roper, Petersburg, Va., by whom it was named and introduced in 1906. The original tree of this variety stands on the Mantura homestead, in Surry county, Va., two miles south of the James river, now owned by W. P. Wilson. Mr. Wilson's mother planted four trees from nuts secured from a tree at Surry Courthouse, Va., the Mantura being one of the four, The parent tree measures about fourteen feet around the body, and bears crops of good sized nuts. It stands about ten miles from the site of the Mantura tree. The Mantura tree is a large, symmetrical specimen with wide-spreading branches. It is about eighty feet high and measures about eleven feet around the trunk. It has been bearing for the past fifteen years, and in 1905 yielded 275 pounds of nuts. This variety will doubtless prove a valuable acquisition for planters on the northern limits of the pecan area, as the particular strain from which it comes has been growing in Virginia for more than sixty years. MEXICAN PAPER-SHELL. Reported by Ladd Bros., Stonewall, Miss. Listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," 1906, p. 64. (See Biloxi.) MEYERS. The fruit of a variety of this name was distributed by Judge Samuel Miller, Bluffton, Mo. (Andrew Fuller, in The Nut Culturist, p. 170, 1896.) MONARCH. (Syn.: _De Witt Mammoth._) Large, 2 x 7/8 inches; ovate, sloping to base and apex; color dull gray strongly marked with purplish-black splashes; base pointed; apex pointed, wedged; shell medium thick, 1.1 mm.; partitions thick, corky; cracking quality poor; kernel frequently badly filled at base, sutures of medium width and depth, color yellowish-brown; texture firm; flavor good, rather dry; quality good. Originated by G. M. Bacon, DeWitt, Ga. (of the G. M. Bacon Pecan Co.), and introduced about the year 1900. Owing to the preemption of the name Mammoth, by another variety introduced by the late Richard Frotscher, of New Orleans, La., the name DeWitt Mammoth was changed to Monarch.[E] MONEY. (Syn.: _Senator Money._) Size large, 1 x 7/8 x 7/8 inches; ovate, somewhat four-angled, color light brown marked with blotches of purplish-brown sometimes throughout; base abruptly blunt-pointed; apex wedged, pointed; shell brittle, medium to thick, 1.3 mm.; partitions medium; kernel plump, full, bright light yellow, sutures broad, shallow, secondary ones indistinct; texture rather open, of medium grain; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. A large, plump-meated pecan of very good quality, described from specimens received from Frank H. Lewis, Scranton, Miss. MONEY-MAKER. Size medium, 1-5/16 x 1 inches; ovate, oblong; color light yellowish-brown with a few purplish-brown marks about the apex; base rounded; apex abruptly rounded, slightly wedged; small nipples; shell of medium thickness, 1.1 mm.; partitions medium thick, corky; cracking quality very good; kernel full, plump, broadly oval, sutures straight, broad, shallow, secondary ones small; texture firm, solid; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Prof. F. H. Burnette, Baton Rouge, La. This pecan was originated and introduced by S. H. James, Mound, La.; the quality is very good and the variety is precocious, prolific and hardy. MOORE. Size small, 1-3/8 x 3/4 inches; ovate; color light yellowish-brown marked with a few small purplish spots about the apex; base rounded; apex abruptly nippled, short; shell brittle, thin, 1.1 mm.; partitions rather thin; cracking quality very good; kernel dark yellow, plump, full, sutures narrow, shallow; texture firm, compact, solid; flavor sweet and good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from J. H. Girardeau, Monticello, Fla. The variety is so small that we deem it scarcely worthy of propagation. MORRIS. Size medium, 1-5/8 x 3/4 inches; ovate; color light brown, bright, clean, base sloping, rounded; apex tapering abruptly to a blunt point; shell brittle, of medium thickness, 1.45 mm.; partitions thick; cracking quality very good; kernel plump, filling the shell, straw-colored, primary sutures broad and deep, secondary ones shallow; texture firm, compact; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Summit Nurseries, Monticello, Fla. NELSON. Nut the largest of all known; some specimens weighing nearly one ounce; elliptical-oblong in shape; medium thin shell, clean, bright in color; kernel plump, sweet and rich; quality very best, a quick grower; early bearer, very prolific; habit of growth like the Frotscher, forming a round-headed tree. (Catalogue J. Steckler Seed Co., 1905, p. 172.) NIGGER. Medium, short oval, thin shell, full, excellent. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904, p. 2.) [Illustration: FIG. 8. Pabst Pecan.] PABST. Size large, 1-5/8 x 7/8 inches; oblong cylindrical; color dull gray marked with broad splashes of purplish-black; base rounded; apex blunt, four-angled, grooved; shell of medium thickness, 1.22 mm.; partitions rather thick; cracking quality fair; kernel plump, large, thick with broad, shallow sutures, secondary sutures short, shallow, bright yellow in color; texture fine; flavor good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Wm. A. Taylor, United States Department of Agriculture. The original tree, according to Mr. Taylor, is one of a number of seedlings on the grounds of the late William E. Schmidt at Ocean Springs, Miss. The original tree is now about thirty years old. Quite productive and recommended for planting by those who know it. PAN-AMERICAN. Large, oblong, thick shell, full, best. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904, p. 2.) PEARL. (E. E. Risien, San Saba, Tex.) Medium size, thin shell, sweet kernel; no corky growth inside. A choice nut for family use, but said to be too small for market. (Thomas' Am. Fruit Culturist, 21st Ed., 1903.) PEARL. This is a very productive pecan, originated by Mr. James. It is distinct from the Pearl which originated in Texas. (Burnette, Bul. Sec. Series, 69, La. Exp. Station, 874, 1902.) PEGRAM. Size medium, 1-1/2 x 7/8 inches; oblong; color light grayish-brown marked with a few purplish-brown markings at the apex; base rounded; apex blunt, quadrangular; shell creased, roughened, brittle, of medium thickness, 1.15 mm.; partitions medium thick, corky; cracking quality medium; kernel plump, full, quite smooth, sutures narrow and of medium depth; texture firm, compact, solid; flavor sweet and good; quality good. Described from specimens received from Prof. F. H. Burnette, Baton Rouge, La. Originated by S. H. James, Mound, La. PERFECTION. (Syn.: _James' Perfection._) Size medium, 1-3/8 x 7/8 inches; oblong; color grayish-brown marked well down the sides from the apex with purplish-black splashes; base flattened, rounded; apex abrupt, blunt; shell slightly ridged, of medium thickness, 1.3 mm.; partitions rather thick, corky; cracking quality medium; kernel full, plump, brownish-yellow, narrow and moderately deep, sutures narrow, of moderate depth, secondary ones well defined; texture fairly solid; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Originated by S. H. James, Mound, La. PETITE. Small and plump; white hull; very desirable. (Helen Harcourt, Florida.) PRESIDENT. Large, oblong, pointed, thin shell, full, best. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904, p. 2). PRIMATE. (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.) Of medium size, slender, rather long; shell thin; quality good; ripens in September, thirty days before the other nuts. (Report Sec. Agr., 1893, 295: 1894.) POST. (Syn.: _Port's Select in part_.) Size medium, 1-3/4 x 1 inches; short, obovate, compressed on the upper half color light brownish-yellow, marked with a few purplish splashes about the apex; base rounded; apex blunt, abruptly shouldered; shell of medium thickness, 1.35 mm.; partitions thick; cracking quality medium; kernel plump, bright straw-colored, deeply grooved and wrinkled, texture firm, solid; flavor sweet, delicate; quality good. Described from specimens from the original tree, received from Wm. A. Taylor, U. S. Department of Agriculture. The original seedling tree stands on H. B. Freeman's farm on the Colorado river bottom, San Saba county, Texas. It took its name from Mr. Post, a former owner of the place.[F] RANDALL. (Syn.: _Curtis No. 3._) Small, 1-3/8 x 1 inches; ovate-oblong; color grayish-brown splashed with broad marks of purplish-brown, and covered with small dots throughout; base rounded; apex abruptly blunt-pointed; shell rough, of medium thickness; cracking quality very good; partitions corky, of medium thickness, 1.25 mm.; kernel medium size, smooth, roundish sutures, reddish-yellow in color; texture firm and compact; flavor sweet and good; quality very good. Specimens for description obtained of Dr. J. B. Curtis, Orange Heights, Fla. Origin similar to Curtis. REPTON. Large, shell rather whitish one end round, the other decidedly pointed; black points; meat sweet and tender; tree remarkably beautiful. From one Repton tree, said to be forty years old, over five hundred pounds of nuts were gathered the season of 1904. (Helen Harcourt, "Florida Fruits and How to Grow Them," 1886, p. 212.) RIBERA. Size above medium; oblong-ovate; cracking quality good; shell thin; kernel plump, light brown, free from the bitter, red, corky growth which adheres to the shell; meat yellow; tender, with rich, delicate, pleasant flavor, (Report Sec. Agr., 1893, 295: 1894.) RISIEN. Large ovate; quality excellent. E. K. Risien, San Saba, Texas. (Thomas' American Fruit Culturist, 21st Ed., 453, 1903.) ROBSON. A medium-sized, very thin-shelled nut, oblong ovoid in shape. A comparatively new variety, but of considerable merit. (Bacon's Cat., 1904, p. 28.) ROME. (Syn.: _Century_, _Columbia_, _Columbian_, _Mammoth_, _Pride of the Coast_, _Southern Giant_, _Twentieth Century_.) Size large to very large, 1-7/8 x 1 to 2 x 1 inches; oblong cylindrical or cylindrical ovate; color grayish, dirty, much splashed and spotted with dirty, black marks sometimes throughout; base rounded; apex abruptly-pointed, flattened on two sides; shell hard, brittle, thick, 1.6 mm.; cracking quality poor; partitions thick, corky; kernel frequently shrunken, bright yellowish in color, sutures of medium depth, secondary ones well marked, fuzzy material often adhering to lower end; texture coarse, rather dry; flavor dry, lacking in character; quality fair. [Illustration: FIG. 9 Russell. Franklin. Kincaid.] Described from specimens received from J. Steckler Seed Co., New Orleans, La. This much-named variety, according to Taylor, was originated by the late Sebastian Rome, at Convent, St. James Parish, La., about 1840. Catalogued by the late Richard Frotscher, under the name "Rome," in 1885. It cannot be recommended for planting. RUSSELL. Size medium to large, 1-5/8 x 7/8 inches; form ovate, slightly compressed; color grayish-brown with small specks and splashes of purplish-black; base rounded, blunt-pointed; apex abruptly sloping; shell very thin, brittle, .74 mm.; partitions very thin: cracking quality excellent; kernel usually plump though sometimes shrunken at the base, sutures broad and shallow; texture fairly compact; flavor dry, sweet; quality good. Described from specimens received from Chas. E. Pabst, Ocean Springs, Miss. The original tree stands in the yard of Mrs. H. F. Russell, at Ocean Springs, and is one of a lot of seedlings raised by the late Col. W. R. Stuart, about 1875. The tree was planted where it now stands by Peter Madsen. It was named by Mr. Pabst, and propagated by him in 1894. RUSSELL NO. 1. Large, long-ovoid, shell thin, plump, good. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904, p. 2.) RUSSELL NO. 2. Very large, ovoid, shell rather thick, very good. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3rd, 1904, p. 2.) SAN SABA. Size small, 1-3/8 x 7/8 inches; ovate, slightly compressed toward the apex; color bright reddish-yellow, marked with purplish-brown splashes extending from about the middle of the apex; shell very thin and brittle; partitions thin; cracking quality excellent; kernel very plump, smooth, deeply and broadly grooved, bright straw-colored, oval in outline; texture solid, fine grained; flavor rich, sweet, delicate; quality excellent. The San Saba may be regarded as a standard of quality among pecans, as the Seckel is among pears. Described from specimens received from E. E. Risien, San Saba, Texas. The variety was introduced by Mr. Risien about 1893. The original tree stands on the San Saba river near its intersection with the Colorado river in Texas. SCHAIFER. (Syn.: _Kate Schaifer._) Size medium, 1-3/4 x 3/4 inches; cylindrical, slender; color light yellowish-brown, marked with a few narrow, purplish splashes at the apex; base sloping, pointed; apex sloping, sharp-pointed; shell rather thick, 1.35 mm.; partitions thick, corky; cracking quality quite good; kernel bright yellowish, plump, filling the shell, smooth, sutures shallow of medium width; texture fine grained; flavor sweet, good; quality very good. Described from specimens received from Prof. F. H. Burnette, Baton Rouge, La. Originated by S. H. James, Mound, La. Said to be prolific. [Illustration: FIG. 10. The Schley Pecan.] SCHLEY. Size large, 1-7/8 x 7/8 x 3/8 inches; oblong, oval, flattened; color light reddish-brown, marked with small specks about the base and small splashes of purplish-brown about the apex; base rounded, abruptly short nippled; apex abrupt, flattened on two sides and rather sharp pointed; shell brittle, dense, thin, .75 mm.; cracking quality excellent, shell breaking easily and readily separating from the kernel; kernel very full and plump, smooth, with shallow sutures and almost entirely free from wrinkles, bright light yellowish-brown in color; texture very firm; flavor rich, sweet, nutty; quality best; season early. Obtained from Summit Nurseries, Monticello, Fla. Not as prolific as some varieties, but, in point of quality, unsurpassed. SENATOR. Medium; ovate; shell and partitions thin; kernel full and plump; quality excellent. G. M. Bacon, DeWitt, Ga. (Hume, Bul. 54, Fla. Exp. Station, 204, 1900.) SOVEREIGN. Origin, San Saba, Texas. A seedling of San Saba, grown and introduced by E. E. Risien, of San Saba, Tex. Cylindrical, medium to large, with very thin shell and full kernel of fine quality. A new variety of very much promise. (Taylor, Wm. A., Cyclopedia Am. Hort., 1256, 1901.) STEVENS. Named for Hon. O. B. Stevens. Commissioner of Agriculture. Not very Large, but bright, pretty and neatly shaped. Very thin shell and always full of nice, rich meat, whether the seasons are wet or dry. Trees medium bloomers, and full bearers of nuts uniform in shape and size. (Bacon's Cat., 1900.) [Illustration: FIG. 11. The Stuart Pecan.] STUART. (Syn.: _Castanera._) Size large to very large, 1-7/8 x 1 inches; ovate cylindrical; color grayish-brown splashed and dotted with purplish-black; base rounded, tipped; apex blunt, abrupt, somewhat four-angled; shell medium in thickness, 1.1 mm.; partitions thin; cracking quality very good; kernel plump, full, bright straw-colored, sutures moderately broad and deep, secondary sutures not well defined; texture solid, fine grained; flavor rich, sweet; quality very good. Described from specimens received from the Stuart Pecan Co., Ocean Springs, Miss. This variety has been tested and found to succeed over a wide range of country. The original tree,[G] grown from a nut planted by John R. Lassabe, about 1874, stood in the garden now owned by Capt. E. Castanera, Pascagoula, Miss. It was blown down in October, 1893, but a new shoot, now in bearing, has sprung up from the roots. [Illustration: FIG. 12. Success Pecan.] SUCCESS. Size large, 1-9/16 x 1 inches; oblong-ovate tapering from near base to apex; color light yellowish-brown strongly marked with purplish-brown splashes about the apex; base flattened, roundish; apex blunt, four-angled; shell thin, .93 mm.; cracking quality very good; partitions thin; kernel large, full, plump, filling the shell, light yellow in color, sutures broad of medium depth, inner surface wrinkled, oval in outline; texture firm, solid, compact; flavor sweet, rich; quality very good. The original tree was found "growing in a crowded row of seedlings planted at Ocean Springs, Miss., by the late W. B. Schmidt, about ten years previously. The original Success tree first attracted attention in the fall of 1901." Described from specimens received from Theo. Bechtel, Ocean Springs, Miss. SWEETMEAT. Size medium, 1-1/4 x 7/8 inches; color bright grayish-brown marked with small streaks of purplish-brown about the apex; abruptly blunt; shell thin, .8 mm.; partitions of medium thickness, corky; cracking quality good; kernel plump, full, light yellow, sutures broad, shallow; texture fine grained, compact; flavor sweet; quality good. Described from specimens received from Summit Nurseries, Monticello, Fla. TEXAS. Quite large, some very long; white hull; black points. (Helen Harcourt, "Florida Fruits and How to Grow Them," 1886, p. 212.) TEXAS PROLIFIC. Large, oblong, shell thin, cream, clean, plump, best. (T. V. Munson, Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3rd, 1904, p. 2.) THOMAS. Size small, 1-1/8 x 1 inches; short, roundish oblong; color brownish-gray dotted with small specks throughout, marked with dark purplish splashes from middle to apex; base rounded; apex abruptly short, pointed, nippled; shell of medium thickness, 1.2 mm.; partitions thick, corky, reddish; cracking quality quite good; kernel plump, filling the shell, sutures of medium depth, narrow, texture compact, fine grained, solid; flavor good; quality good. Described from specimens received from Walter Thomas, Palatka, Fla. TURKEY EGG, JR. Smaller and shorter than the above; cracking quality medium; shell of medium thickness; kernel plump, light colored; tender, oily, rich; good. (Report Sec. Agr., 1893, 296: 1894.) TURKEY EGG, SR. Large, long, pointed; cracking quality very good; shell of medium thickness; kernel long, plump; brownish-yellow; separates readily from the shell; meat yellow, a little tough; not of highest quality. (Report Sec. Agr., 1893, 296: 1894.) TURNER. Medium; elliptical oblong; shell thin; partitions slightly corky; kernel plump, sweet; quality excellent. G. L. Taber, Glen St. Mary, Fla. (Hume, Bul. 54, Fla. Exp. Station, 203, 1900.) VAN DEMAN. (Syn.: _Bourgeois, Duminie Mire, Southern Beauty, Paragon in part_.) Large to very large, 2-1/8 x 1 x 7/8 inches; oblong cylindrical; color reddish-brown with splashes and streaks of purplish-brown; base sloping, blunt-pointed; apex tapering, sharp-pointed; shell of medium thickness; cracking quality fine; partitions thick; kernel light brownish-yellow, sutures rather deeply and narrowly grooved with secondary sutures forming a mere line; kernel fine grained and compact, sometimes slack at the end; flavor sweet and delicate; quality very good. [Illustration: FIG. 13. Van Deman Pecan.] Specimens for description obtained of Dr. J. B. Curtis, Orange Heights, Fla. The original tree of this variety was grown from a nut planted by the late Duminie Mire, of Union, St. James Parish, La., in 1836. The tree still stands, thrifty and vigorous, bearing 200 to 300 pounds of nuts yearly. It was first widely distributed by the late Col. W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss., who gave it the name Van Deman. Previously, it had been propagated and distributed locally by the late Emil Bourgeois.[H] VALSIES. Reported by Ladd Bros., Stonewall, Miss., and listed in "Nut Culture in the United States," U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Pomology, 1896, 64. WILLINGHAM. Illustrated in Farm and Ranch, Vol. 23, No. 49, Dec. 3rd, 1904, p. 1. YOUNG. Medium to large, 1-5/8 x 1 inches; ovate cylindrical, rounded at the base; color grayish-brown, splashed with purplish-brown markings from center to apex; base rounded; apex sloping rather abruptly, nippled; shell brittle, thin, .76 mm.; cracking quality very good; partitions thin; kernel full, plump, slightly wrinkled with broad and shallow sutures; texture fairly solid; flavor sweet, rich, nutty; quality very good. Obtained from Chas. E. Pabst, Ocean Springs, Miss. Originated by and named for B. M. Young, Morgan City, Louisiana. HYBRID PECANS. The pecan appears to inter-pollinate freely with some of the other species of hickory, particularly _H. minima_, _H. laciniosa_ and _H. alba_. A number of what are believed to be well-marked hybrids of the pecan with these different species have been found, the most noteworthy of which, perhaps, are given below: MCCALLISTER. (Syn.: _Floyd_.) Received from O. L. McCallister, Mount Vernon, Ind. This is probably a hybrid. It is the largest nut among all the hickories received at this office. The hull is about one-fourth of an inch thick when dry, and opens readily to the base with four valves. Nut 2-1/8 inches long, 1-5/16 inches wide, and 1-1/16 inches thick; base broad, rounded; apex broad, blunt, angular. In compressed form, in color of nut, also in the angularity and thickness of shell, it is quite similar to shellbark hickory. The kernel of a well-filled specimen is in color, consistency and flavor more like a shellbark of high quality than a pecan. The tree is reported to be "so similar to pecan in bark and leaf that it would be impossible to detect the difference," yet the buds and young wood more closely resemble shellbark. The tree was found many years ago on a farm now owned by Mr. McCallister. The nuts have little pomological value, as grown on the original tree some years, the kernel being shriveled and not filling more than one-third of the space within the shell; yet nuts from the crop of 1893 have been received at the Division of Pomology which were well filled with a kernel of very pleasant flavor. Possibly it may become more uniform in maturing fruit in Mississippi or Texas, where the season is longer than in Indiana. It is well worth a trial by experimenters in those States. Sargent gives a short description of this nut under the name Floyd, and accredits the points of his description to A. S. Fuller in New York Tribune, weekly edition, July 9th, 1892, and says it is perhaps a hybrid. (Nut Culture in the United States, 1896, p. 63-4.) [Illustration: (_Photo by Dr. Wm. Trelease._) FIG. 14. The Nussbaumer Hybrid.] NUSSBAUMER. In the American Agriculturist for 1884, p. 546, fol., A. S. Fuller published an account of a supposed hybrid between this species and the pecan, which has been called the Nussbaumer hybrid, after J. J. Nussbaumer, of Okawville, Ill., who first brought it to the attention of Judge Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo. Mr. Nussbaumer writes me that the original tree, which stands in the bottom between Mascoutah and Fayetteville, Ill., in general appearance resembles laciniosa, though the bark is intermediate between that of the Pecan and Mockernut. Prof. Sargent states (Silva, vii, 158) that a small tree grown from this in New Jersey, by Mr. Fuller, cannot be distinguished from laciniosa of the same age; and I should hardly be able to distinguish an imperfect twig from a small tree, cultivated by Judge Miller, from laciniosa. The nut, however, is very peculiar, being more elongated than is usual in that species, and widened upwardly, less acutely angled "as if the ridges had been sandpapered down," and so thin-shelled that it can be crushed easily by pressing two together in the palm of the hand. A somewhat similar nut, originally from Indiana, was described by Mr. Fuller In the New York Weekly Tribune, July 9, 1892 (Sargent's Silva, l.c.), as cultivated by R. M. Floyd, of Cedar Rapids, Iowa. And in the autumn of 1895, Dr. J. Schneck sent me ample fruit, twig and leaf specimens of a similar hickory from Posey county, Indiana. The nut of this last is almost identical with a specimen of the Nussbaumer nut in the Englemann herbarium, while its twigs closely resemble those of laciniosa, and the leaves are decidedly of the pecan type. I am led to the conclusion, therefore, that these several forms really represent hybrids between H. pecan and H. laciniosa. In size, quality, and thinness of shell they appear to be the most valuable of American nuts. (Trelease, Wm., 7th Report Mo. Bot. Garden, 1896, pp. 40-41.) POOSHEE. Size small, 1-1/4 x 7/8 x 3/4 inches; ovate, flattened wedged, sutures prominent; color dull brown with a very few dark lines at the apex; base rounded; apex flattened abruptly, short pointed; shell medium in thickness, 1.5 mm.; partitions thin, 4-celled at base; kernel rounded in outline, light yellow in color, sutures broad, shallow, halves indented at base; surface much wrinkled and corrugated; flavor sweetish. [Illustration: FIG. 15. H. Minima and two of its hybrids, Westbrook and Pooshee.] Specimens of this nut were secured from Dr. J. F. Wilson, Poulan, Ga., who received them from Prof. Burgess, Clemson College, S. C. The nut presents exactly the same characteristics as the Westbrook, except in flavor and color of kernel. It, too, is doubtless a hybrid, _H. minima_ x _H. pecan_. The original tree of this variety stands by or in the old Ravenel cemetery, near Pinopolis, Berkely county, S. C. [Illustration: _Photo by Dr. Wm. Trelease._ FIG. 16. The Schneck Hybrid.] SCHNECK. In the autumn of 1894, Dr. J. Schneck, of Mt. Carmel, Ill., and F. Reppert, of Muscatine, Iowa, sent to the herbarium twigs and fruit of bottom-land trees that appear to be hybrids of this species with the pecan. The bark of the Iowa tree is described as being much like that of the Mockernut, while the tree of Dr. Schneck is smooth-barked, resembling the pecan. So far as I have seen them, the twigs of both might pass for those of alba, except that the outer scales of the terminal buds are persistent, while the foliage, though intermediate, is strongly suggestive of that of the pecan. The fruit is oblong, almost 2 inches long, the husk 6 mm. thick, parted nearly to the base, with strongly elevated margins to the segments, and rather persistent on the tree. The nuts are nearly as pale as in the Shagbark, conspicuously brown striped, slightly 4-celled at the very base, and with a wall only 1 mm. thick. As is usual in ALBA, they are upwardly attenuate, and frequently the kernel is abortive. (Trelease, Wm., 7th Report Mo. Bot. Garden, 1896, pp. 44-45.) WESTBROOK. Size small, 1-3/8 x 7/8 inches; ovate, flattened, prominently sutured; color brown with a few indistinct brownish streaks close to the apex; base rounded; apex wedge-shaped, ridge, abruptly-pointed; shell rough and irregular, thin, 8.5 mm.; partitions rather thin, 4-celled at base; kernel reddish-brown, much wrinkled, sutures of moderate width and depth, halves divided at the base, much corrugated in cross section; flavor decidedly bitter and puckery. The parent tree is one standing in the yard of J. H. Westbrook, Mt. Olive, N. C., and grew from what, to all appearances, was a pecan nut. The foliage and general aspect of the tree closely resembles the pecan, though the serrations on the leaves are coarser and larger. The fruit resembles, in many respects, that of _Hicoria minima_, and, in short, it appears to be a well-marked hybrid between that species and _Hicoria pecan_. FOOTNOTES: [C] Taylor, Wm. A., Yearbook, 1904. [D] Letter from Mr. S. H. Graves, dated June 19th, 1903. [E] The Nut Grower, p. 119, March, 1904. [F] Taylor, Wm. A., Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1904. [G] Taylor, Wm. A., Yearbook, 1904. [H] Wm. A. Taylor, Yearbook, 1904. CHAPTER V. PECAN JUDGING. Every grower of the pecan should be a judge of pecan nuts, and the ideas of growers, while they may differ on certain minor points, should agree on the more important characters of the nut. To enable growers, nurserymen and judges to work on a common standard of merit, a scale of points, in which each individual characteristic of the nut may receive a certain fixed number of credits, is indispensable. At the second annual meeting of the National Nut Growers' Association, held in New Orleans, the following scale of points for judging pecans was adopted: PECAN NUTS. _External characters._ _Points._ Size, 20 Form, 5 Color, 5 _Shell characters._ Thinness, 10 Cracking quality, 20 _Kernel characters._ Plumpness, 20 Color, 5 Quality, 15 ----- Total, 100 _Tree._ _Points._ Vigor, 10 Habit, 10 Toughness, 10 Resistance to disease, insects, 10 Precocity, 10 Uniformity of ripening, 10 Productiveness, 40 ----- Total, 100 The rating of a variety to be determined by averaging the rating of nut and tree. EXPLANATORY NOTES, CHARACTER AND CONDITION OF SAMPLES. All samples submitted for judging shall be fair average samples of the crop and not selected specimens. They should he tree-ripened, and should be thoroughly cured before judging. Polishing, coloring or other manipulation to disqualify: _Size_--The nuts should be large and reasonably uniform in size; nuts running smaller than 100 per pound, to be disqualified. _Form_--The nuts should be symmetrical in form and reasonably smooth of surface. _Color_--The shell should be bright and clear in color without excess of surface markings. _Thinness_--the shell should be sufficiently thin in proportion to size of nut to crush readily. _Cracking Quality_--The shell should be brittle and should separate readily from the kernel leaving it clean and in perfect halves. _Plumpness_--The kernel should fill the shell and must be smooth, externally, with solid meat of fine and uniform texture, free from internal cavities and with high relative weight of kernel to shell. _Color_--The kernel should be uniformly bright and attractive in color. _Quality_--The flavor should be sweet and rich, free from bitterness or astringence of either meat or skin. PART III. Cultural. CHAPTER VI. PROPAGATION OF THE PECAN. The pecan tree is difficult of propagation by budding or grafting. Skillful propagators are satisfied with seventy-five per cent. of living buds or grafts, while very many have to be content with less. The difficulty is due, in part, to lack of skill; in part to lack of judgment in selecting good material with which to work; but in some regions it is due to the attacks of the bud-worm, _Proteopteryx deludana_, more than to anything else. The buds are eaten out and destroyed by this insect at the time they start into growth. In certain sections spring working of pecans has been abandoned entirely owing to the destruction wrought by this pest. But notwithstanding all the drawbacks, pecan trees can be, should be and are propagated in large numbers by budding and grafting, and the seedling is becoming more and more a thing of the past. SEEDLING VS. GRAFTED TREES. It is a fact worthy of note that the beginning of every tree-fruit industry is marked by the use of seedling trees. In the later stages of the development of the industry the seedling, owing to a more intimate knowledge of its failings and shortcomings, gives way to the grafted[I] tree. This stage has already been reached in pecan orcharding. It has been stated that a certain percentage of pecans would produce nuts identical with those of the parent tree. The author has yet to find the first instance in which this was the case. This truth is borne out by the observations of others. In view of the fact just stated, if a planter desires to secure a certain definite fixed variety of pecan, it can only be done by planting grafted trees. Even though all the seedlings were of good size, yet the variation in time of ripening, quality, prolificness, form and size would be against them. Take a certain quantity of each of a number of our largest pecans--Stuart, Van Deman, Centennial and Frotscher for instance--mix them together, and under average circumstances the mixed lot will sell for less money in the open market than the same varieties and the same nuts would if marketed separately. Mixed nuts, no matter how good the quality, cannot compete successfully in the market with a single uniform sample of the same or nearly the same quality. Grafted trees will come into bearing at an earlier age than seedlings. In the case of seedlings it is very difficult to say when they will begin to bear, while grafted trees of the more precocious varieties may be expected to bear quite a little fruit in six or eight years from the time of planting. The great objection to grafted trees is the first cost, and yet, in the face of that objection, it is best to plant grafted trees even if fewer of them are planted. If grafted trees are out of the question, then plant seedlings and top-work them. Grow the seedlings from nuts if necessary; but to those who live in sections where pecans can be grown, let me say, _plant pecan trees_; plant budded or grafted trees if you can--but plant pecan trees. PECAN STOCKS. Nursery trees are propagated entirely on pecan stocks, and in the present state of our knowledge, it is the best stock to use. It may be that the pecan will grow and thrive as well on a number of different species of hickory, but definite information bearing on this point is lacking. _Hicoria tomentosa_, _H. alba_, and _H. aquatica_ have been used for stocks in North Carolina, Florida, and other States, the pecan being top-worked upon them. But for the present, at least, until our experimental knowledge is farther advanced, the safest advice is to use pecan stock only. Too little attention on the part of propagators has been given to the kind, source and quality of the seed used to raise stocks for propagation work. The main object held in view in making a selection for seed purposes is to get just as many nuts as possible in the pound. The result of this policy is, that, without question, inferior seedlings are often used for stock; they lack stamina and vigor. Frequently in a nursery of budded or grafted stocks, or in a young pecan orchard, a wide variation in the size and vigor of the trees can be noticed. No satisfactory explanation has ever been offered, but there seems little reason to doubt that it is due to the use of heterogenous lots of seed for stock purposes. _The point must be emphasized, that greater care should be exercised in the selection of the seed used in nursery work._ Nuts from rapid-growing, vigorous, healthy trees only should be used. It is best to plant in spring only nuts which matured the previous autumn. Preferably these nuts should be of fair or medium size for the variety to give the young seedling a fair start in life. As already pointed out in regard to pecan shade trees for more northerly regions, so in the case of pecan nuts for use in raising stocks in northern sections. It is best to secure nuts from trees near the northern limits of nut production. STORING AND PLANTING SEED NUTS. If pecan nuts, intended for seed purposes, are stored and kept as nuts ordinarily are kept, they become dried out. Before they will germinate the following spring they must absorb all the moisture lost and considerably more; in consequence of which they are slow in starting. If too thoroughly dried out, many may fail to germinate. To obviate this, and to insure better and more prompt germination, it is best to keep the seed nuts in moist sand or clay during the winter months. Procure a sufficient number of shallow boxes or trays; three feet by one and a half feet by six or eight inches will answer nicely. These are to be used in stratifying the nuts. The earth to be used should preferably be good clean sand, free from organic matter, or, if this cannot be secured, clay will answer. Place a layer of the earth about one inch deep in the bottom of the boxes, then a single layer of nuts, then a two-inch layer of earth, and so on in alternating layers until the boxes are filled. These should then be slightly moistened and set aside in a sheltered place and covered with pine straw, leaves or straw. In spring, when germination has just begun in the nuts and the tiny sprouts are beginning to appear, they should be planted in rows. The ground should be deeply plowed, well broken up, pulverized, and made moderately rich. Ground which produced a heavy crop of cowpeas, velvet beans or beggarweed the previous season is excellent for the purpose. Farm-yard manure, well decomposed and plowed in the autumn previous, is one of the best manures to use. The ground should be lined off in perfectly straight rows four feet apart, running east and west, that, the buds may be inserted on the north side. The nuts should be planted four or five inches deep, depending upon their size and the character of the soil. Large nuts should be planted deeper than small ones, and in heavy soils nuts may be planted somewhat nearer the surface than in light sandy ones. The rows may be opened with a small turning plow, or, for lesser areas, with a shovel. Place the nuts, a foot apart, carefully in the bottom of the furrow, cover with a hoe, roll the ground if the weather is dry, and then scarify the surface with a weeder or a light harrow to prevent evaporation of the soil moisture. Or the ground may be mulched with pine-straw, grass, leaves or other suitable material. If no mulch is applied, then the surface of the ground Should be cultivated shallow from time to time. Some propagators have adopted the plan, with good results, of planting the nuts in the nursery rows, in late fall. CULTIVATION OF NURSERY SEEDLINGS. From the time the young shoots begin to appear above the surface frequent shallow cultivation should be given. Once every ten days or two weeks is not too often, and the ground should be broken to a depth of one inch or so after every shower of rain. During dry weather more frequent cultivation, once every week, will be well repaid in the additional growth and vigor of the seedlings. A good commercial fertilizer, analyzing 5 per cent. phosphoric acid, 6 per cent. potash and 4 per cent. nitrogen, may be applied to advantage at the rate of fifteen hundred or two thousand pounds per acre. By the following autumn, the better seedlings will have ten or twelve inches of top, and two and a half or three feet of taproot. The following spring some may he whip-grafted at the crown, and by June, July and August of the same year many of them should have attained sufficient size for budding. Those which are not of sufficient size at this time can be worked the following spring and summer. [Illustration: PLATE IV. A Pecan Nursery. _Photo by J. F. Jones._] THE NECESSARY MATERIALS AND TOOLS. The materials and tools used in grafting and budding are: a grafting iron, a mallet, budding knives, grafting wax, strips of waxed cloth and twine. [Illustration: FIG. 17. Grafting Iron.] Of grafting irons there are a number of different kinds, but one after the general type shown in Fig. 17, works very well. It will be noticed that the blade is curved at the corners, and the edge instead of being straight is curved downward in the center. This type of blade in some measure prevents the bruising of the bark when splitting the branch in cleft-grafting. Such a grafting iron may be made by almost any blacksmith. However, a good stout knife may be used instead. [Illustration: FIG. 18. Common Budding Knife.] For use in grafting, an ordinary budding knife, one of which is illustrated in Fig. 18, is well nigh indispensable. No other knife is so well adapted to making the smooth, sloping cuts on the scions. [Illustration: White's Budding Tool. Galbreath's Budding Tool. Nelson's Budding Tool. PLATE V.] Some persons can insert annular and veneer shield buds rapidly and well with nothing but an ordinary budding knife. In general, however, a budding knife having two blades, placed parallel with a space of three-quarters of an inch or an inch apart, is best. A very satisfactory knife may be made by fastening the blades of two ordinary budding knives on the sides of a piece of wood seven-eighths of an inch square and four inches in length. The blades can be firmly held in place by means of rivets and a piece of wire wound about the whole. Three special budding knives, for use in pecan budding, have been introduced, one by Mr. Herbert C. White, of DeWitt, Ga., one by Mr. D. Galbreath, of New Orleans, La., and the other by Mr. Wm. Nelson, of New Orleans, La. In these knives the blades are fixed seven-eighths of an inch, one and one-eighth inch, and three-fourths of an inch apart, respectively. These make it possible to cut the buds and the place where they are to be inserted on the stock exactly the same size, an essential point in pecan budding. They have not yet come into general use, although well recommended by some who have used them. The White budding tool is particularly well adapted for use in top-working trees. A good grafting wax may be made according to a number of different formulas. Either of the following will be found satisfactory: {Resin 6 pounds. I. {Beeswax 2 pounds. {Linseed Oil 1 pound. {Resin 4 pounds. II.{Beeswax 1 pound. {Linseed Oil 1 pint. Break the resin and cut the beeswax into small pieces. Place in an iron vessel, pour the oil over them and melt over a slow fire. Stir slightly to insure their being well mixed together, pour out into a bucket of cold water, grease the hands, and as soon as the mass is cool enough to handle, pull until it becomes light yellow in color. The wax may be made up in quantity and stored in greased tin or wooden boxes for future use. To prepare waxed cloth, cut the cotton cloth into pieces of convenient size, say eighteen inches square, dip them down into the melted wax, remove them with a couple of sticks and stretch them out until cooled. For use, the cloth may be torn into strips of desired width and wound about a stick eighteen inches or so in length. Use a little grease to prevent the grafting wax and grafting cloth from sticking to the hands. For waxed twine, procure No. 18 knitting cotton and drop the balls into the melted wax for a minute or two or until the wax penetrates them. SELECTION OF SCIONS. Great care should be exercised in the selection of scions for use in budding and grafting. Much of the immediate success of the work depends upon the character of the scions, while the health and longevity of the future tree may be materially influenced by the kind of wood used in propagating work. The practice of taking scions and buds from young trees which have never borne, or from nursery stuck, must be strongly condemned. They should be cut only from thrifty, vigorous, prolific trees. Even trees of the same variety differ in these things, and a thorough knowledge of what a tree will do and has done is the only true guide in the selection of scions. It is a well-known fact that desirable qualities can be reproduced and perpetuated by grafting. [Illustration: _From Bul. 57, Florida Exp. Sta._ FIG. 19. Scions: 1-3, Curtis; 4-6, Van Deman; 7-8, Stuart. 1. Poor Scions--long, slender, pithy. 2,4,5,7,8. Scions from one year's growth. 3. Scion, partly one, partly two years old. 6. Scion with cut, back of tip. 8. Scion which bore fruit at a.] Grafts should be selected from well-matured branches of one year's growth. Fig. 19, No. 1, shows an undesirable scion. The wood is angular, small, the internodes long, and the pith large in proportion to the diameter. Either terminal portions of twigs may be used or portions back of the tip, but the buds should always be well developed, full and plump--Fig. 19, Nos. 2 to 6. For this reason grafts should not be cut from wood far back from the tip of the branch. As stated, twigs of the previous season's growth are generally used, but scions composed partly of two-year-old wood may be used, provided the growth is not too large. Fig. 19, No. 3, shows one of these. Grafts are generally cut about five or six inches long, and should be from one-quarter to three-eighths of an inch in thickness. It is best that the grafts be cut while still in a dormant state, and inserted in the stock just before the growth starts. The scions may be kept for a considerable length of time by placing them, loosely packed, in damp moss or sawdust, in a box. The box should be covered over with earth and the scions kept sufficiently moist to prevent drying out. For bud sticks, well developed one-year-old branches, one-half to seven-eighths of an inch in diameter, and on which the buds are well formed, may be used. Such sticks frequently show three buds at a node, and if some misfortune should overtake one or two of these, there is still a chance of success, though the upper one being the strongest is generally the one which starts, provided it is uninjured and the bud takes. The degree of maturity of the bud is important, and care should be exercised that only those which are plump, full and well developed, are used. As soon as removed from the tree all bud sticks and grafts should be wrapped in damp newspapers to prevent drying out. TIME. Grafts should be inserted in spring just before or at the time growth starts. Buds may be inserted any time during the period when the bark will slip readily. Last year's dormant buds may be inserted early in the season, or buds of the current season's growth may be used during the latter part of July and the month of August, at which time they have become fully matured in the southernmost parts of the Gulf States. The time may even be extended into September. Very many of these late-inserted buds remain dormant during winter and begin growth in spring. BUDDING. _Annular Budding._--A ring of bark about one inch in length is removed from the stock. A bud stick of the same size is selected, and from it a similar ring with a good bud on it is removed by cutting around the bud stick and slitting down the back or side opposite the bud. This bud is then placed in position on the stock. After the buds are in place, a piece of stiff wrapping paper should be tied around the stock just above the bud and allowed to flare out over the bud to protect it from the sun and wind. Preferably all buds should be inserted on the north side. [Illustration: _From Bul. 57, Florida Exp. Sta._ FIG. 20. Annular Budding. 1. Stock prepared for bud. 2. Bud. 3. Bud in place and tied.] Stocks from three-eighths to three-quarters of an inch may be worked by this method. _Veneer Shield-Budding. (Patch Budding)._ This method differs from the last only in that the piece of bark removed from the stock and the piece with the bud attached are not complete rings, but only parts. A rectangular or even a triangular piece of bark is taken out of the stock, a similar piece with a bud in its center taken from the bud stick is fitted in its place and wrapped in the usual way. [Illustration: From Bul. 57, Florida Exp. Sta. FIG. 21. Veneer Shield-Budding.] Mr. George W. Oliver, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C., has described[J] a modified method of veneer shield-budding, which has given good satisfaction in his hands. Instead of removing the patch from the stock, it is slit down the center from top to bottom and the edges are lifted back, the buds inserted beneath and the side flaps are then tied down over it. He has also found that dormant buds of last year's growth give better results than buds of the current season. The use of these buds has not, however, come into general use; first, because of the large amount of wood which must be destroyed to secure them; and second, because in those sections where bud-worms are prevalent, their larvæ are to be found clustered about the buds until quite late in the season and make their attack as soon as the bud starts to grow. Mr. E. W. Kirkpatrick,[K] McKinney, Texas, described a method successfully used by him, as follows: "We prepare the stock to receive the bud by cutting out a section of bark and wood as shown in Fig. 22. The bud is cut from the scion in the same way the cut on the stock is made. It should be about the same length, width, thickness and shape of the bark removed from the stock (see Fig. 22), so that the bud will fit the stock. * * * * The bud should be firmly tied until growth begins, usually about twenty-five days, when the string should be cut and the stock also cut just above the bud. * * * All shoots must be kept rubbed off so as to give the buds the right of way. The small buds about the base of the scions or those on the two-year-old wood are preferred. Where the buds are small and in a cluster, several may be included in one set and the thinning done after the growth starts." [Illustration: FIG. 22. Chip Budding. Bud cut; Incision made; Bud in place.] GRAFTING. _Cleft Grafting._ Having selected the branch for cleft grafting and the point at which the scions are to be inserted, the branch should be carefully and smoothly cut off. The limb is then split by using the grafting iron. If rapid work is to be done, grafts should be prepared beforehand and carried to the field, wrapped in damp paper. In preparing the scion, a sloping cut should be made about one and one-half inches long, cutting into the pith from a point one-half way up the cut down to the lower end. On the opposite side, the cut should not be made to touch the pith, but should be confined to woody tissue throughout its whole length. The knife should have a keen, sharp edge. The cut should be clean, smooth and straight, and the scion should be left wider on the outer side. Start the cuts on each side of, and just at a bud, as shown in Fig. 23. Having made the cleft, it is opened with the wedge on the end of the grafting iron and the scion is placed in position. The cambium layers should be in contact. Slip the scion well down until the whole of the cut surface is within the cleft. If the stock is large enough insert two scions. After inserting the scion it should be firmly held in place by binding the stocks with strips of waxed cloth, after which a covering of wax may be placed over the cloth. The cut end of the stock should be covered, and if the scion be other than a terminal shoot, its distal end should be waxed also. [Illustration: Bul. 57, Fla. Exp. Sta. FIG. 23. Cleft Grafting. 1. Scion. 2. Scion inserted ready for tying. 3. Stock showing cleft.] [Illustration: Bul. 57, Fla. Exp. Sta. FIG. 24. Whip Grafting. 1. Stock showing cut. 2. Scion. 3. Stock and Scion ready for bandage.] _Whip Grafting._ Branches, which are to be worked by whip grafting, should be less than one inch in diameter. The method is illustrated in Fig. 24. A sloping cut, an inch and a half long, is made diagonally across the stock. A corresponding cut is made on the scion, a tongue is raised about the center of each cut by making another cut with the budding knife held almost parallel to the sides of the wood. The tongue is raised a little on both stock and scion and the two are shoved together. They should be securely bound with a strip of waxed cloth, and a layer of wax should be spread over the whole, covering up all the cut surfaces to the exclusion of water, air and the germs of decay. [Illustration: _Photo by J. F. Jones._ FIG. 25. One year Pecan in fruit. Unusual; due to bearing wood being used as a scion.] The scion and stock are preferably chosen of nearly the same size, but a scion somewhat smaller than the stock may be used, in which case the cambium layers along one side of the surfaces in contact should be placed opposite each other, and the projecting portion of the stock trimmed off. AFTER-CARE. In from ten days to three weeks, the buds should unite. They should be examined, and if union--indicated by the full, plump condition of the buds or the commencement of growth--has taken place, the wrappings should be removed. If growth has started, the stock should be cut off or lopped just above the insertion of the bud, in the case of budded trees. From time to time the trees should be examined, and all sprouts which might rob the bud of sap, thereby preventing its growth, should be rubbed off. FOOTNOTES: [I] The term grafted, as here used, embraces budded trees as well. [J] Bulletin 30, Bureau Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1902. [K] Farm and Ranch, Dec. 3, 1904. CHAPTER VII. TOP-WORKING PECANS. Many of the pecan trees planted in groves have not fulfilled the hopes of their planters. These trees, raised from large selected nuts, for which the planters paid a dollar or more per pound, have not come true to seed. Some are irregular, shy bearers; others, when they do condescend to produce a few nuts, bear small-sized, inferior nuts, not larger than ordinary playing marbles, while some produce a large crop of good marketable nuts. Some are unhealthy, subject to the attacks of scab and rosette. It goes without saying that such pecan plantings are unprofitable. What is to be done with them? Briefly, this: Cut out and destroy, root and branch, those affected by rosette, those which are unhealthy, and top-work the remainder of those which do not produce a sufficient quantity of marketable nuts of good quality. Top-working may be profitably applied to another class of trees--pecan trees in their native woods and thickets, and in some cases hickories, viz.: Hicoria tomentosa, H. alba, and H. aquatica, may be top-worked. Our knowledge is not sufficiently advanced in regard to top-working on hickory to warrant us in making any very strong recommendations, but the author has seen a large number of pecans worked on hickory, a few of which were in bearing, and all appeared healthy and vigorous. There is no good reason why hickories cannot be top-worked to advantage, and the delights of amateur efforts along this line will amply repay the attempt. [Illustration: PLATE VI. A two year top-worked Pecan tree. Variety, Van Deman.] Again, seedling trees may be grown or purchased and set out in orchard form. When these have grown to an inch or so in diameter and have developed several branches, they may be top-worked. This method of securing a pecan orchard is somewhat slow, and is open to the objection that the buds or grafts frequently fail to take, and in consequence the task of top-working extends over a number of years, resulting in trees of irregular size and shape. But by this plan a planting of desirable varieties can be secured at little expense, and provided time is not a consideration, the plan will prove quite satisfactory indeed. METHODS OF OPERATION. It is best to insert both buds and grafts in parts having smooth bark, though grafts can be placed in rough barked parts as well. Frequently trees are in a very undesirable condition for top-working, and it should be borne in mind that those branches nearest the center of the tree will give the most satisfactory result in the rapid growth of buds inserted in them. If the tree is not in good shape for working--i. e., if no branches of desirable size and age are found in convenient places--the tree should be partially trimmed to a pollard, cutting some of the main branches back to stubs, and when shoots have started from these they may be grafted or budded. In from six to twelve months from the time buds have started from the branches thus cut back, under average conditions the new shoots will have grown to sufficient size to permit of their being budded or grafted. The best time to prune back trees to start new shoots for top-working is early in the month of March. In removing large branches there is always danger of splitting, because of the weight of the heavy branches. This may be entirely obviated by sawing upward from the under side of the branch as far as possible, then cutting from the upper side downward. A branch will split off and drop without injury to the remaining parts. All cut surfaces should be well covered with white lead paint to prevent decay. The method of procedure depends upon the size and age of the tree and whether the tree is to be budded or grafted. In top-working old trees, only a portion of the branches should be worked at one time. If the whole top be removed at once, the tree suffers a severe shock. Two or three years are necessary to top-work a large tree, a half or a third of the top being worked each year. If the trees are of small size, the whole top may be removed at one time. CARE OF TOP-WORKED TREES. For several months after the new top has commenced to grow, the scions have but a slight hold upon the stock. The leaf surface is often so large that a slight wind may twist them off. To prevent this, a number of branches may be tied together, or they may be fastened to stubs of branches left temporarily. Posts may be driven into the ground close to the growing scions, to which they may be tied. Use soft bandages and burlaps. [Illustration: PLATE VII. An old Pecan tree Top-worked in the branches.] CHAPTER VIII. SOILS AND THEIR PREPARATION. The pecan succeeds on such a wide range of soils, that it is really easier to list those on which it should not be set than it is to enumerate those on which it may be planted. Of the soils not adapted to it, deep sandy lands, soils underlaid with quicksand close to the surface, soils with hardpan subsoil, wet, sour, poorly-drained lands, and stiff, pasty clays, may be mentioned particularly. If pecans are planted on land with a quicksand subsoil, the roots are unable to make their way downward through the quicksand. So far as being able to take a downward direction is concerned, they might as well be planted on top of a plate of metal. The writer once planted a few nuts on such a soil, to see what they would do. At the end of three years the tops were about two feet in height; the taproot, while thick and stocky, was not more than six inches long. It stopped abruptly after numerous efforts to penetrate the quicksand. In normally developed trees of the same age, the taproot would have been three or four feet long. The same objections hold against soils underlaid with a hard, impervious layer. While the pecan is at home on rich, alluvial river bottoms subject to overflow, yet it will not grow successfully on damp, soggy lands. It should not be planted on such soils unless they can be well drained, and not then until they have been limed and cultivated for some time to counteract the acidity of the land. We can definitely say that the pecan will do well on alluvial river bottoms, on sandy, loamy soils with a clay or sandy-clay foundation, on sandy-clay lands with clay predominating, on the flat woods sandy lands so common in the southeastern Gulf States, and on the higher uplands where hickory, dogwood, holly and oak abound. [Illustration: FIG. 26. Pecan Tree grown on quicksand. Note the taproot.] It is a fact worthy of note, however, that on extremely rich soils, the pecan will make wood growth at the expense of fruit, while on lands containing less fertility, less growth is developed with a proportionately large amount of fruit. Choose not the poorest soil by any means, but a good, sandy loam in which there is a considerable amount of humus. A subsoil containing a very considerable amount of clay is to be preferred, by all means, for such a soil, with intelligent management, will gain rapidly in fertility. PREPARATION. The preparation of the soil should be complete and thorough. It may be stated, as an axiomatic truth, that the soil cannot be prepared for trees as well after they are planted as it can before, and nothing is to be gained by planting the trees in poorly prepared land. Better by all means to spend a year or more in getting the land in shape. If the land is covered with a growth of timber, this should be cleared away and the ground cultivated for a year at least before the trees are set. Corn is probably the best crop to grow on new land, and at the last working cowpeas should be sowed. On fairly good land this will be sufficient, but on poorer ground the land should be continued in cultivation another year, sowing it down in beggarweed, cowpeas, soja beans, or velvet beans. These crops should be plowed into the soil in autumn or early winter, after they are dead and dry. On lands which have been cultivated for some time, these same crops should be sowed for one season previous to planting, at least. Every effort should be made to insure a good stand and a good growth. Inoculation of the seed with nitrogen-gathering germs will help, and a good fertilizer, such as the one recommended for these crops elsewhere, should be applied. Nothing will insure a good growth in the young trees so well as the nitrogen and humus added to the soil by leguminous crops. Stable manure may also be used to advantage. The ground should be deeply and thoroughly broken with a two-horse plow. In many cases the soil conditions will be greatly improved by the use of a subsoil plow, running it after the ordinary plow so as to break and loosen the soil to a depth of twelve or fifteen inches, or even more. CHAPTER IX. WHAT VARIETIES TO PLANT. What varieties shall I plant? An easy question to ask--a difficult one to answer; for, though the one attempting a reply may know something of varieties, their size, quality and prolificness, there is always an unknown personal equation entering into the problem. Every variety of importance has its advocates. If a man has a preference for a certain variety, and is interested in it, let him plant that variety largely. He will be likely to give it better care and attention than he will a variety for which he has no particular liking or for one which he may regard even with disfavor. The question of adaptation of varieties to certain localities is an extremely important one. A variety which may do well in a certain state or region, may not succeed in another; and on the other hand, some varieties may be grown almost anywhere. To answer questions of this sort, one must have an intimate knowledge of varieties in their local adaptations. Two of the worst faults which a variety may have are partial barrenness or shy bearing and poor filling quality. In this last respect the worst sinners are the larger varieties, and in point of filling quality, medium and small-sized varieties will, in nearly all cases, be found to have the greatest range of adaptability. The larger varieties are more likely to succeed on rich lands where the rainfall, particularly during the summer months, is great. Again, all varieties are not equally hardy, and some may not ripen their wood and fruit early enough in autumn to avoid late killing frosts. Such varieties should not be selected for planting in sections where there is danger of such injury, viz: principally along the more northerly outskirts of the pecan area. In such regions, early varieties should be planted, for early ripening of fruit and wood usually go together in the pecan. Many varieties are late in coming into bearing; others begin to bear while quite young. This difference in precocity is worthy of consideration. Other things being equal, those varieties which begin to bear early and are prolific, should by all means be given the preference. In addition to setting out an orchard of what he believes to be the best varieties for his section, or which experience has taught to be the best, the grower should, if he is thoroughly interested in his work, plant a tree or two of a number of other different kinds to test their merits and to learn something of their characteristics. VARIETIES RECOMMENDED FOR DIFFERENT SECTIONS. The following recommendations have been made by growers and others in different parts of the South. These may be changed with the knowledge which time alone will bring; but they represent the best, most accurate and up-to-date knowledge which can be given at this time: VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CAROLINA.--In these States the different named varieties have not been grown and fruited long enough to warrant any very strong recommendations, Pabst, Stuart and Jewett have been planted in southeastern North Carolina and have succeeded, but on the whole, for the entire region of these three States, the most satisfactory and staple progress in pecan culture will probably come from the introduction of local varieties of merit. GEORGIA.--Dr. J. F. Wilson, Secretary National Nut Growers' Association, Poulan, Ga., has selected his varieties for that section as follows: Stuart, Schley, Van Deman, Georgia and Frotscher. Herbert C. White, horticulturist, G. M. Bacon Pecan Co., DeWitt, Ga., says that Georgia and Stuart are the best of the varieties thus far tested. J. B. Wight, Cairo, Ga., believes in planting Frotscher principally in his section. FLORIDA.--Prof. H. K. Miller, Monticello, Fla., believes in planting Schley, Dewey, Louisiana, Frotscher, Stuart, Russell, Pabst, Van Deman and Sweetmeat. James A. Bear, Palatka, Fla., reports that Frotscher, Stuart, Van Deman, Curtis and Money-maker are doing well for young trees, while Rome and Centennial have not proved satisfactory. Dr. J. B. Curtis, Orange Heights, Fla., recommends Curtis, Frotscher and Van Deman, these having proved most fruitful in his orchard. J. H. Girardeau, Monticello, Fla., regards Van Deman, Frotscher, Pabst, Clarke and Schley as good varieties. S. H. Graves, Gainesville, Fla., says: "Curtis, Stuart, Van Deman, Dalzell, Louisiana, Bolton and Frotscher are adapted here, and have proven good fruiters. From study and observation I would supplement this list with James, Money-maker, Success, Russell, Robson and Schley." J. F. Jones, Monticello, Fla., recommends Stuart, Van Deman, Frotscher and Schley, emphasizing the first as a commercial variety, and the last-named as an excellent variety for the "Fancy" trade. ALABAMA.--Prof. R. S. McIntosh, Auburn, Ala., believes Stuart, Van Deman, Pabst, Centennial and Schley to be good varieties for Alabama. MISSISSIPPI.--Theo. Bechtel, Ocean Springs, Miss., says: "My selection at present for this section would be in the order named--Success, Stuart, Pabst, Frotscher, Russell and Van Deman." Chas. E. Pabst, Ocean Springs, Miss., recommends Stuart, Pabst, Russell, Success, Van Deman and Rome. Stuart Pecan Co., Ocean Springs, Miss., recommends Stuart, Van Deman and Russell. Prof. H. E. Van Deman recommends Stuart, Van Deman, Money-maker and Pabst for the Lower Mississippi Valley. LOUISIANA.--S. H. James, Mound, La., has found Money-maker, Stuart, Van Deman and Pabst, in the order named, best for his section. He says that Money-maker is extremely hardy, having withstood 20° below zero in Illinois, without injury. Wm. Nelson, New Orleans, La., strongly recommends Frotscher and Centennial for his section. B. M. Young, Morgan City, La., is planting Stuart, Russell and Young for commercial orchard. TEXAS.--E. E. Risien, San Saba, Tex., says that San Saba is more in demand than any other variety he has. It succeeds well in his section. He recommends as well, Texas Prolific, Colorado, Kincaid, Atwater, Concho and others. E. W. Kirkpatrick, McKinney, Tex., President National Nurserymen's Association, regards Stuart, Russell, Pabst and Money-maker as valuable for his section. Good results have been secured with Hollis and Wolford. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS. From careful observations, we believe that a list of varieties comprising Stuart, Georgia, Money-maker, Pabst, Success, Frotscher, Van Deman and Russell of the larger sorts will be found to contain varieties which will prove satisfactory in most locations. To these we must add Schley, San Saba, Curtis and a number of other medium-sized or small varieties of unsurpassed quality. When about to plant in a given region, study the local conditions, visit the local trees or orchards, and upon these a conclusion may be based which is not likely to lead the prospective planter into very great error. CHAPTER X. PURCHASING AND PLANTING PECANS. Since, in most cases, the trees are to be set in late autumn and early winter, the trees should be purchased in late summer and early autumn. Do not leave the purchasing of the trees until the last week, or the last minute, before planting, but buy in good season, i. e., several months before planting time. Too many forget about the trees until the time for setting them out has come, and not infrequently the matter is forgotten until after the season for planting is long since past. The number of varieties in the commercial orchard should not be large. No greater mistake can be made than that of planting a few trees each of a large number of different varieties. Four or five, at most, are sufficient; got fewer varieties, rather than more. Trees can be purchased in two ways: They can be secured direct from the nurserymen (usually by catalogue), or they can be purchased from agents. By far most of the pecan trees are bought from the nursery, and by many this method is preferred. If trees are secured from agents, be certain that they are responsible persons, representing responsible firms; be certain that they are properly accredited, i. e., have certificates to show whom they represent, and if they have not these, then send them off down the road, and the dog with them for company, if necessary. This may seem to be harsh advice, but had it been followed by many purchasing pecan trees in recent years, it would have been much to their advantage. Plenty of seedling trees have been bought and planted in the belief that they were good grafted or budded stock. But agents, with all sorts of credits, have represented firms which were not honest. Budded and grafted trees of certain well-known varieties of pecans have been sold, which were not those varieties. There is every reason to believe that scions have been taken from ordinary seedling trees of any kind, inserted in stocks and sold for the best varieties, and that a large number of trees have been substituted and sold for what they were not. The prospective planter must depend upon the honesty and integrity of the nurseryman, and should inform himself on this point. The National Nut Growers' Association has done no greater service to the pecan industry than that which they have rendered in protecting the public from fraudulent agents and nurserymen. Happy is the nurseryman whose reputation for square dealing merits the trust and confidence of tree-planters throughout the country. COST OF NURSERY STOCK. At present, the prices quoted for one and two year old stock of standard varieties varies from 75 cents to $2.50 per tree, in small numbers, with considerable reduction for trees in lots of one hundred or one thousand. It is not improbable that these prices may be somewhat reduced within the next decade, as greater efficiency is gained in propagating. DETECTING BOGUS TREES. How may budded or grafted trees be distinguished from ordinary seedlings or from "doctored" seedling trees? Many people have purchased seedling trees at a dollar or so per tree, under the supposition that they were budded or grafted stock. It is well to know something of the distinctions between them. [Illustration: FIG. 27. External and Longitudinal Interior View of Bud Union.] If the trunks are straight and smooth, with bark uniform in appearance throughout, the trees have not been budded or grafted, unless the point of union is at the ground, and the trees having been grafted, and a terminal bud on graft has grown. If the young trees have been budded, the trunks will not be straight; a bend will be seen at the point where the bud was inserted (see Fig. 27), and the scars of the union of the veneer-shield or annular bud and the point at which the stock was cut off will be distinctly noticeable. The bark above the point of union on the grafted or budded stocks will be different from that below. There is something characteristic about the color and appearance and the number, size and shape of the lenticles of each variety of pecan, and while it is impossible to describe this difference in appearance (it can only be learned after a large amount of experience and observation), yet the very striking difference between the seedling stock and the wood of the variety worked upon, will serve as a useful index to the genuineness of the trees in question. If the trees have been grafted instead of budded, the same statement will be true of the appearance of the bark. But the tree will be more nearly or quite straight, and the marks and scars at the point of union will be different. If the trees have been propagated by whip-grafting, the scar will be shaped like the letter N, the scar on young trees coming nearly or quite the whole distance across the stock. If the trunk of a whip-grafted tree is split through the point of union, the N-shaped mark in the form of a dark line may be distinctly made out, as shown in the illustration. In trees propagated by cleft-grafting, the union scar will be long, slim and V-shaped. [Illustration: FIG. 28. External and Longitudinal Interior View of Whip-graft Union.] But to make the similarity between the bogus and genuine trees more striking, the practice has been resorted to of scarring the stocks so as to make them resemble the genuine article. This we have known to be done, more particularly in the case of budded trees. Incisions were made in the trunks of seedling trees to resemble those made in inserting a veneer-shield or an annular bud. The incisions were made so as to include a bud, and the top of the seedling tree was then cut off just above the bud. A tree doctored in this way makes a very close imitation of the real article, and the buyer needs to be on his guard. But the appearance of the bark, as already noted, will serve as a guide. If in doubt, it may be well to sacrifice a few trees and cut them carefully open down to the pith just through the point of union. _If the trees have been doctored, the tissues of the wood and the pith will be continuous; but, if the trees are genuinely budded or grafted, the tissues and pith will not be continuous._ [Illustration: FIG. 29. Annular bud growing (left). Split through same union (center). A normal branch union (right). Pith non-continuous (center); continuous (right).] Finally, if still in doubt, send two or three trees to the botanist or horticulturist of the Experiment Station of your State, and ask his opinion. PLANTING PECAN TREES. Too often but slight attention is given to this important piece of work. There is too frequently a disposition on the part of the person setting trees of any kind to do the work as rapidly as possible without consideration for the future welfare of the trees. Few realize that time spent in careful, intelligent preparation of the soil and in setting the trees is time well spent, and well paid for in the after development of trunk and branch. Better a month spent in preparing the future home of the young tree, than years of its life spent in an unequal struggle for existence. More than that, the tree may die outright, and a year must elapse before it can be replaced. It is generally stated that the pecan is a slow grower, and yet I have seen trees from twelve to fourteen years old which measured from thirty-five to fifty-seven inches in circumference at the base, while under less favorable circumstances others stood still for a period of six or seven years, or until they had accumulated sufficient energy to overcome the untoward conditions of their environments. _Time._ The best time to plant pecan trees is during the months of December, January and February. Planting should not be delayed until late in spring, as the percentage of loss will be very materially increased. Preference must be given to the earlier portion of the planting season, as the wounds on the roots will have had time to callous over, and the ground will be firmly packed about the roots by the winter rains. Then, with the opening of the growing season in spring, the trees will be ready to make a good, vigorous start. _Distance Apart._ The distance apart at which the pecan trees should be set must depend upon the character of the soil and the amount of fertility and moisture it contains. If planted too close, the trees may become their own worst enemies. Too close planting will not prove satisfactory. It is doubtful whether the trees should ever be planted closer than forty feet apart even on light lands, while on heavier soils this distance should be increased to sixty, seventy-five or eighty feet. TABLE OF DISTANCES DISTANCE. NO. OF TREES NO. OF TREES Rectangular System. Hexagonal System. 40 x 40 feet. 27 31 40 x 50 " 21 40 x 60 " 18 50 x 50 " 17 19 50 x 60 " 14 60 x 60 " 12 13 60 x 70 " 10 70 x 70 " 8 9 80 x 80 " 6 100 x 100 " 4 To find the number of trees that can be set on an acre for any distance, not given in the above table, multiply the distance apart in feet together and divide the product into 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre. The result will be the number of trees which can be put on an acre of ground. PLANTING SYSTEMS. For setting orchards a number of different systems may be used, but the two best adapted to the pecan orchard, are the square or rectangular and the hexagonal or septuple. If mixed plantings, such as pecans and peaches, are to be made, then the quincunx system should be used and a peach tree set in the center of the square or rectangle formed by every four pecan trees. _Square or Rectangular System._ In this system is included only the methods of setting trees in rectangles, either square or oblong. It is by far the most commonly used of all the systems, and the ease with which a field can be laid off in rectangles, is greatly in its favor. The rows of trees intersect each other at right angles, and cultivation may be carried on conveniently either crosswise or lengthwise of the orchard. The planter has the choice of placing the trees the same distance apart both ways, or of planting them closer together in the rows than the distance between the rows. [Illustration: FIG. 30. Rectangular Planting System.] It has been argued that space is not equally divided among the trees, and while this is apparently true, yet, on the other hand, the roots of pecan trees, in most cases, penetrate and permeate all the space allowed in ordinary distances. The roots will certainly secure all the food and moisture in the top two or three feet of soil. When trees are to be planted by this system, the stakes must be set so as to be exactly in line, whether viewed from the end or from the side of the field. _Hexagonal, Septuple or Equilateral Triangle System._ By this system, six trees are set equidistant from a seventh placed in the center. The basis of the system is not the square, but the circle, since the radius of the circle is approximately equal to one-sixth of the circumference of the circle. The name septuple, sometimes applied to this system, refers to the fact that the number of trees in each group-unit is seven. Equilateral triangle system refers to the planting of the trees in equilateral triangles, but is identical with the hexagonal or septuple. [Illustration: FIG. 31. Hexagonal Planting System.] It is the only system whereby each tree is placed equally distant from each of its adjoining neighbors, and the only system which equally divides the space among the trees. By this method about fifteen per cent. more trees can be set per acre than by the rectangular. For permanent plantings, at regular distances, this system and the rectangular should be recommended before other systems. LAYING OUT BEFORE PLANTING. Level and smooth the ground, harrow and pulverize thoroughly, then proceed to stake the ground off, placing a stake for every tree. _Laying Out Squares or Rectangles with the Plow._ If a good plowman can be secured, very satisfactory work can be done with the plow. In some cases a man can be found who needs nothing in the way of a guide, except two or three stakes. But with a sufficient number of stakes and a marker attached to the plow, good results can be secured by almost any plowman. Furrows should be run both lengthwise and crosswise of the field, their intersections marking the place where the trees are to stand. At each one set a stake. It is essential that a true, square corner should be secured. This may be done by sighting with an ordinary carpenter's square set upon three posts. _Laying Out in Rectangles with a Wire._ A wire, long enough to reach down one side of the field, should be provided. Stretch this straight out between two posts and mark off the distance which the trees are to stand apart, upon it. At each point marked, firmly twist a piece of small wire about the larger one. These should then be soldered in place. It will not do to have them shift. This wire may be rolled upon a roller when not in use. Measure off along both ends of the field and set small stakes on the tree rows, at the marked places on the wire. Tightly stretch the wire down the first tree row, attaching it firmly at the ground level to a pair of good, stout posts. Then plant a lath stake at each mark on the wire. Set all of them on the outside of the wire, so as not to interfere with moving it. When this row in completed, lift the end stake with the wire attached, stretch on the second row, set the stakes as before and repeat the operations until the work is completed. _Laying Out in Hexagons._ Stretch the wire down one side of the field and firmly set the tree stakes, or stake out the base line by any method, firmly setting a stake for each tree. Then procure two pieces of wire with rings at each end, the length of each wire and ring to be exactly the distance between the stakes as set on the base line. Stretch these wires out toward the side where the next tree row is to stand. At the point where the rings overlap set a stake for a tree. Remove wire number one and set it on the third stake in the base line, stretch the two tight and set a tree stake. Repeat as often as necessary. In setting the third row of stakes, use the second as a base line, and so on. _Planting the Trees._ After setting a stake for each tree, the ground is ready for digging the holes and setting the trees. A planting board, such as is shown in the accompanying illustration, should be provided. It is made of a piece of inch board, four or five inches wide and five feet long. The ends may be notched or holes may be bored in them. In the center of one side, a notch, one and a half inches deep, should be cut. Provide a large number of small wooden pins or sticks, about one foot long and well sharpened. When ready to dig a hole, place the planting-board so that the notch in the side fits against the tree stake. Then place one of the small pins in each of the holes or notches at the ends of the board. Allow these to remain in the ground. Remove the board and the tree stake and dig the hole. [Illustration: FIG. 32. Planting-Board.] The hole should preferably be dug just before setting the tree. In some cases, however, it may be necessary to have all the holes dug in advance. Make them wide and deep, six or eight inches wider than the extended lateral roots and eight inches deeper than the length of the taproot. In setting the tree, place the planting-board back on the pegs and place the tree at the right depth, against the notch in the side. It will then stand exactly where a stake stood, and if the stakes were in line, the trees will be also, if they are kept perpendicular while the earth is being filled in. The earth should be packed about the roots by hand, the tree being set no deeper than it stood in the nursery. To start the trees off well, one pound to one pound and a half of a good fertilizer, analyzing about six per cent. potash, five per cent. phosphoric acid and four per cent. nitrogen, should be thoroughly mixed with the earth that is used in filling in the hole. Preferably, only surface soil should be used to place about the roots. When the hole is filled in about three-fourths, water may be applied to advantage, particularly if the weather is dry. A good application should be given after the work is completed, so as to establish the capillary movement of the water in the soil. The greatest care should be taken to prevent the roots from becoming dry, if they do, the chances of their living, after planting, are very greatly reduced. From the time the trees are lifted from the nursery row until they are set in the orchard, the sun should never be allowed to shine on them. Neither should they be exposed to hot or drying winds. Should it happen that the trees are received before everything is ready for planting them, they should be unpacked and healed in, in a shady place. The roots of the trees must be pruned before planting, but this should be done under a shed. All broken parts of roots should be carefully cut off, leaving good, smooth surfaces, and the taproot cut or pruned back, as described in the chapter on pruning. When the pruning is finished, _the trees should be wrapped in a damp blanket or in damp sacks and taken to the field_. When needed for planting, they should be removed one by one and set out. CHAPTER XI. CULTIVATION AND FERTILIZATION. Too many of our ideas of fruit culture are borrowed from the woods, from the trees in the pasture lands and uncultivated places generally. As the pecan is a forest tree in many sections of the country, the inference is, that it needs no cultivation, no fertilizer, in short, is amply able to take care of itself. So it is, but not able to yield, at the same time, the large crops of nuts that are the object of its being planted. From the woods, there is one lesson which it would be well for everyone to learn; a lesson, not of the trees, but of the soil, of the dense mass of mold, of partially decayed leaves, of vegetable matter, of humus that covers the forest floor. The soil in the pecan orchard needs humus, vegetable matter; so does the soil in any other kind of orchard, and to obtain results it must be provided. Now, it is a well-known fact that a number of years (ten or twelve) must elapse before a pecan orchard will begin to give any adequate returns for the time and care bestowed upon it and the money invested in it. During this period, if rightly handled, the ground may be made to produce something else than pecan trees, and that, too, without injury to them. But in growing a crop in the orchard, bear in mind that the trees need, and are benefited by, cultivation, and that fertilizer will make them grow. But, as already noted, humus is needed, and since this is the case, corn or cotton or clean-culture crops, which leave little behind them to make humus after they are removed, should not be grown every year. Some of the legumes should be brought in. Cowpeas, soja beans, beggarweed, velvet beans, alfalfa and melilotus can all be grown in the pecan area. Not all of them in every locality, but some one or more of them in every section. To keep up the supply of vegetable matter, grow one of these leguminous crops every two or three years, or oftener, and after they have died and dried on the surface, plow them into the soil. And when corn is grown, sow cowpeas at the last working of the crop, to enrich the soil. These legumes will add nitrogen to the soil and help to reduce the fertilizer bills, for nitrogen is the costliest of all the fertilizer materials which we buy. Sometimes, it will not do to crop the orchard. A condition may have to be met, in which there is not enough water to supply both the trees and the growing crops and one or the other will suffer--the trees, usually. In such a case the advisability of cropping is questionable unless, of course, water in sufficient quantity can be supplied by irrigation. Small grains, oats, wheat, etc., should be rigidly excluded. When corn or cotton is planted, leave out a row or two of the crops where the tree row is. Let the trees have feeding space, but cultivate all the ground. If the season is dry, then give cultivation just as often as can be done. Every week or ten days, between the first of April and the first or middle of July, the ground should be stirred in young orchards. Shallow cultivation is all that is necessary after the first plowing. A weeder or light harrow will do the work. This shallow cultivation will preserve a dust mulch, a couple of inches or so in depth, and the loss of soil moisture by capillary action and evaporation will thereby be prevented; more moisture will be retained in the soil and the trees will be benefited accordingly. Whether the orchard is planted in a crop or not, cultivation should begin about the time growth starts in spring. The ground should be plowed and leveled with a cultivator. After that, frequent shallow cultivation should be given with a light harrow or weeder. Once every week or ten days, if the weather is dry, will result in much good to the trees. If a shower should fall during one of these dry periods, the ground should be cultivated just as soon as it can be worked. A light harrow, which will break up the surface crust formed by the rain and leave instead a shallow mulch of pulverized soil, will go a long way toward conserving and holding the water which has been added by the recent rainfall. The cultivation of old orchards may vary somewhat from that given younger ones. Some recommend that the old orchard be seeded to grass (Bermuda or Johnson grass) and used as a pasture. This may answer in some cases, particularly on very rich, alluvial soils, but, in general, it will not do as a definite policy year in and year out. Those orchards planted in grass which the author has had an opportunity to examine, have usually shown a large percentage of trees with branches dead at the tips, "stagheaded," with yellow leaves and a general appearance of unthriftiness. It may have been that these orchards were planted in grass while the trees were too young. The better treatment, and the safer one to follow in old orchards, is to cultivate the ground in spring and sow down in cowpeas or some other legume. Beggarweed, velvet beans or soja beans will answer well in many localities. Allow these to make what growth they will, and, when dead and dry, plow them back into the soil. It may seem strange to cultivate a forest tree, but it is the plan to follow to get results. Good results could doubtless be secured by seeding the pecan orchard in alfalfa and using it for a hog pasture up to the ripening season. Cultivation should not be prolonged too late. If it be, the trees will continue to grow later than they should. Enough time will not be left in many sections before the coming of the first frosts. If the immature, sappy wood is caught by an early frost, severe injury may result. In the more southern extension of the pecan area cultivation can be carried on later than toward the northern limits of the region. Ordinarily, it is safest to cease cultivation not later than July the first to July the fifteenth. FERTILIZATION. On deep rich, alluvial soils the trees may not need to be fertilized, but many of the soils on which pecans have been set in orchard form, require to be fertilized to secure the best results. The three important plant foods required by plants and most frequently deficient in soils are nitrogen, phosphorus and potash. One or two or all three of these substances may have to be supplied. Nitrogen, which is used by the trees largely in making growth of leaf and wood, may be supplied from a number of different sources, viz: stable manure, cotton seed, cotton-seed meal, dried blood, fish scrap, sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of soda. These substances are the principal commercial sources of nitrogen. Large amounts of nitrogen are gathered by leguminous crops; cowpeas, vetch, beggarweed, velvet beans, alfalfa and others may be planted to advantage, resulting in a great saving in fertilizer bills, and besides, adding the necessary vegetable matter and humus. The most common source of phosphorus, usually referred to as phosphoric acid, is acid phosphate. Some is obtained from bone, and bone meal is a good fertilizer to use among pecan trees. The results obtained from its use are not immediate, but since the bone does not decay rapidly, they extend over a considerable period. On the whole, acid phosphate is as satisfactory as any material as a source of phosphoric acid, and the goods with the highest percentage are usually the most economical in the end. A good grade is that analyzing fourteen per cent. Potash may be purchased, as kainit, the raw salt, or as muriate of potash, low grade sulphate of potash and high grade sulphate of potash. Of these the sulphates are usually given the preference in fruit growing. Of the domestic sources of potash, woodashes are important. The amount of fertilizer which it is best to apply is difficult to decide upon; much depends on the character of the soil, what crops are cultivated and whether a crop of legumes is grown or not. If legumes are grown for the benefit of the orchard, they should be fertilized, and if the crop is turned back into the soil, this may be sufficient for the trees, particularly while they are young. For the legumes, a good fertilizer to use per acre is: Kainit, 100 lbs.; Acid Phosphate, 200 lbs. or, High-Grade Sulphate of Potash, 50 lbs. Acid Phosphate, 200 lbs. In any case some allowance should be made for the amount of nitrogen collected by the legumes. When corn, cotton or some other crops are grown in the orchard, fertilizing may simply consist in distributing an additional amount of the crop fertilizer for the benefit of the trees. For the growth of the young trees, a larger amount of nitrogen and a relatively smaller amount of phosphoric acid and potash are required, while for older trees, the reverse is true. Phosphoric acid and potash are required by bearing trees for the formation of fruit. Consequently, when the pecan orchard comes into bearing, these materials should be increased in the fertilizer applied. If the soil is not very rich at the time of planting, good results will follow the use of a pound of good commercial fertilizer at the time of planting. A good fertilizer for young trees should analyze five per cent. phosphoric acid, six per cent. potash and four per cent. nitrogen. For bearing trees, one analyzing eight per cent. phosphoric acid, ten per cent. potash and four per cent. nitrogen will give good results. If so desired, well-known brands of commercial fertilizers, having approximately the above analysis, can be purchased in the markets, but if preferred, the several materials may be purchased separately, then mixed and applied. APPLYING THE FERTILIZER. The roots of young trees do not extend to any great distance away from the trunk. In distributing the fertilizer this fact should be remembered. A safe rule for all small-sized trees is to commence just outside an imaginary circle of two feet radius and apply the fertilizer in a circular band extending out some distance beyond the spread of the branches. Old trees, or those having a considerable spread of top, when planted in orchard form, should be fertilized by broadcasting the fertilizer over the ground. In the northerly pecan sections, all the fertilizer should be given in one application, about the time growth starts in spring, and plowed in, while farther south, two applications may be made, one at the time mentioned above, the other from the first to the middle of June. CHAPTER XII. PRUNING. The pruning of the pecan is neither difficult nor complicated. In short, after the top of the tree is well started, little need be done except to cut back a branch here and there that the trees may develop well-rounded, symmetrical tops. A splendid type of tree is shown in Plate VI. HIGH VS. LOW-HEADED TREES. Frequently trees are so pruned that their first branches are eight or ten feet from the ground. Even young trees are pruned to slim stems, surmounted by a small umbrella-like top. Such trees frequently have to be tied to a post to keep them upright until such time as they attain sufficient size to support themselves. Such pruning should not be countenanced. The trees will make a much more rapid and satisfactory growth, and their trunks will be less affected by the hot sun, if the branches are allowed to develop lower down. Sometimes the system of pruning pecans with tall, bare trunks is adopted to allow of crops being grown under the trees, or because it is desired to use the ground as a cattle pasture. These considerations should not weigh against the welfare of the trees. As much ground can be cropped around low-headed trees as is good for them, and, in brief, the cows should be pastured elsewhere. Ordinarily the top of the tree should be so shaped that the lower branches will be about four feet from the ground. The trunk will be shaded and protected, the crop will be nearer the ground, and the low tops will be less subject to the destructive force of heavy winds, so injurious to both fruit and branches. To start the trees at four feet, the tops must be cut back to that height at the time the trees are set, or, if smaller, when they have grown to that height. Three or four buds nearest the top should then be allowed to develop and form the main framework of the tree. After this the trees will need little or no pruning, except the cutting back of straggling branches, and the removal of dead or broken ones. Some writers have advised the persistent and severe cutting back of the tops, from time to time, so as to keep them small, compact and low, but such a system of pruning must be put into practice on a considerable scale for a number of years before it can be recommended. Such a plan might prove valuable where the trees are subject to the force of strong winds, but otherwise it is of doubtful value. TIME TO PRUNE. Pruning may be done at any convenient time, but the best period is probably either just before the flow of sap in spring, or just after the trees have fully developed their leaves in spring. Following the removal of branches of any considerable size--three-quarters of an inch and upward--the wounds should be carefully painted over with white lead paint to prevent decay. CARE OF BROKEN TREES. When trees are broken or injured by wind-storms, the broken branches should be cut off and the resulting wounds carefully trimmed and painted. If the branches are only partly split off, the injury may be repaired, in many cases, by pressing the branch back into place and bolting it there, so as to hold it firmly in place. Trees with forked trunks should be protected by passing a bolt through the two branches some distance above where they divide to prevent splitting. NURSERY ROOT-PRUNING. Too frequently the root system of pecan trees, intended for planting, is but poorly developed. The root consists almost entirely of one large taproot destitute of laterals. Such trees are slow in starting and are hard to transplant. Figure 33 shows an excellent root system on a nursery tree. Such a tree should be almost as easily transplanted as an apple tree. A little more care on the part of nurserymen would insure good root systems. In a former publication it was suggested that the young seedlings intended for stocks be root-pruned "in the fall, after the trees are one year old. It could easily be accomplished by running the tree-digger down the row at a depth of nine or ten inches. The taproots could thus be severed, and the following spring, or summer, the trees could be worked (budded or grafted). This course of treatment would insure greater success in transplanting, as it would have a tendency to develop the lateral roots; and in addition to that, it would, in all probability, induce earlier fruiting." ROOT TRIMMING BEFORE PLANTING. Two year old taproots should be cut to eighteen or twenty-four inches; larger ones, in proportion. The old idea that transplanted pecan trees, the taproots of which have been cut back, will not live and bear, is not borne out by experience. They are in no-wise injured by its partial removal, and it might all be removed were it not that so many would die in transplanting. [Illustration: FIG. 33. A nursery tree with a good root system.] Figure 34 shows two pecan trees at two years. The one on the right was carefully lifted so as to preserve as much as possible of the taproot, while the one on the left had the taproot cut when it was transplanted at one year. In the latter, six small roots from four and one-half to eight inches in length had grown out to replace the taproot, these doubtless having supplied the tree with as much nourishment as would have been given by its single taproot. Furthermore, without doubt, one of these roots would have grown so as to replace the taproot. The advice has been given to cut the taproots back to five or six inches, but under general average climatic conditions throughout the pecan region anyone who follows this advice will have reason to regret it. Our experience in transplanting pecan trees has been such as to indicate the necessity of having a well-branched, well-developed root system, and a taproot, when present, should be left at least as long as indicated above. [Illustration: FIG. 34. a. Taproot cut at 1 yr. b. Taproot not cut.] A long taproot is objectionable on account of the additional cost and labor entailed in digging holes of sufficient depth for planting. To shorten the length of the taproot, Mr. E. E. Risien, of San Saba, Tex., has patented a method which has given satisfactory results. The nuts from which the stocks are grown are planted over strips of mosquito netting, the netting being some distance below the level of the nuts. When the taproots have penetrated to the netting, their growth is stopped, and the lateral roots develop better in consequence. PART IV. Harvesting. Marketing. CHAPTER XIII. GATHERING, STORING AND MARKETING PECANS. While, in preparing a crop of pecan nuts for market, such extreme care need not be exercised as in handling a crop of peaches, plums or oranges, still there are a number of details which require careful attention to secure the best results. Careful attention to these few points is quite as necessary as in handling any other fruit crop, though it might appear otherwise. _Time to Gather._ As a rule the bulk of the nut crop must be disposed of before Thanksgiving, and there is in consequence a strong disposition to gather the crop anyway, whether ready or not. Much might be said on both sides of the question, but in general it must be granted that gathering the crop while still somewhat immature, and beating the trees to cause the nuts to drop, cannot be commended. When the great majority of nut husks are open, the crop of the tree is ready to be harvested. It will not do to wait until every burr is open (some varieties never open, but such are extremely undesirable), for it will usually be found that by far the most of those which do not open, on trees which open their burrs uniformly, are faulty, and it will not pay to wait for them. Neither should such be left on the tree, but the whole tree should be stripped at the time already indicated. It will be necessary to use light bamboo poles to remove the nuts with closed burrs. _Picking._ The nuts must either be picked by hand or knocked off the trees onto the ground with sticks. From whatever standpoint we may regard the gathering of the crops, in orchards of good varieties, the best plan for the removal of the nuts is to take them off, in so far as possible, by hand. Men should climb the trees and collect the nuts in sacks. Men provided with sacks can, with the help of a good extension ladder, reach the most of the nuts on ordinary trees, up to forty or fifty feet in height. A good man will pick one hundred pounds of the shelled nuts in a day, at a cost of one dollar--or one cent per pound. [Illustration: FIG. 35. After the Harvest.] In gathering the crop, the product of each individual tree, in the case of heavy-bearing seedlings, or of each group of trees of a single variety of grafted trees, should be kept in a single pile or lot. It will not do to mix nuts of different sizes, shapes and colors, if the best price is to be hoped for. _Curing._ As soon as removed from the trees the nuts should be carried to the curing house. This house should be absolutely rat-proof. Here they are to be picked from the hulls, the unopened burrs being placed apart by themselves. If they open later, well and good; some good nuts may be found among them, but usually they are inferior and should be kept strictly apart from the other portion of the crop. The cost of removing a hundred pounds of nuts from the hulls is about fifty cents. As soon as the nuts have been separated from the hulls, they should be spread out in shallow trays for curing. These trays should be two and one-half or three feet wide and four or five inches deep. The bottoms are best covered with wire netting with meshes about one-half inch square. They may be arranged around the walls of the curing room, one tier above another. The room should be provided with good ventilation so as to give a free circulation of air. In the trays the nuts may be placed two or three layers deep; if placed too deep there is danger of their moulding. They should be turned over from time to time, and, under average conditions, two weeks will be sufficient to cure them thoroughly. _Grading._ Before packing for market, the nuts should be carefully graded. Too much attention cannot be given to this detail. Rigid grading pays--it pays handsomely, and the more abundant the supply, the better it pays. It will not do to mix together nuts of all sizes, shapes, and colors--some small, some large, some pointed, some blunt, some dark, some light, some streaked, and then expect to get the full value of the crop. It cannot be done with a good grade of pecans. Perhaps in no kind of fruit which is placed on the market can a more nearly absolutely uniform grade be made (see Frontispiece). The variety should be the basis of the grade. In gathering the crop, each variety should be put by itself as it is gathered. In most varieties the size is quite uniform, and little else need be done; but if there is any considerable variation in size, the small ones should be removed from the first grade of nuts. Polishing and staining should not be done. It is always best to let each variety retain its own individual marks and characteristics. These are a part of the market quality of the variety and should, by all means, be retained. Mixed lots of seedling nuts may be polished to render them more uniform, but the staining is an abomination, though some people would rather have it, not knowing, perhaps, what a pecan looks like without it. _Shipping Packages._ The package should be strong and light, and should afford ample protection to the product. We have known pecans to be shipped by mail, freight or express, in bags, and losses have occurred. Barrels for larger shipments, and wooden boxes for smaller ones are best, and afford the necessary protection. Gift packages, holding ten or twenty pounds or even more, should be made of half inch stuff at least, with ends three-quarters or one inch thick. Grocery boxes may be cut up, planed off, and made over. In all cases the packages should be neat and clean, and in perfect keeping with the contents. The name and address of the grower, the name of the variety, and the number of pounds should be neatly stamped on the outside. _Marketing._ As it is at present, so will it be for many years to come, strictly first-class pecans will be handled almost entirely by or through a private trade. We know of several growers who dispose of their crops of several thousand pounds annually to private customers who have learned the value of good nuts. So greatly has the demand increased that in no single instance is anyone of these men able to supply the demand of the natural outgrowth of his own work, and orders are usually booked a year or more in advance. This is the ideal method of handling the crop, and the one method which enables the grower to secure the best price for his product. In building up such a private trade, advertising must be resorted to, either through the newspapers, magazines and other channels, or by distributing samples of nuts. "Once a customer, always a customer" should be the motto for the grower to hold in mind, and every effort should be made and every precaution taken to _see that the nuts, from year to year, are absolutely uniform in size, shape, and quality_. Do not send a customer one size, shape, or quality one year, at a certain price, and the next year vary it. Such treatment will tend to make customers dissatisfied, and the grower may lose them entirely. This point cannot be too strongly emphasized. Strictly first-class nuts may be disposed of to advantage to the first-class grocery or fruit trade in the larger cities. In cities of any considerable size, there will always be found a grocer or fruiter who is willing to take a first-class article at a price considerably above the usual market price of ordinary nuts. The writer once submitted samples of nuts of medium, but uniform size and good quality, to a grocery firm in New York. They replied that they would take nuts like the samples at twelve and a half to fifteen cents a pound in carload lots, when the common run of pecans could be purchased at four or five cents per pound. As the output of high-grade pecans is increased, they may be disposed of through the usual nut trade channels--the commission men. The bulk of the product in the country to-day is handled by commission men, either being purchased direct or sold on consignment. If sold for cash in the home market, well and good, but if sold on consignment, choose one reliable commission house in each city in which the product is to be marketed--never two in the same city--and ship to it right along. _Storing._ During the cold weather following the gathering of the crop, little or no change takes place in the flavor of the kernels. During the heat of summer, however, they deteriorate. The natural amount of moisture in them is reduced, the air enters, oxidation takes place and the flavor becomes rancid. These changes can be prevented if the nuts are kept in cold storage, say at a temperature of from thirty-five to forty degrees. When nuts are kept in the house, they should be stored in the coolest possible place, in sealed jars or tight boxes. PART V. Diseases. Insects. CHAPTER XIV. FUNGOUS AND OTHER DISEASES OF THE PECAN. The fungous diseases attacking the pecan have not been thoroughly investigated. They have not, however, become so numerous or common as to cause serious damage except in a few instances. The true fungous diseases are usually propagated and disseminated by means of spores, and the most effectual method of control usually consists in spraying with Bordeaux mixture or some other fungicide. For all fungous diseases of the pecan which may be controlled by spraying no substance will give better results than Bordeaux mixture, and directions for preparing it are given at the end of this chapter. Paris green, at the rate of four ounces to each fifty gallons of liquid, may be added to the mixture for the destruction of biting insects. For effectual work in spraying large trees, a platform should be erected on the wagon-bed to make it possible to reach the tops with the spray. PECAN LEAF BLIGHT (_Cercospora Halstedii_): This disease of pecan leaves causes them to turn brown, wither up and drop prematurely. At first, small brown spots are noted. These become larger, and at length the whole leaf is destroyed. When attacked by this disease the tree makes no progress. An examination of the discolored areas, under a microscope, shows the presence of tuft-like growths of spores upon short conidiophores. As they become matured the spores are scattered by the rain or wind and so the disease is spread. It probably lives over from one season to another on the diseased leaves. The most effective remedy is to spray thoroughly three times with Bordeaux mixture. The first application should be given just when the young leaves are expanding, followed by two others at intervals of two or three weeks. The fallen leaves should, if feasible, be gathered and burned. Pecan Scab (_Fusicladium effusum_): This disease attacks the fruit, leaves and twigs. The husks of the diseased nuts become covered with dark spots or specks. They become hardened and crack open in places. As a result of the attack, growth is stopped, the fruit does not fill out and mature, but drops prematurely or, in some cases, remains attached to the trees long after the leaves have fallen. Round, black spots form on the leaves when attacked by the fungous. These become dead and brown and in most cases the whole leaf is destroyed. When attacked, the trees are usually so badly injured that they make little progress. Not all varieties are subject to the disease in the same degree and some appear to be entirely exempt. [Illustration: _Photo by H. A. Gossard._ FIG. 36. Spraying Pecan Trees.] Those varieties which are not attacked should be given preference in propagating work. The disease may be further controlled by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, as directed under leaf-blight. PECAN ROSETTE: [L]"The earliest symptoms are a peculiar crimping of the leaves at the ends of the branches. These leaves are smaller with crimped margin, and when held to the light show light green or yellow streaks between the veins. The leaf tissue in these light-colored areas is thin and undeveloped and often breaks away leaving angular holes in the leaves. A tree usually shows the disease over the whole top at once, though sometimes only a single branch is affected at first. As the disease progresses, the foliage assumes a bunched appearance, due to the formation of tufts of leaves at the ends of the branches. This characteristic has led us to use the term "Rosette" as a name for the malady. "The next stage of the disease which is observed the second year or later, is a dying-back of the branches from the tips. This is followed by the development of numerous small, lateral branches from adventitious buds. These are short, producing thick clusters of small, unhealthy leaves, sometimes reduced to mere skeletons, so that the rosetted appearance of the tree is intensified. This goes on from year to year. The growth of the tree is checked and these abnormal branches are formed only to die back each year. Trees in the earliest stages of rosette have been observed to have light crops of nuts, but, when badly diseased, are barren and unsightly or worse. Rosette has been found in all ages, from nursery stock to trees forty feet high. "The cause of the disease remains a mystery. No fungous or other parasite can be detected in the earliest stages. The appearance of the trees leads us to infer that the trouble is internal, due to some derangement of the nutritive or assimilative functions of the plant, but we are unable to correlate this with any corresponding external conditions. That is to say, that so many cases have been observed on fertile soil, when cultivation, drainage and plant food had all been provided, that it is impossible to conclude that the disease could be due to starvation or to the lack of any single element in the soil, nor can it be due to over-feeding, since it occurs in light soils and in neglected orchards. "It seems probable that it will be classed by the plant pathologist with peach rosette, peach yellows, and related diseases, the causes of which still remain unknown after years of investigation. The indications are that it is contagious, though a complete demonstration of this point remains to be made; at any rate, it must be regarded with concern until more knowledge is available." The best recommendation that can be made in regard to pecans affected by this disease is to dig them up and burn them. BORDEAUX MIXTURE. Copper sulphate, 5 pounds. Lime (unslacked), 5 pounds. Water, 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulphate in two gallons of water, place it in barrel No. 1 and add water to make twenty-five gallons. Slack the lime, reduce it to a very thin paste, place it in barrel No. 2 and add water to make twenty-five gallons. To mix the solutions of lime and copper sulphate, dip a bucketful from each barrel, and pour together into the barrel of the spray pump. _The two mixtures should flow together as they are poured into the barrel._ This is one of the secrets of making a first-class mixture. The best arrangement is to have the barrels, Nos. 1 and 2, elevated, and use a piece of rubber hose to run the liquids into the pump barrel. If a large amount of spraying is to be done, a somewhat different policy should be pursued. Too much time would be taken up in preparing the ingredients in small quantities. Instead, large amounts of copper sulphate should be dissolved and large quantities of lime slacked beforehand. This may be done as follows: In a fifty-gallon barrel place about forty gallons of water. Put one hundred pounds of copper sulphate in a sack and suspend it in the water. As soon as dissolved, fill up to the fifty-gallon mark. When well stirred, each gallon will contain two pounds of copper sulphate. Each time some of the solution is dipped out, the height of the remaining portion should be marked on the inside of the barrel. Before taking more of the solution out of the barrel, any amount of water lost by evaporation should be made good by filling up to the mark last made. As soon as procured the lime should be slacked, placed in a barrel and kept covered with an inch or two of water. In this way it can be kept indefinitely. To prepare Bordeaux mixture from these stock solutions, dip out two and a half gallons of the copper sulphate solution, place it in barrel No. 1 and dilute to twenty-five gallons. From the slacked lime take fifteen pounds, or thereabouts, to allow for the water it contains, reduce to a thin paste, place it in barrel No. 2 and add water to make twenty-five gallons. Pour the contents of barrels Nos. 1 and 2 together, as already directed. _Tests_: If free copper be present, severe injury may be done to the foliage or other tender parts of the plants. Sufficient lime should be added to neutralize it. Dip out a small quantity in a porcelain saucer or shallow bowl, and holding it on a level with the mouth, blow the breath gently into it. If a thin pellicle forms on the surface, more lime must be added. Add and test until it does not form. An excess of lime will not hurt. Another test is to dip the blade of a clean knife into the mixture. If a thin film of copper forms on it after holding it there a minute or so, more lime must be added. Use good materials and prepare the mixtures thoroughly. In making up the various mixtures, never use iron vessels, but use glass, wood or crockery receptacles instead. Strain all mixtures thoroughly into the spray pump to prevent clogging of the pump or nozzles. Spray thoroughly and in good season. _Be in time._ Do not use mixtures which have been leftover and allowed to stand for some time. FOOTNOTES: [L] Orton, W. A., proceedings second annual convention National Nut Growers' Association, 1903, p. 82. 1904. CHAPTER XV. INSECTS ATTACKING THE PECAN. Some time ago the statement was occasionally made that the pecan had no known enemies. This, to thinking and observing persons, was too good to be true, and fortunately the words, "no known," were inserted, for later investigations, particularly on the part of Profs. Gossard and Herrick, have revealed the fact that the pecan, in common with all other fruit trees, is subject to the attacks of insect and other enemies. But the outlook is hopeful, for we know of the abandonment of no fruit industry because of the attacks of insect pests, and the pecan industry is in no wise in danger of being abandoned because of their inroads. FEEDING HABITS OF INSECTS. If an insect is to be successfully controlled, the grower must know something of its life-history, and particularly of its feeding-habits. Careful observation of the insect, while at its work of destruction, will frequently give a clue to the method of control. Many insects, like the caterpillars of the pecan, bud-moth and case-worm, obtain their food by biting off pieces of the leaves or other parts of the tree and swallowing the solid particles. On the other hand, a number of insects, such as the scales and plant-lice, obtain their food by thrusting their small, bristle-like sucking tubes into the tissues of the leaves and sucking out the juices contained in the cells. [Illustration: PLATE VIII. The Pecan Bud Moth (Proteopteryx deludana). 1. Winter stage on bud, enlarged. 2. Tube made in leaf. 3. Work of bud destruction. 4. Caterpillar, enlarged about twice. 5. Cocoon, enlarged. 6. Chrysalis, reduced. 7. Moth, enlarged. 8. Moth, about natural size.] It is quite obvious that these two classes of insects cannot be controlled or destroyed in the same way. Those which eat solid particles of food may, in most cases, be destroyed by applying some poisonous substance, such as arsenate of lead or Paris green, to the food which they eat. But those which obtain their food by sucking cannot be killed in this way. They can be destroyed, however, by spraying over their bodies some substance, such as kerosene emulsion, which will penetrate their bodies and so kill them. Or, they may be killed by suffocating them with a gas or by stopping up their breathing pores with some powdered substance, such as pyrethrum. Some insecticides, such as resin wash, act both as a caustic application and a suffocating covering. For convenience in referring to insects which attack the pecan, we have grouped them as follows: (1) Insects attacking buds and leaves; (2) Insects attacking the trunk and branches; (3) Insects attacking the fruit. INSECTS ATTACKING BUDS AND LEAVES. THE BUD WORMS: At least two species of caterpillars are known by this name. The moth of one has been called the bud-moth. The caterpillar of the other has been called the case-worm. Prof. Gossard writes, that he unexpectedly found adult moths of _Proteopteryx deludana_, November 28th, 1905, and therefore believes, from this observation and other circumstantial evidence, that he was "mixed" regarding the autumn life-history of these insects, as set forth in Bulletin 79 of the Florida Experiment Station. He furnishes the following paragraph as a summary of what he can say of the bud worms: "The Bud Moth, _Proteopteryx deludana_, is a serious pest, especially in young orchards. Sometimes, in such orchards, even when large, scarcely a tree can be found during the month of May that does not contain one or several nests. The caterpillars are usually found singly, each with one side of a leaf folded over it and fastened to form a tube, or sometimes two leaves are fastened together with silken bonds and the caterpillar feeds between them. As fast as the leaves it has attached become brown and die, it draws fresh leaves to the dead ones and fastens them there, thus gradually making a very conspicuous nest. The caterpillar is full grown during the last of May and the first of June when they transform into moths. Their pupæ cases are formed of silk and excrement, smoothly lined with silk and snugly hidden away in a nest of leaves. In about two weeks from the time of pupation, the moths appear. Early specimens have sometimes been hatched from buds, only partially expanded. They are small, about five-sixteenths of an inch in length and five-eighths of an inch across the expanded wings. In general color they are grayish, streaked and dotted with blackish-brown. A characteristic habit is to alight and rest on the tree trunk, head downward. The moths have again been observed in November, suggesting that there are two broods a year. Thorough, persistent spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green, in April and May, ought to control this species." THE CASE WORM (_Acrobasis nebulella_): This insect, often found associated with the bud moth, probably does more damage than any other pecan insect. The caterpillars are about five-eighths of an inch in length, a dirty brownish-green in color, and live in silk-lined cases or tubes attached to the petioles of the leaves. From these they protrude themselves to feed. Frequently a pair of leaflets are tied together (Plate IX, Fig. 6), and between these the caterpillars live and feed upon the tips of the protecting leaflets. Opening buds, partially developed and full-grown leaves alike are destroyed. Earlier in the season, characteristic nests of partially eaten leaves, petioles and excrement are formed by several caterpillars tying the mass together with silk. In this nest they live and develop. The caterpillars pupate within their silken tubes, and the small gray moths (five-eighths to three-fourths of an inch in length) emerge about two weeks after pupation, chiefly in June. The small, hibernating "cocoons" found on and around the buds in winter and the tortuous tubes observed on the leaves in summer and fall, which have been referred to (_Proteopteryx deludana_), probably belong to this species. At least, caterpillars one-fourth grown and contained in cocoons apparently not essentially different from the smaller ones, contain worms having the characteristic appearance of the grown _acrobasis_. Spraying with arsenicals in April, May and June should destroy this pest. Spraying in late July and August would also promise results of value. [Illustration: PLATE IX. The Case Worm. 1. Supposed winter stage. 2. Caterpillar, enlarged. 3-4. Moth, nearly natural size. 5. Cases. 6. Work on leaves.] THE CATOTOCALAS (_Catocala piatrix_ and _C. viduata_): The caterpillars of these insects are frequently found during April, May and June feeding upon the leaves of the pecan. They are ravenous feeders, and if present in sufficient numbers, considerable damage is done. The caterpillars are from two to two and a half or three inches in length when fully extended, gray and striped, leathery in appearance, very closely resembling the back of the tree upon which they rest when not feeding. Having attained its full growth as a caterpillar, it ties together two or three leaves with strands of silk, thus making a loose cocoon within which it pupates. The pupa is dark brown, covered with a whitish or bluish-white bloom. In about one month the moths emerge. They are large in size, the body being one to one and one-fourth inches long and the expanded wings two and one-half to three inches across. When at rest they are dull gray in color, more or less marked with irregular waving lines. The hind or under-wings are strikingly different from the fore-wings. In C. piatrix they are deep orange-yellow marked from side to side with two black bands. The hind-wings of C. viduata are dark brown and edged with a narrow white band. The caterpillars may be destroyed by spraying with some one of the arsenical poisons, or they may be removed by hand and destroyed. Prof. Gossard recommends the tying of a piece of burlap around the trees. Beneath this the caterpillars hide during the night and they may then be destroyed. [Illustration: PLATE X. A Pecan Catocala. (C. Piatrix.) Caterpillar, Cocoon, Chrysalis, and Moths about one-half natural size.] THE FALL WEB-WORM (_Hyphantria cunea_): The caterpillars of this insect begin work early in spring, shortly after the leaves are full grown. They work in colonies, and the leaves on which they feed are enclosed in a web, which is extended as the caterpillars grow or as they require additional leaves to feed upon. When full grown the caterpillars measure about one inch in length and are covered with hairs both long and short. The matured caterpillars leave the webs and crawl down the trees to hunt for places beneath the bark, under sticks, weeds and trash in which to pupate. A light, flimsy cocoon, composed of silk and the hairs of the larva, is made. From this, in due time, a beautiful moth, an inch or an inch and a quarter across the wings, emerges. The wings are pure white or white spotted with black or brownish-black. The eggs are laid in masses of four or five hundred on the leaves. These hatch in about ten days, and the colonies of young caterpillars begin their work of destruction. There are two broods in the South each summer; the first appearing in May and June, the second in August and September. The fall brood hybernates in the pupa state. The caterpillars may be destroyed on small trees by removing the webs and killing the larvæ. On large trees a torch of some sort may be used to burn the web and the caterpillars within it. They may be also held in check by applying a spray of Paris green or arsenate of lead at the time the broods are feeding. THE PECAN CATERPILLAR (_Datana interrigma_): A buff-colored moth, having a body about one-half inch long and a wing expanse of one and three-fourths inches, with four transverse brown stripes on the front wings, lays its greenish or white eggs in clusters of five to twelve hundred on the underside of the lower leaves of the pecan trees. These eggs hatch in less than a week, and the colonies of young caterpillars at first feed upon the undersides of the leaves. They cast their skins four times, each time increasing in size and changing their color somewhat. The last moult, and sometimes the last two, take place on the trunk of the tree, and the clusters of discarded skins frequently remain for several months afterwards. After the last moult they ascend the trees, remain feeding for a short while, then go down to the ground to pupate. When disturbed, the larvæ raise both ends of their bodies from the twigs or leaves, on which they rest. They are easily recognized by this habit. When full grown they are one and one-half to one and three-quarters of an inch in length, covered with dirty white hair, and marked with two conspicuous longitudinal white lines, one on each side of the body. There are two broods, the last one hibernating in the ground in the pupa state. The leaves on which the eggs are laid may be gathered and destroyed, or the colonies of young caterpillars may be gathered and burned. Later, they may be burned off with a torch, killed when clustered on the trunk during the last moult, or poisoned with an arsenical spray. INSECTS ATTACKING THE TRUNK AND BRANCHES. THE TWIG GIRDLER (_Oneideres cingulatus_ and _O. texana_): These two insects frequently do considerable damage to pecan trees in late summer by cutting off the smaller branches. Branches from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch are usually the ones attacked. The insect is a beetle, and the two species closely resemble each other. They are dark gray in color, one half to five-eighths inch in length, with antennæ longer than the body and provided with stout, powerful mandibles. The female insect cuts the branch by working round and round it until it is almost entirely severed. She then lays a number of eggs in it, usually one or two being placed near each bud. A small cut is made and the egg is inserted between the bark and the wood, and the opening is then sealed up with a gummy substance. As the insect moves along the twig a series of transverse cuts are made in the bark. The twigs usually drop to the ground. The eggs hatch as soon as the weather becomes sufficiently warm in spring, and the larvæ feed in the twigs, making tunnels through them as they grow. Later, they pupate within the tunnels and emerge during August and September as fully developed insects, having spent one year in their growth from egg to mature insect. It is believed that in some cases the life cycle lasts two years. The best and most effective treatment is to gather and burn all the twigs which have been cut from the trees. This should be done, preferably late in autumn after the leaves have fallen, as there is greater certainty of getting all the severed twigs than if left until a later date. THE OAK PRUNER (_Elaphidion villosum_): Sometimes[M] pecan twigs, when smartly bent, will snap off with a clean, square cut across the branches, as if they were hollow-glass tubes, breaking at cracked or weakened places. An examination of such a broken stem shows "that its woody part, with the exception of a few fibers and the bark, has been cut across as if with a saw by a soft, yellowish-white grub, which can often be found in a burrow in the severed part. Since the uncut bark is the chief support left for the branch, any stiff wind or even its own weight will break it off as soon as it has become deadened. * * * * * * "The adult is a longicorn beetle, of slender, cylindrical form, over one-half inch in length and about one-eighth of an inch in width. It is of a dull, black color, tinged with brown on the wing covers, especially toward their tips. The underside of the body and legs are chestnut colored. Over all parts of the body can be found short, grayish hairs. Some small, gray spots on the wing-covers and a whitish dot on each side of the thorax are formed by dense collections of gray hairs at these points. Coarse, round punctures are thickly sprinkled over the upper surface of the thorax and wing-covers. "The larva, when grown, is about three-fifths of an inch long, tapering backwards from the neck. The body is divided by deep grooves into twelve rings or segments. There are three pairs of feet. The color is yellowish-white, the front of the head being blackish. Probably, about midsummer, with a possible variation of two mouths in each direction from this date, the parent beetle deposits her eggs, preferably on a small twig of the preceding year's growth. Upon hatching, the young larva commences to eat the tender wood just beneath the bark, and later enters the center of the twig and works toward its base. In this manner it works its way into the main limb, which may be of considerable size, and feeds within it for a period of about three years. The burrow thus becomes several inches in length, in many cases. Just before transforming to pupæ some, but not all, of the larvæ, cut the wood for the purpose of dropping the branches, as before described. Limbs in which the immature larvæ are working often break off with ragged end when bent with the hand. "* * * Pick up and burn all fallen branches. Similar attention should be given nearby oak and hickory limbs, which have fallen." THE PECAN TREE BORER (_Sesia scitula_): The moth of this insect is clear-winged and closely resembles the moth of the peach tree borer. Little is known of its life-history. "It[N] is probable that the eggs are deposited by the female moth on the bark of a tree near a fresh wound. For example, near newly set buds. The eggs hatch and the larvæ bore into the bark, and there live for a time, eating out the soft inner-bark and tender wood. It is certain that the borers live in these situations the over winter and change to pupæ in the spring, from which the moths emerge in April. The moths I reared appeared April 3rd, 4th and 6th. The pupæ are in cocoons, just under the bark. The cocoons are made from excrement and bits of bark that have been fastened together with silk similar to the cocoons of the peach tree borer. Whether these moths, that emerge in the spring, lay eggs and produce a brood in the summer, that in turn develops a fall brood of larvæ, I am unable to say." "The[O] young borer is apt to gain entrance to the sapwood through some wound in the bark, such as a graft-union, and here it feeds, sometimes completely girdling the sapwood above and below the wound. It is said to prefer to attack buds that have been budded on old, large trees. As a general rule the burrows ascend the tree in a spiral about the trunk, so complete girdling is unusual, but growth sometime ceases above the groove, new limbs being shot out from below." The only satisfactory means of controlling this pest is to go carefully over the tree and dig out the borers. The trees should be examined from time to time in order to keep them free from borers. INSECTS ATTACKING THE FRUIT. THE PECAN WEEVIL (_Balantinus caryae_): In some localities considerable damage has been caused by the pecan weevil. The insect is a small, brownish-black snout beetle, somewhat less than one-half inch in length. The proboscis or snout is slender and as long as the body. With this proboscis the beetle bores a very small hole through the husk and shell of the immature pecan to the kernel, and at the bottom deposits an egg. This egg hatches into a larva, which feeds upon the kernel of the nut. In autumn the larvæ, when full grown, bore holes through the shells of the pecan and enter the ground in which they pass the winter. The next season they emerge from the earth as fully-matured insects, and about the month of August deposit their eggs in the nuts. After the harvesting of the crop the hogs should be allowed to feed under trees in which the weevil is present, so as to devour any infested nuts which may have been left on the ground. Poultry may also be of assistance in destroying the insects after they have entered the ground to pupate. It is probable that the larvæ in the nuts may be destroyed by fumigating with carbon bi-sulphide. The nuts should be placed in a tight box, and one-half pound for each five hundred cubic feet of space used, allowing them to remain for forty-eight hours. THE HICKORY SHUCK WORM (_Grapholitha caryana_): Sometimes pecan nuts are attacked, as they approach maturity, by a small, white caterpillar, which mines its way through the shucks of the nuts. This caterpillar is the hickory shuck worm, the larva of a small moth. But little is known of its life-history, and until more is known of its habits, the best advice that can be given is to gather and destroy the infested nuts by burning them. FOOTNOTES: [M] Gossard. [N] Hedrick. (See index of literature). [O] Gossard. (See index of literature). PART VI. Uses. Literature. CHAPTER XVI. PECAN KERNELS. Pecan nuts are used in a variety of ways. Not so very long since they were used almost entirely for dessert purposes, now they are largely used in making pastries and confections of different kinds. Based on these uses, new industries for supplying the kernels have been developed. The kernels are now put on the market in glass jars of different kinds and sizes, usually retailing at from 50 cents to 75 cents per pound. This is perhaps the most convenient form in which to buy them, but unfortunately, they are too frequently old and rancid. When stock is carried through the heat of summer in the ordinary jar, this is invariably the case, and some new method of packing them must be introduced if this way of disposing of the product is to increase in favor, as it should. Certain experiments now under way give promise that the kernels can be kept fresh and free from rancidity indefinitely. For the present, at least, the only certain way of procuring good, fresh pecan kernels is to procure fresh nuts--those which have been kept over in cold-storage are good--and crack them at the time when they are needed. For the household, an ordinary pair of nut-crackers will answer, but they should be of a particular type. The jaws should be formed with sharp-cutting edges. NUT-CRACKERS. In the accompanying illustration, four kinds of nut-crackers are shown. The two at the right are reversible. The best pair is represented at the extreme left of the engraving. The bars are square, the grooves in them are curved inward leaving the teeth sharp and pointed out flush with the edge. [Illustration: _From American Nut Journal, Petersburg, Va._ FIG. 37. Nut Crackers of different types.] To remove the kernels without breaking, grasp the nut with the crackers as close to the end as possible, and gently but firmly apply sufficient pressure to force the sharp teeth of the crackers into the shell. Revolve the nut and repeat the operation until the end is marked with a ring of indentations. Then apply a little greater pressure to start a slight crack, and follow the crack around until the end of the shell drops off. Treat the opposite end in the same way. Next, place the nut lengthwise between the crackers, so they will grasp the side, having the backs of the two halves of the kernel, not the space between the halves, towards the bars. This must be emphasized, because, if pressure is applied at right angles to the edges of the halves instead of against their backs, the chances are that they will be broken when the shell is broken. Having the crackers in position, apply sufficient pressure to crack the shell. Shift the crackers a little to one side of the crack, apply pressure again and a piece of the shell breaks out. A few gentle squeezes will remove the remainder of the shell and the kernel drops out intact. A hand-power cracker, capable of quite efficient work, is manufactured by Thomas Mills & Bro., Philadelphia, Penn. It has a capacity of one hundred pounds per day, and is capable of giving ninety per cent. of perfect halves. For factory use, two machines, for extracting kernels at a rapid rate, have been invented, one by Mr. Robert E. Woodson, St. Louis, Mo., and the other by Mr. Grim, New York city. These make it possible to extract pecans in large quantities for commercial purposes. The nuts are fed into a hopper and the machine then takes care of them. In regard to the Woodson machine shown in the adjoining illustration, the inventor says that "in cracking one hundred pounds of nuts there were obtained 39-1/2 pounds of perfect halves and 3-1/2 pounds of broken pieces. This test shows 92 per cent. of perfect halves. I do not claim that this result may be obtained at all times and under all conditions, for the hardness of the shell and the dryness of the nuts make a difference in the results." Pecans which have become somewhat dry should be soaked in water over night. This renders them much more easily cracked. [Illustration: FIG. 38. Woodson's Power Kernel Extractor.] PECAN OIL. Oil extracted from almonds, peanuts, cocoanuts and other nuts is now used for various purposes, and at no distant time it is probable that pecan oil may also be placed on the market. Only the cheaper, inferior grades of nuts can be used in oil-making, as the larger and better quality of nuts are worth too much for dessert purposes. Ordinary nuts will run about fifty per cent. kernels, and these kernels analyze about seventy per cent. oil or fat. On this basis one hundred pounds would give approximately thirty-five pounds of oil. Of course the better grades of nuts will give sixty per cent. kernels, and would consequently yield more oil. Pecan oil might be used as a salad oil. It might be put to other culinary uses, as well as finding a possible place among medicinal oils. CHAPTER XVII. PECAN LITERATURE. But little has been written on the culture of the pecan. The following brief list of bulletins, articles or chapters in general works, comprises practically all that has appeared from the pens of American writers: Budd, J. L. and Hansen, N. E. The Hickory Nut; Pecan Propagation, in American Horticultural Manual, New York: John Wiley & Sons. Copyright 1902, 1904. Part I, pp. 301-303. ---- The Pecan, in American Horticultural Manual. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Copyright 1903; Part II, pp. 452-454. Burnette, F. H., Stubbs, Wm. C, Morgan, H. A. Pecans. Baton Rouge: Truth Book and Job Printing Office, 1902; Illustrated; pp. 847-884. Bulletin No. 69, Second Series, Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station. Corsa, W. P. Pecan, in Nut Culture in the United States. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1896. Illustrated; pp. 49-64. Bulletin Division Pomology, United States Department of Agriculture. Fuller, Andrew S. Hickory Nuts, In the Nut Culturist. New York: Orange Judd Company. Copyright 1896. Illustrated; pp. 147-202. Goff, E. S. The Pecan, in Lessons in Commercial Fruit Growing. Madison: University Co-Operative Association. Copyright 1902; pp. 110-114. Gossard, H. A. Insects of The Pecan. St. Augustine: The Record Company, 1905, Illustrated; pp. 279-320. Bulletin No. 79, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. Hansen, N. E. See Budd, J. L. Harcourt, Helen. The Pecan, in Florida Fruits and How to Raise Them. Revised and Enlarged Edition. Louisville: J. P. Morton & Co. Copyright 1886; pp. 207-214. Heighes, S. B. See Corsa, W. P. Herrick, Glenn W. Insects injurious to Pecans. Agricultural College, Miss.: Tucker Printing House, 1904. Illustrated; p. 42. Bulletin No. 86, Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station. Hume, H. Harold. Pecan Culture: a Preliminary Report. Jacksonville: H. & W. B. Drew Co., 1900. Illustrated; pp. 181-212. Bulletin No. 54, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. ---- Top-working Pecans. Gainesville: Hill Printing Co., 1901. Illustrated; pp. 357-380. Bulletin No. 57, Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. ---- Pecans, in Florida Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1900-1901. De Land: E. O. Painter & Co., 1901. Illustrated; pp. 77-84 Merrill, L. H. See Woods, Charles D. Morgan, H. A. See Burnette, F. H. Oliver, George W. Budding the Pecan. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1902. Illustrated; p. 18. Bulletin No. 30, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. Parry, John R. Pecan (Hicoria Pecan, etc.), in Nuts for Profit. Parry, N. J.: John R. Parry. Copyright 1897. Illustrated; pp. 93-118. Risien, E. E. Pecan Culture for Western Texas. San Saba: E. E. Risien. Copyright 1903-1904. Illustrated; pp. 6-55. Stuart Pecan Company. The Pecan and How to Grow It. Chicago: Woman's Temperance Publishing Co. Copyright 1893. Illustrated; pp. 9-80. Stubbs, William C. See Burnette, F. H. Taylor, William A. Pecan, in Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1893. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1894, pp. 295-296. ---- Pecan, in Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. New York: The Macmillan Company. Vol. III. Copyright 1901. Illustrated; pp. 1252-1256. ---- Pecans, in Yearbook, United States Department of Agriculture, 1904. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1905. Pls. 2; pp. 405-416. Van Deman, H. E. Nuts, in Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1891. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1892; p. 395. ---- The Pecan, in Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, 1890. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1890. Pls. 2; pp. 415-416. Wood, Wm. H. S. Pecans, in The American Fruit Culturist, by John J. Thomas. Twenty-first Edition. New York: William Wood & Co., 1903. Illustrated; pp. 449-453. Woods, Chas. D. and Merrill, L. H. Pecan (Hicoria pecan) "Food Analysis" In Nuts as Food. Orono, 1899; pp. 74-75. Bulletin No. 54, Maine Agricultural Experiment Station. INDEX. Acrobasis nebulella, 138 Analysis, 12 Annular budding, 78 Balantinus caryae, 146 Bogus trees, 99 Bordeaux Mixture, 133 Botany, 19 Broken trees, 118 Budd, J. L. publication by, 153 Budding, 78 Budding knives, 72-74 Bud-sticks, 77 Bud worms, 137 Burnette, F. H. publication by, 153 Care of top-worked trees, 87 Caseworms, 138 Catocalas, 140 Classification, 27 Chip-budding, 79-80 Cleft grafting, 80 Corsa, W. P. publication by, 153 Cross pollination, 23 Cultivation, 109 Cultivated range, 16 Curing, 124 Datana interrigma, 142 Diseases, 130 Elaphidion villosum, 144 Exports, 15 Fall webworm, 142 Family--Juglandaceæ, 20 Fertilization, 112 Fertilizers-- applying, 115 bearing trees, 114 nursery trees, 112 young trees, 114 Flowers, 22 Food value, 12 Fuller Andrew S. publication by, 153 Genus--Hicoria, 20 Goff, E. S. publication by, 153 Gossard, H. A. publication by, 153 Grading, 124 Grafting, 80 Grafting iron, 72 time, 77 wax, 74 Grapholitha caryae, 146 Hansen, N. E. publication by, 153 Harcourt, Helen publication by, 153 Heighes, S. B. publication by, 154 Herrick, G. W. publication by, 154 Hexagonal-- planting, 104 Hicoria, 20 Hicoria minima, 61 High-headed trees, 116 Hume, H. Harold publication by, 154 Humus, 109-110 Hybrid pecans, 57 Hyphantria cunea, 142 Imports, 15 Insects, 135 Judging pecans, 62 Kernels, 148 Laying out, 105 Leaf blight, 130 Literature, 153 Low-headed trees, 116 Marketing, 126 Merrill, L. H. publication by, 154 Morgan, H. A. publication by, 154 Native range, 16-21 Number per acre, 103 Nursery cultivation, 70 Nut-crackers, 14 Oak pruner, 144 Oil, 151 Oliver, G. W. publication by, 154 Oneideres, 143 Orchard crops, 110 Packages, 125 Parry, John H. cultivation by, 154 Patch budding, 78 Pecan botany, 19 caterpillar, 142 diseases, 130 Insects, 135 tree borer, 145 kernels, 148 oil, 151 outlook, 11 stocks, 68 varieties, 26 weevil, 146 Phosphoric acid, 113 Picking, 123 Planting-board, 107 Planting distances, 102 Planting nuts, 69 Planting systems, 103 Planting time, 102 Planting trees, 106 Planting Systems-- square, 104 Hexagonal, 104 Pollination, 22 Potash, 113 Proteopteryx deludana, 137 Pruning, 116 time, 117 Propagation, 66 Purchasing trees, 97 Planting trees, 102 Quicksand, 89 Rectangular planting, 104 Risien, E. E. publication by, 154 Root pruning, 119 Rosette, 132 Scab, 131 Scions, selection of, 75 Seedling trees, 66 Selection of varieties, 93 Sesia scitula, 145 Shuck worm, 146 Soils, 89 preparation, 91 Stocks, 68 Storing, 127 Storing seed nuts, 69 Stuart Pecan Company, publication by, 154 Stubbs, William Co. publication by, 154 Taproot, 120 Taylor, William A. publications by, 154 Top-working, 84 Twig girdler, 143 Van Deman, H. E. publication by, 155 Varieties-- Alba, 28 Alley, 28 Atlanta, 28 Bacon, 28 Bacon's Choice, 28 Bartow, 29 Beauty, 29 Belle, 29 Biediger, 29 Biloxi, 29 Black Jack, 29 Bolton, 29 Bourgeois, 55 Brackett, 30 Bradley, 30 Briden, 30 Bullets, 30 Capital, 30 Carman, 30 Castanera, 52 Centennial, 31 Century, 49 Chiquita, 31 Clark, 31 Colorado, 31 Columbia, 49 Columbian, 49 Curtis, 31 Curtis No. 2, 31 Curtis No. 3, 48 Curtis No. 5, 38 Daisy, 32 Dalzell, 32 Deimas, 33 Dewey, 33 De Witt, 34 De Witt Mammoth, 44 Domestic, 34 Duminie Mire, 55 Early Texan, 34 Egg, 34 Eggshell, 34 Eggshell, 35 Excelsior, 34 Extra Early, 34 Faust, 35 Favorita, 35 Floyd, 57 Franklin, 35 Frotscher, 35 Frotscher's Eggshell, 35 Georgia, 36 Georgia Giant, 36 Georgia Melon, 36 Giant, 37 Gonzales, 37 Graff, 37 Halbert, 37 Hamilton, 37 Harcourt, 37 Havens, 37 Hollis, 37 Hume, 38 Hybrids, 57 Ideal, 38 Idlewild, 38 Jacocks, 38 Jacocks' Mammoth, 38 James' Giant, 39 James No. 1, 39 James' Paper-shell, 39 James' Perfection, 47 Jewett, 40 Jumbo, 40 Kate Schaifer, 50 Kennedy, 40 Kentucky Gem, 40 Kidd, 40 Kincaid, 41 Krack-Ezy, 41 Ladyfinger, 41 Lamar, 42 Lewis, 42 Longfellow, 42 Louisiana, 42 Majestic, 35 Mammoth, 49 McCallister, 57 Magnum Bonum, 43 Mammoth, 43 Mantura, 43 Mexican Paper-shell, 44 Meyers, 44 Monarch, 44 Money, 44 Money-maker, 45 Moore, 45 Morris, 45 Nelson, 46 Nigger, 46 Nussbaumer, 58 Olivier, 35 Pabst, 46 Pan-American, 46 Paragon, 55 Pearl, 47 Pegram, 47 Perfection, 47 Petite, 47 Pooshee, 57 Post, 47 Post's Select, 37-47 President, 47 Primate, 47 Pride of the Coast, 40 Randall, 48 Repton, 48 Ribera, 48 Risien, 48 Robson, 48 Rome, 49 Russell, 49 Russell No. 1, 50 Russell No. 2, 50 San Saba, 50 Schaifer, 50 Schley, 51 Schneck, 59 Senator, 52 Senator Money, 44 Southern Beauty, 55 Southern Giant, 49 Sovereign, 52 Steckler's Mammoth, 43 Stevens, 52 Stuart, 52 Success, 53 Sweetmeat, 54 Texas, 54 Texas Prolific, 54 Thomas, 54 Turkey Egg, Jr., 54 Turkey Egg, Sr., 54 Turner, 54 Twentieth Century, 49 Valsies, 55 Van Deman, 55 Westbrook, 61 Willingham, 56 Young, 56 Varieties recommended, 93 Alabama, 95 Florida, 95 Louisiana, 96 Mississippi, 95 North Carolina, 94 South Carolina, 94 Texas, 96 Virginia, 91 Veneer Shield-budding, 78 Waxed cloth, 75 Weevil, 146 Whip-grafting, 81 Woods. Charles D. publication by, 155 Woods, W. H. S. publication by, 155 NUT CULTURE IS THE Most Profitable Industry on the Farm.... THE AMERICAN FRUIT AND NUT JOURNAL IS AUTHORITY ON THE CULTURE OF ALL VARIETIES OF NUTS.... Write for a sample copy. American Fruit and Nut Journal, PETERSBURG, VIRGINIA. TWO VALUABLE PUBLICATIONS FOR $1.00. * * * * * THE PECAN AND ITS CULTURE, AND THE AMERICAN FRUIT AND NUT JOURNAL FOR ONE YEAR, WILL BE SENT TO ANY ADDRESS FOR $1.00. Sample copy of Journal upon request. American Fruit and Nut Journal, PETERSBURG, VIRGINIA. 
28594	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) THE PEANUT PLANT. ITS CULTIVATION AND USES. "_Every species of plant requires certain physical conditions for its growth and perfection; and these may be general or special. If general, then it will be widely diffused; but if special, its distribution will be limited._" BY B. W. JONES, OF VIRGINIA. ILLUSTRATED. [Illustration] NEW YORK: ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, 1902 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by the ORANGE JUDD COMPANY, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. PREFACE. This little work has been prepared mainly for those who have no practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the Peanut. Its directions, therefore, are intended for the beginner, and are such as will enable any intelligent person who has followed farming, to raise good crops of Peanuts, although he may have never before seen the growing plant. The writer has confined himself to a recital of the more important details, leaving the minor points to be discovered by the farmer himself. If the reader should think these pages devoid of vivacity, let him remember that we have treated of an every-day subject in an every-day style. The interest in the theme will increase when the beginner has pocketed the returns from his first year's crop. Until then, we leave him to plod his way through the details, trusting that the great Giver of the harvest will bless his labors, and amply reward his toils in this new field. B. W. J. WARREN PLACE, SURRY COUNTY, VA., 1885. CONTENTS. PAGE. CHAPTER I.--DESCRIPTION. Origin.--Natural History.--Varieties.--Possible Range.--Analysis. 5 CHAPTER II.--PLANTING. Soil, and Mode of Preparation.--Seed.--Time and Mode of Planting.--Fertilizers.--Replanting.--Moles, and Other Depredators.--Critical Period. 14 CHAPTER III.--CULTIVATION. First Plowing and Weeding.--Subsequent Workings.--Implements.-- When Cultivation should Cease.--Insect Enemies.--Effects of Cold.--Effects of Drouth.--Appearance at this Period. 27 CHAPTER IV.--HARVESTING. When to begin Harvesting.--Mode of Harvesting.--Why Cured in the Field.--Depredators.--Detached Peanuts.--Saving Seed Peanuts. 37 CHAPTER V.--MARKETING. Picking the Peanuts.--Price paid Pickers.--Cleaning and Bagging.--Peanut "Factories."--The best Markets.--Picking Machines. 46 CHAPTER VI--USES. Peanut Oil.--Roasted Peanuts.--Peanut Candy.--Peanut Coffee.-- Peanut Chocolate.--Peanut Bread.--Peanut Soap.--Peanuts as a Food for Stock.--Peanut Hay. 55 APPENDIX. A. Statistics. 65 B. Costs. 67 C. The Peanut Garden of America. 67 THE PEANUT PLANT; ITS CULTIVATION AND USES. CHAPTER I. DESCRIPTION. =Origin.=--The native country of the Peanut (_Arachis hypogæa_) is not definitely ascertained. Like many other extensively cultivated plants, it has not been found in a truly wild state. Some botanists regard the plant as a native of Africa, and brought to the New World soon after its discovery. Sloane, in his history of Jamaica, states that peanuts formed a part of the provisions taken by the slave ships for the support of the negroes on the voyage, and leaves it to be inferred that the plant was introduced in this manner. De Candolle, in _Géographie Botanique Raisonnée_, and his latter work on _L'Origine des Plantes Cultivées_, strongly inclines to the American origin of the Peanut. The absence of any mention of the plant by early Egyptian and Arabic writers, and the fact that there is no name for it in Sanscrit and Bengalese, are regarded as telling against its Oriental origin. Moreover, there are six other species of _Arachis_, natives of Brazil, and Bentham and Hooker, in their _Genera Plantarum_, ask if the plant so generally grown in warm countries may not be a cultivated form of a Brazilian species. If, as seems probable, the Peanut is really a native of America, then this Continent has contributed to the agricultural world five plants that have exerted, and will continue to exert, an immense influence on the industries and commerce of the world. These are: the Potato, Cotton, Tobacco, Indian Corn, and the Peanut. Of these five, the Peanut, the last to come into general and prominent notice, is destined to rival some of the others in importance. Whatever may have been its origin, the Peanut plant has gradually made its way over an extended area of the warmer parts of both the Old and New World, and in North America has gained a permanent foot-hold in the soil of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Nor has it yet reached its ultimate limits, for cultivation and acclimation will inure it to a sterner climate, until it becomes an important crop in latitudes considerably further north than Virginia. This is indicated by its rapid spread within the past few years. Remaining long in comparative obscurity, it was not until a recent period that the Peanut gained prominence as an agricultural and commercial staple, but since it fairly started, its progress has been rapid and sure. =Natural History.=--There are some peculiarities about the Peanut plant that make it interesting to the naturalist. Its habit of clinging close to the soil, the closing together of the leaves at sunset, or on the approach of a storm, the beautiful appearance of a field of it when full grown, and the remarkable wart-like excrescences found upon the roots, are some of its more notable characteristics. Its striking preference for a calcareous soil is another of its peculiarities, the Peanut producing more and better crops on this kind of soil than on any other. The Peanut belongs to the Natural Order _Leguminosæ_, or pod-bearing plants, and this particular member of it is as unlike all the rest with which we are acquainted, as can well be conceived. No other grows so recumbent upon the soil, and none but this produces seed under ground. The botanical name of the Peanut is _Arachis hypogæa_. The origin of the generic name _arachis_ is somewhat obscure; it is said to come from _a_, privative, and _rachis_, a branch, meaning having no branches, which is not true of this plant. The specific appellation, _hypogæa_, or "under-ground," describes the manner in which the pods grow. The following is a partially technical description of the plant: Root annual, branched, but not fibrous, yellowish, bitter, and warty; Stem procumbent, spreading, much-branched, somewhat hairy towards the extremities; Leaves compound, leaflets obovate, mucronate, margin entire, ciliate when young, smooth and almost leathery with age, leaves closing at night and in rainy weather; Flowers papilionaceous, yellow, borne upon the end of an axillary peduncle. After flowering, the forming-pod is, by the elongation of its stalk, pushed into the soil, beneath which it grows and ripens; Legume, or pod indehiscent, woody and veiny, one to four-seeded; Seed, with a reddish coat, the embryo with two large, fleshy cotyledons, and a very short, nearly straight, radicle. Figure 1 represents a portion of the Peanut plant. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--PORTION OF THE PEANUT PLANT, showing how the minute pods from above-ground flowers are forced into the soil to grow and ripen.] =Varieties.=--While no botanical varieties of _Arachis hypogæa_ have been described, its long cultivation in different countries in unlike soils and climates, has produced several cultural varieties. Taking the Virginia Peanut as the typical form, there may be named as differing from it, the North Carolina Peanut, having very small but solid and heavy pods, that weigh twenty-eight pounds to the bushel. The Tennessee Peanut is about the size of the Virginia variety, but has a seed of a much redder color and less agreeable flavor. There is a Bunch variety, that does not spread out like a mat over the soil, but grows upright like the common field pea. This last kind has been raised to some extent in Virginia, but has never become popular with planters, and is fast passing out of cultivation. It is possible that the Bunch Peanut is a representative of the plant in its wild state. It produces fewer seeds and less vine than any other kind. The flat or spreading Peanut shows a tendency to sport in this direction, and in any large field of peanuts, quite a number of plants will be found that have the bunch form, and such are always barren or seedless hills. The small-podded, or North Carolina Peanut, is not at all popular with pickers, because it takes a great many more to make a basketful, and, unless they are paid an extra price for picking this sort, they cannot make as good wages. Nor do our planters seem to like it very well, finding it more trouble to handle than the larger variety. Hence it is but little cultivated in Virginia. The Peanut in its travels has also acquired a variety of names, such as ground-pea, earth-nut, goober[1] or guber, and pindar. Also "currency," "cash," "credit," and other expressive titles. Of all these names, "Peanut" is the most generally used, but Ground-pea would be the more descriptive name. =Possible Range.=--From a somewhat careful study of the climatic requirements of the Peanut plant, and of the isotherms of summer temperature, we are satisfied that it would thrive as far north as the northern limit of the zone of the vine. This for the United States, as delineated in Mitchell's Physical Geography, starts on the Pacific Coast in the latitude of British Columbia, turns suddenly south along the Cordilleras to Colorado, then trends as suddenly northward to the northern limits of Iowa, strikes eastwardly along a line to the south of the great lakes, and enters the Atlantic in the vicinity of Cape Cod. If our view is correct, the Peanut will thrive on any suitable soil within the limits of the United States lying to the south of this line. This would make the cultivation of the Peanut possible in by far the greater part of the entire country. In fact, there is no doubt but that it may be grown successfully wherever Indian corn will thrive luxuriantly. Any section having a growing season of five months exempt from frost, may raise the Peanut. This gives the crop a much wider range than has been thought possible. It does not require a long period of extreme heat to mature it. The seeds are mostly formed in the cooler weather of the latter part of summer and the first of autumn. Planted in June, cultivated until August or a little later, and harvested the last of September, it can be perfected in four months, though the Virginia planter takes five months for it. Any good calcareous soil, west of New Jersey and southward, that is not too elevated, will grow the Peanut. =Analysis.=--This, perhaps, is not a matter of much practical importance to the planter. The best peanut soil and the proper fertilizer had been found out before an analysis of the plant had been made. Still there are some advantages in knowing what are the prominent elements that enter into the composition of this, or any other, cultivated plant, and an analysis is accordingly given. An analysis made by Doctor Thomas Antisell, chemist to the Department of Agriculture at Washington, and published in the Report of that Department about the year 1869, gives the following as the composition of the Peanut plant: In one hundred parts of the husk and nut taken together Water 2.60 Albuminous, fibrous matter and starch 79.26 Oil 16.00 Ash 2.00 Loss .14 ------ 100.00 In one hundred parts of the husk and seed separated: _Seed._ _Husk._ Moisture 2.51 2.61 Albuminous matter and farina 79.71 traces. Cellulose 85.48 Ash 1.77 11.90 Oil 16.00 ----- ----- 99.99 99.99 "The ash of the seed," it was stated by the same authority, "consists of salts wholly soluble in water, composed of the phosphates of alkalies, with traces of alkaline, chlorides, and sulphates. The ash of the husk differs, in consisting chiefly of common salt, phosphate of lime and magnesia." The analysis of the ash of the Peanut, furnished to the _American Agriculturist_, by H. B. Cornwall, Professor of Analytical Chemistry in the John C. Green School of Science, College of New Jersey, Princeton, and published in that Journal for July, 1880, gives the following as the mineral elements of this plant: PER ONE HUNDRED PARTS OF ASH. Silica 1.06 Potash 44.73 Soda 14.60 Lime 1.71 Magnesia 12.65 Phosphoric acid 17.64 Sulphuric acid 2.53 Chlorine 0.15 ----- 95.07 In this analysis neither the carbonic acid nor carbon were determined. It was further stated that the kernels yielded 2.08 per cent. of ash. These analyses, the one of the ash, and the other of the seed and husk in their natural state, are sufficiently full for the purpose in view, and serve admirably to show the principal elements required in the growth of the Peanut plant. We see that albuminous matter and starch form a very large per cent., over three-fourths, of the seed. Of course an article so rich in fat-forming ingredients, must be well suited for the food of man or beast. This explains why hogs fed on peanuts take on fat so readily. Nothing will change the appearance of a poor hog sooner than a diet of peanuts. The amount of oil in the seed--sixteen per cent., makes the Peanut one of the best oil-producing plants in the world. Of the mineral constituents, potash forms by far the largest part--44.73 per cent. Soda, magnesia, and phosphoric acid also enter quite largely into the composition of this plant. It will be noticed that common salt plays some part in the make-up of the Peanut. Some may wonder at the small amount of lime reported to be present in the ash. This may be explained by stating that lime is not _per se_ a manure, but a powerful chemical agent when applied to the soil, reducing inert matter into plant food. Lime appears to be the driving-wheel in the laboratory of the soil. Its presence is essential, but it does not do all the work itself. Of marl, the best fertilizer yet discovered for the Peanut, the principal ingredient of value, is carbonate of lime. Some of the Virginia marls range as high as seventy and eighty per cent. in carbonate of lime. This form of lime is very valuable for all agricultural purposes. Like its more caustic relative, it plays the part of a solvent and liberator, refines and vitalizes the soil, and causes other ingredients to perform their part in building up the framework of plants. FOOTNOTE: [1] While "goober" may be one of the names of the Peanut in some localities, the plant so-called in Georgia is _Amphicarpæa monoica_, a native leguminous plant with two kinds of flowers, one set always subterranean, and the other above ground. The under-ground flowers bear woody, rounded, one-seeded pods, with a seed closely resembling a bean.--ED. CHAPTER II. PLANTING. =Soil, and Mode of Preparation.=--A warm soil is required by the Peanut. A light, porous soil in which sand predominates, but not too sandy, warm and dry, and yet not too dry, but containing some moisture, and open to capillary circulation, suits the Peanut best. In all cases the soil most suitable for the Peanut must contain a certain amount of calcareous constituents. The color of the soil should be gray, with few or no traces of iron to stain the pods. As a rule, the brightest pods bring the most money, and as the color of the pods is always influenced by that of the soil in which they grow, it becomes a matter of importance to select that which is of the right description. Land of the above nature and color may be regarded as first-class for this crop. But let it be distinctly borne in mind, that unless it contains a goodly per-centage of lime in some form, in an available state, no land will produce paying crops of pods, although it may yield large and luxuriant vines. Of all the forms of lime, that supplied by the marls of the seaboard section appears to be the best. But any soil that can be put into a friable condition, and kept so during the period of cultivation, will produce salable peanuts, provided it contains enough lime to insure solid pods. If it is known that a piece of land will produce sound corn, at the rate of from five to ten barrels per acre, the planter may rest satisfied, without further experiment, that it will yield from forty to seventy-five or eighty bushels of peanuts. As the cultivation extends, and more land is needed for this crop, much of it is being put upon clayey soil, and when well cultivated, it generally produces heavy peanuts. Indeed, more pounds per acre may be grown upon some stiff lands than on any light soil, however calcareous. But clayey land, or such as is dark or tenacious, will impart a stain or dark color to the pods that is objectionable to buyers, and hence soils of this nature are generally avoided. A tenacious soil is also colder and more inert than a light one during the earlier part of the summer, and as the Peanut plant requires a rather long term of warm weather to insure full growth and maturity, a warmer and quicker soil is preferable. Buyers, however, are not now quite so particular as formerly in regard to color, and hence there is more inducement to plant on any ground that will yield good, solid peanuts, and it is being more frequently done. But the actual or prospective peanut planter, who has an ash-colored or grayish soil, which is sandy and non-adhesive, is fortunate. If he will keep it well limed and trashed, or else rotate every fourth or fifth year with the Southern Field Pea, or other green crop, and marl, he will have land that will continue to produce paying crops of the brightest and most salable peanuts. There is an abundance of good peanut land all along the Atlantic seaboard, from New Jersey to Florida. Doubtless there is much of it in the Mississippi Valley, even as far north as the lake region, and on the Pacific coast from Oregon southward. There is no more reason for confining the cultivation of the Peanut to the narrow belts at present occupied, than there is for limiting tobacco to the States of North Carolina and Virginia. The quantity of lime or marl to use at one application depends very much on the nature of the soil and the amount of vegetable matter it contains. Generally, fifty bushels of lime, or one hundred and fifty bushels of marl is a safe application, but if the soil is quite thin, and contains but little vegetable mould, more than this at one time would be attended with risk. The safer plan is, to make several small annual applications of both marl, and vegetable matter, continuing this until a hundred and fifty bushels of lime, or two hundred and fifty, or three hundred bushels of marl have been applied. After this, no more calcareous matter will be needed in fifteen or twenty years. Land will bear large quantities of marl with perfect safety, if kept well stocked with some vegetable matter to subdue its caustic effects. But as most of the best peanut soil is deficient in this respect, the planter should begin cautiously, using small quantities until he has deepened his soil and supplied it with vegetable mould by trashing the land or turning in green crops. In choosing land for a peanut crop, some attention should be paid to the previous crop. The Peanut requires a clean soil, one clear of roots, brush, stones, or rubbish of any kind, and hence it should follow some hoed crop, such as corn, cotton, or tobacco. In Virginia, corn land is generally preferred, and, as in the tide-water section, much of this land has been heavily marled, it commonly produces well. The preparation of the soil for the Peanut is the same as for corn, or any similar crop, except that more pains should be, and generally are taken, to get it in fine and mellow tilth. If it breaks up rough and turfy, as much land previously in corn is apt to do, it should be harrowed or dragged until it is fine. Generally, Virginia planters do not plow quite so deep for peanuts as they do for corn. This practice the writer believes to be unsound. Land should be plowed deep at the outset for all crops, whatever their nature or manner of growth. Deep plowing is a corrective of dry weather, and as drouth sometimes tells heavily on the Peanut plant, as was the case in the season of 1883, it is always well to plow deep, and give the moisture of the subsoil a chance to rise upward, and reach the roots during a dry spell. The formation of a fine, mellow seed bed, is all the preparation a peanut soil requires, previous to planting time, apart from the application of manures, which is spoken of elsewhere. =The Seed.=--With the peanut crop, more than with almost any other, good seed is a matter of paramount importance. The seed sometimes fails to germinate well; before this fact can be discovered, and the ground re-seeded, unless the first planting was made quite early, the best season for planting will have passed, and the crop planted late will never be so good as it might have been. On the other hand, a very early planting doubles the risk of failure, in fact almost challenges failure by committing the seed to a soil too cold for germination and a quick growth. It is highly important, then, to have good seed, and to wait until both weather and soil are favorable for speedy germination and growth. In order to determine whether the seed will germinate well or not, let the planter begin to test them early in the spring. Let him take a dozen or two kernels that appear to be in quality a fair average of the whole lot of seed on hand, place them in a tumbler with some dampened cotton, or a piece of sponge, and set the tumbler in a warm place, where the heat is uniform, and high enough to start the germ in a few days. In a day or two, if the seeds are good, they will begin to swell, and the embryo plant will soon begin to grow. Thus, according to the number of seeds that have germinated out of the number tested, the planter can calculate the probable per-centage of good seed. A glass of peanuts growing thus in dampened cotton, presents an interesting study, and is a pretty ornament for the sitting room. But the planter must not rest satisfied with one trial. As soon as the out-of-door temperature will admit of it, he should try quite a number of the seeds in the open ground. Selecting a warm, sunny spot, he should plant from fifty to one hundred kernels, and shelter the place as much as possible from the cold winds. If these germinate well, the seed may be relied upon as good, and no further trial need be made. It is in this way that the Virginia planter tests his seed every season. About the first of April there is a great testing of the seed peanuts, and, although nearly every planter endeavors to save his own seed, the quantity of doubtful seed is generally great enough to cause a brisk demand for good seed at advanced prices. The method of saving seed peanuts will be given in a subsequent chapter. Some weeks before planting time, the Virginia farmer, who plants from fifty to a hundred bushels of peanuts, starts about having them shelled and assorted, preparatory to planting. This must be done with care, and females are mostly employed to perform this work. The pods are popped open with the fingers and thumb, care being taken not to split or bruise the kernel; all shrivelled and dark colored kernels are rejected. After they are shelled, the seed must be put into bags or baskets, a small quantity in each parcel, and set where there is a free circulation of air, until wanted for planting. If a large quantity is bulked together after being shelled, or if put in a close box or barrel, even in small quantities, they are liable to heat, and be prevented from germinating. This fact is the result of some costly experience on the part of many planters. Thus it becomes necessary to handle the seed with great care and circumspection throughout. From a bushel to a bushel and a half of peanuts in the hull, or pod, is estimated to be enough to plant one acre of ground, the quantity depending on the quality of the seed and the distance apart they are to be planted. =Time of Planting.=--In Virginia, the first twenty days in May is regarded as, in the main, the most suitable time for planting. Some plant as early as the last week in April, and the seasons frequently favor this early start, and the crop does well. More, however, plant in June than in April, and sometimes planting is delayed until the middle or last of June. On warm and dry land, there is no great risk in planting the first week in May, but on colder land, the planter should wait until the ground has been warmed by the sun, say the latter part of the same month. If the farmer has reason to hope for a week or ten days of mild, fair weather, he may risk a planting quite early, as in that time the seed ought to germinate, and come up sufficiently to make it sure that it will grow. Once up, the plant will hold its own, and though cold rains or winds may retard its growth, and cause it to turn yellow, it will start anew with the first spell of sunny weather, and rapidly change color to its normal green. The above dates apply to the latitude of Virginia. In the far south, peanut planting begins early in April, while north of Virginia, the first half of June would, in most seasons, be quite early enough to commit the seed to the earth. It should not be done anywhere until all danger from frost is passed for the season. A very slight frost will destroy the Peanut. =How to Plant.=--I come now to consider the mode of planting. Here no very inflexible rules can be given. Practice varies greatly, almost every planter differing more or less from his brother planters. The chief points are, to get the seed into the ground at suitable distances apart both ways, to have the seed, after it is planted, raised slightly above the general level, and to have the soil so free from clods that there will be nothing to hinder the young plant from pushing through after it has started. Any mode of planting that will secure these ends will effect the purpose. If the ground has been once plowed in the early spring, let it be plowed again only a few days before planting time, and if at all rough, or cloddy, have it harrowed until in fine tilth. When ready to plant, draw furrows the same as for corn, two and a half or three feet apart. If the land is fresh and strong, and never before in peanuts, make the rows at least three feet apart. After a year or two on the same ground, peanut vines will not grow so large as at first, and need not be so far apart, either from row to row, or from hill to hill. When the land is thin, some plant as near as twenty-seven inches from row to row, and twelve inches from hill to hill. If any fertilizer is to be used, let it be put in the furrow before the ridge is formed; a man or boy following the plow and spreading the fertilizer by hand. A small ridge is then formed by lapping two furrows over the drill with the turn plow, after which the knocker and dotter follow, one leveling the ridge, and the other dotting the row by making little depressions in the soil the proper distance apart for the seeds. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--THE KNOCKER AND DOTTER COMBINED.] =The Knocker and Dotter.=--Sometimes the knocker and dotter are combined in one, and it is withal a unique implement. Always home-made, it partakes of all the native roughness and varied ingenuity of the Southern planter. The engraving, figure 2, will illustrate the mode of constructing this implement. Two pieces of timber are sawed from a log to serve as wheels, such wood being selected as does not split easily. The diameter of the wheel is made the same as the desired distance between the hills, and three wooden pins are inserted equi-distant in the circumference, so that the wheels will make three dots, or signs, for planting, at each revolution. These wheels are connected by an axle, and set the same distance apart the rows are to be asunder. Two shafts are pinned to the axle, and braced in front of the wheels to keep them steady. A piece of heavy scantling, or a log of wood, six inches in diameter, is secured to the under side of the shafts just in front of the wheels. This is the knocker, and serves to level the ridge before the wheels. Properly adjusted, it does beautiful work, and leaves a flat, smooth ridge, in fine condition for the seed. The wheels pass along on the leveled ridge, making the dots, as shown in figure 2. Handles are fixed to the implement to enable the plowman to keep it in proper place, and for convenience in turning. One horse is fastened to this implement, and two rows are prepared for planting at the same time. This utensil would be troublesome to use in an orchard, or on stumpy ground. Peanuts, however, should always be planted on open ground clear of all impediments. Instead of the knocker and dotter combined, many planters omit the wheels, and make a separate implement with one wheel and a handle, to work by hand, as represented in figure 3. This can be run among trees and stumps. It resembles a wheelbarrow without the body. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--THE DOTTER.] Hands--women, children, or men, follow the dotter, dropping a seed in each mark or depression, and carefully covering it with the foot, by pressing enough soil into the hole to just fill it. The holes are made one and a half to two inches deep, and the hands are cautioned not to get the seed covered deeper than that. One inch is deep enough to plant, if the soil is moist, but if quite dry the seed may be put deeper. Proceeding in this way, covering first with one foot and then with the other, the planters get on quite rapidly, although the hills are so near together. The planting is not at all tedious after one gets the knack of it, and is light and pleasant work. Some planters put two kernels instead of one in each hill, to insure a stand, but this practice increases the cost considerably, and is by no means general. After the seeds are planted they are very slightly, if at all, above the common level. In a week or ten days from the time of planting, the seeds will begin to heave or crack the ground, which shows that the germ has started, and greatly relieves the anxiety of the planter. Then, by counting the number of signs in a hundred hills, the farmer readily calculates what kind of a stand he will probably have. =Fertilizers.=--We have already intimated that a calcareous soil is indispensable to successful Peanut culture. If the soil is not calcareous by nature, it must be made so artificially. Hence the proper fertilizer to use is one that contains a large per cent. of lime in some of its forms, as the carbonate, the phosphate, the nitrate, or the sulphate, or the chloride of calcium. Recently, the sulphate of lime (gypsum), has been employed, even on limed or marled land, and its use has been attended with good results. Animal and nitrogenous manures are not suited to the crop. Such fertilizers produce a heavy growth of vines, but there will be no full, solid pods unless lime in some form is also present. Marl has been found to be the one specific fertilizer for the Peanut plant--better than any other form of lime; and the chief element of value in marl has been shown to be the carbonate of lime. Some Virginia marls contain as high as seventy-five or eighty per cent. of the carbonate, and all of them range over twenty-five or thirty per cent. Now, marl is plentiful and cheap all along the Atlantic seaboard, from New Jersey to Florida, the beds lying side by side of, and intersecting, the very land that is the best adapted to the Peanut--a rare and fortunate coincidence, that planters are learning to fully appreciate. And were it not that the New Jersey land-owner finds it more profitable to raise fruits and vegetables for the two great cities that lie on either hand of him, even he would find the Peanut to be a paying crop. With his warm, light sand and green marl, he could easily raise them. I mention this as one of the possibilities of the Peanut, though not likely to be realized for the reason named. =Replanting.=--In about two weeks from planting, if the weather has been mild, the young plants should be large enough to show where replanting is necessary. The planter goes along the row, making slight depressions with his heel at all the missing hills, drops a pea therein, and covers it with the foot, the same way as at the first. Instead of making depressions with the heel, some use a long stake, an inch or two in diameter, to the lower end of which is affixed a piece of plank, fastened two inches from the end, and four or five inches long (fig. 4). This is used for punching the holes, and the piece of plank near the end prevents it from making the impression too deep. This is another of the inventions of the Virginia Peanut-planter; so true is it that "necessity is the mother of invention," a new crop calls for new devices for its successful and profitable cultivation. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--STAKE.] In replanting, it is well to put two or more kernels to the hill, as the season will be getting late, and no time should be lost in securing a good stand. There can be no subsequent replanting with any profit. =Moles and other Depredators.=--The Peanut-planter has to contend with many enemies. In many cases moles are exceedingly destructive to the planted seed, burrowing along the rows, and eating the seed, hill by hill. Often raccoons, foxes, and squirrels grabble them up. And everywhere the larger birds, such as crows, doves, and partridges come in for a share of the seed, and annoy and hinder the farmer very much. There is no remedy but ceaseless vigilance. The planter must go armed at every turn to protect his crop. Sometimes planters tar the seed to prevent the moles, etc., from destroying them. It perhaps has some tendency to check the depredations, but does not prevent them entirely. Coal tar is oftenest used for the purpose, a half pint being enough to smear a bushel of seed. The seeds are afterwards rolled in dry earth to prevent adhesion and trouble in planting. Traps, guns, and scarecrows are resorted to with varying success, but if the depredators are numerous, the planter is generally the vanquished party. =The Critical Period.=--The first four or five weeks after the planting of this crop is its most critical period, and nothing but a good stand and the approach of warm weather will relieve the planter of his anxiety. At the first, many fears are reasonably entertained that the seed will not germinate well. And even should a pretty fair per-centage of the seed come up, cold and rainy weather may still seriously retard the growth of the plants, or the numerous depredators that have been named may so far reduce the number of hills as to greatly curtail the yield per acre. The very young Peanut is among the tenderest of plants, and a very slight mishap will serve to destroy or permanently injure it. Several days of cold weather at this period will make the struggling plants look pale and sickly, and if warm suns are too long delayed, many plants will fail altogether. Backward springs are a great drawback in the cultivation of this crop, and cause many farmers to delay planting until it is certain warm weather cannot be many days off. If the planter could always be sure of his seed, this would be the better plan, but if these late plantings fail to come up well, the season is too far advanced for replanted seed to make a crop. Further north than Virginia, however, it would, we think, be decidedly better to put off planting until both soil and air are warm enough to insure quick germination, and then, instead of replanting the missing hills with Peanuts, plant beans or field peas instead. If the planter can get through the first month successfully, he lays aside his fears, and enters upon his work with renewed hope and energy. To a recital of this work--the work of cultivation, we now invite the reader's attention. CHAPTER III. CULTIVATION. =First Plowing and Weeding.=--Usually, the cultivation of the Peanut begins by first siding the rows with a turn-plow, small mould-board attached, by which the soil is thrown from the plants, and lapped into a small ridge in the middle of the balk. Care is taken to run the plow quite near to the plants, so as to leave as little as possible for the hoe to do. The hoes follow the plow, removing the grass between the hills, if any, and loosening the soil about the plants. Sometimes, however, in case the plants begin to get quite grassy very early in the season, the sides of the ridges are first scraped off with the hoe, the operator moving backward, and clearing off one side at a time. This removes the grass pretty well, but does not loosen the soil about the plants. If this method is pursued, the plow should be put on in a week from that time, to break the hard crust that will have been formed, and to let in the air and heat to the roots of the plants. If the first plan is followed, the missing hills may be replanted, if the former replanting has had time to come up, but otherwise the ground about the missing hills should not be disturbed. This, however, should depend upon the time at which the weeding begins. If very late, it is useless to replant. The time for the first weeding must depend somewhat on the nature of the soil and the quantity of grass that may have sprung up since planting. Usually the first working should begin by the time the plants are two weeks old, but if the land is mellow and there is but little grass, the work may be put off a week longer. But if rains have occurred and a crust has formed, and especially if grass is coming on rapidly, the planter should not wait for the plants to attain a certain age and size, but should proceed to work the crop as soon as the plants are clearly out of the ground, and have put forth one or two branches. Any practical farmer who knows how to plow and weed young corn, will not be likely to err very far in working a crop of peanuts. The operation is simple enough, the two points being to clear away the grass and make the soil fine and loose around the plants. Any plan of working that will secure these ends, will accomplish the purpose. =Subsequent Workings.=--The second plowing may be done with a cultivator, running twice in the row. This will level the ridge in the middle of the balk, make the soil loose and fine, and bring the loose earth up close to the plants, which will make easy and nice work for the hands with the hoes unless there is a great deal of grass. The second plowing and weeding is the most important working the crop receives, and it is highly important that it be done well. By this time (last of June), the days are long and hot, the grass everywhere is growing apace, and the Peanut must be kept growing too. The plants have now attained a size ranging from that of a saucer to that of a breakfast plate, and there will be some hand-picking of grass necessary, because some of it will be found growing too near the plants to be cut away with the hoe. If there is very little grass, the work goes on smoothly enough, the hoes proceed quite rapidly, three hands keeping up with one plow, and finishing about two acres a day. The third plowing may be given with a shovel or cotton-plow, or with the cultivator, again running twice in the row. The hoes need not follow at this plowing, but may wait until the fourth plowing, done usually toward the middle or last of July, or about the time the vines are a foot in diameter, and are sending down their peduncles, or stems, on which the young pods are forming. The plants begin to blossom by the first of July or before, and continue to flower for more than a month. The pods begin to form very soon after the flower appears, and by the time of the last weeding great care must be taken not to cut the stems. For this reason the hoes cannot proceed as fast as at the last weeding, and if there is much grass growing up through the vines to be hand picked, this working is tedious and laborious enough, and tires to the utmost the patience and endurance of the laborer. In fact, this is the worst period in the cultivation of the peanut crop. The weather is hot, close, and enervating; the frequent stooping and picking makes it doubly laborious; and, on account of the size the vines have attained, the plow must necessarily leave a wider surface for the hoe to go over. All this makes greatly against the hoe hands. It is no wonder, then, that, with laborers, many of whom are disposed to shirk their duty, the last working is too often poorly and inefficiently done. With more reliable labor, such as is to be had in the Northern and border States, better success would be easily attainable. The third weeding is the last working with the hoe that the crop receives, and next to the last usually given it with the plow. The Virginia planter, as a rule, stops weeding by the first of August, or as soon as the vines have well met along the row, and have sent down a goodly number of young pods. If there is any subsequent removal of grass, it is done by picking it out by hand, in order not to interfere with the pod stems. But after the last weeding, say in a week or ten days, one more plowing is usually given, generally with the cultivator or shovel-plow, run once in the row. This throws the soil up under the extremities of the vines, leaving the row of plants on a nice flat bed and a water furrow in the middle of the balk. The reader will observe that the cultivation required for the Peanut is such as will keep the soil mellow and loose on the surface and clear of grass, especially about the vines or plants. Any method of weeding and plowing that will secure these ends, will serve the purpose. Accordingly, there is a considerable diversity of practice in this particular, both as to the mode of plowing, times of working the crop, and implements used. The cultivation, however, is as easy and simple as that commonly bestowed on Indian corn or beans, but must be a little more thorough and painstaking. That is all. None need shrink from planting this crop through any apprehension that they will not work it properly. The three essential points are: keep the soil loose, the grass down, and do no harm to the young pods as they are forming on the vine. =Implements.=--This topic has been, in a measure, anticipated, allusion having already been made to the implements to be used in the cultivation of this crop. A few additional remarks, however, may not be out of place. The weeders should be armed with the best steel hoes, with factory-made helves of ash, light and slightly flexible. The superiority of this hoe--usually called the "goose-neck hoe" in Virginia--over the old style of weeding hoe, with the heavy and stiff home-made helve, cannot be estimated, except by those who have tried both. The same hand can perform an eighth more labor in a day with the light steel hoe, and do it better, and with more ease to himself. The "goose-neck" will last two or three seasons, costs but little more than the other kind, comes ready for work, and is, therefore, very cheap. The blades should be kept sharp by repeated filing. With us the first plowing is generally done with the turn-plow, with a small mould-board attached, throwing the earth into the balk. For the second plowing, the cultivator or cotton-plow, is used, either one of which does fine work on smooth land, and makes it quite easy for the hoe hands. The third plowing is commonly performed with the cultivator, but if the ground is rough, the turn-plow will answer better. It is not common, however, to plant peanuts on very rough ground. For the fourth and fifth plowings the cultivator or shovel-plow is used. But should the crop get very grassy, (which should never be permitted), the turn-plow, with large mould-board attached, is used, in order to cover up as much of the grass as possible. This makes a large and objectionable ridge in the balk, but it is the best way to conquer the grass when it gets too strong a hold. The hoes follow the plow, and scrape off the remaining grass, except that near the plants, into the balk. Bunches of grass that have grown up among the vines have to be pulled out by hand. Thus, it will be seen that there is no plow made especially for cultivating the peanut crop, the same plows and implements that are used for other and general farming purposes answering equally well for the cultivation of this crop also. =When Cultivation should Cease.=--When the peanut vines have interlocked considerably along the rows, and have almost, or quite met across the balks, it is high time to cease cultivating them. When the vines are large, the cultivator or plow will tear and bruise them more or less, sometimes breaking off large branches, and, of course, destroying a number of pods. If there is not room for the plow to pass without pulling out the young peanuts and harming the vines, it should be taken off the field and the crop left to take care of itself. So long as the vines remain small, the crop may be worked to some extent, provided always that care be taken not to molest the stems that have penetrated the soil. Every one of these that is harmed now is a peanut lost. In Virginia, two months--June and July--covers the period of cultivation for the peanut crop, and it cannot be extended much beyond this time without some risk. In fact, a crop that has been faithfully worked during this time will not require anything more, and any extra labor is as good as thrown away. =Insect Enemies.=--Fortunately for the planter of peanuts, there is scarcely an insect that does them any material harm. At least, such has been the case, so far, in Virginia. What subsequent years may bring, is, of course, unknown. But up to the present, no insect has ever caused any extensive injury to this crop. It is true that ants do sometimes destroy a few hills on certain soils, by sucking the cotyledons of the plant before it has attained any considerable size and strength. But this is, by no means, general. Even the voracious and ubiquitous Colorado Beetle manifests no taste for this plant, although it has had abundant opportunity to test its edible qualities. To the credit of insects generally, be it said, they are not omnivorous. =Effects of Cold.=--The effect of severe and prolonged cold on the Peanut plant in the early part of the season, is often quite manifest. Cool nights and cold rains are much dreaded, they cause the plants to turn yellow and look sickly. The vines make little or no growth, the leaves become spotted and curled, as if they had been touched by fire, and the whole plant gets into that unthrifty looking state denominated, in the local parlance of the planter, "the pouts." But let a few days of warm sun occur, and all is speedily changed. The plants assume a fresh and lively green, and their growth is now rapid until they reach maturity. =Effects of Drouth.=--A very dry spring would cause the Peanut to come up badly, and would, therefore, seriously affect the crop. Such an occurrence, however, is very rare in Virginia, as well as in the country generally, and is not regarded with much apprehension. If the plant is once well established in the soil, being tap-rooted, it can stand a good deal of dry weather. It takes a long period of extremely dry weather to materially injure this crop. Such a season did occur in 1883, and the consequence was a great many blasted pods and a short crop. Generally, moderately dry summers are looked upon with favor by the planter, inasmuch as seasons of this kind enable him to keep the crop clean of grass at much less cost. Just here we would repeat what we said in Chapter II, in relation to deep plowing preparatory to planting. With a soil deeply broken in the outset, the Peanut will withstand successfully any period of dry weather ever likely to occur in this country. It has been noticed that the crops that suffer the most from drouths are those planted on land not well prepared, or in orchards of growing trees, which necessarily extract a great deal of moisture from the soil. Even in a season as severe as that of 1883, peanuts planted on a deep, mellow soil out of the reach of trees, did well, and were well seeded and filled. Deep preparation of the soil, then, is a corrective of drouth for this crop, as well as for any other. With this simple precaution, no great apprehension need be entertained of the effects of dry weather. Let the planter but do his part in preparation and cultivation, and nature will be sure to respond with liberal, if not overflowing crops. The corn-planter has more to fear from dry weather than the peanut-planter. =Appearance at this Period.=--The appearance of a thrifty crop of peanuts at the time of maturity, or a little after the last weeding, is simply magnificent. The vines have now met in both directions, and the whole field, from a little distance, looks as if covered with a carpet of velvet-plush. Nothing obstructs the view. The vines lie close on the soil, and the eye reaches every nook and corner of the field, and takes in the whole panorama at one glance. Few other crops afford so clear or so pleasing a prospect. Indian corn, in the tender green of summer, is a beautiful object to look upon, but it shuts out all view of distant parts of the farm. The golden wheat, as it bends to the passing breeze, is also beautiful, but one must go around it and not through it. A field of cotton, as the open bolls display the snowy lint, is a sight to please the admirer of nature, but it lacks the setting of green that is always pleasing to the eye. The peanut crop surpasses them all in beauty. It presents an air of freedom, of repose, of life, and of security from harm, of which no other can boast. Such is the crop to which we have invited the reader's attention, and the planting and cultivation of which we have endeavored to describe. Having proceeded thus far, let us pause a moment, as the writer has done, time and again, to survey the beautiful prospect of a field of peanuts in full maturity. There it is, a literal carpet of living green, covering acres on acres of mother earth, and beneath its velvet folds is quietly growing the wealth that is to make its owner independent, and by means of which the planter's family is to secure most of the necessaries and comforts of life. No crop outside of the market gardens, yields so much actual cash per acre as this. No wonder, then, that it readily becomes popular with all who try it, and that it never loses ground wherever introduced under favorable circumstances. An interval of about two months now elapses, during which the crop requires no attention. The seed pods are filling and maturing, and the whole plant is ripening for the harvest. CHAPTER IV. HARVESTING. =When to begin Harvesting.=--We come now to the laborious and often difficult work of harvesting the peanut crop. We say difficult, for often rainy or other unpropitious weather at this period, makes it exceedingly hard to save the crop in good condition, and prevent the pods from becoming dark or spotted. Ordinarily, the harvesting should not begin so long as mild and growing weather continues, even though October may be far spent. It is important, of course, to get as many firm, matured pods on a vine as possible, and the longer the weather holds favorable for this, the more pods, as a rule, will there be. If, however, the crop has been planted early, and the leaves begin to fall from the vines, it is better to start the plow and dig the crop at once. When the Peanut plant gets fully matured, it is very apt to begin to cast its leaves, especially on ground that has been planted in peanuts often before. After the leaves fall off, the vines are of very little value as hay, and as most planters consider them excellent provender, they make it a point to harvest the crop in time to secure good hay. For the same reason, effort is made to dig and shock the vines before a killing frost occurs. Frost spoils the vines for fodder, though it does no harm to the pods, unless it be for seed. Some suppose that seed taken from frost-bitten vines will not come up well. In the latitude of Virginia the usual time for digging the peanut crop is the second and third weeks in October. That is, the great bulk of the crop is dug about this time, though some start the first week in that month, and others wait until the close, unless driven to start earlier by the weather. In rare cases, some planters dig by the twenty-fifth of September, but it is generally believed that all who start thus early lose more in weight and yield than they gain in time or price. Six or ten days of mild weather at this stage of the crop, will make an appreciable difference in the yield, and if the peanuts can remain in the ground until the latter part of October, there will be very few saps, or immature pods. But, in whatever latitude the planter may reside, the general rule should be, to dig before a killing frost occurs. =Mode of Harvesting.=--In Virginia, the general practice is as follows: First, plow the peanuts with a point having a long, narrow wing, and a small mould-board, so that the vines will be loosened without having any earth thrown upon them. The plow passes along on both sides of the rows, just near enough for the wing to fairly reach the tap-root, which it severs. Care is taken to put the plow deep enough to pass under the pods without severing them from the vines. This is important, as most of the detached pods are lost, and if the work is slovenly done, the loss will be great. Hands with pitchforks follow the plow, lift the vines from the loose soil, shake them well to get the earth off, and then lay them down, either singly or in small piles, to remain a day or two to wilt and cure in the sun. This is light work, and can be done rapidly, two hands being enough to keep up with one plow. If rain is feared, it is best to lay the vines down singly after shaking them, for, when in piles, if rain occurs, and the weather is warm, the pods are apt to speck and mildew before the vines can dry out. A rain falling on the pods after they are dug, and before they are shocked, does no harm, if the sun comes out soon to dry them before they can mildew. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--SHOCK STANDING.] [Illustration: Fig. 6.--SHOCK REMOVED.] Instead of leaving the vines on the ground a day or two to cure, many shock them up at once. If the vines are perfectly dry, this is as good a plan as any. But if the weather should be warm, and the vines are wet with dew or rain when put up, they will be sure to heat, and the pods will turn dark. In cold weather the vines may be shocked both green and wet without risk. The method of shocking the Peanuts will be understood from figure 5, which represents a shock as it stands in the field. A shock as it is taken down for picking is shown in figure 6. The vines are first laid together in piles, about as much as one can handily carry on the fork at one time, three rows being put in one. The stakes, which have been previously prepared, are then set in the ground proper distances apart, and two billets of wood, four or five inches in diameter and two feet long, are placed beside each stake to keep the vines off the ground. A handful of vines is then laid, pods up, on one side of the stake for a bed, and the same on the other side. After this the vines are put on, pods down. The first are inverted to keep the pods off the ground, though this is a matter of trifling importance, if the billets of wood are large enough. The successive handfuls of vines are laid up with care, keeping the shock level, lapping the vines, and placing them on every side to make the work even. As the work progresses the vines may be pressed down with the hands, and the shocks are finished off round at top, the better to shed the water. No cap or covering for the shocks is used, though much would frequently be saved, could a cheap one be had. A board nailed on the top of the stakes would protect the top layer very much, and yet the planter who should adopt it would doubtless be laughed at. A fast hand can put up fifty or sixty shocks a day, with a boy to bring up the vines and assist in planting the stakes. Some shockers use the fork to lay up the vines, especially toward the top. The shocks are put up one in a place wherever needed, so as to make the work convenient for the carrier. Some, however, put three or more shocks together, as suits their fancy, in which case fence rails are usually employed to build the shocks upon. The above method is generally practised, but there are many variations in almost every detail. We have endeavored to give a clear idea of a safe method. =Why Cured in the Field.=--Perhaps some reader unacquainted with the cultivation of the Peanut, may ask: Why all this trouble to shock and cure the crop in the field? Why not pick the pods from the vines as soon as they are dug, and cure the peanuts on scaffolds, or elsewhere, and cure the vines on the ground, like hay? We answer, because the pods cure better in the shock than in any other way. They get dry sooner, and make heavier and brighter peanuts than could possibly be the case, were they gathered at once, and spread, even in very thin layers, on scaffolds to dry. Besides, as rain on the pods when they are about half cured, or during the process of curing, would be very harmful, it is found best to protect the pods by covering them in shock. They can get more air in shock than if spread on a scaffold, and a free circulation of air about them is important. A scaffold close enough to hold the pods would exclude the air in every direction, except from above. When shocks are put up well, the pods are very effectually protected, except a few on the top, and in about ten days are cured nice and bright, and ready to be picked off. The shocks may remain in the field many weeks, subject to repeated rains, without material injury. Of course rains of several days continuance would damage the peanuts more or less. It is best therefore, on this account, and because of the numerous depredators that prey upon the crop while it remains in the field, to house it as soon as sufficiently cured to render it certain the pods will not heat and spoil when in bulk. =Depredators.=--The creatures of the animal kingdom that levy their tax on the unwilling planter, and come in for a share--and often a large share--of the peanut crop, are of many kinds, and numerous in all. Of quadrupeds, the deer, fox, raccoon, squirrel, and sometimes even the dog, are more or less destructive; the raccoon, squirrel, and fox are particularly so, beginning their inroads early in the fall by scratching up the immature pods, and continuing their thefts daily and nightly as long as any remain in the field. In some localities, these animals are exceedingly annoying, and occasion great loss unless their depredations can be checked. Next to the animals named, birds are most destructive, while the peanuts are in shock. Such birds as the blue-jay, crow, partridge, yellow hammer, wild turkey, and blackbird, coming, as some of them do, not singly, but in companies and flocks of hundreds and thousands at a time, carry off vast quantities, unless the planter is always on the alert, gun in hand, ready to meet them at every turn. Near the James, and other large rivers, it is a common occurrence to see, not thousands only, but tens of thousands of blackbirds in a single field at one time. They often go in flocks covering acres on acres of ground, and with their ceaseless activity and endless trilling, present an appearance of which city-bred people can form no adequate idea. Of course they destroy a vast amount of peanuts in a short time, unless speedily driven off. There are also several species of field rats and mice, together with the domestic rats and mice that get into the shocks to feed on the pods, where they remain until disturbed by the pickers. Everything seems fond of the Peanut after it is made, and if the planter escapes the insect enemies in the summer, the exemption is more than offset by the numerous and voracious depredators of the fall and winter. And against most of them, there is no effective remedy, the planter cannot watch his crop all the time, and traps are hardly worth using. It is true, something may be done with steel traps for such animals as the fox, raccoon, and squirrel. But for the rest, despatch in removing the crop from the field, is the only certain preventive. Even then the planter does not entirely escape, for rats and mice follow him within doors, and riot in luxurious living so long as a single shock remains undisturbed. Perhaps no crop the Southern farmer grows is subject to heavier or oftener repeated losses than the Peanut. Yet, despite it all, it is a crop that often pays very handsome returns. It has been, and is, the sheet anchor of many an East Virginia farmer, and if prices hold up, will continue to be, so long as there are lands here that will produce thirty bushels of peanuts to the acre. This is but the minimum; the maximum is not known; a hundred and thirty bushels per acre has been attained. =Detached Peanuts.=--In the process of digging and shocking peanuts, many pods must necessarily become detached from the vines. Some of these remain in the soil, out of sight, and numbers more are scattered over the ground, from one side of the field to the other. If the vines are fully matured, and have changed color or shed their leaves, and especially if frost has touched them, the pods come off much more freely than if the vines are still green, or scarcely done growing. Generally, the detached pods are the best of the crop, being those first matured, and which are therefore solid and heavy. Of course these peanuts must not be lost. Women and children are employed to pick them up at so much per bushel. If it is found that many pods remain in the ground, a cultivator or light plow is run along the rows to bring them in sight. In this way the most of the loose peanuts are saved. Still, numbers will be left in the ground. The planter is at no loss, however, to secure these also, which he does by turning his fattening hogs on the ground as soon as he can remove the crop from the field. Hogs are exceedingly fond of the Peanut, and as soon as they find them out, they will continue to root for them as long as one can be had. Frequently, every square yard of large fields, will be burrowed over by the hogs in their search for the detached peanuts. No crop the planter grows will fatten a hog so quickly as the Peanut. Thus in the harvesting of this beautiful and profitable crop, nothing is allowed to be lost. =Saving Seed Peanuts.=--It now remains to say something of the method of saving seed peanuts. Every step in this process must have in view one principal point--keeping the pods from becoming the least heated, either in shock or in bulk. Perfect and continued ventilation must be secured. The vines should not be shocked while green, nor the pods kept in large bulk after being picked off. Neither should the vines be touched by frost, either before or after being dug. It is customary to dig and shake the vines as usual, and leave them in the field four or five days, or a week, before they are either piled or shocked. In this time, if the weather is fair, the vines will be so nearly cured that not enough moisture will remain in them to create a heat, even in very warm weather, and they may then be shocked with perfect safety, after which they should remain in the field until thoroughly dry. Rain falling on the vines while they are lying in the field, does no harm, except it be to turn the pods a little dark, which circumstance makes no difference with seed peanuts. When the seeds are picked off, keep them in baskets until ready to spread them in a cool, dry room, where they will be exposed to a free circulation of air. In no case should they be in bulk. Spread them thinly in some loft, where the air will reach them, and where they will be secure from rats and mice. They may be stored in sacks the same as for sale, and laid in an airy room to remain all winter. They should not be kept in a room where there is a stove, or one subject to currents of hot air. These suggestions embody all that need be done to secure good seed. If peanuts are fully cured when picked off, and are not kept too close, they will prove good seed, unless there is some radical defect of the germ or vital powers. Keep them from heating, and they will germinate and grow as readily as corn. Every planter may, and should, save his own seed. According to the number of acres that he thinks of planting, let him provide two bushels of seed (or forty-four pounds in the hull), for each acre, and he will have enough and some to spare. CHAPTER V. MARKETING. It requires as much judgment to market a crop well, as it does to raise and harvest it, and often more. Unfortunately, the majority of planters are sadly deficient in that knowledge of commercial life, which would make them masters of the situation. Too often they are bound by lien or mortgage, or else they have run up a heavy bill at the country store, and when the crop is made and ready for market, they are obliged to sell forthwith. Generally too, this is the very time when prices are lowest, and so the planter is obliged to part with the fruits of his labor at the most unfavorable rates, and allow the middlemen to pocket the profits. It is only by careful economy and prudent management, on the part of each planter for himself, that this evil is to be corrected. Without entering into the details of commercial affairs, we will endeavor to show the planter how he may go into market with his crop, prepared to command the best prices. To this end, it is essential that he have his crop in the best marketable condition, remembering that a good article always sells well. =Picking off the Peanuts.=--This part of the work, usually done by women and children, may make or spoil the sale of the entire crop. If stems are gathered with the pods, and good, bad, and indifferent are all lumped together, with leaves and trash thrown in for good measure, a great deal of assorting and cleaning will subsequently be required, or else the sale of the crop will be impaired to the extent of one or two cents to the pound. In picking, the stems should be rejected, and the saps and inferior pods, if gathered at all, be kept apart from the rest. Only the best, brightest, and soundest pods should go into the A, No. 1's, and these, if clean of earth and trash, will always bring top prices. The saps also will sell, at lower rates. It is the neglect of these few precautions that so sadly curtails the bill of sale of many a planter. If planters would offer pickers extra inducements for clean pods, this difficulty would, to a great extent, be obviated. When the same price is paid for all, without regard to the manner of picking, a premium is offered for slovenly work, and the careless get better paid than the painstaking. In picking, the pops should be refused altogether, and the saps and very dark pods go by themselves. Many planters, however, leave the saps on the vines, saving the best only. The saps, however, will sell, either in pod or shelled, and if numerous, will more than pay for picking them. It is, therefore, so much gained. It must be confessed, however, that the presence of a good many saps on the vines, makes them much more valuable as feed. Just here let us explain that "pops" are pods that have attained full size and firmness, but which are minus the seed. Dry weather, and the lack of calcareous manures in the soil, will cause many pops. "Saps" are immature pods, the last to form on the vine, and which might become good peanuts if they could have a longer period of growing weather. The presence of pops in the marketable peanuts is very detrimental to their sale, and hence should be carefully rejected in picking. Saps also are detrimental, but to a less extent than pops. =Price paid Pickers.=--The price paid pickers varies somewhat from one season to another, according to the quality of the peanuts, and the market price received for them. Hands commonly board themselves, and receive so much per bushel for picking. Of late years, the price has stood pretty uniformly, at twelve to fifteen cents per bushel. The peanuts are either measured or weighed. If weighed, twenty-four pounds are counted as a bushel in the first part of the season, the extra two pounds being taken to make up for the subsequent loss in weight. If a hand is boarded by the owner of the crop, he gets but ten cents a bushel for picking. A fast hand will pick from four to six bushels a day, the children are just as likely to do this as grown people. Hence, at this season of the year, women and children earn what is considered pretty fair wages. Under the most favorable circumstances, the best hands will pick seven bushels a day. Very much depends, however, on the quality of the peanuts, and something also on the weather. In very dry weather, the stems come off with the pod, and pickers cannot do as well. =Cleaning and Bagging.=--After the peanuts are picked off, they should be cleaned, before being sacked. The object of this, of course, is to rid them of the earth that may still be adhering to them. It makes the hull look cleaner, and brighter also, and thus enhances the sale. Formerly, the planter made his own cleaning machine, but recently, since the starting of what are called "Peanut factories," the planter very seldom runs his peanuts through any machine at all, but sells them just as they are picked. Being thus rid of much trouble and labor, it is doubtful whether it would now pay the planter to clean his peanuts, as he once did. The price paid for them now, is almost as much as he would realize, were he to take ever so much pains in cleaning them. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--VIRGINIA PEANUT CLEANING MACHINE.] But as the reader in other parts of the country, may desire to know something of the mode of cleaning peanuts at home, we give a description of the Virginia machine for this purpose. There is no patent on this machine, and any one may make it for himself. A cylinder (figure 7), as large as a flour barrel; is formed by nailing narrow slats of plank, to two circular pieces of timber. The slats are put a little way apart, but not far enough for the pods to slip through when the cylinder is turned. A piece of timber runs lengthwise, through the centre of the cylinder, the ends of this project about a foot, and serve as an axle on which to turn it. A crank is attached to one end or both ends of the axle. Two pieces of scantling are fastened together in the shape of an X, one for each end, and these are held upright by having pieces nailed on horizontally, from one to the other. Several slats on the cylinder are fastened together to make a door, and this is attached to the cylinder by hinges, and fastened with a button. The peanuts are poured into the cylinder, two or three bushels at a time, and it is made to revolve slowly, until all the earth and litter has fallen out. The door is then opened, the peanuts turned out and bagged. In bagging the peanuts, care should be taken to have the sacks well filled. They are estimated to hold four bushels each, and if properly filled, good solid peanuts will over-run a little, especially in the first part of the season, before they are thoroughly cured. As the sacks are being sewed up, the corners must be packed with peanuts as long as any more can be got in. For sewing up the sacks, the planter needs a large peanut-sack needle and twine made purposely for this business. Sacks cost the farmer, at the present, ten cents each, and generally the peanuts are sold by gross weight and nothing paid for the sacks. In some markets the sacks are paid for, and a pound deducted from the gross weight, for each sack. If the planter sells to a merchant near home, he seldom sews up the sacks, but ties them, and they are emptied and returned to him at the store. =Peanut "Factories."=--It does not fall within our present plan to describe these establishments, any further than to give the reader, outside of the peanut belts, an idea of them. Formerly, many peanuts were sent into market without being properly assorted and cleaned, and it was found that, by assorting and re-cleaning them, a little margin of profit was left after paying expenses. One step led to another, and various appliances and machines were brought into requisition, until now, large buildings are devoted solely to the purpose of cleaning, assorting, and storing the peanuts. Some of these establishments employ many hands, both male and female, to clean, separate, and re-bag the peanuts ready for the trade. Thus it has happened, that the business of cleaning peanuts has been taken out of the hands of the farmer, reduced to a system, and made a new industry. In fact, a division of labor; and now the merchant buys the peanuts of the planter just as they are picked, and the "factories," so-called, clean and assort them for the large buyers. Still, the merchant will pay more for Peanuts in nice order, and perhaps it would even now pay the farmer to properly clean and assort his crop before selling it. =The Best Markets.=--A few years ago, the city of Norfolk was the sole market for the Virginia and North Carolina planter, and New York for the wholesale dealer. Later on, Wilmington, Petersburg, Richmond, and several of the smaller towns began to buy peanuts, until now, every village and trading centre throughout the whole peanut belt, has become the repository for the crop of its own immediate section. Every year, the market has been coming nearer and nearer to the planter, until now he finds it about as profitable to sell to the nearest country merchant, as to ship to town, and sometimes more so. Frequently, the country merchant becomes the agent of some large buyer, who furnishes the capital, and he buys all the peanuts he can, at figures very near the ruling market price. Of course, this works very much to the planter's benefit. He sees his crop weighed, he escapes the middleman, with all the attendant expenses, such as commissions, freight, etc., he sells for cash, and he does not have to wait several weeks for returns. Under this state of affairs, the home market, or home buyer, becomes the best for the farmer. And with the constantly increasing demand, and close competition between buyers, the cleaning factories are also coming nearer the farmer, and already exist, or will soon exist, in each of the counties and sections where the Peanut is much grown. Thus the planters generally, will soon be enabled to sell directly to the cleaners, and the latter to the wholesale buyers. So the planter will get market prices, without the trouble of going to market. Perhaps the competition will eventually grow sharper still, until, not only will the peanuts be cleaned and bought at home, but will also be manufactured into oil, flour, and the other commercial forms, in the sections where they are grown. In everything, the tendency now is, to carry the factories to the raw material, and not the latter to the factories. It is not to be presumed that this crop will prove an exception. Thus it is, that the farmer's work is being narrowed down, by the inevitable and beneficial law of the division of labor. The planter may now turn his attention wholly to the cultivation of the crop. How to order it, so as to realize the largest possible yield from the smallest possible areas, is now the problem before him. He finds given to his hands, a great and growing staple with great, and still unknown, possibilities, and he sees the demand becoming larger and more earnest, until now, the buyer comes to his very door, and puts down the ready cash for all of this crop that he has to sell. Of course the planter must, and will bestir himself, to meet the ever-increasing demand. To do this with profit to himself, he must study this crop from beginning to end, he must learn the nature of the Peanut plant fully and correctly, and discovering how to increase the yield per acre to its maximum, unravel the secret of how to grow it at the least cost per bushel. =Picking Machines.=--It may be well here to allude to a question, which, doubtless, the thoughtful reader has already asked himself, namely: Why does not some one invent a machine for picking peanuts rapidly, instead of having to do it by the slow and tedious process of hand-picking? In reply we state, that numerous attempts to do so have been made, but with very indifferent success. None of the many picking machines, that have hitherto been offered, have given satisfaction. It seems that they cannot be made to do the work, and most planters appear to have given up looking for any help in this direction. Very recently, the writer has heard of one picking machine that is said to be giving satisfaction, but he has not seen it, or conversed with any one who has done so. That an efficient machine of this kind is an impossibility, is not believed, but whether anything can be made that would pay better than the old method, is the question. The planter must await developments. Perhaps some ingenious mechanic will take up the problem, and give the planter a perfect and cheap picking machine. Here is a field for ingenuity. A good machine would be a profitable invention. Who will try? * * * * * Having now traced the Peanut plant through the whole process of its planting, cultivation, harvesting, and marketing, the practical part of our task is ended. If the directions are such as will enable the beginner in this branch of rural industry, to successfully cultivate and manage this crop, the end will have been attained, and this little book will not have been written in vain. It has been prepared for those having no practical acquaintance with the cultivation of the peanut crop, not for the old and experienced planter. And yet, without egotism, it is believed that even the latter may find something in it that will be of use to him. Practices vary in different sections, even among men of the same calling, and inasmuch as methods herein detailed, will be found to vary from those practiced in North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, or the far South, so will the planter in those States who may chance to read this treatise, be enabled to compare our methods with his, to see wherein they differ, and perchance may find here some point or plan a little better than his own. It only remains now to give, in another chapter, some of the many uses of the Peanut. CHAPTER VI. USES. Some of the more important uses of the Peanut and its plant are here given. In the course of time, as new discoveries are made, it is not improbable that the Peanut may subserve other valuable ends. But if no more uses than are now known, are ever found for any part of this plant, it will continue to occupy an important position among the agricultural productions of the country. Its importance will increase year by year, its value being too well understood and appreciated for it ever to lose its place among our leading crops. =Peanut Oil.=--The use that gives the Peanut especial value as an American crop, is the place it occupies as an oil-producing plant. The oil of the Peanut is regarded as equal in all respects to sweet or olive oil, and may be employed for every purpose to which that is applied. This gives it at once a commanding position, and were no other use found for the plant, this would give it great importance among the economic productions of our country. Olive oil is largely consumed for culinary uses, in medicine, and in the arts. Except in California, the olive has never been planted upon a commercial scale in this country, and it is very important that we possess a plant, that will obviate our dependence upon foreign oil. Of course, it is not within our scope to describe the manufacture of Peanut oil. The farmer is satisfied with knowing that his crops are in demand, and need not trouble himself about the methods by which they are converted into this or that useful commodity. It is stated that a bushel of peanuts (twenty-two pounds in the hull) subjected to the hydraulic press, will yield one gallon of oil. The yield by cold pressure, is from forty to fifty per cent. of the shelled kernels, though if heat be used, a larger quantity of oil, but of inferior quality, is obtained. The best Peanut oil is nearly colorless, with a faint, agreeable odor, and a bland taste, resembling that of olive oil. It is more limpid than olive oil, and becomes thick when exposed to a temperature a few degrees below the freezing point of water. Peanut oil is not one of the drying oils. During the late war it was extensively employed in the Southern machine shops, and regarded as superior in its lubricating qualities to whale oil. For burning it is highly esteemed. The chief consumption of the oil is in making soap. For the production of oil for soap making, there were imported into Marseilles, France, from the West Coast of Africa, in one year, peanuts to the value of over five millions of dollars. The residuum, or oil cake, may be sold for cattle feed. =Roasted Peanuts.=--Almost every person residing in the eastern section of our country, must necessarily know something of the value of roasted peanuts. One cannot pass along the streets of any of our larger cities and towns, without encountering, at every turn, the little peanut stands, where roasted peanuts are sold by the pint. They are kept for sale in numerous shops, they are peddled on the railroad cars, and sold to the loungers at every depot. Roasted peanuts are more common than roasted chestnuts once were, and almost everybody eats them. Even the ladies are fond of them, and frequently have them at their parties. It is safe then to say, that everybody likes them, and finds them palatable, healthful, and fattening. From a pig to a school boy, no diet will fatten sooner than roasted peanuts. A person can live on them alone for an indefinite period, if eaten regularly and with moderation. The analysis of the Peanut shows it to be rich in the albuminoids, or flesh-forming elements. Roasted peanuts, therefore, form a very useful article of diet, and fill a place between the luxuries and the necessaries of common life. Wherever they have been once introduced, they cannot well be dispensed with; and as their use in this respect is constantly extending, this purpose alone would serve to keep the product before the public as a salable article. Once let the Peanut find its way to the great cities of Europe, and roasted peanuts be sold upon the streets there, as well as here, and the demand for them will far exceed the present limits, and the cultivation be necessarily extended over a much wider area than now. There is every reason to believe that the demand for the crop will continue to increase. =Peanut Candy.=--This is another of the purposes to which the Peanut has been applied, and serves to illustrate how varied and numerous are the uses of this remarkable production. Flat bars of sugar candy are stuck full of the broken kernels of the roasted nuts. It is quite good, and forms a pleasing addition to other kinds of confectionery. =Peanut Coffee.=--Here again the Peanut fills a useful end, especially in times of scarcity, or high prices for coffee. Taken alone, and without any addition whatever of the pure berry, the Peanut makes a quite good and palatable beverage. It closely resembles chocolate in flavor, is milder and less stimulating than pure coffee, and considerably cheaper than Rio or Java. If mixed, half and half, with pure coffee before parching, and roasted and ground together, the same quantity will go as far and make about as good a beverage as the pure article, and a better one than much of the ground and adulterated coffee offered in the market. Indeed, if people will adulterate their coffee, it were much to be wished that they would use nothing more harmful than the Peanut for this purpose. For making the beverage, the Peanut is parched and ground the same as coffee, the mode of decoction the same, and it is taken with cream and sugar, like the pure article. =Peanut Chocolate.=--True chocolate is made by roasting and grinding to a paste, by the aid of heat, a very oily seed, the Cocoa-bean. In the preparation of chocolate a great variety of articles are used to adulterate it and diminish its cost. Some of these, such as sugar and starchy substances, are harmless, while others, such as mineral coloring matters are injurious. Peanuts are largely used to adulterate chocolate, and so far as wholesomeness is concerned, are not objectionable. In containing a great deal of starch and oil, peanuts resemble the cocoa-bean, though without the nitrogenous principle, _theobromine_ (which closely resembles _caffeine_), to which its nutritive qualities are largely due. Peanut chocolate is made in some Southern families by beating the properly roasted nuts in a mortar with sugar, and flavoring with cinnamon or vanilla as may be desired. Peanut chocolate, on so high an authority as the author, the late William Gilmore Simms, is vastly superior to peanut coffee. =Peanut Bread.=--If peanuts are first mashed or ground into a pulp, and then worked into the dough in the process of kneading, no lard will be required to make good biscuit, and the bread will have an agreeable flavor, different from that imparted by lard, but of such a mild and pleasant taste as to be entirely unlike the peanut flavor. The skin of the kernel must first be removed, or it will impart a bitterish and nutty taste. There is some difficulty in doing this. Scalding does not do it very well. Strong soda water or lye, will quickly loosen it, so that it may be readily removed by rubbing with the hands, but either fluid would soon convert the Peanut into soap, and is, therefore, impracticable for this purpose. Could some cheap and handy machine be invented, that would remove the skin from the kernel without loss, no doubt large quantities of peanuts would be used for bread-making purposes. Whether or not it would be economical, we cannot at present say. =Peanut Soap.=--If a fair article of soap can be made of corn shucks, as was done in the South during the late war, then there can be no doubt that a better quality can be made from Peanuts. Surely a vegetable product containing such a large per-centage of oil, would be easily acted upon by lye. The writer has not experimented in this direction, but we hear of some who have tried it, and who say they have made a good and serviceable soap from the kernels of the Peanut without the addition of other oil or grease. We have no doubt but very good soap may be made from the Peanut, but whether the manufacture of such an article would be profitable at present prices, is another question. Perhaps for ordinary laundry soap it would not, but for the higher grades of toilet soap it might be. Here is a field for experiment, and yet we mention this use, as well as those of bread-making and coffee from the same article, as one of the possibilities of this plant, rather than a result to be looked for in the near future, if at all. It is well that manufacturers, and all others, should know what is capable of being done with this promising product. The more we can multiply the uses of any product of our farms, the wider will be the demand for it, and this is what the farmers desire. =Peanuts as Feed for Stock.=--This is a use for the Peanut, about which we can speak with confidence, and from experience. We now refer to the peanut pod, including, of course, the kernel, and not the vine or hay. Every kind of stock, horses, cows, sheep, hogs, and poultry, are exceedingly fond of the Peanut, and will leave any other food to partake of it. Cows, horses, and sheep eat the whole pod, hull and kernel together. Hogs and poultry (except turkeys) reject the hull, eating the kernel only. Turkeys, as a rule, swallow the pod whole, and a real live turkey can hide away quite a quantity of the nuts in a short time, if allowed free access to them. In fact, all animals do not seem to know when they have enough of this food. All stock fattens readily on them. The hog will lay on flesh faster on a diet of peanuts, than on corn, potatoes, or any other product with which the writer is acquainted. The poorest scrub of a hog, turned into a peanut field, after the crop is removed, and where he can get nothing but the pods he may find by rooting for them, will change his appearance in three days, and in a week, will be so much improved as hardly to be recognized as the same animal. As a pork producer we believe that the Peanut has not its superior in any clime or country. It is a thorough fat-former. Poultry intended for laying should be sparingly fed with it. But we would not leave this subject without a grain of caution. While all stock fattens rapidly on the Peanut, it must be confessed that the fat is not always of the best quality. It is less firm and more oily than the fat derived from Indian corn, nor will the lard from hogs fattened upon peanuts show that pearly white and flaky appearance, which is the marked characteristic of pure lard made from corn. For this reason, most planters in the peanut belt, feed their peanut-fed hogs on corn only for two or three weeks before killing them. This is done to make the lard firm and white, and in this manner, good pork and lard are produced at only a trifling cost. The hogs get nearly fat from the detached peanuts left in the field, and which otherwise would be lost. In this way the peanut-planter derives a very important benefit from this crop, apart from its value as a source of ready money. Were there no other use for the peanut, it would still pay well to raise it for making pork. In this case, the planting and cultivation would be the sole cost, as the animals would do all the harvesting. A very small field would fatten quite a number of hogs. Poultry intended for market, might well be fed on Peanuts, instead of corn or oats. The fowls would fatten faster and at less cost. In fact, we believe it would be economical to buy peanuts at ruling prices for fattening stock, especially old stock. =Peanut Hay.=--If dug and cured before frost touches them, and before the leaves fall to any great extent, peanut vines make a very good provender for all stock. Some say it is better than blade fodder for horses and mules, but we are not prepared to advance this extravagant claim for it. It is, however, certainly an excellent article of fodder for cattle, sheep, mules, and horses, and if many sap peanuts are left on the vines, stock that is not worked much, will need no other feed during the winter months to keep them in good condition. Most planters, accordingly, make it an object to try to save the vines for hay, and aim to dig the crop before they are injured by frost. After a killing frost touches them, the vines are next to worthless as a feed. In fact, frost-bitten peanut vines are harmful, rather than beneficial, to stock, often causing colics, and endangering the life of a valuable horse or mule. Peanut vines, even the best of them, unharmed by frost, should not be fed very largely to horses. There is always a good deal of grit and dust upon them, and much of this taken into the stomach, cannot but be more or less harmful to the animals. And yet, despite these few drawbacks, peanut hay has proved to be a valuable forage, and one that the peanut-planter could not well dispense with, inasmuch as so many do not make enough of other forage to serve them, and must, therefore, depend on the peanut crop to help them out. Thus the planter is benefited in several ways through this crop. He gets a valuable staple to sell, and one that always commands the ready cash, he fattens his hogs on the pods left in the ground, and he secures a large amount of very good hay in the vines. Thus he is doubly benefited, and no matter how low the price of peanuts may be, the farmer does not, and cannot, ordinarily, lose much on the cultivation of this great crop. If he does not risk too much on commercial fertilizers, which no planter of this crop ever should do, he runs little risk of suffering any crushing loss thereon. Such is a brief but connected view of the Peanut crop from the time of planting the seed, to its sale and manufacture. The views and practice here advanced are all from original sources. We have not drawn upon any other writer for any part of this treatise. Indeed, save a few short articles scattered through the agricultural press of the past ten or fifteen years, we know of no source from whence material could be derived. So far as we are aware, this is the pioneer work in America on the Peanut plant. This being the case, it must, of course, be quite defective. We might easily have made it a larger book, and perhaps some few years hence, when the field and subject shall have enlarged, it will be found desirable to revise and enlarge this treatise. For the present, we must be satisfied with smaller things, and remain content with a few practical directions rather than an elaborate work. Until that time, if it comes at all, we lay aside the pen, and turn our hands (as it has been our wont to do during the past few weeks) to actual labors in connection with the Peanut plant. APPENDIX A. STATISTICS. It was our design, at first, to present a somewhat full array of statistics in relation to the Peanut. This, however, was soon found to be impracticable. The more we studied the few data at hand, the more were we convinced of their utter unreliability. The fact is, so far as the writer is aware, there are no credible data of this crop existing. No authoritative and systematic attempt to gather and compile the statistics of the Peanut has ever been made, and until this is done we shall never know its full extent and value. The "estimates"--mere guesses--of certain mercantile houses and newspapers, to express the bulk of the crop are, beyond a doubt, far wide of the mark. The following from a Georgia paper, is of this class: "The goober[2] plays a more important part in commerce than might be supposed. We are all aware of its value as a social factor--of its influence upon oratory, music, and the drama--but how few of us know that one million nine hundred and seventy thousand bushels of this savory nut were consumed in this country during the twelve months ending on the thirtieth of September, 1883. These figures do not include the local consumption--say, for instance, in the rural districts of Georgia, where every substantial farmer has a patch of his own. "The figures relating to the goober crop make a column in the various prices current, but Georgia is not credited with any part of the crop. It seems that the goobers of commerce, so far as this country is concerned, are raised in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In 1882, Virginia raised one million two hundred and fifty thousand bushels, Tennessee four hundred and sixty thousand, and North Carolina one hundred and forty thousand, making a total of one million eight hundred and fifty thousand. The aggregate value of the crop amounted to two million dollars. It is estimated that the peanut crop of 1883 will be at least two million bushels. "We regret that Georgia has no place in these estimates. Goobers can be raised in this State as readily as in Virginia, and there is no reason why our farmers should not take advantage of the demand for them. The little patches for home use, could easily be increased to patches calculated to yield a comfortable supply of pocket money. As Georgians are known as goober-grabblers, there is no reason why they should not be known as goober-growers." Still, these estimates serve a certain important end, and give an approximate idea of the magnitude of the crop. It is safe to say that it amounts to nearly three million bushels annually, and were all the information gathered that could be, it would doubtless be greater still. It is high time that the corps of statistical reporters to the National Department of Agriculture, were required to give the data for this crop, as well as for others, and some of them of less magnitude and value. FOOTNOTE: [2] See remarks on the term goober, in note on page 9. APPENDIX B. COSTS. Perhaps the attentive reader has expressed surprise that so little has been said about the cost of planting, cultivating, and harvesting the peanut crop. This was because no estimate of costs that would suit one place, would apply in another and a distant locality. There is no uniformity in this matter, hence it was deemed best to leave each reader to count the costs for himself, based on his knowledge of his own local surroundings. APPENDIX C. THE PEANUT GARDEN OF AMERICA. The following article from the Suffolk, Va., "Herald," gives a concise view of the growth and development of this staple in Virginia, and illustrates how a portion of the Southside has become, perhaps, the leading peanut-producing section of our country: "When James H. Platt introduced his bill in Congress imposing a duty upon peanuts imported from Africa, a large majority of the members of that august body hardly knew what a peanut was. A few of them had eaten 'Goobers' which had been carefully cultivated in the garden by their grandmothers, but as to why they needed protection, or how many of them there were to protect, but little was known even by the best informed. The culture of this important agricultural product was then in its infancy, and it was hardly recognized as an article of commerce. "Only a few short years have rolled by, and what a change has been effected. The peanut crop has assumed gigantic proportions, and the aggregate amounts to millions of dollars, while the nut is in demand from one end of the Union to the other at satisfactory prices. "The section of country contiguous to and lying south of James River, and between Norfolk and Petersburg, may be correctly termed the peanut garden of the world. "In this section peanut farming has been brought to the highest state of perfection, and the average production per acre greatly increased from what was considered a good yield a few years ago. "The one great difficulty in handling the crop seems to be, in the fact that no machine has yet been invented which will pick off the nuts from the vines in a satisfactory manner. This work must be done by hand, and as the entire crop matures at one and the same time, there is such a demand for labor during the picking off season that the supply is utterly inadequate to the demand. It is probable that within the next few years some plan will be devised for the successful storage of peas and vines until they can be conveniently picked off; and when this desirable end is accomplished, much of the rush and confusion incident to the gathering and marketing of the peanut crop will be avoided. This is already done by every thrifty planter who is able to hold his crop until such time as he sees fit to sell it. He stores his peanuts away, and picks them off, mostly with his own force, at convenient intervals through the winter and spring. "While so much has been done in the way of improvements in the production of the Peanut, those who have done the handling after reaching market have not been idle. In former years, only the bright shell and those well-filled, could be sold in the market. A dark color or half-filled pods was sufficient cause for rejection, and frequently they were on this account not even offered in market. Here, however, machinery was more successful. Various mechanical contrivances have been put in operation for cleaning and assorting the nuts, and to-day every grade of peanuts--from the large, plump, well-filled shell, to the smallest, blackest, and most insignificant half-filled pod--has a regular standard market value, according to the weight per bushel." STANDARD BOOKS. Commended by the Greatest Educators of Germany, England and the United States. Endorsed by Officials, and adopted in many Schools New Methods in Education Art, Real Manual Training, Nature Study. Explaining Processes whereby Hand, Eye and Mind are Educated by Means that Conserve Vitality and Develop a Union of Thought and Action By J. Liberty Tadd _Director of the Public School of Industrial Art of Manual Training and Art in the R. C. 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Teachers and parents at once become enthusiastic and delighted over the Tadd methods which this book enables them to put into practice. Not a hackneyed thought nor a stale picture. Fresh, new, practical, scientific, inspiring =AMONG THOSE WHO ENDORSE THE WORK ARE= HERBERT SPENCER, DR. W. W. KEENE, PRESIDENT HUEY--Of the Philadelphia board of education. SECRETARY GOTZE--Of the leading pedagogical society of Germany (by which the book is being translated into German for publication at Berlin). CHARLES H. THURBER--Professor of Pedagogy, University of Chicago. TALCOTT WILLIAMS--Editor Philadelphia Press, Book News, etc. R. H. WEBSTER--Superintendent of Schools, San Francisco. DR. A. E. WINSHIP--Editor Journal of Education. W. F. SLOCUM--President Colorado College. FREDERICK WINSOR--Head master The Country School for Boys of Baltimore City, under the auspices of Johns Hopkins University. G. B. MORRISON--Principal Manual Training High School, Kansas City. DR. 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Teaching how to raise pears intelligently, and with the best results, how to find out the character of the soil, the best methods of preparing it, the best varieties to select under existing conditions, the best modes of planting, pruning, fertilizing, grafting, and utilizing the ground before the trees come into bearing, and, finally, of gathering and packing for market. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. =$1.00= =The Secrets of Health, or How Not to Be Sick, and How to Get Well from Sickness.= By S. H. Platt, A. M., M. D., late member of the Connecticut Eclectic Medical Society, the National Eclectic Medical Association, and honorary member of the National Bacteriological Society of America; our medical editor and author of "Talks With Our Doctor" and "Our Health Adviser." Nearly 600 pages. Profusely illustrated. An index of 20 pages, so that any topic may be instantly consulted. 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This is the first American work exclusively devoted to pruning. It differs from most other treatises on this subject in that the author takes particular pains to explain the principles of each operation in every detail. Specific advice is given on the pruning of the various kinds of fruits and ornamental trees, shrubs and hedges. Considerable space is devoted to the pruning and training of grapevines, both American and foreign. Every part of the subject is made so clear and plain that it can be readily understood by even the merest beginner. Cloth, 8vo, 530 pages. Illustrated. =$1.50= +-----------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's Note: | | | | Typographical errors corrected in the text: | | | | Page 7 privitive changed to privative | | Page 17 challanges changed to challenges | | Page 56 residum changed to residuum | | Page 64 poineer changed to pioneer | | Page 70 backneyed changed to hackneyed | +-----------------------------------------------+ 
29058	----	{Transcriber's note: This etext contains 1. A New Orchard and Garden, by William Lawson 2. The Country Housewifes Garden, by William Lawson 3. A Most Profitable new treatise, from approved experience of the Art of Propagating Plants, by Simon Harwood 4. The Husband Mans Fruitful Orchard The first edition of "A New Orchard and Garden", which included "The Country Housewifes Garden" appeared in 1618; many further editions appeared over the period to 1695. The "Art of Propagating Plants" and "The Husband Mans Fruitful Orchard" appeared in all editions from 1623. This transcript is taken from the 1631 edition. The transcriber used a modern facsimile of the 1657 edition to clarify some doubtful readings. The spelling and hyphenation in the original are erratic. No corrections have been made other than those listed at the end of the etext. The formatting of the original tables of contents has been normalised. Sidenotes are enclosed in braces, prefixed with "SN" and placed before the paragraph in which they appear. Transcriber's notes in the text are enclosed in braces and prefixed with "TN". } A NEVV ORCHARD AND GARDEN OR The best way for planting, grafting, and to make _any ground good, for a rich Orchard: Particularly in the North,_ and generally for the whole kingdome of _England_, as in nature, _reason, situation, and all probabilitie, may and doth appeare_. With the Country Housewifes Garden for hearbes of common vse: _their vertues, seasons, profits, ornaments, varietie of knots, models_ for trees, and plots for the best ordering of Grounds and Walkes. AS ALSO, _The Husbandry of Bees, with their seuerall vses and annoyances_ being the experience of 48 yeares labour, and now the second time corrected and much enlarged, by _William Lawson_. Whereunto is newly added the Art of propagating Plants, with the true _ordering of all manner of Fruits, in their gathering, carrying home, & preseruation._ {Illustration: Skill and paines bring fruitfull gaines. _Nemo sibi natus._} _LONDON_, Printed by _Nicholas Okes_ for IOHN HARISON, at the golden Vnicorne in Pater-noster-row. 1631. TO THE RIGHT WORSHIPFVLL SIR HENRY BELOSSES, Knight and Baronet, _Worthy Sir_, When in many yeeres by long experience I had furnished this my Northerne Orchard and Countrey Garden with needfull plants and vsefull hearbes, I did impart the view thereof to my friends, who resorted to me to conferre in matters of that nature, they did see it, and seeing it desired, and I must not denie now the publishing of it (which then I allotted to my priuate delight) for the publike profit of others. Wherefore, though I could pleade custome the ordinarie excuse of all Writers, to chuse a Patron and Protector of their Workes, and so shroud my selfe from scandall vnder your honourable fauour, yet haue I certaine reasons to excuse this my presumption: First, the many courtesies you haue vouchsafed me. Secondly, your delightfull skill in matters of this nature. Thirdly, the profit which I receiued from your learned discourse of Fruit-trees. Fourthly, your animating and assisting of others to such endeuours. Last of all, the rare worke of your owne in this kind: all which to publish vnder your protection, I haue aduentured (as you see). Vouchsafe it therefore entertainement, I pray you, and I hope you shall finde it not the vnprofitablest seruant of your retinue: for when your serious employments are ouerpassed, it may interpose some commoditie, and raise your contentment out of varietie. _Your Worships most bounden_, WILLIAM LAVVSON. THE PREFACE to all well minded. _Art hath her first originall out of experience, which therefore is called the Schoole-mistresse of fooles, because she teacheth infallibly, and plainely, as drawing her knowledge out of the course of Nature, (which neuer failes in the generall) by the senses, feelingly apprehending, and comparing (with the helpe of the minde) the workes of nature; and as in all other things naturall, so especially in Trees; for what is Art more then a prouident and skilfull Collectrix of the faults of Nature in particular workes, apprehended by the senses? As when good ground naturally brings forth thistles, trees stand too thicke, or too thin, or disorderly, or (without dressing) put forth vnprofitable suckers, and suchlike. All which and a thousand more, Art reformeth, being taught by experience: and therefore must we count that Art the surest, that stands vpon experimentall rules, gathered by the rule of reason (not conceit) of all other rules the surest._ _Whereupon haue I of my meere and sole experience, without respect to any former written Treatise, gathered these rules, and set them downe in writing, not daring to hide the least talent giuen me of my Lord and Master in Heauen: neither is this iniurious to any, though it differ from the common opinion in diuers points, to make it knowne to others, what good I haue found out in this facultie by long triall and experience. I confesse freely my want of curious skill in the Art of planting. And I admire and praise _Plinie_, _Aristotle_, _Virgil_, _Cicero_, and many others for wit and iudgement in this kind, and leaue them to their times, manner, and seuerall Countries._ _I am not determined (neither can I worthily) to set forth the praises of this Art: how some, and not a few, euen of the best, haue accounted it a chiefe part of earthly happinesse, to haue faire and pleasant Orchards, as in _Hesperia_ and _Thessaly_, how all with one consent agree, that it is a chiefe part of Husbandry (as _Tully de senectute_) and Husbandry maintaines the world; how ancient, how profitable, how pleasant it is, how many secrets of nature it doth containe, how loued, how much practised in the best places, and of the best: This hath already beene done by many. I only aime at the common good. _I_ delight not in curious conceits, as planting and graffing with the root vpwards, inoculating Roses on Thornes, and such like, although I haue heard of diuers prooued some, and read of moe._ _The Stationer hath (as being most desirous with me, to further the common good) bestowed much cost and care in hauing the Knots and Models by the best Artizan cut in great varietie, that nothing might be any way wanting to satisfie the curious desire of those that would make vse of this Booke._ _And I shew a plaine and sure way of planting, which I haue found good by 48. yeeres (and moe) experience in the North part of _England_: I preiudicate and enuie none, wishing yet all to abstaine from maligning that good (to them vnknowne) which is well intended. Farewell._ Thine, for thy good, _W. L._ A Table of the things Contayned in this Booke CHAP. 1. _Of the Gardner his labour and wadges._ _pag. 1_ CHAP. 2. _Of the Soyle._ _p. 3_ _The kinds of trees._ _p. 3_ _Of barren earth._ _p. 4_ _Of Grasse._ _p. 5_ _Of the Crust of the earth._ _p. 6_ CHAP. 3. _Lowe & neere the Riuer_. _p. 6_ _Of Windes._ _p. 8_ _Of the Sunne._ _p. 8_ _Trees against a wall._ _p. 8_ CHAP. 4. _Of the quantity._ _p. 10_ _Orchards as good as a Corne-field._ _p. 10_ _Good as the Vineyard._ _p. 11_ _What quantity of ground._ _p. 11_ _Want no hinderance._ _p. 12_ _How Land-lords by their Tenants may make flourishing Orchards._ _p. 12_ CHAP. 5. _The forme of the Orchard._ _p. 12_ CHAP. 6. _Of Fences._ _p. 14_ _Effects of euill Fencing._ _p. 14_ _The kinds of Fencinge._ _p. 15_ _Of Pales and Rayles._ _p. 15_ _Of Stone-walles._ _p. 15_ _Of Quicksets and Moates._ _p. 16_ CHAP. 7. _Of Setts._ _p. 17_ _Of Slipps._ _p. 17_ _Of Burknots._ _p. 17_ _Of Small Setts._ _p. 18_ _Tying of Trees._ _p. 19_ _Signes of diseases._ _p. 19_ _Of Suckers._ _p. 20_ _A Running plant._ _p. 20_ _Of bought Setts._ _p. 21_ _The best Sett._ _p. 22_ _Times of remouing._ _p. 23_ _The manner of setting._ _p. 26_ CHAP. 8. _Of the distance of trees._ _p. 28_ _The hurts of too neere planting._ _p. 28_ _All touches hurtfull._ _p. 29_ _The best distance._ _p. 29_ _Of wast ground in an Orchard._ _p. 30_ CHAP. 9. _Of the placing of trees._ _p. 31_ CHAP. 10. _Of Grafting._ _p. 33_ _The kinds of Grafting._ _p. 34_ _How to Graft._ _p. 34_ _What a Graft is._ _p. 34_ _The eies of a Graft._ _p. 34_ _Time of Grafting._ _p. 35_ _Gathering of Grafts._ _p. 36_ _Of Incising._ _p. 37_ _Of Packing._ _p. 38_ _Of Inoculating._ _p. 39_ _Grafting in the Scutcheon._ _p. 39_ CHAP. 11. _The right dressing of trees._ _p. 40_ _Timber-wood euill drest._ _p. 41_ _The cause of hurts in wood._ _p. 42_ _How to dresse Timber._ _p. 43_ _The profit of dressing._ _p. 43-45_ _Trees will take any forme._ _p. 44_ _How to dresse all Fruit-trees._ _p. 44_ _The best times for proyning._ _p. 47_ _Faults of euill dressing and the remedies._ _p. 48_ _Of water-boughes._ _p. 49_ _Barke-pyld._ _p. 49-56_ _Instruments for dressing._ _p. 50_ CHAP. 12 _Of Foyling._ _p. 51_ _Time fit for Foyling._ _p. 53_ CHAP. 13 _Of Annoyances._ _p. 54_ _Two euills in an Orchard._ _p. 54_ _Of galls cankers, mosse &c._ _p. 55_ _Of wilfull annoyances._ _p. 60_ CHAP. 14. _Of the age of trees._ _p. 60_ _The parts of a trees age._ _p. 61_ _Of Mans age._ _p. 62_ _The age of timber-trees._ _p. 64_ _To discerne the age of trees._ _p. 65_ CHAP. 15. _Of gathering and keeping Fruit._ _p. 65_ CHAP. 16. _The profit of Orchards._ _p. 67_ _Of Cydar and Perry._ _p. 67_ _Of Fruit, Waters and Conserue._ _p. 68_ CHAP. 17. _Of Ornaments._ _p. 68_ _Of the delights._ _p. 69_ _The causes of delights._ _p. 70_ _Of Flowers, Borders, Mounts &c._ _p. 70_ _Of Bees._ _p. 72_ THE BEST, SVRE AND READIEST VVAY to make a good _Orchard_ and _Garden_. CHAPTER. 1. _Of the Gardner, and his Wages._ {SN: Religious.} Whosoeuer desireth & endeauoureth to haue a pleasant, and profitable Orchard, must (if he be able) prouide himselfe of a Fruicterer, religious, honest, skilful in that faculty, & therwithall painfull: By religious, I meane (because many think religion but a fashion or custome to go to Church) maintaining, & cherishing things religious: as Schooles of learning, Churches, Tythes, Church-goods, & rights; and aboue all things, Gods word, & the Preachers thereof, so much as he is able, practising prayers, comfortable conference, mutuall instruction to edifie, almes, and other works of Charity, and all out of a good conscience. {SN: Honest.} Honesty in a Gardner, will grace your Garden, and all your house, and helpe to stay vnbridled Seruingmen, giuing offence to none, not calling your name into question by dishonest acts, nor infecting your family by euill counsell or example. For there is no plague so infectious as Popery and knauery, he will not purloine your profit, nor hinder your pleasures. {SN: Skilfull.} Concerning his skill, he must not be a Scolist, to make shew or take in hand that, which he cannot performe, especially in so weighty a thing as an Orchard: than the which, there can be no humane thing more excellent, either for pleasure or profit, as shall (God willing) be proued in the treatise following. And what an hinderance shall it be, not onely to the owner, but to the common good, that the vnspeakeble benefit of many hundred yeeres shall be lost, by the audacious attempt of an vnskilfull Arborist. {SN: Painfull.} The Gardner had not need be an idle, or lazie Lubber, for to your Orchard being a matter of such moment, will not prosper. There will euer be some thing to doe. Weedes are alwaies growing. The great mother of all liuing Creatures, the Earth, is full of seed in her bowels, and any stirring giues them heat of Sunne, and being laid neere day, they grow: Mowles worke daily, though not alwaies alike. Winter herbes at all times will grow (except in extreame frost.) In Winter your young trees and herbes would be lightned of snow, and your Allyes cleansed: drifts of snow will set Deere, Hares, and Conyes, and other noysome beasts ouer your walles & hedges, into your Orchard. When Summer cloathes your borders with greene and peckled colours, your Gardner must dresse his hedges, and antike workes: watch his Bees, and hiue them: distill his Roses and other herbes. Now begins Summer Fruit to ripe, and craue your hand to pull them. If he haue a Garden (as he must need) to keepe, you must needs allow him good helpe, to end his labours which are endlesse, for no one man is sufficient for these things. {SN: Wages.} Such a Gardner as will conscionably, quietly and patiently, trauell in your Orchard, God shall crowne the labours of his hands with ioyfulnesse, and make the clouds drop fatnesse vpon your trees, he will prouoke your loue, and earne his wages, and fees belonging to his place: The house being serued, fallen fruite, superfluity of herbes, and flowers, seedes, grasses, sets, and besides all other of that fruit which your bountifull hand shall reward him withall, will much augment his wages, and the profit of your bees will pay you backe againe. If you be not able, nor willing to hire a gardner, keepe your profits to your selfe, but then you must take all the pains: And for that purpose (if you want this faculty) to instruct you, haue I vndertaken these labours, and gathered these rules, but chiefly respecting my Countries good. CHAP. 2. _Of the soyle._ {SN: Kinds of trees.} {SN: Soyle.} Fruit-trees most common, and meetest for our Northerne Countries: (as Apples, Peares, Cheries, Filberds, red and white Plummes, Damsons, and Bulles,) for we meddle not with Apricockes nor Peaches, nor scarcely with Quinces, which will not like in our cold parts, vnlesse they be helped with some reflex of Sunne, or other like meanes, nor with bushes, bearing berries, as Barberies, Goose-berries, or Grosers, Raspe-berries, and such like, though the Barbery be wholesome, and the tree may be made great: doe require (as all other trees doe) a blacke, fat, mellow, cleane and well tempered soyle, wherein they may gather plenty of good sap. Some thinke the Hasell would haue a chanily rocke, and the sallow, and eller a waterish marish. The soile is made better by deluing, and other meanes, being well melted, and the wildnesse of the earth and weedes (for euery thing subiect to man, and seruing his vse (not well ordered) is by nature subiect to the curse,) is killed by frosts and drought, by fallowing and laying on heapes, and if it be wild earth, with burning. {SN: Barren earth.} If your ground be barren (for some are forced to make an Orchard of barren ground) make a pit three quarters deepe, and two yards wide, and round in such places, where you would set your trees, and fill the same with fat, pure, and mellow earth, one whole foot higher then your Soile, and therein set your Plant. For who is able to manure an whole Orchard plot, if it be barren? But if you determine to manure the whole site, this is your way: digge a trench halfe a yard deepe, all along the lower (if there be a lower) side of your Orchard plot, casting vp all the earth on the inner side, and fill the same with good short, hot, & tender muck, and make such another Trench, and fill the same as the first, and so the third, and so through out your ground. And by this meanes your plot shall be fertile for your life. But be sure you set your trees, neither in dung nor barren earth. {SN: Plaine.} {SN: Moyst.} Your ground must be plaine, that it may receiue, and keepe moysture, not onely the raine falling thereon, but also water cast vpon it, or descending from higher ground by sluices, Conduits, &c. For I account moisture in Summer very needfull in the soile of trees, & drought in Winter. Prouided, that the ground neither be boggy, nor the inundation be past 24. houres at any time, and but twice in the whole Summer, and so oft in the Winter. Therefore if your plot be in a Banke, or haue a descent, make Trenches by degrees, Allyes, Walkes, and such like, so as the Water may be stayed from passage. And if too much water be any hinderance to your walks (for dry walkes doe well become an Orchard, and an Orchard them:) raise your walkes with earth first, and then with stones, as bigge as Walnuts: and lastly, with grauell. In Summer you need not doubt too much water from heauen, either to hurt the health of your body, or of your trees. And if ouerflowing molest you after one day, auoid it then by deepe trenching. Some for this purpose dig the soile of their Orchard to receiue moisture, which I cannot approue: for the roots with digging are oftentimes hurt, and especially being digged by some vnskilfull seruant: For the Gardiner cannot doe all himselfe. And moreouer, the roots of Apples & Peares being laid neere day, with the heate of the Sun, will put forth suckers, which are a great hinderance, and sometimes with euill guiding, the destruction of trees, vnlesse the deluing be very shallow, and the ground laid very leuell againe. Cherries and Plummes without deluing, will hardly or neuer (after twenty yeares) be kept from such suckers, nor aspes. {SN: Grasse.} Grasse also is thought needfull for moisture, so you let it not touch the roots of your trees: for it will breed mosse, and the boall of your tree neere the earth would haue the comfort of the Sunne and Ayre. Some take their ground to be too moist when it is not so, by reason of waters standing thereon, for except in soure marshes, springs, and continuall ouerflowings, no earth can be too moyst. Sandy & fat earth will auoid all water falling by receit. Indeed a stiffe clay will not receiue the water, and therefore if it be grassie or plaine, especially hollow, the water will abide, and it wil seeme waterish, when the fault is in the want of manuring, and other good dressing. {SN: Naturally plaine.} {SN: Crust of the earth.} This plainnesse which we require, had need be naturall, because to force an vneuen ground will destroy the fatnesse. For euery soile hath his crust next day wherein trees and herbes put their roots, and whence they draw their sap, which is the best of the soile, and made fertile with heat and cold, moisture and drought, and vnder which by reason of the want of the said temperature, by the said foure qualities, no tree nor herbe (in a manner) will or can put root. As may be seene if in digging your ground, you take the weeds of most growth: as grasse or docks, (which will grow though they lie vpon the earth bare) yet bury them vnder the crust, and they will surely dye and perish, & become manure to your ground. This crust is not past 15. or 18. inches deepe in good ground, in other grounds lesse. Hereby appeares the fault of forced plaines, viz. your crust in the lower parts, is couered with the crust of the higher parts, and both with worse earth: your heights hauing the crust taken away, are become meerely barren: so that either you must force a new crust, or haue an euill soile. And be sure you leuell, before you plant, lest you be forced to remoue, or hurt your plants by digging, and casting amongst their roots. Your ground must be cleered as much as you may of stones, and grauell, walls, hedges, bushes, & other weeds. CHAP. 3. _Of the Site._ {SN: Low and neere a Riuer.} There is no difference, that I find betwixt the necessity of a good soile, and a good site of an Orchard. For a good soile (as is before described) cannot want a good site, and if it do, the fruit cannot be good, and a good site will much mend an euill soile. The best site is in low grounds, (and if you can) neere vnto a Riuer. High grounds are not naturally fat. And if they haue any fatnesse by mans hand, the very descent in time doth wash it away. It is with grounds in this case as it is with men in a common wealth. Much will haue more: and once poore, seldome or neuer rich. The raine will scind, and wash, and the wind will blow fatnesse from the heights to the hollowes, where it will abide, and fatten the earth though it were barren before. {SN: Psal. 1. 3.} {SN: Ezek. 17. 8.} {SN: Eccl. 39. 17.} {SN: Mr. _Markham_.} Hence it is, that we haue seldome any plaine grounds, and low, barren: and as seldome any heights naturally fertill. It is vnspeakeable, what fatnesse is brought to low grounds by inundations of waters. Neither did I euer know any barren ground in a low plaine by a Riuer side. The goodnesse of the soile in _Howle_ or _Hollowdernes_, in _York-shire_, is well knowne to all that know the Riuer _Humber_, and the huge bulkes of their Cattell there. By estimation of them that haue seene the low grounds in _Holland_ and _Zealand_ they farre surpasse the most Countries in _Europe_ for fruitfulnesse, and only because they lie so low. The world cannot compare with _�gypt_, for fertility, so farre as _Nilus_ doth ouer flow his bankes. So that a fitter place cannot be chosen for an Orchard, then a low plaine by a riuer side. For besides the fatnesse which the water brings, if any cloudy mist or raine be stirring, it commonly falls downe to, and followes the course of the Riuer. And where see we greater trees of bulke and bough, then standing on or neere the waters side? If you aske why the plaines in _Holderns_, and such countries are destitute of woods? I answer that men and cattell (that haue put trees thence, from out of Plaines to void corners) are better then trees. Neither are those places without trees. Our old fathers can tel vs, how woods are decaied, & people in the roomth of trees multiplied. I haue stood somwhat long in this poynt, because some do condemne a moist soile for fruit-trees. {SN: Winds. Chap. 13.} A low ground is good to auoide the danger of winds, both for shaking downe your vnripe fruite. Trees the most (that I know) being loaden with wood, for want of proyning, and growing high, by the vnskilfulnesse of the Arborist, must needes be in continuall danger of the South-west, West, and North west winds, especially in _September_ and _March_, when the aire is most temperate from extreme heat, and cold, which are deadly enemies to great winds. Wherefore chuse your ground low: Or if you be forced to plant in a higher ground, let high and strong wals, houses, and trees, as wall-nuts, plane trees, Okes, and Ashes, placed in good order, be your fence for winds. The sucken of your dwelling house, descending into your orchard, if it be cleanly conueyed, is good. {SN: Sunne.} The Sunne, in some sort, is the life of the world. It maketh proud growth, and ripens kindly, and speedily, according to the golden tearme: _Annus fructificat, non tellus_. Therefore in the countries, neerer approching the Zodiake, the Sunnes habitation, they haue better, and sooner ripe fruite, then we that dwell in these frozen parts. {SN: Trees against a wall.} This prouoketh most of our great Arborists, to plant Apricockes, Cherries and Peaches, by a wall, and with tackes, and other meanes to spread them vpon, and fasten them to a wall, to haue the benefit of the immoderate reflexe of the Sunne, which is commendable, for the hauing of faire, good & soone ripe fruit. But let them know it is more hurtfull to their trees then the benefit they reape therby: as not suffering a tree to liue the tenth part of his age. It helpes Gardners to worke, for first the wall hinders the roots, because into a dry and hard wall of earth or stone a tree will not, nor cannot put any root to profit, but especially it stops the passage of sap, whereby the barke is wounded, & the wood, & diseases grow, so that the tree becomes short of life. For as in the body of a man, the leaning or lying on some member, wherby the course of bloud is stopt, makes that member as it were dead for the time, till the bloud returne to his course, and I thinke, if that stopping should continue any time, the member would perish for want of bloud (for the life is in the bloud) and so endanger the body: so the sap is the life of the tree, as the bloud is to mans body: neither doth the tree in winter (as is supposed) want his sap, no more then mans body his bloud, which in winter, and time of sleep draws inward. So that the dead time of winter, to a tree, is but a night of rest: for the tree at all times, euen in winter is nourished with sap, & groweth as well as mans body. The chilling cold may well some little time stay, or hinder the proud course of the sap, but so little & so short a time, that in calme & mild season, euen in the depth of winter, if you marke it, you may easily perceiue, the sap to put out, and your trees to increase their buds, which were formed in the summer before, & may easily be discerned: for leaues fall not off, til they be thrust off, with the knots or buds, wherupon it comes to passe that trees cannot beare fruit plentifully two yeares together, and make themselues ready to blossome against the seasonablenesse of the next Spring. And if any frost be so extreme, that it stay the sap too much, or too long, then it kils the forward fruit in the bud, and sometimes the tender leaues and twigs, but not the tree. Wherefore, to returne, it is perillous to stop the sap. And where, or when, did you euer see a great tree packt on a wall? Nay, who did euer know a tree so vnkindly splat, come to age? I haue heard of some, that out of their imaginary cunning, haue planted such trees, on the North side of the wall, to auoide drought, but the heate of the Sunne is as comfortable (which they should haue regarded) as the drought is hurtfull. And although water is a soueraigne remedy against drought, ye want of Sun is no way to be helped. Wherefore to conclude this Chapter, let your ground lie so, that it may haue the benefit of the South, and West Sun, and so low and close, that it may haue moysture, and increase his fatnesse (for trees are the greatest suckers & pillers of earth) and (as much as may be) free from great winds. CHAP. 4. _Of the quantity._ {SN: Orchard as good as a corn-field.} {SN: Compared with a vinyard.} {SN: Compared with a garden.} It would be remembred what a benefit riseth, not onely to euery particular owner of an Orchard, but also to the common wealth, by fruit, as shall be shewed in the 16. Chapter (God willing) whereupon must needes follow: the greater the Orchard is (being good and well kept) the better it is, for of good things, being equally good, the biggest is the best. And if it shall appeare, that no ground a man occupieth (no, not the corne field) yeeldeth more gaine to the purse, and house keeping (not to speake of the vnspeakeable pleasure) quantity for quantity, than a good Orchard (besides the cost in planting, and dressing an orchard, is not so much by farre, as the labour and feeding of your corne fields, nor for durance of time, comparable, besides the certainty of the on before the other) I see not how any labour, or cost in this kind, can be idly or wastfully bestowed, or thought too much. And what other things is a vineyard, in those countries where vines doe thriue, than a large Orchard of trees bearing fruit? Or what difference is there in the iuice of the Grape, and our Cyder & Perry, but the goodnes of the soile & clime where they grow? which maketh the one more ripe, & so more pleasant then the other. What soeuer can be said for the benefit rising from an orchard, that makes for the largenesse of the Orchards bounds. And (me thinkes) they do preposterously, that bestow more cost and labours, and more ground in and vpon a garden than vpon an orchard, whence they reape and may reape both more pleasure and more profit, by infinite degrees. And further, that a Garden neuer so fresh, and faire, and well kept, cannot continue without both renewing of the earth and the hearbs often, in the short and ordinary age of a man: whereas your Orchard well kept shall dure diuers hundred yeares, as shall be shewed chap. 14. In a large orchard there is much labour saued, in fencing, and otherwise: for three little orchards, or few trees, being, in a manner, all out-sides, are so blasted and dangered, and commonly in keeping neglected, and require a great fence; whereas in a great Orchard, trees are a mutuall fence one to another, and the keeping is regarded, and lesse fencing serues sixe acres together, than three in seuerall inclosures. {SN: What quantity of ground.} Now what quantity of ground is meetest for an Orchard can no man prescribe, but that must be left to euery mans seuerall iudgement, to be measured according to his ability and will, for other necessaries besides fruite must be had, and some are more delighted with orchard then others. {SN: Want is no hinderance.} {SN: How Land-lords by their Tenants may make flourishing Orchards in _England_.} Let no man hauing a fit plot plead pouerty in this case, for an orchard once planted will maintaine it selfe, and yeeld infinite profit besides. And I am perswaded, that if men did know the right and best way of planting, dressing, and keeping trees, and felt the profit and pleasure thereof, both they that haue no orchards would haue them, & they that haue orchards, would haue them larger, yea fruit-trees in their hedges, as in _Worcester-shire_, &c. And I think, that the want of planting, is a great losse to our common-wealth, & in particular, to the owners of Lord-ships, which Land lords themselues might easily amend, by granting longer terme, and better assurance to their tenants, who haue taken vp this Prouerbe _Botch and sit, Build and flit_: for who will build or plant for an other mans profit? Or the Parliament mighte ioyne euery occupier of grounds to plant and mainetaine for so many acres of fruitfull ground, so many seuerall trees or kinds of trees for fruit. Thus much for quantity. CHAP. 5. _Of the forme._ {SN: The vsuall forme is a square.} The goodnesse of the soile, and site, are necessary to the wel being of an orchard simply, but the forme is so farre necessary, as the owner shall thinke meete, for that kind of forme wherewith euery particular man is delighted, we leaue it to himselfe, _Suum cuique pulchrum_. The forme that men like in generall is a square, for although roundnesse be _forma perfectissima_, yet that principle is good where necessity by art doth not force some other forme. If within one large square the Gardner shall make one round Labyrinth or Maze with some kind of Berries, it will grace your forme, so there be sufficient roomth left for walkes, so will foure or more round knots do. For it is to be noted, that the eye must be pleased with the forme. I haue seene squares rising by degrees with stayes from your house-ward, according to this forme which I haue, _Crassa quod aiunt Minerua_, with an vnsteady hand, rough hewen, for in forming the country gardens, the better sort may vse better formes, and more costly worke. What is needefull more to be sayd, I referre that all (concerning the Forme,) to the Chapter 17 of the ornaments of an Orchard. {Illustration: _A._ Al these squares must bee set with trees, the Gardens and other ornaments must stand in spaces betwixt the trees, & in the borders & fences. _B._ Trees 20. yards asunder. _C._ Garden Knots. _D._ Kitchen garden. _E._ Bridge. _F._ Conduit. _G._ Staires. _H._ Walkes set with great wood thicke. _I._ Walkes set with great wood round about your Orchard. _K._ The out fence. _L._ The out fence set with stone-fruite. _M._ Mount. To force earth for a mount, or such like set it round with quicke, and lay boughes of trees strangely intermingled tops inward, with the earth in the midle. _N._ Still-house. _O._ Good standing for Bees, if you haue an house. _P._ If the riuer run by your doore, & vnder your mount, it will be pleasant.} CHAP. 6. _Of Fences._ {SN: Effects of euill fencing.} {SN: Let the fence be your owne.} All your labour past and to come about an Orchard is lost vnlesse you fence well. It shall grieue you much to see your young sets rubd loose at the rootes, the barke pild, the boughes and twigs cropt, your fruite stolne, your trees broken, and your many yeares labours and hopes destroyed, for want of fences. A chiefe care must be had in this point. You must therefore plant in such a soile, where you may prouide a conuenient, strong and seemely fence. For you can possesse no goods, that haue so many enemies as an orchard, looke Chapter 13. Fruits are so delightsome, and desired of so many (nay, in a manner of all) and yet few will be at cost and take paines to prouide them. Fence well therefore, let your plot be wholly in your owne power, that you make all your fence your selfe: for neighbours fencing is none at all, or very carelesse. Take heed of a doore or window, (yea of a wall) of any other mans into your orchard: yea, though it be nayld vp, or the wall be high, for perhaps they will proue theeues. {SN: Kinds of fences, earthen walles.} All Fences commonly are made of Earth, Stone, Bricke, Wood, or both earth and wood. Dry wall of earth, and dry Ditches, are the worst fences saue pales or railes, and doe waste the soonest, vnlesse they be well copt with glooe and morter, whereon at _Mighill-tide_ it will be good to sow Wall-flowers, commonly called Bee-flowers, or winter Gilly-flowers, because they will grow (though amongst stones) and abide the strongest frost and drought, continually greene and flowring euen in Winter, and haue a pleasant smell, and are timely, (that is, they will floure the first and last of flowers) and are good for Bees. And your earthen wall is good for Bees dry and warme. But these fences are both vnseemly, euill to repaire, and onely for need, where stone or wood cannot be had. Whosoeuer makes such Walles, must not pill the ground in the Orchard, for getting earth, nor make any pits or hallowes, which are both vnseemly and vnprofitable. Old dry earth mixt with sand is best for these. This kind of wall will soone decay, by reason of the trees which grow neere it, for the roots and boales of great trees, will increase, vndermine, and ouerturne such walles, though they were of stone, as is apparant by Ashes, Rountrees, Burt-trees, and such like, carried in the chat, or berry, by birds into stone-walles. {SN: Pale and Raile.} Fences of dead wood, as pales, will not last, neither will railes either last or make good fence. {SN: Stone walls.} Stone walles (where stone may be had) are the best of this sort, both for fencing, lasting, and shrouding of your young trees. But about this must you bestow much paines and more cost, to haue them handsome, high and durable. {SN: Quicke wood and Moates.} But of all other (in mine owne opinion) Quickwood, and Moats or Ditches of water, where the ground is leuell, is the best fence. In vnequall grounds, which will not keepe water, there a double ditch may be cast, made streight and leuel on the top, two yards broad for a faire walke, fiue or sixe foot higher then the soyle, with a gutter on either side, two yards wide, and foure foot deepe set with out, with three or foure chesse of Thorns, and within with Cherry, Plumme, Damson, Bullys, Filbirds, (for I loue these trees better for their fruit, and as well for their forme, as priuit) for you may make them take any forme. And in euery corner (and middle if you will) a mount would be raised, whereabout the wood may claspe, powdered with wood-binde: which wil make with dressing a faire, plesant, profitable, & sure fence. But you must be sure that your quicke thornes either grow wholly, or that there be a supply betime, either with planting new, or plashing the old where need is. And assure your selfe, that neither wood, stone, earth, nor water, can make so strong a fence, as this after seuen yeares growth. {SN: Moates.} Moates, Fish-ponds, and (especially at one side a Riuer) within and without your fence, will afford you fish, fence, and moysture to your trees, and pleasure also, if they be so great and deepe that you may haue Swans, & other water birds, good for deuouring of vermine, and boat for many good vses. It shall hardly auaile you to make any fence for your Orchard, if you be a niggard of your fruit. For as liberality will saue it best from noysome neighbours, liberality I say is the best fence, so Iustice must restraine rioters. Thus when your ground is tempered, squared, and fenced, it is time to prouide for planting. CHAP. 7. _Of Sets._ There is not one point (in my opinion) about an Orchard more to be regarded, than the choyce getting and setting of good plants, either for readinesse or hauing good fruite, or for continuall lasting. For whosoeuer shall faile in the choyce of good Sets, or in getting, or gathering, or setting his plants, shall neuer haue a good or lasting Orchard. And I take want of skill in this faculty to be a chiefe hinderance to the most Orchards, and to many for hauing of Orchards at all. {SN: Slips.} Some for readinesse vse slips, which seldome take roote: and if they doe take, they cannot last, both because their roote hauing a maine wound will in short time decay the body of the tree: and besides that rootes being so weakely put, are soone nipt with drought or frost. I could neuer see (lightly) any slip but of apples onely set for trees. {SN: Bur-knot.} A Bur-knot kindly taken from an Apple tree, is much better and surer. You must cut him close at the roote ende, an handfull vnder the knot. (Some vse in Summer about _Lammas_ to circumcise him, and put earth to the knots with hay roaps, and in winter cut him off and set him, but this is curiosity, needlesse, and danger with remouing, and drought,) and cut away all his twigs saue one, the most principall, which in setting you must leaue aboue the earth, burying his trunk in the crust of the earth for his root. It matters not much what part of the bough the twig growes out of. If it grow out of or neere the roote end, some say such an Apple will haue no coare nor kirnell. Or if it please the Plantor, he may let his bough be crooked, and leaue out his top end, one foote or somewhat more, wherein will be good grafting, if either you like not, or doubt the fruite of the bough (for commonly your bur-knots are summer fruit) or if you thinke he will not couer his wound safely. {SN: Vsuall Sets.} {SN: Maine rootes cut.} {SN: Stow sets remoued.} {SN: Generall rule.} {SN: Tying of trees.} {SN: Generall rule.} {SN: Signes of diseases, Chap 13.} The most vsuall kind of sets, is plants with rootes growing of kirnels of Apples, Peares, and Crabbes, or stones of Cherries, Plummes, &c. Remoued out of a Nursery, Wood or other Orchard, into, and set in your Orchard in their due places I grant this kind to be better than either of the former, by much, as more sure and more durable. Herein you must note that in sets so remoued, you get all the roots you can; and without brusing of any; I vtterly dislike the opinion of those great Gardners, that following their Bookes would haue the maine rootes cut away, for tops cannot growe without rootes. And because none can get all the rootes, and remouall is an hinderance, you may not leaue on all tops, when you set them: For there is a proportion betwixt the top and root of a tree, euen in the number (at least) in the growth. If the roots be many, they will bring you many tops, if they be not hindred. And if you vse to stow or top your tree too much or too low, and leaue no issue, or little for sap, (as is to be seene in your hedges) it will hinder the growth of rootes and boale, because such a kind of stowing is a kind of smothering, or choaking the sap. Great wood, as Oke, Elme, Ash, &c. being continually kept downe with sheeres, knife, axe, &c. neither boale nor roote will thriue, but as an hedge or bush. If you intend to graff in your Set, you may cut him closer with a greater wound, and nearer the earth, within a foote or two, because the graft or grafts will couer his wound. If you like his fruite, and would haue him to be a tree of himselfe, be not so bold: this I can tell you, that though you do cut his top close, and leaue nothing but his bulke, because his rootes are few, if he be (but little) bigger than your thumbe (as I with all plants remoued to be) he will safely recouer wound within seuen yeares; by good guidance that is. In the next time of dressing immediatly aboue his vppermost sprig, you cut him off aslope cleanely, to that the sprigge stand on the backe side, (and if you can Northward, that the wound may haue the benefit of Sunne) at the vpper ende of the wound: and let that sprigge onely be the boale. And take this for a generall rule; Euery young plant, if he thriue, will recouer any wound aboue the earth, by good dressing, although it be to the one halfe, and to his very heart. This short cutting at the remoue, saues your plants from Wind, and neede the lesse or no staking. I commend not Lying or Leaning of trees against holds or stayres; for it breedes obstruction of sap and wounds incureable. All remouing of trees as great as your arme, or aboue, is dangerous: though sometime some such will grow but not continue long: Because they be tainted with deadly wounds, either in the roote or top. (And a tree once throughly tainted is neuer good) And though they get some hold in the earth with some lesser taw, or tawes, which giue some nourishment to the body of the tree: yet the heart being tainted, he will hardly euer thriue; which you may easily discerne by the blackenesse of the boughes at the heart, when you dresse your trees. Also, when he is set with moe tops than the rootes can nourish, the tops decaying, blacken the boughes, and the boughs the armes, and so they boile at the very heart. Or this taint in the remouall, if it kill not presently, but after some short time, it may be discerned by blacknesse or yellownesse in the barke, and a small hungred leafe. Or if your remoued plant put forth leaues the next and second summer, and little or few spraies, it is a great signe of a taint, and next yeares death. I haue knowne a tree tainted in setting, yet grow, & beare blossomes for diuers yeares: and yet for want of strength could neuer shape his fruit. {SN: Suckers good sets.} Next vnto this or rather equall with these plants, are suckers growing out of the roots of great trees, which cherries and plums do seldome or neuer want: and being taken kindly with their roots, will make very good sets. And you may helpe them much by enlarging their rootes with the taws of the tree, whence you take them. They are of two sorts: Either growing from the very root of the tree: and here you must be carefull, not to hurt your tree when you gather them, by ripping amongst the rootes; and that you take them cleane away: for these are a great and continuall annoyance to the growth of your tree: and they will hardly be cleansed. Secondly, or they do arise from some taw: and these may be taken without danger, with long and good rootes, and will soone become trees of strength. {SN: A running Plant.} There is another way, which I haue not throughly proued, to get not onely plants for graffing, but sets to remaine for trees, which I call a _Running Plant_: the manner of it is this: Take a roote or kirnell, and put it into the middle of your plot, and the second yeare in the spring, geld his top, if he haue one principall (as commonly by nature they haue) and let him put forth onely foure Cyons toward the foure corners of the orchard, as neere the earth as you can. If he put not foure, (which is rare) stay his top till he haue put so many. When you haue such foure, cut the stocke aslope, as is aforesayd in this chapter, hard aboue the vttermost sprig, & keepe those foure without Cyons cleane and straight, till you haue them a yard and a halfe, at least, or two yards long. Then the next spring in grassing time, lay downe those foure sprayes, towards the foure corners of your Orchard, with their tops in an heape of pure and good earth, and railed as high as the roote of your Cyon (for sap will not descend) and a sod to keepe them downe, leauing nine or twelue inches of the top to looke vpward. In that hill he will put rootes, and his top new Cyons, which you must spread as before, and so from hill to hill till he spread the compasse of your ground, or as farre as you list. If in bending, the Cyons cracke, the matter is small, cleanse the ground and he will recouer. Euery bended bough will put forth branches, and become trees. If this plant be of a burre knot, there is no doubt. I haue proued it in one branch my selfe: and I know at _Wilton_ in _Cleeue-land_ a Peare-tree of a great bulke and age, blowne close to the earth, hath put at euery knot rootes into the earth, and from roote to top, a great number of mighty armes or trees, filling a great roomth, like many trees, or a little Orchard. Much better may it be done by Art in a lesse tree. And I could not mislike this kind, saue that the time will be long before it come to perfection. {SN: Sets bought.} Many vse to buy sets already grafted, which is not the best way: for first, All remoues are dangerous: Againe, there is danger in the carriage: Thirdly, it is a costly course of planting: Fourthly, euery Gardner is not trusty to sell you good fruite: Fifthly, you know not which is best, which is worst, and so may take most care about your worst trees. Lastly, this way keepes you from practise, and so from experience in so good, Gentlemanly, Scholerlike, and profitable a faculty. {SN: The best sets.} {SN: Vnremoued how.} The onely best way (in my opinion) to haue sure and lasting sets, is neuer to remoue: for euery remoue is an hinderance, if not a dangerous hurt or deadly taint. This is the way. The plot forme being layd, and the plot appointed where you will plant euery set in your orchard, digge the roomth, where your sets shall stand, a yard compasse, and make the earth mellow and cleane, and mingle it with a few coale-ashes, to auoide wormes: and immediately after the first change of the Moone, in the latter end of _February_, the earth being a fresh turn'd ouer, put in euery such roomth three or foure kirnels of Apples or Peares, of the best: euery kirnell in an hole made with your finger, finger deepe, a foote distant one from another: and that day moneth following, as many moe, (lest some of the former misse) in the same compasse; but not in the same holes. Hence (God willing) shall you haue rootes enough. If they all, or diuers of them come vp, you may draw (but not digge) vp (nor put downe) at your pleasure, the next _Nouember_. How many soeuer you take away, to giue or bestow elsewhere, be sure to leaue two of the proudest. And when in your 2. and 3. yeare you Graffe, if you graffe then at all, leaue the one of those two vngraffed, lest in graffing the other you faile: For I find by tryall, that after first or second graffing in the same stocke, being mist (for who hits all) the third misse puts your stocke in deadly danger, for want of issue of sap. Yea, though you hit in graffing, yet may your graffes with winde or otherwise be broken downe. If your graffes or graffe prosper, you haue your desire, in a plant vnremoued, without taint, and the fruite at your owne choyce, and so you may (some little earth being remooued) pull, but not digge vp the other Plant or Plants in that roomth. If your graffe or stocke, or both perish, you haue another in the same place, of better strength to worke vpon. For thriuing without snub he will ouer-lay your grafted stocke much. And it is hardly possible to misse in graffing so often, if your Gardiner be worth his name. {SN: Sets vngrafted best of all.} It shall not be amisse (as I iudge it) if your Kirnels be of choyce fruite, and that you see them come forward proudly in their body, and beare a faire and broad leafe in colour, tending to a greenish yellow (which argues pleasant and great fruit) to try some of them vngraffed: for although it be a long time ere this come to beare fruit, ten or twelue yeares, or moe; and at their first bearing, the fruit will not seeme to be like his owne kind: yet am I assured, vpon tryall, before twenty yeares growth, such trees will increase the bignesse and goodnesse of their fruite, and come perfectly to their owne kind. Trees (like other breeding creatures) as they grow in yeares, bignes and strength, so they mend their fruit. Husbands and Houswiues find this true by experience, in the rearing of their yong store. More then this, there is no tree like this for soundnes and dureable last, if his keeping and dressing be answerable. I grant, the readiest way to come soone to fruit is graffing: because in a manner, all your graffes are taken of fruit bearing trees. {SN: Time of remouing.} {SN: Generall rule.} Now when you haue made choise of your sets to remoue, the ground being ready, the best time is, immediatly after the fall of the leafe, in, or about the change of the Moone, when the sap is most quiet: for then the sap is in turning: for it makes no stay, but in the _extremity_ of drought or cold. At any time in winter, may you transplant trees so you put no ice nor snow to the root of your plant in the setting: and therefore open, calme and moist weather is best. To remoue, the leafe being ready to fall and not fallen, or buds apparantly put forth in a moist warme season, for need, sometime may do well: but the safest is to walke in the plaine trodden path. Some hold opinion that it is best remouing before the fall of the leafe, and I heare it commonly practised in the South by our best arborists, the leafe not fallen: and they giue the reason to be, that the descending of the sap will make speedy rootes. But marke the reasons following and I thinke you shall find no soundnesse, either in that position or practise, at least in the reason. 1. I say, it is dangerous to remoue when the sap is not quiet, for euery remoue giues a maine checke to the stirring sap, by staying the course therof in the body of your plant, as may appeare in trees remoued any time in summer, they commonly dye, nay hardly shall you saue the life of the most young and tender plant of any kinde of wood (scarcely herbes) if you remoue them in the pride of sap. For proud sap vniuersally staied by remoual, euer hinders; often taints and so presently, or in very short time kills. Sap is like bloud in mans body, in which is the life, _Cap. 3. p. 9._ If the blood vniuersally be cold, life is excluded; so is sap tainted by vntimely remouall. A stay by drought, or cold, is not so dangerous (though dangerous if it be extreme) because more naturall. 2. The sap neuer descends, as men suppose, but is consollidated & transubstantiated into the substance of the tree, and passeth (alwayes aboue the earth) vpward, not onely betwixt the barke and the wood, but also into and in both body & barke, though not so plentifully, as may appeare by a tree budding, nay fructifying two or three yeres, after he be circumcised at the very root, like a riuer that inlargeth his channel by a continual descent. 3. I cannot perceiue what time they would haue the sap to descend. At _Midsommer_ in a biting drought it staies, but descends not, for immediatly vpon moisture it makes second shoots, at (or before rather) _Michaeltide_, when it shapens his buds for next yeares fruit. If at the fal of leafe, I grant, about that time is the greatest stand, but no descent, of sap, which begins somwhat before the leafe fall, but not long, therfore at that time must be the best remouing, not by reason of descent, but stay of sap. 4. The sap in this course hath his profitable and apparant effects, as the growth of the tree, couering of wounds, putting of buds, &c. Wherupon it follows, if the sap descend, it must needs haue some effect to shew it. 5. Lastly, boughs plasht and laid lower then the root, dye for want of sap descending, except where it is forced by the maine streame of the sap, as in top boughs hanging like water in pipes, or except the plasht bough lying on the ground put rootes of his owne, yea vnder boughs which we commonly call water boughs, can scarcely get sap to liue, yea in time dye, because the sap doth presse so violently vpward, and therefore the fairest shootes and fruits are alwayes in the top. {SN: Remooue soone.} _Obiect._ If you say that many so remoued thriue, I say that somewhat before the fall of the leafe (but not much) is the stand, for the fall & the stand are not at one instant, before the stand is dangerous. But to returne. The sooner in winter you remoue your sets, the better; the latter the worse: For it is very perillous if a strong drought take your Sets before they haue made good their rooting. A Plant set at the fall, shall gaine (in a a manner) a whole yeeres growth of that which is set in the Spring after. {SN: The manner of setting.} I vse in the setting to be sure, that the earth be mouldy, (and somewhat moist) that it may runne among the small tangles without straining or bruising: and as I fill in earth to his root, I shake the Set easily to and fro, to make the earth settle the better to his roots: and withall easily with my foot I put in the earth close; for ayre is noysome, and will follow concauities. Some prescribe Oates to be put in with the earth. I could like it, if I could know any reason thereof: and they vse to set their Plant with the same side toward the Sunne: but this conceit is like the other. For first I would haue euery tree to stand so free from shade, that not onely the root (which therefore you must keepe bare from graffe) but body, boughes, and branches, and euery spray, may haue the benefit of Sunne. And what hurt, if that part of the tree, that before was shadowed, be now made partaker of the heat of the Sunne? In turning of Bees, I know it is hurtfull, because it changeth their entrance, passage, and whole worke: But not so in Trees. {SN: Set in the crust.} Set as deepe as you can, so that in any wise you goe not beneath the crust. Looke Chap. 2. {SN: Moysture good.} We speake in the second Chapter of moysture in generall: but now especially hauing put your remoued plant into the earth, powre on water (of a puddle were good) by distilling presently, and so euery weeke twice in strong drought, so long as the earth will drinke, and refuse by ouerflowing. For moisture mollifies, and both giues leaue to the roots to spread, and makes the earth yeeld sap and nourishment with plenty & facility. Nurses (they say) giue most & best milke after warme drinks. If your ground be such that it will keepe no moisture at the root of your plant, such plant shall neuer like, or but for a time. There is nothing more hurtfull for young trees then piercing drought. I haue known trees of good stature after they haue beene of diuers yeeres growth, & thriue well for a good time, perish for want of water, and very many by reason of taints in setting. {SN: Grafts must be fenced.} It is meet your sets and grafts be fenced, till they be as big as your arme, for feare of annoyances. Many waies may sets receiue dammages, after they be set, whether grafted or vngrafted. For although we suppose, that no noysome beast, or other thing must haue accesse among your trees: yet by casualty, a Dog, Cat, or such like, or your selfe, or negligent friend bearing you company, or a shrewd boy, may tread or fall vpon a young and tender plant or graft. To auoid these and many such chances, you must stake them round a pretty distance from the set, neither so neere, nor so thicke, but that it may haue the benefit of Sun, raine, and ayre. Your stakes (small or great) would be so surely put, or driuen into the earth, that they breake not, if any thing happen to leane vpon them, else may the fall be more hurtfull, then the want of the fence. Let not your stakes shelter any weeds about your sets, for want of Sunne is a great hinderance. Let them stand so farre off, that your grafts spreading receiue no hurt, either by rubbing on them, or of any other thing passing by. If your stocke be long, and high grafted (which I must discommend (except in need) because there the sap is weake, and they are subiect to strong wind, and the lighting of birds) tie easily with a soft list three or foure prickes vnder the clay, and let their tops stand aboue the grafts, to auoid the lighting of Crowes, Pyes, &c. vpon your grafts. If you sticke some sharpe thornes at the roots of your stakes, they will make hurtfull things keepe off the better. Other better fences for your grafts I know none. And thus much for sets and setting. CHAP. 8. _Of the distance of Trees._ {SN: Hurts of too neere planting.} I Know not to what end you should prouide good ground, well fenced, & plant good sets; and when your trees should come to profit, haue all your labours lost, for want of due regard to the distance of placing your trees. I haue seene many trees stand so thicke, that one could not thriue for the throng of his neighbours. If you doe marke it, you shall see the tops of trees rubd off, their sides galled like a galled horses backe, and many trees haue more stumps then boughes, and most trees no well thriuing, but short, stumpish, and euill thriuing boughes: like a Corne field ouer seeded, or a towne ouer peopled, or a pasture ouer-laid, which the Gardiner must either let grow, or leaue the tree very few boughes to beare fruit. Hence small thrift, galls, wounds, diseases, and short life to the trees: and while they liue greene, little, hard, worme-eaten, and euill thriuing fruit arise, to the discomfort of the owners. {SN: Remedy.} {SN: Generall rule.} {SN: All touches hurtfull.} To preuent which discommodity, one of the best remedies is the sufficient and fit distance of trees. Therefore at the setting of your plants you must haue such respect, that the distance of them be such, that euery tree be not annoyance, but an helpe to his fellowes: for trees (as all other things of the same kind) should shroud, and not hurt one another. And assure your selfe that euery touch of trees (as well vnder as aboue the earth) is hurtfull. Therefore this must be a generall rule in this Art: That no tree in an Orchard well ordered, nor bough, nor Cyon, drop vpon, or touch his fellowes. Let no man thinke this vnpossible, but looke in the eleuenth Chapter of dressing of trees. If they touch, the winde will cause a forcible rub. Young twigs are tender, if boughes or armes touch or rub, if they are strong, they make great galls. No kind of touch therefore in trees can be good. {SN: The best distance of trees.} {SN: The parts of a tree.} Now it is to be considered what distance amongst sets is requisite, and that must be gathered from the compasse and roomth, that each tree by probability will take and fill. And herein I am of a contrary opinion to all them, which practise or teach the planting of trees, that euer yet I knew, read, or heard of. For the common space betweene tree and tree is ten foot: if twenty foot, it is thought very much. But I suppose twenty yards distance is small enough betwixt tree and tree, or rather too too little. For the distance must needs be as far as two trees are well able to ouer spread, and fill, so they touch not by one yard at least. Now I am assured, and I know one Apple-tree, set of a slip _finger-great_, in the space of 20 yeares, (which I account a very small part of a trees age, as is shewed Chapter 14.) hath spred his boughes eleuen or twelue yards compasse, that is, fiue or sixe yards on euery side. Here I gather, that in forty or fifty yeares (which yet is but a small time of his age) a tree in good soile, well liking, by good dressing (for that is much auaileable to this purpose) will spread double at the least, viz. twelue yards on a side, which being added to twelue alotted to his fellow, make twenty and foure yards, and so farre distant must euery tree stand from another. And looke how farre a tree spreads his boughes aboue, so far doth he put his roots vnder the earth, or rather further, if there be no stop, nor let by walls, trees, rocks, barren earth and such like: for an huge bulk, and strong armes, massie boughes, many branches, and infinite twigs, require wide spreading roots. The top hath the vast aire to spread his boughs in, high and low, this way and that way: but the roots are kept in the crust of the earth, they may not goe downward, nor vpward out of the earth, which is their element, no more then the fish out of the water, Camelion out of the Aire, nor Salamander out of the fire. Therefore they must needs spread farre vnder the earth. And I dare well say, if nature would giue leaue to man by Art, to dresse the roots of trees, to take away the tawes and tangles, that lap and fret and grow superfluously and disorderly, (for euery thing _sublunary_ is cursed for mans sake) the tops aboue being answerably dressed, we should haue trees of wonderfull greatnes, and infinite durance. And I perswade myselfe that this might be done sometimes in Winter, to trees standing in faire plaines and kindly earth, with small or no danger at all. So that I conclude, that twenty foure yards are the least space that Art can allot for trees to stand distant one from another. {SN: Waste ground in an Orchard.} If you aske me what vse shall be made of that waste ground betwixt tree and tree? I answer: If you please to plant some tree or trees in that middle space, you may, and as your trees grow contigious, great and thick, you may at your pleasure take vp those last trees. And this I take to be the chiefe cause, why the most trees stand so thicke. For men not knowing (or not regarding) this secret of needfull distance, and louing fruit of trees planted to their handes, thinke much to pull vpp any, though they pine one another. If you or your heires or successors would take vp some great trees (past setting) where they stand too thicke, be sure you doe it about _Midsummer_, and leaue no maine root. I destinate this space of foure and twenty yards, for trees of age & stature. More then this, you haue borders to be made for walkes with Roses, Berries, &c. And chiefly consider: that your Orchard, for the first twenty or thirty yeeres, will serue you for many Gardens, for Safron, Licoras, roots, and other herbs for profit, and flowers for pleasure: so that no ground need be wasted if the Gardiner be skillfull and diligent. But be sure you come not neere with such deepe deluing the roots of your trees, whose compasse you may partly discerne, by the compasse of the tops, if your top be well spread. And vnder the droppings and shadow of your trees, be sure no herbes will like. Let this be said for the distance of Trees. CHAP. 9. _Of the placing of Trees._ The placing of trees in an Orchard is well worth the regard: For although it must be granted, that any of our foresaid trees (Chap. 2.) will like well in any part of your Orchard, being good and well drest earth: yet are not all Trees alike worthy of a good place. And therefore I wish that your Filbird, Plummes, Damsons, Bulesse, and such like, be vtterly remoued from the plaine soile of your Orchard into your fence: for there is not such fertility and easefull growth, as within: and there also they are more subiect to, and can abide the blasts of _�olus_. The cherries and plummes being ripe in the hot time of Summer, and the rest standing longer, are not so soone shaken as your better fruit: neither if they suffer losse, is your losse so great. Besides that, your fences and ditches will deuoure some of your fruit growing in or neere your hedges. And seeing the continuance of all these (except Nuts) is small, the care of them ought to be the lesse. And make no doubt but the fences of a large Orchard will containe a sufficient number of such kind of Fruit trees in the whole compasse. It is not material, but at your pleasure, in the said fences, you may either intermingle your seueral kinds of fruit-trees, or set euery kind by himselfe, which order doth very well become your better and greater fruit. Let therefore your Apples, Peares, and Quinches, possesse all the soile of your Orchard, vnlesse you be especially affected to some of your other kinds: and of them let your greatest trees of growth stand furthest from Sunne, and your Quinches at the South side or end, and your Apples in the middle, so shall none be any hinderance to his fellowes. The Warden-tree, and Winter-Peare will challenge the preheminence for stature. Of your Apple-trees you shall finde difference in growth. A good Pippin will grow large, and a Costard-tree: stead them on the North side of your other Apples, thus being placed, the least will giue Sun to the rest, and the greatest will shroud their fellowes. The fences and out-trees will guard all. CHAP. 10. _Of Grafting._ {SN: Of Grauing or Caruing.} {SN: Grafting What.} {SN: A Graffe.} Now are we come to the most curious point of our faculty: curious in conceit, but indeede as plaine and easie as the rest, when it is plainely shewne, which we commonly call _Graffing_, or (after some) _Grafting_. I cannot _Etymologize_, nor shew the originall of the Word, except it come of _Grauing_ and _Caruing_. But the thing or matter is: The reforming of the fruite of one tree with the fruit of another, by an artificiall transplacing, or transposing of a twigge, bud or leafe, (commonly called a _Graft_) taken from one tree of the same, or some other kind, and placed or put to, or into another tree in one time and manner. {Illustration} {SN: Kinds of grafting.} Of this there be diuers kinds, but three or foure now especially in vse: to wit, Grafting, incising, packing on, grafting in the scutchion, or inoculating: whereof the chiefe and most vsuall, is called grafting (by the generall name, _Catahexocen_:) for it is the most knowne, surest, readiest, and plainest way to haue store of good fruit. {SN: Graft how.} It is thus wrought: You must with a fine, thin, strong and sharpe Saw, made and armed for that purpose, cut off a foot aboue the ground, or thereabouts, in a plaine without a knot, or as neere as you can without a knot (for some Stocks will be knotty) your Stocke, set, or plant, being surely stayed with your foot and legge, or otherwise straight ouerthwart (for the Stocke may be crooked) and then plaine his wound smoothly with a sharpe knife: that done, cleaue him cleanly in the middle with a cleauer, and a knocke or mall, and with a wedge of wood, Iron or Bone, two handfull long at least, put into the middle of that clift, with the same knocke, make the wound gape a straw bredth wide, into which you must put your Graffes. {SN: A Graft what.} The graft is a top twig taken from some other Tree (for it is folly to put a graffe into his owne Stocke) beneath the vppermost (and sometime in need the second) knot, and with a sharpe knife fitted in the knot (and some time out of the knot when need is) with shoulders an ynch downeward, and so put into the stocke with some thrusting (but not straining) barke to barke inward. {SN: Eyes.} {SN: Generall rule.} Let your graffe haue three or foure eyes, for readinesse to put forth, and giue issue to the sap. It is not amisse to cut off the top of your graffe, and leaue it but fiue or sixe inches long, because commonly you shall see the tops of long graffes die. The reason is this. The sap in graffing receiues a rebuke, and cannot worke so strongly presently, and your graffes receiue not sap so readily, as the naturall branches. When your graffes are cleanely and closely put in, and your wedge puld out nimbly, for feare of putting your graffes out of frame, take well tempered morter, soundly wrought with chaffe or horse dung (for the dung of cattell will grow hard, and straine your graffes) the quantity of a Gooses egge, and diuide it iust, and therewithall, couer your stocke, laying the one halfe on the one side and the other halfe on the other side of your graffes (for thrusting against your graffes) you moue them, and let both your hands thrust at once, and alike, and let your clay be tender, to yeeld easily; and all, lest you moue your graffes. Some vse to couer the clift of the Stocke, vnder the clay with a piece of barke or leafe, some with a sear-cloth of waxe and butter, which as they be not much needfull, so they hurt not, vnlesse that by being busie about them, you moue your graffes from their places. They vse also mosse tyed on aboue the clay with some bryer, wicker, or other bands. These profit nothing. They all put the graffes in danger, with pulling and thrusting: for I hold this generall rule in graffing and planting: if your stocke and graffes take, and thriue (for some will take and not thriue, being tainted by some meanes in the planting or graffing) they will (without doubt) recouer their wounds safely and shortly. {SN: Time of graffing.} The best time of graffing from the time of remouing your stocke is the next Spring, for that saues a second wound, and a second repulse of sap, if your stocke be of sufficient bignesse to take a graffe from as big as your thumbe, to as big as an arme of a man. You may graffe lesse (which I like) and bigger, which I like not so well. The best time of the yeere is in the last part of _February_, or in _March_, or beginning of _Aprill_, when the Sunne with his heat begins to make the sap stirre more rankely, about the change of Moone before you see any great apparancy of leafe or flowers but onely knots and buds, and before they be proud, though it be sooner. Cheries, Peares, Apricocks, Quinces, and Plummes would be gathered and grafted sooner. {SN: Gathering graffes.} {SN: Graffes of old trees.} The graffes may be gathered sooner in _February_, or any time within a moneth, or two before you graffe or vpon the same day (which I commend) If you get them any time before, for I haue knowne graffes gathered in _December_, and doe well, take heed of drought. I haue my selfe taken a burknot of a tree, & the same day when he was laid in the earth about mid _February_, gathered grafts and put in him, and one of those graffes bore the third yeere after, and the fourth plentifully. Graffes of old trees would be gathered sooner then of young trees, for they sooner breake and bud. If you keepe graffes in the earth, moisture with the heat of the Sun will make them sprout as fast, as if they were growing on the tree. And therefore seeing keeping is dangerous, the surest way (as I iudge) is to take them within a weeke of the time of your grafting. {SN: Where taken.} The grafts would be taken not of the proudest twigs, for it may be your stocke is not answerable in strength. And therefore say I, the grafts brought from South to vs in the North although they take and thriue (which is somewhat doubtfull, by reason of the difference of the Clime and carriage) yet shall they in time fashion themselues to our cold Northerne soile, in growth, taste &c. {SN: Emmits.} Nor of the poorest, for want of strength may make them vnready to receiue sap (and who can tell but a poore graft is tainted) nor on the outside of your tree, for there should your tree spread but in the middest; for there you may be sure your Tree is no whit hindered in his growth or forme. He will stil recouer inward, more then you would wish. If your clay clift in Summer with drought, looke well in the Chinkes for Emmits and Earewigs, for they are cunning and close theeues about grafts you shall finde them stirring in the morning and euening, and the rather in the moist weather. I haue had many young buds of Graffes, euen in the flourishing, eaten with Ants. Let this suffice for graffing, which is in the faculty counted the chiefe secret, and because it is most vsuall it is best knowne. Graffes are not to be disliked for growth, till they wither, pine, and die. Vsually before _Midsummer_ they breake, if they liue. Some (but few) keeping proud and greene, will not put till the second yeere, so is it to be thought of sets. The first shew of putting is no sure signe of growth, it is but the sap the graffe brought with him from his tree. So soone as you see the graft put for growth, take away the clay, for then doth neither the stocke nor the graffe need it (put a little fresh well tempered clay in the hole of the stocke) for the clay is now tender, and rather keepes moistture then drought. The other waies of changing the naturall fruit of Trees, are more curious then profitable, and therefore I mind not to bestow much labour or time about them, onely I shall make knowne what I haue proued, and what I doe thinke. {SN: Incising.} {SN: A great stocke.} And first of incising, which is the cutting of the backe of the boale, a rine or branch of a tree at some bending or knee, shoulderwise with two gashes, onely with a sharpe knife to the wood: then take a wedge, the bignes of your graffe sharpe ended, flat on the one side, agreeing with the tree, and round on the other side, and with that being thrust in, raise your barke, then put in your graffe, fashioned like your wedge iust: and lastly couer your wound, and fast it vp, and take heed of straining. This will grow but to small purpose, for it is weake hold, and lightly it will be vnder growth. Thus may you graft betwixt the barke and the tree of a great stocke that will not easily be clifted: But I haue tryed a better way for great trees, viz First, cut him off straight, and cleanse him with your knife, then cleaue him into foure quarters, equally with a strong cleauer: then take for euery Clift two or three small (but hard) wedges iust of the bignesse of your grafts, and with those Wedges driuen in with an hammer open the foure clifts so wide (but no wider) that they may take your foure graffes, with thrusting not with straining: and lastly couer and clay it closely, and this is a sure and good way of grafting: or thus, clift your stocke by his edges twice or thrice with your cleauer, and open him with your wedge in euery clift one by one, and put in your grafts, and then couer them. This may doe well. {SN: Packing thus.} Packing on is, when you cut aslope a twig of the same bignesse with your graft, either in or besides the knot, two inches long, and make your graft agree iumpe with the Cyon, and gash your graft and your Cyon in the middest of the wound, length-way, a straw breadth deepe, and thrust the one into the other, wound to wound, sap to sap, barke to barke, then tie them close and clay them. This may doe well. The fairest graft I haue in my little Orchard, which I haue planted, is thus packt on, and the branch whereon I put him, is in his plentifull roote. To be short in this point, cut your graft in any sort or fashion, two inches long, and ioyne him cleanly and close to any other sprig of any tree in the latter end of the time of grafting, when sap is somewhat rife, and in all probability they will close and thriue: thus {Illustration: _The Sprig._ _The graft._ _The twig._ _The graft._} Or any other fashion you thinke good. {SN: Inoculating.} Inoculating is an eye or bud, taken barke and all from one tree, and placed in the roome of another eie or bud of another, cut both of one compasse, and there bound. This must be done in Summer, when the sap is proud. {SN: Graffing in the Scutchion.} Much like vnto this is that, they call grafting in the scutchion, they differ thus: That here you must take an eie with his leafe, or (in mine opinion) a bud with his leaues. (Note that an eie is for a Cyon, a bud is for flowers and fruit,) and place them on another tree, in a plaine (for so they teach) the place or barke where you must set it, must be thus cut with a sharpe knife, and the barke raised with a wedge, and then the eie or budde put in and so bound vp. {TN: a diagram of an H} I cannot denie but such may grow. And your bud if he take will flowre and beare fruit that yeere: as some grafts & sets also, being set for bloomes. If these two kinds thriue, they reforme but a spray, and an vndergrowth. Thus you may place Roses on Thornes, and Cherries on Apples, and such like. Many write much more of grafting, but to small purpose. Whom we leaue to themselues, & their followers; & ending this secret we come in the next Chapter to a point of knowledge most requisite in an Arborist, as well for all other woods as for an Orchard. CHAP. 11. _Of the right dressing of Trees._ {SN: Necessity of dressing trees.} {SN: Generall rule.} If all these things aforesaid were indeed performed, as we haue shewed them in words, you should haue a perfect Orchard in nature and substance, begunne to your hand; And yet are all these things nothing, if you want that skill to keepe and dresse your trees. Such is the condition of all earthly things, whereby a man receiueth profit or pleasure, that they degenerate presently without good ordering. Man himselfe left to himselfe, growes from his heauenly and spirituall generation, and becommeth beastly, yea deuillish to his owne kind, vnlesse he be regenerate No maruell then, if Trees make their shootes, and put their spraies disorderly. And truly (if I were worthy to iudge) there is not a mischiefe that breedeth greater and more generall harme to all the Orchard (especially if they be of any continuance) that euer I saw, (I will not except three) then the want of the skilfull dressing of trees. It is a common and vnskilfull opinion, and saying. Let all grow, and they will beare more fruit: and if you lop away superfluous boughes, they say, what a pitty is this? How many apples would these haue borne? not considering there may arise hurt to your Orchard, as well (nay rather) by abundance, as by want of wood. Sound and thriuing plants in a good soile, will euer yeeld too much wood, and disorderly, but neuer too little. So that a skilfull and painfull Arborist, need neuer want matter to effect a plentifull and well drest Orchard: for it is an easie matter to take away superfluous boughes (if your Gardner haue skill to know them) whereof your plants will yeeld abundance, and skill will leaue sufficient well ordered. All ages both by rule and experience doe consent to a pruining and lopping of trees: yet haue not any that I know described vnto vs (except in darke and generall words) what or which are those superfluous boughes, which we must take away, and that is the chiefe and most needfull point to be knowne in lopping. And we may well assure our selues, (as in all other Arts, so in this) there is a vantage and dexterity, by skill, and an habite by practise out of experience, in the performance hereof for the profit of mankind; yet doe I not know (let me speake it with the patience of our cunning Arborists) any thing within the compasse of humane affaires so necessary, and so little regarded, not onely in Orchards, but also in all other timber trees, where or whatsoeuer. {SN: Timber wood euill drest.} {SN: The cause of hurts in woods.} {SN: Dresse timber trees how.} How many forrests and woods? wherein you shall haue for one liuely thriuing tree, foure (nay sometimes 24.) euill thriuing, rotten and dying trees, euen while they liue. And instead of trees thousands of bushes and shrubs. What rottennesse? what hollownesse? what dead armes? withered tops? curtailed trunkes? what loads of mosses? drouping boughes? and dying branches shall you see euery where? And those that like in this sort are in a manner all vnprofitable boughes, canked armes, crooked, little and short boales: what an infinite number of bushes, shrubs, and skrogs of hazels, thornes, and other profitable wood, which might be brought by dressing to become great and goodly trees. Consider now the cause: The lesser wood hath beene spoiled with carelesse, vnskilfull, and vntimely stowing, and much also of the great wood. The greater trees at the first rising haue filled and ouer-loaden themselues with a number of wastfull boughes and suckers, which haue not onely drawne the sap from the boale, but also haue made it knotty, and themselues and the boale mossie for want of dressing, whereas if in the prime of growth they had bene taken away close, all but one top (according to this patterne) and cleane by the bulke, the strength of all the sap should haue gone to the bulke, and so he would haue recouered and couered his knots, and haue put forth a faire, long and streight body (as you see) for timber profitable, huge great of bulke, and of infinite last. {Illustration: _Imagine the roote to be spread farre wider._} If all timber trees were such (will some say) how should we haue crooked wood for wheeles, courbs, &c. _Answ._ Dresse all you can, and there will be enough crooked for those vses. More than this, in most places, they grow so thicke, that neither themselues, nor earth, nor any thing vnder or neere them can thriue, nor Sunne, nor raine, nor aire can doe them, nor any thing neere or vnder them any profit or comfort. I see a number of Hags, where out of one roote you shall see three or foure (nay more, such as mens vnskilfull greedinesse, who desiring many haue none good) pretty Okes or Ashes straight and tall, because the root at the first shoote giues sap amaine: but if one onely of them might bee suffered to grow, and that well and cleanely pruned, all to his very top, what a tree should we haue in time? And we see by those rootes continually and plentifully springing, notwithstanding so deadly wounded. What a commodity should arise to the owner, and the Common-wealth, if wood were cherished, and orderly dressed. {SN: Profit of trees dressed.} {SN: The end of Trees.} The wast boughes closely and skilfully taken away, would giue vs store of fences and fewell, and the bulke of the tree in time would grow of huge length and bignes. But here (me thinkes) I heare an vnskilfull Arborist say, that trees haue their seuerall formes, euen by nature, the Peare, the Holly, the Aspe, &c. grow long in bulke with few and little armes, the Oke by nature broad, and such like. All this I graunt: but grant me also, that there is a profitable end, and vse of euery tree, from which if it decline (though by nature) yet man by art may (nay must) correct it. Now other end of trees I neuer could learne, than good timber, fruit much and good, and pleasure. Vses physicall hinder nothing a good forme. {SN: Trees will take any forme.} Neither let any man euer so much as thinke, that it vnprobable, much lesse vnpossible, to reforme any tree of what kind soeuer. For (beleeue me) I haue tried it, I can bring any tree (beginning by time) to any forme. The peare and holly may be made to spread, and the Oke to close. {SN: The end of Trees.} But why do I wander out of the compasse of mine Orchard, into the Forrests and Woods? Neither yet am I from my purpose, if boales of timber trees stand in need of all the sap, to make them great and straight (for strong growth and dressing makes strong trees) then it must needes be profitable for fruit (a thing more immediately seruing a mans need) to haue all the sap his roote can yeeld: for as timber sound, great and long, is _the good of timber trees_, and therefore they beare no fruite of worth: so fruit, good, sound, pleasant, great and much, is the end of fruit-trees. That gardner therefore shall performe his duty skilfully and faithfully, which shall so dresse his trees, that they may beare such and such store of fruit, which he shall neuer do (dare vndertake) vnlesse he keepe this order in dressing his trees. {SN: How to dresse a fruit-tree.} A fruit tree so standing, that there need none other end of dressing but fruit (not ornaments for walkes, nor delight to such as would please their eye onely, and yet the best forme can not but both adorne and delight) must be parted from within two foote, or thereabouts, of the earth, so high to giue liberty to dresse his roote, and no higher, for drinking vp the sap that should feede his fruit, for the boale will be first, and best serued and fed, because he is next the roote, and of grenest waxe and substance, and that makes him longest of life, into two, three, or foure armes, as your stocke or graffes yeelde twigs, and euery arme into two or more branches, and euery branch into his seuerall Cyons, still spreading by equall degrees, so that his lowest spray be hardly without the reach of a mans hand, and his highest be not past two yards higher, rarely (especially in the middest) that no one twig touch his fellow. Let him spread as farre as he list without his maister-bough or lop equally. And when any bough doth grow sadder and fall lower, than his fellowes (as they will with weight of fruite) ease him the next spring of his superfluous twigs, and he will rise: when any bough or spray shall amount aboue the rest; either snub his top with a nip betwixt your finger and your thumbe, or with a sharpe knife, and take him cleane away, and so you may vse any Cyon you would reforme, and as your tree shall grow in stature and strength, so let him rise with his tops, but slowly, and earely, especially in the middest, and equally, and in bredth also, and follow him vpward with lopping his vndergrowth and water boughes, keeping the same distance of two yards, but not aboue three in any wise, betwixt the lowest and the highest twigs. {SN: Benefits of good dressing.} 1. Thus you shall haue well liking, cleane skind, healthfull great, and long-lasting trees. 2. Thus shall your tree grow low, and safe from winds, for his top will be great, broad and weighty. 3. Thus growing broad, shall your trees beare much fruit (I dare say) one as much as sixe of your common trees, and good without shadowing, dropping and fretting: for his boughes, branches, and twigs shalbe many, and those are they (not the boale) which beare the fruit. 4. Thus shall your boale being little (not small but low) by reason of his shortnesse, take little, and yeeld much sap to the fruit. 5. Thus your trees by reason of strength in time of setting shall put forth more blossomes, and more fruite, being free from taints; for strength is a great helpe to bring forth much and safely, whereas weakenesse failes in setting though the season be calme. Some vse to bare trees rootes in Winter, to stay the setting til hotter seasons, which I discommend, because, 1. They hurt the rootes. 2. It stayes it nothing at all. 3. Though it did, being small, with vs in the North, they haue their part of our _Aprill_ and _Mayes_ frosts. 4. Hinderance cannot profit weake trees in setting. 5. They wast much labour. 6. Thus shall your tree be easie to dresse, and without danger, either to the tree or the dresser. 7. Thus may you safely and easily gather your fruite without falling, bruising or breaking of Cyons. This is the best forme of a fruit tree, which I haue here onely shadowed out for the better capacity of them that are led more with the eye, than the mind, crauing pardon for the deformity, because I am nothing skilfull either in painting or caruing. Imagine that the paper makes but one side of the tree to appeare, the whole round compasse will giue leaue for many more armes, boughes, branches, and Cyons. {Illustration: _The perfect forme of a Fruit-tree._} If any thinke a tree cannot well be brought to this forme: _Experto crede Roberto_, I can shew diuers of them vnder twenty yeeres of age. {SN: Time best for proining.} The fittest time of the Moone for proyning is as of grafting, when the sap is ready to stirre (not proudly stirring) and so to couer the wound, and of the yeere, a moneth before (or at least when) you graffe. Dresse Peares, Apricocks, Peaches, Cherries, and Bullys sooner. And old trees before young plants, you may dresse at any time betwixt Leafe and Leafe. And note, where you take any thing away, the sap the next Summer will be putting: be sure therefore when he puts a bud in any place where you would not haue him, rub it off with your finger. {SN: Dressing betime.} And here you must remember the common homely Prouerbe: _Soone crookes the Tree, That good Camrell must be._ {SN: Faults of euill drest trees, and the remedy.} Beginne betime with trees, and do what you list: but if you let them grow great and stubborne, you must do as the trees list. They will not bend but breake, nor bee wound without danger. A small branch will become a bough, and a bough an arme in bignesse. Then if you cut him, his wound will fester, and hardly, without good skill, recouer: therefore, _Obsta principys_. Of such wounds, and lesser, of any bough cut off a handfull or more from the body, comes hollownesse, and vntimely death. And therefore when you cut, strik close, and cleane, and vpward, and leaue no bunch. {SN: The forme altered.} This forme in some cases sometimes may be altered: If your tree, or trees, stand neere your Walkes, if it please your fancy more, let him not breake, till his boale be aboue you head: so may you walke vnder your trees at your pleasure. Or if you set your fruit-trees for your shades in your Groues, then I expect not the forme of the tree, but the comelinesse of the walke. {SN: Dressing of old trees.} All this hitherto spoken of dressing, must be vnderstood of young plants, to be formed: it is meete somewhat be sayd for the instruction of them that haue olde trees already formed, or rather deformed: for, _Malum non vitatur nisi cognitum_. The faults therefore of the disordered tree, I find to be fiue: {SN: Faults are fiue, and their remedies.} 1. An vnprofitable boale. 2. Water-boughes. 3. Fretters. 4. Suckers: And, 5. One principall top. {SN: 1. Long boale.} {SN: No remedy.} A long boale asketh much feeding, and the more he hath the more he desires, and gets (as a drunken man drinke, or a couetuous man wealth) and the lesse remaines for the fruit, he puts his boughes into the aire, and makes them, the fruit, and it selfe more dangered with windes: for this I know no remedy, after that the tree is come to growth, once euill, neuer good. {SN: 2. Water boughs.} Water boughes, or vndergrowth, are such boughes as grow low vnder others and are by them ouergrowne, ouershadowed, dropped on, and pinde for want of plenty of sap, and by that meanes in time die: For the sap presseth vpward; and it is like water in her course, where it findeth most issue, thither it floweth, leauing the other lesser floes dry: euen as wealth to wealth, and much to more. These so long as they beare, they beare lesse, worse, and fewer fruit, and waterish. {SN: Remedy.} {SN: Barke-pild, and the remedy.} The remedy is easie if they be not growne greater then your arme. Lop them close and cleane, and couer the midel of the wound, the next Summer when he is dry, with a salue made of tallow, tarre, and a very little pitch, good for the couering of any such wound of a great tree: vnlesse it be barke-pild, and then sear-cloath of fresh Butter, Hony, and Waxe, presently (while the wound is greene) applyed, is a soueraigne remedy in Summer especially. Some bind such wounds with a thumbe rope of Hay, moist, and rub it with dung. {SN: Fretters.} {SN: Touching.} {SN: Remedy.} Fretters are, when as by the negligence of the Gardner, two or moe parts of the tree, or of diuers trees, as armes, boughes, branches, or twigs, grow to neere and close together, that one of them by rubbing, doth wound another. This fault of all other shewes the want of skill or care (at least) in the Arborist: for here the hurt is apparant, and the remedy easie, seene to betime: galls and wounds incurable, but by taking away those members: for let them grow, and they will be worse and worse, & so kill themselues with ciuill strife for roomth, and danger the whole tree. Auoide them betime therefore, as a common wealth doth bosome enemies. {SN: Suckers.} A Sucker is a long, proud, and disorderly Cyon, growing straight vp (for pride of sap makes proud, long, and straight growth) cut of any lower parts of the tree, receiuing a great part of the sap, and bearing no fruit, till it haue tyrannized ouer the whole tree. These are like idle and great Drones amongst Bees; and proud and idle members in a common wealth. {SN: Remedy.} The remedy of this is, as of water-boughes, vnlesse he be growne greater then all the rest of the boughs, and then your Gardner (at your discretion) may leaue him for his boale, and take away all, or the most of the rest. If he be little, slip him, and set him, perhaps he will take: my fairest Apple-tree was such a Slip. {SN: One principall top or bough, and remedy.} One or two principall top boughes are as euill, in a manner, as Suckers, they rise of the same cause, and receiue the same remedy; yet these are more tolerable, because these beare fruit, yea the best: but Suckers of long doe not beare. {SN: Instruments for dressing.} I know not how your tree should be faulty, if you reforme all your vices timely, and orderly. As these rules serue for dressing young trees and sets in the first planting: so may they well serue to helpe old trees, though not exactly to recouer them. The Instruments fittest for all these purposes, are most commonly: For the great trees an handsome long, light Ladder of Firpoles, a little, nimble, and strong armed Saw, and sharpe. For lesse Trees, a little and sharpe Hatchet, a broad mouthed Chesell, strong and sharpe, with an hand-beetle, your strong and sharpe Cleeuer, with a knock, & (which is a most necessary Instrument amongst little trees) a great hafted and sharpe Knife or Whittle. And as needfull is a Stoole on the top of a Ladder of eight or moe rungs, with two backe-feet, whereon you may safely and easefully stand to graffe, to dresse, and to gather fruit thus formed: The feet may be fast wedged in: but the Ladder must hang loose with two bands of iron. And thus much of dressing trees for fruit, formerly to profit. {Illustration} CHAP. 12. _Of Foyling._ {SN: Necessity of foiling.} There is one thing yet very necessary for make your Orchard both better, and more lasting: Yea, so necessary, that without it your Orchard cannot last, nor prosper long, which is neglected generally both in precepts and in practice, viz. manuring with Foile: whereby it hapneth that when trees (amongst other euils) through want of fatnesse to feed them, become mossie, and in their growth are euill (or not) thriuing, it is either attributed to some wrong cause, as age (when indeed they are but young) or euill standing (stand they neuer so well) or such like, or else the cause is altogether vnknowne, and so not amended. {SN: Trees great suckers.} {SN: Great bodies.} Can there be deuised any way by nature, or art, sooner or soundlier to seeke out, and take away the heart and strength of earth, then by great trees? Such great bodies cannot be sustained without great store of sap. What liuing body haue you greater then of trees? The great Sea monsters (whereof one came a land at _Teesmouth_ in _Yorkeshire_, hard by vs, 18. yards in length, and neere as much in compasse) seeme hideous, huge, strange and monstrous, because they be indeed great: but especially because they are seldome seene: But a tree liuing, come to his growth and age, twice that length, and of a bulke neuer so great, besides his other parts, is not admired, because he is so commonly seene. And I doubt not, but if he were well regarded from his kirnell, by succeeding ages, to his full strength, the most of them would double their measure. About fifty yeeres agoe I heard by credible and constant report, That in _Brooham_ Parke in _West more-land_, neere vnto _Penrith_, there lay a blowne Oake, whose trunke was so bigge, that two Horse men being the one on the one side, and the other on the other side, they could not one see another: to which if you adde his armes, boughs, and roots, and consider of his bignesse, what would he haue been, if preserued to the vantage. Also I read in the History of the _West-Indians_, out of _Peter Martyr_, that sixteene men taking hands one with another, were not able to fathome one of those trees about. Now Nature hauing giuen to such a faculty by large and infinite roots, taws and tangles, to draw immediately his sustenance from our common mother the Earth (which is like in this point to all other mothers that beare) hath also ordained that the tree ouer loden with fruit, and wanting sap to feed all she hath brought forth, will waine all she cannot feed, like a woman bringing forth moe children at once then she hath teats. See you not how trees especially, by kind being great, standing so thicke and close, that they cannot get plenty of sap, pine away all the grasse, weeds, lesser shrubs, and trees, yea and themselues also for want of vigor of sap? So that trees growing large, sucking the soile whereon they stand, continually, and amaine, and the foyzon of the earth that feeds them decaying (for what is there that wastes continually, that shall not haue end?) must either haue supply of sucker, or else leaue thriuing and growing. Some grounds will beare Corne while they be new, and no longer, because their crust is shallow, and not very good, and lying they scind and wash, and become barren. The ordinary Corne soiles continue not fertile, with fallowing and foyling, and the best requires supply, euen for the little body of Corne. How then can we thinke that any ground (how good soeuer) can containe bodies of such greatnesse, and such great feeding, without great plenty of Sap arising from good earth? This is one of the chiefe causes, why so many of our Orchards in _England_ are so euill thriuing when they come to growth, and our fruit so bad. Men are loth to bestow much ground, and desire much fruit, and will neither set their trees in sufficient compasse, nor yet feed them with manure. Therefore of necessity Orchards must be foiled. {SN: Time fit for foyling.} {SN: Kind of foyle.} The fittest time is, when your trees are growne great, and haue neere hand spread your earth, wanting new earth to sustaine them, which if they doe, they will seeke abroad for better earth, and shun that, which is barren (if they find better) as cattell euill pasturing. For nature hath taught euery creature to desire and seeke his owne good, and to auoid hurt. The best time of the yeere is at the Fall, that the Frost may bite and make it tender, and the Raine wash it to the roots. The Summer time is perillous if ye digge, because the sap fills amaine. The best kind of Foile is such as is fat, hot, and tender. Your earth must be but lightly opened, that the dung may goe in, and wash away; and but shallow, lest you hurt the roots: and the spring closely and equally made plaine againe for feare of Suckers. I could wish, that after my trees haue fully possessed the soile of mine Orchard, that euery seuen yeeres at least, the soile were bespread with dung halfe a foot thicke at least. Puddle water out of the dunghill powred on plentifully, will not onely moisten but fatten especially in _Iune_ and _Iuly_. If it be thicke and fat, and applied euery yeere, your Orchard shall need none other foiling. Your ground may lye so low at the Riuer side, that the floud standing some daies and nights thereon, shall saue you all this labour of foiling. CHAP. 13. _Of Annoyances._ A Chiefe helpe to make euery thing good, is to auoid the euils thereof: you shall neuer attaine to that good of your Orchard you looke for, vnlesse you haue a Gardner, that can discerne the diseases of your trees, and other annoyances of your Orchard, and find out the causes thereof, and know & apply fit remedies for the same. For be your ground, site, plants, and trees as you would wish, if they be wasted with hurtfull things, what haue you gained but your labour for your trauell? It is with an Orchard and euery tree, as with mans body, The best part of physicke for preseruation of health, is to foresee and cure diseases. {SN: Two kinds of euils in an Orchard.} All the diseases of an Orchard are of two sorts, either internall or externall. I call those inward hurts which breed on and in particular trees. 1 Galles. 2 Canker. 3 Mosse. 4 Weaknes in setting. 5 Barke bound. 6 Barke pild. 7 Worme. 8 Deadly wounds. {SN: Galls.} Galles, Canker, Mosse, weaknes, though they be diuers diseases: yet (howsoeuer Authors thinke otherwise) they rise all out of the same cause. Galles we haue described with their cause and remedy, in the 11. Chapter vnder the name of fretters. {SN: Canker.} Canker is the consumption of any part of the tree, barke and wood, which also in the same place is deceiphered vnder the title of water-boughes. {SN: Mosse.} Mosse is sensibly seene and knowne of all, the cause is pointed out in the same Chapter, in the discourse of timber-wood, and partly also the remedy: but for Mosse adde this, that at any time in summer (the Spring is best) When the cause is remoued, with an Harecloth, immediatly after a showre of raine, rub off your Mosse, or with a peece of weed (if the Mosse abound) formed like a great knife. {SN: Weaknesse in setting.} Weaknesse in the setting of your fruit shall you finde there also in the same Chapter, and his remedy. All these flow from the want of roomth in good soile, wrong planting, Chap. 7. and euill or no dressing. {SN: Barke-bound.} Bark-bound (as I thinke) riseth of the same cause, and the best, & present remedy (the causes being taken away) is with your sharpe knife in the Spring, length-way to launch his bark throughout, on 3. or 4. sides of his boale. {SN: Worme.} {SN: Remedy.} The disease called the Worme is thus discernd: The barke will be hoald in diuers places like gall, the wood will die & dry, and you shall see easily the barke swell. It is verily to be thought, that therin is bred some worm I haue not yet thorowly sought it out, because I was neuer troubled therewithall: but onely haue seene such trees in diuers places. I thinke it a worme rather, because I see this disease in trees, bringing fruit of sweet taste, and the swelling shewes as much. The remedy (as I coniecture) is so soone as you perceiue the wound, the next Spring cut it out barke and all, and apply Cowes pisse and vineger presently, and so twice or thrice a weeke for a moneths space: For I well perceiue, if you suffer it any time, it eates the tree or bough round, and so kils. Since I first wrote this Treatise, I haue changed my mind concerning the disease called the worme, because I read in the History of the _West-Indians_, that their trees are not troubled with the disease called the worme or canker, which ariseth of a raw and euill concocted humor or sap, Witnesse _Pliny_, by reason their Country is more hot then ours, whereof I thinke the best remedy is (not disallowing the former, considering that the worme may breed by such an humor) warme standing, sound lopping and good dressing. {SN: Barke pild.} Bark-pild you shall find with his remedy in the 11. Chapter. {SN: Wounds.} Deadly wounds are when a mans Arborist wanting skill, cut off armes, boughes or branches an inch, or (as I see sometimes) an handfull, or halfe a foot or more from the body: These so cut cannot couer in any time with sap, and therefore they die, and dying they perish the heart, and so the tree becomes hollow, and with such a deadly wound cannot liue long. {SN: Remedy.} The remedy is, if you find him before he be perished, cut him close, as in the 11. Chapter: if he be hoald, cut him close, fill his wound, tho neuer so deepe, with morter well tempered & so close at the top his wound with a Seare-cloth doubled and nailed on, that no aire nor raine approach his wound. If he be not very old, and detaining, he will recouer, and the hole being closed, his wound within shall not hurt him for many yeeres. {SN: Hurts on trees.} {SN: Ants, Earewigs, Caterpillars, and such like wormes.} Hurts on your trees are chiefly Ants, Earewigs, and Caterpillars. Of Ants and Earewigs is said Chap. 10. Let there be no swarme of Pismires neere your tree-root, no not in your Orchard, turne them ouer in a frost, and powre in water, and you kill them. For Caterpillars, the vigilant Fruterer shall soone espy their lodging by their web, or the decay of leaues eaten around about them. And being seene, they are easily destroyed with your hand, or rather (if your tree may spare it) take sprig and all: for the red peckled butterfly doth euer put them, being her sparm, among the tender spraies for better feeding, especially in drought, and tread them vnder your feet. I like nothing of smoke among my trees. Vnnaturall heates are nothing good for naturall trees. This for diseases of particular trees. {SN: Externall euils.} Externall hurts are either things naturall or artificiall. Naturall things, externally hurting Orchards. 1 Beasts. 1 Deere. 2 Birds. 1 Bulfinch. 2 Goates. 2 Thrush. 3 Sheepe. 3 Blackbird. 4 Hare. 4 Crow. 5 Cony. 5 Pye. 6 Cattell. 7 Horse. &c. _The other things are_, 1 Winds. 2 Cold. 3 Trees. 4 Weeds. 5 Wormes. 6 Mowles. 7 Filth. 8 Poysonfull smoke. _Externall wilfull euils are these._ 1 Walls. 2 Trenches. 3 Other works noisome done in or neere your Orchard. 4 Euill Neighbours. 5 A carelesse Master. 6 An vndiscreet, negligent or no keeper. See you here an whole Army of mischeifes banded in troupes against the most fruitfull trees the earth beares? assailing your good labours. Good things haue most enemies. {SN: Remedy.} A skilfull Fructerer must put so his helping hand, and disband and put them to flight. {SN: Deere, &c.} For the first ranke of beasts, besides your out strong fence, you must haue a faire and swift Greyhound, a stone-bow, gun, and if need require, an Apple with an hooke for a Deere, and an Hare-pipe for an Hare. {SN: Birds.} Your Cherries and other Berris when they be ripe, will draw all the Black-birds, Thrushes, and Maw Pies to your Orchard. The Bul-finch is a deuourer of your Fruit in the bud, I haue had whole trees shald out with them in Winter-time. {SN: Remedy.} The best remedy here is a Stone bow, a Piece, especially if you haue a Musket or Spar-hawke in Winter to make the Black bird stoope into a bush or hedge. {SN: Other trees.} The Gardner must cleanse his soile of all other trees: but fruit-trees aforesaid Chapter 2 for which it is ordained, and I would especially name Oakes, Elmes, Ashes, and such other great wood, but that I doubt it should be taken as an admission of lesser trees: for I admit of nothing to grow in mine Orchard but fruit and flowers. If sap can hardly be good to feed our fruit-trees, why should we allow of any other, especially those, that will becom their Masters, & wrong them in their liuelyhood. {SN: Winds.} {SN: Frosts.} And although we admit without the fence of Wall-nuts in most plaine places, Trees middle-most, and ashes or Okes, or Elmes vtmost, set in comely rowes equally distant with faire Allies twixt row and row to auoide the boisterous blasts of winds, and within them also others for Bees; yet wee admit none of these into your Orchard-plat: other remedy then this haue wee none against the nipping frosts. {SN: Weeds.} Weeds in a fertile soile (because the generall curse is so) till your Trees grow great, will be noysome, and deforme your allies, walkes, beds, and squares, your vnder Gardners must labour to keepe all cleanly & handsome from them and all other filth with a Spade, weeding kniues, rake with iron teeth: a skrapple of Iron thus formed. IC For Nettles and ground-Iuy after a showre. {SN: Remedy.} When weeds, straw, stickes and all other scrapings are gathered together, burne them not, but bury them vnder your crust in any place of your Orchard, and they will dye and fatten your ground. {SN: Wormes. Moales.} Wormes and Moales open the earth, and let in aire to the roots of your trees, and deforme your squares and walkes, and feeding in the earth, being in number infinite, draw on barrennesse. {SN: Remedy.} Worms may be easily destroyed. Any Summer euening when it is darke, after a showre with a candle, you may fill bushels, but you must tred nimbly & where you cannot come to catch them so; sift the earth with coale ashes an inch or two thicknes, and that is a plague to them, so is sharpe grauell. Moales will anger you, if your Gardner or some skilful Moale-catcher ease you not, especially hauing made their fortresses among the roots of your trees: you must watch her wel with a Moal spare, at morne, noon, and night, when you see her vtmost hill, cast a Trench betwixt her and her home (for she hath a principall mansion to dwell and breed in about _Aprill_, which you may discerne by a principall hill, wherein you may catch her, if you trench it round and sure, and watch well) or wheresoeuer you can discerne a single passage (for such she hath) there trench, and watch, and haue her. {SN: Wilfull annoyances.} Wilfull annoyances must be preuented and auoided by the loue of the Master and Fruterer, which they beare to their Orchard. {SN: Remedy.} Iustice and liberality will put away euill neighbours or euill neighbour-hood. And then if (God blesse and giue successe to your labours) I see not what hurt your Orchard can sustaine. CHAP. 14. _Of the age of Trees._ {SN: The age of trees.} It is to be considered: All this Treatise of trees tends to this end, that men may loue and plant Orchards, whereunto there cannot be a better inducement then that they know (or at least be perswaded) that all that benefit they shall reape thereby, whether of pleasure or profit, shall not be for a day or a moneth, or one, or many (but many hundreth) yeeres. Of good things the greatest, and most durable is alwaies the best. If therefore out of reason grounded vpon experience, it be made (I thinke) manifest, but I am sure probable, that a fruit tree in such a soile and site, as is described so planted and trimmed and kept, as is afore appointed and duely foiled, shall dure 1000 yeeres, why should we not take paines, and be at two or three yeeres charges (for vnder seuen yeeres will an Orchard be perfected for the first planting, and in that time be brought to fruit) to reape such a commodity and so long lasting. {SN: Gathered by reason out of experience.} Let no man thinke this to be strange, but peruse and consider the reason. I haue Apple trees standing in my little Orchard, which I haue knowne these forty yeeres, whose age before my time I cannot learne, it is beyond memory, tho I haue enquired of diuers aged men of 80. yeeres and vpwards: these trees although come into my possession very euill ordered, mishapen, and one of them wounded to his heart, and that deadly (for I know it will be his death) with a wound, wherein I might haue put my foot in the heart of his bulke (now it is lesse) notwithstanding, with that small regard they haue had since, they so like, that I assure my selfe they are not come to their growth by more then 2. parts of 3. which I discerne not onely by their owne growth, but also by comparing them with the bulke of other trees. And I find them short (at least) by so many parts in bignesse, although I know those other fruit-trees to haue beene much hindred in their stature by euill guiding. Herehence I gather thus. {SN: Parts of a trees age.} If my trees be a hundred yeeres old, and yet want two hundred of their growth before they leaue encreasing, which make three hundred, then we must needs resolue, that this three hundred yeere are but the third part of a Trees life, because (as all things liuing besides) so trees must haue allowed them for their increase one third, another third for their stand, and a third part of time also for their decay. All which time of a Tree amounts to nine hundred yeeres, three hundred for increase, three hundred for his stand, whereof we haue the terme stature, and three hundred for his decay, and yet I thinke (for we must coniecture by comparing, because no one man liueth to see the full age of trees) I am within the compasse of his age, supposing alwaies the foresaid meanes of preseruing his life. Consider the age of other liuing creatures. The Horse and moiled Oxe wrought to an vntimely death, yet double the time of their increase. A Dog likewise increaseth three, stanns three at least, end in as many (or rather moe) decayes. {SN: Mans age.} Euery liuing thing bestowes the least part of his age in his growth, and so must it needs be with trees. A man comes not to his full growth and strength (by common estimation) before thirty yeeres, and some slender and cleane bodies, not till forty, so long also stands his strength, & so long also must he haue allowed by course of nature to decay. Euer supposing that he be well kept with necessaries, and from and without straines, bruises, and all other dominyring diseases. I will not say vpon true report, that Physicke holds it possible, that a cleane body kept by these 3. Doctors, _Doctor Dyet_, _Doctor Quiet_, and _Doctor Merriman_, may liue neere a hundred yeeres. Neither will I here vrge the long yeeres of _Methushalah_, and those men of that time, because you will say, Mans dayes are shortned since the floud. But what hath shortned them? God for mans sinnes: but by meanes, as want of knowledge, euill gouernment, ryot, gluttony, drunkenesse, and (to be short) the encrease of the curse, our sinnes increasing in an iron and wicked age. Now if a man, whose body is nothing (in a manner) but tender rottennesse, whose course of life cannot by any meanes, by counsell, restraint of Lawes, or punishment, nor hope of praise, profet, or eturnall glory, be kept within any bounds, who is degenerate cleane from his naturall feeding, to effeminate nicenesse, and cloying his body with excesse of meate, drinke, sleepe &c. and to whom nothing is so pleasant and so much desired as the causes of his owne death, as idlenesse, lust, &c. may liue to that age: I see not but a tree of a solide substance, not damnified by heate or cold, capable of, and subiect to any kinde of ordering or dressing that a man shall apply vnto him, feeding naturally, as from the beginning disburdened of all superfluities, eased of, and of his owne accord auoiding the causes that may annoy him, should double the life of a man, more then twice told; and yet naturall phylosophy, and the vniuersall consent of all Histories tell vs, that many other liuing creatures farre exceed man in the length of yeeres: As the Hart and the Rauen. Thus reporteth that famous _Roterodam_ out of _Hesiodus_, and many other Historiographers. The testimony of _Cicero_ in his booke _De Senectute_, is weighty to this purpose: that we must _in posteras ætates ferere arbores_, which can haue none other fence: but that our fruit-trees whereof he speakes, can endure for many ages. What else are trees in comparison with the earth: but as haires to the body of a man? And it is certaine, without poisoning, euill and distemperate dyet, and vsage, or other such forcible cause, the haires dure with the body. That they be called excrements, it is by reason of their superfluous growth: (for cut them as often as you list, and they will still come to their naturall length) Not in respect of their substance, and nature. Haires endure long, and are an ornament and vse also to the body, as trees to the earth. So that I resolue vpon good reason, that fruit-trees well ordered, may liue and like a thousand yeeres, and beare fruit, and the longer, the more, the greater, and the better, because his vigour is proud and stronger, when his yeeres are many: You shall see old trees put their buds and blossomes both sooner and more plentifully then young trees by much. And I sensibly perceiue my young trees to inlarge their fruit, as they grow greater, both for number and greatnesse. Young Heifers bring not forth the Calues so faire, neither are they so plentifull to milke, as when they become to be old Kine. No good Houswife will breed of a young but of an old bird-mother: It is so in all things naturally, therefore in trees. {SN: The age of timber trees.} And if fruit-trees last to this age, how many ages is it to be supposed, strong and huge timber-trees will last? whose huge bodies require the yeeres of diuers _Methushalaes_, before they end their dayes, whose sap is strong and bitter, whose barke is hard and thicke, and their substance solid and stiffe: all which are defences of health and long life. Their strength withstands all forcible winds, their sap of that quality is not subiect to wormes and tainting. Their barke receiues seldome or neuer by casualty any wound. And not onely so, but he is free from remoualls, which are the death of millions of trees, where as the fruit-tree in comparison is little, and often blowne downe, his sap sweet, easily and soone tainted, his barke tender, and soone wounded, and himselfe vsed by man, as man vseth himselfe, that is either vnskilfully or carelessely. {SN: Age of trees discerned.} It is good for some purposes to regard the age of your fruit trees, which you may easily know, till they come to accomplish twenty yeeres, by his knots: Reckon from his root vp an arme and so to hys top-twig, and euery yeeres growth is distinguished from other by a knot, except lopping or remouing doe hinder. CHAP. 15. _Of gathering and keeping Fruit._ {SN: Generall Rule.} {SN: Cherries, &c.} Although it be an easie matter, when God shall send it, to gather and keepe fruit, yet are they certaine things worthy your regard. You must gather your fruit when it is ripe, and not before, else will it wither and be tough and sowre. All fruit generally are ripe, when they beginne to fall. For Trees doe as all other bearers doe, when their yong ones are ripe, they will waine them. The Doue her Pigeons, the Cony her Rabbets, and women their children. Some fruit tree sometimes getting a taint in the setting with a frost or euill wind, will cast his fruit vntimely, but not before he leaue giuing them sap, or they leaue growing. Except from this foresaid rule, Cherries, Damsons and Bullies. The Cherry is ripe when he is sweld wholy red, and sweet: Damsons and Bulies not before the first frost. {SN: Apples.} Apples are knowne to be ripe, partly by their colour, growing towards a yellow, except the Leather-coat and some Peares and Greening. {SN: When.} Timely Summer fruit will be ready, some at Midsummer, most at Lammus for present vse; but generally noe keeping fruit before _Michal-tide_. Hard Winter fruit and Wardens longer. {SN: Dry stalkes.} Gather at the full of the Moone for keeping, gather dry for feare of rotting. Gather the stalkes with all: for a little wound in fruit, is deadly: but not the stumpe, that must beare the next fruit, nor leaues, for moisture putrifies. {SN: Seuerally.} Gather euery kind seuerally by it selfe, for all will not keepe alike, and it is hard to discerne them, when they are mingled. {SN: Ouerladen trees.} If your trees be ouer-laden (as they will be, being ordered, as is before taught you) I like better of pulling some off (tho they be not ripe) neere the top end of the bough, then of propping by much, the rest shall be better fed. Propping puts the bough in danger, and frets it at least. {SN: Instruments.} {SN: Bruises.} Instruments: A long ladder of light Firre: A stoole-ladder as in the 11. Chapter. A gathering apron like a poake before you, made of purpose, or a Wallet hung on a bough, or a basket with a siue bottome, or skinne bottome, with Lathes or splinters vnder, hung in a rope to pull vp and downe: bruise none, euery bruise is to fruit death: if you doe, vse them presently. An hooke to pull boughs to you is necessary, breake no boughes. {SN: Keeping.} For keeping, lay them in a dry Loft, the longest keeping Apples first and furthest on dry straw, on heapes ten or fourteene dayes, thicke, that they may sweat. Then dry them with a soft and cleane cloth, and lay them thinne abroad. Long keeping fruit would be turned once in a moneth softly: but not in nor immediately after frost. In a loft couer well with straw, but rather with chaffe or branne: For frost doth cause tender rottennesse. CHAP. 16. _Of Profits._ Now pause with your selfe, and view the end of all your labours in an Orchard: vnspeakable pleasure, and infinite commodity. The pleasure of an Orchard I referre to the last Chapter for the conclusion: and in this Chapter, a word or two of the profit, which thorowly to declare is past my skill: and I count it as if a man should attempt to adde light to the Sunne with a Candle, or number the Starres. No man that hath but a meane Orchard or iudgement but knowes, that the commodity of an Orchard is great: Neither would I speake of this, being a thing so manifest to all; but that I see, that through the carelesse lazinesse of men, it is a thing generally neglected. But let them know, that they lose hereby the chiefest good which belongs to house-keeping. Compare the commodity that commeth of halfe an acre of ground, set with fruit-trees and hearbs, so as is prescribed, and an whole acre (say it be two) with Corne, or the best commodity you can wish, and the Orchard shall exceed by diuers degrees. {SN: Cydar and Perry.} In _France_ and some other Countries, and in _England_, they make great vse of Cydar and Perry, thus made: Dresse euery Apple, the stalke, vpper end, and all galles away, stampe them, and straine them, and within 24. houres tun them vp into cleane, sweet, and sound vessels, for feare of euill ayre, which they will readily take: and if you hang a poakefull of Cloues, Mace, Nutmegs, Cinamon, Ginger, and pils of Lemmons in the midst of the vessell, it will make it as wholesome and pleasant as wine. The like vsage doth Perry require. These drinks are very wholesome, they coole, purge, and preuent hot Agues. But I leaue this skill to Physicians. {SN: Fruit.} The benefit of your Fruit, Roots and Hearbs, though it were but to eate and sell, is much. {SN: Waters.} Waters distilled of Roses, Woodbind, Angelica, are both profitable and wondrous pleasant, and comfortable. {SN: Conserue.} Saffron and Licoras will yeeld you much Conserues and Preserues, are ornaments to your Feasts, health in your sicknesse, and a good helpe to your friend, and to your purse. He that will not be moued with such vnspeakable profits, is well worthy to want, when others abound in plenty of good things. CHAP. 17. _Ornaments._ Me thinks hitherto we haue but a bare Orchard for fruit, and but halfe good, so long as it wants those comely Ornaments, that should giue beauty to all our labours, and make much for the honest delight of the owner and his friends. {SN: Delight the chiefe end of Orchards.} {SN: An Orchard delightsome.} {SN: An Orchard is Paradise.} {SN: Causes of wearisomnesse.} {SN: Orchard is the remedy.} For it is not to be doubted: but as God hath giuen man things profitable, so hath he allowed him honest comfort, delight, and recreation in all the workes of his hands. Nay, all his labours vnder the Sunne without this are troubles, and vexation of mind: For what is greedy gaine, without delight, but moyling, and turmoyling in slauery? But comfortable delight, with content, is the good of euery thing, and the patterne of heauen. A morsell of bread with comfort, is better by much then a fat Oxe with vnquietnesse. And who can deny, but the principall end of an Orchard, is the honest delight of one wearied with the works of his lawfull calling? The very workes of, and in an Orchard and Garden, are better then the ease and rest of and from other labours. When God had made man after his owne Image, in a perfect state, and would haue him to represent himselfe in authority, tranquillity, and pleasure vpon the earth, he placed him in _Paradise_. What was _Paradise_? but a Garden and Orchard of trees and hearbs, full of pleasure? and nothing there but delights. The gods of the earth, resembling the great God of heauen in authority, Maiestie, and abundance of all things, wherein is their most delight? and whither doe they withdraw themselues from the troublesome affaires of their estate, being tyred with the hearing and iudging of litigious Controuersies? choked (as it were) with the close ayres of their sumptuous buildings, their stomacks cloyed with variety of Banquets, their eares filled and ouerburthened with tedious discoursings? whither? but into their Orchards? made and prepared, dressed and destinated for that purpose, to renue and refresh their sences, and to call home their ouer-wearied spirits. Nay, it is (no doubt) a comfort to them, to set open their Cazements into a most delicate Garden and Orchard, whereby they may not onely see that, wherein they are so much delighted, but also to giue fresh, sweet, and pleasant ayre to their Galleries and Chambers. {SN: All delight in Orchards.} And looke, what these men do by reason of their greatnes and ability, prouoked with delight, the same doubtlesse would euery of vs doe, if power were answerable to our desires, whereby we shew manifestly, that of all other delights on earth, they that are taken by Orchards, are most excellent, and most agreeing with nature. {SN: This delights all the senses.} For whereas euery other pleasure commonly filles some one of our senses, and that onely, with delight, this makes all our sences swimme in pleasure, and that with infinite variety, ioyned with no lesse commodity. {SN: Delighteth old age.} That famous _Philosopher_, and matchlesse Orator, _M.T.C._ prescribeth nothing more fit, to take away the tediousnesse and heauy load of three or foure score yeeres, then the pleasure of an Orchard. {SN: Causes of delight in an Orchard.} What can your eye desire to see, your eares to hear, your mouth to tast, or your nose to smell, that is not to be had in an Orchard, with abundance and variety? What more delightsome then an infinite variety of sweet smelling flowers? decking with sundry colours, the greene mantle of the Earth, the vniuersall Mother of vs all, so by them bespotted, so dyed, that all the world cannot sample them, and wherein it is more fit to admire the Dyer, then imitate his workemanship. Colouring not onely the earth, but decking the ayre, and sweetning euery breath and spirit. {SN: Flowers.} The Rose red, damaske, veluet, and double double prouince Rose, the sweet muske Rose double and single, the double and single white Rose. The faire and sweet senting Woodbinde, double and single, and double double. Purple Cowslips, and double Cowslips, and double double Cowslips. Primerose double and single. The Violet nothing behinde the best, for smelling sweetly. A thousand more will prouoke your content. {SN: Borders and squares.} And all these, by the skill of your Gardner, so comely, and orderly placed in your Borders and Squares, and so intermingled, that none looking thereon, cannot but wonder, to see, what Nature corrected by Art can doe. {SN: Mounts.} {SN: Whence you may shoote a Bucke.} {SN: Dyall.} {SN: Musique.} When you behold in diuers corners of your Orchard _Mounts_ of stone, or wood curiously wrought within and without, or of earth couered with fruit-trees: Kentish Cherry, Damsons, Plummes, &c. with staires of precious workmanship. And in some corner (or moe) a true Dyall or Clocke and some Anticke-workes and especially siluer-sounding Musique, mixt Instruments and voices, gracing all the rest: How will you be rapt with delight? {SN: Walkes.} {SN: Seates.} Large Walkes, broad and long, close and open, like the _Tempe_ groues in _Thessalie_, raised with grauell and sand, hauing seats and bankes of Cammomile, all this delights the minde, and brings health to the body. {SN: Order of trees.} View now with delight the workes of your owne hands, your fruit-trees of all sorts, loaden with sweet blossomes, and fruit of all tasts, operations, and colours: your trees standing in comely order which way soeuer you looke. {SN: Shape of men and beasts.} Your borders on euery side hanging and drooping with Feberries, Raspberries, Barberries, Currens, and the rootes of your trees powdred with Strawberries, red, white, and greene, what a pleasure is this? Your Gardner can frame your lesser wood to the shape of men armed in the field, ready to giue battell: or swift running Greyhounds: or of well sented and true running Hounds, to chase the Deere, or hunt the Hare. This kind of hunting shall not waste your corne, nor much your coyne. {SN: Mazes.} Mazes well framed a mans height, may perhaps make your friend wander in gathering of berries, till he cannot recouer himselfe without your helpe. {SN: Bowle-Alley.} {SN: Buts.} To haue occasion to exercise within your Orchard: it shall be a pleasure to haue a Bowling Alley, or rather (which is more manly, and more healthfull) a paire of Buts, to stretch your armes. {SN: Hearbes.} Rosemary and sweete Eglantine are seemely ornaments about a Doore or Window, and so is Woodbinde. {SN: Conduit.} Looke Chapter 5, and you shall see the forme of a Conduite. If there were two or more, it were not amisse. {SN: Riuer.} {SN: Moats.} And in mine opinion, I could highly commend your Orchard, if either through it, or hard by it there should runne a pleasant Riuer with siluer streames; you might sit in your Mount, and angle a peckled Trout, or fleightie Eele, or some other dainty Fish. Or moats, whereon you might row with a Boate, and fish with Nettes. {SN: Bees.} Store of Bees in a dry and warme Bee-house, comely made of Fir-boords, to sing, and sit, and feede vpon your flowers and sprouts, make a pleasant noyse and sight. For cleanely and innocent Bees, of all other things, loue and become, and thriue in an Orchard. If they thriue (as they must needes, if your Gardiner bee skilfull, and loue them: for they loue their friends, and hate none but their enemies) they will, besides the pleasure, yeeld great profit, to pay him his wages Yea, the increase of twenty Stockes or Stooles, with other fees will keepe your Orchard. You need not doubt their stings, for they hurt not whom they know, and they know their keeper and acquaintance. If you like not to come amongst them, you need not doubt them: for but neere their store, and in their owne defence, they will not fight, and in that case onely (and who can blame them?) they are manly, and fight desperately. Some (as that Honorable Lady at _Hacknes_, whose name doth much grace mine Orchard) vse to make seates for them in the stone wall of their Orchard, or Garden, which is good, but wood is better. {SN: Vine.} A Vine ouer-shadowing a seate, is very comely, though her Grapes with vs ripe slowly. {SN: Birds.} {SN: Nightingale.} {SN: Robin-red-brest.} {SN: Wren.} One chiefe grace that adornes an Orchard, I cannot let slip: A brood of Nightingales, who with their seuerall notes and tunes, with a strong delightsome voyce, out of a weake body, will beare you company night and day. She loues (and liues in) hots of woods in her hart. She will helpe you to cleanse your trees of Caterpillers, and all noysome wormes and flyes. The gentle Robin-red-brest will helpe her, and in winter in the coldest stormes will keepe a part. Neither will the silly Wren be behind in Summer, with her distinct whistle (like a sweete Recorder) to cheere your spirits. {SN: Black-bird.} {SN: Thrush.} The Black-bird and Threstle (for I take it the Thrush sings not, but deuoures) sing loudly in a _May_ morning and delights the eare much (and you neede not want their company, if you haue ripe Cherries or Berries, and would as gladly as the rest do you pleasure:) But I had rather want their company than my fruit. What shall I say? A thousand of pleasant delightes are attendant in an Orchard: and sooner shall I be weary, then I can recken the least part of that pleasure, which one that hath and loues an Orchard, may find therein. What is there of all these few that I haue reckoned, which doth not please the eye, the eare, the smell, and taste? And by these sences as Organes, Pipes, and windowes, these delights are carried to refresh the gentle, generous, and noble mind. {SN: Your owne labour.} To conclude, what ioy may you haue, that you liuing to such an age, shall see the blessings of God on your labours while you liue, and leaue behind you to heires or successors (for God will make heires) such a worke, that many ages after your death, shall record your loue to their Countrey? And the rather, when you consider (_Chap. 14._) to what length of time your worke is like to last. _FINIS._ THE COVNTRY HOVSE-VVIFES GARDEN. _Containing Rules for Hearbs and Seedes_ of common vse, with their times and seasons, when to set and sow them. TOGETHER, With the Husbandry of Bees, published with secrets _very necessary for euery House-wife_. As also diuerse new Knots for Gardens. The Contents see at large in the last Page. Genes. 2. 29. _I haue giuen vnto you euery Herbe, and euery tree, that shall be to you for meate._ IC _LONDON_, Printed by _Nicholas Okes_ for IOHN HARISON, at the golden Vnicorne in Pater-noster-row. 1631. THE COVNTRY HOVSVVIFES GARDEN. CHAP. 1. _The Soyle._ {SN: Dry.} {SN: Hops.} The soyle of an Orchard and Garden, differ onely in these three points: First, the Gardens soyle would be somewhat dryer, because hearbes being more tender then trees, can neither abide moisture nor drought, in such excessiue measure, as trees; and therefore hauing a dryer soyle, the remedy is easie against drought, if need be: water soundly, which may be done with small labour, the compasse of a Garden being nothing so great, as of an Orchard, and this is the cause (if they know it) that Gardners raise their squares: but if moysture trouble you, I see no remedy without a generall danger, except in Hops, which delight much in a low and sappy earth. {SN: Plaine.} Secondly, the soyle of a Garden would be plaine and leuell, at least euery square (for we purpose the square to be the fittest forme) the reason: the earth of a garden wanting such helpes, as should stay the water, which an orchard hath, and the rootes of hearbes being short, and not able to fetch their liquor from the bottome, are more annoyed by drought, and the soyle being mellow and loose, is soone either washt away, or sends out his heart by too much drenching and washing. Thirdly, if a garden soyle be not cleere of weedes, and namely, of grasse, the hearbes shall neuer thriue: for how should good hearbes prosper, when euill weeds waxe so fast: considering good hearbes are tender in respect of euill weedes: these being strengthened by nature, and the other by art? Gardens haue small place in comparison, and therefore may be more easily be fallowed, at the least one halfe yeare before, and the better dressed after it is framed. And you shall finde that cleane keeping doth not onely auoide danger of gathering weedes, but also is a speciall ornament, and leaues more plentifull sap for your tender hearbes. CHAP. 2. _Of the Sites._ I cannot see in any sort, how the site of the one should not be good, and fit for the other: The ends of both being one, good, wholesome, and much fruit ioyned with delight, vnlesse trees be more able to abide the nipping frostes than tender hearbes: but I am sure, the flowers of trees are as soone perished with cold, as any hearbe except Pumpions, and Melons. CHAP. 3. _Of the Forme._ Let that which is sayd in the Orchards forme, suffice for a garden in generall: but for speciall formes in squares, they are as many, as there are diuices in Gardners braines. Neither is the wit and art of a skilfull Gardner in this poynt not to be commended, that can worke more variety for breeding of more delightsome choyce, and of all those things, where the owner is able and desirous to be satisfied. The number of formes, Mazes and Knots is so great, and men are so diuersly delighted, that I leaue euery House-wife to her selfe, especially seeing to set downe many, had bene but to fill much paper; yet lest I depriue her of all delight and direction, let her view these few, choyse, new formes, and note this generally, that all plots are square, and all are bordered about with Priuit, Raisins, Fea-berries, Roses, Thorne, Rosemary, Bee-flowers, Isop, Sage, or such like. {Illustration: The ground plot for Knots.} {Illustration: Cinkfoyle.} {Illustration: Flower-deluce.} {Illustration: The Trefoyle.} {Illustration: The Fret.} {Illustration: Lozenges.} {Illustration: Crosse-bow.} {Illustration: Diamond.} {Illustration: Ouall.} {Illustration: Maze.} CHAP. 4. _Of the Quantity._ A Garden requireth not so large a scope of ground as an Orchard, both in regard of the much weeding, dressing and remouing, and also the paines in a Garden is not so well repaied home, as in an Orchard. It is to be graunted, that the Kitchin garden doth yeeld rich gaines by berries, roots, cabbages, &c. yet these are no way comparable to the fruits of a rich Orchard: but notwithstanding I am of opinion, that it were better for _England_, that we had more Orchards and Gardens, and more large. And therefore we leaue the quantity to euery mans ability and will. CHAP. 5. _Of Fence._ Seeing we allow Gardens in Orchard plots, and the benefit of a Garden is much, they both require a strong and shrowding fence. Therefore leauing this, let vs come to the hearbes themselues, which must be the fruit of all these labours. CHAP. 6. _Of two Gardens._ Hearbes are of two sorts, and therefore it is meete (they requiring diuers manners of Husbandry) that we haue two Gardens: A garden for flowers, and a Kitchen garden: or a Summer garden: not that we meane so perfect a distinction, that the Garden for flowers should or can be without hearbes good for the Kitchen, or the Kitchen garden should want flowers, nor on the contrary: but for the most part they would be seuered: first, because your Garden flowers shall suffer some disgrace, if among them you intermingle Onions, Parsnips, &c. Secondly, your Garden that is durable, must be of one forme: but that, which is for your Kitchens vse, must yeeld daily rootes, or other hearbes, and suffer deformity. Thirdly, the hearbs of both will not be both alike ready, at one time, either for gathering, or remouing. First therefore _Of the Summer Garden._ These hearbs and flowers are comely and durable for squares and knots and all to set at _Michael-tide_, or somewhat before, that they may be setled in, and taken with the ground before winter, though they may be set, especially sowne in the spring. Roses of all sorts (spoken of in the Orchard) must be set. Some vie to set slips and twine them, which sometimes, but seldome thriue all. Rosemary, Lauender, Bee-flowers, Isop, Sage, Time, Cowslips, Pyony, Dasies, Cloue Gilliflowers, Pinkes, Sothernwood, Lillies, of all which hereafter. _Of the Kitchen Garden._ Though your Garden for flowers doth in a sort peculiarly challenge to it seise a profit, and exquisite forme to the eyes, yet you may not altogether neglect this, where your hearbes for the pot do growe. And therefore, some here make comely borders with the hearbes aforesayd. The rather because aboundance of Roses and Lauender yeeld much profit, and comfort to the sences: Rose-water and Lauender, the one cordial (as also the Violets, Burrage, and Buglas) the other reuiuing the spirits by the sence of smelling: both most durable for smell, both in flowers and water: you need not here raise your beds, as in the other garden, because Summer towards, will not let too much wet annoy you. And these hearbes require more moysture: yet must you haue your beds diuided, that you may goe betwixt to weede, and somewhat forme would be expected: To which it auaileth, that you place your herbes of biggest growth, by walles, or in borders, as Fenell, &c. and the lowest in the middest, as Saffron, Strawberries, Onions, &c. CHAP. 7. _Diuision of hearbs._ Garden hearbs are innumerable, yet these are common and sufficient for our country House-wifes. _Hearbs of greatest growth._ Fenell, Anglica, Tansie, Hollihock, Louage, Elly Campane, French mallows, Lillies, French poppy, Endiue, Succory and Clary. _Herbes of middle growth._ Burrage, Buglas, Parsley, sweet Sicilly, Floure-de-luce, Stocke Gilliflowers, Wall-flowers, Anniseedes, Coriander, Feather fewell, Marigolds, Oculus Christi, Langdibeefe, Alexanders, Carduus Benedictus. _Hearbes of smallest growth._ Pansy, or Harts-ease, Coast Margeram, Sauery, Strawberries, Saffron, Lycoras, Daffadowndillies, Leekes, Chiues, Chibals, Skerots, Onions, Batchellors buttons, Dasies, Peniroyall. Hitherto I haue onely reckoned vp, and put in this ranke, some hearbs. Their Husbandry follow each in an Alphabeticall order, the better to be found. CHAP. 8. _Husbandry of Herbes._ _Alexanders_ are to be renewed as _Angelica_. It is a timely Pot-hearbe. _Anglica_ is renued with his seede, whereof he beareth plenty the second yeare, and so dieth. You may remoue the rootes the first yeare. The leaues distilled, yeeld water soueraigne to expell paine from the stomacke. The roote dried taken in the fall, stoppeth the poares against infections. _Annyseedes_ make their growth, and beareth seeds the first yeere, and dieth as _Coriander_: it is good for opening the pipes, and it is vsed in Comfits. _Artichoakes_ are renewed by diuiding the rootes into sets, in _March_, euery third or fourth yeare. They require a seuerall vsage, and therefore a seuerall whole plot by themselues, especially considering they are plentifull of fruite much desired. _Burrage_ and _Buglas_, two Cordials, renue themselues by seed yearely, which is hard to be gathered: they are exceeding good Pot-hearbes, good for Bees, and most comfortable for the heart and stomacke, as Quinces and Wardens. _Camomile_, set rootes in bankes and walkes. It is sweete smelling, qualifying head-ach. _Cabbages_ require great roome, they seed the second yeare: sow them in _February_, remoue them when the plants are an handfull long, set deepe and wet. Looke well in drought for the white Caterpillers worme, the spaunes vnder the leafe closely; for euery liuing Creature doth seeke foode and quiet shelter, and growing quicke, they draw to, and eate the heart: you may finde them in a rainy deawy morning. It is a good Pothearbe, and of this hearbe called _Cole_ our Countrie House-wiues giue their pottage their name, and call them _Caell_. _Carduus Benedictus_, or blessed thistle, seeds and dyes the first yeere, the excellent vertue thereof I referre to Herbals, for we are Gardiners, not Physitians. _Carrets_ are sowne late in _Aprill_ or _May_, as Turneps, else they seede the first yeere, and then their roots are naught: the second yeere they dye, their roots grow great, and require large roome. _Chibals_ or _Chiues_ haue their roots parted, as Garlick, Lillies, &c. and so are they set euery third or fourth yeere: a good pot-hearb opening, but euill for the eies. _Clarie_ is sowne, it seeds the second yeere, and dyes. It is somewhat harsh in taste, a little in pottage is good, it strengtheneth the reines. _Coast_, Roote parted make sets in _March_: it beares the second yeere: it is vsed in Ale in _May_. _Coriander_ is for vsage and vses, much like Anniseeds. _Daffadowndillies_ haue their roots parted, and set once in three or foure yeere, or longer time. They flower timely, and after _Midsummer_, are scarcely seene. They are more for ornament, then for vse, so are Daisies. _Daisie_-rootes parted and set, as Flowre-deluce and Camomile, when you see them grow too thicke or decay. They be good to keepe vp, and strengthen the edges of your borders, as Pinkes, they be red, white, mixt. _Ellycampane_ root is long lasting, as is the Louage, it seeds yeerely, you may diuide the root, and set the roote, taken in VVinter it is good (being dryed, powdered and drunke) to kill itches. _Endiue_ and _Succory_ are much like in nature, shape, and vse, they renue themselues by seed, as Fennell, and other hearbs. You may remoue them before they put forth shankes, a good Pot-hearbe. _Fennell_ is renued, either by the seeds (which it beareth the second yeere, and so yeerely in great abundance) sowne in the fall or Spring, or by diuiding one root into many Sets, as Artichoke, it is long of growth and life. You may remoue the roote vnshankt. It is exceeding good for the eyes, distilled, or any otherwise taken: it is vsed in dressing Hiues for swarmes, a very good Pot-hearbe, or for Sallets. _Fetherfewle_ shakes seed. Good against a shaking Feuer, taken in a posset drinke fasting. _Flower-deluce_, long lasting. Diuide his roots, and set: the roots dryed haue a sweet smell. _Garlicke_ may be set an handfull distance, two inches deepe, in the edge of your beds. Part the heads into seuerall cloues, and euery cloue set in the latter end of _February_, will increase to a great head before _September_: good for opening, euill for eyes: when the blade is long, fast two & two together, the heads will be bigger. _Hollyhocke_ riseth high, seedeth and dyeth: the chiefe vse I know is ornament. _Isop_ is reasonable long lasting: young roots are good set, slips better. A good pot-hearbe. _Iuly-flowers_, commonly called _Gilly-flowers_, or _Cloue-Iuly-flowers_ (I call them so, because they flowre in _Iuly_) they haue the name of _Cloues_, of their sent. I may well call them the King of flowers (except the Rose) and the best sort of them are called _Queene-Iuly flowers_. I haue of them nine or ten seuerall colours, and diuers of them as big as Roses; of all flowers (saue the Damaske Rose) they are the most pleasant to sight and smell: they last not past three or foure yeeres vnremoued. Take the slips (without shanks) and set any time, saue in extreme frost, but especially at _Michael tide_. Their vse is much in ornament, and comforting the spirits, by the sence of smelling. _Iuly flowers_ of the wall, or wall-_Iuly-flowers_, wall-flowers, or Bee-flowers, or Winter-_Iuly-flowers_, because growing in the walles, euen in Winter, and good for Bees, will grow euen in stone walls, they will seeme dead in Summer, and yet reuiue in Winter. They yeeld seed plentifully, which you may sow at any time, or in any broken earth, especially on the top of a mud-wall, but moist, you may set the root before it be brancht, euery slip that is not flowr'd will take root, or crop him in Summer, and he will flower in Winter: but his Winter-seed is vntimely. This and Palmes are exceeding good, and timely for Bees. _Leekes_ yeeld seed the second yeere, vnremoued and die, vnlesse you remoue them, vsuall to eate with salt and bread, as Onyons alwaies greene, good pot-hearb, euill for the eyes. _Lauendar spike_ would be remoued within 7 yeeres, or eight at the most. Slips twined as Isop and Sage, would take best at _Michael-tide_. This flower is good for Bees, most comfortable for smelling, except Roses; and kept dry, is as strong after a yeere, and when it is gathered. The water of this is comfortable. White _Lauendar_ would be remoued sooner. _Lettice_ yeelds seed the first yeere, and dyes: sow betime, and if you would haue them _Cabbage_ for Sallets, remoue them as you doe _Cabbage_. They are vsuall in Sallets, and the pot. _Lillies_ white and red, remoued once in three or foure yeeres their roots yeeld many Sets, like the Garlicke, _Michael-tide_ is the best: they grow high, after they get roote: these roots are good to breake a Byle, as are Mallowes and Sorrell. _Mallowes_, French or gagged, the first or second yeere, seed plentifully: sow in _March_, or before, they are good for the house-wifes pot, or to breake a bunch. _Marigolds_ most commonly come of seed, you may remoue the Plants, when they be two inches long. The double Marigold, being as bigge as a little Rose, is good for shew. They are a good Pot-hearbe. _Oculus Christi_, or Christs eye, seeds and dyes the first or second yeere: you may remoue the yong Plants, but seed is better: one of these seeds put into the eye, within three or foure houres will gather a thicke skinne, cleere the eye, and bolt it selfe forth without hurt to the eye. A good Pot-hearbe. _Onyons_ are sowne in _February_, they are gathered at _Michael-tide_, and all the Summer long, for Sallets; as also young Parsly, Sage, Chibals, Lettice, sweet Sicily, Fennell, &c. good alone, or with meate as Mutton, &c. for sauce, especially for the pot. _Parsly_ sow the first yeere, and vse the next yeere: it seedes plentifully, an hearbe of much vse, as sweet Sicily is. The seed and roots are good against the Stone. _Parsneps_ require and whole plot, they be plentifull and common: sow them in _February_, the Kings (that is in the middle) seed broadest and reddest. Parsneps are sustenance for a strong stomacke, not good for euill eies: When they couer the earth in a drought, to tread the tops, make the rootes bigger. _Peny-royall_, or Pudding Grasse, creepes along the ground like ground Iuie. It lasts long, like Daisies, because it puts and spreads dayly new roots. Diuide, and remoue the roots, it hath a pleasant taste and smell, good for the pot, or hackt meate, or Haggas Pudding. _Pumpions_: Set seedes with your finger, a finger deepe, late in _March_, and so soone as they appeare, euery night if you doubt frost, couer them, and water them continually out of a water-pot: they be very tender, their fruit is great and waterish. _French poppy_ beareth a faire flower, and the Seed will make you sleepe. _Raddish_ is sauce for cloyed stomacks, as Capers, Oliues, and Cucumbers, cast the seeds all Summer long here and there, and you shall haue them alwaies young and fresh. _Rosemary_, the grace of hearbs here in _England_, in other Countries common. To set slips immediately after _Lammas_, is the surest way. Seede sowne may proue well, so they be sowne in hot weather, somewhat moist, and good earth: for the hearbe, though great, is nesh and tender (as I take it) brought from hot Countries to vs in the cold North: set thinne. It becomes a Window well. The vse is much in meates, more in Physicke, most for Bees. _Rue, or Hearbe of Grace_, continually greene, the slips are set. It lasts long as Rosemary, Sothernwood, &c. too strong for mine Housewifes pot, vnlesse she will brue Ale therewith, against the Plague: let him not seede, if you will haue him last. _Saffron_ euery third yeere his roots would be remoued at _Midsummer_: for when all other hearbs grow most, it dyeth. It flowreth at _Michael-tide_, and groweth all Winter: keepe his flowers from birds in the morning, & gather the yellow (or they shape much like Lillies) dry, and after dry them: they be precious, expelling diseases from the heart and stomacke. _Sauery_ seeds and dyes the first yeere, good for my Housewifes pot and pye. _Sage_: set slips in _May_, and they grow aye: Let it not seed it will last the longer. The vse is much and common. The Monkish Prouerbe is _tritum_: _Cur moritur homo, cum saluia crescit in horto?_ _Skerots_, roots are set when they be parted, as _Pyonie_, and Flower-deluce at _Michael-tide_: the roote is but small and very sweet. I know none other speciall vse but the Table. Sweet _Sicily_, long lasting, pleasantly tasting, either the seed sowne, or the root parted, and remoued, makes increase, it is of like vse with Parsly. _Strawberries_ long lasting, set roots at _Michael-tide_ or the Spring, they be red, white and greene, and ripe, when they be great and soft, some by _Midsummer_ with vs. The vse is: they will coole my Housewife well, if they be put in Wine or Creame with Sugar. _Time_, both seeds, slips and rootes are good. If it seed not, it will last three or foure yeeres or more, it smelleth comfortably. It hath much vse: namely, in all cold meats, it is good for Bees. _Turnep_ is sowne. In the second yeere they beare plenty of seed: they require the same time of sowing that Carrets doe: they are sicke of the same disease that Cabbages be. The roots increaseth much, it is most wholesome, if it be sowne in a good and well tempered earth: Soueraigne for eyes and Bees. I reckon these hearbs onely, because I teach my Countrey Housewife, not skilfull Artists, and it should be an endlesse labour, and would make the matter tedious to reckon vp _Landtheefe_, _Stocke-Iuly-flowers_, _Charuall_, _Valerian_, _Go-to bed at noone_, _Piony_, _Licoras_, _Tansie_, _Garden mints_, _Germander_, _Centaurie_, and a thousand such physicke Hearbs. Let her first grow cunning in this, and then she may enlarge her Garden as her skill and ability increaseth. And to helpe her the more, I haue set her downe these obseruations. CHAP. 9. _Generall Rules in Gardening._ In the South parts Gardening may be more timely, and more safely done, then with vs in _Yorkeshire_, because our ayre is not so fauourable, nor our ground so good. 2 Secondly most seeds shakt, by turning the good earth, are renued, their mother the earth keeping them in her bowels, till the Sunne their Father can reach them with his heat. 3 In setting hearbs, leaue no top more then an handfull aboue the ground, nor more then a foot vnder the earth. 4 Twine the roots of those slips you set, if they will abide it. Gilly-flowers are too tender. 5 Set moist, and sowe dry. 6 Set slips without shankes any time, except at _Midsummer_, and in frosts. 7 Seeding spoiles the most roots, as drawing the heart and sap from the root. 8 Gather for the pot and medicines, hearbs tender and greene, the sap being in the top, but in Winter the root is best. 9 All the hearbs in the Garden for flowers, would once in seuen yeeres be renued, or soundly watered with puddle water, except Rosemary. 10 In all your Gardens and Orchards, bankes and seates of Camomile, Peny-royall, Daisies and Violets, are seemely and comfortable. 11 These require whole plots: Artichokes, Cabbages, Turneps, Parsneps, Onyons, Carrets, and (if you will) Saffron and Scerrits. 12 Gather all your seeds, dead, ripe, and dry. 13 Lay no dung to the roots of your hearbs, as vsually they doe: for dung not melted is too hot, euen for trees. 14 Thin setting and sewing (so the rootes stand not past a foot distance) is profitable, for the hearbs will like the better. Greater hearbs would haue more distance. 15 Set and sow hearbs in their time of growth (except at _Midsummer_, for then they are too too tender) but trees in their time of rest. 16 A good Housewife may, and will gather store of hearbs for the pot, about _Lammas_, and dry them, and pownd them, and in Winter they will make good seruice. Thus haue I lined out a Garden to our Countrey Housewiues, and giuen them rules for common hearbs. If any of them (as sometimes they are) be knotty, I referre them to Chap. 3. The skill and paines of weeding the Garden with weeding kniues or fingers, I refer to themselues, and their maides, willing them to take the opportunitie after a showre of raine: withall I aduise the Mistresse, either be present her selfe, or to teach her maides to know hearbs from weeds. CHAP. 10. _The Husbandry of Bees._ There remaineth one necessary thing to be prescribed, which in mine opinion makes as much for ornament as either Flowers, or forme, or cleanlinesse, and I am sure as commodious as any of, or all the rest: which is Bees, well ordered. And I will not account her any of my good House-wiues, that wanteth either Bees or skilfulnesse about them. And though I knowe some haue written well and truely, and others more plentifully vpon this theame: yet somewhat haue I learned by experience (being a Bee-maister my selfe) which hitherto I cannot finde put into writing, for which I thinke our House-wiues will count themselues beholding vnto me. {SN: Bee-house.} The first thing that a Gardiner about Bees must be carefull for, is an house not stakes and stones abroad, _Sub dio_: for stakes rot and reele, raine and weather eate your hiues, and couers, and cold most of all is hurtfull for your Bees. Therefore you must haue an house made along, a sure dry wall in your Garden, neere, or in your Orchard: for Bees loue flowers and wood with their hearts. This is the forme, a Frame standing on posts with a Floore (if you would haue it hold more Hiues, two Floores boorded) layd on bearers, and backe posts, couered ouer with boords, slate-wise. IC Let the floores be without holes or clifts, least in casting time, the Bees lye out, and loyter. And though your Hiues stand within an hand breadth the one of another: yet will Bees know their home. In this Frame may your Bees stand drye and warme, especially if you make doores like doores of windows to shroud them in winter, as in an house: prouided you leaue the hiues mouths open. I my self haue deuised such an house, and I find that it keeps and strengthens my Bees much, and my hiues will last sixe to one. {SN: Hiues.} M. _Markham_ commends Hiues of wood. I discommend them not: but straw Hiues are in vse with vs, and I thinke with all the world, which I commend for nimblenesse, closenesse, warmnesse and drinesse. Bees loue no externall motions of dawbing or such like. Sometimes occasion shall be offered to lift and turne Hiues, as shall appeare hereafter. One light entire hiue of straw in that case is better, then one that is dawbed, weighty and cumbersome. I wish euery hiue, for a keeping swarme, to hold three pecks at least in measure. For too little Hiues procure Bees, in casting time, either to lye out, and loyter, or else to cast before they be ripe and strong, and so make weake swarmes and vntimely: Whereas if they haue roome sufficient, they ripen timely, and casting seasonably, are strong, and fit for labour presently. Neither would the hiue be too too great, for then they loyter, and waste meate and time. {SN: Hiuing of Bees.} Your Bees delight in wood, for feeding, especially for casting: therefore want not an Orchard. A _Mayes_ swarme is worth a Mares Foale: if they want wood, they be in danger of flying away. Any time before _Midsummer_ is good, for casting and timely before _Iuly_ is not euill. I much like M _Markhams_ opinion for hiuing a swarme in combes of a dead or forsaken hiue, so they be fresh & cleanly. To thinke that a swarme of your owne, or others, will of it selfe come into such an hiue, is a meere conceit. _Experto crede Roberto._ His smearing with honey, is to no purpose, for the other Bees will eate it vp. If your swarme knit in the top of a tree, as they will, if the winde beate them not to fall downe: let the stoole or ladder described in the Orchard, doe you seruice. {SN: Spelkes.} The lesse your Spelkes are, the lesse is the waste of your honey, and the more easily will they draw, when you take your Bees. Foure Spelkes athwart, and one top Spelke are sufficient. The Bees will fasten their combes to the Hiue. A little honey is good: but if you want, Fennell will serue to rub your Hiue withall. The Hiue being drest and ready spelkt, rubd and the hole made for their passage (I vse no hole in the Hiue, but a piece of wood hoal'd to saue the hiue & keep out Mice) shake in your Bees, or the most of them (for all commonly you cannot get) the remainder will follow. Many vse smoke, Nettles, &c. which I vtterly dislike: for Bees loue not to be molested. Ringing in the time of casting is a meere fancie, violent handling of them is simply euill, because Bees of all other creatures, loue cleanlinesse and peace. Therefore handle them leasurely & quietly, and their Keeper whom they know, may do with them, what he will, without hurt: Being hiued at night, bring them to their seat. Set your hiues all of one yeere together. Signes of breeding, if they be strong: 1 They will auoid dead young Bees and Droanes. 2 They will sweat in the morning, till it runne from them; alwaies when they be strong. _Signes of casting._ 1 They will fly Droanes, by reason of heat. 2 The young swarme will once or twice in some faire season, come forth mustering, as though they would cast, to proue themselues, and goe in againe. 3 The night before they cast, if you lay your eare to the Hiues mouth, yo shall heare two or three, but especially one aboue the rest, cry, Vp, vp, vp; or, Tout, tout, tout, like a trumpet, sounding the alarum to the battell. {SN: Catching.} {SN: Clustering.} Much descanting there is, of, and about the Master-Bee, and their degrees, order and gouernment: but the truth in this point is rather imagined, then demonstrated. There are some coniectures of it, _viz._ we see in the combs diuers greater houses then the rest, & we heare commonly the night before they cast, sometimes one Bee, sometimes two, or more Bees, giue a lowd and seueral sound from the rest, and sometimes Bees of greater bodies then the common sort: but what of all this? I leane not on coniectures, but loue to set downe that I know to be true, and leaue these things to them that loue to diuine. Keepe none weake, for it is hazard, oftentimes with losse: Feeding will not helpe them: for being weake, they cannot come downe to meate, or if they come downe, they dye, because Bees weake cannot abide cold. If none of these, yet will the other Bees being strong, smell the honey, and come and spoile, and kill them. Some helpe is in casting time, to put two weake swarmes together, or as M. _Markham_ well saith: Let not them cast late, by raising them with wood or stone: but with impes (say I.) An impe is three or foure wreathes, wrought as the hiue, the same compasse, to rase the hiue withall: but by experience in tryall, I haue found out a better way by Clustering, for late or weake swarmes hitherto not found out of any that I know. That is this: After casting time, if I haue any stocke proud, and hindered from timely casting, with former Winters pouerty, or euill weather in casting time, with two handles and crookes, fitted for the purpose, I turne vp that stocke so pestred with Bees, and set it on the crowne, vpon which so turned with the mouth vpward, I place another empty hiue well drest, and spelkt, into which without any labour, the Swarme that would not depart, and cast, will presently ascend, because the old Bees haue this qualitie (as all other breeding creatures haue) to expell the young, when they haue brought them vp. IC There will the swarme build as kindely, as if they had of themselues beene cast. But bee sure you lay betwixt the Hiues some straight and cleanly sticke or stickes, or rather a boord with holes, to keepe them asunder: otherwise they will ioyne their workes together so fast, that they cannot be parted. If you so keepe them asunder at _Michael-tide_, if you like the weight of your swarme (for the goodnesse of swarmes is tryed by weight) so catched, you may set it by for a stocke to keepe. Take heed in any case the combes be not broken, for then the other Bees will smell the honey, and spoyle them. This haue I tryed to be very profitable for the sauing of Bees. The Instrument hath this forme. The great straight piece is wood, the rest are iron claspes and nailes, the claspes are loose in the Stapes: Two men with two of these fastened to the Hiue, will easily turne it vp. They gather not till _Iuly_; for then they be discharged of their young, or else they are become now strong to labour, and now sap in flowers is strong and proud: by reason of time, and force of Sunne. And now also in the North (and not before) the hearbs of greatest vigour put their Flowers; As Beanes, Fennell, Burrage, Rape, &c. The most sensible weather for them, is heat and drought, because the nesh Bee can neither abide cold or wet: and showres (which they well fore-see) doe interrupt their labours, vnlesse they fall on the night, and so they further them. {SN: Droanes.} After casting time, you shall benefit your stockes much, if you helpe them to kill their Droanes, which by all probability and iudgement, are an idle kind of Bees, and wastefull. Some say they breed and haue seene young Droanes in taking their honey, which I know is true. But I am of opinion, that there are also Bees which haue lost their stings, and so being, as it were gelded, become idle and great. There is great vse of them: _Deus, et natura nihil fecit frustra_. They hate the Bees, and cause them cast the sooner. They neuer come foorth but when they be ouer heated. They neuer come home loaden. After casting time, and when the Bees want meate, you shall see the labouring Bees fasten on them, two, three, or foure at once, as if they were theeues to be led to the gallowes, and killing them, they cast out, and draw them farre from home, as hatefull enemies. Our Housewife, if she be the Keeper of her owne Bees (as she had need to be) may with her bare hand in the heate of the day, safely destroy them in the hiues mouth. Some vse towards night, in a hot day, to set before the mouth of the hiue a thin board, with little holes, in at which the lesser Bees may enter, but not the Droanes, so that you may kill them at your pleasure. {SN: Annoyances.} Snayles spoile them by night like theeues: they come so quietly, and are so fast, that the Bees feare them not. Looke earely and late, especially in a rainie or dewey euening or morning. Mice are no lesse hurtfull, and the rather to hiues of straw: and therefore couerings of straw draw them. They will in either at the mouth, or sheere themselues an hole. The remedy is good Cats, Rats-bane and watching. The cleanly Bee hateth the smoake as poison, therefore let your Bees stand neerer your garden then your Brew-house or Kitchen. They say Sparrowes and Swallowes are enemies to Bees, but I see it not. More hiues perish by Winters cold, then by all other hurts: for the Bee is tender and nice, and onely liues in warme weather, and dyes in cold: And therefore let my Housewife be perswaded, that a warme dry house before described, is the chiefest helpe she can make her Bees against this, and many more mischiefes. Many vse against cold in Winter, to stop vp their hiue close, and some set them in houses, perswading themselues, that thereby they relieue their Bees. First, tossing and mouing is hurtfull. Secondly, in houses, going, knocking, and shaking is noysome. Thirdly, too much heate in an house is vnnaturall for them: but lastly, and especially, Bees cannot abide to be stopt close vp. For at euery warme season of the Sunne they reuiue, and liuing eate, and eating must needs purge abroad, (in her house) the cleanly Bee will not purge her selfe. Iudge you what it is for any liuing creature, not to disburden nature. Being shut vp in calme seasons, lay your care to the Hiue, and you shall heare them yarme and yell, as so many hungred prisoners. Therefore impound not your Bees, so profitable and free a creature. {SN: Taking of Bees.} Let none stand aboue three yeares, else the combes will be blacke and knotty, your honey will be thinne and vncleanly: and if any cast after three yeares, it is such as haue swarmes, and old Bees kept all together, which is great losse. Smoaking with ragges, rozen, or brimstone, many vse: some vse drowning in a tub of cleane water, and the water well brewde, will be good botchet. Drawe out your spelkes immediatly with a paire of pinchars, lest the wood grow soft and swell, and so will not be drawne, then must you cut your Hiue. {SN: Straining Honey.} Let no fire come neere your hony, for fire softeneth the waxe and drosse, and makes them runne with the hony. Fire softneth, weakeneth, and hindereth hony for purging. Breake your combes small (when the dead empty combes are parted from the loaden combes) into a siue, borne ouer a great bowle, or vessell, with two staues, and so let it runne two or three dayes. The sooner you tunne it vp, the better will it purge. Runne your swarme honey by it selfe, and that shall be your best. The elder your hiues are, the worse is your honey. {SN: Vessels.} Vsuall vessels are of clay, but after wood be satiated with honey (for it will leake at first: for honey is maruellously searching, the thicke, and therefore vertuous.) I vse it rather because it will not breake so soone, with fals, frosts, or otherwise, and greater vessels of clay will hardly last. When you vse your honey, with a spoone take off the skin which it hath put vp. And it is worth the regard, that bees thus vsed, if you haue but forty stockes, shall yeeld you more commodity cleerely than forty acres of ground. And thus much may suffice, to make good Housewiues loue and haue good Gardens and Bees. _Deo Laus._ _FINIS._ The Contents of the Countrey _House-wifes Garden._ Chap. 1. _The Soyle._ _Pag. 77_ Chap. 2. _Site._ _p. 78_ Chap. 3. _Forme._ _p. 79_ Chap. 4. _Quantity._ _p. 85_ Chap. 5. _Fences._ _p. ibid._ Chap. 6. _Two Gardens._ _p. 86_ Chap. 7. _Diuision of herbs._ _p. 88_ Chap. 8. _The Husbandry of herbes._ _p. ibid._ Chap. 9. _Generall rules._ _p. 96_ Chap. 10. _The Husbandry of Bees._ _p. 98_ _Bee-house._ _p. 98._ _Hiues._ _p. 100._ _Hiuing of Bees._ _p. ibid._ _Spelkes._ _p. 101._ _Catching._ _p. 102._ _Clustering._ _p. 103._ _Droanes._ _p. 104._ _Annoyances._ _p. 105._ _Taking of Bees._ _p. 106._ _Straining honey._ _p. ibid._ _Vessels._ _p. ibid._ A MOST PROFITABLE NEWE TREATISE, From approued experience of the art _of propagating Plants: by_ Simon Harward. CHAP. 1. _The Art of propagating Plants._ {SN: 1.} There are foure sorts of Planting, or propagating, as in laying of shootes or little branches, whiles they are yet tender in some pit made at their foote, as shall be sayd hereafter, or vpon a little ladder or Basket of earth, tyed to the bottome of the branch, or in boaring a Willow thorow, and putting the branch of the tree into the hole, as shall be fully declared in the Chapter of Grafting. {SN: 2.} There are likewise seasons to propagate in; but the best is in the Spring, and _March_, when the trees are in the Flower, and doe begin to grow lusty. The young planted Siens or little Grafts must be propagated in the beginning of Winter, a foot deepe in the earth, and good manure mingled amongst the earth, which you shall cast forth of the pit, wherein you meane to propagate it, to tumble it in vpon it againe. In like manner your superfluous Siens, or little Plants must be cut close by the earth, when as they grow about some small Impe, which we meane to propagate, for they would doe nothing but rot. For to propagate, you must digge the earth round about the tree, that so your rootes may be laid in a manner halfe bare. Afterward draw into length the pit on that side where you meane to propagate, and according as you perceiue that the roots will be best able to yeeld, and be gouerned in the same pit, to vie them, and that with all gentlenesse, and stop close your Siens, in such sort, as that the wreath which is in the place where it is grafted, may be a little lower then the Siens of the new Wood, growing out of the earth, euen so high as it possible may be. If the trees that you would propagate be somewhat thicke, and thereby the harder to ply, and somewhat stiffe to lay in the pit: then you may wet the stocke almost to the midst, betwixt the roote and the wreathing place, and so with gentle handling of it, bow downe into the pit the wood which the grafts haue put forth, and that in as round a compasse as you can, keeping you from breaking of it: afterward lay ouer the cut, with gummed Waxe, or with grauell and sand. CHAP. 2. _Grafting in the Barke._ Grafting in the Barke, is vsed from mid-_August_, to the beginning of Winter, and also when the Westerne winde beginneth to blow, being from the 7. of _February_, vnto 11. of _Iune_. But there must care be had, not to graffe in the barke in any rainy season, because it would wash away the matter of ioyning the one and the other together, and so hinder it. {SN: 3.} Grafting in the budde, is vsed in the Summer time, from the end of _May_, vntill _August_, as being the time when the trees are strong and lusty, and full of sap and leaues. To wit, in a hot Countrey, from the midst of _Iune_, vnto the midst of _Iuly_: but cold Countries, to the midst of _August_, after some small showres of Raine. If the Summer be so exceeding dry, as that some trees doe withhold their sap, you must waite the time till it doe returne. Graft from the full of the Moone, vntill the end of the old. You may graft in a Cleft, without hauing regard to the Raine, for the sap will keepe it off. You may graft from mid-_August_, to the beginning of _Nouember_: Cowes dung with straw doth mightily preserue the graft. It is better to graft in the euening, then the morning. The furniture and tooles of a Grafter, are a Basket to lay his Grafts in, Clay, Grauell, Sand, or strong Earth, to draw ouer the plants clouen: Mosse, Woollen clothes, barkes of Willow to ioyne to the late things and earth before spoken, and to keepe them fast: Oziers to tye againe vpon the barke, to keepe them firme and fast: gummed Wax, to dresse and couer the ends and tops of the grafts newly cut, that so the raine and cold may not hurt them, neither yet the sap rising from belowe, be constrained to returne againe vnto the shootes. A little Sawe or hand Sawe, to sawe off the stocke of the plants, a little Knife or Pen-knife to graffe, and to cut and sharpen the grafts, that so the barke may not pill nor be broken; which often commeth to passe when the graft is full of sap. You shall cut the graffe so long, as that it may fill the cliffe of the plant, and therewithall it must be left thicker on the barke-side, that so it may fill vp both the cliffe and other incisions, as any need is to be made, which must be alwaies well ground, well burnished without all rust. Two wedges, the one broad for thicke trees, the other narrow for lesse and tender trees, both of them of box, or some other hard and smooth wood, or steele, or of very hard iron, that so they may need lesse labour in making them sharpe. A little hand-Bill to set the plants at more liberty, by cutting off superfluous boughs, helu'd of Iuory, Box, or Brazell. CHAP. 3. _Grafting in the cleft._ The manner of grafting in a cleft, to wit, the stocke being clou'd, is proper not onely to trees, which are as great as a mans legs or armes, but also to greater. It is true that in as much as the trees cannot easily be clouen in their stocke, that therefore it is expedient to make incision in some one of their branches, and not in the maine body, as we see to be practised in great Apple trees, and great Peare-trees, and as we haue already declared heretofore. To graft in the cleft, you must make choise of a graft that is full of sap and iuyce, but it must not bee, but till from after _Ianuary_ vntill _March_: And you must not thus graft in any tree that is already budded, because a great part of the iuyce and sap would be already mounted vp on high, and risen to the top, and there dispersed and scattered hither and thither, into euery sprigge and twigge, and vse nothing welcome to the graft. You must likewise be resolued not to gather your graft the day you graft in, but ten or twelue dayes before: for otherwise, if you graft it new gathered, it will not be able easily to incorporate itselfe with the body and stocke, where it shall be grafted; because that some part of it will dry, and by this meanes will be a hinderance in the stocke to the rising vp of the sap, which it should communerate vnto the graft, for the making of it to put forth, and whereas this dried part will fall a crumbling, and breaking thorow his rottennesse, it will cause to remaine a concauity, or hollow place in the stock, which will be an occasion of a like inconuenience to befall the graft. Moreouer, the graft being new and tender, might easily be hurt of the bands, which are of necessity to be tyed about the Stocke, to keepe the graft firme and fast. And you must further see, that your Plant was not of late remoued, but that it haue already fully taken root. When you are minded to graft many grafts into one cleft, you must see that they be cut in the end all alike. {SN: 7.} See that the grafts be of one length, or not much differing, and it is enough, that they haue three or foure eylets without the wrench when the Plant is once sawed, and lopped of all his small Siens and shootes round about, as also implyed of all his branches, if it haue many: then you must leaue but two at the most, before you come to the cleauing of it: then put to your little Saw, or your knife, or other edged toole that is very sharpe, cleaue it quite thorow the middest, in gentle and soft sort: First, tying the Stocke very sure, that so it may not cleaue further then is need: and then put to your Wedges into the cleft vntill such time as you haue set in your grafts, and in cleauing of it, hold the knife with the one hand, and the tree with the other, to helpe to keepe it from cleauing too farre. Afterwards put in your wedge of Boxe or Brazill, or bone at the small end, that so you may the better take it out againe, when you haue set in your grafts. {SN: 8.} If the Stocke be clouen, or the Barke loosed too much from the wood: then cleaue it downe lower, and set your grafts in, and looke that their incision bee fit, and very iustly answerable to the cleft, and that the two saps, first, of the Plant and graft, be right and euen set one against the other, and so handsomely fitted, as that there may not be the least appearance of any cut or cleft. For if they doe not thus lumpe one with another, they will neuer take one with another, because they cannot worke their seeming matter, and as it were cartilaguous glue in conuenient sort or manner, to the gluing of their ioynts together. You must likewise beware, not to make your cleft ouerthwart the pitch, but somewhat aside. The barke of your Plant being thicker then that of your Graft, you must set the graft so much the more outwardly in the cleft, that so the two saps may in any case be ioyned, and set right the one with the other but the rinde of the Plant must be somewhat more out, then that of the grafts on the clouen side. {SN: 9.} {SN: 10.} To the end that you may not faile of this worke of imping, you must principally take heed, not to ouer-cleaue the Stockes of your Trees. But before you widen the cleft of your wedges, binde, and goe about the Stocke with two or three turnes, and that with an Ozier, close drawne together, vnderneath the same place, where you would haue your cleft to end, that so your Stocke cleaue not too farre, which is a very vsuall cause of the miscarrying of grafts, in asmuch as hereby the cleft standeth so wide and open, as that it cannot be shut, and so not grow together againe; but in the meane time spendeth it selfe, and breatheth out all his life in that place, which is the cause that the Stocke and the Graft are both spilt. And this falleth out most often in Plum-trees, & branches of trees. You must be careful so to ioyne the rinds of your grafts, and Plants, that nothing may continue open, to the end that the wind, moisture of the clay or raine, running vpon the grafted place, do not get in: when the plant cloueth very straight, there is not any danger nor hardnesse in sloping downe the Graft. If you leaue it somewhat vneuen, or rough in some places, so that the saps both of the one and of the other may the better grow, and be glued together, when your grafts are once well ioyned to your Plants, draw out your wedges very softly, lest you displace them againe, you may leaue there within the cleft some small end of a wedge of greene wood, cutting it very close with the head of the Stocke: Some cast glue into the cleft, some Sugar, and some gummed Waxe. {SN: 11.} If the Stocke of the Plant whereupon you intend to graft, be not so thicke as your graft, you shall graft it after the fashion of a Goates foot, make a cleft in the Stocke of the Plant, not direct, but byas, & that smooth and euen, not rough: then apply and make fast thereto, the graft withall his Barke on, and answering to the barke of the Plant. This being done, couer the place with the fat earth and mosse of the Woods tyed together with a strong band: sticke a pole of Wood by it, to keepe it stedfast. CHAP. 4. _Grafting like a Scutcheon._ In grafting after the manner of a Scutcheon, you shall not vary nor differ much from that of the Flute or Pipe, saue only that the Scutcheon-like graft, hauing one eyelet, as the other hath yet the wood of the tree whereupon the Scutcheon-like graft is grafted, hath not any knob, or budde, as the wood whereupon the graft is grafted, after the manner of a pipe. {SN: 12.} In Summer when the trees are well replenished with sap, and that their new Siens begin to grow somewhat hard, you shall take a shoote at the end of the chiefe branches of some noble and reclaimed tree, whereof you would faine haue some fruit, and not many of his old store or wood, and from thence raise a good eylet, the tayle and all thereof to make your graft. But when you choose, take the thickest, and grossest, diuide the tayle in the middest, before you doe any thing else, casting away the leafe (if it be not a Peare plum-tree: for that would haue two or three leaues) without remouing any more of the said tayle: afterward with the point of a sharpe knife, cut off the Barke of the said shoote, the patterne of a shield, of the length of a nayle. {SN: 13.} In which there is onely one eylet higher then the middest together, with the residue of the tayle which you left behinde: and for the lifting vp of the said graft in Scutcheon, after that you haue cut the barke of the shoote round about, without cutting of the wood within, you must take it gently with your thumbe, and in putting it away you must presse vpon the wood from which you pull it, that so you may bring the bud and all away together with the Scutcheon: for if you leaue it behinde with the wood, then were the Scutcheon nothing worth. You shall finde out if the Scutcheon be nothing worth, if looking within when it is pulled away from the wood of the same sute, you finde it to haue a hole within, but more manifestly, if the bud doe stay behind in the VVood, which ought to haue beene in the Scutcheon. {SN: 14.} Thus your Scutcheon being well raised and taken off, hold it a little by the tayle betwixt your lips, without wetting of it, euen vntill you haue cut the Barke of the tree where you would graft it, and looke that it be cut without any wounding of the wood within, after the manner of a crutch, but somewhat longer then the Scutcheon that you haue to set in it, and in no place cutting the wood within; after you haue made incision, you must open it, and make it gape wide on both sides, but in all manner of gentle handling, and that with little Sizers of bone, and separating the wood and the barke a little within, euen so much as your Scutcheon is in length and breadth: you must take heed that in doing hereof, you do not hurt the bark. {SN: 15.} {SN: 17.} This done take your Scutcheon by the end, and your tayle which you haue left remaining, and put into your incision made in your tree, lifting vp softly your two sides of the incision with your said Sizers of bone, and cause the said Scutcheon to ioyne, and lye as close as may be, with the wood of the tree, being cut, as aforesaid, in waying a little vpon the end of your rinde: so cut and let the vpper part of your Scutcheon lye close vnto the vpper end of your incision, or barke of your said tree: afterward binde your Scutcheon about with a band of Hempe, as thicke as a pen or a quill, more or lesse, according as your tree is small or great, taking the same Hempe in the middest, to the end that either part of it may performe a like seruice; and wreathing and binding of the said Scutcheon into the incision of a tree, and it must not be tyed too strait, for that would keepe it from taking the ioyning of the one sap to the other, being hindred thereby, and neither the Scutcheon, nor yet the Hempe must be moist or wet: and the more iustly to binde them together, begin at the backe side of the Tree, right ouer against the middest of the incision, and from thence come forward to ioyne them before, aboue the eylet and tayle of the Scutcheon, crossing your band of Hempe, so oft as the two ends meet, and from thence returning backe againe, come about and tye it likewise vnderneath the eylets: and thus cast about your band still backward and forward, vntill the whole cleft of the incision be couered aboue and below with the said Hempe, the eylet onely excepted, and his tayle which must not be couered at all; his tayle will fall away one part after another, and that shortly after the ingrafting, if so be the Scutcheon will take. Leaue your trees and Scutcheons thus bound, for the space of one moneth, and the thicker, a great deale longer time. Afterward looke them ouer, and if you perceiue them to grow together, vntye them, or at the leastwise cut the Hempe behinde them, and leaue them vncouered. Cut also your branch two or three fingers aboue that, so the impe may prosper the better: and thus let them remaine till after Winter, about the moneth of _March_, and _Aprill_. {SN: 18.} If you perceiue that your budde of your Scutcheon doe swell and come forward: then cut off the tree three fingers or thereabouts, aboue the Scutcheon: for if it be cut off too neere the Scutcheon, at such time as it putteth forth his first blossome, it would be a meanes greatly to hinder the flowring of it, and cause also that it should not thriue and prosper so well after that one yeere is past, and that the shoote beginneth to be strong: beginning to put forth the second bud and blossome, you must goe forward to cut off in byas-wise the three fingers in the top of the tree, which you left there, when you cut it in the yeere going before, as hath beene said. {SN: 19.} {SN: 20.} {SN: 21.} When your shoote shall haue put foorth a great deale of length, you must sticke down there, euen hard ioyned thereunto, little stakes, tying them together very gently and easily; and these shall stay your shootes and prop them vp, letting the winde from doing any harme vnto them. Thus you may graft white Roses in red, and red in white. Thus you may graft two or three Scutcheons: prouided that they be all of one side: for they will not be set equally together in height because then they would bee all staruelings, neither would they be directly one ouer another; for the lower would stay the rising vp of the sap of the tree, and so those aboue should consume in penury, and vndergoe the aforesaid inconuenience. You must note, that the Scutcheon which is gathered from the Sien of a tree whose fruite is sowre, must be cut in square forme, and not in the plaine fashion of a Scutcheon. It is ordinary to graffe the sweet Quince tree, bastard Peach-tree, Apricock-tree, Iuiube-tree, sowre Cherry tree, sweet Cherry-tree, and Chestnut tree, after this fashion, howbeit they might be grafted in the cleft more easily, and more profitably; although diuers be of contrary opinion, as thus best: Take the grafts of sweet Quince tree, and bastard Peach-tree, or the fairest wood, and best fed that you can finde, growing vpon the wood of two yeeres old, because the wood is not so firme nor solid as the others, and you shall graffe them vpon small Plum-tree stocks, being of the thicknes of ones thumbe; these you shall cut after the fashion of a Goats foot: you shall not goe about to make the cleft of any more sides then one, being about a foot high from the ground; you must open it with your small wedge: and being thus grafted, it will seeme to you that it is open but of one side; afterward you shall wrap it vp with a little Mosse, putting thereto some gummed Wax, or clay, and binde it vp with Oziers to keepe it surer, because the stocke is not strong enough it selfe to hold it, and you shall furnish it euery manner of way as others are dealt withall: this is most profitable. _The time of grafting._ All moneths are good to graft in, (the moneth of _October_ and _Nouember_ onely excepted). But commonly, graft at that time of the Winter, when sap beginneth to arise. In a cold Countrey graft later, and in a warme Countrey earlier. The best time generall is from the first of _February_, vntill the first of _May_. The grafts must alwaies be gathered, in the old of the Moone. For grafts choose shootes of a yeere old, or at the furthermost two yeeres old. If you must carry grafts farre, pricke them into a Turnep newly gathered, or lay earth about the ends. If you set stones of Plummes, Almonds, Nuts, or Peaches: First let them lye a little in the Sunne, and then steepe them in Milke or Water, three or foure dayes before you put them into the earth. Dry the kernels of Pippins, and sow them in the end of _Nouember_. The stone of a Plum-tree must be set a foot deepe in _Nouember_, or _February_. The Date-stone must be set the great end downwards, two cubits deepe in the earth, in a place enriched with dung. The Peach-stone would be set presently after the Fruit is eaten, some quantity of the flesh of the Peach remaining about the stone. If you will haue it to be excellent, graft it afterward vpon an Almond tree. The little Siens of Cherry-trees, grown thicke with haire, rots, and those also which doe grow vp from the rootes of the great Cherry-trees, being remoued, doe grow better and sooner then they which come of stones: but they must be remoued and planted while they are but two or three yeeres old, the branches must be lopped. The Contents of the Art of _Propagating Plants_. _The Art of propagating Plants._ _page 109._ _Grafting in the Barke._ _p. 111._ _Grafting in the cleft._ _p. 113._ _Grafters Tooles._ _Time of planting & seting._ _Time of grafting._ _How to cut the stumps in grafting._ _Sprouts and imps: how gathered._ _Grafting like a Scutcheon._ _p. 116._ _Inoculation in the Barke._ _Emplaister-wise grafting._ _To pricke stickes to beare the first yeere._ _To haue Cherries or Plums without stones._ _To make Quinces great._ _To set stones of Plummes._ _Dates, Nut, and Peaches._ _To make fruit smell well._ _To plant Cherry-trees._ THE HVSBAND MANS FRVITEFVLL ORCHARD. For the true ordering of all sorts of _Fruits in their due seasons; and how double_ increase commeth by care in gathering _yeere after yeare: as also the best way_ of carriage by land or by water: _With their preseruation for_ longest continuance. {SN: Cherries.} Of all stone Fruit, Cherries are the first to be gathered: of which, though we reckon foure sorts; _English_, _Flemish_, _Gascoyne_ and _Blacke_, yet are they reduced to two, the early, and the ordinary: the earely are those whose grafts came first from _France_ and _Flanders_, and are now ripe with vs in _May_: the ordinary is our owne naturall Cherry, and is not ripe before _Iune_; they must be carefully kept from Birds, either with nets, noise, or other industry. {SN: Gathering of Cheries.} They are not all ripe at once, nor may be gathered at once, therefore with a light Ladder, made to stand of it selfe, without hurting the boughes, mount to the tree, and with a gathering hooke, gather those which be full ripe, and put them into your Cherry-pot, or Kybzey hanging by your side, or vpon any bough you please, and be sure to breake no stalke, but that the cherry hangs by; and pull them gently, lay them downe tenderly, and handle them as little as you can. {SN: To carry Cherries.} For the conueyance or portage of Cherries, they are best to be carried in broad Baskets like siues, with smooth yeelding bottomes, onely two broad laths going along the bottome: and if you doe transport them by ship, or boate, let not the siues be fil'd to the top, lest setting one vpon another, you bruise and hurt the Cherries: if you carry by horse-backe, then panniers well lined with Fearne, and packt full and close is the best and safest way. {SN: Other stone-fruit.} Now for the gathering of all other stone-fruite, as Nectarines, Apricockes, Peaches, Peare-plumbes, Damsons, Bullas, and such like, although in their seuerall kinds, they seeme not to be ripe at once on one tree: yet when any is ready to drop from the tree, though the other seeme hard, yet they may also be gathered, for they haue receiued the full substance the tree can giue them; and therefore the day being faire, and the dew drawne away; set vp your Ladder, and as you gathered your Cherries, so gather them: onely in the bottomes of your large siues, where you part them, you shall lay Nettles, and likewise in the top, for that will ripen those that are most vnready. {SN: Gathering of Peares.} In gathering of Peares are three things obserued; to gather for expence, for transportation, or to sell to the Apothecary. If for expence, and your owne vse, then gather them as soone as they change, and are as it were halfe ripe, and no more but those which are changed, letting the rest hang till they change also: for thus they will ripen kindely, and not rot so soone, as if they were full ripe at the gathering. But if your Peares be to be transported farre either by Land or Water, then pull one from the tree, and cut it in the middest, and if you finde it hollow about the choare, and the kernell a large space to lye in: although no Peare be ready to drop from the tree, yet then they may be gathered, and then laying them on a heape one vpon another, as of necessity they must be for transportation, they will ripen of themselues, and eate kindly: but gathered before, they will wither, shrinke and eate rough, losing not onely their taste, but beauty. Now for the manner of gathering; albeit some climb into the trees by the boughes, and some by Ladder, yet both is amisse: the best way is with the Ladder before spoken of, which standeth of it selfe, with a basket and a line, which being full, you must gently let downe, and keeping the string still in your hand, being emptied, draw it vp againe, and so finish your labour, without troubling your selfe, or hurting the tree. {SN: Gathering of Apples.} Now touching the gathering of Apples, it is to be done according to the ripening of the fruite; your Summer apples first, and the Winter after. For Summer fruit, when it is ripe, some will drop from the tree, and birds will be picking at them: But if you cut one of the greenest, and finde it as was shew'd you before of the Peare: then you may gather them, and in the house they will come to their ripenesse and perfection. For your Winter fruit, you shall know the ripenesse by the obseruation before shewed; but it must be gathered in a faire, Sunny, and dry day, in the waine of the Moone, and no Wind in the East, also after the deaw is gone away: for the least wet or moysture will make them subiect to rot and mildew: also you must haue an apron to gather in, and to empty into the great baskets, and a hooke to draw the boughes vnto you, which you cannot reach with your hands at ease: the apron is to be an Ell euery way, loopt vp to your girdle, so as it may serue for either hand without any trouble: and when it is full, vnloose one of your loopes, and empty it gently into the great basket, for in throwing them downe roughly, their owne stalkes may pricke them; and those which are prickt, will euer rot. Againe, you must gather your fruit cleane without leaues or brunts, because the one hurts the tree, for euery brunt would be a stalke for fruit to grow vpon: the other hurts the fruit by bruising, and pricking it as it is layd together, and there is nothing sooner rotteth fruit, then the greene and withered leaues lying amongst them; neither must you gather them without any stalke at all: for such fruit will begin to rot where the stalke stood. {SN: To vse the fallings.} For such fruit as falleth from the trees, and are not gathered, they must not be layd with the gathered fruit: and of fallings there are two sorts, one that fals through ripenesse, and they are best, and may be kept to bake or roast; the other windfals, and before they are ripe, and they must be spent as they are gathered, or else they will wither and come to nothing: and therefore it is not good by any meanes to beate downe fruit with Poales, or to carrie them in Carts loose and iogging or in sacks where they may be bruised. {SN: Carriage of fruit.} When your fruit is gathered, you shall lay them in deepe Baskets of Wicker, which shall containe foure or sixe bushels, and so betweene two men, carry them to your Apple-Loft, and in shooting or laying them downe, be very carefull that it be done with all gentlenesse, and leasure, laying euery sort of fruit seuerall by it selfe: but if there be want of roome hauing so many sorts that you cannot lay them seuerally, then such some fruite as is neerest in taste and colour, and of Winter fruit, such as will taste alike, may if need require, be laid together, and in time you may separate them, as shall bee shewed hereafter. But if your fruit be gathered faire from your Apple-Loft, them must the bottomes of your Baskets be lined with greene Ferne, and draw the stuborne ends of the same through the Basket, that none but the soft leafe may touch the fruit, and likewise couer the tops of the Baskets with Ferne also, and draw small cord ouer it, that the Ferne may not fall away, nor the fruit scatter out, or iogge vp and downe: and thus you may carry fruit by Land or by Water, by Boat, or Cart, as farre as you please: and the Ferne doth not onely keepe them from bruising, but also ripens them, especially Peares. When your fruit is brought to your Apple-Loft or store house, if you finde them not ripened enough, then lay them in thicker heapes vpon Fearne, and couer them with Ferne also: and when they are neere ripe, then vncouer them, and make the heapes thinner, so as the ayre may passe thorow them: and if you will not hasten the ripening of them, then lay them on the boords without any Fearne at all. Now for Winter, or long lasting Peares, they may be packt either in Ferne or Straw, and carried whither you please; and being come to the iourneys end must be laid vpon sweet straw; but beware the roome be not too warme, nor windie, and too cold, for both are hurtfull: but in a temperate place, where they may haue ayre, but not too much. {SN: Of Wardens.} Wardens are to be gathered, carried, packt, and laid as Winter Peares are. {SN: Of Medlers.} Medlers are to be gathered about _Michaelmas_, after a frost hath toucht them; at which time they are in their full growth, and will then be dropping from the tree, but neuer ripe vpon the tree. When they are gathered, they must be laid in a basket, siue, barrell, or any such caske, and wrapt about with woollen cloths, vnder, ouer, and on all sides, and also some waight laid vpon them, with a boord betweene: for except they be brought into a heat, they will neuer ripen kindly or taste well. Now when they haue laine till you thinke some of them be ripe, the ripest, still as they ripen, must be taken from the rest: therefore powre them out into another siue or basket leasurely, that so you may well finde them that be ripest, letting the hard one fall into the other basket, and those which be ripe laid aside: the other that be halfe ripe, seuer also into a third siue or basket: for if the ripe and halfe ripe be kept together, the one will be mouldy, before the other be ripe: And thus doe, till all be throughly ripe. {SN: Of Quinces.} Quinces should not be laid with other fruite; for the sent is offensiue both to other fruite, and to those that keepe the fruite or come amongst them: therefore lay them by themselues vpon sweet strawe, where they may haue ayre enough: they must be packt like Medlers, and gathered with Medlers. {SN: To packe Apples.} Apples must be packt in Wheat or Rye-straw, and in maunds or baskets lyned with the same, and being gently handled, will ripen with such packing and lying together. If seuerall sorts of apples be packt in one maund or basket, then betweene euery sort, lay sweet strawe of a pretty thicknesse. {SN: Emptying and laying apples.} Apples must not be powred out, but with care and leasure: first, the straw pickt cleane from them, and then gently take out euery seuerall sort, and place them by themselues: but if for want of roome you mixe the sorts together, then lay those together that are of equall lasting; but if they haue all one taste, then they need no separation. Apples that are not of the like colours should not be laid together, and if any such be mingled, let it be amended, and those which are first ripe, let them be first spent; and to that end, lay those apples together, that are of one time ripening: and thus you must vse Pippins also, yet will they endure bruises better then other fruit, and whilst they are greene will heale one another. {SN: Difference in Fruit.} Pippins though they grow of one tree, and in one ground, yet some will last better then other some, and some will bee bigger then others of the same kinde, according as they haue more or lesse of the Sunne, or more or lesse of the droppings of the trees or vpper branches: therefore let euery one make most of that fruite which is fairest, and longest lasting. Againe, the largenesse and goodnesse of fruite consists in the age of the tree: for as the tree increaseth, so the fruite increaseth in bignesse, beauty, taste, and firmnesse: and otherwise, as it decreaseth. {SN: Transporting fruit by water.} If you be to transport your fruit farre by water, then prouide some dry hogges-heads or barrells, and packe in your apples, one by one with your hand, that no empty place may be left, to occasion sogging; and you must line your vessell at both ends with fine sweet straw; but not the sides, to auoid heat: and you must bore a dozen holes at either end, to receiue ayre so much the better; and by no meanes let them take wet. Some vse, that transport beyond seas, to shut the fruite vnder hatches vpon straw: but it is not so good, if caske may be gotten. {SN: When not to transport fruit.} It is not good to transport fruite in _March_, when the wind blowes bitterly, nor in frosty weather, neither in the extreme heate of Summer. {SN: To conuay small store of fruit.} If the quantity be small you would carry, then you may carry them in Dossers or Panniers, prouided they be euer filled close, and that Cherries and Peares be lined with greene Fearne, and Apples with sweete straw; and that, but at the bottomes and tops, not on the sides. {SN: Roomes for fruite.} Winter fruite must lye neither too hot, nor too cold; too close, nor too open: for all are offensiue. A lowe roome or Cellar that is sweet, and either boorded or paued, and not too close, is good, from _Christmas_ till _March_: and roomes that are seeled ouer head, and from the ground, are good from _March_ till _May_: then the Cellar againe, from _May_ till _Michaelmas_. The apple loft would be seeled or boorded, which if it want, take the longest Rye-straw, and raise it against the walles, to make a fence as high as the fruite lyeth; and let it be no thicker then to keepe the fruite from the wall, which being moyst, may doe hurt, or if not moist, then the dust is offensiue. {SN: Sorting of Fruit.} There are some fruite which will last but vntill _Allhallontide_: they must be laid by themselues; then those which will last till _Christmas_, by themselues: then those which will last till it be _Candlemas_, by themselues: those that will last till _Shrouetide_, by themselues: and Pippins, Apple-Iohns, Peare-maines, and Winter-Russettings, which will last all the yeere by themselues. Now if you spy any rotten fruite in your heapes, pick them out, and with a Trey for the purpose, see you turne the heapes ouer, and leaue not a tainted Apple in them, diuiding the hardest by themselues, and the broken skinned by themselues to be first spent, and the rotten ones to be cast away; and euer as you turne them, and picke them, vnder-lay them with fresh straw: thus shall you keepe them safe for your vse, which otherwise would rot suddenly. {SN: Times of stirring fruit.} Pippins, Iohn Apples, Peare maines, and such like long lasting fruit, need not to be turned till the weeke before _Christmas_, vnlesse they be mixt with other of a riper kind, or that the fallings be also with them, or much of the first straw left amongst them: the next time of turning is at _Shroue-tide_, and after that, once a moneth till _Whitson-tide_; and after that, once a fortnight; and euer in the turning, lay your heapes lower and lower, and your straw very thinne: prouided you doe none of this labour in any great frost, except it be in a close Celler. At euery thawe, all fruit is moyst, and then they must not be touched: neither in rainy weather, for then they will be danke also: and therefore at such seasons it is good to set open your windowes, and doores, that the ayre may haue free passage to dry them, as at nine of the clocke in the fore-noone in Winter; and at sixe in the fore-noone, and at eight at night in Summer: onely in _March_, open not your windowes at all. All lasting fruite, after the middest of _May_, beginne to wither, because then they waxe dry, and the moisture gone, which made them looke plumpe: they must needes wither, and be smaller; and nature decaying, they must needes rot. And thus much touching the ordering of fruites. _FINIS._ * * * * * IC LONDON, Printed by _Nicholas Okes_ for IOHN HARISON, at the golden Vnicorne in Pater-noster-row. 1631. {Transcriber's notes The following corrections have been made: Title page "carring home" changed to "carrying home". Sig. A2r "SIR HENRY BELOSSES" possible error for "SIR HENRY BELLOSES"; not changed. Sig. A3v "how ancient, how, profitable," changed to "how ancient, how profitable,". "Roses on Thornes. and such like," changed to "Roses on Thornes, and such like,". Sig. A4r "_Of bough Setts._" changed to "_Of bought Setts._" for consistency with the text. Sig. A4v Page number for "_Of Foyling_" in Chapter 12 changed from 53 to 51, for consistency with the text. Page number for "_Of Flowers, Borders, Mounts &c._" in Chapter 17 changed from 71 to 70, for consistency with the text. Chapter 1, page 3 "other offall, that fruit" changed to "all other of that fruit" Chapter 2, page 3 "nor searcely with Quinces," changed to "nor scarcely with Quinces,". "(not well ordered," changed to "(not well ordered)". Page 5 "will pu forth suckers" changed to "will put forth suckers". Page 6 "become manure to your ground" changed to "become manure to your ground.". "15. or 18 inches deepe" changed to "15. or 18. inches deepe". Chapter 3, page 6 "(as is before described," changed to "(as is before described)". Page 7 "in _Holland_ and _Zealand_" the "a" in "and" is italicised in the original. "Our old fathers can telvs" changed to "Our old fathers can tel vs". Page 8 "chuse your ground low Or if you be forced" changed to "chuse your ground low: Or if you be forced". Page 10 "(for trees are the greatest suckers & pillers of earth," changed to "(for trees are the greatest suckers & pillers of earth)". Chapter 7, page 18 "for commonly your bur-knots are summer fruit)" changed to "(for commonly your bur-knots are summer fruit)". Page 20 "arse from some taw" changed to "arise from some taw". Page 21 "I could not mislke this kind" changed to "I could not mislike this kind". Page 27 "Let not you stakes" changed to "Let not your stakes". "or of auy other thing" changed to "or of any other thing". Chapter 8, page 29 "forty or fity yeares" changed to "forty or fifty yeares". "alotted to his felllow" changed to "alotted to his fellow". Page 30 "vpward out of he earth" changed to "vpward out of the earth". Chapter 9, page 32 "they are more subiect," changed to "they are more subiect to,". Chapter 10, page 33 "commonly called a _Graft_)" changed to "(commonly called a _Graft_)". Chapter 11, page 43 "(nay more) such as mens" changed to "(nay more, such as mens". Page 46 "It stayes it nothing at al" changed to "It stayes it nothing at all.". Chapter 12, page 53 "wastes cotinually" changed to "wastes continually". Chapter 13, page 57 "take sprig and all (for" changed to "take sprig and all: for". Page 58 "cleanse his foile" changed to "cleanse his soile". Chapter 14, page 63 "growth: for cut them" changed to "growth: (for cut them". Page 64 "to inlarge their frust" changed to "to inlarge their fruit". Chapter 16, page 67 "Orchrad shall exceed" changed to "Orchard shall exceed" Chapter 17, page 70 "double double Cowslips" not changed. The Country Housewifes Garden Chapter 8, page 90 "drunke to kill itches" changed to "drunke) to kill itches". Page 94 "It floweth at _Michael-tide_" changed to "It flowreth at _Michael-tide_". Page 95 "_Cur moritur homo, cum saluia crescit in horto?_" not changed. Possible error for "... cui saluia ...". Chapter 9, page 97 "for then they are too too tender" not changed. Chapter 10, page 99 "the Beees lye out" changed to "the Bees lye out". Page 100 "Neither would the hiue be too too great" not changed. Page 102 "hey cannot come downe" changed to "they cannot come downe". Page 103 "claspes are loose in the Stapes" not changed. Page 106 "combes into a siue" changed to "combes) into a siue". The Art of propagating plants Chapter 3, page 116 The last side note has been changed from "1." to "11.". Chapter 4, page 120 "aud these shall stay" changed to "and these shall stay". "sowre Cherry treee" changed to "sowre Cherry tree". The Husband mans fruitefull orchard Page 125 "_Gascoyne_ and Blacke" changed to "_Gascoyne_ and _Blacke_". Page 126 "if you doe trasport them" changed to "if you doe transport them". "Nertarines, Apricockes" changed to "Nectarines, Apricockes". } 
31237	----	Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 31237-h.htm or 31237-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31237/31237-h/31237-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/31237/31237-h.zip) THE GLADIOLUS A Practical Treatise on the Culture of the Gladiolus, with Notes on Its History, Storage, Diseases, etc. by MATTHEW CRAWFORD With an appendix by Dr. W. Van Fleet 1911 Addenda by J. C. Vaughan 1921 [Illustration: DETROIT] Chicago and New York Vaughan's Seed Store 1921 Copyright, 1911, by Vaughan's Seed Store Second Edition, with Addenda, Nov. 1921 CONTENTS Chapter Page Preface 1 I. History and Development 3 II. Habit of Growth 9 III. Soils and Preparation 12 IV. Time to Plant 15 V. Cultivation 19 VI. Digging and Curing 21 VII. Cleaning and Grading 25 VIII. Winter Storage 30 IX. Growing from Seed 33 X. Growing from Bulblets 37 XI. Peeling Bulblets 43 XII. Growing for Specific Purposes 47 XIII. Crossing or Hybridizing 54 XIV. Enemies and Diseases 57 XV. What Constitutes a Good Variety 60 XVI. How to Obtain a Choice Collection 62 XVII. How to Keep a Collection Vigorous and Well Balanced 64 XVIII. Commencing in the Business 67 Appendix 73-92 I. Garden History of the Gladiolus 73 II. Hybridizing Gladiolus 82 III. Special Care of Seedlings 85 IV. Gladiolus Species 89 Addenda 95-100 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Detroit Frontispiece Schwaben 8 Charles L. Hutchinson and America 20 Halley, Cracker Jack and Gretchen Zang 32 Margaret 46 Europe, Sphinx and Attraction 56 Mrs. Frank Pendleton 66 Princeps 81 THE GLADIOLUS [Illustration] PREFACE This little book is written with a view to being of service to those inexperienced admirers[A] of the gladiolus who wish to become better acquainted with its nature, and more familiar with the details of its cultivation. The language used is plain and easily understood, and the absence of technical terms, which might seem a fault to the skilled grower, will probably enhance the value of the work to the learner, for whom it is prepared. While it is written from the view-point of the commercial grower, the interests of the amateur are kept in mind throughout, and the instructions are as carefully adapted to the management of a little garden as to that of an extensive field. [Footnote A: P. S. The Addenda includes some good advice for the commercial grower.] A few words in regard to the pronunciation of "gladiolus" may be timely in the beginning of a treatise devoted exclusively to that subject. Fifty years ago the popular pronunciation was "glad-i-o'-lus," accent on the third syllable, but gradually a change crept in, as it was noticed that scholars said "gla-di'-o-lus," accent on the second syllable. Observing this, people began to consult dictionaries, and it was found that Webster and others gave "gla-di'-o-lus" only, and that all authorities placed this first, though a few permitted "glad-i-o'-lus," much to the satisfaction of those who found it hard to change. When "gla-di'-o-lus" is used, as it is almost universally, at the present time, the plural is "gla-di'-o-li," which the plural of "glad-i-o'-lus" may be "glad-i-o'-luses," though this is very seldom heard. Neither "gladiola" nor "gladiolia" is admissible. There are no such words. It is also incorrect to say "gladioli bulbs," which is equivalent to "roses bushes" or "peaches trees." "Gladiolus bulbs" is the proper expression. [B]The name, gladiolus, comes from the Latin, gladius, a sword, and was given to this plant on account of the sword-like shape of its leaves. [Footnote B: Note: Authority is not lacking to show that Glad"-i-o'-lus, strongest accent on first syllable, is the best, as it certainly is the most agreeable pronunciation. This puts it in line with He"-li-an'-thus, and many other four syllabled words used in botany. Glad"-i-o'-luses as the plural is increasingly used in literature but not in speech.] THE GLADIOLUS CHAPTER I. History and Development. The gladiolus comes principally from South Africa, where about fifty species have been discovered. It is also a native of middle Africa, central and southern Europe, Persia, Caucasus, and the country around the eastern end of the Mediterranean. About forty additional species have been found in these localities, and one in Hampshire, England. These have been hybridized and crossed until they are so mixed that it is impossible for the ordinary grower to say what blood may have entered into a given variety,--nor does it matter. We are satisfied to know that this is one of the most beautiful of our summer-blooming flowers, and that it is so easily grown as to be within the reach of almost anyone who cares to have it. Its Development. The history of the evolution of the gladiolus, from the original wild species to the splendid revelations of the present day, though extremely interesting, is rather uncertain, and lacking in details. Even authorities disagree, and it is not worth while to touch upon disputed points, though a few accepted facts may be of value to the learner. The Encyclopaedia Britannica says that one variety was cultivated as far back as 1596, and another from 1629. Between 1750 and 1825 many new ones were added to those previously known. There are several general classes now before the public, of which the oldest is the Gandavensis. It is said that this was originated by Van Houtte, and was introduced in 1841. Belgium is credited with the honor of being its native country. Referring again to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, we find that the coming of the Gandavensis made the gladiolus a general favorite in gardens, and that "since that time varieties have been greatly multiplied in number, increased in size and quality, as well as marvelously varied in color and marking, so that now they have become exceedingly popular." The Gandavensis has a substantial stem, capable of taking up water freely, and probably owing to this fact opens many flowers at once. These are generally of good size and substance, and of handsome form. In most cases they are arranged upon the stem in two rows that face the same way, which makes them very showy and attractive. Some years after the introduction of the Gandavensis, Victor Lemoine, of Nancy, France, brought out a new hybrid to which he gave his own name, Lemoinei. It has a slender, graceful stem, which seems unable to take up water rapidly, and consequently only a few of its flowers open at once. These are smaller than those of the Gandavensis, and more arched in form. Many of them, perhaps the majority, have rich velvety blotches on some or all of the petals, darker in color than the petals themselves, thus giving the flowers a very striking appearance. The well known Marie Lemoine was one of the earliest varieties of this new hybrid, and its dark velvet spots on a ground of pale yellow slightly tinged with green, have caused some to call it the "pansy gladiolus." Lemoine's next achievement was the Nanceianus, probably from Nancy, his home. Its flowers are quite different from those of Gandavensis or Lemoinei, being larger than either, very wide, and marked with peculiar mottlings, or fine, short, parallel strokes of some contrasting color. Next came Leichtlinii, afterwards called Childsii, originated by Max Leichtlin and purchased by V. H. Hallock & Son, who worked ten years to improve it, and then sold it to John Lewis Childs, who changed its name. This transfer was made in 1892. Childsii is from nearly the same cross as Nanceianus and quite similar to it. Both plant and flower are large, and the latter is very showy, but the petals incline to lack substance, and consequently can not endure hardship. At first the Childsii ran too much to reds, but it has since been improved in that respect. The next distinctive attraction was the "New Blue," another of Lemoine's productions. There has been much effort expended in trying to originate a blue gladiolus, and this, although not a pure and perfect blue, is the nearest approach to it yet made, and may prove to be the foundation for complete success in the future. In 1908 the Primulinus, a new species from South Africa, was introduced by J. M. Thorburn & Company. It is small and inconspicuous, but yellow, and is said to transmit its color to all its seedings. It may be the means of supplying what has been long striven for,--a good yellow. The gladiolus of my earliest recollection, which was found in some gardens about the middle of the nineteenth century, was dull red mingled with greenish yellow, appearing red at a distance. The flowers were small and pinched-looking, with pointed petals, and were scattered at regular intervals along one side of the leaning stem. The next that I remember was a great improvement upon this. It made an upright, sturdy spike, with two rows of large, well-formed, melon colored flowers, set close together on the stem, but the rows faced in opposite directions. After this, new varieties came fast, and rapid improvement was made. Among these earlier sorts was one called Brenchleyensis, conspicuous for its color, a most vivid and intense red. It had some faults, and gradually lost popularity until it was scarcely heard of, but now, after an interval of two or three decades, it is again making its way to the front, and is listed in catalogues at good prices. Popularity of the Gladiolus. This flower is already very popular, and is becoming more and more of a favorite every year. It possesses a combination of characteristics that commend it to all flower lovers. It is easily grown, and may be had in bloom about four months in the year without the aid of glass. The blossoms are beautiful in form, and include a wonderful range of colors, with almost innumerable combinations. Its general habit of bearing two rows of flowers facing the same way makes it easy to arrange so as to show all to the best advantage. It has a capacity for taking up water which enables it to go on blooming to the very tip of the spike after being cut, lasting a week in the hottest weather, and twice that time when cooler. The ease with which the stem can be divested of its faded flowers, leaving it as fresh as though just brought from the garden, is also a great recommendation. Some years ago, I expressed a quantity of the spikes from Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, to Butte, Montana. They were in bud when started, and when they arrived, had bloomed half way up the stalks, and the lower flowers had faded. These were taken off, the stems placed in water, and the buds went on opening to the last, unaffected by the journey of two thousand miles. Another merit of the gladiolus, which might not seem a merit at first thought, is its lack of perfume. An agreeable fragrance is desirable in flowers that are used in moderate quantities, but in banks and masses, as this is often arranged, a sweet odor would be overpowering. Its Uses. For decorative purposes the gladiolus is fast becoming indispensable. The demand has grown from tens to hundreds within the last few years, and probably it will increase from hundreds to thousands in the near future, for it is a flower for all people and all places. It is suitable for the home, and from midsummer until November is a constant dependence. For stores and offices its bright and lasting bloom makes it very desirable. It is in great demand for ornamenting churches, halls, schoolrooms, and, in fact, all places where people come together for almost any purpose. It is popular for weddings, and great quantities are often used on such occasions, a single order sometimes calling for thousands of spikes. Last of all, it is seen in the house of mourning, and at the graves of the dead, where its sweet cheerfulness seems to speak a message of comfort to the living. [Illustration: SCHWABEN] CHAPTER II. Habits of Growth. The gladiolus is a bulbous plant that grows only in the warm season of the year. It may be grown from bulbs, bulblets, or seeds. Amateurs have to do mainly with bulbs, as their chief object is to produce flowers. The bulb contains the food for the nourishment of the young plant until it has leaves, when it commences to form a new bulb close above the old one, which latter gradually shrivels and dies, its work being done. Meanwhile, the young plant, having roots and leaves of its own, continues to grow and build up the new bulb. When far enough advanced, the flower spike starts up through the middle of the foliage and makes its appearance above the upper leaf. From the time the spike comes in sight, the plant seems to devote the most of its energy to developing the flowers, and the seed which follows. When the latter is allowed to ripen, the bulb is smaller than it otherwise would have been, and not only this, it is vertically thin, having been partially starved by the diverting of the nourishment to ripen the seed. On the other hand, if the spike is removed when the first flower opens, the bulb will grow larger and thicker. Other things being equal, a bulb is valuable according to its vertical diameter. The most perfect ones are obtained by planting small ones, just below the blooming size. Not being able to send up flower spikes, their vitality goes to the production of new bulbs, and these are conical, or nearly round, which is the ideal shape. Many florists insist upon this form when buying bulbs for forcing. They are known to the trade as virgin bulbs. As to the breadth of bulbs, the broader the better, other points being the same. One that is conical in shape, and three-fourths of an inch in horizontal diameter, will probably produce as fine a spike of flowers as is possible to the variety, but it will yield only one, while bulbs of larger size may send up from two to six. Bulblets are produced during the summer, on underground stems that come out from the base of the new bulbs. Each bulblet is enclosed in a hard shell, which is generally brown in color, though sometimes gray, slate, or black, and very rarely white. Just here I will speak of the difference between bulblets and small bulbs, for there are some confused ideas abroad on this subject. Bulblets grow from the bottoms of bulbs, are usually attached by stems, and have hard shells. Bulbs grow from other bulbs, from bulblets, or from seeds, and have soft shells. They may be very tiny, no larger than apple seeds, but still they are bulbs. Varieties differ widely in their ability to produce bulblets. The May and Augusta are exceedingly prolific, while the Shakespeare is just the opposite. A bulb too small to bloom will yield many times more bulblets than a large one of the same variety. Sometimes as many as two hundred bulblets have been found on a single bulb. Corm and cormel are the correct botanical terms respectively for solid bulbs, like those of the gladiolus, and the small underground increase, but these names are rarely used in commercial horticulture. CHAPTER III. Soils and Preparation. The gladiolus will grow on almost any soil, and do well with only a moderate chance. While it has its preferences, it readily adapts itself to circumstances, and makes the most of what it finds. Whether sand, clay, gravel, muck or loam, it will get a living out of them, though gravel is perhaps least desirable. The gladiolus withstands drouth very well, but likes plenty of moisture much better, and low land well drained is excellent for it. It ought not to be under water. Good farm land, suitable for corn or potatoes, answers its purpose very well, and it flourishes on green sward properly plowed and harrowed. The richest place in the garden suits it admirably, and it shows its appreciation of special favors by ready response in growth and bloom. The ground should be plowed or spaded to a good depth, about the same as for potatoes, and harrowed or raked until it is thoroughly pulverized, not only on the surface, but down deep. Fertilizers. Any crop can be well fed with good stable manure properly applied, but this is sometimes out of reach. In such cases we must either resort to commercial fertilizers or depend upon the plant food in the soil, which is seldom sufficient for any crop, especially one whose yield of profit may be greatly increased or diminished by the giving or withholding of nourishment. The gardener cannot afford to take any risks along this line. His crops are too valuable. The safe course is for him to assume that the land is poor to consider the ground as simply a place of anchorage for the roots of plants, and a reservoir for plant food to be supplied; and then, to furnish the amount needed to produce the crop. Fortunately, most soils do, as a matter of fact, contain a fair supply of fertility, but very rarely as much as a crop can appropriate, and it is best to be on the safe side. The gladiolus is a sturdy grower, able to assimilate a generous supply of nutriment, and should be properly fed. In regard to the use of stable manure as a fertilizer for this crop, almost any amount of it may be put on in the fall before planting, to be leached and subdued by the changes of winter, but it is hardly safe to spread it on the ground in the spring and plow it under, lest it come in contact with the bulbs and cause the growing crop to be scabby and unsalable. I have used for many years, and with most satisfactory results, a good potato phosphate. Any complete commercial fertilizer will answer the purpose. I once tried a ton of Peruvian guano, as an experiment, but it did no better than the potato phosphate, which costs less. Commercial fertilizer may be applied in various ways,--before planting or after, or in the furrows. From five hundred to one thousand pounds per acre, or even more, may be used, according to the previous condition of the land and the results desired. When used before planting, it is put on with a grain drill, or, if the area is small, is raked in by hand. It may be applied in the furrow in two ways--first, strew it along in the bottom and mix it with the soil by dragging a chain or a hoe over it, or by using the cultivator that made the drill. Then plant the bulbs, and cover properly. Second, after the drill is made and the bulbs are dropped, cover them with a little earth, say half the depth of the furrow, then put in the fertilizer by hand, and finish covering. This places it where the first good rain will wash its richness down to the roots. When applied after planting, it may be scattered by hand along the rows or over the bed. This plan produces good results, even on poor land, and the same may be said of the others. CHAPTER IV. Time to Plant. Large blooming bulbs may be planted in April or May, or they may be held until June, or even July, if they can be kept from growing too much in storage. It is their natural instinct to send out roots and shoots in the spring, and when they do they should be planted soon. When one has a considerable quantity of flowering bulbs, it is easy to secure a long succession of bloom by planting at several different times. Good sized bulbs will bloom in about ninety days after planting. Smaller ones require a longer time. If all the blooming sizes of the same variety are planted at the same time, they will bloom in regular succession, the largest first and the smallest last. Small bulbs,--too small to bloom,--bulblets, and seed, should be planted early in order to have plenty of time to make their growth. About the first of April is a suitable time in the latitude of Northern Ohio. In a mild climate the bulbs may be left in the ground all winter, and the same might be done in the north if they could be covered securely enough to keep out the frost. Planting. After the land has been well prepared, furrows are made three feet apart and about six inches deep, for large bulbs. The furrowing is done with the Planet Jr. cultivator, arranged with a large tooth behind, and two or four smaller ones in front, turned edgewise. They steady the cultivator and contribute towards the fining of the soil. Next, the bulbs are placed in the furrows, as far apart as their own diameter; that is, two-inch bulbs should be two inches apart, one-inch bulbs one inch, and so on down through all the blooming sizes. When bulbs are an inch or more in diameter, they are generally placed right side up, though this is not essential. However, when scattered along the furrow they can be put in position very quickly. After they are placed, cover with the cultivator used in furrowing, taking off the small teeth in front and putting on the wings. By going once in each space, throwing the soil both ways, the bulbs are covered deeply enough to make quite prominent ridges over the rows, with furrows midway between. Very soon the weeds begin to show, and then a good harrowing is given, length-wise of the rows, to kill the first crop. Next, just before the sprouts are ready to come in sight, they are gone over with the weeder. On small areas all this stirring is done with a steel rake. By this method the surface is kept free from weeds, and is also made fine and mellow for the young shoots to come through. If the work cannot be done at the right time, it is better to wait until the sprouts are up an inch or two, as they can then be stirred without fear of injury, but when just coming up they are tender and easily bruised or broken. When bulbs are planted in a small way, it is not customary to place them in rows. A better plan is to scatter them over the ground about as far apart as they are wanted, say six or eight inches each way, and put them in one at a time with a trowel or dibble, five or six inches below the surface. They are planted at this depth, in both garden and field, to prevent their blowing over when in bloom. Those that are from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter should be covered with about four inches of soil. For planting small stock, less than half an inch in diameter, the ground should be prepared as previously directed. The rows should be three feet apart if the cultivating is to be done with a horse; if by hand, eighteen inches. The furrows should be straight, and three inches in depth. The grower can now choose one of two methods of planting. He can sow the bulbs in the furrows, about twelve to the foot, or drop them in hills, four to six in a place, every twelve inches. In either case they can be covered with a cultivator, as before described, ridged up, and harrowed or raked afterwards, thus saving the first and most expensive weeding. When the bulbs have started sufficiently to make the rows visible, the cultivator can be used, and from that time forward the most of the work can be done with a horse, turning a little earth up to the rows each time. The hill method of planting takes more ground, but it has two distinct advantages over the drill method. First, the hoe can be used in the row between the hills, thus lightening the labor and expense of weeding; and, second, in taking up the bulbs in the fall, each hill can be lifted out with a fork, and every bulblet saved. In growing stock that is especially valuable this is of great account. Very few bulbs less than one-half inch in diameter will bloom, so all they need is a chance to grow,--a loose surface, freedom from weeds, and sufficient plant food, with moisture enough to make it available. Bulbs thus produced will be of the most desirable shape, round or conical. If, however, any considerable number come into bloom, the spikes should be cut off as soon as they get above the foliage. This prevents the plants from exhausting themselves by producing flowers and seed. Other things being equal, bulbs from which the spikes are removed as early as possible will be about twice as heavy as those that produce seed unchecked. The planting and management of bulblets will be considered in another chapter. CHAPTER V. Cultivation. The gladiolus needs the same stirring of the soil that is given to other crops. The reason why the soil must be stirred is a question upon which there are various opinions. Some hold that it is to kill the weeds; some to conserve moisture; others, to let the air to the roots; and, still others, to render the plant food in the ground available. Probably all are right, and the summing up seems to be, "to make the crop grow," so the safe way is to stir often. This cannot be overdone. A crop may be cultivated every day if desired, provided that good judgment is exercised as to the condition of the soil. It should not be stirred when too wet. The gladiolus has not a very long season for growth, and if best results are to be obtained it must be kept growing continuously. The next best thing to frequent stirring of the surface is a mulch to keep it loose and moist, but this is not as good. Support. The critical period in the life of the gladiolus is the blooming season, and some support at that time is almost indispensable. It grows so tall and offers so much resistance to the wind that the stalk is liable to be strained or broken, to the detriment of the bulb, and every effort should be made to keep it upright and prevent its being injured, even a little. When we consider that each leaf is connected with the bulb, and is doing its part towards bringing it to maturity, we readily perceive that whatever hurts the foliage also hurts the bulb, and realize the importance of preventing, as far as possible, any weakening of the connection between the two. Deep planting is the first safeguard, and this is rendered still more effectual by ridging up the rows. Cutting the spikes as soon as the first flowers open is a great advantage, lessening the weight of the tops and diminishing its resistance to the wind, besides relieving the plant of the burden of nourishing the blooms. If the flowers are not wanted, the spikes can be cut as soon as they are high enough to escape the foliage, and this is still better. When the gladiolus is grown as a field crop, there are so many tops together that they support each other to some extent. When grown in small areas, it is a good plan to stretch wires along the rows about a foot from the ground, and tie the stalks to them. When the plants are scattered irregularly over the bed, they may be supported by tying each one to a short, inconspicuous stake sharpened and driven into the ground so that the top is fifteen to eighteen inches high. The same stakes may be used year after year, and it improves the appearance of the bed to have them painted green. [Illustration: CHAS. L. HUTCHINSON] [Illustration: AMERICA] CHAPTER VI. Digging and Curing. When one has many bulbs to take up it is best to commence early, about the last of August or the first of September. This gives a long season for drying, which is quite necessary, as it is difficult to cure a great many in a short time, especially in unfavorable weather. The smallest stock should be taken up first, for several reasons: First, the small bulbs grown from seed or from bulblets do not all ripen at the same time, and if digging is deferred until after some of them have matured, these drop from their stems in handling, and keep one picking them up, which is a great hindrance. If taken up in time, they can be pulled off from the green stalks in handfuls. Second, when the little bulbs mature they change color from white to brown, and if any drop it is not so easy to find them in the brown soil. They may be taken up when no larger than apple seeds, cured, and kept till spring with perfect success. Third, the small bulbs are easily dried and, if taken up early, they may be cured and packed away for the winter, entirely out of the way of the larger stock. It is quite an advantage to have part of the stock disposed of early. Fourth, it is slow, puttering work to take up small bulbs running from one hundred to three hundred to the foot of row, and it should be done before cold weather. My rule is to take up seedlings first, then the stock grown from the bulblets, then the next size larger, and so on, leaving the largest to the last. This stock is heavy, and men can keep warm handling it, even in quite cool weather, such as we are likely to have late in the season. For convenience in taking up small stock, we use a low seat made like a small sled with wide runners which do not sink into the ground. A burlap sack is folded several thicknesses and tacked on the top for a cushion. This seat, a spading fork, a garden trowel, and a half-bushel basket lined with cloth to keep the bulblets from passing through, are the appliances needed for the work. The row is first loosened, or slightly pried up with the fork. Then the man occupying the seat, with the row in front of him, thrusts his trowel under a few inches of it, and with the other hand grasps the tops and lifts the bunch up, giving it a slight shake. He then holds it over the basket, and pulls the bulbs off from the tops, dropping them into the basket. When it is nearly filled, the contents are sifted through a number five sieve (five meshes to the inch), which allows the earth to pass out. A second sifting through a number three sieve separates the bulblets from the bulbs. The latter are then spread out an inch or two deep in crates, and dried in the shade, after which the depth may be doubled for storage until cleaning time. The bulblets are poured into a box or barrel. In digging larger bulbs, they are simply loosened up with the fork, lifted out by the tops, which are clipped off close to the bulbs, and are dropped into a coarse sieve, number two, placed over a bushel basket. Through this the earth and most of the bulblets are sifted into the basket. The bulbs are then spread in shallow crates to dry. The crates should be placed where the ventilation is good, and no rain can reach them. The bulblets are separated from the earth with a fine sieve, and put into a box or barrel. By way of explanation I will say just here that the bulblets grown on small stock are easily separated from the bulbs, as the original bulbs were small when planted and shrink away to almost nothing, thus leaving the bulblets free to fall. With large stock the case is different. The original bulbs were large when planted, and although they wither and die as the new bulbs grow and mature, they still retain a considerable portion of their size. The new bulbs are formed close above the old ones, and the bulblets appear around the line of contact, sometimes between the two, so that they do not all become detached at the time of digging. Those that still adhere are removed in the process of cleaning. It is advisable to dry bulbs of all sizes as soon as practical after digging. They look much brighter and more attractive when thus treated than when left lying in contact with the damp soil, for a considerable time, as this gives them a dull, discolored appearance. If grown for market, those that shine like satin are much more salable, and even for planting it is much more pleasing to have them bright than tarnished. Sometimes, when short of crates, or in a great hurry, we have piled up small bulbs with their accompanying soil in the field and left them to be cared for at a more convenient time. They kept all right and could have been kept until spring with sufficient covering, but they lost their luster and became dingy and unattractive. Bulblets should not be dried. The reason for this will be given elsewhere. CHAPTER VII. Cleaning and Grading. When bulbs are taken up, it is necessary that they should be dried to some extent before the work of cleaning begins,--the large ones partially at least, and the small ones wholly, for reasons which will be explained hereafter. When large bulbs are dug, the old ones that were planted adhere so firmly that a good deal of force is required to separate them. For this reason it is not economy to clean them at once, so we store them in shallow crates, to the depth of two or three inches, and let them dry. They can then be filled in to the tops of the crates, which are four inches deep, and left until a convenient time for cleaning. In two weeks after they are taken up, the older bulbs can be removed with a slight effort, but we reserve this work for stormy days. This is the way it is done: A number two sieve is placed upon a tight bushel basket, and filled with the bulbs to be cleaned. The old bulbs are taken off by hand and cast aside, carrying the roots with them, and the bulblets that still remain fall through the sieve into the basket below. The cleaned bulbs are dropped into another basket and then stored in crates to await the time for grading. The bulblets are put away in a cool, damp place. Bulbs three-fourths of an inch or more in diameter are cleaned one at a time, as described, but smaller ones are treated differently. There is much waste matter connected with them, roots, bits of tops, and soil, and the work of cleaning them is done out of doors on windy days in order that the trash and dust may be blown away. This explains why small stock should be thoroughly dried before it is cleaned. The bulbs are placed on a table or platform where the wind can have free play, and pulled and twisted by handfuls, until the most of them are separated from the rubbish. Those that still remain are picked out, and the trash is pushed off from the table. The bulbs are then put into a fine sieve and the remaining dust is sifted out. This process usually brings to light the last remnants of dry roots, leaves, and husks, and these are disposed of by pouring the bulbs from one bushel basket to another in the wind. At one time I had this finishing work done on more than half a million small bulbs with an old-fashioned fanning mill, and it was done to perfection. Grading. After the bulbs are cured and cleaned, the next step is grading, or separating them into classes according to size. This is absolutely necessary if the bulbs are to be sold, and almost as much so if they are to be planted. As to the sizes of the different grades, every grower seems to be a law unto himself. An effort has been made by the Society of American Florists to establish a uniform standard of division, and this will doubtless be accomplished in time. At present the most common arrangement of numbers and sizes seems to be about as follows: First size (No. 1) 1-1/2 inches in diameter and up. Second size (No. 2) 1-1/2 inches in diameter. Third size (No. 3) 3/4-1 inch in diameter. Fourth size (No. 4) 1/2-3/4 inch in diameter. Fifth size (No. 5) all below 1/2 inch. Numbers one, two, and three are considered regular blooming sizes, and are bought and sold by seedsmen. Number four bulbs will nearly all bloom, but they are seldom offered for sale, except to the trade. Number fives are not supposed to bloom at all, but a few of them will do so. There is a great difference in varieties in this respect, some blooming much smaller than others. Bulbs may be approximately graded by screening them through sieves with meshes of proper sizes, from an inch and a half down to half an inch, and this is the most speedy way of doing the work. The necessary correcting can be done by hand when counting them out for sale or preparing them for planting. Crates. Some allusions to these have been made in the foregoing pages, and it may be well to preface the subject of keeping the bulbs over winter by describing the receptacles in which they are stored. I have used crates of two sizes. The larger ones are three feet by four, and four inches deep, with bottoms of lath running lengthwise and placed a quarter of an inch apart. Strips of 1x2-inch stuff are nailed across the corners, on both top and bottom, exactly opposite each other, so that they will come together and keep the crates apart for ventilation when piled one above another. The upper strips also serve as handles by which to lift the crates. They should be far enough from the corners so that bulbs can run out between when emptying the crates, and yet not so far as to make it difficult to take bulbs out from under them with a shovel. The ends of these corner pieces should be sawed beveling, so as not to project and be in the way. There is also a 2x2-inch strip nailed across the middle of the crate on the under side, to support the lath. The smaller crates are half the size of the others, two feet by three, and four inches deep. The bottoms are tight, and three-eighths of an inch thick. The corner pieces are two inches wide and one inch thick. No strips are needed across the middle underneath. The smaller crates are preferable for several reasons. First, they can be handled by one man while the larger ones, when filled, require two. Second, the tight bottoms prevent any mixing of varieties, which may happen in using the larger crates by the bulblets dropping through from one to another. Third, the small crates can be easily and entirely emptied, while the large ones retain bulblets or very small bulbs in the spaces between the lath, and when varieties are to be kept separate these must be carefully picked out. In storing mixed bulbs, or a large quantity of one variety, the last two objections do not hold, but crates containing kinds that should be kept pure cannot safely be placed one above another when the bottoms are slatted. It may be asked why the large crates are not made with tight bottoms. They have a capacity of two bushels each, or more, and when filled with damp bulbs fresh from the ground, they must have bottom ventilation in order to dry their contents. The small ones, holding only half as much, do not need the draft from below. CHAPTER VIII. Winter Storage. An excellent way to keep blooming bulbs through the winter is to pack them in crates, and pile these in a cellar without artificial heat, where the mercury ranges from thirty-five to forty degrees in cold weather. Small bulbs may be kept in the same way, but they should not be more than two or three inches deep in the crates. They settle into a more solid mass than large bulbs, and if too deep they are liable to start into growth. This should be carefully guarded against. Small quantities of bulbs may be stored in half-bushel baskets, from two to four inches deep, according to size, and hung up in the cellar. Bulblets may be packed in boxes or barrels without regard to depth. They do not need to be cured in the fall, like bulbs, as a little drying hardens the shells in which they are enclosed to such an extent that many of the tiny shoots are unable to break through when the growing season comes. They should be packed away when taken off from the bulbs at digging or cleaning time, and a cool, damp place for keeping them is best. Some of them will sprout in storage, which, of course, is not to be desired, but it is better to lose the few that will grow too soon by dampness than the many that will be kept from growing at all by drying. The ideal place for storing bulblets is a root cellar, or underground room not connected with any building, which is securely closed after the stock is put in, and not opened till spring. Here it is kept fresh and moist and perfectly safe from fire and frost. Another excellent way to preserve bulblets is to pack them in boxes and bury them in the ground, as our forefathers did potatoes and apples. They must be covered sufficiently to guard against any possible danger from freezing, and with this precaution they come out in fine condition at planting time. When a few bulblets of some choice variety are to be kept by themselves, it is a good plan to wrap them in paraffin paper, and enclose them in a paper bag, which may be marked to show its contents. Packing Bulbs for Shipment. When bulbs are well cured, the chief danger in shipping is from frost, and this is much greater in transportation by freight than by express. They are longer on the way, and more exposed to cold. However and whenever shipment is made, and whatever packages are used, whether boxes, barrels or baskets, they should be thoroughly lined with many thicknesses of paper to guard against possible harm. Paper is an excellent non-conductor of heat and cold, and packages well protected with it may be considered secure for fall or spring shipments, when a few degrees of frost are to be guarded against, but not extreme cold. When bulbs are to go by freight in winter, every precaution should be taken to make them absolutely safe. The paper linings of the packages should be increased in thickness, and in addition to this some good packing material, as sawdust thoroughly dried, planer shavings, buckwheat chaff, or ground cork, should be mixed all through among the bulbs. This prevents the frost from entering. As an additional safeguard, the bulbs may be put into strong sacks, with some one of the materials before mentioned among them, the sacks packed into the box or barrel, and all crevices among them filled with straw, excelsior or paper. This mode of packing is especially suitable when several varieties are comprised in one order. In shipping high-priced bulbs, it is sometimes advisable to pack them carefully in a box, and enclose this box in another a few inches larger every way, filling the space between on all sides with dry sawdust. It is much the better way to make costly shipments in mild weather, if possible. It seems hardly necessary to speak of sending bulbs by mail, but a few words may not be amiss. Almost the only danger in such cases is that of freezing on the ride with the rural carrier, and this can be guarded against in a great measure by using plenty of paper in wrapping, and buckwheat hulls for filling. It is better to pay postage on a little extra weight than to risk injury to the valuable goods enclosed. [Illustration: HALLEY] [Illustration: CRACKER JACK] [Illustration: GRETCHEN ZANG] CHAPTER IX. Growing from Seed. There is great satisfaction in growing the finest gladioli that have ever been produced in all the world. The consciousness that one has the best obtainable gives pleasure, but raising seedlings of one's own, knowing that they are different from any others, that no two are exactly alike, and that among them may be one or more of the very finest, and ultimately finding this possibility realized, is one of the greatest delights in horticulture. One ounce of good seed will produce about three thousand bulbs, and among them will be found a large number of fine varieties. If the seed is from choice stock, with no common varieties near, most of the seedlings will be worth saving. So I advise every grower to raise seedlings. They will yield both pleasure and profit. Some years ago I bought all the seed that was offered by the pound in America and Europe, about thirty pounds, and no one but myself ever knew the satisfaction that came from that investment. At another time I was growing a bed of seedlings and the grasshoppers cut them off at the ground early in the summer. I supposed that they were ruined and went to plant something else on the bed a week or two later, when, to my surprise, I found small bulbs, about the size of apple seeds. I saved them with great care, sixteen thousand in number, and planted them the next spring. They made a fine growth and nearly all bloomed the year following. The pleasure they gave, not only to myself, but to my friends, paid many fold for the time spent on them, and more than made up for the disappointment I had felt when I thought the grasshoppers had destroyed them. The gladiolus opens its first flower in the morning, and the work of going over a bed containing hundreds that have just bloomed for the first time, and marking the finest with tags upon which are inscribed a few characters that mean much to the owner, and almost nothing to anyone else, will give one an undercurrent of joy for the rest of the day. Another special pleasure that comes to the grower of choice seedlings is that of naming one for a friend, and this pleasure has been mine a number of times. The most notable example of this is the May, and I fully expect that some of those which have scarcely been heard of as yet will become equally as popular as that well-known variety. In growing seedlings, it is best to use land that is nearly or quite level, so that it cannot wash. The soil should be thoroughly pulverized, and enriched by the use of some complete commercial fertilizer scattered over the surface at the rate of six or seven pounds to the square rod, and well stirred in. Then make drills twelve inches apart, from one to two inches wide, and half an inch deep. These drills should be laid out cross-wise of the bed, and may be made by gently pressing a narrow strip of board into the mellow earth. Sow the seed thick enough to cover the bottom of the drill, and sprinkle over it fine earth to the depth of three-fourths of an inch. This should be pressed down with the foot or a roller, so that it will be only half an inch thick over the seeds. Some provision must now be made for keeping the surface of the bed moist until the seed comes up, which requires two or three weeks under favorable conditions, and may take much longer. If the surface dries after the seeds sprout, they are likely to perish. The best way to prevent this is to furnish shade. For a small bed, a piece of burlap spread over it, and kept in position by a stone at each corner, is excellent. I have generally used a light covering of straw, held in place with strips from the planing mill. Another method of keeping the straw in place is by stretching binder twine directly over the row. When the young plants appear, a straight edge is placed just outside of the row, and the straw is cut through with a sharp knife, first on one side and then on the other. The part over the row is then removed, and the rest left for a mulch. There are, however, two objections to the use of straw as a covering: moles sometimes work under it, heaving up the ground to the detriment of the crop, and it nearly always contains objectionable seeds. One of the most extensive growers in my acquaintance shades his seed beds with the shallow crates in which he stores bulbs through the winter. After the seedlings come up they should be kept perfectly free from weeds, and the surface should be stirred frequently. In an ordinary season the bulbs will run from one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter, and with the best possible opportunity they will grow somewhat larger. Seedlings should be taken up as soon as they show the first sign of ripening, i. e., when their tops begin to turn yellow. The reasons why this work should be done early are given under the head of "Digging and Curing," which also describes in detail the mode of doing it. Most of the earth falls off in the process of taking up the bulbs and pulling them from the stems, and the rest is sifted out. The bulbs are then put into flats, an inch or two deep, and allowed to dry. Sometimes they are dried with the tops on, and kept in that condition till planting time, but most growers prefer to take them off when green. CHAPTER X. Growing from Bulblets. Success with the gladiolus depends more upon the use and management of bulblets than upon any other one thing. Let us suppose the case of a person who grows bulbs in his garden for flowers, and saves only the bulbs, allowing the bulblets to go to waste as of no value,--and this is exactly what many people do. What is the result? The bulbs that are saved have bloomed, nearly all of them at least, and consequently they are somewhat flattened in vertical diameter, which is more or less of a falling off from the ideal round or conical shape. These are planted and bloomed the next season, and only the bulbs are saved, as before. This process is repeated year after year, the bulbs becoming gradually thinner and less vigorous, the spikes diminishing in height and the flowers in size, until, by and by, the grower comes to the conclusion that his bulbs have "run out." Now follows the experience of one who saves the bulblets, or a portion of them. He plants them, and they make bulbs, mostly too small to bloom. The next year these are planted, and in turn make larger bulbs, of blooming size, perfect in form, and capable of yielding spikes of flowers that will be an honor to the varieties from which they were grown. The first example shows why bulbs deteriorate when only bulbs are saved, and the second, how to keep them up to a high standard of vigor by renewing them from time to time with bulblets. As success with bulbs depends largely upon the use and management of bulblets, so success with bulblets depends, to a great extent, upon the care given them while out of the ground. This has been dwelt upon in a former chapter, and may be still further emphasized to good advantage. Bulblets may easily be kept too dry, and herein lies the principal danger. They should not be stored where artificial heat can reach them nor where they are exposed to drafts of air. The effect of drying, as previously explained, is to harden the coverings, and render it difficult for the sprouts to make their way out. It is best never to let them get dry from the time they are taken up till they are planted. There is but little risk of keeping them too damp, and yet this is possible, as, for instance, when the receptacles in which they are stored are allowed to stand on a wet cellar bottom. In such a case a large part of them will grow before they can be planted, and so be lost. On account of the necessary dampness to which they are exposed through the winter, they should be planted early, four or five weeks before corn planting time, if weather and condition of soil permit. The bulblets of some varieties sprout early and at a low temperature, and an active effort should be made to get them into the ground before this comes to pass. The soil may be too cold to start the majority into growth, but the shells will still be softening and getting ready to grow as soon as there is sufficient warmth. The growing of bulbs from bulblets is such an important part of the business that it seems best to describe the process in detail, even at the risk of some repetition. The ground used for this purpose should be level, or as nearly so as possible, to guard against washing, and the soil should be made very fine. The rows should be made straight, of uniform depth, about two inches, and rather broad, so as to give a good width of bottom surface. If horse labor is to be employed in the cultivating, the rows will need to be from thirty to thirty-six inches apart; if a wheel hoe is to be used, eighteen inches will be ample, and when land is precious the space may be diminished to fifteen inches, or even twelve, though the latter is too narrow for convenience. The bulblets should be screened through sieves of different meshes, so as to have each size by itself, in order that the growth may be uniform. Sow them very thick in the row, from one hundred to three hundred to the foot, and have the bulbs average half an inch in diameter. They seem to do best when very thick in the row, perhaps because there is such a mass of stem that they can lift up the covering of earth and come through with ease. Whenever I have sown them thin, with a view to obtaining larger bulbs, I have been disappointed. They seem to exhaust their energy in pushing their way out of the shells and up through the soil, and their subsequent growth is not strong enough to be satisfactory. As a rule, it is the object of the grower simply to change the bulblets into bulbs, without special regard to size, but even if the latter were the chief consideration, the end would probably be better attained by close sowing. What they lose by crowding each other seems to be more than made up by their mutual help in overcoming the obstacles which they encounter in starting. After the bulblets are sown, cover them slightly with the foot, treading the earth directly over the rows. Next, sow a complete fertilizer, at the rate of a thousand pounds to the acre, along the rows in the tracks made by the foot and then draw the soil from both sides over the fertilizer, making quite a ridge above each row. In small areas this work may be done with the hoe, but in large ones it is better to use the cultivator with the wings attached, as in covering bulbs. As soon as the weeds start on the ridges, they should be lightly stirred with a steel rake. A fine harrow or weeder may be used on large plantations, if preferred. This stirring destroys the weeds over the rows before the bulblets are fairly sprouted. A little later, when the shoots are nearly ready to come through the ground, go over the rows again with the steel rake, and level them down. This kills the second growth of weeds, makes the surface clean for the young plants, and does away with the first weeding, which is a costly item. It is important that this second stirring be done at the right time. If too early, weeds will come up in the rows with the bulblets; if too late, some of the young, tender shoots may be injured. If there is reason to think the bulblets too dry at planting time, they may be put into sacks and soaked in water a day or two. In fact, however well they may have been kept through the winter, it is not a bad plan to soak them before planting. This gives the shells a more thorough moistening than they could get in storage or in the ground, and this cuts short the time required to soften them, and accelerates the coming up by just so much. Some growers spread them on the cellar floor, wet them, and cover with burlap. They are stirred every day, and kept moist until they begin to sprout, when they are planted. A bed of bulblets should receive the most thorough and careful cultivation from the time the little shoots appear until the crop is ready to be harvested. The surface should be stirred often to keep down the weeds and encourage a steady and vigorous growth. Inasmuch as the product is a valuable one, it pays to give it every advantage. The work of harvesting is described at length under the head of "Digging and Curing." There is one curious fact connected with bulblets, which is worth mentioning. Although they need the most judicious care when out of the ground, if best results are to be attained, their vitality and tenacity of life are such that they may be left around, exposed to all kinds of weather, and treated with perfect neglect, and yet, when they come in contact with the earth some of them will grow. I recall an instance of a barrel of bulblets that stood in a shed through two winters and one summer, and when the second spring came they were poured out on the ground, and probably twenty per cent of them sprouted. (See further Notes Pages 95-100) CHAPTER XI. Peeling Bulblets. It is sometimes desirable to increase a stock of bulbs faster than it can be done in the ordinary course of nature, even with the best of care and skill in growing. This is often the case with new, high-priced varieties, and occasionally with an old and popular one that naturally increases very slowly, as the Shakespeare. It has been discovered that this end can be achieved by peeling the bulblets before planting. Even if the bulblets have been kept in perfect condition, the shells are somewhat of an obstruction to their growth, and it is easy to see that the removal of these would be a great advantage by giving the kernels freedom to start and flourish unhindered. The hard covering is nature's safe protection for the beautiful little bulblet within, and it comes so near to being waterproof and air-tight that the tiny sprout is slow in making its way out. Many of them remain shut in, and so are lost to the grower. Careful peeling overcomes this difficulty, and they all grow, like bulbs. Not only this, but they grow much larger for the peeling, and also yield a fair product of bulblets, thus increasing their rate of multiplication in various ways. When I first heard of the advantages of peeling bulblets I decided to try it, and engaged a number of girls to do the work at their homes in the winter, paying ten cents an hour. I had a choice lot and the work amounted to over thirty dollars. I found that there was a difference in girls. Some did the work carefully and others bruised or wounded the tender kernels. The bulblets were put away in the cellar, and in a short time they became a moldy mass. They were a complete loss, for not one of them was planted, and the ruin of my choice bulblets hurt more than the waste of the money. After that I had very little confidence in peeling bulblets, until Mr. E. V. Hallock of Long Island, New York, one of the most experienced and skillful growers in the country, gave me an important item of information, which explained my failure and revived my interest in the subject. This was the secret: "The bulblets should be peeled the same day they are planted." Mr. Hallock also gave me some valuable hints on cultivation. By experimenting on the work of peeling, I have found what seems to be a good way of doing it. Hold the bulblet firmly between the thumb and fingers of the left hand--unless you are left-handed--with the top upward. Then with the thumb nail and first finger of the right hand take tight hold of the point of the shell, and pull to the right, as if husking an ear of corn. This will usually strip off a piece of the covering, leaving a part of the kernel bare. Now take a sharp-pointed, thin-bladed knife and insert the point under the edge of the broken shell, being very careful not to cut or bruise the kernel, and lift up the husk in pieces, until it is all removed. For planting, make the soil rich and fine, as much like potting soil as possible, and have the ground ready when it is time to plant corn. Lay out a bed four feet wide, and rake it smooth. Make drills across it about an inch deep, more rather than less, and far enough apart to permit working between with a narrow hoe, say six inches. Place the newly peeled bulblets in the drills, about an inch apart, and cover at once with sifted sand, about two inches deep, and then press it down level with the surface. Sand is preferable to most kinds of soil, because it never bakes, and not only this, but it shows where the rows are, so that if it becomes necessary to hoe the surface before the young plants appear it can be done without danger of injury to the bulblets. The bed should have frequent stirring and perfectly clean culture. Bulblets thus treated will produce bulbs from three-fourths of an inch to an inch or more in diameter. They will also yield a goodly number of bulblets the first year, and the second year the increase will be still greater. Soaking the bulblets, as mentioned elsewhere, is next best to peeling, and is available for large quantities, while the latter is profitable only in special cases. I will add, by way of suggestion, that I have lately tried peeling bulblets in advance of planting, and mixing them with potting soil to keep. My work along this line has not been extensive enough to warrant pronouncing it a success, but the few bulblets that I have experimented with have kept perfectly. [Illustration: Black Bulblets (Hard Shell)] [Illustration: MARGARET] CHAPTER XII. Growing for Specific Purposes. Gladiolus growers have different objects in view in carrying on their work, and it is managed according to the results desired. He who raises bulbs for sale uses every effort to increase his stock and to cause the bulbs to make the greatest possible growth during the season. He prepares the ground thoroughly, plants deep to support the tops, gives plenty of nourishment and the best of culture, cuts the spikes as soon as they are high enough, and as a result he harvests a crop of large, well formed bulbs that are pleasing to buyers and satisfactory in every way. He who grows for flowers, takes the same pains in preparing, enriching, and tilling the soil, and supporting the tops, but when the spikes appear, instead of cutting them at once, he allows them to go on growing until the flowers begin to open. Then he cuts them judiciously; if for sale, with long stems and plenty of foliage; if for home use, with less of both. This is his harvest, and the bulbs, which are taken up later, may be considered a by-product. When the flowers are cut with much foliage the bulbs are dwarfed, but this does not matter when the flower market pays more for the spikes than the bulbs would bring if grown to perfection. The object in growing is naturally decided by the prospective gains. If a crop of bulbs will yield greater profit than a crop of flowers, the flowers are sacrificed and the bulbs are given every advantage; if the flowers will bring better returns the bulbs take second place, and the attention is centered upon developing the blooms. He who grows for seed gives the same preparation and care as the others. Then, instead of cutting the spikes at the earliest opportunity, as in growing for bulbs, or when they begin to bloom, as in growing for flowers, they are allowed to come out, display their beauty for awhile and fade. After this the small green pods appear, fill out, and ripen, and then the producer of seed reaps his harvest. There is much to be said upon the subject of growing and saving seed, and the details of this fascinating work will be considered in other chapters. Keeping Cut Flowers. While gladiolus blooms are exceedingly beautiful when fresh and well cared for, they are very unattractive when neglected, and it requires so little attention to keep them at their best that it seems a pity they should ever be allowed to suffer for the want of it. The best time to cut the spikes is when the first flowers unfold. Put the stems into water, and the next day there will be more blossoms open, and then more, and so on, until sometimes there is a large number out at once. Varieties differ very much in this respect. Some will display six or eight blooms, or even more. The largest number I ever saw on one spike at one time was fourteen, and that was a very rare case. On the other hand, some kinds no sooner open three or four blooms than the lower ones begin to fade. This is equally true whether they bloom on the plants or after they are cut. It seems that some stems are unable to take up moisture enough to supply more than a few flowers at once. Ordinarily, a vase or jardiniere filled with freshly cut spikes will look nice for two or three days. By that time they will have bloomed up far enough so that the first flowers begin to wither. After this, they should receive attention every day. The faded flowers should be taken off, the stems shortened accordingly, and the water changed. With this treatment the bouquet keeps fresh and beautiful until the last bud opens. It shortens the life of cut flowers of any kind to stand in the sun, or to be exposed to a current of air, and the gladiolus is no exception. Marketing Flowers. In cutting gladiolus spikes for shipment it is best to do the work in the morning, as far as possible. In the daytime, especially when the sun shines hot, or the wind blows, or both, the plant gives off moisture rapidly, and flowers cut under such conditions are liable to wilt, unless their stems are placed in water immediately. During the night, evaporation is diminished or suspended, while the roots continue to take up moisture. The dew also has an effect, and in the morning the plants are full of sap. This is one reason why it is best to cut the spikes early, and another is that the new blooms expand at that time, and so are perfectly fresh. If one has large quantities to cut, it may be necessary to continue the work all day, or the greater part of it, and in such a case, or, in fact, whenever it is done, it is a good plan to stand the spikes in water for a time, if convenient, and give them an opportunity to fill their stems. Flowers thus refreshed will last longer than those that do not have a chance to drink. There is a difference in markets as to the length of stems demanded. Some require them to be very long, with much foliage, and in such cases the prices should be high enough to pay for sacrificing the bulbs, which are rendered almost worthless by such cutting. When stems of moderate length are acceptable, it is a good rule to cut down to the third leaf below the spike, taking only the two small ones nearest the flowers. This method gives the bulbs an opportunity to grow large and strong. For shipment, the spikes are tied in bunches of twenty-six to twenty-eight, so that each bunch will make two liberal dozens. They are then placed in an upright position in a crate, box, or other receptacle. There are various styles of packages, and each shipper chooses to suit himself. One season I shipped thousands of spikes in tall candy pails, with an inch or two of water in the bottom. They started at night and arrived at their destination in the morning, "as fresh as daisies," the commission man said. If the spikes are slightly wilted in transit it does little harm, as they revive very soon after being placed in water, though it is probable that any wilting shortens their terms of service more or less. Some growers cut the spikes before any flowers open, tie them in small bunches, wrap in paper, and pack in crates, in layers. This method is good for very long distances. There is one other mode of shipping which I adopt when I wish to send spikes that have several blooms open, without injury to the flowers. I take a half bushel market basket, line it with waxed paper, sprinkle damp moss in the bottom, and then "string" the basket--that is, sew strong cords across it with a sail needle, three in each end at the top, about three inches apart, and three others below these, an inch or two above the bottom of the basket. The flowers are then put in slantwise, beginning at the ends of the basket, and working towards the middle, until the space is all occupied. The lower cords hold the ends of the stems in place, while the upper ones support the weight of the flowers, and keep them from crushing each other. A basket thus prepared will carry from fifty to one hundred spikes, according to the angle at which they are placed. The nearer upright their position the more the basket will hold, but an angle of forty-five degrees is as much as they will bear without swinging sideways and becoming disarranged. It is sometimes desirable to send a spike by mail, and this can be done to perfection by enclosing it in a pasteboard tube, such as publishers use for mailing pictures. It should be drawn into the tube stem first, and out the same way. Growing and Saving Seed. One of the most interesting branches of gladiolus culture is the growing of seedlings, and a very important part of this is producing the seed. Of course, seed can be bought, but it is more satisfactory to the grower to raise it himself, as far as practicable, and know what it is, besides eliminating an item of expense. Spherical or conical bulbs are more vigorous, and therefore better for this purpose, than flat ones of the same sort. There is a difference in the productiveness of varieties in regard to seed, as well as bulblets, some yielding little or none, while others bear freely, but in the latter case it is not best to permit the bulbs to ripen the greatest possible amount. When they begin to bloom they should be beheaded, leaving only the lower flowers and buds, say four, or five, or six, and these will develop large, strong pods, filled with seed of the best quality in point of vigor. This method is also advantageous to the bulbs, which, though only a secondary consideration, are not by any means worthless. For the benefit of both seed and bulbs, the matter of cutting off the buds that are not wanted should be attended to promptly as soon as the first flowers unclose. When the seed begins to ripen, it should be watched, and secured at the proper time. At a certain stage the pods burst open, and if left long after this, the seeds, which are very light, are apt to be blown away. The careful grower wishes to save every seed, for he has a feeling that if one is lost, that one may be the choicest of all. CHAPTER XIII. Crossing or Hybridizing. These expressions seem to be popularly used in a rather free way, as applied to the gladiolus, to denote the bringing together of different varieties, for the purpose of obtaining seed, which shall produce new and diverse kinds, combining in some degree the qualities of the parents, and presumably of superior excellence. Accepting the foregoing terms in the sense alluded to, as meaning simply a mixing of stocks, or of varieties, there are two ways of securing the desired results, the natural and the artificial. In the former, insects and the wind do the work; in the latter, it is done by hand. It may be worth while to speak of these methods somewhat in detail, with the prefatory statement that a variety is not supposed to reproduce itself from seed, and as a rule it does not. Although there are instances in which seedlings bear a close resemblance to a parent, or to each other, theoretically no two are alike, and in reality there is a wide range of variation among those grown from the same bulb. In this variation lies the charm of the work and the secret of success. Suppose the grower wishes to cross two varieties in the natural way. He plants the bulbs near together and apart from others, far enough distant so that their pollen cannot reach the blooms. Between the two there is an interchange, each being fertilized by the other, and the results will comprise as many variations as there are seeds produced. Several kinds may be planted together in the same manner and the consequent combination will be still more numerous and varied. If the amateur wishes to save seed from his bed of mixed bulbs, he watches the blooms as they come out and cuts and carries away any that are not desirable to propagate from, so that they may not affect the seed of the others. By this method all the seed saved is of a high grade of excellence, and the new developments from it are exceedingly interesting. When the grower purposes to cross two varieties artificially, he goes about it early in the morning, when the blooms first open. He selects the flower which is to be the mother parent, cuts away the stamens with sharp pointed scissors, and then covers it with cheese capping, to keep out strange pollen. From ten o'clock in the forenoon to about four in the afternoon, the pistil secretes a honey-like liquid, which causes the end or stigma to be moist. It is then said to be receptive, and the grower carries the stamens from the other parent, and gently touches the stigma with the anthers, causing the pollen to adhere. Hand-hybridizing can be carried on in a garden, or any small area, while special crossing done in the natural way requires a great deal of room. The artificial method also has the advantage of being perfectly exact, while in the other there is a possibility that pollen carried by bees may be introduced, even at a considerable distance. Whichever plan is adopted, the work is very fascinating, and if the grower succeeds in attaining the realization of his ideals along the lines he is pursuing, or even a near approach to those ideals, the pleasure he experiences is ample recompense for all his efforts. [Illustration: EUROPE] [Illustration: ATTRACTION] [Illustration: SPHINX] CHAPTER XIV. Enemies and Diseases. The gladiolus has almost no enemies, and the same may be said of diseases. The bulb has a very unpleasant taste, and is somewhat poisonous. It is not eaten by mice or grubs. The black aster beetle is fond of the flowers, and is quite a pest when very abundant. These insects have a preference among colors, and attack the red flowers first, especially a scarlet sort named Bertha. They will single out the spikes of this variety in a field of mixed colors, and devour the very buds as soon as the red comes in sight. They are especially troublesome when the weather is hot and dry, as they can then fly readily. When it is cool and damp, if jarred from the spikes they fall to the ground, and are slow in regaining their places. The grower of flowers, either amateur or commercial, finds in these insects an enemy hard to contend with, but the grower of bulbs pays no attention to them, as they do him no harm. In regard to diseases, bulbs sometimes become scabby, but this seems rather an accident than a disease. It is apparently due to conditions, and is not perpetuated by heredity. Perfectly sound bulbs may produce scabby ones, and vice versa. If healthy bulbs are planted in a place that is too wet, or that is subject to frequent overflow, or if they come in contact with barnyard manure in the ground, or if the foliage is seriously injured in the growing season, the product is liable to be scabby. Some years ago I had a field of gladioli, one end of which proved to be a runway for dogs, and the plants that came in their way were broken, or partly broken. As a consequence, many of the bulbs in that part of the field were scabby, but these planted in a different place, produced smooth ones the next season. If bulbs are taken up and cured immediately after the tops have been injured, by wind or otherwise, they will be sound and in good condition for the next year, even though not half grown; but to be deprived of their foliage, or a large portion of it, while the roots remain undisturbed, appears to destroy the balance, and cause bad results. In some localities the gladiolus is affected by rust, which turns the tips of the leaves brown in the growing season. If this is a disease, the remedy does not seem to have been discovered, but in numerous instances careful observation will show that it is due to local causes. The foliage is sensitive to atmospheric conditions, and cannot be successfully grown where it is subject to poisonous gases. Smoke from a pottery carried over the bed by prevailing winds is almost sure to be fatal. Salt is thrown into the kilns to glaze the ware, and the chlorine set free is deadly to many plants. Even smoke from factories is more or less injurious, and many cases of rust can be traced to some such source. Taken all in all, the gladiolus is one of the most reliable of crops. (See Note.) Note:--There are three well defined diseases affecting gladiolus bulbs during growth and in storage, soft rot, hard rot, and scab. There is no cure for the two former, but they may be controlled by discarding all affected bulbs and planting in fresh soil free from animal manures. Scab may be greatly reduced by soaking all diseased or suspected bulbs, after removing the outer coatings, for twenty minutes in a solution of bichloride of mercury, fifteen grains to each gallon of water, or for same time in solution of formalin, one pint to thirty gallons of water. CHAPTER XV. What Constitutes a Good Variety. The different types of the gladiolus vary so widely that they cannot be measured by one fixed standard, but there are some general requirements of excellence that apply to all. Vigorous healthy growth is indispensable. It is not worth while to cultivate a variety that is constitutionally feeble. Another essential is a fair-sized clean bulb, and it is desirable, though not imperative, that it should produce bulblets freely. The leaves should be green to the tips throughout the season. The spike should be tall and straight, with a good distance between the first flower and the foliage. In some varieties the spike develops so rapidly, and is so tender and succulent, that it is unable to support its own weight. Hence, it makes a crooked stem which is a blemish, however perfect it may be otherwise. Ordinarily, it is better that the spike should not have branches, though some of the best kinds do, as May, Augusta, and others. When a variety is used for forcing, and individual flowers are cut, branches are an advantage, as they lengthen the season, but when the whole spike is cut they are useless, and worse, for they exhaust the bulb more or less, and time is consumed in taking them off. The stem should be able to take up water freely, so that it may open a goodly number of flowers at once. This is a characteristic common to the Gandavensis varieties, while the opposite is true of the Lemoines. The typical spike should have two rows of flowers facing the same way, and near enough together to conceal the stem, or the most of it, but not so close as to look crowded. The blossom should be finely arched, and open enough to bring out that frank, engaging expression which is peculiar to this flower, and one of its special charms. The petals should be of ample width, to give the bloom a rich, generous appearance. Substance in the petals is of very great importance as enabling them to endure exposure. If too thin, they will wilt in a warm or windy day. There is one more requirement, without which all other perfections go for naught,--fine coloring. It may be light or dark, delicate or rich, solid or a combination of few or many hues, but it must be clear, spirited and attractive, not dull nor muddy, nor faded. The gladiolus comprises such a marvelous range of colors, from white up through all the shades of pink, melon, and scarlet, to the richest and most glowing reds; some fine tints of yellow; and innumerable blendings, markings and variegations, that there is no need of accepting or perpetuating an unlovely color or one that requires an apology. CHAPTER XVI. How to Obtain a Choice Collection. There are, as before stated, some qualities which are requisite to a good gladiolus, but this demand does not draw close or inflexible lines. There are hundreds of varieties in existence which possess the necessary traits in a considerable degree, and more are being produced every year by the growing of seedlings. This breadth of variation gives room for the exercise of individual tastes equally as diversified, and it is interesting to observe the differences displayed. One person's ideal may be quite ordinary in the estimation of another. Once, when I exhibited ninety varieties at a fair, I was surprised to see a lady select as her first choice the one which was ninetieth in my opinion. There are several ways of obtaining a fine collection. If one can afford to gratify his wishes without regard to expense, he can buy named varieties year after year, select those that he most admires, and reject the others. With less outlay he can buy mixed bulbs of a high grade, or unbloomed seedlings, and retain the finest, as before. This is an excellent way, and in no other can a choice collection be obtained for so little money in so short a time. Another method, which involves still less expense but requires more time, is to grow bulbs from seed, and it is wise to procure the seed from many different sources, in order to attain the most extensive range of colors and characteristics. Seedlings well grown the first year will show a few flowers the second, and the next season all will bloom. The grower can then choose those that please him best, and this work is unspeakably captivating. CHAPTER XVII. How to Keep a Collection Vigorous and Well Balanced. The gladiolus, like other flowering plants, shows the effects of continued neglect or ill usage in diminished vigor and inferior bloom. This is not saying that a variety will "go back" to some ancestral sort, or that it will lose its individuality, but it will become puny and unsatisfactory. This deterioration is principally due to mismanagement, and can be counteracted by a change of methods. Suppose a fine, conical bulb is planted. If it meets with no misfortune it will produce a perfect spike of flowers, and perhaps a dozen or twenty pods of seed. When taken up in the fall, the bulb is almost certain to be small and flat, on account of having exhausted its vitality in blooming and seed-bearing, and if it yields any bulblets they will probably be so diminutive as to be thought not worth saving. No amount of skill could get much out of that bulb the second year. There are two ways to bring it up to its former vigor. First: plant the bulb the next spring under the most favorable circumstances, give it plenty of plant food and the best of care, provide support for the foliage, cut the spike as soon as possible, and when the bulb is taken up it will be large and solid, and ready to do energetic work the following year. The second, and better way, of restoring a variety that has become exhausted, is to save the bulblets, however tiny they may be, pack them in damp sand, and store them in a cool place over winter. In the spring, peel them carefully, and plant according to the directions given in the chapter on "Peeling Bulblets." Give good culture, and the outcome will be a crop of blooming bulbs, and most likely a fair yield of bulblets. There is another difficulty that besets some lovers of this beautiful flower who take pains to procure fine collections, and give them the best of care, according to their knowledge. In a few years many of their choice varieties seem to have dwindled away to almost nothing, or to have disappeared entirely, while they have a burdensome surplus of some others. They wonder why this is so, and some become convinced that the gladiolus will in time revert to some original species. Nearly all such cases may be accounted for by considering that some varieties multiply very much faster than others, both by bulblets and the formation of new bulbs. If one bulb produces a hundred bulblets, another ten, and another one--or perhaps none,--it is easy to foresee what will happen in a few years. Another thing to be taken into account is that the grower sometimes divides his treasures with his friends, and in so doing he is liable to give away the one bulb that does not multiply, thus losing that variety from his stock. He may dispose of a number in this way and, meanwhile, those that increase rapidly are fast taking possession of his collection. There are ways of guarding against this situation. First, when varieties are found to have many bulblets, save only enough to keep the stock in balance, and throw away the rest. By being watchful and persevering in this course, much of the difficulty in question can be avoided. Second, if some varieties get the start, and become too numerous, mark them as they come into bloom, with cheap tags, or by some other device, and take them up separately in the fall. Several varieties can be "marked out" at the same time in this way. [Illustration: MRS. F. PENDLETON] CHAPTER XVIII. Commencing in the Business. If one desires to grow the gladiolus commercially, there are several ways of making a beginning, and it is well to have a clearly defined plan. The grower can enter upon the work with very little outlay by commencing with seed. Only choice seed should be used. The first year's product will average about the size of peas. With extra pains, many of these could be brought to small blooming size, but it is better to keep them below that limit. The next year they will all grow to first and second sizes and the bulbs will be perfect in form and full of energy. Of these there will be no two alike, and such bulbs are generally in demand. Some will be of superior merit, and many good. Each purchaser will find at least a few that he will prize. By sowing seed every year, the grower will always have fresh stock coming on, and if careful to use only seed of high grade, he will establish a reputation as a producer of fine seedlings. He can, in time, make arrangements for growing seed himself, and thus save the expense of buying, besides enjoying the satisfaction of knowing its excellence. Another way of starting is by purchasing small stock. This has the advantage of making salable bulbs the first year, also quantities of bulblets, but there is another side to the question, which is less encouraging. If the stock is simply common mixed, which is about the only grade offered for sale, the grower is likely to find that a good part of it is such as he can take no pride in, and he will be under the necessity of beginning soon to weed out the undesirable varieties. The same difficulty will re-appear in the crop grown from the bulblets. This method involves more expense than would appear at first thought, and is likely to be rather unsatisfactory as to quality in the end. If small stock of high excellence could be bought, it would be the perfection of a start for a beginner, but it is very seldom obtainable. Every grower knows that bulbs the size of peas are far more prolific of bulblets than those of the same variety two inches in diameter. Accordingly, he sells the large ones, which bring good prices, but make little increase, and retains the small ones, which would yield only trifling returns if sold, but are of great value as multipliers of stock. Still another and very good way of beginning in the business is to buy blooming bulbs of fine named sorts, cultivate them separately, and sell them by name. He who adopts this plan does not need many varieties. It is better to purchase few, and a larger number of each. If he selects those that are in good demand, he is pretty sure to find ready sale for all that he can raise. He is not likely to have too many of the May or Augusta, nor of those newer and more expensive favorites, America and Princeps. This last method, and the one first described may be combined to good advantage. If one wishes to commence growing flowers for market, he may start with seed, provided he can afford the time, or he may buy blooming bulbs, either mixed or named. In the latter case he should look out for a liberal proportion of light colors, as they are usually more salable than darker ones, though of late, good reds are rapidly gaining in popularity. Some growers raise mostly fine white and light varieties, and their flowers are in demand even when the market is full of common stock. Finally, whatever the grower's objects may be in his work, and whatever methods he may adopt in carrying it on, he will find plenty of room for the exercise of his own judgment and tact, after he has read and pondered all that he can find in print in regard to gladiolus culture. APPENDIX By DR. W. VAN FLEET CHAPTER I. Garden History of the Gladiolus. The gladiolus is horticulturally the most important member of the Iridacæ or great Iris family and has long been the most popular of all summer-flowering bulbous plants, ranking in general usefulness even such prime favorites as the dahlia, the canna and the lily. Almost one hundred and fifty species have been from time to time described by botanists, but only a fraction of the number has thus far proved of value in breeding and development work. Fourteen or more species are natives of Southern Europe and Western Asia, but these have always been of minor importance as garden plants. The headquarters of the genus is South Africa, centering in Cape Colony and Natal, though there have been recent finds of value on the mountains of tropical Africa and in Madagascar. The European and Asiatic species run to purple and lilac in coloring, though white varieties occur in cultivation. Flowers and plants are rather small, rendering them most useful for pot or frame culture and for naturalizing in protected borders where the deeply planted corns can be kept from the effects of frost. The most attractive of these northern kinds are _G. crispiflorus_, _G. atroviolaceus_, _G. Byzantinus_ and _G. communis_. The latter has been offered in this country as the "hardy" gladiolus, but it will not endure severe freezing. These species hybridize together when opportunity presents, but do not readily interbreed with the African kinds and have rarely developed garden forms superior to the respective wild types. The blooming time is early spring. Another series of early-blooming, small-flowered species is represented by _G. blandus_, flesh colored, _G. Watsonius_, scarlet, _G. alatus_, yellow and red, and _G. tristis_, pale yellow, sweet scented. All are native to the Cape of Good Hope and can endure little cold. They are admirably suited for window and greenhouse culture and are interesting subjects for interbreeding, though no startling results should be expected. The winter-blooming varieties grown by florists, such as the _Bride_, _Delicatissima_, and _Peach Blossom_, belong to the hybrid section known as _Gladiolus Colvillii_, which is, without doubt, a hybrid between _G. cardinalis_ and _G. tristis_. The corms of these early-blooming species are less resistant than those of the summer-blooming kinds and can rarely be kept over winter in good condition. The species in this class are many, several are fragrant, and all are worth growing by the specialist for their individual charm, but few are likely to attain commercial importance in this country for a considerable time. Summer Blooming Species. Our popular garden and commercial varieties are, with scarcely an exception, developments of strong-growing and relatively late-blooming species found wild in South Africa. The chief of these is _G. psittacinus_, native of Natal, but cultivated in Europe since 1830. It is a striking and robust species with hooded, narrow, red-and-yellow flowers, borne in a scattering manner on a tall fleshy scape or spike. Eleven years later a seedling appeared in the famous Van Houtte Nurseries, Ghent, Belgium, thought to be a hybrid between _psittacinus_ and _G. cardinalis_, the latter a tall scarlet flowered species or variety of uncertain origin, known to have been cultivated as early as 1785. The Van Houtte seedling, named _Gandavensis_ in honor of the city of its origin, was so superior to _psittacinus_ as to cause the latter to at once go out of cultivation. _Gandavensis_ made a great sensation in its time and is still the best representative of the old-time gaudy red-and-yellow garden gladiolus, or corn flag. It was eagerly welcomed by breeders of the day, among others the accomplished French hybridizer, Mons. Souchet, of Fontainebleu, who really laid the foundation of the modern _Gandavensis_ strain, the basis of all that is best in the summer-blooming section. The predominating types of the finest _Gandavensis_ varieties, however, retain few of the characteristics of _psittacinus_. The erect, fleshy stem, capable of absorbing sufficient water, when the spike is cut, to develop all blooms, and the strong upright growth have been preserved as indispensable features, but the flowers have been marvelously improved in respect to form, color, size, arrangement and finish, as the result of interbreeding with every procurable species or variety of sufficiently distinct character, and constant seeding selection. The most popular varieties of the day, such as May, Augusta, and Shakespeare, have little resemblance to _psittacinus_ and practically none to _cardinalis_, but exhibit strongly the main characteristics of _G. oppositiflorus_, an old white-and-rose, many-flowered species, often thought to have been the real parent of _Gandavensis_, instead of _cardinalis_. The writer's experience is that present-day authentic hybrids of _psittacinus_ and _cardinalis_ do not resemble _Gandavensis_, while the issue of _psittacinus_ x _oppositiflorus_ closely reproduces _Gandavensis_ as it is found in old gardens. Varied and beautiful as the _Gandavensis_ hybrids or "French seedlings" of the last generation were--and some have never been excelled--intense and pleasing shades of red were strangely lacking, when the predominance of _psittacinus_ blood in the strain is considered. It was not until 1878 that Victor Lemoine, Nancy, France, produced, by crossing the finest _Gandavensis_ varieties with _G. purpureo-auratus_, an important race now widely known as _Lemoinei_, that possessed the rich and intense shades of red, purple, and yellow so ardently desired by fanciers. Some of the richest coloring in the floral kingdom is found among the _Lemoinei_ varieties, now wonderfully developed by consistent breeding. The hooded form of _purpureo-auratus_ blooms, however, is often retained, and the stems usually have the wiry texture of the species rendering the development of the flowers, after cutting, less perfect than the _Gandavensis_. The next great improvement in garden gladioli was brought about by Max Leichtlin, Baden Baden, Germany, who extensively hybridized the best _Gandavensis_ varieties with _G. Saundersii_, then a newly introduced species characterized by large widely opened scarlet flowers speckled with white on the lower divisions. The resulting seedlings, without doubt the finest strain of modern times, were bought by V. H. Hallock and Son, Queens, N. Y., then the most extensive American bulb growers, and for many years the stock was worked up by them in the most painstaking manner. Before dissemination it was sold to J. L. Childs, Floral Park, N. Y., who introduced it to general cultivation under the name of _Childsii_. The true _Leichtlin Saundersii_ hybrids are characterized by gigantic growth and very large richly colored well-opened blooms with beautifully spotted and variegated throats. Shades of red predominated at first, but light colors have since been developed in a very satisfactory manner. The only just criticism of this strain is that some kinds lack substance of petal and are not as lasting as _Gandavensis_ varieties under similar trying conditions. Lemoine soon afterwards produced a fine large flowered and brilliantly colored race by crossing _Lemoinei_ hybrids with _Saundersii_. This race was named _Nanceianus_ and comprises many truly beautiful varieties, few, however, possessing the vigor of the _Leichtlin_ hybrids. The next break of importance, also the work of Lemoine, came with the use of _G. papilio_, pale lilac, blotched and overlaid with dull red. In many of its hybrids the primitive colors have separated, resulting in an attractive series of rich purple and heliotrope blues, quite new to the genus. True bright blues, free from red and purple tones, have not yet been obtained, but the blue kinds--issue of _Papilio_ and the _Lemoine_ varieties--are unique and desirable acquisitions. _Gladiolus cruentus_, blood red and white, pollenized with a selected _Childsii_ variety resulted in the magnificent scarlet hybrid _Princeps_, acknowledged the first of its color yet produced. The latest species of importance to be widely used is _G. Primulinus_, recently found in the Zambesi Valley, South Africa. It is a vigorous species with narrow blooms, pure bright yellow in color. The hybrids largely partake of this coloring, and it appears only a matter of time when good self-yellow varieties, comparable in size and finish to the best red and pink kinds will be bred. Minor Species. A number of hybrids of _G. dracocephalus_, _G. Cooperi_ and _G. Quartinanus_ have been offered of late years. These species are closely allied to _Psittacinus_, but yellow, green and purplish shades, oddly marked and striped, appear in the offspring. Some are curious and attractive, but possess little value from the standpoint of the commercial grower. _G. Quartinanus_ is a very late bloomer and may produce varieties extremely useful for mild climates where the seasons are sufficiently long to form bulb development. _G. Eckloni_ is a rare species with small whitish blooms, minutely dotted with black purple. The hybrids have mostly purple or red ground colors flecked with darker shades. They are exceedingly attractive, but do not increase with sufficient rapidity to possess great value. _G. vitatus_, an early blooming, dwarf species, has yielded some charming porcelain and salmon colored garden varieties, of rather small size, however. _G. Leichtlini_, scarlet and yellow, allied to _Saundersii_, when crossed with _cruentus_, is a striking brilliant crimson hybrid of much vigor, but when blended with other species entirely loses its individuality. The list may be extended, but enough has been said to indicate the great possibilities inherent to the use of wild species as a means of adding attractive new features to highly developed garden strains. Summary. The gladiolus, in its European species at least, has been in garden cultivation for quite 400 years. The African forms first found their way to Europe about 1745 and new ones have since been constantly added. The genus now numbers almost 150 species. _The first_ marked improvement, from the garden standpoint, came with the introduction from Holland, about 1785, of _G. cardinalis_, one of the reputed parents of _G. Gandavensis_. The true origin of _Cardinalis_ has never been ascertained. In 1840 _G. Gandavensis_ was raised in Belgium from seed of _G. psittacinus_, an African species supposed to be pollinated with _Cardinalis_, but more, likely with _G. oppositiflorus_, which the progeny of _Gandavensis_ more closely resembles. From 1845 until 1880 _Gandavensis_ seedlings or "French Hybrids" held full sway in gardens. More than 400 varieties have been named, comprising some of the most highly prized of all garden kinds. Lemoine introduced in 1878 his justly celebrated hybrids between Gandavensis and _G. purpureo-auratus_, known as _Lemoinei_. The _Nanceianus_ strain, crosses between _Lemoinei_ and _G. Saundersii_, was introduced in 1889. _Childsii_, originated by Max Leichtlin, Germany, was first disseminated in 1893. It consists of hybrids of _G. Saundersii_ pollinated with the finest Gandavensis varieties. Lemoine's New Blue was first exhibited at the Chicago Exposition 1893 and placed on sale the following year. _Gladiolus Princeps_, _Childsii x G. cruentus_, the finest scarlet variety ever raised, was introduced in 1903. _Gladiolus primulinus_ and hybrids were first publicly offered in 1909. [Illustration: PRINCEPS] CHAPTER II. Hybridizing Gladiolus. The gladiolus, owing to the large size of the blooms and its open character, is one of the easiest plants to pollinate artificially. Healthy vigorous plants should be selected for seed bearers, and the bloom spike supported with a firm stake. The blooms should be visited in early morning as they open, and the anthers removed before they have shed pollen, with the fingers, or better with slender forceps, taking care not to injure the style or the three-parted stigma, which will be ready to receive pollen about midday in bright weather or late in the afternoon, or even next day if cloudy or dull. The blooms should, immediately after the anthers have been removed, be covered with thin cheesecloth, or "bobinet," firmly tied or pinned in such a manner as effectually to keep out bees and visiting insects. Ordinary mosquito netting will not serve after it has been wet with dew or rain, as the mesh becomes so loose that energetic little pollen carrying bees force their way through, often entirely spoiling results. The pollen-bearing blooms should be carefully selected to open the same day and should be as well protected with muslin or fine netting as possible to prevent robbery of pollen. About noon, when the anthers are covered with dry-dust-like pollen they can be pinched out with forceps and carried to the seed-bearing spikes in a covered dish to protect from wind. The anthers may be taken separately in the fingers, or with forceps, and lightly brushed over the stigmas, which should be erect and open if they have reached the receptive stage. One anther will usually suffice for a seed bloom if pollen is abundant, but in some of the lighter-colored varieties it is scantily produced and several may be needed. Occasionally the anther valves do not open freely enough to permit the escape of pollen, which may then be taken out with a narrow-bladed penknife, or better with a little instrument made of a flattened pin fixed in a wooden handle. The pollinated blooms should immediately be covered with the netting, which should remain until they fade. If conveniences are at hand the work may be rapidly accomplished--several hundred pollinations being made in a single day by an active worker. Pollen can also be used from cut blooms, the spikes being kept in water in a light room, free from flies or bees, but it gradually loses power when the upper blooms open under such artificial conditions. If the work is carefully done the resulting seeds will produce hybrids or cross breeds as the case may be, and it is always possible that the ideal sought for may appear among the number. Pollen may be kept a week or more by drying in the shade and wrapping in paraffin paper, but is far less reliable than if applied fresh from the anthers. The blooms of large garden varieties are rarely self-pollinated, even if left uncovered, but the chances of fertilization with inferior kinds, generally the most abundant pollen producers, are so great that it is well to protect all seed-bearing blooms from insect interference. If the work is to be done on a large scale sleeves of netting or muslin large enough to enclose the entire spike will be found serviceable. The ends may be drawn together by cords looped through the fabric, effectually barring out the meddling bees. If a greenhouse structure or even a well lighted room is available, the plants may be grown in large boxes or pots and taken inside when blooming. This is especially desirable in the case of rare species and varieties, as there is no interference from stormy weather. Every bloom can be pollinated and practically every grain of pollen utilized under these secure conditions. CHAPTER III. Special Care of Seedlings. Rare or scarce gladiolus seeds, particularly those resulting from difficult crosses, should not be risked under ordinary garden or field conditions of growth. We naturally wish to bring to maturity every possible plant that the ideal we are breeding for may not be lost, if it should by chance be included in the number. If grown in pots or boxes the first season, with due care every good seed is likely to produce a vigorous bulb that may be planted out next year. I have found six-inch standard flower pots, after many trials, to be the most convenient receptacles for small quantities of seeds, though almost equally good results may be had from well drained wooden boxes five inches deep. The boxes may be a foot or more wide and 18 to 20 inches long, and should be new and clean. On no account grow gladiolus seeds or bulblets successive years in the same pots or boxes without sterilization, lest disease be fostered. Sterilization may be effected in the case of pots, by roasting an hour or more in an oven at a temperature above the boiling point of water, or by well soaking in bichloride of mercury or formaldehyde solution, described in a preceding chapter.[C] Boxes may also be roasted in the oven or soaked in sterilizing solutions, but it is best to use new ones if procurable. Boxes should have at least one-half-inch drainage hole to each sixteen square inches of bottom surface, as gladiolus seedlings greatly dislike waterlogged soil. An inch of pebbles, broken shells or sterilized potsherds should be placed in bottom and pot or box filled to within one-half inch of top with light compost made of two parts rich loamy soil and one part sand, well mixed together. Some very old fine manure may be used, but it should be confined to the bottom third of the receptacle and not come into contact with the seeds or resulting bulbs. The seeds previously rubbed free from chaff, should be thickly sown on the surface--one hundred seeds is not too many for a six-inch pot--and covered with one-half inch of clean sand. Water with a gentle spray until entire mass of soil is saturated, cover top with old burlap or bagging and place pots or boxes in a secure place where the temperature will not vary greatly from sixty degrees. But little more water will be needed until the plants begin to come up, which should be in about twenty days. A sunny situation in greenhouse or garden is needed to grow the seedlings to best advantage, but if in the latter, protection should always be given from beating rains as the tiny seedlings are very easily broken down during the early stages of their development. Water should be given with sufficient regularity to keep the soil constantly moist without becoming sodden and all weeds removed as they appear. The bulbs will mature in twelve to fifteen weeks from germination. Water should gradually be lessened as growth ceases and foliage begins to yellow until the soil quite dries out, when it may be passed through a sieve and even the smallest bulblet secured. [Footnote C: Page 59.] The little seedling bulbs, ranging in size from a wheat grain to a hazelnut, keep best in dry sand and should be sown next season like peas in drills in the garden. Some of the strongest are likely to bloom the second year and all should produce flowers the third. If seeds are sown under glass soon after ripening, in early October, according to foregoing directions, the bulbs may usually be ripened off in March, cured in sand in a dry warm place and planted out in May, thus securing a few blooms the following Autumn, one year after gathering the seed. Most of the bulbs thus treated should attain blooming size by the end of the first season. If only a few seeds of a rare variety are obtainable, very porous compost in five-inch pots or shallower boxes, the seeds sown near the edges, will give best results. The seedling gladiolus the first year is so slender and with such a small root system that considerable attention is needed to avoid excess moisture unless closely planted. A useful modification of the above method is to replace the bottom of a box of convenient size with wire netting of one-half-inch mesh or less, sink it to within an inch of the top in the soil in a convenient sunny place in garden, fill with prepared compost, sow seeds and proceed in the described manner except that less attention will be required in watering than if entirely exposed to the air. Box and soil can be lifted out when the bulbs mature, the soil dried and sifted to secure every minute bulb. If a considerable quantity of seed is to be sown a board frame eight inches deep, with bottom lined with one-half-inch mesh netting, and sunk in the ground, will give complete security from moles and similar vermin. If ordinary poultry netting is stretched over the top, additional security against surface marauders is given. Hand hybridized seeds are too precious to risk in ordinary unprotected soil. Five thousand seedling bulbs may be grown in a frame 4�6 feet, if seeds are thickly enough sown. CHAPTER IV. Gladiolus Species. The following list includes the most important Gladiolus species, as recognized by modern botanists. Many species formerly included in the genus _Gladiolus_ are now correctly assigned to _Acidanthera_, _Antholyza_, _Babiana_, _Freesia_, _Montbretia_, _Tritona_ and _Watsonia_. Most true Gladiolus species will hybridize together, under favorable opportunity, but all attempts to breed the above genera with Gladiolus, thus far, appear to have failed. The most important garden hybrids of Gladiolus, useful in breeding work, have been described in preceding chapters. An attempt is here made to note the height of each species, the season of bloom in the northern hemisphere, the native locality where known, and the approximate date of introduction to cultivation: Gladiolus adlami, dull yellow with minute red spots, Transvaal, 1889. " alatus, 3/4 ft., scarlet, yellow, June, 1795. " alatus algoensis, 3/4 ft., orange, July, 1824. " albidus, 1 ft., white, June, 1774. " angustus, 2 ft., yellow, June, 1756. " atroviolaceus, dark blue, purple, white, Palestine, 1889. " blandus, 1-1/2 ft., flesh, June, 1774. " brachyandrus, 2 ft., scarlet, whitish, Zambesi Land, July, 1879. " brevifolius, 1-1/2 ft., pink, June, 1802. " byzantinus, 2 ft., red, July, Turkey, 1629. " campanulatus, 1-1/2 ft., light purple, May, 1794. " carneus, 2 ft., flesh, June, 1796. " caucasicus, Caucasus, 1842. " cochleatus, 1-1/2 ft., white, red, March, 1829. " Colvillei, 1-1/2 ft., bright red marked with pale purple. Hybrid. " Colvillei, alba, white. " communis, 2 ft., red, South Europe, 1596, July. " communis albus, 2 ft., white, June, South Europe. " concolor, 1 ft., yellow, June, 1790. " Cooperi, 3 ft., red, yellow, September, Natal, 1862. " crispiflorus, various, July, 1842. " cruentus, blood red, white, September, Natal, 1868. " cuspidatus, 1-1/2 ft., white, brown, May, 1795. " debilis, 1-1/2 ft, white, May. " decoratus, 3 ft., scarlet, yellow, East Africa, 1890. " dracocephalus, 2-1/4 ft., greenish yellow with purple lines, Natal, 1871. " Eckloni, 1 to 1-1/2 ft., pinkish white, densely red spotted, Autumn, South Africa, 1862. " edulis, 1-1/2 ft., white, June, 1816. " Elloni, white tipped with purple, 1890. " festivus, pale rose, July, 1844. " flexuosus, 1 ft., orange, June, 1825. " floribundus, 1 ft., citron, July, 1788. " Gandavensis, rich crimson, yellow, summer, hybrid. " gracilis, 2 ft., blue, white, April, 1800. " hastatus, 1 ft., flesh, May, 1846. " hirsutus, 1-1/2 ft., pink, June, 1795. " hyalinus, 1 ft., yellow, red, June, 1825. " imbricatus, 1 ft., red, June, Russia, 1820. " involutus, 1-1/2 ft., pink, June, 1757. " Kirkii, 3 ft., rose, Grahamstown, 1890. " Kotschyanus, light violet, Afghanistan and Persia. " Leichtlini, scarlet, yellow, Transvaal, 1889. " Mackinderii, 2 ft., red or yellow, 1905. " Milleri, 1-1/2 ft., violet, May, 1751. " Mortonius, 1-1/2 ft., white, 1837. " namaquensis, 3/4 ft., orange, June, 1800. " natalensis, 4 ft., scarlet, yellow, August, Natal River, 1830. " ochroleucus, Transvaal. " oppositiflorus, April, Madagascar, 1843. " papilio, 2 ft., purple, yellow, South Africa, 1866. " permeabilis, 3/4 ft., orange, June, 1825. " primulinus, Primrose-yellow, East Africa, 1890. " psittacinus, 3 ft., scarlet, yellow, S. E. Africa. " pudibundus, 3 ft., rose, hybrid (G. blandus � G. Cardinalis). " punctatus, greenish-yellow, brownish-purple, 1889. " purpureo-auratus, yellow, purple, Natal, 1872. " Quartinianus, 4 ft., yellow and red. " recurvus, 2 ft., striped, May, 1758. " Saundersii, scarlet, white, August, South Africa, 1871. " segetum, 2 ft., purple, July, South Europe, 1596. " sericeo-villosus, 3 ft., yellow, S. Africa, 1864. " Salmoneus, 2 ft., bright salmon. " tenellus, 3/4 ft., yellow, June, 1825. " tenuis, 1 ft., red, June, Tauria, 1823. " trichonemifolius, 1-1/2 ft., yellow, June, 1800. " trimaculatus, 1 ft., red, white, June, 1794. " tristis, 1 ft., brown, red, 1745. " turicensis, Garden hybrid: G. Gandavensis � G. Saundersii. " undulatus, 1 ft., pink, May, 1760. " versicolor, 1-1/2 ft., brown, June, 1794. " vinulus, creamy white, feathered with crimson, 1888. " viperatus, 1/2 ft., green, white, May, 1787. " watsonioides, 1-1/2 ft., scarlet, Mt. Kilimanjaro, 1887. ADDENDA Odd Notes From Many Sources. Planting gladioli after potato or tomato crops is said to incur risk of scabby stock. Parcel post has proven very satisfactory for shipping blooms, packed in this manner. The pure yellow Primulinus Sunbeam when displayed with purple Baron Hulot is very effective. Peeled bulblets require a warmer soil than the unpeeled ones, and for this reason, May 15 to 20 is about the proper time for sowing. To grow giant flower spikes, plant in rows 21 to 30 inches apart and 7 to 9 inches apart in the rows; fertilize well. Long distance crates for mailing cut blooms may be made of slats 3/4-inch apart, with end pieces 6 to 7 inches square, braced in the middle. All spikes should be cut when lowest or first flower begins to unroll; spikes should be set in water for an hour or more before packing. Constant cultivation creating a dust mulch is very necessary with these as with other crops in case of drought. Many overlook this. Mrs. B. H. Tracy says that Liebesfeur or War, Mrs. Frances King, Pink Perfection and Independence make a wonderful color combination. It is conceded that second or even third size bulbs of Mrs. Francis King will throw a better flower spike than bulbs of a similar small size of most other kinds. When your flowers are coming on freely and weather turns warmer, don't forget that cuttings must be made more frequently, and Sunday work unavoidable. Some Gladiolus bulbs can stand freezing, though frozen solid. If left in tight boxes or barrels and allowed to thaw out very slowly without handling or exposure to air they will not be seriously injured. When the roots of the gladiolus have attained their full growth, the surface of the soil should be stirred but lightly, because of the danger of cutting the roots. Prior to that time, gladiolus bulbs will stand deeper cultivation. Write your state experiment station for analysis of commercial fertilizer best adapted to the Gladiolus. If you contemplate shipping cut blooms, consult your commission man as to the most satisfactory method of packing. Young bulbs from seven eights to one inch in diameter should, if given space when plants of about two and a half inches apart and well cultivated, produce a crop approximately half or more first grade bulbs and the remainder seconds. One grower never plants gladioli the second time in succession on the same land. Dr. Van Fleet, the originator of Princeps, who distributed it through Vaughan's Seed Store, says that the variety should never be planted on recently manured land, but in a naturally deep, rich, alluvial soil. When bulbs are worth only two cents or less and cut blooms selling at three cents net or over, stalks may be cut close to the ground, giving foliage much desired by the retail florist. This advice, of course, applies to other values whenever the flowers are selling well above the cost of the bulbs. Gladiolus make roots freely outside in quite cool weather, therefore, may be planted as early in the spring as ground can be opened, sometimes certain soils may be heavily mulched with straw in fall and thus kept unfrozen for very early planting in March. When cut blooms are selling for less than the value of the bulbs, great care should be used in cutting to leave four good leaves uncut as these are necessary to complete the growth and mature a healthy bulb. Two leaves or even three are not enough to finish and develop a first class bulb. For all points south of the Ohio River and in the extreme south second grade bulbs, that is of diameter 1-1/4 to 1-1/2 inches have bloomed well out of doors. Mrs. Frances King bulbs of only 1 inch to 1-1/4 have produced well; America and Chicago White for best results need larger grading than King. Watchfulness in winter storage is necessary. If bulbs are racked or shelved too deep and become moist, they must be thinned and turned or both; if they become too dry, as they will if your cellar or storehouse lacks moisture, you may put more layers in the racks, or spread newspaper over them or spray the floor of your storeroom as often as may be necessary to maintain proper moisture which can be told by feeling of the bulbs. Those, and they are many, both Amateur and Commercial growers who exhibit blooms at Flower shows should remember that if spikes are cut when the lowest blooms begin to open and transported to the exhibition halls early and there, standing in vases allowed to open their blooms, will be much more perfect and free from that bruised condition shown by blooms which have not been cut until the flowers on the spikes were nearly open. One reliable grower keeps his black hard-shelled bulblets in gunny sacks containing about one bushel mixed with about 20 per cent of fine dry earth. He has been quite successful in keeping the bulblets in this manner, and when so kept the shells do not harden to such an extent as to prevent sprouting of the kernel, as sometimes is the case when they dry out too much. This same grower believes in soaking the black hard-shelled bulblets for 36 hours in water just before planting, but no longer. Gladiolus bulbs stored in bins should be turned every few days, especially after February, as this tends to prevent sprouting. They should not be kept in too warm and dry a place. It is best to keep them quite cool, the thermometer running as low as forty degrees Fahrenheit at times, and in an atmosphere of the ordinary cellar, which usually has some moisture. If they become troubled with green fly, sprinkle them with tobacco dust once a week. Gladiolus bulbs stored in racks have been kept in good condition by close covering of double or triple thickness of newspapers, the bulbs being levelled off and the newspapers laid closely over the racks and kept close to the bulbs by loose strips of wood laid over them. Others have kept gladiolus bulbs in very good shape in old paper flour sacks, which contain half a bushel or three pecks of the bulbs (the bulbs being, of course, thoroughly dried out when tied in the bags). The natural moisture of the bulbs seems, by some kind of paper protection as mentioned above, to be conserved, while full and continued exposure to dry air seems to provoke scab as well as hardening of the outer skin of the bulbs. It requires a good sized bulb of America to throw a first class spike and second size bulbs produce, when forced, a considerably smaller spike than the first size bulbs. The America requires a longer growing season than most other gladioli and continues its growth well up to severe frosts. Growers who wish to harvest the largest possible number of first size bulbs allow these to grow as late as possible, and then leave the plants on their sides for 36 or 48 hours, during which time the sap from the stalks seems to go into the bulbs, making them more firm and putting them into better keeping condition for the winter. This latter suggestion probably applies to all gladioli and not alone to America, as it is practiced by a good many of the best growers. Growers differ a good deal as to the depth of the planting and width of rows. One very successful Ohio grower plants his bulblets and small bulbs fully six inches deep and in rows only two feet apart, pressing the dirt down very firmly over the bulbs. Such deep planting, he claims, secures cooler soil for the working roots and insures a better crop in case of dry weather. The same grower in planting hard shelled bulblets sows one pint to about three feet of row, making them very thick in the row, as he believes that the hard shelled bulblets, in germinating so close together, cause the hard shells of most of them to rot. There is convenience also in digging the crop which may be lifted in a mass. They also grow up so closely together in the row that they seem to choke out the weeds, thus saving hand labor. 
31423	----	IN-DOOR GARDENING FOR EVERY WEEK IN THE YEAR: SHOWING THE MOST SUCCESSFUL TREATMENT FOR ALL PLANTS CULTIVATED IN THE GREENHOUSE, CONSERVATORY, STOVE, PIT, ORCHID, AND FORCING-HOUSE. BY WILLIAM KEANE. THIRD EDITION. LONDON: JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE AND COTTAGE GARDENER OFFICE, 171, FLEET STREET. 1865. IN-DOOR GARDENING FOR THE MANY. JANUARY. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Cinerarias.--The plants intended for large specimens must receive their final shift, and be allowed sufficient space to expand their foliage without interfering with or injuring each other. The side-shoots to be tied out. Epacrises.--As some of them will be preparing to burst into flower, a little arrangement may be necessary in tying them out to display their spikes of bloom more advantageously. Fuchsias.--If wanted early, the plants that were first put to rest should be selected, and be fresh potted, cutting back the roots, beginning with a small-sized pot; to be shifted into larger when the roots have extended to the outside of the ball. Place them in a nice moist temperature of 50° by day and 40° by night. Heaths.--To be looked over, and the dead and decaying leaves removed. The most forward in bud--such as the _Vestitas_, _Vernix_, _Vasciflora_, _Aristata_, _Beaumontia_, and many others, to be tied out, and arranged for the season. Pelargoniums.--When large specimens are wanted, tie out the branches at equal distances, and down as near to the rim of the pot as possible. Air to be given at all favourable opportunities. Water to be given but sparingly, and not overhead. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Be careful that the night temperature is not raised too high: if kept at 50° in severe weather no ill consequences will result. The atmosphere to be kept rather moist, especially if the weather is bright; and all plants indicating an appearance of starting into bloom to be removed to the warmest part of the house. Clerodendrons.--To be shaken out of their pots; their roots reduced and repotted into small pots in a light sandy loamy compost. Sow seeds, and also of any hard-wooded stove plants. Water to be given very cautiously to the Orchids, merely sufficient to prevent the plants from shrivelling; and to do this effectually it is necessary to look over them every day. The air of the house to be kept moist by sprinkling the pathways, floors, tables, &c., daily. If any plant is found not to have ripened off its bulbs it should be placed in the warmest part of the house, and the ripening process encouraged. The Brassias, Cyanoches, Coelogynes, Miltonias, and other such plants, when they are beginning to grow, to be repotted. The compost to consist of turfy peat mixed with a portion of charcoal or broken potsherds, and the pots to be at least half full of very open drainage. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--Very gentle excitement to be given by fire or artificial heat, with kindly humidity, and abundance of air. Figs.--Although they will bear a higher degree of temperature without injury than either Cherries or Peaches, it is advisable to begin cautiously, as it frequently happens that the more haste with fire the less speed with fruit, and that favourable opportunities of sun and light must be embraced for making sure progress with them. Peaches.--Where the trees are coming into bloom it is necessary to be cautious in the application of humidity, and when they have expanded their flowers to withhold it altogether for a time. Fire or other artificial heat to be applied moderately--that is, from 45° by night to 55° by day, particularly when dark and gloomy weather prevails. The houses now commencing to force to be kept moderately moist, and in a sweet healthy state, syringing the trees pretty freely once or twice a-day with tepid water. Shut up early on sunny days, and sprinkle the paths, floors, flues, or pipes frequently. Vines.--When they have all broken, the superfluous buds must be rubbed off, and the young shoots stopped as soon as they are long enough to admit the points of the shoots at one bud above the bunch being broken out. In vineries now commencing to force, adopt the practice of producing, where it can be applied, a kindly humidity by means of dung and leaves, or other such fermenting materials. If they are to be broken principally by fire heat, either by flues or hot-water pipes, copious syringings must be resorted to with tepid water once or twice a-day. Fire heat to be applied principally by day, with air at the same time, and very moderately at night. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The plants will now require particular attention and a nice discrimination in the application of water: it may be comprehended by all persons interested in gardening operations, that when the soil on the surface of the pot looks damp it will not require water until it gets thoroughly dry at this season, and then it is to be given before the plant droops or flags for want of it. But when the plant droops and the soil on the surface appears damp, the cause is then to be discovered by turning the ball out of the pot, when it will be seen whether the whole or only a portion of the soil is wet; as it sometimes happens, when fresh potted with light soil, it shrinks from the sides of the pot when dry, and when water is given it runs down and moistens the outside, without penetrating the ball. The evil is corrected by holding it for a short space of time in a tub of water of the same temperature as the house. If the soil of any plant is sodden with water it should be turned out of the pot, and the drainage examined, and no water to be given until it becomes thoroughly dry. Verbenas.--They require to be kept tolerably dry, as they are more susceptible of injury from damp than from cold; a top shelf near the glass in the greenhouse is a very suitable place for them. If mildew appears, to be dusted with flowers of sulphur. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Although all plants now at rest should be kept comparatively dry, they will require to be looked over daily to see that they do not suffer for want of water. The temperature not to exceed 60° by fire heat, and a fall of 10° may be allowed at night in very cold weather. Many of the stove plants--such as Aphelandras, Justicias, Poinsettias, &c.--may now be cut down altogether, and kept dry for a few weeks, which will cause them to make an early growth, and to come into flower a few weeks sooner next winter. Gesneras.--Select a few roots of them and a few of the Gloxinias to start into growth to produce a succession of flowers. FORCING-HOUSES. Asparagus.--If the soil in the bed is dry, give it a liberal supply of water, so that it may descend to the roots, as unproductiveness is sometimes caused by the soil at the roots being very dry when the top is kept moist by gentle waterings. Beans (Dwarf Kidney).--Sow every three weeks, if a constant supply is wanted. Keep the early crops well supplied with water, and give them frequent sprinklings overhead, to prevent the attacks of red spider. Mushrooms.--An abundance of water to be thrown about the floors. If the beds are dry, to be syringed with lukewarm water, applying it like dew at intervals for a few hours. Temperature from 50° to 60°, with air occasionally in favourable weather. Peaches.--Continue previous directions. The trees in bloom to be artificially impregnated, and the foreright shoots to be rubbed off a few at a time before they become too large. Currents of air to be carefully avoided, especially when the trees are in bloom, as they have been sometimes observed to sustain injury from the two end doors being left open for a short time. Air to be given at the top daily in favourable weather. Pines.--As the days lengthen and the light increases the plants that are swelling their fruit should be supplied with a gradual increase of heat (from 65° at night to 75° or 80° in the middle of the day in clear weather), water, and atmospheric moisture; while others that are in bloom and starting into fruit require more air or more moderate temperature, care in watering and less atmospheric humidity. Some of the strongest succession plants that are grown in pots to receive their final shift, that they may make their growth for fruiting in May or June. In old-fashioned pits or houses, where the flues run near the tan-bed, the plants should be closely examined, as they are apt to be injured by fire heat in such a situation. Strawberries.--A few dozens more pots may be placed in a frame where there is a gentle heat and an atmosphere more congenial to their healthy growth than in a house. Vines.--When they have made shoots two or three inches long, the night temperature to range from 60° to 65°, with an increase of from 5° to 10° during the day. PITS AND FRAMES. Keep the plants in these structures as hardy as possible by fully exposing them in mild weather, but do not give any more water than is absolutely necessary. Remove all decayed and decaying leaves, and keep the atmosphere in as healthy a state as possible. Make small hotbeds for sowing Cucumbers and Melons, Radishes and _Early Horn_ Carrots, Cauliflower and _Walcheren_ Broccoli, Lettuce, and various other things, which will be found useful where the late severe weather, or other cause, may have diminished the autumn sowings. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Ventilation is requisite in mild weather, as stagnant air is always unfavourable, especially to the plants blooming in the conservatory. Water sparingly, and damp the house as moderately as possible, as water settling on the flowers will soon destroy them. When the plants, bulbs, or shrubs in the forcing-pit have developed their blossoms, let them be removed to the conservatory, where they can be preserved much longer in perfection. The plants to be looked over every morning, and every dead or decaying leaf and flower to be removed. Heaths.--Fire heat should only be given when mats or other such coverings are not sufficient to exclude frost, as nothing so much injures the constitution of the Cape Heaths as a close, damp atmosphere. Air should be allowed to circulate freely amongst them at all opportunities. Pelargoniums.--The plants intended for specimens should be finally shifted. Air to be admitted at all favourable opportunities, and a slight increase of temperature given. To be kept near the glass, and free from green fly. If they have made no winter growth they will now be the better prepared to progress in a robust, healthy state. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Amaryllis.--Attend to the shifting of them as soon as they show signs of growth. Let them be placed in the stove, and give a little water, increasing it gradually as the leaves unfold. Orchids.--If other departments of gardening are likely to occupy more time than can be very well spared as spring operations accumulate very fast, it is advisable to proceed with the potting of Orchids from this time forward, beginning with those that are showing signs of growth. Peat cut into from one to two-inch cubes, fresh sphagnum to be soaked in boiling water, to destroy insects, and charcoal lumps, with an abundance of crocks, are the materials to be used. Any plants that had become very dry should be immersed in tepid water for an hour the day previous to shifting. The climate of the countries and the localities from whence the species come are the best guides to their successful cultivation; as the treatment required for _Oncidium Carthaginense_ would kill _O. bifolium_, and _Cattleya Forbesii_ will thrive where _C. Skinneri_ will die, and in like manner with many others. FORCING-HOUSES. Capsicum.--Sow seeds of the large sort in pans or pots, to be placed in heat. When the seedlings are an inch or two high pot them singly into small pots, and replace them in heat; to be afterwards shifted when necessary until the end of May, when they may be planted out on a south border. Cherries.--Plenty of air, atmospheric moisture, and a very moderate temperature, are the requisites for them. If the buds are beginning to swell, 45° will be enough to maintain by fire heat, lowering the temperature down to 40° at night, with a moist atmosphere. Cucumbers.--The plants in bearing to get a top dressing of fresh, rich soil. Keep a sharp look out for the destruction of insects. When the plants in the seed-bed have made one rough leaf pinch off the leading shoot above it, so as to cause the plants to throw out two shoots from the axil of the leaves. Cuttings put in and struck in the seed-bed will come into bearing quicker than seedling plants. Peaches.--If the weather is very dull and unfavourable for giving air where the trees are in bloom, it is advisable to shake the trellis towards noon for dispersing the pollen. Pines.--Proceed with the routine as advised in last Calendar. Strawberries.--Keep them close to the glass, and remember that they are impatient of heat: let 45° be about the maximum, with a very free circulation of air. If they are plunged in a pit or dung-bed, let the bottom heat be about 70° maximum, with an atmospheric warmth of 55° to 60°. In such a situation they will want scarcely any water until they begin to throw up their blossom-spikes. Tomatoes.--Sow seed of the large. To be treated as advised for Capsicums. Vines.--To be looked over carefully, and as soon as they are sufficiently forward to distinguish the embryo fruit all useless shoots to be removed--that is, all that do not show fruit, and are not required for wood next season. It may also be necessary to take off some of the shoots that show fruit where they are very thick. If two shoots grow from one joint one of them should be removed. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The compost intended for the plants in these houses should be prepared and sweetened by several turnings; and a sufficient supply for immediate use should be stored in an open shed. Calceolarias (Herbaceous).--To be potted into larger pots as they require them; compost equal parts of turfy loam, peat, and leaf mould, with a sprinkling of silver sand. To be kept in a moderately-moist atmospheric temperature of from 45° at night to 55° in the day. To be slightly syringed with tepid water on sunny days, and to be kept free from insects. Fuchsias.--After the old plants are shaken out of their pots, and their roots reduced and fresh potted in a compost of turfy loam and peat, with a little leaf mould and some sand added, to be introduced to a temperature of 60°. When some of the young shoots are an inch long they may be taken off, and inserted in pans of sand kept damp, where they will soon take root, and will require to be pushed on in heat to make fine large specimens for the conservatory or flower garden. New Holland Plants.--Water them with care and moderation. Air to be given freely night and day in mild weather. Fire heat to be applied only, and then merely sufficiently, to exclude frost. The strong shoots of the vigorous young stock to be stopped in due time as the best foundation for future good specimens. Sow seeds of Thunbergias, _Phlox Drummondi_, Mignonette, _Ten-week_ and other Stocks, in pots, to be placed upon a slight hotbed. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Achimenes.--Place the tubers thickly in pans, to be potted singly as they appear, in equal portions of leaf mould and sandy loam; to be started into growth in a moderate bottom heat. Gloxinias.--Select a few varieties. To be shaken out, and fresh potted in equal parts of turfy loam and heath soil and a little sand. To be excited in bottom heat. Gesnera zebrina.--Those which were first in flower should be dried off for early work next season. This is to be done by withholding water gradually, and by keeping their foliage still exposed to the light. Sow seeds of Egg Plants, Cockscombs, Amaranths, and other such tender annuals in heat, to grow them in good time into fine specimens for the adornment of the conservatory in summer. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--The plants preparing for ridging out early in February will require attention in airing, and watering with tepid water occasionally when dry, and to be kept close to the glass to produce sturdy growth. The plants on dung-beds require great attention at this season. To be kept within eight or nine inches of the glass; to be stopped regularly; and to maintain a heat of not less than 70° by day; to be able to give air to dry the plants. The fermenting materials to be always prepared ready to receive the linings when the heat declines. For those who are fortunate enough to be provided with pits heated by hot-water pipes, such constant labour and attention will not be necessary. Melons.--To be treated as advised for Cucumbers. Peaches.--When the blossoms are beginning to expand, discontinue syringing, but sprinkle the pathways, to produce a moist, but not too damp, and consequently a healthy, state of the atmosphere. Fresh air is indispensable and should be admitted at every favourable opportunity; and if the cold external air could be made to pass over the flues, or hot-water pipes, so as to get warmed before coming in contact with the blossoms, a gentle circulation would be constantly kept up until the fruit is fairly set. Pines.--Great care is necessary when syringing, more especially those that are about throwing up their flower-stems, that no more water may lodge in the hearts of the plants than will evaporate during the day. But if, from any cause, a portion remain until evening, it should be drawn away by means of a syringe having a long and narrow tube at the end of it, or by a piece of sponge tied to the point of a small stick. Strawberries.--When these are throwing up their blossom-spikes a little liquid manure may be given, but it should be very weak, and perfectly clear. A succession of plants to be introduced where there is a gentle heat. The decayed leaves to be trimmed off, the surface of the soil to be stirred, and the pots to be placed on shelves near the glass. Vines.--Continue the treatment as advised last week. Keep up a succession of Kidney Beans, Asparagus, Sea-kale, and Rhubarb. PITS AND FRAMES. Cuttings of Anagallis, Heliotropes, Geraniums, Lobelias, Salvias, and Verbenas may now be struck in a gentle bottom heat, and pushed forward to make good sized plants for bedding out when all danger from frost is over. FEBRUARY. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Proceed with the potting of the young plants in the greenhouse, and the small specimens of all kinds, using the soil tolerably rough, with a liberal sprinkling of sand, and good drainage. To be kept rather close until they make fresh roots. Azaleas (Indian).--Introduce a few into heat; to be fresh potted before starting them, giving a rather liberal shift into good peat and sand, with thorough drainage. A moist-growing temperature between 60° and 70° to be maintained, with plenty of air in favourable weather. Sow seed, as likewise Rhododendron, in a gentle bottom heat. Kalosanthes.--To be started into growth, potting them in a compost of half turfy loam, one-fourth turfy peat, and one-fourth decomposed leaf mould, with plenty of coarse gritty sand, and an admixture of charcoal and pebbles or potsherds broken small. A liberal shift to be given, and to be kept in a temperature of from 45° to 50°. New Holland Plants.--Select young plants of the Boronias and other such families, and give them a liberal shift; they delight in good fibrous heath soil, with a good portion of sharp sand, and plenty of drainage. It is advisable to pick off the flowers, and to pinch off the tops of the young shoots during their growth, to form handsome specimens. Orange Trees.--Be vigilant that scale and all insects are removed from them and from Neriums, and other such plants before they begin to grow, as young wood and foliage are more difficult to clean without injury. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Stove plants in general will now require an increase in the amount of atmospheric moisture, and a slight advance in heat; such an advance to be made, more especially on bright afternoons, when solar heat can be enclosed in good time, and with it a moist and congenial atmosphere. Crinums.--Pot them if they require it, but without disturbing the ball of earth about their roots; to be favoured with an increase of heat to start them afresh, and during their active growth to be liberally supplied with water. Gloriosa superba.--Shake out the roots, and repot in good fibrous loam, with a sprinkling of sand, and place them in bottom heat. No water to be applied to the tubers until they have commenced their growth. FORCING-PIT. Continue to introduce for succession bulbs, Lilacs, Roses, Sweet Brier, and the many other plants previously recommended as suitable and useful for that purpose. A temperature of from 65° to 70° to be maintained, with plenty of moisture in clear weather. FORCING-HOUSES. Figs.--Trees in pots to have their shoots stopped when they have made three or four joints, and to be supplied occasionally with liquid manure. Melons.--The fruiting-beds to be prepared and in readiness for the reception of the young plants as soon as they have nearly filled their pots with roots. Peaches.--If a house were started, as advised at the beginning of the year, a second should now be set to work. Syringe the trees several times a-day in clear weather, and once or twice in all weathers until the flowers begin to expand. Attention to be given to the early house, when the fruit is set, to thin it partially, but to leave one-third more on the trees than will be required to ripen off. If Peaches are intended to be grown in pots for next season, the maiden plants should now be procured, and potted in nine or ten inch pots. The _Royal George_ Peach and _Violette Hâtive_ Nectarine are the most eligible for that purpose. Pines.--If any indications of the presence of worms appear on the surface of the pots a watering with clear lime water will remove them. The same steady temperature to be kept up in the fruiting-house or pit as lately advised. Although it is sometimes recommended we would not advise to withhold water at the roots for the purpose of starting them into fruit; for if, by proper management, they are good, healthy plants, they will have formed their fructiferous parts before this time, and therefore should not be allowed to get dry, but be watered when they require it with tepid water. Vines.--The successional houses to be treated nearly in all respects the same as the early houses; the temperature may now be increased in accordance with the increase of light rather more rapidly at an early stage of their growth than that of the house in which forcing was commenced in December. When Vines for the early crops are grown in pots, put the eyes in 60-sized pots, and plunge them in a dung-frame or pit, with a bottom heat between 70° and 80°. The _Hamburghs_, _Black Prince_, _Muscadine_, and _Sweetwater_ are the kinds to be preferred for that purpose. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. As plants naturally, after their season of rest during the winter, now begin to grow, it is advisable to shift the young stock, and all others that require it, into fresh soil, by which they will be the better enabled to progress to a healthy-blooming state without check or hindrance. Although from this time to the middle of March is to be considered the most favourable season for a general shift, nevertheless it may be necessary to shift some plants more than once or twice during their season of growth. Climbers.--To be attended to, removing weak and dead wood, and cutting back to three or four eyes where an increase of young shoots is desirable. To be frequently syringed, to keep down red spider, as they are more liable than other plants to be infested by them. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. The advice given for the shifting of the general stock of greenhouse plants will also be applicable to the fresh potting of the stove plants. Begonias.--Being of free growth they delight in fresh soil, consisting of equal parts of sandy loam and leaf mould. As a general rule they are repotted in February and August; but exceptions are sometimes made, and a shift is given whenever the roots become cramped or matted in the pot. The knife to be used cautiously, unless with the tall-growing sorts. Gloxinias.--To be now started, if not done as advised a fortnight ago. When planted press the roots gently on the surface of the soil, and give them no water for some time; as the moisture in the soil will be sufficient at first until they begin to grow, when a little may be given, and the supply to be gradually increased as they advance in growth. When potted to be removed to a frame or pit where the temperature is about 60°. Luculia gratissima.--To be potted in a compost consisting of half turfy loam, one-fourth turfy peat, and one-fourth leaf mould, with good drainage. Musa Cavendishii.--To be repotted in a compost of turfy loam, vegetable soil, or well-rotted manure, and a small portion of sand, with plenty of drainage. To be plunged in a brisk heat in a bark-bed, and to keep the roots moist. Many of the Orchids may now be potted, and then placed in the warmest part of the house. The plants that are not shifted to be supplied with a little fresh material, taking care that the embryo buds are not covered. Look over the fastenings of all that are on blocks, or in baskets, and renew the wires where necessary. The temperature to be about 65° by day, allowing it to range to 70° or 75° by sun-heat. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--Keep up the temperature from 50° to 55° while the trees are in bloom, with as little variation as possible. The trees not in flower to be frequently syringed. Cucumbers.--The greatest attention should be paid to the state of the bed for the first fortnight after the plants are turned out; the heat-stick (a stick stuck into the bed) should be examined, being, as it is, a much better criterion to judge by than a thermometer, which is generally used to indicate the heat of the atmosphere in the frame; cover up according to the heat of the bed. If it will allow it, a small portion of air should be left on every night, which may be given in the evening after the frame has been closed for two or three hours. Keep up the heat by stirring, renewing, or topping-up the linings; and attend to the stopping of the plants, and the earthing-up of the hills, as the roots make their appearance on the surface. Melons.--Pot off the plants when the seed-leaves are fully expanded. Peaches.--When the trees have set their fruit, give the roots, if growing inside the house, a good watering with liquid manure, mixed with soft hot water, so as to be of the temperature of the house, or a little above it. The syringe to be used several times a-day in clear, mild weather as soon as the fruit is set. Pines.--Pot the succession plants. If the pots are full of strong, healthy roots, pick out the crocks carefully without injuring them, leaving the ball entire, and giving them a good shift. But if unfortunately many of the roots are dead, shake the ball entirely away, and cut out all that are dead, preserving such as are alive and healthy, and potting them in fresh soil. Strawberries.--Keep up a succession by placing a few dozen pots in a gentle heat once every fortnight or three weeks. Vines.--All laterals to be stopped in due time, and all useless buds and branches to be removed; the leading shoots to be tied in regularly, and the bunches to be thinned. No more bunches to be left on each Vine than it is likely to bring to perfect maturity. About one dozen bunches are a good average crop for each rod. The temperature to range from 55° to 60° at night, with an increase of 5° to 10° during the day, and even higher during sunshine. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The plants occupying the beds in the conservatory to be arranged, cleaned, and pruned. If the health or habit of a plant, or other considerations, should render it desirable to prolong the season of blooming, the pruning may be postponed for a week or two longer. Continue to pot Cinerarias, Calceolarias, Pelargoniums, and all other such plants when they fill their pots with roots. To be then kept close for some days until fresh root-action begins. Green fly to be kept down. Verbenas.--Put them in heat, to get cuttings; as also Heliotropes, and all other such plants, of which there is a scarcity, for bedding-out purposes. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Increase the moisture and temperature gradually as the days lengthen. Start old and young plants of Clerodendrons, Dipladenias, and Stephanotis, in a sweet bottom heat. Rondeletias to be cut in, and started in the same manner. Shift all Orchids that are starting into growth. As a high temperature causes a premature and unhealthy growth it is advisable to keep up a healthy atmosphere of from 55° to 65°, with an increase of a few degrees in sunshiny weather, when a little air, if only for a very short time, should be admitted; but be careful to avoid draughts at this early period of the year. All growing plants to be watered at the roots only, being careful not to allow any water to lodge in the axils of the leaves to cause decay. To preserve the roots of some Orchids in a healthy state it is necessary to grow them on blocks of wood; the blocks to be made proportionate to the specimens they are intended to bear; and the heel of the plant to be placed close to the end of the log, to give as much space as possible for the plant to grow upon. The following thrive well on blocks without moss:--_Barkeria spectabilis_, _Leptotes bicolor_, _Phalænopsis amabilis_, and _Sophronitis cernua_, the Brassavolas, the Cattleyas, nearly all the dwarf Epidendrums, all the Lælias, and nearly all the dwarf Maxillarias and Oncidiums, and all the Schombergias. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--Attend to the thinning and stopping, and impregnate the fruit blossom when open. Figs.--Care to be taken that cold currents and sudden changes of air are excluded from the trees. The roots to be well supplied with water, and the trees to be occasionally syringed overhead. Peaches.--When set, thin the fruit and shoots as required; to be done gradually, a little at one time, to prevent any sudden and injurious change in the system of the tree. A liberal supply of moisture to be kept up, with a temperature ranging from 55° to 65° and 70° by sunheat. A drier atmosphere is advised for trees in bloom; the bloom to be thinned if the trees are weak; and if shy setters, to be artificially impregnated, using a camel-hair pencil for that purpose. Pines.--Be watchful about the bottom heat, and lose no time in raising the pots nearer to the surface if an approach to a burning temperature is apprehended. To be thoroughly watered when they require it, and to be syringed overhead in the morning and evening of every clear day unless the plants are in bloom, or ripening their fruit. Any crowns, suckers, or small plants not well established will do well in a pit or frame on a bed of leaves, or well sweetened dung, where they will make a rapid and vigorous growth during the summer. Vines.--Attend to last week's instructions as to stopping all laterals, &c., and thinning the bunches in good time; and tie up all the principal shoulders with soft strands of matting. Never allow the head or hand to touch the berries. Give them plenty of air-moisture during their swelling season; to be discontinued when they begin to colour. Shy-setting sorts--such as the _Black Damascus_, _Cannon Hall Muscat_, &c.--will set better by thinning the blossom-buds before expansion, by which a more regular and compact bunch will be produced. Late Vines should be pruned and dressed; and if not frosty the lights to be removed, which will retard their breaking, and benefit the trees. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. During continued frosty weather fires must be kept up in these houses, and then particular attention must be given to the New Holland plants, Heaths, and such like, which are impatient of heat, that they do not suffer from want of water. Be sure that the ball is thoroughly moistened at least once a-week. PITS AND FRAMES. Amongst climbers, Calampelises, Coboeas, Lophospermums, Maurandyas, Rodochitons, and Tropæolums, deserve attention at this time, increasing them by cuttings or by seeds. Some annuals are also worthy of attention, such as Brachycomas, Phloxes, Portulaccas, Schizanthuses, with others which may all be forwarded in heat. Whoever has not yet attended to the propagation of plants for bedding out, should now begin, without further delay, to put in cuttings of Fuchsias, Verbenas, Heliotropes, Petunias, Salvias, Scarlet Geraniums, &c., to have good plants in May and June. All straggling and weak shoots to be topped back to form robust, bushy plants. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Some of the stove plants that have done blooming should be cut back, such as the _Eranthemum pulchellum_, _Euphorbia jacquiniæflora_, _Geissomeria longiflora_, _Gesnera lateritia_, Justicias, _Linum trigynum_, _Poinsettia pulcherrima_, and others. A bottom heat will be necessary when they are repotted, which may be done in about three weeks or a month. Such of the most forward plants, as they require shifting, to be attended to. The condition or fitness for this must, in a great measure, be determined by the progress the shoots and roots have made. FORCING-PIT. Continue to introduce plants of Azaleas, Hyacinths, Heliotropes, Hydrangeas, Kalmias, Sedums, Lilacs, Narcissus, Pelargoniums, Pinks, Rhododendrons, and Roses in varieties. A batch of last year's young Fuchsias, Erythrinas, and _Salvia patens_, to be shaken out, repotted, and placed in bottom heat. Sow Balsams, Cockscombs, Globe Amaranths, &c. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--Attend as previously advised to thinning and stopping, set the fruit blossom when open, keep the inside of the frames watered with warm water, and apply some occasionally to the roots. Water overhead on fine days, shutting up with 75° or 80° of heat. Cherries.--They will be benefited by frequent syringings at all times except when in bloom. Air to be given on all favourable occasions, shutting up with as much solar heat as possible. Keep down the green fly and look well after caterpillars. Figs.--Maintain a kindly humidity, but do not syringe overhead, except on very fine days, as too much moisture is apt to cause the fruit to drop off or to turn yellow. Peaches.--Tie in the forwardest shoots in the early-house as they advance; gradually disbud and thin out all the shoots that are not wanted; thin the fruit but not too much at once, and, with water of the temperature of the house, syringe the trees that have set their fruit. Remove large shoots cautiously, and reserve, in tying and disbudding, merely sufficient wood for next spring. Pines.--The atmospheric heat to be gradually increased in the fruiting-house, and the plants to be frequently syringed, taking care that no water is allowed to lodge in the hearts of the plants. The plants swelling their fruit to be watered occasionally with clean soot water, air to be admitted on every favourable opportunity, but cold draughts to be avoided. A good heat to be kept up in succession-pits worked with linings. Strawberries.--To be placed near the glass with plenty of air, and in favourable weather to be liberally supplied with warm manure water, and the surface of the pots to be frequently stirred. Vines.--As soon as the first swelling is completed, and the stoning process commences, allow a little more liberty to the laterals to induce a corresponding increase of root action. All shoots to be properly trained up; but none to be allowed to touch the glass. All small bunches to be removed when in flower. When the fruit is set, the heat by day may be allowed to rise from 70° to 80°. See to the border coverings, if out-doors, as also border waterings, if in-doors. Be careful when admitting air to the early Vines, to avoid cold currents and changes, for in the space of an hour we have sometimes strong sunshine, sleet or snow, and cutting winds. Vines in pots to be supplied with plenty of manure water in all stages of growth, but especially when swelling off their fruit. MARCH. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Frequent attention is now necessary in the giving and taking away of air as the alternations of bright sunshine and clouds occur, and also to temper cold winds by the admission of air on the south side. If severe weather has been now experienced, and extra fire heat used in consequence, many plants that may appear all right may, nevertheless, be very dry, and if they are not examined, and when very dry, well soaked with water, they will soon show unmistakeable signs of approaching death. Azaleas (Indian).--Young plants that have commenced their growth to be repotted. Shift Achimenes, Begonias, Gesneras, &c., and keep them in a warm, moist situation. Bulbs.--Pot Cape and other bulbs in a compost of loam, leaf mould, with a good sprinkling of sand, as soon as they begin to make growth in foliage. Heaths.--Continue to shift as they may require, using sandy heath-soil full of fibres, with an abundance of drainage. Be sure that the ball is thoroughly moist before shifting; for if perfectly dry when that operation is performed the waterings afterwards given will pass freely through the fresh soil without penetrating the old ball. Give them all the air possible, avoiding north or north-east winds. Potting must be in progress, and include a good proportion of the occupants of these houses. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Push Allamandas, Clerodendrons, Stephanotises, &c., forward as briskly as possible; but be in no hurry to train them, as freedom in growth is advantageous to a certain extent. Use all means to check the increase of insects. Orchids.--The general collection to be favoured with a good steaming every clear morning for about half an hour: this to be done by sprinkling the flues or pipes when warm. Plants in a growing state to be slightly shaded, to prevent flagging from too copious a perspiration during a sudden mid-day bright sunshine. Orchids are generally increased by passing a sharp knife between the pseudo-bulbs (taking care to leave at least two or three undisturbed next the growing shoots) so as to sever one or more of the dormant bulbs from the parent plant, which should remain until it shows signs of growth, when it may be taken off and potted. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--The syringe to be used freely except when in bloom, plenty of air to be given, and the green fly kept down; shutting up with a little extra solar heat in the afternoons of bright days. Figs.--Abundance of syringing and good waterings with liquid manure may now be given them. Sudden changes in their treatment will cause the fruit to drop, all the shoots when six or eight inches long to be stopped to encourage the formation of a second crop. Melons.--Use strongish maiden loam by itself to grow them. See to the linings, attend well to setting, and maintain an airy and dry atmosphere when in blossom. Keep the shoots at all times thin. Peaches.--Frequent attention to be given in arranging the young shoots, disbudding and thinning. A knowledge of the state of the border is necessary, whether retentive or porous, that no serious errors may be made by withholding a sufficient supply of water, or by giving too much. The temperature of the early house to be from 55° to 60° by night, ranging from 75° to 80° by sun heat, and allowing 65° by artificial heat, on dull days. Pines.--A day temperature of 75° to 80° to be maintained during the progress of the fruit to maturity, accompanied by atmospheric moisture. Succession plants to be supplied with a steady moist heat, and to be carefully sustained after potting, to induce a healthy action of the roots. Shading is sometimes necessary during bright sunshine. Vines.--As the lower parts of the stems are generally close to the heating apparatus, it is advisable to bind them up with moss or haybands, neatly clipped, as far as the parching heat extends. The moss or haybands being damped morning and evening with the syringe, will keep the bark and stems in a healthy state, and will frequently induce a mass of roots to be produced there. That by watering occasionally with liquid manure will contribute to sustain the vigour of the trees. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. As the boisterous gales and violent showers that frequently occur at this season, succeeded by intervals of mild weather and brilliant sunshine, are frequently difficult to deal with, constant attention is necessary that a free admission of air, when in a genial state, may be given, and the cold, cutting east or north-east winds excluded. Frequent watering will also be necessary, and fires to be dispensed with, or only used occasionally, merely to ward off the rigour of sharp nights. The plants in good health, and well rooted, to receive a liberal shift. All plants when shifted to be accommodated with a little extra heat and moisture in the atmosphere until they begin to make fresh roots, when they will require to be more freely exposed, to produce a sturdy, vigorous growth. Camellias.--The plants that have finished flowering to be removed to a higher temperature, where a moist atmosphere is kept up by frequent syringings. Cinerarias.--Tie out the principal shoots of the most forward, to form handsome plants. Manure water of the temperature of the house to be given occasionally. The more backward to be shifted into larger pots as they may require them, and all to receive plenty of air, light, and room. Fuchsias.--They require to be accommodated with a warm, moist temperature, both at top and bottom, and the free use of the syringe, to make them large pyramidal specimens. Pelargoniums.--Attention to be paid to their training, to watering, and to the admission of air. Shift on young plants, and stop all that may be wanted for late blooming. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Finish the shifting of all specimen plants in the stove as soon as possible. A brisk, growing, moist temperature to be kept up during the day, and to shut up early. They delight in a tan-bed where the bottom heat ranges from 70° to 80°. Orchids will now require a regular looking over. Those on blocks of wood with moss should have the moss renewed, and fresh turf to be supplied to those in pots in a growing state. FORCING-HOUSES. The general routine in these structures will comprise disbudding, tying-in advancing shoots, thinning the fruit, watering, syringing morning and evening, airing, and shutting up early with plenty of solar heat; and to be each and all attended to in good time to obtain satisfactory results. Cherries.--Caution in the application of water is now necessary, as either too much or too little will cause the fruit to drop. Cucumbers.--The heat of the beds, which will be found to decline rapidly during cold winds, should be kept up by fresh linings; and air to be given daily, to allow the superfluous moisture to escape, taking care to prevent the wind from entering the frames by placing a mat or canvass before the openings. Figs.--A free supply of water, with liquid manure occasionally, to be given to the most forward crop. Where there is the convenience, the trees in pots are generally placed in a pit of rotten leaves into which they root, and where they are allowed to remain until they have borne their crops and ripened their wood, when the roots are cut back to the pot. Trees planted out succeed best when confined in brick pits, where short-jointed fruitful wood is produced without root pruning, which is necessary when the roots are allowed to ramble without control. Melons.--This is a good time to ridge-out plants, as the sun will have a powerful and beneficial influence at the time when it will be most wanted to ripen off the fruit. Pot off young plants, and sow seed for a succession. Pines.--Continue to keep up a regular and moist heat; to be supplied with soot or other manure water occasionally during the whole time they are swelling the fruit until they attain their full size; watering and syringing overhead should be withheld when they begin to change colour, to give flavour to the fruit. The succession-plants recently potted to be very moderately supplied with manure water, and in a very diluted state until their roots reach the sides of the pots. Strawberries.--Introduce succession-plants under glass, according to the demand. Keep the atmosphere dry when the plants are in bloom and near the glass; admitting at all opportunities a good supply of fresh air without currents. Vines.--Persevere in thinning the bunches, as it is a mistake to leave more on the Vine than it is likely to finish off to perfection. The borders to be examined that a gentle warmth may be maintained at the roots. When the Vines are planted inside, apply good soakings of manure water occasionally. Thin the shoots of the late Vines as soon as the bunches are perceptible. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Proceed as diligently as possible with the repotting of such of the hardwooded greenhouse plants as require it, so as to start them in good time to acquire a vigorous growth. Cacti.--The chief point in managing these plants is to allow them an alternate period of rest and growth. To be grown in a mixture of lime rubbish and loam, with a little cowdung, and in well-drained pots. In summer to be fully exposed to the sun, and well watered; and from October to March to be kept perfectly dry. Calceolarias (Herbaceous).--To be shifted into larger pots in a compost of equal quantities of decayed turf, leaf mould, good sandy peat, old cowdung, and silver sand, with plenty of drainage and moss on the crocks. To be kept close for a week, after which air may be freely given, avoiding currents of cold air. Heaths.--Every vigorous shoot that is taking the lead to be stopped, to produce a more uniform and compact plant. Lilium lancifolium.--To be potted either in a good peat, with a little silver sand, or in a light sandy loam, using also some silver sand. The bulb to be placed two or three inches deep from the top of the pot to allow room for the stem-fibres to penetrate the soil. Pelargoniums.--The plants potted last month to be stopped back. The house to be kept rather close for a week or ten days, to assist them to push out their eyes. Those intended to bloom in May, that have not been stopped since cutting down, will be putting up their trusses, on sunny days syringe them lightly, and shut the house up warm, with the sun upon it, about three or four o'clock in the afternoon. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Keep a lively growing temperature here during the day, with a plentiful supply of moisture. Syringe, and shut up early, with 80° or more, allowing a fall of 20° during the night. Shake out and repot in succession the stove plants that have been previously recommended to be headed back, and encourage a free growth by plunging them, if possible, in bottom heat. Smaller pots to be used until they have filled them with roots, they may then receive one bold shift that might probably be sufficient for the season. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--These may now want thinning if too thickly set; but the operation must be influenced by the energies of the tree and the action of the roots. Endeavour to keep the atmosphere like fine mild weather in May. During the period of the stoning of the fruit, give the trees no water at the roots, as this is generally one of the chief causes of so much of it falling off at that time. Figs.--When the fruit is swelling off, the trees to be liberally supplied with water. The young shoots to be stopped to four or five eyes, with the exception of those that are required to fill up vacancies. Melons.--Continue the thinning, stopping, training, &c., as required. Set the early crops when in blossom, keeping a dry and lively atmosphere during that period. Air to be given freely in favourable weather, but cautiously, with some contrivance to break cold winds. Do not allow a plant to swell a fruit until sufficiently strong to sustain it. Peaches.--Be moderate in the application of fire heat to those that are stoning (they make little or no progress in swelling during the period)--say 65° by day and 60° by night; but when they commence their second swell increase the heat moderately. Stop all luxuriant shoots, and thin out in the second house all clusters of fruit when about the size of Peas. Pines.--The fruiting plants will be benefited by a watering with manure water as soon as the bloom is set. Succession plants, if recently shifted, to be shaded in the middle of the day if the sun is powerful; to be kept rather close and dry, except slight sprinklings over the tops, until they have taken root, when they may be watered freely, and will generally require no more to be given for a week or ten days. Vines.--The atmosphere in the early house, where the bunches have been thinned, to be kept pure by a gradual increase of air and moisture. The night temperature to be kept up to 65°, with an increase of 10° by day, and even more in bright sunshine. The second house may now be in bloom, and will require attention in tying the shoots and keeping up the necessary amount of heat, with less moisture. Where the fruit is set, give the Vines a good syringing, to wash off the flowers; after which the leaves and fruit should not be again wetted, but to be supplied with atmospheric moisture by watering the floor of the house, and sprinkling the flues or pipes, or from evaporating-troughs or pans. Give plenty of tepid manure water to the Vines fruiting in pots. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. As the great proportion of greenhouse plants are now commencing, or are in active growth, constant attention will be required for the judicious regulation of temperature, and for the admission of fresh air during fickle and ungenial weather, and in the supply of water to the roots, and atmospheric moisture. When settled fine spring weather has arrived, every plant which inhabits a pot should be brought at once under review, and put in proper condition for the growing season. No fear need then be apprehended from potting. Keep up a moist atmosphere by sprinkling, &c., and admit plenty of air, bearing in mind former directions as to draughts, &c. If the plants in the borders, or any of the climbers, are dry, give them a good soaking of weak, tepid manure water. Trellis climbers to be frequently attended to--stopping, training, and arranging their shoots. Balsams.--Encourage the growth of them and other such tender annuals by potting them when the roots begin to cluster round the side of the pot. Calceolarias (Herbaceous).--Shift on the young stock, keeping the plants well down in the pots, so as to bring the earth in the pots up to the lowermost leaves, to induce the plants to throw out fresh rootlets from the stem. Keep a sharp look out for green fly. Climbers.--Prune off superfluous shoots; stop or pinch out the tops of gross leaders, and keep them neatly tied and trained. Cockscombs.--To remain in small pots until they begin to show flower. Dahlias.--Pot off cuttings as soon as struck. Fuchsias.--Continue to shift young plants into larger-sized pots, according to their height and strength; to be kept growing by placing them in a brisk, moist heat. Cuttings to be potted off as soon as they are sufficiently rooted; to be placed in a temperature similar to that in which they were struck. Sow in heat seeds of stove and greenhouse plants. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Attend to regular shifting, watering, and a free and healthy circulation of air, without draught, early in the morning to stove plants. Continue to cut down, disroot, and repot, as advised last week, those which have been flowering through the winter. To be then favoured with a bottom heat of from 75° to 80°, and slightly shaded during bright sunshine. Some of the young plants in the stove which are growing on for specimens will probably require a second shift, see to them in time; and if they are in good health treat them liberally by giving a large shift, especially to plants of free growth. Give plenty of air at all favourable opportunities, and saturate the atmosphere with moisture. The surface of the tan to be stirred once or twice a-week, and sprinkle it occasionally with manure water, to produce a moist, congenial atmosphere about the plants. Shut up with plenty of sun heat. Look sharply after mealy-bug and thrips. Achimenes.--The plants established in small pots may be removed into the flowering-pans, putting six plants into a pan. Orchids.--Increase the temperature, and ply the syringe among them, as they will now grow rapidly. Be careful not to throw too much water over those sending out succulent flower-stalks, for they may damp off. Ferret out and destroy cockroaches, woodlice, and snails. _Calantha veratifolia_, _Neottia picta_, _N. elata_, Phaius of sorts, some varieties of Stanhopea, _Zygopetaltum Mackayii_, and other such Orchids that are now making their growth, would be benefited by an application of clear, diluted manure water occasionally; a kindly humidity to be kept up, and the shading to be in readiness for use during bright mid-day sun. PITS AND FRAMES. Sow tender and half-hardy annuals; pot off those already up; give air daily, and never allow the plants to flag for want of water. Pot off cuttings of Dahlias, and continue the propagation of Fuchsias, Heliotropes, Petunias, Verbenas, and bedding-plants generally. FORCING-HOUSES. Beans (French).--Give them, when in a bearing state, a liberal supply of manure water, and see to keeping up a succession of them. Cherries.--When you are sure that the fruit is finally stoned, the temperature may be raised a few degrees; air and water overhead to be liberally supplied. Cucumbers.--As soon as the frames are uncovered in the morning give a little air for an hour, to let the stagnant and foul air pass off, when they may be closed again till the day is further advanced. As soon as the principal shoots have reached the side of the frame, never allow any of the laterals to grow more than two joints before being stopped. Stop frequently, and thin liberally; where two fruit show at a joint pinch one away. Figs.--If red spider should be observed, wash the flues or the walls exposed to the sun with lime and sulphur. Melons.--Those lately planted out to be encouraged with a close, moist heat, to get them into free growth as quickly as possible. The plants that are fairly established to be kept cooler, admitting air at every favourable opportunity, to produce short-jointed fruitful wood. The shoots to be kept thin and regular, pinching out any that are not wanted. The night temperature not to exceed 65°, and air to be admitted as soon as the thermometer rises to 75°; but to be given very cautiously during cold winds. Prepare for raising plenty of young plants for succession crops, and endeavour to have them strong and vigorous by keeping them near the glass; to be provided, when they require it, with plenty of pot-room. Keep up the heat in the beds by renewing the linings; the coverings at night to be regulated in accordance with the heat of the beds, taking care that the mats do not hang over either the front or back of the frames. Mushrooms.--Collect materials for fresh beds, and give those that have been some time in bearing good soakings of manure water; sprinkle the floor and heating apparatus occasionally. The conditions of success are to have the materials for making the beds well prepared and sweet--that is, free from rank steam, and the spawn to be put in whilst the heat keeps regular and moderate, and the beds are coated over to keep it so until the spawn is well established. Peaches.--Remove all superfluous shoots, and tie in neatly those that are left; thin the fruit that is swelling off before stoning, leaving more than may be ultimately required, as, in stoning, it is liable to drop off. Syringe the trees daily in fine weather. Where it is intended to force Peaches, Cherries, &c., in pots next season, and some suitable trees have to be provided, it should be no longer postponed. It is a good plan to pot some maiden plants every year, to succeed any that may become useless. Pines.--Give plants swelling their fruit plenty of manure water, and a humid atmosphere. The fruiting-house may range from 80° to 85° during the day, and as near 70° as possible at night; the succession-pits from 75° to 80° during day, and 60° to 65° at night. These particulars to be modified by the state of the weather, whether sunny or dull. Strawberries.--They require plenty of light and air to set their fruit, when they may be removed without fear of injury to a stove, or any other house or pit possessing a higher temperature. The plants swelling their fruit require a liberal supply of water, and a sprinkling overhead daily. When the fruit begins to change colour the sprinkling to be dispensed with, and the supply of water at the roots to be given sparingly. Vines.--If the Grapes are colouring, a free circulation of air, accompanied with a high temperature, will be advantageous. Attention to be given, where fermenting materials have been used for warming the borders, that the heat is not allowed to decline at present under the influence of the March winds. Attend to last week's advice as to tying, disbudding, &c., and proceed with the thinning the fruit in the succession-house as soon as the berries are fairly set. When thinning be as careful as possible of the bunches--neither pull them about with the hand, by which rust on the berries is frequently produced, nor with whatever the shoulders may be held up by at the time of thinning, as, by the twisting of the stalks, shanking is not unfrequently produced. Attention to be given in stopping all laterals, and breaking off all useless shoots for the more free admission of light, which is most beneficial in every stage of their growth. Look over houses where the fruit is swelling, and see if any of the bunches would be improved by tying up the shoulders. Any healthy Vines, but not of good kinds, should be inarched before the wood gets too old. APRIL. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The shifting and repotting of all specimen plants in these houses have been completed, I hope, before this time; but if not, the sooner they are done the better. Keep up a moist atmosphere, sprinkling the plants with tepid water twice or thrice a week; and pay attention to the destruction of insects the moment you can perceive them. Camellias.--As the plants go out of bloom, it is advisable to syringe them freely, shutting up early with solar heat, and maintaining a kindly humidity during the time they are making their growth. Fuchsias.--Supply them liberally with water when in full growth, and shade slightly during bright sunshine. Heaths.--To be kept free from strong currents of dry air; rambling growth to be stopped. Liliums.--Give them a liberal supply of water, and a top dressing of turfy peat, sand, and well-decomposed cowdung. New Holland Plants.--Give such plants as young Boronias, Dillwynias, Dracophyllums, Eriostemons, Leschenaultias, Pimeleas, Polygalas, &c., a tolerably-close corner of the house; stop the young growth as it may require it; keep them clean, and repot them when necessary. Pelargoniums.--Tie and stake the larger plants neatly, without loss of time, and shift the smaller ones into larger pots. The roots will feed greedily on oyster-shells, broken very fine at the bottom of the pot. Put in cuttings for flowering in September and October. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Keep up a sweet, moist atmosphere with a regular circulation of air, using an abundance of water about the floors; and syringe frequently air plants and others suspended. Shut up a solar heat, if possible, of 80° towards three or four o'clock. Achimenes.--Shift them, and also _Gesneras_, and pot others for succession. Begonias.--When the flowers begin to decline, the plants may be reduced, and potted into smaller pots, and be kept close for some time afterwards. Put in cuttings of them, if not attended to before; and also cuttings of _Eranthemums_, _Euphorbias_, _Gesneras_, _Justicias_, _Linums_, &c. Clerodendrons.--Give them plenty of room and encouragement to grow. Orchids.--They should have a mild, but regularly moist, atmosphere for a few weeks until they begin to grow; no water to be applied until that period, and then with moderation. FORCING-PIT. Get in Balsams, Cockscombs, Globe Amaranthuses, and other such plants from the dung-frame, that will be useful for the summer and autumn decoration of the greenhouse and conservatory. FORCING-HOUSE. Cherries.--If all the petals have dropped, and the fruit is set, the temperature may be raised to 60° by day and 50° by night, and syringed in the evening three or four times during the week. A sharp look out should be kept for curled leaves, and the grubs that nestle in them destroyed. Figs.--If the fruit is swelling off, supply the trees liberally with water; stop the young shoots at the fourth or fifth eye. Temperature, 65° by day and 55° by night. Melons.--The supply of air and water must be regulated by the state of the weather and the temperature of the bed. The plants sometimes show one or two fruit at an early period of their growth, which should be picked off, as they would prevent the swelling off of others. The vines, or shoots, after being frequently stopped, and when they have nearly filled the frame, or other allotted space, several fruit should be impregnated at one time. Sow for successional crop. Peaches and Nectarines.--Pinch off laterals, and tie in the shoots as they advance in growth. If green fly makes its appearance, fumigate the house; but if only a few shoots are infested, dip them in tobacco water. When the fruit in the early house are stoned, thin them to the number you wish to retain, and use a pair of scissors, which is better than pulling them off. Pine Apples.--The plants should now be making rapid growth, and, therefore, will require a liberal supply of water. Fruiting plants may now be turned out of their pots into prepared beds, selecting those that are not very forward. The fruiting-house may range from 80° to 85° during day, and from 65° to 70° at night. The successions from 75° to 80° by day, and from 65° to 70° at night. Strawberries.--When out of bloom, give them a liberal supply of water, syringe freely, and keep down insects by fumigation. Vines.--If forcing were begun early in December, whether with Vines in pots or established vines, the colouring process will have now commenced. When such is the case, admit air freely on all favourable opportunities; but avoid draughts, or cutting winds, which frequently cause rust and other imperfections in the bunches. In the later houses, attend to thinning, tying, and stopping laterals. The last house to be closed early in the afternoon. As the buds, in most cases, will be considerably advanced, it is advisable to syringe frequently; to apply plenty of moisture to the floors and paths; and to postpone the application of fire-heat as long as possible. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Some of the most hardy and woody plants may be removed from the greenhouse to a cold pit, where they can be protected from frost. It will make more room for the Cinerarias, Pelargoniums, and other such plants. Azaleas.--Such as have done blooming to be repotted, and their fresh growth to be gently promoted in a higher temperature for a short time. Camellias.--Continue to keep a moist atmosphere about the plants making wood, with a temperature of about 65° by day and 55° by night. Air to be given at all opportunities, to produce sturdy, short-jointed wood. The plants in flower to be shaded during bright sunshine. Cinerarias.--Regular attention to be given to them, that they may not suffer by want of water. Climbers.--Regulate them as they grow, more particularly those in pots which are intended to cover a wire trellis. Kennedyas, Thunbergias, Nierembergias, Tropæolums, and other such plants of a slender and tender habit, delight in a soil the greater proportion being composed of leaf mould. Chrysanthemums.--Strike cuttings, and pot off rooted suckers. Heaths.--Any requiring repotting, should receive that attention without delay, apportioning the size of the pot to the vigour of their growth; as the free-growing kinds will require more room than the less vigorous ones. New Holland Plants.--As many of them are now either in flower, or approaching that state, they will, consequently, require a larger quantity of water,--more especially large specimens not shifted since last season. Continue to pinch off the tops of the leading shoots, to produce bushy plants. Pelargoniums.--Attention to be given in tying up, watering, and fumigating, if the green fly appears. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. As the soft-wooded stove plants will now be making rapid growth, the free admission of light is necessary to prevent them from drawing; using shade only during scorching sunshine. When a plant is shifted, give less water to the roots; as the fresh soil, after the first watering will be moist enough for some time. Some of the free-growing kinds of Cattleyas, Calanthes, Phaiuses, Saccolabiums, Stanhopeas, and Zygopetalums, should be encouraged to make kindly growth by frequent syringings about their pots, blocks, or baskets. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--The principal objects to be attended to are--abundance of air, with due precaution against cold draughts, a moist atmosphere, and the free application of the syringe. The temperature the same as last week. Particular attention in watering to be paid to the trees in pots,--as too much is as bad as, if not worse than, too little. Figs.--Continue stopping the young shoots at the fourth or fifth eye. Keep the syringe in frequent use until the fruits begin to change for ripening. Plenty of water, and occasionally a little weak tepid liquid manure, to be given at the roots, more especially when they are confined in pots or tubs. Melons.--As soon as a sufficient number of fruit blossoms for a crop are expanded, or are likely to expand within a day or two of each other, they should be impregnated. As prevention is better than cure, keep the plants in a healthy-growing state by frequent syringings in fine weather, and closing early; insects will but rarely, if ever, attack thriving plants. Peaches and Nectarines.--As soon as the stoning of the fruit in the early house is completed, give them a good watering with clear, weak liquid manure; keep the shoots tied in regularly, and pinch off all laterals. If the fruits in the late house are set, partially thin them; as more dependence may now be placed on a crop than at an earlier period of the season. Pine Apples.--Fruiting plants will be greatly benefited by strong solar heat, as, under its influence, evaporation will be rapid; therefore, water must be applied to both roots and leaves. Succession plants to be shaded during sudden bright sunshine or sunbursts; and be guided in the application of water by the active or inactive state of the roots. Vines.--Thinning the fruit is an operation of primary importance. The first thinning to be performed when the berries are the size of Peas; the second when they begin to be crowded; and the third after the berries are stoned. A piece of strong wire, eight or ten inches long, crooked at one end, is useful to draw the bunches backward and forward, as the operator may require. The Vines in the late house to be tied up as soon as they begin to break. Syringe them every fine afternoon, and close the house early. Give air early in the morning, that the leaves may become gradually dry before the sun acts powerfully upon them. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Keep the conservatory as cool by day as is consistent with the health of the plants. By such means they will remain longer in bloom, and will be more enjoyable for parties inspecting them. Camellias.--Continue to encourage the growth of those that have done flowering by increasing the temperature, by frequent syringings, and by a liberal supply of water at the roots. If any have made their growth, and have formed their blossom-buds, they will require more light and less moisture for the future. Cinerarias.--To continue them in a healthy blooming state it is necessary to attend to them carefully, that they may not droop for want of water, nor be saturated with it. When the sun is powerful, slight shading is necessary for a few hours in the middle of the day, to prevent the blooms from losing their brilliancy; and plenty of air to be given when the weather is mild. Fuchsias.--Having been treated with plenty of heat and moisture, they will now be making rapid growth, and will be fit to shift into their blooming-pots, using a light, rich soil for the purpose. New Holland Plants.--Top and syringe frequently all such plants as are growing freely. Stake and tie them as they may require. Pelargoniums.--Continue to stake and tie the shoots that require it in due time. Some clear liquid manure (cowdung water, for instance) may be given to plants that are well established with roots and showing their trusses of bloom; and sufficient space to be given for each plant to develope its natural beauty. We would advise shading only when there is a fear of scorching from the usual sudden sunbursts of April weather. Ply the syringe every fine evening to refresh the plants, and to keep down insects, until the flowers expand, when syringing should be discontinued. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. The stove plants recently potted will now be making fresh growth. Allow no diminution of bottom heat, and keep up a warm, moist atmosphere. Give air when the thermometer indicates 90°. Continue to shift Gesneras, Clerodendrons, and other such free-growing plants, as they require it. The Brassias, Cattleyas, some of the Dendrobiums, Gongoras, Peristerias, Phaiuses, Sobralias, Zygopetalums, and other such Orchids, will now be growing freely, and will therefore require a considerable amount of atmospheric moisture. If the roof is covered with climbers, a little management in trimming them will obviate the necessity of outside shading, and will give an additional feature of interest to the house. The plants on blocks, or suspended in baskets, will require very frequent syringings to keep them in a healthy-growing state. Plants in bloom may be removed to the conservatory, or any other house with a drier atmosphere, to prolong their period of blooming. FORCING-HOUSE. Cherries.--When they begin to change they will require free exposure to light, and abundance of air, to bring out their colour; and, at the same time, a diminution in the supply of water. Carefully examine all curled leaves, and destroy the grubs they contain. If the trees are very luxuriant, and are making strong foreright shoots, stop them to within a few buds of the main branch. Figs.--Give the trees in pots some clear liquid manure when they are swelling off. Stop the shoots at about six or eight inches, and thin out any useless shoots. Syringe and water freely. Melons.--Keep the vines thin, and stop regularly. Shade only in very hot weather. Water sparingly overhead. Plant out succession crops. Peaches and Nectarines.--When the fruit in the early house has gone through the critical process of stoning, the final thinning should take place; the borders--if inside, or out, or both--should be copiously supplied with water; using liquid manure whenever a weak habit, from poor soil or over-exhaustion, shows it to be necessary. Syringings to be given twice a-day--early in the morning and at shutting-up time. The night temperature to be no more than 50°; but during the day it may range to 85°, if accompanied with air in liberal quantities. Pine Apples.--Lessen the moisture amongst the fruiting plants when they approach maturity. Shift and grow on the young stock in a moist atmosphere; admit air freely in fine weather; prepare beds, and turn out the plants, if preferred. Strawberries.--They should be kept near the glass: temperature, 65° to 70° by day, and 55° to 60° by night; succession crops rather cooler. Reduce the water to those ripening. Support the stems, and thin the fruit where superior produce is wanted. Keep them clear of runners and decayed leaves, and give an abundance of air. Vines.--Continue to thin the Grapes in the early houses: a few berries may require to be taken out of some of the bunches up to the time of their changing colour. Keep up a high temperature--about 75° by day and 60° by night: in later houses, where the bunches are in course of formation, it is a great object to bring them out well. In later houses, where the bunches are formed, or in bloom, let the heat be moderately increased, and admit an abundance of air at all favourable opportunities. Shift pot Vines often, and keep them near the light. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The plants that are introduced to the conservatory from the stove, forcing-pit, or any other such structures, merely for the blooming season, will require particular care to be taken in the application of water that they may not become sodden and diseased. Continue to stop, prune, or pinch back all rambling and luxuriant shoots in due time. Stir the surface of the bed in the conservatory, and apply fresh soil, to maintain the plants in good health. Azaleas, Chinese.--Supply them liberally with water at their roots during their blooming season, and prevent damp and drip from injuring the bloom. Calceolarias.--The herbaceous sorts that have been pushed along in a gentle heat will now be showing bloom, and will require to be grown in a cool, airy place, to prevent the flower-stems from being too much drawn. Keep down green fly. Shift on young stock, keeping the plants well down in the pots as they throw out fresh rootlets from the stem. Cuttings taken off now will root readily in a gentle bottom heat. Camellias.--Apply shading the moment it is necessary, to protect the young leaves. Fuchsias.--Grow them steadily on in a moist, warm temperature. Use the syringe freely. Stop any that have a tendency to be long-jointed, to produce uniform and bushy plants. Heaths.--Admit air liberally to them, and such other hard-wooded plants that are now in bloom, or approaching that state. Pelargoniums.--Shift on young plants. Any that are wanted for late blooming should now be stopped. Rhododendrons, Hybrid Indian.--Treat as advised for _Azaleas_. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Continue a kindly moistness amongst the Orchids, and slightly increase the temperature. Shade with tiffany, or close-meshed netting, in bright sunny weather; removing it early in the afternoon. Water liberally all that are making free growth. Repot any that may require it as soon as they have fairly commenced their growth. Continue to give liberal shifts to the free-growing young stock of stove plants, slightly shading for a few hours in hot weather, shutting up early in the afternoon, and producing a kindly humid atmosphere by damping the walls, floors, pots, &c. Begonias.--Repot and propagate. This is one of the most useful tribe of plants that can be grown, both for the stove and the adornment of the conservatory. Clerodendrons.--Encourage by a moist heat. Climbers.--Keep them neatly tied up, and give them liberal supplies of water, if in pots. Gardenias.--They delight in a close atmosphere; a pit with dung linings is most congenial to them. Gesnera zebrina.--Pot bulbs for late flowering. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--Thin out the fruit where in large clusters; admit plenty of air at favourable opportunities, and never allow the trees in tubs, or pots, to become dry. Figs.--The same as last week. Peaches and Nectarines.--Keep the leading shoots regularly tied in, and pinch out the points of some of the stronger ones. Pine Apples.--It is advisable to keep all that are starting, or have already started, into fruit, at one end of the house, or pit, that more air may be admitted to them than to the others more advanced, to produce a more robust growth, and to avoid the necessity of using stakes to support the fruit. Air to be admitted freely to the succession plants at every favourable opportunity. Strawberries (in pots).--Where fruit are colouring, keep a rather dry atmosphere, with a liberal supply of air, in order to secure flavour. When the plants are in bloom, keep them near the glass, and the atmosphere dry, with a good supply of fresh air; but avoid currents of frosty air. Introduce succession plants under glass according to the demand. Do not expose those from which fruit has been picked to the open air till well hardened off. Give them the protection of a cold pit for a time, as they are invaluable in open-air plantations. Vines.--Where the fruit is on the change to colouring admit air on every favourable opportunity, not forgetting to give it in the morning before the sun shines on the house, to prevent the condensed vapour, which would affect them injuriously, from settling on the bunches. Attend to stopping the laterals, thinning the young shoots, tying in leaders, &c., in the later houses. Remove the top dressing from the outside border, to allow the increasing power of the sun to act beneficially upon it. MAY. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Attend in due time to all plants that require potting into larger pots; and pinch off the tops of all that are of a rambling or loose habit of growth, to make them compact and bushy. Azaleas.--As soon as they are out of bloom, take them into heat to make their growth, syringing them frequently and supplying them occasionally with manure water, and shade for a short time in the middle of the day when the sun is powerful. Calceolarias.--Give them weak liquid manure occasionally, and shade those in bloom. Cinerarias.--When done flowering, cut the stems down, to favour the development of suckers, and remove them to a cold pit or frame. Climbers.--Keep all neatly trained. Heaths and New Holland Plants.--The late-flowering sorts, or such as have already flowered, and the young stock intended for another season, may be removed to cold pits or frames. Such plants as require it must be shifted, stopped, and shaded; particular attention being paid that they do not get dry at the root. Pelargoniums.--Shade such as are in flower; and shift and stop such as are wanted to flower late. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Keep up a kind humidity and a gradual increase of temperature in correspondence with the increase of solar light, and shut up early in the afternoon with sun heat. Continue to propagate the choice stove plants, and keep all free from insects. Achimenes.--Pot off. Begonias.--Continue to repot as they go out of bloom, pruning in any straggling shoots, and propagate as advised last week. Keep them close, and syringe frequently, when they will soon commence growing. Keep them some distance apart, to allow their fine foliage to expand. The following are good sorts:--Prestoniensis, Cinnabarina, Fuchsioides, Martiana, Zebrina, Barkeri, Rubra, and Argyrostigma. Gloxinias.--Repot where necessary. Succulents.--Opuntias, Melocacti, and Epiphyllum, to be excited into vigorous growth by intense light and abundance of heat and moisture. FORCING-HOUSE. Cherries.--Temperature 65° to 70° by day and 50° at night, and give plenty of air; but guard against wet and cold. Figs.--Stop and thin the shoots. Keep a damp atmosphere, and use the syringe over the foliage, when the house, or pit, is shut up in the afternoon, to keep down red spider. When the fruit is ripening, the syringe must be dispensed with, and the atmosphere kept drier; but, as there is generally a succession of fruit on the trees, water must not be wholly withheld at the time of the first crop ripening, as it would endanger the succeeding one; but it may be given more sparingly. Melons.--Stop and keep the shoots very thin. When the crop is safely set, give the soil a good soaking of clear, tepid manure water. Let swelling fruit be exposed as much as possible to the light. Peaches.--Continue to stop all gross shoots, which will both increase the size of the fruit and the smaller shoots at the bottom of the tree. The syringe, when used frequently, is useful for the same purpose, and to keep down insects. Air and light to be admitted, to give flavour and colouring to the ripening fruit. Pines.--The fruiting plants now swelling, and in pots, may be treated with a little clear liquid manure. Guano water, or soot water, or both combined, will produce a perceptible improvement in foliage and growth, with the caution that it be given in a warm, clear state, and not too strong. Ply the syringe freely on warm afternoons, and close up with a temperature of 85° or 90°; giving air again towards evening. When indications of ripening by changing colour appear, desist from the use of the syringe, and give them no further supplies at the root. Strawberries.--When ripening their fruit they may be placed in a frame where a free admission of air can be given. Vines.--Encourage the young stock intended for growing in pots next year, to make healthy, luxuriant growth, by giving them plenty of pot room and manure water, to set them in a light situation in some of the forcing-houses, and to pay early attention to the leaders as they advance in growth. Where Muscats are growing with Hamburghs and other such free-setting varieties, it is advisable to keep up a brisk day-temperature for the Muscats during their season of blooming, and until their berries are fairly set, with a reduction to a night-temperature of 65° or 68°, to suit the other varieties. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. A free ventilation is of importance, and by closing with a humid atmosphere early in the evening a vigorous growth will be promoted. Liberal shifts to be given to such plants as may now require them, before their roots become matted. Remove all plants intended for bedding out, and let them remain for a short time under the protection of a cold frame, or in beds hooped over, and covered at night with mats, or other such protecting materials. This gradually-hardening-off will better enable them to withstand unfavourable weather, if it should occur after they are planted out. Azaleas.--All irregularities of growth should be corrected by pruning. We have lately seen the beneficial effects of close pruning on such plants; they had been cut in severely last season by removing strong, straggling branches of old wood, to give some a spherical and others a pyramidal form. When pruned, the ball was reduced, the plant fresh potted in a smaller-sized pot, and the peat soil rammed as hard as it was possible to make it; then watered, and introduced to heat. The plants treated in that manner are now covered with bloom, and in a high state of vigour. Heaths.--Keep the tops pinched off, to form bushy plants. New Holland Plants.--Some of them of weak growth, and which naturally make long, straggling shoots, are much improved by bending down the branches, and fixing them to a wire hoop, or string attached to the rim of the pot. By such means the nakedness of the plant at its base is hidden, and the check imposed on the ascent of the sap will induce an increased supply of shoots. Pick off the seed-pods as the plants go out of bloom. Cut back and arrange the shoots in the best manner, to produce compact growth. Pelargoniums.--All that are showing bloom, unless of very gross habit, will receive benefit from a supply of a little weak manure water. For that purpose put cow, horse, or sheepdung into a tub, and to one peck add five gallons of rain or other soft water. When taking it for use draw it off clear, and give the plants a watering twice a week. Give air freely, shut up early, and syringe the plants overhead till the flowers expand, when syringing should be discontinued. As the petals are apt to drop very soon in hot weather, it is recommended to touch the centre of the flower with a camel-hair pencil, or small feather, dipped in gum water, which will stick the petals together and prolong the blooming. Such is the general practice at our metropolitan exhibitions. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. As the stove plants grow, allow them more space, especially such plants as are prized for the beauty of their foliage. Give frequent attention to stopping and training. Look to the climbers frequently, to regulate their growth and to prevent entanglement, and a world of trouble and confusion. Put in cuttings of such plants as Brugmansias, Clerodendrons, Eranthemums, Erythrinas, Poinsettias, and those winter-flowering plants _Euphorbia jaquiniflora_ and the _Gesnera bulbosa_. Where there is only one house in which to grow Orchids, a compromise as to temperature must be made to suit the natives of the hot and moist valleys or shady woods of the East, and those which inhabit high and airy regions in the Western hemisphere. To accomplish this it is advisable to allow a free circulation of air during the early part of the day, with an abundance of atmospheric moisture, and to shut up early in the afternoon with a high degree of temperature. Achimenes.--They delight in a moist heat, and a partially-shaded situation. More air to be given as they advance in growth. The shoots to be staked out neatly. Gesneras to be treated similarly, with the addition of more light. Gloxinias.--The same as _Achimenes_. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--Give more air, and keep a drier atmosphere when the fruit is ripening. Give plenty of water to the trees swelling their fruit. Keep them free from insects, or the fruit will be of little value. Figs.--Air freely, to give flavour to the fruit now ripening. Avoid wetting the fruit when it begins to soften. Melons.--Keep up the heat of the beds by renewing or turning the linings. Slightly shade the plants when the sun is powerful, to keep the foliage in a healthy state, without which good fruit cannot be produced. When the frames are at liberty, Melons may be grown in them with a little assistance from dung heat at bottom. Peaches.--Give a liberal supply of air, with less water, to trees, the fruit of which are ripening. Pines.--Continue the previous instructions in the management of the plants in the different stages of growth. Vines.--Thin and stop the shoots, and thin the berries in good time. Attend to the late crops, and set, by hand, the blossoms of _Muscats_, _West's St. Peter's_, and other shy setters. Be sure that inside borders are properly supplied with water, giving sufficient quantities to thoroughly moisten the whole mass of soil. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Attend carefully to the stock of plants for summer and autumn decoration, and do not allow them to suffer for want of pot room and water. Azaleas.--Continue to encourage all that have flowered by timely potting, syringings, and applications of weak liquid manure. Camellias.--Introduce a gradual declension of artificial heat amongst all that have completed their growth. A curtailment in the supply of water, giving merely sufficient to keep them from flagging, will induce the production of blossom-buds. Epacris.--Repot with a pretty large shift the early-flowering sorts that have freely commenced their growth. Use good fibrous heath soil, rejecting any of a spongy or greasy nature. Such plants, for some time after being newly shifted, require particular attention in watering, that the soil may not become soddened. Let the plants be placed in a cold pit, and be slightly shaded during bright sunshine. The stopping or pinching out the points of strong shoots must be regularly attended to during their growing season, to establish a uniformity of sturdy growth. Heaths and New Holland Plants.--All that have flowered, and have made their season's growth, may be removed to cold pits, or frames, to allow those that remain, and are promising to flower, more air, sun and light. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Keep up a liberal supply of humidity, with ventilation, at favourable opportunities. The plants here should now be growing very freely, and should, therefore, receive frequent attention as to stopping, training, &c. Keep them properly accommodated with pot room, and allow them all the sunshine they will bear without scorching; also, allow them sufficient space for the development of their foliage. Plenty of moisture is now requisite to encourage a free growth in Orchids, to get their pseudo-bulbs firm, well nourished, and ripened in good time. Free ventilation in favourable weather and a slight shading in bright sunshine are also requisites for their healthy growth. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--When the fruit is ripening, air to be given freely, even to the drawing the lights off completely in favourable weather. Fires may be discontinued altogether, unless the nights are very cold. Figs.--Give them plenty of water in all their stages of growth; discontinue the use of the syringe during the ripening process. They frequently require attention in stopping all long young shoots. Melons.--If there is a sufficient depth of soil for the plants, they will not require any large supplies of water after the fruit is swelling off; but it will be necessary to sprinkle the plants overhead, and to shut up early every fine afternoon with a good heat. Lay the fruit on a tile or piece of slate. Peaches.--When the fruit is swelling off, or beginning to ripen, admit air freely in favourable weather, even to the drawing off the lights entirely, so as to admit a free circulation and the direct influence of the sun, by which flavour and colour are best attained. Continue to stop all very-luxuriant shoots, and thin out the young wood. Some persons lay in plenty of young wood to select from in winter pruning; but fruit-bearing wood, regularly disposed all over the tree, is best attained by the judicious and successive thinning of useless shoots during their growing season. Continue to tie in the shoots of the late houses. Pineries.--When the repotting of the plants has recently taken place it will be necessary to shade for several hours, during bright sunshine, for a few days; but for the general stock shading should be dispensed with as much as possible--as short, stiff leaves and sturdy growth are best attained by judicious airings and humidity. Do not water much at the root immediately after repotting. Maintain a brisk bottom heat to the succession plants. Admit plenty of air during favourable weather. Vineries.--As the fruit in the early houses become coloured, it is advisable to remove all superfluous or rambling shoots; but to retain and to preserve with the greatest care the principal leaves--as the good quality of the fruit and the healthy condition of the tree for the ensuing season will depend upon the number and healthy state of the principal leaves. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. As most plants here are now in active growth, they will require a liberal supply of water. If the sun shines very brightly, a slight shading would be of benefit for a few hours on very hot days. Azaleas, Chinese.--When done blooming, they succeed best in a close pit, kept moderately moist and slightly shaded in the middle of the day. If they are too large for a pit, they will do well in a vinery, or in any other large house where they can stand at a distance from the glass without shading. Balsams and Cockscombs.--Promote their growth by shifting them into larger pots, in rich soil, with an abundance of light near the glass, and heat. Camellias to be treated as advised for _Azaleas_. Geraniums.--If any remain after the flower-garden masses are furnished, they should be potted and treated with every attention as to watering, &c. When they have made fresh roots, and begin to grow freely, to be stopped, to make bushy plants. _Calceolarias_, _Fuchsias_, _Petunias_, _Verbenas_, &c., treated in a similar manner, will be useful as a reserve to succeed the greenhouse plants that are now in bloom, and to fill up vacancies as they occur in the beds and borders. Heaths and New Holland Plants.--Many being now in full growth will require an abundance of water, more especially in bright weather. Many fine specimens are frequently lost through imperfect watering; for if the ball is once allowed to get thoroughly dry, all endeavours to restore the plant to health and vigour are generally unsuccessful. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Ornamental stove plants--such as Brugmansias, Centradenias, Clerodendrons, Eranthemums, Euphorbias, Geissomerias, Gesneras, Justicias, Poinsettias, &c., to be supplied with clear liquid manure, and to have their rambling shoots stopped. Many of the free-growing plants will require shifting occasionally. The great object should be to get rapid growth when light abounds, and thus to secure luxuriant foliage at the right season, when there will be more time for the wood to be properly matured for winter. The syringings to be given early in the afternoon, that the plants may get dry before night. Achimenes.--When grown in large seed-pans they produce a fine effect. FORCING-HOUSE. Cherries.--Give more air, and keep a drier atmosphere when the fruit is ripening. Give plenty of water to the trees now swelling their fruit. Syringe frequently, and keep the foliage and fruit free from insects. Chrysanthemums.--Pot off as soon as rooted. If not already struck, the cuttings should be put in at once. Cucumbers.--Stop them, and water freely. All that are intended for ridges, if hardened off, should now be planted out. See that the ball of earth is well soaked with water before planting. Figs.--Give them plenty of air during the day in fine weather, with abundance of water. Use the syringe freely, except when fruit is ripening. Peaches.--Although a dry atmosphere is necessary to give flavour to the ripening fruit, it is not advisable to withhold water altogether from the roots while the trees are making their growth. Water the inside borders in the morning in clear weather, so that any vapour that arises may pass off during the day. The outside borders, if dry, should also be watered as far as the roots extend, and then mulched, to prevent evaporation during hot, dry weather. If the early-forced trees have naked branches, some of the earliest-made wood may be taken from the trees, and buds inserted from it in the barren parts. Buds inserted now may start into growth in July, and be stopped when about six inches long, to get the wood well ripened. Pines.--A bottom heat from 80° to 85° must be kept up to the plants intended for fruiting in the autumn. It is advisable, where practicable, to allow the stools from which fruit has been cut to remain in the house for some time; to supply them liberally with water, and occasionally with liquid manure; to encourage the growth of the suckers. Vines.--In the houses where Grapes are ripening, the temperature may be allowed to rise to 90°, with sun heat, and to decline to 60° at night. In the succession-houses thin the bunches, and do not be covetous to over-crop the Vines, as it is the cause of many bad effects. Stop laterals, and use the syringe freely in the afternoons. JUNE. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Azalea Indica.--Encourage free growth, as soon as possible after they have done blooming, by placing them in heat, supplying an abundance of water, and syringing freely. Calceolarias.--Water carefully; cut down when out of bloom, and remove them to a cold frame. Heaths and New Holland Plants.--The young stock will now succeed best in a pit, or frame, placing the lights to the north. The glass to be well washed, and the pots to be placed on tiles, or ashes, above the ground level. Pelargoniums.--Give air freely, avoid cold draughts, and shade from scorching sun. Shift and stop the succession stock for late flowering. Petunias.--Do not neglect to pot off from the store propagating pots some of those, as advised last week, as also Scarlet Geraniums, Verbenas, Heliotropes, &c., to afford a variety of sorts and colours for the conservatory. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Let rambling shoots of ordinary stove plants have frequent stopping. The Aërides, Dendrobiums, Phalænopses, Saccolabiums, Sarcanthuses, Sobralias, Vandas, and others of the eastern genera of Orchids, will now require most liberal and frequent waterings and syringings. Gongoras, Peristerias, Stanhopeas, &c., when full of roots in baskets, require a thorough soaking. Now is a good time to pot Cymbidiums, Peristerias, &c., starting into growth. Aërides, Vandas, and plants of a similar habit, do best when shifted after they have done blooming. Achimenes.--Continue to shift them, as also _Begonias_, _Clerodendrons_, _Gesneras_, &c., as requisite. Remove those in bloom to the greenhouse or conservatory. Climbers.--Keep them thin and tied in, so as not to shade the rest of the plants to an injurious extent. Succulents.--Shift _Melocacti_, &c., and keep them growing, and near the glass. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--The trees in large pots or tubs, from which the crop has been lately gathered, should have abundance of air, and an occasional supply of liquid manure. Give them, also, a good washing overhead with the syringe, or engine, dashing it on with considerable force. They will also require to have their wood matured early. Figs.--Continue the practice of stopping when the shoots are four or five eyes long. Give a liberal supply of water, and thin out the second crop where too thick. Melons.--Keep the shoots thin, and remove all useless laterals. When the fruit is swelling, the soil should be kept in a properly moist state, and the foliage in a healthy condition. The bottom heat should not be allowed to sink below 75°. Peaches.--Keep up a growing temperature with plenty of air and moisture, and frequently syringe the trees, to keep them clean and healthy. The ripening fruit will require plenty of air. Pines.--Repot as they may require; for if they are allowed to remain in a pot-bound state at this season they are very apt to start prematurely into fruit. It is also particularly requisite that the balls are thoroughly moist at the time of repotting. To give strength to the growing stock, it is advisable to admit abundance of air in the morning part of the day; and in the afternoon, to encourage a high degree of heat with an abundance of atmospheric moisture. The plants growing in open beds to be supplied with a steady bottom heat of from 80° to 85°, and sufficient water to the roots. Vines.--Proceed diligently with thinning the berries, as they swell rapidly at this season. The late houses in which the Vines are in bloom to be kept warmer and closer than they have been, until the fruit is set. Stop the shoots and laterals, and never allow a mass of useless wood to remain on them. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The principal part of the greenhouse plants may now be removed to an out-of-door situation, open to the morning sun, and protected from high winds, and be placed on some hard bottom through which the worms cannot get into the pots. The specimen plants that remain should be turned round from time to time, that they may not get one-sided; and allow them to have plenty of room on all sides. Also, the young plants intended for specimens should have their flower-buds picked off, to encourage their growth. Balsams.--Encourage them by frequent shifts, and keep them in bottom heat, and near the glass. The prematurely-formed flower-buds to be picked off, as the plants should attain a considerable size before they are allowed to bloom. Calceolarias.--The most critical time is after the plants have flowered; if allowed to produce seed, they generally die off--Nature having completed her task. When the bloom begins to fall, cut the plants down, and repot into a larger size; place them in a cold frame _facing the east_, the lights on during the day, with air, and entirely off during the night, unless in rainy weather, as the night dews are highly beneficial. Treated thus the plants will soon produce new shoots, which must be taken off and pricked out into small pots in a very open soil, and placed in a very gentle bottom heat to strike. When rooted, to be shifted into pots of a larger size. Cinerarias.--The plants that have bloomed through the season to be cut down, turned out of their pots, and to have at least half the old soil removed from their roots. Prepare a piece of ground, in a sheltered situation, with leaf mould or rotten dung and sand, in which the Cinerarias are to be planted, one inch below the level of the soil, in rows fifteen inches apart and one foot apart in the row. When planted, to be well watered. Climbers.--The Passifloras, _Mandevilla suaveolens_, _Tecoma jasminoides_, and other such climbers in the conservatory, will now be growing very freely, and will therefore require frequent attention to keep them in order. The young shoots may be allowed to grow in a natural manner, merely preventing them from getting too much entangled, or growing into masses. Fuchsias.--When in a healthy-growing state they require an abundance of water and frequent syringings. Train them in the desired form, and pinch back all weak and straggling shoots. Heaths and New Holland Plants.--Examine them very carefully, and be sure that they are in a proper state as to moisture. The young plants which are not blooming will do best if placed in a pit where they can be exposed or not, as may appear necessary. To lay a proper foundation for a good specimen it is necessary to stop and to train the shoots into form. Kalosanthes.--Train them neatly, increase the supply of water, and give them liquid manure occasionally. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Continue to shift the young and growing stock of stove plants. To harden the wood of the early-grown plants, or autumn or winter flowering, it is advisable to remove them to some cooler place, such as the shelves of the greenhouse. The baskets, in which the Stanhopeas will now be blooming, should be carefully examined to see that the buds, as they protrude, may not be injured by contact with the side. Many stove plants and Orchids in flower, if taken to a late vinery, or such intermediate house, will thus be prepared, in a short time, for removal to the conservatory during the summer. Climbers.--When the shrubby plants are large, the climbers hanging loosely give a sort of tropical character to the house; but, either hanging, or trained in wreaths or festoons, they require pruning and regulating, to prevent them becoming entangled, and, therefore, a confused mass of wood and foliage. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--Give air night and day in fine weather. Figs.--When the ripest of the fruit is gathered, give the trees a good syringing overhead, to cleanse and refresh the leaves, and to keep down insects. Melons.--To be slightly shaded with a net, or a few pea-sticks, during bright sunshine in the middle of the day, to prevent the scorching of the leaves; for if such occurs, the fruit ripens prematurely, and is, in consequence, without flavour. Peaches.--When the fruit is ripening, give as much air as possible during the day, and when the nights are mild and warm leave the lights open. When the fruit in the succession-house is stoned, give a good watering to the roots, and syringe the trees frequently, as previously advised. Pines.--Apply an abundance of moisture to the pathways of the fruiting-house during bright weather. Give plenty of air, but allow at the same time the thermometer to range from 90° to 95°. Shut up when the rays of the sun are getting partially off the house, and ply the syringe freely about the leaves and stems of the plants, and the surface of the plunging material. Air to be given an hour or two afterwards for the night. Vines.--Keep thinning the berries and stopping the laterals as they advance, which, with syringing and giving air, is the principal work to be done. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The stock of plants out of doors to be carefully looked over in showery weather that they may not suffer from imperfect drainage. The more delicate sorts to be returned to the houses, or protected by some means during heavy rains. Camellias.--When they are kept in-doors give an abundance of air night and day, with an occasional application of the syringe, keeping the paths and floors damp. When they have ceased growing, and have formed their flower-buds, discontinue to syringe the plants overhead, as it sometimes starts them into a fresh growth that will be the destruction of the flower-buds. Chrysanthemums.--Plant them out eighteen or twenty inches apart in an open piece of ground. Some to be left to grow as standards on one stem, and others to be topped, to make them bushy. Cinerarias.--In raising seedlings it is advisable to select each parent plant, distinguished for its dwarf habit and decided colour, and to place them by themselves in a pit or frame. The seed should be carefully gathered as it ripens. It should be sown in shallow pots, or pans, well drained with crocks; then some siftings, and over that some light soil, with some finer and more sandy on the surface, covering the seeds very lightly with the same; and slightly sprinkling, or watering, through a very fine rose, and the surface covered with a little moss, to prevent evaporation. In a few days the seedlings will be up; then remove the moss, and let them remain in the pots, or pans, until they are large enough to be handled with safety; then pot them in small pots, and keep close for a day or two. Lilium lancifolium.--Give attention to them; as also to tree Carnations, _Salvia splendens_, Scarlet Geraniums, &c., for autumn and early winter flowering. Oranges.--The same as advised for _Camellias_. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Achimenes.--Repot, as also _Begonias_ and _Gesneras_, for succession of late bloom. Luculia gratissima.--Propagate by cuttings. Some of the Orchids will now require to be topped up a little with fresh soil. The _Barkeria spectabilis_, _Epidendrum Skinneri_, the Lycastes, _Odontoglossum grande_, &c., will now enjoy the temperature of the conservatory. FORCING-HOUSE. Figs.--Continue to stop all shoots when five or six joints long. Never allow the trees in tubs, or pots, to want water; they now require daily attention. Melons.--Shade them during bright sunshine for a few hours in the middle of the day. If the red spider appears, rub sulphur vivum, mixed with water, on slates or tiles, and place them in the pit, or frame, where the sun's rays may fall upon them. Peaches.--Admit plenty of air when the fruit is ripe, or nearly so. When the crop is gathered, give them a good washing with the syringe. Those changing for ripening, if the trees are young and vigorous, to have a general stopping of the strong shoots all over the higher parts of the tree. To keep down red spider, it is advisable to wash the walls, pipes, or flues, with sulphur vivum reduced to the consistency of paint; or to paint some slates, tiles, or common saucers, with the mixture, and to place them in different parts of the house, where the sun can shine upon them. Pines.--If the pot plants in fruit are in a healthy condition, well furnished with roots, an occasional supply of clear manure water, in a warm state, may be given with advantage to them. Strawberries.--As it is necessary, by early attention, to ensure a healthy, vigorous growth, therefore, as soon as the runners have emitted the least portion of root, take them off, and prick them out on a rich piece of ground, or on an old hotbed where Radishes or early Potatoes have been grown under hoops, where, when the weather is hot, they are more convenient to shade, and require less water. Vines.--When the fruit is cut in the early houses, ripen the wood by exposing it night and day, except during heavy rains. Water to be gradually withheld as the growth of the plants declines, and somewhat in the proportion in which you would have vegetation stop, not all at once, but gradually. The Vines with fruit now stoning may be allowed to produce a few redundant shoots if there is sufficient room to lay them in without crowding, or overlapping the old wood, or shading the old leaves. The late Grapes to be finally thinned, their shoulders to be tied out, and every useless shoot to be removed. Keep the Vines in pots trained, and exposed to light, and apply weak liquid manure frequently. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Many of the finer kinds of hard-wooded plants--such as Boronias, Epacrises, &c.--will now be out of bloom, and will require cutting in rather closely, to form neat bushy plants. Some of the greenhouse plants will most probably require shifting, and should receive that attention now, or, at latest, by the middle of next month. Keep a sharp look out for insects of all kinds, and also for mildew; and give the plants, if the weather is dry, a sprinkling once or twice a-week from the syringe or garden engine. New Holland Plants.--If any are retained in the house, let them be placed where they can have a sufficiency of light and fresh air, and at the same time in a place where the sun has no power on the pots; but if such cannot be avoided, place the pot containing the plant in another two sizes larger, and fill the intervening space with moss. Pelargoniums.--When out of bloom, they should be placed in the open ground for a fortnight or three weeks to ripen the wood before they are cut down. Scarlet Geraniums.--To prepare them for winter blooming it is advisable to place the pots during the summer on a hard bottom out of doors and in the full sun, and to pinch out the flower-stems as they appear. To be carefully attended with water. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Keep up a kindly humidity by frequent syringings, and keeping the floors, paths, &c., damp. Many of the stove plants--viz., Clerodendrons, Erythrinas, Gardenias, Ixoras, Jasmines, Liliums, Pergularias, Stephanotises, &c.--may be removed to the conservatory, where the flowers will attain a deeper colour and retain it for a longer period than if they had remained in the stove. Euphorbias.--Propagate _jacquiniæflora_ and _fulgens_, and grow them on a successional system of culture for furnishing the conservatory and stove throughout the autumn, winter, and spring. Gesnera zebrina.--Keep up a succession in various stages of growth, and place another batch of tubers in a pan. FORCING-HOUSES. Give particular attention to the preservation of the foliage in houses where the fruit has been gathered, keeping the atmosphere cool and moist; and give the trees an occasional washing with the engine, to keep down red spider and the leaves clean and healthy. Cherries.--When the trees are planted in the house, and the fruit has been gathered, give all the air possible by throwing it entirely open. Give them a good washing occasionally with the garden engine. When the plants are in pots, it is advisable to place them on a hard bottom on the north side of a wall or fence. Melons.--Bottom heat is necessary for their healthy growth; without it a check would be given that would be sure to produce a most injurious effect on the swelling fruit. Water to be given to the plants overhead occasionally. Peaches.--Continue to maintain a moist, healthy atmosphere while the fruit is swelling. Give air sufficiently early in the morning, to prevent the sun scorching the foliage. Syringe and shut up early in the afternoon. Pines.--Continue to provide proper bottom and surface heat, and give attention to airing, watering, syringing, and shifting in due time. By such means a large amount of healthy growth may now be secured for the fruit-swelling and succession plants. The plants swelling their fruit to be also favoured with a high temperature, a moist atmosphere, and plenty of water, and occasionally manure water at the root. If worm-casts appear in any of the pots, water with lime-water in a clear state. Vines.--As the dry atmosphere necessary for the preservation of the ripe bunches is conducive to the increase of red spider, the sulphur must be immediately applied as advised last week. Discontinue the use of the syringe as soon as the succession crops begin to ripen. Check the growth of laterals by timely pinching. Give the final thinnings to the latest Grapes; and as they are frequently required for winter use, a good thinning should be given, as crowded bunches and berries will not keep late in the season. JULY. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The plants permanently planted out in the borders of the conservatory should have a thorough soaking of weak liquid manure. Give all the air possible at this season, both night and day, and keep the house as neat and clean as possible. If it contains many tender stove plants, shut it up for an hour while the sun is on it in the evening, so as to produce a more genial atmosphere for them. Achimenes.--Encourage them, as also _Clerodendrons_, &c., to grow and to prolong their beauty in the conservatory by supplying them with liquid manure, taking particular care not to give it too strong, especially at first. Cinerarias.--Sow seed immediately. Plants for early blooming should also be potted and started at once, choosing the strongest suckers for the purpose, and placing them in a cool, shady frame until they have made fresh growth. Chrysanthemums.--Propagate some for blooming in small pots. Heaths.--Pluck off the flowers and seed-pods as soon as they become unsightly, and prune straggling growth. The softwooded kinds--such as the _ventricosa_, &c.--do best in a sheltered situation in the open air, with means to protect them during heavy rains; while the woolly-leaved--such as _Masonii_, &c.--and hardwooded varieties delight in cold pits where the glass can be shaded or used for protection as necessary. Examine the plants which were not shifted in the spring, and, if necessary, pot them without delay; but if they require to be cut in, to make them bushy, it will be best to let them break afresh before they are repotted. Leschenaultias.--If they have done blooming, and are pot-bound, to be repotted and placed in a shady place to make their growth. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Give abundance of air to the stove plants at all favourable times, and abundance of moisture by all means. Examine young specimens that were potted early in the season, and shift at once such as require more pot room. Ixoras.--Encourage the young plants by giving them plenty of air both night and day, to make short, sturdy growth; and discontinue stopping them for the season. FORCING-HOUSES. Cherries.--When the fruit has been gathered from the trees grown in tubs, or pots, it is advisable to place them in some open, airy quarter, to make their wood for next season's bearing. Figs.--Give liberal supplies of water to the trees now throwing up their second crop. A top dressing of old cowdung would now be useful. Pinch out the top buds, if the shoots are growing very long. It should be a practice to manage the trees during the summer that nothing more than a slight thinning out should be wanted at the winter pruning. Melons.--Give attention to the crops now growing, in thinning out the shoots, stopping, &c. Peaches and Nectarines.--When all the fruit is gathered, and the wood seems well ripened, it will be best to take the lights quite off, and place them under cover until wanted again. Plenty of air to be given to the trees that are swelling off their fruit. Also, stop in succession many of the strong shoots about the period the last swelling commences. Use the syringe freely over the leaves early in the morning and again in the evening. Pines.--Give abundance of air to the fruiting and succession plants, and during dry, hot weather, saturate the paths and every open space with moisture, to prevent the leaves of the plants becoming brown. If such a practice be regularly adopted during hot, bright sunny weather, shading will seldom or never be necessary. Be at the same time particular in maintaining a mild, genial bottom heat. Vines.--The houses containing ripe fruit will require to be kept dry and well ventilated; those swelling will still require attention to keep a regular steady temperature with regular supplies of air. _Muscats_ very frequently require fires during the night and on wet, cold days. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Achimenes.--They delight in a steady, moist heat; to be shaded in the middle of hot days, to prevent the sun from scorching the foliage; and never to be watered overhead. Cacti.--Remove them to a dry, airy place as soon as they have finished their growth. Cockscombs.--They can be grown with strong, short stems, and very large heads, if they are allowed to remain in small pots until the flowers are formed, then potted in large pots in a compost of one-half rich loam, one-fourth leaf mould, and one-fourth sand, and supplied with as much liquid manure and moist heat as possible. Fuchsias.--As the plants progress in growth give them plenty of air and moisture, occasionally moistening the paths, walls, and stages with clear manure water, and syringe the plants both morning and evening overhead. Globe Amaranthus.--To be potted into 48-sized pots, in which they will flower in a soil composed of peat, loam, and leaf mould, or rotten dung. They should be allowed to stand near the glass, and be subjected to a moist heat of not less than 75°. Heaths.--If mildew appears, dust them with flowers of sulphur. When watering, give them a good soaking, so that every part of the ball is thoroughly wet, and then withhold further supply until it is again completely dry. Japan Lilies.--As they are succulent in growth, keep them well and liberally supplied with water. The flower-stems to be properly sticked, so as to keep them in due bounds, and also to assist in presenting a large mass of flowers to the eye at once. Pelargoniums.--If the plants have been exposed to the open air, as advised in a previous calendar, they will now be fit to cut down. After the plants are cut down, place them in a shady place until the most forward young shoots are one inch long; then shake them out, and repot into small pots, using sandy loam and peat only, and placing them in a close, cold frame until they begin to grow again; after which freely expose them to the weather until heavy rains in autumn, or the approach of frost, renders it necessary to house them for the winter. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Cleanliness is indispensable amongst the Orchids, use a sponge to remove filth from the leaves. See that no plants are neglected in standing in corners or behind large plants; arrange and re-arrange frequently, as it tends both to promote the healthy growth of the plants and a pleasing variety in the house. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--Although bright hot weather may prevail, it is advisable to keep up a brisk, regular bottom as well as top heat. Strike cuttings of choice sorts for winter bearing. Melons.--The same as advised for _Cucumbers_, as they both delight in plenty of heat to keep them healthy and in regular bearing. Give them good soakings of weak manure water occasionally, and shut up early on all fine days, sprinkling the sides of the pits or frames, and the plants at times overhead. When watering the plants never allow any to fall on the main stem. If gum, or canker, appears, apply lime to the parts affected. Old plants cut back should be stimulated to grow freely. Peaches.--Any tendency to premature decay in the leaves of those from which the fruit has been all gathered to be arrested by liberal waterings at the roots and by syringings. Pines.--Keep up the temperature from 90° to 95° by day and from 70° to 75° by night, with plenty of moisture among the growing plants and swelling fruit. Shift the successions as the roots fill the pots. Vines.--Uncover the house, or give all the air possible night and day as soon as the Grapes are gathered, unless the wood is not fully ripened, in that case the house should be closed in the afternoon at a good heat. Stop the laterals on the later Vines, thin and tie up the bunches, and maintain a steady, moist temperature, with plenty of air, but do not syringe the bunches. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. If any of the stove plants, as lately recommended, have been brought into the conservatory, they will require a free admission of air at every favourable opportunity to keep the atmosphere of the house dry. The plants must be kept clear of decaying leaves and flowers. Some judgment is also required in watering recently repotted plants, that they may not be injured by saturation in cloudy weather, nor by drought in hot sunny days. The growth of twiners should be carefully regulated, allowing them sufficient freedom to develope their natural habits as far as other considerations will permit. Continue to shift the hardwooded plants as they require it. A turfy compost of three-parts sandy heath soil of a fibrous and rather lumpy character, and one-part loam, will suit the majority. Particular attention should be paid to the drainage, more especially to the crock at the bottom; for if that is flat, and not hollow, it matters but little how much depth of drainage material rests upon it, the soil will soon become saturated and sour. Remember that the final shift should be given in good time to those intended to flower in the autumn. Calceolarias (Herbaceous).--Sow seeds; the compost to be equal parts of peat or leaf mould, loam, and rotten dung, with a small portion of sand. Place a layer of broken crocks two inches thick at the bottom of the pot; then fill up within half an inch of the rim with the compost, passed through a fine seive. After the pot has been gently struck on the potting-bench to settle the soil, the surface must then be made level with a flat piece of wood, or the bottom of a small garden pan or saucer. Sprinkle the seeds regularly over the surface, do not cover with soil, and water with a fine rose; then to be placed in a cold frame, and be kept shaded from the sun. Chorozema.--The beauty of this genus for early spring display is generally appreciated, and, therefore, requires no commendation from me. They delight, like most other New Holland plants, in sandy peat containing plenty of fibre, and require plenty of air at all times, and also to be kept constantly moist, but never very wet. A large pot and frequent stopping will soon produce a fine specimen. Chrysanthemums.--Continue to top the plants that have been planted out in the open ground. Epacris.--The varieties of this genus are most useful for the adornment of the conservatory in early spring. They delight in fibrous peat, broken rough, mixed with fine white sand. The young plants to be frequently stopped by pinching off the points of the shoots while growing, to induce them to throw out laterals; those again to be stopped until the plants have attained a size sufficient to warrant their blooming. Gardenias.--If any have been removed to the conservatory while in bloom they should be returned to heat as soon as the bloom is over, to encourage growth and to allow them sufficient time to mature their growth. Eutaxia myrtifolia.--It is a profuse and early bloomer. During the summer and autumn every new shoot should be stopped as soon as it has attained two or, at most, three joints: by such treatment it can be easily formed into a neat, compact specimen. Winter Flowers.--The Cinerarias, Chinese Primroses, Heliotropes, Perpetual, Tea, and other Roses, will require frequent and diligent attention as to watering, shifting, &c. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Give immediate and regular attention to the young stock of stove plants intended for winter blooming. Keep up a moist temperature at all times; with air during the day. When a few days of gloom occur, the humidity that sometimes becomes stagnant and injurious should be dissipated by a free circulation of air when bright weather returns. Keep a free circulation of air amongst the Orchids by day; endeavour to supply an abundance of atmospheric moisture during the latter part of the day; and dispense with shading as much as possible by using it only during a few hours of the hottest part of the day. Pay every attention to specimen plants in the stove. Keep them neatly tied to sticks, or trellises, as the case may require. Give them a plentiful supply of water, and, if not in flower, syringe them frequently overhead. Stanhopeas.--About the end of this or the beginning of next month is the most proper time to remove and repot them. Persons who wish to grow fine specimens ought to put them in large baskets, or pots, so that they may not require to be shifted for several years, as then the plants grow much finer and flower better than when annually shifted. Now, as soon as they have done flowering they commence growing, when they should have plenty of heat and moisture until they have completed their pseudo-bulbs, when they should be reduced to a comparative state of rest by gradually withholding water until they show flower; then to be supplied with atmospheric moisture, but should have no water at the root, or at least but a small portion, until they begin to grow. As all the plants belonging to this genus push their flowers downwards, it is advisable to have them elevated, or put in baskets, where the flowers can get through and show themselves to advantage. FORCING-HOUSES. Figs.--Supply with plenty of water the roots of the trees that are swelling their second crop; ply the syringe frequently amongst the foliage, and sprinkle the paths, &c., to keep the atmosphere moist. Shut up early in the afternoon. As the fruit of the first crop ripens, curtail the supply of atmospheric moisture--otherwise before they reach maturity they are apt to turn mouldy. The roots to be regularly supplied with water, and some liquid manure added about once a week to assist the second crop. Keep down red spider by the application of sulphur in the manner so frequently advised of late. Give the fruit that is ripening the benefit of the sun, by fastening on one side the leaves that shade it. Peaches.--The fruit will be all the more delicious for a comparatively cool temperature while ripening. Examine the fruit daily, and gather before it is overripe and loses its flavour. Pines.--Maintain a good bottom heat, and encourage the growth of the advancing crop by kindly humidity and allowing them plenty of air and sufficient space from plant to plant. Give air, also, freely to the young stock in dungpits, to secure strong stocky growth; but a circulation should not be allowed by giving back and front air at the same time during hot drying winds. Attend to former directions to afford the plants swelling their fruit a moist atmosphere by frequent syringings and by sprinkling the paths and every other available surface until the fruit begins to change colour, when the atmosphere and soil should be kept rather dry, to improve the fruit's flavour. See to the stools from which fruit have been cut. Earth them up, so as to cause suckers to strike root. Give them a brisk bottom heat, and proper supplies of water. You will thus gain time and assistance for the suckers from the declining strength of the parent plant as long as possible. It is now a good time to start a lot into fruit, as they will have two or three most favourable months for swelling, and will come in at a season when they are in very general request. Keep the bark-bed moderately moist, as in that state it will retain its heat much longer than if it is allowed to get dry. Vines.--Keep up a brisk heat to the late Grapes during the day, as it is advisable to get them well ripened before the season gets too far advanced. By such means they will be of better quality and keep longer than if the ripening process be delayed to a later period. Do not allow plants in pots to remain in the house to cause damp, which, despite every care in ventilating, is apt to settle on the berries and spoil them. The outside borders of the late houses should be watered and mulched, if the weather continue dry. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The conservatory should now be gay with Balsams, Cockscombs, Fuchsias, Globe Amaranths, Heliotropes, and the varieties of Japan Lilies. Strict attention must be paid to all plants in these structures that they do not suffer from the want of water. Continue to stop over-luxuriant growth, to obtain compact, sturdy specimens. On the evenings of hot, dry days, after the plants have been watered, give them a slight syringing, or sprinkling, over the leaves, and also the ground upon which they are standing. Aotus gracillimus.--When done blooming, to be cut down close to the pot. Aphelexis and Helichrysums.--When past their best state, cut the flower-stems close into the old wood; to be set in a cool shady place until they begin to grow, when any that require it may be repotted. Chrysanthemums.--Propagate by cuttings, or layers, to obtain dwarf stocky plants. Continue to top the plants that have been planted out in rows in the open ground, as advised some time ago. Cinerarias.--Pot off the first batch of seedlings and offsets. Sow seed. Fuchsias.--Shift in the last batch, and put in cuttings. Leschenaultias.--When they are going out of bloom, or past their best, remove the flowers and flower-buds, and put them in a cool place to start again. Kalosanthes.--When done blooming, the flower-stems and all straggling growth to be cut in closely, to form compact specimens for another season. Pelargoniums.--Cut back the principal stock, and treat them as advised lately. Pimelea spectabilis.--When that and the other kinds have done blooming, to be freely cut in, and to be set in a cool shady place to break. Polygalas to be treated in the same manner as the _Pimeleas_. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Look out for insects in the stove, and destroy them as soon as visible. The _Gishurst Compound_ is worthy of a trial. Follow former instructions as to moisture and air. Ixoras.--When done blooming to be cut in rather closely, to be started in a gentle heat to make fresh growth. The Orchids suspended on baskets, or on blocks of wood, require a soaking of water at the roots, and frequent, but slight, syringings overhead. A little fire-heat applied in the afternoon will be of service to them. FORCING-HOUSES. Figs.--If the second crop on the earliest trees is advancing towards maturity, as soon as the fruit begins to ripen the atmosphere should be kept dry and rather cool, giving air freely every fine day. Keep the foliage clean and healthy, and clear from insects, and do not allow the young shoots to get crowded. Melons.--Keep up a good bottom heat when the fruit is setting. Keep the plants on which the fruit is ripening rather dry at the root, with an abundance of air in fine weather. Pines.--Air to be admitted freely during hot weather to fruiting and succession plants. Particular care will be necessary in the application of water that they may not suffer for want of it, or by saturation. The walls, paths, and surface of the bed to be kept constantly moist, and frequent syringings to be given to the young stock. Continue all other routine operations according to former directions. Strawberries.--Some lay the runners at once into pots of strong, rich loam, cutting them away from the parent plants when they have made roots enough for their own support. Some prefer to lay them in small pots, to be shifted into larger by-and-by, and others prefer to lay them in their fruiting-pots. The principal object should be, to attain plants of a moderate growth, well matured and rested before forcing time. Vines.--The early houses, when they have been cleared of their fruit, and the wood is properly ripened may have the sashes removed and repaired, if required; indeed, every house is purified by free exposure to the atmosphere for some time. The late crops to be encouraged to swell by giving the borders good soakings of manure water, and by being carefully thinned, more especially if they are wanted to keep late. A little fire-heat will be necessary in unfavourable weather, with an abundance of air day and night. AUGUST. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The conservatory borders will now require liberal supplies of water. Faded blossoms to be constantly removed; straggling growth and exhausted stock to be cut previous to making a new growth. As the autumn is fast approaching, the sooner the new growths are encouraged the better, that they may have sufficient time to mature them. All greenhouse plants will now be benefited by exposure to the natural atmosphere: the dews are more refreshing and invigorating than artificial moisture or the application of the syringe. Finish _potting_ all specimen plants; for if left until later in the season they will not have sufficient time to fill their pots with roots, and, therefore, will be liable to suffer from stagnation of water at the roots. No position can be worse for a plant than that of surrounding it with fresh soil for months when the roots should be in a comparatively dormant state. Pelargoniums.--Continue to head them down, and to propagate the cuttings, which will now strike freely in a sunny situation in the open ground. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Much moisture and free ventilation will be necessary here during warm weather. The young plants of Euphorbias, Ixoras, Poinsettias, and other such stove plants, to be rendered bushy by stopping them betimes. The _Æschynanthus grandiflorus_, _Aphelandra cristata_, _Eranthemum pulchellum_, Justicias, and any others that are intended for the decoration of the conservatory in the autumn and early part of winter, should be carefully looked over, and shifted without delay if they want more pot-room; the shoots to be tied out thinly, and to be exposed to as much sun as they will bear without scorching the foliage, to induce stocky growth. Nothing is more injurious to stove plants than to keep them growing late in the season, and thus to prevent the ripening of the wood, which will render them more liable to injuries in winter and more unproductive of flowers the following season. FORCING-HOUSES. Melons.--The plants on which the fruit is ripening to be kept rather dry at the roots, with free exposure to the air in favourable weather. A steady bottom heat to be kept up to the late crops. Peaches.--If the lights have not been taken off the early-forced houses, it would be advisable to remove them as soon as possible, that the air, rain, and dews may have free access to act both beneficially on the trees and to keep down red spider. In those houses which have been treated as advised in former Calendars, the principal object now should be to get the wood properly ripened. The late houses to be treated in a similar manner when the fruit is gathered. Where the trees in peach-houses have been recently planted, and are not yet in a bearing state, the shoots will require to be trained carefully, and insects to be kept down. Pines.--The plants growing in beds of soil to be carefully attended to with water, giving at each application sufficient to penetrate the whole body of soil, as it frequently happens that the surface is moist while the bottom is quite dry. Pot a portion of the strongest successions for early forcing next season. Strawberries.--Continue to lay the runners of the kinds you wish to force in pots until you have a sufficient number. Vines.--Muscats, now beginning to ripen, will generally require a little fire heat to push them on; when ripened in good time they are better flavoured and keep longer than when the ripening process is delayed to a late period of the season. Continue to remove the stray laterals that begin to shade the larger leaves; to be done a little at a time, as disbudding on an extensive scale is prejudicial to fruit trees. The young Vines in pots to have every attention, to secure as much growth and healthy vigour as possible while the growing season lasts. Allow all young planted Vines to ramble freely without stopping them so closely, as is frequently practised. Before wasps and flies do much mischief to ripe Grapes, coarse canvass should be fixed over the top lights and front lights that are opened for the admission of air. Remove decayed berries as soon as observed, and keep the house containing ripe fruit dry and free from dust. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Bulbs.--The selections for winter and spring flowering to be made as soon as possible, choosing the most suitable varieties for each season; to be potted at two or three intervals for succession. To be potted in light fibrous turfy loam of a sandy quality, and placed in a dry situation; to be covered with three or four inches of old tan or coal ashes. Camellias.--The large, old specimens that have set their flower-buds to be carefully supplied with water; for if they are allowed to get too dry at the roots they are apt to drop their buds. Young vigorous plants, on the contrary, will require to be watered rather sparingly, to prevent them making a second growth. Cinerarias.--Shift as they require it, and let no neglect as to watering, &c., cause a check to their growth. Climbers.--To have a succession late in the season when flowers become scarce, it is advisable to cut them back for that purpose, more especially the climbers on rafters or ornamental trellises. New Holland Plants.--If any have been standing out of doors for some time, it is advisable to remove the best and most tender varieties to the cold pits, or other secure situations, to avoid the danger and risk of exposure to wet or windy weather. Soils.--Now is a favourable time to collect soils of different sorts for future use. The advantages of forethought for such matters will become evident when the time for use arrives. Leaf mould, decomposed sheep, deer, and cowdung, road and river sand, old Cucumber, Melon, and other such soils, to be put in separate heaps in a shed, or any other dry place, protected from drenching rains. Each sort to be numbered, or named, that no mistake may occur when wanted. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. All plants intended to flower this autumn to be regularly supplied with water and occasionally with liquid manure; but all the other stove plants to be watered more sparingly after this time, and the water to be given early in the morning. The house to be shut up early in the afternoon with a strong sun heat. Slight fires to be made in the daytime, if the weather is dull, so that plenty of air may be given to the plants. FORCING-HOUSES. Figs.--If the nights are cold, the house or pit should be closed early, for the benefit of the second crop of fruit. Melons.--Withhold water when the fruit is ripening, as a sudden supply at that time very frequently causes the fruit to crack and become worthless. Keep the shoots so thin that every leaf may receive the benefit of the light. Do not expose the fruit to the sun's rays till it is fully swelled. Give a supply of manure water to the late crops, and thin out useless laterals. It is advisable to paint the interior of the frame, or pit, with sulphur: this, with slight syringings and shutting up early while the sun shines upon it, will keep down insects. Mushrooms.--Collect some very short stable-litter and horse-droppings, and turn them over frequently with the addition of a small portion of turfy loam until they are well incorporated. When moderately dry, to be packed on shelves or in boxes, and be well-beaten down in layers four or five inches thick, till the bed is the required thickness--from a foot to eighteen inches; for success will depend in a great measure upon the solidity of the bed. To be spawned when there is a brisk heat. Pines.--If a strong body of fresh materials have recently been added, the watch-sticks should be frequently examined, and any approach to a burning heat to be counteracted by lifting the pots, &c. Fruit recently started and swelling off to have every encouragement for the next two months. Shut up early, to secure a strong amount of solar heat. Keep all the growing stock warm and moist, syringing them lightly twice a-day. Vines.--The early-forced houses, where the wood is nearly ripe, would be benefited by free exposure to the air; but if the lights are required to remain on, cleanliness should be observed, and all laterals kept down. When the fruit is swelling or colouring, and when the weather is wet or cloudy, a gentle fire, if then applied, will expel damps, and be in other respects very beneficial to them. Stop all useless growths in the late houses; do not remove the leaves to expose the fruit to the sun, unless they are very thick indeed, as they are the principal agents by which nutriment is carried to the berries. Vines in Pots.--When the leaves begin to fade, to be removed to the north side of a wall, and the pots to be laid on their sides, to keep the roots dry. A little litter thrown over the pots will protect them from sudden changes. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. As the majority of greenhouse plants are out in the open air, or in pits, where they have either set, or are setting, their blooms, preparations should be made for their return, by scrubbing and washing all the shelves of the greenhouse, and clearing out all crevices and corners, to banish all insects that may be secreting there. When by scrubbing, brushing, &c., you have brought everything to the ground, let no time be lost in clearing the insects, rubbish, &c., off the ground, and also out of the house. If painting and glazing are necessary, the sooner they are done the better, leaving the house entirely open for three weeks or a month, that the effluvium from white lead, which is prejudicial to plants, may pass off before the lights are put on again. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Shift into pots a size larger any small plants, or indeed any plants that you are desirous to grow fast, or to make specimen plants, as soon as they have filled their pots with roots. Cuttings inserted in pots of light, sandy soil, well drained at the bottom, will readily strike when plunged in the tan-bed, where there is a little bottom heat, and covered with bell-glasses, that will allow of the edge being pressed into the soil inside the pot. Henceforward a certain degree of care and consideration will be necessary to have the summer growth of plants generally--and especially that of all those whose period of excitement is continued over a certain portion of the autumn--so arranged and circumstanced as to secure its perfect maturity, or, in gardening terms, to have it "well ripened." For that purpose it is necessary to avoid the application of moisture beyond what is necessary to prevent a decided check in the growth of the plants, to expose them to the influence of light, by not suffering them to crowd or overhang each other, and to prevent from what cause soever the too sudden declension of the average temperature to which they are exposed. The Orchidaceous Plants that are growing to have plenty of moisture and heat, it will be easily seen when their growth is completed, and then it is proper to let them go to rest by gradually lessening the supply of water, and removing them to a cooler part of the house. Any Orchids that you are desirous of increasing may be separated or potted into small pots, or fastened to blocks, or placed in baskets. Fill pots with pieces of turfy peat the size of Walnuts, and peg them altogether until they form a cone above the pot. On the summit place your plant, which is, in fact, a piece cut off another plant, and with four pegs or wires make it fast. Let the roots go where they please in the pot, or outside it. Orchids depend more for sustenance upon the atmosphere and moisture, than upon the soil. FORCING-HOUSES. Peaches.--It is advisable, when practicable, to get the lights off the early houses, presuming that the trees are fast advancing towards a state of rest. The practice is certainly not absolutely indispensable, but it is of much benefit to the trees. Whether the lights are off or on, attention may now be given to the repairs of glass or woodwork where necessary, and to finish with a coat of paint and whitewashing, if possible. Pines.--The plants swelling their fruit to be carefully looked over in hot weather that they may receive no check for want of water. Continue to pot or plant suckers as soon as they are taken off the parent plants, as they are apt to shrivel much at this season, if left out of the ground. Attend to the state of the linings to dung pits, as all Pine plants, in whatever situation, will require a lively bottom heat of 90°. Vines.--The houses containing late Grapes to be shut up warm and rather early (about four o'clock), in order to dispense, if possible, with fires, giving air by seven o'clock in the morning, and increasing it abundantly towards noon, and to be then diminished at intervals, in accordance with the state of the weather. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The plants in these houses should receive particular attention that they do not suffer from want of water or fresh potting; the water to be given in the morning or forenoon, that the plants and houses may be dry towards night, to prevent the ill effects arising from damps. Camellias.--Look over them, and disbud where too many are set in a cluster. Resurface the soil, and see that the drainage is efficient. New Holland Plants.--Heaths and other such hardwooded plants that have been placed out of doors will now do best in a cold pit or frame, where they can be protected from heavy rains. Pelargoniums.--When the shoots of the plants that have been cut down are about an inch long, the old soil must be shaken away, the roots slightly trimmed, and then repotted into small pots, &c., as advised early in July. Some of the cuttings may now be fit for potting off; when potted, to be placed in a pit or frame, kept close, and shaded until they have made fresh roots, when they should be placed out in an open situation to grow firm and stocky, pinching out the leading shoots; and to be placed on coal ashes, slates, or boards, to prevent the admission of worms. Sow the seed immediately it is gathered, and also that of Fuchsias, or of any other perennial plant, if ripe before the middle of September. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. The stove plants of strong and early growth may be allowed a gradual increase of ventilation and more sunlight. Plenty of moisture is still essential for the general stock. Shading may now be dispensed with, except during bright sunbursts. Careful attention to be given to the Allamandas, Echites, Euphorbias, Luculias, Stephanotises, Dipladenias, and other such valuable stove plants. The surface soil of large specimens to be stirred, and weeds and moss removed. Gesnera zebrina.--Shift them for winter flowering; they delight in a mixture composed of equal parts of fibrous loam, heath soil, and leaf mould. All plants after shifting do best when placed in a gentle bottom heat; to be syringed occasionally, and shaded during bright sunshine. Shift on all Orchids that now require it, and are making their growth. Top dress others, if they require it. All that are growing freely in pots or baskets, or on blocks, to be syringed with clear, tepid, soft water in the afternoons of fine days, and to be shut up early. FORCING-HOUSES. Figs.--If any are growing against the back wall of a vinery, or other such structure, it may be advisable to give them a good soaking of water, and but very little, if any, after--as a dry atmosphere is necessary to ripen the fruit. Melons.--Continue to supply them with bottom heat. If they are growing in pits or frames, keep the linings well topped up or renewed, to produce a comfortable heat inside; for without it canker is apt to set in and destroy the plants. Mushrooms.--In making beds for these on shelves, or in boxes, as recommended a fortnight ago, or on the floor, let the whole mass be made very firm by well-beating it as it is put on in layers. It is advisable when the spawn is put in to cover it with good, strong, fresh loam at least from two to three inches thick, and to make it as firm as possible. The Mushrooms will come stronger and of much better quality than if partly-exhausted soil is used. Pines.--If the winter fruit have finished blossoming, supply them occasionally with clear liquid manure when they want water. The growth of the crown to be checked, and all useless suckers, gills, &c., to be removed. When a house or pit is devoted to late Pines alone, an abundance of moisture should be supplied. Give abundance of air to the young stock in dungpits, and increase the dryness of the atmosphere, to induce maturity of growth and a hardy constitution against winter. Shift, if not already done, succession plants into larger pots. Any plants recently potted to be shaded during bright sunshine, sprinkled overhead every afternoon, and the house closed early. The sprinkling will be sufficient without watering at the root until the plants begin to grow. Vineries.--Continue to secure a dry state of the atmosphere when the ripe fruit is intended to hang for any length of time, using a little fire heat when necessary to dispel damp. To ripen the fruit in late vineries, it is frequently necessary to use fire heat, but more especially when the external temperature ranges below 50°. SEPTEMBER. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Balsams.--Give them a good watering when they show indications of drooping; but be cautious in watering when the least stagnation appears, as saturation will be death to them. Bulbs.--Pot Hyacinths and other such bulbs for forcing. When potted, to be placed in a dry, cool situation, as advised in the early part of the month, and covered with some porous material--such as coal ashes, old spent tanner's bark, coarse sand, or any other material that will serve to keep the roots not only cool and un-acted on by atmospheric changes, but which, from being moderately damp, will not abstract moisture from the roots, but keep them uniformly and evenly moistened. The Cape bulbs, if obtained now, may be had in flower at various periods throughout the winter and early spring. _Amaryllis Johnsoni_, _vittata_, and many other varieties, are splendid. Ornithogalum, both the white and orange-flowered species, the free-growing species of Ixia, and the varieties of _Sparaxis tricolor_, are desirable plants that may be easily bloomed by gentle forcing. Calceolarias (Herbaceous).--Pot off seedlings into small pots, and keep them close in a frame for some days. Put in cuttings of the best kinds; they will strike readily in a common frame. Chrysanthemums.--They should now be stopped for the last time, to produce a late succession of bloom. Climbers.--Be careful to train the shoots, that the trellis or stakes may be furnished and clothed with foliage and flowers from the rim of the pot upwards. Fuchsias.--To have a late bloom, cut back about half of the young wood, trimming the plants to handsome shapes. If placed or plunged in a little bottom heat they will break again, and continue blooming till Christmas. Lilium lancifolium.--Supply them cautiously with water, as advised for Balsams, and shade the flowers from bright sunshine, to prolong their beauty. When they have done blooming, to be removed to the foot of a south wall or fence to ripen their growth. Water to be given sparingly until their tops show signs of decay, when they may be laid on their sides till potting time. The same treatment is recommended for _Gladioli_ and plants of like habit. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Some judgment will now be necessary to arrange the plants that are finishing or have completed their season's growth in the coolest part of the house, where they should be freely supplied with air, and rather cautiously and sparingly with water. While others in free growth should be encouraged with warmth and moisture by giving but very little air and a liberal supply of water during very fine sunshiny weather. FORCING-HOUSES. When the fruit in the early houses is gathered, the great object should be to ripen the wood. A certain degree of attention is necessary to be given by exposing them to light and air, and preserving the leaves from injury, as it is upon their healthy action that the future crop depends. Cherries.--Trees in tubs, or large pots, if intended for early forcing, to be removed to a cool, and plunged in an open airy, situation, to continue the regular root action, upon which much of their future success will depend. Figs.--Withhold water from the borders where the second crop of fruit is ripening. Trees in tubs, or large pots, intended for early forcing, to be treated as advised for Cherries. Peaches.--If mildew attack the trees before the leaves have performed their necessary functions, dust the affected shoots with sulphur. Trees in pots to be treated as recommended for Cherries. Pines.--Take advantage of fine weather to encourage free growth where it is desirable. Plants swelling their fruit to be supplied occasionally with clear liquid manure. The succession plants to be supplied with water at the roots, as inattention to that particular during hot weather is very likely to cause some of the plants to fruit prematurely. Strawberries.--The stock intended for forcing to be carefully attended to; to be kept free from runners and weeds; and, when necessary, to be liberally watered. Free exposure to sun and air, and a little weak liquid manure, will assist to produce stout healthy plants for forcing. Vines.--When the fruit is ripe, give air freely, and keep the house as cool and dry as possible. Stop laterals in the late houses, and expose the foliage to light, to make it as healthy and vigorous as possible. Vines in pots to be treated as advised for Cherries. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. As boisterous winds, heavy rains, and other atmospheric changes occur about this time, it is advisable to draft the choicest out-door greenhouse plants to their winter quarters. Each plant to be carefully examined, dead leaves removed, and any defects in the soil or drainage of the pots to be remedied. If worm-casts, or other indications of the presence of worms, appear on the surface of the soil, by carefully turning the ball of soil out of the pot they can generally be picked out. If they are not visible on the outside of the ball, a small peg stuck in will direct particular attention to it until the intruder is removed. When staging the plants, a pleasing variety may be introduced by placing a few on inverted pots. Sufficient space to be given to each plant to allow the air to circulate freely around. If there is not sufficient room for all, the oldest or mis-shapen plants may be rejected, or wintered in a pit or vinery. When housed, all the air possible should be given in fine weather by the entire withdrawal of the lights, and only reducing the ventilation when unfavourable changes in the weather take place. Heliotropes.--Pay attention to keep them in a growing, healthy state for winter flowering. Mignonette.--Sow now and a month hence, for winter and spring blooming. Pinks.--Pot _Anne Boleyne_ and other sorts, to be well established before they are wanted for forcing. Roses.--Some of the Tea-scented and China kinds, being placed under glass, and to be repotted if requisite, will promote immediate growth and early blooming. Violets.--Take up with good balls, to be potted in rotten turf, or leaf mould and road-scrapings, in 48 or 32-sized pots, placed in a pit or frame near the glass, for flowers in the winter and early spring. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. As the season of active growth is now getting to a close, it is advisable to ripen off gradually the pseudo-bulbs and strong healthy shoots by keeping up a genial atmosphere, ranging from 70° to 80°, with abundance of air in favourable weather. Cattleyas, _Epidendrum Skinneri_, Lælias, _Lycaste Skinneri_, and _Odontoglossum grande_, to be kept rather cool, and to be slightly syringed occasionally. Water to be given more sparingly to all the plants except such as are growing freely. Shading to be now dispensed with as much as possible, that the plants may have the benefit of the ripening influence of the sun. FORCING-HOUSES. Figs.--Continue to pay strict attention to the state of the atmosphere. Where the fruit is still swelling and ripening, slight fires will be useful in dull, cold weather, to assist in ripening the fruit; and but little syringing and watering will be required from this time forward. Melons.--Take advantage of fine weather by giving plenty of air, shutting up early, and keeping the shoots regularly thinned. In whatever structure they may be growing, it is advisable to keep up the bottom heat by a gentle fire, or by linings. Peaches.--We will suppose the trees to be now fully exposed to the air night and day, and will, therefore, require but little attention, except an occasional washing with the engine, to remove insects and to allow the foliage to perform its functions to a natural decay. If a blank in the house is to be filled up, it may be done as soon as the crop is gathered from the open wall; and the crop to be expected from the same tree next season will depend upon the care with which it is removed, as there will be sufficient time for the wood to be ripened and the tree to make fresh roots, and to get sufficiently established before winter. Pines.--Where young stock is grown in dung-pits, care to be taken by giving air freely in favourable weather, to avoid growing the plants weakly in a close and warm temperature, and by a sufficient command of heat from the linings to allow a little air to be given at night and on cloudy days. Vines.--All long growths, whether bearing or not, to be stopped, as it is getting too late for them to be benefited by the foliage made after this period of the year. A gentle fire in damp weather is useful to keep the atmosphere dry when the fruit is ripe. The bunches to be frequently and carefully looked over and all tainted berries removed, and the foliage kept free from insects. Fire heat is also necessary where the fruit is not yet ripe, and where the fruit is cut it is sometimes necessary to keep the atmosphere dry and rather warm, to ripen the wood. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Finish housing the greenhouse plants, and give them as much air as possible; for if air is too sparingly admitted at this season, when many of the plants have not finished their growth, it will cause them to produce weak and tender shoots, which will be very liable to damp off at a more advanced period when the inclemency of the external air will cause them to be kept close. Water to be liberally supplied when they are first taken into the house, as the dry boards on which they may stand, or the elevated situation and free circulation of air will occasion a more frequent want of that element than when they stood on the moist earth. However, by no means go to the extreme, but give it only when evidently necessary. Azaleas.--Plants that have set their blooms to be removed to the greenhouse; but the late kinds to remain in heat until their growth is matured and the bloom set. If a few are required to bloom at Christmas, or a little after, they should be kept in heat until the bloom-buds have swelled to a good size, when they will require but very little forcing to start them into bloom. Bulbs.--Procure and pot them as soon as possible, as much of the success of early forcing depends upon early potting. Camellias.--Treat them as advised for Azaleas. Heaths.--Look sharply after mildew, as plants that have been growing freely in a shady situation in the open air, and are in a rather succulent state when taken indoors, are liable to be attacked by this pest, which should be removed on its first appearance by an application of sulphur. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Commence a gradual reduction of the temperature in correspondence with the decline of external heat; by such means the plants will be better prepared to withstand the gloom and other vicissitudes of the winter season. Begonias.--Encourage the different kinds for winter flowering by shifting them, if necessary, into larger pots. They succeed best in a compost of half leaf mould and half loam. They grow luxuriantly in a soil composed entirely of decayed vegetable matter; but in that they are liable to rot off at the base of the stem. FORCING-HOUSES. Figs.--Trees in tubs or pots still bearing to be assisted with a little liquid manure when dry. Withhold water gradually from the borders, to induce an early, but not a too premature, ripeness of the wood and an early rest. Peaches.--The flues of the early house may now be cleaned, and, if not yet done, the lights washed and painted, if necessary. Pines.--If there are some of the spring fruiting plants still remaining in the fruiting-house, they should either be placed at one end of the pit, or removed to a small house by themselves; the house should then be prepared for the best of the succession plants for the second crop next summer. Plants showing fruit after this time, although they cannot be expected to produce as fine fruit as if earlier in the season, will, nevertheless, be found very useful, and should have every attention given to them while the season continues favourable. To be placed in the warmest corner of the house, and to be supplied when dry with a little liquid manure. Continue to grow on the young stock while the weather continues favourable; for fine sunny days and moist growing nights are all that we can desire. A good portion of solar heat to be secured by shutting up early. On cold nights gentle fires will be necessary to keep up the temperature to 70° towards morning. Vines.--The Vines that are to be forced early, if the wood is well ripened and all the leaves nearly off, may be pruned without much fear of bleeding, keeping the house as cool as possible; but if, from appearances, the sap is not considered to be sufficiently at rest, the pruning should be postponed. Continue to forward the Grapes not yet ripe by giving a little fire heat during the day. Air to be given to the house as soon as the sun shines upon it, as the vapour that ascends, if not allowed to pass off by ventilation, will cause the Grapes to become mouldy and worthless. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The plants that have been in the open borders during the summer to be taken up, the roots carefully cut back, and repotted; to be placed in a gentle bottom heat, or in some close place, until they have made fresh roots, the better to resist the vicissitudes of the dull, dreary months of the approaching winter. American Plants.--If a rich display of bloom is desired in early spring, the plants should be now potted in rather small pots, to be plunged in the warmest part of the garden, and introduced to the forcing-house from November until February, as they may be required. The most suitable for such a purpose are the Azaleas of the _nudiflora_ class with various hybrids, _Andromeda pulverulenta_, _Daphne cneorum_, Kalmias, of sorts, _Ledum latifolium_ and _L. thymifolium_, _Polygala Chamoebuxus_, Rhododendrons, and _Rhodora Canadense_. Calceolarias (Herbaceous).--Remove them to a shelf as near the glass as possible, with plenty of air at all favourable opportunities. To be duly supplied with water. Camellias.--Water to be given carefully, to prevent the dropping of the buds. The late-flowering plants to be thinned of their buds, leaving not more than two buds on each shoot, and retaining the largest and smallest to get a long succession of bloom. The leaves, if necessary, to be washed clean. Chinese Primroses.--Place them as advised for Calceolarias. Cinerarias.--Protect them from the ravages of green fly by the application of the Gishurst infallible compound. Fuchsias.--Continue to encourage the late stock for bloom. Seeds may be sown at once, where there is a greenhouse or other means of sheltering them from frost and damp; but if you have no such convenience, it is advisable to postpone the sowing until spring. The seed is separated most easily from the pulp by bruising the berries amongst dry sand, and allowing it to stand in the sun, or in a warm place, until the moisture has evaporated, when the seed and sand will be intermixed, and in a fit state to be sown. Heaths.--On fine mornings syringe them, and Epacrises and Pimeleas, and give all possible ventilation, both night and day, while the weather continues favourable. New Holland Plants.--Place them in situations to enjoy a considerable share of air and light. All luxuriant shoots to be stopped, to maintain symmetry and uniformity of growth. A vigilant eye should be kept upon them almost daily, to see that neither mildew, green fly, nor other such enemies be allowed to injure them. Orange Trees.--If they have been standing out during the summer, the sooner they are returned to their winter quarters the better. Clean the leaves, if necessary, and fresh surface the soil in which they are growing. Succulents.--Cacti, Euphorbiæ, and other such plants to be gradually curtailed in the supply of water as they approach the winter and their season of rest. Tropæolums.--If any of this beautiful tribe, particularly _T. tricolorum_ or _T. Brachyseras_ that have flowered early in the season, begin to grow, they should not be checked, but allowed to grow slowly through the winter; but if there is no appearance of growth--which is best for their future success--the roots should be kept dormant, in a cool place, with the soil about them quite dry, and protected from mice. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Stove plants cannot be too cautiously watered late in the autumn. Nothing is now wanted but to keep the soil from getting quite dry. Slight fires to be made in the forenoons of dull and rainy days, not so much for the purpose of raising the temperature as for drying the house. Air to be given at all favourable opportunities, to maintain a healthy atmosphere. Several of the Orchids--viz., Aërides, Dendrobiums, Saccolabiums, Vandas, &c., may be encouraged by the application of a high temperature, with much moisture and less shading, to make further and sometimes considerable growth. Cattleyas.--Young plants may also be encouraged to grow for some time longer; but older specimens should be reduced to a comparatively dormant state by a gradual diminution in the supply of water, and a decrease in temperature, with less shading. Stanhopeas.--To be treated as advised for Cattleyas. FORCING-HOUSES. Continue to make fresh beds as formerly directed, and prepare fresh material for successional ones. To ensure success it is advisable never to allow the manure to be put together in a dry state, nor to get too far exhausted, but in that medium state when the strong fermentation has passed off, and a moderate heat is likely to remain in it for some time. The temperature to be kept from 60° to 65°, with the admission of air for several hours daily. Cherries.--Whether they are in pots or in borders, and have arrived at, or are only approaching, a comparatively dormant state when but little attention will be necessary, still that little will be required to keep them clear of insects and of the leaves as they become sufficiently ripe, when they come readily off with a touch. The old surface of the soil of those grown in pots to be removed, and the same quantity of fresh, in a rough state, put in its place. Remove them without further delay, if not already done, as advised in the early part of the month, to the north side of a wall or hedge until wanted; or if not wanted until a sharp frost sets in, they should be protected from its icy grasp. Figs.--Trees in pots to be treated as advised for Cherries. Melons.--Although the weather may have been favourable for ripening the late fruit, they will in some places still require the assistance of a good top and bottom heat, and a large portion of air in the middle of the day. Peaches.--Trees in pots to be pruned, and treated as recommended for Cherries. No time should be lost if fresh trees are to be planted in the place of any that may be worn out. The choice should be made of young trees that are in a bearing state, and all the better if they had been moved last autumn. In pruning the trees, after the leaves have dropped, be sure not to leave them too crowded; but if the summer pruning, as frequently advised, have been properly done, but very little, if any, will be required now. To remove the leaves from the trees in the early houses it is advisable to shake them daily, and sometimes to brush them gently with a few pieces of birch-spray tied in a bundle. All foreright shoots to be removed, and the trees in the late houses kept free from insects. Pines.--Persevere in former directions as to general routine management. Whilst fine weather continues air may be given liberally; and shut up earlier in the afternoon to secure as much sun heat as possible. Plants swelling their fruit to be assisted with a brisk temperature, both at top and bottom, from 65° to 70° at night, allowing it to rise to 80° on sunny days with a steady bottom heat of about 80°. When watering is necessary let it be given in sufficient quantity to moisten the whole of the soil. The suckers and crowns that were potted in the summer months should now be shifted, if they have grown freely; they should then be plunged in a brisk bottom heat in the succession-house or pit, from which the plants have been removed, to the fruiting-house. Any remaining suckers on the old stools to be taken off, potted, and plunged in a brisk heat in the nursing pit. Vines.--The early house, or the first lot of Vines in pots, if it is intended to start them in November or December, to be pruned, that sufficient time may be allowed to heal up the wounds, and the buds to become more plump and prominent. The border of the early house to be thatched with straw, or covered with any other such material, to protect it from heavy rains. It is also advisable in some situations to cover the borders of the houses in which it is intended to keep Grapes late, to prevent the soil getting saturated about the roots. Continue to look over ripe fruit, cutting out the mouldy or tainted berries; applying gentle fires only when necessary to expel damps, with a free circulation of air--as a warm, close atmosphere is as injurious as damp. Where the long-rod system is adopted, the old shoots should be cut down as soon as the fruit is gathered; and, whatever system is adopted, if there are any shoots to remove they should be taken out as soon as they can be spared; the ends of the remaining shoots, if green, to be cut off. Continue to pay strict attention to late Grapes, look over them daily, and cut out every decayed berry. OCTOBER. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The plants when newly set in the house are very liable to lose a portion of their leaves: these should be removed, and the plants kept supplied with water, so as to preserve the soil moderately moist throughout. Air to be given every day, and also a portion at night, if the weather continue mild. Bulbs (Dutch).--All kinds to be immediately potted and plunged in a convenient situation ready to be removed, when wanted, to the forcing-house or pit. If potted and treated as advised some time ago, a few of them may now be excited into growth. Chrysanthemums.--Take up the plants from the open ground; choose a showery day for the purpose. After potting to be well watered and shaded for a few days, then placed in a cold pit, or removed to the greenhouse, and neatly tied to stakes. The buds to be thinned for a fine display. Gladioli.--Pot them, and Ixias, Sparaxis, &c.; and to be watered sparingly until they begin to grow. Lily of the Valley.--Pot some, to be treated as advised for Bulbs, that a regular supply of this favourite flower may be had during winter. Shrubs.--Get in, if not already done. A supply of American plants to be potted, as advised a fortnight ago, and plunged in old tan until wanted for forcing. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Continue to act in unison with the season, allowing the temperature to decline slightly as light decreases. Although the Aërides, Dendrobiums, &c., will continue to enjoy a temperature of 80° by day and 70° by night, the Cattleyas will require 10° or 15° less to bring them to a healthy state of rest; for if kept in constant excitement they will continue to sprout buds from their pseudo-bulbs, which generally adds to the size of the plant at the expense of the blooms. Achimenes picta.--Promote their growth by every attention, also _Gesnera zebrina_, which adds much to the beauty of the stove during winter. Begonias.--Encourage the different kinds for winter flowering by giving them larger pots if required. Euphorbia fulgens and splendens.--These are also worthy of especial attention, as they contribute to enliven the house at the dullest season of the year when flowers are scarce. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--To prolong the season of fine crisp fruit it is necessary to keep the plants clean and healthy by giving them plenty of top and bottom heat. Figs.--The trees having no fruit likely to come to perfection, and whose leaves are fading, to be kept cool and dry, to induce an early rest. A seasonal rest should also be given by the same means to trees in pots, that they may be in a fit state for forcing early. Melons.--Continue to maintain a warm, dry atmosphere, to give flavour to the fruit. They will require little or no water after this. Peaches.--Vacancies to be filled with trees from the walls on the open ground. This is a plan preferable to having young trees from the nursery, which are usually some years in covering the space allotted to them. Where the lights have been wholly removed, after being repaired and painted, they should be put upon the houses to protect the trees and borders from unfavourable weather. Pines.--Ripening fruit to be kept in a dry, warm atmosphere, to give it flavour. The swelling fruit to have a warm, moist atmosphere. Water to be given to the plants cautiously; every one to be examined before it receives any, and manure water to be dispensed with altogether. The heat of the dung-pits to be kept up by renewing the linings. The crowns and suckers that are planted in the tan to have no water; all they require is attention in giving air and keeping up the heat. Vines.--Attention to be given to the young Vines in pots that are intended for forcing, that they may not become soddened, which would injure the young roots considerably. Where netting or any other such material had been used over the lights that open in houses containing fruit, to prevent the ingress of wasps, it may be taken down as little mischief will now be apprehended from their attacks. Mice are sometimes very troublesome in vineries at this season, and will spoil a whole house of Grapes in a short time if not prevented. Traps should, therefore, be kept set, and every means used to prevent their ingress from the garden. Cover the border when the trees are planted outside, with a good coat of fern or any other such material before they become saturated and chilled by the autumnal rains, to be laid on thickly in layers, beginning at the front of the border, the whole to be covered with a thin layer of good straw, and fastened down as a thatcher does the straw on stacks. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The plants being cleaned, surfaced, staked, and arranged, they will require but little beyond the ordinary attentions of watering and regulating the admission of air. Plants, when fresh surfaced, sometimes droop without any apparent cause, which generally arises from the roots being very dry; the fresh soil absorbing most of the moisture, and the water escaping between the pot and ball of earth. This is usually brought on by surfacing the plants when dry: as soon, therefore, as the consequences are observed, the plants should be examined, and sufficient water given to wet the ball of earth thoroughly. Chrysanthemums.--Treat them without further delay as advised in a late Calendar. An occasional and moderate supply of clear liquid manure will assist to develope their flowers to greater perfection. If any indication of mildew appear an application of the flowers of sulphur, when the foliage is damp, will banish it. Fuchsias.--Encourage the young stock to continue their blooming by the application of a little weak liquid manure. When the flowering is over, and they have lost most of their leaves, they may then be set aside in any corner free from frost for the winter. To be kept moderately dry. Myrtles.--These and other such evergreen plants requiring protection to be placed in pits or frames, or in any other structure, as near the glass as possible. To be watered regularly; but, like all other plants, care must be taken that they do not get too much at any time during the winter. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. The plants that have taken their rest should be shaken out, and repotted; pruning back such as require it, and placing them in a gentle bottom heat. The Orchids showing bloom--such as the Cypripediums, _Phajus grandifolius_ and _Stenorhynchus speciosus_--to be supplied with plenty of heat and moisture. Some of the other sorts--such as the Catasetums, the Cycnoches, Lycastes, &c., that are approaching their dormant state--to be accommodated, if possible, with a drier and cooler atmosphere. All fast-growing plants--such as Clerodendrums, Vincas, &c.--that require large pots in summer, to be now turned out of their pots, the soil to be shaken from them, and repotted into the smallest sized pots that will contain them, without pruning the roots much at this time. Climbers.--Some of the most rambling will now want some pruning, more especially where they obstruct the light in any material degree. The Combretums, Echites, Ipomsæas, Mandevillas, late-blooming Passifloras, Pergularias, Stephanotises, Thunbergias, &c., which are still growing, to be regulated with a more gentle hand, cutting out but little more than barren shoots, and drawing the remainder into somewhat closer festoons, to allow the more free admission of sunlight into the interior of the house. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--The plants for a winter supply of fruit should now be making progress. Keep the vines thin and use every means to keep up a good heat, with liberal admissions of air at all favourable opportunities, to get them strong and vigorous against the winter months. Stop mildew by dusting the leaves with sulphur. Mushrooms.--Succession-beds to be made according to previous directions. Give a good sprinkling to those in bearing, to produce a genial humidity; and turn the covering material occasionally, to keep them sweet and free from mouldiness. Peaches.--When the trees in the early house are pruned, it is advisable to cover the cuts, when dry, with white lead, to prevent the admission of air and water to the wound. Wash the trellis, whitewash the flues and walls, and make every part of the house clean. Dress the trees with a mixture of soft soap and sulphur in hot water; to be well rubbed in with a brush or sponge. Vines.--Continue to look over the ripe Grapes, cutting out any decaying berries. If the fruit is to be kept for any length of time, and if any plants, through want of other accommodation, must be kept under the Vines, they should be watered in the morning, using a little fire heat in the day, with air, to expel damp before night. Whatever system of pruning is adopted, whether the long-rod or spur, it is advisable, when the brown scale is visible, to take off the loose bark, to wash them, and the wires and rafters, with soft soap dissolved in hot water, using a hard brush, being careful not to injure the buds; afterwards to apply hot lime, made to the consistency of thick paint. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The decline of temperature and less watering must go on progressively, more especially in dull weather, with free ventilation at all favourable opportunities. If the weather be cold, use a little fire-heat occasionally during the day, especially where there are many plants in bloom, that ventilation may be given to expel damp and stagnant air. Cinerarias.--Plants that have filled their small pots with roots to be shifted, according to their size and strength, into larger pots. The compost to be one part turfy loam, one part peat or leaf mould, and one part rotten horsedung. They delight on a cool bottom, and will thrive tolerably well in a cold pit, protected from frost during the winter. They should be placed on a dry bottom of coal ashes, and kept as near to the glass as possible. Heaths.--They may, if there is no room for them in the greenhouse, be kept in a cold pit, or frame, during the winter. Water to be given carefully on the forenoon of a fine day. Frost to be excluded by mats, or other covering; but they can be grown sufficiently hardy by free exposure to bear a few degrees of frost without injury if they are shaded from the sun's rays until gradually thawed. Mignonette.--Sow, to come into bloom about the end of February. The soil to be rich, light, and the pots to have a good supply of crocks at the bottom, as the success of growing this favourite plant through the winter will depend in a great measure upon the drainage and keeping the plants dry and untouched by frosts. Those who have a hotbed frame will find it useful to start the seeds by moderate heat. Others who have no such convenience may place their pots in a cold frame in a sheltered situation, and upon a floor of rough stones overlaid with ashes. Pelargoniums.--The more dormant they can be kept during the winter the better. Therefore, only a very moderate supply of water should be given to keep them from flagging, and a liberal supply of air at all favourable opportunities. Verbenas.--To be placed on swing or other shelves as near to the glass as possible. They require plenty of air, the extirpation of green fly, and a moderate supply of water to preserve them in a healthy condition. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Ferns.--Sow the seeds, or spores, when ripe. A convenient sized pot to be filled with sandy peat, finishing with a few rough lumpy pieces to form an uneven surface. The seeds to be shaken over the tops and sides of these pieces of soil, by which there is more probability of some of them vegetating than if they had been sown on a level surface where the whole of the seed would be subjected to the same kind of treatment, which might with ordinary care be either too wet or too dry. The pot to be set in a saucer that contains a little water, which will feed the whole mass with sufficient moisture without a drop being required on the surface of the pot. The seedlings succeed best in a cool part of the stove where evaporation can be most effectually prevented; but they do not like to be continually kept close under a bell-glass. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--Top dress the plants in pots or boxes with leaf mould, supplying those that are rooting freely with an abundance of atmospheric moisture, and free circulation of air, stopping at every second joint, and setting the fruit as the blossom expands. Strawberries.--It is usual, when the stock of plants in pots is large, to lay them on their sides on the south side of a wall or fence, packed in dry coal ashes, and topped with boards, or any other such covering, to protect them from heavy falls of rain until they are wanted for forcing. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. As fresh air is indispensable for the health of plants, and as fogs occur about this time, it is essential to apply a little fire-heat during the day, to expel damps, and to cause a desirable activity in the circulation of the air. Attend to cleanliness, picking off dead leaves, and the destruction of insects. Bulbs.--Pot Hyacinths, Narcissi, Tulips, &c., to flower late in the spring; also the Ixiæ and Gladioli, and various other Irideæ; and also Oxalis, Lachenalia, &c. They delight in light open soil composed of peat, loam, and sand, and rotten leaf mould as an addition to, or substitute for, the peat. Cinerarias.--Give the final shift to the plants intended to flower as specimens in early spring. Chrysanthemums to be treated with manure water occasionally. All suckers and spindly shoots to be removed, and the flowers to be thinned. Pelargoniums.--A little fire-heat by day, with plenty of air, will be of service to drive off the damp and stagnant atmosphere caused by heavy rains. Watering, if necessary, to be given in the morning; the principal shoots to be tied into a regular form, and the weakly and useless ones removed; to be placed near the glass, to encourage a sturdy, short-jointed growth. Two ounces of the Gishurst compound, dissolved in one gallon of soft water, will speedily banish the green fly. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--Keep them tied in as they grow; stop the side-shoots at the second joint; allow the leader to grow to the required length before stopping it; and pinch off the young fruit if you think they are not sufficiently strong to carry a crop. Peaches.--Prune and dress the trees as soon as they lose their leaves. If the lights are still off any of the early houses the sooner they are put on the better. An abundance of air to be given. Pines.--The temperature of the fruit-swelling plants to range from 60° to 65° at night, with an increase during the day in accordance with the state of the weather, whether bright and sunny, or rainy, foggy, or frosty; and the succession plants a few degrees less. Humidity to be considerably reduced, as it tends at this season to produce weak and immature growth. The bark-beds of strong succession plants that are required to start into fruit early, to be renewed by having a small quantity added to the surface of the bed. Pits heated by dung will require covering with mats at night: when covered let every other light be slightly raised, to allow the steam to pass off. When the covering is off it will escape through the laps of the glass. Take advantage of all opportunities for giving a little air. If it can be done every day, so much the better for the health of the plants. Vines.--The Vines in late houses that will not require to be pruned for some time should have the tops or other portions of the immature wood cut off, to give strength and plumpness to the back eyes. If the houses are dry, kept free from drip, and the scissors employed amongst decaying berries, the fruit that now remains will be in a good condition for holding on for a long time. NOVEMBER. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Now that the dull, foggy days and sharp frosty nights have arrived, it is necessary to keep all plants that have finished their growth free from excitement, and rather dry at their roots. A gentle fire to be applied during the day, which will allow the advantage of a free circulation of fresh air, and, by closing up early in the afternoon, will retain sufficient heat to resist the encroachments of ordinary frosts during the night. But if the frost should set in severely, night coverings, if possible, should be applied in preference to fire-heat. American Plants, &c.--Pot, if not done, Rhododendrons, Kalmias, hardy Azaleas, Lily of the Valley, and other plants usually required for winter forcing. Chrysanthemums.--They will require an abundance of air to prevent the flowers expanding weakly. Keep them well supplied with water, and the leaves in a healthy state; for a great portion of their beauty depends upon so doing. They may sometimes be seen almost entirely denuded of leaves when in flower, which considerably detracts from what should be their ornamental appearance in the greenhouse or conservatory. Primroses (Chinese).--Give a few of the strongest and most forward a shift into larger pots. The double varieties are very useful for cutting where bouquets are much in request, as they do not drop the flowers like the single varieties. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Great caution will now be necessary in the application of atmospheric heat and humidity, as an excess of either will cause a premature and unseasonable growth which no after-care could thoroughly rectify. The thermometer for the majority of stove plants need not at any time of the day exceed 60°, with a fall of 8° or 10° during the night. Begonias.--They deserve a place in every stove, as they are plants of easy cultivation, and bloom at a season when flowers are scarce; they can also be introduced to the conservatory or sitting-room when in bloom. FORCING-HOUSES. Hotbeds.--Keep up the heat of dungbeds by adding leaves and dung to the linings; but not sufficient of the latter to cause a rank steam in the frames. Peaches.--If any vacancies occur in the late houses they should now be filled up. We have before recommended trees of large size to be taken from the walls for this purpose, but in so doing care should be taken to select such sorts as the _Murray_, _Elruge_, and _Violette Hâtive_ Nectarines; _Noblesse_, _Royal George_, _Grosse Mignonne_, and _Chancellor_ Peaches, being the best adapted for forcing. Some sorts are of little value as forced fruit, although they may bear abundantly. Pines.--Coverings to be used, and as little fire-heat as possible, to keep up the required heat during the night. The heat of the spring-fruiting and succession-houses to be gradually decreased, so that it may range from 60° to 65°. The winter-fruiting plants to range 10° higher. Vines.--The Grapes will require unremitting attention to keep the house dry, and to cut out the decayed berries. It will, we suppose, be generally observed that the fruit that was ripe before wet weather sets in will keep better than the more backward ones, which may be a useful hint "to make hay while the sun shines," or, in other words, to ripen the fruit in good time. Prune and dress the Vines in the succession-houses as recommended for the early ones. When Vines have been taken out of the house they should be protected from the vicissitudes of the weather, as they are sometimes greatly injured by being exposed to excessive wet and severe frosts. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Continue to admit air in favourable weather, but not in currents; shut up early; use water sparingly, and always tepid--giving little or none to succulents and plants in a state of rest. Flowers.--Where there is a pit at liberty it may now be prepared for forcing flowers. The glass must be thoroughly cleaned, as light is of importance at this season. The tree leaves when gathered to be mixed with a portion of well-prepared dung, to produce an early action, and about nine inches of tan or sawdust placed over them in which to plunge the pots. The plants, if in proper condition, may be introduced immediately--viz. Azaleas, Camellias, Persian Lilacs, Gardenias, Moss and Provence Roses, Rhododendrons, Sweet Briars, Honeysuckles, &c. The Hyacinths, Narcissi, Tulips, and other bulbs that have been potted early, as advised in due season, may be introduced successively in small quantities when the buds are an inch or two long, plunging them in any out-of-the-way part of the pit, covering them for a time with four or five inches of old tan. Heaths and New Holland Plants.--Water them sparingly. Dry the atmosphere if necessary by lighting a slight fire on fine days. Give air freely. Pelargoniums.--Shift and tie out as they may require. A few of the most forward may be accelerated by a little heat. Primroses (Chinese).--Water with caution. Two or three small pegs to be stuck into the soil around each, to keep the stem and plant erect in the pot. Thin out weak and deformed bloom-buds. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. The resting section of Orchids should now be allowed to settle down gently to their annual repose by withholding water at the root, by diminishing the amount of atmospheric moisture, and by giving a more liberal ventilation than in the growing season. The more evergreen kinds--such as some of the Aërides, Dendrobiums, Saccolabiums, Vandas, &c., to be favoured with the warmest situation. FORCING-HOUSES. Asparagus.--Where it is wanted early, preparations should now be made for forcing it. Any old Cucumber or Melon-bed that still retains a gentle heat may be used for the purpose. The plants to be placed as closely as possible, and covered with three or four inches of any light soil. The application of linings will supply any deficiency of heat that may be caused by severe weather. When the heads come up, to be supplied with an abundance of light and air. Cherries.--Look over the plants in pots, and if they require shifting into larger pots it may be done at once. The pots to be plunged in coal ashes, or any other loose material, to protect the roots from frost, and where they will commence rooting immediately. Figs.--If the summer and autumn attention has been given to them, as advised, very little, if any, winter pruning will now be required; but if such is necessary it may be done as soon as the leaves fade. The trees to be carefully washed clean all over with soap and water, and then painted over with a mixture composed of one ounce of soft soap and one ounce of sulphur to a quart of water. Trees in pots to be shifted, or top-dressed, as may be necessary. Shifting is only recommended when it is desirable to increase the size of the trees. To be afterwards placed in a shed with the pots plunged in leaves. Pines.--The plants on which the fruit has recently appeared to be encouraged with heat and moderate moisture; but those that are likely to "show" for the next two months to be supplied with a temperature to keep them progressing slowly that they may be just beginning to swell their fruit when the days and sun are lengthening and strengthening. The state of temperature of the beds recently renewed with tan to be examined frequently, as they sometimes become suddenly too hot. Now, when Oak and other tree leaves can be collected, it is advisable to use half leaves and half dung for lining the pits heated by fermenting materials; the leaves contribute to make the heat more regular and lasting. Give no water to the succession plants during dull weather except to such plants as are near the flues and pipes, and are apt to get over-dry in consequence. Sea-kale.--If this delicious vegetable is wanted early, a small hotbed should be made in some convenient place; the roots to be taken up and placed upon it, covered with a little light soil, and protected by boards or any other contrivance most convenient and suitable to exclude light and the inclemency of the weather. Rhubarb.--The same as advised for Sea-kale. Where a Mushroom-house is at work is the best place for both. Vines.--All fading leaves to be removed from the Vines on which fruit is hanging, and the house to be kept dry, light, and airy, and free from anything likely to create mould or damp. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Careful attention should now be given to the picking off mouldy and dead leaves, decaying flower-stems, &c., as they spread contagion wherever they touch. Drip to be prevented, and atmospheric humidity to be disposed of by a gentle day fire occasionally, and the free admission of air. Azaleas (Chinese).--Introduce a few into heat for early bloom. The _A. Indica alba_ and _Phoenicea_ are best to begin with; to be succeeded by _Smith's coccinea_, and after it any of the other varieties. As decorations for the conservatory or drawing-room they are invaluable where they continue for six weeks or two months in perfect beauty. Camellias.--Water, when necessary, to be given in a slightly tepid state, and plenty of air, that the buds may be allowed to swell full and prominent by a slow but sure process. If bloom is required early, to be forwarded by introducing them into a situation where heat is applied. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Withhold moisture entirely from the roots of deciduous Orchids, and such as are sinking into a state of repose. Any late specimens, or importations, making late growths to be favoured with the best light situations in the house and a little water, to keep up the vitality sufficient to produce the secretions necessary to carry them safely through the dull days of winter. Look over all growing plants, and see that they do not suffer for want of water. Look to every Orchid, even the smallest growing on blocks or in baskets, they all require attention. Repot or surface dress any that require it. A favourable day to be chosen to wash the lights for the more free admission of that agent most indispensable for their health. The whole to be kept neat, and free from insects; and the plants on stages, tables, or suspended from blocks, baskets, &c., to be arranged in a manner the most suitable for a picturesque and pleasing effect. FORCING-HOUSES. Where early forcing is intended it is advisable to give a thorough cleansing to the houses by limewashing and dressing the wood of Cherries, Figs, Peaches, Vines, &c., as frequently directed. Beans (Dwarf Kidney).--Sow in six-inch pots; when crocked to be filled within three inches of the rim with a compost consisting of old Cucumber or Melon mould, rotten dung and leaf mould in about equal proportions. To be placed in any convenient part of the forcing-house for a few days until the soil is warm. The Beans are then sown about ten or twelve in each pot, and pressed by the finger about an inch below the soil. In a week they will be up; to be then thinned out, according to the strength of the plants, to six or eight in each, and to receive a gentle watering. When the two first leaves are fully developed the plants to be earthed up as high as the cotyledons. To be regularly syringed and watered at the roots, taking especial care that they do not become too wet, or they will damp off. When they have made two joints to be stopped, to cause them to produce laterals and bearing branches. The plants to be placed as close to the glass as possible. The _Chinese Dwarf_ and _Fulmer_ are good sorts for forcing. Figs.--A temperature of about 40° will suit them at present; if allowed to get lower they are very apt to suffer. Trees in pots to be removed to any house where that degree of temperature is kept up. Peaches.--Where the roots are inside, and have been kept dry, an application of weak, clear liquid manure, at the temperature of summer heat (76°), will act as a stimulant to the roots, whose services are required before much excitement takes place at top. Pines.--Now, at the dullest season of the year, it is necessary to be very cautious in regulating the bottom and surface temperatures, more especially in the succession-houses or pits; a bottom heat of about 70°, with a steady top temperature of about 60° during the day, and about 55° during the night, will keep the plants in a comparatively comfortable state of rest, neither allowing the temperature to decline so low as to reduce their vitality to such a degree as to endanger their restoration to vigour in proper season, nor to rise so high as to excite them into a growth that would be immature for want of solar light and heat. A moderate application of water will also be necessary. Vines.--When the Grapes are all cut, prune the Vines without loss of time, that the wounds may have sufficient time to get perfectly healed before they are excited into growth. If delayed until early spring, bleeding will be sure to follow. Vines in pots intended for forcing should either be placed within the protection of the house appropriated to them, or secured from the effects of severe weather. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. The great object should now be to keep them moderately dry; water, when necessary, to be given in the forenoon. Gentle fires to be applied in the daytime, with a sufficiency of air to allow the vapour to pass off. All decaying leaves, flower-stalks, &c., to be carefully picked off. All weeds, moss on the surface of pots, or anything else that would tend to cause dampness, mildew, or decomposition, to be cleared away. Pinch off the tops of any of the half-hardy plants that are growing too rapidly. Climbers.--To be closely tied, that they may interfere as little as possible with the admission of light. Forcing Pit.--The various plants described in former Calendars, and recommended to be forwarded here for furnishing the drawing-room, conservatory, or mixed greenhouse, will require careful and skilful attention. Moderate syringings with tepid water to be given on suitable occasions. Fire heat to be applied, more especially in the daytime, with air at every favourable opportunity. The pit to be shut up early, and the heat to be husbanded by external coverings in preference to night heat. Syringings with the Gishurst Compound, or frequent and moderate fumigations of tobacco smoke, to be given to destroy green fly. The water to be always tepid when applied to the roots or branches when they require it. New Holland Plants.--As they are very apt to suffer when exposed to cold draughts of air, and as they are generally wintered in the same house with the more hardy sorts of greenhouse plants, they should occupy a part of the house where air can be admitted, when necessary, from the top lights only. Orange Trees.--Advantage to be taken of unfavourable weather for out-door work, to clean the foliage of Orange trees and Camellias. It is as essential to the health of such things that the foliage be kept clean, and, therefore, in a fit state to perform its functions, as that their roots be kept in a healthy, active state. FORCING-HOUSES. Asparagus.--Make a slight hotbed of tree leaves, if they can be procured, of size or substance sufficient only to cause a gentle heat. The roots may be taken up from the open ground, and planted at once in the bed. Mice and slugs to be looked after. Any vacant pits, or frames, may be made available for the purpose of forcing Asparagus. Cherries.--To be treated as advised for Peaches. Cucumbers.--If the plants are strong, and you have a full command of bottom and atmospheric heat, you may calculate, with a little attention, upon ultimate success. Air to be admitted when it is safe to do so, to get the leaves dry, if possible, daily. Light is indispensable, and steep-roofed houses, or pits, are preferred for that object in winter. The early nursing-box for young plants should be well supplied with linings, the glass washed clean and kept in good repair. Mushrooms.--Continue to prepare succession-beds as formerly directed. The beds that have been in bearing some time, if the surface is dry, to be watered with clear, weak liquid manure, a few degrees warmer than the temperature of the house. Peaches.--The early house should now be set in order, by being thoroughly cleansed, whitewashed, and the trees pruned, dressed, and tied. Air to be given during the day, and the house to be shut up at night for a fortnight or three weeks, preparatory to the commencement of forcing. Pines.--The principal objects of attention during this dull season should comprise a moderate declension of heat and moisture, and a moderate supply of air at all times when it can be admitted with safety. When heat is supplied by fermenting materials the linings will require some sort of covering--as straw, fern, boards, or shutters--to protect them from cold winds, frosts, or rains; only a gentle bottom heat is now required at this, that should be, their season of rest, as a dry and moderately warm atmosphere is nearly all they will require. If the young plants are growing in pits heated solely by dung linings, be careful to exclude the steam from the dung, as excess of damp will rot the hearts of the plants. Vines.--If early Grapes are required, it is advisable to adopt the old-fashioned plan of placing some sweet hot dung inside the house, to produce an atmosphere that is most congenial for softening the wood, and for "breaking" the buds. The roots, if outside, to be covered with a good depth of litter, to produce an increase of heat by fermentation, and to prevent the escape of terrestrial heat. All Vines casting their leaves to be pruned immediately. DECEMBER. FIRST WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Every endeavour should now be made to keep these houses as gay as possible. Fire-heat to be applied occasionally during dull, dark, or rainy weather, taking care not to raise the temperature too high--say greenhouse from 50° to 55° by day and from 40° to 45° by night; conservatory 60° by day and 50° by night. Chrysanthemums to be removed as soon as they get shabby, to be succeeded by early Camellias. The _Euphorbia jacquiniflora_ is well worthy of attention now; it requires but a very moderate allowance of water at this season, as the least saturation or interference with the root action will cause the leaves to turn yellow while the plant is in flower. _Poinsettia pulcherrima_ is also worthy of particular attention as a noble ornamental flower at this season. The old _Plumbago Capensis_ and _rosea_ still retain their places amongst our best plants at this season. Acacias and Cytisuses, being yellow and showy, give, with the other flowers, a variety of colours to beautify the whole. _Gesnera zebrina_ should not be forgotten; the elegant markings of the leaves contribute to enhance the beauty of this beautiful winter flower. Heaths.--As fire-heat is generally injurious to this tribe of plants it is advisable to be very cautious in its application. They can bear a good deal of cold and some degrees of frost without sustaining any very serious injury; but they cannot bear the drying influence of fire-heat without serious damage to their foliage, and which is very frequently death to the plants. They will require but very little water, especially the large specimens, which should be very particularly examined as to their state of dryness or otherwise, as a guide to the application or withholding of water. An abundance of air to be given on fine days, to keep the plants from growing. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. A cautious application of fire-heat to be still observed here. The temperature to be kept rather low than otherwise, for fear of exciting premature growth. A small portion of air to be admitted on fine days, to purify the atmosphere of the house. Keep the surface of the soil in the pots free from weeds, as also from moss and lichen; but when doing so do not loosen the soil so as to injure the roots near the surface. Keep every plant free from dead leaves, and all climbing plants neatly tied up. The Achimenes, Clerodendrons, Erythrinas, Gloxinias, and the various bulbs will now be approaching a state of repose, and therefore will require but little or no water. To prevent confusion or mistakes it is advisable to place them on a shelf, or some other part of the house, by themselves. Although dormant, or nearly so, they require a stove temperature to keep them safe and sound. FORCING-HOUSES. Asparagus and Sea-kale.--Make up beds as wanted. Mushrooms.--Keep a moist atmosphere in the house, and the temperature steadily at or near 60°. A fresh bed to be made and spawned every three or four weeks, to produce successional crops. Pines.--The fruit now swelling will require the temperature and moisture of the house or pit to be kept up. Those intended for the main crop to be kept in a regular state, allowing them air at every favourable opportunity, with a day temperature from 70° to 75° and from 55° to 60° at night. Plants in bloom to receive careful attention. Keep the atmosphere dry with a brisk temperature, admitting a little fresh air at favourable opportunities, to prevent them from being injured by damp. When the heat is kept up by dung linings, constant watching will be necessary to prevent any fluctuation of temperature, having materials at hand to assist in case of frost. Vines.--Where forcing has commenced attend to the breaking of the Vines by the application of fermenting manure inside the house, as advised last week, which will be found the best means of keeping the atmosphere regularly moist; but if such cannot be used, the wood should be syringed frequently, and evaporating-pans, or troughs, kept full of water. The roots, if outside, to be protected, and afforded a steady, gentle warmth until the buds are fairly swelled. As it is advisable to proceed very slowly with early Vines, the temperature to range from 55° to 60° by day and from 45° to 50° by night, and even rather under than over the above scale. Late Grapes will require great care to preserve them from damp. Look over them frequently, and dry the house by fire during the day. SECOND WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Every dead, decaying, and mouldy leaf, and flowerstalk, to be removed as soon as they are seen. Mildew to be banished by an application of flowers of sulphur, and afterwards to be prevented from making its appearance by a free ventilation on clear, mild mornings, using a little fire heat at the same time. Great caution is now necessary in giving water to the plants, more especially to such as have not well matured their growth, and are in a rather soft state. It is also advisable to look over them every morning, that the flagging of a leaf may be noticed, and the necessary supply of water be given. All pots to be turned around occasionally to keep the plants uniform. Calceolarias.--Remove all decayed leaves, and be careful to give no more water than is really required. Keep down green fly. Cinerarias.--No more fire heat to be given than is necessary to keep out frost. The plants intended for large specimens to receive their final shift; air to be given on all occasions in favourable weather. Every one that is getting pot-bound to be shifted. Green fly to be kept down by fumigating. The most forward to have the lightest place in the house, close to the glass, with sufficient space for the air to circulate freely around the foliage of each. Pelargoniums.--To be kept rather cool and dry; fire heat to be avoided, except when necessary to prevent the temperature falling below 40°, or to dispel damp. Every plant intended for early bloom to be arranged in the best form. The system of arranging a piece of twisted bass under the rim of the pot, to which loops are fastened to secure the shoots and the better formation of the plant, obviates the too-extensive use of sticks, a superfluity of which is at all times objectionable. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. Continue to act as advised lately. Care and caution in the application of water are more especially required, as there is not a single feature in the cultivation of plants during the winter in which the amateur is more likely to err, and by reason of which a greater amount of injury is sustained, than in the application of water either in its fluid or vaporous state. If applied to the soil in superabundance, the roots, being inactive, are certain to sustain some degree of injury; and if it is applied in excess to the atmosphere in the form of vapour, the exhalations from the leaves of the plants will be checked in consequence of the density of the medium that surrounds them when they will be sure to suffer. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--Sow some good variety for planting out next month. A one-light frame on a well-worked bed of dung and leaves is most suitable for the purpose, as producing an atmosphere moist and congenial for their healthy vegetation and growth. Peaches.--Syringe the trees that are just started and swelling the buds, and keep every plant clean and neat. Pines.--When the application of fire heat is necessary during severe weather, it is advisable to pay particular attention to those that have done blooming and swelling off in various stages, that they may not receive a check from being over-dry at the roots. Vines.--Leaves, or dung, or both mixed together, when used to produce fermentation, and a sweet vaporous atmosphere to "break" the early Vines, should be turned and watered at least once a-week. Keep the wood generally moist, and proceed in forcing with caution as before advised. As the most essential point in early forcing is to secure a healthy and vigorous root action, it is advisable, if the Vines are planted inside, to excite the roots by an occasional application of water at a temperature from 85° to 90°. It the Vines are planted outside, a steady heat of about 60° should be maintained by the fermenting matter placed on the border to be frequently turned over, and protected with dry litter from the frost or other unfavourable weather. Houses intended to commence forcing the early part of next month, to have some fermenting materials placed on the borders to excite the roots a little before the Vines are started, which will be of some assistance to make the buds push strongly and without much loss of time. To induce the buds to break regularly throughout the whole length of the Vine, it is frequently necessary to bend the rod so as to incline the most forward buds to the lowest level, and to elevate the most backward. THIRD WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. As many of the hard-wooded plants are impatient of fire heat and a confined atmosphere, it is advisable to use no more artificial heat than is absolutely necessary. The drying effects of fire heat must be counteracted by a supply of moisture; the moisture becomes condensed on the glass and falls in drips, that are apt to spoil the beauty of the flowers, and to injure the foliage of the plants. The best corrective for such unfavourable results is to be found in keeping the temperature as low as may be consistent with the safety of the plants, and in withholding moisture as much as possible whenever the glass is affected by frost. See that the young stock of Heliotropes, Scarlet Geraniums, Persian Cyclamens, and other such flowers, that are grown especially for winter, are accommodated with a light, airy situation, and receive regular attention as regards watering. Avoid watering the Pelargoniums until they are thoroughly dry, and keep down insects. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. The plants in the stove should be kept as quiet as possible, and only just sufficient water given to keep them from flagging, to be accompanied with a moderately low temperature; about 60° by day, and 50° by night, the object being to prevent them from growing before the spring of the year. Admit air when it can be done safely, but do not expose the plants to cold, frosty winds at any time. As our collections of Orchids are from countries with different seasons of growth, and various kinds of temperature and climate, it is difficult to cultivate in one house a miscellaneous collection of them so satisfactorily as where there are two divisions, the one commanding a higher temperature, with more moisture, than the other. Where there is no such division, advantage may be taken of a forcing-pit, or other such house, to which any of them now in a growing state may be removed, and thus their growth may be promoted without injury to the general collection. For the general collection a drier atmosphere and lower temperature are now desirable, as no plants are more benefited by a season of rest than Orchids. FORCING-HOUSES. All Vines, Peaches, and Figs in Pots, or Tubs, to be secured from frost and wet. A fermenting body in a forcing vinery is an excellent plunging medium for such of these as are wanted very early. Keep up a succession of Asparagus, French Beans, Rhubarb, Sea-kale, &c., according to the demand. Cucumbers.--Thin out the fruit occasionally, more especially if too many appear at one time. If any plants have been bearing some time, and now appear nearly exhausted, they may be rallied into vigour again by a judicious pruning and thinning, and by the application of a top dressing of leaf mould or other such rich, light soil, and of liquid manure occasionally. Peaches.--A moist heat, arising from dung or leaves, is as beneficial to Peach trees as to Vines before they break, but as it can but rarely be made use of, in consequence of the difference in the structure of the interior, moisture must be supplied by other means, such as syringing and sprinkling the flues, or pipes, when warm. A few trees, in pots, are useful for early forcing, as they can be easily plunged in a pit or any other convenient place where a mild regular bottom heat can be supplied. The trees for this purpose must have been grown and established for some time in pots. Pines.--A regular heat, both bottom and atmospheric, to be kept up to carry the general stock of fruiting plants safely through the winter. A high and close temperature to be avoided in the management of the succession plants. Strawberries.--If ripe fruit is wanted very early, some of the strongest plants, if treated as advised, should now be selected, and placed in a pit where they can get a gentle bottom heat, or on the back or front shelf of a vinery or Peach-house, just started for forcing, to be placed near the glass with a free admission of air on fine days. Vines.--It is advisable, when beginning to force, to commence with a low temperature--say, 55° by day and 50° by night, to be increased 5° more until they break, when it may be raised to 60° at night, and 65° in the day, or thereabouts, allowing a rise of a few degrees by sun heat. The Vines to be syringed evening and morning until they break, and the walls and floor kept damp. If the stems of the Vines are near the flues, or pipes, wrap moss over that part, and keep it constantly moist. The Vines in the late houses to be pruned, the loose bark to be removed, and the scale, if visible, to be banished by an application of the Gishurst Compound, or by the more ancient composition of sulphur, soft soap, and tobacco water. Where the fruit is ripe, a little fire heat will be necessary in frosty weather to prevent the vapour that adheres to the glass on the inside being frozen, for the moisture on thawing is apt to drop upon the bunches causing injury to the bloom, and decay to the berries. FOURTH WEEK. GREENHOUSE AND CONSERVATORY. Continue to keep the supply of heat and moisture at the lowest degree compatible with the safety of the plants from frosts. In damp, foggy weather, a gentle fire to be applied occasionally during the day to expel moist, stagnant air. During severe winterly weather it is advisable to be cautious in the application of heat, more especially at night. From 45° by night to 50° by day will be sufficient for the conservatory, and 40° for the mixed greenhouse. To give a pleasing variety to the appearance of these houses it is advisable to rearrange the plants occasionally; those going out of flower to be removed, and a fresh supply introduced from the forcing-pit. All plants in these and other departments to be regularly looked over, removing the dead leaves and tying in straggling branches. The surface soil to be stirred a little, and some fresh added. As all compost-heaps are benefited by exposure to frosts, it is advisable to turn over the caked or frozen surface every morning, until the whole is turned over and penetrated by the frost, by which grubs and all such kinds of vermin are destroyed, and the soil considerably ameliorated. Calceolarias (Herbaceous).--To be shifted into larger pots if they require them, to be kept near the glass, to be watered moderately through a fine rose, and on no account to be allowed to get thoroughly dry. To be careful when removing decayed leaves, not to pull or to cut them off too close to the stem, by which the flower-shoots would be very likely to get injured. Camellias.--Great care is necessary that they may not be exposed to great alternations of temperature, which are sure to cause them to drop their flower-buds. The great reason why flower-buds very often fall off without properly coming into bloom, is the too sudden changes in the temperature to which they are exposed. For instance: when the buds are nearly ready to expand, a sudden heat causes them to push too rapidly; and, on the contrary, a decrease of warmth at the time checks their growth, and in other cases causes them to fall. The heat required to expand the blossom-buds is about 60° by day, and 50° by night. If this be attended to, the plants will continue in flower for a great length of time, as the plants in that heat are not excited to grow. A little weak manure water to be given occasionally to the blooming plants. Chrysanthemums.--When they begin to fade, to be removed to the north side of a wall or fence, the pots to be plunged in old tan, leaves, or sawdust, to protect them from the severity of winter. Cytisuses.--Place them and other such early-flowering plants in the coldest part of the house, where they may receive plenty of air at all favourable opportunities. Orange Trees.--These, or other such plants that have not been recently potted, to be surfaced by removing a little of the top soil and supplying its place with fresh. Attention to be paid to keeping the leaves clean and healthy. STOVE AND ORCHID-HOUSE. As it would be improper to attempt to maintain the same degree of heat in any structure, when the external temperature is below the freezing-point as may be permitted if it were 10° or 15° above freezing, we would advise from 50° by night to 60° by day, for the stove and Orchid-house. As many plants, especially Orchids, suffer from drip at this season, a careful look-out should be kept, and either the cause remedied or the plants removed. The decoration of the hothouse would now depend in a great measure upon Begonias, Euphorbias, Luculias, &c. Such plants should be carefully tied up and placed in the most conspicuous situations, or some of them may be removed to the conservatory so as to prolong their season of blooming. Allamandas.--Continue the temperature and treatment as lately advised. To be potted, as also _Stephanotis_, &c., and trained preparatory to starting them into growth, about the beginning of the new year. Forcing-pit.--Introduce such plants as are generally used for forcing, especially the sweet-scented sorts, Lily of the Valley, Sweet Briar, Lilacs, some of the Tea, Bourbon, or Hybrid Perpetual Roses, and bulbous plants. Ixoras.--To be elevated near the glass to set their bloom, and to have plenty of air at favourable opportunities. FORCING-HOUSES. Cucumbers.--No diminution of heat to be allowed after the plants are ridged out and in action. Peaches.--It is becoming very much the fashion to have Peach and some other sorts of fruit trees which are wanted for early forcing in pots, and the plan is so far good, that it affords the advantage of being able to give the roots a mild, regular bottom heat, which is of the greatest importance in early forcing. Those who have good established trees, in pots, may now start them in a moderate heat. Air to be given liberally in favourable weather, and the syringe to be used freely over them morning and evening. The surface soil to be stirred up and kept open, and a supply of manure water to be given previous to starting them. The trees in the late houses to receive whatever pruning is necessary, and to be cleansed of every particle of scale, and afterwards washed with a composition of soft soap and sulphur. All bast ties and insect-haunts to be carefully removed. Pines.--During the continuance of severe weather, dry fern, straw, &c., will be necessary, in addition to mats; such coverings will be of more service than maintaining strong fires to keep up the temperature. When a supply of fruit is required throughout the year, it is sometimes necessary, at this season, to subject some of the plants to a high temperature to start them into fruit. A few of such as are most likely to fruit soon, to be put into a pit, or house, by themselves, where a temperature of from 60° to 65° by night, and from 70° to 75° by day, with about 80° of bottom heat, will be the most certain treatment for starting them into fruit. The other plants can then be supplied with a moderate temperature until the beginning of February; by such treatment a succession of fruit will be prolonged. Do not suffer the linings of dung-beds to decline, keep up, if possible, a temperature of 50° at night, and 60° by day, with a little air at every favourable opportunity. Potatoes.--Plant some sound, whole sets, singly, in three-and-a-half-inch pots, to be placed at the back of a Pine-pit, or in any other place where there is some heat, they will, in due time, be useful for planting out in the exhausted Asparagus-frames or pits. Raspberries.--When a few early dishes would be considered a treat, if some canes are taken up and planted in any vacant spot in the Peach-house, they will be found to bear fruit abundantly with common care. It is a more certain method of obtaining fruit than by potting them. Vines.--When started and until the buds are fairly broken, endeavour to keep the points of the shoots nearly on a level with the lowest part of the Vine, and if that should not be found sufficient to induce the buds to start regularly throughout the whole length of the Vine, the rod should be bent so as to bring the most forward buds to the lowest level, and elevating those that are backward. A moist atmosphere to be kept up by sprinkling the floor and paths, and by syringing the Vines lightly every morning and evening until the leaves begin to appear, when the supply of moisture will not be so much required. Introduce a lot in pots to some house, pit, or frame prepared with leaves or manure, if not done as advised last week. At first, Vines in pots are most useful for early work, as they, in many places, save the established Vines in houses, from the hazardous operation of early excitement. Increase the temperature slightly when the buds are beginning to swell, or are starting a little. The fermenting material in the house to be stirred up occasionally. This fermenting material should, if possible, consist of a large proportion of leaves mixed with the dung, to prevent the steam from the latter discolouring the rafters and sashes; and if the vapour is likely to be too strong, a thin covering of sawdust or old tan will prevent any injurious effects. If the roots are outside the house, and had been covered before the commencement of frost, as advised, some more dung and leaves should be added to keep up a genial heat in the border, the good effects of which will be soon evident in the progress of the Vines inside. When the Grapes are all cut in the late houses, the Vines to be pruned immediately, and the cuts to be covered with white lead. 
31643	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) *********************************************************************** * Transcriber's Note: Obvious typos were fixed and use of hyphens was * * normalized throughout, but all other spelling and punctuation was * * retained as it appeared in the original text. * *********************************************************************** ASPARAGUS ITS CULTURE FOR HOME USE AND FOR MARKET A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE PLANTING, CULTIVATION, HARVESTING, MARKETING, AND PRESERVING OF ASPARAGUS, WITH NOTES ON ITS HISTORY AND BOTANY BY F. M. HEXAMER _ILLUSTRATED_ NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1914 _Printed in U. S. A._ [Illustration: BEGINNING OF THE ASPARAGUS INDUSTRY IN CALIFORNIA] TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE vi I. Historical Sketch 1 II. Botany 4 III. Cultural Varieties 17 IV. Seed Growing 26 V. The Raising of Plants 30 VI. Selection of Plants 38 VII. The Soil and Its Preparation 43 VIII. Planting 49 IX. Cultivation 61 X. Fertilizers and Fertilizing 72 XI. Harvesting and Marketing 83 XII. Forcing 100 XIII. Preserving Asparagus 112 XIV. Injurious Insects 126 XV. Fungus Diseases 137 XVI. Asparagus Culture in Different Localities 145 INDEX 167 ILLUSTRATIONS Beginning of the Asparagus Industry in California _Frontispiece_ PAGE Asparagus Plumosus Nanus 5 Asparagus Sprengeri 7 Asparagus Laricinus 9 Asparagus Racemosus, var. Tetragonus 11 Asparagus Sarmentosus 12 Crown, Roots, Buds, Spear 14 Stem, Leaves, Flowers, Berries 14 Flowers 15 Palmetto Asparagus 21 Pot-Grown Plant 37 Horizontal Development of Roots 51 Trenches Ready for Planting 57 Hudson's Trencher 58 Root in Proper Position for Covering 59 Cross-section of Trenches After Planting 60 Asparagus Field Ridged in Early Spring 67 Leveling the Ridges After Cutting Season 69 Fertilized Asparagus Plot 75 Unfertilized Asparagus Plot 77 Basket of Asparagus 85 Cutting and Picking Up Asparagus 86 Horse Carrier for Ten Boxes 87 Asparagus Knives 89 End and Side View of White Asparagus Bunches 90 Conover's Asparagus Buncher 91 Watt's Asparagus Buncher 92 Rack and Knives Used in New England 93 At the Bunching Table 94 Box of Giant Asparagus 97 Southern Asparagus Crate 98 Tunnel for Forcing Steam Through the Soil 107 A Long Island Asparagus Cannery 113 Sterilizing Tank 115 Sterilizing Room 117 Interior View of a California Asparagus Cannery 119 Perspective View of a California Asparagus Cannery 121 Cannery in Asparagus Fields 123 Common Asparagus Beetle 127 Asparagus Attacked by Beetles 129 Spotted Ladybird 131 Twelve-spotted Asparagus Beetle 134 Asparagus Stems Affected with Rust 138 Portion of Rusted Asparagus Stems 139 Asparagus Field on Bouldin Island 161 PREFACE The cultivation of asparagus for home use as well as for market is so rapidly increasing, and reliable information pertaining to it is so frequently asked for, that a book on this subject is evidently needed. While all works on vegetable culture treat more or less extensively on its cultivation, so far there has been no book exclusively devoted to asparagus published in America. Asparagus is one of the earliest, most delicious, and surest products of the garden. Its position among other vegetables is unique, and when once planted it lasts a lifetime; it may be prepared for use in great variety, and may be canned or dried so as to be available at any time of the year; and yet in the great majority of farm gardens it is almost unknown. The principal reason for this neglect is based upon the erroneous idea that asparagus culture requires unusual skill, expense, and hard work. While this was true, in a measure, under old-time rules, modern methods have so simplified every detail connected with the cultivation of asparagus as to make it not necessarily more expensive and laborious than that of any other garden crop. To describe and make clear these improved methods, to demonstrate how easily and inexpensively an asparagus bed may be had in every garden, and how much pleasure, health, and profit may be derived from the crop have been the principal inducements to writing this book. In a popular treatise on so widely distributed a vegetable as asparagus, the cultivation of which had been brought to a high state of development many centuries before the Christian era, there is little opportunity for originality. All that the author has endeavored in this little volume has been to collect, arrange, classify, and systematize all obtainable facts, compare them with his own many years' experience in asparagus culture, and present his inferences in a plain and popular manner. Free use has been made of all available literature, especially helpful among which has been the Farmers' Bulletin No. 61 of the United States Department of Agriculture, by R. B. Handy; also bulletins of the Missouri, New York, Ohio, New Jersey, North Carolina, Maryland, Massachusetts, and South Carolina and other experiment stations; the files of _American Agriculturist; Gardener's Chronicle_, from which descriptions of several ornamental species by William Watson were condensed; Thome's "Flora von Deutschland;" "Eintraegliche Spargelzucht," von Franz Goeschke; "Braunschweiger Spargelbuch," von Dr. Ed. Brinckmeier; "Parks and Gardens of Paris," by William Robinson; "Asparagus Culture," by James Barnes and William Robinson; "Les Plantes Potageres," by Vilmorin-Andrieux; the works of Peter Henderson, Thomas Bridgeman, J. C. Loudon, and others. The author desires to express his grateful acknowledgments to Mr. Herbert Myrick, editor-in-chief of _American Agriculturist_ and allied publications, for critically reading the whole manuscript; to Prof. W. G. Johnson, Charles V. Mapes, C. L. Allen, A. D. McNair, Superintendent Southern Pines Experimental Farm; Prof. W. F. Massey, Robert W. Nix, Robert Hickmott, Charles W. Prescott, Joel Borton, and all others who by their help, suggestions, and advice have aided him in the preparation of this work. F. M. HEXAMER. _New York, 1901._ ASPARAGUS I HISTORICAL SKETCH The word "asparagus" is said to be of Persian origin. In middle Latin it appears as _sparagus_; Italian, _sparajio_; old French, _esperaje_; old English, _sperage_, _sparage_, _sperach_. The middle Latin form, _sparagus_, was in English changed into _sparagrass_, _sparrow-grass_, and sometimes simply _grass_, terms which were until recently in good literary use. In modern French it is _asperge_; German, _spargel_; Dutch, _aspergie_; Spanish, _esperrago_. The original habitat of the edible asparagus is not positively known, as it is now found naturalized throughout Europe, as well as in nearly all parts of the civilized world. How long the plant was used as a vegetable or as a medicine is likewise uncertain, but that it was known and highly prized by the Romans at least two centuries before the Christian era is historically recorded. According to Pliny, the Romans were already aware of the difference in quality, that grown near Ravenna being considered best, and was so large that three spears weighed one pound. The elder Cato has treated the subject with still greater care. He advises the sowing of the seed of asparagus in the beds of vine-dressers' reeds, which are cultivated in Italy for the support of the vines, and that they should be burned in the spring of the third year, as the ashes would act as a manure to the future crop. He also recommends that the plants be renewed after eight or nine years. The usual method of preparing asparagus pursued by the Roman cooks was to select the finest sprouts and to dry them. When wanted for the table they were put in hot water and cooked a few minutes. To this practice is owing one of Emperor Augustus's favorite sayings: "_Citius quam asparagi coquentur_" (Do it quicker than you can cook asparagus). While the indigenous asparagus has been used from time immemorial as a medicine by Gauls, Germans, and Britons, its cultivation and use as a vegetable was only made known to the people by the invading Roman armies. But in the early part of the sixteenth century it was mentioned among the cultivated garden vegetables, and Leonard Meager, in his "English Gardener," published in 1683, informs us that in his time the London market was well supplied with "forced" asparagus. The medicinal virtues formerly attributed to asparagus comprise a wide range. The roots, sprouts, and seeds were used as medicine. The fresh roots are diuretic, perhaps owing to the immediate crystalizable principle, "asparagine," which is said to be sedative in the dose of a few grains. A syrup made of the young shoots and an extract of the roots has been recommended as a sedative in heart affections, and the _species diuretica_--a mixture of asparagus, celery, parsley, holly, and sweet fennel--was a favorite preparation for use in dropsy and gravel. Among the Greeks and Romans it was one of the oldest and most valued medicines, and to which most absurd virtues were attributed. It was believed that if a person anointed himself with a liniment made of asparagus and oil the bees would not approach or sting him. It was also believed that if the root be put on a tooth which aches violently it causes it to come out without pain. The therapeutic virtues of asparagus seem to have been held in almost as high esteem by the ancients as those of ginseng are esteemed by the Chinese to this day. II BOTANY The genus Asparagus belongs to the Lily Family. It comprises about one hundred and fifty species, and these are spread through the temperate and tropical regions of the Old World. One-half of these species are indigenous to South Africa, and it is from this region that the most ornamental of the greenhouse species have been obtained. All the species are perennial, with generally fleshy roots or tubers. The stems are annual in some, perennial in others, most of them being spiny, climbing shrubs, growing to a length of from five to twenty or even fifty feet. The true leaves are usually changed into spines, which are situated at the base of the branches and are often stout and woody. The false leaves, termed cladodia, are the linear or hair-like organs which are popularly called leaves; they are in reality modified branches. These cladodia are nearly always arranged in clusters at intervals along the branches, and the flowers generally spring from their axils. They usually fall off the hardy species in winter, and they are easily affected by unfavorable conditions in all the species. Most of them flower and fruit freely under cultivation, so that seeds are available for propagation. [Illustration: FIG. 2--ASPARAGUS PLUMOSUS NANUS] ORNAMENTAL SPECIES _A. medeoloides_ (_Myrsiphyllum asparagoides_), popularly known as Smilax.--For many years this has been, and is yet, one of the most commonly grown and the most serviceable of the plants used by florists as "green." It is readily grown from seed in the greenhouse. While a few other species of asparagus have been close rivals, it is yet unexcelled for many purposes of floral decorations. _A. plumosus_ (the plumy asparagus).--A very graceful climbing plant which for finer decoration has largely taken the place of smilax, its foliage being finer than that of the most delicate ferns, and will last for weeks after being cut. The whole plant is of a bright, cheerful green. Its branches spread horizontally, and branch again in such a manner as to form a flat, frond-like arrangement, the leaves being very numerous, in clusters of about a dozen, bright green, and one-half inch long. A native of South Africa, where it climbs over bushes and branches in moist situations. There are several named varieties of this, most of which have originated in gardens. The most distinct are _A. tenuissimus_ and _A. plumosus nanus_, the fern-like appearance of which is seen in Fig. 2. [Illustration: FIG. 3--ASPARAGUS SPRENGERI] _A. Sprengeri._--This is one of the best and most attractive house plants of recent introduction. It is of graceful form and habit when grown as a pot plant, but it is equally well suited for planting in hanging baskets. Its fronds are frequently four feet long, of a rich shade of green, and very useful for cutting, retaining their freshness for weeks after being cut. As a house plant it has exceeded expectations, as it stands dry atmosphere better than the older kinds of ornamental asparagus, and is not particular as to any special position. It delights in a well-enriched soil, rather light in composition, with plenty of drainage, and grows very rapidly. It is decidedly pretty when in bloom, its little flowers being pure white on short racemes, and the anthers are of a bright orange color. Fig. 3 gives a good idea of its graceful habit. _A. falcatus._--One of the most striking twining plants for a large, temperate house. At the Kew Gardens, in London, England, is an enormous specimen of this species which is trained against the northern staircase, where it has formed a perfect thicket two yards through and twenty-five feet high, of long, rope-like, intertwining, spinous, fawn-colored stems, some of them fully fifty feet long, and clothed with wiry, woody branches, bearing whorls of leaves from two to three inches long and nearly one-fourth of an inch wide, falcate and bright green. The young stems are thick and succulent and gray-green, mottled with brown. For large conservatories, and particularly in moist, shady corners, where ordinary climbers will not thrive, this is an ideal plant. It is a native of the tropics of Asia and Africa, as well as the Cape. [Illustration: FIG. 4--ASPARAGUS LARICINUS] _A. laricinus_ (Fig. 4).--This handsome species has been in the Kew collection at least twenty years. It is grown in the succulent house, where, from a vigorous root system, it sends up annual stout succulent shoots, which grow to a length of about twelve feet, and when fully developed are decidedly ornamental. The stems are perennial, terete, dark brown, woody, one-half inch in diameter at the base, very spinous, freely branched, and branches zigzag and gray, the leaves in clusters one-fourth inch apart, hair-like, one and one-half inches long, bright green, persistent. Flowers axillary, many in a cluster, small, campanulate, white. Berries globose, dull red, one seeded, one-sixth of an inch in diameter. Common in various parts of South Africa. It is an excellent pillar plant. _A. racemosus._--This species is spread throughout the tropics of Africa and Asia; the Cape form of it is represented at Kew under the name of variety _tetragonus_, as shown in Fig. 5. This is a vigorous grower, with woody stems nine feet long, prickly at the base, fawn colored, freely branching above, each branch having at its base a sharp spine three-quarters of an inch long. The leaves are of a gray-green hue, four-angled, one-quarter of an inch long. Flowers in racemes two inches long, whitish, very fragrant. Berry red, globose, pulpy, one-seeded. An excellent climber for rafters, pillars, etc., growing vigorously under ordinary treatment. Its root system is a dense mass of tubers. [Illustration: FIG. 5--ASPARAGUS RACEMOSUS, VAR. TETRAGONUS] [Illustration: FIG. 6--ASPARAGUS SARMENTOSUS] _A. sarmentosus_ (Fig. 6).--An elegant evergreen species from South Africa, where it grows freely in moist situations, forming dense, brushy stems with short prickles, and studded with white, starry, fragrant flowers, which are followed with bright scarlet, pea-like berries; has stems four feet high, freely branched and clothed with dark green flat leaves three inches long. It is also grown in pots and baskets for the Cape-house, and when in flower it is greatly admired. _A. Broussoneti._--A beautiful hardy perennial climber from the Canary Islands, growing ten feet high; feathery foliage and scarlet berries. In the autumn this is very ornamental. Among the most noteworthy of other ornamental species are: _A. Aethiopicus_, _Africanus_, _Asiaticus_, _Cooperi_, _crispus_, _declinatus_, _decumbens_, _lucidus_, _retrofractus_, _scandens_, _tenuifolius_, _trichophyllus_, _umbellatus_, _verticillatus_, _virgatus_, etc., etc. EDIBLE SPECIES [Illustration: FIG. 7--ASPARAGUS CROWN, ROOTS, BUDS, AND SPEAR] [Illustration: FIG. 8--ASPARAGUS STEM, LEAVES, FLOWERS, AND BERRIES] _Asparagus officinalis._--While the young sprouts of a few other species may be used as food, this is the only one which has found a permanent place in cultivation. It is a branching, herbaceous plant, reaching a hight of from three to seven feet; the filiform branchlets, three to seven inches long, less than one-quarter inch thick, are mostly clustered in the axils of minute scales. The rootstock, or "crown," is perennial, and makes a new growth each year of from one to three inches, extending horizontally, and generally in a straight line. It may propagate from both ends, or from only one, but in either case the older part of root stalk becomes unproductive and finally dies. Fig. 7 shows the new portion of the rootstock crowned with buds for the production of new shoots, while the older portion bears the scars and dead scales of previous growths. From the sides and the lower part of the rootstock numerous cylindrical, fleshy roots start and extend several feet horizontally, but do not penetrate the soil deeply. In the course of time the older roots become hollow and inactive without becoming detached from the rootstock. The young root formation always takes place a little above the old roots, which circumstance explains why the asparagus plants gradually rise above the original level, thus necessitating the annual hilling up or the covering of the crowns with additional soil. [Illustration: FIG. 9] [Illustration: FIG. 10] [Illustration: FIG. 11] The asparagus flowers are mostly solitary at the nodes, of greenish-yellow color, drooping or filiform, jointed peduncles; perianth, six-parted, campanulate, as seen in Fig. 8. Anthers, introrse; style, short; stigma, three-lobed; berry, red, spherical, three-celled; cells, two-seeded. While the flowers are generally dioecious--staminate and pistillate flowers being borne on different plants--there appear also hermaphrodite flowers, having both pistils and fully developed stamens in the same flower. Fig. 9 shows a pistillate, Fig. 10 a staminate, and Fig. 11 a hermaphrodite or bisexual flower. In one case, at least, the author has also observed that a plant which has been barren of seed at first changed into a seed-bearing plant the following year. Similar changes in the sexuality of strawberries have been observed under certain conditions. These facts may explain, in a measure, the difficulty experienced in raising permanently sterile asparagus plants. _Asparagus acutifolius._--A native of Southern Europe and Northern Africa. It has a fleshy rootstock, hard, wiry, brown stems, five to seven feet high, with rigid branches three to six inches long, thickly closed, with tufts of gray-green, hair-like, rigid leaves, which in exposed situations are almost spinous. Flowers yellow, a quarter of an inch in diameter, fragrant. The young sprouts are tender, and, when cooked, of a peculiar aromatic flavor. In their native home they are used like the cultivated kind. _A. aphyllus._--Indigenous to Greece, where the young shoots are commonly used as food, especially during Lent. III CULTURAL VARIETIES Although but one species of edible asparagus has found its way into general cultivation, many varieties and strains are recognized. Up to within a comparatively recent period it was thought that there existed only one distinct kind, or variety, of asparagus. As late as 1869 so keen an observer as Peter Henderson believed that "the asparagus of our gardens is confined to only one variety, and the so-called giant can be made gigantic or otherwise, just as we will it, and the purple top variety will become a green top whenever the composition of the soil is not of the kind to develop the purple, and _vice versa_. All practical gardeners know how different soils and climates change the appearance of the same variety. Seeds of cabbage taken from the same bag and sown at the same time, but planted out in soils of light sandy loam, heavy clayey loam, and peat or leaf-mold, will show such marked differences when at maturity as easily to be pronounced different sorts. This, no doubt, is the reason why the multitude of varieties of all vegetables, when planted side by side to test them, are so wonderfully reduced in number." But after inspecting an acre of ordinary asparagus and an acre of Abraham Van Siclen's Colossal--which was afterward introduced as Conover's Colossal--at Jamaica, L. I., N. Y., Mr. Henderson wrote: "A thorough inspection of the roots of each lot proved that they were of the same age when planted. The soil was next examined, and found to be as near the same as could be, yet these two beds of asparagus showed a difference that no longer left me a shadow of a doubt of their being entirely different varieties." In but few vegetables do the conditions of soil, locality, mode of cultivation, and other circumstances affect the quality, size, and appearance as much as in asparagus. It is therefore difficult to distinguish fixed and permanent varieties from mere local strains and forms secured by selection. Through natural and artificial selection, through use of seed of strong shoots from superior roots, there has been improvement in the size and yield of asparagus; from the peculiar adaptability of soil and climate, and the effect of manure and high cultivation, there have appeared certain variations in the product of different beds which have led to the bestowing of a new name; but the effect of this care and these favorable conditions is not sufficiently strong to produce distinct varieties with fixed characteristics. Therefore, with correct and rational treatment of the plant from the time of seeding through all the stages of culture, satisfactory results may be reached with almost any of the varieties on the market. AMERICAN VARIETIES _Barr's Mammoth_ (Barr's Philadelphia Mammoth).--Originated with Crawford Barr, a prominent market gardener of Pennsylvania. It is one of the earliest varieties, is very productive, and grows to the largest size. In Philadelphia it is much sought after, and brings the highest prices. _Conover's Colossal_ (Van Siclen's Colossal).--Originated with Abraham Van Siclen, of Long Island, N. Y., and was introduced by S. B. Conover, a commision merchant of West Washington Market, New York City, some thirty years ago. The superiority of this variety over all other kinds known at that time made it soon supplant all other varieties, and it is to this day better and more favorably known than any other sort. _Columbian Mammoth White._--This was introduced by D. M. Ferry & Co., in 1893. The immense shoots are clear white, and, in favorable weather, remain so until three or four inches above the surface, without earthing up or any other artificial blanching. The crown or bud of the young stalk is considerably smaller than the part just below it, thus further distinguishing the variety. All but a very few of the seedlings will produce clear white shoots, and the green ones can be readily distinguished and rejected when planting the permanent bed. _Donald's Elmira._--Originated by A. Donald, Elmira, N. Y., and was first introduced by Johnson & Stokes, Philadelphia, Pa. This is characterized by the delicate green color of its stems, different from any other kind. Its stalks are very tender and succulent, while its size is all that can be desired. _Eclipse_ (Dreer's Eclipse).--A light green mammoth strain of excellent quality and attractive appearance. The stalks, not rarely, measure two inches in diameter, and even when twelve to fifteen inches long are perfectly tender and of a delicate light green color. _Hub._--Originated in New Hampshire several years ago, and was introduced by Joseph Breck & Sons, Boston, Mass. Although not generally catalogued, it is a distinct and valuable variety that has made a decided record for itself in the tests of the Kansas Experiment Station, where its yield, by weight, was greater than any other. _Mammoth._--This is a somewhat indefinite term, as almost any prominent seedsman and grower who has a particularly good and large strain of asparagus suffixes it to his own name. Among the best known of these are Vick's Mammoth, Maule's Mammoth, Prescott's Mammoth, etc. _Moore's Cross-bred._--This originated with J. B. Moore, who for twenty years was awarded the first prize on asparagus at the exhibitions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, at one of which the weight of twelve stalks was 4 pounds 6-1/4 ounces. It retains the head close until the stalks are quite long, and is of uniform color, while for tenderness and eating quality it is excelled by none. It is particularly recommended for cultivation in New England. _Palmetto._--A variety of Southern origin, but suitable for the North also. At the South it is somewhat earlier than Conover's Colossal, but its great advantage is that it is almost destitute of, what dealers call, culls, nearly all shoots being of a uniform and large size. The bunch from which the engraving (Fig. 12) was made measured twenty-two inches in circumference, and contained forty-eight stalks of nine inches in length and remarkably uniform in size. It was taken on March 30th from a field of fifty acres, near Charleston, S. C. But the greatest point in its favor is its comparative security from the attacks of rust. [Illustration: FIG. 12--BUNCH OF PALMETTO ASPARAGUS] _Purple Top_ and _Green Top_.--These were the only distinct sorts in cultivation before the introduction of Conover's Colossal, but are now almost unknown to the trade and cultivators. EUROPEAN VARIETIES The named varieties of asparagus of European origin are very numerous, as almost every locality in which asparagus is cultivated extensively and successfully has given its name to a strain more or less distinct. Generally these varieties differ only in a single characteristic, and these differences, for the most part, are so little that they are lost when grown under different climatic and soil conditions. The best-informed authorities recognize three cultivated varieties, which have distinct commercial characteristics and whose seeds reproduce them in the seedlings. _German Giant._--This variety embraces most of the German and French sorts--the Giant Dutch Purple, Ulm Giant, Giant Brunswick, Large Erfurt, Early Darmstadt, and many others. _Argenteuil._--Of this three sub-varieties are recognized--the early, intermediate, and late; and these are the kinds grown almost exclusively in the vicinity of Paris, France, where its culture and improvement have steadily developed for centuries. Under good culture the late Argenteuil produces stalks from three to six inches in circumference, at eight inches below the tips. _Yellow Burgundy._--The distinctive characteristic of this variety is that the young shoots below the surface of the soil are light yellow instead of white to tips, being greenish-yellow. It is also claimed to be more rust-resisting than other European sorts. VARIETY TESTS To determine the comparative effects of manuring on different varieties of asparagus, and also their comparative earliness, Prof. S. C. Mason and his assistant, W. L. Hall, of the Kansas Experiment Station, have made some interesting and instructive experiments, the results of which are given in Bulletin 70, as follows: "The seed of ten varieties of asparagus was planted. A good stand was secured, and the young plants were cultivated during the summer in the usual way. Early the following spring the entire patch was dug up and the roots heeled in. The same ground was then prepared for a permanent plantation, by plowing it deeply and marking it with furrows four feet apart. These furrows were made as deep as possible, but after the loose soil had run back into them they were on the bottom hardly six inches below the level of the ground. In these furrows the roots of the seedlings were planted (240 feet of row for each variety), making altogether a patch of 35.25 square rods, or a little more than one-fifth of an acre (.22 of an acre). The plants were set about a foot apart in the row, and covered only an inch or two above the crown, leaving along the rows depressions some two inches deep, which were gradually filled up during the summer, by the many cultivations. During the winter the stalks were cleared off, but nothing was done with the patch in the spring more than to cut and note the earliest shoots, the first cutting of which was made April 13th. The patch was cultivated during summer as before, except that the size of the plants interfered somewhat--many of the plants growing six feet high and correspondingly broad. During the fall the north half of each variety was manured, at the rate of fifty loads per acre, with strong barnyard manure, and in the spring the effect was noted. "The following table gives results as shown by the records of ten cuttings made the spring of 1897, from April 20th to May 19th, inclusive; varieties averaged in order of yield: ======================================================================== VARIETIES | YIELDS IN POUNDS 240 feet of row in each, one-half manured +---------+-----------+------- and one-half unmanured |_Manured_|_Unmanured_|_Total_ ------------------------------------------+---------+-----------+------- 1 Hub | 31 | 27 | 58 2 Donald's Elmira | 29 | 29 | 58 3 Vick's New Mammoth | 26 | 20 | 47 4 Palmetto | 20 | 18 | 39 5 Moore's Cross-bred | 19 | 15 | 35 6 Conover's Colossal | 16 | 17 | 33 7 Barr's Philadelphia Mammoth | 17 | 16 | 33 8 Columbian Mammoth White | 18 | 13 | 32 9 Dreer's Eclipse | 16 | 14 | 30 10 Giant Purple Top | 15 | 14 | 29 +---------+-----------+------- Totals | 207 | 183 | 394 ======================================================================== "Of the two heaviest yielding varieties, Hub and Donald's Elmira, the last named is the earliest, though Hub is also quite early. As nearly as can be judged from the notes, the ten varieties rank for earliness about as follows, though all kinds yielded something at the first cutting: {10 Giant Purple Top. { 7 Barr's Philadelphia Mammoth. { 2 Donald's Elmira. { 6 Conover's Colossal. { 3 Vick's New Mammoth. { 1 The Hub. { 9 Dreer's Eclipse. 4 Palmetto. 5 Moore's Cross-bred. 8 Columbian Mammoth White. "Those included within a brace have little or no difference of season. The numbers mark their rank with regard to yield, 1 being the highest. The ground occupied by this plantation is a rather low bottom-land, being built up of a clay silt from the former overflow of two creeks, mixed with vegetable mold. It is rather too compact for the best growth of asparagus, as it contains very little sand." IV SEED GROWING The asparagus plant begins to produce seed when two years old. When fully developed the stalks are from five to six feet in hight, with numerous branches upon which are produced a profusion of bright scarlet berries, containing from three to six seeds each. It is not advisable, however, to harvest seed from plants less than four years old. To save the seed the stalks are cut close to the ground as soon as the berries are ripe, which may be known by their changing color, from green to scarlet, and softening somewhat. The entire stalks are then cut off, tied in bundles, and hung up in a dry place safe from the attacks of birds, some kinds of which are very fond of this seed. After the berries are fully dried they are stripped off by hand, or thrashed upon a cloth or floor, and separated from the chaff. They are then soaked in water for a day or two to soften the skin and pulp of the berries, after which they are rubbed between the hands, or mashed with a wooden pounder, to break the outer shells. The separation of the pulp from the seed is accomplished by washing. When placed in water the seeds will settle with the pulp and the shells will readily pass away in pouring off the water. To clean the seeds thoroughly the washing has to be repeated three or four times. It is then spread on boards or trays to dry in the sun and wind. After the first day it should be removed from the sun, but exposed to the air in a dry loft, spread thin for ten days or more. When thoroughly dried the seed is stored in linen or paper bags until needed. When cheapness of the seed is the main consideration such promiscuous harvesting may be permissible, but when only the best is desired careful selection and preparation becomes necessary. Even if the parent plants are of choice types, not all the seeds from them are equally good. The seed, for instance, which has been gathered from a stool which has flowered side by side with an inferior kind, and at the same time, may be worthless, because it has been fertilized badly. Then the last heads generally yield nothing but doubtful seed which seldom reproduces the proper type. The seeds which grow at the end of the shoots also, as well as those produced by the upper and lower extremities of the stem, have the same defect. In order to insure the production of the very best asparagus seed a sufficient number of pistillate or seed-bearing plants, which produce the strongest and best spears, should be selected and marked so that they may be distinguished the following spring when the shoots appear. These clumps should be close together and near some staminate or male plants which have to be marked likewise, as without their presence fertile seed can not be produced. The number of the male to the female plants should be about one to four or five. The following spring all the sprouts of the selected male plants are allowed to grow without cutting any. On each hill of the female plants the two strongest and earliest stalks are allowed to grow, cutting the later appearing spears with the others for market or home use. Thus these early stalks of both male and female plants bloom together before any other stalks, and the blooms on the female plants will be fertilized with the pollen of the selected male plants. This last is of prime importance, for on proper fertilization depends the purity of the seed as well as the vigor of the resultant plant. Not all seed of even a good plant properly fertilized should be used for reproduction, as of the seeds gathered from any plant some will be better than others. Only the largest, plumpest, and best matured seeds should be used, for by saving these the most nearly typical plants of the sort will be most certainly produced. The selection of the best seed from typical plants is as essential to success as are good soil, thorough cultivation, and heavy manuring. The best seeds are produced from the lower part of the stalk, hence it is well to top the plant after the seed is well set, taking off about ten inches, and to remove the berries from the upper branches, that all the strength may go to the full development of the more desirable berries. If, after this has been done, there is more than sufficient seed for the purpose desired, a second discrimination can be made between the seed of plants which produce numerous berries and those which are shy bearers, the latter being desirable, as this indicates a tendency in the plant to produce stalk rather than seed, and it is as a stalk producer that asparagus is valuable. Harvesting, cleaning, and preserving the seed is, of course, to be done carefully; the separation of the heavy and the light seeds can be accomplished by means of water, while the larger can be selected from the resultant mass by the use of a properly meshed sieve. V THE RAISING OF PLANTS Asparagus can be propagated by division of the roots, but this method gives so unsatisfactory results that it is rarely practiced. Raising the plants from seed is therefore the only method worth considering. The seed may be sown either in the fall or spring. But far more important than the time for sowing is the quality of the seed. While asparagus seed retains its vitality for two or more years, it is not safe to use seed older than one year. Fresh seed may be recognized by its glossy black color and uniform smooth surface, while old seed has a smutty gray color and its surface is generally rough and wrinkled. Yet even with this as a guide it is not easy to distinguish bad from good seed, and still more difficult, if not impossible, is it to distinguish the seed of different varieties. It is therefore advisable to procure seed only from dealers of undoubted reliability and pay a fair price for it rather than to accept poor seed as a gift. A uniformity of the individual plants in the asparagus bed or field is a matter of prime importance; only large, fully developed seeds should be used, screening out and rejecting all small and inferior ones. In northern latitudes spring sowing is preferable to fall sowing. The ground of the seed-bed should be well drained and fairly retentive of moisture. As soon as the soil admits of working it should be well pulverized and enriched with decomposed manure. On a small scale a spading-fork is the best implement for preparing soil for nursery rows of asparagus plants. Straight lines should be marked about fifteen inches apart and drills made about an inch deep when the sowing is done very early in the season, and one-half to one inch deeper when the sowing is done later. In these drills the seed should be dropped two or three inches apart. The covering may be made with a hoe, after which the soil should be well pressed down with the foot. As the seed is slow to germinate--in from four to six weeks, according to weather conditions--it is well to sow with it a few radish seeds, which will soon appear and mark the lines of the drills, so that cultivation may begin at once. Soaking the seed in luke-warm water for twenty-four hours before sowing will hasten its germination. The cultivation of the young plants consists in keeping the soil about them light, and free from grass and weeds. Most of this work can be done with a garden cultivator, or a hoe and rake or prong hoe, but some hand weeding is generally necessary in addition. Strict attention to this will save a year in time, for if the seed-bed has been neglected, it will take two years to get the plants as large as they should be in one year if they had been properly cared for. In consequence of this very frequent neglect of proper cultivation of the seed-bed, it is a common impression that the plants must be two years old before transplanting. One pound of seed will produce about 10,000 plants, but as many of these will have to be thinned out and poor ones rejected, it is not safe to count upon more than one-half of this number of good plants. The number of plants required for an acre varies according to the manner of planting. If planted in rows three feet apart and two feet in the rows, it will require 7,260 plants per acre; if planted three by four, 3,630 per acre. SOWING THE SEED WHERE THE PLANTS ARE TO REMAIN Growing asparagus without transplanting is gradually finding many advocates among those who raise only the green article. It is not only a cheaper but in some respects a better method than the raising of the plants in a special seed-bed, from which they are transplanted after a year or two. "The plan is very simple," wrote Peter Henderson in _American Agriculturist_, "and can be followed by any one having even a slight knowledge of farming or gardening work. In the fall prepare the land by manuring, deep plowing, and harrowing, making it as level and smooth as possible for the reception of the seed. Strike out lines three feet apart and about two to three inches deep, in which sow the seed by hand or seed-drill, as is most convenient, using from five to seven pounds of seed to each acre. After sowing, and before covering, tread down the seed in the rows with the feet evenly; then draw the back of the rake lengthwise over the rows, after which roll the whole surface. "As soon as the land is dry and fit to work in the spring, the young plants of asparagus will start through the ground, sufficient to define the rows. At once begin to cultivate with hand or horse cultivator, and stir the ground so as to destroy the embryo weeds, breaking the soil in the rows between the plants with the fingers or hand weeder for the same purpose. This must be repeated at intervals of two or three weeks during the summer, as the success of this plan is entirely dependent on keeping down the weeds, which, if allowed to grow, would soon smother the asparagus plants, that, for the first season of their growth, are weaker than most weeds. In two or three months after starting, the asparagus will have attained ten or twelve inches in hight, and it must now be thinned out, so that the plants stand nine inches apart in the rows. By fall they will be from two to three feet in hight and, if the directions for culture have been faithfully followed, strong and vigorous. "When the stems die down (but not before) cut them off close to the ground, and cover the lines for five or six inches on each side with two or three inches of rough manure. The following spring renew cultivation, and keep down the weeds the second year exactly as was done during the first, and so on to the spring of the fourth year, when a crop will be produced that will well reward all the labor that has been expended. Sometimes, if the land is particularly suitable, a marketable crop may be secured the third year, but as a rule it will be better to wait until the fourth year before cutting much, as this would weaken the plants. To compensate for the loss of a year's time in thus growing asparagus from seed, cabbage, lettuce, onions, beets, spinach or similar crops that will be marketable before the asparagus has grown high enough to interfere with them, may be planted between the rows of asparagus the first year of its growth with but little injury to it." GOOD CROPS TWO YEARS FROM SEED In answer to the many inquiries as to how asparagus can be grown to weigh two and three-fourths pounds per bunch of twenty-six stalks from plants two years old from seed, as exhibited at a recent American Institute spring exhibition, George M. Hay, of Connecticut, writes in _American Gardening_ as follows: "Select a piece of ground where the soil is light, but of a good depth, and plow thoroughly. About the 1st of May mark off the rows three or four feet apart--for myself I prefer the latter distance as giving plenty of room for cultivation. Run a two-horse plow over the same furrow two or three times and you will have a depth of from fourteen to eighteen inches. "Trenches having been all made, we come to the most important part--namely, manuring. In order to give the young plants a good start after germination we have to use liberal quantities of well-rotted stable manure, and in this the young plants make roots that in a short time are surprising. I use a one-horse load of manure to every seventy-five feet of drill, tramping it well down, and with a rake draw from each side of the trench soil to cover the manure to a depth of from two to three inches. The surface is raked level, and with the end of a rake or hoe a furrow one inch deep is drawn. "We are now ready for the seed, which should have been soaked in tepid water for at least twenty-four hours. This will insure the immediate starting of the seed when the soil is moist and has not had a chance to dry out. If unsoaked seed is used and we have a dry spell for two or three weeks, the seed will be almost useless by the time it receives moisture enough to start. "When the asparagus is two or three inches high thin out to one foot apart, being very careful not to disturb the plants left. A piece of a stick cut to the shape of a table-knife is an ideal tool for thinning out the young plants. It will be necessary to weed the rows by hand, while the plants are very small, for a distance of six inches on each side, as the cultivator, if run too close, will cover up the young plants. Keep the horse cultivator at work as often as possible to maintain moisture for the young roots. "By fall you will be surprised to learn how far the young roots have traveled and the crowns prepared for next year's crop. Cover the rows with stable manure for the winter, and in spring give a dressing of one pound of nitrate of soda to one hundred feet of drill, and you will be well repaid for the extra labor and outlay by being able to cut asparagus of extra size in two years from the time of sowing the seed, doing away with the transplanting of two-year-old roots, and then waiting two more years before the first crop can be cut." The principal objection which has been made against this system of not transplanting is that it does not admit of a careful choice of plants, as the plants must be kept in the places where sown, while in the transplanting method we need use only the choicest plants; then, if two or three seeds come up close together, it is very difficult to thin them out, and if left they will produce an inferior growth. POT-GROWN ASPARAGUS PLANTS In the tests made at the Missouri Experiment Station, Prof. J. C. Whitten found that it is much better to plant the seeds in six inches of rich, sandy soil in the greenhouse or hotbed, in February or early March, than to wait two or three months for outdoor planting. Professor Whitten advises to "sow liberally, for seven-eighths of the seedlings should be discarded. When the seedlings are three inches high, select those which have the thickest, fleshiest, and most numerous stems, and pot them. They vary more than almost any other vegetable. Many that appear large and vigorous will have broad, flat, twisted, or corrugated stems. Discard them. Beware, also, of those that put out leaves close to the soil. These will all make tough, stringy, undesirable plants. The best plants are those which are cylindrical, smooth, and free from ridges. They shoot up rapidly, and attain a hight of two inches before leaves are put out. They look much like smooth needles. This matter of selecting the best plants for potting, and subsequent planting out, is of the greatest importance in asparagus culture. "These young plants should first be put in small pots and moved into larger ones as soon as they are well rooted. They may need to be shifted twice before they are planted out-of-doors, which should be done when danger of frost is over. Started in this way they continue to grow from the time they are planted out and reach very large size the first season. In the case of nursery-grown plants, where seeds are sown directly out-of-doors, the young seedlings start very slowly, are very tender during their early growth, and if the weather is unfavorable they hardly become well established before autumn." [Illustration: FIG. 13--ONE-YEAR-OLD POT-GROWN ASPARAGUS PLANT] Fig. 13 shows a one-year-old plant started in February in the greenhouse and transplanted to the field the first of May. Plants grown in this way reach as good size in one year as the nursery-grown plants usually do in three years. VI SELECTION OF PLANTS That strong, healthy, one-year-old plants are in every way to be preferred to two or three year old ones has been demonstrated by many carefully conducted experiments, and is now universally recognized by intelligent and observant asparagus growers. The most noteworthy and accurate experiments in this line were made by the famous French asparagus specialist M. Godefroy-Leboeuf, who planted twelve stools of one, two, and three years old respectively in the same soil under the same conditions and at the same time. Calling those plantings Nos. 1, 2, and 3, the following are the results obtained: _First Year._--No. 1.--All the stools came up before May 4th, and were well grown. No. 2.--Ten stools showed above ground before May 4th, one on the 10th, and one appeared to be dead. The asparagus heads were very fine--finer, indeed, than those of No. 1. No. 3.--Eight stools showed above ground before May 4th, one on the 12th, and three gave no signs of life. The heads were very fine at first, but they became bent toward the end of the year (September 15th), and were much weaker than those of No. 2. * * * * * _Second Year._--No. 1.--Well-grown, regular, and strong heads, which measured on September 15th one inch in circumference. No. 2.--Well-grown but irregular heads, somewhat weaker than those of No. 1. No. 3.--Only pretty well-grown heads, very irregular, some of the stools having as many as eight or ten, but all very weak. One stool died after growing two heads. * * * * * _Third Year._--No. 1.--Magnificent growths, the heads measuring on April 10th from two inches to three and one-quarter inches in circumference. No. 2.--Growth passable only, but very irregular. Some of the stools were very small. The finest of them produced heads which from April 8th to 10th only measured two and one-half inches in circumference. No. 3.--Growth very poor and very irregular. Some of the stools continued to produce small heads not much thicker than a quill pen, the largest being from one and one-half inch to two inches in circumference. * * * * * _Fourth Year._--No. 1.--Growth very remarkable. The heads began to show on April 3d, 4th, 5th, 7th, and 10th. Some were from three and one-quarter inches to four inches in circumference, and measured four and three-quarter inches. Fifty of the heads formed a bundle which weighed seven pounds. No. 2.--Growth passable, but later than No. 1. The heads made their first appearance on April 6th, 10th, and 11th. Many of them were very small; fifty of them barely made half a bundle, and only weighed three and three-quarter pounds. No. 3.--Growth but poor, and somewhat late. The heads made their appearance on April 4th, 6th, 9th, and 11th; one did not show till the 22d. Fifty heads barely formed half a bundle and only weighed two and one-half pounds. To sum up, it is clear that the plants of a year old in their fourth season--that is to say, after having been planted out for three years--gave a bundle weighing seven pounds, while those of two years old only gave three and three-quarter pounds, and those of three years old only two and one-half pounds; in other words, taking round numbers, the plantation made with the one-year-old plants produced double the crop of the two-year-old plants and treble that of the three-year-old plants. The reader may easily draw his conclusions from the preceding facts. Equally important is a careful selection of the individual plants to be set out. A crown with four or five strong, well-developed buds is far better than one with a dozen or more of weak and sickly ones, as the latter will always produce thin and poor spears of poor quality. It is therefore highly to be recommended to select only plants with not over six buds and discard all others. The roots should be strong and of uniform thickness, succulent and not too fibrous. Dry or withered roots have to be cut off, and plants with many bruised or otherwise damaged roots should be rejected entirely. The best roots are the cheapest. MALE AND FEMALE PLANTS It has long been observed that all of the asparagus plants in a bed do not produce seeds, owing to the fact that the male and female flowers in asparagus are nearly always borne on separate plants. Seed bearing is an exhaustive process, and, as might be supposed, those plants that have produced seed have less vigor than those that have not. In order to determine the difference in vigor between the seed bearing and non-seed bearing plants, Prof. William J. Green, horticulturist of the Ohio Experiment Station, staked off fifty of each in a plantation of half an acre. When the cuttings were made the shoots taken from male and female plants were kept separate, and the weight of each recorded in Bulletin No. 9, Volume III., of the Ohio Station, as follows: "The cuttings were made at regular intervals and in the ordinary manner, as for market purposes. The weight of shoots taken at each cutting is not given in the table, since the facts are quite as well shown by stating the aggregate weight for periods of ten days each. The division into periods is made for the purpose of showing comparative earliness. This could be shown in a more marked degree by taking the first and second cuttings alone, but they were too limited in quantity to admit of conclusions being drawn from them; hence they are included with the other cuttings in the same period. PRODUCT FROM FIFTY PLANTS EACH, MALE AND FEMALE +========================+=============+============+ |_Product from|_Product from | fifty male | fifty female | plants_ | plants_ +------------------------+-------------+------------+ | _Ounces_ | _Ounces_ First period, 10 days | 37 | 21 Second period, 10 days | 104 | 68 Third period, 10 days | 266 | 164 Fourth period, 10 days | 203 | 154 +-------------+------------+ Total for the season | 610 | 407 +========================+=============+============+ "This shows a gain of the male over the female plants of seventy-six per cent. for the first period, and a fraction less than fifty per cent. for the whole season. Reversing the standard of comparison, it will be seen that the female plants fall below the male forty-three per cent. for the first period, and a little more than thirty-three per cent. in the total. In no case did the female plants produce equally with the male. "If comparative earliness is determined by the date of first cutting alone, there is no difference between the male and female plants, since the first cutting was made on both at the same date; but taking quantity of product into consideration, which is the proper method, there is a decided difference, the gain of the male over the female plants being seventy-six, fifty-two, sixty-three, and thirty-one per cent. for the four periods respectively. The difference in yield between the two was greatest at first, and diminished toward the last, which practically amounts to the same thing as the male being earlier than the female. There is a still further difference between the two in quality of product, the shoots of the female plant being smaller and inferior to those of the male. "It is not safe to draw conclusions from such limited observations as these, further, at least, than to accept them as representing the truth approximately. Allowing a wide margin for possible error, there would still seem to be sufficient difference in productive capacity between the male and female plants to justify the selection of the former and rejection of the latter when a new plantation is to be started. If the figures given in the table are taken as a basis, the gain in the crop, if the male plants alone were used, would each season pay for all the plants rejected, and leave a handsome margin at the end of the term of years when an asparagus bed has served its period of usefulness. Male plants can be secured by division of old plants, or by selecting those that bear no seed, after they have attained the age of two years." In summing up the results of this experiment, Professor Green states that male asparagus plants are about fifty per cent. more productive than female plants, and the shoots being larger have a greater market value. VII THE SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION As asparagus in its wild state is usually found growing in light and sandy soils along or near the seashore, it has long been supposed that it could not be cultivated in other localities and soils. While it is true that asparagus succeeds best in a sandy, rich, and friable loam, naturally underdrained and yet not too dry, there is not another vegetable which accommodates itself more readily to as varying soils and conditions. There is hardly a State in the United States in which at present asparagus is not grown more or less extensively and profitably, and the most famous asparagus districts of France and Germany are situated at great distances from the seashore. The question of what soil to use is, as a rule, already settled; we have to use the soil we have. Any good garden soil is suitable for asparagus, and if it is not in the most favorable condition, under existing circumstances, it can easily be made so. The soil should be free from roots, stones, or any material that will not readily disintegrate, or that will interfere with the growth of the spears, and with the knife in cutting. Fruit or other trees, or high shrubs, must not be allowed in the asparagus bed, because of the shade they throw over the beds, and because their roots make heavy drafts upon the soil. Nor should high trees, hedges, hills, or buildings be so near as to shade the beds, because all the sunshine obtainable is needed to bring the spears quickly to the surface. Whenever practicable the asparagus bed should be protected from cold winds, and so slope that the full benefit of the sunshine will be obtained during the whole day. Brinckmeier, in his "Braunschweiger Spargelbuch," gives the following three rules for guidance in selecting a location for asparagus beds: "1. One should choose, in reference to ground characteristics, open, free-lying land, protected to the north and east [which, for American conditions, should be north and west], of gradual slope, free from trees or shrubbery. "2. The field should be exposed to the rays of the sun all day long; therefore, a southern exposure is desirable, or, if that is not obtainable, a southwesterly or southeasterly slope, because either east, west, or north exposure will cause shade during a greater or less portion of the day. "3. Standing, stagnant ground water, which cannot be drawn off by drainage, is to be avoided, the requirements of the plants indicating a somewhat damp subsoil, but not too high ground water." For commercial purposes on a large scale, and when the trucker has the choice of location, a well-drained, light, deep, sandy loam, with a light clay subsoil, is to be preferred to any other. Heavy clay soil, or land with a hard-pan subsoil, or, in fact, any soil that is cold and wet, is totally unfit for profitable asparagus growing, unless it is thoroughly underdrained and made lighter by a plentiful addition of sand and muck. Freedom from weeds is very desirable, even more so than great fertility, for the latter can be produced by heavy manuring, which the future cultivation will require; and to the end that weeds may be few, it is well that for a year or two previous to planting the land should have been occupied by some hoed crop, such as potatoes, beets, cabbage, etc. Land on which corn has been growing for two or three years is in excellent condition for an asparagus field, provided it has been heavily manured one year previous to the planting of the roots. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND Asparagus differs from most other vegetables in that it is a perennial, and when once planted properly, in suitable soil, it will continue to produce an annual crop for a generation if not for an indefinite period, while if the work is done carelessly and without consideration for the plant's requirements the plantation will never prove satisfactory and will run out entirely in the course of a few years. The establishing of an asparagus bed is naturally more expensive than the planting and raising of annual vegetables. In addition to this, the plants have to be taken care of for three years before a crop can be harvested. On the other hand, an asparagus bed is an investment for a lifetime, and the dividends derived from it increase in proportion to the care and thoroughness bestowed upon the preparation of the land. It is at once apparent, then, that nothing should be neglected to bring the soil into the best possible condition before planting. This truth was fully recognized by the gardeners of former years who practiced most extraordinary methods in order to bring the land into the most favorable condition for asparagus. Even now in some European countries, where labor is cheap, the entire ground is trenched to a depth of three or four feet, turning in at the same time all the available manure, seaweed, and other fertilizing material. A famous old-time asparagus bed in England was made in this manner: "The land was trenched three feet deep in trenches three feet wide and cast up into rough ridges, after a crop of summer peas. All decaying vegetation in the rubbish yards and corners was at the same time well sorted and turned up. Early in autumn also were added some old mushroom, melon, and cucumber bed material, a lot of manure from piggeries, cow houses, and stables, a quantity of road-grit and sand, a quantity of ditch and drain parings, turfy loam and sods, quite three feet thick. These were all turned over four times and well incorporated together, between Michaelmas and Lady Day, as one would a dungheap, the whole being left in large ridges exposed to the frost. By April this compost was in a kindly state; it was, therefore, laid down and planted with good, clean one-year-old asparagus plants, which certainly grew in a most extraordinary way." Another elaborate way of making an asparagus bed, formerly practiced in France, is described by Dr. Maccullogh as follows: "A pit the size of the intended plantation is dug four feet in depth, and the mold taken from it must be sifted, taking care to reject all stones, even as low in size as a filbert nut. The best part of the mold must then be laid aside before making up the beds. The materials of the bed are then to be laid in the following proportions and order: Six inches of common dunghill manure, eight inches of turf, six inches of dung as before, six inches of sifted earth, eight inches of turf, six inches of very rotten dung, eight inches of the best of earth. The last layer of earth must then be well mixed with the last of dung. The compartment must now be divided into beds five feet wide by paths constructed of turf two feet in breadth and one foot in thickness." A bed prepared in this manner, and planted and cultivated with as much painstaking care, will no doubt produce asparagus of unsurpassed quality, and may last forever. Yet the use of modern implements and a better knowledge of the nature and requirements of the plant have demonstrated that first-class asparagus can be produced with far less expense and labor. While a deep and loose soil produces earlier and better crops than a heavy and shallow one, indiscriminate deepening of the soil by trenching or other means is not always desirable, even where the cost does not come into consideration. When the subsoil is very light and poor and deficient in humus, the placing of the better surface soil below and the infertile lower strata above, trenching would be a positive detriment. The same would be the case where the subsoil consists of heavy impervious clay. In the fall preceding planting the land should be plowed deeply and left in the rough state during the winter. Subsoiling has often been recommended, yet practical growers but rarely make use of the subsoil plow in the preparation of asparagus plantations, although the value of subsoiling where the subsoil is heavy can not be doubted. Where stable or barnyard manure can be had cheaply, and the soil is heavy, a liberal coat spread broadcast over the surface and left to the action of the weather during winter will ameliorate the ground considerably. In most cases, however, the same object may be obtained by applying the manure in spring. Joseph Harris mentions a case in which a bed was plowed and subsoiled in the fall and the soil filled with manure, while another bed near by was planted without manure, or extra preparation of any kind, relying entirely on artificial fertilizers after planting, and the latter was by far the better bed. As early in spring as the ground is in suitable condition to be worked it has to be plowed and harrowed and brought into as perfect condition as possible. VIII PLANTING Throughout the Middle and Northern States, spring, as soon as the soil can be worked to good advantage, is decidedly the most favorable time for planting asparagus. If it is not practicable to plant thus early, the work may sometimes be delayed up to the middle of June. In planting thus late, however, preparation has to be made for watering the plants in case of drouth, else failure be inevitable. It is also necessary to do the work as expeditiously as possible, so as not to expose the roots to the drying influences of the sun and wind. Fall planting is advisable only in climates where there is no danger of winter-killing of the roots. After the ground has been plowed and harrowed, or spaded and raked over, and brought into as mellow a condition as possible, the rows for planting are to be laid out. It is usually recommended to have the rows run north and south, so as to readily admit the sunlight. When this is not practicable, however, it need not deter any one from making an asparagus bed, as it is more important to have the rows run with the slope of the land than in any particular direction of the compass, in order to provide ready surface drainage. DISTANCE TO PLANT As to the best distance between the rows and the plants in the rows there is a wide difference of opinion, more so than with almost any other cultivated plant. No unvarying rule can be laid down on this point, as it depends largely upon the mechanical condition, depth, and fertility of the soil. In a rich, moderately heavy soil, the roots may be planted closer than in a poor, light soil. The tendency of the present day is for giving the plants considerably more room than what formerly was thought to be ample. Intelligent observers could not fail to notice that crowded asparagus beds produce later and smaller crops, and of inferior size and quality; that they do not last as long; and that they are more liable to attacks from insects and fungi than when more room is given to the plants. Gardeners of but a few decades ago had no idea of the possibility of raising a profitable crop of asparagus planted four or five feet apart, and would have looked with derision upon any one advocating so wild a scheme. The remains of run out, old-time asparagus beds are still in evidence in many old farm gardens. The rows in these were originally one foot apart and the plants in the rows even closer than this, and perhaps after every third or fourth row there was a path two feet wide. Of course, in such a bed, after a few years, the entire ground became a solid mass of roots, and the stalks became smaller and tougher from year to year. [Illustration: FIG. 14--HORIZONTAL DEVELOPMENT OF A FOUR-YEAR-OLD ASPARAGUS ROOT] In most asparagus sections special customs prevail, and even in these different growers have their individual preferences; but all agree that asparagus should never be planted closer than two feet in rows three feet apart. For the home garden there is no better plan than to plant but a single row, with the plants two or three feet apart, along the edge or border of the ground, but not nearer than four or five feet to other plants, and in case of grape-vines even more room should be given. Here they require but little care, and the plants have an unlimited space for the extension of their roots in search of moisture and food. Asparagus needs considerable water, and an acre of land will hold so much water and no more. The more plants there are on an acre the less water there will be for each plant, and what is true of water is also true of plant food. In field culture the distance adopted by asparagus growers varies from 3 x 3 feet (4,840 plants per acre); 3 x 4 feet (3,640 plants per acre); 4 x 4 feet (2,722 plants per acre); 4 x 5 feet (2,178 plants per acre); 5 x 6 feet (1,452 plants per acre); 6 x 6 feet (1,210 plants per acre), and even more. If the idea is to have the plants so far apart that their roots can not interlace, twenty feet each way would not be too extravagant a distance, under favorable conditions, as will readily become apparent by a glance at Fig. 14. This illustration is an exact reproduction of the root system of an asparagus plant four years from the seed. The roots spread out upon a level floor measured thirteen feet from tip to tip, the single roots averaging the thickness of a lead pencil. This root grew in Madison County, Ill., and was washed out of the ground--without having any of its roots torn--by the unusually heavy spring rains which caused the Piasa River to overflow its banks and sent a current rushing through the asparagus field in which it grew. If the plant had remained in its position a few years longer its roots would probably have extended ten feet in each direction. From this it does not follow, however, that asparagus should be planted twenty or even ten feet apart to produce the largest returns, but it plainly shows why the roots should not be planted as closely together as was customary in former years; and it obviously demonstrates that when land is cheap and manure and labor high, asparagus can not be hurt by giving it plenty of room. It should also be considered that earliness, size, and quality make a great difference with the price and profits when early and large shoots are in demand. It might be possible to get double the number of shoots per acre from thick than from thin planting, but they might be so small and spindling as not to be worth the labor and expense of cutting and marketing. DEPTH OF PLANTING Contrary to the all but universal belief, asparagus is not a deep-rooted plant. In the wild state its most frequent habitat is on the fertile marshes of the shoreline in Europe, on ground but a few inches above the tidewater which permeates the sandy subsoil. As the roots can not live in water, they naturally grow to long distances parallel with the surface and retain this habit under cultivation. The tendency of growth in the asparagus roots in this direction is obviously demonstrated in Fig. 14. The proper depth of planting asparagus roots varies somewhat, according to the character of the soil, the method of cultivation, and the kind of spears desired, whether white or green. As the new crowns rise somewhat above the old ones annually, it seems but rational that the plants should have sufficient room for the new growths before their crowns become even with the surface of the land. When the crown once comes near the level of the soil it is impossible to give proper cultivation, unless the entire bed be raised by adding soil to the whole surface. While it is true that the deeper the crowns are planted the later they will start in the spring, this is of account only during the first few years. Besides, the factor of earliness is not of nearly as much importance now as it was before northern markets were so bountifully supplied with the southern grown crops several months before the opening of the northern season. Shallow-planted asparagus sprouts earlier, but soon exhausts itself, sending up spindling, tough shoots, while the deeper-planted crowns produce large and succulent sprouts throughout the season. When green asparagus is desired, and there is no danger of the beetles eating the sprouts before they are fit for use, a depth of two or three inches is sufficient, but for white or blanched asparagus a depth of from eight to ten inches is necessary. MANNER OF PLANTING As in other details of asparagus culture, the methods of planting have undergone very material changes. The formerly usual practice of digging deep trenches was not well founded--in the light of our present experience and knowledge--and could be useful only for drainage. How little regard was paid to the nature and requirements of the plant may readily be perceived by reading the following directions for making an asparagus bed, but little over half a century ago, in Bridgeman's "Young Gardeners' Assistant": "The ground for the asparagus bed should have a large supply of well-rotted dung, three or four inches thick, and then be regularly trenched two spades deep, and the dung buried equally in each trench twelve or fifteen inches below the surface. When this trenching is done, lay two or three inches of thoroughly rotted manure over the whole surface, and dig the ground over again eight or ten inches deep, mixing this top-dressing, and incorporating it well with the earth. "In family gardens it is customary to divide the ground thus prepared into beds, allowing four feet for every four rows of plants, with alleys two feet and a half wide between each bed. Strain your line along the bed six inches from the edge; then with a spade cut out a small trench or drill close to the line, about six inches deep, making that side next to the line nearly upright; when one trench is opened, plant that before you open another, placing the plants upright ten or twelve inches distance in the row, and let every row be twelve inches apart. "The plants must not be placed flat in the bottom of the trench, but nearly upright against the back of it, and so that the crown of the plants must also stand upright, and two or three inches below the surface of the ground, spreading their roots somewhat regularly against the back of the trench, and at the same time drawing a little earth up against them with the hand as you place them, just to fix the plants in their due position until the row is planted; when one row is thus placed, with a rake or hoe draw the earth into the trench over the plants, and then proceed to open another drill or trench, as before directed, and fill and cover it in the same manner, and so on until the whole is planted; then let the surface of the beds be raked smooth and clear from stones, etc. "Some gardeners, with a view to having extra large heads, place their plants sixteen inches apart in the rows instead of twelve, and by planting them in the quincunx manner--that is, by commencing the second row eight inches from the end of the first and the fourth even with the second--the plants will form rhomboidal squares instead of rectangular ones, and every plant will thus have room to expand its roots and leaves luxuriantly." In diametrical contradistinction, and as an example of the very plainest and simplest of modern methods, Joseph Harris wrote: "If you are going to plant a small bed in the garden, stretch a line not less than four feet from any other plant, and with a hoe make holes along the line, eighteen inches or three feet apart, four inches deep, and large enough to hold the plants when the roots are spread out horizontally. Do not make deep holes straight down in the ground and stick the roots in as you would a cabbage, but spread out the roots. After the roots are set out cover them with fine soil, and that is all there is to it. Then move the line three feet from the first row and repeat the planting until the bed is finished. In the field make the rows with a common corn-marker, three feet apart each way, and set out a plant where the rows cross. It is but little more work to plant an acre of asparagus than an acre of potatoes." Between these extreme methods many different directions for planting asparagus have been given and practiced. Modern methods have not only greatly simplified the planting, but have also materially reduced the expense, increased the crop, and improved the quality of the product. [Illustration: FIG. 15--TRENCHES READY FOR PLANTING] After the ground has been properly prepared, it is marked off in parallel rows from three to five or more feet apart, according to the preferences of the grower. The easiest way to open these trenches is by plowing a furrow each way, and, if necessary, going over the ground a sufficient number of times to make the furrows from eight to ten inches deep. After this the loose soil is thrown out with a shovel or a wide hoe, so as to leave the trenches at a uniform depth of ten to twelve inches and of the same width at the bottom, as seen in Fig. 15. By rigging a piece of board on the mold-board of the plow more soil is thrown out, so that usually it will not be necessary to go over the ground oftener than twice. The Messrs. Hudson & Son, of Long Island, have devised for their own use a "trencher" (Fig. 16), which with a good team opens the trench to the desired depth in one operation and at a great saving of labor. [Illustration: FIG. 16--HUDSON'S TRENCHER] If the entire ground has been heavily fertilized, plowing manure in the trenches will not be necessary, yet many experienced asparagus growers think that it pays to scatter some fertilizing material into the trenches before planting. A favorite plan with Long Island growers is to mix half a ton of ground bone, or fish scrap, with one hundred pounds of nitrate of soda per acre, and thoroughly incorporate this mixture with the soil to a depth of three inches before setting the plants. Others prefer thoroughly decomposed manure spread over the bottom of the furrow, to a depth of about three inches, before setting the plants. Others prefer thoroughly decomposed manure spread over the bottom of the furrow, to a depth of about three inches, and covering it with two inches of fine soil. If the roots are to be planted four or more feet apart it will be sufficient to throw a shovelful of manure where the roots are to be placed. This is then spread out so as to make a layer of about three inches, which is then covered with soil. PLACING THE ROOTS The proper planting of the roots is the most critical point in asparagus culture, as upon the manner in which this is performed--more than upon other detail--depends the success, yield, duration, and profit of the plantation. Almost any other neglect can be remedied by after-treatment, but careless and faulty planting, never. Whatever care and personal attention the grower may give to this work will be repaid manyfold in future returns. [Illustration: FIG. 17--ASPARAGUS ROOT IN PROPER POSITION FOR COVERING] As stated before, only strong, healthy one-year-old plants with three or four strong buds should be used, so as to insure an even growth over the entire field, and at every stage of the work great care must be taken not to expose the roots to the drying influences of sun and winds. When everything is in readiness for planting, the roots are placed in the trench, the crown in the center and the rootlets spread out evenly and horizontally, like the spokes of a wheel, and at once covered with three inches of fine, mellow soil, which is pressed around them. If the ground is dry at planting-time it should be pressed down quite firmly about the roots, so as to prevent their drying out, and to hasten their growth. [Illustration: FIG. 18--CROSS-SECTION OF ASPARAGUS BED AFTER PLANTING] To still more insure success it is an excellent plan to draw up little hills of soil in the bottom of the trench over which to place the roots with the crowns resting on the top, thus raising the crowns a few inches above the extremities of the roots and providing for them a position similar to what they stood in before transplanting, as seen in Fig. 17. The subsequent covering of the roots can usually be done with a one-horse plow, from which the mold-board has been removed, passing down the sides of the row. This leaves the plants in a depression, the soil thrown out in opening the rows forming a ridge on each side, as shown in Fig. 18. This depression will gradually become filled during the process of cultivation the succeeding summer. IX CULTIVATION As generally understood, the chief object of cultivation is to kill weeds. This is an erroneous idea, however, as the appearance of weeds serves simply as Nature's reminder of the necessity of immediate cultivation. On ground cultivated as thoroughly as it should be for the best development of the crop there will rarely be any weeds to kill, as their germs have been destroyed by the process of cultivation before they could make their appearance above the ground. CARE DURING THE FIRST YEAR The cultural work in the asparagus bed during the first year consists in loosening the soil at frequent intervals, and especially as soon after rain as the ground becomes dry enough for cultivation. Frequent and thorough cultivation is necessary not only to keep down the weeds, but also to prevent the formation of a crust on the soil after rain, and to provide a mulch of loose earth for the retention of moisture. In field culture the work is best done with a one-horse cultivator or a wheel-hoe, and on a small scale with a scuffle-hoe and a rake. As the sprouts grow up small quantities of fine soil should be drawn into the trenches from time to time, but during the early part of the season great care must be exercised not to cover the crowns too deeply. Some growers advise to work the soil away instead of toward the plants, considering the four inches of soil with which the roots are covered at planting sufficient for the first year. While this may be true in a wet or moderately moist summer, in a season of drouth the additional mulch of mellow soil can not but be beneficial to the young and tender plants. Especial care is required when working around the young sprouts, so as not to cover, break, or in any way injure any of them. In the garden bed it pays to stake the canes when they are but a foot high, so as to prevent the wind from disturbing the stools in the soil by swaying the shoots backward and forward. Careful gardeners insert stakes for this purpose at the time of planting, before the roots are covered with soil, so as to guard against the danger of injuring any of them. The best material for this tying is raffia, or Cuban bast. In field culture staking is usually not practicable, partly on account of the cost, and also because where there are many plants growing close together they furnish some mutual protection to one another. The same end may also be accomplished--partly, at least--by throwing up a furrow on each side of the rows of plants. Precautions of this kind are important in localities exposed to high winds, as their neglect may often cause greater loss than it would have cost to provide proper protection. Another important work in the asparagus bed during the first year is to keep close and constant watch over the asparagus beetle, and at its first appearance to apply the remedies recommended in the chapter on injurious insects. Plants deprived of their foliage at this early stage of their life have but a poor chance to recover from the loss. If it is found that some of the plants have not started by the middle of June, it is best to replace them with growing plants of the same age, which should have been kept in a reserve bed for this purpose. If this replanting is done carefully, so as not to mutilate any of the roots, and on a cloudy day, it is best not to cut back the tops very severely. Unless a copious rain sets in soon after planting, the roots have to be heavily watered, after which they will keep on growing at once without suffering any setback. The formerly all but universal practice was to cover the roots with manure after the stalks had been removed in the fall for fear of frost injuring or killing the roots. In sections where winters are very severe this may still be desirable, as may be seen from the statement of so keen an observer as Professor J. C. Whitten, of the Missouri Experiment Station: "Most writers advise applying dressing of old fine manure during the growing season when the plants can use it. In our soil better results are obtained by applying it in winter. It prevents the soil from running together and hardening, and also prevents the sprouts from coming through, as they otherwise often do, too early in spring, and becoming weakened by subsequent severe freezing." As the reverse of this plan, M. Godefroy-Leboeuf, the famous French authority, recommends "to clear out of the trenches the soil which has fallen into them from the sides of the mounds, and also remove from above the stools a portion of that with which they were covered at the time they were planted--say, to a depth of one and one-half inches--so that the action of the frost may open the soil and that the rain may penetrate and improve it; also that during the first fine days of spring the sun may warm the surface of the soil and penetrate as far as the stools. There is no fear that the action of the frost should hurt the plants. Asparagus will never freeze as long as the stool is covered with a layer of soil one and one-half to one and three-fourth inches in depth." If the rows are not less than four feet apart a crop of some other vegetables may be raised between them. Beans, dwarf peas, lettuce, beets, or any kinds which do not spread much, are suitable for the purpose. These by-products will help considerably toward paying the cost of cultivating the main crop, besides having a tendency to keep the soil cool and moist, a condition of no little importance to the asparagus. CARE DURING THE SECOND YEAR The treatment of the asparagus plantation during the second year does not differ materially from that of the first season after planting. The ground has to be stirred frequently and kept scrupulously clean, and a sharp lookout must be kept for the advent of injurious insects. As soon as berries appear on the tops they should be stripped off and destroyed, as the ripening seed absorbs a large share of the nourishment which ought to go to the development and strengthening of the crowns which are to produce the following year's crop. Even with the best of care, some plants will die out from time to time, although the more thoroughly the ground has been prepared at the time of planting, and the better the quality of the roots planted, the fewer failures of this kind will occur. These blank spaces are not only constant eyesores to the methodical gardener, but in the course of several years the aggregate shortage of crops will be considerable, while the amount of labor and fertilizer will be the same as in a fully stocked plantation. Therefore, such vacancies should be filled in the spring, not only of the second year, but whenever they occur in future seasons. The best way to replant these dead or dying roots is to go over the rows each fall, before the ground freezes, and drive a stake wherever there is a plant missing, as in the spring, before the plants have started, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to indicate the blank spaces. For replanting in the second year good strong two-year-old roots should be used. For the third and future years it is best to raise and keep a supply of a sufficient number of reserve plants for this special purpose in a similar manner as is done for forcing. As early in spring as the season permits these clumps should be carefully lifted and transferred to the permanent plantation. For three-year and older beds good strong three-year-old roots should be used, as younger ones would have but a poor chance between two older and well-established clumps. CARE DURING THE THIRD AND FUTURE YEARS The third year cutting may begin in a moderate way, but too much should not be attempted. If all the conditions of growth have been favorable half a crop may be cut without injuring the roots, but under no circumstances should cutting in the third year be continued for more than three weeks. The general care of the bed during the third year is similar to that of the second, with the exception that the soil is worked more toward the rows, ridging them slightly. In the spring of the third and each succeeding year, as soon as the ground can be worked it should be plowed between the rows, turning the soil toward and over the crowns, leaving a dead furrow between the rows, as seen in Fig. 19. If bleached asparagus is desired, these ridges over the rows should be twelve inches higher than the bottom of the dead furrows between the rows, and when the soil is very light and sandy a hight of fifteen inches is preferable. For green asparagus the ridges are left lower, and the shoots are allowed to grow several inches above the ground before cutting, provided the asparagus beetle does not appropriate them sooner. [Illustration: FIG. 19--PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF AN ASPARAGUS FIELD PROPERLY RIDGED IN EARLY SPRING MISSOURI AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION] After the furrows are plowed out between the rows a home-made ridger is used to smooth the ridges and complete the work. This is formed of two heavy oak boards shod with tire iron, sloping upward and backward, attached to a pair of cultivator wheels. This requires a good team, one horse walking on either side of the row. On the light soils of Long Island this implement works to perfection, but on stiff lands a two-horse disk-wheel cultivator, with two disks on each side, going astride of each row and throwing up fresh soil upon the ridge, proves more effective. The same implements are used for renewing the ridges during the cutting season, which will be required about once a week, as the rains beat them down and the sun bakes a crust upon the top. Immediately after the cutting season is over the ridges are leveled, by plowing a furrow from each side of the center (Fig. 20), after which the land is harrowed crosswise until the surface is level and smooth. As long as practical, surface cultivation should be given, especially after rains, but usually at this time the plants make such rapid and vigorous growth that there will be little time for the work. Their tops and branches soon fill the entire space and quickly shade the ground so densely as to keep down weed growth. Of course, whatever tall weeds may spring up here and there have to be pulled out by hand. FALL TREATMENT [Illustration: FIG. 20--LEVELING THE RIDGES AFTER THE CUTTING SEASON] The fall clearing of the plantation is an important part of asparagus culture. As soon as the berries are turning red--but not before--the stalks should be cut off even with the ground. If left longer the berries will drop off, their seeds will soon become embedded in the ground and fill the soil with seedling asparagus plants, which are about the most obstinate weed in the asparagus bed. If cut sooner they are not sufficiently matured, and the roots are deprived of their nourishment. All the brush should be removed at once to an open field and burned, so as not to provide lodging-places for injurious insects and fungi. Some recommend leaving the seedless plants as a mulch during the winter, but the possible benefit of this is so insignificant that it is not worth while to leave them for a second cleaning in spring, when time is far more valuable. RENOVATING OLD ASPARAGUS BEDS The principal causes of asparagus beds running out are that in the first place ten plants are set out in a space where only one could thrive; then that the ground is not rich enough and had no proper cultivation; and last, but not least, that the cutting of the stalks has been carried to excess. What to do with the old bed is sometimes a perplexing question, especially when a place changes hands and the new proprietor has more progressive ideas than the former one had. Let the old bed stay, and set out a new one according to rational methods. Some years ago the writer came into possession of an asparagus bed which was known to be forty years old, and may have been much older. It was a solid mass of roots without any distinguishable rows. The spears produced were so small and tough that the first impulse was to dig up the roots. But as this proved to be a more formidable task than was anticipated, another plan was pursued. In autumn the bed was thickly covered with fine yard manure. The following spring the bed was marked out into strips of two feet in width. When the sprouts appeared those in every alternate strip were cut clean off during the entire summer, and the others allowed to grow. In the autumn of the year another heavy application of manure was given to the entire bed. The following year but few shoots appeared in the strips which had been cut all through the summer. These were treated the same as before, and in the third year not a sprout appeared in the alleys. The stalks left for use improved greatly during the first year and the third year were of good serviceable size and quality, so that even after the new bed, which had been planted at the time this experiment was commenced, came into bearing, the old one was retained for several years longer. Probably if the vacant strips had been made three or four feet wide the result would have been still better. This experience suggests the idea that the easiest and least expensive way of exterminating an old asparagus bed is to persistently mow down all the shoots for a season or two. X FERTILIZERS AND FERTILIZING Asparagus is a gross feeder. There is hardly another plant in cultivation upon the vitality of which so great a demand is made. The cutting of all its sprouts, or shoots, as soon as they appear above the ground, for several weeks, is an abnormal and enormous tax upon the plant, which is thus forced to extra exertion in order to reproduce itself and perpetuate its kind. Therefore, it should have the most tender care, and an abundance of nourishing and readily available food. The earliness, tenderness, size, and commercial value of the product depends principally on the rapidity of its growth, and, as this is materially promoted by the richness of the soil, it is evident that the plants should receive all the food they can assimilate during the growing season. There is a wide difference of opinion among growers as to which is the best kind of manure to use. Whatever the individual preferences may be, there is this satisfaction to know that no kind of plant food can come amiss on the asparagus bed, although the use of some kinds and combinations may be more economical than others. Formerly animal manures only were thought to be of any use for asparagus, and there are still some growers who cling to this opinion. In recent years, however, there has been a decided reaction in this regard in some of the principal asparagus sections. The objections made against stable manure are that it is more expensive to handle, that it is apt to get the land full of weeds, and that it does not contain sufficient phosphoric acid and potash. At present many growers use commercial fertilizers exclusively, convinced that asparagus needs liberal feeding of potash and more nitrogen than is generally supposed to be required. The composition of 1,000 parts of fresh asparagus sprouts is, according to Wolff: Water 933 parts Nitrogen 3.2 " Ash 5.0 " Potash 1.2 " Soda 0.9 " Lime 0.6 " Magnesia 0.2 " Phosphoric acid 0.9 " Sulphuric acid 0.3 " Silica 0.5 " Chlorine 0.3 " This analysis shows very accurately what a given weight of asparagus abstracts from the soil, but it does not, and can not, show or even indicate certain indispensable demands. In this, as in other cases, the analysis of a crop is a very uncertain guide to its proper fertilization. It should be clearly understood by every cultivator of the soil that no rigidly fixed formulas can be given for any one crop on all soils. The question of quantity of application and of proportion must always, in the very nature of the case, remain more or less a matter of individual experiment. The following formula, given by Prof. P. H. Rolfs, makes a good asparagus fertilizer: Nitrogen 4 per cent. Potash 5 " Available phosphoric acid 7 " One thousand five hundred pounds of the above formula should be applied per acre. When possible apply twenty to forty tons of vegetable material, such as partially rotted rakings of barnyard manure. Where such vegetable matter is procurable, the quantity of nitrogen may be decreased proportionately. If manure is obtainable, allowance should be made for the fertilizing elements contained therein. An excellent formula for one ton of asparagus fertilizer, given by Prof. W. F. Massey, consists of: 200 lbs. nitrate of soda 700 " cottonseed-meal 800 " acid phosphate (13 per cent.) 300 " muriate of potash This will yield 4.9 per cent. ammonia, 6.1 per cent. available phosphoric acid, 8.4 per cent. potash. The effects of the application of a scientifically balanced fertilizer ration upon asparagus is clearly illustrated in Fig. 21, which presents a photographic reproduction of an experimental plat of the North Carolina State Horticultural Society at Southern Pines, N. C., fertilized with 250 lbs. nitrate of soda 400 " acid phosphate 160 " muriate of potash per acre, while Fig. 22 shows a plat of equal size which remained unfertilized. [Illustration: FIG. 21--NORTH CAROLINA'S EXPERIMENT FARM ASPARAGUS PLOT; FERTILIZED] The following table gives the amounts of different fertilizer materials necessary to give the desired quantity of each element: _Element_ _Pounds of different materials for one acre_ { 800 to 1,000 lbs. cottonseed-meal; or Nitrogen { 350 to 400 " nitrate of soda; or { 275 to 300 " sulphate of ammonia; or { 400 to 600 " dried blood. { 300 to 500 lbs. kainit; or Potash { 150 lbs. muriate of potash; or { 150 to 300 lbs. sulphate of potash Phosphoric acid { 750 to 1,000 lbs. acid phosphate; or { 600 to 800 dissolved bone. [Illustration: FIG. 22--NORTH CAROLINA EXPERIMENT FARM ASPARAGUS PLOT; UNFERTILIZED] "Asparagus requires very heavy manuring, and yet its composition would not indicate it," writes Mr. Charles V. Mapes. "The explanation is found in the fact that it must grow very rapidly, otherwise it is tough, stringy and flavorless, the same as with radishes. If it had a long season to grow in, like timothy hay, it might grow successfully in very poor soil. A half ton of timothy hay contains about as much plant food, and in similar proportions, as two thousand bunches of asparagus, or five thousand quarts of strawberries, and yet while this quantity of hay will grow on an acre of almost any poor soil, the strawberries or asparagus for a fair crop per acre require a rich garden soil. If the hay were obliged to make as rapid growth as the asparagus, then it also would require rich soil. With the strawberry there is but the lapse of a few weeks from the time of blossoming to the full development of its fruit. The plants need a superabundance of plant food within easy reach, otherwise the fruit is small and inferior. The plant can not bear profitable fruit and at the same time be compelled to struggle for existence. The same is the case with asparagus. Neither of these crops can take up out of the soil all the fertilizer that needs to be applied for their successful growth, and therefore there is necessarily a large quantity of plant food unused and left over in the soil." For these reasons, asparagus, while not necessarily an exhaustive crop, requires heavy manuring. One ton of high grade vegetable manure is none too much per acre, and is small, particularly in the expense, as compared with the larger quantities of stable manure per acre, as recommended by some successful growers. As already stated, formerly it was thought necessary to place large quantities of manure in the bottom of the deep trenches in which the young plants were set out, in order that sufficient fertility might be present for several years for the roots, as after the plants were once planted there would be no further opportunity to apply the manure in such an advantageous place. This theory has been found erroneous and the practice has been demonstrated to be rather a waste than otherwise, and besides the roots of asparagus thrive better when resting upon a more compact soil; nor is it necessary that the soil should contain great amounts of humus, or be in an extremely fertile condition when the plants are first put out, since by the system of top-dressing a moderately fertile soil soon becomes exceedingly rich and equal to the demands which the plants make upon it. The plan of top-dressing beds during the fall or early winter is gradually giving way to the more rational mode of top-dressing in the spring or summer. It was believed that autumn dressing strengthened the roots and enabled them to throw up stronger shoots during the following spring. This is a mistake, however. In the Oyster Bay region formerly all manuring was done in the spring, but the practice of applying all fertilizers immediately after the cutting is finished is rapidly increasing. The reason for this is found in the fact that, during the growth of the stalks, after the cutting season is over, the crowns form the buds from which the spears of next season spring, and it is probable that it is principally during this period that the roots assimilate and store up the materials which produce these spears. This being true, the plant food added to the soil and becoming available after the cessation of vegetation in the autumn can have little, if any, effect upon the spears which are cut for market the following spring; it first becomes of use to the plant after the crop has been cut and the stalks allowed to grow. Thus the manuring of the autumn of 1901 will not benefit the grower materially until the spring of 1903. Nevertheless, some highly successful asparagus raisers continue to apply fertilizers in the spring, as evidenced by the following directions given by one of the most prominent growers in the Oyster Bay district. "After the roots have been set in the drill, put enough soil on them to cover about two inches. Then sow about 500 pounds of high grade potato fertilizer per acre in the drill. As the weeds commence to grow, cultivate and hoe, letting the soil cave down in the drill. About the middle of the season sow about 500 pounds more of fertilizer in the drill. Continue to cultivate and hoe the remainder of the season. At the end of the season the drill should be entirely filled up. The second year sow about 2,000 pounds of fertilizer per acre broadcast, plow the ground and harrow it down level, and keep the ground clean. The third year open the drill over the asparagus with a one-horse plow, broadcast 2,000 pounds of fertilizer per acre about the time the shoots begin to show, and back-furrow it up with a plow over the drill to form a ridge. Then smooth the ridge down with a home-made implement resembling a snow-plow reversed. Cut every morning all the shoots that show through the ground. Do not cut more than four weeks in the first cutting season. Continue to broadcast 2,000 pounds of fertilizer per acre every year." From what has been said in regard to the various methods of applying fertilizers to asparagus, it will be readily understood that it can make but little difference how it is distributed, whether on the rows, between the rows, or broadcast, so long as enough of it is put on the land. In an established asparagus bed the entire ground is a dense network of roots, and wherever the fertilizer is put some of the roots will find it, but not those of the plants over the crowns of which it has been planted; not more so than the feeding roots of an apple tree can reach a heap of manure piled around its trunk. SALT AS A FERTILIZER Salt is but little used now by commercial asparagus growers, though it has been recommended for this crop from time immemorial. About the principal advantage to be derived from its use is that of killing weeds without injuring asparagus, although it may be applied in sufficient quantities to injure the asparagus. The indirect fertilizing value of salt is mainly due to the fact that it has the power of changing unavailable forms of plant food into available forms; but this object may be secured cheaper and better by the use of kainit. In sandy soils it may encourage the supply of moisture, but on naturally moist and retentive soils heavy dressings of salt may do more harm than good. Much of the benefits to asparagus for which salt gets credit is its use in a small way in the home garden, due to the fact that not dry salt, but the brine and residue of the pork and corned beef barrels is applied to the asparagus beds. This brine is rich in animal matter extracted from the meat, and usually also in saltpeter, which has been used in pickling. The latter substance alone, without the addition of salt, exerts a strong fertilizing effect upon the plants. After a series of carefully conducted experiments by Mr. Charles V. Mapes, he writes: "Salt was only effectual as a fertilizer in proportion as the soil contained accumulated supplies of plant food, either from previous manurings or from natural strength. Asparagus, unlike nearly all other crops, will stand almost unlimited quantities of salt without injury. It also thrives near the seashore, and it was therefore generally believed that liberal quantities of salt were a necessity to its successful growth. Experience has shown, however, that its presence is not at all necessary for its growth, and that the reason that a bed to which salt has been applied shows quickened and improved growth is that the salt dissolves out of the soil plant food which, without the presence of the salt, would have become too slowly reduced to available condition for producing good crops. The salt acted practically as a stimulant and added nothing except chlorine and soda, neither of which in any considerable quantity is essential for growing this crop. It is this dissolving action that takes place in the soil whenever any soluble salt or fertilizer, like kainit, potash salts, acid phosphates, etc., be applied to the soil, that is often mistaken for a manuring one. The result is an exhaustion, not a strengthening, of the soil. The crop is grown at the expense of the limited supply of food that the soluble salt can act upon. The fertilizer has acted practically as a stimulant." XI HARVESTING AND MARKETING The chief labor in asparagus culture is the cutting and bunching. As it is of the greatest importance that the work be done promptly and expeditiously, it is desirable to have more help than is wanted merely for the asparagus, and then, when the asparagus is ready for market, they can go to hoeing and tilling other crops. Five acres in full bearing will require from six to eight men from four to six hours per day to do the cutting and three or four to do the bunching. A successful farmer in western New York, who has four acres of asparagus, employs eight or ten boys and girls, for from three to six hours per day, to do the cutting and three women to bunch it. The women are paid by the bunch, and work five to ten hours per day. Piecework, if properly done, is nearly always cheaper than day work, and is better for the employés and the employer. CUTTING As has been stated in a previous chapter, cutting should not begin until the plants have become strong and vigorous, which requires two or three years from the planting. In the latitude of New York City the cutting season commences usually the last week in April and closes July 10th, although but few growers cut after the 1st, particularly if the season has been a favorable one. Except on old and well-established plantings, cutting should not extend for more than six or seven weeks. Some growers cut asparagus as long as it pays to ship, regardless of the damage done to the plants. The old rule to discontinue cutting asparagus when green peas are abundant is a safe one to follow, especially in the home garden. Unlike other crops, about as much can be cut each day, or at each cutting, as the day before, during the season, varying only according to the weather. _Manner of cutting._--The mode of cutting asparagus varies according to the requirements of the markets, whether green or white stalks are desired. Whatever individual preferences may be, the fact is that in New York City, and some other large market centers, 75 per cent. of the asparagus sold is white or blanched, and it would be useless to try to persuade the buyers to take any other. To show how extreme the convictions are in this matter of taste, we quote from Prof. J. F. C. Du Pre, of the Clemson Agricultural College: "Why any one should prefer the almost tasteless, insipid white to the green 'grass,' into which the sunshine has put the flavor of ambrosia, is beyond my comprehension." On the other hand, Leboeuf, the famous asparagus expert of Argenteuil, writes: "Properly blanched asparagus is infinitely more tender and delicate than green. To serve up green asparagus is to dishonor the table." In recent years a compromise has been made between the two styles. By allowing the tops of the hilled-up sprouts to grow four inches above the surface, the upper half of the stalk is green while the lower half remains white. [Illustration: FIG. 23--BASKET OF ASPARAGUS READY FOR THE BUNCHING SHED] For green asparagus the sprouts are cut when six or seven inches high, and then only so far below the surface as to furnish a stalk about nine inches long. For the white style the rows have to be ridged twelve inches above the crowns, and the stalks are cut as soon as the tops show above the ground, the cutting off being eight or nine inches below the surface. Whichever method is followed, it is very important to cut every day during the season, and to cut clean at each cutting, taking all the small sprouts as well as the large ones. If the weak and spindling shoots are allowed to grow they will draw away the strength from the roots, to the injury of the crop. [Illustration: FIG. 24--CUTTING AND PICKING UP ASPARAGUS IN A TEN-ACRE FIELD OF C. W. PRESCOTT, MIDDLESEX COUNTY, MASS.] When cutting, the sprout is taken in the left hand and the knife run down close alongside of it to the proper depth, carefully avoiding other spears that are just beginning to push up all around the crown. Then the handle of the knife is moved away from the stalk, to give it the proper slant, the knife shoved down so as to sever the stalk with a tapering cut, and at the same time the stalk is pulled out. After cutting, the asparagus should be removed out of the sun as soon as possible to prevent its wilting and discoloring. Usually this is done by dropping the stalks in a basket which, when full (Fig. 23), is carried to the bunching shed. On large plantations, however, the cutters leave the stalks on the ground to be picked up by boys following closely, as seen in Fig. 24. To facilitate the picking up and carrying away, horse carriers are used, as shown in Fig. 25. [Illustration: FIG. 25--HORSE CARRIER FOR TEN BOXES OF ASPARAGUS] In some sections of Europe, especially at the famous asparagus regions of Argenteuil, a knife is never used. According to W. Robinson: "The slightly hardened crust around the emerging bud and on top of the little mound is pushed aside, the fore and middle finger separated are then thrust deeply into the soft soil, pushing the earth outwards. If a rising shoot be met with on the way down, it is carefully avoided. A second plunge of the two fingers and pushing out of the earth usually brings them to the hardened ground about the crest of the root; the forefinger is then slipped behind the base of the shoot fit to gather, and rushed gently outward, when the shoot at once snaps clean off its base. This plan has the advantage of leaving no mutilated shoots or decaying matter on the ground. Once gathered, care is taken that the shoot is not exposed to the light, but placed at once in a covered basket. As soon as the stalk is gathered, the earth is gently and loosely drawn up with the hand, so as to leave the surface of the mound as it was before, not pressing the earth in any way, but keeping it quite free. The shoots are not rubbed or cleaned in any way--it would disfigure them, and they do not require it." _Knives._--There are several styles of knives for cutting asparagus, but an ordinary ten-inch butcher-knife with the point cut square off, leaving the end about an inch and a quarter wide and ground sharp like a chisel, answers the purpose as well as any of the implements made especially for the purpose. Another serviceable tool for cutting asparagus is a carpenter's thin firmer-chisel, one and one-half inches wide, nearly flat, and the thinnest that can be obtained ground on the convex side or back, about an inch from the end, which should be rounded off on the inside to prevent them from injuring sprouts near by. Other styles of asparagus knives are seen in Fig. 26. SORTING AND BUNCHING In some local markets asparagus is sold loose, by weight, in which case but little regard is paid to the size and length and color of the stalks, nor to the style of packing. This is the most profitable way for the grower to sell, as it saves him all the expense and labor of bunching, and as even the smallest stalks are thus salable, there is no waste whatever, while the prices obtained are about the same as those for first-class bunches--that is, two pounds of loose asparagus sell for about the same price as a full-sized bunch. But in city markets asparagus could hardly be sold in such a condition, and it is of first importance that it should be carefully graded and neatly bunched. [Illustration: FIG. 26--VARIOUS ASPARAGUS KNIVES] [Illustration: FIG. 27--END AND SIDE VIEW OF PRIME WHITE ASPARAGUS BUNCHES] _Sorting._--Careful growers assort into three sizes: extras, primes, and seconds. The size and weight of the bunches vary somewhat in different markets. Bunches varying from six to twelve inches in length are received at wholesale centers, but the most convenient and popular size for a bunch of prime white asparagus is eight and one-half inches long, averaging thirty spears, and weighing two pounds. The side view of one and the end view of three bunches of this size of white asparagus are shown in Fig. 27. To assure uniformity some ingenious contrivances have been invented, most of which are a great improvement over the old-time bunchers, consisting merely of a board with four pins, six inches long, and placed about four inches apart each way, to form a square. Two strings, usually of bast matting, were laid down on the board, which was set on a bench up against the wall, or had a back made of another board tacked on it at right angles. The asparagus was laid on the buncher between the pins, the tops touching the back or wall to keep them even. When the bunch was large enough the strings were tied firmly, and the butt end of the bunch cut square. [Illustration: FIG. 28--CONOVER'S ASPARAGUS BUNCHER] _Bunchers._--The modern bunchers are constructed of cast iron and are easily handled. One of the first to come into use was Conover's (Fig. 28). The principle of the operation is that the stalks are placed between two brass strips, a hinged cover is brought down by means of a lever and held in place until the strings are tied. Two ties should be used, one placed about two inches from either end. The bunch must be tied so tightly that it will not loosen in handling and transportation to market. The Watt's Buncher (Fig. 29), used extensively in New Jersey, is so arranged that the arms may be adjusted to any size bunch desired by simply loosening the bolts at either end, and pulling out the arms so as to fit the shape of the bunch, and thus both ends can be bunched properly. The style of buncher and knives in favor with growers in the famous asparagus region near Concord, Mass., are seen in Fig. 30, and the process of bunching in Fig. 31. [Illustration: FIG. 29--WATT'S ASPARAGUS BUNCHER] _Tying materials._--Twine, Cuban bast, sisal, and various other materials are used for tying, but nothing is better for this purpose than raffia fiber. This is obtained from the raffia or rofia palm, a native of the island of Madagascar. The tree sends enormous branches from near the ground, the pinnate leaves of which produce this fiber. One palm frond will produce eighty to one hundred long, green leaflets from two to five feet in length, and from this the fiber is prepared. "Silk lamba" is also a product of this palm. Raffia fiber is now extensively used for tying up plants, for grafting, and many other purposes, as it is very strong, as soft as silk, and is not affected by moisture or changes of temperature, and it does not break or ravel when folded or knotted. [Illustration: FIG. 30--RACK AND KNIVES USED IN NEW ENGLAND] [Illustration: FIG. 31--AT THE BUNCHING TABLE] _Rubber bands._--The use of rubber bands for fastening asparagus bunches has recently been found to have some advantages not possessed by other materials. Prof. W. J. Green, of the Ohio Experiment Station, writes in Bulletin No. 9: "The work can be done more rapidly and better. The saving in time is fully one-third, which will pay for the increased cost of rubber over string, reckoning wages at seventy-five cents per day. This difference might be less where expert tyers are employed, or very low rates per hundred bunches are paid. In any case, the work can be done in a manner that is much more satisfactory to dealers with rubber than with string. This is owing to the fact that rubber holds the bunches intact, while string allows them to fall apart and to become unsightly. Doubtless, in some cases, dealers would be willing to pay more for bunches fastened with rubber than for those put up in the ordinary manner. Even though no difference is made in price for asparagus put up by the two methods, the bunches fastened with rubber bands sell more readily than those tied with string. "Rubber bands can be bought for two dollars per pound, and the size best adapted to the purpose run about two thousand bands per pound, or sufficient for one thousand bunches. This makes rubber bands cost about two cents per dozen bunches more than string, if the saving in labor is not taken into consideration. "The saving in the item of labor depends, of course, upon the kind of labor employed. In determining the relative value of the two methods not only must cost of labor be taken into consideration, but the character of the market as well. When competition is not strong careful bunching is not a matter of great importance, but in many markets it is essential that the bunches be put up in such a manner that they will not fall apart. In such cases rubber bands will more than pay for their extra cost, by insuring more ready sales, if not by increasing the price. "The method employed in bunching with rubber bands is to slip a band over an ordinary teacup--one with straight sides and without a handle; fill the cup with asparagus shoots, the heads downward, and then slip the band from the cup to the bunch. This makes a bunch of about the right size, and gives the upper end a nicely rounded appearance. All that remains to be done is to slip on another band and to square the butts with a sharp knife. Possibly a metallic cup would answer better, being thinner, but a teacup is not objectionable in this particular. If smaller bunches are desired than the smallest cup that can be found, it is not necessary to fill the cup." MARKETING During the entire process of cutting, sorting, bunching, and packing great care must be exercised not to bruise or in any way injure the heads, as the gummy juice of these soon heats and spoils the whole. They should also be kept cool and dry, else the moisture causes decay. Of course if, when cutting, the ground is wet, some of the soil will adhere to the lower ends of the stalks; this has to be rinsed off in clean water, but not by immersing the entire stalk. If the bunches are to be kept over night, before packing, the butts should be dipped in clean water and stood on end on a cold cellar bottom, or upon grass or hay that has been thoroughly wet; but the crowns, or the green portions of the sprouts, should never be sprinkled or wet. It is a common practice to set the bunches in shallow pans containing water, but this is apt to give a bitter taste to the stalks. [Illustration: FIG. 32--BOX OF GIANT ASPARAGUS READY FOR SHIPMENT] [Illustration: FIG. 33--SOUTHERN ASPARAGUS CRATE, CONTAINING 24 BUNCHES OF GREEN ASPARAGUS] [Illustration: FIG. 34--END PIECE OF SOUTHERN CRATE] _Crates._--There is no standard shape or size of crates for shipping asparagus, and in the wholesale markets of New York City a great variety of styles is found. Of late ordinary twenty-four or thirty-two quart berry crates have come into favor with near by growers, as they are cheap, light, and easily handled. In these the bunches are laid down flat, in tiers, alternating the butt ends so that when the crates are full the top row is level with the cover. Some growers, of very fine asparagus even, use solid wooden boxes. Fig. 32 shows such a box containing three dozen bunches. A crate with the top a few inches narrower than the bottom has the advantage that it holds the bunches more firmly together than straight-sided boxes. Fig. 33 shows a crate containing two dozen bunches of green asparagus ready for shipment, with the exception of the slats to be nailed on the side. Fig. 34 shows the shape of the end pieces. These crates are made of various sizes, according to the length of the bunches. The crate here illustrated was 24 inches long, 12 inches high, 19 inches wide at the bottom, and 14-1/2 inches at the top, inside measurement. The end boards were 7/8 of an inch thick, and the slats about half an inch. In shipping to a distant market some thoroughly wet grass, or sphagnum moss, should be put in the bottom of the crate, the bunches stood on ends, butt down, and pressed so tightly together that they can not move or shift in handling. The crate should have a tight bottom and ends. The sides may be tight half way up, and the rest of the sides and the top should be slatted. This keeps the butts moist and the tops dry and cool. XII FORCING The forcing of asparagus in various methods has been practiced for centuries, and is rapidly developing into an important industry. The forcing may be done in any place where a temperature of 50° to 60° can be secured, in the greenhouse, hotbed, pit, cellar, or in the garden and field. Whichever plan is pursued, the management of the plants to be forced is the same. The roots should not be less than three years old, and, if obtainable, four or five-year-old plants are to be preferred. These may be dug up from ordinary out-of-door plantations, or, if the forcing is to be done on a large scale and as a permanent industry, the plants have to be grown from seed for this special purpose. To keep up a continuous succession new sowings have to be made every year. The sowing of the seed and the management of the plants during the first year is the same as described in Chapter V. The following year, as early as the season permits, the one-year-old seedlings are planted out in rows, to develop as much strength as possible. As the plants are to remain only two years in the nursery bed, they may be placed closer than in a permanent plantation. A distance of two and one-half feet between the rows and one foot in the rows is, however, the narrowest limit, and, where enough ground is available, three by one and one-half or two feet would be still better. By purchasing one-year-old plants a year's time may be gained, but otherwise there are decided advantages in raising one's own plants. During the following two seasons the ground has to be kept in the best possible tilth, and at the end of the third season from seed the roots may be dug just before the ground is likely to freeze. In lifting the roots it is important not to expose them to the drying influence of the sun and air more than is unavoidable. It is also important to preserve the entire clump intact with as much soil adhering to the roots and crown as possible. They are then placed in a shed, pit, or cool cellar, and covered with sand or soil to prevent their drying out. Moderate freezing does not injure the roots, and some growers think that it even adds to their forcing value. FORCING IN THE GREENHOUSE With florists the forcing of asparagus has this important advantage: that the income obtained from it is nearly all gain, as the space under the benches, which may thus be utilized, is of but little use for other purposes. If the floor under the benches is soil this is dug out so as to form a pit about a foot deep, or at least a few inches deeper than the clumps are high. Three or four inches of good rich soil is scattered over the bottom, and upon this the clumps are placed close together. Dry, mellow soil is then scattered between and over the clumps, so that the crowns are covered one or two inches, and given a thorough watering. If blanched shoots are desired, the crowns will have to be covered with six or eight inches of soil. The same object may be obtained by shutting off the light, which can easily be accomplished under greenhouse benches. Where it is not practicable to make excavations under the benches, a pit may be constructed by placing boards against the posts and filling in the space thus furnished. To secure a succession, new roots from the reserve stock have to be planted every three or four weeks. For the first week or ten days after placing the roots in the forcing-pit they should be kept rather cool, so as to give them a chance to become established. A temperature of 45° to 50° is best, at first. Afterward it should be raised to 55° to 60°, and during the day it may rise as high as 80° to 85°. But, as a rule, very high temperatures induce a spindling growth. During the entire forcing process asparagus requires a large amount of water, but unless it has the chill taken off, and ample means for drainage are provided, it may do far more harm than good. The interval between the time of planting and the first cutting varies greatly, according to the temperature and other conditions. The following are actual dates of asparagus forcing under benches at Cornell University: Plants taken from an old patch November 29th and set under benches three days later. December 4th, shoots just pushing through. December 8th, first shoots cut, averaging nine inches long. December 14th, first good cutting, shoots running from six to fifteen inches long. December 18th, second good cutting. December 26th, a good cutting, some of the shoots having remained too long and become woody; some of these shoots were two feet long. January 10th, a heavy cutting. January 19th, cut about half as many shoots as on the 10th. January 30th, cut about as much as on the 19th, but shoots growing smaller. February 10th, small cutting of weak shoots. Beyond this time there were no shoots worth cutting. FORCING IN HOTBEDS AND FRAMES The forcing of asparagus in hotbeds does not differ materially from that in the greenhouse, except in the supply of heat. "A most suitable place for forcing asparagus," writes William Scott, in _Garden and Forest_, "is a frame about four feet deep with one-fourth inch hot-water pipe running around it. About two and one-half feet of fresh stable litter should be put into the frame and firmly packed, with an inch or two of sand spread over it. This bed should be allowed to stand until the heat of the manure has declined to about 70°, and not below 65°, before the crowns are placed on it. For this work advantage should be taken of a day when the weather is mild, as the crowns are easily damaged by frost. Large crowns five or six years old are preferable to smaller ones for forcing. They may be placed rather closely together in the frame, but the distance apart must be regulated by their size. The roots should be spread evenly over the surface and covered with six inches of sand. Little water will be required, as the steam from the manure affords considerable moisture; but if the bed should become dry, it may be moistened with water of the same temperature as the soil in the frame. A little air may be admitted, when the day is bright and warm, to keep the temperature from rising above 80°. When the points of the shoots begin to appear above the sand the crop is ready to cut. When ground is plentiful, a supply of forcing crowns can be kept up by sowing a little seed every year, having five or six successions, the oldest plants being forced for cutting." With French gardeners it is customary to plunge the frames in warm stable manure and place the roots directly in the manure, packed as closely together as possible. A mere sprinkling of soil is placed over them. As a result the shoots come up very thick. Only strong, fine three-year-old roots are used, and as many as five crops of roots follow each other through the autumn, winter, and spring in the same frame. Straw mats are used to cover the frames at night. FORCING IN THE FIELD Forcing asparagus where it is grown in the field has a twofold advantage over removing the roots to a warm place. First, it saves the trouble and expense of transplanting them, which must be done with much care; and, second, it saves the plants from being ruined by the forcing process. Plants forced in the field where they grow will, if given good care, regain their vigor in a season or two, and may be used again for forcing. By this latter method a better quality and a larger quantity of marketable asparagus is also secured. Various means have been devised to force asparagus in the field, where it is so well established that it continues growth in the summer as though it had not been forced the previous winter. A simple and rather common method of accomplishing this is to place barrels over clumps of asparagus very early in the spring and pile fermenting manure about them, the warmth from the manure forcing the shoots into rapid growth. When the forcing season is over and the danger from frost is past the barrels are removed, and the plants continue growth in the open air. Sometimes asparagus is forced by placing frames, covered with sash, over the plants in the field, the rows of asparagus being set rather close together. This is considered a very profitable method by many market gardeners. Another method of forcing asparagus in the field is to dig ditches between the rows and fill them with fermenting manure. The surface of the bed may also be mulched with manure. The latter plan is extensively practiced by French market gardeners. At the beginning of November the pathways between the beds of asparagus are dug up about two feet in depth and width. The soil coming from the pathway is divided very carefully and put about eight inches thick on the surface of the bed. The trench is filled up with fresh stable manure, not litter, and frames are placed on the bed. The manure should rise as high as the top of the frames and the lights be entirely covered with mats and litter to prevent the heat accumulating in the frame from escaping. In about two or three weeks the asparagus begins to show itself on the surface of the bed. Many market gardeners cover the whole of the bed inside the frames to a thickness of three or four inches with manure, to force the vegetation more quickly; but in this case the manure must be removed when the asparagus begins to shoot. When the shoots are about three inches out of the ground they may be cut. The mats must be taken off in the daytime, but the heat must be well kept up, else the roots and buds will fail to push. The beds are forced every second year only. The gathering of the asparagus may continue for about two months but no longer, or the plantation would be injured. When the gathering is over the frames are taken away, and the soil which was dug up from the alleys is put back again. An ingenious method of forcing asparagus in the field by means of shallow tunnels was devised and successfully carried out by Prof. J. C. Whitten, at the Missouri Experiment Station, who gives the following account in Bulletin No. 43: [Illustration: FIG. 35--TUNNEL THROUGH THE ROWS OF ASPARAGUS FOR FORCING STEAM THROUGH THE SOIL] "The field selected for the experiment was planted to asparagus about ten years ago. The plants were in fair vigor, though of a small variety. The first section forced embraced six rows, four feet apart, and fifty feet long. Fig. 35 shows this section with one tunnel uncovered. Trenches were first made between the rows. This was done by plowing between them, twice in a place, throwing the furrows on the plants so as to cover each row with two furrows of loose earth. These trenches between the rows were then made uniform by means of the spade. When finished they were three or four inches lower than the crowns of asparagus in the adjacent rows. These trenches were then covered with twelve-inch boards, which rested on four-inch blocks, placed at frequent intervals along either side of the trenches. This formed tunnels between the rows for conducting the steam. To guard against the steam's escaping, two or three inches of soil was placed over the boards, and the asparagus patch was then covered with five or six inches of horse manure. This covering was to prevent the heat from escaping from the soil too rapidly. It was then ready for the steam to be turned into the tunnels. "To conduct the steam a one and one-half inch pipe was carried above ground from the boiler to one end of the central tunnel, a distance of one hundred and eighty-five feet. A steam hose long enough to reach each tunnel was attached to this pipe through which to blow steam into the tunnels. It was not the idea to give a constant supply of steam, but to discharge a little into the tunnels each afternoon, or as often as was necessary to maintain sufficient warmth. A piece of tile was inserted into the mouth of each tunnel to prevent the discharging steam from tearing away the earth. "The first steam was turned into the tunnels on November 14th. Steam was discharged into each tunnel, not to exceed five minutes at a time, in order not to heat the earth too hot in any single place. It required about one hour of steaming the first day to bring the bed up to the required temperature of sixty degrees. The distribution of heat throughout the bed was very uniform and satisfactory. The moist steam seemed to permeate the soil equally in all directions. "After the first day very little steaming was necessary until the asparagus began to be produced. On an average the bed was steamed about twice in three days and then only for about five minutes for each tunnel. The soil and horse manure mulch seemed to hold the heat very well, the frequent steamings keeping up fermentation in the mulch. "The first asparagus was cut November 24th, ten days after the first steam was applied. The stems were cut just before they got through the soil and were perfectly bleached. They were as large as those ordinarily produced during the normal period of growth in spring, and were far more crisp and delicious. "Cuttings of asparagus were made almost daily for about a month, when the growth became somewhat weak. The last cutting was made on December 22d. During the month 141 bunches of the ordinary market size, and weighing about one-half pound each, were cut from this bed of 25 x 50 feet. This was equivalent to 300 feet of row or 100 hills of asparagus. "Exhausting steam into the asparagus bed, instead of returning it to the boiler in an inclosed circuit, would at first seem to be a wasteful process of heating. Experiment showed, however, that the circumstances justified this method. Heating a bed of this kind by a circuit of steam-pipes or hot-water pipes is very unsatisfactory. The heat from pipes very soon dries out the soil around the tunnels, destroying its power to conduct heat. In this way the bed becomes too hot and dry adjacent to the tunnels and too cold a short distance from them. It also becomes necessary to maintain heat in the pipes a good part of the time. "By blowing steam directly into the tunnels the soil is kept moist; the steam has a penetrating effect, and permeates all parts of the bed, giving a uniform heat throughout; this moist steam keeps up a continual fermentation of the manure mulch, thus giving heat, and only occasional brief steamings are necessary. "Care must be taken not to use too much steam at one time, or the plants may be ruined by overheating. Our asparagus rows were four feet apart, the tunnels midway between them were only eight inches wide, and yet we found that five minutes at a time was as long as was safe to force steam into a single tunnel. "These experiments have been so successful as to indicate that any one provided with a steam-heating plant could successfully force asparagus for the markets in this manner." Another plan of forcing asparagus in the field, devised by Prof. L. H. Bailey, is thus described in his "Forcing Book": "The Cornell asparagus house--if it may be called a house--is about twenty by fifty feet and the frame is made of steam-pipes. The sides, or walls, are only eighteen inches high, and the frame consists simply of a ridge and three pairs of rafters. The steam-heating pipe or riser is just beneath the ridge, and this feeds two returns upon either side of the house, next the walls. When it is desired to force the asparagus, canvas or muslin is stretched over the frames. No difficulty has been found in starting the asparagus into growth in January and February. The cover is left on and the heat kept up until all danger of frost is past, when the canvas is removed and the plants grow naturally out-of-doors. The secret of this method will no doubt be found to lie in allowing the plantation to become very thoroughly established (at least, three or four years old) before forcing is attempted, in the very best tillage and fertilizing during the summer while the plants are growing, in taking off the cover just as soon as settled weather comes, and in not cutting the plants until after that time." XIII PRESERVING ASPARAGUS CANNING The canning factory has made asparagus a vegetable for every day of the year instead of being a luxury for a few weeks, as was formerly the case. The canners have made it a farm crop instead of a garden product. To a great extent canning has transformed the farm into a garden, increasing the profits from every acre planted many fold. In many localities an acre of what was formerly considered a sandy waste is now yielding more than double the net profit of the best acre under cultivation in ordinary farm crops. _Eastern methods._--The pioneers in this industry on Long Island, N. Y., have been the Messrs. Hudson & Sons, who have extensive plants at Mattituck and Riverhead, each of them as complete as mechanical skill and enterprise can make them. Each plant consists of a storehouse, 50 x 150 feet; a packing-house, 40 x 125 feet; and a can manufactory, 25 x 60 feet. A steam-engine of ten horse-power is required for hoisting, pumping, and for generating gas for the soldering-heaters, and a boiler of one hundred horse-power to generate steam for sterilizing the asparagus. A perspective view of one of the plants is seen in Fig. 36. [Illustration: FIG. 36--PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A LONG ISLAND ASPARAGUS CANNERY] The asparagus, as it comes from the growers, is in bunches seven and one-half inches long and weighing two and one-half pounds each. These bunches are put under a cutter and cut to six and five-eighths inches; they are then untied and put in a tank four feet wide by eight feet long and two feet deep, in which they are washed as carefully as it is possible to do it. It is then hoisted up to what is called the blanching tank, which contains forty gallons. In this it is kept at a scalding heat for one-half hour, when it is ready for the cans. These are filled by women who soon become very dextrous, which is always the case when the pay is in proportion to the amount of work done. Each can contains just one and one-half pounds. Exact weight is imperative, as are details in all manufacturing establishments. Great care is exercised in packing, so that there are no bruised or broken heads, and that on opening the can the stalks may appear as well as if cut fresh from the garden. After the asparagus is in the cans they are filled with a weak brine, which not only expels the air, but adds materially to the flavor of the asparagus. The cans are then taken to the soldering-bench for sealing up. There systematic labor is noticeable, as every detail of canning must be carried on systematically to make it profitable. The soldering-irons used are hollow and the exact size of the caps, which fit perfectly the grooves made for them. A single turn of the iron finishes the work. Before the caps are put in their places a small hole is made in each to allow the gas, which is generated by the heat from the soldering, to escape. Without this precaution it would be impossible to hermetically seal the cans. A single drop of solder closes the small opening, and the cans are ready for the retorts for sterilizing. [Illustration: FIG. 37--STERILIZING TANK] Here two methods are employed--dry steam, which is the quicker method, and boiling in a closed tank. Most of the first-class stock is sterilized in the latter. This tank (Fig. 37) is in three sections, in all twenty feet long, each section holding five hundred cans. The cans are put in iron cribs and are pushed in and taken out with steam elevators. As soon as the cans are lowered the sections are closed tightly and the steam is turned on. The first process of sterilization lasts twenty minutes, when the tank is opened, the cans taken out, and a vent given each. This permits the accumulated gas to escape, which, if allowed to remain, would materially injure the quality of the asparagus, both in flavor and preservation. For this work a small prick punch is used, which makes a hole not larger than a pin's head. This vent is almost immediately closed with a single drop of solder and the cans are again returned to the tanks, where the same operation of cooking is repeated. Another twenty minutes completes the work, when the cans are removed to the packing-room, where they are labeled, wrapped, and packed ready for shipment. The cans or boxes are seven inches long, four wide, and two and one-half deep. A view of the sterilizing-room is presented in Fig. 38. [Illustration: FIG. 38--VIEW OF STERILIZING-ROOM] The culls, which are put up as tips, are small-sized and crooked heads which, although of equal value as a vegetable, are not shipped to market, as they would detract from the value of the first quality, and are considered by both farmers and canners as by-products. These are cut to three and one-half inches in length, and then go through the same process in canning as the first quality, except that dry steam only is used in sterilization. After going through the blanching process the tips are put in round cans, four inches in diameter and five inches high. After soldering up these cans they are put in the retorts, which are three feet square, each containing five hundred cans, and treated with steam two hundred and fifty pounds to the inch. The cans remain in these retorts half an hour. Then they are taken out, vented, put back again, and remain under the same pressure another half hour, when the work is completed. By rigid economy even in the most minute detail, and by the skill required in the knowledge of canning, asparagus can now be had at a reasonable price at all seasons of the year, which is a boon to both producer and consumer. At $14.00 per one hundred bunches for No. 1 and $7.00 per hundred bunches for No. 2, or culls, asparagus is one of the most profitable of agricultural crops, and even at one-half these prices it is a much better paying crop than potatoes at 50 cents per bushel. [Illustration: FIG. 39--INTERIOR VIEW OF A CALIFORNIA ASPARAGUS CANNERY] _Pacific Coast methods._--Canning and preserving of asparagus in California is carried on on as grand a scale as are most other undertakings. An idea of the extent and importance of this comparatively new industry may readily be conceived when it is considered that one establishment alone, The Hickmott Asparagus Canning Co., on Bouldin Island, in the San Joaquin River, has recently shipped an entire train-load of canned asparagus from San Francisco to New York. This train consisted of fifteen freight-cars containing 600 cases each, making a total of 9,000 cases, averaging forty-eight pounds each, thus making an actual weight of 432,000 pounds. By far the larger portion of the yearly asparagus crop in California is canned or preserved in glass, and in that shape sent to the East, exported to England and the continent of Europe, and, in fact, to every civilized country of the world. For canneries where nothing but the white product is put up the shoots are cut the instant they show their tips above the surface. The canneries are located as near the fields as possible, the effort being to get the product in glass or cans before it becomes in any way withered, the important point being that asparagus is never allowed to become dried. [Illustration: FIG. 40--PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF CANNING PLANTS AT BOULDIN ISLAND] The method employed at Bouldin Island, where a crop of 1,500 acres is canned annually, is to have troughs containing running water in shady places in the fields. The asparagus, as fast as cut, is brought to these troughs, and is thoroughly washed. These troughs are just wide enough to take in the shoots of the proper length for canning, and each piece is trimmed before being immersed. From the troughs the asparagus is taken to the sorting table, then on to the scalding vats until it reaches the fillers, where is completed the systematic handling of this product, packing it to perfection, nothing remaining except to be labeled, when it is ready to be forwarded to the markets of the world. The entire process from the time the stalks are taken from the ground to the time they are ready for the table consumes less than six hours. The process throughout is a marvel of cleanliness, particular attention and stress being laid on every detail connected with it. No bleaching agents or anything foreign or deleterious whatever is used in the packing of this plant. In Fig. 39 is seen the interior of one of these canneries, where the especially constructed solderless cans of the company are being packed. Everything connected with the growing, harvesting, and canning is done on Bouldin Island, save only the printing of the labels. That the operators may be lodged in comfort the company has erected modern cottages for their employés who have families, besides well-equipped boarding-houses. The development and growth of this asparagus cannery is one of the marvels of California. Starting ten years ago with a rented boiler, under the arched dome of the sky for a roof, and nothing but the shade of weeping willows for a storehouse, as seen in the Frontispiece, it has developed into a superb plant, equipped with all modern appliances. During the active season 1,500 hands are employed directly and indirectly by the canning company, and the estimated output for the average season is 150,000 cases. Figs. 40 and 41 present perspective views of some of the asparagus canneries on Bouldin Island. DRYING Although the drying of asparagus is not much practiced in America, it is well worth the attention of those who at times have a surplus of fresh stalks. Dried asparagus is especially recommended for soups and sauces, and if properly prepared it is no less desirable as a table vegetable. Dried asparagus keeps indefinitely, and cost of transportation is largely reduced. For the latter purpose medium-sized spears are most suitable, as they dry more evenly than larger ones. Some recommend the peeling or scalding of the stalks before drying, but this is not essential, and, if desired, may be done after steaming. On a large scale the drying may be done in any modern evaporator. [Illustration: FIG. 41--CANNERY IN ASPARAGUS FIELDS] For home use the most satisfactory way is to string the stalks with a large needle and strong thread through the butt ends of the stalks, and hang them along buildings or fences where they are exposed to the full rays of the sun. To insure a uniform drying it is important that all the spears on the string are of the same thickness, as the thicker ones require more time to dry than those of smaller size. When the air is dry and warm one day's exposure to the sun will be sufficient to dry them. Otherwise the strings will have to be hung up in the kitchen in the evening, or in some other dry place over night, to be brought out again the following morning, until the asparagus is perfectly dry. It is then ready to be put in boxes or loose bags and stored in a dry place. If the stalks have been peeled before drying, when desired for use they are placed in cold water for half an hour, some salt is added, and they are cooked like fresh asparagus. For preparing dried asparagus that has not been peeled before drying, Dr. Brinckmeier recommends taking a sufficient number of the dried stalks and place them in water, which, while not boiling, is very near the boiling point, and keeping them there until they resume their succulent, smooth, fresh appearance. To keep the water just right a double boiler is best, with the stalks in the inner one. The water in the outer vessel should be kept at a steady boil. As the stalks resume the fresh appearance, take them out carefully one by one and place in cold water until cooled, after which place on a dish to dry. They should be carefully scalded to remove the hard outside skin, done up in a bundle, either by tying with strings or wrapping in a piece of netting, placed in boiling water, to which a little salt has been added, and allowed to remain there a few moments--a very few, for it cooks quickly--until done. These methods are recommended for white asparagus only, and when properly dried and cooked asparagus so treated is by many considered to be hardly distinguishable from the freshly cut, although it looses its white color in the process. Smaller and green stalks may be dried on wire frames or wooden racks over the kitchen stove, similar to apples. XIV INJURIOUS INSECTS While a number of different insects feed upon the asparagus plant, there are only two species which have so far become extensively distributed and caused serious damage in the United States. Both of these were imported from Europe, and are limited for their food supply to the asparagus plant. THE COMMON ASPARAGUS BEETLE[A] (_Crioceris asparagi_) This beetle is by far the most important enemy of the asparagus plant. It was first noticed in this country at Astoria, L. I., now a part of New York City, in 1859, but its actual introduction into that locality occurred about 1856. The injury inflicted by this insect is due to the work of both adults and larvæ upon the tender shoots, which they render unfit for market, early in the season. Later they destroy, by defoliation, growing plants, and are particularly injurious to seedlings, the roots of which are weakened by having their tops devoured. Larvæ, as well as beetles, attack the tenderest portions of the plants, but the latter gnaw with seemingly equal relish the epidermis, or rind, of the stems. The beetles are also accused of gnawing young shoots beneath the surface, causing them to become woody and crooked in growth. The beetle illustrated in Fig. 42 is a most beautiful creature--from the entomologist's point of view--slender and graceful in form, blue-black in color, with red thorax and lemon-yellow and dark blue elytra or wing covers, with reddish border. Its length is a trifle less than one-fourth of an inch. [Illustration: FIG. 42--COMMON ASPARAGUS BEETLE _a_, beetle; _b_, egg; _c_, newly hatched larva; _d_, full-grown larva] From the scene of its first colonization in Queen's County, N. Y., the insect migrated to the other truck-growing portions of Long Island. It soon reached southern Connecticut, and has now extended its range northward through Massachusetts to New Hampshire. Southward it has traveled through New Jersey, where it was first noticed in 1868, to southern Virginia. At present it is well established in the principal asparagus-growing sections of New England, of New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland, and is present in Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio. The question of distribution is an important one, as this species is rapidly extending its range. In a very few years we may expect its spread to other portions of the States in which it is now local, and later it will naturally move westward to Indiana and other States west and south of there. The insect passes the winter in the beetle state under convenient shelter, and toward the end of April or early in May, according to locality, or at the season for cutting the asparagus for market, issues from its hibernating quarters and lays its eggs for the first brood. The eggs are deposited endwise upon the stem or foliage, and in the early spring upon the developed stalks, usually in rows of from two to six, or more. In from three to eight days the eggs hatch, the young larvæ, commonly called "grubs" or "worms," presenting the appearance indicated in Fig. 42, _c_. They at once begin to feed, and are from ten days to a fortnight, according to Fitch and others, in attaining full growth. When full grown the larva appears as in Fig. 42, _d_. It is soft and fleshy, much wrinkled, and in color dark gray or olive, which usually becomes lighter and yellowish with age. The mature larva enters the earth, and here, within a little rounded, dirt-covered cocoon which it forms, the pupa state is assumed. In from five to eight or more days the adult beetle is produced, which soon issues from the ground in search of food and of a suitable place for the continuance of the species. In Fig. 43 is shown a spray of asparagus, with the common asparagus beetle in its different stages, asparagus top at the right showing eggs and injury. [Illustration: FIG. 43--SPRAY AND TOP OF ASPARAGUS ATTACKED BY BEETLES] The duration of the life cycle is about thirty days from the time the eggs are laid until the insects attain maturity, but the time is shorter in the hotter parts of a season than in the cooler days of May or September. In the District of Columbia the eggs, in the warmest part of midsummer, develop in three days and the pupæ in five days. From this it may be estimated that, in the very warmest weather, the development of the insect may be effected in about three weeks from the time the egg is laid. In colder climates and in spring and autumn the development from egg to beetle will require from four to perhaps seven weeks. In the northern range of the species, two and perhaps three broods are usually produced, and farther southward there is a possibility of at least a fourth generation. In the latitude of the District of Columbia the beetles usually disappear to enter into hibernation in the latter days of September. The common asparagus beetle has very efficient checks in the shape of predaceous insects, which prey upon its larvæ and assist in preventing its undue increase. One of the most active of these predaceous insects is the spotted ladybird (_Megilla maculata_ DeG.), represented in its several stages in the illustration (Fig. 44.) The adult of this beetle is rose-colored, with numerous black spots. The spined soldier-bug (_Podisus spinosus_ Dal.) and the bordered soldier-bug (_Stiretrus anchorado_ Fab.) are also useful as destroyers of asparagus beetle larvæ, which they catch and kill by impaling them upon their long beaks and sucking out their juices. Certain species of wasps and small dragon-flies also prey upon the larvæ. Asparagus beetles are very susceptible to sudden changes of temperature, and immense numbers of hibernating beetles are sometimes killed in winter during severe cold spells following "open" weather. [Illustration: FIG. 44--SPOTTED LADYBIRD _a_, larva; _b_, empty pupal skin; _c_, beetle, with enlarged antenna above] _Remedies._--The common asparagus beetle, under ordinary circumstances, may be held in restraint by the simplest means. Chickens and ducks are efficient destroyers of the insect, and their services are often brought into requisition for this purpose. A practice that is in high favor among prominent asparagus growers is to cut down all plants, including volunteer growth, in early spring to force the beetles to deposit their eggs upon new shoots, which are then cut every day before the eggs have time to hatch. Another measure of value consists in permitting a portion of the shoots to grow and serve as lures for the beetles. Here they may be killed with insecticides, or the plants, after they become covered with eggs, may be cut down and burned, and other shoots be allowed to grow up as decoys. One of the best and least expensive remedies against the larvæ is fresh air-slacked lime dusted on the plants in the early morning while the dew is on. It quickly destroys all the grubs with which it comes in contact. The lime may be conveniently applied by means of a whisk-broom or a Paris green sifter. Even dry road dust applied in this manner will have a beneficial effect. The special merit of these insecticides is that they can be used without the least danger upon young shoots being cut for market or home use. Paris green and other arsenites, applied dry in powder, mixed with flour or plaster, or in solution, answer equally well, after cutting has ceased, and possess the advantage of destroying beetles as well as larvæ. One pound of Paris green to a barrel of fine plaster makes a sufficiently strong mixture. It may be necessary to make two of these applications at intervals or as often as the larvæ reappear on the plants. Powdered hellebore mixed with flour, one part to ten, or in solution of one ounce of hellebore to three gallons of water, is also very effective against the young larvæ. Pyrethrum or buhach may be used in similar manner, and kerosene emulsion has been highly recommended by some experimenters. In hot weather, when the soil is dry, the larvæ may be brushed or shaken from the plants so that they will drop to the heated ground, where they die, being unable to regain the shelter of the plants. Whichever methods for the destruction of this pest are adopted, unless the work be done thoroughly and with concerted action by all the growers in the section, the relief can not be permanent. THE TWELVE-SPOTTED ASPARAGUS BEETLE (_Crioceris 12-punctata_ Linn) The presence of this insect in America was first detected in 1881, and it is still much rarer and consequently less injurious than the preceding species. In Europe, where it is apparently native, it is common but not especially destructive. The chief source of damage from this species is from the work of the hibernated beetles in early spring upon the young and edible asparagus shoots. Later beetles as well as larvæ appear to feed exclusively upon the berries. The eggs are deposited singly, and apparently by preference, upon old plants toward the end of shoots, which, lower down, bear ripening berries, and they are attached along their sides instead of at one end, as in the case with the eggs of the common species. Soon after the larva hatches from the egg it finds its way to an asparagus berry, enters it, and feeds upon the pulp. In due time it leaves the first berry for another one, and when full growth is attained it deserts its last larval habitation and enters the earth, where it transforms to pupa and afterward to the adult beetle. The life cycle does not differ materially from that of the common species, and there are probably the same or nearly as many generations developed. [Illustration: FIG. 45--TWELVE-SPOTTED ASPARAGUS BEETLE _a_, beetle; _b_, larva; _c_, second abdominal segment of larva; _d_, same of common asparagus beetle] This species is at present distributed throughout the asparagus-growing country of New Jersey, particularly in the vicinity of the Delaware River, the whole of Delaware, nearly the entire state of Maryland, the District of Columbia, the southeastern portion of Pennsylvania bordering the state line of New Jersey, northeastern Virginia in the vicinity of the western shore of the Potomac River, Staten Island, and Monroe County, N. Y., the last mentioned being the most northern locality known for the species. The mature beetle in life rivals the common asparagus beetle in beauty, but may be distinguished by its much broader wing covers and its color. The ground color is orange red, each wing cover is marked with six black dots, and the knees and a portion of the under surface of the thorax are also marked with black, as seen in Fig. 45, _a_. The beetle as it appears on the plant when in fruit very closely resembles, at a little distance, a ripe asparagus berry. The full-grown larva is shown in Fig. 45, _b_. It measures, when extended, three-tenths of an inch, being of about the same proportions as the larva of the common species, but is readily separable by its ochraceous orange color. Fig. 45, _c_, shows the second abdominal segment of larva, and _d_ same of the common asparagus beetle, much enlarged. _Remedies._--The remedies are those indicated for the common asparagus beetle, with the possible exception of caustic lime and other measures that are directed solely against that species, but the habit of the larva of living within the berry places it for that period beyond the reach of insecticides. The collection and destruction of the asparagus berries before ripening might be a solution of the problem, but it is questionable if recourse to this measure would be necessary, save in cases of an exceptional abundance of the insect. THE ASPARAGUS MINER (_Agromyza simplex_) In a recent bulletin from the New York Experiment Station, Prof. F. A. Sirrine describes a comparatively new and injurious insect on asparagus. It was discovered on Long Island, and injures the young plants by mining just underneath the outside surface. The habits of this creature are such that there is little chance of applying remedies for its destruction. Cultural and preventive measures seem to be the most practical, and are suggested. The parent insect is a small fly, which deposits its eggs for the first brood early in June, and no doubt much can be done toward keeping the pest under control by not allowing small shoots to grow during the cutting season. Professor Sirrine is of the opinion that where young beds are put out yearly the pest can be kept in check by pulling and burning the old stalks. He points out the fact that the stalk should be pulled in the fall rather than in the spring, as it is difficult to pull them early in the season, and in many cases the dormant stage of the insect is left in the ground. FOOTNOTES: [A] Condensed from an official report by J. H. Chittenden of the United States Department of Agriculture. XV FUNGUS DISEASES Asparagus is subject to the attacks of a number of fungi, the most widespread and destructive being the "rust," the cause of which is a fungus described by De Candolle as _Puccinia asparagi_ in the year 1805. From this it is seen that the rust upon the asparagus has been known to scientists for nearly a hundred years, and it is but reasonable to suppose that more or less of this fungus has existed beyond the history of man. The first mention of asparagus rust in the United States was by Dr. Harkness, who claimed to have observed it on the Pacific Coast in 1880, although it is doubtful whether the genuine asparagus rust was ever found there. The first mention of it in the Eastern States was in the fall of 1896, and since then its range has been widening each year. Dr. Byron D. Halsted, of the New Jersey Experiment Station, was the first to call attention to it, and made it the subject of careful study. The results and conclusions derived from his experiments were published in a special bulletin, and from this the greater part of the following has been condensed. RECOGNITION OF THE RUST [Illustration: FIG. 46--ASPARAGUS STEMS AFFECTED WITH RUST] [Illustration: FIG. 47--PORTION OF RUSTED ASPARAGUS STEMS] When an asparagus field is badly infested with the rust the general appearance is that of an unusually early maturing of the plants (Fig. 46). Instead of the healthy green color there is a brown hue, as if insects had sapped the plants or frost destroyed their vitality. Rusted plants, when viewed closely, are found to have the skin of the stems lifted, as if blistered, and within the ruptures of the epidermis the color is brown, as shown in Fig. 47. The brown color is due to multitudes of spores borne upon the tips of fine threads of the fungus, which aggregate at certain points and cause the spots. The threads from which the spores are produced are exceedingly small and grow through the substance of the asparagus stem, taking up nourishment and causing an enfeebled condition of the victim, which results in loss of the green color and the final rustiness of the plant, due to the multitude of spores formed upon the surface. These spores are carried by the wind to other plants, where new disease spots are produced; but as the autumn advances a final form of spore appears in the ruptures that is quite different in shape and color from the first ones produced through the summer. The spores of late autumn, from their dark color, give an almost black appearance to the spots. There is another form which the rust fungus assumes not usually seen in the asparagus field, but may be found in early spring upon plants that are not subjected to cutting. This is the cluster-cup stage, so named because the fungus produces minute cups from the asparagus stem, and in small groups of a dozen to fifty, making usually an oval spot easily seen with the naked eye. This stage of the fungus comes first in the order of time in the series, and is met with upon volunteer plants that may grow along the roadside or fence row, or in a field where all the old asparagus plants have not been destroyed. METHODS OF TREATING THE RUST All the cultivated varieties of asparagus are readily affected by the rust, although it has been found that some varieties, notably Palmetto, are less susceptible to its attacks than others. The most effectual means of controlling the disease are spraying, burning of the brush, cultivation, and irrigation. _Spraying._--Dr. Halsted, in his first experiments, used soda-bordeaux, hydrate-bordeaux, and potash-bordeaux. The spraying began June 2d, and ten sprayings were applied during the season. The applications were made with a knapsack pump, and therefore were far more expensive than they would have been if the sprayings were made with horse-power. With the fungicide costing $5.00 per acre, and a machine that would spray two or more rows at a time, it would be possible to reduce the cost to $10.00 per acre, or even less. In effectiveness the soda-bordeaux stood first. Between the other fungicides there was but little difference. The best results showed a reduction of rust of about one-quarter, which is not as satisfactory a result as had been expected. In the spraying work conducted by Professors G. E. Stone and R. E. Smith, at the Massachusetts Experiment Station, the results were more encouraging. The solutions used were potassium sulfide, saccharate of lime, and bordeaux mixture. The spraying was done with a knapsack sprayer, provided with a Vermorel nozzle, and after the first application it became evident that the practice was of little importance on account of the difficulty in making the solution stick to the plant. For successful spraying of asparagus a finer nozzle is required than any that is now in the market. In some other experiments carried out on a small scale the asparagus plants were practically covered with solutions, when they were put on with an ordinary cylinder atomizer, and the lime solutions showed excellent sticking qualities; but with the ordinary coarse nozzle the solutions would run off of the glossy epidermal covering of the plant very readily. Should the spraying of asparagus ever become a necessity, then some apparatus which can be strapped to a horse's back should be used. The narrow space between the rows forbids the use of the ordinary mounted appliances, and if spraying is to be carried on upon a large scale, it would be better to have the spraying mixture carried in some manner on the horse's back. In this way it would be possible to carry some thirty or forty gallons of mixture through the narrow rows. _Burning the affected tops._--There can be no doubt that by the burning of the infested brush, after the cutting season, innumerable rust spores are destroyed. But if this is done before the stalks are entirely dead new ones will spring up at once, and in a few days will be as badly affected as the first. The burning of the tops in the summer has, moreover, a decidedly injurious effect upon the roots, seriously weakening their vitality, and making the growth of the following year still more susceptible to the infection. In the autumn, however, after the stalks are dead and dry, this damage does not prevail, and the spores upon old brush can be destroyed by burning the asparagus stems either as they stand in the field or by cutting and throwing the brush into piles. By the latter method many of the smaller branches will be broken off and scattered upon the ground, giving a suitable place for the spores to remain over the winter. For the same reason it is an advantage to burn the brush in autumn instead of the spring, and thus prevent the large loss of spores that would obtain. In other words, burn the plants as soon as they become brown and lifeless, for any delay means the breaking up of the brittle, rusty plants, and a heavy sowing of the spores upon the ground. If the fire could go over the whole field of standing brush, that would be the most effective destruction. At best, with these precautions, many of the spores will get scattered upon the soil, and it would be well to sprinkle a thin coat of lime upon the ground and leave it there during the winter. If this could be followed by a turning under of the surface soil in the spring, it would bury the spores that might still be living, so that they would be out of reach. _Cultivation and irrigation._--It has been observed that the injury to asparagus plants, as a result of rust, has been confined to dry soils, although there are places where beds in close proximity showed remarkable differences as to infection; and that robust and vigorous plants, even where cultivated on apparently dry soil, are capable of resisting the summer or injurious stage of the rust. In view of all the experiments so far made, and the experiences of practical asparagus growers, Stone and Smith conclude that: "The best means of controlling the rust is by thorough cultivation in order to secure vigorous plants, and in seasons of extreme dryness plants growing on very dry soil with little water-retaining properties should, if possible, receive irrigation." From a knowledge of the occurrences of the rust in Europe, and from observations made in Massachusetts, they are led to believe that the outbreak of the asparagus rust is of a sporadic nature, and is not likely to cause much harm in the future, provided attention is given to the production of vigorous plants. ASPARAGUS LEOPARD SPOT Attention was called to this new disease by Prof. W. G. Johnson, in Bulletin No. 50, Maryland Experiment Station, September, 1897. It was observed in a limited area in the asparagus growing section on the eastern shore of Maryland. The disease belongs to the group of anthracnoses, and is regarded by Dr. B. D. Halsted as a new species. In some places growers have mistaken it for the work of asparagus beetles. In general appearance it is very striking, the characteristic spots resembling the coat of the leopard. It has, therefore, been called "asparagus leopard spot," to distinguish it readily from rust. The disease has been found only in a comparatively small area, but, no doubt will be found in other places later. Asparagus growers should, therefore, be on their guard and watch it. The remedies thus far successfully used are the same as those for rust. XVI ASPARAGUS CULTURE IN DIFFERENT LOCALITIES ASPARAGUS IN NEW ENGLAND Asparagus was grown in Concord, Mass., in a limited way as early as 1825. Mr. Edmund Hosmer used to carry it to market in season on his milk wagon. Timothy Prescott and F. R. Gourgas grew garden patches before 1840. To John B. Moore belongs the credit of growing and improving asparagus in this section of the State. Mr. Moore selected the most promising shoots, and by a judicious system of culture succeeded in placing on the market a valuable variety in the shape of Moore's Cross-bred. Most of the "giant" asparagus grown in Concord to-day could be traced to the plants produced by his skill. A sample bunch of twelve stalks, twelve inches long, from Moore's Cross-bred plants weighed four pounds eight ounces. In 1872 the first bed of asparagus of any size was set out by Mr. George D. Hubbard, who was laughed at by his neighbor farmers, who saw only ruin for the young man. The next year Mr. Hubbard set out more, so that for twenty years he was probably the largest grower in Massachusetts. Most of the leading varieties are grown in Concord, but the farmers are looking for a rust-proof variety and hope to find one. The Palmetto has not rusted as badly as other kinds, but has not been grown so extensively. One-year-old roots should be set by all means, as they start sooner, grow more vigorously, and in the end pay better. The roots should be carefully selected from vigorous stock. A very large part of Concord asparagus is planted on sandy soil--_i.e._, good, rich, mellow corn land. This kind of land needs more manure, but then the crop is more satisfactory and the labor bill is not so high. The land previous to setting to asparagus should be well tilled and manured. Land for asparagus beds should be plowed late in the fall, and if stable manure can be afforded should be applied liberally. In the spring plow again early and harrow well. The roots should be planted in April as soon as the ground can be worked. After determining the direction of the rows a number of laths, four feet long, are placed in line where the first row is to be. It is very important to get the rows straight and an even distance apart. A good strong pair of horses and a large plow are used, a board being so placed above the mold-board of the plow that the loose soil will not fall back into the furrow. Drive the horses so that the middle of the evener will just come to the lath, then change the lath over its own length, if the rows are to be four feet apart, and that will mark the next row. Change each lath as you come to it, and when your first furrow is completed your second row will be all marked out. Return in the first row to make it deeper and also to straighten any bends. Shovel out the ends for a few feet and you will have a proper furrow to set asparagus roots in. Proceed with the other rows in the same manner, and you will have a good-looking plantation. The larger growers in Concord set the plants two feet apart in the row and have the rows four feet apart. The plants are set in the bottom of the furrow, covered two inches, and should level up by fall so that the crowns will be six or seven inches below the surface. The furrows may be made very deep, so that manure can be placed in the bottom, or fertilizer may be strewn before the plants are set or after. The roots should be spread out carefully in the bottom of the furrow, care being taken to have them in line. The bed should be cultivated with a fine-tooth cultivator or weeder often enough to prevent the growth of weeds. Keep the bed clean and do not have the trenches filled in before the last of September. The tops should not be cut in the fall of the first year, as the snow will be held by them, and thereby protect the roots to some extent. Some growers spread coarse manure on their beds in the fall to prevent the soil from being blown away and also to prevent winter killing, which, however, is rare. In the second year the bed may be plowed or wheel-harrowed in the spring as early as possible. Concord growers use animal manure or chemical fertilizers, as the case may be or as the bed may require. The bed should be smooth harrowed just before the new shoots appear, and good clean cultivation given during the season. After harrowing or plowing in the third year, sow your chemicals or fertilizer broadcast and harrow in. A good formula for asparagus is: Nitrate of soda, 300 to 400 pounds; muriate of potash, 400 pounds; and fine ground bone, 600 pounds per acre. The shoots will appear about May 5th, and should be cut for about two weeks; then let them grow up and cultivate well during the season. Home-mixing of fertilizer is practiced by some of the growers in this vicinity, as it is cheaper and better. Any intelligent farmer can, with a little study, purchase and mix the raw materials to advantage. Not so much fertilizer is used as formerly by our growers, who are beginning to think that we use more plant food than the crop needs, thus throwing away many dollars each year. The cost of an acre of asparagus when properly planted and manured is about two hundred dollars, varying with the cost of help, manure, etc. The average product of asparagus beds is about two hundred and eighty-eight dozen bunches per acre--probably less since the rust appeared in 1897. Asparagus is grown largely on Cape Cod. There the roots are planted in rows six feet apart and four or five feet in the row. Seaweed is used largely in connection with fertilizer and manure. Various grains, oats, rye, etc., are sometimes sown to prevent the soil being blown away. The method of culture is much the same as elsewhere. At Concord the asparagus season opens usually about May 5th. The shoots are cut two or three inches under ground and should be about eight inches in length. These are laid in handfuls on the ground by the cutter, each one cutting two rows. The product of four rows is laid in one row, making what is called a "basket row." These "basket rows" are gathered in baskets, boxes, or wheelbarrows, and taken to the packing-shed. The asparagus is placed on a table and packed in racks of uniform size, passed to the person who ties, and then to be butted off. The bunches are then washed and set up in troughs ready for market. Water is added in season to swell the bunch tight and it is then packed in bushel boxes for market, going in by teams each night. Asparagus was free from pests until 1889, when the asparagus beetle made its unwelcome appearance. Methods of fighting the beetle were unknown to growers generally at that time, but necessity soon taught us. Chickens and hens are used with good results, also Paris green dry was applied with an air-gun when the dew was on the foliage. Cutworms sometimes do the asparagus crop severe damage, but chickens and hens are a sure remedy--in fact, hens are a decided benefit in an asparagus field, keeping down many weeds. After learning to control the asparagus beetle we were visited by the rust, which has proved a stubborn foe and absorbs the sap which ought to go to the growing plant. Appearing in July, 1897, the rust seriously damaged many beds in eastern Massachusetts. Many remedies have been suggested, but so far none of them have proved perfectly satisfactory. Growers have been advised to cut the infected tops as soon as the rust appears, but such a practice is all wrong, however good in theory. Do not cut the tops until the sap has left the stalks. This is the advice of a large number of asparagus growers and scientific men who are engaged in experimental work. CHARLES W. PRESCOTT. _Middlesex County, Mass._ ASPARAGUS ON LONG ISLAND The cultivation of asparagus on Long Island does not differ materially, in most respects, from that practiced in other localities, other than in its extent. But there is probably more to be learned about its cultivation there than in any other section of the country, from the fact of its being grown under such changed conditions of soil. Here it can be shown that the character of soil is not, of itself, of great importance, and that on soil usually considered worthless--on land that can be bought, uncleared, at from five to ten dollars per acre--asparagus can be made as profitable a crop as on land considered cheap at one hundred dollars per acre. Nearly every farm, the northern boundary of which is the Long Island Sound, has from two to twenty acres of soil composed very largely of fine drift sand, in all respects like quick-sand in character. This, when mixed with light loam, as is frequently the case, is the most favorable land for asparagus, and in such it is largely grown, being unsuited to potatoes or cereals, and where grasses make but a feeble struggle for existence. Within five minutes' walk to the south the soil is from a lively to a quite heavy loam, in which corn, potatoes, cabbage, cauliflower, and, in fact, all other crops revel. In this soil the asparagus also finds a congenial home, but no better than in the sand, in which but little else can be grown; neither can it be grown here more profitably. The expense for fertilizers is a little more on the sandy soil, but the cost in labor on the heavy soil will quite equal the cost of extra fertilizer required on the light. Whether away from a saline atmosphere a light soil would be as favorable as a heavy one for the asparagus is a question that practical experiment only can settle. But it is an important one, as it is not generally supposed that it is possible to grow asparagus, at a profit, on such soils as are now being devoted to this crop on Long Island. That which has been called the barren wastes, the dwarf-pine and scrub-oak lands of Suffolk County, can be made most profitable farming lands may be a surprise to many, but that such is the case does not admit of a doubt. As evidence of this, let us state what is being done along these lines. Messrs. Hudson & Sons, leading canners of asparagus, have bought a farm of 525 acres of as poor land as it is possible to find on Long Island, which they are to devote exclusively to this crop. They have already more than fifty acres planted, and are getting the whole in readiness as rapidly as possible. This is no experiment, but simply doing on a large scale what has profitably been done on a small one. On similar soils a low estimate of net profit is $100 per acre, and there are many instances where double this profit is made. The price paid last season by the canners was $14 per 100 bunches for first quality, and $6 per 100 for culls, or "tips," as they are usually called. With good cultivation, which means a liberal supply of plant food--and there is no crop that requires more--and the surface kept clean, free from weeds, and frequently cultivated, so that the surface is at all times loose and fine to prevent evaporation, the average yield is 2,500 bunches per acre. If we estimate the tips at 25 per cent. of the crop, the gross receipts will amount to $200 per acre. After a given acreage is ready for cutting, which is the third year after planting, the annual cost of cultivation is not very much, if any, more than that of a crop of potatoes. It is a question whether the actual cost of growing and marketing an acre of asparagus is not less than that of an acre of potatoes. Some growers assert it is three times as much work to take care of a given acreage of asparagus as of potatoes; admitting it, the relative cost is stated above. C. L. ALLEN. _Nassau County, N. Y._ ASPARAGUS IN NEW JERSEY An important point in asparagus culture is to remove the top growth in the fall of the year. For this purpose I use a mowing-machine, then rake up the brush and burn it on the bed. After this I top-dress heavy with manure, leaving it lie on the land until spring. Just as soon as the ground is fit to work at all I put on a disk-harrow, and cut it about four times each way until it is thoroughly pulverized. Then with a smoothing-harrow I level it, and repeat the smoothing-harrow operation about once a week to keep down all weeds coming through. Then we let it go as long as we can, possibly two weeks, and at the appearance of weeds we take an ordinary sweet-potato ridger having a plow on either side and run it astride the row, covering everything in the row. Doing this on Saturday afternoon holds the asparagus back over the following day. Then we take the middle out with a one-horse cultivator. This is done probably three times during the cutting season, which is eight weeks. With the help of one of these weeders, which we use at least once a week, we keep the bed quite clean of all weeds, and this I consider very essential. The cultivation should continue after cutting until the top growth becomes so large as to protect the ground, and then there will be but little trouble late in the season about weeds. It doesn't pay to grow them anywhere, and especially not in asparagus beds. In planting, the ground should be well prepared and furrowed out eight inches in depth, four and one-half feet apart, and the plants two and one-half feet in the row, with a little fine manure in bottom of row; put about two inches of soil on the plants to cover. Then as the sprouts come up, keep on filling the furrows by cultivation. I have been using some commercial manures the past two years, applying at the rate of one ton to the acre about the rows in the spring; then nearly a ton of salt to the acre applied at any time. It helps keep weeds down and gives the asparagus a good flavor. Above all, do not forget to apply the fertilizer, and Plenty, with a big "P," of it--either stable manure or commercial fertilizers. Probably there will be less weeds by using the latter, but there needs to be a great deal of the former in the beginning for several years, to give the bed a good body of rich earth, from which the plants feed. It appears to me this is the secret of success. Much depends upon how asparagus is put up for the market, making it look attractive, in nice, clean, new crates and neatly prepared bunches, and the stalks must be large, tender, and of good flavor. Grass from a strong bed grown in twenty-four hours is much more tender and better in every way than grass grown in forty-eight hours from a poor bed. We are compelled to cut every twenty-four hours, or the asparagus would waste, and the gathering is accomplished in about three and one-half hours each day, early in the morning. JOEL BORTON. _Salem County, N. J._ ASPARAGUS IN THE SOUTH There is no crop grown by the Southern trucker that has paid better than asparagus year after year. With many of the other truck crops sent North the growers have to contend with a host of planters who rush in at times to plant certain crops like early potatoes, peas, and beans, and whose inferior crops often glut the market and make the season unprofitable all around. These men drop out after a season that their particular venture did not pay, and the regular truckers, being well aware that they would do so, always redouble their efforts the year after a bad season with any particular crop, knowing from experience that then it would be certain to be profitable. But the asparagus crop is one into which the temporary growers can not jump in and out of, for the crop requires special preparation of the soil and patient waiting and culture pending the time for reaping a harvest, and the men who are always ready to jump into the annual crops always wish to realize at once, and do not generally have the capital to put into a crop that requires several years before realizing. Hence the asparagus crop has been left to the regular market gardeners, and has been uniformly profitable when well managed. As regards soil for asparagus in the South, it should be deep, light, warm, and well drained, either naturally or artificially. The level sandy soils that abound in all the South Atlantic Coast region, having a compact subsoil of reddish clay under it at a moderate depth, makes the ideal soil for the early asparagus. In preparing such a soil for the crop, it is well to be thorough in the matter, for the crop is to remain there indefinitely, and if success is to be expected the previous preparation should be of the most thorough character. Hence, as the soils best adapted to the growth of the plant are commonly deficient in vegetable matter, which desirable characteristic can only be found in abundance on the lands too low and moist for the asparagus crop, some preparatory culture should be used that will tend to increase the amount of organic decay in the soil. For this purpose there is nothing better than the Southern field or cow pea. The land should be prepared by giving it a heavy dressing of acid phosphate and potash; and putting it in peas sown broadcast at the rate of a bushel or more per acre. With a heavy dressing of the mineral fertilizers the pea crop will be heavy, and should be allowed to fully ripen and decay on the land, to be plowed under, and the process repeated the following year. In the mean time the seed should be sown for the growth of the roots for setting the land. Two crops of cow-peas allowed to die on the land and turned under will give a store of vegetable matter that would be hard to get in any other manner. While heavy manuring with stable manures is very desirable where the material can be had at a reasonable cost, the larger part, and, in fact, nearly all of the Southern asparagus, must be grown by the aid of chemical fertilizers, and the storing up of humus in the land from the decaying peas is an important factor in the placing of the soil in a condition to render the chemical fertilizers of more use, since the moisture-retaining nature of the organic matter plays an important part in the solution of matters in the soil. Aside from this, there will be a large increase in the nitrogen contents of the soil through the nitrification of this organic matter. The second crop of peas should be plowed under in late fall when perfectly ripe and dead, so that the land can be gotten into condition for planting in early spring. The land should be thoroughly plowed, and if the clay subsoil comes near the surface it should be loosened with the subsoil plow. Furrows are then run out four and a half to five feet apart, going twice in the furrow, and then cleaning out with shovels till there is a trench a foot deep. In the bottom of this trench place a good coat of black earth from the forest, or, if well-rotted manure can be had, use that of course. Set the plants twenty inches apart in the furrow, and by means of hand-rakes pull in enough earth to barely cover the crowns. As growth begins, the soil is to be gradually worked in around the advancing shoots till the soil is level. Now give a dressing of 1,000 pounds per acre, alongside the rows, of a mixture of 900 pounds of acid phosphate, 500 pounds of fish scrap, 200 pounds of nitrate of soda, and 400 pounds of muriate of potash, and keep the plants cultivated shallowly and flat with an ordinary cultivator till the tops are mature. An application of salt may be useful if applied in the fall in making some matters in the soil available, but salt in itself is of no use whatever to the plants. We would never apply salt in the spring, as it has a tendency to lessen nitrification and to retard the earliness of the shoots. The annual dressing of the fertilizer named should now be increased to a ton per acre, and it should be applied not later than February 1st in each year. After the tops have been cut in the fall it is a good plan to plow furrows from each side over the rows and to plow out the middles, for the shoots will always start earlier in an elevated ridge, which warms up earlier in the spring. The second year after planting cutting may begin, and the shoots must be cut as fast as they show, care being taken to cut down near the crown of the roots, but not to injure the other shoots that may be starting. After cutting is over--and the length of time the bed should be cut is of little importance in the South, for the price at the point where it is shipped will always tell you when to stop--the soil should be again worked down flat, and if the growth has not been as satisfactory as could be wished, a dressing of 100 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda at this time will usually pay very well. Asparagus should always be bunched in a machine made for that purpose. The bunches are packed in crates just deep enough to hold the bunches set upright on a bed of moss, and a cover of the same damp moss should be placed on top. Where there is a demand for green asparagus the planting should be done more shallowly in a simple furrow, and the entire culture should be flat and shallow. The shoots are cut at the surface of the ground after they have attained the proper length. One thing is to be observed in either method, and this is that during the cutting season everything long enough must be cut daily, and that the little shoots be not allowed to run up and branch out. Cull the shoots after they are all out and bunch accordingly. Green shoots should be bunched by themselves and not mixed with the blanched ones. None but new, light crates should be used, for a clean and neat package will always favor its contents in the selling. W. F. MASSEY. _North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station._ ASPARAGUS CULTURE IN CALIFORNIA The growing of asparagus for market in California is proving to be one of the most successful of its minor industries. There is a large area in the State which is exactly suited to the production of this vegetable. This is the region of sedimentary deposits, washed by waters that are to some extent brackish, or naturally saline. Commercial asparagus farming is limited to the reclaimed lands around the bay of San Francisco, the marshy deltas of the San Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, and the so-called peat lands of Orange and San Luis Obispo counties. Small beds, however, for local consumption are to be found in California as generally and frequently as they are in other States. There is a fascination about asparagus culture that is founded on legitimate financial returns. It is practically "a sure thing" when once established, and the conditions of climate and soil are such that the work attendant on production is a minimum in proportion to the return. No diseases of the plant have yet shown themselves in California, and it is seldom that the weather is unsteady enough to be a factor in limiting production. The deterring feature is the fact that it is not till the third year that a return can be expected on the investment. But as other crops, such as potatoes and beans, can be grown between the rows in the interim, the time of waiting is not so entirely an unproductive one as might at first be supposed. The methods of preparing, planting, and working are practically the same in all sections of California. The proposed beds are plowed as deeply as possible and thoroughly fertilized. All of the soils appropriate for commercial asparagus farming are so light that deep cultivation is a comparatively easy matter. Furrows for planting are then run and made double depth. Some growers think it worth while to distribute fertilizer along these furrows and then turn for a third time, so as to enrich the ground immediately below the roots to be set out. These furrows are run from four to six feet apart, the latter being considered the better usage. In them one-year-old plants are then set by hand at distances varying from eighteen inches to three feet. The former distance is preferred by the Italian growers on Bay Farm Island in San Francisco Bay, but the Southern growers and those along the Sacramento River lean to the greater distance. The only difference seems to be whether there will be sufficient nutriment in the soil to force the plant into giving as large and tender shoots as where each plant is allowed a larger area. The plants are set with the crowns about four inches below the surface and the roots are carefully spread out before covering. Planting is done any time from November to April, but the middle of February is perhaps the most common time. The culture for the first year consists in keeping the soil loose and free from weeds. Ordinarily other crops are grown between the rows, and their cultivation serves to keep the ground in proper condition. The asparagus is allowed to come up, feather, and seed without interference, no cutting being done the first year. Care, however, is taken to cut off the tops close to the ground in the fall before the seed begins to drop--the volunteer asparagus being the worst enemy in culture with which the grower has to deal. About the beginning of the rainy season a heavy coating of manure is placed over the beds and left to be leeched in by the rains. [Illustration: FIG. 48--VIEW OF ASPARAGUS FIELD ON BOULDIN ISLAND, CALIFORNIA] The second year some growers cut more or less for market, but the bed is then longer in coming to its full strength and will not give so large a product the following years. There is a variation in the spring working, according to the nature of the land. Where the soil has a tendency to be cold, the first plowing is away from the rows, so as to let the sun more quickly down to the starting plants. Where the soil is light, or the season forward, this plowing is omitted. The latter plowings are toward the rows, the effort being by ridging to give a long blanched surface to the shoots. For the canneries where nothing but the white product is put up, the shoots are cut the instant they show their tips above the surface. The local market shows a preference for the greener shoot, and so before cutting it is allowed to stretch itself up into the light. The third year regular cutting begins, and from that time forward the beds increase in the quantity and quality of the product for the next fifteen years. The methods of marketing are somewhat different from those practiced in the East. Little or none of the asparagus is bunched. It is packed loose in boxes holding from forty to fifty pounds, and the loose product is retailed to the consumer by the pound. The first boxes begin to go out by the beginning of February, though small quantities can be seen in market as early as January 15th. The canning contracts run, as a rule, from March 1st to June 15th. After that the weather is so dry that the yield stops unless the beds are irrigated. In most sections, however, irrigation is not necessary up to this time. A notable exception to this is Bouldin Island, in the San Joaquin River. This is reclaimed land, and lies some six or eight feet below the surface of the water. The soil is river silt on a peat stratum thirty feet deep. The top is so fine and friable that it does not, in spite of the surrounding river, hold enough moisture to keep the vegetation alive during the hot spring months. A north wind in May would lift up the whole surface of the island and carry it away in dust. It is an easy matter, however, to let in water through the dikes, and this is done in sufficient quantities to keep the soil in place. The question of profit in asparagus growing is one that can only be treated in a relative way. The industry is as yet so new, and instances of phenomenal returns from small holdings are so many, that it is hard to arrive at what might be called a commercial ratio of gain. It is safe to say, however, that with ordinary care there has never been an actual loss with asparagus culture in California. A low estimate of profit is probably $50 per acre. The cost of preparation and planting where diking has not been necessary has seldom been more than $100 per acre. The gross returns taken from recent years' reports vary from $100 to $200 per acre, so that it can readily be seen that the return to the asparagus farmer is very fair. Most of the farms in California are in rented land. The Bay Farm Island people pay a ground rent of $50 per acre. On Bouldin Island the rental is on a basis of 40 per cent. of the net proceeds. In Fig. 48 is presented a view of a fully established asparagus field on Bouldin Island. WARREN CHENEY. _Alameda County, Cal._ ASPARAGUS IN FRANCE Asparagus is grown much more abundantly and to a much larger size in France than in England. The country is half covered with it in some places near Paris; farmers grow it abundantly, cottagers grow it, and everybody eats it. Near Paris it is chiefly grown for market in the valley of Montmorency and at Argenteuil, and it is cultivated extensively for market in many other places. About Argenteuil several thousand persons are employed in the culture of asparagus. It is grown to a large extent among the grape-vines as well as alone. The vine under field culture is cut down to near the old stool every year, and allowed to make a few growths which are tied erect to a stake. One plant is put in each open spot, and given every chance of forming a large specimen, and this it generally does. The growing of asparagus among the vines is a very usual mode, and a vast space is thus covered with it about here. It is also grown in other and special ways. Perhaps the simplest and most worthy of adoption is to grow it in shallow trenches. These are usually about four feet apart. The soil generally is a rather stiff sandy loam with calcareous matter in some parts, but the soil has not all to do with the peculiar excellence of the vegetable. It is the careful attention to the wants of the plant which produce such good results. Here, for instance, is a young plantation planted in March; and from the little ridges of soil between the trenches have just been dug a crop of small early potatoes. In England the asparagus would be left to the free action of the breeze, but the French cultivators never leave a young plant of asparagus to the wind's mercy while they can find a stake of oak about a yard long. When staking these young plants they do not insert the support close to the bottom, as we are too apt to do in other instances, but a little distance off, so as to avoid the possibility of injuring the root; each stake leans over its plant at an angle of forty-five degrees, and when the shoots are big enough to touch it, or to be caught by the wind, they are tied to the stake. The ground in which this system is pursued being entirely devoted to asparagus, the stools are placed very much closer together than they are among the vines--say, at a distance of about a yard apart. The little trenches are about a foot wide and eight inches deep. The best asparagus in France is grown at Argenteuil and by one system mainly. The plants--one-year seedlings (never older)--are planted in shallow trenches seven or eight inches deep, the plants a little more than one yard apart and the lines four feet apart. No manure is given at planting; no trenching or any preparation of the ground, beyond digging the shallow trench, takes place. In subsequent years a little manure is given over the roots in autumn; the soil, thrown out of the trenches and forming a ridge between them, is planted with a light crop in spring. In all subsequent years the earth is placed over the crowns in spring and removed in autumn. Under this system good results are obtained in various soils, the only difference being that on cold clay soils the planting is not quite so deep. Every winter the growers notice the state of the young roots, and any spot in which one has perished they mark with a stick, to replace the plant the following March. Early every spring they pile up a little heap of fine earth over each crown. When the plantation arrives at its third year they increase the size of the mound, or, in other words, a heap of finely pulverized earth is placed over the stool, from which some, but not much, asparagus is cut the same year, taking care to leave the weak plants and those which have replaced others untouched for another year. The process of gathering is interesting to the stranger. Asparagus knives of various forms are described in both French and English books, but one is confidently told by the growers that they are only fitted for amateurs who do not care to soil their fingers. The cultivators here never use a knife, the work being done with the hands. Gatherings are made every second day about the end of April, but in May when the growth is more active the stools are gathered from every day. The French mode of cultivating asparagus differs from the English principally in giving each plant abundant room to develop into a large healthy specimen, in paying thoughtful attention to the plants at all times, and in planting in trenches instead of a raised bed. They do not, as is done in England, go to great expense in forming a mass of the richest soil far beneath the roots, but rather give it at the surface, and only when the roots have begun to grow strongly.--W. ROBINSON, in "Parks and Gardens of Paris." INDEX PAGE American varieties, 18 Barr's Mammoth, 18 Columbian Mammoth White, 19 Conover's Colossal, 19 Donald's Elmira, 19 Eclipse, 19 Hub, 20 Mammoth, 20 Moore's Cross-bred, 20 Palmetto, 20 Purple top or green top, 21 Asparagus culture in different localities, 145 in New England, 145 on Long Island, 150 in New Jersey, 152 in the South, 154 in California, 158 in France, 164 Asparagus species, 6 plumosus nanus, 6 medeoloides, 6 Sprengeri, 6 falcatus, 8 laricinus, 8 racemosus, 10 sarmentosus, 10 Broussoneti, 13 officinalis, 13 acutifolius, 16 aphyllus, 16 Botany, 4 Bunchers, 91 Bunching, 89 Canning, 112 Eastern methods, 112 Pacific coast methods, 118 Crates, 96 Cultivation, 61 the first year, 61 the second year, 64 the third and future years, 66 Cultural varieties, 17 Cutting, 83 Manner of, 84 Drying, 122 Edible species, 13 European varieties, 21 German Giant, 22 Argenteuil, 22 Yellow Burgundy, 22 Fall treatment, 68 Fertilizers and fertilizing, 72 Forcing, 100 in greenhouse, 101 in hotbeds and frames, 103 in field, 104 in Cornell asparagus house, 110 Fungus diseases, 137 Asparagus rust, 137 Asparagus leopard spot, 144 Growing asparagus without transplanting, 32 Harvesting and marketing, 83 Historical sketch, 1 Insects, 126 Common asparagus beetle, 126 Twelve-spotted asparagus beetle, 133 Spotted ladybird, 130 Asparagus miner, 135 Knives, 88 Male and female plants, 40 Marketing, 96 Ornamental species, 6 Planting, 49 Distance to plant, 50 Depth of, 53 Manner of, 54 Placing the roots, 59 Plants, Raising of, 30 Pot-grown asparagus plants, 36 Preparation of the ground, 45 Preserving asparagus, 112 Raising of plants, 30 Renovating old asparagus beds, 70 Rubber bands, 93 Salt as a fertilizer, 81 Seed-growing, 26 Selection of plants, 38 Soil and its preparation, 43 Sorting, 89 Sorting and bunching, 89 Sterilizing, 116 Subsoiling, 47 Transplanting, Growing asparagus without, 32 Tying material, 92 Variety tests, 22 
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He was one of the gallant men whose patriotic deeds he commemorates, and he has made a careful study of all the best accessible records of their achievements. His people may well be proud of the showing._--N. Y. Tribune. XI. $500 A YEAR FOR A FAMILY. FAMILY LIVING ON $500 A YEAR. A Daily Reference Book for Young and Inexperienced Housewives. By JULIET CORSON. 16mo, Cloth, Extra, $1 25. _Miss Corson has rendered a valuable service by this book, in which she shows conclusively how for five hundred dollars a plentiful, appetizing and varied diet can be furnished throughout the year to a family._--N. Y. Sun. XII. SOME RECENT FICTION. CAPTAIN MACDONALD'S DAUGHTER. By ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL. 16mo, Cloth, $1 00. NARKA, THE NIHILIST. By KATHLEEN O'MEARA. 16mo, Cloth, Extra, $1 00. MR. ABSALOM BILLINGSLEA, AND OTHER GEORGIAN FOLK. By R. M. JOHNSTON. Illustrated. 16mo, Cloth, Extra, $1 25. A MAGNIFICENT PLEBEIAN. By JULIA MAGRUDER. 16mo, Cloth, Extra, $1 00. A PRINCE OF THE BLOOD. By JAMES PAYN. 16mo, Cloth, 75 cents. _The above works are for sale by all booksellers, or will be sent by_ HARPER & BROTHERS, _postpaid, to any part of the United States and Canada on receipt of price. Catalogue sent on receipt of Ten Cents in postage stamps._ Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, New York. GARDEN AND FOREST: An Illustrated Weekly Journal of Horticulture, Landscape Art and Forestry. GARDEN AND FOREST will be devoted to Horticulture in all its branches, Garden Botany, Dendrology and Landscape Gardening, and will discuss Plant Diseases and Insects injurious to vegetation. Professor C. S. SARGENT, of Harvard College, will have general editorial control of GARDEN AND FOREST. Professor WM. G. FARLOW, of Harvard College, will have editorial charge of the Department of Cryptogamic Botany and Plant Diseases. Professor A. S. PACKARD, of Brown University, will have editorial charge of the Department of Entomology. Mr. WM. A. STILES will be the Managing Editor. GARDEN AND FOREST will record all noteworthy discoveries and all progress in science and practice within its field at home and abroad. It will place scientific information clearly and simply before the public, and make available for the instruction of all persons interested in garden plants the conclusions reached by the most trustworthy investigators. Arrangements have been made to figure and describe new and little-known plants (especially North American) of horticultural promise. A department will be devoted to the history and description of ornamental trees and shrubs. New florists' flowers, fruits and vegetables will be made known, and experienced gardeners will describe practical methods of cultivation. GARDEN AND FOREST will report the proceedings of the principal Horticultural Societies of the United States and the condition of the horticultural trade in the chief commercial centres of the country. GARDEN AND FOREST, in view of the growing taste for rural life, and of the multiplication of country residences in all parts of the United States, especially in the vicinity of the cities and of the larger towns, will make a special feature of discussing the planning and planting of private gardens and grounds, small and large, and will endeavor to assist all who desire to make their home surroundings attractive and artistic. It will be a medium of instruction for all persons interested in preserving and developing the beauty of natural scenery. It will co-operate with Village Improvement Societies and every other organized effort to secure the proper ordering and maintenance of parks and squares, cemeteries, railroad stations, school grounds and roadsides. It will treat of Landscape Gardening in all its phases; reviewing its history and discussing its connection with architecture. GARDEN AND FOREST will give special attention to scientific and practical Forestry in their various departments, including Forest Conservation and economic Tree Planting, and to all the important questions which grow out of the intimate relation of the forests of the country to its climate, soil, water supply and material development. Original information on all these subjects will be furnished by numerous American and foreign correspondents. Among those who have promised contributions to GARDEN AND FOREST are: Mr. SERENO WATSON, Curator of the Herbarium, Harvard College. Prof. GEO. L. GOODALE, Harvard College. " WOLCOTT GIBBS, " " WM. H. BREWER, Yale College. " D. G. EATON, " " WM. J. BEAL, Agricultural College of Michigan. " L. H. BAILEY, Jr., " " J. L. BUDD, Agricultural College of Iowa. " B. D. HALSTED, " " " " E. W. HILGARD, University of California. " J. T. ROTHROCK, University of Pennsylvania. " CHAS. E. BESSEY, University of Nebraska. " WM. TRELEASE, Shaw School of Botany, St. Louis. " T. J. BURRILL, University of Illinois. " W. W. BAILEY, Brown University. " E. A. POPENOE, Agricultural College, Kansas. " RAPHAEL PUMPELLY. United States Geological Survey. " JAMES H. GARDINER, Director New York State Survey. " WM. R. LAZENBY, Director of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. " W. W. TRACY, Detroit, Mich. " C. V. RILEY, Washington, D. C. Mr. DONALD G. MITCHELL, New Haven, Conn. " FRANK J. SCOTT, Toledo, O. Hon. ADOLPHE LEUÉ, Secretary of the Ohio Forestry Bureau. " B. G. NORTHROP, Clinton, Conn. Mr. G. W. HOTCHKISS, Secretary of the Lumber Manufacturers' Association. Dr. C. L. ANDERSON, Santa Cruz, Cal. Mr. FREDERICK LAW OLMSTED, Brookline, Mass. " FRANCIS PARKMAN, Boston. Dr. C. C. PARRY, San Francisco. Mr. PROSPER J. BERCKMANS, President of the American Pomological Society. " CHARLES A. DANA, New York. " BURNET LANDRETH, Philadelphia. " ROBERT RIDGEWAY, Washington, D. C. " CALVERT VAUX, New York. " J. B. HARRISON, Franklin Falls, N. H. Dr. HENRY P. WALCOTT, President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Mr. C. G. PRINGLE, Charlotte, Vt. " ROBERT DOUGLAS, Waukegan, Ill. " H. W. S. CLEVELAND, Minneapolis, Minn. " CHAS. W. GARFIELD, Secretary of the American Pomological Society. " C. R. ORCUTT, San Diego, Cal. " B. E. FERNOW, Chief of the Forestry Division, Washington, D. C. " JOHN BIRKENBINE, Secretary of the Pennsylvania Forestry Association. " JOSIAH HOOPES, West Chester, Pa. " PETER HENDERSON, New York. " WM. FALCONER, Glen Cove, N. Y. " JACKSON DAWSON, Jamaica Plain, Mass. " WM. H. HALL, State Engineer, Sacramento, Cal. " C. C. CROZIER, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. The Rev. E. P. ROE, Cornwall, N. Y. Dr. C. C. ABBOTT, Trenton, N. J. Mrs. SCHUYLER VAN RENSSELAER, New York. " MARY TREAT, Vineland, N. J. Dr. KARL MOHR, Mobile, Ala. Hon. J. B. WALKER, Forest Commissioner of New Hampshire. Mr. WM. HAMILTON GIBSON, Brooklyn, N. Y. " EDGAR T. ENSIGN, Forest Commissioner of Colorado. " E. S. CARMAN, Editor of the _Rural New Yorker_. " WM. M. CANBY. Wilmington, Del. " JOHN ROBINSON, Salem, Mass. " J. D. LYMAN, Exeter, N. H. " SAMUEL PARSONS, Jr., Superintendent of Central Park, N. Y. " WM. MCMILLAN, Superintendent of Parks, Buffalo. N. Y. " SYLVESTER BAXTER, Boston. " CHARLES ELIOT, Boston. " JOHN THORPE, Secretary of the New York Horticultural Society. " EDWIN LONSDALE, Secretary of the Philadelphia Horticultural Society. " ROBERT CRAIG, President of the Philadelphia Florists' Club. " SAMUEL B. PARSONS, Flushing, N. Y. " GEORGE ELLWANGER, Rochester. " P. H. BARRY, Rochester. " W. J. STEWART, Boston, Mass. " W. A. MANDA, Botanic Gardens, Cambridge, Mass. " DAVID ALLAN, Mount Vernon, Mass. " WM. ROBINSON, North Easton, Mass. " A. H. FEWKES, Newton Highlands, Mass. " F. GOLDRING, Kenwood, N. Y. " C. M. ATKINSON, Brookline, Mass. * * * * * Dr. MAXWELL T. MASTERS, Editor of the Gardener's Chronicle. Mr. GEO. NICHOLSON, Curator of the Royal Gardens, Kew. " W. B. HEMSLEY, Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew. " WM. GOLDRING, London. Mr. MAX LEICHTLIN, Baden Baden. M. EDOUARD ANDRÉ, Editor of the Revue Horticole, Paris, France. Dr. G. M. DAWSON, Geological Survey of Canada. Prof. JOHN MACOUN, " " " M. CHARLES NAUDIN, Director of the Gardens of The Villa Thuret, Antibes. Dr. CHAS. BOLLE, Berlin. M. J. ALLARD, Angers, Maine & Loire, France. Dr. H. MAYE, University of Tokio, Japan. Prof. D. P. PENHALLOW, Director of the Botanical Gardens, Montreal. Mr. WM. SAUNDERS, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Station, Ontario. " WM. LITTLE, Montreal. Single numbers, 10 cents. Subscription price, Four Dollars a year, in advance. THE GARDEN AND FOREST PUBLISHING CO., Limited, D. A. MUNRO, _Manager_. TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK GARDEN AND FOREST. PUBLISHED WEEKLY BY THE GARDEN AND FOREST PUBLISHING CO. [LIMITED.] OFFICE: TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK. Conducted by Professor C. S. SARGENT. ENTERED AS SECOND-CLASS MATTER AT THE POST OFFICE AT NEW YORK, N. Y. NEW YORK, WEDNESDAY, FEBRUARY 29, 1888. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE. EDITORIAL ARTICLES:--Asa Gray. The Gardener's Monthly. The White Pine in Europe 1 The Forests of the White Mountain _Francis Parkman._ 2 Landscape Gardening.--A Definition _Mrs. Schuyler Van Rensselaer._ 2 Floriculture in the United States _Peter Henderson._ 2 How to Make a Lawn _Professor W. J. Beal._ 3 Letter from London _W. Goldring._ 4 A New Departure in Chrysanthemums _A. H. Fewkes._ 5 New Plants from Afghanistan _Max Leichtlin._ 6 Iris Tenuis, with figure _Sereno Watson._ 6 Hardy Shrubs for Forcing _Wm. Falconer._ 6 Plant Notes _C. C. Pringle; Professor W. Trelease._ 7 Wire Netting for Tree Guards _A. A. Crozier._ 7 Artificial Water, with Illustration 8 Some New Roses _Edwin Lonsdale._ 8 Two Ferns and Their Treatment _F. Goldring._ 9 Timely Hints about Bulbs _John Thorpe._ 9 ENTOMOLOGY: Arsenical Poisons in the Orchard _Professor A. S. Packard._ 9 THE FOREST: The White Pine in Europe _Professor H. Mayr._ 10 European Larch in Massachusetts 11 Thinning Pine Plantations _B. E. Fernow._ 11 BOOK REVIEWS: Gray's Elements of Botany _Professor G. L. Goodale._ 11 Kansas Forest Trees _Professor G. L. Goodale._ 12 PUBLIC WORKS:--The Falls of Minnehaha--A Park for Wilmington 12 FLOWER MARKETS:--New York--Philadelphia--Boston 12 * * * * * Asa Gray. The whole civilized world is mourning the death of Asa Gray with a depth of feeling and appreciation perhaps never accorded before to a scholar and man of science. To the editors of this Journal the loss at the very outset of their labors is serious indeed. They lose a wise and sympathetic adviser of great experience and mature judgment to whom they could always have turned with entire freedom and in perfect confidence; and they lose a contributor whose vast stores of knowledge and graceful pen might, it was reasonable to hope, have long enriched their columns. The career of Asa Gray is interesting from many points of view. It is the story of the life of a man born in humble circumstances, without the advantages of early education, without inherited genius--for there is no trace in his yeoman ancestry of any germ of intellectual greatness--who succeeded in gaining through native intelligence, industry and force of character, a position in the very front rank of the scientific men of his age. Among the naturalists who, since Linnæus, have devoted their lives to the description and classification of plants, four or five stand out prominently in the character and importance of their work. In this little group Asa Gray has fairly won for himself a lasting position. But he was something more than a mere systematist. He showed himself capable of drawing broad philosophical conclusions from the dry facts he collected and elaborated with such untiring industry and zeal. This power of comprehensive generalization he showed in his paper upon the "Characters of Certain New Species of Plants Collected in Japan" by Charles Wright, published nearly thirty years ago. Here he first pointed out the extraordinary similarity between the Floras of Eastern North America and Japan, and then explained the peculiar distribution of plants through the northern hemisphere by tracing their direct descent through geological eras from ancestors which flourished in the arctic regions down to the latest tertiary period. This paper was Professor Gray's most remarkable and interesting contribution to science. It at once raised him to high rank among philosophical naturalists and drew the attention of the whole scientific world to the Cambridge botanist. Asa Gray did not devote himself to abstract science alone; he wrote as successfully for the student as for the professional naturalist. His long list of educational works have no equals in accuracy and in beauty and compactness of expression. They have had a remarkable influence upon the study of botany in this country during the half century which has elapsed since the first of the series appeared. Botany, moreover, did not satisfy that wonderful intellect, which hard work only stimulated but did not weary, and one of Asa Gray's chief claims to distinction is the prominent and commanding position he took in the great intellectual and scientific struggle of modern times, in which, almost alone and single handed he bore in America the brunt of the disbelief in the Darwinian theory shared by most of the leading naturalists of the time. But the crowning labor of Asa Gray's life was the preparation of a descriptive work upon the plants of North America. This great undertaking occupied his attention and much of his time during the last forty years of his life. Less fortunate than his greatest botanical contemporary, George Bentham, who turned from the last page of corrected proof of his work upon the genera of plants to the bed from which he was never to rise again, Asa Gray's great work is left unfinished. The two volumes of the "Synoptical Flora of North America" will keep his memory green, however, as long as the human race is interested in the study of plants. But his botanical writings and his scientific fame are not the most valuable legacy which Asa Gray has left to the American people. More precious to us is the example of his life in this age of grasping materialism. It is a life that teaches how industry and unselfish devotion to learning can attain to the highest distinction and the most enduring fame. Great as were his intellectual gifts, Asa Gray was greatest in the simplicity of his character and in the beauty of his pure and stainless life. * * * * * It is with genuine regret that we read the announcement of the discontinuance of the _Gardener's Monthly_. It is like reading of the death of an old friend. Ever since we have been interested in the cultivation of flowers we have looked to the _Monthly_ for inspiration and advice, and its pages have rarely been turned without finding the assistance we stood in need of. But, fortunately, the _Gardener's Monthly_, and its modest and accomplished editor, Mr. Thomas Meehan, were one and the same thing. It is Mr. Meehan's long editorial experience, high character, great learning and varied practical knowledge, which made the _Gardener's Monthly_ what it was. These, we are happy to know, are not to be lost to us, as Mr. Meehan will, in a somewhat different field and with new associates, continue to delight and instruct the horticultural public. Americans who visit Europe cannot fail to remark that in the parks and pleasure grounds of the Continent no coniferous tree is more graceful when young or more dignified at maturity than our White Pine. The notes of Dr. Mayr, of the Bavarian Forest Academy, in another column, testify that it holds a position of equal importance as a forest tree for economic planting. It thrives from Northern Germany to Lombardy, corresponding with a range of climate in this country from New England to Northern Georgia. It needs bright sunshine, however, and perhaps it is for lack of this that so few good specimens are seen in England. It was among the first of our trees to be introduced there, but it has been universally pronounced an indifferent grower. The Forests of the White Mountains. New Hampshire is not a peculiarly wealthy State, but it has some resources scarcely equaled by those of any of its sisters. The White Mountains, though worth little to the farmer, are a piece of real estate which yields a sure and abundant income by attracting tourists and their money; and this revenue is certain to increase, unless blind mismanagement interposes. The White Mountains are at present unique objects of attraction; but they may easily be spoiled, and the yearly tide of tourists will thus be turned towards other points of interest whose owners have had more sense and foresight. These mountains owe three-fourths of their charms to the primeval forest that still covers them. Speculators have their eyes on it, and if they are permitted to work their will the State will find a most productive piece of property sadly fallen in value. If the mountains are robbed of their forests they will become like some parts of the Pyrenees, which, though much higher, are without interest, because they have been stripped bare. The forests of the White Mountains have a considerable commercial value, and this value need not be sacrificed. When lumber speculators get possession of forests they generally cut down all the trees and strip the land at once, with an eye to immediate profit. The more conservative, and, in the end, the more profitable management, consists in selecting and cutting out the valuable timber when it has matured, leaving the younger growth for future use. This process is not very harmful to the landscape. It is practiced extensively in Maine, where the art of managing forests with a view to profit is better understood than elsewhere in this country. A fair amount of good timber may thus be drawn from the White Mountains, without impairing their value as the permanent source of a vastly greater income from the attraction they will offer to an increasing influx of tourists. At the same time the streams flowing from them, and especially the Pemigewasset, a main source of the Merrimac, will be saved from the alternate droughts and freshets to which all streams are exposed that take their rise in mountains denuded of forests. The subject is one of the last importance to the mill owners along these rivers. _F. Parkman._ Landscape Gardening.--A Definition. Some of the Fine Arts appeal to the ear, others to the eye. The latter are the Arts of Design, and they are usually named as three--Architecture, Sculpture and Painting. A man who practices one of these in any of its branches is an artist; other men who work with forms and colors are at the best but artisans. This is the popular belief. But in fact there is a fourth art which has a right to be rated with the others, which is as fine as the finest, and which demands as much of its professors in the way of creative power and executive skill as the most difficult. This is the art whose purpose it is to create beautiful compositions upon the surface of the ground. The mere statement of its purpose is sufficient to establish its rank. It is the effort to produce organic beauty--to compose a beautiful whole with a number of related parts--which makes a man an artist; neither the production of a merely useful organism nor of a single beautiful detail suffices. A clearly told story or a single beautiful word is not a work of art--only a story told in beautifully connected words. A solidly and conveniently built house, if it is nothing more, is not a work of architecture, nor is an isolated stone, however lovely in shape and surface. A delightful tint, a graceful line, does not make a picture; and though the painter may reproduce ugly models he must put some kind of beauty into the reproduction if it is to be esteemed above any other manufactured article--if not beauty of form, then beauty of color or of meaning or at least of execution. Similarly, when a man disposes the surface of the soil with an eye to crops alone he is an agriculturist; when he grows plants for their beauty as isolated objects he is a horticulturist; but when he disposes ground and plants together to produce organic beauty of effect, he is an artist with the best. Yet though all the fine arts are thus akin in general purpose they differ each from each in many ways. And in the radical differences which exist between the landscape-gardener's and all the others we find some reasons why its affinity with them is so commonly ignored. One difference is that it uses the same materials as nature herself. In what is called "natural" gardening it uses them to produce effects which under fortunate conditions nature might produce without man's aid. Then, the better the result, the less likely it is to be recognized as an artificial--artistic--result. The more perfectly the artist attains his aim, the more likely we are to forget that he has been at work. In "formal" gardening, on the other hand, nature's materials are disposed and treated in frankly unnatural ways; and then--as a more or less intelligent love for natural beauty is very common to-day, and an intelligent eye for art is rare--the artist's work is apt to be resented as an impertinence, denied its right to its name, called a mere contorting and disfiguring of his materials. Again, the landscape-gardener's art differs from all others in the unstable character of its productions. When surfaces are modeled and plants arranged, nature and the artist must work a long time together before the true result appears; and when once it has revealed itself, day to day attention will be forever needed to preserve it from the deforming effects of time. It is easy to see how often neglect or interference must work havoc with the best intentions, how often the passage of years must travesty or destroy the best results, how rare must be the cases in which a work of landscape art really does justice to its creator. Still another thing which affects popular recognition of the art as such is our lack of clearly understood terms by which to speak of it and of those who practice it. "Gardens" once meant pleasure-grounds of every kind and "gardener" then had an adequately artistic sound. But as the significance of the one term has been gradually specialized, so the other has gradually come to denote a mere grower of plants. "Landscape gardener" was a title first used by the artists of the eighteenth century to mark the new tendency which they represented--the search for "natural" as opposed to "formal" beauty; and it seemed to them to need an apology as savoring, perhaps, of grandiloquence or conceit. But as taste declined in England it was assumed by men who had not the slightest right, judged either by their aims or by their results, to be considered artists; and to-day it is fallen into such disesteem that it is often replaced by "landscape architect." This title has French usage to support it and is in many respects a good one. But its correlative--"landscape architecture"--is unsatisfactory; and so, on the other hand, is "landscape artist," though "landscape art" is an excellent generic term. Perhaps the best we can do is to keep to "landscape gardener," and try to remember that it ought always to mean an artist and an artist only. _M. G. van Rensselaer._ Floriculture in the United States. At the beginning of the present century, it is not probable that there were 100 florists in the United States, and their combined green-house structures could not have exceeded 50,000 square feet of glass. There are now more than 10,000 florists distributed through every State and Territory in the Union and estimating 5,000 square feet of glass to each, the total area would be 50,000,000 feet, or about 1,000 acres of green-houses. The value of the bare structures, with heating apparatus, at 60 cents per square foot would be $30,000,000, while the stock of plants grown in them would not be less than twice that sum. The present rate of growth in the business is about 25% per annum, which proves that it is keeping well abreast of our most flourishing industries. The business, too, is conducted by a better class of men. No longer than thirty years ago it was rare to find any other than a foreigner engaged in commercial floriculture. These men had usually been private gardeners, who were mostly uneducated, and without business habits. But to-day, the men of this calling compare favorably in intelligence and business capacity with any mercantile class. Floriculture has attained such importance that it has taken its place as a regular branch of study in some of our agricultural colleges. Of late years, too, scores of young men in all parts of the country have been apprenticing themselves to the large establishments near the cities, and already some of these have achieved a high standing; for the training so received by a lad from sixteen to twenty, better fits him for the business here than ten years of European experience, because much of what is learned there would prove worse than useless here. The English or German florist has here to contend with unfamiliar conditions of climate and a manner of doing business that is novel to him. Again he has been trained to more deliberate methods of working, and when I told the story a few years ago of a workman who had potted 10,000 cuttings in two inch pots in ten consecutive hours, it was stigmatized in nearly every horticultural magazine in Europe as a piece of American bragging. As a matter of fact this same workman two years later, potted 11,500 plants in ten hours, and since then several other workmen have potted plants at the rate of a thousand per hour all day long. Old world conservatism is slow to adopt improvements. The practice of heating by low pressure steam will save in labor, coal and construction one-fifth of the expense by old methods, and nearly all the large green-house establishments in this country, whether private or commercial, have been for some years furnished with the best apparatus. But when visiting London, Edinburgh and Paris in 1885, I neither saw nor heard of a single case where steam had been used for green-house heating. The stress of competition here has developed enterprise, encouraged invention and driven us to rapid and prudent practice, so that while labor costs at least twice as much as it does in Europe, our prices both at wholesale and retail, are lower. And yet I am not aware that American florists complain that their profits compare unfavorably with those of their brethren over the sea. Commercial floriculture includes two distinct branches, one for the production of flowers and the other for the production of plants. During the past twenty years the growth in the flower department of the business has outstripped the growth of the plant department. The increase in the sale of Rosebuds in winter is especially noteworthy. At the present time it is safe to say that one-third of the entire glass structures in the United States are used for this purpose; many large growers having from two to three acres in houses devoted to Roses alone, such erections costing from $50,000 to $100,000 each, according to the style in which they are built. More cut flowers are used for decoration in the United States than in any other country, and it is probable that there are more flowers sold in New York than in London with a population four times as great. In London and Paris, however, nearly every door-yard and window of city and suburb show the householder's love for plants, while with us, particularly in the vicinity of New York (Philadelphia and Boston are better), the use of living plants for home decoration is far less general. There are fashions in flowers, and they continually change. Thirty years ago thousands of Camellia flowers were retailed in the holiday season for $1 each, while Rosebuds would not bring a dime. Now, many of the fancy Roses sell at $1 each, while Camellia flowers go begging at ten cents. The Chrysanthemum is now rivaling the Rose, as well it may, and no doubt every decade will see the rise and fall of some floral favorite. But beneath these flitting fancies is the substantial and unchanging love of flowers that seems to be an original instinct in man, and one that grows in strength with growing refinement. Fashion may now and again condemn one flower or another, but the fashion of neglecting flowers altogether will never prevail, and we may safely look forward in the expectation of an ever increasing interest and demand, steady improvement in methods of cultivation, and to new and attractive developments in form, color and fragrance. _Peter Henderson._ How to Make a Lawn. "A smooth, closely shaven surface of grass is by far the most essential element of beauty on the grounds of a suburban home." This is the language of Mr. F. J. Scott, and it is equally true of other than suburban grounds. A good lawn then is worth working for, and if it have a substantial foundation, it will endure for generations, and improve with age. We take it for granted that the drainage is thorough, for no one would build a dwelling on water soaked land. No labor should be spared in making the soil deep, rich and fine in the full import of the words, as this is the stock from which future dividends of joy and satisfaction are to be drawn. Before grading, one should read that chapter of Downing's on "The Beauty in Ground." This will warn against terracing or leveling the whole surface, and insure a contour with "gentle curves and undulations," which is essential to the best effects. If the novice has read much of the conflicting advice in books and catalogues, he is probably in a state of bewilderment as to the kind of seed to sow. And when that point is settled it is really a difficult task to secure pure and living seeds of just such species as one orders. Rarely does either seller or buyer know the grasses called for, especially the finer and rarer sorts; and more rarely still does either know their seeds. The only safe way is to have the seeds tested by an expert. Mr. J. B. Olcott, in a racy article in the "Report of the Connecticut Board of Agriculture for 1886," says, "Fifteen years ago nice people were often sowing timothy, red top and clover for door-yards, and failing wretchedly with lawn-making, while seedsmen and gardeners even disputed the identity of our June grass and Kentucky blue-grass." We have passed beyond that stage of ignorance, however; and to the question what shall we sow, Mr. Olcott replies: "Rhode Island bent and Kentucky blue-grass are their foolish trade names, for they belong no more to Kentucky or Rhode Island than to other Northern States. Two sorts of fine _Agrostis_ are honestly sold under the trade name of Rhode Island bent, and, as trade goes, we may consider ourselves lucky if we get even the coarser one. The finest--a little the finest--_Agrostis canina_--is a rather rare, valuable, and elegant grass, which should be much better known by grass farmers, as well as gardeners, than it is. These are both good lawn as well as pasture grasses." The grass usually sold as Rhode Island bent is _Agrostis vulgaris_, the smaller red top of the East and of Europe. This makes an excellent lawn. _Agrostis canina_ has a short, slender, projecting awn from one of the glumes; _Agrostis vulgaris_ lacks this projecting awn. In neither case have we in mind what Michigan and New York people call red top. This is a tall, coarse native grass often quite abundant on low lands, botanically _Agrostis alba_. Sow small red top or Rhode Island bent, and June grass (Kentucky blue grass, if you prefer that name), _Poa pratensis_. If in the chaff, sow in any proportion you fancy, and in any quantity up to four bushels per acre. If evenly sown, less will answer, but the thicker it is sown the sooner the ground will be covered with fine green grass. We can add nothing else that will improve this mixture, and either alone is about as good as both. A little white clover or sweet vernal grass or sheep's fescue may be added, if you fancy them, but they will not improve the appearance of the lawn. Roll the ground after seeding. Sow the seeds in September or in March or April, and under no circumstance yield to the advice to sow a little oats or rye to "protect the young grass." Instead of protecting, they will rob the slender grasses of what they most need. Now wait a little. Do not be discouraged if some ugly weeds get the start of the numerous green hairs which slowly follow. As soon as there is any thing to be cut, of weeds or grass, mow closely, and mow often, so that nothing need be raked from the ground. As Olcott puts it, "Leave one crop where it belongs for home consumption. The rains will wash the soluble substance of the wilted grass into the earth to feed the growing roots." During succeeding summers as the years roll on, the lawn should be perpetually enriched by the leaching of the short leaves as they are often mown. Neither leave a very short growth nor a very heavy growth for winter. Experience alone must guide the owner. If cut too closely, some of it may be killed or start too late in spring; if left too high during winter, the dead long grass will be hard to cut in spring and leave the stubble unsightly. After passing through one winter the annual weeds will have perished and leave the grass to take the lead. Perennial weeds should be faithfully dug out or destroyed in some way. Every year, add a top dressing of some commercial fertilizer or a little finely pulverized compost which may be brushed in. No one will disfigure his front yard with coarse manure spread on the lawn for five months of the year. If well made, a lawn will be a perpetual delight as long as the proprietor lives, but if the soil is thin and poor, or if the coarser grasses and clovers are sown instead of those named, he will be much perplexed, and will very likely try some expensive experiments, and at last plow up, properly fit the land and begin over again. This will make the cost and annoyance much greater than at first, because the trees and shrubs have already filled many portions of the soil. A small piece, well made and well kept, will give more satisfaction than a larger plot of inferior turf. _W. J. Beal._ Horticultural Exhibitions in London. At a late meeting of the floral committee of the Royal Horticultural Society at South Kensington among many novelties was a group of seedling bulbous Calanthes from the garden of Sir Trevor Lawrence, who has devoted much attention to these plants and has raised some interesting hybrids. About twenty kinds were shown, ranging in color from pure white to deep crimson. The only one selected for a first-class certificate was _C. sanguinaria_, with flowers similar in size and shape to those of _C. Veitchii_, but of an intensely deep crimson. It is the finest yet raised, surpassing _C. Sedeni_, hitherto unequaled for richness of color. The pick of all these seedlings would be _C. sanguinaria_, _C. Veitchii splendens_, _C. lactea_, _C. nivea_, and _C. porphyrea_. The adjectives well describe the different tints of each, and they will be universally popular when once they find their way into commerce. CYPRIPEDIUM LEEANUM MACULATUM, also shown by Sir Trevor Lawrence, is a novelty of sterling merit. The original _C. Leeanum_, which is a cross between _C. Spicerianum_ and _C. insigne Maulei_, is very handsome, but this variety eclipses it, the dorsal sepal of the flower being quite two and one-half inches broad, almost entirely white, heavily and copiously spotted with purple. It surpasses also _C. Leeanum superbum_, which commands such high prices. I saw a small plant sold at auction lately for fifteen guineas and the nursery price is much higher. LÆLIA ANCEPS SCHR[OE]DERÆ, is the latest addition to the now very numerous list of varieties of the popular _L. anceps_. This new form, to which the committee with one accord gave a first class certificate, surpasses in my opinion all the colored varieties, with the possible exception of the true old Barkeri. The flowers are of the average size and ordinary form. The sepals are rose pink, the broad sepals very light, almost white in fact, while the labellum is of the deepest and richest velvety crimson imaginable. The golden tipped crest is a veritable beauty spot, and the pale petals act like a foil to show off the splendor of the lip. TWO NEW FERNS of much promise received first class certificates. One named _Pteris Claphamensis_ is a chance seedling and was found growing among a lot of other sporelings in the garden of a London amateur. As it partakes of the characters of both _P. tremula_ and _P. serrulata_, old and well known ferns, it is supposed to be a natural cross between these. The new plant is of tufted growth, with a dense mass of fronds about six inches long, elegantly cut and gracefully recurved on all sides of the pot. It is looked upon by specialists as just the sort of plant that will take in the market. The other certificated fern, _Adiantum Reginæ_, is a good deal like _A. Victoriæ_ and is supposed to be a sport from it. But _A. Reginæ_, while it has broad pinnæ of a rich emerald green like _A. Victoriæ_, has fronds from nine to twelve inches long, giving it a lighter and more elegant appearance. I don't know that the Victoria Maidenhair is grown in America yet, but I am sure those who do floral decorating will welcome it as well as the newer _A. Reginæ_. A third Maidenhair of a similar character is _A. rhodophyllum_ and these form a trio that will become the standard kinds for decorating. The young fronds of all three are of a beautiful coppery red tint, the contrast of which with the emerald green of the mature fronds is quite charming. They are warm green-house ferns and of easy culture, and are supposed to be hybrid forms of the old _A. scutum_. _Nerine Mansellii_, a new variety of the Guernsey Lily, was one of the loveliest flowers at the show. From the common Guernsey Lily it differs only in color of the flowers. These have crimpled-edged petals of clear rose tints; and the umbel of flowers is fully six inches across, borne on a stalk eighteen inches high. These Guernsey Lilies have of recent years come into prominence in English gardens since so many beautiful varieties have been raised, and as they flower from September onward to Christmas they are found to be indispensable for the green-house, and indoor decoration. The old _N. Fothergillii major_, with vivid scarlet-crimson flowers and crystalline cells in the petals which sparkle in the sunlight like myriads of tiny rubies, remains a favorite among amateurs. Baron Schroeder, who has the finest collection in Europe, grows this one only in quantity. An entire house is filled with them, and when hundreds of spikes are in bloom at once, the display is singularly brilliant. A NEW VEGETABLE, a Japanese plant called Choro-Gi, belonging to the Sage family, was exhibited. Its botanical name is _Stachys tuberifera_ and it was introduced first to Europe by the Vilmorins of Paris under the name of _Crosnes du Japon_. The edible part of the plant is the tubers, which are produced in abundance on the tips of the wiry fibrous roots. These are one and a half inches long, pointed at both ends, and have prominent raised rings. When washed they are as white as celery and when eaten raw taste somewhat like Jerusalem artichokes, but when cooked are quite soft and possess the distinct flavor of boiled chestnuts. A dish of these tubers when cooked look like a mass of large caterpillars, but the Committee pronounced them excellent, and no doubt this vegetable will now receive attention from some of our enterprising seedsmen and may become a fashionable vegetable because new and unlike any common kind. The tubers were shown now for the first time in this country by Sir Henry Thompson, the eminent surgeon. The plant is herbaceous, dying down annually leaving the tubers, which multiply very rapidly. They can be dug at any time of the year, which is an advantage. The plant is perfectly hardy here and would no doubt be so in the United States, as it remains underground in winter. [A figure of this plant with the tubers appeared in the _Gardener's Chronicle_, January 7th, 1888.--ED.] PHALÆNOPSIS F. L. AMES, a hybrid moth orchid, the result of intercrossing _P. grandiflora_ of Lindley with _P. intermedia Portei_ (itself a natural hybrid between the little _P. rosea_ and _P. amabilis_), was shown at a later exhibition. The new hybrid is very beautiful. It has the same purplish green leaves as _P. amabalis_, but much narrower. The flower spikes are produced in the same way as those of _P. grandiflora_, and the flowers in form and size resemble those of that species, but the coloring of the labellum is more like that of its other parent. The sepals and petals are pure white, the latter being broadest at the lips. The labellum resembles that of _P. intermedia_, being three-lobed, the lateral lobes are erect, magenta purple in color and freckled. The middle or triangular lobe is of the same color as the lateral lobes, but pencilled with longitudinal lines of crimson, flushed with orange, and with the terminal cirrhi of a clear magenta. The column is pink, and the crest is adorned with rosy speckles. The Floral Committee unanimously awarded a first-class certificate of merit to the plant. A NEW LÆLIA named _L. Gouldiana_ has had an eventful history. The representative of Messrs. Sander, of St. Albans, the great orchid importers, while traveling in America saw it blooming in New York, in the collection of Messrs. Siebrecht & Wadley, and noting its distinctness and beauty bought the stock of it. The same week another new Lælia flowered in England and was sent up to one of the London auction rooms for sale. As it so answered the description of the American novelty which Messrs. Sander had just secured it was bought for the St. Albans collection, and now it turns out that the English novelty and the American novelty are one and the same thing, and a comparison of dates shows that they flowered on the same day, although in different hemispheres. As, however, it was first discovered in the United States, it is intended to call it an American orchid, and that is why Mr. Jay Gould has his name attached to it, In bulb and leaf the novelty closely resembles _L. albida_, and in flower both _L. anceps_ and _L. autumnalis_. The flowers are as large as those of an average form of _L. anceps_, the sepals are rather narrow, the petals as broad as those of _L._ _anceps Dawsoni_, and both petals and sepals are of a deep rose pink, intensified at the tips as if the color had collected there and was dripping out. The tip is in form between that of _L. anceps_ and _L. autumnalis_ and has the prominent ridges of the latter, while the color is a rich purple crimson. The black viscid pubescence, always seen on the ovary of _L. autumnalis_, is present on that of _L. Gouldiana_. The plants I saw in the orchid nursery at St. Albans lately, bore several spikes, some having three or four flowers. Those who have seen it are puzzled about its origin, some considering it a hybrid between _L. anceps_ and _L. autumnalis_, others consider it a distinct species and to the latter opinion I am inclined. Whatever its origin may be, it is certain we have a charming addition to midwinter flowering orchids. _W. Goldring._ London, February 1st. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Chrysanthemum--Mrs. Alpheus Hardy.] A New Departure in Chrysanthemums. The Chrysanthemum of which the figure gives a good representation is one of a collection of some thirty varieties lately sent from Japan to the lady for whom it has been named, Mrs. Alpheus Hardy of Boston, by a young Japanese once a protégé of hers, but now returned as a teacher to his native country. As may be seen, it is quite distinct from any variety known in this country or Europe, and the Japanese botanist Miyabe, who saw it at Cambridge, pronounces it a radical departure from any with which he is acquainted. The photograph from which the engraving was made was taken just as the petals had begun to fall back from the centre, showing to good advantage the peculiarities of the variety. The flower is of pure white, with the firm, long and broad petals strongly incurved at the extremities. Upon the back or outer surface of this incurved portion will be found, in the form of quite prominent hairs, the peculiarity which makes this variety unique. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--Hair from Petal of Chrysanthemum, much enlarged. _a_--resin drop. _b_--epidermis of petal with wavy cells.] These hairs upon close examination are found to be a glandular outgrowth of the epidermis of the petals, multi-cellular in structure and with a minute drop of a yellow resinous substance at the tip. The cells at first conform to the wavy character of those of the epidermis, but gradually become prismatic with straight walls, as shown in the engraving of one of the hairs, which was made from a drawing furnished by Miss Grace Cooley, of the Department of Botany at Wellesley College, who made a microscopic investigation of them. This is one of those surprises that occasionally make their appearance from Japan. Possibly it is a chance seedling; but since one or two other specimens in the collection are striking in form, and others are distinguished for depth and purity of color, it is more probable that the best of them have been developed by careful selection. This Chrysanthemum was exhibited at the Boston Chrysanthemum Show last December by Edwin Fewkes & Son of Newton Highlands, Mass. _A. H. Fewkes._ New Plants from Afghanistan. ARNEBIA CORNUTA.--This is a charming novelty, an annual, native of Afghanistan. The little seedling with lancet-like hairy, dark green leaves, becomes presently a widely branching plant two feet in diameter and one and one-half feet high. Each branch and branchlet is terminated by a lengthening raceme of flowers. These are in form somewhat like those of an autumnal Phlox, of a beautiful deep golden yellow color, adorned and brightened up by five velvety black blotches. These blotches soon become coffee brown and lose more and more their color, until after three days they have entirely disappeared. During several months the plant is very showy, the fading flowers being constantly replaced by fresh expanding ones. Sown in April in the open border, it needs no care but to be thinned out and kept free from weeds. It must, however, have some soil which does not contain fresh manure. DELPHINIUM ZALIL.--This, also, is a native of Afghanistan, but its character, whether a biennial or perennial, is not yet ascertained. The Afghans call it Zalil and the plant or root is used for dyeing purposes. Some years ago we only knew blue, white and purple larkspurs, and then California added two species with scarlet flowers. The above is of a beautiful sulphur yellow, and, all in all, it is a plant of remarkable beauty. From a rosette of much and deeply divided leaves, rises a branched flower stem to about two feet; each branch and branchlet ending in a beautiful spike of flowers each of about an inch across and the whole spike showing all its flowers open at once. It is likely to become a first rate standard plant of our gardens. To have it in flower the very first year it must be sown very early, say in January, in seed pans, and transplanted later, when it will flower from the end of May until the end of July. Moreover, it can be sown during spring and summer in the open air to flower the following year. It is quite hardy here. _Max Leichtlin._ Baden-Baden. Iris tenuis.[1] This pretty delicate species of Iris, Fig. 3, is a native of the Cascade Mountains of Northern Oregon. Its long branching rootstocks are scarcely more than a line in thickness, sending up sterile leafy shoots and slender stems about a foot high. The leaves are thin and pale green, rather taller than the stems, sword-shaped and half an inch broad or more. The leaves of the stem are bract-like and distant, the upper one or two subtending slender peduncles. The spathes are short, very thin and scarious, and enclose the bases of their rather small solitary flowers, which are "white, lightly striped and blotched with yellow and purple." The sepals and petals are oblong-spatulate, from a short tube, the sepals spreading, the shorter petals erect and notched. The peculiar habitat of this species doubtless accounts in good measure for its slender habit and mode of growth. Mr. L. F. Henderson, of Portland, Oregon, who discovered it in 1881, near a branch of the Clackamas River called Eagle Creek, about thirty miles from Portland, reports it as growing in the fir forests in broad mats, its very long rootstocks running along near the surface of the ground, just covered by moss or partly decayed fir-needles, with a light addition of soil. This also would indicate the need of special care and treatment in its cultivation. In May, 1884, Mr. Henderson took great pains to procure roots for the Botanic Garden at Cambridge, which were received in good order, but which did not survive the next winter. If taken up, however, later in the season or very early in the spring, it is probable that with due attention to soil and shade there would be little trouble in cultivating it successfully. The accompanying figure is from a drawing by Mr. C. E. Faxon. _Sereno Watson._ [Footnote 1: TENUIS. Watson, _Proc. Amer. Acad._, xvii, 380. Rootstock elongated, very slender (a line thick); leaves thin, ensiform, about equaling the stems, four to eight lines broad; stems scarcely a foot high, 2 or 3-flowered, with two or three bract-like leaves two or three inches long; lateral peduncles very slender, as long as the bracts; spathes scarious, an inch long; pedicels solitary, very short; flowers small, white marked with yellow and purple; tube two or three lines long; segments oblong-spatulate, the sepals spreading, one and one-half inches long, the petals shorter and emarginate; anthers as long as the filaments; styles with narrow entire crests; capsule oblong-ovate, obtuse, nine lines long.] Hardy Shrubs for Forcing. Shrubs for forcing should consist of early blooming kinds only. The plants should be stocky, young and healthy, well-budded and well-ripened, and in order to have first-class stock they should be grown expressly for forcing. For cut flower purposes only, we can lift large plants of Lilacs, Snowballs, Deutzias, Mock oranges and the like with all the ball of roots we can get to them and plant at once in forcing-houses. But this should not be done before New Year's. We should prepare for smaller plants some months ahead of forcing time. say in the preceding April or August, by lifting them and planting in small pots, tubs or boxes as can conveniently contain their roots, and we should encourage them to root well before winter sets in. Keep them out of doors and plunged till after the leaves drop off; then either mulch them where they are or bring them into a pit, shed or cool cellar, where there shall be no fear of their getting dry, or of having the roots fastened in by frost. Introduce them into the green-house in succession; into a cool green-house at first for a few weeks, then as they begin to start, into a warmer one. From the time they are brought into the green-house till the flowers begin to open give a sprinkling overhead twice a day with tepid water. When they have done blooming, if worth keeping over for another time, remove them to a cool house and thus gradually harden them off, then plant them out in the garden in May, and give them two years' rest. Shrubs to be forced for their cut flowers only should consist of such kinds as have flowers that look well and keep well after being cut. Among these are _Deutzia gracilis_, common Lilacs of various colors, _Staphyllea Colchica_, _Spiræa Cantonensis_ (_Reevesii_) single and double, the Guelder Rose, the Japanese Snowball and _Azalea mollis_. To these may be added some of the lovely double-flowering and Chinese apples, whose snowy or crimson-tinted buds and leafy twigs are very pretty. The several double-flowered forms of _Prunus triloba_ are also desirable, but a healthy stock is hard to get. _Andromeda floribunda_ and _A. Japonica_ set their flower buds the previous summer for the next year's flowers, and are, therefore, like the Laurestinus, easily forced into bloom after New Year's. Hardy and half-hardy Rhododendrons with very little forcing may be had in bloom from March. In addition to the above, for conservatory decoration we may introduce all manner of hardy shrubs. Double flowering peach and cherry trees are easily forced and showy while they last. Clumps of _Pyrus arbutifolia_ can easily be had in bloom in March, when their abundance of deep green leaves is an additional charm to their profusion of hawthorn-like flowers. The Chinese _Xanthoceras_ is extremely copious and showy, but of brief duration and ill-fitted for cutting. Bushes of yellow Broom and double-flowering golden Furze can easily be had after January. _Jasminum nudiflorum_ may be had in bloom from November till April, and Forsythia from January. They look well when trained up to pillars. The early-flowering Clematises may be used to capital advantage in the same way, from February onward. Although the Mahonias flower well, their foliage at blooming time is not always comely. Out-of-doors the American Red-bud makes a handsomer tree than does the Japanese one; but the latter is preferable for green-house work, as the flowers are bright and the smallest plants bloom. The Chinese Wistaria blooms as well in the green-house as it does outside; indeed, if we introduce some branches of an out-door plant into the green-house, we can have it in bloom two months ahead of the balance of the vine still left out-of-doors. Hereabout we grow Wistarias as standards, and they bloom magnificently. What a sight a big standard wistaria in the green-house in February would be! Among other shrubs may be mentioned Shadbush, African Tamarix, Daphne of sorts and Exochorda. We have also a good many barely hardy plants that may be wintered well in a cellar or cold pit, and forced into bloom in early spring. Among these are Japanese Privet, Pittosporum, Raphiolepis, Hydrangeas and the like. And for conservatory decoration we can also use with excellent advantage some of our fine-leaved shrubs, for instance our lovely Japanese Maples and variegated Box Elder. _Wm. Falconer._ Glen Cove, N. Y. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Iris tenuis.--_See page 6._] Plant Notes. A HALF-HARDY BEGONIA.--When botanizing last September upon the Cordilleras of North Mexico some two hundred miles south of the United States Boundary, I found growing in black mould of shaded ledges--even in the thin humus of mossy rocks--at an elevation of 7,000 to 8,000 feet, a plant of striking beauty, which Mr. Sereno Watson identifies as _Begonia gracilis_, _HBK._, _var. Martiana_, _A. DC_. From a small tuberous root it sends up to a height of one to two feet a single crimson-tinted stem, which terminates in a long raceme of scarlet flowers, large for the genus and long enduring. The plant is still further embellished by clusters of Scarlet gemmæ in the axils of its leaves. Mr. Watson writes: "It was in cultivation fifty years and more ago, but has probably been long ago lost. It appears to be the most northern species of the genus, and should be the most hardy." Certainly the earth freezes and snows fall in the high region, where it is at home. NORTHERN LIMIT OF THE DAHLIA.--In the same district, and at the same elevation, I met with a purple flowered variety of _Dahlia coccinea_, _Cav._ It was growing in patches under oaks and pines in thin dry soil of summits of hills. In such exposed situations the roots must be subjected to some frost, as much certainly as under a light covering of leaves in a northern garden. The Dahlia has not before been reported, as I believe, from a latitude nearly so high. _C. G. Pringle._ CEANOTHUS is a North American genus, represented in the Eastern States by New Jersey Tea, and Red Root (_C. Americanus_ and _C. ovalus_), and in the West and South-west by some thirty additional species. Several of these Pacific Coast species are quite handsome and well worthy of cultivation where they will thrive. Some of the more interesting of them are figured in different volumes of the _Botanical Magazine_, from plants grown at Kew, and I believe that the genus is held in considerable repute by French gardeners. In a collection of plants made in Southern Oregon, last spring, by Mr. Thomas Howell, several specimens of _Ceanothus_ occur which are pretty clearly hybrids between _C. cuneatus_ and _C. prostratus_, two common species of the region. Some have the spreading habit of the latter, their flowers are of the bright blue color characteristic of that species, and borne on slender blue pedicels, in an umbel-like cluster. But while many of their leaves have the abrupt three-toothed apex of _C. prostratus_, all gradations can be found from this form to the spatulate, toothless leaves of _C. cuneatus_. Other specimens have the more rigid habit of the latter species, and their flowers are white or nearly so, on shorter pale pedicels, in usually smaller and denser clusters. On these plants the leaves are commonly those of _C. cuneatus_, but they pass into the truncated and toothed form proper to _C. prostratus_. According to Focke (_Pflanzenmischlinge_, 1881, p. 99), the French cross one or more of the blue-flowered Pacific Coast species on the hardier New Jersey Tea, a practice that may perhaps be worthy of trial by American gardeners. Have any of the readers of GARDEN AND FOREST ever met with spontaneous hybrids? _W. Trelease._ WIRE NETTING FOR TREE GUARDS.--On some of the street trees of Washington heavy galvanized wire netting is used to protect the bark from injury by horses. It is the same material that is used for enclosing poultry yards. It comes in strips five or six feet wide, and may be cut to any length required by the size of the tree. The edges are held in place by bending together the cut ends of the wires, and the whole is sustained by staples over the heavy wires at the top and bottom. This guard appears to be an effective protection and is less unsightly than any other of which I know, in fact it can hardly be distinguished at the distance of a few rods. It is certainly an improvement on the plan of white-washing the trunks, which has been extensively practiced here since the old guards were removed. _A. A. Crozier._ Artificial Water. One of the most difficult parts of a landscape gardener's work is the treatment of what our grandfathers called "pieces of water" in scenes where a purely natural effect is desired. The task is especially hard when the stream, pond or lake has been artificially formed; for then Nature's processes must be simulated not only in the planting but in the shaping of the shores. Our illustration partially reveals a successful effort of this sort--a pond on a country-seat near Boston. It was formed by excavating a piece of swamp and damming a small stream which flowed through it. In the distance towards the right the land lies low by the water and gradually rises as it recedes. Opposite us it forms little wooded promontories with grassy stretches between. Where we stand it is higher, and beyond the limits of the picture to the left it forms a high, steep bank rising to the lawn, on the further side of which stands the house. The base of these elevated banks and the promontories opposite are planted with thick masses of rhododendrons, which flourish superbly in the moist, peaty soil, protected, as they are, from drying winds by the trees and high ground. Near the low meadow a long stretch of shore is occupied by thickets of hardy azaleas. Beautiful at all seasons, the pond is most beautiful in June, when the rhododendrons are ablaze with crimson and purple and white, and when the yellow of the azalea-beds--discreetly separated from the rhododendrons by a great clump of low-growing willows--finds delicate continuation in the buttercups which fringe the daisied meadow. The lifted banks then afford particularly fortunate points of view; for as we look down upon the rhododendrons, we see the opposite shore and the water with its rich reflected colors as over the edge of a splendid frame. No accent of artificiality disturbs the eye despite the unwonted profusion of bloom and variety of color. All the plants are suited to their place and in harmony with each other; and all the contours of the shore are gently modulated and softly connected with the water by luxuriant growths of water plants. The witness of the eye alone would persuade us that Nature unassisted had achieved the whole result. But beauty of so suave and perfect a sort as this is never a natural product. Nature's beauty is wilder if only because it includes traces of mutation and decay which here are carefully effaced. Nature suggests the ideal beauty, and the artist realizes it by faithfully working out her suggestions. [Illustration: A Piece of Artificial Water.] Some New Roses. The following list comprises most of the newer Roses that have been on trial to any extent in and about Philadelphia during the present winter: PURITAN (H. T.) is one of Mr. Henry Bennett's seedlings, and perhaps excites more interest than any other. It is a cross between Mabel Morrison and Devoniensis, creamy white in color and a perpetual bloomer. Its flowers have not opened satisfactorily this winter. The general opinion seems to be that it requires more heat than is needed for other forcing varieties. Further trial will be required to establish its merit. METEOR (H. T., BENNETT.)--Some cultivators will not agree with me in classing this among hybrid Teas. In its manner of growth it resembles some Tea Roses, but its coloring and scanty production of buds in winter are indications that there is Hybrid Remontant blood in it. It retains its crimson color after being cut longer than any Rose we have, and rarely shows a tendency to become purple with age, as other varieties of this color are apt to do. For summer blooming under glass it will prove satisfactory. In winter its coloring is a rich velvety crimson, but as the sun gets stronger it assumes a more lively shade. MRS. JOHN LAING (H. R., BENNETT,) is a seedling from Francois Michelon, which it somewhat resembles in habit of growth and color of flower. It is a free bloomer out-of-doors in summer and forces readily in winter. Blooms of it have been offered for sale in the stores here since the first week in December. It is a soft shade of pink in color, with a delicate lilac tint. It promises to become a general favorite, as in addition to the qualities referred to, it is a free autumnal bloomer outside. For forcing it will be tried extensively next winter. PRINCESS BEATRICE (T., BENNETT,) was distributed for the first time in this country last autumn, but has so far been a disappointment in this city. But some lots arrived from Europe too late and misfortunes befell others, so that the trial can hardly be counted decisive, and we should not hastily condemn it. Some have admired it for its resemblance, in form of flower, to a Madame Cuisin, but its color is not just what we need. In shade it somewhat resembles Sunset, but is not so effective. It may, however, improve under cultivation, as some other Roses have done; so far as I know it has not been tried out-of-doors. PAPA GONTIER (H. B., NABONNAUD.)--This, though not properly a new rose, is on trial for the first time in this city. It has become a great favorite with growers, retailers and purchasers. In habit it is robust and free blooming, and in coloring, though similar to Bon Silene, is much deeper or darker. There seems to be a doubt in some quarters as to whether it blooms as freely as Bon Silene; personally, I think there is not much difference between the two. Gontier is a good Rose for outdoor planting. _Edwin Lonsdale._ Two Ferns and their Treatment. ADIANTUM FARLEYENSE.--This beautiful Maidenhair is supposed to be a subfertile, plumose form of _A. tenerum_, which much resembles it, especially in a young state. For decorative purposes it is almost unrivaled, whether used in pots or for trimming baskets of flowers or bouquets. It prefers a warm, moist house and delights in abundant water. We find it does best when potted firmly in a compost of two parts loam to one of peat, and with a good sprinkling of sifted coal ashes. In this compost it grows very strong, the fronds attaining a deeper green and lasting longer than when grown in peat. When the pots are filled with roots give weak liquid manure occasionally. This fern is propagated by dividing the roots and potting in small pots, which should be placed in the warmest house, where they soon make fine plants. Where it is grown expressly for cut fronds the best plan is to plant it out on a bench in about six inches of soil, taking care to give it plenty of water and heat, and it will grow like a weed. ACTINIOPTERIS RADIATA.--A charming little fern standing in a genus by itself. In form it resembles a miniature fan palm, growing about six inches in height. It is generally distributed throughout the East Indies. In cultivation it is generally looked upon as poor grower, but with us it grows as freely as any fern we have. We grow a lot to mix in with Orchids, as they do not crowd at all. We pot in a compost of equal parts loam and peat with a few ashes to keep it open, and grow in the warmest house, giving at all times abundance of water both at root and overhead. It grows very freely from spores, and will make good specimens in less than a year. It is an excellent Fern for small baskets. _F. Goldring._ Timely Hints About Bulbs. Spring flowering bulbs in-doors, such as the Dutch Hyacinths, Tulips and the many varieties of Narcissus, should now be coming rapidly into bloom. Some care is required to get well developed specimens. When first brought in from cold frames or wherever they have been stored to make roots, do not expose them either to direct sunlight or excessive heat. A temperature of not more than fifty-five degrees at night is warm enough for the first ten days, and afterwards, if they show signs of vigorous growth and are required for any particular occasion, they may be kept ten degrees warmer. It is more important that they be not exposed to too much light than to too much heat. Half the short stemmed Tulips, dumpy Hyacinths and blind Narcissus we see in the green-houses and windows of amateurs are the result of excessive light when first brought into warm quarters. Where it is not possible to shade bulbs without interfering with other plants a simple and effective plan is to make funnels of paper large enough to stand inside each pot and six inches high. These may be left on the pots night and day from the time the plants are brought in until the flower spike has grown above the foliage; indeed, some of the very finest Hyacinths cannot be had in perfection without some such treatment. Bulbous plants should never suffer for water when growing rapidly, yet on the other hand, they are easily ruined if allowed to become sodden. When in flower a rather dry and cool temperature will preserve them the longest. Of bulbs which flower in the summer and fall, Gloxinias and tuberous rooted Begonias are great favorites and easily managed. For early summer a few of each should be started at once--using sandy, friable soil. Six-inch pots, well drained, are large enough for the very largest bulbs, while for smaller even three-inch pots will answer. In a green-house there is no difficulty in finding just the place to start them. It must be snug, rather shady and not too warm. They can be well cared for, however, in a hot-bed or even a window, but some experience is necessary to make a success. Lilies, in pots, whether _L. candidum_ or _L. longiflorum_ that are desired to be in flower by Easter, should now receive every attention--their condition should be that the flower buds can be easily felt in the leaf heads. A temperature of fifty-five to sixty-five at night should be maintained, giving abundance of air on bright sunny days to keep them stocky. Green fly is very troublesome at this stage, and nothing is more certain to destroy this pest than to dip the plants in tobacco water which, to be effective, should be the color of strong tea. Occasional waterings of weak liquid manure will be of considerable help if the pots are full of roots. _J. Thorpe._ Entomology. Arsenical Poisons in the Orchard. As is well known, about fifty per cent. of the possible apple crop in the Western states is sacrificed each year to the codling moth, except in sections where orchardists combine to apply bands of straw around the trunks. But as is equally well known this is rather a troublesome remedy. At all events, in Illinois, Professor Forbes, in a bulletin lately issued from the office of the State Entomologist of Illinois, claims that the farmers of that state suffer an annual loss from the attacks of this single kind of insect of some two and three-quarters millions of dollars. As the results of two years' experiments in spraying the trees with a solution of Paris green, only once or twice in early spring, before the young apples had drooped upon their stems, there was a saving of about seventy-five per cent. of the apples. The Paris green mixture consisted of three-fourths of an ounce of the powder by weight, of a strength to contain 15.4 per cent. of metallic arsenic, simply stirred up in two and a half gallons of water. The tree was thoroughly sprayed with a hand force-pump, and with the deflector spray and solid jet-hose nozzle, manufactured in Lowell, Mass. The fluid was thrown in a fine mist-like spray, applied until the leaves began to drip. The trees were sprayed in May and early in June while the apples were still very small. It seems to be of little use to employ this remedy later in the season, when later broods of the moth appear, since the poison takes effect only in case it reaches the surface of the apple between the lobes of the calyx, and it can only reach this place when the apple is very small and stands upright on its stem, It should be added that spraying "after the apples have begun to hang downward is unquestionably dangerous," since even heavy winds and violent rains are not sufficient to remove the poison from the fruit at this season. At the New York Experimental station last year a certain number of trees were sprayed three times with Paris green with the result that sixty-nine per cent. of the apples were saved. It also seems that last year about half the damage that might have been done by the Plum weevil or curculio was prevented by the use of Paris green, which should be sprayed on the trees both early in the season, while the fruit is small, as well as later. The cost of this Paris green application, when made on a large scale, with suitable apparatus, only once or twice a year, must, says Mr. Forbes, fall below an average of ten cents a tree. The use of solutions of Paris green or of London purple in water, applied by spraying machines such as were invented and described in the reports of the national Department of Agriculture by the U. S. Entomologist and his assistants, have effected a revolution in remedies against orchard and forest insects. We expect to see them, in careful hands, tried with equal success in shrubberies, lawns and flower gardens. _A. S. Packard._ The Forest. The White Pine in Europe. The White Pine was among the very first American trees which came to Europe, being planted in the year 1705 by Lord Weymouth on his grounds in Chelsea. From that date, the tree has been cultivated in Europe under the name of Weymouth Pine; in some mountain districts of northern Bavaria, where it has become a real forest tree, it is called Strobe, after the Latin name _Pinus strobus_. After general cultivation as an ornamental tree in parks this Pine began to be used in the forests on account of its hardiness and rapid growth, and it is now not only scattered through most of the forests of Europe, but covers in Germany alone an area of some 300 acres in a dense, pure forest. Some of these are groves 120 years old, and they yield a large proportion of the seed demanded by the increasing cultivation of the tree in Europe. The White Pine has proved so valuable as a forest tree that it has partly overcome the prejudices which every foreign tree has to fight against. The tree is perfectly hardy, is not injured by long and severe freezing in winter, nor by untimely frosts in spring or autumn, which sometimes do great harm to native trees in Europe. On account of the softness of the leaves and the bark, it is much damaged by the nibbling of deer, but it heals quickly and throws up a new leader. The young plant can endure being partly shaded by other trees far better than any other Pine tree, and even seems to enjoy being closely surrounded, a quality that makes it valuable for filling up in young forests where the native trees, on account of their slow growth, could not be brought up at all. The White Pine is not so easily broken by heavy snowfall as the Scotch Pine, on account of the greater elasticity of its wood. The great abundance of soft needles falling from it every year better fits it for improving a worn-out soil than any European Pine, therefore the tree has been tried with success as a nurse for the ground in forest plantations of Oak, when the latter begin to be thinned out by nature, and grass is growing underneath them. And finally, all observations agree that the White Pine is a faster growing tree than any native Conifer in Europe, except, perhaps, the Larch. The exact facts about that point, taken from investigations on good soil in various parts of Germany, are as follows: Years. Height. Annual Growth During Last Decade. The White Pine at 20 reaches 7.5 meters. 37 centimeters " 30 " 12.5 " 50 " " 40 " 18.5 " 60 " " 50 " 22.5 " 40 " " 60 " 26.5 " 40 " " 70 " 28.5 " 20 " " 80 " 30.0 " 15 " " 90 " 32.0 " 20 " For comparison I add here the average growth on good soil, of the Scotch Pine, one of the most valuable and widely distributed timber trees of Europe. Years. Height. Annual Growth During Last Decade. The Scotch Pine at 20 reaches 7.3 meters. 36.5 centimeters " 30 " 11.6 " 43.0 " " 40 " 15.7 " 41.0 " " 50 " 19.4 " 37.0 " " 60 " 22.1 " 27.0 " " 70 " 24.0 " 22.0 " " 80 " 26.0 " 17.0 " " 90 " 27.5 " 15.0 " " 100 " 28.5 " 10.0 " " 120 " 30.0 " 7.5 " That is, the White Pine is ahead of its relative during its entire life and attains at 80 years a height which the Scotch Pine only reaches in 120 years. It appears then that the whole volume of wood formed within a certain period by an acre of White Pine forest is greater than that yielded by a forest of Scotch Pine within the same period. As far as reliable researches show, a forest of White Pine when seventy years old gives an annual increment of 3 cords of wood per acre. On the same area a forest of Scotch Pine increases every year by 2.4 cords on the best soil, 2 cords on medium soil, and 1.5 cords on poor soil. But notwithstanding the splendid qualities which distinguish the White Pine as a forest tree its wood has never been looked upon with favor in Europe. Many of those who are cultivating the White Pine for business seem to expect that they will raise a heavy and durable wood. These are the qualities prized in their own timber trees, and they seem to think that the White Pine must be so highly prized at home for the same qualities, when in fact it is the lightness and softness of the wood which are considered in America. It would seem also that some European planters believe that a Pine tree exists which will yield more and at the same time heavier wood than any other tree on the same area. It is a general rule that the amount of woody substance annually formed on the same soil does not vary in any great degree with the different kinds of trees. For instance, if we have good soil we may raise 2,200 lbs. per acre of woody substance every year, from almost any kind of timber tree. If we plant a tree forming a wood of low specific gravity, we get a large volume of wood, and this is the case with the White Pine. If we plant on the same ground an Oak tree, we will get small volume of wood, but the weight of the woody substance will be the same, that is, 2,200 pounds of absolutely dried wood per acre. It is remarkable that there is hardly any difference in the specific gravity of the wood of the White Pine grown in Europe and in its native country. I collected in Central Wisconsin wood-sections of a tall tree and compared the specific gravity with the wood of a full-grown tree of White Pine from a Bavarian forest. The average specific gravity of the Bavarian tree was 38.3. The average specific gravity of the American tree was 38.9. In both trees the specific gravity slightly increased from the base to the top. Professor Sargent gives 38 as the result of his numerous and careful investigations. I was much surprised that the thickness of the sap-wood varied much in favor of the Bavarian tree. The sap-wood measured in thickness: Of the Bavarian tree. Of the American tree. At the base 2.7 centimeters 9 centimeters. In the middle .4 " 6 " Within the crown .3 " 4 " I am inclined to believe that on account of the generally drier climate of America a greater amount of water, and, therefore, of water-conducting sap-wood, is necessary to keep the balance between the evaporation and transportation of the water. The wood of the White Pine is certainly better fitted for many purposes than any tree with which nature has provided Europe, and yet one can hardly expect it to easily overcome fixed habits and prejudices. It will devolve upon the more intelligent proprietors of wood-land in Europe to begin with the plantation of the White Pine on a large scale. No Conifer in Europe can be cultivated with so little care and risk as the White Pine; the frost does not injure the young plant, and the numerous insects invading the European trees during their whole life-time inflict but little harm. Subterranean parasites are thinning out the plantations to some extent, but in no dangerous way. _H. Mayr._ Tokio, Japan. ABIES AMABILIS.--Professor John Macoun detected this species during the past summer upon many of the mountains of Vancouver's Island where with _Tsuga Pattoniana_ it is common above 3,000 feet over the sea level. The northern distribution of this species as well as some other British Columbia trees is still a matter of conjecture. It has not been noticed north of the Fraser River, but it is not improbable that _Abies amabilis_ will be found to extend far to the north along some of the mountain ranges of the north-west coast. European Larch in Massachusetts. In 1876 the Trustees of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture offered a premium for the best plantations of not less than five acres of European Larch. The conditions of the competition were that not less than 2,700 trees should be planted to the acre, and that only poor, worn-out land, or that unfit for agricultural purposes, be used in these plantations. The prize was to be awarded at the end of ten years. The committee appointed to award the prize were C. S. Sargent and John Lowell. The ten years having expired, this Committee lately made the following report: Mr. James Lawrence, of Groton, and Mr. J. D. W. French, of North Andover, made plantations during the spring of 1877 in competition for this prize. Mr. Lawrence, however, at the end of one year withdrew from the contest, and Mr. French is the only competitor. Your Committee have visited his plantation at different times during the past ten years, and have now made their final inspection. The plantation occupies a steep slope facing the South and covered with a thin coating of gravelly loam largely mixed towards the bottom of the hill with light sand. This field in 1877 was a fair sample of much of the hillside pasture land of the eastern part of the State. It had been early cleared, no doubt, of trees, and the light surface soil practically exhausted by cultivation. It was then used as a pasture, producing nothing but the scantiest growth of native Grasses and Sedges with a few stunted Pitch Pines. Land of this character has no value for tillage, and has practically little value for pasturage. Upon five acres of this land Mr. French planted fifteen thousand European Larch. The trees were one foot high, and were set in the sod four feet apart each way, except along the boundary of the field, where the plantation was made somewhat thicker. The cost of the plantation, as furnished by Mr. French, has been as follows: 15,000 Larch (imported), $108 50 Fencing, 20 81 Surveying, 6 00 Labor, 104 69 ------- Total, $240 00 This, with compound interest at five per cent. for ten years, makes the entire cost to date of the plantation of five acres, $390.90. The Trees for several years grew slowly and not very satisfactorily. Several lost their leaders, and in various parts of the plantation small blocks failed entirely. The trees, however, have greatly improved during the last four years, and the entire surface of the ground is now, with one or two insignificant exceptions, sufficiently covered. There appear to be from 10,000 to 12,000 larch trees now growing on the five acres. The largest tree measured is 25 feet high, with a trunk 26 inches in circumference at the ground, There are several specimens of this size at least, and it is believed that all the trees, including many which have not yet commenced to grow rapidly or which have been overcrowded and stunted by their more vigorous neighbors, will average 12 feet in height, with trunks 10 to 12 inches in circumference at the ground. Many individuals have increased over four feet in height during the present year. It is interesting to note as an indication of what Massachusetts soil of poor quality is capable of producing, that various native trees have appeared spontaneously in the plantation since animals were excluded from this field. Among these are White Pines 6 to 8 feet high, Pitch Pines 14 feet high, a White Oak 15 feet high and a Gray Birch 17 feet high. The Trustees offered this prize in the belief that it would cause a plantation to be made capable of demonstrating that unproductive lands in this State could be cheaply covered with trees, and the result of Mr. French's experiment seems to be conclusive in this respect. It has shown that the European Larch can be grown rapidly and cheaply in this climate upon very poor soil, but it seems to us to have failed to show that this tree has advantages for general economic planting in this State which are not possessed in an equal degree by some of our native trees. Land which will produce a crop of Larch will produce in the same time at least a crop of white pine. There can be no comparison in the value of these two trees in Massachusetts. The White Pine is more easily transplanted than the Larch, it grows with equal and perhaps greater rapidity, and it produces material for which there is an assured and increasing demand. The White Pine, moreover, has so far escaped serious attacks of insects and dangerous fungoid diseases which now threaten to exterminate in different parts of Europe extensive plantations of Larch. Your Committee find that Mr. French has complied with all the requirements of the competition: they recommend that the premium of one thousand dollars be paid to him. Answers to Correspondents. When the woods are cut clean in Southern New Hampshire White Pine comes in very, very thickly. Is it best to thin out the growth or allow the trees to crowd and shade the feebler ones slowly to death? J. D. L. It is better to thin such over-crowded seedlings early, if serviceable timber is wanted in the shortest time. The statement that close growth is needed to produce long, clean timber, needs some limitation. No plant can develop satisfactorily without sufficient light, air and feeding room. When trees are too thickly crowded the vigor of every one is impaired, and the process of establishing supremacy of individuals is prolonged, to the detriment even of those which are ultimately victorious. The length is drawn out disproportionately to the diameter, and all the trees remain weak. Experience has proved that plantations where space is given for proper growth in their earlier years, yield more and better wood than do Nature's dense sowings. Two records are added in confirmation of this statement, and many others could be given: 1. A pine plantation of twelve acres was made, one half by sowing, the other half by planting at proper distances. In twenty-four years the first section had yielded, including the material obtained in thinnings, 1,998 cubic feet, and the latter, 3,495 cubic feet of wood. The thinnings had been made, when appearing necessary, at ten, fifteen and eighteen years in the planted section, yielding altogether ten and three-quarter cords of round firewood and seven cords of brush; and at eight, ten and twenty years in the sowed section, with a yield of only three and one-fifth cords of round firewood at the last thinning and seven and four-fifths cords of brush wood. 2. A spruce growth seeded after thirty-three years was still so dense as to be impenetrable, with scarcely any increase, and the trees were covered with lichens. It was then thinned out when thirty-five, and again when forty-two years old. The appearance greatly improved, and the accretion in seven years after thinning showed 160 per cent. increase, or more than 26 per cent. every year. The density of growth which will give the best results in all directions depends upon the kind of timber and soil conditions. --_B. E. Fernow._ Washington, D. C. Book Reviews. Gray's Elements of Botany. Fifty-one years ago, Asa Gray, then only twenty-six years of age, published a treatise on botany adapted to the use of schools and colleges. It was entitled "The Elements of Botany." Its method of arrangement was so admirably adapted to its purpose, and the treatment of all the subjects so mature and thorough, that the work served as a model for a large work which soon followed,--the well-known Botanical Text-book, and the same general plan has been followed in all the editions of the latter treatise. About twenty-five years after the appearance of the Elements, Dr. Gray prepared a more elementary work for the use of schools, since the Text-book had become rather too advanced and exhaustive for convenient use. This work was the "Lessons in Botany," a book which has been a great aid throughout the country, in introducing students to a knowledge of the principles of the science. Without referring to other educational works prepared by Dr. Gray, such as "How Plants Grow," etc., it suffices now to say that for two or three years, he had been convinced that there was need of a hand-book, different in essential particulars from any of its predecessors. When we remember that all of these had been very successful from an educational point of view, as well as from the more exacting one of the publishers, we can understand how strong must have been the motive which impelled the venerable but still active botanist to give a portion of his fast-flying time to the preparation of another elementary work. In answer to remonstrances from those who believed that the remnant of his days should be wholly given to the completion of the "Synoptical Flora," he was wont to say pleasantly, "Oh, I give only my _evenings_ to the 'Elements.'" And, so, after a day's work, in which he had utilized every available moment of sunlight, he would turn with the fresh alertness which has ever characterized every motion and every thought, to the preparation of what he called fondly, his "legacy" to young botanists. That precious legacy we have now before us. In form it is much like the Lessons, but more compact and yet much more comprehensive. Its conciseness of expression is a study in itself. To give it the highest praise, it may be said to be French in its clearness and terseness. Not a word is wasted: hence, the author has been able to touch lightly and still with firmness every important line in this sketch of the principles of botany. This work, in the words of its author, "is intended to ground beginners in Structural Botany and the principles of vegetable life, mainly as concerns Flowering or Phanerogamous plants, with which botanical instruction should always begin; also to be a companion and interpreter to the Manuals and Floras by which the student threads his flowery way to a clear knowledge of the surrounding vegetable creation. Such a book, like a grammar, must needs abound in technical words, which thus arrayed may seem formidable; nevertheless, if rightly apprehended, this treatise should teach that the study of botany is not the learning of names and terms, but the acquisition of knowledge and ideas. No effort should be made to commit technical terms to memory. Any term used in describing a plant or explaining its structure can be looked up when it is wanted, and that should suffice. On the other hand, plans of structure, types, adaptations, and modifications, once understood, are not readily forgotten; and they give meaning and interest to the technical terms used in explaining them." The specific directions given for collecting plants, for preparing herbarium specimens, and for investigating the structure of plants make this treatise of great use to those who are obliged to study without a teacher. The very extensive glossary makes the work of value not only to this class of students, but to those, as well, whose pursuits are directed in our schools. The work fills, in short, the very place which Dr. Gray designed it should. _G. L. Goodale._ _The Kansas Forest Trees Identified by Leaves and Fruit_, by W. A. Kellerman, Ph.D., and Mrs. W. A. Kellerman (Manhattan, Kansas). This octavo pamphlet of only a dozen pages contains a convenient artificial key for the rapid determination of seventy-five species of trees. By the use of obvious characters the authors have made the work of identification comparatively easy in nearly every instance, and even in the few doubtful cases, the student will not be allowed to go far astray. The little hand-book ought to be found of use even beyond the limits of the State for which it was designed. _G. L. Goodale._ Public Works. THE FALLS OF MINNEHAHA.--A tract of fifty acres, beautifully located on the Mississippi, opposite the mouth of the Minnehaha, has been acquired by the City of St. Paul, and land will most probably be secured for a drive of several miles along the river. The bank here is more than 100 feet high, often precipitous, clothed with a rich growth of primeval forest, shrubbery and vines. It is hoped that Minneapolis may secure the land immediately opposite, including the Falls of Minnehaha and the valley of the stream to the great river. In this event a great park could be made between the two cities, easily reached from the best part of both, with the Mississippi flowing through it and the Falls as one of its features. This, in connection with the park so beautifully situated on Lake Como, three miles from St. Paul, and the neat parks of Minneapolis and its superbly kept system of lake shore drives, would soon be an object worthy of the civic pride of these enterprising and friendly rivals. A PARK FOR WILMINGTON, DEL.--After many delays and defeats the people of this city have secured a tract of more than 100 acres, mostly of fine rocky woodland, with the classic Brandywine flowing through it, and all within the city limits, together with two smaller tracts, one a high wooded slope, the other lying on tide water, and both convenient to those parts of the city inhabited by workingmen and their families. A topographical survey of these park lands is now in progress as preparation for a general plan of improvement. Of the "Brandywine Glen" Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted once wrote: "It is a passage of natural scenery which, to a larger city, would be of rare value--so rare and desirable that in a number of cities several million dollars have been willingly spent to obtain results of which the best that can said is, that they somewhat distantly approach, in character and expression, such scenery as the people of Wilmington have provided for them without expense." Flower Market. Retail Prices in the Flower Market. NEW YORK, _February 23d._ There is a glut of flowers, particularly of tea roses of an indifferent quality. Bon Silene buds cost from 75 cts. to $1 a dozen, Perle des Jardins, Niphetos, Souvenir d'un Ami, and Papa Gontiers bring $1.50 a dozen. C. Mermets are very fine and from 30 to 35 cts. each. Not more than one in three La France roses is perfect; they bring from 25 cts. to 50 cts. each. Mde. Cuisin and Duke of Connaught are 25 cts. each, Bennets 20 cts. each and Brides 25 cts. each. American Beauties are $1 to $1.50 each, according to the location where they are sold. Puritans cost 75 cts. each, and Jacqueminots 50 cts. Magna Chartas are the most popular of the hybrid roses at present. They, Anna de Diesbach and Mad. Gabriel Luizet bring from $1 to $1.50 each. Mignonette is very plentiful, well grown and of the spiral variety; it brings 75 cts. a dozen spikes retail, very large spikes bring as high as 15 cts. each. Hyacinths, Lilies-of-the-Valley and Tulips bring $1 a dozen. Lilacs cost 25 cts. for a spray of one or two tassels. Violets are abundant, mostly of the Marie Louise variety, and bring $2 a hundred. Fancy long stem red Carnations cost 75 cts. a dozen; short stem Carnations are 50 cts. a dozen; the dyed Carnations, named "Emerald," are in brisk demand and sell for 15 cts. each. Daffodils are $1 a dozen; those dyed bring 20 cts. each. Finely grown Forget-me-not brought in small quantity to retail dealers sells for 10 cts. a spray. Calla Lilies bring $2 and $3 a dozen, and Longiflorum Lilies $4 a dozen. PHILADELPHIA, _February 23d._ Heavy demands for flowers dropped off short on Ash Wednesday, and decreased each day until Saturday, when the regular orders for loose flowers caused the trade to pick up again. The demand for Orchids is steadily growing; a fair quantity is used at balls and parties, but nothing in comparison to Roses, Violets and Lily-of-the-Valley. Violets have been in greater demand, so far, than for several years. Large quantities of Tulips have been used recently for table decorations, especially the pink varieties, the favorite color for dinners and lunches. The American Beauty Rose, when cut with long stems, and really first class in every other respect, has been in great demand, at the best prices. Md. Gabrielle Luizet is scarce, the local growers not having commenced to cut in quantity; it is frequently asked for. Carnation plateaus in solid colors have been used freely. Lilacs are considered choice and have been in good demand. Retail prices rule as follows: Orchids, from 25 cts. to $1 each; La France, Mermet, Bride and Bennet Roses, $3 per dozen; Jacques, $4 to $5; American Beauty, $4 to $9; Puritan, $4; Anna de Diesbach, $5 to $7.50; Papa Gontier, Sunset, Perle des Jardins and Mad. Cuisin, $1.50; Bon Silene, $1.00; Niphetos, $1 to $1.50. Lily-of-the-Valley, and Roman Hyacinths, bring $1 per dozen; Mignonette, 50 cts., and Freesia the same per dozen; Heliotrope, Pansies, Carnations, and Forget-me-nots, 35 cts. per dozen. Violets bring from $1 to $1.50 per hundred; Lilium Harrisii, $3.00 per dozen; Callas $2 per dozen, and Lilacs $2 per bunch of about eight sprays. Daffodils sell briskly at from $1 to $1.50 per dozen. BOSTON, _February 23d._ The season of Lent is always looked forward to by the florists with anxiety, for the rest from receptions, assemblies and balls cuts off one of the chief outlets for the choicest flowers: a few warm days are sufficient to overstock the market, and prices take a fall. Buyers are learning, however, that at no period of the year can cut flowers be had in such perfection and variety as during February and March, and although not much required for party occasions they are bought for other purposes in increasing quantities every year, so that the advent of Lent does not now produce utter stagnation in the flower trade. In Roses there is at present a large assortment offered. From the modest Bon Silene, and its new competitor, Papa Gontier, up to the magnificent American Beauty and Hybrid Perpetuals, may be found every gradation of color, size and fragrance. Retail prices vary from 75 cts. per dozen for Bon Silenes and $1.50 to $2 for Perles, Niphetos, etc., up to $3 and $4 for the best Mermets, Niels and La France; Hybrids and Jacques of best quality bring from $6 to $9 per dozen. In bulbous flowers a large variety is shown. Lily-of-the-Valley sells for $1.50 per dozen sprays; Narcissus of various kinds, Hyacinths and Tulips for $1 per dozen; Violets, 50 cts. per bunch; Pansies, Mignonette, Heliotrope, Forget-me-not and Calendulas, 50 cts. per doz. Long stemmed Carnations are to be had in great variety at 75 cts. per dozen; Callas 25 cts. each, and Smilax 50 cts. a string. At this season Smilax is at its best, being its time of flowering, and the flowers are deliciously fragrant. Publishers' Note. A photogravure of Mr. A. St. Gaudens's bronze medallion of the late Professor Asa Gray will be published as a supplement to the second number of GARDEN AND FOREST. [Illustration: Advertisement - RARE WATER LILIES] [Illustration: Advertisement - TREES Fruit and Ornamental. ROSES] [Illustration: Advertisement - Sibley's Tested Seed] [Illustration: Advertisement - BARR'S PROVEN SEEDS] [Illustration: Advertisement - SEEDS ROSES PLANTS] [Illustration: Advertisement - BEAUTIFUL TREES For lawn and cemetery planting. These can now be furnished in great variety, from our extensive collection, at reduced prices. We have now on hand a large supply of the following rare BEECHES, all of which have been recently transplanted, and are in consequence abundantly furnished with fine roots:-- PURPLE-LEAVED BEECH. From 6 to 10 feet high; elegant specimens. All were grafted from the beautiful "Rivers' variety," so justly celebrated for the intense blood-red color of its foliage. WEEPING BEECH. From 6 to 10 feet high, suitable for immediate effect, and well supplied with decidedly pendulous branches. CRESTED and FERN-LEAVED BEECHES. We offer a superb stock of these, averaging in height from 5 or 6 to 10 feet, all well rooted and nicely furnished. In EVERGREENS We have now in stock a large supply of AMERICAN, SIBERIAN and GOLDEN ARBOR VITÆS, BALSAM FIRS, HEMLOCKS and NORWAY SPRUCE; good, young, healthy plants, especially desirable for screens and hedges. In SHRUBBERY Our assortment is very complete, embracing many rare and elegant species. Our immense stock of some kinds enables us to accept orders at very low rates. HOOPES, BRO. & THOMAS, Maple Avenue Nurseries, WEST CHESTER, PA.] [Illustration: Advertisement - DREER'S GARDEN CALENDAR] [Illustration: Advertisement - H. W. S. Cleveland, Landscape Gardener] [Illustration: Advertisement - CHARLES ELIOTT, Landscape Gardener] [Illustration: Advertisement - BAKER'S BREAKFAST COCOA] [Illustration: J. LAING & SONS, The Nurseries, FOREST HILL, LONDON ENGLAND. LEADING SPECIALTIES.] TUBEROUS BEGONIAS. AWARDED FOUR GOLD MEDALS. Gold Medal Collection, quite unrivaled. _Tubers in a dry state_ can be safely transmitted from England until April. PRICES WHEN SELECTION IS LEFT TO US: _Per Doz._ A Collection, Named, our best collection 42s. B " " very choice selection 36s. C " " choice selection 30s. D " " very good selection 24s. E " " good selection 18s. F " " ordinary selection 12s. G " Unnamed best selections to color 21s. H " " very choice selection 18s. J " " best whites, distinct 15s. K " " choice selection 12s. L " " very good, selected to color for bedding 9s. M " " good best do. per 100, 40s., 6s. DOUBLE VARIETIES. PRICES (OUR SELECTION): P Collection, Named, our best collection, each 7s. 6d. and 13s. 6d. _Per Doz._ R " " very choice ditto 63s. S " " choice ditto 48s. T " " very good ditto 42s. W " Unnamed our very choice, selected, distinct 30s. X " " choice, selected in 6 colors 24s. Z " " mixed ditto 18s. BEGONIA SEED. Gold Medal strain from Prize Plants. New Crop. Sealed packets. Choice mixed, from single varieties. 1s. and 2s. 6d. per packet; 5s. and 10s. extra large packets; double varieties, 1s., 2s. 6d. and 5s. per packet; large packets, 10s. Collections--12 named varieties, single, separate, 5s. 6d.; 6 named varieties, separate, 3s. CALADIUM ROOTS. The Finest Collection in the world. Best named varieties, per doz., 30s., 36s., 42s., 48s. and 60s. GLOXINIA ROOTS. In dormant state till March. Our unequalled collection. Self colors, and spotted. Best sorts to name, 12s., 18s., 24s., 30s., 36s. and 42s. per doz. Unnamed, very choice, 6s., 9s. and 12s. per doz. GLOXINIA SEED. Saved from our Prize Plants; erect flowering, drooping, mixed and spotted, separate, per packet, 1s., 2s. 6d. and 5s. OTHER FLOWER SEEDS. The choicest strains of Primula, Cineraria, Calceolaria, Cyclamen, Hollyhock, Dahlia, Pansies, Asters, Stocks, and every other sort. All kinds of Plants, Roses, Fruit Trees, etc., that can be imported from England, safely transmitted in Wardian cases. --> Remittances or London References must always accompany orders. Flower Seeds by post. Orders should reach us soon as possible. --> CATALOGUES GRATIS AND POST FREE. <-- SCRIBNER'S MAGAZINE FOR MARCH CONTAINS BLÜCHER UNHORSED AT LIGNY. Drawn by R. F. Zogbaum. Engraved by Peckwell. THE CAMPAIGN OF WATERLOO. By JOHN C. ROPES. With illustrations by R. F. Zogbaum, and drawings made by W. T. Smedley, especially commissioned by this Magazine to visit the field. A strikingly original history of this greatest of military events. A concluding article, beautifully illustrated, will appear in April. BEGGARS. The third of the series of charming essays by ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON. The New York _Tribune_ says in referring to this series: "The matter is of itself enough to interest every person in the least interested in literature, and the manner of it is such as to make us ask again of him for the hundredth time, as it was asked of Macaulay, 'Where did he get that style?'" A SHELF OF OLD BOOKS.--LEIGH HUNT. By MRS. JAMES T. FIELDS. Illustrated with drawings, portraits and fac-similes. A charming account of some of the literary treasures owned by the late James T. Fields. THE ELECTRIC MOTOR AND ITS APPLICATIONS. By FRANKLIN LEONARD POPE. With 14 illustrations. Mr. Pope describes the great advances recently made by which electricity takes the place of steam, or supplements it in so many directions. THE NIXIE. A Fantastic Story. By MRS. ROBERT LOUIS STEVENSON. MENDELSSOHN'S LETTERS TO MOSCHELES. From the MSS. in the possession of Felix Moscheles. By WILLIAM F. APTHORP. II. (_Conclusion_.) With portraits, reproductions of drawings, musical scores, etc. "The letters are full of interest, especially in their frank observations on musical affairs of Mendelssohn's day."--_Boston Saturday Evening Gazette._ THE DAY OF THE CYCLONE. A stirring Western story, founded on the Grinnell (Ia.) tornado. By OCTAVE THANET. FIRST HARVESTS.--Chapters VII-X. By F. J. STIMSON. (To be continued.) NATURAL SELECTION--A Novelette in Three Parts. By H. C. BUNNER. (_Conclusion_.) With Illustrations. POEMS. By THOMAS NELSON PAGE, C. P. CRANCH, BESSIE CHANDLER, and CHARLES EDWIN MARKHAM. "In its one year of life SCRIBNER'S MAGAZINE has taken not only an exalted and permanent place in periodical literature but one that the world could in no sense spare."--_Boston Traveller._ _A year's subscription, consisting of twelve monthly numbers, gives more than 1,500 pages of the best, most interesting, and valuable literature. More than 700 illustrations from designs by famous artists, reproduced by the best methods._ Price, 25 cents. $3.00 a year. CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, 743-745 Broadway, New York. A Brilliant New Novel by the author of "The Story of Margaret Kent." QUEEN MONEY. 1 vol., 12mo, $1.50. "This is _the strongest story that this author has yet told_. It is essentially a novel of character-painting, more even than 'Margaret Kent' or 'Sons and Daughters'. It is superior to either of these. The merits of 'Queen Money' are very great.... Interesting and valuable and remarkably true to life. It is a book to be quoted, to be thought about, to be talked about." LOOKING BACKWARD. 2000-1887. BY EDWARD BELLAMY, author of "Miss Ludington's Sister." $1.50. "'The Duchess Emilia' and 'She' are not more strange than this story." UNDER THE SOUTHERN CROSS. By M. M. BALLOU, author of "Due North," "Edge-Tools of Speech," etc. $1.50. A journey, in 1887, to Australia, Tasmania, Samoa, New Zealand and other South-Sea Islands. _For sale by all booksellers, or will be sent, post free, on receipt of price by_ TICKNOR & CO., Boston. The Sun FOR 1888. The year 1888 promises to be a year of splendid political development, one and all redounding to the glory and triumph of a UNITED DEMOCRACY. In the Front Line will be found THE SUN, Fresh from its magnificent victory over the combined foes of Democracy in its own State, true to its convictions, truthful before all else, and fearless in the cause of truth and right. THE SUN has six, eight, twelve, and sixteen pages, as occasion requires, and is ahead of all competition in everything that makes a newspaper. Daily, $6 00 Daily and Sunday, 7 50 Sunday, 16 and 20 pages, 1 50 Weekly, 1 00 Address THE SUN, New York. THE UNITED STATES MUTUAL ACCIDENT ASSOCIATION is offering the very best accident insurance at cost. $5,000 for death by accident, $25 weekly indemnity, and liberal indemnity for loss of eye or limb. Costs $13 to $15 per year. Membership Fee, $5. 320 & 322 Broadway, New York. Charles B. Peet, President. James R. Pitcher, Secretary and Gen'l Manager. FOR SPRING PLANTING. Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Japanese Maples, And all other hardy Ornamental Trees, Street Trees, Evergreens, Shrubs, Roses and Vines of selected quality, in quantity, at lowest rates; also, all the best Fruits. Priced Catalogue on application. FRED. W. KELSEY, 208 Broadway, NEW YORK. [Illustration: Advertisement - YOUNG AND ELLIOTT'S COLLECTION OF CHOICE FLOWER SEEDS] SOME WORKS ON NATURAL SCIENCE PUBLISHED BY HENRY HOLT & CO., NEW YORK. PACKARD'S (A. S.) WORKS. GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF INSECTS $5 00 OUTLINES OF COMPARATIVE EMBRIOLOGY 2 50 ZOOLOGY--ADVANCED COURSE 3 00 ZOOLOGY--BRIEFER COURSE 1 40 FIRST LESSONS IN ZOOLOGY 1 00 BESSEY'S (C. E.) WORKS. BOTANY--ADVANCED COURSE $2 75 ESSENTIALS OF BOTANY 1 35 SEDGWICK (W. T.) AND WILSON'S (E. B.) GENERAL BIOLOGY--PART I $2 00 ARTHUR (J. C.) BARNES (C. R.) AND COULTER'S (J. M.) PLANT DISSECTION $1 50 Gray's Botanical Text Books. At once the most complete and the best Botanical series published, COMPRISING: Gray's How Plants Grow, Gray's How Plants Behave, Gray's Lessons in Botany, Gray's Field, Forest and Garden Botany, Gray's School and Field Botany, Apgar's Plant Analysis, Gray's Manual of Botany, Gray's Lessons and Manual, Gray's Structural Botany, Goodale's Physiological Botany, Gray's Structural and Systematic Botany, Coulter's Manual of the Rocky Mountains, The same, Tourist's Edition, Gray and Coulter's Manual of Western Botany, Gray's Synoptical Flora--The Gamopetalæ, Chapman's Flora of Southern U.S. Send for our new descriptive pamphlet of Gray's Botanies, containing PORTRAIT AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH of the Author. Books for Introduction or examination furnished on very favorable terms. IVISON, BLAKEMAN & CO., 753-755 Broadway, New York, AND 149 Wabash Ave., Chicago. A Few Flowers Worthy of General Culture. In presenting to our large and growing company of patrons this, the fifth edition of our book, our dominant feeling is one of extreme pleasure at the generous welcome given our preceding efforts. And we offer this edition in the belief and hope that it may suggest ideas that may be of use, and that may be practically carried out in the making of gardens that must be a source of delight. The wide-spread desire for better and more artistic gardening is evidenced by the articles recently published on the subject by the foremost and ablest magazines. An excellent article on "Old Garden Plants," in Harper's Monthly for December, 1887, encourages us greatly in our efforts to popularize the Hardy Flowers so loved by our grandmothers, together with many fine plants of more recent introduction. As we were the first in this country to gather a fine collection of Hardy Plants from all quarters of the earth, and to offer them when there was but small demand for such, we are pleased indeed that so much attention is now being given to them, feeling that our efforts in behalf of the almost FORGOTTEN HARDY PLANTS, will tend to the creation of gardens more permanent and beautiful, and at much smaller outlay than any that can be made with tender plants. The fifth edition of our book is now ready. It is the largest and best work on hardy plants published in this country, and contains many finely illustrated articles, among which are, "A Talk about Roses;" "Hardy Plants and Modes of Arranging Them;" "The Making of the Hardy Border;" "Some Beauties in their Native Wilds;" "Rhododendrons, Kalmias and Hardy Azaleas;" "Hardy Aquatic Plants;" "Tropical Garden Effects with Hardy Plants;" "A Garden Party;" etc., etc. The book is finely printed on the best of paper, is of real merit and rare beauty, and will be sent post-paid, bound in durable flexible covers for 50 cents, or in leather for 75 cents, but the price paid will be allowed on the first order for plants, making the book really free to our customers. Our descriptive catalogue, containing a complete descriptive list of the best and largest collection of Hardy Plants in America, sent on receipt of 10 cents in stamps. Our special list of valuable, low-priced, well-grown plants mailed upon application. B. A. ELLIOTT CO., No. 56 Sixth Street, Pittsburgh, Pa. New Seeds, Bulbs, Plants, Fruits,--Rare Tropical Fruits. GRAND PALMS FROM SEED. We are now able to offer for the first time, both seed and plants of that King of Ornamental plants, the new FILIFERA PALM. Stately and beautiful beyond description, it is the finest addition that can be made to any collection of plants, and can be grown in any window or garden as easy as a geranium. It is of a compact growth with elegant large leaves, from which hang long thread-like filaments, giving the plant a most odd and beautiful appearance. In fact there is nothing like it in cultivation and good specimens sell for enormous prices. Plants are easily raised as the seed are large, germinate quick and grow rapidly. Per packet 25cts. 5 for $1.00. Year old plants 40cts. each, 3 for $1.00, 7 for $2.00 by mail post paid. Will also mail 3 STORM KING FUCHSIAS for 50cts., 12 EXCELSIOR PEARL TUBEROSES for 85cts., 12 CHOICE MIXED GLADIOLAS for 30cts. Our GIANT EXCELSIOR PANSIES, best in the world, 20cts. per packet. NEW PRIMROSE VERBENA, yellow, a sterling novelty. 25cts. per packet. True PYGMAS ASTER, 50cts. per packet. Our Seed Catalogue for 1888 Is the most elegant ever issued. Illustrated with 10 colored plates, stipple-litho. covers and hundreds of fine engravings. In it is offered a great variety of FLOWER AND VEGETABLE SEEDS, BULBS AND PLANTS OF ALL SORTS, NEW FRUITS AND RARE TROPICAL FRUITS suitable for pot culture, such as dwarf Oranges, Pine Apples, Bananas, Figs, Guavas, Sugar Apple, &c. THIS ELEGANT AND EXPENSIVE CATALOGUE will be sent for only 10cts., which is only a part of its cost to us. Or if you order a packet of Palm seed or anything here offered and ask for Catalogue, it will be sent FREE. SPECIAL OFFER. For 50 cts. we will send Palm, Pansy, and Primrose Verbena Seed and Catalogue. Write at once as this offer may not appear again. To every order we will add an elegant Seed or Bulb novelty free. Address, JOHN LEWIS CHILDS, FLORAL PARK, Queens Co., N. Y. [Illustration: FILIFERA PALM.] CHRYSANTHEMUMS A SPECIALTY. Our catalogue for Spring of 1888, contains a select list of New and Old Chrysanthemums, including: "MRS. ALPHEUS HARDY," the beautiful variety figured in this paper. Also a collection of Fine Flowering Cannas. EDWIN FEWKES & SON, NEWTON HIGHLANDS, MASS. A REAL BONANZA IN SEEDS.--Being one of the largest growers of Flower Seeds in America, I want to induce extensive trial, and for 65cts. will send, postpaid, 32 papers Choice New Seeds, growth of '81, 75 to 500 seeds & mixed colors in each. _New Large & Fancy Pansies, the finest ever offered_, (awarded _Special Prize by Mass. Hort'l Society_) 60 distinct sorts and an endless variety of rich colors, all mixed; _Double Asters; Japan Pinks_, 50 vars. mixed; _Large A. D. Phlox; Double Portulaca; New Godelias; New White Mignonette; New Nivaliana; Everlastings; New Giant Candytuft; V. Stocks; New Marigolds; Mottled, Striped and Fringed Petunias; Verbenas, 300 vars. mixed; New Golden Chrysanthemums; Double Larkspurs; Velvet fl.; New Yellow Mignonette; Double Gaillardia; New Double Dwarf Zinnias; Double Salens; New Double White Aster_, the finest white ever offered; _Butterfly fl.; Double Daisies_ & 8 other choice kinds, amounting to $3.75 at regular rates, but to introduce will send the whole 32 papers for only 65 cts. This is an honest, square offer, but if you doubt it, send 15 cts. or 5 letter stamps, and I will send you 7 sample papers, my choice, but including _Pansies, Asters and Improved Prime Sweet Williams_, 50 vars. mixed. Am sure a trial will prove all claims. New Catalogue _free_. L. W. GOODELL, Pansy Park, Dwight P. O. Mass. The Popular Science Monthly, Edited by W. J. YOUMANS, Is filled with scientific articles by well-known writers on subjects of popular and practical interest. Its range of topics, which is widening with the advance of science, comprises: Domestic and Social Economy. Political Science, or the Functions of Government. Psychology and Education. Relations of Science and Religion. Conditions of Health and Prevention of Disease. Art and Architecture in Practical Life. Race Development. Agriculture and Food-Products. Natural History; Exploration; Discovery, etc. It contains Illustrated Articles, Portraits, Biographical Sketches; records the advance made in every branch of science; is not technical; and is intended for non-scientific as well as scientific readers. No magazine in the world contains papers of a more instructive and at the same time of a more interesting character. Single number, 50 cents. Yearly subscription, $5.00. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, New York. POINTS TO ADVERTISERS. Nothing is sold without pushing, unless it has a monopoly. No two articles can be pushed in exactly the same way. In advertising you want to reach possible _customers_, not merely people. The best mediums for one line of goods may be the worst for another. Advertising should not be visionary, it should not be attended to as a mere pastime. Success means thought, the day of chance successes is nearly over. It costs no more to publish good matter than it does poor. The preparation of an advertisement is as important as the publishing. An advertiser needs an agent, as a client does a lawyer. The agent, however, asks no retainer and saves his customer money. A merchant cannot study advertising all the time--a good agent studies nothing else. The customer's interests are the agent's. If the agent is to succeed, the business done must be successful. The undersigned want business, but not badly enough to handle what is "questionable." They are honest and capable, their customers say, and they give close personal attention to their business. HERBERT BOOTH KING & BROTHER, ADVERTISING AGENTS, 202 Broadway, N. Y. (Copyright, 1887.) Send for Circulars. A VALUABLE WORK UPON AMERICAN TREES, Which should be in every Library in the United States. Fourth Edition, Just Ready. Price Reduced. EMERSON'S TREES AND SHRUBS. THE TREES AND SHRUBS GROWING NATURALLY in the Forests of Massachusetts. By George B. Emerson. Fourth Edition. Superbly illustrated with nearly 150 plates (46 beautiful heliotypes and 100 lithographs), 2 vols. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $10.00 net; formerly $12.00 net. THE SAME, with 36 of the plates beautifully colored. Price, $16.00 net; formerly $20.00 net. Though this work nominally treats of the trees and shrubs of Massachusetts, it is equally applicable to the flora of many other States; indeed all New England and a greater part of the Middle States. In it is described every important tree or shrub that grows naturally in Massachusetts, and in other States of the same latitude, the descriptions being the result of careful personal observation. It is, indeed, a comprehensive and convenient manual for almost every section of the Union. The illustrations of these volumes constitute one of their most important and attractive features. A large number of the plates are by the eminent authority on this subject, ISAAC SPRAGUE. Volume I. treats of the Pines, Oaks, Beeches, Chestnuts, Hazels, Hornbeams, Walnuts, Hickories, Birches, Alders, Plane Trees, Poplars, and Willows. Volume II. treats of the Elms, Ashes, Locusts, Maples, Lindens, Magnolias, Liriodendrons, and the shrubs. LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY, Publishers, 234 Washington Street, Boston. HOUGHTON MIFFLIN & CO'S Beautiful New Books. BIOGRAPHY. Memoir of Ralph Waldo Emerson. By JAMES ELLIOT CABOT. With a fine new steel Portrait. 2 vols. 12mo, gilt top, $3.50. Henry Clay. Vols. XV. and XVI. in series of American Statesmen. By CARL SCHURZ. 2 vols. 16mo, gilt top, $2.50; half morocco, $5.00. Patrick Henry. Vol. XVII. of American Statesmen. By MOSES COIT TYLER. 16mo, gilt top, $1.25. Benjamin Franklin. Vol. X. of American Men of Letters. By JOHN BACH MCMASTER, author of "A History of the People of the United States." With a steel Portrait. 16mo, gilt top, $1.25. NOVELS AND SHORT STORIES. The Second Son. By Mrs. M. O. W. OLIPHANT and THOMAS BAILEY ALDRICH. 12mo, $1.50. The Gates Between. By ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS, author of "The Gates Ajar," "Beyond the Gates," etc. $1.25. Paul Patoff. By F. MARION CRAWFORD, author of "A Roman Singer," etc. Crown 8vo, $1.50. Jack the Fisherman. A powerful and pathetic temperance story. By ELIZABETH STUART PHELPS. 50 cents. Knitters in the Sun. A book of excellent Short Stories. By OCTAVE THANET. 16mo, $1.25. A Princess of Java. A novel of life, character and customs in Java. By Mrs. S. J. HIGGINSON, 12mo, $1.50. The Story of Keedon Bluffs. By CHARLES EGBERT CRADDOCK. A story for Young Folks, and Older Ones. $1.00. A New Book by Bret Harte. "A Phyllis of the Sierras," and "A Drift from Redwood Camp," $1.00. *.* _For sale by all Booksellers. Sent by mail, post-paid, on receipt of price by the Publishers_, HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN & CO., BOSTON. 11 EAST 17TH STREET, NEW YORK. Shady Hill Nurseries, Cambridge, Mass. THE SOURCE OF NOVELTIES IN ORNAMENTALS! The New TREE LILAC (SYRINGA JAPONICA) was first grown commercially, and first sold from SHADY HILL NURSERIES. The Beautiful WEEPING LILAC (SYRINGA LIGUSTRINA PEKINENSIS PENDULA), called by Mr. Samuel B. Parsons, at the American Pomological Convention, at Boston (where it was first exhibited and received a first-class Certificate of Merit from the Mass. Hort. Society), "the most beautiful of all our small Weeping Trees." This also will be sent out in the autumn of this year. Here also is grown, in large numbers, the lovely little flowering tree, called the "TEA ROSE CRAB," the most exquisite of all our flowering trees. Ten thousand of this tree have been ordered by Messrs. V. H. Hallock & Son. Here originated the HARDY PERENNIAL GAILLARDIA (G. Aristata Templeana of Peter Henderson's new catalogue), the most showy and only hardy Gaillardia of this latitude. A full descriptive catalogue, of all the things grown at Shady Hill, will be issued in February, fully illustrated with engravings and containing four full page lithographs, in eight colors, of the four new trees, viz.: "Tea Rose Crab," Tree Lilac, Weeping Lilac, and the Fastigiate Maiden Hair Tree. This will be sent free to all who will send address. F. L. TEMPLE, Cambridge, Mass. JOHN SAUL'S WASHINGTON NURSERIES. Our Catalogue of new, rare and beautiful Plants for 1888 will be ready in February. It contains list of all the most beautiful and rare Green-house and Hot-house Plants in cultivation, as well as all novelties of merit. Well grown and at very low prices. Every Plant lover should have a copy. ORCHIDS.--A very large stock of choice East Indian, American, etc. Also, Catalogues of Roses, Orchids, Seeds, Trees, etc. All free. JOHN SAUL, Washington, D. C. WESTERN N. C. ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES. Descriptive Price List sent on application. Detailed description of the _new_ Rhododendron Vaseyi, with each List. Azalea arborescens is one of our specialties. Correspondence solicited. KELSEY BROS., Highlands Nursery, Highlands, N. C. GARDENERS.--Thorough, practical man, wants situation to take charge of a good private place or institution; 19 years' experience in Europe and U. S.; English, age 35, married, one of family; first-class reference. Address J. S., care H. A. Dreer, 714 Chestnut St. Philadelphia, Pa. GOLD STRAWBERRY, a New Berry of very fine quality, now offered for the first time. Also, JEWELL, JESSIE, BELMONT, and other varieties. Address. P. M. AUGUR & SONS, Originators, MIDDLEFIELD, CONN. NEW PLANTS. Our illustrated Floral Catalogue of new, rare and beautiful Plants, Orchids, Palms, Roses, Bulbs, Vines, Trees, Shrubs and Seeds, also, all the Novelties of the season, NOW READY. Every lover of plants should have a copy. _Prices low._ Send for it; FREE _to all_. PAUL BUTZ & SON. New Castle, Pa. [Illustration: VAUGHAN'S CHICAGO PARKS FLOWERS] You are about to write for a catalogue. No doubt you want the best--the truest descriptions, the clearest notes on plant culture, plainest type and most beautiful illustrations. We have put forth every effort to make ours such. Those who have seen it, say it is. It tells many reasons why you can buy SEEDS and Plants--so many of which are grown on the Western prairies--BETTER AND CHEAPER AT CHICAGO than you can elsewhere. Then why not do so? Our Chicago Parks FLOWERS AND PLANTS; our MARKET VEGETABLES and our GARDENING IMPLEMENTS make up a book that TELLS THE WHOLE STORY, and is a work of art which will please you. Send 15 cents and receive the catalogue and a paper of the above seeds free. J. C. VAUGHAN, 88 STATE STREET, CHICAGO. [Illustration: Japan Snowball] MEEHAN'S NURSERIES Though with the usual assortment of Fruits and Flowers found in all leading Nurseries, we pay especial attention to Ornamental Trees. We have nearly fifty acres of these alone, and well on to a thousand varieties. JAPAN MAPLES . and . JAPAN SNOWBALL --A SPECIALTY-- SEND SIX CENTS IN STAMPS FOR DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE. THOMAS MEEHAN & SON, Germantown, Philadelphia, Pa. ORCHIDS Palms and Fine Tropical Plants. We have the most complete collection of fine plants in the country. Descriptions of specimens and a general catalogue of stock can be had on application either at 409 5th Avenue, New York City, OR AT THE ROSE HILL NURSERIES, NEW ROCHELLE, N. Y. SIEBRECHT & WADLEY. [Illustration: CHRYSANTHEMUMS] [Illustration: LAWSON 1838 POMONA NURSERIES 1888] [Illustration: FARQUHARS' BOSTON SEEDS] [Illustration: THE NEW MODEL--OUR--LATEST AND BEST MOWER.] TRIED BY TIME PRACTICAL people are well pleased with the recent development in horticultural journalism by which the young AMERICAN GARDEN absorbed the old _Gardener's Monthly_, which included the _Horticulturist_, started by Andrew Jackson Downing, over forty-two years ago. I told our local society just what I really think the other day, that you come the nearest my ideal of a Horticultural Monthly for popular circulation of any of the makers of such literature.--CHAS. W. GARFIELD, _Sec'y Michigan Horticultural Society_. The magazine in now clearly the best horticultural publication in America, and soon I trust I can say the best extant.--DR. E. LEWIS STURTEVANT. As much as I regret the melting away of that old landmark, the _Gardener's Monthly_, of which I was a reader since 1867, as glad I feel that the transfer has been made into good hands.--R. MAITRE. _Florist, New Orleans._ I have been a subscriber to the _Gardener's Monthly_ from its first number. I feel sorry that the journal is going away from Philadelphia, but am glad it has gone into such good hands.--CHAS. H. MILLER. _Landscape Gardener, Fairmount Park._ Indispensable to the fruit growers, horticulturists, gardeners and florists (both practical and amateur) of this country.--CYRUS T. FOX, _State Pomologist of Pennsylvania._ It is a lamentable failing of horticultural educators in making the work intricate and apparently hard of execution. Your new cover is in perfect accord with the contents, viz.: It expresses and teaches horticulture pure and simple.--GEO. R. KNAPP, _Rahway, N. J._ Adapted to the wants of Amateurs, Country Dwellers, Practical Gardeners and Fruit Growers, THE AMERICAN GARDEN has stood the test of Time, the great leveler, and receives the endorsements and support of all these classes in every section and many lands. The equal in cost and value of many $2, and $4 publications, this handsome and practical illustrated magazine of horticulture costs only $1.00 a year. In Club with Garden and Forest for $4.50. Address: E. H. LIBBY, Publisher, 751 Broadway, N. Y. The American Florist, A SEMI-MONTHLY JOURNAL For florists, and all who grow plants or flowers under glass. It prints nothing but hard common-sense matter, the experience of practical men who have been there themselves and know what they are talking about. _Liberally Illustrated. Price, $1.00 a Year of 24 Numbers._ SAMPLE COPY 6 CENTS IN STAMPS. American Florist Co., 54 La Salle St., Chicago. [Illustration: FOREST TREES] [Illustration: TREES ROCHESTER - COMMERCIAL NURSERIES.] [Illustration: New and Rare Trees and Shrubs] RED FLOWERING DOGWOOD, EXOCHORDA GRANDIFLORA, WEEPING DOGWOOD, EUONYMUS LATIFOLIUS, WEEPING BEECH, BERBERIS THUNBERGII, PURPLE BEECH, MAGNOLIAS, GOLDEN SYRINGO, CHINESE CYPRESS, NEW CONIFERS, JAPAN QUINCE, YELLOW WOOD, HYDRANGEAS, JAPAN GINGKO JAPANESE MAPLES, SPIREAS, GOLDEN -<JAPANESE UMBRELLA AND SUNRAY PINES>- GOLDEN OAK. ALDER. -------------------------------------------- --> New and Rare Trees and Shrubs, <-- -------------------------------------------- FRUIT RHODODENDRONS YEWS, TREES, JUNIPERS, SMALL FRUITS, CHINESE AZALEAS HEMLOCKS, TREE PÆONIES, ARBOR VITÆ, ROSES IN VARIETY, HARDY AZALEAS RETINOSPORAS, AMERICAN HOLLY, CAMELLIAS DWARF, BLUE, CONICAL, HERBACEOUS PÆONIES, WEEPING AND OTHER SPRUCES, SHADE TREES & HEDGE PLANTS. ASSORTMENT OF PINES. ------------------------------- Plans Made, Estimates Furnished, Grounds Laid Out, Catalogues on Application. PARSONS & SONS COMPANY, Limited, Kissena Nurseries, ESTABLISHED 1839. FLUSHING, N. Y. Seeds, Seeds, Seeds. To our friends who have not already received it, we are ready to mail our NEW CATALOGUE OF HIGH CLASS SEEDS FOR 1888, Containing all the Novelties of the Season, both in VEGETABLE, FLOWER and TREE Seeds. J. M. Thorburn & Co., 15 JOHN STREET, NEW YORK. OUR MANUAL OF EVERYTHING FOR THE GARDEN is this season the grandest ever issued, containing three colored plates and superb illustrations of everything that is new, useful and rare in Seeds and Plants, together with plain directions of "How to grow them," by PETER HENDERSON. This Manual, which is a book of 140 pages, we mail to any address on receipt of 25 cents (in stamps.) To all so remitting 25 cents for the Manual, we will, at the same time, send free by mail, in addition, their choice of any one of the the following novelties, the price of either of which is 25 cents: One packet of the new Green and Gold Watermelon or one packet of new Succession Cabbage, or one packet of new Zebra Zinnia, or one packet of Butterfly Pansy (see illustration), or one packet of new Mammoth Verbena, or one plant of the beautiful Moonflower, on the distinct understanding, however, that those ordering will state in what paper they saw this advertisement. PETER HENDERSON & CO 35 & 37 Cortlandt St., New York. [Illustration: W. W. RAWSON & CO.] BOTANY CLASSES furnished with fresh plants and flowers from the Southern Mountains, including all the AZALEAS and RHODODENDRONS found east of the Rockies, I can furnish Rhododendron Vastyi and Shortii galacifolia, and other rare plants. Order Shortii early, as it blooms in March and April. T. G. HARBISON, Principal of Highlands Academy, Highlands, N. C. * * * * * Transcriber's Note: Missing and/or damaged punctuation has been repaired. Errata: p. 3: (Floriculture) 'county' probably error for 'country'. "... scores of young men in all parts of the country have..." p. 4: (Lawn) 'whch' corrected to 'which' "... finely pulverized compost which may be brushed in." p. vi: (WESTERN N. C. ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES). 'Rhodendron' corrected to 'Rhododendron' "Descriptive Price List sent on application. Detailed description of the _new_ Rhododendron Vaseyi, with each List." 
32818	----	produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive.) THEORY AND PRACTICE, APPLIED TO THE CULTIVATION OF THE CUCUMBER, IN THE WINTER SEASON: TO WHICH IS ADDED, A CHAPTER ON MELONS: BY THOMAS MOORE, MEMBER OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. SECOND EDITION, WITH AN APPENDIX, CONTAINING REMARKS ON HEATING AERATING, AND COVERING FORCING HOUSES; ON TRANSPLANTING, AND THE USE OF TURF POTS; ON WATERING; ON ATMOSPHERIC HUMIDITY, &c., &c. LONDON: RICHARD GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS, 5 PATERNOSTER ROW. MDCCCXLVII. LONDON: PRINTED BY DAVID M. AIED JAMES ST., COVENT GARDEN. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. This little treatise is intended as an inducement to young Gardeners especially, to seek for the reasons on which the operations of their daily practice are founded, and by which they are regulated. This announcement is here made, in order to prevent any reader from supposing that the author has unduly estimated the opinions of those who have benefited by a long course of application and experience. As, however, there can be no doubt that there is much to be learned, so is there but little question that there is also much to be unlearned, in the present state of the Science of Horticulture; and these pages are offered without hesitation, as a mite among the accumulating mass of available information on gardening subjects; and in the hope that some amongst those who are seeking to extend their knowledge, may at least be stimulated by their perusal, if they are not otherwise directly benefited. The great truths which it is the object of this treatise to impress, are these: that the ultimate success of gardening operations does not depend on the performance of any part of them, at a particular time, or in a particular or even superior manner, but rather upon the supplying, in a natural manner, as far as possible, _all the conditions_ which are necessary to the nutrition and perpetuation of plants; and, that it is within the open pathway of Science, and not the bye-ways of empiricism, that the finger-post of direction should be sought. Royal Botanic Garden, Regent's Park, March 2nd, 1844. TO THE SECOND EDITION. In the present edition, it has been thought best to preserve the original text exactly as it appeared in the first edition. The new matter will be found in the Appendix. The author may take this opportunity of returning his thanks to those who have noticed and commended the former edition, and of expressing a hope that the present will receive an equal share of favour. Camden Town, Aug. 1, 1847. CONTENTS. CHAP. I. PAGE Botanical name, and affinities of the Cucumber--properties-- foreign names--improvements in cultivation 9 CHAP. II. Structures--dung beds--brick pits--forcing houses--gutter system of heating--the tank system--bottom heat--description of Cucumber house--aspect--position--angle--covering 11 CHAP. III. Propagation by cuttings--early fruitfulness--preservation of varieties--layers--objections to cuttings and layers--seeds-- disadvantages--progressive growth--seed sowing 23 CHAP. IV. General principles of culture--importance of light--pruning and training 31 CHAP. V. Composition of the soil--heath soil--leaf mould--preparation of soil--charcoal--manures--liquid manures 36 CHAP. VI. Application of water to the soil--special conditions-- atmospheric moisture--insects--mildew--canker--mode of watering 42 CHAP. VII. Regulation of temperature--principles to be kept in view--day and night temperature--deductions 46 CHAP. VIII. Admission of air--effect of cold air on tender plants-- deterioration--evils resulting from unguarded atmospheric changes--mode of admitting air--atmospheric influence on vegetation--nitrogen--carbon 50 CHAP. IX. Growth of Persian Melons in summer--peculiarities of treatment--soil--watering--solar heat--light 56 CHAP. X. Conclusion 59 TREATISE. CHAP. I. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. The Cucumber, _Cucumis sativa_, is supposed to be a native of the East Indies; but like many other of our culinary plants, the real stations which it naturally has occupied, are involved in obscurity: in habit it is a trailing herb, with thick fleshy stems, broadly palmate leaves, and yellow axillary monæcious flowers. In the natural arrangement of the vegetable kingdom, the genus of which it forms part, ranks in the first grand class, _Vasculares_, or those plants which are furnished with vessels, and woody fibre; in the sub-class _Calycifloræ_, or those in which the stamens are perigynous; and in the order _Cucurbitaceæ_, or that group, of which the genus _Cucurbita_, or Gourd family is the type. The affinities of this order, are chiefly with _Loasaceæ_, and _Onagraceæ_; with the former it agrees in its inferior unilocular fruit, having a parietal placentæ, and with the latter, in its definite perigynous stamens, single style, and exalbuminous seeds. It has also some affinity with _Passifloraceæ_, and _Papayaceæ_, in the nature of the fruit, and with _Aristolochiaceæ_, in its twining habit, and inferior ovarium. M. Auguste St. Hiliare, also regards it as being related to _Campanulaceæ_, in the perigynous insertion of the stamens, the single style with several stigmas, the inferior ovarium, and in the quinary division of the floral envelope, in connection with the ternary division of the fruit. The properties of the plants comprised in this natural family, are not numerous; a bitter laxative quality pervades many of them, a familiar example of which is the resinous substance called Colycinthine, the production of the Colocynth gourd, in which the active purgative principle is concentrated, rendering it drastic, and irritating. Among our native plants the roots of _Bryonia dioica_, in common with the perennial roots of all the plants in the order, possess these purgative properties. On the other hand, the seeds are sweet, yielding an abundant supply of oil; and it may be worthy of remark, that they never partake of the properties of the pulp with which they are surrounded in the fruit. The Cucumber does not possess the properties common to the order, in very powerful degree; its fruit is however too cold for many persons, causing flatulency, diarrhoea, and even cholera; by others, it may be eaten with avidity, without producing any injurious effects. The names by which the Cucumber is recognised by the Hindoos, are _Ketimon_, and _Timou_. In the French, it is called _Concombre_; in the German, _Gurke_; and in the Italian, _Citriuolo_. As a cultivated plant, it is of nearly equal antiquity with the Vine; being mentioned by the writer of the Pentateuch, as being cultivated extensively in Egypt, above 3000 years since. The cultivation of this plant, and the production of fine fruit at an early season, is an object of emulation among gardeners of the present day; and from this cause, many important improvements in the mode of its cultivation have been effected. The vast increase of means, arising from an acquaintance with powerful agents, formerly unknown, which are available by the present and rising races of gardeners, enable them to secure the same important results which cost their predecessors much both of labour and anxiety, with a comparatively small amount of the former, and a degree of certainty at which they could never arrive. The agents which an enlightened age has brought under controul, are indeed powerful engines, which require much skill in their adaptation and management; but the knowledge necessary to effect this, is so firmly and inseparably connected with the first principles of cultivation, that an acquaintance with these, will at all times supply a safe and unerring guide to their application. It is to assist the young gardener in this application of principles, to the growth of the Cucumber in the winter season, that these pages are designed; and of those who may differ from the opinions which are here expressed, it is only required that they should receive a calm and deliberate consideration--a consideration unbiassed by prejudice, and unmixed with any of that feverish excitement after novelties, which with gardeners, as well as with all other classes of society, is becoming far too prevalent, and intense. CHAP. II. ON THE STRUCTURES ADAPTED FOR THE GROWTH OF CUCUMBERS. I will preface the following remarks on the structures adapted for the growth of Cucumbers, by stating, that a forcing house, a pit, and a common frame, present the means of bringing this fruit to its perfection, equally, one with the other, provided that a course of cultivation suitable to the structure, is followed out; the comparative merits of each, depend not so much on the nature of the results which may be obtained by adopting them, as on the facilities they afford for the attainment of those results. The use of the common frame, and the ordinary hotbed of fermenting manure, nevertheless involves these difficulties:--the fermentation is liable to become excessive, and that in a very rapid manner, and also to decline as rapidly; the heat, when declining, cannot be speedily restored in unpropitious weather; it is materially checked in its action, by that particular state of the weather, which renders its efficient action most essential; it involves almost an infinitude of labour; and after all, it is uncertain in its action: when such difficulties as these, are overcome, Cucumbers can be grown to perfection, on dung beds, assisted by the common garden frame and sash. The brick pit, when heated by fermenting manure, presents difficulties of the same nature with the preceeding, though in a less powerful degree: but when these structures are heated by means of hot water, in any of its various modes of application, there need be no irregularity, nor uncertainty in its action; because the supply of the elements of vegetable developement, and of the agents by whose aid they are applied, may, to a very great extent, go on uninterruptedly. A forcing house, whilst it secures all the advantages which are presented by a pit, combines with these, some important points which are peculiarly its own: by adopting a pit, we provide a structure of which Cucumbers manifest their approval, by thriving equally as well as in their more ancient location on a dung bed; but further than this, a pit enables us to dispense with much of the labour, and all the filth, and the uncertainty which are consequent on the use of fermenting manure as a means of keeping up the temperature in which they are grown. In a small forcing house, besides these advantages being secured, all the operations of care and culture, can be performed just when they become necessary, without exposing the tender foliage of plants which have been submitted to an artificially elevated temperature, to the chilling influence of cold air, which is admitted whenever the sashes of an ordinary frame or of a pit, are opened, in order to bestow these necessary attentions. It may be urged that a dung bed has still the advantage, on the ground of economy; but when a fair calculation is made of labour and loss or anxiety on the one hand, and of duration on the other, such an assumption, will be quite untenable. Neatness, convenience, certainty, and economy, are the principal points of advantage which are gained by the adoption of pits heated by means of hot water, over those of a structure, depending for its supply of heat, on the aid of fermenting masses; whilst the attainment of a still greater degree both of convenience, and of certainty, which may be secured by cultivation in forcing houses, point out at once the advantages which render such houses, preferable to pits. The application of the gutter system of heating, was not long since thought to be an improvement of great importance, and there can be no question but that it affords a means of regulating the moisture of the atmosphere of hothouses, in conjunction with the temperature, which prior to its introduction had not been attained; and as such, it is worthy of extensive adoption: it requires however some judgement in its adaptation to particular structures, and to render, it suitable, to effect any particular object for which it may be employed. The tank system as a means of applying bottom heat, employed either in conjunction with the gutters, or with ordinary piping, to supply heat to the atmosphere, is the most important advance which has hitherto been made towards supplying the wants of those plants, which require such peculiar aid; and with reference to the Cucumber, it may be regarded as furnishing a new era in its cultivation. The importance of bottom heat in the culture of tender plants, has always been well known by its practical effects. The mean temperature of the soil, at a slight distance below the surface, is universally above that of the superincumbent air; and consequently some degree of bottom heat is always supplied to plants, in a state of nature. Naturally, by means of subterraneous heat, and also by the absorption of the sun's rays during the time they are forcibly directed towards the earth, it possesses the means whereby any material degree of cold at the roots of plants is prevented; and when the soil is acted on by the unveiled sun of an eastern sky, we cannot but feel certain, that even a considerable amount of heat must be experienced: hence arises the importance of taking advantage of every ray of sun which our climate affords, when the culture of the Cucumber, or of any native of warmer latitudes, is attempted out of doors in this country; and also of using every possibly available means of increasing rather than diminishing the temperature of the soil: and hence too, in forcing not only the Cucumber, but also every other plant which requires to be submitted to a confined atmosphere, and an elevated temperature, arises the necessity of providing such a degree of warmth at the root, as may tend to keep its vital powers in a vigorous state of action; it will effect this, by acting in conjunction with moisture, as a solvent of the food which is primarily contained in the soil in a solid form, but can only be taken up by the capillary action of the spongioles of the roots, when converted into a fluid state. The science of Chemistry has taught us that the ingredients composing the soil, act on, and dissolve, and combine with each other in various ways, sometimes being simply dissolved and held in solution, and at other times, entering into new combinations, and forming new compounds; but in all cases, the natural agents, heat and moisture, are necessary to produce these results, and to present to the tender roots of plants, food so duly prepared, as to be fit for their assimilation. Warmth in the soil, acts beneficially also, by preventing the sudden or undue interruption of the excitability of plants growing in it, which would be likely to result from the lowering of the temperature of the plants by evaporation, were it not for the action of the antagonist force, existing in and exercised by the heated soil, which heat, is communicated to, and absorbed by the plants. It may be regarded as an established and universal rule, that all plants require the soil, and the atmosphere in which they are cultivated, to correspond with the natural circumstances under which they flourish; and as it has been repeatedly ascertained that the soil is naturally a degree or two above the temperature of the atmosphere, we have certain and unerring data for the application of bottom heat, and no more powerful evidence than this can be desired, to condemn at once the application of a _very powerful degree of heat_, at the roots of plants. The importance of bottom heat in the culture of tender plants, being a practical fact established beyond question, another consideration arises as to the best means of producing it, and of regulating its application. Various substances and materials have been submitted to a process of fermentation, and so employed to effect it: stable manure, tanner's bark, and the leaves of trees, are among the principal of these materials, and either of them will supply just what the plants require, as truly as these wants can be supplied by any other means; but from their very nature, they are violent, and fluctuating, and ephemeral in their action, and setting aside the labour which the employment of them necessarily involves, we have in these particulars, the special points in which the tank system of applying bottom heat far excels them: it is uniform, and constant, in its action; there need be no apprehension of the soil becoming overheated, for the source whence it derives its warmth ought never to boil; neither need there be any fear of its decline, or of a want of power, for when once thoroughly heated, a body of water will part with it in such a manner, that a very little attention to the fire, and a very little expenditure of fuel, will maintain its temperature for an almost incredible length of time; and as to power, it never should for a moment form a question, because a powerful degree of bottom heat ought never to be applied: a close attention for one or two hours during the twenty four which form a day, will maintain any apparatus in an effective state of action, if it is properly erected. How different is this, to what has been in days now past! when in rigorous weather, with the heat of his dung bed declining, the cultivator knew that at the peril of his crop, he scarcely dared to attempt to revive it, without involving a more serious because an accelerated evil; at any rate, if at an immense sacrifice of labour, his dung casings were replenished piece by piece, he knew too well, that often many days would elapse, before their action would be efficient and satisfactory, unless indeed an unlimited supply of materials, were in a constant state of preparation. By means of the tank, a fire could be lighted up, and the required effect produced in as many hours, as days would have been formerly required. What has been already advanced, tends to the conclusion, that small forcing houses are preferable, and in the end more economical than pits and dung beds; and that the tank as a means of supplying bottom heat, is preferable to the use of fermenting materials; _because the results in each case, are more perfectly under controul_. Whilst on this part of the subject, I may be allowed to mention an error which is somewhat prevalent: We frequently hear of the humid nature of the heat given off by hot water pipes, in comparison with that derived from such appliances, as a flue; it is not unfrequently asserted, that the heat thus derived is so moist, so genial, so peculiarly adapted to plants: there can be no doubt but that the heat thus obtained is infinitely preferable to that obtained through the medium of flues, generally speaking; but its superiority consists rather in its purity, its freeness from noxious gasses, than in its possessing a greater degree of moisture. Heat--that is--caloric, is the same, whatever may be the medium by which it may be conducted; and in the case of hot water pipes, they give off that which has been conducted to them by the water, directly from the fire, the water acting as a mere conductor; it is difficult to conceive any thing more thoroughly devoid of moisture than the heat thus communicated: let any one who doubts this, place a damp cloth on a series of hot water pipes when in action, and the result will soon work conviction. With these general remarks, I will proceed to describe the kind of structure which I regard as being peculiarly adapted to the growth of Cucumbers; and notice some of the conditions which it is necessary to keep in view: the engraving on the next page, represents such a structure. The aspect of the Cucumber house, should be nearly S.S.E; or in other words--it should be so regulated between the points south and east, that whilst the rays of the sun will be admitted as fully and as early as possible in the morning, there may be no obstruction offered to their more powerful action as that body approaches the meridian. In the growth of all tender plants, light and sun heat are required during the winter months as well as in summer, and there can be no greater error as regards the erection of structures devoted to such purposes, than to provide for their admitting the direct rays of the sun in the earlier part of the day, at the expense of refracting and thereby weakening, to a greater degree than is really unavoidable, the power of the noon-tide rays of that invigorating and life-sustaining agent: during the summer months, though plants then require both light and sun heat, yet the case is different; the sun's rays have then much greater power, and it is found that their influence is sufficient, without at all times admitting them directly on the plants growing in these artificial atmospheres. [Illustration] The position of the Cucumber house, with reference to the ground line, must be determined by local circumstances; if the situation and sub-soil be dry, it may be carried below the surface in the manner represented in the annexed engraving, of which (_a_) is the ground line, (_b_) the pathway, and (_c_) the lowest point excavated: the same course may be adopted if the soil, though not naturally so dry as this, can be rendered so by thorough drainage; but when the ground does not admit of perfect drainage, the structure must be sufficiently elevated to avoid the risk of injury from the dampness of the locality. The angle of elevation is not, as it is sometimes asserted to be, a point of indifference, though mathematical accuracy is certainly by no means required: in the annexed engraving, the angle of the roof is about 55°, this provides for the admission of the sun's rays in the winter months, when his position is comparatively low in the horizon, to a much greater extent than could take place if a more ordinary slope were adopted. A still more elevated pitch would doubtless effect this object in a still more perfect manner; but would not be equally applicable to the requirements from a permanent structure, which would be wanted for summer as well as winter use. A reference to the sketch, will at once shew the general nature of the internal arrangements. There should be a tank (_d_) supported by brick piers (_p_) in which a circulation of heated water would supply a genial warmth to the soil above, and to the roots of the plants growing in the soil; this tank should be heated by a small boiler, conveniently placed with reference to adjacent arrangements; a series of iron pipes (_e_) attached to the same boiler, would supply the requisite heat to the atmosphere. It may perhaps be thought that the application of the gutter system of heating would in this case be preferable; but as there would be a perfect command of moisture, as will be explained further on, it is desirable to have dry heat also, under controul, and this can be better effected by means of the pipes than by adopting the gutter plan of heating. I cannot in this place forbear protesting against the limited surface of piping generally employed in heating plant structures; what is thought to be just enough to maintain a given temperature, is usually after minute calculation, the quantity which is made use of, and the consequence is, that under adverse circumstances, the apparatus is necessarily worked at its highest pitch; and I believe that the application of heat in this form, whether it be by means of an hot water apparatus, or by a common flue, is most inimical to the plants submitted thereto. The admission of air, is a point which as far as I am aware, has never been effected in the manner represented in the sketch: it would be thus effected;--a series of apertures (_f_) should be provided at intervals along the front wall, which would externally be closed by small sliding shutters, and would communicate internally with a chamber (_g_) formed between the front wall and the side of the tank; this chamber would also communicate, by a series of openings, (_h_) with the interior space above the water in the tank, and from this space, through the covering of the tank, tubes (_m_), also placed at intervals, would be carried up through the soil, close to the side of the wall; these tubes should be furnished with caps or valves, so as so admit of the communication being stopped at any time. In applying this to the admission of air, we must not loose sight of a series of ventilators, (_i_), placed in the back wall of the house, which are of precisely the same nature and construction as the apertures (_f_), already spoken of. I shall have occasion hereafter, to notice the admission of air, but it will be well in this place, to explain the action of the plan proposed for that purpose: when it is judged that a change of the internal volume of air is requisite, the ventilators (_i_) are to be opened, which admits of a portion of the rarified air to pass off; the ventilators (_f_) are also to be opened, and by means of the action of these ventilators on each other, a portion of external air is taken in; this enters the chamber (_g_), which is warmed by its contiguity to the tank, and here becomes partially rarified, and rises to the top of the chamber; the apertures (_h_) admit it to the interior of the tank, where it becomes not only thoroughly warmed, but also imbibes a degree of moisture proportionate to the degree in which it becomes heated, and thence it enters the house by the tubes or shafts already spoken of. The advantages of warming and moistening the air thus admitted, are very important ones; for when either a cold or dry state, of the atmosphere prevails, its influence is very injurious to plants in these confined situations: cold raw air, when it comes in contact with the tender foliage of the plants, has the effect of chilling the sap in its progress through their tissue, and thus lessening their excitability, when it should be increased; whilst dry air acts as an incessant drain upon the vegetable juices, which it abstracts through the stomates and pores of the leaves and stems. When cold air is admitted to any position where it can unite with caloric, and not in an equal ratio with moisture, it necessarily becomes arid, and in that state it eagerly combines with moisture in any form with which it can come in contact therewith; and consequently if cold air is admitted to a plant structure, where it can have the means of combining with heat, faster than with moisture, it would be brought into this arid state, and would supply its voracious appetite, by abstracting the juices of the plant. It is a very important question how far this state of things is connected with many of the diseases as they are called, to which plants are subject; for my own part, I believe it to have a very considerable influence in the production of many of them. A shallow bed of soil (_k_), is all that would be required; for in the winter season, there is nothing gained by encouraging a very luxuriant and gross state of growth: the composition of this soil will be noticed hereafter: beneath it, and resting on the top of the tank, should be placed a layer of coarse open rubble, not less than six inches in thickness; and among this rubble by means of tubes (_n_), placed at intervals along the bed, I would occasionally pour considerable quantities of water, in order to maintain a due regulation of moisture in, and throughout the soil, among which the vapour arising from the water would ultimately rise. Beneath the tank a space (_o_), might be provided, which would serve admirably either for the cultivation of Mushrooms, or the forcing of Rhubarb, or Sea Kale. Transverse partitions should be introduced into the bed of soil, so as to divide the roots of each plant from those of its neighbours: this arrangement will admit of a complete succession of plants being maintained, by the removal of those which have become old and debilitated, and the substitution of young and vigorous ones; and this obstruction of the roots, will not be injurious, for the Cucumber does not by any means require to be permitted to extend its roots at random, but will readily submit itself to any rational regimen, with regard to the area from whence it is permitted to extract its food. A portion of soil sufficient to support one or two plants, could by this arrangement be renewed as occasion might require, and the roots of the contiguous plants would suffer no injury from the operation. The pathway of the house, should be paved so as to admit of its being occasionally washed and cleansed. It will be found to be highly economical in reference to the consumption of fuel, to provide the structure with the means of being covered at night. Shutters of light frame-work, covered with any waterproof material, would be found to answer the purpose admirably; they should be elevated a few inches from the surface of the glass, and they should be arranged so as to confine a body of air, which acting as a very slow conductor of heat, would serve to prevent that incessant drain upon the temperature of the internal atmosphere, which takes place when the material employed is in contact with the glass, as well as when coverings are altogether absent. This would not be the only advantage, for as the covering would to a great extent prevent the radiation of heat from the internal atmosphere, so would it also prevent the necessity of the application of so powerful a degree of fire heat at night; and thus the plants would be permitted to enjoy that natural season of repose so essential to their well being, instead of being forced into growth by reason of a high temperature kept up, solely for the purpose of obviating the external cold. CHAP. III. ON THE PROPAGATION OF THE CUCUMBER. Cucumbers are propagated by cuttings, by layers, and by seeds; the two former of these methods being frequently practised by those who have conveniences to keep their plants growing throughout the year; the latter being adopted either through choice or necessity, by the majority of cultivators, or those whose means will not enable them, even if they desired it, to keep up continually a successional growth. Propagation by cuttings has many advantages to recommend it, especially when viewed in connection with the production of winter fruit. The plants raised by this mode of treatment, in comparison with those raised from seeds, are less gross and succulent in their nature, and more subdued in their manner of growth; whether it may be that having mature and perfectly formed parts, they are enabled to assimilate their food more rapidly, than young and imperfectly formed plants can do; or whether it is owing to any difference in the balance between the roots and leaves, which latter organs, in cuttings, and the former, in seedling plants, may be regarded as predominant, does not appear quite evident, probably the effect depends partly on each of these supposed causes. They are moreover, sooner in arriving at a fruit-bearing state, by reason of a universal natural law, by which the inflorescence and fructification of a plant becomes more general and perfect, in proportion as the plant attains proximity to its perfect developement; which effect, is owing to the more perfect elaboration and preparation of the materials, which when so prepared, furnish the means of perfecting the organs of reproduction. For the same reason, the operation of budding a portion of a seedling fruit tree, on a matured stem, is practised, in order to accelerate its fruitfulness; which result generally follows, in consequence of the difference existing in the nature of the food elaborated by the mature plant, and that deposited by one in an infant state. Thus it is also, that cuttings of flowering plants generally, are far sooner in arriving at a blooming state, than seedling plants of the same species: flowers and fruit being formed only by the aid of the perfectly elaborated sap; which is taken up into the system, and assimilated in the plant, in proportion to the number of healthy and mature leaves, in a full state of action: during the younger stages of growth, the crude material imbibed from the soil, is only partially elaborated, and in this state, is only converted into food suitable and destined to increase the foliaceous organs; but when these latter are in full and vigorous action, a supply of matter, not increased in quantity, but enriched in quality, becomes laid up in the store-house and structure of the plants; and it is by means of this matter, aided by the natural agents, that the nature of the developement is changed from being simply that of the organs of nutrition, to that of the more perfect and important organs of reproduction. Besides the precocity of plants propagated by cuttings, there is also another advantage resulting from the practice, and that is the preservation of particularly desirable varieties; the Cucumber is a plant which readily admits of hybridization, and although the result of this is sometimes to give rise to superior varieties, yet if impregnation is permitted to take place promiscuously, the bad qualities of particular varieties, are as likely to be combined in the succeeding race, as the good and desirable ones: this renders it important that the fruit which are preserved for seed, should have been carefully watched and protected when in blossom, from the reach of insects; which often effect the requisite union, in consequence of the pollen adhering to their bodies, and thus being brought into contact with the stigma. I need scarcely to say, that where only one variety is grown in any particular structure, the chances of admixture are less numerous. The manner in which the operation of propagation by cutting is performed, is very simple: the tops of healthy growing shoots are taken off, at about two or three joints in length; they are then planted in deep pots, which are about half filled with light earth, such as decayed vegetable matter, and then covered by laying a piece of glass on the top of the pot; a simple and effective protection is thus formed, the sides of the pot acting as a partial shade, the glass admitting light sufficiently abundant to secure the action of the leaves, and maintaining a calm and moist atmosphere: the pots are to be plunged in a gentle bottom heat, and the cuttings will soon become rooted; after which they may be treated as established plants. Propagation by layers, is another method similar to the last, of which it is a mere modification; and those points which mark the superiority of the one, are equally applicable in the case of the other. The operation may be performed in various ways: thus the branches may be layered at once into the soil, when these are trained close to its surface, and they will thus grow on with renewed vigour: when required for removal to other positions, they may be layered into pots of light soil, in doing which, a convenient branch may be brought down, secured firmly at a joint to the soil, and slightly covered therewith, when it will soon become rooted: another plan, is, to suspend in convenient places, pots having large holes beneath; through these holes, the points of growing shoots are introduced, and the pots having a little moss in the bottom, are then lightly filled with vegetable mould: they may also be propagated, by enveloping a joint of a growing shoot lightly with moss; the moss should be kept continually moist, and roots will soon be emitted into it, and when enough are produced, the plant may be detached. Either of these methods of propagation will secure not only healthy, but fruitful plants, in a short space of time; and this latter point will be found to be one of no small advantage. The principal objection which may be urged against their adoption, is that they necessarily involve a process of transplantation, which under any circumstances, and however carefully performed, must be regarded as an evil rather than otherwise. It may be thought that the _check_ arising from transplantation may do good, by preventing too great luxuriance of growth, and thereby tending to accelerate fruitfulness; but even if this result may be apparently produced by such means, it is surely far more natural to check the plants, by withholding a portion of food, rather than by mutilating the organs by which their food is conveyed to them, and then actually placing them in a position where food is still more abundantly supplied than before. It is very questionable however, how far what is called a "check" is justifiable as a means of inducing fructification; for if fructification be the most perfect state at which a plant can arrive, there does not seem to be much rationality in adopting any such means as a "check" in bringing about this perfection of developement. A _check_ applied as a means of accelerating maturity, can only be regarded as an expedient, rendered necessary by previous defective treatment. The most commonly practised as well as the most natural method of propagation, is by seeds, and this will generally be found to be also the best method, if the conditions required by its adoption can be properly carried out. There is however, one decided disadvantage attendant on the raising of Cucumber plants intended for winter forcing from seeds; and hence in a great measure arises the apparent superiority of propagating by extension: the disadvantage consists in the exceedingly succulent and lax nature of the tissue of the young plants; owing to that natural principle, by which their increase and extension is most especially provided for during the infant stages of their existence: the result is, that in consequence of the deficiency of light and solar heat, which are the grand agents of vegetable fructification, their sap does not become sufficiently elaborated, nor their tissue rendered sufficiently solid by assimilation and deposition of matter, to bring about the developement of floral parts; the food and moisture imbibed, instead of being sublimated and fully elaborated, is only partially acted on by the vital and natural agents, and the result is an increase of growth, but not a developement of fruit-bearing parts. There is nevertheless, an advantage in raising plants from seeds, not only as regards the obtaining of improved races, but also in a cultural point of view. The science of Horticulture, does acknowledge such a thing as progression, in the developement of plants; the functions of nutrition necessarily go on prior to those of reproduction or fructification, the latter being continually dependant on, as well as being the result of the former: hence we arrive at a conclusion, that _to supply uninterruptedly_, ALL _the elements which administer to the nutrition of a plant, is the most rational means of inducing a state of fruitfulness_. This may at first sight be questioned; cases may readily enough be quoted, in which food has been bountifully supplied, and the plants have grown amazingly, but not fruited; if however, food had been thus supplied, in connexion with a due share of _light_, and an _excess of heat_ had been avoided, we have natural evidence to prove unquestionably that fructification would have followed. An abundance of food, a high temperature, and a deficiency of light, are just the conditions which are opposed to the developement of the floral organs in plants, and are inductive of mere barren extension: not that plants grow thus, because they delight in such a state of things, but because they are thereby unnaturally excited and compelled to do so, although that growth cannot under such circumstances, become properly matured; and hence arises the impossibility of their producing blossoms. The advantage of raising plants of Cucumbers from seeds, consists in the facility thus afforded of altogether avoiding transplantation: the roots of Cucumbers are of a very tender nature, and however carefully they may be transplanted, they are liable to sustain injury in the removal: by having recourse to depositing the seeds at once in the soil where they are intended to grow, this is entirely obviated, and there can be no possible reason why the conditions necessary to germination should not be as fully supplied in a hillock of soil, as when a portion of the soil is placed within a garden pot; this vessel can certainly have no influence in producing more perfect or healthy germination, whilst the mutilation of even the most careful act of transplantation, may tend to check the future developement of the plant. It may be, however, that circumstances prevent the sowing of the seeds at once in their ultimate position, and in such cases, they may be sown singly in pots partly filled with decayed vegetable mould, plunged in a milk-warm bottom heat. The temperature both of the soil and atmosphere during this period, should not be high, but such as to permit the plants to push gradually forth from their dormitory, and assume by a natural process, the functions of active vitality. In order to maintain them in vigour of constitution, they should be exposed as much as possible to light; and that, by being placed near the glass, so as to receive the rays as little broken and refracted as possible. Water should not be applied at all, until vegetation has manifested itself, and afterwards, but sparingly, whilst the plants are young, especially in prolonged periods of dull sunless weather. Plants which are thus raised, should be planted out as soon as possible, when their fibres are least numerous, as a means of avoiding in part, the injuries to which they are exposed in transplantation. When the plan of depositing the seeds in the hillock of soil is adopted, it is necessary to arrange the soil so that any subsequent additions made to it, may not have the effect of covering too deeply the roots of the plants, neither of burying the neck of the stem beneath the surface; it should be arranged so that this latter may remain elevated above the surrounding soil on the top of a slight mound, after the whole of the soil is adjusted for the roots. I have already mentioned that the depth of soil ought not to be at all considerable, but rather shallow than otherwise, so as to expose the roots as far as possible to the influence of the sun. It will have been seen that the plan of raising young plants from seeds, has both its advantages and its disadvantages; and in order to avoid the latter, and secure some of the former, the seeds should be sown early in the autumn, whilst there is a sufficiency of heat and light, to mature the growth they make previous to the dull cheerless days which mark the near approach, and at length the arrival of winter. They will thus be endued with the "stamina" necessary to sustain them, through that trying period, and though not without difficulty, yet with comparative certainty, to reward the well-directed zeal of the cultivator. It is impossible to give any very minute directions as to the time of performing these operations of propagation, for like all other gardening operations, it is not at all requisite that they should be done on any particular day, nor ought they to be done except when natural conditions are favourable to success: from ten to twelve weeks generally elapse between the time of sowing the seeds and the production of fruit, according as the season may be favourable or otherwise. The numerous hybrid varieties which are in cultivation, render it a matter of some importance to make choice of those most suitable to the purpose; these are however so continually changing, that it is useless to attempt a record of them. The Sion house Cucumber is perhaps the best of all suited for cultivation in the winter season. The principal features which are required in Cucumbers for winter forcing, are, precocity; compactness of growth, rather than luxuriance; prolificacy, rather than extreme length of fruit; and hardiness of constitution: these, are to the gardener far more important points, than those which entitle them to rank as "prize" varieties. CHAP. IV. ON THE TREATMENT OF THE MATURE PLANTS. From the time that the plants become established, which is the period of their existence now about to be considered, they require to have the elements of vegetable growth duly supplied to them, in order to secure their successful developement. It is not enough to plant them in proper soil, and duly to water them, unless attention is also paid to the temperature, as well as the constituents of the atmosphere to which they are submitted; neither will attention to these latter points be sufficient to ensure success, if at the same time, the former are neglected. A _soil_ of suitable chemical, as well as mechanical composition, a pure and wholesome _atmosphere_, _water_ promptly and properly applied, and _heat_ duly regulated, are conditions which equally require minute care and attention in their adaptation; and these being applied upon the comprehensive, and perfectly harmonious principles of nature, will leave but little to be done in the shape of expedients, which are too frequently resorted to, as the means of counterbalancing either defective or unsuitable management. The application of these agents to the cultivation of the plant under consideration, in the winter season, will form the subjects of succeeding chapters. I will here briefly direct attention to the importance of light in the growth of plants, and then devote some space to the consideration of the subject of pruning and training. Light is most essential to the perfect and healthy developement of vegetable organization, the performance of the functions essential to the health of plants being dependent on its agency. It cannot indeed be assumed that plants will not continue to grow, unless they are supplied with an intense degree of light; but it is certain that the successful nature of their growth, their maturation, and their fructification, are dependent in no ordinary degree upon the nature and force of its action; for without it, the vital energies of animated beings are unable to maintain and perform the processes of elaboration, and assimilation, upon which their nutrition depends. The mere extension of vegetable tissue, may indeed go on, though less satisfactorily, under the almost total privation of light, but with the exception of cryptogamic vegetation, the organs of fructification are not under those circumstances, produced at all: the stem may be formed, but does not become solid: the leaves may expand, but their condition is imperfect; and it is only by means of the full and complete action of these organs in the nutrition of plants, that the developement of the floral parts is brought about: the roots may take up fluids, and these may be conveyed in the natural upward channels, and then dispersed among the stems and the leaves; but it is the action of solar light, aided indeed by the natural condition of the elements supplying heat and moisture, which alone, by a process of elaboration, can convert this fluid, once crude and undigested, into the compound organic substances, such as lignin, gum, starch, gluten, &c. which in their turn, are destined to minister to the support of the organs of reproduction. Growth, that is mere extension, may go on in proportion as heat and moisture are supplied to plants, but light is the agent to whose especial influence we owe the production of their active properties and secretions, and the perfection of their fruit. If then light is so indispensable to the vegetable frame, how important it is that the structures which we devote to the cultivation of such plants as the Cucumber, which are naturally habituated to an eastern clime, should be so designed, as to offer the least possible obstruction to its entrance: how important, too, that the glass we employ, which in its purest state, offers considerable obstruction, by refracting the rays of light, should be as transparent and untarnished as possible, so as to admit them as perfectly as can be practicable; instead of which, it is too often disfigured by an accumulation and deposit of filth, which, to say the least, must materially diminish their force: how important, moreover, that whatever coverings it may be necessary to employ during the night to prevent the outward radiation of heat, should be speedily removed in the morning, and kept off as long as they safely may be, in order to permit the inward radiation of light. When these matters are all duly attended to, our climate, at least during the winter, still offers obstruction enough to our success, in its mists, and fogs, its long dark nights, and dismal cloudy days, and therefore wisdom would teach us, to avail ourselves of all which we can grasp, by a course of untiring assiduity, and attention to such apparently trifling matters as these. The pruning and training of the plants, are operations, to which it will be necessary to direct attention; and in the performance of which, the circumstances which may have any influence upon them, as well as the object in view, must be taken into consideration. The plants being intended to occupy a surface of trellis-work in a line nearly parallel with the glass, it will be requisite to train their primary shoots to a sufficient length to reach from the soil to the trellis, before they are what is technically called "stopped;" this operation, by removing the central bud, or axis of developement, induces the buds which are latently formed at the nodes of the branches, to push forth and become the axes of further extension: two or three of the strongest of these lateral shoots situated towards the top of the stem, should be retained, and trained on the trellis in a direction towards the top of the house; these shoots should be placed about 18 inches from each other, and when they have reached about one-third of the length of the trellis, they also should be stopped, and thus several more lateral shoots will be produced. The uppermost strong shoot should in each case, be still trained in the same upward direction, and the others must be disposed in the most convenient form in the space between the main branches: these, that is the young lateral shoots, if they do not shew a fruit blossom at the second joint or leaf from the main branch, must be stopped, and the young shoot thus induced to push forth, will in all probability have fruit at the first leaf; if not, it must be stopped at _every leaf_ as it extends, until fruit is observed. The upper portion of the branch after having extended about one-third further up the roof, should be submitted to the same process, and this must be again repeated until the whole of the trellis is covered. No reference has yet been made to the treatment of those lateral branches where the young fruit are perceived: these should be permitted to grow until the blossoms have expanded; and then, after this, they should be stopped at the leaf next beyond the fruit blossoms. By permitting them to grow until the flowers have expanded, the attraction of the growing branch will continue to draw up a regular supply of nutriment, part of which will be devoted in its course, to assist the developement of the blossoms; and besides the advantage of the growing point acting thus as a sucker to draw onwards the vital juices towards the young fruit, it will act also as an outlet, to drain off what would otherwise be superabundant and dangerous to these tender organs of reproduction. After the flowers have expanded, this danger does not exist to so great an extent, the infant fruit have new and important functions to perform, which are peculiarly their own; and these call for a greater supply from the nutritive organs of the plant: the stopping of the branch therefore, is the means of throwing in this increased supply of food; but those who can most fully appreciate the delicacy of the functions performed by the plant at this stage of its developement, will most fully value the suggestion not to stop back the growing branch _all at once_, but to do it by successional, though not distant operations. The leaf which is directed to be left above, or beyond each fruit, will serve, both as a reservoir, to receive all the superabundant food, which may either be induced or impelled upwards; and also, as a labaratory where this food will become purified and changed by its exposure to atmospheric influence, amongst the lax tissue; and whence, an appointed portion will be returned, and devoted by a process of assimilation, to aid in the extension of the plants. This system of pruning, with reference both to the barren and the fruitful branches, must be continued, whilst these continue in a vigorous and healthy condition; but when any symptoms of decay or of expended powers, are perceived, they should be pruned quite away, and young ones encouraged in their stead. All the pruning which has been spoken of, except the occasional removal of a main shoot, should be done at a sufficiently early period of growth, to admit of being effected by means of the thumb-nail; for like all other plants, Cucumbers are much best treated, when whatever pruning they may require, is done at that stage of growth, when the least amount of trouble and labour is required to perform it. Pruning is not under any circumstances a natural process, and when we have recourse to it in artificial cultivation, it is only an expedient, which is rendered necessary by the limited space, within which it becomes necessary to confine the extension of the plants; and since this is the case, it is far better to remove a portion of any plant, at an early period of its growth, and thus to economize its vital energies, rather than to suffer them to be expended, and the supply to become exhausted through a superfluous developement, and then to deprive it of those very organs, by the action of which, the expenditure would be again recompensed to the vital energies. CHAP. V. ON THE NATURE, AND COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL. Plants absorb fluids through the extremities or spongioles of the roots, and it is thus that those portions of the substances which serve them as their food, and are derived from the soil, are carried into their system, in a state of solution: these spongioles are not strictly to be regarded as analogous to the mouths of animals, for they are not provided with openings, and cannot imbibe even the most impalpable powders; their action seems to be more analogous to that of the lacteals in animals, for these, as well as spongioles, serve to convey fluids only. These considerations render it necessary, that in the composition of soil for the growth of plants, the following important points should be held in consideration;--it should contain a sufficient ratio of organizable matter, that is of substances which can be rendered available as food to the plants; it should readily absorb fluids, since it is only when in a state of solution, that food can enter into the structure of the plants; it should be sufficiently retentive to avoid the risk of injury by reason of the evaporation, which takes place to a very great extent, when too great an abundance of silica is present, or when more than a due degree of porosity exists in its mechanical texture; and it should be sufficiently permeable, to prevent any thing like excess of moisture, by stagnation. Soils composed either principally, or almost entirely of heath soil, or of vegetable mould, although very highly recommended for the growth of the Cucumber in winter, are nevertheless objectionable when applied alone, as will be evident if the foregoing principles are taken into view: it cannot however be assumed that the plants will not grow in these soils, for they grow vigorously for a period; neither can it be asserted that such soils do not contain the qualities which are necessary to administer to the nutrition of plants, for it is scarcely possible to conceive any substances which are more nutritious, or whose application in this respect is more effectual; but they are objectionable, in consequence of their becoming soon expended, and failing to maintain for any length of time, an equable degree of moisture. The cause which tends to produce this effect, is the porosity, or the want of mechanical combination in the texture of the soil; which being highly favourable to evaporation, is liable to render it speedily, and very materially dry, when exposed to the influence of powerful solar heat: the frequent application of water, does not entirely obviate the objection, for even when so applied, it soon becomes again evaporated, and thus tends to deteriorate the soil, and decrease its fertility; this it does, by taking up much of the soluble matter contained in it, and conveying it by evaporation into the atmosphere, instead of its being taken up by the roots whilst in a fluid state, and applied to the plant as a means of nutrition: when it is thus conveyed to the atmosphere, the leaves though they are enabled to take up a portion of their food from thence, are still incapacitated to do so fully, and hence, much of the fertilizing properties of the soil, is carried off by the first current of air which passes through the structure; and the plants decline by reason of starvation, though they had been seated in the midst of plenty. The soil which I should recommend for the growth of the Cucumber, would be composed of ingredients, capable of supplying a sufficient portion of vegetable food; of retaining a due portion of moisture, when placed under powerful evaporation; and of securing the free passage of water through its mass: the former of these conditions would be secured, by the use of mould from the decaying leaves of trees, in the proportion of about three-eighths; the latter would be ensured, by employing about one-fourth part of turfy heath mould, and one-eighth part of clean coarse sand; and the remaining quality, would result by combining these ingredients with one-fourth part of good turfy loam. The preparation of this soil should take place in the dry weather of the summer months, just previous to its being used, so that it can be frequently turned and mixed, without incurring the danger of reducing it to an adhesive consistency, which would at once render it ungenial for the roots of plants: the turfy portions both of the loam and heath soil should be piled up reversely, until the herbage and roots of the grass, become partially decayed; when required for use, it should be chopped into pieces of from two to four inches square, by the spade, and then adding the other ingredients _in a rough state_, the whole should be well mixed, without sifting, or any other mechanical operation which would have the effect of destroying its open texture. It should always be prevented from becoming saturated with water; and moreover, should never be applied to the roots of plants which are growing in a warm medium, without having been previously submitted to a high temperature, for a sufficient length of time, to have absorbed at least an equal degree of heat, with that in which the plants might be already growing. The admixture of charcoal with the soil, is said to be a means of adding to its nutritive qualities. Charcoal, which is nearly pure carbon, may be supposed continually to give off a portion of this gaseous substance during its decomposition, and this uniting with a portion of the oxygen contained in the air, would furnish a supply of carbonic acid gas, to the atmosphere immediately about the plants. It should however be borne in mind, that charcoal, is a substance whose decomposition except under the influence of heat, proceeds very slowly indeed, and therefore its chemical influence must not be overrated: doubtless however, the small portion which does combine with the oxygen of the air, is directly beneficial to the plants; for it is a function of the vegetable kingdom by the action of their leaves, when under the influence of light, to decompose carbonic acid, the oxygen of which is liberated, and the carbon fixed in the living tissue. It is therefore probable that a supply of carbonic acid, artificially maintained about the leaves and stems of plants, may be beneficial to them, by furnishing them directly with a portion of carbon, which they cannot absorb in a seperate state. When the charcoal is made from twigs, and the small branches of trees, its decomposition is often more rapid, than when it is obtained by the usual course of manufactering it: if the latter kind of charcoal is employed, it should be broken into pieces of a small size; and in ordinary cases, it should not be used in larger proportion than with about twice its bulk of soil, with which it should be intimately blended. Besides its chemical action, which is probably beneficial, charcoal has a decidedly advantageous mechanical action in the composition of soils, and this is of a twofold nature:--first, in common with any similar materials, it renders the soil "open," and thus effectually favours the free passage of water through its mass: secondly, it serves as a perpetual reservoir of moisture in the soil, for in consequence of its being extremely porous, it imbibes a great quantity of water, by its force of attraction, and this it parts with slowly to the soil; in this way, there is no doubt that its action is most salutary. Probably a few pieces of charcoal placed perpendicularly in the soil, and kept continually _wet_, by the action of some little capillary contrivance, would serve as the best possible means of conducting moisture, and distributing it to the roots of plants. It will be observed that the application of dung, in any way whatever, has not been recommended; neither do I consider it to be at all requisite, or desirable, in the culture of winter Cucumbers: luxuriance is not a consummation which it is at all desirable to attain to, a moderate, well matured growth, being far preferable; and as some care is supposed to be used to provide suitable soil, it should be of such a nature as to possess the properties, which are requisite to effect the desired end. Dung containing as it does fertilizing properties, may do well to renew the fertility of exhausted soils, which may have been under a long course of cultivation; but it is questionable, whether it ought to be admissable to any extent in pot culture, or in the growth of forced plants, in preference to a supply of wholesome unexhausted natural soil. A very great objection to the use of dung when applied in a solid state in the composition of soils, consists, in its being presented to the roots of plants, not only in the advanced periods of their existence, but equally so, during the early stages of their growth; here must be an error, for infants, whether they belong to the animal or vegetable kingdom, are certainly not capacitated to appropriate the same kind of food, in the same proportion, as adults. If only a small portion of soil is at first employed, and portions more and more enriched, are from time to time added, as the roots may extend, we are still liable to stumble on an objection, almost as important, though of a somewhat different nature; for we can in that case scarcely fail to injure the spongioles of the roots in a greater or less degree, and the injury thus sustained, will consequently act as a check in the progress of their developement. These considerations seem at once to mark the propriety of applying liquid manures in highly artificial cultivation; they can be supplied in this state, when the plants are in such a mature and advanced state of growth, as from time to time to require their aid; and their fertilizing properties being held in solution by the fluid medium in which they are conveyed, they are just in the condition to be taken up at once by the rootlets. It must still however be recollected, that whilst even impalpable powders cannot as such be made to minister to the nutrition of plants, so neither can gross liquids effect this purpose: it is clear limpid fluids, only, which can be received by the delicate spongioles, and therefore the so-called manure water, when applied of the consistency of mud, is not only in an unfit state to effect its purpose, except by the addition of a more bountiful supply of pure liquid, but it is also liable to act injuriously by reason of the concentration of the strength or powerful qualities of the manure, and by counteracting the open texture of the soil. Manure water, therefore, from whatever source it may be derived, though not necessarily a colourless, should without question, be a limpid fluid; if otherwise applied, it will at once destroy one of the best qualities a soil can possess, viz. porosity. CHAP. VI. ON THE APPLICATION OF MOISTURE. From what has been stated in the preceeding chapter, it will be sufficiently evident, that a supply of water is required as a component of the soil, in which all plants are grown, in order to enable them to draw from it, other components, which form their food; and that, as it is necessary for them continually to take up a portion of this food, so is it necessary, that moisture should be continually present, in order to render it available by them. Among other conditions to which the operation of applying water to the soil should be subjected, there are some which are specially important: it should never be either applied in _excess_, or unduly withheld; nor should it ever be applied when of a temperature below that of the atmosphere in which the plants to whose roots it is applied, are growing at the time of its application. There is a liability of applying water in excess, when the particular stage of growth, the peculiar state of the weather, or the season of the year, are not duly regarded: thus, an adult plant will consume more water than an infant plant; and any plant, will decompose a larger quantity of water, in sunny weather, when evaporation is going on briskly, than in cloudy weather, when it is scarcely perceptible; again, in the summer season, a much larger quantity will be appropriated, than in the winter. Water has been applied in excess, whenever the soil becomes soddened or saturated therewith; but great as this evil is, it is equalled in its injurious effects, by falling into the opposite extreme, and withholding a quantity sufficient to render the constituents of the soil, available as food to the roots of plants placed in it. The necessity of applying water, of a temperature equal to that of the soil, is rendered evident by a reference to the natural conditions by which the soil is watered. In a small and nearly globular form, the water gathered up by the action of the sun, and forming the clouds above us, is precipitated through the atmosphere, and there its temperature becomes equalized or assimilated with that of the medium through which it has been passing; and although in our own latitude, we perhaps fail to discover any material degree of warmth in the drops of rain as they fall, yet in eastern climes, we cannot but imagine, that after having been submitted in the thin strata of the clouds to the action of the sun, they must previously to entering the soil, have imbibed some portion of heat. Moreover, the importance of maintaining a gentle bottom heat, at the roots of forced plants, renders it necessary to avoid any application, which may tend to lesson its effect, and submit the roots to any chilling influence. The temperature of the soil is naturally above that of the atmosphere, and as the application of moisture by exciting evaporation, has an abstract tendency to lower the temperature, it should therefore, when applied, be in a slight degree warmed, so as thus to increase rather than diminish the heat contained in the soil. As some moisture in the soil is necessary to render the food contained therein, soluble, and available to the spongioles of the roots, so moisture in the atmosphere is essentially necessary to assist in applying the gaseous elements of that elastic compound fluid, to the nutrition of plants by the action of the leaves: without moisture in the atmosphere, the leaves and outer covering of plants would become dessicated, and the stomatas shrivelled up and closed, so that neither the exhaling nor the imbibing functions of the plants could then be carried on. The moisture of the atmosphere, then must not be neglected; not only because the healthy action of the vital organs of the plants depends on a proper hygrometrical state of the atmosphere, but, inasmuch as it is the readiest means both of avoiding, and when unhappily, they are present, of destroying, many of the most destructive and troublesome insect enemies, to whose depredations, plants are subject. When a moist atmosphere is duly and regularly maintained, there is but little fear need be entertained of the establishment of a colony of insects--such as the thrip, and the red spider, which are perhaps the greatest pests which have to be overcome in the forcing house; nor is there a more effectual method of destroying them, than by applying a high temperature in conjunction with an intense degree of moisture. To the want of a balance of moisture in the composition of the atmosphere, and in the soil, too, rather than as is commonly supposed, to an excess of it in the former, is the appearance called mildew to be attributed; this it occasions by checking the regular action of the perspiratory organs, and thereby inducing an eruption of the cells of the tissue: the extravasated sap lodging on the cuticle, affords a nidus for the germination of the sporules of that particular fungus, which when grown, is the mildew: the remedy consists in avoiding an irregular composition of the atmosphere, as regards heat and moisture; and also an excess or deficiency of moisture in the soil, so that each may be in a condition to exert its proper influence on the constitution and developement of the plants. Canker, another disease, to which Cucumbers are sometimes subject, appears to be produced by too low a degree of temperature, accompanied by an excess of moisture, both in the soil and the atmosphere, and it generally attacks those particular parts, where any check or obstruction is offered to the flow of the sap, such as that occasioned by a wound, or even the ramifications of the stem: this suggests that its remedy, would consist in a due regulation and balance of the constituents of the atmosphere, and the soil. Moisture is generally applied to the soil by being poured directly on it, and to the atmosphere, by means of the syringe, and the use of evaporation troughs. When applied to the soil only from the upper surface, there is a liability of its failing thoroughly to moisten it, and by reason of this, together with the constant action of the heat from below, by whatever means heat may be applied, the soil is frequently found to be dry beneath, when the appearance of the surface might lead to the supposition that it was sufficiently moistened. By a reference to the sketch and description already given, it will be seen, that a provision is there made, whereby water can be poured in quantity _beneath the soil_, immediately on the top of the tank, whence in the form of vapour it will rise among the soil, and thus render it thoroughly moist; at the same time, it can be applied to the surface, whenever it may become necessary to do so. The moistening of the atmosphere will also be fully secured by the mode of ventilation which is there proposed, for the air, at the same time that it is warmed, will become charged with moisture in a ratio equal to its temperature, before it enters the house. If it becomes requisite to admit moisture without changing the volume of air, it can readily be effected by opening the tubes or shafts inside the house, without opening the exterior ventilators; and when dry heat may be required, it can be secured by closing entirely the communication with this reservoir of moisture, and the hot-water pipes will then radiate any quantity of dry heat that may be required. By means of a due application of these provisions, an equable degree of moisture beneath and among the soil, as well as in the composition of the atmosphere, can be secured with perfect ease, and a trifling amount of labour. CHAP. VII. ON THE REGULATION OF THE TEMPERATURE. If we figure to our minds, a plant which in its native habitat enjoys a climate far more genial, and a temperature far more elevated, than our own country affords, it must be obvious that some regulation, and increase of temperature, either positively, by the artificial application of heat, or negatively, by affording shelter and protection, will be required in order to ensure any degree of success in its cultivation. The Cucumber is a reputed native of the East, and we have therefore in this supposed fact, an indication of the nature of the climate, which it should be our object to provide for it; but still it must be borne in mind, that in conducting any system of artificial cultivation, it is not at all times desirable, or even safe, to supply a resemblance to any part of the natural circumstances affecting the growth of a particular plant, unless we have the means of supplying the _greater part_, or _all_ the conditions which exist in a state of nature: this I shall again have occasion to refer to. By another step we arrive at the conclusion that the standard of temperature, to which the Cucumber is submitted in its cultivation in this country, is a point, varying with the individual opinion of cultivators; as some may take a part of the natural conditions of growth as their rule; others, all these circumstances; and others, again, various combinations of them. Referring back again to the provisions of nature, we can scarcely hesitate to conclude, that in clear sunny weather, the temperature to which the Cucumber is submitted, _cannot within reasonable limits_, be permitted to rise too high; whilst at other times, when the weather is dull, or cloudy, and always at night, a much lower degree of heat ought to be applied. In sunny weather, the natural agents which cause excitement and activity of the vital functions, are in full action; and consequently at such periods we may rationally indulge in the application of those exciting agents which are under our controul--always however bearing in mind, that we must not unduly apply one agent, when we either cannot, or neglect to apply the others also. On the other hand, in dull weather, and at night, the source of light being in the one case absent, in the other obscured, a comparative state of lethargy or repose is prevalent, and the natural functions of vitality are but feeble in their action, if not in some cases, absolutely in a quiescent state; with such a state of things existing, it is barely rational to apply stimulants, and to induce unnatural excitement. The application of exciting and stimulating agents at such periods, may be compared in its effects to the excitement of a frightful dream acting on the human frame; the vital functions--not the vitality itself--cease during sleep, and both the animal and the vegetable should be at rest; excitement acts on both by deranging the system, at least for a time, and since a succession of these derangements are known to produce injurious results, we may be certain, that each seperate instance must have an evil tendency. In applying this practically, to the case before us, it may be recommended, that the temperature in which Cucumbers are grown during winter, should not fall much below 60° Fahrenheit, at night; and in the day time it should not rise above 70° in dull weather, by the aid of heat artificially applied; in clear weather, by the influence of that glorious source of light and heat, the sun, it may be safely allowed to rise to 80°, or a little higher, before air is admitted. A somewhat higher range may be permitted, as the days lengthen, and the influence of the sun becomes more powerful; thus at night, it should not rise over 65°, by day 75° to 80°, and by sun heat to 90°. Thus it will be seen, that I have recommended the regulation of the temperature of the internal atmosphere, by that which is external; and it is my firm conviction that inattention to this simple rule, is the source of much of the failure, which is experienced by some of those who attempt the growth of plants, at any other than that, which may be regarded as their natural season of growth. It appears to me, most unreasonable, to aim at attaining any particular point of the thermometer, merely because any particular season of the year may be present, or any particular stage of growth attained. Even if in the sunny climes, from whence the Cucumber has been transmitted to us, there exists such an equality of temperature and atmospheric serenity, as some cultivators attempt in the growth of these plants; it surely cannot be consistent in us to equalize and elevate the temperature of our artificial atmospheres, when we cannot supply them at the same time with the same intensity of light, or provide for them the same serene and unclouded sky. It should rather be our object to adapt the plant to the climate of our country, since we cannot change the climate to supply the natural circumstances, with which the plant is favoured; and acting on this principle, we should never aim at supplying the agents which would induce a premature and therefore debilitated developement, when the whistling wind, and the drifting snow, tell us that Nature, would have, at least the members of her vegetable kingdom, be at rest. Since however, it is apparent that during the depth of the winter season, at least when wintry weather is present, the progress of plants in an artificially heated atmosphere, ought not to be rapid, or unduly forced; it by no means follows that no progression at all should be made: the elements of growth maybe supplied; but the application of them should be guided by moderation, being lessened at those particular periods when the weather is least propitious, and increased during those periods when it is most favourable. In the works of Nature we may ever learn a lesson of consistency, for they are perfect: they teach us that food is requisite to maintain the life of all those objects which are endowed with it; that that food must undergo a process both of digestion and assimilation, ere its purpose is fulfilled; and that each of these processes depend on the action of natural agents. In the vegetable kingdom, heat and fight as derived from a united source, are the agents appointed to bring about these results, and in order to ensure their proper action, they must both be present in a powerful degree: in artificial schemes of culture, we can command a supply of the one, but the other is not within our power; our consistency therefore depends on our applying so much of the one under our controul, as will secure the united action of it, with the existing degree of the other--consequently, _when light is absent, or deficient, heat should also be diminished; and when light is present and abundant, heat may safely be increased_. CHAP. VIII. ON THE ADMISSION OF AIR. The question of the admission of air, is one of some importance. It is an opinion, which was I believe first publicly brought forward by the late Mr. Knight, that an influx of a large volume of the external atmosphere, to the interior of forcing houses, is by no means requisite, and is often the source of very serious evils. Were it for no other reason, than that of avoiding the chilling influence of cold air on the tender tissue of plants growing in a high temperature, I should feel inclined to support such a view; but when there are facts sufficiently abundant, to prove, that plants do not themselves vitiate the air of such structures to an extent sufficient to render it unfit for their continued growth, or at least, that a sufficient interchange is constantly going on, without opening the sashes of a forcing house, the evidence appears to be overwhelming; and the necessity of continuing a practice so fraught with danger, and so frequently attended with disappointment, appears to be done away. The injury done to the tender foliage of plants in forcing houses, by contact with cold air, results from the increased capacity of air for moisture, as it become heated. When cold air is admitted to these structures, it cannot contain so great a quantity of aqueous matter, as it is capable of taking up when it becomes warmed: this increase of temperature, is soon in great measure, supplied to it, but rarely is a sufficient quantity of moisture, at the same time within its reach, to enable it to supply its increased capacity for aqueous matter: the consequence is, that on coming in contact with the foilage of the plants, which is of a succulent nature, and contains a great proportion of water, the warmed air continues to abstract a portion of moisture from the plants, until its capacity is satisfied; and hence the plants are robbed of their "life's blood." Besides this action, which is the cause of serious evil, the tissue itself is contracted and thereby injured, by reason of the degree of cold, which is at the first gush, liable to come in contact with the warm foliage. These remarks apply to cold air, when admitted in a large bulk, by opening the sashes; and when a draught is produced, by opening them, both at the back and front, and the top and bottom of the house. Deterioration of the air, by the action of the functions of the plants, could not take place, except in hermetically sealed structures: for by reason of the expansibility and elasticity of air, when it becomes at all heated, it not only gains egress, but also admission through the most minute crevices: that this interchange is sufficient to counteract any deteriorating influence which the plants might have on the internal air, with respect to their continued existence in it, is abundantly proved by the growth of plants in Ward's cases, from the interior of which the external air is excluded as fully as it possibly can be, without their being actually sealed: if therefore, any injurious effects result to plants, from their being cultivated in a close atmosphere, we must seek for the cause, in some other source, than the plants themselves. If any noxious qualities exist in the atmosphere of structures, to which the external air has not free ingress, they must result from some neglect or ignorance on our part, in suffering extraneous and unwholesome matters to accumulate in such situations, and there to decompose, and enter into combination with those gaseous bodies, which form the volume of the internal atmosphere of our plant structures. The existence of such extraneous matters, may indeed be traced to various sources; and they may be present, even when much vigilance is employed to prevent their accumulation; and therefore, as an inconceivably minute quantity, inappreciable to the senses, would frequently be sufficient to effect deterioration, it is possible that these impurities may often originate in sources which are least of all suspected. The decomposition of organic matter, whether animal or vegetable, may frequently be the source of injurious results in this respect; for although this is principally resolved into those elementary gases, which appear to form the basis of all created objects, yet there are other matters liberated, which may then enter into fresh combinations; and either this, or a disproportionate accumulation, even of these elementary bodies, may reasonably give rise to serious apprehension, and demand the exercise of discretion, in order to prevent them from becoming injurious. Besides this, these decomposing bodies, afford just the very state of things, which appears to be requisite to call into existence, and developement, a numerous phalanx of cryptogamic vegetables: not that such matters, can for a moment be rationally considered to generate, these _cellulares_; but that they afford a suitable pabulum, and medium of developement for those millions upon millions of sporules, which we may readily conceive to be dispersed in the atmosphere; and with which it may be teeming, though from their buoyancy and minuteness, they may float to us invisibly therein. The admission of the external air, by the ordinary process of opening the sashes of forcing houses, has been said to be unnecessary, or at least by no means important, in so far as the function of vegetable respiration is concerned, because the buoyancy of the air within all such structures, would enable it to escape in sufficient quantity through their openings and crevices, to counterbalance any thing like deterioration, which might by any means result from the vital action of the plant. The admission of external air, is also directly injurious to forced plants, during the winter and spring months, when a very material difference of temperature exists between it, and the internal volume, by contracting the vessels, impeding the circulation of the juices, and thereby checking the regular course of the growth of the plant. If these reasons fail to stamp it as a practice which ought not largely to be indulged in, it is further objectionable, as being productive of a prodigal expenditure of fuel: there can be little doubt but that generally speaking, a far greater quantity of fuel than is requisite, is expended in maintaining the temperature of forcing houses, solely from this cause; for the cold air when admitted, continues to abstract a portion of heat from the warmed air, until the temperature of both becomes equal, and consequently an increased application of fuel is requisite, in order to raise the newly admitted air to the same temperature as that which has been suffered to escape; and as the buoyancy of heated air is so great, an immense volume must necessarily rush out through a very small aperture, and thus there must also of necessity be an immense waste both of heat, and of fuel. A given portion of fuel, in its combustion, can give off but a certain proportionate ratio of heat, and if this is allowed unnecessarily to escape, the prodigality is self-evident. It is but a weak argument, which would seek to give to the admission of cold air, the office of regulating the temperature of plant houses; this ought to be effected by limiting the degree of heat _applied_, and not by attending to the _abstraction_ of that which had been previously administered with two lavish an hand. Besides the extravagance of such a course, the constitutional vigour and energy of the plants is at the same time sacrificed by undue excitement. The admission of cold air in large quantities, therefore, brings condemnation in its train, since it is unnecessary, and extravagant, as well as directly injurious. There are nevertheless some considerations which render the admission of air, when regulated and applied with discretion, an operation of importance to the health of plants: it is productive of beneficial effects in carrying off the noxious vapours, which may although unseen, and guarded against, still float in the atmosphere; and there can be little doubt that another beneficial influence which it exercises, results from the motion which is produced by a body of air changing its position, which probably promotes circulation, and increases the excitability of the plants. Since therefore a change of the volume of the atmosphere in plant houses, is productive of benefit, and the admission of a large body of cold air, is at the same time so decidedly objectionable, it is important, that in endeavouring to secure the benefits of the practice, the injuries which are liable to result, should if possible be avoided. The regulation for the admistion of air, which is described in the second chapter of this treatise, may be regarded as being of some importance in this respect, as well as in the provision which it includes, of supplying the heated air, with a due proportion of moisture. Physiologists tell us, that plants derive a considerable proportion of their food, directly from the atmosphere, by a process similar to the inhaling of animals; and that the substances thus derived, are carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, which contain the elements of organic matter in considerable proportions. The influence of the atmosphere is exerted beneficially, by its constituents entering into combinations with other matters, which are taken into the system by the roots, and spread out and exposed in the leaves: this exposure has so far the effect of altering the character of the substance carried up from the roots, that it is no longer a body of crude juice, but is undergoing a process of elaboration, and is being assimilated with the superincumbent tissue of the plant. There seems to be no reason why those particular gaseous bodies which plants appropriate to themselves from the atmosphere, should not to a great extent be supplied to them artificially, at such periods as it may be necessary, or desirable, to accelerate their growth, and induce a more perfect and mature developement. It has been already stated, that the most important of these aeriform bodies, are nitrogen, which plants derive from ammonia; and carbon, which they derive from carbonic acid gas, on the liberation of the oxygen, which is one of its constituents; neither of these, can however be appropriated, when in a free state, but only when in a state of combination, and forming either a gaseous or a fluid body. It is probable that nitrogen might be supplied to plants, through the medium of the atmosphere in an artificial manner, by placing within any structure, a portion of some of the volatile salts of ammonia, which latter being given off, would at once supply the demands of vegetation. Carbon might be applied, by the use of charcoal; and it is worthy of experiment how far the _combustion of charcoal_, in plant structures, by accelerating the formation of carbonic acid gas, may have a beneficial influence on vegetation. The use of charcoal as an ingredient in the soil, though doubtless partly, and perhaps principally mechanical, is nevertheless in all probability rendered advantageous in this very way; the slowness of its decomposition must however render the quantity applied, very homoeopathic in its nature. A series of experiments with the view of ascertaining the practicability of continually supplying to the atmosphere, those qualities which plants abstract from it, and of determining the manner, and the degree in which they should be applied, would be one of the most interesting and important matters, to which the minds of Horticultural reformers could possibly be directed; but it is most essential, to remember, at the same time, "that these are powerful agents, requiring much skill in their adaptation," and capable of effecting serious injury and disappointment, if indiscriminately applied. CHAP. IX. ON THE GROWTH OF MELONS. It is barely possible to suppose any use to which a structure which during the winter season had been devoted to the growth of Cucumbers, could be so legitimately appropriated in the summer, as that of the growth of the finer Melons of Persia, Cashmere, and the East. The superiority of such as these, in every point of view, over those kinds, which have been long in cultivation, would be an ample recompense for the appropriation of such valuable space to their use; whilst in no other structure could the peculiarities of the treatment they require, be so fully complied with, and be rendered so completely under control, as in that under consideration. There are some peculiarities in the treatment of these Melons, to the consideration of which, it may be desirable to devote a brief space; the most important of these, are the composition of the soil, the application of moisture at the root, the regulation of atmospheric warmth, and also, of atmospheric moisture; in these particulars, they offer some differences to what has been previously stated, with reference to the Cucumber. The soil in which the Melon delights to grow, is one of a more compact texture than is usually regarded as applicable for the Cucumber: a suitable compost consists of the "top spit" from a loamy pasture, of a texture _rather adhesive_, and retaining the herbage and roots of the grass; this should be collected a few months before it is used, so that these vegetable substances may be in a _decaying_ state, and it should be broken roughly to pieces, but by no means sifted; to it, should be added, about one-fourth part of vegetable mould: the whole should be well incorporated, and, before using, should be placed in a situation where it may not be liable to become saturated by heavy rain; which would serve to destroy the free and open texture, which it is so desirable to retain. In the application of moisture to the soil, the structure which is described in a previous chapter, will be found to present facilities, which peculiarly adapt it for the growth of these plants. In Persia, and the neighbouring countries, where the Melon is so successfully grown, the ground is irrigated by means of numerous channels, which, from the limitation of their exposed surface, are not peculiarly adapted to supply atmospheric moisture; but are yet sufficiently numerous to secure the perfect irrigation of the soil, within the reach of the roots. The tubes or shafts, represented at (_n_) in the sketch referred to above, are intended to communicate directly with a layer of coarse open material, extending entirely over the top of the tank, and beneath the soil; by means of these a supply of water should be poured beneath the soil, which will thus keep that portion immediately about the young roots, in a constant and complete state of saturation, by means of the steam which will arise, in consequence of the heat from the tank. A uniformly warm, and a thoroughly moist soil, will be thus easily secured, which are two important points in the growth of Persian Melons. It must be recollected that these conditions for supplying moisture, are recommended only during the time of growing the plants, and swelling the fruit; but as these latter approach their maturity, the degree of moisture must of course be gradually diminished. In connection with this moistened and genial soil, the Melon has naturally the advantage also, of powerful sun heat, and intense light; and these are two conditions which it is indispensable should be supplied in artificial cultivation, as fully as they can possibly be obtained. It is by means of the moisture of the soil, that the plants are enabled to grow on rapidly and vigorously, because that moisture renders the food contained in the soil, soluble, and therefore available to the roots; but the elaboration and assimilation of this food depends on the degree of _light_ and _heat_ with which they are supplied: without these conditions, to convert the crude sap, by their united agency, into organic compounds, such as lignin, gum, starch, and sugar, and to induce their deposition, the fruit will indeed be formed--it will grow, and perhaps may even tempt the eye; but unless these chemical and vital changes have taken place in its constituent parts, the eye, as it frequently happens, will have been deceived; and instead of the palate being gratified by a mature and luscious fruit, it will find nothing but a tasteless mass of pulp. The plants, therefore, cannot, in our latitude, receive too intense a degree of solar heat, or of light. The same cause which renders the natural atmosphere of the Melon countries elevated in temperature, renders it also comparatively dry; the sun drinks up the moisture which is deposited near the surface, or which may rise to that position; and by an exceedingly powerful influence effectually prevents the accumulation of moisture about the exposed parts of the plants. The atmosphere is nevertheless not in an arid state; the evaporation from a well-moistened soil effectually prevents this from being the case, but the excessive heat also as effectually and continually prevents an undue accumulation of moisture in the atmosphere. The application of this fact, to artificial practice, is plain; a less amount of moisture artificially applied, in comparison with the temperature, must be permitted, than when the cultivation of those plants is attempted whose natural habitats are less strongly featured in this respect. Such considerations as these naturally force on us the conclusion, that it is vain to attempt the cultivation of this noble fruit, except during that portion of the year when the sun exerts his greatest power in our latitude. It is not because they cannot be induced to grow at any other period of the year, for the mere extension of vegetable tissue will go on, though the influence of the natural agents is but limited and feeble; but it is because maturity, perfect development, and, above all, the full assimilation of the sap, cannot take place sufficiently to ensure a good flavour in the fruit, except light and heat are not only unimpeded and constant, but powerful and united in their action. CHAP. X. CONCLUDING REMARKS. I will here briefly recall attention to a most important point which the cultivator should continually keep in view: it is most important that he should _study Nature_; for if we may believe our senses, or place any confidence in overwhelming evidence, we may be certain that all the conditions we observe in a natural state of things, have been planned by an All-wise hand; and further, that a finite mind can never attempt with success, either to surpass or to dispense with any portion of that which an infinite being has ordained. "Order is Heaven's first law," and in whatever we may attempt to do, we shall not be wise, if we endeavour to effect our purpose by any means which may distort the fair proportions which unaided nature presents to our view. In cultivating plants, therefore, we should administer the conditions which are favourable to their growth and development, in somewhat the same proportions each to the other, in which they are naturally blended--not supplying one essential, in an undue manner, and, at the same time, neglecting others; for successful cultivation must ever depend upon the connection and influence of numerous circumstances upon each other, and can never be attained, unless these conditions are complied with, either designedly, or, as it often happens, by mere accident. Another point which it is important to keep in view, is that instructions should be studied, rather than copied, in their application to practice. No instructions can be given that should be blindly and implicitly followed. The circumstances under which plants are placed are varying every day, and even every hour, and, to be successful, horticultural practice must be varied also. It must, however, be varied according to principle. But even what are regarded as established laws and principles should not be heedlessly followed; to be truly successful, a man must not only be a practical enthusiast and a keen theorist; he must also be a skilful experimentalist: his experiments and their results, if carefully watched, deduced, recorded, and studied, will serve to guide him for the future. APPENDIX. _On Heating, Ventilating or Aerating, and Covering._ Since the publication of the first edition of this work in 1844, the views expressed in the second chapter, with reference to structures best adapted for Cucumber culture in the winter season, have met with much corroborative support. Respecting the questions of heating, ventilation, and covering, a few more words may be added. I have before recommended hot water tanks for supplying bottom heat, with attached pipes for the circulation of hot water to warm the atmosphere. I can see no reason for recommending any other arrangement now; for the experience of successive years goes to show that hot water, applied on sound principles, is, above all other means of heating, effective in its operation; and as to the question of expense, raised as an objection to it by some, it is sufficient to say, that, although one hot water apparatus may be fitted up in an expensive manner, another may be rendered perfectly successful in its operation, at the same time that it is extremely simple in its arrangements, and correspondingly inexpensive in its cost. A seeming error in the engraving, at p. 18, has been pointed out to me. In the description of the sketch it is stated that, "a series of pipes attached to the same boiler [which heats the tank] would supply the requisite heat to the atmosphere." The sketch itself shows these pipes to be considerably above the level of the water in the tank, and where they could not, consistently with the other arrangements, be thus employed. This may be explained thus:--the sketch was introduced rather for the purpose of illustrating certain proposed arrangements, as regards bottom heat and ventilation, than as furnishing an exact and detailed design for a model structure; and thus it happened that the pipes were merely shown to be placed at the front part of the house, to indicate that this was their proper relative position. There would be no practical difficulty in placing the pipes lower down, and nearly close to the front wall, so as to admit of the proposed connection; all that would be required to effect this, being to fix the slab, on which they rest--and which prevents the air from rushing upwards into the atmosphere of the house at this point--in a sloping position, instead of a horizontal one. The principle involved in the plan proposed for aëration or ventilation, is no doubt a sound one; and though the plan which is more particularly described may be modified and varied, yet it is believed to be efficient for its intended purpose. There can be no doubt that the admission of cold air to a structure in which tender plants are being forced, either during winter or early spring, is materially hurtful to the plants, in proportion to the tenderness of their constitution; and the Cucumber being, under those circumstances, a plant of a very tender and delicate nature, is especially susceptible of harm from this source. As a consequence resulting from this fact, there can be little hesitation in affirming that whatever fresh or external air it may be necessary to admit, during the period referred to, should be warmed before it reaches the plants, and in being warmed not burned, but supplied with the additional moisture its increased heat capacitates it to take up, and which, to be congenial to vegetation, it requires. This is provided for by the plan already recommended, where the cold air is made to pass through the tank containing the heated water which warms the soil. By a perfectly practicable modification of this arrangement, not only may this result be secured, but also the continual circulation of the internal atmosphere may at pleasure be assisted and accelerated, during the time when it might not be necessary to admit fresh air. This would be an additional advantage. The arrangement proposed to effect this, is to conduct the cold external air through a heated chamber containing the tanks--these latter being covered, but also admitting of being opened to any extent to supply moisture or steam in the proportion required. The cold air, after passing upwards through the chamber, escapes at the front of the house, and ascends to the upper part of the house, from whence it finds its way downwards near the back wall, and there again enters the chamber, through openings provided for the purpose. The circulation of the internal atmosphere would be thus facilitated and accelerated, even without the admission of any current of external air, for, of course, there is more or less of this kind of movement going on in the atmosphere, wherever and in whatever form a source of artificial heat is present. Another mode of combining internal atmospheric motion, with ventilation, and by which the cold air is warmed before it reaches the plants, has been practised with very marked success, in a vinery at Park-hill, Streatham, Surrey; and I have described it in the _Journal of the Horticultural Society_[1] as follows:--"This plan consists in passing a zinc pipe, thickly perforated with small holes, from end to end of the vinery, and exactly beneath the range of hot water pipes, which heat the structure. In the outer [end] wall, communicating with this perforated pipe by means of a kind of broad funnel, a register valve is fixed, by which the admission of air can be regulated with the utmost nicety, or the supply be shut off altogether: this valve is fixed a little below the level of the perforated pipe. The action of this contrivance was evident enough from the motion communicated to the foliage of the vines; and its effects were apparent in the unusually healthy and vigorous appearance they bore, until their period of ripening. In this case, sufficient moisture was kept up by syringing the walls and pipes, wetting the pathway, and by the use of evaporating troughs, placed on the metal pipes, and kept constantly filled with water." In another communication published in the work already quoted,[2] after alluding to the now well-known garden truism, that a comparatively low night temperature is indispensable to the maintenance of vigorous growth in plants of all kinds, I have advocated a more extended adoption of the practice of night covering hot houses, as a means of permitting the low night temperature required, and at the same time securing the plants against the extreme cold to which they would thus be sometimes liable. From the changeable nature of our climate, there is some difficulty in apportioning the degree of applied heat, so as to suit exactly the requirements of the plants in these respects; and it is especially difficult to maintain with certainty the low degree of night temperature which would be desirable, and at the same time avoid risking the safety of the plants, through a sudden declension of the temperature of the exterior air. At present this difficulty has to be met by extraordinary care on the part of the gardener, and often by serious encroachments on his proper time for study and for rest: even then sometimes without success. This end would be much more effectually and certainly secured by a _complete system_ of covering hot-houses and forcing-houses; and this plan would secure the further advantage of avoiding the undue stimulation of the plants by a then unnecessary amount of heat, applied solely to prevent the very evil which covering also prevents, namely, the risk of excessive cold during the night. The principle upon which a covering acts most efficiently, is that of enclosing a complete body or stratum of air exterior to the glass, this body of air being entirely shut away from the surrounding outer atmosphere. Air being a bad conductor of heat, the warmth of the interior is by this means prevented from passing to the exterior atmosphere; or, in other words, the exterior atmosphere, being prevented from coming in contact with the glass, cannot absorb from the interior any material proportion of its heat. To secure this advantage, however, the coverings _must_ be kept from contact with the glass, and they should extend on every side where the structure is formed of materials which readily conduct heat--such as glass or iron. The coverings should in fact form neither more nor less than _a close outer case_. One point connected with the application of these coverings, which I consider would constitute an improvement, and which, as far as I am aware, has never been acted on, is that of having them to fit so accurately as to exclude the external air (a matter of no difficulty in the degree required), and then to have a series of ventilators provided, to stand open during the night, whereby an interchange of the atmospheric volume would take place throughout the night, without exposing the plants to contact with cold air. The stagnation of the internal atmosphere would thus be prevented, in consequence of the interior air and the air between the glass and the covering being of different degrees of density, owing to their being differently charged with heat. By this plan, therefore, I conceive that direct benefit would accrue to the plants; and it would also materially assist in preserving that cooler--but not cold--night temperature, which the fear of injury from frost prevents from being more fully realised in ordinary cases. [Illustration] The annexed diagram represents one of the many ways in which this idea might be carried into practice. It will be understood that, as here shown, the side shutters and end shutters (the latter not indicated), fit into grooves, the upper groove being attached to iron pins, and thus fixed at a proper distance from the building, without obstructing the passage of air along the enclosed space; and that on the lower side being so fixed as to exclude the external air in that direction. The top or roof shutters also run into a groove along the ridge of the roof, and at the lower end fix close down to the top of the side shutters, fastening with a button. Each of the shutters should have a projecting fillet fixed on one side, so as to shut close over the adjoining one. The shutters themselves should of course be made of light frame-work, strengthened where necessary, with small iron rods. The material used for covering them may be the asphalte felt, now manufactured extensively for roofing purposes, or strong brown paper, coated with tar; the latter is used extensively in Germany for this purpose, and is found to be very durable and cheap; it is there even preferred to every other material. Though the covering of hot-houses has been already practised in some cases, I am not aware of any one having adopted a close covering with the view to facilitate ventilation or aëration during the night. It appears to me that the circulation of air, secured by the means here proposed, would have much influence in excluding cold, whilst at the same time it would prevent the interior from becoming too warm and close. _On Transplanting and the use of Turf Pots._ I have, at p. 26, given what appear to me to be some of the principal reasons against the practice of transplanting, or planting out, Cucumber and other plants. When this is done after any quantity of roots are produced, some injury or check must be sustained during the process; and checks of this kind are opposed to the realisation of the greatest results within the shortest period, which of course is the great object in view. Where it is inconvenient to plant the seeds in the places the plants are intended to occupy, or to put out the young plants during the earliest period of their development, or where propagation by cuttings or layers, is adopted, and the plants of course have to be potted separately, so as to be in a removable state, the following simple plan may be adopted, and will be found to combine all the advantages and conveniences attending the use of pots, with the avoidance of the evils of transplantation, &c. The plan referred to, consists in the employment of turf or peat, so contrived as to supply the place of pots, and which of course at the time of planting is simply placed, along with the plant it contains, at once into the soil, without in the least disturbing the roots, which, growing through the substance of the turf, extend beyond it in all directions into the free soil provided for them. These turf pots are made of spongy, fibrous turf--whether loamy or peaty is not material, provided it is full of fibre, so as to admit of being readily traversed by the roots. The grassy surface is evenly removed, and the under-turves are cut three or four inches in thickness, and are then divided into squares of about three inches across. The centre of each of these little squares is taken out by means of an iron scoop, such as that represented in the annexed sketch; and this is then filled up with soil, and the plant, or seed, or cutting, or layer, inserted as if it were into an ordinary flower pot. It will be obvious that by this plan, every plant is independent and perfectly removable--thus securing the convenience of sowing or planting and rearing the plants in pots during their earliest stages: on the other hand, at the time of planting out permanently, the plant, turf, and all being set carefully into the soil, no check is sustained, because the roots remain undisturbed, and may, as they advance, penetrate through the turf into the prepared soil which surrounds them; in this way the advantages of sowing or planting at the very first in the position the plants are intended to occupy permanently, are secured. [Illustration] This plan of sowing seeds, or of planting young plants intended for transplantation, into pots made of turf, is not only applicable to cucumbers, but might be very extensively adopted in the case of annuals and half hardy plants raised in frames, during the spring, in large quantities for the flower garden. In these cases, however, as the quantity that could be reared within a given space would be an object, the turves should be as small as possible in their lateral dimensions--a bore of two inches and a half, with half an inch on each side, thus making the diameter three inches and a half, would be found convenient in this respect. For cucumbers, however, or when the plan was applied to any special object, a larger size might be employed, which would allow of the plants attaining a larger size before it would be necessary to place them in their permanent positions. _On Watering the Soil._ In the diagram at p. 18, and the description of it at p. 20, I have indicated and recommended a plan of moistening the soil by pouring water down beneath the soil: this was to be done by the help of tubes provided for the purpose. The soil was supposed to rest on the top of the hot water-tank, which was to supply bottom heat; and immediately beneath the soil, a layer of open rubble was proposed to be placed, among which the water applied might find its way, and gradually moisten the superincumbent soil. Mr. Hunter, gardener at Mawley Hall, in detailing[3] his sixteen years' experience in tank-heating, has in great measure corroborated these views; and as his corroboration of the plan I have recommended, embodies some useful hints, I will quote the substance of his remarks:--"I had a pit erected, thirty-eight feet long, seven and a half wide, divided into four compartments, for growing melons and cucumbers, with a tank extending the whole length of the pit, six feet wide and six inches deep. Across this I put larch spars, and upon them turves, with the grassy side downwards, and on them the soil for the melons and cucumbers. The plants grew and did well for a time, but they were of short duration in comparison with the dung-bed. Instead of the moisture ascending through the soil as I expected, I found that the heat from the tank dried the turves and soil next to them as dry as dust, and that there was no such thing as obtaining a moist heat from hot water without the soil was in contact with it. Next year I put broken stones upon the spars, and turves upon them, and made my arrangements so that I could occasionally run water in the tank to wet the turves and the soil next them. This was an improvement; and I went on prosperously for some years, till the spars began to decay. I then had iron bars put across, and two of the compartments covered with squares, a foot in diameter, and one inch thick; the other two with slates; both slates and squares jointed with Roman cement, to prevent the soil from getting into the tank, as I had found the inconvenience of it when using the spars. I put some broken stones upon the covers, and turves upon them, and then the soil. Here my original difficulty occurred; the soil next the covers got too dry, and to moisten it from above was impracticable, without making the soil a complete puddle, which would have stopped the healthy growth of the plants. To remedy this, I put six small earthen pipes into each division, the one end resting upon the tank covers, the other standing up above the soil. When I found by the watch sticks that the soil was getting dry, I poured water down the pipes through a tin funnel which I had made on purpose; this spread itself over the surface of the tank covers, and diffused a gentle moisture to the soil, so congenial to the growth of plants. This was a move in the right direction. I then thought that it would be better to pour the manure water down upon the tank covers, which I have done since. I found the broken stones over the tank covers troublesome; they were also a harbour for wood-lice. I now use only a layer of leaves next the covers, and they are cleared out with the soil." _On Atmospheric Humidity._ Cucumbers cannot at any time be successfully grown in an arid atmosphere, although, during the winter season, they require a much less proportion of atmospheric humidity, than under the influence of longer days and brighter light; and conversely, the degree which would be necessary to secure their welfare in summer, would be fatal to them in winter. An experienced gardener would tell almost instinctively, at either season, whether a sufficient supply was present or not; but less experienced cultivators would need some index, or register, to guide them. Such an index is afforded by the hygrometer; but most of the kinds of hygrometers are delicate instruments, and hardly suited for garden use. What is needed in this case is, not an instrument which requires minute observations and calculations, but something that will at once indicate the atmospheric humidity as plainly as the thermometer does the temperature, and which may be as easily read off and understood. Simmons' hygrometer, recently introduced to the notice of horticulturists, professes to supply this desideratum; and though, perhaps, not a sufficiently accurate instrument for purely scientific purposes, yet, as simply and clearly indicating what is at least an approximation to the existing degree of atmospheric humidity, it is to be regarded as a useful garden hygrometer. By it, the degree of dryness or humidity is indicated on a dial-plate, by means of a moveable arm resembling the hand of a clock. The dial-plate is marked off into degrees, expressing the amount of moisture in the air, between what is observed when the instrument is plunged in water on the one hand, and exposed to excessive dryness on the other. As my own experience of this instrument, though favourable to its use, is still but limited, I cannot do better than introduce here the following remarks of Mr. Beck, of Isleworth, a very successful cultivator of plants, and one who has had considerable experience in the use of these instruments. It will be observed that Mr. Beck's standard for the orchid-house will be about suitable for cucumbers.[4] Mr. Beck observes,--"The skilful gardener, observing the pointer to advance with dryness and return with moisture, will soon form a standard for himself, by which to regulate his stove, greenhouse, &c.; still some general scale is desirable. Two conditions must be carefully observed:--1. The instrument must neither be hung in the sun, nor where it will be liable to get wetted or saturated. 2. It must not be subjected to greater heat than is suited to vegetable life. For the six months commencing with August and ending with January, 40 deg. in, the morning, increasing to 60 deg. about noon, and declining again to 40 deg. at night, is about the right scale for the orchid-house; whilst a range from 50 deg. to 80 deg. would be suitable for both the stove and greenhouse in those months. In the other half year, February and July inclusive, 30 deg. to 40 deg., morning and evening, running up to 80 deg. in the middle of the day for the orchid-house; 40 deg. and 50 deg., and up to 70 deg. for the stove; and 50 deg. to 80 deg. for the greenhouse, will prove very suitable. The above scale is desirable, but I do not say it is always attainable. Ours is an uncertain climate; sometimes a dry east wind will almost parch us up; at other times a southerly one, with wet, will cause a superabundance, which will have to be corrected, possibly by a gentle fire, and a free admission of air. The alteration hereby effected in the atmosphere of the houses will soon be evidenced by the hygrometer, and mildew and fogging off be kept at a distance. Opposed to an excess of moisture in the dull months of the year, is the dryness consequent on the summer and autumnal sunshine. Then, during the heat of the days, the instrument will seem to have run wild. Throwing water on the floors of the houses, and every means of increasing the amount of moisture, seems but of little or temporary avail; Simmons will go up, spite of all, to 90 deg. or 100 deg., and none the worse either, for it is still a faithful indicator, and as sure as the day declines, and the heat of the sun is withdrawn, so will it come back to a suitable point, when the plants are watered and the floors are wetted for the night. Remembering then, the variableness of our climate, I candidly admit that I consider any precise directions of very little value. None can be given that shall be implicitly followed, or on which success shall certainly attend. Horticultural practice should be made dependant upon ever-varying circumstances." Mr. Belville, of the Royal Observatory, has constructed the following Table, from a series of observations made with Simmons' hygrometer in connexion with the dew point, as obtained by a Mason's hygrometer, or a dry and wet thermometer. +------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Range Mean | | |of Simmons' Humidity of| | |Hygrometer. the Air.| | +--------------------------| | | 20° to 30° 1·00 |Extreme saturation; air precipitates | | | moisture at a fall of temperature. | | 30 .. 40 0·96 | | | 40 .. 50 0·89 | | | 50 .. 60 0·81 | | | 60 .. 70 0·77 | } | | 70 .. 80 0·72 | }Ordinary fine dry weather. | | 80 .. 90 0·67 | } | | 90 .. 100 0·59 | | |100 .. 120 0·50 | Air contains one half of the moisture | | | it is capable of holding in solution;| | | in England very dry weather. | +--------------------------+---------------------------------------+ Example:--Suppose hygrometer read 45°, the mean humidity corresponding is 93. Again, if hygrometer read 90°, the mean humidity corresponding is 59°. _Mushrooms._ (See p. 22.) Convenience for growing mushrooms may always be planned in a cucumber house; and as these excellent fungi are universally approved, it may be useful to append an epitome of the mode in which they should be cultivated. The best, or, at least, most convenient situation for the bed, would be beneath that provided for the cucumber plants (see p. 18). The front may be formed of two course of brick-on-edge, and if divisions are required, they should be formed in the same way. The bottom should be made even, and rendered dry. The material for forming the bed itself consists of short stable litter, with horse-droppings, but chiefly the latter, brought to a certain state of fermentation. The droppings and litter should be obtained daily from the stable, until enough for a bed is collected; it should, from day to day, be thrown up into a flattish heap, in a dry place, where it will ferment very slightly. As soon as enough is got together to begin to ferment, the heap must be turned over; and in these turnings, the outer and inner parts of the heap, as well as the fresh and the fermenting, must be well mixed up together; the heaps should be turned every second day, and should never be made large, or else the dung would become both too hot and too dry, either of which would spoil it. To avoid this, the heaps should be flat and shallow, with as much outside as possible; in this way the air, acting on a considerable portion of it, renders it rather dry, and checks too rapid fermentation. This preparation must be continued until the whole mass is brought to an uniform mild, dryish state of fermentation. Then the bed may be made in the following manner:--About three inches of the prepared dung is laid evenly over the bottom, and is beaten down firmly with a flat heavy wooden mallet. Another layer is then put on in the same way, and this is repeated until the bed is formed to a thickness of about six inches. The next two inches of the dung should have about a sixth part of light turfy loam reduced to mould, and sifted, mixed with it to give it body. The bed is now prepared, and is to be spawned as soon as it is seen that it does not heat violently. The heat ought not to exceed 90 degrees: if it reaches higher than this, holes must be made, a few inches apart, to let the heat pass off, and in a day or two these may be filled up again. The spawn is to be put in when the heat ranges about 75 degrees; lumps of spawn about as large as a small egg may be used; a hole should be made with the fingers about two inches deep, the spawn inserted, and the material of the bed closed about it. Probably by this time there will be no danger of overheating, and if so, the soil may be put on; if, however, there is any inclination to overheat, wait till it has passed off before putting on the soil. The soil used should be decomposed turfy loam, moderately dry, so as to bear compression without running together like paste, but damp enough to become firm, close, and even, when beaten closely. About two inches in thickness should be put on, and this is to be beaten down quite firm and close. The beds are then finished. It is as well to cover the surface with a thin layer of short hay, to prevent it becoming quite dry. Mushroom beds seldom require water; after they have been some time in bearing, the beds sometimes get dry, and in such cases, if they have a moderate soaking of _tepid_ water, and the surface is covered as before, a new crop will spring up. The covering is best removed when the beds are in bearing. It is seldom advisable to apply water when the beds are coming into bearing. Water should never be used in any other than a tepid state. Mushrooms are most prized in the summer, though the atmosphere of a cucumber-house would not then be suitable for them, unless the space about them could be closed in, so as to retain a close, somewhat humid atmosphere. They would succeed very well without being enclosed, during the season for forcing cucumbers. Under the treatment which has been detailed, the beds would usually come into bearing in about six weeks from the time of spawning; and, under favourable circumstances, would continue in bearing for two or three months. Footnotes: [1] The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London, vol. I. p. 114. [2] Ib. vol. II. p. 29. [3] Gardener's Journal, 1847, p. 339. [4] Gardener's Chronicle 1847. Transcriber's Notes: Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. The following misprints have been corrected: "influenee" corrected to "influence" (page 21) "circumstauces" corrected to "circumstances" (page 32) "analagous" corrected to "analogous" (page 36) "shonld" corrected to "should" (page 36) "distributiug" corrected to "distributing" (page 40) "appropaiated" corrected to "appropriated" (page 55) "conditious" corrected to "conditions" (page 72) Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation usage have been retained. Punctuation has been corrected without note. 
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[Sidenote: Plants for Small Gardens] SMALL GARDENS AND HOW TO MAKE THE MOST OF THEM (_COUNTRY OR SUBURBAN_). =Send a small Rough Plan of your Garden=, showing points of the compass, and stating whether in town, country, or suburb, to Mr. WOOD, and he will give you a list of PLANTS sufficient and suitable for the different positions. Communication in regard to _Rockeries_ and _Rock Plants_ is specially invited. List of ALPINES, Hardy HERBACEOUS PLANTS and AQUATICS on application to J. WOOD, Woodville, Kirkstall, LEEDS. SYNOPSIS OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I =The General Arrangement of the Garden= _What to go in for, and what to avoid--Brick walls--Trees, their advantages and disadvantages, etc._ CHAPTER II =Lawns, Paths, Beds, and Border= _How to keep the lawns level--Paths, and how to lay them--Beds and bedding--The new style VERSUS the old--Flower borders and their backgrounds--Improvement of the soil._ CHAPTER III =On the Duty of Making Experiments= _Description of a small yet lovely garden--Colour schemes--A novel way of growing flowers, the spring dell--Variety in the flower-garden._ CHAPTER IV =Some Neglected but Handsome Plants= _The sweet old columbine--BOCCONIA CORDATA at Hampton Court--CAMPANULAS as continuous bloomers--The heavenly larkspurs--Christmas roses--The tall and brilliant lobelias--Chinese-lantern plants--Tufted pansies._ CHAPTER V =The Conservatory and Greenhouse= _Mistakes in staging--Some suitable climbers--Economical heating--Aspect, shading, etc.--The storing of plants--No waste space--Frames._ CHAPTER VI =The Tool Shed and Summer-House= _Spades and the Bishop--Weeding a pleasure--Trusty thermometers-- Summer-houses and their adornment._ CHAPTER VII =Roses for Amateurs= _Teas--Hybrid perpetuals--Bourbons--Rose-hedges--Pillar roses--Suitable soil._ CHAPTER VIII =Enemies of the Garden= _Slugs, and how to trap them--Blight or green fly--Earwigs--Wireworms-- Snails--Mice--Friends or Foes?_ CHAPTER IX =The Rockery= _A few hints on its construction--Aspect and soil--A list of alpines-- Other suitable plants._ CHAPTER X =Trees, and How to Treat Them--Shrubs= _Some good plants for growing beneath trees--List of hardy shrubs-- Climbers--Enriching the soil._ CHAPTER XI =The Ins and Outs of Gardening= _Planting--Watering--"Puddling"--Shelter--Youth and age, in relation to plants--Catalogue defects--A time for everything._ CHAPTER XII =The Profitable Portion= _Fruit, best kinds for small gardens--Size minus flavour--Vegetables-- Herbs._ CHAPTER XIII =Annuals and Biennials= _Why they fail--Table of good annuals--Table of biennials._ CHAPTER XIV =Window-Boxes= _How to make them--Relation of box to residence they are intended to adorn--Suitable soil--Window-plants for different aspects._ CHAPTER XV =Table Decoration= _Graceful arrangement--Thick-skinned stems--Preserving and resuscitating flowers--Colour schemes--Table of flowers in season._ CHAPTER XVI =The Propagation of Plants= _By division--By cuttings--By seeds--By layers._ CHAPTER XVII =The Management of Room Plants= _Best kinds for "roughing it"--Importance of cleanliness--The proper way of watering them._ CHAPTER XVIII =Various Hints= _Artificial manures--Labelling--Cutting off dead flowers--Buying plants--Tidiness in the garden, etc._ TERMS USED BY GARDENERS =Mulching=--Term used for applying manure in a thick layer round the roots of shrubs, as a protection from frost. =Pricking off=--Transplanting seedlings into separate pots. ="Eyes"=--Incipient leaf-buds. ="Heel"=--The hardened part of a cutting, formed where it is joined to the original plant. =Annual=--Lasting one year. =Biennial=--Lasting two years. =Perennial=--Lasting several years. =Herbaceous=--Term applied to plants which die down completely every winter. =Deciduous=--Not ever-green; this term is applied to trees the leaves of which fall off every autumn. =Suckers=--Shoots that spring up from the common stock, as distinct from those which belong to the engrafted portion. =Pegging down=--Bending branches down close to the ground, and securing them with a peg. =Runners=--Separate little plants, issuing from the parent, and ultimately rooting for themselves. =Spit=--A spade's depth. ="Strike"=--A term applied to cuttings making roots. =Pinching out=--Rubbing off undesirable shoots. ="Blind"=--A term applied to plants which turn out flowerless. =Heeling in=--The process of temporarily covering plants with soil, till the weather is suitable for setting them out in their permanent quarters. =Carpet-bedding=--The geometrical arrangement of plants. _All Seeds and Bulbs sent carriage and packing free on receipt of remittance._ BARR'S SEEDS FOR FLOWER & KITCHEN GARDEN OF FINEST SELECTED STRAINS & TESTED GROWTH =The Best Seeds in the World= for securing a supply of Vegetables "the year round," and for keeping the Flower Garden and Greenhouse always gay, and with abundance of Flowers to cut for vases and bouquets. BARR'S 21/-Collection of Vegetable Seeds Contains a liberal assortment of the following useful Vegetables:--Beans (Broad and French), Beet, Borecoli, Broccoli, Brussels Sprouts, Cabbage, Capsicum, Carrot, Cauliflower, Celery, Colewort, Corn Salad, Cucumber, Cress, Endive, Herbs, Leek, Lettuce, Melon, Mustard, Onions, Parsley, Parsnips, Peas, Radish, Salsify, Savoy Cabbage, Scorzonera, Spinach, Tomato, Turnip, and Vegetable Marrow. Other Collections of =Barr's Superior Vegetable Seeds=:--=5/6=, =7/6=, =12/6=, =42/-=, =63/-=, and =105/-=. Full particulars sent on application. BARR'S CHOICE FLOWER SEEDS =BARR'S SEED GUIDE= contains a Select List of all the most beautiful Annuals and Perennials. Special Collections for all purposes and many Sterling Novelties. =12= Packets of the Best Hardy Annuals =2/6= =25= " " " " " =5/6= =10= " " " " Perennials =2/6= =25= " " " " " =7/6= For Collections of Half-hardy Annuals or Perennials, and Seeds of Plants for Rockwork, &c., see BARR'S SEED GUIDE, _free on application_. =BARR'S= Seed Guide, containing many useful notes on culture, which will be found of great value to Gardeners, Amateurs and Exhibitors, free on application. =BARR'S= Catalogue of Hardy Perennials and Alpines, Ready in February, Free. =BARR'S= Catalogue of Bulbs and Tubers for Spring Planting, Ready in February, Free. =BARR'S= List of Autumn-flowering Bulbs, Ready 1st July, Free. =BARR'S= Catalogue of Beautiful Daffodils, Ready in August, Free. =BARR'S= Catalogue of Bulbs for Garden and Greenhouse, Ready 1st September, Free. BARR & SONS, 11, 12 & 13, KING ST., COVENT GARDEN, LONDON Nurseries--Long Ditton, Near Surbiton, Surrey. [Sidenote: Corpulency and the Cure.] "HOW STOUT YOU ARE GETTING." There is too often a scarcely veiled reproach in that exclamation: "How stout you are getting!" At any rate, the corpulent one is generally sensitive on that point, and perhaps feels a reproach where none is intended. Certain it is that to lose the _svelte_ symmetry of youth, to broaden out, to "swell wisibly," as Sam Weller has it, and finally to become "fat and scant of breath," is a process at once humiliating and distressing, especially to those who possess that keen appreciation of personal appearance which is a part of what is termed good breeding. There is now, however, no excuse for those who have resigned themselves to carry to the grave the rotund proportions of a Falstaff. The perusal of a little book entitled "Corpulency and the Cure," by F. CECIL RUSSELL, has afforded us not a little interest and instruction on a subject that has hitherto received but superficial attention from the medical profession. Mr. Russell has made the cure of obesity his life's study, and judging from the record of his achievements--over a thousand grateful letters from his patients are printed in the book--he has been singularly successful. The author's treatment is not by "wasting." There is no "sweating"; there are no stringent restrictions as to eating and drinking; no drastic conditions of any kind. The medicine prescribed is simple and pleasant, purely vegetable, and perfectly harmless. Its action is two-fold; it reduces the abundant fatty tissue at a very rapid rate--in some cases to the extent of over 1lb. or 2lbs. in twenty-four hours--usually from 3lbs. to 4lbs. in a week (sometimes considerably more), and at the same time it acts as a refreshing and invigorating tonic, promoting a healthy appetite, and dispelling the feeling of depression and extreme _malaise_ experienced by the majority of corpulent people. "Does the fat return after cessation of the treatment?" is a question that many will ask. No, under normal conditions it does not. Mr. Russell's treatment goes to the root of the malady, and, without having the slightest pernicious effect even on the most delicate persons, eliminates the cause of the tendency to corpulence. "Corpulency and the Cure," a dainty little book of some 256 pages, is now in its eighteenth edition. We would cordially recommend such of our readers who are troubled with what we will call, for the sake of euphony, "exaggerated _embonpoint_," to procure a copy by sending two penny stamps to Mr. F. C. Russell, Woburn House, Store Street, Bedford Square, London. This well-known specialist can claim the unique distinction of having successfully treated over 10,000 cases of obesity. A UNIQUE TREATMENT. The "Russell" treatment is a marvellously efficacious and radical cure which is not only not harmful, but extremely vitalising and strengthening, promoting appetite and aiding digestion, assimilation and nutrition. Meanwhile the reduction of adipose matter goes steadily on until normal weight is reached. =No Noxious Drugs.= =No Stringent Dietary.= =No Drastic Restrictions.= AN UNFAILING TEST. The weighing machine will prove that the reduction of fat commences within 24 hours, the loss of weight varying from 1/2 to 2lb.; even more than this in severe cases of obesity. The compound forming the basis of the treatment is purely vegetable, & wholly free from objectionable ingredients. Whilst permanently reducing the body to normal weight and size, the "Russell" treatment has a wonderfully strengthening & invigorating effect upon the system. Mr. Russell will be pleased to give to all readers suffering from Obesity a copy of his book, "Corpulency and the Cure," 256 pages. When writing for the Book, enclose two penny stamps to cover its postage. The Book will be forwarded in a sealed plain envelope. ADDRESS:-- Woburn House, 27, Store Street, Bedford Square, London, W.C. SMALL GARDENS CHAPTER I The General Arrangement of the Garden _What to go in for, and what to avoid--Brick walls--Trees, their advantages and disadvantages, etc._ It is imperative that =a small garden=, such as one generally finds attached to suburban or small houses, should be made the very most of. Frequently, however, its owners seem to think that to attempt to grow anything in such a little plot of ground is a veritable waste of time and money, as nothing ever comes of it. The aim of this book is to show that even the tiniest piece of land can be made pretty and even profitable, if due attention be given it. =WELL BEGUN IS HALF DONE.= To begin with, it is well to remember that the tenant of a small garden should not endeavour to represent every feature he sees in large grounds; the poverty-stricken shrubbery and pond just about large enough for a nice bath, are too often seen, and only call forth ridicule. Some landscape gardeners have even objected to the presence of a lawn, where the space at disposal is very limited indeed, but to my mind =a little turf is always advisable=, for it not onl entices people into the fresh air for a game, but forms a good foil for flowering plants, and above all looks so well during the winter. =A long narrow garden= is always easier to deal with than a square plot of land, the range of vision not being "brought up short," as it were. It is well to take heed of this fact where there is any choice in the matter. =Good brick walls= are a great help in gardening, though alas! in these hurried days they are becoming much rarer, the wooden fence being run up so quickly, and at far less expense. As regards =the walks=, it is better to have one path wide enough for two people abreast than several unsociably narrow ones. Each path should lead somewhere, to the summer-house, or a gate, for instance: otherwise it looks inconsequent. Besides the flower-garden proper, =a nursery= for making experiments, sowing seeds, and striking cuttings, should find a place, if possible; a rubbish-heap is invaluable, too, where all decayed vegetable refuse, road-scraping, soapsuds, etc., should be thrown. In autumn, all the leaves the gardener sweeps up should be placed near by, both heaps being frequently turned over to allow of the noxious gas escaping, and to assist decomposition. The =rubbish corner= should be at the furthest extremity of the garden, though it need not be unsightly if a screen is placed around it. Privet is certainly the quickest growing shrub for that purpose, but, as it is so common, other shrubs, such as =pyrus japonica=, =arbutus=, =barberry=, and =pyracantha=, may be used. =THE JOYS OF A GREENHOUSE.= If there is no greenhouse, try to obtain one; it is such an infinite delight all through the dark months of the year, and this without any great cost for fuel. A Rippingille oil-stove, with one four-inch wick, will suffice to keep the frost out of a structure measuring 16 × 10, if a lean-to (that is, attached to a dwelling-house). Even this expense may be avoided where it is built against a kitchen wall, though, if the wall happened to face north, only ferns and just a few flowers would thrive. But even these would form a great interest, especially to invalids, who often find their greatest pleasure in pottering about under their "little bit of glass." =A VEXED QUESTION.= The vexed question of =lopping one's neighbours' trees= is sure to crop up sooner or later. However much detriment the trees may be doing, by preventing the free access of sun and air, tenants should know that the law only justifies them in cutting down those branches which actually overhang their own domains. This being the case, it is often the best "to grin and bear it," and lop the trees as little as possible, for we must acknowledge that the fine form of a tree is always spoilt when interfered with to any great extent. If the border would, in any case be shady, so much the better; it will only require a little more attention in the matter of watering, etc. After all, shade from the hot summer sun is absolutely necessary if we would enjoy a garden, therefore it is always well to hesitate over an act which takes but a few minutes to do, but may need years to repair. Where the trees overhang a good south or west wall the matter is more serious; it is then advisable to cut back as far as possible, for roses, peach-trees, and, indeed, most =climbers resent the constant drip= they are obliged to endure in wet weather. A list of plants which do well under trees in various aspects is given in another chapter. =BREAKING UP.= As the eye wearies of the straight piece of lawn with gravel path and border surrounding it, where practicable the ground should be broken up a bit. Some wide =trellis-work=, painted dark-green, with an arch-way on either side, helps to do this, and lends a pleasant sense of mystery to what might otherwise be a prosaic garden. It should be covered with all manner of creepers, such as clematis, jasmine, roses in variety, and some of the hardy annuals. Very tender plants should not be put on a trellis, as it does not by any means take the place of a wall, being more draughty than the open ground, though such things as the _ceanothus_ will often live through several winters, and bloom beautifully every summer in such a spot, till an unusually hard frost kills them outright. =Mulching=, however, of which more anon (see Glossary), materially aids in preserving them. =In gardening it is the little things that tell.= A mere trifle often makes the difference between failure and success. People will hardly believe, for instance, how important it is that certain plants should only receive =soft water=, and continue giving the water laid on by the company when all the time gallons and gallons of =precious rain= from heaven are running to waste. It is only a question of a tank to preserve it, which should be in an unobtrusive situation, though easily get-at-able. Where alpines are concerned, rainwater should be the only beverage, and this reminds me that a =rockery= on which to grow these gems of other countries is not such an impossibility in a town garden as might be thought by their scarcity. =HOW NOT TO DO IT.= The rockery, as seen in most gardens, both public and private, is too often an example of "how not to do it." A heterogeneous mass of clinkers, planted here and there with ivy, and exposed to the full force of sun and wind, is not to be named in the same breath with those at Kew, for instance. Of course, these are not made with bricks at all, but of soft grey stone, rather difficult to obtain by amateurs. Nevertheless, the shape and general characteristics may be copied; indeed, a day every now and then spent in the Royal Gardens at Kew or in any other well planned gardens, is a liberal education in such matters, and a great help in laying out a garden to good effect, though, naturally, everything must be considerably modified. CHAPTER II Lawn, Paths, Beds, and Border _How to keep a lawn level--Paths, how to lay them--Beds and bedding--The new style versus the old--Flower-borders and their backgrounds--Improvement of the soil._ =THE AUTOCRAT OF THE GARDEN.= We have spoken of the general arrangement of the suburban garden, and must now proceed to particularize. First as to =the lawn=: It might often be described as a thing invented to keep the journeyman gardener in constant work, for where that individual only comes for a day or even half a day each week (on which basis this book is written) he generally seems to occupy his time in rolling, mowing, and sweeping the grass. An endeavour should a made to curtail this lengthy business, if it can be done without hurting his very sensitive feelings. When a boot-boy is kept, he can be set to roll the grass before and after it is mown, and also assist in the tidying up, thus giving the man leisure to attend to other matters. Where tennis or more especially croquet is played, great care should be taken to keep the turf level; =inequalities= can always be remedied in the winter or early spring. =Fine soil= should be scattered over each depression where these are only slight, and a little seed sown about March; but when the turf is very uneven it is a better plan to lift it, fill up underneath with soil, and re-lay, rolling well so that it may settle down properly. To keep a lawn even =constant rolling= is most necessary. Even when the lawn is smooth, it is as well to some seed in the spring of every year, for there are sure to be weeds to eradicate, and this is apt to leave bare patches which mar the beauty of any lawn. During hot, dry summers, water must be regularly applied or the grass will wither and perhaps die out altogether. =Grassy slopes= especially should be looked after, as they are the first to show signs of distress. Where there is no hose, a "spreader" will be found a most useful adjunct to a water-can, and is quite inexpensive. The knives of a mowing-machine should not be set too low in warm weather, as =close cutting= of grass is often responsible for it turning brown. The =paths= of a garden can be composed of several substances, gravel possibly being the best, as it is so easily renewed and kept in order. In cottage gardens delightful pebble walks with an edging of tiles can be sometimes seen, but unless plants having a mossy or cushion-like growth are allowed to fall over the tiles, this arrangement is rather stiff. When laying gravel down, see that it is of a ="binding" quality=, and laid fairly thick, as this method is economical in the long run, because it can be easily turned. The paths must be kept clear of weeds, and, except in the wild portion, free also of moss, a difficult thing where the growth of trees is very rank. Picking up the path constantly with a rake and =scattering common salt= over it, is one way of keeping moss down. It is important that the centre of a path be higher than the sides, so that it should =dry quickly after rain=. =BEDS AND BEDDING.= As regards the beds in the garden, these are usually all on the lawn, though =a long raised bed= with a path on either side looks extremely well if filled with flowers, and can be easily got at on dewy mornings without wetting the feet. Fantastic shapes are not advisable, unless =carpet-bedding=[1] is the style aimed at. Rose-trees look best in round or oblong beds, and do not lend themselves to filling up stars, though a crescent-shaped bed suits the low-growing kinds very well. As a rule only one or two different kinds of flowers should be used in the same bed, and if a good display of blossom is required these must be frequently changed. =Cuttings a year old= make the best bedding-plants in a general way, for, though the quantity of bloom may not be quite so great the habit is more bushy, the individual flower far finer, and the period of blossoming greatly prolonged. It has been found that many of the old-fashioned flowers bloom much better if they also are =divided= and =new soil added=. This is particularly noticeable in such flowers as _delphiniums_, _campanulas_, and _japonica_ anemones. Once every two or three years, however, is often enough for these hardy denizens of our gardens. [1] See Glossary, p. 7. =MAKING THE MOST OF THE LAND.= A new style of bedding has cropped up lately, or rather a lesson that Nature has always been teaching us has at last been taken to heart, for the idea is really as old as the hills. Two =plants flowering at different seasons= are placed together where formerly each would have had a separate piece of ground; thus, a tall, autumn phlox will be seen rearing its panicles of flowers from a carpet of _aubrietia_, _alyssum_, or forget-me-not, which all flower in spring. In this way each foot of ground has something to interest us at all seasons of the year. Lilies have been planted amongst rhododendrons and azaleas for some time past, and now the system has been extended. When once we have made up our minds to have =no bare soil=, various schemes will present themselves to us. Bulbs can be treated so, to the great improvement of the garden, as when they grow out of some hardy herbaceous plant, their dying leaves which present such an untidy appearance are nearly hidden. This double system of planting is especially necessary in beds which are in full view of the house, as these must never look empty. =WANTED--AN EYE FOR COLOUR.= Borders are not so much trouble in this way, as, if the wall or fence at the back is well covered with a succession of flowering shrubs, this makes =a very good back-ground=, and, as every artist knows, that is half the battle. The colours, however, must be carefully chosen, so that the plants in front blend with the creepers on the wall. The inconsistency of people in this matter is very noticeable, for they will mix shades in their borders which they would not dream of allowing on their dinner-tables. Who has not had his teeth set on edge by the sight of a pinkish-mauve everlasting pea in juxtaposition with a flaming red geranium! it is repeated every year in scores of gardens, to the great offence of every artistic eye. =Colours that quarrel= so violently with each other should never be visible from the same point of view, but kept rigorously apart. It is important that =the soil of the border= be of fairly good quality; if the staple be poor and rocky, plenty of loam must be incorporated with a small proportion of manure. On the other hand, if it is heavy, cold, and clayey, sand must be added to make it porous, and thus improve the drainage. Where the soil is not improved, some trouble should be taken to choose only those plants which will do really well in the particular soil the garden possesses. CHAPTER III On the Duty of Making Experiments _Description of a small yet lovely garden--Colour schemes--The spring dell--A novel way of growing flowers--Variety in flower-gardens._ ="Be original!"= is a motto that every amateur gardener should adopt. Far too few experiments are made by the average owner of a garden; he jogs along on the same old lines, without a thought of the delightful opportunities he misses. Each garden, however small, should possess an =individuality= of its own--some feature that stamps it as out of the common run. I remember seeing a tiny strip in a large town quite fairy-like in its loveliness, and it has always been a lesson to me on what enthusiasm can do. The old lady to whom it belonged was not rich, but an ardent lover of all that is beautiful in nature and art; moreover, she did nearly all the work herself. Though it was situated amid smoke and dirt, it almost invariably looked bright and pretty, reminding one somehow, from its quaintness, of the "days of long ago," for there were no geraniums, no calceolarias, no lobelias, and not a single Portugal laurel in the whole place. =Gardeners of the red, white, and blue school=, if any read this book, will open their eyes at all this, and wonder, maybe, how a proper garden could manage to exist without these indispensable plants. But then it was not a proper garden in their sense of the term; paths were winding instead of straight, flowers grew so well, and bloomed so abundantly that they even ran into the walks occasionally, and, what was yet more reprehensible, there was not a shadow of a box edging to =restrain= their mad flight! Roses and jasmine threw their long flower-laden shoots over the arches in wild luxuriance, and were a pretty sight, as viewed from the seat hidden in a bower near by. There was a small fernery, too, containing some of the choicest specimens that can be grown in this country. Altogether it was a most charming little garden, and gave infinite pleasure to the owner and her friends; indeed, I for one have often been much less pleased with formal ground of several acres in extent, though the latter might cost a mint of money to keep up. Experiments in the way of colour-schemes are most interesting, and should appeal to ladies, who may gain ideas for their costumes from the blending of shades in their garden, or _vice-versâ_. Here a word of warning will not be out of place; do not rely too much on the =coloured descriptions in the catalogues=, for, as they are usually drawn up by men, they are frequently inaccurate; so many men are =partially colour-blind=, and will describe a crushed strawberry as a carmine! Frequently a flower will change its colour, however, when in different soil and position, even in the same district. =THE DELL AT CHERTSEY.= A novel way of growing plants is to open up a spring dell. I wonder if any of my readers have ever seen the one on St. Ann's Hill, Chertsey? I will try to picture it here. A large basin is scooped out of the hill, and on the slopes of this basin are grown masses of rhododendrons and azaleas. Round the rim at the top is some light rustic fencing, partially covered with climbing plants, and there was also a narrow bridge of the same material. This dell could not be copied in very small gardens, because it should be so placed as to come upon one rather in the way of a surprise, but where there are any corners not quite in view of all the windows, a little ingenuity will make a lovely thing of it. The shrubs used need not be identical; less expensive plants may be grown in just the same way. Those on the slope of the dell will do best; the plants for the bottom must be carefully chosen, as, of course, they will get =much moisture and little sun=. Wall-flowers would run to leaf in that position; and so, I am afraid, would forget-me-not; daisies (double ones) would revel there, however, particularly if the soil were made fairly rich; they are extremely reasonable in price, and easily obtained. Bluebells, wood anemones, _doronicums_, _hepaticas_, narcissus, snowdrops, all like such a situation, but perhaps the queen of them all is _dicentra spectabilis_, or "lady's locket," as it is sometimes called; it has pink drooping racemes and finely-cut foliage, and is generally found under glass, though it is never seen to such advantage as when well grown out of doors. This dell is the very place for it, as, when out in the open ground, rough winds injure its precocious blooms. The =hardy cyclamen= would do admirably, too, but these must be planted on the slope of the dell, as they need perfect drainage. In summer it should be a mass of filmy ferns, foxgloves, and hardy orchids; the best of the orchids is _cypripedium spectabile_, and it should be planted in peat and leaf-mould, and in such a way that it is fairly dry in winter and well watered in summer. Experiments in the way of growing uncommon plants are always interesting; in the next chapter, therefore, I will mention a few unreasonably neglected plants, including some novelties which I can personally testify to as well worth obtaining. CHAPTER IV Some Neglected but Handsome Plants _The sweet old columbine--BOCCONIA CORDATA at Hampton Court-- CAMPANULAS as continuous bloomers--The heavenly larkspurs--Christmas roses--The tall and brilliant lobelias--The Chinese-lantern plants--Tufted pansies._ We will begin alphabetically, therefore I will first say a few words regarding the =pink-flowered anemone japonica=. Though the white variety (_alba_) is to be seen in every garden, the older kind is not grown half enough; perhaps this is owing to the peculiar pinkish shade of the petals, a colour that will harmonize with few others, and might be termed æsthetic; it should be grown in a large clump by itself or mixed with white; it flowers at the same time as _A. j. alba_, and equally approves of a rich and rather heavy soil, and also likes a shady place. Both kinds spread rapidly. =Aquilegias, or columbines, are most elegant plants=, generally left to the cottage garden, though their delicate beauty fits them for the best positions; they do well on borders, and generally flower about the end of May; in a light soil they seed freely, and spring up all round the parent plant. =Asters=, the botanical name for Michaelmas daisies, are beautiful flowers for a small garden if the right sort are chosen; those that take up a great deal of room should be discarded where space is an object, and such kinds as _A. amellus bessaribicus_, planted instead; this is perhaps the finest of the genus, and is =first-rate for cutting=. It is only two feet high, of neat habit, and bears large, bright mauve flowers with golden centres very freely, from the beginning of August right into October. =A. ericoides= is another one of neat habit, and is only half a foot taller than the last; it bears long sprays, covered the whole way up the stem with tiny white flowers and mossy foliage. Some of the _novi-belgii_ asters are also very good and easy to grow. One of the most =effective and beautiful= plants in the summer months is _bocconia cordata_; it has delicate, heart-shaped foliage of a clear apple-green, silvered beneath, and creamy flower-spikes which measure from three to five feet in height; though so tall, it is eminently =fitted for the town garden=, for it is not a straggling plant and rarely requires staking. At Hampton Court Palace it is one of the most striking things in the herbaceous border during July. The hardy =campanulas= are good things to have, and in their own shade of blue are not to be beaten; of the taller varieties, the blue and white peach-leaved kinds are the handsomest, and come in very usefully for cutting. _C. carpatica_ and _C. c. alba_ are shorter, being only one foot high; they =flower continuously=, and look very well in a bed with the double _potentillas_, which are described further on. =Coreopsis grandiflora= is handsomer than the old _lanceolata_, and bears large bright yellow flowers, which are very handsome when cut and =bloom for a long period=. It is difficult to imagine what we should do without =delphiniums= (larkspurs) in the hardy flower-border; they are absolutely invaluable, and seem to have almost =every good quality=, neither are they at all difficult to grow; some of their blossoms are of an azure blue, a rare colour in nature; then they can be had of a Cambridge blue, purple, white, rose, and even red; the last, however, is a fickle grower and not to be recommended, save for the rockery. Though one may give 21s. and even more per dozen for them, beautiful kinds can be had for 10s.; these plants run from two to five feet high in good soil, but need plenty of manure to do them really well, as they belong to the tribe of "=gross-feeders=." The =erigerons= are useful plants to grow, very much like the large-flowered Michaelmas daisies, except that they come in earlier and are of a dwarfer habit; they may be had in orange as well as blue shades. The =funkias= are grand plants, grown chiefly for their =foliage=, which is sometimes green margined with white, or green mixed with gold, and in one kind the leaves are marbled blue and green; they =set off the flowers near them= to great advantage. In the early spring slugs attack them; these must be trapped and killed (see Chap. VIII.). Why are the old =Christmas roses= seen so little, I wonder? Grown in heavy soil and cold aspect they do beautifully, and bring us their pure white flowers =when little else is obtainable outside=. One thing against them in this hurry-skurry age is the fact that they increase so slowly; this makes them rather expensive too. Good plants of _helleborus niger maximus_ may, however, be bought for half-a-crown; this variety has =very handsome leaves=, and is all the better for a little manure. =A flower that everybody admires= is the =heuchera sanguinea=, a rare and lovely species; it has graceful sprays of coral-red flowers, borne on stems from one to two feet high, which generally appear in June, and are first-rate for cutting. =Lobelia fulgens= is a brilliantly beautiful species, not to be confounded with the dwarf blue kinds; these tall varieties have quaintly-shaped red flowers, and narrow leaves of the darkest crimson; the roots are rather tender, and much dislike damp during the autumn and winter. =Lychnis chalcedonica= is one of the unreasonably neglected plants; it has =bright scarlet flowers=, a good habit, and grows from two to three feet high; it must have a sunny position and prefers a sandy soil. Some of the new hardy =penstemons= are lovely, and =flower during the whole summer=; they look very well in a round bed by themselves, and do not require much looking after; they are rather too tender to withstand our damp winters without protection, therefore the old plants should be mulched, after having had cuttings taken from them, to be kept secure from frost in a frame. The =winter cherry=, or =Cape gooseberry (physalis alkekengi)= is a most fascinating plant; =its fruit is the attraction=, and resembles Chinese-lanterns; they appear early in September, and make quite a good show in the garden. When bad weather comes, the stalks should be cut, hung up to dry for about a week, and then mixed in vases with dried grasses and the effect is very pretty. Care must be taken when asking for this plant under the English name, as there is a greenhouse plant so termed which is quite different, and, of course, will not stand frost. A dozen plants cost about 5s.; do not be persuaded to get the newer sort--_franchetti_--the berries are larger, but coarse and flabby, and not nearly so decorative. =Polemonium richardsoni= is a very pretty plant, its English name being =Jacob's ladder=. The flowers are borne in clusters, and are pale sky-blue in colour with a yellow eye: the foliage is fernlike in character and very abundant. This plant =likes a shady nook=, which must not be under trees, however, and if well watered after its first bloom is over in June, it will flower again in autumn. The double =potentillas= are glorious things for bedding, and are most uncommon looking. Their flowers are =like small double roses= in shape: generally orange, scarlet, or a mixture of both: the leaves, greyish-green in colour, resemble those of the strawberry. Unfortunately, these plants require a good deal of staking, but they are well worth the trouble. The large-leaved =saxifrages=, sometimes called _megaseas_, merit a good deal more attention than they receive. For one thing they begin flowering very early, holding up their close pink umbels of flowers so bravely in cold winds: then their foliage is quite distinct, and turns to such =a rich red in September= that this fact, added to their easy cultivation, makes it wonderful that they are not more grown. I remember, on a dreary day in mid-February, being perfectly charmed by the sight of a large bed of this _saxifraga ligulata_, completely filling up the front garden of a workman's cottage in one of the poorest roads of a large town. The flowers are particularly =clean and fresh-looking=, and having shiny leaves they of course resist dust and dirt well. =Tradescantias= and =trollius= are two good families of plants for growing on north borders; the first have curious blue or reddish-purple flowers, rising on stiff stalks clothed with long pointed leaves, and they continue in =flower from May till September=. The =trollius= has bright orange or lemon-yellow cup-shaped blossoms and luxuriant foliage. It flowers from the end of May for some weeks. Both these plants grow about two feet high. =Violas= or =tufted pansies= are very pretty, and extremely =suitable for the ground work of beds=, especially where these are in shade, though they will not do under trees. Cuttings must constantly be taken, as one-year-old plants flower more continuously, and have larger blooms and a more compact habit than older plants, besides which they are apt to die out altogether, if left to themselves. These are but a few of the wealth of good things to be made use of, for, when once real enthusiasm is awakened, the amateur who wishes to have a thoroughly interesting garden will only be too eager to avail himself of all that is best in the horticultural world. CHAPTER V The Conservatory and Greenhouse _Mistakes in staging--Some suitable climbers--Economical heating--Aspect, shading, etc.--The storing of plants--No waste space--Frames._ =A well-kept conservatory= adds much to the charm of a drawing-room, but requires careful management. Potting and the like cannot very well go on in a place which must always look presentable. A conservatory, of course, is tiled, and therefore every dead leaf and any soil that may be spilled show very much; it is therefore advisable to have a greenhouse as well, or, failing that, some frames. A greenhouse, though it may be only just large enough to turn round in, is a great help towards a nice garden, and a boon in winter; it also allows of =a change of plants= for the dwelling-house and conservatory, greatly to their advantage. =Staging generally takes up far too much room=; the middle part of a conservatory should be left free, so that there is space to walk about; stands for plants are easily arranged, and give a more natural appearance than fixed staging, which always looks rather stiff. Being a good deal more liable to visits from guests than an ordinary greenhouse, the conservatory must be kept scrupulously clean and neat; the floor, walls, and woodwork must be washed very often, and the glass kept beautifully bright. Cobwebs must never be allowed to settle anywhere, and all the shelves must be kept free of dirt and well painted; curtains should be hung near the entrance to the drawing-room, so that they may be pulled across the opening at any time, to hide work of this sort. =Hanging plants= are great adjuncts where the structure is lofty, and open-work iron pillars, when draped with some graceful climbing plant, are a great improvement. Where there is but little fire heat, considerable care will be needed to choose something which will look well all the year round. We will suppose that the frost is merely kept out; in the summer, such a house can be bright with _plumbago_, _pelargoniums_, _salvias_, and indeed all the regular greenhouse flowering plants, as, except in hot-houses, no artificial heat is then necessary anywhere. In winter, there is more difficulty, for all the climbing plants which are in conspicuous positions must be nearly hardy; of these, the trumpet flower (_bignonia_), _swainsonia_, passion-flower, _choisya ternata_, myrtle and camellia, are the best; these are nearly evergreen, and consequently look ornamental even when out of flower. =Plants suitable for hanging baskets= are the trailing _tradescantias_, the white _campanula_, lobelia, pelargonium, and many ferns. For the pot plants there are hosts of things; _freesias_, _cyclamen_, marguerite-carnations, _primulas_, Christmas roses, arums, azaleas, _kalmias_, _spireas_, chrysanthemums, narcissus, roman hyacinths, and so on. Many late-flowering hardy plants, will, if potted up, continue in bloom long after the cold has cut them off outside. =Cactus plants=, too, ordinarily grown in a warm green-house, will even withstand one or two degrees of frost when kept perfectly dry, dust-dry, in fact. During winter in England =it is the damp that kills=, not the cold; bearing that in mind, we shall be able to grow many things that hitherto have puzzled us. All those delicate iris, half-hardy ferns, and tiresome plants that would put off flowering till too late, why, a cold conservatory or greenhouse is the very place for them! =Green-houses are altogether easier to manage than conservatories=, and therefore are the best for amateurs. There cuttings may be struck, plants repotted, fuchsias, geraniums, etc., stored, and tender annuals reared. A =lean-to greenhouse= should face south preferably, and the door should be placed at the warm end, that is, the west, so that when opened no biting wind rushes in. When the summer comes, a temporary shading will be necessary; twopennyworth of whitening and a little water mixed into a paste will do this. About the middle of September it should be washed off, if the rain has not already done so; for if it remains on too long the plants will grow pale and lanky. =ARTIFICIAL HEAT.= The Rippingille stove before referred to must be placed at the coldest end, and only sufficient warmth should emanate from it just to keep out the frost, unless it is intended to use it all day. It is well to remember that =the colder the atmosphere outside, the cooler in proportion must the interior be=. Even a hot-house is allowed by a good gardener to go down to 60° or even 55° on a bitterly cold night, as a great amount of fire-heat at such times is inimical to plant life, though it will stand a tremendous amount of sun-power. Several mats or lengths of woollen material, canvas, etc., stretched along outside will save expense, and be a more natural way of preserving the plants. =One great advantage that a greenhouse has= over a conservatory is this: that any climbers can be planted out, whereas tubs have to be used where the floor is tiled. =Cucumbers and tomatoes= do very well in a small house, and an abundance of these is sure to please the housekeeper. Seeds of the cucumber should be sown about the first week in March on a hot-bed; if in small pots all the better, as their roots suffer less when transferred to where they are to fruit. Do not let the shoots become crowded, or insects and mildew will attack them. In the summer, "damp down" pretty frequently and give plenty of air, avoiding anything like a draught, however. "=Telegraph=," though not new, is a reliable cucumber of good flavour and a first-rate cropper. =Tomato seed= should be sown about the same time and the plants treated similarly, giving plenty of water but no stimulant in the way of guano till they have set their fruit, which can be assisted by passing a camel's hair brush over the flowers, and thus fertilising them. Of course, out of doors the bees do this; their "busyness" materially aiding the gardener. As to =storing plants=, a box of sand placed in a dry corner where no drip can reach it, is best for this, burying the roots of dahlias, etc., fairly deep in it, and withholding water till the spring, when they may be taken out, each root examined, decayed parts removed, and every healthy plant repotted. The pots should be placed under the shelves till they shoot forth, when they can be gradually brought forward to the light. This reminds me that =the dark parts of a greenhouse= should never be wasted, as, besides their use in bringing up bulbs, ferns can be grown for cutting, and such things as rhubarb, may be readily forced there. =Frames= are very useful and fairly cheap, though it is best to get them set with 21-oz. glass, or they will not last long. Seedlings may be brought up in them with greater success than if in a greenhouse, and a supply of violets may be kept up in them during the coldest weather. The mats they are covered with during the night must never be removed till the frost is well off the grass, say about 11 a.m., as a sudden thaw makes terrible havoc. =The great point to remember= when about to indulge in a greenhouse is this: unless sufficient time and trouble can be given to make it worth while, it is better to spend the money on the outdoor department, which to a certain extent takes care of itself. Where there is leisure to attend to a greenhouse, however, few things will give more return for the care spent on it. CHAPTER VI The Tool Shed and Summer-House _Spades and the Bishop--Weeding without back-ache--The indispensable thermometer--Well-made tools a necessity--Summer-houses and their adornment._ Though it is true enough that the best workmen need little mechanical aid, yet =a well-stocked tool-shed= is not to be despised. Sometimes it may only be a portion of a bicycle-shed which can be set apart for our implements, or the greenhouse may have to find room for a good many of them, but certain it is that a few nicely-finished tools are an absolute necessity to the would-be gardener. Of course a good many of them can be hired; it is not everyone, for instance, who possesses a =lawn-mower=, but if the owner of a garden is ambitious enough to wish to do without a gardener altogether, a lawn-mower will be one of the first things he will wish to possess himself of. In that case he cannot do better than invest is one of Ransome's or Green's machines. Their work is always of a high standard and the firms are constantly making improvements in them. The newest ones are almost perfection, but it is better to get a second-hand one of either of these firms than a new one of an inferior make. A =roller= is useful too, but, as these large implements run into a good deal of money, it may be as well to state that, on payment of 2d. or so, any of them may be borrowed for an hour or two. Ladders can be had in this way; also shears, fret-saws--anything that is only wanted occasionally. A =spade= is a daily necessity, however. Has not one of our most learned divines exalted the art of digging by his commendation thereof, and who shall say him nay? It is expedient to wear =thick boots=, however, during this operation, not only on account of the earth's moisture, but also because otherwise it is ruinous to our soles. To preserve the latter, a spade with a sharp edge should never be chosen, but one which has a flat piece of iron welded on to the body of it. Digging is good because it breaks up the earth, and exposes it to the sun and also to the frost, which sweetens and purifies it; care must be taken however, in doing it, as so many things die down in the winter and are not easily seen. The ordinary hired gardener is very clever at =burying things so deep that they never come up again=! Most people abhor =weeding=, yet if done with a Dutch hoe it is rather =pleasant work=, as no stooping is required. After a few showers of rain the hoe runs along very easily, and the good it does is so patent that I always think it very satisfactory labour indeed. These hoes cost about 1s. 6d. each. =Raking= is easy work, and very useful for smoothing beds or covering seeds over with soil. English made, with about eight or ten teeth, their cost is from two to three shillings. One of the most necessary implements is a =trowel=, in particular for a lady, as its use does not need so much muscle as a spade; their price is from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 6d. each. Where there are many climbers =a hammer= is wanted, not a toy one of German make; these are sometimes chosen by amateurs under the mistaken idea that the lighter the hammer the lighter the work. One of English make, strong and durable, is the kind of thing required, and costs about 2s. or 2s. 6d. =Wall-nails=, one inch long (the most useful size), are 2d. a pound, and may be had at any ironmongers. The =shreds of cloth= may be bought too, but anyone who deals at a tailor's can procure a mixed bundle of cloth pieces for nothing, when there is the light labour of cutting them into shreds, work of a few minutes only. In choosing =watering-cans=, see that they are thoroughly good tin, as a strong can will last for years; moreover, when it begins to leak it will bear mending; they cost from 3s. upwards, the roses should be made to take off as a rule, and a special place assigned to them on the shelf of the tool-shed, as they readily get lost. =Syringes=, much used for washing off insects, are rather expensive, consequently are not to be found in many small gardens; a more fortunate friend will sometimes lend one, as there is a good deal of freemasonry amongst people who indulge in the hobby of gardening. A thing everyone must have is =a thermometer=, in greenhouses they are indispensable; the minimum kind are the most useful, telling one as they do exactly the degree of frost experienced during the preceding night. They may be bought at a chemist's for 1s. each, and must be re-set every day; the aforesaid chemist will show any purchaser the way to do this--it is quite simple. =Raffia=, or =bass=, for tying flower-sticks, and =labels= are minor necessities which cost little, though sticks may run into a good deal if bought prepared for staking. Personally, I dislike both the coloured kinds (never Nature's green) and the white. Both show far more than the =unobtrusive sticks= obtained by cutting down the stalks of Michaelmas daisies, for instance. =Galvanised iron stakes last practically for ever=, and if they are of the twisted kind, no tying is required, greatly lessening labour. It is a curious fact that though =arches made of iron set up electrical disturbance= and injure the climbers, these stakes seem to have no bad effect whatever. At the end of the autumn they should be collected, and stored in a safe place till summer comes round again. Thin ones suitable for carnations, etc., may be procured from A. Porter, Storehouse, Maidstone, for 1s. a dozen, carriage paid. The thicker ones can be made to order at small cost at any ironmonger's. A handy man can often make =frames= himself, especially if they are not required to be portable, and really these home-made ones answer almost as well as those that are bought. Good frames can sometimes be had at sales for an old song, and only require a coat of paint to make them as good as new. Here I will end my list, only reiterating that, however few tools you may have, it is foolish to get any but the best. A =summer-house= need not necessarily be bought ready-made. I have seen many a pretty bower put together in the spare hours of the carpenter of the family. There is one advantage in these =home-made summer-houses=, that they are generally more roomy than those which are bought, and can be made to suit individual requirements. =HOW TO COVER A SUMMER-HOUSE.= Of course, it is more necessary to cover these amateur and therefore somewhat clumsy structures with creepers, but that is not difficult. Even the first summer they can be made to look quite presentable by planting the =Japanese hop=. The leaves are variegated, and in shape like the Virginia creeper. Messrs. Barr, of Long Ditton, Surrey, told me it grew 25 feet in one season. It can be had from them in pots, about the first week in May, for 3s. 6d. a dozen. Then there are the =nasturtiums=, always so effective when =trained up lengths of string=, with the dark back-ground of the summer-house to show up their beautiful flowers. If the soil in which they grow is poor and gravelly, the blossoms will be more numerous. The =canary creeper= is another plant, which is so =airy and graceful= that one never seems to tire of it. Get the seeds up in good time, so that when planted out they are of a fair height, else so much of the summer is lost. There are so many =uncommon climbing plants= which should be tried, notably _eccremocarpus scaber_, _cobea scandens_, and _mina lobata_. The last two are annual, and the first can be grown as such, though in mild winters and in sunny positions it is a perennial. It =flowers whenever the weather will let it=, and its blossoms are orange-yellow in colour, very curious and invariably noticed by visitors. Reliable seeds of all three can be had from Messrs. Barr, at 6d. a packet. The _cobea_ bears pale purple bell-shaped flowers, and is a quick grower. _Mina lobata_ is generally admired, and though of a different family bears a slight resemblance to an _eccremocarpus_, both in the shape of its flowers and in the way they are arranged on the stem. It is only half hardy. Clematis _jackmanni_ and _montana_ are good for this position too. _Jackmanni_ is the well-known velvety purple kind, and must be cut down to the ground every autumn, and well mulched; that is because it flowers on the new growth of each year. _Montana_, however, flowers on the wood of the previous year, and therefore must be cut back about the end of June, if at all, as May is the month it blooms. The Dutchman's pipe, or _aristolochia sipho_, is not to be altogether recommended, as =its huge leaves always seem to make small gardens appear smaller still=, which is not desirable; otherwise, it is a splendid plant for covering summer-houses, as it is a rapid climber. It is wise to plant some of the =decorative ivies= as well, so that, if the flowering plants fail, it will not be of so much consequence. The =varieties with pointed leaves= are exceedingly elegant, and are much more suitable than the common sort for decorating churches and dwelling-house, and cost no more to buy. =FRAGRANT ODOURS.= At =the base of the summer-house= there should be quantities of sweet-scented plants, as this will make the time spent there all the pleasanter. There are lavender, rosemary, thyme, bay, sweet peas, stocks, and mignonette, besides the oak-leaved geranium, tobacco plant, marvel of Peru, and, of course, roses, though the latter do not give off scent quite so much as the other plants mentioned. The =position of the summer-house= is important. I have seen some divided, but where there is no partition it should generally face west. It is delightful on a fine evening to sit and watch the clouds change from glory to glory, as the sun gradually sinks to its rest, and the stars gleam out in the darkening sky. CHAPTER VII Roses for Amateurs _Teas--Hybrid perpetuals--Some good climbing varieties--Treatment and soil--Rose hedges--Pillar roses._ The reason for the heading given to this chapter is that growing roses for show will not be mentioned, as it is quite a separate branch of the art and would require a book to itself to do it full justice. =Blooms of a fair size, but in abundance= during five months of the year, that is what most amateurs need, for, after all, the amount of disbudding that has to be done when growing roses for show quite goes to one's heart! We want fine, well-coloured, healthy flowers, and to attain that end a =good soil is absolutely necessary=. This is especially the case with =Hybrid Perpetuals=, but Teas will often do in a light soil, if manure is given them, and plenty of water in the dry season. The H.P.'s, as gardeners call them, =must have loam and clay= to do them properly; where the soil is not improved by adding these ingredients, it is advisable to rely chiefly on Tea Roses. =THE ADVANTAGES OF TEAS.= For many reasons Tea Roses are the best for small gardens, as they like the shelter found there. They =flower more continuously= and in much greater profusion, are not so troubled with green fly, and are far =more decorative= in habit of growth and colour of leafage than most of the other species. In their particular shades of colour they cannot be equalled, though for cherry reds and dark maroons we have to look to the Hybrid Perpetual, at least, if we want flowers of fine form, and also for that =lovely fresh pink= of the Captain Christy type (though this is now termed a Hybrid Tea by rosarians). The name Perpetual is apt to give =a false idea= to those who are not experienced. Most of these roses are not at all continuous, many only lasting six weeks or so in bloom, and some even less, if the season is hot; that is one great reason why they are being superseded by Teas, at least in the suburbs of London and the South of England. In the Midlands and North the =hardiness of the H.P.'s= is greatly in their favour. =Teas will stand the closeness= of a garden surrounded by houses and trees much better than the Perpetuals, which are very apt to become mildewed in such positions. Of course, many remedies are given for this, but often they are =worse than the disease=; flowers of sulphur, for instance, to take the best-known remedy, disfigures the whole plant terribly. =Teas= are much the =best for planting in beds= which are very conspicuous, for, as I said previously, they are always ornamental. Where standards are placed down each side of the lawn, it is rather a good plan to place all the =Hybrid Perpetuals on one side and the Teas on the other=, giving the greater amount of sun to the latter. =GOOD CLIMBERS FOR WARM WALLS.= When covering a very hot wall, too, it is best, in the South of England, to stick to the tender roses, as the others become almost burnt up. I will name here five of the =best climbing Tea roses= for a south or west wall. William Allan Richardson the beautiful orange variety so much admired; Bouquêt d'or, a daughter of Gloire de Dijon, but prettier in the bud than the old variety; Madame Berard, fawny yellow, very floriferous; L'Idéal, and Gustave Regis. =L'Ideal is a most beautiful rose=, its colouring almost defying description--a peculiar yellow, streaked with red and gold, like a Turner sunset. Gustave Regis, though often classed as a bush rose, easily covers a low wall, and is one of the best kinds there are, as it is covered with bloom the whole of the season. The buds make =lovely button-holes=, and are creamy yellow, long, and pointed. They are just like water-lilies when fully open, and on a warm sunny day exhale a perfectly delicious fragrance, unlike any other rose with which I am acquainted. Another good climbing =tea-rose= is Duchesse d'Auerstadt. Though introduced as long ago as 1887, this variety is =not often heard of=, perhaps on account of its shy blooming qualities. This however need deter no one from growing it, as its =lovely foliage= makes it quite a picture at all times: bronze, crimson, rich metallic green, its shoots and leaves are a pleasure to look at. Its flowers, too, when they come how splendid they are! =great golden goblets= full to overflowing with the firm, rich petals and with a scent to match; they are indeed worth waiting for! Anxiously is each bud watched, for they take so long to come to perfection that the anxiety is not ill-founded. I have known a bud take four weeks to come out, but then it had to stand a lot of bad weather, and came through it safely after all. All these rose-trees may be had from Benjamin R. Cant & Sons, Colchester, at 1s. 6d. each. This firm always sends out good plants, with plenty of vitality in them, and as these old-established rose-nurseries are by no means in a sheltered spot, you may be sure of each tree being hardily grown and thoroughly ripened, great points in their future well-being. =CLIMBERS FOR COOL WALLS.= East, or better still E.S.E., is a good aspect for Hybrid Perpetual and Bourbon roses on walls. I have frequently noticed that they have a great dislike to the very hottest of the sun's rays, and that is the reason I have advised those places to be reserved for Teas. Some good climbing varieties for cool aspects are:--Mrs. John Laing, a satiny pink of lovely form and sweet scent. Jules Margottin, cherry-red, globular in shape, sweet-scented and very floriferous. Prince Camille de Rohan, =one= of =the best dark roses= to be had, as they are generally so difficult to grow--it is blackish-maroon in colour, and flowers abundantly. Boule-de-neige, a Bourbon, with white flowers in great abundance. Madame Isaac Pereire another Bourbon; it is a quick grower and =most abundant flowerer=, the flowers are bright rose crimson. Souvenir-de-la-Malmaison, one of the best Bourbons we have; does particularly well on cold walls, even on those facing north. Its flowers are very large, somewhat flat in form, and blush-white; it =blooms abundantly in autumn=, and is rarely subject to blight. =CLIMBERS REQUIRE VERY LITTLE PRUNING.= It is a case chiefly of cutting out all dead wood, and snipping the decayed ends of those that are left. =When planting rose-trees= of any description, choose mild and if possible calm weather, for it is better to keep the trees out of the ground a few days rather than plant them in frosty weather. =The soil should be friable=, so that it crumbles fairly well, and when the plant is in position it is advisable =to cover the roots with potting-soil= for two or three inches. Spread the roots out like a fan, and be sure not to plant the tree too deep. =Look carefully for the mark= showing the union =of graft and stock=, and be careful not to cover this with more than two inches of soil. Tread down the soil well to make it firm, and thus induce the rose-trees to make fresh roots. In =planting out climbers=, carefully tack all loose shoots to the wall or fence behind it, else the wind may do much harm. When all is finished give a good mulching of strawy manure, which should be dug in when March comes; and if there is a likelihood of frost, protect the branches with bracken or any light covering. =BUSH ROSES OF THE H.P. TYPE.= I will now give a few of the best Hybrid Perpetuals of the bush type; many of the varieties I shall name, however, =make very good standards= though they are more expensive. The "dwarfs," as rosarians call them, only cost from 9d. to 1s. each at Messrs. Cant's, except in the case of =novelties=; and where these are concerned, it is well to wait a year or two, as they rapidly go down to the normal price. Duke of Teck, bright carmine scarlet, of good form, and occasionally blooms in the autumn. Dupuy Jamain, =one of the best H.P.'s ever introduced=, the flowers are almost cherry-red in colour, sweet-scented, and come out in succession =the whole of the summer=: it is a quick grower, and does well in a somewhat shady position. Heinrich Schultheis flowers of a true rose-pink touched with silver, very prettily shaped and exceedingly fragrant. Unfortunately, this variety is =subject to attacks of mildew=, though this does not seem to affect the beauty of the flowers but spoils the leaves. Baroness Rothschild, a faultless rose as regards form and colour, which is a beautiful pale pink, but utterly =devoid of scent=, a serious fault in my opinion. Comtesse de Bearn, large, dark, and very floriferous. Madame Gabriel Luizet, light silvery pink, quick growing, and free blooming. Ulrich Brunner, always given an excellent character in the catalogues, and indeed it is a good rose, cherry-red in colour, sweet-scented, and of fine form: it =rarely ails=, mildew and rust passing it by altogether. It is exceedingly vigorous, and makes therefore a good pillar-rose. Pride of Waltham, a =rose little heard-of= yet most lovely; its blossoms are of the brightest pink, sweetly scented, and beautifully cupped. Charles Lefèvre, beautiful crimson with dark shading; also very good at Kew (and continuous). Abel Carrière, another dark maroon of fine form, and Queen of the bedders, producing carmine flowers so freely that it must be disbudded; it is subject to mildew. So many roses formerly classed as Hybrid Perpetuals are now called Hybrid Teas. The dear old La France is one that has undergone this change; it is =a rose no-one should be without=, and should be grown both as a standard and a bush; its silvery pink flowers have a most exquisite scent and perfect shape (that is, when nearly wide open; it is not a good button-hole variety). Another Hybrid Tea rose that has come to the fore lately is Bardou Job, a =splendid bedding variety=, with flaming roses almost single in form, but produced in prodigal profusion; it pays for feeding. Queen Mab is a somewhat similar rose but has apricot flowers, tinted pink and orange, borne in the same generous manner. It is a china rose; neither of these kinds attain a great height, nevertheless beds entirely composed of them are exceedingly effective and may be seen some distance off; they require very little pruning. =PILLAR ROSES.= Having mentioned pillar-roses, I will add a few more names especially calculated to do well in such positions; perhaps =one of the best= is Paul's Carmine Pillar, with its sheets; of lovely flowers covering the stems the whole way up, with plenty of healthy foliage to set them off. When better known, I should imagine it would be a rival even to Turner's Crimson Rambler, magnificent as that is when grown to perfection. At Kew recently a bed of the Carmine Pillar was quite =one of the sights of the garden=. A close investigation of the bed in which they were planted revealed the fact that every alternate rose-tree was a Gloire de Dijon, but each one was a sorry failure, and instead of scaling the heights, crouched low at the foot of its iron stake, as though unwilling to compete with the other blushing occupants. The "glories" were not very youthful either, that one could see by their thick hard stems; plenty of time had evidently been given them to do the work, but for some unknown reason they had shirked it. I have known several cases of this sort with the much-loved "glory de John," as the gardeners broadly term it. Madame Plantier is =a good white pillar-rose=, doing well in any situation, and Cheshunt Hybrid is also most accommodating, and blooms well even in poor soil, though it well repays good cultivation. Its flowers, cherry-carmine in colour, are large and full, and the petals are prettily veined and curl over at the edges. The foliage is rich, and the tree =never seems attacked by any disease=; it is a Hybrid Tea. Aimée Vibert, a noisette, is very good as a pillar-rose and extremely hardy: it also does well on arches; the flowers are small and white, with pink tips to the petals; it is very free, and flowers continuously. =ROSE HEDGES.= Hedges of roses are quite as effective as pillars, and make a very pretty screen for two-thirds of the year. The =ever-green roses are best= for this purpose, and of these Flora is by far-and-away the nicest rose. It has sweet flowers, small, full, and of the loveliest pink; they are borne in clusters, each one looking just ready for a fairy-wedding bouquet. They have a delightful scent, too, their =only fault being their short duration=; in one summer they will grow from five to ten feet, and are so free-flowering as almost to hide the leaves. Dundee Rambler, Ruga, Mirianthes, and Léopoldine d'Orléans are all equally suitable for hedges. =DWARF TEAS.= I will now name a list of the best dwarf Tea-roses; to begin with, Alba Rosea is a dear old rose-tree, moderate in growth, bearing numbers of flesh-white blossoms, good in form though small in size. These have a faint, sweet scent, and are very pretty for cutting. One day last August, I cut a whole branch off with about six open flowers upon it, and put it in a tall vase just as it was; they arranged themselves, and were much admired. The tree is decidedly dwarf and moderate in growth, and the leaves are very dark green, thus making a beautiful foil to the roses. Catherine Mermet is somewhat of the same type, but the flowers are larger and more deeply flushed with pink; it is =a good green-house rose=. Madame de Watteville resembles a tulip, having thick firm petals of a creamy-white colour, distinctly edged with pink. It is a strong grower and free in flowering. Madame Hoste is a pretty lemon-yellow colour, one of the easiest to grow in this particular shade; the flowers are of good form, and if well manured are large and full; it has a sweet scent. Madame Lambard is =a rose no one can do without=, it is so free-blooming and continuous; the colour is not constant, sometimes being mostly pink, at others almost a fawn, but as a rule it is a blend of those two shades. Marie van Houtte is another =indispensable variety=; the roses are lovely in form, of a pale lemon-yellow colour, each petal being flushed with pink at the edges, and the whole having a soft bloom, as it were, over it. This carmine-marking, however, is not constant; weather and position seem to have a good deal to do with it. Meteor is one of the darker Teas, being carmine-crimson shaded with blackish-maroon; the roses are not full though of good shape, consequently they =look best in bud=. This tree wants feeding to do well, and is not a vigorous grower. Grace Darling is =a gem= which everyone should have; the blossoms are large, full, perfect in shape and exquisite in colour, which is generally a peachy-pink, the reverse of the petals being a rich cream, and, as these curl over in a charming manner, the effect is unique and extremely beautiful. The foliage is abundant, of a ruddy tint, and keeps free from blight; indeed, =this entirely fascinating rose= has only one fault, it is altogether too unassuming. A bright, pink rose of fine form is the Duchess of Albany; it is often called =a deep coloured La France=, as it is a "sport" from that famous rose. The Marquis of Salisbury is another dark tea-rose; it is small but well-shaped though thin, and the blooms are abundant; it is strictly moderate in growth, being somewhat like the Chinas in habit. A fine rose =in a warm summer= is Kaiserin Friedrich, as it has large, very full, flowers, which take a good deal of building up; it appears to dislike cold and rainy weather. =Sunrise is a new kind= that is making a considerable stir in the rose-world; its flowers vary from reddish-carmine to pale fawn, and the tree has glorious foliage. =THE TIME TO PLANT.= October and November are the best months to plant rose-trees, except in very cold parts; February is then a safer time, especially for the tender sorts. =Their first season they require a great deal of looking after=; their roots have not got a proper foot-hold in the earth, and this means constant watering in dry weather. At blooming-time, an occasional application of guano does a great deal of good, making both flowers and leaves richer in colour. =Dead blooms, too, must be sedulously cut off=, as, if left on, the tree is weakened. =PRUNING.= Do a little pruning in October, though March and April are the chief months. In the autumn, however, the shoots of rose-trees should be thinned out, the branches left can then be shortened a fourth of their length with advantage, as the winter's howling winds are less likely to harm them. Standards especially require this, as when "carrying much sail" they are very liable to be up-rooted. When the spring comes, look the trees carefully over before commencing operations, remembering that =the sturdier a tree is the less it needs pruning=. The knife must go the deepest in the case of the poor, weak ones. Always prune down to an "eye," that is an incipient leaf-bud; if this is not done the wood rots. Evergreen roses need scarcely be touched, save to cut out dead branches and snip off decayed ends. For Teas and Noisettes also, little actual pruning is necessary. H.P.'s require the most. As a general rule for roses, if you want quality, not quantity, prune: hard, but to enable you to "cut and come again," only prune moderately. =Dis-budding= is a certain method of improving the blooms if it is done =in time=. It is little use to do it when the buds once begin to show colour; start picking off the superfluous ones when they are quite small, and the difference in size and shape is often amazing. CHAPTER VIII Enemies of the Garden _Slugs, and how to trap them--Blight or green fly--Earwigs-- Wireworm--Snails--Mice--Friends mistakenly called foes._ =The best garden as a rule has the fewest insects=, indeed, no foe is allowed to lodge for any length of time without means being taken for its extermination. Some enemies are more easily got rid of than others; for instance, green fly, or _aphis_ (to give it the scientific name), rarely attacks healthy plants to any extent; it goes for the sick ones, therefore =good cultivation will speedily reduce their numbers=. When any is seen, a strong syringing of =soapy water= will generally dislodge them, or, if this is impracticable, a dusting of =tobacco-powder= is a very good substitute. Tait and Buchanan's Anti-blight, to be had of most seedsmen, is a reliable powder; it is also efficacious in preventing mildew in potatoes, chrysanthemums, etc. In some gardens, especially those inclined to be damp, =slugs are very troublesome=; their depredations are usually carried on by night, so that it is rather difficult to trap them; many things are sold for this purpose, but =hand-picking= is the surest method. In the evening, sink a saucer a little way in the border, and fill this with moist bran; =it is irresistible to the slugs=, and when twilight comes on they will steal out from their hiding-places and make a supper off it. Then comes man's opportunity. Armed with a pointed stick and a pail of salt and water, they must be picked off and popped into the =receptacle=, there =to meet a painless death=; one can squash them under foot, but where they are plentiful this is rather a messy proceeding. Snails may be trapped in exactly the same way; =salt or sand= should be placed in a ring round any plant they are specially fond of, or else in a single night they will graze off the whole of the juicy tops. Young growths are their greatest delicacy, hence they are most troublesome in the spring. =Wireworm= is another tiresome enemy well known to carnation growers, and more difficult to get rid of than the slug, owing to its hard and horny covering which resists crushing; salt again, however, is =a splendid cure=. It should be well mixed with the soil though not brought too close to the plants. =Earwigs= are horrid insects to get into a garden; they often come in with a load of manure, simply swarms of them imbedding themselves in such places. Dahlias are the plants they like best, and, if not kept down with a watchful eye, they will completely spoil both flowers and leaves. Hollow tubes, such as short straws, put round will collect many, or =the old plan= of filling an inverted flower-pot with moss is also useful, though somewhat disfiguring, if perched on the tops of the stakes supporting the dahlias. =Mice= are dreadfully destructive, too, especially in the country, and being so quick in their movements they are troublesome to catch. Traps must be baited with the daintiest morsels, to make them turn away from the succulent tops of the new vegetation. Owls and other large birds are most effectual in doing away with these troublesome little animals, a fact which should be taken into account. =Many people from ignorance= destroy birds or insects which may be urgently required to keep down annoying pests--take, for instance, =ladybirds=--the pretty creatures are =invaluable= where there is much green fly, yet how often are they doomed to death by some well-meaning gardener, and it is the same with birds. =A robin or sparrow will eat hundreds of aphides in one day=, so that, unless there are many fruit-trees in the garden, it is most unwise to shoot the dear little songsters; and even in the latter case, if protection can be afforded, by all means save the birds! A while ago some farmers had been so enraged by the devastation made by the sparrows and starlings that they determined to kill all the old birds. The consequence was that they were so over-run the next season by insects of every description, that they had to import birds at great trouble, to take the place of those they had killed. Foes are often mistaken for friends, but occasionally the reverse is the case! CHAPTER IX The Rockery _A few hints on its construction--Aspect and soil--A list of Alpines--Other suitable plants._ A well-constructed rockery filled with a good selection of Alpine plants is a =never-failing delight= to anyone fond of a garden. Yet how rare a thing it is! most of the erections one sees are mere apologies for the real thing. The truth is not one gardener in a hundred knows how to make a rockery, though he does not like to say so! =An artistic mind is needed= to construct one that will be pleasing to the eye, besides a knowledge of draining, water-supply, and so forth. An educated person is not actually necessary, but one with common sense, who would not dream of making it merely another back-ground for gorgeous bedding-plants which are all very well in their right place, but absolutely =unsuited to a rockery=. =As regards aspect=, one that is built on each side of a narrow path running north and south, does very well, but as this may be impossible in a small garden, =a corner rockery= built high in the form of a triangle and facing south-east, can be made extremely pretty, as I know from experience. Where the rockery is in the shade, no overhanging trees must be near, if choice Alpines are expected to live there. =The material= may be either slabs of grey stone as at Kew, or the more easily obtained "clinkers." =Clinkers= are really bricks spoiled in the baking, having all sorts of excrescences on them which unfit them for ordinary building purposes; they should always be ordered from a strictly local contractor, as carriage adds considerably to the cost. =The soil= should be a mixture of peat, sand, and loam; no manure should be incorporated, the ="pockets"= for special favourites and plants that have individual wants can be filled in at the time of planting. =One advantage= pertaining to a rockery is that many plants which quite refuse to thrive in a border will grow and flourish there, and the attention they need is less troublesome to give; in fact, it is =a delightful form of gardening=, especially for a lady, as there is no fear of the feet getting dirty or wet, and a trowel, not a spade, is the chief implement used. A small piece of turf, just a few feet wide, at the bottom of the corner style of rockery, is =a great set-off=, and a vast improvement on a gravel path. =SUITABLE PLANTS FOR A ROCKERY.= The following are some of the best flowers for a rockery. The _aubrietias_ are very pretty little plants, having creeping rosettes of greyish-green leaves, and a perfect sheet of mauve or lilac bloom about April. The effect is greatly enhanced when =planted so as to fall over a stone= or brick; indeed, it is for those things which are so easily lost sight of in a border that a rockery comes in; they can be closely inspected there without much stooping. The _arabis_ is a pretty plant, somewhat like the _aubrietia_ in habit and time of flowering; hence, where only a small selection can be made, it might be left out, as it is =a trifle coarse=. Such a term could never be applied to the _androsaces_, which may be numbered among =the= _élite_ =of rock plants=; they are evergreens, and do not exceed six inches in height; they bear tiny but very bright flowers, varying from rose in some species to lavender in others. =APENNINE GEMS.= Some of the alpine anemones are lovely, notably _A. appennina_, which has sky-blue flowers that open out flat on very short stalks, surrounded by pale green denticulated foliage. _A. blanda_ is much the same, save that it flowers a month or so earlier; they are spring-blooming plants, and like moisture and shade, and will not do at all if subjected to much hot sun. These and many similar plants can often be planted on a =rockery facing south-east= (which aspect suits so many sun-loving plants), by arranging bricks, stones, or small shrubs, so as to shelter them from its hottest rays. _Aquilegias_, mentioned in the list of border plants, look quite as well on a rockery, if moisture can be given them, as their flowers are so delicate, and the leaves so fragile and prettily coloured, especially in the early spring. The blue and white _A. cærulea_, from the Rocky Mountains, is =a gem=, and the scarlet kinds are very effective. =For forming close green carpets=, _arenaria balearica_ is most useful; it creeps over rocks and stones, covering them completely with its moss-like growth, and hiding any hard, unlovely surfaces. The _campanula_ family is =a host in itself=, many of the smaller varieties looking better on a rockery than anywhere else. Some of these tiny bell-flowers have, however, the very longest of names! _C. portenschlagiana_, for instance, is only four inches high, and =a charming little plant= it is, and flowers for months, beginning about July. The blossoms are purple-blue in colour, and continue right into November, unless very hard frosts come to stop it. _C. cespetosa_ is another variety well suited to rock-work, as it is even smaller than the last. =The alpine wall-flower=, _cheiranthus alpinus_, is a very choice little plant; it has creamy-yellow flowers, borne on stalks a few inches high, and, though each individual plant is biennial, they seed so freely that they are practically perennial. A light, dry soil and a sunny situation suits them; they will even grow on old walls, and very picturesque they look perched up on some mossy old ruin. =An attractive rock plant=, though rarely seen, is _chrysogonum virginianum_; its flowers are creamy-yellow, and grow in a very quaint manner; this plant =blooms the whole season through=. Plants of this character should be noted carefully, as they help to give a rockery =a well-furnished appearance=, so that one always has something to show visitors. For warm, dry, sunny nooks =rock-roses= are the very thing; where other plants would be burnt up, the _cistus_ flourishes, for it requires no particular depth of soil. _C. florentinus_ (white) and _C. crispus_ (dark crimson), are two of the best. =One of the most exquisite and interesting rock-plants= I have ever seen is _clematis davidiana_, a plant only introduced of recent years, but noticeable wherever seen; it is not a climber, as its name might lead one to suppose, for =it only grows two feet high=, and generally trails along the ground; the flowers are curious in shape, and of a metallic blue-grey colour; the foliage is very neat and pretty; it blooms about July, and should be planted so that it can be examined closely. =The fumitories= are elegant plants, and nearly always in flower; the blossoms are small, yellow, sometimes white, and borne in profusion amongst the finely-cut foliage, which, =the whole summer through=, is a bright clear green. With one plant of _corydalis lutea_ a stock can soon be obtained, as this variety seeds freely. All the fumitories prefer a light soil and a sunny position. Dwarf evergreen shrubs greatly improve the appearance of the rockery in late autumn and winter, especially when they add berries to their attractions. The _cotoneasters_ are evergreen, and when about a foot high are very suitable for such a position. _C. horizontalis_ and _C. micicrophylla_ bear scarlet berries, and are altogether very choice; they must not be allowed to get too large, but taken up when little over a foot high, and others substituted for them. =Various bulbs=, which we generally plant in the border, find a prettier background in the rockery; here each bulb is made the most of, and, where very small, is seen to greater advantage; even if ever so insignificant, it cannot get buried away under a spadeful of soil, nor get splashed with mud. You must often have noticed how crocuses get blown over and spoilt by the wind, but in a cosy nook of the rock-work, planted fairly close together, and in a "pocket" surrounded by bricks, they find a happy home, and can be inspected without any difficulty. Personally, I do not care for =crocuses in a line=; one cannot see their pure transparency, and only get an idea of a broad band of colour; close at hand, their dewy chalices, exquisitely veined and streaked, seem far more beautiful, particularly where the finer sorts are selected. =All crocuses do not flower in spring=; some of the prettiest species bloom in autumn, though many people, seeing them at that time, imagine they are _colchicums_; the latter, though certainly very decorative when in flower, are followed by such coarse leaves that the crocus is decidedly preferable. The =hardy cyclamen= are very suitable for a rockery, as, being beauties in miniature, they are apt to get lost in a mixed border. _C. neapolitanum_ has marbled foliage and pretty pink flowers, and _C. europeum_ (maroonish crimson) is also well worth growing; they must be placed in a shady part, yet where the drainage is perfect; stagnant moisture kills them. The =hardy orchids= should be tried too, especially the _cypripedium_; it is not generally known how handsome some of them are; they like shade and moisture; indeed, through the summer the peat they are growing in should be a regular swamp, or they will fail to produce fine flowers. Another plant that likes peat is the little _daphne eneorum_. This is =an evergreen=, and produces its pink fragrant flowers every spring; it will not do in very smoky places, but, like the heath, must have a fairly pure atmosphere. =The alpine pinks are treasures for the rockery=, and do well in town gardens; they flower nearly all the summer, and are not particular as to soil and position, though they prefer plenty of sun. =The gentians= look very well on rockwork, but like a stronger soil than most alpines, loam suiting them best. Water should be generously given during spring and summer. _G. acaulis_ is the best for amateurs. The red shades found in the =geum tribe= are very uncommon, being neither crimson, scarlet, nor orange, but a mixture of all three, with a dash of brown thrown in. They =flower continuously=, and have dull green woolly foliage, which sets the flowers off well. They need a light, well-drained soil. _Geum chilense_, or _coccineum plenum_, is a good kind, and so is _G. miniatum_; both are about two feet high, but require no staking whatever. Of course, it will be understood that sticks, except of the lightest kind, are =quite inadmissible= on a rockery. =Helianthemums=, or =rock roses=, are charming little evergreen plants, with wiry prostrate stems, and small flowers, which are freely produced all the summer. They may be had in white, yellow, pink, scarlet, and crimson, and either double or single; the variety named Mrs. C. W. Earle is a very effective double scarlet, and quite a novelty. =Iris reticulata= is =a very fascinating little bulbous plant=, well adapted for a rockery; it blooms in the early spring, and very beautiful the flowers are, being rich violet-purple, with gold blotches on each petal; they are scented, too; when in blossom, the stems reach to about nine inches in height. One of the most lovely plants that can be imagined for a rockery is =lithospermum prostratum=, and yet how rarely one sees it; the glossy green leaves always look cheerful, and the flowers are exquisite, they are a bright full blue, and each petal is slightly veined with red, it is not difficult to grow, a dry, sunny position being all it requires; it is of trailing habit and an ever-green. Everyone knows =the creeping jenny=, but it is not to be despised for rock-work, especially for filling up odd corners where other things will not thrive. It blooms best where there is a certain amount of sun. =St. Dabeoc's Heath= is a pretty little shrub, very neat and of good habit; its flowers are the true pink, shading off to white, and of the well-known heath shape. Somewhat slow-growing, it prefers peat. =Plants that flower the whole season through= are most valuable on the rockery. =OEnotheras= may be depended on to present a pleasing appearance for several weeks, especially if all dead flowers are picked off. The dwarf kinds are the most suitable, such as _Oenothera marginata_, _missouriensis_, _linearis_, and _taraxacifolia_. The last-named, however, is only a biennial, but has the advantage of =opening in the morning=, while most of the evening primroses do not seem to think it worth while to make themselves attractive till calling-hours. =The most fairy-like little plant= for filling up narrow crevices in sunny quarters is the dear old =wood-sorrel=. It has tiny leaves like a shamrock in shape, but of a warm red-brown colour, and the sweetest little yellow flowers imaginable; they are borne on very short stalks, and only come out when the sunshine encourages them; the whole plant does not exceed three inches in height; it spreads rapidly, seeds freely, and thrives best in a very light soil; it will also do well on walls. The =alpine poppies= are so delicate and graceful that they seem made for the rockery. They only grow six inches high, and continue in flower at least four months; they may be had in a great range of colours, and are easily brought up from seed. Nice bushy plants can be had of these poppies for about four shillings a dozen, and it is needless to say they require plenty of sunshine. The word _phlox_ conveys to many people the idea of a tall autumn-flowering plant, with large umbels of flowers, individually about the size of a shilling. But these are not the only species; the alpine varieties are just as beautiful in a different way, though some are not more than a few inches high, and each flower no bigger than a ladies' glove-button. In spring and early summer they become =perfect sheets of bloom=, so that the foliage is completely hidden; when out of flower, they are soft green cushions of plants, and serve to cover bare bricks well. The =alpine potentillas= are pretty, and keep in flower for a long time. _P. nepalensis_ is a good one, but the merits of _p. fruticosa_ are much exaggerated, its dirty-looking yellow flowers are by no means prepossessing. =No rockery is complete= without several specimens of the family of _saxifrages_. One cannot do better than make a beginning with them, as they are so fine in form and diverse in style. _S. aizoon compactum_ is one of the best rosette species, and _S. hypnoides densa_ of the mossy tribe; other kinds well worth growing are _S. burseriana_, which has pretty white flowers on red hairy stems in early March; _S. cunifolia_, with charming fresh pink blossoms, and of course _S. umbrosa_, the sweet old-fashioned =London pride=. A dry sunny situation suits the _saxifrages_ best. The =House leeks= are somewhat similar in appearance, but like drier situations than the last-named plants. The _sempervivums_ delight to creep along a piece of bare rock, and one marvels how they can derive enough sustenance from the small amount of poor soil in which they are often seen growing. The =cobweb species=, called _arachnoideum_, is most interesting, and invariably admired by visitors; it has greyish-green rosettes, each one of which is covered with a downy thread in the form of a spider's web. A kind more often seen is _sempervivum montanum_, and certainly it is a =very handsome species=, with curious flowers supported on firm succulent red stems. It is to be seen in broad clumps at Kew, and very well it looks. There are no better carpetters than the =dwarf sedums=, or =stone crops=. _S. glaucum_ has blue-grey foliage, and spreads rapidly; _S. lydium_ is the variety most in use, and can be had very cheaply. The tall, old variety, _sedum spectabile_, has been improved upon, and the novelty is called _S. s. rosea_. Another novelty is _shortia galacifolia_; it is a native of North America, and has white, bell-shaped flowers supported on elegant, hairy stems, the leaves are heart shaped, and turn almost scarlet in autumn; thus, the plant has =two seasons of beauty=, as it blooms in the spring. A peaty soil, with a little sand added, suits it well, if the drainage is good; and it likes a half-shady position. =Plants that are sadly neglected= are the airy-fairy Sea-lavenders or _Statices_, with their filmy heads like purple foam; _S. gmelini_ and _S. limonium_ are two of the best. When cut, they last a long time, and are very useful for giving a graceful appearance to =stiff bouquets=. The dwarf _thalictrums_ are =good rockery plants=; they are =grown for their foliage=, which bears a striking resemblance to the maidenhair fern. _T. adiantifolium_ and _T. minus_ are very pretty; their flower-heads should always be cut off, so as to promote the production of their fine fronds, which have the property of lasting well when cut. The =aromatic scent of thyme= is very pleasant on a rockery; not only should the silver and golden varieties be grown, but also those bright kinds which give us sheets of purple, pink, and white blossom during summer; to thrive they must be exposed to full sunshine, when =they will attract innumerable bees=. The new kind, _T. serpyllum roseus_, is splendid, the tiny flowers coming in such profusion as to completely hide the foliage. All are low-growing, having the cushion habit of growth. _Veronicas_ are not often seen, yet they are exceedingly pretty, and continuous bloomers. =Amateurs should not begin with the shrub tribe=, as these are somewhat tender, but if _V. incana_, _V. longifolia-subsessilis_, and _V. prostrata_ are obtained, they will be sure to please. The first and last are low-growing, but the other is two feet high, and has long racenes like soft blue tassels, which hang down in the most charming way. =A few words on some more bulbs= that look well on rockeries, besides the crocus and dwarf iris before-mentioned, may not be amiss: the =winter aconites= are most appropriate so placed, and show to greater advantage than in the level border. Their golden flowers, each surrounded by a frill of green, come forth as early as January, if the weather be propitious. The _chionodoxa_, called also =glory of the snow=, is very fresh and pretty, with its bright blue flowers having a conspicuous white eye. If left undisturbed they will spread rapidly, and come up year after year without any further trouble; they are =very cheap=, and will do in any soil. =Snowdrops= are charming on rock-work, and may be placed close to the _chionodoxa_, as they bloom almost together. The =grape-hyacinths= have very quaint little flowers of a bright dark-blue colour, on stalks about five or six inches high; they flower for some weeks, and must be massed together to get a good effect. =The early-flowering scillas= resemble the _chionodoxas_, but last much longer in bloom. They are very =easy to manage=, and rarely fail to make a good show. _S. siberica_ is the best-known variety, and can be obtained very cheaply. =The miniature narcissus= is the sweetest thing imaginable; _N. minus_, is only a few inches high, and when in the open border is apt to get splashed, but amongst stones in a sheltered position on the rockery they are charming. All these dwarf bulbs look so well in such positions, because =their purity remains unsullied=. Here I will leave the rockery, merely intimating that =early autumn is the best time for planting=, and that if pains are taken to construct it properly at first, a great amount of trouble will be saved in the end. Most of these plants and bulbs may be had of Messrs. Barr & Sons, 12, King Street, Covent Garden. Their daffodil nurseries at Long Ditton, near Surbiton, Surrey, are famous all the world over, but they also go in a great deal for hardy perennials and rock plants, of which they have a splendid stock; their prices are very reasonable, too, when you take into consideration that everything they send out is absolutely true to name. Their interesting catalogues will be sent post free on application. CHAPTER X Trees, Shrubs, and How to Treat Them. _Some good plants for growing beneath them--Selection of hardy shrubs--Enriching the soil--Climbers._ Forest-trees in a small garden are somewhat out of place, but as they are often found in such positions, I will deal with them here. It is to be remembered that though they give most grateful shade, not only do they rob everything beneath them of sunshine, but also =take so much out of the soil=, that, unless constant renewals are made, very little can be grown in their immediate vicinity; the class of plants that will do best beneath their branches also find the soil they are growing in best renewed by the leaves which fall therefrom. For the sake of tidiness, these of course are swept away, but they should be kept for two or three years, and then brought back, converted into =leaf-mould=; if this is not done, the quality of the soil will steadily deteriorate, instead of getting richer, as it does in woods; and this is one reason why so many wild plants fail to thrive when brought into cultivation; manure is no substitute, but often distasteful to them. =SOMETHING BESIDES IVY.= Trees must be divided into two broad sections, =deciduous and ever-green=. Very few plants will do well under the latter, but as regards the first, =ivy= is not by any means the only thing that will grow, though it is often a good plan to use it as a foundation, and work in plants here and there afterwards. There is no need to choose the large kind; those elegant varieties with long pointed leaves are =more ornamental and just as easy to grow=. Their roots must be restricted when other plants are near, or they will soon take up all the room. =Ferns= will do very well under trees, if they are plentifully watered during the dry season. Here also a few of the choicest kinds should be grown, for though some of them may not do so well as in a shady open spot, most of them will give a fairly good account of themselves. Always plant them with the rhizome above ground, not forgetting that when each fern has its full complement of fronds, it will take up a considerably larger space than it does at the time it is set out. If the _Osmunda regalis_ is tried--=the royal fern=--it is necessary to get a good established turf of it; strong clumps cost about 1s. 6d. each; plenty of water must be given it in the summer. I have seen it in splendid form under a tree in a very small garden. Perhaps the =St. John's worts= come next to ivy and ferns in their usefulness for planting under trees, as they are =always decorative, being ever-green=. In the spring, the foliage is a most lovely soft apple-green, and in summer when the golden cups filled with anthers issue forth from the axils of the leaves, the effect is beautiful. _Hypericum calycinum_ is the Latin term for these plants, and though they will do on the dryest bank and in the poorest soil, being very tough and wiry, if they are grown in good loam and manure is occasionally given them, they will repay with far finer flowers, which will be produced for a longer season. =A good breadth of woodruff= makes a very pretty picture for several weeks, and has a delightful scent; here and there bulbs can be planted amongst it, neither being harmed by this plan. The _aubrietias_ =flower with unfailing regularity= under trees, even when the aspect is north, and no gleam of sunshine reaches them; their greyish-green rosettes resist drought splendidly, and though these plants do not give us so much blossom in unfavourable positions, still they make a very pretty show. _Aubrietias_ can be easily propagated by division; every morsel grows. =BANKS UNDER TREES.= The white _arabis_ also does well under similar conditions; both are useful for draping perpendicular surfaces, such as the steep side of a bank or hedge. A raised border, with facing of bricks, is rather a nice way of growing plants under trees, and the work of tending them is pleasant, less stooping being required. The =mossy saxifrage= droops over the edges, and mingles well with the _arabis_, but it must be more carefully watered, as it is apt to die out; pieces should constantly be taken off, and dibbled in so as to fill up any gaps. The =periwinkles= meander charmingly over the roughest stones, and in the most dreary spots; their glossy ever-green leaves, and fresh bright little flowerets =always looking cheerful= whatever the weather. They creep quickly, rooting every few inches as they grow; on the perpendicular face of the rock, succulent plants like =echeverias= can sometimes be made to grow (those little green rosettes, having each leaf tipped with red, which can be bought so readily in May for about twopence each). =Many things will do for a time=, that want renewing each year, even if hardy. Cowslips, primroses, polyanthus, wallflowers, all will make a fair show if planted out just before flowering, but, unless a few hours' sun daily shines on them, they will not retain enough vitality to produce seed, and being biennial soon die out, leaving not a trace behind. =A great many bulbs do admirably under deciduous trees=, especially those which blossom before the new leaves on the branches above them have reached any appreciable size. =Scillas= bloom in the same place year after year; snowdrops also do fairly well, and lilies of the valley ring out a few of their dainty bells every spring (a rich vegetable soil suits them best). =Tulips= only do well when planted afresh every autumn; but, as they are so cheap, that is not a great matter. The _megaseas_, mentioned in another chapter, give forth many of their fine leaves, but they refuse to turn colour, owing to the want of sun. Fox-gloves, also, grow and flower, seeming to enjoy their position. =If the aspect of the space to be filled is a cold one=, such things as geraniums will only give a few poor flowers, and then succumb. Even pansies wilt and gradually fade away under trees, for their soft, weak stems and leaves soon get drawn up for want of light, though they will do well enough on an _open_ border, facing north. =Hard-wooded plants= will be generally found to do best; indeed, some of the shrub tribe succeed very well, particularly barberry, _pernettyas_, the early _daphnes_, whortleberries, _gaultheria shallon_ and _cotoneaster_. While on the subject of =shrubs=, it may be as well to mention several attractive kinds which may be planted in place of the =eternal box= and Portugal laurel; of course, these two have almost every good quality; they will do in any soil, are ever-green, and resist smoke, dust and dirt well; but, in places where poor soil and a soot-laden atmosphere are absent, =substitutes might occasionally be found for those shrubs=, which will have the added charm of novelty. One of the nicest for small gardens is _cotoneaster microphylla_; this is a joy to look at, all through the winter months, when it is at its best; the branches grow in an uncommon manner, and are of somewhat prostrate habit; they are thickly clothed with dark, small leaves the whole way up the stem, and shining amongst them are the pretty crimson, almost transparent berries. It is quite distinct from the ordinary berry-bearing shrubs, as there is =nothing stiff about its gracefully-curving sprays=, which look well cut and wedged in the Japanese fashion. Shrubs of this variety may be had as low as sixpence, but it is better policy to get a larger one, costing about eighteen pence, as they will sooner be of a presentable size; they are shrubs, too, that do not altogether show their capabilities when at a very youthful stage. =A GOOD ALL ROUND PLANT.= _Berberis aquifolium_ is another shrub which has a great deal to recommend it; it is ever-green, and will do in almost any position; it bears lovely yellow flowers in spring, purple powdered berries in August, and the foliage turns a rich red in October. Always ornate, it is one of the easiest shrubs to grow, and =just the thing for a small garden=. =The myrtle=, though liable to be killed in a very hard frost, can often be grown to a great size in a sheltered garden; I have seen bushes eight yards round, in an exposed position near the river Thames, which must have been braving the storms for many a year past. They should not be planted out till March or April, though November is the month for most other shrubs. The old _pyrus japonica_ =makes a good bush=, though most often grow on a wall; its bright flowers, carmine-scarlet in colour with yellow anthers in the centre, appear early in April, a week or two later than the climbers, which of course are protected. When grown in bush form, it =is sometimes pruned out of all recognition=; this is especially the case in public gardens, and is quite an affliction to any one who knows how lovely it can be! The knife should be restrained, allowing the _pyrus_ to take its own shape as much as possible; it is often sold under the name of _cydonia japonica_, as that is really its rightful title. =One or two of the _araucarias_ make very good shrubs for a small garden=; they should not be grown in cold, wind-swept places, as their branches soon turn brown if exposed to continued frost and furious blasts. There is a magnificent specimen in the nurseries of Messrs. Veitch, Kingston Hill, Surrey, planted about 1865; its ornamental appearance is greatly due to the number of young branches springing out from the main trunk and almost completely covering it; they nestle under the larger branches, and produce a very picturesque effect. Small plants of this variety may be had for three or four shillings. Messrs. Veitch have a splendid selection of shrubs, all in the best of health; their hollies are well grown, and include all the good sorts; a variety that bears fruit when quite young is _ilex glabrum_, of which they have a large stock; these trees are such slow growers, that it is advisable to get one that will look attractive almost at once. =Pernettyas are ornamental little shrubs=, not so much grown as they deserve; in winter, when most things look drooping and unhappy, these American visitors to our gardens are bright and cheerful. =The dwarf erica carnea=, both pink and white, show their buds as early as November, and at the turn of the year present a very pretty appearance; they look well as edgings to rhododendron beds; their price is about sixpence each. =Another charming winter shrub= is _cornus sanguinea_; its beauty lies in the red glow of its leafless stems, which makes it visible some distance off. _Spirea Anthony Waterer_ is a =fine plant in late summer=, having pink umbels of flowers and a habit somewhat like the valerian. =The snow-berry= is good in autumn and winter, having large white berries which hang on a long time; it is deciduous, and likes a rich soil. Messrs. Veitch have a splendid collection of conifers for all aspects and positions; their small junipers are most fascinating little trees, with flat spreading branches of the loveliest shade of green, and their seedling firs are well balanced. They sell a great variety of lilac trees too. =GRAFTED LILACS.= A note on lilacs will not be amiss; if you notice that any lilacs you may happen to have flower sparsely, and are poor in size and colour it will be as well to examine the stems close to the soil, and you will probably find a fine crop of suckers; all these must be cut away as sedulously as those on your rose-trees, for =nearly all lilacs are grafted=, very few kinds being sold on their own roots. The _forsythias_ are =pretty climbers or shrubs=, according to the variety chosen, much like the yellow jasmine, with its golden stars on leafless stems. Just as the latter, however, is going out of flower the _forsythias_ are coming on, and therefore give a succession of very pretty blossoms. Originally from China, =the wigelias= have now taken a place in many English gardens, by reason of their fresh pink and white flowers and easy cultivation. They bloom late in spring, and should be placed by preference =against a dark wall=, as their flowers, being surrounded by pale-green foliage, do not stand out sufficiently on a light one. =THE DELICATE CEANOTHUS.= The exquisite summer-flowering _ceanothus_ has been mentioned before, but I notice it here again because it is one of those =shrubs that should not be overlooked= on any account; its leaves are somewhat like those of a heliotrope, and its flowers are bluish-mauve in colour and borne in trusses; it blooms for many weeks and has a most delicious scent, and should be planted out in the spring. =A neglected but really remarkable shrub is the= _rhus cotinus_--=the smoke plant.= In early August it is a striking sight, with its curious inflorescence quite impossible to describe. At Hampton Court there are two or three fine species. =WINTER SHRUBBERY.= It will be observed that shrubs presenting a decorative appearance in winter are made much of; this is because soft-wooded plants always look miserable then, whereas with a few berry-bearing shrubs and a nice selection of bulbs, we may have a =pretty garden all the year round=. Once planted, however, they should not be left entirely to take care of themselves; the soil must be enriched occasionally, if we wish for good results, and great care taken to =train them in the way they should go=, by pinching out shoots which would tend to give a lop-sided effect. Such things as firs must be unobtrusively staked till they are able to support themselves, as =symmetrical growth= is part of their charm, and we must remember that "as the twig is bent, the tree is inclined." =Standard rhododendrons= require to be very carefully staked until they have a fair hold of the ground, or their big heads are caught by the wind, and this loosens the soil to such an extent that it is impossible for fresh roots to be made. Generally, some of the =bush rhododendrons= should be grown amongst the standards, and if these are dotted about with clumps of lilies the effect is very rich. _Lilium tigrinum splendens_ is =one of the best for this purpose=, and is most brilliantly beautiful during August and September; they are six feet in height, and the flowers are a rich orange red, with black spots on each petal; they can be obtained for half-a-crown the dozen. =A lily suitable for placing amongst azaleas=, as it is only three feet high, is _lilium speciosum album_; it has glistening pure-white flowers, and a graceful habit. The shade of the shrub is most beneficial to the lilies, as they dislike strong sunshine, and of course they are also protected from cold in winter. The same soil, a mixture of peat, loam and sand, suits both. CHAPTER XI =The Ins and Outs of Gardening= _Planting--Watering--"Puddling"--Aspect--Shelter--Youth and age in relation to plants--Catalogue defects--A time for everything._ Now that we have seen what to plant, it will be advisable to learn =how to plant it=. Perhaps the most important point to be taken notice of is the necessity of =firm planting=. Watch how a clever gardener presses the earth well round the roots of everything he puts in, where the plants are large, treading the soil down with his foot. =Loose planting is ruinous= (except in a few isolated cases), and yet it is a favourite practice with amateurs, who call it treating their flowers tenderly! But, as with the human kind, =a judicious mixture of firmness and tenderness= is the happy medium to be aimed at, and which alone insures success. =A good watering= helps to make the soil settle as much as anything; therefore, when put into the ground the plants should be well soaked, after which they should be left for a few days, with the exception of =overhead watering=, which is most refreshing. In very hot weather, it is often possible to transplant with perfect safety, if the roots are put into "puddle." =PLANTING IN "PUDDLE."= "Puddle" is a very expressive gardening term, which signifies soil mixed with so much water as almost to have acquired the consistency of a paste. =Operation 1=--well water the plant to be removed; =operation 2=--dig the hole which is to receive it; =operation 3=--fill the same with water up to the rim; =operation 4=--carefully take up your plant with plenty of soil round it; =operation 5=--gently place it in hole prepared, the walls of which will then be thoroughly soaked; =operation 6=--fill in with the "puddle" above referred to; =operation 7=--tread gently but firmly down; and, lastly, scatter a little dryer soil on the top. Flowers planted in this fashion can be taken up even during June, July and August; and, if properly looked after, will scarcely flag at all. =EFFECTS OF ASPECT.= The influence of aspect on plants is an interesting study; we all know that a shrub on a south wall is practically in a different climate to a shrub on a north wall. One reason why tender plants do so well on a =south or west aspect= is because the sun does not reach it till some hours after it has risen and warmed the air. The =sun shining on half-frozen buds= often has a disastrous effect on plants climbing walls with an eastern aspect; consequently, a north wall is often better for a delicate plant, if the warmest aspect cannot be given it; camellias, for instance, when outside prefer it to any other. =If a succession of one kind of flower is desired=, a group facing each corner o£ the compass will often accomplish this, sometimes as much difference as a month being noted. Certain unimpressionable plants refuse to alter their season of blooming, but, as a rule, it is a sure method of attaining this object. =Colouring is also vastly influenced by aspect=; such things as pansies, for example, never show such rich markings under a hot sun, but require an east border to bring out their true beauties. Scotland suits them admirably, with its cool summer nights and moist atmosphere. =THE IMPORTANCE OF SHELTER.= Shelter has a great deal to do with success in a garden; in the ordinary town garden, the builder has generally been only too obliging in this respect, but in bleak hilly spots it might almost be called the gardener's watchword. Few things except Scotch firs and the like will stand a =long-continued high wind= with impunity; not only does it wrench the plants out of the soil, but, if it comes from a cold quarter, both flowers and leaves curl up at its approach and refuse to thrive; they become nipped in the bud, as at the touch of frost. Everyone has experienced the meaning of shelter when out in a cold nor'-easter; how it bites one, making the blood stand still with its fury! then, all at once, we round the corner, and hey presto! all is changed; the air is quite caressing, and the blood tingles to our very finger-tips from the sudden reaction. With due regard to shelter, then, =climates can be "manufactured" without glass=. In extensive grounds, these wind-breaks are made by planting lines of trees, but in smaller spaces it may be done differently. The construction of =light fences=, not over five feet in height, run up inside the compound, accomplish a good deal, as may be seen by any visitor to the nurseries of Messrs. Barr, at Long Ditton; they are =not ugly if well clothed=, and make an effectual break in a much shorter time than would be the case if fruit-trees were planted, though there is nothing prettier than a row of apple or pear trees, grown espalier fashion, if time is no object. Many things will nestle beneath them, and flower beautifully for months together, for, though these fruit-trees are deciduous, the force of the wind is considerably lessened by them, on the same principle that =fishing-nets are such a protection from frost= to wall-climbers; and this again may be compared to the veils which ladies use to protect their skin. Though of wide mesh, the fishing-nets will keep off five or six degrees of frost, and in certain cases are better than a closer protection, like tiffany, which sometimes "coddles" the trees too much. =A few words on the respective qualities of youth and age= may not be amiss. Amateurs are so often disappointed in their garden purchases, because they will not allow the plants sufficient time to demonstrate their capabilities. =Catalogues are much to blame= in this respect; an enticing description of a shrub is given, and the confiding amateur orders it, believing that in a year or two it will fulfil its character. How can he be expected to know that that particular variety never bears any flowers worth speaking of till it is at least seven years old! In the long run, I think nurserymen will find it pay to tell the whole truth regarding each plant they send out, not merely in a negative way either. If an alpine, for example, like _linnea borealis_, is extremely difficult to grow and flower in this country, it is only fair to say so; to place it amongst a lot of easily-cultivated plants without a word of warning is =not straightforward dealing=, moreover is apt to make people disgusted with the whole thing. Some plants bloom much the best when in their first youth; this is the case with many of the soft-wooded plants, which soon give signs of exhaustion, especially in a light soil. When it is noticed that the outside flowering stems produce finer blossoms than those from the centre, it is generally =a sign that division is required=, and that the soil wants enriching. =THE CALENDAR.= That there is =a time for everything in gardening= is almost a truism; the calendar is considered one of the most important parts of a technical book on this subject. It is advisable for an amateur gardener to =have a note-book=, in which he jots down what he has to do several weeks or months in advance; so often some fault easily remedied is left over from year to year, because perhaps it is only observed in the summer, and cannot be mended till winter. Recently, the calendar has not been given quite so much prominence; gardeners find out more and more that the weather is not governed by it, and that though one year it may be best to sow a certain seed at the beginning of February, another season may be so cold that it will have to go in at least a fortnight later. Nevertheless, taken roughly, this diary of events, as the dictionary calls it, holds good for most years, and it is wise to stick to it as far as possible. CHAPTER XII The Profitable Portion _Fruit--The best kinds for a small garden--Avoidance of size minus flavour--Vegetables--Herbs._ If a small garden has room for any fruit-trees, =apples are the most useful= kind to grow; they can be so trained as to take up little room; for instance, in _espalier_ fashion, down each side of a sunny walk. These =apple-hedges= are a lovely sight in spring and also in the autumn, when the ruddy fruit is waiting to drop into the outstretched hand. Though names can easily be given, it is generally a good plan to =make enquiries in the neighbourhood as to the best varieties= to grow, for so much depends on soil and position. Colloquial names are often given, which require identifying with existing varieties; this can be done by sending up a specimen of the fruit to the manager of a correspondence column in some reliable gardening magazine. These gentlemen are generally able to give the desired information, and no charge is made. =A surer method= still is to send the fruit which it is desired to identify to some well-known nurseries, such as those of Messrs. Rivers at Sawbridgeworth, Hertfordshire; they have acres upon acres of splendid fruit-trees of every kind, and my readers cannot do better than purchase all they require from them. Having such wide experience, they can recommend varieties suitable for all kinds of soil and all sorts of positions. For small gardens, apple-trees grafted on =the paradise stock= are much to be recommended, as they are compact in habit, taking up but little room and =begin bearing almost at once=. Messrs. Rivers guarantee their trees on this stock to continue in full-bearing for many years. "Plant pears, and you plant for your heirs" is the old saying, but this is all changed now that the =quince stock= is used so much. _Cordon_ pears on wire fencing bear first-rate crops, and are particularly good for small gardens; the diagonal cordon is perhaps the best. =Cooking pears= can be grown on north walls, but it is not advisable to try dessert varieties on such a cold aspect. =STONE FRUIT.= To grow stone fruit successfully, =the soil must contain a fair quantity of lime=; moreover the trees, especially if trained against walls, must be kept well-watered at the stoning period. After the fruit has been picked, less moisture is required. =Standard plants are very profitable=, as crops of currants and gooseberries can be grown beneath them; this double system of cropping the ground being a great advantage where space is a consideration. =Plums= require little pruning, and are also not so liable to attacks of birds as other fruit. When ordering, =do not get too many trees of one variety=, a good selection will give a long succession of fruit; this applies to all kinds of fruit-trees. =Currants are a very manageable fruit=, as they do well in almost any position; heavy crops can be secured from bushes planted on north borders, the =black currant= thriving though it only gets a minimum of sunshine; =gooseberries= are not exacting either, and will give a good return for a small amount of labour. Both may be propagated by cuttings, and are very reasonable in price, only costing about four shillings a dozen. Messrs. Rivers' stock of =maiden peach-trees= and =nectarines= is unsurpassed, and many of the best kinds obtainable have been raised by them, and are of worldwide fame. Regarding that oft-debated question of protecting the blossom in spring, they do not advise anything in the nature of bracken to be used, this often doing more harm than good. If possible, =a glass coping= should be placed along the top of the wall, from which tiffany can depend on cold nights; unless this be done, it is best to leave them alone. Fine crops are often obtained in the south and west of England without any protection whatever, the good seasons amply compensating for the bad. It occasionally happens that the amateur has an advantage over the market grower. This is particularly the case where one wants to curtail the =depredations of birds=; it pays to protect a few yards of fruit, but where it is a case of several acres, the trees have to take their chance. =Cherries= have to be watched very carefully in this respect; it is very desirable to keep the =Morello cherries= hanging long, as they then become sweeter and make good tarts. These trees do very well on north walls. =WANT OF FLAVOUR.= One great fault noticeable in fruit-growing of recent years is that everything is sacrificed to size and appearance, flavour being at a discount; the shows have had a great deal to do with this; in the old days, when they were fewer in number, the test of a fruit was its taste. =Strawberries= in particular have deteriorated in this way, the huge kinds now seen often being absolutely devoid of the luscious flavour generally associated with them. Of course we have =better keeping varieties=, and they can be obtained much later than was once the case. If the culture of the perpetual varieties is extended strawberries will be in season many weeks longer, and this will be extremely good news for invalids, who find it as a rule one of the easiest fruits to digest. =The cultivation of strawberries is fairly easy=, but their wants must be regularly attended to. Once in three years the old plants must be taken up, and new ones (the "runners" issuing from the old) planted instead; in the summer a good mulching of strawy manure should be placed between the rows, as this helps to keep the fruit clean, besides enriching the soil. Plants which are expected to bear a good crop of fruit must have all their runners cut off as fast as they appear, as it exhausts the plants much to bear both. =Strawberries are partial to rather a light soil=, but nearly all other fruit-trees revel in a mixture of loam and clay, with a little sand to keep it open. This soil does not suffer so much from drought, and, being firmer, the larger trees can send their roots down and get a far better hold of the ground than is possible in shingly, poor soils. =ORNAMENTAL AND USEFUL.= =Vegetables= take up a good deal of room in a garden if they are wanted all the year round, but a few things can be easily grown. =Scarlet runner beans=, being ornamental as well as useful, are some of the best vegetables to grow, as they can be made to form a convenient screen for a rubbish heap. These can be brought up from seed sown early in April, and, when a foot high, require sticks; these come rather expensive if new ones are used every summer, but with care they will last two and even three seasons, though latterly they become very brittle. On the rubbish heap, =marrows= can be grown with the greatest facility, as they revel in the rich warmth there found. They should be bought when a few inches high, and planted out at the end of May, as they are only half hardy. When the flower at the end drops off they are ready to cut; if allowed to get much larger they lose all their flavour. A few, however, should be allowed to become quite ripe, as they can be used in the autumn for making apple-tart, two parts apple to one part marrow, and they also make =a good jam= when spiced with ginger, etc. =RELATIONS OF THE SUNFLOWERS.= =Jerusalem artichokes= will flourish on a north border, and come in very nicely during November; they are planted in exactly the same manner as potatoes, that is, by means of pieces containing two or three "eyes," which should go in about February. Like potatoes, too, they can be stored; though so tall, they do not require any sticks; these artichokes present much the same appearance as the ordinary cottager's sun-flower (indeed, the botanical name is identical, _helianthus_), having thick, hollow stems, covered with long, pointed, hairy leaves. =Potatoes are rather "kittle-kattle"= for amateurs, but where the soil is light they should certainly be tried, especially where there is room for a rotation of crops, as successive planting should not be made in the same place. Beware of giving rank manure to them, a sure precursor of disease; artificial manures, such as guano are far more suitable. =No trees must be allowed near them=, but a sunny open piece of ground be given up to them. March is the month to plant and the rows should be from fifteen inches to two feet apart. =Carrots and turnips= also prefer a light soil and sunny situation. Seeds of both should be sown in March, when the soil is in a friable condition, several times subsequently; the seeds must be well thinned out, and the space between the rows constantly turned by the hoe; the latter operation is particularly needful in heavy land, as it not only destroys weeds, but prevents the soil from caking: the rows should be about a foot apart. Before the turnips are ready, the young green tops make a vegetable by no means to be despised. =Herbs=, such as mint, parsley, mustard and cress, should be grown in every garden, as they take up but little space and are so much dearer to buy. =Mint= is perennial, and will come up year after year, giving no trouble whatever; it spreads rapidly and will grow anywhere. To start a bed, roots can be bought from some market-gardener, or cuttings can be struck from the bunches bought in the shops. =Parsley= is a biennial, though generally grown as an annual, because the leaves from young plants are much the best; the seeds should be sown two or three times a year, beginning about February, in a sheltered nook; =this herb likes plenty of sun=; even the curliest varieties degenerate if placed in a damp shady situation. It prefers light soil, and gives a better winter supply than where the soil is heavy. Flower-heads must be cut off regularly to keep the plants in good condition, though just a few of the best kinds may be allowed to perfect their seed, which should be sown as soon as ripe. =Mustard and cress= should also be sown several times during the summer; the cress must be sown three or four days before the mustard, to obtain them ready for cutting at the same time; both must be cut almost directly they appear, as, if allowed to grow tall, they become tough, and their flavour is lost; these seeds require no thinning out, the exception that proves the rule. CHAPTER XIII Annuals and Biennials _How to grow annuals--Some good kinds--Some good biennials._ Many amateurs look upon annuals as rubbishy things to grow, and only suitable for the children's gardens, but that is because they have generally failed to grow them properly. With the improved kinds now in cultivation, it is possible to make the portion of the flower-garden devoted to them "a thing of beauty" if not "a joy for ever." As it is more satisfactory to bring them up from the beginning, I have described in Chapter XVI. a method generally successful. =Seed-sowing out-of-doors= being rather precarious, I have found it advisable to =sow all the smaller seeds either in a green-house or frame=, however hardy the annual be. This not only saves endless trouble in the way of protecting the seed from birds, etc., but is advantageous in that one has an earlier display of bloom, owing to the growth being quicker under glass. Below is a table of the choicest kinds:-- ANNUALS. NAME. LENGTH. COLOUR. Bartonia aurea 1 to 1-1/2 ft. Golden yellow. Celosia plumosa 1-1/2 ft. Red and yellow. (Somewhat after the style of Prince's feather; tender.) Coreopsis (or Calliopsis) 2 ft. Yellow and red. Eschscholtzia 1 ft. Bright yellow. (Very pretty grey-green foliage; select.) Gaillardia 1-1/2 ft. Yellow and red. (The "blanket flower"; good for cutting.) Godetia 9 ins. Red to white. (Cup-shaped; showy.) Mesembryanthemum 1/2 to 1 ft. Ice plant. (Grown for its foliage, which glistens beautifully; must have sun.) Ionopsidium acaule 2 to 3 ins. Pale mauve. (Miniature plants for filling up crevices in rockwork.) Linum coccineum 1 ft. New scarlet variety. Lupinus arboreus, "Snow-queen" 3 to 4 ft. Pure white. (A very stately plant; new.) Nemophila grandiflora 1/2 ft. Beautiful blue and white. (Remind one of the eyes of a child.) Phlox drummondi 1 ft. All shades of red to white (Half-hardy; must be massed.) Shirley poppy 1 ft. All shades of pink. (Very graceful and free; light soil.) Portulaca 1/2 ft. Mixed colours. (The most effective of all annuals; half-hardy; must have plenty of sun and a light soil.) Salpiglossis 1-1/2 ft. All shades. (Very fragile flowers, veined and marked in exquisite fashion; must be massed.) Silene pendula compacta 1/2 ft. Bright pink. (Flowers shaped somewhat like a Maltese cross.) Stocks, double, ten-week 1 ft. Various. (When thinning, only keep the weakest seedlings, as those are the double ones.) BIENNIALS. These, if sown one spring, will not flower the following summer, but do so the year after. NAME. LENGTH. COLOUR. Fox-gloves 3 to 4 ft. White and coloured (White, most picturesque; all do well in shade; unless seed is required, cut out main stem, when side shoots will flower.) Lunaria biennis 1-1/2 to 2 ft. The old "honesty." (Much prized for its silvery seed-pods.) Polyanthus 1/2 ft. Mixed colours. (Admirable for shady places; water well.) Japanese pinks 1 ft. Deepest crimson to white. (Fringed petals; a whole bed of this is lovely.) Sweet Williams 1 ft. Mixed shades. (Auricula type, the best; there is a novelty, blackish-maroon in shade, which should be placed amongst some of the crimson varieties.) Snap-dragons 2 ft. Varied. (Flower from June to November; eschew reds of a mauve hue.) Wallflower, "Ruby Gem" 2 ft. Reddish violet. The seeds of all these, true to name and ripe for germination, may be obtained from Messrs. Barr, Long Ditton, Surrey, who sell sixpenny packets of all these kinds; small quantities of the well-known sorts only costing threepence. This is a =great advantage to owners of small gardens=, as one does not wish to give 1s. 6d. or 2s. 6d. for perhaps two thousand seeds of one variety, when only two or three dozen are required. Penny packets of seeds may be had from the One and All Company at most greengrocer's, and are really wonderful value for the money. CHAPTER XIV Window Boxes _How to make them--Relation of box to residence they are intended to adorn--Suitable soil--Window plants for different aspects._ Where gardens are small, one seems to need window boxes more than where there is land and to spare. They add to the number of one's flowers, and, if carefully looked after, decidedly =improve the appearance of a house=. That is a large "If" though, for unkempt boxes only make it look untidy. =FLOWERS FIRST, BOX SECOND.= Though the tiled sort obtain a good deal of patronage, nothing really looks much better than boxes covered with virgin cork, if constantly renewed, for it acts as =a foil to the flowers=, whereas patterned tiles are rather apt to take one's attention away from them. In summer, certainly, they have the advantage of preserving the earth in a moist condition, and in smoky towns they help to give a bright, clean look to the houses so decorated. Old-fashioned houses, however, should always have their window boxes made in the virgin cork style, as they accord better with their surroundings. When strong wooden boxes have been procured, it is quite easy to tack on the cork one's self, provided one has a sharp knife and a good supply of long nails, and it is =most fascinating work=; it is advisable to wear gloves during the process, as the hands may become rough otherwise. Seven pounds of the cork may be had for a shilling of any seedsman, and three lots will do two boxes of the average size. =The soil should be fairly light=, like that used for potting, but before the boxes are filled, several holes, bored with a red-hot poker, should be made in the bottom, and a thin layer of "crocks" spread over them; do not quite fill the box with soil, but leave an inch or two free to allow of watering, and even more if a layer of moss or =cocoa-nut fibre= is used to cover the surface of the soil; this is certainly an improvement till the plants get large enough to cover it themselves. Only =artificial manures= must be used to fertilize the roots, and even those must not be given too often, but only in the hot weather, when growth is quick, as they are stimulating to a great degree. =Constant renewals are necessary=, if the boxes are to look gay all the year round; even the best gardeners acknowledge this. If continuous bloomers are chosen, however, the cost is considerably modified. Perhaps the =winter shrubs= are the most expensive item; yet they are often chosen without much regard to cheerfulness; indeed, the favourite kinds present a most funereal appearance. =Aspect= has always a good deal to do with the selection of plants, but in the case of windows facing north and east, it is the cold winds more than the absence of sun which restricts the choice. Shelter is a great factor in their well-being. =SHOWY IN WINTER.= In a cosy box with a western exposure, and protected on the north, the golden-tipped _retinosporas_ make =a pretty show during the cold months= of the year, and form a welcome change from the prevailing dark green tones. _Cotoneasters_, _pernettyas_, and the variegated _euonymus_ are also very suitable. The polypody ferns, being evergreen, look very well too, and =will thrive facing all four points of the compass=. In the spring, =dwarf wall-flowers=, interspersed with different kinds of bulbs, make the boxes look bright, and the new _pyrus maulei_ is also very pretty at this season. The =perennial candytuft=, too, is a splendid flower for late spring, particularly _iberis correafolia_, which has a neat habit, and bears quantities of snow-white flowers; it likes sun, and not too much moisture. The =yellow jasmine=, which is so pretty in winter, looks extremely well when allowed to droop over the edges of a box, as it flowers in quite a young state. The mossy _saxifrages_ are suitable for the edges of the box, and are always ornamental; their charming white flowers, supported on red stalks, appear about May. Such =bulbs= as the Duc Van Thol tulips are very bright, and mix well with the shrubs; they should be put in some time in October. =Crocuses= look well, too, but should not be placed in the same box as the tulips, or too gaudy an appearance will result. A thick planting along the front of the box of the Starch hyacinth--_muscari_--is =uncommon=, and an exceedingly nice thing to have, as the moment the window is open fragrant whiffs, resembling new-mown hay, pour into the room, especially on a sunny morning. When these bulbs have to make way for the summer flowers, it is advisable to plant them out in the garden and use another lot next year, as the =constant transplantation somewhat weakens them=. Of course, one could leave them in the box during the summer, if it were not for the unsightly decaying leaves, which =must on no account be cut off=. About the middle of May for the South of England, and a fortnight later for the North, is the time to furnish the boxes for the summer. If the window is small, low-growing plants and trailers should prevail. =FOR COLD ASPECTS.= Some good flowers for north and east aspects are _fuschias_, _calceolarias_, _begonias_, and the lovely white _campanula isophylla_; the latter thrives best in such conditions, bearing finer flowers for a much greater length of time than where the sun scorches it. =These plants accord well with stucco=, which serves to show up their whiteness more than anything. =Marguerites=, yellow and white, also thrive in the cooler windows of a house, and are not so exigent in the matter of watering when so placed. When selecting =begonias= for boxes it is well to choose the single varieties with moderate-sized blossoms; the big flabby ones soon become spoilt by rain, and are not produced so freely, nor is their habit of growth so good. =For hot situations= the double geraniums are splendid, but they should not be mixed with lobelias, as they look infinitely better when grouped by themselves, the shades ranging from dark crimson to the palest salmon-pink. =PRETTY TRAILERS.= The quick-growing _tradescantia_ with its many-jointed stems and glossy bright green leaves, softens =the somewhat formal appearance of the geraniums=, and will cover all the bare soil in a marvellously short space of time, and droop over the edges in long streamers; it is quite distinct from the tall _tradescantias_ mentioned in a former chapter, and is the easiest thing in the world to propagate, as any little bits saved over from a bouquet will make roots in a bowl of water, or they can be "struck" in the ordinary way in a pot under glass. The variegated _tradescantia_ is =a very choice trailer=, but a little more tender than the other, and requires a sunny position, while the plain green variety will do anywhere outside in the summer, even growing well under trees. =For autumn= there are the =hardy chrysanthemums=, and if dwarf varieties with fibrous roots are chosen, a very good show can be made with these till the middle or end of November. The protection afforded them by the house keeps them in good condition longer than when they are in the open, especially when a thin veiling, such as tiffany, is afforded them on cold nights. Even newspapers will keep out several degrees of frost, and form a very cheap method of protection. CHAPTER XV Table Decoration and Flowers in Season _Graceful arrangement--How to manage thick-skinned stems--Colour-schemes--Bad colours for artificial light--Preserving and resuscitating--Table of flowers in season._ The fashion of decorating tables to the extent now done is of comparatively recent date. When the duties were taken off the importation of foreign flowers, they became so much lower in price that the great middle-class could afford to buy some even in mid-winter. In the British Isles themselves, too, the carriage of flowers is much cheaper and more expeditious, though there is plenty of room for improvement still in that respect. =The manner of arranging= them has much altered, for, instead of cramming a clumsy vase to its utmost limits with a dozen different flowers of as many shades, only one, two, or at most three, kinds are now used, and these are set out in as =graceful and airy= a manner as possible. =Plain glass vases=, as a rule, show the blossoms off best, though pale green or ruby occasionally looks very well. The water need not be changed every day in all cases; it depends on the flower; wall-flowers, for instance, turn the water putrid very soon, while it keeps fresh much longer where roses are concerned. =The vases should, however, be filled up once a day=, as the stems suck up moisture rapidly. Hard-wooded flower stalks should receive special attention, or they will droop directly. =STEM-SPLITTING.= Lilac, when cut and placed in water will absorb no more moisture than a lead pencil, unless the stems are split up; this can be done either with a hammer or a knife or both. As many leaves as possible should be left on the stems, for when under water they largely help to make the blossoms last well; it is only where the stalks are nearly leafless that the splitting and peeling is necessary. =Maidenhair fern may be made to last= much longer if the end of the black, wiry stem is hammered for about an inch up. It must not be forgotten that =cutting from a plant strengthens it=, and induces it to continue sending up flower-stalks. People often seem chary of cutting their roses with any length of stem, I suppose because it has leaves and shoots all the way up, but this is an error; they should be cut with about eight or ten inches of stalk; pansies and _violas_ also look much more natural when a portion of the shoot is cut along with each blossom. =BY PARCEL POST.= On hot summer days, when flowers are to be sent by post, =they should be picked early in the morning=, several hours before they are to be sent off, and placed in bowls of water; then, if they are packed close together in tin, wood, or even card-board boxes they will arrive quite fresh at their destination, where otherwise they would be hopelessly faded. When a box of flowers is received, the contents should be put =in luke-warm water= in a dim light for an hour or so; they can then be re-arranged in the vases they are intended to occupy. =BLUE--A DAYLIGHT COLOUR.= Some colours respond to artificial light much better than others. =Most shades of blue are not suitable for decorating dinner tables=, because they turn almost brown, or at best a dull mauve. In choosing violets, therefore, for evening wear, it will be found that the blossoms which have thin, rather washed-out petals of the lightest purple will look best, the full blue not being nearly so effective. =For luncheon=, an arrangement of purple clematis in vases on the palest pink ground is lovely, but does not look quite so well by gas-light, though here again if the least velvety flowers are chosen for evening, a good effect can be obtained. =Yellow is a splendid evening colour=, but must be bright, or it will look merely cream. A dining-room panelled in light oak, adorned with yellow marguerites alone, is very pleasing to the eye. In the spring, =laburnum makes a novel dressing for a dining-table=; care, however, must be exercised with this flower, as the pods are poisonous. Blue also looks well with brown in the day-time; larkspurs, forget-me-nots, _plumbago_, _campanulas_, _nemophilla_, etc., all look very well. We know how artistic blue porcelain is on oak shelves, and, if the flowers have a white eye or are veined with white, the effect is somewhat the same. =Scarlet is a good gas or electric light colour=, but it must be used judiciously, and as a rule only be mixed with white, just as the ladies at a regimental ball are generally only allowed to robe themselves in this pure shade. =SIMPLICITY.= Now-a-days the decorations are rarely made so high that one cannot see the other side of the table. Though this arrangement might occasionally be useful in hiding the face of an enemy, on the whole it was found inconvenient; accordingly they have climbed down; the "bazaar-stall" fashion is also disappearing, and flat table-centres are used instead, or none at all. Simplicity is the great cry now, and though of course it may be costly, a charming effect is obtained with fewer flowers than was formerly considered correct, and is moreover easily imitated by an artistic eye in less expensive blossoms. Some of the flowers to be had in each respective season are enumerated on p. 86. It will be noticed that where plenty of out-door blossoms are to be had, the hot-house varieties are omitted. TABLE OF NATURAL AND FORCED FLOWERS FOR EACH MONTH. JANUARY. _Natural._ Christmas rose. Yellow jasmine. _Forced._ Carnations. Eucharis. Gardenias. Poinsettias. Tuberoses. Late chrysanthemums. Roman hyacinths. Odontoglossum (orchid). Tulips. Violet, single and double. Narcissus. FEBRUARY. _Natural._ Christmas roses. Yellow jasmine. Daphne. Snowdrops. _Forced._ White lilac. Carnation. Hyacinths. Tulips. Geraniums. Marguerites. Cattleya (orchid). Camellias. Roses. Dicentra. Narcissus. MARCH. _Natural._ Violets. Early narcissus. Almond blossom. Cowslips. Polyanthus. _Forced._ Freesias. Lily of the valley. Arums. Narcissus. Mauve lilac. Anemones. Lilium Harrisii. " longiflorum. Roses. Azaleas. APRIL. _Natural._ Daffodils. Wallflowers. Forget-me-not. Tulips. Alyssum. Anemones. Doronicums. _Forced._ Sweet peas. Roses. Carnations. Arums. Lilies of the valley. Alliums. Acacia. Epacris. MAY. _Natural._ Laburnum. Poet's eye narcissus. Doronicums. Trollius. Iris. Parrot tulips. Lilies of the valley. Syringa. Lilac. Ranunculus. _Forced._ Arums. Ixias. Gladiolus (scarlet and white). JUNE. _Natural._ Sweet peas. Roses. Pinks. Pyrethrums (single). Larkspurs. Canterbury bells. Penstemons. Lilies. Columbines. Flag iris and other iris. JULY. _Natural._ Clematis. Montbretias. St. John's wort. Campanulas. Poppies (to be picked in the bud). Carnations. Cornflowers. Indian pinks. Erigeron (like an early Michaelmas daisy). Gladiolus. AUGUST. _Natural._ Clematis. Coreopsis. Gaillardias. Snapdragons. Sunflowers. Gladiolus. Dahlias. Roses. Carnations. SEPTEMBER. _Natural._ Michaelmas daisies. Pinks. Chrysanthemums. Lilies. Sunflowers. Japanese anemones. Roses. _Forced._ Tuberoses. Cattleyas. Eucharis. Gardenias. OCTOBER. _Natural._ Michaelmas daisies. Chrysanthemums. Physalis (or Cape gooseberry). Violets. Single Marigolds. _Forced._ Salvias. Marguerites. Tuberoses. Eucharis. Odontoglossum. Cattleya. Bouvardia. Roses. Carnations. NOVEMBER. _Natural._ Michaelmas daisies. Chrysanthemums. The gladwin iris (berries). Violets. _Forced._ Eucharis. Geraniums. Marguerites. Salvias. Carnations. Chrysanthemums. Odontoglossum. Cattleya. Bouvardia. Camellias. DECEMBER. _Natural._ Yellow jasmine. Christmas roses. _Forced._ Salvias. Cypripediums. Violets. Poinsettias. Geraniums. Chrysanthemums. Lilies of the valley. Roman hyacinths. Coelogyne (orchid). Narcissus in variety. =The cost of a flower is always in proportion to its blooming time.= If lilies of the valley are wanted in August, they must be paid for heavily, as retarded bulbs (those which have been kept in ice) are used to produce them. CHAPTER XVI The Propagation of Plants _By dividing--By cuttings--By seeds--By layers._ =Propagation may be affected in various ways=, of which division is perhaps the easiest. It must be done very carefully, or decay will set in. Some plants lend themselves to this form of propagation very readily; in others, the root stock is single and obviously resents division, wherefore it is better to try another plan. The Michaelmas daisies are good instances of the first kind; their roots are fibrous, and soon take to the new soil; it is tap-rooted plants which dislike division so much. =CAREFUL DIVISION.= It is advisable to divide most plants in the growing season, which is from spring to early autumn; if it is done in the winter months, each piece frequently remains quite inert and eventually rots. The plant should be taken up, with a fork by preference, and then pulled carefully apart with the hand. =The smallest fragment of the old white anemone will grow=, but few plants will stand quite so much division. Each piece should be well watered as it is planted, and if the sun is hot some shade improvised. Such things as _delphiniums_, _phloxes_, _campanulas_, and quick-growing subjects in general, should not be left too long without being divided, or the flowers will dwindle, and the plants become straggling in habit. A good many plants which might be propagated by =division= of the roots are propagated instead by cuttings, as the flowers come finer in every way, and of course this method suits many plants which cannot be divided. Chrysanthemums present few difficulties; though the ultimate growth of this Japanese plant entails a vast amount of labour (if prizes are the object in view), yet cuttings from them are the easiest things possible to strike, even easier than a geranium, as there is no damping off. =Cuttings are generally struck under glass=, this method being the surest, even with hardy plants. The shoots selected should be well ripened, and the cut made squarely below a joint and be =taken with a "heel"= if possible, that is, with a piece of the old wood attached. All but the topmost leaves should be pinched off, and then the cuttings must be inserted round the sides of the pot, and the soil well pressed down,--the best cuttings in the world cannot make roots unless this be attended to. After that a good watering should be given them, and the pots set in a shady place till they have emitted roots, which may be known by the fact of their beginning to make new leaves. Some cuttings root better when the cut is allowed to form a "callus," which in warm weather only takes a few hours. =Rose cuttings= root very well out of doors on a north border, and trees produced in this manner are often very satisfactory, but they take a long while to come to a flowering stage, somewhat trying the patience of ardent amateurs. One can gradually get quite a nice collection of interesting plants, by striking all the likely shoots in the different bunches of flowers received from friends, but it is generally best to identify them as soon as possible, so as to give each the right treatment. =Propagation by seed= is quite a fascinating employment, and is a successful method, if pains are taken; though so many amateurs seem to fail. I have found it the safest plan, with all except the largest seeds, to bring them up under glass. Even the hardiest can be treated in this way, and one feels so much more sure of the result. For one thing, birds cannot get at them, therefore there is no need to make a network of black cotton to keep them off; neither can the cat meddle with them, and we all know pussy is a very bad gardener. =The pans= specially sold for the purpose are the best, but pots will do very well. Fill them with fine moist soil, and press firmly down; then scatter the seed thinly on the top, and only cover with a slight layer of soil, afterwards placing in a dark corner. Where the seed is very small, do not cover with any mould at all, but, as an extra protection, place a piece of cardboard over the top of the pot, so that they shall not be blown away. =Seeds like a still atmosphere=, moisture, warmth, and darkness. Seeds and seedlings must not be watered in the ordinary way, but the pan containing them should be placed in a saucer of water, when enough moisture will be drawn up by capillary attraction. Thinning is extremely necessary; every plant must be given room to attain its full dimensions; where this is not done, the result is most unsatisfactory. As regards the =time for sowing=, of course, spring is the most usual, but in the case of annuals it will often be found a good plan to sow a few in autumn, as, by pursuing this method, nice stocky little plants are ready for the garden quite early in the season, and give flowers long before spring-sown seed could possibly do so. =Propagation by layering= is very useful, as cuttings of some plants will not strike readily. Strong shoots are denuded of their leaves for a few inches, and their stems slit up and pressed into the ground by means of a peg; when firmly rooted, they can be detached from the parent plant by means of a penknife. Carnations are generally reproduced in this way, as it is the surest method of all. CHAPTER XVII The Management of Room Plants _Best kinds for "roughing" it--Importance of cleanliness--The proper way of watering them._ The majority of English women like to see their rooms, and specially their drawing-rooms, adorned with =growing plants=. Nevertheless, a great many do not cultivate them successfully, so a few hints will not be amiss. =Constant attention= is needed to keep plants in perfect health, and this is exactly what is so often denied them. A lady buys two or three ferns that take her fancy, and feels for a while quite interested in their welfare; but, after a week or so, she leaves them to take care of themselves, which means to dwindle, and ultimately die. Many shillings, therefore, are constantly being spent in renewing plants which, with proper care, should last for years. All room plants =must be looked after daily=, a few minutes every morning being far better than an hour once a week, which is all they receive in some homes. I will treat first of =palms=, which, though such slow-growing subjects, seem the favourite of all for home decoration, owing to their grace of form and good lasting properties. If you observe the roots of most palms, you will see that, attached in an odd way to the rising stem is =a sort of bulb=, not unlike a pigmy potato. This excrescence, which should only be covered by a thin layer of soil, stores up nutriment for the plant's use, in much the same way as a hyacinth or daffodil does. This accounts in a great measure for its power in enduring dryness of the soil without flagging, which property, however, should not be abused. Palms should be watered as regularly, though not so often, as more sappy plants. =THE CORRECT WAY TO WATER.= Numbers of people do not know how to give water in the correct way, whereby the florist prospers! =The golden rule= is never to water a plant until it requires it, and then to do it thoroughly. It is fatal merely to moisten the top of the soil, and to leave the deeper roots dry. First give =a sharp tap to the pot=; if it rings, water is required; if, on the contrary, a dull sound is given out, the soil is wet enough. Lifting a pot is a sure test too, as one's hand soon becomes accustomed to the difference in weight of a moist and dry pot; the former, of course, being so much heavier. Always see that the water runs through the hole at the bottom of the pot, then you may be sure that each particle of soil is wet, and not till then. If you possibly can, it is best to =use water of a corresponding temperature to that of the room they are in=; this is most important with delicate plants. Large, shiny, horizontal-leaved plants require a weekly sponging to remove the inevitable dust which settles on them. =Gloves should be worn= while this is being done, as contact with the skin turns the edges of the leaves yellow; also gloves, of course, help to keep the hands soft and white. Plants with large leaves should never be watered overhead, unless immediately wiped dry, as each drop allowed to stand on the leaf turns yellow, rots, and finally quite spoils the leaf, so that it has to be removed. Palms will stand gas fairly well, but not so well as _aspidistras_. =THE BEST PLANTS FOR DARK CORNERS.= An _aspidistra_ (please note spelling) is =the best plant there is for roughing it=. The long, thick, dark leaves seem to stand draughts, gas, dark corners, poor soil, and general neglect almost with impunity. But here again watering overhead is fatal, as regards the appearance of these plants. The =leaves should be washed once a week=, but I will just say here that where one is in a hurry, and cannot wait to get a sponge and water, a good polish with a duster is not at all a bad substitute. There are disputes occasionally as to whether _aspidistras_ ever flower. Of course, it is an undoubted fact that they do, and I can give a decided affirmative to any who may question it. My plants flower regularly every spring, but, as these blooms are a dull, greenish-purple in colour, and only sit, as it were, on the top of the soil, they are naturally overlooked. The modesty of the violet is nowhere when compared with the _aspidistra_! =Aralias are good room plants=, for they have a bold and handsome form, and glossy, bright green foliage, very like that of a fig. They do not stand gas well, however, but, as so many houses are lighted by electricity, this is less of a drawback than was formerly the case. If not regularly watered, too, they have a habit of dropping their leaves; otherwise they are of easy culture. As they grow taller, the lower leaves, even on a healthy plant, generally drop off. =LEGGY PLANTS.= It is a good way, when these and kindred plants become "leggy," to improve their appearance by cutting off the old root, and making them root higher up the stem. Where the plant is valuable, it is best to be sure of new roots before throwing away the old, but, as a rule, _aralias_ have so many joints that they may easily be induced to strike by just pressing the stem firmly into the soil, then putting the pot in some dark place, and keeping the soil rather dry, though the foliage must be kept moist. =To be quite sure of success=, however, it is best to treat them in the following manner:--Choose a handful of soil with a little loam in it, and, wetting the stem slightly, press the soil round two or three of the joints, and bind closely with some raffia or bass, being very careful to keep the soil always moist, or the plant will fail to make roots. Some people enclose this part of the stem in two halves of a small flower-pot, which is a good plan, if the stem will bear the weight, as it preserves a more even temperature. =The hare's-foot fern=--_Davallia canariensis_--with its beautiful blue-green fronds, much divided and elegantly arched, makes the loveliest room plant imaginable, and, though fairly common, is =not often seen in a good state of health=. I have found that, on first buying a pot of this fern, the leaves almost invariably turn rusty and drop off, so that, as the new fronds sometimes do not appear for some while, an amateur might really be pardoned for _imagining the plant dead_. This is not so; the hare's-foot merely resents the change of atmosphere (it has probably been in a moist green-house), and, like most of us, takes time to settle down. Once it has acclimatised itself, there is no better plant to be had for the purpose. It is so essentially decorative that no one can fail to admire it. Firm potting is important in growing the =davallia=, and it does not seem so partial to water as most of the fern tribe. It will also stand gas pretty well, if not shut up for the night in an atmosphere charged with it, and this is the case with many room plants; they =strongly object to being left to spend the night in the impure air=, though a few hours each evening will not do them much harm. The plan of taking them out at bed-time also prevents so much dust accumulating on their leaves, an inevitable drawback where a room is thoroughly swept and dusted. =Always endeavour to keep your plants well balanced.= In a room, it is impossible to do this, without constantly turning the pots round, so that all parts may get the light. In summer, this has to be attended to nearly every day, but in winter less often, as the sun is, of course, much less powerful. As regards =re-potting=, great care must be exercised, or more harm than good will result. Palms will grow for years in quite small pots, and do not thrive if over-potted. On the other hand, some plants require it annually, but, seldom or often, unless for some special reason, =re-potting should always be done in the spring=. From the beginning of February until the end of May, a plant may safely be shifted on, as it is called, because all these months comprise the growing season, when fresh roots are emitted and new leaves being produced almost daily. See that the pot is perfectly clean and dry, and the soil in a friable condition; it should be composed of peat, loam and sand in equal parts; a little leaf mould, where it is for a fern proper, will be beneficial. A =potting soil= ready prepared may be had for about a shilling a peck from any seedsman, which saves time and trouble in mixing. Be sure to put clean crocks in at the bottom, or the soil will become sour. Shake the pot every now and again as you fill it up, to ensure no crevices being left; =loose potting= has caused the death of many a fine plant. When the pot is full, press the mould down, leaving from half an inch to an inch (according to the size) bare of soil to the rim of the pot, to allow of watering. It is well to put a layer, about half an inch thick, of cocoa-nut fibre on the top of the soil, as this looks neat, and serves to show off the foliage to the best advantage. Enough of the fibre to cover several dozen pots may be had for threepence. Guano is good, if supplied to the plants during the warmer months of the year. The proportions of guano to water can always be seen on the label pasted on the outside of the tin. It is well to remember that =guano should never be given to a plant when the soil is dry=, but always just after it has been watered. =Saucers or jardinieres should be emptied= as a rule an hour after the plants have been watered, though where ferns seem to flourish most when allowed to stand in water, it is well to continue the practice. In very hot weather, this is undoubtedly of benefit to many plants, but in the winter the soil of all pot plants should err on the dry side, cold and damp together often proving fatal. =GOOD FOR TWO-THIRDS OF THE YEAR.= There are some first-rate plants which refuse to look well for the coldest part of the year (unless one is possessed of an hot-house), but which are really =capital for brightening our rooms= for at least eight months in the twelve. Of these, the _asparagus_ "fern" is perhaps the most useful. It is a lovely and graceful plant, which bears cutting, and it lasts so long, both in and out of water. Being, however, in reality a stove plant, amateurs who have no warmed green-house must not expect to keep it in thoroughly good health during the winter, but so soon as the spring appears, new green stems will shoot up in all directions, and the old fronds will soon be replaced by bright green feathery plumes of infinite grace. =Pteris wimsetti= is a charming room plant. =Young eucalyptus plants= are also very pretty for decorating a room, and are supposed to be good as a disinfectant. Their habit of growth is uncommon, and very charming to watch, as they quickly reach to an effective size, and make large handsome plants to set in the corners of reception rooms. It is best to bring them up by seed, which should be sown in February or March. =Spring is the best time to buy room-plants.= CHAPTER XVIII Various Hints _Artificial manures--Labelling--Cutting off dead flowers--Buying plants--Tidiness in the garden, etc._ With far the larger half of our population =the question of cost= comes into everything. There are so many claims on our purses, that the money spent on recreations can only be a small part; moreover, is always liable to be drawn on at any moment. Somehow, the money laid out on a garden always seems to be grudged, especially when it is for such things as manure, so that if that item can be reduced, so much the better. =A "WRINKLE."= One good way of buying it, is to get the boys who sweep the roads to bring the contents of their cart to your garden instead of taking it away. Quite a lot can be purchased for sixpence or so, and the mixture is even more beneficial to some plants than the loads bought from the contractor. When the neat little heaps are swept up at the roadside, anyone may take it away. Householders can employ their own errand-boys to do so, no charge being made whatever. =Guano and artificial manures= in general are very stimulating, and must only be given to plants in bud, or at all events full-growth. Sickly plants or those at rest must never have it. =Soapsuds= form a mild stimulant for rose-trees in summer, but these things do not come in place of the manure with which the soil must be dressed in autumn; they are only additions. =LABELLING.= There has been much controversy over the labelling of plants; it must be done very delicately, or the appearance of the garden is spoilt; the word label usually presupposes a name to be written thereon, but, in reality, =just a mark to show where a plant is=, often seems all that is necessary, and this is very important indeed with plants which die right down every winter. The most unobtrusive tallies must be used, and they should be of zinc, or they will inevitably get lost. The wooden ones are all right in the greenhouse, but no good at all outside. For rose-trees, names are required, and =the "acme" labels are much the best= ever invented for these, and have now been in use by all rosarians for years; they can be had at Cant's Rose Nurseries, Colchester, for about 1s. 3d. a dozen, post paid. =If we would keep plants in good health=, all dead flowers must be cut off regularly; this is specially important in the case of sweet peas, pansies, and other free-flowering plants, which become poor, and soon leave off blossoming altogether, if allowed to form seed-pods. It is =a good plan= to go round every morning with a basket and scissors, and snip off all faded blooms, as, when several days elapse, the work becomes long and irksome. =As regards buying plants=, this comes somewhat expensive, until a little knowledge and experience has been gained. After a while, the different plants are known by sight, and one is able to see directly whether a flower or shrub is well grown and of good colour. Then, instead of ordering everything at the large nurseries, one can often pick up, in one's wanderings, very =good things at small cost=. Until that is the case, it is wiser to order from some reliable firm who is sure to send out everything true to name. People who go in for gardening, should always be ready to learn; there are so many points which cannot be acquired all at once. One can often gain a "wrinkle" if one keeps one's eyes open, as the saying is. Constant visits should be made to Kew, Hampton Court, or any other well-kept public garden, if at all within reach. A stroll round a neighbour's garden, too, will often give one new ideas, and the interchange of opinions does a deal of good. A magazine keeps up one's interest wonderfully, and there are many specially published for amateurs. One must not be surprised that the advice often seems contradictory. =The right way of growing a plant is the way that succeeds=, and experience shows how varied may be the means by which success is attained. I should like here to warn my readers that before launching out into any great expense, they first come to a full understanding as to what they will or will not be able to take away. Greenhouses can be put up as =tenants' fixtures=, but a very slight difference in the manner of placing them may result in a good deal of unpleasantness with the landlord, and it is the same with rose-trees, and other shrubs and plants. Where a shrub has attained to goodly proportions, it is really the best way to let it remain, even though the associations connected with it may be pleasant, as transplanting would probably mean death, in which case neither party would have gained anything. Of course, in the nature of things, a lover of gardening is loth to move at all, a rolling stone is not at all in his line. =Tidiness is most important in a small garden=, especially in the winter time; plants may be allowed to get rampant in summer, but in the cold weather, this wildness tends to make it look miserable. One sometimes sees the brown, mildewed stalks of sunflowers and other tall plants, left on right into December, even in a front garden, and it =gives such a deserted look= to the place, that one longs to "have at them" there and then with a knife. It is the same way with autumn leaves; in woods they look beautiful, as they flutter down and make a rich, rustling carpet for our feet, but, somehow, in the garden the beauty seems gone, and it is generally the best plan to sweep them away as soon as possible into some corner, where they can be left to turn into leaf mould. Of course there is a certain beautiful freedom which is very desirable in a garden, and which no one could call untidiness. What looks lovelier, for instance, than the jasmine, with its long sprays hanging down over the window, or the break made in a straight-edged path by some luxurious patch of thrift or forget-me-not? these are only fascinating irregularities! =Winter need not be a time for idleness=; it must be spent in getting ready for the spring. Tools should be overhauled thoroughly, and new supplies of sticks and labels prepared. Plans, too, should be made for filling each different bed, so that when the warm days arrive, and one scarcely knows what to be at first, everything may be in train. The faculty of looking ahead must needs be used, if we wish to succeed. I often think that =living in anticipation constitutes a great part of the charm of gardening=. When sowing the seed, have we not bright visions of the time when that self-same seed will bear most exquisite blossoms? When pruning our rose trees, dreams of what they will become lend added interest to our occupations, and, indeed, this quality of imagination turns arduous work into a veritable labour of love, so that its devotees always aver it is the most delightful recreation in the world. JANUARY. _Average Temperature 37._ In frosty weather wheel manure on to ground. See that every plant which is not quite hardy is well protected from frost. Shake off any snow which may be lying on the branches of fir trees, etc. In mild weather digging may be done. If it has not already been done cut back all deciduous trees, such as chestnuts, limes and sycamores. Prune all except the tender fruit trees, cutting back weak shoots hard, and strong ones little. Sow early peas on a warm border. Do not transplant this month. Start covering rhubarb with pots or boxes for forcing, and surround them with manure. Paths may be relaid with gravel. The erection of arches, trellis work, or any alteration of this sort may be attended to. Keep all plants under glass clear of decaying leaves and anything likely to cause mouldiness. Raise temperature of greenhouses as the days become lighter. FEBRUARY. _Average Temperature 39._ Begin sowing hardy annuals outside in a sheltered position. Refrain from pruning rose-trees, or they will suffer later on. New lawns can be made now, though Autumn is the best time. See that all trees are securely staked and shoots of wall climbers well nailed in before the winds of March come. Prune remaining fruit trees. Seeds of broad beans, peas, carrots, onions, beetroot, parsley, lettuce, etc., can now be sown, though the largest sowing should be made next month. Plants under glass must have more air and more water as they begin to grow quickly. Ventilate carefully and close all the houses before sunset. Give manure to fruit trees. Look over fuchsias, dahlias, etc.; cut back and place in gentle warmth. MARCH. _Average Temperature 41._ Hardy perennials may be planted. Prune hardy rose trees. Sow the bulk of flowering annuals. Cut back ivy during last week. Free the lawn of plantains and sow grass-seed on bare patches. Renew or fill up box edgings. Hoe beds and borders frequently to keep down weeds. Rose trees may be planted, though Autumn is the best time. See that bedding plants in frames have plenty of water. Clear out all dead plants and give a general tidy-up to the greenhouse. Give plenty of air from top-lights to glasshouses. Plant out Jerusalem artichokes. Sow seeds of vegetables of all kinds. Pick up gravel paths, and give another layer if necessary. Protect anything newly planted from rough winds. Mulch bush fruit trees. APRIL. _Average Temperature 46._ Make last sowing of annuals and thin out those appearing above ground. Fill up gaps in the flower border. Plant out dahlias. Prune tea-roses during first week. If rather dry weather ensues keep rockery and all Spring-flowering plants well-watered. Beds must be prepared for the tender plants put out next month by turning the soil well over and thus pulverizing it. Protect tender fruit trees from late frosts. Sow seeds of vegetables for succession. If the weather is hot, shading can be put on greenhouses. Bedding plants must be gradually hardened off by giving plenty of air. Mow and roll lawn frequently. Plant out potato tubers. Edgings can be planted or filled up. MAY. _Average Temperature 53._ Keep a sharp look-out for insects. Commence bedding out this month and continue all through, reserving tender things such as coleus till the last. Hoe well between annuals and keep them well watered. Carefully train the various climbers or they will grow into an inextricable mass. Fill vases and baskets. Clip evergreen hedges as this makes them break out at the bottom. Put some strawy manure between the rows of strawberries and keep well watered. Sow vegetable seeds for succession. Plant out gourds, marrows, etc. If the weather is hot keep everything well watered. Transplant violets to their cool Summer quarters. Syringe frequently under glass. JUNE. _Average Temperature 59._ If the garden is not altogether dependent on bedding plants it ought to be looking its freshest and best. See that everything has enough water. Continue to thin out flowering annuals as they increase in size. Carefully stake larkspurs, carnations, etc. If the leaves of Spring bulbs have turned quite yellow, cut them off, but not before. Give copious supplies of water to all wall plants as a slight shower of rain scarcely touches them. Give occasional doses of manure to rose trees, and pick off all faded flowers. Water rockeries. Stake runner beans. Sow late broccoli. Sow more lettuce. Water peaches, apricots, etc., copiously. Mulch all fruit trees. Protect cherries from birds. Draw earth up round potatoes. Water marrows well and often with liquid manure. Early this month plant out tomatoes on a south or west wall. Keep greenhouses well ventilated both day and night. Harden off azaleas before being set outside next month. Most plants under glass will want watering twice a day or they must stand in a saucer of water. JULY. _Average Temperature 62._ Look out for rose suckers and cut them off. Syringe rose trees. Mulch those going out of flower to induce them to make fresh buds. Keep faded flowers picked off. Commence propagating carnations. Take note of gaps in the flower beds and fill up from the nursery garden. Place azaleas, heaths, etc., outside in a shady place to rest awhile. Pansies which are blooming well on cool borders should have weak solutions of guano water afforded them. Cut down faded spikes of larkspur and mulch and water well. This month bedding plants are valuable as July is not a good month for herbaceous perennials. Stake the later runner beans. Plant out celery. Sow more turnip seed. Syringe both wall fruit and standards. Make new plantations of strawberries. Water lawn every day if possible. Thin out the superfluous wood of fig trees and shorten gross shoots on all fruit trees. Keep everything well watered under glass. Give air all night to greenhouses. Tie up climbers to roof neatly and frequently syringe. Damp down several times daily. AUGUST. _Average Temperature 61._ Take pansy cuttings. Stake dahlias, phloxes, etc. Keep soil from caking by constant hoeing. Take cuttings of geraniums, fuchsias, etc., and strike them out of doors. Give copious supplies of water to rose trees and syringe foliage often. Cuttings of rose trees may be inserted now on a cool border. Rockeries must be constantly watered. Disentangle shoots of climbing plants and tie back artistically. Water lawn daily and do not cut too low. Cuttings of most plants may be taken now and inserted in a shady border with every chance of success. Cut down old raspberry canes to make way for the new. Protect fruit from wasps and other insects. Pinch off the tops of runner beans. Earth up celery and put out more young plants. Remove leaves which obstruct light on wall-peaches, apricots, etc. Syringe frequently. Give air day and night to greenhouses. Give constant supplies of liquid manure to chrysanthemums. Cut back climbing plants on the roof. SEPTEMBER. _Average Temperature 57._ Begin planting spring bulbs. Continue to take cuttings of bedding plants, but insert in frames now. Leave off giving outside plants stimulants. Sow hardy annuals to flower next Spring. Plant out rooted layers of carnations. Thin dahlia shoots and give plenty of water. Remove rose suckers. Pluck apples and pears as soon as ripe, and put on dry shelves to keep. The fruit should not touch. Prepare ground for new plantations. On hot days fruit trees can still be syringed to keep down insects. Plant out cabbages, sprouts, etc., from the seed bed. Earth up celery. Dig up and store potatoes. Towards the middle of the month remove greenhouse shading. Thin out climbers on roof again. Save for chrysanthemums guano is little needed now. Tender plants outside should be housed at the end of the month. Pot up freesias. Damp down less often and reduce the amount of air supplied. Ferns which were not repotted in the Spring can be done now. OCTOBER. _Average Temperature 50._ Plant Spring bulbs and the madonna lily. Take up all bedding plants and house carefully. Fill the beds with polyanthus, wallflower, forget-me-not and other early flowers. This is a good month for planting most things. Begin putting in shrubs. Thin out annuals sown last month. Cut back climbing plants. Keep hardy chrysanthemums well staked. Alterations can now proceed. Continue to pick pears and apples, and go over them daily to pick out mouldy ones. Commence planting fruit trees. Raspberry plantations should now be made. Mulch strawberry beds after forking lightly between the rows. Sow early peas in sheltered situations. Store potatoes, carrots, parsnips, etc. Give liquid manure to chrysanthemums under glass. Ventilate carefully and do not damp down. Bring September planted bulbs to the light as soon as they appear above ground. NOVEMBER. _Average Temperature 43._ Plant rose trees. Mulch every rose tree in the garden. Continue planting hardy perennials. Cut down all dead stalks of dahlias, sunflowers, phloxes, etc. Finish planting bulbs. Roll lawn frequently. New ones can now be made. Continually tidy up the garden. Finish planting shrubs. Protect fig-trees by mulching and cut back some of the over-luxuriant shoots. Plant fruit trees of all kinds. Trench ground not in use that the rain and frost may sweeten it. Prune currants and gooseberries. Hoe frequently between rows of cauliflower and cabbage. Celery must be earthed up higher. Any alterations that may be in hand should be completed this month. See that oil-lamp and other heating apparatus is in good order. Look over cuttings of geraniums, etc., and remove all decayed leaves, which should be burnt. Ventilate all glass houses much less, especially during fogs. DECEMBER. _Average Temperature 39._ Give a final glance to tender plants to see that they are well protected. Cut down faded stalks of hardy chrysanthemums. Place hand-lights over Christmas roses. This is a good time for writing new labels, preparing stakes, and making plans for the following summer. Roll gravel walks, and if mossy sprinkle with salt. Planting of fruit trees may continue if the weather be mild. Thin out gross wood to allow the air to circulate. Wheel manure on to the ground in frosty weather. Prepare vegetable seeds for sowing, by separating them from the husk, drying, labelling and sorting them. Earth up greens of all kinds with the hoe. In glasshouses avoid too much moisture at this dead season of the year. Only ventilate in mild, calm weather. Keep everything scrupulously clean. Give as much light as possible to growing things. Plants at rest should be kept dark. INDEX Aspect, Influence of, on plants, 67 Conservatory, the-- Cactus plants for, 26 Hanging plants in, 26 How to stage, 25 Plants suitable for hanging baskets, 26 Enemies of the garden-- Earwigs, to get rid of, 45 Mice, to get rid of, 45 Slugs, to get rid of, 44 Wireworms, to get rid of, 45 Flowers-- Annuals, 76 Biennials, 78 Colours for day and evening use, 84 Natural and forced procurable each month, 86 To pack for post, 84 Fruit, want of flavour in, 72 Gardens, small-- Be original in planting, 17 Beds and bedding, hints for, 14 Border soil for, 16 Breaking up the straight appearance of, 11 Description of a small and lovely garden, 17 Duty of making experiments in, 17 Eye for colour needed in, 15 Fruit for, 70 General arrangement of, 9 How not to plant, 12 Lawns, to keep in order, 13 Little things that tell in, 12 Making the most of land, 15 Ornamental and useful, 73 Paths of, to keep in order, 14 Stone fruit for, 71 The Dell at Chertsey, 18 To begin well, 9 Walks, the, 10 Gardening Hints-- Art of buying plants, the, 98 Cut off dead flowers, 98 Labelling, 97 Manures, 97 Tidiness, 99 Glossary of terms used by Gardeners, 7 Greenhouses-- Advantages of, over conservatories, 27 Artificial heat for, 27 Climbers in, 26 Houseleeks, 54 Storing plants in, 28 The joys of, 10 To manage, 26 Lopping one's neighbour's trees. A vexed question, 11 Monthly Hints for Gardeners-- January, 101 February, 102 March, 103 April, 104 May, 105 June, 106 July, 107 August, 108 September, 109 October, 110 November, 111 December, 112 Planting, the art of, 66 Plants that are neglected but handsome-- Asters, 20 Campanulas, 21 Cape Gooseberry, 23 Christmas roses, 22 Columbines, 20 Coreopsis grandiflora, 21 Delphiniums (larkspurs), 21 Erigerons, 22 Funkias, 22 Heuchera sanguinea, 22 Jacob's ladder, 23 Lobelia fulgens, 22 Lychnis Chalcedonica, 22 Penstemons, 22 Pink flowered anemone japonica, 20 Potentillas, 23 Saxifrages, 23 Tradescantias & Trollius, 24 Violas, 24 Propagation of plants. By careful division, 88 By layering, 90 By cuttings, 89 By seed, 89 Room Plants-- When to buy, 96 Correct way of watering, 92 For dark corners, 92 Good for two-thirds of the year, 96 Hare's-foot ferns, 94 To keep them well balanced, 94 Leggy plants and what to do for, 93 Management of, 91 Palms, 91 Rockery, The-- Apennine gems for, 48 Bulbs for, 56 Hints for the construction of, 47 Rock roses, 50 Suitable plants for, 48 Roses-- Bush roses of H.P. type, 38 Climbers for cool walls, 37 Dwarf teas, 41 Good climbers for warm walls, 36 Hedges of, 41 Pillar, 40 Pruning, 38, 43 Tea, 35 Time to plant, 43 Shelter for plants, 67 Shrubs-- Ceanothus, The delicate, 64 Good all round, 62 Lilacs grafted, 64 St. John's Wort, 59 Winter shrubbery, 64 Summer-houses-- Fragrant odours for, 33 How to cover, 32 Position of, 34 Table, Decoration-- Hints on, 83 Maidenhair, To make it last, 84 Simplicity in, 85 Stem-splitting, 83 Time for everything in gardening, A 69 Tool-sheds, Well stocked, 29 Trees-- Bank under, 60 Good plants for growing beneath, 58 Vegetables for small gardens, 73 Window Boxes-- Flowers for cold aspects, 81 Flowers for warm aspects, 82 How to make, 79 Pretty trailers for, 82 Showy flowers for winter, 80 [Sidenote: Garden Seeds and Bulbs] AMATEUR GARDENERS and others should apply for our CATALOGUE before ordering elsewhere. A. C. TAYLOR, Ltd., Seedsmen and Bulb Importers, 28, ELECTRIC AVENUE, BRIXTON, LONDON, S.W. The Choicest BULBS AND SEEDS at moderate prices. Catalogues gratis (issued in January and August). [Sidenote: Fencing] BAYLISS. JONES & BAYLISS WOLVERHAMPTON. LONDON SHOW ROOMS:-- 139-141 CANNON ST E.C. CATALOGUES FREE MAKERS OF ALL KINDS OF IRON & WIRE FENCING, RAILING, ETC. GALVd. WIRE NETTING. Averages 20 per cent. Cheaper than Ordinary. Lists free. IRON BARROWS. GATES. _Low Prices._ TREE GUARDS. IRON AND WIRE ESPALIER, &c. AMUSING AND USEFUL BOOKS THE CONFESSIONS OF A POACHER By J. CONNELL. With Illustrations by F. T. DADD. Crown 8vo. Price 3s. 6d. These confessions are unique as being the actual experiences of a living poacher. The book is interesting as well as amusing, and one cannot but admire the ingenious though illegitimate means of gaining a subsistence. THE NEW MASTER By ARNOLD GOLSWORTHY, Author of "Hands in the Darkness." Cr. 8vo, cloth. Price 3s. 6d. 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33464	----	ROSES AND ROSE GROWING [Illustration: SINGLE HYBRID TEA. IRISH ELEGANCE.] ROSES AND ROSE GROWING BY ROSE G. KINGSLEY OFFICIER DE L'INSTRUCTION PUBLIQUE AUTHOR OF "EVERSLEY GARDENS," ETC., ETC. WITH A CHAPTER ON "HOW TO GROW ROSES FOR EXHIBITION," BY THE REV. F. PAGE-ROBERTS, VICE-PRESIDENT NATIONAL ROSE SOCIETY, F.R.H.S. _WITH TWENTY-EIGHT FULL-PAGE COLOURED, AND NINE HALF-TONE, ILLUSTRATIONS AND DIAGRAMS_ WHITTAKER & CO. 2 WHITE HART STREET, PATERNOSTER SQUARE, LONDON, E.C. AND 64-66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITED, BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. PREFACE SOME time ago it was suggested, by certain rose-lovers and enthusiasts, that the practical experience of an amateur, brought up from childhood to love and cultivate roses, might be of use to other owners of small gardens, who, like herself, tend their roses themselves. And in the hope that this might be the case, I undertook to write this little book. My text-book in this labour of love has been an old copy, which belonged to my father when he settled at Eversley in 1844, of _The Rose Amateur's Guide_, by that veteran rose-grower, the late Thomas Rivers. I am also greatly indebted to the Rev. J. H. Pemberton's learned and admirable work, _Roses, their History, Development, and Cultivation_, published early this year; and to the various publications of the National Rose Society. As one branch, however, of the cultivation of roses is a sealed book to me, for I am only an amateur who does not exhibit, I felt that no work on rose-growing would be complete without a chapter which should help those who wish to do so. And here I was indeed fortunate in obtaining the help of so distinguished an authority as my friend and neighbour, Rev. F. Page-Roberts, Vice-President of the National Rose Society. My grateful thanks are due to him for the delightful chapter, the last in the book, on "How to grow Roses for Exhibition." And I feel that to have his name on the title-page is an honour of which I cannot be too proud. As to the illustrations, it should be borne in mind that they are not intended to represent exhibition roses, but merely ordinary blooms, typical of the various kinds of garden roses. The colour prints have been admirably carried out by Messrs. Swain and Son of Barnet, by their new process of colour-printing. My friend, Miss Emily Jubb, has supplied several of the original photographs of roses and of pruning, from specimens in my own garden; and to her I offer my warm thanks. Thanks are also due to Mr. Wm. Paul of Waltham Cross nurseries, and to Mr. Henry Nicholson of New Barnet, for their kindness in furnishing Messrs. Swain and Son with all the other specimen flowers for the plates. In fact, without Mr. Nicholson's ready help in a supplying a large proportion of the subjects from his own garden, it would have been difficult to carry out the scheme of illustration. If this humble record of my own practical experience, its failures, and its successes, is the means of encouraging others in the cultivation of roses, I can only wish them the interest, delight, and healthful relaxation of tired body and mind, which this pursuit has afforded me for many a long year. ROSE G. KINGSLEY _Keys, Eversley, Hants, Nov. 6, 1908._ CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. MAKING AND PLANTING A ROSE GARDEN 1 II. PRUNING AND PROPAGATING 15 III. SUMMER-FLOWERING ROSES--OLD AND NEW 37 IV. CLIMBING ROSES--SUMMER FLOWERING 52 V. CLIMBING ROSES--AUTUMN FLOWERING 68 VI. TEA ROSES 80 VII. HYBRID TEA ROSES 93 VIII. HYBRID PERPETUALS 111 IX. BOURBON, CHINA, AND POLYANTHA ROSES 123 X. ROSE PESTS 136 XI. HOW TO GROW ROSES FOR EXHIBITION 151 INDEX 161 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS _To face page_ ROSE REQUIRING PRUNING 18 RUGOSA--ROSA ALBA 37 PROVENCE--CABBAGE 38 MOSS--COMMON 39 GALLICA--RED DAMASK (THE APOTHECARY'S ROSE) 40 CLIMBING DAMASK--MRS. O. G. ORPEN 41 AUSTRIAN BRIAR--AUSTRIAN COPPER 42 LORD PENZANCE HYBRID SWEET BRIAR--JEANNIE DEANS 44 SCOTCH BRIAR--STANWELL PERPETUAL (_2 plates_) 45 RUGOSA--CONRAD FERDINAND MEYER 46 AYRSHIRE--RUGA 52 EVERGREEN--FÉLICITÉ ET PERPÉTUE 53 CLIMBING POLYANTHA--BLUSH RAMBLER (_2 plates_) 58 WICHURAIANA--DOROTHY PERKINS 61 " JERSEY BEAUTY 62 NOISETTE--WILLIAM ALLEN RICHARDSON 71 TEA--WHITE MAMAN COCHET 92 HYBRID TEA--BARDOU JOB 94 SINGLE HYBRID TEA--IRISH ELEGANCE (_2 plates_) 96 " " " IRISH GLORY 96 HYBRID TEA--CAROLINE TESTOUT 97 " " MADAME RAVARY 98 " " MARQUISE LITTA 106 " " MADAME PERNET DUCHER 107 HYBRID PERPETUAL--FRAU KARL DRUSCHKI 114 " " ULRICH BRUNNER 115 " " GUSTAVE PIGANEAU 118 BOURBON--SOUVENIR DE LA MALMAISON 124 CHINA--LAURETTE MESSIMY 127 DWARF POLYANTHA--PERLE D'OR 129 ERRATA Plates facing p. 45. _For_ Stanwell Perpetual Scots Briar _read_ Scotch Briar. Plate facing p. 53. _For_ Félicité Perpétuée _read_ Félicité et Perpétue. ROSES AND ROSE GROWING CHAPTER I MAKING AND PLANTING A ROSE GARDEN HAPPY is the rosarian who is free to choose the spot in which to make his rose garden--to choose the ideal position, with ideal soil, in an ideal climate. Such fortuitous combinations are possible. But though they do not fall to the lot of one rose-lover in a hundred, it is still easy to find a bit of ground in which roses will flourish; for, with proper care, there are few localities--in England at all events--where they cannot be made to grow. At the same time, in choosing the position of our rose garden, certain dangers must be guarded against, as far as possible. =Position.=--First of all I would say, avoid a draughty spot; for nothing is so bad for roses as a draught. Even an exposed garden, if it is quite flat and open, is preferable to a draughty one, however picturesquely shaded it may be. The perfect position should be sheltered from the north and east: but not closely surrounded by trees. For roses are lovers of light and sun; and while they enjoy a little shade for a few hours in the day, they will not flourish in stuffy, closely shadowed places, where they cannot get enough light and air. =Shelter.=--If some sort of shelter is absolutely imperative, there are various ways of producing it without putting up an unsightly paling, or building a costly wall in the garden. One of the best is a low hedge kept closely clipped, of yew, holly, privet, or beech--the first is, of course, slow in growth. Care, however, must be taken to plant the hedge at such a distance from the rose beds that its roots shall not suck all the nourishment from them. But nothing is more charming or suitable than to give the choice and more tender roses a shelter of roses--planting the strong-growing Wichuraianas, Ramblers and other vigorous kinds along a screen of wooden lattice-work. This not only makes a quite sufficient break to the wind, but forms a delightful background to the beds of dwarf roses. If possible, the ground should slope very gently to south and west. Flat ground is preferable to any slope steeper than one in fifty. But some slight fall is extremely advantageous, as it helps drainage. =Drainage.=--This is another most important point to be considered. For whether the soil be light or heavy, it is absolutely essential that a rose garden should be well drained; as roses so deeply resent wet about the roots, that they promptly show their displeasure by dying. If, therefore, on low-lying land--and unfortunately we cannot always avoid this--there is any suspicion of water within three feet of the surface, broken crocks, clinkers, wood ashes, and such-like materials, must be placed at the bottom of the beds to keep the subsoil free in times of heavy rain and floods; and a good drain of ordinary field pipes must be run from the beds into the nearest ditch. For let it be remembered that if we intend to grow good roses, we must be prepared to do our very best for them, and to spend a little time, a little money, and a good deal of thought, on preparing the ground they are to grow in, before we dream of planting them. Far better to begin our garden with a dozen roses well planted in properly prepared ground, than with a hundred put in anywhere and anyhow. This brings us to the next point-- =The Soil=,--which is far more important than even the position of our garden. If we are so lucky as to be able to choose the soil as well as the position, then let us choose a rich brown loam; for that is the soil roses revel in and need but little else to nourish them. Such a soil as this we find in the famous rose-gardens of Essex, Hertfordshire, Oxfordshire, and Kent. I have even seen roses growing superbly, without manure of any kind, in an open field of this rich loam on one of the most exposed ridges of Warwickshire. But if such natural soil cannot be had, we must make it, as I know to my cost; for in my own garden the ground is so poor that every rose-bed has to be made three feet deep. And nothing in this case produces such excellent results as the top spit of an old pasture. To get this, the turf should be pared off carefully, and then the first nine inches of brown fibrous loam beneath taken out. If the space thus left is filled up with other common soil, the turf can be relaid, and no harm is done to the meadow. If, on the other hand, the turf is not needed in the same spot, it may be stacked in a heap--grass downward--and kept for a couple of years till it has rotted down completely; when, mixed with manure, it makes perfect potting soil, or the finest possible dressing for our rose beds. In the neighbourhood of towns and villages, where building is going on, this turfy loam is often to be had when new roads are cut out and houses run up. And it is well worth the rosarian's while to be on the watch for such opportunities, and secure a few loads of the top spit from the builder, to stack in the garden against the time it is needed. Having provided the requisite soil, we are now ready to begin work by making the beds. The general arrangement of the garden, the shape and size of the beds has to be determined. And here, of course, the rosarian must be guided by his own taste. A few hints, however, from personal experience may be helpful. As to shape, that is purely a matter of taste. But whether they be round or square, straight or curved, in size they should not be too large or too wide to allow of our getting easily at their precious contents. For _at all times of the year_ roses need constant and watchful care; and the amateur--especially if a woman, hampered with tiresome petticoats--must have space in which to move, in order to pick off caterpillars, cut the flowers whether alive or dead, and see to all the various needs of the plants, such as weeding, watering, manuring and pruning. As to width, I find five feet ample in a small garden; as that allows of three rows of dwarf plants eighteen inches to two feet apart; and enables me to reach those in the centre row without injuring the others. =Making the Beds.=--Let us therefore suppose we are about to make a straight bed five feet wide and twelve long, in hitherto unbroken ground, to contain seventeen roses. The first thing to do is to pare off the turf. The top spit of some eight or nine inches below it, is sure to be fairly good soil from the fibrous roots of the grass and clover. We therefore dig it off a space three feet long and the whole width of the bed, and wheel it down to the further end. The second spit in such land as my own garden is much poorer, with a good deal of sandy marl in it. This is taken right out and heaped at the side of the bed, to be taken away later on. The third spit, which is now exposed, is a cold, sandy marl, with many stones. We have therefore a hole five feet wide, a yard in length, and two feet deep. If the marl at the bottom does not show any sign of water, it may be broken up with the fork, mixing in a little manure at the same time, and we can leave it as it is. If, on the other hand, it is full of water, some of it must be carted away, and crocks, stones, clinkers, wood ashes, and even bits of turf, grass downwards, put in below to drain it, as I have already said. =Bastard Trenching.=--We then begin the regular process of bastard trenching, digging up the fourth foot of top soil, throwing it into the hole, mixing it with the broken marl and manure at the bottom, and then removing the second spit as directed above. This is done along the whole bed; and at the end we use some of the earth we wheeled down at the beginning, to fill the hole on the marl at the bottom. We thus have a bed five feet by twelve, but some fifteen inches below the ground. Over the surface of this bed we now spread a coating of good rotten manure; if we can get it from a cow yard so much the better, as cow manure is cooler than horse droppings to the roots of the roses. This must be thoroughly incorporated with the soil already dug in, with a fork, not a spade, as our object is to keep the earth as friable as we can. The bed is then filled up with nothing but the turfy loam mixed with some of the best of the surface soil, till it rises a little above the level of the surrounding ground; for it will be sure to sink. But let no one imagine that this bed is ready for planting. It must be left for at least a fortnight (a month is better) to settle, and to mellow and sweeten; while its surface must be left quite rough to aid the process. If there is a frost during this settling, that will do it the greatest possible good. Let the amateur avoid all artificial manures at first save a dusting of basic slag (see Chap. XI); for there is no need whatever in preparing a new rose bed to use any manure except sweet stable and cow manure. This contains all the qualities needful for newly-planted roses. It should, however, be so worked into the soil as not to come into actual contact with their roots, but to lie some two or three inches below them. I have, of course, chosen an extreme case here. Better ground only needs to be thoroughly dug two spits deep, with manure and fibrous loam worked in. But, even so, I always think it is advantageous to break the ground at the bottom with a fork. PLANTING. When the beds are thoroughly prepared and settled, we may begin to think about planting them. The ideal time for this operation is in November and December. For the plants, lifted as soon as they have done flowering, and put in their new quarters with as little delay as possible, have time to settle down before any very severe weather, and suffer far less than those planted later in the winter. But roses can be safely planted, if proper precautions are taken in the process, as late as February and March--open weather of course being selected for the process; and I have indeed planted them late in April without damage: but that was of course taking a big risk as a matter of necessity. Whether we get our roses from British or from foreign growers, the orders should be sent out as early as possible in September and October, to secure the best plants and to ensure their arrival in good time. A mild day, if possible without sun, is best for planting roses. And if the bundles arrive in a frost it is better not to attempt to open them, but to put them just as they are into some outbuilding in which the frost cannot get at them, where they may safely stay for several days. =Unpacking.=--When they arrive, the bundles must be opened most carefully, and the packing removed gently. I have seen valuable roses badly broken by a careless person, who has pulled them roughly out of the package instead of quietly disentangling the shoots. If the journey has been a long one, the plants should be well syringed at once, and the roots plunged in a bucket of water for half-an-hour before planting. Great care must also be taken in every case not to leave the roots of the plants exposed to the air; for if the roots get dried up, a great and sometimes fatal check is given to the rose. Those which cannot be planted immediately should be laid along a trench and lightly heeled in with soil, until they are wanted. And even those which are to be planted immediately, should have a mat thrown over the roots as they lie beside the bed waiting their turn, especially if the day is sunny or the wind cold. Many of the great growers advise dipping the roots in liquid mud mixed with a little cow manure before planting. Each plant must now be carefully examined, and any broken shoot, or bruised and broken root, cut off with a clean cut. For this I prefer a sécateur to a knife, if the sécateur is a very sharp one.[1] A torn, bruised, or broken root, if left on the plant will decay right up and do incalculable mischief. Sometimes, in the case of one's own roses grown from cuttings out of doors, the roots are so rampant that it is well to shorten them before replanting; but this is not often necessary with new stock from the growers. The holes must now be dug ready for the reception of each plant. In well-worked ground, such as the new bed described above, a hole eighteen inches across and eight inches to one foot in depth, is sufficient: but in this we must be guided by the root habit of each plant. Some have roots of a spreading nature; others are deep rooting. And the idiosyncrasy of each individual rose must be studied, if we wish it to be happy. In an old bed it is well to break the ground all about the hole with a fork; as the roots can then penetrate the surrounding soil with ease. And I would repeat that when the hole is made ready for its occupant, we should see that no manure is on the surface upon which the roots will lie. =Planting=, to be well done, needs two persons. When all is ready, the plant, held in the left hand, is set exactly in the centre of the hole, while with the right the roots are spread out flat in all directions, so that none are bent or twisted or allowed to cross, but are so arranged that the rose gets proper support on all sides. In fact they should be regarded as the guy-ropes of a flagstaff, intended to hold the plant firm from all points. If a root is too long to lie at its full length in the hole, instead of trying to fit it in against its natural inclination by turning it round the side of the hole, a further little channel must be dug in which it can lie perfectly flat. And great care must be taken not to injure the little white, fibrous rootlets, which mean flowering strength for the coming season. The collar, or point at which the dwarf rose is budded on to the briar, should be from one to three inches below the surface of the soil when the planting is completed. In newly made ground I prefer three inches, as the soil always sinks a little. This is enough; for the plant should never be _buried_, and the roots should be kept as near the surface as possible. But if the collar is above the ground, the stock begins to throw suckers which take all its strength, and the scion perishes. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Mode of Planting a Standard Rose.] When the rose is properly set out and still held firmly in position, the second planter sprinkles some fine good soil among the roots--I generally give the plant a little gentle lifting shake at this point, to allow the fine earth to fall into all the interstices of the roots. He then fills up the hole gradually, pressing down the soil firmly at first with the hand, and when all is on treading it down with the foot, thus making the plant absolutely firm in its place before number one lets go his hold on it. If their roots have been thoroughly soaked and swelled before planting, the roses need not be watered. But if the weather is dry, yet mild, it is well to give them a good syringing when they are all in place, especially if they have come a long journey. This, however, must be done in the forenoon, to allow them to dry before any chance of a chill during the night. In the case of standards, large bushy plants, or pillar roses, a stake should be put against them before the hole is filled with earth. This is far the most satisfactory plan, as it avoids the chance of bruising or breaking the roots if the stake is forced in among them after planting. And, as I have said, the more fine fibrous roots the plant can throw, the better the flowers it will bring. Tarred twine, or Raffia tape, are the best materials for tying standard and pillar roses. The twine should be given a double twist round the stake and then tied firmly round the stem, but not too tight, so as to allow room for the stem or branch to swell. Under no circumstances must wire be used. In the case of roses taken out of pots, the question of spreading the roots is one of the utmost importance; as, if they have been long in a pot the roots are interlaced in a perfect ball, and need most careful handling to avoid breaking them. When all are safely in place, the tickets must be taken off and replaced by labels stuck in the ground beside each plant.[2] Many roses, especially from abroad, come with labels fastened on with wire. These should be removed without delay; for the moment the shoots begin to swell the wire eats into them, and in the course of a few months will either kill the shoot or break it. This is a most important matter. And I have had sad experience in it; as owing to carelessness and hurry in planting a number of extremely good French roses, I overlooked some of the wired labels. Eight months later, half--and the larger half--of a fine plant in full flower of the dwarf Polyantha, _Perle des Rouges_, was broken off on a windy day; and on examination I found that the stem had swelled to such a size round the corroding wire, that the weight it was bearing of foliage, flowers, and branches had broken it clean off. Even a label tied on with a string is injurious, from the constant chafing of the bark as the wind blows it to and fro and tightens the knot. Our heavy task being now accomplished, we can await the rigours of winter cheerfully. But let no one persuade us that the newly planted beds would look better if raked smooth instead of being left quite rough. A smooth rose bed means that the soil cakes hard, preventing the rain penetrating in summer, and the frost mellowing the ground in winter. And from early spring to late autumn the hoe should be kept constantly at work between the plants; not merely to keep down weeds, but to keep the surface of the ground open to the influences of rain, sun, and the watering-pot. FOOTNOTES: [1] See pruning, p. 17. [2] But as these are apt to get moved, whether by human hands, or by cats and dogs, who take a diabolic pleasure in pulling them out and knocking them over, it is well to make an exact list of the position of each rose on paper. CHAPTER II PRUNING AND PROPAGATING OF all the many toils and anxieties that beset the path of the amateur rosarian, I think we may safely say pruning is the chief. The rules to be observed are few. The idiosyncrasies of each rose are many. And the demands upon one's own judgment and initiative are constant. Two things have to be considered before we begin the puzzling task. Are we growing our roses for exhibition, or at all events for a very few very perfect blooms? Or are we growing them for quantity, for mere enjoyment, on the "cut and come again" principle, which enables one not only to fill the house without robbing the garden, but to fill the hands of every one who comes into the garden and looks at the masses of blossom with longing eyes? As I do not exhibit, the second plan is the one I have studied most closely. For the other I must refer my readers to my friend the Rev. F. Page-Roberts' valuable notes, on how to grow and show roses in Chapter XI. =When to prune.=--The old-fashioned plan of pruning all roses in the autumn has now been, happily for their well-being, given up in England. It was owing to this that many of the earlier varieties of Tea roses, and even some of the Bourbons and Hybrid Perpetuals, were considered 50 years ago too "tender" to plant freely out of doors. Pruning now begins in February, and goes on through March and April. In February we begin to prune the _Rugosas_; _Boursaults_; _Sempervirens_; and _Ayrshires_. In February and early March, the _Provence_; _Moss_; _miniature Provence_; many of the Species, such as _Alpina_, _Moschata_, and _Bracteata_, and their hybrids. In early March the _Gallica_; _Damask_; _Alba_; _Hybrid Chinas_; and _Sweet Briars_. To be followed by _Hybrid Bourbons_; _Hybrid Noisettes_ and _Musks_; _Austrian_ and _Scotch Briars_; _Multifloras_; _Ramblers_; _Wichuraianas_; _Chinas_; _Dijon Teas_; _dwarf Polyanthas_; and dwarf and standard _Hybrid Perpetuals_ and _Hybrid Teas_. Climbing varieties of _Noisettes_, _Teas_, _Hybrid Teas_, and _Hybrid Perpetuals_, may be thinned out, if necessary, after flowering in summer. But they must be pruned in March. In April the _Teas_ and _Noisettes_, both dwarf and standard, and the _Banksian roses_ are pruned. =How to prune.=--This is a much-disputed subject among rose growers, and as authorities differ widely with regard to it, some advocating hard pruning, and others just as strongly swearing by light pruning, so do they differ as to the instrument to be used. The pruning knife is most generally recommended; while the sécateur, so universally in use on the Continent, is advised merely for the cutting of dead wood. But the knife has its disadvantages, especially in the hands of a woman. For not only may one get an ugly cut with it: but even in a man's hands I have seen the plant pulled about more than I like, in cutting a tough branch. I am therefore delighted to find that so great an authority as the Rev. J. H. Pemberton advocates the use of the sécateur for _all_ pruning, as for many years I have used nothing else. The amount of time and strength it saves one is infinite, to say nothing of the comfort of so handy a weapon. There are, however, sécateurs and sécateurs--and a poor one is worse than useless. Its blades must be as sharp as a razor, and so accurately set that they make a perfectly clean cut right through, without pinching the branch or tearing the bark. In choosing one, it is well to try it on a sheet of tissue paper. If it cuts the paper like a sharp pair of scissors, it is all right. But if it curls the paper round the blade, instead of making a clean cut, it is to be avoided. After trying many different makes, I have found that the _Sécateur Montreuil_, which I have now procured for several years from MM. Vilmorin, Andrieux et Cie., 4, Quai de la Megisserie, Paris, is far the best I can get. It costs 8 francs, and is made in three sizes. As to hard-and-fast rules in pruning, there are but two. [Illustration: FIG. 2_a._--Rosebush requiring light pruning--unpruned.] [Illustration: FIG. 2_b._--Rosebush requiring light pruning--pruned.] [Illustration: 1.--ROSE REQUIRING MODERATE PRUNING. UNPRUNED.] [Illustration: 1.--ROSE REQUIRING MODERATE PRUNING. PRUNED.] 1. Prune weak-growing roses much harder than strong-growing roses. As the object of pruning is to throw the sap into the young shoots which will start from the dormant buds or "eyes," in order to make them flower, a weak-growing rose must be pruned hard so as to concentrate all the vigour of the plant on the few dormant buds we leave. While if we prune a strong-growing rose very hard we only make it throw yet longer shoots, which soon get out of all bounds, and run to wood and not to blossom. 2. Always prune to a dormant bud which points outwards. This is done to keep the centre of the plant comparatively free, by preventing the shoots crossing and choking each other. In pruning we have to keep two objects ever in view. In the first place we must prune in order to get rid of all dead wood, and weak, unripe and useless shoots, thus enabling the young healthy wood to take their place. And secondly we must prune so as to keep the plant in good shape and good health, by cutting back the strong and healthy wood we leave to a suitable length. If the winter has been mild, we shall find many buds on the upper part of strong shoots of last year's growth, which are already bursting into leaf and even showing a flower bud. And it seems so brutal to destroy these, that I know one is often tempted to leave some to take their chance, instead of hardening one's heart and sternly cutting down to just above the first dormant bud. But when the plants really start in May, we pay for our tender-hearted folly by blind unhealthy shoots which only disfigure the plant, while the real flower shoots are starting below and cannot get up to the light and air. Or, again, the unpruned shoot turns black and begins to die back, and we have to cut it down much further than would have been necessary had we pruned it at the right moment. In pruning, however, let the amateur remember that until he has gained considerable experience in the matter, it is far safer to prune too lightly than to prune in excess. And I must repeat that no rules will really help us, unless we study the special nature and idiosyncrasy of each individual plant, exactly as we study the character of the child we have to deal with. With climbing summer-flowering roses very little pruning at all is required, except slightly shortening the ends of the long rambling shoots, cutting out all the dead wood, and cutting some of the old flowering shoots which are worn out, down to the base. It must be remembered that Ramblers, Noisettes, and other climbing roses bear their flowers on the laterals of the long shoots of the former year. While the Banksias, some of the Multifloras such as _Aglaia_, and that beautiful rose _Fortune's Yellow_, only flower on the sub-laterals, _i.e._ on wood three years old. If therefore these shoots are cut back too hard the plant does not flower. One of the finest specimens of _Crimson Rambler_ I have ever seen, was ruined for several years by an ignorant person who carefully and triumphantly cut out all the long shoots of the former year, which he considered mere "sucker rods." And then he was surprised at the plant bearing no flowers. A certain amount of very useful minor pruning can be carried on all through the summer, by cutting out bits of old wood when they have flowered, if we see that they have no young shoots on which to bear a second crop later on. For instance when the newer China roses, such as _Laurette Messimy_, are in full bloom, we often find a bit of one of last year's growths which has borne one or two of the earliest flowers and now merely blocks up the young tender shoots full of buds. This is the time to cut it out, instead of allowing it to absorb part of the strength which should go to the new wood. =Cutting off dead blooms.=--Though to some it may seem a small matter, much good may also be done to our plants through the summer by the way we remove dead flowers. Instead of merely snapping off each blossom between thumb and finger, it is better to do a little very mild pruning, by cutting each dead blossom off just above the second leaf below it. This greatly promotes the autumn blooming of the plants, and keeps them in good shape. It is a little more trouble, but amply repays us in the end. The precise moment of setting to work must depend to some extent on the weather. Of course we cannot begin in a heavy frost, as that would be fatal to the plants. Nor can I go as far as Mr. Pemberton, who with delightful enthusiasm advises us to choose a cold day with north-east wind and occasional sleet showers. That is too complete a counsel of perfection for most mortals; for however much they love their roses, they equally dread pneumonia for themselves. But certainly a cool, overcast day is best, as there is less chance of the wood bleeding than in mild, soft weather. Well prepared, therefore, sécateur in hand, and knife in pocket in case of need, with strong gloves and old clothes, and if a woman, with a housemaid's kneeling pad to kneel on so as to get more easily at the dwarf plants--for pruning is tiring work in any case, and it is well to save extra fatigue and backache--we now begin on a late February day, with =Rugosa= Roses.--These need little pruning beyond cutting out the dead wood, and cutting back some of the old wood almost to the base, when it will throw up fresh shoots which will bloom late. The suckers which these roses throw up in numbers, may be cut back to three or four feet to form a thick bush. =Ayrshires= and =Sempervirens=.--Thin out slightly and cut out dead wood--no further pruning is needed. =Boursaults= need no thinning. The flowers are borne on the laterals of last year's long shoots, which may be left six to ten feet long. The =Species= and most of their hybrids need no pruning beyond cutting out dead wood, and occasionally cutting the young base shoots back to hard, well-ripened wood, when the tips are touched by frost. =Provence= and =Moss= Roses.--Cut out old wood; thin out old shoots, and out back the young base shoots and laterals to four or six eyes. Some of the strong-growing moss roses may be left taller. The =Perpetual Moss= roses are pruned as hybrid perpetuals for garden decoration. =Miniature Provence.=--Keep well pruned to within six inches of the ground, and thin out the centre. =Gallica= and =Damask=.--Prune lightly. The strong growers may be kept as tall bushes or pillars. The dwarf, such as _Red Damask_, and _Rosa Mundi_ cut back to three feet. Keep the best one- and two-year-old shoots and laterals, and thin out old and weak wood. =Alba.=--Grow as bushes or pillars five to six feet high, cutting out weak wood, leaving all the laterals on which the flowers are borne, about eight inches to one foot. =Hybrid Chinas=, such as _Charles Lawson_, _Coupe d'Hébé_ and _Madame Plantier_, should be grown as bushy pillars, leaving the shoots six feet long. Shorten the laterals on old wood to three or four eyes. _Blairii No. 2_ should hardly be touched. =Sweet Briars.=--Cut out all weak wood and cut old and naked shoots down to the ground. The Common Sweet Briar should be grown about four feet high. The Penzance Briars make enormous base shoots, which may be shortened to ten feet or less according to one's requirements, and some of the strong laterals of last year shortened back. _Lord_ and _Lady Penzance_, from their Austrian briar blood, are much less vigorous, and need far less pruning, only cutting out dead wood. When the Penzance and Common Sweet Briars are grown as hedges, the base is apt to get bare, and some of the long shoots must be laid down to keep it clothed, while the rest are pruned much shorter. =Hybrid Bourbons.=--Prune the laterals lightly, and leave the best of the base shoots. =Hybrid Noisettes= and =Musks=.--Thin out old wood and tie in young shoots. =Austrian Briars.=--Only cut out dead wood. _Soleil d'Or_, a hybrid, flowers on the young wood, and the shoots may be pruned back to two feet. =Scotch Briars.=--No pruning is needed, except cutting out old and dead wood and shortening back some of the numerous suckers. =Climbing Multifloras= need little pruning. When grown as pillars or on screens they are apt to get bare at the base. Therefore it is well to cut some of the weaker young shoots back to two or three feet to clothe the base, leaving the strong ones their full length. With _Crimson Rambler_ and its class, cut out some of the old wood to make room for the young shoots and shorten any weak laterals: but leave most of the strong ones intact, and do not touch the long base shoots of the last year. =Wichuraianas.=--Only cut out old and dead wood. I have seen a beautiful effect produced with _Dorothy Perkins_ by cutting out _all_ the old wood in the autumn, and training the long young shoots over wire frames two-and-a-half feet wide, forming low arches about a yard from the ground in the centre. The mass of flower shoots standing erect on these frames makes a most strikingly beautiful object. The Wichuraianas also form very lovely weeping standards on eight-feet stems. And for tall pillars and fountain roses they are unequalled. =Chinas.=--The old _Blush_ and _Cramoisie Supérieure_ should only be thinned. The newer kinds, such as _Mme. Eugène Resal_, _Laurette Messimy_, etc., may be cut back to a few eyes from the ground. =Bourbons.=--Prune lightly, growing as bold bushes or standards; except _Hermosa_, which may be pruned back to form a dwarf, spreading, two-feet bush; while _Mrs. Bosanquet_ is treated like the Chinas. =Noisettes= are of two types. The strong growers need hardly any pruning, except _Maréchal Niel_, which must have all cankered and weak shoots removed after it has flowered. _Lamarque_, _Fortune's Yellow_ (which must not be pruned at all), and _Jaune Desprez_ need a wall; and _Céline Forestier_ prefers one. The other type, such as _L'Idéal_ and _William Allen Richardson_, may be pruned fairly close, by cutting back the laterals to a few eyes. All Noisettes bear their flowers on the laterals; therefore these should be preserved as much as possible. =Dijon Teas.=--These are the climbing and vigorous _Gloire de Dijon_ and its descendants and allies, such as _Belle Lyonnaise_, _François Crousse_, _Duchesse d'Auerstadt_, _Mme. Bérard_, etc. They are all apt to get bare below. Therefore, while some of the strong shoots from the base are left almost their full length, others must be cut back, some to two or three feet, others to four or five feet, in order to keep the whole surface of the wall, arch, or pillar clothed evenly. The laterals may be pruned on the same plan. Old worn out wood should be occasionally cut down to the base to make it start afresh, when the first flowering is over. =Banksia Roses.=--These need no pruning except in the case of a very old plant, when a shoot that shows weakness may be cut down to the base in April. But I have pointed out in Chapter IV that the Banksias bear their flowers on the sub-laterals of the third year. Therefore, for three years they must not be touched with the knife, and the shoots merely tied in evenly over the surface of the wall. =Dwarf Polyanthas.=--These only need to have the old flower stems cut out in March. =Hybrid Perpetuals= and =Hybrid Teas=, dwarf and standard.--If pruned for garden purposes or what I call enjoyment, not for exhibition, all dead wood and weak or unripe shoots must be cut out to the base of the plant. The centre of the plant must be kept clear by removing shoots which cross each other. The strong ripe shoots from the base should be cut back to about twelve inches, and the laterals on the old wood cut back to about four to six eyes. This is merely a general guide to the pruning of these two kinds of roses. But the rosarian, as I have said, will have to study the peculiarities of each individual plant, and to adapt these instructions to its needs, leaving more shoots on the stronger roses, and keeping them longer than on the weak-growing varieties. =Teas= and =Noisettes=, both dwarf and standard, are pruned on exactly the same lines as the _Hybrid Teas_ and _Hybrid Perpetuals_, but must be pruned in April instead of March. PROPAGATING ROSES. The three chief methods of propagating roses are by-- 1. Budding on the briar stock. 2. Cuttings. 3. Layering. =Budding.=--This is the best-known method of propagating. And it is so widely practised by amateurs and gardeners of all degree, that it is better to get an object-lesson in the art than to depend on written instructions. With a little practise any one with neat fingers can bud. But great care must be taken in the operation, not to bruise the bark of the bud or "shield" that is to be inserted in the stock. The best stocks, whether for dwarfs or standards, are those of the wild Dog Rose from woods and hedgerows. These should be taken up in October and November, care being taken that each stock has fair roots, that the roots are not torn or bruised, and that they are not dry and shrivelled when planted. In fact, they ought to be treated with just the same care we bestow on our new roses when we plant them out. The stocks may be at once shortened, to about three feet for half-standards, and very strong ones for specimen or weeping roses may be kept six and eight feet long. But in shortening both, they must always be cut just above a bud. In the following summer these stocks will have thrown out side-shoots; and it is in these that the buds are to be inserted. We can tell when "the bark will run," _i.e._ that it is ready for budding, by trying whether the thorns break off clean when pushed by the thumb. If the thorn bends and does not leave the bark, the wood is not ripe enough. If the thorn sticks tight to the wood, and yet is brittle, the wood is too ripe. Dwarf stocks are treated much in the same way, but must be planted nearer the surface than standards; for when they are budded the earth must be removed right down to the roots, in order to set the bud as low as possible, as it is inserted in the stem itself, and not in the young wood of the year. We then choose the "scion"--a twig of the rose we wish to propagate which has already flowered, with plump but not too large buds behind each leaf stalk. Inserting the budding-knife about half an inch above the lowest of these buds or "eyes," we slice down, making a little dip inwards towards the wood as the knife passes the bud, to nearly an inch below it, not cutting through the bark, but peeling it off the scion. The thin slice of wood which adheres to the inside of the strip of bark containing the bud, is now removed by inserting the knife between it and the bark, and jerking it out sharply. Nothing should now be left in the bark save the soft green substance of the "eye." But if this has been dragged out with the wood, the bud is useless, and must be thrown away. The shield of bark is then trimmed to a point below. The stock is now made ready to receive the bud. At the point we have chosen for inserting the bud--in standards let it be as close as possible to the main stem--a perpendicular slit from half an inch to an inch long is made with the budding-knife, care being taken only to cut through the bark and not to wound the wood below. A short cross-cut is made at the top of the slit. Then the bark is gently raised on each side downwards from this cross-cut, with the flat handle of the knife. Into this slit the bud is slipped by putting the pointed lower end into the cross slit, and pushing it down as far as it will go. We then cut off any bark at the top of the bud that overlaps the cross-cut, so that the shield fits in perfectly, when the side flaps of bark are brought gently over it. With a bit of Raffia grass, well moistened in water, we now bind up the bud; beginning from below with a double turn over one end of the Raffia, and keeping it quite flat, exactly in the way we put on a surgical bandage. When we come to the bud itself, the Raffia must be wound tightly and as close to the eye as possible without actually touching it. When the whole slit is completely and evenly covered, slip the end of the Raffia through the last turn and pull it tight. The operation is now complete. CUTTINGS. Roses on their own roots are grown from cuttings, and it is a system which suits many varieties. =How to make a cutting.=--Cuttings are taken from well-ripened twigs which have already flowered, or from a lateral upon the main flowering shoot, which has ceased growing without bearing a blossom. They should be from two to six or seven inches in length, with three to nine buds upon them. And judgment is needed regarding these buds in choosing the twig, as we must take one on which they are neither immature nor too fully developed. In the case of a cutting with ten leaves we cut off the top a quarter of an inch above the fourth leaf, and the same distance below the tenth. The four lower leaves are then cut off close to the bud they cover, and the three upper ones are left on. When the cutting is planted, two-thirds of it should be in the soil. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Rose cutting with a heel, 4 leaves cut, 2 leaves left.] Cuttings are taken in two ways. 1. With a heel; that is a small portion of the wood of the stem from which the twig grows. 2. Without a heel; being cut through just below a bud. [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Rose cutting without a heel, 4 leaves cut, 2 leaves left.] =Cuttings under glass.=--Cuttings of the choice kinds of Teas, Hybrid Teas, Hybrid Perpetuals, and Chinas are raised under glass, taken from pot plants as soon as they have flowered in the spring. The cuttings are put in pots filled with fibrous loam and silver sand, about six in a five-inch pot. When ready to root at the end of two or three weeks, the pots are placed in a frame on bottom heat to start growth. The same plan is pursued in the autumn, with cuttings taken from plants grown out of doors; but they do not strike as rapidly as those taken from pot plants earlier. =Cuttings in the open ground.=--This is an interesting and easy way of getting a good stock of many kinds of hardy, strong-growing Perpetuals, Sweet Briars, Ramblers, etc. And it may be successfully carried on from early in August to the middle of October. Cuttings are inserted three inches apart in rows, leaving some ten inches between each row. They may be either set in a trench, or dibbled into a specially prepared bed. I have tried both plans, and find the following very successful. A bit of ground, partially but not too much shaded, is forked up; a layer of good rotten manure laid on it; upon this three inches of leaf mould; on this again three inches of sharp, sandy road-scrapings--silver sand would be as good or better, but here the gravel road-grit is handy. The bed is then stamped down as hard as possible, until it forms a firm solid mass. The cuttings are then inserted in rows--a hole of the right depth for each being made into the compost with a smooth sharp-pointed stick the size of a lead pencil--a long wooden penholder is a good dibble. Into this hole the cutting is thrust till its base rests firmly on the bottom of the hole, and the soil is pressed tight round the stem with the fingers. When all are in place a thorough soaking of water is given them; and except for firming them in when worms raise the soil about them, they must not be disturbed until the top leaves begin to fall. We shall then see which are likely to strike, and can pull out those whose wood has begun to shrivel, as they are dead. Many of these cuttings will show flower the next summer. And by November--_i.e._ fifteen months after planting--they can be lifted and planted out in their permanent quarters. The other plan is to make a little trench eight inches or so deep in good loamy soil, with a layer of silver sand at the bottom. The cuttings are set against the sloped side of the trench, and it is then filled up with soil and stamped in very firmly. I find this answers best for the Penzance Sweet Briars; but personally I prefer the former plan for other roses. The cuttings must be well watered and carefully weeded from time to time, and in the winter must be given slight protection by fronds of bracken or boughs of evergreens laid lightly over them. LAYERING. This is chiefly resorted to when it is wished to increase the stock rapidly of some very choice rose. It can be carried on in summer and early autumn. The directions given in Mr. Rivers' Rose Amateur's Guide of 1843 are so admirable that I quote them _in extenso_. "About the middle of July in most seasons the shoots will be found about eighteen inches or two feet in length; from these, two-thirds of the leaves should be cut off, close to the shoot, beginning at the base, with a very sharp knife; the shoot must then be brought to the ground, so as to be able to judge in what place the hole must be made to receive it; it may be made large enough to hold a quarter of a peck of compost; in heavy and retentive soils this should be rotten dung and pit sand in equal quantities, well mixed; the shoot must then be 'tongued,' _i.e._ the knife introduced just below a bud and brought upwards, so as to cut about half way through; this must be done at the side or back of the shoot (not by any means at the front or in the bend), so that the tongue does not close; to make this certain a small piece of glass or thin earthenware may be introduced to keep it open. Much nicety is required to have the tongue at the upper part of the shoot, so as not to be in the part which forms the bow, as it is of consequence that it should be within two inches of the surface, so as to feel the effects of atmospheric heat; unless this is attended to the roots will not be emitted quickly; the tongued part must be placed in the centre of the compost, and a moderate-sized stone put on the surface of the ground to keep the layer in its place. The first week in November the layers may be taken from the parent plant, and either potted as required, or planted out where they are to remain. Those shoots not long enough in July and August may be layered in October, when the layers are taken from the shoots, and, if any are forgotten, February and March will be the most favourable month for the operation: as a general rule, July is the proper season." [Illustration: RUGOSA. ROSA ALBA.] CHAPTER III SUMMER-FLOWERING ROSES--OLD AND NEW. LET us now consider those roses which, although their lovely season of blooming is but short, shed such fragrance and delight on the gardens of rich and poor. Our oldest favourites first--the Cabbage, sweetest of all; the Moss; the Maiden's Blush; the Crimson Damask; the Austrian, Scotch, and Sweet Briars; the tiny _Rose de Meaux_, so seldom seen now in England that when we find bunches of it on every barrow in the Paris streets, to be had for a few centimes, we fall upon it as on lost treasure. Then the climbers, the Ayrshires, Banksias, Polyanthas and Evergreen. And when to these we add all the novelties which Japan has bestowed upon us in the Rugosas and the Wichuraianas, and those marvels which the hybridists are deriving from them and introducing every year in such numbers, we may well consider where best to make a place for these lovely roses, so that from April till August we can rejoice in their varied beauty. Of the climbing roses I treat in a separate chapter. But if with regard to the dwarf or bush roses, some may raise objections to massing them in by themselves, because they are so soon out of flower and leave the beds bare of bloom for the rest of the summer, the objection--a valid one--may be overcome in two ways. First, by planting China roses among them and an edging of the charming Dwarf Polyantha roses round them. Secondly, by planting lilies and late-flowering perennials with them, which will be in bloom as soon as they are over. But to my mind, the Cabbage, Moss, Provence and Damask roses look most thoroughly in place in the old-fashioned mixed border along the walk in the kitchen garden, where they flower after wallflowers, daffodils and polyanthus, with lilies and pinks, stocks and carnations, and all the delightful and fragrant odds and ends that, somehow, make it the spot in the whole garden to which all footsteps turn instinctively. [Illustration: PROVENCE. CABBAGE.] THE PROVENCE OR CABBAGE ROSE, _R. centifolia_, is perhaps the oldest favourite in English gardens; for it was introduced as far back as 1596. Said to have come originally from the Caucasus, it may well be, as its Latin and French names suggest, the Romans' favourite "hundred-leaved-rose" mentioned by Pliny. And as it was found in Southern France at a very early date, it became known as the "Provence Rose." In spite of all new comers, beautiful and attractive as they are, the "Old Cabbage Rose" holds its own to-day in the garden of every true rose-lover, as unsurpassed in fragrance and colour. Its pure white variety, the _Rose Unique_, discovered in a garden in Suffolk, in 1777, is far less common and less vigorous than the pink Cabbage rose. But if it can be induced to grow it is a very beautiful object in the summer garden, especially as a standard on the briar. The tiny _Rose de Meaux_ and _Spong_ are also miniature Provence roses--and as I have said, ought to be more widely grown in English gardens. [Illustration: MOSS. COMMON.] THE MOSS ROSE, _R. Muscosa_, originally a sport from the common Provence or Cabbage rose, was also introduced into England from Holland in 1596; and many varieties have since been derived from it, some of the newer ones having the additional merit of being perpetual flowering. The best are the common _Pink Moss_, _Comtesse Murinais_, _Celina_, _Crested_, _Gloire des Mousseuses_, _Laneii_, _White Bath_; while there is a delightful little pink, mossed _Rose de Meaux_. Of the perpetuals, _Blanche Moreau_, _Salet_, _Perpetual White Moss_, and _Mme. Wm. Paul_ are all good. The Old Double Yellow Provence, _Rosa Hemisphærica_ or _Sulphurea_ is somewhat rare now, and only found in one or two modern catalogues or in very old gardens. THE FRENCH ROSE, _R. Gallica_, also called _Rose de Provins_, as its name implies, is a native of France; but it is also found in Italy, Switzerland and Austria. A good deal of confusion reigns on the subject of this rose and _R. Damascena_; for varieties of both are often misplaced in each other's classes. For instance, the common red _Gallica_, the "Apothecary's rose," is usually called the _Red Damask_, and its many striped varieties, especially _Rosa Mundi_, are mistaken for the true _York and Lancaster_, which is a true Damask rose. [Illustration: GALLICA. RED DAMASK (THE APOTHECARY'S ROSE.)] _Rosa Gallica_, however, is easily distinguished from _Damascena_. Its flowering shoots are upright, with few prickles, and rigid leaves. It seeds very freely; and this accounts for the innumerable varieties which were in vogue fifty or sixty years ago. It is said that one grower near London had two thousand different sorts. It is still largely grown in England for distilling purposes, on account of its delicious perfume; and a field of the "Apothecary's rose" in full flower is a lovely sight in July. But the chief centre of the industry used to be round Provins, the old capital of La Brie, about sixty miles from Paris, on the way to Châlons. Here vast fields were grown, the petals being used not only for scent, but for conserves and medicinal purposes. When well grown, namely well fed and well pruned by cutting out all the weak wood and shortening back the strong shoots to six or seven eyes, _Rosa gallica_ is worthy of a choice place as a decorative rose, whether in the house or on the exhibition bench, when the almost single flowers open and show their brilliant golden stamens. The best sorts grown at present are _Oeillet Parfait_, _Perle des Panachées_, _Rosa Mundi_, _Red Damask_ (the all-red form of this last), _Village Maid_, and _Tuscany_. [Illustration: CLIMBING DAMASK. MRS. O. G. ORPEN.] THE DAMASK ROSE, _R. Damascena_. This rose was brought from Syria to Europe at the time of the Crusades. The true _York and Lancaster_ is the best example of the old Damask rose, and grows into a vigorous bush when well established. _Madame Hardy_, a cross with the Cabbage rose, is an excellent pure white variety; and in the last few years some new and admirable Damask roses, _Lady Curzon_, _Lady Sarah Wilson_, _Lady White_, and the _Single Crimson Damask_, have been raised by Mr. Turner; while Mr. Orpen, of Colchester, introduced the beautiful pink climber, _Mrs. O. G. Orpen_, in 1906. ROSA ALBA, the white rose of central Europe, introduced into England about 1597, is now too often only to be seen in cottagers' gardens. But surely a corner may be found for the _Maiden's Blush_, for the fine old _Blanche Belgique_, or for _Celestial_--the roses that used to be seen in our childhood with a sprig of Southernwood in every village boy's buttonhole on Sunday. AUSTRIAN BRIAR ROSES, _R. lutea_. [Illustration: AUSTRIAN BRIAR. AUSTRIAN COPPER.] These are among the most brilliant of our early summer roses, and are distinguished also by their singular and aromatic scent. But their flowering season is as short as it is vivid. The single Austrian Briars, mentioned by John Gerard in 1596, both the Yellow, and the Copper known in France as _Capucine_, should be found, if possible, in every garden. But both are of moderate growth; and the Copper is often troublesome to grow, showing itself as capricious as it is attractive. For instance, I have tried in vain for eight years to make it flourish in my garden, while in a cottage garden by the roadside a quarter of a mile away it flowers so profusely that during its short-lived season of beauty the passers-by stop to gaze at its brilliant single blossoms of satiny-yellow lined with vivid copper red. The double yellow _Harrisonii_ was raised in America in 1830; and in 1837 Willock introduced the beautiful and fragrant _Persian Yellow_, which grows so freely wherever it is planted. All these Austrian briars have been utilized of late by the hybridists with most interesting results. In 1900 the famous house of Pernet-Ducher, of Lyons, succeeded in developing a new race of roses, which they named _Rosa Pernetiana_, by crossing the _Persian Yellow_ with _Antoine Ducher_, a hybrid perpetual. The first of these was _Soleil d'Or_, a large, full, flat flower, varying from gold and orange yellow to reddish gold shaded with nasturtium red. It is perfectly hardy, and perpetual flowering. And in 1907 they added a further seedling, far more amazing in colour, named the _Lyon Rose_--offspring of a cross between an unnamed seedling of _Soleil d'Or_ and the hybrid Tea _Mme. Mélanie Soupert_. This, judging by the reports of those who have seen it, is destined to be a most valuable addition to our gardens. Another Pernetiana, _Les Rosati_, has been raised by Gravereaux, from a cross between _Persian Yellow_ and a hybrid Tea. It is hardy, prolific, and when I saw it at the end of September, 1907, in MM. Soupert et Notting's ground, it was covered with brilliant cherry-red flowers on a yellow base--the outside of the petals pale salmon. _Godfried Keller_, a cross with Austrian Copper, apricot with the outside of the petals dark yellow, semi-double and perpetual, and _Parkfeuer_, a shining scarlet hybrid briar, are both of the same type. LORD PENZANCE'S HYBRID SWEET BRIARS, _R. rubiginosa hybrida_. These invaluable roses, the result of years of careful hybridizing of the common Sweet Briar, _R. rubiginosa_, with various old-fashioned roses, are amongst the greatest gifts of last century to the rosarian, the amateur, and the cottager. [Illustration: LORD PENZANCE HYBRID SWEET BRIAR. JEANNIE DEANS.] _Lady Penzance_, one of the most attractive, though less hardy and vigorous than others, resulted from a cross with the Austrian Copper; _Lord Penzance_ from the Austrian Yellow. This last is extraordinarily fragrant, the scent of the leaves after rain filling the air to a considerable distance. The rather small flowers of both these show their parentage very clearly in colour. But for size of blossom and effect, none of the fourteen varieties equal the bright pink and white _Flora McIvor_, the crimson _Meg Merrilies_, and the superb dark crimson _Anne of Geirstein_. This last is a plant of extraordinary vigour, forming in a few years huge bushes ten feet high and nearly as many through. For a high rose hedge or screen these hybrid sweet briars are invaluable, while they may be also used for pillars and arches. And, with the exception of _Lord_ and _Lady Penzance_, which are of more moderate growth, they are easy to propagate, growing readily from cuttings, which, if put in early in the autumn are in flower the next summer. The foliage of the common Sweet Briar, however, remains the most fragrant of all, with a clean, wholesome sweetness that is unsurpassed by its more showy children, always excepting _Lord Penzance_, which, if possible, excels it. Therefore let no one discard the old friend, and let them plant it beside a walk, so that they may give it a friendly pinch as they pass, to be rewarded by its delicious scent. [Illustration: SCOTS BRIAR. STANWELL PERPETUAL.] [Illustration: SCOTS BRIAR. STANWELL PERPETUAL.] THE SCOTCH BRIAR, _R. spinossima_, is a most fragrant little rose, its compact bushes forming an excellent hedge round a rose garden, covered so closely with the sweet little double, globular flowers that the tiny leaves are almost hidden by the mass of blossom. They can be had in yellow, white, or many shades of pink. But none are prettier than the common rose-pink. The yellow is a hybrid--raised in France early in the nineteenth century. The _Stanwell Perpetual_ is a Scotch briar, hybridized most probably with the Damask Perpetual or some such rose, flesh-coloured and flowering from May till the autumn. ROSA RUGOSA, THE RAMANAS ROSE OF JAPAN, was introduced into England in 1784. But this fact may, I imagine, be as great a surprise to some of my readers as it was to myself, when I discovered the statement on unimpeachable authority an hour ago. I well remember the first plants of the common pinkish-red variety, which I first saw in 1876. It was then considered something of a novelty; and I recollect how we all began cultivating it in our gardens, and that we were enraptured, as were the blackbirds and thrushes, by its large, handsome bright scarlet fruit in the autumn. The varieties in cultivation in those days were _alba_ the single white, introduced in 1784 by Thunberg, a very lovely flower; and _rubra_, the single pinkish-red (Cels. 1802). The hybridists began work upon these some twenty years ago. Paul and Son brought out _America_ in 1895; and the fine _Atropurpurea_ in 1900, one of the very best singles, deep glowing crimson with brilliant golden stamens when opening at sunrise, and turning purple later in the day. Double hybrids were also raised, the charming white _Mme. Georges Bruant_, 1888; _Blanc double de Coubert_, 1892; _Belle Poitevin_, 1895, rose-coloured and very fragrant; and the handsome _Rose à parfum de l'Hay_, 1904, carmine cerise and deliciously scented. _Fimbriata_, 1891, semi-double, white tinted blush, the edge of the petals fringed like a dianthus, is perhaps the prettiest of all, and is specially suited for growing as an isolated bush. [Illustration: RUGOSA. CONRAD FERDINAND MEYER.] But of all the hybrids none can be compared to the superb _Conrad Ferdinand Meyer_ (Müller, 1900). This last is said to be crossed with _Gloire de Dijon_. It certainly possesses just the same rich fragrance as that invaluable rose, while its beautiful colour, a warm tender pink, its large size and perfect form, its more than vigorous growth, and its persistence in blooming--I have it in flower here from the middle of May till December--render it one of the most valuable additions to the rose garden of the new century. Besides these there are numbers of other varieties, as the continental growers, such as Bruant, Cochet, Gravereaux, Schwartz, etc., have paid considerable attention to these roses of late years. But the future of this race is bound to be a very important one, and so far we have not in the least realized what its effect may be. PROVENCE ROSES, _R. Centifolia_. Cabbage, or Common Provence, 1596. Rosy pink. Crested. _Vibert_, 1827. Rosy pink, pale edges. Unique, or White Provence. _Grimwood_, 1777. Paper white. Sulphurea, or the Old Yellow Provence. Golden yellow. Miniature Provence Roses. De Meaux, 1814. Rosy lilac. Spong. Blush pink. White de Meaux. White. MOSS ROSES, _R. Centifolia muscosa_. (Summer flowering.) Baron de Wassenaer. _V. Verdier_, 1854. Light crimson, in clusters. Common. _Holland_, 1596. Pale rose. Comtesse de Murinais. _Vibert_, 1827. White, large and double. Crested. _Vibert_, 1827. Rosy pink, paler edges. Crimson Globe, _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1891. Deep crimson. Celina. _Hardy_, 1855. Rich crimson, shaded purple. Gloire des Moussues. _Robert_, 1852. Rosy blush, large and full. Laneii. _Laffay_, 1846. Rosy crimson, tinted purple. White Bath. _Salter_, 1810. Paper white, large and beautiful. Zenobia. _Wm. Paul & Son._ Fine satin pink. PERPETUAL MOSS ROSES. Blanche Moreau. _Moreau Robert_, 1881. Pure white. James Veitch. Violet shaded. Mme. Edouard Ory. _Robert_, 1856. Bright carmine. " Louis Lévêque. _Leveque_, 1904. Colour of _Captain Christy_. " Moreau. _Moreau-Robert_, 1873. Vermilion red. Mrs. William Paul. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1870. Very bright rose. Perpetual White Moss. Blooming in clusters. Salet. _Lacharme_, 1854. Bright rose, blush edges, fine. Venus. _Welter_, 1905. Fiery red, one of the best. THE FRENCH ROSE, also called "ROSE DE PROVINS," _R. Gallica_. Belle des Jardins. _Guillot_, 1873. Bright purple, striped white. Dométile Becard. Flesh, striped rose. Oeillet Parfait. Pure white, broad stripes, rosy crimson. Perle des Panachées. _Vibert_, 1845. White, striped lilac. Rosa Mundi. Red, striped white. Old Red, the "Apothecary's Rose," often called "Red Damask." Tuscany. Deep claret red. Village Maid. White, striped rose or purple. THE DAMASK ROSE, _R. Damascena_. Kazanlik. Silver rose. La Ville de Bruxelles. Light rose, blush margin. Lady Curzon. _Turner_, 1902. Large, single pink. Lady Sarah Wilson. _Turner_, 1902. Semi-double, creamy blush. Lady White. _Turner_, 1902. Semi-double, white tinted pink. Leda, or painted Damask. Blush, edged lake. Madame Hardy. _Hardy_, 1832. White. " Zoetmans. Creamy white. Mrs. O. G. Orpen. _Orpen_, 1906. Climbing, large single, in trusses, rosy pink. Single Crimson Damask. _Turner_, 1901. York and Lancaster (true). Red and white, in patches. THE WHITE ROSE, _R. Alba_. Blanche Belgique. White. Celestial. Flesh colour, tinted delicate pink. Felicité. Rosy flesh, margin blush. Mme. Audot. Glossy flesh. " Legras. Creamy white. Maiden's Blush. _Kew_, 1797. Soft blush. AUSTRIAN BRIAR ROSES, _R. lutea_. Austrian Copper, or Capucine. _J. Gerard_, 1596. Single, petals lined copper-red. Austrian Yellow. _J. Gerard_, 1596. Harrisonii. _Harrison_, 1830. Golden yellow. Persian Yellow. _Willock_, 1838. Deep golden yellow. HYBRIDS. Gottfried Keller. _Dr. Müller_, 1902. Semi-double, apricot with golden yellow centre. Parkfeuer. Single, vivid scarlet. Soleil d'Or. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1900. Orange yellow, gold and nasturtium red, large, double. The Lyon Rose. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1907. Coral-red tinted chrome yellow, new and distinct, double. Les Rosati. _Gravereaux_, 1907. Bright carmine, yellow base. These three last are perpetual-flowering, and known as Pernetiana roses. SWEET BRIARS, _R. rubiginosa_. Common Sweet briar. Pale pink. Double Scarlet. Bright rosy red. Hebe's Lip. White, with picotee edge of purple. Janet's Pride. White, shaded and tipped with crimson. LORD PENZANCE'S HYBRIDS, 1894, 1895. Amy Robsart. Deep rose. Anne of Geirstein. Deep crimson rose. Catherine Seyton. Rosy-pink, bright golden anthers. Flora McIvor. Blush rose, white centre. Lady Penzance. Soft copper, base of petals bright yellow. Lord Penzance. Fawn, passing to emerald yellow. Lucy Bertram. Rich crimson, pure white centre. Meg Merrilies. Deep brilliant crimson. SCOTCH BRIAR ROSES, _R. spinossima_. Shades of pink, rose, crimson, white, yellow. Pimpinellifolia. Blush. Stanwell Perpetual. Semi-double rosy blush. RUGOSA OR RAMANAS ROSES, _R. rugosa_. America. _Paul & Son_, 1895. Crimson lake. Atropurpurea. _Paul & Son_, 1899. Deep crimson, turning maroon. Belle Poitevin. _Bruant_, 1896. Rose, double, very sweet. [A]Blanc double de Coubert. _Cochet-Cochet_, 1894. Double white. Calocarpa. _Bruant_, 1896. Rose, single, fine tinted autumn foliage. [A]Conrad F. Meyer. _Froebel_, 1900. Clear silvery rose, double, large, very fragrant. [A]Delicata. _Cooling_, 1898. Soft rose, double. Madame C. F. Worth. _Schwartz_, 1890. Rosy carmine, semi-double. [A]Madame Georges Bruant. _Bruant_, 1888. Clear white, nearly double. Madame Henri Gravereaux. _Gravereaux_, 1905. White, salmon centre. Mrs. Anthony Waterer. _Waterer_, 1898. Deep crimson, semi-double, large clusters. [A]Nova Zembla. _Mees_, 1907. White sport from _Conrad Meyer_, fine. Repens Alba. _Paul & Son_, 1903. Weeping form of Alba. [A]Rose à parfum de l'Hay. _Gravereaux_, 1904. Carmine cerise, double, fine. Rugosa alba. _Thunberg_, 1784. Single, pure white. Rugosa rubra. _Cels_, 1802. Pinkish red. Rugosa rubra, fl. pl. _Regel._ Purple red. [A] Rose Apples. _Paul & Son_, 1896. Pale carmine rose, large clusters. FOOTNOTE: [A] Perpetual flowering. CHAPTER IV CLIMBING ROSES--SUMMER FLOWERING MANY are the races to which our summer gardens owe an almost endless variety of climbing roses; and each season adds to the bewildering number. The older types are the Ayrshire, the Evergreen, the Banksia, the Boursault, the Prairie rose, the Multiflora. And twenty-one years ago, the Wichuraiana from Japan was introduced, adding a totally new source from whence to derive precious and beautiful hybrids. [Illustration: AYRSHIRE. RUGA.] THE AYRSHIRE ROSE originated without doubt from the trailing white rose of our hedges and woodlands, _Rosa arvensis_. In the early years of last century many popular varieties were developed which are still welcome in our gardens, such as _Alice Gray_, _Dundee Rambler_, _Ruga_, _Queen of the Belgians_, _Splendens_ or _Myrrh-scented_. And in 1835, the charming little double white rose, _Bennett's Seedling_ or _Thoresbyana_, was discovered among some briars by Lord Manvers' gardener at Thoresby. [Illustration: EVERGREEN. FÉLICITÉ-PERPÉTUE.] THE EVERGREEN ROSE. The parent of the Evergreen roses of our gardens was the climbing wild rose of Italy, _Rosa Sempervirens_. And the best known, and perhaps the most valuable of these, is the white _Félicité et Perpétue_, named after the saints and martyrs Felicitas and Perpetua. This rose and several other varieties were raised in 1827 by Monsieur Jacques, the head-gardener at the royal gardens of Neuilly. They bloom in large clusters of small, very full, double flowers. _Myrianthes renoncule_, _Leopoldine d'Orleans_, and _Banksiæflora_ are white; _Princesse Marie_ and _Flora_ are pink, as is _Williams' Evergreen_. As all these keep their dark shining foliage until nearly the end of the winter, they are very valuable on screens and arches. THE BANKSIAN ROSE, _R. Banksia_. This persistent foliage is one of the great merits of the large white Banksian _Fortunei_, called in French catalogues _Banks de Chine_--a hybrid with the beautiful _Rosa Sinica_. Its handsome green leaves, as I write in mid-February, are as thick outside my window in spite of twenty degrees of frost a few weeks back, as they were in the autumn. It will throw shoots of immense length each year: clothing a wall summer and winter with its rich green foliage. It is much hardier than the Yellow and White Banksians. The flowers, large, full, white, and sweet-scented, grow singly, not in clusters, and are borne like those of the Yellow and White Banksians on the sub-laterals--_i.e._ the little flowering stems on the laterals of last year. This habit of growth is the reason of so many failures in getting the Banksian roses to flower. An old plant of the Yellow Banksian on the rectory at Strathfieldsaye had never been known to flower when the Rev. F. Page-Roberts came there. He, of course, discovered that it had been pruned hard in the usual way. And after proper attention for two years, it was last year a mass of bloom, to the surprise of all who saw it.[3] The White Banksian was introduced by Mr. William Kerr in 1807, and named after Lady Banks. The yellow was discovered by Dr. Abel, in 1824, growing on the walls of Nankin. They are both natives of China: but require a warm position on a wall in most parts of England. The finest specimen I have ever seen was a very old plant of the yellow, growing some years ago inside the courtyard at Chillon. It was one of the most beautiful objects possible in summer, the grim walls being closely covered with a sheet of the delicate little blossoms. ROSA SINICA, or LÆVIGATA, mentioned above, also known as the "_Cherokee Rose_," is a single white with yellow stamens, from China. It is a very beautiful species; but requires, like the Banksians, the shelter of a wall. _Sinica anemone_ (Schmidt, 1895), silvery-pink shaded rose, is very vigorous, and more hardy, one of the best single climbing roses. This latter rose must not be confused with _Anemonæflora_--a cross between _Banksia_ and _Multiflora_--with small double white anemone-like flowers. THE BOURSAULT ROSES, _R. Alpina_, are hardy, vigorous climbers, flowering in large clusters. They were raised from the single red Alpine rose. This, by the way, might be more generally cultivated for its own sake; its smooth red stems and handsome reddish foliage, which turns a fine colour in autumn, and its single deep pink flowers with long green bracts, succeeded by small brilliant hips, make it a charming object both in summer and autumn. M. Boursault, a famous Parisian rose amateur, gave his name to the group, the first variety, a double red, being called after him. _Amadis_, or _Crimson_, is one of the oldest, a deep crimson purple; while _Inermis Morletti_, an improved _Inermis_, was introduced in 1883 by Morlet. ROSA SETIGERA, THE BRAMBLE-LEAVED OR PRAIRIE ROSE, was the parent of several useful climbers raised by Feast, of Baltimore, and introduced into England in 1803. Of these _Belle of Baltimore_ and _Queen of the Prairies_ are the best, flowering late in the summer. THE HUNGARIAN CLIMBING ROSES appear to be very little known in England. But they are well worth growing, especially in cold and exposed places, as they are thoroughly frost-proof. The blossoms are large, very full, and mostly flat in form. _Decoration de Geschwind_, rich purple-pink with white edges, is a handsome and effective flower. So are _Gilda_, wine colour, shaded with violet, and _Château Luegg_, deep carmine pink. To what family they are allied I do not know. They were raised by Geschwind about 1886. I got them from M. Bernaix of Lyons, and am greatly pleased with them. HYBRIDS OF CHINA, BOURBON, AND NOISETTE ROSES. This very beautiful class of summer-flowering climbing or pillar roses, is too often neglected in these days. They are the result of crosses between the Gallica, Centifolia, and Damask roses, and the China, Noisette and Bourbon. For size, form and colour, many of these roses are still unexcelled. And one regrets they are not more generally grown. Whether the seed parent is the perpetual China, Bourbon, or Noisette, and the pollen parent the French or Provençe rose, or _vice versâ_, the result is that, though it grows vigorously, the hybrid does not flower in the autumn--with the one exception, the beautiful _Gloire de Rosamènes_. One of the grandest of this class is _Blairii No. 2_ (Blair 1845), blush with rose centre, a very vigorous climber: but it should be remembered that if pruned it will not flower. This is also the case with the fine crimson _Brennus_ or _Brutus_. _Coupe d'Hébé_ and _Chenédolé_ are both good roses; while _Charles Lawson_ for a brilliant crimson pillar rose, and the pure white _Madame Plantier_ for bush or pillar, are not easily surpassed, as their flowers are borne in immense quantities. That very brilliant and effective single rose, _Paul's Carmine Pillar_, is also a hybrid; but its exact parentage is not known. Messrs. Paul & Son, of Cheshunt, write to me: "We believe it to be, as far as we can recollect, a hybrid with Boursault blood." This would explain its coming into flower so early. THE CLIMBING MULTIFLORA OR POLYANTHA ROSES, and their hybrids, commonly known as "Rambler roses," have developed of late years in such amazing numbers, that it is a work of some difficulty to keep pace with the new varieties which appear each season. The original Multiflora, known also as _Polyantha simplex_, was introduced from Japan in 1781 by Thunberg. It is a very vigorous climber with large bunches of small, single white flowers. From this type rose, which seeds very freely, numbers of hybrids were raised in Italy early in the nineteenth century, by crossings with other richly coloured roses. One of the earliest of these hybrids which still remains is _Laure Davoust_, with small and very double flowers--pink changing to blush. _Grevillia_ or the _Seven Sisters_ is another, its flowers changing from crimson to purplish rose, and then to pale rose. This produces a most quaint effect, as we have flowers of three colours on the plant at once. _De la Grifferaie_, 1845, is also deep rose, changing to blush. [Illustration: CLIMBING POLYANTHA. BLUSH RAMBLER.] It was, however, in 1893 that an extraordinary impulse was given to the culture of these roses, by the introduction of _Turner's Crimson Rambler_. Two roses which are now classed among the "Ramblers" preceded it by a few years; Allard's _Daniel Lacombe_, 1886, and the beautiful _Claire Jacquier_, 1888, raised by Bernaix of Lyons. But the advent of _Crimson Rambler_ is really the starting point of that enthusiasm which has reigned ever since 1893 for the Rambler roses, and which has happily brought many of the old varieties mentioned above into favour once more. As many versions of the advent of this rose are extant, I wrote to Mr. Charles Turner to ask him its true history, and in his kind reply of February 17, 1908, he says, "The rose was brought from Japan with other plants by an engineer on board a trading vessel for a gentleman living near Edinburgh. It was grown there for some time, and eventually came into our possession." [Illustration: CLIMBING POLYANTHA. BLUSH RAMBLER.] This rose is so well known that, like good wine, it needs no bush of praise or description. And it was quickly followed by other Multifloras of varying types. In 1896 came Lambert's trio _Euphrosyne_, the so-called Pink rambler, _Thalia_, the White rambler, and _Aglaia_, the Yellow rambler; succeeded in 1897 by his _Hélène_, pale rose with yellowish white centre. In 1898 Dawson brought out the _Dawson rose_, with clusters of semi-double soft-rose flowers. In 1899 came two notable additions--Paul & Son's _Psyche_; and Schmidt's _Leuchstern_--one of the most beautiful of the race. The latter grower's invaluable _Rubin_; Veitch's _Electra_; Paul & Son's _Lion_ followed in 1900; and their _Wallflower_ in 1901. In 1903, Wm. Paul & Son brought out _Waltham Rambler_; B. R. Cant, the exquisite _Blush Rambler_; and Walsh of Philadelphia the _Philadelphia Rambler_. In 1904 came Lambert's _Gruss an Zabern_ and _Trier_. In 1905 Cutbush's _Mrs. F. W. Flight_, considered by some the Queen of ramblers. And in 1906 Weigand's _Taunusblümchen_; and Soupert et Notting's beautiful _Stella_. Last year a rich feast was provided for those who delight in Ramblers, with Soupert et Notting's fine new _Bar-le-Duc_, offspring of their famous tea rose _Souv. de Pierre Notting_ and _Crimson Rambler_; Schmidt's _Tausendschön_, a cross between _Crimson Rambler_ and a tea-polyantha; and Wm. Paul & Son's _Kathleen_, a single flower, rich carmine-rose with a white eye. And this year Soupert et Notting are sending out their new _Bordeaux_, a seedling from _Crimson Rambler_ and the dwarf Polyantha _Blanche Rebatel_. [Illustration: WICHURIANA. DOROTHY PERKINS.] Meanwhile, in 1887, the parents of a new race of climbing roses had been brought to Europe. The Wichuraiana (Species) was introduced from Japan by Crépin, in 1887. Its small white single flowers with their quaint hay scent, borne late in the summer, its glossy evergreen leaves, and its vigorous creeping habit--for it will cover a large space on a bank in twelve months--proclaimed a new and valuable species. And in America, Manda was quick to see its value as the parent of a new race, by crossing it with tea roses. Ten years later, in 1897, he brought out _Manda's Triumph_; in 1899, the charming _Gardenia_, _Jersey Beauty_, _May Queen_, _Pink Roamer_, _South Orange Perfection_, _Universal Favourite_; and in 1900, _Evergreen Gem_, one of the very best. The next year Jackson and Perkins introduced the incomparable _Dorothy Perkins_. And Walsh, another American grower, followed in 1902 with _Débutante_, and in 1905 with _Hiawatha_ and _Lady Gay_. Meanwhile in France, M. Barbier had been devoting himself to these charming hybrids; and began his long list of beautiful varieties in 1900 with _Albéric Barbier_, _René André_, and the single _Wichuraiana rubra_; to be followed by numbers of others. One of the charms of these roses, and they have many, is that they are to all intents and purposes evergreen. Another is, that although they are not perpetual, _i.e._ flowering twice in the season, the hybrids often take after their parent the type Wichuraiana, whose flowering season is very late--last autumn I gathered a few flowers from it the third week in December. Therefore, many of them come into bloom just as the Multifloras are going over, thus prolonging the season of summer climbing roses till the end of August. For every purpose they are of use. They may be planted to cover an unsightly bit of bank, or to climb over a stump, to wreath themselves into the branches of a tree, or to form a dense covering of shining leaves and innumerable flowers on fence or trellis or screen. They are even more charming on pillars and arches, when the full beauty of their blossoms can be seen from all sides; for while many have a pendant habit, the main flower heads, of _Dorothy Perkins_ for instance, are carried erect above the pink foam of the laterals that clothe the graceful hanging shoots below. A Wichuraiana hybrid--for choice the dainty _rubra_, _Dorothy Perkins_ or _Hiawatha_--grown as a tall, weeping standard seven feet high, is an object of such beauty that if once seen it cannot be forgotten. Or these charming roses may be trained round a large balloon, in the same fashion as the _Crimson Rambler_ in the Royal Gardens at Windsor, figured in "The Garden," December 30, 1905. [Illustration: WICHURIANA. JERSEY BEAUTY.] Planted on a terraced slope the Wichuraianas are most effective. In one instance, _Gardenia_, _Evergreen Gem_, _Albéric Barbier_ and others were planted along a steep grass bank below a terrace walk. A flat shelf four feet wide had been cut half way down the bank, and there the roses were put in some ten or twelve feet apart. By the next summer they had joined hands; and whether from below, or looking down on them from the terrace above, the huge wreath with masses of flowers among the glossy foliage made a most exquisite display. In fact there is no limit to the uses to which this delightful family may be put. And we may believe that there is no limit either to its future developments in the hands of the hybridists, whose patient research will, I have no doubt, give us before many years are over, perpetual flowering, evergreen Wichuraianas of every hue. AYRSHIRE ROSES, _R. Arvensis_. Alice Gray. White edged pink. Bennett's Seedling or Thoresbyana. _Bennett_, 1835. Double White. Dundee Rambler. White, semi-double. Queen of the Belgians. Creamy white, large, double. Ruga. Pale flesh, large, double. Repens flore pleno. White, very abundant bloomer. Splendens, or myrrh-scented. Flesh colour, large, double. EVERGREEN ROSES, _R. Sempervirens_. Banksiæflora. White, centre pale yellow. Felicité et Perpétue. _Jacques_, 1827. Creamy white, full. Flora. Rosy flesh, full. Leopoldine d'Orleans. _Jacques._ White, tipped red. Myrianthes renoncule. Blush edged rose. Princesse Marie. _Jacques._ Clear pink. Williams' Evergreen. _Williams_, 1855. Yellowish white, pink centre. BANKSIAN ROSES, _R. Banksiæ_. Alba. _Kerr_, 1807. Small double white. Lutea. _Royal Horticultural Soc._, 1824. Small double yellow. Fortunei. (Hybrid) white, large double flowers. SINICA ROSES, _R. Sinica_ or _Lævigata_. Sinica (Species). The Cherokee rose. Single white, yellow stamens. Sinica Anemone. _F. Schmidt_, 1895. Single, silvery pink, shaded rose. BOURSAULT ROSES, _R. Alpina_. Amadis. Deep purple crimson. Blush or Boursault Florida. Blush, large semi-single. Elegans. Vivid crimson. Gracilis. 1796. Bright, rosy red. Inermis or Boursault pleine. Bright red. Inermis Morletti. _Morlet_, 1883. Light, rosy pink. THE BRAMBLE-LEAVED OR PRAIRIE ROSE, _Rosa Setigera_. Belle of Baltimore. _Feast_, 1803. White, shaded yellow. Queen of the Prairies. _Feast_, 1803. Pink, very full. HYBRID MUSK, Summer flowering. Madame d'Arblay. Flesh, changing to white. The Garland. Blush, changing to white. HUNGARIAN CLIMBING ROSES. Aurelia Liffa. Scarlet crimson. Château Leugg. Deep carmine pink. Decoration de Geschwind. Deep violet red, white edges. Gilda. Dark wine colour, shaded violet. Mercédès. Carmine, lilac, pink. Meteor. Carmine red, bright shading. Souvenir de Brood. Flat shape, full, purple or violet. HYBRID CHINA AND BOURBON. Acidalie. _Rousseau_, 1838. White. Blairii, No. 2. _Blair_, 1845. Blush pink, rose centre. Brennus or Brutus. Deep carmine. Charles Lawson. _Lawson_, 1853. Very bright crimson. Chenédolé. Light vivid crimson. Coupe d'Hébé. _Laffay_, 1840. Vivid rose, shaded. Fulgens. Bright crimson. Madame Plantier. Pure white, very fine. Paul Ricaut. _Portemer_, 1845. Brilliant carmine. Paul's Carmine Pillar. _Paul & Son_, 1896. Large single carmine. POLYANTHA, RAMBLER ROSES, _R. Multiflora_. Aglaia. _Lambert_, 1896. Trusses of canary yellow. Bar le Duc. _Soupert et Notting_, 1907. Clear brick-red, reverse of petals bright copper. Blush Rambler. _B. R. Cant_, 1903. Large clusters of soft blush flowers. Bordeaux. _Soupert et Notting_, 1908. Claret colour, very fine. Claire Jacquier. _Bernaix_, 1888. Nankeen yellow. Crimson Rambler. _Turner_, 1893. Bright crimson. Crimson Rambler ne plus ultra. _Weigand_, 1905. Bright, deep crimson. Daniel Lacombe. _Allard_, 1886. Chamois yellow, turning to white. Electra. _Veitch_, 1900. Lemon, shaded orange and white. Euphrosyne. _Lambert_, 1896. Pinkish rose, small double flowers. Frau Lina Strassheim. _Strassheim_, 1907. Salmon red and flesh, very large clusters. Goldfinch. _Paul & Son_, 1907. Deep golden buds, opening pale yellow, shaded violet and white. Gruss an Zabern. _Lambert_, 1904. Large trusses, snow white. Hélène. _Lambert_, 1897. Pale mauve with yellow base. Kathleen. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1907. Single, soft carmine-rose, white eye. Leuchstern. _Schmidt_, 1899. Bright rose, large white eye. Mrs. F. W. Flight. _Cutbush_, 1905. Bright pink. Philadelphia Rambler. _Walsh_, 1903. Much like Crimson Rambler; said to be mildew proof. Psyche. _Paul & Son_, 1899. Pale rosy pink, salmon yellow base. Queen Alexandra. _Veitch_, 1901. Rich rose colour. Rubin. _Schmidt_, 1900. Deep crimson, fine reddish foliage. Stella. _Soupert et Notting._ Vivid carmine, stamens forming a golden star on white centre. Tausendschön. _Schmidt_, 1906. Pink turning to bright rose, sweet-scented. Taunusblümchen. _Weigand_, 1906. Pink fragrant flowers like Crimson Rambler. Thalia. _Lambert_, 1896. Small double white flowers in cluster. Thalia. Perpetual flowering, pure white. The Dawson Rose. _Dawson_, 1898. Pale rose. The Lion. _Paul & Son_, 1900. Single flowers, vivid crimson. Trier. _Lambert_, 1904. Creamy white. Wallflower. _Paul & Son_, 1901. Light crimson flowers. Waltham Bride. _Wm. Paul & Son._ Pure white. Waltham Rambler. _Wm. Paul & Son._ Single, rosy pink, pale centre. WICHURAIANA ROSES. Albéric Barbier. _Barbier_, 1901. Creamy white, canary centre, tea scent. Auguste Barbier. _Barbier_, 1901. Violet lilac, white centre. Débutante. _Walsh_, 1902. Large clusters, soft pink, very fragrant. Dorothy Perkins. _Jackson & Perkins_, 1901. Bright rose pink, large clusters. Edmond Proust. _Barbier_, 1903. Pink, centre shaded carmine. Elisa Robichon. _Barbier_, 1903. Salmon buff, base of petals yellow. Evangeline. _Walsh_, 1906. Large single flowers, white, tipped pink. Evergreen Gem. _Manda_, 1900. Buff changing to white, double. François Foucard. _Barbier_, 1902. Yellow, turning creamy white. Gardenia. _Manda_, 1899. Bright yellow in bud, changing to cream. Hiawatha. _Walsh_, 1905. Single, bright crimson, white eye. Jersey Beauty. _Manda_, 1899. Single, pale yellow, bright yellow stamens. Lady Gay. _Walsh_, 1905. Deep rose pink, large clusters. Lady Godiva. _Paul & Son_, 1907. Pale flesh pink, sport from Dorothy Perkins. Manda's Triumph. _Manda_, 1897. Pure white, double. May Queen. _Manda_, 1899. Coral red, large flowers. Minnehaha. _Walsh_, 1907. Satin pink, double, large clusters. Paradise. _Walsh_, 1907. Single, pink and white. Paul Transon. _Barbier_, 1902. Large panicles, double rose, tea rose scent. Pink Pearl. Buds deep pink, changing to pearly pink. Pink Roamer. _Manda_, 1899. Bright rose, white eye, semi-double. René André. _Barbier_, 1901. Creamy white, yellow centre, tea scented. Rubra. _Barbier_, 1900. Single, bright red, white centre. Ruby Queen. Brilliant carmine, large clusters, double. South Orange Perfection. _Manda_, 1899. Clear rose. The Farquhar. _Farquhar_, 1904. Pale rose turning white. Universal Favorite. _Manda_, 1899. Porcelain rose. FOOTNOTE: [3] See pruning, p. 26. CHAPTER V CLIMBING ROSES--AUTUMN FLOWERING WHILE many of the beautiful roses enumerated in the last chapter are indispensable in our gardens for covering pillars, arches, screens, walls, fences and pergolas, an end comes all too soon to their flowering season. And when it comes we feel the need of other climbers to carry on the succession of blossom until the frosts cut all off. A pergola, for instance, planted with nothing but summer flowering roses, is but a sorry sight in August and September. While if we have been wise, and have made a judicious mixture of these and perpetual roses, it remains a delight till November. For vigorous climbers of this second section none excel THE NOISETTE ROSE, _R. Noisettiana_. This invaluable race was originated by M. Philippe Noisette in America, by fertilizing the Musk rose, _R. Moschata_, with the Common Blush China, _R. Indica_ (not the Blush Tea rose, _R. Indica Odorata_). In 1817 he sent the "_Blush Noisette_" to his brother M. Louis Noisette, a well-known nurseryman in Paris. And its advent was hailed with enthusiasm by all rose-lovers in France; for it was recognized as a new break in climbing roses. In this, and in many of the seedlings which were raised from it, the influence of its Musk rose parent was very strong, the flowers being borne in large clusters, and fragrant with its delicious musky scent. But as time went on, crossings with Tea roses somewhat changed one of the early characteristics of the Noisette, and it approached more closely to the Tea rose--bearing flowers singly--instead of in the large clusters characteristic of the Musk rose. _Aimée Vibert_ (Vibert, 1828) is one of those early Noisettes which holds its own everywhere. But how seldom do we see that most vigorous and most fragrant of all, _Jaune Desprez_ (Desprez, 1828). Grown against a west wall here, it covered a space some 20 × 20 feet in three years, throwing laterals, five feet and more long every summer; and from the ends of these in late autumn the great heads of bloom hang down, filling the whole air with fragrance; in one cluster alone I have counted seventy-two blossoms, soft sulphur, salmon, and red. This variety, and the beautiful white _Lamarque_ (Maréchal, 1830), both need the shelter of a wall in a warm, dry position. [Illustration: NOISETTE. WILLIAM ALLEN RICHARDSON.] That singularly beautiful rose _Fortune's Yellow_ or _Beauty of Glazenwood_ (Fortune, 1845), which is classed among the Noisettes, though it has nothing but its beauty in common with them--for it is not perpetual, and its foliage is quite different from theirs--also requires a very dry, warm situation, when, _if it is never pruned_, it will flower abundantly. I have a plant on a very dry border at the S.W. corner of my house, which has scrambled up to the eaves and is now making efforts to reach the chimneys. The reason that this rose so often fails to bear blossoms is, that being an untidy grower it is pruned. And any one who has once tried to do so should be glad to know that pruning is as fatal to the rose as to the unhappy pruner, for it is armed with the most cruel prickles, like small fish-hooks, of any member of the rose tribe. The flowers, like those of the Banksia roses, being borne on the small twigs growing from the laterals of the second year, any pruning which destroys these destroys all chance of blossom. And this rule holds good with most of the Noisettes. _Ophirie_ (Goubault, 1841), with its rather small nankeen and copper-red flowers and glossy leaves, is also glad of a little shelter. While the delightful _Céline Forestier_ (Trouillard, 1842) will flourish in almost any situation, though it prefers a wall. Later on, the influence of crossings between the Noisette and the pure Tea instead of the China rose, is very evident in such superb roses as _Maréchal Niel_, _L'Idéal_, _Wassily Chludoff_--an admirable rose, by the way--the invaluable _Rêve d'Or_, which seldom bears a cluster of more than three flowers, and others. But though that universal favourite, _William Allen Richardson_, is, alas! scentless, its habit has more in common with the Noisettes. _Rêve d'Or_ is one of the most useful and hardy of the race, a rampant grower, with buff yellow blossoms borne in immense numbers both in summer and autumn, while its rich red shoots and reddish-green foliage make it a beautiful object before and after it blooms. It strongly resents any pruning beyond shortening its vigorous summer shoots. Among the Hybrid Noisettes--_i.e._ those crossed with the Hybrid perpetual--_Boule de Neige_, a dwarf, and _Madame Alfred Carrière_, a rampant climber, are the best. The latter is certainly one of the best white climbing roses we have, its white blossoms, which some liken to the porcelain roses manufactured abroad, are borne singly on the stalks, and last long in water, while it is never out of flower from June to November. THE MUSK ROSE, _R. Moschata_, seed parent of the Noisette, is perhaps more widely spread than any other rose over the face of the earth. From Madeira through Africa and Persia to Far Cathay it blooms, and sheds its delicious musky scent in the evening air. That it has been prized in the West for centuries we know--for Shakespeare's Titania promises the ass to "stick Musk roses in thy sleek smooth head." Hakluyt says that "Of later times was procured out of Italy the Muske rose plant." And Bacon declares that while the white double Violet is the sweetest of all, "next to that is the Musk rose." The original Musk rose bearing large bunches of single white flowers, is now seldom seen except in very old gardens where it attains a great size. Mr. Rivers, in the _Amateur's Rose Guide_, 1843, says that "Olivier who travelled in the first six years of the French Republic, mentions a rose tree at Ispahan, called the 'Chinese Rose Tree,' fifteen feet high, formed by the union of several stems, each four or five inches in diameter. Seeds from this tree were sent to Paris, and produced the common Musk Rose." But wherever it can be found it should be cherished for the sake of its scent, which is strongest in the evening, especially after rain, filling the whole air with its fragrance. _Himalayica_ is a fine single white form of Moschata; and so is _Nivea_, a large single variety from Nepaul, white, tinged with pink. Of the double and semi-double hybrids, the _Fringed Musk_, a very old favourite still in cultivation, _Rivers' Musk_, pink, shaded buff, and the charming _Princesse de Nassau_, straw colour and very sweet, are all good roses, coming into flower very late in the season, and lasting on through the autumn. For pillars they are excellent subjects. _Madame d'Arblay_ and _The Garland_ are hybrids of the Musk rose, which only bloom in summer. THE HIMALAYAN BRIAR, _Rosa Brunonis_, is sometimes classed with the Musk roses: but this is an error, as it is a distinct species, and is also only summer flowering. With its double variety, it is a beautiful rose for pillar, arch, or pergola; the white flowers are very sweet and borne in clusters. But it should be planted where it can get plenty of sun to ripen the wood. THE MACARTNEY ROSE, _R. bracteata_, was brought from China in 1795 by Lord Macartney. The handsome shiny evergreen foliage and large solitary white flowers with a mass of golden stamens, make it a beautiful object. It does best, as do its hybrids, on a wall in a warm dry position: but it will not flower until it is thoroughly established. _Maria Leonida_ is a hybrid of the early nineteenth century, very beautiful when its very full white flowers, slightly flushed in the centre with pink, open properly. But they need plenty of sun and a sheltered position to do so in perfection. _Rosa Lucida_ and _Lucida plena_ are two rose-coloured hybrids with handsome reddish foliage. With the Noisettes, Musk, and Macartney roses, we have only touched the fringe of autumn flowering climbers. And three most important classes remain to be noticed. These are-- CLIMBING HYBRID PERPETUALS, TEAS, AND HYBRID TEAS. Among the Hybrid Perpetuals there are several line climbing roses, as well as climbing sports of well-known dwarfs, which are valuable to this class. While roses of specially vigorous growth, but not usually counted as climbers, such as _Magna Charta_, _Margaret Dickson_, _Pierre Notting_, and others, make admirable pillars. But it is among the Tea and Hybrid Tea roses that we find our richest harvest of autumn flowering climbers. Some of these are pure climbers, such as the noble _Gloire de Dijon_ and its descendants; and _Cheshunt Hybrid_, _Reine Marie Henriette_, _Reine Olga de Wurtemberg_, _Belle Lyonnaise_, etc. Many of these and others do grandly as tall standards, making fine heads covered with bloom. And many more can be grown as isolated bush roses, planted out singly with plenty of space round them. _Gruss an Teplitz_, _Gustave Régis_, _Mme. Jules Gravereaux_, the exquisite _Lady Waterlow_, and Cooling's _Apple Blossom_, are specially suited to this form of growth. In the following lists of these three groups of roses, I have, for convenience sake, placed Teas and Hybrid Teas together. NOISETTE ROSES, _R. Noisettiana_. Aimée Vibert. _Vibert_, 1828. White, climbing; there is also a dwarf form. Alister Stella Gray. _Gray_, 1895. Pale yellow, orange centre. Bouquet d'Or. _Ducher_, 1873. Pale yellow, centre copper. Céline Forestier. _Trouillard_, 1842. Pale yellow. Cloth of Gold. _Coquereau_, 1843. Golden yellow, sulphur edges. Crépuscule. _Dubreuil_, 1905. Rich copper yellow and nasturtium red. Fellenberg. _Fellenberg_, 1857. Rosy crimson, suitable for a dwarf wall, or pillar. Fortune's Yellow. _Fortune_, 1845. Orange yellow, shaded metallic red, summer flowering. Jaune Desprez. _Desprez_, about 1825. Buff, pink, sulphur and red, variable. Lamarque. _Maréchal_, 1830. White, shaded lemon. L'Idéal. _Nabonnand_, 1887. Metallic red, tinted yellow. Madame Carnot. _Moreau-Robert_, 1890. Golden yellow, coppery centre. Madame Caroline Kuster. _Pernet_, 1873. Pale yellow. Madame Pierre Cochet. _Cochet_, 1892. Deep orange yellow, dwarf wall. Maréchal Niel. _Pradel_, 1864. Deep golden yellow. Marie Thérèse Dubourg. _Godard_, 1889. Coppery golden yellow. Ophirie. _Goubault_, 1841. Nankeen and copper. Rêve d'Or. _Ducher_, 1870. Coppery buff yellow. Solfaterre. _Boyeau_, 1843. Fine sulphur yellow. Souv. de Prince C. d'Arenberg. _Soupert et Notting_, 1897. Canary yellow. Triomphe de Rennes. _Eug. Verdier_, 1857. Canary yellow. Wasily Chludoff. Coppery red, tinted yellow. William Allen Richardson. _Ducher_, 1878. Fine orange yellow. HYBRID PERPETUALS, CLIMBING. Ards Rover. _Alex. Dickson_, 1896. Deep crimson. Brightness of Cheshunt. _Paul & Son_, 1882. Brick red. Climbing Bessie Johnson. _Paul & Son_, 1899. White, tinged pink. " Captain Hayward. _Paul & Son_, 1906. " Charles Lefébvre. " Eugénie Verdier. _Paul & Son._ " Frau Carl Druschki. Lawrenson, 1906. " Glory of Cheshunt. _Paul & Son._ " Hippolyte Jamain. _Paul & Son_, 1887. " Jules Margottin. " Pride of Waltham. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1887. " Suzanne Marie Rodocanachi. _Paul & Son._ " Victor Verdier. _Paul & Son_, 1872. Gloire de Margottin. _Margottin_, 1888. Bright cherry red. Glory of Waltham. Wm. _Paul & Son._ Crimson, very sweet. Madame Edmée Cocteau. Colour of Captain Christy. Maréchal Vaillant. Purplish red. Paul's Single White. _Paul & Son._ Pure white, single. Princess Louise Victoria. _Knight_, 1872. Carmine shading to peach. NOTE.--Where no colours are indicated, the climbing sports are exactly like the dwarf roses of the same name. TEAS AND HYBRID TEAS, CLIMBING. Pink and Rose. Apple Blossom. _Cooling_, 1906. Colour of apple blossoms, pillar or bush. Climbing Captain Christy. _Ducher_, 1881. Even finer than the dwarf. " Belle Siebrecht (syn. Mrs. W. J. Grant). _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1899. " Caroline Testout. _Chauvry_, 1902. " La France. _P. Henderson_, 1893. " Mme. de Watteville. _Fauque-Laurent_, 1902. Dawn. _Paul & Son_, 1898. Large semi-double, rosy pink. England's Glory. _Wood_, 1902. Flesh with pink centre. Lady Waterlow. _Nabonnand_, 1902. Clear salmon pink, large petals edged crimson. Madame Charles Monnier. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1902. Rosy flesh, shaded salmon. Madame Jules Gravereaux. _Soupert et Notting_, 1901. Buff, shaded peach. Madame Marie Lavalley. _Nabonnand_, 1880. Bright rose, reflexed white. Papillon. _Nabonnand_, 1882. Pink and white, shaded copper. Pink Rover. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1890. Pale pink, very fragrant. Princess May. _Wm. Paul & Son._ Soft opaque pink. TEA AND HYBRID TEA CLIMBING ROSES. Salmon, orange, yellow. Billiard et Barré. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1899, golden yellow. Bouquet d'Or. _Ducher_, 1872. Yellow, coppery centre. Climbing Perle des Jardins. _J. Henderson_, 1891. Comte de Torres. _A. Schwartz_, 1906. Salmon white, pink centre. Duchesse d'Auerstadt. _Bernaix_, 1887. Pure yellow bud, shaded nankeen. E. Veyrat Hermanos. _Bernaix_, 1895. Apricot, reflexed deep red. Germaine Trochon. Salmon flesh, centre nankeen yellow. Gloire de Dijon. _Jacotot_, 1853. Buff or salmon yellow, centre orange. Gustave Régis. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1890. Nankeen yellow, pillar or bush. Henriette de Beauveau. _Lacharme_, 1887. Clear yellow. Kaiserin Friedrich. _Drogemuller_, 1890. Bright yellow. Le Soleil. _Dubreuil_, 1892. Chrome and canary. Mme. Auguste Choutet. Yellow or deep orange. Mme. Barthélemy Levet. _Levet père_, 1880. Canary yellow. Mme. Bérard. _Levet_, 1872. Fawn, touched red. Mme. Chauvry. _Bonnaire_, 1887. Nankeen yellow. Mme. Eugéne Verdier. _Levet_, 1882. Deep chamois yellow. Mme. Hector Leuillot. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1904. Golden yellow, tinted carmine. Mme. Moreau. _Moreau_, 1890. Coppery yellow, deeper centre, reverse apricot. Maréchal Niel. See Noisette roses. Souv. de L. Viennot. _Bernaix_, 1897. Jonquil yellow, shaded china rose. White and Lemon. Belle Lyonnaise. _Levet_, 1869. Canary yellow and white. Climbing Devoniensis. _Pavitt_, 1858. Climbing Kaiserin Augusta Victoria. _Alex. Dickson_, 1897. Climbing Niphetos. _Keynes & Co._ 1889. (These three last roses need a very warm wall, and are best under glass.) Gloire des Blanches. _Vigneron_, 1905. Pure white. Mme. Jules Siegfried. Creamy white shaded flesh. Valentine Altermann. Pure white, semi-double. Red. Ards Pillar. _Alex. Dickson_, 1902. Rich velvety crimson. Cheshunt Hybrid. _Paul & Son_, 1873. Cherry red. Climbing Meteor. Climbing Papa Gontier. _Goubault_, 1903. Climbing Souv. de Wootton. Dr. Rouges. _Vve. Schwartz_, 1894. Red, yellowish centre, irregular form. François Crousse. _Guillot_, 1900. Fiery crimson red. Gruss an Teplitz. _Geschwind_, 1897. Brightest scarlet crimson. Lina Schmidt-Michel, 1906. Bright lake rose. Longworth Rambler. Liabaud, 1880. Light crimson, semi-double. Mohrenkönig. Monsieur Désir. _Pernet père_, 1889. Crimson. Morgenroth. _P. Lambert_, 1903. Bright crimson, white centre, single. Noella Nabonnand. _Nabonnand_, 1900. Velvety crimson. Progress. Bright carmine, semi-double. Reine Marie Henriette. _Levet_, 1873. Deep cherry red. Reine Olga de Wurtemburg. _Nabonnand_, 1881. Vivid red. Semi-double. Souv. de Madame Métral. _Bernaix_, 1888. Cherry red. Waltham Climbers. 1. 2. 3. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1885. Shades of crimson; 1, brightest, 3, darkest. CHAPTER VI TEA ROSES, _R. Indica odorata_. THE popular fallacy which universally prevailed forty to fifty years ago with regard to the extreme delicacy of Tea roses, has happily been exploded by the experience of later years. It was then supposed that no Tea rose could possibly stand the English winter if planted out of doors. And so firmly was this belief fixed in the minds of all amateurs, that if they were so reckless (in their own eyes) as to plant a Tea rose anywhere except in a greenhouse, the careful treatment they bestowed on the unfortunate specimen went far to prove the rule. For not only was it pruned in the autumn: but so coddled and smothered up in straw and matting that it could not breathe; and as every bud was made doubly tender by this means, when at last it saw the light again it was pretty sure to die of absolute anæmia. The older gardeners of the fifties would look in amaze on our glorious beds of Tea roses, flowering in some cases up to Christmas, and beginning again as happily as ever the next June. While to us of the present day, a rose garden without Tea roses would be no garden at all. It is not that the modern Tea rose is hardier than its ancestors; for some of the old ones, such as _Souvenir d'un Ami_, grow as cheerfully in the garden as a Hybrid Perpetual. But experience has shown that Tea roses, with a very few exceptions, may be safely grown in the open ground, if a few simple precautions are observed in their treatment. The first of these is, of course, that no pruning should be done till April. The second, that a few fronds of bracken should be drawn through the branches. This in most cases will be found quite sufficient to ward off frost. But as an extra precaution in the event of very severe weather, the earth may be drawn up some four or five inches round the stems, so that if by chance a hard frost should cut the upper part of the shoots, the base may still be kept alive. Great care, however, must be exercised in uncovering the plants, the protecting material being removed gradually, so that growth may not be unduly forced on--only to be cut by the first cold wind--or, on the other hand, that the plant may not receive a shock by sudden and complete exposure. Standard Tea roses may be protected by straw tied lightly round the heads, care being taken not to break the shoots by tying them in too tightly. The history of the Tea rose in Europe began just 100 years ago. The original "Blush tea-scented rose," _R. Indica odorata_, was brought from China in 1810. In 1824, the "Yellow China or Tea rose" was introduced from China by Mr. Parkes. And the French growers at once began to raise seedlings from these fruitful parents; for both in France and Italy the Yellow Tea rose seeded freely, which was not the case in England. By about 1830 the reputation of the Tea rose was firmly established; and in the next twenty years many varieties were raised: but mainly in France, though the finest of all, _Devoniensis_, was raised by Mr. Foster of Plymouth in 1838. The real culture of the Tea rose by English growers, however, did not assume much importance until a far later period. Some few of these early Tea roses still hold their own among the host of their brilliant successors--_Bougère_, 1832; _Adam_, 1833; _Le Pactole_--now extremely difficult to procure; _Devoniensis_, 1838; _Safrano_, 1839; _Mme. Willermoz_, 1843; _Niphetos_, 1844; _Souv. d'un Ami_, 1846; _Mme. Bravy_, 1846. But of some dozen or more others in Mr. Rivers' list of 1843, not a trace remains. In 1853 a great development took place, when Jacotot introduced an absolutely new type into the race with his _Gloire de Dijon_. This rose is so distinct, with its strong constitution, vigorous growth, and large foliage, that one cannot but imagine some other strain, such as the Noisette, must have helped in fertilizing the seed parent of _Gloire de Dijon_. Since that notable date, the raising of new Tea roses in England, France and Luxembourg, has developed in an extraordinary manner. And in the last few years Germany and America have added many fine novelties to the bewildering list. Among the chief growers in England who have devoted themselves in the last fifty years to the production of Tea roses, we find Messrs. Wm. Paul & Son, of Waltham Cross; Ben Cant, of Colchester; Paul, of Cheshunt; Prince, of Oxford; Frank Cant, of Colchester; Alex. Dickson, of Newtownards; Piper, Bennett, etc. In France, Luxembourg and Germany, the famous houses of Pernet-Ducher, Nabonnand, Bernaix, Bonnaire, Cochet, Chatenay, Guillot, Verdier, Levet, Chauvry, Dubreuil, Godard, Mari, Lacharme, Lévêque, Soupert et Notting, Lambert, Schwartz, etc., are now household words among rose lovers. The influence of the old Yellow Tea is to be found among a large proportion of these lovely roses, in the golden and sulphur base which adds such richness to the endless shades of pink, crimson, copper and white. But a pure yellow Tea rose is still a rarity. And its production is the goal towards which many of the greatest rose-growers are still working. What we all desire is a Tea rose for bedding of as pure a yellow as the dear old _Persian Briar_, or _Maréchal Niel_, and one that will stand, as that glorious rose does, the hot rays of the sun without changing colour. For, charming as many of the so-called Yellow Tea roses are when they are in bud, the open flower quickly turns white in the sun. To this object, as I have said, some of the greatest rose-growers have been devoting their energies for years; while others are striving as eagerly and with far greater success, after the development of deep crimson and scarlet Tea roses. And though they may not yet have attained the absolute perfection they were seeking, both sets of experiments have resulted of late in some truly magnificent roses, of various rich shades undreamt of even twenty years ago. In the following lists the roses will be found grouped in colour, as this may be useful to amateurs who are unacquainted with some of the names. Many of those mentioned, while they are not included in the National Rose Society's list, are still well worthy of cultivation in our gardens; and others, hardly known in England as yet, have proved most valuable in my own Hampshire collection and perfectly hardy. Among roses that are little known in English gardens are _Baronne de Hoffmann_, a vigorous grower, vivid copper-red, with yellow base; and the invaluable _M. Tillier_, which I first saw in the Paris Exhibition of 1900. I have grown it largely since, and every one is attracted by the bushes, set thickly with medium-sized imbricated flowers of carmine and brick-red, borne on upright stems in such numbers that they make a brilliant mark in the garden from a distance. It is perfectly hardy, and I have gathered good blooms at Christmas. _Amabilis_ is a useful china pink rose for decorative purposes, either in the garden or to cut for the house; it is strong and hardy. So is _Marquise de Querhoent_, a strong grower, of vivid coppery salmon and china red. Ducher's _Coquette de Lyon_ is another admirable bedding rose, which is not much grown in England. The flowers which cover the plant are full, well-shaped, of medium size, a pale canary yellow, and last long in water. I would also call attention to other roses which, though well known to collectors and exhibitors, might be more generally cultivated by the ordinary amateur. These are the delightful _G. Nabonnand_, _Duchesse Marie Salviati_, _Mrs. B. R. Cant_--an admirable rose--_Madame Constant Soupert_, a new and most brilliant variety; _Souvenir de Pierre Notting_--best on a standard, but excellent in every way; _General Schablikine_, absolutely invaluable, as it is covered with bloom from June to November; _Innocent Pirola_, one of the best creamy whites; _Peace_, a newer and very beautiful rose, pale lemon, carrying its fine flowers singly on strong erect stalks; and the older _Souv. de S. A. Prince_, a pure white sport from _Souv. d'un Ami_. The climbing Tea roses will be found in another chapter. PINK, ROSE, SALMON, PEACH. Archiduchesse Marie Immaculata. _Soupert et Notting_, 1887. Brick red. Adam. _Adam_, 1833. Rose, shaded salmon. Baronne H. de Loew. _Nabonnand_, 1889. Tender rose, yellow centre. Boadicea. _W. Paul & Son_, 1901. Pale peach, tinted rose. Bridesmaid. _May_, 1893. Clear pink. Catherine Mermet. _J. B. Guillot fils_, 1869. Light rosy flesh. Cecile-Charles. _Schwartz_, 1907. Pale rosy salmon, edged carmine, fragrant. Comtesse de Breteuil. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1893. Salmon rose, peach centre. Comtesse de Nadaillac. _Guillot_, 1871. Peach, shaded apricot, salmon base; an exhibitor's rose. Dr. Grill. _Bonnaire_, 1886. Clear rose, centre salmon. Duchesse Maria Salviati. _Soupert et Notting_, 1890. Rosy flesh, shaded chrome, fragrant. Ernest Metz. _Guillot_, 1889. Soft carmine-rose, reverse of petals deeper. Ethel Brownlow. _Alex. Dickson_, 1887. Bright salmon-pink, yellow base. Franciska Kruger. _Nabonnand_, 1879. Copper, shaded peach. G. Nabonnand. _Nabonnand_, 1889. Pale flesh, shaded yellow. Homère. _Robert_, 1859. Rose-edged, salmon centre. Jean Ducher. _Ducher_, 1874. Salmon yellow, shaded peach. Lena. _Alex. Dickson_, 1906. Glowing apricot. Madame Antoine Mari. _Mari_, 1902. Rose, washed with white. Madame Cusin. _Guillot_, 1881. Rose, lighter centre. Madame Georges Durrschmidt. _Peletier_, 1895. China rose, cerise centre, fragrant. Madame Lambard. _Lacharme_, 1877. Bright rose. Madame Jules Gravereaux. _Soupert et Notting_, 1901. Chamois yellow, rosy peach centre. Madame Philémon Cochet. Clear rose, shaded salmon. Maman Cochet. _Cochet_, 1893. Carmine, shaded salmon-yellow. Mathilde Liégeard. _Nabonnand_, 1907. Pearly rose, touched carmine. Mrs. B. R. Cant. _B. R. Cant_, 1901. Deep rose outer petals, inner petals silvery rose. Mrs. Edward Mawley. _Alex. Dickson_, 1899. Bright carmine, shaded salmon. Morning Glow. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1902. Rosy crimson, suffused orange and fawn. Nellie Johnstone. _Paul & Son_, 1906. Pure rose pink. Paul Nabonnand. _Nabonnand_, 1878. Hydrangea pink. Rainbow. _Sievers_, 1891. Sport from Papa Gontier, pink, striped crimson. Rose d'Evian. _Bernaix_, 1895. China rose outside, lined carmine. Souvenir d'un Ami. _Defougère_, 1846. Salmon-rose. Souvenir de Paul Neyron. _Levet_, 1872. Salmon, edged rose. Souvenir de William Robinson. _Bernaix_, 1900. Fawn, shaded pink and yellow. Sunrise. _Piper_, 1899. Outer petals carmine, shading to pale fawn and salmon within. YELLOW, BUFF, AND APRICOT. Alexandra. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1901. Copper yellow, streaked with orange. Anna Olivier. _Ducher_, 1872. Buff, flushed pink. Antoine Devert. _Gonod_, 1881. Clear straw colour. Belle Lyonnaise. _Levet_, 1869. Deep lemon, climbing. Billiard et Barré. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1899. Deep golden yellow. Blumenschmidt, _J. C. Schmidt_, 1907. Bright lemon yellow, edged pink. Comtesse Alexandra Kinsky. _Soupert et Notting_, 1905. White, centre apricot yellow. Comtesse de Frigneuse. _Guillot_, 1886. Fine canary yellow. Georges Schwartz. _Schwartz_, 1900. Deep canary yellow. Goldquelle. _Lambert_, 1899. Clear golden yellow. Harry Kirk. _Alex. Dickson_, 1907. Deep sulphur yellow. Hugo Roller. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1907. Lemon yellow, edged crimson. J. F. Giraud. _Ketter_, 1907. Golden yellow, centre saffron. Jean Pernet. _Pernet_, 1869. Clear yellow. Lady Mary Corry. _Alex. Dickson_, 1900. Deep golden yellow. Lena. _Alex. Dickson_, 1906. Glowing apricot, edged primrose. Madame Barthélemy Levet. _Levet père_, 1880. Canary yellow, climbing. Madame Chauvry. _Bonnaire_, 1887. Nankeen yellow. Madame Chedanne Guinoisseau. _Levêque_, 1880. Clear bright yellow. Madame C. P. Strassheim. _Soupert et Notting_, 1898. Yellowish-white in summer, turning sulphur and buff in autumn. Madame Constant Soupert. _Soupert et Notting_, 1906. Dark golden-yellow, strongly-tinted peach-pink. Madame Edmond Sablayrolles. _Bonnaire_, 1907. Clear yellow, orange centre. Madame Falcot. _Guillot_, 1858. Deep apricot yellow. Madame Pol Varin-Bernier. _Soupert et Notting_, 1907. Melon-yellow shaded; a "yellow Richmond." Mrs. Dudley Cross. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1907. Pale chamois yellow, with touches of rose and crimson in autumn. Perle de Lyon. _Ducher_, 1873. Deep yellow. Perle des Jardins. _Levet_, 1874. Deep straw-colour. Perle des Jaunes. _Reymond_, 1904. Deep orange yellow, tinted salmon. Rose Gubert. _Nabonnand_, 1907. Tender bright yellow, deep centre. Safrano. _Beauregard_, 1839. Bright apricot. Souvenir de Pierre Notting. _Soupert et Notting_, 1903. Apricot-yellow, blended copper-yellow. Souvenir de Stella Gray. _Alex. Dickson_, 1907. Deep orange, veined yellow, apricot, and crimson. Sulphurea. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1902. Sulphur yellow. Sunset. _Henderson_, 1884. Deep apricot. CRIMSON AND COPPER-RED. Albert Durand. _Schwartz_, 1906. Coppery carmine, shaded flesh. Amabilis. China red. Bardou Job. _Nabonnand_, 1887. Glowing crimson. Baronne de Hoffmann, _Nabonnand_, 1887. Copper and crimson. Baronne Henriette Snoy. _Bernaix_, 1898. Petals carnation inside, outside carmine pink. Beauté Inconstante. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1893. Coppery-red, shaded carmine and yellow. Betty Berkeley. _Bernaix_, 1904. Bright red, shading to crimson. Christine de Nouë. _Guillot fils_, 1891. Deep purple red, shaded pink. Corallina. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1900. Deep rose. Empress Alexandra of Russia. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1898. Lake, shaded orange and crimson. François Dubreuil. _Dubreuil_, 1895. Deep crimson. Frau Dr. Thelka Schlegelmilch. _Welter_, 1902. Bright red, shaded velvet crimson. Freiherr von Marschall. _Lambert_, 1903. Dark carmine. General Schablikine. _Nabonnand_, 1879. Coppery-red. Lady Roberts. _Frank Cant_, 1902. Rich apricot, copper-red base. L'Idéal. _Nabonnand_, 1887. Yellow and metallic red. Ma Capucine. _Levet_, 1871. Bronzy yellow, shaded red. Monsieur Désir. _Pernet père_, 1889. Crimson. Monsieur Tillier. _Bernaix_, 1892. Carmine and brick-red. Mrs. Reynolds Hole. _Nabonnand_, 1900. Dark purple pink, centre crimson. Papa Gontier. _Nabonnand_, 1883. Rosy crimson. Princesse de Sagan. _Dubreuil_, 1887. Deep cherry red, shaded maroon. Salmonea. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1902. Bright crimson with light salmon centre. Souvenir de Catherine Guillot. _Guillot_, 1896. Coppery carmine, and orange. Souvenir J. B. Guillot. _Guillot_, 1897. Nasturtium-red, shaded to crimson and rose. Souvenir Thérèse Levet. _Levet_, 1882. Brownish crimson. WHITE AND PALE LEMON. Caroline Kuster. _Pernet_, 1872. Pale yellow. Château des Bergeries. _Lédechaux_, 1886. Very pale canary yellow, centre darker. Comtesse Eva de Starhemberg. _Soupert et Notting_, 1891. Cream, centre ochre. Comtesse de Saxe. _Soupert et Notting_, 1905. Porcelain white. Coquette de Lyon. _Pernet Ducher_, 1872. Pale canary yellow. Devoniensis. _Foster_, 1838. White, touched lemon. Tender. Enchantress. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1896. Creamy white. Étoile de Lyon. _Guillot_, 1881. Deep lemon. Grand Duchess Olga. _Lévêque_, 1897. Creamy white. Golden Gate. _Dingee & Conard_, 1892. Creamy white, yellow base. Hon. Edith Gifford. _Guillot_, 1882. White, centre flesh. Innocent Pirola. _Ducher_, 1878. Creamy white, shaded yellow. Isabella Sprunt. _Verchaffelt_, 1866. Pale sulphur. Ivory. _America Rose Co._, 1902. Ivory-white sport from Golden Gate. Le Pactole. Sulphur yellow, pointed buds. Madame Bravy. _Guillot_, 1846. White, centre tinted pink. Madame Carnot. _Pernet_, 1894. Yellowish white on deep yellow ground. Madame Hoste. _Guillot_, 1887. Primrose yellow. Madame de Watteville. _Guillot_, 1883. Salmon white, petals edged bright rose. Marie Van Houtte. _Ducher_, 1871. Canary yellow, petals tipped rose. Marquis de Moustier. _Dubreuil_, 1906. Ivory, reflexed pearly white. Medea. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1891. Lemon yellow, canary centre. Mrs. Miles Kennedy. _Alex. Dickson_, 1906. Silvery white, shaded buff, pink centre. Muriel Grahame. _Alex. Dickson_, 1898. Pale cream, flushed rose. Niphetos. _Bougère_, 1844. Pure white. Peace. _Piper_, 1902. Pale lemon. [Illustration: TEA. WHITE MAMAN COCHET.] Reine Natalie de Serbie. _Soupert et Notting_, 1886. Creamy flesh. Rubens. _Robert_, 1859. White, delicately tinted rose. Souvenir d'Élise Vardon. _Marest_, 1854. Creamy white. Souvenir de Gabrielle Drevet. _Guillot_, 1865. Salmon white. Souvenir de S. A. Prince. _Prince_, 1889. Pure white sport from Souv. d'un Ami. The Bride. _May_, 1885. White sport from Catherine Mermet. White Maman Cochet. _Cook_, 1898. White sport from Maman Cochet. CHAPTER VII HYBRID TEA-ROSES, _R. indica odorata hybrida_ OF all gracious gifts that the patient science of hybridists has bestowed on rose-lovers, the development of the Hybrid Tea is perhaps the greatest. For here we have a rose with the substance and vigorous constitution of the Hybrid Perpetual, one of its parents, and the varied and delicate colours of its other parent, the Tea rose. Whether for the garden, to keep it brilliant with blossom from early summer to latest autumn, or to deck the exhibition bench with largest and most lovely blooms, the Hybrid Tea stands unrivalled. And yet in 1867 there was but one solitary specimen of the race in existence, and that one was not recognized as being the forerunner of a new family, or distinct in any way, except in its beauty. For the noble rose _La France_, which M. Guillot sent out in that year, was classed then, and for many years after, as a Hybrid Perpetual. It was not until 1873 that Messrs. Paul & Son, of Cheshunt, sent out the first so-called Hybrid Tea, the _Cheshunt Hybrid_. Though in the same year Lacharme introduced that priceless rose _Captain Christy_: but this, like _La France_, was for many years classed with the Hybrid Perpetuals. [Illustration: HYBRID TEA. BARDOU JOB.] Other new roses of this new race followed slowly--very slowly--till 1890. I have just gone carefully through the catalogues of the chief English and foreign rose-growers; and find that in 1889 only twenty-four Hybrid Teas were known. There were some truly admirable roses among them. _Camoëns_ came in 1881. _Lady Mary Fitzwilliam_, one of the most valuable, 1882. Delightful _Papa Gontier_, 1883. _Grace Darling_ and _Gloire Lyonnaise_, 1884--the latter a rose which is not as generally cultivated as it should be; for grown as a bush it is the perfection of an autumn rose. _Viscountess Folkestone_, 1886. _Bardou Job_, 1887--a slightly capricious rose in some places: but so beautiful with its great semi-double flowers of scarlet-crimson flaked with velvety-black, that one bears with its little ways patiently, rejoicing when it condescends to respond to one's care. In 1888 came Bennett's _The Meteor_. In 1889 _Augustine Guinoisseau_, invaluable for massing. And either that year or the next, the gorgeous and thorny _Marquise de Salisbury_. But the real development of the race began in 1890. And since then each year has seen one superb rose after another produced in such numbers, that it is as difficult to keep count of them as to determine which of the magnificent novelties should be picked out for special mention. It must be noted that there has been rather too great a tendency to raise enormous roses of slightly pale colouring, and among them many are merely fit for exhibition and of little use to the amateur for garden purposes. But of late these faint shades have been successfully fought against; and while size has been preserved the colours are growing deeper and richer each year. So that we are surely drawing nearer the not impossible day when we may get Hybrid Tea roses as brilliant a red or yellow as _Duke of Edinburgh_ or _Maréchal Niel_, as large as _Frau Karl Druschki_, and as fragrant, let us hope, as _La France_. As it is, it is difficult to imagine anything much more vivid than the orange, deep salmon-pink, copper-red, and rosy-apricot of some of the novelties of 1906-7-8. Among them may be noted Messrs. Alex. Dickson & Son's _Dorothy Page-Roberts_, _Souvenir de Stella Gray_; Messrs. Wm. Paul's _Warrior_; MM. Soupert et Notting's magnificent _Mme. Segond Weber_, _Mme. J. W. Budde_, _Marichu Zayas_; M. Pernet-Ducher's _Mme. Maurice de Luze_, and _Mrs. Aaron Ward_. These roses, as I have said, are the result of crossings between the Hybrid Perpetual and the Tea rose. And if we think for a moment how these two families came into existence, we shall see what a curious and interesting blending of many different strains has been needed to develop this beautiful and valuable race. But the end has not come yet to what may be accomplished. And there can be no doubt that many remarkable developments in the history of rose-growing still lie before us and succeeding generations, when the results of fresh experiments with the Wichuraiana, the Rugosa, and other roses are made known. [Illustration: SINGLE HYBRID TEA. IRISH ELEGANCE.] [Illustration: SINGLE HYBRID TEA. IRISH GLORY.] One most interesting and valuable development of the race has already been made, and must not be passed over in silence. I mean the single Irish roses of Messrs. Alex. Dickson & Sons, which form a little class to themselves. These roses are most attractive, as they are densely covered through the whole season with flowers of varied and vivid colours, pure white, coral pink, brilliant crimson, bronzy-scarlet, old-gold and rose, saffron and rose. And when we add to these beautiful shades their fragrance, their handsome glossy foliage, their bushy growth, and their vigorous hardy constitution, it is not surprising that since their first appearance in 1900 they have rushed into favour, and received many cards of commendation from the N. R. S. With such a wealth of fine varieties to choose from, it is a little difficult to make a selection of the very best. But the surest guide is the judges' verdict at recent shows for exhibition roses and those of the decorative class, as shown in the admirable analysis drawn up by Mr. Edward Mawley, the distinguished honorary secretary of the National Rose Society. To this analysis I have added a few of my own favourites, and some of the very newest roses which have hardly yet found their place in English shows. [Illustration: HYBRID TEA. CAROLINE TESTOUT.] PINK AND ROSE HYBRID TEAS.--I rejoice to see that my own selection almost heads the list--the beautiful _Caroline Testout_; for this is a rose suited to every purpose, whether for exhibition, massing in the garden, or growing as a noble standard. _Mrs. W. J. Grant_ (_syn._ Belle Siebrecht) stands next; followed by _La France_, _Lady Ashtown_, _Killarney_--but let this be grown quite by itself, as it is one of the worst roses for mildew--_Gustave Grünerwald_, a rose I have not yet grown, but one of the most satisfactory; _Countess of Caledon_, _Mrs. Theodore Roosevelt_, _Gladys Harkness_, _William Shean_, _Mme. Abel Chatenay_, _Mme. Jules Grolez_, one of the most useful of rose colour, _Papa Lambert_, _Robert Scott_. Others of the newest pink roses are _Celia_, _Gabrielle Pierrette_, _Hon. Ina Bingham_, _H. Armytage Moore_, _Maria Girard_. Among crimsons the best are the well known and beautiful _Liberty_, _Marquise de Salisbury_, _Hugh Dickson_, _J. B. Clark_, _Richmond_, _C. J. Grahame_, _Reine Olga de Wurtemburg_, _Étoile de France_, _Lady Rossmore_, _Triumph_, _Gruss an Teplitz_, _Morgenrot_, _Bardou Job_, _The Dandy_, _Warrior_, and two grand novelties, the American rose _General Mac Arthur_, and _John Laing Paul_, little known as yet, but certain to be widely grown, as is _Écarlate_, said to be an even better rose than _Liberty_ and _Richmond_. [Illustration: HYBRID TEA. MADAME RAVARY.] In those remarkable shades of apricot, salmon, coppery-pink and carmine, upon a yellow or orange base, the choice is very considerable. And although it is as yet almost unknown in England, having only been sent out this spring (1908), I venture to predict a leading position in the near future for MM. Soupert et Notting's grand salmon-pink novelty, _Mme. Segond Weber_, which, for shape, size, colour and delicious fragrance is perhaps the finest rose I know. _Betty_ is one of those vivid modern roses whose colour, coppery-rose shaded gold, is as hard to describe as it is beautiful. While _Dorothy Page-Roberts_, _Souv. de Stella Gray_, _Marquise de Sinéty_, _Mme. Maurice de Luze_, _Edu Meyer_, _Countess Annesley_, _Mrs. Harvey Thomas_, and _Souv. de Maria Zozaya_, are all remarkable for their strong and brilliant colouring. Among the yellow shades from palest lemon to deep orange, the choice is not so great; but there are many good roses to choose from, beginning with the two novelties, of 1907--Pernet-Ducher's great Indian yellow rose, _Mrs. Aaron Ward_, which promises well, and Alex. Dickson & Son's brilliant yellow _Harry Kirk_. Of older roses few are better than the noble _Madame Ravary_, _Ferdinand Batel_, the delightful _Gustave Regis_, _Gloire Lyonnaise_, _Duchess of Portland_, and _Kaiserin Augusta Victoria_. _Mrs. Peter Blair_, 1906, is one of the most effective yellows for the garden; and I cannot speak too highly of that little known but very beautiful rose _Peace_, raised by Piper in 1903, its pale lemon yellow flowers borne on long upright stalks are invaluable for cutting throughout the whole season. White and blush hybrid Teas are many. And the famous _Bessie Brown_, _Alice Grahame_, _Mildred Grant_, _Florence Pemberton_, _Alice Lindsell_ and _White Lady_ are to be seen at every show: but they are all exhibition roses except _Florence Pemberton_. _Augustine Guinoisseau_, however, is as good a white garden rose as heart can desire; so is _Lady Quartus Ewart_; and as _Kaiserin Augusta Victoria_ and _Peace_ are so faintly lemon as to be nearly white, there is no difficulty in making a bed of white Hybrid Teas. HYBRID TEA ROSES PINK AND ROSE. Aimée Cochet. _Soupert et Notting_, 1902. Flesh, with rosy peach centre. Angel Peluffo. _Soupert et Notting_, 1905. Interior of petals rosy flesh, centre rose. Baronin Armgard von Biel. _Welter_, 1906. Satin pink; a brighter La France. Belle Siebrecht. (See Mrs. W. J. Grant.) Camoëns. _Schwartz_, 1882. Bright rich China rose. Captain Christy. _Lacharme_, 1873. Flesh colour, deeper pink centre. Caroline Testout. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1890. Bright clear rose. Celia. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1906. Bright satin pink, darker centre. Countess of Caledon. _Alex. Dickson_, 1897. Carmine rose. Denmark. _Ziener Lassen_, 1890. Colour of La France. David Harum. _E. G. Hill & Co._, 1904. Rose peach pink. Daisy. _Alex. Dickson_, 1898. Rosy pink, suffused silvery pink. Duchess of Albany. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1888. Fine deep pink. England's Glory. _J. Wood & Son_, 1902. Flesh, satin pink centre. Farbenkönigen. _Hinner_, 1901. Imperial pink. Frau Peter Lambert. _Walter_, 1902. Rose, marbled pink. Gladys Harkness. _Alex. Dickson_, 1900. Deep salmon pink, silvery reverse. Gustave Grünerwald. _P. Lambert_, 1903. Carmine pink. H. Armytage Moore. _Hugh Dickson_, 1907. Petals rosy pink outside, silvery inside. Hélène Welter. _Guillot_, 1903. Brilliant rose. Hon. Ina Bingham. _Alex. Dickson_, 1905. Pure pink. Johanna Sebus. _Dr. Müller_, 1900. Rosy cerise. John Ruskin. _Alex. Dickson_, 1902. Rosy carmine. Killarney. _Alex. Dickson_, 1898. Flesh, suffused shell pink. Königin Carola. _Turke_, 1904. Rose pink. Lady Ashtown. _Alex. Dickson_, 1904. Deep pink. Lady Moyra Beauclerk. _Alex. Dickson_, 1901. Madder rose, with silvery reflexes. Lady Mary Fitzwilliam. _Bennett_, 1882. Rosy flesh. Lady Helen Vincent. _Alex. Dickson_, 1907. Shell pink, base peach yellow. Lady Wenlock. _Bernaix_, 1905. Pink, shaded fawn. La France. _Guillot_, 1867. Bright rose pink. La Tosca. _Vve. Schwartz_, 1901. Silvery pink, deeper centre. Laure Watinne. _Soupert et Notting_, 1902. Bright rose. Lina Schmidt-Michel. _Lambert_, 1905. Madder pink, reverse of petals carmine. Lohengrin. _Schmidt_, 1903. Silvery pink, deeper centre. Mme. Abel Chatenay. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1895. Carmine rose, shaded salmon. Mme. Edmée Metz. _Soupert et Notting_, 1901. Rosy carmine, shaded salmon. Mme. Jules Grolez. _Guillot_, 1897. Beautiful China rose. Mme. Eugéne Jombart. _Schwartz_, 1905. Pale pink, centre carmine. Mme. Leonie Moissy. _Vilin_, 1907. Pale rosy salmon, deeper centre. Marichu Zayas. _Soupert et Notting_, 1907. Strawberry and cream, shaded rose. Maimie. _Alex. Dickson_, 1901. Rose carmine, yellow base. Marianne Pfitzer. _Jacobs_, 1903. Rosy flesh, tinted red. Max Hesdorffer. _Jacobs_, 1903. Deep rose, bordered silvery rose. Monsieur Paul Lédé. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1903. Cinnamon pink, passing lighter. Mrs. E. G. Hill. _Soupert et Notting_, 1906. Coral red, white centre. Mrs. G. W. Kershaw. _Alex. Dickson_, 1906. Deep rose pink. Mrs. W. J. Grant (_syn._ Belle Siebrecht). _Alex. Dickson_, 1895. Imperial pink. Nance Christy. _B. R. Cant_, 1906. Delicate salmon pink, semi-double. Olympiada. _Soupert et Notting_, 1904. Satiny rose. Papa Lambert. _P. Lambert_, 1899. Rose pink, deeper centre. Princesse Charles de Ligne. _Soupert et Notting_, 1903. Silvery pink, carmine centre. Reine Carola de Saxe. _Gamon_, 1903. Flesh pink. Robert Scott. _Robert Scott & Son_, 1901. Clear rosy pink, shading to flesh on outer petals. Rosel Klemm. _Hinner_, 1905. Rose, with silvery reflex. Shandon. _Alex. Dickson_, 1899. Bright rose. Sheila. _Alex. Dickson_, 1895. Bright rose. Souvenir de Maria de Zayas. _Soupert et Notting_, 1906. Vivid carmine, with deeper shading. Souvenir de Maria Zozaya. _Soupert et Notting_, 1904. Petals coral red outside, silvery rose inside. William Askew. _Guillot_, 1902. Bright pink, shaded delicate pink. William Notting. _Soupert et Notting_, 1904. Salmon pink, reverse of petals coral. William Shean. _Alex. Dickson_, 1906. Pure pink, veined ochre; a grand rose. SALMON AND COPPER PINK. Antoine Rivoire. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1896. Rosy flesh on yellow ground. Betty. _Alex. Dickson & Sons_, 1905. Coppery rose, shaded yellow. Countess Annesley. _Alex. Dickson_, 1905. Rosy salmon, suffused old gold. Dean Hole. _Alex. Dickson_, 1904. Silvery carmine, shaded salmon. Dr. J. Campbell Hall. _Alex. Dickson_, 1904. Coral rose, suffused white. Dorothy Page-Roberts. _Alex. Dickson_, 1907. Coppery pink. Earl of Warwick. _Paul & Son_, 1904. Salmon pink, shaded vermilion. Edu Meyer. _Lambert_, 1904. Copper red and yellow, with orange shading. Elizabeth Barnes. _Alex. Dickson_, 1907. Salmon rose, fawn centre, outside of petals deep rose. Frau Burgermeister Kirchstein. _Jacob_, 1907. Carmine, shaded salmon. Frau Ernst Borsig. _P. Lambert_, 1907. Rosy yellowish carmine. Frau Otto Evertz. _N. Welter_, 1907. Salmon pink and yellow. Friedrich Schröder. _Hinner_, 1904. Rose, suffused yellow. Herman Rane. _Lambert_, 1905. Varying from salmon rose to yellowish red. Herzog Friedrich von Anhalt. _Welter_, 1907. Salmon carmine, centre copper red. Jeanne Bariaz. _Pierre Guillot_, 1907. Pale salmon, centre vivid salmon on yellow. Joseph Hill. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1904. Pink, shaded salmon copper. Kathleen. _Alex. Dickson_, 1895. Coral-pink suffused rose, yellow base. Mme. Cadeau-Ramey. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1897. Rosy flesh, shaded yellow, carmine edges. Mme. Eugène Boullet. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1898. Yellow, shaded carmine. Mme. Léon Pain. _Guillot_, 1904. Silvery salmon, centre orange, petals outside salmon pink. Mme. Mélanie Soupert. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1906. Salmon yellow, suffused carmine. Mme. Paul Olivier. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1903. Deep salmon yellow, shaded rosy carmine. Mme. Segond Weber. _Soupert et Notting_, 1908. Rich salmon pink, very fine and distinct. Marguerite Poiret. _Soupert et Notting_, 1902. Bright china rose, yellow reflexes. Marquise de Sinéty. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1906. Orange yellow, shaded fiery red. Monsieur Joseph Hill. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1903. Salmon pink, shaded yellow. Mrs. Harvey Thomas. _Bernaix_, 1906. Carmine, shaded copper red and yellow. Mrs. John Bateman. _Alex. Dickson_, 1905. Deep china rose, yellow base. Peggy. _Alex. Dickson_, 1905. Claret, smeared saffron yellow and primrose, semi-double. Pierre Wattinne. _Soupert et Notting_, 1902. Cerise, shaded yellow and salmon. Pribislav. _O. Jacobs_, 1902. Orange carmine, pencilled scarlet. Prince de Bulgarie. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1902. Deep rosy flesh, shaded salmon. Professor Fritz Rober. _Welter_, 1906. Salmon, shaded yellow and rose. Renée Wilmart-Urban. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1907. Salmon flesh, bordered carmine. Rosalind Orr-English. _E. G. Hill & Co._, 1905. Bright salmon pink. Senateur Belle. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1903. Salmon pink, yellow centre. Senateur Saint Romme. _Schwartz_, 1905. Rosy salmon, shaded yellow. CRIMSON AND CARMINE. Avoca. _Alex. Dickson_, 1907. Crimson scarlet. Anne Marie Soupert. _Soupert et Notting_, 1904. Reddish carmine. Baldwin. _Lambert_, 1898. Pure carmine. Baron Lade. _Welter_, 1904. Bright carmine. Charles. J. Grahame. _Alex. Dickson_, 1905. Very bright scarlet crimson. Cherry Ripe. _Paul & Son_, 1905. Light cherry crimson. Comtesse Icy Hardegg. _Soupert et Notting_, 1908. Deep red. Crimson Crown. _Alex. Dickson_, 1905. Glowing dark crimson, flowers in clusters. Écarlate. _Boytard_, 1907. Scarlet crimson, brighter than Liberty. Étoile de France. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1905. Velvety crimson, centre cerise. Exquisite. _Paul & Son_, 1899. Bright crimson, shaded magenta. General MacArthur. _Hill_, 1905. Bright crimson. George Laing Paul. _Soupert et Notting_, 1904. Reddish crimson. Grossherzog von Oldenburg. _Welter_, 1904. Dark poppy, red. Gruss an Sangerhausen. _Dr. Müller_, 1905. Brilliant scarlet, centre crimson. Herzogin Victoria Adelheid. _Welter_, 1906. Clear brilliant red. J. B. Clark. _Hugh Dickson_, 1905. Deep scarlet, heavily shaded black crimson. Lady Battersea. _Paul & Son_, 1901. Fine cherry crimson. Lady Rossmore. _Dr. Campbell Hall_, 1906. Reddish crimson, claret shading. Liberty. _Alex. Dickson_, 1900. Brilliant velvety crimson. Ma Tulipe. _Bonnaire_, 1900. Deep crimson. Mme. J. W. Budde. _Soupert et Notting_, 1907. Brilliant carmine. Marquise de Salisbury. _Pernet père_, 1889. Bright velvety red. Marquise Litta. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1894. Carmine rose, vermilion centre. Mrs. A. M. Kirker. _Hugh Dickson_, 1906. Bright cerise. Reine Marguerite d'Italie. _Soupert et Notting_, 1905. Shining carmine, centre vermilion. Rev. David R. Williamson. _Alex. Dickson_, 1904. Dark crimson, shaded maroon. Richmond. _Hill & Co._, 1905. Pure red scarlet. Rosomane E. P. Roussel. _Guillot_, 1907. Brilliant crimson. Sarah Bernhardt. _Dubreuil_, 1907. Scarlet crimson. Stadtrat F. Kahler. _Geduldig_, 1907. Brilliant fiery red. The Dandy. _Paul & Son_, 1905. Glowing maroon crimson, miniature flowers. Triumph. _J. G. Hill & Co._, 1907. Deep carmine and crimson. Warrior. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1906. Buds blood red, opening vivid scarlet crimson. [Illustration: HYBRID TEA. MARQUISE LITTA.] YELLOW. Amateur Teyssier. _Gamon_, 1900. Dark saffron yellow, changing to white. Auguste van der Heede. _Welter_, 1901. Saffron yellow. Duchess of Portland. _Alex. Dickson_, 1901. Pale sulphur yellow, with an occasional tinge of Eau de Nil. Ferdinand Batel. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1897. Varying from pale rosy flesh on yellow nankeen, to yellow nankeen orange. Franz Deegen. _Hinner_, 1901. Pale yellow, centre golden yellow. [Illustration: HYBRID TEA. MADAME PERNET DUCHER.] Friedrich Harms. _Welter_, 1901. Pale yellow, with deep yellow centre. Gloire Lyonnaise. _Guillot_, 1884. Very pale lemon. Goldelse. _Hinner_, 1902. Pale yellow, with deeper yellow centre. Grossherzogin Alexandra. _Jacobs-Welter_, 1906. Clear golden yellow. Gustave Regis. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1891. Canary yellow, with orange centre. Gustave Sobry. _Welter_, 1902. Golden yellow, passing to clear yellow. Harry Kirk. _Alex. Dickson_, 1907. Deep sulphur yellow, lighter edges. Hofgarten-director Græbener. _P. Lambert_, 1900. Rosy yellow and coppery yellow. Instituteur Sirday. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1906. Deep golden yellow. Jakobs Perle. _Jakobs_, 1904. Canary yellow. Kaiserin Augusta Victoria. _Lambert & Reiter_, 1891. Beautiful primrose. Le Progrès. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1904. Nankeen yellow, lighter when fully expanded. Madame Jenny Guillemot. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1905. Deep saffron yellow. Madame Pernet-Ducher. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1892. Canary yellow. Madame Philippe Rivoire. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1905. Apricot yellow, with lighter centre. Madame Ravary. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1900. Beautiful orange yellow. Mrs. David M'Kee. _Alex. Dickson_, 1904. Creamy yellow. Mrs. Peter Blair. _Alex. Dickson_, 1906. Lemon chrome, with golden yellow centre. Peace. _Piper_, 1903. Pale lemon yellow. WHITE AND BLUSH. Admiral Dewey. _Dingee & Conard_, 1899. Light blush. Alice Grahame. _Alex. Dickson_, 1903. Ivory white, tinted salmon. Alice Lindsell. _Alex. Dickson_, 1902. Creamy white, with pink centre. Augustine Guinoisseau. _Guinoisseau_, 1889. White, slightly tinted with flesh. Bessie Brown. _Alex. Dickson_, 1899. Creamy white. Comte de Torres. _Schwartz_, 1906. Salmon white, with yellow salmon centre. Direcktor W. Cordes. _P. Lambert_, 1904. Creamy white, with yellowish centre. Edelstein. _Welter_, 1904. Pure white. Edmund Deshayes. _Bernaix_, 1902. Creamy white, with flesh centre. Ellen Willmot. _Bernaix_, 1899. Pale flesh white. Florence Pemberton. _Alex. Dickson_, 1903. Creamy white, suffused pink. Frau Lilla Rautenstrauch. _P. Lambert_, 1903. Silvery white, tinted rose. Gardenia. _Soupert et Notting_, 1899. White, suffused pale blush. Grace Darling. _Bennett_, 1884. Creamy white, shaded peach. Hélène Guillot. _J. B. Guillot_, 1902. Pure white to salmon white, tinted carmine. Irene. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1904. Silvery white, sometimes faintly touched with pink. Lady Clanmorris. _Alex. Dickson_, 1900. Creamy white, delicate salmon centre. Lady Quartus Ewart. _Hugh Dickson_, 1904. Paper white. Ligne-Arenberg. _Soupert et Notting_, 1903. Creamy white, pink edge. L'Innocence. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1898. Pure white. Madame Joseph Combet. _J. Bonnaire_, 1894. Creamy white. Madame Maria Capalet. _Schwartz_, 1905. Rosy white, tinted salmon, centre rosy yellowish salmon. Mdlle. Pauline Bersez. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1900. Creamy white, with yellow centre. Mdlle. Alice Furon. White, shaded lemon. Marjorie. _Alex. Dickson_, 1895. White, suffused with salmon pink. Marguerite Guillot. _P. Guillet_, 1903. Pure white. Marie Girard. _Buatois_, 1899. White, shaded salmon yellow. Marquise Jeanne de la Chataigneraye. _Soupert et Notting_, 1902. Silvery white, centre yellow. Mildred Grant. _Alex. Dickson_, 1901. Silvery white, edge of petals shaded and bordered with pink. Mrs. Conway Jones. _Alex. Dickson_, 1904. Creamy white, flushed salmon pink. Mrs. Theodore Roosevelt. _Hill & Co._, 1903. Creamy white, centre rose. Pharisäer. _W. Hinner_, 1903. Rosy white, shaded salmon. Pie X. _Soupert et Notting_, 1906. Creamy white, suffused pale rose. Robert Baessler. _Hinner_, 1904. White, edge of petals tinted rose. Rosomane Gravereux. _Soupert et Notting_, 1899. White, with tinge of pink. Souv. de Madame Eugénie Verdier. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1895. Electric white, shaded saffron yellow. White Lady. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1890. Creamy white. Yvonne Vacherot. _Soupert et Notting_, 1906. Porcelain white, suffused pink. IRISH SINGLE ROSES. Alex. Dickson & Sons. Irish Beauty, 1900. Pure white, bright golden anthers. Irish Brightness, 1903. Vivid crimson, shading to pink base. Irish Elegance, 1905.[4] Buds bronzy orange-scarlet, opening to apricot, a very beautiful rose. Irish Engineer, 1904. Bright scarlet, large flowers. Irish Glory, 1900. Petals silvery marbled pink, flamed outside with crimson. Irish Harmony, 1904. Variable, saffron-yellow veined claret. Irish Modesty, 1900. Coral pink, ecru base to petals. Irish Pride, 1903. Ecru, suffused old rose and gold. Irish Star, 1903. Rose du Barri, with lemon star centre. FOOTNOTE: [4] See Illustration. CHAPTER VIII HYBRID PERPETUALS MR. THOMAS RIVERS, that father of scientific rose culture in England, gives a most interesting account in his famous book, _The Rose Amateur's Guide_, 1840, of the origin of the Hybrid Perpetual rose. "_The Crimson Perpetual_, _Rose du Roi_, or _Lee's Crimson Perpetual_,[5] ... was raised from seed, in 1812, in the gardens of the Palace of St. Cloud, then under the direction of Le Comte Lelieur, and named by him Rose du Roi.... It is asserted it was raised from the _Rosa Portlandica_, a semi-double bright-coloured rose, much like the rose known in this country as the _Scarlet Four-seasons_ or _Rosa Pæstana_. "Every gentleman's garden ought to have a large bed of Crimson Perpetual Roses, to furnish bouquets during August, September, and October; their fragrance is so delightful, their colour so rich, and their form so perfect." What would that great pioneer say to our Crimson Perpetuals of to-day? But though this rose was the first, and probably the parent of many of the earlier Hybrid Perpetuals, the true development of this glorious race took place by other means. The Hybrid Chinas,[6] such as _Blairii No. 2_, _Chenédolé_, _Brennus_, and many others, now, as I have said, most unjustly neglected, were the offspring of the China rose, _R. Indica_, crossed with the Provence and other hardy summer flowering roses. These were not perpetual, with the notable exception of _Gloire de Rosamènes_. But several of them bore seed freely. These fertile varieties were again crossed with different kinds of China and Bourbon roses. And their seed produced the new race of strong, hardy roses, the Hybrid Perpetuals, flowering through the whole summer and autumn. Of those early parents of this fine race but very few are known now. _Gloire de Rosamènes_ (Vibert, 1823) is still in cultivation. But in vain I search English and French catalogues for those marked by my father in 1844 in Mr. Rivers' book. Where is _Mme. Laffay_, 1839, with its fine foliage and rosy-crimson, highly fragrant flowers; or _Fulgorie_; or _Rivers_, with its large red flowers "produced in clusters of great beauty"; or _La Reine_, 1843; or _William Jesse_? Probably they still exist as "old and nameless roses" in my own and many other gardens. Yet one would like to give them back the names and honourable places they possessed in one's childhood, and compare them with their splendid descendants. In fragrance they would certainly hold their own; for the fragrance of their Damask grandparent was stronger in them than in too many of the modern Hybrid Perpetuals. The great development in the race began in the fifties, and was at its height in the sixties and seventies: but for the last fifteen years and more the tide has turned in favour of the Hybrid Teas; and comparatively few new Hybrid Perpetuals are raised each year. In 1853, Margottin gave the enchanted rose-world _Jules Margottin_, parent of many most excellent roses. And in the same year the delightful _General Jacqueminot_ was raised by Roussel, and became the parent of many of our finest deep reds. Then in 1859 came Lacharme's famous _Victor Verdier_, a rose still in favour, and one to which the class owes, perhaps, more than any other as a parent. And in 1861 came _Charles Lefebvre_; also raised by Lacharme. From that date new and magnificent roses were sent out in numbers every year by the well-known French and Continental houses of Lacharme, Verdier, Pernet, Gautreau, Liabaud, Guillot, Postans, Levet, Margottin, Rambaud, Levêque, Jamain, Schwartz, Soupert et Notting. And in England by Messrs. Wm. Paul & Son, B. R. Cant & Sons, Bennett, Laxton, Paul & Son, Cocker, Alex. Dickson & Sons, Turner, Hugh Dickson, Cooling, Harkness, Ward, etc. While, in 1901, Lambert produced that grandest of white roses, _Frau Karl Druschki_. [Illustration: HYBRID PERPETUAL. FRAU KARL DRUSCHKI.] The pure pinks, and the rich crimsons and scarlets of the Hybrid Perpetuals are of surpassing beauty. And though there is a craze just now for Hybrid Teas, the Hybrid Perpetual must for ever hold its own in the garden on its own lines. For it will flourish where the more tender race would die; and its magnificent size, colour, strong growth, and rich foliage, must always render it indispensable for decoration and as a cut flower. As with the Teas and Hybrid Teas, these roses create their finest effect in the garden when grouped together in beds of one colour. And if we wish to specialize yet further in the matter of colours, they may be graduated from dark to light, or light to dark, with admirable success. A magnificent bed may be filled with such crimsons, scarlets, and cherry reds as the following, beginning with dark and medium crimsons, _A. K. Williams_, _Duke of Edinburgh_, _Duke of Wellington_, _Dr. Andry_, _Charles Lefebvre_, _Countess of Oxford_, _Fisher Holmes_, _Louis Van Houtte_, _Mrs. Harry Turner_, _Victor Hugo_; and the lighter crimsons, _Alfred Colomb_, _Beauty of Waltham_, _Captain Hayward_, _Duchess of Bedford_, _Duke of Teck_, _Dupuy Jamain_, _General Jacgueminot_, _Gloire de Margottin_, _Hugh Dickson_, _Marie Baumann_, _Senateur Vaisse_, _Star of Waltham_, _Ulrich Brunner_. [Illustration: HYBRID PERPETUAL. ULRICH BRUNNER.] Other yet darker crimson roses, with maroon or purple shading, are _Abel Carrière_, _Black Prince_, _Prince Camille de Rohan_, _Xavier Olibo_. For a very effective rose-pink and carmine bed we may use _François Michelon_, _Helen Keller_, _John Hopper_, _Jules Margottin_, _Magna Charta_, _Marquise de Castellane_, _Suzanne Marie Rodocanachi_, _Victor Verdier_. An pure pink bed is most attractive, when filled with such lovely roses as _Baroness Rothschild_, _Mdlle. Eugénie Verdier_, _Mrs. Sharman Crawford_, _Mrs. John Laing_, _Pride of Waltham_. And although _Captain Christy_ is now, wisely, called a Hybrid Tea, it has so much the habit of the Hybrid Perpetuals, that it really goes better in a bed with them than among the more delicate-foliaged Teas. For a white and pale blush bed we have the pure white _Boule de Neige_, _Coquette des Blanches_ (both Dwarf Hybrid Noisettes), _Frau Karl Druschki_, and _Marchioness of Londonderry_, which is very beautiful when it does well, though this is not always the case. And for white with a faint blush, _Margaret Dickson_ and _Merveille de Lyon_, though these are sadly given to mildew. But for sheer effect and mass of bloom, a bed of _Frau Karl Druschki_ is unequalled. If the long shoots are pegged down every bud upon them will throw a flower-shoot, producing a sheet of blossom throughout the whole season. Another very effective arrangement may be made by gradating a broad border from a white centre, through clear pinks on either side to bright scarlets, and ending at each extremity with deepest crimsons. This I have seen carried out successfully with a central group of _Frau Karl Druschki_, flanked on either side by the clear pinks of _Mrs. Sharman Crawford_ and _Mrs. John Laing_, and beyond them, right and left, _General Jacqueminot_, _François Michelon_, _Prince Camille de Rohan_, _Fisher Holmes_, _Duke of Edinburgh_, _Mrs. Harry Turner_, _Dr. Andry_, _Duke of Wellington_, _Victor Hugo_, _Captain Hayward_, _Duke of Teck_, _Horace Vernet_. As standards many of the Hybrid Perpetuals make grand heads, their sturdy constitution being particularly suitable to this form of growth. Among the best for this purpose are, _Captain Hayward_, _Charles Lefebvre_, _Clio_, _Dr. Andry_, _Duke of Edinburgh_, _Dupuy Jamain_, _Ferdinand de Lesseps_, _Fisher Holmes_, _Frau Karl Druschki_, _General Jacqueminot_, _Gloire de Margottin_, _Heinrich Schultheis_, _Hugh Dickson_, _Mme. Gabriel Luizet_, _Mme. Victor Verdier_, _Margaret Dickson_, _Marie Baumann_, _Mrs. Cocker_, _Mrs. John Laing_, _Mrs. R. G. Sharman Crawford_, _Paul Jamain_, _Pride of Waltham_, _Prince Arthur_, _Prince Camille de Rohan_, _Senateur Vaisse_, _Suzanne Marie Rodocanachi_, _Ulrich Brunner_. Besides those dwarfs I have enumerated as particularly good for massing in colour, many other excellent roses for general use will be found in the following lists. HYBRID PERPETUAL ROSES RED. Abel Carrière. _E. Verdier_, 1875. Purple crimson, fiery red centre. Alfred Colomb. _Lacharme_, 1865. Bright carmine red. Alfred K. Williams. _Schwartz_, 1877. Bright carmine red; an exhibitor's rose. Baron de Bonstetten. _Liabaud_, 1871. Blackish crimson. Ben Cant. _B. R. Cant & Sons_, 1902. Deep crimson. Beauty of Waltham. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1862. Rosy crimson. Black Prince. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1866. Deep blackish crimson. Camille Bernadin. _Gautreau_, 1865. Light crimson, paler edges. Captain Hayward. _Bennett_, 1893. Scarlet crimson, sweet scented. Charles Darwin. _Laxton_, 1879. Brownish crimson. Charles Lefebvre. _Lacharme_, 1861. Brilliant velvety crimson. Commandant Félix Faure. _Boutigny_, 1902. Crimson, flushed lake. Comte de Raimbaud. _Roland_, 1867. Clear crimson. Comtesse de Ludre. _V. Verdier_, 1880. Light crimson. [Illustration: HYBRID PERPETUAL. GUSTAVE PIGANEAU.] Countess of Oxford. _Guillot_, 1869. Bright carmine red. Dr. Andry. _E. Verdier_, 1864. Deep carmine red. Dr. Sewell. _Turner_, 1879. Maroon crimson, reflexes bright red. Duchess of Bedford. _Postans_, 1879. Velvety crimson, suffused scarlet. Duke of Connaught. _Paul & Son_, 1876. Bright velvety crimson. Duke of Edinburgh. _Paul & Son_, 1868. Scarlet crimson. Duke of Teck. _Paul & Son_, 1880. Bright crimson scarlet. Duke of Wellington. _Granger_, 1864. Velvet red, shaded crimson. Dupuy Jamain. _Jamain_, 1868. Very bright cerise. Earl of Dufferin. _Alex. Dickson_, 1887. Rich velvety crimson. Éclair. _Lacharme_, 1883. Vivid fiery red. Étienne Levet. _Levet_, 1871. Carmine red. E. Y. Teas. _E. Verdier_, 1874. Very bright red. Fisher Holmes. _E. Verdier_, 1865. Shaded crimson scarlet. General Jacqueminot. _Roussel_, 1853. Brilliant scarlet crimson; a noble old rose. Gustave Piganeau. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1889. Brilliant shaded carmine; chiefly an exhibitor's rose. Horace Vernet. _Guillot_, 1866. Crimson scarlet, dark shading. Hugh Dickson. _Hugh Dickson_, 1904. Crimson, shaded scarlet. Hugh Watson. _Alex. Dickson_, 1904. Crimson, shaded carmine. J. B. Clark. _Hugh Dickson_, 1905. Deep scarlet, shaded plum. Jean Soupert. _Lacharme_, 1876. Deep velvety purple. Jules Margottin. _Margottin_, 1853. Bright cherry red. Lady Helen Stewart. _Alex. Dickson_, 1887. Bright crimson, shaded scarlet. Le Havre. _Eude_, 1871. Vermilion red. Louis Ricard. _Boutigny_, 1902. Velvet crimson, shaded vermilion and black. Louis Van Houtte. _Lacharme_, 1869. Deep crimson, shaded maroon. Madame Crapelet. _Fontaine_, 1859. Beautiful light crimson. Madame Victor Verdier. _E. Verdier_, 1863. Bright cherry red; still one of the best. Maharajah. _B. R. Cant & Sons_, 1904. Large single flowers, deep velvet crimson; a very fine pillar rose. Marie Baumann. _Baumann_, 1863. Soft carmine red. Marie Rady. _Fontaine_, 1865. Brilliant red. Maurice Bernadin (_syn._ Exposition de Brie). _Granger_, 1861. Shaded crimson. M. H. Walsh. _Alex. Dickson_, 1905. Velvety crimson, suffused scarlet. Oberhofgartener A. Singer. _P. Lambert_, 1904. Pure carmine, darker centre. Prince Arthur. _B. R. Cant_, 1875. Rich deep crimson. Prince Camille de Rohan. _E. Verdier_, 1861. Crimson maroon. Reynolds Hole. _Paul & Son_, 1873. Maroon, shaded crimson; an exhibitor's rose. Ruhm der Gartenwelt. _Jacobs_, 1904. Dark pure red. Senateur Vaisse. _Guillot_, 1859. Fine dazzling red; one of the best still. Sir Rowland Hill. _Mack_, 1888. Rich port wine, shaded maroon. Star of Waltham. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1875. Deep crimson. T. B. Haywood. _Paul & Son_, 1895. Crimson scarlet, dark shading. Tom Wood. _Alex. Dickson_, 1896. Cherry red. Ulrich Brunner. _Levet_, 1881. Bright cherry red; fragrant, excellent. Urania. _Walsh_, 1906. Cherry crimson. Victor Hugo. _Schwartz_, 1884. Dazzling crimson. Xavier Olibo. _Lacharme_, 1864. Velvety black, shaded amaranth. ROSE. American Beauty. _Bancroft_, 1886. Deep rose; needs fine weather. Annie Laxton. _Laxton_, 1872. Clear rose, flushed cherry. Countess of Rosebery. _Postans_, 1879. Deep salmon rose. David R. Williamson. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1905. Soft rich carmine rose. Duchesse de Morny. _E. Verdier_, 1863. Delicate bright rose. François Michelon. _Levet_, 1871. Deep rose, reverse of petals silver. Heinrich Schultheis. _Bennett_, 1882. Delicate pinkish rose. Helen Keller. _Alex. Dickson_, 1895. Rose cerise. John Hopper. _Ward_, 1862. Bright rose, reverse pale lilac. Madame Eugène Verdier. _E. Verdier_, 1878. Bright silvery rose. Magna Charta. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1876. Bright rose. Marie Finger. _Rambaud_, 1873. Light salmon rose, deeper centre. Marie Verdier. _E. Verdier_, 1877. Pure rose. Marquise de Castellane. _Pernet_, 1869. Bright clear rose. Suzanne Marie Rodocanachi. _Lévêque_, 1883. Glowing rose; one of the best. Ulster. _Alex. Dickson_, 1899. Salmon pink. PINK. Baroness Rothschild. _Pernet_, 1867. Light pink. Clio. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1894. Pale flesh, deeper centre. Dr. William Gordon. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1905. Brilliant satin pink. Her Majesty. _Bennett_, 1885. Pale rose pink. Jeannie Dickson. _Alex. Dickson_, 1890. Rosy pink, edged silvery pink. Lady Overtown. _H. Dickson_, 1906. Pale salmon pink, centre silvery pink. Laurence Allen. _Cooling_, 1896. Clear soft pink, lighter shading. Madame Gabriel Luizet. _Liabaud_, 1877. Light silvery pink. Marchioness of Downshire. _Alex. Dickson_, 1894. Beautiful satin pink. Mrs. Cocker. _Cocker_, 1899. Soft pink. Mrs. John Laing. _Bennett_, 1887. Soft pink; one of the best. Mrs. R. G. Sharman Crawford. _Alex. Dickson_, 1894. Clear rosy pink; one of the best. Mrs. Rumsey. _Rumsey_, 1897. Rosy pink. Pride of Waltham. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1881. Delicate flesh, shaded bright rose pink. Rosslyn. _Alex. Dickson_, 1900. Delicate rosy flesh. WHITE AND BLUSH. Bertha Giemen. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1899. Creamy white sport from Marchioness of Dufferin. Boule de Neige (Noisette). _Lacharme_, 1867. Pure white. Frau Karl Druschki. _Lambert_, 1900. Snow white. Mabel Morrison. _Broughton_, 1878. Pure white, not much substance. Mademoiselle Renée Denis. _Chedane_, 1907. White, shaded rose. Marchioness of Londonderry. _Alex. Dickson_, 1893. Ivory white. Margaret Dickson. _Alex. Dickson_, 1891. White, pale flesh centre. Merveille de Lyon. _Pernet_, 1882. White, centre slightly rosy peach. Perfection des Blanches. _Schwartz_, 1873. Pure white. White Baroness. _Paul & Son_, 1883. Pure white. FOOTNOTES: [5] This rose, which belongs to the group of Damask Perpetual roses, _R. Damascena_, is still cultivated under the same name. Messrs. Wm. Paul & Son say "this was formerly a favourite group of autumnal roses." [6] See p. 57. CHAPTER IX BOURBON, CHINA, AND POLYANTHA ROSES BESIDES the three great races of perpetual flowering Roses, the Teas, Hybrid Teas, and Hybrid Perpetuals, on which the chief interest of the modern rose-world is centred at the present time, there are other perpetual flowering roses, which are of great importance both for their value in the past and their beauty in the present. For although the modern hybrids have somewhat obscured the fame of their ancestors, many of them owe their origin to the Bourbon and China roses, which, in the early years of the nineteenth century, before the advent of Hybrid Perpetuals, were almost the only autumn flowering roses on which to depend. THE BOURBON ROSE, _R. Bourboniana_. According to that invaluable book,[7] to which I owe an untold debt of gratitude since first I began to study rose-growing seriously--the original Bourbon, "a beautiful semi-double rose, with brilliant rose-coloured flowers, prominent buds, and nearly evergreen foliage," was discovered in the Isle of Bourbon. [Illustration: BOURBON. SOUVENIR DE LA MALMAISON.] It appears that the land there was--probably is still--enclosed by "hedges made of two rows of roses, one row of the common China Rose, the other of the Red Four Seasons, the Perpetual Damask." In planting one of these hedges, a proprietor found a rose quite different in appearance to the rest of his young plants, and transferred it to his garden. Here it flowered, and proved to be a new type, evidently a seedling from the two sorts, which were the only ones known in the island. "M. Bréon arrived at Bourbon in 1817, as botanical traveller for the Government of France, and curator of the Botanical and Naturalization Garden there. He propagated this rose very largely; and sent plants and seeds of it in 1822 to Monsieur Jacques, gardener at the Château de Neuilly, near Paris, who distributed it among the rose cultivators of France. M. Bréon named it 'Rose de l'Isle Bourbon,' and is convinced that it is a hybrid from one of the above roses, and a native of the island." The true Bourbon roses are thoroughly perpetual, with rose, blush, or white flowers, smooth solid stems, and dark, almost evergreen, foliage. One has only to mention the well-known and well-beloved _Souvenir de la Malmaison_ to recall the type. _Gloire de Rosamènes_[8] is a hybrid, as I have said: but _Hermosa_, or _Armosa_ (1840), and the charming _Mrs. Bosanquet_ (1832), often classed among the China roses, are pure Bourbons, and so are _Mme. Isaac Pereire_, _Mrs. Paul_ (1891), _Queen of the Bourbons_, _Boule de Neige_, _Setina_ a climbing form of _Hermosa_, and _Zephirine Drouhin_ (1873), a good climbing rose. _Hermosa_, which is constantly mistaken for a very full, globular pink China, is an excellent rose for massing in the garden, as it is in continuous bloom from spring till late autumn, the dwarf, bushy plants being covered with flowers. The charming hybrid Tea rose, _Camoëns_, which resembles it in habit, but is a rather larger flower of a rich China pink, may also be used in the same way. A group of small beds arranged in a simple geometrical pattern, and planted with either or both these roses, is an extremely pretty feature in the garden. _Hermosa_ has been for years largely used in this way on the Continent and in England; for instance, 20,000 have been planted in the Sandringham gardens alone. But I was told last year in Luxembourg, that in Holland, where it is most popular, _Camoëns_ is almost superseding it; one Dutch lady who had a large portion of her garden planted with nothing but _Hermosa_, is now using hundreds of _Camoëns_ in the same way, as it is equally generous in bloom, richer in colour, and as neat and strong in growth. [Illustration: CHINA. LAURETTE MESSIMY.] THE CHINA ROSE, _R. Indica_. THE CRIMSON CHINA ROSE, _R. Semperflorens_. These old favourites were introduced into England in the eighteenth century. The _Old Blush Monthly_ came first, in 1718; and in 1789 the _Old Crimson_ (_R. Semperflorens_), a much less vigorous plant, arrived. It is not surprising that both should have found instant popularity; for roses which in warm situations are practically in flower the whole year through, must indeed have been precious adjuncts to the gardens of those days. In England they were popularly known as "Monthly roses"; while in France they are known as _Rosiers du Bengal_. THE "COMMON" CHINA, OR MONTHLY ROSE (1796), though it has many newer rivals, is one of those which has never gone out of favour, and justly so; for what can be more pure and lovely than it is when well grown. Either as a bedder, or a bush in the herbaceous border, or, still more, when grown as a dwarf hedge, its fresh loveliness is a never-ending delight. Indeed, one wonders why it is not more generally used in England in this last manner; for both in the South of France and Switzerland, hedges of the pink Monthly rose are common, and of exceeding beauty. _Cramoisie Supérieure_ (1834), a form of the Crimson China, should be grown in masses, as its weak and straggling growth is unsuited to the above purposes. But many of the newer varieties are admirable in whatever way they are used. _Laurette Messimy_ (1887), rose, shaded yellow, and _Madame Eugène Resal_ (1895), copper and bright China-rose, are two of the very best of these, and are brilliantly effective as bedding roses. So are the rosy-apricot _Queen Mab_ (1906), and the yellow-apricot and orange _Arethusa_ (1903). _Comtesse du Cayla_ (1902) is a fine carmine crimson, with orange on the outer petals, varying to orange-yellow shaded carmine. _Cora_ is a pretty clear yellow, often tinted carmine, a rose of a charming habit. _Le Vesuve_ bears some flowers rich crimson and some rosy pink. _Ducher_ (1869) is the best white; _Frau Syndica Roeloffs_, yellow, shaded coppery-red and peach; _Nabonnand_, a large flower, velvety purple-red, shaded coppery-yellow. _Souvenir d'Aimée Terrel des Chênes_ is a small, beautiful, and well-shaped flower, coppery-pink, shaded carmine, the pointed buds being golden yellow. _Climbing Cramoisie Supérieure_ and _Field Marshal_ are both deep crimson climbers, but the last does best under a glass or in a warm position out of doors. * * * * * We now come to a quite modern class of perpetual flowering roses, which is as yet too little known, except among those ardent rose-growers who keep closely in touch with the marvels of modern hybridization. And this special race is indeed one of its most extraordinary results. For THE DWARF POLYANTHA ROSES, _R. Multiflora_, are derived from the summer flowering, climbing _Multiflora_, and in them we get a first cousin of, say, _Crimson Rambler_, so dwarf as to make a charming two-feet high edging to an ordinary rose-bed, and so thoroughly perpetual, that from May to December it is thickly covered with its hundreds of miniature flowers in clusters. How these tiny roses, which remind one of the "Fairy Rose" of long-ago nursery days, came into being is not exactly known. But they were evidently the result of crossings with the Tea rose strain. M. J. B. Guillot developed the first, _Ma Paquerrette_, pure white, flowering in large bunches, in 1875. In 1879, Rambaux followed with the charming _Anna Maria de Montravel_, one of the best known of the class. The next year Ducher brought out the lovely _Cecile Brunner_, blush, shaded pink, and the race was fully recognized. Since then nearly every year has seen fresh varieties; and the charming little plants are growing in favour. [Illustration: DWARF POLYANTHA. PERLE D'OR.] These roses may be roughly divided into two classes: one showing the Polyantha blood very strongly; the other the Tea blood. In the first, the flowers, whether double or single, are borne in dense upright clusters, after the manner of the true _Multiflora_. Some of the best of these are _Gloire des Polyantha_; _Schneewittchen_; the fine _Mme. N. Levavasseur_, really a miniature _Crimson Rambler_; the even more attractive _Mrs. W. H. Cutbush_, a bright pink _Crimson Rambler_; and the exquisite little _Baby Dorothy_, which has created such a sensation as a pot plant since it was shown in the spring of 1907. These are all admirably fitted for planting in masses. In the famous Pépinière, or Public Gardens of Nancy, beds of _Madame N. Levavasseur_ last autumn (1907) were remarkably effective. In one the ground was thickly covered among the plants with a very dwarf grey-blue Ageratum; and the effect of the erect crimson clusters of the rose over the soft grey flowers was most striking; while another bed of the same rose was edged with a dwarf bronze-foliaged fibrous Begonia. Even more charming was a whole bed of _Mrs. W. H. Cutbush_, which I saw in MM. Soupert et Notting's garden at Luxembourg, the rich rosy colour being much finer. In the other class the Tea blood is shown as strongly; the flowers are borne singly, or at most in heads of four or five, on smooth and delicate yet firm little stalks; while the foliage is that of a miniature Tea rose. These as to the actual blossoms are perhaps even more attractive. For what can be prettier than a perfectly formed flower the size of a Fairy rose--and sweetly scented too--such as those of _Étoile d'Or_, lemon shaded with sulphur; or _Perle d'Or_, nankeen yellow with orange centre; or _Eugénie Lamesch_, coppery pink; or the beautiful _Cecile Brunner_, its well-shaped flowers blush with a deeper pink centre? In one or two we get an example of the double strain. For the velvety crimson flowers of _Perle des Rouges_ are borne in clusters, though in substance and foliage the plant appears to take after the Tea rose. But I deprecate the tendency which I see among some varieties, to produce much larger flowers such as those of _Clothilde Soupert_ and _Georges Pernet_. This quite alters the character of the pretty little plants; giving us a rose that is neither one thing or another, neither a fine bedding rose or a miniature edging rose. BOURBON ROSES, _R. Bourboniana_. Baron Gonella. _Guillot père_, 1839. Violet rose. Baronne de Maynard. One of the best white roses. Catherine Guillot. _Guillot fils_, 1861. Purple red. Comtesse de Barbantane. _Guillot père_, 1859. Flesh colour. Gloire de Rosamènes. _Vibert_, 1825. Scarlet crimson, semi-double. Hermosa (Armosa). _Marcheseau_, 1840. Deep pink. J. B. M. Camm. Pale salmon pink. Kronprinsessin Victoria. _L. Späth_, 1888. Milky white outside, sulphur-yellow centre. Lorna Doone. _Wm. Paul & Son._ Magenta carmine, shaded scarlet. Madame Isaac Pereire. _Margottin_, 1880. Rosy carmine. Madame Pierre Oger. _Oger_, 1879. Cream white, shaded and edged lilac. Marie Paré. _Pavie_, 1880. Flesh colour, deeper centre. Mrs. Allen Chandler. _Chandler_, 1904. Pure white sport from Mrs. Paul. Mrs. Bosanquet. _Laffay_, 1832. Salmon white. Mrs. Paul. _Paul & Son_, 1852. Pinkish white; a fine rose. Paxton. _Laffay_, 1852. Fiery rose. Philémon Cochet. _Cochet_, 1896. Bright rose. Queen of the Bourbons. _Mauger_, 1852. Salmon rose. Queen of Bedders. _Nobbe_, 1878. Deep crimson. Reine Victoria. _Schwartz_, 1878. Bright rose, perfect form. Setina. _Henderson_, 1879. Pink, a climbing Hermosa. Souv. de la Malmaison. _Beluze_, 1843. Tender flesh white. Souv. de la Malmaison rose. _Verschaffelt_, 1862. Fine rose colour. Zephirine Drouhin. _Bizot_, 1873. Bright silvery pink. CHINA OR BENGAL ROSES, _R. Indica_. _R. Semperflorens._ Abbé Cretin. _Mille-Toussaint_, 1906. Light rose, shaded salmon. Alexina. _Beluze_, 1854. Almost pure white. Alice Hamilton. _Nabonnand_, 1904. Bright velvety crimson reflexed madder. Antoinette Cuillerat. _Buatois_, 1898. Electric white on copper base. Arethusa. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1903. Yellow, tinted apricot. Aurore. _Schwartz_, 1897. Creamy yellow, tinted salmon rose. Baronne Piston de St. Cyr. Pale flesh, distinct and attractive. Bébé Fleuri. _Dubreuil_, 1907. Varying from China rose to currant red. Cardinal. _Welter_, 1904. Dark red, centre yellow. Common (old Blush Monthly). _Parsons_, 1796. Pale pink. Comtesse du Cayla. _Guillot_, 1902. Coppery-carmine, shaded orange and yellow. Cora. _Vve. Schwartz_, 1899. Clear yellow, tinted carmine. Cramoisi Supérieur. _Coquereau_, 1832. Velvety crimson, large clusters. Cramoisi Supérieur. A climbing sport. Crimson China (Sanguinea). _Evans_, 1810. Dark crimson. Ducher. _Ducher_, 1869. Pure white. Duke of York. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1894. Variable from white to red. Eugène de Beauharnais. _Fellemberg_, 1838. Amaranth. Fabvier. _Laffay._ Scarlet crimson, finest of its colour. Field Marshall. _Wm. Paul & Son._ Blood crimson, shaded amaranth. Frau Syndica Roeloffs. _Lambert_, 1900. Bright yellow, shaded copper red. Irene Watts. _P. Guillot_, 1896. White, tinted salmon pink. Jean Bach Sisley. _Dubreuil_, 1899. Silvery rose, outer petals salmon-rose, veined carmine. Le Vesuve. _Sprunt_, 1858. Bright red and pink. Madame Eugène Resal. _Guillot_, 1894. Nasturtium red or bright red, on yellow base. Madame H. Montefiore. _Bernaix_, 1900. Salmon yellow, shaded apricot and carmine. Madame Laure Dupont. _Schwartz_, 1907. Vivid carmine, reflexed silver rose. Madame Laurette Messimy. _Guillot fils_, 1887. China rose, shaded yellow. Martha. _P. Lambert_, 1906. Copper red, flowers in large corymbs. Queen Mab. _Wm. Paul & Son_, 1896. Rosy apricot, shaded orange and rose. Red Pet. _Paul & Son_, 1888. Miniature rose, deep crimson. Souv. d'Aimée Terrel des Chênes. _Schwartz_, 1897. Coppery rose, shaded carmine. Unermüdliche. _Lambert_, 1904. Crimson, shaded red, always in bloom. DWARF POLYANTHA ROSES, _R. Multiflora._ Aennchen Mueller. _J. C. Schmidt_, 1907. Large clusters, brilliant rose. Amélie-Suzanne Morin. _Soupert et Notting_, 1899. White, yellow centre. Anne-Marie de Montravel. _Rambaux_, 1879. Pure white, immense cluster. Aschenbrodel. _Lambert_, 1903. Peach, centre salmon. Bébé Leroux. _Soupert et Notting_, 1901. White, centre canary yellow. Blanche Rebatel. _Bernaix_, 1889. Bright carmine, reverse white. Canarienvogel. _Welter_, 1904. Golden yellow, flaked orange and rose. Cecile Brunner. _Ducher_, 1881. Bright rose, yellowish centre. Clara Pfitzer. _Soupert et Notting_, 1889. Light carmine. Clotilde Soupert. _Soupert et Notting_, 1890. Pearly white, rose centre, rather large flowers. Dr. Ricaud. _Corboeuf-Marsault_, 1907. Rosy salmon, copper base. Étoile de Mai. _Gamon_, 1893. Nankeen yellow, rather large. Étoile d'Or. _Dubreuil_, 1889. Citron yellow, shaded sulphur. Eugénie Lamesch. _Lambert_, 1900. Orange yellow, passing to clear yellow, shaded rose. Filius Strassheim. _Soupert et Netting_, 1893. Rosy cream, orange base. Georges Pernet. _Pernet-Ducher_, 1888. Rather large, bright rose, shaded yellow. Gloire des Polyanthas. _Guillot fils_, 1887. Bright rose, white centre. Golden Fairy. _Bennett_, 1889. Clear buff, yellow and white. Hermine Madele. _Soupert et Notting_, 1888. Cream, reflexed yellow. Katherine Ziemet. _Lambert_, 1901. Pure white, very fragrant. Kleiner Alfred. _Lambert_, 1904. Ground colour red, suffused ochre yellow. Le Bourguignon. _Buatois_, 1901. Electric madder yellow. Leonie Lamesch. _Lambert_, 1900. Bright copper red, golden centre. Liliput. _Paul & Son_, 1897. Cerise carmine, flushed crimson. Little Dot. _Bennett_, 1889. Soft pink, flaked deeper on outside petals. Madame E. A. Nolte. _Bernaix_, 1892. Buff yellow, passing to rosy white. Madame N. Levavasseur. _Levavasseur_, 1904. Bright carmine red; the dwarf Crimson Rambler. Madame Zelia Bourgeois. _Vilin_, 1907. Small double white flowers. Ma Fillette. _Soupert et Notting_, 1898. Peach rose, yellow ground. Ma Petite Andrée. _Chauvry_, 1899. Deep carmine red. Marie Pavié. _Alégatière_, 1889. White, rose centre, large. Martha. _Lambert_, 1906. Strawberry pink, coppery buds. Maxime Buatois. Copper yellow, changing to carmine yellow. Mignonette. _Guillot_, 1881. Soft rose, changing to white. Mosella. _Lambert & Reiter_, I 896. Yellowish white, centre rose. Mrs. W. H. Cutbush. _Levavasseur_, 1907. A pink Mme. N. Levavasseur. Pâquerette. _Guillot fils_, 1875. Pure white; flowers in immense panicles. Perle d'Or. _Dubreuil_, 1883. Nankeen yellow, orange centre. Perle des Rouges. _Dubreuil_, 1896. Velvety crimson, reflexes bright cerise. Petit Constant. _Soupert et Notting_, 1900. Deep nasturtium red. Petite Léonie. _Soupert et Notting_, 1893. Rosy white, carmine centre. Philipine Lambert. _Lambert_, 1903. Silvery pink, centre deep flesh. Primula. _Soupert et Notting_, 1901. Bright China rose, centre snow white. Rosalind. _Paul & Son_, 1907. Bright pink, with deeper buds. Rosel Dach. 1907. Bright cherry rose. Schneewittchen. _Lambert_, 1901. Creamy white, passing to snow white. Schneekopf. _Lambert_, 1903. Snow white, in large clusters. FOOTNOTES: [7] Rivers' _Rose Amateur's Guide_. [8] See p. 57. CHAPTER X ROSE PESTS THE enemies of the rose are many. They are of two classes; the insect foes, and diseases caused by Fungi. And their prevention and destruction are tasks, as every rose-grower knows only too well, which call for ceaseless vigilance and constant work, more especially in the early months of the season. For if remedies are applied in good time, the pests of both kinds give comparatively little trouble after May and June until the early autumn, when a fresh crop of both appears. No such powerful weapon has ever before been put in the hand of the rose-grower, as the remarkable handbook on the _Enemies of the Rose_, published this spring (1908) by the National Rose Society. For here the veriest tyro can recognize the diseases which puzzle him and the insects which drive him to despair in all stages of their mischievous existence, figured in exquisitely drawn and coloured plates; while in the terse and admirable letter-press he is told how to combat their destructive ways. This little book can be obtained by non-members of the Society for 2_s._ 6_d._, through any member; and it ought to find a place on the shelf of every rose lover. =Mildew=, of all Fungoid diseases, is the worst we have to contend with. Some roses, such as the lovely _H. T. Killarney_, the _Crimson Rambler_, the _H. P. Margaret Dickson_, and others, are specially subject to this pest; and unless measures are taken against it when the very first sign appears, it quickly spreads to other roses. Two seasons ago a plant of _Margaret Dickson_ had it badly in my garden, and infected its neighbour, _Frau Karl Druschki_, to an alarming extent. This odious disease, though more or less always present in the garden, appears generally in marked strength twice in the season--first in spring, when the foliage is just fully developed, and secondly after the midsummer shoots are grown. It must be attacked early before it gets any hold, in fact, before it actually shows, if we have reason to suspect its presence. _Flowers of Sulphur_ is the most usual and effective preventive. It is blown over the plants with bellows made specially for the purpose. Floating like a fine cloud all over the garden it settles on every part of the plant. The early morning before the dew is gone is the time to apply it, as the evaporation of the dew has some subtle effect on the sulphur which greatly increases its efficacy. Rev. F. Page-Roberts strongly recommends _Black Sulphur_ instead of the ordinary yellow, used with one of the "Ideal" Powder Bellows, made by W. Wood & Son, Wood Green. Another preventive, which is advised in the National Rose Society's handbook as extremely efficacious, is syringing with _Potassium Sulphide_, _Liver of Sulphur_--half an ounce to a gallon of water. The handbook advises adding a tablespoonful of liquid glue, or the whites of two eggs to every gallon of water, as this causes the solution to adhere better to the foliage. If thoroughly and carefully applied with a very fine syringe, such as the Abol Syringe, using the bend attached to get at the under-side of the leaves where the fungus first appears, this wash acts rapidly upon the pests. _Mo-Effic_, a new preparation, has been highly recommended in the last two years. I have not tested it myself. But Mr. Mawley considers it most successful. =Black Spot= is another troublesome pest. It attacks the foliage alone, and not only spoils the appearance of the leaves, but so injures them that they fall off prematurely. The disease can be best checked by spraying with the _Liver of Sulphur_ wash, beginning early in the spring and going on at intervals. =Rose Rust= and =Rose Leaf Scorch= may also be combated with _Liver of Sulphur_ wash. But in all these three last diseases, it is a matter of the greatest importance to collect the badly diseased leaves on the plant, and especially to pick up every one lying on the ground, and to see that they are burnt at once and not thrown on the rubbish heap, where they will only infect the soil. =Sooty Mould=, the unsightly black stuff which often covers the foliage, is a parasitic fungus not upon the leaf itself but upon the "honey dew" deposited by Green Fly. If therefore the honey dew is kept off by destroying the Aphides which secrete it, _Sooty Mould_ will not appear. INSECT PESTS. =Green Fly=, or =Rose Aphis=, is alas! too well known in every garden to need much description. But the reason why it is so difficult sometimes to get rid of this pest is not so commonly known. The Aphides breathe through pores at the sides of their bodies. And in order to kill them, some substance must be used which will close these pores. Therefore syringing with water or any clear liquid is absolutely useless; for if a few Green Fly are knocked off one shoot they will only settle on some other. We often hear people say after a thunderstorm, "This will clean the roses and wash off the Green Fly nicely." Far from it. They only increase the faster; while the caterpillars rejoice, and flaunt themselves openly on every bush. Then in despair some one uses paraffin or some violently caustic wash for spraying the Green Fly, and destroys his roses thereby. Nature has mercifully provided some enemies to prey on the Green Fly--and these help in some small degree to keep the pest down. The chief of these is the Ladybird, which both in its adult and in its larval state devours them ceaselessly. The pretty green Lace-wing Fly or Aphis Lion is also useful, as its larvæ are provided with "large sickle-shaped jaws for picking the Green Fly off the plants." The Hover Fly--which looks like a small, slim two-winged bee or wasp--lays its eggs in the thick of a mass of Green Fly, and its green and grey leech-like maggots feed upon them. And the Ichneumon and Chalcid Flies lay their eggs in the bodies of the Aphides and their maggots feed on them from within. But all these are of comparatively little help to the unhappy rosarian, who must therefore devise unnatural means to clear his plants. As far as I know, with the exception of an Aphis brush--a useful invention, but one which needs very gentle handling--there are only two safe remedies for this universal plague. The usual one is a wash of soft-soap and quassia, in these proportions-- Best soft-soap 1 lb. Quassia chips 2½ lb. Water 25 gallons. Even this wash, excellent as it is, will sometimes fail to get rid of the scourge in a bad year. But I have found "Abol, White's Superior," a never-failing remedy. It is also much easier to use, as one only has to mix it with cold water according to the directions on each can, and it is ready in a minute. If either of these remedies are used the moment the Green Fly appears, and the dose repeated a couple of days later in order to kill any that may have escaped the first spraying, we have very little more trouble until the second crop of Green Fly appears in September. It is well to syringe the plants thoroughly with pure water a few days after the second dose of either of these washes, as this knocks off the dead Aphides, and leaves the foliage clean and sweet. Although paraffin in various forms is often recommended, let me urge upon my readers that it is a most dangerous substance to use upon the rose--a naturally delicate plant--as any remedy of a caustic nature is sure to do it far more harm than good. Tobacco wash is recommended by the Continental rose-growers for Aphis, 1 part of tobacco-juice to 15 parts of water. If a little soft-soap is added it makes a better wash. This is also a good wash for =Cuckoo Spit= or =Frog-Fly=.--This frothy substance if washed off will be found to contain a yellow creature, often closely wedged into the angle of leaf and shoot, or at the base of a flower bud. This is a "nymph" or young Frog-Fly--a most destructive insect--and unless removed it will so quickly suck the sap of the leaf and bud that it dies and falls off. To get rid of them requires patience. We must either hand-pick the roses--or if we spray with the tobacco wash it is necessary to syringe the plant with plain water first, using some force, to wash off the white froth--and then spray with the tobacco wash to kill the "nymph." This leads us to the more active and the worst of all the pests we have to fight against. BEETLES, BEES, FLIES, AND MOTHS, which either in their adult form or as maggots and caterpillars prey upon the rose. Four Beetles are among the enemies of the rose. The beautiful green =Rose Beetle= or =Rose Chafer= does harm in both stages. As a grub it feeds underground on the roots; and as a beetle eats the foliage and the petals and anthers of the flowers. I find it is particularly fond of the delicate blossoms of the _Yellow Persian Briar_. The =Cock Chafer= also eats the foliage, and its large white grubs devour the roots of the roses to such an extent that they often kill the plant. As the grubs remain for three years in the ground the damage they can do is incalculable; and they attack other plants besides roses. Among the roots of a herbaceous Spiræa I lifted this last winter, I caught forty of these grubs, and found they had so honey-combed the roots that the plant had to be burnt. The =Summer Chafer= and =Garden Chafer= also attack roses. Where these four chafers are prevalent there is no cure but hand-picking. The beetles must be collected off the bushes; and the grubs carefully picked out of the roots, if we have reason to think they are present from the rose appearing unhealthy. Or they may be tempted out of the soil by placing grass turves upside down close to the plants, when they can be picked out and killed with a little boiling water. The =Rose Leaf-cutting Bee= spoils the foliage by cutting semi-circular pieces out of the leaves to line its nest. A few years ago I found that a fine young plant of _Tea Rambler_ was so relished by this bee that hardly a leaf was left intact. There is no cure but to watch the bee going into her nest and there to destroy it after dusk. * * * * * Of all pests that the rose-grower has to fight against CATERPILLARS AND MAGGOTS are the very worst. For there is no real remedy against their endless and varied depredations save hand-picking; or as some one has tersely put it, "just a little gentle washing with non-caustic substances, and just a lot of finger-and-thumb work." This is tedious, and often disgusting; but it is the only way. These loathsome pests are the larvæ of certain flies and many kinds of moths. =Sawflies=, the little black and shiny flies which infest the roses in May and June, are a terrible pest, as the eggs they lay on the leaves turn quickly into small, green larvæ. There are several kinds of sawflies, and their destructive methods vary. The Leaf-rolling Sawfly, whose larvæ roll the rose-leaves like paper spills, has become a serious pest among garden roses of late years, and if these rolls are carefully unfolded the little green maggot will be found in one of them. It must be caught with care, as it is very lively, and if allowed to fall to the ground will remain there, and produce a fresh brood in the next year. The =Rose Slugworm= is much more common, and most destructive, eating the upper surface of the leaves and leaving the lower to shrivel up. It has two broods in the year. The =Rose Emphytus= is another of the sawflies, and one of the worst. Its larva eats the whole leaf away, beginning at the mid rib, and also works its way into a cell in the branches till the next spring, thus killing the tender growths above. This is the green caterpillar which we find coiled up on the under-side of the rose-leaves, or in early morning and late evening curled round the base of a rose-bud, working its way through the calyx into the heart of the flower. It is far easier to catch, as it is somewhat sluggish in movement, clean and hard in substance--and therefore less disgusting to touch than others that squash in one's fingers. The best remedies for these pests are: first, prevention, by spraying with hellebore wash, which I have found most useful. Second, by careful hand-picking when the larvæ appear. And third, by removing the surface soil in which the cocoons are buried, and all dead wood, during the winter. Hellebore wash is made in the following proportion-- 1 oz. fresh-ground hellebore powder. 2 oz. flour. 3 gallons of water. Mix the hellebore and flour with a little water till dissolved; then stir into the rest of the water and apply with a fine Abol Syringe. =Caterpillars= of many moths are among the most deadly foes of the rose. Some eat the foliage--such as the Buff Tip and Vapourer Moths; others tunnel into the leaves. But the worst of all are the Tortrix Moths or Rose Maggots, whose repulsive grubs eat the unopened blossoms and spin the delicate young leaves together, destroying the whole top of the new shoots. There are many varieties of Tortrix, which are all quite small moths, and their caterpillars or "Maggots" are the most unpleasant and destructive of all we have to deal with. The worst of all are the Red and the Brown Rose Maggots. These creatures are dirty red or brown, with black heads; they are soft, and grow very fat, and when full grown are half an inch long. They spin the leaves together at the top of the tender young flowering shoots, often bending the top down; and not only eat the leaves in the midst of this filthy fortress, but eat their way into the buds and destroy them. Other Tortrix Moths have green and yellow-green maggots. The worst is the Green Rose Maggot--bluish-green with a black head. It also spins the leaves together, and grows nearly as large as the brown. It is extremely active, and very soft and slimy. These all turn to pupæ among the leaves instead of in the soil; and any left in the foliage must be picked out and burnt. If we wait until the shoots and buds are eaten and the foliage spoilt--nay, till often the whole of our early flowers are ruined--the only remedy is to pinch the leaves which conceal the maggot, if we have courage to do so, or to hand-pick every one we see. But happily a way exists of preventing these loathsome pests from destroying our roses. And this is to spray the plants from the middle of April to early in May with _arsenate of lead_.[9] This should be done twice, and will prevent many other caterpillars from feeding on the foliage. =The Vapourer Moth=, the little golden brown moth with a tiny white crescent on each wing, is unfortunately common everywhere, in town as well as country; and its caterpillars are as destructive as they are beautiful. These caterpillars are found in great masses upon the hawthorn and fruit trees, and attack the rose as well. They are handsome, hairy creatures, spotted thickly with bright pink-red tubercles, with four erect tufts of yellow hairs on the back, and five longer tufts of darker hairs, two pointing forwards, one backwards over the tail, and two at the sides. If there are too many to be hand-picked the bushes must be sprayed with _arsenate of lead_. =The Buff Tip Moth= does most harm in the autumn, when its caterpillars, yellow and green, with longitudinal black lines divided by yellow bands, appear in colonies, feeding upon the surface of the leaves. They should be picked off at once, before they grow large, as they reach a length of two inches when full grown, and disperse, feeding singly. If very plentiful, spraying with _arsenate of lead_ will destroy them. =The Winter Moth=, which is such a serious pest among fruit trees, also attacks roses. The caterpillar is hatched very early, in the end of March and beginning of April. It is a "Looper," greyish at first and turning green later, and nearly an inch long when full grown. The grease bands we use on fruit trees to catch the wingless female as she creeps up in the autumn to lay her eggs on the bark, would be difficult to use for rose-bushes. The only plan therefore is to spray very early in the season with _arsenate of lead_ wash.[10] Another "Looper" found early on the roses is that of the =Mottled Umber Moth=. It is brown with yellowish sides, looks almost like a twig, and is over an inch long. It must be hand-picked. The =Dagger Moth's= caterpillar--a long, grey-black creature with a yellow line along the back, a large black hump on the shoulder and a small one at the tail, is most destructive when it appears in late summer and early autumn. It is generally found singly; but one specimen will strip a whole shoot of leaves, leaving only the mid rib. Hand-picking is the only remedy. These are the chief of the pests which we have to fight against. And if we desire to keep our roses in health and beauty we must remember that prevention is better than cure, and begin our treatment in good time, before the many enemies of the rose get too firm a hold. REMEDIES FOR ROSE PESTS WASHES, ETC. For Aphis or Green Fly. 1. _Abol._ _White's Superior_-instructions with each can. 2. _Soft soap and Quassia Wash._ Best soft soap 1 lb. Quassia chips 2½ lb. Water 25 gallons. Dissolve the soap in boiling (soft) water. Boil the chips or simmer for twelve hours, adding water from time to time to cover them. Strain off the liquid, mix it with the dissolved soap, stirring them together thoroughly, then add the water. 3. _Tobacco Wash_--also useful for Cuckoo Spit, Thrips and Leaf-Hoppers. 1 part tobacco juice. 15 parts water. Add a little dissolved soft soap. 4. _Hellebore Wash_ for Sawflies. Fresh-ground hellebore 1 oz. Flour 2 oz. Water 3 gallons. Mix the flour and hellebore powder with a little water. Then add the rest of the water. It must be kept stirred, and used with a fine spray. _Hellebore is poison._ 5. _Arsenate of Lead_ for Caterpillars. This is a poisonous wash, but the only one that can be used without hurting the roses. It is made with the paste known as _Swift's Arsenate Paste_, mixed with water. 6. _Flowers of Sulphur_ blown over the plants for Mildew. _Liver of Sulphur Wash_ for Mildew and other fungi, and for Red Spider. Liver of sulphur 1 oz. Water 10 gallons. Powdered hellebore may be dusted over the bushes for Sawflies, but the hellebore wash is best. All these washes can be used with the Abol Syringe. And in large gardens Vermorel's Knapsack Sprayer is almost indispensable, as it does equally well for roses and fruit trees. FOOTNOTES: [9] p. 149. [10] p. 149. CHAPTER XI HOW TO GROW ROSES FOR EXHIBITION (_By the_ REV. F. PAGE-ROBERTS, _Vice-President National Rose Society_, _F.R.H.S._) IN writing this chapter my purpose is to tell, in a few clear words, the way to grow fine roses, whether they be for exhibition or for private delight; for the method and culture are identical, if the blooms are to be worth looking at. First, then, as to situation and soil. If possible, choose a position for the beds sheltered from strong winds, yet not near large trees, or hedges; for the roots will enter the beds and rob them of moisture and nutriment. Buildings and walls are the best shelters. Make the beds, if possible, in the highest part of the garden, and not the lowest; roses like an open situation, though they need shelter from strong winds, and shade, if possible, from the midday sun. In writing these notes I do not wish to say anything that will discourage any one from trying to grow exhibition roses; for they can be grown, more or less well, in almost any situation, and any soil. Those who can choose both are to be envied. Then as to soil; some varieties, the H. Ps., will only give the finest blooms in heavy loam; the H. Teas in a less heavy; and the Teas, the most beautiful, though perhaps not so popular as the dark H. Ps., in quite light sandy soil. So the grower must decide according to his situation and soil what varieties to grow, remembering that the Teas are liable to suffer from severe frost. I make my beds three feet deep and three feet wide,[11] allowing for two rows of roses, and a grass path about thirty inches wide between the beds, grass being more sightly than gravel, and pleasanter to walk on. The beds, if the soil is heavy, will be all the better for being raised a little above the level of the paths; the roots do not like stagnant water. The beds should be prepared in the autumn, a few weeks before the end of October, that the soil may settle. The manure should be below the roots, not touching them; the roots will find it, and it is better for them to go down, than to come to the surface and suffer if the season be dry. A good sprinkling of bone meal spread over the top soil before planting (with a dusting of basic slag, three to four ounces per square yard) will be all that is necessary at this time. Covering the beds with manure in the winter is not recommended; and digging, or even turning it in, in the spring, is not advisable, however carefully it is done, as some of the roots must suffer, and, besides, manure does not protect the roots. The beds should never be disturbed more than the depth that a hoe will do it. The beds for H. Ts. and Teas should be prepared in the same way. Beds wide enough for two rows are more easily managed than wider ones, there being no need to tread on the soil when attending to the plants, and they can be more easily hoed. When selecting varieties, consult an expert, or better still, if you are not a subscriber to the N. R. S. (and this all rosarians should be), get a copy of the N. R. S. official catalogue of Roses, which can be obtained by non-members through a member, price 2_s._ 6_d._ This will give you all the information desired. A list of good roses for exhibition is given at the end of this chapter. It is advisable to order the plants early, as nurserymen execute orders in the order in which they are received, and planting should be done during the end of October and November; if not done then it must be deferred till February or March. The distance of plants from each other depends a good deal upon the varieties. Strong growers should be planted wider apart than small growers; one foot apart is about the usual distance in the rows. There are some varieties like _A. K. Williams_, _Mrs. W. J. Grant_, and _Horace Vernet_, that do not transplant well. These ought to be budded, and not moved, if possible. Dwarf-rooted stocks can be bought of the nurserymen at a small cost; and the Standard stocks, the best for Tea roses, can be usually got in the neighbouring hedges. =Pruning.=[12]--The object of pruning is to give increased vigour to the plant, and to keep it within bounds; to make, if possible, a new plant each year, a new top to the old roots. And to do this, severe pruning is absolutely necessary. The harder the pruning, the stronger the growth. Each variety should be pruned according to its growth. If very vigorous, they require less cutting back than those of moderate, or weakly growth. H. Ps. will be pruned harder than either H. Ts. or Teas; the latter, on account of frost, will sometimes do with little pruning beyond cutting out all dead and weakly shoots, and shortening slightly the long straggling ones. In all cases do not allow the centre of the plant to be crowded. The H. Ps. as a rule, may be cut down to two or three eyes, leaving the very vigorous shoots of some kinds even five or six eyes; but all weak shoots must be cut down to the base of the plant. This pruning should be done in March, leaving the Teas till April. If in pruning the pith be found to be dark in colour, the shoot must be cut back. Sometimes it will be necessary to cut it quite away, if no light-coloured pith can be seen. Then a certain amount of pruning or thinning of the shoots is necessary in the spring, after the roses have started growing; three to six shoots only, according to the variety, should be left. A thinning again in autumn, of the shoots that have done their work, will give the later shoots a better chance of ripening. =Manuring.=--Farmyard dung is the best of all fertilisers, and this should be used, as has been pointed out,[13] when the beds are being made, so that there is plenty of good nutriment below the roots. Nitrate of soda and Guano, both soluble, may be sprinkled on the surface alternately once a week after the plants have begun to grow, and hoed in. Manure put on for a mulch in winter does little or no good. The very best and only mulch, winter and summer, is a loose soil surface; and for this the hoe must be kept at work, especially after rain or watering. A good liquid manure is made by putting a barrowful of fresh cow manure into a large barrel, _a big wine pipe_ is the thing; add soft water to thin it, put in a bag of soot, and fill up with rain-water. After settling, this will be ready for use. Liquid manure must not be given when the soil is dry, but only after rain or a good watering. Soot dusted over the beds is beneficial, and may also destroy a certain amount of Mildew. The drainage from the farmyard should not be allowed to waste, as is so often the case; but if well diluted it makes a good liquid manure. Do not apply the fertiliser close to the stem, but distribute over the whole ground. Remember when giving liquid manure the same rule holds good, "Strong meat for men, milk for babes." Strong growing varieties will stand more than weak ones, and no liquid manure should be given to newly planted trees. A dressing of Basic Slag in the autumn is recommended. =Pests.=[14]--These are many, and the remedies are few and simple. Caterpillars, large and small, must be hunted for daily and killed with finger and thumb from April to July, however unpleasant the process may be, or the most promising buds will be spoiled. For destroying Aphis, which are very troublesome some years, a solution made by boiling Quassia chips in water, and adding soft soap when cooling, is often used; though "finger and thumb" drawn gently up the stem when the insect is first seen, puts an end to those on the shoot; and finger and thumb is even recommended for destroying Mildew on its first appearance, though this cannot be done when there is a bad attack. Nothing in my experience equals Flowers of Sulphur for Mildew, when distributed by an "Ideal" powder bellows. This should be done quite early in the morning, when there is a promise of a hot, sunny day. If the wind is not too strong, the Sulphur will float through the plants like a cloud of smoke, searching into every part. This should be repeated once a week, and even before there is a sign of Mildew on the leaves, prevention being better than cure. But I know no remedy that will quite destroy it. * * * * * =Exhibiting.=--If the grower wishes to exhibit his flowers, he should follow the instructions here given; and I would also advise the reading of the late Rev. A. Foster Melliar's book on exhibiting, and the Rev. J. H. Pemberton's--both most excellent books--which enter more fully into particulars than space allows me to do. The number of shoots having been reduced,[15] it will soon be time to gradually take away all the buds, except the centre bud and one other. This also must be taken away, as soon as the centre bud looks healthy and free from damage. Very strong growers, like _Florence Pemberton_, and those varieties having a great number of petals, will do better if the buds are not much thinned, or they will be coarse. The N.R.S. definition of a good rose is: "The highest type of bloom is one which has form, size, brightness, substance, and good foliage, and which is at the time of judging in the most perfect phase of its possible beauty." It will be necessary in the case of Hybrid Perpetuals to select the bud, which should be about three-quarters open, two days before the show (four or even five days for Teas), and to tie up, not tightly, the centre of the flower with Berlin wool, leaving the outer petals free, taking care that it is not wet with rain, or even dew. Bend the shoot down, if possible, and cover with a shade; some clean litter spread under dwarfs on the ground will keep the flower from being splashed by heavy rains. Teas are improved if covered with a cone of butter paper, as well as the shade; and some may be cut two days before the show, and if put in a dry, dark cellar, will remain in good condition. _Maréchal Niel_ will improve in colour by being kept in the dark. The best time for cutting H. Ps. is from four to seven o'clock the evening before the show; they will lose a little in colour, but will stand longer than if cut before six o'clock on the morning of the show. Use garden scissors in preference to a knife. When getting the blooms, cut the stem five or six inches long, and remove the lower leaves, which only fill up the tube and do no good to the flower, and do not add to its appearance in the box. A receptacle with water should be taken round when cutting, and the flowers put in immediately and never allowed to become dry (the water must not be cold). The name should be attached at once. The regulation size of the N. R. S. for rose boxes is "4 inches high in front and 18 inches wide, and of the following lengths (all outside measurements). For 24 blooms, 3 ft. 6 ins. long; for 18 blooms, 2 ft. 9 ins. long; for 12 blooms, 2 ft. long; for 9 blooms, 1 ft. 6 ins. long; for 6 blooms, 1 ft. long; for 8 trebles, 3 ft. 6 ins. long; for 6 trebles, 2 ft. 9 ins. long; for 4 trebles, 2 ft. long." The lid should have a depth of 9 inches to allow room for the blooms. Boxes are supplied at a moderate price by John Pinches, 3 Crown Buildings, Crown Street, Camberwell, who also supplies tubes, wire holders, and shades; they can also be obtained from horticultural firms. The tray of the box should be covered with moss. When the roses are all arranged for the night, give a little air by putting a prop under the lid, and leave the box in a cool place. When the boxes are placed on the show tables, lift the lids sufficiently high to get at the flowers. Each tube should be lifted and the rose raised, taking care that the stem is in the water. All damaged outer petals must be removed, and the flower if full with substance in it, may have the wool removed. Assist the opening of the blooms with a camel's hair brush. A gentle puff with the mouth at the centre will loosen tightly packed petals. Care must be taken when "dressing" a bloom, not to alter its character; for this, according to N. R. S., "shall count as a bad bloom." The ties must not be removed from the thin ones (those with few petals) until the last minute, when it is time to remove the lids. It will be necessary to take a few extra blooms in different stages of growth, to replace any in the box that have expanded; for a rose showing an eye gains no point. Care must be taken that there are no duplicates, but all distinct according to "schedule." Once exhibit at an important show, and many lessons will be learnt which can only be learnt there and then. A SELECTION OF THE BEST EXHIBITION ROSES _Hybrid Perpetuals._ Alfred Colomb A. K. Williams Bob Davison Captain Hayward Charles Lefebvre Commandant Felix Faure Comte Raimbaud Dr. Andry Duke of Wellington Dupuy Jemain Fisher Holmes François Michelon Frau Karl Druschki Helen Keller Horace Vernet Hugh Dickson Hugh Watson Marie Baumann Mrs. Cocker Mrs. John Laing Mrs. Sharman Crawford Prince Arthur Suzanne Marie Rodocanachi Ulrich Brunner Victor Hugo _Hybrid Teas._ Bessie Brown Caroline Testout C. J. Grahame Countess of Derby Countess of Gosford Dean Hole Earl of Warwick Florence Pemberton George Laing Paul J. B. Clarke Kaiserin Augusta Victoria Killarney La France Lady Ashtown Lady Helen Vincent Lady Moyra Beauclerk Mme. Melanie Soupert Marquise Litta Mildred Grant Mrs. G. W. Kershaw Mrs. John Bateman Mrs. Theodore Roosevelt Mrs. W. J. Grant Perle von Godesberg Princesse Marie Mertchersky Queen of Spain William Shean Yvonne Vacherot _Teas._ Anna Olivier Auguste Comte Bridesmaid Catherine Mermet Cleopatra Comtesse de Nadaillac Ernest Metz Innocent Pirola Mme. Constant Soupert Mme. Cusin Mme. de Watteville Mme. Hoste Mme. Jules Gravereaux Maman Cochet Maréchal Niel Medea Mrs. Edward Mawley Mrs. Myles Kennedy Muriel Grahame Souv. d'Elise Vardon Souv. de Pierre Notting Souv. de S. A. Prince Souv. d'un Ami The Bride White Maman Cochet FOOTNOTES: [11] See Chapter I, "Making the Beds." [12] See Chapter II. [13] See Chapter I, and above, p. 152. [14] See Chapter X. [15] See above. INDEX A. Abol syringe, 138, 148. Abol, White's Superior, 141, 148. Aphis. _See_ Green Fly. Aphis Lion, 140. Arsenate of lead, 146-9. B. Beds, depth, 6, 152. -- size of, 5, 152. Bee, leaf cutting, 143. Beetles, 142-3. Black spot, 138. Black sulphur, 138. Budding, 27-30. C. Caterpillars, 143-8, 156. Chalcid fly, 140. Cock chafer, 142. Cuckoo spit, 141-2. Cuttings, 30-34. -- under glass, 32. -- open ground, 33-4. Cutting dead blooms, 21. D. Drainage, 2-3, 152. Draughts, danger of, 1-2. E. "Enemies of the Rose," 136. Exhibiting, 157. -- arranging at the show, 159. -- cutting the blooms, 158. -- disbudding, 157. -- rose boxes, 158-9. -- rose tubes, 159. -- shading, 158. Exhibiting, selecting the bud, 157. -- thinning the shoots, 154. -- tying the blooms, 157. Exhibition roses-- -- -- beds for, 151-2. -- -- distance of plants, 153. -- -- manures, 152, 155. -- -- pruning, 154. -- -- selecting varieties, 153. -- -- soil, 152. F. Flowers of sulphur, 137, 150, 156. Frog fly. _See_ Cuckoo spit. Fungi, 136-9. G. Green fly, 139-41. -- -- remedies for, 148-9, 156. H. Heeling in roses, 9. Hellebore wash, 145, 149. Hoeing, importance of, 14, 155. Hover fly, 140. I. Ichneumon fly, 140. "Ideal" powder bellows, 138, 156. L. Labels, 13. Ladybirds, 140. Layering, 34-6. Liver of sulphur, 138, 150. M. Manures-- -- Basic slag, 7, 156. Manures, farm yard, 6-7, 155. -- Guano, 155. -- liquid, 155-6. -- Nitrate of soda, 155. Mildew, 137-141, 155-6. -- remedies for, 137-8, 150, 156. Mo-Effic, 138. N. National Rose Society, 136, 153, 157-8-9. Noisette, Philippe, 68. P. Paraffin, danger of, 140-1. Planting, 10-14. -- dates for, 7, 153. -- depth, 9-10. Potassium sulphide. _See_ Liver of Sulphur. Position, 1, 151. Propagating, 27. Provins, 40. Pruning, 14-27. -- Banksia roses, 26, 54. -- dates for, 16. -- directions for, 22-7. -- for exhibition, 154. -- Fortune's Yellow, 26. -- Noisettes, 20. -- object of, 19, 154. -- Ramblers, 20. R. Raffia, 12, 30. Rivers, Mr. Thomas, 111. -- Amateur's Rose Guide, 35-6, 72, 82, 112, 123. Rose, Apothecary's, 40. -- Blush tea-scented, 81. -- Camoëns, 125. -- Caroline Testout, 97. -- Cherokee, 54, 63. -- Conrad F. Meyer, 46. -- Crimson Perpetual, 111. -- Crimson Rambler, 58. -- de Meaux, 23, 37, 39. -- de Provins, 39. -- Devoniensis, 82. -- Fortune's Yellow, 20, 69-70. -- Frau Karl Druschki, 114. -- General Schablikine, 85. -- Gloire de Dijon, 82. -- -- -- Rosamènes, 112, 124. -- Jaune Desprez, 69. -- La France, 93. -- Lyon, 43. -- Mme. Constant Soupert, 85. -- Mme. Segond Weber, 95, 98. -- M. Tillier, 84. -- Peace, 85, 99. -- Perpetual Damask, 124. -- Rêve d'Or, 71. -- Souv. d'un Ami, 81. -- Yellow China, 81. Rose-chafer, 143. -- Leaf scorch, 138. -- Pests, 136-50, 156. -- -- remedies for, 148-150, 156. -- roots, care of, 8-9. -- -- and manure, 7, 10, 152. Roses-- -- arrangements in colour, 114-16. -- Alba, 41, 48. -- Austrian briars, 42, 49. -- Autumn flowing climbers, 68-79. -- Ayrshire, 52, 62. -- Banksian, 53-4, 63. -- Bourbon, 123, 130. -- Boursault, 55, 63. -- Brunonis, 73. -- Cabbage or Provence, 38, 47. -- China, 126, 131. -- Damask, 41, 48. -- Dwarf Polyantha, 128, 133. -- Evergreen, 53, 63. -- French or Gallica, 39-40, 48. -- Hungarian, 56, 64. -- Hybrid China, 56-7, 64, 112. -- Hybrid Perpetual, 111-122. -- -- -- climbing, 74, 76. -- Hybrid Tea, 92-110. -- -- -- climbing, 76-9. -- Irish single, 90, 110. -- Macartney, 73. -- Moss, 39, 47-8. -- Multiflora or Rambler, 57-9, 65-6. -- Musk, 71-3. -- Noisette, 68-71, 74-5. -- Pernetiana, 42-3, 50. -- Prairie, 55, 64. -- Rugosa or Ramanas, 45-7, 50-1. -- Scotch briar, 45, 50. -- Sinica, 54, 63. -- Summer-flowering dwarf, 36-51. -- -- climbing, 52-67. -- Sweet briar, 44, 50. -- -- -- Penzance, 43-4, 50. -- Tea, 80-92. -- -- climbing, 70-9. -- Wichuraiana, 60-2, 66-7. S. Sawflies, 144-5. Sécateurs, 9, 17. Shades for rose blooms, 159. Shelter, 2, 151. Size of beds, 5, 152. Soil, 3-5, 152. Soot, use of, 155. Sooty mould, 139. Standards, 116, 154. -- budding, 28. -- planting, 12. T. Tarred twine, 12. Trenching, 6. U. Unpacking new roses, 8. W. Washes-- -- Abol, White's Superior, 148. -- Arsenate of lead, 146-9. -- Hellebore, 145, 149. -- Liver of sulphur, 138, 150. -- Soft soap and Quassia, 140, 149, 156. -- Tobacco, 141-2, 149. Wire, danger of, 12-13. RICHARD CLAY & SONS, LIMITED, BREAD STREET HILL, E.C., AND BUNGAY, SUFFOLK. H. LANE & SON. _The Nurseries_, BERKHAMSTED, BEG TO OFFER 12 Best Selected Standard H.P. Roses for =15/-= 100 " " Dwarf " " " =60/-= 12 " " " " " " =9/-= 12 " " Climbing Roses " =10/-= 12 " " Standard Tea & H.T. Roses =21/-= 12 " " Dwarf " " " =12/-= * * * * * 10 Selected Pyramid Plums, best Dessert for =15/-= 10 " " " " Kitchen " =15/-= 10 " " Pears, best vars. " =15/-= 10 " " Apples " Dessert " =15/-= 10 " " " " Kitchen " =15/-= Standard Fruit Trees from =18/-= to =30/-= doz. Grape Vines, from =5/-= to =15/-= each. Dwarf-trained Plums, Pears, Apples and Cherries =2/6= to =3/6= each. " Peaches, Nectarines, and Apricots, =5/-= each. Gooseberries and Currants =4/-= to =6/-= doz. Specimen Trees, Conifers, &c. from =2/6= to =42/-= each. 100 Flowering Shrubs in Variety for =40/-= Rhododendrons, from =18/-= doz. Forest Trees, Evergreen Shrubs, all sizes and prices. Climbers, &c. * * * * * All our Trees are well grown and very hardy. * * * * * _=Write for Catalogue "L," free on Application.=_ * * * * * _=Established 130 Years.=_ Telephone: 18 Berkhamsted. Telegrams: "Lane, Berkhamsted." [Illustration: WEEDY LAWNS TRANSFORMED TENNIS COURTS. BOWLING GREENS ETC] BY "CLIMAX" LAWN SAND which destroys Moss, Daisies, Plantains, and other disfiguring weeds on lawns and greens, at the same time so promoting the growth of the finer grasses that spaces previously occupied by weeds are quickly covered by a sward of fine close-growing grass which will preserve its good colour under conditions of continuous use and drought. It may be applied during dry weather at almost any season of the year. =THE EFFECT= of an application is apparent within a few hours. The weeds blacken and die, but the grass soon recovers its colour. =QUANTITY REQUIRED= 28 lbs. will dress from 100 to 150 square yards, according to the number and variety of weeds. =PRICES.= CARRIAGE PAID. Packages free; sample tin =1/3=; 7 lbs., =2/-=; 14 lbs., =3/6=; 28 lbs., =6/-=; 56 lbs., =11/-=; 1 cwt., =20/-=; 5 cwt., =90/-=; 10 cwt., =170/-=; 20 cwt., =£16-10-0=. EVERY WEED DESTROYED ROOT AND BRANCH ON CARRIAGE DRIVES, ROADS, PATHS, Etc., BY A SINGLE APPLICATION OF "CLIMAX" WEED KILLER. The use of which dispenses with hoeing and weeding, and keeps the surface bright and firm. It does not burn, stain or smell offensively. Used in every County during the last fifteen years by Municipal Bodies, surveyors, estate agents, etc. =LIQUID WEED KILLER.= One gall. makes 51 galls. sufficient for 160 to 200 square yards. PRICES (carriage paid) Drums and Casks Free: ½-gall. =2/3=; 1 gall. =3/6=; 5 galls. =15/-=; 10 galls. =26/-=; 20 galls. =50/-=; 40 galls. =90/-=; =POWDER WEED KILLER.= Packed in air-tight tins. Mixes readily in cold water without heat or fumes. Equal in effectiveness to the liquid. Convenient to store and handle, it will keep for an indefinite period. Measure to make small quantities enclosed with each order. =PRICES= Carriage Paid Tins Free. =No. 1 Tin= makes 25 galls. to dress 80 to 100 yards, =2/-=; 2 tins =3/6=; 12 tins =20/-=. =No. 2 Tin= makes 100 galls. to dress 320 to 400 square yards, =6/6=; 2 tins =12/6=; 5 tins =28/-=; 10 tins =55/-=; 20 tins =100/-=. SLUGS, ANTS, DESTROYED WIREWORM WOODLICE ETC. QUICKLY BY 'ALPHOL' =WHICH IN ADDITION TO PROMOTING THE GROWTH OF PLANTS WILL ALSO DESTROY EVERY VARIETY INSECT INFESTING THE SOIL=. It is a dry non-poisonous powder which should be freely dug into the soil to destroy wireworm and other larvæ, while for Ants, Slugs, and Woodlice, a light sprinkling on the surface is sufficient. When making up potting soil, manure or leaf mould, an occasional sprinkling will increase the manurial value and also destroy the worms and other insects. By use of '=ALPHOL=', ground which previously teemed with insect life will grow splendid crops. =CATS WILL NOT SCRATCH WHERE ALPHOL HAS BEEN USED.= =QUANTITY REQUIRED= On medium and heavy land 28 lbs. will dress 250 square yards, or 5 cwt. will dress an acre; on light sandy land, 25% more will be required; for compost and manure heaps 7 to 14 lbs. to each ton. =PRICES.= CARRIAGE PAID. 7 lbs. =2/-=; 14 lbs. =3/-=; 28 lbs =5/-=; 56 lbs. =8/6=; 1 cwt. =15/-=; 5 cwt. =75/-=; 10 cwt. =£7=; 20 cwt. =£13-10.= (Sample Tin =1/3= post free) =NOTE.--"ALPHOL" IS ALSO AN EFFICIENT MANURE.= THE BOUNDARY CHEMICAL Co Ltd., Cranmer St., Liverpool. SEND FOR A COPY OF "RELIABLE GARDEN HELPS." ROSES! Indispensable to all lovers of a garden are our Rose and BULB CATALOGUES, containing 100 unpublished Illustrations. FULL CULTURAL DIRECTIONS sent free on application by GEMEN & BOURG, LUXEMBOURG, Grand Duchy. =The Largest Rose Growers and Bulb Importers of the Continent. Orders from £1 sent free of charge.= Our products are Stronger, Hardier and Cheaper than anywhere else. * * * * * =Artistic Garden Trellis, Arches, Pergolas, Arbours, and similar goods for training Climbing Roses.= [Illustration] =WALTERS & Co., 16 Water Lane, Great Tower Street, LONDON, E.C.= =MAKERS OF HIGH-CLASS GARDEN FURNITURE. PRICE LISTS FREE.= ROSES One of the most complete Collections on the Globe. First-class Plants Unsurpassed. Export trade all over the world. Raisers of famous Novelties. All best New Roses of British, American and Continental raisers. SOUPERT & NOTTING LUXEMBOURG, Grand Duchy. Rose Growers by Royal Appointment. Established Half a Century. Illustrated Catalogue Gratis and Post Free on application. All Strong and Home-grown Plants. ROSE [Illustration] Collection "C" Garden Roses. The Finest selection of =25 Garden Roses= possible in dwarf plants for =15s.= (with Acme Labels, =17s. 6d.=), carriage and packing free for cash with order. Full details on application Send for Catalogue No. 28, giving full details, and is also a full descriptive list of Roses, Fruits, Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, and Plants, post free on application to-- Messrs. H. MERRYWEATHER & SONS, Ltd. Garden Specialists, _SOUTHWELL, NOTTS._ * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Obvious punctuation errors repaired. Text uses: Eugène Verdier; Eugénie Verdier, and Eugéne Verdier. This was retained. Unless a large majority was noticed, accents, except where noted, were left as in the original. Page 40, Illustration caption, "Apothecaries'" changed to "Apothecary's" to match text (Apothecary's Rose) Page 51, "rosy" changed to "Rosy" (1890. Rosy carmine) Page 53, Illustration caption, "ÉLICITÉ" changed to "FÉLICITÉ" (FÉLICITÉ-PERPÉTUE) Page 56, "he" changed to "the" (the Prairies) Page 57, "Hebé" changed to "Hébé" (_Coupe d'Hébé_ and) Page 62, "dou le" changed to "double" (white, large, double) Page 66, "Debutante" changed to "Débutante" (Débutante. _Walsh_) Page 77, "Barre" changed to "Barré" (Billiard and Barré) Page 78, "perè" changed to "père" (_Levet père_, 1880) Page 88, "Lady Mary Corry" was moved above "Lena" to maintain alphabetical order of list. Page 94, "Camöens" changed to "Camoëns" (them. _Camoëns_) Page 97, "Grunerwald" changed to "Grünerwald" (Gustave Grünerwald) Page 124, "Chateau" changed to "Château" (Château de Neuilly, near) Page 164, "SUFFOK" changed to "SUFFOLK" (BUNGAY, SUFFOLK) 
33593	----	generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) Present-Day Gardening EDITED BY.... R. HOOPER PEARSON MANAGING EDITOR OF THE _GARDENERS' CHRONICLE...._ A LIST OF VOLUMES IN THE SERIES IS GIVEN ON THE NEXT PAGE.... [Transcriber's Note: Words surrounded by tildes, like ~this~ signifies words in bold. Words surrounded by underscores, like _this_, signifies words in italics.] _Present-Day Gardening_ List of Volumes in the Series. 1. SWEET PEAS. By HORACE J. WRIGHT, late Secretary and Chairman of the National Sweet Pea Society. With Chapter on "Sweet Peas for Exhibition" by THOS. STEVENSON. 2. PANSIES, VIOLAS, AND VIOLETS. By WILLIAM CUTHBERTSON, J.P., and R. HOOPER PEARSON. 3. ROOT AND STEM VEGETABLES. By ALEXANDER DEAN, V.M.H., Chairman of the National Vegetable Society. 4. DAFFODILS. By the Rev. J. JACOB, Secretary of the Midland Daffodil Society, with Preface by the Rev. W. WILKS, M.A., Secretary of the Royal Horticultural Society. 5. ORCHIDS. By JAMES O'BRIEN, V.M.H., Secretary of the Orchid Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society. 6. CARNATIONS AND PINKS. By T. H. COOK, Head Gardener to Queen Alexandra at Sandringham; JAMES DOUGLAS, V.M.H.; and J. F. M'LEOD, Head Gardener to Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan. 7. RHODODENDRONS AND AZALEAS. (_The first popular volume published on this subject._) By WILLIAM WATSON, A.L.S., Curator of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, with Preface by Sir FRED. W. MOORE, M.A., A.L.S., V.M.H. 8. LILIES. By A. GROVE, F.L.S., with Preface by H. J. ELWES, F.R.S. 9. APPLES AND PEARS. By GEORGE BUNYARD, V.M.H., Chairman of Fruit and Vegetable Committee of Royal Horticultural Society. 10. ROSES. By H. R. DARLINGTON, Vice-President of National Rose Society. (Double volume.) 11. IRISES. By W. RICKATSON DYKES, M.A., L.-ès-L. With Preface by PROFESSOR I. BAYLEY BALFOUR, D.SC., F.R.S., &c. 12. ANNUALS, HARDY AND HALF-HARDY. By C. H. CURTIS, Hon. Sec. of the National Sweet Pea Society. 13. CHRYSANTHEMUMS. By THOMAS STEVENSON, with chapters by C. HARMAN PAYNE and CHARLES E. SHEA. 14. TULIPS. By the Rev. J. JACOB. 15. THE ROCK GARDEN. By REGINALD FARRER, Author of "Among the Hills," "My Rock Garden," "In a Yorkshire Garden," &c. These will be followed by volumes on ~Dahlias~, ~Climbers~, ~Trees and Shrubs~, ~Pæonies~, ~Primulas~, ~Window Gardens~, ~Cucumbers~, ~Melons~, ~Bedding Plants~, ~Hardy Herbaceous Plants~, ~Ferns~, ~Tomatoes~, ~Bulbous Plants~, ~Peaches and Nectarines~, ~Vines~, ~Stove and Greenhouse Plants~, ~&c.~ [Illustration: PLATE I (_Frontispiece_) CYPRIPEDIUM INSIGNE SANDERÆ] Orchids By James O'Brien With Eight Coloured Plates [Illustration] London: T.C. & E.C. Jack 67 Long Acre, w.c., & Edinburgh PREFACE In the early days of Orchid cultivation the idea was commonly entertained that these interesting plants could never become popular with the general public, for the reason that their culture involves a great initial outlay and permanent expense. That such an idea is incompatible with the facts is now admitted by all those who are most familiar with the subject. There is no department of "Present-Day" gardening that exhibits such wonderful progress as is shown in the Orchid gardens and nurseries that are to be found in every portion of these Isles. At the same time, the popularisation of Orchid culture is only now in its very commencement. Amateurs are but just beginning to realise that Orchids, like other plants, are capable of being understood by any one who really desires to understand them; and, when once understood, the cool species, at any rate, are not less tractable than common greenhouse plants. So much is this the case that the author of the present volume declares that even the house-holders in suburban districts who have but one conservatory may, if they choose, keep that structure furnished with Orchids at a less expenditure of time and money than is necessary for the Palms, Ferns, and other species usually employed for the purpose. Orchid-growing in the past has been looked upon too much as a craze. Ruinously high prices have been asked for novelties, and "collectors" have been ready enough to pay them in the hope of obtaining unique varieties. This fact alone has frightened off average people. It is hoped that the present volume will induce thousands to commence the culture of the cooler species, as it clearly indicates the simplicity of the cultural principles whilst explaining in full all the principal details. Thanks to the experiments of former workers, we are no longer dependent entirely on the introduction of plants from other countries. Seedling Orchids are raised as freely as seedling Fuchsias, and home-raised seedlings, as a rule, thrive better than introduced species in the artificial cultivation we have to offer them. Readers will find the details of cross-breeding and seed-raising set out in the following pages at considerable length. The author is one of the greatest Orchid specialists the world has known. As a practical cultivator in the old Pine Apple Nurseries of Messrs. Henderson, he had the good fortune to flower many species for the first time after their introduction, and ever since those early days he has continued to specialise in these plants. He is secretary of the Orchid Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society, and in 1897 he was included in the first sixty horticulturists who were selected to receive the Victoria Medal of honour in commemoration of Queen Victoria's Jubilee. Our grateful acknowledgments are made to Lieut.-Col. Sir G. L. Holford, K.C.V.O., for his kindness in affording us facilities for getting the illustrations. Every plant illustrated is a first-rate specimen of its kind, and all have been photographed in Sir George Holford's collection at Westonbirt, which is so well cultivated by his grower, Mr. H. G. Alexander. THE EDITOR. CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION, 1 CHAP. I. THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF ORCHID CULTURE, 3 II. STRUCTURE OF ORCHID FLOWERS, 6 III. DIFFICULTIES TO OVERCOME, 8 IV. STRUCTURE OF THE ORCHID HOUSE, 9 V. THE POTTING AND BASKETING PROCESS, 22 VI. REMOVING USELESS LEAVES AND BULBS, 31 VII. PROPAGATION BY DIVISION, 34 VIII. WATERING EPIPHYTAL ORCHIDS, 35 IX. MANURES FOR ORCHIDS, 39 X. RESTING ORCHIDS, 44 XI. SPECIALLY RARE AND VALUABLE PLANTS, 46 XII. DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS, 47 XIII. PERIODICAL INSPECTION, 50 XIV. ORCHIDS FOR THE CONSERVATORY, 52 XV. ORCHIDS AS CUT FLOWERS, 55 XVI. IMPORTING ORCHIDS, 59 XVII. TREATMENT OF IMPORTED ORCHIDS, 63 XVIII. ODOURS OF ORCHIDS, 65 XIX. HYBRIDISING AND RAISING SEEDLING ORCHIDS, 67 XX. ENUMERATION OF THE PRINCIPAL GENERA AND SPECIES IN CULTIVATION, 81 XXI. ORCHID HYBRIDS, 109 INDEX, 111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATE I. CYPRIPEDIUM INSIGNE SANDERÆ, _Frontispiece_ PAGE II. MILTONIA VEXILLARIA, 12 III. DENDROBIUM WARDIANUM, 24 IV. CATTLEYA TRIANÆ VAR. HYDRA, 40 V. BRASSO-CATTLEYA DIGBYANO-MOSSIÆ, 56 VI. CYMBIDIUM LOWIO-EBURNEUM, 72 VII. ONCIDIUM MARSHALLIANUM, 88 VIII. ODONTOGLOSSUM CRISPUM, 102 ORCHIDS INTRODUCTION It is not necessary here to trace the history of Orchid cultivation since its commencement a century and a half or so ago. The earlier introductions were few and infrequent, but they probably attracted as much attention as the subjects in our gardens obtain to-day. It may be said of Orchids that no class of plants has so well and consistently sustained the interest of cultivators, which is partly because few, if any, plants have flowers that exhibit such diversity of form, size, and colouring. But another reason for their popularity may be found in the fact that few plants are so easy to cultivate, if placed in the care of a careful and earnest cultivator who applies the best methods which his own experience indicates and is willing to avail himself of the help which the experience of others has placed within his reach. Upwards of fifty years' continuous experience with Orchids have necessarily presented to us much evidence as to the right or the wrong methods of carrying out the numerous operations connected with their culture. Nevertheless, it may be said that common sense is one of the most important factors in cultivation, and the grower who carefully thinks over the various problems as they arise, and, profiting by experience, does his best to avoid former failures, will obtain a measure of success far exceeding his expectations. To those who know anything about the ordinary processes of growth and flower the plants tell their own tale. They show when actively growing the period when a reasonable amount of heat and moisture is required, and, on the completion of growth of the deciduous species and the turning yellow of the leaves, they tell just as plainly when the resting period has arrived. It is so in all the important stages of their existence. The extent of the present work having been determined by others in the same series, the object has been to get as much useful information into it as possible, to confine the matter to practical subjects and to avoid repetition. It has therefore been arranged in a series of chapters, each dealing with an important matter, and available for reference when any question on the subject crops up in another portion of the book. Short notes follow on the principal genera known in gardens, but the cultural remarks may be supplemented by reference to the cultural chapters. Anything like an enumeration of the more important species could not be attempted. So also in the matter of hybrid Orchids, the question is discussed in two chapters dealing with the practical question of raising seedlings, but only slight reference could be made to the species used in hybridising or to the numerous hybrids themselves.[1] The amateur who engages in Orchid culture and in the raising of seedlings will find that "practice makes master." It is in indicating the lines on which the practice may be best pursued that, it is hoped, this book may serve a useful purpose. [Footnote 1: Readers may be referred to _List of Orchid Hybrids_, published by F. Sander and Sons.] CHAPTER I THE RISE AND PROGRESS OF ORCHID CULTURE The first tropical Orchid to flower in the British Isles appears to have been _Bletia verecunda_ (_Helleborine americana_), figured in _Historia Plantorum Rariorum, 1728-1735_. It bloomed in 1732 on a plant received by Peter Collinson from the Bahamas in the previous year. In succession to this appeared _Cypripedium spectabile_ and one or two other North American Cypripediums; _Vanilla aromatica_, and a few other species, chiefly terrestrial Orchids. In 1789 Aiton's _Hortus Kewensis_ enumerated fifteen species of exotic Orchids as being in cultivation at Kew, the tropical species being _Bletia verecunda_, _Epidendrum fragrans_, _Epidendrum cochleatum_, and _Phaius grandifolius_. At the end of the eighteenth century about fifty exotic species were recorded. At that time most of the Orchids were imported only to perish as a consequence of the unsuitable conditions in which they were grown. The plants were potted in the most unlikely materials, such as decayed wood, sawdust, loam, tanner's bark, or any other material which the cultivator thought would be useful in preventing the excessive mortality among his plants; but in all cases the chances of success were discounted by the plants being placed near hot flues, or plunged in tan or bark beds. It was thought that a great success had been attained if a plant bloomed once before it died. The year 1800 may be said to be the real starting-point of rational Orchid culture, although, even in the earlier part of the nineteenth century, the old traditions still hindered progress. In 1800 _Aërides odoratum_ was introduced, this being the first East Indian Orchid cultivated in this country. In 1817 Sir Joseph Banks brought about the cultivation of epiphytal Orchids in light, wicker baskets which were suspended in the Orchid house or stove; this is one of the most noteworthy events in the early history of Orchid cultivation. In 1818 _Cattleya labiata_ appeared, and about the same time _Cypripedium insigne_, which has now two or three hundred varieties that enthusiasts consider sufficiently distinct to bear varietal names. _Disa grandiflora_ and _Oncidium Papilio_ appeared in 1825, when about 180 species of tropical Orchids were in cultivation in the Horticultural Society's Gardens. This Society gave a great impetus to Orchid culture by sending out collectors into distant lands, and Dr. Lindley, whilst Editor of the _Gardeners' Chronicle_, played a no less important part in studying and recording the species as they were received in this country. The interest in Orchid importing gradually spread, and from the time when Alan Cunningham sent home Australian Orchids in 1835 the interest has never flagged, the famous Orchid collectors, Lobb, Gardner, Skinner, Hartweg, Gibson, and others, sending consignments from time to time from various parts of the world. The first attempts to grow Orchids in a reasonably low temperature were made in the first half of the nineteenth century, one of the first to grasp the truth in this direction being Joseph Cooper, who was gardener to Earl Fitzwilliam at Wentworth. But a considerable time elapsed before the more rational treatment, which meant less artificial heat and more ventilation, became general. The culture was further improved by the introduction of the hot-water system of heating Orchid houses, a method which is now almost perfect and has done more to further Orchid-growing than anything else. The spread of information respecting the climatic conditions of the countries in which the plants were collected also helped cultivators in this country, and the articles published in the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ in 1851 by the late B. S. Williams, and subsequent articles by other experts, were of great service. The latter half of the nineteenth century was the most important era in the development of Orchid cultivation. A remarkable feature was the beginning of that industry which has now attained such widespread popularity, namely, the raising of hybrid Orchids from seed. The first hybrid Orchid, Calanthe × Dominyi (obtained from a cross between _C. furcata_ and _C. Masuca_), flowered with Messrs. James Veitch & Sons in October 1856. The same firm subsequently produced many fine hybrid Calanthes, Phalanopsis, Cattleyas, Lælias, and Læliocattleyas. Many of these are now standard garden plants, whilst the work of hybridising and raising hybrid Orchids has become general. Another notable event in Orchid culture during the period mentioned was the commencement of the Cool-house or Odontoglossum Section of Orchid Culture. In 1863, Weir, Blunt, and Schlim went to New Granada in search of Odontoglossums, and they were successful in introducing plants of _Odontoglossum crispum_ (Alexandræ), collected above Bogota. These collectors also contributed to our knowledge of the proper methods of cultivating cool Orchids. So things have gone on until our own days. Orchids hold one of the most important places in gardens, and such genera as Odontoglossums and Cypripediums are so popular that they are cultivated on an extensive scale even by many who do not care to grow a general collection of Orchids. CHAPTER II STRUCTURE OF ORCHID FLOWERS Most people are familiar with the regular arrangement of the segments of the flowers of Amaryllids and Lilies, with their prominent pistils and anthers. The first stage in the advance of the Orchid family is shown in the Apostasieæ, comprising _Apostasia_, _Neuwiedia_ and _Adactylus_, in which the perianth segments are more or less regular and the anthers in some degree prominent, Neuwiedia, with its free stamens and prominent style, appearing at first sight nearer to some of the Amaryllids than to the Orchideæ commonly seen in gardens. The Cypripedieæ, although so widely separated from other sections as to suggest that in the operations of nature a vast number of connecting types must have become extinct, is the next step, the labellum being formed into a pouch with infolded side lobes. The column has a prominent staminode with two fertile anthers below it, one on each side of the column and behind the stigmatic plate. The upper sepal is frequently the showiest feature in the flower; the lower sepals are joined and arranged behind the lip, whilst the petals extend on each side and vary much in form. In gardens, the whole of the genus is known as Cypripedium, although the South American species (Selenipedium), having a three-celled ovary, differ widely from the one-celled East Indian and Malayan species, and other sections have such marked and consistent botanical differences as to warrant the botanist in separating them under different sub-generic names. The third section of Orchidæ, the largest family of the Monocotyledons, forms the chief class of Orchids as they are known in gardens. In this class the stamens and style unite into a column, and at the top of the column the pollen masses are situated; these are covered by the anther-cap, and in a cavity is the stigma with its viscid surface to receive the pollen grains. So diverse and intricate are the forms of the flowers, and especially labellums, that there is little doubt that insect aid is necessary in their natural habitats to bring about pollination. It has been proved by the operations carried out in cross-fertilisation in gardens that no class of plants can be so readily crossed under artificial conditions. It is not necessary here to go further into structural details, as the peculiarities of each section will be remarked on under their different headings. But it may be said that in what are called abnormal flowers, which have perfect stamens and style, can be seen instances suggesting the evolutionary process; these would be more common but for the number of connecting links which have dropped out in the great struggle for existence. CHAPTER III DIFFICULTIES TO OVERCOME Some of the difficulties which the cultivator of Orchids has to contend against arise from the fact that his houses have to accommodate plants which have been brought from widely separated countries, or from different altitudes in the same region. They therefore require very different cultural conditions, especially in the matter of temperature. Consideration of the climatic conditions under which the plants are found growing in their native habitats is very helpful to all engaged in Orchid culture. Many problems have already been worked out by the experience of cultivators, but some of the conclusions have been arrived at only after costly failures. In the early days of Orchid culture, before the advent of the modern Orchid house with its improved methods of ventilation and means for the promotion of humidity, the great mortality among cultivated Orchids was caused by excessive heat and drought. Even at the present day more mischief is done by excessive heat than by cold treatment. CHAPTER IV STRUCTURE OF THE ORCHID HOUSE So far as the improvements in present-day Orchid houses are concerned, these are not due to the imagination of the horticultural builder, but to the experience of the Orchid grower. It is owing to him that the old-time glass sides, with their hinged ventilators on a level with the plants, and many other harmful arrangements, have been abandoned. Moderately low, span-roofed houses, extending north and south for preference--although the aspect does not seem to be of vital importance--are the best, the sides being wholly of brick, and also the ends of all but the large houses, in which the upper part may be formed of wood and glass. The top ventilation should be admitted through ventilators placed at the highest point of the ridge, and they are usually worked by a continuous system manipulated at one end. The lower ventilators should be small ones fixed in the brick-work at the sides of the house, and they may be arranged to be regulated from the outside, or by means of rods attached to the flaps on the inside and reaching to the path, being carried beneath the staging. The natural earth is the best base for an Orchid house, and open wood-work trellises placed on the natural earth are far preferable to tiled paths, therefore their use is strongly recommended. Beneath the central stage, from end to end, deep tanks with cemented interior should be provided, because rain-water is essential for watering the plants. To create a good appearance, narrow, ornamental rockeries may be arranged at the edge of the side staging and beneath it, and in any part of the basement available. These should be planted with Begonias, Tradescantias, such ferns as are not likely to be attacked by thrips, Selaginellas, Fittonias, and _Ficus repens_, which are not liable to attacks from insects, whilst their presence tends to preserve a healthy atmosphere in the house. The rockeries beneath the staging should not be built high enough to obstruct the passage of the heat from the hot-water piping, a rise of one foot from the ground level being sufficient. In the warm-house, _Eucharis grandiflora_ and other species of Eucharis; Hymenocallis and Pancratiums, thrive and bloom well beneath the staging. The inside of the roof should be wired for suspending baskets containing Orchids, and this should be done before the plants are placed in the house. As regards the form of structure, comparatively low, span-roofed houses, with brick sides reaching to the eaves, and no side glass, are the best, the ends being of brick up to the height of the side walls, the remaining part running up to the ridge, in all but very small houses, being formed of wood and glass. If several houses are built, spaces should be left between each house, and no two or more houses should be built with partition walls, for these prevent the necessary side ventilation. A house of 100 feet or so in length should have a division midway in its length, which for some purposes gives the advantages of two houses. Pitch-pine or teak, being durable, are good woods for the wood-work, and, in any case, the use of cheap, soft timber should be avoided. In glazing, only a thin bedding of putty should be used, and the glass should be bradded on the upper side, as top putty when decaying or on becoming loose is worse than useless, and tends seriously to foul the water in the cisterns. Span-roofed houses 12 feet to 15 feet wide, and of proportionate elevation, are suitable for ordinary Orchids, but if specimen plants are desired a loftier house will be necessary. A range of houses should, if possible, be connected at the end which is most exposed to the north and north-east winds by a corridor or covered structure, in which the potting-shed stores and entrance to the boiler hold should be arranged. The greatest care must be taken that no fumes from the heating apparatus can find their way into either the corridor, potting-sheds, or plant-houses, or the plants will suffer the worst consequences. Safety can easily be assured by thoroughly ventilating the stoke-hold and making the partition between the corridor or offices and the stoke-hold as air-tight as possible. The wood-work, when of pitch-pine or other hard wood planed smooth, may be oiled or varnished, painting being undesirable for new houses. In course of time, however, painting has to be resorted to, and it is one of the most trying operations about the Orchid houses. Great care has to be taken to obtain a reliable quality of paint that will not harm the plants, and to keep the house vacant for as long a time as possible for the gases from the paint to escape. After the plants are returned to the house some ventilation must be maintained day and night for a time. Tar should not be used inside an Orchid house for any purpose. THE STAGING The staging must be arranged according to the width of the house. Narrow houses may be provided with a stage on each side and a path through the centre. Other structures of sufficient width should be furnished with a side stage measuring 4 feet to 4 feet 6 inches in width, and a central stage on a somewhat higher level, and rising in steps to the middle and highest point. [Illustration: PLATE II MILTONIA VEXILLARIA "EMPRESS AUGUSTA VICTORIA" (This specimen, cultivated from a single growth, bore 126 flowers.)] Iron frame-work is the best, because it is clean and almost indestructible. The uprights resting on the floor should be fixed in metal saucers, which, if kept filled with water, offer great obstacles to insects ascending from the floor. The open wood-work resting on the iron frames, and on which the plants are to stand, should be of teak or pitch-pine, and arranged trellis-like. For some years past it has been the practice to have a close, moisture-holding stage of slate, or tiles, beneath the upper and open wood-work stage. It was an invention of my own when adapting an ordinary plant-house with a slate stage to receive one of the earliest importations of _Odontoglossum crispum_. The existing slate stage was made water-tight at the joints, and a fillet of cement was run along the back; the surface was then covered with clean shingle, and home-made trellises, raised on bricks in three levels, were placed along the close staging to receive the plants. It proved a great success, and in the same house the small, bottom ventilators, the first of their kind, but which have now become general, were an equally good innovation. At that time, and for many years afterwards, the flooring of Orchid houses was sealed by concrete or hard tiles, and the moisture-holding lower stage was necessary to give a reasonable amount of evaporating surface. More recently it has occurred to many of us that a moisture-giving surface might be obtained from the natural earth, if the earth was left either in its natural state or was given a coating of coke-breeze or similar porous material, and trellises used for the paths. In a similar way provision had to be made for the second object of the close stage, namely, the checking of the direct upward heat from the hot-water pipes. This has been done very effectively in some gardens by arranging a much less elaborate and costly means than the full, close staging generally in use. An iron frame is placed midway between the hot-water pipes and the staging on which the plants rest; a shelf of corrugated iron, slate, or tiles, extends from the back to about half the width of the side staging, its inner edge being about midway in the space beneath the staging, and an inch or so of space is left between the back of the shelf and the wall of the house to allow some of the heat from the pipes to pass that way, the greater part being diverted towards the middle of the house by the intervention of the shelf which is covered with turf or some other moisture-holding material. This is kept continually moist by frequent syringings during the warm season, when plenty of moisture in the air is required. In arranging new houses having the natural earth for a floor, this plan is less expensive and altogether preferable to the formal, close staging of full width, which, however, should still be retained in adapting ordinary plant-houses already provided with a tiled or cemented base, unless it is convenient to remove the tiles and restore the natural earth surface. In arranging the staging, one essential object has to be kept in view, namely, that no part of it shall be out of easy reach; for very wide stages are apt to cause the plants in the back rows to suffer neglect. METHOD OF HEATING In these progressive times it is not well to lay down hard-and-fast rules with regard to the best type of appliance. It should, however, be urged that every Orchid house ought to be heated with hot water, and, that in all cases 4-inch piping should be used, the radiation of heat from that size being much more gentle and equal than from smaller pipes. Bottom heat by means of piping under closed-in beds of cocoa-nut fibre, or any other material, is bad, although, in a very slight degree, some arrangement of the kind may be of assistance in the house devoted to raising seedlings. If it is used, an outlet must be provided for the inevitable moisture thus raised so that it will not condense and fall on the plants. For small houses or blocks of houses, the old saddle boiler in some form is all that can be desired; and there are several forms of slow-combustion boilers which may be set almost on the surface of the ground outside the house, and these are satisfactory. For blocks of houses the English form of sectional boiler is one of the very best; in large blocks duplicate sets of this pattern, or any other type that may be selected, should be set down, as it provides means of heating the houses if the ordinary boiler happens to fail. It is always better to provide more power than may appear absolutely necessary, and work it at low pressure, than to have barely sufficient power and work it hard during severe weather, as the heat diffused in the latter case is harmful. Before deciding on the means of heating to be employed, it would be well to pay a visit to some of the collections noted for the excellent condition of their plants, and inspect the appliances and their arrangement. Most Orchid growers, whether in private establishments or nurseries, are willing to assist amateurs in these matters. When the apparatus has been got into working order, tests should be made to ensure an equal distribution of the heat from the piping. If a draught of hot air to any part of the house from beneath the staging is observed, it is a good plan to build up openly-laid screens or brick walls 4-1/2 inches thick, the layers of brick being placed so that there is half the length of the brick opening between each brick and the next to it. Where there is a sufficient command of heat, these openly-laid brick walls, without mortar, built up below the side staging and running parallel with the edge of it, if they are syringed frequently, assist materially in preserving a healthy moisture in the house. TEMPERATURE One of the most important matters in Orchid cultivation is to see that a lower temperature is maintained at night than in the day. Nothing is more injurious to the plants than to be kept in a high temperature at night, nor is anything more contrary to natural conditions. All who have travelled in the countries from whence Orchids have been imported testify to the great difference between the temperature during the day and that experienced at night, the difference in some parts being that between an excessively hot day and a chilly night and early morning. These cool conditions at night are absolutely necessary for the well-being of the plants, and in their absence the plants suffer as do human beings during the progress of a heat-wave, which often kills many people. Therefore it must be urged that at night the temperature must be from 5° to 10° Fahrenheit lower than the day temperatures. This condition is difficult to get during hot weather, but it is necessary. Although a scale of temperatures throughout the year must not be taken to mean that a little more heat may not be allowed occasionally--as, for instance, by sun-heat, which is beneficial--nevertheless it is better to have a scale to form a basis, and especially to emphasise the lower temperature at night. ~Table of Temperatures for Orchid Houses~ ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Months. | Warm House, | Cattleya or | Cool or | | East Indian. | Intermediate House.| Odontoglossum House.| -----------|---------------|--------------------|---------------------- | Day. | Night.| Day. | Night. | Day. | Night. January | 65-70 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 | 50-55 | 45 February | 65-70 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 | 50-55 | 45 March | 65-70 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 | 55-60 | 50 April | 65-70 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 | 55-60 | 50 May | 70-75 | 65 | 65-70 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 June | 75-80 | 65 | 70-75 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 July | 75-85 | 65 | 70-80 | 65 | 60-70 | 55 August | 75-85 | 65 | 70-80 | 65 | 60-70 | 55 September | 75-80 | 65 | 70-75 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 October | 70-75 | 65 | 65-70 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 November | 65-70 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 | 55-60 | 50 December | 65-70 | 60 | 60-65 | 55 | 50-55 | 45 ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Degrees Fahrenheit. The higher day temperature should be obtained by sun-heat when possible. Further remarks on this and other details will be found under the headings of the different genera, but it will be better now to state in general terms that during the season of active growth any reasonably high temperature by sun-heat, secured by keeping the house tolerably close and well shaded, greatly benefits the plants. This is specially noticeable where batches of _Dendrobium nobile_, _D. Wardianum_, and other deciduous Dendrobiums are grown. Those who grow them best allow the house containing the plants to become very warm; they remove the shading early in the afternoon in order to let the plants get the longest duration of light possible, and they keep the house very moist until the evening. THE SINGLE ORCHID HOUSE It is doubtful whether the owner of a large collection of Orchids gets a greater amount of pleasure than the beginner starting with but one Orchid house, provided the owner of the single structure is careful in selecting his plants. In cases where only one Orchid house is possible, and a more or less general collection of plants is desired, that house should be heated as an intermediate house. The single Orchid house has often been the starting-point of more extensive culture. It is generally commenced by utilising an existing plant-house, in some cases, unfortunately, without making the necessary preparation for the new occupants. When it has been decided to adapt a house for Orchids, the proper course is to clear the house of its contents, thoroughly overhaul the interior fittings, such as staging, &c., and make any alterations necessary. The heating apparatus should be regulated, and, above all, the best possible provision must be made for catching and storing rain-water, even if this necessitates the providing of a brick and cement tank beneath the staging. If the existing floor in the house is of concrete or tiles, or any similar material, it must be removed, leaving the natural earth for the surface of the basement, and providing a wood-trellis for walking on in spaces between the stages. Let the house be thoroughly cleansed and painted, and after a short time has elapsed it will be ready to receive the plants. In such a house heated as a cool, intermediate house, with a minimum temperature of 50° to 60° Fahr. in winter, a large number of showy Orchids can be grown successfully. Those species which require great heat should be carefully avoided, for, although cool-house Orchids are easily managed in a house warmer than is necessary for them, the hot-house kinds usually fail in a temperature which is too low to allow of their making growth under favourable conditions. In such an intermediate house the Odontoglossums, Masdevallias and other favourite cool-house Orchids can be grown successfully, if arranged in the cooler part of the house and carefully watered. The Cattleyas, Lælias, and the garden hybrids should be placed on the staging in the middle of the house, well up to the light; the Brazilian Oncidiums, _Sophronitis grandiflora_, and Stanhopeas should be suspended from the roof of the house, but in such positions as will avoid placing them over the plants on the side staging. The Odontoglossums and Cochliodas may be accommodated on the side staging in the cooler and moister part of the house. In such a house all the varieties of _Cypripedium insigne_, _C. Spicerianum_, _C. Charlesworthii_, and all the green-leafed section known as Selenipediums, will thrive admirably, and a very large selection of other showy Orchids, including Zygopetalums; but again I would say that species which are usually regarded as warm-house Orchids must be rejected. SHADING It should be distinctly understood that every Orchid house needs to be fitted with proper means of shading, extending over the whole roof and removable when necessary. Some cultivators think they meet the case by providing shading only on the sunny side, or by painting the glass with some kind of preparation more or less in the nature of whitewash. Such preparations should never be used, because, when this is once placed on the glass, the shade, such as it is, is there in dull as well as bright weather, in the night time as well as the day, and for the greater part of the time, especially in dull seasons, it obstructs light which is necessary for the proper development of the plants. Another important objection to their use is that shading given by these washes wears off and leaves the plants exposed to the full sunlight. The substance is washed off by the rains and carried into the rain-water tanks, thus causing injuries to the plants watered with the polluted water, and rendering unsightly the foliage moistened with it. Proper blinds running on iron or wooden supports, raising them well above the glass of the roof, are absolutely necessary. Lath roller blinds are excellent for shading, being durable, clean, and easily let down and drawn up. Light canvas or scrim shading fixed to roller blinds answers the purpose well, but care should be taken not to employ heavy, closely woven canvas. Too great attention cannot be paid to the working of these blinds, for they must never be down except when required for protection against the sun's rays, and they must be drawn up during dull intervals. The blinds are useful also during severe winters as a protection against excessive cold at nights, and in this particular the lath roller blinds are the best, and may be left in position where they are likely to be required for this purpose. When canvas blinds are used during the summer and removed in late autumn, care should be taken to have them perfectly dry before they are stored for the winter in some dry place, or they will be useless when they are required for placing in position the following spring. CHAPTER V THE POTTING AND BASKETING PROCESS We are often asked what season is the best for potting and basketing Orchids. Experienced growers say that, with the exception of the winter season, they are engaged in potting operations all the year round, potting each section as it requires it. Springtime is a period when a general overhaul of the plants is usual, and, at that time, plants requiring it should be repotted, but those which are not in the proper condition, or which are showing flower-spikes, should be allowed to remain until their flowering time has passed. As a general rule, it may be said that the best time to perform the operation is soon after the flowering season has passed, and that no plant should be repotted unless it really requires it; but any plant which has become in a bad condition in the pot by being in unsuitable material should be repotted at once, no matter what season it may be. Care should be taken to use the pots and crocks in a thoroughly clean condition. Broken crocks are generally used for drainage, although they are not now placed in the pots to the depth of one-half or more, as they used to be. The depth of the crocks varies from about one-third in Cypripediums and terrestrial Orchids generally, to a rather greater depth for Cattleyas, Lælias, and similar Orchids, the depth of crocks also being varied according to the density of the material used, fewer crocks being necessary when a mixture of Osmunda fibre, or other material which lets the water through quickly, is employed in place of peat. Sand and crushed crocks or potsherds are used by many for mixing with the potting material, but they may easily be dispensed with, or used only in very small quantities. Turfy loam carefully broken up and mixed in suitable proportions with peat and Sphagnum-moss, or Osmunda, or Polypodium fibre, is necessary for Cypripediums, the proportion of loam being greatest for the stronger-growing plants; certain Selenipediums and Cypripediums require quite one-half of that ingredient. Some good growers use loam fibre with a sprinkling of leaves and broken crocks entirely for _Cypripedium insigne_ and others of the green-leafed class, and also for Calanthes, Phaius, Zygopetalums, and other plants. In preparing the peat for use in potting, the bracken rhizomes should be set aside to place as a layer over the crocks, with a little Sphagnum-moss. Bracken rhizomes have been used with advantage instead of crocks to form drainage for Odontoglossums, and some growers like it so much for that purpose that the horticultural sundriesmen supply it sterilised in bags. The methods of potting and choice of material vary with different growers, each pursuing in some matters different methods to those observed by others. It is desirable that an Orchid grower should endeavour to find out the best methods for his own circumstances and, if the results are satisfactory, that he should adhere to them, for there is no more prolific cause of failure than in continually trying experiments recommended by others. The operation of potting or basketing Orchids is very simple, and can be readily learned by observation. The aim should be to avoid injuring the living roots but to leave the plant firm in the pot. [Illustration: PLATE III DENDROBIUM WARDIANUM (At the time the photograph was taken this plant bore 264 flowers.)] BASKETS AND POTS It is more in accordance with nature to grow epiphytal Orchids of convenient size in baskets to be suspended from the roof of the Orchid house, and in the case of subjects reputedly difficult to grow the best results are often attained in this way. At the same time, this is due as much to the plants being placed near to the glass of the roof, as to the fact that the air has better access to the roots than when the plants are in pots. Hence it is that for suspending plants of small and medium growth, Orchid pans made in the same way as the flower-pot are found to be a convenient substitute for baskets, as they are not so liable to decay as wood-baskets. Stanhopeas, Lueddemannias, Acinetas, and some other Orchids which produce their flower spikes directly from the base of the growth, must be grown in baskets to admit of the proper production of their flowers, which, if grown in pots, are sent down into the compost and lost. Gongoras, Cirrhæas, and similar genera, which produce slender spikes of flowers of drooping habit, are also best in baskets, as they produce their flowers much more freely when the plants are suspended. The Orchid pan, for suspending, is also equally good for Masdevallias of the Chimæra section, a large number of Bulbophyllums and Cirrhopetalums, and generally for plants of small stature which would be too far away from the glass if placed on the stage. For the bulk of the collection the grower has to use the ordinary flower-pots, which are still unsurpassed for general purposes. The elaborately designed pots, perforated with holes or slits, which were used for Orchids years ago, are not necessary, for there is no defect in the ordinary flower-pot which cannot be overcome by the careful and skilful practitioner. Rafts and cylinders of teak-wood made in the same manner as baskets are useful for some species, but it has to be remembered that plants on rafts are liable to suffer from lack of sufficient moisture-holding material around them. _Broughtonia sanguinea_, however, is never so happy as when grown on a horizontally suspended raft without the least potting material. The great trouble with suspended Orchids, and one which precludes the cultivator employing this culture for so many plants as he could wish, is the drip they cause to the plants on the stages. No Orchid should have another plant suspended above it; if it is not possible to avoid this, the relative positions of the suspended plants should be changed as often as possible; water should only be given them by "dipping" the plants, and they should be allowed to drain thoroughly before being again suspended. As many of the suspended plants as possible should be arranged on each side of the path, and in other situations where there are no plants immediately under them. Narrow rafts 4 inches wide and 1 foot or so in height are suitable for _Angræcum infundibulare_, _A. imbricatum_, and other scandent Angræcums of similar growth. These should be fastened to the rafts with some good Sphagnum-moss between the plant and the raft on the lower half, the base of the plant and the raft being afterwards fastened in a flower-pot with Sphagnum-moss, the raft leaning at a slight angle. Sphagnum-moss can be added on the upper part as the plant grows, and, when sufficiently rooted up the stem, it can be severed half-way up when the base will produce new growths. STAKING OR FIXING ORCHIDS Some years ago, when large specimens were favoured, it used to be the practice to stake or "stick" the plants, as it was called, some of them exhibiting almost as many sticks as pseudo-bulbs. The sticks rapidly decayed, often leaving the stumps to harbour fungus and cause injury to the plants. The compact specimens of the present day, when properly grown, require no support from sticks. In respect to specimens of larger growth, such as Aërides of tall habit, Lælias of the _L. purpurata_ class, and Dendrobiums, when they require sticking at all, they may be securely supported by one stick in the centre, to which one of the strongest growths should be fastened, any others requiring support being looped to the centre stick. The fewer sticks used the better. Dwarf plants with creeping rhizomes between the pseudo-bulbs used often to be secured when repotted by small wire pegs, and the custom is not yet quite obsolete. Metal, especially galvanised iron wire, which is most commonly used, is very injurious to any portion of an Orchid which is allowed to come in contact with it. Such pegs are unnecessary, for the plants can be fixed with the potting material, and later on the new roots will effectually secure them. In fastening Orchids on rafts or blocks, fine copper wire should be used, and all the care possible taken to prevent it resting on the rhizomes or stems, a small piece of peat or Sphagnum-moss being placed beneath the wire where it crosses the plant. Where Orchids such as Phalænopsis are grown in baskets or hanging pans, the leaves should not be allowed to touch the wire suspenders, or injury will result. Where leaves too closely approach the wire suspenders during their growth, the wire should be bent to avoid contact, or have a small shred of cotton-wool or other material bound round it at the point of contact, if the leaf cannot be drawn aside. For staking Orchids, bamboo canes are preferable to common deal-wood sticks. LABELLING THE PLANTS It adds much to the interest of a collection of Orchids, either small or large, if a proper system of recording the plants is arranged for by means of a stock-book, in which the name of each plant is entered as it is acquired, together with the source from which it was obtained, and any other particulars that may be required when the plant flowers. This entry need only be brief, and generally one, or at most two lines will suffice for each plant. If it is intended to keep the plants under numbers, the left-hand margin should bear consecutive numbers from one onward, but if it is desired to have the names on each plant, the names in the stock-book should be arranged in an alphabetical manner. In some collections where numbering is practised the number is written across the top of the label, and the name written lengthwise when desired. The common deal label is not suitable, because the base soon decays in Orchid houses, causing danger from fungal growth, and rendering the identification of the plant after the label has perished, or fallen away, very uncertain. The lead number for clipping the rim of the pot, or attaching to the wires of the basket or suspending pan, is less objectionable, but they are only convenient where numbers are alone used. Zinc labels and various other contrivances have been tried, but the best and safest label, either for numbers or names, or both, is the white celluloid label, obtainable in all sizes, similar to the ordinary wooden plant label, and in the ticket form for attaching to the baskets by means of fine wire. This kind of label does not decay as the wood labels, and it may be cleaned and used again as long as it remains in a perfect condition. Let all labels be made as small as possible consistent with their being firmly fixed, as it detracts much from the appearance of a house of plants if the labels are too much in evidence. Care must be taken during repotting that the labels removed from the plants should each be returned to its proper specimen. Much trouble may be caused by mixing the labels. CHAPTER VI REMOVING USELESS LEAVES AND BULBS An unsightly appearance is given to many collections of Orchids by the presence on some of the plants of a number of damaged or yellow leaves. These are often supposed to be the result of bad cultivation, and, in some cases, rightly so. But in all collections of Orchids the old leaves, even of the evergreen species, do not pass off naturally as they do in their native habitats, where they have the natural seasons with their climatic changes to cause the leaves to fall naturally. When cultivated under glass, the species which are known as evergreen kinds retain their old leaves long after they would have passed away in their native wilds; and not only that, but they decline and become unsightly for years under glass, instead of passing away in a few months. Consequently many Orchids in collections often carry at least twice as many leaves as they ought to do, and the oldest are the most unsightly. A ready example of this kind is given by most collections of Masdevallias. The leaves are usually densely packed, many of the older ones shabby, and not only unsightly in themselves, but interfering with the full development of the new growths. Masdevallias have no developed pseudo-bulbs, but a joint will be seen where the leaf-blades join the basal stems; all damaged leaves should be cut off just above that joint, and it will be found that some of the plants will be benefited, both in appearance and condition, by having from one-third to one-half the number of their old and damaged leaves removed. The same remarks apply to all Orchids of similar growth, such as Pleurothallis and Octomerias, and indeed to the species generally, for damaged or decaying leaves can be of no assistance in the development of the plant, unless in exceptional cases where the grower must use his own discretion. USELESS PSEUDO-BULBS If an imported Orchid such as a Cattleya or Lælia, which has been cultivated under glass for several years and has many pseudo-bulbs, be turned out of the pot and the roots freed from the potting material, it will be seen that the new roots which nourish the plant are confined to the freshest pseudo-bulbs, and that the roots beneath the older pseudo-bulbs are in such a condition that they are useless in the economy of the plant. This fact goes to show that the old pseudo-bulbs are being supported by the newer growths, and, that they are seriously impeding the full development of the flower-producing part of the specimen. In such cases it is a common thing to see large specimens collapse and die off, the decay being traceable to the old bulbs in the centre of the plant. It is, therefore, better to remove old pseudo-bulbs behind the last three or four leading ones, and, if it is desired to retain all leading portions of a large mass in one pot or pan to form a specimen, they should be potted together, when it will be found that, given reasonable treatment, they will make better specimens than if left in a mass. In the case of varieties that need to be propagated, the pieces removed should be placed in comparatively small Orchid pans or baskets, properly labelled, and in due time useful and often valuable specimens may be secured from material which would only have been detrimental to the parent plant. The same kind of treatment will be found equally beneficial in the case of garden hybrids which have been cultivated long enough to have a number of back bulbs. In such cases the plants frequently degenerate after the first two or three years, until they produce inferior flowers, but the removal of the back pseudo-bulbs results in giving the flowering growths the full benefit of the root action, and consequently the plants again produce flowers of good quality. Potting time is a very convenient season to give special attention to the removal of useless leaves and pseudo-bulbs, as the plants can be readily handled when they are out of the pots. All useless parts removed should be taken out of the house and burnt. It is a common practice to throw the leaves under the stage. No rubbish of this, or any other kind, should be allowed in the Orchid house, as it forms a harbour for insects and is, in other respects, objectionable. CHAPTER VII PROPAGATION BY DIVISION It used to be thought a very delicate operation to divide an Orchid, or to remove any portion of it for the purpose of obtaining another specimen, and, when the operation was carried out, it was thought to be at the risk of the plant and its offset. In the case of badly grown plants, or where the houses are unsuitable for growing Orchids successfully, there may still be considerable risk in the process; but under ordinary conditions, and where the plants have proper accommodation, there is no risk whatever; it may be said that plants are never in better health than when they are divided at reasonable intervals. If we consider the case of _Cypripedium insigne Sanderæ_, some of the white Cattleyas, and many other Orchids which were imported only as single specimens originally but which are now well represented in gardens, the advantage of dividing the plants is readily seen. Pseudo-bulbous Orchids with progressive rhizomes, such as Cattleyas, Lælias, Oncidiums, and Odontoglossums, should be divided by severing the rhizomes, retaining two or more pseudo-bulbs together. This operation can be done at any season of the year, but it is most convenient to do it at potting time, and, for preference, just before the commencement of the natural growing season of the plant. Small pieces should be placed in small Orchid pans or baskets, but larger ones may be potted at once and placed on the stage with the other plants. Dendrobiums may also be propagated by dividing the plants, but a large section of the genus may also be propagated by cuttings of the pseudo-bulbs. This method is specially useful for increasing a rare and fine variety of _Dendrobium nobile_ or others of the section, as a good supply of plants can quickly be obtained in this way. The method is to cut the pseudo-bulbs into lengths of two or three inches and to place them in small Orchid pans, six or eight in a pan, suspending the pan in a warm, moist, house. The Thunia section of Phaius, _Epidendrum radicans_, and some other Epidendrums and Orchids of similar growth may be multiplied in this manner. Further remarks on propagation will be found under the names of the genera enumerated. CHAPTER VIII WATERING EPIPHYTAL ORCHIDS Success or failure with any class of Orchids depends largely on the exercise of discretion in watering. While it may be said that more specimens are lost by having too little water, especially among the smaller-growing species, than by over-watering, at the same time much mischief is caused by a system of giving a little watering frequently all the year round, and without any regard to the period of growth or rest through which the plants are passing. Such treatment does not provide for strong growth during the growing season, or adequate rest after the growths are finished; consequently the plants decline in health and the flowers are not satisfactory. Rain-water is the only suitable water for Orchids, and the growers who can command a supply of it all the year round possess a great advantage over those who have to use water from any other source. During the period of growth and root action, too much water at the root cannot easily be given, provided the material in which the plants are potted is sufficiently porous and the pots or Orchid pans have a sufficient drainage. The rule should be to water thoroughly when watering at all, making sure that the whole of the potting material is moistened well, then not to give more water to that plant until the effect of the watering is seen to be passing, the plant being still moist but approaching dryness, when the thorough watering should be repeated. Nothing is more misleading than to pour a little water each day on the surface of the material in which the plant is potted. This is often considered to be careful watering, but it results in a large number of the plants never getting thoroughly moist at the root, while others in a retentive compost, or where the drainage is defective, become soddened. Such cases may arise occasionally under any conditions, and, where a thoroughly dry plant is found at a season when it should be moist, it is better to plunge the pot or basket in water until it is perfectly soaked. In the case of a plant which is too wet with stagnant moisture, it should either be repotted after the wet potting material has been removed, or placed on a shelf to remain without water until it is again in a proper condition to receive it. In all cases a spouted watering-pot should be used. The rose watering-pot and syringe are necessary things in the Orchid house, but the use of them should be rigidly restricted to some definite work, such as watering Orchids for the first time after repotting, sprinkling the floors, staging, and brick walls, and other work which cannot cause mischief. It used to be a common practice to water Orchids overhead with a rose watering-pot, but the plants so watered made but few roots, and the foliage was generally unsightly, owing to deposits from the water. It is therefore best to make a rule against watering overhead in a general way. The syringe may be used among Dendrobiums and some other warm-house Orchids during the height of the growing season; but it would be safer to arrange for such work to be done by means of a sprayer and at shorter intervals. The sprayer is a very useful and beneficial contrivance, and, in the hands of a careful operator using clean rain-water, it affords a valuable aid in maintaining a healthily humid condition in the atmosphere of all the Orchid houses, especially during the heat of the summer. Equal in importance to the giving of sufficient water during the growing season is the observance of the dry, resting season, which, in a varying degree, is required by all Orchids, whether they come from hot or cold habitats, and whether they are epiphytal or terrestrial species. WATERING TERRESTRIAL ORCHIDS These, like the epiphytal Orchids, may be divided into two main classes, namely, those which lose their leaves annually, and those which are more or less evergreen. Some of the genera contain both of these classes, and notably the Calanthes. In _C. vestita_, _C. Regnieri_, _C. rosea_, and their varieties and hybrids the leaves turn yellow after the growths are fully made up, a sign which gives a good indication as to the necessity for withholding water for a lengthened period; while _Calanthe veratrifolia_ and others of the class retain the last-made foliage green all the year round, the loss of foliage being in the old leaves, which should be removed at the first sign of decay. With these latter may be classed the Phaius, Zygopetalums, Cymbidiums, Cypripediums, and many others of evergreen habit, which require much care to be exercised in the matter of withholding water during the resting season, otherwise the plants will decline in vigour. After the growths are finished, most of these plants are benefited by removal to a cooler and more freely ventilated house for a few weeks, during which time the supply of water should be restricted, but they should never be allowed to suffer by being thoroughly dried. For Zygopetalums and other Orchids which it is customary to place in a rather drier atmosphere during the time they are in flower, such an interval would be sufficient rest. CHAPTER IX MANURES FOR ORCHIDS It should be distinctly understood that, in the case of true epiphytes, there is no need for manures, and, that artificial chemical manures are almost certain to bring about disastrous results, the final collapse being in proportion to the potency of the stimulant used and the recklessness of the grower. Where rain-water can be obtained and stored for use throughout the season, it is safest and most satisfactory to rely on this alone, except for some terrestrial Orchids. The chief difficulty in recommending the use of manures for any class of plants, Orchids especially, is in the fact that, once the practice is commenced, even those cultivators who begin cautiously frequently lose discretion in the course of time and ruin their plants by excessive applications. It is for this reason that the growers of plants for market purposes, whose secret of success almost entirely depends on the use of manures, are careful to give out the supplies to the men who have to use them, or, with the very best intentions, they would often destroy a crop. Indeed, it is not uncommon for foremen, or men in charge of departments in large nurseries devoted to growing plants for market, to resort to unfair means to get extra supplies of manure for their plants, and frequently with bad results. There is another curious feature about the use of manures in market-plant gardens, namely, that all concerned observe the greatest secrecy in the matter, and rarely admit that they use "anything but water"--that being the common expression. The same secrecy is observed by the Orchid expert in most cases. Another thing is that there is no common formula accepted by all practitioners. Each seems to have his own opinions as to materials, quality, and strength of the stimulants used. One thing is certain, that even where artificial manures are used, the time of application and its discontinuance has more to do with success or failure than the nature of the manure itself. Even in cases where the administration of a mild stimulant is of use during the period of active growth and free rooting, if the manure is not discontinued after growth is completed much mischief is done. It is not necessary to go into the relative merits of chemical manures, which are not recommended for use, but it may be stated that some growers do use small quantities with apparently good results, restricting the use of the manure to the active growing season and during the time the flower-spikes are forming. Aërides, Saccolabiums, and Vandas seem to be exceptions, as they represent the highest development of the epiphyte. Odontoglossums and some similar Orchids have been treated to a very small quantity of Peruvian guano sprinkled in the water used for watering them in spring while the flowers were forming, and without a bad effect; but the quantity used was very small, and the water was not allowed to touch the leaves or pseudo-bulbs. One grower on the Continent was in the habit of sprinkling a handful of nitrate of soda in the gutter of the house, especially before, or during heavy rain, in order that a little solution of it might be carried into the rain-water tanks in the Orchid house. His plants throve well, and this shows that even with epiphytal Orchids there is a field open for experiment; but the operator must not lose sight of the fact that he is "playing with edged tools." We will now state what has been proved to be beneficial when carefully carried out. Those who grow batches of the showy Dendrobiums such as _D. nobile_, _D. Wardianum_, _D. Phalænopsis_, and others of the class, and who, at the growing season, place them in a warm, moist house, suspended from the roof for preference, frequently give them weak doses of liquid manure during the season of growth, and the plants make very fine growth. [Illustration: PLATE IV CATTLEYA TRIANÆ VAR. "HYDRA" (The plant bore 88 flowers.)] The liquid from farm-yard manure, or from a stable, should be avoided, as its strength cannot be known; sometimes it is very weak, and at others fatally strong. A large tub with liquid manure made of cow-dung, and in which a coarse bag of soot has been sunk, is a safe manure for any plant, and if properly diluted can do no harm to plants requiring such a stimulant. Terrestrial Orchids such as Calanthes and Phaius can scarcely be grown to their best without a liberal application of this, or some other manure known to the operator to be safe, during their season of growth. Cymbidiums, Zygopetalums, Peristerias, and other strong-growing Orchids have also been treated to weak liquid manure from the commencement of growth until the flowers expanded, with advantage so far as evidence is available. An occasional watering of liquid manure, or slight sprinkling of guano, may be given beneath the staging in the evenings during the growing season. The structure of the roots of Orchids does not favour the idea that they are suited for taking up stimulating liquid in the manner common to fibrous-rooted plants. On the general question of the use of stimulants in Orchid culture many clever men have carried out experiments. The late Dr. A. H. Smee went into the question, basing his experiments on the chemical constituents of the plants themselves, which is not an infallible guide. The late Norman C. Cookson carefully studied the subject, and he recommended for experiment the following formula:-- Potassium nitrate (saltpetre), 3 oz. Ammonium phosphate, 2 oz. Dissolve in a three-gallon jar of soft water, and when watering growing Orchids, or those perfecting their flowers, add one ounce of the solution to each gallon of water. Again it must be urged that those experimenting with manures must do so only on growing plants, and when growth is completed it must be stopped. No Orchid grower should undertake such experiments without first obtaining his employer's concurrence. CHAPTER X RESTING ORCHIDS Whilst we may definitely say that all Orchids require a resting season in some degree, the cultivator must be careful to arrange the resting season, in the matter of its duration and other particulars, in accordance with the nature of the plant, for in some classes of Orchids it is very easy to do much mischief by subjecting them to a too prolonged and rigorous resting time. Seedling Orchids, as a rule, require little or no resting season until after their first flowering, and Cattleyas, Læliocattleyas, and other evergreen hybrids require a rather shorter period of rest than deciduous species. Bulbophyllums, Cirrhopetalums, and many other small-growing Orchids are frequently killed by attempting to give them a dry resting season, although there is a section which lose their leaves in winter like the deciduous Dendrobiums, and these are benefited by being dried off in a cooler house when the leaves fall, keeping them dry until growth starts again, in the same manner as _Dendrobium nobile_, _D. Wardianum_, _D. crassinode_, and other deciduous Dendrobiums. The evergreen Dendrobiums of the _D. densiflorum_ and _D. Farmeri_ class require a short rest in a lower temperature, and should be watered a little occasionally, especially if they show a tendency to shrivel, which is not a good thing for any Orchid. Aërides, Vandas, and Saccolabiums require a lower temperature in winter, and less water. Many of these begin to grow in March; after that season they require heat and moisture more liberally. As a rule, the plants themselves give the best indication when the resting season has arrived, and, in the case of those which lose their leaves, they show how much rest is necessary. The starting of the new growth indicates when growing conditions should be restored. In respect to the very small-growing species, and especially evergreen kinds, it is much better to ignore the resting season rather than to lower the vitality of the plants by a severe drying off. CHAPTER XI SPECIALLY RARE AND VALUABLE PLANTS While every plant in the collection should be given the best possible care and attention, it is advisable to keep the more rare and valuable specimens immediately under the eye of the grower. It is often the case that albinos, rare varieties, and new species are allowed to get mixed up in the general collection, and a plant that could not be replaced may be hidden by the commoner things which are not of so much consequence. In the case of the best spotted varieties of _Odontoglossum crispum_, albino Cattleyas, and other exceptionally rare things, it is a good plan to arrange a batch of them together in the most suitable part of the house, or to place each on an inverted flower-pot at intervals along the staging, thus bringing them into prominence and facilitating the inspection of each at all times. Some use wire plant stands instead of inverted pots, but the moisture-holding flower-pots are preferable, if they are inspected occasionally to see that they are not harbouring insects. Albinos and fine varieties of Cattleyas and Lælias could be grown in suspended Orchid pans or baskets, to take them out of the general collection, and so grown they would make better progress than if placed on the stages. In the case of any plant not making satisfactory growth it is often beneficial to place it on an inverted pot to bring it more prominently under notice. CHAPTER XII DISEASES AND INSECT PESTS There is very much in the old-time advice, "Grow your plants clean," for a very large proportion of Orchid diseases and insect pests are due to errors in cultivation, more especially in the regulation of the temperature and the ventilation. Insanitary houses lower the vitality of the plants, and vegetation, like human beings, is a prey to disease when kept in unhealthy conditions. Spot, or Orchid disease, exhibits itself in various forms. It is caused, as scientists say, by different micro-organisms, but in effect it is practically the same whether in the form known as "Spot," often seen in Phalænopsis, Aërides, and Vandas, or in the decayed and blackened pseudo-bulbs of Cattleyas, especially _C. Warscewiczii_ (gigas), which from an apparently healthy plant may develop a diseased condition of the pseudo-bulbs, and become useless in a few days. In all such diseases it will be seen that the tissues have collapsed, the result being brown or blackish spots on leaves or bulbs. Imperfect nutrition from lack of healthy roots is a frequent cause of this mischief, for Aërides and Vandas which have been affected with "Spot" recover in the new growth, for a time at least, if a satisfactory root action can be set up. Propagation, by freeing the recently made parts of the plants from the old and worn-out back portions, which are not furnished with the roots necessary to support themselves is one of the best means of preventing Orchid diseases, and efforts should be made to keep the plants vigorous and, therefore, capable of resisting attacks by insect pests. Plants are also benefited greatly by having their position in the houses changed, and that is one of the great advantages of the periodical inspection, for during this process the relative positions of the plants are altered. It should be said that Cattleyas and other common Orchids badly affected by disease had better be burnt, for it is cheaper to buy a healthy young plant than to waste time in trying to bring the unsightly and diseased specimens back to health. The Cattleya Fly (_Isosoma orchidearum_), first imported probably with _Cattleya Dowiana_, and frequently with other Cattleyas since, affects the new growths, the grubs causing them to swell and rendering the growth useless. The same species, or one closely allied, also attacks the young roots of Cattleyas, Lælias, and their hybrids, causing unsightly galls on the points of the roots. Fumigation, with some safe preparation to destroy the fly, should be carried out, and every young growth and root-point as soon as they are seen to be affected should be cut off and burnt. By adopting these remedies it is possible to get rid of the pest. In purchasing freshly imported plants, care should be taken to reject those which show signs of having been affected by the fly. Thrips, Red Spider, and Aphides occasionally appear in every collection, and the remedy is fumigation and sponging with an insecticide, which some growers prepare for themselves, either by pouring boiling water over coarse tobacco tied up in a cloth and adding a little soft soap, or by making an infusion of quassia chips. But excellent insecticides can be purchased already prepared, which are guaranteed to be safe and effective, and being of uniform strength, they may be used with confidence if the instructions given with the preparations are observed strictly. Avoid using paraffin and emulsions of paraffin, for it is dangerous, not only to the plants sponged with it, but to all the plants in the house, for it affects the atmosphere. SCALE INSECTS These appear much less in collections now than formerly, because the old large specimens are replaced by young and vigorous plants. Thirty or forty years ago, it was a usual thing to spend several days every year scraping the brown scales from tall plants of _Aërides odoratum_, _Vanda tricolor_, and other specimen Orchids, and what was called "cleaning" was going on all the year round. Now there is much less need of such work, although scale will appear in its various species on one section of plants or another. In the periodical inspections, all plants attacked by it should have the insects removed by a piece of stick blunted at the edge and point, sponging the leaves afterwards with some diluted insecticide. Syringing with an insecticide, or dipping the plants in the liquid, should be avoided, for the quantity applied is likely to saturate the material in which the plants are potted and to run into the centres of the young growths and cause injury. By means of a sponge, it may be applied lightly or heavily, but the operator has command in each case over what he is doing. MEALY BUG Fortunately this pest is rare in Orchid houses, but when it appears it is easily destroyed in the same manner as scale. COCKROACHES The first of these insects to be noticed should be the signal for the laying of poison. Search should be made for the breeding quarters, which are often in the stoke-hole, or in some hot, dry corner of the house. Various preparations are recommended, but the best still seems to be the old phosphor paste, which should be placed on pieces of paper in the haunts of the insects in the evening, and removed the next morning, a fresh supply being put down every two or three days so long as one of the insects remains. SLUGS, SNAILS, AND WOODLICE To combat these is more a question of diligence than anything else. The old remedies to attract them, such as lettuce leaves, or hollowed halves of potatoes, are still effective, and a walk round the houses with a light at night never goes unrewarded. CHAPTER XIII PERIODICAL INSPECTION Whenever the time is to be spared, it is a good plan to overhaul one or other of the sections of Orchids thoroughly, and to have a more general inspection as soon as possible after the winter has passed, and at the end of the summer, this latter inspection being the more important. Cleanliness in everything around Orchids is one of the most important aids to successful culture, and, during the periodical inspections, plants which are not clean should be cleansed, their pots where it is required washed, and the staging and any part of the house requiring it thoroughly cleansed before the plants are rearranged. During the course of the work certain plants which would be benefited by being repotted, or divided, will be found, and these should be given attention. The water in the tub in which the green deposit on the pots has been removed by scrubbing, and as much of the other water used in cleansing as can be dealt with, should be poured down a drain outside the Orchid house. If thrown on the floor of the house, it leaves an unpleasant odour, which is harmful and lasts a long time. During the inspection at the end of the summer the staging should be repaired where necessary, the heating apparatus carefully overhauled and defects made good, in order to minimise the risk of having to do the work during the cold weather. Where it is deemed advisable to black the hot-water piping, use only lamp-black and oil. Paint gives off injurious gases for a considerable time, and where persons have been incautious enough to use gas-tar the most lamentable results have followed, the mischief lasting for years. These periodical inspections and rearrangement of the plants are also useful in preventing the same plants occupying the same positions for too long a time. A change of position in the house is beneficial, even where the plants are not crowded; but in collections where the plants are closely arranged, to change their positions frequently, goes far to mitigate the evil arising from want of space. In preparing for a thorough inspection of the plants in a house, it is desirable to remove a number of the plants to another house to make room to examine the rest without risk of breakage, the plants removed at the commencement being returned to fill the space remaining after the work has been completed. The Orchid grower is always supposed to have the plants under his direct inspection and to treat them with individual care, but these occasional reviews often reveal defects in some of the specimens which would otherwise have escaped for some considerable time. CHAPTER XIV ORCHIDS FOR THE CONSERVATORY There are many dwelling-houses of moderate pretensions, especially in towns and suburban districts, in which the sole accommodation for plant-growing consists of the conservatory adjoining the house, and this is, in most cases, heated by one or other of the simple means at command for the purpose. The contents of such structures are usually unsatisfactory, the Pelargoniums, Fuchsias, and other soft-wooded plants which are arranged with some of the hardier Palms and Ferns being drawn into spindly growth, which results in a miserable supply of flowers for a short season, and afterwards in decaying foliage, which is not ornamental. Quite a new interest would open up to the owners of such places were they to turn their attention to acquiring from time to time a few of the Orchids which are now to be procured as cheaply as the less suitable plants, such as Pelargoniums. Already some successes have been recorded in this direction. Let us consider the different classes of conservatories, and the species most likely to succeed in them. To take first the commonest kind of small conservatory attached to villa gardens. These are unheated structures except in the winter months, when the temperature cannot be kept from getting below 45° Fahr. without the aid of one of the oil-stove heating apparatus, or heat turned on from the pipe connected with the kitchen range, where arrangements for doing so have been provided. These means of applying artificial heat should be used as little as possible, and only to prevent the temperature falling below 45° Fahr., for in confined spaces and with such means of heating, the atmosphere is better for the plants without the use of artificial heat, whenever the house can be kept from getting too cold without it. In such conservatories, many of the Odontoglossums, Masdevallias, _Oncidium varicosum_, _O. crispum_, _O. prætextum_, _O. Gardneri_, the pretty scarlet _Sophronitis grandiflora_, _Epidendrum vitellinum_, _Lycaste Skinneri_, _Cypripedium insigne_, _Disa grandiflora_, and a number of other pretty and inexpensive species can be grown satisfactorily, especially if the Oncidiums, Sophronitis, _Odontoglossum Rossii majus_, and other of the smaller species be placed in baskets for suspending, a means of cultivation which suits them best, and adds to their decorative effect. The next step is the larger conservatory adjoining many town and suburban dwellings. These are heated by a small boiler with hot-water pipes, a means, it should be said, which is the only satisfactory method of heating glass structures. To the species indicated for the smaller and less safely heated structures may be added a very wide range of subjects of great beauty. In such a structure the Palms supplying decorative foliage may be much restricted, or entirely dispensed with, as _Cymbidium Lowianum_, _C. giganteum_, _C. Tracyanum_, and any others of the section having evergreen leaves of much grace, are decorative plants at all seasons, and possess the further advantage of being furnished with fine spikes of flowers for several months in the year. These large and strong-growing species are specially adapted for the conservatory, an Orchid house being unnecessary for them. To the heated conservatory also may now be handed over the showier species and hybrids of the South American Cypripediums (Selenipediums), which, probably because of their very free-growing nature rendering them too large for the Orchid house, and the ready manner in which they may be increased, have caused them to be slighted lately by growers of collections of Orchids. The air of the conservatory, rather drier than that of the Orchid house, suits these plants admirably. Their bright evergreen foliage and tall sprays of white and rose, or greenish flowers tinged with purple, which often by succession keep the specimens in bloom for six months in the year, render them beautiful and interesting subjects for the conservatory. The strongest and best kinds to be acquired are _Selenipedium longifolium_, _S. Sedenii_, _S. cardinale_, _S. calurum_, _S. grande_, _S. Schröderæ_, and _S. albo-purpureum_. _Cypriperium Charlesworthii_, _C. Spicerianum_, and _C. Leeanum_ should also be added. The larger, heated conservatories might well be furnished with the Orchids recommended rather than the plants generally used for decorating them, for these have to be changed frequently. The Orchids, if carefully tended, will grow permanently in the conservatory and be a source of never-failing interest. In these large conservatories, Stanhopeas in baskets for suspending are ornamental plants, and Sobralias on the floor or central bed would prove satisfactory. To those enumerated many more might be added, but in all cases it is best to get only evergreen kinds, which may be grown continuously in the same house. CHAPTER XV ORCHIDS AS CUT FLOWERS Orchids having flowers with persistent perianths, in which the segments do not drop as in many other flowers, are of the highest value for cut flowers, as some or other of them can be obtained in every month in the year. Large quantities of the large-flowered Cattleyas, especially _C. labiata_, of _C. Harrisoniana_ and its near ally _C. Loddigesii_, _Odontoglossum crispum_, _O. Pescatorei_, Dendrobiums, and other showy Orchids are grown for cut flowers in nurseries where Orchids are not required for other than market purposes. In many private gardens, also, the same kinds of Orchids are grown for decorative purposes, even without a desire to grow a general collection. Those who arrange for a general collection of Orchids as their primary object often cut the flowers for their own use, or to give to their friends, and the following remarks may be useful to all classes of growers. A large proportion of the flowers of Orchids used for decorative purposes are in a great degree wasted by being cut in an immature state soon after the buds have expanded. Such flowers last but a very short time, and, if used for decoration by night, are only presentable for one evening. Orchid flowers should not be cut until they are fully mature and their tissues hardened. They last longer even if they are cut after they are past their best, than they do if cut too soon after expanding. When mature, the flowers require less support from moisture passing up the stem than most flowers, but if cut in an undeveloped state sufficient moisture cannot be obtained through the stems, even if well supplied with water, to continue the development, and the petals droop and the flowers soon wither. [Illustration: PLATE V BRASSO-CATTLEYA DIGBYANO-MOSSIÆ "WESTONBIRT VARIETY" (Raised from a cross between _Brassavola Digbyana_ and _Cattleya Mossiæ_.)] When Orchid flowers are to be used for decorative purposes, no matter in what stage of development they may be, it adds greatly to their durability if they are placed head downward, thoroughly immersed in clean water (rain-water for preference), and kept so immersed until an hour or so before they are set up, gently shaking the water from them, and placing them on a cloth or some dry, cool surface until wanted. Treated in this way, Orchid flowers will last for weeks instead of days. The method should be to take them out of the dining-room or other place where they have been used after the guests have departed each evening. Have ready a large earthenware pan filled with water, and in it immerse the Orchid flowers, leaving them immersed until shortly before they are required to be set up again next day, repeating the same treatment every night. Managed in this way, sprays of Odontoglossums and other Orchids often last for weeks, and look better than freshly cut immature flowers do even on the first day. Flowers received by post should always be treated to the bath for some hours, and, during immersion, any defects which are reparable will be made good and the duration of the flowers ensured, especially if the immersion be repeated as before recommended. In this way Masdevallia, Sobralia, and other fugacious flowers may be used for decorative purposes for two evenings at least, but in the absence of immersion they would wither in a very short time. It might also be said that the Maidenhair Fern, also _Asparagus plumosus_, and other foliage used with the cut Orchids are materially benefited by immersion, the Maidenhair Fern especially; it should always be kept immersed until required for use. CHAPTER XVI IMPORTING ORCHIDS Many interesting Orchids have been imported by amateurs who have friends or correspondents in the countries which the Orchids inhabit, and many more would have arrived alive if the persons who sent them possessed some knowledge of the best methods of collecting, packing, and forwarding the plants. The want of this knowledge often results in the trouble the collector has taken being in vain, and disappointment to the receiver who gets the dead plants and has to tell his correspondent the sad tale of failure. Orchids should be gathered and forwarded during their resting season, and with a sufficient time between their being sent off and their natural growing season to allow of the period of their transit being made before their resting season expires. This rule is often needlessly violated by those who are settled in the district from whence they are sending the Orchids, and who could easily wait until the resting season comes round. For those who are travelling and have to take the Orchids when they can and in whatever condition they may be, however, there is some excuse, and by carefully forwarding the plants, even although at the wrong season, many may get them over alive. Residents in the tropics often grow a collection of Orchids, bringing to the gardens around their residences the plants collected in distant parts of their districts. These growers have a notion that cultivated plants are the best to send their correspondents, therefore, although they could collect fresh plants, they think it safer to send those in their own gardens. These are the very worst plants to travel. They are usually collected in high localities, and their sojourn in a garden results in lowered vitality, which explains why a large proportion die during the journey to this country. Freshly collected plants, in whatever stage they may be, are the best, the ideal conditions being to take the plants at mid-resting season, to have the case to receive them beneath the trees on which they are growing, to pack them off at once to a shipping agent at the port of embarkation, to catch a steamer previously timed, and to consign the case or cases to a reliable shipping agent in England. Another cause of mortality in Orchids during transit arises from the mistaken notion that the plants require to be prepared by drying before packing, and this practice is continued so long and rigorously in many cases that the plants are half dead before they are despatched. No such preparation is needed; the plants should be packed at once after collecting, and any moisture which may be in them will escape through the small holes in the case. The parcels post is available from many parts of the tropics, and from some places it is the only reliable means of getting Orchids over in a reasonable time. But it is only available for small lots, and for these it forms the best means of forwarding. Unfortunately, there are drawbacks even to these means, for the parcels, especially from some ports, are frequently stowed in hot chambers on board the mail steamer, the object being to keep the mails dry, and plant-life is destroyed by the excessive heat. Epiphytal Orchids with pseudo-bulbs, such as Cattleyas, Lælias, and Epidendrums, if collected at or near the proper season, require very little packing. The cases being ready, it is necessary to place a layer of plants at the bottom, with their heads all facing one way. The next layer is placed with the heads the reverse way, and so on until the box is full of plants firmly pressed in, but not sufficiently close to cause injury. During the packing a few struts of wood should be placed across the inside and fastened by nails driven into their ends from the outside; these will prevent the plants from forming a mass and rolling about when the boxes are moved. A few small holes should be bored in the boxes to admit a little air. Leafy epiphytal Orchids, such as Phalænopsis, Aërides, Vandas, and Saccolabiums, may be forwarded in the same way, but with a sprinkling of fine paper cuttings, layers of paper, fine but not resinous shavings, or dry moss between each row of plants. In respect to species which do not possess pseudo-bulbs it is absolutely necessary that they be sent at the proper resting season, if forwarded in bulk in boxes. Phalænopsis for sending at any time are prepared by collectors in Java and the Philippines by establishing the plants on blocks. They are almost the only temporarily cultivated Orchids which often travel well when so managed, and they are usually sent fastened round the sides and backs of Wardian cases, a method which is somewhat costly. Terrestrial Orchids, such as Phaius, Calanthes, and others with above-ground pseudo-bulbs, if collected at the proper resting season, travel well packed in cases of moderate size and with a little dry packing material placed between the rows. The danger with these kinds is that the pseudo-bulbs, being soft and containing much moisture, are liable to decay, and a few damaged plants may cause the loss of all contained in the box. Tuberous-rooted, terrestrial Orchids of the same nature as the British Orchis, and including the African Disas, and Satyriums, also the Habenarias of different regions, should be marked when in flower and lifted in the resting season, the tubers being placed in small boxes with a sprinkling of nearly dry sandy peat or sand, run in between the tubers. If there are several different kinds to be forwarded, all the small boxes containing them may be packed together in a larger box. Next to the trouble caused by loss in transit is that of having plants arrive without any means of identification. The collector should be careful to write the name of every specimen on an imperishable label, or, better still, send each under a number and forward a numbered list with the names corresponding to the numbers on each kind sent. Those who are collecting Orchids should, as often as possible, dry specimens of the growth and flowers of each kind, forwarding one set, numbered similarly to the set retained, to their correspondent, or to some authority, for identification. A description or rough sketch of the plant should be given on the same sheet as the dried specimens, stating such important particulars as colour of flowers, altitude of habitat, and exact locality. CHAPTER XVII TREATMENT OF IMPORTED ORCHIDS Much depends on the condition of the importations, whether they have been collected at the proper time, and whether they have been properly packed and forwarded. Many imported Orchids offered for sale cannot possibly do well, as from improper packing they have "heated," or been subjected to excessive heat or cold whilst on board. Cases of Orchids awaiting transit are often left on the landings in the full sun and become partially desiccated, though while dry still retaining a green appearance. Such collectors' failures die rapidly as soon as heat and moisture are given, and, even in the case of those which seem to establish a healthy appearance of the pseudo-bulbs, growth is not possible, as the growth-buds have been dried up. It is waste of time trying to bring such plants round, therefore care should be taken not to purchase them at any price. Imported Orchids of all kinds should be trimmed over as soon as they are received, the damaged parts removed, and the plants placed in a cool-intermediate temperature after they have been sponged over. They may be suspended for a few days and afterwards placed in small pots of broken crocks. Pseudo-bulbous Orchids, such as Odontoglossums and Cattleyas, should not be watered, but they may be sponged occasionally until growth commences, when they should be potted in the usual manner. Aërides, Saccolabiums, Vandas, Angræcums, and other Orchids not having pseudo-bulbs may be treated in the same way as the pseudo-bulbous kinds, it being probably the safer and more cautious policy. But good results, and a quicker establishment may be secured, if the plants are recoverable by immersing them for five minutes in a rain-water tank immediately on arrival, suspending them head downwards from the roof of the house afterwards, and repeating the dipping two or three times a week. This method has the advantage at least that those which were not recoverable are quickly discovered, while the sound plants soon plump up. With all imported plants there is no use potting them permanently and watering them until growth commences, but they must not be kept too hot in the meantime. CHAPTER XVIII ODOURS OF ORCHIDS Many Orchids have fragrant flowers, while in some sections the fragrance is emitted by the whole plant. A large number of Burmese and Indian, highland Orchids, such as _Dendrobium moschatum_, the section of deciduous Bulbophyllums which includes _B. auricomum_, _B. hirtum_, _B. comosum_, and _B. suavissimum_, have leaves that on becoming dry after falling give off a strong odour of newly-mown hay, the plants also in all their parts being similarly scented when dry, even the cases containing them being pleasantly scented by the plants. The odours of Orchid flowers may generally be likened to well-known perfumes. _Trichopilia suavis_, _Miltonia Roezlii_, and others are scented like the Rose; _Odontoglossum odoratum_ and some other Odontoglossums, _Maxillaria picta_ and other Maxillarias, like the Hawthorn. Certain Maxillarias of the _M. luteo-alba_ section are scented like Honeysuckle, and odour similar to the Tuberose is given off by many Angræcums. Some have a much stronger odour at night than in the day, a peculiarity which is found in _Epidendrum nocturnum_, _E. ciliare_, and many species. Vanilla is a common scent in Orchids, being present in some Vandas. The odour of Violets is furnished by _Dendrobium heterocarpum_ and others of its class, and the Primrose, Wallflower, and other common garden plants have their exact imitators in the matter of scent in some tropical Orchids--indeed, it is an interesting subject to consider how plants resemble each other in this particular. Then there are large numbers of Orchids with such delicate odours that some are unable to appreciate them, but they are specially grateful to those who detect them. Again, some Orchids have different odours at different times in the day. It is not safe, therefore, to declare a plant scentless unless it has been tested repeatedly at different times. Variation in odour has been noticed. We remember flowering the first _Odontoglossum hebraicum_, and on testing it its odour was of cinnamon. It passed to Sir Trevor Lawrence's collection, and we asked the late Mr. Spyers to test the odour, and he replied that it was of Hawthorn, like others of its class. He tested it several times with the same result, but for some time before it passed off he reported to us that it smelt exactly like cinnamon. Then there are odours in Orchids about which opinions are divided as to whether they are pleasant or not. _Oncidium ornithorhynchum_ is an example; some like the odour of it very much, while it is disagreeable to others. The same applies to Anguloas, some Lycastes and Stanhopeas with strongly aromatic scent, which are pleasant at a distance, but not so when too closely approached. But the majority are distinctly pleasant, _Cattleya Dowiana_ and its hybrids, _C. Eldorado_ and others, being delicately fragrant. A very few are malodorous, _Bulbophyllum Beccari_ not being tolerable under any circumstances, the flowers smelling like some of the Stapelias. CHAPTER XIX HYBRIDISING AND RAISING SEEDLING ORCHIDS A new interest has been added to Orchid culture by the pursuit of hybridising and raising seedling Orchids, which commenced with _Calanthe Dominyi_, raised in the nurseries of Messrs. Veitch and recorded in the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ in 1858. The practice has now become general, and a large number of Orchidists arrange for the production of new Orchids from seeds, while even in small collections some attention is given to the matter. When the engrossing pursuit is first taken up, the operator should neglect no opportunity to make himself conversant with the structure of the flowers. This may be done effectually by carefully examining any available flowers, and by making longitudinal sections of the bloom by cutting them in two, commencing at the apex of the column and finishing at the ovary and pedicel. This operation exposes the various organs that are concerned in the fertilisation of the flower. In most Orchids, such for instance as Lælias and Cattleyas, it will be seen that the pollen masses are situated at the apex of the column covered by the anther cap, the stigma being in a cavity in the face of the column beneath it. In Cypripedium there are two developed anthers; the viscous pollen masses are not enclosed in cases, but are placed opposite each other; the stigma is a shield-shaped body seen inside the lip on the under side of the column, and the stigmatic surface is not viscous. The details of the structure of the flowers being fully understood, it will readily be seen that the first process in the production of seeds is to fertilise the flower intended to bear the seed capsule with the pollen of the other parent selected. This is readily accomplished by lifting the pollen masses beneath the anther-cap with a thin pencil or sharpened stick and placing them on the stigmatic surface of the seed-bearing parent. Flowers which are intended to be fertilised for seed-bearing should have their own pollen carefully removed before the pollen taken from the other plant is introduced, the pollen removed being used to effect the reverse cross, or to fertilise another species if desired. In fertilising small flowers with the pollen of larger species, as in the case of _Sophronitis grandiflora_ with the pollinia of the larger species, the pollen masses may be cut and a portion of it used in crossing the smaller flower. When the flower of a plant has been fertilised, the plant should receive special attention; if it is a Cattleya, Lælia, or one of the large-growing epiphytes, it should, after the pseudo-bulb bearing the flower has had a number attached to it corresponding to the number in the stock-book in which the crosses are recorded, be suspended from the roof in a comfortable and not draughty situation. If the plant is in a pot, the pot should be placed in a basket and suspended; or if a suitable position can be found on the stage, it could be placed on an inverted pot to bring it into prominence and secure for it careful attention. Where there is a number of seed-bearing plants, they should be arranged together in the respective houses in which they are grown. Early in its development, the seed capsule should be supported by ties, which, however, should not bring it into an unnatural position, or press tightly on the part supported. From this time failure may arise from the conflicting natures of the agents used, or from various causes. Even the production of a fine and seemingly mature fruit is not a certain indication of good seeds, for seed capsules have been produced by irritation of the stigmatic surface by grit or dust, but no fertile seeds can be thus produced. On approaching maturity, a tie should be made round the middle of the capsule to prevent loss of seed when the splitting of the capsule takes place, and, when it is thoroughly mature, it should be removed, placed in a flower-pot lined with tissue-paper, and put on a shelf in a dry potting-shed until so thoroughly ripe that the seeds are being shed in the tissue-paper covering. At this stage it is possible for the first time to determine whether the seed, or any of it, is good or not. Examination with a strong lens will show whether the minute seeds are good or not by the presence or absence of the embryo in the centre of the elongated covering, which in imperfectly developed specimens is chaff-like and not thickened in the middle as are good seeds. Where no good seeds are found, it is the custom of some growers to discard it at once, and where but few good seeds appear, attempts are made to discard the chaff and to retain the supposed good ones for sowing. Where space admits, however, especially with the beginner, it would be more prudent to sow a portion of the contents of the capsule, whether supposed to be good or not. SEED SOWING A number of the seeds of all seed capsules should be sown as soon as they are ready, the remainder being carefully stored for sowing later if required, the seeds sown and those retained being carefully marked with the number in the record book. The manner of sowing the seeds varies in different establishments, satisfactory results having been obtained under very dissimilar conditions. Failure at first is the usual record of the amateur taking up Orchid hybridisation, although some few get fairly good success from the commencement, while those who have had a run of bad luck usually conquer in the end if they persevere. A scientific reason for some failures has been given, namely, that an endophytic fungus said to be necessary to the development of the freshly germinated seeds is wanting in the early stages, but may be developed naturally after a time, and a better state of growth result. Be that as it may, it is a curious fact that the line of demarcation between failure and success in the matter of raising seedling Orchids is very narrow, and, when the operator succeeds in raising a fair proportion of the seeds sown, he is generally surprised at his former want of success, apparently under practically similar conditions. Formerly the common practice was to sow the seeds on the surface of the material in which the parent plant was growing, or a plant of some kindred variety. This practice has been generally satisfactory and continues in most amateur collections to the present day. A plant in a basket, or suspended pan or pot, is best, the subject being chosen for the good quality of the peat, Osmunda fibre, or whatever material the plant may be growing in. The Sphagnum-moss on the surface should be clipped very short, the plant thoroughly watered with rain water, and allowed to drain for a few hours. The seeds should be sown a few at a time, on the point of a knife or thin strip of hard wood or ivory, and carefully and evenly distributed over the surface of the material in which the selected plant is growing. In all cases the number of the record in the stock-book should be attached, a small celluloid tablet fastened by a thin wire being the best label, as it is clean and durable. Hybrids of Lælia, Cattleya, and other true epiphytes should be suspended in a warm, intermediate house, and Cypripediums and terrestrial Orchids may be sown in a similar manner in the pots of either the seed-bearing subject or similar kinds and placed in a moist, sheltered corner of a house, in which a genial warmth is maintained, the plants being elevated on inverted flower-pots. Once the seeds are sown, the plants fostering them should never be allowed to get dry. Odontoglossum seeds come up best when sown on the surface of established plants in the manner described. To ensure the best results two or three sowings of each should be made, and the plants bearing the freshly sown seeds placed in different parts of the house, some being suspended and others placed on the stage. The maintenance of a continual and even amount of moisture after sowing, and until the seedling plants send forth roots, is of the highest importance. To water either with a spouted or a rose pot overhead would wash the seeds away. To avoid this, some resort to the practice of dipping the plants on which the seeds are sown, allowing the water to reach only to within an inch of the surface of the compost. This is better than watering overhead. Spraying with rain-water is an excellent means of securing uniform moisture, although it requires more care and attention than dipping. The sprayer is a great help in all stages of seedling Orchid growth, not only as a means of conveying moisture direct, but by spraying around the plants and on the staging it is a great aid to maintaining a moist atmosphere. Let the moisture be conveyed in whatever manner it may, it must not be forgotten that the seeds will perish soon after germination if allowed to get quite dry, either from failure of moisture in the material on which they are sown, or from an excessively dry air surrounding them. Against the above-mentioned practice of sowing the seeds on established plants, it is urged that in that way there is no certain means of keeping the different crosses from being mixed, by reason of the seeds of one kind getting into the water-tank and being thus conveyed and mixed with others; and by seeds falling from plants suspended overhead and coming up on plants beneath, and in other unexpected places. Such acquisitions, though often very acceptable, are puzzling, as there is no record of their origin, or if they come up amongst seeds which have a record, the chance introductions sometimes have a wrong parentage assigned to them. [Illustration: PLATE VI CYMBIDIUM LOWIO-EBURNEUM (This plant has been commended for its culture on two separate occasions by the R.H.S.)] To lessen such risks, it is the custom of some growers to arrange a seed-raising case, constructed like an ordinary propagating case, in form like a miniature lean-to, or span-roofed Orchid house. This is arranged over a part of the staging where there is a slight warmth from the hot-water pipes. The staging has a few inches of cocoa-nut fibre, or chopped Osmunda fibre, fine ballast, or other moisture-holding substance, and on this a number of inverted flower-pots are closely arranged to form stands for the pots or pans in which the material for sowing the seeds on is placed: or a light, open wood-work staging is arranged. The favourite surface for sowing the seeds on is prepared by stretching a small square of coarse calico or fine light muslin shading material over a ball of Sphagnum-moss, and pressing it into a 60 or small 48 size flower-pot, so that the unwrinkled convex surface of the ball has the centre just below the level of the rim of the pots, the sides being lower. These are thoroughly soaked and allowed to drain before sowing the seeds on them, and they are then placed on the inverted pots in the case. The covering of the case is sometimes of the nature of hinged sashes to lift from the front, but the most convenient and best covering is that formed of sheets or panes of glass cut about one foot wide and of a length sufficient to cover the frame, by resting one end on a groove in the front side of the case, and the other on the top bar. A sufficient number of these sheets of glass should be provided to cover the frame; they are excellent, as they give a certain means of continual ventilation in some degree through the laps of the glass, even when closed, and they may be closely or openly arranged to regulate the amount of air admitted. Such pieces of glass can easily be removed to inspect the seedlings. What is commonly called "coddling" causes great mortality among Orchids, and in this particular the use of seedling cases, if not very carefully and sensibly worked is less likely to be satisfactory than sowing the seeds on plants growing in the houses. Too much heat is very harmful. Odontoglossums proved difficult to raise at first, and this was mainly because the seedlings were kept too warm and close. If the cultures are carried on in the Odontoglossum house, success is generally attained, although the products are seldom so numerous as in Cattleya, Lælia, and Cypripedium hybrids. Another plan adopted by some growers, and with tolerable success, is to place squares of Osmunda fibre in pans, and after soaking them, sow the seed on them. Others have discs of soft wood, such as Willow, cut across the grain and placed in flower-pots or pans with the fibre of the wood-grain uppermost; after soaking the discs, the seeds are sown on them. When not raised in glass cases, round or square pieces of glass are placed on the pots. Indeed, there is ample evidence that, provided good seeds are sown and placed in a suitable temperature, Orchid seeds germinate readily. The first sign of vitality is given by the good seeds assuming a green appearance; in time they become little spherical green bodies, which later produce a growing point; in due course the true root appears, and the little plants are ready for pricking off or transplanting into previously prepared store pots prepared with a good drainage of small crocks or broken charcoal in the bottom, some Osmunda fibre or other Orchid potting material, and an inch or so of very fine compost formed of decayed leaves, Osmunda fibre, or good Orchid peat and Sphagnum-moss in equal parts, the whole rubbed together through a fine sieve. Some add a proportion of sand to this compost. The whole should be thoroughly well watered before the tiny seedlings are placed a quarter of an inch or so apart in small holes in the surface of the compost and sprayed to settle them in position. Up to this stage the greatest mortality is observed. Wide crosses between species of dissimilar nature, and which have up to the production of the growth point or root appeared to be doing well, having shown that they did not belong to the unfertile, suddenly collapse. Those which have taken a long time to germinate have fallen victims to the minute fungi, and other low forms of vegetable organism, which, commencing at one or two spots, have gradually overgrown the surface of the pot and destroyed them. The stronger are often destroyed by small insects, while drip, however carefully guarded against, claims its share of the spoil. These things are specially vexing to the amateur who is working in a small way. To the expert cultivator who has a multitude of subjects in hand, and whose methods and appliances mitigate the evils, the losses are not so serious, for when Orchid seeds germinate freely they provide for losses when sown on a large scale. Nothing is gained by removing the little seedlings from the seed pot or basket too early. If thriving, they should be left until they are large enough to be handled safely. But where there is overcrowding, or "damping off," or decay from fungus, it is best to remove some or all of the little seedlings in any stage of growth to the store-pots. The store-pots should be returned to the seedling case, or placed on a shelf near the glass in a warm, moist house, where the seedlings should increase in size until they are ready to remove to fresh store-pots, when they may be given more room; or if large enough, they may be placed singly in thimble pots, or three or four seedlings may be placed round the rims of thumb pots. Seedling Odontoglossums, when large enough to occupy thimble pots, are found to thrive well when the pots are fixed in pans or shallow seed-boxes in Sphagnum-moss, and placed on a shelf near the glass in the Odontoglossum house, where, like other seedling Orchids, they should be lightly sprayed several times each day in fine, warm weather, and as often as may be deemed necessary in colder and dull weather. From the time the little plants are established in small pots until their flowering stage, it is only a matter of ordinary culture, although, as a rule, the small seedlings are safer with four or five degrees more heat than is afforded the established plants. In the matter of growth from the seedling stage to the flowering plant, there is but little need of a resting season, even with species such as are deciduous when mature, although a diminished supply of water may be given for a short time to any which, having completed a growth, show no sign of developing a fresh one. In most cases, a thorough drying, even if it does not destroy a seedling, causes the flowering season to be delayed by a year, or even longer. The careful shading of the seedling house is a very important matter. Very young plants do best in a subdued light, and until they are quite strong plants they should not be exposed to direct sunlight. A hot summer often kills even the plants which have been brought satisfactorily through a long winter. It is, therefore, advisable to have on the seedling house, in addition to the lath roller blind, running on supports carrying it well above the glass of the roof, either a second lath roller blind running an inch or so above the glass and beneath the upper one, or a permanent thin cotton shading, which may be tacked on in spring and left until autumn; or, preferably, so fitted that it can be rolled up when it is not required. SELECTION OF SUBJECTS FOR HYBRIDISING The best varieties procurable should always be selected for hybridising, it having been proved that crosses originally made with indifferent varieties are much finer when raised again from more carefully selected varieties. There seems to be no certain limit to the possibility of crossing; even the most dissimilar genera may be crossed with some probability of getting a successful result. POTTING MATERIAL FOR HYBRID ORCHIDS From the time the little plants are well established in single pots, the same potting material used for all of their kind may be employed, the plants in the earlier stage having the potting material in a finer condition than that provided for the larger plants as they approach the flowering stage. As with other important operations, in Orchid potting and in the material used the practice varies considerably, even in the best collections, and this points to the fact that if the accommodation is good, the houses properly heated, and other details of culture carefully carried out, the exact composition of the potting material is of minor importance. For Cattleya and Lælia hybrids and a large number of epiphytes grown with them the compost is made by tearing up the materials with the hand, or in some other way which will not break the fibres very much. Osmunda fibre forms one-half to two-thirds of the compost, the other third being made up of good Sphagnum-moss and Oak leaves or other decayed, dryish leaves. We do not recommend leaf-soil or leaf-mould, which was formerly strongly advocated, especially by Continental growers, who used it with disastrous results. The most that is done now is to mix a proportion of it with other potting material for Lycastes, Calanthes, Phaius, and similar strong-growing terrestrial Orchids. For mixing with the compost for hybrid Orchids, some use crushed crocks, sand, charcoal, and a small proportion of each or either may be employed safely, although there is no real need for such materials. Polypodium fibre may also be substituted for Osmunda fibre, or a proportion of each may be used. Orchid peat fibre, which used to be the chief potting material for Orchids, is still perhaps as good as any of the other fibres, provided a really good quality can be obtained, a matter which has become increasingly difficult. For Cypripediums, and especially Selenipediums, a proportion of good, fibrous loam should be added to the compost recommended for epiphytal Orchids, the proportion of loam being increased as the plants get larger. Phaius, Calanthes, Zygopetalums, Zygocolax, and other plants of a similar character should also have a proportion of loam-fibre in the compost, and in these cases Orchid peat may be substituted for Osmunda fibre, if it is of good quality. So far as it has been tested, Osmunda fibre has an advantage over other fibres, in that it is more durable, retaining its fibre intact longer than any other. Osmunda fibre and Polypodium fibre in equal proportions, with an addition of leaves and Sphagnum-moss, make an excellent material for all young, epiphytal Orchids, the finer Polypodium fibre, if well worked in, giving substance to the more open Osmunda fibre. For very small plants it is well to rub the mixture through a coarse sieve, but after the early stages the use of the sieve should be discontinued, and the compost carefully mixed with the hands. CHAPTER XX ENUMERATION OF THE PRINCIPAL GENERA AND SPECIES IN CULTIVATION ~Acanthophippium.~--A small genus of terrestrial plants with oblong pseudo-bulbs, and broad, plicate leaves. Scape erect, flowers ventricose, yellow and reddish-purple. Warm house. Pot in equal parts of turfy loam, peat, and leaves. Rest dry after the leaves fade and growth is completed. The most familiar species are _A. bicolor_, _A. javanicum_, and _A. striatum_. ~Acineta.~--The species of Acineta are epiphytal Orchids with stout pseudo-bulbs and broad, coriaceous leaves. The flowers are produced in pendulous racemes; they are fleshy, whitish, or yellow, and spotted with purple or brown. They should be grown in baskets suspended in the intermediate house. _A. Barkeri_, _A. densa_, and _A. Humboldtii_ are free-growing species. ~Acropera.~ _See_ ~Gongora~. ~Ada.~--Cool-house genus from Colombia. Leafy evergreen plants with racemes of orange-scarlet flowers. _Ada aurantiaca_ is almost the sole representative of the genus in gardens, and should be grown even in the smallest collections. ~Aëranthus.~ _See_ ~Angræcum~. ~Aërides.~--A large genus of evergreen Orchids with distichously arranged, leathery, green leaves, the stem producing air-roots freely. Natives of India, the Malay Archipelago, and other parts of that region, extending to Japan. All the species of Aërides may be grown in pots, crocked from one-half to two-thirds of the way up, the old stems of the plants, when long, being placed in the pots before the crocks are filled in. The surface should be of good living Sphagnum-moss, and the plants should be liberally watered from the end of February or beginning of March until autumn, when the supply of water should be restricted according to the condition of growth of the plants. Those which have finished their growth and are not showing new leaves in the centre should be given the least supply, but it is not advisable to dry any off completely, unless for some reason they have to be kept comparatively cool throughout the winter, when they are safest if kept tolerably dry. The smaller species may be grown in baskets with advantage when convenient--indeed, the true epiphytal character of the whole genus would suggest that method as the better, but experience has proved that they may be equally well grown in pots. The warm house, or warm end of the intermediate house, suits all the species, but _A. japonicum_ may be grown in the cool house. Most of the species have white and rose-coloured flowers, and they are very fragrant. _A. odoratum_, one of the oldest of garden Orchids, is one of the best and most free-growing species. _A. crispum_, _A. crassifolium_, _A. Fieldingii_, _A. Houlletianum_, _A. falcatum_, _A. Lawrenciæ_, _A. multiflorum_ in its many forms, _A. quinquevulnera_, _A. suavissimum_, and _A. virens_ are the best for amateurs. _A. cylindricum_ and _A. Vandarum_ have terete leaves like _Vanda teres_, the former with white flowers, having a fleshy yellow and red lip, and the latter, which is more membraneous in substance, being white. Although often confused with each other in gardens, there is little resemblance between these two species. ~Aganisia.~--This genus thrives best in Orchid pans in the intermediate house, in the ordinary compost used for epiphytal Orchids, with an addition of leaves. Place the plants in a moist situation. _A. cærulea_ is of trailing habit, and has blue and white flowers. _A. ionoptera_ is white and purple, and _A. lepida_ white. ~Angræcum.~--A large genus chiefly from Africa and Madagascar, and requiring similar treatment to Aërides. Botanists have divided the genus into Aëranthus, Listrostachys, Mystacidium, &c., but for garden purposes the one generic title suffices. The flowers of nearly all the species are white and fragrant, many of them being furnished with long, greenish spurs. A representative selection could be made with _A. arcuatum_, _A. Ellisii_, _A. Humblotii_, _A. infundibulare_, _A. Kotschyi_, _A. modestum_, _A. Scottianum_, _A. superbum_ (_eburneum_), and _A. sesquipedale_, the last-named Madagascar species being the finest of the genus. ~Anguloa.~--Colombian and Peruvian Orchids of strong growth, and similar in habit to Lycaste. The flowers are usually produced singly on upright stems. Pot in two-thirds peat and one-third Sphagnum-moss or Osmunda fibre. When good loam fibre can be obtained, a small proportion may be added. Intermediate house. Rest tolerably dry and cool after growth is completed. _A. Clowesii_, yellow; _A. Ruckeri_, yellow and dark-red; _A. uniflora_ and its variety _eburnea_, white. ~Anoectochilus.~--A dwarf genus with fleshy, creeping stems and very handsomely marked leaves. The plants should be grown in shallow Orchid pots, using a mixture of one-third peat, and loam and leaves in equal parts well mixed together, adding some finely broken crocks. The plants should be placed in a moist corner, or suspended in a shady part of a warm, moist house. They root along the stems, and may be increased by cutting the leading portions with a root or two and leaving the bases to break into new growth. With the Anoectochili, and often under the same generic title, are usually associated _Dossinia marmorata_ (_A. Lowii_), with broadly ovate, olive-green, veined leaves; _Macodes Petola_, emerald-green veined with gold; _Hæmaria discolor_, dark bronzy-red veined with copper colour, often named _Goodyera Dawsoniana_, and plants of similar character. The flowers of most of the species are white. They are sometimes grown in plant cases, or under bell glasses, but if the proper position in a warm, moist house can be found, they are better without these coverings. Propagation renews the vigour of the plants and prevents them degenerating, as they often do in cultivation if left undisturbed for too long a period. ~Ansellia.~--A fine genus of some half-dozen species peculiar to Natal and Tropical Africa, and growing from one to six feet in height, the leafy pseudo-bulbs having at the top fine, branched spikes of yellow flowers, more or less barred or spotted with purple. Pot as for epiphytal Orchids, and grow in the intermediate house. Water the roots liberally until the flowering is past, and then rest the plants in cool and dry conditions. _A. africana_ is not only most commonly grown, but it is one of the finest species. Others, some of which are mere varieties of _A. africana_, are _A. confusa_, _A. gigantea_, _A. nilotica_, and _A. congoensis_. ~Arachnanthe.~--This is a small genus of warm-house plants possessing extraordinary habits, and including the Bornean _A. Lowii_ (_Vanda Lowii_), a very strong-growing species which bears drooping racemes of greenish-white flowers barred with red. The two basal blooms are dissimilar or dimorphic both in shape and colour, being tawny yellow spotted with purple. The plants should be grown in pots or baskets as Aërides. Other species are _A. Cathcartii_ (Himalaya) and _A. moschifera_ (Malaya). _A. Cathcartii_ will thrive in the intermediate house. ~Barkeria.~--The Barkerias form a section of Epidendrums. They should be grown in baskets or suspending pans in the cool intermediate house. They require a dry and cool resting period. ~Bartholina.~--The Bartholinas are dwarf, terrestrial Orchids of South Africa. They should be potted in loam, peat, and sand, and cultivated on a greenhouse shelf. Rest dry and cool. _B. pectinata_ is the only species in gardens. ~Batemannia~ and ~Bollea~. _See_ ~Zygopetalum~. ~Bifrenaria.~--Pot these as recommended for epiphytal Orchids, and grow them in the intermediate house. _B. Harrisoniæ_ is the finest species. Others worthy of cultivation are _B. aurantiaca_, _B. bicornaria_, _B. inodora_, _B. tyrianthina_, and _B. vitellina_. ~Brassia.~--The Brassias are epiphytal Orchids of South America, and may be grown in the intermediate house. The most familiar species are _B. brachiata_, _B. caudata_, _B. Lawrenceana_, and _B. verrucosa_. ~Broughtonia.~--_B. sanguinea_ is a pretty, crimson-flowered species from Jamaica. _B. lilacina_ is also a fine species, though rarely seen in gardens. Broughtonias should be grown on bare rafts suspended in the warm or intermediate house. ~Brassavola.~--A small genus with white, fragrant flowers. _B. Digbyana_, a species with large, fringed-lipped flowers, has been much used by the hybridist. Brassavolas may be grown with the Cattleyas. ~Bulbophyllum.~--A widely distributed genus which may be divided into two sections--the deciduous, chiefly Burmese, requiring a dry resting season; and the evergreen, which should not be strictly dried off. All the species thrive in a warm, intermediate house, with cooler rest for the deciduous and highland species. The genus is one of the most varied and remarkable, and full collections of them are grown by some amateurs. ~Calanthe.~--These are terrestrial Orchids, which may be divided into two sections--the evergreen of the _C. veratrifolia_ class; and the deciduous, comprising _C. vestita_, _C. Veitchii_, and numerous other species and hybrids which are extensively grown for flowering in winter. Pot them in a compost of one-half fibrous loam, one-fourth Sphagnum-moss, and one-fourth leaves, with a sprinkling of sand. Rest the deciduous section dry after flowering, and repot them when growth commences in spring. Water liberally with occasional applications of liquid manure, which should be withheld when the growth is completed. ~Catasetum.~--The Catasetums are curious, epiphytal Orchids, which should be grown in baskets, or Orchid pans, suspended in the intermediate house, and treated in a similar manner to the deciduous Dendrobiums. They require a long, dry rest after the growths are completed. All the species are worthy of cultivation, _C. Bungerothii_, _C. splendens_, and _C. macrocarpa_ being the more showy kinds. ~Cattleya.~--One of the largest, most varied, and florally beautiful genera of Orchids. The plants should be potted as recommended for epiphytal Orchids, and they should be grown in the intermediate house. The _C. labiata_ section, including _C. Gaskelliana_, _C. Mossiæ_, _C. Mendelii_, _C. Dowiana_ and its variety _aurea_, _C Warscewiczii_, _C. Warneri_, and _C. Schröderæ_ in succession, produce flowers for the greater part of the year. _C. citrina_ should be grown in the cool house, suspended from the roof. Cattleyas and Lælias are impatient of a close atmosphere, and therefore the proper ventilation of the house in which they are grown is an important matter. _C. Trianæ_, var Hydra, is illustrated in Plate IV. ~Chysis.~--A small genus of intermediate-house epiphytes, comprising _C. bractescens_, white; _C. aurea_ and _C. lævis_, yellow and red; _C. Limminghei_, and several hybrids. ~Cirrhopetalum.~--A section of Bulbophyllum, of similar habit, and requiring similar treatment. The curiously formed flowers frequently have the upper segments fringed, and the lateral ones approached and continued into slender tails. ~Cirrhæa.~--Allied to Gongora, and requiring similar treatment. ~Cochlioda.~--A compact-growing genus to be grown with the Odontoglossums. _C. Noezliana_, scarlet, has been a fine species in the hands of the hybridiser, and in the future may give us "Scarlet Odontoglossums." _C. vulcanica_ has deep rose-coloured flowers. ~Coelia.~--There are several species of Coelia, and they require to be grown in the intermediate house. ~Coelogyne.~--A very large genus of two distinct sections, that represented by _C. cristata_ being evergreen; the Pleione or Indian crocus section deciduous, and requiring to be treated as terrestrial Orchids, while the larger section are epiphytal. The epiphytal sections are warm and intermediate house plants. The Pleiones should be grown in a cool house, and rested quite dry after the leaves fade and until growth again commences. [Illustration: PLATE VII ONCIDIUM MARSHALLIANUM] ~Comparettia.~--These are small-growing epiphytes. Grow in small baskets or hanging pans in the intermediate house. _C. falcata_, red, _C. macroplectron_, pale rose; spotted; and _C. speciosa_, scarlet, are the best species. ~Colax.~--A small genus of cool-house Orchids allied to Lycaste, and requiring similar treatment. _C. jugosus_ has been crossed with Zygopetalums with good results. ~Coryanthes.~--These are similar in habit to Stanhopea. The plants should be grown in baskets suspended in the intermediate house. The structure of the large, fleshy flowers is most remarkable, and some interesting particulars relating to their fertilisation by insect aid have been recorded in the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ (July 17, 1897, p. 31). ~Cycnoches.~--Of similar habit and requirements to Catasetum. The plants are best grown in baskets and suspended. They should be rested cool and dry with the deciduous Dendrobiums. _C. chlorochilon_ (Swan Orchid), _C. Egertonianum_, _C. Loddigesii_, _C. maculatum_, _C. peruvianum_, and _C. pentadactylon_ are fine species. ~Cymbidium.~--These are showy, large-growing Orchids for the intermediate house or warm conservatory. Pot the plants in equal proportions of fibrous loam, peat, and Sphagnum-moss. _C. giganteum_, _C. Lowianum_, _C. grandiflorum_, and _C. Tracyanum_ are the most commonly grown. _C. eburneum_, _C. Mastersii_, _C. insigne_, and _C. erythrostylum_ are fine, white species, the latter two with rose markings on the lip. There are numerous hybrids. _C. Lowio-eburneum_, a cross from _C. Lowianum_, and _C. eburneum_ is illustrated in Plate VI. ~Cynorchis.~--Terrestrial Orchids from Tropical Africa and Madagascar, requiring to be grown in the warm house in moist and shady conditions. The flowers are generally of rose colour. ~Cypripedium.~--This is one of the largest, most useful, and most prolific genera, which, although commonly known in gardens as Cypripedium, may be divided into several distinct classes. Most of those generally known in gardens as Cypripediums have been termed Paphiopedilum, including _C. barbatum_, and _C. Rothschildianum_, and the green-leafed class, more commonly known in gardens as Selenipedium, are now termed Phragmopedilum. The name Cypripedium, however, has so firm a hold on cultivators that it is convenient to retain it in gardening handbooks. The Cypripediums have very numerous hybrids, and their numbers increase annually. An enumeration is therefore impossible within the scope of this work. All require to be treated as terrestrial Orchids, a proportion of fibrous loam (see the chapter on potting terrestrial Orchids) being added in proportion to the strength of the subject, the largest proportion being given to the strongest growers. The Selenipedium, or green-leafed section, should be potted in fibrous loam, with a sprinkling of leaves and Sphagnum-moss. _C. insigne_, _C. Spicerianum_, _C. Charlesworthii_, and others of the class, also hybrids of them, may be grown in the cool house. _C. Rothschildianum_, _C. Stonei_, and the whole of that section require the highest temperature, but all may be grown successfully in an intermediate house. _C. insigne Sanderæ_ is illustrated in Plate I. ~Cyrtopodium.~--A strong-growing genus needing to be grown in the intermediate house. The plants should be potted as terrestrial Orchids. _C. punctatum_ is the showiest and most easily grown species. ~Dendrobium.~--One of the largest and most decorative genera of epiphytal Orchids, comprising several hundred species and a large number of hybrids. Primarily the genus may be divided into two classes--the evergreen; and the deciduous, which lose their leaves after the completion of the growths, and should have a protracted dry resting season. The evergreen species have a shorter and less rigorous resting season accorded them. The deciduous class is exemplified by _D. nobile_, _D. Wardianum_, _D. crassinode_, and the plants associated with them, and their hybrids; and the evergreen species by _D. densiflorum_, _D. Farmeri_, and _D. chrysotoxum_. _D. Wardianum_, with 264 flowers, is illustrated in Plate III. Next, the genus may be divided into two further classes--those requiring a high temperature, such as _D. Phalænopsis_, _D. superbum_, _D. atro-violaceum_, &c.; and those which may be grown comparatively cool, which include _D. speciosum_ (an excellent plant for a sunny conservatory), _D. moniliforme_ from Japan, _D. aggregatum_, _D. Jenkinsii_, and many others. All the species require a high temperature, moist atmosphere, and an abundance of water during the growing season, but should be kept drier and cooler after the growth is completed to prepare them for flowering. The species with pendulous growths should be grown in baskets or suspended pans. ~Diacrium.~--A section of Epidendrum, with hollow pseudo-bulbs, and white, wax-like flowers. _D. bicornutum_ is a very fine species for the warm house. ~Disa.~--A genus of terrestrial Orchids from Africa, best represented in gardens by the fine Scarlet _Disa grandiflora_, which, with the others of its section, _D. racemosa_ and _D. tripetaloides_, have produced many beautiful hybrids. These are cool-house plants, and should be potted in a mixture of peat, Sphagnum-moss, sand, and loam fibre. They are increased by offsets, and, when repotted soon after the flowering season, the strong growths should be potted on for flowering, and the smaller ones placed together in store pans. Free drainage should be provided, and the plants liberally watered until they flower. After this stage, cultivation in a cold frame for a few weeks before repotting and returning the plants to the cool house will benefit them. The _D. graminifolia_ or Blue Disa section do not increase by stolons. They are heath plants, and should be potted in sandy peat, and kept quite dry when they lose their leaves. ~Epidendrum.~--There are over 400 known species of this genus. _E. vitellinum_ is a fine orange-coloured, cool-house species. All may be grown in the intermediate house. _E. O'Brienianum_, _E. radicans_, and _E. Boundii_ are fine plants for covering the ends of houses and back walls. ~Eria.~--An interesting genus, comprising many curious, and some very pretty species. They are epiphytes, and should be grown in the intermediate house. The deciduous species need to be kept dry when at rest. ~Eriopsis.~--These are epiphytal Orchids from South America. They should be grown in the intermediate house, and they need moisture and shade. _E. biloba_ and _E. rutidobulbon_ are the best-known species. ~Eulophia.~--A large genus in which both evergreen and terrestrial plants are represented. Grow them in the intermediate house. ~Eulophiella.~--The genus includes two species from Madagascar, _E. Elisabethæ_, white, and _E. Peetersiana_, rose. Grow them in a moist position of the warm house, giving them a liberal supply of rain-water. ~Galeandra.~--These are deciduous epiphytes, needing similar cultivation to Catasetum. ~Gomeza.~--Allied to Odontoglossum. The flowers are yellowish, and are produced in racemes. Intermediate-house plants. ~Gongora.~--Intermediate-house Orchids, which should be grown in baskets or suspending pans to allow of the full production of their long flower-spikes. ~Grammatophyllum.~--A genus of strong-growing epiphytal Orchids for the warm house. _G. speciosum_ is a gigantic Malayan species. ~Grobya.~--Brazilian Orchids represented by _G. galeata_ and _G. Amherstiæ_. Intermediate house. ~Habenaria.~--Terrestrial Orchids. _H. militaris_ and _H. rhodocheila_ are bright scarlet; _H. carnea_, flesh colour; _H. Susannæ_, _H. Bonatea_, and _H. Ugandæ_, tall-growing, green and white. The two latter species will grow in a cool house; the others need greater warmth. The North American species are nearly hardy, and may be grown in a frame. ~Houlletia.~--Fragrant epiphytal Orchids from South America. Intermediate house. ~Ionopsis.~--Pretty, slender, white and lilac species. Grow in small baskets in the intermediate house. ~Lælia.~--One of the largest and showiest genera, great favourites in gardens, and fine subjects in the hands of the hybridiser. The Mexican species _L. anceps_, _L. autumnalis_, _L. albida_, &c., used to be allotted a special dryish intermediate house, but they are now usually grown in the intermediate or Cattleya house, and rested in a cooler vinery or corridor. All the species require the same treatment as Cattleya. ~Liparis.~--A genus of dwarf Orchids chiefly of botanical interest. Intermediate house. ~Lissochilus.~--Showy terrestrial Orchids, chiefly from South and Tropical Africa. They should be grown in warm or cool conditions according to their habitats. _L. Krebsii_ and _L. speciosus_ are two handsome, cool-house species; _L. giganteus_, _L. Horsfallii_, and others of this class require a warm house. Being marshy plants, they need weak, liquid manure when growing. ~Lueddemannia.~--A fine genus of strong, Acineta-like growth and pendulous racemes of bronzy-orange coloured flowers. The growths are three to five feet in length. The best species are _L. Lehmannii_, _L. Pescatorei_, and _L. triloba_. Grow in baskets suspended in intermediate house. ~Luisia.~--Terete-leafed Orchids that may be grown in the warm house with the Aërides. ~Lycaste.~--Most of the species thrive in the cool end of the intermediate house. They have been grown successfully in a compost in which decayed leaves formed the principal ingredient, the remainder being either Sphagnum-moss, loam fibre, or peat, with a little sand or fine crocks added. In some collections _L. Skinneri_ and some of the other species are grown in the cool house. All the species require to be kept as cool as possible in summer. ~Masdevallia.~--Dwarf, tufted plants, with pretty and varied flowers, from high ranges in South America. They should be grown in the cool or Odontoglossum house. Pot them in equal proportions of Sphagnum-moss and peat, with a little sand and fine crocks. The species of _M. chimæra_ section should be grown in suspending baskets or pans, and given a rather warmer situation than those of the showier _M. Harryana_ (_coccinea_) and _M. Veitchiana_ sections, being placed in the cool end of the intermediate house in winter. _M. tridactylites_, _M. O'Brieniana_, _M. ionocharis_, and many others form an interesting section of dwarf Orchids, with singular, insect-like flowers. The Masdevallias require to be kept moist all the year, and are benefited by occasional division when being repotted in spring or late summer. ~Maxillaria.~--An extensive genus, widely distributed in South America, and extending to the West Indies. All the species are intermediate-house plants, requiring the ordinary potting material for epiphytes. The flowers are varied in form and colour from the white _M. grandiflora_ and _M. venusta_ to the large claret-blotched _M. Sanderiana_. Many of the species have fragrant flowers. ~Megaclinium.~--A singular genus from Tropical Africa, closely allied to Bulbophyllum, their chief characteristic being the singular flat rachis of the inflorescence, which bears a single row of insect-like, brownish flowers on each side. _M. Bufo_, the type species, is probably not now in gardens. _M. falcatum_ is the commonest, and _M. purpureorachis_, _M. triste_, and several other species are sometimes seen. They should be grown in the warm house in baskets or pans. ~Microstylis.~--The species of Microstylis should be grown as terrestrial Orchids in Sphagnum-moss and peat, with fine crocks added. Rest the deciduous species in dry and cooler conditions. ~Miltonia.~--The Miltonias are compact-growing South American epiphytes, to be grown in pans elevated in a sheltered corner of the intermediate house. Pot the plants in ordinary material for epiphytal Orchids, and surface the compost with living Sphagnum-moss. _M. vexillaria_, _M. Roezlii_, _M. Warscewiczii_, formerly included in Odontoglossum, form a section requiring to be grown like Odontoglossums, but rather warmer. This section has been found to thrive well with a good proportion of leaves in the compost. _Miltonia vexillaria_, "Empress Victoria," is illustrated in Plate II. ~Mormodes.~--Grow these with the Catasetum and Cycnoches, and treat them similarly by resting them dry. The genus is a singular one, the curiously formed, generally fragrant flowers being very attractive. ~Neobenthamia.~--_N. gracilis_ is an elegant, white-flowered, slender species from Tropical Africa, and it should be grown in warm-intermediate temperature. ~Nephelaphyllum.~--Dwarf, terrestrial species for the warm house. Grow with Anoectochilus. ~Notylia.~--Graceful epiphytes for baskets and suspending pans. Intermediate house. ~Octomeria.~--A genus allied to Pleurothallis. The flowers are usually white and rather small. ~Odontoglossum.~--The Odontoglossums are deservedly the most extensively grown genus of cool-house Orchids, the larger proportion of those in gardens being represented by _O. crispum_ (illustrated in Plate VIII.), one of the most beautiful of Orchids. The spotted forms often realise very high prices. Cool, moist houses are provided for _O. crispum_ and its section of Odontoglossum; in some gardens several houses are allotted to the species. Given a suitable house and careful treatment, the Odontoglossums are among the easiest Orchids to grow, and the most certain to flower. All the species generally classed with _O. crispum_ should be grown in well-drained pots. The compost in which they are grown used to be formed exclusively of Orchid peat and Sphagnum-moss, and, where these materials can be obtained of good quality they have never been improved upon. There came a craze in some collections for putting the Odontoglossums in leaf-soil, which ended in disaster, although it indicated that a proportion of dry leaves (not leaf-soil) may be used in the compost with advantage. Scarcity of good Orchid peat brought about the introduction of Polypodium fibre and Osmunda fibre, both excellent materials when prepared as recommended in the chapters on Potting Epiphytal Orchids, and Hybrid Orchids. For the general repotting of those requiring it September is the best month, but in early spring the plants should be examined in order to repot those which need immediate attention. The Odontoglossum house must be kept cool at all seasons, and the necessity to have lower night temperatures must be strictly recognised. Free ventilation should be provided, but at all seasons when drying, east winds prevail, especially in winter and early spring, the bottom ventilators should be only opened slightly, the top ones being kept closed; the laps of the glass of the roof will admit sufficient air. Moisture should be freely distributed about the house by syringing beneath the staging and between the pots in summer, but in winter the houses, if kept at the prescribed low temperature, will be moist without much water being distributed. _Odontoglossum citrosmum_, _O. Rossii_, _O. membranaceum_, and some other Mexican species should be grown in baskets or pans; _O. coronarium_ and its varieties in oblong baskets; _O. Londesboroughianum_ on rafts. Odontoglossums require abundance of water, but are easily injured if allowed to get soddened. Water should therefore be given systematically--a thorough watering, and no more until the effect of it is passing and the still moist material is sufficiently near the dry point. After flowering, a lessened supply should also be given for a time, but the plants must not be dried off. At this stage it is a good time to repot any requiring to be repotted. In the cool houses, and indeed all the Orchid houses, observation should be made as to the rapidity of evaporation of water from the floors and staging. If the moisture evaporates too quickly and the floors and stages become dry rapidly, it must be remembered that the conditions are not favourable to sustaining the vitality of the plants in the house, for, where rapid evaporation takes place, a similar process affects the tissues of the plants. Means should be taken, either by lowering the temperature or checking the ventilation, to sustain a lasting humidity in the houses. ~Oncidium.~--This is a large genus, most of the members being suitable for cultivation in the intermediate house. _O. macranthum_ is a cool-house plant, and _O. crispum_, _O. Forbesii_, _O. concolor_, _O. Marshallianum_ (illustrated in Plate VII.), _O. varicosum_, and others also do well in the cool house in baskets or suspended pans. _O. Papilio_, _O. Kramerianum_, _O. Lanceanum_, and _O. ampliatum_ should have a position in the warmest end of the intermediate house. Pot the plants as epiphytal Orchids. Withhold water for a time after growth is completed. ~Paphinia.~--Small-growing epiphytes. Grow in baskets or pans in a warm, moist house. [Illustration: PLATE VIII ODONTOGLOSSUM CRISPUM] ~Phaius.~--Strong-growing, terrestrial Orchids for the intermediate house. Pot them according to the directions in the chapter on the potting of terrestrial Orchids. The species are evergreen, and require but a short resting season. They require shade. ~Phalænopsis.~--These are warm-house species from the Philippines, Java, Borneo, India, and other places. Pot the plants in Sphagnum-moss. They succeed best when suspended, but if they are grown on the stage they should be elevated on inverted pots. A moist atmosphere is essential. _P. amabilis Rimestadiana_ will grow in the intermediate house; so will also most of the other species, if placed in a moist corner. ~Peristeria.~--The genus is best known in gardens by _P. elata_ (Dove Orchid). The cultivation is similar to that for Phaius. ~Physosiphon.~--A small genus allied to Stelis. _P. Loddigesii_ has racemes of orange-coloured flowers. ~Platyclinis.~--These are pretty, intermediate-house Orchids, with pendulous racemes of white or yellow flowers, generally fragrant. ~Pleione.~ _See_ ~Coelogyne~. ~Pleurothallis.~--A large genus of elegant, dwarf-growing Orchids for the intermediate house. ~Promenæa.~ _See_ ~Zygopetalum~. ~Renanthera.~--These showy species are natives of Tropical Asia and Malaya. They should be grown like Aërides and Vandas. _R. Imschootiana_ is a compact, free-growing species, with showy, crimson flowers. ~Restrepia.~--A cool-house genus usually grown with the Masdevallias, and requiring similar treatment. ~Rodriguezia.~--This genus includes the species usually called Burlingtonia in gardens. Suspend the plants in the intermediate house. _R. secunda_ has rose-coloured flowers; most of the others are white, and they are generally fragrant. ~Rhyncostylis.~--These are warm-house plants, which are known usually as Saccolabiums in gardens. The commoner species is _R. retusa_, with fine racemes of blush-white flowers, spotted with purple; and the blue _R. coelestis_. The cultivation is similar to Aërides. ~Saccolabium.~--The Saccolabiums should be grown in a warm house like Aërides. _S. bigibbum_ and others of its class are pretty, dwarf species, with yellowish flowers spotted with purple and having a white lip. ~Sarcanthus.~--Allied to Saccolabium, and having similar cultural requirements. ~Sarcochilus.~--The species of Sarcochilus need to be grown in Sphagnum-moss in the intermediate house. ~Satyrium.~--Terrestrial Orchids chiefly from South Africa, needing greenhouse treatment. The plants must be kept dry during the resting period. ~Schomburgkia.~--A strong-growing genus, requiring similar treatment to Lælias and Cattleyas. The best position for them is a sunny situation in the intermediate house. ~Scuticaria.~--The Scuticarias are handsome, bulbless species, with long, terete, pendulous leaves, and showy, yellowish flowers, blotched with purple. They should be grown on rafts, or in baskets suspended in the intermediate house. ~Selenipedium.~ _See_ ~Cypripedium~. ~Sobralia.~--The species of Sobralia are strong-growing, terrestrial Orchids with reed-like stems, requiring abundance of water during the period of growth. Intermediate house. _S. macrantha_ and its white variety are best known. ~Sophronitis.~--A dwarf genus, best known by _S. grandiflora_, which has scarlet flowers, and has been used for crossing with Lælias and Cattleyas. All the species are cool-house plants, needing cultivation in pans or baskets suspended from the roof. The hybrids succeed best in the intermediate house. ~Spathoglottis.~--Terrestrial Orchids of similar growth to Bletia, requiring a pronounced resting period. Intermediate house. Rest dry. ~Stanhopea.~--A fine genus, with large, pendulous, wax-like flowers of aromatic odour. They should be grown in baskets in the intermediate house. Rest rather dry in a cool house or vinery. ~Stauropsis.~--Stauropsis should be grown with Aërides and Vandas. The genus is best known in gardens by _S. lissochiloides_ (_Vanda Batemanii_) and _S. gigantea_. ~Stelis.~--The plants in this genus possess similar growth to the dwarf Pleurothallis, and require the same treatment. ~Stenoglottis.~--_S. fimbriata_ and _S. longifolia_ are South African terrestrial Orchids, needing similar conditions to Disa. ~Tetramicra~ (_Leptotes_).--Dwarf species with white flowers, having rose labellums. Intermediate house. ~Thunia.~--A section of Phaius with erect, terete stems and deciduous leaves. Grow them in a warm and moist house, but keep them cool and dry during the resting period. ~Trichocentrum.~--Dwarf, evergreen South American Orchids. Grow in pans suspended in a shady part of the intermediate house. ~Trichopilia.~--An ornamental, epiphytal genus, including Pilumna, the white, fragrant _T. fragrans_, and its variety _nobilis_, representing that section. _T. suavis_ is one of the showiest species. All are worthy of a place in collections. Intermediate house. ~Trichosma.~--_Trichosma suavis_ is a pretty, cool-house species, with white, fragrant flowers. ~Trigonidium.~--There are several curious species of Trigonidium, with the sepals usually developed and arranged differently to Orchids generally. Intermediate house. ~Vanda.~--The genus is one of the largest and most interesting, and, like the other large genera, it may be divided into several sections. The largest-growing and best-known species are _V. tricolor_ and _V. suavis_, which have white or yellowish flowers, spotted with purple, and without any distinguishing botanical feature between them. _V. coerulea_ is one of the finest blue Orchids; _V. Sanderiana_ one of the handsomest; _V. insignis_, _V. lamellata_, _V. Denisoniana_, _V. limbata_, and _V. Bensonii_ are all desirable kinds. _V. Kimballiana_, _V. Amesiana_, and _V. Watsonii_ form a distinct section, with fleshy leaves and erect spikes of pretty, white flowers, marked with rose in the two first, and requiring to be grown, where possible, in baskets suspended in the intermediate house. _V. teres_, _V. Hookeriana_, and their hybrid _V. Miss Joaquim_, have erect stems, bearing terete leaves, and fine, rose-coloured flowers. _V. alpina_, _V. cristata_, and _V. pumila_ are pretty, dwarf species. All are generally grown together in the warm or East Indian house, but it is an open question whether the keeping of these plants and the Aërides and Saccolabiums continuously in the same house is not the cause of the unsatisfactory condition of many of them in gardens. Each section should be watched, and, when growth is completed, a change should be given to a cool, intermediate house for a couple of months. Aërides, Vandas, and Saccolabiums suffer most from being kept too hot and close in winter. After spring opens the amount of heat and moisture should be gradually increased. Directly they have flowered, the tall plants which have lost their bottom leaves should be lowered in the pots or baskets by being cut off at the base. Dwarf-growing species should be brought well up to the light. _V. coerulea_ grows well under the most dissimilar conditions, and with it, as with many other Orchids, there is more in finding a suitable place than in growing the plant. All require to be potted or basketed in Sphagnum-moss. Some growers add a sprinkling of leaves. The _V. teres_ section may be planted in Sphagnum-moss in a warm corner of the house, or against the end of the house. If grown in pots, three or four should be potted together and trained to a stout stick or teak rod. ~Zygopetalum.~--Under Zygopetalum, several distinct sub-genera are included. The largest-growing and showiest species include _Z. Mackayi_, _Z. crinitum_, and other related species. These should be potted in peat, Sphagnum-moss, and loam fibre in equal proportions, with a sprinkling of leaves, and fine broken crocks added. During the growing season occasional waterings with weak, liquid manure should be given; and, after flowering, a rest with restricted water supply. Those that need repotting should be attended to before growth begins, but they will remain satisfactory for years in the same pots if carefully treated. There are many hybrids, especially of _Z. maxillare_, which should be treated like the species. _Z. rostratum_ requires a warm, moist house. The Promenæas include _P. stapelioides_, _P. Rollissoni_, and _P. xanthina_. These should be grown in shallow pans, either for suspending or placing on a shelf near the glass of the roof. ~Bollea~, ~Huntleya~, ~Pescatorea~, ~Batemannia~, ~and~ ~Warscewiczella~.--These are sectional names for a leafy class, with rudimentary pseudo-bulbs. They are frequently mismanaged. The plants should be grown in the potting materials recommended for epiphytal Orchids, and surfaced with Sphagnum-moss. Being evergreen, and with no superabundant vitality, they should be kept moist all the year, but liberally watered when growing. A moist corner of the intermediate house, or warm house, should be selected for them, each plant being raised on an inverted pan or pot. When grown in the warm house, a rest should be given in a cooler house after growth is completed, but the plants must not be dried off. They may be propagated by division. All require shade. Botanically they are placed under Zygopetalum. CHAPTER XXI ORCHID HYBRIDS It is impossible to enumerate the immense number of home-raised hybrids in the scope of this book. It must therefore suffice to name some of the principal genera which have been crossed, and a few of the best hybrids, from the garden point of view. Too much cannot be said for the absorbing interest of raising hybrid Orchids, which is referred to at length on p. 67. _Brassavola Digbyana_ has been one of the most satisfactory parents, crossing readily with Cattleya and Lælia, and imparting to the hybrids its large flowers and fringed lip. _B. glauca_ has also been useful. _Brasso-Cattleya Digbyano-Mossiæ_, "Westonbirt Variety," is illustrated in Plate V. Calanthes have been wonderfully improved, so far as the deciduous, winter-flowering kinds are concerned, by intercrossing, commencing with _C. Veitchii_ (_rosea × vestita_) and now including all shades from pure white to blood-red. Cattleya, Lælia, Sophronitis, and Brassavola have produced by intercrossing numerous showy garden plants, some of them, as for example _C. Iris_ (_C. bicolor × C. Dowiana_) and _Lælio-Cattleya callistoglossa_ (_C. Warscewiczii × L. purpurata_), exhibiting great variation in the colour of their beautiful flowers. Cymbidium has been enriched by the hybridist, the section Cyperorchis being merged in true Cymbidium. _Cymbidium Lowio-eburneum_ is illustrated in Plate VI. Dendrobium hybrids are among the most numerous and useful as decorative flowers. Epidendrum has produced some satisfactory results, including _E. O'Brienianum_ and _Epiphronitis Veitchii_ (_Sophronitis grandiflora × Epidendrum radicans_). Cypripedium has been so prolific that there are amateurs who cultivate them either exclusively or give the greater part of their accommodation to the genus and its hybrids, which may be numbered by the hundred. Species of Masdevallia, Odontoglossum, Lycaste, Phaius, and Zygopetalum have all been intercrossed, and the number of possible combinations admits of incalculable development, especially as the crossing is not confined to the same genus. Plants of distinct genera have been crossed with each other, and in many cases the results have been unexpectedly good, as for example the pretty, scarlet _Cochlioda Noezliana_, which has been crossed successfully with several genera. Such facts as these seem to indicate that there are but few combinations amongst the genera of Orchideæ cross-breeders may not attempt with a reasonable hope of success. INDEX Acanthophippium, 81 Acineta, 81 Acropera, 82 Adapting ordinary plant-house for Orchid culture, 19 Aëranthus, 83 Aërides, 82 Aganisia, 83 Angræcum, 83 Anguloa, 84 Anoectochilus, 84 Ansellia, 85 Apostasieæ, 6 Arachnanthe, 85 Barkeria, 86 Bartholina, 86 Baskets and pots, culture in, 24 Batemannia and Bollea, 86, 108 Bifrenaria, 86 Bollea, 108 Brassavola, 86 Brassia, 86 _Brasso-Cattleya_ _Digbyano-Mossiæ_ (Plate V.) Broughtonia, 86 Bulbophyllum, 86 Calanthe, 87 Calanthe Dominyi, the first Orchid hybrid, 5, 67 Calanthes, deciduous, 38 Catasetum, 87 Cattleya, 87 _Cattleya Trianæ_, var. _Hydra_ (Plate IV.) Cattleya fly, the, 48 Chysis, 88 Cirrhæa, 88 Cirrhopetalum, 88 Cochlioda, 88 Cochlioda noezliana crosses, 110 Cockroaches, how to entrap, 50 Coelia, 88 Coelogyne, 88 Colax, 91 Collecting wild Orchids, 60 Comparettia, 88 Compost for seedlings, 76-80 Conservatory, species for the, 52 Coryanthes, 91 Cut flowers, to preserve, 56 Cycnoches, 91 Cymbidium, 91 _Cymbidium Lowio-eburneum_ (Plate VI.) Cymbidiums for the conservatory, 54 Cynorchis, 91 Cypripedium, 91 _Cypripedium insigne Sanderæ_ (_Frontispiece_) Cypripediums, structure of, 6 Cypripediums for the conservatory, 58 Cyrtopodium, 92 Dendrobium, 92 _Dendrobium Wardianum_ (Plate III.) Dendrobium from cuttings, 35 Diacrium, 93 Difficulties to overcome, 8 Disa, 93 Diseases and Insect Pests, 47 Dossinia marmorata, 84 Durability of Orchid flowers, 56 Enumeration of Principal Genera, 81 Epidendrum, 94 Epidendrum Boundii, 109 Epidendrum O'Brienianum, 109 Epiphronitis Veitchii, 109 Eria, 94 Eriopsis, 94 Eulophia, 94 Eulophiella, 94 Evaporation from lower stage, 15 Evaporation, test, 100 Fertilising Orchids, 68 Floor of natural earth, 9, 15 Floor of wood trellis, 9 Galeandra, 95 Genera and Species, 81 Glazing, 11 Gomeza, 94 Gongora, 95 Goodyera Dawsoniana, 85 Grammatophyllum, 95 Grobya, 95 Habenaria, 95 Hæmaria discolor, 84 Heating Orchid houses, 16 Hot-water piping, 16 Houlletia, 95 Huntleya, 108 Hybridising and raising seedlings, 67 Importing of Orchids, 59 Insecticides, 48, 49 Introduction, 1 Ionopsis, 95 Label, the best form of, 31 Labelling the plants, 30 Lælia, 95 Leaves, removal of damaged, 32 Leaves, use of, in potting compost, 24, 80, 99 Leptotes, 105 Liparis, 96 Liquid manure, 43 Lissochilus, 96 Listrostachys, 83 Lueddemannia, 96 Luisia, 96 Lycaste, 96 Macodes Petola, 84 Manures for Orchids, 39 Masdevallia, 96 Maxillaria, 97 Megaclinium, 97 Metal injurious, 29 Microstylis, 97 Miltonia, 97 _Miltonia vexillaria_ (Plate II.) Mormodes, 98 Mystacidium, 83 Neobenthamia, 98 Nephelaphyllum, 98 Night temperatures, 17, 18 Notylia, 98 Octomeria, 98 Odontoglossum, 98 _Odontoglossum crispum_ (Plate VIII.) Odontoglossum, potting of, 99 Odontoglossum seedlings, 71-78 Odours of Orchids, 65 Oncidium, 100 _Oncidium Marshallianum_ (Plate VII.) Orchid-collecting, 108 Orchid flowers, structure of, 6 Orchid house, structure of, 9 Orchid house, the single, 19 Orchid hybrids, 108 Orchid, the first hybrid, 5 Orchids as cut flowers, 55 Orchids for baskets, 27 Orchids for the conservatory, 52 Orchids for pans, 27 Orchids for villa conservatory, 53 Orchids, suspending of, 27 Orchids, the earliest introductions of, 3, 4, 5 Osmunda fibre, 23, 80, 99 Packing, systems of, 61 Painting interior of houses, 11 Paphinia, 100 Paraffin, need for avoiding use of, 49 Paths, methods of making, 9 Periodical inspection of plants, 50 Peristeria, 103 Pescatorea, 108 Phaius, 100 Phalænopsis, 103 Physosiphon, 103 Plant-houses adapted for Orchids, 12-19 Platyclinis, 103 Pleione, 103 Pleurothallis, 103 Potting and basketing, methods of, 22 Potting material for hybrids, 79 Potting, old-time system of, 3 Promenæa, 103, 108 Propagation by division, 35 Rain-water, the value of, 35 Raising seedling Orchids, 67 Renanthera, 103 Resting season, the, 37, 44 Restrepia, 103 Rhyncostylis, 104 Rise of Orchid culture, 3 Rockeries in Orchid house, 10 Rodriguezia, 103 Saccolabium, 104 Sarcanthus, 104 Sarcochilus, 104 Satyrium, 104 Scale insects, 49 Schomburgkia, 104 Scuticaria, 104 Seed-raising, case for, 72-75 Seed-sowing, 70 Seed-storing, 169 Seedlings, damping off, 77 Seedlings in subdued light, 78 Seedlings, affording water to, 72 Seeds, Orchid, 69 Selection of subjects for cross-fertilisation, 79 Selenipedium, 92, 104 Shading, 21 Shading of houses containing seedlings, 78 Slugs and woodlice, 50 Sobralia, 104 Sophronitis, 104 Spathoglottis, 105 Spraying the plants, 37, 72 Staging for the plants, 12 Staking or fixing plants, 28 Stanhopea, 105 Stauropsis, 105 Stelis, 105 Stenoglottis, 105 Structure of the flowers, 6, 67 Structure of Orchid house, 9 Syringing, the need for, 37 Tanks for storing water, 9 Tar, injurious effects of, 51 Tetramicra, 105 Temperatures, 17-20 Terrestrial species, packing of, 62 Thrips, destructiveness of, 48 Thunia, 105 Treatment of imported plants, 63 Trichocentrum, 105 Trichopilia, 105 Trichosma, 106 Trigonidium, 106 Useless leaves and pseudo-bulbs, removal of, 31 Vanda, 106 Vanda Batemanii, 105 Ventilation, 9 Warscewiczella, 108 Watering epiphytal species, 35 Watering terrestrial species, 38 Wire injurious to the plants, 29 Zygopetalum, 107 Zygopetalum, sections of, 108 THE END Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. Edinburgh & London 
32205	----	file was produced from images generously made available by Biodiversity Heritage Library.) THE WOODLANDS ORCHIDS [Illustration: ZYGO-COLAX × WOODLANDSENSE.] THE WOODLANDS ORCHIDS DESCRIBED AND ILLUSTRATED _WITH STORIES OF ORCHID-COLLECTING_ BY FREDERICK BOYLE Author of 'Camp Notes,' 'Legends of My Bungalow,' 'About Orchids, A Chat,' etc, etc, etc. _COLOURED PLATES BY J. L. MACFARLANE, F.R.H.S._ London MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1901 _All rights reserved_ This work is not of the class which needs a Preface. But to the Editors of the _Pall Mall Gazette_, _Sunday Times_, _Black and White_, _Chambers's Journal_, _Wide Wide World_, and _Badminton Magazine_ I am indebted for license to republish my stories of Orchid-seeking, and it is pleasant to acknowledge their courtesy. If those tales amuse the general reader, I trust that other portions of the work will be found not uninteresting, nor even unprofitable, by orchid-growers. Plain descriptions of scarce species and varieties are not readily accessible. A mere list of the hybrids in the Woodlands collection would be found useful, pending the issue of that international catalogue which must be undertaken shortly; but beyond this I have noted the peculiarities of colour and form in such of the progeny as seemed most curious. No doubt many experts will wish that I had described some which are passed over and omitted some described--without agreeing among themselves in either case perhaps. But I have done my best. CONTENTS PAGE HOW THE COLLECTION WAS FORMED 1 THE CATTLEYA HOUSE 7 A LEGEND OF ROEZL 17 THE CATTLEYA HOUSE--_Continued_ 25 A STORY OF CATTLEYA BOWRINGIANA 37 A STORY OF CATTLEYA MOSSIAE 45 CYPRIPEDIUM INSIGNE 53 STORY OF CATTLEYA SKINNERI ALBA 59 THE PHALAENOPSIS HOUSE 67 STORY OF VANDA SANDERIANA 71 STORY OF PHALAENOPSIS SANDERIANA 79 HYBRID CATTLEYAS AND LAELIAS 87 A LEGEND OF MADAGASCAR 99 LAELIA PURPURATA 107 STORY OF DENDROBIUM SCHRÖDERIANUM 113 STORY OF DENDROBIUM LOWII 121 CALANTHE HOUSE 129 STORY OF COELOGYNE SPECIOSA 135 CATTLEYA LABIATA HOUSE 143 A STORY OF BRASSAVOLA DIGBYANA 151 LYCASTES, SOBRALIAS, AND ANGULOAS 159 STORY OF SOBRALIA KIENASTIANA 163 THE CYPRIPEDIUM HOUSE 171 STORY OF CYPRIPEDIUM CURTISII 183 CYPRIPEDIUMS--_Continued_ 191 STORY OF CYPRIPEDIUM PLATYTAENIUM 205 STORY OF CYPRIPEDIUM SPICERIANUM 213 THE COOL HOUSE 221 STORY OF ODONTOGLOSSUM HARRYANUM 229 MASDEVALLIAS 237 ONCIDIUMS 239 STORY OF ONCIDIUM SPLENDIDUM 241 LAELIA JONGHEANA 249 STORY OF BULBOPHYLLUM BARBIGERUM 253 INDEX 261 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Zygo-Colax, Woodlands variety _Frontispiece_ Laelia elegans cyanthus _To face page_ 16 " " Macfarlanei " 24 Cattleya Trianae Measuresiae " 35 " Schroderae Miss Mary Measures " 52 Cypripedium insigne Sanderae " 57 Laelia grandis tenebrosa, Walton Grange var. " 86 Cattleya labiata Measuresiana " 142 Lycaste Skinneri R. H. Measures " 160 Cypripedium William Lloyd " 182 " Rothwellianum " 190 " reticulatum, var. Bungerothi " 204 " Dr. Ryan " 219 Odontoglossum Rossii, Woodlands variety " 228 " × Harryano-crispum " 240 " coronarium " 256 HOW THE COLLECTION WAS FORMED This question may be answered shortly; it was formed--at least the beginning of it--under compulsion. After fifteen years of very hard work, Mr. Measures broke down. The doctor prescribed a long rest, and insisted on it; but the patient was equally determined not to risk the career just opening, with an assurance of success, by taking a twelve-months' holiday. Reluctantly the doctor sought an alternative. Yachting he proposed--hunting--shooting; at length, in despair, horse-racing! Zealously and conscientiously undertaken, that pursuit yields a good deal of employment for the mind. And one who follows it up and down the country must needs spend several hours a day in the open air. Such was the argument; we may suspect that the good man had a sporting turn and hoped to get valuable tips from a grateful client. But nothing would suit. After days of cogitation, at his wits' end, the doctor conceived an idea which might have occurred to some at the outset. 'Take a house in the suburbs,' he advised, 'with a large garden. Cultivate some special variety of plant and make a study of it.' This commended itself. As a boy Mr. Measures loved gardening. In the Lincolnshire hamlet where he was born, the vicar took pride in his roses and things, as is the wont of vicars who belong to the honest old school. It was an hereditary taste with the Measures' kin. Forthwith a house, with seven acres of land about it, was purchased at Streatham--'The Woodlands,' destined to win renown in the annals of Orchidology. But the special variety of plant had still to be selected. It was to be something with a flower, as Mr. Measures understood; hardy, and so interesting in some way, no matter what, that a busy man could find distraction in studying it. Such conditions are not difficult for one willing to spend hours over the microscope; but in that case, if the mind were relieved, the body would suffer. At the present day orchids would suggest themselves at once; but twenty or twenty-five years ago they were not so familiar to the public at large. One friend proposed roses, another carnations, a third chrysanthemums, and a fourth, fifth, and sixth proposed chrysanthemums, carnations, and roses. Though the house and the large garden had been provided, Mr. Measures did not see his way. I am tempted to quote some remarks of my own, published in October 1892. 'I sometimes think that orchids were designed at their inception to comfort the elect of human beings in this anxious age--the elect, I say, among whom the rich may or may not be included. Consider! To generate them must needs have been the latest "act of creation," as the ancient formula goes--in the realm of plants and flowers at least. The world was old already when orchids took place therein; for they could not have lived in those ages which preceded the modern order. Doubtless this family sprang from some earlier and simpler organisation, like all else. But the Duke of Argyll's famous argument against the "Origin of Man" applies here: that organisation could not have been an orchid. Its anatomy forbids fertilisation by wind, or even, one may say, by accident. Insects are necessary; in many cases insects of peculiar structure. Great was the diversion of the foolish--eminent savants may be very foolish indeed--when Darwin pronounced that if a certain moth, which he had never seen nor heard of, were to die out in Madagascar, the noblest of the Angraecums must cease to exist. To the present day no one has seen or heard of that moth, but the humour of the assertion is worn out. Only admiring wonder remains, for we know now that the induction is unassailable. Upon such chances does the life of an orchid depend. It follows that insects must have been well established before those plants came into being; and insects in their turn could not live until the earth had long "borne fruit after its kind." 'But from the beginning of things until this century, until this generation, one might almost say--civilised man could not enjoy the boon.... We may fancy the delight of the Greeks and the rivalry of millionaires at Rome had these flowers been known. "The Ancients" were by no means unskilful in horticulture--witness that astonishing report of the display at the coronation of Ptolemy Philadelphus, given by Athenaeus. But of course they could not have known how to begin growing orchids, even though they obtained them--I speak of epiphytes and foreign species, naturally. From the date of the Creation--which we need not fix--till the end of the Eighteenth Century, ships were not fast enough to convey them alive; a fact not deplorable since they would have been killed forthwith on landing. '... So I return to the argument. It has been seen that orchids are the latest and most finished work of the Creator; that the blessing was withheld from civilised man until, step by step, he gained the conditions necessary to receive it. Order and commerce in the first place; mechanical invention next, such as swift ships and easy communications; glass-houses, and a means of heating them which could be regulated with precision and maintained with no excessive care; knowledge both scientific and practical; the enthusiasm of wealthy men; the thoughtful and patient labour of skilled servants--all these were needed to secure for us the delights of orchid culture. What boon granted to mankind stands in like case? I think of none. Is it unreasonable then to believe, as was said, that orchids were designed at their inception to comfort the elect in this anxious age?'[1] Mr. Measures, however, was quite unconscious of his opportunities. It was mere chance which put him on the right track. Tempted by the prospect of obtaining something, forgotten now, in the way of roses or carnations or chrysanthemums, he attended a local sale. Presently some pots of Cypripedium barbatum were put up, in bud and flower. They seemed curious and pretty--he bought them. It was a relief to find that his gardener did not show any surprise or embarrassment at the sight--appeared to be familiar with the abnormal objects indeed. But it would have been subversive of discipline to ask how they were called. So Mr. Measures worked round and round the secret, putting questions--what heat did the things require, what soil, would the green-house already built suit them, and so forth? Finally, in talking, the gardener pronounced the name--Cypripedium. Planting this long word deep and firm in his memory Mr. Measures hurried to the house, looked it out in the multitudinous books on gardening already stored there, and discovered that Cypripedium is an orchid. Pursuing the investigation further, he learned that orchids are the choicest of flowers, that several thousand species of them, all beautiful and different, may be cultivated, that some are easy and some difficult. It dawned upon him then that this might well be the special variety of plant which would answer his purpose. But he was not the man to choose a hobby without grave deliberation and experiment. The very next essay, only three days afterwards, suggested a doubt. He saw a plant of Dendrobium thyrsiflorum in flower, and carried it home in a whirl of astonishment and delight; but next morning every bloom had faded, and the gardener assured him that no more could be expected for twelve months. This was a damper. Evidently a prudent person should think twice before accumulating plants which flower but once a year, and then last only four days. But just at that time, by good fortune, he made acquaintance with Mr. Godseff who, in short, explained things--not too hastily, but in a long course of instruction. And so, making sure of every step as he advanced, Mr. Measures gradually formed the Woodlands collection. * * * * * Perhaps it would be logical to describe the arrangement of our treasures. But an account which might be useful would demand much space, and it could interest very few readers. It may suffice, therefore, to note that there are thirty-one 'houses,' distributed in nine groups, or detached buildings. All through, the health and happiness of the plants are consulted in the first place, the convenience of visitors in the second, and show not at all; which is to say that the roofs are low, and the paths allow two persons to walk abreast in comfort but no more. The charge of these thirty-one houses is committed to Mr. J. Coles, with thirteen subordinates regularly employed. Mr. Coles was bred if not born among orchids, when his father had charge of the late Mr. Smee's admirable garden, at Wallington. After rising to the post of Foreman there, he entered the service of Captain Terry, Peterborough House, Fulham, as Foreman of the orchid houses; but two years afterwards this fine collection was dispersed, at Captain Terry's death. Then Mr. Coles went to enlarge his experience in Messrs. Sander's vast establishment at St. Albans. In due time the office of Orchid and Principal Foreman in the Duke of Marlborough's houses was offered to him, and at Blenheim he remained eight years. Thence he proceeded to the Woodlands. [Illustration: MR. J. COLES.] THE CATTLEYA HOUSE Our Cattleya House is 187 feet long, 24 feet wide; glass screens divide it into seven compartments. The roof, of a single span, is 11 feet high in the centre, 4 feet at the sides. The compartment we enter first is devoted to Laelia elegans mostly. On the big block of tufa in front, blooms of Cattleya and Laelia are displayed nearly all the year in small tubes among the ferns and moss; for we do not exhaust our plants by leaving the flowers on them when fully open. Scarlet Anthuriums crown the block, and among these, on the bare stone, is a Laelia purpurata, growing strongly, worth observation. For this plant was deadly sick last year, beyond hope of recovery; as an experiment Mr. Coles set it on the tufa, wired down, and forthwith it began to pick up strength. But in fact the species loves to fix itself on limestone when at home in Santa Catarina, as does L. elegans. It may be desirable to point out that the difference between Cattleyas and Laelias as genera is purely 'botanical'--serious enough in that point of view, but imperceptible to the eye. A special glory of Woodlands is the collection of L. elegans. In this house, where only the large plants are stored, we count five hundred; seven hundred more are scattered up and down. Nowhere in the world can be seen so many examples of this exquisite variety--certainly not in its birthplace, for there it is very nearly exterminated. In such a multitude, rare developments of form and colour must needs abound, for no orchid is so variable. In fact, elegans is merely a title of convenience, with no scientific value. It dwells--soon we must say it dwelt--in the closest association with Laelia purpurata, Cattleya intermedia, and Cattleya guttata Leopoldii; by the intermingling of these three it was assuredly created. Mr. Rolfe has satisfied himself that the strain of Laelia purpurata is always present. By alliance with Catt. Leopoldii the dark forms were produced; by alliance with Catt. intermedia the white. Since that misty era, of course, cross-fertilisation has continued without ceasing, and the combinations are endless. Evidently this suggestion is reasonable, but if an unscientific person may venture to say so, it does not appear to be sufficient. Among six flowers of L. elegans five will have sepals and petals more or less rosy, perhaps only a shade, perhaps a tint so deep that it approaches crimson, like Blenheimensis or Turneri. Could one of the three parents named supply this colour? Two of them, indeed, are often rosy; in some rare instances the hue of L. purpurata may be classed as deep rose. But these are such notable exceptions that they would rather suggest a fourth parent, a red Cattleya or Laelia, which has affected not elegans alone but purpurata and intermedia also. Nothing of the sort exists now, I believe, in the island of Santa Catarina. But we are contemplating aeons of time, and changes innumerable may have occurred. The mainland is but a few miles away; once Santa Catarina was attached to it. And there, a short distance to the north, lives Laelia pumila, which might supply the rosy tinge. Several artificial hybrids of Catt. guttata Leopoldii have been raised. By alliance with Catt. Dowiana it produces Catt. Chamberlainiana; with Catt. superba, Feuillata; with Catt. Hardyana, Fowlerii; with Catt. Loddigesii, Gandii; with Catt. Mendelii, Harrisii; with Laelio-Cattleya Marion, C. H. Harrington; with Catt. quadricolor, Mitchelii; with Catt. Warcewiczii, Atalanta. Catt. Victoria Regina also is assumed to be a natural hybrid of Leopoldii with Catt. labiata. There may be other crosses probably, since no official record of Hybridisation exists as yet. Curiously enough, however, no one seems to have mated Cattleya Leopoldii with Lælia purpurata so far as I can learn. Thus it is not yet proved that L. elegans sprang from that alliance. But the hybridisers have an opening here not less profitable than interesting. For the natural supply is exhausted--if any stickler for accuracy object that some still arrive every year, they may overhaul their Boswell and make a note. Sir, said his hero, if I declare that there is no fruit in an orchard, I am not to be charged with speaking falsely because a man, examining every tree, finds two apples and three pears--I have not the book at hand to quote the very words. When L. elegans was discovered, in 1847, it must have been plentiful in its native home beyond all other species on record. The first collectors so described it. But that home was a very small island, where it clung to the rocks. Every plant within reach has long since been cleared away; those remaining dwell in perilous places on the cliffs. To gather them a man must be let down from above, or he must risk his life in climbing from below. But under these conditions the process of extermination still proceeds, and in a time to be counted by months it will be complete. In describing a few of the most precious varieties at Woodlands, I may group them in a manner to display by contrast the striking diversities which an orchid may assume while retaining the essential points that distinguish it from others. One form, however, I must mention here, for it is too common to be classed among peculiarities, yet to my mind its colouring is the softest and most dainty of all. Petal and sepal are 'stone-colour,' warmed, one cannot say even tinged, with crimson. Nature has no hue more delicate or sweeter. _Adonis._--Bright rosy petals--sepals paler--lip and edges of lobes carmine. _F. Sander._--The latest pseudo-bulb measures 2 feet 3 inches--topping the best growth of its native forest by six inches; from base to top of the spike, 4 feet less 1 inch, and as thick as a walking-cane. This grand plant has been in cultivation for three years. The sepals and petals are those of L. e. Turneri; the lip resembles a fine L. purpurata. The plant next to this, unnamed, has pseudo-bulbs almost as long, but scarcely thicker than straws. _Empress._--A very dark form of Turneri. _Medusa._--Tall, slender pseudo-bulbs--very dark. _Neptune_, on the contrary, has pseudo-bulbs short and fat, whilst the colouring is pale. _H. E. Moojen._--Doubtless a natural hybrid with L. purpurata, which takes equally after both parents. _Godseffiana._--Nearly white; the broad lip carmine--lobes of the same hue, widely expanded. _Mrs. F. Sander._--A round flower, very dark rose; sepals and petals dotted all over, as in Cattleya Leopoldii. _Red King._--Yellowish throat. Lip good colour and round, but narrow, without the prolongation of some or the lateral extension of others. Curiously like the shape of L. Perrinii. _Stella._--Dusky rose and similarly spotted, but different in shape--sepals and petals much thinner. _Boadicea._--Sepals and petals deep rose. Long shovel lip crimson-lake. _H. G. Gifkins._--The sepals are palest green, with a rosy tinge; petals pale mauve. The lip, maroon-crimson, spreads out broadly from a neck almost half an inch long, and its deep colour stretches right up the throat. _Mrs. R. H. Measures._--Pure white, even the lip, except a touch of purple-crimson in the centre and slender crimson veins. _L.-C. Harold Measures._--A fine hybrid of L.e. Blenheimensis and Catt. superba splendens, which takes mostly after the former in colouring, the latter in shape. It is a round flower, with a crimson lip immensely broad; two small yellow spots are half concealed beneath the tube. Sepals greenish tawny, petals dull pink with crimson lines. _Sade Lloyd._--A very pretty form. Sepals and petals rosy, tinted with fawn colour. The crimson lip is edged with a delicate white line, as are the lobes, which fold completely over the tube. _Doctor Ryan_ is distinguished by a very long protruding lip. _Ophelia._--As big and as round as Catt. Mossiae. Tube very thick and wide. _Macfarlanei._--We have two so named. In this grand example the pseudo-bulbs are more than 2 feet high, proportionately thick. Eight or nine flowers on the spike. Sepals and petals glaucous green. Long lip of brightest crimson. _Leucotata._--Sepals and petals white with rosy tips--lip white, saving rosy lines and a rosy stain. _Nyleptha._--Sepals and petals fawn colour, edged with rose. Very wide lip of deepest crimson. _Haematochila._--Sepals stone-colour flushed with pink, petals dusky pink. Lip carmine-purple, rather narrow, shaped like a highly ornamental spade. _Paraleuka._--All snowy white save the carmine lip, the form of which is curiously neat and trim. _Tenebrosa._--In this specially dark variety the tube is long, closely folded, rose-white, with lines of crimson proceeding from the back. As they meet at the lower edge they form a border as deep in hue as the lip. But our darkest elegans, eighteen years in the collection, has not bloomed for six seasons past. _Schilleriana splendens._--Sepals and petals white, with a faintest rosy tinge and a yellow stain on the midrib. Lip long, straight, forked at the tip, liveliest crimson-purple. _Stelzneriana._--Rosy-white. The crimson of the lip does not spread all over but lies in a triangular blotch. _Measuresiana._--Sepals greenish-yellow, the leaf-like petals similar, pink towards the edges, lined with rose. Both spotted at the tip with crimson. The lip is that of Catt. bicolor, short comparatively, straight, and darkest crimson. _Ladymead._--The white sepals and petals have a palest tinge of rose. On the lip are two broad yellow eyes after the fashion of Catt. gigas. _Venus._--Almost white. Petals veined, sepals dotted, with crimson--the underside of both heavily stained. Lip almost fawn-colour at the edges, with veins widening and deepening into crimson at the throat. _Luculenta._--A very pretty hybrid of Messrs. Sander's raising, palest mauve. Lip rather narrow but grand in colour. Shovel-shaped. _Frederico._--A very odd variety--small. The stone-coloured sepals are outlined with rose, the petals with purplish pink. Both are speckled with brown. Lip brightest maroon-crimson, prettily scalloped. _Platychila._--Pale purple. Remarkable for its immense crimson lip. _Luciana._--Green petals, curling strongly towards the tip; petals widening from the stalk like a leaf, pink with a green midrib. The lobes white, narrow, square, and deepest crimson, the lip that of Catt. bicolor. _Monica._--Snow-white. Petals broad, sepals strongly depressed. In the middle of the spreading crimson lip is a patch almost white. _Tautziana._--Sepals mauve, petals violet, somewhat darker, lip almost maroon. It is singular in shape also, forked like a bird's tail. _Blenheimensis._--Sepals and petals rose with a violet tinge; very broad labellum with a distinct neck, emerging from a short tawny tube--carmine in the throat, purplish at the edges. _Macroloba._--The lobes here are white and enormous. Enormous also is the lip, and singularly beautiful, deepest crimson at the throat, with a broad purple margin netted over with crimson lines. _Juno._--This also has a very large white tube. Sepals and petals rosy, rather slender, fine crimson lip. _Matuta._--Large, broad and shapely. Sepals greenish, with a pink tinge, petals rosy-tawny. Tube very short, lip brightest crimson, standing out clear as a flag. _Minerva._--One of the most spreading, but thin. Colour rose, the petals darker. Narrow sepals. Tube white. Lip carmine. _Princess Stephanie._--Sepals bright green, petals slightly green, edged with pale purple, and crimson lines. Bright lip after the model of Catt. bicolor. _Amphion._--A dark variety. The long lip has two eyes like Catt. gigas. _Beatrice._--A hybrid of L.e. Schilleriana and L. purpurata, remarkable for its lip, long and shovel-shaped, nearly the same breadth throughout. _Morreniana._--Sepals dullish red purple--the lower strongly bowed, as are the wide petals of similar hue. The lip spreads on either side of the white tube like the wings of a purple-crimson butterfly. _Mrs. Mahler._--A hybrid--Catt. Leop. × Catt. bicolor. Very small but very pretty. Sepals palest green, petals almost white, tinged with pink at the edges. The shovel-shaped lip pinkish crimson. _Euracheilas._--Sepals dusky stone-colour, edged with pink, petals all dusky pink. Very large but narrow. The maroon-crimson lip extends at right angles from the tube, without any neck. _Schilleriana._--The variety most clearly allied to L. purpurata. White or palest rose of sepal and petal, the latter marked with purplish lines at the base. Lip a grand purple-crimson, fading sharply towards the edges. _Weathersiana._--Sepals palest tawny suffused with rose, petals mauve. The broad lip of fine colour is so strongly indented that it resembles the bipennis of the Amazons. _Euspatha._--Reichenbach suggested that this is a hybrid of L. Boothiana or L. purpurata with some Cattleya--probably intermedia. It is white, with broad, sepals and petals. The tube is open nearly all its length, and the wide lip of crimson, fading to purplish edges, shows scarcely an indentation. _Hallii._--Crimson-purple sepals--petals darker; the lip approaches maroon. _Oweniae._--In this case the sepals and petals--which are leaf-shaped--stand out boldly, straight on end--rosy with mauve shading, more pronounced in the latter; lip round, of a charming carmine. _Incantans._--A very large and stately bloom. Sepals of the tender warm stone so often mentioned, petals broad and waved, of the same colour down the middle, flushing to rosy purple on each side. A fine crimson-velvet lip. _Melanochites_ is a very symmetrical flower, though not 'compact,' as the phrase goes. All lively rose-lake, the petals a darker tone. The grand broad lip of purple crimson has a pretty yellow blotch on either side beneath the tube. It is sharply forked. _Pyramus._--Sepals of the flushed stone-colour which I, at least, admire so much; but the flush is more conspicuous than usual. Petals clear rose. Lip vivid crimson, with the same yellow blotches under the white tube. _Bella._--The purplish crimson sepals and petals are tipped with buff. Lip shovel-shaped, dark crimson. _Sappho._--Here the pale purple sepals only are tipped with buff, while the petals, which curl over, are rose. The carmine of the lip is very pretty. _Macfarlanei II._--Sepals of the same colour, but greenish, strongly marked with the distinctive spots of Catt. Leopoldii, edged with rose; petals rose, lined with crimson on either side of the white midrib. The long tube opening shows a strongly yellow throat. The labellum is short, but superb in colour. _Myersiana._--A large form. Sepals dusky, tinged with crimson at the edges. Petals softly crimson. Very long tube. The crimson lip has a pale margin, and a pale blotch in the front. _Cleopatra._--One of the very best. Like that above in petal and sepal, but paler. The broad tube, however, is snow-white, saving a touch of magenta-crimson, bright as a ruby, at the tip of the lobes. And the lip, finely frilled, is all magenta-crimson, with not a mark upon it from throat to edge. _Wolstenholmae._--White, the sepals tinted with purple. Petals broad, with a purple outline. Lip narrow and long, of a colour unique, which may be described as crimson-purple. In the throat are two curious white bars; between them run arching purple lines close set, which, on the outer side of the bars, extend to the edge of the lip. A very remarkable flower. _Eximia._--Also very remarkable--not to say uncanny. The narrow sepals and petals, almost white, have a mottling of rosy mauve along the edges, which looks unwholesome, as if caused by disease. But the long paddle-shaped lip, crimson, changing to purple as it expands, is very fine. It has two pale yellow 'eyes' elongated in an extraordinary manner. _Lord Roberts._--Very handsome and peculiar. The colour of the sepals, strongly folded back, is warm grey, tinged and faintly lined with crimson; this tinge is much more pronounced in the petals. The large tubular lip, finely opened, is uniform crimson-magenta, not so dark as usual. [Illustration: LÆLIO-CATTLEYA × ELEGANS VAR. CYANTHUS.] A LEGEND OF ROEZL So soon as I began to take interest in orchids I was struck with the number of odd facts and incidents in that field of botany. One gains but a glimpse of them, as a rule, in some record of travel or some scientific treatise; and at an early date it occurred to me that if the stories to which these fragments belong could be recovered, they would prove to be not only curious and interesting but amusing--sometimes terrible. I began to collect, therefore, and in the pages following I offer some of the results. It is right to begin with a legend of Roezl, if only because his name will often recur; but also he was incomparably the greatest of those able and energetic men who have roamed the savage world in search of new plants for our study and enjoyment. Almost any other mortal who had gone through adventures and experiences such as his in our time would have made a book and a sensation; but the great collector never published anything, I believe, beyond a statement of scientific facts from time to time. This is not the place to deal with his career; I am only telling stories. But it is not to be dismissed without a word. Roezl will be gratefully remembered so long as science and horticulture survive the triumph of democracy. I have heard it alleged that he discovered eight hundred new species of plant or tree. It is credible. In the memoir published by the _Gardeners' Chronicle_, which was brief of necessity, fourscore were enumerated, with the addition, here, of 'many others,' there, of 'etc.' Roezl was no specialist. A wise regard for his own interest confined him almost to orchids in the later years. But in his catalogue of achievements I find new lilies, new conifers, fuchsias, agaves, cacti, begonias, saxifrage, dahlias, convolvuli, tropaeolums, tacsonias--a multitude, in fact, beyond reckoning. In one expedition he sent eight tons of orchids to Europe; in another ten tons of cacti, agaves, dion, and orchids! The record of his travels is startling; and it must be observed that Roezl's first aim always was to escape from the beaten track. His journeyings were explorations. Many an Indian tribe never saw a white man before, and some, perhaps, have never seen one since. Mexico was his first hunting-ground, and thither he returned more than once; Cuba the second. Thence he was drawn to the Rocky Mountains, California, and Sierra Nevada. Then in succession he visited Panama, New Granada, Sierra Nevada again, California again, Washington Territory, Panama again, Bonaventura, the Cauca valley, Antioquia, Northern Peru, crossed the Andes, returned to Bonaventura, and thence to Europe. Starting again he searched Colorado Territory, New Mexico, California, the Sierra Madre; worked his way to Caracas, thence through Venezuela, crossed to Cuba, to Vera Cruz, explored the state of Oajaca in Mexico, sailed to Lima, crossed the Andes again to Tarma and Changamaga, back into Southern Peru, wandered as far as the Lake of Titicaca, searched Bolivia, traversed the Snowy Mountains to Yungas, back to Lima and Arica, crossed the Andes a third time, visited Ecuador, and made his way back to the valley of the Cauca. How many thousand miles of journeying this chronicle represents is a problem for laborious youth. And the botanist uses roads, railways, and horses only to get him from one scene of operations to another. He works afoot. It is good to know that Roezl had his reward. Eighteen years ago he died, full of years and honours, in his native Bohemia. And the Kaiser himself was represented by a high dignitary at the unveiling of his statue in Prague. The experiences I am about to tell were made in the course of that long march through the woods from La Guayra in Venezuela to Ocaña in New Granada. Among the special trophies of it was Cattleya Roezlii, a variety of Cattleya speciosissima; but I am not aware that the secluded tribe whose habits interested Roezl so much had any immediate connection with this plant. Perhaps before going further it may be well to note that any assertion of the great Collector might be admitted not only as an honest report, but also as a fact which he had verified, so far as was possible. Dr. Johnson was not more careful to speak the whole truth and nothing but the truth. It was somewhere round the sources of the Amazons that Roezl sojourned for a while in a village of those strange people whom the Spaniards call Pintados--'painted' Indians. Their colour, in fact, is piebald--light brown, dark brown, and a livid tint commonly described as red, in blotches. They are seen occasionally in Guiana, more rarely in Venezuela and Brazil. The colouring is ascribed to disease, rather because it is so hideous and abnormal, perhaps, than for a solid reason. Roezl thought it 'natural.' He was making his way through those endless forests by compass, with two mestizos from Columbia who had served him on a former journey, and a negro boy. For guides and carriers he depended on the Indians, who passed him from settlement to settlement. It is fitting to observe here that Roezl never carried firearms of any sort at any time--so he used to say. Of great stature and prodigious muscle, utterly fearless, never unprepared, happen what might, he passed forty years in such wandering as I have outlined, and never had occasion to strike a blow. Several times he found himself between contending factions, the armed mobs of Spanish America, and lost everything; many times was he robbed, but never, I believe, assaulted. Nerve and humour protected him. As for the wild Indians, I fancy that they were overawed by his imposing appearance; and especially by an iron hook which occupied the place of his left hand, smashed by an accident. This system of travelling at leisure from settlement to settlement enabled him to pick up a few necessary words of each language, and to give warning of his approach to the next tribe. The Pintados welcomed him in a quiet fashion--that is, the chiefs did not object when he repaired an empty hut and took possession. It was at the end of a long 'street,' parallel to the river. The rude dwellings were not scattered. Each stood opposite to its fellow across the way, and Roezl noticed a large flat stone in the middle between every pair. Towards nightfall the Indians trooped back from their fields; but all the women and grown girls entered at one end of the village, the men at the other. This was curious. As they marched up, the former dispersed in huts to the right hand, the latter to the left, each sex keeping to its own side of the stones. After depositing their tools the men came out and gathered silently around the strangers' quarters--only very young children ran to and fro. After a time the women reappeared with steaming calabashes, which they bore half across the road, and set, each of them, on the stone before her dwelling. Then they returned. Forthwith the males strolled back, carried the supper to their respective huts, and in due time replaced the empty calabash upon the stone, whence the women removed it. It will be understood that these strange ceremonies interested Roezl. Evidently the husbands lived on one side of the street, the wives and young children on the other. The moon was full and he watched for hours. After supper the males returned to squat and smoke around his hut, scarcely speaking; but one after another they withdrew presently, each to his own abode. So long as the moonlight enabled Roezl to observe, not one crossed the way. And afterwards he discovered that this is an eternal rule--a husband never enters his wife's dwelling. The separation of the sexes is complete. Long before satisfying himself on this point Roezl saw enough to convince him that the usages of this secluded people must be well worth study. He remained among them as long as he could, and even made memoranda--the first and only time, I believe, that he kept records other than botanical or scientific. It may be hoped that they survive and will come to light, since his papers are now stored in the museum at Prague. I am dependent on the memory of those whom he amused with curt stories of adventure over pipe and glass on his visits to England. They are many, and they preserve the liveliest remembrance of one to whom Johnson's remarks on the greatest of modern orators are peculiarly applicable. 'If a man were to go by chance at the same time with Burke under a shed to escape a shower, he would say, "This is an extraordinary man."' Unfortunately, it is the most striking observations alone which they recall, with but a vague impression of others. Every hearer asked, of course, how the race could avoid extinction under such circumstances? But it appears that the separation is only public--an exaggerated prudery, one might describe it, though we may be sure that the sentiment lies infinitely deeper. The sexes work apart, as has been said; after the men have cleared a piece of ground they leave it to the women, and clear another for themselves. But when a youth has a mind to marry, in the first place he builds a hut in the forest. Then he awaits the train of women returning, steps gently among them, and takes the maiden of his fancy by the hand. She throws him off at once if disinclined, and there is an end of it; otherwise she suffers him to lead her a step before freeing herself. Day after day in that case the invitation is repeated, and the maiden takes two steps, then three, until at length she quits the procession entirely and surrenders. There is no ceremony of marriage, but, so far as Roezl could gather, the bond is absolutely sacred; in fact, if we think of it, those conditions of life forbid intrigue. It should be added that the other women and girls studiously ignore these proceedings, and that till the last moment a damsel may change her mind, repulsing the lover favoured hitherto. A bride remains in the woodland hut for several weeks, not a soul visiting her except the husband. Meantime he builds a 'town house' for himself, and the mother or female relatives build one opposite for his wife. In fixing the stone between them there is a ceremony, as Roezl gathered, but the nature of it he was unable to understand. Though the pair never meet again in public as long as they live, they spend as much time as they please together in the forest. And really, after due consideration, I cannot but think that the system shows remarkable sagacity. Truth compels me to add, however, that Roezl suspected infanticide. We may hope he was mistaken. Why should a people living as do these restrict the number of their children? The battle for existence is not desperate with them apparently, since they till the soil, and their territory, in effect, is boundless. No Indian race of South America feels the pride of caste; if these do, they are a notable exception in that as in other respects. Girls receive no dower; the expense of marriage, as has been seen, is _nil_. Why should they limit the family? We know that obvious reason does not always guide the savage in his habits. But when a painful fact is not assured we may allow ourselves the comfort of doubting it. This is all I have been able to collect about a most extraordinary people. My informants do not recollect, if they heard, whether the separation of the sexes was peculiar to this clan or general among the Pintado Indians. In fact, I have nothing more to say about them. It was here, however, that Roezl met with an adventure which he often told. His hut, as has been mentioned, was the last of the row--a ruin patched up to keep the baggage dry. He always carried a folding tressle and a light board to fix upon it, which made a sort of desk, with a camp-stool to match. One evening he set himself as usual to write labels and memoranda for his herbarium. The description of a curious plant secured that day proved difficult, and darkness had long set in. So absorbed was the enthusiast in dissecting its anatomy that he gave no attention to a loud purr, though conscious of the sound for some moments. At length he raised his eyes. By the open doorway stood a creature whose dusky fur glistened like silk in the lamplight, and great yellow eyes stared into his. It was a black jaguar, rarest and most savage of all felines. So they remained, staring. Roezl felt his hour had come. He could not have moved a limb; his hair rose and the sweat poured down. The jaguar also kept still, purring louder and louder. Its velvet lips were slightly raised, showing a gleam of the huge fangs. Presently it drew nearer, still purring--came up to the tressle--arched his back like a cat, and pressed against it. Crash fell desk, lamp, specimen box, camp-stool and enthusiast--a clattering overthrow! The servants rushed in. No jaguar was there. Roezl used to attribute his escape to the practice of never carrying arms. When the brute was approaching, he must have fired had a weapon been handy--no man could resist the impulse. And then, whatever the issue of the shot, he would certainly have died. [Illustration: LÆLIO-CATTLEYA, × ELEGANS VAR. MACFARLANEI.] THE CATTLEYA HOUSE With L. elegans are lodged fine examples of Cattleyas gigas and aurea, with some of their varieties; generated, as we may assume, by natural hybridisation. These rank among the supreme treasures of the orchidist, unequalled for size and rarity--perhaps for beauty. To those who have not seen the offspring it might seem impossible that the stately loveliness of the parents could be excelled. But by a very simple process Nature achieves the feat--she combines their charms. Of Cattleya gigas we have some two hundred specimens. It is the largest of the genus, saving its own hybrids, a native of New Granada, discovered by Warcewicz in 1848. He sent no plants home, and though a few were despatched afterwards, Roezl practically introduced the species in 1870. Conscious of supreme merit, it is far from eager to bloom; but at Woodlands we do not personally feel this drawback. Of course there are many varieties of Cattleya gigas, for it is truly said that two blooms of orchid exactly alike cannot be found. But I shall mention only two. _Imschootiana_ is huge even above its fellows, for a flower may be nine inches across; the colour of sepal and petal mauve, with a crimson-purple lip of splendour beyond conception. The golden throat under a crimson-purple tube is lined with bright crimson; the characteristic 'eyes' gamboge, fading to white. _Sanderae._--Some may well think this the loveliest of all its lovely kin. Probably it is a foreign strain, though remote, which gives such supreme softness to the magenta of the lip. On that ground the golden 'eyes' shine forth with an abruptness positively startling. The broad sepals and petals are sweetest rosy-mauve. Even the tube is deep crimson. Here also is Cattleya bicolor Measuresiana, an exquisite example of a species always charming to my taste. In this instance the sepals and petals are purest and smoothest olive green; the very long shovel-shaped labellum magenta-crimson, outlined and tipped with white. Of Cattleya aurea again the varieties are many. It was brought from Antioquia, New Granada, by Wallis, in 1868. If crimson and yellow, tastefully disposed, make the most gorgeous combination possible, as all human beings agree, this and its sister Dowiana are the most gorgeous of flowers. The ordinary form of Cattleya aurea is nankin yellow, but in the variety _R. H. Measures_, sepal and petal are gamboge. The glorious lip, opening wide from the very base, has long brownish blurs descending from the throat, on a golden ground which fades to yellow towards the edge. There are two clear crimson patches in the front, and the margin is clear crimson, whilst the whole expanse is covered with fine stripes of crimson and gold alternately. We come to the hybrids of these two which, dwelling side by side, have been intermarrying for ages; and their offspring again have intermarried, forming endless combinations. Cattleya Sanderiana was first discovered under circumstances rather odd. One of Messrs. Sander's collectors, Mr. Mau, was hunting for Odontoglossum crispum by Bogota. He came upon a number of Cattleyas--none of them in bloom--and gathered any that came in his way, taking no trouble, nor even mentioning the incident in his letters. In due course he brought them to St. Albans along with his Odontoglossums. Mr. Mau said nothing even while the cases were being unpacked. Apparently he had forgotten them. 'What are these Cattleyas?' asked Mr. Sander, in surprise. 'Oh, I don't know! I found them in the woods.' Old spikes still remained upon the plants, and bunches of withered rags at the end. Mr. Sander perceived, first, that the flower must be gigantic beyond belief; next, that it was red. 'Go back by next mail!' he cried. 'Search the woods--gather every one!' And Mr. Mau did actually return by next mail. This was Cattleya Sanderiana--sometimes as much as eleven inches across; in colour, a tender rosy-mauve. The vast lip is almost square, with a throat of gold, lined and netted over with bright crimson. It has the charming 'eyes' of gigas in perfection, and the enormous disc, superbly frilled, is of the liveliest magenta crimson. _Chrysotoxa_, another of these wondrous hybrids, 'favours' its aurea parent; with buff-yellow petals and sepals, the lower of which hang in a graceful bunch surrounding the huge lip of dark orange ground, with an edging of maroon-crimson, narrow above, widening to a stately breadth below; the whole closely covered with branching lines of crimson. _Mrs. Fred Hardy_ is a third--divinely beautiful. White of sepal and petal, with the vast magenta-crimson lip of Hardyana. The glorious effect may be in part imagined. We have yet a fourth of this amazing group--Trismegistris--most nearly allied to Sanderiana. I have not seen this variety in bloom; it was introduced only three years ago. But the name signifies that it is the quintessence of all. Individual taste may not always allow that claim, but no one disputes that it is at least equal to the finest. But the thoughtful cannot contemplate these wondrous things with satisfaction unalloyed. Unless some wealthy and intelligent persons in South America undertake to cultivate them in a regular way, it is too probable that in a generation or two they will be utterly lost; for we cannot hope that the specimens in Europe will endure so long, however vigorous they may be at present. Here is the letter which accompanied the last consignment--sad reading, as I think:-- MEDELLIN, _January 27, 1896_. Messrs. F. SANDER and Co., St. Albans. GENTLEMEN--I arrived here yesterday from Alba Gumara and received your much honoured letter of November 11, 1895. I shall despatch to-morrow thirty boxes, twelve of which contain the finest of all the aureas, the Monte Coromee form, and eighteen cases contain the grand Sanderiana type, all collected from the spot where these grow mixed, and I shall clear them all out. They are now nearly extinguished in this spot, and this will surely be the last season. I have finished all along the Rio Dagua, where there are no plants left; the last days I remained in that spot the people brought in two or three plants a day and some came back without a single plant. I left my boy with the Señor Altados to explore while I despatched the boxes and get funds, when I shall return for the var. papilio which Altados promised to secure for me, and go on up to the spot called the Parama San Sausa. In the boxes containing the aureas you will find about 300 seedlings which have not flowered; these are from a grove of trees where no plants have previously been gathered from, and where the finest Sanderianas and aureas grow intermingled in one family. These Cattleyas only flower once in a year--that is, from March to the end of July, and both kinds together. Some of the flowers measure upwards of 10 inches--and on a spike you can have nine flowers. I cannot wait in that fearful region longer than the flowering time; the awfully wild aspect of everything and scarcity of wholesome food and help for the work is simply maddening. If I shall find the other orchids you want I do not know. My boy is gone with Altados for the Oncidium. You may believe me that many more of these fine Cattleyas do not exist, and I can, after all, perhaps not find so good as may be in those you will now receive. In the last years I have seen these plants in bloom, when I was so ill with fever, and in no other place can you get such a fine type. The plants that I planted when I was taken ill no one found; no one has been here, and the plants had grown well and some of them very much rooted. Trusting that all will arrive in good order, I remain, gentlemen, your very obedient servant, CARL JOHANNSEN. CATTLEYA MENDELII The next division is styled the Mendelii house; more than three hundred large examples of this species--to be accurate and pedantic, it should be called a variety--occupy the centre, a hundred and eighty the stand to right. Cattleya Mendelii lives in the neighbourhood of Ocaña, New Granada, at an altitude of 3500 feet. It was introduced by Messrs. Backhouse in 1870, and named in honour of Mr. Sam Mendel, a great personage at Manchester in his day. Distinctions of colour are very frequent. Some pronounce it the loveliest of Cattleyas. Among the noble specimens here, many of them chosen for individual peculiarities, not half a dozen are named; the rest bear only letters showing their class, and certain marks understood by the initiated. It will be a relief when this system, or something like it, becomes general. And the time is not distant; at least, the privilege of granting new names at will must be restricted among those who obey the authorities. The few plants here which enjoy a special designation are:-- _Monica Measures._--Petals rose, with a broad streak of purple down the centre from base to point. Sepals also rose, tipped with purple. Lip of darkest crimson, fringed. _Lily Measures._--A very large flower, white of sepal and petal. On the lip, somewhat pale, as if to show it off, is a splash of purple-crimson, sharply defined. _R. H. Measures._--Sepals and petals tinted with rose. Enormous lip, very dark crimson, fringed. _William Lloyd._--For this I can only repeat the last description, yet the eye perceives a difference not inconsiderable. _Mrs. R. H. Measures._--All white saving the yellow throat and two small touches of purple in the front. _Duke of Marlborough._--This variety moved the great Reichenbach, as he said, to 'religious admiration.' No doubt it is the grandest of all Mendeliis--which is much to say; very large, perfectly graceful in form, exquisitely frilled. The colour of sepal and petal pink, the throat yellow, the spreading disc magenta-crimson. The left side of the house is filled with large plants--some two hundred--of Cattleya Schroderae, which the learned recognise as a variety of Cattleya Trianae. It has the great advantage, however, of flowering in April, and thus, when discovered in 1884 by Arnold, collecting for Messrs. Sander, it filled a gap in the succession of Cattleyas. Henceforward the careful amateur might have one variety at least in bloom the year round. Named of course after Baroness Schröder. All Cattleyas are scented more or less at certain times of the day, but none so strongly as this, nor so persistently. It does not vary so much as most of its kin, but it shows perhaps a greater tendency to albinism than any--as seems natural when its colours are so much paler. Among these grand plants we have three white, notably-- _Miss Mary Measures_, of which the picture is given. Overhead hang smaller plants of Cattleya Mossiae, Trianae, Mendelii, and Laelia Lucasiana; among them no less than five Cattleya speciosissima alba. Speciosissima Dawsonii is here also, finest of the coloured varieties--purplish rose of sepal and petal, lip large, yellow in the upper part, rosy crimson below, with margin finely fringed; and Laelia pumila marginata.--In its ordinary form L. pumila is one of the loveliest flowers that blow, and admiration is enhanced by surprise when we observe how small and slender is the plant that bears such a handsome bloom. But this rare variety is lovelier still--its broad, rosy-crimson sepals and petals and its superb crimson lip all outlined with white. CATTLEYA BOWRINGIANA The third division of the Cattleya house contains, in the centre, some hundreds of Mendeliis; Cattleya Bowringiana on the right hand, Cattleyas Mossiae and Wageneri on the left; all 'specimen' plants, for health and vigour as for size. Cattleya Bowringiana was imported fifteen years ago from British Honduras, but it has since been found in other parts of Central America. In colour--rosy purple, with deep purple lip, white in the throat--it does not vary much, nor in shape; at least I have not heard of any named varieties. But Cattleya Bowringiana in good health is always a cheering spectacle; its young growths push with such a demonstration of sturdiness--having to rise much beyond the ordinary stature--and its bunch of eight or ten flowers stands so high above the foliage. Nowhere may that pleasant spectacle be enjoyed with more satisfaction than at Woodlands. CATTLEYA MOSSIAE Since Cattleya Mossiae was introduced more than two generations ago, and remains perhaps the commonest of the species, I need not describe it. Mrs. Moss of Ottersfoot, by Liverpool, conferred the name in 1856. Love of orchids is a heritage in that family--so is the love of rowing. The lady's grandson, Sir J. Edwardes Moss, now living, was Stroke of the O.U.B.C. and at Eton, as were his father and his uncle. And the ancestral collection of orchids is still maintained. White Mossiaes are not uncommon, though their exquisite beauty makes them precious in all meanings of the term. _Mrs. R. H. Measures_ is best of all--a famous variety--white of sepal and petal. Deep and graceful frilling on the lip is always characteristic of this species; it reaches absolute perfection here. The yellow of the throat is much subdued, but purple lines issuing from it spread over all the white lip, with a very curious effect. Purple also is the frilling. _Grandiflora._--Deep rose. Petals very broad, lip immense, finely mottled and veined with purple. _Excelsior._--Blush-rose. Lip rosy purple, with a white margin. _Gilbert Measures._--A superb variety. White with a faint flush. Sepals and petals unusually solid. Lip very widespread, with purple lines and splashes of magenta-purple. _Gigantea._--Biggest of all. Rosy pink. The orange of the enormous lip and the frilling specially fine. Catt. Wageneri, though granted a specific title, is a variety of Cattleya Mossiae, from Caracas, discovered by Wagener in 1851; white, excepting a yellow blotch on the lip. From the roof, among a hundred smaller plants of Cattleya, hangs a specimen of Laelia praestans alba, as rare as lovely--all purest white, except the lip of brilliant purple with yellow throat. Like many other orchids from the high lands of Brazil, this will grow equally well in the cool house. It is, in truth, a variety of L. pumila; its normal colour rosy purple. CATTLEYA GASKELLIANA The fourth compartment is given up to Cattleya Gaskelliana, a species from Venezuela, not showy, as a rule--though striking exceptions can be found, as here--but always useful. Like Cattleya Schroderae it filled a gap when discovered in 1883, for there was no species at the time which flowered in July. Its normal colour is mauve; the lip has a big yellow blotch and a mottling of purple in the front. About four hundred plants are accommodated in this house, among them four albinos--one with eight pseudo-bulbs and two flowering growths. But the finest flower is _Miss Clara Measures._--snowy white, of course, but with a lip like Cattleya Mossiae. Among others notable are:-- _Dellensis._--A noble variety. Mauve-pink--the petals immensely broad. The great spreading lip has a gamboge throat fading to chrome-yellow, intersected with lines of bright crimson. The crimson of the front is defined as sharply as if by the stroke of a paint-brush. _Godseffiana._--Pale rosy mauve. Petals immense. Lip a curious dusky crimson, with a narrow dusky-yellowish outline. _Duke of Marlborough._--Gigantic. Sepals and petals bright rose; the broad lip has the same dusky outline. _Measuresiana._--Very pale. The crimson of the lip, which is long but comparatively narrow, runs far up the throat, but leaving two clear yellow 'eyes' as distinct as in Cattleya gigas. _Sanderiana._--Pale. The lip, of excellent colour, spreads so suddenly as to form a perfect circle. _Herbertiana._--Mauve. A very compact flower. The bright yellow of the throat extends downwards and to either side of the lip in a very remarkable manner. The dusky margin surrounds a purple-crimson stain, scored with lines of deeper hue. _Woodlandsensis._--Here the same oddity--due to natural hybridisation doubtless--is carried much further. The whole disc of the lip is buff, with only the merest touch of purple on either side the central line, and another, scarcely perceptible, at the tip. Along the roof hang small plants of Cattleya gigas and others. FIFTH DIVISION The fifth division is a resting-place, where one may sit beneath a grand specimen of Kentia Forsteri, surrounded by palms as in a nook of the jungle, to compare notes and talk of orchids. After such refreshment we enter the last compartment. CATTLEYA TRIANAE To left here are more Mendeliis, to right more Bowringianas, labiatas, and Trianaes mixed; rows of labiata overhead. Specimen Trianaes occupy the centre--some two hundred. This again is a species so old and so familiar that I need not describe it. But there is none more variable, and we have some of the most striking diversities here. _Macfarlanei._--An immense flower, white, with the faintest possible flush. The great lip, vivid orange beneath the tube, changes to white above the disc. To this succeeds a blaze of purple-crimson, outlined in two semicircles as clear as brush could draw. [Illustration: CATTLEYA TRIANÆ, VAR. MEASURESIÆ.] _Robert Measures._--Lively mauve. The broad petals have three purple lines at the base and a mottling of purple on either side. Lip not large but of the grandest crimson, darker towards the throat. _Measuresiana._--Petals clear mauve, sepals a paler hue, lip very compact. Its carmine rises far up the throat, surrounding the yellow and white 'eyes' with the happiest effect. _Woodlandsensis._--Sepals and petals lilac flushed. The great lip beautifully striped with rosy magenta. _Tyrianthina_ takes its name from the Tyrian purple or wine-coloured tips of the petals--a singular development. The labellum shows the same tint, even darker. Here also I note Catt. Harrisoniae _R. H. Measures_. It cannot be said that this differs from the normal type in any respect; but one may venture to assert that it is the finest example thereof--at least, a finer could not be. Upon the mauve sepals and petals, much larger than usual and more lively in colour, the great labellum, primrose and gamboge, with mauve tip, stands out superbly. There is no more striking Cattleya than Harrisoniae in this form. A STORY OF CATTELEYA BOWRINGIANA No tale hangs upon the discovery of Cattleya Bowringiana, so far as I have heard. A planter named Turkheim sent it from British Honduras to Mr. Bowring of Forest Farm, Windsor, in 1884. The species has a wide range. Mr. Oversluys came upon it in Guatemala very shortly afterwards, and curious incidents followed. This admirable collector was hunting for Oncidium splendidum, a stately flower not very uncommon once, but long extinct in Europe. No man knew its home, but Mr. Sander, after close inquiry and profound deliberation, resolved that it must be a native of Costa Rica. Thither he despatched Mr. Oversluys, who roamed the wilderness up and down five years, seeking a prize within his grasp all the time, so conspicuous that it escaped notice--as sharp boys select the biggest names upon a map instead of the smallest, to puzzle a comrade. But that is another story. Irritated and despairing as time went by, but not permitted to abandon the search, the collector found diversion now and again in a gallop through the neighbouring States. And once he pushed as far as Guatemala. All these forays were profitable, of course; such a shrewd and experienced hunter finds game in every forest. But Mr. Oversluys was not equipped for the wholesale business, as one may put it, on these expeditions. They were reconnaissances. In Guatemala, at the moment which interests us, he had only two servants and three mules. I do not know exactly where he came across Cattleya Bowringiana; it might be anywhere almost, apparently, in the Central American Republics. The species was rare and very precious at the time--to be secured, though in the smallest quantity. When Oversluys came upon it, he threw away the miscellaneous rarities he had collected, hired two more mules--all he could obtain--loaded as many as they could carry of the very finest plants, specimens such as we dare not dream of now, and started for the nearest port, meaning to return for more so soon as he was 'shut of your confounded Oncidium splendidum.' In such disrespectful terms he wrote to St. Albans. At the house where Oversluys slept one night was a boisterous young Guatemalan, one of the tippling, guitar-strumming, all-round-love-making sort so common in Spanish America. But this youth was an Indian or almost--betrayed by his lank hair and narrow shining eyes. Such a character would seem impossible for one of that blood beyond the confines of Guatemala. But the supremacy of the Indians under Rafael Carrera's despotism has worked a change there. It lasted long enough to train a portentous generation. When a pig-driver of their race conquered and ruled the descendants of the Conquerors as absolutely as a Turkish bashaw of old, Indians might well abandon the timid subservience of their forefathers. This young fellow insisted upon playing cards with Oversluys, who declined. Then he began to quarrel. But a good-looking daughter of the landlord intervened, and he promptly struck the light guitar. After supper he felt the warmest friendship for Oversluys, and dropped off to sleep while babbling a serenade to the landlord's daughter. The friendship had not evaporated next morning. Don Hilario--he allowed himself the title and a most aristocratic surname--was returning to his native village, through which Oversluys must pass; there to remain, as he admitted cheerfully, until his friends at the capital had suppressed certain proceedings at law. These friends, it appeared, were dames of high position, and the proceedings related to a serious deficiency in his accounts as clerk in the Financial Department. But it was all great fun. Don Hilario could not think of his appearance in the dock without peals of laughter. No apprehension marred his enjoyment. Those great personages named, of the female sex, would take very good care he was not prosecuted--or they had best look out. In short, we recognise the type of a cynical half-caste Don Juan. As they journeyed on together, Don Hilario noticed the orchids, which were simply slung across the mules. He knew, of course, that such weeds are valued in Europe; every child in those realms is familiar with collectors nowadays. 'Ah!' said he, 'those are poor things compared with the great bushes on the roof of our church.' Oversluys was roused at once. Since Roezl made the discovery, fifteen years before, every one had come to know that rarities may be expected on an Indian church. The pious aborigines collect any orchid of exceptional beauty which they notice in the woods and carefully replant it on the sacred building. It was the custom of their heathen forefathers. 'Are there any white ones among them?' Oversluys asked. An albino form of Cattleya Bowringiana had never been heard of, but he thought it might exist. And if so the roof of an Indian church would be the place to look for such a treasure. 'As many white as red! I say, what will you give for a dozen?' This was a difficult question under any circumstances, since the plants could hardly be flowering then; and there is no difference in growth betwixt the white varieties and the red. Besides, Oversluys had not the very slightest confidence in this youth. 'How will you get them?' he asked. 'Never mind that. Pay me half the money down and I'll bring the plants to-morrow. You know, our Indians are suspicious of collectors. You mustn't be seen in the village.' That was reasonable enough in one point of view, but preposterous in the other. 'Oh,' said Oversluys, 'I must see the orchids at any risk--that's flat! and I must hear how you mean to work.' 'Why?' 'Because if you take them without the Padre's consent you know as well as I that the Indians will be after me at daylight, and--h'm! There would be work for the doctor! What sort of man is your Padre?' 'A sort of pig, of course,' laughed Don Hilario. 'A fat old boar, ready for the knife. And my knife is ready, too! Patience, friend, patience!' His eyes still laughed, but he made the significant gesture so common in those lands--a sudden stealthy grip of the machete at his waist. This was not an unimportant revelation. 'You are on bad terms with the Cura?' Oversluys asked. 'Not now. He thinks I have forgotten. It's years ago. I was a boy. But the Castilian never forgets! I will tell you.' The story was not edifying. It related to a young woman in whom the Cura felt interest. He surprised her in company with Don Hilario and beat the lad. 'Well,' said Oversluys, 'I'm sorry you and the Padre are not friends, because I will have nothing to do with removing orchids from the church unless he bears part in it.' 'But the pig will want all the money.' 'You need not tell him how much I am to give you.' Don Hilario argued, however, until, finding Oversluys immovable, he grew sulky. The fact is that to strip their church against the Indians' wish would be not a little perilous even though the Cura were implicated; to ignore him would be madness. Collectors have risked it, they say, before and since, but never assuredly unless quite certain that the prize was worth a deadly hazard. In this instance there was no security at all. As they approached the village Don Hilario brightened up. 'Well,' he said, 'what will you give me?' Oversluys had no money, but he offered a sum--the amount of which I have not heard--payable in Guatemala city; to be doubled if the orchids should prove white. Don Hilario declined this proposal with oaths; he dared not go to Guatemala city, and he could not trust a friend. The negotiations came to an end. Grumbling and swearing he rode for a while by himself; then fell into silence, and presently rejoined Oversluys quite cheerful. The houses were close by. 'It's a bargain, friend,' he said. 'Your hand! It's a bargain!' 'Good! Now I won't take my mules with the orchids into the village. Can you lead us round to the other side? There is a hut there, I daresay, where I can leave my men and return with you.' Don Hilario declared that such precautions were unnecessary, but when Oversluys insisted he led the way through by-paths. They did not meet a soul. Upon the edge of a broad savannah beyond was a corral, or enclosure, and a shed, used by the _vaqueros_ for slaughtering, branding, and so forth in the season, empty now. Hundreds of cattle browsed slowly towards the corral, for evening approached and the woods were full of jaguars doubtless. Though unwatched at this time of year, they took refuge nightly in the enclosure. It was just such a spot as Oversluys sought. His men had food, and he told them to remain with the animals. Then he returned with Don Hilario. It is usual to ask the Cura for lodgings in a strange place; he himself puts up a traveller who can pay. This was a rotund and masterful priest. They found him alighting from his mule, with soutane rolled up to the waist, showing a prodigious breadth of pea-green trousers. He wore a triple string of blue beads round his neck, and flourished a whip of cowhide. Oversluys looked like a traveller who could pay, and he received a greeting as warm as foreigner can expect; a foreigner in those lands is presumed to be no 'Christian.' They entered the parsonage. Don Hilario was to broach the business, but first Oversluys would satisfy himself that the orchids were worth negotiation. He slipped away. A glance settled that. The church was a low building of mud, as usual. On either side the doorway, looking down the street, stood an ancient idol, buried to the waist, but still five feet high. The features were battered, but the round eyes, with pupils cut deep in a half circle, glared in hideous threat, and the mouth gaped for blood; no need of an interpreter there--one saw and felt the purpose. But Oversluys was not interested in these familiar objects. He looked up. His comrade had not exaggerated the size of the orchids, at least. They were noble specimens. But as for their colour he could see no trace to guide him. Don Hilario had gone to greet his parents; it was comparatively late when he returned, but then he got to business forthwith. The Cura was startled. He showed no indignation, but after pondering declined. Before going further, Oversluys asked whether the orchids were white? Impatiently the Cura replied that he never looked at them--very likely they were. People decked the church with white flowers, and perhaps they got them from the roof. He had other things to think about. Oversluys guessed that the man was eager to sell but afraid, and fretful accordingly. He raised his price, whilst Don Hilario taunted the Cura with fearing his parishioners. That decided him. Loudly he declared that the church was his own, and consented. The deed must be done that night. But who would climb the church roof in the dark? Don Hilario was prepared for that difficulty. He knew half a dozen fellows of his own age and stamp who would enjoy the mischief. And he went to collect them. It was long past midnight when the band appeared--a set of lively young ruffians. So vivacious were they, in fact, though not noisy, and so disrespectful to their pastor as they drank a glass for luck, standing round the board, that Oversluys thought it well to prepare for a 'row.' He slipped out, saddled his mule and tied it by the door. Then the young Indians filed off in high spirits, chuckling low and nudging one another. The Cura followed to the door, commended them to heaven and stopped. Don Hilario would not have that--he must take his share of the enterprise. The others returned and remonstrated warmly. In short, there was such hubbub, though all in low tones, that Oversluys grew more and more alarmed. The Cura gave way savagely, however, and they started again; but Oversluys kept well behind, leading his mule. It was a dark night, though not dark as in a northern climate. He could follow the little group with his eyes, a blurred mass stealing over the plaza. The church itself was faintly visible a hundred yards away. All remained still and silent. He advanced. A low wall encircled the church. The Indians did not think it prudent to use the entrance--of which those idols were the gate-posts, as it may be said. Oversluys, reassured, had drawn close enough now to see them creep up to the wall. Suddenly there was a roar! A multitude of figures leapt up the other side of the wall, yelling! That was 'Boot and Saddle' for Oversluys. Off he set full gallop, for the risk of a broken neck is not worth counting when vengeful Indians are on one's trail. But though all the village must have heard him thudding past, no one pursued. Very extraordinary, but the whole incident was mysterious. After fifteen years' experience the collector--a shrewd man at the beginning--knew Indians well, but he could never explain this adventure. Sometimes he thought it might have been a trick from beginning to end, devised by Don Hilario to get the Cura into a scrape. I have no suggestion to offer, but the little story seems worth note as an illustration of manners. Oversluys had good reason to remember it. Uncomfortably enough he waited for dawn in the dank wood, holding his mule by the bridle, not daring to advance. As soon as the path could be faintly traced he started, and happily found the corral where his mules and servants had been left. The cattle were streaming out already, bulls in advance. They blocked the gateway, and with the utmost promptitude Oversluys withdrew into the bush. Making his way to the fence he shouted for his mozos--in vain; climbed over with no small difficulty and entered the shed. His mules were safe enough but both mozos had vanished, having found or made friends in the neighbourhood. And all his precious Cattleyas, left defenceless, had been munched or trampled flat by the cattle! He never ceased to mourn that loss. A STORY OF CATTLEYA MOSSIAE Since orchids never die, unless by accident, and never cease to grow, there is no limit to the bulk they may attain. Mishap alone cuts their lives short--commonly the fall or the burning of the tree to which they cling. Mr. Burbidge secured one, a Grammatophyllum, 'as big as a Pickford's van,' which a corvée of Dyaks could not lift. Some old collections even in Europe show prodigious monsters; in especial, I am told, that of the Duke of Northumberland at Alnwick. Mr. Astor has two Peristeria elata at Cliveden of which the bulbs are as large as an ostrich egg, and the flower stems rise to a height of nine feet! The most striking instance of the sort I myself have observed, if not quite the biggest, was a Cattleya Mossiae sent home by Mr. Arnold. It enclosed two great branches of a tree, rising from the fork below which it was sawn off--a bristling mass four feet thick and five feet high; two feet more must be added if we reckon the leaves. As for the number of flower-scapes it bore last season, to count them would have been the work of hours; roughly I estimated a thousand, bearing not less than three blooms, each six inches across. Fancy cannot rise to the conception of that gorgeous display. I doubt not that the forest would be scented for a hundred yards round. Such giant Cattleyas are very rare in the 'wild state.' An orchid, though immortal, is subject to so many accidents that only species of very quick growth attain great age; these are less exposed to the perils of youth, naturally. From time to time, however, an Indian removes some plant which strikes him for its beauty or its size, and starts it afresh on a tree not too tall--and therefore young--in view of his hut. Thus it takes a new lease of life and grows indefinitely. I have not heard that 'white' peons are so aesthetic. This Cattleya Mossiae had been rescued by an Indian. Mr. Arnold first saw it on his memorable search for Masdevallia Tovarensis. I must tell that episode to begin with. More than thirty years ago a German resident at Tovar sent a white Masdevallia to a friend in England. There were very few species of the genus, few plants indeed, under cultivation at that time, and all scarlet. The novelty made a vast sensation. For a good many years the owner kept dividing his single specimen, and putting fragments on the market, where they fetched a very long price. Under such circumstances a man is not inclined to tell where his treasure comes from. At an earlier date this gentleman had published the secret so far as the name 'Tovar' went. But there are several places so called in Spanish America, and importers hesitated. At length Mr. Sander made up his mind. He sent Mr. Arnold to Tovar in New Grenada. Masdevallias are reckoned among the most difficult of orchids to import. From their home in cool uplands they must be transported through some of the hottest regions on the globe, and they have no pseudo-bulbs to sustain them; a leaf and a root, one may say, compose each tiny plant. Mr. Arnold, therefore, was provided with some sacks of Sphagnum moss in which to stow his finds. These sacks he registered among his personal baggage. At Waterloo, however, the station-master demurred. Moss, said he, must travel by goods train. Arnold had not allowed himself time to spare. The Royal mail steamer would leave within an hour of his arrival at Southampton; to go without his moss was useless; and a pig-headed official refused to pass it! Mr. Arnold does not profess to be meek. He remonstrated with so much energy that the station-master fled the scene. There was just time enough to load up the article in dispute and jump into a carriage, helped by a friendly stranger. The stranger had showed his friendliness before that. Standing at the open door, he supported Arnold's cause with singular warmth and vociferation. The latter was grateful, of course, and when he learned that his ally was a fellow-passenger to Caracas he expressed the hope that they might share a cabin. There was no difficulty about that. In short, they chummed. This young man announced himself as Mr. Thompson, a traveller in the hardware line, but he showed an intelligent curiosity about things in general--about orchids, for instance, when he learned that such was Arnold's business. Would it be possible for an ignoramus to make a few pounds that way?--how should he set about it?--which is the class of article most in demand just now, and where is it found? Before the voyage ended, that traveller in the hardware line knew as much about Masdevallia Tovarensis as Arnold could tell him. He bade goodbye aboard ship, for pressing business obliged him to start up country forthwith. Late in the afternoon Arnold, who was to stay some days at Caracas, met his agent on the Plaza. 'By the bye,' said that gentleman, 'are you aware that Mr. Blank started this morning in the direction of Tovar?' Now Mr. Blank was a man of substance who began orchid-growing as an amateur, but of late had turned professional. 'Bless me!' cried Arnold, 'is he here?' The agent stared. 'Why, as I understood, he travelled in the same ship with you.' Arnold seized him by the wrist, while in his mind's eye he reviewed all the passengers; they were not many. The only one who could possibly be Mr. Blank was--Mr. Thompson! 'Get me a horse, sir!' he sputtered. 'Which way has the villain gone? And a guide--with another horse! I'll pay anything! I'll go with you to hire them! Come along!' Ten minutes afterwards he was on the track, full gallop, stopping only at the hotel to get his pistol. At a roadside posada, fifteen miles beyond, Mr. Blank was supping in peace. The door opened. Arnold stalked in. He was in that mood of intensest passion when a man's actions are stiff though he trembles--all his muscles rigid with the effort of self-restraint. Quietly he barred the door and quietly he sat down opposite to Mr. Blank, putting his revolver on the board. 'Get your pistol, sir,' said he, scarcely above a whisper, 'we're going to settle this business.' But Mr. Blank, after a frenzied stare, had withdrawn beneath the table. Arnold hauled him out by the legs, demanding instant combat. But this was not the man to fight. He preferred to sign a confession and a promise, guaranteed by most impressive oaths, not to revisit those parts for six months. Then Arnold started him back, supperless, in the dark. It may be added that the gentleman whom I have named Mr. Blank lost his life in 1892, when seeking the habitat of Dendrobium Schröderianum, under circumstances not wholly dissimilar. As in this case he sought to reap where he had not sown. But peace be with him! Without more adventures Arnold found Masdevallia Tovarensis. Of the first consignment he despatched, forty thousand arrived in good health. This quest completed in shorter time than had been allowed, he looked for another 'job.' One is only embarrassed by the choice in that region. Upon the whole it seemed most judicious to collect Cattleya Mossiae. And Arnold set off for the hunting-grounds. On this journey he saw the monster I have described. It grew beside the dwelling of an Indian--not properly to be termed a 'hut,' nor a 'house.' The man was a coffee-planter in a very small way. Nothing that Arnold could offer tempted him in the least. His grandfather 'planted' the Cattleya, and from that day it had been a privilege of the family to decorate one portion of the neighbouring church with its flowers when a certain great feast came round. Arnold tried to interest the daughter--a very pretty girl: the Indian type there is distinctly handsome. Then he tried her lover, who seemed willing to exert his influence for the consideration of a real English gun. Arnold could not spare his own; he had no other, and the young Indian would not accept promises. So the matter fell through. Three years afterwards Arnold was commissioned to seek Cattleya Mossiae again. Not forgetting the giant, he thought it worth while to take a 'real English gun' with him, though doubtless the maiden was a wife long since, and her husband might ask for a more useful present. In due course he reached the spot--a small Indian village in the mountains, some fifteen miles from Caracas. The Cattleya was still there, perched aloft, as big as a hogshead. Arnold's first glance was given to it; then he looked at the owner's hospitable dwelling. It also was still there, but changed. Tidy it had never been, but now it was ruinous. None of the village huts could be seen, standing as they did each in its 'compound'--a bower of palm and plantains, fruit-trees, above all, flowers. Afterwards he perceived that they had all been lately rebuilt. The old Indian survived, but it was not from him that Arnold learned the story. The Cura told it. There had been a pronunciamiento somewhere in the country, and the Government sent small bodies of troops--pressgangs, in fact--to enlist 'volunteers.' One of these came to the village. The officer in command, a good-looking young man, took up his abode in the Indian's house and presently made it his headquarters, whence to direct the man-hunts. Upon that pretext he stayed several weeks, to the delight of the villagers, who were spared. But one evening there was an outbreak. The lover rushed along the street, dripping with blood--the officer, his sword drawn, pursuing. He ran into his hut and snatched a gun from the wall. But it was too late; the other cut him down. The day's field work was over--all the Indians had returned. They seized their machetes, yelling vengeance, and attacked the officer. But his soldiers also were close by. They ran up, firing as they ran. Some villagers were killed, more wounded; the place was sacked. Next morning early the detachment moved off. When the fugitives returning counted their loss, the pretty daughter of old José was missing. The dead lay where they fell, and she was not among them. The Cura, an amiable veteran, did not doubt that she had been carried off by force; was not this girl the most devout and dutiful in the parish? He saddled his mule forthwith and rode into Caracas. The officer had delivered his report, which may be easily imagined. Governments in Spanish America at this day resent any kind of interference from the clergy. Had a layman complained, doubtless there would have been an inquiry; in Venezuela, as elsewhere, maidens are not to be carried off by young aristocrats and no word said. But the authorities simply called on the accused for an explanation, accepted his statement that the girl followed him of her free-will, and recommended him to marry her. This he did, as Arnold ascertained. As for the rest--_quien sabe_? These sad events account for the old Indian's behaviour. Arnold found him at home, and with him a young man not to be recognised at first, who proved to be the lover. The muscles of his neck had been severed, causing him to hold his head awry, and a slash had partially disabled his right arm. Arnold was told abruptly that he could not lodge there, and he withdrew. But on a sudden the lover whispered eagerly. They called him back. 'Will you buy the Cattleya?' asked old José. 'How much?' 'Fifty dollars and a good gun.' 'It's a bargain.' He paid there and then, nor quitted the spot, though very hungry, until his followers had sawn through the branch and lowered its burden to the ground. Carrying his spoil in triumph, suspended on a pole, Arnold sought the Cura's house. There he heard the tale I have unfolded. Not until evening did the Padre chance to see the giant Cattleya. He was vexed, naturally, since his church lost its accustomed due. But when Arnold told what he had paid for it, the good man was deeply moved. 'Holy Virgin and all saints!' he cried, 'there will be murder!' And he set off running to the Indian's house. It was empty. José and the lover had been seen on the road to Caracas hours before--with the gun. I am sorry that I cannot finish the story; too often we miss the dénoûment in romances of actual life. But the Cura felt no doubt. It may be to-night, or next year, or ten years hence, he said, but the captain is doomed. Our Indians never forget nor forgive, nor fail when at length they strike. The murder was not announced whilst Arnold remained in the country. But all whom he questioned gave the same forecast. Unless the Indians were seized or died they would surely have vengeance. [Illustration: CATTLEYA SCHRODERÆ VAR. MISS MARY MEASURES.] CYPRIPEDIUM INSIGNE Here is a house full of Cypripedium insigne; nothing else therein save a row of big Cymbidiums in vases down the middle, Odontoglossum citrosmum and Cattleya citrina hanging on wires overhead. Every one knows this commonest of Cypripeds, though many may be unacquainted with the name. Once I looked into a show of window-gardening in the precincts of Westminster Abbey, and among the poor plants there, treasures of the poorest, I found a Cypripedium insigne--very healthy and well-grown too. But when I called the judges' attention, they politely refused to believe me, though none of them could say what the mysterious vegetable was--not the least curious detail of the incident. The flower cannot be called beautiful, but undeniably it is quaint, and the honest unsophisticated public loves it. Moreover the bloom appears in November, lasting till Christmas, if kept quite cool. The species was introduced from Sylhet so long ago as 1820, but it flourishes in many districts on the southern slope of the Himalayas. New habitats are constantly discovered. There are 505 plants in this house, and if individual flowers be not striking commonly--that is, flowers of the normal type--the spectacle is as pretty as curious when hundreds are open at once, apple-green, speckled with brown and tipped with white. But to my taste, as a 'grower,' the sight is pleasant at all seasons, for the green and glossy leaves encircle each pot so closely that they form a bank of foliage without a gap all round. But besides this house we have one much larger elsewhere, containing no less than 2500 examples of the same species. If no two flowers of an orchid on the same plant be absolutely similar, as experts declare--and I have often proved the rule--one may fancy the sum of variation among three thousand. Individually, however, it is so minute in the bulk of Cypripedium insigne that a careless observer sees no difference among a hundred blooms. I note some of the prominent exceptions. _Clarissimum._--Large, all white, except a greenish tinge at base of the dorsal, and the broad yellow shield of the column. _Laura Kimball_, on the other hand, is all ochreous yellow, save the handsome white crown of the dorsal and a narrow white margin descending from it. _Statterianum_ is much like this, but spotted in the usual way. _Bohnhoffianum_ has a dorsal of curious shape. The crest rises sharply between square shoulders which fold over, displaying the reverse. It has no spots, but at the base is a chestnut blotch, changing to vivid green, which again vanishes abruptly, leaving a broad white margin. Vivid green also are the petals, with brown lines; the slipper paler. This example is unique. _Macfarlanei_ is all yellowish green, with a white crest. _Amesiae._--The dorsal has a broad white outline and a drooping crest. To white succeeds a brilliant green, and to that, in the middle, bright chestnut. Chestnut lines also, and dots, mount upward. The green petals are similarly lined, and the slipper is greenish, tinged with chestnut. _Longisepalum_ is flesh-colour, with a greenish tinge and pink spots on the very long dorsal. The pink spots change to lines upon the petals. Slipper ruddy green. _Dimmockianum._--The broad and handsome dorsal is green, with white margin. A red stain at the base is continued in lines of spots upwards. The petals are scored with the same colour. _Measuresiae._--Big, with a grand dorsal, pale grass-green below, broadly whitening as it swells. Petals the same green, with a dark midrib and fainter lines. Slipper yellow. _Rona_ is an example of the common type in its utmost perfection--large, symmetrical, its green tinge the liveliest possible, its white both snowy and broad, and its spots so vigorously imprinted that they rise above the surface like splashes of solid chocolate. _Majesticum_ is another of the same class, but distinguished by the enormous size of its dorsal. _Dorothy._--Dorsal greenish yellow, with faint spots of chestnut and a broad white margin. Petals and slipper the same greenish-yellow tone. _R. H. Measures._--For size as for colour this variety is astonishing. Its gigantic dorsal is white, prettily stained at base with pale green, in which are enormous red spots, irregularly set. Petals tawny greenish, with lines and dots of red. The slipper matches. _Harefield Hall_ variety resembles this, but smaller. The great spots of the dorsal are more crimson, the petals and slipper a darker hue. _Frederico._--Within a broad white outline the dorsal is all yellow, heavily spotted and splashed with chestnut. The reddish tawny petals are lined and spotted with chestnut, and the tawny slipper shows a chestnut network. _Corrugatum._--The name refers to a peculiarity unique and inexplicable. The slipper, so smooth in every other case, has a strong breastbone, so to say, and five projecting ribs on either side, arching round diagonally from the back--pale brown on a darker ground. The dorsal is all yellow, spotted with brown, but the crest overhangs, showing its white underside. _Drewett's variety._--Dorsal white, with a green base and huge blotches of red-brown; greenish petals lined with the same; ruddy greenish slipper. _Eximium._--A natural hybrid doubtless, though we cannot guess what its other parent may be; it came among a lot of the ordinary form. Very small. The funny little dorsal is yellow, spotted throughout with red. The small petals have a crimson tinge, much darker in the upper length. Slipper dull crimson; the yellow shield of the column is very conspicuous on that ground. _Hector._--The dorsal is pale grass-green, with a white crest and margin and large chestnut spots; petals and slipper reddish ochre. _Punctatum_ is a title very commonly bestowed when the usual spots run together, making small blotches, arranged in lines; often the petals have a white margin, more or less broad, which shows them off. Here also I should mention the famous Cyp. ins. Sanderae, though, as a matter of fact, it is lodged elsewhere. The story of this wonderful orchid has often been told, but not every one has heard it. I may be allowed to quote my own version, published in _About Orchids--a Chat_ (Chapman and Hall, 1893). 'Among a great number of Cypripedium insigne received at St. Albans, and "established" there, Mr. Sander noted one presently of which the flower-stalk was yellow instead of brown, as is usual. Sharp eyes are a valuable item of the orchid-growers' stock-in-trade, for the smallest peculiarity among such "sportive" objects should not be neglected. Carefully he put the yellow-stalk aside. In due course the flower opened and proved to be all golden. Mr. Sander cut his plant in two, sold half for seventy-five guineas at Protheroe's auction rooms, and the other half to Mr. R. H. Measures. One of the purchasers divided his plant and sold two bits at a hundred guineas each. Another piece was bought back by Mr. Sander, who wanted it for hybridising, at two hundred and fifty guineas.' Not less than forty exist perhaps at the present time, for as soon as a morsel proves big enough to be divided, divided it is. Here we have two fine plants and a healthy young fragment. [Illustration: CYPRIPEDIUM INSIGNE, VAR. SANDERÆ.] To describe the flower is an ungrateful task. Tints so exquisitely soft are not to be defined in words; it is pleasanter to sum them up in the phrase 'all golden,' as I did formerly, when there was no need for precision. But here I must be specific, and in truth Cypripedium insigne Sanderae is not to be so described. The dorsal, beautifully waved, has a broad white margin and a cloud of the tenderest grass-green in the midst, covered with a soft green network. There are a few tiniest specks of brown on either side the midrib. The petals might be termed palest primrose, but when compared with the pure yellow slipper a pretty tinge of green declares itself. A marvel of daintiness and purity. In this house hang Catt. citrina, Odont. citrosmum, and Laelia Jongheana--five rows. Of the first, so charming but so common, it is enough to say that the owner of this collection has contrived to secure the very biggest examples, in their native growth, that a sane imagination could conceive--so big that I should not have credited a report of their dimensions. The ordinary form of citrosmum also demands no comment, and I deal with the interesting Laelia Jongheana elsewhere. But we have a number of citrosmum roseum, which has white sepals and petals and a pink lip; of citrosmum album, all purest white, save the yellow crest; and of the cream-coloured variety, which to my mind is loveliest of all. Sir Trevor Lawrence collects these at every opportunity, and I remember the charming display he made once at the Temple Show, when their long pendulous garlands formed the backing to his stand. STORY OF CATTLEYA SKINNERI ALBA The annals of botany are full of incident and adventure, especially that branch which deals with orchids. All manner of odd references and associations one finds there. I myself, having studied the subject, was not much surprised to meet with a tale of orchids and cock-fighting lately; but others may like to hear how such an odd connection arose. The name of the orchid was Cattleya Skinneri alba, one of the rarest and most beautiful we have; the name of the hero, Benedict Roezl, greatest of all collectors. This experience gives some notion of his ready wit, cool daring, and resource. But I could tell some even more characteristic. It is necessary to say that Cattleya Skinneri _tout court_--a charming rosy flower--was discovered by Mr. Skinner long before this date--in 1836; but no white Cattleya had yet been heard of. It was in 1870. Roezl had made a very successful foray in the neighbourhood of Tetonicapan, Guatemala, and with a long train of mules he was descending towards the coast. His head mozo could be trusted; the perils of the road--streams, mud, precipices, and brigands--had been left behind; Roezl, rejoicing in the consciousness of good work well done, pushed on by himself towards the village where they were to spend the night. He had not been there before, but the road--rather, the trail--was plain enough. Unfortunately it led him, after a while, into a jicara-grove. This tree, which supplies the calabash used throughout Central America, has some very odd peculiarities. Its leaves grow by fours, making a cross, and on that account, doubtless, the Indians esteem it sacred; their pagan forefathers reverenced the cross. The trunks spring at equal distances, as if planted by rule, but such is their natural habit; I have the strongest impression that Mr. Belt found a cause for this eccentricity, but the passage I cannot discover. Thirdly, jicara-trees always stand in a low-lying savannah, across which they are marshalled in lines and 'spaced' like soldiers on parade in open order--at least, I never saw them in another situation. Such spots are damp, and the herbage grows strong; thus the half-wild cattle are drawn thither, and before the wet season comes to an end they have trampled the whole surface, obliterating all signs of a path, if one there be, and confounding the confusion by making tracks innumerable through the jungle round. Upon such a waste Roezl entered, and he paused forthwith to deliberate. The compass would not help him much, for if it told the direction of the village, the Indian trail which led thither might open to right or left anywhere on the far side of the grove. Travellers in those wilds must follow the beaten course. At length he took bearings, so as to go straight at least, and rode on. Presently an Indian lad came out from the forest behind him, but stopped at sight of the tall stranger. Roezl shouted--he spoke every patois of Spanish America with equal fluency. The boy advanced at length. He could only talk his native Quiché, but Roezl made out that he was going to the village--sent him ahead, and followed rejoicing. So he crossed the jicara-ground. But in the forest beyond, it was not easy to keep up with an Indian boy trotting his fastest. In a few minutes the guide had vanished and Roezl hurried along after him. Suddenly a ragged rascal sprang out from the bushes ahead with levelled gun. Roezl glanced back. Two others barred his retreat. Not unfamiliar with such incidents, he laughed and offered his purse--never well filled. Good humour and wit had carried him through several adventures of the kind without grave annoyance; once in Mexico, when he had not one silver coin to ransom himself, a party of bandits kept him twenty-four hours simply to enjoy his drolleries, and dismissed him with ten dollars--which was a godsend, said Roezl. But these fellows only spoke Quiché, and they were sullen dogs. The purse did not satisfy them by any means. They made their prisoner dismount and enter the forest, marching behind him. The camp was close by, and here Roezl found his guide, hitched to a tree by the neck. The brigand officer and some of the men talked Spanish, and they appreciated Roezl's 'chaff,' treating him with boisterous familiarity; but they would not hear of letting him go until the Captain's arrival. He sat upon the ground, exchanging jokes with the ruffians, drinking their aguardiente and smoking their best cigars, like a jovial comrade. Meantime the Indian members of the band were out of the fun, and they attended to business. What they wanted of the lad Roezl did not understand, but when he persisted in refusing they beat him savagely. At length it went so far that Roezl could not bear to hear the poor fellow's cries. Putting the matter humorously, he begged the lieutenant to interfere, and that worthy commanded the Indians to desist. After an hour or so the Captain appeared, and Roezl's case was put before him; at the same moment, however, the scouts brought in a priest. He had resisted probably, for they had bound and beaten him. Such treatment was novel, doubtless. It had taken all spirit out of the holy man, who walked as humbly as could be till he set eyes on the Captain. Then his courage returned. They were old acquaintances, evidently, and the Padre claimed satisfaction. He did not get it; but the Captain set him free, with apologies. The boy proved to be his servant, and he also was released. Roezl asserted a claim to equal consideration as defender of that youth, and at length it was ungraciously allowed. Remembering, however, that his precious orchids would soon arrive and fall into the brigands' hands, to be smashed in spite probably, he ransomed them by a bill drawn on himself at the capital. Then he rode on to overtake the priest, who was Cura of the village which he sought. Not prepossessing at all was that ecclesiastic. None of the bandits had a more stupid expression or one less amiable. But Roezl found presently that he had some reason for ill-humour. Six cocks had he taken to a grand match at Tetonicapan the day before--three his own, three belonging to parishioners; and every one was killed! The boy had been sent in advance to break the news. Cock-fighting is the single amusement of that population, besides drink, of course, and the single interest of its ministers--most of them, at least. This padre could talk of nothing else. It was not a subject that amused Roezl, but he knew something of that as of all else that pertains to life in those countries. The dullest of mortals could not help gathering information about cocks and their ways in a lifetime of travel up and down Spanish America; the most observant, such as this, must needs collect a vast deal of experience. But Roezl was not interested in his companion. Not, that is, until he reached the village. The Cura had invited him to his house--so to call an adobe building of two rooms, without upper floor. It stood beside the church, hardly less primitive. Roezl glanced at the roof of this structure in passing. It has been mentioned that the Indians have a pleasant custom of removing any orchid they find, notable for size or beauty, to set on the church roof or on trees around it. In the course of his long wanderings Roezl had bought or begged several fine plants from a padre, but only when the man was specially reckless or specially influential with his parishioners. The practice dates from heathen times, and the Indians object to any desecration of their offerings. It was with curiosity rather than hope, therefore, that Roezl scrutinised the airy garden. There were handsome specimens of Cattleya--Skinneri most frequent, of course--Lycaste, Oncidium, and Masdevallia. They had done blooming mostly, but a belated flower showed here and there. In one big clump he saw something white--looked more closely--paused. The plant was Cattleya Skinneri certainly. How should a white flower be there? All other collectors, perhaps, at that time, would have passed on, taking it for granted that some weed had rooted itself amid the clump. But for many years Roezl had been preaching that all Cattleyas of red or violent tint, so to class them roughly, must make albino 'sports.' I believe he had not one instance to cite in proof of his theory, which is a commonplace now. A wondrous instinct guided him--the same which predicted that an Odontoglossum of extraordinary character would be found in a province he had never entered, where, years afterwards, the striking Odont. Harryanum was discovered. Men talked of Roezl's odd fancy with respect, but very few heeded it. He tried various points of view, but nowhere could the flower be seen distinctly. After grumbling and fuming a while the Cura left him, and presently he followed. That reverend person was an object of interest now. At the first opportunity Roezl mentioned that he was seeking a white Flor de San Sebastian, as they name Cattleya Skinneri, for which he would pay a good sum, and asked if there were any in the neighbourhood. The Cura replied at once, 'You won't get one here. Many years ago my people found one in the forest, but they never saw another before or since.' 'What did they do with it?' Roezl asked breathlessly. 'Fixed it on the church, of course.' The man was stupid, but in those parts an idiot can see any opening for trade. To suppose that a cock-fighting Guatemalan priest could have scruples about stripping his church would be grotesque. If he did not snatch at the chance to make money, when told that the stranger would pay for his whim, it must be because the removal of that plant would be so hazardous that he did not even think of it. Roezl dropped the subject. They ate--more especially, they drank. The leading men of the village came in to hear the sad story of the cock-fight. Not one word on any other topic was spoken until they withdrew to bed. But Roezl was not bored after a while. So soon as he grasped the situation, his quick wits began speculating and contriving means to tempt the Padre. And as he listened to the artless if not innocent discourse of these rustics, gradually a notion formed itself. The issue of the great match had been a disaster all round. In the first place, there was an antique feud with the victors. Secondly, their cocks had been defeated so often that for two years past they had lain low, saving their money to buy champion birds at the capital. And this was the result! In the assurance of triumph they had staked all they could raise upon the issue. That money was lost, and the cocks besides. Utter rout and bankruptcy! No wonder the priest sent his boy ahead to break the awful news. Despairingly they speculated on the causes of their bad luck from year to year, and it was in listening to this discussion that Roezl perceived a gleam of hope. The mules arrived with his orchids, and started again in the morning; but he stayed behind. The Cura was more than willing to explain the local system of feeding, keeping, training, and in general of managing cocks. Roezl went into it thoroughly without comment; but when the leading parishioners assembled at night, as usual, he lifted up his voice. 'My friends,' said he, 'you are always beaten because you do not understand the tricks of these wily townsmen. What you should import from Guatemala is not champion cocks, but a good cock-master, up to date. I'm afraid he would sell you indeed, but there is no other way.' They looked at one another astounded, but the Cura broke out, 'Rubbish! What do we do wrong?' 'Only a fool gives away valuable secrets. If you want my information you must pay for it. But I will tell you one thing. You keep your cocks tied up in a cupboard'--I am giving the sense of his observations--'by themselves, where they get spiritless and bored. You have been to Tetonicapan. Is that how they do there? In every house you see the cocks tied in a corner of the living room, where people come and go, often bringing their own birds with them. Hens enter too sometimes. So they are always lively and eager. This you have seen! Is it not so?' 'It is,' they muttered with thoughtful brows. 'Well, I make you a present of that hint. If you want any more valuable, you must pay.' And he withdrew. Weighty was the consultation doubtless. Presently they went in search of him, the whole body, and asked his terms. 'You shall not buy on speculation,' said Roezl. 'Is there a village in the neighbourhood where they treat their cocks as you do, and could you make a match for next Sunday? Yes? Well, then, you shall tie up your birds in a public room, follow my directions in feeding, and so forth. If you conquer, you shall pay me; if not, not.' 'What shall we pay?' asked the Cura. 'Your reverence and all these caballeros shall swear on the altar to give me the white Flor de San Sebastian which grows on the church roof.' The end is foreseen. Roezl carried off his White Cattleya and sold it to Mr. George Hardy of Manchester for 280 guineas. THE PHALAENOPSIS HOUSE Phalaenopsis are noted for whimsicality. They flourish in holes and corners where no experienced gardener would put them, and they flatly refuse to live under all the conditions most approved by science. Most persons who grow them have such adventures to tell, their own or reported. Sir Trevor Lawrence mentioned at the Orchid Conference that he once built a Phalaenopsis house at the cost of £600; after a few months' trial he restored his plants to their old unsatisfactory quarters and turned this beautiful building to another purpose. The authorities at Kew tell the same story with rueful merriment. In both cases, the situation, the plan, every detail, had been carefully and maturely weighed, with intimate knowledge of the eccentricities to be dealt with and profound respect for them. Upon the other hand, I could name a 'grower' of the highest standing who used to keep his Phalaenopsis in a ramshackle old greenhouse belonging to a rough market-gardener of the neighbourhood--perhaps does still. How he came to learn that they would thrive there as if under a blessed spell I have forgotten. But once I paid the market-gardener a visit and there, with my own eyes, beheld them flourishing under conditions such that I do not expect a plain statement of the facts to be believed. In the midst of the rusty old ruin was a stand with walls of brick; above this wires had been fixed along the roof. The big plants hung lowest. Upon the edges of their baskets smaller plants were poised, and so they stood, one above another, like a child's house of cards--I am afraid to say how high. A labouring man stood first at one end, then at the other, and cheerfully plied the syringe. They were not taken down nor touched from month to month. Seeing and hearing all this, I cried--but the reader can imagine what I cried. 'Well,' replied the market-gardener, 'I don't understand your orchids. But I shouldn't ha' thought they was looking poorly.' Poorly! Under these remarkable circumstances some scores of Phalaenopsis were thriving as I never saw them elsewhere. In this house they do very well, growing and flowering freely, giving no trouble by mysterious ailments. We have most of the large species--amabilis, Stuartiana, Schilleriana, Sanderiana, etc. No description of these is required. Hybrids of Phalaenopsis are few as yet. Here is Hebe, the product of rosea × Sanderiana, rosy white of sepal and petal, bright pink of lip, yellow at the base. On the left is a 'rockery' of tufa, planted with the hybrid Anthuriums which Messrs. Sander have been producing so industriously of late years. To my mind, an infant could make flowers as good as Anthuriums, if equipped with a sufficient quantity of sealing-wax, red and pink and white. Their form is clumsy, and grace they have none. But when they recognise a fashion, the wise cease to protest. Anthuriums are the fashion. Since that is so, and many worthy persons will be interested, I name the hybrids here. Of the Andreeanum type, raised by crossing its various forms:--_Lawrenciae_, pure white; _Goliath_, blood-red; _Salmoniae_, flesh-colour; _Lady Godiva_, white faintly tinged with flesh-colour; _Albanense_, deep red, spadix vermilion--this was one of the twelve 'new plants' which won the First Prize at the International Exhibition 1892. Of the Rothschildianum type:--_Saumon_, salmon-colour; _niveum_, very large, whitish, with orange-red markings; _aurantiacum_, coloured like the yolk of egg; _The Queen_, evenly marked in red, orange, and white. Overhead hang small plants of Phalaenopsis and Dendrobium; on a shelf above the Anthuriums, against the glass, two large specimens of the noble Cyp. bellatulum album--which with a despairing effort I have tried to sketch elsewhere--and no less than 380 plants of Cyp. Godefroyae, and its variety, Cyp. leucochilum, both white, heavily spotted with brownish purple. THE VANDA HOUSE lies beyond. Only the tall species are here, for such gems as V. Kimballiana and Amesiana would be lost among these giants. But there is little to say about our Vandas beyond a general commendation of their fine stature and glossy leaves. It is not a genus which we study, and the plants belong to ordinary species--the best of their class, however. For the benefit of experts I may mention, among specimens of Vanda suavis, the Dalkeith variety, Rollison's, Veitch's, Wingate, and Manchester; among Vanda tricolor, planilabris--grandest of all--Dalkeith, aurea, Pattison's, insignis, Rohaniana. But _Miss Joaquim_ must be mentioned (V. teres × V. Hookeriana), sepals and petals of a pretty rose colour, lip orange; a flower charming in itself, but still more notable as the product of a young lady's enthusiasm. Miss Agnes Joaquim is the daughter of a Consul at Singapore, residing at Mount Narcis in the vicinity. STORY OF VANDA SANDERIANA There are those who pronounce Vanda Sanderiana the stateliest of all orchids. To compare such numberless and varied forms of beauty is rather childish. But it will be allowed that a first view of those enormous flowers, ten or more upon a stalk--lilac above, pale cinnamon below, covered with a network of crimson lines--is a memorable sensation for the elect. We may fancy the emotions of Mr. Roebelin on seeing it--the earliest of articulate mortals so favoured. His amazement and delight were not alloyed by anticipation, for no rumour of the marvel had gone forth. Roebelin was travelling 'on spec' for once. In 1879 Mr. Sander learned that the Philippine Government was about to establish a mail service from Manila to Mindanao. Often had he surveyed that great island longingly, from his arm-chair at St. Albans, assured that treasures must await the botanist there. But although the Spaniards had long held settlements upon the coast, and, of course, claimed sovereignty over the whole, there had hitherto been no regular means of communication with a port whence steamers sailed for Europe. A collector would be at the mercy of chance for transmitting his spoil, after spending assuredly a thousand pounds. It was out of the question. But the establishment of a line of steamers to Manila transformed the situation. Forthwith Roebelin was despatched, to find what he could. He landed, of course, at the capital, Mindanao; and the Spaniards--civil, military, even ecclesiastic--received him cordially. Any visitor was no less than a phenomenon to them. It is a gay and pleasant little town, for these people, having neither means nor opportunity, as a rule, to revisit Europe, make their home in the East. And Roebelin found plenty of good things round the glorious bay of Illana. But he learned with surprise that the Spaniards did not even profess to have authority beyond a narrow strip here and there upon the coast. The interior is occupied by savages, numerous and warlike, Papuan by race, or crossed with the Philippine Malay. Though they are not systematically hostile to white men, Roebelin saw no chance of exploring the country. Then he heard of a 'red Phalaenopsis,' on the north coast, a legendary wonder, which must have its own chronicle by and by. Seduced especially by this report, Roebelin sailed in a native craft to Surigao, a small but very thriving settlement, which ranks next to the capital. People there were well acquainted with Phalaenopsis, but they knew nothing of a red one; some of them, however, talked in vague ecstasy of an orchid with flowers as big as a dinner-plate to be found on the banks of Lake Magindanao, a vast sheet of water in the middle of the island. They did not agree about the shape, or colour, or anything else relating to it; but such a plant must be well worth collecting anyhow. It was not dangerous to ascend the river, under due precautions, nor to land at certain points of the lake. Such points are inhabited by the Subano tribe, who live in hourly peril from their neighbours the Bagabos, against whom they beg Spanish protection. Accordingly white men are received with enthusiasm. The expedition, therefore, would be comparatively safe, if a guide and interpreter could be found. And here Roebelin was lucky. A small trader who had debts to collect among the Subanos offered his sampan, with its crew, on reasonable terms, and proposed to go himself. He was the son of a Chinaman from Singapore, by a native wife, and spoke intelligible English. The crew also had mostly some Chinese blood, and Roebelin gathered that they were partners of Sam Choon, his dragoman, in a very small way. The number of Celestials and half-breeds of that stock in Mindanao had already struck him, in comparison with Manila. Presently he learned the reason. The energetic and tenacious Chinaman is hated by all classes of Spaniards--by the clergy because he will not be converted, by the merchants because he intercepts their trade, by the military because he will not endure unlimited oppression, and by the public at large because he is hard-working, thrifty, and successful. He is dangerous, too, when roused by ill-treatment beyond the common, and his secret societies provide machinery for insurrection at a day's notice. But in Mindanao the Chinaman is indispensable. White traders could not live without his assistance. They do not love him the better, but they protect him so far as they may from the priests and the military. I have no adventures to tell on the journey upwards. It lasted a good many days. Roebelin secured few plants, for this part is inhabited by Bagabos, or some race of their kidney, and Sam Choon would not land in the forest. At length they reached Lake Magindanao; the day was fine, and they pushed across. But presently small round clouds began to mount over the blue hills. Thicker and thicker they rose. A pleasant wind swelled the surface of the lake, but those clouds far above moved continually faster. Roebelin called attention to them. But the Chinaman is the least weatherwise of mortals. Always intent on his own business or pleasure--the constitution of mind which gives him such immense advantage above all other men in the struggle for existence--he does not notice his surroundings much. Briefly, a tremendous squall caught them in sight of port--one of those sudden outbursts which make fresh-water sailing so perilous in the Tropics. The wind swooped down like a hurricane from every quarter at once, as it seemed. For a moment the lake lay still, hissing, beaten down by the blow; then it rose in solid bulk like waves of the ocean. In a very few minutes the squall passed on; but it had swamped the sampan. They were so near the land, however, that the Subanos, hastening to the rescue, met them half way in the surf, escorted them to shore, laughing and hallooing, and returned to dive for the cargo. It was mostly recovered in time. These people do not build houses in the water, like so many of their kin. They prefer the safety of high trees; it is not by any means so effectual, but such, they would say, was the custom of their ancestors. At this village the houses were perched not less than fifty feet in air, standing on a solid platform. But if the inhabitants are thus secured against attack, on the other hand--each family living by itself up aloft--an enemy on the ground would be free to conduct his operations at leisure. So the unmarried men and a proportion of the warriors occupy a stout building raised only so far above the soil as to keep out reptiles. Here also the chief sits by day, and public business is done. The visitors were taken thither. When Roebelin had dried his clothes the afternoon was too far advanced for exploration. The crew of the prau chattered and disputed at the top of their shrill voices as case after case was brought in, dripping, and examined. But Sam Choon found time in the midst of his anxieties to warn Roebelin against quitting the cleared area. 'Bagabos come just now, they say,' he shouted. But the noise and the fuss and the smell were past bearing. Roebelin took his arms and strolled out till supper was ready. I do not know what he discovered. On returning he found a serious palaver, the savages arguing coolly, the Chinamen raving. Sam Choon rushed up, begging him to act as umpire; and whilst eating his supper Roebelin learned the question in dispute. Sam Choon, as we know, had debts to collect in this village, for cloth and European goods, to be paid in jungle produce--honey, wax, gums, and so forth. The Subanos did not deny their liability--the natural man is absolutely truthful and honest. Nor did they assert that they could not pay. Their contention was simply that the merchandise had been charged at a figure beyond the market rate. Another Chinaman had paid them a visit, and sold the same wares at a lower price. They proposed to return Sam Choon's goods unused, and to pay for anything they could not restore on this reduced scale. It was perfectly just in the abstract, and the natural man does not conceive any other sort of justice. Sam Choon could not dispute that his rival's cloth was equally good; it bore the same trademark, and those keen eyes were as well able to judge of quality as his own. But the trader everywhere has his own code of morals. Those articles for which the Subanos were indebted had been examined, and the price had been discussed, at leisure; an honest man cannot break his word. Such diverse views were not to be reconciled. Roebelin took a practical course. He asked whether it could possibly be worth while to quarrel with these customers for the sake of a very few dollars? At the lower rate there would be a profit of many hundreds per cent. But the Chinaman, threatened with a loss in business, is not to be moved, for a while at least, by demonstrations of prudence. Meantime the dispute still raged at the Council fire, for the crew also were interested. Suddenly there was a roar. Several of them rushed across to Sam Choon and shouted great news. Roebelin understood afterwards. The caitiff who had undersold them was in the village at that moment! Whilst they jabbered in high excitement another roar burst out. One of the men, handling the rival's cloth, found a private mark--the mark of his 'Hoey.' And it was that to which they all belonged. The Hoey may be described as a trade guild; but it is much more. Each of these countless associations is attached to one of the great secret societies, generally the T'ien T'i Hung, compared with which, for numbers and power, Freemasonry is but a small concern. By an oath which expressly names father, son, and brother, the initiated swear to kill any of their fellows who shall wrong a member of the Hoey. This unspeakable villain who sold cheap had wronged them all! He must die! They pressed upon the chief in a body, demanding the traitor. All had arms and brandished them. Probably the savages would not have surrendered a guest on any terms; but this demonstration provoked them. In howling tumult they dispersed, seized their ready weapons, and formed line. The war-cry was not yet raised, but spears were levelled by furious hands. The issue depended on any chance movement. Suddenly from a distance came the blast of a cow-horn--a muffled bellow, but full of threat. The savages paused, turned, and rushed out, shouting. Roebelin caught a word, familiar by this time--'Bagabos.' He followed; but Sam Choon seized his arm. 'They put _ranjows_,' he said breathlessly. 'You cut foot, you die!' And in the moonlight Roebelin saw boys running hither and thither with an armful of bamboo spikes sharp as knives at each end, which they drove into the earth. Men unacquainted with the plan of this defence can only stand aside when ranjows are laid down. Roebelin waited with the Chinamen, tame and quiet enough now. The Subanos had all vanished in the forest, which rose, misty and still, across the clearing. Hours they watched, expecting each moment to hear the yell of savage fight. But no sound reached them. At length a long line of dusky figures emerged, with arms and ornaments sparkling in the moonlight. It was half the warriors returning. They still showed sullenness towards the Chinamen; but the chief took Roebelin by the hand, led him to the foot of a tree upon which stood the largest house, and smilingly showed him the way up. It was not a pleasant climb. The ladder, a notched trunk, dripped with dew; it was old and rotten besides. Roebelin went up gingerly; the chief returned with a torch to light his steps before he had got half way. But the interior was comfortable enough--far above the mosquito realm anyhow. Roebelin felt that an indefinite number of eyes were watching from the darkness as he made his simple preparations for turning in; but he saw none of them, and heard only a rustling. 'What a day I've had!' he thought, and fell asleep. It was a roar and a rush like the crack of doom which woke him; shrieking and shouting, clang of things that fell, boom of great waves, and thunder such as mortal never heard dominating all. A multitude of naked bodies stumbled over him and fell, a struggling, screaming heap. In an instant they were gone. He started up, but pitched headlong. The floor rolled elastic as a spring-board. It was black night. Dimly he saw clearer patches where a flying wretch, tossed against the wall of sticks, had broken it down. But the dust veiled them like a curtain. Gasping, on hands and knees, Roebelin sought the doorway. Again and again, even thus, he fell upon his side. And all the while that thundering din resounded. He understood now. It was a great earthquake! At length the doorway was found; holding on cautiously, Roebelin felt for the ladder. It was gone--broken in the rush. Of the time that followed I do not speak. There were no more shocks. Slowly the sky whitened. He turned over the wreck--not a creature was there, dead or living. Great gaps showed in the floor and in the roof. Through one of these, against the rosy clouds, he saw a wreath of giant flowers, lilac and cinnamon, clinging to the tree above. It was Vanda Sanderiana! * * * * * But that plant and the others collected at the same time never reached Europe. Upon returning to Surigao with his treasures, Roebelin found little beyond heaps of rubbish on the site. Earthquakes have a home in Mindanao. But that of 1880 was the most awful on record as yet. Two years later he returned and brought home the prize. STORY OF PHALAENOPSIS SANDERIANA The discovery of Phalaenopsis Sanderiana was an interesting event; nor for botanists alone. Some thoughtful persons always incline to credit a legend or an assertion current among savages, so long as it deals with facts within the limits of their knowledge. Human beings are truthful by instinct; and if we can assure ourselves that no motive tempts them to falsehood, it is more likely than not that even an improbable story will prove correct. The rule applies in all matters of natural history. Numberless are the reports concerning beasts and birds and reptiles accepted now which were a mock for generations; numberless, also, one must add, are the reports too grotesque for discussion. For imagination asserts itself in the case of animals, and gives a motive, though unconscious, for the wildest inventions. But it is rarely excited by plants. When a savage describes some flower he has seen, the statement may be trusted, 'barring errors'; and they will probably be slight, for his power of observation, and his memory in matters of this sort, are alike wonderful. A collector of plants who knows his business encourages the natives to talk; often enough they give him valuable information. The first hint of Calla Pentlandii, the yellow Egyptian lily or 'arum,' was furnished by a Zulu who came from a great distance to visit a relative in the service of Captain Allison. I may venture to tell secrets which will be common property soon. A blue Calla and a scarlet have been found--both of them on report of Kaffirs. The story of Phalaenopsis Sanderiana is a striking instance. Its allied species, grandiflora and amabilis, reached Europe in 1836 and 1847 respectively. Their snowy whiteness and graceful habit prepared the world for a burst of enthusiasm when Phalaenopsis Schilleriana, the earliest of the coloured species, was brought from the Philippines in 1860. The Duke of Devonshire paid Messrs. Rollison a hundred guineas for the first plant that flowered. Such a price was startling then. Reported at Manila, it set the Spaniards talking and inquiring. Messrs. Rollison had sent an agent to collect Phalaenopsis there, who presently reported a scarlet species! No one he could find had seen it, but the natives spoke confidently, and he hoped to forward a consignment without delay. But years and years passed. The great firm of Rollison flourished, decayed, and vanished, but that blessed consignment was never shipped. Other collectors visited the Philippines. They also reported the wonder, on hearsay, and every mail brought them reiterated instructions to find and send it at any cost. Now here, now there, the pursuers hunted it to a corner; but when they closed, it was elsewhere. Meantime the settled islands had been explored gradually. Many fine things escaped attention, as we know at this day; but a flower so conspicuous, so eagerly demanded and described, could not have been missed. As years went by, the red Phalaenopsis became a joke. Interest degenerated into mockery. As a matter of fact, it is very improbable that the plant had ever been in Manila, or that a white man had beheld it. For it is found only in an islet to the west of Mindanao, the most southerly of the Philippine group. Mindanao itself is not yet explored, much less occupied, though the Spaniards pushed farther and farther inland year by year. Seafaring Tagalas may have visited that islet, and seen the red Phalaenopsis. When they heard, at Manila, how an English duke had paid some fabulous amount for a flower of the same genus, they would naturally mention it. And so the legend grew. In 1881, a score of years afterwards, the conquest of Mindanao was so far advanced that the Spanish mail steamers called there. When Mr. Sander of St. Albans heard this intelligence he thrilled with hope, as has been told. Mr. Roebelin had instructions, of course, to inquire for the red Phalaenopsis; Mr. Sander's experience teaches him that local rumours should never be disregarded. But the search had been very close and very long. Perhaps there was not another man in Europe who thought it possible that the marvel could exist. Mr. Roebelin is still living, I believe, and he could tell of some lively adventures on that first visit to Mindanao. Constantly he heard of the red Phalaenopsis; it was _en l'air_, he wrote, using the expression in two senses. At the northern settlements they directed him south, at the eastern, west, and so round the compass. But he had other matters in hand, and contented himself with inquiries. I do not learn whether it was accident or information which led him to the little island Davao on his second visit, in 1883. He may have sailed thither on chance, for a traveller is absolutely certain of finding new plants on an untrodden shore in those seas. Anyhow Roebelin knew the quest was over, the riddle solved triumphantly, before landing. The half-breed Chinaman, Sam Choon, was personally conducting him on this occasion also; he found the vessel (a native prau, of course), boatmen, provisions, and the rest. Everything was at the collector's disposal; but Sam Choon took a cargo of 'notions' on his own account, to trade when opportunity arose. Davao lies, I understand, some sixty miles from Mindanao. Its inhabitants are Papuan thorough-bred, of the brown variety. Roebelin was deeply struck with the appearance of the warriors who swarmed to the beach when his intention of landing was understood. A body of men so tall and stalwart can scarcely be found elsewhere, and for graceful carriage or activity they could not be surpassed. A red clout was their only wear, besides ornaments and weapons. They had the kinkled hair of the race (not wool), bleached with lime, and dyed yellow. Very strange and pleasing is the effect of these golden mops, lustrous if not clean, decked with plumes and fresh flowers. But admiration came afterwards. When Roebelin saw the big fellows mustering in haste, armed with spears and bows, stoneheaded maces which the European soldier could scarcely wield, great swords set with sharks' teeth, and outlandish tools of every sort for smashing and tearing, he regarded the spectacle from another point of view. They ran and leapt, brandishing their weapons, halloed and roared and sang, with Papuan vivacity. The vessel approaching was too small to alarm them. Laughter predominated in the uproar. But this was no comfort. Men are cheerful with a feast in view. Sam Choon, however, kept up his spirits. 'Them chaps make rumpus all time,' he said. 'We see.' He held up a green bough shipped for the purpose. It was all laughter now and gesticulation. Every Papuan tore a branch from the shrubs around and waved it boisterously. 'Them no hurt,' said Sam Choon. 'Good trade.' The Chinaman was as careful of his person as one need be, and experienced in the ways of such people. Roebelin took courage. As they neared the surf, the whole body of islanders rushed towards them, splashed through the shallows whooping, dived beneath the wave, and came up at the vessel's side. Ropes were tossed to them, and they swam back again. But the first yellow head popped up just where Roebelin was seated. Among the feathers twisted in it, draggled now, he saw a spray--surely an Aerides! but bluish-red, unlike any species known. The savage grinned and shouted, whirling the hair like an aureole around his glistening face, threw one brawny arm into the air, and at a stroke reached the bows. Another shot up; another. The sea was peopled in an instant, all grinning and shouting breathlessly, all whirling their golden locks. Among the flowers with which every head was decked, Roebelin saw many Phalaenopsis. And most of them were ruddy! Sam Choon lay to whilst the islanders swam ashore and formed a chain; then, at a word, they ran up the beach full speed--making a noise, says Roebelin, which reminded him of the earthquake he had lately felt. Simultaneously the crew paddled their hardest, also yelling in the shrill Chinese way. The prau sped like a flash, but half full of water. Beyond the surf a mob seized and carried it ashore. Papuans have no acquaintance with ceremony. Paying little attention to their chiefs, they are not apt to discriminate among strangers. All alike seized one of these new friends--who brought trade!---slapped him about the body, and hugged him. Roebelin had been subjected to merciless shampooing occasionally in Indian hammams; but he never felt the like of that welcome. It was _massage_ by machinery. The women had come on the scene now. Though they took no part, they mingled with the warriors, and showed quite as much assurance as is becoming. But they are not by any means such fine creatures as the men, and they do not allow themselves--or they are not allowed--the curious attraction of yellow hair. Roebelin noticed a few, however, worthy to be helpmates of those superb animals; one girl in especial, nearly six feet high, whose figure was a model, face pleasing and expressive, full of character. These people live in trees like the Subanos of Mindanao. As soon as his baggage had been taken to the public hall, Roebelin got out beads, wire, and Brummagem jewellery. The glimpse of that Aerides and the assurance of a red Phalaenopsis made him impatient. But even Sam Choon found difficulty in identifying the chiefs, to whom of course presents must be made before business can open. However, the point interesting to Roebelin was settled in an instant. The Phalaenopsis, they said, abounded within a few hundred yards, and the Aerides was common enough. The white man wanted them for medicine? He might have as many as he liked--on due payment. To-morrow the chief would show him, and then a price must be fixed. He slept in the hall, and at dawn he was more than ready. But early rising is not a virtue of savages. To explore without permission would be dangerous. Gradually the village woke to life. Men descended from their quarters high in air, bathed, made their toilettes, and lounged about, waiting for breakfast. Girls came down for water and returned, whilst their mothers tidied the house. Smoke arose. In due time the men mounted, ate, climbed down, and gathered in the public hall, where Sam Choon was setting out a sample of his wares. Hours passed. But the chief's door remained shut. No one passed out or in. Roebelin saw people glance upwards with a grave air; but they showed no surprise. He consulted Sam Choon, who had been too busy to notice. All he said was, ''Spect chief get bad bird! Dam! All up this day!' And he stopped his preparations. So it proved to be--a fowl of black plumage had flown across just as the door was opening. None of the chief's household came down that day. But after negotiation some of the men led Roebelin to see the Phalaenopsis. They grew in thousands over a brook close by, clinging to small trees. He counted twenty-two plants, bearing more than a hundred flowers open, upon a single trunk. Very curious is one point noticed. The Phalaenopsis always grows on the northern side of its support, and always turns its flower spike towards the southern side. It is a very bad species to travel. Of the multitude which Roebelin gathered, not more than a hundred reached Europe alive, and every collector since, I believe, has failed utterly. Very few possessed his knowledge and experience. That was Phalaenopsis Sanderiana; rather purple than red, but certainly the flower so long sought. With the superb Aerides--now called A. Roebelini--he was even less successful; it is only to be seen in a very few collections of the highest class. So the legend ends. But there is a funny little sequel. Sam Choon did well with his 'notions.' After Mr. Roebelin's departure, he returned to Davao and opened a promising branch of trade. To secure a permanent footing, he thought it would be judicious to marry a daughter of the chief, and he proposed for the giant beauty whom Roebelin had noticed on landing. The father was astonished and amused, but finally indignant. A Chinaman, however, though thrifty by habit and taste, does not count expense when pleasure or business urge him, and both combined here. The chief wavered, and took counsel of his elders. They also were astonished and indignant; but Sam Choon found means to persuade them. So the young woman received notice that she was to marry the Chinaman next day. Her remarks are not chronicled. But there was much excitement among the bachelors and maidens that evening, and presently a band of stalwart youths entered the hall where Sam Choon sat with the chief--his father-in-law on the morrow. They told the latter gravely that they disapproved of the match. Sam Choon interposed with a statement of the advantages to follow, with equal gravity. Then they threatened to smash every bone in his carcass. So the marriage was broken off, but without ill-feeling on either side. [Illustration: LÆLIA, GRANDIS, TENEBROSA. _WALTON GRANGE VARIETY._] HYBRID CATTLEYAS AND LAELIAS To right, in the Vanda House, are many hybrids of Cattleya and Laelia; but we have many more, and it will be convenient to notice them all together in this place. Some have not flowered yet, and therefore have received no name; but even of these it is worth while to give the parentage, seeing that there is no official record of hybridisation as yet. Mr. Rolfe at Kew tries hard to keep pace with the enterprise of enthusiastic amateurs and energetic professionals throughout the world. But comparatively few report to him, and not every one files the _Orchid Review_. Thus it happens that experiments carried to an issue long ago are continually repeated, in the expectation of producing a novelty. The experimenter indeed loses nothing save the credit he hoped to win. But in the scientific point of view time is wasted and the confusion of names is increased. To contribute in my small way towards an improvement in this state of things I give a list of the Cattleya and Laelia hybrids at Woodlands, long though it be, and uninteresting to the public at large; assured that it will be welcome to those who study this most fascinating subject. I may take the hybrids as they stand, with no methodical arrangement. L.-C. means the product of a Laelia and a Cattleya, or, somewhat loosely, of a Cattleya and a Laelia. C. × means the product of two Cattleyas; L. × of two Laelias. _L.-C. Ancona_ (Catt. Harrisoniae × L. purpurata) represents each parent almost equally, taking after Catt. Harrisoniae in colour and size of sepal and petal; in general shape and in the hues of the labellum after L. purpurata. _L.-C. Nysa_ (L. crispa × Catt. Warcewiczii).--Pale mauve--the petals have a sharp touch of crimson at the tips. Labellum all evenly crimson with a narrow outline of white, gracefully frilled. _L. × Measuresiana._--A natural hybrid, very rare, assumed to be the product of L. elegans × L. purpurata. Rosy mauve. From the tube, very long, the labellum opens squarely, purple, with a clouded throat and dusky yellow 'eyes.' _L.-C. Arnoldiana_ (L. purpurata × Catt. labiata). Large, clear mauve. Petals much attenuated at the ends, which gives them a sort of 'fly-away' appearance. The fine expanded lip, of carmine crimson, is clouded with a deeper tint round the orange throat. _L. × Claptonensis_ (L. elegans × L. Dormaniana).--Small, white with a rosy flush. The long shovel lip is brilliantly crimson, fading to a white edge. _L.-C. amanda._--A natural hybrid of which Catt. intermedia is one parent, L. Boothiana perhaps the other. Pale pink. The yellow throat and the bright rosy lip show lines of deep crimson, strongly 'feathered' on either side. _L. × Gravesiae_ (L. crispa superba × L. praestans).--Small, rosy white. The spade-like lip is magenta-crimson, wonderfully smooth and brilliant, with two little yellow 'eyes' in the throat. _L.-C. Tiresias_ (Catt. Bowringiana × L. elegans).--The petals are exactly oval, saving pretty twirls and twists at the edges--soft bright mauve, the narrow sepals paler. The funnel lip does not open wide, but in colour it is like the richest and silkiest crimson velvet, almost maroon at the throat; charmingly frilled and gauffered. _C. × Portia._--Parents doubtful, but evidently Catt. Bowringiana is one of them, Catt. labiata perhaps the other. Sepals and petals lively mauve, the latter darker. The funnel of the lip brightest rose, disc of the softest tenderest crimson imaginable, deepening against the pale yellowish throat. _L.-C. Tresederiana_ (Catt. Loddigesii × L. crispa superba).--Rather curious than beautiful. The narrow petals and narrower sepals are pallid violet; the labellum has a faintly yellow throat, and the dull purple disc of Catt. crispa; not evenly coloured but in strong lines. _C. × Mantinii nobilior_ (Catt. Bowringiana × Catt. aurea).--Raised by M. Mantin. Delicious is a proper word for it--neat and graceful in shape, rosy-crimson in colour. The lip opens widely, exquisitely veined with gold within. It has a golden tinge on either side the throat, and a margin of deeper crimson. The whole colouring is indescribably soft and tender. _C. × Mantinii inversa_ represents the same parentage transposed (Catt. aurea × Catt. Bowringiana).--Small like its mother, of brightest deepest rose. The lip, loosely open above, swells to a fine expanse below, of darker tint. Throat golden, charmingly scored with crimson-brown, like aurea. The disc shows an arch of dark crimson on a rosy ground. It will be seen that the influence of Bowringiana strongly predominates. _C. × Chloris_ (Catt. Bowringiana × Catt. maxima) much resembles the above. It is less brilliant, however; the lip does not open so freely, and the arch mentioned, though even darker, is not so effective on a less lively ground. _L.-C. Fire Queen._--Parentage not recorded. I have not seen this flower, nor even an account of it, but it received an Award of Merit, June 6, 1897. _L.-C. Lady Wigan_ (L. purpurata Russelliana × Catt. Mossiae aurea).--Dainty pink of sepal and petal. From the pale yellow throat issue a number of crimson rays which darken to violet purple in the disc. _C.-L. Parysatis_ (Catt. Bowringiana × L. pumila).--Rosy pink. The funnel-shaped lip opens handsomely, showing a disc of soft crimson with a white speck at the tip. _L.-C. Robin Measures_ is assumed to be a natural hybrid of Laelia xanthina × Catt. Regnieri, a variety of Catt. Schilleriana. Sepals and petals smooth dainty green, the latter just touched with a suspicion of purple at the tips. It has the shovel lip of Schilleriana, a yellow tube and golden throat, from which descends a line of darkest crimson. The ground-colour of the disc is white, but clouded with crimson-lake and closely barred with dark crimson up to the white edge. _L.-C. Bellairensis_ (Catt. Bowringiana × L. Goldiana).--So curiously like L. autumnalis that a close observer even would take it for that species. In shape, however, it is more graceful than the pink form, and in colour much more pale than atro-rubens. _L.-C. Tiresias superba_ (Catt. Bowringiana × L. elegans Turneri).--I heard some one exclaim 'What a study in colour!' It is indeed, and in form too--not large, but smoothly regular as pencil could draw. The sepals make an exact triangle, delicate rosy purple, netted over with soft lines. Petals broad and short, darker. Lip rather long, white in the throat with a faintest stain of yellow, the disc and edges of the lobes glorious crimson-purple, with a dark cloud above which stretches all up the throat. A gem of beauty indescribable. _C. × Browniae._--Bought as a hybrid of Catt. Bowringiana × Catt. Loddigesii, but it shows no trace of either parent. Very pretty and odd, however. The tiny little sepals are hardly seen, lost behind the huge pink petals. The lip also has pink lobes above a gamboge throat, and a bright crimson-purple disc. _L.-C. Albanensis._--A natural hybrid, doubtless the product of L. grandis × Catt. Warneri. Pale rosy-mauve, lip crimson, deepening as it expands, but fading again towards the margin. A large and grand flower. _L.-C. Aphrodite_ (Catt. Mendelii × L. purpurata).--Sepals and petals pure white. Labellum deepest crimson with rosy tip. _L. × Sanderae_ (L. xanthina × L. Dormaniana).--Sepals and petals crimson, lip purplish rose. _C. × Mariottiana_ (Catt. Eldorado × Catt. gigas).--Very pretty, dark rose, lip bright crimson with yellow throat. _L. × splendens_ (L. crispa × L. purpurata).--Pink. Lip crimson-purple, edged with white, heavily fringed. _C. × Atalanta_ (Catt. Leopoldii × Catt. Warcewiczii).--Large and waxy. Sepals and petals rose veined with crimson, lip bright magenta. _L.-C. excellens_ (Catt. gigas ocullata × L. purpurata Brysiana).--A superb flower, very large, rosy mauve, lip crimson. _L.-C. Amazon_ (Catt. maxima × L. purpurata).--Sepals and petals softly flushed, lip much darker in tone, veined with crimson. _C. × Prince of Wales_ (Catt. fimbriata × Catt. Wageneri).--White. The lip amethyst, veined with rose and frilled; throat golden. _C. × Kienastiana_ (Catt. Luddemanniana × Catt. aurea).--Sepals flushed white, petals warm lilac, the veins paler; magenta lip with shadings of orange and lilac towards the edge and a white margin. _L.-C. Hon. Mrs. Astor_ (Catt. Gaskelliana × L. xanthina).--Sepals clear yellow, petals white with a sulphur tinge; throat golden yellow veined with purple, disc rose, veined with crimson and edged with lilac. _L.-C. Broomfieldensis_ (Catt. aurea-chrysotoxa × L. pumila Dayana).--Mauve. The lip deep crimson, gracefully frilled; the throat has crimson and gold markings on a purple ground. _C. × Fowleri_ (Catt. Leopoldii × Catt. Hardyana).--Rosy lilac, lip crimson. The side lobes are white tipped with crimson. _C. × Miss Measures_ (Catt. speciosissima × Catt. velutina).--Pretty mauve-pink with darker lines. Golden throat, lip crimson veined with purple. _C. × William Murray_ (Catt. Mendelii × Catt. Lawrenceana).--Rosy with a purple tinge. Throat veined with orange and purple, lip purple-crimson. _L.-C. C.-G. Roebling_ (L. purpurata alba × Catt. Gaskelliana).--Sepals and petals flushed, lip deepest violet, suffused with crimson and edged with white. _L.-C. D. S. Brown_ (Catt. Trianae × L. elegans).--Soft pink, throat yellow with a brownish tinge, lip carmine-crimson. _L.-C. Mardellii fascinator_ (L. elegans Turneri × Catt. speciosissima).--Mauve. Throat yellow, darkening to orange in front, lip purple-crimson. _L.-C. callistoglossa_ (L. purpurata × Catt. gigas).--Sepals pale rosy mauve, petals darker. Throat yellow streaked with purple; lip purple. _L.-C. callistoglossa ignescens_ (Catt. gigas × L. purpurata).--Sepals rosy lilac, petals a deeper shade, lip glowing purple. _L. × Latona_ (L. purpurata × L. cinnabarina).--Pale orange. Lip whitish at the base, the disc crimson bordered with orange. _L.-C. Decia_ (L. Perrinii × Catt. aurea).--Pale violet, deepening towards the tips. Lip crimson, streaked with white on the side lobes, with white and rosy purple on the disc. _L.-C. Eudora_ (Catt. Mendelii × L. purpurata).--Rosy purple. Lip deepest crimson shaded with maroon. _L.-C. Eudora alba_ (L. purpurata alba × Catt. Mendelii).--Ivory white. Lip crimson with purple shadings. _L.-C. Hippolyta_ (Catt. Mossiae × L. cinnabarina).--Bright orange with a rosy purplish tinge. The lip red-purple, much frilled. _L.-C. Zephyra_ (Catt. Mendelii × L. xanthina).--All Nankin yellow except the crimson disc, which has a pale margin. _L.-C. Amesiana_ (L. crispa × Catt. maxima).--White washed with amethyst. Lip purple-crimson fading towards the margin. _L.-C. Exoniensis_ (Catt. Mossiae × L. crispa).--White flushed with rosy mauve. Lip purple-crimson. _L. × Yula_ (L. cinnabarina × L. purpurata).--Scarcely larger than cinnabarina, bright orange, the petals veined and flushed with crimson. The lip of size proportionate--that is, small--shows more of the purpurata influence in its bright crimson disc. _L. × Yula inversa_ (L. purpurata × L. cinnabarina).--The same parentage but transposed. More than twice as large as the other and spreading, but thin. Sepals of the liveliest orange, petals agreeably tinged with purple. On the long narrow lip this pink shade deepens almost to red. Upon the whole, neither of them is to be commended for its own sake, but the brilliant orange of cinnabarina is retained so perfectly that both will prove valuable for hybridising. _C. × Our Queen_ (Catt. Mendelii × unknown).--Sepals and petals white, faintly flushed. In the throat, of brightest yellow, are several brown lines. The upper part of the lip is crimson, the disc purple. _L.-C. Empress of India_ (L. purpurata Brysiana × Catt. Dowiana).--Sepals and petals rose, tinged with violet at the ends, lip large, spreading, of the richest crimson-purple. _L.-C. Leucoglossa_ (Catt. Loddigesii × L.-C. fausta).--Rose-pink. Lip white, touched with yellow in the throat. _L.-C. Henry Greenwood_ (L.-C. Schilleriana × Catt. Hardyana).--Sepals and petals cream-coloured, tinged with pink, the latter veined with rosy purple. Lip purple with yellow throat. _L.-C. Canhamiana_ (Catt. Mossiae × L. purpurata).--White tinged with mauve. Lip crimson-purple, with a narrow white margin, crisped. _L.-C. Pallas superba_ (L. crispa × Catt. aurea).--Dark rose. Lip purple in the throat, golden in the disc, finely striped with crimson. _C. × Wendlandiana_ (Catt. Bowringiana × Catt. gigas).--Bright soft rose, lip purple-crimson with two yellow 'eyes' beneath the tube. _C. × Cecilia_ (Catt. Lawrenceana × Catt. Trianae).--Sepals and petals deep violet, throat buff changing to violet, disc purple. _C. × Louis Chaton_ (Catt. Trianae × Catt. Lawrenceana--the same parentage as Cecilia but reversed).--A most successful combination. Fine in shape, petals soft rosy mauve, sepals paler, and superb crimson lip, with the yellow of Trianae strongly expressed in the throat. _C. O'Brieniana._--A natural hybrid of Catt. Loddigesii and Catt. Walkeriana apparently; pale mauve; lip yellow. _L.-C. Miss Lily Measures_ (L.-C. Arnoldiana × Gottoiana).--Very large. Sepals and petals dark rose; lip rosy purple. _L.-C. velutino-elegans_ (Catt. velutina × L. elegans).--Sepals and petals white with a yellow tinge, veined with rose. At the throat an orange blotch. Lip darkest crimson with white veins. I append a list of hybrid seedlings which have not yet flowered and therefore have received no name as yet. It will be useful only to those who practise the fascinating art of Hybridisation. But such are a multitude already, and each year their numbers swell. Cattleya labiata × Catt. Bowringiana. " Mendelii × L. xanthina. " Warnerii × L. Euterpe. " Bowringiana × Catt. Hardyana. " " × Sophronitis grandiflora. " labiata × Catt. Brymeriana. " Gaskelliana × Catt. Harrisoniae violacea. " labiata × L. Perrinii. " Bowringiana × L. Perrinii. " granulosa × Catt. gigas Sanderae. " amethystoglossa × Catt. Trianae Osmanii. " labiata × L. Gravesiae. " Bowringiana × Catt. Leopoldii. " Schofieldiana × Catt. Schroderae. " Schroderae × L. elegans. " Harrisoniae × Catt. Hardyana. " Bowringiana × L.-C. Clive. " labiata × Catt. Brymeriana. " Gaskelliana × Catt. Hardyana. " Schroderae × L. grandis. " granulosa × Catt. gigas. " Gaskelliana × L. crispa. " Mossiae × L. purpurata Schroderae. " Leopoldii × L. crispa superba. " Leopoldii × Catt. Harrisoniae violacea. Laelia tenebrosa × Catt. gigas Sanderae. " harpophylla × L. elegans Blenheimensis. " cinnabarina × Catt. Skinnerii. " tenebrosa × L.-C. Phoebe. " " × Catt. Mossiae aurea. " praestans × Catt. Lord Rothschild. " Dayanum × Catt. labiata. " cinnabarina × Catt. Trianae var. Mary Ames. " purpurata × L. grandis. " " × Catt. Schroderae. " amanda × Catt. aurea. " purpurata Schroderae × Catt. Mossiae aurea. " Lucasiana × L. elegans Schilleriana. " elegans × Catt. Mossiae. " crispa × Catt. aurea. " purpurata × Catt. Hardyana. " " × Catt. Mossiae. " tenebrosa × Catt. Warnerii. " " × Catt. Mendelii. " elegans × Catt. gigas. Beyond the hybrids are twenty plants of white Cattleya intermedia. The owner of our collection was first among mortals, in Europe at least, to behold that marvel of chaste loveliness. Mr. Sander received a plant of intermedia from Brazil, which the collector labelled 'white.' Albino Cattleyas were few then, and Roezl alone perhaps ventured to imagine that every red species had a white sister. So they took little notice of the label at St. Albans. When Mr. Measures paid a visit, it was even shown to him as an example of the reckless statements forwarded by collectors. He, however, in a sporting mood, offered ten guineas, and Mr. Sander gladly accepted, but under a written proviso that he guaranteed nothing at all. And in due time Cattleya intermedia Parthenia appeared, to astonish and delight the universe. Several other albino forms have turned up since, all of which are represented here, but Parthenia remains the finest--snowy white, with a very long lip, which scarcely expands beyond the tube. That is to say, 'the books' describe it as snowy white. A careful observer will remark the faintest possible tinge of purple in the throat. We have also a natural hybrid, Catt. Louryana, which the learned dubiously assign to intermedia alba × bicolor; all white saving the lip, which is mauve-pink with darker lines. Among other albino rarities here is the charming L. praestans alba, pure as snow but for a plum-coloured edging round the upper portion of the lip. _L. Perrinii alba_--stainless throughout. This exquisite variety also appeared for the first time in our collection. _L. Perrinii nivea_--not less beautiful assuredly, though it has the imperfection, as an albino, of a pale pink labellum and a yellow throat. Beyond these rise twenty-five stately plants of Angraecum sesquipedale, which we are learning to call Aeranthus sesquipedalis. There are those who do not value the marvel, though none but the blind surely can fail to admire it. In truth, like other giants, it does not readily lend itself to any useful purpose. I think I could design a wreath of Angraecum sesquipedale which would put jewelled coronets to shame; but for a bouquet or for the dress or for table decoration, it is equally unsuited. Wherefore the ladies give a glance of wonder at its ten-inch 'tail' and pass by, calling it, as I have heard with my own ears, a vegetable starfish. At Woodlands happily there are other flowers enough for a 'regiment of women,' as John Knox rudely put it, and they do not grudge the room which these noble plants occupy. A LEGEND OF MADAGASCAR I must not name the leading personage in this sad story. Though twenty-five years have gone by since he met his fate, there are still those who mourn for him. Could it be supposed that my report would come to the knowledge of two among them, old people dwelling modestly in a small French town, I should not publish it. For they have never heard the truth. Those kindly and thoughtful comrades of Alcide Leboeuf--so to name him--who transmitted the news of his death, described it as an accident. But the French Consul at Tamatave sent a brief statement privately to the late Mr. Cutter, of Great Russell Street, in whose employ Leboeuf was travelling, that he might warn any future collectors. M. Leon Humblot has told how he and his brother once entertained six guests at Tamatave; within twelve months he alone survived. So deadly is that climate. Alcide Leboeuf was one of the six, but he perished by the hand of man. The poor fellow was half English by blood, and wholly English by education. His father, I believe, stuffed birds and sold 'curiosities' at a small shop in the East End. At an early age the boy took to 'collecting' as a business. He travelled for Mr. Cutter in various lands, seeking rare birds and insects, and he did his work well, though subject to fits of hard drinking from time to time. At the shop in Great Russell Street, after a while, he made acquaintance with that admirable collector Crossley, whose stories of Madagascar fired his imagination. Mr. Cutter was loath to send out a man of such unsteady character. The perils of that awful climate were not so well understood, perhaps, twenty-five years ago, but enough was known to make an employer hesitate. Crossley had been shipwrecked on the coast, had lived years with the natives, learned their language, and learned also to adopt their habits while journeying among them. But Leboeuf would not be daunted. A giant in stature--over seven feet, they say--of strength proportionate, not inexperienced in wild travel but never conscious of ache or pain, he mocked at danger. When Crossley refused to take an untried man into the swamps of Madagascar, he vowed he would go alone. That is, indeed, the most fascinating of all lands to an enthusiast even now, when we are assured that the Epyornis, the mammoth of birds, is extinct. At that time there was no good reason to doubt the unanimous assertion of the natives that it still lived. Crossley was so confident that he neglected to buy eggs badly shattered, waiting for perfect specimens. His scruples were 'bad business' for Mr. Cutter, as that gentleman lived to see, but they appeared judicious at the time. Fragments of Epyornis egg, slung on cords, were the vessels generally used in some parts for carrying water--are still perhaps. Besides this, endless marvels were reported, some of which have been secured in these days. Briefly, the young man was determined to go, and Mr. Cutter gave him a commission. Thus Leboeuf made one of M. Humblot's guests at Tamatave. Another was Mr. Wilson, the only orchid collector there; for M. Humblot did not feel much interest in those plants, I believe, at the time. I have not been able to learn anything about Wilson's antecedents. His diary, upon which this narrative is framed, was lying about at Tamatave for years; we may conclude, perhaps, that the French Consul did not know to whom it should be forwarded--there was no English Consul. Probably Wilson travelled on his own account; certainly none of the great orchid merchants employed him. He was young and inexperienced; glad to attach himself, no doubt, to a big and self-confident old hand like Leboeuf. Some weeks or months afterwards we find the pair at a large village called Malela, which lies at the foot of Ambohimiangavo, apparently a well-known mountain. Ellis mentions it, I observe, but only by name, as the richest iron district of the Central Provinces. They had had some trouble on the way. Among the hints and instructions which Crossley furnished, one in especial counselled Leboeuf to abstain from shooting in the neighbourhood of houses. Each tribe, he wrote, holds some living creature sacred--it may be a beast or a bird, a reptile, or even an insect. 'These must not be hurt within the territory of such tribe; the natives will readily inform you which they are. But, in addition, each village commonly has its sacred creature, and it will be highly dangerous to shoot until you have identified the object. As you do not speak the language you had very much better make it a rule not to shoot anything on cultivated ground.' This was not a man to heed fantastic warnings, but he learned prudence before they had gone too far into the wilds. At a short distance from Tamatave, in a field of sugar-cane, Leboeuf saw a beautiful bird, new to him, which had a tuft of feathers on each side the beak--so Wilson described it. He followed and secured the prize. The semi-civilised natives with them paid no attention. But when, an hour later, surrounded by the people of the village, he took out his bird to skin, there was a sudden tumult. The women and children ran away screaming, the men rushed for their weapons. But collectors were not unfamiliar beings, if incomprehensible, so near the port. After some anxious moments, the headmen or priests consented to take a heavy fine, and drove them from the spot. Their arrival at Malela had been announced, of course, and they found an uproarious welcome. All the people of the neighbourhood were assembling for a great feast. While their men built a hut of branches outside the fortifications--for no house was unoccupied--they sat beneath the trees in the central space. Such was the excitement that even white visitors scarcely commanded notice. Chief after chief arrived, sitting crosswise in an ornamented hammock--not lying--his folded arms resting on the bamboo by which it was suspended. A train of spearmen pressed behind him. They marched round the square, displaying their magnificence to the admiration of the crowd, and dismounted at the Prince's door--if that was his title--leaving their retainers outside. The mob of spearmen there numbered hundreds, the common folk thousands, arrayed in their glossiest and showiest lambas of silk or cotton. No small proportion of them were beating tom-toms; others played on the native flutes and fiddles; all shouted. The row was deafening. But doubtless it was a brilliant spectacle. One part of the vast square, however, remained empty. Beneath a fine tree stood three posts firmly planted. They were nine or ten feet high, squared and polished, each branching at the top into four limbs; tree trunks, in fact, chosen for the regularity of their growth. In front was a very large stone, unworked, standing several feet above the ground. The travellers were familiar with these objects now. They recognised the curious idols of the country and their altar. On each side of the overshadowing tree barrels were ranged, one on tap, and another waiting its turn. This also they recognised. However savage the inland population, however ignorant of the white man's arts, all contrived even then to transport puncheons of rum through swamp and jungle for occasions like this. Now and again persons distinguished from the throng by costlier dress and ornaments were escorted to the spot and they drank with ceremonies. Wilson did not like the prospect. His companion had broken loose once before under a similar temptation. But there was no help. Presently the Chamberlain, so to call him, approached with a number of officers, and invited them to attend the Prince. They found that potentate sitting at the end of a long file of chiefs. The floor of the hall was covered with snowy mats, which set off the beauty of their many-coloured robes. Beside the Prince squatted a pleasant-looking man in pink vest and white lamba. He wore a broad-brimmed hat of silky felt, black, with a band of gold lace, contrasting at every point with the showily-dressed chiefs around. This, they knew, must be the high priest, the Sikidy. The Prince received them courteously, but since their interpreter knew but little French, and less, as it seems, of the language of this tribe, communication was limited to the forms of politeness. Then slaves brought in the feast, setting great iron dishes on the mats all along the row. Simultaneously the band struck up, and women began singing at the top of their voices. The heat, the smell, the noise, the excitement of the scene were intoxicating without alcohol. But rum flowed literally in buckets, and palm wine several days old, which is even stronger. Wilson ventured to urge caution after a while, and at length Leboeuf tore himself away. Men came and went all the time, so their departure was unnoticed. They reached the hut of boughs, now finished. Leboeuf threw himself down and slept; relieved of anxiety, Wilson set off to gather orchids. Malela appears to be a fine hunting-ground for collectors, but he only mentions the fact to explain his imprudence in leaving Leboeuf for some hours. The latter woke, found himself quite alone--for all the servants were merry-making, of course--and he also started off collecting. Unfortunately he traversed the village. And some of the chiefs took him in a friendly spirit to the barrel under the tree. Wilson was returning--happy with a load of new orchids maybe--when he heard a shot, followed by a clamour of young voices. Next instant a swarm of children burst from the forest, and ran screaming across the open ground. Wilson had heard that cry before. His blood chilled. If the men of the other village were furious, how would it be with these drunken savages! He hurried to the spot whence the children had emerged. As their voices died away he became conscious of shouting--an exultant tone. It was Leboeuf. They met in the outskirts of the wood. At sight of Wilson he bawled-- 'Hi, young un! got any weeds to sell? Give you tuppence for the lot. Pretty flowers--all a-blowing and a-growing! Take 'em to the missus! The ladies loves you chaps. I say, what'll old Cutter look like when he sees _that_?' Leboeuf threw down an animal which he carried on his shoulder, and danced round it, shouting and laughing. It was a small creature, brownish grey, with enormous ears very human in shape, long skeleton hands, and a bushy tail thicker than a lady's boa. By that and the ears Wilson recognised the Madagascar sloth, rarest of all animals then in museums, and very rare still. He had no particular reason to suspect that the natives reverenced it, but a beast so eerie in appearance and habits might well be thought sacred. He implored Leboeuf to leave it and come away; Leboeuf did not even listen. After dancing and roaring till he was tired he picked up the aye-aye and marched on, talking loud. Thus they did not hear the noise of a multitude approaching. But from the edge of the forest they saw it. Chiefs led the van, stumbling and staggering; among the foremost was that personage in snowy lamba and broad black hat--not pleasant-looking now. A mob of spearmen pressed behind. The clearing was a compact mass of natives, running, wailing, gesticulating--and they still streamed in thousands through the narrow gate. It was like the rush of ants when their nest is disturbed. The sight paralysed even Leboeuf; Wilson, after an awful glance, ran back and hid. He could hear his comrade's shouts above the uproar for a moment--then there was a pause, and the interpreter's voice reached him faintly. Wilson still crept away. He heard only a confused clamour for some minutes, but then a burst of vengeful triumph made the forest ring. It needed no explanation. Leboeuf was overpowered. The noise grew fainter--they were dragging him away--and ceased. For hours Wilson lay in an agony of fear. That Leboeuf was killed he did not doubt; but how could he himself escape, alone in the forest, ignorant of the roads, many weeks journey from the coast? A more cruel fate would probably be his. It might be hoped that Leboeuf's tortures had been short. He did not dare push deeper into the wood; his single chance lay in creeping round the village after dark, and possibly rejoining his servants, if they still lived. If not, he might recover the road at least. But man could not be in more desperate straits. Remaining thus in the vicinity, towards dusk he heard a whistle far off. The frenzy of his relief is not to be described--it was the rallying signal of the party. But suppose the enemy used this device to ensnare him? It might be! And yet--there was the hope. At worst they would give him a speedy death. He answered. Gradually the searchers drew near. They were his own men, led by the interpreter. Wilson could not speak French, but he grasped that the natives would not harm him. Leboeuf?--It was almost a comfort that he could not understand precisely. The interpreter's pantomime suggested an awful fate. Leboeuf stood at bay with his gun, and the chiefs held him in parley while men crept through the brushwood. They threw a lasso from behind, and dragged him down. He was borne to the square, and after dread ceremonies which Wilson shuddered to comprehend, laid upon the altar. In a maze of horror and anxiety he entered the village. It was not yet dark. But of all the multitude swarming there some hours before not a soul was visible. They had not left; every house resounded with the hum of many voices--low, and, as it seemed to Wilson, praying. The square also was deserted; upon the high stone altar he saw a shapeless mass from which small wreaths of smoke still curled. That was the fate of poor Leboeuf. The same night Wilson was seized by fever. He struggled on, but died within a few hours' march of Tamatave. LAELIA PURPURATA The next house is given up to L. purpurata with some L. grandis tenebrosa intermixed. Not much can be said of the latter species. Its extraordinary colour is best described as madder-brown, but here we have a variety of which the ends of the sepal and petal are yellowish. The broad lip, dull purple, has a madder-brown cloud at its throat, whence lines of the same hue proceed to the edges all round. The value of L. tenebrosa for hybridising needs no demonstration--it introduces a colour unique, of which not a trace can be found elsewhere. But as for the flower itself, I protest that it is downright ugly. This is _à propos_ of nothing at all. _Liberavi animam meam._ It is always difficult to realise that an orchid of the grand class is a weed. All our conventional notions of a flower revolt against the proposition. I have remarked that it seems specially absurd to an ingenuous friend, if one recall the fact while he contemplates Laelia purpurata. That majestic thing, so perfect in colour and shape, so delicately finished--a weed! So it is, nevertheless, as lightly regarded by Nature or by man in its native home as groundsel is by us. The Indians of Central America love their forest flowers passionately. So do those in the north of the Southern Continent. But I never heard that the Indians of Brazil showed a sign of such intelligence. The most glorious Cattleyas to them are what a primrose was to Peter Bell. The obvious, unquestionable truth that Laelia purpurata is nothing but a weed has suggested some unorthodox thoughts, as I considered it, 'pottering about' my houses. This is not the place to set them down at length. But we have reached a less important part of the collection; I may chatter for a moment. All things are grandest in the hot zone, from mountains to plagues. Excepting the Mississippi and the Yang-tse-Kiang, all the mightiest rivers even are there. We have no elephants, nor lions, nor anacondas; no tapong trees three hundred feet high, nor ceibas almost as tall; no butterflies ten inches across, no storms that lay a province waste and kill fifty thousand mortals. Further, all things that are most beautiful dwell within the Tropics--tigers, giraffes, palm-trees, fish, snakes, insects, flowers. Further still, the most intelligent of beasts are there--apes and monkeys. It may well be doubted whether man, the animal, is an exception. In this very country of Brazil, Wallace found among the Indians 'a development of the chest such as never exists, I believe, in the best-formed European.' No race of the Temperate Zone approaches the Kroomen in muscular force, and negroes generally are superior. The strength of the Borneo Dyaks I myself have noted with amazement. Black Papuans are giants, and the brown variety excel any white race in vigour. The exception is that most interesting Negrito strain, represented by a few thousands here and there from Ceylon to the Philippines. But even they, so small and wretched, have marvellous strength. Thus all natural things rise to their highest level in the hot zones--I have to put the case very roughly, for this is a monstrous digression. Does it not seem to follow that man should rise to his highest level there? The aborigines are savages mostly and ever have been; no people of whom we have record has become civilised unless by an impulse from without, and none could reach the bulk of these. But India shows that the brain, as the form, of man may develop to perfection under the hottest sky. Therefore, to end this brief excursus, I conclude that as the tropical weed Laelia purpurata is more majestic and more beautiful than our weeds, so will tropic man some day rise to a height of majesty unattainable in our zone. But the reader has had enough of it--and so have I; for to crowd a volume of facts and arguments into a paragraph is irritating labour. Let us get back to business. Here are some of our finest varieties of L. purpurata. _Marginata._--White of sepal and petal. It takes its name from the white margin surrounding the crimson purple lip. Very striking also is a large white triangle upon the disc, charmingly netted over with crimson. _Archduchess_ is faintly rosy. The lobes, closely folded, are deepest purple-crimson, over an orange throat. On either side the dark central line of the labellum is a pale blur. _Macfarlanei._--Sepals and petals very narrow, of a clear rose tint, with darker lines. A patch almost white in the front of the dark crimson lip. _Lowiana._--Petals rose, sepals paler. The tube is not large, but it, and also the labellum, could not be darker if still to be classed as crimson. Even the yellow of the throat is obscured, but there is a lighter blotch at the tip. _Tenebrosa._--The name is due apparently to branching lines of deep maroon which intersect the crimson lip. Petals and sepals are white, and there is a white patch on the labellum. THE DENDROBIUM HOUSE is the last in this series, where we see the usual varieties in perfection; there are pseudo-bulbs of Wardianum more than 4 feet long. At the present day, however, orchidists will not look at 'usual varieties' of Dendrobium with patience--nobile, cupreum, fimbriatum, thyrsiflorum, etc. etc. etc. They are exquisitely lovely, of course. Examine them as often as you will, new marvels of beauty appear. The fact is that most experts never do examine these common things; they look about for varieties. Such blasé souls can be accommodated, if needful. Here are specimens of _nobile album_, all white save the deep crimson blotch and a faint yellowish tinge upon the lip; _nobile virginale_, which has lost even this trace of colour; _nobile murrhinianum_, very rare, understood to be a hybrid with Wardianum, snow white, the tips of sepal, petal and lip purple, and a great purple blotch in the throat; _nobile Cooksoni_, no hybrid, but a sport, in which the ordinary colouring of the lip is repeated in the petals; _nobile Ruckerianum_, very large, the deep blotch on the lip bordered with white; _nobile splendens grandiflorum_, an enlarged and intensified form of the type. Of hybrids I may name _Leechianum_ (nobile × aureum), white, sepals, petals, and lip tipped with rosy purple, the great blotch on the disc crimson with a golden tinge. _Ainsworthii_, of the same parentage and very similar, but the blotch is wine-colour. _Schneiderianum_ (Findleyanum × aureum), bearing white sepals, petals and lip tipped with rosy purple, throat orange, similarly striped. Here are several 'specimens' of Epidendrum radicans, a tangle of fresh green roots and young shoots of green still more fresh and tender, pleasant to look upon even though not flowering; but verdant pillars set with tongues of flame at the right season. And an interesting hybrid of it, _Epidendrum × radico-vitellinum_ (radicans × vitellinum),--brightest orange, the lip almost scarlet, with three yellow keels upon the disc; very pretty and effective. Besides, we have here a Spathoglottis hybrid, _aureo-Veillardii_, _Wigan's var._ (Kimballiana × Veillardii),--most charming of all the charming family. Golden--the sepals tinged, and the petals thickly dotted with crimson; lip crimson and yellow. STORY OF DENDROBIUM SCHRÖDERIANUM Many who care nothing for our pleasant science recall the chatter and bustle which greeted the reappearance of Dendrobium Schröderianum in 1891. For they spread far beyond the 'horticultural circles.' Every newspaper in the realm gave some sort of a report, and a multitude of my confrères were summoned to spin out a column, from such stores of ingenuity as they could find, upon a plant which grew on human skulls and travelled under charge of tutelary idols. The scene at 'Protheroe's' was a renewal of the good old time when every season brought its noble plant, and every plant brought out its noble price--in short, a sensation. The variety of Dendrobium phalaenopsis hereafter to bear Baron Schröder's name was sent to Kew by Forbes about 1857. This single plant remained a special trophy of the Royal Gardens for many years. It throve and multiplied. In course of time Sir Joseph Hooker was able to give a small piece, in exchange for other varieties, to Mr. Day, of Tottenham, to Baron Schröder, and to Messrs. Veitch. The latter sold their specimen to Baron Schröder; Mr. Day's collection was dispersed, and the same greatest of amateurs bought his fragment. Thus all three plants known to exist in private hands came into Baron Schröder's possession, and the variety took his name. This state of things lasted ten years. Mr. Sander then resolved to wait no longer upon chance. He studied the route of Forbes's travels, consulted the authorities at Kew, and, with their aid, came to a conclusion. In 1890 my friend Mr. Micholitz went out to seek Dendrobium Schröderianum in its native wilds. The man of sense who finds a treasure does not proclaim the spot till he has filled his pockets, nor even, if it may be, till he has cleared out the hoard. It is universally understood that Micholitz discovered the object of his quest in New Guinea. If that error encouraged the exploration of a most interesting island, as I hear, it has done a public service. And the explorers have not wasted their time. They did not fall in with Dendrobium Schröderianum, because it was not there; but they secured other valuable things. Very shortly now the true habitat will be declared. Meantime I must only say that it is one of the wildest of those many 'Summer Isles of Eden' which stud the Australasian Sea. Micholitz arrived in a trading-vessel, the captain of which was trusted by the natives. Under that protection the chiefs allowed him to explore, agreeing to furnish men and canoes--for a consideration, naturally. Their power did not stretch beyond a few miles of coast; the neighbours on each side were unfriendly, or at least distrusted; and bitterly hostile tribes lay beyond--hostile, that is, to the people among whom Micholitz landed. All alike are head-hunters, and all charge one another with cannibalism--but falsely in every case, I understand. The field was narrow, therefore, and uncommonly perilous, for the best-intentioned of these islanders cannot always resist the impulse to crown their trophies with a white man's head--as the Captain assured Micholitz day by day with an earnestness which became oppressive after a while. But he was very lucky--or rather the probabilities had been studied so thoughtfully before any step was taken that he sailed to the very island. I do not mean that it is wonderful to find an orchid on the first day's search when once its habitat is known. Dendrobiums cover a great tract of land. It is the nicety of calculation ten thousand miles away which should be admired. There were no plants, however, just around the little port. After some days spent in making arrangements, Micholitz received an intimation that the chiefs were going to a feast and he might accompany them; there is no lack of interpreters on that coast, whence so many poor wretches are enticed to English or French colonies--some of whom return nowadays. The Captain could not go. In refusing he looked at Micholitz with a quizzical, hesitating air, as though inclined to make a revelation. 'Is there any danger?' Micholitz asked. 'Oh no! not a bit!--not a bit of danger! I answer for that. You'll be amused, I daresay. They're rum chaps.' The chance of making a trip beyond the narrow friendly area in safety was welcome, and at daylight he started with the chiefs. It was but a few hours' paddling--to the next bay. The feast was given, as is usual, to celebrate the launch of a war-prau. In martial panoply the guests embarked, paint and feathers, spears and clubs. They were met by their hosts in the same guise upon the beach. After ceremonies probably--but I have no description--all squatted down in a circle, and a personage, assumed to be the priest, howled for a while. Then the warriors began to dance, two by two. It was very wearisome, and besides, very hot. Micholitz asked at length whether he might leave. The interpreter said there was no objection. He walked towards the forest, which stood some distance back, even as a wall, skirting the snowy beach. The grey huts of the village glimmered among palms and fruit-trees on one hand. A sunken way had been dug from the edge of the surf to a long low building a hundred yards back; within it lay the prau doubtless, ready to be launched. Micholitz skirted this channel. He noticed a curious group of persons sitting apart--an old man, two women, a boy, and a girl. The elders were squatting motionless upon the sand, so bowed that the long wool drooping hid their faces; the children lay with their heads in the women's laps. None looked up; in passing he observed that these latter were bound. The boat-house--so to call it--spanning the channel, was a hundred feet long, built of palm thatch, with substantial posts at due distance. As he walked along it, Micholitz became aware of an unpleasant smell. It was not strong. But in turning the further corner he marked a great purple stain upon the sand. Flies clustered thick there. It was blood. And then, upon the wall of thatch above, and the corner post, he traced the stain streaming broadly down. He looked to the other angle. The horrid mark was there also. They could not see him from the beach. Easily he parted the crackling palm leaves, and thrust in his head. At a few feet distance rose the lofty stern-post, carved and painted, with two broad shells glistening like eyes in the twilight. No more could he see, dazzled by the glare outside. That passed. He turned to the right hand-and drew back with a cry. A naked corpse, with head hanging on its chest, was bound to the corner post--the same to left. Poor Micholitz felt sick. He ran from the cursed spot. So glowing was the sunlight round, so sweet and soft the shadow of the near forest--and those awful things in the midst! The old hymn rang in his ears-- Where every prospect pleases And only man is vile. He hurried towards the trees. An outburst of yells and laughter made him turn. The circle had broken up. A swarm of warriors danced towards the boat-house--tore down the walls; in an instant the posts stood naked--with their burdens. Chiefs climbed aboard the prau and mustered, with tossing feathers, brandishing their arms, shouting and singing, on its deck. Ropes were manned. Scores of brawny savages started at a run, whilst the boys howled with delight and tumbled over one another. The great vessel moved, quickened. Then a party rushed upon that little group, trampling it under foot, snatched up the boy and girl, and sped with them towards the sea. The old man and women lay where they were tossed: there was no help for them in earth or heaven. The prau glided quicker and quicker amidst a roaring tumult. As it neared the sea, those small victims, tossed aloft from either side, fell across its course. Micholitz looked no more. 'Let me attend to my business, for God's sake!' he kept repeating. But when he reached the trees his business was done. Those horrors had so disconcerted him that for an instant he saw long green stems of orchid perched upon the boughs without regarding them. But here was one from the top of which depended a cluster of rosy garlands, four or five, bearing a dozen, or twenty, or thirty great flowers, all open; and there a cluster snow-white--a crimson one beyond, darkening almost to purple. Dendrobium Schröderianum was rediscovered! Of Mitcholitz's emotion it is enough to tell that it drove all else from his mind, or almost. When the interpreter summoned him he sat down and hobnobbed with those murderers and ate their dubious viands. The triumph was startling, so speedy and complete; but so much the heavier were his responsibilities. When, with a chilling shock, he recalled distinctly the dread spectacle, he said again: 'Let me attend to my business! _I_ can't help it!' All went well. So soon as the chiefs understood that this eccentric white man fancied their weeds, they joyously offered them--at a price. The time of year was excellent--early in the dry season. Next day Micholitz returned aboard and the Captain brought his ship round to the bay. But he would not listen to the story. 'I told you they was rum chaps, didn't I? Well, you see I told you true.' In three days, so plentiful was the supply, Micholitz had gathered as many as he thought judicious, and heaped them on deck. They could be dried while the vessel was waiting for cargo elsewhere, and he longed to get away from that ill-omened spot. Still luck attended him. The Captain 'filled up' quickly, and sailed, as by agreement, for a Dutch port, where the orchids would be shipped for England. He arrived in the evening, the ship lay alongside the wharf; next day his precious cases would be transferred to the steamer. In great content Micholitz went to sleep; so did everybody else, the watch included. Towards morning the harbour police raised a cry of 'Fire!' It must have been smouldering for hours. Not a plant could poor Micholitz save! On arrival, he had telegraphed his success, and joy reigned at St. Albans all day. Foresight and enterprise were justly rewarded for once. What a coup--what a sensation! Let us not speculate upon the language used when a second dispatch came in the morning. 'Ship burnt! What do?--Micholitz.' The reply was emphatic: 'Go back--Sander.' 'Too late--rainy season.' 'Go back!' And Micholitz went. His protest, had he insisted upon it, was unanswerable. Hard enough it would be to return among those anti-human wretches when the delights of home had been so near. But there was no chance of regaining the bay--a vessel might not sail thither for months or years. The work must be begun again--the search renewed. And in the rainy season, too! But the good fellow did not even hesitate. Forthwith he inquired for a ship trading with the island. There was none, and he had no time to wait, for the rain grew heavier daily. A mail steamer was leaving for the nearest settlement. Trusting to the 'courtesy of nations,' Micholitz claimed a passage as a shipwrecked man. It was flatly refused, but at length the Dutch officials yielded to his indignant appeal so far as to make a deduction of 30 per cent. 'Well,' he wrote to St. Albans, 'there is no doubt these are the meanest people on earth.' The Captain of the _Costa Rica_ whaling ship agrees with him. I have no space for the adventures of this second journey now. The Dendrobe was found once more, which is not at all surprising when its habitat had been discovered. At this spot, however, it was growing, not on trees, but on rocks of limestone--most epiphytal orchids love to cling on that rough and porous surface. Especially was it abundant in the graveyard of the clan, a stony waste where for generations they had left their dead--not unmourned, perhaps--beneath the sky. The plants grew and flowered among bones innumerable. To suggest the removal of them under such circumstances was a nervous duty. But in the graveyard they were not only most plentiful, but by far most vigorous. It had to be done, and with all precautions, after displaying a sample of his 'trade,' looking-glasses and knives and beads, and so forth, Micholitz did it. A clamour of indignation broke out. It was swelling into passion when he produced a roll of brass wire; at that spectacle it suddenly calmed down. After debate among themselves the warriors stipulated that two of their most sacred idols should travel with the plants, and be treated with all honour on the way. They would not assist in collecting, but after the distribution of brass wire they helped to pack the cases. Thus it happened that one of the Dendrobes sold at 'Protheroe's' on October 16, 1891, was attached to a human skull. As for the idols, they were bought by the Hon. Walter Rothschild, and we are free to hope that they are treated with reverence, as per agreement. STORY OF DENDROBIUM LOWII The authorities assert that Dendrobium Lowii was introduced to Europe by Sir Hugh Low in 1861. My friend has so many titles to honour, in this and other forms of public service, that he will not feel the loss of one. The statement is not absolutely correct. An unnamed species, which must have been Dendrobium Lowii, flowered in the collection of Mr. H. Vicars, at Heath House, near Chelmsford, in 1845. I do not propose to describe the plant whereby hangs my tale; suffice it that this is a pale yellow Dendrobe, peculiarly charming, very delicate, and still rare. We do not hear of Mr. Vicars' specimen again. He obtained it, with others, from Fraser, Cumming, and Co., of Singapore, probably in 1842. It was brought to them from Borneo by Captain Baker, commanding the ship _Orient Pioneer_. When lying at Singapore Captain Baker heard of the coal seams just discovered at Kiangi, on the Brunei river, which made such a stir in the City a few months afterwards. It seemed to him that his owners would like a report upon them. And he sailed thither. I picture the man as big and rough--fat he was certainly; one of those sailors, careful enough aboard ship, who think it necessary to take a 'drop' at every halt when making holiday. Pirates were no tradition in that era. They swarmed among the islands, and the younger chiefs were not proof against temptation when they fell in with an European ship that seemed to be in difficulties. Doubtless Captain Baker kept all his wits about him on a perilous voyage beyond the track of commerce then. But he reached the Bay of Brunei safely, ascended the river in a well-armed boat, and visited the coalfields at Kiangi. A few Chinamen were working there. Baker had shrewdness enough to see that immense capital would be required, that the Sultan would give endless trouble, and that the coal, when won, might prove to be dubious in quality. We may hope, therefore, that his owners kept out of the 'rush' which followed, and were duly grateful. His business was finished. Messrs. Fraser and Cumming, indeed, had asked him to collect a few of the 'air-plants' which began to make such a stir in England, but that would not detain him. They grew so thick on every tree that a boatload could be gathered in dropping down the river. He had instructions to choose those upon the highest branches, where, as was thought, the best species are found; but it made no difference, for a sailor could walk up those trees hung with creepers as easily as up the shrouds! So Captain Baker looked out for a place to land among the mangroves, expecting to fulfil his commission in an hour at most. A place was found presently, the boat turned to shore, and he directed a couple of sailors to climb. They were more than willing, under a promise of grog. I may venture to drop the abstract form of narrative here, and put the breath of life into it. Baker had engaged a Malay as interpreter for the voyage; by good luck he was a native of Brunei. This man stared and laughed a little to himself on hearing the order. As the sailors began to mount, he said: 'Tuan Cap'n! Say 'm fellows looky sharp on snakes.' The men paused suddenly, looking down, but Baker swore very loud and very often to the effect that he'd eat every snake within miles, and that Tuzzadeen was the son of a sea-cook. So the climbers went up, but gingerly. Tuzzadeen sat grinning. They had not mounted high, luckily, for on a sudden one gave a screech, and both crashed down, the second dropping in sheer fright. But he who uttered that yell had good cause for it, evidently. He danced and twisted, threw himself down and bounded to his feet, roaring with pain. His eyes showed the white in a circle all round, and his brows, strained upward, almost touched the hair. All leapt out, splashing through the shallow water, pale with alarm--seized their writhing comrade, and stripped him. Tuzzadeen examined his body; presently the convulsions grew fainter, and he struggled in a more intelligent sort of way, though still roaring. 'Him bit by fire-ant, I say, Tuan Cap'n,' observed Tuzzadeen. 'Well! Here's a blasphemous fuss about an unmentionable little ant! D'you call yourself a gore-stained British seaman, Forster? Just let's hear you do it, you unfit-for-repetition lubber, so as we may have a right-down blank laugh.' Forster collected his wits and answered earnestly, 'It was an ant maybe. But I tell you, Cap'n Baker, there ain't no difference betwixt that ant and a red-hot iron devil. Oh law! I'll be good from this day. I know how the bad uns fare now.' 'That's a blessed resolution anyhow,' said Baker. 'But it didn't last above a minute, you see. Come, show yourself a man, and shin up them shrouds again.' 'No, Cap'n Baker,' he answered slowly and impressively, 'not if you was to put the Queen's crown on top of the tree and fix a keg of rum half-way up.' Then they found that the other man had hurt himself badly in falling. Baker was stubborn. But promises and taunts failed to move one of them, and he was too fat to climb himself. 'Confound it, Tuz,' said he discontentedly, as they pulled into the stream. 'Other men have got these things. How did they do it?' 'Them get Dyaks--naked chaps what see ants and snakes.' 'Oh! And can I get Dyaks?' 'You pay, Tuan Cap'n, I find plenty naked chaps.' In the evening all was settled. Tuzzadeen knew the chief of a Sibuyou Dyak village on a hill just above the bay; they would scarcely lose sight of the ship. No preparations were necessary. He himself would go ahead when they approached a village, and the Dyaks would be pleased to see them. At dawn next day Baker started, with Tuzzadeen and four armed sailors. They crossed the broad white beach, studded with big rocks, moss-grown, weather-stained, clothed with creepers and plumed with fern; through a grove of cocoanut palms, scaring a band of children--Malay, but clad only in a heart-shaped badge of silver dangling at their waists--and entered the forest. There was a well-worn path. In a hilly district like this Dyaks are content to walk upon the ground; elsewhere they lay tree-trunks, end to end, on crossed posts, and trot along, raised above the level of the bush. It is likely that this was the first time Captain Baker had entered a tropic forest. A very few steps from the busy go-downs of Singapore would have taken him into one peculiarly charming; but tigers lay in wait all round the town--so at least it was believed, not without probability. A few daring souls already dwelt at Tanglin; but they left business early, looked to their arms before setting out, and never dreamed of quitting the bungalow when safe home once more. Anyhow, the good man was struck with the beauty of that jungle. Scarcely a flower did he see, or a butterfly, or any living thing save ants and wasps. Vast trees arching above the path shut out every sun-ray in that early hour. But all beneath them was a garden such as he had never conceived. The dews had not yet dried up. They outlined every thread in the great webs stretching from bush to bush, edged the feathers of bamboo with white, hung on the tip of every leaf. And the leaves were endless in variety. Like a green wall they stood on either hand--so closely were they pressed together along the track, which gave them some faint breath of air and glimmer of sunshine at noonday. Living things were heard, too, though unseen. The wah-wahs called 'jug-jug' in a long gurgling cadence, like water pouring from a bottle. Boughs clashed in sudden tumult, and dimly one caught a glimpse of monkeys flying through the air in alarm. A crow upon the top of some dead tree uttered its clanging call, slow and sonorous like strokes upon a bell. In short, Baker was much pleased and interested. Often he came to a halt, and at every halt he served out rum. It was a walk of some miles, very steep at the last. Near the village they crossed a ravine, dry at this season; so deep it was that the bridge which spanned it hung far above the tops of lofty trees growing on an island in the midst. The bridge was actually the greatest wonder seen as yet on this delightful excursion. Huge bamboos, lashed end to end, were suspended over the abyss by rattans beyond counting, fixed in the trees at either side. Not only wonderful but most elegant it was, for the rattans had been disposed symmetrically. But Baker, though a seaman from his youth up, surveyed it with dismay. Boards a foot wide at the utmost had been laid across the bamboo. There was a hand-rail on each side, but so slight that he perceived it could not be meant for a support. Moreover, Tuzzadeen warned him earnestly, before leading the way, that he must not grasp the hand-rail--it must be touched only, to assist the balance. Then the Malay went across. At a yard out the bridge began to shiver, and when he reached the middle, which dipped many feet, it was swinging to and fro like a pendulum. If Baker had not drunk just enough to make him reckless he would have turned back. A couple of the men refused. That was another prick of the spur. He followed Tuzzadeen, with his heart in his mouth, and arrived safely. Guess how deep was the refresher after that. Tuzzadeen pushed on, and returned presently with an invitation from the chief--the Orang kaya, as his title goes. I can fancy Baker's astonishment when he came in sight of the village. It was one house, perhaps three hundred feet long, raised thirty feet in the air on posts. They climbed a notched log to the entrance, where the chief was waiting with his councillors. He had sent for young men, readily spared at this season, and meantime he asked the Tuan to rest. Baker perceived that the house was open from end to end in front and on his left hand as he entered; on the right, however, stretched a wooden party wall, with many doors. He rightly concluded that the open space was common and each family occupied one chamber. Hundreds of people crowded round, especially children. Then he lunched, the chief looking on, and in due time a score of stalwart young Dyaks arrived. After resting he started again with them. What with drink and interest Baker was now jovially excited. In passing through the house he noticed a door festooned with greenery. A noise of howling came through it. He asked Tuzzadeen what this meant. Tuzzadeen, Malay and Moslem, was much amused. 'Baby born!' he laughed. 'Father go to bed; mother feed him with rice and salt.' 'Feed the father?' Baker cried. 'Yes. Them naked chaps say father's child, not mother's. Women cry over him. You hear?' 'Lord 'a mercy, I must see this!' And before Tuzzadeen could interfere he opened the door. Wild uproar broke out on the instant, men shouted, women screamed and wailed--in a solid mass they rushed from the spot. Tuzzadeen caught Baker and ran him back up the passage, the sailors following. They fled for their lives, slid down the notched log and along the path, pursued by terrific clamour--but not by human beings apparently. Perceiving this, Tuzzadeen stopped. 'I go back,' he said breathlessly. 'Them kill us in jungle when them like. I make trade. You pay?' 'Anything--anything!' cried Baker. 'We haven't even our guns!' So the Malay went back to negotiate, but they ran on--came to the awful bridge, Baker foremost. He reached the middle. One of the sailors behind would wait no longer--advanced and both fell headlong down. The sailor was killed instantly; Baker, in the middle of the bridge, dropped among the branches of a tree. There he lay, bruised, half conscious, until Tuzzadeen's shouts roused him, and he answered faintly. 'Hold on!' cried the Malay. 'We come good time, Tuan Cap'n! Before dark!' Six hours to wait at least! Baker began to stir--found he had no limbs broken, and thought of descending. His movements were quickened by the onslaught of innumerable ants, not a venomous species happily. But in climbing down he remarked that the tree-top was loaded with orchids, which he tore off and dropped; long before nightfall he met the search-party, toiling up the ravine from its opening on the shore. Next day Tuzzadeen returned to bury the dead man and bring away the orchids; among them was Mr. Vicars' Dendrobium Lowii. The Dyak practice referred to--of putting the father to bed when a child is born--prevails, or has prevailed, from China to Peru. It lingers even in Corsica and the Basque Provinces of Europe. Those who would know more may consult an Encyclopaedia, under the heading 'Couvade.' The house is 'taboo'--called 'pamali' in Borneo--for eight days. Hence the commotion. CALANTHE HOUSE For my own part I rank Calanthes among the most charming of flowers, and in the abstract most people agree with me perhaps. Yet they are contemned--the natural species--by all professed orchidists; and even hybrids mostly will be found in holes and corners, where no one is invited to pause and look at them. There are grand exceptions certainly. In Baron Schröder's wondrous collection, the hybrid Calanthes hold a most honourable place. I have seen them in bloom there filling a big house, more like flowering shrubs than orchids--a blaze and a mass of colour almost startling. But these are unique, raised with the utmost care from the largest and rarest and most brilliant varieties which money unlimited could discover. The species used for hybridising were, as I understand, Cal. vestita oculata gigantea with Cal. Regnieri, Sanderiana, and igneo-oculata--but picked examples, as has been said. Here we have, among others, _Sandhurstiana_, offspring of Limatodes rosea × Cal. vest. rubro-oculata. The individual flowers are large, and a spike may bear as many as forty; brightest crimson, with a large yellow 'eye' upon the lip. No mortal contemns this. _Bella_ (Veitchii × Turneri).--Sepals white, petals daintily flushed; lip somewhat more deeply flushed, with a white patch upon the disc, and in this a broad spot of the deepest but liveliest crimson. _Veitchii_ of course; but also the pure white form of Veitchii, which is by no means a matter of course. _William Murray_ (vest. rubro-oculata × Williamsii).--A hybrid notably robust, which is always a recommendation. White sepals and petals, a crimson patch on the lip, darkest at the throat. _Florence_ (bella × Veitchii).--Flowers large, of a deep rose, with purplish rose markings. _Clive._--The parentage of this hybrid is lost. Petals lively carmine, sepals paler. Throat yellow, lip white at base with carmine disc. _Victoria Regina_ (Veitchii × rosea).--The large flowers are all tender rose, saving a touch of sulphurous yellow at base of the lip. Phaio-calanthe _Arnoldiae_ is a bi-generic hybrid (C. Regnieri × Phajus grandifolius).--Sepals and petals yellow; lip rose-pink. Here also I may mention some interesting Phajus hybrids:-- _Phoebe_ (Sanderianus × Humblotii).--Sepals and petals light fawn-colour with a pinkish tone; lip crimson, veined with yellow. _Owenianus_ (bicolor Oweniae × Humblotti).--Sepals and petals milk-white, tinged with purplish brown. Lip like crimson velvet, orange at the base. _Ashworthianus_ (Mannii × maculatus).--Sepals and petals deep yellow, touched with ochre, lip similarly coloured, marked with heavy radiating lines of chocolate. _Cooksoni_ (Wallichii × tuberculosus).--The sepals and petals are those of Wallichii--buff tinged with reddish purple, china-white at back; the lip is that of tuberculosus--side-lobes yellow, spotted with crimson; disc white, with purple spots. _Marthae_ (Blumei × tuberculosus).--Sepals and petals pale buff. The large lip white, touched with pale rose, and thickly covered with golden-brown spots. Very notable is the Zygo-colax hybrid, _Leopardinus_ (Zygopetalum maxillare × Colax jugosus), of which we give an illustration. Here is also the Zygopetalum hybrid, _Perrenoudii_ (intermedium × Guatieri).--Sepals and petals green, heavily blurred with brown. Lip violet, deepening to purple. Against the back wall of this house stands a little grove of Thunias Bensoniae and Marshalliana; the former magenta and purple, and the latter white with yellow throat, profusely striped with orange red. The wondrous intricacy of design so notable in the colouring of orchids is nowhere more conspicuous than in Thunia Marshalliana. THE CYMBIDIUM HOUSE Our 'specimen' Cymbidiums, that is, the large plants, are scattered up and down in other houses; for singly they are ornaments, and together their great bulk and long leaves would occupy too much space. Here are only small examples, or small species, planted out upon a bed of tufa amidst ferns and moss and begonias, Cyrtodeira Chontalensis, and the pretty 'African violet,' St. Paulii ionantha. Cymbidiums are not showy, as the term applies to Cattleyas and Dendrobes. Their colour, if not white, is brown or yellow, with red-brown markings. We hear indeed of wonders to be introduced some day--of a gigantic species, all golden, which dwells in secluded valleys of the Himalayas, and another, bright scarlet, in Madagascar. In fact, this was collected again and again by M. Humblot and shipped to Europe; but every piece died before arrival. At length M. Humblot carried some home himself, and a few survived. Sir Trevor Lawrence bought two, I believe, but they died before flowering. So did all the rest. But if the Cymbidiums of our experience make no display of brilliant colour, assuredly they have other virtues. When eburneum thrusts up its rigid spikes, in winter or earliest spring, crowned with great ivory blooms, the air is loaded with their perfume. I have seen a plant of Lowianum with more than twenty garlands arching out from its thicket of leaves, each bearing fifteen to twenty-five three-inch flowers, yellow or greenish, with a heavy bar of copper-red across the lip. And they grow fast. It is said that at Alnwick the Duke of Northumberland has specimens of unknown age filling boxes four feet square; each must be a garden in itself when the flowers open. And they last three months when circumstances are favourable. Sometimes also--but too rarely--the greenish yellow of Lowianum is changed to bright soft green. Nobody then could say that the colouring is not attractive. We have here most of the recognised species--Cymbidiums are not much given to 'sporting': Devonianum, buff, freckled with dull crimson--lip purplish, with a dark spot on either side; Sinensis, small, brown and yellow, scented; Hookeri, greenish, dotted and blotched with purple; Traceyanum, greenish, striped with red-brown, lip white, similarly dotted, and the famous Baron Schröder variety thereof, which arrived in the very first consignment, but never since; pendulum, dusky olive, lip whitish, reddish at the sides and tip; and so on. The only hybrids of Cymbidium known to me are eburneo-Lowianum and its converse, Lowiano-eburneum. The former is creamy yellow, with the V-shaped blotch of its father on the lip; the latter pure white, with the same blotch more sharply defined--which is to say, that Lowiano-eburneum is much the better of the two. Both are represented here. Against the glass, right and left all round, are Coelogynes of sorts. We have another house devoted mainly to Cymbidium, in which they have been planted out for some years, with results worth noting. I am convinced that in a future day amateurs who put the well-being of their orchids above all else--above money in especial!--will discard pots entirely. Every species perhaps--every one that I have observed, at least--grows more strongly when placed in a niche, of size appropriate, on a block of tufa. There are objections, of course--quite fatal for those who have not abundance of labour at command; for the compost very quickly turns sour under such conditions if not watered with great care and judgment. Moreover, what suits the plant suits also the insects which feed upon it. And if there be rats in the neighbourhood they soon discover that there is snug lying against the pipes, behind the wall of stone. Anxious mothers find it the ideal spot for a nursery. I cannot learn, however, that they do any wanton damage, beyond nipping off a few old leaves to make their beds, which is no serious injury. I have rats in my own cool house. Many years ago, on their first arrival probably, an Odontoglossum bulb was eaten up. Doubtless that was an experiment which did not prove satisfactory, for it has never been repeated. However, rats and insects can be kept down, if not exterminated. The Cymbidiums here were rough pieces, odds and ends, consigned to this house to live or die. Now they are grand plants, in the way to become 'specimens,' set among ferns and creepers on a lofty wall of tufa, the base of which is clothed with Tradescantia and Ficus repens. In front and on one side are banks of tufa planted with Masdevallias, Lycastes, Laelia harpophylla, and so forth. STORY OF COELOGYNE SPECIOSA Orchid stories lack one essential quality of romance. They have little of the 'female interest,' and nothing of love. The defect is beyond remedy, I fear--collectors are men of business. It is rumoured, indeed, that personages of vast weight in the City could tell romantic adventures of their own, if they would. So, perhaps, could my heroes. But neither do tell willingly. I have asked in vain. However, among my miscellaneous notes on Orchidology, it is recorded that 'W. C. Williams found Coelogyne speciosa up the Baram River. Books confine its habitat to Java and Sumatra.' The Baram is in Borneo. When travelling in that island thirty years ago I heard a story of Williams' doings, and I think I can recall the outline. But imagination furnishes the details, of course, aided by local knowledge. It may be worth while to tell briefly how this gentleman came to be wandering in Borneo--in the Sultan's territory also--at a date when Rajah Brooke had but just begun to establish order in his own little province. Williams' position or business I never heard. Some Dutch firm sold or entrusted to him a stock of earthenware jars made in Holland, facsimiles of those precious objects cherished by the Dyaks. The speculation was much favoured in that day--it seemed such in easy cut to fortune. But they say that not a solitary Dyak was ever taken in. The failure was attributed, of course, to some minute divergence from the pattern. Manufacturers tried again, still more carefully. They sent jars to be copied in China, whence the originals came, evidently, at an unknown period. But it was no use; the Dyaks only looked somewhat more respectfully at these forgeries before rejecting them. For many years the attempt was made occasionally. Rich Chinamen tried their skill. But at length everybody got to understand, though no one is able to explain, that those savages possess some means of distinguishing a jar of their own from a copy absolutely identical in our eyes. Mr. Williams had tried elsewhere without success, I fancy, before visiting Brunei, the capital. But he had good reason to feel confidence there. The Malay nobles would buy his jars without question, and compel their Dyak subjects to accept them at their own price; such was the established means of collecting subsidies. In fact, the nobles were overjoyed. But the Sultan heard what was afoot. He possesses several of these mystic objects, and he makes no inconsiderable portion of his revenue by selling water drawn from them to sprinkle over the crops, to take as medicine, and so forth. For his are the finest and holiest of all--beyond price. One speaks upon occasion, giving him warning when grave troubles impend. Sir Spencer St. John says he asked the Sultan a few years afterwards 'whether he would take £2000 for it; he answered he did not think any offer in the world would tempt him.' The Brunei monarch was shrewd enough to see that passing off false jars could not be to his interest. The Pangarans argued in vain. There's no telling where it would end, he said, if the idolaters once began to feel suspicious. 'Let your Englishman take his wares among the Kayan dogs. He may swindle them to his heart's content.' The Kayans were not only independent but ruthless and conquering foes of Brunei. There was no other hope of selling the confounded jars. After assuring himself that the enterprise was not too hazardous, Williams sought a merchant familiar with the Kayan trade. He chose Nakodah Rahim, a sanctimonious and unprepossessing individual, but one whose riches made a guarantee of good faith. This man contracted to transport him and his goods to Langusan, the nearest town of the Kayans on the Baram, and to bring him back. Williams was the first European perhaps to reach that secluded but charming settlement. The Nakodah prudently anchored in mid-stream and landed by himself to call on the head chief. When the news spread that a white man was aboard the craft, swarms of delighted Kayans tumbled pell-mell into their canoes and raced towards it, yelling, laughing, splashing one another in joyous excitement. But the great chief Tamawan put a stop to this unseemly demonstration. Rushing from the Council Hall, where he and his peers were giving audience to the Nakodah, he commanded the people to return, each to his own dwelling. Stentor had not a grander voice. It overpowered even that prodigious din. The mob obeyed. They swarmed back, and, landing, shinned up the forty-foot poles which are their stairs, like ants; reappearing a moment afterwards on the verandah, among the tree-tops. These vast 'houses,' containing perhaps a thousand inmates, lined each bank of the river, and every soul pressed to the front, mostly shouting--a wild but pleasant tumult. The chiefs sent an assurance of hearty welcome. Williams paid his respects; they returned his call on board, and Tamawan invited him to a feast. Next day another potentate entertained him and then another. Drink of all sorts, including 'best French brandy,' flowed without intermission. Williams began to be ill. But there was no talk of business. His goods had been landed at the Council Hall, as is usual, but not unpacked. The Nakodah assured him all was right. He himself had a quantity of merchandise waiting under the same conditions. So a week passed; etiquette was satisfied, and Tamawan invited him to open his bales. The chiefs squatted in a semi-circle, all the population behind, in delicious expectancy. The jars were brought forth--first a Gusi, the costliest species, worth £300 to £1000 in 'produce,' among the Dyaks, had it only been genuine. This Williams presented, with an air, to Tamawan. The chief glanced at it, observed with Kayan frankness that for his own part he liked brighter colours, and, so to speak, called for the next article. Williams grasped the fatal truth when he saw how carelessly his precious Gusi was regarded, not by Tamawan alone but by all. Hoping against hope, however, he brought forth a Naga--a Rusa. The chiefs became impatient. 'Show your good trade, Tuan,' they said. Perhaps it was lucky that he had some miscellaneous 'notions'; but there was only enough to make the needful presents. Utter collapse! The foolish fellow had not thought of asking whether Kayans valued these unlovely jars. Perhaps the Brunei nobles could not have told him, but Nakodah Rahim must have been perfectly well aware. By keeping silence he had transported a cargo of his own goods to Langusan at Williams' expense--without freight or charges! The victim could not quite restrain his anger, but it would have been madness to quarrel. He had indeed several Malays, perhaps trusty. But the crew outnumbered them, and the Kayans doubtless would back the Nakodah. There was nothing to be done but wait, with as much good temper as he could summon, until that worthy had sold out. During this time Williams hunted, explored the woods, and collected a variety of plants, some of which we do not recognise from the description. But among those he brought to Singapore was Coelogyne speciosa. Meantime sickness attacked the crew, whilst Williams' servants escaped it. The Nakodah hurried his sales, but when he was ready to start, it became necessary to engage some of the latter, with their master's consent, for navigating the vessel; but for this mischance there would have been no need to ask the white man's co-operation in a little stroke of business. At each of the festivities Williams had remarked a very pretty girl always in attendance on the chief Kum Palan. Charming faces are common among those people, and graceful figures a matter of course. Kayan maidens do not pull out their eyebrows, nor blacken their teeth, nor shave the top of the head, nor, in fact, practise any of the disfigurements which spoil Dyak beauty; for their tattooing, though elaborate, is all below the waist. Most of them even do not chew betel before marriage, and you hardly find one of these whose teeth are not a faultless row of pearls. Cool scrutiny reveals that their noses are too flat and their mouths unsymmetrical. But the girl would have a mane of lustrous hair decked with flowers, restrained by a snowy fillet over the brow, streaming loose down her back. Her skin would be pale golden bronze and her eyes worthy of the tenderest epithets. Even a chief's daughter wears little clothing beyond armlets and waist-belt of gold, white shell, and antique beads, as mysterious and as costly in proportion as the Dyak jars. Only a silken kerchief, clasping one thigh in studied folds, gathered and tucked in over the other, would represent what we call dress; but the tattooing from waist to knee is so close that feminine limbs seem to be enveloped in black tights. Williams learned that this beauty was daughter to Kum Palan. Parent and child must be warmly attached, he thought, for she was always near him. Other chiefs had pretty daughters, but they received no such attention. The girl looked sad, but that is frequent with Kayan and Dyak maidens, when, in truth, their souls are dancing with fun and devilment--a mere expression of the features. Nakodah Rahim's secret concerned this damsel--Kilian by name. She was in love with a youth, Nikput, popular and distinguished--he had taken heads already--but not yet in the position which Kum Palan's son-in-law ought to occupy. Other suitors did not come forward, however, for the eldest son of Tamawan, the Great Chief, entertained for the youth one of those romantic friendships common among warriors in Borneo. Tamawan could not interfere, but there was a general impression that he would not feel kindly towards the man who robbed Nikput of his bride. Kum Palan resented this state of things. He feared an elopement, and with good reason, for that was the little stroke of business which the Nakodah proposed. Nikput offered fair terms. All was arranged. On the morrow early the prau was to start, dropping down stream. It would anchor for the night, as usual, at a certain spot, and there the lovers would come on board, having taken such steps as should lead the pursuing parent in another direction. Nikput had a friend among the Milanaus lower down. When the disaster was beyond remedy, Tamawan would compel his subordinate to be reconciled. Would the Tuan object to this little speculation? That the villain intended from the first to murder Nikput and kidnap his bride is certain. He declared at his trial that Williams had been his accomplice, and on this account Sir Spencer St. John held an inquiry. There was no shadow of evidence; the charge is grotesque. But it may possibly be that Williams exacted a share of the gold which Nikput agreed to pay. All went well. At the time and place appointed, in pitch darkness, a canoe grated softly against the vessel's side--a few whispers passed--and Kilian climbed aboard. But, as it turned out, she was not wearing only a few ornaments and a kerchief. All the family jewels, so to speak, hung about her pretty figure. She was swathed in silk, garment over garment. And Nikput handed up several baskets that must have been a very heavy load even for his stalwart frame. They had looted the paternal treasure at the Nakodah's suggestion. Next day passed without alarm; there are only farmhouses and villages, where a trader need not stop, between Langusan and the Brunei frontier. The fugitives remained below in the tiny cabin, amidst such heat and such surroundings that those who know may shudder to think of their situation. After dark, however, they came up, and, until he fell asleep, doubtless, Williams heard their murmuring and low happy laughter. On the morrow they would be safe. A terrible cry awoke him--screams and trampling on the palm-leaf deck; then a great splash. Dawn was breaking, but the mists are so dense at that hour that the Malays call it white darkness. The sounds of struggle and the girl's wild shrieks directed him; but at the first movement he was borne backwards and overthrown by a press of men stumbling through the fog, with Kilian writhing and screaming in their midst. They tossed her down into the hold and threw themselves upon him, his own servants foremost. Perhaps these saved him from the fate of poor Nikput. What could he do?--he had no arms. They swore him to silence. But in that bloody realm of Brunei to whom should a wise man complain? All that day and the next Kilian's shrieks never ceased. 'She will go mad,' Williams cried passionately; the Nakodah smiled. When her raving clamour was interrupted--died down to silence--they brought her on deck, a piteous spectacle. I have not to pain myself and my readers by imagining the contrast with the bright and lovely girl we saw a week ago. They reached the capital, and Williams fled; of his after life I know only that he sold some orchids in Singapore. Happily the tale does not end here. The crime would have passed unknown or unnoticed, like others innumerable of its sort in Brunei, had not Kilian avenged her own wrongs. She was raving mad for a while, but such a prize was worth nursing. Gradually she recovered her beauty and so much of her wits that the Nakodah sold her for a great sum to one of the richest nobles. A few days after, perhaps the same day, she stabbed this man and threw him from a window into the river--possibly with some distracted recollection of her lover's fate. The Nakodah was seized and others. All the horrid story came out. They were executed, and the Sultan restored their victim--quite mad now--to her father. But on the way she leapt overboard. [Illustration: CATTLEYA LABIATA. VAR. MEASURESIANA.] CATTLEYA LABIATA HOUSE This is the oldest of Cattleyas, for the plant now recognised as Catt. Loddigesii, which was introduced to Europe a few years earlier, passed under the name of Epidendrum. One might call labiata the 'eponymous hero' of its tribe, for Lindley christened it in honour of his friend Mr. Cattley, an enthusiastic amateur of Barnet. This was in 1818; from that year until 1889 Cattleya labiata was lost. It seemed easy enough to follow the journeyings of Swainson, who discovered it, and so reach the country where it dwelt; collectors innumerable made the attempt, but never succeeded. Mr. Sander, for instance, sent three at different times, expressly to trace Swainson's footsteps so far as they are recorded--Oversluys, Smith, and Bestwood; beside four others who skirmished along the track. He assured himself that they had explored every district which Swainson could possibly have visited; but of Cattleya labiata they found no sign. Meanwhile the plants of the first importation died off gradually, and the richest of mortals competed for the few surviving. Ten years ago, when the long search came to an end, very few were the persons in England who owned a specimen. I think I can name most of them--Baron Schröder, Sir Trevor Lawrence, Lord Rothschild, Duke of Marlborough, Lord Home, Lord Howe, Messrs. J. Chamberlain, Statter, R. H. Measures, R. I. Measures, Blandy, Hardy, Coleman, and Smith of the Isle of Wight. One of the examples possessed by Mr. R. H. Measures belonged to the variety Pescatorei, named after General Pescatore, the same leading amateur of early days whose memory is kept green by the sweetest of Odontoglossums, saving crispum. Cattleya labiata Pescatorei was a precious treasure then; 'none so poor as do it reverence' in this generation. The plant is still here, pretty enough so far as it goes, slightly distinguished by a silver edging to the petals. The puzzle of that first consignment has not been explained--we have only eluded it, like Alexander at Gordium. Certainly Swainson did not find his plants in the neighbourhood where they exist at this time. It is conjectured that there were woods close to Rio, now cultivated ground, where it flourished at the beginning of the century. However, in 1889, Cattleya labiata reappeared; oddly enough a collector of insects found it originally, and a collector of insects rediscovered it. The 'professionals' were beaten to the last. And now it has become almost the commonest of orchids; but for the same reason we may be sure that it will grow scarce again in no long time. Not to England only but to France, Belgium, Germany, the United States, such vast quantities have been consigned that to one who knows something of the facts it seems amazing that the limited area could furnish so many. And for one that reaches the market three, perhaps six, die. I have alluded to the extermination of orchids already. It is a sadly fascinating subject for those who think, and 'out of the fulness of the heart the mouth speaketh.' The time is very close when Odontoglossum crispum, most heavenly of created things, will arrive by tens and units instead of myriads--and then will arrive not at all. Already a gentleman who boasts that he has leased the whole district where the 'Pacho' form still survives, reckons the number of plants remaining at 60,000 only. Some months ago he issued quaint proposals for a Company (limited) to secure the utmost profit on the collection of these. Business men 'smiled and put the question by,' however enthusiastic they might be as orchidists; but I believe that the statement of facts was not altogether inaccurate. It is no longer worth while to send out collectors of Odontoglossum crispum; natives of the country gather such as they find and store them until the opportunity occurs to sell a dozen or so. I could give other instances; some have been already mentioned. But what is the use? Unless governments interfere, there is no remedy. Some indeed have taken steps. Several years ago the Rajah of Sarawak decreed that no one should collect orchids in his territory, for sale, without a license. The exportation of Dendrobium Macarthiae from Ceylon is forbidden, and the authorities of Capetown have made stringent rules about gathering Disa grandiflora. But I have heard of no other restrictions, and these, commendable as they are, scarcely touch the mischief. But that is enough upon a melancholy subject, with which I have no need to meddle here. In this house and elsewhere we have some eleven hundred labiatas. No Cattleya is more variable. From white to deep crimson every shade of colour may be found, with endless diversities of combination. Here are a few of the most important. _Imperatrix._--Rosy mauve. Distinguished by a broad fringe of the same colour round the lip, which, inside, shows a fine crimson. Next to it is one, unnamed, which makes a good contrast. Very big and broad; pale. The tube, opening wide, is superbly striped with crimson over a gold ground. The great lip all crimson. _Nobilis._--Big and evenly rosy. The gold in the throat is faint, and the lip, grandly frilled, has no lines. _Measuresiana._--Somewhat pale; at base of the petals the midrib is white. The gamboge stain does not spread beyond the throat, and it fades to white as the crimson lip spreads. Another has a deep golden throat, but the crimson of the lip is only a triangle, dispersing in broad lines upon the margin of mauve. But here is one, on the contrary, in which the lip is all deepest crimson except a very narrow edging of white. Scarcely a trace of gold is seen; the crimson stretches back all up the throat in heavy lines. And here again is one of palest rose, in which the lip carries only a single slender touch of crimson. _Sanderae._--A supreme beauty. Sepals almost white, petals somewhat more deeply tinged with mauve. Lip snow-white, saving the ochreous-orange throat and a lovely stain of crimson lake in the midst; with a purple blotch above and mottled lines of the same hue descending from it. _Mrs. R. H. Measures._--Purest white. The broad lower sepals curl downwards, almost encircling the lip, which has a faintly-yellow throat and a tender cloud of purplish crimson on the front, scored with three strong lines of purple. _Macfarlanei._--Crimson purple sepals and petals of the brightest tint; lip crimson-maroon and orange throat striped with brilliant crimson--a superb flower. _Baroness Schröder._--A famous variety. The petals are remarkably wide and graceful in shape, pale mauve of colour. The lip, somewhat paler, tinged with rose, shows in front a bundle of purple lines, as it were, the ends of which diverge from a purplish cloud over the rosy margin. _Princesse de Croix._--All pink except the white edges of the lip unrolling from the tube, and a small purple blur, scored with short heavy lines, which runs far up the throat, leaving a broad pink disc below. _Alba._--Perfectly beautiful. All ivory white, as it seems at a glance, save a faint stain of yellow in the throat; but close scrutiny detects a purple tinge also on the lip. _Archduchess._--The shape is even more graceful than usual. Sepals and very broad leaf-like petals rosy mauve, the yellow of the throat subdued, a fine patch of crimson lake on the labellum, with darker lines, leaving a wide margin of rosy mauve. _Robin Measures._--Rosy. The lip spreads so broad that its disc forms a perfect circle. The yellow of the throat is only a slight stain, and the fine crimson patch on the lip leaves a handsome margin of rose. _Bella._--Distinguished especially by the fine purple frilling of the lip which, like the sepals and petals, is nearly white of ground. A triangle of brightest crimson, sharply defined, issues from the handsome orange throat. _Adelina_ resembles this, but the crimson of the triangle has a deeper tone and the margin is distinctly mauve. _Princess of Wales._--An enormous flower, of remarkable colouring. Sepals and petals purplish. The usual crimson of the lip deepens almost to plum-colour. The margin, paler, is finely frilled. _Juno._--Somewhat pale. Notable for the breadth of crimson in the lip, which mounts far up the throat, running across it from side to side in a line perfectly straight. _Princess May._--A grand variety; the petals spread like birds' wings, and the lip opens very wide. On its folds are broad whitish discolorations, against which the deep crimson of the disc seems even richer than usual. _Her Majesty._--A pink giant, as notable for shape as for size. On the broad lip a crimson cloud stands out against a pale margin, finely frilled. The edging of the central stand in this house should be noticed. It is formed by a single plant of Pothos aurea, which, starting from the end wall, has already encircled the structure twice. Now it is hurrying to make a third turn. Pothos is the neatest of climbers, pushing no side-shoots, growing very fast, and thrusting forth its large leaves at equal intervals. The variety aurea is touched with gold here and there, and to my mind it makes the ideal edging of a stand. To right in this house is Cattleya Lawrenceana, of which we have probably 150 plants. This again is a species threatened with extinction--indeed the threat is very near fulfilment. It was never common in its native woods. I may quote a few lines from the report of Mr. Seyler who went to collect this, and two other orchids which dwell on the Roraima Mountain, for Mr. Sander; the date is January 19, 1893:-- '... I collected everything at Roraima except Catt. Lawrenceana, which was utterly rooted out already by other collectors.... We hunted all about for Catt. Lawrenceana and got only 1500 or so, it growing only here and there.... What I want to point out to you is that Catt. Lawrenceana is very rare in the interior now.... If you want to get any Lawrenceana you will have to send yourself, and, as I said to you, the results will be very doubtful.' The variety _Macfarlanei_ has rosy pink sepals; petals of club shape, bowed, crimson, deepening towards the tips. Labellum long, narrow, all crimson of the darkest shade. Noteworthy is a plant which we may suppose a natural hybrid of L. purpurata with L. elegans, resembling the latter in size, comparatively small, as in its narrow sepals and petals flushed with rose. The lip is very bright and pretty, with large clear yellow throat, ringed with white; the disc, of lively crimson, has a purple margin finely frilled, and a whitish purple patch in front. Among miscellaneous examples here is a handsome specimen of Cymbidium Devonianum, and a very remarkable hybrid of Catt. Gaskelliana × Catt. Harrisoniae--_Mary Measures_; rather ghostly but pleasant to look upon. Its colour of sepal and petal is palest mauve, the tube prettily lined and mottled with pale yellow; labellum, gamboge-yellow in the throat, fading towards the edge, and a pale crimson tip. A STORY OF BRASSAVOLA DIGBYANA Brassavola Digbyana is a flower for all tastes--large, stately, beautiful, and supremely curious; I use the familiar name, though it should be Laelia Digbyana. Charming are the great sepals and petals, greenish white, around the snowy lip; but why, the thoughtful ask in vain, does that lip ravel out into a massive fringe, branched and interlacing, near an inch wide? The effect is lovely, but the purpose inscrutable. In Dendrobium Brymerianum we find a puzzle exactly similar. But it does not help us to understand. Countless are the species of Dendrobium, many those of Laelia; but in each case no other shows this peculiarity. Brassavola Digbyana was first sent to Europe in 1845 by the Governor of British Honduras, who named it in honour of his kinsman, Lord Digby. Once only had the plant been received since that time, so far as I can learn, until last year. But the second cargo, in 1879, 'went a very long way.' Messrs. Stevens have rarely been so embarrassed with treasures. The history of that prodigious consignment is worth recording. It was despatched by Messrs. Brown, Ponder, and Co., of Belize, who dealt in mahogany and logwood--do still, I hope. That trade appears to be rather interesting. The merchant keeps a gang of Caribs, who have been in the employment of the firm all their lives perhaps. They go out at the proper season to find and mark the trees; fell them presently and return whilst the timber is drying; or amuse themselves in the bush, hunting and gathering miscellaneous produce. Then they float the raft down to Belize. These Caribs are more or less descended from the Indians of Jamaica. Early in the last century the British Government collected the survivors of that hapless race, and planted them out of harm's way in the Island of St. Vincent, uninhabited at the time. They did not thrive, however, and in 1796 the Government transported them once more to the Island of Roatan, in the Bay of Honduras. But an extraordinary change had come over the poor creatures. We are to suppose that when landed at St. Vincent their type was mostly if not wholly Indian; when taken away it was to all appearance negro. Probably a slave ship had been wrecked there, and the blacks, escaping, killed all the male Indians, taking the women to wife; such is the theory, but there is no record. A transformation so sudden and complete in such brief time is striking evidence of the African vigour, for in hair, features, complexion, and build the Carib is a negro. But not in character. He has virtues to which neither red man nor black lay claim--industry, honesty, truthfulness, staunch fidelity to his engagements and readiness to combine. The mahogany cutters have a Guild, which holds itself responsible for the failure of any member to execute work for which he has been paid; it cannot be called a Trade Union, because, so far as I learn, it has no other purpose--except jollification. In brief, the Carib of Honduras is one of the best fellows on earth in his way. He looks down on all about him, negro and Indian and 'poor white.' If a stranger suspect him of trickery, he thinks it defence enough to exclaim--'Um Carib man, sah!' And so it is, as a rule. Messrs. Brown Ponder had lately taken on a new hand--let us call him Sam. This young fellow had been wandering up and down the coast some years, doing any honest work that turned up. Thus he had served in the boat's crew of M. Sécard, when that gentleman was collecting orchids in Guiana. The experience had taught him that flowers have value, and he returned from his first visit to the bush, after entering the firm's service, with the announcement of a marvel. We may fancy the report which negro imagination would draw of Brassavola Digbyana. The mysterious fringe did not puzzle Sam at all. It was long enough to serve the purpose of _chevaux de frise_, to keep off monkeys and birds! M. Sécard used to give him a dollar apiece for things not to be compared with it! In short, here was a fortune for the gathering--and what terms would Mr. Brown offer him? Mr. Brown offered nothing at all. Residents in Honduras are curiously apathetic about orchids even now. I think it may be said that no collector has visited their country, which is the explanation perhaps. Moreover, Mr. Brown well knew the liveliness of the Carib imagination. Sam had met with only one or two belated flowers, which he displayed. But the shapeless little cluster of withered petals was no evidence of beauty--quite the reverse. Everybody cut his jokes upon it. It might be supposed that a man would carry his wares to another market under such circumstances. But that is not the Carib way; it would be a breach of loyalty. Good-naturedly Sam told Mr. Brown that he was a fool, with an adjective for emphasis. They were all adjective fools, he assured them daily. But to treat with a rival could not enter his mind. The gang had returned to the bush when young Mr. Ponder came back from Bluefields. His partner mentioned Sam's idea as a jest in conversation when several friends were present. One of them recalled how Governor Digby had sent some orchids to Europe ages ago, which sold for a mint of money. Others had heard something of the legend. Ponder, young and enterprising, inclined to think the matter worth notice. He inquired among the oldest inhabitants, Carib and negro. Many recollected the Governor's speculation, and the orchid also, when pressed. It was as big as a bunch of bananas, blue--no, red--no, yellow; shaped just like a boat, or a bird, or a star, or a monkey climbing a tree, and so forth. But all agreed about the fringe, 'now you come to mention it.' Ponder saw they knew nothing beyond the mere fact. But he made up his mind to get some specimens next rainy season, and judge for himself whether a consignment would be likely to pay. In due time the cutters appeared with their rafts of timber. It was not the moment to broach an unfamiliar subject. Calculations awfully intricate for those honest fellows had to be made intelligible to them once more, and then to be discussed, approved, explained again, and finally accepted or compromised. The Caribs passed all day in argument and in measuring the logs over and over; all night in working sums of arithmetic on fingers and toes. At length the amount due was computed amicably, as usual, and paid. But then, not without embarrassment, the whole gang, 'gave notice.' When such an event occurs, under such circumstances, an employer knows the reason. His Caribs have found gold. There is nothing to be said beyond wishing them luck. But Mr. Ponder asked Sam to get him a few of his orchids next rains. Sam declined, somewhat roughly. Mr. Ponder laid the dispute before the Guild, so to call it, which pronounced that Sam must carry out his proposal before leaving the firm's service. The dry season was well advanced by this time, and all flowers had withered. Nevertheless Sam jumped into a canoe, swearing, and started up the river with a couple of Indians. In three or four days he returned with a boat-load of orchids, sent them to the warehouse, and vanished. They proved to be a miscellaneous collection, all sorts and sizes; evidently the men had just gathered anything they came across. Mr. Ponder grew angry. It was an impudent trick, a defiance of himself and the Guild, such as no true Carib would be guilty of. Foreign travel had demoralised Sam. Those honest fellows, his partners, would be not less indignant, if the shameful proceeding could be laid before them. But all had gone up the river--to their gold-field, of course--and no one knew where that might be. Mr. Ponder got more and more warm as he revolved the insult. Business was slack. He decided to follow, and sent out forthwith to engage a crew of Indians; gold-diggers do not mind the intrusion of Indians so much, for when these savages have obtained a very little dust, they withdraw to turn it into drink. And they never chatter. Moreover he had to find the Caribs' camp, and they are sleuth-hounds. The search was not so hopeless as it might seem. Carefully reviewing the circumstances, Mr. Ponder felt sure that his Caribs had discovered their placer whilst collecting the felled trees--not before; that is, in the rainy season. Men would not wander far into the bush at that time. Probably, therefore, the scene lay pretty close to one or other of the spots where they had found mahogany. Of those spots he had a minute description. The reasoning proved to be quite correct, but luck interposed before it had been severely tested. On arrival at one of the stations to be explored--after a week or ten days' voyaging, as I imagine--he saw a canoe just pushing out from beneath the wooded bank with two of the missing Caribs therein, going to Belize on some errand. Their astonishment was loud, but not angry; they had no quarrel with Mr. Ponder. After a very little hesitation they consented to lead him to the camp, the Indians remaining in their boat. It was not a long walk, nor uncomfortable. A broad path had been cut to the top of the ridge, for hauling down the trunks, and the rollers had smoothed it like a highway; but not so broad that the great trees on either hand failed to overshadow it. Mr. Ponder questioned his guides laughingly. Was it a real good placer, with nuggets in it?--how much had they pouched, and was the game likely to last? They grinned and patted their waist-scarves, which, as he now remarked, were round and plump as monster sausages. 'Oh, I know that trick,' laughed Mr. Ponder. 'You've filled them with maize-flour for your journey.' They whooped and roared with triumph. 'Say, Mis'r George, you tell nobody--honour bright?-not nobody?' One of them turned down the edge of his scarf, with no small effort--for it was twisted very tightly and secured. Presently the contents glimmered into sight--little golden figures, mostly flat, carved or moulded, one to three inches long. 'Our placer all nuggets, Mis'r George!' Any child in those seas would have understood. The Caribs had discovered not a washing nor a mine, but a burial-ground of the old Indians, called in those parts a 'huaco.' There are men who make it their sole business to look for such treasure-heaps. Since they bear, in general, no outward indication whatsoever at the present time, one would think that the hunt must be desperate; but these men, like other gamblers, have their 'system.' Possibly they have noted some rules which guided the antique people in their choice of a cemetery. And if they find one in a lifetime--provided they can keep the secret--that suffices. Mostly, perhaps, huacos are discovered by accident. So it was in the memorable instance on Chiriqui lagoon, where many thousand people dug for months and many brought away a fortune--for them. And so it was here. The Caribs told their story gleefully. From the crest of the ridge the land sloped gently down towards a stream. When they reached this place to secure the timber, now dry, the rains were very heavy. But Sam and another, heaven-directed, roamed down the slope. A big tree had fallen, and among its roots Sam's lynx eyes marked a number of the little figures, washed clean, sparkling in the sun-rays. These good fellows have no secrets of the sort among themselves. They dug around, assured themselves that it was indubitably a huaco; then returned, like honest Caribs, to float the trunks down to Belize, and fulfil their contract, before attending to personal interests. They had cleared a space and built a hut of boughs, a 'ramada.' There Mr. Ponder found them assembled, smoking and sleeping after the mid-day meal. Warned by the guide's cheery shout they welcomed Mis'r George heartily--all but Sam; unanimously they asked, however, what on earth he wanted there, so far from home? Mr. Ponder told his complaint. The gang resolved itself into a sort of court-martial forthwith, the eldest seating himself upon a stump and the others grouping round. There was a moment's silence for thought; then the president, gravely: 'You, Carib Sam, what you say?' 'Say d---- sorry, sah! Mis'r Brown an' all the Mis'rs make fool of me! Then Mis'r George come--I never see Mis'r George before! He says go to bush an' pick orchid--a month contract!--a month! But I found gold here, an' I want pick it up--have no more say! d---- sorry!' Mr. Ponder relented. 'Why didn't you explain at the time, Sam?--I'm quite satisfied, Caribs! Sam and I will shake hands and there's an end of it!' But the others were not quite satisfied. The president sat shaking his head. 'When rains come,' said Sam to him anxiously, 'I get Mis'r George two canoe-loads, six canoe-loads of orchid, an' no mistake!' 'There, men! That's final! Let's shake hands round, and wash away all unpleasantness--here's the wash!--drink it up! Now will you show me your huaco?' First they showed him the plunder--hundreds of those little images, mostly human, in the rudest style of art, but pure gold; a large proportion alligators, some probably meant for birds, not a few mere lumps. Mr. Ponder calculated rapidly that the whole might represent three thousand pounds for division among ten men. But the Caribs began to fear that their huaco would prove to be a very small one. The yield had been failing in all directions lately. They had prospected round, but hitherto without success. No bones, nor weapons, nor anything but a few jars of pottery had been found. Such is the rule--without exception, I believe--in burial-grounds of this class, without cairn or statues; in fact, it is a mere assumption to declare them burial-grounds at all. Men who dug at Chiriqui told me that nothing whatever besides gold was found in that great area. The statement is not quite exact, but it shows how little turned up. The forebodings of the Caribs were sadly verified. Mr. Ponder started back in the afternoon and they followed within a week--'made men' if they had wit enough to keep their booty, but not so rich as they had hoped. Next rains Sam loyally performed his promise. And thus it happened that Messrs. Stevens were overwhelmed with Brassavola Digbyana once upon a time. LYCASTES, SOBRALIAS, AND ANGOULOAS occupy different compartments in one house. The first will not detain us. All the species which orchidists, in a lordly way, term common are represented here--of course, by their best varieties. I can fancy the wonder and delight of a stranger entering when the Lycastes Skinneri alba and virginalis are in bloom, remembering my own emotion at the spectacle elsewhere. Not many of the genus appeal to the aesthetic, and Skinneri in especial lacks grace. But unsymmetrical form and abrupt rigidity of growth are forgotten when those great flowers, so pure, so divinely white, burst upon the eye. Charming also are the pale varieties of Skinneri, such as _Lady Roberts_, a dainty rose, the petals only just dark enough to show up the labellum almost white; and _Phyllis_ of somewhat deeper rose. Its velvety lip has a crimson margin well displayed by a small white patch upon the disc. Leucantha, dainty green with white petals, is charming; a pan of aromatica with fifty or sixty delicate golden blooms makes a pretty show. But these things do not call for special notice. There are varieties, however, of course, as the famous Lycaste plana _Measuresiana_, coppery, shining, with pure white petals, crimson spotted, and small white lip; plana _lassioglossa_, olive green of sepal and petal, with a bright rusty stain at the base; lip white, with conspicuous white spots. _Fulvescens._--Large and spreading. Sepals and petals reddish orange, lip clear brightest orange, so lightly poised that it quivers at a breath. It has as many as forty flowers from one bulb sometimes. _Denningiana._--Very large. Sepals and petals whitish green, lip brown. _Mooreana._--An extraordinary variety of L. Locusta, which itself is extraordinary enough. Reichenbach described Locusta in his lively way: 'Green sepals, green petals, green lip, green callus, green ovary, green bract, green sheath, green peduncle, green bulbs, green leaves--just as green as a green grasshopper or the dress of some Viennese ladies.' Mooreana is larger, and the heavy fringe of the lip has a faint yellow shade. SOBRALIAS It may be granted that all classes of orchid are not equally beautiful, but to compare one with another in this point of view is futile. Each has its own charm which individual taste may prefer, and to set Cattleyas, for instance, above Odontoglots is only to demonstrate that for some persons size and brilliancy of hue are more attractive than grace and purity. But in any competition of the sort Sobralias must rank high. They are all large, they have every fascination which colour can give, and the delicate crumpling of the lip, characteristic of this genus alone, is one of Nature's subtlest devices. Gardeners also approve them, for they need less attention perhaps than any others, and they grow fast. The sagacious reader will begin to ask by this time what are the disadvantages to set against all these merits? There is only one, but for too many amateurs it is fatal--the glorious flowers last scarcely two days. Certainly a spike will carry four or five, or even six, which open one after another. But then all is over till next year. And the plants are big, occupying much room. Therefore Sobralias are not favoured by the wise, when space is limited. [Illustration: LYCASTE SKINNERI VAR. R. H. MEASURES.] All are American, growing among the rocks and in the scanty soil of mountain districts. One reads of species so tall that a man on horseback must raise his arm to pick the flowers. This may be an exaggeration, but we have Sobralia macrantha gigas here six feet high, and Hookerae even topping it. Upon the other hand, that marvel, Kienastiana, has a very modest stature. Nearly all the species known are here--it is not a large genus: Lindeni, Hookerae, Lowii, macrantha and macrantha alba, xantholeuca, and Kienastiana, which has its story. _Measuresiana_ is uncommon; white, an immense flower. The vast lip, circular, daintily crumpled, is palest pink, with a deep yellow throat, round which the pink darkens to pale crimson. _Sanderae_ also is white, faintly tinged with yellow. In these days, however, it is the hybrids which interest us, and there are two of surpassing merit. _Amesiana_ (xantholeuca × Wilsonii).--Palest rosy lilac, somewhat more rosy in the centre--the crumpled pink lip is as round and as big as a crown piece. The cavity of the throat, orange, changes to gamboge as it widens; encircling this is a stain of tawny crimson. Lip rose, shaded with reddish brown. _Veitchii_ (macrantha × xantholeuca).--White, with a pretty orange throat. Round the edges of the lip, deliciously frilled and crumpled, is a broad band of purplish pink. Here and there in this house, as room can be made, stand many fine plants of Laelia elegans. Beyond is a second compartment devoted to Lycastes and Selenepeds, the name granted, for distinction's sake, to Transatlantic forms of Cypripedium; in the gardener's point of view, however, there is no difference between them, and such of these plants as call for notice, in my very narrow space, are described among the Cypripeds. One rarity, however, I must not overlook--Miltonia Binottii, assumed to be a natural hybrid of M. candida and M. Regnellii; sepals and petals creamy yellow, tinged with lilac at the base and barred with cinnamon brown; lip pale rosy purple. ANGULOAS Nature has thought fit to produce many clumsy plants, and the well-balanced mind raises no objection so long as they remain in their proper place. A pumpkin is not a thing of grace, but then nobody calls on us to admire it. There is little to choose between an Anguloa and a pumpkin in the way of beauty; yet a multitude of people, not less sane to all appearance than their neighbours, invite one to mark and linger over its charms. This always seems very strange to me. I remember a painting of Adam in Paradise, exhibited by an Academician famous in his day--less perhaps for talent than for the popular belief that he wrote certain wailing letters signed 'A British Matron,' which the _Times_ published occasionally. Adam was sitting on a flowery bank. The good Academician had all the Asiatic realm of botany before him, wherein to choose blooms appropriate for Paradise; he spurned them all, crossed the Atlantic, surveyed the treasures of the New World, and from the lovely host selected--Anguloa Clowesii! Upon a bed of these Adam sat--of these alone; nothing else was worthy of a place beside them. Evidently Anguloas have a fascination. But my soul is blind to it. We have all the species here. STORY OF SOBRALIA KIENASTIANA There are startling flowers of divers sort. Some astonish by mere size, as Rafflesia Arnoldii, which is a yard across and weighs fifteen to twenty pounds, or Amorphophallus Titanum, eight feet high and fifteen inches thick. The stench of these is not less impressive than their bulk; an artist who insisted upon sketching the latter at Kew fainted over her work. But many of the giants are beautiful, as the Aristolochias, like a bag of silk cretonne with mouth of velvet, wherein a lady might stow her equipment for an informal dance--shoes, gloves, fan, handkerchief, scarf, and, if need be, a bouquet; Bomarias, the Peruvian wonder, trailing a scarlet tassel three feet long and thick in proportion. Others are surprising without qualification, like Nepenthes, which dangle a water jug at the tip of every leaf. But among orchids alone you see flowers of familiar shape and ordinary class, which startle you by the mere perfection of their beauty. One of these is Sobralia Kienastiana. My first sight of it at the Temple Show is not to be forgotten. I had been thrilling and raving over a specimen of Cattleya intermedia Parthenia, 'chaste as ice and pure as snow,' when, turning to Baron Schröder's exhibit, I beheld this glory of Nature. It has all the advantage of 'setting' denied to so many among the loveliest of its fellows. That divine Parthenia must be regarded alone. It has no charm of environment. But the Sobralia is a thicket, green and strong and pleasant to the eye, crowned with the flowers of Paradise, snow-white, several inches broad, but tender and dainty as the lily of the valley. Though open to the widest, and exquisitely frilled, their petals are crumpled; you might think fairies had been gauffering them and left the work incomplete, surprised by dawn. Baron Schröder and Mr. Wilson of Westbrook, Sheffield, had the only plants in England then; M. Kienast-Zolly, Consul at Zurich, the only plant known elsewhere--a piece cut off when he sold the bulk. That such a marvel had a legend I did not doubt. It is, in fact, an albino of the common Sobralia macrantha; in speaking of it, by the way, to scientific persons, or in referring to books, the word 'macrantha' must be introduced. The family is Central American, and examples reach this country especially from Mexico. A variety so rare and so charming would be found in some hardly known spot. But orchids do not live in the desert. It would be strange if Indians had not noticed such a wonder, and if they noticed, assuredly they would prize it. They would not allow the plant to be removed under ordinary conditions; if a price were accepted it would be very high, but more probably no sum would tempt them. Therefore did I conclude at sight that Sobralia Kienastiana had its legend. And I traced without difficulty the outline which I have filled up. M. Kienast-Zolly dwelt many years at Orizaba in Mexico, where he collected orchids with enthusiasm for his own delight. An Indian servant gave zealous help, partly, doubtless, for love of the flowers, but partly also for love of the master whose 'bread he had eaten' from childhood--and still eats, I believe. This man, Pablo, ceaselessly inquired for rarities among his own people, made journeys, bargained, bought, and by times, they say--but stole is not the proper word to use when an object has no owner nor intrinsic value. Pablo had a younger brother, a priest, in the neighbourhood of Tehuacan. They had not met since his ordination, until, once on a time, M. Kienast-Zolly visited those parts, and Pablo took the opportunity to spend a day and night at the Indian village, Nidiri, where his brother was priest. This ecclesiastic was an earnest man. He found no satisfaction in compounding the heathen practices of his flock for money, as do his fellows. His legitimate dues sufficed him--I daresay they reached ten pounds a year. He found a melancholy diversion in writing plaintive memorials to the Bishop. Week by week the good man raised his moan. He could not see very deep. It did not occur to him that the Christian faith itself, as the Indians understand it, is but a form of heathendom. The doings of which he complained were acts of positive worship towards the old idols. He demanded an investigation, special magistrates; in brief, the re-establishment of the Inquisition. The Bishop had long ceased to acknowledge these dolorous reports; doubtless they contained nothing new to him. Out of the fulness of his heart a man speaketh, and after discussing family affairs, the Cura broached his spiritual sorrows. Pablo had not been trained at a seminary, and religious questions did not interest him. As a townsman, also, he had picked up some liberal ideas, and when the brother talked of converting his flock from their evil ways by force, he observed that opinions are free in Mexico nowadays. Then the Cura grew warm. Opinions? Rising hurriedly, he produced horrid little figures of clay or wood, actual idols, found and confiscated, not without opposition. When Pablo did not seem much impressed by these things--not unfamiliar, probably--he hinted suspicions more awful. There was a spot somewhere in the hills, frequented at certain seasons by these wretches, where they performed sacrifice. Blood was shed, and the Cura had reason to think--he dropped his voice, and bent across the little table to whisper awfully in his brother's ear. 'Why,' said Pablo, 'if you can prove that, the Government will interfere fast enough. It's murder!' 'I am not quite certain. But give me authority to arrest the Cacique--the head-man of the village--and some others! They held one of their impious festivals only last week. I met them returning just after dawn, crowned with flowers, all the men intoxicated. Oh no, it wasn't a mere drinking bout. The Cacique and that vile Manuele--whom I believe to be the priest--carried nosegays of the accursed flower the demons give them. I know it! They used formerly--the sons of perdition!--to bring it to my church and offer it upon the holy altar. And I--Heaven pardon me!--rejoiced in its beauty. With prayers and thanksgivings I laid the Devil's Flower before the Blessed Mother. I did not know! It will not be counted against me for a sin, brother?' So he went on, bemoaning his unconscious offence. Pablo woke up instantly. What did the Cacique do with his nosegay since he was not allowed to deposit it on the altar? What sort of flower was it? All this seemed trivial to the agitated Cura. With difficulty he was brought to the statement that it resembled the Flor de San Lorenzo, but snow-white. Then Pablo showed much concern. These shocking practices must be made to cease; but first they must have evidence. That mysterious spot on the hills? Did his brother know where it was? No, he had only pieced together hints and fragmentary observations. They suggested a certain neighbourhood. It had never occurred to him to look for it. If his conjectures were sound, the place was desert. Indians always choose a barren unpeopled site for their ancestral worship, as Pablo knew. He considered. There was a certain risk, for the priests might dwell by their idols. But most even of these look upon their Christian rival with reverence. He asked his brother how he was regarded? Indignantly the latter confessed that all these wicked folk treated him with the utmost deference. He had denounced them again and again from the altar, threatened to excommunicate the whole community--but the Bishop promptly crushed that idea. They listened in respectful silence, and went their own way. Pablo came to a resolve. He proposed that they should start before daylight and search for the accursed place. The Cura was startled, but he assented with passionate zeal; of his stuff, unenterprising, unimaginative, with room for one idea only, martyrs are made. Martyrdom he half expected, and he was ready. Whilst Pablo snored in his hammock, the good man prayed all through the night. It was still dark when they set forth, and before even Indians were stirring they had passed beyond the village confines; but the sun was high when they reached the hills. These are, in fact, a range of low volcanoes, all extinct now; the most ancient overgrown with trees and brushwood, the most recent still bare. Towards this part the Cura led the way. They passed through blinding gorges where no green thing found sustenance. Cacti and yuccas and agaves, white with dust, clung to the naked tufa. So they went on, mounting always, encouraged from time to time by some faint trace of human passage, which their keen Indian eyes discerned. But from the crest nothing could be seen save gorges such as they had traversed, and long slopes of dazzling rock. The quest began to look hopeless, but they persevered. And presently Pablo noted something on the ground, at a distance, beside a clump of Opuntia. It was a bunch of withered flowers. Approaching they saw a cleft in the ridge of tufa masked by that straggling cactus. They passed through--and the idols stood before them! The Cura fell on his knees. It was a small plateau, as white and as naked as the rest. In the midst stood three cairns, each bearing large stone figures, painted red and blue and yellow. Before each cairn was an altar, built of unhewn stones topped by a slab. The scene was impressive. Pablo recalled his prayers in looking on it. The white and glittering dust lay even as a floor around those heaps of stone. All was still, but the painted statues seemed to tremble and flicker in that awful heat. Tiny whirls of sand arose, and danced, and scattered, though never a breath of wind moved the burning air. The shadow of a vulture sailing passed slowly from side to side. The Cura ended his prayer, leapt up and rushed--his old black gown streaming like wings. He grasped the foremost idol and pushed and pulled with all his might--he might as well have tried to overthrow the rock itself. Another and another he attempted; all in vain. He paused at length, mopping his drenched face, disheartened but still resolved. Then he took stones and battered the features. Pablo was scarcely disappointed. So soon as they entered that barren tract, he knew that the Flor de San Lorenzo could not live there. Approaching he scrutinised the altars. Heaps of ashes and charred wood lay upon them, beneath leaves and fruits and flowers, unburnt but shrivelled and crackling in the sunshine. Carefully Pablo turned these over. On the largest slab were found bones and dry pools of blood. I have not room to follow the story in detail. Next day they started for Orizaba, the priest carrying a passionate recital of these discoveries to the Bishop. What came of it I do not know. Pablo returned forthwith, in pressing haste, accompanied by two soldiers. With these he called on the Cacique and charged him with human sacrifice. For a while the Indian could not speak; then he vehemently denied the accusation. The conference was long; in the end, Pablo admitted his innocence of the graver charge, but the acts of paganry could not be disputed. He agreed to say no more about them, however, on condition that the accursed flower should be surrendered and destroyed in his presence. By evening it was brought. But he changed his mind about destroying it just then. As has been said, this was the pride of M. Kienast-Zolly's collection for many years; then it passed, the half of it, to Baron Schröder, and a quarter to Mr. Wilson. Shortly afterwards Mr. Measures secured the latter fragment. The description of the sacred place certainly does not apply to an Indian temple. The cairns were graves of ancient heroes doubtless, and the figures portrait-statues, such as I myself have seen in abundance to the southward. The Indians made this desert spot a temple perhaps, and treated the statues as idols, when their places of worship were destroyed. THE CYPRIPEDIUM HOUSE Perhaps our collection is most famed for its Cypripeds. During twenty years and more the owner has been securing remarkable hybrids and varieties--labouring on his own account also to produce them. But the pretty house which lodges these accumulated treasures is not more than 48 feet long and 17 wide. No room here for vulgar beauties; only the best and rarest can find admission. There are, to be precise, 980 plants upon the stages, 169 hanging from the roof. They are close packed certainly, but a glance at the vivid foliage satisfies even the uninitiated that they have space enough. Orchids generally are the most accommodating of plants--the best tempered and the strongest in constitution; and among orchids none equal the Cypripeds in both respects. It is pleasant to fancy that they feel gratitude for our protection. Darwin convinced himself that the whole family is doomed. In construction and anatomy it preserves 'the record of a former and more simple state of the great orchidaceous family,' now outgrown. Such survivals are profoundly interesting to us, but Nature does not regard them kindly. They betray her secrets. All the surrounding conditions have changed while the Cypriped clings to its antique model--at least, it has not changed in proportion. Few insects remain, apparently, adapted to fertilise it and it cannot fertilise itself. In the struggle for existence, therefore, it is terribly handicapped. Man comes to the rescue, and no class of orchid accepts his intervention so readily. It is a pretty house, as I have said. Experienced gardeners have a deep distrust of pretty houses. Picturesque effect and good culture can seldom be reconciled; the conditions needed for the one are generally fatal to the other. But here we have a pleasing exception. All is green and fresh--no brickwork, nor shelves, nor pipes, nor 'tombstone' labels obtrude upon the view. The back wall is draped with ferns and creepers, orchids peeping through here and there. A broad stand down the middle, accommodating five rows of Cypripediums on either side, has all its substructures masked with tufa, which bears a mantle of green. The side stands, each accommodating seven rows of pots, are equally clothed in verdure, moss and fern. At the end, through a glass partition open in the centre, is a fountain, with similar stands all round it. And--an essential point, whereby we understand the glorious health of all these plants--there is not one which the gardener cannot see perfectly as he goes by, and reach without an effort, saving those overhead in the middle. No chance of thrips flourishing unsuspected in this house, nor of slugs following their horrid appetite from pot to pot unnoticed. Since it is especially the number of rare 'garden mules' which have won us renown, I ought perhaps to say a word in passing upon the matter of hybridisation. But what can be said in a few lines? It is a theme for articles and books, even in the hands of a smattering amateur like myself. The public has no suspicion how far this novel manufacture has been carried already. There is a hint in the tiny volume compiled by Mr. R. H. Measures 'for private circulation,' showing the number of hybrids in the genus Cypripedium of which he could hear. It contains more than eleven hundred items. Of these we have upwards of eight hundred in our collection. But it must be remembered, in the first place, that there is no authoritative list as yet; each inquirer must get information as he can. In the second place, that the number increases daily. Such a list could be framed only by an international committee of botanists, for in France and Belgium orchid-growers are as enthusiastic as our own; whilst in Germany, Italy, Austria and the United States, if the workers be comparatively few they are very busy. It has often been suggested that an Orchid Farm would pay handsomely, if established in some well-chosen district of the Tropics and intelligently conducted. A gentleman resident in Oviedo, Florida, Mr. Theodore S. Mead, has carried the notion into practice on a small scale with startling results. I quote from the _Orchid Review_, June 1896:-- 'I have built a small platform in the top of a live oak, about 45 feet from the ground ... where I propose to try seeds of some thirty or forty different orchid crosses, including pods from Vanda coerulea and Cattleya citrina, which are thought difficult to manage under glass...' In September 1897 we hear further:-- 'The season has been a very trying one, and though my orchid-eyrie in the live oak-top promised great success in June, it was very difficult to keep the compost in good condition during the hot, muggy days of July. Still, out of thirty-two crosses planted on a space of peat, 16 inches long by 12 broad, I obtained plants having first leaf of twenty-two of them--mostly Cattleyas and Laelias;--though a good many died when it was necessary to transplant them, on account of mould and algae threatening to swamp the tiny plants. A single plant of Vanda coerulea × V. Amesiana appeared, and is now showing its third leaf. This year I have repeated the cross Bletia verecunda × Schomburgkia tibicinis and have several plants in their first leaf; and also one of Bletia verecunda crossed with our native Calopogon pulchellus...' In March 1899:--'... My seed-planting was very successful after June in polypodium fibre (fresh fern mats) in my tree-top eyrie, and from July till October I averaged 500 little hybrids transplanted to pots every month; about one-fourth still survive.... I had an ancient moss-grown magnolia chopped down and cut into slabs, some thirty of which I planted with orchid-seed and kept sprayed. The slabs coming from near the ground scarcely germinated a seed, but those from 20 to 30 feet up yielded from 2 to 3 up to about 150. I also tried oak bark, but while the seeds started promptly they were more subject to disease;... when transplanted to pots nearly all died. '_Note._--These magnolia slabs were placed in a green-house, not in the "eyrie."' It is hardly worth while to quote the list of seedlings obtained by Mr. Mead through crossing plants of the same genus. But here are some successes which, very few years ago, would have been declared flatly impossible--as impossible as a fertile union betwixt cat and dog. Cattleya amethystoglossa × Epidendrum O'Brienianum; a few plants alive. Cattleya amethystoglossa × Epid. radicans; two plants alive. Schomburgkia undulata × Epid. radicans; several plants. Cattleya Bowringiana × Epid. cochleatum; several plants. Epidendrum nocturnum × Epid. osmanthum and Epid. cucullatum, pollen mixed; several plants. Cattleya Bowringiana × Epid. osmanthum (Godseffianum); three plants. Bletia verecunda × Schomburgkia tibicinis; several plants. Bletia verecunda × Calopogon pulchellus; one or two plants. Schomburgkia tibicinis × Laelia purpurata; one plant. The discovery that fertile unions may be concerted between species, and even genera, differing in all visible respects, gives profound interest to the study of hybridisation in the scientific point of view. We have gone so far already that classifications which appeared to be unquestionable have been rudely upset. That Laelias and Cattleyas should combine is not surprising, even though one come from North Mexico and the other from South Brazil. But what shall we say when Epidendrums combine with both?--with Sophronitis, Zygopetalum!--nay, with Oncidium!!--with Dendrobium!!! Sobralia proves fertile with Cattleya; so does Sophronitis. Spathoglottis has been crossed with Bletia and with Phajus. Zygopetalum with Colax, with Oncidium, with Epidendrum, with Odontoglossum. Schomburgkia with Laelia and Bletia. Combinations even more astonishing are reported, but for those named there is responsible authority. I cannot go into detail; these remarks are designed only to call attention to the subject. Not all the bigeneric hybrids mentioned have flowered; and at the present time we have learned enough to be aware that possibly one parent will be ignored by the offspring--that a seedling of Epidendrum crossed with Dendrobium, for example, will bloom a pure Epidendrum or a pure Dendrobium of the species used; which in itself is sufficiently strange. But seedlings have actually been produced in every case which I have named. It is one of the fixed rules in biology that the offspring of different species must be barren--otherwise the parents are not truly species--and that different genera will not breed at all. But in most instances which have been brought to the test as yet, hybrid orchids of different species prove fertile, and some bigeneric crosses yield a progeny at least. What follows? Evidently that the genera or the species are not really distinct--in the cases given. Must we admit, then, that a Dendrobium of the Himalayas (crystallinum) does not differ generically from an Epidendrum of Mexico (radicans)? This is not the place to argue it out; nor, in truth, would there be much profit in arguing the question while the number of facts to be adduced is still so small that error is not improbable. I hope I have made it clear that the hybridisation of orchids is the most fascinating of botanic studies at this time; which is all I have in view. But professional 'growers' are not likely to help the cause of science much--no blame to them either. They cannot afford to make experiments which demand a great deal of time, and increasing attention, for years, from the most highly-paid of their staff--too probably remaining a dead loss after no small portion of a lifetime has been spent in bringing the produce to flower. A man of business must make such crosses as are most likely to pay in the shortest time--easy species, big, highly coloured. Under the best conditions he must wait three to six years, perhaps ten, or even more. Evidently the most valuable hybridisations in a scientific point of view would be those least likely to succeed; all would be doubtful, all would require a long term of years, and most would not 'sell' in the end probably. Such work is for amateurs. I can mention only a few of the Cypripediums here which seem most notable, and it will always remain dubious whether I have chosen the best examples. _Bellatulum eximium._--The dorsal is small, low and spreading, white, with carmine specks along the edges, large red-chocolate spots inside. Petals closely depressed, mottled with carmine here and there at the edges, and spotted like the dorsal. Lip insignificant--white with a few small dots. _Olivia_ (tonsum × concolor).--Dorsal white above, changing to pink; base greenish, slenderly feathered with carmine. Petals bowed, flushed with pink, pink lined, dotted with carmine. Slipper pink, deepening to carmine along the front, fading at the toe. _M. Finet_ (callosum superbum × Godefroyae).--White with a faint rosy blush. At the base of the dorsal is a greenish tinge, which reappears somewhat stronger on the petals. There are a few specks of crimson on the latter, and a few crimson markings at the top of the slipper. _Gertrude Hollington_ (ciliolare × bellatulum).--A flower of remarkable size. The dorsal is low but exceedingly broad; white, very strongly scored with crimson. Upon the scores stand spots of maroon, and a crimson splash follows the midrib. The great broad petals are white of ground, but obscured at the base by a cloud of crimson-maroon, save the edges. Crimson lines, carrying spots and specks of maroon, overrun the whole. Slipper purplish crimson. _Macropterum_ (Lowii × superbiens).--Dorsal green, darker below. Petals long, curving downwards, greenish at base, heavily spotted; the ends clouded with purple. Slipper large, tawny purple. _Bellatulum album._--The pure white variety of this striking species, so densely spotted in its normal form. It was discovered by Mr. R. Moore when Assistant-Commissioner of the Shan States in 1893. The dorsal is very low, spreading and depressed; the high-shouldered petals clasp the slipper close all round, in such manner that their ends hang below its tip. Grandly beautiful. _Baconis_ (chlorops × Schlimii).--Very small, rosy. Sepals scored with a brighter hue. They reverse half their length, showing the back of brilliant rose. Slipper carmine. _H. Ballantine_ (purpuratum × Fairieanum).--Dorsal rosy white, ribbed with dark crimson branching lines. Petals greenish, lined, dotted, and edged with coppery crimson. Slipper purple above, green below, handsomely lined with crimson. _Barbato-bellatulum._--Takes after the latter parent in shape, but all purple; the white-edged dorsal lined and the petals finely spotted with a darker tint. _Mrs. E. Cohen_ (callosum × niveum).--All pinkish white, suffused with crimson, lined with crimson and speckled with purple. Slipper carmine-purple. _Cardinale_ (Sedenii × Schlimii-albiflorum).--Takes its name from the carmine slipper. White in general colour; the petals have a rosy base and rosy tips. _Chrysocomes_ (caudatum Warcewiczii × conchiferum).--Dorsal greenish-yellow, edged with white. Its tip or crest is most extraordinary, hanging forward like a tongue between high jaws curved and serrated. The ochreous-greenish petals have an edging of crimson and an outer edging of white, prettily frilled and gauffered. They twine and twist through a length of ten or twelve inches, showing the crimson reverse. _Claudii_ (Spicerianum × vernixium).--The dorsal is white above, with a strong purple midrib, and a purple flush towards the edge; the base is olive green. Petals olive green, shaded in a darker hue, and tipped with purple. The slipper purple above, green below. _Beeckmanii_ (Boxalli sup. × bellatulum).--The yellow-green dorsal is broadly margined in its upper part with white, and marked profusely with large crimson-brown spots. The petals are depressed, spreading like wings, of madder-purple hue, lined and spotted, the lower margin greenish. Slipper dark purple, with a greenish toe. _Bellatulum egregium._--Doubtless a natural hybrid. The depressed dorsal is pale green, spotted with pink in lines. Petals and slipper white above, pale greenish below, with large pink spots all over. A most remarkable variety. _Brownii_ (leucorrhodum × longifl. magnificum).--The dorsal takes a very singular form. Narrow and almost rectangular, it is sharply constricted towards the top, then widens out again like the ace of spades. The colour is white, touched with green and rose. Petals long, narrow, with an edging of carmine, and outer edging of white; as they reverse towards the tip the colour is all rose. Big broad slipper, rosy, prettily spotted with carmine on the white lining. _Antigone_ (Lawrenceanum × niveum).--The big dorsal sepal is pink with a white border. Strong branching ribs of crimson spring from a base of vivid green and form a network. The drooping petals show a deeper pink, with similar lines and maroon specks; as does the slipper. _H. Hannington_ (villosum × fascinator).--The great dorsal bears a purple mauve cloud within its broad white margin, changing to dusky green at the base and scored with branching lines of somewhat darker mauve. Petals and lip greenish ochre, frilled and shining, lined with brown in dots. _Hector_ (Leeanum var. × Sallierii var.)--Dorsal white with a greenish-blue centre, traversed by dull brown lines. Petals yellow at the base, set with a quantity of short, stiff black hairs; changing to ochreous dun, the upper half bearing a dusky brownish network. Lip of the same dusky hue. _Myra_ (Chamberlainianum × Haynaldianum).--Tall, graceful in form as in colouring. The long narrow dorsal is pale green, edged with white. At the base is a patch of dusky chocolate and spots of the same tone run upward in lines. The pale-green petals, narrow and rectangular, bear a few large dun blotches outlined with chocolate; their tips reverse, showing a faint mauve tint. _Aphrodite superbum_ (niveum × Lawrenceanum).--The same parentage reversed; as usual the produce is quite dissimilar. Its colour is white, purple-tinged except the margin, overlaid with a crimson network of dots. Another example from the same seed-pod has a palest pink network instead of crimson, and tiny dots of maroon. It looks like the ghost of its sister. _Arnoldiae_ (bellatulum × superciliare).--Whitish, with bold spots of crimson-brown arranged in lines upon the dorsal. Slipper purple-lake above, greenish below. _Arnoldianum_ (superbiens × concolor).--Dusky shining yellow, tinged at the edges with crimson, spotted and lined with the same. A hybrid remarkable for its shyness to flower. _Cyanides_ (Swanianum × bellatulum).--A dusky flower, of green and purple tones. The greenish dorsal is clouded at base, lined and spotted, with purple. Petals the same, but the spotting is darker and more distinct. Slipper clear purple. _Callosum Sanderae._--A sport or natural hybrid of most singular beauty. I remember the delighted amazement which possessed me when Mr. Sander unlocked a door and showed this exquisite flower just opening--a treasure hidden from all but the trustiest friends until it could be displayed at the Temple Show in 1894. The great dorsal sepal is white above, tender green in two shades below, with strong green lines ascending from the base. The petals, much depressed, are bright green, lined with a darker hue and tipped with white. The slipper yellowish-green. It may be mentioned that the owner of this collection declined to accept 1000 guineas for his stock of callosum Sanderae three years after buying the original plant. _Aylingii_ (niveum × ciliolare).--Small, white ground. The dorsal and petals alike are boldly striped with carmine-crimson. Slipper all white. _Conco-Curtisii._--The triangular dorsal is bright green in the centre, with a dark crimson cloud at the base and crimson lines. The broad depressed petals are dark crimson, fading towards the tips, similarly lined. Slipper green at the toe, crimson above. _Conco-callosum._--The dorsal, almost a diamond in shape, is crimson, with darker lines extending from a greenish base; petals greenish, margined, lined and spotted with crimson. Slipper crimson-purple above, green below. _Alfred_ (laevigatum × venustum).--Strong ribs of crimson-brown circle up from a green base over the white dorsal, which is pointed sharply. The drooping twisted petals are brightest green above, with a white margin, changing to tawny crimson as they reverse. The whole heavily spotted with crimson-brown. Slipper green, broadly netted over with a darker tint. _Calloso-niveum._--Where the parentage is shown in the name it need not be expressed at full length. A pale flower, dorsal and sepals greenish at base, faintly tinged and lined with pink, dotted carmine. _Amphion_ (Harrisianum × Lawrenceanum).--The grand dorsal sepal--greenish-yellow, dotted and ribbed with coppery brown--has a broad white margin. Petals narrow and bowed, greenish at base, changing to copper; a few heavy dots. The slipper coppery. _Cowleyanum_ (Curtisii × niveum).--Dorsal low and spreading, purplish and lined with purple; the edges white. Petals purple, very much darker at base and tips, with a white outline above, and tiny speckles of purple. Purple slipper. _Conco-Lawre_ (concolor × Lawrenceanum).--Dorsal large, suffused and lined with purple, edged white. Petals green at base, margined and lined with crimson, with a few dots of chocolate. Slipper purplish above, greenish below. _Curtisii_ (Woodlands variety) does not depart from the ordinary form in its scheme of colouring, but all the hues are intensified, and the enormous slipper, tinged with green at the edge, is deepest crimson-maroon. I may interrupt the dry enumeration with a story. [Illustration: CYPRIPEDIUM. WILLIAM LLOYD.] STORY OF CYPRIPEDIUM CURTISII My tales do not commonly bear a moral. If one they have it is apt to be such as grandmamma teaches--foresight, perseverance, the habit of observation. Those virtues need no finger-post. They are illustrated by the story of Cypripedium Curtisii, and rewarded there, as they should be always, by a notable instance of luck. I have not heard of any special circumstances attending the first discovery of this plant. It was found in Sumatra by Mr. Curtis, travelling for Messrs. Veitch, in 1882--a large green flower, margined and touched here and there with white, the pouch vinous purple. This brief and vague description may suffice for readers who take more interest in romance than in orchidology. Mr. Curtis did not tell the world at large where he found the treasure. It was his intention, doubtless, to work the mine himself. But after sending home the first fruits, he was offered the Directorship of the Botanic Gardens at Penang, and left Messrs. Veitch's service. He may well have hoped to revisit Sumatra one day, but the opportunity never came. Messrs. Veitch knew the secret, doubtless, and kept it faithfully; but they took no steps. And so, the first consignment being scanty, no more arriving, and the plant growing in favour, Cypripedium Curtisii rose to famine price. The St. Albans firm took note of this. The home of the new Cypriped was admitted. Sumatra yields a profitable harvest always, even of familiar species, and besides, there is an excellent chance--vastly stronger fifteen years ago--of finding novelties. An intelligent man upon the spot should be able to trace the route of an earlier traveller. One of the St. Albans staff was disengaged. In short, Mr. Ericsson, a Swedish collector of great experience, was commissioned to seek Cypripedium Curtisii. He sailed in 1884. Nearly five years did Ericsson wander up and down the island--that is, in the Dutch territory. Working at leisure from Bencoolin northwards, he searched the range of mountains which bounds it on the east, and often descended the further slope--visiting peoples scarcely known, whom the Dutch had not yet invaded. They proved to be amiable enough. Many fine orchids did he send home, and the issue of the search was patiently awaited at St. Albans. It did not seem more hopeful as years went by. Mr. Curtis's footsteps were traced easily enough here and there; but the Dutch frontier officials rarely speak any language but their own and the Malay, nor does their discourse generally turn upon orchids when they have a visitor. It was just as likely as not that Ericsson had already traversed the district he sought, without identifying it. Cypripeds, as a rule, occupy a very narrow area, especially the fine species. They are a doomed race, belonging to the elder world, and slowly following its inhabitants to extinction. That fascinating theme I must not touch; readers interested may refer to Darwin. The point is that a collector may skirt a field of Cypripeds very closely without suspecting his good fortune. But travel in Sumatra at that time was more limited than it had been--more than it is now. The Achinese still held out--for that matter, while I am writing, comes news of a skirmish wherein three officers and nineteen soldiers lost their lives. Ten years ago that stubborn and fearless people not only defended their own soil but also made forays into the Dutch territory. Desperate patriots allied themselves with the Battas, a cannibal race dwelling between their country and the province of Tapanuli; and hatred to the white man--or rather to the Dutch--carried the Achinese so far, though strict Moslems, that they tempted these savages to move by a promise of surrendering all captives--to be devoured. Thus the northern parts of Dutch Sumatra were very unsafe. When Ericsson desired to explore there he was refused permission. At Padang, the capital, however, in 1887, he made acquaintance with the Controleur--Magistrate, as we should say--of Lubu Sikeping, a district which lies along the Batta country. This gentleman spoke Swedish--an accomplishment grateful beyond expression to Ericsson, who had not heard his native tongue for years. Promptly they made friends. The Controleur had been summoned to report upon the state of things in his Residency. He presented a long list of outrages and murders. Scores, if not hundreds, of peaceful subjects had been not only plundered and killed, but eaten, on Dutch soil, in the last few months. He represented that active measures must be taken forthwith. The Battas, inhabiting a high tableland beyond the mountains, crept through the defile, ravaged, burnt, massacred, and trooped back, carrying their prisoners away for leisurely consumption. Before news of the inroad reached the nearest outpost they were half-way home. Smaller parties lay in wait along the roads, stopping all communication. They had not yet ventured to assail a post, or even a large village, but the Achin desperadoes urged them to bolder feats, and they grew continually more aggressive. An expedition must be sent. It need not be large, for the cannibals are not fighting men. The Governor was persuaded. He ordered a small force to be equipped, and meantime the Controleur returned to his station. It was a rare opportunity for Ericsson. He begged permission to accompany his new friend, who good-naturedly presented him to the Governor. An historian may be allowed to say that the hero of this narrative is fat, and there is no offence in supposing that the most exalted functionary has a sense of humour. His Excellency appears to have been tickled. The cannibals would rage with disappointment in beholding this succulent mortal--beyond their reach. He laughed and consented. I have no details of the expedition striking enough to be set down in a brief chronicle like this. It was a slow and toilsome march through jungle and mountain passes, the Barizan range, where a score of determined men might have stopped an army. The Achinese proved that; they held the force at bay for hours in a gorge, though less than a score. But the Battas would not fight even when their capital was reached, on Lake Toba. The Rajahs submitted, paid an indemnity, gave hostages, yielded up the surviving victims, and undertook to have no more dealings with the Achinese. So the matter ended. Ericsson found some new plants in their country, and many old well worth collecting. Doubtless the results would have been far more important could he have wandered freely. But those demons of Achin hung upon the line of march, joyously sacrificing their own lives to kill a Dutchman. If his personal adventures were not so curious, however--perhaps I should rather say so dramatic--that I could single out one of them, Ericsson gained much information about an extraordinary people. I can only set down a few facts. He says that the Battas themselves do not regard their cannibalism as an immemorial practice. They have a story, not worth repeating, to account for it. But I may observe that if Marco Polo's 'kingdom of Mangi, called Concha,' lay in those parts, as geographers believe, some race of the neighbourhood was cannibal in the thirteenth century. 'They commonly eat men's flesh, if the person die not of sickness, as better tasted than others.' That is the motive still--the only one adduced--mere liking. Elsewhere the practice may be due to superstition in one form or another; among the Battas it is simply _gourmandise_. The head Rajah questioned gave a matter-of-fact answer. 'You Dutch eat pig,' said he, 'because you like it; we eat man because that is our fancy.' To be devoured alive is the punishment of four offences among themselves--adultery, robbery after nightfall, unprovoked assault, and marrying within the clan; the last an interesting item of which Sir John Lubbock should certainly take note for his next edition of _The Origin of Civilisation_. The instinct of 'exogamy' has no such striking illustration elsewhere. As for foreigners and strangers there is no rule; they are devoured at sight. And it may well be believed that people so fond of eating one another do not demand unquestionable evidence when a man of low station is charged with one of the four crimes which may give them a meal. I must not repeat the horrors which Ericsson learned. Suffice it that the victim is tied up, and those present exercise their choice of morsels. At a former time, they say, not long ago, the flesh was cooked--a statement which confirms the theory, so far as it goes, of a recent introduction. At this present they dip the slice in salt and pepper and eat it on the spot. A good many missionaries, English, Dutch, French, and American, have not only settled on the confines of the Batta territory, but have travelled in the interior. The earliest of these, Messrs. Ward and Burton, found the people kindly, which again must be noted as suggesting that they were not so ferocious in 1820. The second party, Messrs. Lyman and Munson, of Massachusetts, were eaten. Mdme. Pfeiffer nearly crossed the tableland unmolested, though the savages were not friendly; but, as she says, they regarded her as a witch. Encouraged by this example, three French priests made an attempt two years later; they were promptly devoured. Two Dutchmen shared their fate not long afterwards, and the Government forbade more experiments. I have no room for detail, but one very curious point must be indicated. These cannibals unredeemed possess an alphabet of their own, bearing no resemblance to the Malay, which latter is a corrupt amalgamation of Arabian, Persian, and Tamil. The Batta characters are original. They write commonly on strips of bamboo, scratching the letters. On the return of the expedition, a party of invalids was despatched to the local sanitarium on Selimbang Hill, and Ericsson obtained leave to accompany it. There was no danger now. A few huts had been built there for troops, and a bungalow for officers--who made him welcome, of course. They arrived at dusk. The officers went out early next morning to their duties, and Ericsson lay waiting for his coffee. The rough timbers of the bungalow were concealed by boards, smooth and neat. Invalids quartered there had amused themselves by scribbling their names. Some, more ambitious, added verses, epigrams, and caricatures; others, drawings and even paintings. From his bed-place Ericsson scrutinised these artless memorials in the early light. Presently he observed a flower--a Cypripedium; the shape could not be mistaken. It was coloured, but dimly--the tints had soaked into the wood. With professional interest his eye lingered on this sketch. And then the first sun-ray streamed across the verandah and fell upon the very spot. Its faded colours shone brightly for a moment, green, white margin, vinous purple--Ericsson sprang out of bed. No room for doubt! To make assurance doubly sure there was an inscription--'C. C.'s contribution to the adornment of this room.' Hurriedly he sought a pencil and wrote--'Contribution accepted. Cypripedium collected, C. E.' It was not such a smart _réplique_ as the occasion seems to demand. But Ericsson is perfectly well satisfied with it to this day. We can imagine how blithely he set to work that morning. Cypripedium Curtisii was selling in London at the moment for many guineas--a small plant too. And he had found the goose with golden eggs innumerable, waiting to be picked up. These orchids 'travel' well. There was no great distance to carry them before embarkation. The good fellow's fortune was made, and he had the pleasure of knowing it well earned. With such cheerful thoughts, Ericsson sallied out day after day for a while, searching the mountain. He had a following of miscellaneous 'natives' by this time, experienced in their work. The neighbourhood was rich. Every evening they brought in a load of orchids more or less valuable, but never Cypripedium Curtisii. He engaged men of the district and showed them the picture. Some recognised it, and undertook to bring specimens; but they were always mistaken. The invalids withdrew, one after another. Ericsson found himself alone. His accumulated spoil of plants, well worth shipping, began to be as much as he could transport. As time went by, despair possessed him. After all, it did not follow that Mr. Curtis had found the prize just here because he painted it on the wall. To discover a new and fine orchid is a great achievement, and the lucky man might very well commemorate it anywhere when choosing a device. Finally, 'time was up.' To wait longer would be sacrificing the great heap of treasures secured. After shipping them he might return. It was a sad disappointment after such reasonable hopes, but things might have been worse. So Ericsson gave orders to pack and start as soon as possible. When all was ready, on the very evening before departure, one of the local assistants brought him a flower. This time it was right. In three days several thousand plants had been collected, and Ericsson went his way rejoicing. No reader, I hope, will fancy that these coincidences are invented. The story would be childish as fiction. It is literal fact, and therefore only is it worth telling. [Illustration: CYPRIPEDIUM × ROTHWELLIANUM.] CYPRIPEDIUMS--_Continued_ _William Lloyd_ (bellatulum × Swanianum).--The white crest of the dorsal rises from a dull crimson blur with greenish centre, overrun with crimson lines. The petals have a dull crimson ground, paler below, densely speckled with maroon, the ends just tipped with white. Slipper, shining maroon. _A de Lairesse_ (Curtisii × Rothschildianum).--The fine dorsal is white, with a greenish centre and faint purple edges, the lines clear purple. Petals long and drooping, pale green, edged with white; all covered with purple spots. Slipper, ochreous brown. _Juno_ (Fairieanum × callosum).--The broad white dorsal, green at base, tinged with purple, and strongly scored with purple lines, is actually the widest part of the flower, as in Fairieanum. The narrow petals curl down close upon the slipper, green in paler and darker shades, with bunches of purple hair, like those on a caterpillar, at the edges, and pale purple tips. Slipper, dusky greenish with brown lines. _Saide Lloyd_ (venustum × Godefroyae).--Dorsal small, bright green with darker lines. Petals purplish above, greenish below, speckled with small dots of crimson and strong spots of maroon. Slipper, ochreous yellow, dotted with crimson at top and netted with green. _Cymatodes_ (Curtisii × Veitchii).--The fine dorsal is green, fading to white, with a pretty narrow edging of pink, and boldly ribbed. The petals, dark at base, change to green, and towards the tips have an edging of profuse crimson specks. The slipper, very wide at the mouth, is greenish. _Dauthierii albino._--A wonderful sport. Up the grass-green dorsal, edged with white above, run strong lines of darker tone. The petals, very narrow at base, are yellowish green, suffused and lined with copper above, paler below. The slipper shows similar colouring. On the same plant, open at the same time, but from another stem, was a flower of the common Dauthierii type. Still more remarkable, one year this second stem bore a flower of which half the dorsal was pale yellow, the other half coppery green, as is usual, thus betraying a futile inclination to rival its albino sister. The petals were scarcely affected, however. _Dauthierii marmoratum._--Another abnormal form. The point of the dorsal, and the high shoulders, are white, the rest crimson-maroon. From the point descend three or four broad lines, or long splashes, of green, with striking effect. The petals are marbled longitudinally with purple on a dusky ground. The lip is dull, dusky crimson. _Lord Derby_ (Rothschildianum × superbiens).--An immense flower--the grand dorsal rosy white, tinged with pale green in the middle, pale purple on either hand, dark lines circling upward over all. The petals, outlined with purple at the base, change to pale green, almost to white, below and at the tips. Great spots of darkest crimson stud the whole. Slipper maroon, greenish at the toe. _Evenor_ (Argus × bellatulum).--Ground-colour throughout ochreous yellow. The dorsal has a purplish base and maroon lines of dots. Broad round petals, closely spotted with maroon. Slipper purplish above, ochre below. _Excelsior_ (Rothschildianum × Harrisianum).--Dorsal long, high-shouldered, greenish, with darkest crimson edging lines of the same tint, and white margin. Petals depressed, of a like green, crimson along the upper edge, covered with the heavy spots and hairs of Rothschildianum. Slipper very long, dull crimson. _Engelhardtiae_ (insigne Maulei × Spicerianum).--The dorsal has very broad shoulders, narrowing to a wasp-waist, where the upper white changes abruptly to bright green, spotted with pink. A strong crimson line runs from base to tip. Petals so evenly curved downwards that they seem to make a half-circle, coppery yellow in hue, handsomely gauffered on the upper edge, and lined with copper colour. Immensely wide lip, coppery ochre with a bright green lining. _Edwardii_ (superbiens × Fairieanum).--Dorsal long, white-edged, stained at the margin with purplish crimson and lined with the same. Short narrow petals, very strongly bowed, greenish, edged throughout with purplish crimson. Slipper green at toe, coppery above. _Fairieanum._--No orchid is so interesting as this in the point of view which may be called historic. In the autumn of 1857, Mr. Reid of Burnham and Mr. Parker, nursery-man, of Holloway, sent flowers of it to Sir W. Hooker at Kew, asking what they might be. Shortly afterwards Mr. Fairie of Liverpool showed a plant in flower at the R.H.S. meeting, and Dr. Lindley named it after him. It is believed that all these plants were bought at Stevens' Sale-rooms among a number of orchids forwarded from Assam. But none have turned up since, and attempts to find the habitat have been totally unsuccessful. Those who expect to see a flower big in proportion to its fame will be disappointed; but if small, indeed very small, Cyp. Fairieanum is striking both in form and colour. The upstanding dorsal has a crest, from which the sides curl back. Its ground-colour is white with a greenish tinge. Broad lines of maroon fall downwards from the crest, lessening as they go, but multiplying towards the edges, where they form a close network. The petals curl as sharply as a cow's horn, inverted at the tips to show a maroon lining; they are greenish above, with three sharp little maroon bars at the base, and slender lines of maroon; maroon also is the narrow edging. The shield of the column, small as it is, cannot be overlooked, for it shines like a jewel--exquisitely mottled with the brightest green, accentuated by a tiny arch of maroon on either side. Slipper greenish, with blurred lines of maroon. _Gertrude_ (Chamberlainianum × insigne Chantinii).--Dorsal white above, bright green below, heavily dotted in lines with crimson-brown. Petals finely gauffered, dusky crimson, spotted. The slipper, crimson-purple, looks very bright by contrast. _Tesselatum porphyreum_ (concolor × barbatum).--The pale ochreous tone of one parent and the purple of the other have produced a very remarkable result in combination. The general effect distinctly red. The round dorsal is reddish above, of a deeper shade at base, with dotted lines of red; the petals curve down, dark red at the base, fading towards the ends, which are clothed in a pretty network of pale red. The green slipper is clouded and netted over with crimson. _Telemachus_ (niveum × Lawrenceanum).--The dorsal, very broad, is tinged with purple in the centre. Crimson lines ascend from a green base and the margin all round is white. The petals are green, changing to purple, with darker lines and spots. Slipper crimson. _Tautzianum lepidum_ (niveum × barbatum Warneri).--A rosy flower, covered throughout with lines and network of crimson. The lip darker. _Georges Truffaut_ (ciliolare × Stonei).--Very large. The tall dorsal has crimson edges and lines, greenish centre. The twisted petals--greenish, with crimson lines, very large maroon spots and crimson-purple tips--hang loosely. An enormous slipper, all crimson-brown. _Mrs. E. G. Uihlein_ (villosum aureum × Leeanum giganteum).--The dorsal rises to a point between shoulders perfectly square, white, with a heavy slash of copper from base to crest; the centre greenish-coppery, with lines and mottling of pale crimson. Petals green in the upper half, clouded and lined with copper; paler below. Slipper similar. _Venustum_ (Measures variety).--A remarkable sport. Small. The white dorsal is striped with clear green lines, rising from a green cloud at the base. The ochreous copper petals have a green base. Slipper the same, covered with a pretty green network. _Watsonianum_ (Harrisianum nigrum × concolor).--The white crested dorsal shows a crimson line in the centre, green on either side, crimson towards the edges. The petals, dark green at base, fade to a paler tint, and the ends are crimson; all softly lined with crimson. Slipper maroon. _Woodlandsense_ (Dayanum × Javanicum virens).--Among the rare Cypripeds in this collection, I have noted several of which the dorsal sepal bore a cap, elaborate as eccentric in shape. But this is most singular of all. Between the point of the dorsal and the shoulder is a process which I can only describe in architectural language as a volute reversed; an addition so abnormal and inexplicable that I really find nothing to say about it. In other respects the dorsal is striking--handsomely rounded, white with a rosy margin, the vivid green at the base not fading softly but abrupt almost as a splash; petals the same vivid green, with maroon spots and a stain of copper at the ends. The rosy stamenode shows well upon this ground. Slipper pale green, with a pleasing network of copper. _Zeus_ (tonsum × Boxallii).--The white globular dorsal rises from a very slender green waist, with a broad dark-crimson line up the centre. Petals dark coppery in the upper half, pale below. Slipper dusky. _Annie Measures_ (bellatulum × Dayanum).--Dorsal yellowish, outlined white, covered with slender purple lines and dots. Large smooth petals, netted over with small crimson dots in a pattern. Slipper narrow, dull crimson above, white toe. _Frau Ida Brandt_ (Io grande × Youngianum).--The large dorsal, white at the edges, is suffused with green and purple; the long petals, green and purple, are depressed. Heavy spots of crimson-brown, furnished with stiff hairs, cover them. Handsomely reversed at the tip. Slipper greenish-coppery. _Adrastus_ (Leeanum × Boxallii).--Here the large white dorsal with green base is heavily blotched with red-brown in the centre, lightly at the sides. The closely drooping petals, yellowish green, have the upper half splashed and mottled with a lively brown almost obscuring the ground-colour, which reappears in the lower half. Lip green at toe, coppery above. _Athos_ (parentage unknown) has an odd colouring--ochreous-green sepals, outlined with white and profusely dotted with brown; petals bright ochre, the upper length scored with lines of raw sienna. The lip similar. _Arthurianum pulchellum_ (Fairieanum × insigne Chantinii).--The green dorsal is thickly dotted all over with brown; the tip falls over, showing its white underside. Petals depressed, greenish, charmingly frilled, clouded and lined with copper-brown above, spotted with copper below. Slipper greenish, handsomely veined and marbled in a soft coppery tone. _Astraea_ (laevigatum × Spicerianum).--Dorsal white, with a pale green base, whence a heavy radius, maroon in colour, mounts to the tip; petals narrow, loosely hanging, greenish at base, crimson-purple through most of their length, marked with red lines. Slipper greenish, stained with purple. _Aurantiacum_ (venustum × insigne aureum).--Ochreous-green dorsal, its square top broadly crowned with white, spotted below with brownish-red; petals darker, similarly spotted. The slipper harmonises. _Cleopatra_ (Hookerae × aenanthum superbum).--A striking flower--deep glossy crimson, ribbed with a darker hue. On the upper length of the petals are heavy warts; the lower has a greenish tawny stain at base, like the slipper. _Lily Measures_ (Dayanum × niveum).--The dorsal is white, daintily flushed, with green base. Lines of red dots ascend from it, growing smaller and fainter as they rise. Such lines form a pleasing network on the petals, which have a yellowish smear at the base. The slipper corresponds. _Lawrebel_ (Lawrenceanum × bellatulum).--A grand and gorgeous hybrid. The green patch at the base of the dorsal is promptly swallowed up by a crimson cloud, which again fades into a delicious mottling of crimson on a white ground. The petals are vivid green above, paler below, both changing to crimson at the tips. Slipper yellowish at the edge and the toe, crimson between. _Lawrebel_ (Woodlands variety) shows the difference of colour so often found among seedlings of the same parentage and the same 'batch.' Here the crimson is by no means so bright, in fact purplish, but it covers nearly the whole surface of the dorsal, and what remains is not white but green. On the petals also, which are broader, green occupies nearly all the space, though less vivid, and the crimson of the tips almost disappears. They are heavily spotted with maroon. Slipper dusky purple, netted over with maroon. _La France_ (nitens × niveum).--White and very graceful. The only trace of colour appears in broad pink spots at the base of the dorsal, and smaller spots, more profuse, at the base of the petals. On the slipper they are smaller still, set along the edge. _Lawrenceanum-Hyeanum_ has a broad white dorsal, clouded with green at the base, and marked with handsome green lines. The narrow petals stand out firmly, vivid green, with lines of a deeper shade. The slipper also is green but pale. Another example is very much larger. _Lawrenceanum Sir Trevor._--This is no hybrid, but a wonderful variety of the species. The dorsal strangely broad and depressed--squat in fact. White in colour, with superb green lines mounting from the green cloud below, it sits tight over the rectangular petals of dark but vivid green, marked with deeper lines. The slipper is yellowish-green. _Leucochilum giganteum_ (assumed to be a hybrid of Godefroyae × bellatulum).--A compact flower, of which the three parts seem equal in size. White, with a faint ochreous tinge; covered throughout, saving the margin, with crimson spots, which form almost a blotch in the midst of the dorsal. Slipper small and white. _Leysenianum_ (barbatum Crossii × bellatulum).--The dorsal is very handsome and striking, bright crimson at top, fading to a dusky base, lined with crimson. The clinging petals, tawny green in the upper length, are washed with crimson in the lower; all profusely spotted with maroon. Slipper dull crimson. _Mrs. Fred Hardy_ (superbiens × bellatulum).--A very dainty hybrid. The dorsal, white with a greenish centre, is covered with interlacing crimson lines dotted with maroon, saving the clear margin. The petals almost form a semi-circle, greenish with a white edge, netted over with pale crimson and dotted with maroon in lines. The slipper greenish, with a pretty pink network round the upper part. _Holidayanum_ (concolor × almum).--Excepting a narrow white margin the dorsal is bright crimson, darkening towards the greenish base; petals greenish, with edges and dotted lines of crimson. Slipper dull crimson, with yellowish toe. _Hirsuto-Sallierii._--The upper half of the dorsal is white, the lower clear yellow-green, the whole covered with antlered lines of grass-green; petals yellow-green, finely frilled, tipped with palest purple. Pale purple and greenish also is the slipper. _Mrs. Herbert Measures_ (Lathamianum × Leeanum giganteum).--The great dorsal, yellow tinged with purple, has the shape of a flattened peg-top. A broad splash of maroon bisects it. The cinnamon-coloured petals are flushed with red, and lined with the same tint; the midrib is maroon. Slipper abnormally wide, purplish. _Javanicum._--A species, named from its habitat. Small and solidly green save the white crest of the dorsal, and the pale purple tips of the narrow petals. Such strong and decided colouring makes it useful to the hybridiser. _Measuresianum_ (villosum × venustum).--The small triangular dorsal, white, is evenly striped with green; petals yellow-green, with a grass-green base and emerald lines from end to end. The slipper shows a charming network of vivid green on a tawny yellow ground. _Marchioness of Salisbury_ (bellatulum × barbatum superbum, Sander's variety).--Dorsal hollow, broadly crimson all round the margin, dusky white inside, striped with crimson and speckled with maroon. Petals closely depressed, white, with a shade of green above, of crimson below, dotted with maroon. Slipper tawny crimson, with clouding of the same. _Marshallianum_ (venustum-pardinum × concolor).--Unique in effect. Dorsal and petals ochreous white, with a faint crimson flush; all densely covered with minute crimson dots. Slipper of a yellow almost bright. _Brysa_ (Boissierianum × Sedeni candidulum).--A handsome plant, with long pale leaves. Dorsal greenish, corkscrew petals similar, tinged with pink. Slipper pale pink, all the inside prettily dotted with brown. _Muriel Hollington_ (niveum × insigne).--A broad flower but compact. The globular white dorsal has a pink cloud at the base and dots of crimson. The petals, similar, have crimson lines. Slipper prettily mottled with pink. _Lavinia_ (concolor × barbatum).--White of ground-colour all through, with a faintest flush of rose-pink. The whole of the dorsal marked with maroon dots upon regular lines of crimson. The broad drooping petals are spotted irregularly with the same tint. The narrow white slipper has a close array of crimson dots round the edge. _Cydonia_ (concolor × Curtisii).--Dorsal flesh-colour at the edges; in the middle a broad green stain which fades towards the apex. Midrib brown-crimson, with a paler network of the same over all. Petals crimson above, then greenish, pink or light crimson below, with faint lines and sharp little dots of crimson-brown. Slipper brownish and green. _Symonsianum_ (volonteanum × Rothschildianum).--Impressive for size and width, but not brilliant nor attractive in colour. Dorsal greenish, with pink-flushed edges, marked by strong lines of crimson-brown. Petals greenish, tipped with pale crimson, strongly dotted along the edges with the bristling tufts of Rothschildianum. Slipper nondescript--greenish and purplish. _J. Coles_ (Godefrovae-leucochilum majesticum × Dayanum superbum).--A charming flower. The dorsal is purplish crimson, with a pretty tinge of green in the midst and narrow white edges; the whole lined and netted over with crimson-purple. Petals the same, very dark at base, paling to a greenish centre; all closely spotted with the dark crimson tone. Slipper maroon, highly polished. _Princess May_ (callosum × Sanderianum).--A stately bloom, of impressive colouring. The tall bulbous dorsal is white at the crest, crimson-lake below, pale green at base; the whole striped with maroon and with crimson dots. Petals long, drooping far below the greenish slipper, green in the midst, with crimson edges and profuse dottings of crimson. _Pylaeus_ (Cardinale × Sedeni).--Pink and pretty. The pointed dorsal is pale pink above, greenish in the midst. The sharp pink petals have edges of carmine, and carmine tips. The pouch-like slipper is crimson; its lining ivory, marbled with pink. _Phoebe_ (laevigatum × bellatulum).--Rosy-white throughout. The dorsal bears a cloud of crimson-lake, sharply defined, darkening to maroon at the base, whence proceed heavy branching lines of crimson and maroon. The petals, crimson-stained above, heavily dotted all over with maroon, have white margins. Slipper bright crimson at the top, whitish below. _Paris_ (bellatulum × Stonei).--A grand beauty. The broad globular dorsal has a greenish patch in the midst, surrounded by purple, netted all over with maroon lines. The edges are pure white, as distinct as if drawn with the brush. Petals depressed, curiously blunted at the tips, verdigris-green at base, fading and changing to dusky crimson, with heavy spots of deepest maroon. Slipper purple, netted over with carmine; yellowish at the toe. _Rowena_ (Chamberlainianum × bellatulum).--Dorsal greenish-yellow above, darkest maroon below; branching maroon lines circle upwards. Petals greenish towards the tips, clouded at base, edged, scored, and dotted all over with maroon-crimson. The shield of the column intensely dark maroon and shining. Slipper striped with a pleasant pale crimson, and closely speckled over with tiny points of a darker shade. _Mrs. W. A. Roebling_ (caudatum × leucorrhodum).--The colouring is very delicate. Dorsal long, with a twisted crest; all stainless grass-green. Petals, which make one complete revolution or twist, softly greenish in the middle, edged with tender pale crimson, which also appears on the reverse; the lower base shows a brilliant decoration of tiny crimson bars round the column. The pouched slipper, bright pink, has a yellow lining, freckled with greenish dots. _Reticulatum._--A species, known also as Boissierianum, as curious as charming. The dorsal, of extraordinary length and the same narrow width throughout, curls over at the crest--bright pea-green, with slender lines a shade darker. The petals have the same slender green lines; they are very thin, closely and evenly twisted in six complete spirals. The shield of the column intensely dark green. Slipper green, its lining snow-white, with purple dots. _Charles Richmond_ (bellatulum × barbatum superbum).--The broad purplish dorsal has a whitish outline and a greenish tinge in the centre; its midrib is very strong purple, as are the lines which intersect it. Petals purple, darker at the base, dotted all over with maroon. Slipper dark purplish-crimson. In colour, shape, and size alike this hybrid is most impressive. _Schofieldianum_ (bellatulum × hirsutissimum).--Very distinct. On a yellowish-white ground the dorsal has a pale greenish centre, surrounded by purple, deepening at the base; all scored with branching lines of purple in dots. The petals are broad and strong, yellowish-white, tinged with purple, closely covered with maroon-purple dots. Slipper purplish-crimson, greenish at the toe. _Southgatense_ (callosum × bellatulum).--The dorsal has a rosy-white ground, very heavily clouded with dark crimson below, and almost hidden by strong lines of crimson and maroon. The petals have a touch of bright green at the base, edges of a lively dark crimson, and strong dots of maroon. Slipper crimson, dusky yellow at the toe. _Southgatense superbum._--This is another example of the difference which seedlings from the same pod may display; cases even more striking could be adduced with ease. Incomparably finer than the last. The rosy-white dorsal is stained with crimson up to the edges, and scored with darker lines. The petals, slightly greenish at the base, have a dotting of crimson on their rosy-white ground. The slipper, whitish, is prettily speckled with crimson round the top. _Massaianum_ (superciliare × Rothschildianum).--A large bold flower. Dorsal white, greenish in the middle. Clear thin lines of purple, almost black, alternate with lines equally thin of pale green. The fine long petals are greenish above, palest purple below, with the massive spots of Rothschildianum. Strong hairs line the edges. The broad shield is dusky ochre. Slipper maroon, netted over with a deeper shade. _Miss Clara Measures_ (bellatulum eximium × barbatum grandiflorum).--Lively dark crimson. The crest of the dorsal is handsomely defined by semicircular scallops on each side. Petals depressed, clinging to the slipper, greenish at base, fading and changing to the same bright dark crimson as the dorsal; all speckled finely in a deeper shade. Slipper crimson. A grand flower. _Measuresiae_ (bellatulum × superbiens).--Dorsal rosy, with green tip and a faintly green centre, dotted over with maroon in lines. Petals rosy white, tinged with purple above, strongly speckled with maroon. Slipper crimson, fading towards the toe, covered with crimson dots. _Winifred Hollington_ (niveum × callosum).--Dorsal pale dusky crimson, purple at base; lines of the same colour, accentuated by dots. The handsome petals are pale purple, with darker branching lines and specks over all. Slipper purplish, with pale crimson lines. _Nitidum_ (selligerum majus × nitens).--Very large. The broad white edges of the dorsal fold sharply back. It is green in the midst, with green lines and longitudinal rows of strong dark brown spots. Petals clear brown above, with a tinge of maroon, paler below, with spots of the same. Slipper brownish. The whole polished and shiny to a degree which gives it the name nitidum. But there was one astonishing peculiarity in the flower which I saw--the first produced. Everyone knows that in the genus Cypripedium the two lower sepals are fused together, making a single limb, small commonly, insignificant, and nearly hidden by the slipper. But in this case there was no attempt at fusion. The lower sepals stood out as clearly as in a Cattleya, one on each side the slipper--whitish, with green lines and crimson spots at the base. It will be interesting to observe whether this deformity--which is in truth a return to the more graceful pristine form--will prove to be permanent. _Sir Redvers Buller._--A new hybrid of which the parents are understood to be Lucie × insigne; the former itself a hybrid--Lawrenceanum × ciliolare. I have not seen the flower, which is thus described in the _Gardeners' Chronicle_, Jan. 20, 1900: 'The fine dorsal is of a pale-green tint in the lower half with dark chocolate-purple dotted lines; the upper portion pure white, with the basal dark lines continued into it, but of a deep rose-purple. The petals are yellowish, tinged with rose on the outer halves and blotched with dark purplish chocolate. Lip greenish with the face tinged reddish-brown.' [Illustration: CYPRIPEDIUM BOISSIERIANUM VAR. BUNGEROTHI.] STORY OF CYPRIPEDIUM PLATYTAENIUM This is the rarest and costliest of all orchids--of all flowers that blow, indeed, and all green things, from the cedar of Lebanon to the hyssop upon the housetop. I think it no exaggeration to say that a strong specimen would be worth its weight in diamonds if a little one--for the most enthusiastic of millionaires seem to lose courage when biddings go beyond a certain sum. But it is long since any plants came into the market. I suppress part of the name, as usual, fearing to daunt casual readers. Be it understood that this treasure is a variety of Cypripedium Stoneii; the specific title should be introduced in speaking of it. Doubtless platytaenium is a very handsome member of the family, impressive in size and shape, elegantly coloured. But one who regards the flower with eyes undazzled by fashion may pronounce that its value lies mostly in its renown. But one plant has ever been discovered; and that came to Europe unannounced. Messrs. Low sold a quantity of a new Cypripedium from Borneo. Some pieces were bought by Mr. Day, of Tottenham, at an average of eight shillings each. They flowered successively, and Mr. Day named the species Stoneii, after his excellent gardener. In 1863, however, one appeared different to the rest--different, as it has proved, to all the myriads which have been discovered since. This was named platytaenium. But besides the merit of rarity, it is distinguished by a peculiar slowness of growth. Mr. Day multiplied the specimen as fast as he could, but between 1863 and 1881 he only succeeded in making four small plants from it. One of these was sold to Mrs. Morgan, of New York; it perished, doubtless, for when, at her death, a Cypriped was put up under that hallowed name, and bought at a long price, it proved to be the common Stoneii. Mr. Dorman, of Sydenham, was the victim. I may mention that two of the largest orchid-dealers in Europe sent an agent expressly to buy this 'lot' in New York. Mr. Day then had three left. One of them he divided, and gave a fragment to his sister, Mrs. Wolstenholme. The Tottenham collection was dispersed in 1881; Mr. Day kept one small plant, Baron Schröder bought one for £106; Mr. Lee, of Leatherhead, and Sir Trevor Lawrence, in partnership, one for £147. Three or four years afterwards this was divided, each partner taking his share. Baron Schröder afterwards bought Mr. Lee's. Also he bought the one Mr. Day kept back, for £159:12s., at the death of that gentleman. Then Mrs. Wolstenholme's executors put up her example--which had never flowered--and Baron Schröder secured it for £100. These prices do not seem to bear out my statement that platytaenium is the most valuable of all orchids. Infinitely greater sums have been paid. But it must be remembered that these were all tiny bits, weakened by division whenever they grew big enough to cut. At present Baron Schröder and Sir Trevor Lawrence have all the stock existing, to human knowledge. How much either would obtain at Protheroe's for his little hoard makes a favourite theme for speculation in a gathering of orchidists. They have one significant hint to go upon. Two years ago Mr. Ames, of Boston, U.S.A., commissioned Mr. Sander to offer Sir Trevor Lawrence a cheque of 800 guineas for one plant. And Sir Trevor declined it. Now for the legend. That consignment of Cyp. Stoneii in which platytaenium appeared was forwarded by Sir Hugh Low from Sarawak. He recalls the circumstances with peculiar distinctness, as is natural. The plants were collected on the very top of a limestone hill at Bidi, near Bau, famous afterwards in the annals of Sarawak as the spot whence the Chinese insurgents started to overthrow the government of Rajah Brooke. But the gold washings had not been discovered then. Such Chinamen as dwelt in the neighbourhood were mostly gardeners and small traders. A few sought nuggets in holes and fissures of the limestone, and found them, too, occasionally. Sir Hugh Low could never frame a satisfactory explanation of the presence of gold under such conditions, but it is frequent in Borneo. That auriferous strata should decompose, and that nuggets should be transferred to another formation during the process, is easily intelligible. But in many instances, as at Bau, the gold is found at a considerable height, and no trace remains of those loftier hills from which it must have fallen. Deposits of tin occur under just the same circumstances in the Malay Peninsula. The top of this little hill was a basin, much like a shallow crater, encircled by jagged peaks as by a wall. Each of these was clothed in the glossy leaves of Cyp. Stoneii from top to bottom, as it would be with ivy in our latitude. So easy was orchid-collecting in those days. Sir Hugh had but to choose the finest, and pull off as many as his servants could carry. In the hollow of the basin other Cypripeds were growing--plants with spotted foliage--and he has not ceased to regret leaving these untouched, since wider knowledge inclines him to fancy that they belonged to species not yet introduced. At one spot, however, beneath the shadow of the little peaks, gold-seekers made a practice of camping. Ashes lay thick there, and bits of charcoal and dry bones. Here sprang a single tuft of Cyp. Stoneii, and in passing Sir Hugh was tempted to dig it up. He cherishes a suspicion--which he does not attempt to justify, of course--that this solitary plant, growing under conditions so different to the rest, was platytaenium. Some years afterwards, a young clerk in the service of a German firm at Singapore, visited Sarawak on his holiday. Orchids made a standing topic for conversation in that early time. He heard much about Mr. Day's priceless Cypriped at the capital, and he resolved to try his luck. I may call him Smidt for convenience; my informants are not sure of the name, after a lapse of forty years. There is no trouble in reaching Bau. The village stands on the river Sarawak, and at any moment of the day a sampan can be hired to take one thither. Smidt did not travel in luxury. If he kept a 'boy' at Singapore, like a thrifty young Teuton he left him behind. Servants are as easily found in those countries as sampans, if one be not too particular. Smidt engaged a Chinaman who had good recommendations, though not of recent date, nor from persons living in Sarawak; he had come thither from Penang to 'better himself,' as he said, and had been working at the gold-fields. For convenience again we may give him a name--Ahtan. The project of visiting Bau was not agreeable to this Chinaman. 'I makee bad pigeon there one time,' he said frankly. But the objection was not serious. Bau had changed since Sir Hugh Low's day. In the meantime the Dutch authorities at Sambas had irritated the gold-diggers of that region to the point that they massacred a body of troops--I do not mean to hint that the Dutch policy was unjustifiable. In consequence a great number of Chinamen fled across the frontier, found profitable washings at Bau, and invited their comrades. So many came, and they showed such a lawless spirit from the outset, that the Rajah's government took alarm. But as yet all was quiet enough. Smidt had obtained a note from one of the Chinese merchants at Sarawak, with whom his employers did business, to the head of the Kunsi--the Gold-diggers' Union, as we should say. That personage invited him to use his house. Unwillingly did Ahtan accompany his master. He bowed before the Kunsi chief, and made a long discourse with downcast eyes and folded hands. The chief answered shortly and motioned him to go about his business. If Smidt made inquiries about that wonderful organisation, the Kunsi of the gold-diggers at Bau, so soon to be crushed in a mad revolt, assuredly he found matter to interest him. The parent society in Sambas has annals dating back two hundred years, and its system was imported, they say, from China without alteration. There is no reason to doubt the statement. Anyhow, we find among these immigrants, two centuries ago, a perfected system of trade union, benefit clubs, life assurance, co-operative stores, and provision for old age, such as British working-men may contemplate with puzzled and envious despair at the present day. Every detail is so well adjusted--by the experience of ages--that disputes scarcely ever arise; when they do the Council gives judgment, and no one questions its decision. The earnings of the whole body are stored in the Treasury. There is a general meeting once a fortnight, when the accounts are audited in public, and each member receives his share as per scale, subject to the deduction for veterans' past work, widows and orphans, and also for the goods he has bought at the co-operative store. But I must not linger on this fascinating theme. Next day Smidt started to explore the famous hill with Ahtan, who carried the tambok--the luncheon basket. He found Cypripeds beyond counting and noted certain spots to be re-visited. Then he chose a shady nook for lunch, and Ahtan lit a fire. It was beneath a wall of limestone, a tangle of foliage above, where the sunlight struck it, but clothed only in moss and ferns and bare roots in the shade below. There was wind upon the hill as usual, and Ahtan made his fire in a cleft. Smith sat on a log opposite, smoking, after the meal. He remembered afterwards that Ahtan was eager to start, packing his utensils hastily, and predicting 'muchee rain by'm bye minute.' But no signs of change were visible. Presently the Chinaman put a quantity of green leaves upon the fire. Such a volume of smoke arose as called Smidt's attention. It was in a cleft, and he sat opposite, as has been said. The blaze had scorched that drapery of ferns. The moss just above had peeled off in flakes, taken fire mostly and dropped. So in places the rock stood bare. Looking in that direction now, Smidt observed a yellow gleam, hidden by smoke for a moment, then reappearing more distinctly. It was worth investigation. He rose leisurely and crossed the little space. Ahtan was standing on one side. As he scattered the fire with his foot, looking for that yellow gleam the while, a tremendous blow felled him. He was dimly conscious of another before his senses fled. Not till sunset did Smidt feel strong enough to descend the hill; before starting he looked for the 'yellow gleam'--it had vanished, and in place of it was a hole. Bloodstained and tottering he regained the public path. Diggers returning from their work laughed heartily at the spectacle, but perhaps they meant no harm. Chinamen must not be judged by the laws that apply to other mortals. At least they warned the chief, who sent two stalwart members of the Kunsi to assist his guest. They also found the situation vastly amusing, but they were kind enough. The chief had a bottle of skimpin ready. He set a slave to wash Smidt's head, and clothed him in a snowy bajo. No questions did he ask. Smidt told his short story, and begged him to pursue the malefactor. 'No good, sir,' said the chief. 'I policeman here--I know. Where you think Ahtan?' 'In the jungle, I suppose, making for Kuching with the great nugget he picked out of the rock. Send to warn the Tuan magistrate, at least.' 'I say, sir, I Tuan magistrate here, and I know.' He unlocked a coffer, iron-bound, using three separate keys; brought out a parcel wrapped in cloth and slowly unfolded it, looking at Smidt the while, his narrow eyes twinkling. 'You say nugget, hey?' Smidt gasped. It was a lump of gold as big as his two fists. 'Is this--is this mine?' The chief sat down to laugh and rolled about, spluttering Chinese interjections. 'Is this mine? He-he-he-he! Mine? This gold, sir! Kunsi take gold--all gold here! You says, mine, sir? Ha! ha! ha!' Smidt did not feel assured of his legal rights. 'You took it from Ahtan?' he asked. 'Did you arrest him?' The chief had another fit. Recovering, he answered, 'Ahtan down this way,' and stamped upon the ground. 'In the cellar? Oh, that's a comfort! I'll carry him to Kuching to-morrow.' This caused another outburst of merriment. 'I tell, sir, I Tuan magistrate at Bau. Ahtan he under order for kingdom come to-night.' This was rather shocking. 'Oh, I don't ask that. He must be tried.' 'What your matter, sir?' the chief snapped out. 'I try him, and I say die! Ahtan is Kunsi man. He play trick before--I let him go. We catch him on river with gold. He die this time.' Doubtless he did--not for attempted murder, but for breaking his oath to the Kunsi. Smidt ought to have denounced this monstrous illegality to the Rajah. But his firm did a great business with Chinamen, and their secret societies have a very long arm. I imagine that he held his tongue. STORY OF CYPRIPEDIUM SPICERIANUM The annals of Cypripedium Spicerianum open in 1878, when Mrs. Spicer, a lady residing at Wimbledon, asked Messrs. Veitch to come and see a curious flower, very lovely, as she thought, which had made its appearance in her green-house. Messrs. Veitch came; with no extravagant hopes perhaps, for experience might well make them distrustful of feminine enthusiasm. But in this instance it was more than justified, and, in short, they carried off the marvel, leaving a cheque for seventy guineas behind. I may remark that Cypripeds are easy to cultivate. They are also quick to increase. Messrs. Veitch hurried their specimen along, and divided it as fast as was safe. To say that the morsels fetched their weight in gold would be the reverse of exaggeration--mere bathos. Importers sat up. They were not without a hint to direct their search in this case. The treasure had arrived amongst a quantity of Cyp. insigne. Therefore it must be a native of the Himalayan region--Assam, Darjeeling, or Sikkim, no doubt. There are plenty of persons along that frontier able and willing to hunt up a new plant. A good many of them probably received commissions to find Cypripedium Spicerianum. At St. Albans they were more deliberate. It is not exactly usual for ladies residing at Wimbledon to receive consignments of orchids. When such an event happens, one may conclude that they have relatives or intimate friends in the district where those orchids grow; it will hardly be waste of time anyhow to inquire. A discreet investigation proved that this lady's son was a tea-planter, with large estates on the confines of Bhutan. With the address in his pocket Mr. Forstermann, a collector of renown, started by next mail. Orchids must be classed with _ferae naturae_ in which a landowner has no property. But it is not to be supposed that a man of business will tell the casual inquirer where to pick up, on his own estate, weeds worth seventy guineas each. Forstermann did not expect it. Leaving his baggage at the dak bungalow, he strolled afoot to the large and handsome mansion indicated. Mr. Spicer was sitting in the verandah, and in the pleasant, easy way usual with men who very rarely see a white stranger of respectable appearance, he shouted: 'Are you looking for me, sir? Come up!' Forstermann went up, took an arm-chair and a cheroot, accepted a comforting glass, and sketched his experiences of the road before declaring even his name. Then he announced himself as an aspirant tea-planter, desirous to gain some practical knowledge of the business before risking his very small capital. In short, could Mr. Spicer give him a 'job'? 'I'm afraid not,' said Mr. Spicer. 'We have quite as many men in your position as we can find work for. But anyhow you can look round and talk to our people and see whether the life is likely to suit you. Meantime, you're very welcome to stay here as my guest. If you've brought a gun, my manager will show you some sport; but he's away just now. Oh, you needn't thank me. In my opinion it's the duty of men who have succeeded to help beginners along, and I'm sorry I can't do more for you.' Forstermann remembers a twinge of conscience here. It may be indubitable that orchids are _ferae naturae_. But they have a distinct money value for all that, and to remove them from the estate of a man who gives you a reception like this! Anyhow, he felt uncomfortable. But to find the thing was his first duty. Possibly some arrangement might be made, though he could not imagine how. The invitation was accepted, of course, and a week passed very pleasantly. But Forstermann could not bring his host to the point desired. Several times they observed Cypripedium insigne whilst riding or driving about the neighbourhood. Mr. Spicer even remarked, when his attention was called to it, that he had sent a number of plants home; but nothing followed. Then the manager returned, and the same night an appointment was made to go after duck on the morrow. Forstermann turned out at dawn, but his companion was not ready. He gave the explanation as they rode along. 'We had another _chelan_ last night--you have learnt the meaning of that word, I daresay!--a faction fight among our people. The coolies on this estate come mostly from Chota Nagpore, and thereabouts. They're good workers, and not so troublesome as regular Hindus when once they've settled down. But there's generally a bother when a new gang arrives. We tell our agents to be very careful in recruiting none but friendly clans. Young Mice and Fig Leaves we find best among the Oraons, Stars and Wild Geese among the Sonthals.' Forstermann was puzzled, but he did not interrupt. 'It's no use, however. They take any fellow that comes along--and between ourselves, you know, considering how many of those scamps bolt with the contract-money and never enlist a soul, we haven't so very much to complain of. It's a bad system, sir! 'Well, when they get here, a mixed lot, they find half a dozen mixed lots established. We have, to my knowledge,' reckoning on his fingers, 'Tortoises, Tigers, Crows, Eels, Grass-spiders, Fishing-nets--ay, and a lot more, besides Stars and Wild-geese. Of course, they quarrel at sight, and we don't interfere unless the _chelan_ gets serious. What's the good? But, besides that, there is a standing provocation, as you may say. Some of our coolies have been with us many years. They don't care to go home--for reasons good, no doubt, but it's not our business. Well, two of these fellows have married--one, a Potato, has married the Stomach of a pig----' 'Eh?' Forstermann could not contain himself. 'Those are their families, you know.' The manager, quite grave hitherto, laughed out suddenly. 'Of course, it seems mighty droll to you, but we're accustomed to it. Each clan claims to be descended from the thing after which it is named. You mustn't ask me how the Stomach of a pig can have children. That's beyond our understanding. The point is that certain of these stocks may not intermarry under pain of death--that's their law. So you may fancy the rumpus when strange Potatoes arriving here find one of their breed----' he laughed again. 'It does sound funny, when you think of it! Last night, however, when the usual disturbance broke out--a new gang arrived yesterday, you know--Minjar, the Eel, who is the other fellow that has married some girl he ought not to, declared he had made blood-brotherhood with the chief of the Bhutias across the river, who would come to avenge him if he were hurt. And I fancy that's not quite such nonsense as you would think. I saw Minjar there that time I got the orchid----' Forstermann heard no more of the tale. The orchid! They reached the pool, and he shot ducks conscientiously, but his thoughts were busy in devising means to lead the conversation back to that point. There was no need of finesse, however. At a word the manager told everything. He it was who found the Cypripedium which had caused such a fuss, when shooting on the other side of the river--that is, beyond British territory. Struck with its beauty, he gathered a plant or two and gave them to Mr. Spicer. It took him several days' journey to reach the spot, but he was shooting by the way. Tigers abounded there--so did fever. The mountaineers were as unfriendly as they dared to be. For these reasons Mr. Spicer begged him not to return. The same motive, doubtless, caused the planter to be reticent towards others. With a clear conscience and heartiest thanks Forstermann bade his host farewell next day. He had a long and painful search before him still, for his informant could give no more than general directions. The plant grew upon rocks along the bed of a stream to the north-west of Mr. Spicer's plantation, not less than two days' journey from the river--that was about all. The inhabitants of the country, besides tigers, were savages. Many a stream did Forstermann explore under the most uncomfortable circumstances, wading thigh-deep, hour after hour, day after day. I am sorry that I have not room even to summarise the long letter in which he detailed those adventures. To search the upland waters would have been comparatively easy; he might have walked along the bank. But the Cypripedium grew in a valley; and nowhere is tropical vegetation more dense than in those steaming clefts which fall from the mountains of Bhutan. To cut a path was out of the question; the work would have lasted for months, putting expense aside. It was necessary to march up the bed of the stream. Forstermann ascended each tributary with patient hopefulness, knowing that success was certain if he could hold out. And it came at length to one so deserving; but the manager had wandered to a much greater distance than he thought. After wading all the forenoon up a torrent which had not yet lost its highland chill, Forstermann reached a glade, encircled by rocks steep as a wall--so steep that he had to fashion rakes of bamboo wherewith to drag down the masses of orchid which clung to them. It was Cypripedium Spicerianum! Then arose the difficulty of getting his plunder away. After much journeying to and fro, Forstermann engaged thirty-two Bhutias, half of them to carry rice for the others along those mountain tracks, where 25 lbs. is a heavy load. So they travelled until, one day, after halting at a village, the men refused to advance. The road ahead was occupied by a tiger--I should mention that such alarms had been incessant; in no country are tigers so common or so dangerous as in Bhutan. Forstermann drove them along; at the next bit of jungle eight threw down their loads and vanished. He found himself obliged to return, but eight more were missing when he reached the village. There was no other road. Gradually the poor fellow perceived that he must abandon his enterprise or clear the path. At sunset, they told him, the brute would be watching--probably in a tree, described with precision. Forstermann spent the time in writing farewell letters--making his will, perhaps. Towards sunset, he took a rifle and a gun and sallied forth. The Bhutias assured him that there was no danger--from this enemy, at least--until he reached the neighbourhood of the tree; but we may imagine the terrors of that lonely walk, which must be repeated in darkness, if he lived, or if the tiger did not show. But luck did not desert a man so worthy of favour. He recognised the tree, an old dead stump overhanging the path, clothed in ferns and creepers. Surveying it as steadily as the tumult of his spirits would allow, in the fading light he traced a yellow glimmer among the leaves. Through his field-glass, at twenty yards' distance, he scrutinised this faint shadow. The tiger grew impatient--softly it raised its head--so softly behind that screen of ferns that a casual wayfarer would not have noticed it. But it was the hint Forstermann needed. With a prayer he took aim, fired--threw down his rifle and snatched the gun. But crash--stone-dead fell the tiger, and its skin is a hearthrug on which I stood to hear this tale. So on March 9, 1884, 40,000 plants of Cypripedium Spicerianum were offered at Stevens' Auction Rooms. [Illustration: CYPRIPEDIUM × DR RYAN.] THE COOL HOUSE contains about three thousand plants, mostly Odontoglossums. It is a 'lean-to,' of course. Not all the most successful growers use this form of building. Baron Schröder's world-famous Odontoglots dwell in an oblong structure which receives an equal quantity of light from every side. Even the hardiest of epiphytal orchids are conscious of influences which we cannot grasp, and those who understand them are unwilling to lay down fixed rules. But experience shows that under ordinary conditions cool species thrive in a 'lean-to' better than in a house of full span. It may be because the back wall retains moisture and gives it out all day steadily, whilst the air is saturated and dried by turns if fully exposed to a hot sun. Or it may be because the full light of a span-roof is too strong in most situations. A collector once told me that he often found Odontoglossum Pescatorei so buried in Lycopodium as to be invisible until the flower-spike appeared. Evidently such a plant does not need strong light. Both causes operate, perhaps. At least the broad fact is so well established that one might almost fancy Baron Schröder's Odontoglots would do better, if that were possible, in a 'lean-to.' There are three glass partitions, but from either door the full length of the house is seen; a pleasing vista even when there are no flowers--all smoothly green on one hand, rocky bank upon the other, studded with ferns and creepers and an orchid here and there. Why these plants dislike to stand in a long house open from end to end is a question none the less puzzling because every gardener is ready to explain it. Loving fresh air so well they cannot object to the brisker circulation. But their whims must be respected, and after building a house ninety feet long we must divide it into compartments. I name a few among the rarities here. Of Odontoglots:-- _Wilckeanum._--Upon internal evidence Reichenbach pronounced this a natural hybrid of Od. crispum × Od. luteo-purpureum. It was one among innumerable instances of his sagacity. A few years ago M. Leroy, gardener of Baron Edmond de Rothschild at Armainvilliers, crossed those two species and the flower appeared in 1890. It was Od. Wilckeanum; but for the sake of convenience this garden hybrid is called Leroyanum. _Wilckeanum pallens._--A form still rarer of this rare variety; yellow-ivory in colour, heavily splashed with brown; lip white, with a brown bar across the centre. _Wilckeanum albens._--Very large, white instead of yellowish; spotted and blotched with brown. _Ruckerianum._--Sepals and petals white in the centre, edged with violet, yellow lip; all spotted with reddish-brown. _Ruckerianum splendens._--Larger and more finely coloured in all respects than the normal form. The violet margin is broader. _Vuylstekeanum._--Those who saw the original plant of this noble species at the Temple Show some years since have not forgotten the spectacle assuredly. Petals and dorsal sepal pale yellow; lip and side sepals brightest deepest orange. _Mulus._--A natural hybrid of Od. luteo-purpureum with Od. gloriosum no doubt. It bears a strong spike, branched, with many large flowers, bright yellow blotched with pale brown. But the colouring varies greatly. _Josephinae._--Named after Miss Josephine Measures. White, with a rosy flush; sepals and petals spotted with chocolate at the base. _Hunnewellianum._--Small, but very pretty. Sepals and petals pale yellow, profusely dotted with brown; lip white, with a single brown spot. _Elegans._--Assumed to be a natural hybrid of Od. cirrhosum and Od. Hallii. The ground colour, faintly yellow, is almost concealed by chocolate spots and patches; lip white, with a large blotch in the centre. _Crispum virginale._--Very large and pure white, saving the yellow crest. _Crispum Measuresiae._--Sepals and petals broad, white, spotted and blotted with reddish brown. Lip unusually large, with a single great brown blotch. _Edithae._--Rosy white of sepal and petal, bordered with yellow and barred with chestnut; lip pale yellow, much deeper at the base, with chestnut spots in the centre. _Crispum Our Empress._--A remarkable variety. Very large, rose colour, heavily blotched with reddish purple; lip paler, covered with brown spots. _Crispum Woodlandsense._--A superb example of the 'round-flowering' type. Sepals and petals very broad, densely spotted with cinnamon-brown; lip short, broad, similarly spotted. _Crispum magnificum._--Sepals pale rose; petals and lip very faintly flushed; the whole covered with brown spots. _Bictoniense album._--The ordinary Bictoniense is pretty enough when the lower blooms on the densely clothed spike can be persuaded to last until those above them open. This uncommon sport is much more effective, with sepals and petals of a lively brown, and broad lip of purest white. _Facetum._--A good example of this catches the eye at once. Ground colour pale yellow, almost hidden by great brown bars upon the sepals. The petals are sharply freckled with brown, and up the middle runs a series of dark red dots. Lip similarly freckled above, with a large splash of brown in front; the lip handsomely fringed. _Cristatellum._--Rather small and not impressive, but valuable for its scarcity. The yellow ground colour shows itself only in a few narrow streaks upon sepal and petal, and in the base of the lip. Elsewhere it is hidden beneath layers of chestnut. _Hallii magnificum._--A variety finer in all respects than the common type. Sepals brown, save the yellow tips, and a few yellow lines; petals yellow, with two large brown blots. The fringed lip also is yellow, with two brown blots. _Madrense._--Named after its place of birth, the Sierra Madre, in Mexico. The plant is not uncommon, but it does not flower willingly, as a rule. Sepals and petals are white, with a double purple blotch at the base; lip small, bright orange. _Polyxanthum magnificum._--The grandest variety of a species always treasured. In colour deepest 'old gold,' with four or five great blots of chestnut on the sepals, and as many spots at the base of the petals. The lip has a shallow fringe and a broad splash in the centre. _Wallisii._--Small. Sepals and petals dusky yellow, with a long straight bar of chocolate down the middle. Lip white at the base, with small rosy streaks; the disc rosy, edged with white. _Hallii leucoglossum._--One of the largest Odontoglots. Buff or greenish yellow, lip white, fringed; all heavily blotched and spotted with dark brown. _Mirandum._--Among so many charming species this must be reckoned curious rather than pretty. Narrow and rather small, dull greenish yellow, with a longitudinal bar and spots of red-brown. _Wilckeanum Rothschildianum._---Perhaps the handsomest form of this rare variety. Large, very broad of sepal and petal, pale yellow, blotched and spotted with brown. _Pescatorei Germinyanum._--Named after the Comte de Germiny, an enthusiastic lover of orchids, as indeed of all other flowers. This ranks among the prettiest forms of Pescatorei. Petals white, sepals flushed; both marked with a spot of dark rose. Lip white, with similar dots. _Sceptrum._--A superb variety of the common luteo-purpureum. Sepals deep reddish brown, with yellow edges; petals yellow, blotched with reddish-brown. Lip yellow, with a single blotch in front. _Coronarium._--One of the Odontoglots which may be termed climbing _par excellence_, for the pseudo-bulbs thrust out a long shaft before taking form. It makes a very large plant, and probably the example here is the largest existing--at least there are few as big. By successive enlargements, the basket in which it stands has reached the dimensions of three feet by two. Coronarium is reckoned among the species slow to flower, but here we find no difficulty at all. Last season our plant made nine growths and threw up eight spikes--a record! Noble spikes they are too, bearing twenty to thirty blooms; petals of the brightest red-copper, marbled with yellow at the base; petals somewhat browner, both edged with gold. Lip small, narrow, light red, broadening towards the tip, which is pale primrose. I should describe coronarium as the most majestic of Odontoglots. _Crispum Arthurianum._--A notable variety--very large, blush-white, with one enormous chocolate blot and two or three small spots on sepal and petal. Spotted lip. _Crispo-Harryanum._--This is one of the very few hybrid Odontoglots. It was commonly assumed until a few years ago that the genus would not bear fruitful seed in Europe. This notion proves to be ill-founded happily, but to obtain good seed is still very difficult, and to rear the young plants more difficult still. Crispo-Harryanum was raised by M. Chas. Vuylsteke near Ghent. The flowers show the influence of either parent in colour and shape; the petals, which in Harryanum refuse to expand, are almost as flat as in crispum. _Humeanum._--We may confidently assume that this is a natural hybrid of Od. Rossii and Od. cordatum. The former parent is so handsome that he has begotten a very pretty progeny, though the mother is so plain--sepals primrose, closely spotted with brown, petals and lip white, the former similarly spotted at the base. _Tripudians oculatum._--A rare and beautiful variety of an interesting species. Very much larger than the common form; sepals of a lively brown, with yellow tips, petals yellow, mottled with brown; lip white, with violet spots above, a large blot below. _Platycheilum._--One of the oddest and rarest Odontoglots. Sepals and petals white, with a few brown dots at the base; lip large and widespread, pink, spotted with crimson. _Baphicanthum._--A valuable hybrid of Od. crispum and Od. odoratum or Od. gloriosum, as internal evidence suggests. All primrose of ground colour, but the sepals and petals are thickly dotted with red-brown. _Schillerianum._--Exceedingly rare. Pale yellow; sepals and petals spotted with chestnut. The lip has one large chestnut splash in the centre. _Murrellianum._--Probably a natural hybrid of Od. Pescatorei and Od. naevium. White tinged with violet, sepals and petals spotted with purple. _Lindeni._--A superb species, but uncommonly reluctant to display its charms, as a rule. In my own poor little house it has been growing bigger for years and years. The pseudo-bulbs are five inches high now, and more than two thick, but I look for flowers in vain. When they condescend to appear they are all sulphur-yellow, crumpled, or, as the phrase goes, undulated, in a fashion quite unlike any other Odontoglot. _Grande magnificum._--The common form of grande ranks among the showiest of flowers, much too big, indeed, and too strong in colour, to be approved by a dainty taste. But this is even bigger, its yellow more brilliant, its red-brown markings more distinctly red. There is record of sixteen flowers on one spike, each seven inches across!--I scarcely expect to be believed, but 'chapter and verse' are forthcoming on demand. _Crispum aureum._--Almost as yellow as polyxanthum, 'the very golden'--a most remarkable variety. The spots are few and small. _Crispum Cooksoni_, on the other hand, is white, superbly spotted, or rather blotched, with crimson brown. Perhaps the best of its class. _Crispum Reginae._--Immense. White. The handsome spots, of purplish brown, are more regularly disposed than usual. _Crispum Chestertoni._--Peculiar for a yellow lip, while sepals and petals are white; the former of these heavily splashed, and the latter sprinkled, with red-brown. The lip has a brown blot on the disc. _Rossii aspersum_ is a natural hybrid of Od. Rossii and Od. maculatum, as is supposed. Sepals and petals faintly yellow, spotted with brown at the base; lip creamy white. _Pescatorei album._--Large. All pure white. _Pescatorei superbum._--A round flower, of great 'substance'--which means, in effect, that it will last an unusual time. Notable for the deep tone of its purplish markings. _Pescatorei grandiflorum._--Immense. The lip has a yellow dash at base. _Pescatorei splendens._--Sepals and petals white; lip handsomely spotted with purple. _Pescatorei violaceum._--The whole flower is tinted with violet. _Crispum purpureum_ shows a similar peculiarity, but the tint is purple. _Crispum Dayanum._--The sepals have a large irregular patch of darkest mauve in the centre, the petals a spot or two of the same colour and a streak at the base. The lip is white. Old-fashioned people have not yet learned to call Odontoglossum vexillarium a Miltonia. To avoid confusion I will give it no generic name at all. It should be observed, however, that in our collection these plants are 'grown cool' all the year round. Among the most important are:-- _Vexillaria Cobbiana._--Pale rose with white lip. _Vexillaria Measuresiana._--All white save the golden 'beard.' Perhaps the handsomest of its rare class. _Vexillaria rubella._--Deep rose. Valuable for its habit of flowering in autumn. [Illustration: ODONTOGLOSSUM, ROSSII MAJUS _WOODLANDS VARIETY._] STORY OF ODONTOGLOSSUM HARRYANUM Men supremely great in science have a quality beyond reason, such as we term instinct, enabling them to leap over the slow processes of demonstration, and announce a law or a result unsuspected, which they cannot yet prove. The great Collector Benedict Roezl had this gift. Returning from the memorable expedition in which he discovered the Miltonia commonly called Odontoglossum vexillarium, he assured Mr. Sander that in those parts would be found a true Odontoglossum of unusual colouring. When asked the grounds for his opinion he could only say he 'smelt it.' Mr. Sander was not unused to this expression, and he knew by experience that Roezl's scientific nose might be trusted. It was something in the air, in the 'lie' of the country, in the type of vegetation, which guided him, no doubt. Other collectors born and bred have a like sense. Roezl showed his supremacy by the confident prediction that this new species would be darker than any known, and striking in the combination of its tints. This was in 1875. Ten years later Professor Reichenbach wrote to Mr. Sander of an astounding Odontoglossum he had seen--it may be necessary to tell the unlearned that Professor Reichenbach was the very genius of orchidology. Nothing in the least resembling it had been even rumoured hitherto. And then Reichenbach described Odontoglossum Harryanum. The raptures of that enthusiast were wont to divert admiring friends, expressed with quaint vehemence, but always suggesting that he mocked himself the while. Never had he such a theme as this. Speaking with due thought and sufficient knowledge, I declare that Odontoglossum Harryanum is the most finished result of Nature's efforts to produce a flower which should startle and impress by its colours alone, without eccentricity of shape or giant size, or peculiarities of structure. Remembering that not all the world has seen this flower, I should give just a hint of the means employed. Fancy, then, eight or ten great blooms, dark chestnut in tone, barred with yellow, striped with mauve; the lip white, broadly edged with a network of bluish purple and intersected by a deep stain of that tint, beyond which is spread a sheet of snow; touch with gold here and there, and you have the 'scheme of colour.' Those who knew the great savant can imagine how he raved after giving, with luminous precision, his scientific report of the new orchid. Reichenbach persuaded himself, by study of the flower, that it must be a native of Mexico. He was wrong for once, but people were so used to regard him as infallible that Mr. Sander did not think of doubting the assertion. Presently, however, it became known that Messrs. Veitch had bought the plants, a dozen or so, from Messrs. Horsman. And then Mr. Sander learned by accident that the latter firm received a small case of orchids from Barranquilla, twelve months before. While pondering this news, Roezl's unforgotten prophecy flashed into his mind. Barranquilla, in the United States of Columbia, is the port of that district where Odontoglossum vexillarium is found! He had a collector not far away. Within an hour this gentleman, Mr. Kerbach, received a telegram short and imperative: 'Go Amalfi.' Not waiting an explanation Kerbach replied 'Gone!'--reached Amalfi in due course, and found another telegram containing a hint that sufficed, 'New Odontoglossum.' Kerbach began to inquire the same day. It was hardly credible that an orchid of importance could have been overlooked in the neighbourhood of Amalfi, where collectors--French, Belgian, and English--had been busy for years. A hunt there would be very unpromising. Kerbach wandered about, asking questions. Thus at Medellin he made acquaintance with a Bank clerk. It may be noted, by the way, that the inhabitants of that busy and thriving town, the bulk of them, are descendants of Maranos--that is, Jews converted by the processes of the Inquisition. Doubtless there are records which explain why and how many thousands of those people assembled in a remote district of New Granada, but they themselves appear to have lost the tradition; they have lost their ancestral faith also, for there are no more devout Catholics. The religious instincts of the race assert themselves, however, for New Granadans in general are not more fervent than other creoles of South America, while the town of Medellin is an oasis of piety. The Bank clerk was questioned as usual, though not a likely person to take note of plants. 'Why,' said he, 'there was a customer of ours at the Bank yesterday, swearing like a wild Indian at orchids and everybody connected with them. I should advise you to keep out of his way.' 'What have the orchids done to him?' asked Kerbach. 'I wasn't listening, but I'll inquire.' And presently he brought the explanation. A young French collector had been in those parts some years before. He stayed a while at the planter's house, and there discovered an orchid which stirred him to enthusiasm. After gathering a quantity he made arrangements with his host for a shipment to follow next season, promising a sum which astonished the native. But this young man was drowned in the Couca. After a while Don Filipe resolved to despatch a few of the weeds on his own account to Europe, and he consigned them to a friend at Barranquilla. But the friend never returned him a farthing. He had handed the case to some one else for shipment, and this some one, he said, could not get his money from England. It is pleasant to hear, however, that Don Filipe had implicit trust in British honesty. He proclaimed his friend a swindler, and doubtless he was right. All the cash that this good man was out of pocket could not well have exceeded ten dollars, and his time did not count. Perhaps he would have been less furious had the loss been greater. Anyhow he nursed his wrath with Indian stubbornness--for Don Filipe was an Indian, though distinguishable from a white only in character, as are myriads at this day. Kerbach did not doubt that he had found his Odontoglossum, and gaily started for the hacienda. Some little diplomacy might be needed, and rather more cash than usual; but of course a sane man would come to terms at last. Don Filipe was absent when he arrived--a fortunate chance, perhaps. Meantime Kerbach entertained the ladies, played with the children, and made himself agreeable. The haciendero found him seated at the piano, and applauded with the rest. But his face changed when they got to business. Kerbach opened with flattering remarks upon the wealth of the country and its prospects. Don Filipe purred with satisfaction. Gradually he worked round to orchids. Don Filipe ceased to purr, and he hastily begged leave to visit the cacao plantation. As they rode through the sheltering woods Kerbach looked about him sharply. It was too late for flowers, but the growth of Odontoglossum Harryanum is very distinct. He espied one plant and recognised it as a new species. The trouble must be faced, and after dinner Kerbach explained his object, as gently as he could. The planter flamed out at once, dropped his Castilian manners, and vowed he would shoot any man found gathering orchids on his estate. Kerbach withdrew. Next day he visited two other hacienderos of the district. But Don Filipe had preceded him. Less rudely but with equal firmness the landowners forbade him to collect on their property. A brief explanation is needed. In those parts of South America, where the value of orchids is known to every child, a regular system has been introduced long since. As a rule almost invariable, the woods belong to some one, however far from a settlement. With this personage the collector must negotiate a lease, as it is called, a formal document, stamped and registered, which gives him authority to cut down trees--for the peons will not climb. At the beginning, doubtless, they shrewdly perceived that to fell a stout trunk would pay them infinitely better--since they receive a daily wage--than to strip it, besides the annoyance from insects and the risk from snakes which they elude. At the present time this usage has become fixed.[2] Without the assistance of peons, Kerbach could not possibly get plants sufficient to ship. To cut down trees without authority would be a penal offence, certainly detected. He explored the country at a distance and found nothing. It was necessary to come to terms with Don Filipe at any cost or abandon the enterprise. Meantime letters reached Amalfi describing the new Odontoglossum, with a picture showing the foliage. It was that he had found. The treasure hung within reach, and a pig-headed Indian forbade him to grasp it. In such a difficulty one applies to the Cura. Kerbach paid this gentleman a visit. A tall, stout, good-natured ecclesiastic was he, willing to help a stranger, perhaps, even though unprovided with the dollars which Kerbach offered 'for the poor,' if his mediation proved successful. The Cura made the attempt and failed signally. It was useless to try again. The good man begged ten dollars, or five, or one, upon the ground that he had done his best. But Kerbach in despair was not inclined for charity. The Cura sighed, hesitated, tossed off a glass of aguardiente and proposed another way. 'This is a wicked country, sir,' he said. 'Ah! very wicked. And the wickedest people in it have a proverb which I shudder to repeat. But your case is hard. Well, sir, they say (heaven forgive them and me!), "If the saints won't hear you, take your prayer to the devil." Horrible, isn't it?' 'Horrible!' said Kerbach. 'But I don't know where to find the devil.' 'Yours is a pious country I have heard, though not Christian. In this wicked land even children could tell you where to seek him. Now, you will give me a trifle for my poor?' And he held out his hand. 'But I'm not acquainted with any children. Your reverence must really be more explicit.' 'Bother!' exclaimed his reverence, or some Spanish equivalent. 'Well, you will pay me the fifty dollars promised?' 'Twenty! When Don Filipe signs the lease.' 'And all incidental expenses? Then my sacristan will call on you to-morrow. Never talk to me again of your impious projects, sir.' The sacristan was very business-like. He demanded a dollar to begin with for the Indian who would work the charm, and another dollar for himself to pay for the masses which would expiate his sin. Kerbach asked details, which were given quite frankly. The wizard was a respectable person--attended church, and so forth. The sacristan had talked matters over with him and neither doubted of success. Kerbach must write a letter to Don Filipe's wife begging her to intercede. The wizard having charmed that document before presenting it, she would be compelled to grant its request. If the planter should still refuse, a curse would be launched against him. And he could not dare resist that. The man was so serious, he explained himself in such a matter-of-fact tone, that Kerbach, laughing, risked two dollars on the chance. With the letter in his pocket the sacristan departed. Two days later he returned. Don Filipe was willing to negotiate the lease. Kerbach was so delighted that he never thought of asking whether the lady's gentle influence or the terrors of the curse had persuaded him. Thus Odontoglossum Harryanum was found, to the eternal glory of Roezl. MASDEVALLIAS Among Masdevallias we have scarce varieties of Harryana, as _Bull's Blood_, Mr. Bull's punning name for the darkest of all crimsons, and _Denisoniana_, which keen eyes distinguish from it by a shade of magenta; _splendens_, pure magenta; _versicolor_, which has patches of deep crimson on a magenta ground, and a bright yellow 'eye'; _Armeniaca_, large, apricot in colour, also with a yellow 'eye'; _Sander's Scarlet_, which speaks for itself. _Bonplandii._--Greenish yellow, with a few purple marks. Tails short and stiff. _Caudata._--Upper sepal light yellow dotted with red; lower purplish rose, marbled with white. A dwarf species, but the yellow tails are two to three inches long. _Abbreviata._--Small, white speckled with purple. _Ignea splendens._--Much larger than the normal form. Fiery red. _Amabilis._--Small, carmine, conspicuous by reason of its 'tail,' an inch and a half long. _Chelsoni._--A hybrid of the last-named with Veitchii, orange-yellow, with mauve spots and two 'tails.' _Veitchii grandiflora_, a variety even larger than the common type, seven inches across sometimes; orange-red, suffused with purple. _Polysticta._--One of the lovely little 'curiosities' which abound in this genus--palest lilac freckled with purple, and tailed. _Coccinea._--Rosy pink above, glowing scarlet below. _Macrura._--One of the few Masdevallias which do not please my eye, but very rare. Immense, as much as twelve inches long, counting the yellow tails, rough of surface, vaguely brown in colour, with darker spots. _Peristeria._--Greenish yellow, freely speckled with purple; yellow-tailed. _Melanopus._--Small, white, dotted with purple and yellow-tailed. _Wallisii stupenda._---Pale lemon colour splashed with chocolate. There is a curious white excrescence on each side the column, dotted with scarlet. ONCIDIUMS Of Oncidiums in this house I note:-- _Lamelligerum._--A very grand and noble flower, too rarely seen. It belongs to the stately section of which Oncidium macranthum is the common type. The great dorsal sepal swells out roundly from a stalk half an inch long; the two lower resemble in shape those long-bladed paddles, with scalloped edge, which are used by chiefs in the South Seas; in colour rich brown, with a clear golden margin. The yellow petals also have a stalk, but to give a notion of the large, beautiful, and complex development which they carry at the ends is a hopeless endeavour. I have seen ladies' work-baskets which faintly resemble it when wide open; made of the softest straw, without end-pieces, only to be closed by tying a ribbon in the centre. But really the case is desperate. I pass on. _Tetracopis._--Another of the same group, even more rare, but not so striking. Large, as they all are. Sepals a lively brown, gold edged; petals bright yellow splashed with brown; lip yellow. _Undulatum._--A third member of this handsome family. Sepals brown, petals white, marbled with yellow and mauve at the base, spotted with purple above, and streaked with yellow. Lip very small, as in all the other cases, but conspicuous by reason of its bright purple tint. _Ornithorhynchum album._--This is one of our oldest and commonest species, discovered by Bonpland, who accompanied Humboldt to Mexico; brought to Europe no long time afterwards. But the pure white variety turned up to astonish the world very few years ago, and the names of those happy mortals who possess a sample would make only a brief if distinguished list. _Loxense_ seems to have been not uncommon in our fathers' time, but no plants have arrived from Peru--Loxa is the district--for many years. It makes a long spike with branches, bearing a great number of large flowers; sepals greenish ochre, crossed with blurs of chocolate; petals deep brown, edged and tipped with yellow. Lip large and flowing, as it were, orange-yellow, speckled with red in the throat. _Weltoni._---Classed of late among Miltonias. A singular and fascinating species, difficult to grow and still more difficult to flower. The sepals and petals are very narrow, with edges like a saw, greenish brown, widening out suddenly at the tip, which is yellow. The lip is extraordinary in all respects. It shows a fine broad disc of dusky purple, with a darker bar across the middle; and below this, sharply divided as if by a stroke of the brush, two smaller discs pure white. Upon the whole to be wondered at rather than admired, but more interesting on that account. [Illustration: ODONTOGLOSSUM × HARRYANO-CRISPUM.] STORY OF ONCIDIUM SPLENDIDUM We all know that to make a thing conspicuous above measure is the most effective way of baffling those who seek it. Wendell Holmes has expounded the natural law of this phenomenon, and Edgar Poe exemplified it in a famous story. I am about to give an instance from the life, as striking as his fiction. Oncidium splendidum is one of the stateliest orchids we have, and one of the showiest. Its leaves are very large, fleshy and rigid, and the tall flower spike bears a number of pale yellow blooms striped with brown, each three inches across. There is no exaggeration in saving that they would catch the most careless eye as far off as one could see them. At an uncertain date in the fifties a merchant captain--whose name and that of his ship have never been recovered--brought half a dozen specimens to St. Lazare and gave them to his owner, M. Herman. This gentleman sold the lot to MM. Thibaud and Ketteler, orchid-dealers of Sceaux. They were tempted to divide plants so striking and so new; thus a number of small and weakly pieces were distributed about Europe at a prodigious price. We have the record of the sale of one at Stevens' Auction Rooms in 1870; it could show but a single leaf, yet somebody paid thirty guineas for the morsel. So ruthlessly were the plants cut up. Even orchids, tenacious of life as they are, will not stand this treatment. In very few years more Oncidium splendidum had vanished. No one knew where it came from--with a strange carelessness MM. Thibaud and Ketteler had not inquired. M. Herman was dead, and he left no record of the circumstances. The captain could not be traced. Had the name of his ship been preserved, it might have furnished a hint, since the port of sailing would be registered in the Custom House. More than one enterprising dealer made inquiries, but it was too late to recover the trail. Oncidium splendidum took its place for a while among the lost orchids. But Mr. Sander of St. Albans would not admit defeat. When, after great pains, he had satisfied himself that nothing could be discovered at St. Lazare or at Sceaux, he examined the internal evidence. In the first place, an Oncidium must needs be American, since the genus is not found in the Old World. This species also must dwell in a hot climate; leaves so rigid and fleshy are designed to bear a scorching sun. But the possibilities seemed almost boundless, even thus limited. Patiently and thoughtfully Mr. Sander worked out a process of exhaustion. Mexico might be neglected, for a time at least; those hunting-grounds had been so often explored that some one must surely have come across a flower so conspicuous. So it was with New Grenada. Brazilian Cattleyas have thick, hard leaves, though not to compare with this Oncidium; but they form a single genus which shows the peculiarity among hundreds which do not. Brazil, therefore, might be excluded for the present. The astonishing wealth of Peru in varieties of orchid was not suspected then. After such careful thought as a man of business allows himself when tempted by a speculation which may cost thousands of pounds, Mr. Sander determined that, upon the whole, Central America was the most likely spot; and again, after more balancing of the chances, that Costa Rica was the most likely part of Central America. After coming to a decision he acted promptly. In 1878 Mr. Oversluys, one of our trustiest and most experienced collectors, was despatched to Costa Rica. More than three years he travelled up and down, and treasures new or old he sent in abundance--Epidendron ciliare, Cattleya Bowringiana, Oncidium cheirophorum, are names that occur at the moment. But as for Oncidium splendidum he had not so much as heard of it. Not a peon could be found in the woods to recognise the sketch which Mr. Sander had given him. Oversluys had never seen the plant himself, I think. He was driven at length to conclude that if the thing did really exist in those parts--poor Oversluys applied a variety of epithets to 'the thing' now, none expressive of tenderness--it must be on the Atlantic slope or the steaming lowlands beyond. He had felt himself justified in neglecting those districts hitherto because there is no port where a large vessel can lie, and absolutely no trade, save a trifling export of bananas. What could tempt a French captain to the Atlantic shore of Costa Rica? And the expedition was as uninviting as well could be. There were no towns nor even villages--but it must be borne in mind that I speak of twenty years ago. At that time all the white and coloured population was settled on the tableland, excepting a few individuals or families who yearly wandered downwards to squat along the slope. Upon the other hand there were Indian tribes--Talamancas to the southward, who admitted some vague allegiance to the Republic on condition that white men did not enter their territory; and Guatusos or Pranzos to the northward, utter savages. It was their country, however, to which the wandering folks mentioned betook themselves, and thither Oversluys must go; for the track they had cut through the forest was the only one connecting the tableland with the Atlantic coast. I have travelled that 'road' myself in the days when peril and discomfort were welcome for the promise of adventure; but had we known what lay before us when bidding a joyous adieu to the capital, we should have meekly returned to the Pacific harbour by coach. Oversluys was a man of business, and to men of business adventure commonly means embarrassment and loss of time, if no worse. Varied experiences, all unpleasant, told him that to seek orchids in a country like that must be a thankless enterprise, attended by annoyance, privation, and even danger. But he had undertaken the work. It must be done. As cheerfully then as such untoward circumstances permitted, Oversluys set forth from San José, and in due time reached the Disengagno. This is a blockhouse raised by some charitable person on the edge of the tableland; a very few yards beyond, the path dips suddenly on its course to the Serebpiqui river, 6000 feet below. The spot is bitterly cold at night, as I can testify, or seems so, and for this reason the hut was built, as a shelter for travellers. But they, too lazy to seek wood in the forest at arm's length, promptly demolished the walls and burned them. Only the roof remained in a few months, with the posts that upheld it. A group of ill-looking peons occupied this shed when Oversluys arrived. They began to pick a quarrel forthwith; in short, he heartily wished himself elsewhere. It was not yet dusk. Drawing the guide apart Oversluys questioned him, and learned that there was one single habitation within reach. The report of it was not promising, but he did not hesitate. As the little party filed off, one of the peons shouted, 'A good night, _macho_! We'll wait for you at La Vergen!'--the first halting-place on the descent. A pleasant beginning! The shelter they sought lay some miles back. There is plenty of game on these unpeopled uplands, if a man knows how to find it, and a hunter had built himself this cabin in the woods. They reached it as darkness was setting in--a hut as rough as could be, standing on the edge of a small savannah. At the same moment the owner returned, with a deer tied on the back of a small but very pretty ox. He might well be surprised, but hospitality is a thing of course in those parts. Kindness to animals is not, however--much the contrary--and Oversluys observed with pleasure how carefully the little ox was treated. Children came running from the hut, and, after staring in dumb amaze for a while at the strangers, took the animal and actually groomed it in a rough way. After supper--of venison steaks--Oversluys alluded to this extraordinary proceeding. The guide said, 'Our friend Pablo may well take care of his ox. There's not such another for hunting on the countryside.' And Pablo grunted acquiescence. 'For hunting?' asked Oversluys. 'Yes. You should see him when he catches sight of deer. Tell the gentleman, Pablo.' Upon this theme the hunter was talkative, and he reported such instances of sagacity that Oversluys--remembering those ruffians who awaited him at La Vergen--asked whether there was any chance to see the ox at work? Pablo meant to have another stalk at dawn, with the hope of carrying two deer to market, and willingly he agreed to take his guest. So they started before daylight. It was no long journey to the hunting-ground. These high lands are mostly savannah, with belts of dense forest between. Oversluys had heard deer belling incessantly all night. After carefully studying the wind Pablo chose the direction of the hunt. He had cut tracks to each point of the compass, and he took that which would bring him to the edge of the first clearing with the wind in his face. It was just light enough when they arrived to see half a dozen dark forms above the misty grass. Forthwith Pablo crept out from the trees, walking backwards, his left arm round the ox's neck, and his stooped body behind its shoulder. Thus he could see nothing. It was unnecessary. The ox marched on, its broadside towards the deer, very softly, but always zigzagging closer. As the light strengthened, Oversluys watched with growing pleasure. Very soon the deer noticed this intrusion and ceased feeding; then the ox dropped its head and grazed. Again and again this occurred. So long as one deer remained upon the watch it kept its head down, but when the last recovered confidence, instantly it advanced. Pablo's old gun could not be trusted beyond fifty yards or so. The deer became more restless. They drew together--Oversluys saw they would bound off in a moment. Just then the ox wheeled actively--they flew. But one rolled over, shot through the chest. Oversluys was so pleasantly excited that he ran to pat the clever creature. Then he assisted Pablo to load up the game. It was broad daylight now. In lifting the body he noticed some large yellow flowers which it had crushed in falling. They were pretty and curious in shape. He glanced at the leaves--they were large, polished, and very stiff. A wild fancy struck him. He compared the drawing. There was no doubt! Scores of Oncidium splendidum starred the tall grass all around! I do not try to paint his raptures. A few weeks later many thousand plants were on their way to Europe. But the point of the story is that Mr. Oversluys had seen and even admired this flower many a time on the upland savannahs in riding past. He was looking for orchids, however, and who could have expected to find an Oncidium buried among herbage in the open ground? The ox demands a word. Such trained animals are not uncommon in Central America. The process of education is very cruel. By constant tapping, their horns are loosened when young, so that the tortured beast obeys the slightest pressure. Its movements in walking are thus directed, and when the horns grow firm again it continues to recognise a touch. But the degrees of intelligence in brutes are strikingly displayed here. Some forget the lesson in a twelvemonth. Most are uncertain. A very few, like Pablo's, understand so well what is required of them that direction is needless. In that case the hunter can walk backwards, keeping his body quite concealed. He is almost sure to kill, unless the fault be his own. LAELIA JONGHEANA The back wall carries a broad sloping ledge of tufa, where little chips of Odontoglossum and the rest are planted out to grow until they become large enough to be potted--no long time, for they gather strength fast in niches of the porous stone. Along the top, however, are ranged flowering plants of Odontoglossum grande which make a blaze in their season--three to six blooms upon a spike, the smallest of them four inches across. Overhead is a long row of Laelia Jongheana--some three hundred of them here and elsewhere. It is a species with a history, and I venture to transcribe the account which I published in the _Pall Mall Gazette_, July 18, 1899. 'A SENSATION FOR THE ELECT.--The general public will hear without emotion that Laelia Jongheana has been rediscovered. The name is vaguely suggestive of orchids--things delightful in a show, or indeed elsewhere, when in bloom, but not exhilarating to read about. Therefore I call the news a sensation for the elect. At the present moment, I believe, only one plant of L. Jongheana is established in this country, among Baron Schröder's wonders. Though its history is lost this must be a lonely survivor of those which reached Europe in 1855--a generation and a half ago. It is not to be alleged that no civilised mortal has beheld the precious weed in its native forests since that date; but no one has mentioned the spectacle, and assuredly no one has troubled to gather plants. Registered long since among the "Lost Orchids," which should bring a little fortune to the discoverer, native botanists and dealers in all parts of South America have been looking out. And the collectors! For forty years past not one of the multitude has left the shores of Europe or the United States, bound for the Cattleya realm, without special instructions to watch and pray for L. Jongheana. More and more pressing grew the exhortations as years went by and prices mounted higher, until of late they subsided in despair. Yet the flower is almost conspicuous enough to be a landmark, and it does not hide in the tree-tops either, like so many. 'Every one who takes interest in orchids will be prepared already to hear that Messrs. Sander are the men of fate. How many of such spells have they broken! Without book I recall Oncidium splendidum, of which not a plant remained in Europe, nor a hint of the country where it grew; the "scarlet Phalaenopsis" of native legend, never beheld of white man, which, in fact, proved to be brick-red; Cattleya labiata, the Lost Orchid _par excellence_, vainly sought from 1818 to 1889. The recovery of Dendrobium Schröderium was chronicled by every daily paper in London, or almost, with a leader, when a skull was shown in Protheroe's Rooms with a specimen clinging to it, and a select group of idols accompanying the shipment. Less important, but not less interesting, was the reappearance of Cypripedium Marstersianum at a later date. Verily, we orchidists owe a debt to the St. Albans firm. 'In these cases success was merited by hard thought, patient inquiry, and long effort. Working out the problem in his study, Mr. Sander fixed upon a certain country where the prize would be found, and sent his collector to the spot. Oversluys searched for Oncidium splendidum during three years, until he wrote home that it might be in ---- or ----, but it certainly was not in Costa Rica; yet he found it at last. In this present case, however, the discovery is due to pure luck; but one may say that a slice of luck also was well deserved after those laborious triumphs. One of the St. Albans collectors, M. Forget, was roaming about Brazil lately. The Government invited him to join a scientific mission setting out to study the products and resources of Minas Gaeras. It is comparatively little known. M. Forget was unable to accept the invitation, but he heard enough about this secluded province to rouse his interest, especially when the savants reported that no collector had been there. Accordingly, he made an expedition as soon as possible, and at the very outset discovered an orchid--not in flower--resembling Laelia pumila in every detail but size. It was at least twice as big as that small, familiar species, but the points of similarity were so striking that M. Forget pronounced it a grand local form of L. pumila. And when the consignment reached St. Albans, even the wary and thoughtful authorities there endorsed his view! Not without hesitation. I believe that the name of L. Jongheana was whispered. But despair had grown to the pitch that no one ventured to speak out. Yet by drawings and descriptions, anxiously studied for years, all knew perfectly well that in growth the lost species must be like L. pumila, enlarged. It is, indeed, strong evidence of the absorbing interest of the search that when at length it ended, neither M. Forget nor his employers dared to believe their own eyes. 'So in November last year some hundreds or thousands of a remarkable orchid were offered at Protheroe's under the title "L. pumila (?)." Nearly all the leading amateurs and growers bought, I think, but at a very cheap rate. Half a crown apiece would be a liberal average for plants over which millionaires would have battled had they known. But, after all, the luck of the purchasers was not unqualified. Many who read this will feel a dreary satisfaction in learning that if their plants have perished or dwindled, plenty of others are in like case. Further experience shows that they were gathered at the wrong time; of course they reached Europe at the wrong time. And nearly every one put them into heat, which was a final error. L. Jongheana is quite a cool species. Through these accumulated misfortunes only two out of the multitude have flowered up to this, so far as I can hear. The dullest of mortals can feel something of the delicious anxiety of those gentlemen who watched the great bloom swelling from day to day when it began to show its tints, and they proved to be quite unlike those of L. pumila. At length it opened, and L. Jongheana was recovered. 'What sort of a thing is it, after all? For an unlearned description, I should say that the flowers--two, three, or even five in number--are from four to five inches across--sepals, petals, and curl of lip bright amethyst, yellow throat, white centre; the crisped and frilled margin all round suffused with purple. It was discovered in 1855 by Libon, who died soon after, carrying his secret with him. He was sent out by M. de Jonghe, of Brussels--hence the name.' Up to the present time only one of the plants here has flowered--and it opened pure white, saving a yellow stain on the lip. This was not altogether a surprise, for a close examination of the faded blooms convinced M. Forget that some of them must have been white, whatever the species might be. And he marked them accordingly. That a collector of such experience should prove to be right was not astonishing, as I say, but remarkably pleasant. At the end of the house is a pretty verdant nook where Cypripedium insigne is planted out upon banks of tufa among Adiantums and overshadowing palms. STORY OF BULBOPHYLLUM BARBIGERUM This species is so rare in Europe that I must give a word of description. The genus contains the largest and perhaps the smallest of orchids--B. Beccarii, whose stem is six inches in diameter, carrying leaves two feet long, and B. pygmaeum of New Zealand. They are all fly-catchers, I think, equipped with apparatus to trap their prey, as droll commonly in the working as ingenious in the design. Barbigerum has pseudo-bulbs less than an inch high, and its flowers are proportionate. But charm and size are no way akin. Fascination dwells in the lip, which, hanging upon the slenderest possible connection, lengthens out to the semblance of a brush. Thus exquisitely poised it rocks without ceasing, and its long, silky, purple-brown hairs wave softly but steadily all day long, as if on the back of a moving insect. Pretty though it be, all declare it uncanny. The species was introduced from Sierra Leone by Messrs. Loddiges, so long ago as 1835. I have not come upon any reference to a public sensation. Assuredly, however, the orchidists of the day were struck, and it is probable that Messrs. Loddiges sold the wonder at a high price if in bloom. Some people in Sierra Leone forwarded consignments. But an orchid so small and delicate needs careful handling. None of them reached Europe alive, I dare say. It appears, however, that Bulbophyllum barbigerum is common throughout those regions. The example at Kew, which diverts so many good folks year by year, came from Lagos, near a thousand miles east and south of Sierra Leone. And the story I have to tell places it at Whydah, between the two. A young man named Boville went thither as clerk in the English factory, soon after 1835. We have not to ask what was his line of commerce. I have no information, but it must be feared, though perhaps we do him wrong, that one branch of it at least was the slave trade. Boville had heard of Messrs. Loddiges' success. Residents at Whydah do not commonly explore the bush, but he was young and enterprising. On his first stroll he discovered the Bulbophyllum, and to his innocence it seemed the promise of a fortune. Real good things must be kept quiet. The treasure was plentiful enough to cause 'a glut' forthwith if many speculators engaged. Luckily he had a Kroo boy in attendance, not a native. To him Boville assumed an air of mystery, said he was going to make fetich, and 'something happen' to any one who spoke of his proceedings--'make fetich' and 'something happen' are among the first local expressions which a man learns in West Africa. The Kroo boy grinned, because that is his way of acknowledging any communication whatsoever, and snapped his fingers in sign of willing obedience. So Boville gathered a dozen plants, and hoped to have a stock before 'the ship' arrived. There were no steamers then, and at Whydah, a very unimportant station for lawful trade, English vessels only called once in three months. Slavers did not ship orchids. It was Boville's employment henceforth to collect the Bulbophyllum whenever he had a few hours to spare. He hung his spoils on the lattice work which surrounds a bedroom in those parts, between roof and wall, designed for ventilation--hiding them with clothes and things. It is proper to add that the 'English Fort' was already deserted, and the 'Factory' a mere name. The agent, his superior officer, was not at all likely to visit a clerk's quarters. This good man belonged to a class very frequent then upon 'the coast.' He had not returned to England, nor wished to do so, since coming out. At a glance he recognised that this was his real native land, and without difficulty he made himself a fellow-countryman of the negroes, living like a caboceer, amidst an undeterminate number of wives, slaves, and children. Very shocking; but it may be pointed out that such men as this established our colonies or seats of trade in Africa. They had virtues, perhaps, but their vices were more useful. The moral system of the present day would not have answered then. An agent secured his position by marrying a daughter of every chief who might be troublesome. He had no Maxim guns. Mr. Blank knew every feeling and superstition of the negroes,--that is the point of my reference to his character. And one evening he entered the room just as Boville was hanging up his latest acquisitions, some of which were in flower. Whatever Mr. Blank's business, it fled from his mind on beholding the orchids. 'Good God!' he cried. 'What--what--you are no better than a dead man! I won't protect you--I can't! Good God! What possessed you?' 'I don't understand,' said Boville. 'No, you don't understand! They send me out the most infernal idiots'--and then Mr. Blank fell to swearing. Boville saw the case was grave somehow. 'Are they poisonous?' he asked. 'Poisonous be--etc. etc. That's the Endua--the holiest of plants! You'll wish they were poisonous before long! What a lot! You didn't get 'em all to-day?' 'I can destroy them. Only Georgius Rex the Krooman has been into the bush with me.' 'You fool! D'you think you can hide this from the fetich? Put--put 'em in a sack, and tumble 'em into the river after dark! Oh Lord, here's an awful business!' Moving about the room restlessly as he talked, whilst Boville thrust the orchids into a bag, the agent opened a door which gave upon a platform called the verandah--in fact, the roof of the store. It overlooked the street. In an instant he ran back. 'It's all up' he cried. 'Oh Lord! Here's the Vokhimen!' Boville had heard this name, which belongs to an official of the Vo-dun, the fetich priesthood, whose duty it is to summon offenders. He went to see. The street was in an uproar. Two men clothed in black and white, with faces chalked, were beating Vo-drums furiously--but such din is too usual for notice. They stood at the door of a house--habitations in Whydah are not properly described as huts. All the neighbours surged round vociferous. Presently emerged a grotesque figure, rather clothed than adorned with strings of human teeth and bones, and little wooden idols painted red. His black and white cap had lappets with red snakes sewn thereon; the breast of his tunic bore a large red cross, the sacred symbol of Dahomey. He came forth with a leap, and danced along with ridiculous gestures to the next house, flourishing the iron bar which marks his office. The bones and images rattled like castanets. The drummers followed. Through the next doorway the Vokhimen sprang, and disappeared. 'He isn't after me, thank God!' cried Boville. 'He is, you fool! It's their way to hunt about like that when they well know where to find the victim. No, it's too late to hide the cursed things now. God help you, Boville! I can do nothing.' And Mr. Blank hurried out. [Illustration: ODONTOGLOSSUM, CORONARIUM.] 'Go to the Hun-to at least, sir--and to Mr. Martinez! Don't leave me helpless to these devils!' 'I'll do all I can for you, but it's worse than useless my stopping here.' Perhaps it is necessary to observe that the Europeans in Whydah had long been subject to the King of Dahomey, ruled by a Viceroy. Each nationality had its official chief, called Hun-to by the English, and the Portuguese representative enjoyed particular consideration. Nevertheless, the Viceroy was their absolute master, and he obeyed the fetich men. It is so easy to conceive poor Boville's bewilderment and despair that I shall not dwell upon the situation. With feverish haste he concealed his orchids. Mr. Blank reappeared, with a rope fringed with strips of palm leaf, dry and crackling. This he threw round Boville's neck. 'They daren't hurt you with that on!' he cried. 'Only the head priest can remove it! Go down! I've set drink on the table! Good-bye!' The poor fellow obeyed, taking a pistol. All the servants were clustered at the door, wide-eyed, humming with terror and excitement. Presently the drums sounded nearer and nearer--the throng opened--the Vokhimen danced through, jibbering, curveting, posturing. He started at sight of the palm-leaf cord, but passed by, unheeding a glass of rum which Boville offered, and pranced upstairs. The agent was right. This devil knew where to look! He thumped about a while overhead, then capered down, with a bundle of orchids dangling on the iron stick. The glass was not refused this time. After drinking, the summoner touched Boville with his wand of office, saying, 'Come! The snake calls you!' Boville did not understand the formula, but he guessed its meaning. There was no help. He set forth. The Vokhimen pocketed the rum bottle and followed, moving gravely enough now. The mob shouted with astonishment at the appearance of a white criminal, but when the cause of his arrest was seen--that bundle of the holy Endua--astonishment changed to rage. Boville owed his life to the Azan, the fetich cord, at that instant. But the drummers beat furiously, and, as if in response, a dozen fetich men suddenly appeared, pushing through the crowd. One side of their heads was shaven bare. They wore garments of hideous fantasy, charms and horrid objects innumerable, and each a pair of silver horns upon the forehead. Under this escort Boville marched to the fetich place. This was a bare piece of ground, encircled by the low dark dwellings of the priests, with the sacred wood behind it, and in the midst the Snake Temple. Often had Boville glanced into the small building, which has no door, and seen the reptiles swarming inside. He did not feel the loathing for snakes which is so common--happily, as it proved. But no man could watch that multitude of restless, twining creatures without horror. Led to the dreadful doorway, Boville turned, thinking to resist; but they fell upon him, doubled him up--for the entrance was very low--and thrust him in bodily. The poor fellow screamed in tumbling full length upon a platform which occupied the middle. He had seen it alive with snakes, writhing one over the other. But none were there. He scrambled to his feet and looked round. The temple had no windows, but the solid walls of adobe did not meet the roof, and the level sun-rays of evening poured through the gap. There was nothing to interrupt the view, save a besom and a basket. But no snake could he see. A movement above caught his eye. He looked up. There are men who would have lost their wits in terror at that sight. The snakes were there, hundreds of them, perched upon the thickness of the wall--the ridge of their bodies gleaming in the red light of sunset, their long necks hanging down, waving and twining. Every head was turned towards him, the glass-bright eyes fixed on his, and the tongues slithering with eagerness. Nightmare was never so horrible. For an instant Boville stood frozen, with dropped jaw and starting eyes, the icy sweat streaming from every pore; then, howling in no human voice, he burst through the doorway, through the guard, and fell in the midst of a party advancing. All the Europeans in Whydah were there, with the Viceroy himself, and the head fetich man. The horrid absurdity of their equipment I have no room to describe. The white men had been pleading, even threatening, and the Viceroy supported them. When Boville dropped at their feet the last word had been spoken. His punishment should be that decreed against the man who kills a snake by evil chance--no worse. 'What is that?' Boville panted, when the agent who held him in his arms had explained. 'Never mind--we'll do our best! And it is to be at once, thank God! Night will soon be here!' 'Don't go--not all of you! Don't leave me with these devils!' 'We must, poor boy--to arrange. But we shall return.' Boville remained among a group of fetich men, who sang and capered round, making gruesome pantomime of tortures. Meanwhile, others were busy at a shed with spades and bundles of reed. Dusk was settling down when they had finished. The head priests returning took their stations, surrounded by men with torches still unlit. All the population was gathered round the holy area. Mr. Blank came back with others. 'Listen,' he said. 'They are going to put you--unbound--in a hole, cover you with reeds, and set them alight. You must spring up and run to the nearest water, all these brutes after you. But I have arranged with many of them, and they will intercept the others. Now mark, for your life may depend on it! The law is that one who kills a snake shall be cut and hacked till he reaches water! They expect you to make for the river, but there is a pond on the very edge of the fetich wood yonder! See? You make for that! You can't miss it if you go straight between the torches and the temple. You understand? Now summon your courage, man, and run for your life.' He wrung Boville's hand. The executioners seized their victim and hurried him to the shed, amidst a furious tumult--roaring, singing, beating of drums, and blaring of cow-horns--thrust him into the hole, and heaped combustibles over him. The instant he was free Boville sprang up, but the reeds flared as quick as gunpowder. All ablaze he ran--the savage crew pursuing. But they mostly expected him on the river side. With but little hurt, save burns, he reached the pool and leapt in. It is satisfactory to add that Boville did not suffer in health or fortune by this dread experience. He became the richest trader in Whydah, a special favourite with the natives. But he collected no more orchids. INDEX Angraecum sesquipedale, 97 Anguloa, 162 Anthurium × Albanense, 68 " × aurantiacum, 69 " × Goliath, 68 " × Lady Godiva, 68 " × Lawrenceae, 68 " × niveum, 69 " × Salmoniae, 68 " × Saumon, 69 " × The Queen, 69 Brassavola Digbyana--Story, 151 Bulbophyllum barbigerum--Story, 253 Calanthe × bella, 129 " × Clive, 130 " × Florence, 130 " × Sandhurstiana, 129 " × Veitchii alba, 130 " × Victoria Regina, 130 " × William Murray, 130 Cattleya × Atalanta, 91 " aurea, 26 " " R. H. Measures, 26 " bicolor Measuresiana, 26 " Bowringiana, 31 " " --Story, 37 " × Browniae, 90 " × Cecilia, 94 " × Chloris, 89 " chrysotoxa, 27 " Extermination of, 28, 144-148 " × Fowleri, 92 " Gaskelliana, 33 " " Dellensis, 33 " " Duke of Marlborough, 33 " " Godseffiana, 33 " " Herbertiana, 34 " " Measuresiana, 33 " " Miss Clara Measures, 33 " " Sanderiana, 34 " " Woodlandsensis, 34 " gigas, 25 " " Imschootiana, 25 " " Sanderae, 26 " guttata Leopoldii--Hybrids, 8 " Harrisoniae R. H. Measures, 35 " intermedia Louryana, 97 " " Parthenia, 96 " × Kienastiana, 91 " labiata Adelina, 147 " " alba, 146 " " Archduchess, 147 " " Baroness Schröder, 146 " " bella, 147 " " Her Majesty, 147 " " imperatrix, 145 " " Juno, 147 " " Macfarlanei, 146 " " Measuresiana, 146 " " Mrs. R. H. Measures, 146 " " nobilis, 145 " " Princesse de Croix, 146 " " Princess May, 147 " " Princess of Wales, 147 " " Robin Measures, 147 " " Sanderae, 146 " Lawrenceana, 148 " " Extermination of, 148 " × Louis Chaton, 94 " × Mantinii inversa, 89 " × " nobilior, 89 " × Mariottiana, 91 " × Mary Measures, 149 " Mendelii, 29 " " Duke of Marlborough, 30 " " Lily Measures, 30 " " Monica Measures, 30 " " Mrs. R. H. Measures, 30 " " R. H. Measures, 30 " " William Lloyd, 30 " × Miss Measures, 92 " Mossiae, 32 " " excelsior, 32 " " gigantea, 32 " " Gilbert Measures, 32 " " grandiflora, 32 " " Mrs. R. H. Measures, 32 " " --Story, 45 " " Wageneri, 32 " Mrs. Fred Hardy, 27 " × Mrs. Mahler, 13 " O'Brieniana, 94 " × Our Queen, 93 " × Portia, 89 " × Prince of Wales, 91 " Sanderiana, 26 " " A Collector's report upon, 28 " Schroderae, 30 " " Miss Mary Measures, 30 " Skinneri alba--Story, 59 " speciosissima alba, 31 " " Dawsonii, 31 " Trianae, 34 " " Macfarlanei, 34 " " Measuresiana, 35 " " Robert Measures, 35 " " Tyrianthina, 35 " " Woodlandsensis, 35 " Trismegistris, 27 " × Wendlandiana, 94 " × William Murray, 92 Coelogyne speciosa--Story, 135 Cymbidium × Lowiano-eburneum, 132 " × eburneo-Lowianum, 132 Cypripediums, 170 " × A de Lairesse, 191 " × Adrastus, 196 " × Alfred, 181 " × Amphion, 181 " × Annie Measures, 196 " × Antigone, 179 " × Aphrodite superbum, 179 " × Arnoldiae, 180 " × Arnoldianum, 180 " × Arthurianum pulchellum, 196 " × Astraea, 196 " × Athos, 196 " × aurantiacum, 197 " × Aylingii, 180 " × Baconis, 177 " × barbato-bellatulum, 178 " × Beeckmanii, 178 " bellatulum album, 177 " × " egregium, 178 " " eximium, 176 " Boissierianum--_vide_ reticulatum. " × Brownii, 179 " × Brysa, 200 " × calloso-niveum, 181 " × callosum Sanderae, 180 " × Cardinale, 178 " × Charles Richmond, 202 " × chrysocomes, 178 " × Claudii, 178 " × Cleopatra, 197 " × conco-callosum, 181 " × " Curtisii, 181 " × " Lawre, 181 " Cowleyanum, 181 " Curtisii--Story, 183 " " (Woodlands variety), 182 " Cyanides, 180 " × Cydonia, 200 " × cymatodes, 191 " Dauthierii albino, 192 " " marmoratum, 192 " × Edwardii, 193 " × Engelhardtiae, 193 " × Evenor, 192 " × excelsior, 192 " Fairieanum, 193 " × Frau Ida Brandt, 196 " × Georges Truffaut, 194 " × Gertrude, 194 " × Gertrude Hollington, 177 " Godefroyae, 69 " × H. Ballantine, 177 " × H. Hannington, 179 " × Hector, 179 " × hirsuto-Sallierii, 199 " × Holidayanum, 199 " insigne, 53 " " Amesiae, 54 " " Bohnhoffianum, 54 " " clarissimum, 54 " " corrugatum, 55 " " Dimmockianum, 54 " " Dorothy, 55 " " Drewett's variety, 56 " " eximium, 56 " " Frederico, 55 " " Harefield Hall, 55 " " Hector, 56 " " Laura Kimball, 54 " " longisepalum, 54 " " Macfarlanei, 54 " " majesticum, 55 " " Measuresiae, 55 " " punctatum, 56 " " R. H. Measures, 55 " " Rona, 55 " " Sanderae, 56 " " Statterianum, 54 " × J. Coles, 200 " Javanicum, 199 " × Juno, 191 " × La France, 197 " × Lavinia, 200 " × Lawrebel, 197 " × " (Woodlands variety), 197 " × Lawrenceanum-Hyeanum, 198 " " Sir Trevor, 198 " leucochilum, 69 " × " giganteum, 199 " × Leysenianum, 199 " × Lily Measures, 197 " × Lord Derby, 192 " × M. Finet, 177 " × macropterum, 177 " × Marchioness of Salisbury, 199 " × Marshallianum, 199 " × Massaianum, 203 " × Measuresiae, 203 " × Measuresianum, 199 " × Miss Clara Measures, 203 " × Mrs. E. Cohen, 178 " × Mrs. E. G. Uihlein, 195 " × Mrs. Fred Hardy, 199 " × Mrs. Herbert Measures, 199 " × Mrs. W. A. Roebling, 202 " × Muriel Hollington, 200 " × Myra, 179 " × nitidum, 204 " × Olivia, 176 " × Paris, 201 " × Phoebe, 201 " platytaenium--Story, 205 " × Princess May, 201 " × Pylaeus, 201 " reticulatum, 202 " × Rowena, 201 " × Sade Lloyd, 191 " × Schofieldianum, 202 " × Sir Redvers Buller, 204 " × Southgatense, 203 " × " superbum, 203 " Spicerianum--Story, 213 " × Symonsianum, 200 " × Tautzianum lepidum, 194 " × Telemachus, 194 " × tesselatum porphyreum, 194 " venustum (Measures variety), 195 " × Watsonianum, 195 " × William Lloyd, 191 " × Winifred Hollington, 204 " × Woodlandsense, 195 " × Zeus, 196 Dendrobium × Ainsworthii, 110 " × Leechianum, 110 " Lowii--Story, 121 " nobile album, 110 " " Cooksoni, 110 " " murrhinianum, 110 " " Ruckerianum, 110 " " splendens grandiflorum, 110 " " virginale, 110 " phalaenopsis Schröderianum--Story, 113 " × Schneiderianum, 110 Epidendrum radicans, 110 " × radico-vitellinum, 111 Hybridisation--Remarks, 172 " Mr. Mead's experiments, 173 Laelia × Beatrice, 13 " × Claptonensis, 88 " elegans, 7 " " Adonis, 10 " " Amphion, 13 " " bella, 15 " " Blenheimensis, 13 " " Boadicea, 10 " " Cleopatra, 15 " " Doctor Ryan, 11 " " Empress, 10 " " euracheilos, 14 " " eximia, 15 " " F. Sander, 10 " " Frederico, 12 " " Godseffiana, 10 " " H. E. Moojen, 10 " " H. G. Gifkins, 10 " " haematochila, 11 " " Hallii, 14 " " incantans, 14 " " Juno, 13 " " Ladymead, 12 " " leucotata, 11 " " Lord Roberts, 16 " " Luciana, 12 " " luculenta, 12 " " Macfarlanei, 11 " " " II., 15 " " macroloba, 13 " " matuta, 13 " " Measuresiana, 12 " " Medusa, 10 " " melanochites, 14 " " Minerva, 13 " " Monica, 12 " " Morreniana, 13 " " Mrs. F. Sander, 10 " " Mrs. R. H. Measures, 11 " " Myersiana, 15 " " Neptune, 10 " " nyleptha, 11 " " Ophelia, 11 " " Oweniae, 14 " " paraleuka, 11 " " platychila, 12 " " Princess Stephanie, 13 " " Pyramus, 15 " " Red King, 10 " " Sade Lloyd, 11 " " Sappho, 15 " " Schilleriana, 14 " " " splendens, 12 " " Stella, 10 " " Stelzneriana, 12 " " Tautziana, 13 " " tenebrosa, 11 " " Venus, 12 " " Weathersiana, 14 " " Wolstenholmae, 15 " × Gravesiae, 88 " Jongheana, 249 " × Latona, 92 " × Measuresiana, 88 " Perrinii alba, 97 " " nivea, 97 " praestans alba, 32 " pumila marginata, 31 " purpurata, 107 " " Archduchess, 109 " " Lowiana, 109 " " Macfarlanei, 109 " " marginata, 109 " " tenebrosa, 109 " × Sanderae, 91 " × splendens, 91 " × Yula, 93 " × " inversa, 93 Laelio-Cattleya Albanensis, 91 " " amanda, 88 " " Amazon, 91 " " Amesiana, 93 " " Ancona, 88 " " Aphrodite, 91 " " Arnoldiana, 88 " " Bellairensis, 90 " " Broomfieldensis, 92 " " C.-G. Roebling, 92 " " callistoglossa, 92 " " " ignescens, 92 " " Canhamiana, 94 " " D. S. Brown, 92 " " Decia, 92 " " Empress of India, 94 " " Eudora, 93 " " " alba, 93 " " euspatha, 14 " " excellens, 91 " " Exoniensis, 93 " " Fire Queen, 89 " " Harold Measures, 11 " " Henry Greenwood, 94 " " Hippolyta, 93 " " Hon. Mrs. Astor, 91 " " Lady Wigan, 89 " " leucoglossa, 94 " " Mardellii fascinator, 92 " " Measuresiana, 88 " " Miss Lily Measures, 94 " " Nysa, 88 " " Pallas superba, 94 " " Robin Measures, 90 " " Tiresias, 88 " " " superba, 90 " " Tresederiana, 89 " " velutino-elegans, 94 " " Zephyra, 93 Laelio-Cattleyas unflowered and unnamed--List of, 95 Lycaste aromatica, 159 " Denningiana, 160 " fulvescens, 160 " leucantha, 159 " Locusta, 160 " Mooreana, 160 " plana lassioglossa, 159 " " Measuresiana, 160 " Skinneri alba, 159 " " Lady Roberts, 159 " " Phyllis, 159 Madagascar--Legend of, 99 Masdevallia abbreviata, 237 " amabilis, 237 " Bonplandii, 237 " caudata, 237 " Chelsoni, 237 " coccinea, 238 " Harryana Armeniaca, 237 " " Bull's Blood, 237 " " Denisoniana, 237 " " Sander's Scarlet, 237 " " splendens, 237 " " versicolor, 237 " ignea splendens, 237 " macrura, 238 " melanopus, 238 " peristeria, 238 " polysticta, 237 " Veitchii grandiflora, 237 " Wallisii stupenda, 238 Miltonia Binottii, 162 " vexillaria Cobbiana, 228 " " Measuresiana, 228 " " rubella, 228 Odontoglossum baphicanthum, 226 " Bictoniense album, 223 " coronarium, 225 " crispo-Harryanum, 225 " crispum Arthurianum, 225 " " aureum, 227 " " Chestertoni, 227 " " Cooksoni, 227 " " Dayanum, 228 " " magnificum, 223 " " Measuresiae, 223 " " Our Empress, 223 " " purpureum, 228 " " Reginae, 227 " " virginale, 223 " " Woodlandsense, 223 " cristatellum, 224 " Edithae, 223 " elegans, 223 " facetum, 224 " grande magnificum, 227 " Hallii leucoglossum, 224 " " magnificum, 224 " Harryanum--Story, 229 " Humeanum, 226 " Hunnewellianum, 223 " Josephinae, 223 " Lindeni, 226 " Madrense, 224 " mirandum, 224 " mulus, 222 " Murrellianum, 226 " Pescatorei album, 227 " " Germinyanum, 225 " " grandiflorum, 228 " " splendens, 228 " " violaceum, 228 " platycheilum, 226 " polyxanthum magnificum, 224 " Rossii aspersum, 227 " Ruckerianum, 222 " " splendens, 222 " sceptrum, 225 " Schillerianum, 226 " tripudians oculatum, 226 " vexillarium--_vide_ Miltonia " Vuylstekeanum, 222 " Wallisii, 224 " Wilckeanum, 222 " " albens, 222 " " pallens, 222 " " Rothschildianum, 225 Oncidium lamelligerum, 239 " Loxense, 240 " ornithorhynchum album, 239 " splendidum--Story, 241 " tetracopis, 239 " undulatum, 239 " Weltoni, 240 Phaio-calanthe Arnoldiae, 130 Phajus × Ashworthianus, 130 " × Cooksoni, 130 " × Marthae, 130 " × Owenianus, 130 " × Phoebe, 130 Phalaenopsis, 67 " × Hebe, 68 " Sanderiana--Story, 79 Pothos aurea, 147 Roezl--Legend of, 17 Sobralia × Amesiana, 161 " Kienastiana--Story, 163 " Measuresiana, 161 " Sanderae, 161 " × Veitchii, 161 Spathoglottis × aureo-Veillardii, 111 Thunia Bensoniae, 131 " Marshalliana, 131 Vanda, 69 " × Miss Joaquim, 69 " Sanderiana--Story, 71 Zygo-colax leopardinus, 131 Zygopetalum × Perrenoudii, 131 THE END _Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, _Edinburgh_ Footnotes: [1] It seems not unlikely that scholars may read this and misunderstand. I am not ignorant that 'the Ancients' had frames, probably warmed green-houses--since they flowered roses at mid-winter--and certainly conservatories. But these facts do not bear upon the argument. [2] Two or three years ago, however, the Government of New Granada made a law forbidding such destruction of trees--a measure which has happily reduced the output of orchids, since the natives are unwilling to climb for them. Transcriber's Notes: Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. The misprint "ear" has been corrected to "are" (page 224). Printer's inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation usage have been retained from the original. 
33679	----	BULLETIN 260 MARCH, 1910 MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE EXPERIMENT STATION DIVISION OF BOTANY SEEDS OF MICHIGAN WEEDS BY W. J. BEAL EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN 1910 _The Bulletins of this Station are sent free to all newspapers in the State and to such individuals interested in farming as may request them. Address all applications to the Director, East Lansing, Michigan._ MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION Postoffice and Telegraph address, East Lansing, Mich. Railroad and Express address, Lansing, Mich. A DEPARTMENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, AND, WITH IT, CONTROLLED BY THE INCORPORATED STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE HON. ROBERT D. GRAHAM, Grand Rapids, Chairman of the Board, Term expires 1914 HON. WM. J. OBERDORFFER, Stephenson, Term expires 1912 HON. Wm. L. CARPENTER, Detroit, Term expires 1912 HON. ALFRED J. DOHERTY, Clare, Term expires 1914 HON. I. R. WATERBURY, Detroit, Term expires 1916 HON. WILLIAM H. WALLACE, Bay Port, Term expires 1916 HON. FRED M. WARNER, Governor of the State, _Ex officio_ JONATHAN L. SNYDER, A. M., LL. D., President of the College, _Ex officio_ HON. L. L. WRIGHT, Ironwood, _Ex officio_ ADDISON M. BROWN, A. B., Secretary. STATION COUNCIL JONATHAN L. SNYDER, A. M., LL. D., Pres., _Ex officio_ ROBERT S. SHAW, B. S. A., Director CHARLES E. MARSHALL, Ph. D., Scientific and Vice Director and Bacteriologist R. H. PETTIT, B. S. A., Entomologist A. J. PATTEN, B. S., Chemist H. J. EUSTACE, B. S., Horticulturist J. A. JEFFERY, B. S. A., Soil Physicist W. J. BEAL, Ph. D., Botanist V. M. SHOESMITH, B. S., Farm Crops ADDISON M. BROWN, A. B., Secretary and Treasurer ADVISORY AND ASSISTANT STAFF. C. P. HALLIGAN, B. S., Asst. Horticulturist O. RAHN, Ph. D., Asst. Bacteriologist A. C. ANDERSON, B. S., Asst. Dairy Husbandryman J. B. DANDENO, Ph. D., Assist. Botanist G. D. SHAFER, Ph. D., Research Asst. in Entomology M. A. YOTHERS, B. S., Asst. in Entomology W. GILTNER, D. V. M. M. S., Research Asst. in Bacteriology C. W. BROWN, B. S., Research Asst. in Bacteriology F. A. SPRAGG, M. S., Research Asst. in Crops (Plant Breeding) C. S. ROBINSON, M. S. Research Asst. in Chemistry MISS Z. NORTHROP, B. S., Asst. in Bacteriology MISS L. M. SMITH, Ph. B., Asst. in Bacteriology O. B. WINTER, A. B., Asst. in Chemistry MRS. L. E. LANDON, Librarian SUB-STATIONS. Chatham, Alger County, 160 acres deeded--Leo M. Geismar in charge. Grayling, Crawford County, 80 acres deeded. South Haven, Van Buren County, 10 acres rented; 5 acres deeded--Frank A. Wilkin in charge. The designer of this bulletin first had in mind something of the sort for the use of his students, not only the undergraduates, but others living on farms, or teaching in Michigan and elsewhere. Whoever grows seeds to sell, or buys seeds to sow, should be benefited by consulting the illustrations which are unsurpassed for accuracy by anything in this country. They were all made by Mr. F. H. Hillman. A hand lens costing from twenty cents to a dollar is almost indispensable in examining our seeds. The brief descriptions are necessarily made by using definite scientific terms, which are explained in a glossary at the close of the work. A few weeds are not illustrated, for the reason that the plants have ceased to produce seeds, such as the horse radish, and some of them are not conspicuously bad. Not far from half the illustrations are made from small seed-like fruits, likely to be mistaken for seeds, such as are produced by dandelions, burdocks, narrow-leaved dock, all grasses. Cuts of seeds of several clovers are inserted that students may learn to distinguished them from weeds too often mixed with them. No apology is offered for making use of the decimal scale instead of the cumbersome antiquated English scale, which fortunately is gradually growing out of use. In the back part of the bulletin are duplicate copies of the decimal scale that any one can cut out and use for measuring. For copies of the following figures some time ago prepared by Mr. Hillman, we are indebted to the authorities of the Agricultural College, of Reno, Nevada: 7, 11, 12, 16, 17, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 40, 41, 42, 44, 46, 55, 56, 58, 63, 68, 69, 71, 74, 75, 84, 86, 87, 91, 92, 95, 97, 98, 99, 108, 110, 116, 125, 130, 135, 138, 140, 144, 146, 152, 153, 158, 159, 172, 173, 174, 175, 178, 179, 181, 182, 185, 187, 189, 190, 191, 199, 203, 205, 212, 214, 215. "A weed is any useless or troublesome plant." "A plant out of place or growing where it is not wanted." "Tobacco." "A plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered."--Emerson. Weeds everywhere; they thrive in the cornfield, they choke wheat in the field, they annoy the gardner, they thrive in the meadow, they spring up by the roadside, they encroach on the swamp, they damage the fleeces of sheep. The rapid increase in the number and variety of weeds should cause alarm. DISADVANTAGES OF WEEDS. 1. They rob cultivated plants of nutriment. 2. They injure crops by crowding and shading. 3. They retard the work of harvesting grain by increasing the draft and by extra wear of machinery. (Bindweed, thistles, red root.) 4. They retard the drying of grain and hay. 5. They increase the labor of threshing, and make cleaning of seed difficult. 6. They damage the quality of flour, sometimes making it nearly worthless. (Allium vineale L.) 7. Most of them are of little value as food for domestic animals. 8. Some weeds injure stock by means of barbed awns. (Squirrel tail grass, wild oats, porcupine grass.) 9. Some of them injure wool and disfigure the tails of cattle, the manes and tails of horses. (Burdock, cocklebur, houndstongue.) 10. A few make "Hair balls" in the stomachs of horses. (Rabbit-foot clover, crimson clover.) 11. Some injure the quality of dairy products. (Leeks, wild onions.) 12. Penny cress, and probably others, when eaten by animals, injure the taste of meat. 13. Poison hemlock, spotted cowbane and Jamestown weed are very poisonous. 14. Many weeds interfere with a rotation of crops. 15. All weeds damage the appearance of a farm and render it less valuable. (Quack-grass, Canada thistle, plantains.) SOME SMALL BENEFITS. 1. They are of some use in the world to induce more frequent and more thorough cultivation, which benefits crops. 2. The new arrival of a weed of first rank stimulates watchfulness. (Russian thistle.) 3. In occupying the soil after a crop has been removed they prevent the loss of fertility by shading the ground. 4. Weeds plowed under add some humus and fertility to the soil, though in a very much less degree than clover or cow peas. 5. Some of them furnish food for birds in winter. WHAT ENABLES A PLANT TO BECOME A WEED. 1. Sometimes by producing an enormous number of weeds. (A large plant of purslane, 1,250,000 seeds; a patch of daisy fleabane, 3,000 to a square inch.) 2. In other cases by the great vitality of their seeds. Shepherd's purse, mustard, purslane, pigeon-grass, pigweeds, pepper-grass, May weed, evening primrose, smart weed, narrow-leaved dock, two chick-weeds survive when buried in the soil thirty years at least, as I have found by actual test. 3. In each prickly fruit of a cocklebur there are two seeds, only one of which grows the first year, the other surviving to grow the second year. 4. Some are very succulent, and ripen seeds even when pulled. (Purslane.) 5. Often by ripening and scattering seeds before the cultivated crop is mature. (Red root, fleabane.) 6. Sometimes by ripening seeds at the time of harvesting a crop, when all are harvested together. (Chess, cockle.) 7. Some seeds are difficult to separate from seeds of the crop cultivated. (Sorrel, mustard, narrow-leaved plantain in seeds of red clover and alfalfa.) 8. Some are very small and escape notice. (Mullein, fleabane.) 9. Some plants go to seed long before suspected, as no showy flowers announce the time of bloom. (Pigweeds.) 10. In a few cases the plants break loose from the soil when mature and become tumble-weeds. (Some pigweeds, Russian thistle.) 11. Some seeds and seed-like fruits are furnished each with a balloon, or a sail, or with grappling hooks. (Dandelion, sticktights, burdock.) 12. Some remain with the dead plant long into winter, and when torn off by the wind or by birds, drift for long distances on the snow, often from one farm to another. (Pigweeds.) 13. Some have creeping root-stocks or tubers. (Quack-grass, nut-grass.) 14. Some defend themselves with forks and bayonets. (Thistles.) 15. Most of them are disagreeable in taste or odor, so that domestic animals leave them to occupy the ground and multiply. (Jamestown weed, stink grass, milk weed.) 16. Plants with stout roots are sometimes passed over by the harrow or cultivator. HOW ARE WEEDS INTRODUCED AND HOW ARE THEY SPREAD? 1. By live stock, carried in the hair or fleece or carried by the feet; in some instances passing alive with the excrement. 2. By unground feed-stuff purchased. 3. By adhering to the insides of sacks where they were placed with grain. 4. In barnyard manure drawn from town. 5. In the packing of trees, crockery, baled hay and straw. 6. By wagons, sleighs, threshing machines. 7. Sometimes by plows, cultivators and harrows. 8. By railway trains passing through or near a farm. 9. By ballast of boats at wharves. 10. By wool-waste at factories. 11. By birds, squirrels, and mice. 12. By water of brooks, rivers, by washing rains and by irrigating ditches. 13. By the wind aided by little wings or down, or by drifting on the snow. 14. By dropping seeds to the ground from extending branches and repeating the process. 15. By creeping root-stocks, as June grass, quack-grass and toad-flax. 16. By piercing potatoes, carrots, etc., quack-grass, June grass, Bermuda grass are sometimes carried to other fields or farms where the tubers and roots are planted. 17. A farmer buys clover seeds or grass seeds that were grown in some state that never before grew seeds that went onto his farm and thus he may get some new weeds. Seeds of alfalfa or some other crop bring new kinds of weeds, especially those of dodder. As every kind of weed goes onto a farm to stay there it follows that as a country becomes older the greater the number of kinds of weeds. As a rule each farm is annually getting more sorts of weeds, and as each farmer is cultivating weeds, they are more freely distributed in every field and along every roadside and by exchanging they are carried to neighboring and distant farms. A great many farmers buy and sow whatever the merchant offers them under the name mentioned. For example, the college has a sample of something called clover seed, sold by a dealer in this state. It contains about 40 per cent of narrow-leaved plantain. WHERE CERTAIN WEEDS ARE TROUBLESOME. To begin with, years and years ago no new farm in the wilderness of Michigan contained more than twenty to thirty-five kinds of weeds, as there were not more than thirty-five sorts in the entire state, while at present there are not far from 250 kinds. A large majority of weeds hail from older countries, more especially from Europe. There are a few weeds, like Canada thistle and quack-grass, that may infest any crop of farm or garden, but in most cases, whether to call a weed very bad depends on the nature of the crop grown, the size of the weed-seeds and their time of ripening. Some weeds have a very wide distribution, thriving all around the world in temperate climates, while others are more limited in range; some thrive only in dry, thin, sandy soil and others in wet soils. To some extent the presence of a few weed-seeds is almost as objectionable when once on the farm, as though there were more, because these few may thrive and seed freely. In many respects the lists of weeds for New Jersey is different from the list in Michigan, while half the weeds of Nevada or Oregon are not known in our state. Chess, cockle, red root and rye are liable to be troublesome in fields of winter wheat, because the seeds are more or less difficult to separate from this grain and for the reason that they require a portion of two years to come to maturity. Meadows and pastures, especially where the land is not fertile, abound in weeds that require two years or more to produce seeds, such as narrow-leaved dock, bitter dock, bull thistle, carrot, teasel, two kinds of mulleins, night-flowering catchfly, evening primrose, several kinds of fleabane, ox-eye daisy, orange hawkweed, two or three kinds of plantain, Canada thistle, hound's tongue, stick seed, sow thistle, horse nettle, buttercups, toad flax, silvery cinquefoil, and many more, not excluding some annuals, like crab-grass, tickle grass, pigeon grasses. As crops of corn, potatoes, beans, turnips, beets and squashes are ready to harvest at the close of one growing season they are molested more or less by pigeon grasses, several pigweeds, purslane, crab-grass, barnyard grass, tickle grass and a number of others. In 1897 some seventy-five lots of timothy seeds were examined and the following list of twenty-four species of weeds were found. Doubtless other weeds may still be found in other lots of timothy seed. No sample was entirely free from weeds. Pepper grass was most common, next followed tumble weed and then shepherd's purse: Amaranthus graecizans, Tumble weed. Amaranthus retroflexus, Rough pigweed. Anthemis Cotula, May weed. Brassica arvensis, Charlock. Brassica nigra, Black mustard. Bursa Bursa-pastoris, Shepherd's purse. Carduus arvensis, Canada thistle. Carex straminea. A kind of sedge. Chenopodium album, Pigweed. Chenopodium filicifolium, Another kind of pigweed. Lactuca Canadensis, Wild Lettuce. Lepidium Virginicum, Wild Pepper-grass. Onagra biennis, Evening primrose. Panicum capillare, Hair grass, tickle grass. Plantago lanceolata, Narrow-leaved plantain. Plantago Rugelii, Rugel's Plantain, one of the broad-leaved plantains. Poa compressa, Flat-stemmed poa, wire grass. Potentilla Monspeliensis, Rough cinquefoil. Prunella vulgaris, Self-heal. Rumex Acetocella, Field or sheep sorrel. Sisymbrium officinale, Hedge mustard. Verbena angustifolia, Narrow-leaved vervain. Verbena hastata, Blue vervain. Verbena urticifolia, White vervain. In examining some 130 lots of clover seeds as found in the market during 1897, thirty-two kinds of weed seeds were found. Sheep sorrel was most common, next to this yellow or bitter dock and green foxtail. Only three samples of clover seed was free from weeds, but possibly some weeds might have been seen if larger quantities had been looked over. During the year 1908, eleven years later, 47 kinds of weed seeds were found in 122 lots of seed of red clover, a gain of nearly 50 per cent. During three months from January 1, 1910, in examining 450 lots of seeds of grasses, clovers and alfalfas, besides large numbers of common weeds that we know, were 74 kinds not known to the writer. Of these 74 kinds, probably some will never become weeds of any account. Some of these came with alfalfa from Montana and some were importations from Europe and elsewhere. Parasitic fungi rank as weeds; such as rusts and smuts of wheat, oats, corn; apple scab, black knot of plum, brown rot of cherry, anthracnose of beans. SOME MEANS FOR PREVENTING THE INTRODUCTION OF WEEDS AND A FEW RULES FOR THEIR EXTERMINATION. 1. The right kind of a man, who will carefully observe and study the kinds of weeds and their habits, fighting each to the best advantage, i. e. with method. 2. See that all seeds purchased or grown at home for seed are free from seeds of weeds. Although often heard, these words are too little heeded. 3. See that threshing machines, hay racks, grain bags from other farms are well cleaned before used on the farm. 4. Cook or grind screenings and burn chaff when certain weeds are suspected. 5. Send seeds to the Agricultural College, East Lansing, for identification, unless they are known to be harmless. 6. Strive to prevent weeds from ripening seeds. This is especially important late in the season in case of all pigweeds, purslane and others where the flowers are very small and are liable to be overlooked and the seeds ripen before their presence is suspected. 7. For meadow or pasture make the soil very fertile, as most weeds will then be killed or crowded by the better grass and become of little account. 8. Modify the rotation of crops with reference to killing the weeds. 9. Make a specialty of hoed or cultivated crops. 10. Make soiling crops a prominent feature in certain fields. 11. Smother weeds with quick growing and thickly seeded crops, like red clover or rye or buckwheat. 12. Keep some crops growing on the land from early spring till late autumn,--double cropping, i. e., two cultivated crops in one year for barn and cellar instead of one for use and one of weeds. 13. Cultivate thoroughly after a crop is removed. 14. Clean up and avoid leaving any vacant or out of the way places for breeding ground. 15. Where practicable, remove fences and cultivate to the gutters of the highway. 16. Keep some sheep. 17. When once begun, continue the work thoroughly from year to year, giving no quarter to weeds. This is the easiest in the long run and the royal way. 18. Where hand labor is employed, it is far less expensive and much easier to keep weeds down by raking or hoeing once a week than by going over the ground much less frequently. The habits of a weed determine to a great extent the best mode of fighting it. Certain remedies suggest themselves for creeping perennials, like quack grass and toad flax, while different treatment is best for narrow-leaved dock; and still a different mode of attack may be adopted for crab grass and purslane. Weeds are annuals, as pigweeds, crab grass, purslane; biennials as bull thistle and mulleins; perennials, like quack grass, Canada thistle, ox-eye Daisy. Will it pay? The annual cost of successfully fighting a weedy farm of 100 acres in Ontario has been found to be about $75. Good cultivation in the long run pays a greater profit than slipshod culture. It not only kills the weeds, but keeps the soil in condition for securing good crops. It conserves moisture. Perennial plants cannot gain any if the green leaves are not allowed to appear. The nourishment stored in the root stocks underground will aid the plant to send up slender leaves and if these remain, the plants gain and recruit, but if the leaves start underground and are cut off before coming to the light, these root stocks are drawn on again to furnish food to start more leaves and thus, in time become exhausted. SEEDS OF MICHIGAN WEEDS. ASCOMYCETES. [Illustration: Fig. 1.] =Ergot.= _Claviceps purpurea._ This is a poisonous fungus, not a seed, mentioned here because it is frequently found as an outgrowth of the grain of many grasses, such as rye, timothy, red top. To mature spores, it must pass to another stage requiring six months or more. GRASS FAMILY. GRAMINEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 2.] =Quack-Grass. Couch-Grass.= _Agropyron repens_ (L.) Beauv. Florets about 1 cm. long, 5-nerved at the short-awned apex: grain seldom produced and still less frequently found apart from the floral glume and palea, linear, about 4 mm. long, base abruptly acute, apex rounded, rounded on the back or outside, inside concave. Our worst weed. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 3.] =Wild Oat.= _Avena fauta_ L. Freed from chaff the floral glume is firm, rough, brown, thinly hairy, about 15 mm. long, awn from near the middle 2-4 cm. long with several firm twists, abruptly bent near the middle, the true grain seldom separated from the firmer floral glume. A bad weed in Oregon and California, seldom seen in Michigan. [Illustration: Fig. 4.] =Field Chess.= _Bromus arvensis_ (L.) Not often seen in this country; floral glume 6-7 mm. long bearing an awn rather longer; grain much like that of _B. secalinus_ which see. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 5.] =Soft Chess.= _Bromus hordeaceus_ L. (_Bromus mollis_). Floral glume extending beyond the grain, 5-7 nerved, 6-9 mm. long, grain rounded on the back, shape of a shallow boat, 6.5 mm. long, palea thin with comb-like teeth on the margins. Waste places, thin meadows. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 6.] =Smooth Brome-grass.= _Bromus racemosus_ L. Florets about 9 mm. long, awn 6-10 mm. long; longer, softer, thinner, with longer awn than found in florets of _B. secalinus_ which see. Not often seen in this country. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 7.] =Chess Cheat.= _Bromus secalinus_ L. Florets swollen a little above the middle, the floral glume rounded on the back, obscurely 7-nerved, 6-7 mm. long, an awn 3-4 mm. long, more or less; palea covering the concave side, each edge bearing a single row of stiff hairs; glume and palea closely adhering to the grain. Introduced from Europe. A weed in wheat fields. [Illustration: Fig. 8.] =Barren Brome Grass.= _Bromus sterilis_ L. Floral glume minutely roughened, adhering to the grain; 5-7 nerved; 11-15 mm. long; compressed; concave in section. Introduced from Europe, becoming common in the state. [Illustration: Fig. 9.] =Sand-Bur. Bur-Grass.= _Cenchrus tribuloides_ L. Spikelets consisting of the grain and its coverings, broad oval, somewhat flattened, about 7 mm. long, thinly covered by stiff, straight, barbed, prickles, 2-5 mm. long, making a disagreeable and formidable bur, often common on sandy land. Native of this country. [Illustration: Fig. 10.] =Bermuda Grass.= _Cynodon Dactylon_ L., Pers., (Capriola Dactylon (L.) Kuntze). Floral glume enclosing the grain, smooth, light colored, oval to half-oval, 1.5 to 2 mm. long, in cross section with two long sides and a short side half as long; grain light brown, obovate to oval, a small nipple at the larger end. The plant seeds in hot countries but not in cool, temperate regions; spreading chiefly by coarse, hard rootstocks. Introduced. [Illustration: Fig. 11.] =Small Crab-Grass.= _Digitaria humifusa_ Pers. _Panicum lineare_ Kroach. _Syntherisma linearis_ (Kroch.) Nash. Spikelets in the rough, before severe rubbing, ovoid or oblong, flattened, 2 mm. long, first glume minute, second and third as long as the spikelet, soft with very short hairs, one of them 3-nerved, the other 5-nerved; floret after severe rubbing, brown to black, smooth, floral glume of the rounded side curving over the edges below covering with their edges about two-thirds of the palea. Introduced from Europe; becoming troublesome on thin lawns. [Illustration: Fig. 12.] =Large Crab-Grass. Finger Grass.= _Digitaria sanguinalis_ (L.) Scop. _Panicum sanguinale L. Syntherisma_ (L.) Nash. Spikelets before severe rubbing, oblong, acute, 2.5-3.5 mm. long, first glume on flattened side minute, second on rounded side about half as long as the spikelet, pubescent or nearly smooth, third glume more or less pubescent, 5-7-nerved; floret, after severe rubbing, smooth, edges of floral glume thin. Introduced from Europe. Roots very tough and coming from the lower joints. [Illustration: Fig. 13.] =Barnyard Grass.= _Echinochloa Crus-galli_ (L.) Beauv. _Panicum Crus-galli_ L. Florets oval, white, yellowish gray or brown, 2.4-3 mm. long, plano-convex, glume on the convex side, highly polished, three obscure longitudinal nerves. Native of this country. [Illustration: Fig. 14.] =Yard-Grass. Wire-Grass.= _Eleusine Indica_ (L.) Gaertn. Florets light lead color or brown before threshing or much rubbing; grain dark, reddish brown, 1.2-1.4 mm., ovoid with the base abruptly pointed, 3 sided, the corners rounded, a vertical groove along one side; seen from the back with the groove side down and base toward the observer, starting from an oval spot near the base, 10-15 ridges on each side, extend downward and forward. Introduced from some warmer region of the Old World. [Illustration: Fig. 15.] =Stink-Grass.= _Eragrostis megastachya_ (Koeler) Link. _Eragrostis major_ Host. Grain orange red or wine color .4-.6 mm. long. Broad oval to nearly circular, very slightly flattened, extremities slightly pointed, embryo within one edge near the base, a fine network of dark lines evident under a good lens. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 16.] =Squirrel-tail Grass.= _Hordeum jubatum_ L. Spikelets in clusters of three, central one only fertile, 5 mm. long, containing a grain adhering to the floral glume and palea, the other two abortive, seven awns in these three spikelets, 4-6 cm. long, four others less than 1 cm. long; awns and fragment of rachis holding the cluster of spikelets together, all barbed upward, making them troublesome for fleeces of sheep and the mouths of animals eating them. Native of this country and widely distributed. [Illustration: Fig. 17.] =Old Witch Grass. Tickle Grass. A Tumble-Weed.= _Panicum capillare_ L. Florets flattened, elliptical, apex abruptly pointed, about 1.5 mm. long, highly polished, leaden gray, lighter at the extremities and along the edges of the glume, five slender light colored nerves join the extremities passing vertically over the glume, two light nerves on the palea. Native to this country. [Illustration: Fig. 18.] =Tall Smooth Panicum. Switch Grass.= _Panicum virgatum_ L. Achene surrounded by two persistent shining pieces, the floret; floral glume hard, light brown, oval or ovate-lanceolate 2.5-3.1 mm. long. Apex obtusely pointed. Seldom troublesome, widely distributed. [Illustration: Fig. 19.] =Low Spear-Grass.= _Poa annua_ L. Florets straw-colored, 2.8-3.1 mm. long, apex smooth, lower half of keel and the base of lateral nerves, having numerous soft hairs. A low annual grass, introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 20.] =Flat stemmed Poa. Wire Grass. Canadian Blue Grass.= _Poa compressa_ L. Florets lance-obovate, 2-2.5 mm. long, closely resembling those of Poa pratensis, which see. Palea abruptly acute. If well rubbed after threshing, the floret is nearly smooth, otherwise it contains on the lower half numerous webby hairs. Grain reddish brown, both ends pointed, 1-1.4 mm. long. Seldom sown purposely. Sometimes used to adulterate Poa pratensis. In early days this grass was called blue grass by people of New England and New York State. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 21.] =June Grass. Kentucky Blue Grass.= _Poa pratensis_ L. Florets ovate-lanceolate, acute 3-4 mm. long, with three equal sides when seen in transverse section, nearly smooth, if severely rubbed in threshing, otherwise the floral glume is thickly webbed at the base; palea acuminate, grain light brown, elliptical, both ends usually pointed 1.2-1.4 mm. long, in cross sections with three equal sides, one of which has a shallow vertical groove. Compare with Poa compressa. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 22.] =Rye.= _Secale cereale_ L. Grain light brown, 6-8 mm. long, elliptical, base acute, apex obtuse and rounded, in cross section the back somewhat acutely rounded, the opposite side with a narrow vertical groove, surface more or less irregularly wrinkled. Introduced from Europe. A bad weed in wheat fields. [Illustration: Fig. 23.] =Pigeon-Grass. Yellow Foxtail.= _Setaria glauca_ (L.) Beauv. _Chaetochloa glauca_ (L.) Scrib. Spikelets light to dark brown, 2.5-3 mm. long; after threshing or much rubbing consisting of each a grain and two firm coverings, known as a floral glume which covers the sides of the somewhat depressed palea, oval, apex slightly 3-toothed, rounded side strongly arched, somewhat V-shaped, roughened crosswise by prominent fine more or less branching ridges; ridges of palea on concave side less prominent. Introduced from Europe. Very common in hoed annual crops. [Illustration: Fig. 24.] =Green Foxtail. Green Pigeon Grass.= _Setaria viridis_ (L.) Beauv. _Chaetochloa viridis_ (L.) Nash. Spikelets, light to dark brown mottled, 2-2.3 mm. long, after threshing or much rubbing consisting of the grain and two firm coverings, the rounded one known as a floral glume which covers the edges of the flattened side, oval, the surface granular and very faintly striate, lengthwise and ridged crosswise. Much resembling Hungarian grass. Introduced from Europe. Found with yellow foxtail. [Illustration: Fig. 25.] =Porcupine Grass.= _Stipa spartea_ Trin. Grain inclosed in the floral glume, light brown, 18 mm. long, clothed on the lower half with short brown hairs slanting upward, bearing at the base a sharp, hard, curved beak, when dry the attached awn is twisted for 6 cm. and straight and bent at right angles about 6 cm. When moistened, the awn untwists more or less; twisting and untwisting the beards hold what the beak pierces, thus making it a formidable weapon to enter the skins of sheep, goats and dogs. Fortunately it is seldom abundant. Sandy land Michigan and westward. SEDGE FAMILY. CYPERACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 26.] =Yellow Nut-Grass.= _Cyperus esculentus_ L. This is a species of sedge, and so far as I have examined, produces no seeds, perhaps having lost that method of reproduction, as it acquired the habit of spreading by tubers here illustrated. In moist soil, sometimes a troublesome weed. [Illustration: Fig. 27.] =Ovoid Spike-rush.= _Eleocharis ovata_ (Roth.) R. & S. Spike ovoid, 4-10 mm. long, achene pale to chestnut brown, shining, obovate-oblong, compressed, about 1 mm. long, bearing a triangular tubercle at the apex, and six to eight barbed bristles, 1.3-1.7 mm. long, very variable. Not troublesome except in low land. RUSH FAMILY. JUNACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 28.] =Slender Rush.= _Juncus tenuis_ Willd. Seeds light brown to amber color, translucent, flattened, oval, half oval, oblong, ovoid, the acute apex curved to one side, about 0.3 mm. long. Dry to moist soil, almost throughout North America, now migrating to all parts of the world. A very common, grass-like rush in this state, seldom recognized by any one under any name, except by a first-rate botanist. LILY FAMILY. LILACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 29.] =Field Garlic. Wild Garlic.= _Allium vineale_ L. Seeds not seen, apparently seldom produced; bulblets (b) light yellow or almost white, obovoid to elliptical, 7-8 mm. long, when dry. Introduced from Europe. Troublesome in pastures and tainting the flavor of butter; in wheat it taints the flavor of flour. Persistent when introduced. The illustration of grains of wheat (a) are given for comparison. NETTLE FAMILY. URTICACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 30.] =Slender Nettle.= _Urtica gracilis_ Ait. Achenes compressed, lens-shaped, ovate, rarely oval, faces similar, smooth, dull and grayish brown, .9-1.1 mm. long. Native of this country. Compared with U. dioica, this achene is thinner and shorter. Prominent in low pastures. BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. POLYGONACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 31.] =Knot-Grass.= _Polygonum aviculare_ L. This door-yard weed is in no sense a grass. Achenes unequally 3-sided, ovoid, acute, angles obtuse, surface, dull, light to dark reddish brown, finely granular and striate lengthwise. 1.8-2.2 mm. long, usually with the remains of calyx attached. Native of this country. Common about door-yards. [Illustration: Fig. 32.] =Wild Buckwheat.= _Polygonum Convolvulus_ L. Achenes dull, jet-black, equally 3-sided, elliptical to obovoid, minutely granular often with faint longitudinal striation, the faces often more or less concave, the angles rounded, 2.5-3.5 mm. long, sometimes with the remains of calyx attached. Introduced from Europe. Often climbing up corn stalks. [Illustration: Fig. 33.] =Erect Knotweed.= _Polygonum erectum_ L. Achenes dull, light to dark brown, unequally 3-sided, ovoid or rhombic, finely granular and striate lengthwise, the faces sometimes concave, the angles rounded, 2.5-3 mm. long, sometimes with the remains of calyx attached. Native to this country. Of little account. [Illustration: Fig. 34.] =Smart-weed.= _Polygonum Hydropiper_ L. Achene dull, granular, light to dark reddish brown, lenticular, acutely and narrowly or broadly elliptical, or 3-sided, apex acute, concave on the sides, angles obtuse, 2-3 mm. long, sometimes with the remains of the dotted calyx attached. Introduced from Europe. Wet land. [Illustration: Fig. 35.] =Dock-leaved or Pale Persicaria.= _Polygonum lapathifolium_ L. Achene shining, dark to chestnut brown, 2-2.2 mm. long, flattened, circular to broadly ovate with abruptly pointed apex, the base obtuse or bearing the remains of the thin calyx. Introduced from Europe. Low wet places. =Shore Knotweed.= _Polygonum littorale_ Link. So far as the achenes are concerned, they are identical with those of P. aviculare above described. Native of this country. On hard or thin places, especially when newly graded. [Illustration: Fig. 36.] =Pennsylvania Persicaria=, _Polygonum Pennsylvanicum_ L. Achene shining, jet-black, flattened, surface very slightly uneven and granular nearly circular with a short abrupt apex, edge rounded, 2.5-3 mm. long, often bearing the remains of the calyx. Native to this country. Occasional in annual crops. [Illustration: Fig. 37.] =Lady's Thumb.= _Polygonum Persicaria_ L. Achene shining, jet-black, surface finely uneven, much flattened with rounded edges or with 3 nearly equal concave faces, the edges faintly angled along the center, broadly ovate, base obtuse or bearing a portion of the calyx, apex abruptly pointed, 2-2.3 long. Introduced from Europe. Waste places and stubble ground. [Illustration: Fig. 38.] =Climbing False Buckwheat.= _Polygonum scandens_ L. Achene black, shining, in cross-section sides flat or concave, corners rounded, obovate, in vertical outline sides rounded to an obtuse apex, from rounded sides to base slightly concave, base acute, 3.5-4 mm. long when freed from the persistent base of the calyx. Woods and shady places. Not prominent as a weed. [Illustration: Fig. 39.] =Sorrel. Sour Dock.= _Rumex Acetosa_ L. Calyx-wings broadly ovate or orbicular, heart-shaped 3.5-4.5 mm. long, achene shining, with 3 equal sides, broadly oval, both ends abruptly pointed, the thin edges usually lighter colored than the dark brown or black convex faces, 1.5-2 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. Not common. [Illustration: Fig. 40.] =Sheep Sorrel.= _Rumex Acetosella_ L. Achenes usually closely covered by dull reddish brown, finally roughened calyx, which is removed with difficulty; achenes shining with 3 equal sides, broadly oval, the base rounded, the apex abruptly pointed, sides convex, reddish brown or amber color, corners obtuse, darker colored. Native of this country, though in large part introduced from Europe. Very common in thin sandy meadows. [Illustration: Fig. 41.] =Narrow-leaved or Curled Dock.= _Rumex crispus_ L. Achene covered by 3 brown heart-shaped calyx-wings, which are 2.5-3.5 mm. long, each bearing an ovoid, acute tubercle; one of them is 1.5 mm. long, the other two smaller. Achene ovoid, 3-angled, shining, rich reddish-brown, 1.3-1.8 mm. long, .7-1.4 mm. wide, in transverse section the angles prominent, convex sides and angles concave near the base; base abruptly acute; when viewed vertically sides and angles concave near the apex; apex abruptly acute, compare these notes with those concerning R. obtusifolius. Introduced from Europe. Very common on low land and in meadows. [Illustration: Fig. 42.] =Broad-leaved or Bitter Dock.= _Rumex obtusifolius_ L. Achene covered by three brown, hastate-deltoid calyx-wings, which are about 4 mm. long, each bearing an ovoid-elliptical tubercle, one of them 1.5 mm. long, the other two very narrow, rudimentary. Achenes ovoid, 3-angled, less polished than those of R. crispus, light brown, 2-2.4 mm. long, 1-1.4 mm. wide, angles in transverse section slight, sides convex, usually in a greater degree than in the specie just named, vertically sides and angles very slightly concave or straight near the base which is abruptly acute; sides and angles near the apex scarcely concave or straight; apex acute. Introduced from Europe. Not very common. [Illustration: Fig. 43.] =Patience Dock.= _Rumex Patientia_ L. Calyx-wings circular-heart shaped, 4-6 mm. long, one of them bearing a prominent ovoid tubercle; achene ovoid-elliptical, 3-angled, somewhat polished, shining, light-brown, 2.5-3.5 mm. long, 1.7-2 mm. wide, angles prominent, sides straight, in transverse section, not counting the angles, base rounded, not counting the abrupt point, when seen vertically, the sides near the apex are straight or slightly concave. Introduced from Europe. Not common. [Illustration: Fig. 44.] =Willow-leaved Dock.= _Rumex Mexicanus_ Meisn. _Rumex salicifolius_ Weinm. Calyx-wings triangular-ovate, about 3 mm. long, each bearing a large tubercle; achene dark reddish brown, smooth, shining, 1.8-2.2 mm. long, ovoid, angles prominent, the sides viewed transversely rounded, the sides of the base as viewed vertically, rounded, straight or slightly concave, near the apex straight or concave. A native of Northeastern North America. Not common. GOOSEFOOT OR PIGWEED FAMILY. CHENOPODIACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 45.] =Spreading Orache.= _Atriplex patula_ L. Seeds are likely to occur in either of three different guises, depending upon the degree of their ripeness or the amount of threshing to which they have been subjected. Achenes thin, dull, granular, gray, closely fitting the seed; seed jet-black, shining, flattened, nearly circular, edge bluntly rounded, and notched in one place, a groove leading from one side of a margined protuberance part way to the center of the face, 1.5-1.8 mm. in diameter. Introduced from Europe. Seldom troublesome. [Illustration: Fig. 46.] =Pigweed. Lamb's Quarters.= _Chenopodium album_ L. Seeds are likely to occur in either of three different guises dependent upon the degree of their ripeness or the amount of threshing to which they have been subjected. The figure shows these conditions admirably. Seeds black, dull or somewhat glistening, gray if not pretty clean; nearly circular; somewhat lens-shaped, one side usually more nearly flattened than the other 1-1.4 mm. in diameter, the edge bluntly rounded, the more convex side bearing a curved groove leading from one side of the marginal protuberance to near the center of the face, surface finely uneven, often with a faintly evident radiating striation. Introduced from Europe. Very common in annual crops. [Illustration: Fig. 47.] =Mexican Tea.= _Chenopodium ambrosioides_ L. Note remarks under last preceding description concerning different stages of cleaning. Seeds smooth, shining, reddish brown, to black, thickly double convex with scarcely a trace of a hem-like margin, circular, short kidney-shaped or ovate with a notch on the edge, .6-.8 mm. long. Introduced from tropical America. Not prominent. [Illustration: Fig. 48.] =Jerusalem Oak.= _Chenopodium Botrys_ L. Concerning different states of cleaning, note remarks above under C. album. Seeds perfectly cleaned with great difficulty, brown to black or gray, when imperfectly cleaned, slightly flatted on two sides, circular or round, kidney-shaped, sometimes with a hem-like margin, on one side a faint groove from the margin to near the center of the face, .6-.8 mm. in diameter. Introduced from Europe. Not prominent. [Illustration: Fig. 49.] =Oak-leaved Goosefoot.= _Chenopodium glaucum_ L. Concerning the different stages of cleaning note remarks above under C. album. Seeds brown to black, more or less slightly granular, shining, flattened on two sides, circular edge bluntly rounded, with a single notch from which on one side extends a slight depression toward the center of the face, .5-.8 mm. in diameter. Introduced from Europe. Occasional on moist soil. [Illustration: Fig. 50.] =Maple-leaved Goosefoot.= _Chenopodium hybridum_ L. Concerning the different stages of cleaning, note remarks above under C. album. Seeds black, shining, greenish gray if not fully cleaned, nearly circular, lens-shaped, equally convex, 1.2-1.8 mm. in diameter, with a notch on the edge, from which on one side a groove leads to near the center of the face, surface finely uneven, often with a faintly evident radiating striation. Native of this country. Of little importance. [Illustration: Fig. 51.] =Many-seeded Goosefoot.= _Chenopodium polyspermum_ L. Concerning different stages of cleaning, note remarks above under C. album. Seeds finely glandular, shining, jet-black, greenish gray, when not fully cleaned, nearly circular or broadly kidney-shaped, sides equally convex, .6-1.1 mm. in diameter, with a notch on the edge from which on one side, a groove leads to near the center of the face. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 52.] =Winged Pigweed.= _Cycloloma atriplicifolium_ (Spreng.) Coulter. Seeds are likely to occur in either of three different guises depending upon the degree their ripeness or the amount of threshing to which they have been subjected. See the figure of this species. Seeds granular, circular, dull, jet-black, or gray in case the thin ovary remains, 1.3-1.7 mm. in diameter, lower face convex, the upper slightly convex if mature, with a slight notch on the rounded edge, the lower face bearing a slight curved groove, leading from the notch to near the center, the upper face with a light spot at the center. Introduced from western United States. A tumble weed, not common. [Illustration: Fig. 53.] =Russian Thistle.= _Salsola Kali tenuifolia_ G. F. W. Mey. This is not a thistle nor a cactus, but a pigweed. Concerning different stages of cleaning, note remarks above under Chenopodium album (see the figures). Seeds conical, the apex flattened or concave, both sides showing the long coiled embryo, light gray in color, about 2 mm. in diameter. Introduced from northern Europe into the north west and from there into Michigan. Well advertised, though not of high rank as a weed in this state. A tumble weed. AMARANTH FAMILY. AMARANTHACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 54.] =Western Water Hemp.= _Acnida tuberculata Moq._ Seeds smooth, highly polished, brown to jet-black, double convex, nearly circular, with a slight notch at one edge, .6-.8 mm. in diameter, smaller, lighter colored, and thin margins less conspicuous than those found on the seeds of _Amaranthus circaezans_. There are three varieties with seeds much the same as these. Native of low ground in central and southern Michigan. [Illustration: Fig. 55.] =Prostrate Amaranth.= _Amaranthus blitoides_ S. Wats. Seeds smooth, highly polished, jet-black, double convex, nearly circular, with a slight notch at one edge, 1.4-1.5 mm. in diameter. Introduced from west of the Rocky Mountains. It thrives on sandy and gravelly banks. Margin of this seed is less pronounced than in either of the other three noticed above. Found almost everywhere in fields of Michigan. Introduced from tropical America. Very common in annual hoed crops. [Illustration: Fig. 56.] =Tumble weed.= _Amaranthus graecizans_ L. Seeds smooth, highly polished, jet-black, double convex, nearly circular with a slight notch at one edge, .7-1 mm. in diameter. Compare with _Acnida_. Introduced from tropical America. It needs sand or gravel. [Illustration: Fig. 57.] =Slender Pigweed.= _Amaranthus hybridus_ L. (_A. chlorostachys_). Seeds smooth, highly polished, jet-black, double convex, broadly ovate, with a slight notch at the narrow extremity, 1.1-1.4 mm. long. Distinguished from the preceding species by having a seed ovate instead of circular. Introduced from tropical America. Not abundant. [Illustration: Fig. 58.] =Rough Pigweeds.= _Amaranthus retroflexus_ L. Sometimes incorrectly called red-root. Seeds smooth, highly polished, jet-black, double convex, broadly ovate, with a slight notch at the narrow end, .9-1.2 mm. long. The seeds of this and the next preceding are ovate, while those of the first two are very nearly circular. When seen edgewise, the hem-like margin of this seed is less prominent then in either of the preceding three noticed above. Found almost everywhere in annual crops. Introduced from tropical America. KNOTWEED FAMILY. ILLECEBRACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 59.] =Knawel.= _Scleranthus annuus_ L. As the seed is single for each flower, it is unnecessary for the ovary to open; the small, hardened, ten-angled calyx with its five thick lobes aid in protecting and distributing the seed within. The seed is seldom seen. Calyx straw colored, obovoid, 2 mm. long besides the five spreading, membranaceous lobes, which are nearly as long. A low spreading plant, resembling some kinds of chickweed. AIZOACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 60.] =Carpet-Weed.= _Mollugo verticillata_ L. Seeds orange-red, shining, flattened, kidney-shaped or ovoid, .4-.6 mm. long, concave on the thinner edge from which protrudes a nipple-like point, a low central ridge passing over the rounded edge. Native of warmer America. Needing sand. PINK FAMILY. CARYOPHYLLACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 61.] =Cockle.= _Agrostemma Githago_ L. Flowers rose-colored; pod erect, ovoid, about 16 mm. long; seeds dark brown to black, wedge-shaped-triangular, appearing as though the two extremities were bent together; surface covered with curved rows of conspicuous teeth, one side 3-3.5 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. In no sense a weed except in wheat fields. [Illustration: Fig. 62.] =Thyme-leaved Sandwort.= _Arenaria serpyllifolia_ L. Flowers white; seeds reddish brown to lead color, slightly flattened, circular to short-kidney-shaped. Each side covered with 4-5 curved rows of smooth, oval tubercles, giving the appearance of having two extremities bent together, about 5 mm. in diameter. Naturalized from Europe, delighting in light, poor soil. When well grown it becomes a tumbleweed. [Illustration: Fig. 63.] =Larger Mouse-ear Chickweed.= _Cerastium vulgatum_ L. Flowers white; pods cylindrical; seeds light-reddish yellow to dark reddish brown; slightly flattened, 4-sided, 2 of them straight, converging, one rounded, the other narrow and notched. Some of them ovoid, others nearly circular, covered with a few irregularly curved rows of tubercles, .4-.8 mm. in diameter. In large part introduced from Europe, though a native of this continent. [Illustration: Fig. 64.] =Bouncing Bet. Soapwort.= _Saponaria officinalis_ L. Flowers white; seeds dark lead-color, flattened, short-kidney-shaped to circular with notch on one side, 2 mm. across, more or less, with 6-7 curved rows of short, shiny tubercles. Naturalized from Europe, delighting in sandy soil. [Illustration: Fig. 65.] =Cow-herb.= _Saponaria Vaccaria_ L. Seed dull, jet-black, slightly roughened by great numbers of minute points, nearly spherical, 2.3 mm. in diameter. An annual very troublesome in spring wheat. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 66.] =Sleepy Catch-Fly.= _Silene antirrhina_ L. Flowers pink; seeds lead-color, slightly flattened, circular to short-kidney-shaped, each side covered with 5-6 curved rows of pointed tubercles giving the appearance of having two blunt extremities bent together, .5-.7 mm. across. Compare seeds with those of _Arenaria_ above described. When in flower, two of the upper internodes are glutinous. Only found on thin soil. [Illustration: Fig. 67.] =Forked Catch-fly.= _Silene dichotoma_ Ehrh. Seeds reddish-brown, flattened, the three sides and the corners rounded, thickest at one corner narrowing to the side opposite; seed scar in the middle of the narrow side, four curved rows of tubercles on either side of the seed extending to the scar, diameter 1.3 mm., the thick edge concave, containing 6-7 rows of tubercles. [Illustration: Fig. 68.] =Bladder Campion.= _Silene latifolia_ (Mill.) Britton & Randle. _Silene_ (Moench) Garcke. Flowers white; pod covered by an inflated calyx, seeds dull grayish brown, flattened, wedge-shaped, oval or 3-sided, 1-1.7 mm. across, 5-7 curved rows or tubercles on each side. Naturalized from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 69.] =Night-flowering Catch-Fly.= _Silene noctiflora_ L. Flowers white; seeds dull grayish brown, very slightly flattened, oval or short kidney-shaped, nearly 1.5 mm. across, with 8-10 curved rows of tubercles on each side. Naturalized from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 70.] =Spurry.= _Spergula arvensis_ L. Flowers white; seeds jet-black, except a narrowly winged, light-colored margin, slightly flattened, circular in outline 1-1.5 mm. across, with a slight notch on one side, surface often sprinkled with delicate, fragile, light-colored prickles. Introduced from Europe. Thriving on poor, sandy land. [Illustration: Fig. 71.] =Common Chickweed.= _Stellaria media_ (L.) Cyrill. _Alsine media_ L. Flowers white; seeds reddish yellow to dark brown, somewhat flattened, nearly circular, each side covered with 5-6 curved rows of tubercles, giving the appearance of having the two extremities bent together, about 1 mm. in diameter. Introduced from Europe, thriving in cool weather in shade. PURSLANE FAMILY. PORTULACACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 72.] =Purslane. Pussley.= _Portulaca oleracea_ L. Flowers yellow, seeds jet-black, shining, flattened, wedge-shaped, having three rounded nearly equal sides, broadly oval or almost circular, often having a curved tooth or point on one side, with 3-4 curved rows of minute tubercles. Seed .5-.8 mm. in diameter. Naturalized from the southwest. Every gardener knows how difficult it is to exterminate this weed. CROWFOOT FAMILY. RANUNCULACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 73.] =Small-flowered Crowfoot.= _Ranunculus abortivus_ L. Achene light brown to straw colored, 0.8-1.2 mm. in diameter, oblong, 0.3 mm. thick, when seen in cross sections, surface uneven with minute wrinkles, pits and dots flattened, broad oval to circular, three-sided, bearing the remains of a short curved style. Rich, low woods, not a common weed. [Illustration: Fig. 74.] =Bitter or Tall Buttercup.= _Ranunculus acris_ L. Achenes dull, dark brown, two-beaked, somewhat lens-shaped, 3-4 mm. long, one edge very slightly convex, the other prominently so, or somewhat semicircular in outline, hem-like margin, obscure. Introduced from Europe. Low land. [Illustration: Fig. 75.] =Bulbous Buttercup.= _Ranunculus bulbosus_ L. Achenes dull brown, nearly circular, diameter 3-4 mm.; beak short, turned to one side, surrounded by a narrow, hem-like margin. In June, many meadows of New England and New York are yellow with great numbers of flowers. Introduced from Europe. Upland; fortunately not yet common in this state. [Illustration: Fig. 76.] =Creeping Buttercup.= _Ranunculus repens_ L. Achenes plump, dull, light-brown, nearly circular, diameter 3-4 or more mm.; beak more or less hooked, hem-like margin conspicuous. This species usually seeds very sparingly, but when once introduced, it looses no time in spreading by creeping stems. Introduced from Europe. Moist land; a rapid spreader by runners. POPPY FAMILY. PAPAVERACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 77.] =Celandine.= _Chelidonium majus_ L. Yellow sap, yellow flowers; seeds dark brown to almost black, ovoid, 1.2-1.5 mm. long, with 10-12 curved vertical rows of small square depressions on each side; projecting from one side a prominent white or cream-colored ridge, irregularly wrinkled when dry. Introduced from Europe. Persistent. MUSTARD FAMILY. CRUCIFERAE. [Illustration: Fig. 78.] =Yellow or Small Alyssum.= _Alyssum alyssoides_ L. Flowers yellow; fruit nearly circular; seeds rich yellowish brown, about 1.5 mm. long, nearly straight on one edge, flattened slightly, convex on each side or one side flat, surrounded by a thin wing. Cotyledons accumbent. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 79.] =Yellow Rocket. Winter Cress.= _Barbarea vulgaris_ R. Br. (_Barbarea Barbarea_ L. Mac. M.) Seeds roughened, dull, light brown, irregularly flattened, broad oval, circular-oval, circular-oblong, cotyledons accumbent. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 80.] =Hoary Alyssum.= _Berteroa incana_ (L.) D. C. Flowers white; pods oval, flattened; seeds reddish brown, circular, broad oval, or rhombic in outline, about 1.5 mm. in diameter, flat on one side showing a slight groove, the other side convex, irregular owing to pressure in the pod. Cotyledons accumbent. Introduced from Europe. A thrifty weed of the mustard family. [Illustration: Fig. 81.] =Charlock.= _Brassica arvensis_ (L.) B. S. P. Pods tipped with a flattened elongated-conic, often 1-seeded beak. See also cuts of rutabaga and black mustard. Introduced from Europe. See statements last above. [Illustration: Fig. 82.] =Rutabaga.= _Brassica campestris_ L. Seed dull, light or dark reddish brown, roughened by an indistinct net work of ridges, very nearly spherical, 1.4-1.8 mm. in diameter. Much cultivated, inclined to escape. Included here for comparison with other species. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 83.] =Indian Mustard.= _Brassica juncea_ (L.) Cossos. See also cuts of turnip and black mustard. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 84.] =Black Mustard.= _Brassica nigra_ (L.) Koch. Seeds dark brown to reddish brown, 1-1.7 mm., spherical, or broadly oblong, not flattened. The surface of well developed specimens presents a delicate but evident net work of fine ridges which appear under the lens as dark lines. The scar (hilum) is a whitish, elevated spot, at one extremity of the oblong seeds. See cuts of seeds of turnip. Introduced from Europe. A vigorous persistent weed. [Illustration: Fig. 85.] =Small Fruited False-Flax.= _Camelina microcarpa_ Andrz. Flowers small, yellow; pods pear-shaped, flattened, about 6 mm. long, surrounded by a vertical ridge; seeds reddish brown, granular, usually broad-oval, about 1 mm. long, slightly flattened, the vertical ridge much less prominent than in C. sativa. When wet the seed is soon covered with mucilage. Not yet very common. Naturalized from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 86.] =False Flax.= _Camelina saliva_ (L.) Crantz. The common name is derived from the fact that it is a weed of flax fields in Europe. Flowers small, yellowish; pods pear-shaped, slightly flattened, 8-10 mm. long, surrounded by a vertical ridge. Seeds reddish yellow, granular, usually oval, 2-3 mm. long, one side flat or roundish, the other furnished with a prominent vertical or oblique ridge. Seed incumbent. When wet the seed is soon covered with mucilage. Naturalized from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 87.] =Shepherd's Purse.= _Capsella Bursa-pastoris_ (L.) Medic. _Bursa Bursa-pastoris_ (L.) Britton. Flowers small, white; pods flat, nearly triangular, about 4 mm. long. Seeds reddish yellow, granular, oblong, slightly flattened, 1 mm. or less long. Each side usually bearing two longitudinal grooves, separating the surface into three nearly equal parts, these grooves indicating the position of the parts of the embryo. When placed in water, a copious coat of transparent mucilage appears on the surface. In Nevada and Colorado a great pest in fields of Alfalfa. [Illustration: Fig. 88.] =Hare's Ear.= _Conringia orientalis_ (L.) Dumort. Seeds brown, surface checked off into minute irregular pits or patches; broad oval, 2-2.5 mm. long, in section nearly circular, except two opposite slight grooves near one side. Cotyledons incumbent. Introduced, not common. [Illustration: Fig. 89.] =Sand Rocket.= _Diplotaxis muralis_ (L.) DC. Flowers yellow, seeds reddish yellow or reddish brown, broad oval, somewhat flattened. Mucilaginous when wet. Introduced from Europe. A vigorous weed. [Illustration: Fig. 90.] =Worm-seed or Treacle Mustard.= _Erysimum cheiranthoides_ L. Flowers yellow; seeds reddish yellow, smooth, dull, about 1.2 mm. long, ovoid or oval, more or less flattened, varying much in shape; some of them acute, rhombic or triangular, becoming mucilaginous when wet. Probably introduced from Europe. If not already in some portions of the state, we may at any time expect to find three other species of Erysimum. A vigorous and prominent weed. [Illustration: Fig. 91.] =Apetalous Pepper-Grass.= _Lepidium apetalum_ Willd. Petals usually wanting, sometimes 2 and minute; pods flat, nearly circular; seeds reddish yellow, flattened, ovate, 1.5-1.8 mm. long, or more exactly, nearly straight on one side and roundish on the other. Mucilaginous when wet. Cotyledons incumbent. When well developed in open places it becomes a tumble weed. Apparently naturalized from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 92.] =Field Pepper-Grass or Cow Cress.= _Lepidium campestre_ (L.) R. Br. Petals white; pods flat, nearly circular; seeds dull, dark brown, obovoid, with base acute, more or less flattened on three sides, 2-2.5 mm. long. Mucilaginous when wet. Cotyledons incumbent. Naturalized from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 93.] =Hoary Cress.= _Lepidium Draba_ L. Seed reddish brown, surface slightly uneven, slightly flattened, oval to broad oval, 2-2.3 mm. long, usually with two slight vertical grooves on each side, incumbent. This may soon appear in Michigan. [Illustration: Fig. 94.] =Golden Pepper-grass.= _Lepidium sativum_ L. Seed reddish yellow to reddish brown, oval, slightly compressed, often nearly straight on one edge, usually showing two vertical grooves on each side, 2.5 mm. long, cotyledons incumbent. This is not a grass but a plant of the mustard family; it has escaped from cultivation. [Illustration: Fig. 95.] =Wild Pepper-Grass.= _Lepidium Virginicum_ L. Petals white, pods flat, nearly circular; seeds granular, dull, reddish yellow, flat, ovoid with one edge straight, the other rounded, usually with a slight wing on the broad end and on the round edge. 1.5-1.8 mm. long. Mucilaginous when wet. Cotyledons accumbent. When mature, large plants become tumble weeds. Apparently native to this country. [Illustration: Fig. 96.] =Ball Mustard.= _Neslia paniculata_ (L.) Desv. Small fruits, greenish to light yellowish-brown, globular, 2 mm. in diameter, covered with net-veined ridges; 1-2 seeded, cotyledons incumbent. Not yet known in Michigan but may arrive any time. Native of Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 97.] =Tall or Tumbling Mustard.= _Sisymbrium altissimum_ L. Flowers cream-color; pods long and narrow; seeds reddish yellow, oblong, about 1.5 mm. long, the apex winged. Mucilaginous when wet. Cotyledons incumbent. Introduced from Europe. One of the worst weeds in the northwest. [Illustration: Fig. 98.] =Hedge Mustard.= _Sisymbrium officinale_ (L.) Scop. Flowers yellow, seeds reddish brown or yellow, oblong, while lying on the flat side, circular in outline at the middle as viewed from the edge, straight on one side from the middle tapering to each end. 1-1.5 mm. long. Mucilaginous when wet. Cotyledons incumbent. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 99.] =Penny Cress.= _Thlaspi arvense_ L. Flowers white; pods thin, double convex, nearly circular; seeds deep reddish brown, flat-oval or ovate, covered on each side by 12-14 curved ridges which originate and terminate at the narrow extremity. 1.5-2 mm. long. Cotyledons accumbent. When eaten by cows the milk and meat has a disagreeable taste. A bad weed, especially in the north-west. Introduced from Europe. ORPINE FAMILY. CRASSULACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 100.] =Mossy Stonecrop.= _Sedum acre_ L. Seed light, reddish-yellow, somewhat glossy, obovate to oblong, pointed at the base, slightly anatropous, compressed, 6-7 mm. long. This mossy little plant is persistent when once established in sandy soil. Introduced from Europe. ROSE FAMILY. ROSACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 101.] =Tall Hairy Agrimony.= _Agrimonia gryposepala_ Wahl. _Agrimonia hirsuta_ (Muhl.) Bicknell. Flowers yellow. Bur, consisting of calyx and two included fruits inside of which are two seeds; lower part of bur, top-shaped, rough, grooved, above which are numerous hooked prickles in several rows, the whole 7-10 mm. long. Native of woods in this country; seeds mottled brown, flat on one side, 2.5 by 2.5 mm. not found mixed with grass seed. Several other species are nearly as troublesome as this one. Seldom found out of the woods. [Illustration: Fig. 102.] =Small-flowered Agrimony.= _Agrimonia parviflora_ Ait. Flowers yellow; fruit 5-6 mm. long and nearly as wide including the hooked bristles; bristles few, erect or spreading, scarcely any recurved; seeds light brown, broad oval, 2.7 by 2.5 mm. with a rounded point at the base more pronounced than in the former species. Shady places. [Illustration: Fig. 103.] =Silvery Cinquefoil.= _Potentilla argentea_ L. Flowers yellow, achenes dull white to brown, unsymmetrically ovoid or short kidney-shaped, slightly flattened, 0.5-0.7 mm. long, smooth or marked by a few longitudinal curved ridges, some of them forked. Introduced into Michigan from Europe or possibly from the eastern states. Thrives in sandy land. [Illustration: Fig. 104.] =One kind of Cinquefoil or Five-finger.= _Potentilla Canadensis_ L. Achene unsymmetrically ovoid, light straw-color to brown, ridges indistinct, short, wavy, branched and broken up, (these ridges are different from those of P. argentea or P. monspeliensis) 1 mm. long, the achene is less flattened and narrower in proportion. Native from Me. to Ga. Miss. [Illustration: Fig. 105.] =Rough Cinquefoil.= _Potentilla Monspeliensis_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes nearly white to light brown, unsymmetrically ovoid, or short kidney-shaped, slightly flattened, 1 mm. or less in length, clearly marked by a few longitudinal curved ridges, the longer ones forked. Indigenous to Michigan, thriving on moist or wet land. PULSE FAMILY. LEGUMINOSAE. [Illustration: Fig. 106.] =Ax Seed. Ax Wort.= _Coronilla scoparioides_ Koch. Seed reddish brown, oblong, slightly flattened and curved, 4-5 mm. long, 1.5 mm. wide, with a circular scar in a depression on the middle of one edge, and a slight ridge the entire length of both sides. Introduced from Europe, not yet a prominent weed in Michigan. [Illustration: Fig. 107.] =Bird's-foot Trefoil. Ground Honeysuckle. Bloom-fell.= _Lotus corniculatus_ L. Seed light brown occasionally mottled with black, shining, spherical to ovoid, slightly compressed near one edge, 1-1.2 mm. in diameter, the compressed portion (raphe) extending half to three-fourths the length of the seed to the hilum or scar, above this the seed is narrower. Introduced from Europe. Seldom met with in this country. [Illustration: Fig. 108.] =Black Medick. Nonesuch.= _Medicago lupulina_ L. Flowers light yellow; pods black, oval, much flattened, spirally coiled, causing the two extremities to nearly meet; 2-2.8 mm. long; seeds smooth, dull yellow to green, oval, flattened, kidney-shaped, with a tubercle near the middle of the concave edge or like the figure, 1.5-1.8 mm. long. Introduced from Europe and becoming frequent in grass land. Its worst feature is to supply seeds that may be mistaken for and mixed with seeds of alfalfa and red clover. The seeds differ from those of alfalfa in being more commonly egg-shaped than kidney-shaped in outline. The scar is nearer the small extremity in these seeds than in those of alfalfa. For pasture this is less valuable than white clover. [Illustration: Fig. 109.] =Alfalfa. Lucerne.= _Medicago sativa_ L. Seeds varying much in shape and size owing to their crowding in the pod when young, yellowish green to light brown. The cuts give a good idea of the variety of shapes; surface dull or somewhat glossy, often kidney shaped, with the scar in a depression near the middle, the tips may be truncate or acute or rounded, 2-2.5 mm. long in cross-section, oval; when viewed from one edge it is seen to be bent or warped in various ways, half anatropous, often seen with a slight depression extending along one edge from the scar to one end, larger seeds more often flattened than are the shorter. A prominent forage plant, the seeds of which are often adulterated. Native of Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 110.] =White Sweet Clover.= _Melilotus alba Desv._ Flowers white; pods straw-color to brown, coarsely and irregularly reticulate-ridged or wrinkled; seeds smooth, dull, yellowish or greenish, more strictly elliptical-oblong in outline than those of red clover and alfalfa, bearing the broad, shallow notch near one extremity; 2-2.2 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. Seeds used to adulterate those of alfalfa. [Illustration: Fig. 111.] =Alsike Clover.= _Trifolium hybridum_ L. Seeds dull yellowish green to very dark green, some of them mottled, lighter about the seed scar, flattened, one of the rounded edges thicker than the other, and between the two a slight groove on each side; seed rounded at one end, the other truncate with the seed scar in the middle of the truncate end. Some seeds are half anatropous, resembling in shape those of red clover; 1.3-1.2 mm. in diameter. When compared with white clover, these seeds are larger and thicker. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 112.] =Crimson Clover. Scarlet Clover.= _Trifolium incarnatum_ L. Seed smooth, shining when not old, color light yellow to reddish yellow or brown, oval, scar about one-third the distance from the narrow end, three-fourths anatropous, 2-2.5 mm. long, very slightly compressed. [Illustration: Fig. 113.] =Red Clover.= _Trifolium pratense_ L. Seeds usually dull, pure light yellow to purple, flattened, ovoid, having the seed scar near the middle of one edge or below the middle, half anatropous, a slight depression on each side from the scar toward the broad end, the short edge thinner than the long edge, 1.5-1.8 mm. long by 1.x1.4 mm. wide. Very common. Introduced from Europe. =Mammoth Clover= is a variety or race or red clover, the seeds of which are indistinguishable from the seeds of red clover. As a rule they are darker in color and rather smaller. Red clover and mammoth clover are usually much mixed. [Illustration: Fig. 114.] =Low Hop-clover.= _Trifolium procumbens_ L. A low, yellow-flowered annual, often becoming a tumble-weed at maturity. Seeds plump, shining, straw-colored to light brown, broad oval, very slightly flattened, 1 mm. long, three-fourths anatropous, i. e., the scar is a very little distance from one end of the seed. A little way back of the scar on each side is a light-colored depression. Rather rapidly spreading. From Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 115.] =White Clover.= _Trifolium repens_ L. Seeds scarcely shining, yellow to light brown, flattened, one of the rounded edges thinner than the other, and between the two a slight groove on each side, one end rounded, the other truncate with a slight depression in the center containing the seed scar 1.-1.2 mm. long to 1 mm. wide. The seeds that are truncate at one end are anatropous, some of them resembling those of red clover are half anatropous. Common and well known, possibly native to the northern country. GERANIUM FAMILY. GERANIACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 116.] =Alfilaria. Storks-bill.= _Erodium cicutarium_ (L.) L'Her. Flowers pink; achenes reddish brown, hairy, lance-shaped, the smaller end curved, hard, sharp, the larger end when mature bearing an awn spirally coiled for half its length, the sickle like apex turned to one side. Achenes 5-6 mm. long, the coiled portion and cycle-like apex each 10-15 mm. long. True seed light brown, ovoid-lanceolate 2.5-2.7 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. This plant is not yet common in our state, but, judging from its behavior in the botanic garden, it is destined soon to become a bad weed. On the desert ranches of Arizona, Nevada and elsewhere, it furnishes much pasture. [Illustration: Fig. 117.] =Cut-leaved Crane's bill.= _Geranium dissectum_ L. Seed light brown, broadly oval or ovoid, surface deeply pitted requiring 25-30 pits to form one row transversely about the surface. Seed scar at the larger end from which extends a slight vertical ridge reaching nearly one-third the length of the seed. Introduced from Europe, becoming common. [Illustration: Fig. 118.] =Small-flowered Crane's bill.= _Geranium pusillum_ Burm. f. Flowers minute, pink, pubescent under a lens, slightly compressed, oval with the apex near one side of one end, about 2 mm. long, the beak nearly twice as long; seed reddish brown, smooth, oval, slightly flattened, 1.7-1.9 mm. long. Introduced from Europe, a bad weed when once established. SPURGE FAMILY. EUPHORBIACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 119.] =Three-Seeded Mercury.= _Acalypha Virginica_ L. Seeds 1.3-1.8 mm. long oval or obovoid, dull, light to dark reddish brown or gray, mottled with black spots, surface covered with numerous irregular vertical lines, a ridge (hilum) extending from the pointed end for about one-third the length, continuing to the broad extremity as a dark line (raphe). Native to this country. Moist land. [Illustration: Fig. 120.] =Cypress Spurge.= _Euphorbia Cyparissias_ L. Seeds dull, light lead or ash-colored, oval or oblong, circular in transverse section, 1.5-2 mm. long, not including an irregular yellowish appendage (caruncle) at the base, a dark verticle line (raphe) extending along one side. Introduced from Europe. Thriving on thin sandy soil. [Illustration: Fig. 121.] =Toothed Spurge.= _Euphorbia dentata_ Michx. Seeds ash colored, obovoid, or globose, inconspicuously four-angled, base obtuse, irregularly tuberculate, 1 mm. or more long. It thrives in the Botanic Garden and very likely may soon spread onto Michigan farms. [Illustration: Fig. 122.] =Leafy Spurge.= _Euphorbia Esula_ L. Seeds dull, light drab colored, broad-oval, narrowed at one end, nearly circular in transverse section, 2.3 mm. long, not including a wrinkled bunch (caruncle) at the base, a dark vertical line (raphe) extending above one side opposite which is another ridge the color of the seed. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 123.] _Euphorbia hirsuta_ (Torr). Weigand. Seeds lead colored, obovoid approximately square in transverse section with one side narrower than the others, 4-10 irregular transverse ridges on each side, the raphe standing along one corner, about 1.2 mm. long by 7 mm. wide. Sandy soil. [Illustration: Fig. 124.] =Spotted Spurge.= _Euphorbia maculata_ L. Seeds obovoid-oblong, nearly square in cross-sections, minutely pitted and transversely wrinkled with 2-5 broken wavy ridges, a fine dark vertical line (raphe) along one corner, color reddish drab, .6-.8 mm. long. Probably introduced from west of the Rocky Mountains. [Illustration: Fig. 125.] =Upright Spotted Spurge.= _Euphorbia Preslii_ Guss. _Euphorbia nutans Lag._ Seeds lead-colored obovoid-oblong, with 4 unequal sides as seen in cross-section, pitted and transversely wrinkled, with 2-5 broken wavy ridges, a fine dark, verticle line (raphe) along one corner, 1-1.3 mm. long. Native of eastern North America. Introduced in seeds of red clover. [Illustration: Fig. 126.] =Thyme-leaved Spurge.= _Euphorbia serpyllifolia_ Pers. Seed ash-colored, obovoid, four-angled or nearly square in cross-section, the surface covered with four or five more or less broken obtuse transverse ridges, a slender, dark line (raphe) extending from end to end on one corner. Dry soils, like railway tracks. CASHEW FAMILY. ANACARDIACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 127.] =Poison Ivy.= _Rhus Toxicodendron_ L. Berry nearly white, globular, about 5 mm. in diameter, drupe kidney-shaped, concave on both edges, 3 by 4.5 mm. in diameter, 2 mm. thick. To some people very poisonous to the touch; a woody shrub. MALLOW FAMILY. MALVACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 128.] =Indian Mallow. American Jute. Velvet Leaf.= _Abutilon Theophrasti_ Medic. _Abutilon Abutilon_ (L.) _Rusby_. Flowers yellow; seeds brown, flattened, 3.5-4 mm. long, ovoid excepting a piece cut from one side of the smaller end with 3-4 curved rows of minute slender objects on each side, the raphe extending from the pointed end to the notch on one side (half anatropous). Naturalized from northern Asia. [Illustration: Fig. 129.] =Bladder Ketmia.= _Hibiscus Trionum_ L. Seed brown, the surface dotted with numerous, ragged, light-colored pimples. Think of the shape as obovoid, and then bent somewhat to the side. As now found the seed is triangular in outline with rounded corners, considerably thinned toward one corner near which is the seed scar in the midst of a depression. Each side of the triangle is about 2 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. Not yet a prominent weed in Michigan. [Illustration: Fig. 130.] =Cheeses. Running Mallow.= _Malva rotundifolia_ L. Flowers white; cluster of 12-15 fruits flattened, circular with depression on each side, ovary circular, wedge-shaped, very slightly roughened, with radiating ridges; seeds light brown, nearly smooth, flattened, 1.4-1.7 mm. in diameter, wedge shaped, nearly circular with a small notch on the thin edge. Naturalized from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 131.] =Whorled Mallow.= _Malva verticillata._ L. Flowers white; cluster of 10-12 fruits flattened, circular with depression on each side, carpel circular, wedge-shaped, about three rows of irregular shallow pits on the wide edge, radiating ridges on each flat side; seeds light brown, nearly smooth, flattened, wedge-shaped, ovate or nearly circular, 1.5-1.7 mm. long, with a small notch on the thin edge. Introduced from the west. [Illustration: Fig. 132.] =Prickly Sida.= _Sida spinosa_ L. Seed smooth, dull brown or reddish brown, having one side round and two sides flat or more or less concave, all edges obtuse while lying on one flat side, broadly ovoid, with one side nearly straight, scar at the larger end in the midst of a slight depression, 1.5-1.8 mm. long. Not yet common in Michigan. Introduced from the tropics. ST. JOHN'S-WORT FAMILY. HYPERICACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 133.] =Common St. John's-wort.= _Hypericum perforatum_ L. Seed dark brown, mottled with about twenty-four vertical rows of small scars, short oblong, 1 mm. long, a little more or less, circular in cross-section, a slight point at one or both ends. Troublesome in old meadows and pastures. From Europe. EVENING-PRIMROSE FAMILY. ONAGRACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 134.] =Small-flowered Gaura.= _Gaura parviflora_ Dougl. Achenes greenish brown, at first glance, having the appearance of barley, linear, swollen in the middle, more or less grooved or channeled, 6-8 mm. long. Introduced from the South. [Illustration: Fig. 135.] =Common Evening-Primrose.= _Oenothera biennis_ L. _Onagra biennis_ (L.) Scop. Flowers yellow; seeds reddish brown or darker, surface dull, minutely ridged, very irregular in shape owing to crowding in the pod, more or less pyramidal and four or five sided, the angles acute or with a wing-like border, 1.-1.5 mm. long. Native to this country. PARSLEY FAMILY. UMBELLIFERAE. [Illustration: Fig. 136.] =Water Hemlock.= =Mosquash Root.= =Beaver Poison.= _Cicuta maculata_ L. Achenes, when young grow in couples joined by their flat sides, broadly oval, somewhat flattened, a single one-half oval, 2.7-3.2 mm long, with five corky yellowish white vertical stripes alternating with four brown oil tubes, the flat side with two wide light corky stripes including two brown oil tubes. The roots are very poisonous. Native to Michigan and elsewhere. Moist or wet lands. [Illustration: Fig. 137.] =Poison Hemlock.= _Conium maculatum_ L. Flowers white, achenes growing in pairs, light brown, oval, flat on one side, five ribs extending from one end to the other, between them the surface abounds in minute vertical projections, achene about 3.5 mm. long. Difficult to identify. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 138.] =Wild Carrot.= _Daucus Carota_ L. Flowers white; achenes light brown, striped with white, oval, flattened, bearing numerous frail spines along the edges and in two rows lengthwise of one face, tips of spines diverging, often hooked, about 3.5 mm. long not including the spines. Introduced from Europe. This is the cultivated carrot escaped from fields and gardens. A great pest in old meadows. [Illustration: Fig. 139.] =Wild Parsnip.= _Pastinaca sativa_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes growing in pairs, 5-6 mm. long, with flat sides together, light brown, broad oval, much flattened, surrounded by a narrow thin ridge, 9-curved shallow ribs on one side. Introduced from Europe. MILKWEED FAMILY. ASCLEPIADACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 140.] =Common Milkweed.= _Asclepias Syriaca_ L. Pods 8-12 cm. long, covered with soft spiny processes; seeds dull light brown, much flattened, narrowly obovate, 6.5-8 mm. long, the small end truncate, surrounded by a broad wrinkled wing-margin or hem. The concave side bears a slender vertical ridge (raphe) for two-thirds of its length; the convex side bearing fine, short ridges. Before escaping from the pods, the small end of the seed contains a cluster of spreading silky hairs (coma) 2-3 cm. long. Native of this country. Often troublesome and conspicuous in light soil, occasionally becoming small, pale, with slender branches and dying. [Illustration: Fig. 141.] =Black Swallow-wort.= _Cynanchum nigrum_ (L.) Pers. _Vincetoxicum nigrum_ Moench. Smooth pods of the vine about 5 cm. long; seeds brown when dry, much flattened, concave, obovate, 6-8 mm. long, nearly surrounded by a wing margin or hem, the small end truncate. The concave side bears a slender vertical ridge (raphe) for over half its length, both sides bearing fine short ridges. Before escaping from the pods, the small end of the seed contains a cluster of spreading silky hairs. Introduced from Europe; not yet common, but it is persistent where once started. MORNING GLORY FAMILY. CONVOLVULACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 142.] =Small Bindweed.= _Convolvulus arvensis_ L. Color of seeds dull dark brown, coarsely roughened, oval, 3-4 mm. long, one face convex, the other face sloping to the edges from a broad, central ridge, becoming mucilaginous when soaked in water. Introduced from Europe. Seldom, if ever, seeding in Michigan. On dry, poor land. [Illustration: Fig. 143.] =Hedge or Great Bindweed.= _Convolvulus sepium_ L. Pod nearly globose, about 8 mm. in diameter, usually covered by the bracts and calyx; seeds dull black or dark brown, roughened, oval, about 5 mm. long, one face convex, the other face sloping to the edges from a central ridge. Native to this country. Seldom seeding in Michigan. On low land. [Illustration: Fig. 144.] =Field Dodder.= _Cuscuta arvensis_ Beyrich. A pale yellow leafless parasitic vine; seeds dull, yellowish brown, minutely pitted, considerably resembling those of red clover, broad oval, ovoid or spherical, .7-1 mm. long, one side rounded the other often with two flat surfaces terminating in a ridge. Not uncommon with alfalfa. [Illustration: Fig. 145.] =Flax Dodder.= _Cuscuta Epilinum_ Weihe. Stems very slender, yellow or red, a parasitic vine; seeds dull, yellowish to dark brown, minutely pitted, nearly spherical, oval, ovoid, 1-1.5 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 146.] =Clover Dodder.= _Cuscuta Epithymum_ Murr. Stems very slender, a parasitic vine; seeds oval to spherical, dull, pitted, color yellowish, light to dark brown, light green to purple, about 2 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. Occasionally found on red clover. [Illustration: Fig. 147.] =Gronovius Dodder.= _Cuscuta Gronovii_ Willd. Seed light to dark brown, surface minutely granular, free from gloss, a few spherical, most of them indented as they dry or variously angled where they crowded against each other in the pod, 1.5-1.7 mm. in diameter. Species of dodder are difficult to distinguish one from the other. This is common on low land, where it draws nourishment from a great variety of plants, such as willows, balsams, nettles. [Illustration: Fig. 148.] =Spanish Dodder.= _Cuscuta planiflora_ Tenore. Color light to dark pink, purple buff, olive green; surface well roughened, almost reticulated, in shape flattened on one side, ovoid, oval angled, indented in great variety, 0.7-1.2 mm. long. BORAGE FAMILY. BORAGINACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 149.] =Hound's Tongue.= _Cynoglossum officinale_ L. Flowers reddish purple; ovary brown deeply 4-lobed separating into four achenes, 5-7 mm. long, flattened, broadly ovate or circular, excepting a slight extension at one end, lower side having an ovate scar, nearly half as long as the achenes, all the rest of the surface clothed with straight, stiff, cap-shaped hairs, bearded on all sides. Introduced from Europe. Very objectionable in pastures. [Illustration: Fig. 150.] =Stick-Seed. Burr Seed.= _Lappula echinata_ Gilibert. _Lappula Lappula_ (L.) Karst. Flowers blue, ovary deeply 4-lobed separating into four warty achenes, each one brown, about 2.5 mm. long, slightly flattened, ovate with wedge-shaped apex; the upper side bearing a few stiff straight, diverging cap-shaped hairs, bearded on all sides; lower side destitute of hairs, bearing a straight ridge from the point to the middle of the large end. Introduced from Europe. Very objectionable in pastures. [Illustration: Fig. 151.] =Wild Comfrey.= _Lappula Virginiana_ (L.) Greene. Flowers blue; ovary deeply 4-lobed separating into four brown achenes, about 3 mm. long, flattened on upper side, broadly ovate, the apex wedge-shaped, the upper side clothed with stiff straight cap-shaped hairs, bearded on all sides; lower side a low 4-sided cone, nearly smooth with a concave triangular scar. Native to rich woodlands. [Illustration: Fig. 152.] =Red Root. Wheat Thief. Corn Gromwell.= _Lithospermum arvense_ L. Flowers white; ovary 4-divided separating into four hard, conical-ovoid achenes, each dull gray, erect, wrinkled, 2.5-3 mm. long, convex on the back, keeled on the inner side, base obliquely truncate, containing two minute white tubercles. A prominent weed of high rank in fields of winter wheat. VERVAIN FAMILY. VERBENACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 153.] =Blue Vervain.= _Verbena hastata_ L. Achenes crowded, four together until mature, dull, reddish brown, flattened, oblong, 1.7-2 mm. long, bordered by a narrow margin, the outer face convex, bearing 3-5 small vertical ridges branching and uniting at the apex, forming a distinct network, the inner face sloping to the margin from a central vertical ridge; a light colored scar is seen on one side of the base. Native to this country. Not important. [Illustration: Fig. 154.] =Nettle-leaved Vervain.= _Verbena urticifolia_ L. Achenes 1.6-1.8 mm. long, very closely resembling the last above mentioned. The achenes of this one are a trifle shorter and broader, more nearly oval than oblong. Native to this country. Not common in fields. MINT FAMILY. LABIATAE. [Illustration: Fig. 155.] =Dead Nettle.= _Lamium amplexicaule_ L. Achenes light brown, conspicuously marked by white spots some of which coalesce making the surface striped crosswise, obovate-oblong, pointed at the smaller end, 1.5-2 mm. long, the outer surface rounded, the inner face angled, the concave surfaces sloping to the edges from a central vertical ridge. Introduced from Europe. Thrives in cool weather. [Illustration: Fig. 156.] =Motherwort.= _Leonurus Cardiaca_ L. Achenes light brown, obovoid-oblong, rounded on one side flat on the other two sides, the truncate apex hairy, 2-2.4 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. Waste places. [Illustration: Fig. 157.] =White Hoarhound.= _Marubium vulgare_ L. Achenes dull, varying from light to dark brown, sometimes finely roughened by numerous minute tubercles, slightly flattened, oval or obovoid, about 2 mm. long, outer surface convex, inner face angled sloping to the edges from a central vertical ridge, edges of achenes often slightly margined, surface lightly grooved. Introduced from Europe. A weed in northern Michigan where snow protects it in winter. [Illustration: Fig. 158.] =Catnip. Catmint.= _Nepeta Cataria_ L. Achenes dull, light reddish brown to nearly black, with two laterally placed cavities near the base, each filled with white spongey tissue, broadly oval, slightly flattened, 1.3-1.7 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. Scarcely a weed. [Illustration: Fig. 159.] =Self-heal. Heal-all.= _Prunella vulgaris_ L. Achenes light to dark brown, slightly roughened, having a diffused luster, slightly flattened, oval or oblong, the base tapering to a small whitish, triangular appendage, outer side convex having dark verticle lines, the other face sloping to the edges from a central ridge, becoming mucilaginous when soaked in water. Native to this country. NIGHT SHADE FAMILY. SOLANACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 160.] =Jimson Weed. Thorn-apple.= _Datura Stramonium_ L. Pods ovoid, densely prickly, about 4 cm. long; seeds black to brown, flattened, with 6-10 slight irregular elevations, the whole surface covered with minute shallow pits, short kidney shaped, i. e., one edge nearly straight or slightly notched, the remainder of the margin making about two-thirds of a circle. 3-3.5 mm. long. Most likely introduced from Asia. A coarse, poisonous weed found in waste places. [Illustration: Fig. 161.] =Purple Jimson Weed. Purple Thorn-apple.= _Datura Tatula._ The color of the stems are purple, the flowers and pods nearly the same as those last above; seeds of the two scarcely if at all unlike. Naturalized from tropical America. Waste places. [Illustration: Fig. 162.] =Horse Nettle.= _Solanum Carolinense_ L. Berry orange-yellow, 1.6 to 2 cm. in diameter; seeds lemon yellow, slightly double convex, obovate 2.1-2.9 mm. long, surface finely granular all over. Native of the southwest U. S. It spreads rapidly by long roots. [Illustration: Fig. 163.] =Black Nightshade.= _Solanum nigrum_ L. Berry black, smooth, globose, 8-10 mm. in diameter; seeds finely granular, dull, yellowish to light brown, flattened, unsymmetrically ovate, about 1.5 mm. long. Native to this country. I have the best of authority for saying that these berries when ripe make good pies, whether the uncooked fruit is poisonous there is less proof. Of little importance. [Illustration: Fig. 164.] =Beaked Nightshade.= _Solanum rostratum_ Dunal. Fruit surrounded by a persistent prickly calyx about 2 cm. long; seeds flattened, irregularly undulate or wrinkled, dark brown or black, usually ovate or circular in outline, 2-2.5 mm. in diameter, surface covered with small pits. Introduced into Michigan from the southwest. A coarse prickly weed. FIGWORT FAMILY. SCROPHULARIACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 165.] =Butter and Eggs. Toad-Flax.= _Linaria vulgaris_ Hill. _Linaria Linaria_ (L.) Karst. Flowers yellow and orange; seeds dark brown or black, flat, circular or oval, surrounded by a broad wing-margin, the wing notched and covered by numerous fine radiating ridges, the surface of the seed roughened by numerous projecting points, seed, including its wing, 1.5-2 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. A vigorous weed in meadows, spreading by seeds and by root stocks. [Illustration: Fig. 166.] =Moth Mullein.= _Verbascum Blattaria_ L. Flowers yellow; pod 6 mm. diameter; seeds light to dark brown, .5-1 mm. long, columnar, lateral surface slightly angular and 6-sided, base truncate or obliquely so and broader than the rounded apex, thus somewhat thimble-shaped, each lateral face deeply pitted in longitudinal rows, the pits in contiguous rows, alternating. Introduced from Europe. A vile weed in meadows and pastures. =Velvet-Leaved Mullein.= _Verbascum Thapsus_ L. Flowers yellow; pod 6 mm. high; seeds cannot be distinguished with certainty by means of the ordinary lens from those of moth mullein. The pitted surface seems to predominate in _Verbascum Blattaria_, while the grooved surface seems to be more common in the seeds of V. Thapsus. Introduced from Europe. Common in thin pastures. [Illustration: Fig. 167.] =Wall Speedwell.= _Veronica arvensis_ L. Pods heart-shaped; seeds dull, light yellow, flattened, oval, .7-1.1 mm. long on one side appearing as though the two ends had been brought together by bending. From Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 168.] =Common Speedwell.= _Veronica officinalis_ L. Pods heart-shaped; seeds dull, pale yellow, flattened, broadly oval to broadly obovate, .8-1.2 mm. long, with a small scar near the middle of one side, from which extends a faint line (raphe) to one extremity. Appearing as though introduced. [Illustration: Fig. 169.] =Purslane Speedwell.= _Veronica peregrina_ L. Pods heart-shaped; seeds dull, light reddish yellow, flattened, oval to broadly obovate .5-.8 mm. long, with a small scar a little above the middle of one side, from which extends a dark line (raphe) to one extremity. Most likely native to this country. [Illustration: Fig. 170.] =Thyme-leaved Speedwell.= _Veronica serpyllifolia_ L. Pods broadly heart-shaped; seeds pale yellow, a trifle darker than those of V. officinalis, light, reddish yellow, in shape and markings much like those of V. peregrina, flattened, broadly oval to obovate .5-.7 mm. long, with a small scar near the middle on one side, from which extends a dark line (raphe) to one extremity. Apparently native to this country. Seeds of the Veronicas are very difficult to distinguish from one another. PLANTAIN FAMILY. PLANTAGINACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 171.] =Sand Plantain.= _Plantago arenaria_ W. & K. Seeds dark amber brown, shining, rounded on the back like the bottom of a shallow canoe, 2.5-3 mm. long, transverse groove around the middle of the back, opposite side with a groove extending lengthwise, about as wide as the ridge on either side of it; hilum in the middle of the groove. Found at Harrisville, Mich. [Illustration: Fig. 172.] =Large-bracted Plantain.= _Plantago aristata_ Michx. Seeds oval, dull, light to dark brown, 2.2-3 mm. long, shaped like a shallow, thick-walled canoe with ends rounded alike, outer face marked by a shallow, transverse groove at or near the middle, a white line marking the margin at the base on the canoe inside, two white-margined pits occupying the middle of the concave side. Introduced from the west in clover seeds, not yet common. [Illustration: Fig. 173.] =Rib-Grass. Narrow-leaved Plantain.= _Plantago lanceolata_ L. Seeds shining, amber-colored to brown, oval, 2-2.5 mm. long, shaped like a shallow, thick-walled canoe with ends rounded alike, a dark scar occupying the middle of the narrow concave side, a faint, transverse groove across the convex side near the middle sometimes apparent. Often found mixed with clover seeds from which it is very difficult to separate. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 174.] =Broad-leaved Plantain.= _Plantago major_ L. Seeds, light to dark brown or very nearly black, 1-1.5 mm. long, slightly flattened, with acute edges very variable in shape, oval, oblong, rhomboidal and trapezoid, the surface roughened by slender, colored ridges, appearing under the lens as slightly wavy lines, radiating from the scar. The clear light green color of the lower end of the leaf-stem is an easy mark to distinguish this plant from another broad-leaved plantain, _P. Rugelii_ in which the base of leaf is red. Introduced from Europe. About door yards. [Illustration: Fig. 175.] =Rugel's Broad-leaved Plantain.= _Plantago Rugelii Decne._ Seeds dark brown to black, much like those of P. major, but larger, 1.5-2.5 mm. long slightly flattened, with edges acute, very variable in shape, oval oblong, rhomboidal, surface minutely roughened and dull, but wholly without ridge or lines as in P. major. Native of this country. Lower end of leaf-stalk red, and not clear green as in P. major. A vile pest in clover fields. MADDER FAMILY. [Illustration: Fig. 176.] =Blue Field Madder.= _Sherardia arvensis_ L. The parts often called seeds are in reality the half-fruits ripened, each one bearing at the apex three, white, pointed, persistent calyx lobes, the inner face showing a vertical groove, and in some of the fruits the calyx is broken off. Surface dull brown, clothed with small white hairs, obovoid, 2-2.5 mm. long. Introduced from Europe, not often found in the northern states. TEASEL FAMILY. DIPSACACEAE. [Illustration: Fig. 177.] =Wild Teasel.= _Dipsacus sylvestris_ Huds. Achene brown, minutely hairy, 4 mm. long, oblong, square in cross-section, with four vertical ribs on the angles and four on the sides. Seed suspended, anatropous, supplied with endosperm. Introduced from Europe. A weed requiring two years from seed to seeding. COMPOSITE FAMILY. COMPOSITAE. [Illustration: Fig. 178.] =Yarrow. Milfoil.= _Achillea Millefolium_ L. Flowers white; achenes white to gray, finely striate lengthwise, flattened, oblong, tapering at the lower end, straight or curved. 2-2.3 long. Most likely introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 179.] =Ragweed.= _Ambrosia artemisiifolia_ L. Achenes hard, straw-colored to light brown or black, top-shaped, broadly oval, 2.5-3 mm. long, besides the beak 1.5 mm. long, the sides irregularly ridged vertically, with 5-10 short teeth at the apex. Sometimes the hard covering is removed by a clover huller, exposing the naked seed. Native of the U. S. [Illustration: Fig. 180.] =Great Ragweed.= _Ambrosia trifida_ L. Achenes hard, brown, more or less mottled, top-shaped, 7-8 mm. besides the stout beak 2-3 mm. long, sides with 5 stout ridges terminating in 5 short teeth. Native to the United States. River bottoms, low land, sometimes 15 ft. high. [Illustration: Fig. 181.] =Corn Camomile=. _Anthemis arvensis_ L. Achenes very variable, creamy white to light brown, oblong, wedge-shaped in outline, circular to four-angled in cross-section, more or less ribbed lengthwise, a ripple-shaped scar at the narrow end; apex truncate with a minute projection in the center, often with a narrow ridge about the margin. About 1.7 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. Seldom troublesome in Michigan. [Illustration: Fig. 182.] =May-weed. Dog's-Fennel.= _Anthemis Cotula_ L. Outer flowers white; achenes straw color to light brown, obovoid (large end uppermost) to oblong, circular in outline, 1.3-1.8 mm. long, with 10 warty ribs. Introduced from Europe. Old roads and waste places. [Illustration: Fig. 183.] =Great Burdock.= _Arctium Lappa._ So far as I have seen the achenes of this species, when compared with A. minus, are darker colored, rather longer, the ribs more distinct. =Smaller Burdock.= _Arctium minus_ Beruh. Possibly only a variety of _A. Lappa_ L., but the prevailing plant in central Michigan. I see no way of distinguishing the achenes of one from the other; but it makes little difference as one burdock is as bad as another. Flowers purple; achenes dull brown, often spotted with black, straight or curved, slightly flattened, oblong-prismatic with 3-5 narrowly ridged angles, and occasionally other smaller ridges, 4.5-6 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 184.] =Biennial Wormwood.= _Artemisia biennis_ Willd. Achenes dark brown, smooth, somewhat flattened, 3-4 angled, obovate, narrowed at the base .8-1.3 mm. long. Native in the northwestern United States and introduced east with grass seeds. Moist land. [Illustration: Fig. 185.] =Smaller Bur-Marigold.= _Bidens cernua_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes 4-6 mm. long, dull brown, the awns lighter, flattened, 4-angled, wedge-shaped, awns 2-4, barbed downward as also are the ribs. Native of this country. Low lands. [Illustration: Fig. 186.] =Purple-stemmed Swamp Beggar-ticks.= _Bidens connata_ Muhl. Flowers orange; achenes brown, wedge-shaped or obovate, hairy, tubercled, flattened, 4-angled, 4-toothed, 4-6 mm. long, achenes and teeth downwardly barbed. Swamps, common. [Illustration: Fig. 187.] =Beggar-ticks.= _Bidens frondosa_ L. Achenes dull brown, tubercled, much flattened, obovate or oval, 6-12 mm. long, awns usually 2, spreading barbed downward. Low lands. [Illustration: Fig. 188.] =Star Thistle.= _Centaurea solstitialis_ L. Achene cream white to mottled brown, flattened, oval about 2 mm. long; scar of attachment in a notch of one edge above the rounded base, apex truncate with a small tubercle in the middle. Found in seeds of alfalfa. A ragged plant from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 189.] =Ox-eye Daisy.= _Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum_ L. Flowers white; achenes brown or black with ten white conspicuous vertical ribs, narrowly obovate 1.5-1.8 mm. long, bearing a tubercle at the apex. Introduced from Europe. Becoming common. A prominent weed in old pastures and meadows. [Illustration: Fig. 190.] =Chickory.= _Chichorium Intybus_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes light brown, more or less mottled or spotted with black, straight or curved, 4-5 angled, flattened, apex truncate crowned with a double row of minute scales. Achenes 2.5-3 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 191.] =Canada Thistle.= _Cirsium arvense_ (L.) Scop. _Carduus arvensis_ (L.) Robs. Flowers purple or white; achenes smooth, light brown, curved or straight, narrowly obovoid or oblong, slightly flattened, 2-3 mm. long, apex truncate, cup-shaped with a tubercle in the center. Introduced from Europe. A weed of first rank. [Illustration: Fig. 192.] =Bull Thistle.= _Cirsium lanceolatum_ (L.) Hill. _Carduus lanceolatus_ L. Flowers purple; achenes smooth, nearly white, with sharp vertical brown stripes, slightly flattened, obovate or oblong, usually curved near the apex, 3-4 mm. long, apex truncate with a large tubercle in the center. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 193.] =Narrow leaved Hawksbeard.= _Crepis tectorum_ L. Flowers yellow; achene chestnut brown, straight or curved, linear, ribs 10, smooth or rugose; 3.4 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 194.] =Fire-weed.= _Erechtites hieracifolia_ (L.) Raf. Achenes brown, linear, 2.2-2.8 mm. long, flattened, straight or curved, having ten vertical ribs between which are minute white oppressed hairs, the extremities truncate, wider than the narrow portion beneath, the apex white with a tubercle projecting from the center of a minute cup. Native to this country. Not of much importance. =Annual Fleabane.= _Erigeron annuus_ (L.) Pers. Flowers white; achenes smooth, shining, brownish white, translucent, flattened, obovate or oblong, .7-.9 mm. long, bearing at the apex a whorl of very small diverging bristles, the longest ones having been rubbed off. Faint traces of a few oppressed hairs may be seen under a good lens. Native to this country and a very prominent weed in thin meadows. [Illustration: Fig. 195.] =Horse-weed.= _Erigeron Canadensis_ L. _Leptilon Canadense_ (L.) Britton. Achenes oblong, dull cream color, much flattened, 1-1.3 mm. long, shining, smooth or containing a few minute oppressed bristles, apex truncate, bearing a whorl of bristles, the longest having been rubbed off. Native of this country. Compare the above description with that of Erigeron annuus. Common in waste places. [Illustration: Fig. 196.] =Daisy Fleabane.= _Erigeron ramosus_ (Walt.) B. S. P. Flowers white; achenes nearly identical with those last described, Erigeron annuus, bristles shorter, less diverging, surface bearing more minute appressed hairs when seen under a lens. Native to this country and prominent in some thin meadows. [Illustration: Fig. 197.] =Sweet Everlasting.= _Gnaphalium polycephalum_ Michx. _Gnaphalium obtusifolium_ L. Outer scales of the head thin, white, stiff; achenes yellowish white or brown, slightly flattened, smooth, oval or oblong, .5-.7 mm. long. Native to this country. Not often troublesome. Much practice with a good lens and careful comparisons with other small achenes will be necessary in identifying such specimens as are furnished by this species. [Illustration: Fig. 198.] =Low Cudweed.= _Gnaphalium uliginosum_ L. Outer scales of the head thin, brown, more or less wooly; achenes .4-.6 mm. long, yellowish white to brown, slightly flattened, smooth, narrowly oblong .4-.6 mm. long. Achenes narrower and rather shorter than those of G. obtusifolium. Native to this country. Not of high rank as a weed. [Illustration: Fig. 199.] =Broad-leaved Gum Plant.= _Grindelia squarrosa_ (Pursh.) Dunal. Flowers yellow; achenes creamy white or light brown, very variable in appearance, more or less flattened, often 4-angled, straight to much curved, narrowed at the base, apex truncate, often concave with a distinct marginal rim, some of them not very unlike those of Canada thistle, some of them smooth, others finely grooved or ridged lengthwise, others somewhat wrinkled, 2.5-3 mm. long. Occasionally introduced from the west with seeds of grasses or clover. Usually not persistent in Michigan. =Artichoke.= _Helianthus tuberosus_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes black, shiny more or less, slightly flattened, pubescent with very short hairs, with four obtuse angles, narrowly obovate, 6-7 mm. long, one side of the smaller end projecting beyond the other side. Native of this country; cultivated by Indians. [Illustration: Fig. 200.] =Golden Mouse or Orange-Ear Hawkweed. Devil's Paint-Brush.= _Hieracium aurantiacum._ Flowers orange yellow; achenes jet black, oblong, straight or curved, apex truncate, base abruptly tapering, cylindrical, the sides bearing 10 narrow, vertical ridges. Introduced from Europe. In Eastern New York and Western Massachusetts meadows abound in large areas of this vile weed, 1.8-2.2 mm. long. [Illustration: Fig. 201.] =Mouse-Ear Hawkweed.= _Hieracium Pilosella_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes jet black, oblong, straight or curved, apex truncate, base abruptly pointed, cylindrical or narrowly oval, the sides bearing 10 narrow vertical ridges. Introduced from Europe. The achenes very closely resemble those of the orange hawkweed. It doesn't matter much, for the habits are the same, and one is about as noxious as the other. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 202.] =Elecampane.= _Inula Helenium_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes light brown, straight or curved, linear, flattened, 4-5 mm. long, 4 sided with 5-8 obscure vertical ridges on each side, apex concave, the margin bearing a circle of short stiff bristles, the remains of longer ones. Introduced from Europe. Not common. [Illustration: Fig. 203.] =Marsh Elder.= _Iva xanthiifolia_ (Fresen.) Nutt. Achenes various shades of brown to black, flattened or rhombic in section, obovoid, 1.5-2 mm. long, longitudinally, striate with fine lines. Native to the upper peninsula of Michigan where it most likely was at one time introduced from the west. It has not been found in the lower peninsula, probably because it had no means of coming across Lake Michigan. [Illustration: Fig. 204.] =Wild Lettuce.= _Lactuca Canadensis_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes black or nearly so, flattened, oval, bearing 3 ribs, the lateral ones sometimes double, the middle one slender, surface abounding in minute transverse ridges as seen under a lens, the remains of a beak sometimes remaining. Native of this country. Other species of Lettuce are more or less troublesome. [Illustration: Fig. 205.] =Prickly Lettuce.= _Lactuca virosa_ L. For many years erroneously called _Lactuca scariola_. Flowers yellow; achenes dull, dark brown, mottled with black, flattened, bearing 5-7 rough, vertical ridges, interspersed by as many smaller ones; oblong, obovate, widest toward the tapering apex. 3-3.5 mm. long. Some of the leaves turn one edge up and the other down. Introduced from Europe and has proved itself a remarkable traveller. [Illustration: Fig. 206.] =Fall Dandelion.= _Leontodon autumnalis_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes light brown, linear, with 5 broad, rounded ribs; achene 4-6.5 mm. long, straight or curved, the outer traversed, with low transverse ridges. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 207.] =Black-eyed Susan. Yellow Daisy.= _Rudbeckia hirta_ L. Achene purple-brown to black, slightly tapering from base to apex 1.5-1.8 mm. long, base abruptly pointed, apex truncate, in cross section nearly square, having 5-7 slender vertical ridges on each side besides a larger one at each of the four corners. Widely distributed in meadows and pastures. [Illustration: Fig. 208.] =Corn Sow-Thistles.= _Sonchus arvensis_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes dull, dark reddish brown, oblong, extremities blunt, slightly flattened, bearing four coarse, fold-like ridges, with two smaller ridges between each of the two large ones, transversely wrinkled, 2.5-3 mm. long. This species is a perennial spreading by roots-stalks as well as by seeds. Introduced in Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 209.] =Spiny Sow-Thistle.= _Sonchus asper_ (L.) Hill. Flowers pale yellow; achenes dull straw-color to reddish brown, much flattened, obovate, oblong, extremities blunt, each side bearing 3-5 vertical ridges, surface nearly smooth, 2.5-3 mm. long. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 210.] =Common Sow-Thistle.= _Sonchus oleraceus_ L. Flowers pale yellow; achenes reddish brown, linear, oblanceolate, 3 mm. long, flattened extremities blunt, 5 uneven wrinkled ridges on each side. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 211.] =Red-Seeded Dandelion.= _Taraxacum erythrospermum_ Andrz. Achene bright red or red reddish brown, flattened, oblanceolate, 3 mm. long, 1 mm. wide or less, the red beak 1 mm. long, prickles often extending nearly to the base along twelve vertical ribs, the achenes narrower, shorter, much darker in color, with prickles extending farther down the ribs, the short beak longer; the plant is earlier, often smaller, when compared with the other species. Doubtless this is more common than has been reported, having been overlooked. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 212.] =Dandelion.= _Taraxacum officinale_ Weber. _Taraxacum Taraxacum_ (L.) Karst. Flowers yellow; achenes dull light to dark brown, flattened oblanceolate, thread-like beak two to three times as long as the achene, the stout colored beak 0.5 mm. long. The most conspicuous character of the achenes lies in the barb-like-toothed edges and ridges of each of the similar faces, extending along the upper half. Achene, 3-4 mm. long, having twelve longitudinal ridges, 1.2 mm. wide. Introduced from Europe. Troublesome on thin lawns. [Illustration: Fig. 213.] =Salsify. Oyster-Plant.= _Tragopogon porrifolius_ L. Flowers purple; achenes dull light brown, nearly cylindrical; apex tapering, mostly terminating in a slender beak which is often longer than the body of the achene. Achene straight or curved, 10-ribbed, 12-18 mm. long, outermost coarsely roughened by upwardly directed, whitish, scale-like projections. Native of Europe. =Meadow Salsify. Yellow Goat's Beard.= _Tragopogon pratensis_ L. Flowers yellow; achenes dull, light brown, nearly cylindrical, apex tapering, mostly terminating in a slender beak. Achene straight or curved, 10-ribbed, 12-15 mm. long, the inner ones of the head smooth, the outer-most coarsely roughened by upwardly directed, whitish, scale-like projections. Introduced from Europe. [Illustration: Fig. 214.] =American Cocklebur.= _Xanthium Canadensis_ Mill. Achenes or burs reddish brown, oblong, circular in section, two-beaked, about 20 mm. long, covered with stout hooked prickles. Each bur encloses two seeds. Native of this country. [Illustration: Fig. 215.] =Spiny Clotbur.= _Xanthium spinosum_ L. Bur oblong, light brown, very slightly flattened, 10-13 mm. long, the beaks weak and small, small hooked prickles 3-4 mm. long, each bur contains two seeds. Introduced from Europe. =Broad Cocklebur.= _Xanthium strumarium_ L. Bur dark brown, oval, circular in sections 12-22 mm. long, beaks stout, nearly straight, spines about 5 mm. long, surface of burs and base of spines clothed with minute hooked prickles. Naturalized from Europe. INDEX. Page Abutilon, 145 Acalypha, 143 AC-CUM´BENT, leaning or lying upon, applied to cotyledons when the caulicle (radicle) is folded against their contiguous edges, shown as [Symbol: 0== rotated 90 deg. clockwise]. A-CHENE´, achenium, a small, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit, likely to be mistaken for a seed. Achillea, 160 Acnida, 126 A-CU´MIN-ATE, ending in a prolonged tapering point. Agrimonia, 138 Agrimony, tall hairy, 138 Agrostemma, 128 Agropyron, 110 Aizoaceae, 128 Alfalfa, 140 Allium, 119 Alfilaria, 142 Alsike clover, 141 Alsine, 131 Alyssum, 132 Alyssum, hoary, 133 Amaranth, 126, 127 Amaranth family, 126 Amaranthaceae, 126 Amaranthus, 127 Ambrosia, 160, 161 American jute, 145 Anacardiaceae, 145 A-NAT´RO-POUS, a name applied to an ovule or seed which grows so that the funiculus coheres to the whole length forming a raphe along the edge bringing the hilum near the micropyle while the chalaza is at the other extremity. Annual fleabane, 165 Anthemis, 161 Apetalous pepper-grass, 135 A´PEX, the tip or growing point of an organ. Arctium, 162 Arenaria, 129 Artemisia, 162 Artichoke, 167 Asclepiadaceae, 149 Asclepias, 149 Atriplex, 124 Avena, 110 AWN, a bristle-shaped appendage. Ax seed, 139 Ax wort, 139 Ball mustard, 137 Barbarea, 133 BARBED, furnished with rigid points or short bristles, usually reflexed like the barb of a fish-hook. Barnyard grass, 114 Beaked nightshade, 156 Beaver poison, 148 Beggar-ticks, 163 Bermuda grass, 113 Berteroa, 133 Bidens, 162, 163 Biennial wormwood, 162 Bindweed, 150 Bird's-foot trefoil, 139 Bitter buttercup, 131 Bitter dock, 122 Black-eyed susan, 169 Black medick, 139 Black mustard, 134 Black nightshade, 156 Black swallow-wort, 149 Bladder campion, 130 Bladder Ketmia, 146 Bloom-fell, 139 Bluefield madder, 159 Blue grass, 116 Blue grass, Canadian, 116 Blue grass, Kentucky, 116 Blue Vervain, 153 Borage family, 152 Boraginaceae, 152 Bouncing Bet, 129 Broad-leaved Dock, 122 Broad-leaved plantain, 159 Brome grass, 112 Bromus, 111 Buckwheat family, 119 Buckwheat, wild, 120 Bulbous buttercup, 132 Bull thistle, 164 Burdock, 162 Bur-grass, 112 Bur-marigold, 162 Bur-seed, 152 Bursa, 134 Buttercup, bitter, creeping, or tall, 131 Butter and eggs, 156 Camelina, 134 Canada thistle, 164 Canadian blue grass, 116 Capriola, 113 Capsella, 134 Carduus, 164, 165 Carpet-weed, 128 CAR´UN-CLE, an excrescence or protuberance near the hilum of a seed. Caryophyllaceae, 128 Cashew family, 145 Catch-fly, 129, 130 Catmint, 154 Catnip, 154 Celandine, 132 c. m. centimeter, see ruled lines on last page, 183 Cenchrus, 112 Centaurea, 163 Centimeter, see ruled lines on last page, 183 Cerastium, 129 Chaetochloa, 117 Charlock, 133 Cheat, 112 Cheeses, 146 Chelidonium, 132 Chenopodiaceae, 124 Chenopodium, 124, 125, 126 Chess, barren, field, smooth, soft, 111 Chickory, 164 Chickweed, 129, 131 Chrysanthemum, 163 Cichorium, 164 Cicuta, 148 Cinquefoil, silvery, 138, 139 Cirsium, 164, 165 Claviceps, 110 Climbing false buckwheat, 121 Clover dodder, 151 Cockle, 128 Cocklebur, 171 CO´MA, a tuft of hair on a seed. Common chickweed, 131 Common milkweed, 149 Common speedwell, 157 Compositae, 160 Composite family, 160 Conium, 148 Conringia, 135 Convolvulaceae, 150 Convolvulus, 150 Corn camomile, 161 Corn gromwell, 153 Coronilla, 139 Couch grass, 110 Cow-cress, 136 Crab-grass, 113-114 Crassulaceae, 138 Creeping buttercup, 132 Crepis, 165 Cress, cow, 136 Crimson clover, 141 Crowfoot, 131 Crowfoot family, 131 Cruciferae, 132 Curled Dock, 122 Cut-leaved Crane's bill, 142 Cuscuta, 150, 151 Cycloloma, 126 Cynanchum, 149 Cynodon, 113 Cynoglossum, 152 Cyperaceae, 118 Cyperus, 118 Cypress spurge, 143 Daisy fleabane, 166 Dandelion, 170 Datura, 155 Daucus, 148 Dead nettle, 154 DEL´TOID, shaped like the Greek letter delta; triangular. Devil's paint-brush, 167 Digitalis, 113 Diplotaxis, 135 Dipsaceae, 160 Dipsacus, 160 Dock, 121 Dock-leaved Persicaria, 120 Dodder, 150 Dog's fennel, 161 Echinochloa, 114 Elecampane, 167 Eleocharis, 118 Eleusine, 114 EL-LIP´TIC-AL, oblong and rounded at the ends; longer than oval. EM´BRY-O, the little plant forming a part of the seed, usually consisting of caulicle, one or more cotyledons and a plumule. Eragrostis, 115 Erechtites, 165 Ergot, 110 Erigeron, 165, 166 Erodium, 142 Erysimum, 135 Euphorbia, 143, 144 Euphorbiaceae, 143 Evening primrose, 147 Evening primrose family, 147 Fall dandelion, 168 False Buckwheat, 121 False flax, 134 FE´MALE FLOW´ER, one having pistils only, but no stamens; pistillate flower. FER´TILE, producing fruit, or reproductive bodies of any kind. Field dodder, 150 Field garlic, 119 Field madder, 159 Field pepper-grass, 136 Figwort family, 156 Fire-weed, 165 Five finger, 139 Flat-stemmed Poa, 116 Flax dodder, 150 Fleabane, 165, 166 Floral glume FLO´RET, a single flower of a head or cluster, especially in Compositae. Forked catchfly, 130 Foxtail, green, yellow, 117 Garlic, field, wild, 119 Gaura, 147 Geraniaceae, 142 Geranium family, 142 GLUME, one of the outer floral envelopes in grasses or sedges. The term as now used includes the bracts (empty glumes) which subtend a spikelet and the lower of the two bracts subtending the individual flower (flowering or floral glume, lemma). Gnaphalium, 166 Golden pepper-grass, 136 Goosefoot, 125 Goosefoot family, 124 GRAIN, the caryopsis or fruit of Gramineae; any small seed. Grass, crab, 114 Grass family, weeds in, 110 Grass, old witch, 115 Grass, porcupine, 117 Grass, stink, 115 Green foxtail, 117 Great bindweed, 150 Great burdock, 162 Great ragweed, 161 Grindelia, 166 Gronovius' dodder, 151 Ground honeysuckle, 139 Gum plant, 166 Hare's ear, 135 HAS´TATE, like the head of a halberd--applied to leaves which have a spreading lobe on each side of the base. Hawksbeard, 165 Heal-all, 155 Hedge bindweed, 150 Hedge mustard, 137 Helianthus, 167 Hibiscus, 146 Hieracium, 167 Hillman, F. H., graduate of the College in 1888; expert draftsman of the seed Division of Washington, D. C, 103 Hilum, 134 HI´LUM, the scar or point of attachment of a seed. Hoarhound, 154 Hoary alyssum, 133 Hoary cress, 136 Honeysuckle, ground, 139 Hordeum, 115 Horse nettle, 155 Horse-weed, 165 Hound's tongue, 152 Hypericaceae, 147 Hypericum, 147 Illecebraceae, 128 IN-CUM´BENT, leaning or lying upon; applied to cotyledons when the caulicle is folded against the track of one of them, shown as [Symbol: || o]. Indian mallow, 145 Indian mustard, 133 Indigenous, 139 IN-DIG´E-NOUS, native and original to the region. Inula, 167 Iva, 167 IN´VO-LU-CRE, a set of bracts immediately subtending a flower or inflorescence. Jerusalem oak, 125 Jimson weed, 155 Juncaceae, 118 June grass, 116 KEEL, the joined pair of petals in a papilionaceous corolla; a projecting ridge along the back of an organ. Knawel, 128 Knot-grass, 119 Knotweed, 120 Knotweed family, 128 Labiatae, 154 Lactuca, 168 Lady's Thumb, 121 Lamb's quarters, 124 Lamium, 154 LAN´CE-O-LATE, tapering abruptly towards the base and gradually towards the apex, like the head of a lance. Lappula, 152 Large-bracted plantain, 158 Leafy spurge, 143 Leguminosae, 139 Leontodon, 168 Leonurus, 154 Lepidium, 136 Leptilon, 165 Liliaceae, 119 Lily family, 119 Linaria, 156 LIN´E-AR, very narrow with the margins parallel or nearly so. Lithospermum, 153 Low cudweed, 166 Lucerne, 140 Lotus, 139 Low hop-clover, 141 Madder family, 159 Mallow, 145, 146 Mallow family, 145 Malva, 146 Malvaceae, 145, 146 Mammoth clover, 141 Many-seeded goosefoot, 126 Maple-leaved goosefoot, 125 Marsh elder, 167 Marubium, 154 May-weed, 161 Medicago, 139, 140 Melilotus, 140 Mexican tea, 125 Milfoil, 160 Milkweed, 149 Milkweed family, 149 Millimeter, see last page of this bulletin Mint family, 154 m. m. Millimeter, see ruled lines on last page, 139 Mollugo, 128 Morning-glory family, 150 Mossy stonecrop, 138 Motherwort, 154 Moth mullein, 156 Mouse-ear chickweed, 129 Mouse-ear hawkweed, 167 Mullein, 156, 157 Musquash-root, 148 Mustard, 133, 134, 135 Mustard family, 132 Narrow-leaved dock, 122 Narrow-leaved hawk's beard, 165 Narrow-leaved plantain, 158 Nepeta, 154 Neslia, 137 Nettle family, 119 Nettle-leaved vervain, 153 Night-flowering catchfly, 130 Nightshade, 156 Night-shade family, 155 Nonesuch, 139 Nut-grass, 118 Oak-leaved goosefoot, 125 Oat, wild, 110 OB-LAN´CE-O-LATE, lanceolate in form, but tapering toward the base more than toward the apex. OB´LONG, longer than wide with nearly parallel sides. Compare Oval. OB-O´VATE, a flat body broader toward the apex than the base. See Ovate. OB-O´VOID, a solid body broader towards the apex than the base. See Ovoid. OB-TUSE´, having a rounded end or apex; blunt. Oenothera, 147 Old witch grass, 115 Onagraceae, 147 Orache, spreading, 124 Orpine family, 138 O´VAL, about twice as long as broad, with regular curved outlines, broadly elliptical. O´VATE, like a longitudinal section of an ordinary hen's egg, with the attachment, if any, at the broad end. O´VOID, the shape of a hen's egg and attached, if at all, at the large end. Ovoid spike rush, 118 Ox-eye daisy, 163 Oyster-plant, 170 Paint brush, 167 PA´LE-A, PA´LET, the upper bract which with the floral glume incloses the flower in grasses. Pale persicaria, 120 Panicum, 113 Panicum capillare, 115 Panicum, smooth, 115 Papaveraceae, 132 Parsley family, 148 Parsnip, wild, 149 Pastinaca, 149 Patience dock, 123 Pennsylvania persicaria, 120 Penny cress, 137 Peppergrass, 135, 136 Persicaria, dock-leaved, 120 Pigeon grass, 117 Pigweed, 124 Pigweed family, 124 Pink family, 128 Plantago, 158, 159 Plantain family, 158 Poa annua, 116 Poa compressa, 116 Poa, flat-stemmed, 116 Poa pratensis, 116 Poison hemlock, 148 Poison ivy, 145 Polygonaceae, 119 Polygonum, 119-120 Poppy family, 132 Porcupine grass, 117 Portulaca, 131 Portulacaceae, 131 Potentilla, 138, 139 Prickly lettuce, 168 Prickly sida, 146 Prostrate amaranth, 127 Prunella, 155 PU-BES´CENT, clothed with soft and rather short hairs. Pulse family, 139 Purple Jimsonweed, 155 Purple-stemmed beggar-ticks, 163 Purslane family, 131 Purslane speedwell, 157 Pusley, 131 Quack grass, 110 Ragweed, 160 Ranunculaceae, 131 Ranunculus, 131, 132 RA´PHE, the adherent funiculus connecting the hilum and chalaza in anatropous or amphitropous ovules or seeds. Red clover, 141 Red-seeded dandelion, 170 Red root, 153 RE-TIC´U-LATE, in the form of network. Rhus, 145 Rib-grass, 158 Rocket, yellow, 133 ROOT, the descending axis which is destitute of leaves or nodes. ROOT STOCK, rhizome, a stem usually subterranean and more or less thickened, producing young branches. Rosaceae, 138 Rose family, 138 Rough cinquefoil, 139 Rough pigweed, 127 Rudbeckia, 169 Rugel's broad-leaved plantain, 159 Rumex, 121, 122, 123 Running mallow, 146 Rush family, 118 Rush, slender, 118 Rush, spike, 118 Russian thistle, 126 Rutabaga, 133 Rye, 116 Salsify, 170 Salsola, 126 Sand-bur, 112 Sand plantain, 158 Sand rocket, 135 Sandwort, 129 Saponaria, 129 Scarlet clover, 141 Scleria, 128 Scrophulaceae, 156 Secale, 116 Sedge family, 118 Sedum, 138 Self-heal, 155 Setaria glauca, viridis, 117 Sheep sorrel, 122 Shepherd's purse, 134 Sherardia, 159 Shore knot-weed, 120 Sida, 146 Silene, 129, 130 Silvery cinquefoil, 138 Sisymbrium, 137 Sleepy catchfly, 129 Slender pigweed, 127 Slender nettle, 119 Slender rush, 118 Small alyssum, 132 Smaller burdock, 162 Small-flowered crane's bill, 142 Small-flowered crowfoot, 131 Small-fruited false flax, 134 Smut-weed, 120 Solanaceae, 155 Solanum, 155, 156 Sonchus, 169 Sorrel, 121 Sour dock, 121 Sow-thistle, 169 Spanish dodder, 151 Spear grass, 116 Speedwell, 157 Spergula, 130 SPIKE´LET, a small or secondary spike, as found in grasses. Spotted spurge, 144 Spring clotbur, 171 Spring sow-thistle, 169 Spurge family, 143 Spurry, 130 Squirrel-tail grass, 115 St. John's-wort family, 147 Star thistle, 163 Stellaria, 131 STER´ILE, not fertile. Stick-seed, 152 Stink grass, 115 Stipa spartea, 117 Stonecrop, mossy, 138 Stork's-bill, 142 STRI´ATE, striped with parallel ridges and grooves. Swallow-wort, 149 Swamp begger-ticks, 163 Sweet clover, 140 Sweet everlasting, 166 Syntherisma, 113 Tall buttercup, 131 Tall mustard, 137 Taraxacum, 170 Teasel family, 160 Thistle, 164 Thistle, Russian, 126 Thorn apple, 155 Three-seeded mercury, 143 Thyme-leaved sandwort, 129 Thyme-leaved speedwell, 157 Thyme-leaved spurge, 144 Toad-flax, 156 Tragopogon, 170 Treacle mustard, 135 Trefoil, 139 Trifolium, 141, 142 TRUN´CATE, terminating abruptly, as though cut off or flattened at the end. Compare Premorse and Succise. TU´BER-CLE, a swollen part or a root due to bacteria. Usually applies to such as possess the power to fix nitrogen; a little tuber. Tumbleweed, 127 Tumbling mustard, 137 Umbelliferae, 148 Upright spotted spurge, 144 Urtica, 119 Velvet leaf, 145 Velvet-leaved mullein, 157 Verbascum, 156, 157 Verbena, 153 Verbenaceae, 153 Veronica, 157 Vervain family, 153 Vincetoxicum, 149 Wall speedwell, 157 Water hemlock, 148 Water hemp, 126 Weed, defined, 103 Weed, what enables a plant to become one, 105 Weeds, disadvantages of, 104 Weeds, found in certain crops and why, 107 Weeds, how introduced and how spread, 106 Weeds, how to exterminate, 108 Weeds, lists of, in clovers and grasses, 107 Weeds of Michigan compared with those elsewhere, 107 Weeds, some small benefits from, 104 Weeds, where certain ones are troublesome, 107 Weeds, where they come from, 107 Western water hemp, 126 Wheat thief, 153 White clover, 142 White hoarhound, 154 White sweet clover, 140 Whorled mallow, 146 Wild carrot, 148 Wild comfrey, 152 Wild garlic, 119 Wild lettuce, 168 Wild parsnip, 149 Wild peppergrass, 136 Willow-leaved dock, 123 Winged pigweed, 126 Wild buckwheat, 120 Wild oat, 110 Winter cress, 133 Wire grass, 114, 116 Witchgrass, old, 115 Worm-seed, 135 Wormwood, 162 Xanthium, 171 Yard grass, 114 Yarrow, 160 Yellow alyssum, 132 Yellow daisy, 169 Yellow foxtail, 117 Yellow goat's beard, 170 Yellow rocket, 133 [Symbol: right pointing index] If not familiar with the decimal scale used in recording measurements in this volume, the reader can clip out one of those found below and use it for measuring. [Illustration] Transcriber's Notes Use the first phrase to find the change. Page 2 'a dollar is almost indispensable in' Changed 'indispensible' to 'indispensable'. Page 2 'they annoy the gardner.' 'gardner' may be 'gardener'. Unchanged. Page 105 'enormous number of weeds.' 'weeds' may be 'seeds'. Unchanged. Page 114 'three obscure longitudinal' Changed 'obcure' to 'obscure'. Page 119 'Urtica gracilis' Changed 'Utrica' to 'Urtica'. Page 120 'Polygonum Convolvulus' Changed 'Concolvulus' to 'Convolvulus'. Page 120 'elliptical to obovoid,' Changed 'ellipical' to 'elliptical'. Page 121 'base obtuse or bearing' Changed 'abtuse' to 'obtuse'. Page 122 'Rumex Acetosella' Changed 'Rumux' to 'Rumex'. Changed 'Actosella' to 'Acetosella'. Page 124 'faintly evident radiating striation' Changed 'striatian' to 'striation'. Page 125 'one side a groove leads to near' Changed 'grove' to 'groove'. Page 125 'Chenopodium hybridum' Changed 'hybrium' to 'hybridum'. Page 126 'Acnida tuberculata' Changed 'tubercalala' to 'tuberculata'. Page 131 'Purslane. Pussley.' Changed 'Purselane' to 'Purslane'. Page 131 'nearly circular, each side covered with 5-6 curved rows of tubercles, giving the appearance of having the two extremities bent together,' These two lines were reversed in original. Page 131 'in outline, hem-like margin,' Changed 'hemlike-like' to 'hem-like'. Page 134 'scar (hilum) is a whitish,' Changed 'whittish' to 'whitish'. Page 136 'Lepidium Draba' Changed 'Lepidum' to 'Lepidium'. Page 138 'slightly anatropous,' Changed 'anatroupous' to 'anatropous'. Page 138 'Agrimonia gryposepala' Changed 'cryposepala' to 'gryposepala'. Page 141 'long by 1.�1.4 mm. wide.' '1.�1.4 mm.' maybe '1.-1.4 mm.'. Unchanged. Page 142 'are half anatropous' Changed 'anathropous' to 'anatropous'. Page 144 'verticle line (raphe)' 'verticle' may be 'vertical'. Unchanged. Page 147 'ST. JOHN'S-WORT FAMILY. HYPERICACEAE.' 'HYPEPICACEAE' changed to 'HYPERICACEAE'. Page 150 'Convolvulus arvensis' Changed 'Convolvoulus' to 'Convolvulus'. Page 153 'four hard, conical-ovoid' Changed 'connical' to 'conical'. Page 153 'long, bordered by a narrow margin,' Changed 'bordred' to 'bordered'. Page 155 'convex having dark verticle lines,' 'verticle' may be 'vertical'. Unchanged. Page 156 'dull, yellowish to light brown,' 'grown' changed to 'brown'. Page 156 '.5-1 mm. long, columnar,' Changed 'colummar' to 'columnar'. Page 157 'Purslane Speedwell' Changed 'Purselane' to 'Purslane'. Page 157 'with certainty by means of' Changed 'certainity' to 'certainty'. Page 157 'oval to broadly obovate,' Changed 'obvate' to 'obovate'. Page 159 'shape, oval, oblong, rhomboidal' Changed 'rhombodial' to 'rhomboidal'. Page 164 'Chickory. Chichorium Intybus' 'Chicory' and 'Cichorium' are the generally accepted spellings today. Unchanged. Page 165 'Leptilon Canadense' Changed 'Leptiton' to 'Leptilon'. Page 165 'extremities truncate,' Changed 'extremeties' to 'extremities'. Page 167 'brown, straight or curved,' Changed 'stright' to 'straight'. Page 167 'Iva xanthiifolia' May be 'xanthifolia'. Unchanged. Page 167 'or rhombic in section,' Changed 'rhombicin' to 'rhombic in'. Page 168 'Leontodon autumnalis' Changed 'autunalis' to 'autumnalis'. Page 169 'spreading by roots-stalks' 'root-stocks' and 'roots-stalks' used interchangeably. Unchanged. Page 169 'Introduced in Europe.' May be 'Introduced from Europe.' Unchanged. Page 170 'Taraxacum Taraxacum' Changed 'Taraxacum Taraxicum' to 'Taraxacum Taraxacum'. Page 170 'faces, extending along' Changed 'exending' to 'extending'. Page 173 'ending in a prolonged tapering point.' Changed 'prolonge' to 'prolonged'. Page 175 'Clover dodder, 151' Changed '51' to '151'. Page 177 'Lithospermum,' Changed 'Lithospernum' to 'Lithospermum'. Page 177 'Hoary alyssum,' Changed 'allyssum' to 'alyssum'. Page 178 'lanceolate in form,' Changed 'laceolate' to 'lanceolate'. Page 178 'Ox-eye daisy,' Changed 'daisey' to 'daisy'. Page 181 Tall mustard, 137 Changed '237' to '137'. 
33844	----	Bureau of Agriculture. Farmer's Bulletin No. 8. THE COCOANUT With Reference to Its Products and Cultivation in the Philippines. By WILLIAM S. LYON, In charge of Division of Plant Industry. Manila: Bureau of Public Printing. 1903. CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal 4 Introduction 5 History 5 Botany 6 Uses 6 Copra and cocoanut oil 6 Coir 10 Tuba 12 Minor uses 13 Cultivation 14 Selection of location 14 The soil 16 Seed selection 17 Planting 18 Manuring 21 Irrigation 27 Harvest 28 Enemies 28 Remedies 29 Renovation of old groves 30 Conclusion 30 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, June 1, 1903. Sir: In responding to numerous inquiries about the cocoanut, its uses, cultivation, and preparation for market, I have prepared, by your direction, the accompanying bulletin, which is intended to cover the general field of the inquiries addressed to this Bureau, and herewith submit the same, with the recommendation that it be published as Farmers' Bulletin No. 8. Respectfully, Wm. S. Lyon, In Charge of Division of Plant Industry. To Hon. F. Lamson-Scribner, Chief Bureau of Agriculture, Manila. THE COCOANUT. INTRODUCTION. The following pages are written chiefly in the interests of the planter, but the writer feels that the great agricultural importance which the cocoanut palm is bound to assume in these Islands is sufficient to justify the presentation of some of its history and botany. For that part of the bulletin which touches upon the botany of the cocoanut I am indebted to Don Regino Garcia, associate botanist of the Forestry Bureau; for that relating to its products and local uses, to the courtesy of manufacturers in Laguna; and, for the rest, to personal experience and observations made in Laguna Province and in the southern Visayan Islands where, as elsewhere in this Archipelago, the cocoanut may properly be considered a spontaneous and not a cultivated product. HISTORY. The legendary history of the "Prince of Palms," [1] as it has been called, dates back to a period when the Christian era was young, and its history is developing day by day in some new and striking manifestation of its utility or beauty. It seems not unreasonable to assume that much of the earlier traditionary history of the cocoanut may have been inspired as much by its inherent beauty as by its uses. Such traditional proverbs Or folklore as I have gathered in the Visayas recognize the influence of the beautiful, in so far as the blessings of the trees only inure to the good; for instance, "He who is cruel to his beast or his family will only harvest barren husks from the reproving trees that witness the pusillanimous act;" and, again, "He who grinds the poor will only grind water instead of fat oil from the meat." To this day the origin of the cocoanut is unknown. De Candolle (Origin of Cult. Plants, p. 574) recites twelve specific claims pointing to an Asiatic origin, and a single, but from a scientific standpoint almost unanswerable, contention for an American derivation. None of the remaining nineteen species of the genus Cocos are known to exist elsewhere in the world than on the American continent. His review of the story results in the nature of a compromise, assigning to our own Islands and those to the south and west of us the distinction of having first given birth to the cocoanut, and that thence it was disseminated east and west by ocean currents. BOTANY. The cocoanut (Cocos nucifera Linn.) is the sole oriental representative of a tropical genus comprising nineteen species, restricted, with this single exception, to the New World. Its geographical distribution is closely confined to the two Tropics. [2] Not less than nineteen varieties of C. nucifera are described by Miquel and Rumphius, and all are accepted by Filipino authors. Whether all of these varieties are constant enough to deserve recognition need not be considered here. Many are characterized by the fruits being distinctly globular, others by fruits of a much prolonged oval form, still others by having the lower end of the fruit terminating in a triangular point. In the Visayas there is a variety in which the fibrous outer husk of the nut is sweet and watery, instead of dry and astringent, and is chewed by the natives like sugar cane. Another variety occurs in Luzon, known as "Pamocol," the fruit of which seldom exceeds 20 cm. in diameter. There is also a dwarf variety of the palm, which rarely exceeds 3 meters in height, and is known to the Tagalogs as "Adiavan." These different varieties are strongly marked, and maintain their characters when reproduced from seed. USES. The cocoanut furnishes two distinct commercial products--the dried meat of the nut, or copra, and the outer fibrous husk. These products are so dissimilar that they should be considered separately. COPRA AND COCOANUT OIL. Until very recent years the demand for the "meat" of the cocoanut or its products was limited to the uses of soap boilers and confectioners. Probably there is no other plant in the vegetable kingdom which serves so many and so varied purposes in the domestic economy of the peoples in whose countries it grows. Within the past decade chemical science has produced from the cocoanut a series of food products whose manufacture has revolutionized industry and placed the business of the manufacturer and of the producer upon a plane of prosperity never before enjoyed. There has also been a great advance in the processes by which the new oil derivatives are manufactured. The United States took the initiative with the first recorded commercial factories in 1895. In 1897 the Germans established factories in Mannheim, but it remained for the French people to bring the industry to its present perfection. According to the latest reports of the American consul at Marseilles, the conversion of cocoanut oil into dietetic compounds was undertaken in that city in 1900, by Messrs. Rocca, Tassy and de Roux, who in that year turned out an average of 25 tons per month. During the year just closed (1902) their average monthly output exceeded 6,000 tons and, in addition to this, four or five other large factories were all working together to meet the world's demand for "vegetaline," "cocoaline," or other products with suggestive names, belonging to this infant industry. These articles are sold at gross price of 18 to 20 cents per kilo to thrifty Hollandish and Danish merchants, who, at the added cost of a cent or two, repack them in tins branded "Dairy Butter" and, as such, ship them to all parts of the civilized world. It was necessary to disguise the earlier products by subjecting them to trituration with milk or cream; but so perfect is the present emulsion that the plain and unadulterated fats now find as ready a market as butter. These "butters" have so far found their readiest sale in the Tropics. The significance of these great discoveries to the cocoanut planter can not be overestimated, for to none of these purely vegetable fats do the prejudices attach that so long and seriously have handicapped those derived from animal margarin or margarin in combination with stearic acid, while the low fusion point of pure dairy butters necessarily prohibits their use in the Tropics, outside of points equipped with refrigerating plants. The field, therefore, is practically without competition, and the question will no longer be that of finding a market, but of procuring the millions of tons of copra or oil that this one industry will annually absorb in the immediate future. Cocoanut oil was once used extensively in the manufacture of fine candles, and is still occasionally in demand for this purpose in the Philippines, in combination with the vegetable tallow of a species of Stillingia. It is largely consumed in lamps, made of a tumbler or drinking glass half filled with water, on top of which float a few spoonfuls of oil, into which the wick is plunged. In remote barrios it is still in general use as a street illuminant, and so perfect is its combustion that under a constant flicker it emits little or no smoke. When freshly expressed, the oil is an exceptionally good cooking fat, and enters largely into the dietary of our own people. The medicinal uses of the oil are various, and in the past it has been strongly advocated for the cure of eczema, burns, as a vermifuge, and even as a substitute for cod-liver oil in phthisis. Its medicinal virtues are now generally discredited, except as a restorative agent in the loss of hair resulting from debilitating fevers. Its value in this direction may be surmised from the splendid heads of hair possessed by the Filipino women, who generally use the oil as a hair dressing. Cocoanut oil is derived from the fleshy albumen or meat of the ripe fruit, either fresh or dried. The thoroughly dried meat is variously known as copra, coprax, and copraz. The exportation of copra is detrimental to the best interests of the planter, tending to enrich the manufacturer and impoverish the grower. The practice, however, is so firmly established that the writer can only record a probably futile protest against its continuance. The causes which for a long time will favor the exportation of copra instead of oil in this Archipelago may be briefly stated as follows: (1) An oil-milling plant, constructed with due regard to economy of labor and the production of the best quality of oil, would involve an outlay of capital of $2,500, gold, and upward, according to capacity. The production of copra requires the labor of the planter's hands only. (2) The oil packages must be well-made barrels, casks, or metallic receptacles. The initial cost of the packages is consequently great, their return from distant ports impracticable, and their sale value in the market of delivery is not sufficient to offset the capital locked up in an unproductive form. On the other hand, copra may be sold or shipped in boxes, bags, sacks, and bales, or it may even be stored in bulk in the ship's hold. (3) When land transportation has to be considered, the lack of good roads still further impedes the oil maker. He can not change the size and weight of his packages from day to day to meet the varying passability of the trail. On the other hand, packages of copra may be adjusted to meet all emergencies, and the planter can thus take advantage of the market conditions which may be denied to the oil maker. (4) Perhaps the most serious difficulty the oil maker has to contend with is the continuous discouragement he encounters from the agent of foreign factories, who buys in the open market and, bidding up to nearly the full oil value of the copra, finds an ample manufacturer's profit paid by the press cake, so valuable abroad, but, unfortunately, practically without sale or value here. The residue from the mill may be utilized both for food and for manure by the oil maker who is a tree owner and who maintains cattle. For either of these purposes its value rates closely up to cotton-seed cake, and the time is not remote when it will be recognized in the Philippines as far too valuable a product to be permitted to be removed from the farm excepting at a price which will permit of the purchase at a less figure of an equivalent in manure. So active are the copra-buying agents in controlling this important branch of the industry, that they refuse to buy the press cake at any price, with the result that, in two instances known to the writer, they have forced the closure of oil-milling plants and driven the oil maker back to his copra. Many copra-making plants in India and Ceylon are now supplied with decorticating, breaking, and evaporating machinery. The process employed in this Archipelago consists in first stripping the ripe fruit of the outer fibrous husk. This is effected by means of a stout, steel spearhead, whose shaft or shank is embedded firmly in the soil to such a depth that the spear point projects above the ground rather less than waist high. The operator then holds the nut in his hands and strikes it upon the spear point, gives it a downward, rotary twist, and thus, with apparent ease, quickly removes the husk. An average operator will husk 1,000 nuts per day, and records have been made of a clean up of as many as 3,000 per day. The work, however, is exceedingly hard, and involves great dexterity and wrist strength. Another man now takes up the nut and with a bolo strikes it a smart blow in the middle, dividing it into two almost equal parts. These parts are spread out and exposed to the sun for a few hours, or such time as may be necessary to cause the fleshy albumen to contract and shrink away from the hard outer shell, so that the meat may be easily detached with the fingers. Weather permitting, the meat thus secured is sun dried for a day and then subjected to the heat of a slow fire for several hours. In some countries this drying is now effected by hot-air driers, and a very white and valuable product secured; but in the Philippines the universal practice is to spread out the copra upon what may be called a bamboo grill, over a smoky fire made of the shells and husks, just sufficient heat being maintained not to set fire to the bamboo. The halves, when dried, are broken by hand into still smaller irregular fragments, and subjected to one or two days of sun bath. By this time the moisture has been so thoroughly expelled that the copra is now ready to be sacked or baled and stored away for shipment or use. All modern cocoanut-oil mills are supplied with a decorticator armed with revolving discs that tear or cut through the husk longitudinally, freeing the nut from its outer covering and leaving the latter in the best possible condition for the subsequent extraction of its fiber. This decorticator is fed from a hopper and is made of a size and capacity to husk from 500 to 1,000 nuts per hour. Rasping and grinding machinery of many patterns and makes, for reducing the meat to a pulp, is used in India, Ceylon, and China; and, although far more expeditious, offers no improvements, so far as concerns the condition to which the meats are reduced, over the methods followed in the Philippines. Here the fleshy halves of the meat are held by hand against a rapidly revolving, half-spherical knife blade which scrapes and shaves the flesh down to a fine degree of comminution. The resulting mass is then macerated in a little water and placed in bags and subjected to pressure, and the milky juice which flows therefrom is collected in receivers placed below. This is now drawn off into boilers and cooked until the clear oil is concentrated upon the surface. The oil is then skimmed off and is ready for market. The process outlined above is very wasteful. The processes I have seen in operation are very inadequate, and I estimate that, not less than 10 per cent of the oil goes to loss in the press cake. This is a loss that does not occur in establishments equipped with the best hydraulic presses. It is true that very heavy pressure carries through much coloring matter not withdrawn by the primitive native mill, and that the oil is consequently darker, and sooner undergoes decomposition; but modern mills are now supplied with filtration plants through which this objection is practically overcome. The principles of the above process are daily reproduced in thousands of Filipino homes, where the hand rasping of the nut, the expression of the milky juice through coarse cloth, its subsequent boiling down in an open pan, and the final skimming off of the oil are in common practice. Notwithstanding the cheapness of labor, it is only by employing a mill well equipped with decorticating, rasping, hydraulic crushing, and steam-boiling machinery, and with facilities to convert the residue to feeding or other uses, that one may hopefully enter the field of oil manufacture in these Islands in competition with copra buyers. COIR. The fiber of the cocoanut husk, or coir, as it is commercially known, has never yet been utilized in this Archipelago, excepting occasionally for local consumption. Second in value only to the copra, this product has been allowed to go to waste. The rejected husks are thrown together in immense heaps, which are finally burned and the ashes, exceedingly rich in potash and phosphoric acid, are left to blow away. As the commercial value of the fiber is greater than the manurial value of the salts therein, it is economy to utilize the fiber and purchase potash and phosphoric acid when needed to enrich the soil. Highly improved and inexpensive power machinery for the complete and easy extraction of the fibers of the husk, either wet or dry, is now rapidly superseding the tedious hand process once in such general use. Good patterns of machinery are shown in the "husk-crushing mill" (fig. 1) and in the "fiber extractor" (fig. 2). The first breaks, crushes, and flattens out the husks by means of powerful, fluted metal rollers and, in the second the broken husks are fed over a revolving drum set with teeth especially devised for tearing out the fiber from the entire mass. Finally, it is fed into one of the many forms of "willowing" machines, which reduces the mass to clean fiber, which is now ready for grading, baling, and shipment. The residual dust and waste from this operation may be used as an absorbent for liquid manures, and ultimately returned to the plantation. The yield of fiber varies from 12 to 25 quintals of coir and 4 to 7 quintals of brush fiber per 10,000 average husks. In the Philippines the nuts yield a large amount of fiber and a relatively small percentage of chaff and dust. With improved machinery and careful handling, 18 quintals of spinning coir and 5 quintals of bristle fiber from every 10,000 husks is a fair estimate of the product. As the cost of manufacture is generally rated at one-half the selling price, and as we must add a further charge of 20 per cent to cover freight and commission, we have resulting from the sale of the 23 quintals, or 2,300 kilos, at £16 per English ton, a balance of £11 11s. per hectare. But there are other considerations which should not be overlooked. The husks of 10,000 cocoanuts will withdraw from the land 61.5 kilos of potash and 3 kilos of phosphoric acid, and the restoration of the full amount is called for to compensate for the growing wants of the tree, in addition to that withdrawn by the crop. The necessary fertilizers are worth, approximately, 5 1/2d. per kilo, making a further reduction of £1 8s. and leaving as a net profit £10 3s., or, reduced to American money, nearly $50, gold, per hectare. The machines above referred to will cost $800, gold, and $1,200 additional will purchase and house the power necessary to operate them. Such a plant will work up 1,000 nuts a day, and handle in a year the output of a grove of 30 hectares. With the addition of two or more fiber extractors the capacity of the plant may be doubled without material expense, and it should rather more than pay its entire cost in one year. TUBA. Tuba is the fresh or mildly fermented sap drawn from the inflorescence of the cocoanut. There are no figures or data of any kind available as a basis for an estimate as to the importance of this product, but its extent may be inferred from the fact that the outlying groves about Cebu, Iloilo, and the larger Visayan towns are practically devoted to the production of tuba, and not to the manufacture of copra. Tuba is collected from the unexpanded blossoms as soon as they have fairly pushed through the subtending bracts. To prevent any lateral expansion, the flowers are tied with strips of the green leaf blade and then, with a sharp knife, an inch or two of the extreme tip is removed. The whole flower cluster is now gently pulled forward until it arches downward. In a day or two the sap begins to drip and is then caught in a short joint of bamboo, properly secured for the purpose. As a healthy tree develops at least one or more flowering racemes every month, and the flow of sap extends frequently over a period of two or more months, it is not uncommon to see a number of tubes in use upon one tree. The workmen usually visits the tree twice daily to collect the liquor drawn during the preceding twelve hours in the larger tube, which he carries upon his back. He slices daily a thin shaving from the tip of the flower, in order that the wound may be kept open and bleeding. This process is kept up until nearly all of the flower cluster has been cut away, or until the sap ceases to flow. More than a liter a day is sometimes drawn from one tree, and 5 hectoliters is considered a fair annual average from a good bearing tree. In its fresh state tuba has a sweetish, slightly astringent taste; but, as the vessels in which it is collected are rarely cleansed, they become traps for many varieties of insects, etc., and it is, therefore, not a very acceptable beverage to a delicate stomach. When purified by a mild fermentation it is far more palatable. A secondary fermentation of tuba results in vinegar, and on this account, chiefly, so much space has been devoted to this feature of the industry. The vinegar so produced is of good strength and color, of the highest keeping qualities, and of unrivaled flavor. Its excellence is so pronounced that upon its inherent merits it would readily find sale in the world's markets; and, although the local demand for the tuba now exceeds the production, its conversion into vinegar will probably prove the more profitable industry in the future. Spirits are distilled and in some places sugar is still made from the flower sap; and, while the importance of these great staples may not be overlooked, their commercial value as products of this tree are relatively insignificant. MINOR USES. In addition to eighty-three utilities described by Mr. Pereira, [3] it is in very common use in the Philippines for: 1. Cocoanut cream. The freshly ground fruit, reduced to a pulp and strained, is consumed in that form or made into cakes with rice. It makes a delicious and nutritious food. According to Dr. W. J. Gies, in experiments lately published, [4] its nutritive value is due to 35.4 per cent of oil, about 10 per cent of carbohydrates, and 3 per cent of protein. The amount of cellulose (fibrous matter) is only 3 per cent, and its digestibility is easy when the mass, by grating, is reduced to a fine degree of comminution. 2. The "milk" or water is used sparingly as a beverage. It is also fermented and converted into inferior vinegar. 3. The hard shell is used as fuel. When calcined, it produces a black, lustrous substance, used for dyeing leather. 4. The same shell, aside from many uses quoted by Pereira, is used here for every conceivable form of cup, ladle, scoop, and spoon. 5. From the tough midrib of the leaf, strong and beautiful baskets of many designs are made, also excellent and durable brooms, and from the part where the midrib coalesces with the petiole pot-cleaning brushes are made. 6. The roots are sometimes used for chewing, as a substitute for Areca. They also furnish red dyestuff and with one end finely subdivided may be used in making toothbrushes. 7. The leaves and midribs, when burned, furnish an ash so rich in potash that it may be used alone in water as a substitute for soap or when a powerful detergent is required. 8. The fiber of the husk is used extensively by the natives for calking boats. 9. The milk is used in the preparation of a native dish of rice, known as "casi." It is an excellent and highly prized dietary article, prepared with rice or in combination with chicken or locusts. 10. The oil, melted with resins, is an effective and lasting covering for anything desired to be protected from the ravages of white ants. 11. The timber is used to bridge streams and bog holes, and the slowly decaying leaves to fill them up and render them temporarily passable. 12. The fiber is used in cordage and rope making, but to a far less extent here than in India. Its further uses are, in general, those current in the Orient. Briefly summed up, its timber is employed in every form of house construction; its foliage in making mats, sacks, and thatches; its fruit in curry and sweetmeats; its oil for medicine, cookery, and illumination; its various juices in the manufacture of wines, spirits, sugar, and vinegar; while not to overlook a final and not inconsiderable Filipino product, the splinters of the midrib are used in making toothpicks. CULTIVATION. SELECTION OF LOCATION. In the selection of a site for a cocoanut grove it is best to select land near the seashore and not extending inland more than 2 or 3 miles. Within this narrow zone there is commonly a deposit of rich, permeable, well-drained alluvium offering soil conditions of far greater importance to successful tree growth than the mere exposure to marine influences. The success that has followed cocoanut growing in Cochin China, remote from the seaboard, in Annam and up the Ganges basin one hundred or more miles from the coast, and in our own interior Province of Laguna, definitely proves that immediate contiguity to the sea is not essential to success. That the cocoanut will grow and thrive upon the immediate seashore, in common with other plants, is simply an indication of its adaptability to environment. That it is at a positive disadvantage as a shore plant may be determined conclusively by anyone who will examine the root system of a seashore-grown tree upturned by a wash or tidal wave, and one uprooted from any cause, farther inland. It will be seen that the root system of the maritime plant is immensely larger than the other, and that a corresponding amount of energy has been expended in the search through much inert material to forage for the necessary plant food which the more favored inland species has found concentrated within a smaller zone. The planting must be made in a thoroughly permeable soil. The thick, fleshy roots of the newly upturned palm are loaded with water, and tell us that an inexhaustible store of this fluid is an indispensable element of success. If further evidence of this were required, the testimony of drooping leaves and of crops shrunken from one-half to two-thirds, throughout the cocoanut districts and upon our own orchard in Mindanao, as the result of drought, confirm it and bespeak the necessity of copious water at all times. The living tree upon the sea sands further emphasizes this necessity; for, while its roots are lapped by the tides, it never flags or wilts, and from this we may gather the added value of a site which can be irrigated. The careful observer will note that along miles of sea beach, among hundreds of trees whose roots are either in actual contact with the incoming waves, or subjected to the subterranean influence of the sea, there will never be so much as one tree growing in any beach basin which collects and holds tidal water for even a brief time; and that, notwithstanding the large number of nuts that must have found lodgment and favorable germinating influence in such places, none succeed in growing. From this we may derive the assurance that the desired water must be in motion and that land near stagnant water, or marsh land, is unsuitable to the plant. It may frequently be observed that trees will be found growing fairly thriftily upon mounds or hummocks, in places invaded by flood or other waters which, by reason of backing or damming up, have become stagnant. An examination of the roots of an overthrown tree in such a locality will show that all of those in the submerged zone have perished and rotted away, but that such is the vitality and recuperative energy of the tree that it has thrown out a new feeding system in the dryer soil of the mound immediately surrounding the stem, which has been sufficient to successfully carry on the functions of nutrition, but altogether ineffective to anchor the tree securely, or to prevent its prostration before the first heavy gale. While this phase of the question will receive more attention when we come to consider the chemistry of suitable manures, it may be said that, although analysis of the cocoanut ash derived from beach-grown nuts shows a larger percentage of those salts that abound in sea water than those grown inland, yet the equal vigor, vitality, and fruitfulness of the latter simply confirm the plant's exceptional adaptability to environment and ability to take up and decompose, without detriment, the salts of sea or brackish waters. As a victim to the maritime idea, the writer in 1886 planted, far inland, several hundred nuts in beds especially devised to reproduce littoral conditions; shore gravel, sea sand, broken shells, and salt derived from sea water being used in preparing the seed beds. The starting growth was unexcelled. Then came a long period of yellowing decline and almost suspended animation, ultimately followed by a complete restoration to health and vigor. The early excellent growth was due to the fact that the first nourishment of the plant is entirely derived from the endosperm, and careful lifting of the young plants disclosed the fact that recovery from their moribund condition was, in every instance, coincident with the time that the roots first succeeded in working through the unpalatable mess about them into the outlying good, sweet soil. The exposure of the plantation is an important consideration, and a maritime site should be selected in preference to one far inland, unless it be on an open, unprotected flat, exposed to the influence of every breeze or the fiercest gales that blow. The structure of the cocoanut seems well fitted to endure winds of almost any force, and that a remarkably abundant and strong circulation of air is essential to its best development is well shown by comparing a tree subjected to it with the wretched, spindling specimen growing in a sheltered glen or ravine. Strong confirmation of this may be found within the artificial environment of a plant conservatory, where it is feasible to reproduce, in the minute detail of soil, water, temperature, and humidity, every essential to its welfare except a good, strong breeze. As a consequence, the palm languishes and it has long been deemed, on this account, one of the most rebellious subjects introduced into palm-house cultivation. THE SOIL. The soils for cocoanut growing are best selected by the process of exclusion. The study of the root development of the palm will prove to be an unerring guide to proper soil selection. The roots of monocotyledons, to which great division this palm belongs, are devoid of the well-defined descending axis, which is possessed by most tree plants, and is often so strongly developed as to permit of rock cleavage and the withdrawal of food supplies from great depths. The cocoanut has no such provision for its support. Its subterranean parts are simply a mat-like expanse of thick, fleshy, worm-like growths, devoid of any feeders other than those provided at the extreme tips of the relatively few roots. These roots are fleshy (not fibrous) and can not thrive in any soil through which they may not grow freely in search of sustenance. It then becomes obvious that stiff, tenacious, or waxy soils, however rich, are wholly unsuitable. All very heavy lands, or those that break up into solid, impervious lumps, and, lastly, any land underlaid near the surface with bed rocks or impervious clays or conglomerates, are naturally excluded. All other soils, susceptible of proper drainage, may be considered appropriate to the growth of the palm. Spons (Encyclop.) advocates light, sandy soils. Simmonds (Trop. Agric.) names nine different varieties suitable for this purpose, describing each at tedious length, and laying more or less emphasis upon a sandy mixture. These might all have been covered by the single word "permeable." As a matter of fact every grain of sand in excess of that required to secure a condition of perfect permeability is a positive disadvantage and must be paid for by a correspondingly larger area of cultivation and by future soil amendment. For the rest, the richer and deeper the soil the less the expense of maintaining soil fertility. The preparatory work of establishing an orchard is light, provided the location is not one demanding the opening of drainage canals, and on lands of good porosity it involves neither subsoiling nor a deeper plowing than to effectually cover the sod or any minor weed growths with which it may be covered. It has long been the reprehensible practice of cocoanut growers to merely dig pits, manure them, set the plants therein, and permit the intervening lands (except immediately about the trees) to run to weeds or jungle. In the Philippines the native planter has not yet progressed beyond the pit stage, nor do his subsequent cultural activities include more than the occasional "boloing" of such weeds as threaten to choke and exterminate the young plants. Fortunately it will not be long till the force and influence of example are sure to be felt by our own planters. The progressive German colonist of Kamerun, German East Africa, and the South Pacific Islands, as well as the French in Congo and Madagascar, are vigorously practicing conventional, modern orchard methods in the treatment of their cocoanut groves, and it is amazing to read of discussions between Ceylon and Indian nut growers as to the best method of tethering cattle upon cocoanut palms in pasture, so as to obtain the most benefit from their excreta. With an intelligent study of the plant and its characteristics it is believed that our native planter may put into practical use the knowledge that the veteran Indian planter has in fifty years failed to learn or utilize. He will learn that in time the entire superficies of his orchard will be required by the wide-spreading, surface-feeding roots of the trees, and that pasture crops of any kind, grown for any purpose other than soiling or for green manuring, are prejudicial to future success. He will know that the initial preparation of all of his orchard and its continuous maintenance in good cultivation are essential not only to the future welfare of his trees but as a necessary means in connection with a judicious intermediate crop rotation. Hence the preparatory requirements may be summed up as such preliminary soil breaking as would be required for a corn crop in similar lands, succeeded by such superficial plowings and cultivations as would be required to raise a cotton or any other of the so-called hoed crops. SEED SELECTION. Preliminary to planting the very important question of seed selection calls for close scrutiny on the planter's part. The small native planter is often familiar with the individual characteristics of his trees. Owners of small estates in Cuyos and about Zamboanga have pointed out to me trees that have the constant fruiting habit confirmed, others that will fruit erratically, and others that flower yet rarely bear fruit. The fruitfulness of the first class is undoubtedly a result of accidental heredity, for the planter has in the past made no selection except by chance, nor is the characteristic in any way due to his cultural system, which consists in planting the nut and letting nature and heredity do the rest. One tree in Zamboanga, the owner assured me, had never produced less than 200 nuts annually for fully twenty-three years. Asked as to the bearing of all of his trees (of which he owned some three hundred), he stated that from the lot he averaged 20 nuts at a picking, five times a year, a total of 100 nuts; that the crop of these was very fluctuating, some years falling to 60 nuts, again running as high as 130. The especially prized tree did not vary appreciably. In very dry seasons the nuts shrunk somewhat in size and the copra in weight, but the yield of nuts never fell below 200, and only once had amounted to 220. He had raised a great number of seedlings, but it had never occurred to him to select for planting the nuts from that particular tree. PLANTING. We have pointed out the necessity of selecting seed trees of known good bearing habits, and equal care should be exercised in selecting those the nuts of which are well formed and uniform. This precaution will suggest itself when one observes that some trees have the habit of producing a few very large nuts and many of very small and irregular size and shape, and it is obviously to the planter's interest to lend no assistance to the propagation and transmission of such traits. In view of what has been previously stated, it is almost superfluous earnestly to recommend planters to sow no seeds from young trees. The principle for this contention--that no seed should be selected except from trees of established, well-known fruiting habits--would seem to cover the ground effectually. The best seed should be selected and picked when perfectly mature and lowered to the ground. The fall from a lofty tree not infrequently cracks the inner shell, without giving any external evidence of the injury. A seed so injured will never sprout and therefore is worthless for seed purposes. Freshly collected seed nuts contain in the husk more moisture than is required to effect germination, and if planted in this condition, decay is apt to set in before germination occurs. To avoid this the natives tie them in pairs, sling them over bamboo poles where they are exposed to the air but sheltered from the sun, and leave them until well sprouted. It is, however, more expeditious to pile the nuts up in small heaps of eight to ten nuts, in partial shade, where the surface nuts may be sprinkled occasionally to prevent complete drying out. Germination is very erratic, sometimes occurring within a month and sometimes extending over four, five, or more months. When the young shoot or plumule (see illustration) has fairly thrust its way through the fibrous husk it is a good practice to go over the heaps and segregate those that have sprouted, carefully placing them so that the growing tip be not deformed or distorted by the pressure of superincumbent nuts. When these sprouts are 30 to 50 cm. high, and a few roots have thrust through the husk, they are in the best possible condition for permanent planting. First. The original preparation of the land should be good and the surface tilth at the time of planting irreproachable; i. e., free from weeds and so mellow that the soil can be closely and properly pressed around the roots by hand. Second. The orchard should be securely protected from the invasion of cattle, etc. It is sometimes impossible to protect orchards against entry of these animals. If the success of these precautions can not be assured, then the nuts had better be grown in a closely protected nursery until about a year old, when the albumen of the seed will be completely assimilated and will therefore no longer attract vermin, and when the larger size of the plant will give it more protection from stray cattle. In either case planting should be made concurrently with the opening of the rainy monsoon, during which season further field operations will not be required except when an intermittent, drier period indicates the advisability of running the cultivator. The planting "pit" fetish, in such common use in India, has nothing to commend it. If stable manures of any kind are available, a good application at the time of planting will effect wonders in accelerating the growth of the young plants. Where the necessary protection is assured, the young seedling planted out as above recommended should start at once, without check of any kind, into vigorous growth. The nursery-grown subject receives an unavoidable setback. Its roots have been more or less mutilated and, as we may not prune the top sufficiently to compensate for the root injury, it is generally several months before the equilibrium of top and root is fully restored. In most cases, by the end of the second year, it will have been far outstripped in the growing race by the former. The history, habits, and characteristics of the cocoanut tree indicate that it needs a full and free exposure to sun, air, and wind; and, as it makes a tree, under such circumstances, of wide crown expansion, these indispensables can not be secured except by very wide planting. Conventional recommendations cover all distances, from 5 to 8 meters, with quincunx (i. e., triangular plantings) urged when the 8-meter plan is adopted. But the writer has seen too many groves spaced at this distance in good soil, with interlacing leaves and badly spindled in the desperate struggle for light, air, and sun, ever to recommend the quincunx, or any system other than the square, at distances not less than 9 meters and, in good soils, preferably 9.5 meters. The former distance will allow for 123 and the latter 111 trees to the hectare. They should be lined out with the greatest regularity, so as to admit at all times of cross plowing and cultivation as desired. From this time forward the treatment is one of cultural and manurial routine. Annual plowings should not be dispensed with during the life of the plantation. These plowings may be relatively shallow, sufficient to cover under the green manures and crops that are made an indispensable condition to the continued profitable conduct of the industry. Nothing is to be gained by the removal of the earliest flowering spikes. Flowering is the congestion of sap at a special point which, if the grower could control it, he would wish to direct, in the case of young plants, to the building up of leaf and wood. Cutting the inflorescence of the cocoanut results in profuse bleeding and, unless this be checked by the use of a powerful styptic or otherwise, it is doubtful if the desired end would be accomplished. The earlier crops of nuts should all be taken with extension cutters or from ladders. No shoulders for climbing should be cut in any tree, the stem of which has not become dense, hard, and woody. Cut when the wood is the least bit succulent, they become inviting points of attack for borers. With these reservations, there is everything to commend the practice of shouldering the tree, as offering the safest, most expeditious and economical way of making it possible to climb and secure the harvest. It is, of course, understood that the cuts should be made sloping outward, so as not to collect moisture and invite decay, and no larger than is strictly necessary for the purpose. MANURING. [5] The manuring problem must be met and solved by the best resources at our command. The writer has had pointed out hundred of trees that, wholly guiltless of any direct application of manure, have borne excellent crops for many successive years; but he has also seen hundreds of others in their very prime, at thirty years, which once produced a hundred select nuts per year, now producing fluctuating and uncertain crops of fifteen to thirty inferior fruits. Time and again native growers have told me of the large and uniformly continuous crops of nuts from the trees immediately overshadowing their dwellings and, although some have attributed this to a sentimental appreciation and gratitude on the part of the palm at being made one of the family of the owner, a few were sensible enough to realize that it came of the opportunity that those particular trees had to get the manurial benefit of the household sewage and waste. Yet, the lesson is still unlearned and, after much diligent inquiry, I have yet to find a nut grower in the Philippines who at any time (except at planting) makes direct and systematic application of manure to his trees. In India, Ceylon, the Penang Peninsula, and Cochin China, where the tree has been cultivated for generations, the most that was ever attempted until very recently was to throw a little manure in the hole where the tree was planted, and for all future time to depend on the inferior, grass-made droppings of a few cattle tethered among the trees, to compensate for the half million or more nuts that a hectare of fairly productive trees should yield during their normal bearing life. Upon suitable cocoanut soils--i. e., those that are light and permeable--common salt is positively injurious. In support of this contention, I will state that salt in solution will break up and freely combine with lime, making equally soluble chlorids of lime which, of course, freely leach out in such a soil and carry down to unavailable depths these salts, invaluable as necessary bases to render assimilable most plant foods; and that, on this account, commercial manures containing large amounts of salt, are always to be used with much discretion, owing to the danger of impoverishing the supply of necessary lime in the soil. Finally, so injurious is the direct application of salt to the roots of most plants that the invariable custom of trained planters (who, for the sake of the potash contained, are compelled to use crude Stassfurt mineral manures, which contain large quantities of common salt) is to apply it a very considerable time before the crop is planted, in order that this deleterious agent should be well leached and washed away from the immediate field of root activity. That the cocoanut is able to take up large quantities of salt may not be disputed. That the character of its root is such as to enable it to do so without the injury that would occur to most cultivated plants I have previously shown, while the history of the cocoanut's inland career, and the records of agricultural chemistry, both conclusively point to the fact that its presence is an incident that in no way contributes to the health, vigor, or fruitfulness of the tree. Mr. Cochran's analysis, based upon the unit of 1,000 average nuts, weighing in the aggregate 3,125 pounds, discloses a drain upon soil fertility for that number, amounting in round numbers to-- Pounds. Nitrogen 8 1/4 Potash 17 Phosphoric acid 3 Reducing this to crop and area, and taking 60 fruits per annum per tree as a fair mean for the bearing groves in our cocoanut districts and on those rare estates where a systematic spacing of about 173 trees to the hectare has been made, we should have an annual harvest of 10,300 nuts, or, stated in round numbers, 10,000, which will exhaust each year from the soil a total of-- Pounds. Nitrogen 82 1/2 Potash 170 Phosphoric acid 30 The cocoanut, therefore, while a good feeder, may not be classed with the most depleting of field crops. To make this clear I exhibit, by way of contrast, the drafts made by a relatively good crop of two notoriously soil-impoverishing crops--tobacco and corn--and, on the other hand, the drafts made by an equivalent average cotton crop--a product considered to make but light drains upon sources of soil fertility. A proportionate tobacco crop of 1,000 kilos per hectare will withdraw from the soil (reduced to the same standard of weights adopted by Mr. Cochran)-- Pounds. Nitrogen 168 Potash 213 Phosphoric acid 23 An equivalent crop of shelled corn, say, of 125 bushels per hectare, will withdraw-- Pounds. Nitrogen 200 Potash 135 Phosphoric acid 75 while a relative crop of lint cotton of 237 kilos (700 pounds) per hectare [6] will only exhaust, in round numbers-- Pounds. Nitrogen 114 Potash 70 Phosphoric acid 30 There is an analogy between these four products that makes them all comparable, in so far as all are largely surface feeders, and, as experience shows that there can be no continuing success with the last three that does not include both cultivation and manuring, we may use the analogy to infer a like indispensable necessity for the successful issue of the first. Cultivation as a manurial factor should, therefore, not be overlooked, and all the more strongly does it become emphasized by the very difficulties that for some years to come must beset the Philippine planter in the way of procuring direct manures. When it comes to the specific application of manures and how to make the most of our resources, we shall have to turn back to the analysis of the nut and note that, relatively to other crops, it makes small demands for nitrogen. At the same time it must not be forgotten that these chemical determinations only refer to the fruit and that, with the present incomplete data and lack of investigation of the constituent parts of root, stem, leaf, and branch, we have nothing to guide us but what we may infer from the behavior of the plant and its relationship to plants of long-deferred fruition, whose manurial wants are well understood. It is now the most approved orchard practice to encourage an early development of leaf and branch by the liberal application of nitrogen, whose stimulant actions upon growth are conceded as the best. In temperate regions, the exigencies of climate exact that this be done with discretion and care, in order that the unduly stimulated growths may be fully ripened and matured against the approach of an inclement season. In the Tropics no such limitations exist, and the early growth of the tree may be profitably stimulated to the highest pitch. That this general treatment, as applied to young fruit trees, is specifically the one indicated in the early life of the cocoanut, may be quickly learned by him who will observe the avidity with which the fleshy roots of a young cocoanut will invade, embrace, and disintegrate a piece of stable manure. Notwithstanding lack of chemical analysis, we may not question the fact that considerable supplies of both potash and phosphoric acid are withdrawn in the building up of leaf and stem; but these are found in sufficient quantity in soils of average quality to meet the early requirements of the plant. It is only when the fruiting age is reached that demands are made, especially upon the potash, which the planter is called upon to make good. Good cultivation, the application of a generous supply of stimulating nitrogen during its early career, and the gradual substitution in later life of manures in which potash and phosphoric acid, particularly the former, predominate, are necessary. How, then, may we best apply the nitrogen requirements of its early life? Undoubtedly through the application of abundant supplies of stable manures, press cakes, tankage, or of such fertilizers as furnish nitrogen in combination with the large volume of humus necessary to minister to the gross appetite of the plant under consideration. But the chances are that none of these are available, and the planter must have recourse to some of the green, nitrogen-gathering manures that are always at his command. He must sow and plow under crops of pease, beans, or other legumes that will furnish both humus and nitrogen in excess of what they remove. Incidentally, they will draw heavily upon the potash deposits of the soil, and they must all be turned back, or, if fed, every kilo of the resulting manure must be scrupulously returned. He must pay for the cultivation of the land, for the growing of crops that he turns back as manure (and that involves further expense for their growing and plowing under), and, in addition, he must be subject to such outlay for about seven years before he can begin to realize for the time and labor expended. But there are expedients to which the planter may have recourse which, if utilized, may return every dollar of cultural outlay. By the use of a wise rotation he can not only maintain his land in a good productive condition but realize a good biennial crop that will keep the plantation from being a financial drag. The rotation that occurs to me as most promising on the average cocoanut lands of these Islands would be, first, a green manure crop, followed by corn and legumes, succeeded by cotton, and then back to green manures. To make the first green crop effective as a manure, both lime and potash are essential--the former to make available the nitrogen we hope to gather, and the potash in order to secure the largest and quickest growth of the pulse we are to raise for manurial purposes. Both these elements are generally in good supply in our cocoanut lands; but, if there is uncertainty upon this point, both should be supplied, in some form. Fortunately, the former is cheap and abundant in most parts of the Archipelago, and, when well slaked, may be freely applied with benefit, at the rate of a ton or even more to the hectare. In default of the mineral potash salts, the grower must seek unleached wood ashes, either by burning his own unused jungle land to procure them or by purchasing them from the neighbor who has such land to burn over. If located on the littoral, he will carefully collect all the seaweed that is blown in, although in our tropical waters the huge and abundant marine algæ are mostly lacking. Such as are found, however, furnish a not inconsiderable amount of potash, and, in the extremities to which planters remote from commercial centers are driven, no source is too inconsiderable to be overlooked. The first green crop selected will be one known to be of tropical origin which, with fair soil conditions, will not fail to give a good yield. He may with safety try any of the native rank-growing beans, or cowpeas, soja, or velvet beans; or, if these are not procurable, he has at command everywhere an unstinted seed supply of Cajanus indicus, or of Clitorea ternatea, which will as well effect the desired end--to wit, a great volume of humus and a new soil supply of nitrogen. It remains for the planter to determine if the crop thus grown is to be plowed under, or if he will use it to still better advantage by partially feeding it, subject, as previously stated, to an honest return to the land of all the manure resulting therefrom. He may utilize it in any way, even to selling the resulting seed crop, provided all the remaining brush is turned back to the land and a portion of the money he receives for the seed be reinvested in high-grade potash and phosphatic manures. The plantation should now be in fair condition for a corn crop, and, as a very slight shading is not prejudicial to the young palms, the corn can be planted close enough to the trees, leaving only sufficient space to admit of the free cultivation that both require. It must not be forgotten that corn makes the most serious inroads upon our soil fertility of any of the crops in our rotation, and, unless by this time the planter is prepared to feed all the grain produced to fatten swine or cattle, it had better be eliminated from the rotation and peanuts substituted. In addition to this, he must still make good whatever drains the corn will have made upon this element of soil fertility. Cropping to corn attacks the cocoanut at a new and vulnerable point, against which the careful grower must make provision. It will be remembered that an average corn crop makes very considerable drafts upon the soil supply of phosphoric acid; but, if the grain is used for fattening swine, whose manure is much richer in phosphates than most farm manures, and the latter is restored to the land, serious soil impoverishment may be averted. The next step in our suggested rotation is the cotton crop. Here, too, limitations are imposed upon the planter who is without abundant manurial resources to maintain the future integrity of his grove. He may sell the lint from his cotton, but he can not dispose of it (as is frequently done here) in the seed. If the enterprise be not upon a scale that will justify the equipment of a mill and the manufacture of the oil, he has no alternative but to return the seed in lieu of the seed cake, wasteful and extravagant though such a process be. The oil so returned is without manurial value and, if left in the seed, is so much money wasted. The rational process, of course, calls for the return of the press cake, either direct or in the form of manure after it has been fed. With this is also secured the hull, rich in both the potash and the phosphoric acid [7] which we now know is so essential to the future welfare of the grove. The above rotation is simply suggested as a tentative expedient. The ground will now be so shaded that we can not hope to raise more catch crops for harvesting, although it may be possible during the dry season to raise a partial stand of pulses, of manure value only; but, from the fruiting stage on, this becomes a minor consideration. This stage of the cultural story brings us once more face to face with the principle contended for at the beginning of this paper, namely, that there can be no permanent prosperity in this branch of horticulture until the crop is so worked up into its ultimate products that none of the residue of manufacture goes to waste. At best the return of these side products is insufficient, and, despite their careful husbandry, we can not ultimately evade a greater or less resort to inorganic manures of high cost and difficult procurement. The residue from the press cake is rich in nitrogen and humus, which, in the ever-increasing shade of the grove, will become more and more difficult to produce there through nitrogen-making agencies; but the waste from the manufacture of coir and the ashes from the woody shell will go far toward supplying the needed potash. Such a system would, if closely followed, practically restrict the farmer's ultimate purchases to a small quantity of acid phosphates, or of bone dust, which, in conjunction with good tillage, should serve to maintain the grove in a highly productive condition for an indefinite term of years. IRRIGATION. As an auxiliary manurial agent of definite, well-proven value in this Archipelago, I will briefly recite some of the benefits that may be expected to follow occasional irrigation during the dry season. It strongly accelerates growth and early maturity. A few irrigated trees, reputed to be under five years from seed and already bearing fruit, were shown the writer on the Island of Joló. The growth was remarkably strong and vigorous, notwithstanding that the water of irrigation had been applied in such a way that the tree could only hope to derive a minimum of benefit from its application. It had merely been turned on from a convenient ditch whenever the soil seemed baked and dry, at intervals of one to three weeks, as circumstances seemed to require. Irrigation, but always in connection with subsequent cultivation, may be considered equal to a crop guaranty that is not afforded so effectually by any purely cultural system. Rarely has a better opportunity occurred to demonstrate the unquestioned benefits that have inured to these few Joló trees from the use of irrigating waters than the present season of 1902-3. From many sources reports come to this Bureau of trees failing, or dying outright, from lack of moisture. While it is true that the present dry season has had no parallel since 1885-86, and that the rainfall during the dry season has been less than half the normal, yet it should not be forgotten that, during the eight months from October to May, inclusive, the average precipitation on the west coast, at the latitude of Manila, is only about 460 mm. and that, when the amount falls below this, the cocoanut is bound to suffer. Though it is true that the evil effects of drought may be modified, if not altogether controlled, by cultivation, the assistance of irrigation places the cultivator in an impregnable position. If evidence in support of this statement were called for, it might be found to-day in the deplorable condition of those groves that have been permitted to run to pasture, as compared with those in which some attempts have been made to bolo out the encroaching weeds and grasses. It is probably true that, except on very sandy soils, continued surface irrigation would aggravate the superficial root-developing tendency of the tree; and to what extent, if any, occasional laceration by deep shovel tooth cultivation would injure the tree remains to be seen. There are, however, few economic plants that so quickly repair root damage as the Palmæ, and, unless the seat of injury extends over a very large area, it is probable that the resulting injury would be of no consequence, as compared with the general benefits that would result from irrigation. HARVEST. Harvest of the crop requires but a brief discussion. The nuts should be plucked when ripe. The phenomenon of maturity can not be readily described in print. It frequently is as evident in nuts of a bright green color as in those of a golden-yellow color, and the recognition is one of those things that can only be learned by experience. The practice, so general in the Seychelles, of allowing the nut to hang till it falls to the ground is certainly undesirable in these Islands. On the contrary, the overripe nuts will seldom fall until dislodged by a storm, and it is no uncommon thing to see nuts that have sprouted and started to grow upon trees in plantations where the harvest is left to the action of natural causes. Such nuts, of course, are entirely worthless for the manufacture of oil or copra, and even the husk has depreciated in value, the finest coirs, in fact, being derived only from the fruits that have not attained full ripeness. In any case, the nuts should be picked and the crop worked up before any considerable enlargement or swelling of the embryo occurs. From this time onward physiological changes arise which injuriously affect the quantity and quality of what is called the meat. The heaping up of the nuts for some time after harvest favors some milk absorption, which seems to facilitate the subsequent easy extraction of the endosperm. ENEMIES. Outside of certain insects of the order Coleoptera, cocoanuts in the Philippines are reasonably free from enemies; in some districts, close to forest-clad areas, the raids of monkeys do some damage. A tree-nesting rat, which nibbles the young nuts, is also a source of considerable loss. The rat is best overcome by frequent disturbance of his quarters. This involves the removal of the dead leaves and thatch that form constantly about the base of the crown. But the wisdom of this recommendation will depend entirely upon circumstances. As the planter may find that rats or the rhinoceros beetle are the lesser evil, so should he be governed. There are localities in the Archipelago where the plague of rats is unknown and where the beetles abound. In that case it would be unwise to disturb the leaves which are very tardily deciduous and do not naturally fall till the wood beneath is hard, mature, and practically impervious to the attacks of insects. Where rats are numerous and insects few, which is the case in some localities, the dead and dying leaves, among which the rat nests, may be advantageously cleared away whenever the tree is climbed to harvest the fruit. Among serious insect enemies we have to contend largely with the very obnoxious black beetle, Oryctes rhinocerus, and, fortunately, to a lesser extent, with Rhynchoporus ferrugineous (probably the same as R. ochreatus of Eydoux), while R. pascha, Boehm, and Chalcosma atlas, Linn., are also said to appear occasionally. However different their mode of attack, the general result is the same, and their presence may surely be detected by the appearance of deformed or badly misshapen or lacerated leaves. The attacks of all species are confined to the growing point and as far downward as the wood is tender and susceptible to the action of their powerful mandibles. The black beetle makes its attacks when fully mature, eating its way into the soft tissues and generally selecting the axil of a young leaf as the point of least resistance. Others simply deposit their eggs, which hatch out, and the resulting grub is provided with jaws powerful enough to do the same mischief. Two or three of these grubs, if undisturbed, are sufficient in time to completely riddle the growing tip, which then falls over and the tree necessarily dies. REMEDIES. Remedies may be described as preventive and aggressive, and, by an active campaign of precaution, many subsequent remedial applications can be avoided. Most of the beetles attacking the palm are known to select heaps of decomposing rubbish and manure as their favorite (if not necessary) breeding places, and it is obviously of importance to break up and destroy such; nor can any better or more advantageous way of effecting this be suggested than by promptly spreading and plowing under all such accumulations as fast as they are made; or, if this be impracticable, by forking or turning over or otherwise disturbing the heaps, until convenient to dispose of them as first suggested. A truly preventive and simple remedy, and one that I can commend as a result of close observation, is the application of a handful or two of sharp, coarse, clean sand in the axillæ of the young leaves. The native practice is to mix this with ashes, salt, or tobacco dust; but it is questionable if the efficacy of the remedy lies so much in these additions as in the purely mechanical effect of the sand, the constant attrition of which can not be other than highly objectionable to the insect while burrowing. Of offensive remedies, probing with a stout hooked wire is the only form of warfare carried on in these Islands; but, as the channel of the borer is sometimes tortuous and deep, this is not always effective. A certain, simple, and easily applied remedy may be found in carbon bisulphid. It could be applied in the holes (which invariably trend downward) with a small metal syringe. The hole should be sealed immediately with a pinch of stiff, moist clay. It is likely that this remedy and probing with a wire are the only successful ways of combatting the red beetle, whose grub strikes in wherever it finds a soft spot; but, for these species which attack the axils of the leaves, I have great faith in the efficacy of the "sand cure," and no nut picker should go aloft unprovided with a small bamboo tube of dry, sifted sand, to protect the bases of recently expanded leaves. In Selangor cocoanut trees now come under the government inspection, and planters and owners, under penalties, are compelled to destroy these pests. Mr. L. C. Brown, of Kuala Lampur, in that State, who writes intelligently on this subject, [8] lays great stress on the value of clean cultivation in subduing beetles, and repeats a cultural axiom that never grows old and that will, consequently, bear reiteration here--that it is rarely anything but the neglected plantation that suffers, and that the maintenance at all times of a healthy, vigorous growth is in itself almost a guaranty of immunity from attacks of these pernicious insects. While we, unfortunately, know that this is not in all cases an assured protection against diseases or insect enemies, it certainly minimizes the danger and, in itself, is a justification of the high-pressure cultural treatment advocated throughout the preceding pages. RENOVATION OF OLD GROVES. Material improvement of old plantations may sometimes be effected and, unless the trees are known to be upward of fifty years old, generally repays the labor. Marked increase in crop has followed a heavy thinning out of trees upon the Government cocoanut farm at San Ramon, Mindanao. The improvement that a freer circulation of air and abundant sunlight have effected is very marked. Where it can be done, plowing is also sometimes feasible and should be followed by immediate crop improvement. The average native plow is not so well adapted for working over an old or neglected grove as it is for original soil preparation. It acts more as a subsoiler and will tear and lacerate more roots than is desirable. A single carabao, or one-horse American garden plow, is the better implement for this work. Extensive bat guano deposits are found in Mindoro, Guimarás, and Luzon. Some of them show richness in nitrogen and, when accessible at a moderate cost, would be useful in the renovation of old groves, where the shade would be adverse to the rearing of good crops of nitrogen gatherers. CONCLUSION. 1. There are large areas throughout the littoral valleys of the Archipelago, as yet unexploited, which, in the essentials of soil, climate, irrigation facilities, and general environment are suitable for cocoanut growing. 2. The present conditions present especially flattering attractions to cocoanut growers capable of undertaking the cultivation upon a scale of some magnitude. By coöperation, small estates could combine in the common ownership of machinery, whereby the products of the grove could be converted into more profitable substances than copra. 3. The present production of copra (estimated at 278,000 piculs in 1902) is an assurance of a sufficient supply to warrant the erection of a high-class modern plant for the manufacture of the ultimate (the "butter") products of the nut. The products of such an enterprise would be increased by the certainty of a local market in the Philippines for some part of the output. The average market value of the best grades of copra in the Marseilles market is $54.40, gold, per English ton. The jobbing value on January 1 of this year, of the refined products, were, for each ton of copra: Butter fats $90.00 Residual soap oils 21.00 Press cake 5.20 ------ Total 116.20 the difference representing the profit per ton, less the cost of manufacture. 4. The minimum size of a plantation, on which economical application of oil and fiber preparing machinery could be made, is 60 hectares. 5. There is no other horticultural tropical product which may be grown in these Islands where crop assurance may be so nearly guaranteed, or natural conditions so nearly controlled by the planter who, knowing correct principles, has the facilities for applying them. 6. The natural enemies and diseases of the plant are relatively few, easily held in check by vigilance and the exercise of competent business management. 7. The labor situation is bound more seriously to affect the small planter, wholly dependent upon hand labor, than the estate conducted on a large enough scale to justify the employment of modern machinery. 8. In view of an ever-expanding demand for cocoanut products, and in the light of the foregoing conclusions, the industry, when prosecuted upon a considerable scale and subject to the requirements previously set forth, promises for many years to be one of the most profitable and desirable enterprises which command the attention of the Filipino planter. The greatest mine of horticultural wealth which is open to the shrewd planter lies in the heaps of waste and neglected husks that he can now procure from adjoining estates for the asking and cartage. With labor at 1 peso per diem and at the present price of potash and phosphoric acid, all the husks in excess of 300 per diem which could be hauled would be clear profit. The ashes of these, when burned and applied to the old grove, would have an immediate and revivifying influence. Many trees in an old plantation have ceased to bear. Whether this is due to exhaustion from old age or from soil exhaustion is immaterial; each should be eradicated and the time-honored custom of replanting a fresh tree in its place abandoned. These renewals are difficult enough in any fruit or nut orchard where the scientific cultural conditions have been of the best. Renewals in a cocoanut grove, unless the vacant space is abnormally large and can be subjected to some years of soil improvement, are unprofitable. There is a wide range of opinion as to the bearing life of a cocoanut tree. It is said to vary from thirty to one hundred and thirty years. Grown more than forty, or possibly fifty years old, the writer would hesitate to undertake the improvement or renewal of the grove. Palms, unlike exogenous trees, afford no evidence by which their age may be determined. In general, with advanced years, come great height and great attenuation. In the open, and where fully exposed to atmospheric influences, these form an approximate criterion of age. The so-called annular scars, marking the earlier attachments of leaves, furnish no clue to age. NOTES [1] "The Prince of Palms," Treloar. [2] The cocoanut palm has been reared as far north as Indian River, Florida, latitude 28° N., but has not proven a profitable commercial venture. [3] Quoted in "Watts's Dict.," II, 456. [4] Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, 1902. [5] Throughout this paper the writer uses this word in preference to "fertilizing" even when speaking of so-called "commercial fertilizers." [6] Farmers' Bulletin 114, United States Department of Agriculture. [7] Conn. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1897, Part II. [8] Ag. Bull. Fed. Malay States, February, 1903. 
15191	----	Proofreading Team. THE COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, CONSIDERED IN THEIR VARIOUS USES TO MAN AND IN THEIR RELATION TO THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES; FORMING A PRACTICAL TREATISE & HANDBOOK OF REFERENCE FOR THE Colonist, Manufacturer, Merchant, and Consumer, ON THE CULTIVATION, PREPARATION FOR SHIPMENT, AND COMMERCIAL VALUE, &c. OF THE VARIOUS SUBSTANCES OBTAINED FROM TREES AND PLANTS, ENTERING INTO THE HUSBANDRY OF TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL REGIONS, &c. BY P.L. SIMMONDS, HONORARY AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL AND COMMERCIAL SOCIETIES OF JAMAICA, BRITISH GUIANA, ANTIGUA, BARBADOS, KONIGSBERG, CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, NATAL, THE NEW YORK STATE SOCIETY, THE NOVA SCOTIA CENTRAL BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, THE SOCIETIES FOR PROMOTING AGRICULTURE IN PHILADELPHIA AND NEW ORLEANS; ONE OF THE EDITORS OF "JOHNSON'S FARMER'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA;" MANY YEARS EDITOR AND PROPRIETOR OF THE "COLONIAL MAGAZINE," &c. &c. MDCCCLIV. LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS. 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Richardson, Robert, Esq., 3, Jermyn Street, St. James's Richardson, Mr. J.M., Cornhill Rowe, Sir Joshua, Chief Justice of Jamaica Roberts, Charles, Esq., 38, Mincing Lane Russell, Graham, Esq., 63, Miller Street, Glasgow Rothschild, Baron, Lionel De, M.P., New Court, Swithin's Lane Sampson, M.B., Esq., City Editor of the _Times_, Lombard Street Saunders, Trelawney W., Esq., F.R.G.S., 6, Charing Cross Staunton, Sir George Thomas, Bart., M.P., F.B.S., Hants Strousberg, B.H., Esq., F.R.G.S., Editor of "The Merchant's Magazine." Straube, Dr., 36, Moorgate Street Stewart, Charles, Esq., 4, Adam's Court, Old Bond-street (2 copies) Schomburgk, Sir R.H., British Consul, St. Domingo Sewell, William, Esq., St. James's, Jamaica Stephenson, R. Macdonald, Esq., East India Railway, Calcutta Simmonds, Richard, Esq., R.N., Admiralty, Somerset House Simmonds, J.G., Esq., R.N., H.M.S. _Crane_, West Coast of Africa Simeon, Hardy and Sons, Messrs., Cork Samuelson, B., Esq., Britannia Iron Works, Banbury Stanford, Mr., 6, Charing Cross Trade, The Honorable the Board of Tennent, Sir J. Emerson, M.P. Travers, Messrs., and Co., 19, St. Swithin's Lane Thibou, James B., Esq., Antigua Tollemache, Honorable F., Hillmagham Hall, Ipswich Thornton, Edward, Esq., Statistical Department, East India House Weeding, Thomas, Esq., 6, Great Winchester Street (2 copies) Weguelin, T.M., Esq., 7, Austin Friars Wyld, James, Esq, Great Globe, Leicester Square Westgarth, Ross and Co., Messrs., Melbourne, Port Philip Wortley, S.S., Esq., Cumberland Pen, Spanish Town, Jamaica Wray, Leonard, Esq., Natal Wells, Charles, Esq., Grenada Woodifield, R.D., Esq., Custom House Woods, R.C., Esq., Straits Times, Singapore (20 copies) Wilson, Mr. Effingham, Royal Exchange Buildings (2 copies) Yeatman, Rev. H.F., L.L.B., Stockhouse, near Sherborne Young, Bryan, T., Esq., Barbados WORKS CONSULTED. SIMMONDS'S COLONIAL MAGAZINE, 15 vols. PORTER'S TROPICAL AGRICULTURIST. PAXTON'S BOTANICAL DICTIONARY. LAWSON'S MERCHANT'S MAGAZINE, 2 vols. PROFESSOR ROYLE, on the Productive Resources of India. CRAWFORD'S HISTORY OF THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO, 3 vols. LOGAN'S JOURNAL OF THE INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO, 3 vols. REPORTS AND DOCUMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY, in regard to the Cultivation and Manufacture of Cotton, Wool, Raw Silk, and Indigo in India. JOURNAL OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. MILBURN'S ORIENTAL COMMERCE. URE'S DICTIONARY OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, AND SUPPLEMENTS. CHASE'S HISTORY OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. PROFESSOR BALFOUR'S MANUAL OF BOTANY. DUPON'S TRAVELS IN SOUTH AMERICA, 2 vols. COUNT DANDOLO on the art of Rearing Silk Worms. JOURNAL AND TRANSACTIONS OF THE NEW YORK STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, 7 vols. PRIDHAM'S HISTORY OF CEYLON AND ITS DEPENDENCIES, 2 vols. PRIDHAM'S HISTORY OF THE MAURITIUS. TRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF JAMAICA, 5 vols. THE BARBADOS AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY'S REPORTER, 2 vols. LOW'S DISSERTATION ON THE AGRICULTURE OF THE STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. M'CULLOCH'S COMMERCIAL DICTIONARY, last Edition and Supplements. HUNT'S NEW YORK MERCHANT'S MAGAZINE, 27 vols. DE BOW'S COMMERCIAL REVIEW, New Orleans, 6 vols. RENNY'S HISTORY OF JAMAICA. SCHOMBURGK'S HISTORY OF BARBADOS. BREEN'S HISTORY OF ST. LUCIA. CAPTAIN BEEVER'S AFRICAN MEMORANDA. PERREIRA'S ELEMENTS OF MATERIA MEDICA. SPRY'S PLANTS, &c., required for India. HOOPER'S MEDICAL DICTIONARY. PERLEY'S REPORTS ON THE FOREST TREES AND FISHERIES OF NEW BRUNSWICK. ESSAYS ON THE CULTIVATION OF THE TEA PLANT IN THE UNITED STATES, by Junius Smith, L.L.D. THE MAHOGANY TREE, its Range, &c. THE STATES OF CENTRAL AMERICA, by John Bailey, R.M. THE INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF NOVA SCOTIA, by A Gesner. REPORTS ON THE PAST AND PRESENT STATE OF H.M.'s COLONIAL POSSESSIONS, for the years 1849-50. POOLE'S STATISTICS OF COMMERCE. PATENT OFFICE REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES, 1849-50. DE BOW'S INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES OF THE SOUTHERN AND WESTERN STATES OF AMERICA, 4 vols. OFFICIAL AND DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION; Part 1.--RAW MATERIALS. DR. O'SHAUGHNESSY'S BENGAL DISPENSATORY. ARCHER'S ECONOMIC BOTANY. A FEW WORDS ON THE TEA DUTIES, by J. Ingram Travers. OBSERVATIONS ON THE VEGETABLE PRODUCTS OF CEYLON. GENERAL STATISTICS OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE, by James McQueen. A HISTORY OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM, by W. Rhind. THE STATISTICAL COMPANION, by Banfield and Weld. FORTUNE'S TRAVELS IN CHINA. BALL ON TEA CULTURE. PROFESSOR ROYLE ON COTTON. LECTURES ON THE RESULTS OF THE GREAT EXHIBITION, delivered before the Society of Arts, 2 vols. JOHNSON'S FARMER'S ENCYCLOPÆDIA. A DISSERTATION UPON TEA, by Thomas Short, M.D.; 1753. PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS ON TRADE AND NAVIGATION. THE HONG KONG ALMANAC AND DIRECTORY. JAMAICA ALMANACS, &c. KEEFER'S PRIZE ESSAY ON THE CANALS OF CANADA, 1850. COLMAN'S CONTINENTAL AGRICULTURE, 1848. CUBA IN 1851, by Alexander Jones. MARTIN, on China. CEYLON ALMANACS. EARL'S ENTERPRISE IN TROPICAL AUSTRALIA. CUNNINGHAM'S HINTS FOR AUSTRALIAN EMIGRANTS. DR. TURNBULL'S CUBA, with Notes of Porto Rico. LT. MOODIE'S TEN YEARS IN SOUTH AFRICA, 2 vols. FARMER'S MAGAZINE, 20 vols. ROBERTSON'S LETTERS ON SOUTH AMERICA, 3 vols. STEVENSON'S TWENTY YEARS RESIDENCE IN SOUTH AMERICA, 3 vols. JOURNALS OF THE STATISTICAL SOCIETIES OF LONDON AND PARIS. PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL, 10 vols. THE LEADING AGRICULTURAL PERIODICALS OF THE UNITED STATES AND THE COLONIES. BALANZA GENERAL DE COMERCIO OF CUBA. KNIGHT'S CYCLOPÆDIA OF THE INDUSTRY OF ALL NATIONS. PREFACE. The objects and purposes of the following Work are fully set forth in the introductory chapter; but I may be permitted to remark here, that its compilation and arrangement have occupied a very large share of my time and attention, and I can therefore assert with confidence, that it will be found the most full and complete book of the kind that has ever yet appeared. It is not a mere condensation from Encyclopædias, Commercial Dictionaries, and Parliamentary and Consular Reports; but is the fruit of my own Colonial experience as a practical planter and of much laborious research and studious investigation into a class of ephemeral but useful publications, which seldom meet with any extended or enduring circulation--assisted, moreover, by the contributions and suggestions of many of the most eminent agricultural chemists, planters, and merchants of our Colonial Possessions and Foreign Countries. Few are aware of the great labor and research required for digesting and arranging conflicting accounts--for consulting the numerous detached papers and foreign works treating of the subjects embraced in this volume, and for referring to the home and colonial trade circulars, Legislative papers, and scientific periodicals of different countries. The harassing duties appertaining to the position of City editor of a daily paper, coupled with numerous other literary engagements, have afforded me insufficient time to do full justice to the work while passing through the press; and several literal typographical errors in the botanical names have, I find, escaped my attention in the revision of the sheets. I have, however, thought it scarcely necessary to make a list of errata for these. From want of leisure, to reduce all the weights and measures named in the body of the work into English, I have given their relative value in the Index. I have taken considerable pains to make the Index most full and complete, for it has always appeared to me, that in works embracing a great variety of subjects, facility of reference is of paramount importance. Some discrepancy may here and there be found between the figures quoted from Parliamentary returns and those derived from private trade circulars; but the statistics are accurate enough for approximate calculations. Whilst the work has been passing through the press, several important modifications and alterations have been made in our Tariff. I have throughout found great difficulty in obtaining commercial information from the various Colonial brokers and importers of the City, who, with but few exceptions, have been stupidly jealous of any publicity respecting the staples in the sale of which they were specially interested. The greatest fear was expressed lest any details as to the sources of supply, stocks on hand, and cost prices of many of the minor articles, should transpire. After the results of the Great Exhibition, the exertions making to establish Trade Museums, and the prospect of information to be furnished at the new Crystal Palace, this narrow-minded and selfish feeling seems singularly misplaced. I had not originally contemplated touching upon the grain crops and food plants of temperate regions; but the prospect of a failure in our harvest, the disturbed state of political affairs on the Continent, with short supplies from Russia and the Danubian provinces, and the absence of any reliable statistics and information for convenient reference on this all-important subject, added to the recommendations of one or two well-informed correspondents, induced me to go more into detail on the Food-plants and Breadstuffs than I had at first intended, and to treat very fully upon Wheat, Barley, Potatoes, and other subsidiary food crops. This has trenched somewhat largely on my space; and although the volume has been swelled to an unexpected size, I am reluctantly compelled to omit some few Sections, such as those treating of elastic and other Gums, Resins, &c.; on tropical Fruits; and on textile substances and products available for cordage and clothing. The latter section, which includes Cotton, Flax, Jute, &c., and embraces a wide and important range of plants, I propose issuing in a separate volume at an early date, with a large fund of statistical and general information. Among those gentlemen to whom I acknowledge myself most indebted for valuable suggestions or important information, are my friends Sir R.H. Schomburgk, British Consul at St. Domingo, and Mr. R. Montgomery Martin, the well-known Statist and Colonial Historian; Mr. R.D. Wodifield, Deputy Inspector of Imports at the port of London; Mr. Leonard Wray, of Natal, author of "The Practical Sugar Planter;" Dr. W. Hamilton, of Plymouth, a talented and frequent contributor to the scientific periodicals of the day; Mr. T.C. Archer, of Liverpool, author of "Economic Botany;" Mr. Greene, of the firm of Blyth, Brothers, and Greene; Mr. J.S. Christopher, author of several works on the Cape Colony, and Natal; Mr. B.H. Strousberg, editor of "The Merchant's Magazine," and Mr. G.W. Johnson, the eminent agricultural writer, author of various elaborate "Essays on the Agriculture of Hindostan," which were written for my "Colonial Magazine." P.L. SIMMONDS. 5, BARGE YARD, BUCKLERSBURY, December, 1853. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER Objects of the work. Prof. Solly on the demand for a practical book on raw materials. Objects of the Society of Arts and Great Exhibition. Necessity for an attention to the culture of the minor staples of the soil. New objects of industry worthy the attention of Science. Principal part of our homeward commerce composed of raw materials from the Vegetable Kingdom. Mutual dependence of countries on Commerce for the supply of their wants. System of arrangement of subjects adopted by the author. Many articles of commerce omitted for want of space. Those of tropical and sub-tropical regions chiefly discussed. Hints for the cultivator. Division of zones, and countries lying within each, with their range of temperature. Table of climate; duration and production of the principal cultivated plants. SECTION I.--DRIED LEAVES, SEEDS, AND OTHER SUBSTANCES USED IN THE PREPARATION OF POPULAR DIETETIC BEVERAGES _Cacao_ or _Cocoa_. Varieties and description of the tree. Mode of cultivation in the Colombian Republics. Enemies of the tree. Expenses of a plantation in Jamaica. Cultivation in Trinidad and St. Lucia. Statistics and consumption. _Coffee_. Home consumption and revenue of coffee. Chicory largely substituted for; history of the fiscal changes. Continental demand. Present produce and consumption in various countries. Cultivation in Mocha. Cultivation in India; in Ceylon. Exports from that island. Manures suitable for the tree. Peeling, pulping, and winnowing. Improved machinery. New use for coffee leaves. Culture in Java. Production of America and the West Indies; Venezuela. Statistics of the Brazils. Shipments of various countries to the United States. Comparative consumption by different nations. Cultivation in Jamaica; Trinidad; British Guiana; Cuba; decline of production in this island. Statistics of exports. Preparation of coffee leaves for infusion according to Dr. Gardner's patent. Dr. Hooker's opinion thereon. _Tea_. Immense consumption of. Liebig's analysis of. Varieties of the plant. Imports of tea for a series of years. Alterations in the duties. Statistics of import and consumption, revenue and prices. Value and extent of the tea exported from China; first cost at the ports; enormous prices paid for superior teas. Total outlay for tea. Consumption of tea in China. Export to various countries. Total production. Consumption per head in England; not properly within the reach of the poorer classes. China could furnish any quantity. Mr. Travers on the tea duties. Brick tea of Thibet. Tea annually imported into the United States; proportion of green to black. Range of the plant. Countries in which its culture has been attempted. Its progress in America. The Assam Company and its plantations. Extension of tea culture by the East India Co. Mr. Fortune's travels in the tea districts of China. Instructions and details as to soil, management and manufacture, by Dr. Jameson and Mr. Fortune. Dr. Campbell's notes. Mr. A. Macfarlane's Report. The East India tea plantations in the North-West Provinces. Experimental cultivation of the tea plant in Brazil; M. Geullemin's report thereon. Paraguay Tea: Mr. Robertson's description of the collection and manufacture. _Sugar_. Plants from which it is usually obtained. The sugar cane; its range of cultivation. Production in our colonies. Consumption in the last ten years. Improvements in sugar machinery and manufacture. Quantity of cane sugar annually produced and sent into the markets. Local consumption in India. Present European supply; demand according to the consumption in England. Estimated annual production throughout the world. Consumption in the principal European countries. Average annual consumption in the United Kingdom. Comparative amount of beet-root and cane sugar produced in the last four years. _Gazette_ prices of sugar in the last ten years. Production of sugar in the United States. Production in Cuba. Production in the British West Indies. Production in Mauritius. Statistics of imports from the Mauritius. Production in the British East Indies. Production in Java. Production in the Philippines. Chemical distinction between cane and grape sugar. Varieties of the sugar cane cultivated. Possibility of raising the cane from seed. Analysis of the cane, and of a sugar soil. Chemical examination of cane juice. Vacuum pans. Boiling and tempering. Composition of cane juice. Ramos's prepared plantain juice. Professor Fownes on the manufacture of sugar. Expression of cane juice. Construction of the sugar mill. Quantity of juice obtained by each kind of mill. Position of rollers. Mode of culture and varieties in the East Indies. Soils considered best adapted for its luxuriant growth. Manures. Sets and planting. Aftergrowth. Harvesting. Injuries, from seasons, storms, insects, &c. Mode of cultivation in the Brazils; in Natal; expenses. Comparison between the cost of production in Mauritius and Natal. Comparative cost in free and slave countries. Beet-root sugar: variety cultivated; mode of expression and manufacture; yield of sugar; estimated profit; extensive production in France; production in the German States. Statistics of the Prussian Provinces of Saxony; Russia, Belgium and Austria. A Visitor's account of the French manufactories. Mr. Colman's opinion. Proportion of sugar in the beet. Maple Sugar: description of the tree; its production limited to America; extent of the manufacture in Canada and the United States; processes employed; statistics of production. Maize Sugar. SECTION II.--THE GRAIN CROPS, EDIBLE ROOTS AND FARINACEOUS PLANTS, FORMING THE BREADSTUFFS OF COMMERCE Statistics of _Wheat Culture_. Exports of flour from the United States. Adaptation of the soil and climate of the United States to the culture of the cereals. Export of sophisticated (damaged) flour. Kiln drying of bread stuffs and exclusion of air. Value of the "whole meal" of wheat as compared with that of the fine flour. Nutritious properties of various articles of food. Composition of wheat and wheat-flour, and the modes of determining their nutritive value. Rotation of crops in connexion with wheat culture. Production and consumption of the United Kingdom. Statistics of other countries. Barley, Oats, Rye, Buckwheat, Maize: Indian corn and meal imported. Crop and exports of United States. System of culture. Rice: Statistics of production and culture in Carolina. The Bhull rice lands of Lower Scinde. Rice in Kashmir; exports from Arracan. Millet. Broom Corn. Chenopodium Quinoa. Fundi or Fundungi. Pulse. The Sago Palms. Manufacture and extent of the trade in Singapore. The bread-fruit tree. Kafir bread. The PLANTAIN and BANANA; various products of these palms. STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS investigated. Characters of starch from different plants. Tenacity and clearness of jellies; per centage of starch yielded, and produce of plant per acre; their meal as articles of export. Indian Corn starch. Rice starch. ARROWROOT: East and West India, culture and statistics of. ROOT CROPS: Potatoes, Yams, Cocos, or Eddoes, Sweet Potatoes, Cassava or Manioc. NEW TUBEROUS PLANTS recommended as substitutes for the potato. MISCELLANEOUS FOOD PLANTS. LICHENS and MOSSES. FERNS. SECTION III.--SPICES, AROMATIC CONDIMENTS, AND FRAGRANT WOODS. CINNAMON. Limited range of the culture in Ceylon. Analysis of the soil most favorable to the tree. Peeling. Various kinds of bark; commercial classification, distinguishing properties of good cinnamon; suitability of the Straits Settlement for cinnamon plantations; oil of cinnamon; statistics and exports from Ceylon, and prices realised; reduction of the duty; extent of land under cultivation with the tree; progress of the culture in Java; exports thence to Holland. CASSIA BARK: species from whence derived; imports, consumption and prices. Cassia Buds. Cassia Oil. CANELLA ALBA. CASCARILLA BARK. CLOVES: description and varieties of the tree. Produce in Java. Introduction into the West Indies. Progress of the culture in Pinang and Singapore. The Clove plantations of Zanzibar. Imports and consumption of the United Kingdom. The NUTMEG: Botanical description. Dr. Oxley's account of the cultivation and management of a plantation; enemies of the tree. Produce and returns. Preparation of the nuts for market. Statistics of culture in the Straits Settlements. Memorandum on the duties on nutmegs. Exports of nutmegs from Singapore and Java. Imports into the United Kingdom, and consumption of wild and cultivated nutmegs and mace. GINGER: description and consumption of. Commercial distinction between black and white ginger. East and West India ginger, directions for cultivation. Shipments from Jamaica. Comparison between the imports from the East and from the West. Total annual imports and consumption. GALANGALE ROOT. CARDAMOMS; plants from which derived. Grains of Paradise. Meleguetta, or Guinea pepper. PEPPER: description of the vine; range of the plant. Production of the World. The culture declining in Java. Extent of the production in Singapore. Exports from Ceylon. Its introduction into the Mauritius. Shipments from Singapore. Imports and consumption of the United Kingdom. CHILLIES AND CAYENNE PEPPER: varieties of Capsicum. PIMENTO: description of the tree; production of the spice limited to Jamaica. Imports and consumption. VANILLA: description of the plant. Its collection and preparation for the market. Commercial varieties. Tonquin beans. TURMERIC: sources of supply. Commercial uses. Value of the Curry stuffs of the East. Imports and consumption. GINSENG: description of--demand for in China, exports from America, and commercial value. Canary, Coriander, mustard and anise seeds. PUTCHUX, or COSTUS. LIGNUM ALOES, and fragrant woods. SECTION IV.--DYES AND COLORING STUFFS AND TANNING SUBSTANCES Importance and value of these substances to our manufacturing interests. New specimens and materials recently produced. Miscellaneous notices of useful plants. Lana Dye. Prices of Dyewoods. Red SANDERS WOOD. FUSTIC. SAPPAN WOOD, Camwood and Barwood. Imports of Dyewoods. ARNATTO. Commercial kinds. Cultivation and manufacture. Imports, consumption and prices. CHAY-ROOT. Wood Dyes. Mangrove Bark. SUMACH. Statistics of imports and prices. SAFFLOWER. Gamboge. Common native dyes. INDIGO; plants which produce it. Commercial sources of supply. Cultivation in Central America, in Jamaica and the West Indies; once an important crop in the United States. The indigo plant a common weed in many parts of Africa. Cultivation in India. Classification of the dye-stuff. Localities best suited to its production. Process of Manufacture. Annual production in the East Indies; adaptation of Ceylon. Extent of the culture in Java; annual exports therefrom; imports and consumption. MADDER: extent of the demand for. Enormous profit of the cultivation; system of harvesting and manufacture. Large supplies received from France. MUNJEET, or Indian madder, deserving of more consideration. LOGWOOD, FUSTIC, Quercitron. Brazil Wood. LICHENS FOR DYEING. Henna. ORCHILLA WEED. Chemical examination of the coloring principles of the Lichens. BARKS FOR TANNING: cursory notice of a variety of suitable barks. Proportions of tannin yielded by different barks. CATECHU: definition of, and whence derived. GAMBIER PLANT: cultivation in Singapore; returns from a plantation. Different qualities of extract and mode of obtaining it. Places of manufacture; average produce. Terra Japonica, a misnomer. Cutch, another name for Catechu. Statistics of imports and consumption; the amount and value of Gambier from Singapore. DIVI-DIVI: description of. CORK TREE BARK. MIMOSA BARK. Valuable native barks of New Zealand. Mangrove bark. MYROBALANS. Kino: definition of; sources from whence obtained. VALONIA: statistics of, consumption and prices. SECTION V.--OLEAGINOUS PLANTS AND THOSE YIELDING FIXED OR ESSENTIAL OILS General Remarks. Extensive demand for Oils. Proportion of oil furnished by various seeds. Richness of Indian seeds in oil. RAPE OIL. Domba Oil. The EARTH or GROUND NUT, its extensive cultivation for food and oil. Tea oil. Tobacco seed oil. Poppy oil. Tallicoonah oil. Carap oil. Macaw oil. _Madia sativa_. Cocum oil. Candle Tree. Cinnamon Suet. Croton oil. Oil of Ben. PALM OIL: progress of the African trade. Imports into Liverpool. Quantity retained for home consumption. Statistics of; imports of the four principal vegetable oils. OLIVE OIL: description of the tree and its varieties; its cultivation attempted in the United States. Preservation of the fruit. Expression of the oil. Range of prices. Frequently adulterated with cheaper oils. Annual imports and consumption. ALMOND OIL. SESAME, or TEEL Oil. Various species cultivated in the East. Large exports of the seed from India; native oil mills; processes of expression and manufacture. Sunflower oil. Margose, or Neem oil. Illepe oil. Vegetable butter. Candle nut tree. Colza oil. VEGETABLE WAX. The Candleberry myrtle. The CASTOR OIL PLANT: manufacture of the oil in the East and West Indies. Extent of the imports annually. The oil-cake for manure. Kanari oil. The COCO-NUT PALM: description of the tree; its various and important uses. Varieties of this palm met with. Wide range of the plant. Directions for its culture; profits derived from plantations; great attention paid to them in Ceylon. Commercial value of its products. Statistics of culture in Pinang. Natural enemies of the tree. Copperah and Poonac. Statistical returns connected with its products in Ceylon. Imports and consumption of coco-nut oil. Comparison of the consumption of the chief vegetable oils of commerce. The value and uses of oil-cake for cattle-feeding. VOLATILE, OR ESSENTIAL OILS: description of the most important. Oil of peppermint. Process of obtaining the perfumed oils. Cultivation of Roses in the East and preparation of Attar. Lemon-grass oil. Citronella oil. Patchouly. SAPONACEOUS PLANTS. SECTION VI.--DRUGS, INCLUDING NARCOTICS AND OTHER MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES The COCA PLANT. _Cocculus Indicus_. BETEL LEAF. The ARECA PALM; extensive use of the nuts in the East as a masticatory. Narcotic properties. Catechu, or Cutch; its astringent properties. Davy's analysis. Value of the Areca nuts exported from Ceylon. The POPPY: increasing consumption of Opium in this country. Production of the Drug in India. Large revenue derived therefrom. Variety of the poppy grown; system of culture pursued. Various modes of consuming opium. Its preparation and manufacture described. Commercial varieties met with. Requisites for the successful culture of the poppy for opium. The TOBACCO PLANT; species cultivated. London's classification. Analyses of various samples of tobacco; Statistics of the culture in Brazil; extent of the consumption; considerations of revenue; memorial of Liverpool Chamber of Commerce. Comparative consumption of tea, coffee and tobacco, per head. Imports and duty received on tobacco in the last five years. Consumption checked in England and France by the high duties. Imports, sales, and stocks, in Bremen for 10 years. Culture and statistics in the United States. Quantity exported from 1821 to 1850. Countries from whence we received our supplies in 1850. Particulars of the tobacco trade in 1850 and 1853. Mode of culture pursued in Virginia. General instructions for the planter. Information as to growing Cuba tobacco. History of the trade and cultivation in Cuba. Statistics of exports from the Havana. Culture of tobacco in the East. Analysis of tobacco soils. Progress of cultivation and shipments in Ceylon. Manila tobacco and cigars. Production in the Islands of the Archipelago. Suggestions and directions for tobacco culture in New South Wales. Its value and extensive use as a sheep wash. Excellence of the product and manufacture in New South Wales; culture of tobacco in South Australia. MISCELLANEOUS DRUGS. Poisons. ALOES: varieties of the plant; culture and manufacture in Socotra, Barbados, and the Cape Colony. ASAFOETIDA. CAMPHOR. CINCHONA BARK: commercial varieties of CALUMBA ROOT. COLOCYNTH. CUBEBS. GAMBOGE. GENTIAN. IPECACUAN. INTRODUCTORY. The want of a practical work treating of the cultivation and manufacture of the chief Agricultural Productions of the Tropics and Foreign Countries, has long been felt, for not even separate essays are to be met with on very many of the important subjects treated of in this volume. The requirements of several friends proceeding to settle in the Colonies, and wishing to devote themselves to Cotton culture, Coffee planting, the raising of Tobacco, Indigo, and other agricultural staples, first called my attention to the consideration of this fertile and extensive field of investigation. Professor Solly, in one of the series of Lectures on the results of the Great Exhibition, delivered before the Society of Arts, early last year, made some practical remarks bearing on the subject:-- "If (he said) you were to place before any manufacturer specimens of all the substances which could be employed in his particular manufacture, and if you could tell him from whence each could be procured, its cost, the quantities in which he might obtain it, and its physical and chemical properties, he would soon be able to select for himself the one best suited for his purposes. This, however, has never happened in relation to any one art; in every case manufacturers have had to make the best of the materials which chance or accident has brought before them. It is strange and startling, but nevertheless perfectly true, that even at the present time there are many excellent and abundant productions of nature with which not only our manufacturers, but, in some instances, even our men of science, are wholly unacquainted. _There is not a single book published which gives even tolerably complete information on any one of the different classes of vegetable raw produce at present under our consideration_. The truth of these remarks will be felt strongly by any one who takes the trouble to examine any of these great divisions of raw materials. He will obtain tolerably complete information respecting most of those substances which are known in trade and commerce; but of the greater number of those not known to the broker, he will learn little or nothing. Men of science, for the most part, look down upon such knowledge. The practical uses of any substances, the wants and difficulties of the manufacturer, are regarded as mere trade questions, vulgar and low--simple questions of money. On the other hand, mere men of business do not feel the want of such knowledge, because, in the first place, they are ignorant of its existence, and secondly, because they do not see how it could aid them or their business; and if it should happen that an enterprising manufacturer desires to learn something of the cultivation and production of the raw material with which he works, he generally finds it quite impossible to obtain any really sound and useful information. In such cases, if he is a man of energy and of capital, he often is at the cost of sending out a perfectly qualified person to some distant part of the globe, to learn for him those practical details which he desires to know. This is no uncommon thing; and many cases might be stated, showing the great advantages which have arisen to those who have thus gained a march upon their neighbours." The Society of Arts, appreciating the importance of from time to time encouraging the introduction of new and improved products from our Indian and Colonial Possessions, has offered many gold medals as premiums for a great variety of staples from abroad. The Great Exhibition of the Industry of all Nations brought together an immense variety of productions from tropical regions, of which the English public were comparatively ignorant. Attracting public attention, as these necessarily did, information on the best modes of cultivating and manufacturing them will be peculiarly valuable to the colonists, and is as eagerly sought after by many brokers, merchants and manufacturers at home. In consequence of the recent liberal policy of Great Britain, the competition of foreign countries, the want of cheap and abundant labor, and other causes, those chief staples, Sugar and Coffee, which for a series of years formed the principal and almost exclusive articles of production in our colonies, and which had met with a ready and remunerative sale in the British markets, have either fallen off to an alarming extent, or become so reduced in price as scarcely to repay the cost of cultivation. The partial abandonment of the cultivation of these staples in our colonies has had the effect of crippling the agricultural and commercial enterprise of several of our most valuable foreign possessions, and throwing out of employment a number of persons: it behoves us, therefore, to direct attention to some of the many minor articles in demand;--to those indigenous or exotic products of the soil in tropical regions, which, being inexpensive in cultivation and manufacture, might be undertaken with a moderate outlay of labor and capital, and the certainty of a ready and remunerative sale in the European markets; and could moreover be attended to without neglecting or at all interfering with the cultivation of the leading staples. It is evident that the export wealth of tropical regions must be chiefly agricultural, the soil and climate being peculiarly fitted for the culture of fruits, trees and plants yielding oils, gums, starch, spices, and other valuable products, which no art can raise cheaply in more temperate latitudes. The large and continued emigration of farmers and other enterprising persons from Britain and the Continent to Natal, the Cape Colony, Northern Australia, Ceylon, the East India Company's Possessions and the Straits Settlements, Brazil, New Granada, and the Central American Republics, Texas, the Southern States of North America, and other tropical and sub-tropical countries, renders information as to the agriculture and productions of those regions highly desirable. Even to the settlers in our West Indian possessions, most of whom have too long pursued the old beaten track of culture and manufacture, comparatively regardless of modern improvements and the results of chemical, scientific, and practical investigation, recent information on all these subjects, and a comparison of the practices of different countries, cannot fail to be useful. There is much valuable information to be met with in detached papers and essays in the scientific periodicals of the day, and in colonial and other publications; such as the Transactions and Journals of the different agricultural and horticultural societies of the East and West Indies, the United States, Australia, &c., but none readily accessible for easy reference, and which the new settler, proceeding out to try his fortune in those fair and productive regions of the globe, can turn to as a hand book. I have had much experience in Tropical Agriculture, and for many years my attention has been mainly directed to this important subject, for which purpose I have kept up a large and extended correspondence with numerous agricultural, scientific and other societies abroad; with experienced practical men, and have also received the leading journals of all the tropical Colonies. No one person could be expected to be thoroughly familiar with all the different modes of culture and preparation of every one of the numerous products to be described in this volume; but where my own agricultural experience (of several years in the West Indies and South America) was at fault, I have availed myself of the practical knowledge of those of my colonial friends and correspondents best informed on the subject, and am particularly fortunate in having many valuable essays on Tropical Agriculture scattered through the different volumes of my "Colonial Magazine." The discussion of the best modes of culture, properties, manufacture, consumption, uses, and value of the commercial products of the vegetable kingdom cannot be without its value, and the attention of merchants and planters may be usefully directed to various articles, which will be profitable both in an agricultural and commercial point of view; many of which are already sources of wealth to other countries. The introduction of new objects of industry into the colonial dependencies of the British Empire, is no longer considered a mere subject of speculation, but one well worthy the attention of the eye of science; and the fostering hand of care is beginning to be held out to productions of nature and art, which, if not all equally necessary to the welfare of man, yet certainly merit the attention of the cultivator and capitalist, and have great claims on the scientific observer, and on those interested in raising the manufactures of our country to a higher standard. Few who have not investigated this subject are aware of the immense number of countries lying in the equatorial and tropical ranges of the torrid zone, many of which, from the value and importance of their indigenous productions, have already attracted considerable notice, and to which still more attention will be directed by European nations as the value of their various products becomes more extensively known. The homeward commerce which we carry on with our numerous Colonies, with our Indian Possessions, and with foreign countries, is principally in articles furnished by the vegetable kingdom, such as the cereal grains, wheat, rice, maize, &c.; vegetables used in preparing dietetic drinks and distilled liquors, as tea, coffee, cacao, and the sugar cane, grapes, &c.; spices and condiments; drugs; dyes and tanning substances, obtained from the bark, leaves, fruit, and roots of various herbs and trees; the expressed or distilled oils of different plants; fruits in the green, dried, or preserved state; starches obtained from the roots or trunks of many farinaceous plants; fibrous substances used for cordage, matting, and clothing, as cotton, Indian hemp, flax, coco-nut coir, plantain and pine-apple fibre; timber and fancy woods. These substances, in the aggregate, form at least nine-tenths in value of the whole imports of this country. There are also several products of the animal kingdom dependent on vegetable culture, which might be brought into this category, such as silk and cochineal. Very few of these products of the vegetable kingdom come to us in any other than an unmanufactured state; they are shipped to this country as the chief emporium and factory of the world, either for re-export or to be prepared for consumption by the millions to whom they furnish employment, sustenance, and articles of clothing. It is a wise ordination of Providence, that the different nations of the earth are as it were mutually dependent on each other for many of the necessaries and luxuries of life, and the means of progress and civilization. Commerce is thus extended, the various arts and manufactures improved by comparison and competition; and the acres yet untilled in distant lands hold out strong inducements for immigration, their climate and products affording health, freedom, and independence to the over-tasked and heavily taxed artisan and agriculturist of Europe. Although the systems of tropical agriculture, generally pursued, are peculiar and effective, yet there is no doubt that much improvement remains to be carried out in the practices adopted, in the implements employed, and the machinery used for preparing the crops for shipment. In the British Isles our insulated position, limited extent of country, unsettled climate, and numerous population, aggregated in dense masses, have compelled us to investigate and avail ourselves of every improvement in agriculture, arts and manufactures, which experience, ingenuity, and a comparison with the customs of other countries, have placed at our disposal. If we except sandy deserts, and some of the interior portions of the polar regions, it will be found that there is scarcely any country but what is capable of improvement. Indeed, so extensive are the resources of agriculture, that further improvements may be most easily effected. Let us then examine and ascertain what new objects may be improved upon, and if by our speculations only one single article, either for food or use, is added to those already in use, or those that are already cultivated be improved upon, it is equivalent to an increase of our wealth. An eminent writer has truly remarked that "Agriculture is the parent of Manufactures, seeing that the productions of nature are the materials of art." In the economy of Providence every fragment of creation seems to unfold, as man progresses in the arts of life, unbounded capabilities of adaptation to his every want. We have, indeed, daily illustration of the truth of that trite and homely adage, that "nothing is made in vain." That quaint old English poet, Herbert, who flourished in the fifteenth century, in a short poem on "Providence," has graphically described, in his unique vein, the sentiment which forces itself upon us in view of the numerous discoveries of the age in which we live:-- "All countries have enough to serve their need. * * * * * ----The Indian nut alone Is clothing, meat and trencher, drink and can, Boat, cable, sail, and needle, all in one." "The addition (it has been well observed) of even a single flower, or an ornamental shrub, to those which we already possess, is not to be regarded as a matter below the care of industry and science. The more we extend our researches into the productions of nature, the more are our minds elevated by contemplating the variety as well as the exceeding beauty and excellence of the works of the Creator." The mode of arrangement of the various subjects treated of involved some consideration; two or three plans were open for adoption. 1st. To describe the several products in the order of their agricultural importance or commercial value. 2nd. An alphabetical reference, in the style of a Dictionary or Encyclopædia; and 3rd. Classifying them under subdivisions, according to their particular or chief uses. The last seemed to me the most desirable and efficient mode, although open to some objections, from the variety of uses to which different parts of many plants were applied. Some, as cotton, indigo, sugar, coffee, tea, &c., would readily fall into their proper division, but others, as the coco-nut, plantain, &c., from the variety of their products, would come under several heads. I have, however, endeavoured to meet this difficulty by placing each plant or tree under the section to which its most valuable production seemed naturally to refer it. There are very many plants and substances which have been passed over altogether, it being impossible, within the limits of a moderate sized volume, to bring under notice even a tithe of the valuable grasses, timber trees, cabinet woods, fruits, &c.; and I have confined myself in a great measure to those which either already are, or might easily be rendered, articles of commerce, of some importance. I have shown their present value by quoting the current prices, and brought down, as far as possible, the statistics of each article to the close of last year, thus rendering the work valuable by commercial references which could not be found collectively elsewhere. There are some articles of commerce which could not properly be treated of in a work intended as a guide on agriculture and husbandry, for the tropical planter and cultivator, who purposes devoting his attention to the raising of useful crops and plants on his estate. The forests and jungles of the tropics abound in products of an useful character, the luxurious and spontaneous growth of nature, such as ebony, sandal wood, &c.; but these must be sought for by a different class of settlers; and the mahogany cutter of Honduras, the teak-feller of India, the gatherer of elastic gums, can scarcely be ranked with the cultivators of the soil. I had originally intended to confine my remarks to staples of tropical growth, but I have been induced to depart from my prescribed plan by the importance of some of the commercial products of temperate regions, such as maple and beet-root sugar, wheat, the grain crops, and potatoes. The system of agriculture, and modes of tillage, &c., of separate countries in the Eastern and Western hemisphere, notwithstanding their similarity of climate, are as opposite as if each country belonged to a different zone; and yet much may be learned by one of the other. The only essentially useful division of seasons in countries within the tropics is into a wet and dry season, the former being the period of germination, the latter that of fructification. The implements of agriculture required are for the most part few and simple, for no high tillage is necessary, the luxuriance of vegetation being so great that most of the products of the soil will grow indiscriminately throughout the year, and the only care of the husbandman, after the first preparation of the soil, is to keep down the vast growth of weeds, which might stifle the crops. In tropical regions there is less demand for manures than in temperate climates, but still there are many additions to the soil that may profitably be made. Firstly, that most important principle, which has only recently been practically inculcated, is in too many quarters entirely neglected, namely, returning to the soil the component parts taken off by various crops, and which is so generally practised in all good agricultural districts, by a careful rotation of crops. Liebig has well pointed out this: "It must be admitted (he says), as a principle of agriculture, that those substances which have been removed from a soil must be completely restored to it; and whether this restoration be effected by means of excrements, ashes, or bones, is in a great measure a matter of indifference." Again he remarks, "We could keep our fields in a constant state of fertility by replacing every year as much as we remove from them in the form of produce; but an increase of fertility, and consequent increase of crop, can only be obtained when we add more to them than we take away." Of all natural manures, therefore, the best for each description of plant is its own refuse, or ashes; enough of these can seldom, however, be obtained. But, as far as they can be restored, this principle is beginning to be acted upon by the sugar planters of the West Indies, who employ the waste leaves and ashes of the expressed stalk of the cane, after it has been used as fuel, to manure their cane-fields. The vine growers of Germany and the Cape also bury the cuttings of their vines around the roots of the plants. The cinnamon grower of the East returns the waste bark and cuttings of the shoots to the soil. And in the coco-nut groves of Ceylon, the roots of the trees are best manured with the husks of the nuts and decomposed poonac, or the refuse cake, after the oil has been expressed from the pulp. Analysis of soils is, perhaps, not so essential in countries where virgin land is usually in abundance, and the luxuriance of vegetation furnishes itself, by decomposition, abundant materials for replenishing the fertility of the soil. But there are some substances, such as muriate of soda, gypsum, phosphate, and other compounds of lime, which may be advantageously applied. Guano and expensive artificial manures, are seldom required, and, indeed, will not repay the planters for importing. An experienced cultivator can generally judge by a superficial examination, aided by the situation, locality, and appearance of the soil, whether a certain portion of land is fitted for the profitable growth of any particular plant. Depth of soil, and facilities for deepening it, with the nature of the subsoil, so as to know whether it retains or parts with water, are also important considerations, because tap-rooted plants require free scope for penetrating deep into the ground. A due supply of water is of vital importance to most crops--and therefore the extent and periods of the fall of rain are essential to be known, as it is not always possible to resort to irrigation. The quantity of labor required for previous tillage, cultivation, and harvesting of different crops, and the available supply, are primary essentials to be considered before entering upon the culture of any staple product, however remunerative it may appear in prospective. Facility and cost of transport to the nearest market or shipping port are the next desiderata to be ascertained, as well as a careful estimate of the cost of plant or machinery necessary. It may be desirable at the outset to make a brief enumeration of the countries lying within the different zones, and the agricultural products of which come, therefore, more especially under the notice of the tropical planter. Meyen, in his division of the horizontal range of vegetation into zones, extends-- 1. The equatorial zone to fifteen degrees on both sides of the equator. In this division we shall find the Cape Verd Islands, Sierra Leone, Ascension, and St. Helena, the Republic of Liberia, the European and native settlements in the Gulf of Guinea, and on the western Coast of Africa, Abyssinnia, Zanzibar on the East Coast, Mocha and Aden in the Red Sea, the northern portion of Madagascar, the Seychelles, the Madras Presidency, Northern India, Ceylon and the Nicobar Islands, Sumatra, Siam, Malacca, Singapore and the Straits Settlements, Cochin China, the Phillippine Islands, Borneo, Celebes and the Moluccas, Java and Madura, Banca, the Johore Archipelago, Timor and the eastern group of Islands, with New Guinea, a large portion of Northern Australia, the Marquesas, Society's and other oceanic islands. In South America the Republics of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, New Granada, and Venezuela, British, French and Dutch Guiana, and a large portion of the empire of Brazil; Trinidad, Barbados, and most of the islands in the Carribean Sea. This zone has a mean temperature of 78½ to 82½ Fahrenheit. 2. The tropical zone reaches from the 15th deg. on each side of the equator to the tropics in 23 lat. The mean temperature is 73½ to 78¾ deg. Summer temperature 80½ to 86 deg.; winter temperature in the eastern coast districts, 59 deg. In this region is comprised the following countries:--Sandwich Isles, Canton, in province of China, Burmah, Calcutta, and a portion of the Bengal Presidency, the Bombay Presidency, Madagascar, Mauritius and Bourbon; the southern portion of Brazil, Cuba, St. Domingo, Mexico, and Central America. 3. The sub-tropical zone extends from the tropics 23 to 34 deg. of latitude. There are a number of tropical fruits in this region. The winters are mild and vegetation is green throughout the year. In the northern division of the zone palms and bananas grow on the plains. In this region is comprised all the extreme northern portions of Africa, coasting the Mediterranean, comprising Algiers and the Barbary States, Egypt, part of Persia, Cabool and the Punjab; the greater portion of China, Lower California, Texas, the South-Western States of America, the Bermudas, the Cape Colony and Natal, New South Wales, Southern and Western Australia--the Government settlements in the Northern Island of New Zealand, the largest portion of Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and the Argentine Republics, the Provinces of Brazil from St. Paul to Rio Grande, Madeira and the Canary Isles. To define accurately the conditions of temperature which a plant requires to maintain it in a flourishing condition we must ascertain within what limits its period of vegetation, may vary, and what quantity of heat it requires. This most remarkable circumstance was first observed by Boussingault, but unfortunately we do not as yet possess sufficiently accurate accounts of the conditions of culture in the various regions of the earth, to enable us to follow out this ingenious view in all its details. His theory is, that the time required by a plant to arrive at maturity is as the inverse ratio of the temperature; therefore, knowing the mean temperature of any place, and the number of days which a plant takes to ripen, the time required at any other point more or less elevated, can easily be ascertained. Peter Purry, a native of Switzerland, who settled in Charleston in the eighteenth century, in a memorial to the Duke of Newcastle, then Secretary of State, sets out with this postulate, that "there is a certain latitude on our globe, so happily tempered between the extremes of heat and cold, as to be more particularly adapted than any other for certain rich productions of the earth; among which are silk, cotton, indigo," &c.--and he fixes on the latitude of 33 deg., whether north or south, as the one of that peculiar character. The following Table, showing the climate, duration and production of certain plants cultivated in tropical America, is from the proceedings of the Agricultural Society of Grenada. The second, column gives the altitude in English yards above the level of the sea. The third, the mean temperature by Fahrenheit's thermometer. The fourth, the average time required to commence bearing. The fifth, the number of plants in a Spanish "fanegada" of 170 varras, about 153 square yards. The sixth, the average duration of each plant. The seventh, the average produce of each plant in the year:-- -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |Level of |Mn. Temp.| Time |No. of| |Average |the Sea, to|Deg. Min.|Required|plants|Years |produce -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Cacao | }|81.17 |6½ | 1,156| 40 |1¼ lb (_Theobroma |587 yds. }|46.00 |yrs | | |per tree Cacao_) | }| | | | | +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Plantain {|630 yds. to|81.17 | 9 mths.| 3,613| 30 |50 (_Musa {|1077 |46.00 |9½ " | | |plantains Paradisiaca_) {| |40.61 |11 " | | | +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+--------- Indian Corn {|1077 |81.17 | 90 days|28,900|Annual|238 for (_Zea Mays_) {|1260 to |40.61 |110 " | | |every {| 1890 |36to37.80|120 " | | |seed {|2880 |25.20to27|180 " | | | +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Manioc or {|1077 |81.17 |10 mths |28,900|Bicen-|One Cassava {|1195 |40.61 |12 " | |nial |cassava {| |43.00 |120 days| | |weighing {| | | | | |¾ lb. {| | | | | |¼ oz. {| | | | | |starch +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Coco nut | 630 |81.17 |5 yrs. | 452| 60 |4 bottles (_Cocos | |46.00 |6 " | | |oil per nucifera_) | | | | | |tree +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Tobacco {| 630 |81.17 |150 days|28,900|Annual|½ lb. (_Nicotiana_ {|1077 |46.00 |170 " | | |_dried_ _tabacum_) {|1980 |40.61 |180 " | | |to each {| |33.30 |225 " | | |5 plants +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Cotton {| 630 |81.17 |6½ mth |28,900|3½ |½ lb. (_Gossypium_) {|1077 |46.00 |7 " | | |nett {|1415 |40.61 |7½" | | |per {| |34.61 |9 " | | |plant +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Coffee {| 230 |47 |24 mths | 5,300| 45 |1½ (_Coffea_ {| 630 |46 |25 " | | |lb. _Arabica_) {|1077to 2250|37.80 to |28 " | | |per {|2453 |39.60 |36 " | | |tree {| |33.30 | | | | +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Sugar cane {| 630 |84.17 |11 mths.|28,900| 5 |10 percnt (_Saccharum_ {|1080 |46.00 |12 " | | |sugar _officinarum_) {| |41.40 |14 " | | |upon the {| | | | | |weight {| | | | | |of the {| | | | | |raw cane +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Indigo {| 90 |48.60 |2½ " |57,800| 1½ |70 plants (_Indigofera_ {| 630 |46.00 |3 " | | |produce _tinctoria_) {|1077 |40.61 |3½ " | | |1 lb. {| | | | | |coloring {| | | | | |matter +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Potato {|1080 |38.70 |140 days|116,600 |4½ (_Solanum_ {|1980 |33.30 |165 " | |Annual|lb each _tuberosum_) {|2700 |27.00 |210 " | | |plant +-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- Wheat {| 567 |42.30 | 80 " |57,800|Annual|37 for (_Triticum_ {|1170 |38.70 |100 " | | |every _æstivum_) {|2520 |32.99 |120 " | | |seed {| | | | | |planted -----------------+-----------+---------+--------+------+------+-------- The plantain bears at 1,529 yards, in a temperature of 61 deg. Fahrenheit, and requires fifteen months, but its cultivation is of little benefit in so high a latitude. It is the same with the cassava root. The cane at 1,160 altitude, in a temperature of 66 deg., gives no sugar; and indigo at 1,620 affords no coloring matter. SECTION I. DRIED LEAVES, SEEDS, AND OTHER SUBSTANCES USED IN THE PREPARATION OF POPULAR DIETETIC BEVERAGES. No substances are so essentially necessary to mankind, or form such important articles of commerce, as those which we come first to consider, the dietetic products--cacao, coffee, tea, and sugar. The consumption of these in all civilized countries is immense, notwithstanding that in many they have been fettered with heavy fiscal duties. The investigation of the culture of the plants from which they are obtained, and the manufacture of the products, is a very curious object of research. CACAO OR COCOA. The chocolate nuts or seeds, termed cacao, are the fruit of species of _Theobroma_, an evergreen tree, native of the Western Continent. That commonly grown is _T. cacao_; but Lindley enumerates two other species, _T. bicolor_, a native of New Granada; and _T. Guianensis_, with yellow flowers, a native of Guiana. The seeds being nourishing and agreeable to most people, are kept in the majority of houses in America, as a part of the provisions of the family. By pressure they yield fatty oil, called butter of cacao. They also contain a crystalline principle analogous to caffeine, called theobromine. The common cacao of the shops consists generally of the roasted beans, and sometimes of the roasted integuments of the beans, ground to powder. The consumption of cacao in the United Kingdom is about three millions of pounds annually, yielding a revenue of £15,500. Few tropical products are more valuable or more useful as food to man than cacao. It is without any exception the cheapest food that we can conceive, and were it more generally employed, so that the berries should not be more than two, three, or, at most, six months old, from the time of gathering (for, if kept longer, they lose their nutritive properties), even a smaller quantity than that usually taken in a cup would suffice: in fact, cacao cannot be _too_ new. The cacao beans lie in a fruit somewhat like a cucumber, about five inches long and three-and-a-half inches thick, which contains from twenty to thirty beans, arranged in five regular rows with partitions between, and which are surrounded with a rose-colored spongy substance, like that of water melons. There are fruits, however, so large as to contain from forty to fifty beans. Those grown in the West India islands, as well as Berbice and Demerara, are much smaller, and have only from six to fifteen; their development being less perfect than other parts of South America. After the maturation of the fruit, when their green colour has changed to a dark yellow, they are plucked, opened, their beans cleared of the marrowy substance, and spread out to dry in the air. In the West Indies they are immediately packed up for the market when they are dried; but in Caraccas they are subjected to a species of slight fermentation, by putting them into tubs or chests, covering them with boards or stones, and turning them over every morning to equalize the operation. They emit a good deal of moisture, and lose the natural bitterness and acrimony of their taste by this process, as well as some of their weight. Instead of wooden tubs, pits or trenches dug in the ground are sometimes had recourse to for curing the beans; an operation called earthing. They are, lastly, exposed to the sun and dried. According to Lampadius, the kernels of the West India cacao beans contain in 100 parts, besides water, 53.1 of fat or oil, 16.7 of an albuminous brown matter, which contains all the aroma of the bean; 10.91 of starch, 7¾ of gum or mucilage, 0.9 of lignine, and 2.01 of a reddish dye-stuff, somewhat akin to the pigment of cochineal. The husks form 12 per cent, of the weight of the beans. The fatty matter is of the consistence of tallow, white, of a mild agreeable taste, and not apt to turn rancid by keeping. It melts only at 112 degrees Fahr., and should, therefore, make tolerable candles. It is obtained by exposing the beans to strong pressure in canvas bags, after they have been steamed or soaked in boiling water for some time. From five to six ounces of butter may be thus obtained from a pound of cacao. It has a reddish tinge when first expressed, but it becomes white by boiling with water. The beans, being freed from all spoiled and mouldy portions, are to be gently roasted over a fire in an iron cylinder, with holes in its ends for allowing the vapors to escape, the apparatus being similar to a coffee-roaster. When the aroma begins to be well developed, the roasting is known to be finished, and the beans must be turned out, cooled, and freed by fanning and sifting from their husks. The kernels are then to be converted into a paste, either by trituration in a mortar heated to 130 degrees Fahr., or by a powerful mill.[1] The cacao tree resembles our dwarf apple tree both in body and branches, but the leaf, which is of a dark green, is considerably broader and larger. The nuts are of the color and about the size of an almond, and hang eighteen to thirty together by a slender stringy film, enclosed in a pod. A ripe pod is of a beautiful yellow, intermixed with crimson streaks; when dried, it shrivels up and changes to a deep brown; the juice squeezed from the mucilaginous pulp contained in the husks of these nuts appears like cream, and has a very grateful taste of a cordial quality. The nuts have a light pleasant smell, and an unctuous, bitterish, roughish (not ungrateful) taste. Those of Nicaragua and Caracas are the most agreeable and are the largest; those of the French Antilles, and our own West India islands, are the most unctuous. The Mexicans, in preparing the chocolate paste, add some long pepper, a little annatto, and lastly vanilla; some add cinnamon, cloves and anise, and those who love perfumes, musk and ambergris. The finest American cacao is said to be that of Soconusco, but the principal imports are from Caracas and Guayaquil, which is of a very good quality. The province of Barcelona, adjoining Caracas exports annually from 200,000 to 300,000 cwt. The very large shipments from Guayaquil are shown by the following return. Of this quantity Spain takes the largest portion, Mexico the next, and England receives but a very small quantity. Cacao exported from Guayaquil:-- lbs. 1833 6,605,786 1834 10,999,853 1835 13,800,851 1836 10,918,565 1837 8,520,121 1838 7,199,057 1839 12,169,787 1840 14,266,942 The exports of cacao from the port of La Guayra, has been as follows in the years ending December 31. Fanegas. 1850 40,181 1851 47,951 1852 54,083 Five fanegas are equal to one English quarter. The price of cacao was, at the close of 1852, sixteen dollars the fanega. The province of Caracas, according to Humboldt, at the end of the last century, produced annually 150,000 fanegas of cacao, of which two-thirds were exported to Spain, and the remainder locally consumed. The shipments from the port of La Guayra alone averaged 80,000 to 100,000, or nearly double the present shipments. In the early part of the present century the captain-generalship of Caracas produced nearly 200,000 fanegas, of which about 145,000 were sent direct to Europe. The province of Caracas then produced 150,000 fanegas; Maracaibo, 20,000; Cumana, 18,000, and New Barcelona, 5,000. The vallies of Aragua, in the province of Caracas, those of Cariaco, Campano, of Rio Caribe and the banks of the river Caroni, in Spanish Guiana, produce excellent cacao in abundance. The tree there bears fruit in four years after it has been planted, the following year still more, and increases in fecundity until the ninth or tenth year, when it is in full bearing. The banks of the Magdalena, in the vicinity of Santa Martha and Carthagena, are famed for the excellent cacao they produce. "This tree," says Bonnycastle (Spanish America, vol. 1, p. 257), "is indigenous, seldom exceeds the diameter of seven inches, and is extremely beautiful when laden with its fruit, which are disposed on short stalks over the stem and round the great branches, resembling citrons, from their yellow color, and warty appearance. The leaves are attenuate, stalked, drooping, about a foot long and three inches broad, elliptic, oblong, pointed, slightly wavy, entire, and very smooth on both sides; with one mid-rib and many transverse ones, connected by innumerable veins. The petals of the flower are yellow, the calyx of a light rose-color, and the flowers themselves are small and placed on tufts on the sides of the branches, with single foot-stalks, about an inch long. Its fruit is red, or a mixture of red and yellow, and about three inches in diameter, with a fleshy rind half-an-inch thick; the pulp is whitish and of the consistence of butter, containing the seed; these seeds are generally twenty-five in number in each fruit, and when first gathered are of a flesh color, and form a nice preserve if taken just before they are ripe. Each tree yields about two or three pounds of fruit annually, and comes to maturity the third year after planting from the seed; it also bears leaves, flowers, or fruit all the year round, the usual seasons for gathering being June and December. The excellence of the Magdalena chocolate may be attributed to the moist nature of the soil, as the plant never thrives where the ground is hard and dry, or cannot be irrigated." _Mode of cultivation in the Colombian Republics_--Plantations of cacao were speedily multiplied in Colombia, and the soil so admirably seconded the labors of the planter, that in the produce abundance was united to excellence. The cacao of this quarter ranks next to that of Soconusco. It is well known that the best commercial recommendation of cacao is that of coming from Caracas. But even in these provinces the quality varies. The cacao of Orituco is superior to that of other places, and a quantity of equal bulk weighs twenty per cent. more. The cacao of the coast comes next, and obtains a preference over that of the interior. The plantations of cacao are all to the north of the chain of mountains which coast the sea, and in the interior country. The former extend from Cumana to the mouth of the Tocaygo; the latter are situate in the vallies of Tuy, Orituco, Ocumare, Cura, Marrin, Tare, Santa Theresa, Santa Lucia, Zuapira, Santa Philippo, Barquisimeto, Valencia, Gruige and Cariaco. All kinds of soil are not equally adapted to the culture of cacao, still less are all exposures; but an analysis of the soil destined to this culture never furnishes indications on which reliance can be placed. No regard should be had to color or composition; it is only requisite that it should be friable to a certain depth, which is ascertained by the size of the trees with which it is covered; this sign determines the land proper for cacao. A suitable situation is not so easily found. It should be exposed as little as possible to the north, and be on the borders of a river, which may communicate moisture to the soil in dry seasons, and receive its drainings in times of rain. A preference is particularly to be given to land which can receive from the river the benefits of irrigation without being exposed to injury from its overflow. After having chosen the land, it should be cleared of all trees, shrubs, and other plants. This operation is performed in various ways. It is customary in Colombia to commence felling the trees immediately after the rains, that is, about the month of November; the wood, after being cut, is left to dry, then collected in heaps and burnt. As soon as the new plantation is cleared, it is crossed with small ditches, in directions according to the declivity of the soil. These serve to drain the stagnant waters, to carry off the rains, and to irrigate or water the soil whenever necessary. The _alignement_ is then laid out, in which the cacao trees are to be arranged. They are planted in triangles or squares. In either case, there is always in the centre an alley, bordered by cacao trees, and running from east to west. When they are planted in squares, this alley is crossed by another running from north to south. The cacao plants should be placed at fifteen or sixteen feet (French measure) from each other, in good soil; and about thirteen or fourteen feet in soil of inferior quality. This is almost the only tree in nature to which the enlivening beams of the sun are obnoxious. It requires to be sheltered from their ardour; and the mode of combining this protection with the principles of fertility, forms a very essential part of the skill which its cultivation demands. The cacao tree is mingled with other trees, which guard it from the rays of the sun, without depriving it of the benefit of their heat. The _Erythrina_ and the banana are employed for this purpose. The latter, by the rapidity of its growth, and the magnitude of its leaves, protect it for the first year. The erythrina endures at least as long as the cacao; it is not every soil, however, that agrees with it. It perishes after a while in sandy and clayey ground, but it flourishes in such as combine those two ingredients. In the Antilles this protection cannot be given to cacao, as it would expose the plantation to destruction by every hurricane. Besides, the cacao succeeds but indifferently there, and is much less oily than in other parts. The quality of the soil, and the species of the erythrina, should determine the distance at which they ought to be placed. That kind which the Spaniards call _bucare anaveo_, is planted in a fertile soil, at the distance of two alleys, that is to say, at each second range of cacao trees. That which they call _bucare peonio_, is placed at three alleys in good soils (about forty-eight French feet). The former species of erythrina is that which elevates itself the highest. The second species has many thorns, the upper surface of the leaf is darker and the lower whiter. Both kinds should be cut in the wane of the moon, and remain in the shade until its increase, at which time they should be planted. It is much preferable, however, to take them from a nursery. In one range of cacao trees a banana is placed between two cacaos, and an erythrina between the two following. In the other range a banana is placed between each cacao tree, and no erythrinas, so that the latter are at the distance of two alleys. The banana and the erythrina are first planted, and when a shelter from the sun is thus provided, the hole for the cacao is made, around which are planted four stalks of the yucca plant, at the distance of two feet from each other. At the end of two months the cacao is planted. The smaller the plant is, the better. There are, nevertheless, soils subject to worms where the small plants do not thrive; but, excepting in this particular, the small plants are preferable, because the large require more labor for their transportation and planting; many of them die, and those which survive bud and shoot forth, but are never of any value. The cacao plant should not exceed thirty-six inches in size when transplanted; if larger, it succeeds with difficulty, as will be shown. The nurseries of cacao demand an excellent soil, well prepared, where the water does not remain. They should be well sheltered from the sun. Small knolls of earth are formed, in each of which are put two seeds of cacao, in such a manner that they are parallel with the level of the ground. During the first twenty days the seeds are covered with two layers of banana or other leaves. If necessary, the ground is watered; but the water is not suffered to remain. The most suitable time for sowing is in November. Where there is not a facility for watering, the planting of the cacao should take place in the rainy season; but when the former is practicable, it is best to plant in dry weather and assist nature by irrigation, since it is then in the power of the cultivator to give the exact quantity of moisture necessary. But, in all cases, care should be taken that the plants are not wet in the interval between their being taken out of the ground and replanted. When the bananas grow old, they should be carefully felled, lest the cacaos should be injured by their accidental fall. They are totally removed as soon as the erythrina yields sufficient shade; this operation gives more air to the trees of the plantation, and encourages their growth. Until the cacao attains four feet in height, it is trimmed to the stem. If it shoots forth several branches, they are reduced to three, at equal distances; and, in proportion as the plant increases, the leaves which appear on the three branches are stripped off. If they bend much, and incline towards the earth, they are tied in bunches, so that the tree may not remain crooked. The branches, which are trimmed, are cut at the distance of two fingers from the tree. The suckers which spring from the tree are also removed, as they only live at its expense. _Enemies of the tree_.--The cacao trees should, as already stated, have sufficient shade to prevent their being burned by the sun. If they are much exposed to its rays, their branches are scattered, crack, and the tree dies. They are also infested with worms, which gnaw the bark all around, then attack the interior and destroy them. The only remedy which has hitherto been found, is to employ people to kill these worms, which are deposited by a small, scaly winged insect, which gnaws the tree; as soon as it hears the approach of its destroyers, it lets itself fall, and trusts to its wings for safety. The color of this insect is a mixture of ash color and white. If pressed, it emits a sound something similar to the noise of water thrown on a very hot substance. It has two small horns on its head, the points of which are directed upwards. It is so lively that, even when the head is separated from the body, it is a long time in dying. To deposit its progeny it makes small holes in the tree. At the commencement of the winter, or rainy season, another worm makes its appearance, which devours the leaves of the young cacao plant. This species of worm is called _goaseme_, and they are in some years so abundant, that all the people of the plantation are solely employed in destroying them. This worm is four inches in length, and of the thickness of a finger. It is sometimes called _angaripola_, or Indian, on account of the vivacity of its colors. It is believed that these worms are mediately produced by other large worms in the earth, from which are engendered butterflies, who lay their eggs on the leaves of the cacao. These eggs are full of small worms, which feed on the leaves of the cacao, and appear in clusters of the size of a shilling. They are sought and destroyed with great attention, as they occasion considerable damage. Those which escape lodge themselves in the earth, and in the succeeding year are changed into butterflies. At the time when the worm makes its appearance, it is necessary to make fires, which should not be so large as to injure the cacao, yet sufficient to attract and burn the butterfly. The plantations of cacao in the valley of Tuy, the quarters of Marrin, Cuba, Sabana, Ocumare, San Francis, &c., are subject to another species of worm called _rasquilla_. It multiplies in the dry seasons. There are small insects, called by the Spaniards _accerredores_, of the same figure with those which eat the bark of the cacao, but larger and of a blackish colour. They feed on the branches of the tree; are always found upon those branches which they have cut; and the evil can only be obviated by killing them. The worms called _vachacos_ occasion also much damage. They eat the leaf and the flower. To destroy them it is necessary to seek them in their nests in the earth. Water is thrown on the spot, and stirred, as in making mortar. By this means their young are crushed, and the evil is diminished, if it be not entirely removed. A parasitical plant often attaches itself to a branch of the cacao tree which it covers over and causes to wither, by nourishing itself with the substance of the plant. The only remedy is to remove it. When the cacao trees are in a bearing state, they are subject to a disease called _tache_. This is a black taint, or stain, which attacks the trees, encircling them below, and kills them. The mode of preservation is to make, in the beginning, a slight notch that shall pierce the bark. But if the taint is extensive, it is necessary to cut all the affected part. It then exudes a liquid and is healed. The bark remains of a violet color in the part that has been tainted. The other enemies of the cacao are the agouti, stag, squirrel, monkey, &c. The agouti produces most havoc. It often destroys in one night all the hopes of the proprietor. Birds are not less injurious to the cacao. The whole class of parrots, in particular the great Ara, which destroys for the pleasure of destroying, and, the parroquets, which come in numerous flocks, conspire also to ruin the plantations of cacao. _Means of preserving a plantation_.--It is necessary that a cacao plantation should have always shade and irrigation; the branches of the plant should be cleared of the lichens that form on them; the worms destroyed; and no large herbs or shrubs and mosses permitted to grow near, since the least disadvantage resulting therefrom would be the loss of all the fruit that should fall into these thickets. But it is most essential to deepen the trenches which carry off the water, in proportion as the plant increases in size, and as the roots of course pierce deeper; for if the trenches are left at a depth of three feet, while the roots are six feet in the earth, it follows that the lower part of the cacao plant is in a situation of too great humidity, and rots at the level of the water. This precaution contributes not only to make the plantation more durable, but also to render the crop more productive. It is necessary, also, to abstain from cutting any branch from cacao plants that are already bearing. Such an operation might occasion the subsequent crop to be stronger; but the plants become enervated, and often perish, according to the quality of the soil and the number of branches cut off. If the earth of the plantations be pressed and trampled down by animals, the duration of the plant is diminished. Irrigation, made with judgment, maintains them long in a state of produce. _Withering of the fruit._--The fruit of the cacao withers on the tree from three causes:-- First.--When the plantation is, during a long time, inundated with water. I have seen plantations of cacao, which had only been covered with water thirty hours, and of which the fruit was totally withered. Second.--From abundant rains, particularly in very damp valleys. This is only to be remedied by keeping the plantation well drained, that the water may not remain on it. Third.--A want of necessary irrigation, and the watering of the plantation under an ardent sun. The vapor from the earth kills the fruit. If the rains are deficient for a time, and an excessive rain succeeds, the fruit of the cacao also withers. This dessication or withering takes place everywhere; but in some places the surplus of fruit, which the tree is unable to nourish, is alone subject to it. In others, as Araquita and Caucagua, it withers in proportion to the northerly rains. An unsuitable soil occasions another kind of decay. The pods become stinted, containing some good and some bad seeds. The Spaniards call this _cocosearse_, which means defective. _Harvest of the cacao_.--The tree yields two principal crops in a year, one about St. John's day, the other towards the end of December. The cacao however ripens and is gathered during the whole year. But in all seasons the planters of the Central American republics make it a point, so far as possible, to collect their crops only at the decline of the moon; because experience proves that this precaution renders the cacao more solid, and less liable to spoil. To collect the fruit, those negroes and Indians are employed who have the sharpest sight, that only the ripe fruit may be gathered. The most robust and active are chosen to carry it to the places where the beans are to be shaken out. The aged and maimed are employed to do this. The operation is performed on a floor well swept, and covered with green leaves, on which they place the cacao. Some open the pod, and others strike out the beans with a small piece of wood, which must not be sharp, lest it should injure them. The good and bad beans must not be mingled together. There are four sorts of cacao in every crop; the ripe and in good condition, the green but sound, the worm-eaten, and the rotten. The first quality is best, the second is not bad; but the two others should be rejected. As soon as that which is not fully ripe begins to show specks, it must be separated. As to the pods which are not perfectly ripe, they should remain in heaps during three days under green banana leaves, that they may ripen before they are hulled. When the cacao is stored, great care is necessary not to leave amongst it pieces of the pod or leaves, or any other excrementitious particles. This care must be repeated every time that it is removed from the store, or replaced in it. The cacao must always be exposed to the sun on the fourth day after it has been gathered, and this exposure should be daily repeated until it is perfectly dry. When that is the case, the beans burst on being squeezed, their shell resounds when struck, and they no longer become heated when placed in heaps; the latter is the best proof that the moisture injurious to their preservation is dissipated. If the cacao is not sufficiently exposed to the sun, it becomes mouldy; if too much, it withers, and easily pulverises--in either case it soon rots. When the quantity of cacao gathered is considerable, it is placed in the sunshine by a hundred quintals at a time, unless the cultivator has a sufficient number of persons employed to expose a greater quantity. This operation is indispensable, to prevent it from becoming mouldy. If the rains prevent this exposure to the sun, it is necessary, as soon as it is sufficiently cleaned or purified, to spread it in apartments, galleries, or halls, with which the plantation must be provided; this operation cannot be delayed without danger of losing the crop. It is to be wished that stoves were employed to dry the cacao when the sun fails, but this expedient, so simple and important, is generally unknown. It is almost universally believed that the most essential precautions for preserving the cacao consists in gathering it at the decline of the moon. I believe that they may more seriously calculate on the care of depositing it in apartments so hermetically closed that the air cannot penetrate; it would be advisable to make these apartments of wood, for the more perfect exclusion of moisture. The floor should be elevated two feet; under the floor a pan of coals is placed, covered with a funnel, the point of which enters into the heap of cacao and then diffuses the vapor. In the apartment which contains the cacao, some persons place bottles of vinegar, slightly stopped with paper, to prevent the formation of worms. The beans which begin to show specks, may be preserved from entire corruption by a slight application of brine. This occasions a small degree of fermentation, which is sufficient to destroy the worms, and to preserve the cacao during a considerable time from new attacks. Why is not this preservative also employed after the cacao is dried, and when placed in the store, where it awaits the purchaser? At St. Philip they make use of smoke to preserve the cacao; it is also ascertained that fine salt, thrown in small quantities on the cacao, protects it from worms. Much has been done for the cacao when it has been cleared of all green or dead beans, and extraneous substances; when it has received no bruise or injury in the operation of drying, and when it has been subsequently kept in a place that is dry and not exposed to the air; yet, even with all these precautions, cacao of the best quality is seldom found marketable at the end of a year. These circumstances sufficiently prove that the culture of cacao requires attention more than science, vigilance rather than genius, and assiduity in preference to theory. Choice of ground, distribution and draining of the waters, position of the trees destined to shade the cacao, are almost the only points which require more than common intelligence. Less expense is also required for an establishment of this kind than for any other of equal revenue. One able hand, as I have already said, is sufficient for the preservation and harvest of a thousand plants, each of which should yield at least one pound of cacao, in ground of moderate quality, and a pound and a half in the best soil. By an averaged calculation of twenty ounces to each plant, the thousand plants must produce twelve hundred and fifty pounds, which, at the ordinary price of 31s. 6d. per cwt., would produce about £17 10s. per annum for each laborer. The expenses of the plantation, including those of utensils, machines, and buildings, are also less considerable for cacao than for any other produce. The delay of the first crop, and the accidents peculiar to cacao, can alone diminish the number of planters attached to its culture, and induce a preference to other commodities. The cacao plant is not in a state of prolific produce till the eighth year in the interior, and the ninth in plantations on the coast. Yet, by a singularity which situation alone can explain, the crops of cacao commence in the ninth year in the valley of Goapa, and at the east of the mouth of the Tuy. In the vicinity of the line, and on the banks of Rio-Negro, the plantations are in full produce on the fourth, or at most the fifth year. The cacao tree continues productive to the age of fifty years on the coast, and thirty years in the interior of the country. In general the culture and preparation of cacao receives more attention in the eastern parts of Venezuela than in other places, and even than in the French colonies. It is true that the suitability of the soil contributes much to the quality of the article; but without the assistance derived from art, it would be far from possessing that superiority awarded to it by commerce over the cacao of every other country. Stevenson ("Travels in South America") speaks of another kind of cacao tree, called moracumba, which is larger than the ordinary species, and grows wild in the woods. The beans under the brown husk are composed of a white, solid matter, almost like a lump of hard tallow. The natives take a quantity of these, and pass a piece of slender cane through them, and roast them, when they have the delicate flavour of the cacao. There are several cacao plantations in Surinam. The trees are left to grow their natural height, which is about that of a cherry-tree; their leaves resemble those of the broad-leaved laurel, and are of a dark green colour. The fruit in shape resembles a lemon, but is rather more oval; it is at first green, and, when ripe, yellow. It is said that there are some trees which produce above two hundred, each containing about twenty beans or nuts. The fruit not only proceeds from the branches, but even from the stem; and though there is always ripe and unripe fruit, it is only gathered twice a year. The chocolate is in that colony in general of an inferior quality, known by its dark brown color and rough taste, but the superiority of the cacao depends principally on the soil where the trees are planted.--(Baron Von Sack's "Surinam.") My friend, Sir R. Schomburgk, in his "Description of British Guiana," says--"While we crossed from the river Berbice to the Essequibo, we met a number of chocolate nut trees, near the abandoned Caribi settlement of Primoss. It is not to be doubted that the trees were originally planted by the Indians, but from their number and the distance from the river, I judged they were propagated by nature. Though they were overshadowed by larger trees, and had for many years been neglected, they had reached nevertheless a height of from thirty to forty feet, and the luxuriant growth and the abundance of fruit, proved that the plant was satisfied with the soil. The forests at the banks of the Rio Branco, in the vicinity of Santa Maria and Carno, abound in wild cacao trees, the fruits of which are collected by the scanty population of that district for their own use." The cultivation of cacao will be most suitable to the less wealthy individual, as it demands so little labor and outlay. Baron Humboldt observes, in alluding to Spanish America, that cacao plantations are occupied by persons of humble condition, who prepare for themselves and their children a slow but certain fortune; a single laborer is sufficient to aid them in their plantations, and 30,000 trees, once established, assure competence for a generation and a half. The following have been the total imports of Cacao into the United Kingdom from Mexico and Central America, &c.:-- lbs. 1832 85,642 1834 16,171 1835 211 1836 861,531 1837 564,992 1838 1,681,965 1839 508,307 1840 1,058,015 1841 1,802,547 1842 441,084 1843 1,229,515 (Parl. Paper, No. 426, Sess. 1844.) Only a few hundred pounds of this is entered annually for home consumption, the great bulk being re-exported. In 1850 we imported 1,204,572 lbs. from Mexico; 1,231,773 lbs. from Chile; 4,438 lbs. from Venezuela, and 23,538 lbs. from Hayti. BRAZIL.--A great deal of cacao is raised in different parts of this empire. From the province of Para alone 35,000 bags, valued at £35,000, were exported in the year 1845. Mr. Edwards, in his "Voyage up the River Amazon," gives an interesting account:-- "We were now (he says) in the great cacao region, which, for an extent of several hundred square miles, borders the river. The cacao trees are low, not rising above fifteen or twenty feet, and are distinguishable from a distance by the yellowish green of their leaves, so different from aught else around them. They are planted at intervals of about twelve feet, and, at first, are protected from the sun's fierceness by banana trees, which, with their broad leaves, form a complete shelter. Three years after planting the trees yield, and therefore require little attention, or, rather, receive not any. From an idea that the sun is injurious to the berry, the tree-tops are suffered to mat together until the whole becomes dense as thatch-work. The sun never penetrates this, and the ground below is constantly wet. The trunk of the tree grows irregularly, without beauty, although perhaps by careful training it might be made as graceful as an apple tree. The leaf is thin, much resembling our beech, excepting that it is smooth-edged. The flower is very small, and the berry grows direct from the trunk or branches. It is eight inches in length, five in diameter, and shaped much like a rounded double cone. When ripe, it turns from light green to a deep yellow, and at that time ornaments the tree finely. Within the berry is a white acid pulp, and embedded in this are from thirty to forty seeds, an inch in length, narrow and flat. These seeds are the cacao of commerce. When the berries are ripe, they are collected into great piles near the house, are cut open with a tresado, and the seeds, squeezed carelessly from the pulp, are spread upon mats to dry in the sun. Before being half dried they are loaded into canoes in bulk, and transmitted to Para. Some of these vessels will carry four thousand arrobas, of thirty-two pounds weight each, and, as if such a bulk of damp produce would not sufficiently spoil itself by its own steaming during a twenty days' voyage, the captains are in the habit of throwing upon it great quantities of water, to prevent its loss of weight. As might be expected, when they arrive at Para it is little more than a heap of mould, and it is then little wonder that Para cacao is considered the most inferior in foreign markets. Cacao is very little drunk throughout the province, and in the city we never saw it except at the cafés. It is a delicious drink when properly prepared, and one soon loses relish for that nasty compound known in the States as chocolate, whose main ingredients are damaged rice and soap fat. The cacao trees yield two crops annually, and, excepting in harvest time, the proprietors have nothing to do but lounge in their hammocks. Most of these people are in debt to traders in Santarem, who trust them to an unlimited extent, taking a lien upon their crops. Sometimes the plantations are of vast extent, and one can walk for miles along the river, from one to another, as freely as through an orchard. No doubt a scientific cultivator might make the raising of cacao very profitable, and elevate its quality to that of Guyaquil." Cacao shipped from Brazil to the United Kingdom, for nine years, ending 1835:-- lbs. 1827 3,992,449 1828 1,174,168 1829 2,442,456 1830 1,308,694 1831 1,716,614 1832 2,198,709 1833 2,402,803 1834 1,591,600 1835 1,678,769 _Cultivation in the West India Islands_.--The only English colonies where this nutritious and wholesome substance is now cultivated to any extent, are Trinidad, St. Lucia, Grenada, and St. Vincent. In Jamaica and British Guiana it has given place to the production of sugar, and though it forms such an important article in the imports and consumption of the United Kingdom, the quantity introduced from British plantations is barely equal to the demand. The imports from Jamaica in 1831 were 6,684 lbs., and in 1838, 16,564 lbs.; while the imports since have been merely nominal. Of 5,014,681 lbs. imported in 1841, 2,920,298 lbs. were furnished by the British West Indian colonies, 1,802,547 lbs. came from the Colombian republics, and 269,794 lbs. were brought from Brazil. Trinidad furnishes by far the largest proportion of the West Indian supplies, the imports from thence in 1841 having been 2,500,000 lbs., while the imports from all the other islands were but 427,000 lbs. In 1850, 4,750,000 lbs. were shipped from Trinidad, whilst in 1851 the quantity was nearly as much. Trinidad.--Although this tree is indigenous to many, if not most of the tropical parts of America, it was first extensively cultivated in Mexico; and it is remarkable that the words cacao and chocolate are both of Mexican origin. From Mexico the variety called Creole cacao it is supposed was transplanted to the West India colonies; that variety called Forastero (stranger) came from the Brazils. The latter tree is the most productive, but the former gives the best fruit, insomuch that few persons now plant the Forastero cacao. There are two or three indigenous species found growing wild in the forests of Trinidad, viz., _T. Sylvestris cacao_, _T. Guianensis_, and another sort. There are few, perhaps no agricultural or horticultural pursuits, so delightful (observes Mr. Joseph, in his "History of Trinidad,") as that of the cultivation of the cacao. It is planted in rows, intersecting each other at right angles, at the distance of from twelve to fifteen feet, according to the nature of the soil. The tree is not suffered to grow higher than about fifteen feet, and its broad rich foliage, the hues of which vary from a light green to a dark red, loaded with yellow and dark red pods, which contain the chocolate bean, are beautiful objects; these alleys are shaded by rows of magnificent trees, called _Bois Immortel_ by the French and English, by the Spaniards the Madre de Cacao. It is the _Erythrina umbrosa_ or _arborea_ of Linnæus. Like the Bignonia or Pouie, this tree, at particular seasons, throws off its foliage and is covered with blossoms; those of the Erythrina are of a brilliant red color, justifying its Greek appellation. In this state they are literally dazzling to behold--no object in the vegetable world looks more striking than the alleys of a cacao walk shaded by a forest above them of the Bois Immortel. I have been obligingly furnished by Mr. W. Purdie, the able Government botanist of Trinidad, with a short essay upon the cultivation of the cacao tree, with which many of the valleys of that island are so beautifully adorned, and which, at one time, poured into that now unfortunate colony so large a stream of wealth. Fortunately the cacao planter of the island has managed to survive the many years of depression under which--like sugar now--the cacao cultivations lingered and sunk, and which brought the once wealthy planter down to poverty and misery. His prospects, however, are gradually improving. The opinions put forth by Mr. Purdie, on the subject of which he treats, will be found to run counter to the long-established practice hitherto pursued in the treatment of cacao plantations; but it must not be forgotten that these are the opinions of a person with whom the study of trees, their physiology and functions, has been not merely an amusing science, but an adopted employment, and whose acquirements in this respect, previous to his arrival in the colony, recommended him for selection as the agent to extend through South America (the great cacao region) the investigations of one of the most noted botanical gardens in Europe. Mr. Purdie says:-- "In the present depressed times, it behoves us to look well into the resources of our fertile island, particularly as far as any improvement can be suggested capable of averting, at least, a part of the misery and ruin that is hovering over us, and which is too eagerly borne on the lips of all classes of the community, instead of using our efforts to do what we can to meet the difficulty; but few seem to inquire whether we make the most of our present means or not, whilst every one rather joins in the cry that sugar fetches little or nothing, and it is no uncommon thing to hear the complaint transferred from sugar to cacao. It is but too true that the markets are at present lamentably against the most important branch of our industry, under the present manner of sugar cultivation and manufacture in this island. But it can hardly be admitted that the same is the case in that of cacao--also a very important branch of our agriculture. My attention has been lately directed to the average produce per tree, which will, I hope, throw some light on its cultivation. From fifteen cacao trees, which are all there are at St. Ann's, I have this year gathered 115 lbs. of cacoa (dried), and at present there is at least 50 lbs. more ripe on the same trees. This gives 165 lbs. of cacao from fifteen trees, or 11 lbs. per tree. These cannot be considered fine trees; on the contrary, they are what would be considered ordinary ones; therefore the average in this case is fair, and differs materially from selecting the produce of fifteen trees from a large plantation, and giving the average return of what might be obtained from cacao cultivation. Last year these trees did not average more than 2 lbs. per tree, and I attribute the increase of crop to the thinning out of both the cacao and shade trees. In a former letter to the cacao-planters of Trinidad, I recommended twenty-four to thirty feet from tree to tree as the proper distance; but so as to meet the feelings of those who, unfortunately for themselves, consider every cacao tree cut down a sacrifice, I propose that the trees be thinned out to twenty-four feet, and that, at intervals of twenty rows at most, avenues of fifty feet in both directions should be left. After this, it will be better seen what may be necessary to be done to each individual tree; neither should the shade trees be forgotten; as a general rule, they are prejudicially thick. By attending to this, I am quite satisfied that a very material increase in the produce will be seen; indeed, I may say that on this depends the chief difference of 1¼ lb. and 11 lbs. per tree; for I consider it a very fair inference, that the average obtained here can be realised in any other place in this island, and to any extent, under the same circumstances of light and air, unless on very poor soil, of which we fortunately have but little. At twenty-four feet apart there would be seventy-five trees per acre, or 250 per quarrée. This, at 11 lbs. per tree, gives 2,750 lbs. of dried cacao per quarrée, at 5 dollars per 100 lbs., gives 137 dollars 50 cents gross; deducting 80 dollars per quarrée expenses, leaves 57 dollars 60 cents net profit. Thus an estate of 120 acres, or 36 quarrées, would contain 9,000 trees, at 11 lbs. per tree will give 33,000 lbs. of cacao, at 5 dollars gives 4,350 dollars gross per annum; deducting 80 dollars per quarrée (a much more liberal sum than is at present laid out), leaves a net balance of 1,950 dollars, or 16 dollars 25 cents per acre. Now this, it must be remembered, would be the produce from 9,000 trees, and from an estate containing only 36 quarrées of land (which cannot be considered a large one); what, then, might be expected from estates containing 40,000 trees? I have been recently favoured with the following average return of cacao in this island, which I have no doubt will be considered a fair one. I insert it in full, and, from the very low return, it shows a lamentable deficiency in the cultivation of this most grateful tree:-- 'The average number of cacoa trees in a quarrée of land is 868. '1st. The estates throughout the island are generally planted at a distance of 12 feet by 12, and 13½ feet by 13½. Those planted at 12 by 12 contain 969 trees in the quarrée, and those at 13½ by 13½ contain 767 trees, the area of the quarrée being taken at 139,697 superficial feet. There may be in the island about 60 quarrées in all, planted at 15 by 15 feet. '2nd. The actual annual value of a quarrée of land planted in cacoa is ten fanegas, or 1¼ lb. to a tree. 'It is to be observed that this is the general return from each tree as estates are now cultivated, but if planters had the means of keeping their estates in high cultivation, each cacoa tree would produce 2 lbs. on an average. '3rd. The annual average cost of cultivating a quarrée in cacao, and manufacturing the produce therefrom, is 35 dollars, in the imperfect manner it is carried on at present, thereby giving only 10 fanegas per quarrée.' I believe there are many estates in the island where the average distance is less than 12 by 12; however, to give the present mode the full benefit of the return, I will adopt, for comparison's sake, the maximum number of trees; so that 960 trees per quarrée, at l¼ lb. per tree, gives 1,211 lbs. of cacao, at 5 dollars per 100 lbs. is worth 60 dollars,[2] gross return per quarrée; deducting 36 dollars, not 80 dollars, for expenses, which leaves 24 dollars per quarrée net, or about 7 dollars 75 cents per acre. This is a startling account from lands among the most fertile in the world, and from a plant, under fair treatment, next to the sugar cane, perhaps the most grateful for the care bestowed, more especially when we consider that more than ten times that quantity might be obtained with a comparatively insignificant _outlay of money_. If such, then, be the case, as stated in the above report (and it is to be regretted that it is too near the truth), apathy on the part of those whose interests are so much concerned is unwarrantable. It is not enough to say that our fathers must have known the proper way to plant cacao; this is but a lame excuse, and not sufficient to dispense with any exertions of the present generation, beyond merely collecting whatever fruit may come, as it were, fortuitously. Moreover, at the time the present cacao plantations were established in this island, its cultivation was comparatively little known; it is therefore likely that they might have erred, as they undoubtedly did, in cramming them so close together; but notwithstanding this, by a proper system of thinning, the evils might have been easily obviated, and large crops ensured. A few mornings ago, a cacao planter from Santa Cruz called on me, and in conversation stated that the only place where he had anything like a crop of cacao at present, was where the hurricane of the 11th of October had devastated his estate most severely, and which he at that time considered a ruinous visitation. I hope the lesson will not be lost on him. In Jamaica it is found necessary to prune the coffee trees yearly, which is done with as much care as gooseberry or currant bushes in England; but, notwithstanding this, I remember a friend of mine in Jamaica telling me of the extraordinary difference on his coffee plantation under the management of a person who understood and attended more particularly to the pruning of his trees. Lunan, in his 'Hortus Jamaicensis,' published in 1814, gives a very elaborate article on the cacao, although its cultivation was almost extinct in his day in that island. He, however, appears to have derived his information chiefly from Blume, who wrote a short account of Jamaica, in 1672, at which time cacao was the chief export of the island. Lunan attributes its downfall to heavy ministerial exaction, which was then, he says, upwards of 480 per cent. on its marketable value. Speaking of the average weight of cacao per tree, he has the following:--'The produce of one tree is generally estimated at about 20 lbs. of nuts. The produce per acre in Jamaica has been rated at 1,000 lbs. weight per annum, allowing for bad years. In poor soils, and under bad management, the produce of the tree rarely exceeds 8 lbs. weight.' He also says--'When the cacao plants are six months old, the planter from this period must not be too fond of cleaning the plantation from grass and herbage, because they keep the ground cool; but all creeping, climbing plants, and such weeds as grow high enough to overtop the cacao, should be destroyed.' He gives the distance from tree to tree at 18 feet. I have long since been of opinion that it is of less consequence to clean the ground beneath the trees than to attend to the top-pruning of the shade trees, as well as to the cacao (although the former is very desirable, it is nevertheless a subordinate consideration). Under the present mode of cultivation the ground-cleaning is the only one at all attended to, and that badly. A very important economy might also be made in the curing of the cacao, by which much time would be saved, and consequently expense, by adopting the same method as is used in Jamaica for drying coffee, namely, floorings of cement, or, as they are called, barbecues. At convenient distances in the centre of these floorings (which are inclined planes) a slightly-raised circular ridge is formed with cement, leaving an aperture at the lower side to allow the escape of any water that may have lodged in them. The cacao is easily brought together in these places in the event of rain, and at night covered with portable wooden frames, which are readily removed by two men. In this way the cacao would be dried in a fifth of the time much more effectually, and of a brighter colour. Any experiments tending to bring about a proper system of cultivation and manufacture of cacao, must be beneficial to the island, as well as to individuals; for it cannot be denied that the cultivation of cacoa will still prove advantageous in proportion to the care bestowed on it. Indeed its cultivation is at present languishing, not so much from inadequate prices, as from a want of proper attention to its cultivation." In 1796, there were sixty plantations in Trinidad, which produced 96,000 lbs. In 1802 the plantations were reduced to fifty-seven, the yield being about the same. In 1807, 355,000 lbs. of cacao were grown. In 1831, there were 2,972 quarrees (each three acres and one-fifth English) under cultivation in Trinidad with cacao, on which were 2,464,426 trees, which produced a crop of 1,479,568 lbs. In 1841 there were 6,910 acres planted with cacao. The following have been the exports from this island from 1821 to 1844:-- lbs. 1821 1,214,093 1822 1,780,379 1823 2,424,703 1824 2,661,628 1825 2,760,603 1826 2,951,171 1827 3,696,144 1828 2,582,323 1829 2,756,603 1830 1,646,531 1831 1,888,852 1832 1,530,990 1833 3,090,526 1834 3,363,630 1835 2,744,643 1836 3,188,870 1837 2,507,483 1838 2,571,915 1839 2,914,068 1840 2,007,494 1841 2,493,302 1842 2,163,798 1843 1,099,975 (Mill's Trinidad Almanac). In a lecture delivered by Dr. Lindley before the Society of Arts, alluding to the colonial products shown, at the Great Exhibition, he said:-- "There was one sample which ought to be mentioned most especially; namely, the cocoa of admirable quality which comes, or which may come, from Trinidad. Cocoa--cacao, as we should call it--is an article of very large consumption. Enormous quantities of it are now used in the navy; and every one knows how much it is employed daily in private life. It is, moreover, the basis of chocolate. But we have the evidence of one of the most skilful brokers in London, who has had forty years experience to enable him to speak to the fact--that we never get good cocoa in this country. The consequence is, that all the best chocolate is made in Spain, in France, and the countries where the fine description of cocoa goes. We get here cocoa which is unripe, flinty, and bitter, having undergone changes that cause it to bear a very low price in the market. But it comes from British possessions, and is, therefore, sold here subject to a duty of only 18s. 8d. per cwt., whereas if it came from a foreign country it would pay 56s.[3] The differential duty drives the best cocoa out of the English market. Still it appears that we might supply, from our own colonies, this very cocoa; because, as I have said, there was exhibited, from Trinidad, a very beautiful sample, quite equal to anything produced in the best markets of the Magdalena, of Soconusco, or of other places on the Spanish main. It had no bitterness, no flintiness, no damaged grain in it; but all were plump and ripe, as if they had been picked. The cocoa from the Spanish main goes into other countries, for the preparation of that delicious chocolate which we buy of them. It is thrown out of our market by the differential duty. But it is their own fault if our own colonies do not produce fine cocoa, as Trinidad has conclusively proved." The exports of cacao from St. Lucia, where there are now 300 acres under cultivation, have been as follows:[4]--I have also added the produce of St. Vincent and Grenada imported here:-- Grenada. St. Lucia. St. Vincent. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1828 75,275 17,384 1829 300,051 93,793 12,216 1830 337,901 153,340 9,989 1831 368,882 98,090 7,861 1832 196,195 51,925 538 1833 312,446 91,048 1,005 1834 349,367 60,620 2,197 1835 276,359 49,218 5,876 1836 307,236 47,950 7,721 1837 351,613 48,591 2,525 1838 426,626 38,590 6,588 1839 327,497 54,639 760 1840 269,680 82,293 3,956 1841 372,008 78,225 3,874 1842 280,679 55,175 7,268 1843 296,269 48,279 55,867 1844 544,253 65,667 8,304 1845 342,092 31,000 6,450 1850 609,911 1,372 8,642 1852 604,299 9,428 5,287 A little cacao is now grown in Antigua, about 19,000 lbs. having been exported from that island in 1843, and 2,000 in 1846. Dominica and British Guiana produce small quantities; our imports from these quarters having been as follows:-- Dominica. Demerara. lbs. lbs. 1833 8,808 2,051 1834 4,767 86 1835 685 126 1836 279 1,121 1837 1,896 522 1838 1,054 1839 1,127 58 1840 2,366 2,376 1841 4,014 129 1842 667 98 1843 4,614 4,178 1844 1,746 10,209 1845 5,444 The cultivation of cacao in Cuba is of comparatively recent introduction, but it is expected to increase, and, in some degree, to supply the place of coffee, which is evidently on the decline there. In 1827, the gross produce of Cuba amounted to 23,806 arrobas, and the exports to 19,053. In the same year, 15,301¾ arrobas were imported, so that at that period the production was not adequate to the consumption. The expectation of a great increase of production seems not to have been realized, as the exports of cacao in 1837 were only 587¼ arrobas, while the imports amounted to 40,837½ arrobas. There are now about sixty-nine cacao plantations in that island, almost exclusively situate in the central and oriental departments, which produced, in 1849, 3,836 arrobas, valued at 19,180 dollars. Hayti exported, in 1801, 648,518 lbs. of cacao; in 1826, 457,592 lbs., and in 1836, 550,484 lbs. The French island of Martinique produces a considerable quantity of cacao. In 1763, there were stated to be 103,870 trees in bearing. The produce exported in 1769 was 11,731 quintals. In 1770 there were 871,043 trees. In 1820 there were 412 square acres under cultivation with cacao, producing 449,492 lbs.; and in 1835, 492 hectares, which yielded 155,300 kilogrammes. I have no later returns at hand. The beverage generally called _cocoa_ is merely the berries of _Theobroma Cacao_, pounded and drank either with water or milk, or with both. _Chocolate_ (of which I shall speak by and bye) is a compound drink, and is manufactured chiefly from the kernels of this plant, whose natural habitat would seem to be Guayaquil, in South America, though it flourishes in great perfection in the West Indies. It grows also spontaneously and luxuriantly on the banks of the Magdalena, in South America; but the fruit of those trees that are found in the district of Carthagena is preferred to all others, probably from a superior mode of cultivation. Sir R. Schomburgk, in his expedition into the interior of British Guiana, found the country abounding in cacao, "which the Indians were most anxious to secure, as the pulpy arillus surrounding the seed has an agreeable vinous taste." Singular to say, however, they appeared perfectly ignorant of the qualities of the seed, which possesses the most delightful aroma. Sir Robert adds, they evinced the greatest astonishment when they beheld him and Mr. Goodall collecting these seeds and using them as chocolate, which was the most delicious they had ever tasted. These indigenous cacao trees were met with in innumerable quantities on the 5th of June, 1843, and the following day; and thus inexhaustible stores of a highly-prized luxury are here reaped solely by the wild hog, the agouti, monkeys, and the rats of the interior.--(Simmonds's Col. Mag. vol. i., p. 41.) The height of the cacao shrub is generally from eighteen to twenty feet; the leaf is between four and six inches long, and its breadth three or four, very smooth, and terminating in a point like that of the orange tree, but differing from it in color; of a dull green, without gloss, and not so thickly set upon the branches. The blossom is first white, then reddish, and contains the rudiments of the kernels or berries. When fully developed, the pericarp or seed-vessel is a pod, which grows not only from the branches, but the stem of the tree, and is from six to seven inches in length, and shaped like a cucumber. Its color is green when growing, like that of the leaf; but when ripe, is yellow, smooth, clear, and thin. When arrived at its full growth, and before it is ripe, it is gathered and eaten like any other fruit, the taste being subacid. If allowed to ripen, the kernels become hard; and, when taken out of the seed-vessel, are preserved in skins, or, more frequently, laid on the vijahua leaves, and placed in the air to dry. When fully dry, they are put in leathern bags, and sent to market: this is the Spanish mode of taking in the crop. A somewhat different method is followed in Trinidad and Jamaica (in the latter island it can scarcely be said to be cultivated now); but it differs in no essential degree from the principle of gradual exsiccation, and protection from moisture. _Chocolate_, properly so called, and so prized both in the Spanish continent and in the West Indies, never reaches Great Britain except as a contraband article, being, like nearly all colonial manufactured articles, prohibited by the Custom-house laws. What is generally drank under that name is simply the cacao boiled in milk, gruel, or even water, and is as much like the Spanish or West India chocolate as vinegar is to Burgundy. It is, without any exception, of all domestic drinks the most alimentary; and the Spaniards esteem it so necessary to the health and support of the body, that it is considered the severest punishment to withhold it, even from criminals; nay, to be unable to procure chocolate, is deemed the greatest misfortune in life! Yet, notwithstanding this estimation in which it is held, the quantity made in the neighbourhood of Carthagena is insufficient for the demands of the population, and is so highly priced that none is exported but as presents! The manner in which the Spaniards first manufactured this veritable Theobroma--this food for gods (from _Theos_, God, and _broma_, food)--was very simple. They employed the cacao, maize, Indian corn (_Zea Mays_), and raw cane-juice, and coloured it with arnatto, which they called _achiotti_ or _rocou_, but which was known in Europe at that time by the name of _Terra Orellana_. These four substances were levigated between two stones, and afterwards, in certain proportions, mixed together in one mass, which mass was subsequently divided into little cakes, and used as required, both in the solid and fluid form. The Indians used one pound of the wasted nuts, half a pound of sugar, and half a pound of ground corn (maize) each, and then added rose-water to make it palatable. This the Mexicans called chocolate, from two words in their language, signifying the noise made by the instruments used to mill and prepare it in the water. Many other ingredients were subsequently added; but with the exception of Vanilla, in the opinions of most persons, they spoil, rather than improve it. Chocolate, as used in Mexico, is thus prepared: --The kernels are roasted in an iron pot pierced with holes; they are then pounded in a mortar, and afterwards ground between two stones, generally of marble, till it is brought to a paste, to which sugar is added, according to the taste of the manufacturer. From time to time, as the paste assumes consistency, they add long pepper, arnatto, and lastly, vanilla. Some manufacturers vary these ingredients, and substitute cinnamon, cloves, or aniseed, and sometimes musk and ambergris--the two latter on account of their aphrodisiac qualities. The following is the formula given by a late writer:--To six pounds of the nut add three-and-a-half pounds of sugar, seven pods of vanilla, one-and-a-half pounds of corn meal (maize ground), half-a-pound of cinnamon, six cloves, one drachm of capsicums (bird pepper), and as much of the rocou or arnatto as is sufficient to color it, together with ambergris or musk, to enforce (as he says) the flavor, but in reality to stimulate the system. There is another chocolate made of filberts and almonds, but this is not considered genuine. In old Spain it is somewhat differently made; two or three kinds of flowers, also the pods of Campeche, almonds, and hazel-nuts, being mixed up with it, while the paste is worked with orange-water. With regard to the manner in which chocolate is prepared in England nothing need be said, as it is too well known to require description. That which has appeared to me the best is "_Fry's Chocolate_," which requires only to be rubbed up with a little boiling water, and scalded milk added to it with sugar, according to the taste of the drinker; there is a flavour, however, in this chocolate sometimes of _suet_, which is probably added to give it a richness which the cacao employed may not possess of itself. In the West Indies they rarely add anything to cacoa but arnatto (sometimes a little fresh butter), though it is often scented and sweetened, and sold in little rolls at five-pence and ten-pence each, currency. It is always boiled with milk, which, though very indigestible when boiled and taken alone, seems to lose this quality when taken with chocolate. Chocolate thus made is much drank, when cold, in the middle of the day, and is considered, both by the negroes and the old settlers, as a most nutritive and salutary beverage. The signs by which _good chocolate_ or cacao is known are these:--It should dissolve entirely in water, and be without sediment; it should be oily, and yet melt in the mouth; and if genuine, and carefully prepared, should deposit no grits or grounds. That made in the West Indies, and in some parts of Cuba, is dark; but that manufactured in Jamaica is of a bright brick colour, owing to the greater quantity of arnatto which is used in the preparation, and which, I think, gives it a richer and more agreeable flavor. In an economical point of view, chocolate is a very important article of diet, as it may be literally termed meat and drink; and were our half-starved artisans, over-wrought factory children, and ricketty millinery girls, induced to drink it instead of the innutritious beverage called "tea," its nutritive qualities would soon develop themselves in their improved looks and more robust constitution. The price, too, is in its favour, cacao being eight-pence per pound; while the cheapest black tea, such as even the Chinese beggar would despise, drank by milliners, washerwomen, and the poorer class in the metropolis, is three shillings a pound, or three hundred and fifty per cent, dearer, while it is decidedly injurious to health. The heads of the naval and military medical departments in England have been so impressed with the wholesomeness and superior nutriment of cocao, that they have judiciously directed that it shall be served out twice or thrice a week to regiments of the line, and daily to the seamen on board Her Majesty's ships, and this wise regulation has evinced its salutary effects in the improved health and condition of the men. Indeed, this has been most satisfactorily established in Jamaica among the troops; and the same may be asserted of the seamen in men of war on the coast. But the excellent qualities of chocolate were known not only to the Mexicans and Peruvians, from whom, as a matter of course, the Spaniards acquired a knowledge of its properties; but European nations also acknowledged its virtues. The Portuguese, French, Germans, and Dutch, considered it an exceedingly valuable article of diet, and Hoffman looked upon it both as a food and a medicine. In his monograph, entitled _Potus Chocolati_, he recommends it in all diseases of general weakness, macies, low spirits, and in hypochondrial complaints, and what since his time have been termed nervous diseases. As one example of the good effects of cacao, he adduces the case of Cardinal Richelieu, who was cured of eramacausis, or a general wasting away of the body, by drinking chocolate.[5] And Edwards informs us that Colonel Montague James--the first white person born in Jamaica after the occupation of the island by the English--lived to the great age of 104; and for the last thirty years of his life took scarcely any other food but chocolate. It is also certain that those who indulge in excesses find their vigor more speedily restored by the alternate use of chocolate and coffee than by any other ingesta; and pigs, goats, and horses, which are fed even on the spoiled berries, are observed to become very speedily fat, and in good condition. But cacao has not only the property of rapidly restoring the invalid to health, strength, and condition, but a very inconsiderable quantity of it will sustain life for a long period. The South American Indians perform extraordinary journeys, subsisting, daring these prolonged travels, on an incredibly small quantity of chocolate--so small, indeed, as to render the accounts of travellers upon the subject almost marvellous. In this respect it resembles coffee, which also possesses the estimable property of sustaining the powers of life, while it modifies and restrains the passion of hunger. It is a curious fact, and how far this condition may be connected with its powers of sustenance is worthy of inquiry, that chocolate recently boiled, if the operation be performed in a tin pan, is highly electrical; and this property may be frequently manifested by repeating the process. Cacao, according to Bridges, "was the favourite staple of the Spanish commerce, trifling as that commerce was; and when the English took possession of the island of Jamaica, it was that which first engaged their attention. The extensive plantations left by their predecessors, who had made it their principal food and only support, soon, however, began to fail. They were renewed; but whether it might be from the want of attention, or of information in the new colonists, the plants never succeeded under their management; so that, disgusted with the troublesome and unprofitable cultivation, they soon substituted indigo." Yet forests of cacao trees grow wild in Guiana, the Isthmus of Darien, Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala, Chiapa, and Nicaragua; while in Cuba, St. Domingo, and Jamaica, it was once an indigenous plant. The following were the expenses of a cacao plantation in Jamaica during the early period of British possession:-- £ stg Letters patent of five hundred acres of land 10 Six negroes 120 Four white persons, their passage and maintenance 80 Maintenance of six slaves for six months 18 Working implements 5 ---- £233 In four to five years the produce of one hundred acres would usually sell for £4,240 sterling. This was a monstrous and most unlooked-for return; but then, what was it to the profits of sugar, which, owing to the prodigious increase of the slave trade, was fast coming into active operation, and eating up and destroying all other sources and springs of industry? How dearly have the West Indians paid for the short-lived affluence which the sugar cane conferred! Blome, in his brief account of Jamaica, published in 1672, speaks of cacao as being one of the chief articles of export. He states that there were sixty cacao-walks or plantations, and many more planting; but, for many years, no cacao plantation has existed in Jamaica, all the chocolate used being made from imported berries, or the chance growth of a munificent climate and redundant soil! A few scattered trees, Edwards says (and as I my self know), here and there, are all that remain of those flourishing and beautiful groves, which were once the pride and boast of the country. They have withered with the indigo manufactory, under the heavy hand of ministerial exaction. _The excise on cacao, when made into cakes, rose to no less than £12 12s. per cwt., exclusive of 11s. 11½d. paid at the Custom-house, amounting together to upwards of £840 per cent. on its marketable value!_ The mode of cultivating the cacao is given at some length by Edwards; it is that of the Spaniards, a process strictly followed in Trinidad, where, of all the West India islands, it constitutes a considerable item of exports. It is thus described:--"A spot of level land being chosen--preference is always given to a deep black mould, sheltered by a hedge or thicket, so as to be screened by the wind, especially the north, and cleared of all weeds and stumps of trees--a number of holes are dug, at ten or twelve feet distance from each other, each hole being about a foot in length, and six or eight inches deep. A very important matter is the selection of the seeds for planting, and this is done in the following manner: the finest and largest pods of the cacao are selected when full ripe, and the grains taken out and placed in a vessel of water. Those which swim are rejected; those chosen are washed clean from the pulp, skinned, and then replaced in the water till they begin to sprout; Banana (_Musa paradisiaca_), or some other large leaves, those of the sea-side grape (_Coccoloba uvifera_), for instance, are then taken, and each hole is lined with one of them, leaving, however, the sides of the leaves some inches above ground; after which the mould is rubbed in gently till the hole is filled; three nuts are then selected for each hole, and they are set triangularly in the earth, by making a small opening with the finger about two inches deep, into which the nuts are put, with that end downwards from which the sprout issues." They are then covered lightly with mould, the leaf folded over, and a small stone placed on the top, to prevent its opening; in eight or ten days the young shoots appear above the ground; the leaves are then opened to give them light and air, and a shelter from the sun, either in the shape of plantain or banana leaves, is not forgotten; but the coco-nut and other species of palm, on account of their fibrous structure and great durability, are always preferred. This artificial shelter is continued for five or six months. But, as a further security to the young plants, for they are very delicate, other trees or shrubs are planted to the south-west of the plants, that they may grow up with and shelter them, for young cacao will grow and flourish only in the shade. For this purpose the coral bean-tree (_Erythrina Corallodendrum_) is chosen. I should presume there are other trees and plants equally eligible for this purpose, and more useful; but my experience does not enable me to speak positively upon the subject. Should the three seeds placed in each hole spring up, it is thought necessary, when the plants are fifteen or twenty inches high, to cut one of them down. The two others, if they devaricate, are sometimes suffered to remain, but it does not always happen that even _one_ of the three springs above the earth; consequently this additional labor is not invariably requisite. On the fourth or fifth year the tree begins to bear, and attains perfection by the eighth, continuing to produce two crops of fruit per annum, yielding at each crop from 10 lbs. to 20 lbs., according to the nature of the soil. It will continue bearing for twenty years; but, as it is a delicate plant, it suffers from drought, and is liable to blight. In these respects, however, it does not differ from many other plants, which are even more subject to disease, though not half so valuable. Besides, a proper system of irrigation, such as could be had recourse to in many parts of Jamaica, would obviate and prevent these evils. The whole quantity imported into the United Kingdom from the West Indies and British Guiana during the last thirteen years, has been as follows:-- lbs. 1831 1,491,947 1832 618,090 1833 2,125,641 1834 1,360,325 1835 439,440 1836 1,611,104 1837 1,847,125 1838 2,147,816 1839 969,428 1840 2,374,233 1841 2,919,105 1842 2,490,693 1843 1,496,554 1844 3,119,555 1845 3,351,602 1846 1,738,848 1847 3,026,381 1848 2,602,309 1849 3,159,086 1850 1,987,717 1851 4,347,195 1852 3,933,863 Cacao is cultivated in the highlands as well as on the coasts of the north-eastern peninsula of the large and rich island of Celebes, which has within the last year or two been thrown open to foreign trade. The plantations of it are even now considerable, and this branch of industry only requires not to be impeded by any obstacles in order to be still further extended. It forms a large ingredient in the local trade, and furnishes many petty traders with their daily bread, not to speak of the landowners, for whom the cultivation of the cacao affords the only subsistence. The preparation of the product differs from that adopted in the West Indies, but we have not been able to ascertain the practice. We may reckon that 1,200 to 2,000 piculs of 133 lbs. are yearly produced; the prices vary much, being from 50 to 75 florins per picul.--("Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. ii., p. 829.) Bourbon now produces 15,000 to 20,000 kilogrammes of cacao annually. Cacao is grown to a small extent in some of the settlements of Western Africa, but as yet only a few puncheons have been exported, all the produce being required for local consumption. The following figures give the imports and consumption of cacao into the United Kingdom in the last five years:-- Imports. Consumption. lbs. lbs. 1848 6,442,986 1849 7,769,234 3,233,135 1850 4,478,252 3,103,926 1851 6,773,960 3,024,338 1852 6,268,525 3,382,944 The home consumption is very steady at about 3,000,000 lbs., yielding to the revenue £15,000 to £16,000 for duty. The produce of British colonies pays 1d. per lb. duty, that from foreign countries 2d; cocoa husks and shells half these amounts; when manufactured into chocolate or cocoa paste the duty is 2d. per lb. from British possessions, and 6d. from other parts. The quantity imported in this form is to the extent of about 14,000 lbs. weight. COFFEE. The next staple I proceed to speak of is coffee--second only in importance as a popular beverage to that universal commodity, tea. I shall proceed, in the first instance, to take a retrospect of the progress of the coffee trade, and glance at the present condition and future prospects of produce and consumption. It will be seen, by reference to the following figures, that the consumption of coffee in the United Kingdom shows a successive decrease, from 1847 to 1850, of 6,414,533 lbs., and a loss to the revenue of £179,614. HOME CONSUMPTION AND REVENUE OF COFFEE FOR THE Years lbs. £ 1824 8,262,943 420,988 1825 11,082,970 315,809 1828 17,127,633 440,245 1835 23,295,046 652,124 1839 26,789,945 779,115 1840 28,723,735 921,551 1844 31,394,225 681,610 1845 34,318,095 717,871 1846 36,793,061 756,838 1847 37,441,373 746,436 1848 37,106,292 710,270 1849 34,431,074 643,210 1850 31,226,840 566,822 1851 32,564,164 445,739 1852 35,044,376 438,084 I estimated, in a little treatise on coffee and its adulterations, which I published in 1850, that not less than 18,000,000 lbs. of vegetable matter of various kinds were sold annually under the deceptive name of coffee. Three-fourths of these 18,000,000 lbs. of pretended coffee were composed of chicory, and the remaining fourth of other ingredients prejudicial to health, as well as a fraud upon the revenue. The various substances used in adulterating both chicory and coffee, when sold in the powdered state, have been specifically pointed out and set forth from time to time in memorials from the trade and the coffee-growers. Mr. M'Culloch and other competent judges set down the actual consumption of chicory in the United Kingdom at 12,500 tons per annum. When we consider the vast difference of price between chicory and coffee, as purchased by the wholesale dealer, the temptation to its fraudulent use was obviously great, and there was no penal restriction against it. It will be interesting and useful to trace the history of the trade in chicory from its first introduction. The substitution of chicory for coffee occasioned a loss to the revenue of three hundred thousand pounds sterling a-year, besides its mischievous effect in adulterating and debasing a popular beverage when used in such large and undue proportions for admixture, and sold at the price of coffee. Since the prohibition of the admixture of chicory with coffee, when sold to the public, and the compulsory sale by Treasury minute of the two articles in separate packages, a large and rapid increase in the consumption of coffee has taken place, and the trade is now placed in a healthy position. Whilst the increase in the consumption of coffee from the 1st of January, to 5th September, 1852, was but 142,267 lbs. as compared with the same period of 1851; the increase in the remaining four months of the year was to the amazing extent of 2,350,368 lbs. This increased consumption is likely to continue, and our colonial possessions are furnishing us with larger proportionate supplies, as may be seen by the following figures:-- TOTAL IMPORTS OF COFFEE IN 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 Produce of lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. lbs. British Possessions 35,970,507 40,339,245 36,814,036 35,972,163 42,519,297 Ditto foreign countries 21,082,943 22,976,542 13,989,116 17,138,497 11,857,957 ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- ---------- Total 57,053,450 63,315,787 50,803,152 53,110,660 54,377,254 In the year 1832 chicory was first imported into England, subject to a duty equivalent to that levied upon colonial coffee, and permitted to be sold by grocers _separately_ as chicory; but notices were at the same time issued, that the legal penalties would be rigidly enforced, if discovered mixed with coffee. In 1840, in consequence of memorials from the grocers and dealers in chicory, and also from the circumstance of exceedingly high rates then ruling for coffee, together with the disruption of our commercial relations with China, simultaneously advancing the price of tea (thus rendering both these popular beverages excessively dear to the consumer), an order was issued from the Treasury to the Excise Board, authorizing the admixture of chicory with coffee; a duty, however, being still maintained on the former of £20 per ton on the kiln-dried, and 6d. per lb. on the powdered root, when imported from abroad. In the year 1845, the cultivation of chicory was introduced upon British soil, and, being a home-grown commodity, was exempt from duty, but nevertheless, by virtue of the said Treasury Order, was permitted to enter into competition with a staple production of our own colonies, contributing on its import a tax of 60 to 80 per cent. to the revenue of the State. The result, as might have been foreseen, necessarily created and stimulated a demoralizing system of fraud, unjust and destructive to the interests of the coffee planter, and prejudicial to the national revenue. The effects of so baneful a system being equally manifest upon both consumption and revenue, they are here separately illustrated. In 1824, according to the following high scale of duties, viz., 1s. on West India, 1s. 6d. on East India, and 2s. 6d. on foreign, the Customs derived from coffee was £420,988; in the following year the rates were reduced one-half, and in the short space of three years the amount yielded had advanced to £440,245, an increase which steadily progressed (partly aided by the admission of the produce of British India at the low duty) until it reached £921,551 in 1840. These satisfactory results justified a further reduction of the duties in 1842 to 4d. on colonial and 8d. (and in the subsequent year to 6d.) on foreign, under which the revenue declined in 1844 to £681,616. In 1846 it had again reached to £756,838, and was gradually recovering itself, when this system of adulteration first began to extend itself generally, and since that time the revenue has rapidly declined under the _same scale of duties_ to £566,822 in 1850. In 1824 the quantity retained for home consumption was 8,262,943 lbs., which was augmented to 11,082,970 lbs. in the first year of the reduction of duty, and continued to exhibit an increase at a rate rather exceeding two million pounds per annum until 1830, when coffee would appear to have reached its limit of consumption without further stimulus, and remained stationary until the modification of duties allowing the admission of foreign coffee, _via_ the Cape, at the colonial rate, when it advanced from 23,295,046 lbs. in 1835, to 28,723,735 lbs. in 1840; and consequent upon a further reduction of duties in 1842, the elasticity of the trade experienced a still wider development, and an increase of nine million pounds is exhibited in the next five years. From that period, however, the general use of chicory has not only checked the progressive increase of this healthy demand, but an annual decline is observable to the extent of above six million pounds in 1850, as compared with 1847. On the 15th of April, 1851, with the view of partly remedying the grievance of the colonists on this head, the duties were equalized and reduced to 3d. The results are, however, far from satisfactory, either in a fiscal or commercial point of view. It is true that an increase in consumption, of one-and-a-quarter million pounds has taken place, but at the sacrifice of £121,000 of revenue. But this increase, it will be seen, has not exceeded 4¼ per cent., whilst there has been a diminution of 21½ per cent. in the revenue receipts. Upon investigation, moreover, it will be found that, notwithstanding the _total_ increase exhibited, there has been an actual falling off of 894,778 lbs. of colonial coffee in 1851; the items for last year are, however, much more favorable and encouraging for the planters. No reasonable cause can be assigned for this rapid and serious diminution in the consumption of coffee, except the notorious substitution of chicory and other substances. The arguments advanced to account for the falling off in the consumption of coffee, by adducing the increase of tea and cacao for a similar period are fallacious, and contrary to the commercial experience of many years, which convincingly proves these kindred articles to have always simultaneously increased, or diminished, in ratio with the general prosperity of the kingdom, and the prevalence of temperate habits among the community. I shall now proceed to trace the fluctuations in the consumption of coffee. At the close of the last century the consumption of coffee was under one million pounds yearly; the only descriptions then known in the London market were Grenada, Jamaica, and Mocha--the two former averaging about £5 per cwt., and the latter £20 per cwt. Grenada coffee is now unknown, and Ceylon and Brazil are the largest producers. In 1760, the total quantity of coffee consumed in the United Kingdom was 262,000 lbs., or three quarters of an ounce to each person in the population. In 1833 the quantity was 20,691,000 lbs., or 1½ lb. to each person. When first introduced into England, about the middle of the 17th century, coffee was sold in a liquid state, and paid a duty of 4d. per gallon; afterwards, until the year 1733, the duty was 2s. per lb.; it was then reduced to 1s. 6d., since which it has paid various rates of duty; in the year 1824 it was settled at 6d. per lb. All descriptions of coffee now pay but 3d. per lb. The consumption of coffee in the United Kingdom, for several years previous to 1825, varied from seven millions and a half to eight millions and a half pounds in round numbers, the duty being 1s. per lb. on British plantation, 1s. 6d. per lb. on East India, and 2s. 6d. per lb. on foreign. From the 5th of April of that year those rates were each reduced to one half, and the immediate consequence was a steady increase of the consumption until 1831, when it amounted to 23,000,000 lbs. The consumption continued, without any material variation, at this rate, or to advance by very slow degrees, until 1836, when the duty on East India coffee was reduced to 6d. per lb.; and this change had precisely the same effect as the previous one, for the consumption again advanced to upwards of 26,000,000 lbs., which was then considered, in a memorial of the London trade, to be as much as our colonies were capable of producing! We now find, however, one small island, Ceylon, producing a fourth more than this amount annually. The Belgians, a population of 4,500,000, consume more than 33,000,000 lbs. of coffee annually; quite as much as is used by the whole 35,000,000 French. The duty on 100 lbs. of coffee in France is more than the common original cost--the Belgian duty not a tenth part; so that the French do not use 1 lb. of coffee per head, while the Belgians consume 7 lbs. each per annum. The proportion in England is not more than 1½ lb. per head to the population. The United States are the largest consumers of coffee, as it is admitted into their ports free of duty, and can therefore be sold for nearly the price per pound which the British Government levies on it for revenue. The entire consumption of the United States and British North America, calling their population 23,000,000 and ours 30,000,000, exceeds ours, on an estimate of population, by sixfold. Thus the average consumption of coffee by each American, annually, is about 8½ lbs., while the quantity used by each person in the European States is less than 1½ lb. The changes in the sources of supply, within the last fifteen or sixteen years, have been very remarkable. The British possessions in the East have taken the place which our islands of the West formerly occupied. The British West Indies have fallen off in their produce of coffee from 30,000,000 to 4,000,000 lbs. Ceylon which, fifteen years ago, had scarcely turned attention to coffee, now exports nearly 35,000,000 lbs. San Domingo, Cuba, and the French West India colonies are gradually giving up coffee-cultivation in favor of other staples; and it is only Brazil, Java, and some of the Central American Republics that are able to render coffee a profitable crop. The export crop of Brazil (the greatest coffee-producing country), grown in 1850, for the supply of the year ending July, 1851, amounted to no less than 302,000,000 lbs., of this a large quantity remained in the interior to supply the deficiency of the current year. It is scarcely thirty years ago that the coffee-plant was first introduced into Bengal by two refugees from Manilla; and the British possessions in the East Indies now yield 42,000,000 lbs. Sufficient extent has not yet been given to enable it to be decided in what district of _Continental_ India it may be most advantageously cultivated. It is in the fine island of Ceylon, however, that coffee-culture has made the most rapid progress. It is an important fact that the supply of coffee from Ceylon, even at the present moment, and irrespective of land already planted but not yet come into full bearing, is in excess of the whole consumption of Great Britain, and the planter is thus compelled to carry the surplus to continental markets. The exports of coffee from Ceylon have been rather stationary the past three years, averaging about 300,000 cwt. In the sixteen years ending with 1851, Ceylon had exported 130,083 tons of coffee! The present _produce_ of the various coffee-growing countries in the world, may be set down at the following figures: SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA. Millions of lbs. Costa Rica 9 La Guayra and Porto Cabello 35 Brazil 302 British West Indies 8 French and Dutch West Indies 7 Cuba and Porto Rico 30 St. Domingo 33½ ASIA AND THE EAST. Java 140 The Philippine Isles 3 Celebes 1½ Sumatra 5 Ceylon 34 Malabar and Mysore 5 Arabia (Mocha) 3 --- 616 = 275,000 tons. This I have computed as accurately as possible from the most recent returns, but it falls much below the actual capabilities of production, even with the trees at bearing, and land already under cultivation; and also, in a great measure, excludes the local consumption in the producing countries. In many quarters there has been a considerable falling off in the production. The British West Indies, as we have seen, formerly exported 30,000,000 lbs., the French and Dutch West Indies 17,000,000, Cuba and Porto Rico 56,000,000, and St. Domingo, in the last century, 76,000,000. The growth of coffee has been transferred from the West to the East Indies, and to the South American Continent, where labor is more abundant, certain, and cheap. In the East the increase in production has been enormous and progressive, with, perhaps, the exception of Sumatra, which has fallen off from 15,000,000 lbs. to somewhere about one-third of that quantity. The following statement may be taken as an approximate estimate of the actual _consumption_ of coffee at the present time:-- Millions of lbs. Great Britain 32 Holland and Belgium 125 France 33 German Customs Union 95 Other German Countries not included 46 in the Union, and Austria Switzerland 13 Mediterranean Countries 20 Russia 12 Sweden and Denmark 20 Spain and Portugal 15 Cape of Good Hope and Australia 6 United States and British America 170 --- 587 A calculation made in the _Economist_, a year or two ago, gave the following as the probable consumption:-- Millions of lbs. Holland and Netherlands 108 Germany and North Europe 175 France and South of Europe 105 Great Britain 37 United States and British America 175 --- Total 600 But this estimate is too high in some of the figures. Great Britain we know, from the official tables only, consumes 34,000,000 lbs. annually; the United States and British America not so much as set down by several millions; for the official returns of the imports of coffee into the United States show an average for the three years ending June, 1850, of less than 154,000,000 lbs.; although a writer in a recent number of "Hunt's Merchant's Magazine," New York, (usually a well-informed periodical,) assumes a consumption of 200,000,000 lbs., for the North American States and Provinces. The quantity of coffee produced being greater than the consumption thereof, the growth of it becomes less remunerative, and consequently we may look for a decrease in the supply. Ceylon, as well as the West Indies generally, British and foreign, are likely to direct their attention to some more profitable staple. A diminished production may further be expected in Brazil, consequent on the extermination of the slave-trade and the more sparing exertion of the labour of the slaves. In Cuba the want of labour is so much felt that large engagements have been entered into for the importation of Chinese; and there are many reasons for expecting a diminished production in Java, the next largest coffee-producing country. The necessary consequence of this expected decrease in the quantity of coffee produced will be, to bring the produce as much below the wants of the consumers as it is now above, and this must again result in an enhancement of prices in process of time. If it were thought desirable to extend the production of coffee, there are many new quarters, besides the existing countries in which it is largely cultivated, where it could be extensively grown. We may instance Liberia and the western coast of Africa generally, the interior ranges of Natal, the mountain-ranges on the northern coast of Australia, from Moreton Bay to Torres Straits, &c., &c. But the present production is more than equal to the demand; and unless a very largely increased consumption takes place in the European countries, the present plantations (colonial and foreign) are amply sufficient to supply, for many years to come, all the demands that can be made upon their trees, a large proportion of which have yet to come into full bearing. The coffee tree would grow to the height of fifteen or twenty feet if permitted, but it is bad policy to let it grow higher than four or five feet. It comes to maturity in five years, but does not thrive beyond the twenty-fifth, and is useless generally after thirty years. Although the tree affords no profit to the planter for nearly five years; yet after that time, with very little labor bestowed upon it, it yields a large return. Mr. Churchill, Jamaica, found that 1,000 grains of the wood, leaves, and twigs of the coffee tree, yielded 33 grains of ashes, or 3.300 per cent. The ashes consist of potass, lime, alumina, and iron in the state of carbonates, sulphates, muriates, and phosphates, and a small portion of silica. According to Liebig's classification of plants, the coffee tree falls under the description of those noted for their preponderance of lime. Thus the proportions in the coffee tree are-- Lime salts 77 Potass salts 20 Silica 3 --- 100 I shall now proceed to describe the cultivation of the tree and preparation of the berry, as carried on in different countries. _Cultivation of Mocha_--In Arabia Felix, the culture is principally carried on in the kingdom of Yemen, towards the cantons of Aden and Mocha. Although these countries are very hot in the plains, they possess mountains where the air is mild. The coffee is generally grown half way up on their slopes. When cultivated on the lower grounds it is always surrounded by large trees, which shelter it from the torrid sun, and prevent its fruit from withering before their maturity. The harvest is gathered at three periods; the most considerable occurs in May, when the reapers begin by spreading cloths under the trees, then shaking the branches strongly, so as to make the fruit drop, which they collect and expose upon mats to dry. They then pass over the dried berries a heavy roller, to break the envelopes, which are afterwards winnowed away with a fan. The interior bean is again dried before being laid up in store. The principal coffee districts are Henjersia, Tarzia, Oudein, Aneizah, Bazil, and Weesaf. The nearest coffee plantations are three-and-a-half days journey (about 80 miles) from Aden. The following information is derived from Capt. S.B. Haines of the Indian Navy, and our political agent at Aden. A camel load is about 400 lbs = 25 frazlas or bales. G.C. Commassees. The price of ditto inland 31 41 At Mocha, duty to Dewla uncertain Bake fee one butsha on each frazla 25 Weighing and clerk's fee 20 Packing 40 Camel hire to the coast 12 50 Cost from Sana to Mocha 44 15 Coffee is brought into the Sana market in December and January from the surrounding districts. The varieties are-- 1. Sherzee, best--price 1 G.C. frazla 25 butsha. 2. Ouceaime. 3. Muttanee. 4. Sharrazee. 5. Hubbal from Aniss. 6. Sherissee from ditto--price per frazla 1 G.C. 15 B. The nearest place to Sana where the coffee tree grows, is at Arfish, half a day distant. Attempts have been made to introduce the shrub in the garden of the Imaum at Sana, but without success, ascribed to cold. Kesher is more prized at Sana; the best is Anissea, and is sold at a higher price than other coffee, namely, g.c. 12 per 100 lbs.; inferior, at from 4, 5, and 6. Rain falls in Sana three times in the year. 1st. In January, in small quantities. 2nd. Beginning of June, when it falls for eight or ten days. By this time the seed is sown, and the cultivators look forward to the season with anxiety. 3rd. In July, when it falls in abundance. A few farmers defer sowing till this period, but it is unusual when they expect rain in June. The coffee plant is mostly found growing near the sides of mountains, valleys, and other sheltered situations, the soil of which has been gradually washed down from the surrounding heights, being that which forms its source of support. This is afforded by the decomposition of a species of claystone (slightly phosphoritic) which is found irregularly disposed in company with a few pieces of trap-rocks, amongst which, on approaching Sana from the southward, basalt is found to preponderate. The clay stone is only found in the more elevated districts, but the debris finds a ready way into the lower country by the numerous and steep gorges which are conspicuous in every direction. As it is thrown upon one side of the valley, it is carefully protected by means of stone walls, so as to present to the traveller the appearance of terraces. The plant requires a moist soil, though much rain does not appear necessary. It is always found in greater luxuriance at places where there is no spring. The tree at times looks languid, and half withered; an abundant supply of water to the root of the plant seems necessary for the full growth and perfection of its bean. _Progress of Cultivation in India_.--There are said to be ten varieties of the coffee, but only one is found indigenous to India, and it is questionable if this is not the Mocha species introduced from Arabia. The cultivation of this important crop is spreading fast throughout the east, and has been adopted in many parts of Hindostan. In the Tenasserim provinces, on the table land of Mysore, in Penang, and especially in the islands of Bourbon and Ceylon, it is becoming more and more an object of attention. It is known to have given good produce in Sangar and the Nerbudda; also in Mirzapore, as well as Dacca, and other parts of Bengal; Chota Najpore, Malabar, and Travancore. From three to four million pounds of coffee are now exported from the Indian presidencies annually. The highest quantity was four and a quarter million pounds in 1845, but the progress of culture, judging from the export, has been small. On the hilly districts on the east coast of the Gulf of Siam, the cultivation is carried on on a limited scale. The annual produce is not much more than about 400 cwt., although it is understood to be increasing. The quality of the berry is reckoned to be nearly equal to Mocha, and it commands a high price in the English market. The soil recommended in India is a good rich garden land, the situation high and not liable to inundation, and well sheltered to the north-west, or in such other direction as the prevailing storms are found to come from. A plantation, or a hill affording the shrubs shade, has been found beneficial in all tropical climates, because, if grown fully exposed to the sun, the berries have been found to be ripened prematurely. The spot should be well dug to a depth of two feet before the trees are planted out, and the earth pulverised and cleared from the roots of rank weeds, but particularly from the coarse woody grasses with which all parts of India abound. The best manure is found in the decayed leaves that fall from the trees themselves, to which may be added the weeds produced in the plantation, dried and burnt. These, then, dug in, are the only manure that will be required. Cow-dung is the best manure for the seed-beds. The seed reserved for sowing must be put into the ground quite fresh, as it soon loses its power of germination. Clean, well-formed berries, free from injury by insects, or the decay of the pulp, should be selected. These berries must be sown in a nursery, either in small, well-manured beds, or in pots in a sheltered spot, not too close, as it is well to leave them where sown until they acquire a good growth; indeed, it is better if they are removed at once from the bed where they are sown, to the plantation. Here they should be planted as soon as they have attained two years of age, for, be it remembered, that if they are left too long in the nursery, they become unproductive and never recover. The distance at which they should be put out in the plantation need not exceed eight feet apart in the rows, between which, also, there should be eight feet distance. The seedlings appear in about a month after the seed is sown. The culture requisite is, in the first instance, to afford shade to the young plants; many consider that this shelter should be continued during the whole period of their culture; but this is somewhat doubtful, as it has been found that plants so protected are not such good bearers as those which are exposed. The best plants for this purpose are tall, wide-branching trees or shrubs, without much underwood. The other culture requisite is only to keep the ground tolerably clean from weeds, for which one cooly on from five to ten biggahs is sufficient. He should also prune off decayed or dead branches. This treatment must be continued until the fourth year, when the trees will first begin bearing, and, after the gathering of each crop, the trees will require to be thinned out from the superabundant branches, their extremities stopped, and the tops reduced to prevent their growing above seven or eight feet in height; the stems, also, should be kept free from shoots or suckers for the height of at least one foot, as well as clear from weeds. Irrigation must be frequent during the first year that the plants are removed to the plantation, and may be afterwards advantageously continued at intervals during the dry and hot weather, as a very hot season is found unfavorable to the plant, drying up and destroying the top branches and the extremities of the side shoots; whilst, on the other hand, a very long rain destroys the fruit by swelling it out and rotting it before it can be ripened: hence it is necessary to attend to a good drainage of the plantation, that no water be anywhere allowed to lodge, as certain loss will ensue, not only of the crop of the current year, but most frequently of the trees also, as their roots require to be rather dry than otherwise. The crop will be ready to gather from October to January, when the ripe berries should be carefully picked from the trees by hand every morning, and dried in the shade, the sun being apt to make them too brittle; they must be carefully turned to prevent fermentation, and when sufficiently dry the husks must be removed, and the clean coffee separated from the broken berries. After being picked out and put aside, and then again dried, it is fit to pack. The first year's crop will be less than the succeeding ones, in which the produce will range from ½ a lb. to 1 lb. in each year.--(Simmonds's "Colonial Magazine," vol. xv.) _Ceylon_.--Coffee is stated to have been introduced into this island from Java, somewhere about the year 1730. It was extensively diffused over the country by the agency of birds and jackalls. In 1821 its cultivation may be said to have partially commenced, and in 1836, it had become widely extended through the Kandyan provinces. In 1839 not a tree had been felled on the wide range of the Himasgaria mountains. In 1840 a small plantation was, for the first time, formed. In 1846 there were fifty estates, then averaging, each, 200 acres of planted land, and yielding an average crop of 80,000 cwt. of coffee. Every acre is now purchased in that locality, and in large tracts, or there would have been twice the number of estates in cultivation. In 1848, the Galgawatte estate, situate in this range, at an elevation of 4,000 feet, containing 246 acres, of which 72 were planted, was purchased by Mr. R.D. Gerard, for £1,600. The quantity of land which had been brought under cultivation with coffee in this island in the ten years previous to the last reduction of duty in 1844, was, in round numbers, 25,000 acres; but so rapid was the subsequent increase, that in the succeeding three years, that extent of land was doubled; so that, in 1847, there were upwards of 60,000 acres of land under cultivation with coffee, giving employment to 40,000 immigrant coolies from the continent of India, and upwards of two millions of capital were invested in the cultivation of this staple. The quantity of land under culture with coffee by Europeans, was about 55,000 acres in 1851. Allowing 20,000 acres to produce the quantity of native coffee exported, and 5,000 for that consumed in the island, the total extent of coffee cultivation in Ceylon, European and native, will be 80,000 acres. The produce exported in 1849 was 373,593 cwt., while in the year 1836, when attention was first directed to this island as a coffee-producing country, the crop was not more than 60,330 cwt. Large profits were made by the first planters, more capital was introduced, until, between the years 1840 and 1842, the influx of capitalists, to undertake this species of cultivation, completely changed the face of the colony, and enlarged its trade, and the produce of coffee in sixteen years has increased sixfold. The general culture resembles the practice in Java. Of the Ceylon coffee, that grown about Ramboddi fetches the highest price, from the superiority of the make, shape, and boldness of the berry. The weight per bushel, clean, averages 56 lbs.; 57½ lbs. is about the greatest weight of Ceylon coffee. The lowest in the scale of Ceylon plantation coffee is the Doombera, which averages 54½ lbs., clear, per bushel. The following have been the prices of good ordinary Ceylon coffee in the port of London for the last eight years in the month of January, 1853, 46s. to 48s.; 1852, 40s. to 42s.; 1851, 38s. 6d. to 40s. 6d.; 1850, 56s. 6d. to 57s. 6d.; 1849, 31s. to 32s. 6d.; 1848, 31s. 6d. to 33s.; 1847, 39s. 6d. to 41s. 6d.; 1846, 49s. to 50s. Forest lands are those usually planted in Ceylon, and the expense attendant on clearing and reclaiming them from a state of nature, and converting them into plantations, is estimated to average £8 per acre. The lowest upset price of crown lands in the colony is £1 per acre. Coffee planting has failed over a considerable portion of the southern province of the island, where the experiment was tried. The temperature was found to be too equable, not descending sufficiently low at any time to invigorate the plant; which, though growing luxuriantly at first, soon became weak and delicate. Nurseries are established for young plants. The districts in which the coffee is principally cultivated, extend over nearly the whole of the hilly region, which is the medium and connecting link between the mountainous zone and the level districts of the coast. The mania for coffee planting has recently subsided, in consequence of the barely remunerative returns at which that article has been sold, ascribable partly to over-production, and in some measure, perhaps, to the temporary glut of foreign coffee thrown on the British market by the reduction of the duty. As regards the yield, some estates in Ceylon have produced upwards of 15 cwt. per acre, but it is a good estate that will average seven, and many do not give more than 4 cwt. the acre. The shipments from Colombo for five years, are stated below, with the class of coffee:-- Plantation. Native. Total. cwt. cwt. cwt. 1845 75,002 112,889 187,891 1846 91,240 70,991 162,231 1847 106,198 143,457 249,655 1848 191,464 88,422 279,886 1849 243,926 118,756 362,682 1850 198,997 56,692 255,689 1851 220,471 97,091 317,562 While, in 1839, the total value of the exports from Ceylon was only £330,000, in 1850 the value of the single staple of coffee was no less than £609,262, and in 1851 had still further increased. I append a memorandum of the quantities of coffee exported from Ceylon since 1836:-- Quantity. Value. cwt. £ 1836 60,329 1837 34,164 1838 49,541 1839 41,863 1840 68,206 1841 80,584 196,048 1842 119,805 269,763 1843 94,847 192,891 1844 133,957 267,663 1845 178,603 363,259 1846 173,892 328,781 1847 293,221 456,624 1848 280,010 387,150 1849 373,593 545,322 1850 278,473 609,262 1851 339,744 --------- Total in 16 years 2,600,832 --------- Average 162,552 (Ceylon Almanac for 1853.) The local export duty of two-and-a-half per cent., was abolished from 1st September, 1848. From these figures it appears that, in a period of sixteen years, Ceylon exported two and a half millions of cwts. of coffee. The consumption of coffee, although for a long time stationary in Britain, now that adulteration is no longer legalised, is likely to increase as rapidly as in other parts of the world; and it appears pretty evident that, so long as anything like remunerative prices can be obtained, Ceylon will do her part in supplying the world with an article which occupies the position of a necessary to the poor as well as a luxury to the rich. The exports of coffee from this colony have, within a few thousands of hundredweights, been nearly quadrupled since 1843, when only 94,000 cwts. were sent away. Dr. Rudolph Gygax, in a paper submitted to the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, offered remarks on some analyses, of the coffee of Ceylon, with suggestions for the applications of manures. "Having had," he observes, "my attention drawn to an account of an analysis of the Jamaica coffee berry, made by Mr. Herapath, the Liverpool chemist, I have paid some little attention to the subject of the coffee plant of this island, forming, as it does, so very important a feature in the resources of this colony. The desire that I thus felt for obtaining some information regarding the constituent parts of the Ceylon tree and its fruit, was heightened by a knowledge of the fact, that not a few of those coffee estates, which once gave good promise of success, are now in a very precarious state of production. I much regret that the means at my disposal have not allowed me to carry out any _quantative_ analysis, but the result of my labours are sufficiently accurate for my present purpose. I have analysed the wood and fruit of trees from two different localities, as well as the ashes of some plants sent me from the Rajawella estate near Kandy, and they all tend to bear out the result of Mr. Herapath's inquiries. Placing the substances traced in the coffee plant in the order in which they occur in the greatest quantity, they will stand thus:-- Lime, potash, magnesia, phosphoric acid, other acids. Of these lime is by far the most prominent, forming about 60 per cent. of the whole. I cannot help, therefore, arriving at the conclusion that, to cultivate coffee with any degree of success, the first-named substance must be present in the soil; or, if not present, must be supplied to it by some process. Now it is a singular fact that the rocks and soils of Ceylon are greatly deficient in alkaline matter; and, taking this view of the case, one no longer wonders that many estates cease to produce coffee. That all, or nearly all the plantations did, in their first year or two of bearing, produce liberally in fruit, may readily be accounted for by the fact that the alkaline poverty of the soil was enriched by the burning of the vast quantities of timber which lay felled on all sides. Whilst this temporary supply lasted, all was well with the planter. Heavy rains, and frequent scrapings of the land with the mamotie, or hoe, soon dissipated this scanty supply, and short crops are now the consequence. But nature, ever bountiful, ever ready to compensate for all deficiencies, has provided to our hands a ready means of remedying this evil of the soil, by scattering throughout most parts of the interior supplies of dolomitic limestone. The dolomite of Ceylon is not pure, far from it, being mixed freely with apatite or phosphate of lime. Even in this very accidental circumstance the coffee planter is aided; for the phosphoric acid thus combined with the limestone is the very substance required in addition. Some of the finest properties in the island are situated on a limestone bottom, and these no doubt will continue to yield abundant crops for a very long period. It has been urged against this opinion that in some districts where coffee planting has proved a complete failure, dolomite is found most abundantly; but I have very little doubt that the dolomite here alluded to is only _magnesian_ limestone, and which is most inimical to the coffee bush. I am aware that already several manures have been tried on coffee with varying degrees of success. Guano has, I believe, quite failed, and is besides very costly. Cattle manure is said to be effective, and no doubt it is, but it is a costly and troublesome affair. Bones, ground fine, are now being tried, though they cannot but prove most expensive, especially when imported. A ton of bone dust contains of animal matter, 746 lbs,; phosphates of lime, &c., 1,245 lbs.; carbonates of lime, &c., 249 lbs. The virtue of bones lies in the phosphates far more than in the animal matter, and thus their action on soils is felt for many years after their application. The Singalese cultivators of paddy about Colombo and Galle, appear to have been long aware of the fertilizing effects of this kind of manure, and import the article in dhonies from many parts of the coast: they bruise them coarsely before applying them. The partially decomposed husks of the coffee berry have been tried for some years, and successfully, but they are difficult of collection, and bulky to remove from one part of the estate to another. In Europe it would appear that little is yet known as to the causes of the fertilising effects of oil cake: some suppose them to arise mainly from the oil left by the crushing process, but this is not at all clear. I do not, however, see that we must look for much assistance from Poonac as a manure for coffee: for the cocoanut tree it is doubtless most valuable, but we have yet to learn that, beyond supplying so much more vegetable matter, it helps the action of the soil on the roots of the coffee bush, which, after all, is what is really required. For the proper application of the dolomite to land as manure, it should be freely burnt in a kiln, with a good quantity of wood, the ashes of which should be afterwards mixed with the burnt lime, and the whole exposed for several days to the action of the air, sheltered of course from the weather. The mixture should be applied just before the setting in of the monsoon rains: if the land be tolerably level, the lime may be scattered broadcast on the surface, though not quite near the plants. When the estate to be manured is steep, then the substance to be applied should be placed in ridges cut crossways to the descent of the slopes. About one cwt. to the acre would be ample for most lands; some may, however, require more. The contents of the husk pits might advantageously be mixed up with the burnt lime, when a sufficiency of it has been saved. A planter in Ambagamoe states that he has tried the following remedy for that destructive scourge, the coffee-bug, with great success. He applies saltpetre in a finely-powdered state, dusted over the tree when wet with rain or dew. The operation is inexpensive, as a very small quantity suffices, one cwt. being sufficient for nine or ten acres. It can be applied through a bamboo-joint covered with a perforated top, or any equally simple contrivance. Messrs. Worms' are reported to have found coco-nut oil an effectual remedy. To sum up the question of manures:-- Poonac, the marc or cake, after the coco-nut oil is expressed, is represented to be a stimulating manure; but is not durable. Lime is an useful application, especially to stiff soils, as the coffee tree contains 60 parts of lime. Bone-dust is an excellent fertiliser, but in Ceylon it is found that it cannot be applied at a less expense than £5 per acre. Cattle manure is the cheapest and most available. Guano does not seem suitable. _Peeling, pulping, and winnowing._--The coffee-peeler, used for separating the bean from the pellicle, was formerly a large wheel revolving in a trough, the disadvantage of which was the flattening more or less of the bean when not thoroughly dry. A new machine has been recently introduced, the invention of Mr. Nelson, C.E., of the Ceylon iron works, by which this evil is obviated; its principle being not weight, but simple friction, of sufficient force to break the parchment at first, and, when continued, to polish the bean free from the husk. A very simple winnowing machine for cleaning the coffee as it comes out of the peeler, is attached. From the winnowing machine it runs into the separating machine, which sorts it into sizes, and equalizes the samples, by which a vast amount of time and manual labour are saved. The same principle is intended to be applied by Mr. Nelson to pulping, which will obviate the injury now inflicted by the grater upon the fresh berry. In spite of the greatest care numbers of the beans in a sample, on close examination, will be found scratched or pecked; and when the closest attention is not paid, or the person superintending the process is devoid of mechanical skill, the injury is proportionate. The ordinary pulping-mill in use, consists of a cylinder of wood or iron, covered with sheet brass or copper, and punctured similarly to a nutmeg grater. This cylinder, technically called the barrel, runs upon a spindle, which turns a brass pick on each side of a frame. Immediately in a line with the centre upon which it turns, and placed vertical to each other, are two pieces of wood, frequently shod with iron of copper, called "the chops," placed about half an inch apart, or sufficient to allow the passage of "parchment" coffee between them. The lower chop is placed so close to the barrel, yet without contact, that all coffee must be stopped by it and thrown outwards. The upper chop is adjusted to that distance only which will permit the cherry coffee to come into contact with the barrel; but will not allow the berries to pass on till they have been denuded of their red epidermis by a gentle squeeze against its rough surface. The far greater portion of the pulps are separated by being carried past the lower chops upon the sharp points of the copper, and thrown out behind, and a few are left with the parchment coffee. As from the different sizes of the berries, and their crowding for precedence as they descend from the hopper above to the gentle embrace of the barrel and upper chop, some pass unpulped, the coffee as it comes from the lower chop is made to fall upon a riddle, which separates the unpulped cherries. These are put back again, and passed through a pulper with the upper chop set closer. The secret of working-appears to be the proper setting of the chops, and many have been the schemes proposed for reducing this to a certainty. Perhaps, after all, few plans are better than the old wedges, by tightening or loosening of which the chop is kept in the required position. Within the last few years, the machine has been considerably improved by being formed entirely of iron, cog-wheels being substituted in the place of straps and drums to move the riddle, and the riddle itself is now formed of two sieves, by which the chance of unpulped berries reaching the parchment is lessened. On some estates, water-wheels have been put up to drive several pulpers at one time, which otherwise would require from two to four men each to work them, but from the costly buildings and appurtenances which such machinery renders necessary, they are rare. Although the operation of pulping is so simple, it is one which requires the machine to be set in such a way that the greatest quantity of work may be done, or, in other words, the smallest quantity of unpulped berries be allowed to pass through. On the other hand, the berries must not be subjected to injury from the barrel; for if the parchment skin is pricked through, the berry will appear, when cured, with an unsightly brown mark upon it. Several new coverings for barrels, instead of punctured copper, have been tried; among others, coir-cloth and wire net, but the old material is not as yet superseded. After pulping, the coffee in parchment is received into cisterns, in which it is, by washing, deprived of the mucilaginous matter that still adheres to it. Without this most necessary operation, the mucilage would ferment and expose the berry to injury, from its highly corrosive qualities. As some portion of pulp finds its way with the coffee to the cistern, which, if suffered to remain would, by its long retention of moisture, lengthen the subsequent drying process, various methods have been adopted to remove it. One mode is to pass the coffee a second time through a sieve worked by two men; another to pick it off the surfaces of the cistern, to which it naturally rises. In August, 1846, premiums were awarded by the Ceylon Agricultural Society to Messrs. Clerihew and Josias Lambert for the improvements they had introduced into coffee-pulpers, which, by their exertions, had been brought to great perfection. The first improved complete cast-iron pulper received in the island, was made for Mr. Jolly, from drawings sent home by Mr. Lambert to Messrs. B. Hick and Son, engineers. This pulper is one of the most perfect in every respect that has yet been brought into use, the disadvantages belonging to the old machine having been entirely remedied. The sieve crank has a double eccentric action. The chops are regulated by set screws, and the sieve suspended in a novel and secure manner, the whole combining strength and efficacy, together with an elegance of form, which will likewise be appreciated. Mr. W. Clerihew, of Ceylon, submitted to the Great Exhibition a model of his approved apparatus for drying coffee (which has been patented in the name of Robert R. Banks, Great George Street, Westminster), and received the Isis gold medal for the same. The intention is to dry the vegetable and aqueous moisture of the berry. Before this is required, the coffee has previously undergone the process of pulping, or removal from the soft fleshy husk. Here let Mr. Clerihew describe the advantages for himself-- "When the coffee berry is picked from the tree it bears a closer resemblance to a ripe cherry, both in size and appearance; and several processes have to be gone through before the article known in commerce as coffee is produced. In the first place, the pulpy exterior of the cherry has to be removed by the process of pulping, which separates the seed and its thin covering called the parchment, from the husk. When the pulping process is completed, we have the parchment coffee by itself in a cistern, and the next process consists in getting rid of the mucilage with which it is covered." Having become assured, both by experiment and by Liebig's reasoning, that the successive stages of decomposition were wholly ascribable to the action of the stagnant air which occupies the interstices between the beans, and taking into account that a mass of coffee presented a medium pervious to air, it occurred to Mr. Clerihew that it was possible, by means of fanners, working on the exhausting principle, so to withdraw air from an enclosed space as to establish a current of air through masses of coffee spread on perforated floors forming the top and bottom of that space. The plan he carried into execution at Rathgoongodde plantation in 1849. No sooner was the plan put in operation than, instead of stagnant air occupying the interstices of the beans and gradually acting on them, a stream of air was established and flowing through the mass of coffee, each bean of it became surrounded by a constantly renewed atmosphere of fresh air. _Java_.--When Arabia enjoyed the exclusive monopoly of coffee, it could not be foreseen that one day the island of Java would furnish for the consumption of the world from 125 to 130 millions of pounds per annum. The cultivation was introduced by M. Zwaendenkroom, the Governor-General of Batavia, who obtained seeds from Mocha, in 1723. According to official statements the following are the exports. In 1839 there were exported 46,781,729 kilogrammes, valued at 48 million florins. Eight years labor, 1833 to 1841, brought its produce of coffee from 12 million kilogrammes annually, up to 55 millions. In 1846, the exports were 916,876 piculs, but, in 1850 they were only 14,801 piculs. The total coffee crop of Java was in 1850, 1,280,702 lbs.; in 1851, 1,436,171 lbs.; in 1852, 1,229,349 lbs. 1840 1841 Residences in which this produce has been cultivated in 1840 and 1841 20 20 Number of families destined for the labor 470,673 453,289 Trees which have yielded a crop 916,193,894 216,085,600 Trees which have produced the average quantity of a picul of 125 lbs. Dutch 280 248 Quantity of coffee furnished to the godowns in piculs 706,258 877,444 Trees according to the reckoning made in the month of March, 1841 and 1842 336,922,460 329,898,936 The comparative result of this table shows--1st. That, in the year 1841, coffee had been gathered from 20,000,000 more trees than the number in 1840, and that the crop had increased by 171,000 piculs. 2nd. That, in the month of March, 1842, there were above 7 millions less of coffee trees than in 1840. This diminution is merely nominal, seeing that these trees have served to replace those which by their small produce have to be suppressed in the lowlands of the residency of Baylen. On the contrary, the increase of trees, planted from 1839 to 1840, amount to very nearly the same number, of 7 millions. 3rd. That, in the season of 1842, there was planted nearly 20 millions of plants; of which 12 millions are to serve to replace the old trees, and 8 millions are destined to extend this culture. It is calculated that this island will very soon be in a condition to produce a million of piculs or 125 millions more of Dutch pounds of coffee. Previous to 1830, Java scarcely exported as much as 40 millions of pounds. _Cultivation and Preparation of Coffee in Java_.--For the following valuable details I am indebted to M. de Munnick, the inspector of the agricultural department, Batavia, as contributed to my "Colonial Magazine" (vol. xi. p. 46). _Soil and Situation_.--Elevated lands are found to be those best suited for the growth of coffee in Java. Land situated between 1,000 and 4,000 feet above the level of the sea may be generally said to be adapted to the cultivation of coffee. It must not be taken for granted that all ground of less elevation is unsuited. Suitable ground is to be found lower down, but the cultivation on it is more difficult; the tree gives less fruit, and the plant is less durable. Valleys lying between high mountains are more especially fit for coffee plantations, because the soil which is washed down from the heights affords fresh food continually to the lowlands; the valleys themselves are moist, since the hills surrounding them attract the rain; and they are shut out from severe winds by the same protecting enclosure. The soils best suited to the successful growth of coffee may be classed as follows:-- _Firstly_. Cleared forest lands, especially those in which the black leafy, or vegetable mould is found to considerable depth. These are the richest grounds, and will support the coffee plant for many years, and they are also cultivated with the least trouble. _Secondly_. Dark brown soils, approaching to black, which, without having much clay in them, appear to the eye to have a mixture of coral. The greater the depth of this coral-like stratum, and of the reddish or deep yellowish soil, the better is the ground for coffee. This kind of land also has sufficient strength and substance to afford nourishment for many years to the plant; but it entails more trouble than the before mentioned soils, because the young plant does not so speedily strike root into it, and sometimes dies, so that provision has to be made against failures. _Thirdly_. Reddish and loose ground, such as is generally found in the neighbourhood of volcanic lands. This kind is frequently found well adapted for coffee; it flourishes on such land luxuriantly, but does not last long, as the ground possesses less strength and nourishing substance.[6] By digging in different places we become better acquainted with the nature of the ground, but we may take it as a rule, that rich old forest land on which many larger trees are found, and plains covered with heavy underwood, most frequently offer eligible sites for coffee plantations. Grounds in which loam is found, and stony soils, are unfit for coffee. But I do not mean by "stony soils" land on which many stones are lying, for on that very account it may be most suitable; but I mean land which shows a pebbly stratum just below the surface, or such as is of a porous, stony nature. In the choice of situation care must be taken to select that which is as much as possible protected against the south-east wind, because its dry influence is very injurious to the coffee plant, and also prevents the growth of the _Erythrina_ (known here locally as the Dadap tree) which is so necessary for its shade. Flat grounds, or gentle declivities, are better than steep slopes; yet the latter can be well employed if proper care is taken. _Cultivation_.--After the ground has been cleared in the dry season--that is, after the bushes have been rooted out, the undergrowth burnt off, and the thickets removed--ploughing is commenced in September. When the ground has twice been deeply ploughed, the weeds and roots must be brought together with the rake and carefully burnt. The depth of the ploughing must be regulated by the nature of the ground. In all kinds of cultivation, deep ploughing is recommended, but in Java we ought not to plough deeper than the stratum of fertile soil, as a kind of subsoil may be wrought uppermost injurious to plants, and which, before it can become fertile, must for a year at least have been exposed to the atmosphere. The ground having been turned up, should be left exposed for some days to throw off the vapor arising from it; and must then be again ploughed and cleared with the rake. After waiting for some days, it should be ploughed for the fourth and last time, and made as clean and friable as possible. In small plantations this is to be done with the spade, but on large estates the roller must be used. This roller consists of a heavy piece of round wood, eight or ten feet long, to which a pole is fastened in the middle to have oxen harnessed to it. It is drawn slowly over the ploughed land, and presses the clods to earth. To give it greater force, the driver sits or stands upon it. Before the field has been properly ploughed and rolled in the above way, the middle of October will have arrived, and we then begin to open a path through the plantation from the highest to the lowest point, about two roods broad, and the whole of the land is then divided into separate parcels. Portioning off the estates into divisions of equal size is a system to be much recommended. By this means labor may be equally divided, superintended and inspected. Order and regularity, which are necessary in all things, are most especially required in cultivation on a large scale. The size of these parcels is regulated by the nature of the estate. On flat or gently declining land they may be greater than on steep grounds, because, in order to prevent the washing away of the soil on precipitous land, the water must be led off by trenches, which of themselves make the divisions of land smaller. On flat ground the divisions may be each 625 square roods, each of which may contain, if planted-- Trees. 12 feet by 12 625 10 " 10 900 8 " 8 1406 6 " 6 2500 The distance between the coffee bushes cannot be definitely laid down, as it depends on the nature of the soil. On the most fertile forest lands twelve feet by twelve is a good distance. Only on low and meagre grounds, where the tree grows less luxuriantly and strong, can six feet by six be reckoned a proper distance. Between the divisions a path should be left, one rood in breadth. Along the middle paths and by the side of the divisions drains must be cut, the former two feet in breath and depth, the latter one foot. The drains along the divisions must be cut in such a way as to conduct the rain-water to the larger drains which flank the middle paths. On precipitous ground, when the coffee is planted, small ridges should be raised between the rows, to prevent the rich earth from washing down in the heavy rains. The steeper the land is, the closer these ridges should be; and care should be taken to incline them, so as to break the descent, the direction of which they should in some degree follow. The first ridges may be made with the branches of the trees which have been felled, or with the rubbish cleared from the ground on the first raking of it. _Placing the pickets._--When the ground has been worked and divided in the above manner, the pickets are placed. These are slips of bamboo one-and-a-half to two feet long. First--two long canes (which do not stretch like string), each one hundred feet long, are marked off in feet according to the distance at which the planting is to take place; heavy stakes are made fast to each end of them, by which they can be well secured on the ground. At the places where they are marked off in feet, strings are fastened so tightly that they cannot be displaced; and then the canes are laid down and well fixed in the ground, one in the length and the other in the breadth. Picketing does not give much trouble; it ensures regular planting, and makes the daily inspection simple. The planting thus takes place in straight lines, which give an ornamental appearance, and afterwards renders the view over the whole plantation easy. At every place where a string has been tied, a picket is stuck in the ground; then the cane is removed to another place, and so on till all the estate is marked out by pickets. After the picketing, a hole is made with the spade at every mark; it should be a good foot broad and deep, and the earth inside should be made very fine and clear. The earth is now ready to receive the coffee plant, and the time has only to be waited for when the first rains fully begin. _Nurseries_.--In the month of October, or earlier, if coffee trees are near at hand, nurseries must be prepared in the neighbourhood of the land about to be planted. This can be done in the ravines, or, if they are too far from the spot where the plants are wanted, pieces of ground most convenient can be selected. If the ravines are preferred, places must be chosen which are shaded by trees not prejudicial to the coffee plants. On ground where there is no trees, the nurseries may be covered, at the height of four feet, with leaves of jack (_Artocarpus integrifolia_), areca, or other palm trees, in a manner to admit the air. The ground made loose and fine, coffee plants newly opening, or seeds only, are planted or sown at a distance of four inches square; 500 square roods will in this way furnish 648,000 plants, which are sufficient for an estate of 300,000 trees. Transplanting from nurseries is absolutely necessary in coffee cultivation, and the trouble it costs is always doubly repaid. Having a choice of plants, a person can be convinced he has taken none but healthy trees, and he proceeds therefore with a confidence of success. After the first year, all failures having been nearly replaced, the estate is fully planted, the trees are of regular growth, and no useless clearing is required--a thing which is always necessary in irregular plantations. It is easy also to pick the berries from the trees which are planted with regularity; the work goes on smoothly; and, when the estate has lived its time, it may be abandoned altogether, without leaving patches of living trees here and there, which renders superintendence so very difficult. There should always be a plentiful supply of plants, to give an ample choice and to make up for failures. When plants are placed in the nurseries, they should not have more than two offshoots, or leaves, above each other; and when the ball plants are transplanted, they should not be higher than a foot, as large plants always give meagre trees. At the end of November or beginning of December, if the nurseries are kept free from weeds, and, if necessary, occasionally watered, the plants will be about a foot high, and will have put forth 4 or 5 leaves; they are then just fit to be transplanted. Then, the ground is cloven with the spade, at a distance of an inch and a half round the stem of the plant, to about three inches deep; the plant, with the ball of earth adhering to it, is carefully lifted out of the ground, and the ball is wrapped in a jack, plantain, or other leaf, and tied to prevent the earth falling off; but, before the plants are thus taken from the ground, it must be moistened to make the earth adhesive. _Planting the coffee trees_.--The plants, which, after the above operation are called "ball plants," are then placed in a bamboo wicker frame, and are carefully carried by two men to the place where they are to be put into the ground. They are then taken out of the frame and placed in the holes next to the pickets. The pickets are removed, and the plant is fixed upright; the leaf surrounding the ball is made loose, but not taken away; the planter presses the plant down with his hand and fills up the hole with fine loose earth, and the business of planting the coffee tree is finished. _Planting the Dadap tree_.--This is a species of Erythrina, probably _E. indica_, or _E. arborescens_; that used for the purpose in the West Indies is _E. Corallodendrum_. In Java, as soon as the coffee is planted, the operation of planting the dadap tree is commenced. The best sort of dadap comes from Serp or Mienyak; it is smooth and broad-leaved, and shoots up quickly. Thick young stems are chosen, about three feet long, and the lower part is pointed off. If the dadap is moist or juicy, it should be cut twenty-four hours before it is planted. The dadap is planted uniformly by measuring the cane in the same way as the coffee itself. Between every two rows of coffee one of dadap is planted, not on a line with the coffee plants, but alternately with them; thus, if the coffee is eight feet by eight, the dadap is sixteen by sixteen. The dadap is planted to the depth of a foot, with somewhat of a westerly inclination, in order that the morning sun may fall on a larger surface of the stick. The ground must be stiffly trodden round the bottom of the stem, and the upper part of it should have some kind of leaf tightly bound around it to prevent the sap from escaping. When the coffee and dadap plants have thus been put out, every fifth day the young plantation should be carefully inspected, and a picket placed wherever there is a failure, as a mark to the planter that a new plant is there required. This operation of replacing failures is carried on all through the wet season, and the dadaps which have not succeeded are at the same time changed. _Keeping up the estate_.--In the first six months after planting, the estate should be cleaned each fortnight with the hoe; the ground being well moved and the weeds taken out. Those weeds which are too close to the plants to be removed in this manner, must be pulled out with the hand. When the plantation is thus wholly or partially cleaned, the earth must be taken off the weeds, and they must be collected and thrown on the pathways. The weeding in this manner gives at first a great deal of trouble, but it is most advantageous in the long run, as the weeds are thus easily kept down. Great care must be taken to do away with an old custom of burying the weeds in large holes on the estates. It conduces to bad and slovenly habits, such as cutting off the tops of the weeds by wholesale, and thus giving the plantation an appearance of cleanliness, whilst it, in fact, is as dirty as ever. This is soon discovered by the weeds showing themselves again above ground in a very few days, and even if they rot under ground, they breed insects which are very hurtful to the bushes, and the seeds vegetate. After the first six months, this weeding will be sufficient if it takes places once a month, but this must be persevered in till the third year, when there may be a much greater interval between the weeding. When the trees are coming to full growth, the hoe should be less frequently used in cleaning; the hand must be used to the full extent to which the branches reach, as the roots of the tree spread to a like distance, and if they are injured the growth of the tree is prejudiced. The well-being of an estate chiefly depends on frequent cleaning of the plantation in the beginning. The idea of some persons that cleaning in the dry season is of little consequence, must be given up, as it is principally at that very time that it is extremely profitable to remove and clear the ground round the trees in their growth. In the first place, this destroys the weeds which take the nourishment away from the trees; secondly, the ground is rendered more open to receive the slight showers and dews which moisten it, and to benefit by the influence of the air; the roots are thus considerably refreshed. The dew falling on ground which has been recently moved, penetrates at once into it, and does good to the plant; but if it falls on the weeds, the first rays of the sun absorb it, and deprive the tree of this source of refreshment. The dadap is to be taken care of whilst clearing goes on; it must be cropped so as to cause it to grow upright, and to throw as much shade as possible on the coffee without pressing upon it. In warm fertile ground, where the coffee plant grows rapidly, the trees should be topped in the third year; but this should be done sparingly, and as a general measure it is not to be recommended; it should be resorted to only as a means to prevent the too rapid growth of the tree, or its running up to a point. Topping and taking off suckers are both necessary on meagre soils, where the trees run much to wood; and it prevents the trees being injured in the picking season, which often occurs without this precaution. The top or middle stem is broken off at a height of six or seven feet, but care must be taken not to tear the tree; when the top shoots out again it must be cropped a second time, and it is seldom necessary to do this more than twice. The cropping causes the tree to shoot out in breadth, and to push forth a greater number of sprigs, and good strong ones. _Picking coffee_.--When the estate becomes productive, it must in the picking season, just before the work begins, be kept exceedingly clear of weeds, and be even swept clean with brooms, in order that the berries which fall off may be gathered up. The picking should take place under proper superintendence, the trees be picked row by row, and care taken that each berry is plucked off separately, and not a heap together, by which the trees are torn and the first offshoots prevented. In picking high trees, light ladders should be used, made out of two or three bamboos tied together. _Customary preparation of the berry in the pulp_.--When the coffee is picked and brought into the village, it is piled up in a heap in the open air, and left in that manner for twenty-four hours. Thus heaped up it gets warm, and this creates a certain fermentation of the juice which is in the berry. That fermentation promotes the drying and loosens the silvery pellicle which is attached to the bean inside the parchment, and which cannot be entirely got rid of in any other way. Coffee which still retains that pellicle is called in trade "grey coffee," and is lower priced than good clean sorts. After the fermentation, the coffee is spread out in rather thick layers, and turned over twice a day. If it rains during this first spreading out, the coffee does not require to be sheltered, as the washing causes the juicy substance to evaporate, and this accelerates the drying afterwards. In proportion as the coffee becomes dryer, the thickness of the layer must be reduced, and the turning over must be more frequent till the coffee is quite dry outside and the pulp has become hard. Then the coffee is laid out on drying floors, which can be easily and speedily covered in rainy or damp weather, and is dried by the powerful heat of the sun. This system of drying in the pulp requires six weeks or two months, as it is advisable not to be over hasty with drying. When the coffee is entirely dry, it is either at once pounded or placed in the stores to await that operation. In order to know if the coffee be sufficiently dry, take a handful of it and shut your hand close; shake it to your ear, and listen if the beans rattle freely in the pulp. Or try them by biting the berry, and see if the bean and pulp are both brittle and crisp, which shows that the fruit is dry enough. _Preparation of the coffee in the parchment, or the West India system_.--Only sound and fully ripe beans can be prepared in the West India manner. In picking, therefore, all unripe, green, or unsound beans must be taken away to dry in the pulp. As soon as the coffee is brought in, it must be pulped. This operation is performed by means of small peeling mills. These mills consist of two horizontal wooden cylinders rubbing on a plank; they are covered with hoop-iron, and set in motion by a water-wheel. The coffee is driven under the cylinder, and kept constantly moist; by being turned through the mill, the pulp is so bruised that the bean in the parchment falls from it into the bamboo open frame, which is placed in front of the mill. The coffee is then pressed with the hand, and falls through the frame into a basket. The pulp, and beans not rid of the pulp, remain on the frame; the first is cleared away, the rest passes a second time into the mill, and this operation is continued till all the coffee is stripped of the pulp, and the parchment beans are in the basket. When the parchment coffee is thus separated from the outer skin, it is thrown into the washing troughs, and remains there for twenty-four hours; this drains from it the slimy substance adhering to it. After being thus steeped, it is washed with pure water two or three times in the basket, so that it becomes quite free from slimy matter. The parchment coffee is then spread out on drying frames, and exposed for six or eight days to the heat of the sun, till the outside is perfectly dry. To do this equally it must be stirred about every hour. These frames, which serve also to dry the coffee in the pulp, are made as follows:--A bamboo roof is set up, resting on four wooden pillars, and sloping considerably; it is covered closely with reeds; its length is ten feet, its breadth six feet; the pillars are from nine to ten feet high; a wooden framework is attached to this, about thirty feet long, or three times the length of the space covered by the roof. On this frame are brought out three platforms, one above the other, which are pushed out by means of little rollers under them; they are ten feet long by six broad, and six inches deep. The borders are of wood, and the bottom of platted bamboo. In rainy weather, or when the drying cannot go on, the three platforms are pushed under the covered space. These drying places are set up near the overseer's dwelling, where they stand free, and are not shaded by trees or buildings. After this first drying on platforms, the parchment coffee is again dried inside the house, and bamboo huts are for this purpose erected on each side of the outhouse of the planters. These huts have trays, divided into two or three compartments, one above the other, to keep the coffee separate, according to the time of its having been picked. The parchment coffee is spread out as thin as possible, and turned over with a small wooden rake every hour. In proportion to the dryness of the weather, from one to two months are required to dry the coffee fully. In drying inside the houses, the greatest care must be taken to prevent heating the coffee; this is the great object of the West Indian system, as such heating is very prejudicial. On this account the huts in which the platforms are placed must be very airy, so that the wind may have good play among the trays, on which the coffee must be thinly spread and frequently turned. _Pounding_.--Coffee in the pulp, as well as that in the parchment, must, before being pounded, be exposed for some hours to the sun to make it crisp and hard; but it must be allowed to cool again before the pounding begins, or the beans will be liable to be broken. The pounding is done in small baskets of a conical form, two feet high, at the top eighteen inches in diameter, and at the bottom one foot. These baskets are, up to one-third of their height, thickly woven round with coir, and fastened on the ground between four thick bamboo poles, and with the bottom half an inch in the ground itself. The coffee is pounded by small quantities at a time with light, wooden pestles; the baskets must not be more than half full. When the coffee is sufficiently pounded, the basket is lifted from between the poles and the beans are thrown into sieves, on which it is cleaned from skin, and white, black, or broken beans. According to the West Indian system, the coffee must now be instantly put in bags, to preserve its greenish colour, which is very peculiar. If the green coffee is not instantly sent to the packing stores to be bagged, it must be put up in a very dry place, and be turned over once every day, to prevent heating, which damps and discolors the berry. Coffee is grown to some extent in Celebes--the average crop being from 10,000 to 12,000 piculs of 133 English pounds. The production has rather fallen off than increased during the last few years. The whole of the coffee grown must be delivered by the inhabitants to the government exclusively, at twelve copper florins per picul. It is much prized in the Netherlands, and maintains a higher price in the market than the best Java coffee. As the treatment of the product in Java differs wholly from that which is in vogue in Celebes, and this, in our eyes, is much inferior, I know not whether the higher price is ascribable to the name, or to an intrinsic superiority in quality. It is certain that this cultivation is susceptible of much improvement, and might be advanced to a much higher condition. From tables given by M. Spreeuwenberg ("Journal of the Indian Archipelago," vol. ii. p. 829) of the quantity of coffee delivered from each district of this island, for the years 1838 to 1842, it appears that the average annual delivery of coffee was 1,288,118 lbs. Of the production of Sumatra I have no details, but a very fair proportion is grown there--about five million pounds. _Production of America and the West Indies_.--The cultivation of the coffee plant is largely carried on in South and Central America and the West India Islands. Its culture has greatly increased within the last few years in Venezuela, particularly in the valleys and on the sides of the hills. The exports from La Guayra, in 1833, were about twelve millions of pounds, being nearly double the quantity exported in 1830. The price there is about ten dollars the 100 lbs., which is still too high to enable it to enter into competition with the produce of Brazil or Cuba. The total produce of coffee in Venezuela in 1839 was 254,567 quintals. The quintal is about 10 lbs. less than the English cwt. _La Guayra_.--The exports of coffee from this port in 1796, were 283 quintals. Quintals. 1843 164,066 1844 141,934 1845 134,585 1846 175,346 1847 130,671 1850 179,537 The exports of coffee from La Guayra have been declining within the past few years; the shipments were but 153,901 quintals in 1851, and only 124,623 in 1852. Caracas coffee ranks in our market with good ordinary St. Domingo. The decline in the produce of coffee in the British West India possessions has been very great. In 1838, we imported from the West India Islands and British Guiana 17½ million pounds of coffee, in 1850 we only received 4¼ million pounds from thence. The shipments from Jamaica have decreased from about 15 million pounds in 1836, to 4 million pounds in 1850; Berbice and Demerara, from 5 million pounds in 1837, to about 8,000 pounds in 1850. _Production of coffee in the Brazils_.--Forty-two years ago the annual crop of coffee in Brazil did not exceed 30,000 bags, and even in 1820 it only reached 100,000 bags. About that time the high price of coffee in England, superadded to the diminished production in Cuba, stimulated the Brazilian planters to extend its cultivation, and in 1830 they sent to market 400,000 bags, or 64,090,000 lbs., and in 1847, the enormous quantity of 300,000,000 lbs. It would seem from the annexed figures that the production of coffee in Brazil doubled every five years, up to 1840, since when it has increased eighty per cent. The increase since 1835 has been upwards of two hundred millions of pounds, and of that increase the United States have taken one half. lbs. 1820 15,312,000 1825 29,201,600 1830 62,685,600 1835 100,346,400 1840 170,208,800 1850 303,556,960 The sources from whence the United States derives its supplies of coffee are shown in the following table:-- Years. Brazil. Cuba. St. Domingo. Java. Total 1835 35,774,876 29,373,675 19,276,290 4,728,890 103,199,577 1840 47,412,756 25,331,888 9,153,524 4,343,254 94,996,095 1845 78,553,616 1,157,794 13,090,359 3,925,716 108,133,369 1850 90,319,511 3,740,803 19,440,985 5,146,961 144,986,895 1851 107,578,257 3,009,084 13,205,766 2,423,968 152,453,617 Coffee, up to 1830, paid a duty in the United States of five cents a pound. Since 1832 it has been free. The population of the United States in 1840 was, in round numbers, seventeen millions; the average consumption of coffee for the three years ending 1841, 98½ millions of pounds, which gave a consumption of 5¾ lbs. per head. The average for the three years ending 1850, was 143 millions of pounds, and the population was twenty-three millions, which gave a consumption of 6¼ lbs. per head. In 1830 the consumption was only 3 lbs. per head; but the price ruled nearly double what it was in the three years preceding 1850. In 1821 the consumption per head, to the inhabitants of the United States, was 1 lb. 4 oz. In 1830, the proportion had increased to 3 lbs. per head, the foreign price having fallen fifty per cent. The importation in the year 1831 doubled, in consequence of the reduced duty; and the consumption per head for the four years ending with 1842, averaged 6 lb. per head, having quadrupled to each inhabitant since 1821. From 1820 to 1840, the Brazilian product increased 1,100 per cent, or 155 million pounds. In the same time the consumption in the United States increased 137 million pounds; leaving an increase of eighteen million pounds of Rio coffee, besides the enhanced products of all countries, to supply the increased consumption of England and Europe. The consequence of the duty in England is, that while the United States, with a population of seventeen millions, consumed, in 1844, 149,711,820 lbs. of coffee, Great Britain, with a population of twenty-seven millions, consumed 31,934,000 lbs. only, or less than one-fourth the consumption of the United States. In 1851 the figures remained nearly the same, viz., 148,920,000 lbs. in the United States, and 32,564,000 lbs. for Great Britain. The cultivation of coffee forms the present riches of Costa Rica, and has raised it to a state of prosperity unknown in any other part of Central America. It was begun about fifteen years ago; a few plants having been brought from New Granada, and the first trial being successful, it has rapidly extended. All the coffee is grown in the plain of San Jose, where the three principal towns are situated--about two-thirds being produced in the environs of the capital, a fourth in those of Hindia, and the remainder at Alhajuela, and its vicinity. The land which has been found by experience to be best suited to coffee is a black loam, and the next best, a dark-red earth--soils of a brown and dull yellow color being quite unsuitable. The plain of San Jose is mostly of the first class, being, like all the soils of Central America, formed with a large admixture of volcanic materials. Contrary to the experience of Java and Arabia Felix, coffee is here found to thrive much better, and produce a more healthy and equal berry on plain land, than upon hills, or undulating slopes, which doubtless arises from the former retaining its moisture better, and generally containing a larger deposit of loam. I am inclined, in a great measure, to attribute the practice of sowing coffee in sloping land in Java to this fact, that the plains are usually occupied by the more profitable cultivation of sugar-canes. In Arabia, the plains are generally of a sandy nature (being lands which have, apparently, at no very distant geological period, formed the bed of the sea), which may account for the plantations existing only upon the low hills and slopes. A coffee plantation in Costa Rica produces a crop the third year after it is planted, and is in perfection the fifth year. The coffee trees are planted in rows, with a space of about three yards between each and one between each plant, resembling in appearance hedges of the laurel bay. The weeds are cut down, and the earth slightly turned with a hoe, three or four times in the year; and the plant is not allowed to increase above the height of six feet, for the facility of gathering the fruit. The coffee tree here begins to flower in the months of March and April, and the berry ripens in the plains of San Jose in the months of November and December, strongly resembling a wild cherry in form and appearance, being covered with a similar sweet pulp. As soon as the crimson color assumed by the ripe fruit indicates the time for cropping, numbers of men, women, and children are sent to gather the berry, which is piled in large heaps, to soften the pulp, for forty-eight hours, and then placed in tanks, through which a stream of water passes, when it is continually stirred, to free it from the outer pulp; after which it is spread out on a platform, with which every coffee estate is furnished, to dry in the sun; but there still exists an inner husk, which, when perfectly dry, is, in the smaller estates, removed by treading the berry under the feet of oxen; and in the larger, by water-mills, which bruise the berry slightly to break the husk, and afterwards separate it by fanners. The entire cost of producing a quintal (101 1-5 lbs. British) of coffee, including the keeping of the estate in order, cleaning and fanning the plants, and gathering and preparing the berries, is, at the present rate of wages (two rials, or about a shilling per day), calculated at two and a half dollars (equal to ten shillings); but the laborers are now hardly sufficient for working all the estates which are planted, so that the price may probably rise a little, though the present rate of payment enables the natives to live much better than has been their wont. The coffee tree bears flowers only the second year, and its blossoms last only 24 hours. The returns of the third year are very abundant; at an average, each plant yielding a pound and a-half or two pounds of coffee. The price of coffee in San Jose during the months of February, March and April, after which none can generally be met with, was, in 1846, about 5 dollars cash per quintal, the duty (which is collected for the repairs of the road) one rial more, so that the speculator makes at least ten rials, or about 20 per cent., by purchasing and sending the coffee to the port, on his outlay and charges; but it is often bartered for manufactured goods, and is also purchased before-hand, half being paid in imports and half in cash to the grower. The largest coffee estates of Costa Rica are possessed by the family of Montealegre and Don Juan Moira. The principal of these I have examined. They appear to be very carefully and judiciously managed, possessing good mills for cleaning and husking the coffee, worked by water power; and annually producing 500 tons. The entire produce of the year 1836, amounted to about 3,000 tons, and the crop of 1847 exceeded 4,000 tons, near which quantity it will probably continue, till the population gradually increases, the laborers, as already mentioned, being barely sufficient for the present cultivation. As the value at the present average price in the English market of 50s. a cwt., will give £200,000, the produce of the district will appear pretty considerable for a petty American State, possessing only 80,000 inhabitants, and just emerging from a half-savage condition.--(Dunlop's "Central America.") The cultivation of coffee on the plains of San Jose, in Costa Rica, according to Stephens, has increased rapidly within a few years. Seven years before, the whole crop was not more than 500 quintals, and in 1844 it amounted to 90,000. Don Mariano Montealegre is one of the largest proprietors there, and had three plantations in that neighbourhood. One, which Mr. Stephens visited, contained 27,000 trees, and he was preparing to make great additions the next year. He had expended a large sum of money in buildings and machinery; and though his countrymen said he would ruin himself, every year he planted more trees. His wife, La Senora, was busily engaged in husking and drying the berries. In San Jose, by the way (he adds), all the ladies were what might be called good business-men, kept stores, bought and sold goods, looked out for bargains, and were particularly knowing in the article of coffee. The coffee at Surinam is suffered to grow in three stems from the root, and when one of them does not produce plenty of berries, it is cast away, and the best shoot in appearance next the root is allowed to grow in its room. The trees are not permitted to rise higher than about five feet, so that the negroes can very easily pluck the berries, for gathering which there are two seasons, the one in May, or the beginning of June, and the other in October or the beginning of November. The berries are often plucked of unequal ripeness, which must greatly injure the quality of the coffee. It is true when the coffee is washed, the berries which float on the water are separated from the others; but they are only those of the worst quality, or broken pieces, while the half-ripe beans remain at the bottom with the rest. Now, in the description I have given of the method of gathering coffee in Arabia, it is seen that the tree is suffered to grow to its natural height, and the berries are gathered by shaking the tree, and making them fall on mats placed for them. By this way the Arabians harvest only the beans perfectly ripe at the time, and which must give the coffee a more delicate flavor. A tree will yield each time on an average from 1 lb. to 1½ lb. of coffee, when pulped and perfectly dried. An acre of land planted with coffee, when favored by the weather, becomes more profitable than when it is planted with sugar canes; but its crops are always very precarious, as the blossoms, and even the berries, are sometimes damaged by the heavy rains, which are much less injurious to sugar canes; wherefore a planter feels himself best secured in his revenue, as soon as he can cultivate them both. Nothing can exceed the beauty of the walks planted with coffee trees, from their pyramidical shape and from their glossy dark green leaves, shining with great brightness, amongst which are hanging the scarlet-coloured berries. Mr. Baird, in his "Impressions of the West Indies," thus speaks of a coffee plantation:-- "Anything in the way of cultivation more beautiful, or more fragrant, than a coffee plantation, I had not conceived; and oft did I say to myself, that if ever I became, from health and otherwise, a cultivator of the soil within the tropics, I would cultivate the coffee plant, even though I did so irrespective altogether of the profit that might be derived from so doing. Much has been written, and not without justice, of the rich fragrance of an orange grove; and at home we ofttimes hear of the sweet odors of a bean-field. I have, too, often enjoyed in the Carse of Stirling, and elsewhere in Scotland, the balmy breezes as they swept over the latter, particularly when the sun had burst out, with unusual strength, after a shower of rain. I have likewise, in Martinique, Santa Cruz, Jamaica, and Cuba, inhaled the gales wafted from the orangeries; but not for a moment would I compare either with the exquisite aromatic odors from a coffee plantation in full blow, when the hill-side--covered over with regular rows of the tree-like shrub, with their millions of jessamine-like flowers--showers down upon you, as you ride up between the plants, a perfume of the most delicately delicious description. 'Tis worth going to the West Indies to see the sight and inhale the perfume." The decline in the quantities of coffee drawn from the "West Indies to supply the great demand, is manifest in the following summary of imports from those islands:-- lbs. In 1828 they exported about 30,000,000 1831 the imports from British West Indies were 20,017,623 1841 Ditto Ditto 9,904,230 1850, the last year in which distinct accounts 4,262,225 were kept ----------- Decrease from 1831 15,755,398 _Jamaica_.--The coffee plant was first introduced into Jamaica by Sir Nicholas Lawes, in 1728, when it was cultivated on an estate called Temple Hall, in Liguanea, not far from Kingston. In 1752 there were exported 60,000 lbs.; and in 1775, 44,000 lbs. Until 1788 little attention was paid to this product. In the four years ending 30th September, 1794, the average exportation of coffee was 1,603,000 lbs.; in 1804 it amounted to 22,000,000 lbs.; and during the three years ending 30th September, 1807, the average annual exportation was more than 28,500,000 lbs.; which, at £6 per cwt., its cost in Jamaica, produced more than £1,700,000. It is calculated that £20,000,000 was invested in coffee estates. The coffee plant thrives in almost every soil about the mountains of Jamaica, and in the very driest spots has frequently produced abundant crops. In 1844 there were 671 coffee plantations in the island. Coffee is grown in the vicinity of the Blue Mountain Peak at a height of 4,700 feet above the level of the sea, and some of the finest and most productive plantations are in this locality. The branches of a coffee tree, on Radnor estate, covered, in 1851, a space of thirteen feet in diameter, and the tree was about thirteen years old. In 1789 Hayti exported 77,000,000 lbs. of coffee, but in 1826 it had declined to 32,000,000 lbs., in 1837 it was 31,000,000 lbs., and the shipments of this staple are now very inconsiderable. In the West Indies, I speak principally of Jamaica, where my experience extended, the soil best adapted for the cultivation of coffee is found to be loose gravelly or stony. A rich black mould will produce a luxuriant bush, which will yield little fruit. Decomposing sandstone, and slate, known in Jamaica as rotten rock, mixed with vegetable mould, is one of the most favorable soils. The subsoil should be also carefully examined by a boring augur, for a stiff moist clay, or marly bottom retentive of moisture, is particularly injurious to the plant. A dark, rusty-colored sand, or a ferruginous marl on a substratum of limestone, kills the tree in a few years. In virgin lands, after the wood has been felled and cleared, the land is lined off into rows of from six to seven feet square, and at each square a hole is made about eighteen inches deep, into which the young plant is placed and the earth plied gently about it, leaving from six to eight inches of the plant above ground. Nurseries for raising plants from seeds were formerly made, but for many years this has been neglected, and plantations are set out now from suckers which are drawn and trimmed of their roots, and cut about two feet long. The young plants require to be kept well clear from weeds, and four cleanings in the year may be deemed necessary, the plants which have failed must be supplied in order to ensure uniformity of appearance. All manure, whether fluid or solid, in warm climates should be applied in wet seasons, where it is not practicable to dig or turn it in to prevent the escape of its volatile and nutritive principles. As respects situation, coffee thrives best on elevated situations, where the morning sun has most influence; and on lower mountains, where the temperature is higher, in situations facing the south-east, or where the sun does not act with such intensity. Low mountains, in which the thermometer ranges from 75 to 90 degrees Fahr., as well as those exposed to sea breezes, are less suitable for the cultivation of coffee than those districts where the temperature averages 65 to 80 degrees Fahr., and situated at higher elevations in the interior. As a general rule, it may be asserted that the elevation best adapted for coffee is at an altitude ranging from 2,000 to 4,000 feet, at a temperature from 70 to 75 degrees Fahr. A west or south-west aspect is the best, and the field should be well sheltered from the north breezes. As a general rule in planting in light soils and high temperatures, trees may be placed at the distance of four or five feet, while in stronger soils and lower temperatures the average distance would be from five to seven feet. _Topping_.--The young tree shoots out its lateral branches at each joint, which follow in regular succession, till the tree attains the height of about four feet six inches, when it is usual to top it down to four feet. But care should be taken that the wood has ripened, which is known by its assuming a brown and hard appearance, This strengthens the vegetation of the branches, which begin to throw out buds, and these shortly form collateral branches; in the course of eighteen months after the tree will have arrived at its bearing point. Trees, after being topped, throw off suckers, which are called gormandizers, from each joint, but more especially at the head. They should be plucked off with care, but not cut, as the sap would flow more readily if cut. In pruning, one of the main objects is the admission of a free circulation of air and light through the branches to the root of the tree. No general rules can be laid down for pruning; much must depend on judgment, experience, and a nice eye to appearance and preservation of primary branches for bearing and ripening wood for the ensuing year, as well as to regulate and proportion the size of the tree to the functions of the roots in supplying sustenance, and the convenience of picking the berries when ripe. Every old bough which has seen its day, every wilful shoot growing in a wrong direction, every fork, every cross branch or dead limb, must be cut away. _The blossoming, and ripening_ of the fruit varies according to the situation and temperature of the plantation. In low and hot situations, where the thermometer ranges from 78 to 90 degrees, the tree shows its first blossoms when about two-and-a-half years old. In higher and colder situations the tree will not blossom in profusion until the fourth or fifth year. If there be light showers, the blossoms will continue on the tree for a week or more, and by the setting of the blossoms the planter can determine what germs will become fruit. The trees will blossom in low situations as early as March, but the April bloom is considered the most abundant. In higher elevations, the trees will bloom even so late as August or September. In warm climates the fruit advances as rapidly, and in a month will have attained the size of a pea; in more elevated and colder localities, it will take two months to arrive at this stage. The fruit will be ripe in from six to eight months after the blossom has set; it ripens in warm districts about the month of August, while in others the crop will not be mature till February. An acre will usually contain 1,200 trees in Jamaica, and the produce would be about 400 lbs. of coffee an acre, or six ounces as the produce of each tree annually. In some instances, but very seldom, one pound a tree may be obtained. A bushel of cherry coffee will produce about ten or twelve pounds of merchantable coffee. The coffee berry, after being pulped and soaked for a day and night to free it from the mucilage, is spread out on barbacues to dry; in ten or twelve days, if the weather has been good, it will be sufficiently cured for the peeling mill. Mr. W.H. Marah, of Jamaica, in a Prize Essay on the Cultivation and Manufacture of Coffee in that Island, published in my "Colonial Magazine," makes some useful remarks:-- The manufacture of this staple commodity, with a view to its improvement in quality, is a subject which demands our serious attention; and when we observe the vast importance and pecuniary advantage which accrue upon the slightest shade of improvement either in colour or appearance, it becomes the more imperative on us to use all those means which are available, in order to place ourselves on a footing with the foreign grower. It is true that we are unable to enter the contest with the East Indian or slave cultivator, from the abundance and cheapness of labour which is placed at their command; but by means of our skill and assiduity, we can successfully compete with them by the manufacture of superior produce. To this portion of plantation management I have given an attentive inquiry, and shall shortly proceed to state my views on the system best adapted to the curing and preparing for market of good quality produce. The fruit should be gathered in when in a blood-ripe state, to all appearance like cherries. The labourers are principally accustomed to reap the crop in baskets, of which they carry two to the field; and when the coffee is bearing heavily, and is at its full stage of ripeness, the good pickers will gather in four bushels _per diem_, and carry the same on their heads to the works. The fruit is then measured and thrown into a loft above the pulper in a heap. It should be submitted to the first process of machinery, the pulper, within twenty-four hours after, if not immediately; but it not unfrequently happens that the manager is unable to pulp his coffee for two and sometimes three days, by which time fermentation ensues, and it becomes impossible after pulping to wash off the mucilage, which rather adheres to the outer envelope of the berry, and gives the produce what is termed a "red" or "blanketty" appearance when spread out on the barbacues. The produce is let down by means of a small hole cut into the floor of the loft, or a floating box, into the hopper of the pulper, and by means of a grater forcing the fruit against the chops, the berries are dislodged from the pulp and fall upon a sieve, which being shaken by the machinery, lets the berries fall into the cistern, whilst the grater catches the pulp and carries it backwards at each evolution of the roller, around which it is encircled. The fruit which might have passed through without being more than half squeezed, and having only ejected one berry, is then returned (after being shaken off by the sieve) into the hopper, to undergo the process a second time. The pulped coffee is then permitted to remain in the cistern for a day and a night, during which period it undergoes a process of fermentation; it is then washed out in two or three waters, and the whole of the mucilaginous stuff which had risen from the berry by the fermentation is entirely washed off, and the coffee presents a beautiful white appearance. From this the produce is turned out to drain on a barbacue, sloped so as to throw all the water to the centre, where a drain is placed to carry it all off. In an hour or so after, the coffee may be removed to the barbacues for curing; it is there spread out thinly and exposed to the sun, which, if shining strong, will in eight or nine hours absorb all the water, and the coffee be fit for housing that day. I say fit for housing, because I have repeatedly seen coffee washed out early in the morning and put up the same evening. I cannot say I approve of the system, though in fine weather it has been attended with success. From the time the coffee is first exposed to the sun till the silver skin starts, is the stage, in my opinion, during which the produce suffers most injury. In the first instance, it should be kept constantly turned, in order to get the water absorbed as early as possible; and after it has been housed, the greatest precaution should be taken to prevent its heating: and it is for this reason that I disapprove of early housing, for if wet weather should intervene, and the coffee cannot be turned out, it is sure to get heated. From this neglect I have seen a perfect steam issuing from the house in the morning when the doors have been opened; and I have known, as a natural consequence, the adhesion of the silver skin to the berry so firm, that it could not be removed by a sharp penknife without slicing the berry. In a succession of wet weather the produce has remained on the barbacues for several weeks, without the slightest advance in curing; and, unless it be frequently turned while in this wet state, it is sure to germinate; the berries first swell, then a thin white spire issues from the seam, and on opening the berry the young leaves will be actually seen formed inside, so rapid is the course of vegetation. I am of opinion that coffee should not be housed till the silver skin begins to start, when no danger can ensue; for if a few wet days should intervene, by turning the coffee over in the house, and allowing a current of air to pass through it, it will keep for weeks. It is at this stage that the parchment skin begins to show itself, for at first it adheres to the inner kernel, but the heat of the sun starts it from its hold and it separates; thus, on shaking a handful of the produce it will be heard to rattle, a sure indication that the silver skin has risen from the bean, without even threshing it to ascertain the fact. The bean is perfectly white till the silver skin starts; it then begins gradually to assume the dark, or what is called the half-cured appearance. A good day's strong sun will then half cure it, and by subsequent exposure the produce takes another stage, and gradually loses the half-cured, and assumes a blue colour; and when the produce is properly cured and fit for the mill, not the slightest dark spot will be perceptible in the bean, but it will exhibit a horny blue colour. It is within my observation that coffee has been gathered from the field on the Monday, and prepared for market on the Saturday, in a spell of dry weather; but I have known it also to lie on the barbacues for as many weeks in contrary weather, before it had gone through the same ordeal. With good weather and smooth terraces whereon to cure, nothing but gross ignorance and unpardonable carelessness can produce a bad quality of coffee. The difficulty arises in wet weather, when one's skill and assiduity is called into action to save the produce from being spoiled. After coffee has been half-cured, the putting it up hot at an early period of the day has the effect of curing it all night. I have noticed produce housed in this manner, and requiring another day's exposure to fit it for the mill, found perfectly cured next morning. The barbacues should be kept in good order--all ruts and holes neatly patched every crop, for to them and other roughnesses is to be attributed the peeling of the berries, their being scratched, and various injuries which the produce sustains. And while on the subject of "Works," I cannot help noticing the extreme carelessness and inattention which, on visiting properties, the works and buildings present to our view. It is utterly impossible to manufacture good produce unless the machinery and buildings are kept in good order; and the parsimony which is thus displayed in this necessary outlay is fallacious, when one thinks of the result of one or two shillings per 100 lbs. lost on a crop through this neglect. When the coffee is perfectly cured--which is generally ascertained by threshing out a few berries in one's hands, and seeing if it has attained its horny blue colour--it is then fit for milling, which is the second process of machinery which it has to undergo. Here the parchment and silver skins are dislodged from the berry, by means of the friction of a large roller passing over the produce in a wooden trough. It is then taken out of the trough, and submitted to the fanner or winnowing machine, when the trash is all blown away, and the coffee, passing through two or three sieves, comes away perfectly clean and partially sized. From this it is again sieved in order to size it properly, hand-picked, put into bags, and sent on mules' backs to the wharf. It is then put into tierces and sold in the Kingston market, or shipped to Britain. A variety of circumstances tend to injure the quality of the coffee, which it is beyond human agency to control. Dry weather intervening at the particular period when the berry is getting full, subjects it to be stinted and shrivelled; and strong dry breezes happening at the same period, will cause an adhesion of the silver skin which the ordinary process of curing and manufacture will not remove. Late discoveries in the latter have, however, shown the possibility of divesting the produce of that silvery appearance, when brought about under the foregoing circumstances. It is almost, unnecessary to state that this improvement in manufacture refers to the inventions of Messrs. Myers and Meacock, whose respective merits have already undergone public revision. In reference to Mr. Myers' plan of immersing coffee in warm water, I may be allowed to state that it has come under my own observation, that produce which had previously been heated through some carelessness in the curing, subsequently was exposed to a slight sprinkling of rain, and when ground out and fanned, was found to have lost its silvery appearance. To the invention of Mr. Meacock, a preference has, however, been given, in consequence of the impression that the produce thus immersed in water will absorb a portion of the liquid, which will deteriorate its quality in its passage across the Atlantic. Several gentlemen have shipped coffee submitted to this process to England, but I have not learnt the result. It appears very manifest that a great deal might be done in the way of machinery, to relieve produce of that silvery or foxy appearance which is so prejudicial to its value in the British market, and which appearances might accrue from a variety of incidents to which all plantations are more or less subject. A manifest preference is given in the leading European markets to coffee which has gone through the pulping and washing process; but, strange to say, the consumers of this beverage are totally ignorant of the fact, that the produce which is cured in the pulp furnishes a stronger decoction than an equal quantity of the same which has undergone the other process. Many persons are of opinion that the mucilaginous substance which is washed off in pulping is absorbed by the bean when cured in the pulp, and which gives strength to the produce and enhances its aromatic flavour. On most properties it has been customary to cure the remnants of the crop in this way, for the use of the plantation; and it has been well noticed by great epicures in the flavour of the decoction, that the coffee thus cured produced the strongest and best beverage." _Trinidad_.--The coffee plant does not succeed well in Trinidad, the tree giving but little fruit, and perishing at the end of ten or twelve years; though the article is always of a superior quality, and has the advantage over that of Martinique and the other Antilles of not requiring age to produce an agreeable beverage. It is from the fault and obstinate attachment to old habits of the planters, that this cultivation has not been more successful in Trinidad. Because coffee trees thrive in St. Domingo, Guadalupe, Dominica, St. Lucia and Martinique, on the hills, they had concluded that it would be the same in Trinidad; without noticing that the hills of that island are composed only of schistus covered with gravel, on which lies a light layer of vegetative earth, that the rain washes away after some years of cultivation; whilst the hills of the Antilles, much more high and cool, are covered with a deep bed of earth, which is retained by enormous blocks of stone, that at the same time maintain humidity and freshness. Messrs. Branbrun, of Tacarigua, and Don Juan de Arestimuno, of Cariaco, worthy and intelligent planters, some years ago adopted the plan of planting coffee trees on the plains, in the manner cacao trees are planted, that is, in the shade of the _Erythrina_, and this mode of cultivation has perfectly succeeded. It is to be hoped that their success will encourage the cultivation of this valuable tree in the united provinces of Venezuela, and in those parts of Trinidad which were deemed unfavorable to it from the too great dryness of the climate. In 1796, the year preceding its capture, there were 130 coffee plantations in Trinidad, which produced 330,000 lbs. of coffee. In 1802, the produce had slightly increased to 358,660 lbs., but there were two plantations less. In the island of Grenada, according to the returns made to the local Treasury of the staple products raised, while there were 64,654 lbs. made-in 1829, the quantity had decreased to 13,651 lbs. in 1837. The colony of British Guiana was formerly noted for its produce of coffee. The following figures mark the decline of the culture of this staple, showing the exports in Dutch pounds:-- Demerara and Essequibo. Berbice. 1834 1,102,200 1,429,800 1835 1,299,080 1,979,850 1836 2,117,250 2,684,100 1837 1,849,650 2,217,300 1838 2,486,240 1,700,550 1839 747,450 1,255,800 1840 1,531,350 1,825,950 1841 568,920 519,750 1842 1,372,650 804,470 1843 428,800 999,300 1844 716,137 774,600 Thus the exports of the colony which in 1836 were 4,801,350 lbs. had declined in 1844 to 1,490,737; whilst in 1831 we received from British Guiana 3,576,754 lbs. of coffee, in 1850 we only received 8,472 lbs. There are about 500 acres under cultivation with coffee in St. Lucia. The exports, which in 1840 were 323,820 lbs., had declined, in 1844, to 58,834 lbs. The British West Indies exported to Great Britain, in 1829 and 1850, the following quantities of coffee:-- 1829. 1850. lbs. lbs. Jamaica 18,690,654 4,156,210 Demerara 4,680,118 17,774 Berbice 2,482,898 698 Trinidad 73,667 96,376 Dominica 942,114 792 St. Lucia 303,499 35 _Cuba_.--For the following valuable remarks and details of coffee culture in Cuba, I am indebted to Dr. Turnbulls "Travels in the West:"-- At the period of the breaking out of the French revolution, the cultivation of coffee could scarcely be said to have reached the South American continent; so that till that its cultivation was in a great measure confined to Arabia and the Caribbean Archipelago. Its extreme scarcity during the war enhanced its price so enormously, that on the first announcement of peace in 1814, the plants were multiplied to infinity, and coffee plantations were formed in every possible situation--on the Coste Firme of South America, along the Brazilian shores of that continent, and even at some points on the coast of Southern Africa. To show the extreme rapidity with which the cultivation has been extended, take the statistical returns of La Guayra, the chief port of the State of Venezuela, from whence the whole export of coffee in the year 1789 was not more than ten tons; and of late years from that port alone, and in spite of the internal disunions of the country, it has reached the enormous quantity of 2,500 tons. In the Isle of Bourbon (now Reunion), and the Mauritius and Ceylon, the planters have also applied themselves to this branch of industry; it has been prosecuted successfully in our Eastern Possessions, and the French government, not content with the natural influence of the universal demand for it, have been endeavouring to stimulate the production by means of premiums and other artificial advantages. In forming a coffee plantation, the choice of situation and soil becomes a consideration of the first importance. A very high temperature is by no means a favourable condition. If a spot could be found where the range of the Fahrenheit thermometer did not sink below 75 degrees, nor rise above 80 degrees, and where the soil was otherwise suitable, no planter could desire a more favourable situation. In the mountainous islands of Jamaica and St. Domingo, the nearest approach to this temperature is found where the elevation is not less than 2,000, and not more than 3,000 feet above the level of the sea; and it is most successfully cultivated in the two islands I have named. The Island of Cuba being much less mountainous, but at the same time being nearer the tropical limit, the planter in seeking the degree of heat he requires is forced to confine himself in a great measure to the northern side of the island, where, accordingly, we find that the cultivation of coffee is most successfully carried on. The vicinity of the _cafetal_ to a convenient place of embarcation, enters largely, of course, into the consideration of the planter when choosing a suitable locality. A compact form is also thought desirable, in order to save the time and labour of the negroes; and the ordinary extent is about six caballerias, or something less than 200 English acres. The locality being finally chosen, such open places are formed or selected, from distance to distance, as may be found most suitable, in respect to shade and moisture, for the establishment of convenient nurseries. The fruit which has been gathered in the beginning of the month of October, and which has been dried in the shade, is preferred for seed. The seed is sown in drills half a yard asunder, and introduced, two beans together, by means of a dibble, into holes two inches deep and ten or twelve inches apart. The extent of one of these nurseries is generally about 100 yards square, which, with such intervals as I have mentioned, ought to contain about 60,000 plants. A quarter of a _caballeria_, or about eight English acres, is visually set apart, in a central and convenient position, for the site of the buildings, and for growing provisions for the use of the labourers on the future plantation. In favourable seasons it is found that heavier crops are obtained from coffee trees left wholly unshaded; but, in the average of two years, it seems to be settled, in the island of Cuba at least, that a moderate degree of protection from the scorching rays of the sun produces a steadier, and, upon the whole, a more advantageous return. The distribution of the land into right-angled sections, and the planting of the trees in straight lines, is so contrived as to favour the future supervision of the labourers much more than from any strict attention to mere symmetry. The distance of the trees from each other ought to be regulated by the quality of the soil, and the degrees of heat and shade they are to enjoy. The ranges from north to south are usually four yards apart, and those from east to west not more than three; but the lower the temperature the wider should be the interval, because in that case the vegetation is more active and more rapid, and the tree requires a wider space over which to extend itself. The best season for planting the trees is the middle of the month of May, if there be then a sufficient degree of moisture; but the operation is often performed successfully during the rainy month of October; subject always to the risk, however, of serious injury to the young plantation from the north winds which prevail at that advanced season of the year. The holes prepared to receive the plants are eighteen inches in diameter, and about two feet deep. In the island of Cuba there are two rival modes of planting the coffee tree. The one is called "la siembra à la mota;" the other "la siembra à la estaca." By the method "a la mota," a circle is formed around the plant in the nursery, and care is taken to remove it without disturbing the earth around the roots. The plants are then placed carefully in willow baskets, prepared for the purpose, and carried to the holes already opened for their reception; gathering up the earth around the stem, and pressing it carefully down with the foot, in such a manner as to form a basin or filter for the reception of the rain-water, and for suffering it to percolate among the roots, and also to provide a convenient place of deposit for the subsequent application of manure. The "siembra à la estaca" is differently executed. Such plants are selected from the nursery as are of the thickness of the little finger, or from that to an inch in diameter. In withdrawing them from the ground, great care is taken not to injure or compress the bulbs or buttons within, eight or ten inches of the level of the soil, because these are to serve for the production of fresh roots when the "estaca" is afterwards planted more deeply in its permanent position. The greater part of the capillary roots are cut away with a knife; but a few, together with the principal root, are suffered to remain from four to six inches long. In planting them, from three to four inches of the trunk are left above ground. The little basin of earth for the reception and filtration of the rain-water, is not so large in the stake system of planting as in that with the clod of earth "à la mota;" but if the soil be poor, it must be proportionably enlarged to admit the application of the necessary quantity of manure. The stake system, requiring much less labour than the other, is generally preferred; but when there is abundance of shade to protect the young plant from drought, and always, of course, in replacing the decayed trees of an old plantation, it is considered more desirable to remove the whole plant, its roots and branches entire, with as much as possible of the adhering soil from the nursery, according to the system "à la mota." In the third or fourth year of the plantation, the trees, according to the best system of husbandry, are pruned down to the height of three feet from the ground on the richest soil, and still lower in proportion to its sterility. All the branches which are not as nearly as possible at right angles with the trunk, are likewise removed by the pruning-knife, so that in the following spring the whole stem is covered with fresh shoots. By this operation the power of nature seems to be exhausted, as for that year the trees in general bear no fruit; but in subsequent seasons the loss is amply repaid by a crop often greater than the branches can support, or than the flow of nourishment is always able to bring to full size and maturity. The machinery for removing the external pulp of the coffee-bean is seldom of a very perfect description in this island, and the loss sustained in consequence is often very considerable. It is almost uniformly moved by the power of horses or oxen, working in a gin, and the name it bears is that of the _Descerecador_. The Barbecues, when the coffee is laid out to dry, are called indiscriminately _Tendales_ or _Secadores_. They are more numerous and of smaller dimensions than is customary in the British colonies, where a single barbecue, laid down with tiles or plaster, is considered sufficient for a whole estate. The warehouse for receiving the crop and preserving the coffee after it is put into bags and ready for the market, is generally of such limited dimensions as to be barely sufficient for the purposes for which it is designed; so that, when the harvest has been abundant, or when anything has occurred to interfere with the despatch of what is ready for removal, the constant accumulation is attended with serious inconvenience. In fact, the occupation of the coffee planter has been for some time on the decline in the island, owing to the superior rate of profit derived from the making of sugar; and everything reminds you of it, the _moleno de pilar_, the _aventador_, and the _separador_, down to the humblest implement of husbandry on the estate. The gathering of the fruit commences in Cuba in August; but November and December are the most active and important months of the harvests. The labourers are sent out with two baskets each, one large, the other small. Every labourer has a file of coffee trees assigned to him; the large basket he leaves near the place where his work is to begin; the other he carries with him to receive the berries from the trees; and as often as it is full he empties it into the large one. The baskets are made of rushes, willows, or bamboo; and the large one is of such a size that three of them ought to fill the barrel, without top or bottom, which serves the purposes of a measure at the _Tendal_ or Secador. Three baskets, or one barrel-measure, of the newly-gathered coffee berry, ought to produce thirty pounds after the process of drying, the removal of the pulp, and the final preparation for the market. When there is a sufficient number, or a sufficient space of Barbecues or Secadors, sixty or seventy barrels only are put together; but from want of room it often happens that the quantity amounts to a hundred barrels. In either case, the whole is gathered into two great heaps, and in this state it is allowed to remain for four-and-twenty hours, in order to subject it to a certain degree of fermentation. After this, it is spread out to dry over the whole surface of the Barbecue, and until it is sufficiently so, it remains there uncovered day and night. When the dessication is found to be far enough advanced, it is no longer exposed during the night; nor even during the day, if the weather be damp or unfavorable. The subsequent operations are certainly not better, probably not so well, conducted as in our own West India possessions. In the fourth year, it is presumed that the agricultural produce of the land, and the first returns of coffee, should be sufficient to meet all the current expenses. At the end of the fifth year there ought to be forty thousand coffee trees four years old on the estate, 60,000 of three years, and 100,000 of two and one year, the produce of which ought to be at least 400 quintals, which, at a moderate estimate, should be worth 2,400 dollars. Thus the calculation goes on until we arrive at the end of the seventh year, when the estate ought to be in full bearing. The returns are estimated at 3,000 arrobas, or 750 quintals, which, at eight dollars per quintal delivered free on board, make 6,000 dollars. The minor products of the estate, such as Indian corn, pigs, and oil, are given at 1,130 dollars, making the gross returns 7,130 dollars; and, after deducting the annual expenses, leaving 5,300 dollars as the regular return on the capital invested, which, having been about 40,000 dollars, gives about thirteen per cent.; not certainly to be considered extravagant in a country where twelve per cent, is the regular rate of interest. The produce of coffee from each section is given at 400 arrobas, or 3,500 arrobas for the whole of the nine sections. The average price of coffee, free of the expense of carriage, is assumed to be two dollars the arroba, or eight dollars per quintal, which would give a return of 7,200 dollars, besides the repayment of the rent by the colonists. The cultivation of coffee has been falling off in Cuba for several years past, the crops it is asserted being too precarious there, and the prices too low to encourage the continuance of planting. On the northern side of the island is where this decrease is most perceptible, several of the largest estates having been converted to the growth of sugar and tobacco, others abandoned to serve as pasture fields, and the very few remaining yielding less and less every year. Henceforward the culture of this berry here is likely to be very insignificant, and not many years will elapse before the amount produced will merely suffice for the local consumption. About St. Jago de Cuba the cultivation is more attended to, the article forming still their principal export. Taking five quinquennial periods, the following figures show the average annual exports of coffee:-- arrobas. 1826 to 1830 1,718,865 1830 " 1835 1,995,832 1835 " 1840 1,877,646 1841 " 1846 1,887,444 1846 " 1851 768,244 The better to exhibit the decrease of production throughout the island, I may state that the export from 1839 to 1841 inclusive, was in the aggregate 1,332,221 quintals; 1842 to 1844, inclusive, was in the aggregate 1,217,666 quintals; 1845 to 1847, inclusive, was in the aggregate but 583,208 quintals. The exports of coffee for the whole island, were, in 1840, 2,197,771 arrobas; in 1841, 1,260,920½ arrobas. In 1847 there were 2,064 plantations under cultivation with coffee in Cuba, in 1846 there were only 1,670. The production of 1849 was 1,470,754 arrobas, valued at 2,206,131 dollars. From the year 1841 to 1846, the average yearly production was 45,236,100 lbs.; but from 1846 to 1851, it was only 19,206,100 lbs.; showing a falling off of 72 per cent.; the production still further decreased in 1851, it being only 13,004,350 lbs., or 1.52 per cent. less than the preceding year. This enormous decline in the production of coffee has been caused by the low price of the article in the markets of Europe and the United States, coupled with the more remunerative price of sugar, during the same period; causing capitalists rather to invest money in the formation of new sugar estates. As a consequence, many coffee plantations have been turned into cane cultivation; or, being abandoned, the slaves attached thereto were sold or leased to sugar planters. The following is private information from a correspondent:-- "We generally plant about 200,000 trees within a space of 500 feet, choosing the strongest soil. I have adopted a different system from the one generally in use here, for they usually plant the trees too near each other. I find by giving them space and air, that the plant develops itself and yields more beans. It is very important to protect the trees from the rays of the sun, for which purpose I plant bananas at intermediate rows; their broad leaves, like parasols, shed a delightful shade round the coffee plant, and tend to accumulate the moisture which strengthens the roots of the young tree. When the tree is about two years old the top branches are lopped off for the purpose of throwing the sap into the bean. Some planters cut the trees so short, that they do not allow them to stand more than five or six feet above the ground; but I allow mine to attain greater height prior to lopping them, whereby they produce larger crops. Nor do I allow my negroes to beat the trees, or force them to pluck a certain quantity a day, for I discovered that they picked the ripe and unripe beans indiscriminately--frequently injuring the trees. I only allow them to shake the tree, and pick up the beans that have fallen during the night." Coffee exports from the ports of Havana and Matanzas, in Cuba, for the years ending December in Quintals. 1839 344,725 1840 402,135 1841 212,767 1842 314,191 1843 223,265 1844 186,349 1845 42,409 1846 65,045 1847 106,904 1848 31,674 1849 92,974 1852 42,510 Porto Rico exported 85,384 cwt. of coffee in 1839. _Africa_.--Coffee will require some four years to grow before it will give to the cultivator any income, but it should be known that after that time the tree, with little or no labor bestowed on it, will yield two crops a year. The quality of coffee grown in the republic of Liberia, on the western coast of Africa, is pronounced by competent judges to be equal to any in the world. In numerous instances, trees full of coffee, are seen at only three years old. 214 casks and bags of coffee were imported from the western coast of Africa in 1846. Coffee, it has been proved, can be cultivated with great ease to any extent in the republic of Liberia, being indigenous to the soil, and found in great abundance. It bears fruit from thirty to forty years, and yields 10 lbs. to the shrub yearly! A single tree in the garden of Colonel Hicks, a colonist at Monrovia, is said to have yielded the enormous quantity of 16 lbs. at one gathering. Judge Benson, in 1850, had brought 25 acres under cultivation, and many others had also devoted themselves to raising coffee. It was estimated there were about 30,000 coffee trees planted in one of the counties, that of Grand Bassa, and the quality of the produce was stated to be equal to the best Java. About the villages and settlements of the Sherbro river, and Sierra Leone, wild coffee-trees are very abundant. In several parts of the interior, the natives make use of the shrub to fence their plantations. Coffee has been successfully grown at St. Helena, of an excellent quality, and might be made an article of export. Portugal sent to the Great Exhibition, in 1851, a very valuable series of coffees from many of her colonies; of ordinary description from St. Thomas; tolerably good from the Cape de Verd islands; bad from Timor; worse (but curious from the very small size of the berry) from Mozambique; good from Angola; and excellent from Madeira. Aden, alias Mocha coffee, is, along with the other coffees of the Red Sea, sent first to Bombay by Arab ships, where it is "garbelled," or picked, previously to its being exported to England. An excellent sample of coffee, apparently of the Barbera (Abyssinia) variety, was contributed to the Great Exhibition from Norfolk Island. It was of good color, well adapted for roasting, and a most desirable novelty from that quarter. Dr. Gardner, of Ceylon, has taken out a patent for preparing the coffee leaf in a manner to afford a beverage like tea, that is by infusion, "forming an agreeable refreshing and nutritive article of diet." An infusion of the coffee-leaf has long been an article of universal consumption amongst the natives of parts of Sumatra; wherever the coffee is grown, the leaf has become one of the necessaries of life, which the natives regard as indispensable. The coffee-plant, in a congenial soil and climate, exhibits great luxuriance in its foliage, throwing out abundance of suckers and lateral stems, especially when from any cause the main stem is thrown out of the perpendicular, to which it is very liable from its great superincumbent weight compared with the hold of its root in the ground. The native planters, availing themselves of this propensity, often give this plant a considerable inclination, not only to increase the foliage, but to obtain new fruit-bearing stems, when the old ones become unproductive. It is also found desirable to limit the height of the plant by lopping off the top to increase the produce, and facilitate the collecting it, and fresh sprouts in abundance are the certain consequence. These are so many causes of the development of a vegetation, which becomes injurious to the quantity of the fruit or berry unless removed; and when this superabundant foliage can be converted into an article of consumption, as hitherto the case in Sumatra, the culture must become the more profitable; and it is clearly the interest of the planters of Ceylon to respond to the call of Dr. Gardner, and by supplying the leaf on reasonable terms, to assist in creating a demand for an article they have in abundance, and which for the want of that demand is of no value to them. It ought to be mentioned also, that the leaves which become ripe and yellow on the tree and fall off in the course of nature, contain the largest portion of extract, and make the richest infusion; and I have no doubt, should the coffee leaf ever come into general use, the ripe leaf will be collected with as much care as the ripe fruit. The mode of the preparation by the natives is this. The ends of the branches and suckers, with the leaves on; are taken from the tree and broken into lengths of from twelve to eighteen inches. These are arranged in the split of a stick or small bamboo, side by side, forming a truss in such a manner, that the leaves all appear on one side, and the stalk on the other, the object of which is to secure equal roasting, the stalks being thus exposed to the fire together, and the leaves together. The slit being tied up in two or three places, and a part of the stick or bamboo left as a handle, the truss is held over a fire without smoke, and kept moving about, so as to roast the whole equally, without burning, on the success of which operation the quality and flavor of the article must depend. When successfully roasted, the raw vegetable taste is entirely dissipated, which is not the ease if insufficiently done. When singed or overdone, the extract is destroyed and the aroma lost. When the fire is smoky, the flavor varies with the nature of the smoke. The stalks are roasted equally with the leaves, and are said to add fully as much to the strength of the infusion. By roasting the whole becomes brittle, and is reduced to a coarse powder by rubbing between the hands. In this state it is ready for use, and the general mode of preparing the beverage is by infusion, as in the case of common tea. That it would soon become a most valuable article of diet amongst the laboring classes, and on ship board particularly, if, once brought into use, there can be no doubt. The coffee-tree can be grown to advantage for the leaf in the lowlands of every tropical country, where the soil is sufficiently fertile, whilst it requires a different soil and climate to produce the fruit[7]. Dr. Hooker, in the Jury Reports, observes upon the prepared coffee leaves, submitted by Dr. Gardner, of Ceylon, to be used as tea leaves, that they are worthy of notice as affording a really palatable drink when infused as tea is; more so, perhaps, than coffee is to the uninitiated. That this preparation contains a considerable amount of the nutritious principles of coffee, is evident from the analysis; but as the leaves can only be collected in a good state at the expense of the coffee bush, it is doubtful whether the coffee produced by the berries be not, after all, the cheapest, as it certainly is the best. TEA. The immense traffic in the produce of this simple shrub, the growth of a remarkable country, hitherto almost entirely isolated from the western nations, is one of the most remarkable illustrations of the enterprise and energy of modern commerce. The trade in tea now gives employment to upwards of 60,000 tons of British shipping, and about ten millions sterling of English capital, producing a revenue to this country of nearly six millions sterling. Every reflecting man will admit that articles of such vast consumption as tea and coffee (amounting together to more than 343,500 tons annually), forming the chief liquid food of whole nations, must exercise a great influence upon the health of the people. There is scarcely any country in the world in which a dietetic drink or beverage resembling tea, is not prepared, and in general use, from some exotic or indigenous shrub. The two chief plants laid under contribution are, however, the Chinese tea-plant, and a species of holly peculiar to South America, producing the Paraguay tea. _Astoria theiformis_ is used at Santa Fe as tea. The leaves of _Canothus Americanus_, an astringent herb, have been used as a substitute, under the name of New Jersey tea. It has been a matter of surprise why tea should be so much sought after by the poorer classes, since by many it is looked on more as a luxury than of use to the human system. The manner in which it acts, and the cause why it is so much in demand by all classes, is satisfactorily explained by Liebig; and the benefit, therefore, which will be conferred by selling it at a low rate, and thus placing it within the means of all, has at last come to be duly appreciated. Liebig says, without entering minutely into the medical action of caffeine, theine, &c., it will surely appear a most striking fact, even if we were to deny its influence on the process of secretion, that the substance, with the addition of oxygen and the elements of water, can yield taurine, the nitrogenised compound peculiar to bile:-- Carbon. Nitrogen. Hydrogen. Oxygen. 1 atom caffeine or theine = 8 2 5 2 9 atoms water = -- -- 9 9 9 atoms oxygen = -- -- -- 9 __ __ __ __ = 2 atoms taurine 8 2 14 20 = 2 4 9 10 To see how the action of caffeine, theobromine, theine, &c., may be explained, we must call to mind that the chief constituent of the bile contains only 3.8 per cent. of nitrogen, of which only the half, or 1.9 per cent., belongs to the taurine; bile contains, in its natural state, water and solid matter, in the proportion of ninety parts by weight of the former, to ten of the latter. If we suppose these ten parts, by weight of solid matter, to be chloric acid, with 3.87 per cent. of nitrogen, then 100 parts of theine would contain 0.171 of nitrogen in the shape of taurine. Now this quantity is contained in 0.6 parts of theine, or 2 grains 8/10ths of theine can give to an ounce of bile the nitrogen it contains in the form of taurine. Although an infusion of tea contains no more than the one-tenth of a grain of theine, still, if it contribute in point of fact to the formation of bile, the action even of such a quantity cannot be looked upon as a nullity. Neither can it be denied, that in the case of an excess of non-azotised food, and a deficiency of motion, which is required to cause the change of matter of the tissues, and thus to yield the nitrogenised product which enters into the composition of the bile, that in such a condition the health may be benefited by the use of compounds which are capable of supplying the place of the nitrogenised substances produced in the healthy state of the body, and essential to the production of an important element of inspiration. In a chronical sense, and it is this alone which the preceding remarks are intended to show, caffeine, or theine, &c., are, in virtue of their composition, better adapted to this purpose than all nitrogenised vegetable principles. The action of these substances in ordinary circumstances is not obvious, but it unquestionably exists. Tea and coffee were originally met with among nations whose diet was chiefly vegetable. Considerable discussion has taken place regarding the tea plants; some say that there is only one species; others that there are two or three. Mr. Fortune, who visited the tea districts of Canton, Fokien, and Chekiang, asserts that the black and green teas of the northern districts of China are obtained from the same species or variety, known under the name of _Thea Bohea_. Some make the Assam tea a different species, and thus recognise three: _T. Cantoniensis_ or _Bohea_, _T. Viridis_, and _T. Assamica_. The quality of the tea depends much on the season when the leaves are picked, the mode in which it is prepared, as well as the district in which it grows. The green teas include Twankay, Young Hyson, Hyson, Gunpowder, and Imperial; while the black comprise Bohea, Congou, Souchong, Oolong, and Pekoe. The teas of certain districts, such as Anhoi, have peculiar characters. The first tea imported into England was a package of two pounds, by the East India Company, in 1664, as a present to the king; in 1667, another small importation took place, from the company's factory at Bantam. The directors ordered their servants to "send home by their ships 100 pounds weight of the best _tey_ they could get." In 1678 were imported 4,713 lbs.; but in the six following years the entire imports amounted to no more than 410 lbs. According to Milburn's "Oriental Commerce," the consumption in 1711 was 141,995 lbs.; 120,595 lbs. in 1715, and 237,904 lbs. in 1720. In 1745 the amount was 730,729 lbs. For above a century and a half, the sole object of the East India Company's trade with China was to provide tea for the consumption of the United Kingdom. The company had the exclusive trade, and were bound to send orders for tea, and to provide ships to import the same, and always to have a year's consumption in their warehouses. The teas were disposed of in London, where only they could be imported, at quarterly sales. The act of 1834, however, threw open the trade to China. From a Parliamentary return, showing the quantity of tea retained for home consumption in the United Kingdom, in each year, from 1740 to the termination of the East India Company's sales, and thence to the present time, it appears that in 1740, 1,493,695 lbs. of tea were retained for home consumption. Two years afterwards, the quantity fell to 473,868 lbs., and in 1767 only 215,019 lbs. were retained. Next year the amount increased to 3,155,417 lbs.; in 1769 it was 9,114,854 lbs.; in 1795, 21,342,845 lbs.; in 1836, 49,842,236 lbs. The return in question also specifies the quantity of the various kinds of tea, with the average sale prices. According to the annual tea reports of Messrs. W.J. Thompson and Son, and Messrs. W.E. Franks and Son, the total imports of tea during the last fifteen years were as follows, reckoned in millions of lbs.:-- Years. Black. Green. Total. Home Consumption. 1838 26,786 8,215 35,001 36,415 1839 30,644 7,680 38,324 36,351 1840 21,063 7,161 28,224 31,716 1841 24,915 6,303 31,218 36,811 1842 31,915 9,729 41,644 37,554 1843 39,513 7,340 46,853 39,902 1844 39,644 8,749 48,393 41,176 1845 39,518 11,790 51,338 44,127 1846 44,017 12,486 55,503 47,534 1847 46,887 8,368 55,255 46,247 1848 37,512 7,611 45,123 48,431 1849 43,234 9,156 52,400 50,100 1850 39,873 8,427 48,300 51,000 1851 62,369 9,131 71,500 54,000 1852 55,525 9,175 64,700 54,724 The duty on tea was gradually raised from 9d. per lb. in 1787 to 3s. a lb. in 1806. It was 2s. 2d. per lb. until May, 1852, when 4d. per lb. was taken off, and further annual reductions are to be made. Down to the year 1834 the duty was an _ad valorem_ one of 96 per cent. on all teas sold under 2s. a lb., and of 100 per cent. on all that were sold at or above 2s., charged on the prices which they brought at the East India Company's sales. The _ad valorem_ duties ceased on the 22nd of April, 1834, and under the act 3 and 4 William IV. c. 100, all tea imported into the United Kingdom for home consumption was charged with a customs as follows:-- Bohea 1s. 6d. per lb. Congou, twankay, hyson skin, orange pekoe, and campoi 2 2 " Souchong, flowery pekoe, hyson, young hyson, gunpowder, imperial, and other teas not enumerated 3 0 " In 1836, the uniform duty of 2s. 1d. per lb. on all descriptions of tea was imposed, which, with the additional 5 per cent, imposed in 1840, made the total duty levied per lb. 2s. 2d. and a fraction. During the years from 1831 to 1841, in spite of an increase of nearly three millions in the population of the country, and notwithstanding the impetus given to the tea-trade by the abolition of the East India Company's monopoly in 1833, the increased consumption was only 6,675,566 lbs. Great as the increase has been of late years, however, it is very far short of what we might expect to see were the duty reduced to a moderate per centage on the value of the article as it comes from the Chinese merchant. In Jersey and Guernsey, where there is no duty on tea, the average consumption is 4½ lbs. per head per annum. The same rate for the United Kingdom would require an annual importation of nearly 150 million lbs. I asserted, many months ago, if the duty could be gradually reduced from its present exorbitant amount to 1s. per lb., the revenue would not suffer much, whilst the comfort of the people would be much increased, and our trade with China greatly improved. Years. Teas Imported, lbs. Entered for Home Consumption, lbs. 1843 42,779,265 35,685,262 1844 50,613,328 41,176,00 1845 53,570,267 44,127,000 1846 57,584,561 46,554,787 1847 55,255,000 50,921,486 1848 47,774,755 48,735,696 1849 53,460,751 50,024,688 1850 50,512,384 51,178,215 1851 71,466,421 53,965,112 1852 66,361,020 54,724,615 Amount of duty received on tea:-- £ Prices of Sound Common Congou per lb. 1841 3,973,668 1s. 7d. to 2s. 0d. 1842 4,088,957 1 7 1 10 1843 4,407,642 1 0 1 2 1844 4,524,093 0 10 1 0 1845 4,833,351 1 0 1 9½ 1846 5,112,005 0 9 0 9½ 1847 5,066,860 0 8½ 0 9½ 1848 5,330,515 0 8 0 8½ 1849 5,471,641 0 8½ 0 9½ 1850 5,597,708 0 10½ 1 1 1851 5,902,433 0 8 0 8½ 1852 5,986,482 0 7½ 2 2 Mr. Montgomery Martin, in his work on China, published in 1847, gave the average annual consumption of tea, the produce of China, as follows:-- lbs. Great Britain and Ireland 45,000,000 British North America and West Indies 2,500,000 Australasia, Cape of Good Hope, &c. 2,500,000 British India and Eastern Islands 2,000,000 ---------- Total used throughout the British Empire 52,000,000 ---------- United States of North America * 7,000,000 Russia 10,000,000 France and Colonies 500,000 Hanse Towns, &c. 150,000 Holland and its Colonies 1,000,000 Belgium 200,000 Denmark, Sweden, and Norway 250,000 The German States 500,000 Spain and Portugal 100,000 Italian States 50,000 South American States 500,000 ------- Total consumption in foreign countries 20,250,000 [* This is only one-third the actual consumption.] According to this statement, it would seem that the English consume twice the quantity of tea that is used by all the other countries excepting China and Japan. The consumption of tea in Europe and America I estimated a year or two ago as follows:-- lbs. Russia 15,000,000 United States of America 18,000,000 France 2,000,000 Holland 2,800,000 Other countries 2,000,000 Great Britain 50,000,000 ---------- Total 89,800,000 The estimated consumption, at the rate of consumption found where taxation is favorable (as for instance 1½ pounds--the average of this country) would give the following:-- cwts. England 400,000 France 510,000 Germany 400,000 Austria 500,000 Prussia ... Belgium 63,000 Russia 900,000 Rest of Europe 750,000 The total exportation of tea by sea from China, was estimated by Mr. Martin in 1847 at 76 millions of pounds, viz.:-- England 50,000,000 United States 20,000,000 All other countries 5,000,000 ---------- 75,000,000 which, at 20 taels per picul (133 lbs.) amounts to 11,280,000 taels of silver at 80d. per tael, £3,760,000. The present Chinese duty of two taels five mace, does not include shipping and other charges; the old duty was five taels, and included all charges paid the Hong merchants. The export by sea is now about 97 millions of lbs. The following was the returned value of the tea exported from the five Chinese ports in 1844 and 1845:-- 1844. 1845. Canton £2,910,474 £3,429,790 Shanghae 67,115 462,746 Ningpo 2,000 2,000 Amoy 544 Foo-chow-foo 638 --------- --------- £2,979,589 £3,895,718 The average cost of tea in China at the ship's side is 10d. per pound, while it is confidently asserted that it could be produced in many parts of America at 5d. the pound. The great cost in China is owing to the expensive transportation, the cultivation of the fuel used, the absence of all economy of machinery, &c. It is only by adulteration that tea is sold in China as cheap as 10d. In America the beating and rolling of the leaves (one half of the labor) could be done by the simplest machinery, fuel could be economised by flues, &c. The Russian teas, brought by caravans, are the most expensive and best teas used in Europe. The Chinese themselves pay 7½ dollars per pound for the "Yen Pouchong" teas. Full chests were exhibited in 1851, by Mr. Ripley, of various Pekoe teas, some of which fetch 50s. per lb. in the China market; whilst 7s. is the very highest price any of the sort will fetch in England, and this only as a fancy article. The plain and orange-scented Pekoes now fetch little with us; but as caravan teas, are purchased by the wealthier Russian families. The finest, however, never leave China, being bought up by the Mandarins; for though the transit expenses add 3s. to 4s. per lb. to the value when sold in Russia, the highest market price in St. Petersburg is always under 50s. Among these scented teas are various caper teas, flavoured with chloranthus flowers and the buds of some species of plants belonging to the orange tribe, _magnolia fuscata_, olea flowers, &c. The Cong Souchong, or Ning-young teas, are chiefly purchased for the American market. Oolong tea is the favourite drink in Calcutta, though less prized in England, its delicate flavor being injured by the length of the voyage. For delicacy, no teas, approach those usually called "Mandarin teas," which being slightly fired and rather damp when in the fittest state for use, will bear neither transport nor keeping. They are in great demand among the wealthy Chinese, and average 20s. per lb in the native market.--(Jury Reports.) The consumption of tea in the United Kingdom may now be fairly taken at fifty-four million pounds yearly, and sold at an average price to the consumer of 4s. 6d., per pound. The money expended for tea is upwards of twelve millions sterling. The expenditure of this sum is distributed as follows, in round numbers:-- Net cost of 54,000,000 pounds, average 1s. per pound £2,700,000 Export duty in China of 1½d. a lb. 337,500 Shipping charges, &c., in China 25,000 Freight, &c., China to England, about 2d. per lb. 450,000 Insurance, ½d. per lb. 112,500 Commission, about ¼d. per lb. 56,250 Tasting charges, &c., about 1/8 of a penny per lb. 28,125 Interest for 6 months on £3,709,375 at 5 per cent. 92,734 --------- Total outlay in China £3,802,109 Profit to exporters in China,(about 12 per cent.) 445,116 Landing charges, &c., in England 39,000 ---------- Cost price in bond in England £4,286,225 Duty received by government at 2s. 2½. per lb., about 5,985,482 ---------- £10,271,707 Profit divided among tea-brokers, wholesale and retail dealers, &c 1,878,293 ---------- Total outlay by British public for tea, at 4s. 6d. per lb. £12,150,000 The tea imported into England in 1667 was only 100 lbs., while for the year ending June 30, 1851, the export from China to Great Britain was 64,020,000 lbs., employing 115 vessels in its transportation; and to the United States, during the same time, 28,760,800 lbs., in sixty-four vessels. Within the last five years, the export has increased 10,000,000 lbs. to the United States, and 17,000,000 to Great Britain. These statistics will show the immense importance of this article to commerce, and the vast amount of shipping it supports. But let us follow out the statistics a little more in detail. The population of the Chinese provinces, as quoted by Dr. Morison, from an official census taken in 1825, was 352,866,012, and we may fairly conclude that during the last twenty-eight years this population has extensively increased. If we assume the annual consumption of tea at four lb. per head on the above population; and this is no unreasonable assumption in a country, where, to quote from Murray's valuable work on China, tea "is the national drink, which is presented on every occasion, served up at every feast, and even sold on the public roads;" we shall have a tolerably accurate result as to the total consumption in the empire. Indeed this computation falls short of the actual relative consumption in the island of Jersey, where, as we have seen, nearly five lbs. is the annual allowance of each individual. If we multiply the population of China by four, we have-- lbs. Total consumption of tea in China 1,411,464,048 Export of Great Britain and Ireland, for the year ending June 30, 1851. 64,020,000 Export to the United States, same period 28,760,800 Export to Holland, returned at 2,000,000 in Davis's "China" 3,000,000 Inland trade to Russia 15,000,000 Export to Hamburg, Bremen, Denmark, Sweden, &c., seven cargoes, about 3,000,000 Export to Sydney, and Australasian Colonies, at least 6,000,000 Export to Spain and France, four cargoes 2,000,000 --------- Total lbs. 1,533,244,848 The above is exclusive of the heavy exportation in Chinese vessels to all parts of the east where Chinese emigrants are settled, such as Tonquin, Cochin China, Cambodia, Siam, the Philippines, Borneo, and the various settlements within the Straits of Malacca. In comparison with such an enormous quantity, the 54 million lbs. consumed in the United Kingdom sink into insignificance. £ The cost of tea to America, at the ship's side in China, say 29,000,000 lbs., at an average of 1s. per lb., would be 1,450,000 The cost to England, 64,000,000, at the same price 3,200,000 The cost to other places, say 25,000,000 1,250,000 Russia, 15,000,000 750,000 ---------- Total £6,650,000 It is therefore clear, that were the demand to be doubled from Great Britain, it would make very little difference in the Chinese market; since it would be only a question of letting us have six per cent, of their growth of the article, instead of three. When we remember that the tea plant attains to maturity in three years, and its leaves are then fit for picking; and that there is a vast extent of country to which it is indigenous, growing in every climate between the equator and the latitude of 45 degrees, it is evident that, were there a necessity for it, the actual production of tea in China could be increased to an almost unlimited extent in the space of three or four years, an extent far more than compensating for the extra three per cent., which might be, in the first instance, required by the British. The certainty of an increased consumption following upon a reduction in the price of tea to the actual consumers of it, is so obvious as to require demonstration to those only who have not considered the subject. The population of Great Britain and Ireland is, say in round numbers 30,000,000, the actual consumption of tea is only 54,000,000 lbs., or little more than one pound and three quarters for each individual. In the neighbouring island of Jersey, there are nearly five lbs. of tea consumed by every inhabitant yearly; and as we may fairly infer from analogy that similar results would arise from a similar cause, the consumption in the United Kingdom in the same ratio would amount to no less than 150 millions of pounds annually. Tea, observes a most competent authority (Mr. J. Ingram Travers), is the favourite drink of the people: all desire to have it strong and good, and none who can afford it are without it. But in the agricultural districts the laborers use but little; numbers of them "make tea with burnt crusts, because the China tea is too dear." In Ireland the consumption is greatly below that of England; there are comparatively few people who do not, on company occasions, make their tea stronger than for ordinary use, and the general economy in the use of tea forms an exception to almost every other article of consumption. As to the working classes in the manufacturing districts, Mr. Bayley, President of the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, himself a very extensive manufacturer, and therefore well qualified to speak to the fact, says:--"The common calculation of two ounces per head per week I should think is very much in excess of what the working classes consume. Domestic servants, I believe, have that quantity allowed them, but I should say that the working classes do not consume one quarter of that." And yet it is these classes who are the great consumers of everything cheap enough to be within their reach. It is this consumption that, under better earnings, has sustained the steady increase of nearly two million pounds of tea per annum for the last eight years, and still there is such ample room for increase that domestic servants are allowed at least four times as much per head as those working people who value, more than any other class, the cheerful refreshingness of tea, but who, stinted in its use by the exorbitant duty, are tempted and almost driven to the use, instead, of degrading drinks. And if the general consumption of the population should rise to even half servants' allowance, or one ounce per head per week, the consumption of tea would reach 97,500,000 lbs. per annum. And as to what might be used if the taste for it had free scope, some idea may be formed from the fact that the consumption of such people as have found their way from these countries, where the consumption is 1 lb. 9 ozs. per head, to Australia, has there risen to 7 lbs. per head, at which rate the consumption of the United Kingdom would be about 210,000,000 lbs. per annum, and which, even at a 6d. duty, would produce five millions and a half. There is nothing in the air of Australia to give any especial impulse to tea drinking: on the contrary; in this comparatively cold, damp climate, people would naturally use a hot beverage more largely than in the dry warm climate of Australia; and, after all, great as the Australian consumption seems, it is scarcely more than a quarter of an ounce per head per week above the allowance to English domestic servants. The consumption of tea, notwithstanding the dicta of Mr. Montgomery Martin, is destined to a prodigious increase. Nor is it solely to an increase in the consumption of tea, that we must look to prevent any deficiency in the revenue, as there is no doubt that a reduction in the price of the article would lead to a prodigious increase in the quantity of sugar consumed, especially by the lower classes, who seldom take the one without the other. It is not, however, merely that they would buy sugar in proportion to the quantity of tea that they consume; the circumstance of a smaller sum being requisite for their weekly stock of tea, would enable them to spend a larger amount in other articles, among which sugar would, undoubtedly, be one of the most important. The merchant, shipowner, manufacturer, and all connected with the trade between Great Britain and China, are in a position to see the prodigious advantages that such a measure as an extensive reduction of the impost on tea would occasion to the general trade of the country; and the public at large, who are not practically familiar with the subject, only require it to be brought before them in a distinct point of view, when the important results of such a reduction cannot fail to be apparent to them. Tea is not now within the reach of the poor man. A person taking tea once a day, will consume about 7½ lbs. a year. lbs. Say 500,000 persons take tea twice a day, or 15 lbs. a year, is 7,500,000 Say 4,000,000 persons take tea once a day, or 7½ lbs. a year, is 30,000,000 Say 12,000,000 persons take tea once a week, or 1 lb. a year, is 12,000,000 ---------- 49,500,000 Which shows that, at present, only one person out of every sixty can have tea twice a day; one of every seven only once a day; and that out of the remaining 13,500,000 persons, only five millions and a half can procure it once in the week. The exact state of the case shows that only eight millions of the people of the United Kingdom enjoy the use of tea, leaving the other twenty-two millions excluded. A Chinese will consume thirty pounds of tea in the year. But it is said we must not, if our accumulated stocks be drank off this year, expect the Chinese to meet at once so huge an increase in the demand as to supply us with as much next year. Now on no point of the case is the evidence so clear as upon the capacity of the Chinese to furnish, within any year, any quantity we may require. The Committee of 1847, on Commercial Relations with China, state--"That the demand for tea from China has been progressively and rapidly rising for many years, with no other results than that of diminished prices:"--a fact to be accounted for only upon the supposition that our ordinary demand is exceedingly small in proportion to the Chinese supply. Nor is it an unreasonable inference, that if so much more than usual was to be had at a less price than before, any rise of price, however trivial it might be, would bring forward a much larger quantity:[8] a supposition which is completely confirmed by a review of prices here, and exports from China within the last four years; and in considering which it is important to bear in mind--1st, that our tea trade year, on which our account of import, export, home consumption, and stock on hand is taken, is from January to January, and the Chinese tea year from July to July; 2nd, that a rise at the close of the last months of the year in England, influences the next year's exports from China; and 3rdly, that of late years, since something of decrepitude has fallen upon the Chinese Government, smuggling there, to escape the export duty, has been carried on largely and at an increasing rate, so that the return is considerably below the real export. In the Chinese tea year, July to July, 1848-9, the price of good ordinary congou, the tea of by far the largest consumption here, and which, in fact, rules the market, was 8½d. to 9-1/3d., and the export from China 47,251,000 lbs. The year closed with the higher price, and the Chinese export from July 1849, to July 1850, was 54,000,000 lbs., showing an increase of export on the year of 6,750,000 lbs. Throughout 1850, here, prices fluctuated a good deal. They were low in the earlier part of the year, but in January went up from 9½d. to 11½d., and from July 1850, to July 1851, the export from China rose to 64,000,000 lbs., being an increase of ten million pounds on a previous increase of nearly seven million lbs. Prices here, during 1851, varied very much: it was difficult to say whether any rise would be established, but the export still went up and reached, from July 1851, to July 1852, 67,000,000 lbs., giving a total increase in three years of 19,750,000 lbs. Nor was it pretended that in any of those years the Chinese market showed even the least symptoms of exhaustion. "We know," say the Committee, "that the Chinese market has never been drained of tea in any one year, but that there has been always a surplus left to meet any extraordinary demand." But the effect of the rise in price in 1850 is still more forcibly shown by a comparison of our total imports in that and the following year. In 1850 we imported 48,300,000 lbs.; in 1851, 71,500,000 lbs., being an increase of 23,200,000 lbs. Doubtless the Chinese export, if made up totally with our year, would not account for the whole quantity, part of which is to be set down to Chinese export-smuggling, and part to arrivals from America and the Continent. The probability is that the increase of price referred to above never reached the Chinese tea farmers; the supply came from the merchants' stock on hand. The rise was, besides, uncertain, and from any established advance a much larger increase of export might be looked for. But the mistake made in England in estimating what tea we may look for from China goes upon the supposition that they grow expressly for us: the fact being, as stated by Mr. Robt. Fortune, in his recently published "Tea Districts of China," "that the quantity exported bears but a small proportion to that consumed by the Chinese themselves." On this point the report of the Parliamentary Committee is explicit:--"There is a population in China, commonly assumed at above three hundred millions, at all hours in the day consuming tea, which only requires some change of preparation to be fit for exportation; thus implying an amount of supply on which any demand that may be made for foreign export can be, after a very short time, but slightly felt." Mr. Fortune, in his evidence, says "that the Chinese drink about four times as much as we do: they are always drinking it." Four times as much is probably very much an under-estimate. With rich and poor of all that swarming population, tea, not such as our working classes drink, but fresh and strong, and with no second watering, accompanies every meal. But even taking their consumption at four times as much per head as ours, and their population at the lowest estimate, at three hundred millions, their consumption, setting ours at 55,000,000 lbs., will be no less than two thousand two hundred millions of pounds per annum, or forty times the quantity used in the United Kingdom. As reasonably might the few foreigners who visit the metropolis in the summer expect to cause a famine of fruit and vegetables in London, as we that a doubling of our demand for tea would be felt in China. The further fifty-five million pounds would be but another fortieth of what they use themselves, and would have no more effect upon their entire market than the arrival of some thousand strangers within the year in London would have upon the supply of bread or butchers' meat. There is no need, therefore, to wait for the extension of tea plantations, and so far from taking for granted the statement of the late Chancellor of the Exchequer, "that time must be given to increase production, and that the point of its taking three or four years to make a tea-tree is to be considered in dealing with the duties," we have the fact unmistakeably before us, that the production is already so vast, that any demand from us could have no appreciable effect. And as to future supplies, if we should come to drink as much as the Chinese themselves, a matter not at all needful to be considered at present, the Committee report that "the cultivation of the plant may be indefinitely extended;" whilst Mr. Fortune, who has been upon the spot, states "that there is not the slightest doubt that there is a great part of the land which is nearly uncultivated now, which, were there a demand for tea, could be brought into cultivation. The cost would be very little indeed; they would cut down a quantity of brushwood, and probably dig over the ground and plant the bushes. They could clear and plant it in the same year, and in about two years they could get something from it." As, however, without this extension they have hitherto found enough for the increase of their own vast population, for every extension of demand from us and every other foreign customer, whether by land or water, without the least tendency to an advance in price, there is no need to do more than thus touch upon the undeveloped resources of tea production.--_Travers on the Tea Duties_. The consumption of tea in Russia is very great, as the middling classes make a more frequent use of that beverage than the rest. Every year 60,000 chests of tea arrive at Maimiatchin and Kiakhta, of the declared official value of £1,185,000 sterling; and to this may be added £38,650 for inferior tea used by the people of the south, which makes the total declared value of the tea introduced about one and a quarter million sterling. The consumption of Russia may be assumed at over fifteen millions of pounds, although we have no correct data, as in the case of shipping returns, to calculate from. In 1848, however, the Russians took 136,217½ boxes of fine tea of the Chinese, for which they paid 5,349,918 silver roubles--one million sterling. The quantity forwarded from Kiakhta into the interior consisted of-- Foods. Flowery or Pekoe tea 69,677 Ordinary tea 183,752 Brick tea 116,249 Equal to about fifteen million lbs. English. _Brick tea of Thibet._--A sample of this curious product was shown by the East India Company in 1851. It is formed of the refuse tea-leaves and sweepings of the granaries, damped and pressed into a mould, generally with a little bullock's blood. The finer sorts are friable masses, and are packed in papers; the coarser sewn up in sheep's skin. In this form it is an article of commerce throughout Central and Northern Asia and the Himalayan provinces; and is consumed by Mongols, Tartars, and Tibetans, churned with milk, salt, butter, and boiling water, more as a soup than as tea proper. Certain quantities are forced upon the acceptance of the Western tributaries of the Chinese Empire, in payment for the support of troops, &c.; and is hence, from its convenient size and form, brought into circulation as a coin, over an area greater than that of Europe.--_Dr. Hooker, in Jury Reports_. The quantity and value of the tea imported into the United States, from 1821, is thus stated:-- Years. Pounds. Value, dolls. 1821 4,975,646 1,322,636 1822 6,639,434 1,860,777 1823 8,210,010 2,361,245 1824 8,920,487 2,786,812 1825 10,209,548 3,728,935 1826 10,108,900 3,752,281 1827 5,875,638 1,714,882 1828 7,707,427 2,451,197 1829 6,636,790 2,060,457 1830 8,609,415 2,425,018 1831 5,182,867 1,418,037 1832 9,906,606 2,788,353 1833 14,639,822 5,484,603 1834 16,282,977 6,217,949 1835 14,415,572 4,522,806 1836 16,382,114 5,342,811 1837 16,982,384 5,903,054 1838 14,418,112 3,497,156 1839 9,439,817 2,428,419 1840 20,006,595 5,427,010 1841 10,772,087 3,075,332 1842 13,482,645 3,567,745 1843 12,785,748 3,405,627 1844 13,054,327 3,152,225 1845 17,162,550 4,802,621 1846 16,891,020 3,983,337 1847 14,221,410 3,200,056 1848 18,889,217 The annual reports of the Secretary to the Treasury, for the last twenty years, show a considerable increase in the consumption of tea in the United States, but not so great as in the article of coffee. The establishment of tea shops, in all the large cities of America, is a new feature in the retail trade, dating only some six years back. The average rate of duty, which previously ranged between thirty and thirty-four cents. per pound, was reduced in 1832 to fourteen cents (7d.) a pound. The proportion of green to black used is shown by the following return of the imports:-- lbs. 1844 Green 10,131,837 Black 4,125,527 ---------- Total 14,257,364 1845 Green 13,802,099 Black 6,950,459 ---------- Total 20,752,558 The large import of 1840, of 250,000 chests, of which 200,000 were green, was in anticipation of the disturbances arising from the war with Great Britain, and the blockade of the ports. In 1850, there were 173,317 chests of green tea, and 91,017 of black tea exported from China to America; these quantities, with a further portion purchased from England, made a total of about twenty-three million lbs. of tea which crossed the Atlantic in 1850. The imports and exports of tea into the United States, in the years ending Dec. 31st, 1848 and 1849, were as follows:-- IMPORTS. 1849. 1848. lbs. lbs. Green 14,237,700 13,686,336 Black 5,999,315 3,815,652 ---------- ---------- Total 20,236,916 17,503,988 EXPORTS. Green 230,470 262,708 Black 186,650 194,212 ---------- ---------- Total 417,120 456,920 The value of tea imported into the United States during the year ending June 30th, 1851, amounted to 4,798,006 dollars (nearly £1,000,000 sterling); of this was re-exported a little over 1,000,000 dollars worth, leaving for home consumption 3,668,141 dollars. The quality of tea depends much upon the season when the leaves are picked, the mode in which it is prepared, as well as the district in which it grows. The tea districts in China extend from the 27th degree to the 31st degree of north latitude, and, according to missionaries, it thrives in the more northern provinces. Koempfer says it is cultivated in Japan, as far north as 45 degrees. It seems to succeed best on the sides of mountains, among sandstone, schistus, and granite. In 1834, the East India Company introduced the cultivation of tea in Upper Assam, where it is said to be indigenous; and they now ship large quantities of very excellent tea from thence. Mr. Boyer, director of the museum at Port Louis, Mauritius, has succeeded in rearing 40,000 tea-trees, and expresses an opinion, that if the island of Bourbon would give itself up to the cultivation, it might easily supply France with all the tea she requires. The culture has also been commenced on a small scale, in St. Helena, and the Cape Colony. The cultivation of the tea-tree might be tried with probability of success in Natal, and the Mauritius. The plant grows in every soil, even the most ungrateful; resists the hurricanes, and requires little care. The picking of the leaves, like the pods of cotton, is performed by women, children, and the infirm, without much expense. The preparation is known to the greater part of the Chinese, of whom there are so many in Mauritius; besides, it is not difficult. A Mr. Duprat has, I am informed, planted a certain extent of land in the neighbourhood of Cernpipe, in that island, but I have not yet learnt with what success. The tea-plant has been successfully cultivated, on a large scale, in the island of Madeira, at an elevation of 3,000 feet above the level of the sea, by Mr. Hy. Veitch, British ex-Consul. The quality of the leaf is excellent. The whole theory of preparing it is merely to destroy the herbaceous taste, the leaves being perfect, when, like hay, they emit an agreeable odor. But to roll up each leaf, as in China, is found too expensive, although boys and girls are employed at about two-pence or three-pence per day. Mr. Veitch has, therefore, tried the plan of compressing the leaves into small cakes, which can be done at a trifling expense. It is performed when the leaf is dry; whereas, the rolling requires moisture, and subsequent roasting on copper plates is necessary to prevent mustiness. In this process the acid of the tea acts upon the copper, and causes that astringency which we remark in all the China teas. The tea of Cochin China is considered inferior to that of China, being less strong and pleasant in flavour. An inferior sort of tea, with a leaf twice or thrice as large as that of Bohea, grows wild in the hilly parts of Quang-ai, and is sold at from 12s. 6d. to 40s. the picul of 133lbs. The Dutch have devoted much attention to tea cultivation in Java, and the plantations are in fine order. Nearly a million lbs. of tea were shipped thence in 1848; but the tea is said to be of inferior quality, and grown and manufactured at considerable expense. Japan produces both black and green tea. The Japanese prefer the latter to the Chinese green tea. The black tea is very bad. The Japanese tea-tree, is an evergreen, growing in the most sterile places to the height of about six feet. It is described as above, by Koempfer, as having leaves like the cherry, with a flower like the wild rose; when fresh, the leaves have no smell, but a very astringent taste. Tea grows in all the southern provinces of Japan, but the best green is produced in the principality of Kioto, where it is cultivated with great care. A few years ago, Messrs. Worms attempted the cultivation of tea in Ceylon. The island, however, lies too far within the tropics to offer a climate like Assam, which is situate without them. The plants may thrive to appearance, but that is not a demonstration of their quality. The tea-plant has reached upwards of six feet in height at Pinang, and in as healthy a state as could be desired, but the leaf had no flavor, and although thousands of Chinese husbandmen cultivate spices, and other tropical productions on that island, no one thinks it worth while to extend the cultivation of the tea-plant in Pinang. The Chinese there laugh at the idea of converting the leaf into a beverage. The cultivation of the tea-plant has been introduced into the United States, and those planters who have tried the experiment have succeeded beyond their highest expectations. Dr. Junius Smith had successfully cultivated the plant on his property called Golden grove, near Grenville, in South Carolina. His plants were in full blossom, and as healthy and flourishing as those of China at the same stage of growth. Everything connected with them looked favorable, and Dr. Smith felt abundantly encouraged to extend the culture of the several descriptions of tea upon his property. It is stated that his expectations were so great, that he contemplated to place fresh tea on the tea-tables of England and Paris in twenty days, from the plantation. He had a large supply of plants, and tea seed enough for a million more. The black descriptions blossomed earlier than the green plant, but the latter also blossomed luxuriantly. He introduced at first about 500 plants of from five to seven years' growth, overland from the north-west provinces of India, and some from China direct. In the close of 1849, he writes me:-- "During the past year the tea-plant under my care has passed through severe trials, from the injury received in transplanting, from the heat generated in the packing-cases, from the want of shelter during the severe frosts of February, from the excessive heat in June, and from the drought of 58 days' continuance in July and August. The plants were divested of their leaves and generally of their branches and twigs in February, during my absence in New York. Knowing that the plants were tender, and not fortified by age and mature growth against severe weather, I had directed them to be covered in case a material change of temperature should occur. But these orders were neglected, and they consequently suffered from that cause. The plant is sufficiently hardy to resist any weather occurring in this part of the country, when seasoned for one year. The plant has grown thrifty since April, and the quantity of foliage, buds, and blossoms, show that the root has taken strong hold, and is now fully equal to produce its fruit next autumn, which always follows the year after the blossoms. I have a variety of both black and green tea-plants. The buds and blossoms of the latter did not appear until a fortnight after the black tea-plant. But the blossoms were larger when they did appear in September, October, November, and December. From present appearances, I think the blossoms of some of the late plants will continue to unfold until spring. It is not an unusual thing for the blossoms and the fruit to appear at the same time upon the same plant. In this particular it differs from any plant I have seen. As my chief object, at present, is to cultivate and increase the tea-nut, it will be a year or two perhaps before I attempt to convert the leaf into tea. The root supports the leaf and fruit, and the leaf the root, so that neither can be spared without detriment. This climate appears congenial to the growth of the plant, and the soil is so diversified in this mountainous district, that there is no difficulty in selecting that best adapted to seed-growing plants, or that designed for the leaf only. Upon the plantation purchased this summer, I have light-yellow, dark-brown, and red clay subsoil, of a friable character, with a surface soil sufficiently sandy to answer the demands of the plant. I do not see any reason to doubt, from a year's experience, that the tea-plant in its varieties will flourish in what I heretofore denominated the tea-growing district of the United States, as well as in any part of China. The slowness of its growth requires patience. But when once established, the tea-nuts will supply the means of extending cultivation, and the duration of the plant for twenty years diminishes the expense of labor. To illustrate the hardihood of the plant, I may observe, that notwithstanding the zero severity of February frost destroyed the leaves and branches of most of the plants, and those now blooming in great beauty and strength are from roots the growth of this summer, I have one green tea-plant the stem and branches of which withstood the frost of February without the slightest protection, and is now a splendid plant, covered with branches and evergreen leaves, affording undeniable evidence not only of its capability of resisting frost, but of its adaptation to just such a degree of temperature. I have often remarked that the tea-plant requires for its perfection the influence of two separate and distinct climates, the heat of summer and the cold of winter. The thermometer in this vicinity during the heat of summer generally ranges from 74 at 6 o'clock a.m. to 82 at 3 o'clock p.m., only one day during the summer so high as 86. This is a most agreeable temperature, nights always cool, which the tea-plant enjoys, and the days hot and fanned with the mountain breeze. The drought I found the most difficult point to contend with, owing to the want of adequate means for irrigation. I lost 20 or 30 plants through this, and learned that no tea plantation should he established without irrigation. After two or three years there will be little necessity for it, because the depth of the roots will generally then protect the plant. My plantation at Golden Grove is well supplied with water, or I should not have purchased it at any price. It is the first and most important point to secure a southern or western aspect, a gentle declivity the second, salubrious air and suitable soil the third. Our country is filled with natural tea plantations, which are only waiting the hand of the husbandman to be covered with this luxuriant and productive plant. I know the public is naturally impatient of delay. Like corn, it is expected that the tea-nuts will be planted in the spring, and the crop gathered in the autumn. But they forget that the tea-plant does not interfere with any other crop, and when once planted it does not soon require a renewal. I have sometimes felt this impatience myself, and longed for a cup of tea of my own growing, but I have never had one. As a husbandman, I must wait some time longer, and let patience have her perfect work." Again, under date May 1, 1850, he states that he has succeeded admirably in the culture. The plants bear the winter well, and their physiology and general characteristics remain unchanged by the change of climate and soil. The leaf puts out at the same period of the year that it does in China. On the 27th of May, 1850, Dr. Smith received a further batch of trees, fresh, green and healthful, as if still growing in the plantations of China; after a passage of little more than five months. These plants, together with the seedlings and nuts, were of the green tea species, and obtained from a quarter situated about 700 miles from Canton. In a letter, dated Grenville, S.C., June 17th, 1850, with which I have been favored, he adds:-- "I never heard of the failure of the tea-crop. All vegetation may be retarded, or lessened, or augmented, in its production, in a slight degree, by excessive rains, or drought, or cold, or heat, or atmospheric action; but the tea-plant is sure to produce its leaf. From all I have observed, a decided drought is the most detrimental to the health of the tea plant. The almost continued rains which marked the advance of the past spring, seemed perfectly agreeable to the tea-plant, and facilitated the germination of the tea-nuts. Where any vitality remained in the nut, it was sure to germinate. Curiosity, on this point should be restrained, and no picking and pawing up of the nuts permitted. I have seedlings with tap roots four inches in length, where no appearance of germination is visible upon the surface of the ground. The chances are ten to one that the seedling would be destroyed by the tamperings of idle curiosity. Let nature have her own most perfect work, and see that the enemy, the drought, is vanquished by an abundant supply of water. From experience, I notice that nothing is more congenial to the germination of the tea-nut than a good stiff blue, clayed soil. The marly colour of the soil is undoubtedly the result of a rich loam, combined with the clay of a lighter hue. The adhesive nature of the clay retains moisture in an eminent degree, and the fertilising qualities of the loam are well known to every bottom land farmer. Plants put out three weeks ago, after a long voyage from China, are now taking root, and look fresh and vigorous, notwithstanding the recent heat and dryness of the atmosphere. But I have taken unwearied pains in the cultivation. Every plant is sheltered from the scorching influence of the sun, now from 70 deg. to 86 deg. of temperature. Although the soil is naturally moist and clayey, and half bottom land, from the work of gentle acclivities, rising on either hand, yet I have given the plants a liberal watering in the evening. By last summer's drought of fifty-seven days, I was taught the absolute necessity of deep digging and deep planting. None of my plants, of this season's planting, are more than two or three inches above the surface of the ground. If any of the plants have leaves, as most of them have, below that height, they are planted with the leaves retained; none are removed. Some of the older plants have no leaves remaining, and looked like dry sticks. Many of these are now beginning to break, and put forth fresh leaves." In 1851, Mr. Frank Bonynge set on foot a subscription list of fifty dollars each, to procure tea and various Indian plants for culture in America. That tea can be grown successfully in Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, is almost certain, because the experiment has been pretty fairly tried, as above shown, by Dr. Smith. The thermometer at Shanghai indicates the cold as more severe by thirteen degrees than at Charleston, South Carolina. The cold winter of 1834-5, which destroyed the oranges in Mr. Middleton's plantation, in Charleston, left his tea plants uninjured. The question of cultivating tea in California has been seriously discussed, and will no doubt be gone into when the gold digging mania has a little subsided. There is the necessary labor and experience on the spot, in some 12,000 or 14,000 Chinese, most of whom doubtless understand the culture and manufacture. The climate, soil and surface of California exactly answer the requirements for the growth of this plant. The time may yet come when the vast ranges of hills that traverse this State shall present terraces of tea gardens, cultivated by the laborious Chinese, and adding millions to the value of its products. A company for the cultivation of tea, under the title of the Assam Company, was established in March, 1839; and which, with a called-up capital of £193,337, has made up to the present time very profitable progress; having now got its plantations into excellent cultivation, and all its arrangements in admirable working order, it has sold teas to the amount of £90,000, and has a steam-boat, a considerable plant and machinery. In the report of the Company, at their annual meeting, held at Calcutta, in Jan., 1850, it was stated, as the result of their operations, that during the year 1849, the manufacturing season was unusually cold and ungenial, in consequence of which the development of leaf for manufacture was much checked. Although some loss was sustained, there was considerable increase in the crop notwithstanding, attributable to the continued improvements in the culture which had been obtained, and improvements over the previous season in some departments of the manufacturing process. The gross quantity of unsorted tea manufactured in the southern division was 207,982 lbs., being 2,673 lbs. less than that of the previous season, but the actual net out-turn was expected to reach 200,000 lbs. As much as 157,908 lbs. of the crop had been already received and shipped to England. These teas consisted chiefly of the finer qualities. Whilst the crops have been thus sensibly advancing in quantity and quality, and the value of the company's plantations permanently raised by extended and improved culture, and some increase to the sowings, the total outlay had been somewhat less than the previous year, the expenditure being limited to £500 for a crop of 12,000 acres of tea. With more extended gardens, the produce will be raised at a yet lower rateable cost than at present. The number of acres in cultivation in 1849, was about 12,000; these were not all in bearing, but would shortly be so, and the produce from this extent might be estimated at 300,000 lbs., and the cost of producing this would be about £11,000. 1,010 chests of the produce were sold in London on the 13th of March, 1850, at a gross average of 1s. 11½d. per lb. The produce of 1847, sold in England, was 141,277 lbs., at a gross average of 1s. 8d. per lb.: that of 1848 was 176,149 lbs. which sold at the average of 1s. 8½d. per lb. The produce of 1849 was 216,000 lbs., and there was every expectation of the average prices realised being higher than those of the previous years. The season was cold and unfavorable, or the crop would have been 10,000 lbs. more. The exact amounts obtained for the Company's teas in the five years, ending with 1851, will be seen from the following figures:-- Net produce, lbs. Average price. £ 1847 144,164 at per lb. ls. 7-1/16d. 11,513 1848 182,953 " ls. 8¼d. 15,436 1849 216,000 " ls. 9½d. 19,350 1850 253,427 " ls. 6-1/8d. 18,153 1851 271,427 " ls. 8½d. 22,152 1852 esmtd. 280,000 This exhibits a progressive increase in the aggregate value of the Company's produce, and this has been effected, it is stated, without any sensible increase of the current expenditure. It exhibits also a rise in the value of the tea (157,942 lbs. having been sold at the high average price of 1s. 11¼d.), a fact strongly indicative of its increasing excellence. The details of the crop of the season of 1849 showed a net produce of 237,000 lbs. of tea; so that the Company are increasing their cultivation to the extent of nearly ten per cent, per annum, and the increase will doubtless proceed with greater rapidity, whenever the increase of capital enables the directors to extend their operations. In a report submitted to the Directors, by Mr. Burkinyoung, the managing director in Calcutta last year, he thus speaks of the Company's field of operations and future prospects:-- "The box-making is especially worthy of notice for its effective organisation and economical arrangement; the work is performed chiefly by Assamese boys instructed at the factory: the number of boxes required for the year's consumption will not be short of four thousand, the whole of which will be made at the factory,--an achievement that cannot be too highly estimated in a country so destitute of mechanical labor. Notwithstanding the high standard of quality and strength to which our teas have already attained, I am of opinion that, as experience advances, and our knowledge and system of plucking and manufacturing the crops become improved, and better organised, a higher standard of quality and value may yet be realised; in this opinion the superintendent concurs with me, and the attainment of this object is one to which his attention's prominently directed. In the course of my enquiries and trials of different samples of tea in Assam, my attention was directed to one description of black tea, of rough strong flavor, made by a quicker process than that ordinarily used in the manufacture of black tea: under this mode of manipulation, a quality of tea is produced sufficiently distinctive in its flavor and appearance to render it worthy of attention and trial, and I think, when perfected in the process of manufacture, calculated to come into popular estimation. Samples of this tea the superintendent will forward to the board for trial. In conducting the operations in Assam, the chief difficulty of importance which has not yet been effectually met is the paucity of labor; this does not, however, exist to the extent of materially checking any of the important operations connected with the production of the tea, but it is felt in the arrear of various descriptions of work, in providing bricks for building, and in the preparation of a stock of seasoned timber and boards for building and box-making; while the out factories would be benefited by a larger proportion of agricultural labor. Great advance, however, has been made by the superintendent in the employment of Assamese labor in contract work: under the arrangement he has established, these contracts are now, for the most part, fulfilled with much punctuality, and there is reason to expect that this system of labor will be further extended. The Kachorie Coolies are a valuable class of laborers, but they do not appear to be sufficiently numerous, or to emigrate in sufficient numbers to afford with the native Assamese a supply of labor altogether equal to our wants, so as to render the concern independent of Bengal labor. The tea lands are for the most part advantageously situated, within convenient reach of water-carriage, either by the 'Dickhoo,' 'Dêsang,' and 'Dehing' rivers, or by means of small streams leading to them. The Plantations of the Satsohea and Rookang forests, and on the banks of the Tingri in the Northern Division, are all valuable centres of extension in each district. The lands suitable for tea cultivation are ample in extent, and of the highest fertility; while the Hill Factories of the Southern and Eastern Divisions, although secondary in importance, are, as regards extent and quality of soil, equally eligible as bases of extension. The prospects of the future, I entertain no doubt, will keep pace with the satisfactory results that have hitherto been realised, looking to the sound organisation that now exists in our establishment at Assam, an organisation that has already taken healthy root, and must in its growth gain strength and permanence. I think we may safely calculate, after the current year, upon an annual increase in our production of 40,000 lbs. of tea, until a larger system of operations can be matured, of which the basis is already laid down, in the new lands cleared and sown during the past cold season, averaging 225 to 250 poorahs; and this extended basis will be doubtless followed up by annual extensions of similar, if not larger, area. The concern is now taking a position which will place it on a scale of working commensurate with the objects entertained upon the first incorporation of the company, the profits now likely to be realised being adequate to all the outlay necessary." The prices in the last two years in London have been fully maintained at 1s. 3d. to 4s. 4d., according to sorts. Of Assam tea, the sales in the London market in 1851 amounted to 2,200 packages, against 1,900 packages in 1850, and all were freely taken (on account of their great strength) at very full prices. Seventy-six packages of Kumaon tea, both black and green, grown by the East India Company, in the Himalayas, as an experiment, were also brought to sale. They were teas of high quality; but being of the light flavored class, and not duly esteemed in this market, they realised only about their relative value as compared with China teas of similar grade. The Souchong and Pouchong sold at 1s. 1¼d. to 1s. 3½d.; the Hyson, Imperial, and Gunpowder realised 1s. 7¾d. to 2s. 6½d. Mr. Robert Fortune, who, in the service of the Horticultural Society of London, gave such satisfaction by his botanical researches in China, was, on his return to England, in 1848, engaged by the Directors of the East India Company to proceed again to the Celestial Empire, and procure and transmit to India such a quantity and variety of the tea plant, that its cultivation in the north-western provinces would be a matter of mere manual labor. Having penetrated about 300 miles into the interior, he left Hong Kong in the middle of 1851 for Calcutta, with a large quantity of choice plants, selected in the green tea districts, and these have flourished as well as could possibly be expected; so that, in the course of a few years, there is every probability that tea will form a considerable article of export from our Indian Presidencies. Mr. Fortune secured the services of, and took with him, eight Chinese, from the district of Wei-chow, under an agreement for three years, at the rate of fifteen dollars a month each. Six of these are regular tea-manufacturers; the other two are pewterers, whose sole business is that of preparing lead casings for tea-chests. In the British portion of the Punjaub, it has been resolved to expend £10,000 a year on the cultivation of the tea plant on the banks of the Beas, as well as at Anarkullee, and Kotghur in the Simla jurisdiction. Beyond the Beas there is a series of valleys on to Noonpoor, viz., the Palklun, Kangra, Rillo, &c., from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level of the sea, separated from each other by small ranges of hills. The valleys are from three to four miles in breadth, and from sixty to seventy in length: they are sheltered on the north by high mountains. They are described as admirably suited for the cultivation of the plant, now about to be attempted under the able management of Dr. Jamieson. Should it prove successful, the benefits it will confer on the country will be enormous. Tea is a favorite beverage everywhere with the natives: at present their supplies come in scanty measure and bad condition, at extravagant charges, across the frontier. The cultivation of the tea plant in the highlands of the Punjaub, is likely to be successful, even beyond the hopes of its promoters. Thousands of plants sown in 1849 have attained a height of four or five feet, and there seems no reason why tea should not ultimately become an important article of trade in the Punjaub, as well as in Kumaon. The Indian teas are already becoming popular in the English market, and the cultivators have the advantage of a demand which is almost unlimited, and of prices which seldom fluctuate to any great extent. The experiment of growing tea in the Madras Presidency has been often successfully tried, on a small scale. A number of plants supplied by government, through Dr. Wallich, were planted in the Shevaroy hills, about twelve or fourteen years since, and have thriven well; but though no doubt is entertained of the ease with which they could be propagated over a wide extent of country, no attempt has been made to give the cultivation a practical turn, or to make a cup of tea from the southern Indian tree. In Coorg, too, the experiment has been tested with like results, so that sufficient warranty exists to justify trials on the largest scale. Tea plants grow in luxuriance in the open air, at the Botanical Gardens, at Kew. Mr. Bonynge has seen this plant growing wild in N. lat. 27 deg. 30 min. on hills from three to 500 feet in height, where too, there was an abundance of frost, snow and hail. Those persons in England who possess tea plants, and who cultivate them for pleasure, should always bear in mind that, even in the tea districts of China, this shrub will not succeed if it be planted in low, wet land; and this is, doubtless, one of the reasons why so few persons succeed in growing it in this country. It ought always to be planted on a warm sloping bank, in order to give it a fair chance of success. If some of the warm spots of this kind in the south of England or Ireland were selected, who knows but that our cottagers might be able to grow their own tea? at all events, they might have the fragrant herb to look upon. The Dutch made the first movement to break the charm of Chinese monopoly, by introducing and cultivating the tea plant in their rich and fruitful colony of Java. That island lies between the sixth and eighth degrees of south latitude. In 1828, the first experiment in the cultivation of tea was made in the garden of the Chateau of Burtenzorg, at Java, where 800 plants of an astonishing vigor, served as an encouragement to undertake this culture, and considerable plantations were made in many parts of the island. The first trials did not answer to the expectations, as far as regards the quality of the article, the astringent taste and feeble aroma of which caused the conjecture that the preparation of the leaf, and its final manipulation, are not exactly according to the process used in China. At present tea is cultivated in thirteen Residencies: but the principal establishment, where the final manipulation is made, is in the neighbourhood of Batavia. The tea which Java now furnishes yearly to the markets of the mother country, may be stated at from 200,000 to 300,000 pounds. It is intimated that the government intends to abandon this culture to the industry of private individuals, under the guarantee of equitable contracts. The mountain range, which runs through the centre of the island, is the most productive, because the tea gardens, extending from near the base, high up the mountains, reach an atmosphere tempered by elevation. The plant escapes the scorching heats of the torrid zone, and finds a climate, by height rather than by latitude, adapted to its nature. But the plant is not confined to lofty ridges. In the plains, the hedges and fences, if one may so call them, are all planted with the tea shrub, which flourish in greater or less perfection throughout the island. But, as has already been intimated, the equatorial latitudes are not the most auspicious for the vigorous growth of a plant that requires a temperature equally removed from the extremes of heat and cold, and the quality of the tea is as much affected by the climate as the growth of the plant. A considerable quantity of tea is annually shipped from Java to Europe; but the extension of the cultivation is no doubt checked by the exceeding fertility of the soil, and its adaptation to the growth of the rich products of tropical regions. Mr. Jacobson, inspector of tea culture in Java, has published at Batavia a work in three volumes, upon the mode of cultivating this plant, upon the choice of grounds, and the best processes for the preparation and manipulation of the leaves. This book, the fruit of many years of experience and care given to the subject, has been well received by the cultivators who devote themselves to this branch of industry. If, by means of careful experiments and experience, the government succeed in conferring on the island of Java this important branch of commerce, she may hope to obtain brilliant results; at all events, it will open to the country a new source of prosperity and riches. An interesting account of the tea plants, and the manufacture of tea, will be found in Fortune's "Wanderings in China," in Ball's "Account of the Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea," Boyle's "Illustrations of Himalayan Botany," and his "Productive Resources of India." From Fortune's "Travels" I take the following extract:-- "There are few subjects connected with the vegetable kingdom which have attracted such a large share of public notice as the tea-plant of China. Its cultivation on the Chinese hills, the particular species of variety which produces the black and green teas of commerce, and the method of preparing the leaves, have always been objects of peculiar interest. The jealousy of the Chinese government in former times, prevented foreigners from visiting any of the districts where tea is cultivated; and the information derived from the Chinese merchants, even scanty as it was, was not to be depended upon. And hence we find our English authors contradicting each other; some asserting that the black and green teas are produced by the same variety, and that the difference in colour is the result of a different mode of preparation; while others say that the black teas are produced from the plant called by botanists _Thea Bohea_, and the green from _Thea viridis_, both of which we have had for many years in our gardens in England. During my travels in China since the last war, I have had frequent opportunities of inspecting some extensive tea districts in the black and green tea countries of Canton, Fokien, and Chekiang: the result of these observations is now laid before the reader. It will prove that even those who have had the best means of judging have been deceived, and that the greater part of the black and green teas which are brought yearly from China to Europe and America are obtained from the same species or variety, namely, from the _Thea viridis_. Dried specimens of this plant were prepared in the districts I have named, by myself, and are now in the herbarium of the Horticultural Society of London, so that there can be no longer any doubt upon the subject. In various parts of the Canton provinces where I have had an opportunity of seeing tea cultivated, the species proved to be the _Thea Bohea_, or what is commonly called the black tea plant. In the green tea districts of the north--I allude more particularly to the province of Chekiang--I never met with a single plant of this species, which is so common in the fields and gardens near Canton. All the plants in the green tea country near Ningpo, on the islands of the Chusan Archipelago, and in every part of the province which I have had an opportunity of visiting, proved, without an exception, to be _Thea viridis_. Two hundred miles further to the north-west, in the province of Kiangnan, and only a short distance from the tea hills in that quarter, I also found in gardens the same species of tea. Thus far my actual observations exactly verified the opinions I had formed on the subject before I left England, viz: that the black teas were prepared from the _Thea Bohea_, and the green from _Thea viridis_. When I left the north, on my way to the city of Foo-chow-foo, on the river Min, in the province Fokien, I had no doubt that I should find the tea hills there covered with the other species, _Thea Bohea_, from which we generally suppose the black teas are made; and this was the more likely to be the case as this species actually derives its specific name from the Bohea hills in this province. Great was my surprise to find all the plants on the tea hills near Foo-chow exactly the same as those in the green tea districts of the north. Here were, then, green tea plantations on the black tea hills, and not a single plant of the _Thea Bohea_ to be seen. Moreover, at the time of my visit, the natives were busily employed in the manufacture of black teas. Although the specific differences of the tea plant were well known to me, I was so much surprised, and I may add amused, at this discovery, that I procured a set of specimens for the herbarium, and also dug up a living plant, which I took northward to Chekiang. On comparing it with those which grow on the green tea hills, no difference whatever was observed. It appears, therefore, that the black and green teas of the northern districts of China (those districts in which the greater part of the teas for the foreign market are made) are both produced from the same variety, and that that variety is the _Thea viridis_, or what is commonly called green tea plant. On the other hand those black and green teas which are manufactured in considerable quantities in the vicinity of Canton, are obtained from the _Thea Bohea_, or black tea. In the green tea districts of Chekiang, near Ningpo, the first crop of leaves is generally gathered about the middle of April. This consists of the young leaf buds just as they begin to unfold, and forms a fine and delicate kind of young hyson, which is held in high estimation by the natives, and is generally sent about in small quantities as presents to their friends. It is a scarce and expensive article, and the picking off the leaves in such a young state does considerable injury to the tea plantation. The summer rains, however, which fall copiously about this season, moisten the earth and air; and if the plants are young and vigorous, they soon push out fresh leaves. In a fortnight or three weeks from the time of the first picking, the shrubs are again covered with fresh leaves, and are ready for the second gathering, which is the most important of the season. The third and last gathering, which takes place as soon as new leaves are formed, produces a very inferior kind of tea, which is rarely sent out of the district. The mode of gathering and preparing the leaves of the tea plant is very simple. We have been so long accustomed to magnify and mystify everything relating to the Chinese, that in all their arts and manufactures we expect to find some peculiar practice, when the fact is, that many operations in China are more simple in their character than in most parts of the world. To rightly understand the process of rolling and drying the leaves, which I am about to describe, it must be borne in mind that the grand object is to expel the moisture, and at the same time to retain as much as possible of the aromatic and other desirable secretions of the species. The system adopted to attain this end is as simple as it is efficacious. In the harvest seasons, the natives are seen in little family groups on the side of every hill, when the weather is dry, engaged in gathering tea leaves. They do not seem so particular as I imagined they would have been in this operation, but strip the leaves off rapidly and promiscuously, and throw them all into round baskets, made for the purpose out of split bamboo or ratan. In the beginning of May, when the principal gathering takes place, the young seed-vessels are about as large as peas. These are also stripped off and mixed with the leaves; it is these seed-vessels which we often see in our tea, and which has some slight resemblance to capers. When a sufficient quantity of leaves are gathered, they are carried home to the cottage or barn, where the operation of drying is performed." This is minutely described, and the author continues:-- "I have stated that the plants grown in the districts of Chekiang produce green teas, but it must not be supposed that they are the green teas which are exported to England. The leaf has a much more natural color, and has little or none of what we call the 'beautiful bloom' upon it, which is so much admired in Europe and America. There is now no doubt that all these 'blooming' green teas, which are manufactured at Canton, are dyed with Prussian blue and gypsum, to suit the taste of the foreign 'barbarians;' indeed the process may be seen any day, during the season, by those who give themselves the trouble to seek after it. It is very likely that the same ingredients are also used in dyeing the northern green teas for the foreign market; of this, however, I am not quite certain. There is a vegetable dye obtained from _Isatis indigotica_ much used in the northern districts, and called _Teinsing_; and it is not unlikely that it may be the substance which is employed. The Chinese never use these dyed teas themselves, and I certainly think their taste in this respect is more correct than ours. It is not to be supposed that the dye used can produce any very bad effects on the consumer, for, had this been the case, it would have been discovered before now; but if entirely harmless or inert, its being so must be ascribed to the very small quantity which is employed in the manufacture." In short, the black and green teas which are generally exported to England and the United States from the northern provinces of China, are made from the same species; and the difference of color, flavor, &c., is solely the result of the different modes of preparation. I shall make an extract, also, from Williams's "Middle Kingdom:"-- "The native names given to the various sorts of tea are derived for the most part from their appearance or place of growth; the names of many of the best kinds are not commonly known abroad. _Bohea_ is the name of the Wu-i hills, (or Bu-i, as the people on the spot call them,) where the tea is grown, and not a term for a particular sort among the Chinese, though it is applied to a very poor kind of black tea at Canton. _Sunglo_ is likewise a general term for the green teas produced on the hills in Kiangsu. The names of the principal varieties of black tea are as follows: _Pecco_, 'white hairs,' so called from the whitish down on the leaves, is one of the choicest kinds, and has a peculiar taste; _Orange Pecco_, called _shang hiang_, or 'most fragrant,' differs from it slightly; _Hungmuey_, 'red plum blossoms,' has a slightly reddish tinge; the terms _prince's eyebrows_, _carnation hair_, _lotus kernel_, _sparrow's tongue_, _fir-leaf pattern_, _dragon's pellet_, and _dragon's whiskers_, are all translations of the native names of different kinds of Souchong or Pecco. _Souchong_, or _siau chung_, means _little plant_ or sort, as _Pouchong_, or _folded sort_, refers to the mode of packing it; _Campoi_ is corrupted from _kan pei_ i.e. carefully fired; _Chulan_ is the tea scented with the chulan flower, and applied to some kinds of scented green tea. The names of green teas are less numerous: _Gunpowder_, or _ma chu_, i.e. hemp pearl, derives its name from the form into which the leaves are rolled; _ta chu_ or 'great pearl,' and _chu lan_, or 'pearl flower,' denote two kinds of _Imperial_; _Hyson_, or _yu tsien_, i.e. before the rains, originally denoted the tenderest leaves of the plant, and is now applied to _Young Hyson_; as is also another name, _mei pein_, or 'plum petals;' while _hi chun_, 'flourishing spring,' describes _Hyson_; _Twankay_ is the name of a stream in Chehkiang, where this sort is produced; and _Hyson skin_, or _pi cha_, i.e. skin tea, is the poorest kind, the siftings of the other varieties; _Oolung_, 'black dragon,' is a kind of black tea with green flavor. Ankoi teas are produced in the district of Ngankí, not far from Tsiuenchau fu, possessing a peculiar taste, supposed to be owing to the ferruginous nature of the soil. De Guignes speaks of the Pu-'rh tea, from the place in Kiangsu where it grows, and says it is cured from wild plants found there; the infusion is unpleasant, and is used for medical purposes. The Mongols and others in the west of China prepare tea by pressing it, when fresh, into cakes like bricks, and thoroughly drying it in that shape to carry in their wanderings. "Considering the enormous labor of preparing tea, it is surprising that even the poorest kind can be afforded to the foreign purchaser at Canton, more than a thousand miles from the place of its growth, for 9d. and less a pound; and in their ability to furnish it at this rate, the Chinese have a security of retaining the trade in their hands, notwithstanding the efforts to grow the plant elsewhere. Comparatively little adulteration is practised, if the amount used at home and abroad be considered, though the temptation is great, as the infusion of other plants is drunk instead of the true tea. The poorer natives substitute the leaves of a species of Rhamnus or Fallopia, which they dry; Camellia leaves are perhaps mixed up with it, but probably to no great extent. The refuse of packing-houses is sold to the poor at a low rate, under the name of tea endings and tea bones; and if a few of the rarest sorts do not go abroad, neither do the poorest. It is a necessary of life to all classes of Chinese, and that its use is not injurious is abundantly evident from its general acceptance and extending adoption; and the prejudice against it among some out of China may be attributed chiefly to the use of strong green tea, which is no doubt prejudicial. If those who have given it up on this account will adopt a weaker infusion of black tea, general experience is proof that it will do them no great harm, and they may be sure that they will not be deceived by a colored article; Neither the Chinese nor Japanese use milk or sugar in their tea, and the peculiar taste and aroma of the infusion is much better perceived without those additions; nor can it be drunk so strong without tasting an unpleasant bitterness, which the milk partly hides. The Japanese sometimes reduce the leaves to a powder, and pour boiling water through them in a cullender, in the same way that coffee is often made." The following valuable details as to the cultivation and manufacture of tea in British India, are from interesting reports by Dr. Jameson, Superintendent of the Company's Botanical Gardens in the North West Provinces, published in 1847 in the Journal of the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of Calcutta;--and from Mr. Robert Fortune's report to the Hon. East India Company:-- _The quantity manufactured_.--The quantity of tea manufactured from five plantations, of 89 acres in all, amounted in 1845 to 610 lb. 2 oz., and in 1846, on 115 acres, to l,023 lb. ll oz. The small nursery of Lutchmisser, consisting of three acres of land, gave a return in 1845 of 216 lb., or 2 maunds and 56 pounds; in 1846 the return was 272 lbs., or 3 maunds and 32 pounds. The small plantation of Kuppeena, established in 1841-2, and then consisting of three acres (but increased in 1844 to four), yielded in 1845, 1 maund and 56 pounds, and in 1846, 2 maunds and 56 pounds. Thus we have received from a plantation of only five years' formation, and of four acres (one of these recently added), upwards of 2½ maunds of tea, and from another, Lutchmisser, of three acres, which was established in 1835-6, 3 maunds and 30 pounds, equal to 272 pounds. I have, in a former report, asserted that the minimum return of tea for an acre of land may be estimated at 1 pucka maund, or 80 lb. The only plantations that I can as yet bring forward in favour of my assertion, are the two above-mentioned: Kuppeena has not yielded the proportion mentioned, but it was only established in 1841-42, and the tea-plants do not come into full bearing until the eighth year; on the other hand, Lutchmisser has given more than the average return. I think, therefore, that the returns already yielded are highly favorable, and that though the data are small, they are very satisfactory. _Soil best adapted for the tea-plant_.--The soil in which the tea-plant is now thriving in the Himalayas and in the valley of Deyrah Dhoon, varies exceedingly. At Bhurtpoor and Russiah it is of a light silico-aluminous nature, and abounding with small pieces of clay slate, which is the subjacent rock, and trap (green-stone), which occurs in large dykes, cutting through and altering the strata of clay slate; mixed with the stony soil, there is a small quantity of vegetable matter. The clay slate is metamorphic, being almost entirely composed of mica. In some places it is mixed with quartz, forming mica slate. From the decomposition of these rocks, mixed with a small quantity of vegetable matter, the soil is formed. At Kuppeena and Lutchmisser, the soil is also very stony, formed from the decomposition of clay slate, which, in many places, as at Russiah and Bhurtpoor, passes into mica slate, or alternates with it, and a little vegetable matter. The same remark applies to the plantations of Guddowli, Kouth, and Rumaserai. At Huwalbaugh part of the soil consists of a stiff clay, of a reddish-yellow colour, owing to peroxide of iron. Here, too, the tea-plants, provided that the ground around them is occasionally opened up, thrive well. In Mr. Lushington's garden at Lobha, in Kumaon, and in Assistant Commissioner Captain H. Ramsay's garden at Pooree, in Gurwahl, plants are thriving well in a rich, black, vegetable mould. The soil in the Deyrah Dhoon varies exceedingly from clayey and stiff soil to sand and gravelly soil, or light and free. The soil at Kaolagir is a compound of the two, neither clayey, nor free, nor light soil, but composed partly of clay and sand, mixed with vegetable mould, and in some places mixed with much gravel, consisting of limestone, marl, sandstone, clay slate, and quartz rock, or of such rocks as enter into the composition of the surrounding ranges of mountains, viz., the Sewalick range to the south, and the Himalayas, properly so called, to the north, From the above statement, we find that the tea-plant thrives well both in stiff and free soils, and in many modifications of these. But the soil which seems best adapted to its growth may be styled free soil, as at Russiah, or a mixture of both, as at Kaolagir, in the Deyrah Dhoon. In limestone districts, where the tea has been tried, if the super-imposed soil has been thin and untransported, and this proved from the decomposition of the subjacent rock, the plant has generally failed; and this has been particularly the case where the limestone, by plutonic action, has become metamorphic. These districts, therefore, in forming plantations, are to be avoided. From the writings of various authors, it appears that the districts where the tea-plant thrives best in China, have a geological structure very similar to that met with in many parts of the Himalayas, being composed of primitive and transition rocks. _Altitude above the sea best suited to the tea plant_.--To state what altitude is best adapted to the growth of the tea-plant, and for the production of the best kinds of tea, will require much more observation. At present the tea-plant thrives equally well at Kaolagir, in the Deyrah Dhoon; at Russiah, in the Chikata district; at Huwalbaugh; at Kuppeena and Lutchmisser; and at Rumaserai, or at heights ranging from 2,200 feet above the level of the sea to 6,000 feet. Moreover, the tea manufactured from leaves procured from Kaolagir, has been considered by the London brokers equal to that made from leaves procured from Lutchmisser and Kuppeena. _On the method of preparing ground prior to forming a plantation_.--In forming a plantation, the first object of attention, both in the hills and in the Deyrah Dhoon, is a _fence_. In the former, to prevent the depredations of wild animals, such as wild hog, deer, &c., which abound in the hills, and though they do not eat tea leaves, yet hogs, in search of tubers, in the space of a single night will do much damage by uprooting young shrubs--in the latter, to prevent the straying of cattle. The first thing to be done, therefore, is to dig a trench three feet broad and two deep, and to plant a hedge, if in the hills, of black thorn (_Cratoegus_); if in the plains, the different species of aloe are best adapted for the purpose. The fence being formed, all trees and shrubs are then to be uprooted; this is very heavy work, both in the hills and plains, from the vast number of shrubs, allowed by natives (from indolence to remove them) to grow everywhere throughout their fields. Roads are then to be marked off. After this has been accomplished, the land is to be drained, if necessary, by open drains--under drainage, for want of means and the expense, being impracticable--and then ploughed three or four times over. The beds for young tea-plants are then to be formed; these ought to be three feet in breadth, alternating with a pathway of two feet in breadth. By arranging beds in this manner much time and labour is saved in transplanting; in irrigation the water is economised, and in plucking tea leaves a road is given to the gatherer. In transplanting, each plant is allowed 4½ feet; this is at once gained, the beds and pathways being formed by placing in one direction the plant in the centre of the bed. _Trenching_.--On the tea beds being marked off, they are to be trenched to a depth of from two to three feet, in order to destroy all the roots of weeds, which are to be carefully removed. The trenching is to be performed by the _fowrah_, or Indian spade. In the hills, in many places the _fowrah_ cannot be used, owing to the number of stones. The work is then to be done by the _koatlah_, a flat-pointed piece of iron, of about eight inches in length, which is inserted into a wooden handle. It is in form like the pick, and is much used in hill cultivation for weeding and opening up the ground. It is, however, not much to be commended for trenching purposes, as natives, in using it, never penetrate the ground beyond a few inches. For weeding, however, it is particularly useful, and to such soil is much better adapted than most other implements. _Formation of roads and paths_.--In addition to the pathways of two feet in breadth, recommended to be formed between each bed, there ought, for general use, to be a four feet road carried round the plantation, and one of 10 feet through the centre. This applies to a limited plantation, that is, of from 200 to 400 acres. If, on the other hand, it was on a more extensive scale, several hackery roads of 10 feet in breadth would be necessary, in order to cart away weeds, &c., or carry manure to seedling beds. _On seeds when ripe, and method to be adopted to ascertain it_.--In all September and October the tea seeds ripen, but in the more elevated plantations, as at Rumaserai, many do not ripen until November. The seeds are contained in a capsule, and vary in number from one to seven; to ascertain that they are ripe, open the capsule, although green, and if their color is a nut-brown, they are sure to be so. If they are not ripe, they are of a reddish-brown above, mixed with white. If the seeds are allowed to remain a short time on the bushes, after they are ripe, the capsules burst, and they fall out; it is necessary, therefore, to remove them before this takes place. _On the method of sowing seeds, and season, and on the treatment of the young tea plants after they have germinated_.--The ground having been first well trenched and manured, that is, from sixty to seventy maunds of manure given to the acre, the seeds are, when ripe, to be removed from the capsules, and immediately sown to the depth of one inch, and very close, in drills 8 to 10 inches apart from each other. The sooner that they are sown after being removed from the capsules the better, as their germinating properties are apt to be destroyed if they are kept for any length of time. Some germinate in the space of a few weeks, others lie dormant until February and March, and others do not germinate until the rains. The method of sowing seeds in China is thus described, being similar to the native plan of sowing mangoes in India. "Several seeds are dropped into holes four or five inches deep and three or four feet apart, shortly after they ripen, or in November and December; the plants rise up in a cluster when the rains come on. They are seldom transplanted, but sometimes four to six are put quite close to form a fine bush."[9] By this method nothing is gained, and the expenditure of seeds great. If the plants germinate in November, which, as already stated, many do, they ought to be covered with a _chupper_ made of bamboo and grass. In the hills, everywhere at an elevation of 6,000 and 7,000 feet, the ringal, a small kind of bamboo, of which there are several species, is found in great abundance, and well adapted for the purpose, and in the Deyrah Dhoon the bamboo occurs in vast quantity; the market of the Upper Provinces being chiefly supplied from that valley and other forests at the base of the Himalayas. Bamboos are also met with to the height of six and seven thousand feet on the Himalayas in the neighbourhood of Almorah. During the day, in the cold weather, the _chuppers_ ought to be removed, and again replaced at night; as the weather becomes hot, it is necessary to protect the young plants from the heat of the sun, that is, in April and May, and until the rains commence; the _chuppers_ at this time ought to be put on about eight a.m., and removed again about four p.m. _Method of rearing plantations by layers, and by cuttings_.--The best season for laying down is when the sap is dormant, or in cold weather; or when in full action, as in the rains. "Laying," as expressed by Dr. Lindley, "is nothing but striking from cuttings, which are still allowed to maintain their connection with the mother plant by means of a portion of their stem." There are various methods of making layers, but the most simple and efficient is to bend down a branch, and sink it into the earth after having made a slit or notch in the centre of the embedded portion. By so doing, the descent of the sap is retarded, and thus the formation of radicles or young roots is promoted; about five or six inches or more, of the branch, is to be allowed to remain above ground, and in a position as perpendicular to the point where the plant is notched as possible. In three or four mouths these layers are ready to be removed and transplanted; the removal of the layers is to be gradual, that is, they ought first to be cut half through, then a little more, and finally altogether separated. The best season for propagating by cuttings is the cold weather, that is, from November to February; they may also be propagated, though not with the same success, during the rains; it is necessary to protect them against frost in the cold weather, and from the rays of the sun in the hot. Cuttings put in during the cold weather are ready to transplant in the rains, and if put in during the rains, they are generally fit for removal in February. _On the method of transplanting and season_.--In transplanting young tea-plants care should be taken to lift them with a good large ball of earth attached to their roots, as they throw out a long central or tap root, which, if cut through, invariably destroys the plant. On being placed in the ground, the earth around them is to be well pressed down and watered; the watering is to be continued every third or fourth day, until the plants have taken hold of the ground. During the rains, grass springs up with great rapidity, so as to render it impossible for one man to keep three acres (the quantity assigned by us) clean. This, however, is not necessary, if care be taken to make a golah round each plant, and keep it clear of weeds; these golahs ought always, in hill plantations where the ground is irregular, to be connected by small _khauls_ or channels, in order to make irrigation easy; by so doing too, water, if the supply be scanty, which often happens in the hills in the hot weather, will be economised. +-----------------------------------------+ | b b | | a a a | a Tea plant. Thus-- | X----------X----------X | b Bed | c c | c Watercourse | b b | +-----------------------------------------+ We have already stated that 4½ square feet ought to be assigned to each plant. In China, according to Professor Royle, three to four feet are given; this, however, is too small a space to allow the plant to grow freely. After the tea plants are transplanted, it is not necessary to protect them. The best seasons for transplanting are towards the end of February, or as soon as the frost has ceased, and throughout March, and during the rains, and until the end or middle of November, depending on the season. In transplanting, four parties ought to be employed; viz., one person to dig holes, a second to remove plants, a third to carry them to the ground where they are required, and a fourth to plant. By this means, not only time is saved, but the plants have a much better chance, when thus treated, of doing well. When the seedling beds are extensive, so many of the plants ought not to be removed, that is, a plant left every 4½ feet, and these beds added to the plantation. _On pruning, best season and mode_.--The plants do not require to be pruned until the fifth year, as the plucking of leaves generally tends to make the plants assume the basket shape, the form most to be desired to procure the greatest quantity of leaves; if, however, the plants show a tendency to run into weed, from central branches being thrown out, this ought to be checked by removing the central stem. In the fourth year a quantity of the old and hard wood ought to be removed, to induce the plants to throw out more branches. The best season for pruning is from November to March. _On irrigation_.--To keep the tea-plants healthy, irrigation for two or three years is absolutely necessary, and no land ought to be selected for a tea plantation which cannot be irrigated. On the other hand, land liable to be flooded during the rains, and upon which water lies for any length of time, is equally detrimental to the growth of the plant. This applies to a small portion of the Kooasur plantation, which receives the drainage of the adjoining hills, and the soil being retentive, keeps the water. Deep trenches have been dug in order to drain it off--these, however, owing to the lowness of the surrounding country, act badly. Three successive seasons plants have been put into the ground, and as often have been destroyed on the setting in of the rains, showing the necessity of avoiding such kind of land for tea plantation. To facilitate irrigation, &c., as already stated, in the Deyrah Dhoon, I have limited the tea beds to three feet in breadth. This is particularly requisite in land so constituted as that of the Deyrah Dhoon, it being so porous, as mentioned by Major Cautley in his "Notes and Memoranda of Watercourses." This is caused by the superincumbent soil not being more than from one to three feet thick, in some places more, but varying exceedingly. Beneath this there is a bed of shingle of vast thickness, through which the water percolates; it is this that renders the sinking of wells so difficult in the Deyrah Dhoon, and which has tended so much to retard individuals from becoming permanent residents; at present there are many tracts of several thousand acres in that valley unoccupied from want of drinking water, as for instance, at Innesphaeel. Where the ground is very uneven, as is the case generally in the hills, the _khaul_ system, already recommended, ought to be adopted. _On the tea-plant; season of flowering, its characters and species, and on the advantages to be derived from importing seeds from China_.--From the importance of tea, as an article of commerce, the plant has attracted much attention; and from few qualified Europeans having travelled in the tea districts of China, there is much difference of opinion as to the number of species belonging to the genus Thea. In the government plantations in Kumaon and Gurwahl, the plants begin to flower about the end of August and beginning of September, or, as the seeds of the former year begin to ripen. They do not all come into flower at once, but some are in full blossom in September, others in October, November, December and January. Some throw out a second set of blossoms in March, April, and May, and during the rains; so that from the same plant unripe or ripe seeds and flowers may be collected at one and the same time. To the genus Thea, which belongs to the order Ternstræmiaceæ, the following characters have been ascribed: calyx persistent, without bracts, five-leaved, leaflets imbricated and generally of the same size. Petals of the corolla vary in number from five to nine, imbricated, the inner ones much the largest. Stamens numerous, in several rows adhering to the bottom of the petals. Filaments filiform. Anthers incumbent, two-celled, oblong, with a thickish connectivum. Cells opening longitudinally. Ovary free, three-celled; ovules four in each cell, inserted internally into the central angle, the upper ones ascending, the lower pendulous. Style trifid, stigmas three, acute. Capsule spheroidal, 1-7-lobed with loculicidal dehiscence, or with dessepiments formed from the turned-in edges of the valves. Seeds solitary, or two in cells, shell-like testa, marked with the ventral umbilicus. Cotyledons thick, fleshy, oily, no albumen. Radicle very short, very near the umbilicus centripetal. In the plantations there are two species, and two well marked varieties. The first is characterised by the leaves being of a pale-green colour, thin, almost membraneous, broad lanceolate, sinatures or edge irregular and reversed, length from three to six inches. The color of the stem of newly-formed shoots is of a pale-reddish colour, and green towards the end. This species is also marked by its strong growth, its erect stem, and the shoots being generally upright and stiff. The flowers are small, and its seeds but sparing. In its characters this plant, received from Assam, agrees in part with those assigned by Dr. Lettsom and Sir W. Hooker to the _Thea viridis_, but differs in its branches being stiff and erect. The flowers small, or rather much about the same size as the species about to be described, and not confined to the upper axils of the plant, and solitary, as stated by them.[10] By the Chinese manufacturers it is considered an inferior plant for making tea, it is not therefore grown to any extent. The second species is characterised by its leaves being much smaller, and not so broadly lanceolate; slightly waved, of a dark-green color, thick and coriaceous, sinature or edge irregular, length from one to three inches and a half. In its growth it is much smaller than the former, and throws out numerous spreading branches, and seldom presents its marked leading stem. This species, therefore, in the above characters, agrees much with those that have been assigned to _Thea Bohea_ by authors. The characters have been mixed up in an extraordinary manner. Thus it has been stated, that the _Thea viridis_ has large, strong growing, and spreading branches, and that _Thea Bohea_ is a smaller plant, with branches stiff and straight, and stem erect. No doubt the _Thea viridis_ is a much larger and stronger growing plant than the _Thea Bohea_, or rather the plant now existing in the different plantations is so; but in the former the branches are stiff and erect, and in the latter inclined and branches. The marked distinguishing characters between the two species are the coriaceous dark-green leaves in the _Thea Bohea_, and the large pale-green monhanæous leaves of the _Thea viridis_. The manner, too, of growth is very striking, and on entering the plantation the distinction is at once marked to the most unobservant eye. This species of _Thea Bohea_ forms nearly the whole of the plantations, and was brought from China by Dr. Gordon. In the plantations there is a third plant, which, however, can only be considered a marked variety of _Thea Bohea_. Its leaves are thick, coriaceous, and of dark-green color, but invariably very small, and not exceeding two inches in length, and thinly lanceolate; the serratures, too, on the edge, which are straight, are not so deep. In other characters it is identical. This marked variety was received from Calcutta at the plantation in a separate despatch from the others. But in addition to these there are, no doubt, many more varieties, and though it may be a fact that, in certain districts, green tea is manufactured from a species differing from that from which black tea is manufactured, yet, in other districts, green and black teas are manufactured from one and the same plant. The Chinese manufacturers now in Kumaon state that the plant is one and the same, and that it can be proved by converting black tea into green. In manufacturing teas now in the manufactory, if a large quantity of leaves are brought in from the plantations, one half are converted into green, and one half into black tea. This only shows that much of the green and black teas of commerce are manufactured from one and the same plant. The Assam plant is, from the characters given, quite a distinct plant, and agrees, as already stated, most nearly with the species described as _Thea viridis_. It would, therefore, be most desirable to procure seeds of this so-called species, and also of other varieties, of which, no doubt, there is a great variety. From the northern districts of China in particular, seeds ought to be imported, not, however, in large quantities, but in quantities of two or three seers, so that they might, on arrival at Calcutta, be sent up the country as quickly as possible, for, if the seeds are kept long out of the ground, not one will germinate; such was the fate of all the seeds contained in ten boxes imported by government in 1845, not one having germinated, which was much to be regretted. Had they been sent in small parcels, well packed in wax cloth, to prevent them from being injured by moisture, and placed in an airy part of the vessel in transmission from China to Calcutta, and, on arrival there, sent by dâwk banghay direct to the plantation, they would, I am confident, have reached in good condition. It is well worthy of a trial and seeds ought, if possible, to be obtained from every district celebrated for its teas. It is in this manner, by obtaining seeds of the finest varieties of plants, that the finest teas will be procured. I do not mean to infer that the tea plants now under cultivation are not the produce of fine varieties, for that has been proved by the undoubted testimony of the London brokers, but only that there are, no doubt, many others well worthy of introduction. In confirmation of what I have stated, I may quote the words of my late friend Dr. Griffith, who, in his report on the tea plant of Assam, says--"I now come to the consideration of the steps which, in my opinion, must be followed if any degree of success in the cultivation of tea is to be expected; of these the most important is the importation of Chinese seeds of unexceptionable quality, and of small numbers of their sorts."[11] Dr. Royle, too, who was the first person to point out that the Himalayas were well adapted to tea cultivation, and to whom the credit of recommending to government the introduction of the plant into Northern India is due, strongly urges the necessity of importing seeds from different localities in China celebrated for their teas. _Method and season for plucking and gathering leaves_.--The season for picking leaves commences in April and continues until October. The number of gatherings varies, depending on the moisture[12] or dryness of the season. If the season be good, as many as seven gatherings may be obtained. If, however, the rains are partial, only four or five. These, however, may be reduced to their general periods for gathering--that is, from April to June, from July to 15th August, and from September to the end of October. But few leaves are collected after the 15th of the latter month. As soon as the new and young leaves have appeared in April, the plucking takes place, this being done by the Chinese, assisted by the Mallees. The following is the method adopted:--A certain division of the plantation is marked off, and to each man a small basket is given, with instructions to proceed to a certain point, so that no plant may be passed over. On the small basket being filled, the leaves are emptied into another large one, which is put in some shady place, and in which, when filled, they are conveyed to the manufactory. The leaves are generally plucked with the thumb and forefinger. Sometimes the terminal part of a branch, having four or five young leaves attached, is plucked off. All old leaves are rejected, as they will not curl, and therefore are of no use. As the season advances, and manufactory and plantation works become necessary, the Mallees are assisted in gathering leaves by Coolies. The process is simple, and thus every man, woman, and child of villages could be profitably employed, on the plantations being greatly extended. Certain kinds of leaves are not selected in the plantation, in order to make certain kinds of tea, but all new and fresh leaves are indiscriminately collected together, and the different kinds separated on the leaves being fired. _Method of manufacturing black tea_.--The young and fresh leaves on being picked (they only being used, the old ones being too hard, and therefore unfit to curl), are carried to the manufactory, and spread out in a large airy room to cool, and are there kept during the night, being occasionally turned with the hand if brought in in the afternoon; or, if brought in during the morning, they are allowed to lie until noon. Early in the morning the manufacturers visit the airing room, and pack up the leaves in baskets and remove them to the manufacturing room. Each manufacturer takes a basketful, and commences to beat them between the palms of his hands with a lateral motion, in order to soften and make them more pliable for working, and thus prevent them, when rolled, from breaking. This beating process continues for about an hour, and it may either consist of one or two processes; the Chinese sometimes finish the beating process at once; at others, they allow the leaves, after being beat for half an hour, to remain a time and then resume it. They now go to breakfast, and in one hour and a half the leaves are ready for the pan. The pans being heated by wood placed in the oven, so as to feel hot to the hands, are filled to about two-thirds, or about three seers of leaves are thrown in at a time--the quantity which a manufacturer is capable of lifting with both hands. With the hands the leaves are kept moving with a rotatory motion in the pan, and when they become very hot, the motion is kept up with a pair of forked sticks. This process is continued for three or four minutes, depending on the heat of the pan, or until the leaves feel hot and soft. They are then, with one sweep of a bamboo brush, swept into a basket, and thrown on to the rolling-table, which is covered with a coarse mat made of bamboo. Each manufacturer then takes as much as he can hold in both hands, and forms a ball and commences to roll it with all his might with a semicircular motion, which causes a greenish yellow juice to exude. This process is continued for three or four minutes, the balls being occasionally undone and made up again. The balls are then handed to another party at the extremity of the table, to undo them and spread the leaves out thinly on flat baskets and expose them to the sun, if there is any; if not they are kept in the manufactory. After all the leaves have gone through this process, the first baskets are brought back, and the leaves again transferred to the pan, worked up in a similar manner for the same length of time, re-transferred to the table, and again rolled. This being done, the leaves are again spread out on large flat baskets to cool. On being cooled the leaves are collected together and thinly spread out on flat wicker-worked sieve-baskets, which are placed in others of a deep and of a double-coned shape. The choolahs being lighted for some time, and the charcoal burning clear, they are now ready to receive the coned baskets. The basket is placed over the choolah and kept there for about five minutes. The leaves are then removed, re-transferred to the flat baskets, and re-rolled for a few minutes. This being done, the leaves are again brought together, placed in the conical basket and kept over the charcoal fire for about two minutes. The contents of the conical baskets are then all collected together in a heap, and as much is placed in a conical basket as it will hold, and it is again placed over the charcoal choolah until the tea is perfectly dry. During this time the baskets are frequently removed and the tea turned, in order to allow the leaves to be completely and uniformly dried, and the basket too is generally struck, on removal, a violent side blow with the hand, to remove from the sieve any small particles that might otherwise fall into the fire. Before removing the basket from the choolah, a flat basket is always placed on the floor to receive it, and all the particles which pass through, on the coned basket being struck, are again replaced. On the conical basket being filled, before placing it over the choolah, a funnel is made in the centre of the tea with the hand, to allow the heated air to pass through. Sometimes a funnel made of bamboo is made for this purpose. After the tea feels perfectly dry, it is packed in boxes, and sent to the godown. Next day the different kinds of tea are picked, and on being separated they are again placed in the conical baskets and heated. During this process the baskets are frequently removed from the choolah in order to turn the tea, so that the heating may be general and uniform. In doing this a flat basket is always placed on the floor, as on the former day (and a flat basket, too, is placed on the top to confine the heat), to receive the conical one, which receive one or two blows to open the pores of the sieve. What passes through is replaced amongst the tea. When it is perfectly dry it is ready for finally packing. The kinds of black tea at present manufactured are--Souchong, Pouchong, Flowery Pekoe, and Bohea. The Flowery Pekoe is manufactured in September. _Method of manufacturing Green Tea_.--On the young and fresh leaves being plucked they are spread out on the ground of the airing room and allowed to cool. After remaining for about two hours, or (if brought in late in the afternoon) during the night, they are removed to the green tea room. The pans being properly heated, the leaves, as in the case with the black tea, are thrown into the pans and kept either with the hand or two forked sticks in constant motion for three or four minutes, and are then removed to the rolling table, and then rolled in the same manner in balls as the black tea. They are then scattered most sparingly on large flat baskets and exposed to the heat of the sun. If there is no sun the baskets are arranged in frames, which are placed over the choolah, heated with charcoal. During the drying the leaves are frequently made into balls and rolled in the flat baskets, in order to extract the juice. The drying process continues for about two hours, and on the leaves becoming dry, those contained in two baskets are thrown together, and then four basketsful into one, and so on until they are all collected together. In this state the leaves still feel soft, damp, and pliant to the hand, and are now brought back to the tea manufacturing-room. Opposite to each of the inclined pans, which have been properly heated so as to feel warm to the hand by wood supplied to the ovens underneath, one of the Chinese stations himself, and puts as many leaves into it as it will hold. He then moves them in a heap gently, from before backward, making these perform a circle, and presses them strongly to the sides of the pan. As the leaves become hot he uses a flat piece of wood, in order that he may more effectually compress them. This process continues for about two hours, the leaves being compressed into at least half of their bulk, and become so dry that when pressed against the back part of the pan in mass, they again fall back in pieces. The tea, as by this time it has assumed this appearance, is now placed in a bag made of American drill or jean (the size depending on the quantity of tea), which is damped, and one end twisted with much force over a stick, and thus it is much reduced in size. After being thus powerfully compressed and beaten so as to reduce the mass as much as possible, the bag is exposed to the sun until it feels perfectly dry. If there is no sun it is placed in the heated pan, and there retained until it is so. This finishes the first day's process. On the second day it is placed in small quantities in the heated inclined pans, and moved up and down against the sides and bottom with the palm of the hand, which is made to perform a semi circle. This is continued for about six hours, and by so doing the colour of the tea is gradually brought out. The third day it is passed through sieve baskets of different dimensions, then exposed to the winnowing machine, which separates the different kinds of green teas. The winnowing machine is divided into a series of divisions, which receive the different kinds according to their size and weight. 1st. Coarsest Souchoo. This tea, owing to its coarseness, is not marketable. 2nd. Chounchoo. This is a large, round-grained tea. 3rd. Machoo. This is also a round-grained tea, but finer than the former. 4th. Hyson. 5th. Gunpowder Hyson. 6th. Chumat. This kind of tea consists of broken particles of other kinds of tea. On being separated, the different kinds are placed in baskets and picked by the hand, all the old or badly curled and also light-coloured leaves being removed, and others of different varieties, which by chance may have become mixed. To make the bad or light-colored leaves marketable, they undergo an artificial process of coloring, but this I have prohibited in compliance with the orders of the Court of Directors, and therefore do not consider this tea at present fit for the market[13]. On the different teas being properly picked, they are again placed in the heated inclined pans, and undergo separately the process of being moved violently up and down and along the bottom of the pan for three hours in the manner already described. The color is now fully developed. If the tea feels damp, it is kept longer than three hours in the pan. The tea is now ready to be packed. _Packing_.--As soon as the tea is prepared, boxes lined with sheet lead ought to be ready to receive it. On being packed it is to be firmly pressed down, and the lead is then to be soldered. Before the sheet lead box is placed in the wooden one it is covered with paper, which is pasted on to prevent any air acting on the tea through any holes which might exist in the lead. The box is then nailed, removed to the godown, papered, stamped, and numbered. It is then ready for sale. From what I have just stated, it will be perceived that box makers and sheet lead makers are essential to form a complete tea establishment. With reference to the box making it is unnecessary for me to make any remark, further than that care is to be taken in selecting wood for making boxes, as it ought to be free of all smell. All coniferous (pine) woods are therefore unfit for the purpose. In the hills the best woods are toon and walnut, and at Deyrah the saul (_Shorea Robusta_). _Manufacture of sheet lead_.--Sheet lead making is a much more complicated process, and therefore requires more consideration. To make sheet lead, the manufacturer mixes 1½ to 3 seers of block tin with a pucka maund of lead, and melts them together in a cast metal pan. On being melted, the flat stone slabs, under which it is his intention to run the lead, are first covered with ten or twelve sheets of smooth paper (the hill paper being well adapted to the purpose), which are pasted to the sides, and chalked over. He then places the under stone in a skeleton frame of wood, to keep it firm, and above it the other stone. On the upper stone the manufacturer sits, and gently raises it with his left hand, assisted by throwing the weight of his body backwards. With his right hand he fills an iron ladle with the molten matter, throws it under the raised slab, which he immediately compresses and brings forward (it having been placed back, and thus overlapping the under slab by about half an inch) with his own weight. On doing so, the superabundant lead issues in front and at both sides; what remains attached to the slabs is removed by the iron ladle. The upper slab is now lifted, and the sheet of lead examined. If it is devoid of holes it is retained; if, on the other hand, there are several, which is generally the case with the first two or three sheets run, or until the slabs get warm, it is again thrown back to the melting pan. After having run off a series of sheets the slabs are to be examined, and, if the paper is in the least burnt, the first sheet is to be removed, and the one underneath taking its place, and thus securing an uniform smooth surface, is then to be chalked. According to the size of the stone slabs used, so is the size of the sheet lead. Those now in use are 16 inches square by 2 inches in thickness, and are a composition, being principally formed of lime. To make sheet lead boxes, a model one of wood (a little smaller than the box for which the lead is intended) is formed, which has a hole in the bottom, and a transverse bar of wood to assist in lifting it up, instead of a lid. The lead is then shaped on this model and soldered. This being done, the model is removed by the transverse bar, and by pressing, if necessary, through the hole. The lead box is then papered over, in case there should be any small holes in it, to prevent the action of air on the tea, and, when dry, transferred to the wooden box for which it was intended. _The manufactory_.--The rooms of the manufactory ought to be large and airy, and to consist of--1st, a black tea manufactory; 2nd, a green tea manufactory; 3rd, winnowing room; and 4th, airing room. At Almorah the black tea manufacturing room is 53 feet long by 20 broad, and the other three, 20 by 24. The walls are 18 feet in height. _Implements required in manufacturing_.--In the body of this report I have noticed all the different kinds of implements required, I may however, again briefly notice them, and give a short account of each. Cast-iron Pans--In the manufactory there are two kinds in use, one received from China, the other from England. Both are considered equally good by the tea manufacturers, though in firing green tea they prefer the Chinese ones, as they are thinner, and are thus by them better able to regulate the heat. The Chinese pans are two feet two inches in diameter, and 10 inches in depth, by about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. The English pans are two feet two inches in diameter, and eight inches in depth, and rather thicker than the Chinese. The oven for making black tea is made of kucha brick. In height it is two feet nine inches, in length, three feet, and in breadth three feet one inch. Door one foot five inches in height, and 11 inches in breadth. The base of the oven is 10 inches elevated above the floor of the manufacturing room. The oven with double pans for manufacturing green tea, is also built of kucha bricks. It is three feet in height and three feet in breadth; base of oven one foot in height. Door one foot six inches in height, and 10 inches in breadth. The pans are placed horizontally. A brush made of split bamboo, used in sweeping the tea leaves out of the pans. A basket for receiving tea from the pan when ready to be rolled. It is 2 feet long, and 1½ feet broad, and gradually increases in depth from before backwards to 6 inches. It is made of bamboo. The mat made of bamboo for placing on the table when the tea leaves are about to be rolled. It is 8 feet long and 4 feet broad. A flat basket made of bamboo for spreading out the tea leaves when they have been rolled on the mat. These flat baskets are of various sizes, varying from 3 to 5 feet in diameter. A flat sieve basket of 2 feet in diameter, made of bamboo, upon which the rolled tea leaves are placed, and which is deposited in the centre of the double-coned basket. Double-coned baskets. The height of these baskets varies from 2 feet 2 inches to 2 feet 6 inches, external diameter 2 feet 8 inches. In the centre there are some pegs of bamboo to support the flat sieve basket on which the tea rests. Forked sticks for turning leaves. Choolahs. These are formed of kucha bricks, and are 10 inches high, 10½ inches deep, and generally about 2 feet in diameter. Funnel made of bamboo to allow the heated air from the choolahs to pass through the tea; it is seldom used; the Chinese tea manufacturers preferring one made in the tea basket by the hand. Oven for firing green tea made of kucha bricks. The pans are inclined at an angle of 50. In front the oven is 3 feet 2 inches in height, behind 4 feet 8 inches, length 5½ feet, breadth 3 feet. Door 10 inches from the base, 1 foot 2 inches high, and 7 inches wide. Frames for placing baskets. The first being inclined. Baskets for collecting leaves. Shovel, &c., used in regulating the fire. Winnowing machine. This is a common winnowing machine, with a box 2 feet 10 inches in length, 1 foot 2 inches in breadth, and 1 foot 3 inches in depth, attached to the bottom of the hopper, and closely fitted into the middle of the circular apartment which contains the fanners. This box is entirely closed above (unless at the small opening receiving the hopper) and at the sides. At the base there are two inclined boards which project from the side of the machine 6 inches, and are partly separated from each other by angular pieces of wood. The end towards the fanners is open, the other is partly closed by a semicircular box which is moveable. I shall now give the dimensions of the different parts of this machine, which may be useful to parties wishing to make up similar ones to those employed in the manufactories. External frame 7 feet 2 inches in length, 18 inches in breadth, and 5 feet 8 inches in height. Hopper 2 feet 10 inches above, and 1 foot 8 inches in depth. Frame of box for fanners 3 feet 9 inches in diameter. Hopper frame 2 feet 7 inches. Semicircular box, in length 2 feet 5 inches and 7 inches in depth. Inclined plane at base, first 15 inches, second 13 inches. I may briefly state how this machine acts. With the right hand the fanners are propelled by the crank, and with the left hand the bottom of the hopper is opened by removing the wood. The flat piece of wood (the regulator) is held in the hand to regulate the quantity of tea that passes down. An assistant then throws a quantity of tea into the hopper which escapes through the apartment, and there meets the air. The first kind of tea falls down the inclined plane into one box which has been placed to receive them, the second are propelled further on, and fall into another box, and the lighter particles are propelled on to the semicircular end, and fall into a third box. _Note on the culture of the tea plant at Darjeeling, in 1847, by Dr. A. Campbell, Superintendant_.--About six years ago I received a few tea seeds from Dr. Wallich; they were of China stock, grown in Kumaon. I planted them in my garden in November, 1841, and had about a dozen seedlings in the month of May following, which were allowed to grow where they had come up, and rather close together. The plants were healthy from the commencement, and up to May, 1844, had grown very well; at this period the ground passed into other hands (Mr. Samuel Smith's), and I lost sight of them until last August, when Mr. Macfarlane, from Assam, who was acquainted with the tea plant in that province, arrived here. Being desirous of ascertaining how far the climate and soil of Darjeeling were suitable to the tea, I took him to examine the plants, and begged of him to record his opinion on their growth and qualities, with reference to their age, and his experience of the plant in Assam. The result was quite satisfactory. Encouraged by this result, I determined to give an extended trial to the plant, and through the kindness of Major Jenkins and Captain Brodie, of Assam, I procured a supply of fresh seed in October and November last, which was planted in November and the early part of December. The seed was of excellent quality. It commenced germinating in March, a few plants appeared above ground in the early part of May, and now I have upwards of 7,000 fine healthy seedlings in the plantation. For the information of those who may desire to try the tea culture in this soil and climate, I have to state the mode of planting pursued by me, and other particulars. The ground is a gentle sloping bank, facing the north and west; the soil is a reddish clay mixed with vegetable mould. After taking up a crop of potatoes, and carefully preparing the ground, I put in the seeds in rows six feet apart and six feet distance in the rows. The seeds were placed about three inches under the surface, five in number, at each place about four inches apart--thus : . : On an average, two out of five have come up. The seedlings commenced appearing above ground early in May, and continued to show until the end of July. The earliest were, therefore, six months in the ground; the latest about eight months. The seed was of China stock, grown in Assam, and of the Assam plant mixed. I am anxious to have the China stock only, and purpose separating the plants of the Assam stock as soon as I can distinguish them, which Captain Brodie informs me can be readily done as they grow up; the China plants begin of a darker color, and smaller than the Assam ones. I hope to have a supply of the seed of China stock from Kumaon next November, and with it to cause the extension of the experiment at this place. I think that it is reasonable to expect quite as good tea to be produced here as in Kumaon.[14] I have not tasted the Kumaon tea, but, from the opinion expressed on it in England, I am satisfied that it is a very drinkable beverage, and that with similar success here, the tea will be a valuable addition to our products. I have recently tried two kinds of the Assam tea presented by Mr. Stokes to a friend. They are excellent teas, and I shall be well content to have an equally good article manufactured here. Mr. A. Macfarlane's report on the tea plants in Mr. Smith's ground is annexed:-- "According to your request I have the pleasure of transmitting you my opinion of the tea plants in your garden in this place. The two larger plants have made very good progress, considering their closeness to each other, which prevents them from throwing their branches freely in every direction, but as they have attained so great a size I would not recommend their being transplanted, because let it be done ever so carefully, the roots must receive more or less injury, and should the injury be great the death of the tree is certain. The smaller ones on the contrary are much stunted; this is caused by their confined situation, being completely choked up by the rose trees, which prevents their receiving a proper supply of light and air, so necessary to vegetation. They are also planted too closely, and, as the plants are still small, by availing yourself of the most favourable season, and using great care in the operation, they might he transplanted with safety, and should then be placed at a distance of not less than six feet apart. The difficulty of transplanting is occasioned by the depth to which the root penetrates, as it generally grows downwards, and in a large tree is principally in the subsoil. The larger plants should be pruned of their lower branches to allow a free current of air. This operation is generally performed in November, but any time during the cold season or before the rains, while the plant is at rest, would answer: as I have no knowledge of this climate, I would leave it to more experienced persons to judge of the proper season. To conclude, the plants are in a very healthy condition, and had they been in the hands of a cultivator, would now have been giving a very fair supply of produce. The small sample I tried was of a very good flavor, but on account of the defective manner of manufacture, for want of proper materials, no proper judgment can be formed." (Simmonds's Col. Mag., vol. xvi. p. 44.) Report upon the Tea Plantations of Deyra, Kumaon and Gurhwal, by Robert Fortune, Esq., addressed to John Thornton, Esq., Secretary to the Government, North Western Provinces, dated Calcutta, September 6th, 1851:-- KAOLAGIR TEA PLANTATION. 1. _Situation and extent_.--The Deyra Doon, or Valley of Deyra, is situated in latitude 3 deg. 18 min. north, and in longitude 78 deg. east. It is about 60 miles in length from east to west, and 16 miles broad at its widest part. It is bounded on the south by the Sewalick range of hills, and on the north by the Himalayas proper, which are here nearly 8,000 feet above the level of the sea. On the west it is open to the river Jumna, and on the east to the Ganges, the distance between these rivers being about 60 miles. In the centre of this flat valley, the Kaolagir tea plantation has been formed. Eight acres were under cultivation in 1847. There are now 300 acres planted, and about 90 more taken in and ready for many thousands of young plants raised lately from seeds in the plantation. 2. _Soil and culture_.--The soil of this plantation is composed of clay, sand, and vegetable matter, rather stiff, and apt to get "baked" in dry weather, but free enough when it is moist or during the rains. It rests upon a gravelly subsoil, consisting of limestone, sandstone, clay-slate, and quartz rock, or of such rocks as enter into the composition of the surrounding mountain ranges. The surface is comparatively _flat_, although it falls in certain directions towards the ravines and rivers. The plants are arranged neatly in rows 6 feet apart, and each plant is about 4½ feet from its neighbour in the row. A long, rank-growing species of grass, indigenous to the Doon, is most difficult to keep from over-topping the tea-plants, and is the cause of much extra labor. Besides the labor common to all tea countries in China, such as weeding, and occasionally loosening the soil, there is here an extensive system of irrigation carried on. To facilitate this, the plants are planted in trenches, from four to six inches below the level of the ground, and the soil thus dug out is thrown between the rows to form the paths. Hence the whole of the plantation consists of numerous trenches of this depth, and five feet from centre to centre. At right angles with these trenches a small stream is fed from the canal, and, by opening or shutting their ends, irrigation can be carried on at the pleasure of the overseer. 3. _Appearance and health of plants_.--The plants generally did not appear to me to be in that fresh and vigorous condition which I had been accustomed to see in good Chinese plantations. This, in my opinion, is caused, 1st, by the plantation being formed on _flat land_; 2nd, by the system of _irrigation_; 3rd, by too early plucking; and 4th, by hot drying winds, which are not unfrequent in this valley from April to the beginning of June. GUDDOWLI PLANTATION (NEAR PAORIE). 1. _Situation and extent_.--This plantation is situated in the Province of Eastern Gurhwal, in latitude 30 deg. 8 min. north, and in longitude 78 deg. 45 min. east. It consists of a large tract of terraced land, extending from the bottom of a valley or ravine to more than 1,000 feet up the sides of the mountain. Its lowest portion is about 4,300 feet, and its highest 5,300 feet above the level of the sea; the surrounding mountains appear to be from 7,000 to 8,000. The plantation has not been measured, but there are, apparently, fully one hundred acres under cultivation. There are about 500,000 plants already planted, besides a large number of seedlings in beds ready for transplanting. About 3,400 of the former were planted in 1844, and are now in full bearing; the greater portion of the others are much younger, having been planted out only one, two, and three years. 2. _Soil and culture_.--The soil consists of a mixture of loam, sand, and vegetable matter, is of a yellow colour, and is most suitable for the cultivation of the tea-plant. It resembles greatly the soil of the test tea districts in China. A considerable quantity of stones are mixed with it, chiefly small pieces of clay-slate, of which the mountains here are composed. Large tracts of equally good land, at present covered with jungle, are available in this district without interfering in any way with the rights of the settlers. I have stated that this plantation is formed on the hill side. It consists of a succession of terraces, from the bottom to the top, on which the tea bushes are planted. In its general features it is very like a Chinese tea plantation, although one rarely sees tea lands terraced in China. This, however, may be necessary in the Himalayas, where the rains fall so heavily. Here, too, the system of irrigation is carried on, although to a small extent only, owing to the scarcity of water during the dry season. 3. _Appearance and health of plants_.--This plantation is a most promising one, and I have no doubt will be very valuable in a few years. The plants are growing admirably, and evidently like their situation. Some of them are suffering slightly from the effects of hard-plucking, like those at Kaolagir; but this can easily be avoided in their future management. Altogether, it is in a most satisfactory condition, and shows how safe it is in matters of this kind to follow the example of the Chinese cultivator, who never makes his tea plantations on _low rice land, and never irrigates_. HAWULBAUGH PLANTATION (NEAR ALMORAH). _1st. Situation and extent_.--This tea farm is situated on the banks of the river Kosilla, about six miles north-west from Almorah, the capital of Kumaon. It is about 4,500 feet above the level of the sea. The land is of an undulating character, consisting of gentle slopes and terraces, and reminded me of some of the best tea districts in China. Indeed, the hills themselves, in this part of the Himalayas, are very much like those of China, being barren near their summit and fertile on their lower sides. Thirty-four acres of land are under tea cultivation here, including the adjoining farm of Chullar. Some of the plants appear to have been planted in 1844; but, as at Paorie, the greater number are only from one to three years old. 2_nd. Soil and culture_.--The soil is what is usually called a sandy loam; it is moderately rich, being well mixed with vegetable matter. It is well suited for tea cultivation. The greater part of the farm is terraced as at Guddowli, but some few patches are left in natural slopes in accordance with the Chinese method. Irrigation is practised to a limited extent. 3_rd. Appearance and health of the plants_.--All the young plants here are in robust health and are growing well, particularly where they are growing on land where water cannot flood or injure them. As examples of this, I may point out a long belt between Dr. Jameson's house and the flower garden, and also a piece of ground a little below the house in which the Chinese manufacturers live. Some few of the older bushes appear rather stunted; but this is evidently the result of water remaining stagnant about the roots, and partly also of over plucking; both defects, however, admit of being easily cured. LUTCHMISSER AND KUPPEENA PLANTATIONS. 1_st. Situation and extent_.--These plantations are on the hill side near Almorah, and about 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. The situation is somewhat steep, but well adapted to the growth of tea. The former contains three acres, and the latter four acres under cultivation. 2_nd. Soil and culture_.---The soil is light and sandy, and much mixed with particles of clay-slate, which have crumbled down from the adjoining rocks. I believe these plantations are rarely irrigated, and the land is steep enough to prevent any stagnant water from remaining about the roots of the plants. 3_rd. Appearance and health of plants_.--Most of the bushes here are fully grown, and in full bearing, and generally in good health. On the whole, I consider these plantations in excellent order. BHEEMTAL PLANTATIONS. The lake of Bheemtal is situate in latitude 29 deg. 20 min. north, and in longitude 79 deg. 30 min. east. It is 4,000 feet above the level of the sea, and some of the surrounding mountains are said to be 8,000 feet. These form the southern chain of the Himalayas, and bound the vast plain of India, of which a glimpse can be had through the mountain passes. Amongst these hills there are several _tals_ or lakes, some flat meadow-looking land, and gentle undulating slopes, while higher up we have steep and rugged mountains. It is amongst these hills, that the Bheemtal tea plantations have been formed. They may be classed under three heads, viz.-- 1_st. Anoo and Kooasur plantations_.--These adjoin each other, are both formed _on low flat land_, and together cover about forty acres. The plants do not seem healthy or vigorous; many of them have died out, and few are in that state which tea plants ought to be in. Such situations never ought to be chosen for tea cultivation. The same objection applies to these as to those at Deyra, but in a greater degree. No doubt, with sufficient drainage, and great care in cultivation, and the tea plant might be made to exist in such a situation; but I am convinced it would never grow with that luxuriance which is necessary in order to render it a profitable crop. _Besides, such lands are valuable for other purposes_. They are excellent rice lands, and as such of considerable value to the natives. 2_nd. Bhurtpoor plantation_.--This plantation covers about four and a half acres of terraced land on the hill side, a little to the eastward of those last noticed. The soil is composed of a light loam, much mixed with small pieces of clay-slate and trap or green-stone, of which the adjacent rocks are composed. It contains a small portion of vegetable matter or _humus_. Both the situation and soil of this plantation are well adapted to the requirements of the tea shrub, and consequently we find it succeeding here as well as at Guddowli, Hawulbaugh, Almorah, and other places where it is planted on the slopes of the hills. 3_rd. Russia plantation_.--This plantation extends over seventy-five acres, and is formed on sloping land. The elevation is somewhat less than Bhurtpoor, and although terraced in the same way, the angle is much lower. In some parts of the farm the plants are doing well, but generally they seemed to be suffering from too much water and hard plucking. I have no doubt, however, of the success of this farm, when the system of cultivation is improved. I observed some most vigorous and healthy bushes in the overseer's garden, a spot adjoining the plantation, which could not be irrigated, and was informed they "never received any water, except that which fell from the skies." In the Bheemtal district, there are large tracts of excellent tea land. In crossing over the hills towards Nainee Tal, with J.H. Batten, Esq., Commissioner of Kumaon, I pointed out many tracts admirably adapted for tea cultivation, and of no great value to the natives; generally, those lands on which the mundoca is cultivated are the most suitable. I have thus described all the Government plantations in Gurhwal and Kumaon. Dr. Jameson, the superintendent, deserves the highest praise for the energy and perseverance with which he has conducted his operations. I shall now notice the plantations of the zemindars, under the superintendence of the commissioner and assistant-commissioner of Kumaon and Gurhwal. ZEMINDAREE TEA PLANTATIONS. 1_st, at Lohba_.--This place is situated in eastern Gurhwal, about 50 miles to the westward of Almorah, and is at an elevation of 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is one of the most beautiful spots in this part of the Himalayas. The surrounding mountains are high, and in some parts precipitous, while in others they are found consisting of gentle slopes and undulations. On these undulating slopes, there is a great deal of excellent land suitable for tea cultivation. A few tea bushes have been growing vigorously for some years in the commissioner's garden, and they are now fully ten feet in height. These plants having succeeded so well, naturally induced the authorities of the province to try this cultivation upon a more extensive scale. It appears that in 1844, about 4,000 young plants were obtained from the Government plantations, and planted on a tract of excellent land, which the natives wished to abandon. Instead of allowing the people to throw up their land, they were promised it rent-free upon the condition that they attended to the cultivation of the tea, which had been planted on a small portion of the ground attached to the village. This arrangement seems to have failed either from want of knowledge, or from design, or perhaps partly from both of these causes. More lately, a larger number of plants have been planted, but I regret to say with nearly the same results. But results of this discouraging kind are what any one, acquainted with the nature of the tea plant, could have easily foretold, had the treatment, intended to be given it, been explained to him. Upon enquiry, I found the villagers had been managing the tea lands just as they had been doing their rice fields, that is, a regular system of irrigation was practised. As water was plentiful, a great number, indeed nearly all, the plants seem to have perished from this cause. The last planting alluded to had been done late in the spring, and just at the commencement of the dry weather, and to these plants little or no water seems to have been given; so that, in fact, it was going from one extreme to another equally bad, and the result was of course nearly the same. I have no hesitation in saying that the district in question is well adapted for the cultivation of tea. With judicious management, a most productive farm might be established here in four or five years. Land is plentiful, and of little value either to the natives or to the Government. 2_nd, at Kutoor_.--This is the name of a large district 30 or 40 miles northward from Almorah, in the centre of which the old town or village of Byznath stands. It is a fine undulating country, consisting of wide valleys, gentle slopes, and little hills, while the whole is intersected by numerous streams, and surrounded by high mountains. The soil of this extensive district is most fertile, and is capable of producing large crops of rice, on the low irrigable lands, and the dry grains and tea on the sides of the hills. From some cause, however, either the thinness of population or _the want of a remunerative crop_,[15] large tracts of this fertile district have been allowed to go out of cultivation. Everywhere I observed ruinous and jungle-covered terraces, which told of the more extended cultivation of former years. Amongst some hills near the upper portion of this district, two small tea plantations have been formed under the patronage and superintendence of Captain Ramsey, Senior Assistant Commissioner of Kumaon. Each of them cover three or four acres of land, and had been planted about a year before the time of my visit. In this short space of time the plants had grown into nice strong bushes, and were in the highest state of health. I never saw, even in the most favoured districts in China, any plantations looking better than these. This result, Captain Ramsay informed me, had been attained in the following simple manner:--All the land attached to the two villages with which the tea farms are connected, is exempted from the revenue tax, a sum amounting only to 525 Rs. per annum. In lieu of this, the assamees (cultivators) of both villages assist with manure, and at the transplanting season, as well as ploughing and preparing fresh land. In addition to this, one chowdree and four prisoners are constantly employed upon the plantations. The chief reason of the success of these plantations, next to that of the land being well suited for tea cultivation, may, no doubt, be traced to a good system of management; that is, the young plants have been carefully transplanted at the proper season of the year, when the air was charged with moisture, and they have not been destroyed by excessive irrigation afterwards. The other zemindaree plantation at Lohba might have been now in full bearing had the same system been followed. From the description thus given, it will be observed that I consider the Kutoor plantations in a most flourishing condition. And I have no doubt they will continue to flourish, and soon convince the zemindars of the value of tea cultivation, providing three things, intimately connected with the success of the crop are strongly impressed upon their minds; viz., the unsuitableness of low wet lands for tea cultivation; the folly of irrigating tea as they would do rice, and the impropriety of commencing the plucking before the plants are strong, and of considerable size. I am happy to add, that amongst these hills there are no foolish prejudices in the minds of the natives against the cultivation of tea. About the time of my visit, a zemindar came and begged two thousand plants, to enable him to commence tea growing on his own account. It is of great importance, that the authorities of a district, and persons of influence, should show an interest in a subject of this kind. At present the natives do not know its value; but they are as docile as children, and will enter willingly upon tea cultivation, providing the "Sahib" shows that he is interested in it. In a few years the profits received will be a sufficient inducement. In concluding this part of my Report, I beg to suggest the propriety of obtaining some of the _best varieties_ of the tea plant which have been introduced lately into the government plantations from China. Dr. Jameson could, no doubt, spare a few, but they ought to be given to those zemindars only who have succeeded with the original variety. Having described in detail the various government plantations, and also those of the zemindars which came under my notice in the Himalayas, I shall now make some general remarks upon the cultivation of tea in India, and offer some suggestions for its improvement. GENERAL REMARKS. 1. _On land and cultivation_.--From the observations already made upon the various tea farms which I have visited in the Himalayas, it will be seen that I do not approve of _low flat lands_ being selected for the cultivation of the tea shrub. In China, which at present must be regarded as the model tea country, the plantations are never made in such situations, or they are so rare as not to have come under my notice. In that country they are usually formed on the lower slopes of the hills, that is, in such situations as those at Guddowli, Hawulbaugh, Almorah, Kutoor, &c., in the Himalayas. It is true that in the fine green tea country of Hwuy-chow, in China, near the town of Tunche, many hundred acres of flattish land are under tea cultivation. But this land is close to the hills, which jut out into it in all directions, and it is intersected by a river whose banks are usually from 15 to 20 feet above the level of the stream itself, not unlike those of the Ganges below Benares. In fact, it has all the advantages of hilly land such as the tea plant delights in. In extending the Himalaya plantation this important fact ought to be kept in view. There is no scarcity of such land in these mountains, more particularly in Eastern Gurhwal and Kumaon. It abounds in the districts of Paorie, Kunour, Lohba, Almorah, Kutoor, and Bheemtal, and I was informed by Mr. Batten, that there are large tracts about Gungoli and various other places equally suitable. Much of this land is out of cultivation, as I have already stated, while the cultivated portions yield on an average only two or three annas per acre of revenue. Such lands are of less value to the zemindars than low rice land, where they can command a good supply of water for irrigation. But I must not be understood to recommend poor worn out hill lands for tea cultivation,--land on which nothing else will grow. Nothing is further from my meaning. Tea in order to be profitable requires a good sound soil,--a light loam, well mixed with sand and vegetable matter, moderately moist, and yet not stagnant or sour. Such a soil, for example, as on these hill sides produces good crops of mundooa, wheat or millet, is well adapted for tea. It is such lands which I have alluded to as abounding in the Himalayas, and which are, at present, of so little value either to the Government, or to the natives themselves. _The system of Irrigation_ applied to tea in India is never practised in China. I did not observe it practised in any of the great tea countries which I visited. On asking the Chinese manufacturers whom I brought round, and who had been born and brought up in these districts, whether they had seen such a practice, they all replied, "_no, that is the way we grow rice: we never irrigate tea_." Indeed, I have no hesitation in saying that, in nine cases out of ten, the effects of irrigation are most injurious. When tea will not grow without irrigation, it is a sure sign that the land employed is not suitable for such a crop. It is no doubt an excellent thing to have a command of water in case of a long drought, when its agency might be useful in saving a crop which would otherwise fail, but irrigation ought to be used only in such emergent cases. I have already observed that good tea land is naturally moist, although not stagnant; and we must bear in mind that the tea shrub is _not a water plant_, but is found in a wild state on the sides of hills. In confirmation of these views, it is only necessary to observe further, that all the _best Himalayan plantations are those to which irrigation has been most sparingly applied_. In cultivating the tea shrub, much injury is often done to a plantation by _plucking leaves from very young plants_. In China young plants are never touched until the third or fourth year after they have been planted. If growing under favorable circumstances, they will yield a good crop after that time. All that ought to be done, in the way of plucking or pruning before that time, should be done with a view to _form the plants_, and make them _bushy_ if they do not grow so naturally. If plucking is commenced too early and continued, the energies of the plants are weakened, and they are long in attaining any size, and consequently there is a great loss of produce in a given number of years. To make this more plain, I will suppose a bush that has been properly treated to be eight years of age. It may then be yielding from two to three pounds of tea per annum, while another of the same age, but not a quarter of the size, from over-plucking, is not giving more than as many ounces. The same remarks apply also to plants which become unhealthy from any cause; leaves ought never to be taken from such plants; the gatherers should have strict orders to pass them over until they get again into a _good state_ of health. 2_nd. On climate_.--I have already stated that eastern Gurhwal and Kumaon appear to me to be the most suitable for the cultivation of the tea plant in this part of the Himalayas. My remarks upon climate will therefore refer to this part of the country. From a table of temperature kept at Hawulbaugh from November 28th, 1850, to July 13th, 1851, obligingly furnished me by Dr. Jameson, I observed that the climate here is extremely mild. During the winter months, the thermometer [Fahr.] at sunrise was never lower than 44 deg., and only on two occasions so low, namely on the 15th and 16th of February, 1851. Once it stood so high as 66 deg. on the morning of February 4th, but this is full ten degrees higher than usual. The minimum in February must, however, be several degrees lower than is shown by this table, for ice and snow were not unfrequent; indeed, opposite the 16th of February in the column of remarks, I find written down _a very frosty morning_. This discrepancy no doubt arises either from a bad thermometer being used, or from its being placed in a sheltered verandah. We may, therefore, safely mark the minimum as 32 deg. instead of 44 degrees. The month of June appears to be the hottest in the year. I observe the thermometer on the 5th, 6th and 7th of that month stood at 92 deg. at 3 P.M., and this was the highest degree marked during the year. The lowest, at this hour, during the month was 76 deg., but the general range in the 3 P.M. column of the table is from 80 deg. to 90 degrees. _The wet and dry seasons_ are not so decided in the hills as they are in the plains. In January, 1861, it rained on five days and ten nights, and the total quantity of rain which fell, as indicated by the rain gauge, during this month, was 5.25 inches; in February, 3.84 fell; in March, 2.11; in April, 2.24; in May, none; and in June 6.13. In June there are generally some days of heavy rain, called by the natives Chota Bursaut, or small rains, after this there is an interval of some days of dry weather before the regular "rainy season" commences. This season comes on in July and continues until September. October and November are said to be beautiful months with a clear atmosphere and cloudless sky. After this fogs are frequent in all the valleys until spring. In comparing the climate of these provinces with that of China, although we find some important difference, yet upon the whole there is a great similarity. My comparisons apply, of course, to the best tea districts only, for although the tea shrub is found cultivated from Canton in the south to Tan-chowpoo in Shan-tung, yet the provinces of Fokein, Kainsee and the southern parts of Kiangnan, yield nearly all the finest teas of commerce. The town of Tsong-gan, one of the great black tea towns near the far famed Woo-e-shan, is situated in latitude 27 deg. 47 min, north. Here the thermometer in the hottest months, namely in July and August, rarely rises above 100 deg. and ranges from 92 deg. to 100 deg., as maximum; while in the coldest months, December and January, it sinks to the freezing point and sometimes a few degrees lower. We have thus a close resemblance in temperature between Woo-e-shan and Almorah, The great green tea district being situated two degrees further north, the extremes of temperature are somewhat greater. It will be observed, however, that while the hottest month in the Himalayas is June, in China the highest temperature occurs in July and August: this is owing to the rainy season taking place earlier in China than it does in India. In China rain falls in heavy and copious showers in the end of April, and these rains continue at intervals in May and June. The first gathering of tea-leaves, those from which the Pekoe is made, is scarcely over before the air becomes charged with moisture, rain falls, and the bushes being thus placed in such favourable circumstances for vegetating are soon covered again with young leaves, from which the main crop of the season is obtained. No one, acquainted with vegetable physiology, can doubt the advantages of such weather in the cultivation of tea for mercantile purposes. And these advantages, to a certain extent at least, seem to be extended to the Himalayas, although the regular rainy season is later than in China. I have already shown, from Dr Jameson's table, that spring showers are frequent in Kumaon, although rare in the plains of India; still, however, I think it would be prudent to adopt the gathering of leaves to the climate, that is to take a moderate portion from the bushes before the rains, and the main crop after they have commenced. _3rd. On the vegetation of China and the Himalayas_. One of the surest guides from which to draw conclusions, on a subject of this nature, is found in the indigenous vegetable productions of the countries. Dr. Royle, who was the first to recommend the cultivation of tea in the Himalayas, drew his conclusions, in the absence of that positive information from China which we possess now, not only from the great similarity in temperature between China and these hills, but also from the resemblance in vegetable productions. This resemblance is certainly very striking. In both countries, except in the low valleys of the Himalayas (and these we are not considering), tropical forms are rarely met with. If we take trees and shrubs, for example, we find such genera as pinus, cypress, berberis, quercus, viburnam, indigofera, and romeda, lonicera, deutzia, rubus, myrica, spiræ, ilex, and many others common to both countries. Amongst herbaceous plants we have gentiana, aquilegia, anemone, rumex, primula, lilium, loutodon, ranunculus, &c. equally distributed in the Himalayas and in China, and even in aquatics the same resemblance may be traced, as in nelumbium, caladium &c. And further than this, we do not find plants belong to the same genera only, but in many instances the identical species are found in both countries. The indigofera, common in the Himalayas, abounds also on the tea hills of China, and so does _Berberis nepaulencis_, _Lonicera diversifolia_, _Myrica sapida_, and many others. Were it necessary, I might now show that there is a most striking resemblance between the geology of the two countries as well as in their vegetable productions. In both the black and green tea countries which I have alluded to, clay-slate is most abundant. But enough has been advanced to prove how well many parts of the Himalayas are adapted for the cultivation of tea; besides, the flourishing condition of many of the plantations is, after all, the best proof, and puts the matter beyond all doubt. _4th. Concluding Suggestions_.--Having shown that tea can be grown in the Himalayas, and that it would produce a valuable and remunerative crop, the next great object appears to be the production of superior tea, by means of fine varieties and improved cultivation. It is well known that a variety of the tea plant existed in the southern parts of China from which inferior teas only were made. That, being more easily procured than the fine northern varieties, from which the great mass of the best teas are made, was the variety originally sent to India. From it all those in the Government plantations have sprung. It was to remedy this, and to obtain the best varieties from those districts which furnish the trees of commerce, that induced the Honourable Court of Directors to send me to China in 1848. Another object was to obtain some good manufacturers and implements from the same districts. As the result of this mission, nearly twenty thousand plants from the best black and green tea countries of Central China, have been introduced to the Himalayas. Six first-rate manufacturers, two lead men, and a large supply of implements from the celebrated Hwuy-chow districts were also brought round and safely located on the Government plantations in the hills. A great step has thus been gained towards the objects in view. Much, however, remains still to be done. The new China plants ought to be carefully propagated and distributed over all the plantations; some of them ought also to be given to the zemindars, and more of these fine varieties might be yearly imported from China. The Chinese manufacturers, who were obtained some years since from Calcutta or Assam, are, in my opinion, far from being first-rate workmen; indeed, I doubt much if any of them learned their trade in China. They ought to be gradually got rid of and their places supplied by better men, for it is a great pity to teach the natives an inferior method of manipulation. The men brought round by me are first-rate green tea makers, they can also make black tea, but they have not been in the habit of making so much black as green. They have none of the Canton illiberality or prejudices about them, and are most willing to teach their art to the natives. I have no doubt some of the latter will soon be made excellent tea manufacturers. And the instruction of the natives is, no doubt, one of the chief objects which ought to be kept in view, for the importation of Chinese manipulators at high wages can only he regarded as a temporary measure; ultimately the Himalayan tea must be made by the natives themselves; each native farmer must learn how to make tea as well as how to grow it; he will then make it upon his own premises, as the Chinese do, and the expenses of carriage will be much less than if the green leaves had to be taken to the market. But as the zemindars will be able to grow tea long before they are able to make it, it would be prudent, in the first instance, to offer them a certain sum for green leaves brought to the government manufactory. I have pointed out the land most suitable for the cultivation of tea, and shown that such land exists in the Himalayas to an almost unlimited extent. But if the object the government have in view be the establishment of a company to develop the resources of these hills, as in Assam, I would strongly urge the propriety of concentrating, as much as possible, the various plantations. Sites ought to be chosen which are not too far apart, easy of access, and, if possible, near rivers; for, no doubt, a considerable portion of the produce would have to be conveyed to the plains or to a sea-port. In my tour amongst the hills, I have seen no place so well adapted for a central situation as Almorah, or Hawulbaugh. Here the government has already a large establishment, and tea lands are abundant in all directions. The climate is healthy, and better suited to a European constitution than most other parts of India. Here plants from nearly all the temperate parts of the world are growing as if they were at home. As examples, I may mention myrtles, pomegranates, and tuberoses from the south of Europe; dahlias, potatoes, aloes, and yuccas from America; Melianthus major and bulbs from the Cape; the cypress and deodar of the Himalayas, and the lagerstroemias, loquats, roses and tea of China. In these days, when tea has become almost a necessary of life to England and her wide-spreading colonies, its production upon a large and cheap scale is an object of no ordinary importance. But to the natives of India themselves, the production of this article would be of the greatest value. The poor _paharie_, or hill farmer, at present has scarcely the common necessaries of life, and certainly none of its luxuries. The common sorts of grain which his lands produce will scarcely pay the carriage to the nearest market town, far less yield a profit of such a kind as will enable him to purchase some few of the necessary and simple luxuries of life. A common blanket has to serve him for his covering by day and for his bed at night, while his dwelling-house is a mere mud-hut, capable of affording but little shelter from the inclemency of the weather. Were part of these lands producing tea, he would then have a healthy beverage to drink, besides a commodity which would be of great value in the market. Being of small bulk compared with its value, the expense of carriage would be trifling, and he would return home with the means in his pocket of making himself and his family more comfortable and more happy. Were such results doubtful, we have only to look across the frontiers of India into China. Here we find tea one of the necessaries of life, in the strictest sense of the word. A Chinese never drinks cold water, which he abhors, and considers unhealthy. Tea is his favorite beverage from morning until night; not what we call tea, mixed with milk and sugar, but the essence of the herb itself, drawn out in pure water. One acquainted with the habits of this people can scarcely conceive the idea of the Chinese empire existing were it deprived of the tea plant; and I am sure that the extensive use of this beverage adds much to the health and comfort of the great body of the people. The people of India are not unlike the Chinese in many of their habits. The poor of both countries eat sparingly of animal food, and rice, with other grains and vegetables, form the staple articles on which they live; this being the case, it is not at all unlikely the Indian will soon acquire a habit which is so universal in the sister country. But in order to enable him to drink tea, it must be produced at a cheap rate; he cannot afford to pay at the rate of four or six shillings a pound. It must be furnished to him at four _pence_ or six _pence_ instead; and this can be done easily, but only on his own hills. If this is accomplished, and I see no reason why it should not be, a boon will have been conferred upon the people of India, of no common kind, and one which an enlightened and liberal government may well be proud of conferring on its subjects." I shall now add a description of the Chinese method of making black tea in Upper Assam, by Mr. C.A. Bruce, superintendent of tea culture:-- "In the first place, the youngest and most tender leaves are gathered; but when there are many hands and a great quantity of loaves to be collected, the people employed nip off with the forefinger and thumb the fine end of the branch, with about four leaves on, and sometimes even more if they look tender. These are all brought to the place where they are to be converted into tea: they are then put into a large, circular, open worked bamboo basket, having a rim all round, two fingers broad. The leaves are thinly scattered in these baskets, and then placed in a framework of bamboo, in all appearance like the sides of an Indian hut, without grass, resting on posts, 2 feet from the ground, with an angle of about 25 deg. The baskets with leaves are put in this frame to dry in the sun, and are pushed up and brought down by a long bamboo with a circular piece of wood at the end. The leaves are permitted to dry about two hours, being occasionally turned; but the time required for this process depends on the heat of the sun. When they begin to have a slightly withered appearance, they are taken down and brought into the house, when they are placed on a frame to cool for half an hour; they are then put into smaller baskets of the same kind as the former, and placed on a stand. People are now employed to soften the leaves still more, by gently clapping them between their hands, with their fingers and thumbs extended, and tossing them up and letting them fall, for about five or ten minutes. They are then again put on the frame during half an hour, and brought down and clapped with the hands as before. This is done three successive times, until the leaves become to the touch like soft leather; the beating and putting away being said to give the tea the black color and bitter flavor. After this the tea is put into hot cast-iron pans, which are fixed in a circular mud fireplace, so that the flame cannot ascend round the pan to incommode the operator. This pan is well heated by a straw or bamboo fire to a certain degree. About two pounds of the leaves are then put into each hot pan, and spread in such a manner that all the leaves may get the same degree of heat. They are every now and then briskly turned with the naked hand, to prevent a leaf from being burnt. When the leaves become inconveniently hot to the hand, they are quickly taken out and delivered to another man with a close-worked bamboo basket, ready to receive them. A few leaves that may have been left behind are smartly brushed out with a bamboo broom: all this time a brisk fire is kept up under the pan. After the pan has been used in this manner three or four times, a bucket of cold water is thrown in, and a soft brick-bat and bamboo broom used, to give it a good scouring out; the water is thrown out of the pan by the brush on one side, the pan itself being never taken off. The leaves, all hot in the bamboo basket, are laid on a table that has a narrow rim on its back, to prevent these baskets from slipping off when pushed against it. The two pounds of hot leaves are now divided into two or three parcels, and distributed to as many men, who stand up to the table with the leaves right before them, and each placing his legs close together, the leaves are next collected into a ball, which he gently grasps in his left hand, with the thumb extended, the fingers close together, and the hand resting on the little finger. The right hand must be extended in the same manner as the left, but with the palm turned downwards resting on the top of the ball of tea leaves. Both hands are now employed to roll and propel the ball along; the left hand pushing it on, and allowing it to revolve as it moves; the right hand also pushes it forward, resting on it with some force, and keeping it down to express the juice which the leaves contain. The art lies here in giving the ball a circular motion, and permitting it to turn under and in the hand two or three whole revolutions, before the arms are extended to their full length, and drawing the ball of leaves quickly back without leaving a leaf behind, being rolled for about five minutes in this way. The ball of tea leaves is from time to time delicately and gently opened with the fingers lifted as high as the face, and then allowed to fall again. This is done two or three times to separate the leaves; and afterwards the basket with the leaves is lifted up as often, and receives a circular shake to bring these towards the centre. The leaves are now taken back to the hot pans and spread out in them as before, being again turned with the naked hand, and when hot taken out and rolled; after which, they are put into a drying basket and spread on a sieve, which is in the centre of the basket, and the whole placed over a charcoal fire. The fire is very nicely regulated; there must not be the least smoke, and the charcoal should be well picked. When the fire is lighted it is fanned until it gets a fine red glare, and the smoke is all gone off; being every now and then stirred, and the coals brought into the centre, so as to leave the outer edge low. When the leaves are put into the drying basket, they are gently separated by lifting them up with the fingers of both hands extended far apart, and allowing them to fall down again; they are placed three or four inches deep on the sieve, leaving a passage in the centre for the hot air to pass. Before it is put over the fire, the drying basket receives a smart slap with both hands in the act of lifting it up, which is done to shake down any leaves that might otherwise drop through the sieve, or to prevent them from falling into the fire and occasioning a smoke, which would affect and spoil the tea. This slap on the basket is invariably applied throughout the stages of tea manufacture. There is always a large basket underneath to receive the small leaves that fall, which are afterwards collected, dried, and added to the other tea; in no case are the baskets or sieves allowed to touch or remain on the ground, but always laid on a receiver, with three legs. After the leaves have bean half-dried in the drying-basket, and while they are still soft, they are taken off the fire and put into large open-worked baskets, and then put on the shelf, in order that the tea may improve in color. Next day the leaves are all sorted into large, middling, and small; sometimes there are four sorts. All these, the Chinese informed me, become so many different kinds of teas; the smallest leaves they call Pha-ho, the second Pow-chong, the third Souchong, and the fourth, or the largest leaves, Zoy-chong. After this assortment they are again put on the sieve in the drying-basket (taking care not to mix the sorts), and on the fire, as on the preceding day; but now very little more than will cover the bottom of the sieve is put in at one time; the same care of the fire is taken as before, and the same precaution of tapping the drying basket every now and then. The tea is taken off the fire with the nicest care, for fear of any particles of the tea falling into it. Whenever the drying-basket is taken off, it is put on the receiver, the sieve in the drying-basket taken out, the tea turned over, the sieve replaced, the tap given, and the basket placed again over the fire. As the tea becomes crisp, it is taken out and thrown into a large receiving-basket, until all the quantity on hand has become alike dried and crisp, from which basket it is again removed into the drying-basket, but now in much larger quantities. It is then piled up eight and ten inches high on the sieve in the drying-basket; in the centre a small passage is left for the hot air to ascend; the fire that was before bright and clear has now ashes thrown on it to deaden its effect, and the shakings that have been collected are put on the top of all; the tap is given, and the basket, with the greatest care, is put over the fire. Another basket is placed over the whole, to throw back any heat that may ascend. Now and then it is taken off, and put on the receiver; the hands, with the fingers wide apart, are run down the sides of the basket to the sieve, and the tea gently turned over, the passage in the centre again made, &c., and the basket again placed on the fire. It is from time to time examined, and when the leaves have become so crisp that they break by the slightest pressure of the fingers, it is taken off, when the tea is ready. All the different kinds of leaves underwent the same operation. The tea is now, little by little, put into boxes, and first pressed down with the hands and then with the feet (clean stockings having been previously put on). There is a small room inside of the tea-house, seven cubits square, and five high, having bamboos laid across on the top to support a network of bamboo, and the sides of the room smeared with mud to exclude the air. When there is wet weather, and the leaves cannot be dried in the sun, they are laid out on the top of this room, on the network, on an iron pan, the same as is used to heat the leaves; some fire is put into it, either of grass or bamboo, so that the flame may ascend high; the pan is put on a square wooden frame, that has wooden rollers on its legs, and pushed round and round this little room by one man, while another feeds the fire, the leaves on the top being occasionally turned; when they are a little withered, the fire is taken away, and the leaves brought down and manufactured into tea, in the same manner as if it had been dried in the sun. But this is not a good plan, and never had recourse to if it can possibly be avoided." In 1810, a number of tea plants were introduced into Brazil, with a colony of Chinese to superintend their culture. The plantation was formed near Rio Janeiro and occupied several acres. It did not, however, answer the expectations formed of it, the shrubs became stunted, cankered and moss grown, and the Chinese finally abandoned them. The culture was again tried in 1817. The plantations lie between the equator and 10 deg. south latitude, nearly parallel with Java, and of course are exposed to the same intemperate climate, and suffer in a similar manner. In addition to these physical disabilities, the enterprise has had to contend with the natural indolence of the natives, the universal repugnance to labor, the crushing effect of committing so important a work to the superintendence of slaves and overseers, the amazing fertility of the soil, the extent of unappropriated land, the ease with which subsistence can be obtained and the low degree of personal enterprise. These are frowning features, and would rather seem to indicate a failure, before the attempt at cultivation was made. But, nevertheless, the plant does nourish to some extent, even in Brazil, under all the disparaging circumstances which surround it. From the Brazilian Consul General, I learn that although the plant for some years after its introduction received but little attention and was almost abandoned, yet within the last few years the cultivation has revived and is now prosecuted with energy and with a corresponding success. Some of the large and wealthy land proprietors of Brazil have directed their attention to tea culture, and one gentleman has given up his coffee plantation and directed his attention exclusively to the cultivation of the tea plant. The market of Rio Janeiro is said to be largely and almost entirely supplied with tea of domestic growth, and the public mind is awakened to the prominent fact, that no plant cultivated in Brazil is more profitable and none is deserving more decided attention. _Experimental cultivation of the tea plant in Brazil_.--I now proceed to notice the report of M. Guillemin, presented in 1839 to the French Minister of agriculture and commerce, on the culture and preparation of the tea plant in Brazil--in a climate of the southern hemisphere just equivalent to that of Cuba in the northern. The report enters very minutely into the incidents of temperature and cultivation, and cannot fail to strike the attention when disclosing the important fact, that the tea plant grows luxuriantly with the coffee and other valuable plants of the equatorial regions, and even on low-lying lands, on a level with the sea, and exposed to the full rays of a burning sun. "As the tea shrub," says M. Guillemin, "is grown in several plantations about two days' journey distant from Rio, in different directions, I hired a lodging at St. Theresa, sufficiently contiguous to all the establishments I meant to visit, and further recommended by having a small garden attached to the house, where I could deposit the growing plants of tea, and sow seeds. During the month of November, except when hindered by slight indispositions incidental to the Brazilian climate, I pursued my researches, and principally in the charming valleys of the Tijuka and Gavia mountains. There, together with coffee, their principal product, the most valuable plants of the equatorial region are cultivated. In the middle of November I had an opportunity of observing the method pursued when culling the tea, which is performed by black slaves, chiefly women and children. They carefully selected the tenderest and pale-green leaves, nipping off with their nails the young leaf bud, just below where the first or second leaf was unfolded. One whole field had already undergone this operation; nothing but tea shrubs stripped of their foliage remained. The inspector assured me that the plant received no injury from this process, and that the harvest of leaves was to become permanent by carefully regulating it, so that the foliage should have grown again on the first stripped shrubs at the period when the leaves of the last plant were pulled off. About 12,000 tea shrubs are grown in this garden: they are regularly planted in quincunxes, and stand about one metre distant from each other; the greater number are stunted and shabby looking, probably owing to the aspect of the ground, which _lies low, on the level of the sea, and exposed to the full rays of a burning sun_; perhaps the quality of the soil may have something to do with it, though this is apparently similar to what prevails in the province of Rio Janeiro. This soil, which is highly argillaceous, and strongly tinged with tritoxyde of iron, is formed by the decomposition of gneiss or granite rocks. The flat situation of this tea ground is unfavorable to the improvement of the soil, for the heavy rains which wash away the superfluous sand from slanting situations, of course only consolidate more strongly the remaining component parts, where the land lies perfectly level, and thus the tea plants suffer from this state of soil. The kindness of M. de Brandao, director of the Botanic Garden, induced him to invite me, shortly after I had seen the above described tea ground, that I might inspect all the operations for the preparation of tea. I found that the picking of the leaves had been commenced very early in the morning, and two kilogrammes were pulled that were still wet with dew. These were deposited in a well-polished iron vase, the shape being that of a very broad flat pan, and set on a brick furnace, where a brisk wooden fire kept the temperature nearly up to that of boiling water. A negro, after carefully washing his hands, kept continually stirring the leaves in all directions, till their external dampness was quite evaporated, and the leaves acquired the softness of linen rag, and a small pinch of them, when rolled in the hollow of the hand, became a little ball that would not unroll. In this state the mass of tea was divided into two portions, and a negro took each and set them on a hurdle, formed of strips of bamboo, laid at right angles, where they shook and kneaded the leaves in all directions for a quarter of an hour, an operation which requires habit to be properly performed, and on which much of the beauty of the product depends. It is impossible to describe this process; the motion of the hands is rapid and very irregular, and the degree of pressure requisite varies according to circumstances; generally speaking, the young negro women are considered more clever at this part of the work than older persons. As this process of rolling and twisting the leaves goes on, their green juice is drained off through the hurdle, and it is essential that the tea be perfectly divested of the moisture, which is acrid, and even corrosive, the bruising and kneading being especially designed to break the parenchyma of the leaf, and permit the escape of the sap. When the leaves have been thus twisted and rolled, they are replaced in the great iron pan, and the temperature raised till the hand can no longer bear the heat at the bottom. For upwards of an hour the negroes are then constantly employed in separating, shaking, and throwing the foliage up and down, in order to facilitate the dessication, and much neatness and quickness of hand were requisite, that the manipulators might neither burn themselves nor allow the masses of leaves to adhere to the hot bottom of the pan. It is easy to see that, if the pan was placed within another pan filled with boiling water, and the leaves were stirred with an iron spatula, much trouble might be obviated. Still, the rolling and drying of the leaves were successfully performed; they became more and more crisp, and preserved their twisted shape, except some few which seemed too old and coriaceous to submit to be rolled up. The tea was then placed on a sieve, with wide apertures of regular sizes, and formed of flat strips of bamboo. The best rolled leaves, produced from the tips of the buds and the tenderest leaves, passed through this sieve, and were subsequently fanned, in order to separate any unrolled fragments which might have passed through them; this produce was called _Imperial_, or _Uchim Tea_. It was again laid in the pan till it acquired the leaden grey tint, which proved its perfect dryness, and any defective leaf which had escaped the winnowing and sifting was picked out by hand. The residue, which was left from the first fanning, was submitted to all the operations of winnowing, sifting, and scorching, and it then afforded the _Fine Hyson Tea_ of commerce; while the same operations performed on the residuum of it yielded the _Common Hyson_; and the refuse of the third quality again afforded the _Coarse Hyson_.--Finally, the broken and unrolled foliage, which were rejected in the last sittings, furnish what is called _Family Tea_, and the better kind of which is called _Chato_, and the inferior _Chuto_. The latter sort is never sold, but kept for consumption in the families of the growers. Such is the mode of preparation pursued at Rio Janeiro, though I must add that the process employed at the Botanic Garden being most carefully performed in order to serve as a model for private cultivators of tea, the produce is superior to the generality, so that we dare not judge of all Brazilian tea by what is raised at the garden of Rio. I was also assured, that at Saint Paul each grower had his own peculiar method, influencing materially the quality of the tea, which decided me to visit that province, where I hoped to gain valuable information respecting the culture and fabrication of tea, especially considered as an article of commerce. In the interim, the month of December proving excessively hot and rainy, so as to forbid any distant excursions, I turned my attention to the important object of procuring _tea plants_ in number and state fit for exportation; and, observing that almost all the shrubs I saw were too large for this purpose, I applied to M. de Brandao for his help and advice. This gentleman, in the most courteous manner, offered me either seeds or slips from his own tea shrubs. The striking of the latter was, he owned, a hazardous and uncertain affair, though it had the probable advantage of securing a finer kind of plant than could with certainty be raised from seed. I, however, began by asking him for newly gathered seeds, in order to set them in my little nursery garden at Santa Theresa, and he obligingly gave me a thousand of the seeds, perfectly ripe and sound, which is easily known by the purplish-brown color of their integument. M. Houlet immediately set about preparing the soil in which to plant these seeds, and the earth being excessively argillaceous and hard, much digging, manuring, and dressing were needful; in a word, we neglected no precautions which could contribute to the growth of our seeds. In the interim I allowed not a single dry day to elapse without visiting the country house near Rio, in all of which I saw something more or less interesting, either in the culture of tea, or other vegetable productions of commercial value. * * * * * I detected, growing not unfrequently in the environs of Rio, the _Ilex Paraguayensis_ of M. Auguste de St. Hilaire, perfectly identical with the tree which the Jesuits planted in the missions of Paraguay, and whose foliage is an article of great importance throughout Spanish America, and vended under the name of _Paraguay Tea_. A living plant of this shrub was brought home by me, and placed in the Royal Garden at Paris, as well as a species of Vanilla, and many other rare and interesting plants. I also made a valuable collection of woods employed for dyeing, building, and cabinet work, with samples of their flowers, fruits, and leaves, to facilitate botanical determination. Early in January, 1839, M. Houlet began anew sowing tea, not only in the open ground in our little garden, but also in pans, in order to facilitate the lifting of the young plants, and putting them into the cases that I had brought for the purpose. The heat being excessive, we purchased mats, that we might shelter them from the sun, and we gave them water far more frequently. Many of the seeds that we had sown a month previously, were already appearing above the ground, but the soil being of too compact a nature, some did not come up, which warned us to make choice in future of a lighter kind of soil. The period now arrived when I was to visit the tea plantations in the province of St. Paul; and hoping that the cultivators would give me some of the young shrubs, I took M. Houlet with me, leaving the charge of our collections and seedlings to M. Pissis, a French geologist and engineer, with whom I had formed an intimate acquaintance, and who most obligingly offered to attend to them during my absence. Many were the influential persons at Rio Janeiro, who gave me introductory letters to the proprietors and tea growers of St. Paul. We started on the 15th January, by steam-boat, and in two days reached Santos, the principal port in the province of St. Paul; thence crossing the great chain of mountains, named the Serra do Mar, in caravans drawn by mules, we reached the city of St. Paul on the 20th January, where I experienced the warmest reception from the governor, two ex-governors, and some other gentlemen. * * * * * Accompanied by M.J. Gomez and a M. Barandier, an historical painter, whom the desire to visit a new country, and to see its inhabitants, had induced to become _my compagnon de voyage_, we visited almost immediately a M. Feigo, ex-Regent of the Empire, and now President of the Provincial Senate. We found this venerable ecclesiastic at his country-house, two leagues distant from the city, and here we saw all the process pursued on the tea leaf, commencing by the bruising, drying, and scorching of a large quantity of foliage picked the preceding evening. The chief difference that struck me in the mode here adopted, was, that the tender, flexible, and not brittle leaves, were gathered with the petiole and tip extremity of every bud, and that some water was put with them into the iron pan, in which the negresses twisted, squeezed, broke and shook the masses of foliage. The operation was, on the whole, more neatly performed than at Rio. When the tea was perfectly dry and removed from the pan, it was placed aside in a box, shaded from the air and light, and was considered ready for present use, on the spot; but M. Feigo informed me, that when sent to a distance, the cases were hermetically closed, and the tea underwent an extra dessication over the fire. The plantations belonging to M. Feigo, and surrounding his chagara, are extensive, containing about 20,000 tea shrubs, of fine growth and high vigor, most of them six or eight years old, set in regular lines, a metre asunder from each other, and the lines with a metre and a half between them. The soil is excellent, argillaceo-ferruginous, as is generally the case near St. Paul. In the Botanic Garden at St. Paul, some squares are devoted to the growth of tea; but I am not aware that the leaves are ever subject to preparation. M. da Luz had invited us to inspect his tea-grounds near Nossa Senhora da Penha, and I went thither, accompanied by Messrs. Barandier and Houlet. The cultivation is admirable, the soil excellent, and the tea-plants peculiarly vigorous. Each shrub was so placed that a man can easily go all round it, and _young plants, self-sown, were springing up below every old one_; of these offsets, I was made welcome to as many as I could take away, and should have had a great stock, but that the ground had been very recently cleared. M. da Luz showed me his magazines of prepared tea, which were extensive and well stocked. Hence I went to the property of a lady, Donna Gertrude Gedioze Larceda, situated at the foot of Jarigur, a mountain famed for its gold mines, and passed two days in exploring this celebrated locality, and then visited the Colonel Anastosio on my way back to St. Paul. These plantations are in the most prosperous condition, situated on a sloping and well-manured tract behind the habitations. The shrubs are generally kept low, and frequently cut, so as to, make them branching, by which the process of picking the leaves is rendered easier. There may be 60,000 or 70,000 plants, but a third of them were only set a year before. Every arrangement is excellently conducted here; the pans kept very clean, though perhaps rather thin from long use and the fierceness of the fires. But the general good order that prevails, speaks much in favor of the tea produced in this neighbourhood. The colonel showed me his warehouse, where the tea is stored in iron jars, narrow-necked and closed by a tight fitting stopper. I ventured to put some questions to Colonel Anastosio respecting the sale of the produce. He gave me to understand that he was by no means eager to sell; but, confident of the good quality, he waited till application was made to him for it, as the tea is thought to improve by time, and the price is kept up by there being a small supply. With respect to the cost of its production in Brazil, he said, this was so great that, to make it answer to the grower, a price of not less than 2,000 reis, about six francs (5s.), must be got for each pound. The whole labor in Brazil is done by slaves, who certainly do not cost much to keep, but who, on the other hand, work as little as they can help, having no interest in the occupation. The slaves, too, bear a high price, and the chances of mortality, with the exorbitant value of money in Brazil, augment their selling value. The Major da Luz kindly presented me with 300 young tea-plants, which he had caused his negroes to pull up for me; and in an adjoining farm, where an immense tract planted with tea is now allowed to run to waste, being no object of value to the proprietor, I was permitted to take all I could carry away; and in a single day's time, M. Houlet and I, aided by some slaves, succeeded in possessing ourselves of 3,000 young plants, which we carefully arranged in bamboo baskets (here called cestos). To diminish the weight, M. Houlet removed as little soil as possible; but carefully wetted the roots before closing the baskets, and covered them with banana leaves. In one garden, the largest I have seen devoted to the growth of tea, but which is not particularly well kept, I saw that the spaces between the shrubs were planted with _maize_, and the bordering of the squares which intersect this vast plantation, and the whole of which is inclosed with valleys of _Araucaria Brasiliensis_, is formed of little dwarf tea-plants, which are kept low by cutting their main shoots down to the level of the soil. On the 8th of February I again embarked in the steam-boat to return to Rio Janeiro, and when we came in sight of St. Sebastian, I left M. Houlet to proceed to the city alone, charging him to take the very greatest care of our package of tea-plants, as well as of the nursery-ground at St. Theresa, while I should visit the flourishing colony of Ubatuba, inhabited by French families, who cultivate most successfully _coffee_, and other useful vegetables. After a delightful sail through an archipelago of enchanting islands, I landed at Pontagrossa, where I was most kindly received, and spent a week, obtaining much and varied information, both respecting cultivated plants and the kinds of trees which grow spontaneously in the virgin forests of this lovely land, and afford valuable woods for building, cabinet work, and dyeing. Finally, I visited the tea plantations of M. Vigneron, which are remarkably fine, though their owner finds a much more profitable employment in the growth of _coffee_, which is very lucrative. He kindly gave me a quantity of young tea-plants and chocolate trees. Reluctantly quitting these worthy colonists, I re-embarked in a Brazilian galliot, which took me back to Rio Janeiro in the close of February. There I found the tea-plants from St. Paul, set by M. Houlet, in our garden at St. Theresa, and I added to them the stock I had brought from Ubatuba. All the very young ones had perished on the way, from the excessive heat, and M. Houlet had much difficulty in saving the others. * * * * * M. Guillemin concludes his interesting narration with this partially discouraging fact;--that though the culture of the tea-shrub succeeds perfectly well in Brazil; though the gathering of the foliage proceeds with hardly any interruption during the entire year; though the quality (setting aside the aroma, which is believed to be artificially added) is not inferior to that of the finest tea from China--still the growers have not realised any large profits. They have manufactured an immense quantity of tea, to judge by what he saw in the warehouses at St. Paul, but they cannot afford to sell it under six francs for the half kilogramme (a pound weight), which is higher than Chinese tea of equally good quality. This is, however, precisely one of those commodities in which free labour, that is, the labor of a free peasant's family, the wife and children, the young and the old, can successfully compete with slave labor, and considerably undersell it. It is manifest, from the remarks of M. Guillemin, that the cost for plantation slaves, under a system apparently so profitable as labor without wages, is a dead weight on the Brazilian planter." _Paraguay Tea._--A species of holly (_Ilex Paraguensis_), which grows spontaneously in the forest regions of Paraguay, and the interior of South America, furnishes the celebrated beverage called _Yerba Mate_, in South America. The evergreen leaf of this plant is from four to five inches long; when prepared for use as tea it is reduced to powder, and hence the decoction has to be quaffed by means of a tube with a bulb perforated with small holes. The leaves yield the same bitter principle called theine, which is found in the leaf of the Chinese tea-plant, the coffee berry, &c. Various other species of Ilex are sometimes employed in other parts of South America for a similar purpose. Although the leaves may not contain as much of the agreeable narcotic oil as those of the China shrub, in consequence of the rude way in which it is collected and prepared for use, yet it is much relished by European travellers in South America, and would doubtless enter largely into consumption if imported into this country at a moderate rate of duty. The consumption in the various South American Republics is estimated at thirty or forty millions of pounds annually. It is generally drank without sugar or milk. There are no correct data for calculating the exports, but some authorities state the amount sent to Santa Fe and Buenos Ayres at eight millions of pounds. A great trade is carried on with it at Sta. Fe, where it is brought from the Rio de la Plata. There are two sorts, one called "Yerba de Palos," the other, which is finer, "Yerba de Carnini." Frezier tells us that, in the earlier part of the 17th century, above 50,000 arrobas, or more than 12,000 cwt. of this herb were brought into Peru from Paraguay, exclusive of about 25,000 arrobas taken to Chile; and Father Charleroix, in his "History of Paraguay," states the quantity shipped to Peru annually at 100,000 arrobas, or nearly 2,500,000 lbs. My friend, Mr. W.P. Robertson, has favored me with some details as to the production of Paraguay tea. His brother has graphically described a visit he paid to the wastes or woods of the Yerba tree, with a colony of manufacturers from Assumption. These woods were situated chiefly in the country adjacent to a small miserable town called Villa Real, about 150 miles higher up the river Paraguay than Assumption. The master manufacturer, with about forty or fifty hired peons or servants, mounted on mules, and a hundred bulls and sumpter mules, set out on their expedition, and having discovered in the dense wood a suitable locality, forthwith a settlement is established, and the necessary wigwams for dwellings, &c., run up. The next step is the construction of the "tatacua." This was a small space of ground, about six feet square, of which the soil was beaten down with heavy mallets, till it became a hard and consistent foundation. At the four corners of this space, and at right angles, were driven in four very strong stakes, while upon the surface of it were laid large logs of wood. This was the place at which the leaves and small sprigs of the yerba tree, when brought from the woods, were first scorched--fire being set to the logs of wood within it. By the side of the tatacua was spread an ample square net of hidework, of which, after the scorched leaves were laid upon it, a peon gathered up the four corners and proceeded with his burthen on his shoulders to the second place constructed, the barbacue. This was an arch of considerable span, and of which the support consisted of three strong trestles. The centre trestle formed the highest part of the arch. Over this superstructure were laid cross-bars strongly railed to stakes on either side of the central supports, and so formed the roof of the arch. The leaves being separated after the tatacua process, from the grosser boughs of the yerba tree, were laid on this roof, under which a large fire was kindled. Of this fire the flames ascended, and still further scorched the leaves of the yerba. The two peons beneath the arch, with long poles, took care, as far as they could, that no ignition should take place; and in order to extinguish this, when it did occur, another peon was stationed at the top of the arch. Along both sides of this there were two deal planks, and, with a long stick in his hand, the peon ran along these planks, and instantly extinguished any incipient sparks of fire that appeared. When the yerba was thoroughly scorched, the fire was swept from the barbacue or arch; the ground was then swept, and pounded with heavy mallets, into the hardest and smoothest substance. The scorched leaves and very small twigs were then thrown down from the roof of the arch, and, by means of a rude wooden mill, ground to powder. The yerba or tea was now ready for use; and being conveyed to a larger shed, previously erected for the purpose, was then received, weighed, and stored by the overseer. The next and last process, and the most laborious of all, was that of packing the tea. This was done by first sewing together, in a square form, the half of a bull's hide, which being still damp, was fastened by two of its corners to two strong trestles, driven far into the ground. The packer then, with an enormous stick, made of the heaviest wood, and having a huge block at one end, and a pyramidal piece to give it a greater impulse at the other, pressed, by repeated efforts, the yerba into the hide sack, till he got it full to the brim. It then contained from 200 to 250 pounds, and being sewed up, and left to tighten over the contents as the hide dried, it formed at the end of a couple of days, by exposure to the sun, a substance as hard as stone, and almost as weighty and impervious too. Having described the process of making ready the yerba for use, we will now accompany Mr. Robertson to the woods, to see how it is collected. "After all the preparations which I have detailed were completed (and it required only three days to finish them), the peons sallied forth from the yerba colony by couples. I accompanied two of the stoutest and best of them. They had with them no other weapon than a small axe; no other clothing than a girdle round their waist and a red cap on their head; no other provision than a cigar, and a cow's horn filled with water; and they were animated by no other hope or desire, that I could perceive, than those of soon discovering a part of the wood thickly studded with the yerba tree. They also desired to find it as near as possible to the colonial encampment, in order that the labor of carrying the rough branches to the scene of operations might be as much as possible diminished. We had scarcely skirted for a quarter of a mile the woods which shut in the valley where we were bivouacked, when we came upon numerous clumps of the yerba tree. It was of all sizes, from that of the shrub to that of the full-grown orange tree; the leaves of it were very like those of that beautiful production. The smaller the plant, the better is the tea which is taken from it considered to be. To work with their hatchets went the peons, and in less than a couple of hours they had gathered a mountain of branches, and piled them up in the form of a haystack. Both of them then filled their large ponchos with the coveted article of commerce in its raw state, and they marched off with their respective loads. Having deposited this first load within the precincts of the colony, the peons returned for a second, and so on till they had cleared away the whole mass of branches and of leaves cut and collected during that day. When I returned to the colony I found the peons coming by two and two, from every part of the valley, all laden in the same way. There were twenty tatacuas, twenty barbacues, and twenty pies of the yerba cut and ready for manufacture. Two days after that the whole colony was in a blaze, tatacuas and barbacues were enveloped in smoke; on the third day all was stowed away in the shed; and on the fourth the peons again went out to procure more of the boughs and leaves."--(_Letters on Paraguay_, vol. ii. p. 142-147). Each peon or laborer, going into the woods for six months, can procure eight arrobas, or 200 lbs. of yerba a day. This, at the rate of two rials, or 1s. for each arroba, would make his wages per day 8s.; and this for six months' work, at six days in the week, would produce to the laborer a sum of £57 12s. Wilcockes, in his "History of Buenos Ayres," published in 1807, states:--"Though the herb is principally bought by the merchants of Buenos Ayres, it is not to that place that it is carried, no more being sent thither than is wanted for the consumption of its inhabitants and those of the vicinity; but the greatest part is dispatched to Santa Fe and Cordova, thence to be forwarded to Potosi and Mendoza. The quantity exported to Peru is estimated at 100,000 arrobas, and to Chile 40,000. The remainder is consumed in Paraguay, Tucuman, and the other provinces. It is conveyed in parcels of six or seven arrobas, by waggons, from Santa Fe to Jugui, and thence by mules to Potosi, La Paz, and into Peru proper. About four piastres per arroba is the price in Paraguay, and at Potosi it fetches from eight to nine, and more in proportion as it is carried further." SUGAR. Sugar is obtained from many grasses; and, indeed, is common in a large number of plants. It is procured in Italy from _Sorghum saccharatum_; in China, from _Saccharum sinense_; in Brazil, from _Gynerium saccharoides_; in the West Indies, from _saccharum violaceum_; and in many other parts of the world from _S officinarrum_. The last two are commonly known as sugar canes, and they are generally considered as varieties of a single species, _S. officinarum_, which is now widely spread over different parts of the world. Some curious specimens of palm sugars were exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851, among others,--gomuti palm sugar (_Arenga saccharifera_) from Java; date palm sugar, from the Deccan; nipa sugar, from the stems of _Nipa fruticans_, and sugar from the fleshy flowers of _Bassia latifolia_,--an East Indian tree. Among the other sugars shown were beet root sugar, maple sugar, date sugar, from Dacca, sugar from the butter tree (_Bassia butyracea_), produced in the division of Rohekkund, in India; and sugar candy, crystallized by the natives of Calcutta and other parts of India. Sugar and molasses from the grape, were also shown from Spain, Tunis and the Zollverein. Sugar, or sugar candy, has been made in China from very remote antiquity, and large quantities have been exported from India, in all ages, whence it is most probable that it found its way to Rome. The principal impurities to be sought for in cane sugar are inorganic matter, water, molasses, farina, and grape, or starch sugar. The latter substance is occasionally, for adulterating purposes, added in Europe to cane sugar; it may be detected by the action of concentrated sulphuric acid and of a solution of caustic potassa; the former blackens cane sugar, but does not affect the starch sugar, while potassa darkens the color of starch sugar, but does not alter that of cane sugar. But the copper test is far more delicate. Add to the solution to be tested, a few drops of blue vitriol, and then a quantity of potassa solution, and apply heat; if the cane sugar is pure, the liquor will remain blue, while, if it be adulterated with starch sugar, it will assume a reddish yellow color. Inorganic matter is determined by incineration, farina by the iodine test, water by drying at 210 deg., and molasses by getting rid of it by re-crystalization from alcohol, as also by the color and moisture of the article. The natural impurities of sugar are gum and tannin; gum is detected by giving a white precipitate with diacetate of lead, and tannin by giving a black coloration or precipitate with persulphate of iron. An experienced sugar dealer easily judges of the value of sugar by the taste, smell, specific gravity, moisture and general appearance. The value of molasses may be determined by drying at 220 degs., and by the taste. The commercial demand for sugar is mainly supplied from the juice of the cane, which contains it in greater quantity and purity than any other plant, and offers the greatest facilities for its extraction. Although sugar, identical in its character, exists in the maple, the coco-nut, maize, the beet root, and mango, and is economically obtained from these to a considerable extent, yet it is not sufficiently pure to admit of ready separation from the foreign matter combined with it, at least by the simple mechanical means, the ordinary producers usually have at command; unless carried onto a large extent, and with suitable machinery and chemical knowledge and appliances. The different species of commercial sugar usually met with in this country, are four, viz:--brown, or muscovado sugar (commonly called moist sugar); clayed sugar, refined or loaf sugar, and sugar candy; these varieties are altogether dependent on the difference in the methods employed in their manufacture. The cultivation of the sugar cane, and the manufacture of sugar, were introduced into Europe from the East, by the Saracens, soon after their conquests, in the ninth century. It is stated by the Venetian historians, that their countrymen imported sugar from Sicily, in the twelfth century, at a cheaper rate than they could obtain it from Egypt, where it was then extensively made. The first plantations in Spain were at Valencia; but they were extended to Granada, Mercia, Portugal, Madeira, and the Canary Islands, as early as the beginning of the fifteenth century. From Gomera, one of these islands, the sugar cane was introduced into the West Indies, by Columbus, in his second voyage to America in 1493. It was cultivated to some extent in St. Domingo in 1506, where it succeeded better than in any of the other islands. In 1518, there were twenty-eight plantations in that colony, established by the Spaniards, where an abundance of sugar was made, which, for a long period, formed the principal part of the European supplies. Barbados, the oldest English settlement in the West Indies, began to export sugar in 1646, and as far back as the year 1676 the trade required four hundred vessels, averaging one hundred and fifty tons burden. The common sugar cane is a perennial plant, very sensitive to cold, and is, therefore, restricted in its cultivation to regions bordering on the tropics, where there is little or no frost. In the Eastern hemisphere its production is principally confined to situations favorable to its growth, lying between the fortieth parallel of north latitude and a corresponding degree south. On the Atlantic side of the Western continent, it will not thrive beyond the thirty-third degree of north latitude and the thirty-fifth parallel south. On the Pacific side it will perfect its growth some five degrees further north or south. From the flexibility of this plant, it is highly probable that it is gradually becoming more hardy, and will eventually endure an exposure and yield a profitable return much further north, along the borders of the Mississippi and some of its tributaries, than it has hitherto been produced. In most parts of Louisiana the canes yield three crops from one planting. The first season is denominated "plant cane," and each of the subsequent growths, "ratoons." But, sometimes, as on the prairies of Attakapas and Opelousas, and the higher northern range of its cultivation, it requires to be replanted every year. Within the tropics, as in the West Indies and elsewhere, the ratoons frequently continue to yield abundantly for twelve or fifteen years from the same roots. The cultivation of this plant is principally confined to the West Indies, Venezuela, Brazil, Mauritius, British India, China, Japan, the Sunda, Phillippine, and Sandwich Islands, and to the southern districts of the United States. The varieties most cultivated in the latter are the striped blue and yellow ribbon, or Java, the red ribbon, violet, from Java, the Creole, crystalline or Malabar, the Otaheite, the purple, the yellow, the purple-banded, and the grey canes. The quantity of sugar produced on an acre varies from five hundred to three thousand pounds, averaging, perhaps, from eight hundred to one thousand pounds. Six to eight pounds of the saccharine juice of the plant, yield one pound of raw sugar; from 16 to 20 cart-loads of canes, ought to make a hogshead of sugar, if thoroughly ripe. The weight necessary to manufacture 10,000 hhds of sugar, is usually estimated at 250,000 tons, or 25 tons per hhd. of 15 or 16 cwt. The quantity of sugar now produced in our colonies is in excess of the demands of the consumers, that is, of their demands cramped as they are by the duties still levied on sugar consumed in Great Britain, imposed for the purposes of revenue; the high duty on all other but indigenous sugar, consumed all over the continent, imposed to promote the manufacture of beet-root sugar, and the legal duty levied on all other than indigenous sugar used in the United States, for the purpose of protecting the sugar production of that country; and so long as that excess exists---until a further reduction of duties shall increase consumption and cause sugar to be used for many purposes which the present high rates prohibit its being applied to--any improvement which may be effected in the quality--any increase which may take place in the quantity of colonial sugar--will only result infinitely more to the benefits of the consumers than the producers. In 1700 the quantity consumed in Great Britain and Ireland was only about 200,000 cwt. In 1852, including molasses, &c., it was not less than 8,000,000 cwt., a forty-fold increase in the century and a-half. Taking the whole population last year, it was nearly 28 lbs. per head. In 1832 the consumption in Great Britain alone was put down by Mr. M'Culloch at 23 lbs.; and as my estimate includes Ireland, where the consumption is notoriously small, we may infer that it has increased in Great Britain since 1832 at least 5 lb. per head. As the allowance to servants is from ¾ lb. to 1 lb. per week, it may be assumed that 50 lb. a year, at least, is not too much for grown persons. In sugar-producing countries the quantity consumed is enormous; the labourers live on it in the manufacturing season; and a Duke of Beaufort, who died about 1720, consumed one pound daily for forty years, and enjoyed excellent health till he was seventy years of age. The consumption of sugar has increased considerably since it has become cheap; and we may expect, therefore, that the consumption will extend more rapidly than ever. The whole quantity consumed in Europe last year, including beet-root sugar, was not less than 16,000,000 cwt. If peace be preserved and prosperity continue, the market for sugar will extend amazingly, and force the cultivation by free men in all tropical countries. British East India and Total of B.P. Years. Plantation Mauritius E.I. and Consumption tons. tons Mauritius tons. 1838-39 176,033 54,017 230,050 195,483 39-40 141,219 60,358 201,577 191,279 40-41 110,739 52,232 162,971 179,741 41-42 107,560 97,792 205,352 202,971 42-43 123,685 80,429 204,114 199,491 43-44 125,178 78,943 204,121 202,259 44-45 122,639 81,959 204,598 206,999 45-46 142,384 102,690 245,074 244,030 47-48 164,646 125,829 290,475 289,537 48-49 139,868 107,844 247,712 308,131 49-50 142,203 121,850 264,053 296,119 50-51 129,471 119,317 248,788 305,616 51-52 148,000 110,000 258,000 312,778 --The above figures refer to raw sugar only. At these periods, calculating from 1838-39, the duty on British sugar ranged from 24s. down to 10s. per cwt., and foreign slave-grown sugar from 63s. down to 14s. The greatest impetus was given to foreign sugar when the duties were reduced, in 1846. The extension of sugar cultivation in various countries where the climate is suitable, has recently attracted considerable attention among planters and merchants. The Australian Society of Sydney offered its Isis Gold Medal recently to the person who should have planted, before May, 1851, the greatest number of sugar canes in the colony. I have not heard whether any claim was put in for the premium, but I fear that the gold fever has diverted attention from any new agricultural pursuit, and that honorary gold medals are therefore unappreciated. Moreton Bay and the northern parts of the colony of New South Wales, are admirably suited to the growth of all descriptions of tropical products. The Natal Agricultural Society is also making great exertions to promote sugar culture in that settlement. Mr. E. Morewood, one of the oldest colonists, has about 100 acres under cultivation with the cane, and I have seen some very excellent specimens of the produce, notwithstanding the want of suitable machinery to grind the cane and boil the juice. Many planters from the East Indies and Mauritius are settling there. His Royal Highness Prince Albert awarded, through the Society of Arts, a year or two ago, a gold medal, worth 100 guineas, to Mr. J.A. Leon, for his beautiful work descriptive of new and improved machinery and processes employed in the cultivation and preparation of sugar in the British colonies, designed to economise labor and increase production. The centrifugal machines, recently brought into use, for separating the molasses from the sugar, more quickly than the old-fashioned method of coolers, have tended to cheapen the production and simplify the processes of sugar making. The planters object, however, to the high prices which they are charged for these machines, so simple in their construction; and that they are not allowed, by the patent laws, to obtain them in the cheaper markets of France and Belgium. Great loss has hitherto taken place annually, in the sugar colonies, through the drainage of the molasses, resulting from the imperfect processes in use; but this can now be obviated, by the use of the centrifugal machine. It is a modification of the "hydro-extractor," and is the invention of Mr. Finzel, of Bristol. The machine being filled with sugar, appropriately placed, is rapidly revolved, and a powerful ceutrifugal force generated; the moisture is speedily removed to the circumference of the revolving vessel, and passes off through apertures adapted for the purpose. Various other improvements in the making of sugar have been carried into effect within the last few years, by Dr. Scoffern, Messrs. Oxland and M. Melsens, but the description of these would occupy too much of my space, and those who are desirous of growing sugar on an extensive scale, I must refer to Dr. Evans' "Sugar Planter's Manual," Mr. Wray's "Practical Sugar Planter," Agricola's "Letters on Sugar Farming," and other works which treat largely and exclusively of the subject. An announcement has recently been made, that a Mr. Ramos, of Porto Rico, has discovered some new dessicating agent, to be used in sugar making, which is to cost next to nothing, but improves most materially the quality of the sugar made, and also increases considerably the quantity obtained by the ordinary process. The average annual quantity of cane sugar produced and sent into the markets of the civilised world, at the present time, may be taken at 1,500,000 tons, exclusive of the amount grown and manufactured for local consumption in India, China, Cochin-China, and the Malay Archipelago, of which no certain statistics exist, but which has been estimated at about another million tons. So far back as 1844, the Calcutta "Star," in an article on sugar, estimated the domestic consumption in India, at 500,000 tons. This is considerably below the mark, even if India is taken in its limited signification, as including only British subjects. On this estimate the 94,000,000 of British subjects, men, women and children, would not individually consume more than one pound avoirdupois by the month. A fat, hungry Brahmin, at any of the festivals given by the great, will digest for his own share four pounds, without at all embarrassing his stomach. Assuming the million and a half of tons that find their way into civilized markets, to represent an average value at the place of production of £15 per ton, we have here the representation of £22,500,000 sterling. But this value may fairly be increased by one-fourth. The whole exportable production of the sugar-growing countries was found to be, in 1844, about 780,000 tons, of which Cuba furnished 200,000 tons. In 1845, notwithstanding Cuba only produced 80,000 tons, the increase from other sources was so considerable (namely:--the British Colonial supply 40,000, United States 40,000, Porto Rico 15,000, Brazil 10,000 tons) that the total produce fell very little short of the previous year--having reached 764,000 tons. The present SUPPLY of sugar to the markets of Europe, is nearly as follows:-- Cwts. England 8,000,000 France 2,550,000 German League 1,350,000 Prussia 220,000 Austria, (ten Provinces) 560,000 Belgium 294,000 Other States not defined. The present DEMAND, according to the estimated consumption per head (28 lbs.), found to exist in England, where taxation is favorable, and the price moderate, would be about 3¼; million tons, viz.:-- Cwts. England 8,000,000 France 8,875,000 Germany 5,750,000 Prussia 4,100,000 Austria 8,642,857 Belgium 1,250,000 Russia 15,250,000 Rest of Europe 12,500,000 The whole annual PRODUCTION of the world is estimated by another party at 1,471,000,000 lbs., of which the United States produce 150,000,000 lbs., including 40,000,000 lbs. of maple sugar. Of the whole amount of sugar produced, Europe consumes about 648,700 tons, divided nearly as follows:-- lbs. Great Britain 803,360,096 France 160,080,000 Belgium 19,840,000 Netherlands 42,000,000 Russia 70,000,000 Denmark and Sweden 22,000,000 German Zollverein 101,300,000 Other parts of Germany 160,000,000 Austria 50,000,000 ------------- 1,428,580,096 The following figures show the quantities of raw sugar in general, in tons, imported into the British markets for the last five years, compared with consumption:-- Entire British Years. Importations. Consumption. Surplus. 1847 415,289 290,281 125,008 1848 354,834 309,424 45,410 1849 362,087 299,041 63,046 1850 332,470 310,391 22,089 1851 419,083 329,561 89,472 1852 360,033 358,642 1,391 Deduced from Parliamentary Paper, No. 461, Session 1853. The consumption of sugar then in the whole world may be roughly estimated at two and a half million tons, of which the United Kingdom may now be put down for 350,000; the rest of Europe 420,000, and the United States 300,000. The United States produce about 140,000 tons of cane and maple sugar, which are exclusively used for home consumption, the remainder of their requirements being made up by foreign importation. The American consumption, which in 1851 amounted to 133,000 tons of sugar cane reached last year a total of 321,000 tons, almost as much as England consumed--358,000--and more than the consumption of 100,000,000 of persons on the continent. The whole production of tropical sugar, is about one million and a-half tons, while the consumption is probably two million tons; but the manufacture of sugar from beet root, maple and other sources, supplies the deficiency. The total quantities of sugar, and molasses as sugar, consumed in the United Kingdom in the last six years, were, according to a Parliamentary paper, No. 292, of the last session, as follows:-- Cwt. sugar. Cwt. molasses. 1847 4,723,232 1,256,421 1848 5,003,318 865,752 1849 5,283,729 1,021,065 1850 5,570,461 752,027 1851 5,043,872 1,522,405 1852 7,203,631 799,942 The returns further specify that the annual average consumption of _British colonial sugar_, in the five years ending 1851, was 5,124,922 cwt.; and in the five years ending 1846, was 4,579,054 cwt.; the average consumption of British colonial sugar, has, therefore, exceeded in the five years since the duties were reduced, in 1846, the average consumption for the five previous years by 545,868 cwt. per annum; or in the aggregate in the five years, the excess has been 3,239,338 cwt. The quantity consumed in the year ending December, 1852, was 4,033,879 cwt.[16] There can be no doubt whatever, that the consumption of sugar in Great Britain is capable of very large increase; moderate cost, and the removal of restrictions to its general use, being the main elements required to bring it about. The question of revenue must of course be a material consideration with Government; but recent experience certainly leads to the conclusion that it would not suffer under a further reduction of duty. The revenue derived from sugar before the reduction of the duty, was five millions per annum; in the past two years it reached nearly four millions. The reduction in duties which took place in 1845, may be said to have answered the expectations formed of it, as regards the increase of consumption, which there is no doubt would have even gone beyond the estimate, if the failure in the crop of sugar in Cuba--that most important island, which usually yields one-fifth of the cane crop of the whole world--had not driven up prices in the general market of the continent, and, in consequence, diverted the supply of free labor sugar from this country. As it was, however, the consumption of the United Kingdom, which in 1844 was 206,472 tons, in 1845 was not less than 243,000--Sir Robert Peel's estimate was 250,000 tons--the average reduction in price to the consumer during the latter year having been 20 per cent. The large increase in subsequent years I have already shown. The consumption of sugar we find, then, has been steadily and rapidly increasing in this country, and if we add together to the refined and raw sugar and molasses used, it will be seen that the consumption of 1852 amounted to 400,178 tons; which is at the rate of 29 lbs. per head of the population per annum. Whilst the quantity retained for home consumption in the United Kingdom, in 1844; was but 4,130,000 cwt., the amount had risen in 1852 to upwards of 8,000,000 cwt. Sugar unrefined, entered for home consumption. Colonial Raw. Foreign Raw. Total. Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. 1848 5,936,355 1,225,866 6,162,221 1849 5,424,248 498,038 5,922,386 1850 5,201,206 911,115 6,112,321 1851 5,872,288 1,383,286 6,255,574 1852 6,241,581 687,269 6,928,850 To the foregoing should be added the following quantities of refined sugar and molasses, entered for home consumption. Refined Sugar and Candy. Molasses. Total Cwt. Cwt. Cwt. 1848 46,292 637,050 683,342 1849 75,392 812,330 887,722 1850 116,744 917,588 1,034,362 1851 338,734 773,035 1,111,769 1852 274,781 799,942 1,074,723 The quantity of sugar refined by our bonded refiners, and exported, is shown by the following figures. The increase in 1851, was one-fourth in excess of the previous year. Cwt. 1848 248,702 1849 222,900 1850 209,148 1851 258,563 1852 214,299 The following were the imports of sugar into Great Britain, in 1848 and 1851, respectively--and the quarters from whence supplies were derived:-- 1848--Tons. 1851--Tons. West Indies 121,600 153,300 Mauritius 43,600 50,000 East Indies 65,200 78,286 Java and Manila 11,000 20,850 Havana, Porto Rico, and Brazil 76,900 76,526 ------- ------- 318,300 378,962 The production of sugar in the last four years, may be stated comparatively as follows:-- +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | CANE SUGAR. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | | Cuba | 220,000 | 250,000 | 252,000 | 320,000 | | Porto Rico | 43,600 | 48,200 | 49,500 | 50,000 | | Brazil | 106,000 | 103,000 | 113,000 | 100,000 | | United States | 98,200 | 120,400 | 103,200 | 110,000 | | The West Indies | | | | | | 1. French Colonies | 56,300 | 47,200 | 50,000 | 50,000 | | 2. Danish Do. | 7,900 | 5,000 | 6,000 | 5,000 | | 3. Dutch Do. | 13,800 | 14,200 | 15,000 | 20,000 | | 4. British Do. | 142,200 | 129,200 | 148,000 | 140,000 | | The East Indies | 70,403 | 67,300 | 66,000 | 60,000 | | Mauritius | 50,782 | 57,800 | 55,500 | 65,000 | | Java | 90,000 | 89,900 | 99,347 | 104,542 | | Manila | 20,000 | 20,000 | 20,000 | 20,000 | +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ | | 919,182 | 952,200 | 977,547 | 1,044,542 | +----------------------+---------+---------+---------+-----------+ +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ |BEET ROOT SUGAR.| 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. |Estmd. Tons.| | France | 38,000 | 61,000 | 75,000 | 60,000 | | Belgium | 5,000 | 6,000 | 8,000 | 9,000 | | Zollverein | 33,000 | 38,000 | 49,000 | 50,000 | | Russia | 13,000 | 14,000 | 15,000 | 16,000 | | Austria | 6,500 | 10,000 | 15,000 | 18,000 | +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ | | 95,500 | 129,000 | 162,000 | 153,000 | | Cane Sugar | 919,182 | 952,200 | 977,547 | 1,044,542 | +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ | Total | 1,014,682 | 1,081,200 | 1,139,547 | 1,197,542 | +----------------+------------+------------+------------+------------+ The price of sugar has, however, fallen considerably, and like many other things--corn, and cotton, and tea--has been lower for a long period than ever was known before. Average price per London Gazette. Year ending July 5, British West India. Mauritius. 1842 37s. 0d. ----- 1843 34s. 7d. 33s. 10d. 1844 34s. 9d. 34s. 7d. 1845 31s. 3d. 30s. 3d. 1846 35s. 3d. 34s. 2d. 1847 32s. 11d. 32s. 1d. 1848 24s. 3d. 23s. 3d. 1849 24s. 4d. 24s. 0d. 1850 25s. 3d. 28s. 8d. 1851 27s. 3d. 26s. 9d. Half-year ending Jan. 5, 1852 27s. 3d. 26s. 9d. Thus, it is equally clear that the fall in the price has been very considerable since 1845, and that in 1849 and 1850 the price of sugar was about 10s. per cwt., or nearly one-third less than in 1838. The planters complain of the fall of price; and the only question in dispute is whether the fall has been occasioned by the reduction of the duties. Now the reduction of duties subsequent to 1846 and to 1851, was, on brown Muscovado sugar, from 13s. to 10s., or 3s.; and on foreign, from 21s. 7d. to 16s. 4d., or 5s. 3d. At the same time there was a very large increase of consumption, and the price, as of almost all articles, would not have been reduced to the full extent of the reduction of the duties, and certainly not reduced in a much greater degree, had there not been other causes at work to reduce the price. Between 1846 and 1851 freight from the Mauritius fell from £4 1s. 8d. to £2 13s. 9d., or 35 per cent.; and that reduction of price was not made from the planter. In the interval, too, great improvements were made in the manufacture of sugar; and in proportion as the article was produced cheaper, it could be sold cheaper, without any loss to him. I shall now take a separate review of the capabilities and progress of the leading sugar producing countries. _Production in the United States_.--Sugar cultivation, in the United States, is a subject of increasing interest. The demand is rapidly advancing. Its production in the State of Louisiana, to which it is there principally confined, is a source of much wealth. In 1840, the number of slaves employed in sugar culture was 148,890, and the product, 119,947 hhds. of 1,000 lbs. each; besides 600,000 gallons of molasses. Last year, the crop exceeded 240,000 hhds., worth 12,000,000 of dollars. The capital now employed, is 75,000,000 of dollars. The protection afforded by the American tariff, has greatly increased the production of sugar in the United States. From 1816 to 1850, this increase was from 15,000 hhds. to 250,000 hhds. In 1843, the State of Louisiana had 700 plantations, 525 in operation, producing about 90,000 hhds. In 1844, the number of hogsheads was 191,324, and of pounds, 204,913,000; but this was exclusive of the molasses, rated at 9,000,000 gallons. In 1845 there were in Louisiana 2,077 sugar plantations, in 25 parishes; 1,240 sugar houses, 630 steam power, 610 working horse power; and the yield of sugar was 186,650 hhds., or 207,337,000 lbs. The introduction of the sugar cane into Florida, Texas, California, and Louisiana, probably dates back to their earliest settlement by the Spaniards or French. It was not cultivated in the latter, however, as a staple product before the year 1751, when it was introduced, with several negroes, by the Jesuits, from St. Domingo. They commenced a small plantation on the banks of the Mississippi, just above the old city of New Orleans. The year following, others, cultivated the plant and made some rude attempts at the manufacture of sugar. In 1758, M. Dubreuil established a sugar estate on a large scale, and erected the first sugar mill in Louisiana, in what is now the lower part of New Orleans. His success was followed by other plantations, and in the year 1765 there was sugar enough manufactured for home consumption; and in 1770, sugar had become one of the staple products of the colony. Soon after the revolution a large number of enterprising adventurers emigrated from the United States to Lower Louisiana, where, among other objects of industry, they engaged in the cultivation of cane, and by the year 1803 there were no less than eighty-one sugar estates on the Delta alone. Since that period, while the production of cane sugar has been annually increasing at the south, the manufacture of maple sugar has been extending in the north and west. Hitherto, the amount of sugar and molasses consumed in the United States has exceeded the quantities produced--consequently there has been no direct occasion for their exportation. In the year 1815 it was estimated that the sugar made on the banks of the Mississippi amounted to 10,000,000 lbs. According to the census of 1840, the amount of cane and maple sugar produced in the United States was 155,100,089 lbs., of which 119,947,720 lbs. were raised in Louisiana. By the census of 1850, the cane sugar made in the United States was 247,581,000 lbs., besides 12,700,606 gallons of molasses; maple sugar, 34,249,886 lbs., showing an increase, in ten years, of 126,730,077 lbs. The culture and manufacture of sugar from the cane, with the exception of a small quantity produced in Texas, centres in the State of Louisiana--where the cane is now cultivated and worked into sugar in twenty-four parishes. The extent of sugar lands available in those parishes is sufficient to supply the whole consumption of the United States. Sugar cultivation was carried on in Louisiana to a small extent before its cession to the United States. In 1818 the crop had reached 25,000 hogsheads. In 1834-35 it was 110,000 hogsheads, and in 1844-45 204,913 hogsheads. Each hogshead averaging 1,000 lbs. net, and yielding from 45 to 50 gallons of molasses. The number of sugar estates in operation in 1830, was 600. The manual power employed on these plantations, was 36,091 slaves, 282 steam-engines, and 406 horse power. The capital invested being estimated at 50 million dollars. In 1844 the estates had increased to 762, employing 50,670 slaves, 468 steam-engines, 354 horse power. The sugar-cane is now cultivated on both branches of the Mississippi from 57 miles below New Orleans to nearly 190 miles above. The whole number of sugar houses in the State is 1,536, of which 865 employ steam, and the rest horse power. The crop of 1849-50 was 247,923 hhds. of 1,000 lbs., which, at an average of 3½ cents., amounted to nearly 9½ million dollars. The quantity of molasses produced was more than 12 million gallons, worth, at 20 cents the gallon, about 2,400,000 dollars, giving a total value of close upon 12 million dollars, or an average to each of the 1,455 working sugar houses of 8,148 dollars. The overflow of the Mississippi and Red Rivers in 1850, shortened the crop near 20,000 hhds., and was felt in subsequent years. Since 1846, not less than 355 sugar mills and engines have been erected in this State. The sugar crop of 1851-52 was 236,547 hhds., produced by 1,474 sugar houses, 914 of which were worked by steam, and the rest by horse-power. Texas raises about 8,000 to 10,000 hhds. of sugar, and Florida and Georgia smaller quantities. In the year ending December, 1851, there were taken for consumption in the United States about 132,832 tons of cane sugar, of which 120,599 were foreign imported. The quantity consumed in 1850 was 104,071 tons, of which 65,089 was foreign. _Production in Cuba_.--The average yearly production of sugar in Cuba has been, in the five years from 1846 to 1850, 18,690,560 arrobas, equal to 467,261,500 lbs., or 292,031 hhds. of 1,600 lbs. weight. The crop of 1851 was estimated at twenty-one and a-half million arrobas, equal to about 335,937 West India hhds. Thus, the increase from 1836 to 1841, has been as 29 per cent.; from 1841 to 1846, as 25 per cent.; and from 1846 to 1851, as 45 per cent. A portion of sugar is also smuggled out, to evade the export duty, and by some this is set down as high as a fourth of the foregoing amounts. In the three years ending 1841, the exports of the whole island were 2,227,624 boxes; in the three years ending 1844, 2,716,319 boxes; in the three years ending with 1847, 2,805,530 boxes. Between 1839 and 1847, the exports had risen from 500,000 to 1,000,000 boxes. The following table exhibits the quantity shipped from the leading port of Havana, to different countries:-- Countries. Sugar boxes of about 400 lbs. each. 1850. 1851. Spain 81,267 101,762 United States 146,672 199,204 England 25,697 46,615 Cowes and a market 221,385 270,010 The Baltic 45,085 81,866 Hamburgh and Bremen 29,271 33,165 Holland 23,242 26,828 Belgium 62,849 29,814 France 44,947 46,517 Trieste and Venice 38,627 14,832 Italy 2,856 5,243 Other places 13,888 16,601 ------- ------- Boxes 743,249 872,457 Our West India possessions have, owing to the want of a good supply of labor and available capital to introduce various scientific improvements, somewhat retrograded in the production of sugar; which, from the low price ruling the past year or two, has not been found a remunerative staple. The two large islands of Jamaica and Cuba, may be fairly compared as to their production of sugar. From 1804 to 1808, Jamaica exported, on the average, annually 135,331 hhds., and from 1844 to 1848, it had decreased to 41,872 hhds. The exports from the single port of Havana, which in the first named period were 165,690 boxes, rose during the latter period to 635,185 boxes; so that the shipments of sugar from Jamaica, which were in 1804 to 1808 double those of Havana--in the period from 1844 to 1848, were five times less! Cuba will be able to withstand the crisis of the low price of sugars, better than the emancipated British Colonies, for the following reasons:-- 1. It will find, in its present prosperity, a power of resistance that no longer exists in the British sugar-growing colonies. 2. Because it enjoys in the Spanish markets a protection for at least 16,955 tons of its sugar, or about eight-tenths of its total exportation. 3. Because it has secured a very strong position in the markets of the United States; and both from its proximity to, and its commercial relations with that country, as also from the better quality of its sugar, will command the sale of at least 33,500 tons, or about 16 per cent. of its total production. 4. Because in 1854, after the duties shall have been equalized, it will be enabled to undersell the British article in its own market. 5. Because, not being an exclusively sugar-growing colony, as are almost all British West India Islands, it may suffer from the present depressed condition of the sugar market, but cannot be entirely ruined, owing to its having commanding resources, and many other valuable staples,--coffee, copper, cotton, &c. 6. Because, by improving its agriculture and introducing useful machinery, railroads, &c., for which it has large available capital, it can produce sugar at a diminished cost. 7. And lastly, because the proprietors have _continuous_ labour at command, until slavery be abolished--of which there seems no present prospect. The slave population numbers about 350,000, and the free coloured population, about 90,000. The consumption of sugar, during 1847, very singularly tallied with the production of the British Colonies that year--being exactly 289,000 tons; but as 50,000 tons of foreign sugar were consumed, an accumulation of British plantation sugar necessarily remained on hand. The production of the French colonies was 100,000 tons, of which France received nine-tenths. In 1836, Jamaica made 1,136,554 cwt. of sugar. In 1840, its produce had fallen off to 545,600 cwt.; but in the same years, Porto Rico had increased its sugar crop, from 498,000 cwt., to 1,000,000 cwt. In 1837, Cuba made 9,060,058 arrobas of sugar, equal to 132,765 hhds.; in 1841, it had increased to 139,000 hhds. The largest crop grown in the West Indies, since 1838, was that of 1847, which amounted to 159,600 tons. The annexed returns of the sugar crops of Barbados and Jamaica, for a series of years may, be interesting:-- SUGAR CROPS OF THE ISLAND OF BARBADOS, FROM 1827 TO 1846 AND 1851. 1827 18,109 hhds. 1828 28,533 " 1829 23,486 " 1830 26,360 " 1831 28,174 " 1832 19,761 " 1833 28,099 " 1834 28,710 " 1835 25,371 " 1836 26,358 " 1837 31,670 " 1838 33,058 " 1839 28,213 " 1840 13,589 " 1841 17,801 " 1842 21,607 " 1843 24,587 " 1844 23,147 " 1845 24,767 " 1846 21,936 " 1851 48,000 " SUGAR CROPS OF THE ISLAND OF JAMAICA, FROM 1790 TO 1851. 1790 91,131 " 1791 91,020 " 1792 ... " 1793 82,136 " 1794 97,124 " 1795 95,372 " 1796 96,460 " 1797 85,109 " 1798 95,858 " 1799 110,646 " 1800 105,584 " 1801 139,036 " 1802 140,113 " 1803 115,496 " 1804 112,163 " 1805 150,352 " 1806 146,601 " 1807 135,203 " 1808 132,333 " 1809 114,630 " 1810 112,208 " 1811 138,292 " 1812 113,173 " 1813 109,158 " 1814 104,558 " 1815 127,209 " 1816 100,382 " 1817 123,766 " 1818 121,758 " 1819 116,382 " 1820 122,922 " 1821 119,560 " 1822 94,515 " 1823 101,271 " 1824 106,009 " 1825 72,090 " 1826 106,712 " 1827 87,399 " 1828 101,575 " 1829 97,893 " 1830 100,205 " 1831 94,381 " 1832 98,686 " 1833 85,161 " 1834 84,756 " 1835 77,970 " 1836 67,094 " 1837 61,505 " 1838 69,613 " 1839 49,243 " 1840 33,066 " 1841 34,491 " 1842 50,295 " 1843 44,169 " 1844 34,444 " 1845 47,926 " 1851 41,678 " The average of the five years ending 1851, being the first five of Free trade, shows an annual export from Jamaica of 41,678 hhds. The quantity of unrefined sugar imported from the British West Indies and Guiana in a series of years since the emancipation, is shown by the following abstract:-- Cwts. Cwts. Sugar. Molasses. 1831 4,103,800 323,306 1832 3,773,456 553,663 1833 3,646,205 686,794 1834 3,843,976 650,366 1835 3,524,209 507,495 1836 3,601,791 526,535 1837 3,306,775 575,657 1838 3,520,676 638,007 1839 2,824,372 474,307 1840 2,214,764 424,141 1841 2,148,218 430,221 1842 2,508,725 471,759 1843 2,509,701 605,632 1844 2,451,063 579,458 1845 2,853,995 491,083 1846 2,147,347 477,623 1847 3,199,814 531,171 1848 2,794,987 385,484 1849 2,839,888 605,487 1850 2,586,429 470,187 _Mauritius_.--In the year 1813 the exports of sugar from this island were but 549,465 lbs., and increasing gradually to 128,476,547 lbs. in 1849, or two-hundred fold in thirty-six years. The equalisation of the duties in 1825, and the admission of Mauritius sugars into England on the same footing as those from the West Indies, had the effect of stimulating the sugar trade of Mauritius, and advancing it to its present remarkable success. Notwithstanding its immense crops, scarcely more than three-fifths of the island is yet under cultivation; but it has the advantage of a cheap and abundant supply of labor, and much improved machinery has been introduced. The planters first commenced introducing Coolies in 1835, and were for some time restricted to the single port of Calcutta for their supply. The recent advices from Mauritius furnish some interesting information regarding the progress making in the sugar production of that colony. In reference to the cultivation of the cane, it is stated that by the introduction of guano upon several estates in the interior, the production has been very largely increased; but as the value and economy of manure has not been hitherto sufficiently estimated, its introduction has not been so general as could be desired. The importance of free labor to the cultivation of the estates, has now become fully appreciated by the planters; it being found that an equal amount of work can be obtained by this means from a less number of hands, and that at lower rates of wages than were current in previous years, the average of which is shown in the following table:-- +--------+-----------------+------------------+--------------+ | | Number of | Aggregate | Average | | Years. | Coolies | amount of wages |wages per head| | | employed. | paid per week. | per week. | +--------+-----------------+------------------+--------------+ | | | £ | s. d. | | 1846 | 47,733 | 33,484 | 14 0 | | 1847 | 48,314 | 35,338 | 14 9 | | 1848 | 41,777 | 26,627 | 12 9 | | 1849 | 45,384 | 27,625 | 12 2 | | 1850 | 47,912 | 31,664 | 12 3 | | 1851 | 42,275 | 27,832 | 12 2 | +--------+-----------------+------------------+--------------+ In 1826, to make from 25 to 30,000,000 lbs. of sugar, it required 30,000 laborers (slaves); at the present time, with less than 45,000 (from which number fully 5,000 must be deducted as absent from work from various causes), 135,000,000 lbs. are produced, or about five times the quantity under slavery. The coolies are found to be an intelligent race, who have become inured to the work required, and by whose labor this small island can produce the fifth part of the consumption of the United Kingdom, and that with only about 70,000 acres under cane cultivation. About 10,000 male immigrants, introduced since 1843, are not now working under engagement, but are following other occupations, and thus become permanent consumers. Some cultivate land on a small scale, on their own account, but very few plant canes, as it requires from eighteen to twenty months before they obtain any return for their labor; but the most important fact established by this and other official statements is, that only a small number of immigrants leave the colony at the expiration of their industrial residence. In the manufacture of sugar from the cane, considerable improvement has been effected by the introduction of new methods of boiling and grinding. The vacuum pan and the system of Wetsell are all tending to economise the cost of production, and to save that loss which for years amounted, in grinding alone, to nearly one-third of the juice of the cane. The planters begin to find that they can increase the value of their sugar 30 to 40 per cent. by these improvements, and that their future prosperity depends upon carrying them out. Unfortunately, however, here, as in many other of our colonies, a very large number of planters do not yet appreciate the advantages to be obtained by the adoption of improved machinery and manufacture, or by improved cultivation, and still struggle on under the old system of waste and negligence, which can only result in the ruin and destruction of their property. In 1827, the number of sugar estates in operation in Mauritius, were 49 worked by water power, 50 by cattle or horses, and 22 by steam--total 111; in 1836, this number had increased to 186, viz.--64 moved by water power, 10 by horse, and 112 by steam. In 1839, the number was 211, of which 138 were worked by steam power--70,292 acres were then under cultivation with sugar. There are now about 490 sugar estates, whereof only 231 have mills--42 are worked by water power, the rest by steam. The annual Mauritius crops, as exported, for the last ten years, have been as follows. The shipments frequently extend beyond a year, hence a discrepancy sometimes between the year's crop and the year's export:-- Tons, 1842-43 24,400 1843-44 28,600 1844-45 37,600 1845-46 49,100 1846-47 64,100 1847-48 59,021 1848-49 50,782 1849-50 51,811 1850-51 55,000 1851-52 65,080 Besides its exports to Great Britain, Mauritius ships large quantities of sugar to the Cape of Good Hope and Australia. Its local consumption is moreover set down at about 2,500 tons. The progressive increase in its exports is marked by the following return of imports into Great Britain from the island:-- Cwt. 1826 93,723 1827 186,782 1828 204,344 1829 361,325 1830 297,958 1831 485,710 1832 517,553 1833 521,904 1834 516,077 1835 553,891 1836 558,237 1837 497,302 1838 537,455 1839 604,671 1840 690,294 1841 545,356 1842 716,009 1843 696,652 1844 545,415 1845 716,173 1846 845,197 1847 1,193,571 1848 886,184 1849 893,524 1850 1,003,296 1851 999,337 _East Indies_.--Sugar is a very old and extensive cultivation in India. It would probably be within the mark, to estimate the annual produce of the country at a million of tons. An official return shows that the quantity of sugar carried on one road of the interior, for provincial consumption, is about equal to the whole quantity shipped from Calcutta--some 50,000 or 60,000 tons. India is fast becoming a great sugar producing country, although its produce and processes of manufacture are rude and imperfect. The Coolies who return from time to time to the Indian ports, bring with them much acquired knowledge and experience from the Mauritius. In 1825, the import of sugar from the East Indies was but 146,000 cwt., and it fluctuated greatly in succeeding years, being occasionally as low as 76,600 cwt. In 1837 the quantity imported was just double what it was in 1827. In 1841, it had reached as high as 1,239,738 cwt., and subsequently kept steady for a few years at 1,100,000 cwt.--and for the last four years has averaged 1,400,000 cwt. _Java_.--Attention has been withdrawn, in a great measure, from sugar cultivation in Java, owing to coffee being found a more remunerative staple. The following figures serve to show the extent of its exports of sugar:-- Cwt. 1826 23,565 1827 38,357 1828 31,301 1829 91,227 1830 129,300 1831 144,077 1832 292,705 1833 151,128 1834 443,911 1835 523,162 1836 607,336 1837 820,063 1838 873,056 1839 999,895 1840 1,231,135 1841 1,252,041 1842 1,105,856 1843 1,162,211 1844 1,260,790 1845 1,812,500 1848 1,798,612 1850 1,797,874 1851 1,987,957 1852 2,090,845 In 1840, we imported from Java 75,533 cwt.; in 1841, 87,342 cwt.; in 1842, 24,922 cwt.; in 1843, 35,161 cwt.; and in 1844, about 72,000 cwt.; but most of this was only sent to Cowes, for orders, to be transhipped to the Continent. _Philippines_.--The exports from Manila into this country in 1841, were 133,482 cwt.; in 1842, 63,464 cwt.; and in 1843, 48,977 cwt. In the fifteen years between 1835 and 1850, the export of sugar from the Philippine Islands more than doubled:-- Tons. 1835 11,542 1836 14,875 1837 12,293 1838 12,375 1839 15,631 1840 16,563 1841 15,321 1842 18,540 1843 22,239 1844 21,528 1845 24,500 1850 28,745 About a third of this is raw sugar, the rest is clayed or refined. It is singular, that though these islands belong to Spain, the export of this staple product to that country should be limited to about 600 tons; America taking about one-sixth, and England and her colonies the remainder. There is now an increased demand for the Australian colonies, consequent upon the large influx of population to that quarter. Export of sugar from Manila in 1850. Piculs. To Great Britain 146,926 " Continent of Europe 50,830 " Australian Colonies 142,359 " Singapore, Batavia, and Bombay 12,749 " California and the Pacific 29,144 " The United States 77,919 ------- 459,927 The sugar cane occurs in a wild state on many of the islands of the Pacific, but in no part of the American continent, notwithstanding a contrary opinion has been expressed. The following are the chief varieties cultivated in the West Indies, Louisiana, the East Indies, and Mauritius:-- 1. Common or creole cane, so called from being introduced from the New World. 2. Yellow Bourbon. 3. Yellow Otaheite. 4. Otaheite with purple bands. 5. Purple Otaheite. 6. Ribbon cane. My friend, Mr. L. Wray, in his "Practical Sugar Planter," considers the Bourbon, and yellow, or straw-coloured Otaheite cane, as identical, but merely altered by change of soil and climate. The yield from these cane-plants seems to be about the same in either Indies, viz., in good land about two-and-a-half tons of dry sugar per acre--sometimes three tons. A very large species of red cane, grown at Gowhatty, in Assam, is made favorable mention of for its strength of growth, early maturity, and juiciness; and Mr. Wray strongly recommends the introduction into the West Indies of another fine variety, generally grown in the Straits' settlements, where it is known by the name of the Salangore cane. He considers they would ratoon better than any other cane, and the return from it is on the average 3,600 lbs. of dry sugar to the acre. "For my own part, I have always reckoned as an average, 3,600 lbs. of dry sugar to the acre as the return this cane will give, on anything like good land, in the Straits, according to the present imperfect mode of expressing and manufacture; but, considering the surpassing richness of land in the West India Islands, Demerara, and Mauritius, I should not be in any way surprised to find that it would there give even three tons an acre. The Salangore cane grows firm and strong; stands upright much better than the Otaheite; gives juice most abundantly, which is sweet and easy of clarification, boils well, and produces a very fine, fair sugar, of a bold and sparkling grain." Much discussion has arisen on the subject of raising the sugar cane from seed, and the possibility has been universally denied among the planters and agricultural societies of the West India colonies. Mr. Pritchard, a sugar planter of Louisiana, in the "United States Patent Report for 1850," however, states:-- "It is an error to suppose that the cane cannot be propagated from the seed. This may be the case when the seed is obtained from plants that have been produced for a number of years from buds, or eyes. All plants that have been produced in this way for a series of years, lose the faculty of forming prolific seeds; and the sugar cane is governed by the same laws which govern the whole vegetable kingdom. It cannot, therefore, be expected to produce seeds after it has been cultivated for a great length of time." The sugar cane is composed of water, woody fibre, and soluble matter, or sugar. In round numbers it may be stated that the proportions are 72 per cent. of water, 10 per cent. of woody fibre, and 18 per cent. of sugar. The fluid contents of a cane, according to Dr. Evans, contain 90 per cent. of the entire structure of the stem. 1,000 grains of sugar cane, being burnt, gave 7½ grains of ash, which, on analysis, furnished the following components:-- Silica 1.78 Phosphate of lime 3.41 Red oxide of iron and clay .17 Carbonate of potash 1.46 Sulphate of potash .15 Carbonate of magnesia .43 Sulphate of lime 6 ---- 7.46 The following is the quantative analysis of a portion of soil taken from the surface of a cane field, on the Diamond estate, in St. Vincent, West Indies: -- Alumina soluble in acids 12.87 Organic matter 11.26 Gypsum .23 Carbonate of lime 12.52 ---- of magnesia .71 Oxide of iron 8.51 Oxide of manganese .33 Insoluble silicious and aluminous matter 53.57 ------ 100.00 The sugar of the cane and grape sugar are distinguished by the following difference in their elements, as proved by analysis:-- Cane sugar. Grape sugar. Carbon 12 12 Hydrogen 10 12 Oxygen 10 12 Water 1 2 There is a remarkable difference, however, between their fermentable properties. When a solution is made of the same quantities of these two sugars, in equal proportions of distilled water, it will be necessary to add eight times as much of the same ferment to induce alcoholic fermentation in the solution of cane sugar, as in that of grape sugar. Under the action of a larger quantity of ferment, cane sugar is transformed into grape sugar. If you cut a sugar cane in two, and examine the interior part of it with a magnifying glass, you perceive the crystals of sugar as distinct and as white as those of double-refined sugar. The object of the operator should be then either to extract those crystals without altering their color, or, if that be found impracticable, to separate them from the impurities mixed with them, while the juice is in its natural state, and yet contains but little coloring matter. Instead of this, the juice is limed while all the impurities are in it. In separating the feculencies from the juice and uniting them in large flakes, lime dissolves a portion of them and forms with them coloring matter, which we all know at once discolors the juice, when lime is used in excess. Afterwards heat is applied, either in clarifiers or in the grand copper, but most of the impurities found in the juice will decompose, and burn at a degree of heat far below the boiling point, say at 120 deg. of Fahrenheit. This is shown by the thick scales continually forming in the grande. From that degree of heat the decomposition goes on in the clarifier till the juice is drawn, and continues in the grande so long as there are feculencies left. This decomposition greatly increases the quantity of coloring matter, so that, as the juice is being clarified, it loses in color what it gains in purity. And here let me show the relative value of the "grande" and of clarifiers as agents of clarification. In the grande, if it is well attended to, the scummings are taken up as soon as they rise. A portion of them is removed before they begin to decompose, and the process goes on, so that before the juice reaches the boiling point nearly all the feculencies are removed, and the source of coloring matter is removed with them. Clarifiers reach the boiling point much quicker, and cannot easily be scummed. The general practice is to bring them to that point without scumming, to let the feculencies separate from the juice by cooling and by rest, and to wash out the clarifiers every second or third time they are filled. Heat and alkalies acting in them upon the accumulated feculencies of one, two, or three charges, dissolve a much larger portion of those feculencies than they can possibly do in the grande. The formation of coloring matter continues during the time of rest, and accordingly planters, after repeated trials, generally agree that juice well clarified in the grande, has a lighter and brighter color, and makes better sugar than that obtained from clarifiers. The first object of research should be to find means of clarifying the juice without creating coloring matter. It is said that presses something like those used to press cotton, have lately been successfully employed in the West Indies, instead of rollers; that the juice obtained is much purer, and that a much larger quantity of it is extracted from the cane. If so, this will be a great improvement, and the first step of the process I should recommend. From juice thus obtained, I have no doubt that all impurities less soluble than itself may be separated by mechanical means before heat and alkalies are applied, or at least with a very small quantity of alkalies. All other liquids, all fatty substances and oils, except cotton seed oil, are clarified by a very rapid process. Cane juice can no doubt be clarified by similar means, and if this were accomplished the process of sugar making would be very much simplified. The clarified juice might then be placed in an evaporator, heated by the waste steam of the engine; then be limed and scummed if necessary, and concentrated to fifteen or sixteen of the prese sirop; then purified by filtration through animal charcoal, if white sugar was wanted, or by rest for other qualities; and finally concentrated in vacuum pans of great power, such pans as Mr. Thomas A. Morgan, of Louisiana, now uses, and which, I am informed, are only made in America. The superiority of the vacuum pan is not universally admitted, and we are told that in France it is superseded by open pans, similar to those called in America "Mape's Evaporators." However this may be, I cannot help believing that the vacuum pan has many decided advantages over all others. One is manifest; the sugar may be grained in the pan, and the granulation is completely under the control of the operator. He may accelerate or retard it at pleasure; he may carry it so far that sugar will not run from the pan, and will have to be taken out of it; he may so conduct the operation as to increase, almost at will, the size and hardness of the crystals. This last is an indispensable requisite if the practice of draining sugar in pneumatic pans should be adopted. The atmospheric pressure is made too powerful for sugars boiled in any other manner; it breaks and destroys the crystals, and in a very few days sets the sugar to fermenting. The pneumatic draining of sugar has many things to recommend it--the usual loss by drainage is avoided, sugar is got ready for market day by day, as it is made, and it may be bleached by pouring white syrup over it and forcing it through the mass. It is said that the process is attended with considerable loss in weight, but as all that drains from the pan may be boiled over once or twice, it is not easy to conceive how the loss can occur. Cane juice contains many ingredients besides sugar, the principal of which are albumen, gluten, gum, starch, resin, wax, coloring matter, and certain salts, all of which, either collectively or individually, have the power of preventing granulation, as may be proved by their addition to a syrup of pure sugar, which will then defy all attempts to make it crystallise. If, therefore, we want to make good sugar, we must endeavour to free our cane juice as much as possible from those substances. Now, cane juice is no more the sap of the cane, than apple juice is that of the apple tree; it is the natural product of the cane, and, in all probability, would contain but a small proportion of these foreign matters if it could be expressed without being accompanied by the sap, they being the natural constituents of the last-named fluid. A patent has, I believe, been lately taken out for separating the cane juice without the sap. However, in the absence of such an improvement, much may be done by care and attention at the mill; the green bands and trash which usually accompany the canes from the field, should, therefore, be carefully removed before they are passed through, as they contain no saccharine matter, abound in the deleterious substances already mentioned, and communicate a bad color to the juice; therefore, _the ripe cane only should pass through the mill_. There are but few planters who have not had to contend with sour juice, and they attribute the difficulty they experience in making sugar therefrom, to the presence of acetic acid, or vinegar; but this is quite an erroneous idea, as the acetic acid is very volatile, and evaporates quickly on the application of heat, which may be proved by throwing a gallon of strong vinegar into a pan of liquor; it will do no harm, provided it be boiled before tempering; on the contrary, the effect, if it be properly done, will be beneficial, as it will promote the coagulation of the albumen; it is the gum which is always formed during the acetous fermentation of sugar that prevents granulation; hence, then, acidity is strictly to be guarded against, as fermentation once commenced, it will be impossible to make good sugar, it will continue throughout the process, and even in the hogshead; so that canes should be ground as soon as possible after they are cut, and all rat-eaten and broken ones carefully excluded. Canes may, however, be kept some days without fermenting, provided they be not broken or damaged, it being, as we said before, the mixture of the sap and the cane juice that makes the liquid so prone to fermentation; and the mill, gutters, and everything with which the juice is likely to come in contact, should be kept carefully clean, and whitewashed immediately after, and the whitewash removed before use, as acetate of lime being an exceedingly soluble and deliquescent salt, will not improve the quality of the sugar; whilst the gutter should be short, and sheltered from the sun's rays, they having the effect of greatly expediting chemical action. I shall say no more on this subject, but will proceed to consider the mode of tempering and clarifying cane juice, and the action of lime on the various substances contained therein. The expression "tempering" has, I presume, been, adopted in consequence of the use of tempered lime for the purpose of precipitating the feculencies, held in solution in the cane juice, into a state of suspension; and clarification is the process by which we afterwards clear the liquor of these and other foreign matter. Now, as I before observed, "fermentation should be most strictly guarded against;" our first efforts should be directed to free the cane juice from those substances most conducive to that process; and on inquiry we find these to be albumen and gluten; so far, however, from getting rid of them in cold tempering, we adopt a course which retains them permanently in solution, as lime has the power of rendering them permanently soluble, and of forming soapy compounds with resin, wax, and chlorophyle, or the green coloring matter of leaves, forming an insoluble compound with and precipitating only the starch, and converting at the same time the green color of the chlorophyle (which is, in all probability, attached to the resin), into a dark brown, of a greater or less intensity, according to the composition of the cane juice, and, consequently, the quantity of lime required; it follows, therefore, as a matter of course, that if juice be tempered before these substances have been removed, they must be permanently retained, and they have all the power of preventing granulation. Albumen, and gluten are both coagulable by heat; if, therefore, we raise the liquor to the boiling point prior to applying the lime, taking care to remove the scum as soon as it shows signs of breaking, and continuing the boiling until the scum thrown to the surface becomes inconsiderable, we shall find that the albumen and gluten, in coagulating and rising, have carried with them the small particles of woody fibre, the wax, and a large proportion of the coloring matter, and that the lime will now throw down the starch, and any other little impurities remaining in suspension in the liquor, leaving it perfectly clear and bright. Tempering is an exceedingly delicate chemical operation, and I have no hesitation in saying, that on its proper performance depends the quality of the produce. The following simple experiments, which all have it in their power to try, will, if they give themselves the trouble, fully satisfy them of two important points--the superiority of the hot over the cold mode, and the necessity for great attention to the operation of tempering. Let them take a tumbler of cane-juice and a bottle containing lime water, add the latter to the former by drops, pausing and stirring between each, and they will find that, after the addition of a certain quantity, the opaque gummy appearance of the liquor undergoes a change, and the impurities contained in it separate into flakes, which increase in size with each drop of lime added, until they become extinct, and the supernatant liquor perfectly transparent; this is the precise point at which the liquor is tempered, and each drop of lime added after this, causes the flakes to diminish rapidly in size, at last entirely to disappear (being re-dissolved), and the liquor to resume its former gummy appearance; it is, therefore, evident that there should be no such expressions as tempering high or low. The reason why some liquor is so difficult to clean is, that it is either tempered high or low; if it be exactly tempered, the impurities contained in it being entirely separated and thrown out of solution, rise to the surface immediately on the application of heat, and are easily removed; but if there be too little lime, a great portion remains in solution, and if too much, a proportional quantity is re-dissolved; and in either case cannot be removed by any mechanical means. It is, therefore, necessary to have some precise test for the application of lime. As regards the superiority of the hot over the cold tempering, let any one take, in separate vessels, two gallons of cane-juice, and temper one, adding the lime in small quantities--say, of three grains at a time--and keeping an account of the quantity used; he will find that the first portions produce no effect whatever, and that it is only after the addition of a considerable quantity that the desired precipitation of the impurities manifest itself. Why is this? Because albumen, gluten, resin, and chlorophyle, being soluble in lime, lime is equally so in them, and they must first be saturated before it will produce any other effect. Let the liquor thus tempered, be then placed on one side. Put the other gallon over a fire, and boil it, removing the scum just before, and during, ebullition; let it then be taken off the fire, and tempered in the same way as the other. The very first quantity of lime added causes the appearance of the floccy precipitate; and if the addition of the lime be continued until it be precisely tempered, it will be found that the hot possesses the following advantages over the cold-tempered liquor:--In a quarter of an hour its impurities will have subsided to a sixteenth of its bulk, leaving the supernatant liquor as bright and clear as pale brandy; while those in the other have only sunk to one-quarter of its bulk. The color of the former clear liquor will not be less than one-half the intensity of that of the latter. The lime used in the hot has been less by one-third than the quantity used in the cold tempering. Of course, on level estates there is little difficulty in tempering liquor, but on hilly properties scarcely two pans will require the same quantity. It is generally believed that the object of adding lime to cane-juice is for the purpose of neutralising an acid, and it is to the reception of this fallacious idea that it is indebted for its long and continued use, and the present backward state of sugar manufacture is attributable: I unhesitatingly assert that, if there be an acid present in the cane-juice, the addition of lime to it will be injurious instead of beneficial. There are only four acids that we could expect to find in cane juice--mucous, saccholactic or saclactic, oxalic, and acetic acids. The three first named of these, however, have never been traced, even in the most minute quantities; and if the latter be present, which, unfortunately, is but too often the case, the addition of lime would only result in the formation of acetate of lime, which is, as I have already observed, an exceedingly difficult crystallisable, very soluble, and deliquescent salt. It has a bitter, saline taste; 100 parts consist of 64.5 acid, 35.5 lime, and it is easily recognisable by its taste in the molasses made from sour cane-juice: so that, supposing the cane-juice sour, every pint of acid present would require nearly half a pound of lime for its neutralisation, independent of the quantity required for the tempering or precipitation of the feculencies contained in it, and would result in the formation of one-and-a-half pound of the above mentioned highly deleterious salt. Suppose we boil the cane-juice prior to tempering it, we then drive off a great portion of acetic acid, much less lime will be required, and if we could, by filtration or subsidence, get rid of the precipitated feculencies, we should make a tolerably good sugar; but as, under the present plan, we have no means of so doing, the acetic acid, which is forming during the whole process of evaporation (as fermentation still goes on), unites with the lime before it can be dissipated by the heat, and thus not only forms acetate of lime, but causes the re-solution of the precipitated feculencies, thus rendering it necessary to add a fresh portion of lime in the tache, a proceeding always to be avoided, if possible, but generally necessary in boiling down sour liquor. Take a small portion of cane-juice (hot or cold) in a tumbler, and temper it with lime until the feculencies are precipitated and the flakes perfectly visible, then add vinegar by drops, and it will be found that the flakes will speedily disappear and be re-dissolved, showing that lime has a greater affinity for acetic acid than starch, and that, although when added to sour cane-juice, it neutralises the acidity, still that result is a consequence, not the cause, of the application, and is highly injurious. Lime is one of the greatest known solvents of vegetable matter; it dissolves albumen, gluten, gum and lignin, or woody fibre, forming soapy compounds with wax, resin, and, chlorophyle. Ordinary cane-juice contains about three parts of resin to every 100 of sugar, and the projection of a small piece of soap into a tache full of granulating syrup will soon convince any one of the effect likely to result from the presence of that material. Although, by tempering hot, we get rid of a very great quantity of the substances on which lime acts injuriously, a considerable portion of them remain in suspension, the quantity of albumen contained in the cane-juice not being sufficient to carry them all off by coagulation; on the addition of the lime, however, they are entirely dissolved and as the impurities left behind consist chiefly of gluten, the liability of the liquor to ferment is greatly increased by its retention, that being the fermenting principle contained in wheat and other vegetable productions prone to that process. One hundred parts of Albumen consist of Carbon, 52.88; Oxygen, 23.88; Hydrogen, 7-54; Nitrogen, 15.70. Gluten, nearly same as Albumen. -------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+-------++------+-------- 100 parts | | | | | ||Excess! Excess consist of |Carbon.|Oxygen.|Hydro- | Carbon. | Water.|| of | of | | | gen. | | ||Oxygen|Hydrogen -------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+-------++------+-------- Lignin, or | | | | | || | Woody Fibre| 51.45 | 42.73 | 5.82 | or51.45 | 48.55 || | Starch | 43.55 | 49.63 | 6.77 | 43.55 | 56.45 || | Sugar | 42.47 | 50.63 | 6.90 | 42.47 | 57.53 || | Gum | 42.23 | 50.84 | 6.93 | 42.23 | 57.77 || | Alcohol | 51.98 | 34.32 | 13.70 | 51.98 | 38.99 || | 9.03 Acetic Acid | 50.22 | 44.15 | 5.63 | 50.22 | 46.91 || 2.87 | Resin | 75.94 | 13.34 | 10.72 | 75.94 | 15.16 || | 8.90 Wax | 81.79 | 5.54 | 12.76 | 81.79 | 6.30 || | 11.01 -------------+-------+-------+-------+---------+-------++------+-------- By a reference to the foregoing table it will be easily understood how slight a change in the proportion of the ingredients of any one of the substances contained therein will convert it into an entirely different one. In chemistry we are able, to a certain extent, to imitate the operations of nature; but we must follow in the same course laid down by her; thus, we can convert woody fibre, or sawdust and starch, into sugar, gum, alcohol, and acetic acid; but we cannot convert alcohol, acetic acid, or gum into sugar, starch or woody fibre; and of such importance is a slight alteration of the proportions of these elements--carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen--that the abstraction of carbon from sugar, and the addition of a portion of the prime support of life, vegetation and combustion, oxygen, changes the harmless sugar into the most violent of poisons, oxalic acid, which consists of 26.57 carbon, 70.69 oxygen, and 2.74 hydrogen. Let us now examine the action of lime on sugar, and we shall find it equally, if not more, injurious than on the other substances. Sugar is capable of dissolving half its weight of lime, by which its sweet taste is destroyed, and it becomes converted into gum; the lime abstracting carbonic acid from it to form a carbonate of lime or chalk. It will be seen by the above table that-- 100 parts of sugar contain 42.47 carbon. 100 parts of gum contain 42.23 ditto. ----- Difference 24 So that, if we extract 24-100ths of a grain of carbon from 100 grains of sugar, we convert them into gum. Let us suppose that about two ounces of lime, or say 1,000 grains, remain in solution in a pan, (say 200 gallons of liquor,) those 1,000 grains of lime will require 761 of carbonic acid to convert them into carbonate of lime or chalk, 100 grains of which consist of 56.2 lime and 43.8 carbonic acid. So that 1,761 grains of chalk consist of 1,000 lime and 761 carbonic acid. Now 100 grains of carbonic add consist of 27.53 carbon and 72.47 oxygen; therefore 761 grains will consist of 209.50 carbon and 551.53 oxygen. Consequently, 1,000 grains of lime will require 209.50 grains of carbon to convert them into carbonate of lime; and as we have seen that the abstraction of 24 from 100 grains of sugar convert them into gum, it follows, that the abstraction of 209.50 grains would have a similar effect on 87,000 grains, or about 15 lbs. of sugar, which, being converted into gum, would prevent the crystallisation of several times its weight of sugar; and this is the cause of the formation of molasses. The loss of sugar is not the only bad consequence of the use of lime, as the greater the quantity of gum in the liquor, the more it must be boiled--the more it is boiled the darker it gets--and the higher the temperature at which the skip is struck, the smaller the grain. The following is a good proof that lime dissolves albumen, and becomes converted into chalk:--Take a spoonful of syrup out of the tache of any estate on which the liquor is tempered cold; it will be found filled with small flakes; these are albumen set free from its solution in the lime by the conversion of the latter into carbonate of lime, and coagulated by heat. It is perfectly possible to temper liquor, so that scarcely any uncrystallisable sugar will remain; but planters do not like this; they must have molasses for the still-house; they could, however, boil low, by which the grain and color would be improved, and plenty of uncrystallised, although not uncrystallisable, syrup would be left to take the place of molasses. I think I have now fully proved the following facts, viz.:--That the use of lime in sugar-making is not to neutralise an acid; that if acidity be present, the application of lime is injurious; that its action on gluten, albumen, wax, resin, and chlorophyle is equally so; that by decomposing the sugar and forming gum, the quantity of molasses or uncrystallisable sugar is much increased, whereby high boiling is rendered necessary, with its consequent heightening of color and injury to the grain of the produce, and that therefore it is perfectly unfit for the purpose of tempering cane-juice. Messrs. Thomas Begg and Co., of London, have procured from E.F. Telchemacher and J. Denham Smith, an analysis of one gallon of ordinary plantain juice, and one gallon of Ramos' prepared plantain juice "for the purpose of ascertaining whether any substance can be used which, in conjunction with water, will answer as a substitute for the plantain juice in the receipt which accompanied the samples." The chemists say they find that one gallon of ordinary plantain juice holds in solution;-- Extract similar to tannin 25.60 grains Vegetable extract and fatty matter 57.70 " Carbonate of potash 150.40 " Muriate of potash 33.60 " Muriate of soda 2.00 " Silica 1.20 " ------------- Contents of one imperial gallon 270.50 grains --whilst one gallon of "Ramos' prepared plantain juice" contains, besides vegetable extract, 226 grains of solid matter, consisting of sulphuret and potash, in the following proportions:-- Sulphur 40 grains Lime 156 " Potash 30 " ---------- 226 grains They do not think it likely that the potash exists in fresh plantain juice as carbonate, but rather that this salt is the product of decomposition, arising from a compound of potash and a vegetable acid, such as tartaric or oxalic acid present in the fresh juice; be this as it may, any utility derivable from the plantain juice is evidently owing to the potash it contains. They then give as a substitute for Ramos' liquid, and to be used in a similar way, the following-- Take of subcarbonate of potash 2 ounces, avoirdupois; sulphur, 2¼ ounces; best British lime slaked, 1½ lb.; mix them into a paste in an earthen pan or wooden tub, with one quart of water (warm) and when thoroughly mixed, pour in ten gallons of boiling water--rain water is the best to use--and stir from time to time until it has cooled, when it may be drawn off from the sediment and kept for use. If rain water cannot be obtained, the purest water obtainable may be used. One of the causes most fatal to West Indian prosperity, is that exuberance of advantages which they enjoy from serenity of climate and fertility of soil--causes which, in the absence of proper stimulus to industry and improvement, have led to an improvident system of cultivation, and to a blind and ignorant adherence to wasteful methods of manufacture. The cane is believed to contain from 90 to 95 per cent. of its own weight of saccharine juice; and yet (as Mr. Fownes, a Professor of Practical Chemistry in University College, London, informs us, in an excellent paper "On the Manufacture of Sugar in Barbados,"[17] from which much of what follows has been borrowed) owing to the defective construction of the mills, hardly so much as 50 per cent. is obtained, although he believes it practicable, by an improvement in the mills, to obtain from 70 to 75 per cent.; and of the remaining 10 or 15 per cent. which he regards it as impossible to extract, much, if not the whole, might, I conceive, be obtained, by macerating the pressed canes or megass, as it issues from the mill, and repassing it through the rollers; and, be it remembered, that from 40 to 45 per cent. of saccharine juice is nearly, if not altogether, equivalent to a similar per centage of sugar; so that by these initiatory improvements alone, and with little additional trouble, the produce of sugar might be nearly doubled from any given quantity of canes. From the action of lime-water when added in a slight excess to the cane juice or raw liquor, as it is vernacularly termed, immediately on issuing from the mill, as well as from the effect produced by ammonia or potash, this liquid appears to contain a considerable quantity of cane sugar, mixed with much glucose, or that saccharine matter which is found in fruits; gum or dextrine, phosphates, and probably malates of lime and magnesia, with sulphates and chlorides, potash and soda, and a peculiar azotised matter, allied to albumen, which forms an insoluble compound with lime, is not coagulable by heat or acids, and runs readily into putrefactive fermentation. To free it from these constituents, and enable it to yield pure and crystallisable sugar, the liquor, on entering the boiling-house, is received into the first of three clarifiers, of the capacity of from three hundred to a thousand gallons each. Here it is subjected to the action of lime-water, which checks the tendency to fermentation, and neutralises any free acid which it may contain. "The common defection process," says Mr. Fownes, "in careful hands, seems susceptible of little improvement. Many other substances than lime have been proposed and tried with more or less success, some of which, in particular states of the cane juice, may prove very useful; but, for general purposes, nothing seems to answer so well as neutralisation by lime, either in the form of lime-water or milk of lime, added until the slightest possible tendency to alkalinity, as ascertained by delicate reddened litmus paper, is perceived. The juice should be somewhat heated before the lime is added, and afterwards raised quite to the boiling point. The fire is then to be withdrawn, and the whole allowed to rest a short time." Such is Mr. Fownes' description of the process of clarification; to which I will venture to add, upon the authority of those who have experienced its good effects, the joint use of the mucilage of the _Guazuma ulmifolia_, or gun-stock tree, as it is popularly termed in Nevis from the use to which its timber has been applied. This is the bastard cedar of Jamaica, or Orme d'Amerique, and Bois d'Orme of the French, which may be found described by Lunan, in the first volume of his "Hortus Jamaicensis," page 59, under the name of _Bubroma Guazuma_. This tree presents in the interval between its outer bark of sap-wood, a mass of fibrous matter about half an inch in thickness, richly impregnated with mucilage, which is obtained by macerating the fibrous mass, conveniently divided into small shreds, for about twelve hours, in warm water, in the proportion of about two handsful to eight gallons of water. Of this solution, which is of a light, straw color, and somewhat thickened, one gallon is to be added for every hundred gallons of cane juice, after the clarifier has been charged with the proper quantity of lime-water, and has become lukewarm. The mixture should then be stirred, and afterwards allowed to settle till the scum has risen to the surface. The fire must next be cautiously and gradually raised to the point of boiling, when it must again be slackened, and the whole left to stand for about forty minutes, by which time the mass of feculencies will have risen to the surface, when the clear liquor underneath may either be drawn off by a siphon or cock; the whole may be filtered as Mr. Fownes recommends, by which means the liquor would be more effectually clarified, and much, if not all, the subsequent labour of skimming dispensed with. The matter remaining on the filter may be employed, either as a ferment in the still-house, or added to the manure heap. Much of the beneficial effect of the mucilage of the _guazuma_ arises probably from an admixture of tannin, or some other astringent; for I have often been struck with the peculiar whiteness of the potted sugar in the curing-house, in the immediate vicinity of the Banana stalks, resulting, no doubt, from their powerful astringency; and tannin has already been found useful in the manufacture of sugar from beet-root in France, and is no doubt equally applicable to cane-sugar. The liquor, when clarified in the manner described, must be concentrated, by regulated evaporation, to the degree requisite for crystallisation. This Mr. Fownes advises to be done by steam of a moderate pressure circulating in a spiral of copper-pipe laid at the bottom of the evaporating vessels, which should be large and shallow, and wholly unlike those in present use. Here it may be rapidly boiled down till the heat rises to about 225 deg., without risk of burning. When cold, it should have a density of about 1.38, and mark the 38th degree of Baume's hydrometer; beyond which point of inspissation it would be dangerous to go. The remaining concentration will be most safely conducted in the vacuum pan, where a scarcity of water does not, as in Barbados, militate against its use. Mr. Fownes exposes the absurdity of using shallow coolers, exposing a large surface, and producing a rapid evaporation, for the process of crystallisation. By the use of the shallow coolers formerly, and, I believe, yet to be found on most estates, from the rapidity of the evaporation, the sugar is obtained in a mass of confused and imperfectly-formed crystals, entangling in their interstices a considerable quantity of molasses, which impairs the color of the product, and escaping slowly, and with difficulty, is, to a considerable extent, lost on the homeward voyage by drainage into the hold, occasioning much positive loss to the owner, and giving the bilge-water a most offensive odor. He therefore recommends the use of deep vessels, and avoidance of all agitation in this part of the process, so as to enable the crystallisable portion of the syrup to effect a more complete separation from the uncrystallisable portion or the molasses. By this simple method, not only sugar of a finer and whiter quality would be obtained, but a large per centage of loss both of crystallisable and uncrystallisable sugar at present caused by the leakage of the hogshead into the hold, would be prevented, not only to the great advantage of the planter, but to the great comfort of the captain, passengers, and crew of the vessel freighted with it. It is not improbable that, by re-boiling the molasses in the vacuum-pan, and employing tannin in the manner adopted in the process for making sugar from beet-root, from one to five per cent. of crystallisable sugar could be recovered from it, and this per centage might possibly even be found to admit of increase by the further treatment with lime-water and the gun-stock tree s already suggested, for the first clarification of the liquor received from the mill. With this view, Mr. Fownes recommends the substitution of puncheons, or casks, for the molasses cisterns ordinarily employed in the curing-house, to receive the molasses as it drains from the new sugar, and thus retaining it until after the busy period of crop time has closed. Should sugar of a whiter quality than the ordinary muscovado of commerce be desired, this advantage may be readily obtained, as Mr. Fownes judiciously observes, by filtering the thin syrup, ready for the vacuum-pan, through a bed of fine charcoal, as is done by the sugar refiners, and afterwards washing the crystals of sugar with white syrup, when the molasses has thoroughly drained from them. By this process, which, however, is attended with some increase of expense, and may not, in consequence, be always advisable, muscovado sugar may be obtained, of a quality hardly inferior to that of refined sugar. Mr. Fownes thus sums up the principal points to which he is desirous of calling the attention of the intelligent and enterprising planter. 1. "To obtain, by the use of a properly-constructed mill, the greatest possible amount of juice from the cane." By this, according to Mr. Fownes, a gain of from 20 to 30 per cent., equivalent to as much marketable sugar, may be obtained without any additional expense; but as, from Mr. Fownes' own showing, there is a residuum of 10 to 15 per cent of liquor obstinately retained by the megass, or cane trash, after the most powerful pressure to which it can be subjected; much, if not all, even of this loss might be prevented by subjecting the megass, on issuing from between the rollers, to the action of water for a brief time, passing it once more through the mill, and adding the saccharine solution so obtained, or that obtained directly from the cane on its first crushing. The water thus employed would serve for many successive portions of megass, until at length it became so richly loaded with saccharine matter as to be worth attention in the boiling-house; or, at all events, it would be serviceable for the cattle, who would fatten rapidly upon it. By this additional process a further gain of at least five per cent. might be expected, raising the total gain from improvements in this _first_ stage of the process, to from 25 to 35 per cent. 2. "To clarify and filter this juice with expedition, and to evaporate it rapidly, either over the open fire or by steam heat, as far as it can be done with safety." By the use of steam, not only is a vast economy of fuel effected, but the temperature is maintained at a uniform and sufficient standard, and the liquor effectually guarded against the risks of carelessness or ignorance. Coal may be obtained on far cheaper terms, in exchange for produce, from the United States or from Cape Breton, than from England; and as colliers from those quarters would find it their interest to bring cargoes at their own risk, and take return cargoes of sugar, rum, or molasses, at the market price, the planter will be doubly a gainer by the system, obtaining his fuel at a reduced rate, and having his trash and megass left free as manure for the use of his cane fields. 3. "To complete the concentration in a vacuum pan, or by other means, at a moderate temperature, not hurtful to the sugar, and facilitate the natural process of crystallisation, so as to obtain sugar of a large and distinct grain." 4. "To drain and dry the sugar perfectly, and to save all the molasses." The advantages to be anticipated from these improvements, superadded to an improvement in cultivation, cannot be estimated at less, upon a moderate calculation, than from 150 to 200 per cent. of increase in the production of sugar, with hardly an appreciable increase of labor or expense; for we have, in the first place, a gain by improved culture of, at least, two hogsheads an acre in sugar, equivalent to 100 per cent.; in the next, by employing improved mills and extracting the residuum, 30 per cent.; by conducting the process of manufacture more judiciously, 10 per cent.; and by the prevention of waste during the transit to market, 10 per cent., making a total of at least 150 per cent. The common sugar-mill consists of three cylinders, tightened either by wedges, if in a wooden frame, or by screws in a cast-iron frame. If in an iron frame, the above-mentioned noise is obviated, but the friction and loss of power is the same, which is ascertainable by subsequent investigation. The cylinders or rollers, which are moving either horizontally or vertically, are from eighteen to twenty-four inches in diameter, with bearings or shafts of one fourth of their diameter. If the bearings or shafts of the cylinders were of less substance, they could not resist the great strain to which they are subjected when in operation. The whole of the prime mover (steam-engine, water-wheel, or animals), minus the friction of intermediate machinery, is transmitted to the plains of these rollers and resisted by their bearings; hence the action is equal to a weight moving on low wheels of eighteen or twenty-four inches in diameter, on axles of from four to six inches thickness, which weight is equal to the force applied; consequently, if the strain is greater than the resistance of the rollers or the bearings, they must be wrenched off, or if greater than the force applied, the mill will be stopped. The power necessary to move weights upon wheels, on a smooth and level surface, is in proportion to the respective diameters of wheels and axles. The same pull which moves one ton at a given velocity upon a wheel of two feet, with an axle of six inches, will move four tons, if on a wheel of four feet diameter, with an axle of six inches. Consequently, cylinders of small diameter, with strong and substantial bearings, are only admissible as working machines, if no other mechanical means are applicable, as, for instance, in rolling out metals, compressing the surface of various bodies for a glossy appearance, or, generally speaking, to produce a certain and equal form of the substance which is pressed and passed between them. They compress the atoms of bodies, and for this reason alone are ill suited to separate the fibres of the sugar canes, and to express effectively the saccharine matter between them. A practical proof of this demonstration is furnished by every sugar cane which has gone through the mill. Fresh megass is at present better suited for fattening animals than for fuel under the sugar pans. The loss of material thus sustained, which is, on an average, equal in every mill, whether driven by steam, water, or animal power, is entirely chargeable to the construction of the mill, and amounts to about ten per cent. of the saccharine matter contained in the sugar canes. M. Duprez, an agent of the French Government, having experimented on the canes in Guadaloupe, found the quantity of juice in every 100 lbs. crushed-- lbs. 1 By mills having horizontal rollers; the motive power not stated 61.2 2 By mills, motive power, steam 60.9 3 By mills, motive power, wind and steam 59.3 4 By mills, having vertical rollers 59.2 5 By mills, motive power, cattle 58.5 6 By mills, motive power, wind * 56.4 [* Dr. Evans' "Treatise on Sugar," p. 75.] The average of all these experiments being 56 per cent. only. The result of M. Avequin, on Louisiana cane, was 50 per cent. Mr. Thompson, of Jamaica, states 50 per cent. as the average throughout the island of Martinique. Dr. Evans ventures 47 per cent. as the lowest, and 61 per cent. as the highest in the West Indies. A mill in Madeira gave 47.5 and 70.2 of juice--the larger yield being obtained by bracing the horizontal rollers more than usually tight, and introducing only a few canes at a time, the motive power being cattle. The three roller mill has the disadvantage of re-absorbing a part of the cane juice in the spongy megass, (or trash as it is termed in the West Indies), and a loss of power. Those with five rollers have been used in Cuba, Bourbon and the Mauritius, which gave 70 per cent., but a great increase of motive power is necessary. Four roller mills, two below and two above, requiring little more motive power than three rollers, have given 70 to 75 per cent of juice. Some years since, the East India Company instituted inquiries relative to the cultivation of the sugar cane in Hindostan, and the information obtained was published in a large folio volume. The Reports furnished by their officers, from almost every district, concur in stating that there were three kinds cultivated:--1. The purple. 2. The white. 3. A variety of the white, requiring a large supply of water. The epitome of the Reports affords this information:-- 1. The purple colored cane yields a sweeter, richer juice, than the yellow or light colored, but in less quantity, and is harder to press. Grows on dry lands. Scarce any other sort in Beerbhoom, much in Radnagore, some about Santipore, mixed with light colored cane. Grows also near Calcutta; in some fields separate, in others mixed with pooree or light colored cane. When eaten raw, is more dry and pithy in the mouth, but esteemed better sugar than the pooree, and appears to be the superior sort of cane. Persons who have been West Indian planters do not know it as a West Indian cane. 2. The light colored cane, yellow, inclining to white; deeper yellow when ripe, and on rich ground, it is the same sort as that which grows in the West India Islands; softer, more juicy than the Cadjoolee, but juice less rich, and produces sugar less strong; requires seven maunds of pooree juice to make as much goor or inspissated juice as is produced from six of the Cadjoolee. Much of this kind is brought to the Calcutta markets, and eaten raw. 3. The white variety, which grows in swampy, lands, is light colored, and grows to a great height. Its juice is more watery, and yields a weaker sugar than the Cadjoolee. However, as much of Bengal consists of low grounds, and as the upland canes are liable to suffer from drought, it may be advisable to encourage the cultivation of it, should the sugar it produces be approved, though in a less degree than other sugars, in order to guard against the effects of dry seasons. Experience alone can determine how far the idea of encouraging this sort may answer. Besides the foregoing, several kinds are now known to the Indian planter. One of them, the China sugar cane, was considered by Dr. Roxburgh to be a distinct species, and distinguished by him as _Saccharum sinensis_. It was introduced into India in 1796, by Earl Cornwallis, as being superior to the native kinds. It is characterised by a hardness which effectually resists most of the country rude mills; but this hardness is importantly beneficial, inasmuch as that it withstands the attack of the white ants, hogs, and jackals, which destroy annually a large portion of the common cane.[18] Dr. Buchanan found that four kinds are known in Mysore. Two of these are evidently the purple and white generally known; but as this is not distinctly stated, I have retained the form in which he notices them. _Restali_, the native sugar of the Mysore, can only be planted in the last two weeks of March and two first of April. It completes its growth in twelve months, and does not survive for a second crop. Its cultivation has been superseded by the other. _Putta-putti_.--This was introduced from Arcot, during the reign of Hyder Ali. It is the only one from which the natives can extract sugar; it also produces the best _Bella_ or _Jaggery_. It can be planted at the same season as the other, as well as at the end of July and beginning of August. It is fourteen months in completing its growth; but the stools produce a second crop, like the ratoons of the West Indies, which ripen in twelve months. _Maracabo_, _Cuttaycabo_.--These two are very small, seldom exceeding half an inch in diameter; yet in some districts of Mysore, as about Colar, the last-named is the variety usually cultivated; but this arises from its requiring less water than the larger varieties. The best varieties are those introduced from the Islands of Otaheite and Bourbon. Hindostan is indebted for their introduction to Captain Sleeman, who brought them hither from the Mauritius in 1827. He committed them to Dr. Wallich, under whose care, at the Botanic Garden, they have flourished, and been the source from whence the benefit has been generally diffused. Their superiority over those which have been usually cultivated by the natives has been completely established. The largest of the Hindostan canes, ripe and trimmed ready for the mill, has never been found to exceed five pounds; but it is not uncommon for an Otaheite cane,[19] under similar circumstances, to weigh seven pounds. The extra weight arises proportionately from an increased secretion of superior sap. The sugar is more abundant, granulates more readily, and has less scum. Other superior qualities are, that the canes ripen earlier, and are less injured by the occurrence of protracted dry weather. Of the history of the sugar cane a popular tradition obtains amongst the natives, that, in very ancient times, a vessel belonging to their country chanced by accident to leave one of her crew, under a desperate fit of sickness, at a desert island, at a considerable distance in the Eastern Seas, and that, returning by the same route, curiosity prompted them to inquire after the fate of their companion, when, to their utter astonishment, the man presented himself to their view, completely recovered from his sickness, and even in a state of more than common health. With anxiety they inquired for the physic he had so successfully applied, and were conducted by him to the sugar cane, on which he acquainted them he had solely subsisted from the time of their departure. Attracted by such powerful recommendation, every care and attention was bestowed, we may suppose, to convey such an invaluable acquisition to their own lands, where the soil and climate have mutually since contributed to its present prosperity. _Soil_.--The soil best suiting the sugar cane is aluminous rather than the contrary, tenacious without being heavy, readily allowing excessive moisture to drain away, yet not light. One gentleman, Mr. Ballard, has endeavoured to make this point clear by describing the most favorable soils about Gazepore as "_light clays_," called there _Mootearee_, or _doansa_, according as there is more or less sand in their composition.--_Trans. Agri-Hort. Soc._ i. 121. Mr. Peddington seems to think that calcareous matter, and iron in the state of _peroxide_, are essential to be present in a soil for the production of the superior sugar cane. There can be no doubt that the calcareous matter is necessary, but experience is opposed to his opinion relative to the peroxide. The soil preferred at Radnagore is there distinguished as the soil of "two qualities," being a mixture of rich clay and sand, and which Mr. Touchet believed to be known in England as a light brick mould. About Rungpore, Dinajpoor, and other places where the ground is low, they raise the beds where the cane is to be planted four or five feet above the level of the land adjacent. The experience of Dr. Roxburgh agrees with the preceding statements. He says, "The soil that suits the cane best in this climate is, a rich vegetable earth, which on exposure to the air readily crumbles down into very fine mould. It is also necessary for it to be of such a level as allows of its being watered from the river by simply damming it up (which almost the whole of the land adjoining to this river, the Godavery, admits of), and yet so high as to be easily drained during heavy rains. Such a soil, and in such a situation, having been well meliorated by various crops of leguminous plants, or fallowing, for two or three years, is slightly manured, or has had for some time cattle pent upon it. A favourite manure for the cane with the Hindoo farmer is the rotten straw of green and black pessaloo (_Phaseolus Mungo max_)."[20] Many accordant opinions might be added to the preceding, but it seems only necessary to observe further, that "the sugar cane requires a soil sufficiently elevated to be entirely free from inundation, but not so high as to be deprived of moisture, or as to encourage the production of white ants (_termes_)." The sugar cane is an exhausting crop, and it is seldom cultivated by the ryot more frequently than once in three or four years on the same land. During the intermediate period, such plants are grown as are found to improve the soil, of which, says Dr. Tennant, the Indian farmer is a perfect judge. They find the leguminous tribe the best for the purpose. Such long intervals of repose from the cane would not be requisite if a better system of manuring were adopted. Mr. J. Prinsep has recorded the following analysis of three soils distinguished for producing sugar. They were all a soft, fine-grained alluvium, without pebbles. No. 1 was from a village called Mothe, on the Sarjee, about ten miles north of the Ganges, at Buxar, and the others from the south bank of the Ganges, near the same place. There is a substratum of _kunkar_ throughout the whole of that part of the country, and to some mixture of this earth with the surface soil the fertility of the latter is ascribed:-- 1 2 3 Hygrometric moisture, on drying at 212 deg. 2.5 2.1 3.6 Carbonaceous and vegetable matter, on calcination 1.8 2.1 4.0 Carbonate of lime (No. 3 effervesced) 1.6 0.6 3.9 Alkaline salt, soluble 1.0 1.1 0.3 Silex and alumina 94.1 94.1 88.2 ----- ----- ----- 100.0 100.0 100.0 The earths unfortunately were not separated. Mr. Prinsep says the two first were chiefly of sand, and the third somewhat argillaceous. The former required irrigation, but the other was sufficiently retentive of moisture to render it unnecessary.--(Journ. Asiatic Soc., ii. 435.) _Manures_.--The sugar cane being one of the most valued crops of the ryot, he always devotes to it a portion of the fertilising matters he has at command, though in every instance this is too small. In the Rajahmundry district, previously to planting, the soil is slightly manured, either by having cattle folded upon it, or by a light covering of the rotten straw of the green and black pessalloo, which is here a favourite fertiliser. In some parts of Mysore the mud from the bottom of tanks is employed, and this practice is more generally adopted in other places. Thus the fields being divided by deep ditches in Dinajpoor, the mud from which is enriched by the remains of decayed aquatic plants and animals, forms an excellent manure for the sugar cane, and of this the ryots make use, spreading it over the surface before the ploughing is commenced; and when that operation is completed, the soil is further fertilised by a dressing of oil-cake and ashes. Crushed bones would unquestionably be of the greatest benefit if applied to the sugar cane crop. Not only would their animal matter serve as food for the plants, but the phosphate of lime of the bones is one of the chief saline constituents of the sugar cane. Salt is another valuable manure for this crop. Dr. Nugent, in a Report made to the Agricultural Society of Antigua, observes that salt has been found a valuable auxiliary in cultivating the sugar cane. Many trials of it, he says, have been made during successive seasons, applied generally to the extent of about nine or ten bushels per acre. It destroys grubs and other insects, and gives the canes an increased vigor and ability to resist drought. It is a singular remark of the intelligent traveller, M. de Humboldt, while speaking of the practice adopted in the Missions of the Orinoco, when a coco-nut plantation is made, of throwing a certain quantity of salt into the hole which receives the nut; that of all the plants cultivated by man there are only the sugar cane, the plantain, the mammee, and the Avocado pear, which endure equally irrigation with fresh and salt water. In the West Indies, when the cane is affected by what is called there the _blast_, which is a withering or drying up of the plants, an unfailing remedy is found to be watering them with an infusion of dung in salt water.[21] _Preparation of soil_.--In the Rajahmundry district, during the months of April and May, the ground is frequently ploughed, until brought into a very fine tilth. About the end of May, or beginning of June, the rains usually commence, and the canes are then to be planted. If the rains do not set in so early, the land is flooded artificially, and when converted into a soft mud, whether by the rain or by flooding, the canes are planted. In Mysore the ground is watered for three days, and then, after drying for the same period, ploughing commences, this operation being repeated five times during the following eight days. The clods during this time are broken small by an instrument called _colkudali_. The field is then manured and ploughed a sixth time. After fifteen days it is ploughed again, twice in the course of one or two days. After a lapse of eight days it is ploughed a ninth time. Altogether these operations occupy about forty-four days. For planting, which is done six days, an implement called _yella kudali_ is employed. In Dinajpoor, "the field, from about the middle of October until about the 10th of January, receives ten or twelve double ploughings, and after each is smoothed with the _moyi_. During the last three months of this time it is manured with cow-dung and mud from ponds and ditches. On this account, the land fit for sugar cane is generally divided into fields by wide ditches, into which much mud is washed by the rain, and is again thrown on the fields when the country dries, and leaves it enriched by innumerable aquatic vegetables and animals that have died as the water left them. When the ploughing has been completed, the field is manured with ashes and oil-cake." About Malda, "the land is first ploughed in the month of Cartick, length and breadth ways, and harrowed in like manner; four or five days after it is again ploughed and harrowed, as before, twice. In the month of Aghun, the whole land is covered with fresh earth, again twice ploughed, and harrowed in different directions, and then manured with dung. Fifteen or twenty days afterwards it is to be twice ploughed, as before; eight or ten days after which, it is to be slightly manured with dung, and the refuse of oil, mixed together; then twice ploughed and harrowed in different directions, so that the clods of earth brought be well mixed together with the land. This preparation continues until the 20th or 25th of the month Pows." In the vicinity of Dacca, during "Cautic or Augun (October, November) the Ryots begin to prepare their ground. They first dig a trench round their fields, and raise a mound of about three feet in height. If the ground to be cultivated is waste, about nine inches of the surface are taken off, and thrown without the enclosure. The ground is ploughed to the depth of nine inches more. The clods are broken, and the earth made fine. In Maug or Faugun (January, February) the sugar cane is planted; a month afterwards earth is raised about the plants; after another month this is repeated. The crop is cut in Poous and Maug (December, January). If the ground be not waste, but cultivated, the surface is not taken off. After cutting the crop, it is not usual again to grow sugar cane on the same ground for eighteen months, on account of the indifferent produce afforded by a more early planting. In the Zillah, North Mooradabad, the land is broken up at the end of June. After the rains have ceased it is manured, and has eight or ten ploughings. This clears it of weeds. In February it is again manured and ploughed four or five times, and just before the sets are planted, some dung, four cart-loads to each cutcha beegah of low land, and five cart-loads to high land, are added. The land is well rolled after the four last ploughings, and again after the cuttings are set. About Benares and the neighbouring districts, Mr. Haines says, that owing to the hot winds which prevail "from March until the setting in of the annual rains in June or July, the lands remain fallow till that period. In the mean time, those fields that are selected for sugar cane are partially manured by throwing upon them all manner of rubbish they can collect, and by herding their buffaloes and cattle upon them at night, though most of the manure from the latter source is again collected and dried for fuel. When the annual rains have fairly set in, and the Assarree crops sown (in some instances I have seen an Assarree crop taken from the lands intended for sugar cane), they commence ploughing the cane lands, and continue to do so four or five times monthly (as they consider the greater number of times the fields are turned up at this period of the season, the better the crop of cane will be), till the end of October, continuing to throw on the little manure they can collect. Towards the end of October, and in November, their ploughs are much engaged in sowing their winter (or rubbee) crops of wheat, barley, grain, &c.; and at this period they make arrangements with the shepherds who have large flocks of sheep, to fold them upon the fields at night, for which they pay so much per beegah in grain. During the latter part of November, and early in December, the fields are again ploughed well, and all grass, weeds, &c., removed with the hoe; then the surface of the field is made as smooth as possible by putting the hengah (a piece of wood eight to ten feet in length, and five to six inches in breadth, and three or four inches in thickness, drawn by two pairs of bullocks, and the man standing upon the wood to give it weight), over several times for three or four days in succession. This makes the surface of the field very even and somewhat hard, which prevents the sun and dry west wind from abstracting the moisture, which is of great importance at this period of the season, for, should there be no rain, there would not be sufficient moisture at the time of planting the cane to cause vegetation. In this state the land remains till the time of planting the cane cuttings, which is generally the 1st to the 15th of February; but should there have been a fall of rain in the mean time, or excess of moisture appear, the field is again ploughed, and the hengah put over as before. A day or two previous to planting the cane, the field is ploughed and the hengah lightly put over."--(Trans. Agri-Hort. Soc. vi. 4, 5.) _Sets_.--When the canes are cut at harvest time, twelve or eighteen inches of their tops are usually taken off, and stored, to be employed for sets. Each top has several joints, from each of which a shoot rises, but seldom more than one or two arrive at a proper growth. When first cut from the stem, the tops intended for plants are tied in bundles of forty or fifty each, and are carefully kept moist. In a few days they put forth new leaves: they are then cleared of the old leaves, and separately dipped into a mixture of cow-dung, pressed mustard seed, and water. A dry spot is prepared, and rich loose mould and a small quantity of pressed mustard-seed; the plants are separately placed therein, a small quantity of earth strewed amongst them, and then covered with leaves and grass to preserve them from heat. Ten or twelve days afterwards they are planted in the fields. In Burdwan, the tops, before they are planted, are cut into pieces from four to six inches long, so that there are not more than four knots in each. Two or three of these plant tops are put together in the ground, and a beegah requires from 7,500 to 10,240 plants. In Rungpore and Dinajpoor, about 9,000 plants are required for a beegah, each being about a foot in length. In Beerbhoom, 3,000 plants are said to be requisite for a beegah, each cane top being about fifteen inches long. Near Calcutta, from 3,000 to 8,000 plants are required for a beegah, according to the goodness of the soil, the worst soil needing most plants. In Mysore an acre contains 2,420 stools, and yields about 11,000 ripe canes. Near Rajahmundry, about 400 cuttings are planted on a cutcha beegah (one-eighth of an acre). In Zilla, North Mooradabad, 4,200 sets, each eight inches long, are inserted upon each cutcha beegah of low land, and 5,250 upon high land. In the district of Gollagore the Ryots cut a ripe cane into several pieces, preserving two or three joints to each, and put them into a small bed of rich mould, dung, and mustard-seed from which the oil has been expressed. At Radnagore, when the time of cutting the canes arrives, their tops are taken off, and these are placed upright in a bed of mud for thirty or forty days, and covered with leaves or straw. The leaves are then stripped from them, and they are cut into pieces, not having less than two nor more than four joints each. These sets are kept for ten or fifteen days in a bed prepared for them, from whence they are taken and planted in rows two or three together, eighteen inches or two feet intervening between each stool. _Planting_.--The time and mode of planting vary. In the Rajahmundry Circar, Dr. Roxburgh says, that "during the months of April and May the land is repeatedly ploughed with the common Hindoo plough, which soon brings the loose rich soil (speaking of the Delta of the Godavery) into very excellent order. About the end of May and beginning of June, the rains generally set in, in frequent heavy showers. Now is the time to plant the cane; but should the rains hold back, the prepared field is watered or flooded from the river, and, while perfectly wet, like soft mud, the cane is planted. "The method is most simple. Laborers with baskets of the cuttings, of one or two joints each, arrange themselves along one side of the field. They walk side by side, in as straight a line as their eye and judgment enable them, dropping the sets at the distance of about eighteen inches asunder in rows, and about four feet from row to row. Other laborers follow, and with the foot press the set about two inches into the soft, mud-like soil, which, with a sweep or two with the sole of the foot, they most easily and readily cover."--(Roxburgh on the Culture of Sugar.) About Malda, in the month of Maug (January, February), the land is to be twice ploughed, and harrowed repeatedly, length and breadth ways; after which it is furrowed, the furrows half a cubit apart, in which the plants are to be set at about four fingers' distance from each other, when the furrows are filled up with the land that lay upon its ridges. The plants being thus set, the land is harrowed twice in different directions; fifteen or twenty days afterwards the cane begins to grow, when the weeds which appear with it must be taken up; ten or twelve days after this the weeds will again appear. They must again be taken up, and the earth at the roots of the canes be removed, when all the plants which have grown will appear. At Ghazepore the rains set in at the beginning of March, and planting then commences. Near Calcutta the planting takes place in May and June. In Dinajpoor and Rungpore the planting time is February. About Commercolly it is performed in January. The field is divided into beds six cubits broad, separated from each other by small trenches fourteen inches wide and eight inches deep. In every second trench are small wells, about two feet deep. The irrigating water flowing along the trenches fills the wells, and is taken thence and applied to the canes by hand. Each bed has five rows of canes. The sets are planted in holes about six inches in diameter, and three deep; two sets, each having three joints, are laid horizontally in every hole, covered slightly with earth, and over this is a little dung. When, the canes are planted in the spring, the trenches must be filled with water, and some poured into every hole. At the other season of planting the trenches are full, it being rainy weather; but even then the sets must be watered for the first month. Mr. Haines says that in Mirzapore and the neighbouring districts, "in planting the cane they commence a furrow round the field, in which they drop the cuttings. The second furrow is left empty; cuttings again in the third; so they continue dropping cuttings in every second furrow till the whole field is completed, finishing in the centre of the field. The field remains in this state till the second or third day, when for two or three days in succession it is made even and hard upon the surface with the hengah, as before stated."--(Trans. Agri-Hort. Soc. vi. 5.) Mr. Vaupell, in describing the most successful mode of cultivating the Mauritius sugar cane in Bombay, says, that "after the ground is levelled with the small plough, called 'paur,' in the manner of the cultivators, pits of two feet in diameter, and two feet in depth, should be dug throughout the field at the distance of five feet apart, and filled with manure and soil to about three inches of the surface. Set in these pits your canes, cut in pieces about a foot and a half long, laying them down in a triangular from, thus /\. Keep as much of the eyes or shoots of the cane uppermost as you can; then cover them with manure and soil; beds should next be formed to retain water, having four pits in each bed, leaving passages for watering them. The cutting should be watered every third day during hot weather, and the field should always be kept in a moist state."--(Ibid. iii. 43.) About Benares, the sets require, after planting, from four to six waterings, until the rains commence, and as many hoeings to loosen the surface, which becomes caked after every watering. The moister nature of the soil renders these operations generally unnecessary in Bengal. _After-culture._--In Mysore, the surface of the earth in the hollows in which the sets are planted is stirred with a stick as soon as the shoots appear, and a little dung is added. Next month the daily watering is continued, and then the whole field dug over with the hoe, a cavity being made round each stool, and a little dung added. In the third month water is given every second day: at its close, if the canes are luxuriant, the ground is again dug; but if weakly, the watering is continued during the fourth month, before the digging is given. At this time the earth is drawn up about the canes, so as to leave the hollows between the rows at right angles with the trenches. No more water is given to the plants, but the trenches between the beds are kept full for three days. It is then left off for a week, and if rain occurs, no further water is requisite; but if the weather is dry, water is admitted once a week during the next month. The digging is then repeated, and the earth levelled with the hand about the stools. The stems of each stool are ten or twelve in number, which are reduced to five or six by the most weakly of them being now removed. The healthy canes are to be tied with one of their own leaves, two or three together, to check their spreading; and this binding is repeated as required by their increased growth. In the absence of rain, the trenches are filled with water once a fortnight. When the _Putta-putti_ is to be kept for a second crop, the dry leaves cut off in the crop season are burnt upon the field, and this is dug over, and trenches filled with water, and during six weeks the plants watered once in every six or eight days (unless rain falls), and the digging repeated three times, dung being added at each digging. The after-culture is the same as for the first crop. In the Upper Provinces, Dr. Tennant says, if moderate showers occur after planting, nothing more is done until the shoots from the sets have attained a height of two or three inches. The soil immediately around them is then loosened with a small weeding iron, something like a chisel; but if the season should prove dry, the field is occasionally watered; the weeding is also continued, and the soil occasionally loosened about the plants. In August, small trenches are cut through the field, with small intervals between them, for the purpose of draining off the water, if the season is too wet. This is very requisite, for if the canes are now supplied with too much moisture, the juice is rendered watery and unprofitable. If the season happens to be dry, the same dikes serve to conduct the irrigating water through the field, and to carry off what does not soak into the earth in a few hours. Stagnant water they consider very injurious to the cane, and on the drains being well contrived depends in a great measure the future hope of profit. Immediately after the field is trenched, the canes are propped. They are now about three feet high, and each set has produced from three to six canes. The lower leaves of each are first carefully wrapt up around it, so as to cover it completely in every part; a small strong bamboo, eight or ten feet long, is then inserted firmly in the middle of each stool, and the canes tied to it. This secures them in an erect position, and facilitates the circulation of the air. Hoeing cannot be repeated too frequently. This is demonstrated by the practice of the most successful cultivators. In Zilla, N. Mooradabad, in April, about six weeks after planting, the earth on each side of the cane-rows is loosened by a sharp-pointed hoe, shaped somewhat like a bricklayer's trowel. This is repeated six times before the field is laid out in beds and channels for irrigation. There, likewise, if the season is unusually dry, the fields in the low ground are watered in May and June. This supposes there are either nullahs, or ancient pucka wells, otherwise the canes are allowed to take their chance, for the cost of making a well on the uplands is from ten to twenty rupees--an expense too heavy for an individual cultivator, and not many would dig in partnership, for they would fight for the water. In the vicinity of Benares, as the canes advance in growth, they continue to wrap the leaves as they begin to wither up round the advancing stem, and to tie this to the bamboo higher up. If the weather continue wet, the trenches are carefully kept open; and, on the other hand, if dry weather occurs, water is occasionally supplied. Hoeing is also performed every five or six weeks. Wrapping the leaves around the cane is found to prevent them cracking by the heat of the sun, and hinders their throwing out lateral branches. In January and February the canes are ready for cutting. The average height of the cane is about nine feet, foliage included, and the naked cane from one inch to one inch and a quarter in diameter. Near Maduna, the hand-watering is facilitated by cutting a small trench down the centre of each bed. The beds are there a cubit wide, but only four rows of canes are planted in each. It is deserving of notice, that the eastern and north-eastern parts of Bengal are more subject to rain at every season of the year, but especially in the hot months, than the western; which accounts for the land being prepared and the plants set so much earlier in Rungpore than in Beerbhoom. This latter country has also a dryer soil generally; for this reason, so much is said in the report from thence of the necessity of watering. The Benares country is also dryer than Bengal, therefore more waterings are requisite. At Malda, ten or fifteen days after the earth has been removed from the roots of the canes and the plants have appeared, the land is to be slightly manured, well cleared of weeds, and the earth that was removed again laid about the canes; after which, ten or fifteen days, it must be well weeded, and again twenty or twenty-five days afterwards. This mode of cultivation it is necessary to follow until the month of Joystee. The land must be ploughed and manured between the rows of canes in the month of Assaar; after which, fifteen or twenty days, the canes are to be tied two or three together with the leaves, the earth about them well cleaned, and the earth that was ploughed up laid about the roots of the canes something raised. In the month of Saubun, twenty or twenty-five days from the preceding operation, the canes are tied as before, and again ten or fifteen days afterwards; which done, nine or ten clumps are then to be tied together. In the Rojahmundry Circar, on the Delta of the Godavery, Dr. Roxburgh states, "that nothing more is done after the cane is planted, if the weather be moderately showery, till the young shoots are some two or three inches high; the earth is then loosened for a few inches round them with the weeding iron. Should the season prove dry, the field is occasionally watered from the river, continuing to weed and to keep the ground loose round the stools. In August, two or three months from the time of planting, small trenches are cut through the field at short distances, and so contrived as to serve to drain off the water, should the season prove too wet for the canes, which is often the case, and would render their juices weak and unprofitable. The farmer, therefore, never fails to have his field plentifully and judiciously intersected with drains while the cane is small, and before the usual time for the violent rains. Immediately after the field is trenched, the canes are all propped; this is an operation which seems peculiar to these parts. In Dinajpoor, in about a month after planting, "the young plants are two or three inches high; the earth is then raised from the cuttings by means of a spade, and the dry leaves by which they are surrounded are removed. For a day or two they remain exposed to the air, and are then manured with ashes and oil-cake, and covered with earth. Weeds must be removed as they spring; and when the plants are about a cubit high, the field must be ploughed. When they have grown a cubit higher, which is between the 13th of June and 14th of July, they are tied together in bundles of three or four, by wrapping them round with their own leaves. This is done partly to prevent them from being laid down by the wind, and partly to prevent them from being eaten by jackals. During the next month three or four of these bunches are tied together; and about the end of September, when the canes grow rank, they are supported by bamboo stakes driven in the ground. They are cut between the middle of December and the end of March." If the canes grow too vigorously, developing a superabundance of leaves, it is a good practice to remove those leaves which are decayed, that the stems may be exposed fully to the sun. In the West Indies, this is called _trashing_ the canes. It requires discretion; for in dry soils or seasons, or if the leaves are removed before sufficiently dead, more injury than benefit will be occasioned. _Harvesting_.--The season in which the canes become ripe in various districts has already been noticed when considering their cultivation. In addition I may state, that in the Rajahmundry Circar, about the mouth of the Godavery, Dr. Roxburgh adds, "that in January and February the canes begin to be ready to cut, which is about nine months from the time of planting. This operation is the same as in other sugar countries--of course I need not describe it. Their height, when standing on the field, will be from eight to ten feet (foliage included), and the naked cane from an inch to an inch and a quarter in diameter." In Malda, the canes are cut in January and February. In N. Mooradabad, upon the low land, the canes are ripe in October, and upon the high lands a month later. The fitness of the cane for cutting may be ascertained by making an incision across the cane, and observing the internal grain. If it is soft and moist, like a turnip, it is not yet ripe; but if the face of the cut is dry, and white particles appear, it is fit for harvesting.--(_Fitzmaurice on the Culture of the Sugar Cane_.) _Injuries_.--1. _A wet season_, either during the very early or in the concluding period of the cane's vegetation, is one of the worst causes of injury. In such a season, the absence of the usual intensity of light and heat causes the sap to be very materially deficient in saccharine matter. But, on the other hand, 2. _A very dry season_, immediately after the sets are planted, though the want of rain may in some degree be supplied by artificial means, causes the produce to be but indifferent. These inconveniences are of a general nature, and irremediable. 3. _Animals_.--In India not only the incursions of domesticated animals, but in some districts of the wild elephant, buffalo, and hog, are frequent sources of injury. Almost every plantation is liable, also, to the attack of the jackal, and rats are destructive enemies. 4. _White Ants_.--The sets of the sugar cane have to be carefully watched, to preserve them from the white ant (_Termes fatalis_), to attacks from which they are liable until they have begun to shoot. To prevent this injury, the following mixture has been recommended:-- Asafoetida (hing), 8 chittacks. Mustard-seed cake (sarsum ki khalli), 8 seers. Putrid fish, 4 seers. Bruised butch root, 2 seers; or muddur, 2 seers. Mix the above together in a large vessel, with water sufficient to make them into the thickness of curds; then steep each slip of cane in it for half an hour after planting; and, lastly, water the lines three times previous to setting the cane, by irrigating the water-course with water mixed up with bruised butch root, or muddur if the former be not procurable.[22] A very effectual mode of destroying the white ant, is by mixing a small quantity of arsenic with a few ounces of burned bread, pulverised flour, or oatmeal, moistened with molasses, and placing pieces of the dough thus made, each about the size of a turkey's egg, on a flat board, and covered over with a wooden bowl, in several parts of the plantation. The ants soon take possession of these, and the poison has a continuous effect, for the ants which die are eaten by those which succeed them.[23] They are said to be driven from a soil by frequently hoeing it. They are found to prevail most upon newly broken-up lands. In Central India, the penetration of the white ants into the interior of the sets, and the consequent destruction of the latter, is prevented by dipping each end into buttermilk, asafoetida, and powdered mustard-seed, mixed into a thick compound. 5. _Storms_.--Unless they are very violent, Dr. Roxburgh observes, "they do no great harm, because the canes are propped. However, if they are once laid down, which sometimes happens, they become branchy and thin, yielding a poor, watery juice." 6. _The Worm_ "is another evil, which generally visits them every few years. A beetle deposits its eggs in the young canes; the caterpillars of these remain in the cane, living on its medullary parts, till they are ready to be metamorphosed into the chrysalis state. Sometimes this evil is so great as to injure a sixth or an eighth part of the field; but, what is worse, the disease is commonly general when it happens--few fields escaping." 7. _The Flowering_ "is the last accident they reckon upon, although it scarce deserves the name, for it rarely happens, and never but to a very small proportion of some few fields. Those canes that flower have very little juice left, and it is by no means so sweet as that of the rest." In the Brazils, the fact of the slave trade being at an end must influence the future produce of sugar, and attention has been lately chiefly directed to coffee, cotton, and other staples. The exports of that empire in 1842, were 59,000 tons; in 1843, 54,500; in 1844, 76,400; in 1845, 91,000; average of these four years 69,720. The exports in the next four years averaged 96,150 tons, viz:--76,100, in 1846; 96,300, in 1847; 112,500, in 1848; and 99,700, in 1849. _Mode of Cultivation in Brazil_.--The lands in Brazil are never grubbed up, either for planting the sugar cane, or for any other agricultural purposes. The inconveniences of this custom are perceivable more particularly in high lands; because all of these that are of any value are naturally covered with thick woods. The cane is planted amongst the numerous stumps of trees, by which means much ground is lost, and as the sprouts from these stumps almost immediately spring forth (such is the rapidity of vegetation) the cleanings are rendered very laborious. These shoots require to be cut down sometimes, even before the cane has found its way to the surface of the ground. The labor likewise is great every time a piece of land is to be put under cultivation, for the wood must be cut down afresh; and although it cannot have reached the same size which the original timber had attained, still as several years are allowed to pass between each period at which the ground is planted, the trees are generally of considerable thickness. The wood is suffered to remain upon the land until the leaves become dry; then it is set on fire, and these are destroyed with the brush wood and the smaller branches of the trees. Heaps are now made of the remaining timber, which is likewise burnt. This process is universally practised in preparing land for the cultivation of any plant. I have often heard the method much censured as being injurious in the main to the soil, though the crop immediately succeeding the operation may be rendered more luxuriant by it. I have observed that the canes which grew upon the spots where the heaps of timber and large branches of trees had been burnt, were of a darker and richer green than those around them, and that they likewise over-topped them. After the plant-canes, or those of the first year's growth, are taken from the lands, the field-trash, that is the dried leaves and stems of the canes which remain upon the ground, are set fire to, with the idea that the ratoons,--that is, the sprouts from the old roots of the canes,--spring forth with more luxuriance, and attain a greater size by means of this practice. The ratoons of the first year are called in Brazil, _socas_; those of the second year, _resocas_; those of the third year, _terceiras socas_, and so forth. After the roots are left unencumbered by burning the field-trash, the mould is raised round about them; indeed, if this was neglected, many of those roots would remain too much exposed to the heat of the sun, and would not continue to vegetate. Some lands will continue to give ratoons for five, or even seven years; but an average may be made at one crop of good ratoons fit for grinding, another of inferior ratoons fit for planting, or for making molasses to be used in the still-house, and a third which affords but a trifling profit, in return for the trouble which the cleanings give. I have above spoken more particularly of high lands. The low and marshy grounds, called in Brazil, _varzeas_, are, however, those which are the best adapted to the cane; and, indeed, upon the plantations that do not possess some portions of this description of soil the crops are very unequal, and sometimes almost entirely fail, according to the greater or less quantity of rain, which may chance to fall in the course of the year. The _varzeas_ are usually covered with short and close brushwood, and as these admit, from their rank nature, of frequent cultivation, they soon become easy to work. The soil of these, when it is new, receives the name of _paul_; it trembles under the pressure of the feet, and easily admits of a pointed stick being thrust into it; and though dry to appearance requires draining. The _macape_ marl is often to be met with in all situations; it is of a greenish white color, and if at all wet, it sticks very much to the hoe; it becomes soon dry at the surface, but the canes which have been planted upon it seldom fail to revive after rain, even though a want of it should have been much felt. The white marl, _barro branco_, is less frequently found; it is accounted extremely productive. This clay is used in making bricks and coarse earthenware, and also for claying the sugar. Red earth is occasionally met with upon sides of hills near to the coast; but this description of soil belongs properly to the cotton districts. Black mould is common, and likewise a loose brownish soil, in which a less or greater proportion of sand is intermixed. It is, I believe, generally acknowledged that no land can be too rich for the growth of the sugar cane. One disadvantage, however, attends soil that is low and quite new, which is, that the canes run up to a great height without sufficient thickness, and are thus often lodged (or blown down) before the season for cutting them arrives. I have seen rice planted upon lands of this kind on the first year to decrease their rankness, and render them better adapted to the cane on the succeeding season. Some attempts have been made to plant cane upon the lands which reach down to the edge of the mangroves, and in a few instances pieces of land heretofore covered by the salt water at the flow of the tide, have been laid dry by means of draining for the same purpose; but the desired success has not attended the plan, for the canes have been found to be unfit for making sugar; the syrup does not coagulate, or at least does not attain that consistence which is requisite, and therefore it can only be used for the distilleries. The general mode of preparing the land for the cane is by holing it with hoes. The negroes stand in a row, and each man strikes his hoe into the ground immediately before him, and forms a trench of five or six inches in depth; he then falls back, the whole row doing the same, and they continue this operation from one side of the cleared land to the other, or from the top of a hill to the bottom. The earth which is thrown out of the trench remains on the lower side of it. In the British West India colonies this work is done in a manner nearly similar, but more systematically. The lands in Brazil are not measured, and everything is done by the eye. The quantity of cane which a piece will require for planting is estimated by so many cart-loads; and nothing can be more vague than this mode of computation, for the load which a cart can carry depends upon the condition of the oxen, upon the nature of the road, and upon the length of the cane. Such is the awkward make of these vehicles, that much nicety is necessary in packing them, and if two canes will about fit into a cart lengthways, much more will be conveyed than if the canes are longer and they double over each other. The plough is sometimes used in low lands, upon which draining has not been found necessary; but such is the clumsy construction of the machine of which they make use, that six oxen are yoked to it. A plough drawn by two oxen, constructed after a model which was brought from Cayenne, has been introduced in one or two instances. Upon high lands the stumps of the trees almost preclude the possibility of thus relieving the laborers. The trenches being prepared, the cuttings are laid longitudinally in the bottom of them, and are covered with the greatest part of the mould which had been taken out of the trench. The shoots begin to rise above the surface of the ground in the course of twelve or fourteen days. The canes undergo three cleanings from the weeds and the sprouts proceeding from the stumps of the trees; and when the land is poor, and produces a greater quantity of the former, and contains fewer of the latter, the canes require to be cleaned a fourth time. The cuttings are usually 12 to 18 inches in length, but it is judged that the shorter they are the better. If they are short, and one piece of cane rots, the space which remains vacant is not so large as when the cuttings are long, and they by any accident fail. The canes which are used for planting are generally ratoons, if any exist upon the plantation; but if there are none of these, the inferior plant canes supply their places. It is accounted more economical to make use of the ratoons for this purpose; and many persons say that they are less liable to rot than the plant canes. In the British sugar islands the cuttings for planting are commonly the tops of the canes which have been ground for sugar. But in Brazil the tops of the canes are all thrown to the cattle, for there is usually a want of grass during the season that the mills are at work. In the British colonies, the canes are at first covered with only a small portion of mould, and yet they are as long in forcing their way to the surface as in Brazil, though in the latter a more considerable quantity of earth is laid upon them. I suppose that the superior richness of the Brazilian soil accounts for this. Upon rich soils the cuttings are laid at a greater distance, and the trenches are dug farther from each other, than upon those which have undergone more frequent cultivation, or which are known to possess less power from their natural composition. The canes which are planted upon the former throw out great numbers of sprouts, which spread each way; and, although when they are young, the land may appear to promise but a scanty crop, they soon close, and no opening is to be seen. It is often judged proper to thin the canes, by removing some of the suckers at the time that the last cleaning is given; and some persons recommend that a portion of the dry leaves should also be stripped off at the same period, but on other plantations this is not practised. The proper season for planting is from the middle of July to the middle of September, upon high lands, and from September to the middle of November in low lands. Occasionally, the great moisture of the soil induces the planter to continue his work until the beginning of December, if his people are sufficiently numerous to answer all the necessary purposes. The first of the canes are ready to be cut for the mill in September of the following year, and the crop is finished usually in January or February. In the British sugar islands the canes are planted from August to November, and are ripe for the mill in the beginning of the second year. Thus this plant in Brazil requires from thirteen to fifteen months to attain its proper state for the mill; and in the West India islands it remains standing sixteen or seventeen months. The Otaheitan, or the Bourbon cane, has been brought from Cayenne to Pernambuco since the Portuguese obtained possession of that settlement. I believe the two species of cane are much alike, and I have not been able to discover which of them it is. Its advantages are so apparent, that after one trial on each estate, it has superseded the small cane which was in general use. The Cayenne cane, as it is called in Pernambuco, is of a much larger size than the common cane; it branches so very greatly, that the labor in planting a piece of cane is much decreased, and the returns from it are at the same time much more considerable. It is not planted in trenches, but holes are dug at equal distances from each other, in which these cuttings are laid. This cane bears the dry weather better than the small cane; and when the leaves of the latter begin to turn brown, those of the former still preserve their natural color. A planter in the _Varzea_ told me that he had obtained four crops from one piece of land in three years, and that the soil in question had been considered by him as nearly worn out, before he planted the Cayenne cane upon it.--("Koster's Travels in Brazil," vol. 2.) Mr. E. Morewood, of Compensation, Natal, who has paid much attention to sugar culture in that colony, has favored me with the following details, which will be useful for the guidance of others, as being the results of his own experience:-- lbs. Produce of one acre of sugar cane 72,240 Juice expressed, (or 64 per cent.) 46,308 Dry sugar 7,356 Green syrup or molasses 2,829 This syrup carrying with it a good deal of sugar out of the coolers, contains fully 75 per cent. of crystalizable sugar, or 2,121 Thus the total amount of sugar per acre is 9,477 The average density of the cane juice was 12 degrees Beaume, or 21 per cent. All the improved cane mills are now constructed to give at least 75 per cent. of juice. With such a mill, an acre would yield 11,075 lbs. of sugar. With proper cultivation I have no doubt the produce could be largely increased; for, as the numerous visitors who have seen this place can testify, my cane fields were not attended to. To enable me to show the cost of producing a crop of canes, you must allow me to go into the expense of cultivating the land first. To keep one ploughman going, a person requires-- 20 Oxen at £3 £60 0 0 1 Plough 7 10 0 1 set Harrows 7 10 0 Yokes, Trektows, Reins, &c. 5 0 0 ---------- £80 0 0 Then the expenses per month will be:-- Ploughman's wages £2 10 0 Board 1 10 0 1 Driver, 10s., Leaders, 5s. 0 15 0 Food for two natives 0 10 0 Wear and tear of oxen and gear, at 25 per cent. per annum 1 10 4 --------- £6 18 4 These two spans of oxen will comfortably plough and harrow twenty acres per month, and the cost will thus be about 7s. per acre. Now, let us suppose that a person wishes to put in twenty acres of canes, the expense would be about as follows:-- 4 Ploughings and harrowings, 80 acres at 7s. £28 0 0 Drawing canefurrows, 4 acres per day, 5 days at 6s. 1 10 0 2,000 Cane tops per acre, at 50s. 100 0 0 4 Horsehoeings, at 2s. 6d. 10 0 0 4 Handweedings in the rows, at 2s. 6d. 10 0 0 Cutting and carrying out canes, at 30s. 30 0 0 Carriage to Mill, thirty tons per acre, at 2s. 60 0 0 ---------- £239 10 0 or £12 per acre. To this must be added the rent of land, say 10s. per acre, with right of grazing cattle, for two years, when the first crop will come in, would bring the expense to £13 per acre. The cane yielding say only three tons of sugar per acre, of which the planter would, most likely, have to give the manufacturer one-third, he will receive forty tons of sugar, costing him £6 10s. per ton, and worth on the spot, according to advices received from England and the Cape, £15 per ton, at the lowest estimate, or £600. The greatest expense, you will perceive, is the article of tops for planting; but this ought not to discourage persons. The plants which I imported from the Mauritius some years ago, cost me, on account of many of them not vegetating, at the rate of £30 per acre. Parties who begin planting now have the great advantage that they can get plants, every one of which, if properly treated, will grow, at one-sixth of that price. How many crops cane will give on good soil in Natal, I am of course unable to state, as the oldest cane I have got has been cut only three times--the last yield (second ratoons) was much finer than the preceding ones, and by adopting the improved manner of cane cultivation, viz., returning all but the cane juice to the soil, I am confident that replanting will be found quite unnecessary; the expenses for the second and following years will therefore be very trifling. Comparative Statement of the ruling Prices at Natal and the Mauritius of Land, Live Stock, Implements, Labor, and other requirements connected with the cultivation of the Sugar Cane. MAURITIUS NATAL £ s. d. | £ s. d. | LAND, per acre, £3 10s. to 20 0 0 | LAND, per acre, 10s. | to 1 0 0 RENT OF LAND. It is not | RENT OF LAND, 6d. to 0 5 0 customary to let land at | the Mauritius, except on | the system of an equal | division of the produce. | MANURE. Guano, commonly | CATTLE MANURE in used in its dry state, | abundance, according to also other manures or | distance, per load, composts, per ton, £6 to 7 0 0 | 1s. to 0 2 6 | (None required on | virgin soil for the | first three years of | cultivation.) | LIVE STOCK. Mules, 5 of | Oxen, of which 12 are which are required to each | required to each load, load of 3,000 to 4,000 | £3 each 36 0 0 lbs., £30 each 150 0 0 | Keep of oxen, on Keep of Mules each, per | pasturage free. annum 7 0 0 | | LABOR. Drivers, each, per | Colored driver, month 1 0 0 | each, per month 0 15 0 Coolies, including keep, | Kafir leader, ditto 0 10 0 each 1 0 0 | Kafirs, including White labor, each 4 0 0 | keep, ditto 0 10 0 | White labor, each | per month, £3 10s. to 4 0 0 | FUEL. Cane trash or wood | Cane trash or wood MILL POWER. Steam or water | The same | IMPLEMENTS. All agricultural | All agricultural labor labor is performed by the | is performed with the hand-hoe, very expensive | plough, harrows, and in its nature. | scarifier, with oxen | so much less expensive | than the hand labor at | the Mauritius. | PRODUCE of the Cane. Average | From 2 to 3 tons from 1 to 4 tons. | CANE. Periodical renewal of | Not yet ascertained, the cane, according to the | and depending on the soil quality of the soil, every | 3 to 10 years | | £. s. d. | £. s. d. PROVISIONS, &c. Beef, | PROVISIONS, &c. Beef, per lb. 6d. to 0 0 8 | per lb., 1½d. to 0 0 2½ Bread, per loaf 0 0 6 | Bread, per loaf 0 0 6 Butter, per lb., 1s. 3d. | Butter, per lb., 6d. to 0 0 9 to 0 1 6 | Rice, the food of the | Indian corn, (maize per Coolies, per bag of | 180 lbs. 5s.) per 150 150 lbs., 12s. 6d. to 0 15 0 | lbs. 0 4 2 Oats, per bag, of 100 | Oats, per 104 lbs., 10s. lbs. 12s. 6d. to 0 15 0 | to 1 0 0 Bran, ditto, 100 lbs. | Bran, not used. 12s. to 0 13 9 | Beans, ditto, 100 lbs. | Beans, per 180 lbs., 13s. 22s. 6d. to 1 5 0 | to 20s., or per 100 lbs. | 7s. 2d. to 0 11 0 Coal, per ton, 40s. to 2 10 0 | The same | CHARGE OF MANUFACTURE. | The Mauritius principle The manufacturer reaps | may be adopted in this and carries to the mill | colony, with such the canes of the grower, | modifications as may be but the latter provides | called for by local his own bagging, and | exigencies. carts away his half of | the sugar, the other | half being the | remuneration of the | manufacturer | Analysis of the foregoing Statement, showing the total comparative outlay for sundries connected with the cultivation of Sugar at Natal and Mauritius, computed at the lowest ruling prices. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | MAURITIUS | NATAL | Difference | | | in | | |favor of Natal ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | | | Land, 100 acres |70s. 350 0 0 |10s. 50 0 0 | 300 0 0 Manure, Guano 10 loads |£6 60 0 0 | | Cattle Manure, 10 loads| | 1s. 0 10 0 | Live Stock, 10 mules. |£30 300 0 0 |£15. 150 0 0 | 150 0 0 ---- 10 oxen |£12 120 0 0 | £3. 30 0 0 | 90 0 0 Two drivers per mouth | £1 2 0 0 | 1 5 0 | 0 15 0 Coolies, 10 with keep | 10 0 0 | } | 2 10 0 Kafirs, 10 ditto | |15s. 7 10 0} | White men, 10 | £4 40 0 0 |£4. 40 0 0 | Beef, 100 lbs. |at 6d. 2 10 0 |1½d. 0 12 6 | 1 17 6 Bread, 100 loaves | 6d. 2 10 0 |6d. 2 10 0 | Butter,100 lbs. |1s.3d. 6 5 0 |6d. 2 10 0 | 3 15 0 Rice, 100 lbs., food | 0 8 4 | } | for Coolies, Indian | | } | 0 5 7 Corn, 100 lbs., food | | 0 2 9} | for Kafirs | | } | Oats | 0 12 6 | 0 10 0 | 0 2 6 Beans, 100 lbs. | 1 2 6 | 0 10 0 | 0 12 6 Coals | 2 0 0 | 2 0 0 | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------------- | £897 8 4 | £288 0 3 | £554 18 1 --------------------------------------------------------------------- The immense saving obtained by ploughing, &c., over the Mauritius hand labor with the hoe, is not shown in the above figures. Table showing the cost of producing Muscovado sugar, and the quantity produced or available in the several countries mentioned, as made up from the evidence given before the Committee on Sugar and Coffee Plantations; by T. Wilson. -----------------+-------+---------+---------+-------+-------+-------+------ | | | | | |Excess | | | | | | |of cost| | | | | |Excess |of free| | | | | |of cost| over | | | | | Cost |of free| SLAVE | | | Average | Average |of pro-|labour | TRADE | | |available|available|ducing | over | labor,| | | produce | produce | one | slave |taking |In- |Average| under | during |cwt. of|or com-| the |crease |cost of| slavery |the last | sugar |pulsory|cost in|of cost |produc-| or com- | three | at | labor,|Brazil |in the | tion | pulsory |years of |present| per | at |British COUNTRY. | under | labor, | freedom,| date, | cwt., |7s. 6d.|planta- |slavery| for the | for the |exclu- |taking | per |tions |or com-|supply of|supply of|sive of| the | cwt. | since |pulsory| Europe | Europe |inter- |average|making |emanci- | labor.| and the | and the |est on |cost of| the |pation. | | United | United | capi- | the |average| | | States,| States.| tal, |latter | of | | | | | etc. |at 11s.| slave | | | | | | per | trade | | | | | | cwt. | labor | | | | | | |8s. per| | | | | | | cwt. | -----------------+-------+---------+---------+-------+-------+-------+------ _British | s. d.| Tons. | Tons. | s d. | s. d. | s. d.| s. d. Plantations_. | | | | | | | Antigua | 7 6 | 7,767 | 8,963 | 16 6 | 5 6 | 8 6 | 9 0 Barbados | 6 0 | 17,174 | 16,378 | 15 6 | 4 6 | 7 6 | 9 6 Grenada | 11 0 | 9,634 | 3,779 | 17 6 | 6 6 | 9 6 | 6 6 St. Kitts | 5 0 | 4,382 | 5,558 | 19 0 | 8 0 | 11 0 | 14 0 St. Vincent | 5 6 | 10,056 | 6,636 | 19 6 | 8 6 | 11 6 | 14 0 Tobago | 5 6 | 5,321 | 2,514 | 19 6 | 8 6 | 11 6 | 14 0 St. Lucia, etc. | 5 6 | 9,600 | 8,650 | 19 6 | 8 6 | 11 6 | 14 0 Jamaica | 10 0 | 68,626 | 30,807 | 22 6 | 11 6 | 14 6 | 12 6 Guiana | 6 8 | 44,178 | 24,817 | 25 10 | 14 10 | 17 10 | 19 2 Trinidad A* | 3 0 | 15,428 | 16,539 | 20 10 | 9 10 | 12 10 | 17 10 Mauritius | | 35,000 | 50,000 | 20 0 | 9 0 | 12 0 | Bengal | | | 62,000 | 23 0 | 12 0 | 15 0 | Madras | | | 7,000 | 20 0 | 9 0 | 12 0 | _Foreign | | | | | | | Free Labor | | | | | | | Country_. | | | | | | | Europe | | | | | | | (Beet-root) B* | | | 100,000 | 24 4 | 13 4 | 16 4 | _Foreign Slave, | | | | | | | or Compulsory | | | | | | | Labor | | | | | | | Countries_. | | | | | | | Java C* | 15 0 | 88,000 | | 15 0 | | | French Colonies | 15 0 | 90,000 | | 15 0 | Slave | | Cuba (Muscovado)| 8 0 | 220,000 | | 8 0 |or com-| | Porto Rico | 8 6 | 40,000 | | 8 6 |pulsory| | Louisiana | 12 6 | 100,000 | | 12 6 | labor | | Brazils D* | 11 11 | 90,000 | | 11 11 | | | -----------------+-------+---------+---------+-------+-------+-------+------ [A* This cost, as taken from the averages given in Lord Harris's despatches, is lower than the averages given by the witnesses before the Committee.] [B* This beet-root sugar sells, in the continental markets, on account of its inferior quality, at about 4s. to 6s. per cwt. below Colonial Muscovado, so that Colonial Muscovado must be about 33s. per cwt. to enable beet sugar to sell in this market for cost and charges, and allowing no profit to the beet sugar maker.] [C* The cost of producing sugar in Java is taken at the average between the Government contract sugar, and the free sugar, as given by Mr. San Martin.] [D* The cost of producing sugar in Brazil is taken from the Consular return: this return has given no credit for rum or molasses, and has charged 6s. 5d. for manufacturing, fully 3s. 5d. more than the cost in Cuba,--allowance for these two items would give 7s. 6d. as the nett cost per cwt.] BEET ROOT SUGAR. The rapid progress of the production of beet root sugar on the continent, especially in France, Belgium, Germany, Austria, and Russia, and its recent introduction and cultivation as an article of commerce in Ireland, renders the detail of its culture and manufacture on the continent interesting. I have, therefore, been induced to bestow some pains on an investigation of the rise and progress of its production and consumption in those countries. During the past three years, the smallest estimate which can be formed of the quantity of cane sugar that has been replaced by beet root sugar in the chief European countries, is about 80,000 tons annually, with the certainty that, year after year, the consumption will become exclusively confined to the former, to the greater exclusion of the latter; unless some great change shall take place in the relative perfection and manufacture of the two different descriptions of produce. Although, observes the _Economist_, the beet root sugar produced in France, Belgium, Germany, and other parts of the continent is not brought into competition in our own markets with the produce of the British colonies, yet it must be plain that the exclusion of so much foreign cane sugar from the continent, which was formerly consumed there, must throw a much larger quantity of Cuba and Brazilian sugar upon this market; and by this means the increased production of beet root sugar, even in those countries where it is highly protected, does indirectly increase the competition among the producers of cane sugar in our market. So early as 1747, a chemist of Berlin, named Margraf, discovered that beet root contained a certain quantity of sugar, but it was not until 1796 that the discovery was properly brought under the attention of the scientific in Europe by Achard, who was also a chemist and resident of Berlin, and who published a circumstantial account of the progress by which he extracted from 3 to 4 per cent. of sugar from beet root. Several attempts have been made, from time to time, to manufacture beet root sugar in England, but never, hitherto, on a large and systematic scale. Some years ago a company was established for the purpose, but they did not proceed in their operations. A refinery of sugar from the beet root was erected at Thames Bank, Chelsea, in the early part of 1837. During the summer of 1839 a great many acres of land were put into cultivation with the root, at Wandsworth and other places in the vicinity of the metropolis. The machinery used in the manufacture was principally on the plan of the vacuum pans, and a fine refined sugar was produced from the juice by the first process of evaporation, after it had undergone discolorization. Another part of the premises was appropriated to the manufacture of coarse brown paper from the refuse, for which it is extensively used in France. A refinery was also established about this period at Belfast, in the vicinity of which town upwards of 200 acres of land were put into cultivation with beet root for the manufacture of sugar. The experience of France ought to be a sufficient guarantee that the manufacture of beet root sugar is not a speculative but a great staple trade, in which the supply can be regulated by the demand, with a precision scarcely attainable in any other ease, and when, in addition, this demand tends rather to increase than to diminish. That the trade is profitable there can also be no doubt from the large capital embarked in it on the Continent--a capital which is steadily increasing even in France, where protection has been gradually withdrawn, and where, since 1848, it has competed upon equal terms with colonial sugars. The produce of France in 1851 was nearly 60,000 tons. The beet root sugar made in the Zollverein in 1851 was about 45,000 tons. Probably half as much more as is made in France and the Zollverein, is made in all the other parts of the Continent. In Belgium, the quantity made is said to be 7,000 tons; in Russia, 35,000; making a total of beet root sugar now manufactured in Europe of at least 150,000 and probably more, or nearly one-sixth part of the present consumption of Europe, America, and our various colonies. In 1847 this was estimated at upwards of 1,000,000 tons; and, as the production has increased considerably since that period, it is now not less than 1,100,000 tons. The soil of the Continent, it is said, will give 16 tons to the acre, and that of Ireland, 26 tons to the acre. The former yields from 6 to 7 per cent.--the latter from 7 to 8 per cent. as the extreme maximum strength of saccharine matter. The cost of the root in Ireland--for it is with that, and not with the cost of the Continental root, with which the West Indies will have to contend--is said to be at the rate of 16s. per ton this; but will probably be 13s. next season. The cost of manufacture is set down at £7 5s. per ton. Calculating the yield of the root to be 7½ lbs. to every 100 lbs., for 26 tons the yield would be nearly 2 tons of sugar, which would give about £9 10s. per ton, putting down the raw material to cost 14s, 6d. per ton, the medium between 16s. and 13s. Thus a ton of Irish-grown and manufactured beet root sugar, would cost £16 15s. per ton. Mr. Sullivan, the scientific guide to those who are undertaking to make beet root sugar at Mountmellick, Queen's County, Ireland, estimates the cost of obtaining pure sugar at from £16 17s. to £19 18s. per ton, according to the quantity of sugar in the root. Beet root is a vegetable of large circumference, at the upper end nine to eleven inches in diameter. There are several kinds. That which is considered to yield the most sugar is the white or Silesian beet (_Beta alba_). It is smaller than the mangel wurzel, and more compact, and appears in its texture to be more like the Swedish turnip. For the manufacture of sugar, the smaller beets, of which the roots weigh only one or two pounds, were preferred by Chaptal, who, besides being a celebrated chemist, was also a practical agriculturist and a manufacturer of sugar from beet root. After the white beet follows the yellow (_beta major_), then the red (_beta romana_), and lastly the common or field beet root (_Beta sylvestris_). Margraf, as we have seen, was the first chemist who discovered the saccharine principle in beet root; and Achard, the first manufacturer who fitted up an establishment (in Silesia) for the extraction of sugar from the root. It was not before 1809 that this manufacture was introduced into France. The manufacture sprung up there in consequence of Bonaparte's scheme for destroying the colonial prosperity of Great Britain by excluding British colonial produce. It having been found that from the juice of the beet root a crystallizable sugar could be obtained, he encouraged the establishment of the manufacture by every advantage which monopoly and premiums could give it. Colonial sugar was at the enormous price of four and five francs a pound, and the use of it was become so habitual, that no Frenchman could do without it. Several large manufactories of beet root were established, some of which only served as pretexts for selling smuggled colonial sugar as the produce of their own works. Count Chaptal, however, established one on his own farm, raising the beet root, as well as extracting the sugar. The roots are first cleaned by washing or scraping, and then placed in a machine to be rasped and reduced to a pulp. This pulp is put into a strong canvas bag and placed under a powerful press to squeeze out the juice. It is then put into coppers and boiled, undergoing certain other processes. Most of the operations are nearly the same as those by which the juice of the sugar cane is prepared for use; but much greater skill and nicety are required in rendering the juice of the beet root crystallizable, on account of its greater rawness and the smaller quantity of sugar it contains. But when this sugar is refined, it is impossible for the most experienced judge to distinguish it from the other, either by the taste or appearance; and from this arose the facility with which smuggled colonial sugar was sold in France, under the name of sugar from beet root. Five tons of clean roots produce about 4½ cwt. of coarse sugar, which give about 160 lbs. of double refined sugar, and 60 lbs. of inferior lump sugar. The rest is molasses, from which a good spirit is distilled. The dry residue of the roots, after expressing the juice, consists chiefly of fibre and mucilage, and amounts to about one-fourth of the weight of the clean roots used. It contains all the nutritive part of the root, with the exception of 4½ per cent. of sugar, which has been extracted from the juice, the rest being water. As the expense of this manufacture greatly exceeded the value of the sugar produced, according to the price of colonial sugar, it was only by the artificial encouragement of a monopoly and premiums that it could be carried on to advantage. The process is one of mere curiosity as long as sugar from the sugar cane can be obtained cheaper, and the import duties laid upon it are not so excessive as to amount to a prohibition; and in this case it is almost impossible to prevent its clandestine introduction. Another mode of making sugar from beet root, practised in some parts of Germany, is as follows, and is said to make better sugar than the other process:--The roots having been washed, are sliced lengthways, strung on packthread, and hung up to dry. The object of this is to let the watery juice evaporate, and the sweet juice, being concentrated, is taken up by macerating the dry slices in water. It is managed so that all the juice shall be extracted by a very small quantity of water, which saves much of the trouble of evaporation. Professor Lampadius obtained from 110 lbs. of roots 4 lbs. of well-grained white powder-sugar, and the residuum afforded 7 pints of spirit. Achard says that about a ton of roots produced 100 lbs. of raw sugar, which gave 55 lbs. of refined sugar, and 15 lbs. of treacle. This result is not very different from that of Chaptal. 6,000 tons of beet root it is said will produce 400 tons of sugar and 100 tons of molasses. Beet root sugar in the raw state contains an essential oil, the taste and smell of which are disagreeable. Thus the treacle of beet root cannot be used in a direct way, whereas the treacle of cane sugar is of an agreeable flavor, for the essential oil which it contains is aromatic, and has some resemblance in taste to vanilla. But beet root sugar, when it is completely refined, differs in no sensible degree from refined cane sugar. In appearance it is quite equal to cane sugar, and the process of refining it is more easy than for the latter. Samples made in Belgium were exhibited at a late meeting of the Dublin Society. It was of the finest appearance, of strong sweetening quality, and in color resembling the species of sugar known as crushed lump. The most singular part of the matter is, that it was manufactured in the space of forty-five minutes--the entire time occupied from the taking of the root out of the ground and putting it into the machine, to the production of the perfect article. It was said that it could be produced for 3d. per lb. An acre of ground is calculated to yield 50 tons of Silesian beet, which, in France and Belgium, give three tons of sugar, worth about £50; the refuse being applied in those countries to feeding cattle. But from the superior fitness of the Irish soil, as shown by experience to be the case, it is confidently affirmed by persons competent to form an opinion, that 8 per cent. of sugar could be obtained there on the raw bulk. The following figures are given as illustrative of the expense of the cultivation of one acre of beet-root in Ireland:-- Two ploughings and harrowing £1 1 0 Expense of manure and carting 5 0 0 Hoeing and seed 0 6 0 Drilling and sowing 0 5 0 Rent 2 0 0 ------- £8 12 0 An average produce of 20 tons, at £15 per ton, would leave a profit of £6 8s. per acre, leaving the land in a state fit for the reception, at little expense, of a crop of wheat, barley, or oats for the next year, and of hay for the year ensuing; a consideration of no small importance to the farmer. The following estimates, recently given, are not by any means exaggerated:-- 61,607 tons of beet, at 10s. £30,803 10 0 Cost of manufacture, at 11s. per ton. 33,883 17 0 ------------- 64,687 7 0 Produce 7 per cent of sugar, at 28s. per cwt. 136,767 10 0 ------------- Estimated profit £72,080 3 0 The quantity of sugar made from beet-root in France in 1828, was about 2,650 tons; in 1830, its weight was estimated at 6 million kilogrammes[24] (5,820 tons); in 1834, at 26 million kilogrammes (24,000 tons); in 1835, 36,000 tons; in 1836, 49,000 tons. At the commencement of the year 1837, the number of refineries at work or being built was 543; on an average 20 kilogrammes of beet-root are required for the production of one kilogramme of sugar. The sugar manufactured from the beet-root in France a few years ago was stated to amount to 55,000 tons, or one half of the entire consumption of the kingdom. The _Courrier Francais_ calculated that the beet-root sugar made in France in 1838 amounted to 110 million lbs., and the journal added, there is no doubt that, in a few years, the produce will be equal to the entire demand. The cultivation then extended over 150,000 acres, and in the environs of Lille and Valenciennes it has sometimes been as high as 28,000 lbs. per acre. From returns of the produce and consumption of beet-root sugar published in the _Moniteur_, it appears that on the 1st Dec. 1851, there were 335 manufactories in operation, or 81 more than in the corresponding period of 1850. The quantity of sugar made, including the portion lying over from the previous year, amounted to 19,625,386 kilogrammes, and that stored in the public bonding warehouse to 10,556,847. At the end of June, 1852, 329 manufactories were at work, or two more than at the same period in 1851. The quantity sold was 62,211,663 kilogrammes, or 9,167,018 less, as compared with the corresponding period of the previous year. There remained in stock in the manufactories 91,434,070 kilogrammes, and in the entrepot 4,597,829 kilogrammes, being an increase of 2,568,662 kilogrammes in the manufactories, and a decrease of 1,292,962 in the entrepots. The manufacture of beet-root sugar is every year assuming in France increased importance, and attracts more and more the attention of political economists as a source of national wealth, and of government, as affording matter of taxation. Thirty new factories, got up upon a very extensive scale, are enumerated as going into operation this year. They are located, with but two exceptions, in the north of France; fifteen of them are in the single department of Nord. Indeed, the manufacture of beet-root sugar is confined, almost exclusively, to the five northern adjacent departments of Nord, Pas de Calais, Somme, Aisne, and Oise. The best quality retails at 16 cents the pound. I take from a table in the _Moniteur_ the following statement of the number of factories and their location, with the amount of production up to the 31st May, 1851. At that date the season is supposed to end. A separate column gives the total production in the season of 1842, showing an increase in ten years of more than double, viz., of 41,582,113 kilogrammes, or, in our weight, of 93,559,754 pounds. Number of Kilogrammes Kilogrammes Departments. Factories. Prod. 1850-1. Prod. 1843. Aisne 30 5,307,754 3,103,178 Nord 155 44,142,224 15,334,063 Oise 8 1,589,939 751,746 Pas-de-Calais 70 16,665,084 5,856,944 Somme 23 3,404,776 2,683,421 Scattered about 18 2,707,190 3,505,602 ------ ------------ ------------ 304 73,817,607 30,234,954 This information was given by M. Fould, Minister of Finance, upon the introduction of a bill making an appropriation for the purchase of 455 _saccharometers_, which had become necessary by reason of the late law ordering that from and after the 1st of January, 1852, the beet sugars were to be taxed according to their saccharine richness. The Minister declared that at that date there would be in active operation in France 334 sugar factories and 84 refining establishments. The _Moniteur Parisien_ has the following:-- "Notwithstanding the advantages accorded to colonial sugar, and the duties which weigh on beet-root sugar, the latter article has acquired such a regular extension that it has reached the quantity of 60,000 tons--that is to say, the half of our consumption. France (deducting the refined sugar exported under favour of the drawback) consumes 120,000 tons, of which 60,000 are home made, 50,000 colonial, and 10,000 foreign. The two sugars have been placed on the same conditions as to duties, but it is only from the 1st inst. (Jan. 1852), that the beet-root sugar will pay a heavier duty than our colonial sugar. In spite of this difference we are convinced that the manufacture of beet-root sugar, which is every day, improved by new processes, will be always very advantageous, and will attain in some years the total quantity of the consumption. In Belgium the produce of the beet-root follows the same progress. The consumption of sugar there was, in 1850, 14,000 tons, of which 7,000 was beet-root, made in 22 manufactories. This year there are 18 new ones, and although their organisation does not allow of their manufacturing in the same proportion as the 22 old ones, they will furnish at least 3,000 tons. The quantity of foreign sugar in that market does not reckon more than 4,000 tons. This conclusion is the more certain, as in 1848-1849, the beet-root only stood at 4,500 tons in the general account. It may therefore be seen from these figures what progress has been made. The same progressive movement is going on in Germany. In 1848 it produced 26,000 tons, and in 1861, 43,000. The following table shows the importance of this improvement. It comprises the Zollverein, Hanover, and the Hanse Towns:-- Cane Sugar. Beet-root. Totals. Tons. Tons. Tons. 1848 60,500 26,000 86,500 1849 54,000 34,000 88,000 1851 45,000 43,000 88,000 Thus we find that in the period of four years cane sugar has lost 15,000 tons and it will lose still more when new manufactories shall have been established. The consumption of Russia is estimated at 85,000 tons, of which 35,000 is beet-root, and what proves that the latter every day gains ground is, that the orders to the Havana are constantly decreasing, and prices are getting lower. In 1848 Austria consumed 40,000 tons, of which 8,000 were beet-root. Last year (1851,) she produced 15,000 tons. The production of the continent rising to 200,000 tons, and the consumption remaining nearly stationary, it is evident that Brazilian and Cuban sugars will encumber the English market, independently of the refined sugar of Java, which Holland sends to Great Britain. When the continental system was established by the decrees of Milan and Berlin, the Emperor Napoleon asked the savans to point out the means of replacing the productions which he proscribed: it is to the active and useful impulse which his genius impressed on all minds, that France and Europe owe this fresh manufacture--a creation the more valuable as its fortunate development required the co-operation of chemical science and agricultural improvement." The quantity of sugar extracted from beet-root in the commencement of the process, amounted to only 2 per cent.; but it was afterwards made to yield 5 per cent., and it was then supposed possible to extract 6 per cent. On this calculation the fiscal regulations for the protection of colonial sugars in France were founded; but recent experiments have been made, by means of which as much as ten and a half per cent. of sugar has been obtained. The following notice of the improved process is given in a number of the _Constitutionnel_:-- "It appears that a great improvement is likely to be made in the manufacture of beet-root sugar. Those who are acquainted with the process of this manufacture, are aware that M. de Dombasle has the last six years exclusively devoted himself to bring to perfection the process of maceration, of which he is the inventor. Adopting recent improvements, this process is materially altered, and has now arrived at such a point of perfection that it could scarcely be exceeded. The Society for the Encouragement of National Industry recently appointed committees to examine the effect produced in the manufactory of Roville. They witnessed the entire progress of the work, every part of which was subjected to minute investigation. Similar experiments have been made in the presence of many distinguished manufacturers. We have not the least intention to prejudge the decision which may be made on this subject by the society we have alluded to; but we believe we are able to mention the principal results that have regularly attended the works of the manufactory this year. The produce in coarse sugar has been more than eight per cent. of the first quality, and more than two per cent. of the second quality, in all nearly ten and a half per cent. of the weight of beet-root used; and the quality of these sugars has been considered by all the manufacturers superior to anything of the kind that has hitherto been made, and admits of its being converted into loaf-sugar of the first quality. The progress of these operations is as simple as possible, and the expenses attending the manufacture are considerably less than that of the process hitherto adopted." The cultivation of the beet in France appears likely to prove still more advantageous, in consequence of the discovery that the molasses drawn from the root may be, after serving for the manufacture of sugar, turned to farther advantage. It appears that potash may be made from it, of a quality equal to foreign potash. A Monsieur Dubranfaut has discovered a method of extracting this substance from the residue of the molasses after distillation, and which residue, having served for the production of alcohol, was formerly thrown away. To give some idea of the importance of the creation of this new source of national wealth (remarks the _Journal des Debats_), it will be sufficient to say that the quantity of potash furnished by M. Dubranfaut's process is equal to l/6th of the quantity of sugar extracted from the beet. Thus, taking the amount of indigenous sugar manufactured each year at seventy million kilogrammes (each kil. equal to 2 lbs. 2 oz. avoird.), there may besides be extracted from this root, which has served for that production, twelve million kilogrammes of saline matter, comparable to the best potash of commerce; and this, too, without, the loss of the alcohol and the other produce, the fabrication of which may be continued simultaneously. According to the present prices, the twelve millions of kilogrammes represent a value of from fourteen to fifteen million francs. The States composing the German Union possessed towards the close of 1838, 87 manufactories of beet-root sugar in full operation, viz., Prussia, 63; Bavaria, 5; Wurtemburg, 3; Darmstadt, 1; other states, 15; besides 66 which were then constructing. The only returns given for Prussia and Central Germany are 1836 to 1838, and the annual production of sugar was then estimated at eleven million pounds. The quantity now made is, of course, much greater. At the close of 1888, Austria produced nine million pounds; she now makes fifteen thousand tons. The growth of beet-root in Hungary, during the years 1837 and 1838, was extremely favorable, and the manufacture of sugar from it has become very extensive. It has been greatly encouraged by the Austrian government. It was estimated that fifty millions of pounds were manufactured in Prussia and Germany in 1839. In Bohemia there were, in 1840, fifty-two factories of beet-root sugar, and nine for the making of syrup out of potato meal. In 1838, the number was as high as eighty-seven. The Dutch papers state that in a single establishment in Voster Vick, in Guilderland, about five million pounds' weight of the beet-root are consumed in the manufacture of sugar. The following is a Comparative Statement of the number of Sugar Manufactories, and the Quantity of Beet-root upon which duty was paid for the Manufacture of Sugar in the Zollverein during the years ending the 31st of August, 1846 and 1847:-- -------------------+-------------+------------------------------------- | |Quantity of Beet-root upon which duty | |was paid for the Manufacture of Sugar. | +---------+---------+----------------- | Number of | | | Comparison in Name of the State |Manufactories| | | 1846-7 with the of the Zollverein | | 1845-6 | 1846-7 | preceding year. +------+------+ | +---------+------- | | | | | More in |Less in |1845-6|1846-7| | | 1846-7 |1846-7 -------------------+------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- Prussia | | |Cwts. ** | Cwts. | Cwts. | Cwts. Eastern Prussia | 2 | 2 | 12,393| 29,941| 17,548| -- Western Prussia | -- | -- | -- | -- | --- | -- Posen | 7 | 8 | 101,422| 121,914| 20,492| -- Pomerania | 5 | 4 | 89,865| 121,061| 31,196| -- Silesia | 16 | 22 | 590,545| 711,632| 121,087| -- Brandenburg | 3 | 3 | 140,421| 148,066| 7,645| -- Prussian Saxony | 38 | 42 |2,676,084|3,547,891| 871,817| -- Duchies of Anhalt | 4 | 5 | 266,345| 288,082| 21,737| -- Westphalia | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- Rhenish Provinces | 2 | -- | 2,479| -- | -- | 2,479 -------------------+------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- Total in Prussia | 77 | 86 |3,879,554|4,968,587|1,079,043| -------------------+------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- Luxemburg | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- Bavaria, Kingdom of| 8 | 7 | 50,952| 46,142| -- | 4,810 Saxony, " | 1 | 2 | 20,887| 34,230| 13,343| -- Wurtemburg, " | 2 | 2 | 59,521| 141,366| 81,845| -- Baden, Grand Duchy | 2 | 2 | 316,968| 328,608| 11,640| -- Hesse, Electorate | 2 | 3 | 25,376| 23,529| -- | 1,847 Hesse, Grand Duchy | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- Thuringia | 2 | 3 | 36,127| 38,218| 2,091| -- Brunswick, Dukedom | 2 | 2 | 65,707| 52,796| -- | 12,911 Nassau, Dukedom | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- Frankfort, FreeCity| -- | -- | -- | -- | -- | -- +------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- Total, exclusively } | | | | | of Prussia } 19 | 21 | 575,538| 664,889| 89,351| +------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- Total in the | | | | | | Zollverein | 96 | 107 |4,455,092|5,633,476|1,168,394| -------------------+------+------+---------+---------+---------+------- [** Prussian cwts. are equal to 80 English cwts.] This statement proves that the cultivation of the beet-root, and the subsequent manufacture into sugar, has greatly increased in the Zollverein. Eleven manufactories had been added to the number in the previous year, and an increase of 26 per cent. took place in the quantity of beet-root which was manufactured into sugar. Each manufactory used, upon an average, the following quantity during the undermentioned years:-- 1841-2 1844-5 1846-7 Cwts. Cwts. Cwts. In Prussia generally 38,161 50,384 57,774 In the province of Saxony 55,412 70,423 84,473 In the province of Silesia 33,595 36,909 32,347 In the Zollverein, on an average in each manufactory 27,237 46,407 52,634 The increase is chiefly evident in the province of Saxony, where, in 1846-7, an augmentation of 1,087,851 cwt. of beet-root; in comparison to the preceding year, took place. If we compare the quantity of beet-root employed in Saxony with that of the whole Zollverein, we find that the former province requires 63 per cent, of the whole quantity used for the manufacture of sugar. The great activity in that province (chiefly in the district of Magdeburg) is rendered more apparent by the following table:-- Comparative Statement of the Number of Manufactories, and their Machinery and Utensils, employed for the Manufacture of Beet-root Sugar in the Prussian Province of Saxony during the years 1841-2 and 1846-7 respectively. ------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------- | |In the neighbourhood |Province of Saxony | of Magdeburg +---------+---------+---------+---------- | 1841-2 | 1846-7 | 1841-2 | 1846-7 +---------+---------+---------+---------- | No. | No. | No. | No. Manufactories | 40 | 39 | 15 | 15 Apparatus for grating | 58 | 65 | 27 | 32 Hydraulic presses | 136 | 209 | 72 | 93 Clarifying pans, with open | | | | firing | 81 | 68 | 24 | 24 Ditto, by steam | 50 | 76 | 33 | 42 Evaporating pans, with open | | | | firing | 130 | 123 | 55 | 54 Ditto, by steam | 46 | 71 | 28 | 32 Clarifiers, with open firing | 23 | 21 | 14 | 10 Ditto, by steam | 23 | 28 | 19 | 21 Boiling pans, with open firing| 76 | 61 | 33 | 24 Ditto, by steam | 20 | 35 | 12 | 17 Of which there are vacuum pans| 8 | 21 | 3 | 9 Steam-engines | 19 | 40 | 12 | 20 Horse-power | 210 | 457 | 153 | 267 Cattle mills | 19 | 9 | 4 | 2 Cattle employed | 79 | 38 | 19 | 12 | | | | | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. Quantity of beet-root used} | | | | for manufacture } |2,349,774|3,387,280|1,433,293|1,889,463 Or on an average in each} | | | | manufactory } | 58,744| 86,853| 95,553| 125,964 ------------------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------- The increase of power by machinery is surprising, chiefly by steam and hydraulic presses, which has not only effected a greater produce, but likewise a much larger increase of the quantity of beet-root required for manufacture. The works where draught cattle are employed have decreased, and are only in use where the manufacture of beet root sugar is combined with a farm. In Russia, in 1832, there existed only 20 manufacturers of beet root sugar, but this number subsequently increased to 100, and they annually produced the twelfth of the total quantity of sugar which Russia receives from foreign parts. The number of those manufactories in 1840, was 140, and the importation of sugar, which reached to 1,555,357 lbs. in 1837, amounted to only 1,269,209 lbs. in 1839. The production of indigenous sugar is now set down at 35,000 tons. In France, for many years past, the production of beet-root sugar has been rapidly increasing, in spite of a gradual reduction of the protection which it enjoyed against colonial and foreign sugar, until it has reached a quantity of 60,000 tons, or fully one half of the entire consumption. Independent of the refined sugar exported under drawback, the consumption of France may be now estimated at 120,000 tons, of which 60,000 tons are of beet-root, 60,000 tons of French colonial, and 10,000 tons at the outside of foreign sugar. The beet-root and the French colonial sugars are now placed on the same footing as regards duty, and a law was recently passed, subjecting beet-root sugar, from the 1st of January, 1852, to even a higher duty than French colonial sugar. Nevertheless, it is admitted that the manufacture of beet-root sugar is highly profitable and rapidly increasing, so that it is likely in a very short time to exclude foreign sugar from French consumption altogether. In Belgium, the production of beet-root sugar is also rapidly increasing; in 1851 the entire consumption of sugar was estimated at 14,000 tons, of which 7,000 tons were of beet-root, and 7,000 tons of foreign cane sugar. The number of beet-root factories to supply that quantity was _twenty-two_, but this number has, already increased in the present year to _forty_. Many of these will be but imperfectly at work during this season, but it is estimated that of the entire consumption of 14,000 tons, at least 10,000 tons will consist of beet-root, and only 4,000 tons of foreign cane sugar. And from present appearances the manufacture of beet-root is likely to increase so much as to constitute nearly the entire consumption. So lately as 1848 and 1849 the production of beet-root sugar was only 4,500 tons. In Austria, the consumption of sugar in 1841 was 40,000 tons, of which 8,000 tons were of beet-root, and 32,000 tons of foreign cane sugar. But the production of beet-root has increased so fast that it is estimated to produce in the present year 15,000 tons; and as no increase has taken place in the entire consumption, the portion of foreign cane sugar required in the present year will be reduced from 32,000 tons to 25,000 tons. The following information, with regard to the state of the manufacture of beet-root sugar on the Continent last year, has been furnished by Mr. C.J. Ramsay, of Trinidad. "My first start was for Paris, where I remained a week, procuring the necessary letters of introduction, to enable me to see some of the sugar works in the provinces. Whilst there I called upon Messrs. Cail and Co., the principal machine makers in France, mentioned the subject of my visit, and requested their assistance. Nothing could have been more liberal than the way in which they treated me. I was at once asked to look over their establishment and requested to call the next day, when letters of introduction to their branch establishments at Valenciennes and Brussels would be ready for me. This I of course did, and received not only these letters but some others, to sugar manufacturers in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes. Thus provided, and with letters from Mr. D'Eickthal, a banker in Paris, to Mr. Dubranfaut, the chemist, to Mr. Grar, a refiner of Valenciennes, to Mr. Melsens of Brussels, and to another sugar maker near Valenciennes, whose name I forget, and who was the only man from whom I did not receive the greatest politeness, I started for Valenciennes. My first essay was upon the latter personage, who evidently with a considerable grudge showed me a simple room in his works where four centrifugal machines were at work--raised the cry of ruin, if the French improvements were introduced in the West Indies, and informed me he had nothing else worth seeing. I returned to Valenciennes, thinking if this is the way I was to be treated, I might as well have stayed at home. That this was a solitary instance of illiberality, you will presently see. I next called upon Mr. Grar, by whom I was received in a very different manner; he at once offered to show me over his works, and especially that part of them where a new process, discovered by Mr. Dubranfaut, was carried on, every part of which was fully explained, Mr. Dubranfaut's laboratory is connected with these works, and having inspected the working part of the establishment Mr. G. then took me there, and introduced me to that gentleman, with whom I passed the remainder of the afternoon, receiving a full explanation of his new process, which is this:--a solution of hydrate of barytes is made in boiling water--the saccharine solution to be treated is heated to the same degree, and the two mixed together in the proportions of 46 parts of hydrate of barytes to every 100 parts of sugar contained in the solution, which has previously been ascertained by polariscopic examination. A saccharate of barytes is immediately formed in the shape of a copious precipitate; this, after being thoroughly washed and thus freed from all soluble impurities, is transferred into large, deep vats, and a stream of carbonic acid gas forced into it, which decomposes the saccharate of barytes, forming carbonate of barytes, and liberating the sugar in the shape of a perfectly pure solution of sugar in water, of the density of 20 to 23 degrees Baumé; the carbonate of barytes being thoroughly washed is again converted into caustic barytes by burning, so that there is little loss in the operation. The whole process is certainly very beautiful, and its economic working has been tried for a year, on a sufficiently large scale to leave no doubt as to the economy of the process in refining molasses, which is the only purpose it has yet been applied to. The Messrs. Grar were so thoroughly satisfied with it, that when I was there they had taken down their original apparatus, and were re-erecting it on such a scale as to work up all the molasses by it, equal to almost five tons of sugar daily. Owing to this circumstance, I had not an opportunity of seeing the process on a working scale, but was shown the whole proceedings in the laboratory. The only difficulties I see in applying this process at once to the cane juice, are the large quantity of barytes required, the expense of re-burning it and the entire change in works that would be necessary before it could be introduced. The advantage would be, the obtaining the whole sugar contained in the juice, free from all impurities, consequently white, and in the shape of a syrup marking 20 to 23 degrees instead of 8 or 10 degrees, thus saving fully half the evaporation now required. The sugar made in this way, I was told, contains no trace of barytes. To show you the degree of economy practised in such establishments in France, I may mention that the washings of the saccharate of barytes are sold to the makers of potash and soda, who make a profit by boiling them down to obtain what salts they contain. The carbonic acid is obtained by the combustion of charcoal in a closed iron furnace into which air is forced by an air pump, requiring, I believe, about one horse power. From the top of the furnace a pipe leads into a washing vessel, from which the gas is led into the bottom of the vats by pipes. At Valenciennes I met with Mr. Cail, who, beside being an engineer and machine-maker, is interested in sugar-making, both in France and in the West Indies, and most thoroughly understands the subject. He invited me to accompany him to Douai, to see a new set of works which had been set agoing this month. I was of course too glad to accept his invitation, and started with him at six next morning, reached Douai at eight, and then proceeded to the works, which are a few miles out of town. In this work a new process is also employed; it is that of Mr. Rouseau, and is said to answer well. The beet root juice, as soon as possible after expression, is thrown up by a montjus into copper clarifiers with double bottoms, heated by steam at a pressure of five atmospheres. To every hundred litres of juice (=22 gals.) two kilogrammes of lime are added (about four and a half pounds English weight). The lime is most carefully prepared and mixed with large quantities of hot water till it forms a milk perfectly free from lumps. The steam is turned off, and the juice heated to 90 deg. A complete defecation has taken place, the steam is shut off, and the juice left a short time, to allow the heavier impurities to subside. It is then run off in the usual manner, undergoes a slight filtration through a cotton cloth placed over a layer of about four inches thick of animal charcoal, and runs into a second set of copper vessels placed on a lower level than the clarifiers; these vessels are heated by means of a coil of steam piping sufficient to make them boil. A second pipe passes into them, making a single turn at the bottom of the vessel; this is pierced on the lower side with small holes, through which a stream of carbonic acid gas is forced. This decomposes the saccharate of lime, which has been formed in consequence of the large excess of lime added to the clarifiers. The lime is precipitated as carbonate. When precipitation has ceased, steam is turned on, and the whole made to boil; this expels any excess of carbonic acid; the liquor is then run off, undergoes a similar partial filtration to that mentioned above, and is then passed through the charcoal filters to be decomposed. The sugar made by this process, directly from the beet-root juice, is nearly white. The molasses is re-boiled as often as six times; each time undergoing a clarification and filtration through animal charcoal. And the proceeds of the last re-boiling is certainly in appearance not worse than a great deal of muscovado I have seen shipped from Trinidad. In this work there are about 150 people employed. The work goes on night and day, one gang replacing the other. The whole evaporation is done by two vacuum pans, each 6½ feet in diameter, 80,000 kilogrammes of beet-root are used daily, from which about 6,000 kilogrammes of sugar are obtained, equal to about 6 tons English weight. In these and every other works I visited--eight in all--the centrifugal machines were in use, and had in most cases been so for two years; those lately made have been much simplified in construction, and work admirably. Cail & Co., of Paris, are the makers; their charge is 3,000 francs for each machine (£120 stg.). They require about one and a half horse power each. As they are wrought in France, one machine is about equal to work off a ton and a half of sugar daily, working all the 24 hours. Mr. Cail recommends a separate engine for those machines; so that they can be used at any time, independent of the other machinery. The charge put into a machine is about 80 kilogrammes, from which about 30 to 35 kilogrammes of dry sugar is obtained; the calculation is, I believe, 40 per cent. I weighed some of the baskets of sugar taken out after drying, and found them 35 kilogrammes. Sugar intended for the machine is never concentrated beyond 41 degrees Baumè; that made from the juice direct is allowed 18 to 34 hours to crystallize, and is put into the machine in a semi-liquid state; the motion at first is comparatively slow; in about three minutes the sugar appears nearly dry; about three-fourths of a gallon of brown syrup is then poured into the machine whilst in motion, and the speed brought up to its highest, about 1200 revolutions a minute; in 3 or 4 minutes more the machine is stopped, the sugar scooped out and thrown into baskets, the inside of the revolving part, and especially the wire cloth, carefully washed with a brush and water, and a fresh charge put in. The whole time betwixt each charge is about 15 minutes. From the large proportion of molasses you will see very plainly that those who do not intend to re-boil, need not think of centrifugal machines. The sugar dried in this way is not altogether white, but has a slight greyish yellow tinge. Of the other sugar works which I visited, the only one of peculiar interest was that of Mr. Dequesne, near Valenciennes. Here the roots are first cut into small pieces by an instrument similar to a turnip slicer, then dried in a species of kiln, and stored up till required. In this way I was told beet-root could be preserved with very little deterioration for a full year, and this enables Mr. Dequesne to go on making sugar all the year round. When the sugar is to be extracted, the dried cuttings are put into a series of closed vessels connected by pipes, and by a system of continuous filtration of warm water through these vessels the solution of sugar is obtained, of a density equal, I believe, to 25 degrees Baumè; it is a good deal colored, and requires filtration through animal charcoal. Mr. Dequesne informed me that for five years he had been unable to make this mode of sugar-making cover its expenses, owing to the loss occasioned by fermentation taking place in the beet-root; but that he has now entirely overcome that difficulty; by what means I was not told. The number of macerating vessels is fourteen, ten of which are working at a time, the other four filling and emptying. A greater number of vessels, Mr. Dequesne thinks, would be advantageous, as cold instead of hot water could then be employed. He thinks a similar plan might be introduced in the West Indies with great advantage, and that by employing the proper means to prevent fermentation the sun's heat would be quite sufficient to dry the cane slices. Mr. Dubranfaut and Mr. Rouseau's processes are patented in England. The terms for the use of the former would, I was told, be made so moderate, as to offer no obstruction to its being used in the colonies. What Mr. Rouseau's terms are I could not learn. There are now 288 works making beet root sugar in France, and over 30 in Belgium. The same manufacture is rapidly spreading in Germany and Russia, and is now being introduced in Italy. Whilst at Valenciennes, I learned that two English gentlemen had just preceded me in visiting the works in that neighbourhood, mentioning that they had in view introducing the beet root sugar manufacture in Ireland. The sugar crop of France was last year over 60,000,000 of kilogrammes (60,000 tons). For two years _Belgium has been exporting_ to the Mediterranean. One maker told me that he had last year exported a considerable part of his crop. It would therefore appear, that even beet root sugar can compete in _other than the producing country_ with the sugar of the tropics--a most significant hint that, unless the cane can be made to yield more and better sugar than is now generally got from it, there is some risk of its being ultimately beaten by the beet root, the cultivation of which is now carried on with so much profit that new works are springing up every year, in almost every country of the continent. In going through the French works, I made inquiries as to how far the procedé Melsens had been adopted, and was everywhere told it was a total failure. I, however, determined to see Mr. Melsens and judge for myself how far it might be applicable to the cane, even if a failure with regard to the beet root. I, therefore, went on to Brussels, enclosed my letters of introduction and card, and received in return a note, appointing to meet me next morning. I found him one of the best and most obliging of men. He immediately offered to go over some experiments on beet root juice with me at his laboratory, where I accordingly spent the greater part of two days with him, and went over a variety of experiments; and from what I saw and assisted in doing, I feel strongly inclined to think that, notwithstanding the French commission at Martinique report otherwise, some modification of Mr. Melsens' process may be most advantageously employed in making cane sugar if not as a defecator, at least to prevent fermentation, and, probably, also as a decolorising agent. Mr. Melsens showed me letters he had received from Java from a person with whom he had no acquaintance, stating that he had used the bisulphate of lime with complete success; and whilst I was with him he again received letters from the same person, stating that by its use he had not only improved the quality of sugar, but had raised the return to 9 per cent. of the weight of cane. From the letters which I saw, the process appears to have been tried on a very large scale, with the advantage of filters and a vacuum pan. Where the old mode of leaving half the dirt with the sugar, and boiling up to a temperature of 340 degrees or thereby, is continued, I fear there is not much chance of either bisulphate or anything else making any very great improvement. The use of bisulphate of lime is patented in England and the colonies, but I believe I may state the charge for the right of using it will be made extremely moderate. The points which appeared to me worthy of remark in visiting the beet-root sugar works are, the extreme care that nothing shall be lost--the great attention paid to cleanliness in every part of the process, besides the particular care given to defecation. No vessel is ever used twice without being thoroughly washed. Such a thing as the employment of an open fire in any part of the manufacture is quite unknown. Everything is done by steam, of a pressure of from 4 to 5 atmospheres. In the more recently started works, the evaporation is entirely carried on in vacuum. In some of the older works copper evaporators, heated by coils of steam piping, and having covers, with chimneys to carry off the vapor, are still used; but of the eight works I visited I only saw them in use in one of them, and they are nowhere used excepting to evaporate to the point when the second filtration takes place. The coolers I saw were invariably made of iron, and varied in depth from 2 to over 6 feet. These very deep vessels are used for the crystallization of sugar, made of the fourth, fifth and sixth re-boilings of molasses, which requires from three to six months. One thing struck me forcibly in going over the French and Belgian works; it was the extreme liberality with which I was allowed to go over every part of them; to remain in them as long as I pleased; had all my inquiries answered, and every explanation given; in most striking contrast to the grudging manner in which I have been trotted over some of the refineries in England, as if those who showed them were afraid I should gain any information on the subject of their trade. Mr. H. Colman, speaking of the agriculture of the Continent, gives some information he obtained on the comparative cost of producing beet and cane sugar. A hectare (two and a half acres) produces, in the Isle of Bourbon, about 76,000 kilogrammes (a kilogramme is nearly two and one-fifth pounds) of cane, which will give 2,200 kilogrammes of sugar, and the cost for labor is 2,500 francs. A hectare of beet root produces 40,000 kilogrammes of roots, which yield 2,400 kilogrammes of sugar, and the expense of the culture is 354 francs. The cost of the cane sugar in this case is 27 centimes, and of the beet sugar 14 centimes only, per kilogramme. These are extraordinary statements, and will be looked at by the political economist and the philanthropist with great interest. There are few of the northern states of Europe, or of the United States, which might not produce their own sugar; and when we take into account the value of this product, even in its remains after the sugar is extracted, for the fattening of cattle and sheep, and of course for the enrichment of the land for the succeeding crops, its important bearing upon agricultural improvement cannot be exaggerated. According to M. Peligot, the average amount of sugar in beets is 12 per cent.; but, by extraction, they obtain only 6 per cent. The cane contains about 18 per cent. of saccharine matter, but they get only about 7½. The expense of cultivating a hectare of beets, according to Dombasle, is 354 francs. An hectare of cane, which produces 2,200 kilogrammes of sugar, in the Island of Bourbon, and only 2,000 in French Guiana, demands the labor of twelve negroes, the annual expense of each of whom is 250 francs, according to M. Labran.--(Commission of Inquiry in 1840.) Sugar has become not only an article of luxury, but of utility, to such a degree, that a supply of it constitutes an important article of importation, and is of national consequence. For sugar the world has hitherto relied on the cane, with the exception of some parts of India, where the sugar palm yields it much more cheaply. The sugar cane is, however, a tropical plant, and, of course, its cultivation must of necessity be limited to such hot countries. France, during the wars of Napoleon, shut out from her Indian possessions or deprived of them, commenced making sugar from beets, and it proving unexpectedly successful and profitable, it has as we have just seen, extended not only over that empire, but nearly the whole of continental Europe, where it forms an important item in their system of cultivation and profit. The manufacture has been attempted in the United States; but though the facts of the ease and certainty with which the beets may be grown and their great value for stock has been fully ascertained, still little progress in the production of sugar from them has been made there. MAPLE SUGAR. There are few trees in the American forest of more value than the maple (_Acer saccharinum_). As an ornamental tree, it is exceeded by few; its ashes abound in alkali, and from it a large proportion of the potash of commerce is produced; and its sap furnishes a sugar of the best quality, and in abundance. It likewise affords molasses and an excellent vinegar. In the maple the sugar amounts to five per cent. of the whole sap. There is no tree whose shape and whose foliage is more beautiful, and whose presence indicates a more generous, fertile, and permanent soil than the rock maple: in various cabinet-work its timber vies with black walnut and mahogany for durability and beauty; and as an article of fuel its wood equals the solid hickory. Its height is sometimes 100 feet, but it usually grows to a height varying from forty to eighty feet. It is bushy, therefore an elegant shade tree. The maple is indigenous to the forests of America, and wherever there has been opportunity for a second growth, this tree attains to a considerable size much sooner than might be imagined. In the course of ten or fifteen years the maple becomes of a size to produce sugar. The trees which have come up since the first clearing, produce sap that yields much more saccharine than the original forest maples. The whole interior of the northern part of the United States have relied, and still rely, more on their maple woodlands for sugar than on any other source; and as a branch of domestic manufacture and home production, the business is of no little consequence. The time occupied too in the manufacture is very limited, and occurs at a season when very little other labor can be performed. Hitherto but comparatively little attention has been bestowed upon this important branch of industry in Canada. The inhabitants of that province might doubtless manufacture a sufficient quantity of maple sugar to supply the demand or consumption in this article for the whole population of the country. This variety of sugar may be refined, and made as valuable for table use as the finest qualities of West India sugar. On the south shore of Lake Huron, and the islands of that inland sea, there are forests of sugar maple unsurveyed capable of producing a supply for the whole population. The Indians upon those islands have lately turned their attention pretty largely to the manufacture of sugar from the maple; and many tons have been exported from this source. If the Indians could obtain a fair value for their sugar, say seven or eight dollars per 100 lbs., they would extend their operations upon a large scale. Upon these islands alone, there are upwards of a million of full-grown maple trees, capable of yielding each from two and a half to three pounds of excellent sugar per annum; and if proper attention were given to this branch of production in that quarter, I see no reason why a most profitable business could not be carried on. Every farmer who has a grove of sugar maple, should endeavour to manufacture at least sufficient for the consumption of his own family. In most cases 150 trees of medium growth would yield an amount of sap that would make 300 lbs. of sugar, twenty-five gallons of molasses, and a barrel of vinegar. The labor required to manufacture this amount of sugar, molasses, and vinegar, would scarcely be felt by the well-organised cultivator, as the season for the business is at the close of the winter, and opening spring, when no labor can be done upon the land. In proportion to the amount of labor and money expended in the production of maple sugar, it is as capable of yielding as large a return of profits as any other branch of farm business. It is certainly an object of great national interest to the inhabitants of our North American Colonies, that they should supply their own market with such products as their highly-favored country is capable of producing. Sugar is an article which will ever find a ready sale at highly-remunerating prices, provided that it be properly manufactured and brought into market in good condition. It requires a little outlay at first to purchase buckets, cisterns, and boilers, to stock a sugar bush; but by carefully using the above necessary apparatus, they will last for a very long period. A farmer can supply himself with the suitable materials for performing the sugar business without any cost further than his own labor. The spring is the season of the year that everything should be put in readiness,--even the wood should be chopped and drawn to the spot, so that when the sap commences to run, there may be no impediments in the way to hinder the complete success of the business. Large tracts of land in the Ottawa district are covered with the true sugar maple. It is found in great numbers in the eastern townships of Lower Canada, where considerable forests of miles in extent contain nothing else, and in other places it is mixed with various trees. There is scarcely a spot in Lower Canada where it is not to be met with. Capt. Marryatt has stated that there were trees enough on the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, to supply the whole world with sugar. In the United States, the manufacture of the sugar was first attempted about the year 1752, by some farmers of New England, as a branch of rural economy. This gradually spread wherever the tree was known. Now it forms an article of food throughout a large portion of the country. Almost every farmer prepares sugar enough from the trees in his neighbourhood for the consumption of his family during the year, and has often a surplus for sale. It is much cheaper than muscovado, being sold at from 2d. to 3½d. per pound, whilst common muscovado cannot be bought for less than 4½d. to 5d. per pound. The province of Canada produced nearly ten million pounds in 1852, 6,190,694 being made in Lower Canada, and 3,581,505 in Upper Canada. The quantity made in Lower Canada in 1849 was only about 1,537,093 lbs. The maple sugar product of the Canadas in 1848 was officially stated as follows:-- lbs. Upper Canada 4,160,667 Lower Canada 2,303,158 --------- 6,463,835 This product is therefore of immense importance to the British North American provinces, all of which, under a judicious system, might be made to produce vastly increased quantities of this wholesome and valuable commodity. The importation of sugar in Canada may very safely be computed at £40,000 per annum, and the whole of this amount of money could be retained in the country if the people would only look well to the matter. In tapping the tree, the gouge is the best implement that can be used, provided it is an object to save the timber. It is usual, when using the gouge, to take out a chip about an inch and a half in diameter; but this system is objectionable where the maple is not abundant, as it subjects the timber to decay; it is a better course to make an incision by holding the gouge obliquely upwards an inch or more in the wood. A spout, or spile, as it is termed, about a foot long, to conduct off the sap, is inserted about two inches below this incision with the same gouge. By this mode of tapping, the wound in the tree is so small that it will be perfectly healed or grown over in two years. A boiler, of thick sheet-iron, made to rest on the top of an arch, by which the sides would be free from heat, and only the bottom is exposed, is doubtless a secure and rapid process of evaporation. The sides and ends of the boiler may be made of well-seasoned boards, which will answer the same purpose as if made solely of sheet-iron. When the sap is boiled down into syrup or thin molasses, it must be taken out of the boiler and strained through a flannel cloth into a tub, where it should settle about twenty-four hours. The clear syrup should be separated from the sediment, which will be found in the bottom of the tub. The pure syrup must be boiled down into sugar over a slow fire. A short time, however, before the syrup is brought to a boiling heat, to complete the clarifying process, the whites of five eggs well beaten, about one quart of new milk, and a spoonful of saleratus, should be all well mixed with a sufficient amount of syrup, to make 100 lbs. of sugar. The scum which would rise on the top must be skimmed off. Caution is to be observed in not allowing the syrup to boil until the skimming process is completed. To secure a good article, the greatest attention must be bestowed in granulating the syrup. The boxes or tubs for draining should be large at the top and small at the bottom. The bottom of the tubs should be bored full of small holes, to let the molasses drain through. After it has nearly done draining, the sugar may be dissolved, and the process of clarifying, granulating, and draining repeated, which will give as pure a quality of sugar as the best refined West India article. The greatest objections that are advanced against maple sugar are, that the processes made use of in preparing the sugar for market are so rude and imperfect that it is too generally acid, and besides charged with salts of the oxide of iron, insomuch that it ordinarily strikes a black color with tea. These objections may be removed without any comparative difficulty, as it has been proved to demonstration, by the application of one ounce of clear lime-water to a gallon of maple sap, that the acidity will be completely neutralised, and the danger of the syrup adhering to the sides of the boiler totally removed. The acid so peculiar to the maple sugar, when combined with lime in the above proportion, is found to be excessively soluble in alcohol; so much so, that yellow sugar can be rendered white in a few minutes by placing it in an inverted cone, open at the top, with small holes at the bottom, and by pouring on the base of the cone a quantity of alcohol. This should filtrate through until the sugar is white; it should then be dried and re-dissolved in boiling water, and again evaporated until it becomes dense enough to crystallise. Then pour it into the cones again, and let it harden. By this process a very white sample of sugar may be made, and both the alcohol and acids will be thoroughly dispelled with the vapor. The process of making maple sugar it will be seen is very simple and easily performed. The trees must be of suitable size, and within a convenient distance of the place where the operations of boiling, &c., are to be performed. When gathered, the sap should be boiled as early as possible, as the quality of the sugar is in a great degree dependent on the newness or freshness of the sap. There is a tendency to acidity in this fluid which produces a quick effect in preventing the making of sugar; and which, when the sap is obliged to be kept for many hours in the reservoirs, must be counteracted by throwing into them a few quarts of slaked lime. During the time of sugar making, warm weather, in which the trees will not discharge their sap, sometimes occurs, and the buckets become white and slimy, from the souring of the little sap they contain. In this case they should be brought to the boiler and washed out carefully with hot water, and a handful of lime to each. In reducing the sap, the great danger to be apprehended is from burning the liquid after it is made to the consistence of molasses, since, when this is done, it is impossible to convert it into sugar; a tough, black, sticky mass, of little value, being the result. Indeed, constant care and attention is required to produce a first-rate article: for though sugar may be made in almost any way where the sap can be procured, yet unless the strictest care is observed in the processes, in gathering and boiling the sap, clarifying the syrup, and in converting the syrup to sugar, a dirty inferior article will be made, instead of the beautiful and delicious sweet which the maple, properly treated, is sure to yield. The quantity of sugar produced in a year varies considerably from the same trees. The cause of this difference is to be found in the depth of snow, continued cold, or a sudden transition from cold to warm, thus abridging the period of sugar-making. A sharp frost at night, with clear warm days, is the most favorable to the sugar-maker. Perhaps four pounds of sugar from a tree may be a pretty fair average of seasons generally, although we have known the growth to exceed six pounds, and sink as low as three. A man will take care of one hundred trees easily, during the season of sugar, which usually lasts from about the middle of March into April, perhaps employing him twenty days in the whole. Dr. Jackson, in his Report of the Maine Geological Survey, gives the following instances of the production of sugar in that State:-- Lbs. of Sugar. At the Forks of the Kennebec, twelve persons made 3,605 On No. 1, 2d range, one man and a boy made 1,000 In Farmington, Mr. Titcomb made 1,500 In Moscow, thirty families made 10,500 In Bingham, twenty-five families made 9,000 In Concord, thirty families made 11,000 A cold and dry winter is followed with a greater yield of sugar from the maple than a season very moist and variable. Trees growing in wet places will yield more sap, but much less sugar from the same quantity, than trees on more elevated and drier ground. The red and white maple will yield sap, but it has much less of the saccharine quality than the rock or sugar maple. The work begins usually about the first of March. The tree will yield its sap long before vegetation appears from the bud: frequently the most copious flow is before the snow disappears from the ground. Some persons have a camp in their maple orchards, where large cauldrons are set in which to boil down the sap to the consistency of a thick syrup: others take the liquid to their houses, and there boil down and make the sugar. The process begins by the preparation of spouts and troughs or tubs for the trees: the spouts or tubes are made of elder, sumach, or pine, sharpened to fit an auger hole of about three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The hole is bored a little upward, at the distance horizontally of five or six inches apart, and about twenty inches from the ground on the south or sunny side of the tree. The trough, cut from white maple, pine, ash, or bass wood, is set directly under the spouts, the points of which are so constructed as completely to fill the hole in the tree, and prevent the loss of the sap at the edges, having a small gimlet or pitch hole in the centre, through which the entire juice discharged from the tree runs, and is all saved in the vessels below. The distance bored into the tree is only about one-half an inch to give the best run of sap. The method of boring is far better for the preservation of the tree than boxing, or cutting a hole with an axe, from the lower edge of which the juice is directed by a spout to the trough or tub prepared to receive it. The tub should be of ash or other wood that will communicate no vicious taste to the liquid or sugar. The sap is gathered daily from the trees and put in larger tubs for the purpose of boiling down. This is done by the process of a steady hot fire. The surface of the boiling kettle is from time to time cleansed by a skimmer. The liquid is prevented from boiling over by the suspension of a small piece of fat pork at the proper point. Fresh additions of sap are made as the volume boils away. When boiled down to a syrup, the liquor is set away in some earthen or metal vessel till it becomes cool and settled. Again the purest part is drawn off or poured into a kettle until the vessel is two-thirds full. By a brisk and continual fire, the syrup is further reduced in volume to a degree of consistence best taught by a little experience, when it is either put into moulds to become hard as it is cooled, or stirred until it shall be grained into sugar. The right point of time to take it away from the fire may be ascertained by cooling and graining a small quantity. The sediment is strained off and boiled down to make molasses. The following is from a Massachusetts paper:-- The maple produces the best sugar that we have from any plant. Almost every one admires its taste. It usually sells in this market (Boston) nearly twice as high as other brown sugar. Had care been taken from the first settlement of the country to preserve the sugar maple, and proper attention been given to the cultivation of this tree, so valuable for fuel, timber, and ornament, besides the abundant yield of saccharine juice, we could now produce in New England sugar enough for our own consumption, and not be dependent on the labour of those who toil and suffer in a tropical sun for this luxury or necessary of life. But, for want of this friendly admonition, "Axeman, spare that tree," the sturdy blows were dealt around without mercy or discretion; and the very generation that committed devastation in the first settlements in different sections of our country, generally lived to witness a scarcity of fuel; and means were resorted to for the purchase of sugar, that were far more expensive than would have been its manufacture, under a proper mode of economy in the preservation of the maple, and the production of sugar from its sap. Those who have trees of the sugar maple, should prepare in season for making sugar. In many localities, wood is no object, and a rude method of boiling is followed; but where fuel is very scarce, a cheap apparatus should be prepared that will require but little fuel. In some sections, broad pans or kettles have been made of sheet-iron bottoms, and sides of plank or boards, care being taken (continued) to allow the fire to come into contact with the iron only. These pans cost but a trifle, and, owing to their large surface, the evaporation is rapid. Another cheap construction for boiling with economy is, to make a tight box of plank, some four or five feet square--the width of a wide plank will answer, and then put into it, almost at the bottom, a piece of large copper funnel, say ten or twelve inches at the outer part, and then smaller. This funnel, beginning near one end, should run back nearly to the opposite side, then turn and come put at the opposite end, or at the side near the end, as most convenient, being in only two straight parts, that the soot may be cleared out. Each end should be made tight, with a flange nailed to the box. At the mouth of the large part there should be a door, to reduce the draught; here make the fire, and at the other end have a funnel to carry off the smoke. In this case, there is only sheet copper between the fire and the sap which surrounds the funnel, so that the heat is readily taken up by the liquid, and very little escapes. This is an economical plan for cooking food for stock, steaming timber, &c. For catching the sap, various kinds of vessels are used. The cheapest are made of white birch, which last one season, or less. Troughs of pine, or linden or bass wood, may be made for a few cents each, and they will last for a number of years, if inverted in the shade of trees. But these are inconvenient; and, after the first year, they become dirty, and clog the sap. Pails with iron hoops are the best, and, eventually, the cheapest. By painting and carefully preserving them, they will cost, for a course of years, about one cent each for a year. Mr. Alfred Fitch, in the "Genesee Farmer," says:-- In clarifying, I use for 50 lbs. of sugar one pint of skimmed milk, put into the syrup when cold, and place it over a moderate fire until it rises, which should occupy thirty or forty minutes; then skim and boil until it will grain; after which I put it into a tub, and turn on a little cold water, and in a few days the molasses will drain out, and leave the sugar dry, light, and white. Mr. E.W. Clark, of Oswego, furnishes the following:-- _On Fining Maple Sugar_.--The sweet obtained from the maple tree is undoubtedly the purest known; but from mismanagement in the manufacture it frequently becomes very impure. Its value is lessened, while the expense of making it increases. I am sensible that the method which I shall recommend is not altogether a new one, and that it is more by attending to some apparently minute and trivial circumstances, than to any new plan, that my sugar is so good. Much has been written upon, and many useful improvements been made in, that part of the process which relates to tapping the trees, and gathering and evaporating the sap, &c.; but still, if the final operation is not understood, there will be a deficiency in the quality of the sugar. I shall confine myself to that part of the operation which relates to reducing the syrup to sugar, as it is of the first importance. My process is this:--When the syrup is reduced to the consistence of West India molasses, I set it away till it is perfectly cold, and then mix with it the clarifying matter, which is milk or eggs. I prefer eggs to milk, because when heated the whole of it curdles; whereas milk produces only a small portion of curd. The eggs should be thoroughly beaten and effectually mixed with the syrup while cold. The syrup should then be heated till just before it would boil, when the curd rises, bringing with it every impurity, even the coloring matter, or a great portion of that which it had received from the smoke, kettles, buckets, or reservoirs. The boiling should be checked, and the scum carefully removed, when the syrup should be slowly turned into a thick woollen strainer, and left to run through at leisure. I would remark, that a great proportion of the sugar that is made in our country is not strained after cleansing. This is an error. If examined in a wine-glass, innumerable minute and almost imperceptible particles of curd will be seen floating in it, which, if not removed, render it liable to burn, and otherwise injure the taste and color of it. A flannel strainer does this much better than a linen one. It is, indeed, _indispensable_. As to the quantity of eggs necessary, one pint to a pailful of syrup is amply sufficient, and half as much will do very well. I now put my syrup into another kettle, which has been made perfectly clean and _bright_, when it is placed over a quick but solid fire, and soon rises, but is kept from overflowing by being ladled with a long dipper. When it is sufficiently reduced, (I ascertain this by dropping it from the point of a knife, while hot, into one inch of cold water--if done, it will not immediately mix with the water, but lies at the bottom in a round flat drop,) it is taken from the fire, and the foaming allowed to subside. A thick white scum, which is useable, is removed, and the sugar turned into a cask, placed on an inclined platform, and left undisturbed for six weeks or longer, when it should be tapped in the bottom and the molasses drawn off. It will drain perfectly dry in a few days. The sugar made in this manner is very nearly as white as lump sugar, and beautifully grained. We have always sold ours at the highest price of Muscovadoes; and even when these sugars have sold at eighteen cents, ours found a ready market at twenty. Two hands will sugar off 250 lbs. in a day. From the scum taken off in cleansing, I usually make, by diluting and recleansing, one-sixth as much as I had at first, and of an equal quality. It is not of much consequence as regards the quality of the sugar, whether care be taken to keep the sap clean or not. The points in which the greatest error is committed, are, neglecting to use a flannel strainer, or to strain after cleansing--to have the sugar kettle properly cleaned--and to remove the white scum from the sugar. An important process of manufacturing maple sugar, which produces a most beautiful article, is also thus described in a communication by the gentleman who gained the first premium at the State Fair at Rochester in 1843, to the Committee on Maple Sugar of the New York State Agricultural Society. In the first place, I make my buckets, tubs, and kettles all perfectly clean. I boil the sap in a potash kettle, set in an arch in such a manner that the edge of the kettle is defended all around from the fire. I boil through the day, taking care not to have anything in the kettle that will give color to the sap, and to keep it well skimmed. At night I leave fire enough under the kettle to boil the sap nearly or quite to syrup by the next morning. I then take it out of the kettle, and strain it through a flannel cloth into a tub, if it is sweet enough; if not, I put it in a cauldron kettle, which I have hung on a pole in such a manner that I can swing it on or off the fire at pleasure, and boil it till it is sweet enough, and then strain it into the tub, and let it stand till the next morning. I then take it and the syrup in the kettle, and put it altogether into the cauldron, and sugar it off. I use, to clarify say 100 lbs. of sugar, the whites of five or six eggs well beaten, about one quart of new milk, and a spoonful of saleratus, all we'll mixed with the syrup before it is scalding hot. I then make a moderate fire directly under the cauldron, until the scum is all raised; then skim it off clean, taking care not to let it boil so as to rise in the kettle before I have done skimming it. I then sugar it off, leaving it so damp that it will drain a little. I let it remain in the kettle until it is well granulated. I then put it into boxes made smallest at the bottom, that will hold from fifty to seventy lbs., having a thin piece of board fitted in, two or three inches above the bottom, which is bored full of small holes, to let the molasses drain through, which I keep drawn off by a tap through the bottom. I put on the top of the sugar, in the box, a clean damp cloth; and over that, a board, well fitted in, so as to exclude the air from the sugar. After it has done draining, or nearly so, I dissolve it, and sugar it off again; going through with the same process in clarifying and draining as before. The following remarks from Dr. Jackson, of Boston, may be of interest to the sections of the country where maple sugar is made:-- The northern parts of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, have dense forests of the sugar maple, and at present only very rude processes are made use of in preparing the sugar for market, so that it is too generally acid and deliquescent, besides being charged with salts of the oxide of iron, insomuch that it ordinarily strikes a black color with tea. To remedy these difficulties was the object of my researches; while, at the same time, I was engaged in ascertaining the true composition of the sap, with a view to the theory of vegetable nutrition. I received several gallons of freshly-drawn maple sap from Northampton, Warner, and Canterbury, and made analyses of each lot, separating the acids, salts, and the sugar. I also analysed the sap of the yellow and white birch, which do not give any crystallisable sugar, but an astringent molasses. I shall now communicate to you the process by which I manufactured sugar maple sap, received from the Shakers of Canterbury, who collected it with care in a clear glass demijohn, and sent it forthwith, so that it came to me without any change of composition, the weather being cold at the time. The evaporation was carried on in glass vessels until the sap was reduced to about one-eighth its original bulk, and then it was treated with a sufficient quantity of clear lime-water to render it neutral, and the evaporation was completed in a shallow porcelain basin. The result was, that a beautiful yellow granular sugar was obtained, from which not a single drop of molasses drained, and it did not deliquesce by exposure to the air. Another lot of the sap, reduced to sugar without lime-water, granulated, but not so well, was sour to the taste, deliquesced by exposure, and gave a considerable quantity of molasses. Having studied the nature of the peculiar acid of the maple, I found that its combinations with lime were excessively soluble in alcohol, so that the yellow sugar first described could be rendered white in a few minutes, by placing it in an inverted cone open at the bottom, and pouring a fresh quantity of alcohol upon it, and allowing it to filtrate through the sugar. The whitened sugar was then taken and re-dissolved in boiling water and crystallised, by which all the alcoholic flavour was entirely removed, and a perfectly fine crystallised and pure sugar resulted. Now, in the large way, I advise the following method of manufacturing maple sugar. Obtain several large copper or brass kettles, and set them up in a row, either by tripods with iron rings, or by hanging them on a cross-bar; clean them well, then collect the sap in buckets, if possible, so that but little rain-water will be mixed with the sap, and take care not to have any dead leaves in it. For every gallon of the maple sap _add one measured ounce_ of clear lime-water, pass the sap into the first kettle and evaporate; then, when it is reduced to about one-half, dip it out into the second kettle, and skim it each time; then into the next, and so on, until it has reached the last, where it is reduced to syrup, and then may be thrown into a trough, and granulated by beating it up with an oar. As soon as the first kettle is nearly empty, pour in a new lot of the sap, and so continue working it forward exactly after the manner of the West India sugar-boilers. The crude sugar may be refined subsequently, or at the time of casting it into the cones made of sheet iron, well painted with white lead and boiled linseed oil, and thoroughly dried, so that no paint can come off. These cones are to be stopped at first, until the sugar is cold; then remove the stopper and pour on the base of the cone a quantity of strong whiskey, or fourth proof rum. Allow this to nitrate through, until the sugar is white; dry the loaf, and redissolve it in boiling hot water, and evaporate it until it becomes dense enough to crystallise. Now pour it into the cones again, and let it harden. If any color remains, pour a saturated solution of refined white sugar on the base of the cone, and this syrup will remove all traces of color from the loaf. One gallon of pasture maple sap yielded 3,451 grains of pure sugar. One gallon of the juice of the sugar cane yields, on an average, in Jamaica, 7,000 grains of sugar. Hence, it will appear that maple sap is very nearly half as sweet as cane juice; and since the maple requires no outlay for its cultivation, and the process may be carried on when there is little else to be done, the manufacture of maple sugar is destined to become an important department of rural economy. It is well known, by the Report of the Statistics of the United States, that Vermont ranks next to Louisiana as a sugar state, producing (if I recollect correctly) 6,000,000 of pounds in some seasons, though the business is now carried on in a very rude way, without any apparatus, and with no great chemical skill; so that only a very impure kind of sugar is made, which, on account of its peculiar flavor, has not found its way into common use, for sweetening tea and coffee. It would appear worth while, then, to improve this manufacture, and to make the maple sugar equal to any now in use. This can be readily accomplished, if the farmers in the back country will study the process of sugar-making, for cane and maple sugar are, when pure, absolutely identical. It should be remarked, that forest maples do not produce so much sugar as those grown in open fields or in groves, where they have more light, the under-brush being cleared away. In Farmington, on the Sandy River, in Maine, I have seen a very fine grove of maples, but thirty years old, which produced a large yield of very good sugar. A man and two boys made 1,500 lbs. of sugar from the sap of these trees in a single season. The sap was boiled down in potash kettles, which were scoured bright with vinegar and sand. The sugar was of a fine yellow color, and well crystallised. It was drained of its molasses in casks, with a false bottom perforated with small holes--the cask having a hole bored at the bottom, with a tow plug placed loosely in it, to conduct off the molasses. This method is a good one, but the sap ought to be limed in boiling, as I have described; then it will not attach to the iron or copper boilers. The latter metal must not be used with acid syrup, for copper salts are poisonous. There are several towns in the northern sections of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, that produce more than sufficient sugar for the consumption of their inhabitants. A lot of good sugar trees will average four pounds to the tree, in a favorable season. Many farmers have orchards that will yield five hundred to a thousand pounds of sugar in a year. As this is made at a season interfering very little with the general business of the farm, the sugar that the farmer makes is so much clear gain. There is, on almost every hill-farm, some place favorable for the growth of a maple orchard--some rocky spots yielding little grass, and impervious for the plough. Such spots may be favorably chosen for the growth of a maple orchard; and whether the increase be used for manufacturing sugar or molasses, or for timber or fuel, the proprietor of the land will find a profit better than money at interest in the growth of this beautiful tree, which will spontaneously propagate itself in many positions. Its great excellence consists in yielding sap for the manufacture of vast quantities of maple sugar in the country during the months of spring. An open winter, constantly freezing and thawing, is a forerunner of a bountiful crop of sugar. The orchard of maple trees is almost equal to a field of sugar cane of the same area, in the production of sugar. This tree reaches an age of 200 years. Vermont is the second sugar-producing State in the Union. The amount of maple sugar produced there in 1840 was over 2,550 tons, being more than 17¾ pounds to each inhabitant, allowing a population of 291,948. At five cents a pound, this is worth. 255,963 dols. 20 cents. The Statistics of the United States census for 1850, show that about thirty-five millions of pounds (15,250 tons) of maple sugar were manufactured in that year:-- Maine 97,541 New Hampshire 1,392,489 Massachusetts 768,596 Vermont 5,159,641 Connecticut 37,781 New York 10,310,764 New Jersey 5,886 Pennsylvania 2,218,641 Maryland 47,740 Virginia 1,223,908 North Carolina 27,448 South Carolina 200 Georgia 50 Alabama 473 Mississippi 110 Louisiana 260 Arkansas 8,825 Tennessee 159,647 Kentucky 388,525 Ohio 4,528,548 Michigan 2,423,897 Indiana 2,921,638 Illinois 246,078 Missouri 171,942 Iowa 70,684 Missouri 661,969 Minnesota 2,950 ----------- Total 32,776,671 There is a balance of about two million pounds produced by Rhode Island, Texas, Oregon, California, Utah, New Mexico, Delaware, and Florida. The above statement does not include the sugar made by the Indians, east of the Mississippi river, which may be set down at 10,000,000 lbs., and west of that river 2,000,000 lbs. Besides the above sugar crop, there was a yield by the sugar maple in the United States in 1850, of 40,000,000 gallons of maple molasses. _Maize Sugar_.--The stem and branches of Indian corn, during the time that its grain is filling, abounds with sugar, even when grown in this country; so much so, that it might be turned to account by those of the peasantry who have small plots of ground attached to their cottages; and I applied a simple method by which a rich syrup may be obtained from it, equal in sweetness to treacle, and superior to it in flavor. The proper time for cutting down the plant (which should be done within an inch of the ground), is when the corn in the ear is small and full of a milky juice. All the large and old leaves should be stripped off, leaving only the young and tender ones; they should then be cut into short lengths, thoroughly bruised, and the juice entirely pressed out from them. Where the means cannot be obtained for expressing the juice by this method, the following may be employed:--After the plants have been cut into small pieces, put them into a large pot or copper, with only just sufficient water to extract the juice; boil for one hour, and then strain off the liquor; to each gallon of this liquor add a wine-glass full of lime-water whilst warm; but if it be the expressed juice, obtained as above mentioned, add double the quantity of lime-water. When the liquor is cold, for every three gallons beat up an egg with some of the liquor; put altogether into a boiler, and boil gently till the syrup acquires the consistence of treacle. Whilst this is going on, the liquor should every now and then be well stirred, and the scum which rises to the surface taken off. This syrup, which will be found a better substitute for sugar than treacle, and more wholesome, should be kept in lightly-covered vessels, in a dry place. My own observations, twelve years ago, acquainted me with the fact, that when the grain in the ear has acquired one half of the full size, the quantity of sugar in the sap has passed its maximum, or begun to decrease, and continues to do so until it disappears entirely. Lopping off the young ears makes shorter work of it. It is like taking the young from an animal giving suck, in which case the milk soon ceases to flow into the breast, and that which produced it is elaborated into other fluids necessary to the nourishment of the different parts of the body of the parent. In the corn-stalk, when deprived of its ears, the elements of sugar are dissipated by increasing the size of the plant. Sugar may also be obtained from the carrot and the parsnip, as well as from all sweet fruits. It is abundant throughout the vegetable kingdom; it forms the first food of plants when they germinate in the seed; when the first little sprout is projected from a grain of corn, a portion of the farina, or starch, is changed into sugar, which may be called the blood of the plant, and from it is drawn the nourishment necessary to its expansion and appearance above the surface of the earth. In the latter growth of many plants an inverse process is carried on, as in the Indian corn, which I have just spoken of. In this instance, as also numberless others, sugar is formed in large quantities in the body of the plant, and elaborated into farina, or starch, in the ear. The elements of which sugar and starch are composed are the same; the only difference is in their proportions. Chemists, being aware of this, have converted starch into sugar; and could do it with certainty to any extent, were any advantage to be gained by it; but hitherto starch has been higher in price than sugar. SECTION II. THE GRAIN CROPS, EDIBLE ROOTS, AND FARINACEOUS PLANTS FORMING THE BREAD STUFFS OF COMMERCE. The vegetable substances, from which man derives his principal sustenance, such as the nutritious cereal grains, the tuberous rooted plants and the trees yielding farina, are very widely diffused, and necessarily occupy the main attention of the cultivator; their products forming the most important staples of domestic and foreign commerce. The cereal grasses and roots, cultivated in temperate regions, such as wheat, barley, oats, rye, and the potato, are so well known, and have been so fully described by agricultural writers that I shall not go much into details as to their varieties, culture, &c., but confine myself chiefly to their distribution, produce, statistics, and commercial importance. The food plants may be most conveniently arranged under three heads. Firstly--the Grain crops and legumes, which comprises the European cultivated grasses, wheat, barley, oats, &c.; and the tropical ones of rice, maize, millet, Guinea corn, &c. Secondly--Palms and other trees yielding farina, including the sago palms, plantain and banana, and the bread fruit tree. And Thirdly--the edible Root crops and Starch producing plants, which are a somewhat extensive class, the chief of which, however, are the common potato, yams, cocos or eddoes, sweet potatoes, the bitter and sweet cassava or manioc, the arrowroot and other plants yielding starch in more or less purity. There is a great diversity of food, from the humble oak bark bread of the Norwegian peasant, or the Brahmin, whose appetite is satisfied with vegetables, to the luxurious diet of a Hungarian Magnate at Vienna. The bread stuffs, as they are popularly termed, particularly wheat and wheat flour, maize, and rice, form very important articles of commerce, and enter largely into cultivation in various countries for home consumption and export. Russia, India, and the United States, carry on a very considerable trade in grain with other countries. Our local production being insufficient for food and manufactures, we import yearly immense quantities of grain and flour. In the four years ending 1852, the annual quantity of corn, of various, kinds, imported into the United Kingdom, exclusive of flour and meal, rice, sago, &c., averaged 8,085,903 quarters. The flour and meal imported, omitting sago, arrowroot and other starches, averaged in the same period 4,143,603 cwts. annually. The annual imports of breadstuffs for food, taking the average of the four years ending with 1852, may be thus summed up-- Tons. Corn and grain, 8,085,903 quarters, at 60 lb. the bushel 173,270 Flour and meal 207,180 Rice 40,817 Potatoes 42,440 Sago, arrowroot, &c. 5,000 ------- Total 468,707 Some portion of this quantity is doubtless consumed in the arts--as starch for stiffening linens, &c., and for other purposes not coming under the term of food, but I have purposely left out in the calculation about 30,000 to 40,000 quarters of rice in the husk annually imported. Ireland took, in 1849, of foreign grain 2,115,129 quarters; 1,683,687 quarters in 1850; and 2,504,229 in 1851; as well as 256,837 cwts. of various kinds of meal and flour in 1849; 220,107 cwts. in 1850; and 341,680 cwts. in 1851. England also supplied her with about 500,000 quarters of grain and 350,000 cwts. of meal in each of those years. The comparative returns of the importations of grain into the United Kingdom for the last four years, are as follows, in quarters:-- 1852. 1851. 1850. 1849. Wheat 3,068,892 3,812,009 3,738,995 3,845,378 Barley 656,737 829,564 1,035,903 1,381,008 Oats 995,480 1,198,529 1,154,473 1,267,106 Rye 10,023 24,609 98,836 240,566 Beans 371,250 318,502 443,306 457,933 Peas 107,017 99,399 181,419 234,366 Maize 1,479,891 1,807,636 1,277,071 2,224,459 Other sorts 8,085 3,432 868 1,150 --------- --------- --------- --------- Quarters 6,667,375 8,124,280 7,930,871 9,651,966 The meal and flour imported in the same years, in cwts., were as follows:-- 1852. 1851. 1850. 1849. Wheat 3,889,583 5,314,414 3,819,440 3,349,839 Barley 212 34 108 224 Oats 521 2,525 5,999 40,230 Rye 92 6,493 964 18,468 Indian corn 742 9,561 11,334 101,683 Other sorts 54 343 163 1,396 --------- --------- --------- --------- Cwts. 3,891,195 5,323,370 3,838,008 3,511,840 Before the famine in Ireland the imports seldom reached 20 millions of bushels of grain and meal of all kinds. In 1848 our imports were about 60 millions; in 1849, 85 millions; in 1850, 68 millions; in 1851, 75½ millions; in 1852, 69 millions, with good wheat harvests; showing the great shock received and the slowness of recovery. With a rapidly increasing population in all parts of the civilized world, the production of bread is obviously the first object to be sought after, alike by the statesman and the peasant. I scarcely dare give the calculation of the immense amount which would be realised in any great country, by the single saving of a bushel to an acre, in the quantity of seed ordinarily sown. The same result would follow if an additional bushel could be produced in the annual average yield of the wheat crop. According to Mr. H. Colman, the annual amount of seed for wheat sown in France is estimated at 32,491,978 bushels. If we could suppose a third of this saved, the saving would amount to 10,863,959 bushels per year. Suppose an annual increase of the crops of five bushels per acre, this would give an increase of production of 54,319,795 bushels. Add this, under improved cultivation, to the amount of seed saved, and the result would be 65,183,754 bushels--I believe under an improved agriculture this is quite practicable. An eminent agricultural writer placed the average yield in England at eighteen bushels per acre; some years since a man of sanguine temperament rated it at over thirty bushels. In France it is stated, in the best districts, to average twenty-two bushels. These evidently are wholly conjectural estimates. In England Mr. Colman states that fifty bushels per acre were reported to him on the best authority, as the yield upon a large farm in a very favorable season. More than eighty bushels have been returned, upon what is deemed ample testimony, to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, as the product of a single acre. In France Mr. Colman had, upon credible authority, reports of forty, forty-four and seventy-two bushels. It would be of immense importance to any government to know the exact produce grown in any county, or district, or in the whole country; and this might be obtained by compelling, on the part of the owner or cultivator, an actual return of his crop; but it is of little use to found such returns on estimates purely conjectural. From the best statistical accounts that can be obtained, the wheat annually produced in the United Kingdom. England, Scotland, Ireland is 111,681,320 bushels. In France it is 198,660,000 " United States 100,503,899 " The amount of seed ordinarily sown to the acre in France is from two to three bushels. The return of crop for the seed sown is represented as in the best districts averaging 6.25 for one; in the least productive 5.40 for one. My readers may be curious to know the calculations which have been made in some other countries in regard to this matter. CENTRAL EUROPE Increase Countries. Year. for seed sown. Spain 1828 6 for one Portugal 1786 10 " Tuscany 10 " Plains of Lucca 15 " Piedmont--Plains of Marengo 4 to five Bologna 15 " Roman States--Pontine marshes 20 " Ordinary lands 8 " Kingdom of Naples--best districts 20 " Ordinary lands 8 " Malta--the best lands 38 to 64 " Ordinary lands 22, 25, 30 " NORTHERN EUROPE. Sweden and Norway 1838 4.50 for one Denmark 1827 6 " Russia, a good harvest 1819 5 " ---- province of Tambof 1821 4.50 " ---- provinces north of 50 deg. latitude 1821 3 " Poland 1826 8 " England 1830 9 " Scotland 1830 8 " Ireland 1825 10 " Holland 1828 7.50 " Belgium 1828 11 " Bavaria 1827 7 to 8 " Prussia 1817 6 " Austria 1812 7.05 " Hungary 1812 4 " Switzerland, lands of an inferior quality 1825 3 " Of a good quality, 8; of the best quality 12 " France, inferior lands, 3; best lands 6 " (Statistique des Cereales de la France par Moreau de Jonnes.) STATISTICS OF WHEAT CULTURE. As wheat forms the principal nutritious food of the world, claiming the industrious application of labor over the greater part of Europe, throughout the temperate regions of Asia, along the northern kingdoms of Africa, and extending far into the northern and southern regions of the American continents; as it has been cultivated from time immemorial, and has produced in various climates and soils many varieties; it is surprising that so little is generally known of the distinct varieties best adapted to particular climates--and that in Great Britain and the United States we have yet to learn the variety which will yield the largest and best amount of human food! At the Industrial Exhibition in 1851, twenty-six premiums only were distributed for specimens of wheat; of these, five were awarded to British farmers, three to France, three to Russia, three to Australia, three to the United States, and one each or severally to other nations. Some beautiful specimens of wheat were exhibited from South Australia, weighing seventy pounds a bushel; which were eagerly sought after for seed wheat by our farmers and the colonists of Canada and the United States. But as is well observed by Professor Lindley, it has no peculiar constitutional characteristics by which it may be distinguished from other wheats. Its superior quality is entirely owing to local conditions; to the peculiar temperature, the brilliant light, the soil, and those other circumstances which characterise the climate of South Australia. All kinds of wheat contain water in greater or lesser quantities. Its amount is greater in cold countries than in warm. In Alsace from 16 to 20 per cent.; England from 14 to 17 per cent.; United States from 12 to 14 per cent.; Africa and Sicily from 9 to 11 per cent. This accounts for the fact, that the same weight of southern flour yields more bread than northern, English wheat yields 13 lbs. more to the quarter than Scotch. Alabama flour, it is said, yields 20 per cent. more than that of Cincinnati. And in general American flour, according to one of the most extensive London bakers, absorbs 8 or 10 per cent. more of its own weight of water in being made into bread than the English. The English grain is fuller and rounder than the American, being puffed up with moisture. Every year the total loss in the United States from moisture in wheat and flour is estimated at four to five million dollars. To remedy this great evil, the grain should be well ripened before harvesting, and well dried before being stored in a good dry granary. Afterwards, in grinding and in transporting, it should be carefully protected from wet, and the flour be kept from exposure to the atmosphere. The best precaution is kiln-drying. By this process the wheat and flour are passed over iron plates heated by steam to the boiling point. From each barrel of flour 16 or 17 pounds of water are thus expelled, leaving still four or five per cent. in the flour, an amount too small to do injury. If all the water be expelled, the quality of the flour is deteriorated. The mode of ascertaining the amount of water in flour is this; take a small sample, say five ounces, and weigh it carefully; put it into a dry vessel, which should be heated by boiling water; after six or seven hours, weigh it; its loss of weight shows the original amount of water. The next object is to ascertain the amount of gluten. Gluten is an adhesive, pasty mass, and consists of several different principles, though its constitution has not yet been satisfactorily determined. It is chiefly the nutritious portion of the flour. The remaining principles are mostly starch, sugar and gum. On an average their relative amount in 100 parts are about as follows:-- Average. Kobanga wheat, the best. Water 13 12 Gluten 12 16 Starch 67 60 Sugar and Gum 8 8 --- --- 100 97 Professor Beck examined thirty-three different samples from various parts of the United States and Europe, and he gives the preference to the Kobanga variety from the south of Russia. There would probably be a prejudice against it in this country, from the natural yellowish hue of its flour and bread. The value of the vegetable food, grain, potatoes, rice and apples exported from the United States within the past few years is thus set down:-- Dollars. 1847 57,970,356 1848 25,185,647 1849 25,642,362 1850 15,822,273 To this has to be added nine or ten million dollars more for tobacco, 72 million dollars for cotton, and 180,000 dollars for hops and other minor agricultural staples--making the value of the raw vegetable exports about 98 million dollars. There is further the value of the products of the forest, timber, ashes and bark, tar, &c., which are equal to nearly seven millions more, as shown by the following figures:-- Dollars. 1847 5,248,928 1848 6,415,297 1849 5,261,766 1850 6,590,037 It appears from an official document of the American Treasury Department, that the average value of the breadstuffs and provisions annually exported from the United States from 1821 to 1836 inclusive, was 12,792,000 dolls.; in 1837 and 1838, about 9,600,000 dolls.; from 1839 to 1846, 16,176,000 dolls.; and for the last seven years as follows:-- Dollars. 1846 27,701,121 1847 68,701,921 1848 37,472,751 1849 38,155,507 1850 26,051,373 1851 21,948,651 1852 25,857,027 Out of the wheat crop in the United States in 1846 of 110 million bushels raised, 10 millions were used for seed, starch, &c.; 72 consumed for food, and 28 million exported. The 460 million bushels of Indian corn raised, were thus disposed of; exported to foreign countries 22 million bushels; sold to and consumed by non-producers, 100 million; consumed on the farms and plantations of the producers for human and animal food, seed, &c., 338 million bushels. The United States now produce about 120 million bushels of wheat, and nearly 600 million bushels of corn. Their surplus of wheat, for export, may be taken at 20 million bushels, and of Indian corn an almost unlimited quantity. They export about one and a quarter million barrels of flour, and about one million of bushels of wheat to other markets besides those of Great Britain or her North American colonies, viz., to Europe, Asia, Africa, the West Indies and South America, California and Australia, manufactured flour being the article required for these latter markets. Nearly four million bushels of Indian corn, and 300,000 barrels of corn meal, are exported from the United States to the West Indies and other foreign markets. From the abstracts of statistical returns prepared at the American Census office, it appears that Pennsylvania, in 1850, was the largest wheat producing State of the Union. I have had the curiosity to compare the most prominent States in respect to this crop, and give them below, with the crop of each, as shown by the returns:-- Bushels. Pennsylvania 15,482,191 Ohio 14,967,056 Virginia 14,516,900 New York 13,073,000 Michigan 4,918,000 Maryland 4,494,680 That the United States could export 6,000,000 bushels of wheat, and its equivalent in flour in 1845; 13,000,000 in 1846, 26,000,000 in 1847, and then fell back to 13,000,000 in 1848, and 6,000,000 in 1849, with their production of wheat constantly increasing throughout this period, shows a wonderful elasticity, and extensive home market. If the price of wheat is higher in proportion than for corn, the Americans export the former and consume the latter; if the demand for corn be also great, they kill their hogs and export corn, for the pork will keep. If there be no great demand for either, they eat their surplus wheat, feed their hogs with the corn, and export pork as having the greatest value in the least bulk. DESTINATION OF FLOUR SHIPPED FROM THE UNITED STATES. -------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- WHERE TO. | 1847 | 1849 | 1850 | 1851 -------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Swedish West Indies | 7,366| 7,573| 8,757| 5,315 Danish ditto | 52,150| 49,568| 44,802| 60,102 Dutch East Indies | 1,150| 4,625| 1,600| 1,873 Dutch West Indies | 11,387| 17,221| 18,354| 19,217 Holland and Belgium | 73,871| 727| 1,177| 594 England |2,475,076| 953,815| 369,777|1,004,783 Gibraltar | 23,974| 6,265| 2,543| 195 British East Indies | 3,034| 791| 1,646| 1,600 British West Indies | 320,363| 303,551| 250,776| 294,731 British American Colonies| 272,299| 294,891| 244,072| 252,380 France | 612,641| -- | -- | -- French West Indies | 28,966| 5,554| 5,480| 7,902 Hayti | 40,257| 10,903| 31,504| 43,867 Cuba | 50,046| 7,154| 5,584| 5,611 Spanish West Indies | 17,780| 6,429| 7,074| 2,285 Madeira | 4,856| 4,358| 6,321| 7,006 Cape de Verds | 1,634| 501| 455| 838 Mexico | 5,928| 11,633| 9,736| 14,964 Honduras | 10,686| 4,125| 4,725| 5,912 Central America | 550| 4,180| 746| 2,573 Columbia | 39,403| 32,251| 41,072| 47,477 Brazil | 270,473| 328,129| 295,415| 374,711 Argentine Republic | 10,684| 6,599| 4,901| 22,612 Chili | 5,977| 5,129| 2,848| 4,327 South America | 2,128| -- | 40| 200 West Indies | 4,902| 3,984| 1,702| 4,079 Africa | 25,728| 4,617| 5,524| 5,430 North-west Coast | 764| 1,180| 858| 2,593 Other ports | 29,866| 35,017| 18,949| 19,158 |---------|---------|---------|--------- Total--Barrels |4,382,496|2,108,013|1,385,448|2,202,335 |---------|---------|---------|--------- Average price | 5.95| 5.35| 5.00| 4.77 -------------------------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Wheat, where the soil and the climate are adapted to its growth, and the requisite progress has been made in its culture, is decidedly preferred to all other grains, and, next to maize, is the most important crop in the United States, not only on account of its general use for bread, but for its safety and convenience for exportation. It is not known to what country it is indigenous, any more than any other cultivated cereals, all of which, no doubt, have been essentially improved by man. By some, wheat is considered to have been coeval with the creation, as it is known that upwards of a thousand years before our era it was cultivated, and a superior variety had been attained. It has steadily followed the progress of civilisation from the earliest times, in all countries where it would grow. In 1776 there was entailed upon America an enduring calamity, in consequence of the introduction of the Hessian or wheat fly, which was supposed to have been brought from Germany in some straw, employed in the debarkation of Howe's troops on the west end of Long Island. From that point the insect gradually spread in various directions, at the rate of twenty or thirty miles a year, and the wheat of the entire regions east of the Alleghanies is now more or less infested with the larva, as well as in large portions of the States bordering on the Ohio and Mississippi, and on the great Lakes; and so great have been the ravages of these insects that the cultivation of this grain has in many places been abandoned. The geographical range of the wheat region in the Eastern Continent and Australia, lies principally between the 30th and 60th parallels of north latitude, and the 30th and 40th degrees south, being chiefly confined to France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Turkey, Russia, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Poland, Prussia, Netherlands, Belgium, Great Britain, Ireland, Northern and Southern Africa, Tartary, India, China, Australia, Van Diemen's Land, and Japan. Along the Atlantic portions of the Western Continent, it embraces the tract lying between the 30th and 50th parallels, and in the country westward of the Rocky Mountains, one or two more degrees further north. Along the west coast of South America, as well as in situations within the torrid zone, sufficiently elevated above the level of the sea, and properly irrigated by natural or artificial means, abundant crops are often produced. The principal districts of the United States in which this important grain is produced in the greatest abundance, and where it forms a leading article of commerce, embrace the States of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Wisconsin, and Iowa. The chief varieties cultivated in the Northern and Eastern States are the white flint, tea, Siberian, bald, Black Sea, and the Italian spring wheat. In the middle and Western States, the Mediterranean, the Virginia white May, the blue stem, the Indiana, the Kentucky white bearded, the old red chafet, and the Talavera. The yield varies from ten to forty bushels and upwards per acre, weighing, per bushel, from fifty-eight to sixty-seven pounds. It appears that on the whole crop of the United States there was a gain during the ten years ending 1850, of 15,645,373 bushels. The crop of New England decreased from 2,014,000 to 1,078,000 bushels, exhibiting a decline of 936,000 bushels, and indicating the attention of farmers has been much withdrawn from the culture of wheat. Grouping the States from the Hudson to the Potomac, including the district of Columbia, it appears that they produced, in 1849, 35,085,000 bushels, against 29,936,000 in 1839. In Virginia there was an increase of 1,123,000 bushels. These States embrace the oldest wheat-growing region of the country, and that in which the soil and climate seem to be adapted to promote the permanent culture of the grain. The increase of production in the ten years has been 6,272,000 bushels, equal to 15.6 per cent. The area tilled in these States is 36,000,000 acres, only thirty per cent. of the whole amount returned, while the proportion of wheat produced is forty-six per cent. In North Carolina there has been an increase of 170,000 bushels, but in the Southern States generally there was a considerable decrease. Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin contributed to the general aggregate under the sixth census only 9,800,000 bushels; under the last they are shown to have produced upwards of 25,000,000 bushels, an amount equal to the whole increase in the United States for the period. When we see the growth of wheat keeping pace with the progress of population in the oldest States of the Union, we need have no apprehension of a decline in the cultivation of this important crop. The amount of flour exported from New Jersey in 1751, was 6,424 barrels. From Philadelphia in 1752,125,960 barrels, besides 85,500 bushels of wheat; in 1767, 198,816 barrels, besides 367,500 bushels of wheat; in 1771, 252,744 barrels. From Savannah, in 1771, 7,200 lbs. From Virginia, for some years annually preceding the revolution, 800,000 bushels of wheat. The total exports of flour from the United States: in 1791 were 619,681 barrels, besides 1,018,339 bushels of wheat; in 1800, 653,052 barrels, besides 26,853 bushels of wheat; in 1810, 798,431 barrels, besides 325,924 bushels of wheat; in 1820-21, 1,056,119 barrels, besides 25,821 bushels of wheat; in 1830-31, 1,806,529 barrels, besides 408,910 bushels of wheat; in 1840-41, 1,515,817 barrels, besides 868,585 bushels of wheat; in 1845-46, 2,289,476 barrels, besides 1,613,795 bushels of wheat; in 1846-47, 4,382,496 barrels, besides 4,399,951 bushels of wheat; in 1850-51, 2,202,335 barrels, besides 1,026,725 bushels of wheat. In the London Exhibition very little wheat was exhibited equal to that from the United States, especially that from Genessee county, in the State of New York--a soft white variety, to the exhibitor of which a prize medal was awarded by the Royal Commissioners. The red Mediterranean wheat exhibited from the United States attracted much attention. The wheat from South Australia was probably superior to any exhibited, while much from the United States fell but little behind, and was unquestionably next in quality. From the Second Report on the Breadstuffs of the United States, made to the Commissioner of Patents, by Lewis C. Beck, M.D., I am induced to make some extracts. He states:-- The analyses of several samples, the growth of various foreign countries, have afforded me an opportunity of comparing the American and foreign wheats and flours. With a few exceptions of peculiar varieties, it will be seen from the results that with ordinary care the wheat of this country will compare advantageously with that of any other. Indeed, on reviewing my analyses, I question whether there is any part of the world where this grain is generally of a finer quality than it is in the United States. But all the advantages which we possess in this respect will be of little avail so long as inferior and damaged breadstuffs are shipped from our ports. In addition to the analyses which I have executed of the various samples of wheat and wheat flour according to the mode heretofore pursued, I have performed a series of experiments for the purpose of settling the important question in regard to the relative value of the fine flour of wheat, and the "whole meal." I have also consulted every work within my reach which could throw any light upon the different points that have presented themselves during the progress of the investigation. The large number of samples of wheat and wheat flour which have been placed in my hands for examination, have left me no time for the analysis of our other breadstuffs. It cannot be denied that the amount shipped to foreign ports during 1849 is considerably less than for the two preceding years. In the meantime, however, a new and important market has been opened in our territories on the Pacific. It may also be safely affirmed that the causes for foreign demand, and which must hereafter operate, still remain. These are the cheapness of land in this country, and the peculiar adaptation of our soil and climate to the growth of the two important cereals, wheat and maize. Another fact, it seems to me, is of sufficient interest in connection with this subject, to be here noticed. The failure of the potato crop in various parts of the world for several years past has engaged the attention of scientific and practical men. Unfortunately, the nature of the blight which has seized upon this tuber has eluded the most careful inquiries; but it has been shown by well-conducted analyses that potatoes at their late prices are the most expensive kind of farinaceous food. This will be evident from the following statement:-- "Potatoes contain from about seventy to seventy-nine per cent. of water, while the proportion in wheat flour is from twelve to fourteen per cent; and while the gluten and albumen in potatoes scarcely rise to one per cent., in wheat flour the range may be set down at from nine to thirteen per cent. Again, the non-nitrogenous principles are as about seventy-five per cent. in wheat flour against fifteen or sixteen in potatoes. In short, whilst potatoes supply only twenty per cent. of heat-forming and nutritious principles, taken together, wheat supplies more than seventy per cent. of the former, and more than tea of the latter. The value of wheat to potatoes, therefore, is at least four to one; or, if wheat sells at fifteen shillings sterling per cwt., potatoes to be equally cheap, ought to sell at between three and four shillings." The preceding results, for which I am principally indebted to Dr. Daubeny, Professor of Chemistry at Oxford,[25] show that unless a great change occurs in the culture of the potato, there must be an increased demand for other kinds of farinaceous food. And it is worthy of notice that while this blight is one of the causes which bring to our shores the starving population of Europe, the raising of the cereals not only furnishes profitable employment to the emigrant, but enables him to make the best return to those who are still obliged to remain. _Adaptation of the soil and climate of the United States to the culture of the cereals_.--That the soil and climate of many portions of the United States are well adapted to the cultivation of the more important cereals, is fully shown by the results of all the researches which have thus far been prosecuted. I have indeed seen it asserted that the climate of England is the best for the cultivation of wheat, and preferable to any in our country; its humidity being the peculiarity to which this superiority is ascribed.[26] But this is undoubtedly the testimony of a too partial witness. A recent statement by an English author is the result of a more correct knowledge of the facts. He acknowledges that there is no ground for the expectation which has been entertained concerning the advantageous growth of maize in England. "Nor is ours," says he, "the most favorable country for wheat, but skill in husbandry has overcome great difficulties."[27] The mistake on this subject may have originated from the occurrence of a larger and plumper grain in the more humid climate; but analysis shows that the small grain raised in the hotter and drier air oftentimes greatly surpasses the former in its nutritious value. Russia is said to be the great rival of this country in the growth of wheat, but I think it doubtful whether she possesses superior natural advantages; and I am sure she will find it difficult to compete with the industry and skill which here characterize the operations of husbandry, and the manufacture and shipment of breadstuffs. _Export of sophisticated and damaged flour_.--It is a matter of deep regret that circumstances have occurred which must have a most injurious influence upon the trade in breadstuffs between this country and Great Britain. I refer to the mixtures of damaged, inferior, and good kinds of flour, which it appears on authentic testimony have been largely exported during the past year. Whether this fraudulent operation, which is said to have been principally confined to New York, is the result of the change in the inspection laws, as some assert, I am unable to say. But it requires no great foresight to predict that, if continued, it will create a distrust of our breadstuffs in foreign ports which it will be very difficult to remove. It cannot but excite the indignation of the many honorable dealers, that the unworthy cupidity of a few individuals should lead to such disastrous consequences. I have as yet been unable to obtain samples of these sophisticated flours, and the only information which I have in regard to them is the general fact above stated, and concerning the truth of which there can be little doubt. No means should be left untried to devise some mode by which these frauds can be easily and certainly detected. _Injury sustained by breadstuffs during their transport and shipment._--During the past year, I have had abundant means of determining the nature of the injuries which are often sustained by our breadstuffs in their transport from the particular districts in which they are grown and manufactured to our commercial depots, and in their shipment to foreign ports. As this is one of the most important points connected with these researches, I have devoted much time to its investigation. From the results of numerous analyses, I think it may be safely asserted, that of the wheat flour which arrives in England from various ports of the United States, a large proportion is more or less injured during the voyage. The same remark may be made in regard to many of the samples sent from the Western States to the city of New York. Their nutritive value is considerably impaired, and without more care than is usually exercised, they are entirely unfit for export. In my former report, I adverted to one of the great causes of the deterioration which our breadstuffs often suffer during their transport and shipment. This was the undue proportion of the great disorganizing substance, water, under the influence of what usually occurs, viz., an elevation of temperature above the ordinary standard. My recent investigations have served only to strengthen these views. There is no doubt that these are the conditions which cause the change of the non-nitrogenous principles into acids (the lactic or acetic), while a portion of the gluten is thus also consumed. I have tried a series of experiments in reference to the action of moisture upon various samples of wheat and wheat flour. The samples were placed for twelve hours in the oven of a bath with a double casing, containing a boiling saturated solution of common salt, the temperature of which was about 220 deg. Fahr. Subjected to this test, 100 grains of Milwaukie wheat lost 12.10 grains. " " Guilderland (Holland) wheat lost 9.35 " " " Polish Odessa red wheat " 10.55 " " " Soft Russian wheat " 8.55 " " " Kobanga wheat " 8.15 " After an exposure of the dried samples to the air for two or three days, they increased in weight from one to three grains in the hundred originally employed. Nineteen different samples of wheat flour, which lost by exposure to the above heat from ten to fourteen grains in the one hundred, when similarly exposed to the air for eighteen hours, again increased in weight from 8.40 to 11.60 in the hundred grains originally employed. These experiments show, what might indeed have been predicted as to the general result, that wheat in grain, if not less liable to injury than flour, yet if once properly dried, suffers much less from a subsequent exposure to air and moisture. It is now ascertained that in presence of a considerable proportion of water, wheat flour under the influence of heat undergoes a low degree at least of lactic fermentation, which will account for the _souring_ of the ordinary samples when exposed to warm or humid climates. The same result will inevitably follow from their careless exposure in the holds of vessels. That this is particularly the case with many of the cargoes of wheat flour shipped to Great Britain, there is little reason to doubt. This may be partly owing to the great humidity of the English climate, as the deterioration is observed as well in the flour which is the produce of that country as in that which is received from abroad. It is stated by Mr. Edlin, quoted in an article on Baking, in the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, that, "as a general rule, the London flour" is decidedly bad. The gluten generally wants the adhesiveness which characterizes the gluten of good wheat." I have observed that, in the analyses of some of the samples of damaged flour, the proportions of what is set down under the head of glucose and dextrine are unusually large. This is perhaps due to the change produced in the starch by the action of diastase, and which may under certain circumstances be formed in wheat flour. It would seem, according to M. Guérin, that starch may thus be acted on even at slightly elevated temperatures. In one of his experiments, at a temperature no higher than 68 deg. Fahr., a quantity of starch, at the end of twenty-four hours, was converted into syrup, which yielded seventy-seven per cent. of saccharine matter.[28] It may be thought that I have overrated the importance of this subject, but it is believed that a careful examination of the facts will relieve me from this charge. I am now satisfied that, if the proportion of water in our exported breadstuffs could be reduced to about five or six per cent., one of the great causes of complaint in regard to them would be completely removed. _Kiln-drying of breadstuffs, and exclusion of air_.--The injury which our breadstuffs sustain by the large proportion of water can of course be prevented only by careful drying before shipment, and by the employment of barrels rendered as impervious as possible to the influence of atmospheric moisture. In my first report, I have spoken favorably of the process of drying by steam, according to the plan patented by Mr. J.R. Stafford. I still think this mode possesses great advantages over those previously followed, and which almost always injured the quality of the grain or flour: but from some trials which I have made during the past year, it is inferred that the exposure to the heat is perhaps usually not sufficiently prolonged to answer the purpose intended by the operation. I have often observed that samples of wheat flour, after being exposed to the heat of the salt water-bath oven (220 deg. Fahr.) for two or three hours, lost weight by a further continuance of the heat. An apparatus has been patented by Mr. J.H. Tower, of Clinton, N.Y., consisting of a cylinder of square apartments or tubes, into which the grain or flour is introduced, and subjected to heat while in rapid revolution. I examined samples which had been subjected to this operation, and ascertained that wheat flour, originally containing 14.80 per cent. of water, had the proportion reduced to 10.25 per cent., while in wheat the proportion of water was reduced from 14.75 to 8.55 per cent. Now it is probable that by either of the above modes, and perhaps by many others, the various kinds of breadstuffs may be brought to that degree of dryness which, with ordinary care, shall protect them from subsequent injury; but in order to secure this advantage, the operation must be carefully performed, and experiments must be made to ascertain how long an exposure to heat is necessary to bring the sample to the proper degree of dryness, and to determine whether in any respect its quality is impaired. It has already been stated that absolute desiccation is not necessary, even were it attainable; but any process in order to be effective should reduce the proportion of water to about six, or at most seven per cent. I have heretofore adverted to the great care employed in the drying of grain in various foreign countries, and to which the preservation of it for a great number of years is to be ascribed. The operation is not conducted in the hurried manner which is here thought to be so essential, but is continued long enough to effect the intended object. Thorough ventilation, as well as the proper degree of drying, and which is equally important, is thus secured. It is said that in Russia the sheaves of wheat, carried into the huts, are suspended upon poles and dried by the heat of the oven. The grain shrinks very much during this process, but it is supposed to be less liable to the attacks of insects, and preserves its nutritive qualities for many years. During the winter, it is sent to market.--("The Czar, his Court and People." By John S. Maxwell, p. 272.) With all the necessary attention which may be paid to the proper drying of our breadstuffs intended for export, another point is of equal importance, viz., the shipment in vessels rendered as impervious as possible to the influence of atmospheric moisture. For however carefully and thoroughly the drying, especially of wheat flour or maize meal, may have been performed, it will be nearly useless if the shipment is afterwards made in the barrels commonly employed.[29] And it is very certain that the transport and shipment of grain in bulk, as usually conducted, are attended with great loss. This difficulty might be removed at a trifling expense by adopting the plan suggested in the preceding report, and to which I would again respectfully call the attention of those who are engaged in this branch of trade. I might here adduce a mass of testimony showing the importance of the matters just referred to, but will only advert to the following statements, which although made in allusion principally to maize, are equally applicable to our other breadstuffs. Maize meal, if kept too long, "is liable to become rancid, and it is then more or less unfit for use. In the shipments made to the West Indies, the meal is commonly kiln-dried, to obviate as much as possible this tendency to rancidity." "When ground very fine, maize meal suffers a change by exposure to the air. It is oxygenated. It is upon the same principle that the juice of an apple, after a little exposure to the air, is oxygenated, and changes its character and taste. If the flour could be bolted _in vacuo_, it would not be changed." "Intelligent writers speak of the necessity of preparing corn for exportation by kiln-drying as indispensable. Without that process, corn is very liable to become heated and musty, so as to be unfit for food for either man or beast. The kiln-dried maize meal from the Brandywine Mills, &c., made from the yellow corn, has almost monopolized the West India trade. This process is indispensable, if we export maize to Europe. James Candy says that from fifty years experience he has learned the necessity of this process with corn intended for exportation." "I have often found the corn from our country when it reached its destination, ruined by heating on the voyage. It had become musty and of little or no value. Kiln-drying is absolutely necessary to preserve it for exportation. We must learn and practice the best mode of kiln-drying it.[30]" _The nutritious value of the "whole meal" of Wheat, as compared with that of the fine flour_.--The question whether what is called the whole meal of wheat, or that which is obtained by the mixture of the bran, contains more nutritious matter than the fine flour, is one of great importance. In my former report, I adverted to the statement made in regard to it by Professor J.F.W. Johnston, and which seemed to be almost conclusive in favor of the value of the whole meal. During the past year, however (1849), M. Eug. Peligot, an eminent French chemist, in an elaborate article "On the Composition of Wheat," to which more particular reference will be made hereafter, combats the opinion that the bran is an alimentary substance. He observes that "the difficulty of keeping the bran in flour intended for the manufacture of bread of good quality appears to result much less from the presence of the cellulose (one of the constituents of woody matter) contained in wheat than that of the fatty matter. This is found in the bran in a quantity at least triple of that which remains in the flour, and the bolting separates it from the ground wheat not less usefully than the cellulose itself."[31] M. Millon objects entirely to the views of M. Peligot on this point, and states some facts which are especially worthy of consideration. He asserts that, according to the views of the last named chemist, the separation at most of one part of fatty matter sacrifices fifteen, twenty, and even twenty-five per cent. of substances which are of the highest nutritive value. This abstracts from wheat, for the whole amount raised in France, the enormous sum of about two hundred millions of pounds annually. It seems that in France the question whether the bolting of flour is advantageous has always been decided in the most arbitrary manner. An ordinance of Louis XIV., issued in 1658, prohibited, under a very heavy penalty, the regrinding of the bran and its mixture with the flour; this, with the mode of grinding then in use, caused a loss of more than forty per cent.--(Comptes Rendus, February 19th, 1849.) In large cities and elsewhere, there seems for some time to have been a growing prejudice against the use of brown bread; and it is said that now nearly all the peasantry of France bolt their flour. The increase of this practice, according to M. Millon, threatens the nation with an annual loss of from two to three hundred millions of francs. If the bran was entirely valueless, there would be a loss of more than one million a day. It is quite difficult to determine the precise amount of bran which may have been removed from wheat, for various samples contain such a different proportion of bran that in the one case a removal of ten per cent, leaves more bran in the flour than a bolting of five per cent. in another. The following is an analysis of bran by M. Millon; the sample being a soft French wheat grown in 1848:-- Starch, dextrine and sugar 53.00 Sugar of liquorice 1.00 Gluten 14.90 Fatty matter 3.60 Woody matter 9.70 Salts .50 Water 13.90 Incrusting matter and aromatic principles (by difference) 3.40 ------ 100. The conclusion to be drawn from this analysis is, that bran is an alimentary substance. If it contains six per cent. more of woody matter than the rough, flour, it has also more gluten, double that of fatty matter, besides two aromatic principles which have the perfume of honey, and both of which are wanting in the fine flour. Thus by bolting, wheat is impoverished in its most valuable principles, merely to remove a few hundredths of woody matter. The economical suggestion which springs from these views is, that the bran and coarse flour should be reground and then mixed with the fine flour. Millon states that he has ascertained, by repeated experiments, that bread thus made is of superior quality, easily worked, and not subject to the inconvenience of bread manufactured from the rough flour, such as is made in some places, and especially in Belgium. Opinions similar to those above noticed are entertained by Professor Daubeny. "The great importance attached to having bread perfectly white is a prejudice," he says, "which leads to the rejection of a very wholesome part of the food, and one which, although not digestible alone, is sufficiently so in that state of admixture with the flour in which nature has prepared it for our use." After quoting the remarks of Professor Johnston on the same side of the question, he adds, "that according to the experiments of Magendie, animals fed upon fine flour died in a few weeks, whilst they thrived upon the whole meal bread." Brown bread, therefore, should be adopted, not merely on a principle of economy, but also as providing more of those ingredients which are perhaps deficient in the finer parts of the flour.--("Gardeners' Chronicle," January 27th, 1849, p. 53.) The remarks of Dr. Robertson may also be here introduced. "The advantage," he observes, "of using more or less of the coverings of the grain in the preparation of bread has often been urged on economical principles. There can be no doubt that a very large proportion of nutritive matter is contained in the bran and the pollard; and these are estimated to contain about one-fifth part of the entire weight of the wheat grain. It is, unquestionably, so far wasteful to remove these altogether from the flour; and in the case of the majority of people, this waste may be unnecessary, even on the score of digestibility."[32] This subject can also be rendered apparent to the eye. If we make a cross section of a grain of wheat, or rye, and place it under the microscope, we perceive very distinct layers in it as we examine from without inwards. The outer of them belong to the husk of the fruit and seed, and are separated as bran, in grinding. But the millstone does not separate so exactly as the eye may by means of the microscope, not even as accurately as the knife of the vegetable anatomist, and thus with the bran is removed also the whole outer layer of the cells of the nucleus, and even some of the subjacent layers. Thus the anatomical investigations of one of these corn grains at once explains why bread is so much the less nutritious the more carefully the bran has been separated from the meal.[33] There can therefore be little doubt that the removal of the bran is a serious injury to the flour; and I have presented the above array of evidence on this point in the hope of directing public attention to it here, as has been done in various foreign countries. After this, it will easily be inferred that I am not disposed to look with much favor upon the plan proposed by Mr. Bentz for taking the outer coating or bran from wheat and other grains previously to grinding.[34] Independently of the considerations which have already been presented, it is far from being proved, as this gentlemen asserts, that the mixture of the bran with the meal which results from the common mode of grinding is the chief cause of the _souring_ of the flour in hot climates. On the contrary, the bran is perhaps as little liable to undergo change as the fine flour, and then the moistening to which, as I am informed, the grain is subjected previously to the removal of the husk, is still further objectionable, and must be followed by a most carefully-conducted process of kiln-drying. _Nutritious properties of various articles of food_.--There seems to be some difference of opinion in regard to the nutritious properties of various kinds of food. It is generally, however, agreed that those which contain the largest proportion of nitrogenous matters are the most nutritious. It is on this account that haricots, peas, and beans, form, in some sort, substitutes for animal food. Tubers, roots, and even the seeds of the cereal grasses, are but moderately nutritious. If we see herbivorous animals fattening upon such articles, it is because, from their peculiar organisation, they can consume them in large quantities. It is quite doubtful whether a man doing hard work could exist on bread exclusively. The instances which are given of countries where rice and potatoes form the sole articles of food of the inhabitants, are believed to be incomplete. Boussingault states that in Alsace, for example, the peasantry always associate their potato dish with a large quantity of sour or curdled milk; in Ireland with buttermilk. "The Indians of the Upper Andes do not by any means live on potatoes alone, as some travellers have said they do: at Quito, the daily food of the inhabitants is _lorco_, a compound of potatoes and a large quantity of cheese. Rice is often cited as one of the most nourishing articles of diet. I am satisfied, however, after having lived in countries where rice is largely consumed, that it is anything but a substantial, or, for its bulk, nutritious article of sustenance."--("Rural Economy," Amer. edition, p. 409.) These statements are further confirmed by the observations of M. Lequerri, who, during a long residence in India, paid particular attention to the manners and customs of the inhabitants of Pondicherry. "Their food," he states, "is almost entirely vegetable, and rice is the staple; the inferior castes only ever eat meat. But all eat _kari_ (curry), an article prepared with meat, fish, or vegetable, which is mixed with the rice, boiled in very little water. It is requisite to have seen the Indians at their meals to have any idea of the enormous quantity of rice which they will put into their stomachs. No European could cram so much at a time; and they very commonly allow that rice alone will not nourish them. They very generally still eat a quantity of bread."[35] In regard to the proportion of nutritious matter contained in grains of various kinds, it may be remarked that the tables which have been constructed as the results of various experiments are liable to an objection, which will be more particularly adverted to under another head. For example, two substances, by the process of ultimate analysis, may exhibit the same proportion of nitrogenous matter, and still differ very materially in their value as articles of food. Much depends on the digestibility of the form in which this matter is presented to the digestive organs. A strong illustration is afforded in the case of hay, the proportion of nutritive matter of which, about 9.71, would certainly not represent its power of affording nourishment to the human system. It is in truth quite impossible to arrive at any other than approximate results from the operations of chemistry, as to the amount of nutriment contained in a given quantity or weight of any article of food.[36] It is perhaps not irrelevant to notice in this place some of the researches which have recently been made upon fermentation, and particularly its effects in the manufacture of bread. It appears that when this process is brought about by the addition of yeast or leaven to the paste or dough, the character of the mass is materially altered. A larger or smaller proportion of the flour is virtually lost. According to Dr. William Gregory the loss amounts to the very large proportion of one-sixteenth part of the whole of the flour. He says, "To avoid this loss, bread is now raised by means of carbonate of soda, or ammonia and a diluted acid, which are added to the dough, and the effect is perfectly satisfactory. Equally good or better bread is obtained, and the quantity of flour which will yield fifteen hundred loaves by fermentation, furnishes sixteen hundred by the new method, the sugar and fibrin (gluten) being saved."--("Outlines of Chemistry," p. 352.) Another author, Dr. R.D. Thomson, states, as the results of his experiments upon bread produced by the action of hydrochloric acid upon carbonate of soda, "that in a sack of flour there was a difference in favor of the unfermented bread to the amount of thirty pounds thirteen ounces, or in round numbers, a sack of flour would produce one hundred and seven loaves of unfermented bread, and only one hundred loaves of fermented bread of the game weight. Hence it appears that in the sack of flour by the common process of baking, seven loaves, or six-and-a-half per cent, of the flour are driven into the air and lost."--("Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals," &c., p. 183.) The only objection to the general introduction of this process seems to be the degree of care and accuracy required in properly adjusting the respective qualities and quantities of acid and alkali, and which could seldom be attained even by those who are largely engaged in the manufacture of bread. I cannot leave this subject without adverting to a practice which has prevailed in England and France, and perhaps also in this country, of steeping wheat before sowing it in solutions of arsenic, sulphate of copper, and other poisonous preparations. The result has been that injurious effects have often followed, both to those who are employed in sowing such grain, and to those who have used the bread manufactured from it. The great importance of the subject led to the appointment of a commission at Rouen, in France, in December, 1842, having for its object to determine the best process of preventing the smut in wheat, and to ascertain whether other means less dangerous than those above noticed were productive of equally good results. The labors of this commission extended over the years 1843-'44-'45, and the experiments were repeated two years following on the farm of Mr. Fauchet, one of the commission, at Boisquilaume, in the department of the Seine Inferieure. The results arrived at by this commission are--1st. That it is not best to sow seed without steeping. 2nd. That it is best to make use of the sulphate of soda and lime process, inasmuch as it is more simple and economical, in no way injurious to the health, and yields the soundest and most productive wheat. 3rd. That the use of arsenic, sulphate of copper, verdigris, and other poisonous preparations, should be interdicted by the government.--("Gardeners' Chronicle," January 6th, 1849, pp. 10 and 11.) _Composition of wheat and wheat flour, and the various modes of determining their nutritive value_.--In my former report it was stated that the analyses of the various samples of wheat, the results of which were there given, had been chiefly directed to the determining the amount of rough _gluten_ which they contained. My reasons for adopting this plan, and the arguments in favor of its general accuracy, as compared with other modes of analysis, and especially that by which the ultimate composition is ascertained, were also detailed. A more full examination of this subject has served only to strengthen the opinion already expressed, that for the great purpose to be answered by these researches, the process which I have adopted is, to say the least, as free from objection as any other, and if carefully and uniformly carried out, will truly represent the relative values of the several samples of wheat flour. As this is a matter of much consequence in a practical point of view, I trust I shall be excused for introducing some additional facts in regard to it. The term _gluten_ was originally applied to the gray, viscid, tenacious, and elastic matter, which is obtained by subjecting wheat flour to the continuous action of a current of water. But it appears that this is a mixture of fibrine and caseine, with what is now called _glutine_, and a peculiar oily or fatty matter. Now these substances may be separated from each other, but the processes employed for this purpose are tedious, and to insure accuracy the various solvents must be entirely pure--a point which, especially in the case of alcohol and ether, is not ordinarily easy to be attained. This will be rendered still more evident by a reference to a French process, which will hereafter be noticed. But were it much less difficult in every case accurately to separate the constituents of gluten, it would not, in my opinion, be of the least practical utility. It is to the peculiar mechanical property of this gluten that wheat flour owes its superior power of detaining the carbonic acid engendered by fermentation, and thus communicating to it the vesicular spongy structure so characteristic of good bread.[37] It may also be added, that the results of more than one hundred trials have satisfied me that a diminution or loss of elasticity in the gluten is the surest index of the amount of injury which the sample of flour has sustained. Whether, therefore, the sample contains a certain proportion of nitrogen, or whether it contains albumen, fibrine, and caseine in sufficient quantity, it may still want the very condition which is essential to the manufacture of good bread. My objection, therefore, to the mere determination, however accurate, of the proportion of nitrogen contained in wheat flour, or of the various principles which form the gluten, is, that it does not represent the value of the various samples for the only use to which they are applied, viz., the making of bread. The remarks of Mulder, the celebrated Dutch chemist, upon the subject of manures, are so applicable to this point that I cannot refrain from quoting them. "It has," he says, "become almost a regular custom to determine the value of manures by the quantity of nitrogen they yield by ultimate analysis. This method is entirely erroneous; for it is based upon the false principle, that by putrefaction all nitrogeneous substances are immediately converted into ammonia, carbonic acid, and water! But these changes sometimes require a number of years. Morphine, for example, is prepared by allowing opium to putrefy; and the process for preparing leucin, a substance which contains 10.72 of nitrogen, is to bring cheese into putrefaction. Cheese, therefore, does not perhaps in a number of years resolve itself into carbonic acid, ammonia, and water, but produces a crystalline substance, which contains no ammonia. Hence the proportion of nitrogen yielded by manures is not a proper measure of their value, and therefore this mode of estimating that value ought to be discontinued."[38] We infer, therefore, that the proportion of nitrogen furnished by food of various kinds is not the true measure of their nutritious value, and cannot for practical purposes take the place of that process by which the amount of rough gluten is determined. No better illustration can be given of the uncertainty which attends the inferences drawn from the ultimate composition, than the fact heretofore stated in regard to hay, the nutritive value of which is placed in the tables containing the results of these analyses, at a figure nearly the same as that of ordinary wheat flour.[39] In the paper on the "Composition of Wheat," by M. Peligot--(" Comptes Rendus," February 5th, 1849)--to which I have already referred, the author gives the results of the various analyses which he has made, and details the process he adopted. Aware of the complex and difficult nature of the examination as conducted by him, he seems to doubt in regard to some of the results given in his tables In the fourteen samples which he analysed, the proportion of water ranges from 13.2 to 15.2, which is a rather higher average than is yielded by our American samples, especially those which have not been shipped across the Atlantic. Of the nitrogenous matter, soluble and insoluble, the proportions range from 9.90 per cent, to 21.50 per cent.; the former being from a sample of very soft and white French wheat; the latter from a very hard wheat with long grains, from Northern Africa, cultivated at Verriéres. Another sample from Egypt yielded 20.60 per cent, of these nitrogenous matters, both of which are very remarkable proportions. In describing the process for ascertaining the amount of insoluble nitrogenous matters, this author adverts to their estimation either by the quantity of nitrogen gas furnished, or of ammonia formed, the last being preferred for substances, which, like wheat, contain only a few hundredths of nitrogen. The results which he obtained by this method were compared with those yielded by the direct extraction of the gluten by softening the farina under a small stream of water. "These results," says he, "differ but little from each other when we operate upon wheat in good condition, although the gluten which we thus obtain holds some starch and fatty matter, while the starch which is carried away by the water contains also some gluten." The loss and gain, as I have already explained, and as has been proved by these and other comparisons, are nearly balanced, and the amount of rough gluten will therefore afford a fair exhibit of that of the insoluble nitrogenous matters in this grain. The salts in the samples of wheat analysed by M. Peligot, were either wanting or were in small proportion; while the amount of fatty matter ranged from 1.00 to 1.80 and 1.90 per cent. These results agree very well with those which I have obtained. But it is probable that the proportion is liable to great variation, inasmuch as it is inferred that the fatty matter originates from starch through its exposure to the general deoxidising influence which prevails in plants.[40] There are also many difficulties attending the accurate determination of this matter, and which are probably the cause of the higher proportion often given. It is properly remarked by M. Peligot that the ether employed in this process should be free from water, and that the flour ought also to be very dry. By neglecting these precautions, we separate not only the fatty matter, but also a certain amount of matters soluble in the water, which is furnished as well by the wheat as by the ether. It would not, I think, be difficult to point out some incorrect views entertained by this chemist, and more especially those which relate to the fatty matter. Some of his processes for the separation of various substances, if not faulty, require so many conditions for success as to render the results, at least in other hands, exceedingly uncertain. But the capital error which he has committed is that concerning the bran, already adverted to, which he considers injurious to the flour, chiefly in consequence of the large proportion of fatty matter which it contains. In regard to the soluble nitrogenous matter usually called albumen, from its resemblance to the animal substance of the same name, I have to remark that in my trials the proportion has been found to be considerably less than that often given in tables of the composition of wheat. In one sample it was found to be as low as 0.15 per cant., in another it did not rise above 0.20 per cent. The amount was usually so inconsiderable, that I did not think it worth while to retard the progress of the work by following out processes which could add little to the utility of these investigations. Although much time and labor have been expended upon the analyses of the ash of plants, I have but slight confidence in the results heretofore given. The difficulties which attend the obtaining the ash in a proper condition, and the fact that the products of all the organs and parts of the plants have been analysed together, must necessarily impair the accuracy of the experiments, and render the inferences drawn from them of uncertain value. Much, indeed I may say almost everything, still remains to be done in this department of agricultural chemistry. _Weight of wheat as an index to its value_.--Much has been said in regard to the relative weights of the bushel of wheat of different varieties or under different modes of culture. As ordinarily determined, this weight ranges from fifty-six to sixty-five or sixty-six pounds, being in a few cases set down somewhat higher. It is said also that the bushel of wheat weighs less in some years than it does in others, and that the difference often amounts to two, or three, or even four pounds. Though this may seem of comparatively little consequence for a few bushels, yet, for the aggegate of the wheat crop of the United States, or for a State, or even a county, it makes a great difference. Thus, were we to estimate the product of one year in the United States at one hundred and ten million bushels, weighing fifty-six pounds to the bushel, and another year at one hundred and eight million bushels, weighing sixty-two pounds, the difference in favor of the latter, though the least in quantity, would amount to five hundred and thirty-six million pounds in weight, or more than one million and a quarter of barrels of flour.--(Report of the American Commissioner of Patents for 1847, p. 117.) It may be remarked, however, that it is not after all so easy to determine with accuracy the weight of a bushel of wheat, nor to decide upon the circumstances which have an influence in increasing the density of a grain of wheat. If the microscopical representations of wheat are to be relied on, it is probable that the increase in the density of wheat depends upon the increase in the proportion of gluten. I have found in several cases that, the proportion of water being the same, those samples of wheat which contain the largest proportion of gluten exhibit the highest specific gravity, or, in other words, will yield the greatest number of pounds to the bushel. But the weight of wheat will be influenced by the proportion of water which it contains; the drier the grain, the greater is its density; a fact which may account for the difference which has been observed in the weight of wheat in different seasons. If this is the cause, the calculation above given in reference to the United States is fallacious--but if the amount of gluten is _actually_, instead of _relatively_, increased by peculiarities in seasons, it is no doubt correct. I have devised a series of experiments to test the accuracy of the statements made upon this point, but have not yet had leisure to complete them. _General conditions from the analyses of wheat flour_.--The large number of analyses which I have made, and the uniformity of the processes pursued, enable me to draw some general conclusions which it may be useful to present in a connected form. 1. In the samples from the more northern wheat-growing States, there seems to be little difference in the proportion of nutritive matter that can be set down to the influence of climate. Thus, the yield of the wheat from Michigan, Wisconsin and Iowa, is scarcely inferior to that from New York, Indiana, and Illinois, although the two latter are somewhat farther south. Local causes, and more especially the peculiarities of culture and manufacture, have more influence, within these parallels of latitude, than the difference of mean temperature. 2. The samples from New Jersey, Lower Pennsylvania, the southern part of Ohio, Maryland (probably Delaware), Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia,[41] contain less water and more nutritive matter than those from the States previously enumerated. That the samples from Missouri, which is included within nearly the same parallels of latitude as Virginia, do not exhibit so high an average of nutritive matter as those from the latter State, must be ascribed principally to a want of care in the management of the crop, and perhaps also in the manufacture of the flour. Virginia flour, for obvious reasons, maintains a high reputation for shipment. 3. The difference in the nutritive value of the various samples of wheat depends greatly upon the variety, and mode of culture, independently of climate. The correctness of the former statement is shown by the much larger proportions of gluten yielded by many of the samples of _hard_ wheat from abroad, the Oregon wheat in Virginia, and a variety of Illinois wheat, &c. And in regard to the effect of particular modes of culture, the various analyses of Boussingault may be referred to, and that in my table of a sample from Ulster county, New York. 4. The deterioration of many of the samples of wheat and wheat flour arises in most cases from the presence of a too large per centage of water. This is often the result of a want of proper care in the transport, and is the principal cause of the losses which are sustained by those who are engaged in this branch of business. 5. There seems to be little doubt that a considerable portion of the wheat and wheat flour, as well as of other breadstuffs, shipped from this country to England, is more or less injured before it reaches that market. It is also shown that this is mostly to be ascribed to the want of care above noticed, and to the fraudulent mixture of good and bad kinds. The remedy in the former case is the drying of the grain or flour before shipment, by some of the modes proposed, and the protection of it afterwards as completely as possible from the effect of moisture. The frauds which are occasionally practised should be promptly exposed, and those who are engaged in them held up to merited reproach. 6. It has been fully shown, by the results of many trials, that the flour obtained by the second grinding of wheat, or the whole meal, contains more gluten than the fine flour. Hence the general use of the latter, and the entire rejection of the bran, is wasteful, and ought in every way to be discouraged. 7. It cannot but be gratifying to us that the average nutritive value of the wheat and wheat flour of the United States is shown by these analyses to be fully equal to, if not greater than, that afforded by the samples produced in any other part of the world. And it will, in my opinion, be chiefly owing to a want of proper care and of commercial honesty, if the great advantages which should accrue to this country from the export of these articles are either endangered or entirely lost. TABLE EXHIBITING THE PER CENTAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS SAMPLES OF AMERICAN AND FOREIGN WHEAT FLOUR, BY LEWIS C. BECK, M.D. (1849). ----------------------------------+-----+-------+------+-------------- | |Gluten | | Glucos | Kind of Wheat Flour, and from | | and | |dextrine,| whence obtained |Water|albumen|Starch| &c. |Bran ----------------------------------+-----+-------+------+---------+---- Country Mills, New Jersey |12.75| 11.55 | 65.95| 8.10 | .65 West Jersey Wheat |12.80| 12.32 | 69.48| 5.90 | .50 White Wheat, New Jersey |11.55| 12.60 | 66.85| 8.50 | .50 Pennsylvania Wheat |11.90| 13.16 | 66.20| 7.25 | .75 ditto ditto |13.35| 12.73 | 66.90| 6.50 | .52 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |13.35| 14.72 | 71.28 | .65 Pelham Wheat, Ulster Co., N.Y. |10.79| 13.17 | 67.74| 7.60 | .70 "Pure Genesee" Wheat |13.20| 11.05 | 75.20 | .55 Ohio Wheat, "fine" |12.85| 12.25 | 73.90 |1.00 Ohio Wheat, "superfine" |13.00| 9.10 | 77.80 | .10 Winter Wheat, Ohio |13.10| 11.56 | 66.84| 7.90 | .60 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |13.05| 12.69 | 73.61 | .65 Michigan Wheat, "superfine" |13.25| 11.10 | 74.80 | .85 Michigan Wheat |12.25| 10.00 | 67.70| 8.75 | .75 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |12.75| 11.20 | 66.00| 8.50 |1.05 Illinois Wheat |12.73| 14.61 | 65.20| 6.45 | .80 Magnolia Mill, St. Louis, Mo. |13.13| 10.27 | 69.75| 6.15 | .35 Mound Mill, St. Louis |13.48| 10.53 | 67.35| 8.15 | .20 Walsh's Mill, St. Louis |12.70| 10.63 | 69.40| 6.65 | .40 Washington Mill, St. Louis |12.88| 11.00 | 68.65| 7.27 | .20 Missouri Mill, St. Louis |13.00| 10.46 | 67.79| 8.35 | .40 O'Fallan's Mill, St. Louis |12.85| 11.25 | 68.24| 7.00 | .66 Phoenix Mill, St. Louis |13.22| 10.10 | 68.70| 7.30 | .15 Nonantum Mill, St. Louis |12.10| 11.02 | 68.60| 7.93 | .35 Franklin Mill, St. Louis |12.25| 10.29 | 69.85| 7.26 | .35 Eagle Mill, St. Louis |11.00| 10.15 | 69.50| 8.65 | .20 Winter Wheat, Missouri |14.00| 9.30 | 70.05| 6.30 | .35 Wisconsin Wheat |12.80| 13.20 | 68.90| 6.50 | .70 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |12.80| 13.46 | 72.54 |1.20 Maryland Wheat |13.00| 12.30 | 66.65| 7.10 | .65 Richmond City Mill |11.70| 13.00 | 67.50| 6.90 | .50 Haxall and Co., Richmond, Va. |11.40| 12.80 | 68.50| 6.60 | .35 Virginia Wheat, "superfine" |12.05| 12.95 | 74.50 | .50 Haxall and Co., "best brand, '49" |11.40| 13.25 | 68.20| 6.25 | .60 Haxall and Co., "2nd brand, '49" |11.00| 13.20 | 75.60 | .20 Richmond City Mill, '49 |11.90| 10.50 | 70.00| 7.10 | .50 Oregon White Wheat, Va. |12.80| 14.80 | 71.30 |1.10 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |13.85| 14.50 | 65.15| 5.90 | .60 Gallego Mill, Richmond, Va. |11.50| 13.50 | 68.35| 6.00 | .65 Ship Brandywine, Liverpool |13.38| 10.62 | 67.60| 7.75 | .65 Ship Fanchon, Liverpool |13.83| 11.38 | 67.45| 6.34 |1.00 Ship New World, Liverpool |13.65| 11.60 | 65.80| 7.70 | .65 Ship Juniata, Liverpool |12.50| 14.14 | 64.20| 8.36 | .80 Ship Stephen Lurman, Liverpool |11.65| 13.18 | 64.50| 9.55 | .68 Ship Leila, Liverpool |13.22| 13.18 | 64.65| 8.00 | .95 Ship Oxenbridge, Liverpool |13.90| 10.13 | 68.42| 7.30 | .25 | |& bran | | | Ship Italy, Liverpool |12.94| 10.60 | 68.56| 7.90 | Ship West Point, Liverpool |14.30| 12.30 | 63.00| 9.45 | .95 Ship W.H. Harbeck, Liverpool |13.53| 10.18 | 66.95| 8.80 | .30 Ship Princeton, Liverpool |13.40| 11.52 | 65.60| 7.90 | .85 Ship Columbus, Liverpool |13.50| 10.45 | 66.45| 8.50 |1.03 Ship Russell Glover, Liverpool |13.45| 10.47 | 66.20| 8.83 |1.05 Ship South Carolina, Liverpool |13.80| 9.00 | 70.80| 5.95 | .38 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |13.30| 9.45 | 76.90 | .35 Ship Cambridge, Liverpool |14.50| 8.52 | 70.60| 5.40 | .40 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |14.10| 9.10 | 70.55| 5.45 | .20 Ship Columbus, Liverpool |14.85| 8.47 | 76.48 | .20 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |14.15| 9.00 | 76.60 | .25 Ship Ashburton, Liverpool |13.55| 11.68 | 69.22| 5.30 | .25 Wheat grown in Canada West |12.80| 7.23 | 74.12| 5.10 | .75 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |12.60| 8.45 | 78.55 | .40 Chilian Wheat |12.44| 9.45 | 67.80| 8.37 |1.30 Chilian Wheat |12.85| 8.65 | 71.60| 6.10 | .60 | |& bran | | | Valparaiso Wheat |12.50| 14.55 | | | French Wheat |13.20| 9.85 | 69.00| 7.65 | .30 Spanish Wheat |13.50| 10.30 | 68.90| 7.00 | .30 Canivano Wheat |11.33| 16.35 | 63.10| 6.50 |2.30 Canivano Wheat |11.15| 15.40 | 67.25| 5.70 | .60 ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |12.60| 18.70 | 67.00 |1.70 Hard wheat, grown near Malaga |10.87| 12.15 | 64.38| 12.60 | | | | |& lactic acid ditto ditto (2nd grinding) |10.00| 14.50 | 60.20| 15.30 | ----------------------------------+-----+-------+------+---------+---- There is no crop, the skilful and successful cultivation of which on the same soil, from generation to generation, requires more art than is demanded to produce good wheat. To grow this grain on fresh land, adapted to the peculiar habits and wants of the plant is an easy task. But such fields, except in rare instances, fail sooner or later to produce sound and healthy plants, which are little liable to attacks from the malady called "rust," or which give lengthened ears or "heads," well filled with plump seeds. Having long resided in the best wheat-growing district in the Union, the writer has devoted years of study and observation to all the influences of soil, climate, and constitutional peculiarities, which affect this bread-bearing plant. It is far more liable to smut, rust, and shrink in some soils than in others. This is true in western New York, and every other section where wheat has long been cultivated. As the alkalies and other fertilizing elements become exhausted in the virgin soils of America, its crops of wheat not only become smaller on an average, but the plants fail in constitutional vigor, and are more liable to diseases and attacks from parasites and destructive insects. Defects in soil and improper nutrition lead to these disastrous results. Soils are defective in the following particulars: 1. They lack soluble silica, or flint in an available form, with which to produce a hard glassy stem that will be little subject to "rust." Soluble flint is never very abundant in cultivated soils; and after they have been tilled some years, the supply is deficient in quantity. It is not very difficult to learn with considerable accuracy the amount of silica which rain-water as it falls on the earth will dissolve out of 1,000 grains of soil in the course of eight or ten days. Hot water will dissolve more than cold; and water charged with carbonic acid more than pure water which has been boiled. The experiments of Prof. Rogers of the University of Virginia, as published in Silliman's Journal, have a direct bearing on this subject. The researches of Prof. Emmons of Albany, in his elaborate and valuable work on "Agriculture," as a part of the Natural History of New York, show that 10,000 parts of soil yield only from one to three parts of soluble silica. The analyses of Dr Jackson, as published in his Geological Survey of New Hampshire, give similar results. Earth taken from an old and badly exhausted field in Georgia, gave the writer only one part of soluble flint in 100,000. What elements of crops rain water, at summer heat, will dissolve out of ten or twenty pounds of soil, in the course of three months, is a point in agricultural science which should be made the subject of numerous and rigid experiments. In this way, the capabilities of different soils and their adaptation to different crops may be tested, in connection with practical experiments in field culture, on the same kind of earth. Few wheat-growers are aware how much dissolved flint an acre of good wheat demands to prevent its having coarse, soft, and spongy stems, which are anything but a healthy organization of the plant. In the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, vol. 7, there is an extended "Report on the Analysis of the Ashes of Plants, by Thomas Way, Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester," which gives the result of sixty-two analyses of the ash of wheat, from as many samples of that grain, mostly grown on different soils and under different circumstances. In this report are given the quantity of wheat per acre, the weight of straw cut close to the ground to the acre, and also that of the chaff. These researches show, that from ninety-three to one hundred and fifty pounds of soluble flint are required to form an acre of wheat; and I will add from my own investigations, that three-fourths of this silica is demanded by nature during the last sixty days preceding the maturing of the crop. This is the period in which the stem acquires its solidity and strength, and most of its incombustible earthy matter. The quantity of this varies from three to fifteen per cent. of the weight of the straw. Prof. Johnston and Sir Humphry Davy give instances in which more than fifteen per cent. of ash was found; and Prof. Way gives cases where less than three per cent. were obtained. The mean of forty samples was four and a half per cent. Dr. Sprengel gives three and a half as the mean of his analyses. M. Boussingault found an average of seven per cent. As flint is truly the _bone_ of all the grass family, imparting to them strength, as in cane, timothy, corn, oats, rye, rice, millet, and the proportion of this mineral varies as much in wheat-straw, as bone does in very lean and very fat hogs or cattle. A young growing animal, whether a child or a colt, that is kept on food which lacks _bone-earth_, (phosphate of lime,) will have soft cartilaginous bones. Nature cannot substitute _iron_ or any other mineral in the animal system, out of which to form hard strong bones; nor can any other mineral in the soil perform the peculiar function assigned to silica in the vital economy of cereal plants. To protect the living germs in the seeds of wheat, corn, oats, rye, barley, &c, the cuticle or bran of these seeds contains considerable flint. The same is true of chaff. The question naturally arises,--How is the farmer to increase the quantity of soluble silica or flint in his soil? This is a question of the highest practical importance. There are three principal ways in which the object named may be attained. First, by keeping fewer acres under the plough. Land in pasture, if well managed, will gain its fertility, and in the process accumulate soluble silica in the surface soil. In this way more wheat and surer crops may be made by cultivating a field in wheat two years than four or six. If the field in the mean time be devoted to wool-growing, butter or cheese-making, or to stock-raising, particular care must be taken to make great crops of grass or clover to grow on the land, and have all the manure, both solid and liquid, applied to its surface. There are many counties in England that yield an average of thirty-two bushels of wheat per acre for ten crops in succession. There are but few of the old counties in the United States which average the half of that quantity: and yet America has greater agricultural capabilities than that of Great Britain. Another way to increase soluble silica in the soil, is to grow such crops, in rotation with wheat culture, as will best prevent the loss of dissolved flint, at any time by leaching and washing, through the agency of rain water. This remark is intended to apply more particularly to those large districts devoted to cotton and tobacco culture, plants that take up no considerable amount of silica, and which by the constant stirring of the earth, and the clean tillage which they demand, favor the leaching of the soil. To keep too much of a plantation of these crops, is to lessen its capabilities for producing good crops of corn, wheat, and barley, at a small expense. Corn plants, well managed, will extract more pounds of silica in three or six months from the soil, than any other. As not an ounce of this mineral is needed in the animal economy of man or beast, it can all be composted in cornstalks, blades, and cobs, or in the dung and urine derived from corn, and be finally reorganized in the stems of wheat plants. Corn culture and wheat culture, if skilfully and scientifically conducted, go admirably together. Of the two, more bread, more meat, and more _money_ can be made from the corn than from the wheat plant in this country. But so soon as what is called "high farming" in England, shall be popular in the United States, the crops both of wheat and corn grown here will demonstrate how little we appreciate the vast superiority of our climate for the economical feeding and clothing of the human family, over that of our "mother country." In several counties in England, it takes from twelve to fourteen months to make a crop of wheat, after the seed is put into the ground. At or near the first of December, 1847, Mr. M.B. Moore, of Augusta, Ga., sowed a bushel of seed wheat on an acre and a half of ground, which gave him over thirty bushels by the middle of May following. This ground was then ploughed, and a fine crop of hay made and cut in July. After this, a good crop of peas was raised, and harvested in October, before it was time to seed with wheat again, as was done. While the mean temperature of England is so low, that corn plants will not ripen, in Georgia one can grow a crop of wheat in the winter, and nearly two crops of corn in succession in the summer and autumn, before it is time to sow wheat again. No writer, to my knowledge, has done full justice to the vast agricultural resources of the southern portion of the American confederacy. But there is much of its soil which is not rich in the elements of bread. Nothing but the careful study of these elements, and of the natural laws by which they are governed, can remedy defects in wheat culture anywhere, but especially on very poor land. All alkaline minerals, such as potash, soda, lime, ammonia, and magnesia, hasten the solution of the several insoluble compounds of silica in the soil. This fact should be remembered by every farmer. To undertake an explanation of the various ways in which alkalies, oxides, and acids act and re-act upon each other in the surface of the earth, when subject to tillage, would be out of place in this outline view of wheat-growing in the United States. I may state the fact, however, as ascertained by many analyses, that a cubic foot of good wheat soil in the valley of the Genesee, contains twenty times more lime than do the poorest soils in South Carolina and Georgia. The quantity of gypsum, bone-earth, and magnesia, available as food for plants, varies in an equal degree. Not only lime, but phosphoric acid, potash, and magnesia are lacking in most soils, if one desires to raise a large crop of wheat, and have the seeds of the grain weigh as much as the straw. In a number of the specimens of wheat analyzed by Prof. Way, when cut close to the roots, the dry wheat outweighed the dry straw. Having secured the growth of a bright, hard, glassy stem, the next thing is to develop a long, well-filled ear. To this end, available ammonia or nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, and magnesia are indispensable. Ammonia (spirits of hartshorn) is necessary to aid in forming the combustible part of the seed. The other ingredients named are required to assist in making the incombustible part of the grain. In 100 parts of the ash of wheat, there are the following substances, viz.:-- Silica 2.28 Phosphoric acid 45.73 Sulphuric acid 0.32 Lime 2.06 Magnesia 10.94 Peroxide of iron 2.04 Potash 32.24 Soda 4.06 Chloride of sodium 0.27 ----- Total 99.94 The quantity of ash in wheat varies from 1¼ to 2½ per cent.; the average is about 1.69. The amount of phosphoric acid in any given quantity of the ash of wheat varies from forty to fifty per cent. of the same. Seeds that have a thick cuticle or bran, and little gluten, contain a smaller per centage of phosphoric acid, and more silica. About one-third of the ash is potash; in nearly all cases magnesia varies from nine to fourteen per cent.; lime from one and a half to six per cent. Peroxide of iron is seldom as abundant as in the ash above given, and the same is true of soda. Chloride of sodium is common salt, and exists in a small quantity. Salt is beginning to be much used as a fertilizer on wheat lands in western New York. It operates indirectly to increase the crop. The following may be taken as about the average composition of the ash of wheat-straw. It is "Specimen No. 40," in the tables of Prof. Way, and I copy verbatim all that is said upon the subject: [Soil, sandy; subsoil, stone and clay; geological formation, silurian; drained; eight years in tillage; crop, after carrots, twenty tons per acre; tilled December, 1845; heavy crop; mown, August 12th; carried, August 20th; estimated yield, forty-two bushels per acre; straw long, grain good, weight sixty-two pounds to the bushel.] Length of straw, forty-two inches. _Relation of Grain, Straw and Chaff_. Actual quantities. Per centage. Grain 1633 lbs. 45.15 Straw 1732 47.89 Chaff 250 6.96 ---- Total 3615 lbs. Specific gravity of grain 1.396 Weight of grain per acre 2604 lbs. " " straw " " 2,775 3/10ths. " " chaff " " 401 1/6th. _Mineral Matter in an Acre._ Wheat 44 ½ lbs. Straw 113 Chaff 47 1/6th. ----------- Total 204 7/10ths. _Analysis of the Ash of the Grain_. Per centage. Removed from an acre. lbs. ozs. Silica 5.63 2 8 Phosphoric acid 43.98 19 8 Sulphuric acid .21 0 1 1/6th. Lime 1.80 0 12 8/10ths. Magnesia 11.69 5 3 2/10ths. Peroxide of iron .29 0 2 Potash 34.51 15 5 6/10ths. Soda 1.87 0 13 3/10ths. ----- --- ---------- Total 99.98 44 6 l/10ths. _Analysis of Straw with its proportion of Chaff._ Per centage. Removed per acre. lbs. ozs. Silica 69.36 111 1 7/10ths. Phosphoric acid 5.24 8 6 7/10ths. Sulphuric acid 4.45 7 2 2/10ths. Lime 6.96 11 2 2/20ths. Magnesia 1.45 2 5 Peroxide of iron .29 1 2 Potash 11.79 18 14 Soda none none. Chloride of sodium " " ----- --- ----------- Total 99.54 160 1 l/10ths. If we subtract the 111 pounds of silica from 160 pounds of minerals in the straw and chaff, the difference between what are left and those in wheat, is not great. As the stems and leaves of wheat plants grow before their seeds, if all the phosphoric acid, potash, and lime available in the soil is consumed before the organization of the seeds begin, from what source is nature to draw her supply of these ingredients to form a good crop of wheat? If the farmer could reverse the order of nature, and grow a good supply of seeds first, and make straw afterwards, then many a one would harvest more wheat and less straw. But the cultivator must grow the stems, roots, and leaves of wheat, corn, and cotton, before nature will begin to form the seeds of these several plants: and every one should know that the atoms in the soil, which are consumed in organizing the bodies of cultivated plants, are, in the main, identical in kind with those required to make their seeds. The proportions, however, differ very considerably. Thus, while 100 parts of the ash of wheat contain an average of 45 parts of phosphoric acid, 100 of the ash of the wheat straw contain an average of only 5 parts. The difference is as 9 to 1. In magnesia the disparity is only a little less striking. In what are called the organic elements of wheat (the combustible part) there are seven times more nitrogen in 100 pounds than in a like weight of straw. Hence, if the farmer converts straw into manure or compost, with the view ultimately of transforming it into wheat, it will take 7 pounds of straw to yield nitrogen enough to form one pound of wheat. Few are aware how much labor and money is annually lost by the feeding of plants on food not strictly adapted to the peculiar wants of nature in organizing the same. It is true, that most farmers depend on the natural fertility of the soil to nourish their crops, with perhaps the aid of a little stable and barn-yard manure, given to a part of them. As the natural resources of the land begin to fail, the supply must be drawn from other quarters than an exhausted field, or its cultivator will receive a poor return for the labor bestowed. In Great Britain, where the necessity for liberal harvests and artificial fertilizing is far greater than in this country, the yield of wheat is said to be governed in a good degree by the amount of ammonia available as food for growing plants. This opinion is founded not at all on theory, but altogether on the teachings of experience. But in England, limeing and manuring are so much matters of constant practice, that few soils are so improverished as many are in the United States, With land as naked and sterile as is much that can be found in the whole thirteen colonies between Maine and Alabama, English farmers could hardly pay their tithes and poor rates, to say nothing of other taxes, rent, and the coat of producing their annual crops. The first step towards making farming permanently profitable in all the older States, is to accumulate in a cheap and skilful manner the raw material for good harvests in the soil. Over a territory so extensive as the United States, it is extremely difficult to lay down any rule that will be applicable even to a moiety of the republic. There are, however, many beds of marl, greensand, gypsum, limestone, saline and vegetable deposits available for the improvement of farming lands, in the Union. In addition to these, there are extraneous resources, the ocean with its fish, its shells, its sea-weeds, and its fertilizing salts, which will yield an incalculable amount of bread and meat. In the subsoil and the atmosphere, every agriculturist has resources which are not duly appreciated by one in a thousand. As a general rule, the soil must be _deepened_ before it can be permanently improved. One acre of soil 12 inches deep is worth more to make money from, by cultivating it, than four acres 6 inches in depth. Thus, admit that a soil 6 inches deep will produce 14 bushels of wheat, and that 12 bushels will pay all expenses and give 2 for profit. Four acres of this land will yield a net income of only 8 bushels. Now double the depth of the soil and the crop: making the latter 28 bushels, instead of 14 per acre, and the former 12 inches deep, in the place of 6. Fifteen bushels instead of twelve, will now pay all annual expenses, and leave a net profit not of _two_ but of _thirteen_ bushels per acre. If small crops will pay expenses, large ones will make a fortune; provided the farmer knows how to enrich his land in the most economical way. It is quite as easy to pay too dear for improving lands, as to lose money at any other business whatever. The first thing for the operator to do is to acquire all the knowledge within his reach, from the experience of others who have done for their soils what he proposes to accomplish for his. Twenty or fifty dollars, invested in the best agricultural works in the English language, may save him thousands in the end, and double his profits in two years. The Agricultural Journals of the United States abound in information most useful to the practical farmer: and the back volumes, if collected and bound, will form a library of great value. _Rotation of Crops in connexion with Wheat Culture_.--A system of tillage and rotation which will pay best in one locality, or on one quality of soil, and in a particular climate, will be found not at all adapted to other localities, different soils and latitudes. Hence, no rule can be laid down that will meet the peculiar exigencies of a farming country so extensive as the thirty States east of the Rocky Mountains. There are soils in Western New York, known to the writer, which have borne good crops of wheat every other year for more than twenty years, and produce better now than at the beginning of their cultivation. The resources of the earth in supplying the elements of wheat and corn are extremely variable. There are friable shaley rocks in Livingstone county, N.Y., which crumble and slake when exposed to the air, that abound in all the earthy minerals necessary to form good wheat. These rocks are hundreds of feet in thickness, and have furnished much of the soil in the valley of the Genesee. The Onondaga Salt Group, and other contiguous strata, which extend into Canada West, form soils of extraordinary capacity for growing wheat. Indeed, the rocks and "drift" of a district give character to its arable surface. Nothing is more needed at this time than a good geological map of the United States, accompanied by an accurate and popularly arranged work on agricultural geology. The writer had hoped to give such a map in this report; but it is thought best to devote another year to the collection of geological surveys and facts, and to the making of more critical and extended researches before publishing. In the matter of rotation of crops in connection with wheat culture, clover and corn are generally preferred in all the Northern, and most of the Middle States. In New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Wisconsin, Northern Indiana, and Illinois, so far as the writer is acquainted, a crop of wheat is made in rotation, either every third, fourth, or fifth year. Wherever wool growing is united with wheat culture, clover and wheat are the staple crops of the farm. Wool and superfine flour are exported; farmers taking nearly all the bran and shorts of the millers who purchase their wheat. The offal of wheat makes not a little feed with chaff and cut straw. Many agriculturists grow peas, beans, turnips, beets, and carrots in large quantities, as well as clover, corn, oats, and barley. Peas and beans, both stems and pulse, when well cured, are excellent feed for sheep; and on good land they are easily grown. They prepare the soil well for wheat. All the manure derived from sheep is husbanded with extreme care by the farmers who are gradually enriching their lands. On a deep, rich, arable soil, quite a number of sheep may be kept per acre, if highly cultivated; and their manure prepares the land for producing generous crops of wheat at a small expense. Of all business men, farmers should be the closest calculators of _profit_ and _loss_. Great care should be taken to sow good and clean seed on clean land. Previous to putting the seed in the ground (drilling is preferable to sowing broadcast), wheat should be soaked five or six hours--not longer--in strong brine. After this, add a peck or more of recently slaked lime to each bushel, and shovel it over well, that the lime may cover each seed. It is now ready to commit to the earth. Most good farmers roll the earth after seeding: some before. In the Southern States, planters are in the habit of permitting their wheat to remain too long in the field after it is cradled, and in small shocks. Good barns are too scarce in all the planting States, and in some others. _Summer fallowing_ is generally abandoned, except in cases where old pastures and meadows, new prairie, or bushy bad fields are to be subdued. As a general rule, friable soils need not be ploughed long before the intended crop is expected to begin to grow. Among fertilizers, wood ashes, salt, bones, lime, guano, and poudrette have been used in wheat culture with decided advantage. In Great Britain, manure derived from the consumption of turnips and other root crops by sheep and neat cattle, is much used in preparing land for wheat. Sheep, clover and peas, corn and hogs, rotate well to insure the economical production of this staple. Manure is usually applied to the crop preceding wheat. It may be interesting to some readers to see in this place the mean result of several organic analyses of wheat made by M. Boussingault. Wheat, dried at 230 deg. _in vacuo_, was found to contain: Carbon 46.1 Oxygen 43.4 Hydrogen 5.8 Nitrogen 2.3 Ash 2.4 ----- Total 100.0 Charcoal may be regarded as a fair representative of carbon, and water as the representative of both oxygen and hydrogen. It will be seen by the above figures, that over 95 per cent. of wheat is made up of elements which greatly abound in nature in an available condition; and the same is true of all other plants. It is doubtless owing to this circumstance, that a comparatively small quantity of guano and other highly concentrated fertilizers are able to produce crops five, ten, and fifty times greater than their own weight. Azote, or nitrogen, in the form of ammonia, or nitric acid, (aqua fortis), and the incombustible part of plants are the elements which least abound in soils, and should be husbanded with the greatest care. The Hon. C.P. Holcomb, of Delaware, furnishes some interesting remarks on the wheat crop of the United States:-- A short wheat crop in England, Mr. Webster says, affects the exchanges of the civilized world. In the vast increase of population in the absence of long wars and famines, the importance of this staple is constantly increasing. Its cultivation is the most attractive and pleasant of all descriptions of husbandry; and its rewards are generally remunerating, when the soil and climate are favorable, and the markets are not too distant. It is important to know what our relation is to this staple of the world, and what is, and what is likely to be, our contribution to the great aggregate of production. Beyond feeding our own great and rapidly increasing population, it probably will not soon, if ever, be very great. It is a mistake, I apprehend, to suppose our country is naturally a great wheat-producing country. The wheat district at present, in comparison to the whole extent of our territory, is limited. It is confined, so far as any appreciable amount is grown, to about ten degrees of latitude and twenty degrees of longitude, and embracing about one half the number of the States. The crop of 1848 is estimated by the Commissioner of Patents at one hundred and twenty-six millions, and our population at twenty-two millions. This gives a less number of bushels, per head, to our population than the consumption of Great Britain, which is generally set down at one hundred and sixty millions, or six bushels to each inhabitant. But with us Indian corn is a great substitute; so are potatoes and oats in Ireland and Scotland. Still our consumption of wheat, including the black population, is undoubtedly less, per head, than theirs. But in the absence of any certain data, to ascertain either the actual production, or our consumption, our only safe course is to take the actual excess, or the amount exported, after supplying our own wants. This, for the fiscal year 1848, being the crop of 1847, amounted, in flour and wheat, to twelve millions two hundred and ninety-four thousand one hundred and seventy-five bushels, although Mr. Burke's figures would show a surplus of some forty millions! That there was not, and never has been any such surplus in the country is very evident, for the foreign demand was all the time good, and drew away all we had to part with. The crop of 1848 was, undoubtedly, one of the best and largest we have ever grown; yet I have ascertained, by application at the registrar's office, that the exports for the fiscal year 1842, amounted in wheat to but 1,527,534 bushels, and in flour to 2,108,013 barrels, or less by 226,676 bushels than the exports of 1848. Twelve millions is comparatively a small surplus in a favorable season, for a country with a population of twenty-two millions of inhabitants. The loss of a small per cent. in an unfavorable season would at once sink this excess. Let us now notice more in detail the different sections of our country as adapted to the growth of wheat. The New England States, some of them aided in their recent enterprises by bounties offered by the state governments, have failed to insure such success as is likely to encourage them to continue the culture of wheat; or, at all events, to induce them to aim at increasing their product to any considerable extent, since, as one of their own farmers candidly states, "the attempt to grow a crop of wheat is an experiment." The States south of North Carolina, and inclusive of a part of Delaware, have never heretofore succeeded in growing wheat to any considerable extent, though there were periods in their history--before the general introduction of the culture of cotton--when, if it had been practicable to make the cereal one of their staples, they would certainly have done so. Besides the common dangers from rust and blight, the fly, and sometimes the frost--as the past season--they have a most formidable enemy in the weevil. In Upper Georgia, in the Cherokee country in particular, wheat will probably be cultivated to some extent, and a limited cultivation of it by the planters for their own use will probably continue in several of the southern states. But the cotton, rice, and sugar states, like the manufacturing states of New England, will not soon, if ever, add much to the supply of wheat; the rich staples of the former, and the varied husbandry and grazing of the latter, suited to supply the immediate wants of a manufacturing population, will be likely to receive their attention in preference. Kentucky and Tennessee, though their agricultural history dates back beyond the settlement of the north-western states, have already been out-stripped by at least two of them. In neither of these states has the culture of wheat ever been put forward, and regarded as one of their best staples, or as very favorably adapted to their soil and climate. Still, notwithstanding the formidable danger from rust, the production of Tennessee is estimated to be equal to nine bushels to each person, and Kentucky about seven and a half bushels. Missouri may be classed with Kentucky and Tennessee, which she much resembles in soil, climate, and productions, except that she raises much less wheat than either, her crop being placed by the Commissioner of Patents at only two millions, or less than four bushels to each resident of the state. But, besides that the experience of the past discourages the idea that these fine states are likely to become great wheat-producing states, the fact that the staple of cotton may be cultivated over a considerable portion of one of them, and that hemp and tobacco are among the valuable products of the other two; that Tennessee is the very largest corn-producing state in the Union, showing her soil and climate are particularly adapted to this description of grain, and that Kentucky and Missouri are unsurpassed as grazing countries, and there is little ground to suppose that any change in their husbandry will very greatly or suddenly augment the production of wheat. Let us come now to the States of Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa, and that _fabulous_ wheat district or territory to the west of these again, from which, according to the vaticinations of some, may be drawn supplies of wheat to feed the population of both Europe and America, or fill warehouses that would sustain our people through a longer famine than that which afflicted the people of Egypt! I cannot help thinking that, to some extent, this generally fertile district of country has, so far as the production of wheat is concerned, been "shouted forth in acclamations hyperbolical." My own impression in regard to it is, including the states last named, derived in part from observation, from intercourse and correspondence with intelligent agriculturists of these states, and from a careful examination of a geological survey of two of them, that the soil and climate of this whole district of country are _not_ particularly favorable to the production of wheat. The popular idea I know to be otherwise. I am not going to dwell upon it, or to examine the subject at any length. There is a single remark that may help to explain the reputation that has gone abroad in reference to the wheat-producing qualities of these lands. The prairie sod, when first broken up, generally produces wheat well, often most abundantly, provided it escapes the rust, insect, &c. But, when this ground has been much furrowed, becomes completely pulverized by exposure to the atmosphere, the light and friable mould, of which most of it is composed, drenched, as a good deal of it is, at times, with surface water, fails to hold or sustain the roots of the plant, it is thrown out, or winter-killed; and "winter-killed," "winter-killed," "winter-killed," we all know, is among the catalogue of disasters that almost annually reach us. Sometimes, when escaping the winter, the high winds of spring blow this light soil from the roots, exposing them to such an extent, that, in a dry time in particular, the wheat often perishes. When breaking up fresh prairies, there was much encouragement and promise of hope, but which, I believe, has not been, nor is likely to be, realized by their husbandmen, in the degree that early experiments induced them to look for. As appears by the last report of the Commissioner of Patents, the crop of Illinois, in reference to population and production, is below that of Kentucky, and both Indiana and Illinois are below that of Tennessee. The crop of Indiana is set down at 8,300,000, her population at 1,000,000, or equal to 8½ bushels a-head. The production of Illinois is stated at 5,400,000, her population at 800,000, or less than seven bushels to each inhabitant--and both these "fair and fertile plains" are still farther behind the old "battered moors" of Maryland and Virginia. Much of their wheat, too, is spring wheat, sown often on land where the fall crop had winter-killed, increasing the number of bushels much more than the value of the crop. I have heard it estimated that full one-third of all the wheat shipped from Chicago was of this description. Chicago is their great wheat depot. Several millions of bushels are shipped from this point, _the contributions from parts of three States_, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Illinois; and which concentration of their joint product at this new western city, or something else, seems to have imparted to each and all these states the reputation of great wheat-growing states, though they are, in fact, with the advantage of a virgin soil, behind several of the western states, and two at least of the eastern or Atlantic States. The geological explorations of the Hon. Robert Dale Owen, undertaken under the authority of Congress, throws much light on the character of the soil of Wisconsin and Iowa, and the description given undoubtedly characterizes much of that region of country. The specific gravity of the soil, Mr. Owen states to be remarkably _light_; but what he represents to be a "striking feature in the character of the Iowa and Wisconsin soils, is the _entire absence, in the most of the specimens of clay, and in a large proportion of silex_." Again, he speaks of their being particularly adapted to the growth of the sugar-beet, which he truly says, "flourishes best in a _loose fertile mould_." Again, he detected no phosphates; but they might be there, as the _virgin_ soil produced good wheat. So does the virgin soil of most of the prairie land.--"The soil was rich in geine," &c. But I submit that this does not describe a wheat soil, hardly in any one particular. Liebig tells us, that "however great the proportion of _humus_ in a soil, it does not necessarily follow it will produce wheat"--and cites the country of Brazil. Again, he adds, "how does it happen that wheat does not flourish on a sandy soil (which much of the soil of these states is described to be), and that a calcareous soil is also unsuitable to its growth, unless it be mixed with a considerable quantity of clay?" The late Mr. Colman, in his _European Agriculture_, states, that "the soil preferred for wheat (in England) is a strong soil with a large proportion of clay. But the question after all is, not whether these States cannot grow wheat, and in comparatively large quantities, for we know that while their lands are fresh, they can and do--but whether, considering the hazard of the crop from winter-killing, the rust, the fly--the risk from the two former being equal to a large per cent. premium of insurance, they are not likely to find their interest in grazing, in raising and feeding stock, instead of attempting to extend their wheat husbandry. Lord Brougham has said, that grazing countries are always the most prosperous, and their population the most contented and happy. The meat markets of Great Britain are likely to prove better and more stable for us, than their grain markets. The Hon. Henry L. Ellsworth, a distinguished citizen, and large farmer of Indiana--distinguished throughout the Union for his zeal in the cause of agriculture--thus expresses himself on this subject: "After a full consideration of the subject, I am satisfied that stock-raising at the West is much more profitable than raising grain. Indeed, an examination of the north-western States shows a vast difference in the wealth of the grazier over those who crop with grain. The profits of wheat appear well in expectation on paper, but the prospect is blasted by a severe winter, appearance of insects, bad weather in harvesting, in threshing, for there are but few barns at the West, or transporting to market, or last, a fluctuation in the market itself." Such is the opinion of Mr. Ellsworth, the result of observation and experience, himself largely interested in ascertaining the safest and surest course to be pursued. The destiny he has indicated for this beautiful fertile region of country, will undoubtedly be fulfilled; it will become a great pastoral, stock-raising, and stock-feeding country. Ohio stands now, as she did at the census of 1840, at the head of all the wheat States, in the aggregate of production; her crop of 1848 being estimated at 20,000,000, which is about equal to 10½ bushels per head of her population. The geological survey of this State, and the character of the soil, as described in the Reports of the Board of Agriculture, in a large range of her counties, as a "clayey soil," "clayey loam," "clay subsoil," &c., shows Ohio to possess a fine natural wheat soil, if indeed, alter thirty years of a generally successful wheat husbandry, such additional testimony or confirmation was necessary. Michigan has also been successful in the cultivation of wheat. Her burr-oak openings are unsurpassed in producing wheat. They are intervening ridges between low grounds, or marshes and bodies of water, and their location not generally considered very healthy. A doubt has also been suggested as to whether this soil, being a clayey loam, resting on a sandy and gravelly subsoil, is likely to wear as well as some other portions of the fertile soil of the State. The Commissioner of Patents puts her crop for 1848 at 10,000,000 of bushels, which is equal to 23½ bushels to each inhabitant! By the census of 1840, the population of Michigan was 212,267; number of bushels of wheat, 2,157,108. Her population in 1848 is estimated at 412,000. While she has barely doubled her population, she has, according to the above estimate, more than _quadrupled_ her production of wheat--increased it at the rate of about one million bushels a year for eight consecutive years, making the quantity she grows to each head of her population _more than double_ that of any State in the Union. We can at least say, and appeal to the past history of the country to show it, that for a period of more than one hundred years, the supply of the Atlantic wheat States has generally been constant, and for the most part abundant. They have furnished the "staff of life" to several generations of men, and cotemporary with it, an annual amount for export, that materially assisted in regulating the exchanges of the country. England requires for her own consumption, upon the average of years, somewhere about 32,000,000 bushels of wheat more than she produces. The average annual entries of foreign wheat for consumption in the United Kingdom, for the sixteen years ending with 1845, were about nine and a half million bushels. Inasmuch as the average number of acres in wheat crop were in 1846 about 4,600,000, the average produce 142,200,000 bushels, or over 30 bushels to the acre--an improvement in the harvest to the extent of two bushels per acre, will destroy the demand, and a deficiency to that extent will double it. Now as there is an available surplus at the neighbouring ports in Europe, in the Baltic and the Black Sea, of about 18,000,000 of bushels only, whenever there is a demand for home consumption, for, say 20,000,000 bushels, as was the case in each of the five years from 1838 to 1843, larger shipments from America will take place; but whenever there are good harvests, as in the six years from 1831 to 1837, in which the deficiency only ranged from 230,000 to 1,000,000 bushels, the trade is not worth notice. It must be remarked, however, that in a country like Britain, where capital is abundant, consumption great, speculation rife, the harvest so uncertain, and the stake so great that a cloudy day transfers thousands from one broker to another, the importation cannot be closely assimilated to the actual wants of the country. The ordinary yield of grain in the United Kingdom after deductions for seed, is about 400,000,000 bushels, and as nearly 100,000,000 bushels of grain and meal were imported in 1847, there must have been a general deficiency of nearly twenty-five per cent. In the "Statistics of the British Empire," the average extent of land under grain culture, &c., in 1840, was estimated as follows:-- ENGLAND AND WALES. Produce per Acre. Total Produce. Wheat 3,800,000 3¼ quarters. 12,350,000 Barley and rye. 900,000 4 " 3,600,000 Oats and beans. 3,000,000 4½ " 13,500,000 SCOTLAND. Wheat 220,000 3 660,000 Barley 280,000 3½ 980,000 Oats 1,275,000 4½ 5,737,500 In Scotland, ten years ago, 150,000 acres were reckoned to be under cultivation with wheat, 300,000 with barley, and 1,300,000 with oats, which is the great crop and chief food of the people. Mr. Braithwaite Poole, in his "Statistics of British Commerce," 1852, states--"The annual average production of all sorts of corn in the United Kingdom has been estimated by competent parties at rather more than 60,000,000 quarters, and £80,000,000 in value; but in the absence of general official returns, we cannot vouch for its accuracy, although, from various comparisons, there are reasonable grounds for assuming this calculation to be as nearly correct as possible. Some persons in the corn trade imagine the aggregate production to approach almost 80,000,000 quarters; but I cannot find any data extant to warrant such an extended assumption." The estimated produce of wheat, in quarters, and acreage, he states as follows:-- Quarters. Acreage. England 15,200,000 3,800,000 Ireland 1,800,000 600,000 Scotland 1,225,000 350,000 ---------- --------- Total 15,225,000 4,750,000 The average price of wheat per quarter in the last thirteen years, in England and Wales, has been as follows:-- s. d. 1840 66 4 1841 64 4 1842 57 3 1843 50 1 1844 51 3 1845 50 10 1846 54 8 1847 69 9 1848 50 6 1849 44 3 1850 40 4 1851 38 7 1852 41 0 The best wheat, as well as the greatest quantity, is raised in the midland counties. From two and a half to three Winchester bushels per acre are required for seed, and the average produce varies from twenty-two to thirty-two bushels per acre. THE CONTINENT. The quantity of wheat raised in France in 1835 was 71,697,484 hectolitres, of which eleven millions was required for seed. The average produce per hectare was stated at thirteen and a half hectolitres. The total grain and pulse raised in that year was set down at 204,165,194 hectolitres. Hectolitres. Maslin 12,281,020 Barley 18,184,316 Rye 32,999,950 Buckwheat 5,175,933 Maize and Millet 6,951,179 Oats 49,460,057 Peas and Beans 3,318,691 Oats, next to wheat is the largest crop grown in France, for the support of two million horses and three and a half million mules and asses. According to the "Annuaire de l'Economie Politique de la Statistique," there were 13,900,000 hectares (each about 2½ acres) under cultivation with the cereals in France. The primary article of consumption is wheat. At the rate of three hectolitres (1 qr. ¼ bush.) to each individual, every family would require thirteen to fourteen hectolitres, costing 210 to 280 francs (£8 15s. to £11 10s.) according as the price varies, between its present value fifteen francs, and its occasional cost twenty francs. In the reign of Louis XVI, Arthur Young referred with horror to the black bread eaten by the French. Since that time half a century has passed, and whilst the agricultural produce in France has tripled in value, the labourers who produce it continue, from custom and necessity, to eat a detestable bread made from rye, barley, or peas and potatoes; and, to make the matter still worse, it is badly baked, without yeast, and being sometimes kept for weeks, it becomes covered with mould, and altogether presents an appearance enough to turn the stomach of a savage. According to Mr. McGregor's estimate some ten or twelve years ago, the land under wheat culture was 13,808,171 acres, producing 191,000,000 bushels; and 11,715 acres with spelt, or red wheat, the yield of which was 374,000 bushels. The other crops were-- Acres Crops, bushels Maslin 2,251,438 32,000,000 Rye 6,369,879 76,000,000 Barley 2,936,453 45,000,000 Oats 7,416,297 134,000,000 Maize 1,561,372 20,000,000 Wheat and oats are grown all over Russia, which is the greatest corn land in the world. In Austrian Italy the yield of grain has been reckoned at three million quarters, but this seems rather low. About one-half of this is maize and rye, and a quarter wheat. It is reckoned that eight million quarters of grain are raised yearly in Denmark, but this seems doubtful. In 1839, a million quarters of grain, however, were shipped from that kingdom. BRITISH AMERICAN PROVINCES. According to the census return of 1852, the number of acres under grain crops, and the produce in Canada, were as follows:-- Lower Canada--Produce. Upper Canada--Produce. Acres. Bushels. Acres. Bushels. Lower Canada--Produce Upper Canada--Produce Acres Bushels Acres Bushels Wheat 427,111 3,075,868 782,115 12,692,852 Barley 42,927 668,626 29,916 625,875 Rye 46,007 341,443 38,968 479,651 Oats 540,422 8,967,594 421,684 11,193,844 Buckwheat 51,781 530,417 44,265 639,381 Maize 22,669 400,287 70,571 1,666,513 Flour may be valued at 21s. the barrel. The grain crops in Lower Canada are taken in the minot, and not in the bushel, except in the townships. In like manner, the acres are taken in arpents. An arpent is about one-seventh less than an acre; and a minot about one-eighth (some say one-twelfth) more than a bushel. During the years 1850-1, Western Canada exported upwards of two million barrels of flour, and three million bushels of wheat, being equivalent to 13,600,000 bushels of wheat. The value of the wheat and flour exported in 1851 was £404,033. Canadian flour, like that of Genessee, is of very superior quality. WHEAT.--UPPER CANADA. Bushels. To each inhabitant. Wheat crop of 1841 was 3,221,991 or 6.60 Do. 1847 7,558,773 " 10.45 Do. 1849 9,706,082 " 12.08 Do. 1851 12,692,852 " 13.33 The quantity of land under wheat in "Upper Canada was 782,115 acres, showing a yield of about sixteen and three quarter bushels to the acre. The wheat produced in 1852 was valued at nearly two million pounds sterling. LOWER CANADA. Minots. Wheat crop in 1843 was 942,835 or 1.36 Do. 1851 3,075,868 " 3.46 UNITED STATES. Bushels. Wheat crop in 1839 was 84,832,272 or 4.96 Estimated by patent office 1847 114,245,500 " 5.50 Crop of wheat 1849 100,684,627 " 4.33 In order, however, to institute a fairer comparison, I will divide the States into three classes, viz.:--1st. States growing over six million bushels. Bushels. Population. Bush, per head. Pennsylvania 15,367,691 2,311,736 6.65 Ohio 14,487,351 1,980,408 7.32 New York 13,131,498 4,148,182 3.16 Virginia 11,232,616 1,421,661 7.90 Illinois 9,414,575 851,471 11.06 Indiana 6,214,458 988,416 6.28 ---------- ---------- ----- Total 69,847,189 11,701,924 5.97 2nd. States growing over one million and less than six million bushels. Bushels. Population. Bush, per head. Michigan 4,925,889 397,654 12.39 Wisconsin 4,286,131 305,191 14.04 Maryland 4,494,681 583,031 7.71 Missouri 2,981,652 682,043 4.38 Kentucky 2,140,822 982,405 2.15 North Carolina 2,130,102 868,903 2.45 Tennessee 1,619,381 1,002,525 1.61 New Jersey 1,601,190 481,555 3.27 Iowa 1,530,581 192,214 7.96 Georgia 1,088,534 905,999 1.21 South Carolina 1,066,277 668,507 1.60 ---------- --------- ---- Total 27,865,240 7,078,131 3.93 3rd. The remaining States and territories. 2,791,470 4,466,246 0.63 Total wheat crop in the United States, 100,503,899 bushels. Population, 23,246,301. Bushels per head, 4.33. Increase:--U. States, 1839 84,823,272 bushels " 1849 100,503,896 " ----------- 15,680,627 Or 18.49 per cent. in ten years. Upper Canada, 1841 3,221,991 " " 1851 12,692,825 " ---------- 9,470,861 Or nearly quadrupling itself in ten years. Bushels. Population. Bush. per head. Pr. Ed. Island 1847 219,787 62,678 3.50 Newfoundland 1850 297,157 276,117 1.08 New Brunswick 1850 206,635 193,800 1.06 The Eastern States in 1849 raised 1,090,896 bushels. Population 2,668,106, or 0.41 each. The population of Upper Canada is 952,904, and allowing five bushels for each, 4,760,020 bushels; and for seed at one and a half bushels per acre 1,173,173 bushels = 5,933,193; leaves for export 6,761,668 bushels. More than sufficient to supply the consumption of the whole of the Eastern States. "Were the population of Lower Canada to consume flour at the given rate, it would require-- Bushels. 890,261 at five bushels each 4,451,305 Seed 640,000 --------- 5,091,305 Grown 3,075,868 --------- 2,015,437 Leaving a surplus of wheat in Canada 4,746,231 bushels, or at four and a half bushels for each, equal to 1,054,718 barrels of flour. Professor Johnston in his report on New Brunswick, furnishes some valuable information as to the produce there. The following table of average weights indicates a capacity in the soil and climate to produce grain of a very superior quality:-- ----------------+-------+--------+------+-----+-------+------- | | | | | Buck- | COUNTIES | Wheat | Barley | Oats | Rye | Wheat | Maize ----------------+-------+--------+------+-----+-------+------- Saint John |61 | -- |41 | -- | 50 | -- Westmoreland |60 | 48 |35½ | -- | 48 | 59 Albert |58 | 50 |34¾ | 50 | 45 | -- Charlotte |59 | 45 |39 | -- | 57 | 59 King's |59½ | 48 |37 | -- | 48 | 60 Queen's |58½ | 50 |36½ | 53 | 43 | 61 Sunbury |57 | 55 |38 | 53 | 47 | 57 York |63 | 50 |38 | -- | 51 | 60 Carleton |64 | -- |38 | -- | 52 | 65 Kent |63 | -- |37 | -- | 50 | -- Northumberland |62 | 53 |37 | -- | 45 | 57 Gloucester |63 | 51 |39 | -- | -- | -- Restigouche |63 | 48 |42 | -- | -- | -- ----------------+-------+--------+------+-----+-------+------ The general average weights for the whole Province are, for Wheat 60 11-13 lbs. Barley 50 " Oats 38 " Rye 52½ " Buckwheat 48 8-11 " Indian Corn 59½ " Potatoes 63 " Turnips 66 " Carrots 63 " The annexed statement shows not only the average yield per acre of each description of crop, but affords an opportunity of contrasting it with the like products in the State of New York:-- AVERAGE PRODUCE PER IMPERIAL ACRE. New Brunswick State of New York Bushels Bushels Wheat 20 14 Barley 29 16 Oats 34 26 Rye 20½ 9½ Buckwheat 33¾ 14 Indian Corn 41¾ 25 Potatoes 226 90 Turnips 460 88 Hay 1¾ -- A possibility of error in striking the averages is suggested in the report; and to guard against it the following statement of the averages derived from the minimum returns is given, viz.:--Wheat 17¾ bushels; Barley, 27; Oats, 33; Buckwheat, 28; Rye, 18; Indian Corn, 36½; Potatoes, 204; Turnips, 389. The diminished averages scarcely affect the question of productiveness, as in every particular they exceed the averages for the favored Genesee Valley and the southern shores of Lake Ontario. While the productiveness of the soil is thus proven by the statements of most experienced farmers, the average prices appear to be equally favorable to the Provincial growers. The following tables of averages set this in a clear point of view:-- AVERAGE PRICES OF GRAIN PER BUSHEL AND PER QUARTER. Per Bushel Per Quarter Wheat 7s. 6d. 60s. 0d. Barley 4 2½ 33 8 Oats 2 0 16 0 Rye 4 10 38 8 Buckwheat 3 9 30 0 Indian Corn 4 8 37 4 ROOT CROPS AND HAY. Potatoes 1s. 11d. per bushel. Turnips 1 2 " Eng. Hay 49 0 per ton. Carrots 2 5 per bushel. Man. Wurtzel 2 1 " Marsh Hay 20 0 per ton. AVERAGE MONEY VALUE OF AN ACRE OF EACH CROP. New Brunswick Canada West State of Ohio Wheat £ 6 13 0 £2 4 7 £2 19 0 Barley 5 13 7½ 1 19 4½ 2 4 0 Oats 6 3 6 1 11 0 1 13 9 Rye 4 7 0 1 5 10½ 1 12 4 Buckwheat 5 5 0 3 5 0 1 16 3 Indian Corn 8 10 4 2 14 4½ 2 15 0 Potatoes 19 11 0 6 6 0 6 9 4½ On a review of the foregoing and other tables, Professor Johnston has drawn the following conclusions:-- "That grain and roots generally can be raised more cheaply in the Province of New Brunswick than in New York, Ohio, or Upper Canada; and that the Province ought to be able to compete with those countries and drive them from its home markets." Such are the deductions of a skilful and scientific, practical and theoretical agriculturist, from the statements furnished by the most enterprising and successful of our colonists. Nevertheless, I cannot conceal a doubt whether all the elements of comparison have been duly weighed. The result, especially as regards wheat, is so contrary to pre-conceived opinions, that further investigations should be made. Is it not possible that, while an equality of expense in preparing the land for a wheat crop appears to have been assumed, the great care and expense necessary in New Brunswick to prepare the land, and an occasional succession of minimum returns would, to a very considerable extent, account for the supposed discrepancy? Wheat has, from time immemorial, been a staple crop in the plains of Northern India, and especially in the Punjaub. The climate and soil are well fitted for this cereal, but owing to defects and carelessness in the agriculture and harvesting, the crops, though excellent, fall short of what most corn-growing countries produce. Further--owing to foul boats and granaries, and to the moist heat of the months immediately succeeding harvest, the wheat reaches England in a state too dirty and weevelled for market. The hard wheat is preferred by the natives in India to the soft, probably for no better cause than that the hardness of the grain more closely resembles their favorite food, rice. BARLEY. Oats, rye and barley, are the staple crops of northern and mountainous Europe and Asia. In England barley is grown principally in the eastern and some of the midland counties, and chiefly for malting. It is most extensively cultivated in the Himalaya and Thibet, replacing in many districts the wheat, and producing an admirable flour. Since the establishment of the studs at Buxar, Ghazepore, &c., oats have been extensively cultivated. It is a winter crop. Although believed to have been indigenous to the countries bordering on the torrid zone, this grain possesses the remarkable flexibility of maturing in favorable seasons and situations on the eastern continent as far north as 70 deg., and flourishes well in lat. 42 deg. south. Along the Atlantic side of the continent of America, its growth is restricted to the tract lying between the 30th and 50th parallels of north latitude, and between 30 and 40 deg. south. Near the westerly coast, its range lies principally between latitude 20 and 62 deg. north. The barley chiefly cultivated in the United States is the two-rowed variety which is generally preferred from the fulness of its grain and its freedom from smut. Barley has never been much imported from that country, as the Americans have been rather consumers than producers. The consumption of barley there in 1850 in the manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors amounted to 3,780,000 bushels, and according to the census returns, the quantity of barley raised was 4,161,504 bushels in 1840, and 5,167,213 bushels in 1850. In this country barley is extensively used for malting, distilling, and making beer; large quantities are consumed in Scotland, or carried into England. In Prussia, about ten and a half million hectolitres of barley are annually raised. In the Canary Isles, about 354,000 bushels are annually exported. In Van Diemen's Land in 1844, 174,405 bushels of barley were grown on 12,466 acres. The quantity of barley made into malt in the United Kingdom in the year ending 10th October, 1850, was 5,183,617 quarters, of which about four million quarters were used by 8,500 maltsters. The quantity of malt charged with duty in the year ending 5th January, 1851, was 636,641 tons; the average price per quarter, 26s. 2d. Barley is at present extensively cultivated in the temperate districts and islands of Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. In Spain, Sicily, the Canaries, Azores and Madeira, two crops are produced in a year. In North America its growth is principally confined to Mexico, the middle, western, and northern States of the Union, and to the British North American provinces. The introduction of barley into the American colonies may be traced back to the period of their settlement. By the year 1648 it was raised in abundance in Virginia, but soon after its culture was suffered to decline, in consequence of the more profitable and increased production of tobacco. It has also been sparingly cultivated in the regions of the middle and northern States for malting and distillation, and has been employed, after being malted, as a substitute for rice. Barley, like wheat, has been cultivated in Syria and Egypt for more than 3,000 years, and it was not until after the Romans adopted the use of wheaten bread, that they fed their stock with this grain. It is evidently a native of a warm climate, as it is known to be the most productive in a mild season, and will grow within the tropics at an elevation of 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is one of the staple crops of northern and mountainous Europe and Asia. It is the corn that, next to rice, gives the greatest weight of flour per acre, and it may be eaten with no other preparation than that of boiling. It requires little or no dressing when it is sent to the mill, having no husk, and consequently produces no bran. In this country barley is chiefly used for malting and distilling purposes. In the year 1850, 40,745,050 bushels of malt paid duty, the number of maltsters in the United Kingdom being from 8,000 to 9,000. About one and a half million quarters of barley were imported in 1849, and a little over a million quarters in 1850, principally from Denmark and Prussia. The counties in England where this grain is chiefly cultivated are Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Bedford, Herts, Leicester, and Nottingham. The produce of barley on land well prepared, is from thirty to fifty bushels or more per statute acre, weighing from 45 to 55 lbs. per bushel, according to quality. It is said to contain 65 per cent. of nutritive matter, while wheat contains 78 per cent. The estimated average produce of barley in this country may be stated as follows:-- Acres. Crop. England 1,500,000 6,375,000 Ireland 320,000 1,120,000 Scotland 450,000 1,800,000 -------- ----------- 2,270,000 9,295,000 The average produce per acre, in the United Kingdom, is 4¼ quarters in England, 3½ in Ireland, and 4 in Scotland. The prices of barley per quarter have ranged, in England, from 36s. 5d. in 1840, to 27s. 6d. in 1842. In 1847 barley reached 44s. 2d., and gradually declined to 23s. 5d, in 1850. OATS. Oats are principally in demand for horses, and the extraordinary increase of the latter has occasioned a proportional increase in the culture of oats. They are grown more especially in the north and north-eastern counties; in the midland counties their culture is less extensive, but it is prevalent throughout most parts of Wales. Nearly twice as much oats as wheat is raised in the United Kingdom, but the proportion grown in Scotland is not so large as is supposed. The following is a fair estimate of the comparative production:-- Acres. Produce. England 2,500,000 12,500,000 Ireland 2,300,000 11,600,000 Scotland 1,300,000 6,500,000 --------- --------- Total 6,100,000 30,500,000 We import annually about l¼ million quarters from foreign countries and nearly three-fourths of a million quarters from Ireland. The average produce per acre throughout the kingdom is five quarters. The price within the last 10 years has ranged from 28s. 7d. per quarter (the famine year) to 17s. 6d. The oat, when considered in connection with the artificial grasses, and the nourishment and improvement it affords to live stock, may be regarded as one of the most important crops produced. Its history is highly interesting, from the circumstance that in many portions of Europe it is formed into meal, and forms an important aliment for man; one sort, at least, has been cultivated from the days of Pliny, on account of its fitness as an article of diet for the sick. The country of its origin is somewhat uncertain, though the most common variety is said to be indigenous to the Island of Juan Fernandez. Another oat, resembling the cultivated variety, is also found growing wild in California. This plant was introduced into the North American Colonies soon after their settlement by the English. It was sown by Gosnold on the Elizabeth Islands in 1602; cultivated in Newfoundland in 1622, and in Virginia, by Berkley, prior to 1648. The oat is a hardy grain, and is suited to climates too hot and too cold either for wheat or rye. Indeed, its flexibility is so great, that it is cultivated with success in Bengal as low as latitude twenty-five degrees North, but refuses to yield profitable crops as we approach the equator. It flourishes remarkably well, when due regard is paid to the selection of varieties, throughout the inhabited parts of Europe, the northern and central portions of Asia, Australia, Southern and Northern Africa, the cultivated regions of nearly all North America, and a large portion of South America. In the United States the growth of the oat is confined principally to the Middle, Western and Northern States. The varieties cultivated are the common white, the black, the grey, the imperial, the Hopetown, the Polish, the Egyptian, and the potato oat. The yield of the common varieties varies from forty to ninety bushels and upwards per acre, and weighing from twenty-five to fifty pounds to the bushel. The Egyptian oat is cultivated south of Tennessee, which after being sown in autumn, and fed off by stock in winter and spring, yields from ten to twenty bushels per acre. In the manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors oats enter but lightly, and their consumption for this purpose does not exceed 60,000 bushels annually in the United States. In 1840, Ireland exported 2,037,835 quarters of oats and oatmeal, but in 1846, on account of the dearth, the grain exports fell off completely. Most of the grain grown in Ireland requires to be kiln-dried, and is, therefore, of lower value. The oat, like rye, never has entered much into our foreign commerce, as the domestic consumption has always been nearly equal to the quantity produced. The annual average exports from the United States for several years preceding 1817, were 70,000 bushels. By the census returns of 1840, the total produce of the United States was 123,071,341 bushels; of 1850, 146,678,879 bushels. In Prussia 43 million hectolitres of oats are annually raised. The quantity of oats imported into the United Kingdom, has been declining within the last few years. In 1849, we imported 1,267,106 quarters; in 1850, 1,154,473; in 1851, 1,209,844; in 1852, 995,479. In 1844, 221,105 bushels of oats were raised in Van Diemen's Land on 13,864 acres. RYE. Rye (_Secale cereale_) is scarcely at all raised in this country for bread, except in Durham and Northumberland, where, however, it is usually mixed with wheat, and forms what is called "maslin,"--a bread corn in considerable use in the north of Europe. Geographically rye and barley associate with one another, and grow upon soils the most analogous, and in situations alike exposed. It is cultivated for bread in Northern Asia, and all over the Continent of Europe, particularly in Russia, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Germany and Holland; in the latter of which it is much employed in the manufacture of gin. It is also grown to some extent in England, Scotland and Wales. With us it is little used as an article of food compared with wheat and oats, though in the north of Europe and in Flanders it forms the principal article of human subsistence, but generally mixed with wheat, and sometimes, also with barley; 100 parts of the grain consist of 65.6 of meal, 24.2 of husk, and 10.2 of water. The quantity of rye we import seldom reaches 100,000 quarters per annum. The straw is solid, and the internal part, being, filled with pith, is highly esteemed for Dunstable work, for thatching and litter, and it is also used to stuff horse collars. In Ireland there are 21,000 acres under culture with rye, producing 105,000 quarters. In North America rye is principally restricted to the Middle and Eastern States, but its culture is giving place to more profitable crops. In Bohemia, as in most parts of Germany, rye forms the principal crop, the product being about 3,250,000 quarters annually. The three leading varieties cultivated in the United States are the spring, winter, and southern; the latter differing from the others only from dissimilarity of climate. The yield varies from 10 to 30 or more bushels per acre, weighing from 48 to 56 pounds to the bushel. The production of rye has decreased 4,457,000 bushels in the aggregate, but in New York it is greater by the last decennial census than in 1840, by about 40 per cent. Pennsylvania, which is the largest producer, has fallen off from 6,613,373 to 4,805,160 bushels. Perhaps the general diminution in the quantity of this grain now produced may be accounted for, by supposing a corresponding decline in the demand for distilling purposes, to which a larger part of the crop is applied in New York. This grain has never entered largely into its foreign commerce, as the home consumption for a long period nearly kept pace with the supply. The amount exported from the United States in 1801, was 392,276 bushels; in 1812, 82,705 bushels; in 1813, 140,136 bushels. In 1820-1 there were exported 23,523 barrels of rye flour; in 1830-1, 19,100 barrels; in 1840-1 44,031; in 1845-6, 38,530 barrels; in 1846-7, 48,892 barrels; in 1850-1, 44,152 barrels. During the year ending June 1, 1850, there were consumed of rye about 2,144,000 bushels in the manufacture of malt and spirituous liquors. According to the American census returns of 1840, the product of the country was 18,645,567 bushels; in 1850, 14,188,637 bushels. We imported 246,843 quarters of rye and rye meal, in 1849, equivalent to 49,368 tons; but in 1850 the imports were only 94,078 quarters and in 1851 they were but 26,323 quarters. About 20,000 acres are under cultivation with rye in Ireland, the produce of which is 100,000 quarters. BUCKWHEAT. Buckwheat belongs to the temperate and arctic climates, and is cultivated in Northern Europe, Asia, and America for the farinaceous albumen of its seeds, which, when properly cooked, affords a delicious article of food to a large portion of the human race. It also serves as excellent fodder to milch cows, and the straw, when cut green and converted into hay, and the ripened seeds, are food for cattle, poultry, and swine. It is raised most abundantly in Central Asia and the Himalaya. In the latter country the different varieties are grown at various elevations, between 4,000 and 12,000 feet. The finest samples exhibited in 1851 were from Canada, but some of excellent quality was also shown by the United States, Russia, and Belgium. The common variety grown in Europe is the _Polygonum fagopyrum_, and _P. emarginatum_ is grown in China and the East. In this country the produce varies from 2 to 4 quarters per acre. The quantity of seed sown is 5 to 8 pecks the acre. Vauquelin found 100 parts of its straw to contain 29.5 of carbonate of potash, 3.8 of sulphate of potash, 17.5 of carbonate of lime, 13.5 of carbonate of magnesia, 16.2 of silica, 10.5 of alum, and 9 of water. It is believed to be a native of Central Asia, as it is supposed to have been first brought to Europe in the early part of the twelfth century, at the time of the crusades for the recovery of Syria from the dominion of the Saracens; while others contend that it was introduced into Spain by the Moors, four hundred years before. The cultivation of buckwheat, in one or other of its species, is principally confined to Great Britain, France, Switzerland, Italy, Netherlands, Germany, Sweden, Russia, China, Tartary, Japan, Algeria, Canada, and the middle and northern portions of the United States. In America from 30 to 45 bushels per acre may be considered as an average yield in favorable seasons and situations, but 60 or more bushels are not unfrequently produced. According to the census returns of 1840, the annual quantity raised in the United States was 7,291,743 bushels; of 1850, 8,950,916 bushels. The average annual imports of buckwheat into this country have not exceeded 1,000 quarters, until last year (1852), when they reached 8,085 quarters. A small quantity of the meal is also annually imported. MAIZE. Maize (_Zea Mays_), is the common well-known Indian corn forming one of the most important of the grain crops, and has a greater range of temperature than the other cereal grasses. It was found cultivated for food by the Indians of both North and South America, on the first discovery of that continent, and thence derived its popular name. Maize succeeds best in the hottest and dampest parts of tropical climates. It may be reared as far as 40 degrees north and south latitude on the American continent; while in Europe it can grow even to 50 degrees or 52 degrees of latitude, some of the numerous varieties being hardy enough to ripen in the open air, in England and Ireland. It is now cultivated in all regions in the tropical and temperate zones, which are colonized by Europeans. It is most largely grown, however, about the Republics bordering on the northern shores of South America, California, the United States and Canada, the West India islands and Guiana, on the coasts of the Mediterranean, and partially in India, Africa, and Australia. We see the singular fact in Mexico of land which, after perhaps thousands of years' culture, is so little exhausted, that with a very little labor bestowed on it, a bad maize harvest will yield two hundredfold profit, while a good crop returns 600 fold. This grain adopts itself to almost every variety of climate, and is found growing luxuriantly in the low countries of tropical Mexico, and nearly equally well on the most elevated and coldest regions of the table-land; in the rich valleys of the Cordilleras or the Andes, and on the sandy heights of those mountains wherever a rill of water can be brought to nourish its roots. In short, it ripens under the sun of America, in every part of both continents. Though wheat is characterised as the most nutritious food for man in all quarters of the world, yet the Indian corn crop of the United States is not second in value to any product of the earth; cultivated in the middle and Eastern States, nay, even in the rich cotton-growing districts, Indian corn is fast rising in importance, and will soon equal in value that important commercial staple. This indigenous grain yields to the nation an annual average of five hundred millions of bushels, and has, within the last five years, attracted much attention as a life-sustaining food, more particularly at the period of Ireland's severe suffering, in 1847, and the following years. Nations, as well as statesmen and farmers, have found it an object worthy of their consideration and esteem. When due regard is paid to the selection of varieties, and cultivated in a proper soil, maize may be accounted a sure crop in almost every portion of the habitable globe, between the 44th degree of north latitude and a corresponding parallel south. Among the objects of culture in the United States, it takes precedence in the scale of cereal crops, as it is best adapted to the soil and climate, and furnishes the largest amount of nutritive food. Besides its production in the North American Republic, its extensive culture is limited to Mexico, the West Indies, most of the States of South America, France, Spain, Portugal, Lombardy, and Southern and Central Europe generally. It is, however, also cultivated with success in Northern, Southern, and Western Africa, India, China, Japan, Australia, and the Sandwich Islands, the groups of the Azores, Madeira, the Canaries, and numerous other oceanic isles. Maize is not a favorite grain as bread-corn with the European nations, for although it abounds in mucilage, it is asserted to contain less gluten, and is not likely to be much used by those who can procure wheaten flour, or even rye bread. The large importations which were made by our Government during the prevalence of the potato disease, brought it into more general use among some classes, and the imports for home consumption are still extensive, having been as follows in the last few years:-- 1848. 1849. Indian corn, quarters 1,582,755 2,249,571 " meal, cwts. 233,880 102,181 1850. 1851. Indian corn, quarters 1,286,264 1,810,425 " meal, cwts. 11,401 The trade in maize, or Indian corn, is totally new since 1846. The famine in Ireland in that year, and the potato rot in almost every successive year since, have now fully established it. Like the gold discoveries, the potato rot may be regarded as a providential means of effecting a great change in the condition of society. Those discoveries are not without their influence in the East, and, combined with the potato rot, they have rapidly increased the commerce between the East and West of Europe, while they are spreading broad paths between all Europe and the lands in the Southern Ocean. The imports of maize from all parts, in 1852, amounted to 1,550,000 quarters, of which about 1,100,000 quarters arrived in vessels from the Mediterranean, &c., calling at Queenstown or Falmouth for orders. The balance consisted of imports from America, France, Portugal, &c., and also of cargoes addressed direct to a port of discharge, without first calling off the coast for orders. The quantities received in 1851 and 1852 from the Mediterranean were as follows:-- 1852. 1851. Received from qrs. qrs. Galatz 223,000 286,067 Ibraila 362,600 211,779 Salonica 35,640 95,377 Odessa 219,170 74,065 Egypt 50,960 86,260 Italy 8,250 162,544 Constantinople, Malta, Trieste, and other ports in the Mediterranean 190,720 286,358 --------- --------- 1,090,340 1,202,450 The various quarters from whence we derive supplies of this grain, are shown in the following table of the imports for the last three years, which I have compiled from the most recent Parliamentary returns. INDIAN CORN AND MEAL IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. ------------------------------------------------------------------------- | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. |-----------------|----------------|--------------- PLACES. | Corn. | Meal. | Corn. | Meal.| Corn. |Meal. | qrs. | cwts. | qrs. | cwts.| qrs. |cwts. ----------------------|---------|-------|---------|------|---------|----- Russian Ports in | | | | | | Black Sea | 25,519| | 19,721| | 98,176| Denmark | 1,300| | 250| | 5| Hanover | 1,344| | | | | Belgium | 67| | | | | France | 135,115| 510| 102,978| 26| 164,128| 29 Portugal Proper | 61,446| | 67,518| 53| 21,922| Azores and Madeira | 17,214| 7| 7,794| 6| 4,356| 1 Spain and Bahama | | | | | | Islands | 26,856| 48| 19,982| 48| 34,771| Sardinian Territories | 13,357| | 25| 2| 1,302| 1 Tuscany | 11,481| 95| 15,612| 94| 34,760| Papal Territories | 8,927| | 1,876| | 75,588| Naples and Sicily | 18| | 10,066| | 101,489| Austrian Territories | 90,540| | 45,748| | 73,966| Malta and Gozo | 18,198| | 4,969| | 11,002| Ionian Islands | 5,390| | 7,324| | 5,967| Greece | 57,520| | 8,712| | 3,252| Egypt | 12,767| | 71,808| | 127,692| Turkish dominions, | | | | | | including Wallachia,| | | | | | Moldavia and Syria | 563,799| | 348,456| | 748,180| Morocco | 760| | | | | West Coast of Africa | 889| | 2,322| | | B.N.A. Colonies | 1,645| 164| 1,530| | 4,377| 7 U.S. of America |1,170,154|100,859| 538,155|11,253| 295,978|9,522 Brazil | 1,253| | 468| | 725| Other places | | | 1,756| | | | | | | | | 1 ----------------------|---------|-------|---------|------|---------|----- |2,225,459|101,683|1,277,070|11,482|1,807,636|9,561 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (Parliamentary Paper, No. 14, Sess. 1852.) The many excellent properties of Indian corn, as a wholesome nutritious food, and the rich fodder obtained from the stalk and leaf for the nourishment of cattle, invite more earnest attention from the farmer and planter in the Colonies to its better and extended cultivation. Though the average quantity of grain from each acre in the United States is not more than thirty or forty bushels, yet it is known that with due care and labor 100 to 130 bushels may be obtained. In feeding cattle little difference is discoverable between the effects of Indian corn meal and oil-cake meal; the preference rather preponderates in favor of the latter. Corn cobs, ground with the grain, have advocates, but this food is not relished, and swine decline it. Indian corn contains about the same proportion of starch as oats (sixty per cent.), but is more fattening, as it contains about nine or ten per cent. of oily or fatty ingredients. The following analysis of maize is given by Dr. Samuel David, of Massachusetts:-- FLESH FORMING PRINCIPLES. Gluten, albumen, and casein 12.60 FAT FORMING PRINCIPLES. Gum, sugar, starch, woody fibre, oil, &c. 77.09 Water 9.00 Salts 1.31 ----- 100. Prof. Gorham, in "Thomson's Organic Chem.," published in London in 1838, gives another analysis:-- Fresh grain. Dried grain. Water 9.00 Starch 77.00 84.60 Gluten 3.00 3.30 Albumen 2.50 2.74 Gum 1.75 1.92 Sugar 1.45 1.60 Loss 5.30 5.84 ------ ------ 100. 100. Professor Johnston supplies a table, which, he says, exhibits the best approximate view we are yet able to give of the average proportion of starch and gluten contained in 100 lbs. of our common grain crops as they are met with in the market. From this table I extract the following:-- Starch, gum, &c. Gluten, albumen, &c. Wheat flour. 55 lbs. 10 to 15 lbs. Oats 65 " 18 lbs. Indian corn 70 " 12 " Beans 40 " 28 " Peas 50 " 24 " Potatoes 12 " 2-1/3 " The Professor remarks that the proportion of oil is, in 100 lbs. of Wheat flour 2 to 4 Oats 5 " 8 Indian corn 5 " 9 Beans and peas 2½ " 3 Potatoes 0¼ " Maize is one of those plants in which potash preponderates, for analysis of its ashes gives the following proportions:-- Salts of potash and soda 71.00 ---- lime and magnesia 6.50 Silica 18.00 Loss 4.50 ------ 100. Dr. Salisbury has also furnished the proximate analysis of five varieties of ripe maize or Indian corn:-- Proportions. One hundred grains of each. Water. Dry. Golden Sioux corn, a bright, yellow, twelve-rowed} variety, frequently having fourteen rows } 15.02 84.98 Large eight-rowed yellow corn 14.00 86.00 Small eight-rowed ditto 14.03 85.97 White flint corn 14.00 86.00 Ohio Dent corn, one of the largest varieties of } maize } 14.50 85.50 COMPARATIVE ORGANIC ANALYSIS. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | Golden | Ohio | Small | Large | White | Sioux. | Dent | 8-rowed | 8-rowed | Flint | | Corn. | Corn. | Corn. | Corn. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Starch | 36.06 | 41.85 | 30.29 | 49.22 | 40.34 Gluten | 5.00 | 4.62 | 5.60 | 5.40 | 7.69 Oil | 3.44 | 3.88 | 3.90 | 3.71 | 4.68 Albumen | 4.42 | 2.64 | 6.00 | 3.32 | 3.40 Casein | 1.92 | 1.32 | 2.20 | 0.75 | 0.50 Dextrine | 1.30 | 5.40 | 4.61 | 1.90 | 3.00 Fibre | 18.50 | 21.36 | 26.80 | 11.96 | 18.01 Sugar and extract | 7.25 | 10.00 | 5.20 | 9.55 | 8.30 Water | 15.02 | 10.00 | 13.40 | 14.00 | 14.00 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Large quantities of starch are now made from this grain in Ohio; an establishment near Columbus consume 20,000 bushels of corn annually for this purpose. The offal of the grain is given to hogs, 500 to 600 head being annually fattened therewith. The quality of the starch is said to be superior to that of wheat, and commands a higher price in New York. A corn plant, fifteen days after the seed was planted, cut on the 3rd June close to the ground, gave of-- Water 86.626 Dry matter 10.374 Ash 1.354 Ash calculated dry 13.053 By the above figures it will be seen that nearly 90 per cent, of the young plant is water; and that in proportion to the dry matter, the amount of earthy minerals which remain, as ash, when the plant is burnt, is large. This excess of water continues for many weeks. Thus, on the 5th July, thirty-three days from planting, the relations stood thus:-- Water 90.518 Dry matter 9.482 Ash 1.333 Ash calculated dry 14.101 (Ash very saline.) Before green succulent food of this character is fit to give to cows, oxen, mules, or horses, it should be partly dried. Plants that contain from 70 to 75 per cent. of water need no curing before eaten. The young stalk cut July 12, gave over 94 per cent. of water. Such food used for soiling without drying would be likely to scour an animal, and give it the cholic. The root at this time (July 12) gave of-- Water 81.026 Dry matter 18.974 Ash 2.222 Ash calculated dry 11.711 (Ash tastes of caustic potash.) Ash of the whole plant above ground, 6.77 grains. Amount of ash in all below ground, 3.93 grains. So late as July 26, the proportion of water in the stalk was 94 per cent.; and the ash calculated dry 17.66 per cent. The plant gained 21.36.98 grains in weight in a week preceding the 6th September. This was equal to a gain of 12.72 grains per hour. The rapid growth of corn plants, when the heat, light, and moisture, as well as the soil are favorable, is truly wonderful. A deep, rich, mellow soil, in which the roots can freely extend to a great distance in depth and laterally, is what the corn-grower should provide for his crop. The perviousness of river bottoms contributes largely to their productiveness of this cereal. A compact clay, which excludes alike air, water, and roots, forbidding all chemical changes, is not the soil for Indian corn. When farmers sell corn soon after it is ripe, there is considerable gain in not keeping it long to dry and shrink in weight. Corn grown by Mr. Salisbury, which was ripe by the 18th October, then contained 37 per cent. of water, which is 25 per cent. more than old corn from the crib will yield. The mean of man experiments tried by the writer has been a loss of 20 per cent. in moisture between new and old corn. The butts of cornstalks contain the most water, and husks or shucks the least, when fully matured and not dried. The latter have about 30 per cent, of dry matter when chemically desiccated. COMPOSITION OF THE ASH OF THE LEAVES AT DIFFERENT STAGES. July 19. Aug. 2. Aug. 23. Aug. 30. Oct. 18. Carbonic acid 5.40 2.850 0.65 3.50 4.050 Silicia 13.50 19.850 34.90 36.27 58.650 Sulphuric acid 2.16 1.995 4.92 5.84 4.881 Phosphates 21.60 16.250 17.00 13.50 5.850 Lime .69 4.035 2.00 3.88 4.510 Magnesia .37 2.980 1.59 2.30 0.865 Potash 9.98 11.675 10.85 9.15 7.333 Soda 34.39 29.580 21.23 22.13 8.520 Chlorine 4.55 6.020 3.06 1.63 2.664 Organic acids 5.50 2.400 3.38 2.05 2.200 ----- ------ ------ ----- ------ 98.14 97.750 98.187 99.83 99.334 The above figures disclose several interesting facts. It will be seen that the increase of silica or flint in the leaf is steadily progressive from 13½ per cent. at July 19, to 58.65 at October 18. Flint is substantially the _bone earth_ of all grasses. If one were to analyse the bones of a calf when a day old, again when thirty days of age, and when a year old, the increase of phosphate of lime in its skeleton would be similar to that witnessed in the leaves and stems of maize. In the early stages of the growth of corn, its leaves abound in phosphates; but after the seeds begin to form, the phosphates leave the tissues of the plant in other parts, and concentrate in and around the germs in the seeds. On the 23rd of August, the ash of the whole stalk contained 19½ per cent. of phosphates; and on the 18th of October, only 15.15 per cent. In forming the cobs of this plant, considerable potash is drawn from the stalk, as it decreases from 35.54 per cent. August 16, to 24.69 October 18. When the plant is growing fastest, its roots yield an ash which contains less than one per cent. of lime; but after this development is nearly completed, the roots retain, or perhaps regain from the plant above, over 4½ per cent. of this mineral. Soda figures as high as from 20 to 31 per cent. in the ash obtained from corn roots. Ripe seeds gave the following results on the analysis of their ash:-- Silica 0.850 Phosphoric acid 49.210 Lime 0.075 Magnesia 17.600 Potash 23.175 Soda 3.605 Sodium 0.160 Chlorine 0.295 Sulphuric acid 0.515 Organic acids 5.700 ------ 99.175 The above table shows a smaller quantity of lime than is usually found in the ash of this grain. It is, however, never so abundant as magnesia; and Professor Emmons has shown that the best corn lands in the State of New York contain a considerable quantity of magnesia. All experience, as well as all chemical researches, go to prove that _potash_ and phosphoric acid are important elements in the organisation of maize. Corn yields more pounds of straw and grain on poor land than either wheat, rye, barley, or oats; and it does infinitely better on rich than on sterile soils. To make the earth fertile, it is better economy to plant thick than to have the rows five feet apart each way, as is customary in some of the Southern States, and only one stalk in a hill. This gives but one plant to twenty-five square feet of ground. Instead of this, three square feet are sufficient for a single plant; and from that up to six, for the largest varieties of this crop. Mr. Humboldt states the production of maize in the Antilles as 300 for one; and Mr. H. Colman has seen in several cases in the New England States of America, a return of 400 for one; that is to say, the hills being three feet apart each way, a peck of Indian corn would be sufficient seed for an acre. If 100 bushels of grain is in such case produced by an acre--and this sometimes happens--this is clearly a return of 400 for one. Of the whole family of cereals, _Zea Mays_ is unquestionably the most valuable for cultivation in the United States. When the time shall come that population presses closely on the highest capabilities of American soil, this plant, which is a native of the New World, will be found greatly to excel all others in the quantity of bread, meat, milk, and butter which it will yield from an acre of land. With proper culture, it has no equal for the production of hay, in all cases where it is desirable to grow a large crop on a small surface. Although there has been much written on the Eastern origin of this grain, it did not grow in that part of Asia watered by the Indus, at the time of Alexander the Great's expedition, as it is not among the productions of the country mentioned by Nearchus, the commander of the fleet; neither is it noticed by Arian, Diodorus, Columella, nor any other ancient author; and even as late as 1491, the year before Columbus discovered America, Joan di Cuba, in his "Ortus Sanitatis," makes no mention of it. It has never been found in any ancient tumulus, sarcophagus, or pyramid; nor has it ever been represented in any ancient painting, sculpture, or work of art, except in America. But in that country, according to Garcilaso de la Vega, one of the ancient Peruvian historians, the palace gardens of the Incas, in Peru, were ornamented with maize, in gold and silver, with all the grains, spikes, stalks, and leaves; and in one instance, in the "garden of gold and silver," there was an entire cornfield, of considerable size, representing the maize in its exact and natural shape; a proof no less of the wealth of the Incas, than their veneration for this important grain. In further proof of the American origin, it may be stated that this plant is still found growing, in a wild state, from the Rocky mountains in North America, to the humid forests of Paraguay, where, instead of having each grain naked, as is always the case after long cultivation, it is completely covered with glumes or husks. It is, furthermore, a well authenticated fact, that maize was found in a state of cultivation by the aborigines, in the island of Cuba, on its discovery by Columbus, as well as in most other places in America, first explored by Americans. The first successful attempt to cultivate this grain in North America, by the English, occurred on James' river, in Virginia, in 1608. It was undertaken by the colonists sent over by the Indian company, who adopted the mode then practised by the natives, which, with some modifications, has been pursued throughout this country ever since. The yield, at this time, is represented to have been from two hundred to more than one thousand fold. The same increase was noted by the early settlers in Illinois. The present yield, east of the Rocky Mountains, when judiciously cultivated, varies from 20 to 135 bushels to an acre. The varieties of Indian corn are very numerous, exhibiting every grade of size, color, and conformation, between the "chubby reed" that grows on the shores of Lake superior--the gigantic stalks of the Ohio valley--the tiny ears, with flat, close, clinging grains, of Canada--the brilliant, rounded little pearl--the bright red grains and white cob of the eight-rowed hæmatite--the swelling ears of the big white and the yellow gourd seed of the South. From the flexibility of this plant, it may be acclimatised, by gradual cultivation, from Texas to Maine, or from Canada to Brazil; but its character, in either case, is somewhat changed, and often new varieties are the result. The blades of the plant are of great value as food for stock, and is an article but rarely estimated sufficiently, when considering of the agricultural products of the Southern and Southwestern States especially. To supply slaves on plantations with bread, including old and young, requires from twelve to thirteen bushels of corn each a year. Taking thirteen bushels as the average consumption of breadstuffs by the 22,000,000 of people in the United States, the aggregate is 286,000,000 bushels per annum. The increase of production, from 1840 to 1850, was 214,000,000 bushels, equal to 56 per cent. The production of New England advanced from 6,993,000 to 10,377,000 bushels, showing an increase of 3,384,000 bushels, nearly fifty per cent. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware and Maryland, increased 20,812,000 bushels, more than fifty per cent. In the production of this crop no State has retrograded. Ohio, which in 1840 occupied the fourth place as a corn-producing State, now ranks as the first. Kentucky is second, Illinois third, Tennessee fourth. The crop of Illinois has increased from 2,000,000 to 5,500,000 bushels, or at the rate of 160 per cent. in ten years. Of the numerous varieties some are best adapted to the Southern States, while others are better suited for the Northern and Eastern. Those generally cultivated in the former are the Southern big and small yellow, the Southern big and small white flint, the yellow Peruvian, and the Virginian white gourd seed. In the more Northerly and Easterly States they cultivate the golden sioux, or Northern yellow flint, the King Philip, or eight-rowed yellow, the Canadian early white, the Tuscarora, the white flour, and the Rhode Island white flint. The extended cultivation of this grain is chiefly confined to the Eastern, Middle, and Western States, though much more successfully grown in the latter. The amount exported from South Carolina, in 1748, was 39,308 bushels; from North Carolina, in 1753, 61,580 bushels; from Georgia, in 1755, 600 bushels; from Virginia, for several years preceding the revolution, annually 600,000 bushels; from Philadelphia, in 1765-66, 54,205 bushels; in 1771, 259,441 bushels. The total amount exported from America in 1770, was 573,349 bushels; in 1791, 2,064,936 bushels, 351,695 of which were Indian meal; in 1800, 2,032,435 bushels, 338,108 of which were in meal; in 1810, 1,140,960 bushels, 86,744 of which were meal. In 1820-21, there were exported 607,277 bushels of corn, and 131,669 barrels of Indian meal; in 1830-31, 571,312 bushels of corn, and 207,604 barrels of meal; in 1840-41,535,727 bushels of corn, and 232,284 barrels of meal; in 1845-46, 1,286,068 bushels of corn, and 298,790 barrels of meal; in 1846-47 16,326,050 bushels of corn, and 948,060 barrels of meal; in 1850-51, 3,426,811 bushels of corn, and 203,622 barrels of meal. More than eleven millions of bushels of Indian corn were consumed in 1850, in the manufacture of spirituous liquors. According to the census of 1840, the corn crop of the United States was 377,531,875 bushels; in 1850, 592,326,612 bushels. The increase in the production of corn in Ohio has been (in ten years) 66 per cent. I have also before me the auditor's returns for the crop of 1850, as taken by assessors, and the number of acres planted. The auditor's returns are:-- Seventy-three counties 55,079,374 Darke county 524,484 Twelve counties, average 8,400,000 ---------- Total 64,003,858 This is an advance of 15 per cent. on the crop of 1840, and it is known that the crop of 1850 was better than that of 1849. The number of acres planted, and the average production was:-- Acres planted 1,810,947 Bushels produced 64,003,858 Average per acre 35-3/8 bush. Considering how large a portion of hill land is planted, and how many fields are ill cultivated, the average is high. Many persons have believed that taking all years and all lands into view, the average of corn lands was not more than thirty bushels. But the immense fertility of _bottom_ lands on the rivers and creeks of Ohio make up for bad cultivation and inferior soil. We may see something of the differences in the production of corn, by taking the averages of different counties, thus:-- Acres. Crop. Average. Butler 62,031 2,646,353 42½ Warren 42,322 1,757,409 42 Pickaway 65,860 2,627,727 40 Ross 69,520 2,918,958 42 Compare the average of these counties, which embrace some of the best lands in the State, with the following:-- Acres. Crop. Average. Carroll 10,107 316,999 32 Jackson 15,680 439,850 30 Monroe 23,375 728,242 31 Portage 10,426 329,529 32 Vinton 11,413 345,470 30 The last counties contain but little bottom land, and hence the average of corn is reduced one-fourth in amount. Of these counties, two are full of coal and iron. The resources of the last are more slow to develop, but in the end will be equally valuable. But a small quantity of the corn of Ohio is exported _as grain_. It is first manufactured into other articles, and then exported in another form. The principal part of these are hogs, cattle, and whiskey. It is difficult to say exactly how much corn is _in this way exported_, but the following is an approximation-- Bushels. In Fat Cattle 4,000,000 In Fat Hogs 10,000,000 In Whiskey 2,500,000 ---------- Total 16,500,000 Taking into view the export of corn meal--about twenty millions of bushels--the residue goes to the support of the stock animals on hand, of which there are near three millions, exclusive of those fatted for market. The exported corn in the shape of cattle, hogs, and whiskey, is worth about thirty cents cash, while on the farm it is not worth twenty--thus proving that it is more profitable to consume corn on the farm, than to export it in bulk. This fact is well known to good farmers, who seldom attempt to sell corn as a merchantable article. No mining in the world has ever been equal to mining in a fertile soil, and no treasury is so reliable as a granary of surplus products. Indian corn and meal generally find a market in the West Indies, Newfoundland, Spain, and Portugal. It commands a good price, and finds a ready sale in the ports which are open to its reception. Deducting one-sixteenth for the amount exported, and one-tenth for seed, the quantity of maize annually consumed for food in the United States by a family of five persons is 85 bushels. Maize may be considered as the great staple of the agricultural products of the States. It is exported in large quantities, in a raw state, or when manufactured into meal. Before it is manufactured into meal it is dried by a fire, in a kiln prepared for that purpose. By this process the meal is much less liable to become sour on the voyage, and can be preserved much longer in a warm climate. No inconsiderable quantities have likewise been consumed in distillation; and the article of kiln-dried meal for exportation is destined to be of no small account to the corn-growing sections of that country. The improvement continually making in the quality of the seed augurs well for the productiveness of this indigenous crop, as it has been found that new varieties are susceptible of being used to great advantage. The following was the produce of the different States in the years named, as given in the Official Census Returns:-- -----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- | 1840 | 1841 | 1843 | 1850 | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. -----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- Maine | 950,528 | 988,549 | 1,390,799 | New Hampshire | 1,162,572 | 191,275 | 330,925 | Massachusetts | 1,809,192 | 1,905,273 | 2,347,451 | Rhode Island | 450,498 | 471,022 | 578,720 | Connecticut | 1,500,441 | 1,521,191 | 1,926,458 | Vermont | 1,119,678 | 1,167,219 | 1,252,853 | New York | 10,972,286 | 11,441,256 | 15,574,590 | New Jersey | 4,361,975 | 5,134,366 | 5,805,121 | Pennsylvania | 14,240,022 | 14,969,472 | 15,857,431 | Delaware | 2,099,359 | 2,164,507 | 2,739,982 | Maryland | 8,233,086 | 6,998,124 | 6,205,282 | Virginia | 34,577,591 | 33,987,255 | 45,836,788 | N. Carolina | 23,893,763 | 24,116,253 | 27,916,077 | S. Carolina | 14,722,805 | 14,987,474 | 18,190,913 | Georgia | 20,905,122 | 21,749,227 | 26,960,687 | Alabama | 20,947,004 | 21,594,354 | 24,817,089 | Mississippi | 13,161,237 | 5,985,724 | 9,386,399 | Louisiana | 5,952,912 | 6,224,147 | 8,957,392 | Tennessee | 44,986,188 | 46,285,359 | 67,838,477 | 52,000,000 Kentucky | 39,847,120 | 40,787,120 | 59,355,156 | 58,000,000 Ohio | 33,668,144 | 35,552,161 | 38,651,128 | 59,788,750 Indiana | 28,155,887 | 33,195,108 | 36,677,171 | 53,000,004 Illinois | 22,634,211 | 23,424,474 | 32,760,434 | 57,000,000 Missouri | 17,332,524 | 19,725,146 | 27,148,608 | Arkansas | 4,846,632 | 6,039,450 | 8,754,204 | Michigan | 2,277,039 | 3,058,090 | 3,592,482 | Florida Territory| 898,074 | 694,205 | 838,667 | Wisconsin | 379,359 | 521,244 | 750,775 | Iowa T. | 1,406,241 | 1,547,215 | 2,128,416 | D. of Columbia | 39,485 | 43,725 | 47,837 | +-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- Total | 377,531,875 | 387,380,185 | 494,618,306 | 500,000,000 -----------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+------------- The Indian corn crop of 1850, for the whole of the United States, is returned as over 500 million bushels, a gain of about 40 millions on that of 1840. I give below the quantities of Indian corn and meal which were exported from the United States in the following years:-- Corn, Bushels. Meal, Bushels. Value. Dolls. 1790 1,713,241 1794 1,505,977 241,570 1798 1,218,231 211,694 1802 1,633,283 566,816 1806 1,064,263 108,342 1,286,000 1810 1,054,252 86,744 1,138,000 1814 61,284 26,438 170,000 1818 1,075,190 120,029 2,335,405 1822 509,098 148,288 900,656 1826 505,381 158,652 1,007,321 1829 897,656 173,775 974,535 1833 437,174 146,678 871,814 --(_Pitkin's Statistics of the United Stales, and Seybert's Statistical Annals_.) _System of culture pursued in the United States_.--Maize, the _corn, par excellence_, of America, is grown in every State in the Union. Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Virginia, and Indiana, are in their order the greatest producers of this grain. In Illinois, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Missouri, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, New York, Maryland, Arkansas, and the New England States, it appears to be a very favorite crop. In Massachusetts, the most Northern and least favorable State on that account, being cold, a fair proportion is grown, the aggregate produce being greater there than in any of the grains, except oats; more, indeed, than might be expected, were not labor somewhat cheaper than in more Southern States, where the climate is more congenial. The ordinary produce is twenty-five bushels per acre; forty bushels is often raised, and in prize crops the weight has come up to 100 bushels per acre. In Ohio the average is fifty-five bushels to the acre. The eight and twelve-rowed varieties of Indian corn are those most usually grown in New York, and the average produce of a good field in that State is from forty to sixty bushels; on ordinary ground twenty-five to thirty is a fair crop. The same returns appeared to be derived from ground in New Jersey. Mr. Doubleday, of Binghampton, New York, estimates the produce of that neighbourhood at forty bushels, and the expense of raising the crop as follows, estimating the worth of the land at twenty-five dollars (say £5) per acre:-- Dollars. Cents. The interest of which is 1 16 One ploughing with double team, and harrowing 3 50 Seed and planting 1 00 Plaster or gypsum, and putting on the hill 0 37 Ploughing and hoeing twice, cutting or stalking the corn 2 75 Husking or thrashing 2 50 ----------------- 11 62 Average yield, forty bushels; cost of produce, twenty-nine cents. (1s. 4½d.) per bushel. Nothing is here put down for manure or cartage, because the fodder, cut up and saved, as usually adopted, is equal to the manure required. It is looked upon that the preparation of ground for corn costs less than wheat; the approved plan is to plant on sward ground, ploughing at once, and turning the ground completely over, then harrowing longitudinally until, a good tilth is obtained. Should the soil not be rich enough, stable manure is first spread on the land. Now suppose the corn to sell at seventy-five cents the bushel, the account would stand thus:-- Dollars. Cents. Forty bushels, at seventy-five cents. 30 00 Cost 11 62 --------------- Gain per acre 18 38 or £3 13s. 6d. British money profit per acre. In Lichfield, Connecticut, the cost of produce has been, for the items as stated above, eighteen dollars twenty-five cents, or the cost of each bushel thirty-six and one-half cents. The acre produce was fifty bushels, so that it stood thus:-- Dollars. Cents. Fifty bushels, at seventy-five cents 37 50 Cost 18 25 ----------------- Gain 19 5 or £3 12s. per acre. The cost of producing maize varies somewhat in the other States, thus:-- Per bushel. Cents. New Hampshire (Unity) the cost was 50 Fayette county, Pennsylvania 16 ¼ Donesville, Michigan, only 17 ½ Plymouth, Massachusetts 17 7/10 The cost on producing this crop was small, but it appears to have been a small crop, and did not bring more than thirty cents per bushel. In Monroe county, the richest land in the State of New York, estimating the land at fifteen dollars per acre, the producing cost stood at:-- Dollars. Cents. Interest at six per cent. 0 45 One ploughing sward, cover or stubble 1 00 Harrowing, furrowing, seed, and planting 0 87½ Cultivating three times and hoeing 1 00 Husking the hill 1 00 Shelling and cleaning 1 00 --------------- 5 82½ This yielded fifty bushels, the cost of producing the bushel was eleven and three-fifths cents. This low cost was owing to the fact of no manure being used; and while it speaks volumes as to the natural fertility of American soils, yet it reflects very disgracefully upon the careless system adopted there, as under such treatment no land could continue, after some years, to produce a crop which could come into competition with those from newer and less exhausted lands; but if under a good system of tillage the ground was yearly renewed with manure, and those amendments which every soil requires, after a crop has been raised from it, added to the soil in top-dressing and in ploughing-in, we should never hear of the exhausted state of New England land, or see the sons of the soil moving west and cultivating newer soils, thus removing much of the capital and intelligence of a country away from it. Supposing the corn of Monroe county sold at seventy cents per bushel, the balance would appear thus:-- Dollars. Cents. Fifty bushels, at seventy cents 35 00 Cost of production 5 82½ -------------- Gain 29 18½ £6 1s. per acre profit. In Northern Ohio and in Illinois the cost of production averages twenty cents per bushel. The mode of cultivation in Connecticut and the New England States has been thus described to me by Mr. L. Durand, an experienced agriculturist:--If the soil selected is light and mellow, it should be ploughed and subsoiled in the spring, first spreading on the coarse unfermented manure which is to be ploughed in. For marking the rows for planting, a "corn marker" may be used to advantage. It is made by taking a piece of scantling, three inches square and ten to twelve feet long, with teeth of hickory or white oak inserted at distances of two to four feet, according to the width designed for the rows. Then an old pair of waggon-thills and a pair of old plough-handles are put to it, and your marker is done. With a good horse to draw this implement, the ground may be made ready for planting very rapidly. It is better to leave the ground flat than to ridge it, for the latter mode has no advantage, except when the ground is wet. The difference in the two modes is chiefly this:--When the ground is ridged, the corn being planted between the edges of the furrows, it comes immediately in contact with the manure, springs up and grows rapidly the fore part of the season. When the ground is left flat, and the manure turned under the furrows, the corn will often look feeble at first, and in growth will frequently be much behind that on the ridges; and the inference early in the season is, that the ridged ground will give the best crop, but as soon as the roots of the corn on the flat ground get hold of the manure (say about the 20th of July), the corn will shoot rapidly ahead, and the full force of the manure will be given to the stalk just at the time of forming the grain. Corn cultivated in this way, if the soil is deeply tilled, will often keep green, while that on ridges is dried up. Many farmers, at planting, shell the corn off the cob, and plant it dry. Others soak it a few days in warm water. But when the seed is only treated in this way, it is very likely to be pulled up by birds and injured by worms. The best way to prevent this is to first soak the corn in a strong solution of saltpetre; then take a quantity of tar, and having warmed it over a fire, pour it on the corn, and stir with a stick or paddle till the grain is all smeared with the tar; then add gypsum or plaster till the corn will separate freely, and no birds will touch the grain. The time of planting, in the United States, varies with the season and the section of the country. In New England it may generally be planted from the 15th to the 25th May. Where the ground is flat, a light harrow or a cultivator is much better to go between the rows than the plough. Formerly a great deal of useless labor was spent in hilling up corn; in dry seasons this was worse than useless. The earth hauled round the stalk does not assist its growth, nor aid in holding it up; the brace roots, which come out as the stalk increases in height, support it; and it has been observed, that in a heavy storm and thunder gust, corn that is hilled will be broken down more than that which is not hilled. The ground which is kept level has also the advantage of more readily absorbing rain, rendering the crop less liable to suffer from drought. The field should have two or three regular hoeings, and the weeds be carefully kept under. In harvesting the following will be found a good plan:--Let two hands take five rows, cutting the corn close to the ground. A hill should be left standing to form the centre of the shock, placing the stalks round it, so that they may not lie on the ground. After the shock is made of sufficient size, take a band of straw, and having turned down the tops of the stalks, bind them firmly, and the work is done. Maize may be cut as soon as the centre of the grain is glazed, even if the stalks are green. There will be sufficient nutriment in the stalk to perfect the ear, and the fodder is much better than when it gets dry before it is cut. If the shocks are well put up, they may stand four or five weeks. The corn may then be knocked out, and the fodder secured for winter use. The report of the Ohio Board of Agriculture for 1849, contains many interesting statements in reference to maize culture, made by the officers of numerous county agricultural societies. In Miami county, 2,030,670 bushels were grown, at an average yield of fifty-five bushels per acre. Three varieties are cultivated: the common gourd seed, for cattle; the yellow Kentucky, for hogs and distilling; and the white, for grinding and exportation. According to the returns from Green county, which produced 1,250,000 bushels of corn in 1849, "a regular rotation of clover, corn, wheat, and clover again, is best for corn; and no crop pays better for extra culture." The Harrison county Agricultural Society reports the pork crop at 4,800,000 pounds; and it gave its first premium for corn to Mr. S.B. Lukens, whose statement is as follows:-- "The ground had been in meadow ten years, was ploughed six inches deep about the middle of April, was harrowed twice over on the 9th May, and planted on the 11th four feet by two feet. It came up well, was cultivated and thinned when ten inches high; three stalks were left in a hill. About two weeks afterward it was again cultivated, and the suckers pulled off. About the last of June it was again cultivated, making three times the same way, as it was laid off but one way. d. c. Expense of culture, gathering, and cribbing, was 17 10 Produce of 374-3/8 bushels, at 31¼ cents 117 10 ---------- Profit on three acres 100 00 The evidence on which a premium was awarded was such as should satisfy any one that 374 bushels were grown on three acres of land, and at a cost not exceeding 17 dollars 10 cents, delivered in the crib. This is producing corn at less than 5 cents a bushel. Whether the statement be true to the letter or not, it shows conclusively the great value of a _rich soil_ for making cheap corn. The Board of Agriculture estimates the crop of Ohio last year at 70,000,000 of bushels. Taking the United States as a whole, probably the crop of corn was never better than in the year 1849. One that has rich land needs only to plough it deep and well, plant in season, and cultivate the earth properly with a plough or cultivator, to secure the growth of a generous crop. On poor soils the case is very different. To raise a good crop of corn on poor land, and at the least possible expense, requires some science and much skill in the art of tillage. Take the same field to operate in, and one farmer will grow 100 bushels of corn at half the cost per bushel that another will expend in labor, which is money. It unfortunately happens that very skilful farmers are few in number, in comparison with those who have failed to study and practice all attainable improvements. To produce cheap corn on poor land, one needs a clear understanding of what elements of the crop air and water will furnish, and what they cannot supply. It should be remembered that the atmosphere is precisely the same over ground which yields 100 bushels of corn per acre, that it is over that which produces only five bushels per acre. Now, the whole matter which forms the stems, leaves, roots, cobs, and seeds of corn, where the crop is 100 bushels per acre, is not part and parcel of the soil. A harvest equal to fifty bushels per acre can be obtained without consuming over ten per cent, of earth, as compared with the weight of the crop. No plant can imbibe more of the substance of the soil in which it grows, than is dissolved in water, or rendered gaseous by the decomposition of mould. The quantity of matter dissolved, whether organic or inorganic, during the few weeks in which corn plants organise the bulk of their solids, is small. From 93 to 97 parts in 100 of the dry matter, in a mature, perfect plant, including its seeds, cob, stems, leaves, and roots, are carbon (charcoal) and the elements of water. It is not only an important, but an exceedingly instructive fact, that the most effective fertilisers known in agriculture are those that least abound in the elements of water and carbon. The unleached dry excrements of dunghill fowls and pigeons, have five times the fertilising power on all cereal plants that the dry dung of a grass-fed cow has, although the latter has five times more carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, per 100 pounds, than the former. Although it is desirable to apply to the soil in which corn is to grow as much of organised carbon and water as one conveniently can, yet, where fertilisers have to be transported many miles; it is important to know that such of the measure as would form _coal_, if carefully burnt, can best be spared. The same is true of those elements in manure which form vapor or water, when the fertiliser decomposes in the ground. Carbonic acid and nascent hydrogen evolved in rotting stable manure are truly valuable food for plants, and perform important chemical offices in the soil; but they are, nevertheless, not so indispensable to the economical production of crops, as available nitrogen, potash, silica, magnesia, sulphur, and phosphorus. These elements of plants being less abundant in nature, and quite indispensable in forming corn, cotton, and every other product of the soil, their artificial supply in guano, night soil, and other highly concentrated fertilisers, adds immensely to the harvest, through the aid of a small weight of matter. In all sections where corn is worth 30 cents and over a bushel, great benefits may be realised by the skilful manufacture and use of poudrette. This article is an inodorous compound of the most valuable constituents of human food and clothing. It is the raw material of crops. It is not necessary to restore to a cornfield all the matter removed in the crop to maintain its fertility. A part of each seed, however, ought to be carried back and replaced in the soil, to make good its loss by the harvest. In every barrel of meal or flour sent to market (196 pounds), there are not far from 186 pounds of carbon (coal), and the elements of water. When a bird eats wheat or corn, I have reason to believe, from several experiments, that over 80 per cent, of the food escapes into the air through its capacious lungs in the process of respiration; and yet the 20 per cent, of guano left will re-produce as much wheat or corn as was consumed. Imported guano, which has been exposed to the weather for ages, often gives an increase in the crop of wheat equal to three pounds of seed to one of fertiliser; while it has given a gain of seven to one of corn, and fifty to one of green turnips. Like other grains that have been long cultivated, Indian corn abounds in varieties. In Spain they count no less than 130, and in the United States the number is upwards of forty. The difference consists in size, color, period of maturation, and hardness and weight of grain. Of size there exists a considerable variety, from Zea Curagua of Chili, and the Egyptian or chicken corn, both extremely diminutive, to the large white flint, and ground seed corn of the United States. The differences in color are the red, yellow, and white. The period of maturation varies, apparently, very considerably; but it is questionable whether this variation is real, and independent of climate. In the Northern States of America, Indian corn ripens in a shorter period of time than it does in the South, owing, possibly, to the greater length of the summer day in those latitudes. In selecting varieties, some experienced and judicious farmers prefer that which yields the greater number of ears, without regard to their size, or number of rows. Others prefer that which furnishes one or two larger ears, having from twelve to twenty-four rows. In the Northern States of America the yellow corn bears the highest price in the market, and is considered the most prolific and best suited to feed cattle and hogs. For bread, the white Button is preferred at the North, and the white ground seed is used for that purpose in other quarters. Preference, however, is most frequently given to white flint corn, which is unquestionably the heaviest, and contains the greatest proportion of farina. In Mississippi many varieties are grown, principally those known as flint and bastard flint. The gourd-seed varieties are very objectionable in that climate, principally on account of their softness rendering them unfit for bread, and open to the attacks of insects in the field and the crib. They require a grain, _white_, _hard_, and rather flinty--_white_ because of its great consumption in bread and hommony, in the preparation of both of which their cooks greatly excel. When meal is ground for bread, the mill is set rather wide, that the flinty part of the grain may not be cut up too fine, this being sifted out for "small hommony;" the farinaceous part of the grain is left for bread. This hommony is a beautiful and delicious dish. On most plantations the negroes have it for supper, with molasses or buttermilk. A _hard flinty_ grain is necessary to head the weevil, with which not only the cribs but the heads of corn in the field are infested. These are the _Calandra oryzæ_, the true rice weevil, distinguished from his European cousin by the two reddish spots on each _elytra_ or wing-cover, and known in America as the "black weevil;" also a little brown insect, not a true weevil, but a _Sylvanus_. This sylvanus, and another of the same genus, most probably the _S. surinamensis_, attack the corn in the field before it becomes hard, causing serious damage--but nothing to equal that occasioned by the black weevil. I know of no generally successful method of staying or even checking the injury caused by the insects, though much might be written in the way of suggestion. In Michigan, the _dent_ variety in dry seasons produces the best crops on sandy loam, as its roots run deeper than the common _eight-rowed_ yellow or white. In moist seasons the latter varieties usually do well. They are grown most generally in the Northern part of the State, while in the Southern section the Ohio dent is principally raised. The shuck and blade are much used as fodder for cattle, in the early part of winter. Indian corn is very liable to change of character from soil and climate, growing smaller the farther North it is raised. The mixing of the eight-rowed yellow with the Ohio dent has, so far as my experience goes, been beneficial in increasing the yield. Sandy loam, or clay, is considered the soil best adapted to corn. It is usually planted in May, and harvested in September. The blade is not taken off there as at the South; some farmers cut up their corn when ripe, put it into shocks, and husk it late in the fall; others cut the stalks, bind them in sheaves, and stack them for winter in the fields, or put them away in barns or sheds; while others husk the corn on the hill without cutting the stalks, and late in the fall turn their cattle into the field to eat the fodder. Of these different modes the preference is usually given to cutting the stalks and putting them under cover after being well cured, and busting the corn on the hill. The corn is thought to ripen better in this way, and to keep better in the cribs. The Ohio dent, having a smaller ear containing less moisture than other varieties, ripens quicker and keeps better. This crop ranges from 25 to 65 bushels per acre, and the difference in the yield is to be attributed to the manner of cultivation. My experience shows that a crop of 45 bushels per acre costs 13 cents a bushel, including interest on land. Corn is principally raised in Michigan for home consumption, and the stalks and shucks, if well cured, are worths dollars per acre, compared with hay at 5 dollars per ton. As much as 134 bushels per acre have been obtained, in some instances, in Massachusetts; till the last 20 years 35 bushels was considered an average crop, but by a due rotation of crops, and ploughing in long manure, at least 75 bushels to the acre are now raised. The kinds preferred there, are an eight-rowed variety, procured originally from Canada; the Cass corn, another eight-rowed variety, and the Dutton corn, each of which averages about 60 lbs. to the bushel. Maize is a principal crop in the Connecticut River Valley, Western Vermont, and along the Lake shore; but in the high dividing ridge, and in the Northern counties bordering on Canada, the climate is too severe for its profitable cultivation. "The kind mostly grown (observes Mr. Colburn, of Vermont) is the yellow eight-rowed, though some prefer the twelve and sixteen-rowed, known here by the name of the Button corn; but my experience in cultivating the different kinds for the last twenty-four years, has forced me to the conclusion that the common eight-rowed, mixed with a kind called the Brown corn, does the best; the kernel of the-latter bearing upon a chocolate hue, and the mixture of these two kinds of seed imparting a deep rich color to the whole, when they become blended, and enhancing the yield whenever the soil is in high tilth. Of this kind, the writer has raised, the past season, upon eleven acres on the Connecticut River alluvium, over eight hundred bushels shelled corn, four acres of which, with extra preparation, produced four hundred and sixteen bushels. It will never do to carry seed corn from South to North, as it will not mature in a higher or colder climate than that from which it has been taken. Even half a degree of latitude sensibly affects the maturing of the blade, and renders it an uncertain crop in our high northern latitudes. To insure an extra yield of this valuable grain, the soil must be highly manured, deeply ploughed, thorough cultivated and hoed, and top-dressed with lime, house ashes, and plaster. This done, it is the most remunerative and profitable of all grain crops." In Delaware there are many varieties, and everybody esteems his own kind the best. The grain varies from pure "flint" to pure "gourd seed"--of course the mixtures which are between these two varieties are most common--it inclines more to gourd seed than to flint. Mint weighs full standard fifty-six, the gourd seed from forty-nine to fifty-two pounds, and the mixtures range between. Flint ripens from ten days to two weeks earlier. It will not produce as many pounds per acre as the lighter gourd seed. Soil exerts its influence over the character of corn, a heavy soil tending to produce flint--light soil, gourd seed. The corn is "cut up" in the fall, and after curing in the shuck, is husked; the shuck remaining on the stalk with the blades. The average yield, on improved land, is fifty bushels; though crops of one hundred and twelve, and one hundred and sixty bushels per acre are reported to have been raised in the county, in 1849. The yield increases from year to year. A general and rapid improvement of the State is in progress, and in nothing is this seen more clearly than in the corn crop. Mossy "old sedge" fields, which have been laid out for years, are broken up, and will yield, if it be a good season, from five to ten bushels per acre; fence them, lime them with twenty to thirty bushels, and seed the oat crop with clover, and in two years the clover sod will return eighteen to twenty bushels of corn. Another dressing of lime, or its equivalent in marl, of which there is an abundance in the lower half of Newcastle County, will show thirty bushels of corn; and of wheat, if the farm manure be used on it, nine to twelve bushels will not be too much to expect. In Arkansas, Indian corn is regarded as the "king of grains." It constitutes the chief food of every animal, from man down to the marauding rat, while its dried blade furnishes seven-tenths of the long food for working animals. The _large white_ is the variety most esteemed, and most generally cultivated, for the reasons that it yields more grain and fodder, makes, when ground into meal, whiter and sweeter bread, and is less liable to injury from the weevils. The blade is usually esteemed the best long food for horses, exceeding in price the best Northern hay; the average price may be stated at about seventy cents per cwt. The shuck is fed to cows and young mules, they eat it, but with less relish than they do the blades, which are sweeter and more nutritious. The former are much used for mattresses, being preferred to moss, as they are cleaner, and easier manufactured. When mixed with coarse cotton, and properly prepared, they will make a mattress but little inferior to curled hair: price about fifty cents per cwt. The average price of this grain may be set down at forty cents per bushel; and the yield on upland in some parts of the State may be stated at thirty bushels per acre. Five varieties of maize are grown in Peru. One is known by the name of _chancayano_, which has a large semi-transparent yellow grain; another is called _morocho_, and has small yellow grain of a horny appearance; _amarello_, or the yellow, has a large yellow opaque grain, and is more farinaceous than the two former varieties; _blanco_, white--this variety is large, and contains more farina than the former; and _cancha_, or sweet maize. The last is only cultivated in the colder climates of the mountains; it grows about two feet high, the cob is short, and the grains large and white; when green, it is very bitter, but when ripe and roasted, it is particularly sweet, and so tender that it may be reduced to flour between the fingers. In this roasted state it constitutes the principal food of the mountaineers of several provinces. The natives remove the husk from the maize by putting it into water with a quantity of wood ashes, exposing it to a boiling heat, and washing the grain in running water, when the husk immediately separates from the grain. In Jamaica I found maize to produce two crops in the year, and often three. It is usually grown there on the banks or ridges of the cane fields. It may be planted at any time when there is rain, and it yields from fifteen to forty bushels per acre, according to the richness of the soil, and the more or less close manner in which it is planted. In the colony of New South Wales, including the district of Port Phillip, there were 20,798 acres under cultivation with maize in 1844, the produce from which was returned at 575,857 bushels; 27,058 bushels of maize were exported from Sydney in 1848. _Culture in the East Indies_.--The growers on the hills of Nepaul reckon three kinds of maize: a white grained species, which is generally grown on the hill sides; a yellow grained one, grown in the low and hot valleys; and a smaller one, called "Bhoteah," or "Murilli Makii," which is considered the sweetest of the three, but from being less productive is not generally grown on good lands. Maize thrives best on a siliceous, well-drained, rich soil. A correspondent in my "Colonial Magazine," vol. ii. p. 309, says the finest Indian corn he ever saw was in the Himalayas of the Sikim-range, where the soil consists of a substratum of decomposed _mica_ from the under or rocky stratum, with a superstratum of from three to six inches of decayed vegetable matter, from leaves, &c., of the ancient forests. Throughout Hindostan, June is the usual time for sowing. In Behar, about two seers are usually sown upon a beggah; in Nepaul, twenty-four seers upon an English acre; in the vicinity of Poonah, one and a-half seer per beggah. Before the seed is sown the land is usually ploughed two or three times, and no further attention given to the crop than two hoeings. In Nepaul, where it is the principal crop cultivated, the seed is sown, after one delving and pulverisation of the soil, in the latter end of May and early part of June, in drills, the seeds being laid at intervals of seven or eight inches in the drills, and the drills an equal space apart. The drills are not raised as for turnip sowing, but consist merely of rows of the plant on a level surface. The seed is distributed in this manner with the view of facilitating the weeding of the crop, not for the purpose of earthing up the roots, which seems unnecessary. The Indian corn sowing resembles that of the _gohya_ (or upland) rice, in the careful manner in which it is performed; the sower depositing each grain in its place, having first dibbled a hole for it five or six inches deep, with a small hand hoe, with which he also covers up the grain. The after-culture of this crop is performed with great care in the valleys, but much neglected in the hills, especially on new and strong lands. In the former it undergoes repeated weeding during the first month of its growth, the earth being loosened round the roots, at each weeding, with the hand hoe. After the first loosening of the soil, which is performed as soon as the plants are fairly above ground, a top dressing of ashes or other manure is given. By this mode the crop gets the immediate benefit of the manure, which otherwise, from the extraordinary rapidity of its growth, could not be obtained by it. In three months from the time of sowing, the seed is ripe. The crop is harvested by cutting off the heads. In Nepaul these are either heaped on a rude scaffolding, near the cultivator's house, or, more commonly, they are suspended from the branches of the trees close by, where, exposed to wind and weather, the hard and tough sheath of the seed cones preserves the grain for many months uninjured. Cattle are voraciously fond of the leaves and stems, which are very sweet, and even the dry straw, which Dr. Buchanan surmises may be the reason why it is not more generally cultivated by the natives, as the difficulty would be great to preserve the crop. So slow is the progress of changes in the regions of India, that near Kaliyachak, though the people give all other straw to their cattle, yet they burn that of maize as unfit for fodder. In Nepaul the stalks, with the leaves attached, often twelve feet long, cut by the sickle, are used as fodder for elephants, bedding for cattle, and as fuel. The maize crop within the hills of Nepaul suffers much from the inroads of bears, which are very numerous in these regions, and extremely partial to this grain. The average return from this crop is seldom below fifty seers, ranging frequently far above it.[42] Maize is increasing in cultivation in Java, and some of the Eastern islands. It is found to have the advantage there over mountain rice, of being more fruitful and hardy, and does not suffer from cold until the mean temperature falls to 45 deg. of Fahrenheit, and no heat is injurious to it. Several varieties of it are known, but for all practical purposes these resolve themselves into two kinds: one, a small grain, requiring five months to ripen, and a larger one, which takes seven to mature. In some provinces of Java it yields a return of 400 or 500 fold. Mr. Crawfurd found, from repeated trials, that in the soil of Mataram, in Java, an acre of land, which afforded a double crop, produced of the smaller grain 848½ lbs. annually. RICE. This is one of the most extensively diffused and useful of grain crops, and supports the greatest number of the human race. The cultivation prevails in Eastern and Southern Asia, and it is also a common article of subsistence in various countries bordering on the Mediterranean. It is grown in the Japan Islands, on all the sea coasts of China, the Philippine and other large Islands of the Indian Archipelago, partially in Ceylon, Siam, India, both shores of the Red Sea, Egypt, the shores of the Mozambique Channel, Madagascar, some parts of Western Africa, South Carolina, and Central America. Three species only are enumerated by Lindley:--_Oryza sativa_, the common rice, a native of the East; _O. latifolia_, a species having its habitat in South America; and _O. Nepalensis_, common in Nepaul. But there are a host of varieties known in the East; these, however, may for all practical purposes, be resolved into two kinds--the upland or mountain rice (_O. Nepalensis_, the _O. mutica_, of Roxburgh), and the lowland or aquatic species (_O. sativa_). _Zizania aquatica_ is exceedingly prolific of bland, farinaceous seeds, which afford a kind of rice in Canada and North-West America, where it abounds wild in all the shallow streams. The seeds contribute essentially to the support of the wandering tribes of Indians, and feed immense flocks of wild swans, geese, and other water fowl. Pinkerton says, this plant seems intended to become the bread-corn of the North. Two other species of Zizania are common in the United States of America. Rice, the chief food, perhaps, of one-third of the human race, possesses the advantage attending wheat, maize, and other grains, of preserving plenty during the fluctuations of trade, and is also susceptible of cultivation on land too low and moist for the production of most other useful plants. Although cultivated principally within the tropics, it flourishes well beyond, producing even heavier and better filled grain. Like many other plants in common use, it is now found wild [it is to be understood that the wild rice, or water oat (_Zizania aquatica_), already referred to, which grows along the muddy shores of tide waters, is a distinct plant from the common rice, and should not be confounded with it], nor is its native country known. Linnæus considers it a native of Ethiopia, while others regard it of Asiatic origin. The chief variety of this cereal is cultivated throughout the torrid zone, wherever there is a plentiful supply of water, and it will mature, under favorable circumstances, in the Eastern continent, as high as the 45th parallel of north latitude, and as far south as the 38th. On the Atlantic side of the Western continent, it will flourish as far north as latitude 38 degrees, and to a corresponding parallel south. On the Western coast of America, it will grow so far north as 40 or more degrees. Its general culture is principally confined to India, China, Japan, Ceylon, Madagascar, Eastern Africa, the South of Europe, the Southern portions of the United States, the Spanish Main, Brazil, and the Valley of Parana and Uruguay. In 1834, 29,583 bags of rice were shipped from Maranham, but I am not aware what have been the exports since. At the Industrial Exhibition in London, in 1851, there were displayed many curious specimens and varieties of rice, grown without irrigation, at elevations of three thousand to six thousand feet on the Himalaya, where the dampness of the summer months compensates for the want of artificial moisture. Among these American rice received not only honorable mention for its very superior quality, but the Carolina rice, exhibited by E.I. Heriot, was pronounced by the jury "magnificent in size, color, and clearness," and it was awarded a prize medal. The jury also admitted that the American rice, though originally imported from the Old World, is now much the finest in quality. This grain was first introduced into Virginia by Sir William Berkeley, in 1647, who received half a bushel of seed, from which he raised sixteen bushels of excellent rice, most or all of which was sown the following year. It is also stated that a Dutch brig, from Madagascar, came to Charleston in 1694, and left about a peck of paddy (rice in the husk), with Governor Thomas Smith, who distributed it among his friends for cultivation. Another account of its introduction into Carolina is, that Ashley was encouraged to send a bag of seed rice to that province, from the crops of which sixty tons were shipped to England in 1698. It soon after became the chief staple of the colony. Its culture was introduced into Louisiana in 1718, by the "Company of the West." The present culture of rice in the United States is chiefly confined to South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas. The yield per acre varies from twenty to sixty bushels, weighing from forty-five to forty-eight pounds when cleaned. Under favorable circumstances as many as ninety bushels to an acre have been raised. Judge Dougherty, who resides near the borders of Henderson county, Texas, has raised a crop of several hundred bushels of upland rice. The crop averages thirty bushels to the acre. He thinks rice can be raised there as easily as Indian corn, and will be far more profitable. Another variety is cultivated in America to a limited extent, called Cochin-China, dry, or mountain rice, from its adaptation to a dry soil, without irrigation. It will grow several degrees further north or south than the Carolina rice, and has been cultivated with success in the Northern provinces of Hungary, China, Westphalia, Virginia and Maryland; but the yield is much less than that already stated, being only fifteen to twenty bushels to an acre. It was first introduced into Charleston, from Canton, by John Brodly Blake, in 1772. The American crop of rice in 1848, reached 162,058 tierces in market, and of these 160,330 tierces were exported from South Carolina. The largest rice crop grown in South Carolina for the past thirty years, was in 1847, when 192,462 tierces were raised; 140,000 to 150,000 is about the average, and it has only exceeded 170,000 on four occasions. The amount of rice exported from South Carolina in 1724, was 18,000 barrels; in 1731, 41,957 barrels; in 1740, 90,110 barrels; in 1747-48, 55,000 barrels; in 1754, 104,682 barrels; in 1760-61, 100,000 barrels; from Savannah, in 1755, 2,299 barrels, besides 237 bushels of paddy or rough rice; in 1760, 3,283 barrels, besides 208 bushels of paddy; in 1770, 22,120 barrels, besides 7,064 bushels of paddy; from Philadelphia, in 1771, 258,375 pounds. The amount exported from the United States, in 1770, was 150,529 barrels; in 1791, 96,980 tierces; in 1800, 112,056 tierces; in 1810, 131,341 tierces; in 1820-21, 88,221 tierces; in 1830-31, 116,517 tierces; in 1840-41, 101,617 tierces; in 1845-46, 124,007 tierces; in 1846-47, 144,427 tierces; in 1850-51, 105,590 tierces. According to the census of 1840, the rice crop of the United States amounted to 80,841,422 lbs.; in 1850, 215,312,710 lbs. Rice being an aquatic plant, is best grown in low moist lands, that are easily inundated. The ground is ploughed superficially, and divided into squares of from twenty to thirty yards in the sides, separated from each other by dykes of earth about two feet in height, and sufficiently broad for a man to walk upon. These dykes are for retaining the water when it is required, and to permit of its being drawn off when the inundation is no longer necessary. The ground prepared, the water is let on, and kept at a certain height in the several compartments of the rice field, and the seedsman goes to work. The rice that is to be used as seed must have been kept in the husk; it is put into a sack, which is immersed in the water until the grain swells and shows signs of germination; the seedsman, walking through the inundated field, scatters the seed with his hand, as usual; the rice immediately sinks to the bottom, and many even penetrate to a certain depth in the mud. In Piedmont, where the sowing takes place at the beginning of April, they generally use about fifty-five pounds of seed per acre. The rice begins to show itself above the surface of the water at the end of a fortnight; as the plant grows, the depth of the water is increased, so that the stalks may not bend with their own weight. About the middle of June this disposition is no longer to be apprehended; the rice is not so flexible as it was, so that the water can be drawn off for a few days to permit hoeing; after which the water is again let on, and maintained to the height of the plant. In July it is usual to top the stalks, an operation which renders the flowering almost simultaneous. Rice generally flowers in the beginning of the month of August, and a fortnight later the grain begins to form. It is at this period especially that the stalks require to be supported, and this is effectually done by keeping the water at about half their height. The rice field is emptied when the straw turns yellow. The harvest generally takes place at the end of September. In the Isle of France rice is cultivated in very damp soils, upon which a great deal of rain falls, but which are not flooded, as in other tropical countries: but the process is not so certain nor the crop so great, as when inundation is employed. In Piedmont the usual return of a rice field is reckoned at about fifty for one. At Munzo, in New Granada, the paddy fields which are not inundated, under the influence of a mean temperature of 26 deg. centrigrade (79.0 deg. Fahrenheit), yield 100 for 1.--(Simmonds's "Colonial Magazine," vol. xi., p. 92.) The rice now grown about New Orleans is as sweet, if not sweeter, than that imported from South Carolina, but it is deficient in hardness and brightness when ready for market, a defect owing entirely to two causes, neither of which is beyond the control of the planter. The one cause is the mode of culture, it being generally grown without due attention to the seed--seeded at too late a period of the season, and allowed to become _rare-ripe_ upon the stalk. The other cause is the very imperfect mode of its preparation for market; this being invariably accomplished by the primitive pestle and mortar, or the old-fashioned "pecker mill." The same seed is planted in the same soil from year to year, a system which, it is generally conceded, will deteriorate the quality and production of any grain crop. A very large proportion of the rice grown in Carolina is prepared for market at the steam toll-mills, in the vicinity of Charleston; and a mill of this description near New Orleans, would remedy the greatest defect in the rice of the country, greatly increase the demand for the article, and undoubtedly yield a large return for the investment. The toll mills at and around Charleston are, and always have been, prosperous. The mills of Mr. Lucas, in England, erected to clean "paddy," _i.e._ "rough rice," sent there in bulk from Carolina, have succeeded also, and have increased the consumption of the article in that country. The "rough rice," "paddy," or grain, as it comes from the ear, is composed, first, of a rough, silicious outer covering, impervious to water, which is very useful in the neighbourhood of cities, for filling up low lots or pools, for horse beds, and for packing crockery and _ice_, being far better for the latter purpose than the sawdust used; second, a brown flour or bran, lying directly under the outer covering; and third, of the clean or white rice. There is no question that, as a common diet, it is better adapted to the climate of Louisiana than Indian corn; and it can be grown on the hitherto _waste lands of the sugar plantations_; it is always substituted by the physician, when practicable, as the food best adapted to the laborer, in seasons of diarrhoea and other similar diseases, is _preferred_ before any other grain by the negro; and if the clean rice be ground and bolted, a meal is produced which can be made up into various forms of cake and other bread, of unrivalled sweetness and delicacy. The outer flour, or brown bran, which is separated from the chaff at the toll mill, is known as "rice flour," and corresponds to the "bran" of wheat, it is a most excellent food for horses, poultry, pigs and _milch cows_, and would always command a ready sale in New Orleans. It is used extensively for these purposes at and around Charleston, and is shipped thence, by the cargo, to Boston and other Northern ports. No portion of the globe is better adapted to the growth of this grain than the delta of the Mississippi. The river is _always_ "up and ready" to do the all-important duty of irrigation in March, April, May, and June, in which period of the year the crop ought to be made; and I am informed, and doubt not, that _two_ cuttings can be obtained from the same plants, between March and the killing frosts of the succeeding November. An interesting report by Dr. E. Elliot, on the Cultivation of Rice, was read before the Pendleton Farmer's Society, South Carolina, at a recent annual meeting, from which I shall make an extract. In "Ramsay's History of South Carolina" it is stated:--"Landgrave Thomas Smith, who was Governor of the Province in 1693, had been at Madagascar before he settled in Carolina. There he observed that rice was planted and grew in low moist ground. Having such ground in his garden, attached to his dwelling in East Bay, Charleston, he was persuaded that rice would grow therein, if seed could be procured. About this time a vessel from Madagascar, being in distress, came to anchor near Sullivan's Island. The master inquired for Mr. Smith, as an old acquaintance. An interview took place. In the course of conversation Mr. Smith expressed a wish to obtain some seed rice to plant in his garden. The cook being called, said that he had a small bag of rice suitable for the purpose. This was presented to Mr. Smith, who sowed it in a low spot in Longitude Lane. From this small beginning did one of the great staple commodities of South Carolina takes its rise, which soon became the chief support of the colony, and its great source of opulence." "Such is the historical account of the introduction of rice into South Carolina; and from that day to this, it has constituted one of her staple articles of production. Although the climate and soil were found admirably suited to the plant, the planters encountered incredible difficulty in preparing or dressing the rice for market. From the day of its introduction, to the close of the Revolution, the grain was milled, or dressed, partly by hand and partly by animal power. But the processes were imperfect, very tedious, very destructive to the laborer, and very exhausting to the animal power. The planter regarded a good crop as an equivocal blessing, for as the product was great so in proportion was the labor of preparing it for market. While matters stood thus, the planters were released from their painful condition by a circumstance so curious that it deserves a place in the history of human inventions. A planter from the Santee, whilst walking in King-street, Charleston, noticed a small windmill perched on the gable end of a wooden store. His attention was arrested by the beauty of its performance. He entered the store and asked who the maker was. He was told that he was a Northumbrian, then resident in the house--a man in necessitous circumstances, and wanting employment. A conference was held; the planter carried the machine to the Santee, pointed out the difficulties under which the planters labored, and the result was the rice pounding-mill. This man was the first Mr. Lucas, and to his genius South Carolina owes a large debt of gratitude. For what the cotton planter owes to Eli Whitney, the rice planter owes to Mr. Lucas. His mills were first impelled by water, but more recently by steam, and though much mechanical ingenuity and much capital have been expended in improving them, the rice pounding-mill of this day, in all essential particulars, does not differ materially from the mill as it came from the hands of Mr. Lucas. This great impediment being removed, one formidable difficulty still remained in the way of the rice planters, and that was the threshing of the crop by flail. The labor requisite to accomplish this was so great, that we once heard a distinguished planter say, while having one large crop threshed out by flail, that he would regard another large crop as a calamity. Previous to 1830 threshing mills had been tried by various individuals, but with no apparent success. In that year the attempt was renewed, and we were present and witnessed the first trial of a thresher, constructed in New York, and which was tested on Savannah river, under the auspices of General Hamilton. The machinery was driven by apparatus similar to that employed for driving the cotton gin. The result was not very satisfactory, but there was ground for hope, and after an outlay of very large sums, and after many disappointments, the happy expedient was thought of, of testing the mill with steam instead of animal power. The experiment was completely successful, and it was manifest at once that the difficulties had not been in the imperfect construction, of the thresher, but in the insufficiency of the moving power. It is now twenty years since we witnessed the working of the small mill alluded to, and the rice threshing-mill, with steam-engine attached, is now a splendid piece of operative machinery. The rice in sheaf is taken up to the thresher by a conveyor, it is threshed, the straw taken off, then thrice winnowed and twice screened, and the result in some cases exceeds a thousand bushels of clean rough rice, the work of a short winter day. Humanity rejoices at these inventions--at this transfer to water and steam, of processes so slow and so exhausting to the human as well as to the animal frame--and in this feeling we are confident every planter deeply sympathises. Moreover, the relief they have afforded in other respects has been perfectly indescribable. Previous to these improvements all the finer portions of the winter were appropriated exclusively to the milling and the threshing of the crop with the flail, yet it is manifest they added not one particle to the value of the property; indeed, while going on, all other work, and all preparation for another crop had to be suspended, so that the condition of the plantation was not progressive, but retrograde. A short recapitulation will show what has been accomplished by the enterprise of our planters in the last seventy years. At the close of the Revolution it is believed the rice fields were poorly drained, and when broken up were chiefly turned with the hoe, then trenched with the hoe; then came three or four hoeings and as many pickings. The rice was then cut with the sickle and carried in on the head, then threshed with the flail, then milled and dressed, in some cases wholly by human labor, and in others by a rude machine, called a pecker mill. Now, in 1852, the hoeing, the pickings, and the cutting with the sickle remain unchanged; but the lands are better drained, and in the turning the plough has superseded the hoe; the trenching, when, necessary, is done by animal power; the rice, when cut, is carried in on a flat and wagon, then threshed and milled by machinery, so perfect that it is difficult to imagine how it can be surpassed. It is one hundred and fifty-nine years since the introduction of rice into Carolina, and there are grounds for supposing that our people have accomplished more during that period, in the cultivation and preparation of this grain, than has been done by any of the Asiatic nations who have been conversant with its growth for many centuries. We had the rare opportunity, a few years since, of seeing a Chinese book on rice planting, which contained many engravings. The language we could not read, but we comprehended a sufficient number of the engravings to institute a comparison between their system and our own, and the result was, in our method of irrigation we were their equals, while in economy of cultivation, and in the preparation of the grain for market and for use, we are greatly their superiors. Again, some six or seven years since the East India Company, of London, sent an agent to this country to procure American cotton seed, gins, and overseers, for the purpose of testing the practicability of raising cotton by our method in India. This agent, Captain Bayles, when in Savannah, was heard to say that he had especial directions from the Company to inform himself minutely of our system of rice culture. Here, then, was an embassage from the banks of the Ganges, a spot where rice has been cultivated probably for twenty centuries, to inquire into the method of cultivation and preparation, of a people amongst whom the grain had no existence one hundred and sixty years ago." The following is the mode of culture for rice in Carolina:--It is sowed as soon as it conveniently can be after the vernal equinox, from which period until the middle, and even the last of May, is the usual time of putting it in the ground. It grows best in low marshy land, and should be sowed in furrows twelve inches asunder; it requires to be flooded, and thrives best if six inches under water; the water is occasionally drained off, and turned on again to overflow it, for three or four times. When ripe the straw becomes yellow, and it is either reaped with a sickle, or cut down with a scythe and cradle, some time in the month of September; after which it is raked and bound, or got up loose, and threshed or trodden out, and winnowed in the same manner as wheat or barley. Husking it requires a different and particular operation, in a mill made for that purpose. This mill is constructed of two large flat wooden cylinders, formed like mill-stones, with channels or furrows cut therein, diverging in an oblique direction from the centre to the circumference, made of a heavy and exceedingly hard timber, called lightwood, which is the knots of the pitch pine. This is turned with the hand, like the common hand-mills. After the rice is thus cleared of the husks, it is again winnowed, when it is fit for exportation. A bushel of rice will weigh about sixty or sixty-six pounds, and an acre of middling land will produce twenty-five bushels. Various machines have been contrived for cleaning rice, of which one secured by patent to Mr. M. Wilson, in 1826, and thus described by Dr. Ure, may be regarded as a fair specimen:--It consists of an oblong hollow cylinder, laid in an inclined position, having a great many teeth stuck in its internal surface, and a central shaft, also furnished with teeth. By the rapid revolution of the shaft, its teeth are carried across the intervals of those of the cylinder, with the effect of parting the grains of rice, and detaching whatever husks or impurities may adhere to them. A hopper is set above to receive the rice, and conduct it down into the clean cylinder. About eighty teeth are supposed to be set in the cylinder, projecting so as to reach very nearly the central shaft, in which there is a corresponding number of teeth, that pass freely between the former. The cylinder may also be placed upright, or horizontal if preferred, and mounted in any convenient framework. The central shaft should be put in rapid rotation, while the cylinder receives a slow motion in the opposite direction. The rice, as cleaned by that action, is discharged at the lower end of the cylinder, where it falls into a shute, and is conducted to the ground. The machine may be driven by hand, or by any other convenient motive power.[43] The growth of rice in North America is almost wholly confined to two States; nine-tenths of the whole product, indeed, being raised in the States of South Carolina and Georgia. A little is grown in North Carolina, Louisiana, and Mississippi. The aggregate crop, for 1843, amounted to 89,879,185 lbs., while in 1847 it had risen to 103,000,000 lbs. Besides the rice which is raised in the water, there is also the dry, or mountain rice, which is raised in some parts of Europe on the sides of the hills. It is said to thrive well in Cochin China, in dry light soils, not requiring more moisture than the usual rains or dews supply. By long culture the German rice, raised by the aid of water, is stated to have acquired a remarkable degree of hardness and adaptation to the climate. The upland rice of the United States is thought by some to be only a modified description of the swamp rice. It will grow on high and poor land, and produce more than Indian corn on the same land would do, even fifteen bushels, when the corn is but seven bushels. The swamp rice was originally cultivated on high land, and is not so now, because it is more productive in the swamp, in the proportion, as is said, of twenty to sixty bushels per acre; and the use of water likewise, it is stated, makes it easier of cultivation, by enabling the planter to kill the grasses. It is thought that on rich high land, rice may be made to produce twenty-five or thirty bushels to an acre in a good season. A letter from a gentleman in North Carolina gives the following account of some rice raised there. He says:-- "I have planted it the two past years with a view to private consumption only; not, however, with the success of my neighbours, who are famous, and have the things under their own management. They make from forty to fifty, and some, sixty bushels to the acre, on fine land that produces ordinarily from ten to fifteen bushels of Indian corn or maize. It is a larger grain than the gold or swamp rice, and very white; hence it is commonly called here the 'white rice.' It is planted generally about the middle of March, or 1st of April, in small ridges two-and-a-half feet apart, in chops at intervals of about eighteen inches, on the top of the ridge, ten or twelve seeds in each chop. A season that will make Indian corn, will, if long enough, make this rice; but it requires about four or five weeks more than the corn to mature. It ought to be cut before quite ripe, as it threshes off very easily, and is liable to great waste. Instead of the flail, we take the sheaf in the hand, and whip it across a bench in a close room until the rice leaves the straw. It does not stand the pestle as well as the swamp rice, but breaks a good deal in the beating; this, however, I have heard attributed to the dry culture." A new variety of rice is mentioned as having been discovered in South Carolina, in 1838, called the big-grained rice. It has been proved to be unusually productive. One gentleman, in 1840, planted not quite half an acre with this seed, which yielded forty-nine and a half bushels of clean winnowed rice. In 1842, he planted 400 acres, and in 1843, he sowed his whole crop with this seed. His first parcel when milled, was eighty barrels, and netted half a dollar per cwt. over the primest rice sold on the same day. Another gentleman also planted two fields in 1839, which yielded seventy-three bushels per acre. The average crop before from the same fields of fifteen and ten acres, had only been thirty-three bushels per acre. The following were the returns of produce on some of the leading estates of South Carolina, in 1848:-- -----------------+----------+-----------+---------+------------+---------- | Barrels | | | | | Shipped | Barrels | |Average Net |Net Income Plantation |__________| of | | Produce | Amount |Whole|Half|600 lbs.net| Weight |per barrel. | Dollars -----------------+-----+----+-----------+---------+------------+---------- 1. Prospect Hill |1,387| 10 | 1,495½ | 897,166|16 08-100ths| 24,001 2. Springfield | 737| 5 | 801½ | 480,937|16 60-100ths| 13,264 3. Brook Green |1,571| 15 | 1,716 |1,026,405|16 53-100ths| 28,261 4. Longwood |1,113| 4 | 1,227½ | 736,413|15 53-100ths| 19,021 5. Alderly | 484| 6 | 533 | 319,912|16 68-100ths| 8,851 -----------------+-----+----+-----------+---------+------------+---------- Total |5,292| 40 | 5,773½ |3,460,833| | 93,398 -----------------+-----+----+-----------+---------+------------+---------- Nos. 2 and 3 were sown with long grain rice, the others with small grain. These plantations were all on the river Waccamaw. The expenses of a well supplied rice plantation may be stated at 33-1/3 per cent. on the net income. A gentleman from the United States, named Colvin, proposes to establish the cultivation of rice in the colony of Demerara. This is no new experiment, rice having been already grown with success in several parts of the colony--for instance, in Leguan, up the Canje Creek, and elsewhere; and some of it is of superior quality, preferable, indeed, to that imported. If Mr. Colvin's object be not merely to demonstrate the practicability of rice being grown in British Guiana, but to promote its cultivation on such a scale as may tend to render it in time one of the staples of the colony, he is deserving of support, and I hope that his efforts will be crowned with complete success. The editor of the _Gazeta_, a local paper, has been shown some sprigs of rice raised near Matanzas, in Cuba, the smallest of which contains at least three hundred grains, perfectly opened, and of a larger size than is usually produced on the island. He observes that this phenomenon is not limited to a certain number of sprigs, but that the whole crop is similar--that this excess of production is to be attributed to the extraordinary abundance of rain this year. "Here we have a specimen," says the editor, "of the enormous production that could be raised in our fields of this excellent and nutritious grain, if it were cultivated in places contiguous to the rivers, where it could be flowed during drought." The experiment of cultivating rice in France appears to have succeeded perfectly. A piece of ground of 100 hectares in extent (250 acres) was sown with rice last year in the lands of Arcachon, near Bordeaux, and the crop proved a highly satisfactory one. The seed is sown about the middle of April, and almost immediately appears above ground. Rice may be kept a very long period in the rough--I believe a lifetime. After being cleaned, if it be prime rice, and well milled, it will keep a long time in this climate; only when about to be used (if old) it requires more careful washing to get rid of the must, which accumulates upon it. Some planters--the writer among the number--prefer for table use rice a year old to the new. The grain is superior to any other provisions in this respect. If a laborer in the gold diggings, or elsewhere, takes with him two days' or a week's provisions, in rice, and his wallet happens to get wet, he has only to open it to the sun and air, and he will find it soon dries, and is not at all injured for his purpose. Rough rice may remain under water twenty-four hours without injury, if dried soon after. Passing eastward, rice begins to be found cultivated in Egypt, becomes more general in Northern India, and holds undisputed rule in the peninsulas of India, in China, Japan, and the East India islands--shares it in the west coast of Africa with maize, which, on the other hand, is the exclusively cultivated corn plant of the greatest part of tropical America, with only some unimportant exceptions. On the coast of Africa rice ripens in three months; they put it under water when cut, where it keeps sound and good for some time. Rice is now the staple commodity of Bourbon, and it produces about 26,000 quintals annually. It forms, together with maize and mandioc, the principal article of food amongst the negroes and colored people. _The Bhull rice lands of Lower Sind_.--Like all large rivers which flow through an alluvial soil, for a very lengthened course, the Indus has a tendency to throw up patches of alluvial deposit at its mouth; and these are in Sind called _bhulls_, and are in general very valuable for the cultivation of the red rice of the country. These _bhulls_ are large tracts of very muddy swampy land, almost on a level with the sea, and exposed equally to be flooded both by it and the fresh water; indeed on this depends much of the value of the soil, as a _bhull_ which is not at certain times well covered with salt water, is unfit for cultivation. They exist on both sides of the principal mouths of the Indus, in the Gorabaree and Shahbunder pergunnas, which part of the province is called by the natives "Kukralla," and was in olden days, before the era of Goolam Shah Kalora, a small state almost independent of the Ameers of Sind. On the left bank of the mouths of the river these _bhulls_ are very numerous and form by far the most fertile portion of the surrounding district. They bear a most dreary, desolate, and swampy appearance--are intersected in all directions by streams of salt and brackish water, and are generally surrounded by low dykes or embankments, in order to regulate the influx and reflux of the river and sea. Yet from these dreary swamps a very considerable portion of the rice consumed in Sind is produced; and the Zemindars, who hold them, are esteemed amongst the most respectable and wealthy in Lower Sind. To visit a _bhull_ is no easy matter. Route by land there is none, and the only way is to go by boat, in which it is advisable to take at least one day's provisions and water, as the time occupied in the inspection will be regulated entirely by the state of the tide and weather. Very difficult is it too, to land on any of these places, the mud being generally two or three feet deep, and it is only here and there that a footing can be secured, in the embankment surrounding the field. Let me now describe the mode of cultivating these anomalous islands, floating as it were in the ocean, and deriving benefit both from it and the mighty river itself, whose offspring they are. Should the river during the high season have thrown up a _bhull_, the Zemindar selecting it for cultivation, first surrounds it with a low bund of mud, which is generally about three feet in height. When the river has receded to its cold weather level, and the _bhull_ is free of fresh water (for be it remembered, that these _bhulls_ being formed during the inundation, are often considerably removed from the river branches during the low season), he takes advantage of the first high spring tide, opens the bund and allows the whole to be covered with the salt water. This is generally done in December. The sea water remains on the land for about nine weeks, or till the middle of February, which is the proper time for sowing the seed. The salt water is now let out, and as the ground cannot, on account of the mud, be ploughed, buffaloes are driven over every part of the field, and a few seeds of the rice thrown into every footmark; the men employed in sowing being obliged to crawl along the surface on their bellies, with the basket of seed on their backs; for were they to assume an upright position, they would inevitably be bogged in the deep swamp. The holes containing the seed are not covered up, but people are placed on the bunds to drive away birds, until the young grain has well sprung up. The land is not manured, the stagnant salt water remaining on it being sufficient to renovate the soil. The rice seed is steeped in water, and then in dung and earth for three or four days, and is not sown until it begins to sprout. The farmer has now safely got over his sowing, and as this rice is not as in other cases transplanted, his next anxiety is to get a supply of fresh water; and for this he watches for the freshes which usually come down the river about the middle and end of February, and if the river then reaches his _bhull_, he opens his bund, and fills the enclosure with the fresh water. The sooner he gets this supply the better, for the young rice will not grow in salt water, and soon withers if left entirely dry. The welfare of the crop now depends entirely on the supply of fresh water. A very high inundation does not injure the _bhull_ cultivation, as here the water has free space to spread about. In fact the more fresh water the better. If, however, the river remains low in June, July, and August, and the south-west monsoon sets in heavily on the coast, the sea is frequently driven over the _bhulls_ and destroys the crops. It is in fact a continual struggle between the salt water and the fresh. When the river runs out strong and full, the _bhulls_ prosper, and the sea is kept at a distance. On the other hand, the salt water obtains the supremacy when the river is low, and then the farmer suffers. In this manner much _bhull_ crop was destroyed in the monsoons of 1851 and 1852, during the heavy gales which prevailed in those seasons. The rice is subject to attacks also of a small black sea crab, called by the natives _Kookaee_, and which, without any apparent cause, cuts down the growing grain in large quantities, and often occasions much loss. The crop when ripe, which, if all goes well will be about the third week in September, is reaped in the water by men, either in boats, or on large masses of straw rudely shaped like a boat, and which being made very tight and close, will float for a considerable time. The rice is carried ashore to the high land, where it is dried, and put through the usual harvest process of division, &c.: and the _bhull_ is then on the fall of the river again ready for its annual pickling. The process of preparing the field for rice culture, in the Kandian country, Ceylon, is very simple. When the paddy is to be cultivated in mud, a piece of ground is enclosed in a series of squares or terraces, by ridges raised with mud and turf; a quantity of water is directed into the field from an adjacent stream or tank, and is allowed to remain on it for fifteen days; at the expiration of this time the field is ploughed with a yoke of buffaloes, which operation is repeated at the end of fifteen days more, when, by the rotting of the weeds and other matter, the field has become manured. After another interval of fifteen days the field is again ploughed and the broken ridges are repaired. Eight days after the field is harrowed, and subsequently rolled or levelled; and when the water has been let out the seed is sown, having in most instances been previously made to germinate, by being spread on platforms and kept wet. The water is turned in during night, to prevent crabs and insects from destroying the seedlings, and let out during the day; and this they continue to do till the plants attain the height of one foot. Water is only retained in the field until the ears are half ripe, otherwise they would ripen indifferently and be destroyed by vermin. A variety of coast paddy, called "moottoo samboo," was introduced into the Kandian province in 1832, which was found to produce a more abundant crop, by one third, than the native. It is of six months growth. In Kashmir rice is the staple of cultivation, and the practice adopted there is thus described by a writer in my "Colonial Magazine," vol. x. p. 130. It is sown in the beginning of May, and is fit to cut about the end of August. The grain is either sown broadcast in the place where it is intended to stand till it is ripe, or thickly in beds, from which it is transplanted when the blade is about a foot high. As soon as the season will admit after the 21st of March, the land is opened by one or more ploughings, according to its strength, and the clods are broken down by blows with wooden mattocks, managed in general by women, with great regularity and address; after which water is let in upon the soil, which for the most part of a reddish clay, or foxy earth, is converted into a smooth soft mud. The seed grain, put into a sack of woven grass, is submerged in a running stream until it begins to sprout, which happens sooner or later, according to the temperature of the water and of the atmosphere, but ordinarily takes place in three or four days. This precaution is adopted for the purpose of getting the young shoots as quickly as possible out of the way of a small snail, which abounds in some of the watered lands of Kashmir, but sometimes proves insufficient to defend it against the activity of this destructive enemy. When the farmer suspects, by the scanty appearance of the plants above the water in which the grain has been sown, and by the presence of the snail drawn up in the mud, that his hopes of a crop are likely to be disappointed, he repeats the sowing, throwing into the water some fresh leaves of the Prangos plant, which either poison the snails or cause them to descend out of the reach of its influence. The seed is for the most part thrown broadcast into about four or five inches of water, which depth is endeavoured to be maintained. Difference of practice exists as to watering, but it seems generally agreed that rice can scarcely have too much water, provided it be not submerged, except for a few days before it ripens, when a dried state is supposed to hasten and to perfect the maturity, whilst it improves the quality of the grain. In general the culture of rice is attended with little expense, although dearer in Kashmir than Hindostan, from its being customary in the former country to manure the rice-lands, which is never done in the latter. This manure, for the most part, consists of rice straw rejected by the cattle, and mixed with cow-dung. It is conveyed from the homestead to the fields by women, in small wicker baskets, and is set on the land with more liberality than might have been expected from the distance it is carried. Many of the ripe lands are situated much higher than might be thought convenient in Hindostan, and are rather pressed into this species of culture than naturally inviting, but still yield good crops, through the facility with which water is brought upon them from the streams which fall down the face of the neighbouring hills. In common seasons the return of grain is from thirty to forty for one, on an average, besides the straw. The rice of Bengal, by the exercise of some care and skill, has recently been so far improved as nearly to equal that of the Carolinas. Dr. Falconer has introduced into India the numerous and fine varieties of rice cultivated in the Himalayas; of these some of the best sorts were at his suggestion distributed to cultivators along the Doab canal. A species of hill rice grows on the edge of the Himalaya mountains. The mountain rices of India are grown without irrigation, at elevations of 3,000 to 6,000 feet on the Himalaya, where the dampness of the summer months compensates for the want of artificial moisture. The small reddish Assamese rices, which become gelatinous in boiling, and the large, flat-grained, soft, purple-black Ketana rice, of Java and Malacca, shown at the Great Exhibition, were curious. The fertility of the province of Arracan is very great, its soil being fit for the culture of nearly all tropical productions; rice, however, is alone cultivated to any great extent; the low alluvial soil which extends over the whole country, from the foot of the mountains to the sea, being admirably suited for its growth. About 115 square miles are under culture with rice. The export trade in rice of the district, is seen by the following statistical return; and it gives employment to from 400 to 700 vessels, aggregating 60,000 to 80,000 tons. QUANTITY OF PADDY AND RICE EXPORTED FROM AKYAB, THE PORT OF ARRACAN. -------+---------+-------+---------+---------------------------------- | | | |Average price per 100 baskets | | | Total | of 12 seers, in Rupees |Maunds of|Maunds | value +------------------+--------------- | Paddy |of rice| Rupees | Rice | Paddy -------+---------+-------+---------+------------------+--------------- 1831-32| 380,600| 28,970| 130,591| 15.4 to 16.6 | 8 to 9 1832-33| 502,740|175,560| 232,915| 16 17 | 7.5 8 1833-34| 555,540|418,950| 430,830| 19 20 | 9 10 1834-35| 127,050|260,650| 176,717| 18 19 | 8 9 1835-36| 783,870|548,460| 354,791| 10 11 | 5 5.8 1836-37|1,737,841|641,010| 666,732| 10.8 12 | 5 6 1837-38|1,621,566|248,783| 650,385| 21 23 | 9 10.8 1838-39|1,364,100|332,380| 821,168| 24 25.1 | 8.8 11.12 1839-40|2,033,698|529,961|1,121,311| 21.8 23 | 9.8 10 1840-41|2,212,068|446,941|1,131,087| 20 21.8 |10 11 1841-42|1,265,388|270,000| 553,014| 19 20 | 8 9 1842-43|1,310,900|393,900| 472,889| 14 15 | 7.8 8 1843-44| 848,922|707,780| 633,710| 17 18 | 7 8 -------+---------+-------+---------+------------------+---------------- (" Colonial Magazine," vol. vi., p. 348.) EXPORT OF RICE FROM MOULMEIN Baskets Value 1840 67,318 38,708 1841 11,175 6,900 1842 64,055 40,034 1843 35,635 35,289 1844 71,822 44,529 1845 149,815 73,034 1846 193,267 101,465 --(Simmonds's "Colonial Magazine," vol. xii., p. 462.) From Tavoy and Mergui rice was also exported, equal in value to 41,000 rupees, in 1846; 100 baskets of 12 seers each, are equal to 30 Bengal maunds. The basket of rice named above, is equal to 55½ lbs. English. Paddy means rice in the husk--rice, the grain when unhusked--a distinction to be kept in mind. The daily average consumption of rice in a family of five, is rated in the Straits' settlements at three and a quarter chupahs. The Burmese and Siamese are the grossest consumers of rice. A common laboring Malay requires monthly 30 chupahs, or 56 pounds of rice, value 3s. 9d. or 4s. The Burmese and Siamese about 34 chupahs, or 64 pounds. Rice land in Penang yields a return which cannot be averaged higher than seventy-five fold--or nearly thirty guntangs of paddy for each orlong (1-1/3 acres); but it has been considered advisable to rate it here at sixty fold only. The rice land of Province Wellesley gives an average return of 117½ fold; the maximum degree of productiveness being 600 guntangs of paddy to an orlong of well flooded, alluvial land, or 150 fold, equal to 300 guntangs of clean rice, weighing nearly 4,520 English pounds. The present average produce has been very moderately estimated at 470 guntangs the orlong of paddy. The quantity of seed invariably allotted for an orlong of land is four guntangs. In Siam forty fold is estimated a good average produce. At Tavoy, on the Tenasserim coast, the maximum rate of productiveness of the rice land was, in 1825, and is still believed to be, nearly the same as the average of Siam; while their _average_ was only twenty-fold.--(Low, on "Straits Settlements.") Rice in Cochin-China is the "staff of life," and forms the main article of culture. There are six different sorts grown; two on the uplands, used for confectionery, and yielding only one crop annually; the other sorts affording from two to five crops a year; but generally two, one in April and another in October; or three when the inundations have been profuse. The late Dr. Gutzlaff stated, at a meeting of the Statistical Society of London, that the population of China was about 367,000,000, and the returns of the land subject to tax as used in rice cultivation there, gave nearly half an acre to each living person; and he further stated that in the southern and well watered provinces, it is anything but uncommon to take two crops of rice, one of wheat, and one of pulse, from the same land in a single season. Rice is the only article the Chinese ever offer a bounty for; the price fluctuates according to the seasons, from one and three-quarter dollars to eight dollars per picul. Siam and the Indian Islands, particularly Bali and Lombok, supply the empire occasionally with large quantities. The price of rice in China varies according to the state of the canals leading to the interior; if they are full of water the prices rise; if on the contrary they are low, prices fall in proportion at the producing districts. The amount of consumption is controlled, in a considerable degree, by the cost of transit; when this is cheap prices rise from the general demand; but when land-carriage to any extent has to be resorted to, they fall; it raises prices so much at any great distance, that rice must be used very sparingly, from its enhanced price. It is obvious that if the waters are sufficiently high to allow a boat to pass fully loaded, she does so at an expense of nearly 50 per cent, less than she would do, if, from want of water, she could only take half the quantity; when transport is cheap every one obtains a full supply; when it is dear the rice districts have more than they can consume. At home we are so much accustomed to the facilities of transit offered by railroads, canal boats, &c., that we do not readily take into consideration, that in China, except by water, all articles are conveyed from one place to another on men's shoulders. Taking the population of Canton at the usual estimate of a million, and allowing to each a catty a day, the quantity of rice required for one day's consumption alone in that city would be 10,000 piculs, of 133 lbs. each = 1,340,000 lbs. Java is the granary of plenty for all the Eastern Archipelago; and the Dutch East India Company occupies itself in this culture with solicitude, well persuaded that a scarcity of rice might be fatal to its power. Ordinances to encourage and increase this branch of agriculture, have been promulgated at different times by an authority called to watch over the physical well-being of many millions of inhabitants. As an evident proof that the culture of rice, of which it would be difficult to fix the quantity produced annually, increases considerably, I may mention that the exportation from Java, in 1840, was 1,488,350 piculs of 125 Dutch lbs. Rice is cultivated in Java in three systems. The name of _sawah_ is given to the rice fields, which can be irrigated artificially; _tepar_, or _tagal_, are elevated but level grounds; and _gagah_, or _ladang_, are cleared forest grounds. The two last only give one crop; a second crop may be obtained from the _sawah_, which then most commonly consists of _katjang_, from which oil is extracted, in _kapus_ or fine cotton, and in _ubie_, a kind of potato. There are, says Mr. Crawfurd, two distinct descriptions of rice cultivated throughout the Indian islands, one which grows without the help of immersion in water, and another for which that immersion is indispensably requisite. In external character there is very little difference between them, and in intrinsic value not much. The marsh rice generally brings a somewhat higher price in the market. The great advantage of this latter consists in its superior fecundity. Two very important varieties of each are well known to the Javanese husbandman, one being a large productive, but delicate grain, which requires about seven months to ripen, and the other a small, hardy, and less fruitful one, which takes little more than five months. The first we constantly find cultivated in rich lands, where one annual crop only is taken; and the last in well watered lands, but of inferior fertility, where two crops may be raised. Both of these, but particularly the marsh rice, is divided into a great number of sub-varieties, characterised by being awned or otherwise, having a long or round grain, or being in color black, red, or white. The most singular variety is the _O. glutinosa_, of Rumphius. This is never used as bread, but commonly preserved as a sweetmeat. The rudest, and probably the earliest practised mode of cultivating rice, consists in taking from forest lands a fugitive crop, after burning the trees, grass, and underwood. The ground is turned up with the mattock, and the seed planted by dibbling between the stumps of trees. The period of sowing is the commencement of the rains, and of reaping that of the dry season. The rice is of course of that description which does not require immersion. The second description of tillage consists also in growing mountain or dry land rice. This mode is usually adopted on the common upland arable lands, which cannot conveniently be irrigated. The grain is sown in the middle of the dry season, either broadcast or by dibbling, and reaped in seven or five months, as the grain happens to be the larger or the smaller variety. The culture of rice by the aid of the periodical rains forms the third mode. The grain being that kind which requires submersion, the process of sowing and reaping is determined with precision by the seasons. With the first fall of the rains the lands are ploughed and harrowed. The seed is sown in beds, usually by strewing very thickly the corn in the ear. From these beds the plants, when 12 or 14 days old, are removed into the fields and thinly set by the hand. They are then kept constantly immersed in water until within a fortnight of the harvest, when it is drawn off to facilitate the ripening of the grain. The fourth mode of cultivating rice is by forcing a crop by artificial irrigation, at any time of the year; thus, in one field, in various plots, the operations of sowing, ploughing, transplanting, and reaping may be seen at the same period. The fertile, populous, and industrious countries of the Eastern Archipelago export rice to their neighbours. The most remarkable of these are Java, Bali, some parts of Celebes, with the most fertile spots of Sumatra, and of the Malay Peninsula. Rice is generally imported to these western countries from those farther east, such as the Spice Islands. Java is the principal place of production for the consumption of the other islands, and the only island of the Archipelago that sends rice _abroad_. The rice of the eastern districts is generally superior to that of the western. The worst rice is that of Indramayu, which is usually discolored. The subdivision of the province of Cheribon, called Gabang, yields rice of fine white grain, equal to that of Carolina. The rice of Gressie preserves best. All Indian rice is classed, in commercial language, into the three descriptions of table rice, white rice, and cargo rice. From the limited demand for the first, it is only to be had in Java, in small quantity. For the same reason the second is not procurable in large quantity, unless bespoken some time before-hand; but the third may be had at the shortest notice in any quantity required. Java rice is inferior in estimation to that of Bengal or Carolina in the markets of Europe. The following statistics show the extent and progress of the culture in Java:-- In 1840. In 1841. --------- ---------- No. of Residencies in which rice is cultivated 18 18 " Regencies 69 68 " Districts 414 414 " Desas or villages 39,931 36,296 Amount of the population who take a part in it, without distinction of caste 6,704,797 6,857,372 Number of families, &c. 1,466,845 1,475,675 " " families who devote themselves to the cultivation 1,150,406 1,146,083 Number of men bound to obligatory service 1,321,767 1,325,746 Cleared grounds in _bahus_, of 71 decametres 1,470,047 1,540,054 Upon this extent the population had cultivated for the government, in _bahus_ of 71 decametres 78,182 74,277 Extent of fields which the population had cultivated 1,286,139 1,381,216 on their own account, in _bahus_, &c. Extent of land in fallow in _bahus_, &c. 105,726 84,561 Produce in piculs of fields cultivated by the population on its own account 21,273,278 23,810,573 Average produce of a _bahu_ 16½ 17 Gross amount of the land tax of 1840 8,502,402 fl 9,030,761 fl. Extent of rice fields newly cultivated in _bahus_ 10,328 13,561 This comparative summary shows that the culture of rice increases yearly, and that the average produce of the fields is also continually increasing. These results have been obtained by the attention paid to the proper irrigation of the soil fit for this culture; and to the hydraulic works which the Government executes on its own account in the parts of the island where rice fields can be established, and where they are required to feed a population whose number is still increasing yearly. I have seen, continues Mr. Crawfurd, lands which have produced, from time beyond the memory of any living person, two yearly crops of rice. When this practice is pursued, it is always the five-months grain which is grown. The rapid growth of this variety, has, indeed, enabled the Javanese husbandman, in a few happy situations, to urge the culture to the amount of six crops in two years and a half. Rice cultivated in a virgin soil, where the wood has been burnt off, will, under favorable circumstances, give a return of twenty-five and thirty fold. Of mountain rice, cultivated in ordinary upland arable lands, fifteen fold may be looked upon as a good return. In fertile soils, when one crop only is taken in the year, marsh rice will yield a return of twenty-five seeds. When a double crop is taken, not more than fifteen or sixteen can be expected. In the fine province of Kadu, an English acre of good land, yielding annually one green crop and a crop of rice, was found to produce of the latter 641 lbs. of clean grain. In the light sandy, but well watered lands of the province of Mataram, where it is the common practice to exact two crops of rice yearly without any fallow, an acre was found to yield no more than 285 lbs. of clean rice, or an annual produce of 570 lbs. --("History of the Indian Archipelago.") The low estimation of Java rice is not attributable to any real inferiority in the grain, but to the mode of preparing it for the market. In husking it, it is, for the want of proper machinery, much broken, and, from carelessness in drying, subject to decay from the attack of insects and worms. When in the progress of improvement more intelligent methods are pursued in preparing the grain for the market, it will equal the grain of any other country. Machinery must be employed for husking the grain, and some degree of kiln drying will be necessary to ensure its preservation in a long voyage. I know nowhere that rice is so cheap as in Java, except in Siam, whence it is exported at one-third less cost. A great deal of rice is exported from Siam to China by the junks, and also occasionally a little from Java. The quantity exported from Java in 1830 was 13,521 coyans. " " 1835 " 25,577 " " " 1839 " 1,103,378 piculs " " 1841 " 676,213 " " " 1843 " 1,108,774 " Rice is grown to some extent in the Dutch portion of Celebes; it yields at a minimum one hundred and fifty fold. The average annual delivery of rice to the Government, from 1838 to 1842, was 3,390,119 lbs. At present the Government pays sixty cents for a measure of forty pounds. That which is sold for the consumption of the inhabitants may be procured at the public warehouse for a guilder the 35½ lbs.; and that which is sold for export may be had at public auction for 125 florins the coyan of 3,000 lbs. The following description of some varieties of rice cultivated in the Philippine islands, is given by Mr. Rich, botanist to the United States Exploring Expedition. The varieties are very numerous; the natives distinguish them by the size and shape of their grain:-- _Binambang_.--Leaves slightly hairy; glumes whitish; grows to the height of about five feet; flowers in December: aquatic. _Lamuyo_ greatly resembles the above; is more extensively cultivated, particularly in Batangas, where it forms the principal article of food of the inhabitants of the coast: aquatic. _Malagcquit_.--This variety derives its name from its being very glutinous after bailing; it is much used by the natives in making sweet or fancy dishes; and also used in making a whitewash, mixed with lime, which is remarkable for its brilliancy, and for withstanding rain, &c.: aquatic. _Bontot Cabayo_.--Common in Ilocos, where it is cultivated both upland and lowland; it produces a large grain, and is therefore much esteemed, but has rather a rough taste. _Dumali, or early rice_.--This rice is raised in the uplands exclusively, and derives its name from ripening its grain three months from planting; the seed is rather broader and shorter than the other varieties; it is not extensively cultivated, as birds and insects are very destructive to it. _Quinanda_, with smooth leaves.--This variety is held in great estimation by the people of Batangas, as they say it swells more in boiling than any other variety; it is sown in May, and gathered in October: upland. _Bolohan_.--This variety has very hairy glumes; it is not held in much esteem by the natives, but it is cultivated on account of its not being so liable to the attacks of insects and diseases as most of the other upland varieties. _Malagcquit_.--With smooth leaves, and red glumes (all the preceding are whitish); possesses all the qualities of the aquatic variety of the same name--that of being very glutinous after boiling. This rice is said to be a remedy for worms in horses, soaked in water, with the hulls on; it is given with honey and water. _Tangi_.--Leaves slightly hairy, glumes light violet color. This upland variety is held in much esteem for its fine flavor. 435,067 arrobas of rice were exported from Manilla in 1847. A simple but rude mill is in use in Siam, and many parts of India, for hulling paddy, which is similar to those used 4,000 years ago. It consists of two circular stones, two feet in diameter, resting one on the other; a bamboo basket is wrought around the upper one, so as to form the hopper. A peg is firmly set into the face of the upper stone, half way between its periphery and centre, having tied to it by one end a stick three feet long, extended horizontally, and attached by the other to another stick pending from the roof of the shed under which the mill is placed. This forms a crank, by which the upper stone is made to revolve on the other set firmly on the ground. The motion throws the rice through the centre of the stone, and causes it to escape between the edges of the two. More starch is contained in this grain than in wheat. Braconnet obtained from Carolina rice 85.07, and from Piedmont rice 83.8 per cent. of starch. Vogel procured from a dried rice no less than 98 per cent. of starch. There are several patent processes in existence for the manufacture of rice-starch, which are accomplished chiefly by digesting rice in solutions, more or less strong, of caustic alkali (soda), by which the gluten is dissolved and removed, leaving an insoluble matter composed of starch, and a white substance technically called fibre. Under Jones's patent, the alkaline solution employed contains 200 grains of real soda in every gallon of liquor, and 150 gallons of this liquor are requisite to convert 100 lbs. of rice into starch. In manufacturing rice-starch on a large scale, Patna rice yields 80 per cent, of marketable starch, and 8.2 per cent. of fibre, the remaining 11.8 per cent. being made up of gluten, gruff, or bran, and a small quantity of light starch carried off in suspension by the solution. Jones's process may be thus described:--100 lbs. of rice are macerated for 24 hours in 50 gallons of the alkaline solution, and afterwards washed with cold water, drained, and ground. To 100 gallons of the alkaline solution are then to be added 100 lbs. of ground rice, and the mixture stirred repeatedly during 24 hours, and then allowed to stand for about 70 hours to settle or deposit. The alkaline solution is to be drawn off, and to the deposit cold water is to be added, for the double purpose of washing out the alkali and for drawing off the starch from the other matters. The mixture is to be well stirred up and then allowed to rest about an hour for the fibre to fall down. The liquor holding the starch in suspension is to be drawn off and allowed to stand for about 70 hours for the starch to deposit. The waste liquor is now to be removed, and the starch stirred up, blued (if thought necessary), drained, dried, and finished in the usual way.[44] Rice is imported into this country in bags of 1½ cwt., and tierces of 6 cwt., not only for edible purposes, but, when ground into flour, for cotton manufactures, in aiding to form the weaver's dressings for warps. Rice-meal is commonly used for feeding pigs. Imported. British Retained for home Plantation. Foreign. consumption of all kinds. Bags. Bags. Bags. 1843 136,319 35,125 60,965 1844 127,876 69,112 126,733 1845 173,794 5,713 114,933 Tons. Tons. Tons. 1847 38,736 3,033 28,375 1848 21,226 4,631 15,468 1849 19,397 1,410 14,961 Total imported. Re-exported. 1849 976,196 cwts. 290,732 cwts. " in the husk 31,828 qrs. 1850 785,451 cwts. 248,136 " " in the husk 37,150 qrs. 1851 714,847 cwts. 345,677 " " in the husk 31,481 qrs. 1852 989,316 cwts. 414,507 " " in the husk 23,946 qrs. The quantity of rice retained for home consumption, by the corrected returns, in 1850, was 401,018 cwts. and 35,119 quarters; in 1851, 399,170 cwts. and 31,481 quarters; in 1852, 574,809 cwts. and 23,946 quarters. The aggregate imports range from 40,000 to 80,000 tons annually, of which about 500 to 800 tons are in the husk. Among culmiferous plants and legumes used in the East, are the _Panicum italicum_, _P. miliaceum_, _Eleusine coracana_ (the meal of which is baked and eaten in Ceylon under the name of Corakan flour), and _Paspalum_ of several varieties. The pigeon pea (_Cytisus Cajan_), and a very valuable and prolific species of bean, called the Mauritius black bean (_Mucuna utilis_), growing even in the poorest soil, is cultivated in India and Ceylon. _Sorghum vulgare_ is the principal grain of Southern Arabia, and the stems are also used extensively for feeding cattle. The plant bears its Indian name of joar, or juri, and is cultivated throughout Western Hindostan. Job's tears (_Croix lachryma_) is another cereal grass, native of the East Indies. MILLET. Millet of different kinds is met with in the hottest parts of Africa, in the South of Europe, in Asia Minor, and in the East Indies. It is a small yellowish seed, growing in dense panicles or clusters, the produce of a grassy plant with large and compact seeds, growing to the height, in India, of seven or eight feet. The millets, known to Europeans as _petit mais_, are tropical or sub-tropical crops. In India they hold a second rank to rice alone; and in Egypt, perhaps, surpass all other crops in importance. In Western Africa they are the staff of life. The red and white millets shown by Austria, Russia, and the United States, at the Great Exhibition, were beautiful, and Ceylon exhibited fair samples. Turkey abounds in small grains. _Panicum miliaceum_ and _P. frumentaceum_ are the species grown in the East Indies. Loudon says there are three distinct species of millet; the Polish, the common or German, and the Indian. _Setaria Germanica_ yields German millet. The plants are readily increased by division of the roots or by seed, and will grow in any common soil. The native West Indian species are _P. fascisculatwm_ and _oryzoides_. Millet receives some attention in New South Wales. In 1844 there were 100 acres of land under cultivation with it, and the amount grown in some years in this colony has been about 3,500 bushels. In the United States millet is chiefly grown for making hay, being found a good substitute for clover and the ordinary grasses. It is a plant which will flourish well on rather thin soils, and it grows so fast that when it is up and well set it is seldom much affected by drought. It is commonly sown there in June, but the time of sowing will vary with the latitude. Half a bushel of seed to the acre is the usual quantity, sown broadcast and harrowed in. For the finest quantity of hay, it is thought advisable to sow an additional quantity of three or four quarts of seed. The ordinary yield of crops may be put at from a ton to a ton and a half of hay to the acre. It should be cut as soon as it is out of blossom; if it stands later, the stems are liable to become too hard to make good hay. The variety known as German millet is that most common in North America. It grows ordinarily to the height of about three feet, with compact heads from six to nine inches in length, bearing yellow seed. There are some sub-varieties of this, as the white and purple-seeded. The Italian millet, _Setaria italica_, is larger than the preceding, reaching the height of four feet in tolerable soil, and its leaves are correspondingly larger and thicker. The heads are sometimes a foot or more in length, and are less compact than the German, being composed of several spikes slightly branching from the main stem. It is said to derive its specific name from being cultivated in Italy, though its native habitat is India. It is claimed by some that this variety will yield more seed than any other, and the seed is rather larger, but the stalk is coarser, and would probably be less relished by stock. If the greatest amount of seed is desired from the crop, it is best to sow it in drills, two to two-and-a-half feet apart, using a seed drill for the purpose. This admits of the use of a small harrow or cultivator between the rows, while the plants are small, which keeps out the weeds. The crop will ripen more uniformly in this way than broadcast, and enables the cultivator to cut it when there will be the least waste. The seed shatters out very easily when it is ripe, and when the crop ripens unequally it cannot be cut without loss, because either a portion of it will be immature, or, if left till it is all ripe, the seed of the earliest falls out. It should be closely watched, and cut in just about the same stage that it is proper to cut wheat, while the grain may be crushed between the fingers. It may be cut with a grain cradle, and, when dry, bound and shocked like grain; but it should be threshed out as soon as practicable, on account of its being usually much attacked by birds, many kinds of which are very fond of the seed. In particular localities they assail the crop in such numbers, from the time it is out of the "milk," till it is harvested and carried off the field, that it is no object to attempt to ripen it. This crop is sometimes sown in drills, when it is only intended for fodder, being cut and cured in bundles, as the stalks of Indian corn are. It is best to pass it through a cutting machine before feeding it to stock; indeed, all millet hay will be fed with less loss in this way, than if fed to animals without cutting. The seed is used in various European countries as a substitute for sago, for which it is considered excellent. It is likewise a valuable food for poultry, particularly for young chickens, which from the smallness of the grain can eat it readily, and it appears to be wholesome for them. In some countries millet seed is ground into flour and converted into bread; but this is brown and heavy. It is, however, useful in other respects, as a substitute for rice. A good vinegar has been made from it by fermentation, and, on distillation, it yields a strong spirit. Millet seed--the produce of _H. saccharatum_--is imported into this country from the East Indies for the purpose chiefly of puddings; by many persons it is preferred to rice. It is cultivated largely in China and Cochin-China. The stalks, if subjected to the same process that is adopted with the sugar-cane, yield a sweet juice, from which an excellent kind of sugar may be made. Millet will grow best on light, dry soils. The ground being first well prepared, half a bushel of seed to the acre is ploughed in at the commencement of the rains, in India. The crop ripens within three months from the time of sowing. The usual produce is about 16 bushels to the acre. The Canary Islands export annually about 212,400 bushels of millet. _Great Indian Millet, or Guinea Corn_.--This is a native of India (the _Sorghum vulgare_, the _Andropogon Sorghum_ of Roxburgh), which produces a grain a little larger than mustard or millet seed. It is grown in most tropical countries, and has peculiar local names. In the West Indies, where it is chiefly raised for feeding poultry, it is called Guinea corn. In Egypt it is known as Dhurra, in Hindostan and Bengal as Joar, and in some districts as Cush. In Lower Scinde joar is very extensively cultivated, as well as bajree (_H. spicatus_). It is harvested in December and January; requires a light soil, and is usually grown in the east, after _Cynosurus corocanus_. Guinea corn is extensively cultivated in some parts of Jamaica. I did not, however, find it thrive on the north side of the island. It is best planted in the West Indies between September and November, and ripens in January. It ratoons or yields a second crop, when cut. The returns are from 30 to 60 bushels an acre, but the crops are uncertain. Mr. C. Bravo tried Guinea corn at St. Ann's, Jamaica, as a green crop, sown broadcast, for fodder, and it answered admirably, the produce being very considerable. It was weighed, and yielded 14 tons of fodder per acre, and was found very palatable and nutritious for cattle. It was grown on a very poor soil, which had, previously to ploughing, given nothing but marigolds and weeds. The luxuriant growth of the corn completely kept under the weeds. A great number of the stalks were measured, and they averaged 10 feet from the root to the top of the upper leaf. It had been planted 10 weeks, and had, therefore, grown a foot a month. Mr. Bravo is of opinion, that sown broadcast it would answer either as a grain crop, as fodder, or ploughed in to increase the fertility of the soil. Dr. Phillips, of Barbados, being of opinion that it might be advantageously employed as human food, requested Dr. Shier, the analytical chemist, of Demerara, to determine in his laboratory its richness in protein compounds (the muscle-forming part of vegetable food) in comparison with Indian corn. He, therefore, caused a sample of each to be burned for nitrogen, when the following results were obtained:-- Indian corn. Guinea corn. Water, per cent. 12.81 13.76 In ordinary state-- Nitrogen, per cent. 1.83 1.18 Protein compounds 11.51 7.42 In dry state-- Nitrogen, per cent. 2.10 1.36 Protein compounds 13.20 8.60 According to these results, the Guinea corn is less rich in nitrogen or protein compounds than Indian corn, though not much less so than some varieties of English wheat. Indian corn meal, analysed by Mr. Hereford, from two localities, gave in the ordinary state of dryness 11.53 and 12.48 per cent. of protein compounds--results which come very near to that obtained by Dr. Shier. _Sorghum avenaceum_, or _Holcus avenaceus_, is a native of the Cape. Several species and varieties of sorghum have been introduced, and more or less cultivated in the United States. It is often popularly termed Egyptian corn. It is closely allied to broom corn (_S. saccharatum_), the head being similar in structure, and the seed similar, except that in most varieties of sorghum, the outer covering does not adhere as in broom corn. The plant bears a strong resemblance, while growing, to maize or Indian corn. There is also some similarity in the grain, and it is extensively used as food by many oriental nations. A variety, under the name of African purple millet, was some years since introduced into North America, and recommended for cultivation as a soiling crop; but this, as well as other varieties, do not possess any advantages over Indian corn. The natives of Mysore reckon three kinds, known as white, green, and red. The red ripens a month earlier than the rest, or about four months from the time of sowing. Near Bengal, Bombay, and elsewhere, in Eastern India, sowing is performed at the close of May or early in June. A gallon and a third of seed is sown per acre, and the produce averages 16 bushels. This grain, though small, and the size of its head diminutive, compensates for this deficiency by the great hulk and goodness of its straw, which grows usually to the height of 8 or 10 feet. It is sometimes sown for fodder in the beginning of April, and is ready to cut in July. It is said to be injurious to cattle, if eaten as green provender, the straw is therefore first dried, and is then preferable to that of rice. This grain is frequently fermented to form the basis, in combination with goor or half made sugar, of the common arrack of the natives, and in the hills is fermented into a kind of beer or sweet wort, drank warm. _Holcus spicatus_, the _Panicum spicatum_ of Roxburgh, is cultivated in Mysore, Behar, and the provinces more to the north. From one to four seers are sown on a biggah of land, and the yield is about four maunds per acre. It is sown after the heavy rains commence, and the plough serves to cover the seed. The crop is ripe in three months, and the ears only are taken off at first. Afterwards the straw is cut down close to the surface of the soil, to be used for thatching, for it is not much in request as fodder. Being a grain of small price, it is a common food of the poorer class of natives, and really yields a sweet palatable flour. It is also excellent as a fattening grain for poultry. The _Poa Abyssinica_is one of the bread-corns of Abyssinia. The bread made from it is called _teff_, and is the ordinary food of the country, that made from wheat being only used by the higher classes. The way of manufacturing it is by allowing the dough to become sour, when, generating carbonic acid gas, it serves instead of yeast. It is then baked in circular cakes, which are white, spongy, and of a hot acid taste, but easy of digestion. This bread, carefully toasted, and left in water for three or four days, furnishes the _bousa_, or common beer of the country, similar to the _quas_ of Russia. BROOM CORN. The production of broom corn is rapidly extending, and corn brooms are driving broom sedge, as an article for sweeping floors, out of every humble dwelling in the United States. There are about 1,000 acres of it under culture in one county (Montgomery) alone, and it brings 30 dollars per acre in the field. Messrs. Van Eppes, of Schenectady, have been engaged in the broom manufactory business about eleven years. They have a farm of about 300 acres, 200 of which are Mohawk flats. A large portion of the flats was formerly of little value, in consequence of being kept wet by a shallow stream which ran through, it, and which, together with several springs that issue from the sandy bluff on the south side of the flats, kept the ground marshy, and unfit for cultivation. By deepening the channel of the stream, and conducting most of the springs into it, many acres, which were formerly almost worthless, have been made worth 125 dollars per acre. They have also, by deepening the channel, saving the water of the springs, and securing all the fall, made a water privilege, on which they have erected an excellent mill, with several run of stones, leaving besides sufficient power to carry saws for cutting out the handles of brooms, &c. They have about 200 acres of the flats in broom-corn. The cultivation of this article has within a few years been simplified to almost as great a degree as its manufacture. The seed is sown with a seed-barrow or drill, as early in the spring as the state of the ground will admit, in rows 3½ feet apart. As soon as the corn is above ground, it is hoed, and soon after thinned, so as to leave the stalks two or three inches apart. It is only hoed in the row, in order to get out the weeds that are close to the plants, the remaining space being left for the harrow and cultivator, which are run so frequently as to keep down the weeds. The cultivation is finished by running a small, double mould-board plough, rather shallow, between the rows. The broom corn is not left to ripen, as formerly, but is cut when it is quite green, and the seed not much past the milk. It was formerly the practice to lop down the tops of the corn, and let it hang some time, that the brush might become straightened in one direction. Now, the tops are not lopped till the brush is ready to cut, which, as before stated, is while the corn is green. A set of hands goes forward, and lops or bends the tops to one side, and another set follows immediately and cuts off the tops at the place at which they are bent, and a third set gathers the cut tops into carts or waggons, which take them to the factory. Here they are first sorted over, and parcelled out into small bunches, each bunch being made up into brush of equal length. The seed is then taken off by an apparatus with teeth, like a hatchet. The machine is worked by six horses, and cleans the brush very rapidly. It is then spread thin to dry, on racks put up in buildings designed for the purpose. In about a week, with ordinary weather, it becomes so dry that it will bear to be packed closely. The stalks of the corn, after the tops have been cut off, are five or six feet high, and they are left on the ground, and ploughed in the next spring. It is found that this keeps up the fertility of the soil, so that the crop is continued for several years without apparent diminution. It should be observed, however, that the ground is overflowed every winter or spring, and a considerable deposit left on the surface, which is undoubtedly equivalent to a dressing of manure. This may be inferred from the fact that some of the flats have been in Indian corn every year for forty or fifty years, without manure, and with good cultivation have seldom produced less than sixty bushels per acre, and with extra cultivation from eighty to ninety bushels have been obtained. In case of need, the stalks would furnish a large amount of good food for cattle. They are full of leaves which are nutritive, and whether cut and dried for winter, or eaten green by stock turned on the ground where they grow, would be very valuable in case of deficiency of grass. Messrs. Van Eppes employ twenty hands during the summer; and in autumn, when the brush is being gathered and prepared, they have nearly a hundred, male and female. They are mostly Germans, who come to Schenectady with their families during the broom corn harvest, and leave when it is over. The manufacture of brooms is carried on mostly in the winter season. The quantity usually turned out by Messrs. Van Eppes is 150,000 dozen per annum.--("Albany Cultivator.") CHENOPODIUM QUINOA. About twenty-eight years ago this plant was introduced into Britain from Peru, where the seeds are used as food, under the name of petty rice. Attention was drawn to it by Loudon, in his "Gardener's Magazine," in 1834, and in 1836 it was cultivated on a large scale by Sir Charles Lemon. This plant and the lentil are two of the most promising exotics that have been recommended for field culture. There are two varieties of quinoa, the white and the red seeded; the red has bitter properties, and is only used for medicine. In North America the seeds of the former are used as a substitute for maize and the potato. A white meal is obtained from it, having a tinge of yellow. It contains scarcely any gluten, but, like oatmeal, makes very good porridge and cakes. Its nutritive qualities are proved by the analysis of Dr. Voelcker ("Journal of Agriculture of Scotland," October, 1850), which states it to yield 3.66 per cent. of nitrogen, equal to 2.87 per cent. of protein compounds. In this respect the meal appears to be superior to rye, barley, rice, maize, the plantain, and potato. It has long furnished the food of millions in South America; and in Scotland and Ireland the plant would find a congenial climate and rich soil. FUNDI OR FUNDUNGI. This is an hitherto undescribed species of African grain (probably the _Paspalum exile_), much cultivated and esteemed in Sierra Leone, and other places on the African coast, where it is known by the Foulahs, Joloffs, and other native tribes, under the local name of Hungry rice. It is a slender grass with digitate spikes, which have much of the habit of _Digitaria_, but which, on account of the absence of the small outer glume existing in that genus, Mr. Keppist, Librarian of the Linnean Society, of London, refers to _Paspalum_. It produces a semi-transparent cordiform grain, about the size of a mignionette seed; the ear consists of two conjugate spikes, the grain being arranged on the outer edge of either spike, and alternated; they are attached by a peduncle to the husk. The èpicarp, or outer membrane, is slightly rugous. The ground is cleared for its reception by burning down the copse wood and hoeing between the roots and stumps. It is sown in the months of May and June, the ground being slightly opened, and again lightly drawn together over the seeds with a hoe. In August, when it shoots up, it is carefully weeded. It ripens in September, growing to the height of about 18 inches, and its stems, which are very slender, are bent to the earth by the mere weight of the grain. The patch of land is then either suffered to lie fallow, or is planted with yams or cassava in rotation. Experienced cultivators of this Lilliputian grain assert that manure is unnecessary, as it delights in light soils, and it is even raised on rocky situations, which are most frequent about Kissy. When cut down, it is tied up in small sheafs and placed in a dry situation within the hut; for if allowed to remain on the ground and to become wet, the grains are agglutinated to their coverings. The grain is trodden out with the feet, and is then parched or dried in the sun, to allow the more easy removal of the chaff in the process of pounding, which is performed in wooden mortars. It is afterwards winnowed with a kind of cane fanner or mats. This grain could be raised in sufficient quantities to become an article of commerce, and I have no doubt would prove a valuable addition to the list of light farinaceous articles of food in use among the delicate or convalescent. In preparing this delicious grain for food, it is first put into boiling water, in which it is assiduously stirred for a few minutes; the water is then poured off, and the Foulahs, Joloffs, &c., add to it palm oil, butter, or milk; but Europeans and negroes connected with Sierra Leone prepare it as follows:--To the grain cooked as above mentioned, fowl, fish, or mutton, with a piece of salt pork for the sake of flavor is added, the whole being then stewed in a close saucepan. This makes a very good dish, and thus prepared resembles "_Kous-kous_." The grain is sometimes made into puddings, with the usual condiments, and eaten either hot or cold, with milk. By the few natives of Scotland in the colony, it is occasionally dressed as milk porridge. The negroes also eat it in the same way as they do rice, with palaver sauce. Fundi ought to be well washed in cold water, and afterwards rewashed in boiling water. If properly prepared it will be white, and perfectly free from gritty matter. Canary-seed, obtained from _Phalaris canariensis_, is grown rather largely in Kent, the Isle of Thanet, and other parts of the south of England, as much as 500 tons being annually consumed here for feeding singing birds. The produce is three to five quarters the acre, and it is sold at about £25 the ton. We receive foreign supplies of the seed from Germany and the Mediterranean, and the duty on imports is 2s. 6d. per bushel. PULSE. There are a variety of pulses and leguminous seeds extensively cultivated as food for both man and cattle, and which form an important article in the husbandry of tropical countries. The importance of peas and beans is well appreciated, both by the horticulturists and agriculturists in Europe and our temperate colonies, where, however, they are comparatively of less importance than the smaller pulses and grains are in various tropical countries, such as haricots in the Brazils and West Indies; ground or earth nuts in South America, and especially in Western Africa; beans of different kinds amongst the miners of Peru; gram (_Ervum lens_), and dholl (_Cajanus_), with innumerable varieties of beans and small lentils among the natives of India and Egypt; and the Carob bean, or St. John's bread (_Ceratonia siliqua_), in the Mediterranean countries.--("Jury Reports.") Of leguminous grains there are various species cultivated and used by the Asiatics, as the _Phaseolus Mungo_, _P. Max_ and _P. radiatus_, which contain much alimentary matter; the earth-nut (_Arachis hypogæa_), which buries its pods under ground after flowering. The gram (_Cicer arictinum_) which is mentioned by Dr. Christie ("Madras Journal of Science," No. 13) as exuding oxalic acid from all parts of the plant. It is used by the ryots in their curries instead of vinegar. It is the chick pea of England, and _chenna_ of Hindostan. Among the most commonly cultivated leguminous plants are the lentil (_Ervum lens_), horse gram (_Dolichos biflorus_, Linn), various species of _Cytisus_ and _Cajanus_, &c. Many of these are grown in India as fodder plants; others for their seeds, known as gram, dholl, &c. The _Cajanus flavus_, of Decandolle (_Cytisus Cajan_), is very generally cultivated along the Western coast of Africa, and continues to bear for three years. Several species of dolichos are used as food in various countries, as _D. ensiformus_ in Jamaica, _D. tuberosus_ in Martinique, _D. bulbosus_ and _D. lignosus_ in the East Indies. The vessels of the North bring to Shanghae a great quantity of a dry paste, known under the name of tanping, the residuum or husk of a leguminous plant called Teuss, from which the Chinese extract oil, and which is used, after being pressed, as manure for the ground. Captain H. Biggs, in a communication to the Agri.-Hort. Soc. of India, in 1845, states that of the esculents a large white pea forms the staple of the trade of Shanghae, or nearly so, to the astonishing amount of two and a-half millions sterling. This he gives on the authority of the Rev. Mr. Medhurst, of Shanghae, and Mr. Thorns, British Consul at Ningpo. These peas are ground in a mill and then pressed, in a somewhat complicated, though, as usual in China, a most efficient press, by means of wedges driven under the outer parts of the framework with mallets. The oil is used both for eating and burning, more for the latter purpose, however, and the cake, like large Gloucester cheese, or small grindstones in circular shape, is distributed about China in every direction, both as food for pigs and buffaloes, as also for manure. We import on the average about 20,000 quarters of beans, peas, &c., from Ireland, 450,000 quarters of beans and 200,000 quarters of peas from foreign countries. The land under cultivation with pulse, and the crops raised, have been estimated as follows:-- Acres. Quarters. England 500,000 1,875,000 Ireland 130,000 540,000 Scotland 50,000 150,000 ------- --------- 680,000 2,565,000 This is of course exclusive of garden cultivation. The average produce of beans per acre in England is 3¾ quarters, 3½ in Ireland, and three in Scotland. The price of beans per quarter in the last ten years has ranged from 39s. to 27s. the quarter; peas from 40s. 6d. to 27s. 6d. _Algaroba beans_.--The seed pods or bean of the carob-tree (_Ceratonia siliqua_, or _Prosopis pallida_?) a tree common in the Levant and South of Europe, are used as food. The pods contain a large proportion of sweet fecula, and are frequently used by singers, being considered to improve the voice. The name of St. John's Head has been applied to them, from the supposition that they were the wild honey spoken of in Scripture as the food of John the Baptist. About 40,000 quintals of these carobs are annually exported from Crete. During the Peninsular war, the horses of our cavalry were principally fed upon these algaroba seeds. The pods of the West India locust tree, _Hymenæa courbaril_, also supply a nutritious matter. That well known sauce, Soy, is made in some parts of the East, from a species of the Dolichos bean (_Soja hispida_), which grows in China and Japan. In Java it is procured from the _Phaseolus radiatus_. The beans are boiled soft, with wheat or barley of equal quantities, and left for three months to ferment; salt and water are then added, when the liquor is pressed and strained. Good soy is agreeable when a few years old; the Japan soy is superior to the Chinese. Large quantities are shipped for England and America. The Dolichos bean is much cultivated in Japan, where various culinary articles are prepared from it; but the principal are a sort of butter, termed _mico_, and a pickle called _sooja_. 1,108 piculs of soy were shipped from Canton in 1844, for London, British India, and Singapore. 100 jars, or about 50 gallons of soy, were received at Liverpool in 1850. The price is about 6s. per gallon in the London market. THE SAGO PALMS, BREAD-FRUIT, &c. Sago, and starchy matter allied to it, is obtained from many palms. It is contained in the cellular tissue of the stem, and is separated by bruising and elutriation. From the soft stem of _Cycas circinalis_, a kind of sago is produced in the East and West Indies. The finest is, however, procured from the stems of _Sagus lævis_ (_S. inermis_, of Roxburgh), a native of Borneo and Sumatra; and _Arenga saccharifera_, or _Gomutus saccharifus_, of Rumphius. The _Saguerus Rumphii_, or _Metroxylon Sagus_, which is found in the Eastern Islands of the Indian Ocean, yields a feculent matter. After the starchy substance is washed out of the stems of these palms, it is then granulated so as to form sago. The last-mentioned palm also furnishes a large supply of sugar. Sago as well as sugar, and a kind of palm wine, are procured from _Caryota urens_. In China sago is obtained from _Rhapis flabelliformis_, a dwarfish palm; and some sago is made from it for native use in Travancore, Mysore, and Wynaad, and the jungles in the East Indies. The trunk of the sago palm is five or six feet round, and it grows to the height of about 20 feet. It can only be propagated by seed. It flourishes best in bogs and swampy marshes; a good plantation being often a bog, knee deep. The pith producing the sago is seldom of use till the tree is fourteen or fifteen years old; and the tree does not live longer than thirty years. Mr. Crawfurd says there are four varieties of this palm; the cultivated, the wild, one distinguished by long spines on the branches, and a fourth destitute of these spines, and called by the natives female sago. This and the cultivated species afford the best farina; the spiny variety, which has a slender trunk, and the wild tree, yield but an inferior quality of sago. The farinaceous matter afforded by each plant is very considerable, 500 lbs. being a frequent quantity, while 300 lbs. may be taken as the common average produce of each tree. Supposing the plants set at a distance of ten feet apart, an acre would contain 435 trees, which, on coming to maturity in fifteen years, would yield at the before-mentioned rate 120,500 lbs. annually of farinaceous matter. The sago meal, in its raw state, will keep good about a month. The Malays and natives of the Eastern Islands, with whom it forms the chief article of sustenance, partially bake it in earthenware moulds into small hard cakes, which will keep for a considerable time. In Java the word "saga" signifies bread. The sago palm (_Metroxylon Sagus_) is one of the smallest of its tribe, seldom reaching to more than 30 feet in height, and grows only in a region extending west to Celebes and Borneo, north to Mindanao, south to Timor, and east to Papua. Ceram is its chief seat, and there large forests of it are found. The edible farina is the central pith, which varies considerably in different trees, and as to the time required for its attaining proper maturity. It is eaten by the natives in the form of pottage. A farina of an inferior kind is supplied by the Gomuti palm (_Borassus gomutus_), another tree peculiar to the Eastern Archipelago growing in the valleys of hilly tracts. At so great a distance it is difficult to decide as to which of these trees really produce the ordinary sagos of commerce, for there are several kinds. Planche, in an excellent memoir on the sagos, has described six species, which he distinguishes by the names of the places from which they come. Preferring to classify them according to their characters, M. Mayet distinguishes only three species. The first he denominates Ancient sago, which comes from different parts, and varies much in color. It comprehends--1st, Maldivian sago of Planche, in spherical globules, of two or three millimetres in diameter, translucid, of an unequal pinkish white color, very hard and insipid. 2nd, New Guinea sago, of Planche, in rather smaller globules, of a bright red color on one side, and white on the other. 3rd. Grey sago of the Moluccas or brown sago of the English; of unequal globules, from one to three millimetres in diameter, opaque, of a dull grey color on one side, and whitish on the other. This grey color probably arises from long keeping and humidity. 4th. Large grey sago of the Moluccas, exactly resembling No. 3, only that the globules are from four to eight millimetres in diameter. 5th. Fine white sago of the Moluccas; entirely resembling No. 3, only that it is purely white, owing to the complete edulcoration of the fecula of which it is made. Whatever may be the places of origin of these sagos, they all possess the following characters-- Rounded globules, generally spherical, all isolated, very hard, elastic, and difficult to break or powder. The globules put into water, generally swell to twice their original size, but do not adhere together. _Second sage_.--This species corresponds with the pinkish sago of the Moluccas of Planche. It is in very small globules, less regular than those of the "first sago," and sometimes stuck together to the number of two or three. Soaked in water, it swells to double its volume. Third Species.--_Tapioca sago_.---This name has been applied to a species of sago now abundant in commerce, because it bears the same relation to the ancient or first sago, and even to the preceding sago, that tapioca bears to "Moussache," which is the fecula of the manioc, _Janipha manihot (Manihot utilissima_). Whilst the two preceding species of sago, whatever may have been stated to the contrary, have been neither baked nor submitted to any heating process, as is proved by the perfect state of nearly all their grains of fecula, this species has been subjected to the action of heat while in a state of a moist paste. This sago is not in spherical globules, like the two preceding species, or at least there are but few of the globules of that form; it is rather in the form of very small irregular tubercular masses, formed by the adherence of different numbers of the primary globules. The facility with which this sago swells and is divided by water, has occasioned it to be preferred as an article of food to the ancient sago. It has been described by Planche under the name of the white sago of the Moluccas, and by Dr. Pereira under the name of pearl sago. Bennet, in his work on "Ceylon and its Capabilities," (1843), states that sago is procured from the granulated pith of the talipot palm, _Corypha umbraculifera_. The _Sagus Rumphii_, Willdenow, and _S. farinifera_, Gaertner.--Before maturity, and previous to the formation of the fruit, the stem consists of a thin hard wall, about two inches thick, and of an enormous volume of tissue (commonly termed the _medulla_ or _pith_), from which the farina or sago is obtained. As the fruit forms, the farinaceous medulla disappears, and when the tree, attains full maturity, the stem is no more than a hollow shell. Sago occurs in commerce in two states, pulverulent and granulated. 1. The meal or flour as imported in the form of a fine amylaceous powder. It is whitish, with a buffy or reddish tint. Its odor is faint, but somewhat unpleasant and musty. 2. Granulated sago is of two kinds, pearl and common brown. The former occurs in small hard grains, not exceeding in size that of a pin's head, inodorous, and having little taste. They have a brownish or pinkish yellow tint, and are somewhat translucent. By the aid of a solution of chloride of lime they can be bleached, and rendered perfectly white. The dealers, it is said, pay £7 per ton for bleaching it. Common sago occurs in larger grains, about the size of pearl barley, which are brownish white. Sago is an article of exportation to Europe, and is also shipped to India, principally Bengal, and to China. It is in its granulated form that it is usually sent abroad. The best sago is the produce of Siak, on the north coast of Sumatra. This is of a light brown color, the grains large, and not easily broken. The sago of Borneo is the next in value; it is whiter, but more friable. The produce of the Moluccas, though greatest in quantity, is of the smallest estimation. The cost of granulated sago, from the hands of the grower or producer, was, according to Mr. Crawfurd, only a dollar a picul. It fetches in the London market--common pearl, 20s. to 26s. the cwt., sago flour, 20s. the cwt. The Chinese of Malacca and Singapore have invented a process by which they refine sago, so as to give it a fine pearly lustre, and it is from thence we now principally derive our supplies of this article. The exports from Singapore in 1847 exceeded 6½ million pounds, but are now much larger. The following is a description of the manufacture of this important article of commerce:--The tree being cut down, the exterior bark is removed, and the heart, or pith of the palm, a soft, white, spongy and mealy substance is gathered; and for the purpose of distant transportation, it is put into conical bags, made of plantain leaves, and neatly tied up. In that state it is called by the Malays _Sangoo tampin_, or bundles of sago; each bundle weighs about 30 lbs. On its arrival at Singapore it is purchased by the Chinese manufacturers of sago, and is thus treated:--Upon being carried to the manufactory, the plantain-leaf covering is removed, and the raw sago, imparting a strong acid odor, is bruised, and is put into large tubs of cold spring water, where it undergoes a process of purification by being stirred, suffered to repose, and again re-stirred in newly-introduced water. When well purified thus, it is taken out of the tubs by means of small vessels; and being mixed with a great deal of water, the liquid is gently poured upon a large and slightly inclined trough, about ten inches in height and width; and in the descent towards the depressed end, the sago is deposited in the bottom of the trough, whilst the water flows into another large tub, where what may remain of sago is finally deposited. As the strata of deposited sago increases in the trough, small pieces of slates are adjusted to its lower end to prevent the escape of the substance. When by this pouring process the trough becomes quite full of sago, it is then removed to make room for a fresh one, whilst the former one is put out into the air, under cover, for a short time; and on its being well dried, the sago within is cut into square pieces and taken out to be thoroughly dried, under cover, to protect it from the sun. It has then lost the acid smell already noticed, and has become quite white. After one day's drying thus, it is taken into what may be called the manufactory, a long shed, open in front and on one side, and closed at the other and in the rear. Here the lumps of sago are broken up, and are reduced into an impalpable flour, which is passed through a sieve. The lumps, which are retained by the sieve are put back to be re-bruised, whilst that portion which has passed is collected, and is placed in a long cloth bag, the gathered ends of which, like those of a hammock, are attached to a pole, which pole being suspended to a beam of the building by a rope, one end of it is sharply thrown forward with a particular jerk, by means of which the sago within is shortly granulated very fine, and becomes what is technically termed "pearled." It is then taken out and put into iron vessels, called _quallies_, for the purpose of being dried. These quallies are small elliptical pans, and resemble in form the sugar coppers of the West Indies, and would each hold about five gallons of fluid. They are set a little inclining, and in a range, over a line of furnaces, each one having its own fire. Before putting in the sago to be dried, a cloth, which contains a small quantity of hog's-lard, or some oily substance, is hastily passed into the qually, and the sago is equally quickly put into it, and a Chinese laborer who attends it, commences stirring it with a _pallit_, and thus continues his labor during the few minutes necessary to expel the moisture contained in the substance. Thus each qually, containing about ten pounds of sago, requires the attendance of a man. The sago, on being taken off the fire, is spread out to cool on large tables, after which it is fit to be packed in boxes, or put into bags for shipment; and is known in commerce under the name of "pearl sago." Thus the labor of fifteen or twenty men is required to do that which, with the aid of simple machinery, might be done much better by three or four laborers. A water-wheel would both work a stirring machine and cause an inclined cylinder to revolve over a fire, for the purpose of drying the sago, in the manner used for corn, meal, and flour in America, or for roasting coffee and chicory in England. But the Chinese have no idea of substituting artificial means, when manual ones are obtainable. A considerable quantity of sago is exported from Singapore in the state of flour. The whole quantity made and exported there exceeds, on the average, 2,500 tons annually. The quantity shipped from this entrepot is shown by the annexed returns, nearly all of which was grown and manufactured in the settlement. The estimated value for export is set down at 14s. per picul of 1¼ cwt. EXPORTS FROM SINGAPORE. Piculs 1840-41 Pearl sago 41,146 " Sago flour 33,552 1841-42 Pearl sago 46,225 " Sago flour 7,447 1842-43 Pearl sago 25,306 " Sago flour 4,838 1843-44 Pearl sago 14,266 " Sago flour 14,067 1844-45 Pearl sago 18,472 " Sago flour 36,141 1845-46 Pearl sago 19,333 " Sago flour 26,925 1846-47 Pearl sago 40,765 " Sago flour 9,025 Imports of sago into the United Kingdom, and quantity retained for home consumption:-- Imports. Home consumption. Cwts. Cwts. 1826 9,644 2,565 1830 2,677 3,385 1834 25,763 13,827 1838 18,627 28,396 1842 45,646 50,994 1846 38,595 45,671 1848 65,000 1849 83,711 72,741 1850 89,884 83,954 THE BREAD-FRUIT TREE. _Artocarpus incisa_.--This tree is less cultivated than would be supposed from its useful properties. In the West Indies and the Indian Islands, where it has been introduced from its native place, the South Sea Islands, it is held in very little consideration, the graminea, tuberous roots, and farinaceous plants being more easily and readily cultivated. There are two or three varieties known in the Asiatic regions. The properties of this tree are thus enumerated by Hooker:--The fruit serves for food; clothes are made from the fibres of the inner bark; the wood is used for building houses and making boats; the male catkins are employed as tinder; the leaves for table cloths and for wrapping provisions in; and the viscid milky juice affords birdlime. _A. integrifolia_is the Jack or Jacca, the fruit of which attains a large size, sometimes weighing 30 lbs., but is inferior in quality to the bread-fruit. The nuts or fruit of _Brosimum Alicastrum_, an evergreen shrub, native of Jamaica, are nutritious and agreeable articles of food. When boiled with salt fish, pork or beef, they have frequently been the support of the negroes and poorer sorts of white people in times of scarcity, and proved a wholesome and not unpleasant food; when roasted it eats something like our common chesnut, and is called bread-nut. _Kafir Bread_.--According to Thunberg, the Hottentots being very little acquainted with agriculture, or with the use of the cerealia, and subsisting principally upon wild bulbs and fruits, obtain food also from _Encephalartos caffer_, a species of _Zamia_, with a cylindrical trunk, the thickness of a man's body, and about seven feet high. Having cut down a tree, they took out the pith, that nearly fills its trunk, and which abounds in mucilage and an amylaceous fluid; after keeping this for some time buried under ground in the skin of an animal, they reduced it by pounding and kneading into a kind of paste; and then baked it in hot ashes, in the form of round cakes, nearly an inch thick. The Dutch colonists, in consequence of this practice of the natives, called the plant brood-boon, which signifies literally bread tree. THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA. The several varieties of the edible plantain which are known and cultivated throughout the West Indies, Africa, and in the East are all reducible to two classes, viz., the Plantain and the Banana (_Musa Paradisiaca_and _sapientum_). The difference between these two plants is even so slight as to be scarcely specific; it is therefore most probable that there was originally but one stock, from which they have, by cultivation and change of locality, been derived. The tiger plantain (_M. maculata_) and the black ditto (_M. sylvestris_) are cultivated in Jamaica. The whole of the species and varieties of the tribe are what are called polygamous monoecious plants, each individual tree bearing the male and female organs of reproduction. The plantain and its varieties invariably bear male, female and hermaphrodite flowers within the same spathe, all of them being imperfect and consequently unproductive of seed. An individual may, even from excess of culture, moisture, &c., be entirely incapable of flowering. During the prevalence of a disease or blight among the plantain walks of Demerara in the years 1844 and 1845, it was seriously proposed to introduce male plantains, or obtain fresh stock by seed. It is, therefore, necessary to determine with exactness, if possible, whether the Plantain or Banana, (whichever be the parent stock) exists anywhere at present, or has been known to have existed as a perfect plant, that is bearing fertile seeds; or, whether it has always existed in the imperfect state, that is, incapable of being procreated by seed, the only state in which it at present exists in our colonies. Whether Linnæus be right in his conjecture (Spec. Plant, 1763) that the "Bihai" (_Heliconia humilis_), a native of Caraccas, which produces fertile seeds, is the stock plant of the plantain, it is almost impossible to ascertain; but the absence of any description of a wild seed-bearing plantain, renders it highly probable that the cultivated species are hybrids produced long ago. The banana, from time immemorial, has been the food of the philosophers and sages of the East, and almost all travellers throughout the tropics have described these plants exactly as they are known to us, either as sweet fruit eaten raw, or a farinaceous vegetable roasted or boiled. It is remarkable that the plantain and banana should be indigenous, or at all events cultivated for ages both in the Old and New World. Numerous South American travellers describe some one of these plants as being indigenous articles of food among the natives, thus showing (if the plantain and its varieties be hybrids) a communication between the tropics of America, Asia and Africa, long before the time of Columbus. The older writers on the colony of Guiana, as Hartsinck, Bellin and others, consider the plantain to be a native. It is remarkable that Sir R. Schomburgk, during his travels, found a large species of edible plantain far in the interior. It appears, therefore, from all the investigations that have been made, that the plantain is either a hybrid, or its power of production from seed has been destroyed long ago by cultivation, and that it is not known to exist anywhere in a perfect state; in which case any attempt to improve the present stock by the introduction of suckers from elsewhere, must be totally futile. Mr. A. Garnett recommends the following system of cultivation, as calculated to prevent the blight. The walk or plantation is to be formed into beds 36 feet wide, divided by open drains 30 inches deep. Two rows of plantains to be planted upon each bed at 18 feet distance, both between and along the rows, to afford a clear ventilation to the enlarging plants, and so soon as the plantation has been established, the space of land between each row to be shovel-ploughed 12 inches deep; the same to be repeated annually, and upon the interspace may be planted maize, yams, sugar cane, or eddoes, and the whole kept clear at all times. Thus, with the conjoined principles of good tillage, free ventilation, and mixed crops, the blight may yet be successfully combated. A great diminution in the cultivation of the plantain has been occasioned in British Guiana by this blight or disease, which first made its destructive appearance in Essequibo, upwards of thirty years ago, where its ravages increased with such fatal intensity as to render the profitable growth of the plant almost hopeless; and up to this hour no one has been able to discover the immediate or remote cause of this extraordinary vegetable endemic; whether arising from the action of insects among the sheathes of the petioles of the leaves, or in the soil, or from organic decay of the plant, remains without solution. The last-named cause seems to be rejected, by the fact that the fructification of the plant is as healthy and abundant in parts of the colony where the blight does not prevail, both in number and size of the fruit upon the spike, as at any former period. On the east coast of Demerara, both the plantain and banana have been grown for more than twenty years upon the same land, without any attack of the disease, and without any extraneous manure or even lime having been applied, and the plants still exhibit great luxuriance, and produce their former weight of fruit. The foliage of the plantain affords food and bedding, and is used for thatch, making paper, and basket making; and from its petioles is obtained a fine and durable thread. The tops of the young plants are eaten as a delicate vegetable; the fermented juice of the trunk produces an agreeable wine. The abundance and excellence of the nutritive food which the plants of this valuable genus supply are well known; but of the numerous uses to which they are applied I may mention, the following:-- The fruit is served up both raw and stewed; slices fried are also considered a delicacy. Plantains are sometimes boiled and eaten with salt meat, and pounded and made into puddings, and used in various other ways. In their ripe state these fruits contain much starchy matter. From their spurious stems, the fibres of the spiral vessels may be pulled out in such quantity as to be used for tinder. _M. textilis_ yields a fibre which is used in India in the manufacture of fine muslins, and the coarser woody tissue is exported in large quantities from Manila, under the name of white rope or Manila hemp. Horses, cattle, swine, and other domestic animals are fed upon the fruit, leaves, and succulent trunks. The same extent of ground which in wheat would only maintain two persons, will yield sustenance under the banana to fifty. That eminent naturalist and elegant writer, the Baron Von Humboldt, states ("Political Essay on New Spain," vol. ii.) that an acre of land cultivated with plantains produces nearly twenty times as much food as the like space sown with corn in Europe. He refers to a place in Venezuela, where the most careful tillage was rendered to a piece of land, yielding produce supporting a humble population residing in huts, each placed in the centre of an enclosure, growing the sugar cane, Indian corn, the Papaw tree, and the Musa--a tropical garden!--upon the elaborate culture of which a whole family relied for subsistence. Although from the extensive plantain walks in our colonies--which are seldom cultivated with a garden-like care--so large an average proportion may not be obtained as twenty times the production of wheat in Europe, yet I have had practical experience of the prodigious quantity of farinaceous matter obtainable from an acre of tolerably well-cultivated plantains, and no esculent plant requires less labor in its culture upon land suitable for its production. They are readily increased by suckers, which the old plants produce in abundance. Lindley enumerates ten species of Musa, some of which grow to the height of 25 or 30 feet, but that valuable species _M. Cavendishii_, does not grow more than four or five feet high. The bananas of the family of the Musaceæ, appear to be natives of the southern portion of the Asiatic continent (R. Brown, "Bot. of Congo," p. 51). Transplanted at an unknown epoch into the Indian Archipelago and Africa, they have spread also into the, New World, and in general into all intertropical countries, sometimes before the arrival of Europeans. According to Humboldt it affords, in a given extent of ground, forty-four times more nutritive matter than the potato, and 133 times more than wheat. These figures must be considered as only approximative, since nothing is more difficult than to estimate the nutritive qualities of different aliments. _Musa paradisiaca_ is cultivated in Syria, to latitude 34 deg. Humboldt says it ceases to yield fruit at a height of 3,000 feet, where the mean annual temperature is 68 deg., and where, probably, the heat of summer is deficient. The banana seems, however, to be found no higher than 4,600 feet in a state of perfection. No fruit is so easily cultivated as are the varieties of the plantain. There is hardly a cottage in the tropics that is not partly shaded by them; and it is successfully grown under other fruit trees, although it is independent of shelter. Its succulent roots and dew-attracting leaves render it useful in keeping the ground moist during the greatest heats. The plantain may be deemed the most valuable of fruits, since it will, in some measure, supply the place of grain in time of scarcity. To the negroes in the West Indian Islands the plantain is invaluable, and, like bread to the Europeans, is with them denominated the staff of life. In Jamaica, Demerara, Trinidad, and other principal colonies, many thousand acres are planted with these trees. The vegetation of this tree is so rapid that if a line of thread be drawn across, and on a level with the top of one of the leaves, when it begins to expand, it will be seen, in the course of an hour, to have grown nearly an inch. The fruit when ripe is of a pale yellow, about a foot in length and two inches thick, and is produced in bunches so large as each to weigh 40 lbs. and upwards. The soil best suited to the growth of the plantain is found in the virgin land most recently taken in from the forest, having a formation of clay and decomposed vegetable substances. A large portion of organic matter is required, as well as clay or other ponderous strata, to afford the greatest production of fruit. I have known good plantains produced in the West Indies, upon land considerably exhausted by the culture of cotton, but which was enriched by the application of a quantity of the decomposed seed of that shrub near the roots of the young plantains. In the Straits' settlements of the East, the following are the most approved varieties:--The royal plantain, which fruits in eight months; one which bears in a year, the milk plantain, the downy plantain, and the golden plantain or banana. A species termed _gindy_ has been lately imported from Madras, where it is in great request. It has this advantage over the other kinds, that it can be stewed down like an apple while they remain tough. The Malays allege that they can produce new varieties, by planting three shoots of different sorts together, and by cutting the shoots down to the ground three successive times, when they have reached the height of nine or ten inches. About 144 suckers of the plantain are set on an orlong (1-1/3 acres), each of which spreads into a group of six or eight stems, of about six inches to one foot in diameter, which yield each a bunch of fruit, and are then cut down, when fresh shoots succeed. In very rich soils the plant will continue to bear for twenty years, but otherwise it is dug up after the seventh or eighth year. The cost of cultivating 100 orlongs of land exclusively with plantains, will be nearly 2,000 Spanish dollars until produce be obtained. About 43,200 bunches may be had afterwards yearly, which might give a return of 2,160 dollars, or, deducting the cost of cultivation and original expenses, a profit per annum of 1,450 dollars. The plantain has frequently been suggested as an article of export from our colonies. A few bunches are occasionally brought over by the Royal West India Mail Company's steamers running to Southampton, but more as a curiosity than as articles of commerce. In its ripe state no unexceptionable and sufficiently cheap method of preserving it has yet been suggested. In some districts of Mexico it is, indeed, dried in the sun, and in this state forms a considerable article of internal commerce under the name of "plantado pasado." It is sometimes so abundant and cheap in Demerara, Jamaica, Trinidad, and other of our colonies, that it might, if cut and dried, in its green state, be exported with advantage. It is in the unripe state that it is so largely used by the peasantry of the colonies as an article of food. It has always been believed to be highly nutritive, but Dr. Shier states that, in any sample of the dried plantain which he analysed, he could not find a larger amount than 88 per cent of nitrogen, which corresponds with about 5½ per cent. of proteine compounds. When dried, and reduced to the state of meal, it cannot, like wheat flour, be manufactured into maccaroni or vermicelli, or at least the maccaroni made from it falls to powder when put into hot water. The fresh plantain, however, when boiled whole, forms a pretty dense firm mass, of greater consistency and toughness than the potato. The mass, beaten in a mortar, constitutes the _foo-foo_ of the negroes. The plantain meal cannot be got into this state unless by mixing it up with water to form a stiff dough, and then boiling it in shapes or bound in cloths. Plantain meal is prepared by stripping off the husk of the plantain, slicing the core, and drying it the sun. When thoroughly dry it is powdered and sifted. It is known among the Creoles of the West Indies under the name of _Conquin tay_. It has a fragrant odour, acquired in drying, somewhat resembling fresh hay or tea. It is largely employed as the food of infants, children, and invalids. As food for children and convalescents, it would probably be much esteemed in Europe, and it deserves a trial on account of its fragrance, and its being exceedingly easy of digestion. In respect of nutritiveness, it deserves a preference over all the pure starches on account of the proteine compounds it contains. The plantain meal would probably be best and freshest were the sliced and dried plantain cores exported, leaving the grinding and sifting to be done in Europe. The flavor of the meal depends a good deal on the rapidity with which the slices are dried; hence the operation is only fitted for dry weather, unless indeed, when there was occasion for it, resource were had to a kiln or stove. Above all, the plantain must not be allowed to approach too closely to yellowness or ripeness, otherwise it becomes impossible to dry it. The color of the meal is injured when steel knives are used in husking or slicing, but silver or nickel blades do not injure the color. On the large scale a machine, on the principle of the turnip slicer, might be employed. The husking could be greatly facilitated by a very simple machine. Were the plantain meal to come into use in England, and bear a price in any way approaching to that of Bermuda arrowroot, it would become an extensive and very profitable export. Full-sized and well-filled bunches give 60 per cent. of core to 40 of husk and top-stem, but in general it would be found that the core did not much exceed 50 per cent., and the fresh core will yield 40 per cent. of dry meal, so that from 20 to 25 per cent. of meal is obtained from the plantain, or 5 lbs. from an average bunch of 25 lbs.; and an acre of plantain walk of average quality, producing during the year 450 such bunches, would yield a ton and 10 lbs. of meal, which, at the price of arrowroot, namely, 1s. per lb., would be a gross return of £112 10s. per acre. A new plantain walk would give twice as much. Even supposing the meal not to command over half the price of arrowroot, it would still form an excellent outlet for plantains whenever, from any cause, the price in the colony sank unusually low. In respect of the choice of a situation for establishing a plantain walk, with a mill, boiling-house and drying ground, it will be necessary to fix upon new land with plenty of moisture, and flat if possible, in order that there may be no difficulty in making roads to carry the trees; whilst a deep river traversing the land, where there is no tide or danger of salt water--where facility would be afforded in making the basins wherein to wash the fibre; where a sea port would be near at hand for shipping the produce--where workmen, provisions, and fuel would be readily obtained, and where the climate is particularly healthy, should be especially sought after. The plantain grows in profusion between the tropics in all parts of the world; but as it is an object to have the London market available for the prepared fibre, the following places may be mentioned as best calculated to produce a good and constant supply, viz:--the West India Colonies, the British Colonies in Africa, the South American Republics, along the Mosquito shore, and other places on the Continent of America, including Porto Rico, Hayti, and Cuba. The advantages to the paper manufacturer in employing the prepared fibre instead of rags, will be numerous, for the fibre is equal in texture, clean, and aromatic; whilst rags are dirty, full of vermin, and very often pestilential. A large stock of the plantain can always be secured, without fear of its being injured by keeping. The paper will be superior to that made of rags, and the process of making it will be more economical, inasmuch as the _sorting_ of the material will not be required. Another advantage is, that a new article of commerce will be opened for the benefit of the colonial shipping interests, and a stimulus will be given to the cultivation of a fruit which is the favorite food of large masses of the population. The following is a "specification" of articles requisite for making three tons of prepared fibre in a day:-- Four wooden boilers lined with lead, in the form of coolers, 7 feet deep by 6 in diameter. One hydraulic press, from 400 to 500 tons. One stout screw press, to compress the fibre before it is submitted to the hydraulic press. One iron mill with horizontal cylinders. Six waggons; twenty mules. Utensils, such as spatulas, cutlasses, hoes, rakes, &c. &c. One lever, to take out the fibre from the boilers. One steam boiler, equal to 12-horse power, to steam the four wooden boilers. It being very desirable that the works should be in the immediate neighbourhood of a river, the machinery should be worked by water-power; but if this mode should be inconvenient, a steam engine in addition must be obtained, of about 8 or 10-horse power; or if one steam engine of 20-horse power were employed, it would be sufficient for all purposes. Thirty men are required to make three tons of fibre in a day. _Buildings_.--A store, 100 feet long by 25 feet broad, in wood, covered with straw, to contain the dried fibre and the presses. One open shed of the same dimensions, covered with straw for the boilers. _Capital required_.--It is ascertained that the following outlay will be sufficient:-- The materials will cost £2,000 Buildings 500 Purchase of land 1,500 Working capital 1,000 ------ £5,000 The estimated expense in cultivating one quarree, or 5 1-5th English acres, in plantains, will be £30, as the work can be easily performed by one laborer in 300 days, at 2s. sterling per day. A quarree will produce 18 tons of mill fibre, the cost of the preparation of which is as follows:-- For workmen's wages, soda, lime, and fuel, at £3 per ton £54 Freight to Europe at £4 per ton 72 Managers 30 Duty, insurance, office fees, &c., at £1 per ton 18 ---- £174 Thus, making the total expense of producing 18 tons of fibre £174, or £9 13s. 4d. per ton. In 1848 Manila rope, or plantain fibre of good quality, was worth £38 per ton. A correspondent in Jamaica, who has devoted much attention to the subject, has furnished me with some very valuable detailed information, the most complete and practical that has ever yet appeared:-- _Cultivation_.--The first care of a planter in superintending the cultivation of the banana tree, with the two-fold object of collecting both fibre and fruit, will be to study the nature of the tree to which he will give the preference. A number of experiments have been made upon different species of the banana with a view of obtaining therefrom the largest quantity and the best color of fibre, as well as the finest fruit. Those experiments were very tedious and minute, but were absolutely necessary, in order to arrive at the most economical and advantageous method of rendering the fibre into a state fit for shipment to Europe. At the same time, it was of the utmost importance to find out the best description of tree, for producing the strongest, the most abundant, and the most silky fibre--for containing the least quantity of juice, for producing the color sufficiently white to facilitate the operation of bleaching, for bearing fruit of the most esteemed quality, and, therefore, the most favorable for general consumption. A banana tree, which seemed at first sight to possess all those good qualities--being of a large size, with whitish or flaxen colored fibre, and producing very savoury fruit, only gave 2 per cent, of fibre after preparation; that is to say, 100 lbs. in its raw state, only gave two pounds of fibre after it was boiled. In endeavoring to find out the cause of such a small result, it was discovered that this specimen of banana (commonly called the "pig banana,") contained a larger proportion of water than of fibre, compared with other sorts--that the heart was too large, and that the inside leaves were so tender that they almost dissolved in the process of boiling. These were the greatest inconveniences of this species of tree. There was also another disadvantage, in the quality of its fruit, which was yellow in color, and not so useful as those descriptions of banana which are generally eaten as a substitute for bread. The results of several experiments made upon various descriptions of banana, demonstrated the properties of each species, both as regarded fibre and fruit. The most profitable in both respects is undoubtedly the yellow banana, or common plantain. This tree grows to the height of about fifteen feet, it is nine or ten inches in diameter, its fibre is firm and abundant, and its fruit is used both in a green and ripe state. This plantain abounds on the continent of Spanish America and between the tropics, where the natives cultivate it as producing the most nutricious fruit of its kind. Cargoes of the fruit are frequently exported from Surinam and Demerara. On the Spanish part of the American continent, land is measured by _fanegas_, each fanega containing twelve _quarrees_, and each quarree five and one-fifth English acres. A quarree measures one hundred geometrical paces, or three hundred square feet. In the first instance, the suckers of the plantain (the tree being propagated by cuttings or suckers which shoot up from the bulb), should be set at ten feet distance from each other; this proposition gives 300 plants on one line of trees, or 900 on the surface of one quarree of land. Each plant propagates itself and gives upon an average ten trees of the same size and bearing. On one quarree of land, therefore there would be 9,000 trees, yielding four pounds of fibre and one bunch of fruit each, which is 9,000 bunches of fruit, and 36,000 lbs. nett of fibre, in the whole. In good ground the same plant will last fifteen years without any further trouble. Flat lands ought to be cultivated in preference to any other. The plantain thrives with the root in the water, and the head to the sun. On the borders of the river Orinoco it grows to the height of twenty feet, is one foot in diameter, and the stalks of the branches are three inches in circumference. _Cutting_.--The tree which has not produced its ripe fruit ought to be cut, for two reasons--first, that the fruit be not lost; and secondly, that the tree will not have arrived at its full growth and ordinary size, and the fibres will be too tender. In cutting it down, take it off six inches above the surface of the ground, then divide it longitudinally into four parts, take out the heart, which must be left to serve for manure, and if fermentation is decided upon, leave the pieces at the foot of the tree, otherwise take them to the mill to be crushed. The tree being very tender, may, on being bent down, be cut asunder with a single stroke of a hatchet, cutlass, or other convenient instrument. One man can cut down 800 trees, and split them in a day. _Carrying_.--The trees being thus divided, may be immediately carried to the mill to be crushed, or may remain until the fermentation separates the juice of sap from the fibres and the pith. By fermenting the trees, their weight will be so much reduced as to render their carriage considerably lighter than if taken away when first cut down. A wagon, with oxen or mules, can carry about a ton per day, and one man can load the wagon and drive the cattle. _Crushing_.--If the tree is carried from the plantation without being subjected to fermentation, it must be passed through a mill, the rollers of which, if made about three feet in length, and one foot in diameter, will be found a very convenient size. In this operation, care should be taken, first of all, to separate the tender from the harder or riper layers of fibre. The tree is composed of different layers of fibre, which may be divided into three sorts; those of the exterior, having been exposed to the atmosphere, possess a great degree of tenacity--whilst those of the interior, having been secluded from the air, are much more soft and tender. If, therefore, the layers of the plantain are passed indiscriminately through the mill, those which are hard or firm will not be injured by the pressure, whilst those which are soft will be almost reduced to pulp. Therefore, the rollers of the mill should be always placed horizontally, and upon passing the trees lengthways through the mill, the pressure will be uniform and the fibre uninjured. In this manner, pass the different sorts of layers separately, and the produce will be about four pounds of fibre from each tree. The stalks of the branches of the plantain give the best fibre, and a large quantity, as compared with the body of the tree; 100 lbs. of the stalk will give 15 lbs. nett of fibre. In general, if a tree will give 4 lbs. nett of fibre, the stalks will give 1 lb. out of the 4 lbs. The stalks ought also to be crushed separately, because they are harder than the exterior layers of the tree. About 3,000 trees may be passed through the mill in a day. Whilst the experiments were in progress it was ascertained that with a single horse, 100 plantain trees on an average were crushed in twenty minutes, giving five minutes rest for the horse. _Fermentation_.--This operation may be performed in several ways. If the trees are allowed to ferment upon the spot after being cut, a great saving will occur in respect of _carriage_; this matter ought to be carefully studied, because, on an extensive scale of manufacture, it is of serious importance. It is found that the trees when cut and heaped up, are subject to a drainage of juice, which, having a tanning property, discolors those pieces which lie at the bottom; hence much time is consumed in afterwards restoring the fibre to its natural color. The cut plants should be removed from the stumps of the trees, and then placed in heaps, shaded from the sun by laying the leaves over them. They will take several weeks to ferment. To pursue this process in the immediate vicinity of the establishment, would give rise to many inconveniences, in consequence of the very large space of ground that would thereby be occupied. Fermentation requires a mean temperature. A tree cut down and exposed to the sun, would be nearly dry at about 30 deg. centigrade, showing a result quite different to that which ought to be obtained; whilst a tree placed on a wet soil, and open for the fresh air to circulate between the plants, covered at the same time with its own leaves, and shaded by the foliage of the plantation, would be decomposed at the desired point of about 22 degrees. The different modes of fermentation require the same proportions. If the cut plants be covered with a thick layer of earth, they will not decompose in six _months_; but if, on the contrary, they are covered slightly, so that they may receive the freshness of the earth, and the heat of the air, they will decompose in six _weeks_. It is the same with the fermentation of alkaline baths. Baths at only _one_ degree will produce decomposition, whilst baths at _three_ degrees will not produce any decomposition. The stuff after being passed through the mill, or after fermentation, will be put into the chemical baths, or vats, or chemical liquor, and the persons in charge of the mill and boilers will do this work. Fermentation may be advantageously used, in cases where the trees are grown at a distance from the establishment--but, where they are in the immediate vicinity of the works, it will be best to crush them by the mill. The principal saving that is occasioned by fermentation, will be found in the carriage, as the substance will be much reduced in weight by that process. In an establishment where the manufacture is carried on upon a very large scale, trees cut down at a distance can be fermented, whilst those produced near the mill can be crushed. _Chemical Agents._--For decomposing the gluten in the trees during the process of boiling, soda, carbonate of soda, and quick lime, are used. The proportions herein given, are those requisite for making three tons of fibre per day, upon which scale the cost price of the fibre in a prepared state for bleaching, is subsequently calculated. To make three tons of fibre per day, it is necessary to have four boilers of 800 gallons each, and give five boilings in a day, or 1,650 lbs. of nett fibre for each boiler, or 6,600 lbs. for the four boilers per day. After having put into the boiler a sufficient quantity of water to cover the material, wait until the water begins to boil, and then add the chemical agents. lbs. To the first boiling of a copper, put of soda 60 To the 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and 5th boilings of the same copper, 15 lbs., each making 60 ----- 120 ----- Therefore the four boilings will take of soda 480 The same liquid will serve for two other days, by adding 15 lbs. to each fresh boiling, say, in the whole, 40 lbs., or 600 It will consume in soda for nine tons made in three days 1,080 Or 360 lbs. for three tons made in one day. On the fourth day commence again in the same manner, and go on for the two remaining days as above, producing eighteen tons in the six days. The quick lime is to be employed in each of the boilings, in the proportion of one-third less than the quantity of soda. Crude soda may be used in the boilings, without previously discarbonising it, and quick lime reduced to lime water; but, to render the action of the chemical ingredients more quick and certain, it is better to discarbonise the soda before it is put into the boiler. This may be done by preparing in a small separate boiler the quantity of liquid necessary for a day's consumption, which is prepared in about an hour. The carbonisation is effected in the following manner:-- Ten parts of salt of soda. } Six parts of quick lime. } In weight. Seventy parts of water (never less.) } _Boiling_.--This is a most important operation. By it the gluten and coloring matter are separated from the fibres, which separation is absolutely necessary, in order to prepare the fibre to receive the bleaching. It is necessary to observe that the three several sorts of layers which are found in the tree, and which, under the head of "crushing," are recommended to be _pressed_ separately, should be also _boiled_ separately, because the outermost layer has more coloring matter than the next under it, which again has more than the innermost layer. As they are boiled so will they be dried and shipped, and each sort will have a different price in the market; that fibre which is lightest in color bearing the preference, in consequence of its not requiring more than _six_ hours to bleach--whilst the darkest will, probably from its greater tenacity, take _twelve_ to _eighteen_ hours. It is advisable to place over each boiler the means of lifting the mass of fibre when boiled, and suffering it to drain into the boiler before it is carried away to be washed. This is easily effected by a chain from the roof, to which may be hung a lever, having at that end over the boiler some hooks attached to it, whereby the mass is lifted out of the boiler, and the liquor thus preserved for the next boiling. _Washing_.--It is absolutely necessary that the fibre should be well washed after being taken out of the boiler, in order that all extraneous matter may be separated therefrom. In choosing the site for an establishment of this kind, care must always be taken to make choice of a spot in the immediate neighbourhood of a large river, or other plentiful supply of fresh clean water. The machinery necessary for cleansing and washing the fibre may be of various descriptions; but, perhaps a selection from one of the three following sorts will be found to answer every purpose, viz., those used by paper manufacturers in England, and by coffee planters and arrowroot growers in the West Indies. _Drying_.--The washed fibre, when hung over lines made of the twisted fibre, or any other convenient material, will be sufficiently dry in a few hours to be taken down, when more can be hung up, and then several batches can be dried in a day; and it will be necessary to have the drying ground as near the water as possible, in order to save weight in carriage. _Pressing_.--When the fibre is perfectly dry, it must be well pressed, for the convenience of packing, carriage, and shipment. The hydraulic press is the best machine that can be used for the purpose; but in the absence of that, the lever and screw will make a large amount of pressure available. A hydraulic press of from 400 to 500 tons, will press bales of from four to five hundred weight each, which will not be too large for shipment." STARCH-PRODUCING PLANTS INVESTIGATED. Starch is one of the constituent parts in all mealy farinaceous seeds, fruits, roots, and other parts of plants, and is in large demand for domestic use, the arts, &c. Our common starch is made from wheat, and a good deal from potatoes. Pure fecula is separated by art from a variety of plants. Of plants yielding starch we have the Indian arrowroot, which is the fecula in the rhizomata of several species of the Marantaceæ. In the West Indies it is obtained from the _Maranta arundinacea_, _Allomyca_ and _nobilis_, and also from various species of _Canna_ called _Tous les mois_, and in the East Indies from species of _Curcuma_, and from _Maranta ramossissima_ in Silhet. The bread fruit (_Artocarpus incisa_), already alluded to, yields a large quantity of starch; as do the sweet potato (_Convolvulus Batatas_, or _Batatas edulis_). The pith or farinaceous part of the trunk of the _Caryota urens_, is almost equal to the finest sago. In Assam the sago of this palm is much used. The two varieties of the Cassava afford a very superior fecula, which is imported under the name of Brazilian arrowroot. 8,354 bags of tapioca and farina were imported from Maranham in 1834. Some excellent starch from Norfolk Island was shown at the Great Exhibition. The Cycadaceous family yields much starchy matter, along with mucilage. From the soft stems of _Cycas revoluta_ and _C. circinalis_, natives of China and the East Indies, a kind of sago is made. These plants are propagated by suckers. _Zamia pumila_, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, and other species of this remarkable genus of plants, which is nearly related to both ferns and palms, supply an amylaceous matter, which has been sold as arrowroot. A similar product is obtained from _Alstroemeria pallida_, a perennial plant, with pink red flowers, growing in Chili. From the nuts of the _Cycas circinalis_, the Singalese prepare an inferior kind of starch, by pounding the fresh kernels. These are cut in slices, and well dried in the sun before they are fit for use, otherwise when eaten they are intoxicating, and occasion vomiting and purging. The quantity of starch in a plant varies according to the period of growth. The results of examination on the comparative yield of starch in the potato, showed that while it abounded towards the latter part of the season, it decreased when the tubers began to germinate in the spring. It was found by Professor Balfour that 240 lbs. of potatoes left in the ground, contained of starch-- lbs. Per cent. In August 23 to 25 or 9.6 to 10.4 September 32 " 38 " 13.3 " 16 October 32 " 40 " 13.3 " 16.6 November 38 " 45 " 16 " 18.7 April 38 " 28 " 16 " 11.6 May 28 " 20 " 11.6 " 8.3 The quantity of starch remained the same during the dormant state of winter, but decreased whenever the plant began to grow, and to require a supply of nourishment. Mr. Harris, of Jamaica, some years ago, made experiments upon the nutritious qualities of the principal roots and vegetables of the West Indies. These being well washed and scraped, were grated, in each case into two gallons of clear rain-water, and the whole then filtered through a clean linen strainer, after which it was left to settle; when the amylaceous matter had wholly subsided the supernatant liquor was carefully decanted, and fresh water added, which process was repeated until every foreign substance appeared to be removed; the produce of these several operations was then carefully collected and dried with a temperature of about 110 deg. Fahrenheit, and, when dry, weighed. In this manner the results given in the following table were obtained:-- PRODUCE FROM FIVE POUNDS OF THE Oz. Drms. Centes. prop. Root of the sweet cassava (_Janipha Loeflingii_) 14 1 17.27 Root of ocoes or taniers (_Caladium esculentum_) 11 17 14.29 Root of the bitter cassava (_Janipha manihot_), the Yucca amarga of the Spaniards 11 2 13.90 Full grown but unripe fruit of the plantain (_Musa paradisiaca_) 11 1 13.82 Root of the Guinea yam (_Dioscorea_ _bulbifera_) 8 6 10.46 Root of the sweet potato (_Batatas_ _edulis_) 8 6 10.46 Root of the arrowroot (_Maranta_ _arundinacea_) 5 6 6.71 The full-grown but unripe fruit of the banana (_Musa sapientum_) 0 0 0.00 This table exhibits, no doubt, very unexpected results, since it places the sweet cassava at the very top, and the banana at the lowest place in the list, while the bitter cassava, which seems to be little more than a variety of the sweet, notwithstanding its being the staple material of West Indian bread, occupies two places lower down, and is followed by the plantain. The sweet potato and the yam, both of which are considered to be less nutritious than the arrowroot, rank above it in the centesimal proportion of their amylaceous produce. Upon what, then, do the nutritive properties of these various substances depend? Is it upon a gluten which was overlooked by Mr. Harris, in his experiments, or, if not, may we not suspect some inaccuracy in the proportion of starch assigned by him to each? It is to be wished that similar experiments were repeated with care in different quarters, and the list extended to other tropical products applicable to human sustenance, especially the roots which yield the farinaceous starch of the South Sea islanders, to the achira of Choco, &c. I shall extract largely from a very valuable report drawn up by Dr. John Shier, agricultural chemist, of Demerara, and submitted to the Governor of that colony in 1847, on the starch-producing plants, which is deserving of more widely extended publicity than the merely local circulation it has received. The remarks and results of experiments are worthy of deep consideration; and although they were meant to apply specially to British Guiana, they are equally pertinent to the West India colonies generally, our African and Australian settlements, and many other of our foreign possessions. For many reasons it is desirable that the number of the staples of cultivation and export of our colonies should be increased. It is the general experience of British agriculturists, that the mixed system of agriculture is more profitable to the farmer and safer for the land, than the continued cultivation of any single crop, or indeed of nearly allied crops; and although fewer valid objections can be urged against the continued cultivation of the sugar cane, when properly conducted, than against that of grain crops, it is nevertheless certain that a well-arranged alternation or rotation of crops would be better. When an efficient system of covered drainage is adopted in British Guiana, there can be no doubt that the sugar cane will be replanted at shorter intervals of time than at present, and that other crops, such as provender crops for cattle, and provision crops for the colonial and perhaps the home market, will be made to alternate in cultivation with the cane. When the cane rows are as far apart as they require to be, to admit of sufficient tillage with the plough and other implements, it will also be possible to intercalate crops of rapidly growing plants; and were this done, as it easily might, in such a manner as to prevent undue exhaustion of the land, or impoverishment of the sugar crop, the returns could not fail to be materially increased. It would then probably be found that the fluctuations in prices would be less felt, for they would not likely, at the same time, affect different crops in the same manner. It has been ascertained, in regard to some plants at least, that a much larger return can be obtained in the colonies than can be grown in temperate countries, however fertile. This is partly owing to the greater fertility of the soil under powerful tropical atmospheric influences, and partly to the fact that vegetation is continuous throughout the year, so that slow growing plants can do more within the time, from their functions not being arrested by the chill of winter; and of many rapidly growing plants, two successive crops can be grown within the year. Starch is a substance easily manufactured, and being largely used in several of the arts, as well as an article of diet, there consequently exists a considerable demand for it in England. It may be obtained from a great variety of plants, and many of the most productive of it are natives of the tropics. The high prices commanded by grain and breadstuffs in Europe, renders the present a remarkably favorable time to ascertain what can be done in this branch of tropical agriculture; for should the potato disease return, or this root be less extensively planted than hitherto, starch must maintain a high price, and it will be worth ascertaining whether some of the superior starch-producing plants of the tropics might not be cultivated to such an extent as to supply the English market, and thus be at once profitable to the colonies and advantageous to the mother country. Before entering on such a cultivation, however, various points require investigation. We ought to be able to answer such questions as the following:-- 1. What differences exist between the characters of starch produced by different plants? 2. What are the qualities or properties that lead manufacturers--calico printers for example--to prefer one variety to another? 3. For culinary purposes, and as an article of diet, what qualities or characters obtain a preference? 4. Can the starches from different plants be distinguished from one another by distinct and well marked characters, so that the substitution of a less esteemed variety for a more esteemed one, or the adulteration of a high priced variety with a cheaper one, could be readily detected? 5. What plants produce the most esteemed varieties? 6. What plants produce it in the largest quantity? 7. What plants produce the largest yield per acre? 8. From what plants is it most easily manufactured? 9. Is the process attended with any particular difficulties that ought to deter the East and West India planters from engaging in it? In the following observations (continues Dr. Shier) I shall be able to reply to several of these questions, especially those capable of being settled in the laboratory. On other points, particularly those relating to the returns per acre, I am at present but imperfectly informed, in consequence of the limited extent to which these plants have hitherto been cultivated in this colony (Demerara), and from the total absence of authentic data regarding the amount of yield. _Characters of starch produced from different plants_.--Starches from different plants are best distinguished from one another by examination under a good miscroscope. The grains or globules may be examined either as transparent or opaque objects; and although in the same species there are considerable differences in size and form, the different kinds are, on the whole, quite distinguishable. One of the best ways of examining the form of the globules, under the microscope, is to lay them on a plate of glass and cover them with a drop of aqueous solution of iodine, which renders them gradually blue and opaque. When the difference in size and form between the globules of different species is considerable, as between the _Tous les mois_ starch and cassava starch, or even between the arrowroot starch and cassava starch frequently used to adulterate it, it is not difficult, with a little practice, to detect the fraud. TABLE ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE SIZE AND FORM OF THE STARCH GLOBULES OF VARIOUS PLANTS. 1. Tous-les-mois (_Canna coccinea_).--Grown in Grenada, 1-300 to 1-2,000 of an inch; general size, 1-500; form of the globules, large, elliptical and ovate, and remarkably transparent. 2. Ditto ditto (species unknown).--From a plant grown in the garden of the Hon. J. Croal, Georgetown, but gathered before the root was fully ripe; globules spherical, shortly ovate and elliptical; size, from 1-600 to 1-1,600; general size, 1-800. 3. Buck Yam (_Dioscorea triphylla_).--Grown on the banks of the Demerara River. Form of globules, elliptical, often truncated at one end, so as to be mullar-shaped, some pear-shaped; length, twice the width; size, 1-600 to 1-2,000; general size, 1-800. 4. Common Yam (_D. sativa_).--Grown on No. 1 Canal, Demerara River. Elliptical, some long elliptical; size, 1-700 to 1-2,000; general size, 1-1,000. 5. Guinea Yam (_D. aculeata_).--Grown in the same locality. Larger globules, elliptical; smaller ditto, spherical, often truncated; some shortly ovate, with the appearance of being flattened; general size and range, same as No. 4. 6. Barbados Yam, grown on banks of Demerara river. Globules, pear-shaped and mullar-shaped; range, 1-700 to 1-1,600; general size, 1-1,000. 7. Plantain (_Musa paradisiaca_).--Grown on the banks of the Demerara river. Globules long and narrow, generally long elliptical, often more acute at the ends than in any other species, some linear ended abruptly; length, often three times the width; range, from 1-400 to 1-4,000 of an inch; general size, 1-800. 8. Potato (_Solanum tuberosum_).--Irish tubers, from Belfast Sound. Globules, 1-600 to 1-2,000; general size, 1-1,200. 9. Potato (Commercial).--Locality unknown. Range from 1-600; globules generally same as former, but a few stray ones as large as 1-40 of an inch. 10. Sweet Potato (_Convolvulus Batatas_).--Grown at the Lodge, Demerara. Form of globules, spherical aggregated; range, 1-1,000 to 1-4,000; general size, 1-2,400. 11. Arrowroot (_Maranta arundinacea_).--Specimens from Bermuda, where the highest priced and best quality is prepared. Ovate and elliptical; length in the larger globules, twice the width; range, from 1-800 to 1-2,400; general size, 1-1,400. 12. Ditto ditto, grown on plantation Turkeyen, Demerara, by J.W. King. Size and description same as No. 11. 13. Ditto ditto, grown and prepared in Barbados. Characteristics the same, but globules more uniform in size. 14. Ditto ditto, grown on plantation Enmore; not quite so uniform in size. 15. Bitter Cassava (_Janipha Manihot_).--Grown on Haagsbosch plantation. A few globules occur as large as the 1-1,000 of an inch; these are ovate, the rest are spherical. The range is from 1-2,000 to 1-8,000; general size, 1-4,000. 16. Sweet Cassava (_Janipha Loeflingii_).--Grown on No. 1 Canal, Demerara River. 17. Tannia (_Caladium sagittifolium_).--Grown at the Lodge. Globules not so truly spherical as the foregoing, but range and size the same. 18. Wheat (_Triticum sativum_).--Locality unknown. Form of globules, spherical and slightly elliptical, some very small; range, 1-2,000 to 1-6,000, the former the general size. 19. Maize (_Zea Mays_).--Grown in the colony, but locality uncertain. Globules, approaching to spherical, much aggregated; range, 1-2,000 to 1-4,000; general size, 1-3,000. From an inspection of this list, it does not appear that the species would be easily distinguishable, and it is not easy briefly to describe the differences; in practice, however, and especially when the observer has a number of pure and authentic specimens before him, to have recourse to as standards of comparison, the discrimination is by no means difficult. _Specific gravity of starch derived from various plants_.--Of many bodies the determination of the specific gravity is one of the best modes of distinguishing the purity. With the view of ascertaining whether the different varieties of starch have all the same density, as has been asserted by some, trials were carefully made of as many specimens as I could procure. The results are embodied in the following table:-- TABLE No. I.--DENSITY OF STARCH DERIVED FROM VARIOUS PLANTS. ------------------+-------+-------+----------------------------------------- | |Tem. at| Names of |Density|time of| Remarks Plants | |Obs. F.| ------------------+-------+-------+------------------------------------ 1. Bitter cassava|1.4 3 | 87. |Grown in the colony and prepared in | | | the Colonial Laboratory. 2. Tannia |1.4773 | 87. |Ditto ditto 3. Arrowroot |1.4772 | 86.25 |Ditto ditto 4. Arrowroot |1.4748 | 86.25 |Ditto ditto 5. Common yam |1.4733 | 83.25 |Ditto ditto 6. Sweet potato |1.4718 | 85.75 |Ditto ditto 7. Arrowroot |1.4717 | 82.75 |St. Vincent's, commercial 8. Arrowroot |1.4701 | 84.75 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. 9. Tous les mois |1.4698 | 85.25 |Ditto ditto 10. Sweet cassava |1.4692 | 86.5 |Ditto ditto 11. Wheat starch |1.4632 | 85. |Commercial, of English manufacture 12. Plantain |1.4615 | 85.75 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. 13. Tous les mois |1.4611 | 84.25 |Grenada, commercial 14. Barbados yam |1.4607 | 83.5 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. 15. Irish potato |1.4589 | 84.75 |Tubers from Belfast; prepared in C.L. 16. Guinea yam |1.4581 | 84.2 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. 17. Potato |1.4561 | 84. |Commercial 18. Buck yam |1.4489 | 81.25 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. 19. Arrowroot |1.4443 | 85.5 |Barbados, commercial 20. Arrowroot |1.4158 | 86.25 |Bermuda, ditto 21. Maize |1.4109 | 85.5 |Grown in the colony and prepared in C.L. ------------------+-------+-------+---------------------------------------- From this it will be seen that the order of density does not correspond with the order in any of the other tables. Probably those specimens prepared from dry seeds, such as wheat and maize starch, which, as commercial articles at least, are less pure than those prepared from recently dug roots, have also the lowest density. _Hygroscopic properties of starch produced from different plants_.--Such of the specimens as are marked in the following table, as prepared in the colonial laboratory, were dried in the sun in shallow trays, to which they had previously been transferred in the wet state. When sun dried, the masses were broken down, and the starches freely exposed to the air in the shade for ten days. Any adherent masses were then rubbed to powder by light pressure in a glazed mortar, and the whole sifted. Portions of each of these starches, and of others for the sake of comparison, were then dried, at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, in a current of dry air, and the loss determined:-- TABLE No. II.--SHOWING THE HYGROSCOPIC WATER CONTAINED BY STARCH PRODUCED FROM DIFFERENT PLANTS. Per centage of water. Remarks. 1. Potato 20.27 Commercial, locality unknown 2. Sweet potato 19.57 C., C.L.** 3. Buck yam 19.43 C., C.L. 4. Barbados yam 19.40 C., C.L. 5. Arrowroot 18.81 Bermuda, commercial 6. Irish potato 17.28 Tubers from Belfast, C.L. 7. Guinea yam 17.14 C., C.L. 8. Tous les mois 16.74 Grenada, commercial 9. Arrowroot 16.43 Barbados, ditto 10. Common yam 16.36 C., C.L. 11. Plantain 16.23 C., C.L. 12. Arrowroot 15.65 C., C.L. 13. Arrowroot 14.84 C., Plantation Enmore 14. Tous les mois 14.64 C., C.L. 15. Tannia 14.60 C., C.L. 16. Sweet cassava 14.30 C., C.L. 17. Maize 14.22 C., C.L. 18. Arrowroot 13.36 C., C.L. 19. Bitter cassava 11.88 C., C.L. 20. Wheat starch 11.16 Commercial, of English manufacture [** The initial C. throughout these tables indicates that the plant was grown in the colony; C.L., that the starch was prepared in the colonial laboratory.] That the extremes in this table should occur in the case of the starches of commerce, was, perhaps, to be expected; nevertheless the difference between the starch of the sweet potato and that of the bitter cassava is nearly as great, and both these specimens were prepared in the laboratory, by the same process, and subject to the same temperature and exposure. _Characters of the jellies formed by various starches._--_Tenacity_.--I have met with no very precise results on this subject, except the well-known fact that it takes a much larger quantity of some starches, the arrowroot for instance, to form a jelly of equal tenacity with that formed by others, such as the _Tous les mois_; and hence in the West Indies the latter is universally preferred to the cassava starches. After trying various plans, the method which I found best fitted for comparing the tenacity of different starch jellies, was the following:--Of each of the kinds of starch, 24 grains were weighed out and mixed with 400 grains of distilled water, in a porcelain capsule of suitable size. The mixture was then heated and boiled briskly for three minutes, with constant stirring, and was immediately poured into a conical test-glass,[45] which the jelly nearly filled. The time at which each glass was filled was noted, and exactly two hours were allowed for the contents to cool in a current of air. The glass is then set on a plate of glass, supported on a ring of a retort stand, and the weight ascertained, which was necessary to force a metallic disc, of ascertained size, through the jelly. The most convenient way of doing this was by using a piece of apparatus of the form rudely represented on the margin. The rectangular frame is of thin brass wire, and the slightly cup-shaped disc, _d d_, is soldered to a wire, attached to the upper short side of the rectangle. From the opposite or lower side of the rectangle a small glass cup, _c._, is suspended, into which weights are put as soon as the disc has been made to rest on the surface of the jelly, _pp_ is the plate of glass on which the test-glass is set. Whenever the disc tears the skin of the jelly and begins to sink in it, no further addition, of weights is made, and the weight of the disc, framework, and cup being known, we have an estimate of the tenacity of the jelly. This process is but approximative, and some practice is necessary before the operator succeeds in getting uniform results from the same series of specimens. +--------------------+ | | | | | | | | | | d \_____/ d | | | | | | | | p--------------p | | | | | +--------------------+ | | | | --------- c. The following statement shows the results on such specimens as I could procure. The disc was exactly 7/10ths of an inch in diameter. TABLE NO. III.--TENACITY OF STARCH IN JELLIES. No. Names of specimens. Weight in grains required to break the jelly. 1. Tous les mois, C., C.L. 2,446* 2. Tous les mois, Grenada, Commercial 1,742 3. Maize, C., C.L. 955 4. Barbados yam, C., C.L. 895 5. Irish potato, from Belfast, C.L. 756 6. Tannia, C., C.L. 630 7. Bermuda arrowroot, finest Commercial 627 8. Common yam, C., C.L. 657 9. Guinea yam, C., C.L. 571 10. Plantain, C., C.L. 467 11. Potato starch, Commercial 467 12. Arrowroot, C., C.L. 393 13. Sweet potato, C., C.L. 368 14. Arrowroot, C., C.L. 340 15. Arrowroot, C. 301 16. Arrowroot, St. Vincent's, Commercial 289 17. Barbados arrowroot, Commercial 273 18. Wheat starch, Commercial 183 19. Buck yam, C., C.L. 151 20. Bitter cassava, C., C.L. 150 21. Sweet cassava, C., C.L. 78 [* In this instance the weight stated detached the jelly from the side of the glass, but the skin of the jelly was not torn as in the other cases.] From this list it is obvious that, in respect of tenacity, there is a very great difference between the jellies prepared from the different starches--greater, indeed, than exists in regard to any other character. At first I thought it probable that the tenacity of the jelly would bear some relation to the size of the globules, and it is true that we find the Grenada Tous les mois, the largest globule, next the top, and the cassava among the smallest, at the bottom of the scale. But, on the other hand, we have the Buck yam starch, a large sized globule, very high; together with many other exceptions. As an article of diet, the most tenacious varieties of starch are preferred, on account of the economy of employing an article of which a less quantity will suffice; and the same is true when applied to starching linen, provided the jelly be not deficient in clearness. _Clearness of jellies_.--When starch jelly is used for the purpose of starching, or glazing linen, or cotton goods, those varieties that are most transparent are understood to be preferred, provided, at the same time, they possess the requisite tenacity. This and other matters will be best determined by practical men in England; but having had occasion many times to prepare specimens for trying the tenacity, the opportunity was always taken of arranging the specimen of jellies in the order of their clearness, or, to speak more accurately, of their translucency. In this respect also they exhibit considerable differences, varying, when prepared according to the formula described under the head of tenacity, from very translucent approaching to opaque. The order is shown in the annexed list, which begins with the clearest. TABLE NO. IV.--SHOWING THE ORDER OF CLEARNESS OR TRANSLUCENCY OF UNIFORMLY PREPARED STARCH JELLIES. Order. Names of specimens. 1. St. Vincent Arrowroot, Commercial 2. Arrowroot, C., C.L. 3. Sweet cassava, C., C.L. 4. Bitter cassava, C., C.L. 5. Bermuda arrowroot, Coml. 6. Arrowroot, C., C.L. 7. Irish potato, C.L. 8. Potato starch, Coml. 9. Buck yam, C., C.L. 10. Arrowroot, C. 11. Plantain, C., C.L. 12. Tannia, C., C.L. 13. Sweet potato, C., C.L. 14. Common yam, C., C.L. 15. Tous les mois, Grenada, Cml. 16. Barbados arrowroot, Coml. 17. Tous les mois, C., C.L. 18. Barbados yam, C., C.L. 19. Guinea yam, C., C.L. 20. Wheat starch, Coml. 21. Maize, C., C.L. On comparing this list with the former one, and taking a general view of the subject, it will be seen that the jellies that are most tenacious are generally the least translucent, and that the order of the two lists is more nearly the converse than occurs in regard to any other properties. _Percentage of starch yielded by different plants_.--On this point no two writers do or can agree. The quantity of starch, even in the same plants, the potato for instance, varies with the season, the soil, climate, age, ripeness, length of time the roots have been out of the ground, &c. In the following table I have given the result of a series of trials made in the Colonial Laboratory, Demerara. The roots were all fresh dug, and, with two exceptions, noticed in the remarks, were fair average specimens. The process was the common one. The grater or rasping machine was of copper, to avoid injuring the color of some of the starches, which an iron grater is liable to do:-- TABLE NO. V.--PERCENTAGE OF STARCH YIELDED BY DIFFERENT PLANTS. No. Names of plants. Percentage of starch. 1. Sweet cassava 26.92 2. Bitter cassava 24.84 3. Another sample 20.26 4. A third 16.02 5. Common yam 24.47 6. Arrowroot (roots scarcely ripe) 21.43 7. Another sample 17.28 8. Barbados yam 18.75 9. Tannia 17.05 10. Another sample 15.35 11. Guinea yam 17.03 12. Plantain 16.99 13. Sweet potato 16.31 14. Buck yam 16.07 15. Another sample 15.63 16. A third, from a dark colored variety 14.83 From the foregoing list it appears that the sweet and bitter cassava merit attention as starch-producing plants. They are occasionally grown for this purpose in the colonies, and yield a large per centage of starch; but there exists an opinion, whether well or ill founded, that it is liable to rot linen, and the preference is given here to the starch of arrowroot. It remains to be seen, however, what estimate will be formed of this starch in England, for if it should prove an esteemed variety, there can be no doubt of its proving a highly profitable cultivation. Cassava grows readily in almost any soil, and when the drainage is tolerable, two crops of the sweet variety can, it is stated be grown in a year. I have seen it growing luxuriantly in the light soils of the interior, as well as in the stiff clay soils of the coasts. It is considered an excellent preparatory crop in new and stiff land, on account of its tendency to loosen the soil. Were the bitter variety fixed on, the preparation of _Casareep_ might be combined with the preparation of starch; and as that substance is one of the most esteemed bases for the preparation of various sauces, it is probable that this might turn out the most profitable part of the produce. At all events, bitter cassava would have this advantage over all other starch-producing roots, that the juice of the roots could be turned, to account as well as the starch. Of all the plants mentioned in the list, starch is most readily separated from the arrowroot, in consequence of the tissue being more fibrous, and yielding little or no cellular tissue requiring to be run off the starch. Time and water are thus saved in the process, and were the fibrous residue pressed and dried, it could probably be turned to good account in the manufacture of paper. In respect of facility of preparation, the plantain starch, though of excellent quality, ranks lowest, for the flesh-colored tissue in which the starch is embedded is somewhat denser than the starch, and settles down under it, and it is not a little difficult to arrange the process so as completely to separate the finer parts of this matter from the starch, and hence its color is never perfectly white. _Yield of starch-producing plants per acre_.--On this subject, as already remarked, I do not at present possess sufficiently accurate data. In England ten tons of potatoes are not unfrequently produced per acre; now assuming 15 the per centage of starch, there would be a yield of one-and-a-half tons per acre, which, at the-lowest quotation, 28s. a cwt., would give £42 per acre; and were the starch to rank with that prepared from wheat, it would produce £40 per ton, or £60 per acre. In the thorough drained land of Demerara, and under a good system of cultivation, I have no doubt that ten tons of cassava could easily be grown, and if it yielded 25 per cent. of starch, it would be a return of 2½ tons, or of £62 10s. per acre, reckoned at the price of potato starch. Of the yield of the plantain we possess much more accurate information. A new plantain walk in this colony (British Guiana) will yield 450 bunches, of 50 lbs. each, of which, as nearly as possible, 50 per cent. will be of core, containing 17 per cent. of starch, thus producing 17 cwt. of starch per acre. But an old plantain walk, even when free from disease, could not be reckoned to yield more than half this quantity, namely, 8½ cwt. per acre. Considering the value that is set on the plantain as an article of food, and the difficulties incident to the process of making starch from it, it is by no means probable that it will ever be used as a source from which to obtain starch. Of the quantity of arrowroot that can be grown per acre, I have been able (continues Dr. Shier) to procure no information; but from the price it commands in the market, the facility with which it can be grown, and the ease with which the process of separating the starch can be carried on, it deserves a fair trial here. To cultivate it to advantage it ought to be done on thorough-drained and well-tilled land, planted at the proper season, and not dug till ripe and in dry weather. Of the Tous les mois, I have only been able to procure a single plant, for which I am indebted to the kindness of the Hon. John Croal. As the root was immature, it would be unfair to deduce from the quantity of starch obtained, the per centage generally contained by the plant. Its immaturity was also indicated by the globules being smaller than in the specimen obtained from Grenada; in other respects, however, such as the tenacity of its jelly, it stands highest. It is altogether one of the most promising starch-producing plants, and obviously deserves a careful trial. It is a plant that expends a good deal of matter in maturing a considerable quantity of dense and bulky seeds, but as it propagates both by root and seed, it is probable that, as a root-crop, it would be highly advantageous to procure a variety that does not flower. Both the tannia and the sweet potato can be readily grown, and the produce per acre is large; but from the foregoing tables it would appear that there are other plants whose starch is likely to be held in greater estimation. _Difficulties attendant on the process of preparing starch_.--Were the manufacture of superior starch to be carried out in this colony (British Guiana) on a large scale and profitably, recourse would require to be had to all the well-known means of economising labor. In the cultivation as much as possible would require to be done by cattle and implement labor, and this would be the easier to accomplish, inasmuch as, to grow roots to great advantage, the land would require to be thorough drained. When the produce was brought to the buildings, machinery similar to what is already in use in Europe, for the purpose of washing and rasping roots, and of separating and washing starch, would suffice with comparatively little manual labor. An ordinary amount of judgment being exercised in determining the proper period of ripeness of the roots, and in selecting seasons when the weather is usually most suitable for conducting the process of manufacture, it does not appear that any unusual difficulty would have to be encountered by growers or manufacturers, unless as regards the obtaining of a sufficient supply of good water; for that is essential to the production of good starch. The creek water of the colony is generally too brown, and the trench water too muddy, and contains often too much salt to produce starches of the finest color, hence recourse would require to be had to rain water, or Artesian water. The first is remarkably pure, and it certainly does not appear that were sufficiently capacious reservoirs built, or ponds dug, and protected from infiltration by the usual well-known means, there would be great difficulty in getting a sufficient supply of rain water. It is done in Bermuda, and why not here? On the other hand, almost all the Artesian wells in the colony contain a large quantity of oxide of iron held in solution by carbonic acid, and which separates as an ochrey deposit on free exposure to the air. Were this water used in the starch process, it would certainly injure the color materially; but by a chemical process, exceedingly simple, inexpensive, and easy of application, it is possible to purify the Artesian water, and render it almost as fit as rain water for the purpose of manufacturing starch. In some of the other colonies a great deal of the best starch is produced by the holders of small lots of land, and many parts of the labor being light, and suited for women and children, it is one of the most desirable cultivations for small holders, and would be very beneficial for Demerara, where the lands of the peasantry too generally lie in a state of utter neglect; yet small holders could not be expected to be able to compete with those who should grow starch on the large scale, and prepare it with the best machinery. _Cassava meal, plantain meal, &c., as articles of export_.--It may soon become an important question whether the plantain, or some of the edible roots grown in the tropics, might not be sent to Europe in a fresh state as a substitute for the potato. Many of them, the buck yam and the cassava, for instance, ought to be used when fresh dug, for every day they are out of the ground they deteriorate. This, however, is not so much the case with some of the larger yams. It is worth trying whether the finer sorts that deteriorate by keeping, might not, after being sliced and dried in the sun, become articles of export, either in that state or when ground to meal. For this purpose the bitter cassava, the plantain, and the buck yam are the most promising. Of the bitter cassava mention has already been made as a substance from which the starch and _casareep_ might be prepared. In this case, however, the woody and cellular tissue, with the small quantity of starch left in it by the ordinary starch process, would form far too poor an article of diet to constitute part of the food of man. But the roots might be used as a medium from which to prepare cassava meal, _casareep_, and the very small quantity of starch which is expressed along with the juice, leaving all the rest of the starch to form part of the meal. It is of such meal that the cassava cakes of the Indians are prepared; and although by no means so nutritive as Indian corn meal[46], there can be little doubt that in the Scotch and Irish markets the cassava meal would obtain a preference; and were it exported in quantity it would probably come into extensive use among all classes. The process would be as follows:--After washing in a revolving apparatus, by which means the adherent earth would be got quit of, and almost the whole of the thin dark colored cuticle become detached, the roots could be reduced to pulp in a rasping-mill, without the use of water; the pulp might be compressed in bags by hydraulic pressure, whereby the juice, together with a small portion of the starch, would be expressed. After allowing the starch to subside, the juice should be concentrated to about the density of 1.4. The starch would be washed, purified, and dried. The contents of the bags would then be broken up and dried in the sun or in a current of air, after which the meal would be sifted through a coarse sieve to separate the coarser parts, which, if their amount was considerable, could be ground and added to the rest. In this state of rough meal it is fit for making the cassava cakes. If ground to flour it might be used to mix with wheat, rye, or barley flour. The process is usually conducted as follows:--The squeezed pulp is broken up, sifted, and exposed to the sun on trays or mats till it is fully more than half dry. An iron hoop of the size and thickness of the cake to be made is then laid on a griddle or hot plate, and the space within the hoop is filled evenly with the somewhat moist meal, no previous kneading or rolling having been employed. As soon as the coarse meal coheres, the ring is lifted and the cake is turned and heated on the opposite side. The heat should not be sufficient to brown the cake. The cakes are finally dried by exposure to the sun. From the dry cassava meal cakes may be prepared by sprinkling it with as much cold water as to moisten it to the proper point, and then proceeding as above. Hot water cannot be employed, neither can kneading, or any considerable degree of compression be used, otherwise the water does not evaporate readily enough; the starch gets too much altered by the heat, and the cake becomes tough. If an acre of well-tilled thorough-drained land yield 10 tons of fresh roots, and I have every reason to believe that such a return might be obtained, I have ascertained that the produce would be 3½ tons of meal, 598 lbs. of _casareep_, and 2 cwt. of starch; and estimating the meal at 1d. per lb., the _casareep_ at 1s. 5d. per lb., and the starch at 40s. per cwt., the gross amount would be £78 13s. 4d. per acre. In ascertaining these proportions, very simple machinery was employed, and had the pulp been better pressed the quantity of _casareep_ would have been considerably greater. From the table given in a former note it will be seen that the cassava meal prepared in this way contains but a very small proportion of matter nutritive in the sense of contributing to the formation of blood, and that the expressed juice carries off fully one-half of the proteine compounds contained in the plant. Lichenin is a variety of starch occurring in _Cetraria islandica_, or Iceland moss. _Indian corn starch_.--The advance of science has recently brought to our knowledge the preparation and use of another article, not only important as food, but also essential in the arts. I have had occasion to mention the high value of the Indian corn, and I might with advantage allude to many of its uses and properties; at present I must confine my remarks to a product from this valuable grain, known as corn starch, and yet another as the fecula of maize. In the close of 1849, Mr. Willard and his associates, of Auburn, established extensive works at Oswego, for the preparation of these important products, their establishment covering an area of 49,000 square feet. As the proprietors have to some extent held unrevealed the process by which they produce a starch more pure than the starch of commerce, we may not indulge in speculative curiosity; yet I can hardly doubt their great success is mainly attributable to perfect machinery, guided by science and talent. The rapid and extended demand for these new products presents sufficient evidence of their character, as we are told that about three millions of pounds of this corn starch are demanded annually by the trade, notwithstanding the usual supply of wheat starch is undiminished. A remarkable feature of maize starch is the absence of impurities; upon being subjected to analysis, it is found that only 2 76-100 parts in 1000 are of other matter than pure starch. According to Dr. Ure, wheat yields only 35 to 40 per cent, of good starch, a material extensively used in arts and manufactures. In addition to starch, the Oswego starch-factory produces from Indian corn a fecula, peculiarly adapted to culinary purposes, presenting to our domestic economy one of the most acceptable, pure, and nutritious articles of food. Already has it become an indispensable household article, and is consumed largely at home and abroad. The factory, though in its infancy, consumes annually 150,000 bushels of corn, equal to about nine millions of pounds in weight. Hitherto the quantities of starch used for laundry purposes and in the manufactories of America, have been produced from costly wheats, though it may be found in many vegetable substances, such as potatoes, the horse chesnut and other seeds. In England, where breadstuffs, particularly wheat, have been raised in quantities inadequate to the demand for food, attempts have been made to convert the viscid matter of lichens into a gum, for the use of calico printers, paper-makers, and ink makers; for the stiffening of silks, crapes, and the endless variety of dry goods, which, by means of these gums or starch, are made to appear of greater consistency. Most of these attempts had partial success, yet the making of starch from wheat has not been arrested. The Oswego starch factory has happily introduced the use of Indian corn, as a grain producing a larger proportion of pure amylaceous properties than any other known vegetable substance, proffering to the American manufacturer another economic advantage, sustaining, in a most legitimate matter, sound rivalry and competition with all the world. I am not aware whether the Oswego factory has converted its starch into gum--a process easily accomplished by heat, and thus rendered soluble in cold water, which cannot be done while in its condition of starch. Here is another result of vast importance derivable from Indian corn; and we can well conceive that, in a short period of time, the advantages now derived from the production of corn starch, may have grown into a national benefit. Rice (according to Prof. Solly) contains on an average about 84 per cent of starch; but till comparatively a few years ago, no starch was manufactured from it, notwithstanding its low price, and the large quantity of starch which exists in it. The reason of this was, that the old process of fermentation, by means of which starch is procured from grain, was not found to be applicable to rice; and hence the latter only became available as a source of starch in 1840, when Mr. Orlando Jones introduced his new process, for which he obtained a patent. This process consisted in macerating the rice for about 20 hours in a dilute solution of caustic potash, containing about 200 grains of the alkali in every gallon; the liquor is then drawn off, the rice dried, reduced to powder by grinding, then a second time digested in a similar alkaline lye for 24 hours, repeatedly agitated. After this it is allowed to settle, and well washed with pure cold water. A prize medal was awarded for this rice starch at the Great Exhibition. Mr. S. Berger, of Bromley, also received a prize medal. He adopts a different mode of preparation. In place of employing a dilute solution of caustic potash to dissolve the gluten and other insoluble matters of the grain, Mr. Berger uses a solution of carbonate of soda, containing half a pound to the gallon. The rice is steeped, in cold water for 48 hours, levigated in a suitable mill, and the pulp thus formed is treated with the solution of carbonate of soda for 60 or 70 hours, being repeatedly stirred; it is then allowed to settle for some hours, the alkaline liquor is drawn off, and the starch is washed and purified. This process was patented by Mr. Berger, in December, 1841. A third process was patented in February, 1842, by Mr. J. Colman; he uses dilute muriatic acid for the same purpose as Messrs Jones and Berger. ARROWROOT, EAST AND WEST INDIAN. The genuine arrowroot of commerce is the produce of the tuberous rhizomata of _Maranta arundinacea_, a native of South America, and _M. indica_, indigenous to the West Indies, but also cultivated in the East. The best West Indian arrowroot comes from Bermuda. Its globules are much smaller and less glistening than those of _Tous-les-mois_, or potato starch. The peculiar characteristics of the starch obtained from various plants has been particularised and described already in the elaborate investigation of the commercial yield and value of the starch-producing plants. Amylaceous matter of a similar kind to arrowroot is obtained from other species of Maranta, as from some species of _Canna_, well known under the popular name of Indian shot, from the similarity of their round black seeds. The arrowroot plant (_M. arundinacea_) is a perennial, its root is fleshy and creeping, and very full of knots and numerous long white fibres. Arising from the root are many leaves, spear-shaped, smooth on the upper surface and hairy beneath. The length of the leaf is about six or seven inches, and the breadth about three towards their base, the color and consistence resembling those of the seed. From the root arise slender petioles upon which the leaves stand, and several herbaceous erect stalks come out between them, rising to the height of about two feet. A loose bunch of small white flowers is succeeded by three-cornered capsules, each containing one hard rough seed. The propagation and culture of this plant are of the simplest kinds. The roots should be parted, and the most suitable soil is a rich loam. In the Bermudas, a deep rich soil, or one in which marsh or peat prevail, is alone adapted for growing arrowroot in perfection. A correspondent from the Bermudas, (where arrowroot forms the great staple crop of the islands), informs me that he ploughed up a small piece of land, twenty rods (or the eighth part of an acre), with a small plough and one horse. He ploughed it over three times, and the third time planted the arrowroot as he ploughed it. The land had not been turned up before for twenty years. The expenses and profits stand thus:-- EXPENSE. £. s. d. To the ploughman, harrowing and planting the arrowroot 1 0 0 Arrowroot plants 16 0 Digging it up £1 0 0 Deduct half, as the land was planted for the next year 0 10 0 0 10 0 Balance carried down, being net profit 5 14 0 -------- 8 0 0 PRODUCE. By 2,000 lbs. of root at 8s. per 100 lbs. 8 0 0 By balance brought down as net profit 5 14 0 The above £5 14s. clear profit on the 20 rods, is at the rate of £45 12s. profit for one acre. Now, if a small cultivator were to plant three or four acres, and get only one-half of the above profit, it would give a good return, and would be well worth the trial. Arrowroot requires a good rich red soil, of which there is still much lying waste. The best time for planting it is in April, but it can be planted in March, or indeed at any time after the first of the year, till May: though if taken up and planted before Christmas, you may depend it will not come to any perfection. Arrowroot can be planted in many ways; either in holes made with a hoe, ploughed under, or in drills like Irish potatoes. Now the way I prefer is to prepare the land, then strike the line at two feet apart, and make holes with a pointed stick or dibble six inches apart, putting in each hole one strong plant or two small ones, then cover them up. This is more trouble than the old way, but it gives an excellent crop. It can also be planted like Irish potatoes in drills, two feet apart in the rows, and six inches between the plants. It should be hand-weeded in the spring, because if it is hoed, most likely you will cut some of it off which may be springing under ground, and it will never come up so strong again. Arrowroot requires very strong ground and plenty of manure. Farm yard manure is the best; next to that green seaweed dripping with salt water--this is an excellent manure, and should be dug in the ground as the arrowroot is taken up. I have no doubt that it would be of great advantage to the planter, if he were to put a cask in a cart, fill it with salt water, and put it on the land a few weeks before it is planted. Some people say that arrowroot does not pay so well, because it has to stay in the ground a whole year; but then if you have onions you can plant them over it, and so obtain a crop which will pay much better than the arrowroot itself. If you have a large piece of arrowroot ground, take up one half early, and plant it out with Irish potatoes; then take up the other half later, and with the plants set out your potato ground, that is if you have taken up your potatoes; if not, plant the arrowroot between the rows, in holes; so that when you take up the potatoes, you clean the arrowroot and loosen the ground, which will give a good crop; or you can plant Indian corn very thin over the arrowroot ground (if you have nothing else), but be sure to cut it up before it ripens corn, or it will injure your arrowroot crop; or you may plant a few melon seeds over it, and you will have a fine crop of fruit. In 1845 I planted, in the months of January and February, a quarter of an acre of good land, in arrowroot and onions. The expense and profit stand as follow.-- EXPENSE £. s. d. To digging the ground 1 0 0 Planting arrowroot 0 6 0 Twelve load of seaweed, at 1s. 0 12 0 Rotten manure for onions, 10 loads, at 2s. 1 0 0 One bottle onion seed 0 16 0 Sowing onion seed and keeping the plants clean 0 10 0 Planting out onions 1 0 0 Cleaning onions after set out 0 15 0 Tops and making basket 1 8 0 Pulling, cutting, and basketing 0 18 0 Carting and shipping 0 8 0 Digging arrowroot 2 0 0 -------- 10 13 0 Clear profit on quarter acre 22 13 9 -------- 33 6 9 PRODUCE By onions sold 20 16 0 By arrowroot 12 10 9 -------- 33 6 9 This is at the rate of £90 15s. clear profit per acre, which is more than double the worth of the land. I have not named the arrowroot plants, because I have planted my land with them again, but they might be fairly put to the credit of the account. The above statement shows what may be done with good land and good management; but even if a man can only clear £10 on an acre of land, he ought not to grumble. Dr. Ure gives a most interesting and lucid account of the mode of manufacture in the island of St. Vincent, where the plant is now cultivated with great success, and the root manufactured in a superior manner. It grows there to the height of about three feet, and it sends down its tap root from twelve to eighteen inches into the ground. Its maturity is known by the flagging and falling down of the leaves, an event which takes place when the plant is from ten to twelve months' old. The roots being dug up with the hoe, are transported to the washing-house, where they are thoroughly freed from all adhering earth, and next taken individually into the hand and deprived, by a knife, of every portion of their skins, while every unsound part is cut away. This process must be performed with great nicety, for the cuticle contains a resinous matter, which imparts color and a disagreeable flavor to the fecula, which no subsequent treatment can remove. The skinned roots are thrown into a large cistern, with a perforated bottom, and there exposed to the action of a copious cascade of pure water, till this runs off quite unaltered. The cleansed roots are next put into the hopper of a mill, and are subjected to the powerful pressure of two pairs of polished rollers of hard brass; the lower pair of rollers being set much closer together than the upper. The starchy matter is thus ground into a pulp, which falls into the receiver placed beneath, and is thence transferred to large fixed copper cylinders, tinned inside, and perforated at the bottom with numerous minute orifices, like a kitchen drainer. Within these cylinders, wooden paddles are made to revolve with great velocity, by the power of a water-wheel, at the same time that a stream of pure water is admitted from above. The paddle-arms beat out the fecula from the fibres and parenchyma of the pulp, and discharge it in the form of a milk through the perforated bottom of the cylinder. This starchy water runs along pipes, and then through strainers of fine muslin into large reservoirs, where, after the fecula has subsided, the supernatant water is drawn off, and fresh water being let on, the whole is agitated and left again to repose. This process of ablution is repeated till the water no longer acquires anything from the fecula. Finally, all the deposits of fecula of the day's work are collected into one cistern, and being covered and agitated with a fresh change of water, are allowed to settle till next morning. The water being now let off, the deposit is skimmed with palette knives of German silver, to remove any of the superficial parts, in the slightest degree colored; and only the lower, purer, and denser portion is prepared by drying for the market. On the Hopewell estate, in St. Vincent, where the chief improvements have been carried out, the drying-house is constructed like the hot-house of an English garden. But instead of plants it contains about four dozen of drying pans, made of copper, 7½ feet by 4½ feet, and tinned inside. Each pan is supported on a carriage having iron axles, with _lignum vitæ_ wheels, like those of a railway carriage, and they run on rails. Immediately after sunrise, these carriages, with their pans, covered with white gauze to exclude dust and insects, are run out into the open air, but if rain be apprehended they are run back under the glazed roof. In about four days the fecula is thoroughly dry and ready to be packed, with German silver shovels, into tins or American flour barrels, lined with paper, attached with arrowroot paste. The packages are never sent to this country in the hold of the ship, as their contents are easily tainted by noisome effluvia, of sugar, &c. Arrowroot is much more nourishing than the starch of wheat or potatoes, and the flavor is purer. The fresh, root consists, according to Benzon, of 0.07 of volatile oil; 26 of starch (23 of which are obtained in the form of powder, while the other 3 must be extracted from the parenchyma in a paste, by boiling water); 1.48 of vegetable albumen; 0.6 of a gummy extract; 0.25 of chloride of calcium; 6 of insoluble fibrine; and 65.6 of water. Arrowroot is often adulterated in this country with potato flour and other ingredients. Dr. Lankester asserts that the value of arrowroot starch, as an article of diet, is not greater than that of potato starch, and that the yield of starch is not greater from the arrowroot than from potatoes; but this I must decidedly deny. Chemical analysis and experience are proofs to the contrary. The analogy arrowroot has to potato starch, has induced many persons to adulterate the former substance with it; and not only has this been done, but I have known instances in which potato starch alone has been sold for the genuine foreign article. There is no harm in this, to a certain extent; but it certainly is a very great fraud upon the public (and one for which the perpetrators ought to be most severely punished), to sell so cheap an article at the same price as one which is comparatively costly. There is, moreover, in potato starch, a peculiar taste, bringing to mind that of raw potatoes, from which the genuine arrowroot is entirely free. This fraud, however, can be readily detected; arrowroot is not quite so white as potato starch, and its grains are smaller, and have a pearly and very brilliant lustre; and further, it always contains peculiar clotted masses, more or less large, which have been formed by the adhesion of a multitude of grains during the drying. These masses crush very readily when pressed between the fingers, and as before stated, arrowroot is free from that peculiar odor due to potato starch. This may be most readily developed by mixing the suspected sample with hot water; if it be genuine arrowroot, the mixture is inodorous, if potato starch, the smell of raw potatoes is immediately developed. If a mixture of arrowroot and potato starch be minutely observed by means of a good microscope, the grains of arrowroot may be readily detected; they are very small and exceedingly regular in shape, whilst those of potato starch are much larger, and very irregular in shape. But the most convenient and delicate test of all, is that proposed by Dr. Scharling, of Copenhagen. After mentioning the test by the microscope, he goes on to state that he has obtained more favorable results by employing diluted nitric acid; and that, if arrowroot or potato starch be mixed with about two parts of concentrated nitric acid, both will immediately assume a tough gelatinous state. This mass, when potato starch is employed, is almost transparent, and when arrowroot is used, is nearly opaque, as in the case above mentioned, in which hydrochloric acid is substituted. A mixture of nitric acid and water, however, operates very differently on these two kinds of starch. The glutinous mass yielded by the potato starch, becomes in a very brief period so tough that the pestle employed for stirring the mixture is sufficiently agglutinated to the mortar, that the latter may be lifted from the table by its means. Arrowroot, on the other hand, requires from twenty-five to thirty minutes to acquire a like tenacity. The _Lancet_ recently stated that, on a microscopical analysis of 50 samples of arrowroot, purchased indiscriminately of various London tradesmen, 22 were found to be adulterated. In 16 cases this adulteration consisted in the addition of a single inferior product much cheaper in price, such as potato flour, sago meal, or tapioca starch, while in other instances there was a combination of these articles, potato flour being usually preponderant. Ten of the mixtures contained scarcely a particle of the genuine Maranta or West India arrowroot, for which they were sold. One consisted almost wholly of sago meal; two of potato flour and sago meal; two of potato flour, sago meal, and tapioca starch; one of tapioca starch; and four of potato arrowroot, or starch entirely. The worst specimens were those which were done up in canisters especially marked as "Genuine West India arrowroot," or as being "warranted free from adulteration;" and one, which contained a considerable quantity of potato flour, was particularly recommended to invalids, and certified as the finest quality ever imported into this country. The profits to the vendors of the inferior compounds are to be estimated from the fact that the price of sago meal and potato starch is about 4d. per lb., while the genuine Maranta arrowroot is from 1s. to 3s. 6d. per lb. The arrowroot of Bermuda has long borne a high reputation, being manufactured on a better principle and being therefore of superior quality to that produced in Antigua, St. Vincent, and other West Indian islands. The process is tedious and requires a good deal of labor. There is no doubt, however, that the quality of the water has a great deal of influence on the fecula. Bermuda arrowroot is necessarily made from rain water collected in tanks or reservoirs, and the lime and the deposit from houses, &c., may alter its properties. After the root is taken from the ground it is placed in a mill, and is thereby cleansed of its exterior excrescences; it is then thoroughly washed, when it is ready for the large machine, the principle of which is similar to the "treadmill." A horse is placed on something like a platform, and as he prances up and down, the machinery is set in play. A person stands at the end, and places the root in the wheel of the machine, which, after being ground, falls into a trough of water. After going through this process, it is rewashed and then placed in vessels to dry in the sun. It is packed in boxes lined with blue paper or tin, and sent to the markets in England and America, where it generally meets with ready sale. At a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Bermuda, held in May, 1840, Mr. W.M. Cox submitted a new arrowroot strainer which he had invented. It consists of two cloth strainers fixed to hoops from 15 to 20 inches in diameter. The strainers working one within the other, are kept in motion by a lever, moved by hand. The whole apparatus is not an expensive one, and is well adapted for aiding the manufacture of arrowroot upon an expeditious and economical plan. A simple method by which starch may be extracted from the fecula with much purity consists in enclosing the flour in a muslin bag and squeezing it with the fingers while submerged in clean water, by which process the starch passes out in a state of white powder and subsides. Two essential constituents of flour are thus separated from each other; a viscid substance remains in the bag, which is called gluten, and the white powder deposited is starch. The principal quarters from whence the supply is derived, are the Bermudas, St. Vincent, Barbados and Grenada, in the West Indies; Ceylon, and some other parts of the East--and a few of our settlements on the West coast of Africa. The annual imports for home consumption average 500 tons. The cultivation of arrowroot for the production of starch in St. Vincent has increased enormously of late years. In 1835, the island produced 41,397 lbs.; in 1845 it exported 828,842 lbs. The exports to 15th June, 1851, were, 2,934 barrels, 2,083 half barrels, 5,610 tins. The culture is year by year extending, and as, unlike that of the sugar cane, it may be carried on on a small scale with very little outlay of capital, we may reasonably anticipate a still further progressive extension for some years to come. Arrowroot, when once established in virgin soil, produces several crops with very little culture. In the first half of 1851, 25,027 lbs. were shipped from Montego Bay, Jamaica. The quantity of arrowroot on which duty of 1s. per cwt. was paid in the six years ending 1840, was as follows:-- Cwts. 1835 3,581 1836 3,280 1837 2,858 1838 2,538 1839 2,264 1840 2,124 The imports in the last few years have been in Cwt. 1847 8,040 1848 10,580 1849 9,252 1850 15,980 1851 About 500 cwt. are re-exported. East India arrowroot is procured in part from _Curcuma angustifolia_, known locally as Tikoor in the East, and a similar kind of starch is yielded by _C. Zerumbet_, _C. rubescens_, _C. leucorhiza_, and _Alpinia Galanga_, the Galangale root of commerce. _C. angustifolia_ grows abundantly on the Malabar coast, and is cultivated about the districts of Patna, Sagur and the south-west frontier, Mysore, Vizigapatam, and Canjam, Cochin and Tellicherry. It was discovered but a few years ago growing wild in the forests extending from the banks of the Sona to Nugpore. The particles of East India arrowroot are very unequal in size, but on the average are larger than those of West India arrowroot. Dr. Taylor, in his Topography of Dacca, speaks of fecula or starch being obtained from the Egyptian lotus (_Nymphæa lotus_), which is used by the native practitioners as a substitute for arrowroot. Chinese arrowroot is said to be made from the root of _Nelumbium speciosum_. The original Indian arrowroot is extracted at Travancore, according to Ainslie, from the root of the _Curcuma angustifolia_. It is easily distinguished by its form, which is sometimes ovoid, sometimes elongated, of considerable size, rounded at one of the extremities, and terminating in a point at the other, often resembling a grain of rice. The manufacture of arrowroot on the southern borders of the Everglades, at Key West, Florida, bids fair to become as extensive and as profitable as at Bermuda, whence, at present, we receive the bulk of our supplies. The wild root, which the Indians call Compti, grows spontaneously over an immense area of otherwise barren land. It is easily gathered, and is first peeled in large hoppers ingeniously contrived, and thrown into a cylinder and ground into an impalpable pulp. It is then washed and dried in the sun, baked and broken into small lumps, when it is ready for the market. The article is extensively used in the Eastern woollen and cotton establishments, as well as for family use. Arrowroot is cultivated in the interior of East Florida with great success. It is also cultivated to a considerable extent in Georgia, and is, I understand, a profitable crop. The following is the process of manufacture:--The roots, when a year old, are dug up, and beaten in deep wooden mortars to a pulp; which is then put into a tub of clean water, well washed, and the fibrous part thrown away. The milky liquor being passed through a sieve or coarse cloth, is suffered to settle, and the clean water is drawn off; at the bottom of the vessel is a white mass, which is again mixed with clean water, and drained; lastly the mass is dried in the sun, and is pure starch. Arrowroot can be kept without spoiling for a very long time. A considerable quantity of arrowroot is now produced in the Sandwich Islands. In 1841 arrowroot to the value of 3,320 dolls. was shipped, and in 1843, 35,140 lbs., valued at £1,405, was exported, principally to Tepic and San Blas, where it is used as starch for linen. A kind of arrowroot of very good quality was sent to the Great Exhibition of 1851, by Sir R. Schomburgk, which is obtained in St. Domingo from the stems of a species of Zamia, called there Guanjiga; and the _Zamia Australis_, of Western Australia, yields even better fecula. The taste was unpleasant and salt, as if it had been immersed in lime. The other starch, from the Western Australian Zamia, in quality rivalled arrowroot. This fecula hangs together in chains, quite unlike the ordinary appearance of arrowroot when seen under the microscope. The following figures show the exports of arrowroot from Bermuda:-- lbs. Value of the exports. 1830 18,174 -- 1831 77,153 -- 1832 34,833 -- 1833 44,651 -- 1834 54,471 -- 1835 65,500 -- 1836 -- -- 1841 91,230 -- 1842 136,610 -- 1843 151,757 £8,682 1844 173,275 10,974 1845 224,480 8,084 1847 -- 4,716 1848 -- 4,747 1849 -- 6,760 1850 854,329 -- In the spring of 1851, 201,130 lbs. were shipped from Bermuda. In 1843 the quantity of arrowroot in the rough state made in Bermuda was 1,110,500 lbs. ARROWROOT EXPORTED FROM ANTIGUA TO Great Britain B.N. America B.W. Indies Boxes Boxes Boxes 1835 1,075 20 -- 1836 581 43 -- 1837 100 42 -- 1838 472 20 -- 1839 682 -- 32 1840 453 -- 30 1841 289 -- 10 1842 582 -- -- 1843 744 -- -- 1844 376 -- -- 1845 402 5 -- Barbados exported in 1832, 16,814 lbs., value £469; in 1840, 387 packages; in 1843, 302; in 1844, 790 packages; in 1851, 306 packages; these average about 30 lbs. each. Ceylon now produces excellent arrowroot. In 1842, 150 boxes were exported; in 1843, 200; in 1844, 300; in 1845, 600 boxes. From Africa we now import a large quantity: 250 boxes were received in 1846. Not unfrequently arrowroot from Africa has been sent to the West Indies in the ships with the liberated Africans, and thence re-exported to England, as of St. Vincent or Bermuda growth. The duty on arrowroot, under the new tariff, is equalised on all kinds to 4½d. per lb. The imports and home consumption of arrowroot have increased very largely, as may be seen from the following figures:-- Retained for home Imports consumption lbs. lbs. 1826 318,830 358,007 1830 449,723 516,587 1834 837,811 735,190 1835 287,966 895,406 1838 404,738 434,574 1839 303,489 224,792 1840 408,469 330,490 1841 -- 454,893 1842 890,736 846,832 1846 905,072 981,120 1847 1,185,968 1,211,168 1848 906,304 933,744 1849 1,036,185 1,032,992 1850 1,789,774 1,414,669 1851 2,083,681 1,848,778 1852 2,139,390 2,024,316 SALEP is the prepared and dried roots of several orchideous plants, and is sometimes sold in the state of powder. Indigenous salep is procured, according to Dr. Perceval from _Orchis mascula_, _O. latifolia_, _O. morio_, and other native plants of this order. On the continent it is obtained from _O. papilionaceo_, and _militaris_. Oriental salep is procured from other orchideoe. Professor Royle states that the salep of Kashmir is obtained from a species of Eulophia, probably _E. virens_. Salep is also obtained from the tuberous roots of _Tacca pinnatifida_, and other species of the same genus, which are principally natives of the East Indies and the South Sea Islands. The large fleshy tubers of tacca, when scraped and frequently washed, yield a nutritious fecula resembling arrowroot. Salep consists chiefly of bassorin, some soluble gum, and a little starch. It forms an article of diet fitted for convalescents when boiled with water or milk. The price of salep is about eight guineas per cwt. in the London market. A little is exported from Constantinople, as I noticed a shipment of 66 casks in 1842; excellent specimens from this quarter were shown in the Egyptian department of the Great Exhibition in 1851. It was formerly a great deal used, but has latterly been much superseded by other articles. Major D. Williams ("Journal of the Agri. and Hort. Soc. of India," vol. iv., part I), states that the tacca plant abounds in certain parts of the province of Arracan, where the Mugs prepare the farina for export to the China market. After removing the peel, the root is grated on a fish-skin, and the pulp having been strained through a coarse cloth, is washed three or four times in water, and then dried in the sun. According to a recent examination of the plant by Mr. Nuttall ("American Journal of Pharmacy," vol. ix., p. 305), the Otaheite salep is obtained from a new species of tacca, which he names _T. oceanica_. For many years we have obtained from Tahiti, and other islands of the South Seas, this fecula, known by the name of Tahiti arrowroot, probably the produce of _Tacca pinnatifida_. It is generally spherical, but also often ovoid, elliptic, or rounded, with a prolongation in the form of a neck, suddenly terminated by a plane. The tacca plant grows at Zanzibar, and is found naturalised on the high islands of the Pacific. The art of preparing arrowroot from it is aboriginal with the Polynesians and Feejeeans. At Tahiti the fecula is procured by washing the tubers, scraping off their outer skin, and then reducing them to a pulp by friction, on a kind of rasp, made by winding coarse twine (formed of the coco-nut fibre) regularly round a board. The pulp is washed with sea water through a sieve, made of the fibrous web which protects the young frond of the coco-nut palm. The strained liquor is received in a wooden trough, in which the fecula is deposited; and the supernatant liquor being poured off, the sediment is formed into balls, which are dried in the sun for twelve or twenty-four hours, then broken and reduced to powder, which is spread out in the sun further to dry. In some parts of the world cakes of a large size are made of the meal, which form an article of diet in China, Cochin-Caina, Travancore, &c., where they are eaten by the natives with some acid to subdue their acrimony. Some twenty varieties of the Ti plant (_Diacaena terminalis_) are cultivated in the Polynesian islands. There is, however, but one which is considered farinaceous and edible. In Java the root is considered a valuable medicine in dysentery. Within the last three or four years, considerable quantities of a feculent substance, called Tous les mois, have been imported from the West Indies. It is cultivated in Barbados, St. Kitts, and the French islands, and is said to be prepared by a tedious and troublesome process from the rhizomes of various species of _Canna Coccinea_, _Achiras_, _glauca_, and _edulis_. It approaches more nearly to potato starch than to any other fecula, but its particles are larger. Like the other amylaceous substances, it forms a valuable and nutritious article of food for the invalid. The large tuberous roots of the Canna are equal in size to the human head. The plant attains in rich soils a stature of fourteen feet, and is identical, it is supposed, with the Achira of Choco, which has an esculent root highly esteemed; and my friend, Dr. Hamilton, of Plymouth, has named it provisionally, in consequence, _Canna achira_. The starch of this root, he asserts, is superior to that of the _Maranta_. ROOT CROPS. Amongst tuberous rooted plants, which serve as food for man in various quarters of the globe, the principal are the common potato, yam, cocoes or eddoes, sweet potatoes, taro, tacca, arrowroot, cassava, or manioc, and the Apios (_Arracacha esculenta_). There are others of less importance, which may be incidentally mentioned. The roots of _Tropæolum tuberosum_ are eaten in Peru, those of _Ocymum tuberosum_ in Java. In Kamschatka they use the root of the _Lilium Pomponium_ as a substitute for the potato. In Brazil the _Helianthus tuberosus_. The rhizomæ and seed vessels of the Lotus form the principal food of the aborigines of Australia. As a matter of curious information, I have also briefly alluded to many other plants and roots, furnishing farinaceous substance and support in different countries. The comparative amount of human food that can be produced upon an acre from different crops, is worthy of great consideration. One hundred bushels of Indian corn per acre is not an uncommon crop. One peck per week will not only sustain life, but give a man strength to labor, if the stomach is properly toned to the amount of food. This, then, would feed one man 400 weeks, or almost eight years! 400 bushels of potatoes can also be raised upon an acre. This would give a bushel a week for the same length of time; and the actual weight of an acre of sweet potatoes (_Convolvulus batatas_) is 21,344 lbs., which is not considered an extraordinary crop. This would feed a man (six pounds a day) for 3,557 days, or nine and two-third years! To vary the diet we will occasionally give rice, which has been grown at the rate of 93 bushels to the acre, over an entire field. This, at 45 lbs. to the bushel, would be 4,185 lbs.; or, at 28 lbs. to the bushel when husked, 2,604 lbs., which, at two pounds a day, would feed a man 1,302 days, or more than three-and-a-half years! POTATOES. The common English or Irish potato (_Solanum tuberosum_), so extensively cultivated throughout most of the temperate countries of the civilised globe, contributing as it does to the necessities of a large portion of the human race, as well as to the nourishment and fattening of stock, is regarded as of but little less importance in our national economy than wheat or other grain. It has been found in an indigenous state in Chili, on the mountains near Valparaiso and Mendoza; also near Monte Video, Lima, Quito, as well as in Santa Fe de Bogota, and more recently in Mexico, on the flanks of Orizaba. The history of this plant, in connection with that of the sweet potato, is involved in obscurity, as the accounts of their introduction into Europe are somewhat conflicting, and often they appear to be confounded with one another. The common kind was doubtless introduced into Spain in the early part of the sixteenth century, from the neighbourhood of Quito, where, as well as in all Spanish countries, the tubers are known as papas. The first published account of it we find on record is in "_La Cronica del Peru_," by Pedro de Cieca, printed at Seville, in 1553, in which it is described and illustrated by an engraving. From Spain it appears to have found its way into Italy, where it assumed the same name as the truffle. It was received by Clusius, at Vienna, in 1598, in whose time it spread rapidly in the South of Europe, and even into Germany. It is said to have found its way to England by a different route, having been brought from Virginia by Raleigh colonists, in 1586, which would seem improbable, as it was unknown in North America at that time, either wild or cultivated; and besides, Gough, in his edition of Camden's "Britannia," says it was first planted by Sir Walter Raleigh, on his estate at Youghal, near Cork, and that it was cultivated in Ireland before its value was known in England. Gerarde, in his "Herbal," published in 1597, gives a figure of this plant, under the name of _Batata Virginiana_, to distinguish it from the _Batata edulis_, and recommends the root to be eaten as a "delicate dish," but not as a common food. "The sweet potato," says Sir Joseph Banks, "was used in England as a delicacy, long before the introduction of our potatoes. It was imported in considerable quantities from Spain and the Canaries, and was supposed to possess the power of restoring decayed vigor." It is related that the common potato was accidentally introduced into England from Ireland, at a period somewhat earlier than that noticed by Gerarde, in consequence of the wreck of a vessel on the coast of Lancashire, which had a quantity on board. In 1663 the Royal Society of England took measures for the cultivation of this vegetable, with the view of preventing famine. Notwithstanding its utility as a food became better known, no high character was attached to it; and the writers on gardening towards the end of the seventeenth century, a hundred years or more after its introduction, treated of it rather indifferently. "They are much used in Ireland and America as bread," says one author, "and may be propagated with advantage to poor people." The famous nurserymen, Loudon and Wise, did not consider it worthy of notice in their "Complete Gardener," published in 1719. But its use gradually spread as its excellencies became better understood. It was near the middle of the last century before it was generally known either in Britain or North America, since which it has been most extensively cultivated. The period of the introduction of the common potato into the British North American colonies, is not precisely known. It is mentioned among the products of Carolina and Virginia in 1749, and by Kalm as growing in New York the same year. The culture of this root extends through the whole of Europe, a large portion of Asia, Australia, the southern and northern parts of Africa, and the adjacent islands. On the American continent, with the exception of some sections of the torrid zone, the culture ranges from Labrador on the east, and Nootka Sound on the west, to Cape Horn. It resists more effectually than the cereals the frosts of the north. In the North American Union it is principally confined to the Northern, Middle, and Western States, where, from the coolness of the climate it acquires a farinaceous consistence highly conducive to the support of animal life. It has never been extensively cultivated in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, probably from the greater facility of raising the sweet potato, its more tropical rival. Its perfection, however, depends as much upon the soil as on the climate in which it grows; for in the red loam, on the banks of Bayou Boeuf, in Louisiana, where the land is new, it is said that tubers are produced as large, savory, and as free from water as any raised in other parts of the world. The same may be said of those grown at Bermuda, Madeira, the Canaries, and numerous other ocean isles. The chief varieties cultivated in the Northern States of America are the carter, the kidneys, the pink-eyes, the mercer, the orange, the Sault Ste. Marie, the merino, and Western red; in the Middle and Western States, the mercer, the long red, or merino, the orange, and the Western red. The yield varies from 50 to 400 bushels and upwards per acre, but generally it is below 200 bushels. Within the last ten years an alarming disease, or "rot," has attacked the tubers of this plant, about the time they are fully grown. It has not only appeared in nearly every part of America, but has spread dismay, at times, throughout Great Britain and Ireland, and has been felt more or less seriously in every quarter of the globe. To the greater uncertainty attending its cultivation of late years, must be attributed the deficiency of the United States crop of 1849, as compared with that of 1839. This is one of the four agricultural products which, by the last census, appears smaller than ten years since.--("American Census Reports for 1850.") The crops in Ireland, where the potato is the principal object of culture, vary from 1½ to 10½ tons per acre, according to the season; but in the average of three years ending 1849, the annual growth of Great Britain and Ireland amounted to nine million tons, which, at £3 per ton, exhibits the value at £27,000,000 sterling. Ireland produced in 1847 a little over two million tons, the yield being 7¼ tons per acre. In 1848 the produce was 2,880,814 tons, averaging only four tons to the acre. In 1849, 4,014,122 tons, averaging 5½ tons to the acre. In 1850, 3,954,990 tons; and in 1851, 4,441,022 tons; the average yield per acre not stated. In many parts of Scotland 24 tons to the acre are raised. The sales of potatoes in the principal metropolitan markets exceed 140,000 tons a year, which are irrespective of the sales which take place at railway stations, wharfs, shops, &c. The imports into the United Kingdom average about 70,000 tons annually. Potatoes are exported to the West Indies, Mediterranean, and other quarters. For emigrant ships, preserved or dried potato flour is now much used. The following quantities of potato flour were imported from France in the last few years:-- Cwts. 1848 17,222 1849 3,858 1850 12,591 1851 2,631 We also imported the following quantities of potatoes in the last five years:-- Cwts. 1848 940,697 1849 1,417,867 1850 1,348,867 1851 636,771 1852 773,658 Thoroughly dried potatoes will always produce a crop free from disease. Such is the positive assertion of Mr. Bollman, one of the professors in the Russian Agricultural Institution, at Gorigoretsky. In a very interesting pamphlet[47] by this gentleman, it is asserted, as an unquestionable fact, that mere drying, if conducted at a sufficiently high temperature, and continued long enough, is a complete antidote to the disease. The account given by Professor Bollman of the accident which led to this discovery is as follows:--He had contrived a potato-setter, which had the bad quality of destroying any sprouts that might be "on the sets, and even of tearing away the rind. To harden the potatoes so as to protect them against this accident, he resolved to dry them. In the spring of 1850, he placed a lot in a very hot room, and at the end of three weeks they were dry enough to plant. The potatoes came up well, and produced as good a crop as that of the neighbouring farmers, with this difference only, that they had no disease, and the crop was, therefore, upon the whole, more abundant. Professor Bollman tells us that he regarded this as a mere accident; he, however, again dried his seed potatoes in 1851, and again his crop was abundant and free from disease, while everywhere on the surrounding land they were much affected. This was too remarkable a circumstance not to excite attention, and in 1852 a third trial took place. All Mr. Bollman's own stock of potatoes being exhausted, he was obliged to purchase his seed, which bore unmistakable marks of having formed part of a crop that had been severely diseased; some, in fact, were quite rotten. After keeping them about a month in a hot room, as before, he cut the largest potatoes into quarters, and the smaller into halves, and left them to dry for another week. Accidentally the drying was carried so far that apprehensions were entertained of a very bad crop, if any. Contrary to expectation, however, the sets pushed promptly, and grew so fast that excellent young potatoes were dug three weeks earlier than usual. Eventually nine times the quantity planted was produced, and although the neighbouring fields were attacked, no trace of disease could be found on either the herbage or the potatoes themselves. This singular result, obtained in three successive years, led to inquiry as to whether any similar cases were on record. In the course of the investigation two other facts were elicited. It was discovered that Mr. Losovsky (living in the government of Witebsk, in the district of Sebege), had for four years adopted the plan of drying his seed potatoes, and that during that time there had been no disease on his estate. It was again an accident which led to the practice of this gentleman. Five years ago, while his potatoes were digging, he put one in his pocket, and on returning home threw it on the stove (poele), where it remained forgotten till the spring. Having then chanced to observe it, he had the curiosity to plant it, all dried up as it was, and obtained an abundant, healthy crop; since that time the practice of drying has been continued, and always with great success. Professor Bollman remarks that it is usual in Russia, in many places, to smoke-dry flax, wheat, and rye; and in the west of Russia, experienced proprietors prefer, for seed, onions that have been kept over the winter in cottages without a chimney. Such onions are called _dymka_, which may be interpreted smoke-dried. The second fact is this:--Mr. Wasileffsky, a gentlemen residing in the government of Mohileff, is in the habit of keeping potatoes all the year round, by storing them in the place where his hams are smoked. It happened that in the spring of 1852 his seed potatoes, kept in the usual manner, were insufficient, and he made up the requisite quantity with some of those which had been for a month in the smoking place. These potatoes produced a capital crop, very little diseased, while at the same time the crop from the sets which were not smoke-dried was extensively attacked by disease. Professor Bollman is of opinion that there would have been no disease at all if the sets had been better dried. The temperature required to produce the desired result is not very clearly made out. Mr. Bollman's room, in which his first potatoes were dried, was heated to about 72 degrees, and much higher. By way of experiment he placed others in the chamber of the stove itself, where the thermometer stood at 136 degrees, and more. He also ascertained that the vitality of the potato is not affected, even if the rind is charred. Those who have the use of a malt-kiln, or even a lime-kiln, might try the effect of excessive drying, for a month seems to be long enough for the process.--(Gardener's Chronicle.) A Mr. Penoyer, of Western Saratoga, Illinois, publishes the following, which he recommends as a perfect cure and preventive of the potato rot, having tested it thoroughly four years with perfect success; while others in the same field, who did not use the preventive, lost their entire crop by the rot. It not only prevents the rot, but restores the potato to its primitive vigor, and the product is not only sound, but double the size, consequently producing twice the quantity on the same ground, and the vines grow much larger, and retain their freshness and vitality until the frost kills them. Aside from the cure of the rot, the farmers would be more than doubly compensated for their trouble and expense in the increase and quality of the crop. The remedy or preventive is as follows:--"Take one peck of fine salt and mix it thoroughly with half a bushel of Nova Scotia plaster or gypsum (the plaster is the best), and immediately after hoeing the potatoes the second time, or just as the young potato begins to set, sprinkle on the main vines, next to the ground, a tablespoon full of the above mixture to each hill, and be sure to get it on the main vines, as it is found that the rot proceeds from a sting of an insect in the vine, and the mixture coming in contact with the vine, kills the effect of it before it reaches the potato." I cannot but consider Professor Bollman's as the most important of the two remedies suggested. The potato crop of the United States exceeds 100 million bushels, nearly all of which are consumed in the country; the average exports of the last eight years not having exceeded 160,000 bushels per annum. According to the census returns of 1840, the quantity of potatoes of all sorts raised in the Union, was 108,298,060 bushels; of 1850, 104,055,989 bushels, of which 38,259,196 bushels were sweet potatoes. Last year (1852) there was under cultivation with potatoes in Canada, the following extent of land:-- Acres. Bushels. Upper Canada 77,672 Produce 498,747 Lower Canada 73,244 Produce 456,111 About 782,008 cwts. of potatoes are annually exported from the Canary Islands. In Prussia, 153 million hectolitres of potatoes were raised in 1849. In 1840 Van Diemen's Land produced 15,000 tons of potatoes, on about 5,000 acres of land. The potato is not yet an article of so much importance in France, as in England or the Low Countries, but within the last twenty years its cultivation has increased very rapidly. It is mostly grown where corn is the least cultivated. The quantity raised in 1818, was 29,231,867 hectolitres, which had increased in 1835 to 71,982,814 hectolitres. About 2,000,000 hectolitres of chesnuts are also annually consumed in France, a portion of the rural population in some of the Central and Southern Departments living almost entirely on them for half the year. In Peru dried potatoes are thus prepared:--Small potatoes are boiled, peeled, and then dried in the sun, but the best are those dried by the severe frosts on the mountains. In the Cordilleras they are covered with ice, until they assume a horny appearance. Powdered, it is called _chimo_. They will keep for any length of time, and when used required to be bruised and soaked. If introduced as a vegetable substance in long sea voyages, the potato thus dried would be found wholesome and nourishing. A large and profitable business is now carried on, in what is called "preserved potatoes," for ships' use, prepared by Messrs. Edwards and Co., which are found exceedingly useful in the Royal Navy, in emigrant ships, for troops and other services, from their portability, nutritious properties, and being uninjured by climate. Few persons are probably aware of the quantity of potatoes used in England, America and the Continent, in the manufacture of starch, arrowroot, and tapioca, &c., A starch manufactory in Mercer, Maine, United States, grinds from 16,000 to 24,000 bushels annually of potatoes, and makes 140,000 to 240,000 lbs. of starch, which finds a ready market at Boston, at four dollars the hundred pounds. The New England manufacturers prefer it to Poland starch. Another starch manufacturer, in Hampden, America, consumes 2,500 bushels per day. In a single district in Bavaria, in Germany, 400,000 lbs. of sago and starch are manufactured from potatoes; 100 lbs. of potatoes are said to yield 12 lbs. of starch. From experiments made in America, with three varieties of potatoes, the long reds, Philadelphia, and pink-eyes, it was found that the former yielded the most starch, viz., about 6 lbs. to the bushel. A bushel of potatoes weighs about 64 lbs. The following table from Accum, gives the rate of starch and component parts per cent. in different varieties:-- +-------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+---------+------+ | Sort. |Fibrine.|Starch.|Vegetable| Gum. |Acids and|Water.| | | | | Albumen.| | Salts. | | +-------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+---------+------- |Red potatoes | 7.0 | 15.0 | 1.4 | 4.1 | 5.1 | 75.0 | |Ditto germinated | 6.8 | 12.2 | 1.3 | 3.7 | | 73.0 | |Potato sprouts | 2.8 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 3.3 | | 93.0 | |Kidney potatoes | 8.8 | 9.1 | 0.8 | | | 81.3 | |Large red ditto | 6.0 | 12.9 | 0.7 | | | 78.0 | |Sweet ditto | 8.2 | 15.1 | 0.8 | | 74.3 | |Potato of Peru | 5.2 | 15.0 | 1.9 | 1.9 | 76.0 | |Ditto of England | 6.8 | 12.9 | 1.1 | 1.7 | 77.5 | |Onion potato | 8.4 | 18.7 | 0.9 | 1.7 | 70.3 | |Voigtland | 7.1 | 15.4 | 1.2 | 2.0 | 74.3 | |Cultivated in the | | | | | | | environs of Paris| 6.8 | 13.3 | 0.9 | 3.3 | 1.4 | 73.1 | +-------------------+--------+-------+---------+------+---------+------+ The first six varieties were analysed by Einhoff, the next four by Lamped, and the last named by Henry. YAMS. The different species of yams have a wide range. In the West Indies there are several varieties, having distinctive names, according to quality, color, &c., as the white yam, the red yam, the negro yam, the creole yam, the afoo yam, the buck yam (_Dioscorea triphylla_), which is found wild in Java and the East; the Guinea yam, the Portuguese yam, the water yam, and the Indian yam, &c. The last is considered the most farinaceous and delicate in its texture, resembling in size the potato; most of the other sorts are coarse, but still very nutritive and useful. The common yam (_Dioscorea sativa_) is indigenous to the Eastern Islands and West Indies. The Guinea yam (_D. aculeata_) is a native of the East. The Barbados or winged yam (_D. alata_?) has a widely extended range, being common to India, Java, Brazil, and Western Africa. The yam species are climbing plants, with handsome foliage, of the simplest culture, which succeed well in any light, rich, or sandy soil, and are readily increased by dividing the tuberous roots. The Indian, Barbados, and red yams are planted in the West Indies early in May, and dug early in the January following. If not bruised, they will keep well packed in ashes, the first nine, and the second and last twelvemonths. The Portuguese and Guinea yams are planted early in January and dug in September. Creole yams and Tanias are dug in January. Sweet potatoes from January to March. In most of our colonies large crops of the finest descriptions of yams, cocos, &c., could be obtained, but the planting of ground provisions is too much neglected by all classes. From the tubers of yams of all sorts, and particularly the buck yam, starch is easily prepared, and of excellent quality. Some varieties of the buck yam are purple-fleshed, often of a very deep tint, approaching to black, and although this is an objection, because it renders more washing necessary, yet even from these the starch is at last obtained perfectly white. As an edible root the buck yam, especially when grown in a light soil, is equal to the potato, if not superior to it. It does not, however, keep for any length of time, and therefore could not be exported to Europe, unless the roots were sliced and dried. Yams and sweet potatoes thrive well in the northern parts of Australia; indeed the former are indigenous there, and constitute the chief article of vegetable food used by the natives. The yam was introduced into Sweden, where it succeeded well, and bread, starch, and brandy were made from it, but it prefers a warmer climate. Yams are occasionally brought to this country. When cooked, either by roasting or boiling, the root is even more nutritious than the potato, nor is it possessed of any unpalatable flavor, the pecularity being between that of rice and the potato. Dressed in milk, or mashed, they are absolutely a delicacy; and from the abundance in which they are cultivated in the West Indies and other parts, they promise to become a most economical and nutritious substitute for the potato. The yam frequently grows to the enormous size of forty or fifty pounds weight, but in this large state it is coarse-flavored and fibrous. An acre of land is capable of producing 4½ tons of yams, and the same quantity of sweet potatoes, within the twelve months, or nine tons per acre for both, being nearly as much as the return obtained at home in the cultivation of potatoes; and I have the authority of all analytical chemists for saying that in point of value, as an article of food, the superiority is as two to one in favor of the tropical roots. The kidney-rooted yam (_D. pentaphylla_), is indigenous to the Polynesian islands, and is sometimes cultivated for its roots. It is called _kawaii_ in the Feejee islands. _D. bulbifera_, a native of the East, is also abundantly naturalised in the Polynesian islands, but is not considered edible. There are seven or eight kinds of yams grown in India. Two are of a remarkably fine flavor, one weighing as much as eighteen pounds, the other three pounds. These are found in the Tartar country. COCOS OR EDDOES _Arum esculentum_.--This root has not hitherto been considered of sufficient importance to demand particular care in its cultivation, except by those who are engaged in agricultural pursuits, and derive their subsistence from the production of the soil. But though the cultivation of the root is almost unknown to the higher classes in society, and little regarded by planters in the colonies, it is a most valuable article of consumption. Amongst the laboring population it is the principal dependence for a supply of food. Long droughts may disappoint the hopes of the yam crop, storms and blight may destroy the plantain walks, but neither dry or wet weather materially injure the coco; it will always make some return, and though it may not afford a plentiful crop, it will yield a sufficiency until a supply can be had from other sources. For this reason the laborer in the West Indies always takes care to put in a good plant of cocos to his provision ground as a stand by, and knowing their value, is perhaps the only person who bestows any degree of care or attention upon them. Previous to their emancipation, whole families of negroes lived upon the produce of one provision ground, and the coco formed the main article of their support. Where the soil is congenial to the white and black Bourbon coco, the labor of one industrious person once a fortnight will raise a supply sufficient for the consumption of a family of six or seven persons. The coco begins to bear after the first year, and with common care and cultivation the same plant ought to give annually two or three returns for several years. In Jamaica, a disease something similar to that affecting the potato, has been found injurious to the coco root. This disease, which has baffled all inquiry as to its origin, affects the plants in and after the second year of their being planted. The first indication of it is the change in the leaves, which gradually turn to a yellow hue, have a sickly appearance, and at length drop off at the surface of the earth. The stock or "coco head," as it is called, below ground, having become rotten, nothing but a soft pulpy mass remains. In some fields every third or fourth root is thus affected, in others much greater numbers are destroyed, so much so that the field requires to be almost entirely replanted, by which not only an expense is entailed, but a heavy loss sustained, from the field being thrown out of its regular bearing. The black coco seems to suffer less than the white. Another species, the Taro (_Arum Colocasia_, _Colocasia esculenta_ and _macrorhizon_), is an important esculent root in the Polynesian islands. In the dry method of culture practised on the mountains of Hawaii, the roots are protected by a covering of fern leaves. The cultivation of taro is hardly a process of multiplication, for the crown of the root is perpetually replanted. As the plant endures for a series of years, the tuberous roots serve at some of the rocky groups as a security against famine. It is also extensively cultivated in Madeira and Zanzibar, and has even withstood the climate of New Zealand. It is grown also in Egypt, Syria, and some of the adjacent countries, for its esculent roots. A species is cultivated in the Deccan, for the sake of the leaves, which form a substitute for spinach. Farina is obtained from the root of _Arum Rumphii_ in Polynesia. SWEET POTATOES. The batatas, or camote of the Spanish colonies (_Convolvulus batatas_, Linn; _Batatas edulis_, of Choisy, and the _Ipomæa Batatas_ of other botanists), belongs to a family of plants which has been split into several genera. It is a native of the East Indies, and of intertropical America, and was the "potato" of the old English writers in the early part of the fourteenth century. It was doubtless introduced into Carolina, Georgia, and Virginia soon after their settlement by the Europeans, being mentioned as one of the cultivated products of those colonies as early as the year 1648. It grows in excessive abundance throughout the Southern States of America, and as far north as New Jersey, and the southern part of Michigan. The varieties cultivated there are the purple, the red, the yellow, and the white, the former of which is confined to the South. The amount of sweet potatoes exported from South Carolina in 1747-48, was 700 bushels; that of the common potato exported from the United States, 1820-21, 90,889,000 bushels; in 1830-31, 112,875,000 bushels; in 1840-41, 136,095,000 bushels; in 1850-51, 106,342,000 bushels. The sweet potato is cultivated generally in all the intertropical regions, for the sake of its roots, and as a legume in temperate countries. In the Southern States of North America, the culture ceases in Carolina under latitude 36 degs.; in Portugal and Spain it reaches to latitude 40 and 42 deg.; and as a legume its cultivation is attempted to the vicinity of Paris. In India it is a very common crop; its tubers are very similar to the potato, but have a sweeter taste, whence the common name; but it must not be confounded with the topinambur (_Helianthus tuberosus_), a native of Brazil, which is less cultivated. The root contains much saccharine and amylaceous matter. Several marked varieties of the sweet potato are raised in the Polynesian groups. In some islands it forms the principal object of cultivation. It is grown in the Northern districts of New Zealand, at Zanzibar, Monomoisy, Bombay, and other parts of the East Indies. They are raised on the bare surface of the rock in some parts of the Hawaiian islands, and a sourish liquor is procured from them. It was early cultivated on the Western Coast of Africa, for the Portuguese Pilot (who set out on his voyages to the colony at St. Thomas, in the Gulf of Guinea) speaks of this plant, and states that it is called "batata" by the aboriginals of St. Domingo. They are abundant at Mocha and Muscat. Sweet potatoes form a principal and important crop in the Bermudas. A valuable addition has lately been made to the votaries of the sweet potato in Alabama, supposed to be from Peru. A letter describing it says:--"It is altogether different and equally superior to any variety of this root hitherto known. It is productive, and attains a prodigious size, even upon the poorest sandy land, and the roots remain without change from the time of taking them out of the ground until the following May. The plant is singularly easy of cultivation, growing equally well from the slip or vine, the top or vine of the full-grown plant being remarkably small; the inside is as white as snow. It is dry and mealy, and the saccharine principle contained resembles in delicacy of flavor fine virgin honey." There is in general a great error in cultivating this root, as most people still plant in the old way, two or three sets in the hole, which is a great deal too close. When a piece of land is to be planted in sweet potatoes, it should be top-dressed with some manure, to be dug or ploughed under a week or two before it is to be planted. Drills should be made two feet apart, and the potatoes placed in the drill about one foot asunder. From eight to twelve to the pound are the best size for planting. The "white upright" kind, when intended for sets, should be taken up early in March, and kept about a month, so as to be quite dry before planting. Abundant crops can rarely be raised from the stem of the "uprights;" the old potato, however, grows to a large size. I have planted a potato weighing about an ounce, and dug it up in August, weighing over two pounds. The drills can be made with a small plough to great advantage, when a person understands it. The best manure for the sweet potato is anything green, such as fresh seaweed, green oats, bushes, or anything of the kind, put in in abundance. Care should be taken to get early and good strong slips. A slip with about six joints is quite long enough; three or four joints to be put under ground, and the rest above. For slips, the land must be prepared as already described for the potatoes; this should be done before the slips are ready to cut. The best way to plant slips is to drill, the same way as for the potatoes, only a little closer; then put the end of the slip in, leaving about two joints out of ground, placing them one foot apart. The drills can be made in dry weather, so as not to have any delay when it rains; by this means a great many can be planted in a day. The best land for sweet potatoes is the light sandy kind; a rich friable black mould, or a rocky substratum; for hill sides, rocky ravines, and places which would be called barren and unprofitable for other crops, are found to yield a good return when planted with sweet potatoes. The best time to plant slips to get stock from, is the latter end of August or early in September, as the season may suit. The sweet potato of Java, says Mr. Crawfurd, is the finest I ever met with. Some are frequently of several pounds weight, and now and then have been found of the enormous weight of 50 lbs. The sweetness is not disagreeable to the palate, though considerable, and they contain a large portion of farinaceous matter, being as mealy as the best of our own potatoes. In Java it is cultivated in ordinary upland arable, or in the dry season as a green crop in succession to rice. A tuberous root (_Ocymum tuberosum_), an inhabitant of the hot plains, is frequently cultivated in Java. It is small, round, and much resembling in appearance the American potato, but has no great flavor. Its local name is _kantang_. CASSAVA OR MANIOC. Of this plant, which is a shrub about six feet high, extensively grown for its farinaceous root, there are several species, nearly all natives of America, principally of Brazil, whence it derives one of its common names of Manihot or Mandioc. Two species of Manihot have been found indigenous in South Australia. The varieties commonly cultivated for their roots, are the sweet and the bitter. 1. Sweet cassava (_Janiphi_ (or _Jatropha_,) _Loeflingii_, Kunth; _Manihot Aipi_, of Pohl).--This species has a spindle-shaped root brown externally, about six or seven ounces or more in weight, which contains amylaceous matter, without any bitterness, and is used as food, after being rasped and washed, so as to cleanse it from the fibrous matter, in the same manner as arrowroot is prepared. It is distinguished from the bitter cassava by a tough ligneous fibre, which runs through the heart of the tuber. Manihot starch is sometimes imported into Europe under the name of Brazilian arrowroot. The cassava is known in Peru as _yucca_. A dry mixed soil is best suited to its culture. So exhausting is this crop, that it cannot be raised more than two or three times successively on the same land. The roots arrive at maturity in eight or nine months after planting, but may be kept in the ground a much longer time without injury. Sweet cassava might be sliced, dried in the sun, and sent to Europe in that state. In dry weather the process succeeds remarkably well, and the dried slices keep for a considerable time. Dr. Shier ascertained that when these sliced and dried roots were first steeped and then boiled, they return to very nearly their original condition, and make an excellent substitute for the potato. The plant thrives on even the poorest soil; the mode of planting is simple. It consists in laying cuttings a foot long in square pits a foot deep, and covering them with mould, leaving the upper ends open. From two to four pieces may be placed in each square. The planting ought to be in the rainy season. The cuttings must be made from the full-grown stem. A humid soil causes the root to decay, a dry soil is therefore more adapted for its cultivation. As blossoms are occasionally plucked from potato plants, so the manihot or cassava is deprived of its buds to increase the size of its roots. The raw root of the bitter species, when taken out of the ground, is poisonous--if exposed, however, to the sun for a short time, it is innocuous, and when boiled is quite wholesome. The starch of the root of the manioc is prepared in the following manner, as described by Dr. Ure:--" The roots are washed and reduced to a pulp by means of a rasp or grater. The pulp is put into coarse strong canvas bags, and thus submitted to the action of a powerful press, by which it parts with most of its noxious juice. As the active principle of this juice is volatile, it is easily dissipated by baking the squeezed cakes of pulp upon a plate of hot iron. The pulp thus dried concretes into lumps, which become hard and friable as they cool. They are then broken into pieces, and laid out in the sun to dry. In this state they are a wholesome nutriment. These cakes constitute the only provisions laid in by the natives, in their voyages upon the Amazon. Boiled in water, with a little beef or mutton, they form a kind of soup similar to that of rice. The cassava cakes sent to Europe are composed almost entirely of starch, along with a few fibres of the ligneous matter. It may be purified by diffusion in warm water, passing the milky mixture through a linen cloth, evaporating the straining liquid over the fire, with constant agitation. The starch, dissolved by the heat, thickens as the water evaporates, but on being stirred it becomes granulated, and must be finally dried in a proper stove. 2. Bitter cassava (_Janipha Manihot_, of Kunth; _Jatropha Manihot_, of Linnæus; and _Manihot utilissima_, Pohl).--This species has a knotty root, black externally, which is occasionally 30 lbs. in weight. In the root there is much starchy matter deposited, usually along with a poisonous narcotic substance, which is said to be hydrocyanic acid. The juice of the plant, when distilled, affords as a first product a liquor which, in the dose of thirty drops, will cause the death of a man in six minutes. It is doubted whether this acid pre-exists in the plant; some suppose it to be generated after it is grated down into a pulp. It can be driven off by roasting, and then the starch is used in the form of cassava bread. It is principally from the starch of the bitter cassava that tapioca is prepared by elutriation and granulating on hot plates. This serves to agglutinate it into the form of concretions, constituting the tapioca of commerce. This being starch very nearly pure, is often prescribed by physicians as an aliment of easy digestion. A tolerably good imitation of it is made by beating, stirring, and drying potato starch in a similar way. The grated starch of the roots, floated in water, is spontaneously deposited, and when repeatedly washed and dried in the sun, forms cassava flour, called "Moussache" by the French. The juice of the bitter cassava, mixed with molasses and fermented, has been made into an intoxicating liquor, which is much relished by the negroes and Indians. The concentrated juice of the bitter cassava, under the name of cassareep, forms the basis of the West India dish, "pepper pot." One of its most remarkable properties is its highly antiseptic power, preserving meat that has been boiled in it for a much longer period than can be done by any other culinary process. Cassareep was originally an Indian preparation. The manioc or cassava is cultivated in America, on both sides of the equator, to about latitude 30 degrees north and south. Among the mountains of intertropical America, it reaches to an elevation of 3,200 feet. It is cultivated also in great abundance on the island of Zanzibar, and among the negro tribes of Eastern Africa to the Monomoesy, inclusive; on the west coast of Africa, in Congo and Guinea. It appears not to have been introduced into Asia. The farina of the manioc is almost the only kind of meal used in Brazil, at least in the north, near the equator. An acre of manioc is said to yield as much nutriment as six acres of wheat. Meyen states, "It is not possible sufficiently to praise the beautiful manioc plant." The Indians find in this a compensation for the rice and other cerealia of the Old World. It has been carried from Brazil to the Mauritius and Madagascar. The following quantities of Brazilian arrowroot, or tapioca, were imported in the undermentioned years:-- Cwts. 1833 942 1834 888 1835 1,663 1836 3,735 1837 2,142 1838 462 1839 402 1840 983 1841 1,870 1843 2,325 St. Lucia grows a considerable quantity of manioc; it exported of cassava flour in-- Barrels. 1827 8 1828 814 1829 279 1830 99 1831 59 1834 713 The cassava root grows abundantly in most of the West India islands and tropical America; the trouble of planting is inconsiderable, and the profit arising from its manufacture, even by the common process of hand-grating, is immense. I should be glad if I could induce the enterprising of our colonial settlers to give this a fair trial, as well as encourage the present growers to increase their crops and improve the quality of the article, so as to render it suitable for the English market. The manufacture of starch will one of these days become a productive source of colonial wealth. Since cassava was first grown in the West, its capabilities as a starch-producer have, to a certain extent, been known, and for that purpose it has been in limited use. Mr. James Glen, of Haagsbosch plantation, Demerara, has recently tested its value as an article of export, and added it to the other industrial resources of that colony. This gentleman, by erecting machinery on his plantation for grinding the root and preparing the starch of the bitter cassava, has already shipped the article in considerable quantities to Europe, and it has been sold at a price which puts the profit upon sugar cultivation completely to the blush. His agent in Glasgow writes, that any quantity (like that already shipped) can command a ready sale at 9d. per lb. Its use is co-extensive, or nearly so, with that of sugar. The productive capabilities of the soil are not perhaps generally known; nor is it necessary that, to pay the grower there, it should bring even half that price. A sample of a ton, which was prepared at Haagsbosch in 1841, was submitted for examination to Dr. Shier, at the colonial laboratory, Georgetown, who admitted it to be a beautiful specimen of starch, although it had undergone but _one_ washing. The root from which it was made, was planted eight or nine months previously, upon an acre of soil, which had never undergone any preparation of ploughing, or been broken and turned up in any way. The plants were never weeded after they had begun to spring, nor were they tended or disturbed until they were ripe and pulled up. The expense of planting the acre was five dollars, and reaping this crop would, I suppose, amount to as much more, say £2 in all. The green cassava was never weighed, but the acre yielded fully a ton of starch--equal, at 9d. per lb., to £84. The experimental researches of Dr. Shier have led him to believe that the green bitter cassava will give one-fifth its weight of starch. If this be the case the return per acre would, under favorable circumstances, when the land is properly worked, be enormous. On an estate at Essequibo, a short time ago, an acre of cassava, grown in fine permeable soil, was lifted and weighed; it yielded 25 tons of green cassava. Such a return as this per acre would enable our West India colonies to inundate Great Britain with food, and at a rate which would make flour to be considered a luxury. Dr. Shier is convinced that, in thorough drained land, where the roots could penetrate the soil, and where its permeability would permit of their indefinite expansion, a return of 25 tons an acre might uniformly be calculated upon. What a blessing, not only for those colonies, but for the world, would the introduction be of this cheap and nutritious substitute for the potato. NEW TUBEROUS PLANTS RECOMMENDED AS SUBSTITUTES FOR THE POTATO. In the present disturbed state of the grain markets of Europe, the advantage of cultivating plants which directly or indirectly can form a substitute for the potato, admits of no doubt. It appears to me, moreover, that when the way is once opened up, even under ordinary circumstances, the tropical colonies of Great Britain, without diminishing the quantity of sugar and coffee they produce, could advantageously supply the British market with the purest starches, and possibly also with various other articles of farinaceous food. Anything that will lead the planters to a more varied cultivation than the present uniform and persistent one, will be advantageous to our colonies; and the growth of farinaceous root crops for exportation, cannot fail to produce most beneficial effects on that class of the peasantry in the British possessions, who are owners of small lots of land, which at present they either totally neglect, or cultivate most imperfectly. In 1846, Dr. A. Gesner, one of my correspondents, called attention, in my "Colonial Magazine," to two indigenous roots of North America, which he thought deserving special attention. These were _Apios tuberosa_, and _Claytonia acutiflora_, _or Virginiana_. 1. _A. tuberosa_ (Boerhave), or _Glycine Apios_.--This plant is common throughout the Northern and Southern States of America, and is also met with in the lower British North American Provinces. It is known under the native name of _Saa-ga-ban_ by the Micmac Indians, by whom the pear-shaped roots are used as an article of food. Like the _Arachis hypogæa_, it belongs to the Leguminosæ family. The fruit and flower resemble those of the wood vetch. It is thus described in Professor Eaton's "Manual of Botany for North America," published in 1836:--"Color of corolla, blue and purple; time of flowering, July (and August in Nova Scotia), perennial; stem, twining; leaves, pinnate, with seven lance-ovate leaflets; racemes shorter than the leaves, axillary; root, tuberous. Root very nutritive; ought to be generally cultivated." The average size of the tubers is that of cherries, but a few are found of much larger dimensions. In their appearance they resemble the common potato, having apparently the peculiar indentations called eyes. The skin of the tuber is of a rusty or blackish brown color. The interior is very white, and the root has the taste and odor of the common potato. The Indians state that the roots, if kept either in a dry or moist state, will not suffer any decay for a lengthened period. They are very farinaceous, and contain a large per centage of starch, which resembles that of wheat; by being dried the tuber shrinks a little, but it immediately expands on being thrown into warm water. It contains much nutritive matter, is wholesome, and I have no doubt, if properly cultivated, it will prove to be very prolific. The tubers are situated a few inches below the surface of the soil, and are strung together like beads by a strong ligament. A similar kind of earth-nut, or tuberous root, probably the _Glycine subterranea_ of Linnæus, the Voandzou of Madagascar, is extensively cultivated in various parts of Africa. 2. _Claytonia acutiflora_ or _Virginiana_, the Musquash of the Micmac Indians, is found throughout the Northern and Southern States of North America. It is thus described by Prof. Eaton, "Man. Bot. N.A."--"Color of corolla, white and red; situation, alpine, perennial; leaves, linear, lance-ovate; petals, obovate, retuse; leaves of the calyx, somewhat acute; root, tuberous. It blossoms in May. The seed is ripe in June, when the plant disappears." These roots may be collected along the sea coasts and principal lakes and rivers of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward's Island, although they are not plentiful, for they are greedily devoured by some of the wild animals, and wherever swine have been permitted to run at large they have been destroyed. Dr. Gesner shipped several bushels of the saa-ga-ban to the principal agricultural societies in Great Britain, also to Halifax, and Nova Scotia. The ordinary potato of this country does not yield more than 14 per cent. of starch, and it contains 76 per cent. of water. From the best saa-ga-ban Dr. Gesner obtained 21 per cent. of starch, and the quantity of water is reduced to 50 per cent. It also contains vegetable albumen, gum, and sugar. From these facts it is evident that the saa-ga-ban is much more nutritive than the potato, and the weight of the tubers, in their wild state, compared with the weight of the slender vine in the best samples, is equal in proportion to the common cultivated potato in its ordinary growth. The starch is very white, and closely resembles that made from the arrowroot. It is not improbable that the quantity of water in the tuber will be increased by cultivation; yet the fibrous parenchyma will be reduced, and taken altogether, the nutritive properties will be increased; if the plant improve as much by cultivation as the potato and many others have done, its success is certain. The North American Indians have several wild roots which they dig up for sustenance when other food is exhausted. Among these are--1st, the mendo, or wild sweet potato; 2nd, the tip-sin-ah, or wild prairie turnip; 3rd, the omen-e-chah, or wild bean. The first is found throughout the valleys of the Mississippi and St. Peter's, about the basis of bluffs, in rather moist but soft and rich ground. The plant resembles the sweet potato, and the root is similar in taste and growth. It does not grow so large or long as the cultivated sweet potato, but I should have thought it the same, were it not that the wild potato is not affected by the frost. A woman will dig from a peck to half a bushel a day. The Indians eat them, simply boiled in water, but prefer them cooked with fat meat. The wild potato, of the north-west of America, is a general article of food; it is called by them wabessepin; it resembles the common potato, is mealy when boiled, and grows only in wet clay ground, about one and a half feet deep. The crane potato, called sitchauc-wabessepin, is of the same kind, but inferior in quality. The Indians use these for food as well as the memomine, and another long and slender root called watappinee. Probably it is the first of these that is referred to by Nicollet, as the prairie potato. "All the high prairies (he says) abound with the silver-leafed _Psoralia_, which is the prairie turnip of the Americans, the _pomme des prairies_ of the Canadians, and furnishes an invaluable food to the Indians." There are several species of _Psoralia_, viz., _esculenta_, _argophylla_, _cuspidata_, and _lanceolata_. The prairie turnip grows on the high dry prairies, one or two together, in size from that of a small hen's egg to that of a goose egg, and of the same form. They have a thick black or brown bark, but are nearly pure white inside, with very little moisture. They are met with four to eight inches below the surface, and are dug by the women with a long pointed stick, forced into the ground and used as a lever. They are eaten boiled and mashed like a turnip, or are split open and dried for future use. In this state they resemble pieces of chalk. It is said that when thus dried they may be ground into flour, and that they make a very palatable and nutritious bread. M. Lamare Picot, a French naturalist, has lately incurred a very considerable expense to obtain the seed, which he has carried to France, believing that it is capable of cultivation, and may form a substitute both for potato and wheat. The wild bean is found in all parts of the valleys where the land is moist and rich. It is of the size of a large white bean, with a rich and very pleasant flavor. When used in a stew, I have thought it superior to any garden vegetable I had ever tasted. The Indians are very fond of them, and pigeons get fat on them in spring. The plant is a slender vine, from two to four feet in height, with small pods two to three inches long, containing three to five small beans. The pod dries and opens, the beans fall to the ground, and in spring take root and grow again. The beans on the ground are gathered by the Indians, who sometimes find a peck at once, gathered by mice for their winter store. There are also several kinds of edible roots growing in the ponds or small lakes, which are gathered by the Indians for food. The _psui-cinh-chah_, or swamp potato, is found in mud and water, about three feet deep. The leaf is as large as the cabbage leaf. The stem has but one leaf, which has, as it were, two horns or points. The root is obtained by the Indian women; they wade into the water and loosen the root with their feet, which then floats, and is picked up and thrown into a canoe. It is of an oblong shape, of a whitish yellow, with four black rings around it, of a slightly pungent taste, and not disagreeable when eaten with salt or meat. The _psui-chah_, with a stem and leaf similar to the last, has a root about the size of a large hickory-nut. They grow in deep water, and being smaller are much more difficult to get, but the Indians prefer them; they have an agreeable taste, and are harder and firmer when cooked. Both these roots are found in large quantities in the musk-rat lodges, stored by them for winter use. The _ta-wah-pah_, with a stem, leaf, and yellow flower, like the pond-lily, is found in the lakes, in water and mud, from four to five feet deep. The Indian women dive for them, and frequently obtain as many as they are able to carry. The root is from one to two feet in height, very porous; there are as many as six or eight cells running the whole length of the root. It is very difficult to describe the flavor. It is slightly sweet and glutinous, and is generally boiled with wild fowl, but is occasionally roasted. In his exploring expedition into the interior of Guiana, in the region of the Upper Essequibo, Sir E. Schomburgk notices the discovery of a variety of Leguminosæ, whose tubers grow to an enormous size, fully equal to the largest yam. These roots were not, at the time he was there, in full perfection, but their taste was somewhat between the yam and the sweet potato. The Taruma Indians called them Cuyupa. The roots are considered fit for use when the herb above ground dies. Sir Robert brought a few of the seeds of the plant with him on his return to Demerara. Two interesting productions have been recently introduced into the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, from the Ecuador, by M. Bourcier, formerly Consul-General of France in that country. One is the red and yellow _ocas_, which is of the form of a long potato, and has the taste of a chesnut; the other is the _milloco_, which has the taste and form of our best potatoes. These two roots, which are found in great abundance in the neighbourhood of Quito, grow readily in the poorest land. The _oca_ is cultivated in the fields of Mexico, but only succeeds in the warmer districts. From the bulbous roots of the cacomite, a species of _Tigridia_, a good flour is also prepared there. Stevenson ("Travels in South America," vol. ii., p. 55) says, a root called the oca is cultivated in several of the colder provinces of Peru. "This plant," he states, "is of a moderate size, in appearance somewhat like the acetous trefoil; the roots yellow, each about five or six inches long, and two in circumference. They have many eyes, and the roots, several of which are yielded by one plant, are somewhat curved. When boiled it is much sweeter than the camote or batata; indeed it appears to contain more saccharine matter than any root I ever tasted; if eaten raw it is very much like the chesnut. The roots may be kept for many months in a dry place. The transplanting of the oca (he adds) to England, where I am persuaded it would prosper, would add another agreeable and useful esculent to our tables." The Brussels paper, _L'Emancipation_, mentions that a root has been discovered by the Director of the Museum of Industry, in that place, destined to take the place of the potato. It is the _Lathyrus tuberosus_, called by the peasants the earth mouse, on account of its form, and the earth chesnut on account of its taste. This plant exists only in some localities of Lorraine and Burgundy. The Lathyrus has never been cultivated, and it is thought that it will attain, with cultivation, the size of the potato. The French peasants have a prejudice against cultivating it, because they say it walks under ground, and leaves the place it is planted in to go into the neighbouring field. The fact is, that it grows in a chaplet, of which the bulbs are arranged along a root running horizontally, of which the two extremities are very rarely found, so that on taking up the hinder tubercles it continues its growth in front, which gives rise to the saying that if the plant had only time enough, it would make the tour of the world. The bulb of _Gastrodia sesamoides_ (R. Brown), a curious herbaceous species of orchis, native of New Holland, is edible, and preferred by the aborigines to potatoes and other tuberous roots. Some of my accredited informants believe it might be turned to profitable account, but being a parasitic plant, it could scarcely be systematically cultivated. It flourishes in its wild state on loamy soil in low or sloping grounds. The first indication of its vegetation in the spring, is the appearance of a whitish bulb above the sward, of an hemispherical shape, and about the size of a small egg. The dusky white covering resembles a fine white net, and within it is a pellucid gelatinous substance. Again within this is a firm kernel, about as large as a Spanish nut, and from this a fine fibrous root descends into the soil. It is known in Van Diemen's Land, and other parts of Australia, by the common name of native bread. Captain Hunter, in his Journal of the Transactions at Port Jackson on the first settlement of the Convict Colony, speaks of finding large quantities of "wild yams," on which the natives fed, but the roots were not bigger than a walnut; therefore it was probably this plant. _Arracacha esculenta_, of Bancroft and Decandolle (_Conium Arracacha_).--This perennial herb is a native of South America, which, from its salubrious qualities, is extensively cultivated in the mountains of Venezuela and other parts of tropical and Southern America, for culinary purposes. It is propagated by planting pieces of the tuberous root, in each of which is an eye or shoot. The late Baron de Shack introduced it into Trinidad, from Caraccas, and it has thence been carried to the island of Grenada. It throve there remarkably well, but has been unaccountably neglected. He also sent roots of this valuable plant to London, Liverpool, and Glasgow. Although it bears cold better than the potato, it requires a warmer and more equal temperature than most of the countries of Europe afford. It would, however, make an excellent addition to the culinary vegetables of many tropical countries, uniting the taste of the potato and parsnip, but being superior to both. The arracacha has been introduced into the South of Europe, not as a substitute for, but as a provision against a failure of the potato crop. It is highly recommended by the Rev. J.M. Wilson, in the "Rural Encyclopædia." Stevenson ("Travels in South America," vol. ii., p. 383) says the yucas (cassava), camotes (sweet potatoes), and yams cultivated at Esmeraldas and that neighbourhood, were the finest he ever saw. "It is not uncommon for one of these roots to weigh upwards of twenty pounds. At one place I saw a few plants of the yuca that had stood upwards of twenty years, the owner having frequently bared the bottom of the plants and taken the ripe roots, after which, throwing up the earth again, and allowing a sufficient time for new roots to grow, a continual succession of this excellent nutritious food was procured." The Aipi grows in Brazil, and according to T. Ashe, may be eaten raw, and, when pressed, yields a pleasant juice for drink; or being inspissated by the heat of the sun, is kept either to be boiled and eaten, or dissolved and drank. The tapinambar grows in Chili, and is used by the Indians. The tapioca, or bay rash, a plant which grows about the out-islands of the Bahamas group, was found of great use as a food plant to the inhabitants of Long Island, during a scarcity of food occasioned by the drought in 1843. This root grows in the form of a large beet, and is from twelve to sixteen inches in length. It is entirely farinaceous, and, when properly ground and prepared, makes good bread. It fetches there four to six cents a pound. The root of the kooyah plant (_Valeriana edulis_) is much used by some of the North American Indians as food. The root is of a very bright yellow color, with a peculiar taste and odor, and hence is called "tobacco root." It is deprived of its strong poisonous qualities by being baked in the ground for about two days. A variety of other roots and tubers furnish them with food. Among these are kamas root (_Camassia esculenta_), which is highly esteemed; the bulb has a sweet pleasant flavor, somewhat of the taste of preserved quince. It is a strikingly handsome bulbous plant, with large beautiful purple flowers. Yampah root (_Anethum graveolens_) is a common article of food with the Indians of the Rocky Mountains. The roots of a thistle (_Cersium virginianium_, or _Carduus virginianus_), which are about the ordinary size of carrots, are also eaten by them. They are sweet and well flavored, but require a long preparation to fit them for use. The people of Southern India and Ceylon have for many hundred years been in the habit of eating the bulb or root, which is the first shoot from the Palmyra nut, which forms the germ of the future tree, and is known locally as _Pannam kilingoes_. It is about the size of a common carrot, though nearly white. It forms a great article of food among the natives for several months in the year; but Europeans dislike it from its being very bitter. Recent experiments have proved that a farina superior to arrowroot can be obtained from it, prepared in the same way; and 100 roots, costing 2½d., yield one and a-half to two pounds of the flour. From the boiled inner bark of the Russian larch, mixed with rye flour, and afterwards buried a few hours in the snow, the hardy Siberian hunters prepare a sort of leaven, with which they supply the place of common leaven when the latter is destroyed, as it frequently is by the intense cold. The bark is nearly as valuable as oak bark. From the inner bark the Russians manufacture fine white gloves, not inferior to those made of the most delicate chamois, while they are stronger, cooler, and more pleasant for wearing in the summer. The fruit of the _Cycas angulata_ forms the principal food of the Australian aborigines during a portion of the year. They cut it into thin slices, which are first dried, afterwards soaked in water, and finally packed up in sheets of tea-tree bark. In this condition it undergoes a species of fermentation; the deleterious properties of the fruit are destroyed, and a mealy substance with a musty flavor remains, which the blacks probably bake into cakes. They appear also to like the fruit of the _Pandanus_, of which large quantities were found by Dr. Leichardt in their camps, soaking in water, contained in vessels formed of stringy bark. The flour obtained from the seeds of Spurry (_Spergula sativa_), when mixed with that of wheat or rye, produces wholesome bread, for which purpose it is often used in Norway and Gothland. In New Zealand, before the introduction of the potato, the roots of the fern were largely consumed. Many species of _Bolitus_ are used as food by the natives in Western Australia, according to Drummond. The thick tuberous roots of a climbing species of bean (_Pachyrhizus angulatus_, or _Dolichos bulbosus_) are cultivated and eaten in some parts of the Polynesian islands. The bulbous roots of some species of Orchideæ are eagerly sought after in New South Wales by the natives, being termed "boyams," and highly esteemed as an article of food for the viscid mucilage which they contain. The root of the Berar (_Caladium costatum_) is eaten by the natives of the Pedir coast (Achin), after being well washed. The pignons or edible seeds of _Pinus Pinea_ are consumed occasionally in Italy. In Chili the cone or fruit of the _pehuen_, or _pino de la tierra_, are considered a great delicacy. The _pinones_ are sometimes boiled, and afterwards, by grinding them on a stone, converted into a kind of paste, from which very delicate pastry is made. The pine is cultivated in different parts of this province on account of its valuable wood and the pinones. The seeds from the cones of the Auracanean pine, collected in autumn, furnish the Pawenches (from _pawen_ pine) and Auracanians with a very nutritious food. When cooked, the flavor is not unlike that of the chesnut, and as they will keep for some time, they constitute, when the gathering season has been favorable, a great part of their diet. The seeds of the cones of the nut pine (_Pinus monophyllus_), a new species described by Dr. Torrey, and alluded to by Col. Fremont in his exploring expedition to the Rocky Mountains, are largely used by the North American Indians. The nut is oily, of a most agreeable flavor, and must be very nutritious as it constitutes the principal subsistence of many of the native tribes. The cone of another magnificent pine (_Auracaria Bidwillii_), indigenous to the Eastern coast of Australia, about the Moreton Bay district, is frequently met with twelve inches in diameter, and containing 150 edible seeds as large as a walnut. The aborigines roast these seeds, crack the husk between two stones, and eat them hot. They taste something like a yam or hard dry potato. The trees bear cones only once in four years, during a period of six months. This season is held as a great festival by the aborigines of that locality, called by them Bunga Bunga, and they congregate in greater numbers than is known in any other part of Australia, frequently coming from a distance of 300 miles. They grow sleek and fat upon this diet. An Act has been passed by the legislature of the colony, prohibiting, under heavy pains and penalties, the demolition of those trees, being the natural food of the natives. The common people eat the seeds of the red sandal wood (_Adenanthera Pavonina_) in the South of India. The pulp of the fruit of the _Adansonia digitata_, or monkey bread, is also used as an article of food. SINGHARA OR WATER NUTS.--The large seeds of _Trapa bicornis_, a native of China, and of _T. bispinosa_ and _natans_, species indigenous to India, are sweet and eatable, and the aquatic plants which furnish them are hence an extensive article of cultivation. In Cashmere and other parts of the East they are common food, and known under the name of Singhara nuts. In Cashmere the government obtains from these nuts £12,000 of annual revenue. Mr. Moorcroft mentions that Runjeet Sing derived nearly the same sum. From 96,000 to 128,000 loads of this nut are yielded annually by the lake of Ooller alone. The nut abounds in fecula. In China the kernel is used as an article of food, being roasted or boiled like the potato. The seeds of various species of _Nelumbium_, natives of the East Indies, Jamaica, and the United States, also form articles of food. The fruit of _N. speciosum_ is supposed to be the Egyptian bean of Pythagoras. The petioles and peduncles contain numerous spiral vessels, which have been used for wicks of candles. The fruit of _Willughbeia edulis_, a native of the East, as its name implies, is eatable. The kernel of the mango can be reduced to an excellent flour for making bread. Not only from the Lichen tribe, but also from the Algæ, fungi, mosses and ferns man derives nutriment and valuable products. Some of the cryptogamic plants form considerable articles of commerce, particularly as food plants, affording gelatinous and amylaceous matter, and being useful in medicine and the arts. _Nostoe eduli_ is used in China as food; _Gelidium corneum_ enters into the formation of the edible swallows' nests of the Japanese islands. Agar-agar moss is shipped from Singapore to the extent of 13,000 tons a-year. Irish moss, Iceland moss, Ceylon moss, and some others, are also of some importance. Iodine and kelp are prepared to a considerable extent from sea weeds; one species (_Fucus tenax_) furnishes large supplies of glue to the Canton market, and the orchilla weed is of great importance to the dyer. It is principally as food that I have to speak of them in this section. In some of the islands off the Scotch coasts, sea-wrack (_Fucus vesiculosus_) forms the chief support of horses and cattle in the winter months. _F. serratus_ is similarly employed in Norway. The _Laminaria saccharina_ is interesting from the fact of its containing sugar. It is highly esteemed in Japan, where it is extensively used as an article of diet, being first washed in cold water and then boiled in milk or broth. CARRAGEEN, or IRISH ROCK MOSS, _Sphæroccus_ (_Chondus_) _crispus_, abounds on the Western Coast of Ireland, round the Orkneys, Hebrides, Scilly Islands, &c. It is purplish white, and nearly transparent, and is largely imported to feed cattle and pigs in Yorkshire. It is also used for dressing the warp of webs in the loom, and mixing with the pulp for sizing paper in the vat. It swells up like tragacanth in water; and, by long decoction, affords a considerable quantity of a light, nutritious, but nauseous jelly. It is sometimes sold as pearl moss, and is employed in the place of gelatine or isinglass for preparing blanc-manges, jellies, &c. It fetches about £7 the ton. AGAR-AGAR, a sort of edible seaweed, or tripe de roche, is found growing on the rocks about the eastern islands that are covered by the tide. It is much used for making a kind of jelly, which is highly esteemed both by Europeans and natives for the delicacy of its flavor. The first quality is worth about 30s. the picul (133 lbs.). An inferior kind is collected on the submerged banks in the neighbourhood of Macassar (Celebes), by the Bajow Laut, or Sea Gipsies. It is also collected on the rocks about the settlement of Singapore, for export to China, where it is much used as a size for stiffening silks and for making jellies. It constitutes the bulk of the cargoes of the Chinese junks on their return voyage. The quantity shipped from Singapore is about 10,000 piculs (12,500 tons) annually. ICELAND MOSS (_Cetraria islandica_) combines valuable alimentary and medicinal properties. It is imported in bags and barrels from Hamburg and Gothenburg, and is said to be the produce of Norway and Iceland. The quantity consumed varies; in 1836, 20,599 lbs. paid duty; in 1840, 6,462 lbs. In Carniola, swine, oxen, and horses, are fattened on it. Boiled in water or milk, and flavored to the palate with sugar, wine, and aromatics, it forms a very agreeable diet for invalids. CEYLON MOSS (_Gracelaria_, or _Gigartina, lichenoides_), a small and delicate fucus, is well known for the amylaceous property it possesses, and the large proportion of true starch it furnishes. The fronds are filiform; the filaments much branched, and of a light purple color. It grows abundantly in the large lake or back-water which extends between Putlam and Calpentyr, Ceylon. It is collected by the natives principally during the south-west monsoon, when it becomes separated by the agitation of the water. The moss is spread on mats and dried in the sun for two or three days. It is then washed several times in fresh water, and again exposed to the sun, which bleaches it, after which it is collected in heaps for exportation. Professor O'Shaughnessy has given the best analysis of this moss, which he described under the name of _Fucus amylaceus_; 100 grains weight yielded the following proportions:-- Vegetable jelly 54.50 True starch 15.00 Ligneous fibre 18.00 Sulphate and muriate of soda 6.50 Gum 4.00 Sulphate and phosphate of lime 1.00 ----- Total 99.00 With a trace of wax and iron. I observe among the imports into New Orleans, 911 bushels of Spanish moss in 1849, and 1,394 bushels in 1848. I do not know precisely its use, or from whence derived, but I believe it is chiefly used for stuffing cushions, mattresses, &c. FERN.--The rhizome of _Pteris esculenta_ is used as food in Australia, and that of _Marattia alata_ in the Sandwich Islands. The trunks of the _Alsophila_, or tree fern, of the western side of Van Diemen's Land, and of the common tree fern, _Cibotium Billardieri_ (the _Dicksonia antarctica_, of Labillardiere), contain the edible pith or bread-fruit eaten by the natives. Many other species of ferns are esculent. Typha bread is prepared in Scinde from the pollen of the flowers of the _Typha elephantina_, and in New Zealand from another species of bulrush (_Typha utilis_). "It must not be supposed, as some have believed, that the fern root, wherever it grows, is fit for food. On the contrary, it is only that found in rich loose soils which contains fecula in sufficient quantity for this purpose: in poorer ground the root contains proportionally more fibre. We were now encamped on an alluvial flat in the valley of the river, thirty or forty feet below the general level of the plain; and I observed that, even in this favourable spot, a great deal of discrimination was used in selecting the best roots, which was discoverable by their being crisp enough to break easily when bent: those which would not stand this test being thrown aside. Here a quantity sufficient for several days was procured, and was packed in baskets, to last till another spot equally favourable could be reached. "The process of cooking fern root is very simple; for it is merely roasted on the fire, and afterwards bruised by means of a flat stone similar to a cobbler's lap-stone, and a wooden pestle. The long fibres which run like wires through the root are then easily drawn out; and the remainder is pounded till it acquires the consistence of tough dough, in which state it is eaten, its taste being very like that of cassava bread. Sometimes it is sweetened with the juice of the 'tutu.' "The natives consider that there is no better food than this for a traveller, as it both appeases the cravings of hunger for a longer period than their other ordinary food, and renders the body less sensible to the fatigue of a long march. It is in this respect to the human frame, what oats or beans are to the horse. They have a song in praise of this root, which I have once or twice heard chanted on occasions of festivals, by a troop of young women who carry baskets of the food intended for the guests."--("Shortland's New Zealand.") I ought not to omit noticing the _Tuber cibarium_, a plant of the mushroom family, growing under ground, which furnishes the famous truffle, so celebrated in the annals of cooking, of which immense quantities are imported, chiefly from the South of France. It is common also in Italy and Germany, and is often found in Northamptonshire, and some other of our own counties. The "kemmayes," a desert plant of the truffle kind, is a great favorite with the Arabs. In Terra del Fuego the only vegetable food of the natives, besides a few berries of a dwarf arbutus, is a species of globular bright yellow fungus (_Cyttaria Darwinii_), which grows in vast numbers on the beech trees. In its tough and mature state it is collected in large quantities by the women and children, and eaten uncooked. It has a slightly sweet mucilaginous taste, with a faint smell like that of a mushroom. SECTION III. SPICES, AROMATIC CONDIMENTS, FRAGRANT WOODS, &c. The various spices and condiments which form so large an item in our commercial imports, are obtained from the barks, the dried seeds, the fruit, flower-buds, and root-stocks, of different plants. The chief aromatic barks comprise the cinnamon, cassia lignea, cascarilla, and canella alba. The medicinal barks will be noticed elsewhere. The seeds and fruits include pepper, pimento, cardamoms, anise, nutmegs, chillies. The flower-buds of some furnish cloves and cassia buds; the roots supply ginger, galangale, turmeric, and ginseng. A few other useful substances, such as vanilla, the costus, or putchuk, mace, soy, and some of the odoriferous woods I have included under this section. CINNAMON. The true cinnamon of commerce is obtained from the inner bark of _Cinnamonum verum_, R. Brown; or _C. zeylanicum_; the _Laurus cinnamonum_, of Linnæus, a handsome looking tree, native of the East Indies. The island of Ceylon is the chief seat of its cultivation, and for a long time the Dutch depended solely for their supply of this bark for the home market on the produce of the wild cinnamon trees in the King of Kandy's territories there. At last, from the increasing demand, they resorted to the growth and more careful culture of the tree themselves. About the year 1794, the cultivation had succeeded so well that they were enabled to meet the demand for the spice from trees of their own growth, independent of any supplies from the Kandian monarch's territory. In 1796, when this island fell into our hands, the local government endeavoured, after the former fashion of the Dutch, to restrain the production of this article of commerce within due bounds, by destroying all above a certain quantity. General Maitland, in 1805, and his successors in the government, seeing the folly of such a ridiculous policy, very wisely fostered and promoted the extended cultivation of cinnamon plantations. In the island of Java, and in Cochin-China, cinnamon culture has within the last few years made considerable progress. The leaves of the cinnamon tree are more or less acuminated, from five to eight inches long, by about three broad, growing in pairs opposite each other. They have three principal ribs, which come in contact at its base, but do not unite. The leaves, when first developed, are of a bright red hue, then of a pale yellow, and lastly of a dark shining green; when mature, they emit a strong aromatic odor if broken or rubbed in the hands, and have the pungent taste of cloves. The young twigs of the true cinnamon tree are not downy, like those of the cassia bark. The plant blooms in January and February, and the seeds ripen in July and August. The blossoms grow on slender foot-stalks, of a pale yellow color, from the axillæ of the leaves and the extremity of the branches. They are numerous clusters of small white flowers, having a brownish shade in the centre, about the same size as the lilac, which it resembles. The fruit is a drupe, about the size of a small hedge strawberry, containing one seed, and of the shape of an acorn, which when ripe is soft and of a dark purple color. The roots are fibrous, hard, and tough, covered with an odoriferous bark; on the outside of a greyish brown, and on the inside of a reddish hue. They strike about three feet into the earth, and spread to a considerable distance. Many of them smell strongly of camphor, which is sometimes extracted from them. The trees in their wild state will grow ordinarily to the height of 30 feet. The trunk is about three feet in circumference, and throws out a great number of large spreading horizontal branches, clothed with thick foliage. When cultivated for their bark, the trees are not permitted to rise above the height of ten feet. The true cinnamon tree (according to Mr. Crawfurd) is not a native of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago; but Marshall, in his description and history of the tree ("Annals of Philos," vol. x.) assigns very extensive limits to its cultivation. He asserts that it is found on the Malabar coast, in Cochin-China, and Tonquin, Sumatra, the Soolo Archipelago, Borneo, Timor, the Nicobar and Philippine Islands. It has been transplanted, and grows well in the Mauritius, Bourbon and the eastern coast of Africa; in the Brazils, Guiana, in South America, and Guadaloupe, Martinique, Tobago, and Jamaica; but produces in the West a bark of very inferior quality to the Oriental. Rumphius has remarked, that the trees which yield cinnamon, cassia, and clove bark (_Cinnamonum Culilaban_), though so much alike, are hardly ever found in the same countries. The term clove bark has been applied to the barks of two different trees belonging to the natural order _Laurineæ_. One of these barks is frequently called "Culilaban bark." It consists of almost flat pieces, and is obtained from _Cinnamonum Culilaban_, a tree growing in Amboyna, and probably other parts of the Moluccas. The other bark, known as clove bark, occurs in quills, which are imported from South America. Murray says it is produced by the _Myrtus carophyllata_, a tree termed by Decandolle _Syzgium carophyllæum_. It appears, however, that this is an error, for both Nees and Von Martius declare it to be the produce of _Dicypellium caryophyllatum_; and the last quoted authority states that this tree is the noblest of all the laurels found in the Brazils, where it is called "Pao Cravo." It grows at Para and Rio Negro. Cinnamon may be propagated by seeds, plants, or layers; roots also, if carefully transplanted, will thrive in favorable localities, and yield useful shoots in twelve months. It is usually cultivated from suckers, which should not have more than three or four leaves, and require continual watering. If raised from seed, the young plants are kept in a nursery for a year or two, and then transplanted; but the trees from seeds are longer arriving at maturity. The plants are kept well earthed about the roots to retain the moisture, and coco-nut husks are placed above them, which in time form an excellent compost. A cinnamon plantation, even in a favorable locality, seldom yields much return until eight or nine years have elapsed. The mode of cultivation pursued by the natives differs from that followed in the plantations of the Europeans. The native system is to allow the cinnamon to grow large before cutting; the European practice is to cut it young. The result is that the native produces quantity, but coarse; the European produces quality, but less in quantity. I have found, in conversation with the native growers, that they consider the bush or tree decidedly weakened by its being kept down by constant cutting twice a year; and that their plants are stronger and better. It is not absolutely an original opinion, but I think the two systems might be judiciously blended. In cutting the cinnamon sticks for peeling, as the Europeans do it twice a year, there is always risk of losing much valuable young wood, which is destroyed in slashing into the bushes with _catties_ (bill-hooks) to take out that which is in a fit state for peeling, all of which is so much loss from the next cutting; and on this ground I should be inclined to advocate cutting once a year. There are, I know, other considerations than the mere growth of the sticks to be taken into account. Of these may be named the time when the bark peels best from the stick, which of course must depend upon age as well as season, the excited or unexcited state of the shoots, and their several effects upon the quality of the spice. Weeding the plantations does not seem to be of so much consequence, if the shrub gets plenty of free air all round it. Cinnamon land continues to yield abundantly crop after crop, not for years, but for scores of years. The greater portion of the late preserved plantations in Ceylon were planted by the Dutch, one hundred years ago, and the bushes are stated to be as vigorous as ever, and quite likely to go on yielding crops till the year 2000. This productiveness can only be accounted for on Liebig's principle of returning to the soil a portion of what we take from it. In the operation of peeling cinnamon, the tops and lateral branches are cut off, and left by the peelers on the ground close to the bushes. These, no doubt, furnish a considerable quantity of manure to the plants. The general appearance of the plantation is that of a copse, with laurel leaves and stems, about the thickness of hazel; occasionally a tree may be seen which, having been allowed to grow for seed, has reached a height of forty or fifty feet, with a trunk eighteen inches in diameter. When in full bloom, the cinnamon bushes have a very beautiful appearance, the small white petals affording a most agreeable contrast with the flame-colored extremities of the upper, and the dark green of the inferior foliage, with the blossoms of various lovely parasitical plants. The cinnamon tree flourishes only in a small portion of the island of Ceylon. It is chiefly confined to the south-west angle, formed by the sea coast, from Tangalle in the south to Chilaw on the west. It is in a climate of agreeable temperature, which is at once hot and moist; hot from its tropical position, and moist from the frequency and plentifulness of rains. The general level of the country is low, in the midst of fresh-water lakes, divided from the sea by a narrow riband of land. And the water in the soil of the cinnamon gardens is of extraordinary purity, so as to be for that reason much in request in the neighbouring city as a beverage. This exact combination of influences does not occur anywhere else in the island, at least not in the same degree. The cultivation principally centres round Colombo, the capital and principal port. On the hills and valleys, in the neighbourhood of Kandy, which have a temperate climate, the tree flourishes well; a rather elevated situation, with shelter, contributing to the luxuriance of the plants. The best soil for it appears to be a pure quartz sand, which in some places rests on black moss or mould. From the surface to the depth of a few inches, this sand is as fine in its nature and as pearly white in its appearance as the best table salt; but below that depth, and near the roots of the bushes, the sand is greyish. A specimen of this soil being carefully dried by Dr. Davy, was found to consist of 98.5 silicious sand, 0.5 vegetable matter, and 1.1 water--in 100 parts. This circumstance impresses one very strongly on visiting the cinnamon gardens; it seems so strange to see a plain of pure quartz sand whitened in the sun, and yet covered over with a luxuriant growth of trees. In richer soils the aroma does not seem to develop itself in the same concentrated form. A mixture of loam and peat, with sand, is said, however, to form a good soil in some localities. These plantations may well suggest a doubt as to the truth of the proposition so unqualifiedly laid down by some authors, that "earth destitute of organic matter cannot sustain vegetation." Certainly it is not organic matter which supports the cinnamon trees of Colombo. _Peeling_.--The best cinnamon is obtained from the stalks or twigs, which shoot up in a cluster of eight or ten together from the roots, after the parent bush or tree has been cut down. These shoots are cut once in about three years, close to the ground. Great care is requisite, both as to the exact size and age; for if the bark is too young, it has a green taste, if too old it is rough and gritty. These shoots yield an incomparably fine cinnamon bark. When cut for peeling they are of various sizes and lengths, depending on the texture of the bark. These rods afford the hazel-like walking-sticks so much esteemed by strangers, and which, though difficult to be procured during the prevalence of the oppressive cinnamon regulations, may now be very easily obtained from proprietors of grounds producing that spice. Cinnamon is barked at two periods of the year, between April and December. Those suckers which are considered fit for cutting, are usually about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and five feet or more long. The first operation is to strip them of the outside pellicle of bark. The twigs are then ripped up lengthwise with the point of a knife, and the liber or inner bark gradually loosened, till it can be entirely taken off. While drying they are cut up into long narrow rolls, called "quills," then stuck into one another, so as to form pipes about three or four feet long, which are afterwards made up in round bundles. During the first day the cinnamon is suspended under shelter upon open platforms, and on the second day it is placed on wicker-work shelves, and exposed to the sun until sufficiently dry to be examined and sorted for shipment. It is brought home in bags or bales of 80 or 90 lbs. weight, and classed before export into three sorts; first, second, and third quality. The different kinds of cinnamon bark may be thus classified, according to quality-- 1. That which ranks above all others in quality, is known by the Singhalese name of _penne_ or _rasse kuroondu_, sharp sweet, or honey cinnamon. 2. _Naya kuroondu_, snake cinnamon. 3. _Kapoorn kuroondu_, camphorated cinnamon, from the very strong smell of camphor which it possesses. This variety is principally obtained from the plantations of the interior. 4. _Kahate_ or _canalle kuroondu_, astringent cinnamon. In this species the bark peels off very easily, and smells agreeably when fresh, but it has a bitter taste. 5. _Savel kuroondu_, mucilaginous or glutinous cinnamon. This sort acquires a very considerable degree of hardness, which the chewing of it sufficiently proves. It has otherwise little taste, and an ungrateful smell; but the color is very fine, and it is often mixed with the first and best sort; the color being much alike, excepting only that in the good sort some few yellowish spots appear towards the extremities. 6. _Dawool kuroondu_, or drum cinnamon. The wood of this tree, when grown hard, is light and tough, and the natives make some of their vessels and drums of it. The bark is of a pale color. 7. _Nika kuroondu_, wild cinnamon, whose leaf resembles that of the nicasol (_Vitex Negundo_). The bark of this tree has neither taste or smell when peeled, and is made use of by the natives only in physic, and to extract an oil from to anoint their bodies. 8. _Mal kuroondu_, flowering cinnamon, because this tree is always in blossom. The substance of the wood never becomes so solid and weighty in this as in the other named species, which are sometimes nine or ten feet in circumference. If this ever-flowering cinnamon be cut or bored, a limpid water will issue out of the wound; but it is of use only for the leaves and bark. 9. _Toupat kuroondu_, trefoil cinnamon, of which there are three varieties, which grow in the mountains and valleys of the interior about Kandy. 10. _We kuroondu_, white ant's cinnamon. The first-named four of these are, however, alone varieties of the _Cinnamonum verum_. Good cinnamon is known by the following properties:--It is thin and rather pliable; it ought to be about the substance of royal paper, or somewhat thicker. It admits of a considerable degree of pressure, and bends before it breaks; the fracture is then splintering. It is of a light color, approaching to yellow, bordering but little upon the brown; it possesses a sweetish taste, at the same time it is not stronger than can be borne without pain, and is not succeeded by any after-taste. The more cinnamon departs from these characteristics, the coarser and less serviceable it is esteemed; and it should be rejected if it be hard, and thick as a half-crown piece; if it be very dark colored or brown; if it be very pungent and hot on the tongue, with a taste bordering upon that of cloves, so that it cannot be suffered without pain. Particular care should be taken that it is not false-packed, or mixed with cinnamon of a common sort. The following remarks, by Mr. Dunewille, of Malacca, as to the suitability of the Straits' Settlements for cinnamon culture, are interesting, although in some instances a repetition of previous observations:-- It appears, from experience, that the soil of Ceylon is more favorable to the growth of cinnamon than to that of any other aromatic plant, and I find the climate of Ceylon, if at all, differs but in a very slight degree from that of the Straits. I therefore conclude that the spice, if cultivated in the Straits, will prove superior to that of Ceylon, if one may judge from the various spices that grow here almost wild, and it would moreover yield a better return than in Ceylon. My supposition is confirmed from having seen the spice which was prepared last year in Pringet by the Honorable Resident Councillor of Malacca, and which I found to be equally as good in every respect as that grown and cultivated in the maritime provinces in Ceylon. A sandy soil is that which is generally selected for cinnamon, but other soils may be chosen also, such as a mixture of sandy with red soil, free from quartz, gravel, or rock, also red and dark brown soils. Such land in a flat country is preferable to hilly spots, upon which, however, cinnamon also grows, and are known by the name of the "Kandyan Mountains." The soil that is rocky and stony under the surface is bad, and not adapted for the cultivation of cinnamon, as the trees would neither grow fast, nor yield a remunerative return. When a tract of land of the above description is selected, the whole of the ground should be cleared, leaving a few trees for shade, to which the laborers might return for rest and relaxation; these may be from 50 to 60 feet apart. The trees felled should be well lopped, burnt and cleared away, the stumps should be removed with roots, after which they may be allowed to remain, in order to save expense of carriage, merely by observing some degree of order in the disposition, by forming regular rows, of which the intervening spaces are planted with cinnamon. The ground being thus cleared, holes may be dug at eight to ten feet apart, and of one foot square; the distance from each plant will depend upon the nature of the soil--that is, the poorer the soil, the nearer to each other should the trees be planted, and _vice versa_. When this operation is over, should the holes be intended for cinnamon roots, or stumps, the latter must be carefully removed with as much earth as can be carried up with them and placed in the holes, taking care not to return the earth removed originally in digging the holes, which are to be filled with the soil scraped from the surface, which has been previously burnt, exposed, and formed into manure. Should no rain have fallen after the placing of the roots in the holes, the stumps should be well covered, and watered morning and evening, until such time as the sprouts shoot out fresh buds, which will be in a fortnight or so from the time they were transplanted, when the watering may be discontinued. In a month the new shoots will be three or four inches high; this much depends upon the weather. If the holes be intended for young plants or seedlings, the plants must be removed with boles of earth from the nurseries, and placed in the holes, taking the same care as with the stumps, both in watering and covering, in the event of its being dry weather. When the seedlings take root, the coverings should not be removed until the plants throw out a new pair of leaves from the buds, which is a sign of their having taken root. When a plantation is formed of old stumps, all the branches should be cut down within six inches from the ground; this should be done with one stroke of a sharp instrument, in order to avoid the splitting of the stem. From these stumps cinnamon may be cut and peeled within eighteen months from the time of transplanting. Often this is done after the lapse of twelve months from the time of transplanting. From seedlings one cannot expect to gather a crop before two or three years from the time the plants were transplanted, when there will be but one or a single tree, which, when cut down as already shown, four or six inches to the ground, ought to be covered with fresh earth gathered from the space between the rows, and formed in a heap round the plant. The next crop will be three or four times as much as the first, from the number of sprouts the stem will throw out, and so on every year, the crop increasing according to the number of sprouts each stem will throw out yearly from the cuttings. In the course of seven or eight years, the space left between the rows will only admit the peelers and others to go round the bushes, weed, clear and remove cuttings, as the branches from each bush will almost touch each other at their ends. It is essentially necessary to take every care not to allow any creepers or other weeds to grow, the former interfere with the growth of the bushes by entangling, because it not only takes out so much of the support feeding the cinnamon trees, but interferes with the peelers during the cutting season, and prevents the branches growing up straight with a free circulation of air. The plantation ought to be kept clean and free from weeds; the cinnamon requires no manuring, but when the plantation is weeding the bushes should be covered with the surface soil and raising the ground round the bush by making a heap of the earth, which answers well in lieu of manure. This operation must be attended to as soon as the cinnamon sticks are removed for peeling. The plantation requires weeding three or four times a year during the first two or three years, then twice a year will answer the purpose; as by that time the trees will form into bushes and destroy the seeds of the weeds on the ground. The forming of a nursery is necessary, for which a space of ground, say an acre, should be selected in a rich bit of soil free from stones. Clear the whole brushwood, only leaving the large trees for shade, remove all stones, stumps, and roots, dig the place well six or eight inches deep, then form into long beds of three or four feet wide, put the seeds down nine or twelve inches apart, cover them eight or twelve inches above the ground by a platform, and water them every other day until the seeds grow up and give one pair of leaves, then leave off watering (unless great dry weather prevail, then it ought to be continued) but not uncover until the plants grow up six or eight inches high, and can bear the sun; these seedlings will be ready for transplanting after three months from the time they were sown. The forming of nurseries is done at the close of the year, before December. When this is done first, the party commences clearing and preparing the land during the dry season, which is from the beginning of December up to the end of March following. April will set in with heavy rain (it is generally so in Ceylon), and it will continue wet weather till the end of August, very often till September and October, and you have the benefit of four or five months rain. The cinnamon seeds are to be gathered when they are fully ripe, they must be heaped up in a shady place, to have the outside red pulp rotted, when it turns quite black, then have the seeds trampled or otherwise freed from the decomposed pulp, without injuring the seeds, and well washed in water (just as is done to cherry coffee, before they are made into parchment in the whole shell). Finally, have the seeds[48] well dried in the air without exposing them to the sun, and then put them in on the ground prepared for their reception. In washing the seeds, those that float on the surface should be rejected. There are five different sorts of cinnamon, viz.:-- 1st is called Panny Meers Carundoo. 2nd Tittha " " 3rd Kahatte " " 4th Wallee " " 5th Savell " " Of these, the first kind is the best of all, the 2nd and 3rd, although inferior, are peeled likewise, the 4th and 5th are spurious. The distinction in the cinnamon can be known both by taste, the shape of the leaves on the tree, and an experienced "Challya" man will judge the cinnamon by first sight. The quality of the bark depends upon its situation in the branch, that peeled from the middle of the bush or branch being the _most superior_, and classed as 1st sort, that taken from the upper end is the 2nd quality, while the bark removed from the base of the branch, or the thickest end, is the inferior, and called the 3rd sort. From the cinnamon bark refused in the sorting store of all kinds, in separating the first, second and third qualities and in making bales for exportation, the refuse is collected, and by a chemical process cinnamon oil is extracted, which sells very high, with an export duty of 3s. or l½ rupees on each ounce, exclusive of the British duties payable in England for importation, which is at present one shilling and three pence per pound.[49] Of the cinnamon roots camphor is made, which sells well both in Ceylon and other parts of the world. Cinnamon, as a medicine, is a powerful stimulant, but it is not much used alone. It is generally united with other tonics and stimulants, but its ordinary use is to mask the disagreeable odor and taste of other medicines. The oil of cinnamon is prepared by being grossly powdered and macerated in sea water for two days and two nights, and both are put into the still. A light oil comes over with the water, and floats on its surface; a heavy oil sinks to the bottom of the receiver, four hours before the light oil separates from the water, and whilst the heavy oil continues to be precipitated for ten, twelve, or sometimes fourteen days. The heavy oil, which separates first, is about the same color as the light oil, but sometimes the portion which separates last has a browner shade than the supernatant oil. The same water can be used advantageously in a second distillation. Professor Duncan informs us that 80 lbs. of newly-prepared cinnamon yield about 2½ ozs. of oil, which floats upon the water, and 5½ of heavy oil. The same quantity of cinnamon, if kept in store for many years, yields 2 ozs. of light oil and 5 ozs. of heavy oil. Cinnamon oil is obtained from the fragments of bark which remain after peeling, sorting, and packing. It is distilled over with difficulty, and the process is promoted by the addition of salt water, and the use of a low still. The oil thus obtained by distillation is at first of a yellow color, but soon assumes a reddish brown hue. It has an odor intermediate between that of cinnamon and vanilla, but possesses in a high degree both the sweet burning taste and the agreeable aromatic smell of cinnamon. It is heavier than water, its specific gravity being 1.035. The ripe fruit of this tree yields a concrete oil called cinnamon suet, which was formerly employed to make candles for the Kandian kings. An oil, called clove oil, is also distilled from the leaf, which is said to be equal in aromatic pungency to that made from the clove at the Moluccas. The following were the quantities sold, and the average prices realised during the Dutch rule in Ceylon:-- s. d. 1690 3,750 bales sold at 4 8 all round. 1709 3,750 " 4 6 " 1710 3,500 " 4 4 " 1720 5,000 " 4 4 " 1740 4,000 " 9 3 " 1760 5,000 " 8 5 " 1780 2,500 " 12 6 " 1784 2,500 " 17 4 " The last quotation appears to have been the highest ever obtained for cinnamon, for 17s. 8d. average would give about 22s. for the first sort. In later years we find the deliveries and prices to have been as follows:-- s. d. 1824 5,934 bales sold at 6 6 all round. 1828 3,918 " 6 0 " 1830 5,849 " 7 8 " 1842 1,018 " --- " 1845 3,245 " --- " The comparative exports of cinnamon from Ceylon in the first six months of 1853, as compared with the same period last year, are as follows:-- 1853. 1852. lbs. lbs. Quarter ending 5th January 99,778 93,291 " 5th April 73,815 135,248 ------- ------- Total 173,593 228,539 The diminished export was caused by the prospective abolition of the export duty, which came into operation on the 1st July last. The quantity that will be sent to the English market by the close of the year (1853) will be something prodigious compared with the average consumption. From October 10, 1852, to July 22, 1853, the shipments were 406,326 lbs. RETURN OF CINNAMON EXPORTED FROM CEYLON, SHOWING THE QUANTITY AND VALUE. Quantity. Value. Year. lbs. £ 1836 724,364 -- 1837 558,110 -- 1838 398,198 -- 1839 596,592 -- 1840 389,373 -- 1841 317,919 24,857 1842 121,145 15,207 1843 662,704 66,270 1844 1,057,841 105,784 1845 408,211 40,821 1846 491,656 49,165 1847 447,369 44,736 1848 491,688 49,168 1849 733,782 73,378 1850 644,857 64,485 1851 500,518 50,051 1852 427,667 42,766 The question of the export duty on cinnamon has, during the last twenty years, occupied a considerable space in Ceylon correspondence and the Island journals. This duty was first imposed in 1832, on the abolition of the Grovernment monopoly, and was then fixed at the rate of 3s. per lb. on all qualities. From the 19th April, 1835, it was fixed at 3s. per lb. on the best, and 2s. on the second quality. It was reduced in January, 1837, to 2s. 6d. on the first and second sorts, and 2s. on the third; and in June, 1841, to 2s. on all qualities; in 1843, to 1s.; and in September, 1848, to 4d. per lb. Such a rate of export duty could be maintained only on an article for which there was a considerable demand, and which could not be supplied from other places, and this was for a long time the case. The circumstances are now different, and the abolition of the duty, which has so repeatedly been brought under the notice of the Treasury, has at length been determined on. The quantity of cinnamon, &c., taken for consumption in the United Kingdom, scarcely amounts to 2,800 bales per annum. The sale and consumption is nearly stationary, and cinnamon is only in demand for those finer purposes for which cassia, its competitor, cannot be used. Whilst we imported the large amount of 700,095 lbs. in 1850, only 28,347 lbs. went into consumption. The consumption has declined in the last two years to about 21,500 lbs. Cinnamon is now imported into the United Kingdom duty free. The land under cultivation with cinnamon in Ceylon is about 13,000 acres, principally in the western and southern provinces. The number of gardens being eleven at Kaderane, seven at Ekelli, seven at Morotto, six at Marandham, and two at Willisene. Several enterprising planters have recently commenced the cultivation of this spice at Singapore and Malacca. The plants already promise well. Indeed there can be little doubt of its thriving, as the tree has been long grown in gardens and pleasure grounds in those settlements, as an ornamental plant, and has always flourished. The Ceylon article is being supplanted in the continental markets by a cheaper one, of China and Malabar growth. The Javanese, tempted by the fatally high prices caused by the excessive duties on our Colonial spice, smuggled a quantity of seed, and with it a cinnamon cultivator, out of the island, and have since paid considerable attention to its growth. The Dutch have at present more than five millions of plants, equal to upwards of 5,000 acres, the greater part of which are in tolerably full bearing. The cinnamon trees in Java begin to blossom in the month of March. They do not all flower at the same time, but in succession. The fruit begins to ripen in October in the same manner, so that the crop lasts from October to February. In Ceylon the blossom begins to appear in November. The seeds when plucked ought to be fully ripe, and after being separated from the outer pulpy covering, should be dried in the shade. They can be kept for two or three months in dry sand or ashes, but must not be exposed to the sun, as they would split, and thus be rendered useless. The plants in nurseries must be well sheltered from the sun and heavy rains, but the plants are strengthened by the covers being removed at night when heavy rains are not expected to fall, and in the day time when only light rains prevail. The mode of planting out, cultivation, preparing the bark, &c., appears to be the same in Java as that practised in Ceylon. The only difference is, that while in Ceylon the cinnamon, when ready for market, is packed in "gunny" or canvass bags, in Java it is put into boxes, made of wood free from any smell or flavor which would injure the spice. The inferior cinnamon, however, is packed in straw mats. The following is a return of the extent of cinnamon culture in Java :-- In 1840. In 1841. Residencies in which cinnamon is cultivated 10 10 Number of plantations 48 49 " families devoted to this culture 7,901 9,688 " paid _budjans_ 294 345 Extent of ground occupied by the cultivation, in _bahus_ of 71 decametres 1,690 1,880 --------- --------- Cinnamon trees of which the bark can be taken 1,106,566 1,407,213 Young trees in the parks 2,478,427 2,565,774 For renewing 307,000 86,800 --------- --------- Total 3,891,998 4,059,787 --------- --------- Cinnamon crop, in Dutch lbs. 57,074 38,219 " refuse 23,283 82,803 The number of trees peeled in 1842 was taken at 1,824,599, and the crop reckoned at 108,905 lbs. In the residency of Bantam, four trees suffice to produce a pound of cinnamon, whilst in the other residencies eleven trees must generally be stripped to furnish the same quantity; in 1839 one pound could scarcely be obtained from thirteen trees. This cultivation increases each year, and the quality of the produce improves, whilst the expenses diminish. However, the Dutch Government has judged it proper not to extend it, although the soil of Java appears favorable to this culture. From 200,000 to 300,000 lbs. of true cinnamon, not freed from its epidermis, is exported annually from Cochin-China. JAVA CINNAMON SOLD IN HOLLAND. lbs. In 1835 2,200 " 1836 1,300 " 1837 1,600 " 1838 2,100 " 1839 4,700 " 1840 7,900 " 1841 23,900 " 1842 13,000 " 1843 23,000 " 1844 101,400 " 1845 134,500 " 1848 250,550 STATISTICS OF PACKAGES IN LONDON. 1842. 1843. 1844. 1845. Imported 2,196 4,458 9,197 8,909 Exported 3,661 3,964 6,712 6,081 Duty paid 838 738 801 1,012 Stock 2,709 2,622 4,230 5,549 CASSIA BARK. _Cinnamonum Cassia_, or _aromaticum_, the _Laurus cassia_ of Linnæus, seems to be the chief source of the "cassia lignea" of commerce. It differs from the true cinnamon tree in many particulars. Its leaves are oblong-lanceolate; they have three ribs, which coalesce into one at the base; its young twigs are downy, and its leaves have the taste of cinnamon. Malabar cassia appears to be the produce of another species of _Cinnamonum_, probably _C. eucalyptoides_, or _Malabatrum_. Dr. Wight, of the Madras Medical Service, in a report to the East India Company, expresses his belief that the cassia producing plants extend to nearly every species of the genus. "A set of specimens (he observes) submitted for my examination, of the trees furnishing cassia on the Malabar coast, presented no fewer than four distinct species; including among them the genuine cinnamon plant, the bark of the older trees of which, it would appear, are exported from the coast as cassia. Three or four more species are natives of Ceylon, exclusive of the cinnamon proper, all of which greatly resemble the cinnamon plant, and in the woods might easily be mistaken for it and peeled, though the produce would be inferior. Thus we have from Western India and Ceylon alone, probably not less than six plants producing cassia; add to these nearly twice as many more species of _Cinnamonum_, the produce of the more eastern states of Asia, and the Islands of the Eastern Archipelago, all remarkable for their striking family likeness; all, I believe, endowed with aromatic properties, and probably the greater part, if not the whole, contributing something towards the general result, and we at once see the impossibility of awarding to any one individual species the credit of being the source whence the _Cassia lignea_ of commerce is derived; and equally the impropriety of applying to any one of them the comprehensive specific appellation of cassia, since all sorts of cinnamon-like plants, yielding bark of a quality unfit to bear the designation of cinnamon in the market, are passed off as cassia." The cassia tree, according to Mr. Crawfurd, is found in the more northern portion of the Indian isles, as in the Philippines, Majindanao, Sumatra, Borneo, and parts of Celebes. It is also grown on the western coast of Africa. The principal seat of its culture is, however, the Malabar coast, and the provinces of Quantong and Kingse, in China. The famous cassia of China is incomparably superior in perfume and flavor to any spice of its class. Its native place is unknown, though supposed to be the interior provinces of China. The market price is said to be £5 per lb. The Malabar sort brought from Bombay is thicker, darker colored, and coarser than that from China, and is more subject to foul packing. A small quantity of cassia is brought from Mauritius and Brazil, and a large amount from the Philippine Islands. Cassia bark fetches from 80s. to 105s. per cwt. in the London market, according to quality. The imports appear on the decline. In 1843 and 1844 we imported nearly two millions of pounds. The quantity imported and retained for home consumption in the past four years are shown in the following figures:-- Imported. Retained for consumption. lbs. lbs. 1848 510,247 76,152 1849 472,693 83,500 1850 1,050,008 97,178 1851 267,582 82,467 The cheaper Indian barks, as well as the cinnamon of the East, seemed at one time to be fast driving out of the market the superior class cinnamon of Ceylon. In 1841 Java exported 400 cwts. of cinnamon; and the quantity of cassia imported into the United Kingdom from India and the Philippine Islands, in the five years ending with 1844, was-- lbs. 1840 329,310 1841 1,261,648 1842 1,312,804 1843 2,470,502 1844 1,278,413 40,000 lbs. were received from India in 1848; and 3,795 arrobas of cassia were exported from Manila in 1847. In 1852, 2,806 cwts. of cassia were received at Singapore from China, and 1,380 cwts. exported from that settlement to the Continent, against 903 cwts. shipped in the previous year. What the Ceylon spice-grower wants, is an extended field of operation--a larger class of consumers to take off his cinnamon, and this can only be obtained by bringing it within the means of the great mass of cassia buyers. Look at the quantity of cinnamon exported by the Dutch in the middle of the eighteenth century. Eight or nine thousand bales a year were exported, and now, after a lapse of a hundred years, Ceylon hardly sends away half that quantity. Yet the consumption of spice must have kept pace with the increased population of countries using it, and so it has. But the difference is made up, and more than made up, by cassia from China, Java, Sumatra, Malabar Coast, &c., and though the new article is not equal to the cinnamon of Ceylon, yet the vast difference in the price obtains for it the preference. Now what the Ceylon planter wants, is to be allowed to produce a spice on equal terms, and of a superior quality to cassia, which might be done under an _ad valorem_ export duty of 5 per cent. Spice of this description of course could not afford the high cultivation bestowed on the fine qualities, neither would it be required. In fact little or no cultivation need be given it. At present anything inferior to the third sort is not worth producing, because it cannot stand the shilling export duty. But under a more enlightened system of things, with a low duty such as I suggest, myriads of bushes would spring up on those low, sandy, and at present unprofitable wastes that skirt the sea-coast of the western province, around Negombo and Chilaw. The difference of duty would be more than made up by the diffusion of capital in planting, the employment of vast numbers of laborers, the purchase from Government of many thousand acres of now valueless flats, and all the attendant benefits arising out of the development of a new field of operation for the colonial industrial resources.[50] The cassia tree grows naturally to the height of 50 or 60 feet, with large, spreading, horizontal branches. The peelers take off the two barks together, and separating the rough outer one, which is of no value, they lay the inner bark to dry, which rolls up and becomes the _Cassia lignea_ of commerce. It resembles cinnamon in taste, smell and appearance. The best is imported from China, either direct from Canton, or through Singapore, in small tubes or quills, sometimes the thickness of the ordinary pipes of cinnamon and of the same length; but usually they are shorter and thicker, and the bark itself coarser. It is of a tolerably smooth surface and brownish color, with some cast of red, but much less so than cinnamon. The exports from China are said to be about five million pounds annually; price about 32s. per cwt. In 1850, 6,509 piculs of cassia lignea (nearly one million pounds), valued at 87,850 dollars, were shipped from the single port of Canton. Cassia bark is of a less fibrous texture, and more brittle, and it is also distinguished from cinnamon by a want of pungency, and by being of a mucilaginous or gelatinous quality. CASSIA BUDS are the dried flower buds (perianth and ovary) of the cassia tree, and are mostly brought from China. They bear some resemblance to a clove, but are smaller, and when fresh have a rich cinnamon flavor. They should be chosen round, fresh, and free from stalk and dirt. They are used chiefly in confectionery, and have the flavor and pungency of cassia. The exports from Canton in 1844 were 21,500 lbs.; in 1850, 44,140 lbs., valued at 7,400 dollars. The average quantity of cassia buds imported into the United Kingdom, in each of the thirteen years ending with 1842, was 40,231 lbs.; the average quantity entered for home consumption in these years was 6,610 lbs., and the average annual amount of duty received was £312. Cassia bark yields a yellow volatile oil, called oil of cassia, the finer kind of which differs but little in its properties from that of cinnamon, for which it is generally substituted; it has a specific gravity of 1071. The best is manufactured in China, where the wood, bark, leaves and oil are all in request. The cassia oil is rated at 150 dollars per picul, and the trade in this article reaches about 250,000 dollars. CANELLA ALBA, or wild cinnamon, is a valuable and ornamental tree, growing about fifteen feet high, which is cultivated in South America and the West Indies for its pungent bark, which is shipped to this country in bales or cases, in long quills and flat pieces, something like cinnamon. Large old cuttings root readily in the sand. It is grown chiefly in the Bahama Islands, from whence we derive our supplies. By the Caribs, the ancient natives of the West Indies, and the negroes, it was first employed as a condiment. In this country it is chiefly used as an aromatic stimulant and tonic, ranking between cinnamon and cloves. The bark possesses, however, no other quality than its hot spicy flavor and strong aromatic odor when exposed to the action of heat. CASCARILLA BARK is obtained chiefly from the _Croton cascarilla_, a small shrub growing at St. Domingo, the Bahama Islands, and the Antilles. The chief portion comes from Eleuthera. In Hayti a pleasant kind of tea is made from the leaves. Other species of the family supply some of the bark of commerce. From its strong and aromatic properties it has been found very efficacious in all febrile diseases, and vies with the Jesuits' bark; as a tonic it has very wholesome qualities, a pleasant and strong bitterness, and was for some time held in considerable repute among the faculty. About twenty years ago, large shipments were made from the Bahamas. It was found, upon adulteration with hops, to reduce the cost of that article, and for the encouragement of the hop grower a prohibitory impost was laid upon it by the Home Government, consequently it became an unsaleable product. The sea-side balsam, or sweet wood (_Croton Eleuteria_), from which some cascarilla bark is obtained, grows in the Bahama Islands and Jamaica, but almost all the bark imported comes from Nassau, New Providence. In 1840, 15,000 lbs. were imported for home consumption. This bark produces the combined effect of an aromatic and of a moderately powerful tonic; but it does not possess any astringency. It has been employed as a substitute for cinchona. When burned it gives out a musky odor, and is often used in pastiles. The value of this bark ranges, according to quality, from 17s. 6d. to 43 s. per cwt. CLOVES. The cloves of commerce are obtained from the flower buds of _Caryophyllus aromaticus (Eugenia caryophyllata_), which was originally a native of the Moluccas, but is now cultivated in several parts of the East and West Indies. They have the form of a nail, and when examined are seen to consist of the tubular calyx with a roundish projection, formed by the unopened petals. It is a very handsome tree, growing to the height of about twenty feet. The trunk is straight, and rises four or five feet before it throws out branches. The bark is smooth, thin, of a grey color, and the wood of the trunk too hard for ordinary cabinet work. The leaves are opposite, smooth, narrow, pointed, of a rupous color above, and green on the under side. They have a very aromatic odor when bruised between the fingers. The flowers produced in branched peduncles, at the extremity of the bough, are of a delicate peach color. The elongated calyx, forming the seed vessel, first changes to yellow, and, when ripe, red, which is from October to December, and in this state it is fit to gather. If left for a few weeks longer on the trees, they expand, and become what are termed "mother cloves," fit only for seed or for candying. The ground under the tree is first swept clean, or else a mat or cloth is spread. The nearest clusters are taken off with the hand, and the more distant by the aid of crooked sticks. Great care should be taken not to injure the tree, as it would prevent future bearing. The cloves are then prepared for shipment by smoking them on hurdles near a slow wood fire, to give them a brown color, after which they are further dried in the sun. They may then be cut off from the flower branches with the nails, and will be found to be purple colored within, and fit to be baled for the European market. In some places they are scalded in hot water before being smoked, but this is not common. The tree may be propagated either from layers or seed. Layers will root in five or six months if kept moist. A strong dark loam, a gravelly, sandy, or clayey soil, but one not retentive of moisture, seems that best suited for its successful culture. It does not thrive well near the sea, nor in the higher mountains, the spray of the sea and the cold being found injurious. The plants at first require the shade of other trees, such as the mango, coco-nut, &c. Although generally a hardy plant, it suffers from excessive drought. They should be planted about twenty feet apart. In its native country the tree begins to yield fruit in the sixth year, but a crop can seldom be looked for in other quarters under eight years. It is very long lived, sometimes attaining the age of 130 years. There appears, according to Mr. Crawfurd, to be five varieties of the clove, viz.--the ordinary cultivated clove; a kind called the female clove by the natives, which has a pale stem; the kiri or loory clove; the royal clove, which is very scarce, and the wild clove. The three first are equally valuable as spices, the female clove being considered fittest for the distillation of essential oil. The wild clove, having scarcely any aromatic flavor, is valueless. The produce which may be expected from the tree seems to be uncertain; it may, however, be averaged at five or six pounds. A clove tree, well weeded and taken care of, will produce from five to twenty pounds. On the other hand, a tree that is neglected will not give above two or three pounds. At intervals of from three to six years they usually produce one extraordinary crop, but then a year now and then intervenes, when they yield none at all; in others they will afford a double harvest. The clove tree was originally confined to the five principal Molucca islands, and chiefly to Machean. From these it was conveyed to Amboyna, a very short time only before the arrival of the Portuguese. By them the cultivation was strictly restricted to Amboyna, every effort being made to extirpate the plant elsewhere. It has now, however, spread to Java, Singapore, and the Straits' Settlements, Ceylon, the Mauritius and Seychelles, Bourbon, Zanzibar, Cayenne, Dominica, Martinique, St. Kitts, St. Vincent, and Trinidad. Cloves contain a volatile oil, associated with resinous, gummy, and astringent matter, which is yielded in larger proportion than by any other plant. Neuman obtained by distillation two ounces and two drachms from sixteen ounces of cloves. On an average cloves yield from 17 to 22 per cent. of oil, including the heavy and light oils. The oil is aromatic and acrid, and has been used as a condiment and a stimulant carminative. It is also extensively used by distillers and soap makers. It is said that the clove does not thrive well on the soil of Java, the plantations of which trial had been made not having succeeded to the extent expected, although they were directed by skilled persons from Amboyna; the places they made choice of did not differ materially as to soil and climate from those of the Moluccas. M. Teysman, Director of the Botanical Gardens at Batavia, seems to have bestowed much attention on the subject. The exports however from the island have been considerable. In 1830, there were 803 piculs shipped; in 1835, 4,566; in 1839, 2,334; in 1843, 2,027 piculs of 133 lbs. M. Buee, who introduced the culture of the clove in the island of Dominica, about 1789, thus describes the results of his experience, which may be useful to other experimental cultivators. He obtained a few plants from Cayenne, and raised 1,600 trees from seed, which, in a year from the first sowing, were transplanted. The seeds were sown at about six inches apart from each other, in beds; over these beds small frames were erected about three feet from the ground, and plantain leaves were spread on the top, in order to shelter the young plants from the sun. The leaves were allowed gradually to decay, and at the end of nine months the young plants, which by that time were strong, were permitted to receive the benefit of the sun; but if not protected from it when very young, they were found to droop and die. When transplanted, the trees were placed at sixteen feet apart from each other. They grew very luxuriantly, and at the end of fifteen months after their removal, attained the height of from three to four feet. The ground wherein they were planted had been a coffee plantation during forty years. The coffee trees had decayed, and an attempt had been made to replace them; but they refused to grow; whereas the clove plants flourished as if on congenial soil, and a crop was gathered on some of them when they were not more than six years old, which period is two or three years earlier than the usual time for gathering. The cloves sent from St. Vincent to England in 1800, were obtained from trees eight feet high, having a stem only two inches in diameter. Trial was made in that island of the relative growth of the plant on different soils; it grew sickly on land which was not manured, but on land which had received this preparation it flourished. In Singapore, about ten years ago, there were then about 15,000 clove trees planted out, a few of which only had come in bearing. If these plantations had proved equally productive with those of the sister settlement of Pinang, it would have been able to export 60,000 lbs. of cloves, its own produce; but this expectation, it will be seen, has not been realised. In the season of 1841-42, there was 1000 piculs of cloves shipped from Pinang, but none were exported in the two previous years. The quantity of land under cultivation with cloves there, in 1843, was 463 orlongs in Prince of Wales Island, and 517 in Province Wellesley. The number of trees planted out in the former island was 72,779; in the latter province 7,639. There were in the island 25,161 plants in nursery. The trees in bearing were--In Prince of Wales Island, 28,739; not bearing, 44,040; produce in 1843, 87 piculs, 50 catties; gross value, 3,399 dollars; estimated produce of cloves for 1844, 469 piculs. In Province Wellesley--Trees in bearing, 1,073; not bearing, 6,566; produce in 1843, 1 picul, 13 catties; gross value 45 dollars. The export of cloves from Pinang was, in 1849, 24,000 lbs.; in 1850, 52,400; in 1851, 27,866; in 1852, 45,087. From tabular statements drawn up in 1844, by Mr. F.S. Brown, Chairman of the Pinang Chamber of Commerce, it appears that there were, in 1843, in that island and Province Wellesley adjoining, 96 clove plantations, containing 80,418 clove trees; besides many young trees in nurseries ready to be planted out. The produce of cloves there, in 1842, was 11,813 lbs., and this was a very short crop, it having that year proved a complete failure; the average crop for some years previous had been 46,666 lbs. Pinang only began to export this spice in 1832. Of the clove trees in Pinang there were then only 29,812 in bearing, leaving 75,767 in that settlement alone to come to maturity; estimated to yield about 300,000 lbs. No success has attended repeated trials of cloves in Singapore. Until the trees reach the age of bearing, they grow and look extremely well; but any expectation of a crop that may have been raised by their hitherto fine condition, ends in disappointment, for just then the trees assume the appearance of sudden blight, as if lightning-stricken, and then die. 125 clove plants and 350 seedlings were sent to Singapore from Bencoolen, by Sir T. Raffles, in the close of 1819; but although every care was paid them--while the nutmegs which accompanied them throve amazingly well--little or no progress has been made with clove culture. Two or three hundred-weight were shipped in 1845, but since then hardly any mention is made of the spice. In a petition presented by the spice planters of Pinang and Province Wellesley, to the authorities at home, in 1844, praying that the duty on British Colonial nutmegs, mace, and cloves might be reduced to 1s. 9d., 1s. 3d., and 3d. respectively, on importation into England, in order to compete with foreign produce, it was stated that a few years hence Prince of Wales Island might be expected to produce 600,000 lbs. of nutmegs, 200,000 lbs. of mace, and 300,000 lbs. of cloves; whilst Singapore, if equally successful in the culture of the same, would yield yearly 137,000 lbs. of nutmegs, 45,000 lbs. of mace, and 60,000 lbs. of cloves. In short, the planters needed only encouragement to produce in the course of a few years a full supply of those valuable spices for the whole consumption of Great Britain. Dr. Ruschenberger, who visited Zanzibar in 1835, thus speaks of the clove plantations there:--"As far as the eye could reach over a beautifully undulated land, nothing was to be seen but clove trees of different ages, varying in height from five to twenty feet. The form of the tree is conical, the branches grow at nearly right angles with the trunk, and they begin to shoot a few inches above the ground. The plantation contains nearly four thousand trees, and each tree yields on an average six pounds of cloves a year; they are carefully picked by hand, and then dried in the shade; we saw numbers of slaves standing on ladders gathering the spice, while others were at work clearing the ground of dead leaves. The whole is in the finest order, presenting a picture of industry and of admirable neatness and beauty. They were introduced into Zanzibar in 1818, from Mauritius, and are found to thrive so well that almost everybody in the island is now clearing away the cocoa nut to make way for them. The clove bears in five or six years from the seed; of course time enough has not yet elapsed for the value and quantity of Zanzibar cloves to be generally known; they are worth, however, in the Bombay market, about 30s. the Surat maund of 39¼ lbs.; the price for Molucca cloves in the Eastern market is from 28 to 30 dollars per picul of 133 lbs.; for those of Mauritius, 20 to 24 dollars per picul." The average annual consumption of cloves in the United Kingdom, in the four years ending 1841, was 49,000 lbs. The largest quantity of cloves imported during the past twenty-five years was 1,041,171 lbs., in 1847. The quantities imported and entered for home consumption in the last five years have been as follows:-- Imports. Home consumption. lbs. lbs. 1848 117,433 126,691 1849 274,713 133,713 1850 749,646 159,934 1851 253,439 138,132 1852 313,949 175,287 In 1848 we received 60,000 lbs. of cloves from British India. THE NUTMEG. _Myristica moschata_, _M. officinalis_, or _aromatica_.--This tree is of a larger growth than the clove, attaining a height of thirty feet, and has its leaves broader in proportion to their length; the upper surface of these is of a bright green, the under of a greyish color. It is a dioecious plant, having male or barren pale yellow flowers upon one tree, and female or fertile flowers upon another. The fruit is drupaceous, and opens by two valves when ripe, displaying the beautiful reticulated scarlet arillus, which constitutes mace. Within this is a hard, dark brown, and glossy shell, covering the kernel, which is the nutmeg of the shops. The kernels of _M. tomentosa_ are also used as aromatics, under the name of wild or male nutmegs. Lindley describes two other species, _M. fatua_, a native of Surinam, with greenish white flowers, and _M. sebifera_ or _Virola sebifera_, a native of Guiana, with yellowish green flowers. By expression, nutmegs are made to yield a concrete oil, called _Adeps Myristicæ_, or sometimes erroneously oil of mace. A volatile oil is also procured by distillation. Nutmegs and mace are used medicinally as aromatic stimulants and condiments. In large doses they have a narcotic effect. The fleshy part of the fruit is used as a preserve. Dr. Oxley has given such an admirable account of the nutmeg and its cultivation, as the result of 20 years experience in Singapore, that I shall draw largely from his valuable paper, which is contained in the second volume of "The Journal of the Indian Archipelago," page 641. The nutmeg tree, like many of its class, has a strong tendency to become monoecious, and planters in general are well pleased at this habit, thinking they secure a double advantage by having the male and female flowers on the same plant. This is, however, delusive, and being against the order of nature, the produce of such trees is invariably inferior, showing itself in the production of double nuts and other deformities. It is best, therefore, to have only female trees, with a due proportion of males. The female flowers, which are merely composed of a tripid calyx and no corolla, when produced by a tree in full vigor are perfectly urceolate, slightly tinged with green at the base, and well filled by the ovary, whereas the female flowers of weakly trees are entirely yellow, imperfectly urceolate, and approach more to the staminiferous flowers of the male. The shape of the fruit varies considerably, being spherical, oblong, and egg-shaped, but the nearer they approach sphericity of figure, the more highly are they prized. There is also a great variety in the foliage of different trees, from elliptic, oblong and ovate, to almost purely lanceolate-shaped leaves. This difference seems to indicate in some measure the character of the produce; trees with large oblong leaves appearing to have the largest and most spherical fruit, and those with small lanceolate leaves being in general more prolific bearers, but of inferior quality. Whilst its congener the clove has been spread over Asia, Africa, and the West Indies, the nutmeg refuses to flourish out of the Malayan Archipelago, except as an exotic, all attempts to introduce it largely into other tropical countries having decidedly failed. The island of Ternate, which is in about the same latitude as Singapore, is said to have been the spot where it was truly indigenous, but no doubt the tree is to be found on most of the Moluccas. At present the place of its origin is unproductive of the spice, having been robbed of its rich heritage by the policy of the Dutch, who at an early period removed the plantations to the Banda isles for better surveillance, where they still remain and flourish. But although care was formerly taken to extirpate the tree on the Moluccas, the mace-feeding pigeons have frustrated the machinations of man, and spread it widely through the Archipelago of islands extending from the Moluccas to New Guinea. Its circle of growth extends westward as far as Pinang, or Prince of Wales Island, where, although an exotic, it has been cultivated as a mercantile speculation with success for many years. Westward of Pinang there are no plantations, looking at the subject in a mercantile point of view. The tree is to be found, indeed, in Ceylon, and the West Coast of India, but to grow it as a speculation out of its indigenous limits, is as likely to prove successful as the cultivation of apples and pears in Bengal. In the Banda Isles, where the tree may be considered as indigenous, no further attention is paid to its cultivation than setting out the plants in parks, under the shade of large forest trees, with long horizontal branches, called "Canari" by the natives. There it attains a height of 50 feet and upwards, whereas from 20 to 30 feet may be taken as a fair average of the trees in the Straits' Settlements; but notwitstanding our pigmy proportions (adds Dr. Oxley), it does not appear, from, all I could ever learn, that we are relatively behind the Banda trees, either in quantity or quality of produce, and I am strongly impressed with the idea that the island of Singapore can compete with the Banda group on perfectly even terms. Our climate is quite unexceptionable for the growth of the nutmeg, being neither exposed to droughts or high winds; and although we may lose by comparison of soils, we again gain by greater facilities of sending our products to market, by the facility of obtaining abundant supplies of manure, and any amount of free and cheap labor. A nutmeg plantation, well laid out and brought up to perfection, is one of the most pleasing and agreeable properties that can be possessed. Yielding returns, more or less daily, throughout the year, there is increasing interest, besides the usual stimulus to all agriculturists of a crop time, when his produce increases to double and quadruple the ordinary routine. Trees having arrived at fifteen years growth, there is no incertitude or fear of total failure of crop, only in relative amount of produce, and this, as will be seen, is greatly in the planter's own power to command. It is against reason to suppose that a tree in flower and fruit will not expend itself if left to unaided nature: it must be supplied with suitable stimuli to make good the waste, therefore he who wants nuts must not be sparing of manure. The first requisite for the planter is choice of location. It is true that the nutmeg tree, aided by manure, will grow in almost any soil where water does not lodge, but it makes a vast difference in the degree of success, whether the soil be originally good, or poor and improved by art. The tree does not thrive in white or sandy soils, but prefers the deep red and friable soils formed by the decomposition of granite rocks and tinged with iron, and the deeper the tinge the better. I am therefore inclined to think, that iron in the soil is almost necessary for the full development of the plant. If under the before-mentioned soil there be a rubble of iron-stone at four or five feet from the surface (a very common formation in Singapore), forming a natural drainage, the planter has obtained all that he can desire in the ground, and needs only patience and perseverance to secure success. The form of the ground ought to be undulating, to permit the running off of all superfluous water, as there is no one thing more injurious to the plant than water lodging around its roots, although, in order to thrive well, it requires an atmosphere of the most humid sort, and rain almost daily. Besides the form of the ground, situation is highly desirable, particularly as regards exposure. A spot selected for a nutmeg plantation cannot be too well sheltered, as high winds are most destructive to the tree, independently of the loss occasioned by the blowing off of fruit and flower. At present there is abundant choice of land in Singapore, the greater portion of the island being as yet uncultivated, and much answering to the above description. The land can be purchased from Government at the rate of from 10s. to 20s. per acre in perpetuity. I would advise the man who wishes to establish a plantation, to select the virgin forest, and of all things let him avoid deserted gambier plantations, the soil of which is completely exhausted, the Chinese taking good care never to leave a spot until they have taken all they can out of it. A cleared spot has a great attraction for the inexperienced, and it is not easy to convince a man that it is less expensive to attack the primitive forest, than to attempt to clear an old gambier plantation, overrun with lalang grass; but the cutting down and burning of large forest trees is far less expensive than the extirpation of the lalang, and as the Chinese leave all the stumps of the large trees in the ground, it is almost more difficult to remove them in this state than when you have the powerful lever of the trunk to aid you in tearing up the roots, setting aside the paramount advantage that, in the one case you possess a fresh and fertile soil, in the other an effete and barren one. Forest land, or "jungle," as it is called in the East, can be cleared for about 25 to 30 dollars (£5 to £6) per acre, by contract, but the planter had better be careful to have every stump and root of tree removed, ere he ventures to commence planting, or the white ants, attracted by the dead wood, will crowd into the land, and having consumed the food thus prepared for them, will not be slow in attacking the young trees. Whilst the planter is thus clearing the ground, he may advantageously at the same time be establishing nurseries; for these the ground ought to be well trenched and mixed with a small quantity of thoroughly decomposed manure and burned earth, making up the earth afterwards into beds of about three feet wide, with paths between them for the convenience of weeding and cleaning the young plants. Of course if the planter can obtain really good plants, the produce of well-selected seed, it will be a great saving of time and expense to him, but unless the seed be carefully chosen, I would prefer beginning my own nurseries, and in the selection of seed would recommend the most perfectly ripe and spherical nuts. Oval long nuts are to be rejected, particularly any of a pale color at one end. The planter having selected his seed, which ought to be put in the ground within twenty-four hours after being gathered, setting it about two inches deep in the beds already prepared, and at the distance of twelve to eighteen inches apart, the whole nursery to be well shaded both on top and sides, the earth kept moist and clear of weeds, and well smoked by burning wet grass or weeds in it once a week, to drive away a very small moth-like insect that is apt to infest young plants, laying its eggs on the leaf, when they become covered with yellow spots, and perish if not attended to speedily. Washing the leaves with a decoction of the Tuba root is the best remedy I know of, but where only a few plants are affected, if the spots be numerous, I would prefer to pluck up the plant altogether, rather than run the risk of the insect becoming more numerous, to the total destruction of the nursery. The nuts germinate in from a month to six weeks, and even later, and for many months after germination the seed is attached to the young plant, and may be removed apparently as sound as when planted, to the astonishment of the unlearned, who are not aware of the great disproportion in size between the ovule and albumen, the former of which is alone necessary to form the plant. The plant may be kept in nursery with advantage for nearly two years. Should they grow rapidly, and the interspaces become too small for them, every second plant had better be removed to a fresh nursery; and set out at a distance of a couple of feet from each other. When transplanted, either in this way or for their ultimate position in the plantation, care should be taken to remove them with a good ball of earth, secured by the skin of the plantain, which prevents the ball of earth falling to pieces. The nurseries being established, the ground cleared and ready, the next proceeding is to lay out and dig holes about 26 or 30 feet apart, and as the quincunx order has so many advantages, it is the form I would recommend for adoption. The holes should be at least six feet in diameter, and about four feet deep, and when refilled the surface soil is to be used, and not that which is taken out of the hole. Each hole should be filled up about one foot higher than the surrounding ground, to allow for the settling of the soil and the sinking of the tree, which, planted at this height, will in a few years be found below the level. Over each hole thus filled up, a shed, made of Attap leaves or other shelter, closed on two sides, east and west, and proportioned to the size of the plant, is to be erected. It is not a bad plan to leave an open space in the centre of the top of each shed, about twelve inches wide, by which the young plant can obtain the benefit of the dew and gentle rains, which more than compensates for the few rays of sun that can only fall upon it whilst that body is vertical. After the sheds have been completed, each hole should have added to it a couple of baskets of well decomposed manure, and an equal quantity of burned earth, when all is ready for the reception of the plant, which, having been set out, if the weather be dry will require watering for ten days or a fortnight after, in fact until it takes the soil. The planter having set out all his trees must not deem his labors completed, they are only commencing. To arrive thus far is simple and easy, but to patiently watch and tend the trees for ten years after, requires all the enthusiasm already mentioned. About three months after planting out, the young trees will receive great benefit if a small quantity of liquid fish manure be given them. In the first six years they ought to be trenched round three times, enlarging the circle each time, the trenches being dug close to the extremities of the roots, which generally correspond to the ends of the branches, and each new trench commencing where the old one terminated. They must of course greatly increase in size as the circle extends, requiring a proportionate quantity of manure, but the depth ought never to be less than two feet. The object of trenching is to loosen the soil and permit the roots to spread, otherwise the tree spindles instead of becoming broad and umbrageous. Manure is beyond all other considerations the most important to the welfare of the estate; it is that which gives quantity and quality of produce, and without it a plantation cannot be carried on. The want of it must limit the cultivation in the Straits' Settlements, and will arrest many a planter, who, having got his plantation to look well up to the eighth year with very little manure, thinks he can go on in the same manner. The nutmeg tree likes well all sorts of manures, but that which is best suited for it seems to be well-rotted stable and cow-yard manure, mixed with vegetable matter, and when the tree is in bearing the outer covering of the nut itself is about one of the very best things to be thrown into the dung-pit. Dead animals buried not too near the roots, also blood, fish, and oil cakes are beneficial. Guano is of no use. But although manuring is the chief element in successful cultivation, there are many other matters for the planter to attend to during the period that the trees are growing. All obnoxious grasses must be carefully kept out of the plantation, at least from between the trees, and the harmless grasses rather encouraged, as they keep the surface cool. The trunk of the tree ought to be carefully washed with soap and water once a year to keep it clear of moss; this has been ridiculed as a work of supererogation, but let those who think so omit the operation. Parasitical plants of the genus Loranthus are very apt to attach themselves to the branches, and if not removed do great injury. The insect enemies of the tree are not very numerous, but it has a few, white ants among the number. They seldom attack a vigorous plant; it is upon the first symptoms of weakness or decay that they commence their operations. Their nests may be dislodged from the roots of the plant by a dose of solution of pig dung, to which they have a great aversion. There are several species of insects which lay their eggs on the leaves, and unless carefully watched and removed, they commit great havoc amongst the trees. For this purpose it is necessary to wash the leaves with a decoction of Tuba root, and syringe them by means of a bamboo with lime and water, of the consistence of whitewash; this adheres to the leaves, and will remain even after several heavy showers. Another nuisance is the nest of the large red ant; these collect and glue the leaves together, forming a cavity for the deposition of their _larvæ_. The best mode of destroying them is to hang a portion of some animal substance, such as the entrails of a fowl, fish, &c., to the end of a pole, thrust through and protruding from the branches; the ants will run along the pole and collect in immense quantities around the bait, when, by a lighted faggot, they can be burned by thousands. This repeated once or twice a day for a week or so, will soon rid the tree of the invaders. The number of men to be kept on an estate to preserve it in first-rate order after it has come into bearing, must depend of course upon the size of the plantation, but in general one man for every one hundred trees will be found sufficient, provided there be some four or five thousand trees. On a small scale the proportion must be greater. The nutmeg planter is under the necessity of keeping up nurseries throughout the whole of his operations for the replacement of bad plants and redundant males. Of the latter ten per cent. seems to be about the best proportion to keep, but I would have completely dioecious trees. No person can boast to get a plantation completely filled up and in perfect order much sooner than fifteen years. Of the first batch planted, not more than one-half will turn out perfect females, for I do not take into account monoecious trees, which I have already condemned. The tree shows flower about the seventh year, but the longer it is before doing so, the better and stronger will it be. I cannot refrain from a smile when a sanguine planter informs me with exultation that he has obtained a nut from a tree only three or four years planted out; so much the worse for his chance of success, too great precocity being incompatible with strength and longevity. The best trees do not show flower before the ninth year, and one such is worth a score of the others. This will be evident when it is stated that I have seen several trees yield more than 10,000 nuts each in one year, whereas I do not believe that there is a plantation in the Straits' that averages 1,000 from every tree. This very great disparity of bearing shows plainly that the cultivation of the plant is not yet thoroughly understood, or greater uniformity would prevail, and I think it clearly enough points out that a higher degree of cultivation would meet its reward. The tree has not been introduced into the Straits' sufficiently long to determine its longevity, but those introduced and planted in the beginning of the present century, as yet show no symptoms of decay. The experiment of grafting the trees, which at first view presents so many advantages, both in securing the finest quality of nut and the certainty of the sex, has still to be tried in this cultivation. Some three years ago (continues Dr. Oxley), I succeeded in grafting several plants by approach; these are not sufficiently old for me to decide whether it be desirable or not, for although the plants are looking well and growing, they as yet have thrown out their branches in a straggling irregular manner, having no leaders, and consequently they cannot extend their branches in the regular verticles necessary for the perfect formation of the tree, without which they must ever be small and stunted, and consequently incapable of yielding any quantity of produce. The grafts have succeeded so far as stock and scion becoming one, and in time a perpendicular shoot from the wood may appear. If after that it should increase in size and strength, so as to form a tree of full dimensions, the advantage gained would be worth any trouble, the quality of some nuts being so far above that of others, it would make a difference beyond present calculation; in short, 1,000 such picked trees at the present prices would yield something equivalent to £4,000 a year, for £4 per tree would be a low estimate for such plants. If this ever does occur, it will change the aspect of cultivation altogether, and I see no good reason why it should not, except that those possessing trees of the quality alluded to, would not very willingly permit others to graft from them, so it is only the already successful planter who can try the experiment properly. An acre of land contains on an average 92 trees, and it is calculated an outlay of 300 dollars is required upon every acre to bring the tree to maturity; but as not more than one-half of the trees generally turn out females, and as many others are destroyed by accident and diseases to which this plant is very liable, it makes the cost of each tree, by the time it yields fruit, about eight dollars. The nutmeg tree begins to bear when about eight years old, but it gives no return for several years longer; and therefore to the expense of cultivation must be added the interest of the capital sunk. The plant being indigenous in the Moluccas, the expense of cultivation there is greatly less, and this consequently forms a strong ground of claim to the British planter for protective duties to their spices from the British Government. The planter having his tree arrived at the agreeable point of producing, has but slight trouble in preparing his produce for market. As the fruit is brought in by the gatherers, the mace is carefully removed, pressed together and flattened on a board, exposed to the sun for three or four days, it is then dry enough to be put by in the spice-house until required for exportation, when it is to be screwed into boxes, and becomes the mace of commerce. The average proportion of mace yielded in Singapore is one pound for every 433 nuts. The nutmeg itself requires more care in its curing, it being necessary to have it well and carefully dried ere the outer black shell be broken. For this purpose the usual practice is to subject it for a couple of months to the smoke of slow fires kept up underneath, whilst the nuts are spread on a grating about eight or ten feet above. The model of a perfect drying-house is easily to be obtained. Care should be taken not to dry the nuts by too great a heat, as they shrivel and lose their full and marketable appearance. It is therefore desirable to keep the nuts, when first collected, for eight or ten days out of the drying-house, exposing them at first for an hour or so to the morning sun, and increasing the exposure daily until they shake in the shell. The nuts ought never to be cracked until required for exportation, or they will be attacked and destroyed by a small weasel-like insect, the larvæ of which is deposited in the ovule, and, becoming the perfect insect, eats its way out, leaving the nut bored through and through, and worth less as a marketable commodity. Liming the nuts prevents this to a certain extent, but limed nuts are not those best liked in the English market, whereas they are preferred in that state in the United States. When the nuts are to be limed, it is simply necessary to have them well rubbed over between the hands with powdered lime. By the Dutch mode of preparation, they are steeped in a mixture of lime and water for several weeks. This no doubt will preserve them, but it must also have a prejudicial effect on the flavor of the spice. After the nuts are thoroughly dried, which requires from six weeks to two months smoking, they cannot be too soon sent to market. But it is otherwise with the mace; that commodity, when fresh, not being in esteem in the London market, seeing that they desire it of a golden color, which it only assumes after a few months, whereas at first when fresh it is blood red; now red blades are looked upon with suspicion, and are highly injurious to the sale of the article. This is one of those peculiar prejudices of John Bull, which somewhat impugns his wisdom; but it must be attended to, as John is very ready to pay for his caprice; therefore those who provide for him have no right to complain, although they may smile. The nutmeg tree was sent from Bencoolen to Singapore, the latter end of 1819, so that thirty-four years have elapsed since its first introduction. Sir Stamford Raffles shipped to the care of the resident commandant, Major Farquhar, 100 nutmeg plants, 25 larger ditto, and 1,000 nutmeg seeds, which were committed to the charge of Mr. Brooks, a European gardener, who was specially engaged by the East India Company to look after their embryo spice plantations here. Some of these plants were set out in rather a bad soil and locality, but several of them are at present, and have been for the last ten years, fine fruitful trees. 315 of the trees in the Government garden yielded, in 1848, 190,426 nuts, or at the average of 604 for each tree; but of these not over 50 were of the old stock, most having been planted since 1836; so that a planter may safely calculate on having a better average than is here set forth, provided he attends to his cultivation, and his trees are brought up to the age of fifteen years. If a plantation be attended to from the commencement after the manner I have endeavoured to explain, and the trees be in a good locality, the planter will undoubtedly obtain an average of 10 lbs. of spice from each tree from the fifteenth year; this, at an average price of 2s. 6d. per lb., is 25s. per annum. He can have about seventy such trees in an acre, so that there is scarcely any better or more remunerative cultivation when once established. But the race is a long one, the chances of life, and a high rate of interest in the country, make it one of no ordinary risk, and it is one that holds out no prospect of any return in less than ten years. A person commencing and stopping short of the bearing point, either by death or want of funds, will suffer almost total loss, for the value of such a property brought into a market where there are no buyers must be purely nominal. Again, if the property has arrived at the paying point, almost any person of common honesty can take charge of and carry it on, for the trees after twelve years are remarkably hardy, and bear a deal of ill treatment and neglect; not that I would recommend any person to try the experiment. But it is some consolation for the proprietor to know that stupidity will not ruin him, and that even at the distance of thousands of miles he can give such directions, as, if attended to, will keep his estate in a flourishing and fruitful state. The total number of nutmeg trees in Singapore in 1848 was 55,925, of which 14,914 only were in bearing. The produce of that year was 4,085,361 nutmegs, or 33,600 lbs. in weight. The greater number of the trees, it will be perceived, have not come into full bearing, but the produce is increasing rapidly, and in 1849 it amounted to fully 66,670 lbs. Among the principal growers in that island are Dr. Oxley, Mr. C.R. Prinsep, and Mr. W. Montgomerie, who have each large plantations, with from 2,000 to 5,000 bearing trees on them. Others, as Sir. J. d'Almeida, Mr. Nicol, and one or two more, have planted extensively, but have not yet got their trees to the bearing point. A large supply of nutmeg and clove plants arrived at Pinang in 1802, from the Molucca Islands. There were 71,266 nutmeg and 55,264 clove plants; allowing one half of the former to have been male trees, there would only have been 35,633 useful nutmeg plants. It is believed that a mere fraction of these ever reached maturity, but they served to introduce the cultivation permanently. Plants were likewise sent to Ceylon and Cape Comorin. It does not appear that the climates of these two localities suit the nutmeg tree, as it requires rain, or at least a very damp climate throughout the year. The East India Company's spice plantations in Pinang were sold in 1824, and the trees were dispersed over the island. The spice cultivators of the Straits' Settlements have for some time sought a further protective duty on nutmegs, and the extension of a similar protection to mace and cloves, the produce of these settlements; for singularly enough the present tariff affords no protection to mace, the growth of British possessions. From tabular statements, furnished by the Chamber of Commerce of Pinang, drawn up apparently with great care, it appears that in 1843 there were 3,046 acres cultivated with spice trees in Pinang and province Wellesley, containing 233,995 nutmegs, and 80,418 clove trees, besides 77,671 trees in nurseries ready to be planted out; and by a similar statement from Singapore, which is however not so complete, that 743 acres are cultivated, containing 43,544 nutmeg trees. The island of Pinang is estimated to contain 160 square miles, nearly the whole of which, with the exception perhaps of summits of the hills, is well adapted to spice growing. Province Wellesley is of much greater extent, and the soil of it has already been proved to be equally well fitted for that kind of cultivation; and the settlements of Malacca and Singapore are said to be admirably suited, in many places, for that species of produce, the latter of which has already several plantations fast approaching to maturity. The cultivation is capable of great extension; encouragement is only required to be held out, and new plantations will be rapidly formed in these settlements. The same tables show that the produce in 1842 was, in Pinang and Province Wellesley, 18,560,281 nutmegs, 42,866 lbs. of mace, and 11,813 lbs. of cloves[51]; and in Singapore, 842,328 nutmegs, and 1,962 lbs. of mace. Thus making the produce from the two settlements 19,408,608 nutmegs in number (or in weight 147,034 lbs.), 44,822 lbs. of mace, and 11,813 lbs. of cloves. Now the consumption of these spices in Great Britain was, on an average of four years ending 1841, as follows:--Nutmegs, 121,000 lbs.; mace, 18,000 lbs.; cloves, 92,000 lbs. Showing, therefore, that the Straits' Settlements already produce more than sufficient of the two former to supply the home market. In the course of four or five years more, Pinang alone will more than double the present quantity of nutmegs and mace produced in the Straits, and the produce of cloves will be more than tripled. I have been able, from several elaborate papers in my "Colonial Magazine," to condense details, showing the progress of spice plantations in Prince of Wales Island and Province Wellesley. In the close of 1843 there were 64,902 nutmeg trees in bearing in the island; 39,209 male trees, 103,982 not bearing; making a total of 208,093 trees planted out, besides 52,510 plants in nursery. The quantity of ground under cultivation was 2,282 orlongs. The produce in 1842 was 15,116,591 good nuts, 1,461,229 inferior nuts, and 38,260 lbs. of mace. The gross value of the produce in 1843, reckoning the good nuts at five dollars per thousand, and the inferior at one dollar, was 76,944 dollars. The estimated number of nuts in 1843 was 12,458,762; in 1844, 25,429,000. In Province Wellesley there were 247 orlongs under cultivation with the nutmeg, on which were 10,500 bearing trees, 8,095 male trees, and 7,307 not yet bearing, making in all 25,902 trees planted out. The produce was in 1842, 1,969,619 good nuts, 18,842 inferior ditto, and 4,500 lbs. of mace. The value of the produce of nutmegs was 9,867 dollars. The estimated number of nuts in 1843 was 1,980,000; in 1844, 2,958,000. There were in all 423 nutmeg plantations on the island and main land. There were annually exported in the four years ending 1850, 48,000 lbs. of nutmegs from Pinang, and 57,400 lbs. of mace. The French at an early period cultivated the nutmeg at the Mauritius, and from thence they carried it to Cayenne. In Sumatra it appears to have been grown successfully, and according to Sir S. Raffles, there was in 1819 a plantation at Bencoolen of 100,000 nutmeg trees, one-fourth of which were bearing. Attempts have been made in Trinidad and St. Vincent to carry out the culture, but for want of enterprise very little progress seems to have been made in the matter. Under the new duties which came into operation this year, nutmegs, instead of standing at 1s. per pound all round, have been classified, and the so-called "wild" nutmegs of the Dutch islands are to pay only 5d per pound. This deprives the Straits' produce of its last protection against that of the Banda plantations, where the tree grows spontaneously, while it gives the long Dutch nut a high protection. If an alteration in this suicidal measure is not speedily obtained, the Straits' planters will be ruined. The Dutch have the power of inundating the market with the long aromatic nut. If the original plan of putting all British and all foreign nutmegs on the same footing had been adhered to, the Straits' planters would not have complained, as they would have trusted to their superior skill and care to compensate for the grand advantage the Dutch have in their rich soils. On observing this alteration of duty, Mr. Crawfurd and Mr. Gilman immediately prepared the following memorandum for the Chancellor of the Exchequer, which however failed to influence that Minister:-- "MEMORANDUM ON THE DUTIES ON NUTMEGS. "The duty proposed to be levied on nutmegs is 1s. per pound for cultivated, and 5d. per pound for those commonly called wild. The ground on which this distinction is founded, is said to be that the market value of the one is but half that of the other, and that the Customs can readily distinguish between them. Now it is admitted, on all sides, that there is but one species of culinary nutmeg, the _Myristica Moschata_ of botanists, although at least a score of the same genus, all unfit for human food. The parent country of the aromatic nutmegs extends from the Molucca Islands to New Guinea, inclusive. In this they grow with facility and even in the Banda Islands, where there are parks of them, they hardly undergo any cultivation, and may truly be said, even there, to be a wild product. It is only when grown as exotics, as in the British settlements of Pinang and Singapore, that they require cultivation, and that a more careful and expensive one than any other produce of the soil. Aromatic nutmegs are sometimes large and sometimes small--sometimes round, sometimes oblong, and sometimes long, and this will be found the case whether cultivated or uncultivated. How, then, the Customs are able to distinguish them it is difficult to understand. In the ordinary Prices Current no mention whatever is made of the wild and cultivated, the lowest quality being quoted in the most recent at 2s. per pound, and the highest at 3s. 10d.,--the best of what are called wild fetching a higher price than the lower qualities of what are called cultivated. But suppose the distinction could be made with the most perfect certainty, to make it would be a palpable departure from the principle adopted with every other commodity, of charging a uniform rate of duty on quality. To give an example, the present price of black pepper is 3-5/8d. to 4d. per pound, while that of white pepper is 8½d. to 1s. 2d. per pound, both paying the same duty of 6d.; yet nothing can be more easily distinguished than these two commodities, which, except as to curing, are the same article. Tea is a still more striking example. The duty is the same on all qualities, though prices range from 1l½d. to 3s. 6d. per pound. It was the very circumstance of the difficulty of distinguishing between the different kinds of tea, especially between Bohea and Congou, which, after an eighteen months trial, overthrew the system of rated duties of 1s. 6d., 2s., and 3s., adopted on the abolition of the East India Company's monopoly in 1833. Unless the duty on nutmegs is equalised there will be no end of trouble and disputes, and however expert the Customs may be, they will certainly be outwitted, and long-shaped and small nutmegs, although really cultivated, will be introduced at the lower duty, by unscrupulous traders, as wild ones. It may be added that duties of 12d. and 5d. do not, even if a departure from the principle of charging on quality were justifiable, represent the just proportional rates which ought to be levied upon what are supposed to be, respectively, cultivated and wild, as they are represented in the ordinary Price Current by the highest and lowest prices, which are 3s. 10d. and 2s. The just proportional duty ought to be on the lowest, not 5d., but 7d. The duty, as first proposed by the Chancellor of the Exchequer, of 1s. per pound on nutmegs, without distinction, was perfectly satisfactory to the planters, merchants, and the trade in general. It is a mistake to suppose that a duty of 1s. would exclude the so-called wild nutmegs. They would be imported in large quantities, as the cost is low. In quantity it was 17 Spanish dollars per picul, and there is no reason to suppose it would be more now. The finest picked cost say 34 Spanish dollars. In Pinang and Singapore for cultivated the price is 65 to 70 dollars. The planters for the most part do not sell on the spot, but consign here for sale on their own account. London, May 23rd, 1853. NUTMEGS IMPORTED AND EXPORTED TO AND FROM SINGAPORE. Value of the Imported. Exported. Growth of native growth. piculs. piculs. Singapore. £ 1841 227½ 412 184½ 3,323 1842 258 809 551 9,897 1843 150½ 249 98½ 1,760 1844 52 282 230 4,131 1845 41 383 342 6,143 1846 79 331 252 4,526 1847 139 416 277 4,275 NUTMEGS EXPORTED FROM JAVA. Nutmegs. Mace. piculs. piculs. 1830 1,304 177 1835 5,022 1,606 1839 5,027 1,581 1843 2,133 486 IMPORTS INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. NUTMEGS, WILD AND CULTIVATED. | MACE. Imports. Home consump. | Imports. Consumption. lbs. lbs. | lbs. lbs. 1847 367,936 150,657 | 1847 60,265 18,821 1848 336,420 167,143 | 1848 47,572 19,712 1849 224,021 178,417 | 1849 45,978 20,605 1850 315,126 167,683 | 1850 77,337 21,997 1851 358,320 194,132 | 1851 77,863 21,695 1852 357,940 239,113 | 1852 61,697 21,480 MACE EXPORTED--ACTUAL GROWTH OF SINGAPORE. Quantity--piculs. Value--£ 1841 25½ 583 1842 72 1,616 1843 40¾ 943 1844 16½ 359 1845 71 1,616 1846 8 179 1847 75 1,661 109 piculs of imported mace were also re-shipped in 1847. 40,000 lbs. of mace were imported into the United Kingdom from India in 1848. GINGER, GALANGALE, AND CARDAMOMS. The rhizome of _Zingiber officinale_ (_Amomum Zingiber_), constitutes the ginger of commerce, which is imported chiefly from the East and West Indies. It is also grown in China. In the young state the rhizomes are fleshy and slightly aromatic, and they are then used as preserves, or prepared in syrup; in a more advanced stage the aroma is fully developed, their texture is more woody, and they become fit for ordinary ginger. The inferior sorts, when dried after immersion in hot water, form black ginger. The best roots are scraped, washed, and simply dried in the sun with care, and then they receive the name of white ginger. The rhizome contains an acid resin and volatile oil, starch and gum. It is used medicinally as a tonic and carminative, in the form of powder, syrup, and tincture. The root stocks of _Alpinia racemosa_, _A. Galanga_, and many other plants of the order, have the same aromatic and pungent properties as ginger. The consumption of ginger is about 13,000 or 14,000 cwt. a year. Of 16,004 cwt. imported in 1840, 5,381 came from the British West Indies, 9,727 from the East India Company's possessions and Ceylon, and 896 cwt. from Western Africa. The difference between the black and white ginger of the shops is ascribed by Dr. P. Browne and others to different methods of curing the rhizomes; but this is scarcely sufficient to account for them, and I cannot help suspecting the existence of some difference in the plants themselves. That this really exists is proved by the statements of Rumphius ("Herb. Amb.," lib. 8, cap. xix., p. 156), that there are two varieties of the plant, the white and the red. Moreover Dr. Wright ("Lond. Med. Journal," vol. viii.) says that two sorts are cultivated in Jamaica, viz., the white and the black; and, he adds, "black ginger has the most numerous and largest roots." The rhizome, called in commerce ginger root, occurs in flattish-branched or lobed palmate pieces, called _races_, which do not exceed four inches in length. Several varieties, distinguished by their color and place of growth, are met with. The finest is that brought from Jamaica. A great part of that found in the shops has been washed in whiting and water, under the pretence of preserving it from insects. The dark colored kinds are frequently bleached with chloride of lime. Barbados ginger is in shorter flatter races, of a darker color, and covered with a corrugated epidermis. African ginger is in smallish races, which have been partially scraped, and are pale colored. East India ginger is unscraped; its races are dark ash colored externally, and are larger than those of the African ginger. Tellichery ginger is in large plump races, with a remarkable reddish tint externally. Jamaica black ginger is not frequently found in the shops. The Malabar dark ginger is in unscraped short pieces, which have a horny appearance internally, and are of a dirty brown color both internally and externally. Ginger is imported in bags weighing about a hundred-weight. The Malabar ginger exported from Calicut is the produce of the district of Shernaad, situated in the south of Calicut; a place chiefly inhabited by Moplas, who look upon the ginger cultivation as a most valuable and profitable trade, which in fact it is. The soil of Shernaad is so very luxuriant, and so well suited for the cultivation of ginger, that it is reckoned the best, and in fact the only place in Malabar where ginger grows and thrives to perfection. Gravelly grounds are considered unfit; the same may be said of swampy ones, and whilst the former check the growth of the ginger, the latter tend in a great measure to rot the root; thus the only suitable kind of soil is that which, being red earth, is yet free from gravel, and the sod good and heavy. The cultivation generally commences about the middle of May, after the ground has undergone a thorough process of ploughing, harrowing, &c. At the commencement of the monsoons, beds of ten or twelve feet long by three or four feet wide are formed, and in these beds small holes are dug at three-fourths to one foot apart, which are filled with manure. The roots, hitherto carefully buried under sheds, are dug out, the good ones picked from those which are affected by the moisture, or any other concomitant of a half-year's exclusion from the atmosphere, and the process of clipping them into suitable sizes for planting performed by cutting the ginger into pieces of an inch and a half to two inches long. These are then buried in the holes, which have been previously manured, and the whole of the beds are then covered with a good thick layer of green leaves, which, whilst they serve as manure, also contribute to keep the beds from unnecessary dampness, which might otherwise be occasioned by the heavy falls of rain during the months of June and July. Rain is essentially requisite for the growth of the ginger; it is also however necessary, that the beds be constantly kept from inundation, which, if not carefully attended to, the crop is entirely ruined; great precaution is therefore taken in forming drains between the beds, and letting water out, thus preventing a superfluity. On account of the great tendency some kinds of leaves have to breed worms and insects, strict care is observed in the choosing of them, and none but the particular kinds used in manuring ginger are taken in, lest the wrong ones might fetch in worms, which, if once in the beds, no remedy can be resorted to successfully to destroy them; thus they in a very short time ruin the crop. Worms bred from the leaves laid on the soil, though highly destructive, are not so pernicious to ginger cultivation as those which proceed from the effect of the soil. The former kind, whilst they destroy the beds in which they once appear, do not spread themselves to the other beds, be they ever so close, but the latter kind must of _course_ be found in almost all the beds, as they do not proceed from accidental causes, but from the nature of the soil. In cases like these, the whole crop is oftentimes ruined, and the cultivators are thereby subjected to heavy losses. Ginger is extensively diffused throughout the Indian isles, it being especially indigenous to the East, and of pretty general use among the natives, who neglect the finer spices. The great and smaller varieties are cultivated, and the sub-varieties distinguished by their brown or white colors. There is no production which has a greater diversity of names. This diversity proves, as usual, the wide diffusion of the plant in its wild state. The ginger of the Indian Archipelago is however inferior in quality to that of Malabar or Bengal. In the cultivation of ginger great improvement may be adopted and expense saved. The garden plough and small harrow should be used. The present mode of preparing the land for this crop in the West Indies, is by first carefully hoeing off all bush and weeds from the piece you intend to plant; the workmen are then placed in a line, and dig forward the land to the full depth of the hoe, cutting the furrow not more than from five to six inches thick. The land is then allowed to pulverise for a short time; you then prepare it for receiving the plants by opening drills with the hoe, from ten to twelve inches apart, and the same in depth, chopping or breaking up any clods that may be in the land. Two or three women follow and drop the plants in the drills, say from nine to ten inches apart. The plants or sets are the small knots or fingers broken off the original root, as not worth the scraping. The plants are then covered in with a portion of the earth-bank formed in drilling. It requires great care and attention in keeping them clean from weeds until they attain sufficient age. It throws out a pedicle or foot stalk in the course of the second or third week, the leaves of which are of similar shape to that of the Guinea grass. Ginger is a delicate plant, and very liable to rot, particularly if planted in too rich a soil, or where it may be subject to heavy rains. The general average of yield is from 1,500 to 2,000 lbs. per acre in plants, although I have known as much as 3,000 lbs. of ginger cured from an acre of land. The planting season generally commences in Jamaica in February and March, and the crop is got in in December and January, when the stalks begin to wither. The ginger is taken from the ground by means of the hoe, each laborer filling a good-sized basket, at the same time breaking off the small knots or knobs for future planting. A good scraper of ginger will give you from 30 to 40 lbs. of ginger per day. It is then laid on barbacues (generally made of boards) to dry. It takes from six to ten days to be properly cured. The average yield in weight is about one-third of what is scraped. When intended for preserving, the roots must be taken up at the end of three or four months, while the fibres are tender and full of sap. The ginger grown in the West Indies is considered superior in quality to that of the East, doubtless because more care is paid to the culture and drying of the root, but it is of less importance to commerce. The quantities imported from these two quarters is however becoming more equal, and Africa is coming into the field as a producer, 1,545 casks and packages having arrived from the western coast in 1846. The annual average export of ginger from Barbados between the years 1740 and 1788, was 4,667 bags; between 1784 and 1786, 6,320 bags; in 1788, 5,562 cwt. were shipped; in 1792, 3,046 bags and barrels. In 1738, so widely was the culture of this root diffused in Jamaica, that 20,933 bags, of one cwt. each, and 8,864 lbs. in casks were shipped. The exports may now be taken on an average at 4,000 cwt.; but, like all the other staple products of the island, this has fallen off one-half since the emancipation of the negro population. In the three years which preceded the abolition of slavery, 5,719,000 lbs. of ginger were shipped from Jamaica. In the three years ending with 1848, the quantity shipped had decreased 2,612,186 lbs., as will be seen by the following returns:-- GINGER SHIPPED. lbs. lbs. 1830 1,748,800 | 1846 1,462,000 1831 1,614,640 | 1847 1,324,480 1832 2,355,560 | 1848 320,340 --------- | --------- 5,719,000 | 3,106,820 In 1843 there were shipped from Jamaica 3,719 casks and bags; in 1844, 3,692 casks and 1730 bags; in 1845, 3,506 casks, valued at £4 10s. each, and 1,129 bags, valued at £2 each, equal in all to £18,037. From the island of Hayti 8,769 lbs. of ginger were exported in 1835, and 15,509 lbs. in 1836. 39 packages of ginger were shipped from Barbados in 1851. In Maranham and one or two other provinces of Brazil, ginger of an excellent quality is grown, and a good deal is exported. It was very early an article of culture in South America. According to Acosta, it was brought to America by one Francisco de Mendoza, from Malabar, and so rapidly did its cultivation spread, that as far back as 1547, 22,053 cwt. were shipped to Europe. Southey, in his "History of Brazil" (vol. i., p. 320), says, "Ginger had been brought from the island of St. Thomas, and throve so well that in the year 1573, 4,000 arrobas of 25 lbs. each were cured; it was better than what came from India, though the art of drying it was not so well understood. Great use was made of this root in preserves, but it was prohibited, as interfering with the Indian trade in that wretched species of policy which regards immediate revenue as its main object." Ginger was worth in the London market 25s. to 60s. the cwt. in bond; middling and fine qualities, 80s. to 160s. The duty is 5s. per cwt. Amount of imports of ginger into the United Kingdom, with the quantities entered for home consumption:-- West India Entered for East India Entered for ginger. home consumption. ginger. home consumption. cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. 1831 3,551 4,709 849 79 1832 5,947 6,795 2,508 213 1833 6,064 6,570 10,049 1,099 1834 9,913 9,918 10,004 1,638 1835 8,321 8,982 4,489 1,647 1836 10,226 6,304 13,589 3,524 1837 10,933 9,905 23,876 3,386 1838 13,366 9,944 25,649 1,431 1839 8,996 7,213 29,624 914 1840 5,381 7,935 9,719 1,568 1841 4,446 5,523 5,292 1,177 1842 4,671 5,068 3,680 1,956 1843 4,013 5,953 4,106 3,254 casks, &c. casks. bags. bags. 1844 4,619 3,128 5,101 6,964 1845 6,033 4,000 8,165 7,938 Total Retained for ginger imported. home consumption. cwts. cwts. 1846 24,370 15,937 1846 20,010 15,163 1847 12,995 9,744 1848 13,748 10,454 1849 28,015 12,880 1850 33,953 16,543 1851 35,678 19,855 1852 20,297 18,691 GALANGALE ROOT is a good deal used in China, and forms an article of commerce, fetching in the London market 12s. to 16s. per cwt. in bond. It is the rhizoma of _Alpinia Galanga_. Its taste is peppery and aromatic. Externally the color of the root-stocks is reddish brown, internally pale reddish white. 1,280 cwt. of galangale root, valued at 2,880 dollars, was exported from Canton in 1850. CARDAMOMS. Cardamoms are the production of various species of plants of the same tribe as the ginger, and might be profitably cultivated with that aromatic root, as well as the Turmeric (_Curcuma longa_), which see. Various species of _Alpiniæ_, _Amomum_, _Elettaria_, _and Renealmia_, appear to furnish the cardamoms of the shops, which consist of the oval, trivalvular capsules containing the seeds. The bright yellow seeds are used in medicine as aromatic tonics and carminatives; and for curries, ketchups, soups, &c. Their active ingredient is a pungent volatile oil. The least dampness injures the finer sorts. About 688 cwts. of cardamoms, and 5,000 cwts. of bastard cardamoms are annually exported from Siam, "We imported about 300 tons in 1849. The price ranges from 1s. 6d. to 3s. the pound. The estimated value of the cardamoms and pepper shipped from Ceylon in the past few years was as follows:--1846, £208; 1847, £246; 1848, £205; 1849, £454; 1850, £960; 1851, £771; 1852, £590. The" following are some of the plants from which cardamoms are procured. 1. _Amomum Cardamomum_, a Java plant, supplies the round cardamoms. It has pale brown flowers. The fruit varies in size from that of a black currant to a cherry. _2. A. angustifolium_ (Pereira), a plant having red blossoms; furnishes the large Madagascar cardamoms, and also supplies some of the seeds called "Grains of Paradise," which are, however, larger than those imported under that name. This species is found in Abyssinia, according to my friend Mr. Chas. Johnston, author of "Travels in Abyssinia," who favored me with some specimens. The seeds are pale olive brown, devoid of the fiery peppery taste of the grains of paradise. 3. _A. maximum_, the great winged amomum, produces the Java cardamoma of the London market, and is also grown extensively in Ceylon, the Malay islands, Nepaul, Sumatra, and other islands of the Eastern Archipelago. There were exported from Ceylon in 1842, 5,364 lbs.; in 1843, 9,632 lbs.; 1844, 7,280 lbs.; and in 1845, 11,812 lbs. The pods are large and long, and dark colored, approaching to black, the taste nauseous and disagreeable, not the least resembling that of the Malabar cardamoms. It is propagated by cuttings of the rhizoma. The plants yield in three years, and afterwards give an annual crop. They are not used here, but sent to the continent. 4. _Alpinia Cardamomum_.--This is the source of the clustered cardamoms, and furnishes the best known sort. Its produce is in great request throughout India, fetching as much as £30 the candy of 600 Lbs. About 192 candies are grown annually in Travancore, and the usual crop in Malabar is reckoned at 100 candies annually. It flourishes on the mountainous parts of the Malabar coast, and among the western mountains of Wynaad. The bulbous plants, which grow three or four feet high, are produced in the recesses of the mountains by felling trees, and afterwards burning them, for wherever the ashes fall in the openings or fissures of the rocks, the plant naturally springs up. In the third year the plants come to perfection, bearing abundantly for a year or two, and then die. In Soonda Balagat, and other places where cardamoms are planted, they are much inferior to those grown in the wild state. It may be propagated by cuttings or divisions of the roots. Not more than one-hundredth part of the cardamoms raised in Malabar are used in the country. They are sent in large quantities to the ports on the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf, up the Indus to Scinde, to Bengal and Bombay. The price of Malabar cardamons at Madras, in June, 1853, was about £3 the maund of 25 lbs. They fetch in the Bombay market £4 10s. the maund of 40 lbs. Cardamoms form a universal ingredient in curries, pillaus, &c. The seed capsules are gathered as they ripen, and when dried in the sun are fit for sale. They should be chosen full, plump, and difficult to be broken; of a bright yellow color, and piercing smell; with an acrid bitterish, though not very unpleasant taste, and particular care should be taken that they are properly dried. _5. Amomum Grana-Paradisi_, which is indigenous to the islands of Madagascar and Ceylon, yields an inferior sort of cardamoms, known by the names of grains of paradise, or Meleguetta pepper. These are worth in the English market only from 1s. 2d. to 1s. 4d. per pound, while the long and Malabar cardamoms fetch 2s. 8d. to 3s. 3d. the pound. This plant is a native of Guinea, and the western parts of Africa about Sierra Leone. We imported from thence in 1841, 7,911 pounds. The taste of these Guinea grains is aromatic and vehemently hot or peppery. They are imported in casks from Africa, and are principally used in veterinary medicine, and to give an artificial strength to spirits, wine, beer, &c. The average quantity on which duty was paid in the six years ending with 1840, was 16,000 lbs. per annum. They are esteemed in Africa the most wholesome of spices, and generally used by the natives to season their food. Dr. Pereira, from a careful examination and close inquiry, is of opinion that the _Amomum Grana-Paradisi_ of Smith, and the _Amamum Melegueta_ of Roscoe, are identical species. In the second volume of the "Pharmaceutical Journal," Dr. Pereira states that the term "grains of paradise," or Melegueta, has been applied to the produce of no less than six scitamineous plants. At the present time, and in this country, the term is exclusively given to the hot acrid seeds imported into England from the coast of Guinea, and frequently called Guinea grains; and by the Africans Guinea pepper. _Elettaria Cardomomum_, Don.--The fruit of this species constitutes the true, small, officinal Malabar cardamoms. It is an ovate oblong, obtusely triangular capsule, from three to ten lines long, rarely exceeding three lines in breadth, coriaceous, ribbed, greyish or brownish yellow. It contains many angular, blackish or reddish brown rugose seeds, which are white internally, have a pleasant aromatic odor, and a warm agreeable taste. 100 parts of the fruit yield 74 parts of seeds, and 26 parts of pericarpal coats. This seems to be identical with _Amomum Cardamomum_. _Elettaria major_, is a perennial, native of Ceylon, which grows in shady situations in a rich mixed soil. The dried capsules are known in commerce as wild or Ceylon cardamoms, and are of less value in the market than those of Malabar (_Elettaria Cardamomum_, Maton). It is chiefly grown about the Kandyan district; and in the eight years ending with 1813, the average export was nine and a-half candies per annum. The seeds in taste resemble our carraways, and are used for seasoning various dishes. Ceylon cardamoms are now worth in the London market (Sept., 1853) 1s. to 1s. 3d. per lb.; Malabar ditto, 2s. 3d. to 3s. PEPPER. The black pepper of commerce is obtained from the dried unripe fruit (drupes) of _Piper nigrum_, a climbing plant common in the East Indies, and of the simplest culture, being multiplied with facility by cuttings or suckers. The ripe fruit, when deprived of its outer fleshy covering by washing, forms the white pepper of the shops. The dried fruiting spikes of _P. longum_, a perennial shrub, native of Malabar and Bengal, constitute long pepper. The fruit of _Xylopia aromatica_ is commonly called Ethiopian pepper, from being used as pepper in Africa. The seeds of some species of fennel-flower (_Nigella sativa_ and _arvensis_), natives of the south of Europe, were formerly used instead of pepper, and are said to be still extensively employed in adulterating it. In Japan, the capsules of _Xanthoxylum piperitum_, or _Fagara Piperita_, are used as a substitute for pepper, and so is the fruit of _Tasmannia aromatica_ in Van Diemen's Land. According to Dr. Roxburgh, _P. trioicum_ is cultivated in the East, and yields an excellent pepper. The pepper vine rises about two feet in the first year of its growth, and attains to nearly six feet in the second, at which time, if vigorous and healthy, the petals begin to form the corolla or blossom. All suckers and side shoots are to be carefully removed, and the vines should be thinned or pruned, if they become bushy at the top. Rank coarse weeds and parasitical plants should be uprooted. The vine would climb, if permitted, to the elevation of twenty feet, but is said to bear best when kept down to the height of ten or twelve feet. It produces two crops in the year. The fruit grows abundantly from all the branches, in long small clusters of from 20 to 50 grains; when ripe it is of a bright red color. After being gathered, it is spread on mats in the sun to dry, when it becomes black and shrivelled. The grains are separated from the stalks by hand rubbing. The roots and thickest parts of the stems, when cut into small pieces and dried, form a considerable article of commerce all over India, under the name of _Pippula moola_. Almost all the plants of the family _Piperaceæ_ have a strong aromatic smell and a sharp burning taste. This small group of plants is confined to the hottest regions of the globe; being most abundant in tropical America and in the East Indian Archipelago, but more rare in the equinoctial regions of Africa. The common black pepper, _P. nigrum_, represents the usual property of the order, which is not confined to the fruit, but pervades, more or less, the whole plant. It is peculiar to the torrid zone of Asia, and appears to be indigenous to the coast of Malabar, where it has been found in a wild state. From this it extends between the meridians of longitude 96 deg. and 116 deg. S. and the parallels of latitude 5 deg. S. and 12 deg. N., beyond which no pepper is found. Within these limits are the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, with the Malay peninsula and part of Siam. Sumatra produces by far the greatest quantity of pepper. In 1842, the annual produce of this island was reckoned at 30,000,000 lbs., being more than the amount furnished by all the other pepper districts in the world. A little pepper is grown in the Mauritius and the West India Islands, and its cultivation is making some progress on the Western Coast of Africa, as we imported from thence 2,909 bags and casks in 1846, and about 110,000 lbs. in 1847. Mr. J. Crawfurd, F.R.S., one of the best authorities on all that relates to the commerce and agriculture of the Eastern Archipelago, recently estimated the produce of pepper as follows:-- lbs. Sumatra (West Coast) 20,000,000 " (East Coast) 8,000,000 Islands in the Straits of Malacca 3,600,000 Malay Peninsula 3,733,333 Borneo 2,666,667 Siam 8,000,000 Malabar 4,060,000 ---------- Total 50,000,000 If we add to this Western Coast of Africa and B.W. Indies 53,000 Java 4,000,000 Mauritius and Ceylon 80,000 ---------- It gives 54,133,000 as the total produce of the world Black pepper constitutes a great and valuable article of export from the Indian Islands; which, as we have seen, afford by far the largest portion of What is consumed throughout the world. In the first intercourse of the Dutch and English with India, it constituted the most considerable and important staple of their commerce. The production of pepper is confined in a great measure to the western countries of the Eastern Archipelago, and among these to the islands in the centre and to the northern quarter, including the Peninsula. It is obtained in the ports on both sides of the coast of the latter, but particularly the north-eastern coast. The principal quarters (according to Mr. Crawfurd, my authority on this subject), are Patani, Tringanu, and Kalantin. In the Straits a large quantity is produced in the island of Singapore, and above all in Pinang, where the capital of Europeans and the skill and industry of the Chinese have been successfully applied to its culture. The western extremity of Sumatra, and the north-west coast of that island, are the most remarkable situations in it for the production of pepper, and here we have Acheen, Tikao, Bencoolen, Padang, and the country of the Lampungs. The production of the eastern extremity of Sumatra or Palembang is considerable, but held of inferior quality. In the fertile island of Java, the quantity of pepper grown is inconsiderable, nor is it remarkable for the goodness of its quality. The province of Bantam has always furnished, and still continues to produce, the most pepper; but the culture of this creeper is fast giving place in Java to staples affording higher profits and requiring less care. The exports were, in the following years:-- piculs. | lbs. 1830 6,061 | 1843 3,737,732 1835 11,868 | 1848 461,680 1839 11,044 | 1851 95,037 1841 13,477 | 1852 135,690 The number of pepper vines in the district of Bencoolen, in the close of last year, 1852, was as follows:--1,571,894 young vines; 2,437,052 bearing ditto; total, 4,008,946. Up to the end of September there had been delivered to the Government 1,145 piculs white pepper, and 1,128 piculs black pepper, while of the harvest of 1852 there were still probably to be received 330 piculs white, and 4,967 piculs black pepper. The south, the west, and the north coasts of the great island of Borneo produce a large quantity of pepper; as early as 1721 it was a staple commodity of this island. Banjarmassin is the most productive place on the south coast, and the State of Borneo Proper on the north coast. The best pepper certainly does not grow in the richest soils, for the peppers of Java and Palembang are the worst of the Archipelago, and that of Pinang and the west coast of Sumatra are the best. Care in culture and curing improves the quality, as with other articles, and for this reason chiefly it is that the pepper of Pinang is more in esteem than that of any other portion of the Archipelago. From the ports and districts of Siam 3,500 to 4,000 tons are exported annually. The duty at present levied on pepper in England is 6d. per lb., while the wholesale price for that of Pinang, Malabar, and Sumatra is about 4d. per lb. White pepper ranges from 9d. to 1s. 6d. per lb. The prime cost in Singapore is not more than 1½d. per lb. About 70,000 or 80,000 piculs of pepper are annually exported from Singapore, of which between 30,000 and 40,000 piculs have, until within the last two years, gone on to Great Britain. More than one-half of the pepper exported from Singapore is grown in the island by Chinese settlers. The low selling price of the article in the English market, the high duty levied upon it, and the large freight paid for its carriage to Great Britain, now leave so small a price to the cultivator in Singapore, that the cultivation ceases to be remunerative, and is carried on at a loss; and has consequently within the last year or two begun to decrease rapidly, involving the Chinese growers, who are generally of the poorest class, and without capital, in great distress. A reduction in the duty on pepper has always been followed by a very large increase in the consumption of the article, as will appear from the following table, showing the importation and consumption in Great Britain during some of the first and last years of the different rates of duty:-- Duty Singapore price Year Quantity consumed s. d. s. d. s. d. 1811 1,457,383 1 10½ 0 7½ to 0 7¾ 1814 941,569 1 10½ 0 11 " 1 1 1820 1,404,021 2 6 0 6½ " 0 6¾ 1824 1,447,030 2 6 0 4¾ " 0 5½ 1826 2,529,027 2 0 0 4 " 0 4½ 1836 2,749,491 1 0 0 0 " 0 0 1837 2,625,075 0 6 0 0 " 0 0 1845 3,210,415 0 6 0 2¼ " 0 4¾ In a memorial from the mercantile community of Singapore, sent home in 1848, it is asserted that a reduction in the duty of pepper being always attended by a large increase in the consumption, would not lead to any serious loss in the revenue, while it would confer a great boon on the poorer classes, to whom it has now become a necessary article of life. The reduction would also be of great advantage to British manufacturers, as well as to our Indian possessions, by giving rise to an increased demand or British goods and productions, and of the highest benefit to the agricultural settlers in the island of Singapore, by enabling them to procure for their labor an honest means of livelihood. The pepper vines, which are allowed to climb poles or small trees, are tolerably productive at Singapore; and pepper planting is esteemed by the Chinese to be a profitable speculation, particularly if they are enabled to evade the payment of quit-rent. An acre of pepper vines will yield 1,161 lbs. of clean pepper. In Sumatra a full grown plant has been known to produce seven pounds; in Pinang the yield is much more. The average produce of one thousand vines is said, however, to be only about 450 lbs. Colonel Low, in his "Dissertation on Pinang," published at Singapore some years ago, gives an interesting account of the culture:-- "Pepper was, during many years, the staple product of Pinang soil, the average annual quantity having been nearly four millions of pounds; but previous to the year 1810, the above amount had decreased to about two-and-a-half millions of pounds, which was the result of the continental system. The price having fallen at length to three and three-and-a-half dollars the picul--with only a few occasional exceptions of rises--the cultivation of this spice was gradually abandoned, and the total product at this day does not exceed 2,000 piculs. The original cost, when pepper was at a high price, together with charges of transporting it to Europe, amounted to £36,357 for every five hundred tons, and the loss by wastage was estimated at £5,405. In 1818 there remained on the island 1,480,265 pepper vines in bearing, and the average value of exports of pepper from Pinang, including that received from other places, was averaged at 106,870 Spanish dollars. As might have been foreseen, the fall of prices has so greatly diminished the cultivation of pepper to the eastward, that a reaction is likely to take place; and has in fact partly shown itself already. Some Chinese in Pinang and Province Wellesley seem to be preparing to renew the cultivation. There is abundant scope for the purpose on both sides of the harbour, and every facility is at hand for carrying it on. The pepper plant or vine requires a good soil, the richer the better, but the _red_ soil of the higher hills is not congenial, the Chinese think, to it. The undulations skirting the bases of the hills, and the deep alluvial lands, where not saturated with water, or liable to be overflowed, are preferred. The Chinese have always been the chief cultivators, and when the speculation flourished they received advances from the merchants, which they paid back in produce at fixed rates. When pepper was extensively cultivated on Prince of Wales Island, the European owner of the land had the forest cleared by contract, and the vines planted by contract, and when the vines came into bearing the plantation was farmed to the Chinese from year to year, on payment of a specific quantity of pepper. Any other plan would have ruined the capitalist, as the culture is almost entirely in their hands in the Straits' Settlements, and they will not work so well for others as when they are specially interested. The plants are set out at intervals, _every way_, of from seven to twelve feet, according to the degree of fertility of the soil, so that there are from 800 to 1,000 vines in one orlong of land; to each vine is allotted a prop of from ten to thirteen feet high, cut from the thorny tree called _dadap_, or where that is scarce, from the less durable _boonglai_; these props take root, thus affording both shade and support to the plant. The plant may be raised from seed pepper, but the plan is not approved of, cuttings being preferable, as they soonest come into bearing. The pits in which these cuttings are set should be a foot-and-a-half square, and two feet in depth; manure is not often applied, and then it is only some turf ashes. However unpicturesque a pepper plantation may be, still its neat and uniform appearance renders the landscape lively, and there can be little doubt that the island has suffered in its salubrity since the jungle usurped the extensive tracts formerly under pepper cultivation. When the vine has reached the height of three or four feet, it is bent down and laid in the earth, and about five of the strongest shoots which now spring up are retained and carefully trained up the prop, to which they are tied by means of ligatures of some creeping plants. One Chinese, after the plantation has been formed, can take care of two orlongs of land. The usual mode is this:--an advance is made by the capitalist to the laborer for building a house, and for agricultural implements; he then receives two dollars monthly to subsist on, until the end of the third year, when the estate or plantation is equally divided betwixt the contracting parties. The Chinese and even European cultivators used formerly to engage the Chinese who had just arrived from China; they paid off their passage-money, and then allowed them two dollars monthly, for provisions, for one year; with a suit of clothes, by which means the cost of the labor of one man averaged about three dollars monthly; but this plan is attended with risks. The cost attendant on the cultivation of two orlongs of land, with pepper, for three years--the Chinese laborer receiving the usual hire of _five_ Spanish dollars monthly--will be nearly as follows:-- Spanish dollars. Price of land, clearing, and planting 40 Quit rent, at 75 cents per annum per orlong 9 Two thousand plants 4 " dadap props 6 Implements 6 House 10 Labor 200 Interest, loosely calculated at 30 --- Total Spanish dollars 305 In a very good soil a pepper vine will yield about one-eighth of a pound of dry produce at the end of the first year; at the end of the second, about a quarter of a pound; and at the expiration of the third, probably one pound; at the end of the fourth, from three to three-and-a-half pounds; ditto fifth, from eight to ten pounds. After the fifth year up to the fifteenth, or even the twentieth year, about ten pounds of dry merchantable produce may be obtained from each vine, under favorable circumstances. The Chinese speculator used to rent out his half-share of a new plantation for five years, to his cultivating partner, after the expiration of the first three years, at the rate of thirty piculs per annum; the total produce of these five years giving about fifty-six piculs annually as an average. A pepper plantation never survives the thirtieth year, unless in extremely rich soil, and then it is unproductive; nor will the young vine thrive on an old worn out pepper land, a peculiarity which is applicable to the coffee tree. The chief crop lasts from August to February. Four pounds of dry produce, for ten of green, is considered a fair estimate. Great care is requisite in the management of the vine, and especially in training and tying it on the props. It is subject to be injured by the attacks of a small insect. The green pepper dries in two or three days, and if it is intended that it shall be black, it is pulled before it is quite ripe. To make white pepper, the berry is allowed to remain somewhat longer on the vine; it is, when plucked, immersed in boiling water, by means of which process and subsequent friction, before drying, the husk is separated. The exports of pepper from Pinang in the last four years have been--In 1849, 2,591,233 lbs.; in 1850, 6,397,733 lbs.; in 1851, 2,366,933 lbs.; in 1852, 2,112,133 lbs." A small quantity of pepper seems to be annually exported from Ceylon, which I presume is the growth of that island; thus there were:-- 54 cwts. shipped in 1842 83 " " 1843 102 " " 1844 In the Customs' returns of Ceylon, it is classed with cardamoms, and 160 to 170 cwt. of the two were shipped in each of the years 1850 and 1851. Last year the quantity was smaller. Pepper cultivation has been introduced into the Mauritius, and in 1839 more than 500,000 lbs. were imported from thence, but as the shipments have since decreased, I presume it has given place to the more profitable staple sugar. I have been able to glean no information as to the progress it has made in the West Indies. In Cayenne it has been successfully carried on for many years; and large shipments of pepper have been made thence to France. BLACK PEPPER EXPORTED FROM SINGAPORE. Piculs. Value in rupees. 1841 Total Exports 66,810 " Growth of Singapore 21,231 47,674 1842 Exports 74,228 " Growth of Singapore 32,277 72,473 1843 Exports 57,883 " Growth of Singapore 35,585 79,900 1844 Exports 67,148 " Growth of Singapore 42,995 386,152 1845 Exports 65,892 " Growth of Singapore 39,019 350,443 1846 Exports 56,709 " Growth of Singapore 35,712 ----- 1847 Exports 60,994 " Growth of Singapore 36,565 328,397 Pliny, the naturalist, states that the price of pepper in the market of Rome in his time was, in English money, 9s. 4d. a pound, and thus we have the price of pepper at least 1,774 years ago. The pepper alluded to must have been the produce of Malabar, the nearest part of India to Europe that produced the article, and its prime cost could not have exceeded the present one, or about 2d. a pound. It would most probably have come to Europe by crossing the Indian and Arabian ocean, with the easterly monsoon, sailing up the Red Sea, crossing the desert, dropping down the Nile, and making its way along the Mediterranean by two-thirds of its whole length. This voyage, which in our times can be performed in a month, most probably then took eighteen. Transit and customs duties must have been paid over and over again, and there must have been plenty of extortion. All this will explain how pepper could not be sold in the Roman market under fifty-six times its prime cost. Immediately previous to the discovery of the route to India by the Cape of Good Hope, we find that the price of pepper in the markets of Europe had fallen to 6s a pound, or 3s. 4d. less than in the time of Pliny. What probably contributed to this fall, was the superior skill in navigation of the now converted Arabs, and the extension of their commerce to the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, which abounded in pepper. After the great discovery of Vasco de Gama, the price of pepper fell to about 1s. 3d. a pound, a fall of 8s. 1d. from that of the time of Pliny, and of 4s. 9d. from that of the Mahommedan Arabs, Turks, and Venetians. In 1826, 14,000,000 lbs. of pepper were imported into the United Kingdom, of which about 5,500,000 were re-exported. In 1841, 15,000,000 lbs. were imported, of which 6,500,000 were re-shipped to other countries. The home consumption, it will be seen, now averages about 3,250,000 lbs.:-- Imports Home consumption lbs. lbs. 1845 9,852,984 3,209,718 1846 5,906,586 3,299,955 1847 4,669,930 2,966,022 1848 8,125,545 3,185,337 1849 4,796,042 3,257,911 1850 8,028,319 3,170,883 1851 3,996,496 3,303,403 1852 6,641,699 3,524,501 The following return shows the number of bags of pepper imported into the United Kingdom, with the quantity retained for home consumption:-- Imports. Retained for home consumption. Black. White. Black. White. bags bags bags. bags. 1843 37,840 3,861 21,163 2,257 1844 60,705 2,123 23,525 2,122 1845 80,600 3,208 30,294 2,861 1847 37,194 1,236 28,768 2,654 1848 65,518 3,042 31,665 3,950 1849 43,651 2,616 32,246 3,859 CHILLIES AND CAYENNE PEPPER. Chillies or capsicum are long roundish taper pods, divided into two or three cells, full of small whitish seeds. When this fruit is fresh, it has a penetrating acrid smell; to the taste it is extremely pungent, and produces a most painful burning in the mouth. They are occasionally imported dry, and form the basis of Cayenne pepper; put in vinegar when green or ripe, they are an acceptable present in Europe. In Bengal the natives make an extract from the chillies, which is about the consistence and color of treacle. The consumption of chillies in India is immense, as both rich and poor daily use them, and it is the principal ingredient in all chutnies and curries; ground into a paste, between two stones, with a little mustard, oil, ginger, and salt, it forms the only seasoning which the millions of poor in that country can obtain to eat with their insipid rice. They are worth in the Bombay market about 40s. the candy of 600 lbs. Immense quantities of the capsicum are used by the native population of the West Indies, Africa, and Mexico; the consumption as a condiment being almost universal, and perhaps equal in quantity to salt. Ten barrels of these peppers were shipped from Montego Bay, Jamaica, in the first six months of 1851. The wholesale price of chillies in the London market is from 15s. to 25s. the cwt., and there is a duty of 6d. per pound on them. Cayenne fetches 9d. to 2s. the pound. Chilli is the Mexican name for all varieties of _Capsicum_. They are natives of the East and West Indies, and other hot climates. _C. annuum_ is the species commonly noticed, but there seems to be numerous varieties, which by many are reckoned species. Thus, _C. frutescens_ is a shrubby plant, which, along with _C. minimum_, supplies the variety called bird-pepper, it grows to a larger and more bushy size; _C. baccatum_ has a globular fruit, and furnishes cherry or berry capsicum. They are all of the simplest culture, and may even be grown with very little care in England. Culture appears to increase the size, but to diminish the pungency of the fruit. In capsicums irritant properties prevail so as to obscure the narcotic action. Their acridity is owing to an oleaginous substance called capsicin. Cayenne pepper is used in medicine chiefly in the form of tincture, as a rubefacient and stimulant, especially in cases of ulcerated sore throat. It acts on the stomach as an aromatic condiment, and when preserved in acetic acid it forms chilli vinegar. Red pepper may be considered one of the most useful vegetables in hygiene. As a stimulant and auxiliary in digestion it has been considered invaluable, especially in warm countries. A kind called the tobacco red pepper, is said to possess the most pungent properties of any of the species. It yields a small red pod, less than an inch in length, and longitudinal in shape, which is so exceedingly hot that a small quantity of it is sufficient to season a large dish of any food. Owing to its oleaginous character, it has been found impossible to preserve it by drying, but by pouring strong boiling vinegar on it a sauce or decoction can be made, which possesses in a concentrated form all the essential qualities of the vegetable. A single drop of this sauce will flavor a whole plate of soup or other food. The "wort" or Cayenne pottage may be termed the national dish of the Abyssinians, as that, or its basis "dillock," is invariably eaten with their ordinary diet, the thin crumpet-like bread of teff or wheat flour. Equal parts of salt and the red cayenne pods are well powdered and mixed together with a little pea or bean meal to make a paste. This is called "dillock," and is made in quantities at a time, being preserved in a large gourd-shell, generally suspended from the roof. The "wort" is merely a little water added to this paste, which is then boiled over the fire, with the addition of a little fat meat and more meal to make a kind of porridge, to which sometimes is also added several warm seeds, such as the common cress or black mustard, both of which are indigenous in Abyssinia.--("Johnston's Abyssinia.") A great quantity of Agi or Guinea pepper is grown in Peru, the natives being very fond of this condiment. It is not uncommon for an American Indian to make a meal of twenty or thirty pods of capsicum, a little salt, and a piece of bread, washed down by two or three quarts of chica, the popular beverage. PIMENTO. The pimento, _Eugenia Pimento_ (_Myrtus Pimenta_), is a native of Mexico, and the West Indies. It flourishes spontaneously and in great abundance on the north side of the island of Jamaica; its numerous white blossoms mixing with the dark green foliage, and with the slightest breeze diffusing around the most delicious fragrance, give a beauty and a charm to nature rarely equalled, and of which he who has not visited the shady arbors and perfumed groves of the tropics can have little conception. This lovely tree, the very leaf of which when bruised emits a fine aromatic odor, nearly as powerful as that of the spice itself, has been known to grow to the height of from 30 to 40 feet, exceedingly straight, and having for its base the spinous ridge of a rock, eight or ten feet above the surface of the hill or mountain. A single tree has frequently produced 150 lbs. of the raw, or 100 lbs. of the dried fruit. The fruit has an aromatic odor, and its taste combines that of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves; hence its common name of allspice. The fruit of _Eugenia acris_ is used for pimento. The trunk is of a grey color, smooth and shining, and altogether destitute of bark. It is luxuriantly clothed with leaves of a deep green, somewhat like those of the bay tree, and these leaves are, in the months of July and August, beautifully contrasted and relieved by an exuberance of white flowers. The leaves yield by distillation a delicate odoriferous oil, which is said to be sometimes passed off for oil of cloves. The berries are gathered before they are ripe, and spread on a terrace, exposed to the sun for about a week, during which time they lose their green color, and acquire that reddish brown tint which renders them marketable. Some planters kiln-dry them. Like many of the minor productions of the tropics, pimento is exceedingly uncertain, and perhaps a very plenteous crop occurs but once in five years. In 1800 there were 12,759 bags and 610 casks of pimento imported from Jamaica; in 1824 there were 33,308 bags and 599 casks shipped from the island; in 1829 the quantity exported was 6,069,127 lbs. In the year ending October 1843, the export of pimento from Jamaica was 29,322 bags and 156 casks; in the year ending October 1844, 12,055 bags and 88 casks; in the year ending October 1845, 233 casks, valued at 30s. each, and 59,494 bags, valued at 20s. From 1st January to 1st August, 1851, 128,277 lbs. pimento were shipped from the port of Montego Bay, Jamaica. There was a very considerable pimento plantation made in Tobago, some years ago, by a Mr. Franklin, but it was abandoned by his sons, that they might attend the more exclusively to sugar culture. Jamaica exported nearly two millions of pounds of pimento less, in the three years ending 1848, than she did in the three previous to the emancipation of the slaves. The number of pounds shipped annually, in these periods, is shown by the following figures:-- Year. lbs. 1830 5,560,620 1831 3,172,320 1832 4,024,800 1846 2,997,060 1847 2,800,140 1848 5,231,908 Pimento is imported into this country in bags of about 100 lbs. each. The imports have been:-- Year. Imports. Home consumption. cwts. cwts. 1848 20,773 4,230 1849 24,994 3,419 1850 20,448 3,467 1851 14,840 3,935 1852 22,708 3,872 The following is a statement of the imports from the West Indies, and the consumption of the United Kingdom, in pounds:-- Entries for Year. Imports. home consumption. lbs. lbs. 1831 1,801,355 305,739 1832 1,366,183 296,197 1833 4,770,255 330,890 1834 1,389,402 320,719 1835 2,536,353 343,942 1836 3,230,978 400,941 1837 2,026,128 383,401 1838 892,974 383,997 1839 1,071,511 309,078 1840 999,068 338,969 1841 797,757 297,201 1842 1,643,318 450,683 1843 2,028,658 378,096 The imports have been, in-- bags. 1843 18,649 1844 2,408 1845 21,092 1847 9,649 1848 18,196 1849 14,108 Pimento is worth in the London market 6d. to 7d. per lb. The duty is 5s. per cwt. VANILLA. The fleshy, pod-like, odoriferous fruit of different species of _Epidendrum_ constitute the substance called vanilla, which is used in confectionery for giving a delicious perfume to chocolate, liqueurs, &c. As an aromatic it is much sought after by confectioners, for flavoring ices and creams; and also by perfumers, liqueurists, and distillers. The best comes from the forests round the village of Zurtila, in the intendancy of Oaxaca, on the eastern slopes of the Cordillera of Anahuac, between the parallels of 19 deg. and 20 deg. N. All the vanilla which is used in Europe is imported from Mexico, Venezuela, and Vera Cruz. It is a native of tropical America, and grows wild in Brazil, Peru, the banks of the Orinoco, and all places where heat, shade, and moisture prevail. There are many species indigenous to the Bahamas, Trinidad, Jamaica, Cuba, Dominica, Martinique and St. Vincent, which would produce considerable gain to the inhabitants if they would give themselves the trouble of cultivating or collecting its fruit. This parasitical plant has a trailing stem, not unlike the common ivy, but not so woody, by which it attaches itself to the trunks of trees, and sucks the moisture which their bark derives from the lichens and other cryptogamia, but without drawing nourishment from the tree itself, like the misletoe and loranthus. The Indians in Mexico propagate it by planting cuttings at the foot of trees selected for that purpose. It rises to the height of 18 or 20 feet; the flowers are of a greenish yellow, mixed with white. The plant is subcylindrical about eight or ten inches long, of a yellow color when gathered, but dark brown or black when imported into Europe. It is one-celled siliquose, and pulpy within, wrinkled on the outside, and full of a vast number of seeds like grains of sand, having when properly prepared, a peculiar and delicious fragrance. It should be gathered before it is fully ripe. Different species of vanilla are natives of Guiana, and it is found in large quantities along the banks of its rivers, and in the wooded districts which intersperse the savannahs. The oily and balsamic substance which the minute seeds possess, may be found to have medicinal qualities. Its cultivation can be connected with no difficulties; it needs only to plant the slips among trees, and to keep them clear of weeds. It would prove therefore a great addition to a cocoa plantation. In 1825 the price was, in Germany, sixty-six dollars (equal to £9) per pound, and twenty-five to thirty dollars are paid for it in Martinique. Humboldt states that the annual value of vanilla exported from the state of Vera Cruz was 40,000 dollars, £8,000 sterling. Some vanilla is exported from Maranham. The cultivation of vanilla, which was introduced into Java in the year 1847, is said to have made considerable progress, there being now no fewer than thirty plantations. The fruit of this orchideous plant is entirely neglected in the province of Caracas, though abundant crops of it might be gathered on the humid coast between Porto Cabello and Ocumare, especially at Turiamo, where the pods attain the length of nearly a foot. The English and American merchants often seek to make purchases at the port of La Guayra, but with difficulty procure it in small quantities. In the valleys that descend from the chain of coast towards the Caribbean sea, in the province of Truxillo, as well as in the mission of Guiana, near the cataracts of the Orinoco, a great quantity of the vanilla pods might be collected, the produce of which would be still more abundant, if, according to the practice of the Mexicans, the plant were disentangled from time to time from the other creepers, with which it is intertwined and stifled. When collected to prepare it for the market, about 12,000 of the pods are strung like a garland by their lower end, as near as possible to their foot-stalk; the whole are plunged for an instant into boiling water to blanch them; they are then hung up in the open air and exposed to the sun for a few hours. By some they are wrapped in woollen cloths to sweat. Next day they are lightly smeared with oil, by means of a feather or the fingers, and are surrounded with oiled cotton to prevent the valves from opening. As they become dry, on inverting their upper end they discharge a viscid liquor from it, and they are pressed several times with oiled fingers to promote its flow. The dried pods, like the berries of pepper, change color under the drying operation, grow brown, wrinkled, soft, and shrink to one-fourth of their original size. In this state they are touched a second time with oil, but very sparingly, because with too much oil they would lose some of their delicious perfume. They are then packed for the market in small bundles of 50 or 100 in each, enclosed in lead foil, or tight metallic cases. There are four local varieties, all differing in price and excellence; viz., the vanilla _fina_, the _zacate_, the _rezacate_, and the _vasura_. One pod of vanilla is sufficient to perfume a pound and a half of cacao. It is with difficulty reduced to fine particles, but it may be sufficiently attenuated by cutting it into small bits, and grinding these along with sugar. As it comes to us, vanilla is a capsular fruit, of the thickness of a swan's quill; straight, cylindrical, but somewhat flattened, truncated at the top, thinned off at the ends, glistening, wrinkled, furrowed lengthwise, flexible, from five to ten inches long, and of a reddish brown color. It contains a pulpy parenchyma, soft, unctuous, very brown, in which are embedded black, brilliant, very small seeds. The kind most esteemed in France is called _leq_ vanilla; it is about six inches long, from one-fourth to one-third of an inch broad, narrowed at the two ends and curved at the base; somewhat soft and viscid, of a dark reddish color, and of a most delicious flavor, like that of balsam of Peru. It is called vanilla _giorees_, when it is covered with efflorescences of benzcoin acid, after having been kept in a dry place, and in vessels not hermetically closed. The second sort, called _vanilla simarona_, or bastard, is a little smaller than the preceding, of a less deep brown hue, drier, less aromatic, destitute of efflorescence. It is said to be the produce of the wild plant, and is brought from St. Domingo. A third sort, which comes from Brazil, is the _vanillon_, or large vanilla of the French market; the _vanilla pamprona_ or _bova_ of the Spaniards. Its length is from five to six inches, its breadth from one-half to three-fourths of an inch. It is brown, soft, viscid, almost always open, of a strong smell, but less agreeable than the _leq_. It is sometimes a little spoiled by an incipient fermentation. It is cured with sugar, and enclosed in tin plate boxes, which contain from 20 to 60 pods[52]. The average annual import of vanilla into Havre, in the five years ending 1841, was about 16 boxes; in 1842 it was 30 packages. TONQUIN BEANS.--The seeds of the Tongo tree (_Dipterix odorata_), a native of Guiana, are the well-known tonquin beans used to give a pleasant flavor to snuff. TURMERIC. This article of commerce is furnished by the branches of the rhizome or root-stock of the _Curcuma longa_, and _C. rotunda_, plants which are natives of Eastern Asia, but have been grown in England and the West Indies. They thrive well in a rich light soil, and are readily increased by offsets from the roots. In the East Indies, where it is known as Huldee, turmeric is much employed in dyeing yellow, principally silks, but the color is very fugitive. It is also used medicinally as an aromatic carminative, and as a condiment; it enters into the composition of curry sauce or powder, and many other articles of Indian cookery. It is cordial and stomachic, and considered by the native doctors of India an excellent application in powder for cleansing foul ulcers. It is grown in, and exported chiefly from, Bengal and Malabar, Madras, Java, and China. The turmeric of Java is in high estimation in the European markets, ranking next to that of China, and being much superior to that of Bengal. The seeds of _Anethum Sowa_, from their carminative properties, form an ingredient in curry powder. The price of turmeric in London is from 12s. to 20s. per cwt., according to quality. The entries for home consumption are about 4,000 to 5,000 cwts. annually. It is better shipped in casks or cases than in bags. A kind of arrowroot is prepared from _C. angustifolia_, another species of this tribe of plants. _Amaranthus gangiticus_, and another species, are much cultivated by the Hindoos for their stews and curries. The quantity and value of the curry stuff imported into Ceylon, chiefly from India, has been in the last few years as follows:-- Quantity. Years. cwts. packages. Value. 1847 6,866 1848 9,981 1849 26,347 109 9,664 1850 24,396 300 7,267 1851 32,550 9,446 1852 9,039 What is comprised under the term "curry stuff," I am not aware, but it appears to be a bulky article, for it was imported to the extent of 32,000 cwt. in 1852. There are two varieties of turmeric usually sent into Europe from the East (whence all the turmeric imported into Europe is obtained), the "long" turmeric (_Curcuma longa_), and the "round," or as it is better known the "Chinese turmeric." The latter description is very rare, the former is the common article of commerce. According to one of my correspondents, Mr. Hepburn, chemist, of Falmouth, Jamaica, the common or long turmeric is indigenous to that island, growing luxuriantly in the mountainous districts, in rather damp soils, its locality being in the vicinity of rivers, water-courses and springs. In this respect it differs from ginger, which requires a rather dry soil for its culture. I am not aware that this plant possesses the property of impoverishing the soil like the ginger. From the general habits of the plant in its natural state, we may gather the following rules for our guidance in its culture. The plants should be laid down in rows of five or six inches distant from each other, in a soil moderately damp, of an aluminous or clayey nature, and free to a great extent of the more soluble alkalies, potash and soda, as these, by absorption, may destroy the coloring matter of the plant, and so diminish its value as a dye-stuff. Finally, in preparing the roots for exportation, they should be cleansed from all earthy particles, exposed for drying in the shade, and without any further preparation bagged for shipment. The coloring matter of turmeric is of an orange yellow color exceedingly delicate and capable of change, either from the action of light or of alkalies, which turn it to a dark brown color. It is slightly soluble in water, and readily soluble in an alkaline solution, becoming dark brown. Alcohol extracts the coloring matter. The uses to which turmeric is applied are two: as an ingredient in the curry powder and paste, and as a dye for silk. It was some time ago used as a medicine; but though retained in the "Pharmacopoeias" of the present day, it is entirely discarded by the practitioner as a curative agent. The best Bengal and Malabar turmeric fetches a price nearly as high as that of ginger, and I see no reason why the West India planter could not send it into the British market quite as cheap as the East India trader. According to Dallas, 397 bags of turmeric were exported from Jamaica in 1797. Turmeric is grown about the city of Patna and Behar. It is much cultivated about Calcutta and all parts of Bengal. One acre yields about 2,000 lbs. of the fresh root. It is also grown on the central table land of Afghanistan. The exports from Calcutta in 1841 were 11,000 Indian maunds, and 28,137 in 1842. The value of that exported from Madras in 1839 was 40,000 rupees, or £4,000; in 1840, £4,200. The quantity shipped from that Presidency in 1850 was 6,877 bags. In the neighbourhood of Dacca about 200 lbs. of seed is sown to the beegah, measuring 80 cubits by 80, and the yield is from 640 to 800 lbs. 140 tons were imported into Liverpool in 1849, for dyeing and for curries; 414 tons in 1850; 11,554 bags and packages in 1851; and only 3,595 ditto in 1852. The price in January 1853 was, for Bengal, 10s. to 12s.; China, 12s. to 14s., and Malabar 9s. to 12s. the cwt. The imports into London were 18 tons in 1848, 191 in 1849, and 980 in 1850. The deliveries for consumption, 192 tons in 1848, 270 in 1849, and 870 tons in 1850. In China turmeric is used with Prussian blue in coloring and facing tea. GINSENG The produce of this plant, as an article of commerce, is confined to our transatlantic neighbours, who have the monopoly of the supply to China. The root of _Panax quinquefolium_, the American ginseng, is much esteemed by the Chinese, for certain supposed beneficial effects upon the nerves, and for other presumed virtues; but our physicians have not discovered any proofs of its efficacy in Europe. The plant is an herbaceous perennial, growing upon the confines of Tartary and China, near the great wall. It is found wild, flourishing in moist situations, and attains the height of from two to three feet; it is also now produced largely in the northern, middle, and western States of the Union, particularly Virginia, Louisiana, and Pennsylvania, and a considerable trade is carried on with it to China. A variety of the plant was discovered, a few years ago, in the Himalaya mountains, and small quantities have been thence sent to Canton. It is also found growing in Canada. The root is about three or four inches in length, and one inch in thickness. It resembles a small carrot, but not so taper at the end, and is sometimes single, sometimes divided into two branches. The stem is striated, without branches, and of a red color near the root. The leaves, from four to six of which surround the stem where they form sheaths (bracteal), are simply pinnate. The flower stalk is long and green, the inflorescence a simple umbel. The fruit is a berry of a red color, and contains two seeds of the size of mustard seed. The officinal root differs in appearance, according to the country from which it is brought. In Korea and China it is white, corrugated when dry, and covered with a powder resembling starch. In Mandscharia and Dauria it is yellow, smooth and transparent, and when cut resembles amber. The taste of the root is bitter. Crude ginseng now sells in the Canton market at 70 to 80 dollars per picul of 133 lbs., and cured or clarified root at 130 to 140 dollars. The stem of the plant, which is renewed every year, leaves, as it falls off, an impression upon the neck of the root, so that the number of these rings or marks indicates the age of the plant, and the value of the root increases accordingly. The Chinese government were formerly in the habit of sending out annually 30,000 Tartar soldiers to search for the plant, and each was obliged to bring home two ounces of the root gratis, and for all above that quantity he was paid its weight in silver. The Asiatic ginseng is said to be obtained from the root of _P. Schinseng_ of Nees von Esenbeck, _P. Pseudo ginseng_ of Wallich. This root might be procured in Prince Edward's Island and some of the other British North American colonies. I have been able to trace, after some labor and research, the progressive exports of this curious article of trade from the United States. In 1790, 813 casks, of the value of 47,025 dollars, were exported; and in 1791, 29,208 lbs. From 1803 to 1807, the annual value of ginseng shipped was about 123,000 dollars, and from 1820 to 1830, it averaged 157,000 dollars. The following figures show the value of the article in subsequent years:--1831, 115,921 dollars; year ending 30th September, 1835, 94,960 dollars; 1837, 212,899 lbs., valued at 108,548 dollars; 1840, 22,728 dollars; 1841, 437,245 dollars. The quantity shipped in 1839, from Philadelphia alone, was 317,443 lbs. In 1841, 637,885 lbs. were exported from the United States. The value of that exported in the years ending 30th June, was 1844, 95,008 in dollars, and in 1845, 117,146 dollars; 110,000 lbs. were collected at Toledo, Ohio, in 1845. The value of the exports in the following years, ending June 30th, were--1847, 64,466 dollars; 1849, 162,640; 1849, 182,966; 1850, 122,916 dollars. CORIANDER, CARRAWAY, AND OTHER SEEDS. The fruits of anise, carraway, coriander, &c., (erroneously called seeds,) are in demand for various purposes. CARRAWAY SEED is imported to the extent of 500 tons annually from Germany and Holland, the price being about 33s. per cwt. It is also now much grown in Essex and Kent. In the years 1848 and 1849, 7,000 cwt. of this seed was imported, of which nearly the whole quantity was retained for home consumption. CORIANDER SEED is chiefly used by distillers, to produce an aromatic oil. The quantity imported annually does not exceed 50 tons, and it is brought principally to the port of Hull. It is also cultivated in Suffolk, Essex and Kent. Of MUSTARD SEED the aggregate quantity imported annually is about 2,000 tons for home consumption, and the flour is used as a well-known condiment to food, &c., and in medicine; the average price being about 9d. per pound. ANISE.--The fruit of _Pimpinilla anisum_, under the name of aniseed, is principally imported from Alicant and Germany (the first is preferred), but some is also brought from the East Indies. It is an annual plant, largely cultivated in Spain, Malta, and various parts of Germany, and also in the island of Scio, Egypt, and parts of Asia. The imports are not large; 192 cwts. paid duty in 1833, and 315 cwts. in 1840. About 60 cwts. are annually received at Hull from Germany. It is used to flavor liqueurs, sweetmeats, and confectionery of various kinds. Oil of aniseed is obtained by distillation from the fruit, and 1,544 lbs. were imported in 1839. About two pounds of oil are obtained from one hundred-weight of seed. STAR ANISE, _Illicum anisatum_, is a native of the countries extending from 23½ deg. to 35 deg. of north latitude, or from Canton to Japan. The capsules constitute in India a rather important article of commerce, and are sold in all the bazaars. Large quantities are also used in Europe in the preparation of liqueurs. 695 piculs of star aniseed were exported from Canton in 1850, valued at 8,200 Spanish dollars. 81 piculs of oil of aniseed were exported from Canton in 1845, and 105 piculs in 1850, valued at 11,900 dollars. 3,000 piculs of aniseed are exported annually from Cambodia. PUTCHUK, OR COSTUS. The substance called costus was highly prized by the ancients, and specimens may be met with at a few of the London drug-houses. It has been shown by Dr. Falconer to be the produce of a genus of the thistle tribe, to which he has given the name of _Aucklandia_. The root of _A. Costus_ is supposed to be the _Costus Arabicus_, on the following grounds:--It corresponds with the descriptions given by the ancient authors, and is used at the present day for the same purposes in China, as costus was formerly applied to by the Greeks. The coincidence of the names--in Cashmere the root is called koot, and the Arabic synonym is said to be _koost_. It grows in immense abundance on the mountains which surround Cashmere. It is a gregarious herb, about six or seven feet high, with a perennial thick branched root, with an annual round smooth stem, large leaves and dark purple flowers. The roots are dug up in the months of September and October, when the plant begins to be torpid; they are chopped up into pieces, from two to six inches long, and are exported without further preparation. The quantity collected, according to Dr. Falconer, is very large, amounting to about two million pounds per annum. The cost of its collection and transport to a mercantile depot in Cashmere, is about 2s. 4d. the cwt. The commodity is laden on bullocks and exported to the Punjaub, whence the larger portion goes down to Bombay, where it is shipped for the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and China; a portion of it finds its way across the Sutlej and Jumna into Hindostan Proper, whence it is taken to Calcutta, and bought up there with avidity under the name of putchuk. The value is enhanced at Jugadree, on the Jumna, to about 16s. 9d. or 23s. 4d. per cwt. In the Chinese ports it fetches nearly double that price the cwt. The Chinese burn the roots as an incense in the temples of their gods, and they also attach great efficacy to it as an aphrodisiac. The imports into Canton in 1848 were 414 piculs; in 1850, 854 piculs; valued at 5,150 dollars. In Cashmere it is chiefly used for the protection of bales of shawls from insects. The exports from the port of Calcutta were, in 1840-41, 19,660 maunds; in 1841-42, 12,847; in 1847-48, 2,050¼; in 1848-49, 2,110¾;--worth about £1,500 annually. Specimens of amboyna wood, the odoriferous sandal wood from Timor, clove wood, and other choice woods from the Moluccas and Prince of Wales Island, were sent home to the Great Exhibition in 1851. LIGNUM ALOES, the eagle wood and Calambak of commerce, yielding an aromatic perfume, is furnished by the _Aquilaria malaccensis_, and _agallocha_, in Silhet, an ornamental evergreen shrub. A very high artificial value is placed on the better qualities of this product by the natives of the East; the best quality being worth about £14 the picul of 133 lbs. This fragrant wood is probably the lign aloes of the Bible. Incense to the value of nearly one million and a quarter francs was exported from Alexandria in 1837. Calambak or eagle wood, the true lignum aloes so highly esteemed in the East as a perfume or incense, is said to be produced by the _Aloexylum agallochum_, Lour. This remarkable wood contains a large quantity of an odoriferous oleo-resin; when heated it undergoes a sort of imperfect fusion, and exhales a fragrant and very agreeable odor. Its price in Sumatra is about £30 per cwt. Inferior specimens are obtained at Malacca. Eagle wood is also obtained from several other trees. The true eagle wood is however very scarce. SECTION IV. DYES AND COLORING STUFFS, AND TANNING SUBSTANCES. Of the several classes of materials collected at the Industrial Exhibition in Hyde Park, in 1851, few possessed so much importance in the eyes of the textile and leather manufacturer and chemist as the different products used in the arts and manufactures for coloring and tanning purposes. These were in a great measure lost sight of by the public at large, being scattered about in small quantities in a great number of directions; and, from the minute samples shown, were in many instances overlooked altogether. Besides furnishing some novel and general statistical facts, which may prove interesting, I propose also in this section to draw attention more prominently to some of these products, which are at present little known or appreciated. Coloring substances for staining and dyeing are obtained indifferently from the animal, mineral, and vegetable kingdoms, but it is of the last alone that I shall have to speak. The importance of a more careful consideration of this subject will be admitted, if we consider how much the prosperity and extent of our cotton, silk, woollen, and leather manufactures depends on a liberal and cheap supply of dyes and tannin, to give beauty and color to the fabrics, and substance and utility to the skins. Even oil colors, for painters' purposes, which do not come within the scope of my remarks, form an item in our yearly exports of the value of £250,000, and when we calculate the large amount of cotton, silk and wool worked up, most of which requires various coloring agents, gums, starches, and mordants;--that nearly 30,000 tons of hides are annually imported, exclusive of those obtained from our now slaughter-houses, besides goat, seal, and other skins--and that the exports of our various manufactures of cotton, linen, silk, wool and leather in 1852, setting aside our home consumption, amounted to nearly fifty millions sterling, we shall be able to form a better estimate of the importance of the various subjects we are about to notice. Great Britain does not pay less than £600,000 annually for the dried carcasses of the tiny cochineal insect, while the produce of another small insect, that which produces the lac dye, is scarcely less valuable. Then there are the gall nuts used for dyeing and making black ink. Upwards of £3,000,000 is paid for barks of various kinds for tanners' purposes, about one million for other tanning substances and heavy dye woods, besides about £200,000 for various extracts of tannin, such as Gambier, Cutch, Divi-divi, and Kino. The aggregate value of the dye stuffs and gum it is difficult to estimate. The beautiful specimens of materials imported from China, India, New Zealand, the Continent, and other countries, and exhibited at the Crystal Palace, proves to us that we have yet much to learn from other nations in the art of fixing colors and obtaining brilliant dyes. The French are much our superiors in dyeing and the production of fast and beautiful colors. Their chemical researches and investigations are carried out more systematically and effectively than our own. Russia imports dyewoods and dye-stuffs to the value of five millions and a half of silver roubles annually. It was well observed by the Jury Reporters at the Great Exhibition, that "a vast number of new coloring materials have been discovered or made available, and improved modes have been devised of economically applying those already in use; so that the dyer of the present time employs many substances of the very existence of which his practical predecessors were wholly ignorant. From the increased use of many of the vegetable colors, and from the improved modes of applying the coloring matters, a demand has naturally sprung up for various dye stuffs; and at the present time, many of the dyeing materials of distant countries are beginning to excite the attention of practical men; for though they have been acquainted with many of these substances, it is only recently that the progress of the art has rendered their use desirable or even practicable." It would be quite impossible, within the limits which I have assigned myself, to make even a bare enumeration of the various plants and trees from which coloring substances and dye stuffs can be obtained, I must, therefore, be content to specify only a few. The roots of some species of Lithospermum afford a lac for dyeing and painting. Dried pomegranates are said to be used in Tunis for dyeing yellow; the rind is also a tanning substance. Sir John Franklin tells us that the Crees extract some beautiful colors from several of their native vegetables. They dye a beautiful scarlet with the roots of two species of bed-straw, _Galium tinctorium_ and _boreale_. They dye black, with an ink made of elder bark and a little bog-iron ore dried and powdered, and they have various modes of producing yellow. They employ the dried roots of the cowbane (_Cicuta virosa_), the bruised buds of the Dutch myrtle, and have discovered methods of dyeing with various lichens. In the "Comptes Rendus," xxxv., p. 558, there is an account by M.J. Persoz, of a green coloring matter from China, of great stability, from which it appears that the Chinese possess a coloring substance having the appearance of indigo, which communicates a beautiful and permanent sea green color to mordants of alumina and iron, and which is not a preparation of indigo, or any derivative of this dyeing principal. As furnished to M. Persoz by Mr. Forbes, the American consul at Canton, it was in thin plates of a blue color, resembling Japanese indigo, but of a finer grain, differing also from indigo in its composition and chemical properties. On infusing a very small quantity of it in water, this fluid soon acquired a deep blue color with a greenish tinge; upon boiling and immersing a piece of calico on which the mordants of iron and alumina had been printed, it was dyed a sea green color of greater or less intensity according to the strength of the mordant--the portions not coated remaining white. A berry called _Makleua_ grows on a large forest tree at Bankok, which is used most extensively by the Siamese as a vegetable black dye. It is merely bruised in water, when a fermentation takes place, and the article to be dyed is steeped in the liquid and then spread out in the sun to dry. The berry, when fresh, is of a fine green color, but after being gathered for two or three days it becomes quite black and shrivelled like pepper. It must be used fresh, and whilst its mixture with water produces fermentation. The bark of _Datisca cannabina_ also dyes yellow. It contains a bitter principle, like quassia. A coloring matter is prepared from the dried fruit of the _Rottlera tinctoria_, by the natives of the East, to dye orange, which is a brilliant and tolerably permanent dye. It is apparently of a resinous nature. A small quantity of Alkanet root (_Anchusa tinctoria_), is imported from the Levant and the south of France, and is used to color gun stocks, furniture, &c., of a deep red mahogany and rosewood color. It is brought over in packages weighing about two cwt., the price being 40s. or 50s. per cwt. Turmeric is now imported to the extent of upwards of 800 tons, a portion of this is used in dyeing. The culture and commerce has been already noticed in Section III. The bark and roots of the berberry are used in the East to dye yellow; the color is best when boiled in ley. Some of the species of Symplocos, as _S. racemosa_, known as lodh about the Himalaya mountains, and _S. tinctoria_, a native of Carolina, are used for dyeing. The scarlet flowers of _Butea frondosa_ (the Dhaktree), and _B. superba_, natives of the Indian jungles, yield a beautiful dye, and furnishing a species of kino (_Pulas kino_), are also used for tanning. _Althea rosea_, the parent of the many beautiful varieties of hollyhock, a native of China, yields a blue coloring matter equal to indigo. Indigo of an excellent quality has been obtained in the East from a twining plant, _Gymnema tingens_ or _Asclepias tingens_. The juice of the unripe fruit of _Rhamnus infectorius_, _catharticus_ and _virigatius_, known as Turkey or French berries, is used for dyeing leather yellow. When mixed with lime and evaporated to dryness, it forms the color called sap-green. A great quantity of yellow berries are annually shipped from Constantinople; 115 tons were imported into Liverpool last year. The average annual imports into the United Kingdom are about 450 tons. They come from the Levant in hair bales weighing three and a quarter cwt., or in tierces of four to five cwt., and are used by calico printers for dyeing a yellow color. They are sometimes called Persian berries. It is a subject of surprise that the common betel-nut of the East has never been introduced for dyeing purposes. The roots of the awl tree of Malabar and other parts of India, _Morinda citrifolia_, and of _M. tinctoria_, found abundant in all the Asiatic islands, are extensively used as a dye stuff for giving a red color. It is usually grown as a prop and shade for the pepper vine and coffee tree. The coloring matter resides principally in the bark of the roots, which are long and slender, and the small pieces are the best, fetching 8s. to 10s. a maund. It is exported in large quantities from Malabar to Guzerat, and the northern parts of Hindostan, but seldom finds its way to Europe. The wood and roots of another species, _M. umbellata_, known in the eastern islands as "Mangkudu," are used extensively for their red dye, in Celebes and Java. Specimens of all these, and of the Lopisip bark, bunchong bulu wood, and the gaju gum (from undescribed plants), have been introduced into England. They are said to furnish excellent dyes in the Asiatic islands. Native dyes from Arracan have also been imported, viz., thit-tel and the-dan yielding red dyes, ting-nget and reros, affording dark purple dyes; and thit-nan-weng, a chocolate dye. These would be worth enquiry, and particulars of the plants yielding them, the quantities available, and the prices might be procured. Dyes and colors from the following plants are obtained in India: several species of _Terminalia_, _Sinecarpus Anacardium_, _Myrica Sapide_, _Nelumbium speciosus_, _Butea frondosa_, and _Nyctanthes arboretristis_. The bunkita barring, obtained from an undescribed plant in Borneo, produces a dark purple or black dye. A species of ruellia, under the name of "Room," is employed in its raw state by the Khamptis and Lingphos to dye their clothes of a deep blue. It is described by the late Dr. Griffiths as "a valuable dye, and highly worthy of attention." It might, perhaps, be usefully employed as the ground for a black dye. In Nepaul they use the bark of _Photinia dubia_ or _Mespilus Bengalensis_ for dyeing scarlet. The bark of the black oak, _Quercus tinctoria_ and its varieties, natives of North America, are used by dyers under the name of quercitron. In the south of Europe, _Daphne Gnidium_ is used to dye yellow. The root of reilbon, a sort of madder in Chili, dyes red. A purple tint or dye is obtained from the bark of an undescribed tree, known under the name of "_Grana ponciana_," growing about Quito; and Stevenson (Travels in South America) says, "if known in Europe, it would undoubtedly become an article of commerce." Another much more expensive species of coloring matter (red) is obtained in various parts of South America from the leaves of the _Bignonia Chica_, a climbing evergreen shrub, native of the Orinoco country, with large handsome panicles of flowers. The coloring substance is obtained by decoction, which deposits, when cool, a red matter; this is formed into cakes and dried. Dr. Ure thinks it might probably be turned to account in the arts of civilization. The order of plants to which it belongs, contains a vast number of species, all natives of tropical regions, and their value for the production of coloring substances may be worth investigation. It is met with in British Guiana, and the Indian tribes of that district prepare the pigment with which they stain their skin from it; it is called by them "Caraveru." The coloring matter is used as a dye in the United States, and for artistical purposes would rival madder. Sir Robert Schomburgk thinks it might form an article of export if it were sufficiently known, as its preparation is extremely simple. The leaves are dried in the sun, and at the first exposure, after having been plucked from the vine which produces them, they show the abundant feculent substance which they contain. LANA DYE.--A beautiful bluish-black color, known as "Caruto," is procured in Demerara and Berbice from the juice of the fruit of the _Genipa Americana_, Linn.--a tree very common in the colony. The Indians use it for staining their faces and persons. The Lana dye was honorably mentioned by the jurors at the Great Exhibition in 1851. The bluish-black color obtained from it is remarkably permanent, a fact which has very long been known, though hardly any attempt appears to have been made to introduce it to the notice of European dyers. Another pigment is prepared by them from arnotto, mixed with turtle oil, or carap oil, obtained from the seeds of the _Carapa guianensis_ (Aubl.). The wild plantain (_Urania guianensis_) and the cultivated plantain (_Musa paridisiaca_), the Mahoe (_Thespesia populnea_), and the pear seed of the Avocado (_Persea gratissima_), furnish dyes in various parts of the West Indies; specimens of many of these have been imported from British Guiana and Trinidad. Russia produces good specimens of the wood of _Statice coriaria_, the leaves and bark of sumach, the bark of the wild pomegranate, yellow berries, _Madia sativa_, saffron, safflower and madder roots for dyeing purposes. _Avicenna tomentosa_, a species of mangrove, is very common about the creeks of Antigua, Jamaica, and other West India islands, where it is used for dyeing and tanning. In New Zealand, the natives produce a most brilliant blue-black dye from the bark of the Eno, which is in great abundance. Some of the borders of the native mats, of a most magnificent black, are dyed with this substance. It has been tried in New South Wales; but, as with other local dyes, although found well suited for flax, hemp, linen, or other vegetable productions, it could not be fixed on wools or animal matter. Dr. Holroyd, of Sydney, some time since, imported a ton of it for a friend near Bathurst. It is of great importance that chemical science should be applied to devise some means of fixing this valuable dye on wool. As the tree is so common, the bark could be had in any quantity at about £3 10s. a ton; and our tweed manufacturers are in great want of a black dye for their check and other cloths. The principal heavy woods used for dyeing are fustic, logwood, Nicaragua wood, barwood, camwood, red Sanders wood, Brazil wood, and sappan wood. All the dyewoods are nearly £2 per ton higher than last year. Common Spanish fustic which in September, 1852, was only £3 10s. per ton, now fetches £6 10s. in the Liverpool market; and there is a great demand for all kinds of dyewoods. Tampico and Puerto Cabello fustic are now worth £6 10s. to £7 the ton, Cuba ditto, £9 10s. to £10. Sappan wood is £4 higher than last year; barwood has risen cent per cent; logwoods are £2 per ton higher. The following were the prices of the different dyewoods in the Liverpool market, on the 1st September, 1853, per ton:-- £ s. d. £ s. d. FUSTIC, common Spanish 5 10 0 to 6 10 0 Tampico 6 10 0 7 0 0 Puerto Cabello 6 10 0 7 10 0 Cuba 8 0 0 9 10 0 LOGWOOD, Jamaica 5 0 0 5 5 0 St. Domingo 5 5 0 5 10 0 Campeachy, direct 7 12 6 8 0 0 Indirect and Tobasco 6 10 0 7 0 0 NICARAGUA. WOOD. Rio de la Hache, solid 9 0 0 11 10 0 " " small 6 0 0 6 10 0 Lima 12 0 0 14 10 0 BARWOOD, Angola } Gaboon } 7 0 0 ----- CAMWOOD 25 0 0 30 10 0 RED SANDERS WOOD 5 15 0 6 10 0 SAPPAN WOOD 10 0 0 15 0 0 RED SANDERS WOOD (_Pterocarpus santalinus_), which is hard and of a bright garnet red color, is employed to dye a lasting reddish brown on wool. It only yields its color to ether or alcohol. The tree, which is a lofty one, is common about Madras and other parts of India; it is also indigenous to Ceylon, Timor, and other Eastern islands. The exports of this wood from Madras in one year have been nearly 2,000 tons. The imports of red Sanders wood from Calcutta and Bombay chiefly into London are to the extent of 700 or 800 tons a year, worth £6 to £9 per ton. Of FUSTIC we import from 1,500 to 2,000 tons annually. We derive our supplies from Brazil, Tampico, Puerto Cabello, Cuba, and Jamaica. The best is obtained from Cuba; for while the common white fustic from Jamaica and the Spanish Main fetches only £5 10s. to £6 10s. the ton, that of Cuba realizes from £8 to £9 10s. the ton. SAPPAN WOOD (_Cæsalpinia Sappan_) is an article of considerable commerce in the East. It is the bukkum wood of Scinde, and is procured in Mergui, Bengal, the Tenasserim Provinces, Malabar and Ceylon. In 1842 as much 78,000 cwts. were shipped from Ceylon, but the export from thence has decreased. This island, however, ships dyewoods annually to the amount of £2,000. A large quantity is exported from Siam and the Philippine Islands; as much as 200,000 piculs annually from the former, and 23,000 piculs from Manila. 3,524 piculs were shipped from Singapore in 1851, and 4,074 piculs in 1852. The picul is about one cwt. and a quarter. Sappan wood yields a yellowish color, like that of Brazil wood (_C. brasiliensis_) but it does not afford of dye matter so much in quantity or so good in quality. It forms a large export from Ceylon: the shipments from thence were, in 1842, 77,694 cwt.; in 1843, 1,692; in 1844, 2,592; in 1845, 2,854. I have no detailed returns at hand, but in 1837, 23,695 piculs of sappan wood, and 2,266 piculs of roots of ditto were shipped, and in the first six months of 1843, 22,326 piculs were exported from Manila; a large portion of this comes to Europe, but some goes to China, the United States, Singapore, &c. 15,500 piculs were shipped from Manila in 1844, 5,250 ditto in 1845; and 1,210 tons in 1850. About 3,000 piculs of sappan wood and the same quantity of other dye-stuffs are annually imported into Shanghae. The price of straight sappan wood at Shanghae in July, last year, was thirty dollars per picul. In Calcutta, in June last year, 4,000 piculs of the root of Manila sappan wood sold freely at about 7s. 6d. per factory maund, Siam ditto 6s. 75 tons were imported into Liverpool in 1849; and 120 tons in 1850, from Calcutta. The imports of sappan wood into the United Kingdom, in 1850, amounted to 3,670 tons, worth £8 to £12 the ton, and this continued the price in January 1853. Camwood, red sanders wood, barwood, and other dye woods, are found in great quantities in many parts of Africa. The dyes of Africa are found to resist both acids and light, properties which no other dyes seem to possess in the same degree. About thirty miles east of Bassia Cove, in the republic of Liberia, is the commencement of a region of unknown extent, where scarcely any tree is seen except the camwood. This boundless forest of wealth, as yet untouched, is easily accessible from that settlement; roads can be opened to it with little expense, and the neighbouring kings would probably give their co-operation to a measure so vastly beneficial to themselves. It is impossible to ascertain the exact amount of export of these commodities to Europe and the United States, but it is very great, and employs a large amount of vessels. One Liverpool house imported 600 tons in a single year, worth £9,000. In 1841 upwards of 3,000 tons of dye woods were imported into Liverpool from the western coast of Africa. CAMWOOD (_Baphia nitida_) is used as a mordant and for producing the bright red color seen in English bandana handkerchiefs. The imports from Sierra Leone to Liverpool in 1849 were 216 tons, worth £20 to £25 per ton. Gaboon barwood is another variety of this dyewood which is imported from the west coast of Africa, in straight flat pieces, from three to, five feet in length; the average annual import being about 2,000 tons, of the value of £4 a ton. The imports of barwood into Liverpool were in-- Tons. 1835 2,000 1836 1,000 1837 1,150 1838 650 1839 350 1841 2,012 1850 1,710 Dyewoods imported in 1850. Re-exported. Logwood 32,930 4,332 Fustic 9,808 1,771 Nicaragua 7,909 112 Barwood 1,896 1,229 Sappan 3,670 -- Green Ebony, and } Cocuswood } 1,457 -- Red Sanders 656 -- Camwood 416 -- Brazil and Brazillito 309 -- ------ ----- 59,051 7,444 Thus we perceive the annual consumption of heavy dyewoods in this country, in dyeing cotton, linen, woollen and silk goods, &c., exceeds in weight 51,000 tons. ARNOTTO.--The plants of this family are chiefly natives of the warmest parts of South America, the East and West Indies, and Africa. In America the seeds are called achote or roucou. From the port of Barcelona, in Venezuela, about 2,000 quintals are annually exported. The species grown for its dye is the _Bixa orellana_. It is used to impart a bright orange color to silk goods, and to afford a deeper shade to simple yellows. The dry hard paste is also found to be the best of all ingredients for giving a golden tint to cheese or butter. A convenient liquid preparation is now sold to dairymen. The Spanish Americans mix it with their chocolate, to which it gives a beautiful rich hue. It is of two sorts, viz.:-- 1. Flag or cake arnotto, which is by far the most important article in a commercial point of view, is furnished almost wholly by Cayenne. It is imported in square cakes, weighing two or three pounds each, wrapped in banana leaves, packed in casks. 2. Roll arnotto is principally brought from Brazil. The rolls are small, not exceeding two or three ounces in weight. It is hard, dry, and compact, brownish on the outside, and of a beautiful red color within. The dye is usually prepared by macerating the pods in boiling water for a week or longer. When they begin to ferment, the seeds ought to be strongly stirred and bruised with wooden pestles to promote the separation of the red skins. This process is repeated several times, till the seeds are left white. The liquor passed through close cane sieves, pretty thick, of a deep red color, and a very bad smell, is received into coppers. In boiling, it throws up its coloring matter to the surface in the form of scum, which is taken off, saved in large pans, and afterwards boiled down to a due consistence, and then made up, when soft, into balls or cakes of two or three pounds weight. The following description of the manufacture is from Dr. Ure:-- "The pods of the tree being gathered, their seeds are taken out and bruised; they are then transferred to a vat, which is called the steeper, where they are mixed with as much water as covers them. Here the substance is left for several weeks or even months; it is now squeezed through sieves placed above the steeper, that the water containing the coloring matter in suspension may return into the vat. The residuum is preserved under the leaves of the pine-apple shrub, till it becomes hot by fermentation. It is again subjected to the same operation, and this treatment is continued till no more color remains. "The substance thus extracted is passed through sieves, in order to separate the remainder of the seeds, and the color is allowed to subside. The precipitate is boiled in coppers till it be reduced to a consistent paste; it is then suffered to cool, and dried in the shade. Instead of this long and painful labor, which occasions diseases by the putrefaction induced and which affords a spoiled product, Leblond proposes simply to wash the seeds of arnotto till they be entirely deprived of their color, which lies wholly on their surface; to precipitate the color by means of vinegar or lemon juice, and to boil it up in the ordinary manner, or to drain it in bags as is practised with indigo. "The experiments which Vauquelin made on the seeds of arnotto imported by Leblond, confirmed the efficacy of the process which he proposed; and the dyers ascertained that the arnotto obtained in this manner was worth at least four times more than that of commerce; that, moreover, it was more easily employed; that it required less solvents; that it gave less trouble in the copper, and furnished a purer color."--("Dict. of Arts.") Our imports of arnotto for home consumption are from 200,000 to 300,000 lbs. per annum. The plant is grown in Dacca and other parts of India, and the eastern Archipelago. At the Hawaiian Islands, Tongataboo, Rio Janeiro, Peru and Zanzibar, the arnotto is an indigenous shrub which rises to the height of seven or eight feet, producing oblong heavy pods, somewhat resembling those of a chesnut. Within these there are generally thirty or forty irregularly-formed seeds, which are enveloped in a pulp of a bright red color, and a fragrant smell. The imports of arnotto have been as follows:-- Retained for lbs. home consumption. 1834 252,981 -- 1835 163,421 -- 1839 303,489 224,794 1840 408,469 330,490 1847 270,000 296,821 1849 162,400 145,824 1850 301,504 231,280 The price of flag arnotto in the London market, in June 1853, was 1s. per lb. We imported from France, in 1850, 1,924 cwt. of roll or flag arnotto, of the official value of £21,499; and in 1851, 1,253 cwt., worth £13,968. Wood dye exported from Ceylon-- Value Quantity £ cwts. 1848 1,359 -- 1849 2,035 -- 1850 1,766 5,206 1851 259 776 1852 770 2,396 CHAY-ROOT.--There is a plant called chay, the _Oldenlandia umbellata_, which is extensively cultivated as a dye plant in the East, especially on the coasts of Coromandel, Nellore, Masulipatam, Malabar, and other parts of India. The outer bark of the roots furnishes the coloring matter for the durable red for which the chintzes of India are famous. Chay-root forms a considerable article of export from Ceylon. The wild plant there is considered preferable; the roots, which are shorter, yielding one-fourth part more coloring matter, and the right to dig it is farmed out. It grows spontaneously on light, dry, sandy ground on the sea coast; the cultivated roots are slender, with a few lateral fibres, and from one to two feet long. The dye is said to have been tried in Europe, but not with very advantageous effect. Dr. Bancroft suspects it may be injured by the long voyage, but he adds that it cannot produce any effect which may not be more cheaply obtained from madder. This red dye, similar to Munjeet, is used to a great extent in the southern parts of Hindostan by the native dyers. It is not held in very good estimation in Europe but seems to deserve a better reputation than it at present possesses. Attention was drawn to it as a dye-stuff in 1798, by a special minute of the Board of Trade recommending its importation; but Dr. Bancroft, who made some experiments with a sample of damaged chay-root, considered it inferior to madder and hence discouraged its further importation. The bark and root of various species of Morinda (_M. citrifolia_ and _tinctoria_) are used in different parts of the East Indies, and considered a very valuable red dye. The colors dyed with it are for the most part exceedingly brilliant, and the coloring matter is far more permanent than many other red colors are, with improved management it would probably rival that of madder, and is, therefore, worthy more attention from dyers. MANGROVE BARK (_Rhizophora mangle_), is used to dye a chocolate color in the East and West Indies. This was one of the colors introduced by Dr. Bancroft, and for the exclusive use of which he obtained an Act of Parliament. It is procured in plenty at Arracan, Malabar, and Singapore in the East. SHUMAC or SUMACH, sometimes called young fustic, is the powder of the leaves, peduncles, and young branches of a small deciduous plant (_Rhus coriaria_), native of the South of Europe, but which is also grown in Syria and Palestine, for its powerful astringent properties, which renders it valuable for tanning light-colored leather, and it imparts a beautiful bright yellow dye to cottons, which is rendered permanent by proper mordants. It is principally imported from the Ionian Islands and the Morea. The species grown for the purpose in Spain, Portugal, and Italy is _R. Cotinus_, a shrub with pale purple flowers, whereas _R. coriaria_ has greenish yellow blossoms. They may be propagated by cuttings of the roots and layers. _R. typhina_, and _R. glabia_, with their varieties, are North American species, which are also used for tanning purposes. In Montpellier and the South of France the twigs and leaves are known under the name of _redoul_ or _roudo_. They are gathered every year, and the shoots are chipped or reduced to powder by a mill. The imports into the United Kingdom were in 1846,10,256 tons; in 1847, 11,975 tons; in 1848, 9,617 tons; in 1849, 12,590 tons; in 1850, 12,929 tons, and in 1852, 9,758; which were all retained for consumption. In 1841, we received about 9,000 tons from the port of Leghorn. There were exported from Sicily in 1842, 123,305 tons, valued at £68,894. It is imported in packages of about a cwt., wrapped in cloth. America takes a large quantity of sumach. The imports into the port of Boston alone, were 19,070 bags in 1847; 34,524 in 1848; and 30,050 in 1849. The prices in Liverpool, duty paid, in the close of this year, are per cwt.:-- s. d. s. d. Sicily, Messina 10 0 to 10 6 " Palermo 12 0 " 13 0 " Trieste 7 0 " 7 6 " Verona 5 6 " 6 6 " Tyrolese 8 0 " 9 0 SAFFLOWER.--The dried flowers of _Carthamus tinctorius_ yield a pink dye, which is used for silks and cottons, and the manufacture of rouge; the color, however, is very fugitive. It is an annual plant, cultivated in China, India, Egypt, America, Spain, and some of the warmer parts of Europe; and is indigenous to the whole of the Indian Archipelago. A large quantity is grown in and exported from Bali. The Chinese safflower is considered the best, and that from Bombay is least esteemed. The annual quantity exported from the district of Dacca averages about 150 tons. The shipments from Calcutta exceed 300 tons to various quarters. Our imports are on the decline, and are now only about 1,200 cwt. per annum. Safflower was shown in the Great Exhibition from Celebes, Assam, the vicinity of Calcutta, Dacca, the states of Rajpootana, and other places. There are two species: _C. tinctorius_, which has small leaves and an orange flower; and _C. oxyacantha_, with larger leaves and a yellow flower, a native of Caucasus. The former is cultivated in Egypt, the Levant, &c., where it forms a considerable article of commerce. 6,633 cwts. of safflower were imported into the United Kingdom in 1835, of which about one-half was retained for home consumption. Of 5,352 cwts. imported in 1840, nearly the whole came from our possessions in the East. In 1847, about 405 tons were imported; in 1848, 506 tons; in 1849, 407 tons; in 1850, 522 tons. The price of safflower varies from £1 to £8 per cwt., according to quality. That from Bombay is least esteemed, fetching only 20s. to 30s. The annual quantity of safflower, according to Dr. Taylor, exported from the district of Dacca for eight years ending with 1839, amounted to 4,000 maunds, or about 149 tons. The exports through the Calcutta Custom House are occasionally large: in 1824-25 there were about 316 tons; 8,500 Indian maunds were shipped from Calcutta in each of the years 1841 and 1842. The prices in the Liverpool market, in January 1853, were for Bengal, good and fine, £6 to £7 10s. per cwt.; middling, £4 to £4 10s.; inferior and ordinary, £2 10s. to £3. GAMBOGE is extensively used as a pigment, from its bright yellow color. There are two kinds known in commerce, the Ceylon and the Siam. The former is procured from the _Hebradendron Cambogoides_, Graham; a tree which grows wild on the Malabar and Ceylon coasts, and affords the coarsest kind. The pipe gamboge of Siam is said to be obtained from the bruised leaves and young branches of _Stalagmites cambogoides_. The resinous sap is received into calabashes, and allowed to thicken, after which it is formed into rolls. Several other plants, as the _Mangostana Gambogia_, Gaertner, and the _Hypericum bacciferum_ and _Cayanense_, yield similar yellow viscid exudation, hardly distinguishable from gamboge and used for the same purpose by painters. The _Garcinia elliptica_, Wallich, of Tavoy and Moulmein, affords gamboge, and approaches very closely in its characters to Graham's _Hebradendron_. In like manner the Mysore tree bears an exceedingly close resemblance to that species. It is common in the forests of Wynaad in the western part of Mysore, and has been named by Dr. Christison _Hebradendron pictorium_. Another gamboge tree has recently been found inhabiting the western Burmese territories. Both these seem to furnish an equally fine pigment. As it can be obtained in unlimited quantity, it might be introduced into European trade, if the natives learn how to collect it in a state of purity, and make it up in homogenous masses in imitation of pipe gamboge, the finest Siam variety. It seems to possess more coloring matter, more resin and less gum than the ordinary gamboge of commerce. Gamboge owes its color to the fatty acid. The resin must be regarded as the chief constituent, and is most abundant in that imported from Ceylon, which contains about 76 per cent., and is therefore best adapted for painting. Gamboge also has its medicinal uses. Various species of _Lecanora_, particularly _L. tartarea_, known as cudbear, are used in dyeing woollen yarn. The _Rocella tinctoria_ and _fusiformis_ furnish the orchil, or orchilla weed of commerce, which is sometimes sold as a moist pulp, but usually in the form of dry cakes, known under the name of _litmus_; it produces a fine purple color. Our imports, which have amounted to 6,000 or 7,000 cwts. annually, are derived chiefly from the Canary, Azores, and Cape Verd Islands. Rock orchilla was shown at the Exhibition, from the Berlingen Isles, from Angola, Madeira and the Cape de Verds. Orchilla weed is very plentiful about the shores of the islands of New Zealand, some being sent from thence to the Exhibition; but from a want of knowledge as to the time at which it should be gathered, and the mode of preparing it for the market, it has not yet become a saleable commodity there. The rich varieties of lichens on the rocks and plains of Australia have not been tested, as they ought to be, with Helot's lichen test. Various lichens, and _Rocella tinctoria_, from Tenasserim and other parts of India, have been introduced by the East India Company. In the Admiralty instructions given to Capt. Sir James C. Ross, on his Antarctic voyage, a few years ago, his attention was specially called to the search and enquiry for substitutes for the _Rocella_, which is now becoming scarce. A prize medal was awarded, in 1851, to an exhibitor from the Elbe for specimens of the weed, and an extract of red and violet orchil. Specimens of varieties of the lichens used in the manufacture of cudbear, orchil and litmus, and of the substance obtained, were also shown in the British department, which were awarded prize medals. The beauty of the dyes given by common materials, in the Highlands of Scotland, to some of the cloths which were exhibited, should lead our botanists and chemists to examine, more closely than they have hitherto done, the dye-stuffs that might be extracted from British plants. Woad (_Isatis tinctoria_) and the dyers' yellow woad (_Reseda lutea_), are both well known. A piece of tweed, spun and woven in Ross-shire, was dyed brown and black, by such cheap and common dyes as moss and alder bark, and the colors were unexceptionable. Sutherlandshire tweed and stockings, possessing a rich brown color, were produced with no more valuable dye than soot; in another piece, beautifully dyed, the yellow was obtained from stoney rag, brown from the crops of young heather, and purple from the same, but subjecting the yarn to a greater action of the dye than was necessary to produce brown. There is very little doubt but that beautiful and permanent dyes, from brown to a very rich purple, might be cheaply procured by scientific preparations of the common heather (_Genista tinctoria_). The inhabitants of Skye exhibited cloth with a peculiarly rich dye, obtained from the "crobal" moss. In the Spanish department, specimens of vegetable dyes from many cultivated and wild plants were furnished by the Agricultural Board of Saragossa, and of several of these it would be important to obtain descriptions and particulars. Gums are of essential importance to the dyer, and the imports of these, therefore, are large, averaging about 8,000 tons. INDIGO. The plants which afford this dye grow chiefly in the East and West Indies, in the middle regions of America, in Africa and Europe. They are all species of the genera _Indigofera_, _Isatis_ and _Nerium_. _Indigofera tinctoria_ or _coerulea_, furnishes the chief indigo of commerce, and affords in Bengal, Malabar, Madagascar, the Isle of France, and St. Domingo, an article of middling quality, but not in large quantity. The _Indigofera disperma_, a plant cultivated in the East Indies and America, grows higher than the preceding, is woody, and furnishes a superior dye-stuff. The Guatamela indigo comes from this species. _Indigofera Anil_ grows in the same countries, and also in the West Indies. The _Indigofera Argentea_, which flourishes in Africa, yields little indigo, but it is of an excellent quality. _I. pseudotinctoria_, cultivated in the East Indies, furnishes the best of all. _I. glauca_ is the Egyptian and Arabian species. There are also the _cinerea_, _erecta_ (a native of Guinea), _hirsuta_, _glabra_, with red flowers, species common to the East, and several others. The _Wrightia tinctoria_, of the East Indies, an evergreen, with white blossoms, affords some indigo, as does the _Isatis tinctoria_, or, Woad, in Europe, and the _Polygonum tinctorium_, with red flowers, a native of China. _Baptisia tinctoria_ furnishes a blue dye, and is the wild indigo of the United States. SOURCES OF SUPPLY.--Indigo is at present grown for commercial purposes in Bengal, and the other provinces of that Presidency, from the 20th to the 30th deg. of north latitude; in the Province of Tinnevelly; in the Madras Presidency; in Java, in the largest of the Philippine islands, in Guatemala, Caraccas, Central America and Brazil. Bengal is, however, the chief mart for indigo, and the quantity produced in other places is comparatively inconsiderable. It is also still cultivated in some of the West India islands, especially St. Domingo, but not in large quantities. Indigo grows wild in several parts of Palestine, but attention seems not to have been given to its cultivation or collection. On most parts of the eastern and western coasts of Africa, it is indigenous; at Sierra Leone, Natal, and other places it is found abundant. In our settlements of Honduras, Demerara, and various portions of the American continent, it would amply reward the labor of the cultivator; several inferior sorts of Indigofera being found there indigenous, and only requiring care and culture to improve them. The quality of indigo depends upon the species of the plant, its ripeness, the soil and climate of its growth, and the mode of manufacture. The East India, and Brazilian indigo arrives here packed in chests, the Guatemala in ox-hides, called serons. The indigo imported from the western hemisphere was for some time considered superior in quality to that of the East. Its cultivation, however, has been neglected, and the Bengal indigo is preferred at present to any imported from South America, where it is now only cultivated by the Brazilians and Colombians. If proper attention were paid to the cultivation of the plant, and to the preparation of the dye, it is very likely part of that important trade would be brought back. It thrives best in a moist climate, and the interior of Guiana, chiefly newly-cleared land, would be well adapted for it. The late Mr. Dunlop ("Travels in Central America") gives an interesting description, which, at the risk of repetition in some points, I shall give entire. "Several vessels generally arrive at the Union from South America at the time of the periodical fairs, where nearly all the indigo (the only produce of any importance), is disposed of; formerly it reached 10,000 bales, but at present it does not at most exceed 3,000 bales of 150 lbs. each. The indigo well known in Europe by the name of Guatemala indigo, was never cultivated in that province (in the same manner as not a grain of the Honduras cochineal is grown there), being entirely grown in the state of San Salvador, in the vicinity of San Miguel, San Vicenti, and the City of Salvador, with the exception of a small quantity of very superior quality grown in the state of Nicaragua, and a few bales in Costa Rica, which is all consumed in the State. Under the government of Spain, the produce of the state of San Salvador alone had reached 10,000 bales, and that of Nicaragua 2,000; the produce of San Salvador in 1820, two years before its independence, being 8,323 bales. But since 1822 the annual produce had gradually declined, and in 1846 it did not exceed 1,000 to 1,200 bales, nearly all the indigo estates being abandoned, partly, no doubt, from the great fall in the price of the article, but more on account of the impossibility of getting laborers to work steadily. The plant cultivated in Central America for the manufacture of indigo, is the triennial plant, supposed to be a native of America; but there is also an indigenous perennial plant, abounding in many parts of Central America, which produces indigo of a very superior quality, but gives less than half the weight which is produced by the cultivated species. The ground for sowing the indigo seed is prepared in April,--a piece of good forest land near one of the towns being selected, a part is cut to make a rude fence, and the remainder burnt, which is easily accomplished, as everything is very dry at that season; and the ground is afterwards scratched with two sticks, fastened crosswise, to resemble somewhat the shape of a plough, and the seed scattered over it by hand. The rainy season always commences early in May, and the indigo is ready for cutting about the middle of July, taking about two and a half months to come to perfection. The growing crop somewhat resembles lucerne, and is in the best state for making indigo, when it becomes covered with a sort of greenish farina. The crop of the first year is small, and sometimes not worth manufacturing; that of the second year is the best, and the third is also very good, if it has been carefully weeded; but many indigo fields have lasted more than ten years without being re-sown, as the seed which falls naturally springs up again, and where the land is good yields nearly as large a crop as a new sown field. When the plant is ready for manufacturing, a number of men are collected, each of whom is either provided with, or brings his own mule or horse, if he has one. Two men always go together, cut the plant, then about the height of full-grown red clover, and take it to the vats, which are large tanks made of brick and lime, holding at least 1,000 gallons, and some as much as 10,000. Into these the plant is thrown till they are nearly full, when weights are put above it to prevent its floating; and the vats filled with water till it covers the mass of the indigo plant. After remaining from twelve to twenty-four hours, according to the state of the plant, weather, and other circumstances (the time required being determined by the color which the water assumes), the herb is taken out, and the water beaten with paddles in the very small vats, and by a wheel suspended above and turned by men or horses in the larger ones, till it changes from a green color, which it has acquired ere the removal of the herb, to a fine blue, when it is allowed to stand for some hours, till the coloring matter has settled to the bottom of the tank, a process which is generally hastened by throwing in an infusion of certain herbs to facilitate its settlement, or as the natives term it curdle (_cuajar_) the colored water. As soon as all the color has settled, the water is drawn off, and the blue, which is of the consistency of thick mud, is taken out of the vat and spread upon cotton, or coarse woollen cloth, and dried in the sun. The color in a great measure depends upon removing the herb exactly at the proper time, and upon properly beating the water, neither too long, or too short. Unless these processes are properly performed, the indigo will not be of first-rate quality; but some estates will never produce the best indigo, whatever care may be bestowed on the manufacture. A _mansana_, of 100 yards square, which is nearly two British statute acres, produces generally about 100 to 120 lbs. of indigo, the carriage and cutting of the herb costing about twenty dollars, and the cleaning of the field and all other expenses connected with it, including the manufacture of the indigo, about as much more. The indigo of Central America is not put into moulds when drying, as that of Bengal, but is allowed to remain in the rough shape in which it dries, and without further preparation is ready for baling and exportation. The bales are generally made up in 150 lbs. each, and the quality is classed by numbers, from 1 to 9; Nos. 1 to 3 being of the quality called _cobres_ in Europe; Nos. 4 to 6 of that called _cortes_, and Nos. 7 to 9 of that called _flores_; Nos. 1 to 6 do not at present pay the expenses of manufacture, and are never intentionally made. No doubt, with a little more skill in the manufacture, the whole might, as in Bengal, be made of the quality called _flores_; but such improvements cannot be expected till a new race of people inhabit Central America. At present about one-half of the indigo produced is under No. 7, and as the cultivation is said not to pay at the present prices--and, indeed, hardly can be supposed to compete with Bengal, a country where labor is so much cheaper, and capital abundant--it is probable, that the cultivation will shortly be entirely abandoned, unless the price should again rise in Europe." In 1846, 21,933 lbs. of indigo were exported from Angostura. The following particulars were contributed to my "Colonial Magazine," by the late Dr. Edward Binns, of Jamaica:-- The species generally cultivated is the _I. tinctoria_, which requires a rich moist soil and warm weather. The seed, which is at first sight not unlike coarse gunpowder, is sown three or four inches deep, in straight lines, twelve or fifteen inches apart. The shoots appear above ground in about a week; at the end of two months the plant flowers, when it is fit for cutting, which is done with a pruning knife. It must be mentioned that great care is requisite in weeding the indigo field when plants first shoot through the earth. In the State of St. Salvador, large vats made of mahogany, or other hard wood, are constructed for the reception of the plant, where it is allowed to undergo maceration and fermentation. In a short time the water becomes greenish, and emits a strong pungent smell, while carbonic acid gas is freely evolved. In about twenty-four hours it is run off into large flat vessels, and stirred about until a blue scum appears, when additional water is added, and the blue flakes sink to the bottom. The supernatant water has now acquired a yellowish tinge, when it is run off carefully, and the blue deposit or sediment put into bags to drain. It is subsequently dried in the shade, or sometimes in the sun, then placed in cotton bags and carried to the indigo fair, or forwarded to the city of Guatemala. The East Indian mode of manufacturing the indigo differs materially, and many suppose it preferable to the Salvador. It consists in _steaming_ the fermented mass in large pipes enclosed in huge boilers. I am inclined to believe this to be the most economical, if not the best way of manufacturing indigo. From Guatemala alone, it is computed that from 6,000 to 8,000 serons of indigo are exported annually; while San Miguel, Chalatenaugo, Tejulta, Secatecolnea, St. Vincent, Sensuntepepe, not only, it is said, produce a larger quantity, but the four last-mentioned places have the advantage as to quality. The _Belize Advertiser_ stated, some time since, that the value of this dye from one State in 1830 produced 2,000,000 dollars, the minimum of an immense sum which has been most unjustly and unwisely wrested from the people of Jamaica, and the West India islands. Bridges ("Annals of Jamaica," p. 584, Append.), speaking of the vast returns of an indigo plantation, says, "The labour of a single negro would often bring to his owner £30 sterling per annum clear profit,--a sum which was at the time the laborer's highest price. It continued the _staple_ of Jamaica till an intolerable tax oppressed it, while its price was lowered by the competition of other colonies. Its cultivation immediately declined throughout them all, but nowhere so rapidly as here. The financial error was quickly discovered,--a remedy was attempted by a bounty; but it came too late, the plantations were thrown up, and the planters, attracted by the temporary gain, abused the tardy boon, by introducing, as of their own growth, large quantities of foreign indigo." As Bridges may be said in this passage to be merely a commentator on Edwards, who has entered more largely upon the subject, I shall condense from the latter, statements connected with the manufacture and decay of this branch of industry, once the staple of Jamaica. Edwards ("West Indies," vol. ii., p. 275, 2nd edition) reckons three kinds of indigo--the wild, Guatemala, and French. The first is the hardest, and the dye extracted from it of the best quality as regards color and grain; but one or other of the two species is commonly preferred by the planter, as yielding a greater return. Of these the French surpasses the Guatemala in quantity, but yields to it in fineness of grain and beauty of color. The indigo thrives almost on any land, though the richest soils produce the most luxuriant plants, and the longest dry weather will not kill it. The cultivation and manufacture our author thus describes:--"The land being prepared, trenches, two or three inches in depth, are made by the hoe. These are ten or twelve inches asunder. The seeds are then strewed in the trenches by the hand, and slightly covered with mould. When the plants shoot, they are carefully weeded, and kept constantly clean, until they rise high enough to cover the ground. A bushel of seed is sufficient for four or five acres. The best season for planting is March; but if the land be good, it may be sown at any time, and in three months the plants attain maturity. In seasonable situations, they have four cuttings in the year. The subsequent growths from the plants ripen in six or eight weeks; but the produce diminishes after the second cutting, so that the seeds should be sown every second year. A species of grub, or worm, which infests the plant on the second year is avoided by changing the soil; or, in other words, by a rotation of crops. The produce per acre of the first cutting is about 60 lbs. It is nearly as much in North America; but when the thermometer falls to sixty, the returns are very uncertain, that degree of heat being too low for the necessary vegetation, maceration, and fermentation. The yieldings for the subsequent cuttings somewhat diminish; but in Jamaica and St. Domingo, if the land is new, about 300 lbs. per acre of the second quality may be expected annually from all the cuttings together; and four negroes are sufficient to carry on the cultivation of five acres, besides doing other occasional work, sufficient to reimburse the expenses of their maintenance and clothing." The process for obtaining the dye, according to the same author, was conducted through the means of two cisterns, the one elevated above the other, in the manner of steps. The higher, which was also the longer, was named the _sleeper_--its dimensions sixteen feet square and two and a half in depth. The second, into which the fluid was discharged, was called the _battery_; it was about twelve feet square, and four and a half in depth. These cisterns were of stone; but strong timber answered remarkably well. There was also a lime-vat, six feet square and four feet deep, the plug of which was at least eight inches from the bottom. This was for the purpose of permitting the lime to subside, before the lime-water was withdrawn. The plants then being ripe, or fit for cutting, were cut with reaping-hooks, or sickles, a few inches from the ground--six was the minimum--and placed by strata in the _sleeper_, until it was about three parts full. They were then pressed with boards, either loaded with weights or wedged down, so as to prevent the plants from floating loosely; and as much water was admitted as they would imbibe, until it covered the mass four or five inches deep. In this state it was allowed to ferment until the water had extracted the pulp. To know when this had been thoroughly effected, required extreme attention and great practical knowledge; for if the fluid were drawn off too soon, much of the pulp was left behind; and if the fermentation continued too long, the tender tops of the plants were decomposed, and the whole crop lost. When the tincture or extract was received in the battery, it was agitated or churned until the dye began to granulate, or float in little flakes upon the surface. This was accomplished at one period in Jamaica by paddles, worked by manual labor, and, in the French islands, by buckets or cylinders, worked by long poles; but subsequently--that is, at the time Edwards wrote--convenient apparatus was constructed, the levers of which were worked by a cog-wheel, kept in motion by a horse or mule. When the fluid had been churned for fifteen or twenty minutes, a small quantity was examined in a cup or plate, and if it appeared curdled or coagulated, strongly impregnated lime-water was gradually added, not only with a view to promote separation, but to prevent decomposition. Browne remarks ("Civil and Nat. Hist. of Jamaica," art. "Indigo"), the planters "must carefully distinguish the different stages of this part of the operation also, and attentively examine the appearance and color as the work advances,--for the grain passes gradually from a greenish to a fine purple, which is the proper color when the liquor is sufficiently worked,--too small a degree of agitation leaving the indigo green and coarse, while too vigorous an action brings it to be almost black." The liquor being then, as we shall suppose, properly worked, and granulation established, it was left undisturbed until the flakes settled at the bottom, when the liquor was drawn off, and the sediment (which is the indigo) placed in little bags to drain, after which it was carefully packed in small square boxes, and suffered to dry gradually in the shade. Such is the account, nearly word for word, which Edwards gives of the mode of manufacturing indigo. I shall now quote his remarks upon the outlay and gain upon the article _verbatim_.--"To what has been said above of the nature of the plant suiting itself to every soil, and producing four cuttings in the year, if we add the cheapness of the buildings, apparatus, and labor, and the great value of the commodity, there will seem but little cause for wonder at the splendid accounts which are transmitted down to us concerning the great opulence of the first indigo-planters. Allowing the produce of an acre to be 300 lbs., and the produce no more than 4s. per pound, the gross profit of only twenty acres will be £1,200, produced by the labor of only sixteen negroes, and on capital in land and buildings scarce deserving consideration." Yet, notwithstanding this statement, the author informs us afterwards that he knew, in the course of eighteen years' residence in the West Indies, upwards of twenty persons who tried to re-establish indigo manufactories, but failed. This appears strange, since it is plain that what has once been done can be done again, but especially in the manufacture of an article requiring a capital so very small in proportion to the profits as almost to tempt the most cautious and the most timid man to embark in it. I quote the following passage from the same author, for the purpose of showing the very loose manner in which statements are made on the authority of others, who are as incompetent to decide the merits of a question as the party himself chronicling their opinion. Speaking of the twenty unfortunate indigo-planters, our author thus writes:--"Many of them were men of foresight, knowledge, and property. That they failed is certain; but of _the causes of their_ FAILURE _I confess I can give no satisfactory account._ I was told that disappointment trod close upon their heels at every stop. At one time the fermentation was too long continued, at another the liquor was drawn off too soon; now the pulp was not duly granulated, and now it was worked too much. To these inconveniences, for which practice would doubtless have found a remedy, were added others of a much greater magnitude--the mortality of the negroes, from the vapour of fermented liquor (an alarming circumstance, that, I am informed, both by the French and English planters, constantly attends the process), the failure of the seasons, and the ravages of the worm. These, or some of these evils, drove them at length to other pursuits, where industry might find a surer recompense."--(p. 283.) The fallacy of much of this requires no comment, as it must strike even the most careless reader,--for if the so-called indigo-growers did not know the process of manufacturing the commodity, then it could not be surprising that they failed. Thus the cause of their failure required no comment, and no explanation. Were a ploughman taken from the field and placed at the helm of a ship, and the vessel in consequence wrecked, would any one be astonished but at the folly of those who placed him there? This was the case with the indigo-growers,--they attempted what they did not understand, and, consequently, lost their labor and their money. The mortality of the negroes employed, stated as another reason for abandoning the attempt, requires a somewhat more lengthy notice. I can briefly say, that I have learned that in the Central States of America, deaths among indigo-laborers are not more frequent than in other branches of tropical industry; and I never heard or have read that the _original_ growers complained of the mortality attending the progress. The truth is, that this statement is not founded on fact. There is nothing whatever in the manufacture of indigo, either in the cultivation or the granulation, or even the maceration and fermentation of the plant, which is directly or indirectly, _per se_, injurious to human life. I have certainly never seen the indigo plant macerated on a large scale; but I have myself steeped much of it in water, and allowed it even to rot, and found nothing in the mass differing in any marked degree from decomposed vegetable matter. It seems to me that this idea of the manufacture of indigo being especially inimical to human life, is as unfounded as the belief, even by Humboldt, up to a very recent period, that none of the Cerealia would grow in tropical climates. In conversing with an old gentleman in Jamaica, some twelve years since, who had tried the manufacture of indigo, and with every prospect of success, but abandoned it, as he confessed, for the cultivation of the sugar cane, since it was then more profitable, he suggested the solution, that as the manufacture was light work, probably aged and debilitated, in place of youthful and vigorous slaves, were too frequently employed in the process--hence the mortality. This may be correct to a certain extent; but I am also inclined to think that another cause of mortality might be found in the mode and manner in which the negro was fed and clothed, and not because aged persons were exclusively engaged in the manufacture. I believe I may state, without fear of contradiction, that the real cause of the decline and consequent abandonment of the indigo plant was the monstrous duty levied upon it by the English government. Indeed, this has been already stated in the extract from Bridges; while the cause of the failure of the attempt to renew it, over and above the reasons we have given, was the greater temptation to embark capital in sugar plantations,--the West Indies enjoying a monopoly in this article, while they had competitors in the Southern States of America in the other. I have, therefore, no hesitation in saying, that, with a trifling capital, under prudent management, indigo might be cultivated to a very great extent, and with considerable profit, even now, in Jamaica. But the adventurer is not to expect to count his gains, as the original growers did, by thousands; he must be content with hundreds, if not fifties; for at the present day every branch of industry is laden with difficulties, encumbered by taxation, and obstructed by competition. There are two objections, however, which I have not removed,--I allude to "the failure of the seasons and the ravages of the worm." Very little need be said to combat these. Seasons are mutable, and the same heaven that frowns this year on the labors of the husbandman, may smile the next; while a remedy for the "ravages of the worm" may be found in the mutation of the soil, the destruction of the grub, or the rotation of crops,--accessories to success which seem not to have entered into the vocabularies of the twenty pseudo indigo-growers, "many of them men of knowledge, foresight and property." The following passage from Bryan Edwards will corroborate much that I have endeavored to enforce. It furnishes not only a solution which has been hinted at before, of the enigma why indigo ceased to be cultivated in Jamaica, but also _an incentive_ to re-introduce the culture. He says (p. 444), "It is a remarkable and well-known circumstance, after the cultivation of indigo was suppressed by an exorbitant duty of near £20 the hundred-weight, Great Britain was compelled to pay her rivals and enemies £200,000 annually for this commodity, so essential to a great variety of her most important manufactures. At length, the duty being repealed, and a bounty some time after substituted in its place, the States of Georgia and South Carolina entered upon, and succeeding in the culture of this valuable plant, supplied at a far cheaper rate than the French and Spaniards (receiving too our manufactures in payment) not only the British consumption, but also enabled Great Britain to export a surplus at an advanced price to foreign markets."--It is therefore plain that the manufacture of indigo was lost to Jamaica, not from any difficulty in growing the plant, or from any loss of life attending the process of manufacturing it, but from the ruinously heavy duty of £20 the hundred-weight--and that now, when no duty exists, it might be again cultivated with great advantage. The cultivation of indigo has been repeatedly attempted in Cuba, but never with much success; although the shrub called the Xiquilite, from which it is extracted, grows wild in several districts of the island, but more especially towards the eastern extremity. The first _anileria_, or manufactory of indigo, was established in 1795, under the patronage of the _Ayuntamento_ of the Havana, who made an advance of 3,500 dollars, without interest, to the party engaging in the speculation, in order to encourage the enterprise; but the undertaking proved unsuccessful, and the same fate has befallen every subsequent attempt to introduce this branch of industry. In 1827, the whole produce amounted only to 56 arrobas. In 1837 the imports of indigo greatly exceeded the exports; the former having amounted to 121,350 lbs., and the latter to 82,890 lbs. In 1833, 5,184 lbs. reached the United Kingdom from the Havana, and in 1843, 62,675 lbs. In 1826 British Honduras exported 358,552 lbs.; in 1830, 2,650 serons; in 1844, 1,247 serons; and in 1845, 1,052 serons. The indigo shrub is one of the most common bushes in Trinidad, where it grows wild on almost all the indifferent soils. In 1783, there were several plantations and manufactories of indigo established in Trinidad; these were subsequently abandoned, on account of a supposition that they were unhealthy. Prior to 1783, the colonists had a kind of simple process by which they extracted sufficient coloring matter to serve domestic consumption. This process is at present unknown, hence all the indigo used there is imported from Europe, although the plant from which it can be made vegetates in every direction. In 1791 Hayti imported 930,016 lbs. of indigo, while in 1804 the export had dwindled to 35,400 lbs. Indigo, as I have already stated, was once a most important crop in South Carolina, some attention has recently again been given to it by an individual or two in Louisiana, and the enterprise is said to promise success; enough might undoubtedly be raised in the United States to supply the home market. Some indigo produced at Baton Rouge was pronounced to have been equal to the best Caraccas, which sells at two dollars per pound; and the gentleman who cultivated it remarks, that one acre of ground there, well cultivated, will yield from 40 to 60 lbs.; that it requires only from July to October for cultivating it; that there is not connected with it one-third of the expense or time that is generally required for the cultivation of cotton. I take the following from Smyth's "Tour in the United States." "This plant is somewhat like the fern when grown, and when young is hardly distinguishable from lucern grass, its leaves in general are pinnated, and terminated by a single lobe; the flowers consist of five leaves, and are of the papilonaceous kind, the uppermost petal being longer and rounder than the rest, and lightly furrowed on the side, the lower ones are short and end in a point; in the middle of the flower is formed the style, which afterwards becomes a pod containing the seeds. "They cultivate three sorts of indigo in Carolina, which demand the same variety of soils. First, the French or Hispaniola indigo, which striking a long tap root will only flourish in a deep rich soil, and therefore, though an excellent sort, is not so much cultivated in the maritime parts of the State, which are generally sandy, but it is produced in great perfection one hundred miles backwards; it is neglected too on another account, for it hardly bears a winter so sharp as that of Carolina. The second sort, which is the false Guatemala, or true Bahamas, bears the winter better, is a more tall and vigorous plant, is raised in greater quantities from the same compass of ground, is content with the worst soil in the country, and is therefore more cultivated than the first soil, though inferior in the quality of its dye. "The third sort is the wild indigo, which is indigenous here; this, as it is a native of the country, answers the purposes of the planter best of all, with regard to the hardiness of the plant, the easiness of the culture, and the quantity of the produce. Of the quality there is some dispute not yet settled amongst the planters themselves; nor can they distinctly tell when they are to attribute the faults of their indigo to the nature of the plant, to the seasons, which have much influence upon it, or to some defect in the manufacture. "The time of planting the indigo is generally after the first rains succeeding the vernal equinox; the seed is sown in small straight trenches, about eighteen or twenty inches asunder; when it is at its height, it is generally eighteen inches tall. It is fit for cutting, if all things answer well, in the beginning of July. "Towards the end of August a second cutting is obtained, and if they have a mild autumn, there is a third cutting at Michaelmas. The indigo land must be weeded every day, the plants cleansed from worms, and the plantation attended with the greatest care and diligence. About twenty-five hands may manage a plantation of fifty acres, and complete the manufacture of the drug, besides providing their own necessary subsistence and that of the planter's family. "Each acre yields, if the land be very good, 60 or 70 lbs. weight of indigo, at a medium the produce is 50 lbs. This however, is reckoned by many skilful planters but a very indifferent crop. "When the plant is beginning to blossom it is fit for cutting, and when cut great care ought to be taken to bring it to the steeper without pressing or shaking it, as great part of the beauty of the indigo depends upon the fine farina, which adheres to the leaves of this plant. The apparatus for making indigo is inconsiderable and not expensive, for besides a pump, the whole consists only of vats and tubs of cypress wood, common and cheap in this country. "The indigo, when cut, is first laid in a vat, about twelve or fourteen feet long and four feet deep, to the height of about fourteen inches, to macerate and digest; then this vessel, which is called the _steeper_, is filled with water; the whole having laid from about twelve to sixteen hours, according to the weather, begins to ferment, swell, rise, and grow sensibly warm. At this time spars of wood are run across, to mark the highest point of its ascent; when it falls below this mark, they judge that the fermentation has attained its due pitch, and begins to abate; this directs the manager to open a cock, and let off the water into another vat, which is called the _beater_; the gross matter that remains in the first vat is carried off to manure the ground, for which purpose it is excellent, and new cuttings are put in, as long as the harvest of the weed continues. When the water, strongly impregnated with the particles of indigo, has run into the second vat or beater, they attend with a sort of bottomless buckets, with long handles, to work and agitate it, when it froths, ferments, and rises above the rim of the vessel that contains it. To allay this violent fermentation, oil is thrown in as the froth rises, which instantly sinks it. When this beating has continued for twenty, thirty, or thirty-five minutes, according to the state of the weather (for in cool weather it requires the longest continued beating), a small muddy grain begins to be formed; the salts and other particles of the plant united, dissolved, and before mixed with the water, are now re-united together, and begin to granulate. To discover these particles the better, and to find when the liquor is sufficiently beaten, they take up some of it from time to time on a plate, or in a glass; when it appears in a hopeful condition, they let loose some lime water from an adjacent vessel, gently stirring the whole, which wonderfully facilitates the operation; the indigo granulates more fully, the liquor assumes a purplish color, and the whole is troubled and muddy; it is now suffered to settle; then the clearer part is permitted to run off into another succession of vessels, from whence the water is conveyed away as fast as it clears on the top, until nothing remains but a thick mud, which is put into bags of coarse linen. These are hung up and left for some time until the moisture is entirely drained off. "To finish the drying, this mud is turned out of the bags, and worked upon boards of some porous timber, with a wooden spatula; it is frequently exposed to the morning and evening sun, but for a short time only; and then it is put into boxes or frames, which is called the curing, exposed again to the sun in the same cautious manner, until, with great labor and attention the operation is finished, and the valuable drug fitted for the market. The greatest skill and care is required in every part of the process, or there may be great danger of ruining the whole; the water must not be suffered to remain too short or too long a time, either in the steeper or beater; the beating itself must be nicely managed, so as not to exceed or fall short; and in the curing the exact medium between too much or too little drying is not easily attained. Nothing but experience can make the overseers skilful in these matters. There are two methods of trying the goodness of indigo; by fire and by water. If it swims it is good, if it sinks it is inferior, the heavier the worse; so if it wholly dissolves in water it is good. Another way of proving it, is by the fire ordeal; if it entirely burns away it is good, the adulterations remain untouched." Indigo to the extent of 220,000 lbs. per annum is grown in Egypt. The leaves are there thrown into earthen vessels, which are buried in pits and filled with water; heat is applied, and the liquid is boiled away until the indigo becomes of a fit consistence, when it is pressed into shape and dried. Many Armenians have been invited from the East Indies to teach the fellahs the best mode of preparation, and, in consequence, nine indigo works have been established belonging to the government. The indigo plant is found scattered like a weed abundantly over the face of the country in the district of Natal, Eastern Africa. It is said that there are no less than ten varieties of the plant commonly to be met with there. Mr. Blaine submitted, in 1848, to the Manchester Chamber of Commerce, a small specimen of this dye-stuff, which had been extracted by a rude process from a native plant, which was pronounced by good authority to be of superior quality, and worth 3s. 4d. per pound. Mr. W. Wilson, a settler at Natal, in a letter to the editor of the _Natal Witness_, thus speaks of the culture:-- "My attention was first forcibly drawn to the cultivation of indigo by some seed imported by Mr. Kinlock, from India. This seed, on trial, I found to grow luxuriantly; and after a few experiments I succeeded in manufacturing the dye. The success which thus attended my first attempts has encouraged me to try indigo planting on a more extensive scale. For this purpose I am allowing all the plants of this season to run to seed, and intend to plant equal quantities of Bengal and native indigo. While my attention was engaged in these preliminary experiments, I observed that the country abounded in a variety of species of indigo, and by a series of experiments found it rich and abundant, and have since learnt that it is known and in use among the natives, and called by them Umpekumbeto. This of course induced further inquiry, and on consulting different works I find that the Cape of Good Hope possesses more species of indigo than the whole world besides. Now I take it for granted that if Providence has placed these materials within our reach, it was evidently intended that we should, by the application of industry, appropriate them to our use. It becomes, then, a matter of necessity that indigo must thrive, this being its native soil and climate; and the experiments I have successfully made, go to support me in the opinion that the cultivation of indigo will bring an ample reward. Indeed it seems contrary to the laws of nature that it should be otherwise. I have obtained from the 140th part of an acre the proportion of 300 lbs. of indigo per acre. That the plant will cross successfully, I have also ascertained." _Cultivation in India._--During the nine years which preceded the opening of the trade with India in 1814, the annual average produce of indigo in Bengal, for exportation, was nearly 5,600,000 lbs. But since the ports were opened, the indigo produced for exportation has increased fully a third; the exports during the sixteen years ending with 1829-30, being above 7,400,000 lbs. a year. The consumption in the United Kingdom has averaged, during the last ten years, about 2,500,000 lbs. a year. In 1839-40 the export of indigo from Madras amounted to 1,333,808 lbs. A small quantity is also exported from the French settlement of Pondicherry. In 1837 the export from Manila amounted to about 250,000 lbs. The export from Batavia in 1841 amounted to 913,693 lbs., and the production in 1843 was double that amount. The annual exports of indigo, from all parts of Asia and the Indian Archipelago, were taken by M'Culloch, in 1840, to be 12,440,000 lbs. The imports are about 20,000 chests of Bengal, and 8,000 from Madras annually, of which 9,000 or 10,000 are used for home consumption, and the rest re-exported. The total crop of indigo in the Bengal Presidency has ranged, for the last twenty years, at from 100,000 to 172,000 factory maunds; the highest crop was in 1845. The factory maund of indigo in India is about 78 lbs. In the delta of the Ganges, where the best and largest quantity of indigo is produced, the plant lasts only for a single season, being destroyed by the periodical inundation; but in the dry central and western provinces, one or two _ratoon_ crops are obtained. The culture of indigo is very precarious, not only in so far as respects the growth of the plant from year to year, but also as regards the quantity and quality of the drug which the same amount of plant will afford in the same season. The fixed capital required, as I have already shown, in the manufacture of indigo, consists simply of a few vats of common masonry for steeping the plant, and precipitating the coloring matter; a boiling and drying house, and a dwelling for the planter. Thus a factory of ten pair of vats, capable of producing, at an average, 12,500 lbs. of indigo, worth on the spot £2,500, will not cost above £1,500 sterling. The buildings and machinery necessary to produce an equal value in sugar and rum, would probably cost about £4,000. The indigo of Bengal is divided into two classes, called, in commercial language, Bengal and Oude; the first being the produce of the southern provinces of Bengal and Bahar, and the last that of the northern provinces, and of Benares. The first class is in point of quality much superior to the other. The inferiority of the Oude indigo is thought to be more the result of soil and climate, than of any difference in the skill with which the manufacture is conducted. The indigo of Madras, which is superior to that of Manila, is about equal to ordinary Bengal indigo. The produce of Java is superior to these. Large quantities of indigo, of a very fine quality, are grown in Scinde. I have to acknowledge the receipt, from the Indian Government, of an interesting collection of documents on the culture and manufacture of indigo in Upper Scinde. The papers are chiefly from the pen of Mr. Wood, Deputy Collector of Sukkur, though there are several others, perhaps of much value, from various other of the revenue officers of Scinde. Mr. Wood is of opinion that Scinde is much better suited than Bengal for the production of this dye-stuff--the alluvial soil on the banks of the Indus is equal in richness to that on those of the Ganges, and the climate seems equally well suited for the growth of the plant. But in two years out of three, the crops of the Bengal planter are injured by excessive inundations, while the work of gathering and manipulation is necessarily performed, during the rainy season, under the greatest imaginable disadvantages. In Scinde, on the other hand, the inundation of the river is produced almost solely from the melting of the snows in the Himalayas, and it is not liable to those excessive fluctuations in amount, or that suddenness in appearance peculiar to inundations chiefly arising from falls of rain. The Granges sometimes rises ten feet in four-and-twenty hours, and at some part of its course its depth is at times forty feet greater during a flood than in fair weather, while the Indus rarely rises above a foot a day, its extreme flood never exceeding fifteen feet, the limits and amount of the inundation being singularly uniform over a succession of years. Moreover, as rain hardly ever falls in Scinde, and when it does so only continues over a few days, and extends to the amount of three or four inches, no danger or inconvenience from this need be apprehended. Mr. Wood mentions that hemp may be grown in profusion on the indigo grounds, and that were the production of the dye once introduced, it would bring hundreds of thousands of acres now barren into cultivation, and secure the growth or manufacture of a vast variety of other commodities for which the country is eminently fitted. An experimental factory might, it is believed, be set up for from two to three thousand pounds, but this appears to be an amount of adventure from which the Government shrinks. The districts of Kishnagar, Jessore, and Moorshedabad, in Bengal, ranging from 88 to 90 degs. E. latitude, and 22½ to 24 degs. N. longitude, produce the finest indigo. That from the districts about Burdwan and Benares is of a coarser or harsher grain. Tirhoot, in latitude 26 degs., yields a tolerably good article. The portion of Bengal most propitious to the cultivation of indigo, lies between the river Hooghly and the main stream of the Ganges. In the East Indies, after having ploughed the ground in October, November, and the beginning of December, they sow the seed in the last half of March and the beginning of April, while the soil, being neither too hot nor too dry, is most propitious to its germination. A light mould answers best; and sunshine, with occasional light showers, are most favorable to its growth. Twelve pounds of seed are sufficient for sowing an acre of land. The plants grow rapidly, and will bear to be cut for the first time at the beginning of July; nay, in some districts so early as the middle of June. The indications of maturity are the bursting forth of the flower buds, and the expansion of the blossoms; at which period the plant abounds most in the dyeing principle. Another indication is taken from the leaves, which, if they break across when doubled flat, denote a state of maturity. But this character is somewhat fallacious, and depends upon the poverty or richness of the soil. When much rain falls, the plants grow too rapidly, and do not sufficiently elaborate the blue pigment. Bright sunshine is most advantageous to its production. The first cropping of the plants is the best; after two months a second is made; after another interval a third, and even a fourth; but each of these is of diminished value. _Culture in India._--For the following excellent account of the modes of culture, and practice, &c., in Bengal, and other parts of India, I am indebted to Mr. G. W. Johnson, one of the correspondents of my "Colonial Magazine." Mr. Johnson, besides his own Indian experience, has consulted all the best authorities, and the opinions of contributors to the leading periodicals of Calcutta on this important subject:-- When America became known to Europeans, its indigo became to them a principal object of cultivation, and against their skill the native Hindostanee had nothing to oppose, but the cheapness of his simple process of manufacture. The profit and extent of the trade soon induced Europeans to brave the perils of distance and climate to cultivate the plant in Hindostan; but these obstacles, added to the superior article manufactured by the French and Spaniards in the West Indies, would long have held its produce in India in subordination, if the anarchy and wars incident to the French Revolution, especially when they reached St. Domingo, had not almost annihilated the trade from the West, and consequently proportionally fostered that in the East. The indigo produce of St. Domingo was nearly as large as that of all the other West India islands together. From the time that the negroes revolted in that island, the cultivation of indigo has increased in Hindostan, until it has become one of its principal exports, and the quality of the article manufactured is not inferior to that of any other part of the world. The most general mode of obtaining the necessary supply of _weed_, as it is called by the planter, is as follows:--The land attached to the factory is parcelled out among the ryots or farmers, who contract to devote a certain portion of their farm to the cultivation of indigo, and to deliver it, for a fixed price per bundle, at the factory; a sum of money, usually equal to half the probable produce, has to be advanced to the ryot by the planter, to enable him to accomplish the cultivation, and to subsist upon until the crop is ready for cutting. If, as is generally the case, sufficient land is not attached to the factory to supply it with plant, the owner obtains what he requires by inducing the ryots in his vicinity to cultivate it upon a part of their land. Yet it is with them far from a favorite object of cultivation; and, indeed, if it were not for the money advanced to each ryot by the planter, to provide seed, &c., and which gives him a little ready money, bearing no interest, it is doubtful whether he would engage in the cultivation at all. Even this advance of money does not induce him to appropriate it to any but the worst part of his farm, nor to bestow upon it more than the smallest possible amount of labor. The reasons for this neglect are valid, for the grain crops are more profitable to the ryot, and indigo is one of the most precarious of India's vegetable products. In Bengal the usual terms of contract between the manufacturer and the ryot are, that the latter, receiving at the time a certain advance of money, perhaps one rupee (2s.) per biggah, with promise of a similar sum at a more advanced period of the season, undertakes to have a certain quantity of land suitably and seasonably prepared for sowing, to attend and receive seed whenever occasion requires, and to deliver the crop, when called upon, at the factory, at a specified price per bundle or 100 bundles. The particular conditions of these contracts vary generally in Bengal; they amount to advancing the ryot two rupees for every biggah of land, furnishing him with seed at about one-third its cost, on an engagement from him to return whatever his lands may produce (which, as has been said, is generally none at all), at the price charged, and receiving the plant from him at six, seven, eight, or sometimes nine bundles for a rupee--much oftener the former than the latter rates. A ryot cultivating alluvial lands, and having no seed, can hardly ever repay his advances; but it does not follow that he has been a loser, for he, perhaps, could not value his time, labor, and rent altogether at half the amount; and as long as this system is kept within moderate bounds, it answers much better than private cultivation to the manufacturer, and has many contingent advantages to the cultivator. In Tirhoot similar engagements are entered into with the ryots, who are there called _Assamees_. These engagements with Assamees are generally made in the month of September, on a written instrument called a _noviskaun_, by which they agree for a certain quantity of land, for five years, to be cultivated with indigo plant, and for which they are to be paid at the rate of six rupees per biggah, for every full field of plant measured by a luggie or measuring-rod. The luggie, it must be observed, varies in size throughout the district. In the southern and eastern divisions of Tirhoot and Sarun it is eight-and-a-half to ten feet long; and in the northern and western from twelve to fourteen feet. The Assamee receives, on the day of making his _bundobust_, or settlement, three rupees advance on each biggah he contracts for, another rupee per biggah when the crop is fit to weed, and the remaining two rupees at the ensuing settlement of accounts. Exclusive of the price of his maul or plant, the Assamee is entitled to receive two or three rupees per biggah (as may be agreed on) for gurkee, or lands that have failed, as a remuneration for his trouble, and to enable him to pay his rent. The foregoing are the principal stipulations of the noviskaun, but the Assamee further engages to give you such land as you may select, prepare it according to instructions from the factory, sow and weed as often as he is required, cut the plant and load the hackeries at his own cost, and in every other respect conform to the orders of the planter or his aumlah (managing man). The Assamee is not charged for seed, the cartage of his plants, or for the cost of drilling. I should mention that a penalty is attached to the non-fulfilment of the Assamees engagements, commonly called _hurjah_, viz., twelve rupees for every biggah short of his agreement, and this for every year that the noviskaun has to run. This is, however, seldom recoverable, for if you sue the Assamee in court and obtain a decree (a most expensive and dilatory process), he can in most instances easily evade it by a fictitious transfer of his property to other hands. The planter generally finds it his interest to get the Zemindar of the village in which he proposes cultivating, to join in the noviskaun, as a further security; or he engages with a jytedar, or head Assamee, having several others subordinate to him, and for whose conduct he is responsible. But a still better system is lately gaining ground in this district, I mean that of taking villages in ticka, or farm, by far the best and cheapest plan that has ever been resorted to for the cultivation of indigo. When the planter cultivates the ground himself, it is called in Tirhoot _Zerant_ cultivation. _Zerants_, or _Neiz_, are taken on a pottah or lease for five years, at the average rent of three rupees per biggah. The heavy cost attending this cultivation has occasioned its decrease in most factories in Tirhoot and particularly since the fall in prices. About a third, I believe, was the proportion it formerly bore to the whole cultivation of the district, but of late such factories only have retained it as cannot procure sufficient good land under the Assamewar system; but now that the plan of taking villages in farm is becoming more and more prevalent here, it is very likely that Zerants will be entirely abandoned. From all the information I have been able to collect, the cost of a biggah of Zerant (ten feet luggie) may be estimated at sixteen rupees; that of Assamewar is generally twenty-five per cent. less, both exclusive of interest, agents' charges, and private expenses. It can only be the reluctance of the ryot to cultivate indigo that induces a manufacturer to grow it himself, for it has been found an expensive plan, profitable only when the dye is at its highest rate, and even then scarcely furnishing an adequate return. They not only could not cultivate so cheaply as the native laboring husbandman, but ordinarily had to engage extensive tracts of land, much of which was not suitable for their purpose, or, perhaps, for any other, and consequently, although the average rate of rent was even low on the whole, it constituted a very heavy charge on the portion from which they obtained their return. In Oude there are three systems of obtaining a supply of the plant, viz., _Kush Kurreea_, _Bighowty_, and _Nij_; but the latter is a mere trifle in proportion to the others, and is, therefore, not worth mentioning. On the _Bighowty_ system, which prevails chiefly in the Meerut and Mooradabad districts, the planter advances for a biggah of _Jumowah_ (irrigated sowings) nine rupees, and for a biggah of _Assaroo_ (rain sowings) five rupees four annas. The next year's plant, or _khoonti_, becomes his on an additional payment of eight annas per biggah. He also supplies the seed at the rate of six seers per biggah, being almost double the quantity made use of in Bengal, but which is necessary to make up for the destruction of the plant the year following by the frost, white ants, hot winds, grass cutters, and, I may add, the village cattle, which are let loose to graze on the khoonte during the latter period, when not a blade of grass or vegetation is to be seen anywhere left. The Bighowty system is a sadly ruinous one, as, independently of the attempts to assimilate Assaroo, at five rupees four annas, with _Jumowah_, at nine rupees per biggah, which is very easily effected if the planter is not very vigilant, he is obliged to maintain an extensive and imposing establishment of servants, not only to enforce the sowings, weeding, and cutting, but also to look after his khoonte, and protect it from being destroyed by bullocks and grass cutters, or from being ploughed up clandestinely by the Zemindars themselves. The Kush Kurreea system again has its evils, as the planter never gets plant for the full amount of his advances, and hence often leads to his ruin. _Soils._--Indigo delights in a fresh soil; new lands, of similar staple to others before cultivated, always surpass them in the amount and quality of their produce. Hence arises the superior productiveness of the lands annually overflowed by the Ganges, the earthy and saline deposits from which in effect renovate the soil. The further we recede from the influence of the inundation, the less adapted is the soil for the cultivation of indigo. The staple of the soil ought to be silicious, fertile, and deep. Mr. Ballard, writing on the indigo soils of Tirhoot, says that high "soomba," or light soils, are generally preferred, being from their nature and level less exposed to the risk of rain or river inundation; but they are difficult to procure, and, moreover, require particular care in the preparation. Next in estimation is "doruss," a nearly equal mixture of light earth and clay; a soil more retentive of moisture in a dry season than any other. "Muttyaur," or heavy clay soils, are generally avoided, although in certain seasons, with mild showers of rain, they have been known to answer. The safest selection I should conceive to be an equal portion of soomba and doruss. In a country, however, interspersed with jheels and nullahs, it is difficult to form a cultivation without a considerable mixture of low lands, more or less, according to the situation of the Assamee's fields. Great care should be taken, at all events, to guard against oosur lands, or such as abound with saltpetre; these can be most easily detected in the dry months. _Puchkatak_, that is, lands slightly touched with _oosur_, have been known to answer, as partaking more of the nature of _doruss_ soil; but the crop is generally thin, although strong and branchy. There is another description of land that should be cautiously avoided. It goes by the name of _jaung_, and is a light soil, with a substratum of sand from six to twelve inches below the surface. The plant generally looks very fine in such fields till it gets a foot high, when the root touching the sand, and having no moisture to sustain it, either dies away altogether, or becomes so stunted and impoverished as to yield little or nothing in the cutting. Of the _daub_ or _dearab_ (alluvial) land, says Mr. Ballard, there is scarcely any in the district except what falls to the lot of my own factories, being situated on the banks of the Ganges and Great Gunduck. Of _bungur_, a stiff reddish clay soil, there is little in Tirhoot; it pervades the western provinces, and is best adapted for Assaroo sowings, which do not succeed in Tirhoot. _Preparation of the soil._--The root of the indigo plant being fusiform, and extending to about a foot in length, requires the soil to be loosened thoroughly to that depth at least. Experience teaches that the fineness of the tilth to which the soil is reduced previously to the seed being committed to it, is one very influential operation for the obtaining a productive crop. Yet in some districts of Bengal, particularly about Furudpore, the sowing is performed without any previous ploughing. This is where the river, when receded, has left the soil and deposit so deep, that about October, or a little later, the seed being forcibly discharged from the sower's hand, buries itself, and requires no after covering by means of the rake or harrow. In Tirhoot they are indefatigable in this first step of the cultivation. Mr. Ballard says, that the preparation of indigo lands should commence in September, as soon as the cessation of the rains will permit; and as we do not rely on rain for our sowings (as is the custom in Bengal and elsewhere, and irrigation is never resorted to, from the heavy expense attending it), our principal aim is to preserve as much moisture in the fields as possible. They should receive, for this purpose, not less than eight ploughings, besides a thorough turning up with the spade, after the fourth ploughing, to clear the field from stubble, grass and weeds. It is absolutely indispensable to get all this done on our light soils, especially before the end of October, and have the land carefully harrowed down, so as to prevent the moisture escaping. Should there be heavy rains between the interval of preparing and sowing, it will be necessary to turn the fields up with either one or two ploughings, and harrow them down as before. If only a slight shower, running the harrow over them will be sufficient to break the crust formed on the surface, and which, if allowed to remain, would quickly exhaust the moisture. This, with the occasional use of the weeding-hook, is all that the lands will require till the time of sowing.--("Transactions of the Agri.-Hort. Society of Calcutta," vol. ii., p. 22.) _Sowing_.--The time when the seed is committed to the soil varies in different parts of India, and, even in the same place, admits of being performed at two different seasons. The periods of sowing in Bengal are first immediately after the rains, from about the latter end of October. The rivers are then rapidly retiring within their beds, and as soon as the soft deposit of the year has drained itself into a consistency, though not solid enough to keep a man from sinking up to his knees in it, they begin to scatter the seed broadcast. This is continued until the ground has become too hard for the seed to bury itself; the plough is then used to loosen the crust, and the sowing continued to about the middle, or even the end of November, from which period the weather is considered too cold, until February. These autumnal sowings are called October sowings, from the month in which they generally commence. Much of the plant perishes during the months of December and January, and more again in the spring, unless there are early and moderate showers. The crop that remains is not so productive ordinarily in the vat, as that obtained from spring sowings, and some think the quality of the produce inferior. But there is no expense of cultivation, and the liabilities of the crop to failure are such a discouragement to cost and labor in rearing it, that the October sowing is followed by most planters who can obtain suitable land. The second period of sowing is the spring, with the first rains of March, or even the end of February. The land having been measured and placed under its slight course of tillage during the two or three preceding mouths, is sown broadcast as soon as the ground has been well moistened, or even in prospect of approaching rain. The quantity of seed used for this autumn sowing is generally more than what is considered requisite for spring sowing; six seers at the former and four at the latter season per biggah, in Bengal, is the quantity usually allowed. Some cultivators commence the autumn sowing as early as at the close of September, or as soon as the low lands are in a state to permit the operation after the inundation has subsided. This seed time may be said to continue until the end of December, and the crops from these sowings often yield an average produce, if the lands are not very low and wet. If they are, the sowing had better be delayed until January, or even February, for the crops from these latter sowings are usually the most productive, and the dye obtained from them the finest. The object for thus delaying the sowing is, that the young plants may have a more genial season for vegetation. Those who prefer sowing earlier, and yet are aware of the importance of saving the young plants as much as possible from the comparative low temperature of the season, sow some other crop with their indigo. Til, the country linseed, is good for this purpose in high lying soils. But I never knew an intermixture of crops that was not attended by inconveniences and injuries more than was compensated by the advantages gained. The success of sowings during March and April is very doubtful. It depends entirely upon the occurrence of rain, which in those months is proverbially uncertain. If the season should be sufficiently wet, the sowing may be performed in May; but a June sowing is very rarely remunerating. The rains setting in during the latter part of this month so promote the growth of weeds, that the young plants are choked and generally destroyed. The exceptions only occur in high lands, in unusually propitious seasons, and ought never to be relied upon except when the earlier sowings have failed. To protract the manufacturing season, some planters begin sowing upon low lying lands in the hot season, for the chance of a crop at the commencement of the rains; and they sow at the close of the rains with the hope of, as it were, stealing another in the next year. In the western provinces sowing necessarily occurs in the dry weather, usually in March and April, though occasionally either a little earlier or later. In Tirhoot the sowings commence about the latter end of February or the beginning of March, if by that time there is sufficient warmth in the atmosphere to ensure a healthy vegetation. Light soils are sown on one close ploughing; heavy soils on two, with from four to eight seers of seed, in proportion to the size of the biggah. After strewing the seed, the field should be harrowed down by two turns of the harrow, and then again by two turns more after the third day. In case of rain before the plant appears (which it ought to do on the sixth or seventh day), if a slight shower, the harrow should be used again; if very heavy, it were best to turn up the ground and re-sow. If rain fall after the appearance of the plant, and before it has got past four leaves, and attained sufficient strength to resist the hard crust before alluded to, immediate recourse must be had to drilling. In fact, the closest attention is required to watch the state of the young crop for a month at least after the sowings; if it yield the least, or assume a sickly appearance, drills are the only resource. These, if applied in time, in all March, for instance, or before the middle of April at latest, are generally successful, not only in restoring plants, but recovering such as may have become sickly from want or excess of moisture, or any other cause. In dry seasons they have been known to give a crop when broadcast sowings have failed. Each drill, with a good pair of bullocks, should do five biggahs a day. They are regulated to throw from three to four seers per biggah, but the quantity can be increased or diminished at pleasure. The natives do not employ them in their grain sowings, but commonly adopt a contrivance with their own plough for sowing in furrows, whenever their fields are deficient in moisture. The drill employed in Tirhoot resembles considerably the implement known by that name in England. It is found not only to effect a great saving of seed, ten seers being there sown broad-cost on a biggah of 57,600 feet square, and only seven seers by this drill; but also materially to improve the quality and regularity of the growth of the plant. Experience has demonstrated, that the more lateral room the plants have, the more abundant is their produce of leaves, in which the coloring matter chiefly resides. The seed employed should always be as new as possible, for though, if carefully preserved, it vegetates when one year old, and even when nearly two years old has produced a moderate crop, yet this has been under circumstances of an unusually favorable season and soil. The plants from old seed rarely attain a height of more than a foot before they wither and die. As frauds are very likely to be practised by giving old seed the glossiness and general appearance of new, great circumspection should be shown by the planter, who does not grow his own, in obtaining seed from known parties. Planters in the lower provinces are induced to use up-country seed, because, coming from a colder climate, it vegetates, and the plants ripen rapidly, so as to be harvested more certainly before the annual inundation, but they employ one-fourth more. Three seers per Bengal biggah are sufficient, if it is "Dassee" seed; but four is not too much if it is up-country seed. A Bengal biggah is only a third of the size of that of Tirhoot. If the weather is dry, the seed very often does not germinate until the occurrence of rain, and it has been known in a dry, light soil, to remain in the ground without injury for six weeks. If seasonable showers occur, the plants make their appearance in four days, or even less; and they must be watched, in order that they may be weeded on the earliest day that they are sufficiently established to allow the operation to be safely performed. In dry weather, it must not be done while they are very young, otherwise many of the seedlings will have their roots disturbed, and perish from the drought. However, not more than a fortnight should be allowed to pass, after the seedlings have appeared, before the weeds are carefully removed, and this clearing should be frequently repeated until the plants so overshadow the ground that they of themselves keep back the advance of the weeds. The first weeding is best performed immediately after a shower of rain. Irrigation is rarely adopted for the indigo crops in the lower provinces of Bengal, unless they happen to be grown in some situation very favorable to the operation, such as the bank of a river. It is much more attended to in the western provinces, and in Oude, the water being obtained from wells, which are dug in nearly every cultivated plot. In Oude, Mr. Ballard says that a biggah of land employs three persons to irrigate it, and occupies never less than six days. The ryot, or cultivator, requires for the work a pair of bullocks, which cost him at least 32s., a bucket made of a white bullock hide, at 2s., and a rope for 2s. more, both of which do not last him above a year. He never pays less than 8s. for the rent of a biggah of land near a well. In Bengal the plant requires three months to attain its highest state of perfection for manufacturing, but is often cut, from necessity, within half that time; for the approach of the river compels the premature removal of the crop, unless, indeed, its growth has been so retarded that it would not pay the expense of working. Most indigo factories have consequently to begin in June, or early in July, whenever they may have effected their spring sowings, and the labors of the season are commonly terminated by the middle or end of August. When the plants begin to flower is considered the best time for cutting them, and this is just what the botanist would have suggested, because then the proper sap of all plants is most abundant, and most rich in their several peculiar secretions. A vividly green, abundant and healthy foliage, downy at the back, is the surest intimation of the plants being rich in indigo. Plants that are ready for cutting in July and August, are usually the most productive. In the western provinces from sixteen to twenty maunds of plant is considered a good produce per biggah. In the upper provinces the produce of the best crop, which is sown directly the rains commence, is not more then ten maunds per biggah. The factory maund is equal to about seventy-eight pounds. One thousand maunds of plant are considered as producing quite an average quantity of indigo if this amounts to four maunds. Adopting another mode of estimate, Mr. Ballard says, that in Bengal an average crop may he considered to be from ten to twelve bundles, over an extensive cultivation, in a good season, from each Bengal biggah; the sheaf or bundle being measured by a six-feet cord or chain. Speaking of the produce in Tirhoot, the same gentleman says the "luggie," or measuring rod, varies throughout the district. The common Tirhoot biggah, is, I believe, equal to two-and-a-half or three Bengal biggahs (about an English acre). Its produce varies according to the size of the luggie, the fertility of the soil, and accidents of season; eight to ten hackery loads, however, is generally considered a good average return. South and east of Tirhoot, one hundred maunds from six hundred biggahs, including "khoonti," or a second cutting, is reckoned a successful result. In another part of the district, including Sarun, where the "luggie" is larger, the average produce is about one-third better. As we measure our plant on the ground (he adds), the bundle system is unknown here; but, I believe, forty-five or fifty Tirhoot hackery loads of plants (estimated to yield a maund of dry indigo), will be found equal to two hundred Bengal bundles.--("Trans. Agri. Hort. Soc., vol. ii. p. 23.") In Oude the _jamowah_, or crop sown in May, yields on an average twenty maunds, or say thirteen bundles, per biggah (160 feet square). The "assaroo," or rain sowings, producing a very inferior plant, the average return is not more than three maunds, or two bundles. The "khoonti," or crop of the next year from the same plants, averages fifteen maunds, or ten bundles per biggah. In Central and Western India, the plants are allowed to produce the second and even the third year, according to some statements; but in Bengal the same stocks are rarely suffered to yield a second crop: being nearly all on lands that are under water in the height of the inundation, the stock is rotted in the ground. Mr. Ballard, speaking of the duration of the plant, says that, as for three years' plant and "khoonti," it is a mere chimera, like the many others with which the planters have hitherto deluded themselves, and which it only requires a little reflection to overthrow. A biggah may be cut here and there, on an extensive cultivation, but it can never be relied upon as forming a part of the cultivation. The uncertainty of the indigo crop has been already noticed, and is, indeed, as proverbial as that from the hop plant in England. In Bengal the crop is particularly subject to be destroyed by the annual inundation of the river, if it occurs earlier than usual. A storm of wind, accompanied by rain and hail, as completely ruins the crop as if devoured by the locust; neither from this latter scourge is the crop exempt. This proneness to injury extends throughout its growth. The seedlings are liable to be destroyed by an insect closely resembling the turnip-fly, as well as by the frog. Caterpillars feed upon the leaves of older plants, and the white ant destroys them by consuming their roots. To these destructive visitations are to be added the more than ordinary liability of the plant to injury, not merely from atmospheric commotions, but even from apparently less inimical visitations. Thus not only do storms of wind, heavy rains, and hail, destroy the indigo planter's prospects, but even sunshine, if it pours out fervently after showers of rain, is apt, as it is properly termed, to _scorch_ the plants; and if it occurs during the first month of their growth, is most injurious to their future advance. The reason of this effect appears to be the violent change from a state of imbibing to a rapid transpiration of moisture. No human invention or foresight can preserve the crop from the atmospheric visitations. To destroy and drive away the little coleopterous insects which attack the seedlings, it would be a successful method to spread dry grass, &c., over the surface intended to be cultivated, and to burn the litter immediately before the sowing. The heat and smoke produced has been found perfectly efficacious against the turnip-fly in England. To destroy the caterpillar, slacked lime dusted over the leaves, while the dew is upon them, is an effectual application. The white ants may be driven away or destroyed by frequent hoeings, which is the best preventive of the scorching, for hoeing preserves the soil in an equable and fitting state of moisture. The great supply of seed for Bengal cultivation is obtained from the western provinces, and forms an article of trade of no inconsiderable magnitude. The stubble in the low lands of Bengal is generally submerged before it has time to throw out fresh shoots, on which the blossom and subsequent seed-pod are formed. There are, however, some high tracts reserved for that purpose, and on these the plant is found well in flower in September, and the seed fit to gather in November or early in December. Two methods are pursued to extract the indigo from the plant; the first effects it by fermentation of the fresh leaves and stems; the second, by maceration of the dried leaves; the latter process being most advantageous. They are thus described by Dr. Ure, in his "Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures:"-- 1. _From the recent leaves._--In the indigo factories of Bengal, there are two large stone-built cisterns, the bottom of the first being nearly upon a level with the top of the second, in order to allow the liquid contents to be run out of the one into the other. The uppermost is called the fermenting vat, or the steeper; its area is twenty feet square, and its depth three feet; the lowermost, called the beater or beating vat, is as broad as the other, but one-third longer. The cuttings of the plant, as they come from the field, are stratified in the steeper, till this be filled within five or six inches of its brim. In order that the plant, during its fermentation, may not swell and rise out of the vat, beams of wood and twigs of bamboo are braced tight over the surface of the plants, after which water is pumped upon them till it stands within three or four inches of the edge of the vessel. An active fermentation speedily commences, which is completed within fourteen or fifteen hours; a little longer or shorter, according to the temperature of the air, the prevailing winds, the quality of the water, and the ripeness of the plants. Nine or ten hours after the immersion of the plant, the condition of the vat must be examined; frothy bubbles appear, which rise like little pyramids, are at first of a white colour, but soon become grey, blue, and then deep purple red. The fermentation is at this time violent, the fluid is in constant commotion, apparently boiling, innumerable bubbles mount to the surface, and a copper colored dense scum covers the whole. As long as the liquor is agitated, the fermentation must not be disturbed, but when it becomes more tranquil, the liquor is to be drawn off into the lower cistern. It is of the utmost consequence not to push the fermentation too far, because the quality of the whole indigo is deteriorated; but rather to cut it short, in which case there is, indeed, a loss of weight, but the article is better. The liquor possesses now a glistening yellow color, which, when the indigo precipitates, changes to green. The average temperature of the liquor is commonly 85 deg. Fahr.; its specific gravity at the surface is 1.0015; and at the bottom 1.003. As soon as the liquor has been run into the lower cistern, ten men are set to work to beat it with oars, or shovels four feet long, called _busquets_. Paddle wheels have also been employed for the same purpose. Meanwhile two other laborers clear away the compressing beams and bamboos from the surface of the upper vat, remove the exhausted plant, set it to dry for fuel, clean out the vessel, and stratify fresh plants in it. The fermented plant appears still green, but it has lost three-fourths of its bulk in the process, or from twelve to fourteen per cent. of its weight, chiefly water and extractive matter. The liquor in the lower vat must be strongly beaten for an hour and a half, when the indigo begins to agglomerate in flocks, and to precipitate. This is the moment for judging whether there has been any error committed in the fermentation, which must be corrected by the operation of beating. If the fermentation has been defective, much froth rises in the beating, which must be allayed with a little oil, and then a reddish tinge appears. If large round granulations are formed, the beating is continued, in order to see if they will grow smaller. If they become as small as fine sand, and if the water clears up, the indigo is allowed quietly to subside. Should the vat have been over-fermented, a thick fat-looking crust covers the liquor, which does not disappear by the introduction of a flask of oil. In such a case the beating must be moderated. Whenever the granulations become round, and begin to subside, and the liquor clears up, the beating must be discontinued. The froth or scum diffuses itself spontaneously into separate minute particles, that move about the surface of the liquor, which are marks of an excessive fermentation. On the other hand, a rightly fermented vat is easy to work; the froth, though abundant, vanishes whenever the granulations make their appearance. The color of the liquor, when drawn out of the steeper into the beater, is bright green; but as soon as the agglomerations of the indigo commence, it assumes the color of Madeira wine; and speedily afterwards, in the course of beating, a small round grain is formed, which, on separating, makes the water transparent, and falls down, when all the turbidity and froth vanish. The object of the beating is three-fold; first, it tends to disengage a great quantity of carbonic acid present in the liquor; secondly, to give the newly-developed indigo its requisite dose of oxygen by the most extensive exposure of its particles to the atmosphere; thirdly, to agglomerate the indigo in distinct flocks or granulations. In order to hasten the precipitation, lime water is occasionally added to the fermented liquor in the progress of beating, but it is not indispensable, and has been supposed capable of deteriorating the indigo. In the front of the beater a beam is fixed upright, in which three or more holes are pierced, a few inches in diameter. These are closed with plugs during the beating, but two or three hours after it, as the indigo subsides, the upper plug is withdrawn to run off the supernatant liquor, and then the lower plugs in succession. The state of this liquor being examined, affords an indication of the success of both the processes. When the whole liquor is run off, a laborer enters the vat, sweeps all the precipitate into one corner, and enters the thinner part into a spout which leads into a cistern, alongside of a boiler, twenty feet long, three feet wide, and three feet deep. When all this liquor is once collected, it is pumped through a bag, for retaining the impurities, into the boiler, and heated to ebullition. The froth soon subsides, and shows an oily looking film on the liquor. The indigo is by this process not only freed from the yellow extractive matter, but is enriched in the intensity of its color, and increased in weight. From the boiler the mixture is run, after two or three hours, into a general receiver called the _dripping vat_, or table, which, for a factory of twelve pairs of preparation vats, is twenty feet long, ten feet wide, and three feet deep, having a false bottom two feet under the top edge. This cistern stands in a basin of masonry (made water-tight with Chunam, hydraulic cement), the bottom of which slopes to one end, in order to facilitate the drainage. A thick woollen web is stretched along the bottom of the inner vessel, to act as a filter. As long as the liquor passes through turbid, it is pumped back into the receiver; whenever it runs clear, the receiver is covered with another piece of cloth to exclude the dust, and allowed to drain at its leisure. Next morning the drained magma is put into a strong bag, and squeezed in a press. The indigo is then carefully taken out of the bag, and cut with a brass wire into bits, about three inches cube, which are dried in an airy house, upon shelves of wicker work. During the drying a whitish effloresence comes upon the pieces, which must be carefully removed with a brush. In some places, particularly on the coast of Coromandel, the dried indigo lumps are allowed to effloresce in a cask for some time, and when they become hard they are wiped and packed for exportation. 2. _Indigo from dried leaves._--The ripe plant being cropped, is to be dried in sunshine from nine o'clock in the morning till four in the afternoon, during two days, and threshed to separate the stems from the leaves, which are then stored up in magazines till a sufficient quantity he collected for manufacturing operations. The newly dried leaves must be free from spots, and friable between the fingers. When kept dry, the leaves undergo, in the course of four weeks, a material change, their beautiful green tint turning into a pale blue-grey, previous to which the leaves afford no indigo by maceration in water, but subsequently a large quantity. Afterwards the product becomes less considerable. The following process is pursued to extract indigo from the dried leaves:--They are infused in the steeping vat with six times their bulk of water, and allowed to macerate for two hours, with continual stirring, till all the floating leaves sink. The fine green liquor is then drawn off into the beater vat, for if it stood longer in the steeper, some of the indigo would settle among the leaves and be lost. Hot water, as employed by some manufacturers, is not necessary. The process with dry leaves possesses this advantage, that a provision of the plant may be made at the most suitable times, independently of the vicissitudes of the weather, and the indigo may be uniformly made; and, moreover, that the fermentation of the fresh leaves, often capricious in its course, is superseded by a much shorter period of simple maceration. PRODUCTION OF INDIGO IN INDIA. maunds. 1840 120,000 1841 162,318 1842 79,000 1843 143,207 1844 127,862 1845 127,862 1846 101,328 1847 110,000 1848 126,565 1849 126,000 Average of the ten years 126,744 maunds. The yield from the different districts in 1849, was nearly as follows:-- maunds. Bengal 84,500 Tirhoot 24,500 Benares 9,500 Oude 6,500 --------- 125,000 In 1790 the general object of cultivation in Mauritius was indigo, of which from four to five crops a year were procured. One person sent to Europe 30,000 lbs., in 1789, of very superior quality. CEYLON.--Indigo, though indigenous in Ceylon, is still imported from the adjoining continent, but its growth in this island would be subject to none of the vicissitudes of climate, that in the course of a single night have devastated the most extensive plantations in Bengal, and annihilated the hopes and calculations of the planter at a time when they had attained all the luxuriance of approaching maturity. The district of Tangalle, in the southern province, is the best adapted to the culture and manufacture of indigo for various reasons, such as the abundance of the indigenous varieties of the plant, the similarity of the climate to that of the coast of Coromandel, where the best indigo is produced; facility of transport by water to either of the ports of export, Galle or Colombo, during the south-east, or to Trincomalee by the south-west monsoon; every necessary material is at hand for building a first rate indigo factory, including drying yards, leaf godowns (stores), steeping vats and presses, except roof and floor tiles--which may be obtained in any quantity from Colombo, during the south-west monsoon, at a moderate rate, compared with their cost at home. In 1817 an offer was made to the Grovernment to introduce the cultivation of indigo, on condition of a free grant of the land required for the purpose and freedom from taxation for thirty years, after which the usual tax was to be levied; and in case the cultivation were abandoned, the land was to revert to the Crown. But whether from the disturbed state of the colony at the time or from incredulity on the part of the Government, as to the capability of the colony in this respect, the application was unheeded. A subsequent proposal, emanating from a Swedish gentleman of great ability, skill and enterprise, was defeated by his death, although a company was on the point of formation to carry out the scheme. It would not be difficult, says Mr. Barrett, to select 500,000 acres, the property of the Crown, which at a comparatively small expenditure might be brought into a proper state of cultivation for the reception of indigo seed; for very little would be required to be done beyond clearing the land of weeds, burning the grass, and then lightly ploughing and levelling the ground; and whenever manure might be requisite, the fecula of the leaf affords one of the richest that could be employed. Ceylon produces two other plants from which a very valuable blue dye may be obtained by a similar process to that of making indigo. The Singhalese head men of the Tangalle district have long been anxious for the establishment of an indigo plantation there, and would readily take shares in a company established for that purpose. Indigo would seem to have been exported by the Dutch from Ceylon so late as 1794. The wild varieties of indigo which grow on the sea-shore are used by the dobies (_washermen_). Indigo grows in a wild state in Siam, and all the dye used in the country is manufactured from these plants. The extensive low grounds are admirably suited for the cultivation of this plant. A large quantity is raised in Manila, but I have no full details of the cultivation in the Philippines. However, in the first six months of 1843, 1,039 piculs of indigo were shipped to Europe, and about 650 to other quarters--equal in all to about 226,000 lbs. in the half year. In the year 1847 the exports of indigo were 30,631 arrobas, equal to about 7,658 cwt.; in 1850 the total exports from Manila were 4,225 quintals. JAVA.--The cultivation of indigo was introduced into Java in the time of the company. It was so much neglected during the administration of Governor Daendels, that the exportation ceased. It however revived subsequently, and in 1823 the exports were close upon 17,000 lbs. In 1826 it had risen to 46,000 lbs. In the single province of Westbaglen, about 60 square miles in extent, 86 indigo factories were established in the course of seven or eight years. In 1839, the exports of this dye-stuff from Java were 588,764 kilogrammes, valued at 7½ million francs. It has been found by experience that a good soil is essentially necessary for the plant, and the indigo transplanted from elevated grounds to the rice fields succeeds better and yields more coloring matter than when raised direct on the spot from the seed. The residencies of Cheribon, Baglen and Madura, are those in which the crop succeeds best. From being so exhausting a crop, and finding it prejudicial to their rice grounds, they are gradually abandoning indigo culture in Java, and about two-thirds of the indigo plantations have within the, last year or two been replaced with sugar. The value of the Java indigo is set down at 250 rupees (£25) per maund. If this be the average price, and it cannot be manufactured lower, Bengal has little to fear from Javanese competition. The product of indigo rose from 276 maunds in 1825, to 28,000 in 1842, and the quantity sold by the Dutch Trading Company in the last-named year was 10,500 chests, of about the same dimensions as those usually exported from Calcutta. Some further statistics of the culture in Java are shown in the following returns of the quantity exported:-- lbs. 1830 22,063 1835 535,753 1839 595,818 1841 913,693 1843 1,890,429 1851 769,580 1852 838,288 The produce in 1848 was 1,151,368 lbs. 1840. 1841. Residencies in which this culture is introduced 9 10 Number of factories 728 728 Families occupied with this culture 197,085 192,159 Extent of fields where the cutting has been made in _bahas_ of 71 decametres 40,844 38,829 Quantity of _bahus_ planted before the gathering 317 538 Quantity of indigo crop in pounds 2,032,097 1,663,427 " average pounds per _bahu_ 49¾ 43 The extent of fields destined for the crop of 1842 was 37,970 bahus, and the amount of the crop was calculated by approximation at 1,862,000. The gradual increase of the export in the eighteen years ending 1842, is shown as follows:-- Maunds. 1825 76 1826 126 1827 109 1828 310 1829 600 1830 480 1831 563 1832 2,213 1833 2,861 1834 3,310 1835 7,023 1836 5,365 1837 10,822 1838 9,788 1839 15,680 1840 27,946 1841 24,044 1842 28,000 Total imports of indigo into the United Kingdom, and quantity retained for home consumption:-- Imports. Home consumption. cwts. cwts. 1848 59,127 9,032 1849 81,449 12,270 1850 70,482 16,374 1851 89,994 27,947 1852 83,565 16,381 IMPORTS OF INDIGO. Mexico and the ports East Indies. of South America. lbs. lbs. 1831 6,996,062 ------ 1832 6,196,080 66,363 1833 6,315,529 125,264 1834 3,595,697 64,638 1835 3,861,853 88,306 1836 7,218,991 198,003 1837 5,706,896 365,091 1838 6,578,352 142,739 1839 4,651,542 363,148 1840 6,940,192 124,766 1841 7,451,653 247,031 1842 8,931,112 155,003 1843 6,319,294 130,836 Entered for home consumption about two millions and a half pounds annually. (" Parl. Returns No. 656, September 1843, and 426, September 1844.") The consumption of indigo in Europe and North America in round numbers, estimated from authentic sources, is thus set down by Mr. Macculloch in 1849:-- chests. In Great Britain for home consumption 9,820 " France total for ditto 10,400 " American ports from London and Liverpool 2,500 " " Calcutta 700 " " Holland, &c 400 Other European countries export from London and Liverpool. 21,530 " " Holland 4,270 " " Calcutta 120 " " France 300 ---------- 50,040 MADDER. This substance, which is so extensively used in dyeing red, is the product of the long slender roots of the _Rubia tinctorum_, a plant of which there are several varieties. Our principal supplies of this important article of commerce are obtained from Holland, Belgium, France, Turkey, Spain, and the Balearic Isles, the Italian States, India, and Ceylon. The plant is generally raised from seed, and requires three years to come to maturity. It is, however, often pulled in eighteen months without injury to the quality; the quantity only is smaller. A rich soil is necessary for its successful cultivation, and when the soil is impregnated with alkaline matter, the root acquires a red color; in other cases it is yellow. The latter is preferred in England, from the long habit of using Dutch madder, which is of this color, but in France the red sells at two francs per cwt. higher, being used for the Turkey-red dye. Madder does not deteriorate by keeping, provided it be kept dry. It contains three volatile coloring matters, madder purple, orange, and red. The latter is in the form of crystals, having a fine orange red color, and called Alizaine. This is the substance which yields the Turkey-red dye. The chay root is employed in the East Indies as a substitute for madder, and so is the root of _Morinda citrifolia_, under the name of Sooranjee. Turkey madder roots realise about 30s. per cwt. About 1,100 tons are annually shipped from Naples, worth about £30 per ton. Madder has become an article of great request, on account of the fine scarlet color produced from its roots, and is so essential to dyers and calico printers that without it they cannot carry on their manufactures. It is cultivated extensively in Holland, from whence it is imported in large quantities into both England and France, though it is cultivated to some extent in both countries. It has also been raised as a soiling crop, but the coloring matter is of so penetrating and subtile a character, that the flesh, milk, and even the bones of animals fed upon it are said to be tinged to a considerable degree with it. The soils best adapted, and which should be selected for its cultivation, are dry, fertile, and deep sandy loams; the roots are long and fibrous, and descend to a depth of from two to three feet. It may be propagated by seed, which, by some, is thought the best method, but the more usual mode is by the division of, and transplanting, the roots. The ground should be thoroughly and deeply pulverised, clean, and well-manured for the preceding crop, that the manure may be thoroughly rotted and incorporated with the soil: in April or May the suckers will be fit for taking from the older plantations--those of two or three years producing the best. The sets should have roots four or five inches long. Mark out rows two feet apart, with a line, and set the plant with a dibble, one foot apart in the rows. The roots should be dipped in a puddle of fine rich earth and water, beaten to the consistence of cream, previous to planting; let the crown of the plant be clearly over ground, and secure the earth well around the root, to keep out drought. The plantation requires nothing more but to be kept perfectly clean and well-hoed during the summer months; and after the top decays in the autumn, to be earthed up by the plough for the winter, each year, till the plants are three years old, when they are of the proper size and age for lifting, which must be done by trenching the land two feet deep--several hands accompanying the digger to pick out the roots, which must be thoroughly cleaned and dried on a kiln till they are so brittle as to break across, when they are fit to be packed in bags, and sold to the dye-stuff manufacturers who grind and reduce them to powder for use. The produce is variable; usually from eight to twenty cwt. per acre, but as much as 3,000 to 6,000 lbs. is frequently obtained. The forage amounts to about 15,000 lbs. the first year, and 7,500 lbs. the second year. In a new and good soil manure may be dispensed with for the first crop. Some cultivators interline and grow other crops between the rows, but the best cultivators state that such a practice is objectionable. The breadth of land under this crop in England is much reduced, in consequence of the reduction in price from the competition of the Dutch growers. Madder is extensively grown on the central table land of Afghanistan, forming one of the leading products of Beloochistan.; and, according to Mr. Pottinger, it sells in the Kelat Bazaar at about 10 lbs. for 2s. The cultivation there pursued is as follows:--The ground is repeatedly ploughed, and laid out finally in small trenches, in which the seed is sown, covered slightly with earth, and then the whole is flooded. Whilst thus irrigated, the trenches are filled with a mixture of rich manure and earth. The plants appear in about ten days, and attain a height of three or four feet during the first summer. They are cut down in September and used as fodder for cattle. Subsequently, and until spring arrives, the ground is manured and repeatedly flooded. During the second year's growth, the plants which are intended to produce seed are set apart, but the stems of the remainder are cut every four or six weeks, in order to increase the size and goodness of the roots. Madder is said to repay a nett profit of 200 dollars to the acre, when properly managed. It produced on the farm of a gentleman, who has devoted some attention to this product in Ohio, at the rate of 2,000 lbs. per acre, and it may be made to produce 3,000 lbs., which is a greater yield than the average crops of Germany and Holland. Nine acres were planted by another person in the United States, in 1839, which he harvested in 1842. The labor required is said to be from 80 to 100 days work per acre. In the third year the stems are pruned as in the two preceding, and in September the roots are dug up. The roots are fusiform and thin, without any ramifications, and usually from three to five feet long. As soon as raised, they are immediately cut into small pieces and dried, and are then merchantable. Mr. Joseph Swift, an enterprising American farmer, of Erie county, Ohio, who occupies about 400 acres of choice land, mostly alluvial, in the valley of the Vermilion river, seven miles from Lake Erie, has detailed his practice in the "New Genesee Farmer" (an agricultural periodical), for March, 1843. His directions must be understood as intended for those who wish to cultivate only a few acres, and cannot afford much outlay of capital. Those who desire to engage in the business on an extensive scale, would need to adopt a somewhat different practice:-- _Soil and preparation._--" The soil should be a deep, rich, sandy loam, free from weeds, roots, stones, &c., containing a good portion of vegetable earth. Alluvial "bottom" land is the most suitable, but it must not be wet. If old upland is used, it should receive a heavy coating of vegetable earth, from decayed wood and leaves. The land should be ploughed very deep in the fall, and early in the spring apply about one hundred loads of well-rotted manure per acre, spread evenly, and ploughed in deeply; then harrow till quite fine and free from lumps. Next plough the land into beds four feet wide, leaving alleys between three feet wide, then harrow the beds with a fine light harrow, or rake them by hand, so as to leave them smooth and even with the alleys; they are then ready for planting. _Preparing sets and planting._--Madder sets or seed roots are best selected when the crop is dug in the fall. The horizontal uppermost roots (with eyes) are the kind to be used; these should be separated from the bottom roots, and buried in sand in a cellar or pit. If not done in the fall, the sets may be dug early in the spring, before they begin to sprout. They should be cut or broken into pieces, containing from two to five eyes each; _i.e._, three to four inches long. The time for planting is as early in the spring as the ground can be got in good order, and severe frosts are over, which in this climate (America) is usually about the middle of April. With the beds prepared as directed, stretch a line lengthwise the bed, and with the corner of a hoe make a drill two inches deep along each edge and down the middle, so as to give three rows to each bed, about two feet apart. Into these drills drop the sets, ten inches apart, covering them two inches deep. Eight or ten bushels of sets are requisite for an acre. _After culture._--As soon as the madder plants can be seen, the ground should be carefully hoed, so as to destroy the weeds and not injure the plants; and the hoeing and weeding must be repeated as often as weeds make their appearance. If any of the sets have failed to grow, the vacancies should be filled by talking up parts of the strongest roots and transplanting them; this is best done in June. As soon as the madder plants are ten or twelve inches high, the tops are to be bent down on the surface of the ground, and all except the tip end covered with earth, shovelled from the middle of the alleys. Bend the shoots outward and inward in every direction, so as in time to fill all the vacant space on the beds, and about one foot on each side. After the first time covering, repeat the weeding when necessary, and run a single horse plough through the alleys several times to keep the earth clean and mellow. As soon as the plants again become ten or twelve inches high, bend down and cover them as before, repeating the operation as often as necessary, which is commonly three times the first season. The last time may be as late as September, or later if no frosts occur. By covering the tops in this manner, they change to roots, and the design is to fill the ground as full of roots as possible. When the vacant spaces are all full, there is but little chance for weeds to grow; but all that appear must be pulled out. _The second year._--Keep the beds free from weeds; plough the alleys and cover the tops, as before directed, two or three times during the season. The alleys will now form deep and narrow ditches, and if it becomes difficult to obtain good earth for covering the tops, that operation may be omitted after the second time this season. Care should be taken, when covering the tops, to keep the edges of the beds as high as the middle; otherwise the water from heavy showers will run off, and the crop suffer from drought. _The third year._--Very little labor or attention is required. They will now cover the whole ground. If any weeds are seen, they must be pulled out; otherwise their roots will cause trouble when harvesting the madder. The crop is sometimes dug the third year; and if the soil and cultivation have been good, and the seasons warm and favorable, the madder will be of a good quality; but generally it is much better in quality, and more in quantity, when left until the fourth year. _Digging and harvesting._--This should be done between the 20th of August and the 20th of September. Take a sharp shovel or shovels, and cut off and remove the tops with half an inch of the surface of the earth; then take a plough of the largest size, with a sharp coulter and a double team, and plough a furrow outward, beam-deep, around the edge of the bed; stir the earth with forks, and carefully pick out all the roots, removing the earth from the bottom of the furrow; then plough another furrow beam-deep, as before, and pick over and remove the earth in the same manner; thus proceeding until the whole is completed. _Washing and drying._--As soon as possible after digging, take the roots to some running stream to be washed. If there is no running stream convenient, it can be done at a pump. Take large round sieves, two-and-a-half or three feet in diameter, with the wire about as fine as wheat sieves; or if these cannot be had, get from a hardware store sufficient screen wire of the right fineness, and make frames or boxes, two-and-a-half feet long and the width of the, wire, on the bottom of which nail the wire. In these sieves or boxes, put half a bushel of roots at a time, and stir them about in the water, pulling the branches apart so as to wash them clean; then, having a platform at hand, lay them onto dry. (To make the platform, take two or three common boards, so as to be about four feet in width, and nail deals across the under side). On these spread the roots about two inches thick for drying in the sun. Carry the platforms to a convenient place, not far from the house, and place them side by side, in rows east and west, and with their ends north and south, leaving room to walk between the rows. Elevate the south ends of the platforms about eighteen inches, and the north ends about six inches from the ground, putting poles or sticks to support them--this will greatly facilitate drying. After the second or third day's drying, the madder must be protected from the dews at night, and from rain, by placing the platforms one upon another to a convenient height, and covering the uppermost one with board. Spread them out again in the morning, or as soon as danger is over. Five or six days of ordinarily fine weather will dry the madder sufficiently, when it may be put away till it is convenient to kiln-dry and grind it. _Kiln-drying,_--The size and mode of constructing the kiln may be varied to suit circumstances. The following is a very cheap plan, and sufficient to dry one ton of roots at a time. Place four strong posts in the ground, twelve feet apart one way, and eighteen the other; the front two fourteen feet high, and the other eighteen; put girts across the bottom, middle, and top, and nail boards perpendicularly on the outside as for a common barn. The boards must be well seasoned, and all cracks or holes should be plastered or otherwise stopped up. Make a shed-roof of common boards. In the inside put upright standards about five feet apart, with cross-pieces to support the scaffolding. The first cross-pieces to be four feet from the floor; the next two feet higher, and so on to the top. On these cross-pieces lay small poles, about six feet long and two inches thick, four or fire inches apart. On these scaffolds the madder is to be spread nine inches thick. A floor is laid at the bottom to keep all dry and clean. When the kiln is filled, take six or eight small kettles or hand-furnaces, and place them four or five feet apart on the floor (first securing it from fire with bricks or stones), and make fires in them with charcoal, being careful not to make any of the fires so large as to scorch the madder over them. A person must be in constant attendance to watch and replenish the fires. The heat will ascend through the whole, and in ten or twelve hours it will all be sufficiently dried, which is known by its becoming brittle like pipe stems. _Breaking and grinding._--Immediately after being dried, the madder must be taken to the barn and threshed with flails, or broken by machinery (a mill might easily be constructed for this purpose), so that it will feed in a common grist-mill. If it is not broken and ground immediately, it will gather dampness so as to prevent its grinding freely. Any common grist-mill can grind madder properly. When ground finely it is fit for use, and may be packed in barrels like flour for market. _Amount and value of product, &c._--Mr. Swift measured off a part of his ground, and carefully weighed the product when dried, which he found to be over two thousand pounds per acre, notwithstanding the seasons were mostly dry and unfavorable. With his present knowledge of the business, he is confident that he can obtain at least three thousand pounds per acre, which is said to be more than is often obtained in Germany. The whole amount of labor he estimates at from eighty to one hundred days' work per acre. The value of the crop, at the usual wholesale price (about fifteen cents per pound), from three to four hundred dollars. In foreign countries it is customary to make several qualities of the madder, which is done by sorting the roots; but as only one quality is required for the western market, Mr. Swift makes but one, and that is found superior to most of the imported, and finds a ready sale. Madder is produced in Middle Egypt to some extent, for the consumption of the country, principally for dyeing the _tarbouche_ or skull caps which are universally worn. Its culture was introduced in 1825. In 1833, 300 acres in Upper Egypt, and 500 in the Delta and the Kelyout, were devoted to madder roots. New South Wales is eminently suited to the culture of this valuable root, and as the profits upon its cultivation are very large, I would strongly recommend it to the attention of agriculturists there. The article produces to France an annual sum of one million sterling; the price of the finest quality in the English market being £60 per ton. Its yield varies from £40 to £50 per acre, and the expenses upon its proper culture should not exceed one-half that amount. The colonists would find it to their interest to turn their attention to such articles as this, for which there is an extensive demand at home, instead of confining themselves exclusively to the commoner and bulkier products, which they export at a much less profit, and which when once the market is fully supplied, may fall to a price at which they cannot afford to sell. The following is a calculation of the expenses generally supposed to attend a crop according to the mode of cultivation practised in Vaucluse:-- Rent per hectare (2½ English acres), 3 years, at £ s. d. 165 francs 19 17 6 Manure, 440 francs £17 12 6 Carriage of ditto, 132 francs 3 5 10 --------- 22 18 4 --------- £42 15 10 These expenses may almost be dispensed with in our colonies, as the soil at Vaucluse has long been exhausted. Two and a-half acres require 170 lbs. seed, at 2½d. per pound, which, with the labor afterwards bestowed, including the cost of spade trenching, will be 30 0 0 --------- £72 15 10 The average produce per hectare is 77 cwt., which, at £1 4s. 2d. per cwt. (the price on the spot), is £93. The price is now much lower, but still it is clear a most profitable return would be derived from the first crop, and a proportionably larger one afterwards. A considerable portion of the madder roots, instead of being ground and exported in that form, as heretofore, is now exposed, after being invested with dilute sulphuric acid, to a boiling heat by means of steam, by which the coloring matter is considerably altered and improved in quality for some dyeing processes, while the quantity rendered soluble in water is greatly increased. The madder so prepared is known as "garancine," and forms an important branch of manufacture in the south of France, which was well illustrated at the Great Exhibition in 1851, by a collection of specimens supplied by the Chamber of Commerce of Avignon. The spent madder, after being used in dyeing, is now also converted by Mr. H. Steiner, of Accrington, into a garancine (termed _garanceuse_ by the French) by steaming it with sulphuric acid in the same manner as the fresh madder, and thus a considerable quantity of coloring matter is recovered and made available which was formerly thrown away in the spent madder. Both varieties of garancine give a more scarlety red than the unprepared madder, and also good chocolate and black, without soiling the white ground, but are not so well fitted, particularly the garancine of spent madder, for dyeing purples, lilacs, and pinks. The value of the garancine imported from France in 1848 was £59,554, and of that imported in 1851 £93,818. This preparation of ground madder is imported into Liverpool to the extent of from 500 to 600 tons annually from Marseilles, for the use of calico printers in the manufacturing districts. The price is £7 to £8 the ton. This important root is already cultivated to a considerable extent in Russia but not nearly in sufficient quantity to meet the local demand; so that large quantities are imported from Holland and elsewhere, every year. The quantity of madder, madder-root, and garaneine annually imported into the United Kingdom is exceedingly large, over 15,000 tons, as is shown by a reference to the following figures:-- Madder. Madder roots. Garancine. Total. cwts. cwts. cwts. cwts. 1848 81,261 139,463 5,955 276,679 1849 92,736 161,986 4,969 259,691 1850 100,248 161,613 5,845 267,706 1851 92,925 202,091 9,382 304,398 1852 84,385 179,813 ---- ---- We imported from France, duty free, the following:-- Madder. Official value. Madder-root. cwts. £ cwts. £ 1848 54,084 122,851 25,068 70,749 1849 57,108 131,059 23,459 81,274 1850 54,559 123,628 13,693 55,263 1851 65,577 151,502 34,017 167,721 The price in the Liverpool market, in June 1853, for Bombay madder-roots was £1 18s. to £2 14s. the cwt. INDIAN MADDER.--_Rubia cordifolia_, or _Munjestha_, a variety with white flowers, a native of Siberia, is cultivated largely in the East, particularly about Assam, Nepaul, Bombay, Scinde, Quitta, China, &c., for its dye-stuff, and is known as Munjeet. A small quantity is exported from China and India; about 338 Indian maunds were shipped from Calcutta in 1840, and 2,328 in 1841. It fetches in the London and Liverpool markets from 20s. to 25s. and 30s. per cwt., duty free; 405 tons were imported into Liverpool from Bombay and Calcutta, in 1849, and 525 tons in 1850, but none was imported in 1851 and 1852. It was remarked by the Jury in 1851, at the Great Exhibition, that this is a valuable dye-stuff, and hitherto not so well appreciated as it deserves, for some of the colors dyed with it are quite as permanent as those dyed with madder, and even more brilliant. Its use however is gradually increasing, and it is unquestionably well worthy the attention of dyers. LOGWOOD.--The logwood of commerce is the red heart wood, or duramen, of a fine lofty growing tree (_Haematroxylon Campechianum_), growing in Campeachy and the bay of Honduras, and which is also now common in the woods of Jamaica and St. Domingo. It is principally imported as a dye wood, cut into short lengths. We chip, grind, and pack it into casks and bags, ready for the dyers, hatters, and printers' use, who esteem it as affording the most durable deep red and black dyes. It is sometimes used in medicine as an astringent. That grown in Jamaica is least valued that of Honduras, Tobasco, and St. Domingo, fetches a somewhat higher price; but that imported from Campeachy direct, is the most esteemed. The annual imports into Liverpool are about 1,300 tons from Honduras, 100 from Tobasco, and 1,800 from Campeachy. It thrives best in a damp tenacious soil, with a small proportion of sand. It is imported in logs, which are afterwards chipped, and is of great commercial importance from its valuable dyeing properties. Old wood is preferred; it is so hard as almost to be indestructible by the atmosphere. The albumen is of a yellowish color, and is not imported. The bark and wood are slightly astringent. The imports of logwood into the United Kingdom, were 23,192 tons in 1848, 23,996 tons in 1849, and 34,090 tons in 1850, of which 3,484 tons were re-exported in 1848, and 2,307 tons in 1849. The imports in the past two years of 1852 and 1853, have averaged 20,000 tons, of which about 3,000 tons were re-exported. It is increasing in use, for in 1837, the quantity retained for home use was only 14,677½ tons. The price varies according to quality from £4 to £7 per ton. We received from Honduras 5,401 tons in 1844; and 55,824 tons in 1845. From Montego Bay, Jamaica, 398 tons were shipped between January and July 1851. FUSTIC.--This is the common name of a species of dye wood in extensive use, which is obtained from _Maclura tinctoria_, or _Broussonitia tinctoria_, Kunth, a large and handsome evergreen tree, growing in South America and the West Indies. The wood is extensively used as an ingredient in the dyeing of yellow, and is largely imported for that purpose. The quantity entered for home consumption in the United Kingdom was 1,731 tons in 1847, 1,653 in 1848, and 1,842 tons in 1849. Ninety-one tons were shipped from Montego Bay, Jamaica, in the first six months of 1851. QUERCITRON.---This bark furnishes a yellow dye, of which about 3,500 tons are annually imported in hogsheads of from half a ton to a ton. 296 tons were imported into Liverpool from Philadelphia in 1849, and 514 tons in 1850. BRAZIL WOOD.--This very ponderous wood is obtained in Brazil from the _Cæsalpina Braziliensis_, which yields a red or crimson dye, when united with alum or tartar, and is used by silk dyers. It is imported principally from Pernambuco, 1,200 quintals having been shipped to London in 1835, but about 500 tons, worth about £4 a ton, were imported from Costa Rica in 1845. The tree is large, crooked, and knotty, and the bark is thick, and equals the third or fourth of its diameter. The imports may be stated at about 600 tons annually, the average price being £50 per ton. Brazil wood is found in the greatest abundance and of the best quality, in the Province of Pernambuco, but being a government monopoly it has been cut down in so improvident a manner, that it is now seldom seen within several leagues of the coast. Among the Cuba dye woods is Copey _(Clusia rosea_, Linn). Braziletto, obtained from _C. Crista_, is one of the cheapest and least esteemed of the red dye woods, imported from Jamaica and other West India islands to the extent of 150 tons per annum, fetching £6 to £8 per ton. 2,361 tons of Nicaragua wood were imported in 1848, 2,701 tons in 1849, and 6,130 tons in 1850. Spain exhibited various vegetable dyes obtained from cultivated and wild plants furnished by the Agricultural Board of Saragossa. LICHENS. The chief lichens employed in the manufacture of orchil and cudbear are the following:-- Angola weed (_Ramalina furfuracea_). Mauritius weed (_Rocella fusiformis_), which comes also from Madagascar, Lima, and Valparaiso, and then bears the distinctive commercial name of the port of shipment. Cape weed (_Rocella tinctoria_), from the Cape de Verd Islands. Canary Moss (_Parmelia perlata_). Tartareous Moss (_Parmelia tartarea_). Pustulatus Moss (_Umbilicaria pustulata_). Velvet Moss (_Gyrophora murina_). The last three are imported from Sweden. Of these lichens, the first, which is the richest in coloring matter, grows as a parasite upon trees; all the remainder upon rocks. _Rocella corallina_, _Variolaris lactea_ and _dealbata_, have been also resorted to. About 130 tons of cudbear are imported annually from Sweden. These lichens are found on rocks, on the sea coast. The modes, of treating them for the manufacture of the different dyes is the same in principle, though varying slightly in detail. They are carefully cleaned and ground into a pulp with water, an ammoniacal liquor is from time to time added, and the mass constantly stirred in order to expose it as much as possible to the air. Peculiar substances existing in these plants are, during this process, so changed by the combined action of the atmosphere, water, and ammonia, as to generate the coloring matter, which, when perfect, is pressed out, and gypsum, chalk, or other substances, are then added, so as to give it the desired consistency; these are then prepared for the market under the forms of cudbear or litmus. HENNA (_Lawsonia inermis_), is an important dye-stuff, and the distilled water of the flowers is used as a perfume. The Mahomedan women in India use the shoots for dyeing their nails red, and the same practice prevails in Arabia. In these countries the manes and tails of the horses are stained red in the same manner. The _Genista tomentosa_ yields red petals used in dyeing, and containing much tannic acid. ORCHILLA WEED.--The fine purple color which the orchilla weed yields, is in use as an agent for coloring, staining, and dyeing. About 30,000 lbs. is obtained annually in the island of Teneriffe. 460 arrobas (or 115 cwt.) of orchilla were exported from the Canary Isles in 1833. In 1839, 6,494 cwts. paid duty, and 4,175 cwts. in 1840. The average imports of the three years ending with 1842, was 6,050 cwt. A little comes in from Barbary and the islands of the Archipelago. Dr. W.L. Lindley, in a very interesting paper, read before the Botanical Society of London, in December, 1852, on the dyeing properties of the lichens, stated-- The subject of the _colorific_ and _coloring_ principles of the lichen has, within the last few years, attracted a due share of that attention which, has been increasingly devoted to organic chemistry. Since 1830, Heeren, Kane, Schunck, Rochleder and Heldt, Knop, Stenhouse, Laurent and Gerhardt, have published valuable papers on these principles; but, here again, we have to regret the great discrepancy in the various results obtained, and there is therefore, here also, imperatively demanded re-investigation and correction before _any_ of the results already published can he implicitly relied upon, and before we can have safe data from which to generalise. I have no doubt that a great proportion of the obscurity overhanging this subject depends on the circumstance that many of the chemists, who have devoted attention to the color-educts and products of the lichens, were not themselves botanists, and have therefore probably, in some cases at least, analysed species under erroneous names, and also because their investigations have comprehended a much too limited number of species. Their utility in the arts, and especially in dyeing--including the collection of a series of the commercial dye lichens, _i.e._, those used by the manufacturers of London, &c., in the making of orchil, cudbear, litmus, and other lichen dyes. While investigating the dyeing properties of the lichens, I made experiments, with a view to test their colorific power, on as many species as I could obtain in sufficient quantity, to render it at all useful to operate on--that number, however, being very limited (between forty and fifty). Dr. Lindley adds, many parties may be able to aid his investigations, by furnishing information on their economic uses, and on their special applications in dyeing and other arts--(particularly on their employment, as dye agents, by the natives of Britain and other countries)--with specimens of the lichens so used, and their common names--specimens of fabrics dyed therewith--notes of the processes employed for the elimination of the dyes, &c. Parties resident in, or travelling through our western Highlands and Islands, the northern Highlands, Ireland, Wales, Norway, Iceland, and similar countries, are most likely to be able to afford this description of information--many native lichens being still used by the peasantry of these countries to dye their homespun yarn, &c. He proceeded to treat--1. The vast importance of this humble tribe of plants in the grand economy of nature, as the pioneers and founders of _all_ vegetation. 2. Their importance to man and the lower animals, as furnishing various articles of food. 3. Their importance in medicine, and especially in its past history, at home and abroad. 4. Their importance in the useful and fine arts, and especially in the art of dyeing. 5. Their affinities and analogies to other cryptogamic families, and to the Phanerogamia. 6. Their value as an element of the picturesque in nature; and, 7. Their typical significance. He then adverted more especially to the subject of his communication, under the ten following heads:-- I. The colors of the Thallus and apothecia of Lichens--their causes, and the circumstances which modify and alter them. II. History of the application of their coloring matters to the art of dyeing. III. Chemical nature and general properties of these coloring matters. IV. Tests and processes for estimating qualitatively, and quantitatively the colorific powers of individual species--with their practical applications. V. Processes of manufacture of the Lichen-dyes, on the large and small scale in different countries--with the principles on which they are founded. VI. Nomenclature of the dye-Lichens, and of the Lichen-dyes. VII. Botanical and commercial sources of the same. VIII. Special applications of the Lichen-dyes in the arts. IX. Commercial value of the dye-Lichens, and their products. X. Geographical distribution of the dye-Lichens--with the effect of climate; situation, &c., on their colorific materials. Of the four first sections of his paper, the following is a very short summary or synopsis:-- Under the first head, the author spoke of chlorophylle and various organic and inorganic substances, which enter into the formation of the colors of the thallus and apothecia of lichens, and of the modifications of these colors depending on various degrees of--1. Exposure to air and light. 2. Temperature. 3. Moisture, &c. 4. Atmospheric vicissitudes. 5. Season of the year. 6. Nature of the Gonidic reproduction (_i.e._, gemmation). 7. Nature of habitat. 8. Organic decomposition. 9. Coalescence of parts, monstrosities, &c. Under the second section, he traced historically the manufacture of Lichen-dyes, and the native use of Lichens as dye agents, among different nations, from the times of Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Pliny, down to the present day, sketching briefly the ancient end modern history of orchil, cudbear, and litmus, and specifying the native use of lichen-dyes in different, countries of Europe, Asia, and America. He alluded more particularly to their application to the dyeing of yarns, &c., by the Scotch Highlanders, under the name of "_Crottles_." "The process of the manufacture of the various crottles, generally consisted in macerating the powdered lichen for two or three weeks, in stale urine, exposing the mass freely to the air by repeated stirring, and adding lime, salt, alum, or argillaceous and other substances, either to heighten the color or impart consistence. To such an extent did this custom at one time prevail, that, in several of our northern counties each farm and cottage had its tank or barrel of putrefying urine, a homely but perfectly efficient mode of generating the necessary amount of ammonia. In the county of Aberdeen, in particular, every homestead had its reservoir of "Graith,"[53] and the "Lit-pig,"[54] which stood by every fireside, was as familiar an article of furniture in the cots of the peasantry, as the "cuttie-stool," or the "meal girnel." So lately as 1841 (and I presume the practice continues to the present day), Mr. Edmonston stated that, of four or five native dyes, used by the Shetlanders to color cloth and yarns, two at least were furnished by lichens, viz., a _brown dye_ from _Parmelia saxatilis_, under the name of "Scrottyie," and a _red_ one from _Lecanora tartarea_, under that of "Korkalett." It is very probable, however, that steam and free trade have gradually dispelled this good old custom, even in the remoter corners of our island; machinery-made articles being now readily supplied, at a rate so extraordinarily cheap, as to render it absolutely expensive (as to time, if not also as to money) to prepare colors, even by a process so simple and inexpensive as that just mentioned." Under the third head, he examined, in a general way, the chemistry of the colorific and coloring matters of the lichens and the results to which it has led, avoiding as much as possible the technicalities inseparable from such a subject, and giving a short _vise_ of the researches of Heeren, Kane, Rochleder, and Heldt, Stenhouse, Schunck, Laurent, and Gerhardt, and others. "Our untaught senses should undoubtedly lead us to expect the lichens, whose thallus exhibits the brightest tints, to yield the finest dyes, and these, too, of a color similar to that of the thallus, but experience teaches us that the beautiful reddish or purplish coloring-matters are producible in the greatest abundance by the very species from which we should least expect to derive any, viz., in those most devoid of external color. This, though at first sight very remarkable, is easily explicable, when we remember that, in most of the so-called dye-lichens, colorific principles exist in a colorless form, and only become converted into colored substances under a peculiar combination of circumstances. "Some lichens contain coloring matters, ready formed, and these exhibit themselves in the tint of the thallus of the plants, _e.g._ chrysophanic [or parietinic] acid in _Parmelia parietina_, and vulpinic acid in _Evernia vulpina_. In other species we find principles, which, while in the plant, and unacted on by chemical re-agents, are colorless, but which, when the lichens are exposed to the combined influence of atmospheric air, water, and ammonia, yield colored substances. This series of colored products is usually comprehended more for convenience sake than on account of chemical identity, under the generic term orceine." The whole subject of the chemistry of these bodies is at present in a most unsatisfactory condition, demanding fresh investigation and research, in illustration of which, the author exhibited tables of the colorific and coloring principles, so far as they are at present known, showing their chemical formulæ and the authority therefor, and various relative information. "It is highly probable that when the chemistry of the lichens has been more fully studied, and the whole subject of their color-educts and products better understood, we shall begin to reduce the present confused mass of complex substances, and find the same principles more extensively diffused through different lichen species." Dr. L. entered somewhat minutely on the chemical reactions of the better known colorific and coloring principles, and their derivatives, so far at least as these throw any light on the production and transmutation of the red or purple colors extracted from what may be termed _par excellence_, the _dye-lichens_. After a few remarks on the chemical constitution of orchil and litmus, as given by Kane, Gelis, Pereira, and others, he discussed the subject of decolorisation of weak infusions of orchil and litmus by exclusion of atmospheric air, and by various deoxidising agents, and the different theories as to the causation of this phenomenon. "I have repeatedly had occasion to notice that, when weak infusions of these substances are excluded for some time from atmospheric air, in a bottle, with a tightly fitting cork, they gradually lose color, but rapidly regain it on re-exposure. It is curious that both orchil and litmus are what are called transient or false colors, _i.e._, they slowly lose their bloom and tint by long exposure to the atmosphere; the coloring matter, therefore, appears to be decolorised both by exposure to, and exclusion from the air, phenomena apparently of very opposite characters. The cause of the latter phenomenon has never, so far as I am aware, been quite satisfactorily explained; but it has been variously supposed to be due:-- 1. To the mere negation of oxygen. 2. To the development, in the liquids, of various substances, capable of exerting a decolorising influence on the coloring matter. 3. To deoxidation of the coloring matter by substances, which have a great tendency to become oxidised or peroxised; _e.g._ hydrogen, in the case of decolorisation by sulphuretted hydrogen, nascent hydrogen, and the protoxides of iron and tin, &c. 4. To the fixation of an additional amount of hydrogen in a new colorless body, formed by the union of the sulphuretted hydrogen or other substances with the coloring matter of the liquid. This view is chiefly supported by Kane, who says, "that precisely as the coloring matters combine with water, to form different shades of red-colored bodies--with ammonia to produce a series of bodies, which are blue and purple--so they combined with sulphuretted hydrogen to form colorless compounds in solution, which, if solid, very probably would be white." He supposes, in a word, that for every colored substance existing in orchil and litmus, there is a corresponding white one, producible by the action of sulphuretted hydrogen, &c.; and, in proof of this theory, he mentions having obtained from Azolitmine and Betaorceine colorless bodies, to which he gave the respective names of Leuco-litmine and Leuco-orceine. The author then gave a short summary of Dr. Westring's experiments on the dyeing powers of the Swedish lichens, which he found might be conveniently divided into four classes, according to the degree of heat employed in their maceration, viz.:-- 1. Lichens, whose coloring matter was easily extractable by _cold_ water alone. 2. Those which required for the elimination of their coloring matter, maceration in _tepid_ water (_i.e._ below 258 degs. Swedish thermometer). 3. Those which required maceration in _warm_ water (_i.e._between 50 and 60 degs. Swedish thermometer). 4. Those requiring _boiling_ water alone, or with the aid of solvents. "It must be admitted that our knowledge of the true nature of the colorofic and coloring principles of the lichens is, as yet, very imperfect and confused, and one great cause of the dubity and obscurity overhanging the subject, is the fact that different analysts have arrived at most opposite results, even in the examination of the same species. For instance, in _Rocella tinctoria_, which has, of all the dye-Lichens, been most frequently selected for analytical investigation, on account of its important product orchil, the discrepancies between the results obtained are very striking. In it Heeren discovered his _Erythrine_; Kane his _Erythriline_; Schunk his _Erythric acid_; and Stenhouse three different substances in as many varieties of the plant; all of these bodies differing more or less from each other in composition and properties (at least, if we are to assume, as correct, the descriptions given of them by their respective discoverers"). "I have already hinted that there is no ratio between the external and internal color or structure of a lichen, and the kind or amount of coloring matter it will be found to yield. It is exceedingly natural to suppose that such a ratio should exist; but, proceeding for some time on this supposition, I was frequently disappointed in my results--the most showy and brilliantly colored lichens often furnishing the dullest and most worthless colors. For instance, the bright yellow thallus of _Parmelia parietina_, and the beautiful scarlet apothecia of _Scyphophorus cocciferus_, instead of producing a rich yellow in the one case, and a deep crimson in the other, yielded, respectively, only dirty greenish-yellow and brownish colors. As a general rule I should almost be inclined to say that the finer the color of the thallus of any given lichen, the more is that lichen to be suspected of poverty in valuable coloring matters; and that, on the other hand, the palest pulverulent or crustaceous species, especially such as are saxicolous, may be expected to yield the most beautiful and valuable pigments (_e.g._ the Rocellas and Lecanoras). In such circumstances it is necessary to have some test, of easy applicability, of the kind and amount of colorific properties of any lichen, and this fortunately is readily attainable." The fourth section of the paper was devoted to the consideration of the various tests of colorific power, which have been recommended by different authors. "Of these, the greater number proceed on the principle of developing the coloring matter by some alkali, in conjunction with the decomposing action of atmospheric oxygen and water; others are founded on the reaction between colorific principles of certain of the dye lichens and some of our ordinary chemical re-agents." The author noticed in particular-- 1. Helot's test, } 2. Westring's tests, }qualitative. 3. Stenhouse's test, } 4. " quantitative. Helot's test consists in digesting the dried and powdered lichen or a few hours, at a temperature of 130 degs., in a weak solution of ammonia, sufficiently strong, however, to be tolerably pungent. One that is fit for the dyer will yield a rich violet red liquor. Dr. Westring recommended simply macerating three or four drachms of the lichen in cool spring water, assisting, perhaps, the solvent action of the water by minute quantities of common salt, nitre, quicklime, sulphate of copper or iron, or similar re-agents. If these means failed, after a sufficient length of time had been allowed for the development of color, he digested a fresh portion of the pulverised lichen in water, containing small quantities of sal-ammoniac and quicklime [in the proportion of 25 parts of water, 1-10th lime, and 1-20th sal-ammoniac for every part of lichen], for a period varying from eight to fourteen days, and by this process, he says, he never failed to develop all the color which the plant was capable of yielding. Dr. Stenhouse, of London, one of our latest and best authorities on the chemistry of the lichens, adds to an alcoholic infusion of the lichen, a solution of common bleaching powder (chloride of lime), whereby, if it contain certain colorific principles capable of developing, under the joint action of air, water, and ammonia, red coloring matters, a fugitive but distinct _blood-red color_ will be exhibited. The amount of this colorific matter may be estimated quantitatively by noting the quantity of the chloride of lime solution required to destroy this blood-red color in different cases: or the same result may be obtained by macerating for a short period in milk of lime--filtering--precipitating the filtered liquor by acetic or muriatic acid--collecting this precipitate on a weighed filter--drying at ordinary temperatures and again weighing. The author entered into a full analysis of these tests and processes--pointing out their respective advantages and disadvantages--and showing their practical value and applications. He stated that he had made use of these, and various other tests, in upwards of 300 experiments, and the one which he employed to the greatest extent, because most uniformly applicable, was Helot's ammonia test. The following combination is that most favorable for the development of the coloring matter of the lichens--viz., the presence 1. Of _water_ as a solvent menstruum. 2. Of atmospheric _oxygen_. 3. Of _ammonia_, in the state of vapor or in solution, and 4. Of a moderate degree of _heat_; And according as the proportion of these combining elements varies, so do the kind and amount of color educed by them. This combination is the foundation of all the processes for the manufacture of the lichen dyes throughout the world, however different these may appear to be in detail or results. I believe it may come to be a matter of great commercial importance to discover, at home or abroad, some cheap and easily-procurable substitute for the _Roccellas_, which are gradually becoming scarce, and consequently valuable in European commerce, having sometimes fetched, in times of scarcity, no less than £1,000 per ton. No plants can be so easily collected and preserved as lichens--requiring merely to be cleaned, dried, pulverised, and packed; and if their bulk be an objection to transport, their whole colorific matter may be collected in the way I have already mentioned. Ascending to the verge of eternal snows, and descending to the ocean level--with a geographical diffusion that is co-extensive with the surface of our earth, it is difficult to say where lichens shall not be found. There are myriads of small rocky islets in the boundless ocean, and there are thousands of miles of barren rocky coast and sterile mountain range in every part of the world, which, though at present unfit to bear any of the higher members of the vegetable kingdom, are yet carpeted and adorned with a rich covering of lichens, and of those very species too, which I have already spoken of as prolific in colorific materials. I sincerely believe, therefore, that a more general attention to the very simple tests just enumerated, would ultimately result in a greatly extended use of the lichens as dye agents. What renders it very probable that efforts in this direction are likely to meet with success is the great similarity of species found all over the world. It has been repeatedly noticed that the European species, which, of course, are best known, differ little from those of North America. Dr. Robert Brown remarked the same fact with regard to New Holland species, and Humboldt also recognised the similarity in natives of the South American Andes. Of a large collection made by Professor Royle, in the Himalayas, Don pronounced almost every one to be identical with European species. From examining the raw vegetable products, sent by different countries to the Great Exhibition of 1851, I am satisfied that, even now, there are many fields open for the establishment of an export trade in _Roccellas_ and other so-called orchella weeds." I there saw specimens of good dye lichens from almost every part of the world, including our own young colonies; and as a single instance of their probable value, I may introduce here the copy of a note appended to a specimen of orchella weed from the island of Socotra, contained in the Indian collection of that exhibition, "_abundant_, but _unknown_ as an article of use or commerce. Also abundant on the hills around (Aden) and _might_ be made an article of trade." Roccellas from this source are estimated as worth £190 to £380 per ton. I believe that a similar statement might be made with regard to the countless islands of the broad Atlantic and Pacific, which may, at some future period, perhaps not far distant, be found to be rich depots of orchella weeds, just as some of them are, at present, rich fields of guano, and may, as such, become new nuclei of British commerce and enterprise. Even at home, in the immediate vicinity of Edinburgh, or, to restrict our limits still more narrowly, within the compass of Arthur's Seat, there are not a few very good dye-lichens, which require merely to be scraped with an old knife or similar instrument, from the rocks to which they adhere, and subjected to the ammonia process already mentioned. Of twelve specimens thus collected at random one morning, I found no less than three yielded beautiful purple-red colors, apparently as fine as orchil or cudbear, while the others furnished rich and dark tints of brownish-red, brown and olive-green. Dr. Lindley's communication was illustrated with specimens of coloring matters yielded by various lichens collected in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, &c. BARKS FOR TANNING. Let us now take a brief review of the sources from whence tanning materials may be obtained, which will also enable us to form a fair estimate of the prospect of future supplies. Only one medal was awarded, at the Great Exhibition, for tanning substances, viz., to Messrs. Curtis, Brothers (United Kingdom, No. 126), but honorable mention was made of the following competitors:--One from Tunis, one from Van Diemen's Land, one from New Zealand, one from Belgium, one from the Cape of Good Hope, one from Canada, and one from the United Kingdom. The substance from which pure tannin is most frequently obtained for chemical purposes is nutgalls, for tannin constitutes above 40 per cent, of their weight. It may be procured also from several other sources, such as oak, horse chestnut, sumach, and cinchona barks, catechu, kino, &c. The basis of the skins of animals is composed of a substance to which the name of gelatine is given. One of the properties of this substance is, that when combined with tannin, it forms the compound of tannate of gelatine, or leather, a substance which is so useful to mankind. From time immemorial, the substance employed to furnish the tannin to the hides of animals, in order to convert them into leather, has been oak bark. But as the purpose for which oaks are grown is their timber, and not their bark, the supply of oak bark cannot be calculated upon, and this is, perhaps, one of the causes why tanning as an art is in such a backward state. The consumption of tannin required in the leather manufacture may be estimated from the fact that more than 672,000 cwts. of raw hides were imported in 1851, besides the hides of the cattle, &c., consumed in the United Kingdom. On the Continent and in the United States the consumption of bark for this purpose is also considerable. The imports of bark for the use of tanners and dyers has amounted yearly to the very large quantity of 380,674 cwt., besides what we obtain at home. Oak bark contains usually the largest proportion of tannin, and according to Davy's experiments eight-and-a-half pounds of oak bark are equivalent for tanning purposes to two-and-a-quarter of galls, three of sumach, seven-and-a-half of Leicester willow, eleven of Spanish chesnut, eighteen of elm, and twenty-one of common willow bark. Tannin obtained from these sources, however, differs materially in some of its characters. The tannin of nutgalls, which is that generally employed for chemical purposes, is sometimes called gallo-tannic acid, to distinguish it from other species. Notwithstanding the number of different substances which have from time to time been introduced for the use of tanners, it is, nevertheless, pretty generally acknowledged that there is nothing superior, or even equal, to good oak bark, and that all attempts to hurry the process beyond a certain point by the use of concentrated solutions of tan, &c., are for the most part failures, as the manufacture of good leather, to a great extent, depends on the process being conducted in a slow and gradual, but--at the same time--thorough and complete matter. Oak bark is, however, by no means the only astringent bark well suited to the use of the tanner, and in various parts of the world other similar substances are used with very great success. All these tanning materials, though they may not be considered by the English tanner equal to the best oak bark, are, nevertheless, of great value to him; they may be employed in conjunction with oak bark, or even as a substitute in times of scarcity, or when the price of oak bark is high; in fact the very existence of such substances tends to keep down and equalise the price of bark, and to prevent it from undergoing those great fluctuations in value which would necessarily occur were it the only tanning material available to our manufacture--("Prof. Solly in Jury Reports of Great Exhibition.") There are a vast number of bark and other substances useful for tanning purposes, which are found in the tropics, that are comparatively unknown or little regarded in Europe; but which might be readily obtained in large quantities and at a trifling cost. The bark of many species of _Acacia_ furnishes the tanning principle in a great degree, particularly that of _A. arabica_, which, under the name of Babul wood, is largely used about Scinde, Biliary, Gruzerat, and other parts of India; where it is regarded as a powerful tonic. The fruit of _A. vera_, termed Egyptian and Senegal "bablah," has been employed in tanning and dyeing. Numerous species of this tribe are found abundant in New South Wales and the Cape Colony, and these, particularly the wattle bark of Australia, are in common use for tanning, from their astringent properties. The bark and rind of the fruit of the pomegranate (_Pumica Granata_) have similar properties. The bark of _Avicenna tomentosa_ is in great use in the Brazils for tanning. So are the curved pods of _Cæsalpinia Coriari_, in the East and West Indies, under the name of Divi-divi. _Coriaria myrtifolia_ is not only used in tanning leather, but also for staining black. It is worth £9 to £10 per ton. _Pterocarpus marsupium_ furnishes about Tellicherry the concrete exudation called kino, a powerful astringent used for tanning. The plants of the mangrove tribe, _Rhizophora Mangle_, and other allied species, have frequently an astringent bark, which is in many cases used for tanning and dyeing black. This tree is very common in most tropical countries, where it forms dense thickets on the muddy banks of rivers and the sea shores. The bark of _Bauhinia variegata_, is made use of in Scinde and other parts of Asia. The bitter astringent bark and the galls of several of the Tamarisk tribe are also well suited for the purpose. _Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum_, one of the numerous indigenous species of the Cape, is used in making morocco leather. The extract procured from the bark of the _Butea_, that of the _Buchanania latifolia_, the _Scyzgium_ (_Calyptranthes_), _Jambolana_, &c., are likely to be of consequence to the tanners, and could be produced in India in large quantities. Specimens of these, and of the bark of the Saul tree, of _Nychanthes arbortrista, Terminalia angustifolia_, and of the gaub fruit (_Diospyros glutinosa_), were shown by the East India Company. The bark of the hemlock tree is extensively employed for tanning in New Brunswick. The bark of yellow hercules (_Xanthoxylum ochroxylon_), and the pods of _Acacia tortuosa_ are used for tanning in the West Indies. In the instructions given by the Admiralty to Sir James Boss, when proceeding on his Antarctic Expedition, his attention was particularly called to the astringent substances adapted for tanning, and to the various extracts of barks, &c., imported into England from our Australian settlements, and which are employed by the tanner. Little sterling information has as yet been obtained as to the qualities of the astringent gums, barks, and dyes, yielded in such abundance by the trees of those colonies, and the proportion of tannin they contained. In 1846, 563 tons of bark for tanning were exported from Port Phillip. A large quantity of tannin is extracted from various species of Eucalyptus, the gigantic gum trees in Australia and Van Diemen's Land (of which quarter all the species are natives), and sent to the English market; it is said to be twice as powerful in its operations as oak bark. Some of these trees attain a height of 200 feet. Their bark separates remarkably into layers. A sort of kino gum, an astringent resinous-like substance, is also extracted from _E. resinifera_, the brown gum-tree of New Holland, which is sold in the medicine bazaars of India. It exudes in the form of red juice from incisions in the bark. A single tree will often yield 60 gallons. In Brazil they use the bark of _Luhea panicata_, an evergreen climber, for tanning leather; and in Peru the bark of some species of _Weinmaunia_ serve the same purpose. Among other powerful astringents I may notice the root of a species of Sea Lavender (_Statice Caroliniana_), _Myrica cerifera_, and _Heuchera Americana_, all natives of North America. Also the petals of _Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis_, a native of Asia. The sea-side grape (_Coccolaba uvifera_) yields an astringent substance, known as Jamaica kino. The bark of the _Cassia auriculata_, and the milky juice of the _Asclepias gigantea_, are used for tanning in India. The red astringent gum obtained from _Butea frondosa_, a middling size tree, common in Bengal and the mountainous parts of India, is used by the natives for tanning. English tanners, however, object to its use on account of the color which it communicates to the leather. The barks of the _Mora excelsa_, Benth; Courida (_Avicenna nutida_), cashew (_Anicardium occidentale_), guava and hog-plum (_Spondius lutea_, Linn.), have all been successfully used for tanning in Demerara and the West India Islands, where they are very abundant. Specimens were sent from British Guiana. The root of the Palmetto palm (_Chaemaerops Palmetto_) is stated to be valuable for the purposes of tanning. The leaves of _Nerium Oleander_ contain tannic acid. The bark of a species of Malphigia is much used by the Brazilians. The panke (_Gunnera scabra_) is a fine plant, growing in Chili, on the sandstone cliffs, which somewhat resembles the rhubarb on a gigantic scale. The inhabitants eat the stalks, which are subacid, tan leather with the roots, and also prepare a black dye from them. The leaf is nearly circular, but deeply indented on its margin. Mr. Darwin measured one which was nearly eight feet in diameter, and therefore no less than twenty-four in circumference. The stalk is rather more than a yard high, and each plant sends out four or five of these enormous leaves, presenting together a very noble appearance. The barks replete with the tanning principle should be stripped with hatchets and bills from the trunk and branches of trees in spring, when their sap flows most freely. The average quantity of oak bark obtained from our forests is estimated at 150,000 tons annually, of which Ireland and Scotland furnish but a very small quantity. The following table, given by Dr. Ure, shows the quantity of extractive matter and tannin yielded by different substances:-- In 480 parts In 100 parts by Davy. by Cadet. Sicilian sumach 78 -- Malaga ditto 79 -- Souchong tea 48 -- Green tea 41 -- Bombay catechu 261 -- Bengal ditto 231 -- Nutgalls 127 46 Bark of pomegranate -- 32 " Virginian sumach -- 10 " Carolina ditto -- 5 Catechu and Gambier are very valuable for tanning, and are alluded to under the heads GAMBIER and ARECA PALM. CATECHU is obtained from the _Acacia Catechu_, an arboreous tree growing from fifteen to twenty feet high, with a brown and scabrous bark. The interior wood is brown, dark red or blackish, and the exterior white, one or two inches thick. It inhabits various parts of the East Indies, of which it is a native, and is also now common in Jamaica. It bears whitish or pale yellow flowers. The catechu obtained from this tree in Pegu, is celebrated throughout India, and fetches £4 to £5 more per ton than gambier and other astringent extracts. When of good quality, catechu is more powerful as an astringent than kino. Of all the astringent substances we know, catechu appears to contain the largest proportion of tannin, and Mr. Purkis found that one pound was equivalent to seven or eight of oak bark for tanning leather. The term catechu, observes Dr. Pereira, is applied to various astringent extracts imported from India and the neighbouring countries. A few years ago the terms catechu, terra japonica, and cutch were employed synonymously; they are now, however, for the most part used in trade somewhat distinctively, though not uniformly in the same sense. The manufacture of catechu from the _Acacia catechu_ as practised in Canara and Behar, has been described by Mr. Kerr ("Med. Obs. and Inquiries," vol. v.), and Dr. Hamilton ("Journey through Mysore," &c., vol. iii.), while Professor Royle has explained the process followed in Northern India. According to the last-mentioned gentleman, "the kutt manufacturers move to different parts of the country in different seasons, erect temporary huts in the jungles, and selecting trees fit for their purpose, cut the inner wood into small chips. These they put into small earthen pots, which are arranged in a double row, along a fireplace built of mud; water is then poured in until the whole are covered; after a considerable portion has boiled away, the clear liquor is strained into one of the neighbouring pots, and a fresh supply of the material is put into the first, and the operation repeated until the extract in the general receiver is of sufficient consistence to be poured into clay moulds, which, in the Kheree Pass and Doon, where I have seen the process, are generally of a quadrangular form. This catechu is usually of a pale red color, and is considered there to be of the best quality. By the manufacturers it is conveyed to Saharunpore and Moradabad, whence it follows the course of commerce down the Ganges, and meets that from Nepaul, so that both may be exported from Calcutta." GAMBIER. The Gambier plant (_Uncaria Gambler_, Roxburgh, _Nauclea Gambir_, Hunter), has been described by Rumphius under the name of _Funis uncatus_. It is a stout, scandent, evergreen shrub, which strongly resembles the myrtle. It is generally cultivated in the same plantation with pepper, as the leaves and shoots, after undergoing the process by which their juice is extracted, to furnish a kind of catechu, are found to be an excellent manure for the pepper vines. The leaves and young shoots of the gambier plant are collected as soon as they have attained a sufficient size, and boiled in iron pans until the juice acquires the consistence of treacle. The decoction is poured out into narrow troughs, dried, and afterwards cut up into small cakes, and packed in baskets for exportation. The gambier extract, which is of a yellowish brown color, and has the consistence of hard cheese, is much esteemed by the Malays for mixing with the preparation of betel, which they are in the habit of chewing; and considerable quantities have lately been imported to this country, where it is used for dyeing colors, and for tanning leather. The demand for gambier here is on the increase; and when better known to our chemists, it will probably be found applicable to many other purposes than those to which it is at present applied. There were, in 1850, 400 gambier and pepper plantations on the island of Singapore; each measures or occupies on an average an area of 500 fathoms square, and employs eight to ten hands to cultivate and manufacture the gambier and pepper. There are some pepper plantations in addition, and they have been found to answer very well without any gambier being cultivated with them. Gambier cultivation is generally a losing undertaking, but it is adopted to obtain the refuse of the leaves for manuring the pepper vines, and also to employ the people in the plantations; it besides affords the proprietors the means of getting monthly sums to carry on the cultivation of pepper, which affords two crops yearly. There were formerly 600 plantations in Singapore, but the reason already assigned, and the formation of spice plantations contiguous have caused the abandonment of all those near the town. Each plantation must have an equal extent of forest land to that cultivated with gambier and pepper, to enable the manufacture of the gambier being carried on, and each gambier plantation, of 500 fathoms square, contains about 3,500 pepper vines, which yield on an average two catties per vine, or 70 piculs of pepper, and about 170 piculs of gambier annually;--a good plantation will, however, yield sometimes as much as 120 piculs of pepper, and 200 piculs of gambier, and a bad one as little as 40 to 50 piculs of pepper, and 60 to 80 piculs of gambier. Were it not for the enormous commission charged by the agents of these plantations, from whom the cultivators get all the advances, it would prove a profitable cultivation. The rates of commission charged generally are as follows:--Per picul of gambier, fifteen to twenty-five cents; per picul of pepper, thirty to forty cents; and if the price of the former is below one-and-a-half dollars, and the latter below three-and-a-half dollars per picul, a small reduction is made in the rates of commission. On every picul of rice supplied to the planters twenty to twenty-five cents commission is charged; this includes the interest of money advanced, which is never charged. A gambier and pepper plantation is valued or estimated at about 400 dollars on an average. The following is supposed to be a correct estimate, on an average, of the yearly expenditure and returns of a gambier and pepper plantation of 500 fathoms square, viz:-- EXPENDITURE. drs. c. men. drs. c. Eight men at 3½ dollars and 7 Java rupees per month, wages for headman and labourers respectively 22.70 12 272.40 Five piculs of rice, including commission, say 6.50 12 81.60 Fish, &c. 5 12 60.0 Boat or cart hire to carry rice and produce 1¾ 12 21.0 ------ 435.0 PRODUCE. 170 piculs of gambier, valued at l dollar 45 cents per picul, less 15 cents commission chargeable, nett 221.30 -- --- 70 piculs of pepper, at 4½ dollars, less 40 cents per picul commission, nett 287.0 -- 508.0 Yearly profit, 73 dollars, or about £15. Several gambier and pepper plantations have been abandoned in Singapore, partly from the ground being impoverished, but more particularly from the exhaustion of the forest adjacent to their estates. The exhaustion of the trees by yearly consumption deprives the planters of the necessary fire wood which is used for the boiling down of the gambier. A gambier plantation gets exhausted in fifteen years, either from the want of firewood or the land getting impoverished. There are about 200 plantations at Johore, and the produce of gambier for the season of 1851 was calculated at 30,000 piculs. This shrub was, at one period, cultivated with success at Pinang and other places to the eastward, but as Java was the principal market for the produce, and the Dutch had levied a duty of twelve Java rupees per picul on it, the cultivation at the former island did not repay its cost, and it was accordingly abandoned. Prices have been lately advancing, and the Chinese are talking of trying it again. The plant is partial to hilly land or slopes at the skirts of hills. Two hundred plants are usually placed on one orlong of land, being six feet asunder. They are raised from seed, and are topped to eight or ten feet, when the gambier is to be prepared. The Chinese dry the seed slightly, and sow in rainy weather. The seeds vegetate in forty days, and are planted out in the second or third month afterwards. At the expiration of fourteen months, the first cutting of the branches, with the leaves on, is made. These are put into a boiler, and when the juice has been extracted, the branches and refuse are thrown away, and the boiling is continued until the liquor has obtained the proper consistence, when it is put into shallow troughs, dried, and cut into slices for sale. The second cutting takes place eight months subsequently to the first. The plant now grows strong and admits of frequent cropping, and it will endure for twenty years. No manure is used, but the plantation is kept clean. Estimated cost of cultivating ten orlongs, about 13 acres, according to Colonel Low:-- Spanish dollars. Value of cleared land, ten orlongs 200 Six laborers per annum 360 Quit rent 7 Boilers, firewood, and implements 20 Houses 50 Incidental 30 ---- Total first year 667 Second year 397 ---- 1,064 The six laborers on the plantation will, after the above period, be constantly employed in cutting and preparing the gambier: the average product will be 15 piculs monthly, which, at two dollars per picul, will be 30 dollars monthly, or 360 dollars per annum. This is the account obtained by collating different Chinese statements. The _Nauclea Gambir_ is placed by Jussieu under the natural order _Rubiaceæ_; it is a shrub attaining the height of six to eight feet, branchy; the leaves are ovate, pointed, smooth, waving, distinctly veined transversely underneath, of dark green color, and, when chewed, they have a bitter astringent taste, leaving however, afterwards, a sweetish taste in the mouth, not unlike liquorice; the flowers are aggregate, globular, composed of numerous florets, crowded on a globular naked receptacle; tubes of the corolla of a pinkish color; the upper part of the corolla fine, cleft, and of a greenish yellow color; the staminæ are five in number, and short; the pistil is longer than the corolla; the flowers are destitute of fragrance; the capsules (as correctly stated by Mr. Hunter) are stalked oblong, incrusted, and crowned with a calyx; tapering to a point below; two celled, two valved, the valves adhering at the apex, splitting at the sides; seeds very numerous, oblong, very small, compressed, furnished at both ends with a membraneous pappus. The gambier plant is propagated either by seeds or cuttings, but the latter are preferred. It is cultivated to some extent at Singapore, but it is said that the gambier can be imported cheaper from the islands in the vicinity, more especially at the Dutch settlement at Rhio. The extract is used extensively by the natives of India, Eastern Archipelago, Cochin-China, and Cambodia, as a masticatory, wrapped up with the betel. There are three different qualities of extract; the first and best is white, brittle, and has an earthy appearance when rubbed between the fingers (which earthy appearance gave it the name of Terra Japonica, being supposed, at first also, to come from Japan), and is formed into very small round cakes. This is the dearest sort, and most refined, but it is not unfrequently adulterated with sago; this kind is brought in the greatest quantity from the island of Sumatra. The second quality is of a brownish yellow color, is formed into oblong cakes, and, when broken, has a light brown earthy appearance; it is also made into a solid cube form; it is sold in the bazars in small packets, each containing five or six. The third quality contains more impurities than the preceding, is formed into small circular cakes, and is sold in packages of five or six in the bazar. The method employed in preparing the extract is thus correctly related by Finlayson:--"The leaves are collected three or four times a year; they are thrown into a large cauldron, the bottom of which is formed of iron, the upper part of bark, and boiled for five or six hours, until a strong decoction is obtained; the leaves are then withdrawn, and allowed to strain over the vessel, which is kept boiling for as many hours more, until the decoction is inspissated; it is then allowed to cool, when the catechu subsides, The water is drawn off; a soft soapy substance remains, which is cut into large masses; these are further divided by a knife into small cubes, about an inch square, or into still smaller pieces, which are laid in frames to dry. This catechu has more of a granular, uniform appearance than that of Bengal; it is, perhaps, also less pure." The younger leaves of the shrub are said to produce the whitest and best gambier; the older, a brown and inferior sort. There are other species of _Nauclea_ indigenous to Singapore, but they do not produce any extract. Dr. Bennett has particularised four qualities of gambier:-- 1. Small round cakes, about the size of a small lozenge. Color pale, purplish, yellowish, white. 2. Cubes, in which shape it is principally imported into England, and square prisms, or oblong pieces. 3. Circular discs, or short cylindrical pieces. 4. Cubical amylaceous pieces, of a darker brown than the other kinds. Gambier is one of the most powerful of the pure astringents. The chief places of manufacture are Saik, Malacca, Singapore, and Rhio or Bintang. Bennett, in his "Wanderings," says there are 60,000 plantations of gambier on this island. After that of Rhio, the next best gambier is that of Lingin. That used by the Malays, with the leaves of betel, in the same manner as cutch in other parts of India, is the finest and whitest; the red being stronger tasted and rank, is exported to Batavia, China, and England, for the purposes of tanning and dyeing. It is frequently adulterated with sago powder, but it may be detected by solution in water. Large quantities of gambier are imported, under the corrupted name of cutch, into Calcutta, from Pegu. The quantity of gambier produced in Rhio, by the Chinese settlers, amounts to about 4,600 tons a year, about 2,000 of which are exported for the consumption of Java, the rest being sent to Cochin-China and other neighbouring countries. Two methods of obtaining gambier are described. One consists in boiling the leaves in water, and in inspissating the decoction; the other, which yields the best gambier, consists in infusing the leaves in warm water, by which a fecula is obtained, which is inspissated by the heat of the sun, and formed into cakes. The injudicious practice adopted by the Land Office in Singapore, of granting indiscriminate licenses, or "cutting papers" as they are formed, seems open to objection, and is driving many of the Chinese cultivators to the neighbouring island of Johore, where they readily obtain permission to cultivate, without obstruction, this important article of commerce. Parties of 300 or 400 at a time left in 1846. It appears that, under his permissive license, the squatter obtains permission to clear as much land as he possibly can, but the order does not define any extent beyond which no cutting should take place. The squatter clears as much land as the means at his disposal will allow, in the hope and expectation that the jungle contiguous to the cleared ground will be at his command for fuel--a supply of fuel, easy of access, and adequate to the number of plants grown, being indispensable to the culture and manufacture of gambier. When the time for gathering the leaves arrives, another squatter (perhaps from motives of envy or malice) obtains a "cutting paper," and commences clearing in close proximity to the already-formed gambier plantation; obviously depriving the owner of the fuel he has reasonably calculated upon. The established planter cannot of course eject the intruder from the land, since the latter possesses an equal right to it, in virtue of his "cutting paper," which, as it specifies no limits, leaves him the disposer or destroyer of the crop of the industrious planter. Instead of the present system, a better practice ought to be introduced, defining the boundaries to be included in a "cutting paper," and effectually preventing a trespass on the fuel-land of the industrious planter. This might easily be effected by specifying the number of acres, as well as the direction, in every clearing paper granted. The average produce of gambier in Singapore is between 7,000 and 8,000 piculs monthly. The ordinary price is about 1¼ dollars per picul. A deficiency of rain, labor, or other causes, will occasionally reduce the annual produce from 90,000 or 100,000 piculs, to 60,000 or 70,000, and this diminished supply will raise the market price of the article probably 35 cents per picul. But, in addition to the effect occasioned by a deficient supply, there are other causes in operation exercising a powerful influence in reducing prices. Gambier was first exported in 1830, from Singapore, to the extent of 2,587 piculs, at 4½ dollars per picul. As a rival to bark it failed at so costly a price to meet with encouragement; the culture and manufacture consequently declined until 1834, when 1,858 piculs were shipped to England at a somewhat lower rate. The demand then became active, the exportations were at first multiplied, then doubled every succeeding year, until they reached, in 1846-47 no less than 173,117 piculs. The price has gradually declined to 1¼ dollars per picul, at which rate it displaces its rival, bark. This price, however, is unremunerative to the grower, so that, unless more encouragement offers, the supply will decline. The number of Chinese employed in the cultivation, &c., of gambier and pepper in Singapore is about 11,000. Their rate of wages fluctuates with the price of gambier. If a picul of gambier realizes 1½ dollars, the monthly pay will be about three dollars; if gambier fetches two dollars, their pay will amount to four dollars in the month. The workmen who clean the plantation always receive a dollar less than those who cut and boil the gambier. A good deal of gambier seems now to be grown in Java, for 58,305 piculs were exported from that island in 1843. A small quantity is taken by the Chinese ports, but whether as a masticatory or for tanning and dyeing I am not aware. VALUE OF THE TERRA JAPONICA IMPORTED INTO CEYLON. £ 1840 611 1841 1,053 1842 768 1843 471 1844 1,153 1845 537 1846 824 1847 1,549 1848 1,095 1849 896 1850 265 1851 386 In the Customs' returns of imports to this country, two articles are enumerated, under the separate names of cutch and terra japonica; the former is catechu and the latter the produce of the gambier plant. The imports of gambier were, in 1836, 970 tons; 1837, 2,738 tons; 1838, 1,600 tons; 1839, 5,213 tons. Cutch. Terra Japonica. tons. tons. 1848 Imported to the United Kingdom 1,186 5,623 Retained for home consumption 765 5,102 1849 Imported 1,636 6,851 Retained for home consumption 869 5,400 1850 Imported 1,172 4,585 Home consumption 787 3,655 1851 Imported 2,401 4,783 Home consumption 2,020 4,431 1852 Imported 2,236 3,244 Home consumption 1,708 3,003 Catechu, imported under its Indian name of cutch, is brought over in bales or baskets of from one to four cwt., the price being £18 to £25 per ton. About 450 cwt. of terra japonica or gambier is annually imported into Hull from the East Indies. The imports of the two substances into Liverpool is about 900 tons. Gambier is only worth £13 to £14 the ton; a few years ago it fetched 26s. the cwt. The imports into the port of London average 1,500 tons annually. 4,679 bales, and 14,436 baskets of terra japonica were imported into Liverpool in 1851, and 14,000 bales and baskets in 1852. The imports of cutch were 10,290 bags, and 2,592 baskets, in 1851, and 11,873 bags and baskets in 1852; the prices, which were from 16s. 6d. to 18s. per cwt. for each article, in 1851, were rapidly run up in Liverpool, in 1853, owing to short supplies, to 25s. for gambier, and 22s. to 24s. per cwt. for cutch, or catechu. EXPORTS OF GAMBIER FROM SINGAPORE, WITH THE OFFICIAL VALUE IN RUPEES. Piculs. Value in rupees. 1840-41 Exported 79,508 457,560 " Growth of Singapore 59,325 1841-42 Exported 93,340 470,790 " Growth of Singapore 47,696 1842-43 Exported 148,746 548,281 " Growth of Singapore 110,151 1843-44 Exported 139,050 584,449 " Growth of Singapore 121,791 1844-45 Exported 157,654 539,978 " Growth of Singapore 134,528 1845-46 Exported 110,766 425,643 " Growth of Singapore 75,797 1846-47 Exported 173,117 591,943 " Growth of Singapore 143,795 The exports of gambier from Singapore were as follows:-- To England. To the Continent. Total. piculs. piculs. piculs. 1849 134,546 6,121 140,667 1850 87,611 16,166 103,777 1851 68,365 11,639 80,004 1852 68,045 9,006 77,051 The exports of cutch from Pinang, in the last four years, have been:--1849, 3,693 piculs; 1850, 900; 1851, 4,143; 1852, 3,880; or, on an average, 197 tons. DIVI-DIVI is the commercial name for the curved pod of a leguminous shrub, _Cæsalpinia coriaria_, which is sometimes imported from Carthage. Its tannin differs materially from that of nutgalls. The quantity of mucilage which it contains precludes it from the use of dyers; but, as it furnishes nearly 50 per cent. of tannin, it is largely used by curriers. It is imported into Liverpool from Rio de la Hacha, Maracaibo, and Savanila. 400 tons of the seed pods and bark of the Algaroba, or Locust-tree (_Prosopis pallida_) were imported in 1849 into Liverpool from Valparaiso, as a substitute for divi-divi in tanning. 3,200 lbs. of divi-divi were exported from the port of Augostara, in 1846. Specimens of divi-divi which had been raised at Calcutta were shown in the Indian department of the Great Exhibition. Dr. Hamilton states that, according to some admirably conducted experiments of Mr. Rootsey, of Bristol, undertaken at his request, the pods of divi-divi contain above 50 per cent. of tannin. It appears also, from trials made, that one part of divi-divi is sufficient for tanning as much leather as four parts of bark, and the process occupies but one-third of the time. The average produce of pods from a full-grown tree has been estimated at 100 lbs. weight, one-fourth of which consists of seeds or refuse, leaving about 75 lbs. of marketable matter. At an interval of six feet apart, an acre of ground will contain 1,210 trees, yielding an average of 810 cwts., and 30 pounds, or above 40½ tons of marketable matter, worth, at only £5 per ton, £200. Should the interval between the trees be extended two feet more, we shall still have 680 to the acre, the produce of which would not improbably be increased by the increased space given for the extension of the branches. The ground in which this tree admits of being cultivated is that which is least adapted to the staple products of tropical agriculture; guinea grass may be profitably raised beneath its shade and as with the exception of the three years which precede the commencement of its bearing, there is hardly any deduction to be made from its returns, it promises to be among the most valuable objects of a planter's attention. Jacquin describes the _Cæsalpinia coriaria_ as a handsome branching tree, of about fifteen feet in stature, covered with a dark spotted bark. Its leaves are doubly pinnate, and the leaflets of twelve pair without a terminal one; they are oblong, obtuse, smooth, very entire. The flowers are disposed in spikes issuing from the extremities of the branches; they are small, yellowish, and slightly fragrant. To these succeed oblong, compressed, somewhat obtuse pods, curved laterally, the inner side being concave and the other convex. The seeds rarely exceed three or four in each pod, and are of a brownish color. Divi-divi resembles a dried pea-shuck curled up, filled with yellow powder, and a few dark brown seeds. The price ranges from £8 to £13 per ton. The imports into the United Kingdom in 1844, were 3,900 tons; in 1845 and 1846, about 1,400 tons each year; during the subsequent three years the imports were merely nominal, but in 1850 a renewed demand seems to have sprung up, for 2,770 tons were imported into Liverpool, and a few tons into London. CORK-TREE BARK (_Quercus suber_) has been imported into Ireland to a considerable extent, frequently to the amount of 1,500 tons annually. The quantity of cork imported annually into the United Kingdom is about 3,000 tons. It is brought from Spain, Italy, and Barbary. Oak bark and valonia being very cheap and plentiful, the price of cork hark is only nominal, being, for Spanish cork-tree bark, £7 10s. to £8 per ton; Leghorn ditto, £6 to £7 per ton. It is less astringent than oak bark, and is more generally useful for stoppers of bottles and bungs for casks. 160 tons of cork-tree bark were imported into Liverpool from Rabat in 1849, and 150 tons in 1850. 1,867 cwts. of bark for tanning were imported from Chili in 1844, of which 292 were Quillai bark. MIMOSA BARK.--The bark of the _Mimosa decurrens_, which abounds in Australia and Van Diemen's Land, is found to be a very powerful tanning agent. The first shipment of tannin was made from Sydney to England as far back as 1823, in the shape of an extract of the bark of two species of mimosa, which was readily purchased by the tanners at the rate of £50 per ton. One ton of bark had produced four cwts. of extract of the consistency of tar. In 1843, 3,078 tons of mimosa bark was shipped from Port Phillip to Great Britain. The price then realised in the London market was £12 to £14 per ton, but it has since declined to £8 a ton. The quantity of this bark to be procured in the colony is quite inexhaustible. The price of chopped mimosa bark in Australia, for export, in the close of 1846, was £2 5s. per ton. Bark valued at £912 was exported from Van Diemen's Land in 1848. The imports of mimosa bark have only been to a limited extent within the last few years, reaching 350 tons in 1850, against 110 tons in 1849, 230 tons in 1848, and 600 tons in 1847. The prices realised were £10 to £11 for chopped, £12 to £12 10s. for ground, and £8 to £9 per ton for unchopped bark. Whilst the imports were 3,900 tons in 1814, they dwindled to less than 400 tons in 1850. From an experiment, conducted by Professor Brandt, the strength of the mimosa bark, as compared with that of young English oak bark, is found to be in the proportion of 57 to 39, so that the mimosa bark is half as strong again as the best English bark. Mr. Samuel Mossman, in a communication to the Botanic Society of Edinburgh, in 1851, stated that the bark of _A. dealbata_ pays to ship to England, notwithstanding the distance, from the fact of its containing a greater per centage of tannin than any other bark. It is a handsome tree, from fifteen to thirty feet high, forming luxuriant groves on the banks of streams, most abundant in Port Phillip and Twofold Bay, between the parallels of latitude 34 and 30 degrees. New Zealand is rich in barks and dyes. The bark of the Tanahaka (_Phyllodadus trichomanoides_, of Don) is used by the natives as a red dye for the ornamental parts of their kaitahas, their best border garments. There is also another red dye, called Tawaivwai, the bark of which is very profuse. A black dye is procured from the hinau. They are of a rich hue, and exceedingly fast colors. The barks are to be found all over the colony. The hinau and tanahaka are employed in tanning, all the leather used in the colony being tanned either at the Bay of Islands or Port Nicholson. The bark of the Rimu or red pine (_Dacrydium Cupressinum_, of Solander), a very common tree, possesses tanning qualities far superior to any of the Australian barks. One pound of the bark yields 85 grains of extract. The native tanning barks of New Zealand are various and easily obtained. Specimens of the bark and dye, &c., of most of these trees were sent home to the Great Exhibition. One pound of the Tanahaka bark is said to yield 63 grains of tannin. The sails of boats are dyed with it to preserve them. The Towai (_Licospermum racemosum_, of Don, _Weinmaunia racemosa_, Decandole), is supposed to be valuable for the purposes of the tanner, and is said to yield 104 grains of tannin for every pound of bark. The bark of the Pohutu kawa of the natives, the _Metrosideros tomentosa_of Richard, and _Callistemon ellipticum_ of Allan Cunningham, would also be useful for tanning, one pound of it furnishing about 60 grains of tannin. The bark of the Hino tree, the _Elæocarpus hinau_ of Cunningham, the _Dicera dentata_ of Forster, is used by the natives for dyeing black. The black mangrove (_Rhizophora mangle_) is a tree attaining an altitude of from 30 to 50 feet, and occupying marshy situations in the vicinity of the sea. Almost every part of the mangrove--the bark, roots, and the fruit more particularly--abounds in an astringent principle, which is successfully applied to the purposes of tanning. As the tree is so abundant within the tropics, it might be worth the while of some practical speculator to make an extract on the spot, and introduce it into the English market, for the use of tanners and dyers. For tanning, the mangrove is said to be infinitely superior to oak bark, completing in six weeks an operation which with the latter occupies at least six months, and the sole-leather so tanned is said to be more durable than any other. The bark and leaves, which contain nearly as much tannin as the oak, are made use of in the West Indies, as well as in Scinde and other parts of Asia. 3,713 piculs of mangrove bark, valued at £819, were shipped from Shanghae, one of the Chinese ports, in 1849. MYROBALANS.--This is a name applied to the almond-like kernels of a nut or dried fruit of the plum kind, of which there are several sorts known in the East. They are the produce of various species of _Terminalia_, as _T. Bellerica, chebula, citrina_, and _angustifolia_. They vary from the size of olives to that of gall nuts, and have a rough, bitter, and unpleasant taste. Many of the trees of this tribe, which are all natives of the tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America, are used for tanning, and some for dyeing. They are highly valued by dyers, creating, when mixed with alum, a durable dark brown yellow. Myrobalans fetch in the Bombay market 8s. to 26s. the Surat candy of 821 lbs. The bark and leaves of _T. Catappa_ yield a black pigment, with which Indian ink is made; the seeds are eaten like almonds. A milky juice is said to flow from _T. angustifolia_, which, when dried, is fragrant, and, resembling Benzoin, is used as a kind of incense in the Catholic churches in the Mauritius. The fruit of _T. Bellerica_, and of _T. Chebula_, both useful timber trees, indigenous to the East Indies, are used medicinally as a tonic and astringent. 117 cwts. of myrobalans were shipped from Ceylon in 1845. The annual imports of myrobalans into Hull, amount to about 1,600 cwts. The quantity which arrived at Liverpool was 185 tons in 1849, 851 tons in 1850; 27,212 bags in 1851, and 19,946 bags in 1852; they come from Calcutta and Bombay, and are also used for dyeing yellow and black. The price in January, 1853, was 6s. to 12s. per cwt. The average annual imports into the United Kingdom may be taken at 1,200 tons. KINO.--The Kino, of Botany Bay and Van Diemen's Land, is the produce of the iron bark tree, _Eucalyptus resinifera_. White ("Journal of a Voyage to New South Wales"), says this tree sometimes yields, on incision, 60 gallons of juice. Kino is imported in boxes. The tincture of kino is used medicinally, but an inconvenience is frequently found to arise, from its changing to the gelatinous form. Dr. Pereira seems to think this species of kino consists principally of pectin and tannic acid. That chiefly used as East Indian kino, is an extract formed by inspissating a decoction of the branches and twigs of the gambler plant. Vauquelin analysed it, and found it to consist of, tannin and peculiar extractive matter, 75; red gum, 24; insoluble matter, 1. The East Indian kino, imported from Bombay and Tellicherry, is the produce of _Pterocarpus marsupium_, a lofty, broad-spreading forest tree, which blossoms in October and November. The bark is of a greyish color, and is upwards of half an inch in thickness on the trunk. When cut, a blood-red juice speedily exudes and trickles down; it soon thickens, and becomes hard in the course of fifteen or sixteen hours. The gum is extracted in the season when the tree is in blossom, by making longitudinal incisions in the bark round the trunk, so as to let the gum ooze down a broad leaf, placed as a spout, into a receiver. When the receiver is filled it is removed. The gum is dried in the sun until it crumbles, and then filled in wooden boxes for exportation. _P. erinaceus_, a tree 40 to 50 feet in height, a native of the woods of the Gambia and Senegal, furnishes kino, but none is collected in or exported from Africa. _Butea frondosa_, or the dhak tree of the East Indies, furnishes a similar product, in the shape of a milky, colored, brittle, and very astringent gum. Kino is used as a powerful astringent, and is administered in the form of powder and tincture. Some specimens of Butea kino, analysed by Prof. Solly, after the impurities had been separated, yielded 73¼ per cent. of tannin. VALONIA is the commercial name of the cupula or cup of the acorn, produced by the _Quercus ægilops_ and its varieties, the Balonia or Valonia oak, natives of the Levant, from whence, and the Morea, they form a very considerable article of export; containing abundance of tannin they are largely used by tanners. The tannin differs materially from that of nutgalls. The bark of _Q. tinctorea_, a native of North America, yields a yellow dye. The quantity of valonia imported for home consumption, in 1836, was 80,511 cwts., of which Turkey furnished 58,724 cwts., and Italy and the Ionian islands 7,209 cwts. Of 163,983 cwts. imported in 1840, 143,095 cwts. were brought from Turkey, 15,195 cwts. from Italy, and the residue from Greece and the Ionian Islands. The entries for home consumption in the three years ending with 1842, amounted to about 8,200 tons a year. The increase since has been considerable, the imports having been, in 1848, 10,237 tons; in 1849, 16,671 tons; in 1850, 12,526 tons; in 1851, 10,639 tons; in 1852, 13,870 tons. We receive about 14,000 to 20,000 cwts. annually from Leghorn. The imports into the port of Hull are 3,900 cwts. per year. The prices of Smyrna valonias are from £13 to £14 per ton; those of picked Morea, £10 per ton. The duty received on valonias imported in 1842 was about £4,000. The annual produce is sufficient to meet the wants of all Europe. It can be had in Turkey to any extent and at all periods. Many cargoes are sent to Dublin, and the German markets. A little valonia is exported from Manila, the shipments having been about 150 tons per annum. Camata and Camatina are two varieties of very young valonias, which are found more valuable for some processes of tanning than the common kinds. Extensive as has been the enumeration of the vegetable substances used in the various branches of art and manufacture which have formed the principal subjects of this section, it is probable that with the progress of knowledge, of scientific experiment, and of investigation into the properties of given commodities, the list will be indefinitely increased. What I have stated will suffice to give the reader an idea of the surprising variety of sources from which we receive the raw materials which enable us to perfect some of the most elegant processes of manufacturing skill and ingenuity, and will further afford some criterion--though, of course, not a perfect one--for estimating the relative importance of the tanning and dyeing substances. SECTION V. OLEAGINOUS PLANTS, AND THOSE YIELDING FIXED OR ESSENTIAL OILS. Few cultivators are probably aware of the great importance of oil to this country, and the number of purposes for which it is employed in the arts and manufactures. It is extensively used for candle and soap making, for burning in lamps, for diminishing friction in machinery of all kinds, and especially for locomotives--in wool-dressing, in the manufacture of paints and varnishes, as an article of food, for medicinal purposes, &c. So important are vegetable oils deemed, that the Society of Arts, in its prize list for 1851, offered gold medals for the importation or introduction into this country of any new plants or trees from China, India, or elsewhere, producing oils or fatty substances, such as can be used as food, or are applicable to manufacturing purposes; and also to the person who shall manufacture and import the finest specimen of oil, not less than ten gallons, the produce of olives grown in any British colony in Africa or Australasia. The time of burning of equal quantities of the following oils has been found to be-- Hours. Oil of poppy 14 " sunflower 13 " rape 11 " mustard 11½ " flax seed 10 " gold of pleasure (_Camelina sativa_) 9½ " olives 9 " hemp seed 8 " tallow 10½ FOREIGN VEGETABLE OILS IMPORTED. 1821. 1845. 1850. tuns. tuns. tuns. Coco-nut oil -- 2,148 98,040 Olive oil 1,900 12,315 20,783 Palm oil 3,200 25,285 448,589 cwts. Rape seed oil 800 3,973 -- Linseed oil 10,500 38,634 -- ------ ------ ------- 16,400 82,355 Fish oils 32,356 22,626 21,328 The total quantity of all kinds of wool annually consumed in England and Wales, in 1843, was estimated at 801,566 packs. Now, five gallons of olive, rapeseed or other oils, being used in the preparation of every pack of wool, for cloth (independent of the quantity used in soap, applicable to the woollen manufactures), it follows that five gallons on 801,566 packs are equal to 4,007,830 gallons, or 15,904 tuns; and adding for olive or sperm oil used in machinery 1-11th of the whole, 1,446 tuns, the total quantity consumed is 17,350 tuns.--("Enderby on the South Whale Fishery.") _Fixed oils_ are found in the cells and intercellular spaces of the fruit, leaves, and other parts of plants. Some of these are drying oils, as linseed oil, from _Linum usitatissimum_; some are fat oils, as that from olives (fruit of _Olea sativa_ or _Europæa_); whilst others are solid, as palm oil. The solid oils or fats procured from plants are, butter of cacao, from _Theobroma cacao_; of cinnamon from _Cinnamomum verum_; of nutmeg, from _Myristica moschata_; of coco-nut, from _Cocos nucifera_; of laurel, from _Laurus nobilis_; of palm oil, from _Elais guianiensis_; Shea butter, from _Bassia Parkii_; Galam butter, or Ghee, from _Bassia butyracea_; and vegetable tallow, from _Stillingia sebifera_ in China, from _Vateria indica_ in Canara and China, and from _Pentadesma butyracea_ in Sierra Leone, and from the almond. These oils contain a large amount of stearine, and are used as substitutes for fat. Some of them are imported in large quantities, and enter into the composition of soap, candles, &c. Castor oil, from the seeds of _Ricinus communis_, differs from other fixed oils in its composition. Decandolle states the following as the quantity of oil obtained from various seeds:-- Per cent. in weight. Hazel-nut 60 Garden cress 57 Olive 50 Walnut 50 Poppy (_Papaver somniferum_) 48 Almond 46 Caper-spurge (_Euphorbia Lathyris_) 41 Colza (_Brassica oleracea_) 39 White mustard (_Sinapis alba_) 36 Tobacco 34 Plum 33 Woad 30 Hemp 25 Flax 22 Sunflower 15 Buckwheat 14 Grapes 12 The following table, quoted from Boussingault, shows the results of some experiments made by M. Grauzac, of Dagny:-- Seed produced Oil obtained per per acre. acre, in lbs. Oil per Cake cwts. qrs. lbs. lbs. ozs. cent. per cent. Colewort 19 0 15 875 4 40 54 Rocket 15 1 3 320 8 18 73 Winter rape 16 2 18 641 6 33 62 Swedish turnips 15 1 25 595 8 33 62 Curled colewort 16 2 18 641 6 33 62 Turnip cabbage 13 3 19 565 4 33 61 Gold of pleasure 17 1 16 545 8 27 72 Sunflower 15 3 14 275 0 15 80 Flax 15 1 25 385 0 22 69 White poppy 10 1 18 560 8 46 52 Hemp 7 3 21 229 0 25 70 Summer rape 11 3 17 412 5 30 65 The subjoined list will serve to exhibit the richness of the produce of different Indian seeds, from which varieties of oil are extracted; it gives the proportion of oil per cent. in weight:-- Sesame oil (_Sesamum indicum_) 46.7 Black til, coloured variety of ditto (_Verbesena sativa_) 46.4 Gingelie oil (_S. orientale_) 46.7 Ground nuts, produced by _Arachis hypogoea_ 45.5 Wounded seeds obtained from the Poonnay-tree (_Calophyttum Inophyllum_), a bitter lamp oil 63.7 Karunj seeds, from the _Pongamia glabra_ 26.7 Ram til, the seeds of the nuts Ellu, or _Guizotia oleifera_ 35 Poppy seeds (_Papaver somniferum_) 43 to 58 Silaam, an oil seed from Nepaul 41 Rape seed (_Brassica napus_) 33 The foregoing are not all the seeds from which oil is extracted by the natives of the East. In addition to this there are cottonseed oil, used for their lamps. Castor oil and Argemone seed, similarly used. Oil obtained from the fruit of _Melia Azadriachta_, for medicine and lamps. Apricot oil in the Himalayas, sunflower oil, oil of cucumber-seed for cooking and lamps, oil of colocynth seed, a lamp oil. The seeds of bastard saffron (_Carthamus tinctorius_) yield oil. Mustard oil, the produce of various species of _Sinapis_, &c. Shanghae oil, from _Brassica Chinensis_. Illiepie oil, from _Bassia longifolia_, which is used for frying cakes, &c., in Madras; and Muohwa oil, from another species of the same genus in Bengal, _B. latifolia_. Oil is expressed from the seeds of _Cæsalpina oleosperma_, a native of the East. The neem tree seeds afford a very clear or bitter oil, used for burning. Wood oil is a remarkable substance, obtained from several species of _Dipterocarpus_, by simply tapping the tree. The horse-eyes and cacoons of Jamaica (_Fevillea scandens_) yield a considerable quantity of oil or fat, as white and hard as tallow. It has been employed for similar purposes on the Mosquito shores. The seeds of the _Argemone mexicana_, and of the _Sanguinaria canadensis_, also contain a bland, nutritious, colorless, fixed oil. The mass from which the seed is expressed is found to be extremely nutritious to cattle. The _Camelina sativa_ is cultivated in Europe, for the extraction of an oil used only by the soap makers, and for lamps. A solid oil, of a pale greenish color, a good deal resembling the oils of the Bassia in character, though rather harder, and approaching more in properties to myrtle wax, was shown at the Great Exhibition, from Singapore. It is supposed to be the produce of the tallow tree of Java, called locally "kawan," probably a species of Bassia. It is very easily bleached; indeed, by exposure to air and light, it becomes perfectly white; if not too costly, it promises to become a valuable oil. According to Mr. Low, there are several varieties of solid oil commonly used in the Islands of the Archipelago, and obtained from the seeds of different species of _Dipterocarpus_. Piney tallow is obtained from the fruit of the _Vateria Indica_, a large and quick-growing tree, abundant in Malabar and Canara. It is a white solid oil, fusible at a temperature of 97 degrees, and makes excellent candles, especially when saponified and distilled in the manner now adopted with palm oil, &c. It has one great advantage over coco-nut oil, that the candles made of it do not give out any suffocating acrid vapors when extinguished, as those made with the latter oil do. An oil is produced from the inner shell of the cashew-nut (_Anacardium occidentale_ var. _indicum_), in the East. In Japan a kind of butter, called _mijo_, is obtained from a species of the Dolichos bean (_Dolichos soya_). The kernel of the seeds of the tallow tree of China, _Stillingia sebifera_, an evergreen shrub, contains an oil, which, when expressed, consolidates through the cold to the consistence of tallow, and by boiling becomes as hard as bees' wax. The plant also yields a bland oil. A similar fatty product is obtained from a shrub in British Guiana, the _Myristica (Virola) sebifera_. Oil is obtained in South America from the sand box tree _(Hura crepitans_), and from the _Carapa guianensis_. A fatty oil is obtained in Demerara from the seeds of the butter tree, _Pekea_ (?) _Bassia butyrosa_, and also from the Saouari (_P. tuberculosa_). The fleshy seeds contained in the woody capsules of the Monkey pot (_Lecythis Tabucajo_), which derive their generic name from their similarity to an oil jar, are common in the West India Islands and South America, and yield a considerable quantity of oil. The seeds of the plants of the cucumber family frequently supply a bland oil, which is used in the East as a lamp oil and for cooking. Among the vegetable oils imported into Ningpo, and other Chinese ports, from Shantong, Leatong, and Teisin, are oil of teuss, obtained from green and dried peas; black oil of the fruit of the tree _kin_ (?) and oil from the pea of suchau. The seeds of _Spergula saliva_, a large, smooth-seeded variety of the common cow spurrey, which is cultivated in Flanders as a pasture grass and green crop, afford, on expression, a good lamp oil. A pale brownish yellow oil is obtained from the seeds of _Carthamus tinctorius_, in Bombay; the seeds contain about 28 per cent. of oil. Excellent oil is expressed in various parts of India from the seeds of different species of _Sinapis_, especially from the black mustard seed. _S. glauca, S. dichotorna_, and _S. juncea_ are extensively cultivated in the East for their oil. The _Erysimum perfoliatum_ is cultivated in Japan for its oil-seeds. A beautiful pale yellow oil is procured from the seeds of the angular-leaved physic nut, _Jatropha curcas_, a shrub which is often employed in the tropics as a fence for enclosures. It is used by the natives in medicine and as a lamp oil. About 700 tons of this oil was imported into Liverpool in 1850 from Lisbon, for the purpose of dressing cloth, burning, &c. A rich yellow oil, perfectly clear and transparent, is obtained from the seeds of _Bergera koenigii_. RAPE OIL.--The imports of rape oil, from _Brassica napus_, into Liverpool, are about 15 to 20 tuns annually. Rape oil has been found to be better suited than any other oil for the lubrication of machinery, when properly purified from the mucilage, &c., which it contains in the raw state. Rape oil is now used extensively for locomotives, for marine engines, and also for burning in lamps. It is stated that a locomotive consumes between 90 and 100 gallons of oil yearly; and the annual consumption of oil by the London and North-Western Railway, for this purpose alone, is more than 40,000 gallons. The oil obtained from good English rape seed is purer and of superior quality to that from foreign or colonial seed; and as an acre of land yields nearly five quarters of seed, which is worth at present 50s. per quarter, it is a profitable crop. Rape seed is now largely imported for expressing oil. The imports, which in 1847 were but 87,662 quarters, weighing 17,532 tons, had reached, in 1851, 107,029 quarters, weighing 21,606 tons. The price of new seed is £25 to £27 the last of ten quarters. The oil is £34 per tun. The refuse cake, after the seed is crushed for oil, is in demand as food for cattle, being worth £4 the ton. We imported in 1851, from Trance, 289 tuns of rapeseed oil, worth about £17,000, on which there was no duty levied. There are exported annually from Hesse Darmstadt, 34,660 cwts. of poppy and rape oils. The oil of the colza is much used in Europe, and highly prized. In France it has been adopted for all the purposes of lighthouses. In this country it has lately come into extensive domestic use, for burning in the French moderateur lamps, being retailed at from 3s. 4d. to 4s. the gallon. DOMBA OIL.--The Poonay or Palang tree (_Calophyllum Inophyllum_), the Alexandrian laurel, is a beautiful evergreen, native of the East Indies, which flourishes luxuriantly on poor sandy soils, in fact where scarcely anything else will grow. The seeds or berries contain nearly 60 per cent. of a fragrant, fixed oil, which is used for burning as well as for medicinal purposes, being considered a cure for the itch. As commonly prepared it has a dark green color. It is perfectly fluid at common temperatures, but begins to gelatinise when cooled below 50 degrees. THE EARTH-NUT (_Arachis hypogæa, or hypocarpogea_).--This very singular plant has frequently been confounded with others, partly through the carelessness of travellers, and by the improper use of names, which tended to mislead and confuse. Its common appellative, the earth-nut, has led to the conclusion that it was a species of nut, such as is known in England under the name of "pig nut," "hawk nut," and "ground nut." This, as well as the "earth chesnut," belongs to a totally different genera. On the Continent and in the East Indies a similar confusion had long existed by the appellation of "ground pistachio," which caused the fruit to be confounded with the nut of the tree _Pistacia vera_. Some resemblance, on the other hand, existing between these--as well as from their being eaten by different nations, and used as an article of food, and also for producing oil--rendered the true description still more difficult. Botanists are, however, no longer at a loss, having well established the nature and character of all these plants. The Arachis "nut" partakes of the nature of the pea or bean of our own country, and is a low annual plant of the order _Diadelphia decandria_ of Linn.; originally from Africa, but now extensively cultivated in every quarter of the globe. It has been naturalised in Europe, and with the climate of the South of France it may be turned to good account. It has been said to be indigenous in Florida, Peru, Brazil, and Surinam; but the plant may be grown on a light sandy soil, under a moderate heat, equal to that of Italy or the South of France. The class to which it belongs approaches to the pea tribe; but its remarkable difference to this, as to the pulse we know as a bean, is the circumstance of its introducing its fruit or pod--if we may so call it--into the earth, for the purpose of ripening its seed. The Arachis, or earth nut, has obtained its name from this operation. The flowers, leaves, and stems are produced in the ordinary manner we see in the pea tribe. When the yellow flower has withered and the seed fertilised, there is nothing left but the bare stem which had supported it. This stem, in which is the germ of the future fruit and pod, now grows rapidly in a curved manner, with a tendency to arrive shortly on the surface of the ground, into which it penetrates this now naked stem, and sinks into the earth several inches. It is in this obscure position that the fruit takes its ripened form, and is either gathered from its hiding place or left to the future season, when its time of rising into new existence calls it from what was thought its unnatural position. When mature, it is of a pale yellow color, wrinkled, and forms an oblong pod, sometimes contracted in the middle; it contains generally two seeds. The nuts or peas are a valuable article of food in the tropical parts of Africa, America, and Asia. They are sweetish and almond-like, and yield an oil, when pressed, not inferior in use and quality to that obtained from the olive. The leaf resembles that of clover, and, like it, affords excellent food for cattle. The cake, after the oil is expressed, forms an excellent manure. The Arachis is usually sown in dry, warm weather, from May to June, and are placed at the distance of eighteen inches from each other. Insects are fond of them; and if the season is cold and unfavorable to them, or the growth retarded, they become musty and bad, or are eaten by insects. The mode of obtaining the oil is nearly the same as for other pulse or seeds; and under favorable circumstances the Arachis will produce half its weight of oil. When heated and pressed the quantity is very considerably increased. This oil is good for every purpose for which olive or almond oil is used. For domestic purposes it is esteemed, and it does not become rancid so quickly as other oils. Experiments have been made on its inflammable properties, and it is proved that the brilliancy of light was superior to that of olive oil, and its durability was likewise proved to be seven minutes per hour beyond the combustion of the best olive oil, with the additional advantage of scarcely any smoke. In Cochin-China and India it is used for lamps. It is known as Bhoe Moong or Moong Phullee in Bengal, and as Japan or Chinese pulse in Java. From China this plant was probably introduced into the continent of India, Ceylon, and the Malayan Archipelago, where it is generally cultivated. In South Carolina the seed is roasted and used as chocolate. The leaves are used medicinally. It is grown in Jamaica, and there called Pindar nut. That the culture of the Arachis in warm climates, or even in a temperate one, under favorable circumstances, should be encouraged, there can be but one opinion. And when it is considered that its qualities are able to supersede that of the olive and the almond, which are but precarious in their crops--to which may be added, that as a plant it is greedily devoured in the green state by cattle--how much may it not serve to assist the new settler in regions of the world which have a climate suited to it. It is known by various local names--such as _mani manoti_ by the Spaniards, and has obtained also that of _cacahuete_ in some countries. It has the additional term _hypogea_ attached to it, which literally signifies subterranean. This is apt to mislead; for the plant grows above ground as other pulse, whereas only its seed and pericarp are inserted, after blooming, into the earth. Hence the better term _hypocarpogea_. It appears to form an important article of cultivation along the whole of the west coast of Africa, and probably on the east coast, on several parts of which it was found by Loureiro ("Flor. Cochin," p. 430). It was doubtless carried from Africa to various parts of equinoctial America, for it is noticed in some of the early accounts of Peru and Brazil. 800 quarters of this nut were imported into Liverpool from the West Coast of Africa, in 1849, for expressing oil, and about half that quantity in 1850. Eighty to 90 tuns of the expressed oil are now annually imported. The seeds contain about 44 per cent. of a clear pale yellow oil, which is largely used in India as food, and for lamps, particularly at Malwa and Bombay, &c. Two varieties are grown in Malacca, the white seed and the brown seed, and also in Java, in the vicinity of sugar plantations; the oil cake being used as manure. It is there known as katjang oil. This plant, which seems to be a native of many parts of Asia, has within the last ten years been much cultivated about Calcutta. The seeds contain abundance of fixed oil, have a faint odor, and very mild agreeable taste; 1,950 parts of seed, separated from their coverings and blanched, give 1,405 of kernels, from which, by cold pressure, 703 parts of oil are procured. The seeds are consumed as a cheap popular luxury, being half roasted, and then eaten with salt. The oil is calculated to serve as an efficient and very cheap substitute for olive oil, for pharmaceutical purposes. It burns with little smoke, with a clear flame, and affords a very full bright light, answering perfectly in Argand lamps. The oil cake affords, also, an excellent food for cattle. The ground nut has of late become of considerable importance as an article of exportation, by English houses; yet more so by French houses at Ghent, Rouen, and Bordeaux; some of whom have contracted with the merchants of the African colonies for large quantities, sending shipping for the cargoes. One house alone contracted for 60,000 bushels in the years 1844 and 1845. This nut oil is so very useful to machinery that the naval steam cruisers on the coast have adopted it. A ground-nut oil factory exists in the colony of Sierra Leone; but from the want of steam power and proper machinery, and from bad management, together with the inferior attainments of the African artisan, when compared with the European mechanic, and their facilities in quantity or quality, there is abundant scope for improvement. The price in the colony is 4s. 6d. per gallon. It is capable of being refined so as to answer the purpose of a salad oil; the nut is prolific, and eaten by the natives and Europeans, boiled, roasted, or in its raw state; and frequently introduced at the table as we do the Spanish Barcelona nut at dessert. It grows in the rainy season, and is collected in the dry, and sold in the colony for one shilling to eighteen-pence per bushel, in goods and cash. Form of the nut, long, light shell, contains two kernels covered with a brown rind, when shelled white in appearance. It is a low creeping plant, with yellow flowers; after they drop off, and the pods begin to form, they bury themselves in the earth, where they come to maturity. The pod is woody and dry, containing from one to three peas, or nuts, as they are called, hence the common names, ground-nut or pea-nut. They require to be parched in an oven before they are eaten, and form a chief article of food in many parts of Africa. From a narrow strip of land, extending about 40 miles northerly from Wilmington (North Carolina), comes nearly the entire quantity of earth nuts (known as pea-nuts) grown in the United States for market. From that tract and immediate vicinity, 80,000 bushels have been carried to Wilmington market in one year. The plant has somewhat the appearance of the dwarf garden-pea, though more bushy. It is cultivated in hills. The pea grows on tendrils, which put out from the plant and take root in the earth, where the nut is produced and ripened. The fruit is picked from the root by hand, and the vines are a favorite food for horses, mules, and cattle. From 30 to 80 bushels are produced on an acre. There are some planters who raise from 1,000 to 1,500 bushels a year.--("Hunt's Merchant's Magazine," vol. xv., p. 426.) The ground-nut is exceedingly prolific, and requires but little care and attention to its culture, while the oil extracted from it is quite equal to that yielded by the olive. Almost any kind of soil being adapted for it, nothing can be more simple than its management. All that is required is the soil to be turned over and the seed sown in drills like potatoes; after it begins to shoot it may be earthed with a hoe or plough. In many parts of Western Australia they are now grown in gardens for feeding pigs, the rich oil they are capable of yielding being entirely overlooked. In regard to their marketable value at home, I will give a copy of a letter of a friend of mine, received from some London brokers, largely engaged in the African trade:-- "Wilson and Rose present compliments to Mr. N., and beg to inform him the price of African ground nuts is as under:--Say for River Gambia, £11 per ton here. Say for Sierra Leone, £10 per ton here. For ground nuts free on board at the former port, £8 per ton is demanded; these are the finest description of nut, the freight would be about £4 per ton; the weight per bushel imperial measure, and in the shell, is about 25 lbs." The following, also, is an extract from a letter written in 1842, by Mr. Forster (the present M.P. for Berwick), an eminent African merchant. Speaking of the staple of Africa, he says:-- "I have lately been attempting to obtain other oils from the coast, and it was only yesterday I received from the hands of the oil presser the result of my most recent experiment on the ground nut, which I am happy to say is encouraging. I send you a sample of the oil extracted from them. They are from the Gambia. It is a pure golden colored oil, with a pleasant flavor, free from the frequent rancidity of olive oil." Since then the cultivation has gone on, and the exportation largely increased. The French also have entered into the trade, and several vessels are exclusively employed in exporting this product from the river Gambia, conveying it to oil factors on the continent, who extract its oil. Seeing, then, the many advantages the cultivation of such a product bestows, and its adaptation to the soil and climate of Australia, I cannot refrain from expressing a hope that some of the influential landowners in the cultivated districts will give the matter their consideration. I am informed by an American merchant that he cleared 12,000 dollars in one year, on the single article of ground or pea nuts obtained from Africa. Strange as it may appear, nearly all these nuts are transhipped to France, where they command a ready sale; are there converted into oil, and thence find their way over the world in the shape of olive oil; the skill of the French chemists enabling them to imitate the real Lucca and Florence oil, so as to deceive the nicest judges. Indeed, the oil from the pea nuts possesses a sweetness and delicacy that cannot be surpassed. Advices from the West Coast of Africa to the 16th August, 1853, report that the ground nut season had closed; the quantity shipped during the season having exceeded 900,000 bushels. The yield has increased 20 per cent, each year for the last three years, and it is expected the increase will be still greater in the forthcoming season. TEUSS OIL.--The Chinese use what is called teuss or tea oil, for food and other purposes. I have alluded to it under the head of pulse, at page 312. It is obtained, however, from a species of the ground nut, and is sold in Hong Kong, at 2s. 6d. the gallon, being imported from the main land. By a local ordinance it is imperative on every householder at Victoria, Hong-Kong, to have a lamp burning over his door at night. When burning, this oil affords a clear, bright light, and is not so offensive to the smell as train and other common lamp oils. TOBACCO SEED OIL.--A discovery, which may prove of some commercial importance, appears to have been made by a British resident in Russia, namely, that the seed of the tobacco plant contains about fifteen per cent. of an oil possessing peculiar drying properties, calculated to render it a superior medium, especially for paints and varnishes. The process employed for the extraction of the oil is to reduce the seed to powder, and knead it into a stiff paste with _quantum sufficit_ of hot water, and then submit it to the action of strong fires. The oil thus obtained is exposed to a moderate heat, which, by coagulating the vegetable albumen of the seed, causes all impurities contained in the oil to form a cake at the bottom of the vessel employed, leaving the oil perfectly limpid and clear. POPPY OIL.--About 80 cwt. of poppy seed is imported annually into Hull, and small quantities come into other ports to be crushed into oil. The seeds of the poppy yield, by expression, 56 per cent. of a bland and very valuable oil, of a pale golden color, fluid to within ten degrees of the freezing point of water. It dries easily, is inodorous, and of an agreeable flavor like olive oil. Dr. J.V.C. Smith, writing from Switzerland, to the editor of the "Boston Medical Journal," says:-- "Immense crops are raised here of articles wholly unknown to the American farmers, and perhaps the kinds best fitted to particular localities where grain and potatoes yield poorly under the best efforts. One of these is poppies. Thousands of acres are at this moment ready for market--which the traveller takes for granted, as he hurries by, are to be manufactured into opium. They are not, however, intended for medical use at all, but for a widely different purpose. From the poppy seed a beautiful transparent oil is made, which is extensively used in house painting. It is almost as colorless as water, and possesses so many advantages over the flax seed oil that it may ultimately supersede that article. Where flax cannot be grown poppies often can be, in poor sandy soil. Linseed oil is becoming dearer, and the demand for paint is increasing. With white lead, poppy oil leaves a beautiful surface, which does not afterwards change, by the action of light, into a dirty yellow. Another season some one should make a beginning at home in this important branch of industry. The oil may be used for other purposes, and even put in the cruet for salads." TALLICOONAH or KUNDAH OIL, is obtained from the seeds of the _Carapa Touloucouna_ (of the Flore de Senegambie). The tree grows to the height of 40 feet; the fruit is a large, somewhat globular five-celled capsule. The seeds (of which there are from 18 to 30 in each capsule), vary in size from that of a chesnut to a hen's egg. They are three-cornered, of a brownish or blackish red color. It is found abundantly in the Timneh country, and over the colony of Sierra Leone. It is manufactured in the following manner:--The nuts having been well dried in the sun, are hung up in wicker racks or hurdles, and exposed to the smoke of the huts, after which they are roasted and subjected to trituration in large wooden mortars, until reduced to a pulp. The mass is then boiled, when the supernatant oil is removed by skimming. The natives principally prepare the oil to afford light; the leaves are used by the Kroomen as a thatch. It is held in high estimation as an anthelmintic. The oil is sold in Sierra Leone at 2s. a gallon, and could be procured in abundance from the coast as an article of commerce. CARAP or CRAB OIL (_Carapa guianensis_).--This is a sort of vegetable butter, being sometimes solid and sometimes half fluid, which is obtained from the seed of a large tree abundant in the forests of Guiana, and also found in Trinidad. It is said to turn rancid very soon when exposed to the air, but this is probably caused by the presence of impurities, arising from the crude and imperfect way in which it is prepared by the natives, who boil the kernels, leave them in a heap for a few days, then skim them, and lastly reduce them into a paste in a wooden mortar, which is then spread on an inclined board, and exposed to the heat of the sun, so that the oil may melt and gradually trickle down into a vessel placed below to receive it. A prize medal was awarded for this oil at the Great Exhibition in 1851. Carap oil in Trinidad is highly esteemed as an unguent for the hair, and also for applying to the wounds of animals, for destroying ticks and other insects which infest cattle--also for the cure of rheumatism. An oil called Carap oil is also obtained in the East, from the almonds of _Xylocarpus granatum_, or _Carapa Molluccensis_, of Lanark, which is used by the natives to dress the hair and anoint the skin, so as to keep off insects. Cacao fat, the butter-like substance obtained from the seeds of _Theobroma cacao_, is esteemed as an emollient. The nuts of the Great Macaw tree (_Acrocomia fusiformis_), a majestic species of palm, furnishes much oil. This tree is the _Cocos fusiformis_, of Jacquin, and other intertropical botanists. It is a native of Trinidad and Jamaica, and is found also very commonly in South America. The method of extracting the oil is as follows:--The nut or kernel is slightly roasted and cleaned, then ground to a paste, first in a mill, and then on a livigating stone. This paste, gently heated and mixed with 3-10ths of its weight of boiling water, is put into a bag, and the oil expressed between two heated plates of iron; it yields about 7-10ths or 8-10ths of oil. If discolored it can be purified, when melted, by filtration. It is then of the consistence of butter, of a golden yellow hue, the odor that of violets, and the taste sweetish. If well preserved it will keep several years without spoiling, which is known to have taken place by the loss of its golden hue and delightful aroma. It is frequently sold in the shops as palm oil, and of late has entered largely into the composition of toilet soaps. As an emollient it is said to be useful in some painful affections of the joints; the negroes deem it a sovereign remedy in "bone ache." The nut itself is sometimes fancifully carved by the negroes, and is highly ornamental, being of a shining jet black, and susceptible of a very high polish. This tree may be increased from suckers. _A. sclerocarpa_ is the Macahuba palm of Brazil. THE AGAITI, as it is called by the Portuguese, or napoota by the natives and Arabs (_Didynamia Gymosperma?_), much cultivated in all Eastern Africa for its oil, which is considered equal to that of olives, and fetches as high a price in the Indian market. The plant, which is as tall and rank as hemp, and equally productive, having numerous pods throughout the stems, is found everywhere in a wild as well as cultivated state. The "Cape Shipping Gazette," of August, 1850, says:-- "The attention of the George Agricultural and Horticultural Society having been drawn to the fact that an excellent oil, equal to the olive oil of Italy, can be extracted from the kernel of the fruit known by the name of "T Kou Pijte" and "Pruim Besje," they have offered a reward of £10 for the best sample, not less than a half aum of this oil--and £15 if it shall be adjudged equal to the best oil of Italy. This fact is deserving of notice, as an instance of the advantages which are likely to result from the attention now being devoted to the natural productions of the colony." _Madia sativa_ is a handsome annual plant, native of Chili, which has been naturalised in Europe. It grows about two feet high, and produces flowers in July and August, of a pale yellow color. The whole plant is viscid and exhales a powerful odor, which is somewhat like heated honey. It requires rather a rich soil, of a ferruginous character. The root is fusiform, the stem cylindrical, and furnished with sessile, three to five longitudinally-nerved leaves, which are apposite on the lower portion of the stem, and alternate on the upper. M. Victor Pasquier, who has written on the culture of the plant, analysed the seed, and found 100 parts to consist of 26.5 of testa, and 73.5 of kernel; 100 parts of the latter yielded 31.3 of vegetable albumen, gum, and lignine, 56.0 of _fixed oil_, and 12.5 of water. In dry seasons the oil is both more abundant and better than in damp seasons. The produce of oil, compared with that of the poppy, is equal; with colza, as 32 to 28; with linseed, 32 to 21; with the olive, 32 to 16. The leaves and stems of this plant are rejected by cattle; but the oil-cake, which always contains a considerable portion of the oil, forms a nutritive food, of which they are very fond. The oil expressed without heat is transparent, of a golden yellow color, inodorous, rather fatter than the oil of rape or olives, and of a soft, agreeable, nutty taste. It is fit to be employed in the preparation of food, in salads, and for all the purposes of the best and mildest fixed oils. It burns with a brilliant, reddish-white flame, and leaves no residue. It is little liable to become rancid, and is completely decolorised by animal charcoal. The oil of the seeds of this plant, now extensively cultivated in France, will yield, according to the observations of Braconnet, a solid soap, similar to that made from olive oil. Boussingault obtained from the oil a solid, as well as a fluid acid. The solid one is probably palmic acid, it fuses at exactly 140 degrees of Fahrenheit. The fluid acid in its properties resembles the oleic acid discovered by Chevreul, and seems to dry easily. The following is the composition of each, as determined by his analysis:-- Solid acid. Fluid acid. Carbon 74.2 76.0 Hydrogen 12.0 11.0 Oxygen 13.8 13.0 ------ ------ 100. 100. COCUM OIL, or butter, is obtained from the seeds of a kind of mangosteen (_Garcinia purpurea_), and used in various parts of India to adulterate ghee or butter. It is said to be exported to England for the purpose of mixing with bears' grease in the manufacture of pomatum. It is a white, or pale greenish yellow, solid oil, brittle, or rather friable, having a faint but not unpleasant smell, melting at about 95 degrees, and when cooled after fusion remaining liquid to 75 degrees. An excellent solid oil, of a bright green color, is obtained from Bombay, having a consistence intermediate between that of tallow and wax, fusible at about 95 degrees, and easily bleached; it has a peculiar and somewhat aromatic odor. There is some uncertainty as to the plant from which it is obtained. It was referred to the _Salvadora persica_, and to the _Vernonia Anthelminticea_, a plant common in Guzerat and the Concan Ghats. A pale yellow clear oil is obtained from the seed of _Dolichos biflorus_(_?_). Oil is also expressed in India from the seed of the _Argemone mexicana_, which is used for lamps and in medicine; and from the seeds of the cashew nut (_Anacardium occidentale_), from _Sapindus marginatus_, and the country walnut (_Aleurites triloba_.) The fruit of the _Chirongia sapinda_, (or _Buchanania latifolia_,) yields oil. From the seeds of the _Pongamia glabra_, or _Galidupa arborea_, a honey brown and almost tasteless oil is procured, which is fluid at common temperatures, but gelatinises at 55 degrees. Other sources of oil are the _Celastrus paniculatus_ (_?_) _Balanites Egyptictca_ and the saul tree (_Shorea Robusta_). THE CANDLE-TREE or PALO BE VELAS, (_Parmentiera cereifera_, Seemann.)--This tree, in the valley of the Chagres, South America, forms entire forests. In entering them a person might almost fancy himself transported into a chandler's shop. From all the stems and lower branches hang long cylindrical fruits, of a yellow wax color, so much resembling a candle as to have given rise to the popular appellation. The fruit is generally from two to three, but not unfrequently four feet long, and an inch in diameter. The tree itself is about 24 feet high, with, opposite trifoliated leaves, and large white blossoms, which appear throughout the year, but are in greatest abundance during the rainy season. The _Palo de Velas_ belongs to the natural order _Crescentiaceae_, and is a _Parmentiera_, of which genus hitherto only one species, the _P. edulis_, of De Candolle, was known to exist. The fruit of the latter, called _Quauhscilote_, is eaten by the Mexicans, while that of the former serves for food to numerous herds of cattle. Bullocks especially, if fed with the fruit of this tree, guinea-grass, and _Batatilla_ (_Ipomoea brachypoda_, Benth.), soon get fat. It is generally admitted, however, that the meat partakes in some degree of the peculiar apple-like smell of the fruit, but this is by no means disagreeable, and easily prevented, if, for a few days previous to killing the animal, the food is changed. The tree produces its principal harvest during the dry season, when all the herbaceous vegetation is burned up, and on that account its cultivation in tropical countries is especially to be recommended; a few acres of it would effectually prevent that want of fodder which is always most severely felt after the periodical rains have ceased.--("Hooker's Journal of Botany.") CINNAMON SUET is extracted by boiling the fruit of the cinnamon. An oily fluid floats on the surface, which on cooling subsides to the bottom of the vessel, and hardens into a substance like mutton suet. The Singhalese make a kind of candles with it, and use it for culinary purposes. It emits a very pleasant aroma while burning. According to the analysis of Dr. Christison, it contains eight per cent, of a fluid not unlike olive oil; the remainder is a waxy principle. CROTON OIL is obtained by expression from the seeds or nuts of _Croton Tiglium_, an evergreen tree, 15 to 20 feet in height, belonging to the same order as the castor oil plant, producing whitish green flowers, and seeds resembling a tick in appearance, whence its generic name. It is a native of the East Indies. 100 parts of seeds afford about 64 of kernel. 50 quarters of croton nuts for expressing oil were imported into Liverpool from the Cape Verd Islands, in 1849. The _Croton Tiglium_ grows plentifully in Ceylon, and the oil, if properly expressed, might be made an article of trade. The best mode of preparing it is by grinding the seeds, placing the powder in bags, and pressing between plates of iron; allow the oil to stand for fifteen days, then filter. The residue of the expression is triturated with twice its weight of alcohol, and heated on the sand-bath from 120 to 140 degs. Fahrenheit, and the mixture pressed again. In this step the utmost caution is necessary in avoiding the acrid fumes. One seer of seed furnishes by this process rather more than eleven fluid ounces of oil, six by the first step, and five by alcohol. The oil acts as an irritant purgative in the dose of one drop. In large doses it is a dangerous poison. When applied externally it produces pustules. In 1845, eight cases of croton oil and six cases of the seed were exported from Ceylon. Other species of Croton, as _C. Pavana_, a native of Ava and the north-eastern parts of Bengal, and _C. Roxburghii_, yield a purgative oil. The bark of _C. Eleuteria_, _C. Cascarilla_, and other species is aromatic, and acts as a tonic and stimulant. It forms the cascarilla bark of commerce already spoken of. When bruised, it gives out a musky odor and is often used in pastilles. The oil obtained from the seeds of _Jatropha curcas_, a native of South America and Asia, is purgative and emetic, and analagous in its properties to croton oil. It is said to be a valuable external application in itch. In India it is used for lamps. OIL OF BEN, known as Sohrinja in Bengal, and Muringo in Malabar is obtained from the seeds or nuts of the horseradish tree, _Moringa pterygosperma_, Burmann; the _Hyperanthera Moringa_, of Linnæus. This clear limpid oil having no perceptible smell, is much esteemed by watchmakers and perfumers; it is expensive and not often to be procured pure, consequently the oil would be a very profitable export. It grows rapidly and luxuriantly everywhere in Jamaica, particularly on the north side of the island--as well as Trinidad and other quarters of the West. It is easily propagated either by cuttings from the tree (the branches) or by seeds, and bears the second year. The produce of each tree may be estimated at from one to two gallons. From the flowers a very pleasant perfume might be easily distilled. The following account I derive from my friend Dr. Hamilton-- "It is a small tree, of about twenty feet in height, of most rapid growth, coming into flower within a few months after it has been sown, and continuing to produce seeds and blossoms afterwards throughout the year. The tree is now naturalised in the West Indies. The timber is said to dye a fine blue, and the gum, which, exudes from wounds in the bark, bears a strong resemblance to that obtained from the _Astragalus tragacantha_, for which it might, no doubt, be substituted. The numerous racemes of white blossoms with which the tree is constantly loaded, are succeeded by long triangular pods, somewhat tourlose at the ends, and about two feet in length, when arrived at the full growth. These pods, while yet young and tender, are not unfrequently cooked and served up at the planter's tables like asparagus, for which they are not a bad substitute. The pods, when full grown, contain about fifteen seeds; each considerably larger than a pea, with a membraneous covering expanding into three wings, whence the specific name of _pterygosperma_. On removing the winged envelope the seeds appear somewhat like pith balls; but upon dividing them with the nail, they are found to abound in a clear, colorless, tasteless, scentless oil, of which the proportion is so large that it may be expressed from good fresh seeds by the simple pressure of the nail. Geoffry informs us, that he obtained 30½ ounces of oil from eight pounds of the decorticated seeds, being at the rate of very nearly 24 lbs. of oil from 100 lbs. of seed. Notwithstanding the great value of its oil, and the facility with which it can be obtained in the West Indies, the moringa has been hitherto valued merely as an ornamental shrub, and cultivated for the sake of its young pods or the horseradish of its roots, as luxuries for the table. The oil is peculiarly valuable for the formation of ointments, from its capability of being kept for almost any length of time without entering into combination with oxygen. This property, together with the total absence of color, smell, and taste, peculiarly adapts it to the purposes of the perfumer, who is able to make it the medium for arresting the flight of those highly volatile particles of essential oil, which constitute the aroma of many of the most odoriferous flowers, and cannot be obtained by any other means, in a concentrated and permanent form. To effect this, the petals of the flowers, whose odor it is desired to obtain, are thinly spread over flakes of cotton wool saturated with this oil, and the whole enclosed in air tight tin cases, where they are suffered to remain till they begin to wither, when they are replaced by fresh ones, and the process thus continued till the oil has absorbed as much as was desired of the aroma; it is then separated from the wool by pressure, and preserved under the name of _essence_, in well stopped bottles. By digesting the oil thus impregnated in alcohol, which does not take up the fixed oil, a solution of the aroma is effected in the spirit, and many odoriferous tinctures or waters, as they are somewhat inaccurately termed, prepared. By this process most delicious perfumes might be obtained from the flowers of the _Acacia tortuosa_, _Pancratium carribeum_, _Plumeria alba_, _Plumeria rubra_, and innumerable other flowers, of the most exquisite fragrance, which abound within the tropics, blooming unregarded, and wasting their odors on the barren air." THE OIL PALM. There are several species of this genus of beautiful palms of the tribe _Cococinæ_, but that chiefly turned to account is _Elais guineensis_, a native of the Coast of Guinea to the south of Fernando Po, which furnishes the best oil. There are three other varieties--_E. melanococca_, a native of New Granada, _E. Pernambucana_, common on the coast of Brazil, and _J. occidentalis_, indigenous to Jamaica. All the species grow well in a sandy loam and may be increased by suckers. The value of the oil of this palm, as an article of commerce, is exemplified by the large annual imports, averaging more than 516,000 cwt. for many years past. Our supplies of palm oil are almost wholly derived from the West Coast of Africa, of which it is the staple article of export. Palm oil has the greatest specific gravity of any of the fixed vegetable oils. It is used principally in this country for making yellow soap. But the inhabitants of the Guinea coast employ it for the same purposes that we do butter. The trade in palm oil has almost driven out the slave trade from the Bight of Benin, which was a few years ago one of its principal seats. The old slave traders at Whydah have generally gone into the palm oil trade, and are carrying it on to a very great extent. In August 1849, no less than twelve vessels were lying at that port taking in oil; whilst, only three years before, it was rare to see three vessels there at once, and of those in all probability two would be slavers. This palm is called Maba by the natives about the Congo river. It is moneocious, which indeed Jacquin, by whom the genus was established, concluded it to be, although first described as dioecious by Gaertner, whose account has been adopted, probably without examination, by Schroder, Willdenow, and Persoon. The average imports of this oil into Liverpool alone, have now been for some years upwards of 18,000 tons, worth nearly £800,000 sterling, and giving employment to upwards of 30,000 tons of shipping; thus proving that the natives who formerly exported their brethren as a matter of traffic, now find, at least, an equally profitable trade in the exportation of the vegetable products of their native soil. Palm oil is produced by the nut of the tree, which grows in the greatest abundance throughout Western Africa. The demand for it, both in Europe and America, is daily increasing, and there is no doubt it will, ere long, become the most important article of African trade. IMPORTS INTO LIVERPOOL. casks. tons. 1835 28,500 9,500 1836 33,500 11,000 1837 26,000 9,900 1838 27,520 10,320 1839 36,500 14,300 1852 about -- 23,500 In the colony of Liberia, I notice the manufacture of a new article of African production, which is called "Herring's Palm Kernel Oil or African Lard." It is thus spoken of in the newspapers of that Republic :-- We had been for a long time impressed with an idea that the oil contained in the kernel of the palm nut, was superior both in quality and appearance to that of palm oil, which is obtained from the exterior part. On making an effort to extract the oil from the kernel (which was by means of a little machine, of our own invention and contrivance), we found that our thoughts upon the matter were correct, that the oil possessed admirable beauty in its appearance, with a taste, when used for cooking purposes, unexcelled by that of the best lard. After being made and set by, it assumes a consistence like that of hard butter, and has to be cut out with a knife or spoon; its appearance in this state is very beautiful, presenting such richness, clearness, and adaptedness to table purposes, that one would not suppose that this oil is obtained from the same tree from which palm oil is, for there is as much disparity both in their appearance and taste as there is between lard and butter. The exquisite transparency which the kernel oil bears in a liquid state, especially when undergoing the purifying process, is a cause of admiration. On showing some of it to several foreigners, I was asked in two instances which was the oil and which the water, or whether it was oil or water; thus you may have an idea of its clearness. We make two qualities of this oil, differing however in taste only, the one being for table uses and the other for exportation and for whatever use they may choose to put it to abroad. There have been many conjectures in respect to the uses to which this oil might he put in foreign countries; but that it will be a useful article, and especially in our trade, when made more extensively, there can be no doubt, for the quantity in which it might be had would undoubtedly introduce it to a respectable rank among the other commodities of our productive country so eagerly sought after. There is nothing, to my knowledge, that can be turned to as good account and at the same time so abundant and easily obtained, as the palm kernel, for they are as common as the pebbles of stony land, especially in this section of the country, where we have palm orchards of spontaneous growth for miles together, and interspersing the surrounding country in almost innumerable numbers. According to statistical ascertainment, there is on an average exported from this port, thirty thousand gallons of palm oil annually, from which fact we ascertain demonstratively that the palm kernels which are thrown away here (leaving out the whole leeward coast of our possessions) are sufficient to make thirty thousand gallons of oil, more or less. This is not at all a problematical speculation of ours, but we feel authorised to advance this assertion from the fact that one bushel of kernels, completely worked up, will make two gallons of oil. But to work them up is the thing, plentiful as they are; we however, hesitate not to say, that it can be done and probably will be. Having now so far conquered the difficulties attending the manufacture of this oil, as that we can safely vouch a reasonable supply for home consumption, we most cheerfully recommend it to the citizens of this Republic, whose demands for it, for eating purposes, we doubt not can be supplied, and on very reasonable terms. We will assure our customers that there will not be an ounce of dirt or sediment in a hundred pounds of our oil. The recent abolition of the soap duty, by stimulating the demand for palm oil, will have an instant effect on the trade and commerce of Western Africa, by confirming the suppression of the slave trade, and giving an additional impetus to negro improvement. It will also increase the production for England of ground nuts, whence the oil so largely used in making continental soaps is expressed. "When (observes a recent writer) the Portuguese first treated with that coast, they found palm oil and ground nuts articles of native food, and so they remained down to a period within living memory. So used, they neither required any cultivation nor gave rise to any notions of property. Though whole tracts of country are crowded by the oil-palm tree, little care was taken of what was, in fact, superabundant; and as for ground nuts, they were simply dug up as prudence or necessity dictated. Some thirty years ago a cask or two of palm oil was sent home from the Gold Coast; it met so ready a sale that it was further inquired after, and the total amount now imported into England ranges from 25,000 to 30,000 tons annually. The exportation of ground nuts is even larger; but, owing to our excise on soap, they had heretofore gone principally to France---to Marseilles especially. "Of these two articles, it is to be observed, the Western Coast of Africa appears to have a monopoly; and with respect to palm oil, it is further to be remarked, that it is exactly behind those ports and up those rivers, which were formerly the great nests of the slave trade, that its production is largest; and just as the slave trade there has been crushed, a commerce in palm oil has sprung up and replaced it. There are men alive who recollect the slave trade flourishing on the Gold Coast; it has long been extinct there, and palm oil is now largely exported. It is but a very few years ago since that traffic appeared to be irrepressible at the mouths of the Niger: it is now expelled, and thence Liverpool obtains, instead, its supplies of palm oil. So also, later still, at Whydah, and the other ports of the kingdom of Dahomy, and along the Lagoon, which connects Dahomy with the Benin River, there the Spanish slave dealers are themselves inaugurating a commerce in palm oil. Already the trade in that quarter is considerable, and it would have extended much more rapidly than it has done, were it not that disorder and warfare in the interior have been promoted and prolonged by the indiscreet zeal of some of our own naval officers and by the desire of some of our missionaries to rule at Abeeokutu, at Lagos, and at Badagray. When, however, order and tranquillity are restored, a most important trade will undoubtedly arise there. A generation ago, when palm oil was merely an article of food, there was, we have said, no property in palm trees. Since, however, a large foreign demand has arisen for this oil, the plantations, as already they are called, begin to be cared for; and lately the title to some of them has been disputed in our courts on the Gold Coast: a contention which constitutes the first evidence we have received of the value of land, not actually under their own cultivation, being recognised by the natives. Thus the feeling of property and the desire for accumulation are springing up out of the palm oil trade; and they are everywhere the germs of nascent civilisation. It is no light question, therefore, thus involved in an increased demand for this article; it may produce African consequences of incalculable importance to the whole human race. It is in France hitherto that the great consumption of ground nut oil has occurred. It is there used in the manufacture of soaps, which, though preferred abroad, are little used in England--very much because of the Excise laws. The specific gravity of the soap made out of ground nut oil is higher than those laws permitted; in consequence we could neither make it for our own use nor for foreign exportation; and thus France has substantially the soap trade of the world. By the repeal of the duty, England will be enabled to compete--in this, as in all other trades--with France abroad." The price, in Liverpool, for palm oil, in October, 1853, was £38 10s. to £39 per ton. We export annually nearly four million gallons of oil made from linseed, hemp seed, and rape seed. PALM OIL RETAINED FOR HOME CONSUMPTION cwts. 1835 242,733 1836 234,357 1837 211,919 1838 272,991 1839 262,910 1840 314,881 1841 300,770 1842 353,672 1843 377,765 1844 363,335 1848 510,218 1849 493,331 1850 448,589 1851 493,598 1852 408,577 The quantity of the four principal vegetable oils annually imported into Great Britain, is shown by the following figures:-- Palm oil. Coco-nut oil. Castor oil. Olive oil. cwts. cwts. cwts. tuns. 1848 510,218 85,463 4,588 10,086 1849 493,331 64,452 9,681 16,964 1850 448,589 98,040 -- 20,738 1851 608,550 55,995 -- 11,503 1852 623,231 101,863 -- 8,898 THE OLIVE-TREE (_Olea Europea_).--There are several varieties of this plant, two of which have been long distinguished--the wild and the cultivated. The former is an evergreen shrub or low tree, with spiny branches and round twigs; the latter is a taller tree, without spines, and with four-angled twigs. The fruit is a drupe about the size and color of a damson. Its fleshy pericarp yields by expression olive oil, of which the finest comes from Provence and Florence. Spanish or Castile soap is made by mixing olive oil and soda, while soft soap is made by mixing the oil with potash. The wild olive is indigenous to Syria, Greece, and Africa, on the lower slopes of Mount Atlas. The cultivated species grows spontaneously in Syria, and is easily reared in Spain, Italy and the South of France, various parts of Australia and the Ionian Islands. Wherever it has been tried on the sea-coasts of Australia, the success has been most complete. There are several fine trees near Adelaide, some of them fourteen feet high, bearing fruit in abundance. Unfortunately no one has attempted to cultivate the plant on a large scale, but in a few years Australia ought to suply herself with olive oil. The olive tree is also grown in Hong-Kong. There are five or six varieties of _O. Europoea_, or _sativa_, grown in the south of Europe, of which district they are for the most part natives. The entire exports of olive oil from the kingdom of Naples have been estimated at 36,333 tuns a year, which, taken at its mean value when exported at £62 per tun, is equivalent to the annual sum of £2,252,646. There are one or two distinct species, natives of the East Indies and the Cape of Good Hope. This genus of plants, besides their valuable products of oil and fruit, are also much admired for the fragrance of their white flowers. There is a yellow-blossomed variety, native of China, _O. fragrans_, the Lan-hoa of the Chinese, which is used to perfume their teas. Olive oil now forms an article of export from Chili, being grown in most parts of that republic, particularly in the vicinity of St. Jago, where trees of three feet in diameter, and of a proportionate height, are common. The olive was first carried from Andalusia to Peru in 1560, by Antonio de Ribera, of Lima. Frezier speaks of the olive being used for oil in Chili, a century and a half ago. The culture of the olive has been recommended for Florida and most of the Southern States of America. Formerly, on account of its slow growth, the olive was not considered very useful; but some years since a new variety was introduced into France, and into some parts of Spain and Portugal, which yields an abundant crop of fruit the second year after planting. They are small trees or rather shrubs, about four or five feet high. The fruit is larger than the common olive, is of a fine green color when ripe, and contains a great deal of oil, The advantages accruing from this new mode of cultivating the olive tree, are beyond all calculation. By the old method an olive tree does not attain its full growth, and consequently does not yield any considerable crop under thirty years; whereas the new system of cultivating dwarf trees, especially from cuttings, affords very abundant crops in two or three. An acre of land can easily grow 2,500 trees of the new variety, and the gathering of the fruit is easy, as it can be done by small children. At Beaufort, South Carolina, the olive is cultivated from plants which were obtained in the neighbourhood of Florence, Italy. A gentleman in Mississippi is stated, by an American agricultural journal, to have olive trees growing, which at five years from the cutting bore fruit, and were as large at that age as they usually are in Europe at eight years old. The olive then, it is added, will yield a fair crop for oil at four years from the nursery, and in eight years a full crop, or as much as in Europe at from fifteen to twenty years of age. The lands and climate there are stated to be as well adapted to the successful cultivation of the olive for oil, pickles, &c., as any part of Europe. Some hundreds of the trees are grown in South Carolina, and the owner expressed his conviction that this product would succeed well on the sea-coast of Carolina and Georgia. The frosts, though severe, did not destroy or injure them, and in one case, when the plant was supposed to be dead, and corn was planted in its stead, its roots sent out shoots. It is well known to be a tree of great longevity, even reaching to 1,000 or 1,200 years; so that, when once established, it will produce crops for a great while afterwards. The expense of extracting the oil is also stated to be but trifling. The olive is of slow growth; trees 80 years of age measure only from 27 to 30 inches in circumference at the lower part of their trunks. An olive tree is mentioned by M. Decandolle as measuring above 23 feet in circumference, which, judging from the above inferences, may be safely estimated at 700 years old. Two other colossal olives are recorded, one at Hieres, measuring in circumference 36 feet, and one near Genoa, measuring 38 feet 2 inches. The produce in fruit and oil is regulated by the age of the trees, which are frequently little fortunes to their owners. One at Villefranche produces on an average, in good seasons, from 200 to 230 pounds of oil. The tree at Hieres, above-mentioned, produces about 55 imperial gallons. The olive is found everywhere along the coast of Morocco, but particularly to the south. The trees are planted in rows, which form alleys, the more agreeable because the trees are large, round, and high in proportion. They take care to water them, the better to preserve the fruit. Oil of olives might be here plentifully extracted were taxation fixed and moderate; but such has been the variation it has undergone, that the culture of olives is so neglected as scarcely to produce oil sufficient for domestic consumption. Olive oil might form one of the most valuable articles of export from Morocco. It is strong, dark, and fit only for manufacturing purposes. This is, perhaps, not so much the fault of the olive as of the methods by which it is prepared. No care is taken in collecting the olives. They are beaten from the trees with poles, as in Portugal and Spain, suffered to lie on the ground in heaps until half putrified, then put into uncleaned presses, and the oil squeezed through the filthy residuum of former years. Good table oil might be made, if care were taken, as in France and Lucca, to pick the olives without bruising them, and to press only those that were sweet and sound. But such oil would ill suit the palate of a Maroqueen, accustomed to drink by the pint and the quart the rancid product of his country. The olive is the great staple of Corfu, which has, in fact, the appearance of an extensive olive grove. It produces annually about 200,000 barrels. Olive oil is also produced for the purposes of commerce, and for local consumption, by France, Algiers, Tuscany, Spain, Sardinia, Portugal, Madeira, and South Australia. Olive plantations are extending considerably both in Upper and Lower Egypt. Large quantities of trees were planted under the direction of Ibrahim Pasha. The olive tree might be expected to be quickly matured at the Cape. The native olive, resembling the European, is of spontaneous growth and plentiful, so that if the Spanish or Italian tree were introduced, there is no doubt of its success. The wood of the olive is exceedingly hard and heavy, of a yellowish color, a close fine grain, capable of the highest polish, not subject to crack nor to be affected by worms. The root, in consequence of its variety of color, is much used for snuff-boxes and similar bijouterie. The wood is beautifully veined, and has an agreeable smell. It is in great esteem with cabinet makers, on account of the fine polish of which it is susceptible. The sunny slopes of hills are best suited to its natural habits. Layering is the most certain mode of propagating this fruit, although it grows freely from the seed, provided it has first been steeped for twelve hours in hot water or yeast. Olives intended for preservation are gathered before they are ripe. In pickling, the object is to remove their bitterness and preserve them green, by impregnating them with a brine. For this purpose various methods are employed. The fruit being gathered are placed in a lye, composed of one part of quicklime to six of ashes of young wood sifted. Here they remain for half a day, and are then put into fresh water, being renewed every 24 hours; from this they are removed into a brine of common salt dissolved in water, to which add some aromatic plants. The olive will in this manner remain good for twelve months. For oil, the ripe fruit is gathered in November; the oil, unlike other plants, being obtained from the pericarp, and immediately bruised in a mill, the stones of which are set so wide as not to crush the kernel. The pulp is then subjected to the press in bags made of rushes; and, by means of a gentle pressure, the best or virgin oil flows first. A second, and afterwards a third quality of oil is obtained, by moistening the residuum, breaking the kernel, &c., and increasing the pressure. When the fruit is not sufficiently ripe, the recent oil has a bitterish taste, and when too ripe it is fatty. The following are the present market prices of olive oil in Liverpool, (October, 1853,) and they are 40 per cent, higher than a few years ago:--Galipoli, per tun of 252 gallons, £68; Spanish, £64; Levant, £60. French olives, in half barrels of two gallons, are worth £3 to £4; Spanish, in two gallon kegs, 9s. to 10s. The preserved or pickled olives, so admired as an accompaniment to wine, are, as we have seen the green unripe fruit, deprived of part of their bitterness by soaking them in water, and then preserved in an aromatised solution of salt. The marc of olives after the oil has been expressed, indeed, the refuse cake of all oil plants, is most valuable, either as manure or for feeding cattle. More than 29,000 acres are under culture with the olive in the Austrian empire, Venice, Dalmatia, Lombardy, Carinthia, and Carniola. The climate of Dalmatia is highly suitable for the olive, and the oil is better than that produced in most parts of Italy. Nearly 17,000 cwt. are annually obtained. In 1837 there were 11,526 acres of ground under cultivation with olives in Southern Illyria, which yielded 261,800 gallons. Olives and sumach form the principal crops of the landholder. I have not been able to get any recent correct statistics of the culture and produce. The oil of Istria is considered equal to that of Provence. The stones and refuse are used there for fuel. The olive is also extensively cultivated in the Quarnero Islands, especially Veglia and Cherso, and in Corfu. There were in 1836, 219,339 acres under cultivation in the Ionian Islands, producing 113,219 barrels. The olive is gathered there in December. The average price of the barrel of olive oil was 48s. 3d. Nearly two millions of gallons of olive oil were exported from Sicily in 1842. Naples alone shipped five millions of gallons in 1839, and about 2,500 cwts. of oil is shipped annually from Morocco. Russia imports about 500,000 poods (40 lbs. each) of olive oil annually. "Provence oil, the produce of Aix, is the most esteemed. Florence oil is the virgin oil expressed from the ripe fruit soon after being gathered; it is imported in flasks surrounded by a kind of network formed by the leaves of a monocotyledonous plant, and packed in half chests; it is that used at table under the name of salad oil. Lucca oil is imported in jars holding nineteen gallons each. Genoa oil is another fine kind. Galipoli oil forms the largest portion of the olive oil brought to England, it is imported in casks. Apulia and Calabria are the provinces of Naples most celebrated for its production; the Apulian is the best. Sicily oil is of inferior quality; it is principally produced at Milazzo. Spanish oil is the worst. The foot deposited by olive oil is used for oiling machinery, under the name of' droppings of sweet oil.'"--("Pereira's Materia Medica.") The manufacture of olive oil in Spain has undergone very considerable improvement during the last few years; in particular, the process for expressing the oil has been rendered more rapid and effectual by the introduction of the hydraulic press, and thus the injurious consequences which resulted from the partial fermentation of the fruit are avoided. There are four different kinds of oil known in the districts where it is prepared. 1. _Virgin oil_--A term which is applied, in the district Montpellier, to that which spontaneously separates from the paste of crushed olives. This oil is not met with in commerce, being all used by the inhabitants, either as an emollient remedy, or for oiling the works of watches. A good deal of virgin oil is, however, obtained from Aix. 2. _Ordinary oil_.--This oil is prepared by pressing the olives, previously crushed and mixed with boiling water. By this second expression, in which more pressure is applied than in the previous one, an oil is obtained, somewhat inferior in quality to the virgin oil. 3. _Oil of the infernal regions_.--The water which has been employed in the preceding operation is in some districts conducted into large reservoirs called the _infernal regions_, where it is left for many days. During this period, any oil that might have remained mixed with the water separates and collects on the surface. This oil being very inferior in quality, is only fit for burning in lamps, and is generally locally used. 4. _Fermented oil_ is obtained in the departments of Aix and Montpellier, by leaving the fresh olives in heaps for some time, and pouring boiling water over them before pressing the oil. But this method is very seldom put in practice, for the olives during this fermentation lose their peculiar flavor, become much heated, and acquire a musty taste, which is communicated to the oil. The fruity flavor of the oil depends upon the quality of the olives from which it is pressed, and not upon the method adopted in its preparation,"--(French "Journal de Pharmacie.") The price of olive oil is sufficiently high to lead to its admixture with cheaper oils. The oil of poppy seeds is that which is usually employed for its adulteration, as it has the advantage of being cheap, of having a sweet taste, and very little smell. M. Gobley has invented an instrument which he calls an areometer, to detect this fraud. It is founded on the difference between the densities of olive oil and oil of poppies. The imports, which in 1826 were only 742,719 gallons, had risen in 1850 to 5,237,816 gallons. The following figures show the progressive imports and consumption:-- Imported. Retained for home consumption. gallons. gallons. 1827 1,028,174 1,070,765 1831 4,158,917 1,928,892 1835 606,166 554,196 1839 1,793,920 1,806,178 1843 3,047,688 2,516,724 1847 2,190,384 -- 1848 2,541,672 -- 1849 4,274,928 -- 1850 5,860,806 -- 1851 2,898,756 2,749,572 1852 2,242,296 1,066,400 The imports of olive oil into the port of Liverpool were 9,815 tuns in 1849, and 10,038 tuns in 1850. It was brought from Manila, Malaga, and Corfu, but chiefly from Barbary, Palermo, Gallipoli, and the Levant. In 1850 we imported from France 259,646 imperial gallons of olive oil, officially valued at £34,638; the average in ordinary years is only about 20,000 gallons from the continent. ALMOND OIL.--To the south of the Empire of Morocco there are forests of the Arzo tree, which is thorny, irregular in its form, and produces a species of almond exceedingly hard. Its fruit consists of two almonds, rough and bitter, from which an oil is produced, very excellent for frying. In order to use this oil it requires to be purified by fire, and set in a flame, which must be suffered to die away of itself; the most greasy particles are thus consumed, and its arid qualities wholly destroyed. "When the Moors gather these fruits they drive their goats under the trees, and as the fruit falls the animals carefully nibble off the skins, and then greedily feed. The oil of almonds is more fluid than olive oil, and of a clear, transparent, yellowish color, with a very slight odor and taste. It is occasionally employed for making the finer kinds of soap, and also in medicine. In manufacturing it the fruit are first well rubbed or shaken in a coarse bag or sack, to separate a bitter powder which covers their epidermis. They are then pounded to a paste in mortars of marble, which paste is afterwards subjected to the action of a press, as in the case of the olive. About 80 tuns of almond oil are annually imported into this country, the price being about 1s. per pound. Five-and-a-half pounds of almond oil will yield by cold expression one pound six ounces of oil, and three-fourths of a pound more if the iron plates are heated. SESAME OR TEEL.--Of this small annual plant there are two or three species. _Sesamum orientale_, the common sort; and _S. indicum_, a more robust kind, cultivated at a different season, are both natives of the East Indies. _S. indicum_ bears a pale purple flower, and _S. orientals_ has a white blossom. It is the latter which is chiefly grown, and the seeds afford the Gingellie oil or suffed-til, already extensively known in commerce in the East. The expressed oil is as clear and sweet as that from almonds, and probably the Behens oil, used in varnish, is no other. It is called by the Arabs "Siriteh," and the seed, "bennie " seed, in Africa. _S. orientals_ is grown in the West Indies under the name of "wangle." It is said to have been first brought to Jamaica by the Jews as an article of food. 1,050 bags of gingelly teel, or sesame seed, were imported into Liverpool, in 1849, from the East, South America, and Africa, for expressing oil, and 3,700 bags in 1850. There are two kinds of seed, light and dark, and it is about the same size as mustard seed, only not round. A hectare of land in Algeria yields 1,475 kilogrammes of seed, which estimated at 50 cents the kilogramme, amounts to 737 francs, whilst the cost of production is only 259 francs, leaving a profit of 478 francs (nearly £20). The oil obtained from this seed is inferior to good olive oil, but is better adapted for the manufacture of soap. This plant is not unlike hemp, but the stalk is cleaner and semi-transparent. The flower also is so gaudy, that a field in blossom looks like a bed of florist's flowers, and its aromatic fragrance does not aid to dispel such delusion. It flourishes most upon land which is light and fertile. The fragrance of the oil is perceptibly weaker when obtained from seed produced on wet, tenacious soils. A gallon of seed seems to be the usual quantity sown upon an acre. In Bengal, _S. orientale_ is sown during February, and the crop harvested at the end of May; but _S. indicum_ is sown on high, dry soil, in the early part of the rains of June, and the harvest occurs in September. About Poonah it is sown in June and harvested in November. In Nepaul two crops are obtained annually; one is sown as a first crop in April and May, and reaped in October and November; the other as an autumn crop, after the upland rise in August and September, and reaped in November and December. In Mysore, after being cut it is stacked for a week, then exposed to the sun for three days, but gathered into heaps at night; and between every two days of such drying, it is kept a day in the heap. By this process, the pods burst and shed their seeds without thrashing. The seeds contain an abundance of oil, which might be substituted for olive oil; it is procured from them in great quantities, in Egypt, India, Kashmir, China, and Japan, where it is used both for cooking and burning. It will keep for many years and not acquire any rancid smell or taste, but in the course of a year or two becomes quite mild, so that when the warm taste of the seed, which is in the oil when first expressed, is worn off, it is used for all the purposes of salad oil. It possesses such qualities as fairly entitle it to introduction into Europe; and if divested of its mucilage, it might perhaps compete with oil of olives, at least for medicinal purposes, and could be raised in any quantity in the British Indian Presidencies. It is sufficiently free from smell to admit of being made the medium for extracting the perfume of the jasmine, the tuberose, narcissus, camomile, and of the yellow rose. The process is managed by adding one weight of flowers to three weights of oil in a bottle, which being corked is exposed to the rays of the sun for forty days, when the oil is supposed to be sufliciently impregnated for use. This oil, under the name of Gingilie oil, is used in India to adulterate oil of almonds. The flour of the seed, after the oil is expressed, is used in making cakes, and the straw serves for fuel and manure. The oil is much used in Mysore for dressing food, and as a common lamp oil. From 200 to 400 quarters under the name of Niger seed are imported annually into Liverpool for expressing oil. Three varieties of Til are extensively cultivated throughout India, for the sake of the fine oil expressed from their seeds, the white seeded variety, the parti-colored, and the black. It is from the latter that the sesamum or gingelly oil of commerce is obtained. Sesamum seed contains about 45 per cent. of oil. Good samples of the oil were shown at the Great Exhibition from Vizianagram, Ganjain, Hyderabad, Tanjore, the district of Moorshedabad, and Gwalior. The gingelly seed is stated to be worth about £4 per ton in the North Circars. An oil resembling that of sesamum is obtained from the seed of _Guizotea oleifera_ and _Abyssinica_, a plant introduced from Abyssinia, and common in Bengal. The ram til, or valisaloo seeds, yield about 34 per cent, of oil. The oil is generally used for burning, and is worth locally about 10d. per gallon. BLACK TIL (_Verbesena sativa_).--This is known as kutsela or kala til, in the Deccan. It is chiefly cultivated in Mysore and the western districts of Peninsular India, as well as in the Bombay presidency. About Seringapatam, as soon as the millet crop has been reaped the field is ploughed four times, and the seed sown, a gallon per acre, during the month of July or August, after the first heavy rain. No manure or weeding is required, for the crop will grow on the worst soils. It is reaped in three months, being cut close to the ground, and stacked for a week. After exposure to the sun for two or three days, the seed is beaten out with a stick. The crop in Mysore rarely yields two bushels per acre, but about Poonah the produce is much larger. The seed is sometimes parched and made into sweetmeats, but is usually grown for its oil. This is used in cooking, but it is not so abundant in the seed, nor so good as that of the sesame. Bullocks will not eat the stems unless pressed by hunger. About 5,000 maunds are exported annually from Calcutta. 3,703 bags were imported into Liverpool in 1851. The price per quarter of eight bushels, in January, 1853, was from 30s. to £2; of teel oil, in tins, weighing 60 to 100 pounds, £2 to £2 4s. Bombay linseed was worth £2 11s. to £2 12s. the quarter of eight bushels, in January, 1853. Bengal ditto 2s. less. The imports into Liverpool were 68,468 bags and 54,834 pockets in 1851, and 14,490 bags and 33,700 pockets in 1852. About 9,000 bags of mustard seed and from 18,000 to 20,000 bags of rape seed are also imported thence. The price of the latter is about £2 the quarter. NATIVE OIL MILLS.--The principal native oil mill of India, of which, however, there are some varieties, consists of a simple wooden mortar with revolving pestle. It is in common use in all Belgaum and Bangalore. Two oxen are harnessed to the geering, which depends from the extremity of the pestle,--a man sits on the top of the mortar, and throws in the seeds that may have got displaced. The mill grinds twice a day; a fresh man and team being employed on each occasion. When sesame oil is to be made, about seventy seers measure, or two and a half bushels of seeds are thrown in; to this ten seers, or two quarts and three-quarters of water, are gradually added; this on the continuance of the grinding, which lasts in all six hours, unites with the fibrous portion of the seeds, and forms a cake, which, when removed, leaves the oil clean and pure at the bottom of the mortar. From this it is taken out by a coco-nut shell cup, on the pestle being withdrawn. Other seed oils are described by Dr. Buchanan, as made almost entirely in the same way as the sesamum. The exceptions are the hamlu, or castor oil, obtained from either the small or large varieties of _Ricinus_. This, at Seringapatam, is first parched in pots, containing something more than a seer each. It is then beaten in a mortar, and formed into balls; of these from four to sixteen seers are put in an earthenware pot and boiled with an equal quantity of water, for the space of five hours; frequent care being taken to stir the mixture to prevent it from burning. The oil now floats on the surface, and is skimmed off pure. The oil mill made use of at Bombay, and to the northward, at Surat, Cambay, Kurrachee, &c., differs a little from that just described, in having a very strong wooden frame round the mouth of the mortar; on this the man who keeps the seeds in order sits. In Scinde a camel is employed to drive the mill instead of bullocks. Castor oil seed is thrown into the mill like other seeds, as already described; when removed it requires to be boiled for an hour, and then strained through a cloth to free it from the fragments of the seed. It is a curious fact, and illustrative of the imperfect manner in which the oil is separated from the seeds, that while the common pressman only obtained some 26¼ per cent., Boussingault, in his laboratory, from the same seeds, actually procured 41 per cent. When the oil cakes are meant for feeding stock, this loss is of little consequence, inasmuch as the oil serves a very good purpose, but when the cake is only intended to be used as a manure, it is a great loss, inasmuch as the oil is of little or no use in adding any food for crops to the soil. The chief oil made on the sea board of India, is that yielded by the coco-nut palm. The nut having been stripped of the husk or coir, the shell is broken, and the fatty lining enclosing the milk is taken out. This is called cobri, copra, or copperah in different localities. Three maunds, or ninety pounds of copperah, are thrown into the mill with about three gallons of water, and from this is produced three maunds, or seven and three-quarter gallons of oil. The copperah in its unprepared state is sold, slightly dried in the market. It is burned in iron cribs or grates, on the top of poles as torches, in processions, and as means of illumination for work performed in the open air at night. No press or other contrivance is made use of by the natives in India for squeezing out or expressing the oil from the cake, and a large amount of waste, in consequence of this, necessarily ensues.--_Bombay Times_, June 5, 1850. Oil, of the finest kind, is made in India by expression from the kernels of the apricot. It is clear, of a pale yellow color, and smells strongly of hydrocyanic acid, of which it contains, usually, about 4 per cent. "On inquiring into the use made of the sunflower, we were given to understand that it is here (in Tartary) raised chiefly for the oil expressed from it. But it is also of use for many other purposes. In the market places of the larger towns we often found the people eating the seeds, which, when boiled in water, taste not unlike the boiled Indian corn eaten by the Turks. In some districts of Russia the seeds are employed with great success in fattening poultry; they are also said to increase the number of eggs more than any other kind of grain. Pheasants and partridges eat them with great avidity, and find the same effects from them as other birds. The dried leaves are given to cattle in place of straw; and the withered stalks are said to produce a considerable quantity of alkali."--_Bremner's Interior of Russia._ 658 barrels linseed oil were brought down to New Orleans from the interior in 1849, and 1009 in 1848. During the period of the Great Exhibition special enquiry was made by many manufacturers as to the different oils of Southern India, suitable for supplying the place of animal fat in the manufacture of candles, and generally adapted for various other purposes. Enquiries should be directed to the specific gravity, the boiling point, the per centage of pure oil in the seeds, and the means of obtaining a regular supply. The demand for vegetable oils in European commerce has been steadily on the increase for several years past, and the quantities consumed are now so large that the oleaginous products of India and the colonies must sooner or later have a considerable commercial importance, from the value which they are likely to acquire. Indeed some have already established a footing in the home market, and Drs. Hunter, Cleghorn, and others in India, have specially directed the attention of the natives and merchants to the subject. MARGOSE, OR NEEM OIL.--From the pericarp or fleshy part of the fruit of the _Melia Azederachta_, the well known Margosa oil is prepared; which is cheap and easily procurable in Ceylon. Dr. Maxwell, garrison surgeon of Trichinopoly, states that he has found this oil equally efficacious to cod-liver oil in cases of consumption and scrofula. He began with half-ounce doses, morning and evening, which were gradually reduced. ILLEPE OIL.--The seeds of three species of Bassia, indigenous to India, yield solid oils, and are remarkable for the fact, that they supply at the same time saccharine matter, spirit, and oil, fit for both food and burning in lamps. The Illepe( _B. longifolia_) is a tree abundant in the Madras Presidency, the southern parts of Hindostan generally, and the northern province of Ceylon. In Ceylon the inhabitants use the oil in cooking and for lamps. The oil cake is rubbed on the body as soap, and seems admirably adapted for removing the unctuosity of the skin caused by excessive perspiration, and for rendering it soft, pliable, and glossy, which is so conducive to health in a tropical climate. The oil is white and solid at common temperatures, fusing at from 70 to 80 degrees. It may be advantageously employed in the manufacture of both candles and soap; in Ceylon and some parts of India this oil forms the chief ingredient in the manufacture of soap. Mahower (_B. latifolia_) is common in most parts of the Bengal Presidency. The oil a good deal resembles that last described, obtained from the Illepe seeds; and may be used for similar purposes. It is solid at common temperatures, and begins to melt at about 70 degrees. Vegetable butter is obtained from the Choorie (_B. butyracea_). This tree, though far less generally abundant than the other two species, is common in certain of the hilly districts, especially in the eastern parts of Kumaon; in the province of Dotee it is so abundant that the oil is cheaper than ghee, or fluid butter, and is used to adulterate it. It is likewise commonly burnt in lamps, for which purpose it is preferred to coco-nut oil. It is a white solid fat, fusible at about 120 degrees, and exhibits very little tendency to become rancid when kept. Shea, or galam butter, is obtained in Western Africa from the _Bassia Parkii_, or _Pentadisma butyracea_, a tree closely resembling the _B. latifolia_, and other species indigenous to Hindostan. According to Park, the tree is abundant in Bambara, the oil is solid, of a greyish-white color, and fuses at 97 degrees. Its product is used for a variety of purposes--for cooking, burning in lamps, &c. This tree has much of the character of the laurel, but grows to the height of eighteen or twenty feet. Its leaf is somewhat longer than the laurel, and is a little broader at the point; the edges of the leaf are gently curved, and are of a dark sap green color. The nut is of the form and size of a pigeon's egg, and the kernel completely fills the shell. When fresh it is of a white drab color, but, if long kept, becomes the color of chocolate. The kernel, when new, is nearly all butter, which is extracted in the following manner:--The shell is removed from the kernel, which is also crushed, and then a quantity is put into an earthen pot or pan, placed over the fire with a portion of water and the nut kernels. After boiling slowly about half an hour the whole is strained through a grass mat into a clean vessel, when it is allowed to cool. Then, after removing the fibrous part from it, it is put into a grass bag and pressed so as to obtain all the oil. This is poured into the vessel along with the first-mentioned portion, and when cold is about the consistence of butter. The nuts hang in bunches from the different boughs, but each nut has its own fibre, about seven or eight inches long, and about the thickness and color of whip-cord. The nut is attached to the fibre in a very singular manner. The end of the fibre is concealed by a thin membrane, about half an inch wide and three-quarters of an inch long. This membrane is attached to the side of the nut, and, when ripe, relinquishes its hold, and the nut falls to the ground, when it is gathered for use. A good-sized healthy tree yields about a bushel of nuts, but the greater number are not so prolific. The trees close to the stream present a more healthy appearance, probably on account of being better watered, and the fire being less powerful close to the stream. THE CANDLE NUT TREE (_Aleurites triloba_, of Foster) grows in the Polynesian Islands, and is also met with in some parts of Jamaica and the East Indies. In the latter quarter it is known as the Indian Akhrowt. A very superior kind of paint oil is produced from the nut, and the cake, after the expression of the oil, forms an excellent food for cattle, and a useful manure. 31½ gallons of the nut yield ten gallons of oil, which bears a good price in the home markets. The yearly produce of this oil in the Sandwich Isles, where it is called kukui oil, is about 10,000 gallons. It has been shipped to the markets of Chili, New South Wales, and London, but not as yet with much profit. It realized about £20 per imperial ton in the port of London. In 1843, about 8,620 gallons were shipped from Honolulu, valued at 1s. 8d. per gallon. In Ceylon the oil is known as kekune oil, and a good deal of it might be obtained there from the district of Badulla. From the trials made it appears that it cannot be used as a drying oil, but will probably answer best as a substitute for rape oil. Samples have been sent to several clothiers, and the nature and quality of the oil renders it most applicable to their purposes. COLZA (_Brassica oleracea_), a variety of the common cabbage, is much grown in the South of Europe and other parts, for the oil obtained by pressure from its seeds, and which is used for lamps and other purposes. The plant will not thrive on sand or clay, but requires a rich light soil. After the ground has been well ploughed and manured, the seed should be sown in July, in furrows eight or ten inches asunder. The plants are transplanted about October. When ripe the stalks are reaped with a sickle, and the seeds threshed out with a flail. The cake, after the oil is expressed, is an excellent food for cattle. Like all the oleaginous plants cultivated for their seed, colza greatly impoverishes the soil. In Peru the caoutchouc is used as a substitute for candles. A roll of it (which is generally about a yard long and three inches in diameter) is cut lengthways into four parts, but before it is lighted the piece is rolled up in a green plantain leaf, to prevent it from melting or taking fire down the sides. The natives of Peru also bruize the beans of a species of wild cacao after they have been well dried, and use the substance instead of tallow in their lamps. Mr. Dearman, writing from Dacca, to Dr. Spry, Secretary to the Agricultural and Horticultural Societies of India, in 1839, says--"I will send you some seeds from a tree, which resemble chestnuts. One of these seeds, after taking off the shell, being stuck on the point of a penknife, and lighted at a candle flame, will burn without the least odor for four or five minutes, giving a light equal to two or three candles. From the flower of the tree (he adds), I am told, is distilled a delightful scent." [I presume this must be the candle-nut tree.] At the Feejee and Hawaian islands, the seeds of the castor oil plant and of the candle-nut tree (_Aleurites triloba_) are strung together and used for candles. Species of torches are also made from the candle wood in Demerara. THE CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE (_Myrica cerifera_) abounds in the Bahama Islands. The shrub produces a small green berry, which, like the hog plum, puts out from the trunk and larger limbs. Much patient labor is required in gathering these berries, and from them is obtained a beautiful green wax, which burns very nearly, if not fully, as well as the spermaceti, or composition candles imported from abroad. Not long since Mr. Thos. B. Musgrove, of St. Salvador (or Cat Island), obtained about 80 lbs. of this wax, and made some excellent candles of it. The method of procuring this wax is by boiling the berries in a copper or brass vessel for some time. Iron pots are found to darken and cloud the wax. The vessel after a sufficient time is taken from the fire, and when cool the hardened wax, floating on the top of the water, is skimmed off. MYRTLE WAX.--According to the experiments of M. Cadet and Dr. Bostock, myrtle wax differs in many respects from bees' wax, Specimens of it assume shades of a yellowish green color. Its smell is also different; myrtle wax, when fresh, emitting a fragrant balsamic odor. It has in part the unctuosity of bees' wax, and somewhat of the brittleness of resin. Its specific gravity is greater, insomuch that it sinks in water, whereas bees' wax floats upon it; and it is not so easily bleached to form white wax. The wax tree of Louisiana contains immense quantities of wax. Mr. Moodie ("Ten Tears in South Africa") says,-- "I occasionally employed my people, at spare times, in gathering wax berries that grow in great abundance upon small bushes in the sand hills, near the sea, and yield a substance partaking of the nature of wax and tallow, which is mixed with common tallow, and used by the colonists for making candles. The berry is about the size of a pea, and covered with a bluish powder. They are gathered by spreading a skin on the sand, and beating the bush with a stick. When a sufficient quantity of the berries are collected, they are boiled in a great quantity of water, and the wax is skimmed off as fast as it rises; the wax is then poured into flat vessels and allowed to cool, when it becomes hard and brittle, and has a metallic sound when struck. The cakes thus formed are of a deep green color, and are sold at the same price as tallow. The wild pigs devour these berries when they come in their way, and seem very fond of them." A good specimen of myrtle, or candleberry wax, accompanied by candles made from it in the crude unbleached state in New Brunswick, was shown at the Great Exhibition. Vegetable wax was also sent from Shanghae, in China; from St. Domingo, in the northern parts of which the plant is indigenous; and a remarkable specimen from Japan. This substance, from its high melting point and other physical characteristics, has of late attracted a good deal of attention; it is admirably suited as a material for the manufacture of candles. At a meeting of the Central Board, at Cape Town, in March, 1853, the members voted about £300, to employ some 20 or 30 men, in gathering berries from the Downs, and making wax during the winter months, that is, from the beginning of May to the end of September. The wax fetches a good price in the Cape market. In the annual report of the Cape of Good Hope Agricultural Society, in May, 1853, a very fine sample of myrtle, or terry wax, grown on the Cape Flats, was exhibited by Mr. Feeny, Superintendent of the Road Plantation, by direction of the Commissioners of the Central Road Board, in different stages of purification, from green to white, as also some candles; and it being conceived by the meeting that this article might ultimately become one of considerable importance for purposes of export, a letter of thanks was addressed to Mr. Feeny; and Nathaniel Day, the constable who assisted him, was presented with the sum of £5, as a remuneration for his trouble in assisting to purify and prepare the wax. On reference to the juror's report on the Great Exhibition, it will be gratifying to find that the berry wax, forwarded by this Society, had attracted peculiar notice, and a prize medal been awarded for it; the following reference is therein made to it: "some fine specimens of myrtle or berry wax, from the Cape of Good Hope, are exhibited by J. Lindenberg, of Worcester. This is an excellent material for the manufacture of candles, when employed in conjunction with other solid fats. The jury awarded a prize medal for these specimens." Your Committee would suggest every possible attention being drawn to this subject, in which they are gratified to state, the Commissioners of the Central Road Board have evinced a readiness to co-operate, by offering to place at the Society's disposal the sum of £10 10s., "to be given as a premium for the best information respecting the wax berry plant, the soils and situations in which it is found to grow most luxuriantly: the best mode of propagating and cultivating it, of collecting the berries, and extracting and preparing the wax, &c." And from a letter received from the Secretary to the Central Road Board, it appears that the Board had authorised the shipment to England of 2,561 lbs. of the wax, by the _Queen of the South_ in November last, which, from the account sales lately received from Messrs. J.R. Thomson & Co., realised as follows, viz.:-- 4 cases weighing nett 856 lbs. à 8d. £28 10 8 4 " 1040 lbs. à 9d. 39 0 0 3 " 745 lbs. à 11d. 34 2 11 3 " 6 lbs. à 11d. 0 5 6 --------------- £101 19 1 Discount 2½ per cent. 2 11 0 --------------- £99 8 1 CHARGES. Warehouse Entry 3s. 6d. Fire Insurance 2s., Ports 2s. 6d £0 8 0 Freight 7 3 3 Primage 0 14 4 Dock Charges 3 9 6 Sale Expenses 0 9 0 Brokerage 1 0 6 --------------- £13 4 7 Commission at 2½ per cent 2 11 0 --------------- Carried forward £16 15 7 Brought forward £15 15 7 --------- £83 12 6 Deduct Bills of Lading, &c. 0 19 6 --------- £82 13 0 Deduct the Board's expenses for gathering and preparing, &c 28 8 7 --------- Leaving a clear profit of £54 4 5 This statement shows that from a plant, which is indigenous to the colony, and might he cultivated to almost any extent, and mostly on soils unavailable for other purposes, an article of great export could be derived at a comparatively small expense; it is with that view that I desire to direct public attention more prominently to it. In the Museum of the Royal Botanic Gardens, at Kew, wax is shown as scraped from the trunk of the wax palm (_Ceroxylon andicola_), and candles made from it, as also some made of acorns and closely resembling common tallow. Concrete milk and butter made from the Shea butter tree, and others growing in Para, are also exhibited. Wax candles have been made from the seeds of _Myrica macrocarpa_ in Colombia, and also from vegetable wax in Java. Some of these are to be seen in the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society of London. CASTOR OIL PLANT. Castor oil is expressed from the seeds of _Ricinus communis (Palma Christi)_, a plant with petale-palmate leaves, which is found native in Greece, Africa, the South of Spain, and the East Indies, and is cultivated in the West Indies, as well as in North and South America. In the temperate and northern parts of Europe, the plant is an herbaceous annual, of from three to eight feet high; in the more southern parts it becomes scrubby and even attains an height of twenty feet; while in India it is often a tree thirty to forty feet high. The best oil is obtained by expression from the seeds without heat, and is hence called "cold drawn oil." A large quantity of oil may be produced by boiling the seeds, but it is less sweet and more apt to become rancid than that procured by expression. The _Palma Christi_ grows continuously for about four years, and becomes a large tree in constant bearing, ripening its rich clusters of beans in such profusion, that 100 bushels may be obtained annually from an acre, and their product of oil two gallons per bushel. There are several species, all of which yield oil of an equally good quality. A shrubby variety is common in South Australia, and other parts of New Holland. _Ricinus lividus_ is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. It is a hardy plant, of the easiest culture, and will thrive in almost any soil, whether in the burning plains or the coldest part of the mountains. The seed should be planted in the tropics in September, singly, and at the distance of 10 or twelve feet apart. They will bear the first season, and continue to yield for years. When the seed-pods become brown, they are in a fit state to pluck. It is often grown in the East intermixed with other crops. The primitive mode of obtaining the oil is to separate the seeds from the husks, and bruise them by tying them up in a grass mat. In this state they are put into a boiler amongst water, and boiled until all the oil is separated, which floats at the top, and the refuse sinks to the bottom; it is then skimmed off, and put away for use. The purest oil is obtained, as before-mentioned, by crushing the seeds (which are sewed up in horsehair bags), by the action of heavy iron beaters. The oil, as it oozes out, is caught in troughs, and conveyed to receivers, whence it is bottled for use. Castor oil is used for lamps in the East Indies, and the Chinese have some mode of depriving it of its medicinal properties, so as to render it suitable for culinary purposes. That which we import from the East Indies comes from Bombay and Calcutta, and is obtained at a very low price. It is exceedingly pure, both in color and taste. In the West Indies the shrub grows about six feet high. The stalks are jointed, and the branches covered with leaves about eighteen inches in circumference, forming eight or ten sharp-pointed divisions, of a bluish green color, spreading out in different directions. The flowers contain yellow stamina; the seed is enclosed in a triangular husk, of a dark brown color, and covered with a light fur, of the same color as the husk. When the capsule is thoroughly ripened by the sun, it bursts, and expels the seeds, which are usually three in number. In Jamaica this plant is of such speedy growth, that in one year it arrives at maturity, and I have known it to attain to the height of twenty feet. A gallon of the seed yields by expression about two pounds of oil. The wholesale price in Liverpool, in October, 1853, was 3d. to 5d. per lb. It is brought over from the East Indies in small tin cases, soldered together and packed in boxes, weighing about 2 cwt. each. In Ceylon castor oil is obtained from two varieties of the plant, the white and the red. The native mode of preparing the oil is by roasting the seed; this imparts an acridity to the oil, which is objectionable. By attending to the following directions, the oil may be prepared in the purest and best form. The modes of preparation are--1. By boiling in water. 2. By expression. 3. Extraction by alcohol. In the first the seeds are slightly roasted to coagulate the albumen, cleaned of the integuments, bruised in a mortar, and the paste boiled in pure water. The oil which rises on the surface is removed, and treated with an additional quantity of fresh water; 10,000 parts of clean seed give by this process (in Jamaica) 3,250 of oil, of good quality, though amber-colored. 2. Expression is the simplest and most usually adopted process; the cleaned kernels are well bruised, placed in cloth bags, and compressed in a powerful lever and screw press. A thick oil is obtained, which must be filtered through cloth and paper to separate the mucilage. In Bengal the manufacturers boil the oil water, which coagulates some albumen, and they subsequently filter through cloth, charcoal, and paper. 3. The extraction by alcohol is practised by some druggists. Each pound of paste is triturated with four pounds of alcohol, specific gravity 8.350, and the mixture subjected to pressure. The oil dissolved by the alcohol escapes very freely: one half is recovered by the distillation of the spirit, the residue of the distillation is boiled in a large quantity of water. The oil separates and is removed, and gently heated to expel any adherent moisture; then filtered at the temperature of 90 deg. Fahrenheit; 1,000 parts of the paste have by this process given 625 of colorless and exceedingly sweet oil. The cultivation of the _Palma christi_, and the manufacture of castor oil, is extensively carried on in some parts of the United States, and continues on the increase. A single firm at St. Louis has worked up 18,500 bushels of beans in four months, producing 17,750 gallons of oil, and it is stated that 800 barrels have been sold, at 50 dollars per barrel. The oil may be prepared for burning, for machinery, soap, &c., and is also convertible into stearine. It is more soluble in alcohol than lard-oil. American castor oil is imported for the most part from New York and New Orleans, but some comes from our own possessions in North America. In the United States, according to the "American Dispensatory," the cleansed seeds are gently heated in a shallow iron reservoir, to render the oil liquid for easy expression, and then compressed in a powerful screw press, by which a whitish oily liquid is obtained, which is boiled with water in clean iron boilers, and the impurities skimmed off as they rise to the surface. The water dissolves the mucilage and starch, and the heat coagulates the albumen, which forms a whitish layer between the oil and water. The clear oil is now removed, and boiled with a minute portion of water until aqueous vapors cease to arise: by this process an acrid volatile matter is got rid of. The oil is put into barrels, and in this way is sent into the market. American oil has the reputation of being adulterated with olive oil. Good seeds yield about 25 per cent. of oil. A large proportion of the drug consumed in the eastern section of the Union is derived by way of New Orleans from Illinois and the neighbouring States, where it is so abundant that it is sometimes used for burning in lamps. In Jamaica the bruised seeds are boiled with water in an iron pot, and the liquid kept constantly stirred. The oil which separates swims on the top, mixed with a white froth, and is skimmed off. The skimmings are heated in a small iron pot, and strained through a cloth. When cold it is put in jars or bottles for use. Castor oil imported. Retained. lbs. lbs. 1826 263,382 453,072 1831 393,191 327,940 1836 981,585 809,559 1841 871,136 732,720 1846 1,477,168 -- 1849 1,084,272 -- 1850 3,495,632 -- The imports of castor oil come chiefly from the East India Company's possessions, and were as follows, nearly all being retained for home consumption:-- lbs. 1830 490,558 1831 343,373 1832 257,386 1833 316,779 1834 685,457 1835 1,107,115 1836 972,552 1837 957,164 1838 837,143 1839 916,370 1840 1,190,173 1841 869,947 1842 490,156 1843 717,696 In 1841, 12,406 Indian maunds of castor oil were shipped from Calcutta alone, and 7,906 ditto in 1842. In 1842, 8 cases were shipped from Ceylon, 10 in 1843, 24 in 1844, and 14 in 1845. 1,439 barrels were shipped from New Orleans in 1847. The quantity brought down to that city from the interior was 1,394 barrels in 1848, and 1,337 barrels in 1849. Within the last year or two, an attempt has been made to introduce the cake obtained in expressing the seeds of the castor oil plant as a manure, which is deserving attention, both because it is in itself likely to prove a serviceable addition to the list of fertilizers which may be advantageously employed, and because it may lead to the use of similar substances, which are at present neglected, or thrown aside as refuse. The castor oil seed resembles in chemical composition the other oily seeds. It consists of a mixture of mucilaginous, albuminous, and oily matters; and the former two of these are identical in constitution and general properties with the substances found in linseed and rape cake, while the oil is principally distinguished by its purgative properties. The cake obtained is in the form of ordinary oil-cake, but is at once distinguished from it by its color, and by the large fragments of the husk of the seeds which it contains. It is also much, softer, and may be easily broken down with the hand. I have analysed two samples of castor cake, stated to have been obtained by different processes; and though I have not been informed of the exact nature of these processes, I infer, from the large quantity of oil, that one must have been cold-drawn. The first of the following analyses is that of the sample which I believe the cold-drawn. It is the most complete of the two, and contains a determination of the amount of oil. In the other analysis this was not done, but there was no doubt on my mind that its quantity was much smaller. No. 1. No. 2. Water 8.32 16.31 Oil 24.32 -- Nitrogen 3.05 3.35 Ash 7.22 4.95 The ash contains-- Siliccous matters 1.96 -- Phosphates 3.36 2.27 Excess of phosphoric acid 0.64 -- In order to give a proper idea of the value of this substance as a manure, I shall quote here, for comparison sake, the average composition of rape cake, as deduced from the analyses contained in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland:-- Water 10.68 Oil 11.10 Nitrogen 4.63 Ash 7.79 The ash contains-- Siliccous matters 1.18 Phosphates 3.87 Excess of phosphoric acid 0.39 It will be at once seen that there is a close general resemblance between these two substances, although there is no doubt that the castor cake is inferior to rape cake; still I believe that this inferiority is fully counterbalanced by the difference in price, which is such that, compared with rape cake, the castor cake is really a cheap manure. There is only one of its constituents which it contains in larger quantity, and that is the oil. No weight is, however, to be attached to the quantity of oil in a manure. In a substance to be used as food, it is of very high importance; but so far as we at present know, its value as manure is extremely problematical. Whale, seal, and other coarse oils have been used as manures, and by some few observers benefits have been derived from their application, but the general experience has not been favorable to their use, nor should we chemically be induced to expect any beneficial effect from them. We have every reason to believe that the oils which are found in plants are produced there as the results of certain processes which are proceeding within the plant, and there is no evidence to show that any part of it is ever absorbed in the state of oil by the roots when they are presented to them. On the other hand, the oils are extremely inert substances, and undergo chemical changes very slowly; so that there is no likelihood of their being converted into carbonic acid, or any other substance which may be useful to the plant; and as they contain no nitrogen, and consist only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, they can yield only those elements of which the plant can easily obtain an unlimited supply. I can conceive cases in which the oil might possibly produce some mechanical effect on the soil, but none in which it could act as a manure, in the proper sense of the term. KANARI on.--Mr. Crawfurd, in his "History of the Indian Archipelago," speaks most favorably of an oil obtained from the "Kanari," a tree which, he says, is a native of the same country as the sago palm, and is not found to the westward, though it has been introduced to Celebes and Java. I have not been able to distinguish its botanical name; but Mr. Crawfurd describes it as a large handsome tree, and one of the most useful productions of the Archipelago. It bears a nut of an oblong shape, nearly the size of a walnut, the kernel of which is as delicate as that of a filbert, and abounds with oil. The nuts are either smoked and dried for use, or the oil is expressed from them in their recent state. It is used for all culinary purposes, and is purer and more palatable than that of the coco-nut. The kernels, mixed up with a little sago meal, are made into cakes and eaten as bread. THE COCO-NUT PALM. This palm (_Cocos nucifera_) is one of the most useful of the extensive family to which it belongs, supplying food, clothing, materials for houses, utensils of various kinds, rope and oil; and some of its products, particularly the two last, form important articles of commerce. An old writer, in a curious discourse on palm trees, read before the Royal Society, in 1688, says, "The coco nut palm is alone sufficient to build, rig, and freight a ship with bread, wine, water, oil, vinegar, sugar, and other commodities. I have sailed (he adds) in vessels where the bottom and the whole cargo hath been from the munificence of this palm tree. I will take upon me to make good what I have asserted." And then he proceeds to describe and enumerate each product. Another recent popular writer speaks in eloquent terms of the estimation in which it is held, and the various uses to which it is applied. "Its very aspect is imposing. Asserting its supremacy by an erect and lofty bearing, it may be said to compare with other trees, as man with inferior creatures. The blessings it confers are incalculable. Year after year the islander reposes beneath its shade, both eating and drinking of its fruit; he thatches his hut with its boughs, and weaves them into baskets to carry his food; he cools himself with a fan plaited from the young leaflets, and shields his head from the sun by a bonnet of the leaves; sometimes he clothes himself with the cloth-like substance which wraps round the base of the stalks, whose elastic rods, strung with filberts, are used as a taper. The larger nuts, thinned and polished, furnish him with a beautiful goblet; the smaller ones with bowls for his pipes; the dry husks kindle his fires; their fibres are twisted into fishing-lines and cords for his canoes. He heals his wounds with a balsam compounded from the juice of the nut; and with the oil extracted from its pulp embalms the bodies of the dead. The noble trunk itself is far from being valueless. Sawn into posts, it upholds the islander's dwelling; converted into charcoal, it cooks his food; and, supported on blocks of stones, rails in his lands. He impels his canoe through the water with a paddle of the wood, and goes to battle with clubs and spears of the same hard material. In Pagan Tahiti, a coco-nut branch was the symbol of regal authority. Laid upon the sacrifice in the temple, it made the offering sacred; and with it the priests chastised and put to flight the evil spirits which assailed them. The supreme majesty of Oro, the great god of their mythology, was declared in the coco-nut log from which his image was rudely carved. Upon one of the Tonga Islands there stands a living tree, revered itself as a deity. Even upon the Sandwich Islands the coco palm retains all its ancient reputation; the people there having thought of adopting it as the national emblem." Besides the foregoing and following uses, I am aware of several scents and spirituous liquors being procured from the flowers and pulp of the coco-nut. This palm tree is one of the finest objects in nature. Its stem is tall and slender, without a branch; and at the top are seen from ten to two hundred coco-nuts, each as large as a man's head: over these are the graceful plumes, with their green gloss, and beautiful fronds of the nodding leaves. Nothing can exceed the graceful majesty of these intertropical fruit trees, except the various useful purposes to which the tree, the leaf, and the nut are applied by the natives. 1. The stem is used for--Bridges, posts, beams, rafters, paling, ramparts, loop-holes, walking sticks, water butts, bags (the upper cuticle), sieves in use for arrowroot. 2. The coco-nut is used for--milk, a delicious drink; meat from the scraped nut, for various kinds of food; jelly, _kora_, pulp, nut, oil, excellent and various food for man, beast, and fowl. The shell for vessels to drink out of, water pitchers, lamps, funnels, fuel, _panga_ (for a game). The fibre for sinnet, various cordage, bed stuffing, thread for tying combs, scrubbing-brushes, girdle (ornamental), whisk for flies, medicines, various and useful. 3. The leaf is used for--Thatch for houses, lining for houses, _takapau_ (mats), baskets (fancy and plain), fans, _palalafa_ (for sham fights), combs (very various), bedding (white fibre), _tafi_ (brooms), _Kubatse_ (used in printing), _mama_ (candles), screen for bedroom, waiter's tray. Here are no less than forty-three uses of which we know something; and the natives know of others to which they can apply this single instance of the bounty of the God of nature. For house and clothes, for food and medicine, the coco-nut palm is their sheet anchor, as well as their ornament and amusement, who dwell in the torrid zone. This fine palm, which always forms a prominent feature in tropical scenery, is a native of Southern Asia. It is spread by cultivation through almost all the intertropical regions of the Old and New Worlds; but it is cultivated nowhere so abundantly as in the Island of Ceylon, and those of Sumatra, Java, &c. On the shores of the Red Sea it advances to Mokha, according to Niebuhr; but it does not succeed in Egypt. It is cultivated in the lower and southern portions of the Asiatic Continent, as on the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar, and around Calcutta. In the island of Ceylon, where the fruit of this tree forms one of the principal aliments of the natives, the nuts are produced in such quantities that in one year about three millions were exported, besides the manufactured produce in oil, &c. According to Marshall it requires a mean temperature of 72 deg. Its northern limit, therefore, is nearly the same as the southern limit of our cereals. Rumphius enumerates thirteen varieties of this palm, but many of these have now been placed under other genera, and Lindley resolves them into three species--_C. nucifera_, the most generally diffused species, a native of the East Indies; and _C. flexuosa_ and _plumosa_, natives of Brazil. The trunk, which is supported by numerous, small fibrous roots, rises gracefully, with a slight inclination, from forty to sixty feet in height; it is cylindrical, of middling size, marked from the root upwards with unequal circles or rings, and is crowned by a graceful head of large leaves. The terminal bud of this palm, as well as that of the cabbage palm (_Euterpe montana_), is used as a culinary vegetable. The wood of the tree is known by the name of porcupine wood. It is light and spongy, and, therefore, cannot be advantageously employed in the construction of ships or solid edifices, though it is used in building huts; vessels made of it are fragile and of little duration. Its fruit, at different seasons, is in much request; when young, it is filled with a clear, somewhat sweet, and cooling fluid, which is equally refreshing to the native and the traveller. When the nut becomes old, or attains its full maturity, the fluid disappears, and the hollow is filled by a sort of almond, which is the germinating organ. This pulp or kernel, when cut in pieces and dried in the sun, is called copperah, and is eaten by the Malays, Coolies, and other natives, and from it a valuable species of oil is expressed, which is in great demand for a variety of purposes. The refuse oil cake is called Poonae, and forms an excellent manure. A calcareous concretion is sometimes found in the centre of the nut, to which peculiar virtues have been attributed. Along the Gulf of Cariaco there are many large coco walks. In moist and fertile ground it begins to bear abundantly the fourth year; but in dry soils it does not produce fruit until the tenth. Its duration does not generally exceed 80 or 100 years, at which period its mean height is about 80 feet. Throughout this coast a coco tree supplies annually about 100 nuts, which yield eight flascos of oil. The flasco is sold for about 1s. 4d. A great quantity is made at Cumana, and Humboldt frequently witnessed the arrival there of canoes containing 3,000 nuts. Throughout the South Sea Islands, coco-nut palms abound, and oil may be obtained in various places. Some of the uninhabited islands are covered with dense groves, and the ungathered nuts, which have fallen year after year, lie upon the ground in incredible quantities. Two or three men, provided with the necessary apparatus for pressing out the oil, will, in the course of a week or two, obtain enough to load one of the large sea canoes. Coco nut oil is now manufactured in different parts of the South Seas, and forms no small part of the traffic carried on with trading vessels. A considerable quantity is annually exported from the Society Islands to Sydney. They bottle it up in large bamboos, six or eight feet long, and these form part of the circulating medium of Tahiti. The natives use the bruised fronds of _Polypodium crassifolium_ to perfume this oil. _Evodia triphylla_, a favorite evergreen plant with the natives of the Polynesian Islands, is also used for this purpose. The most favorable situation for the growth of the coco palm is the ground near the sea-coast, and if the roots reach the mud or salt water, they thrive all the better for it. The coco-nut walks are the real estates of India, as the vineyards and olive groves are of Europe. I have seen these palms growing well in inland situations, remote from the sea, but always on plains, never upon hills or very exposed situations, where they do not arrive to maturity, wanting shelter, and being shaken too violently by the wind. The stems being tall and slight, and the whole weight of leaves and fruit at the head, they may not unaptly be compared to the mast of a ship with round top and topmast without shrouds to support it. Ashes and fish are good manures for it. The coco-nut is essentially a maritime plant, and is always one of the first to make its appearance on coral and other new islands in tropical seas, the nut being floated to them, and rather benefiting than otherwise by its immersion in the salt water. Silex and soda are the two principal salts which the coco-nut abstracts from the soil, and hence, where these do not exist in great abundance, the tree does not thrive well. I do not know myself what is the practice in Ceylon, but in Brazil, Dr. Gardner tells me, salt is very generally applied to the coco-nut when planted. Far in the interior, he states, he has seen as much as half a bushel applied to a single tree, and that too when it cost about 2s. a pound, from the great distance it had to be brought. That the application, therefore, of salt, of seaweed, and saline mud, does more than supply soda, must be very evident, if we only recollect how difficult it is to dry any part of our dress that has been soaked in salt water, and what effect damp weather has on table salt, which, in a balance, has often been made use of as an hydrometer. Moisture is always attracted by salt, and the more sea mud and other such little matters that coco-nut planters can apply round the roots of their trees, there will most assuredly be the less occasion for watering them in the dry season. Sea weed contains but very little fibrous matter, being chiefly composed of mucilage and water; and the experiments of Sir J. Pringle and Mr. C. W. Johnson, prove that salt in small quantities assists the decomposition of both animal and vegetable substances. Decomposed poonac, or oil-cake, is one of the best manures that can be applied, as it returns to the soil the component parts of which it has beau deprived to form the fruit. The primary direction of the planter's industry will be to the establishment of a nursery of young plants. In Ceylon, for this purpose, the nuts are placed in squares of 400, covered with one inch of sand, or salt mud; are watered daily till the young shoots appear, and are planted out after the rains in September. Sand and salt mud are to be found on almost all the coasts where it would be desirable to plant nuts, and if they are put into the ground at the commencement of the rainy season, artificial watering will scarcely be necessary. Any period, when there are showers, would answer for transplanting them. I should say from the middle to the end of January would be best, when they are placed in the nursery in October and November; and in October when they are planted in June. It is said that they should be allowed from 20 to 30 feet space apart, but I will calculate their return when planted 27 feet apart every way. This will give 58 coco-nut trees per acre. If manured, for the first two years, with seaweed and salt mud, and supplied with water in dry weather, there need be no loss, and the plants will thrive the better. The land must be kept clear of weeds till the plants are matured, in order to permit them abundance of air and light. In five years, when well cared for, the flower may be expected, but the plants will not be in full bearing before the seventh or eighth year. From 50 to 80 nuts are the annual crop of a tree; but I will calculate at the lowest rate. One hundred nuts will yield, when the oil is properly expressed, at least two gallons and a half. I shall not take into account the making of jaggery sugar and toddy, or spirit from the sap, as I do not consider that the manufacture would be remunerative; and it must be attended with much trouble, besides requiring a great deal of care and some skill. Take the case now of a plantation of 100 acres in extent. This would give us 5,800 trees, which, at 50 nuts per tree, 290,000 nuts, at 2½ gallons of oil per hundred, would yield 7,250 gallons of oil, the value of which any person may calculate, but which, at the low rate of 3s. over charges, would furnish, as the gross plantation return in oil, a sum of £1,087 10s. sterling. If the cultivator, instead of making his produce into oil, were to sell it in its natural state, his gross return in the West Indies would be nearly £600 sterling, at the rate of ten dollars per thousand. Either of these sums would be a handsome return from 100 acres of any land, _requiring no cultivation or care whatever, after the fourth year, and yielding_ the same amount for upwards of half a century! But this is not all. An outlay of a few pounds will secure other advantages, and ought to enable the owner of a coco-nut plantation to turn his gross receipts for oil into nett profits. The coir made from the husk of the nut is calculated to realise nearly one-fourth of the proceeds of the oil, but if we put it down at one-fifth, we shall have, in addition to the value of the oil, £217 10s., thus making a total of £1,305 sterling. If we obtained 60 nuts from each tree, the return would be £1,566 sterling, and if 75, £1,957 8s. sterling; and this from 100 acres of sea side sand! But even _this_ does not exhibit the whole return of this article of culture. Each nut may be calculated to give a quarter of a pound of poonac, or oil-cake, being the refuse after expression, fit for feeding all kinds of stock, which may be estimated as worth £10 per ton. We must, therefore, add on this account to our first calculation, the sum of say £325; to the second, £390; and to the third, £485. This would give, in round numbers, the entire returns of the 100 acres planted:--At 50 nuts per tree, £1,630; at 60 ditto, £1,957; at 75, ditto, £2,446. These are striking results, and may appear exaggerated; but I will, to show how very moderate has been my calculation, give two returns, with which I have been favored from Ceylon. These, it will be seen, differ materially, but the latter I can rely on as a practical result, from a plantation in Jaffna, the peninsula of the northern portion of the island. After estimating the expense of establishing the plantation, the first writer sets down his return thus:-- "The produce, calculating 90 trees to an acre, and 75 nuts to a tree, sold at £2 per 1,000, would yield 675,000 nuts, worth £1,350; or if converted into oil, calculating 30 to give one gallon, it would produce 22,500 gallons, or about 90 tons from 100 acres." From Jaffna, the following is an abridged estimate of return of 100 acres in full bearing:--"At 27 feet apart, 58 trees per acre, 5,800 trees, at 60 nuts per tree, 3,480 nuts per acre, 100 acres, 348,000 nuts, at 40 nuts per imperial gallon, 8,700 gallons of oil, at 2s. per gallon, netted £8 14s. per acre. The poonac left will pay the expense of making the oil. If shipped to England, at the present time (close of 1848), the selling price there being 55s. per cwt., measuring 12 imperial gallons, say, 4s. 7d. per gallon, and the cost and charges of sending it home and selling it being 23s., it would leave 3s. per gallon, or £13 per acre." This sum is _nett proceeds_. It will be seen by the above, that I have been extremely moderate in my computation of the return which may be anticipated, for there is no doubt that planters can, in favorable localities, on the coasts of most of our colonies, cultivate this palm with as much success as attends its culture in Ceylon. By the first of the calculations I have cited from, that island, the gross return appears thus:-- 22,500 gallons at 4s. 7d £5,156 5 Coir--one-fifth of value 1,031 4 Cake from 675,000 nuts, say ¼ lb. each, 75 tons at £10 750 0 ----------- Total gross return from 100 acres 6,937 9 According to the other calculation, the return will stand thus:-- 8,700 gallons at 4s. 7d £1,993 15 Coir 398 15 Cake from 348,000 nuts, 34 tons 340 0 ---------- Total gross return from 100 acres 2,732 10 It will be seen that in my calculation I have set down the return lower than it is rendered in the less favorable statement from Ceylon by a sum of upwards of £1,000 sterling. But even supposing _one-half_ of the amount of the lower Ceylon estimate could be realised, we should have a return of £1,366 5s. sterling from 100 acres of sea side sand. I now proceed to point out the very small outlay required to obtain these results. In places where the coco-nut would be grown, there is generally no heavy woodland requiring great labor with axe and fire, and consequently one able-bodied man should get through the felling and clearing away bush, on an acre of the land to be prepared for the plant, in a short period,--say, on an average, four days. I will calculate, that for wages and rations, each hand employed will cost sixteen dollars per month, an outside price. Let us then say that ten laborers shall be at work. They fell two acres and a half per diem. In one month there should be nearly 70 acres felled; but I will say that the 100 acres will occupy them two months in felling and stacking the wood. During this period our planter may be considered to have had the aid of two more hands, engaged in the preparation, planting out, and care of the nursery of young plants. Two more hands must also be occupied in the construction of tanks and sheds, except where there is a stream of fresh water. For grubbing up the roots, if not very large size, the assistance of about a dozen cattle would be required, a labor which would be performed by means of the common grubbing machine, an implement in the form of a claw. We will consider that all hands are occupied another month in this manner, and in removing and re-stacking the wood, and turning up the land. The planting out would require but little time and labor. At the end of three months then, one-half of the hands, besides those engaged in the nursery and tanks, might be discharged. We must make an allowance for provision for the fodder of the cattle. Six thousand nuts would be required. Let us now see what are the planter's expenses; making ample allowance on account of each item:-- dollars. 6,000 picked nuts at 10 dollars per 1,000 60 Hire and rations of 12 hands, at 16 dollars for 3 months 676 Two hands at nursery, for same period 96 Purchase of 12 cattle at 20 dollars 240 Foddering cattle one month 32 Hire of two extra hands, making tanks and sheds 3 months 96 Hire of 6 hands for 9 months 864 Tools (including plough) 100 ----- Total 2,064 About £415 sterling for expenses for the first year. Where fencing is required, we must add for making about three miles of fence, say £30 sterling. Two carts would also have to be provided, which will cost, say £20 more. In all we may compute the first year's expenditure at £460 sterling. Second year's expenditure: ploughing land, or hoeing it twice, watering plants, manuring, repairing fences, and supplying plants, say hire of eight men for six months, about £150 sterling. The same for the third. Fourth year's expenditure: hire of six hands for three months, cleaning land, and manuring plants, about £60 sterling, and the like, at the cultivator's option, for the fifth year. SUMMARY OF EXPENSES. £ First year 460 Second year 150 Third year 150 Fourth year 60 Fifth year 60 --- Total expenditure 880 Add for buildings 80 And we have a grand total of £960 sterling expended; for what purpose? To secure a net income of _at least_ £1,200 sterling per annum for at least 50 years! In the first year's expenses many items might be cut down, but I leave the calculation as one to be considered by a party with small capital, intending to establish a coco-nut plantation. I have allowed nothing for the cost of land, as it is impossible to compute that. In general it would cost next to the nothing mentioned. I have, by careful calculation, arrived at the conclusion that by combining the cultivation of provisions with the gradual but steadily progressive establishment of a coco-nut plantation, any man of energy and perseverance may, with the aid of but four hands, clear, fence, and plant, in a favorable locality, 50 acres of coco-nuts within the year, yet have a balance in his pocket at its close. Such a person would, ere doing anything beyond putting in his nursery plants, establish a provision ground, of considerable extent, for the purpose of supplying himself and his laborers with bread kind, and vegetables, and of enabling him, by the disposal of the surplus produce in the market, to raise a sufficient sum of money to furnish the wages and rations of the men. I need not enter into a calculation to show how this could be done, as every one must be aware of an easy method of following out so simple a suggestion. Of course he would have to bear in mind that the provision ground is of secondary importance, and limit his exertions in that line accordingly; devoting to the coco-nut plantation the strictest daily attention. The cultivation of this tree deserves much more attention than has hitherto been paid to it, particularly in the East, where it not only forms part of the daily food of all classes of the community, but is an exportable article to neighbouring regions, the oil which it yields having of late years become in great demand in England, for the manufacture of composite candles and soap, and there is no doubt of its continually extended application to such purposes. Supposing, nevertheless, the result of an increased cultivation of the coco-nut should be such as to cause a fall in price, and sink the nett return in England to 2s. per gallon; this being clear profit, would make this kind of plantation a safe and sure investment for both capital and labor in the Colonies. A kind of sugar made from the sap is called "jaggery," and the sap when fermented forms an intoxicating beverage known as toddy. The fibrous outer covering, or husk of the nut, when macerated and prepared, is termed "coir," and is spun into yarn and rope. It is extensively shipped from Ceylon, in coils of rope, bundles of yarn, and pieces of junk. The coco-nut is usually planted as follows:--Selecting a suitable place, you drop into the ground a fully ripe nut, and leave it. In a few days a thin lance-like shoot forces itself through a minute hole in the shell, pierces the husk, and soon unfolds three pale green leaves in the air; while, originating in the same soft white sponge which now completely fills the nut, a pair of fibrous roots pushing away the stoppers which close two holes in an opposite direction, penetrate the shell, and strike vertically into the ground. A day or two more, and the shell and husk, which in the last and germinating stage of the nut are so hard that a knife will scarcely make any impression, spontaneously burst by some force within; and, henceforth, the hardy young plant thrives apace, and needing no culture, pruning, or attention of any sort, rapidly arrives at maturity. In four or five years it bears; in twice as many more it begins to lift its head among the groves, where, waxing strong, it flourishes for near a century. Thus, as some voyager has said, the man who but drops one of these nuts into the ground, may be said to confer a greater and more certain benefit upon himself and posterity, than many a life's toil in less genial climes. The fruitfulness of the tree is remarkable. As long as it lives it bears, and without intermission. Two hundred nuts, besides innumerable white blossoms of others, may be seen upon it at one time; and though a whole year is required to bring any one of them to the germinating point, no two, perhaps, are at one time in precisely the same stage of growth. Coco-nuts form a considerable article of export from many of the British colonies: 375,770 were exported from Honduras in 1844, and 254,000 in 1845; 105,107 were shipped from Demerara, in 1845; 3,500,000 from Ceylon in 1847. They are very abundant on the Maldive Islands, Siam, and on several parts of the coast of Brazil. Humboldt states, that on the south shores of the Gulf of Cariaco, nothing is to be seen but plantations of coco-nut trees, some of them containing nine or ten thousand trees. Ceylon is one of the localities where the greatest progress has been made in this species of culture. In 1832 several Europeans settled at Batticaloa, expressly for the purpose of cultivating this palm to a large extent. They planted cotton bushes between the young trees, which were found to ripen well, and nurse and shade them. There are now an immense number of coco-nut topes, or walks, on the coasts of the island, and about 20,000 acres of land are under cultivation with this tree. The value of this product to Ceylon, may be estimated by the following return of its exports in 1847, besides the local consumption:-- £ Declared value of nuts 5,485 Ditto of Coir 10,318 Kernels, or Copperah 6,503 Shells 210 Oil 19,142 Arrack 11,657 ------- Total £53,315 The annually increasing consumption of the nuts holds out a great inducement to the native proprietors to reclaim all their hitherto unproductive land. The fruit commands a high price in the island, (ranging from ¾d. to 3d. per nut), owing to the constant demand for it as an article of food, by both Singhalese and Malabars; there is not so much, therefore, now converted into copperah for oil making. In the maritime provinces of the island, it has been estimated that the quantity of nuts used in each family, say of five persons, amounts to 100 nuts per month, or 1,000 per annum. It needs only a reduction in the cost of transit, to extend the consumption in the interior of the island to an almost unlimited extent. In 1842, Ceylon exported but 550 nuts, while in 1847 she shipped off to other quarters three millions and a half of nuts, valued at £5,500. The average value of the nuts exported may be set down at £7,000. In Cochin China the cultivation of the coco-nut tree is much attended to, and they export a large quantity of oil. At Malacca and Pinang it shares attention with the more profitable spices. Since the palm has been acclimatised in Bourbon, about 20,000 kilogrammes of oil have been produced annually. About 8,000 piculs of oil are exported annually from Java. A correspondent, under date December, 1849, has furnished me with the following particulars of coco-nut planting in Jaffna, the northern district of Ceylon, in which the culture has only recently been carried on; the facts and figures are interesting:-- The Karandhai estate, the property of the late Mr. J. Byles, was sold last month for £2,400, part of it bearing. It consisted of 303 acres, of which 228 are planted with coco nuts--about half the trees six years old. The Victoria estate, in extent 170 acres, planted and part in bearing, and about seventy acres of jungle, was also sold for £1,500. Mr. G. Dalrymple was the purchaser of the latter, and Mr. Davidson of the former. Both lots were cheap. The properties are among the best in the district, the latter, especially, is a beautiful estate. About two-thirds of the estates planted are looking well, and the remainder but indifferently, in fact, ought never to have been planted, and I believe will never give any return. About 7,000 acres are now under cultivation here, and clearing is still going on. Estates can now be put in for about one half what they cost formerly, viz., about £4 or £5 per acre, and can be kept in order, inclusive of all charges, for about 15s. to 20s. per acre for the first two years, and about half that afterwards. Estates, in some instances, have been put in for about £3 per acre. Elephants have almost disappeared; now and then a stray one comes. Figs are still a great nuisance, but the greatest anxiety among planters is regarding beetles. You will be sorry to hear that the first year the trees showed fruit or flower, one-tenth of them were destroyed by the beetle; the insects still go on destroying, and hardly a tree attacked ever recovers. This is a very serious evil, and upon which the fortunes of all those involved in coco-nut planting depend. The trees come into bearing but very slowly, and I consider no estate will give any return over its current expenses under twelve years. It takes twelve months from the formation of the flower, till the fruit ripens. On an estate, perhaps one of the oldest and best in this district, out of 120 acres, part seven and eight years old, about 12 per cent, are in flower or in bearing, and give a return of about twenty-four nuts per tree, on an average, yearly. On the next oldest, the return is not near so great. But few of the estates here will, I think, pay interest on the money laid out, and many will never pay anything over the expense of keeping them up, even after coming into bearing. I doubt if any estate in this district, however economically managed, will ever give a net return of more than £2, or perhaps of £2 10s. per acre, at least without there is a great increase in the consumption of oil in Europe. The consumption of this oil, in Europe, is under 5,000 tons. If the beetles do not destroy half the trees, the estates here when in bearing, if they yield anything, will give half that quantity; and it must be borne in mind that coco-nut oil is not a strong oil, like palm oil, and that soap boilers will never use it to any extent, for it will allow but little admixture of rosin, &c.; its use in Europe will be principally for candles and fancy soaps; but as by refining and compression they can now purify tallow, and make of it candles fully equal to those made from coco-nut oil, the consumption of the latter is not likely to increase. The consumption of candles is always limited on the continent of Europe, liquid oil being preferred, and in many instances gas is now being used where candles formerly were. The return of land planted with coco-nut trees in Ceylon, in 1851, was 22,500 acres; but this refers only to regular estates recently opened and cultivated chiefly by Europeans. Let us suppose that the natives possess besides, twenty millions of trees; Butollac in his time estimated the number at thirteen millions. At 100 trees to the acre, twenty millions of trees give 100,000 acres, so that the total amount of land planted with coco-nut trees would be 122,500 acres. An hydraulic press, for the manufacture of coco-nut oil, 1,200 horse power and weighing twenty-three tons, was cast at the Ceylon Iron Works, in 1850, by Messrs. Nelson and Son. In the island of Singapore there are now many extensive plantations in a very flourishing condition, holding out favorable prospects to the proprietors. Hitherto the island has been supplied almost wholly from abroad with nuts and oil for its consumption, which will, before long, be obtained exclusively from its own soil. In 1846 there were 10,000 coco-nut trees in bearing in Singapore. I have omitted to notice, in the foregoing observations, a very mistaken notion which prevails in many quarters, that it is best to let the trees drop their fruit, and not to pick the nuts when ripe. Nature directs differently. As soon as the husk of the nut is more brown than green it should be picked. It then makes better oil and better coir, than when left to shrivel up and fall from the tree. Colonel Low, in his "Dissertation on Pinang," gives some interesting details and statistics on coco-nut planting:-- On a rough estimate--for an actual enumeration has not been lately taken--the total number of _bearing trees_ in Pinang may be stated at 50,000, and those in Province Wellesley at 20,000; but very large accessions to these numbers have of late years been made. The tree is partial to a sandy soil in the vicinity of the sea, and Province Wellesley offers, therefore, greater facilities, perhaps, for its cultivation than Pinang does, as its line of clear beach is longer, and has many narrow slips of light or sandy land lying betwixt the alluvial flats inland. There are several kinds of this tree known here; one has a yellowish color, observable both on the branches and unripe fruit; its branches do not droop much. A second has green spreading branches, more drooping than the former, the fruit being green colored until ripe; this is, perhaps, the most prolific; it also bears the soonest, if we except the dwarf coco-nut, which fruits at the second or third year, before the stem has got above one foot high. This last kind was brought from Malacca; it attains in time to the height of the common sort. Its fruit is small and round, and of course less valuable than the other sorts. There is also a coco-nut so saturated with green, that the oil expressed from its kernel partakes of that color. It is a mistaken supposition that the coco-nut tree will flourish without care being taken of it. The idea has been induced by the luxuriant state of trees in close proximity to houses and villages, and in small cove's where its roots are washed by the sea. In such circumstances, a tree, from being kept clear about the roots, from being shaded, and from occasional stimuli, advances rapidly to perfection; but in an extended plantation, a regular and not inexpensive system of culture must be followed to ensure success. The nuts being selected, when perfectly ripe, from middle-aged trees of the best sorts, are to be laid on the ground under shades, and after the roots and middle shoots, with two branches, have appeared, the sooner they are planted the better. Out of 100 nuts, only two-thirds, on an average, will be found to vegetate. The plants are then to be set out at intervals of thirty or forty feet--the latter if ground can be spared--and the depth will be regulated by the nature of the soil, and the nut must not be covered with earth. The plants require, in exposed situations, to be shaded for one and even two years, and no lalang grass must be permitted to encroach on their roots. A nursery must be always held in readiness to supply the numerous vacancies which will occur from deaths and accidents. The following may be considered the average cost of a plantation, until it comes into bearing:-- FIRST COST--100 ORLONGS OF LAND. Spanish dollars. Purchase money of land, ready for planting 1,000 7,000 nuts at 1½ dollars, per 100 105 Houses of coolies, carts, buffaloes, &c., &c. 100 ----- Spanish dollars 1,205 YEARLY COST OF SEVEN YEARS. First year, 10 laborers at 3 dollars per month, including carts, &c. 360 Wear and tear of buildings, carts, and implements 50 Overseer, at 7 dollars per month 84 Quit rent, average 50 Nursery and contingencies 50 ----- Total per annum 594 Seven years at the rate will be 4,158 ----- Total, Spanish dollars 4,752 To this sum interest will have to be added, making, perhaps, a sum total of 6,000 Spanish dollars, and this estimate will make each tree, up to its coming into bearing, cost one Spanish dollar at the lowest. The young tree requires manure, such as putrid fish and stimulating compounds, containing a portion of salt. On the Coromandel coast, the natives put a handful of salt below each nut on planting it. The cultivators of Kiddah adopt a very slovenly expedient for collecting the fruit. Instead of climbing the tree in the manner practised by the natives on the Coromandel coast, by help of a hoop passing round the tree and the body of the climber--and a ligature so connecting the feet as will enable him to clasp the tree with them--the Malays cut deep notches or steps in the trunk, in a zig-zag manner, sufficient to support the toes or the side of the foot, and thus ascend with the extra, aid only of their arms. This mode is also a dangerous one, as a false step, when near the top of a high tree, generally precipitates the climber to the ground. This notching cannot prove otherwise than injurious to the tree. But the besetting sin of the planter of coco-nuts, and other productive trees, is that of crowding. Coco-nut trees, whose roots occupy, when full grown, circles of forty to fifty feet in diameter, may often be found planted within eight or ten feet of each other; and in the native campongs all sorts of indigenous fruit trees are jumbled together, with so little space to spread in, that they mostly assume the aspect of forest trees, and yield but sparing crops. The common kinds of the coco-nut, under very favorable circumstances, begin to bear at six years of age; but little produce can be expected until the middle or end of the seventh year. The yearly produce, one tree with another, may be averaged at 80 nuts the tree; where the plantation is a flourishing one--assuming the number of trees, in one hundred orlongs, to be 5,000--the annual produce will be 400,000 nuts, the minimum local market value of which will be 4,000 Spanish dollars, and the maximum 8,000 dollars. From either of these sums 6 per cent. must be deducted for the cost of collecting, and carriage, &c. The quantity of oil which can be manufactured from the above number of nuts will be, as nearly as possible, 834 piculs of 133-1/3 lbs. The average price of this quantity, at 7 dollars per picul 5,838 Deduct cost of manufacturing, averaged at one-fourth, and collecting, watching, &c 2,059 ----- Profit, Spanish dollars 3,779 The Chinese, who are the principal manufacturers of the oil, readily give a picul of it in exchange for 710 ripe nuts, being about 563 piculs of oil out of the total produce of the plantation of 100 orlongs. The price of coco-nut oil has been so high in the London market as £35 per tun, or about an average of ten dollars per picul. It is said that English casks have not been found tight enough for the conveyance of this oil to Europe, but if the article is really in great demand, a method will no doubt be discovered to obviate this inconvenience. So long, however, as the cultivator can obtain a dollar and a half, or even one dollar for 100 nuts, he will not find it profitable to make oil, unless its price greatly rises. Soap is manufactured at Pondicherry from this oil, but it is not seemingly in repute; the attempt has not been made in Pinang with a view to a market. There is scarcely any coir rope manufactured at this island, so that the profit which might (were labor cheaper) arise from this application of the coco-nut fibre, is lost. The shell makes good charcoal; the leaves are scarcely put to any purpose, the nipah or attap being a superior material for thatching. The coco-nut tree is extremely apt to be struck by lightning, and in such cases it is generally destroyed. It is a dangerous tree, therefore, to have close to a house. If the trees are widely planted, coffee may be cultivated under their shade. It is generally believed that the extracting of toddy from this tree hastens its decline. The Nicobar and Lancavi Islands used partly to supply the Pinang market with this indispensable article; but their depopulation has greatly reduced the quantity. On the whole it may be said that there is no cultivation which insures the return of produce with so much certainty as that of the coco-nut tree; and as Rangoon, the Tenasserim coast, and Singapore will, probably, always remain good markets for the raw nut, there appears to be every chance of the value of the produce affording ample remuneration to the planter. _Coco-nut beetle._--The chief natural enemy of this tree is a destructive species of elephant-beetle (_Oryctes Rhinoceros_), which begins by nibbling the leaves into the shape of a fan; it then perforates the central pithy fibre, so that the leaf snaps off; and lastly, it descends into the folds of the upper shoot, where it bores itself a nest, and if not speedily extracted or killed, will soon destroy the tree. At Singapore, on account of the depredations of this beetle, the difficulties have been considerable. In Pinang and Province Wellesley it has only been observed within the last two years, and it is believed to have come from Keddah. A similar kind of beetle is, however, found on the Coromandel coast. The natives of Keddah say that this insect appears at intervals of two, three, or more years. Its larvæ, which are also very formidable insects or grubs, about three inches long, with large reddish heads, are found in decaying vegetable matter. It is when the tree has made considerable progress, however, that the parent insect does most mischief. When they are from one to two years old, throwing out their graceful branches in quick succession with the greatest vigor, and promising in three or four years more to yield their ruddy fruit, this destructive enemy begins to exercise his boring propensities; and, making his horn act as an auger, he soon penetrates the soft and yielding fibre of the young tree, and if not discovered in time, destroys the leading shoot or branch. The only remedy which has been adopted in Ceylon, is the following:--Several intelligent boys are provided each with an iron needle or probe, of about a foot long, with a sharp double barbed point, like a fish-hook, and a ring handle; they go through the plantation looking narrowly about the trees, and when they perceive the hole in the trunk, which indicates that the enemy is at work, they thrust in the barbed instrument and pull him out. Sometimes he may only have just commenced, when his capture is more easily effected, but even should he have penetrated to the very heart of the tree, the deadly needle does not fail in its errand, but brings the culprit out, impaled and writhing on its point. This is the only known way of checking the ravages of this beetle, except destroying its larvæ. Some cultivators, however, think pouring salt water or brine on the top of the tree, so as to descend among the folds of the upper shoots, a good plan to get rid of the larvæ. Nearly two million coco-nuts are shipped annually from Bahia. From Ceylon, 114,600 coco-nuts were shipped in 1851, and 70,185 in 1852. Coco-nut oil; 98,159 gallons were shipped from Ceylon in 1852; 359,233 gallons in 1851. The prices of Ceylon oil have ranged from £31 to £33 10s. per tun; of Cochin oil, £34 to £35, within the last two years. The price per leaguer in Colombo, without casks, has been £8 10s. to £9. _Copperah_ is the name, given by the natives to the kernel of the ripe nut after it has been exposed to the sun on mats, until it has become rancid and dissolved. It has recently been shipped to England in this state for the purpose of converting into oil. The exports of copperah from Ceylon were, in 1842, 115 cwts.; in 1843, 2,194; in 1844, 2,397; and in 1852, 39,174 cwts. The returned value of the copperah or kernels exported from Ceylon, as entered in the Custom House books, is-- 1840 2,508 1841 1,460 1842 3,022 1843 5,795 1844 6,194 1845 3,282 1846 5,517 1847 6,503 1848 12,639 1849 7,819 1850 4,166 1851 9,678 1852 13,325 632 cwts. of poonac (being the refuse or cake, after expressing the oil) were exported from Ceylon in 1842. It is worth there about £10 the ton. The oil from the nut is obtained for culinary purposes by boiling the fresh pulp, and skimming it as it rises. That for exportation is usually obtained by pressing the copperah in a simple press turned by bullocks. Recently, however, steam power has been applied in Colombo, with great advantage. About 2½ gallons of oil per 100 nuts, are usually obtained. It is requisite that care should be taken not to apply too great and sudden a pressure at once, but by degrees an increasing force, so as not to choke the conducting channels of the oil in the press. In many of the colonies the oil is expressed by the slow and laborious hand process of grating the pulp. The quantity shipped from Ceylon was 2,250 tuns, in 1842; 3,985 in 1843; 2,331 in 1844; 1,797 in 1845. The quantity in gallons shipped since, was 101,553 in 1846; 197,850 in 1847; 300,146 in 1848; 867,326 in 1849; 407,960 in 1850; 442,700 in 1851; and 749,028 in 1852. The duty on importation is of and from British possessions, 7d. and 7/8ths. per cwt.; if the produce of foreign possessions, 1s. 3¾ d, per cwt. In the close of 1852, the price of coco-nut oil in the London market was, for Ceylon, £32, £33, to £33 10s. per ton; Cochin, middling to fine, £34 to £35. The following return shows the Custom House valuation of the oil shipped from Ceylon for a series of years, and which is of course much below its real value:-- 1839 £26,597 1840 32,483 1841 24,052 1842 34,242 1843 43,874 1844 24,067 1845 15,945 1846 7,939 1847 19,142 1848 24,839 1849 34,831 1850 35,035 1851 31,444 1852 58,045 Among the coco-nut oil exported from Ceylon, in 1849, there were 47,427½ gallons, valued at £3,595, the whole of which, I believe, was Cochin oil; the raw material of this kind not being, like the copperah generally in Ceylon, subjected to the action of fire, the product is finer, and fetches a better price in the London market. Amongst the imports from British possessions in Asia, were 2,600 cwts., of copperah (dried coco-nut kernels, from which oil is expressed), valued at £1,100; amongst the imports re-exported to Great Britain, we find 870 cwts. of the same article, valued at £300. Of the oil exported a quantity of 11,000 gallons was shipped for the United States. About 600,000 piculs of coco-nut oil are annually exported from Siam. A large quantity of oil is made in Trinidad, chiefly on the east coast, where, in one locality, there is an uninterrupted belt of coco-nut palms fourteen miles in extent. They usually bear when five years old. The cultivation of the coco-nut in a proper soil presents a very profitable speculation for small capitalists. Whether sold at the rate of a dollar per hundred in their natural state, to captains of ships, who freely purchase them, or manufactured into oil, they are a very remunerative product. Each tree in the West Indies is calculated to produce nuts to the value of one dollar yearly. There is one thing to which we would draw the attention of chemists and other scientific men. For twenty-four or even forty-eight hours after its manufacture this oil is as free from any unpleasant taste as olive oil, and can be used in lieu of it for all culinary purposes, but after that time it acquires such a rancid taste as to be wholly unpalateable. If any means could be discovered of preventing this deterioration in quality, and preserving it fresh and sweet, it could compete with olive oil, and the price and consumption would be largely raised. COCO-NUT OIL IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. Imports. Retained for home consumption. cwts. cwts. 1835 19,838 14,015 1836 26,058 26,062 1837 41,218 28,641 1838 -- 38,669 1839 -- 15,153 1840 -- 37,269 1841 -- 26,528 1842 -- 26,225 1843 -- 29,928 1844 -- 42,480 1848 85,453 54,783 1849 64,451 14,622 1850 98,040 46,494 1851 55,995 2,333 1852 101,863 27,112 A London coco-nut oil soap was found, on analysis by Dr. Ure, to consist of:-- Soda 4.5 Coco-nut lard 22.0 Water 73.5 ----- 100.0 This remarkable soap was sufficiently solid; but it dissolved in hot water with extreme facility. It is called marine soap, because it washes linen with sea water. Of the six principal vegetable oils, namely--palm, coco-nut castor, olive, linseed, and rape, the first four are imported in the state of oil only; the two last chiefly as seed. The proportion in which they were imported is shown in the following tables; and if to these quantities are added about a million and a half cwt. of tallow, and nearly twenty thousand tuns of whale oil and spermaceti, they will nearly represent the total quantity of oil imported into Great Britain. IMPORTS IN 1846. Palm oil. Olive oil. Castor oil. cwts. tuns. cwts. Western Africa 475,364 1 -- United States 13,349 -- 290 Naples and Sicily 14 9,661 -- East Indies -- -- 6,315 Canary Islands 3,719 -- -- Malta -- 2,237 -- Turkish Empire -- 1,712 -- Tuscany -- 832 -- Spain -- 753 -- Brazil 525 -- -- Ionian Islands -- 506 -- Morocco -- 368 -- Madeira 353 -- -- Sardinia -- 333 11 Miscellaneous 7 471 65 ------- ------- ------- Total 493,331 16,864 9,681 IMPORTS IN 1850 Linseed. Rape seed. quarters. quarters. Russia 482,813 3,235 Sweden 870 -- Norway 268 -- Denmark 37 3,092 Russia 87,273 645 Hanse Towns 1,153 2,872 Holland 7,734 201 Naples 1,476 -- Austrian Territories 40 2,580 Greece -- 1,637 Wallachia and Moldavia 910 1,280 Egypt 17,517 -- East Indian Empire 26,142 13,126 Miscellaneous 262 922 -------- ------ Total 626,495 29,495 OIL-CAKE.--It has been observed by Evelyn that one bushel of walnuts will yield fifteen pounds of peeled kernels, and these will produce half that weight of oil, which the sooner it is drawn is the more in quantity, though the drier the nut the better its quality. The cake or marc of the pressing is excellent for fattening hogs and for manure. Oats contain, as a maximum, about seven per cent. of oil, and Indian corn nine per cent. The cake of the gold of pleasure contains twelve per cent. Indeed the most valuable oil-cakes are those of the _Camelina sativa_, poppies and walnuts, which are nearly equal; next to these are the cakes of hemp, cotton, and beech-mast. In France the extraction and purification of oil from the cotton seed is a recent branch of labor, the refuse of which is likely to prove useful in agriculture; its value as a manure being nearly ten times greater than that of common dung. Oil is obtained from maize or Indian corn in the process of making whiskey. It rises in the mash tubs and is found in the scum at the surface, being separated either by the fermentation or the action of heat. It is then skimmed off, and put away in a cask to deposit its impurities; after which it is drawn off in a pure state, fit for immediate use. The oil is limpid, has a slight tinge of the yellow color of the corn, and is inoffensive to the taste and smell. It is not a drying oil, and therefore cannot be used for paint, but burns freely in lamps and is useful for oiling machinery. Among the various seeds used in the manufacture of oil-cake, flour of linseed is the most important. Rape seed is also employed, but is considered heating. In Lubeck, a marc, called dodder cake, is made from the _Camelina sativa_. Inferior oil-cake is made from the poppy in India. Cotton-seed cake has lately been recommended on account of its cheapness, being usually thrown away as refuse by the cotton manufacturers. It is extensively used as a cattle food, in an unprepared state, in various parts of the tropical world, and to a limited extent in this country. The cost of seed, freight included, was 2d. per lb. from Charlestown to Port Glasgow. Cotton oil-cake is now ordered at the same price as linseed cake. The produce of oil-cake and oil from cotton seed, is two gallons of oil to one cwt. of seed, leaving about 96 lbs of cake; 8 lbs. is the daily allowance for cattle in England. Cotton seed oil, very pure, is manufactured to a considerable extent at Marseilles, by De Gimezney, from Egyptian seed; and he received a prize medal at the Great Exhibition. Account of the export of linseed and rapeseed cakes from Stettin, principally to England, in-- cwts. 1834 33,518 1835 27,038 1836 56,581 1837 70,643 1838 119,540 1839 115,416 1840 162,457 1841 143,816 1842 119,814 The quantity of oil-seed cakes imported into the United Kingdom was in-- tons. 1849 59,462 1850 65,055 1851 55,076 1852 53,616 Cargoes of oil-cake, to the value of £22,207, were exported from the port of Shanghae, in China, in 1849. 2,467 tons of oil-cake were brought down to New Orleans from the interior in 1848, and 1,032 tons in 1849. Seven samples of American oil-cake gave the following results:-- Oil 11.41 Water 7.60 Nitrogen 4.74 Ash 6.35 From the above figures, the scientific farmer will see that the manure formed by 100 lbs. of oil-cake is more than that derived from 300 lbs. of Indian corn. 300 lbs. of corn contain about l¼ lbs. phosphoric acid; 100 lbs. oil-cake contain about 2½ lbs. VOLATILE OR ESSENTIAL OILS occur in the stems, leaves, flowers and fruit of many odoriferous plants, and are procured by distillation along with water. They are called "essences," and contain the concentrated odor of the plant. They usually exist ready-formed, but occasionally they are obtained by a kind of fermentation, as oil of bitter almonds and oil of mustard. Some of them consist of carbon and hydrogen only, as oil of turpentine, from _Juniperus communis;_ oil of savin, from _Juniperus Sabina;_ oil of lemons and oranges, from the rind of the fruit; and oil of nerole, from orange flowers. A second set contain oxygen in addition, as oil of cinnamon, from _Cinnamonum verum;_ otto or attar of roses, from various species of rose, especially _Rosa centifolia;_ oil of cloves, from _Caryophyllus aromaticus_. Those principally obtained from tropical shrubs and plants are citronella, oil of oranges and lemons, from the rind of the fruit oil of cinnamon and cloves, croton oil, &c. The oil of Sandal or Sanders wood _(Santalum album_), grown on the Malabar coast, is much esteemed as a perfume. Keora oil, from _Pandanus odoratissimus_, in Bengal. Oil of spikenard, so highly prized, on account of its perfume, by the ancients, may be procured in Sagur, Nepaul, and the mountains of the Himalaya. 956 lbs. of essential oils were imported into Hull in 1850. There were exported from Ceylon in 1842, 902 cases; in 1843, 138; in 1844, 20; in 1845, 25 cases of essential oils, and in the last two years as follows:-- 1852. 1851. cases. cases. Cinnamon oil 17 23 Citronella oil 110 87 Essential oil 72 35 Of chemical, essential, and perfumed oils imported from France, the quantity is about 35,000 lbs. annually, worth £10,000. The duty is 1s. per lb. We also imported from France, in 1851, 9,596 cwt. of oil or spirit of turpentine, worth £14,197, on which a duty of 5s. 3d. per cwt. is levied. From Western Australia some distilled oil of the Liptospermum was shown at the Exhibition, which it is stated may be obtained in any quantity, and a similar oil produced, by distillation, from the _Eucalyptus piperita_, a powerful solvent of caoutchouc, evidently very similar, if not altogether identical, with the oil of cajeput. The characters of these two oils are much alike and without some care it is difficult to distinguish them from one another by the odor; the liptospermum oil has a slight tinge of yellow, its specific gravity is 0.9035; the eucalyptus oil is colorless, and has a density of 0.9145. It is probable that these oils might be used with great advantage in the manufacture of varnish, they readily dissolve copal, and when its solution is spread over any surface the oil soon evaporates, and leaves a hard, brilliant and uniform coating of the resin. These oils, according to Prof. Solly, are specially worthy of attention. Dr. Bennett, in his "Wanderings in New South Wales," states that a large quantity of camphorated oil, which closely resembles the cajeputi, is produced from the foliage of several species of _Eucalyptus_. Some of the leaves, which are of a bluish green, contain it in such abundance as to cover the hand with oil when one of the leaves is gently rubbed against it. From the odorous leaves of the _Arbor alba_ is extracted a portion of the aromatic cajeput oil. This celebrated medicinal oil is principally made in the island of Borneo, one of the Moluccas. The leaf of the _Melaleuca minor_ yields, by distillation, the volatile oil of cajeputi, well known as a powerful sudorific, and a useful external application in chronic rheumatism. It is an evergreen shrub, with white flowers like a myrtle, native of the East Indies, principally flourishing on the sea coasts of the Moluccas and other Indian islands. Two sacks full of the leaves yield scarcely three drachms of the oil, which is limpid, pellucid, and of a green color. Oil of cinnamon and oil of cassia, according to Mulder, have the same composition. When fresh they are pale yellow, but become brown on exposure to the air. On exposure they rapidly absorb cinnamic acid, two resins and water. More than 22,000 lbs. of essence of bergamot was imported in 1848. It is obtained by distillation or pressure from the rind of the fragrant citron. _Andropogon calamus aromaticus_, of Royle, _A. nardoides_, of Nees v. Esenb., according to some yields the grass oil of Namur. The fruits of _Carum carui_, a hardy biennial British plant, popularly known as caraway seeds, supply a volatile oil, which is carminitive and aromatic. Oils of a similar kind are obtained from _Coriandrum sativum_, from anise (_Pimpinella Anisum_), and cumin (_Cuminum Cyminum_), a native of Egypt. The production of cinnamon, clove, and cassia oils, have already been noticed in speaking of those spices. In Malabar, a greenish sweet-smelling oil is obtained, by distillation, from the roots of _Unona Narum_, an evergreen climber, which is used medicinally as a Stimulant. OIL OF PEPPERMINT.--Mr. De Witt C. Van Slyck, of Alloway, Wayne county, New York, furnished me with the following particulars on the cultivation of peppermint, in December, 1849, which may appropriately be introduced in this place:-- "As an agricultural production, the culture of peppermint in the United States is limited to few localities; this county and the adjoining ones, Seneca and Ontario, comprise the largest bed. In the year 1846 about 40,000 lbs. of oil were produced. In Lewis county, in this state, it is grown, though to a less extent; the amount of oil produced there in 1846 was estimated at 4,500 lbs. In Michigan about 10,000 lbs. are annually produced; Ohio furnishes about 3,000 lbs. and Indiana 700 lbs. per annum. The entire crop in the United States, in the year 1846, is estimated in round numbers at 58,000 lbs. The above comprises all the localities of any importance in the United States, and the above estimates of the annual product of oil were made from correct data for the year 1846, since which time the cultivation of mint has rapidly decreased in consequence of a speculative movement by a New York company, who in the spring of 1847 purchased nearly all the mint then growing in this State, and stipulated with the growers not to raise it for two years thereafter, which condition was generally observed on the part of the growers. The present year (1849), on account of the drought, has not realised the expectations of those engaged in its culture, although the amount of oil produced is much larger than the product of the two preceding years. In this mint district, 8,000 lbs. have been raised; Lewis county furnishes 1,000 lbs.; Michigan, 8.000 lbs.; Ohio, 1,000 lbs., and Indiana 500 lbs. So that the entire crop of 1849 will not materially vary from 18,500 lbs. I have consulted several of the principal dealers in mint oil, whose opportunities have been ample to form a tolerably correct estimate of the amount of oil annually consumed, and their opinion fixes the total consumption, for the various purposes for which it is used in the United States and in Europe, at from 20,000 to 30,000 lbs. annually. The price of mint oil is extremely fluctuating. Like other unstaple commodities, the value of which depends upon their scarcity or abundance, it never has assumed a constant and standing value, but its price has generally been deranged by speculation and monopoly. It has happened that the amount of oil produced was for several years greater than the annual consumption, producing an accumulation in the market, and reducing the price to the very low rate of 75 cents per pound; on the other hand, when the article was scarce, it readily sold for 5 dollars 25 cents per pound. The average price for fifteen vears has been about 2 dollars 50 cents, per pound. This year (1849) it readily sells for 1 dollar 50 cents., (6s. 6d.). Peppermint began to be cultivated in this vicinity as an agricultural product about the year 1816, but for several years the want of a proper knowledge of its culture, and the expense and difficulty of extracting the oil, prevented its extension beyond a few growers, who, however, realised fortunes out of the enterprise. Almost any kind of soil that will successfully rear wheat and maize is adapted to the growth of mint. Rich alluvions, however, seem to be most natural, as would be inferred from the fact that the wild herb is almost uniformly found growing upon the tertiary formations on the margins of streams. The rich bottom lands along our rivers and the boundless prairies of the West are eminently adapted for its successful culture. It is believed by those best acquainted with the subject, that its cultivation must be ultimately confined to the western prairies, where it will grow spontaneously, and where the absence of noxious weeds and grasses, incident to all older settled lands, renders the expense of cultivation comparatively light, and where the low price of land will be an important item in the amount of capital employed, the expense of marketing being slight in comparison to that of the more bulky products of agricultural industry. The method of cultivation is nearly uniform. The mode of propagation is by transplanting the roots, which may be done in autumn or spring, though generally the latter, and as the herb is perennial, it does not require replanting till the fourth year. To ensure a good crop and obviate the necessity of extra attendance the first season, the ground intended for planting should be fallowed the preceding summer, though this is not necessary if the land is ordinarily clean. The ground should be prepared as for maize, as soon as possible in the spring furrowed, and roots planted in drills twenty inches apart, and covered with loose earth, two inches deep, the planter walking upon the drill and treading it firmly. The proper time to procure roots is when the herb is a year old, when from six to eight square rods of ordinary mint will yield a sufficient quantity of roots to plant an acre, and the crop from which the roots are taken will not be deteriorated, but rather benefited by their extraction. As soon as the herb makes its appearance it requires a light dressing with a hoe, care being taken not to disturb the young shoots, many of which have scarcely made their appearance above the ground. In the course of a week or two the crop requires a more thorough dressing, and at this stage of growth the cultivator may be used with advantage, followed by the hoe, carefully eradicating weeds and grass from the drills, and giving the herb a light dressing of earth. Another dressing a week or two later is all the crop requires. The two following years no labor is bestowed upon the crop, though it is sometimes benefited by ploughing over the whole surface, very shallow, in the autumn of the second year, and harrowing lightly the following spring, which frequently renews the vigor of the plant and increases the product. The mint should be cut as soon as it is in full bloom, and the lower leaves become sere; the first crop will not be fit to cut as early as the two succeeding ones. It is then to be hayed and put in cock, and is then ready for distillation. I have consulted many mint growers, who have cultivated it for a series of years, in regard to the average yield per acre, and have arrived at the following estimate, which I think is low, provided the land is suitable, and is properly cultivated. I estimate the average yield per acre for the first year at 18 lbs.; the second year at 14 lbs.; and the third year at 8 lbs.--making the product for three years 40 lbs., which I think will not materially vary from the actual result, though growers aver they have raised from 30 to 40 lbs. per acre the first season. Several years since, the only method of extracting the oil then known was by distilling the herb in a copper kettle, or boiler, and condensing in the usual manner; a slow and tedious process, by which about 12 or 15 pounds of oil could be separated in a day. But recently steam, that powerful agent, which has wrought such immense changes in our social and national economy, has been applied to this subject with its usual attendant success. The present method consists in the use of a common steam-boiler, of the capacity of from 100 to 150 gallons, from which the steam is conveyed by conductors into large wooden air-tight tubs, of 200 gallons capacity, containing the dried herb; from which it is conveyed, charged with the volatile principle of the plant, into a water-vat, containing the condenser. The water collected at the extremity of the condenser, although it does not readily commingle with the oil, is highly tinctured with it, and is used to feed the boiler. Two tubs are necessary, in order that when the "charge" is being worked off in one, the other can be refilled. The oil is then to be filtered, and is ready for market. The expense of a distillery is estimated at 150 dollars, which, with the labor of two men, and a cord of dry wood, will run 40 lbs. of oil per day. The usual price for distilling is 25 cents per pound. The cost of production is of course greatly modified by circumstances. If grown on rich bottom lands, or prairie, unusually free from weeds and grass, the labor required will be comparatively trifling. From information derived from the principal mint growers in this vicinity, I have prepared the following estimate of the cost of production of an acre of mint for three years:-- FIRST YEAR. Dollars. Rent of an acre of land one year 8.00 One day plough and drag, one hand and team 2.00 Half day furrowing, digging roots, one hand and horse 1.00 Three days planting, at 75 cents 2.25 Two days dressing with hoe, at 75 cents 1.50 Two days with cultivator and hoe, 1.00 2.00 Two days with cultivator and hoe (third dressing) 1.50 One and a-half days cutting new mint, at 75 cents 1.13 Curing and drawing to distillery 1.50 Distilling 18 lbs. oil, at 25 cents 4.50 Can for oil 25 ----- 25.63 SECOND YEAR. Rent of an acre of land one year 8.00 Cutting one acre of old mint 75 Curing and hauling to distillery 1.50 Distilling 14 lbs. oil, at 25 cents 3.50 Can for oil 25 ----- 14.00 THIRD YEAR. Rent of an acre of land one year 8.00 Cutting, curing, &c. 2.25 Distilling 8 lbs. of oil, at 25 cents, and can 2.25 ----- 12.50 ----- Total expenses for three years 52.13 Forty pounds of oil, at dollars 1.37½ per pound 55.00 Deduct expenses 52.13 ----- Net profit 2.87 In the above estimate I have omitted the expense of roots, for the reason that the crop will yield as many as are required for planting. The price of roots is about 50 cents per square rod, and if they are in demand, the profit of the crop will be greatly enhanced by selling them at that, or even a lower price. It will be readily perceived that the culture of peppermint promises no great return of profit in sections of country where land is valuable, and where the expense of production is nearly double what it is in newly-settled districts. It is a fact that in Michigan, and other Western States, the actual expense of production is about one-half less than the above estimate, and the yield is a fourth greater; the greater distance from market, which is usually New York city, not being taken into account, the freight on oil being comparatively trifling. Another consideration in favor of prairie cultivation is, that the mint will endure for years by simply ploughing over the surface every second year, which seems to invigorate the herb, and obviates the necessity of replanting every second or third year, as must be done in older settled localities." In India the perfumed oils are obtained in the following manner:--The layers of the jasmine, or other flowers, four inches thick and two inches square, are laid on the ground and covered with layers of sesamum or any other oil yielding seed. These are laid about the same thickness as the flowers, over which a second layer of flowers like the fruit is placed. The seed is wetted with water, and the whole mass covered with a sheet, held down at the end and sides by weights, and allowed to remain for eighteen hours in this form. It is now fit for the mill, unless the perfume is desired to be very strong, when the faded flowers are removed and fresh ones put in their place. The seed thus impregnated is ground in the usual way in the mill and the oil expressed, having the scent of the flower. At Ghazipoor the jasmine and bela are chiefly employed; the oil is kept in the dubbers, and sold for about 4s. a seer. The newest oils afford the finest perfume. In Europe a fixed oil, usually that of the bean or morerja nut, is employed. Cotton is soaked in this, and laid over layers of flowers, the oil being squeezed out so soon as impregnated with perfume. Dr. Johnson thus describes the culture and manufacture:-- _Cultivation of Roses_.--Around the station of Ghazipoor, there are about 300 biggahs (or about 150 acres) of ground laid out in small detached fields as rose gardens, most carefully protected on all sides by high mud walls and prickly pear fences, to keep out the cattle. These lands, which belong to Zemindars, are planted with rose trees, and are annually let out at so much per biggah for the ground, and so much additional for the rose plants--generally five rupees per biggah, and twenty-five rupees for the rose trees, of which there are 1,000 in each biggah. The additional expense for cultivation would be about eight rupees eight annas; so that for thirty-eight rupees eight annas you have for the season one biggah of 1,000 rose trees. If the season is good, this biggah of 1,000 rose trees should yield one lac of roses. Purchases for roses are always made at so much per lac. The price of course varies according to the year, and will average from 40 to 70 rupees. _Manufacture of Rose-water_.--The rose trees come into flower at the beginning of March, and continue so through April. Early in the morning the flowers are plucked by numbers of men, women, and children, and are conveyed in large bags to the several contracting parties for distillation. The cultivators themselves very rarely manufacture. The native apparatus for distilling the rose-water is of the simplest construction; it consists of a large copper or iron boiler well tinned, capable of holding from eight to twelve gallons, having a large body with a rather narrow neck, and a mouth about eight inches in diameter; on the top of this is fixed an old dekchee, or cooking vessel, with a hole in the centre to receive the tube or worm. This tube is composed of two pieces of bamboo, fastened at an acute angle, and it is covered the whole length with a strong binding of corded string, over which is a luting of earth to prevent the vapour from escaping. The small end, about two feet long, is fixed into the hole in the centre of the head, where it is well luted with flower and water. The lower arm or end of the tube is carried down into a long-necked vessel or receiver, called a bhulka. This is placed in a handee of water, which, as it gets hot, is changed. The head of the still is luted on to the body, and the long arm of the tube in the bhulka is also well provided with a cushion of cloth, so as to keep in all vapour. The boiler is let into an earthen furnace, and the whole is ready for operation. There is such a variety of rose-water manufactured in the bazar, and so much that bears the name, which is nothing more than a mixture of sandal oil, that it is impossible to lay down the plan which is adopted. The best rose-water, however, in the bazar, may be computed as bearing the proportion of one thousand roses to a seer of water; this, perhaps, may be considered as the best procurable. From one thousand roses most generally a seer and a half of rose-water is distilled, and perhaps from this even the attar has been removed. The boiler of the still will hold from eight to twelve or sixteen thousand roses. On eight thousand roses from ten to eleven seers of water will be placed, and eight seers of rose-water will be distilled. This after distillation is placed in a carboy of glass, and is exposed to the sun for several days to become pucka (ripe); it is then stopped with cotton, and has a covering of moist clay put over it; this becoming hard, effectually prevents the scent from escaping. The price of this will be from twelve to sixteen rupees. This is the best that can be procured. _Attar of Roses_.--To procure the attar, the roses are put into the still, and the water passes over gradually, as in the case of the rose-water process; after the whole has come over, the rose-water is placed in a large metal basin, which is covered with wetted muslin, tied over to prevent insects or dust getting into it; this vessel is let into the ground about two feet, which has been previously wetted with water, and it is allowed to remain quiet during the whole night. The attar is always made at the beginning of the season, when the nights are cool; in the morning the little film of attar which is formed upon the surface of the rose-water during the night is removed by means of a feather, and it is then carefully placed in a small phial; and, day after day, as the collection is made, it is placed for a short period in the sun, and after a sufficient quantity has been procured, it is poured off clear, and of the color of amber, into small phials. Pure attar, when it has been removed only three or four days, has a pale greenish hue; by keeping it loses this, and in a few weeks' time it becomes of a pale yellow. The first few days distillation does not produce such fine attar as comes off afterwards, in consequence of the dust or little particles of dirt in the still and the tube being mixed with it. This is readily separated, from its sinking to the bottom of the attar, which melts at a temperature of 84 degrees. From one lac of roses it is generally calculated that 180 grains, or one tolah, of attar can be procured; more than this can be obtained if the roses are full-sized, and the nights cold to allow of the congelation. The attar purchased in the bazar is generally adulterated, mixed with sandal oil, or sweet oil; not even the richest native will give the price at which the purest attar alone can be obtained, and the purest attar that is made is sold only to Europeans. During the past year it has been selling from 80 to 90 rupees the tolah; the year before it might have been purchased for 50 rupees. _General Remarks_.--Native stills are let out at so much per day or week, and it frequently occurs that the residents prepare some rose-water for their own use as a present to their friends, to secure their being provided with that which is the best. The natives never remove the calices of the rose-flowers, but place the whole into the still as it comes from the garden. The best plan appears to be to have these removed, as by this means the rose-water may be preserved a longer time, and is not spoiled by the acid smell occasionally met with in the native rose-water. It is usual to calculate 100 bottles to one lac of roses. The rose-water should always be twice distilled; over ten thousand roses water may be put to allow of sixteen or twenty bottles coming out; the following day these twenty bottles are placed over eight thousand more roses, and about eighteen bottles of rose-water are distilled. This may be considered the best to be met with. The attar is so much lighter than the rose-water, that, previous to use, it is better to expose the rose-water to the sun for a few days, to allow of its being well mixed; and rose-water that has been kept six months is always better than that which has recently been made. At the commencement of the rose season, people from all parts come to make their purchases, and very large quantities are prepared and sold. There are about thirty-six places in the city of Ghazeepore where rose-water is distilled. These people generally put a large quantity of sandal oil into the receiver, the oil is afterwards carefully removed and sold as sandal attar, and the water put into carboys and disposed of as rose-water. At the time of sale a few drops of sandal oil are placed on the neck of the carboy to give it fresh scent, and to many of the natives it appears perfectly immaterial whether the scent arises solely from the sandal oil or from the roses. Large quantities of sandal oil are every year brought up from the south and expended in this way. 6. The chief use the natives appear to make of the rose water, or the sandal attar as they term it, is at the period of their festivals and weddings. It is then distributed largely to the guests as they arrive, and sprinkled with profusion in the apartments. A large quantity of rose water is sold at Benares, and many of the native Rajahs send over to Ghazipoor for its purchase. Most of the rose water, as soon as distilled, is taken away, and after six months from the termination of the manufacture there are not more than four or five places where it is to be met with. I should consider that the value of the roses sold for the manufacture of rose water may be estimated at 15,000 to 20,000 rupees a year; and from the usual price asked for the rose water, and for which it is sold, I should consider there is a profit of 40,000 rupees. The natives are very fond of using the rose water as medicine, or as a vehicle for other mixtures, and they consume a good deal of the petals for the conserve of roses, or goolcond as they call it. The roses of Ghazipoor, on the river Ganges, are cultivated in enormous fields of hundreds of acres. The delightful odor from these fields can be scented at seven miles distance on the river. The valuable article of commerce known as attar of roses is made here in the following manner:--On 40 pounds of roses are poured 60 pounds of water, and they are then distilled over a slow fire, and 30 pounds of rose water obtained. This rose water is then poured over 40 pounds of fresh roses, and from that is distilled at most 20 pounds of rose water; this is then exposed to the cold night air, and in the morning a small quantity of oil is found on the surface. From 80 pounds of roses, about 200,000, at the utmost an ounce and a-half of oil is obtained; and even at Ghazipoor it costs 40 rupees (4_l._) an ounce. Five guineas have been often paid for one ounce of attar of roses. The most approved mode of ascertaining its quality is to drop it on a piece of paper; its strength is ascertained by the quickness with which it evaporates, and its worth by its leaving no stains on the paper. The best otto is manufactured at Constantinople. A volatile oil, erroneously called oil of spikenard, is met with in the shops, which is obtained from a plant which has been named by Dr. Royle, the _Andropogon Calamus aromaticus._ The true spikenard of the ancients is supposed to have been obtained from the _Nardostachys Jatamansi_, a plant of the Valerian family. Dr. Stenhouse describes rather minutely ("Journal Pharm. Soc." vol. iv. p. 276) a species of East India grass oil, said to be the produce of _Andropogon Ivaracusa_, which he believes to be what is usually called the oil of Namur. It has a very fragrant aromatic odor, slightly resembling that of otto of roses, but not nearly so rich. Its taste is sharp and agreeable, approaching that of oil of lemons. It has a deep yellow color, and contains a good deal of resinous matter. LEMON GRASS (_Andropogon schoenanthus_).--This fragrant grass, which is now cultivated very generally throughout the West Indies, in the gardens of the planters, as an elegant and powerful diaphoratic, was doubtless introduced from the East. The active principle of the leaves seems to reside in the essential oil which they contain. Lemon grass oil forms an important article of export from Ceylon, amounting in value to nearly £7,000 annually. The _Andropogon schoenanthus_, which may be seen covering all the Kandian hills, is the best possible pasture for cattle--at least as long as it is young. This species of grass is very hard, and grows to the height of seven feet, and sometimes higher, and has a strong but extremely pleasant acid taste. It derives its name from having, when crushed, an odor like that of the lemon, so strong, that after a time it becomes quite heavy and sickening, although grateful and refreshing at first. It covers the hills in patches--those, at least, that are not overgrown with jungle and underwood--and it is to be found nowhere but in the Kandian district. Spontaneous ignition frequently takes place, and the appearance of the burning grass is described as most magnificent. A few days after, from the midst of this parched, blackened, and apparently dead ground, lovely young green shoots begin to arise--for the roots of this extraordinary grass have not even been injured, far less destroyed, by the fire; and in a very short time the whole brow of the mountain is again overspread with tufts of beautiful green waving grass.--("Journal of Agriculture.") Otto of khuskhus or scented grass, from another species, _A. digitalis_, obtained at Ulwar in the States of Rajpootanah, was shown at the Great Exhibition in 1851, and Newar oil (from _A. maritima_) from Agra. CITRONELLA OIL.--In the Southern province of Ceylon some half dozen estates about Galle are cultivated with citronella grass. The exports of this oil from Ceylon in the last three years have been as follows:--1850, 86,048 oz., valued at £3,344; 1851, 114,959 oz., valued at £3,742; in 1852, 131,780 oz., valued at £2,806. PATCHOULY.--Under this name are imported into this country the dried foliaceous tops of a strongly odoriferous labiate plant, growing three feet high in India and China, called in Bengalee and Hindu, _pucha pat_. About 46 cases, of from 50 to 110 lbs. each, were imported from China, by the way of New York, in 1844. The price asked was 6s. per pound. Very little is known of the plant yielding it. Mr. George Porter, late of the island of Pinang, stated that it grows wild there and on the opposite shores of the Malay peninsula. Dr. Wallich says, that it obviously belongs to the family Labiatæ. Viney, in the "French Journal of Pharmacy," suggests that it is the _Plectranthus graveolens_ of R. Brown. It forms a shrub of two or three feet in height. It is the _Pogostemon patchouly_. The odor of the dried plant is strong and peculiar, and to some persons not agreeable. The dried tops imported into England are a foot or more in length. In India it is used as an ingredient in tobacco for smoking, and for scenting the hair of women. In Europe it is principally used for perfumery purposes, it being a favorite with the French, who import it largely from Bourbon. The Arabs use and export it more than any other nation. Their annual pilgrimship takes up an immense quantity of the leaf. They use it principally for stuffing mattrasses and pillows, and assert that it is very efficacious in preventing contagion and prolonging life. It requires no sort of preparation, being simply gathered and dried in the sun; too much drying, however, is hurtful, inasmuch as it renders the leaf liable to crumble to dust in packing and stowing on board. The characteristic smell of Chinese or Indian ink is owing to an admixture of this plant in its manufacture. M. de Hugel found the plant growing wild near Canton. By distillation it yields a volatile oil, on which the odor and remarkable properties depend. This oil is in common use in India for imparting the peculiar fragrance of the leaf to clothes among the superior classes of natives. The origin of its use is this:--A few years ago, real Indian shawls bore an extravagant price, and purchasers could always distinguish them by their odor; in fact, they were perfumed with Patchouly; the French manufacturers at length discovered this secret, and used to import the plant to perfume articles of their make, and thus palm off homespun shawls as real India! Some people put the dry leaves in a muslin bag, and thus use it as we do lavender, scenting drawers in which linen is kept; this is the best way to use it, as this odor, like musk, is most agreeable when very dilute.--("Gardeners' Chronicle.") The root of some parasitical plant, under the name of kritz, is used in Cashmere to wash the celebrated shawls, soap is used only for white shawls. From the flowers of the Bengal quince (_Ægle marmemolos_) a fragant liquid is distilled in Ceylon known as marmala water, which is much used as a perfume for sprinkling by the natives. Jasmine oil is distilled from _Jasminum sambac_ and _grandiflora_. SAPONACEOUS PLANTS.--Many plants furnish abroad useful substitutes for common soap. The aril which surrounds the seed and the roots of _Sapindus Saponaria_, an evergreen tree, I have seen used as soap in South America and the West Indies under the name of soap berries. The seed vessels are very acrid, they lather freely in water and will cleanse more linen than thirty times their weight of soap, but in time they corrode or burn the linen. Humboldt says that proceeding along the river Carenicuar, in the Gulf of Cariaco, he saw the Indian women washing their linen with the fruit of this tree, there called the parapara. Some other species of _Sapindus_ and of _Gypsophila_ have similar properties. The bruised leaves and roots of _Saponaria officinalis_, a British species, form a lather which much resembles that of soap, and is similarly efficacious in removing grease spots. The bark of many species of Quillaia, as _Q. saponaria_, when beaten between stones, makes a lather which can be used as a substitute for soap, in washing woollens and silk clothes, and to clean colors in dyeing, in Chili and Brazil, but it turns linen yellow. The fruit of _Bromelia Pinguin_ is equally useful. A vegetable soap was prepared some years ago in Jamaica from the leaves of the American aloe (_Agave Americana_) which was found as detergent as Castile soap for washing linen, and had the superior quality of mixing and forming a lather with salt water as well as fresh. Dr. Robinson, the naturalist, thus describes the process he adopted in 1767, and for which he was awarded a grant by the House of Assembly:--"The lower leaves of the Curaca or Coratoe (_Agave karatu_) were passed between heavy rollers to express the juice, which, after being strained through a hair cloth, was merely inspissated by the action of the sun, or a slow fire, and cast into balls or casks. The only precaution necessary was to allow no mixture of any unctuous materials, which destroyed the efficacy of the soap. A vegetable soap, which has been found excellent for washing silk, &c, may be thus obtained. To one part of the skin of the Ackee add one and a half part of the _Agave karatu_, macerated in one part of boiling water for twenty-four hours, and with the extract from this decoction mix four per cent. of rosin. In Brazil, soap is made from the ashes of the bassura or broom plant (_Sidu lanceolata_) which abounds with alkali. There are also some soap barks and pods of native plants used in China. Several other plants have been employed in different countries as a substitute for soap. The bark of _Quillaia saponaria_ renders water frothy and is used as a detergent by wool dyers. _Saponaria vaccana_ is common in India. The pericarp of _Sapindus emarginatus_ mixed with water froths like soap. Saponaceous berries are found in Java. The soap-worts to which the genus Sapindus belongs are tropical plants. The fruit of many species of _Sapindus_ is used as a substitute for soap, as _Sapindus acuminata_, _Laurifolius emarginatus_ and _detergens_, all East Indian plants. SECTION VI. PLANTS YIELDING DRUGS, INCLUDING NARCOTICS AND OTHER COMMON MEDICINAL SUBSTANCES. The chief plants furnishing the drugs of commerce, and which enter largely into tropical agriculture, are the narcotic plants, especially tobacco, the poppy for opium, and the betel nut and leaf; as masticatories--but there are very many others to which the attention of the cultivator may profitably be directed. I have already trenched so largely upon my space, that I cannot do that justice to the plants coming under this section I could have wished. There are very many, however, of which I must make incidental mention. Some few medicinal plants have been already alluded to in former sections, particularly in that on dye-stuffs, &c. THE COCA PLANT grows about four or five feet high, with pale bright green leaves, somewhat resembling in shape those of the orange tree. The leaves are picked from the trees three or four times a year, and carefully dried in the shade; they are then packed in small baskets. The greatest quantity is grown about 30 leagues from Cicacica, among the Yunnos on the frontiers of the Yunghos. Some is also cultivated near to Huacaibamba. The natives in several parts of Peru chew these leaves as Europeans do tobacco, particularly in the mining districts, when at work in the mines or travelling; and such is the sustenance that they derive from them, that they frequently take no food for four or five days. I have often (observes Mr. Stevenson) been assured by them, that whilst they have a good supply of coca they feel neither hunger, thirst, nor fatigue, and that without impairing their health they can remain eight to ten days and nights without sleep. The leaves are almost insipid, but when a small quantity of lime is mixed with them, they have a very agreeable sweet taste. The natives generally carry with them a leather pouch containing coca, and a small calabash holding lime or the ashes of the molle to mix with them. _Cocculus indicus_, or Indian berries.--This is the commercial name for the berries or fruit of the _Menispermum Cocculus_ of Linnæus, _M. heteroclitum_ of Roxburgh, _Animerta paniculata_ of Colebrooke, _A. Cocculus_ of Wright and Arnot, and _Cocculus suberosus_ of Decandolle. It is a strong climbing shrub or tree, native of Malabar, Ceylon, and the Eastern Islands. The seeds or drupes contain a bitter poisonous acid, and are used for the purpose of stupefying fish, and, in the form of a black extract, for fraudulently increasing the intoxicating power of malt liquors; one pound of the berries, it is said, will go as far in brewing as a sack of malt. The berry is kidney-shaped, with a white kernel. Whilst the imports in 1846 were but 246 bags, in 1850 they had increased to 2,359 bags of about 1 cwt. each. The price is 19s. to 24s. the cwt. A crystalline, poisonous, narcotic principle called picrotoxin, has been detected in these seeds, and occasionally employed externally in some cutaneous diseases. _Cocculus crispus_ is used in intermittent fevers and liver complaints. The annual imports now average 250 tons, and nearly the whole is consumed for illegal purposes by brewers. Though the practice is nominally discountenanced by the Legislature under the penalty of £200 upon the brewer and £500 upon the seller, yet under the recent tariff great encouragement is given to the introduction of these berries, the duty having been reduced from 7s. 6d. to 5s. the cwt. The capsules and seeds of _Xanthoxylum hostile_ are also employed for the same purpose as cocculus indicus. The bark of _Walseria piscidia_, a native of the Circar mountains, also intoxicates fish. About 250 tons of _Nux vomica_, another species of dried flat seed possessing intoxicating properties, are also imported annually for the same purposes, and they fetch about 6s. to 8s. the cwt. BETEL LEAF.--_Piper Betel_, a scandent species of the shrubby evergreen tribe of plants belonging to the pepper family, furnishes the celebrated betel leaf of the Southern Asiatics, in which they enclose a few slices of the areca nut and a little shell lime; this they chew to sweeten the breath, and to keep off the pangs of hunger, and it acts also as a narcotic. Such is the immense consumption of this masticatory, termed Pan, in the East, that it forms nearly as extensive an article of commerce as that of tobacco in the West. The tax on the leaf forms a considerable portion of the local revenue of Pinang; in 1805, the tax yielded as much as 5,400 dollars. Rumphius describes six species of this vine, besides several wild and cultivated varieties. It is very easily reared in the Indian islands, but in the countries of the Deccan requires manuring, frequent watering and great care, and in the northern parts of Hindostan it becomes an exotic very difficult to rear. The vine affords leaves fit for use in the second year, and continues to yield for more than thirty, the quantity diminishing as the plants grow older. ARECA PALM (_Acacia Catechu_).--This is a fine, slender, graceful tree, rising from 20 to 30 feet high, which, being a native of the East, is found abundant in many of the forests of India, from 16 to 30 degs. of latitude. The principal places of its growth are the Burmese territories, a large province on the Malabar coast called the _Concan_, and the forests skirting the northern parts of Bengal, under the hills which divide it from Nepaul, the south and west coasts of Ceylon, the south of China, &c., the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and the Eastern islands, it produces fruit at five years old, and continues bearing till about its twenty-fifth year, when it withers and dies. It thrives at a greater distance from the sea, and in more elevated regions than the coco-nut palm. In Prince of Wales Island some hundreds of thousands of these palms are cultivated. The seeds or nuts form a chief ingredient in the celebrated eastern masticatory called Pan and which seems to owe its stimulating properties to the leaves of the _Piper Betel_. When prepared for use, the nut is cut into slices and wrapped in the fresh leaves of the betel pepper vine, together with a quantity of quicklime (_Chunam_) to give it a flavor. The flavor is peculiar, between an herbaceous and an aromatic taste. All classes, male and female, chew it; they say it sweetens the breath, strengthens the stomach, and preserves the teeth, to which it gives a reddish hue; there is probably less objection to its use than tobacco or opium, and its taste is more pleasant; but, if taken to excess, it will produce stupor like other narcotics, and even intoxication. The nuts grow in large bunches at the top, and when ripe are red and have a beautiful appearance; they resemble the nutmeg in shape and color, but are larger and harder. When gathered they are laid in heaps until the shell be somewhat rotted, and then dried in the sun, after which the process of shelling commences. The trees vary in their yield from 300 to 1,000 nuts, averaging about 14 lbs.; which the cultivators sell at about half a dollar (2s.) a picul of 133 lbs. As these palms are planted usually at the distance of 7½ feet, it follows that the produce of an acre is about 10,841 lbs. The tree bears but once in a year generally, but there are green nuts enough to eat all the year long. Betel nut is a staple article of import into China; 25,000 piculs annually is the amount returned, but there is an immense quantity imported in Chinese junks from Hainan, of which there is no account kept. In the single port of Canton alone, 15,565 piculs were imported in 1844, and about 400 to Ningpo. 3,005 piculs of betel nuts, valued at 8,700 dollars, were imported into Canton in 1850, and as much as 4,000 tons of areca nuts are shipped annually from Ceylon. The astringent extract obtained from the seeds of the Areca-palm constitutes two (or perhaps more) kinds of the catechu of the shops. According to Dr. Heyne ("Tracts Hist. and Statist. on India"), it is largely procured in Mysore, about Sirah, in the following manner:-- The nuts are taken as they come from the tree and boiled for some hours in an iron vessel. They are then taken out, and the remaining water is inspissated by continual boiling. This process furnishes Kassu, or most astringent terra japonica, which is black and mixed with paddy criu, husks, and other impurities. After the nuts are dried, they are put into a fresh quantity of water, boiled again; and this water being inspissated, like the former, yields the best or dearest kind of catechu, called Coony. It is yellowish brown, has an earthy fracture, and is free from the admixture of foreign bodies. Most of the betel nuts imported into China come from Java, Singapore, and Pinang. Betel nut is not so generally used in the South of China as among the Southern Islands, and in the north of China it is a luxury, as the pepper does not grow freely there. Formerly there was a considerable trade in betel nuts with the Coromandel coast, from whence the natives brought back manufactured goods and other necessaries in return, but this has ceased for some time. The common price was 20,000 for a dollar. These nuts are seldom imported into England, though they might be of use as a dye in some manufactures. The natives of the East chew the fruit of _Elate sylvestris_, (which is something like a wild plum), in the same manner as the areca nut, with the leaf of the betel pepper and quick lime. The inner wood furnishes a kind of _Catechu_ or _Cutch_, which contains much tannin and is a powerful astringent. It is obtained by the simple process of boiling the heart of the wood for a few hours, when it assumes the appearance and consistency of tar. It hardens by cooling, and when formed into small squares and dried in the sun is fit for the market. The produce of Bombay is of uniform texture and of a dark red color. That of Concan and other parts of India is of chocolate color, and marked inside with red streaks. The analysis of Sir H. Davy gave the following result:-- Bombay. Concan. Tannin 54.5 48.5 Extractive 34.0 36.5 Mucilage 6.5 8.0 Insoluble matters, sand, lime, &c. 5.0 7.0 ----- ----- 100. 100. Catechu is in extensive use in India for tanning purposes, and of late years it has entirely superseded madder in the calico works of Europe for dyeing a golden coffee-brown, one pound of catechu being found equivalent to six pounds of madder. Value of the areca nuts exported from Ceylon to the British Colonies and foreign States in the years named:-- £. 1839 22,956 1840 23,096 1841 22,428 1842 29,222 1843 27,028 1844 20,978 1845 31,836 1846 34,209 1847 35,723 1848 42,482 1849 31,746 1850 42,907 1851 54,846 1852 52,230 THE POPPY. OPIUM is the concrete inspissated juice of the white poppy, _Papaver somniferum_ and its varieties, obtained by scratching the capsules and collecting the exuding juice. The plant has been long known, and is perhaps one of the earliest described. It is a native of Western Asia and probably also of the South of Europe, but it has been distributed over various countries. In 1826 the imports of opium into the United Kingdom were 79,829 lbs., of which 28,329 lbs. were consumed in this country. The imports and consumption in subsequent years are shown by the following figures:-- Imports. Consumption. lbs. lbs. 1827 113,140 17,322 1830 209,076 22,668 1833 106,846 35,407 1836 130,794 38,943 1839 196,247 41,682 1842 72,373 47,432 1845 259,644 38,229 1848 200,019 61,055 1819 105,724 44,177 1850 126,318 42,324 1851 118,024 50,682 1852 205,780 62,521 Few who have not looked into the statistics of this trade, are aware of the enormous consumption of opium all over the world, but chiefly in China and India. In 1845, 18,792 chests of opium were sent from Calcutta to China, and nearly the same number of the Malwa opium from Bombay and Damaun. The total production of India exported to China, in 1844, was 21,526 chests from Bengal, and 18,321 from Bombay, in all 39,847 chests. The number of persons in China given to the consumption of opium was estimated, in 1837, at three millions, and the average quantity smoked by each individual is about 17½ grains a day. The consumption of Indian opium (independent of Turkey opium) in China has gradually increased from 3,210 chests in 1817, to 9,969 chests in 1827, and about 40,000 chests in 1837, valued at 25,000,000 dollars. Now it has reached 50,000 to 60,000 chests. Notwithstanding severe penalties, imprisonment, temporary banishment, and even death, the number of those who smoke opium has multiplied exceedingly, and the contraband trade in the drug is carried on to so large an extent, that it is to be feared the practice will become general throughout the empire. According to Mr. E. Thornton's statistics, the production of opium in Bengal has increased cent. per cent. in the last ten years:-- Chests. 1840-41 17,858 1841-42 18,827 1842-43 18,362 1843-44 15,104 1844-45 18,350 1845-46 21,437 1846-47 21,648 1847-48 30,515 1848-49 36,000 The chest is about 140 lbs., so that the production in 1849 was 5,040,000 lbs. According to the statements annexed to the statistical papers relating to India, the income from the opium monopoly is obtained by two principal means, namely, by a system of allowing the cultivation of the poppy by the natives of British India on account of Government, and by the impost of a heavy duty on opium grown and manufactured in foreign states, but brought in transit to a British port for exportation. The former system obtains in Bengal, the latter in Bombay. According to the statements published, Bengal opium yields a profit of 7s. 6d. per lb., whilst the duty derived in the Bombay presidency is only equal to a surplus of 5s. 8d. per lb. By these means the total revenue realised by the opium monopoly, in Bengal and Bombay, in the year 1849-50 yielded £3,309,637. Lest objection should be taken to this large annual revenue derived from the cultivation of a drug, the unnatural consumption of which would be suppressed under any other European government, the Court of Directors is very anxious to show the benefit which the country derives from this monopoly; they say "that as the price of opium is almost wholly paid by foreign consumers, and the largest return is obtained with the smallest outlay, the best interests of India would, appear to be consulted." Nobody at all acquainted with the financial resources and the capabilities of any country, would hazard such an assertion. By paying cultivators for the restricted growth of the poppy a price hardly yielding more than the average rate of wages to the common laborer, I do not see in what way the best interests of India are consulted, nor is it clear that the population derives any benefit by being prohibited altogether from manufacturing a drug, which may be brought from another country _in transitu_ on the payment of a heavy duty; unless indeed the Court of Directors are of opinion that in the event of the abolition of the monopoly, the people of the country would have to make up for the loss of the revenue by submitting to some other mode of direct or indirect taxation. There is an inconsistency in the statements of the Court of Directors, which is absolutely amusing. "The free cultivation of the poppy," say the Directors, "would doubtless lead to the larger outlay of capital, and to greater economy in production; but the poppy requires the richest description of land, and its extended cultivation must therefore displace other products." How very considerate on the part of the Directors, but how strongly at variance with facts, since all the fear of displacing other products, and all this appropriation of the richest description of land for other purposes has not prevented the Indian Government, within less than ten years, from more than doubling the cultivation of the poppy and the manufacture of opium. The Directors tell us that the heavy transit duty charged at Bombay is to discourage production, but they do not say whether that discouragement applies, as one would imagine, to those foreign districts which have to pay the transit duty for their production. If so, the assertion is again at variance with facts, because in a subsequent statement they say, "It is stated that neither the price of opium, nor the extent of cultivation in Malwa, has been affected by the great enhancement of the pass duty, which has taken place since 1845." The following will show that the Company loses no opportunity of applying the screw:-- The subjugation of Scinde afforded opportunity for the levy of a higher rate. Down to the period of that event, a large portion of the opium of Malwa had been conveyed through Scinde to Kurrachee, and thence onward to the Portuguese ports of Diu and Demaun. That route is now closed, and it was reasonably expected that an advance might be made in the charge of passes without the risk of loss to the revenue from a diminished demand for them. The rate was accordingly increased in October, 1843, from 125 to 200 rupees per chest. Upon the principle that it was desirable to fix the price at the highest amount that could be levied, without forcing the trade into other channels, a further increase was made in 1845. when it was determined that the charge should be 300 rupees per chest. Under the like views it was, in 1847, raised to 400 rupees per chest. The company was perfectly correct, for though the quantity of opium did not increase, the revenue did; and whilst in 1840-41 16,773 chests yielded an income of only 22,046,452 rupees--16,500 chests brought in 1849-50 actually 72,094,835 rupees into the coffers of the Government of Bombay. But the people of India earned not a pice by it, and those richest descriptions of land, which it was so desirable to reserve for other produce than the poppy, remained barren. The white variety of the poppy is that which is exclusively brought under cultivation for the production of the drug in India and Egypt. For the successful culture of opium a mild climate, plentiful irrigation, a rich soil, and diligent husbandry are indispensable. One acre of well cultivated ground will yield from 70 lbs. to 100 lbs. of "chick," or inspissated juice, the price of which varies from 6s. to 12s. a pound, so that an acre will yield from £20 to £60 worth of opium at one crop. Three pounds of chick will produce one pound of opium, from a third to a fifth of the weight being lost in evaporation. A chief chemical feature, which distinguishes Bengal opium from that of Turkey and Egypt, is the large proportion which the narcotine in the former bears to the morphia, and this proportion is constant in all seasons. It is a matter of importance to ascertain whether the treatment which the juice receives after its collection can influence in any way the amount of alkaloids, or of the other principles in opium. In Turkey it is the custom to beat up the juice with saliva, in Malwa it is immersed as collected in linseed oil, whilst in Bengal it is brought to the required consistence by mere exposure to the air in the shade, though, at the same time, all the watery particles of the juice that will separate are drained off, and used in making _Lewah_, or inferior opium. The lands selected for poppy cultivation are generally situated in the vicinity of villages, where the facilities for manuring and irrigation are greatest. In such situations and when the soil is rich, it is frequently the practice with the cultivators to take a crop of Indian corn, maize, or vegetables off the ground during the rainy season, and after the removal of this in September, to dress and manure the ground for the subsequent poppy sowings. In other situations, however, and when the soil is not rich, the poppy crop is the only one taken off the ground during the year, and from the commencement of the rains in June or July, until October, the ground is dressed and cleaned by successive ploughings and weedings, and manured to the extent which the means of the cultivator will permit. In the final preparation of the land in October and November, the soil, after being well loosened and turned up by the plough, is crushed and broken down by the passage of a heavy log of wood over its surface, and it is in this state ready for sowing. The amount of produce from various lands differs considerably. Under very favorable circumstances of soil and season, as much as twelve or even thirteen seers (26 lbs.) of standard opium may be, obtained from each biggah of 27,225 square feet. "Under less favorable conditions the turn-out may not exceed three or four seers, but the usual amount of produce varies from six to eight seers per biggah. The chemical examination of different soils in connection with their opium-producing powers, presents a field for profitable and interesting inquiry; nor is the least important part of the investigation that which has reference to variations in the proportions of the alkaloids (especially the morphia and narcotine), which occur in opium produced in various localities. That atmospheric causes exert a certain influence in determining these variations is probable; that they influence the amount of produce, and cause alterations in the physical appearance of the drug, are facts well known to every cultivator: thus the effect of dew is to facilitate the flow of the juice from the wounded capsule, rendering it abundant in quantity, but causing it at the same time to be dark and liquid. An easterly wind (which in India is usually concomitant with a damp state of atmosphere), retards the flow of juice, and renders it dark and liquid. A moderate westerly wind, with dew at night, form the atmospheric conditions most favorable for collection, both as regards the quantity and quality of the exudation. If, however, the westerly wind (which is an extremely dry wind) blow violently, the exudation from the capsules is sparing. Whilst the effect of meteorological phenomena in producing the above results are well marked, their action in altering the relative proportions of the chemical constituents of the juice of the poppy plant is more obscure, and it is highly probable that the chemical composition of the soil plays a most important part in this respect. Dr. O'Shaughnessy is certainly the most accomplished chemist who had ever, in India, turned his attention to the subject, and he has published the results of his analyses of specimens of opium from the different divisions of the Behar Agency, which are worthy of much attention. In the opium from eight divisions of the agency, he found the quantity of morphia to range from 1¾ grains to 3½ grains per cent., and the amount of the narcotine to vary from ¾ grain to 3½ grains per cent., the consistence of the various specimens being between 75 and 79 per cent. In the opium from the Hazareebaugh district (the consistence of the drug being 77), he found 4½ per cent, of morphia, and 4 per cent, narcotine; whilst from a specimen of Patna-garden opium he extracted no less than 10¾ per cent. of morphia, and 6 per cent. of narcotine, the consistence of the drug being 87. With respect to the last specimen, Dr. O'Shaughnessy mentions that the poppies which produced it were irrigated three times during the season, and that no manure was employed upon the soil. It is much to be regretted that these interesting results were not coupled with an analysis of the soils from which the specimens were produced, for to chemical variations in it must be attributed the widely different results recorded above. Opium as a medicine has been used from the earliest ages; but when it was first resorted to as a luxury, it is impossible to state, though it is not at all improbable that this was coeval with its employment in medicine, for how often do we find that, from having been first administered as a sedative for pain, it has been continued until it has taken the place of the evil. Such must have happened from the earliest ages, as it happens daily in the present; but as a national vice it was not known until the spread of Islamism, when, by the tenets of the Prophet, wine and fermented liquors being prohibited, it came in their stead along with the bang or hasch-schash (made from hemp), coffee, and tobacco. From the Arabs the inhabitants of the Eastern Archipelago most probably imbibed their predilection for opium, although their particular manner of using it has evidently been derived from the Chinese. China, where at present it is so extensively used, cannot be said to have indulged long in the vice. Previous to 1767 the number of chests imported did not exceed 200 yearly; now the average is 50,000 to 60,000. In 1773 the East India Company made their first venture in opium, and in 1796 it was declared a crime to smoke opium. In different countries we find opium consumed in different ways. In England it is either used in a solid state, made into pills, or a tincture in the shape of laudanum. Insidiously it is given to children under a variety of quack forms, such as "Godfrey's cordial," &c. In India the pure opium is either dissolved in water and so used, or rolled into pills. It is there a common practice to give it to children when very young, by mothers, who require to work and cannot at the same time nurse their offspring. In China it is either smoked or swallowed in the shape of _Tye_. In Bally it is first adulterated with China paper, and then rolled up with the fibres of a particular kind of plantain. It is then inserted into a hole made at the end of a small bamboo, and smoked. In Java and Sumatra it is often mixed with sugar and the ripe fruit of the plantain. In Turkey it is usually taken in pills, and those who do so, avoid drinking any water after swallowing them, as this is said to produce violent colics; but to make it more palatable, it is sometimes mixed with syrups or thickened juices; in this form, however, it is less intoxicating, and resembles mead. It is then taken with a spoon, or is dried in small cakes, with the words "Mash Allah," or "Word of God," imprinted on them. When the dose of two or three drachms a day no longer produces the beatific intoxication, so eagerly sought by the opiophagi, they mix the opium with corrosive sublimate, increasing the quantity of the latter till it reaches ten grains a day. It then acts as a stimulant. In addition to its being used in the shape of pills, it is frequently mixed with hellebore and hemp, and forms a mixture known by the name of majoon, whose properties are different from that of opium, and may account in a great measure for the want of similitude in the effect of the drug on the Turk and the Chinese. In Singapore and China the refuse of the chandu, the prepared extract of opium, is all used by the lower classes. This extract, when consumed, leaves a refuse, consisting of charcoal, empyreumatic oil, some of the salts of opium, and a part of the chandu not consumed. Now one ounce of chandu gives nearly half an ounce of this refuse, called Tye, or Tinco. This is smoked and swallowed by the poorer classes, who only pay half the price of chandu for it. When smoked it yields a further refuse called samshing, and this is even used by the still poorer, although it contains a very small quantity of the narcotic principle. Samshing, however, is never smoked, as it cannot furnish any smoke, but is swallowed, and that not unfrequently mixed with arrack. _Preparation_.--In Asia Minor, men, women, and children, a few days after the flower falls from the poppies, proceed to the fields, and with a shell scratch the capsules, wait twenty-four hours, and collect the tears, which amount to two or three grains in weight from each capsule. These being collected and mixed with the scrapings of the shells, worked up with saliva and surrounded by dried leaves, it is then sold, but, generally speaking, not without being still more adulterated with cow's dung, sand, gravel, the petals of flowers, &c. Different kinds of opium are known in the markets of Europe and Asia. The first in point of quality is the _Smyrna_, known in commerce as the _Turkey_ or _Levant_. It occurs in irregular, rounded, flattened masses, seldom exceeding two pounds in weight, and surrounded by leaves of a kind of sorrel; the quantity of morphia said to be derived from average specimens is eight per cent. Second, _Constantinople Opium_, two kinds of which are found in the market, one in very voluminous irregular cakes, which are flattened like the Smyrna; this is a good quality. The other kind is in small, flattened, regular cakes, from two to two and a half inches in diameter, and covered with the leaves of the poppy; the quantity of morphia is very uncertain in this description of opium, sometimes mounting as high as 15 per cent., and sometimes descending so low as six, showing the great variety in the quality of the drug. Third, _Egyptian Opium_, occurs in round flattened cakes, about 3 inches in diameter, and covered externally with the vestiges of some leaf. It is distinguished from the others by its reddish color, resembling "Socotrine Aloes." The quantity of morphia in this is inferior to the preceding. It has one quality which, when adulterated, ought to be known, that is a musty smell. By keeping it does not blacken like the other kinds. Fourth, _English Opium_, is in flat cakes or balls enveloped in leaves. It resembles fine Egyptian opium more than any other kind. Its color is that of hepatic aloes, and in the quantity of morphia it is inferior to the preceding, but in the strength of the mass it is said by one of its most extensive cultivators to be superior. Fifth, _French_, and sixth _German Opium_, require no particular remarks. By a recent notice I find the French are cultivating the poppy in Algeria, from which they get opium giving a small per centage of morphia. Seventh, _Trebizond_ or _Persian Opium_, is sometimes met with of a very inferior quality in the form of cylindrical sticks, which by pressure have become angular. Eighth, _Indian Opium_, divided into four kinds, Cutch, Malwa, Patna and Benares. Of these Cutch is but little known or cultivated. It occurs in small cakes covered with leaves, and its color is much inferior to Smyrna. Malwa opium is to be met with of two kinds. The inferior is in flattened cakes, without any external covering, dull, opaque, blackish brown externally, internally somewhat darker, and soft. Its color is somewhat like the Smyrna, but less powerful, and with a slight smoky smell. Superior Malwa is in square cakes, about three inches in length and one inch thick. It has the appearance of a well prepared, shining, dry, pharmaceutical extract; its color is blackish brown, its odor less powerful than Smyrna; it is not covered by petals as the following kinds are, but smeared with oil; it is then rubbed with pounded petals. The Behar, Patna, and Benares Opium, being strictly in the hands of Government, no adulteration can take place, without a most extensive system of fraud; but it will not be uninteresting to trace the progress of the opium from the hands of the natives, to the condition in which it is delivered to the public by the Government. From the commencement of the hot season to the middle of the rains the Government is ready to receive opium, which is brought by the natives every morning, in batches, varying in quantities from twenty seers to a maund. The examining officer into each jar thrusts his examining rod, which consists of a slit bamboo, and, by experience, he can so judge of the qualities of the specimens before him, which are sorted into lots of No. 1 to No. 4 quality. Opium of the first quality is of a fine chesnut color, aromatic smell, and dense consistence. It is moderately ductile, and, when the mass is torn, breaks with a deeply notched fracture, with sharp needle-like fibres, translucent and ruby red at the edges. It is readily broken down under water, and the solution at first filters of a sherry color, which darkens as the process proceeds. One hundred grains of this yield an extract to cold distilled water of from 35 to 45, and at the temperature of 212 degs., leaves from 20 to 28 per cent., having a consistency of 70 to 72, the consistence of the factory. The second quality is inferior to the first, and the third quality is possessed of the following properties, black paste, of a very heavy smell, drops from the examining rod, gives off from 40 to 50 per cent, of moisture, and contains a large quantity of "Pasewa;" while the fourth or last number embraces all the kinds which are too bad to be used in the composition of the balls, comprising specimens of all varieties of color and consistence. This number is mixed with water, and only used as a paste to cement the covering of the balls. The three first qualities are emptied from their jars into large tanks, in which they are kept until the supply of the season has been obtained. The opium is then removed and exposed to the air on shallow wooden frames, until it becomes of the consistency of from 69 to 70, when it is given to the cake maker, who guesses to a drachm the exact weight, and envelops the opium in its covering of petals, cemented by a covering of quality number 4. The balls are then weighed and stored, to undergo a thorough ventilation and drying. Formerly the covering of the balls was composed of the leaves of tobacco; but the late Mr. Flemming introduced the practice of using the petals of the poppy, which was such an improvement that the Court of Directors presented him with 50,000 rupees. The balls, forty in number, are packed in a mango wood case, which consists of two stories with twenty pigeon holes in each, lined with lath and surrounded by the dried leaves of the poppy. Sometimes these balls are so soft as to burst their skins, and much of the liquid opium running out, is lost. In 1823, many of the chests of Patna lost five catties from this cause, and to this day we have the same thing continuing to occur. Patna chests are covered with bullock hides, Benares with gunnies. Dr. Impey, staff surgeon at Poona, who resided in Malwa from 1843 to 1846, published at Bombay, in 1848, a valuable treatise on the cultivation, preparation, and adulteration of Malwa opium. It was some time before he obtained the permission of the East India Company to publish the result of the experience he had acquired in Malwa, and as Government inspector of opium at Bombay. It is the most practical treatise I have yet met with, although a very elaborate, useful paper, by Mr. Little, surgeon, of Singapore, appears in the 2nd vol. of the "Journal of the Indian Archipelago," from which I have quoted the preceding remarks. Mr. Little furnishes a complete history of the drug, and the physical and mental effects resulting from its habitual use. There are also some able remarks in Dr. O'Shaughnessy's Bengal Dispensatory:-- For the successful cultivation of opium, a mild climate, plentiful irrigation, a rich soil, and diligent husbandry, are indispensable. In reference to the first of these, Malwa is placed most favorably. The country is in general from 1,300 to 2,000 feet above the level of the sea: the mean temperature is moderate, and range of the thermometer small. Opium is always cultivated in ground near a tank or running stream, so as to be insured at all times of an abundant supply of water. The rich black loam, supposed to be produced by the decomposition of trap, and known by the name of cotton soil, is that prepared for opium. Though fertile and rich enough to produce thirty successive crops of wheat without fallowing, it is not sufficiently rich for the growth of the poppy until largely supplied with manure. There is, in fact, no crop known to the agriculturist, unless sugar cane, that requires so much care and labor as the poppy. The ground is first four times ploughed on four successive days, then carefully harrowed; when manure, at the rate of from eight to ten cart loads an acre, is applied to it; this is scarcely half what is allowed a turnip crop at home. The crop is after this watered once every eight or ten days, the total number of waterings never exceeding nine in all. One beegah takes two days to soak thoroughly in the cold weather, and four as the hot season approaches. Water applied after the petals drop from the flower, causes the whole to wither and decay. When the plants are six inches high, they are weeded and thinned, leaving about a foot and a-half betwixt each plant; in three months they reach maturity, and are then about four feet in height if well cultivated. The full-grown seed-pod measures three and a-half inches vertically, and two and a-half in horizontal diameter. Early in February and March the bleeding process commences. Three small lancet-shaped pieces of iron are bound together with cotton, about one-twelfth of an inch of the blade alone protruding, so that no discretion as to the depth of the wound to be inflicted shall be left to the operator; and this is drawn sharply up from the top of the stalk at the base, to the summit of the pod. The sets of people are so arranged that each plant is bled all over once every three or four days, the bleedings being three or four times repeated on each plant. This operation always begins to be performed about three or four o'clock in the afternoon, the hottest part of the day. The juice appears almost immediately on the wound being inflicted, in the shape of a thick gummy milk, which is thickly covered with a brownish pellicle. The exudation is greatest over night, when the incisions are washed and kept open by the dew. The opium thus derived is scraped off next morning, with a blunt iron tool resembling a cleaver in miniature. Here the work of adulteration begins--the scraper being passed heavily over the seed-pod, so as to carry with it a considerable portion of the beard, or pubescence, which contaminates the drug and increases its apparent quantity. The work of scraping begins at dawn, and must be continued till ten o'clock; during this time a workman will collect seven or eight ounces of what is called "chick." The drug is next thrown into an earthen vessel, and covered over or drowned in linseed oil, at the rate of two parts of oil to one of chick, so as to prevent evaporation. This is the second process of adulteration--the ryot desiring to sell the drug as much drenched with oil as possible, the retailers at the same time refusing to purchase that which is thinner than half dried glue. One acre of well cultivated ground will yield from 70 to 100 pounds of chick. The price of chick varies from three to six rupees a pound, so that an acre will yield from 200 to 600 rupees worth of opium at one crop. Three pounds of chick will produce about two pounds of opium, from a third to a fifth of the weight being lost in evaporation. It now passes into the hands of the Bunniah, who prepares it and brings it to market. From twenty-five to fifty pounds having been collected, is tied up in parcels in double bags of sheeting cloth, which are suspended from the ceilings so as to avoid air and light, while the spare linseed oil is allowed to drop through. This operation is completed in a week or ten days, but the bags are allowed to remain for a month or six weeks, during which period the last of the oil that can be separated comes away; the rest probably absorbs oxygen and becomes thicker, as in paint. This process occupies from April to June or July, when the rain begins. The bags are next taken down and their contents carefully emptied into large vats from ten to fifteen feet in diameter, and six or eight inches thick. Here it is mixed together and worked up with the hands five or six hours, until it has acquired an uniform color and consistence throughout, become tough and capable of being formed into masses. This process is peculiar to Malwa. It is now made up into balls of from eight to ten ounces each, these being thrown, as formed, into a basket full of the chaff of the seeds pod. It is next spread out on ground previously covered with leaves and stalks of the poppy; here it remains for a week or so, when it is turned over and left further to consolidate, until hard enough to bear packing. It is ready for weighing in October or November, and is then sent to market. It is next packed in chests of 150 cakes, the total cost of the drug at the place of production being about fourteen rupees per chest, including all expenses. About 20,000 chests are annually sent from Malwa, at a prime cost charge of two lacs and 80,000 rupees. It may easily be supposed that manipulations so numerous, complex, and tedious, as those described, give the most ample opportunities for the adulteration to which the nature of the drug tempts the fraudulent dealer. In order to enable the cultivator to carry on his agricultural operations, he receives from time to time certain advances, the amount of which reaches in the aggregate to about one-half of the value of the estimated out-turn of produce. If the land has been under cultivation in previous seasons, its average produce is known; if it be new land, and considered by the Sub-Deputy Agent as eligible, then the cultivator, in addition to the usual advances, receives an advance of so much per biggah to enable him to bestow a certain amount of extra care in tilling and dressing the soil. The first advance is made on the completion of the agreement or bundobust, and this takes place in September and October. The second advance is made on the completion of the sowings in November, and the final or Chook payment is made immediately after the delivery and weighing of the produce. Nothing therefore can be fairer to the cultivator than this system of advances; he is subject to no sort of exaction, in the shape of interest or commission on the money which he receives, and it puts within his power the certain means of making a fair profit by the exercise of common care and honesty. It is an established rule in the Agency that the cultivator's accounts of one season shall be definitively settled before the commencement of the next, and that no outstanding balances shall remain over. When a cultivator has from fraud neglected to bring produce to cover his advances, the balances due by him are at once recovered, if necessary by legal means; whereas, if he can satisfactorily show that he has become a defaulter from calamity and uncontrollable circumstances, and that the liquidation of his debt is placed entirely beyond his power, his case is then made the subject of report to the Government by the Agent, with the request that the debt may be written off to profit and loss. These provisions are most wise, for outstanding balances may be made the means of oppression, and to their operation may be traced a considerable amount of litigation and agrarian crime in the indigo districts of lower Bengal. It is clear that when such balances become so large that the cultivator cannot discharge them, he is no longer a free agent, but is perfectly subservient to the will of his creditor, for whom he must cultivate whether he desire it or not. Such burdens may even be handed down from father to son. The fairness of the Agency system, and the justice with which the cultivators are treated, are best evidenced by the readiness with which they come forward to cultivate, and also by the comparative rarity of agrarian crime, arising out of matters connected with the poppy cultivation. Opium is grown to some extent in Egypt; 39,875 lbs. were produced in 1831, and sold at two dollars a pound. At the end of October, after the withdrawal of the Nile waters the seed, mixed with a portion of pulverised earth, is sown in a strong soil, in furrows; after fifteen days the plant springs up, and in two months has the thickness of a Turkish pipe, and a height of four feet; the stalk is covered with long, oval leaves, and the fruit, which is greenish, resembles a small orange. Every morning before sunrise, in its progress to maturity, small incisions are made in the sides of the fruit, from which a white liquor distils almost immediately, which is collected in a vessel; it soon becomes black and thickish, and is rolled into balls, which are covered with the washed leaves of the plant; in this state it is sold. The seeds are crushed for lamp oil, and the plant is used for fuel. A plant known in Jamaica under the name of bull hoof yields a narcotic which has been administered successfully in the shape of tincture and a syrup, instead of opium. This is the _Muracuja ocellata_, or _Passiflora muracuja_, of Swartz, an elegant climber, bearing bright scarlet blossoms. There is another species, _M. orbiculata_, found in Hayti and other islands, which may be expected to partake more or less of the properties of the former. The flowers are the parts most commonly employed. THE TOBACCO PLANT. Several species of _Nicotium_ furnish tobacco; that chiefly used in Europe is procured from _N. Tabacum_ and its numerous varieties, a plant naturally inhabiting the hotter parts of North and South America. The popular narcotic furnished by tobacco is probably in more extensive use than any other, and its only rivals are opium and the betel-nut and leaf of the East. The herb for smoking was brought to England from Tobago, in the West Indies, or from Tobasco, in Mexico (whence the name), by Sir Ralph Lane, in 1586. Seeds were shortly after introduced from the same quarter. "Tobacco, as used by man," says Du Tour, "gives pleasure to the savage and the philosopher, to the inhabitant of the burning desert and the frozen zone; in short, its use, either in powder, to chew, or to smoke, is universal; and for no other reason than a sort of convulsive motion (sneezing) produced by the first, and a degree of intoxication by the two last modes of use." Tobacco is an annual plant, attaining a height of six feet, having dingy red, funnel-shaped flowers, and viscid leaves. The leaves are the officinal part, and their active properties depend on a peculiar, oily-like alkaloid, called Nicotin. The flavor and strength of tobacco depend on climate, cultivation, and the mode of manufacture. That most esteemed by the smoker is Havanna tobacco, but the Virginian is the strongest. The small Havanna cigars are prepared from the leaves of _Nicotium repanda_, Syrian and Turkish tobacco from _N. rustica_, and fine Shiraz tobacco from _N. persica_. With the exception of the Macuba tobacco, which is cultivated in Martinique in a peculiar soil, the tobacco of Cuba is considered the finest in the world. That grown in the island of Trinidad is, however, fully equal to it in quality, but all raised in the colony is generally consumed there, and is little known in the English market. This ought not to be the case, for no article would pay better. The Maryland is a very light tobacco, in thin, yellow leaves; that of Virginia is in large brown leaves, unctuous or somewhat gluey on the surface, having a smell very like the figs of Malaga; that of Havanna is in brownish light leaves, of an agreeable and rather spicy smell,--it forms, as I have already stated, the best cigars. The Carolina tobacco is less unctuous than the Virginian, but in the United States it ranks next to the Maryland. The shag tobacco is dried to the proper point upon sheets of copper, and is cut up by knife-edged chopping stamps. There are said to be four kinds of tobacco reared in Virginia, viz., the sweet-scented, which is considered the best; the _big and little_, which follows next; then the Frederick; and, lastly, the _one and all_, the largest kind, and producing most in point of quantity. According to Loudon ("Encyclo. of Plants"), there are fourteen species of this genus, besides a few varieties. Lindley, however, enumerates 31, but many of these are mere showy species, adapted to flower gardens. I shall therefore follow chiefly London's classification-- 1. _N. Tabacum_, a native of several parts of America, but principally known as Virginian tobacco, having a stem rising from four to six feet or more in height, bearing pink flowers. Of this there are three chief varieties known in America by the popular names of Orinoco, Broad-leaved and Narrow-leaved. Lindley enumerates eight varieties of _N. Tabacum_. 2. _N. macrophylla_, or large-leaved tobacco, an ornamental annual, also with pink flowers, native of America, which rises to the height of six feet. 3. _N. fruticosa_, or shrubby tobacco, an ornamental evergreen shrub, native of China, with pink blossoms, which grows to about three feet. 4. _N. undulata_, or _suaveolens_, sweet-scented or New Holland tobacco, a green house perennial, native of New South Wales, with white flowers, which is only two feet high. 5. _N. rustica_.--The common green or English tobacco, an annual plant, native of America, producing white flowers, which seldom grows higher than three feet. 6. _N. paniculata_, or panicled tobacco, an annual plant bearing greenish yellow flowers, native of Peru, rises to the height of three feet. 7. _N. glutinosa_, or clammy-leaved tobacco, also an annual plant, native of Peru, growing to the height of four feet, with bright scarlet flowers. 8. _N. plumbaginifolia_, or curled-leaved tobacco, an ornamental deciduous annual, native of America, with white blossoms, rising to the height of two feet. 9. _N. pusilla_, or primrose-leaved tobacco, an ornamental deciduous biennial, with white flowers, native of Vera Cruz, rising to three feet. 10. _N. quadrivalvis_, four-valved, or Missouri tobacco, an ornamental annual, native of North America, with white flowers, seldom growing higher than two feet. 11. _N. nana_, or rocky mount tobacco, a curious greenhouse annual, native of North America, with white blossoms, rising only three inches high. 12. _N. Langsdorffii_, or Langsdorff's tobacco, an ornamental annual, with greenish yellow flowers, native of Chili, reaching five feet high. 13. _N. cerinthoides_, or honey-wort tobacco, an ornamental annual, with greenish yellow flowers, native country unknown. 14. _N. repanda_, or Havanna tobacco, an annual with white flowers, native of Cuba, rising two feet high. There are a few species, natives of the Province of Buenos Ayres, which may be particularised. _N. bonariensis_, having white flowers; _N. glauca_, yellowish green flowers; _N. longiflora_, white flowers; and _N. viscosa_, pink flowers. The important mineral substances presented in Havanna tobacco, examined by Hertung, are in 100 parts of ashes, Salts of potash 34.15 Salts of lime 51.38 Magnesia 4.09 Phosphates 9.04 These substances were for the most part insoluble in earth, and must have been dissolved during the growth of the crop. ANALYSIS OF FIVE SAMPLES OF TOBACCO. No. 1. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. Grown on argillaceous soil Grown in calcareous soil. Potash 29.08 30.67 9.68 9.36 10.37 Soda 2.26 -- -- -- .36 Lime 27.67 24.79 49.28 49.44 39.58 Magnesia 7.22 8.57 14.58 15.59 15.04 Chloride of sodium .91 5.95 4.61 3.20 6.39 Chloride of potassium -- -- 4.44 3.27 2.99 Phosphate of iron 8.78 6.03 5.19 6.72 7.56 Sulphate of lime 6.43 5.60 6.68 6.14 9.42 Silica 17.65 18.39 5.54 6.28 8.34 ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 From the above it will be seen that on the argillaceous soil the tobacco contained a large quantity of alkalies and silica, while on the other hand, the lime, magnesia and chlorides were high in proportion, in the tobacco grown on calcareous soil. There is no doubt that the manure which contains the largest proportion of alkaline carbonate, magnesia, lime and gypsum, is that best adapted for tobacco. I give an analysis taken from Prof. Johnston's "Lectures," (2nd edition) of the ash of the tobacco leaf and the composition of a special manure for tobacco:-- Potash 12.14 Soda 0.07 Lime 45.90 Magnesia 13.09 Chloride of sodium 3.49 Chloride of potassium 3.98 Phosphate of iron 5.48 Phosphate of lime 1.49 Sulphate of lime 6.35 Silica 8.01 ------ 100.00 All the ingredients which are necessary to replace 100 lbs. of the ash of tobacco leaves are present in the following mixture:-- Bone dust, sulphuric acid 23 lbs. Carbonate of potash (dry) 31 " Carbonate of soda (dry) 5 " Carbonate of Magnesia 25 " Carbonate of lime (chalk) 60 " ------ 144 " The following is the result of an analysis of the fresh leaves of tobacco, by Posselt and Reimann ("Mag. Pharm." xxiv. xxv.):-- Nicotine 0.06 Nicotianine 0.01 Extractive matter, slightly bitter 2.37 Gum, with a little malate of lime 1.74 Green resin 0.26 Vegetable albumen 0.26 Substance analogous to gluten 1.04 Malic acid 0.51 Malate of ammonia 0.12 Sulphate of potash 0.04 Chloride of potassium 0.06 Potash combined with malic and nitric acids 0.90 Phosphate of lime 0.16 Lime in union with malic acid 0.24 Silica 0.08 Woody fibre 4.96 Water (traces of starch) 87.21 ------ 100.10 Dr. Covell, in "Silliman's American Journal," vol. vii., shows its components to have been but imperfectly represented in the above German analysis. He found in tobacco by chemical examination--1, gum; 2, a viscid slime, equally soluble in water and alcohol, and precipitable from both by subacetate of lead; 3, tannin; 4, gallic acid; 5, chlorophyle (leaf green); 6, a green pulverulent matter, which dissolves in boiling water, but falls down again when the water cools; 7, a yellow oil, possessing the smell, taste and poisonous qualities of tobacco; 8, a large quantity of a pale yellow resin; 9, nicotine; 10, a white substance, analogous to morphia, soluble in hot, but hardly in cold alcohol; 11, a beautiful orange red dye stuff, soluble only in acids; it deflagrates in the fire, and seems to possess neutral properties; 12, nicotianine. According to Buchner, the seeds of tobacco yield a pale yellow extract to alcohol, which contains a compound of nicotine and sugar. M.M. Henry and Boutron Charlard found in 100 parts of Cuba tobacco 8.64 of nicotine. Maryland 5.28 Virginia 10.00 Ile et Vilaine 11.20 Lot et Garonne 8.20 quantities from 12 to 19 times more than were obtained by Posselt and Reimann.--"Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures." The following are the results of a series of experiments made by Messrs. Cooper and Brande, for the purpose of ascertaining the quantity of soluble matter in eight samples of tobacco, of detecting the presence and quantity of sugar contained in them, and the nature and relative proportions of their inorganic constituents. An important paper on the state in which _Nicotine_ exists in tobacco, and on the relative proportion of it furnished by different varieties of the plant, has been furnished by Schloessing ("Ann. Ch. et Ph." 3ieme Ser. XIX. 230). __________________________________________________________________ |P s |P & |P t o |P s a|P s a|P m t|P o i|P m o| |e o |e c |e r f |e o s|e o c|e a h|e b n|e a b| |r l |r . |r e |r l h|r l i|r t e|r t f|r t t| | u | | a a | u .| u d| t | a u| t a| |c b |c i |c t m |c b |c b |c e a|c i s|c e i| |e l |e n |e m o |e l |e l i|e r s|e e i|e r n| |n e |n s |n e n |n e |n e n|n , h|n n o|n e| |t |t o |t n i |t |t |t .|t e n|t d d| |. i |. l |. t a |. i |. i t|. a |. d .|. e | | n | u | . | n | n h| s | | d a| Tobacco dried |o |o b |o w |o |o e|o |o f |o u l| at 212 degs. |f w |f l |f i |f w |f h |f s |f r |f c c| | a | e | t | a | y a| i | o | e o| |e t |w |a h |m t |m d s|i l |a m |s d h| |x e |o i |s |a e |a r h|n i |l |a o| |t r |o n |h c |t r |t o .|s c |c f |c f l| |r . |d | a |t |t c |o a |o e |c r .| |a |y w |a r |e i |e h |l , |h r |h o | |c | a |f b |r n |r l |u |o m |a m | |t |f t |t n | | o |b & |l e |r | |, |i e |e a | t | r |l c | n |i t | | |b r |r t | h | i |e . | t |n h | |& |r . | e | e | c | | e |e e | |c |e | | | | i | d | | |. | | | | | n | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | ------------------|----|----|------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----| 1. Light Missouri}|49 |54.9|20.97 |2.17 |11.73| 5.9 | -- | -- | leaf and stalk}| | |white | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 2. Light Missouri}|50 |47.7|19.7 |1.77 |12.83| 5.1 |0.75 |1.50 | leaf only }| | |white | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 3. Dark Missouri }|50 |52.4|16.47 |4.2 |10.14| 2.13| -- | -- | leaf and stalk}| | |white | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 4. Dark Missouri} |51 |50.6|13.8 |2.17 | 8.73| 2.9 |0.35 |0.71 | leaf only } | | |white | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 5. Light Virginia}|51.5|53.1|16.4 |2.53 | 8.54| 5.33| -- | -- | leaf and stalk}| | |gray- | | | | | | | | |white | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 6. Light Virginia}|54 |46.1|11.97 |2.0 | 6.86| 3.11|1.045|2.09 | leaf only }| | |green-| | | | | | | | |gray | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 7. Dark Virginia }|48.5|51.8|14.7 |4.8 |8.40 | 1.5 | -- | -- | leaf and stalk}| | |gray | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 8. Dark Virginia} |52 |49.8|12.53 |2.63 |8.20 | 1.7 |1.46 |2.93 | leaf only } | | |gray | | | | | | ------------------------------------------------------------------ 1. The samples were dried and the woody fibre and extract were also dried at 212 degs. The watery infusions of all contained ammoniacal salts. The salts from the ash, which were soluble in water, consisted of sulphates, carbonates, phosphates, and chlorides; the bases being potassa and lime. The solution by hydrochloric acid contained lime, alumina, phosphate of lime, and oxide of iron. 3. Contained oxide of manganese in small quantity; sulphates in watery solution of ash abundant. Hydrochloric solution contained an abundance of lime. 4. A trace of manganese; a trace only of phosphoric acid in watery solution. 5. Contained abundance of oxide of manganese. 6. Abundance of oxide of manganese. 7. A mere trace of oxide of manganese, and a trace of oxide of iron; only a trace of alumina. 8. A trace of oxide of manganese; quantity of oxide of iron very great; only a trace of alumina. In rich loams, where the solution of the minerals of the soil is rapid, and where 10 to 20 per cent, of vegetable matter is incorporated in the earth, tobacco may be obtained for many years, but it is always an exhausting crop. It has been stated that 170 Lbs. of mineral matter are removed in less than three months from one acre of land, by a crop of tobacco. This is very much more than wheat or other grains abstract from the soil in eight or nine months. Tobacco is now very extensively cultivated in France and other European countries, in the Levant, the East and West Indies; and a little is grown at the Cape and in the Australian Settlements. A good deal of tobacco is raised in Mexico, but only for home consumption, as its export is prohibited. It forms an article of culture in Brazil and some of the South American republics, and is grown to a small extent along the Western shores of Africa. It is from North America, however, that we derive the bulk of our supplies of this great article of commerce, which, with cotton, forms the chief agricultural wealth of the United States. In 1821, the tobacco exported from the Brazils amounted to 29,192,000 Lbs., but its cultivation was greatly injured by the siege of the capital in 1822-23. Fresh seed was subsequently obtained from Cuba, and in 1835 the exports were 6,051,040 Lbs. 131 cases of Princeza snuff were shipped from Bahia to Lisbon, in 1835; about 60,000 Lbs. per annum of this snuff being now manufactured at Bahia, with the aid of two steam-engines. The exports of tobacco from Bahia increased from 2,048,000 Lbs. in 1833, to 6,051,040 Lbs. in 1835. The average shipments are about 21,000 bales and rolls. The army of smokers in Great Britain and Ireland consume yearly about six millions of pounds worth of tobacco. The duty alone paid upon snuff and tobacco for the people of Great Britain, averages four-and-a-half millions sterling a year! The quantity consumed--smoked, snuffed, or chewed--during the same period, is about 28 millions of pounds weight, or about four pounds weight per annum for every male adult. Ireland annually pays not less than £800,000 of duty on tobacco and snuff, and only about £30,000 on coffee. For every pound of coffee that the Irish people use, they smoke away about _four pounds of tobacco_. North America produces annually upwards of 200 million pounds. The combustion of the mass of vegetable material used in this kingdom would yield about 340 million pounds of carbonic acid gas; so that the yearly produce of carbonic acid gas from tobacco smoking alone cannot be less than 1,000,000,000 lbs.--a large contribution to the annual demand for this gas made upon the atmosphere for the vegetation of the world. Henceforth let no one twit the smoker with idleness and unimportance. Every pipe is an agricultural furnace,--every smoker a manufacturer of vegetation,--the consumer of a weed that he may rear more largely his own provisions. In the year 1842, 605,000,000 of cigars were made in the German Commercial Union. In 1839, the revenue on tobacco in this country was about £3,600,000. Of this it has been estimated eleven-twelfths are drawn from the working classes, and one-twelfth from the richer classes. The following is a calculation of the consumption of tobacco per head of the population, estimated from the number of pounds on which duty was paid:-- Consumption per head. Rate of duty. ozs. 1801 {1s. 7 3-10d. England } 17 {1s. 0 7-10d. Ireland.} 1811 2s. 2 13-20d. 19½ 1821 4s. 0d. 11 45 1831 3s. 0d. 12 35 1841 3s. 1 8-10d. 12 4-5 1851 3s. 1 4-5d. 21 Thus it will be seen the consumption is materially affected by the rate of duty. A memorial presented to the First Lord of the Treasury a few years ago, by the American Chamber of Commerce, and signed by Mr. Thomas Todd, the chairman, furnishes some valuable information, and I am therefore tempted to give it entire:-- The American Chamber of Commerce of Liverpool desire respectfully to bring under the consideration of her Majesty's Government the impolicy of the present high rate of duty on foreign tobacco, and the benefit to commerce, as well as to the revenue, which would arise from such a reduction as would remove the temptation now held out to the smuggler. The cost of tobacco, including freight and all charges, is from 3d. to 4d. per lb., and the duty is 3s. per lb., being 900 per cent, on the value. A duty so enormously disproportioned to the cost offers an irresistible premium to the illicit trader; for the expense of smuggling tobacco by the cargo, including the first cost, does not exceed 9½d. per lb., and it has been ascertained that the smuggler receives 6d. per lb. less than the duty, or 2s. 6d. per lb., which yields him a clear profit of 1s. 8½d. per lb., to the injury not only of the revenue, but of the fair trader. The effect of this heavy duty in diminishing the consumption of duty-paid tobacco is further exemplified by the fact that, while all other articles of general consumption have progressively increased with the increase of the population, tobacco alone forms an exception, as will appear from the following:-- COMPARATIVE SCALE OF POPULATION AND CONSUMPTION OF TEA, COFFEE, AND TOBACCO, IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, COMPILED FROM PARLIAMENTARY PAPERS. Population Tea Coffee Tobacco 1801 16,338,102 Duty, 65 a 95 per ct 19d. per lb. 19d. per lb. & 12½ per ct. & 12½ per ct. Lbs., 23,163,999 871,846 16,895,752 1811 18,547,720 Duty 96 per cent. 8d. per lb. 26½d. per lb. Lbs., 24,461,308 6,895,619 21,376,370 1821 21,193,458 Duty, 96 a 100 per ct. 12d. per lb. 4s. per lb. Lbs., 26,043,257 7,593,001 1,823,365 1831 24,271,763 Duty 96a 100 per ct. 6d. per lb. 3s. per lb. Lbs., 30,648,348 22,740,627 19,418,941 1841 26,855,928 Duty, 26¼d. per lb. 6d. per lb. 3s. per lb. Lbs., 36,396,073 28,420,980 22,094,772 The consumption of tobacco in the island of Great Britain, excluding Ireland, and the duty thereon, were in Consumption. Duty. 1801 10,514,998 lbs. 1s. 7d. 1811 14,923,243 " 2s. 2½d. 1821 12,983,198 " 4s. 0d. 1831 15,350,018 " 3s. 0d. 1841 16,083,593 " 3s. 0d. 1851 28,062,841 " 3s. 0d. In the last two periods five per cent is added to all the duties. Thus, while the consumption of tea and coffee has increased even beyond the ratio of the population, the consumption of tobacco has decreased. This table also exemplifies the greater productiveness of a low duty compared with a high one; for instance, coffee in 1801, at 1s. 7d. per lb., yielded £77,654; in 1821, at 1s. per lb., £379,650; and, in 1841, at 6d. per lb., £710,524; tobacco in 1821, at 4s. per lb., yielded £3,164,673, and 1841, at 3s. per lb., £3,314,215. But the difference in duty in the latter case was not sufficient to curtail the profits of the smuggler to any material extent. Cigars afford a remarkable example of the amount of duty being increased by diminishing the rate. In 1828, when the duty was 18s. per lb., duty was paid on 8,600 lbs. only, yielding £7,740. In 1830, when the duty was reduced to 9s. per lb., duty was paid on 66,000 lbs., yielding £29,700; and such has been the increase of consumption, that, in 1841, duty was paid on 213,613 lbs., yielding £100,899. We would further illustrate the position by the following facts: In 1798, Ireland, with a population of 4,000,000, consumed 8,000,000 lbs. of tobacco, and now, with more than double the population, she consumes about 3,000,000 lbs. of tobacco less than at the former period. The reason is obvious: in 1789 the duty was 8d. per lb; now it is 3s. In 1798, England and Scotland, with a population of 10,000,000, consumed 10,000,000 lbs. of tobacco, being one half of the relative consumption of Ireland at the same period; the duty in England and Scotland being then 1s. 7d. per lb., and in Ireland only 8d. But the quantity of tobacco on which duty is paid does not even approximately show the quantity consumed. If the duty now paid on tobacco in the United Kingdom retained the same relative proportion to the population that it held in Ireland in 1798, the duty in 1841 would have been actually levied upon 53,711,856 lbs., instead of 22,094,772 lbs.; and such we believe to be about the actual amount of consumption, the great bulk of the supply being furnished by the illicit trader. In Prussia, it appears that the consumption of tobacco is at the rate of three pounds per head; while, in England, if we were to judge from the amount on which duty is paid, it is considerably less than one pound per head. Assuming the actual consumption at only 45,000,000 lbs., or two pounds per head, we believe that a reduction of duty to 1s. per pound would so effectually destroy the illicit trader, that the revenue would gain by the change, not only by bringing upwards of 30,000,000 lbs. under duty, which at present escape, but by the great increase of the consumption consequent upon the encouragement given to the fair trader. We would not, however, treat the question merely as a matter of revenue. We would strongly represent the injustice which this exorbitant duty inflicts upon those who pursue a legitimate trade, by enabling the smuggler to lessen the extent of their transactions by more than half what they would otherwise be; and we would further earnestly urge upon your consideration the demoralising tendency of such a systematic and extended violation of the law, not only upon those engaged in the illicit trade, also upon those parties who are found to connive at the practice from a sense of the gross injustice and impolicy of a duty so disproportioned to the value of an article of such extensive consumption. We would refer to the opinion of a committee of the House of Commons on the growth of tobacco in Ireland, in 1840, as follows:--'That it further appears, from the evidence, that smuggling of foreign tobacco is at present carried on to a great extent, and that all the measures now adopted, at great expense to the country, are and will be ineffectual to repress it so long as the temptation of evading a duty equal to twelve times the value of the article on which it is imposed, remains." We beg, therefore, respectfully to express our opinion, that if the duty on tobacco were reduced to one shilling per pound, it would be alike beneficial to the interests of legitimate commerce; to the consumers, who consist almost entirely of the poorer classes; to the revenue, by increasing the productiveness of the duty, and by greatly diminishing the expenditure so ineffectually incurred to suppress the illicit trade; and to the general morals of society by removing a powerful inducement to infringe the laws. The imports of all kinds of tobacco for the last five years have been as follows:-- | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. | lbs. Unmanufactured|34,090,360|41,546,848|35,166,358|31,061,953|33,205,635 Manufactured | | | | | and snuff | 1,512,714| 1,905,306| 1,557,618| 2,331,886| 2,930,299 |----------|----------|----------|----------|---------- |35,603,074|43,452,154|36,723,876|33,393,839|36,135,934 Gross duty received:-- | 1848. | 1849. | 1850. | 1851. | 1852. | £ | £ | £ | £ | £ On raw tobacco| 4,267,579| 4,328,217| 4,337,258| 4,386,910| 4,466,533 Cigars, snuff,| | | | | &c. | 97,655| 96,814| 92,873| 98,858| 94,298 |----------|----------|----------|----------|---------- | 4,365,234| 4,425,031| 4,430,131| 4,485,768| 4,569,831 The amount of tobacco consumed is so limited that the trade will not admit of an excessive growth. In the two most thickly populated countries in Europe--France and England--not more than a certain quantity finds its way there. In France the trade is monopolised by Government, which gives out contracts to deliver a stipulated quantity at certain prices; in England the duty imposed is so enormous that only a limited quantity of certain descriptions can be imported without risk of loss. In Germany and Holland, where the trade is more extensively carried on than elsewhere, the duty imposed is almost nominal, and all classes of their citizens are enabled to use the weed at prices very little higher than its first prime cost. The tobacco trade constitutes so large a staple of American produce that it is singular greater efforts are not made upon the part of that Government to cause a reciprocal duty to be imposed, that more favor may be shown by European Governments to this particular article. England, from the duty imposed upon it alone, derives a revenue of £4,500,000, being about £160 to the hogshead, or from ten to sixteen times its original cost. France makes the trade a monopoly, from which she derives an income of £3,000,000 sterling. STATEMENT OF IMPORTS, SALES, AND STOCKS OF TOBACCO AND STEMS, IN BREMEN, FROM 1840 TO 1850. ----+---------------------------+-----------------------+ | MARYLAND | VIRGINIAN | ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | S | | | | S | | S | | | t | S | | | t | | t | | | o D | t | | | o D | | o J | I | | c e | o J | I | | c e | | c a | m | | k c | c a | m | | k c | | k n | p | S | e | k n | p | S | e | Y | u | o | a | l m | u | o | a | l m | e | 1 a | r | l | a b | 1 a | r | l | a b | a | s r | t | e | s e | s r | t | e | s e | r | t y | s | s | t r | t y | s | s | t r | ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ 1840| 4,890|14,570|18,399| 1,061| 245| 3492| 3422| 285| 1841| 1,061|19,629|18,321| 2,369| 285| 3466| 3025| 726| 1842| 2,369|20,821|19,067| 4,123| 726| 6729| 5898| 1557| 1843| 4,123|18,483|15,004| 7,602| 1557| 5541| 4242| 2856| 1844| 7,602|16,978|18,338| 6,242| 2856| 5092| 4282| 3666| 1845| 6,242|24,251|24,571| 5,922| 3666| 1588| 3099| 2155| 1846| 5,922|26,785|23,788| 8,919| 2155| 2386| 2456| 2085| 1847| 8,919|21,743|20,681| 9,981| 2085| 911| 2079| 917| 1848| 9,981|12,084| 9,935|12,130| 917| 847| 1054| 710| 1849|12,130|19,285|22,112| 9,303| 710| 1173| 1734| 149| ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ ----+---------------------------+-----------------------+ | KENTUCKY | STEMS | ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | | | S | | | | S | | S | | | t | S | | | t | | t | | | o D | t | | | o D | | o J | I | | c e | o J | I | | c e | | c a | m | | k c | c a | m | | k c | | k n | p | S | e | k n | p | S | e | Y | u | o | a | l m | u | o | a | l m | e | 1 a | r | l | a b | 1 a | r | l | a b | a | s r | t | e | s e | s r | t | e | s e | r | t y | s | s | t r | t y | s | s | t r | ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ 1840| 181| 3,803| 3,699| 285| 2853| 3362| 4564| 1651| 1841| 285| 5,206| 4,941| 550| 1651| 7085| 7054| 1682| 1842| 550| 9,407| 8,939| 1018| 1682| 4151| 5386| 447| 1843| 1018| 7,485| 6,441| 2062| 447| 3969| 3447| 969| 1844| 2062| 9,736| 9,569| 2229| 969| 4753| 5513| 209| 1845| 2269|11,439|10,328| 3340| 209| 5273| 4152| 1330| 1846| 3340| 5,028| 6,099| 2269| 1330| 6092| 4716| 2706| 1847| 2269| 3,816| 5,013| 1072| 2706| 6788| 8038| 1456| 1848| 1072| 4,448| 4,980| 540| 1456| 4912| 4473| 1895| 1849| 540| 4,620| 4,746| 414| 1895| 5188| 5083| 1000| ----+------+------+------+------+-----+-----+-----+-----+ _Culture and Statistics in the United States_.--Tobacco has been the great staple of the States of Virginia and Maryland from their first settlement. About the year 1642 it became a royal monopoly, and afterwards, in order to encourage its growth in the colonies, and thereby increase the revenue of the Crown, Parliament prohibited the planting of it in England. The average quantity shipped from the North American colonies to the parent country, for ten years preceding the year 1709, was about twenty-nine millions of pounds. For some years prior to the American revolution, about 85,000 hhds. were exported, then valued at little more than four millions of dollars, and constituting nearly one-third the value of all the exports of the British North American colonies. From 1820 to 1830 tobacco constituted about one-ninth in value of all the domestic exports of the United States. It finds a market principally in Great Britain, France, Holland, and the north of Europe.[55] The crop of tobacco produced in the four principal States, was in-- 1838. 1839. hhds. hhds. Virginia 26,000 45,000 Kentucky 27,000 35,000 Maryland 16,000 16,000 Ohio 3,000 4,000 ------ ------- 72,000 100,000 The whole crop of 1840 was 219,163,319 lbs., which, at the estimate of 1,200 lbs. to the hhd., would be equal to 182,636 hhds., and at the average price of that year, 81 dollars 5 cents. per hhd., would make the value of the crop of the United States 14,802,647 dollars 80 cents. The average annual export for the ten years ending with 1840, was 96,775 hhds. The actual exportation of 1840 was 119,484 hhds. The principal exports are formed of the produce of Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Maryland, and North Carolina. The exports are chiefly to the following countries--about 30,000 hhds. annually to England, 15,000 hhds. to France, 20,000 hhds. to Holland, 25,000 hhds. Germany, and about 22,000 hhds. to other countries. The whole crop for 1845 was put down at 187,422,000 lbs. In 1839, it was ascertained that one and a half million persons were engaged in the cultivation and manufacture of tobacco in the United States, one million of whom were so occupied in the States of Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. In the city of New York the consumption of cigars is computed at 10,000 dollars a day, a sum greater than that which the inhabitants pay for their daily bread; and in the whole country the annual consumption of tobacco is estimated at 120 million pounds, being 7 lbs. for every man, woman, and child, at an annual cost to the consumers of 20 million dollars (more than four million pounds sterling). It is estimated that the manufacture of tobacco in the United States is increasing at the rate of 2,000 hhds. per annum. hhds. The quantity manufactured in 1851, was stated at 55,000 Exportations for the year estimated at 120,000 ------- 175,000 The production for 1852 is supposed to be as follows:-- hhds. Virginia 27,000 Maryland 33,000 Western States, including frosted 65,000 ------- Total production 125,000 Deficiency in the year's crop 50,000 The quantity produced in the United States, in 1847, was 220,164,000 lbs., worth, at 5 cents per lb., nearly 11 million dollars (more than two million sterling). The principal producing States were--Kentucky, 65 million lbs.; Virginia, 50 millions; Tennessee, 35 millions; North Carolina, 14 millions; Ohio, 9 millions; Indiana, 4 millions; Illinois, Connecticut, and a few others in smaller proportions. The production in 1848 was 218,909,000 lbs., which, valued at four cents per lb., would be worth nine million dollars. From persons largely interested in the tobacco trade, and well informed in relation thereto, I have gathered the following general statements:-- The crops of tobacco to come to market in the year 1851, were estimated as follows-- hhds. Virginia 30,000 Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri, about 50,000 Maryland, about 22,000 Ohio, about 14,000 From the above estimate it will be seen that the quantity produced in 1850 is less than two-thirds of the usual production in the States named. The entire crop of Virginia will be required for home consumption. About 15,000 hhds. Kentucky, and 5,000 hhds. Maryland will also be wanted for home use. Owing to the increase of population by immigration and otherwise, the domestic consumption, which was a few years ago so small as not to be considered worthy of notice, has now increased to a very important item, and affords a steady home market for a large portion of the production. The quantity of Maryland tobacco left for export to Bremen and Holland, in 1851, will only be about 17,000 hhds., which is not more than half the amount usually shipped to these countries every year. Of the Kentucky tobacco contracted for last year by France and Spain, through their agents in this country, less than one third has yet been purchased, and those governments will this year require the deficiency to be made up, in addition to their annual average supply, which, with the quantity required for England, will take the entire crop, leaving nothing for the rest of Europe, Africa, South America, the West Indies, &c. The tobacco markets throughout the world are in a much more healthy condition than has ever been known, and it is thought prices will rule very high the coming season. In Maryland, while the production has been not more than half an average crop, the price is nearly three times as high as usual; so that the planter will receive more for his diminished crops than in ordinary seasons of plenty. QUANTITY OF TOBACCO EXPORTED ANNUALLY FROM 1821 TO 1850. Exports for Year ending hhds.|Stocks in Europe, year ending hhds. September 30th, 1821 66,850| December 31st, 1821 -- " " 1822 83,169| " " 1822 -- " " 1823 99,000| " " 1823 -- " " 1824 77,889| " " 1824 -- " " 1825 75,986| " " 1825 -- " " 1826 64,099| " " 1826 -- " " 1827 100,020| " " 1827 -- " " 1828 96,279| " " 1828 69,485 " " 1829 77,136| " " 1829 63,670 " " 1830 83,810| " " 1830 50,672 " " 1831 86,718| " " 1831 54,690 " " 1832 106,800| " " 1832 61,868 " " 1833 83,153| " " 1833 50,543 " " 1834 87,979| " " 1834 53,413 " " 1835 94,353| " " 1835 57,458 " " 1836 109,042| " " 1836 68,918 " " 1837 100,232| " " 1837 38,703 " " 1838 100,593| " " 1838 31,067 " " 1839 78,995| " " 1839 38,715 " " 1840 119,484| " " 1840 37,623 " " 1841 147,828| " " 1841 50,880 " " 1842 158,710| " " 1842 62,496 June 30 (9 ms.) 1843 94,454| " " 1843 91,196 " (12 ms.) 1844 163,042| " " 1844 88,973 " " 1845 147,168| " " 1845 91,213 " " 1846 147,998| " " 1846 100,774 " " 1847 135,762| " " 1847 88,858 " " 1848 130,665| " " 1848 80,391 " " 1849 101,521| " " 1849 70,527 " ' 1850 145,729| " " 1850 66,777 It is a curious fact that, notwithstanding the variety of climate and soil in the northern State;, every State and territory in the Union produces some tobacco. In many of the States its cultivation is, of course, a secondary object, and perhaps in several it is attended to as a mere matter of curiosity; but in most of the States, probably a sufficient quantity has been grown, to show that with attention to this object, it might, in case of necessity, be resorted to as a profitable crop. The States in which the great bulk of the crop is grown lie between the latitudes of about 34 and 40 degrees. There is a considerable increase of consumption of American tobacco in Europe, as well as in the United States, which should encourage the planters of Virginia and North Carolina to cultivate this article more abundantly than they have done for several years past; and, since the home manufacture has increased so much, and the Virginia tobacco is preferred in many parts of the European markets, they may safely count on getting good prices for many years to come. It is not in the power of Virginia to make any three years together more than 56,000 hhds., even with good seasons, and 30,000 hhds. annually of this will be wanted by our manufacturers. The planters, then, should enrich their lands, and aim to make full crops. The increased consumption in Europe is three per cent., and in the United States four per cent. per annum. The crop of the United States from 1840 to 1850 inclusive--say 11 years--averaged about 160,000 hhds.; this embraces the large crops of 1842-43-44. The consumption of Europe from 1829 to 1838 was 96,826 hhds.--it is now 130,000. An account of the quantities of unmanufactured tobacco, manufactured called negro-head, and cigars, imported into the United Kingdom in 1850:-- Countries from whence imported. Unmanufactured Manufactured United States of America 30,173,444 1,191,001 Venezuela, New Granada and Ecuador 895,523 527 Brazil 12,138 56,802 Peru 8,649 6 Cuba 589,627 153,819 British West Indies, including Demerara and Honduras 26,169 3,242 British Territories in the East Indies 14,500 25,332 Philippine Islands 12,233 51,210 Hongkong and China 2,706 2,340 Turkey, Syria, and Egypt 140,361 2,882 Malta 13,028 7,818 Italy, Sardinian Territories 431,939 17 Gibraltar 7 3,063 Spain 307,641 1,100 France 29,950 1,521 Channel Islands 149 1,342 Belgium 29,922 6,579 Holland 2,418,732 9,078 Hanseatic Towns 50,610 36,680 Other parts 8,930 1,980 ---------- --------- Total unmanufactured 35,166,358 1,556,321 Ditto manfactured 1,556,321 Snuff 1,197 ---------- Total 36,723,876 From the tobacco circulars of Messrs. Clagett, Son, and Co., leading brokers of London, dated Feb., 1st, 1850, I take the following extracts:-- The exhaustion of the stock has resulted from the concurrence of a gradually decreasing supply and increasing consumption, which may be very clearly perceived by a reference, first to the official returns from New Orleans of the yearly receipts of the western crops in each of the last seven years; and secondly, to the consumption of American tobacco in Great Britain and Ireland in the years 1847, 1848, and 1849, as compared with that of 1840, 1841, and 1842. We have no means of exhibiting with similar accuracy the relative consumption of Continental Europe in the latter as compared with the former part of these last ten years, but it is quite reasonable to assume that the increase, where there has been little or no duty, must have gone on more rapidly than it has done here, under the restraining force of a duty of 800 to 900 per cent. The deliveries from London and Liverpool, independently of those from Scotland, Bristol, and Newcastle, for the use of Great Britain and Ireland, have been as follows:--In 1840, 15,037 hhds.; 1841, 15,019 hhds.; 1842, 15,468 hhds.; 1847, 18,091 hhds.; 1848, 18,595 hhds.; 1849, 18,738 hhds. The highest estimates we have seen of the whole of the crops of the United Slates in 1849, do not exceed 140,000 hhds., of which it is not doubted that fully 45,000 hhds. will be required for consumption there, and we estimate the supply required for the consumption of Europe, South America, the West Indies, and Africa, at certainly not less than 125,000 hhds.; if these estimates be realised in fact, it will follow that the stocks at the close of this year must be 30,000 hhds. less than at the close of 1849. We estimate the present consumption of American tobacco in Great Britain and Ireland as follows:-- The deliveries in London and Liverpool in 1849, were 18,738 hhds.; do. do. Bristol 1,400 hhds.; do. do. Scotland we assume at 2,800 hhds. Total 22,939. Of Stripts, the deliveries in Liverpool last year were 8,544 hhds., of which about 300 were for exportation; the deliveries, therefore, were--For the use of Great Britain and Ireland, 8,250 hhds. In London we have no account of the deliveries of stripts, as distinguished from leaf, for the whole of last year; it is doubtless less than that in Liverpool, and we assume it at 7,000 hhds.; in Bristol it was about 900 hhds.; in Scotland we assume it at 2,400 hhds. Total 18,550 hhds. Now, assuming 1,500 hhds. of the deliveries in Scotland and Bristol to be included in the coastwise returns in London and Liverpool, then the consumption of Great Britain and Ireland would appear to be about 21,500 hhds. of American tobacco, and 17,000 for these to be stripts. The progressive increase which we have shown in the returns of 1849, as compared with those of 1840, must still go on. Without troubling you with any detail of the stocks in each of the several markets, it may be sufficient to show that the summary of the whole in all the markets of Europe, other than Great Britain, consisted on the 31st December, 1849, of about 22,000 hhds.; of which about 18,000 were Maryland and 2,000 stalks; and it is important to notice especially the fact, that the stocks of the manufacturers and dealers in Germany, Holland and Belgium are unusually small. We have taken very considerable care to inform ourselves on this point, and are fully satisfied that the usual stocks in second or dealers' hands do not exist. The whole demand of the year must, therefore, be supplied from those stocks in importers' hands, from England or from the United States. The following were the prices current in London in the spring of 1853:--Virginia Leaf, common, per pound, 3¼d. to 3¾d.; middling, 5d. to 6d.; good and fine 6½d. to 7½d. Stripts, 5½d. to 10d. Kentucky Leaf: common 3d., to 3½d.; middling, 3¾d. to 4½d.; good and fine, 5d. to 6d. Stripts, 5d. to 7d. Maryland, 3½d. to 9d. Negrohead and Cavendish: common and heated, 4d. to 6d.; middling to good, 6d. to 8d. and 9d.; fine, 10d., 12d., 16d.; Barret's none. Columbian, 7d. to 1s. 8d.; Brazil, 3d. to 6d.; flat, 5d. to 1s. 1d.; Manilla, 7d. to 2s. 6d.; Havana, 10d. to 5s.; Yara, 11d. to 3s.; Cuba, 9d. to 1s. 1d.; ingars, 3s. to 16s.; cheroots, Manilla, 7s. 6d., nominal; German and Amersfoort 4d. to 1s. 3d.; stalks, duty paid, 2s. 6d. to 3s. 4d.; smalls, 2s. 9d to 2s. The shipments to Europe were 76,516 hhds. against 40,652 hhds. the previous year, and 43,576 hhds. in 1850. The rapidity of sales, the diminished stocks even now held in first hands, were taken as an infallible index of the progressive rate of consumption; and of a truth the quantity of hogsheads received in the principal markets of Belgium, Holland, Germany, and the North, and as speedily relieved from the control of the importers, was enough to control even those who were alive to the existing necessities of Europe, and to give a color to the rumour of almost inexhaustible consumption. This extraordinary demand for tobacco on the continent has been occasioned by three distinct causes; the first of which was the pressing wants which, for the last two years, were well known to have existed, and the constant willingness of consumers to act at the very moderate rates which prevailed some time last spring. The second was the compulsory purchases by the Austrian Government, amounting, it is estimated, to 20,000 hhds., by reason that the discontented Hungarians, for political considerations, abandoned altogether the cultivation of tobacco, and which deficiency was obliged to be replaced by American growths. The third cause also had a political origin: the anticipation of the extension of the Zollverein or German Customs League to the Kingdoms of Hanover and Oldenburg, whereby the duties on tobacco in those countries would be greatly increased, was a natural incentive to the dealers and manufacturers there to lay in heavy stocks, to reap the benefit thereon; and these last two causes, therefore, may be viewed in the light of fortuitous circumstances, which have fostered a speculation originally founded on the cheapness of money alone. It has been shown, and the statistics of the past year fully confirm the statement, that a plethora of money and prosperity among the middle classes of society, while it induces to the consumption of tobacco in general, rather curtails than otherwise the demand for American growths. A poor man addicted to smoking takes his pipe not from choice, but necessity; as he grows independent, the humble pipe is abandoned and the more costly cigar assumed. We have frequently heard this matter noticed, more especially after the disasters which followed the railway speculations of 1846, when the demand for English cigars sensibly declined; and we have now a further verification of the assertion in the opposite sense, the sales of cigar materials in Bremen having been extended more than 40 per cent, in three years, viz., from 94,750 bales and cases in 1850 to 135,650 during last season. From New Orleans we learn that the arrivals from the interior since the 1st September had amounted to 18,043 hhds. against 5,165 hhds. last season, and the stock on hand was 24,128 hhds. against 7,927 hhds. only. The shipments from Virginia during the past year exceeded 13,700 hhds. In 1851 they were under 4,000 casks. From Baltimore 54,272 hhds. have been exported. The official figures for the previous year gave 35,967 as the total. The aggregate stock of tobacco on the 1st of January last, in the principal ports of America, was taken at 52,982 hhds. against 45,292 the year before and the growth of the Western States, Virginia, and Maryland during 1852, to come forward for our supply the present season, is estimated at 185,000 hhds., notwithstanding all the unfavorable influences and curtailing causes which were said to have prevailed. The method adopted of cultivating tobacco in Virginia is thus described: Several rich, moist, but not too wet spots of ground are chosen out in the fall, each containing about a quarter of an acre or more, according to the magnitude of the crop, and the number of plants it may require. These spots, which are generally in the woods, are cleared, and covered with brush or timber, for five or six feet thick and upwards; this is suffered to remain upon it until the time when the tobacco seed must be sowed, which is within twelve days after Christmas. The evening is commonly chosen to set these places on fire, and when everything thereon is consumed to ashes, the ground is dug up, mixed with the ashes, and broken very fine. The tobacco seed, which is exceedingly small, being mixed with ashes also, is then sown and just raked in lightly; the whole is immediately covered with brushwood for shelter to keep it warm, and a slight fence thrown around it. In this condition it remains until the frosts are all gone, when the brush is taken off, and the young plants are exposed to the nutritive and genial warmth of the sun, which quickly invigorates them in an astonishing degree, and soon renders them strong and large enough to be removed for planting, especially if they be not sown too thick. Every tobacco planter, assiduous to secure a sufficient quantity of plants, generally has several of these plant beds in different situations, so that if one should fail, another may succeed; and an experienced planter commonly takes care to have ten times as many plants, as he can make use of. In these beds, along with the tobacco, they generally sow kale, colewort, and cabbage seed, &c., at the same time. There are seven different kinds of tobacco, particularly adapted to the different qualities of the soil on which they are cultivated, and each varying from the other. They are named Hudson, Frederick, Thick-joint, Shoe-string, Thickset, Sweet-scented, and Oronoko. But although these are the principal, yet there are a great many different species besides, with names peculiar to the situations, settlements and neighbourhoods wherein they are produced; which it would be too tedious here to specify and particularise. The soil for tobacco must be rich and strong; the ground is prepared in the following manner:--after being well broke up and by repeated working, either with the plough or hand hoes, rendered soft, light, and mellow, the whole field is made into hills, each to take up the space of three feet, and flattened at the top. In the first rains, which are here called seasons, after the vernal equinox, the tobacco plants are carefully drawn while the ground is soft; carried to the field where they are to be planted, and one dropped upon every hill, which is done by the negro children. The most skilful slaves then begin planting them, by making a hole with their finger in each hill, inserting the plant with the taproot carefully placed straight down, and pressing the earth on each side of it. This is continued as long as the ground is wet enough to enable the plants sufficiently grown to draw and set; and it requires several different seasons, or periods of rain, to enable them to complete planting their crop, which operation is frequently not finished until July. After the plants have taken root, and begin to grow, the ground is carefully weeded and worked, either with hand hoes or the plough, according as it will admit. After the plants have considerably increased in bulk, and begin to shoot up, the tops are pinched off, and only ten, twelve, or sixteen leaves left, according to the quality of the tobacco and the soil. The worms, also, are carefully picked off and destroyed, of which there are two species that prey upon tobacco. One is the ground worm, which cuts it off just beneath the surface of the earth; this must be carefully looked for and trodden to death; it is of a dark brown color, and short. The other is a horn worm, some inches in length, as thick as your little finger, of a vivid green color, with a number of pointed excrescences or feelers from his head like horns. These devour the leaf, and are always upon the plant. As it would be endless labor to keep their hands constantly in search of them, it would be almost impossible to prevent their eating up more than half the crop had it not been discovered that turkeys are particularly dexterous at finding them, eat them up voraciously, and prefer them to every other food. For this purpose every planter keeps a flock of turkeys, which he has driven into the tobacco grounds every day by a little negro that can do nothing else; these keep his tobacco more clear from horn worms than all the hands he has got could do were they employed solely for that end. When the tops are nipped off, a few plants are left untouched for seed. On the plants that have been topped, young shoots are apt to spring out, which are termed suckers, and are carefully and constantly broken off lest they should draw too much of the nourishment and substance from the leaves of the plant. This operation is also performed from time to time, and is called "suckering tobacco." For some time before it is ripe, or ready for cutting, the ground is perfectly covered with leaves, which have increased to a prodigious size, and then the plants are generally about three feet high. When it is ripe, a clammy moisture or exudation comes forth upon the leaves, which appear, as it were, ready to become spotted, and they are then of a great weight and substance. The tobacco is cut when the sun is powerful, but not in the morning and evening. The plant, if large, is split down the middle, and cut off two or three inches below the extremity of the split; it is then turned directly bottom upwards, for the sun to kill it more speedily, to enable the laborers to carry it out of the field, else the leaves would break off in transporting it to the scaffold. The plants are cut only as they become ripe, for a field never ripens altogether. There is generally a second cutting likewise, for the stalk vegetates and shoots forth again, and in good land, with favorable seasons, there is a third cutting also procured, notwithstanding acts of the Legislature to prevent cutting tobacco even a second time. When the tobacco plants are cut and brought to the scaffolds, which are generally erected all around the tobacco houses, they are placed with the split across a small oak stick, an inch and better in diameter and four feet and a half long, so close as each plant just to touch the other without bruising or pressing. These sticks are then placed on the scaffolds, with the tobacco thus suspended in the middle, to dry or cure, and are called tobacco sticks. As the plants advance in curing, the sticks are removed from the scaffolds out of doors into the tobacco house, on to other scaffolds erected therein in successive regular gradations from the bottom to the top of the roof, being placed higher as the tobacco approaches to a perfect cure, until the house is all filled and the tobacco quite cured, and this cure is frequently promoted by making fires on the floor below. When the tobacco house is quite full, and there is still more tobacco to bring in, all that is within the house is struck, and taken down, and carefully placed in bulks, or regular rows, one upon another, and the whole covered with trash tobacco, or straw, to preserve it in a proper condition, that is moist, which prevents its wasting and crumbling to pieces. But, to enable them to strike the cured tobacco, they must wait for what is there called a season, that is rainy or moist weather, when the plants will better bear handling, for in dry weather the leaves would all crumble to pieces in the attempt. By this means a tobacco house may be filled two, three, or four times in the year. Every night the negroes are sent to the tobacco house to strip, that is to pull off the leaves from the stalk, and tie them up in hands or bundles. This is also their daily occupation in rainy weather. In stripping, they are careful to throw away all the ground leaves and faulty tobacco, binding up none but what is merchantable. The hands or bundles thus tied up are also laid in what are called a bulk, and covered with the refuse tobacco or straw to preserve their moisture. After this, the tobacco is carefully packed in hogsheads, and pressed down with a large beam laid over it, on the ends of which prodigious weights are suspended, the other end being inserted with a mortice in a tree, close to which the hogshead is placed. This vast pressure is continued for some days, and then the cask is filled up again with tobacco until it will contain no more, after which it is headed up and carried to the pubic warehouses for inspection. At these warehouses two skilful planters constantly attend, and receive a salary from the public for that purpose. They are sworn to inspect with honesty, care, and impartiality, all the tobacco that comes to the warehouse, and none is allowed to be shipped that is not regularly inspected. The head of the cask is taken off, and the tobacco is opened by means of large, long iron wedges, and great labour, in such places as the inspectors direct. After this strict attentive examination, if they find it good and merchantable, it is replaced in the cask, weighed at the public scales, the weight of the tobacco and of the cask also cut in the wood on the cask, stowed away in the public warehouses, and a note given to the proprietor, which he disposes of to the merchant, and he neither sees nor has any trouble with his tobacco more. The weight of each hogshead must be 950 lbs. nett, exclusive of the cask--for less a note will not be given. Under the name of a crop hogshead, however, the general weight is from 1,000 to 1,200 or 1,300 lbs. nett, but if the tobacco is found to be totally bad, and refused as unmerchantable, the whole is publicly burnt in a place set apart for that purpose. However, if it be judged that there is some merchantable tobacco in the hogshead, the owner must unpack the whole publicly on the spot, for he is not permitted to take any of it away again, and must select and separate the good from the bad; the last is immediately committed to the flames, and for the first he receives a transfer note, specifying the weight, quality, &c. This great and very laudable care was taken by the public to prevent frauds, which, however, was not always effectual, for, even with all these precautions, many acts of iniquity and imposition were committed. So little is this crop cultivated in the States north of Maryland, that scarcely any notice has been taken of it in the agricultural or other public journals. In Connecticut, in some few towns of Hartford county, considerable attention has been directed to it for a number of years past. A ton and a-half the acre is said to be no uncommon yield. The tobacco is planted very thick, two feet and a half each way. The seed came originally from Virginia. It is cured in houses, without having been yellowed in the sun, and without the use of fire. It is said that the best Havana cigars (as they are termed) are often manufactured from mixed Cuba and American tobacco, and sold under that name in Connecticut. In the Connecticut Valley is produced about 500 tons of tobacco annually, the average quantity, 1,500 lbs. per acre, value from seven to ten cents per pound. _Culture_.--Seed bed made rich and sown as cabbage early in April as possible. Land well ploughed and manured and harrowed as for corn, laid out in rows three feet apart, and slight hills in the row about two and a-half feet apart; begin to plant about 10th of June, the ground to be kept clean with hoe and cultivator, and examine the plants and keep clear of worms. "When in blossom and before seed is formed, the plants must be topped about thirty-two inches from the ground, having from sixteen to twenty leaves on each stalk, after this the suckers are broken off, and the plants kept clean till cut. When ripe the leaves are spotted, thick, and will crack when pressed between the fingers and thumb. It is cut at any time of the day, after the dew is off, left in the row till wilted, then turned, and if there is a hot sun, it is often turned to prevent burning; after wilting it is put into small heaps of six or eight plants, then carried to the tobacco house for hanging, usually on poles twelve feet long; hung with twine about forty plants to a pole, twenty on each side, crossing the pole with a hitch knot to the stump end of the plants; when perfectly cured, which is known by the stems of the leaves being completely dry, it is then taken in a damp time, when the leaves will not crumble, from the poles and placed in large piles, by letting the tops of the plants lap each other, leaving the butts out; it remains in these heaps from three to ten days before it is stripped, depending on the state of weather, but it must not be allowed to heat. When stripped it is made into small hands, the small and broken leaves to be kept by themselves; it is then packed in boxes of about 400 lbs. and marked "Seed Leaf Tobacco." One acre of tobacco will require as much labor as two of corn that produce 60 bags to the acre, and requires about the same quantity of manure. If the tobacco can be cured without fire heat the quality will be improved, and if dried in the open air, should have shades of boards to keep off rain and excess of sun. The chief market for Connecticut tobacco is Bremen. In a number of the "Charleston Southern Planter," a remedy is described for preventing the destruction of plants by the fly. The writer says: "I had a bushel or two of dry ashes put into a large tub, and added train oil enough (say one gallon of oil to the bushel of ashes) to damp and flavor the ashes completely: this was well stirred and mixed with the hand, and sown broadcast over certain patches, and proved thoroughly effectual for several years, while parts left without the remedy were destroyed." The best ground for raising the plant, according to Capt. Carver ("Treatise on Culture of Tobacco," &c.), is a warm rich soil, not subject to be overrun with weeds. The soil in which it grows in Virginia is inclining to sandy, consequently warm and light; the nearer, therefore, the nature of the land approaches to that, the greater probability there is of its flourishing. The situation most preferable for a plantation is the southern declivity of a hill, or a spot sheltered from the blighting north winds. But at the same time the plants must enjoy a free current of air; for if that be obstructed they will not prosper. The different sorts of seed not being distinguishable from each other, nor the goodness to be ascertained by its appearance, great caution should be used in obtaining the seed through some responsible mercantile house, or individual of character. Each capsule contains about a thousand seeds, and the whole produce of a single plant has been estimated at 350,000. The seeds are usually ripe in the month of September, and when perfectly dry may be rubbed out and preserved in bags till the following season. There is a large quantity of tobacco raised in the southern part of Indiana annually, equal in quality to the tobacco raised in Kentucky. In some counties the article is extensively cultivated, and generally pays the producer a handsome profit on the labor bestowed on it. The cultivation of it is becoming more extensive every year. Nearly all this crop is taken to Louisville for sale, very little being shipped south on account of the producer. Heretofore, owing to the heaviness of tobacco and bad roads, the producer has encountered great difficulties in getting his crop to market. The hauling of a few hogsheads fifty or sixty miles, or even forty, is no light job, even over good roads. Hence, tobacco has not been as extensively cultivated as it would have been under different circumstances. But, with the facilities afforded by the railroads in carrying their crops to market, I doubt not the farmers of the interior will more generally engage in the cultivation of tobacco, and those who have been in the habit of raising small crops will extend their operations. In Maryland the seed is sown in beds of fine mould, and the plants arising therefrom are transplanted in the beginning of May. They are set at the distance of three or four feet apart, and are hilled, and kept continually free from weeds. When as many leaves have shot out as the soil will nourish to advantage, the top of the plant is broken off, which of course prevents its growing higher. It is carefully kept clear from worms, and the suckers which put out between the leaves are taken off at proper times, till the plant arrives at perfection, which is in August. When the leaves turn of a brownish color, and begin to be spotted, the plants are cut down and hung up to dry, after having sweated in heaps one night. When the leaves can be handled without crumbling, which is always in moist weather, they are stripped from the stalks, tied up in bundles, and packed for exportation in hogsheads. No suckers nor ground leaves are allowed to be merchantable. An industrious person may manage 6,000 plants of tobacco, which will yield 1,000 lbs. of dried leaves, and also four acres of Indian corn. Miller, an American author, thus describes the mode of culture:-- When a regular plantation of tobacco is intended, the beds being prepared and well turned up with the hoe, the seed, on account of its smallness and to prevent the ravages of ants, is mixed with ashes and sown upon them, a little before the rainy season. The beds are raked, or trampled with the foot, to make the seed take the sooner. The plants appear in two or three weeks. As soon as they have acquired four leaves, the strongest are carefully drawn up and planted in the field by a line, at a distance of about three feet from each other. If no rain fall, they should be watered two or three times. Every morning and evening the plants must he looked over in order to destroy a worm which sometimes invades the bud. When they are about four or five inches high, they are to be cleaned from weeds and moulded up. As soon as they have eight or nine leaves, and are ready to put forth a stalk, the top is nipped off in order to make the leaves longer and thicker. After this the buds which sprout at the joints of the leaves are also plucked off, and not a day is suffered to pass without examining the leaves to destroy the large caterpillar, which is often most destructive to them. When they are fit for cutting, which is known by the brittleness of the leaves, they are cut off with a knife close to the ground, and, after lying some time, are carried to the drying-shed or house, where the plants are hung up by pairs upon lines, leaving a space between, that they may not touch one another. When perfectly dry, the leaves are stripped from the stalks and made into small bundles, tied with one of the leaves. These bundles are laid in heaps and covered with blankets; care is taken not to overheat them, for which reason the heaps are laid open to the air from time to time, and spread abroad. This operation is repeated till no more heat is perceived in the heaps, and the tobacco is then ready for packing and shipping. I have been favored by Mr. J. M. Hernandez, a Cuba planter, with some valuable instructions for the cultivation of Cuba tobacco, which I subjoin. These remarks apply principally to America, but most of the advice and information will be found generally applicable to other localities:-- The first thing to be considered in this, as in every other culture, is the soil, which for this kind of tobacco (_N. repanda_) ought to be a rich, sandy, loam, neither too high nor too low--that is, ground capable of retaining moisture, the more level the better, and, if possible, well protected by margins. The next should be the selection of a spot of ground to make the necessary beds. It would be preferable to make those on land newly cleared, or, at all events, when the land has not been seeded with grass; for grass seeds springing up together with the tobacco would injure it materially, as the grass cannot be removed without disturbing the tobacco plants. In preparing the ground for the nurseries, break it up properly, grub up all the small stumps, dig out the roots, and carefully remove them with the hand. This being done, make the beds from three to four inches high, of a reasonable length, and from three to three and a-half feet broad, so as to enable the hand, at arm's length, to weed out the tender young plants with the fingers from both sides of the bed, and keep them perfectly clean. The months of December and January are the most proper for sowing the seed in Florida. Some persons speak of planting it as early as the month of November, I am, however, of opinion, that about the latter part of December is the best time to sow tobacco seed; any sooner would expose the plants to suffer from the inclemency of the most severe part of the winter season. Before the seed is sown take some dry trash and burn it off upon the nursery beds, to destroy insects and grass seeds; then take one ounce of tobacco seed and mix it with about a quart of dry ashes, so as to separate the seed as much; as possible, and sow it broadcast. After the seed has been thus sown, the surface of the bed ought to be raked over slightly, and trodden upon by the foot, carrying the weight of the body with it, that the ground may at once adhere closely to the seed, and then water it. Should the nursery-beds apparently become dry from blighting winds or other causes, watering will be absolutely necessary, for the ground ought to be kept in a moist state from the time the seed is planted until the young plants are large enough to be set out. The nurseries being made, proceed to prepare the land where the tobacco is to be set out. If the land is newly cleared--and new land is probably more favorable to the production of this plant than it is to that of any other, both as respects quality and quantity--remove as many of the stumps and roots as possible, and dig up the ground in such a manner as to render the surface perfectly loose; then level the ground, and in this state leave it until the nursery plants have acquired about one-half the growth necessary to admit of their being set out; then break up the ground a second time in the same manner as at first, as in this way all the small fibres of roots and their rooted parts will be more or less separated, and thus obviate much of that degree of sponginess so common to new land, and which is in a great measure the cause of new land seldom producing well the first year, as the soil does not lay close enough to the roots of the plants growing in it, so that a shower of rain produces no other effect than that of removing the earth still more from them. The ground having been prepared and properly levelled off, and the plants, sufficiently grown to be taken up--say of the size of good cabbage plants--take advantage of the first wet or cloudy weather to commence setting them out. This should be done with great care, and the plants put single at equal distances, that is, about three feet north and south, and two and a-half, or two and three-fourths feet east and west. They are placed thus close to each other to prevent the leaves growing too large. The direction of the rows, however, should alter according to the situation of the land; where it has any inclination, the widest space should run across it, as the bed will have to be made so as to prevent the soil from being washed from the roots by rain when bedded; but where the land is rather level, the three feet rows should be north and south, so as to give to the plants a more full effect on them by passing across the beds, than by crossing them in an oblique direction. To set the plants out regularly, take a task line of 105 feet in length, with a pointed stick three feet long attached to each end of it, then insert a small piece of rag or something else through the line at the distance of two feet and three-fourths from each other; place it north and south (or as the land may require), at full length, and then set a plant at every division, carefully keeping the bud of the plant above the surface of the ground. Then remove the line three feet from the first row, and so on, until the planting is completed. Care ought to be taken to prevent the stretching of the line from misplacing the plants. In this way the plants can be easily set out, and a proper direction given to them both ways. In taking the plants up from the nursery, the ground should be first loosened with a flat piece of wood or iron, about an inch broad; then carefully holding the leaves close towards each other between the fingers, draw them up, and place them in a basket or some other convenient thing to receive them for planting. After taking up those that can be planted during the day, water the nursery that the earth may again adhere to the remaining ones. The evening is the best time for setting out the plants, but where a large field has to be cultivated it will be well to plant both morning and evening. The plants set out in the morning, unless in rainy or cloudy weather, should be covered immediately, and the same should be done with those planted the evening previous, should the day open with a clear sunshine,--the palmetto leaf answers the purpose very well. There should be water convenient to the plants, so as to have them watered morning and evening, but more particularly in the evening, until they have taken root. They should also be closely examined when watered, so as to replace such plants as happen to die, that the ground may be properly occupied, and that all the plants may open as nearly together as possible. From the time the plants are set out, the earth around them should be occasionally stirred, both with the hand and hoe. At first hoe flat, but as soon as the leaves assume a growing disposition, begin gradually to draw a slight heel towards the plant. The plants must be closely examined, even while in the nursery, to destroy the numerous worms that feed upon them--some, by cutting the stalk and gnawing the leaves when first set out; these resemble the grub-worm, and are to be found near the injured plant, under ground; others, which come from the eggs deposited on the plant by the butterfly, and feed on the leaf, grow to a very large size, and look very ugly, and are commonly called the tobacco-worm. There is also a small worm which attacks the bud of the plant, and which is sure destruction to its further growth; and some again, though less destructive, are to be seen within the two coats of the leaf, feeding as it were on its juices alone. The worming should be strictly attended to every morning and evening, until the plants are pretty well grown, when every other day will be sufficient. The most proper persons for worming are either boys or girls from ten to fourteen years of age. They should be made to come to the tobacco ground early in the morning, and be led by inducements, such as giving a trifling reward to those who will bring the most worms, to clear it thoroughly. Grown persons would find it rather too tedious to stoop to examine the under part of every leaf, and seek the worm under ground: nor would they be so much alive to the value of a spoonful of sugar, or other light reward. Beside, where the former would make the search a matter of profit and pleasure, it would to the latter prove only a tedious and irksome occupation. Here I will observe, that it is for similar reasons that the culture of the Cuba tobacco plant more properly belongs to a white population, for there are few plants requiring more attention and tender treatment than it does. Indeed it will present a sorry appearance, unless the eye of its legitimate proprietor is constantly watching over it. When the plants have acquired from twelve to fourteen good leaves, and are about knee high, it may be well to begin to top them, by nipping off the bud with the aid of the finger and thumb nail (washing the hands after this in water is necessary, as the acid juices of the plants, otherwise, soon produce a soreness on the fingers), taking care not to destroy the small leaves immediately near the bud: for if the land is good and the season favorable, those very small top leaves will in a short time be nearly as large, and ripen quite as soon as the lower ones, whereby two or more leaves may be saved; thus obtaining from 16 to 18 leaves, in the place of 12 or 14, which is the general average. As the topping of the tobacco plant is all essential in order to promote the growth, and to equalise the ripening of the leaves, I would observe that this operation should at all events commence the instant that the bud of the plant shows a disposition to go to seed, and be immediately followed by removing the suckers, which it will now put out at every leaf. Indeed, the suckers should be removed from the plant as often as they appear. The tobacco plant ought never to be cut before it comes to full maturity, which is known by the leaves becoming mottled, coarse, and of a thick texture, and gummy to the touch, at which time the end of the leaf, by being doubled, will break short, which it will not do to the same extent when green. It ought not to be out in wet weather, when the leaves lose their natural gummy substance, so necessary to be preserved. About this period, the cultivator is apt to be rendered anxious by the fear of allowing the plants to remain in the field longer than necessary; until experience removes those apprehensions, he should be on his guard, however, not to destroy the quality of his tobacco, by cutting it too soon. When the cutting is to commence, there should be procured a quantity of forked stakes, set upright, with a pole or rider setting on each fork ready to support the tobacco, and to keep it from the ground. The plant is then cut obliquely, even with the surface of the ground, and the person thus employed should strike the lower end of the stalk, two or three times with the blunt side of his knife, so as to cause as much of the sand or soil to fall from it as possible, then tying two stalks together, they are gently placed across the riders or poles prepared to receive them. In this state they are allowed to remain in the sun or open air until the leaves have somewhat withered, whereby they will not be liable to the injury which they would otherwise receive, if they came suddenly in contact with other bodies when fresh cut. Then place as many plants on each pole or rider as may be conveniently carried, and take them in the drying house, where the tobacco is strung off upon the frames prepared for it, leaving a small space between the two plants, that air may circulate freely among them, and promote their drying. As the drying advances, the stalks are brought closer to each other, so as to make room for those which yet remain to be housed. In drying the tobacco, all damp air should be excluded, nor ought the drying of it to be precipitated by the admission of high drying winds. The process is to be promoted in the most moderate manner, except in the rainy season, when the sooner the drying is effected the better; for it is a plant easily affected by the changes of the weather, after the drying commences. It is then liable to mildew in damp weather, which is when the leaf changes from its original color to a pale yellow cast, and from this, by parts, to an even brown. When the middle stem is perfectly dry, it can be taken down, and the leaves stripped from the stalk and put in bulk to sweat, that is, to make tobacco of them; for before this process, when a concentration of its better qualities takes place, the leaves are always liable to be affected by the weather, and cannot well be considered as being anything else than common dry leaves, partaking of the nature of tobacco, but not actually tobacco. The leaves are to be stripped from the stalks in damp or cloudy weather, when they are more easily handled, and the separation of the different qualities rendered also more easy. The good leaves are at this time kept by themselves as wrappers, or caps, and the most defective ones for fillings, or _tripa_. When the tobacco is put in _bulk_, the stem of the leaves should all be kept in one direction, to facilitate the tying of them in hanks: afterwards make the bulk two of three feet high, and of a proportionate circumference. To guard against the leaves becoming over-heated, and to equalise the fermentation or sweating, after the first twenty-four hours, place the outside leaves in the centre, and those of the centre to the outside of the _bulk_. By doing this once or twice, and taking care to cover the _bulk_ either with sheets or blankets, so as to exclude all air from it, and leaving it in this state for about forty days, it acquires an odor strong enough to produce sneezing, and the other qualities of cured tobacco. The process of curing may then be considered as completed. Then take some of the most injured leaves, but of the best quality, and in proportion to the quantity of tobacco made, and place them in clean water, there let them remain until they rot, which they will do in about eight days; then break open your _bulks_, spread the tobacco with their stems in one direction, and damp them with this water in a gentle manner, that it may not soak through the leaf, for in this case the leaf would rot. Sponge is used in Cuba for this operation. Then tie them in hanks of from, twenty-five to thirty leaves; this being done, spread the hanks in the tobacco house for about twelve hours, to air them, that the dampness may be removed, and afterwards pack them in casks or barrels, and head them tight, until you wish to manufacture them. The object of damping the tobacco with this water, is to give it elasticity, to promote its burning free, to increase its fragrance; to give it an aromatic smell, and to keep it always soft. This is the great secret of curing tobacco for cigars properly, and for which we are indebted to the people of Cuba, who certainly understand the mode of curing this kind of tobacco better than other people. It is to them a source of great wealth, and may be made equally so to others. We have here three cuttings from the original plants; the last cutting will be of rather a weak quality, but which, nevertheless, will be agreeable to those who confine their smoking to weak tobacco. In ratooning the plant, only one sprout ought to be allowed to grow, and this from those most deeply rooted; all other sprouts ought to be destroyed. The houses necessary for the curing of tobacco ought to be roomy, with a passage way running through the centre, from one extremity of the building to the other, and pierced on both sides with a sufficient number of doors and windows to make them perfectly airy. In addition to what I have said respecting the mode of cultivating and treating the tobacco plant, I have further to state, that when once the plant is allowed to be checked in its growth, it never again recovers it. That in promoting the drying of the leaf, fire should not be resorted to, because the smoke would impart to it a flavor that would injure that of the tobacco itself. In order to obtain vigorous plants, the seed ought to be procured from the original stalk, and not from the ratoons, by allowing some of them to go to seed for that express purpose. In Cuba, the seed is most generally saved from the ratoon plants, but we should consider that that climate and soil are probably more favorable to the production of the plant than America, and consequently we ought to confide in the best seed, which is had from the original stalk. All plants have their peculiar empire: nevertheless, we should not be deterred from planting Cuba tobacco here; for even if we should be compelled to import the seed every third year, which would be as often as necessary, it would still prove a profitable culture. Taking 600 lbs., which is the average product per acre, it would yield, if well cured, at 50 cents, per lb., 300 dollars in the leaf. The following exhibits the profit to be derived from it when manufactured into cigars:-- Dls. Dls. Six hundred pounds, allowing eight pounds to the 1.000, would produce 75,000 cigars, which at ten dollars per thousand 750.00 Cost of the leaf 300.00 Worth of manufacture, at two dollars fifty cents per thousand 187.50 487.50 -------- Difference in favor of manufacturer 262.50 This amount being the profits of the manufacturer alone, the profit to him who could combine both pursuits would be more than doubled. As to the quantity of land which can be cultivated to the hand, there is some difference in the practice of planters; however, I think that I am within the usual calculation in saying, that an acre and a half would not exceed the quantity that an able hand can easily cultivate and manage properly. "With reference to the cultivation of Spanish tobacco from the seed, the following remarks are also made by a gentleman residing in Maryland:-- My experience for some years in the cultivation and manufacture of Spanish tobacco into cigars, convinces me that the first-rate variety of Spanish tobacco--that is, the most odorous and fine--will bear reproduction in our climate twice, without much deterioration; by that time it becomes acidulated and worthless as Spanish tobacco. For seven years I have imported annually first seed from Cuba, but have occasionally made experiments with reproduced seed, and I have arrived at the conclusion above stated. I have obtained, annually, a cigar maker from Baltimore, who has made for me on my farm, and from Spanish tobacco. These produced about the average of 70,000 cigars, per year; they have been sold in Baltimore and Philadelphia for five dollars the half box, that is ten dollars the thousand. The tobacco has been uniformly admired, but in former years they have been very badly made; for the last two years, (writing in 1843,) my crops were destroyed by the unfavorable weather. This growth and manufacture do not interfere with my cultivation of other crops; in fact they are wholly unconnected with the other operations of the farmer." He mentions having obtained a premium from an agricultural society, for having produced on one and a half acres, growth and manufacture included, of Spanish tobacco 504 dollars net profit. The following letter from Mr. Clarke, to the Hon. H. L. Ellsworth, Washington, speaks favorably of a new variety of tobacco:-- Willow Grove, Orange County, Virginia, Feb. 13, 1844. Dear Sir,--Agreeably to my promise I enclose you the Californian tobacco seed. It grew from the small parcel given to me by Mr. Wm. Smith, in your office in March last. On getting home, although late, I prepared a bed, and sowed the small parcel, the first week in April, and not having seed enough to finish the bed, sowed the balance of the bed in Oronoko tobacco seed, and to my astonishment the Californian plants were soon ready to set out, as soon as the other kinds of tobacco sown in the month of January; and the Oronoko seed, that was sown with the Californian, did not arrive to sufficient size until it was too late to set out. The Californian tobacco, if it continues to ripen and grow for the time to come, as it did for me on the first trial, must come into general use--first, because the plants are much earlier in the spring (say ten days at least), than any kind we have; secondly, when transplanted, the growth is remarkably quick, matures and ripens at least from ten to fifteen days earlier than any kind of tobacco we have in use amongst us. It is a large broad, silky leaf, of fine texture, and of a beautiful color, and some plants grow as large as seven feet across, from point to point; upon the whole, I consider it a valuable acquisition to the planting community. Tobacco is one of the chief staples of Cuba. There are many qualities, but it is usually classed into two kinds. That which is raised on the western end of the island and is unequalled for smoking, is called "Vuelta abajo." That which is raised east of Havana, is called "Vuelta arriba," and is far inferior to the former. The best Havana tobacco farms are confined to a very narrow area on the south west part of Cuba. This district, twenty-seven leagues long and only seven broad, is bounded on the north by mountains, on the south and west by the ocean, whilst eastward, though there is no natural limit, the tobacco sensibly degenerates in quality. A light sandy soil and rather low situation suit the best. The "Vuelta abajo" is usually divided into five classes. Calidad or Libra. Ynjuriado Principal or Firsts. Segundas or Seconds. Terceiras or Thirds. Cuartas or Fourths. Calidad is the best tobacco, selected for its good color, flavor, elasticity and entireness of the leaves. The bales contain sixty hands of four gabillas, or fingers of twenty-five leaves each, and are marked L.60. Ynjuriado Principal has less flavor, and is usually of a lighter color. The leaves should be whole and somewhat elastic. The bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas, or thirty leaves each, and are marked B. 80. Segundas is the most inferior class of wrapper. There are many good leaves in it, but the hands are usually made up of those which are stained, have a bad color, or have been slightly touched by the worm. The bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas of thirty-six to forty leaves each, and are marked Y. 2a. 80. Terceiras is the best tilling, and much wrapper can usually be selected from it when new. The bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas of more than forty leaves each, and are marked 3a. 80. Cuartas is the most inferior class, fit only for filling. The bales contain eighty hands of four gabillas of no determined number of leaves, and are marked 4a. 80. The Vuelta arriba tobacco is prepared in a similar manner, but neither its color or flavor is good, and it does not burn well. The crop is gathered in the spring, and usually begins to appear at market in July. Good tobacco should be aromatic, of a rich brown color, without stains, and the leaf thin and elastic. It should burn well and the taste should be neither bitter nor biting. The best is grown on the margins of rivers which are periodically overflowed, and is called "De rio." It is distinguished from other tobacco by a fine sand, which is found in the creases of the leaves. The tobacco plantations in Cuba increased in number from 5,534 in 1827, to 9,102 in 1846. The production of tobacco has nearly doubled in the province, of which St. Jago is the port, in the last ten years. The following figures show the exports from the Havana:-- Leaf tobacco. Cigars. 1840 1,031,136 lbs. 147,818 thousand. 1841 1,460,302 " 161,928 " 1842 1,053,161 " 135,127 " 1843 2,125,805 " 153,227 " 1844 1,197,136 " 147,825 " 1845 1,621,889 " 120,352 " 1846 4,066,262 " 158,841 " 1847 1,936,829 " 1,982,267 " 1848 1,350,815 " 150,729 " 1849 1,158,265 " 111,572 " The class of tobacco shipped at the port of Havana, is not the same as that gathered in the districts from which the manufacturers of cigars there receive their supplies--it would cost too dear. However, it is not a rare occurrence to find among a number of bales a few of a quality about equal to that employed there, and this happens in years when the crop has been very abundant, as in 1846 and 1848. The various classes are paid in proportion to the capa, or outside leaves, which are found in an assortment; the three first classes are employed as covers, and often, if the tobacco is new, they may be found in the fourth and even in the fifth. In parcels well assorted, one-fourth is composed of capa--say, first, second, and third, and the rest is composed of tripa, or interior of the cigar. In the first-named, there generally comes more of the _capa_ than is necessary to use; the remaining bales, which contain the inferior class, are fit only for fillings. The following is an analysis of the ashes of Havana tobacco:-- Salts of potash 24.30 Salts of lime and magnesia 67.40 Silica 8.30 ----- 100.00 Hayti exported in 1836 1,222,716 lbs. Porto Rico, in 1839 43,203 cwt. The French have been so successful in cultivating tobacco, in their possessions in Northern Africa, that they hope soon to be independent of the foreign grown article. The mode of preparing it, however, is not very well understood by the colonists. In 1851, the number of planters in Algeria was only 137, whereas in 1852, it was 1,073. The number of hectares under culture with the tobacco plant was 446 in 1851, and 1,095 in 1852. The total of the present year's crop is estimated at 1,780,000 kilogrammes, of which 700,000 kilogrammes have been grown by the natives, and the rest by Europeans. In the province of Algiers alone, the quantity of tobacco sold will amount to 550,000 kilogrammes, which is nearly three times as much as in 1851, and an equal progression has taken place in the provinces of Oran, and Constantina. The cultivation of tobacco in Algeria has proved most successful; in 1851, only 264,912 kilogrammes were produced; in 1852, the quantity had risen to 735,199 kilogrammes. There are two crops in the year, the first being the best, but even this is capable of almost indefinite augmentation. CULTURE OF TOBACCO IN THE EAST. Having touched upon the practice of culture in the western world, we will now bend our steps towards the east, and it may be curious to notice the method pursued in cultivating and curing the celebrated Shiraz tobacco of Persia (_Nicotiana Persica_), which is so much esteemed for the delicacy of its flavor, and its aromatic quality. It is thus described by an intelligent traveller. The culture of the plant, it will be seen, is nearly the same; it is only the preparation of the tobacco that forms the difference:-- In December the seed is sown in a dark soil, which, has been slightly manured (red clayey soils will not do). To protect the seed, and to keep it warm, the ground is covered with light, thorny bushes, which are removed when the plants are three or four inches high; and during this period, the plants are watered every four or five days, only however in the event of sufficient rain to keep the soil well moistened not falling. The ground must be kept wet until the plants are six to eight inches high, when they are transplanted into a well moistened soil, which has been made into trenches for them; the plants being put on the top of the ridges ten or twelve inches apart, while the trenched plots are made, so as to retain the water given. The day they are transplanted, water must be given to them, and also every five or six days subsequently, unless rain enough falls to render this unnecessary. When the plants have become from thirty to forty inches high, the leaves will be from three to fifteen inches long. At this period, or when the flowers are forming, all the flower capsules are pinched or twisted off. After this operation and watering being continued, the leaves increase in size and thickness until the month of August or September, when each plant is cut off close to the root, and again stuck firmly into the ground. At this season of the year, heavy dews fall during the night; when exposed to these the color of the leaves change from green to the desired yellow. During this stage, of course no water is given to the soil. When the leaves are sufficiently yellow, the plants are taken from the earth early in the morning, and while they are yet wet from the dew, are heaped on each other in a high shed, the walls of which are made with light thorny bushes, where they are freely exposed to the wind. While there, and generally in four or five days, those leaves which are still green become of the desired pale yellow color. The stalks and centre stem of each leaf are now removed, and thrown away, the leaves are heaped together in the drying house for three or four days more, when they are in a fit state for packing. For this operation the leaves are carefully spread on each other and formed into sorts of cakes, the circumference from four to five feet, and three to four inches thick, great care being taken not to break or injure the leaves. Bags made of strong cloth, but thin and very open at the sides, are filled with these cakes, and pressed very strongly down on each other; the leaves would be broken if this were not attended to. When the bags are filled, they are placed separately in a drying house, and turned daily. If the leaves were so dry that there would be a risk of their breaking during the operation of packing, a very slight sprinkling of water is given them to enable them to withstand it without injury. The leaf is valued for being thick, tough, and of a uniform light yellow color, and of an agreeable aromatic smell. In India, the Surat, Bilsah, and Sandoway (Arracan) varieties of tobacco are the most celebrated. The two first are found to be good for cultivation in the district about Calcutta, but the Cabool is still more to be preferred. Tobacco requires in the East, for its growth, a soil as fertile and as well manured as for the production of the poppy or opium. It is, therefore, often planted in the spaces enriched by animal and vegetable exuviæ, among the huts of the natives. I have tried seed in different soils, says Capt. C. Cowles,--namely a light garden mould with a large portion of old house rubbish, dug to a good depth, which had a top dressing of the sweepings of the farm-yard and cow-houses; a rather heavy loam, highly manured with burnt and decayed vegetables, and old cow dung; the third was a patch of ground, which was originally an unwholesome swamp, from being eighteen inches to two feet, lower than the surrounding land; the soil appeared to be a hard sterile clay, and covered with long coarse grass and rushes. As there was a tank near it, I cut away one side of it, and threw the soil over the ground, bringing it rather above the level. Such was its appearance, (a hard compost marly clay,) that I expected no other good from it than that of raising the land so as to throw the water off; contrary, however, to my expectations, it produced a much finer crop of tobacco than either of the other soils, and with somewhat less manure. The agricultural process is limited to some practical laws founded on experience, and these are subject to two principal agents; viz., the soil and climate. With respect to the former, it is the practice amongst the growers in tobacco countries, such as Cuba, the States of Virginia, North and South Carolina, and the Philippine Islands, to select a high and dry piece of land, of a siliceous nature, and combined with iron, if possible; and with respect to the latter, there are seasons of the year too well known to the planters to need any explanation. The only difference (if there is any) depends on the geographical situation of the place, with respect to its temperature, or in the backwardness or advancement of seasons, and even on the duration of the same--in which circumstances the planter takes advantage of the one for the other. The influence of a burning climate may be modified by choosing the coolest month of the year, whereas the soil cannot be altered without incurring great expense. I have seen tobacco lose its natural quality and degenerate by transplanting from one soil to another, although of the same temperature, and _vice versa_. Mr. Piddington has analysed several Indian soils, distinguished for the production of superior tobacco. These are the table soils from Arracan, (Sandoway,) a soil from Singour, in Burdwan, near Chandernagore, the tobacco of which, though of the same species as that of the surrounding country, sells at the price of the Arracan sort; and the soil of the best Bengal tobacco, which is grown at, and about Hingalee, in the Kishnagur district. The best tobacco soils of Cuba and Manila, are for the most part red soils. Now, the red and reddish soils contain most of their iron in the state of peroxide, or the reddish brown oxide of iron; while the lighter grey soils contain it only in the state of protoxide, or the black oxide of iron. Mr. Piddington believes the quality of the tobacco to depend mainly on the state and quantity of the iron of the soil, while it is indifferent about the lime, which is so essential to cotton. None of the tobacco soils contain any lime. Their analysis show them to contain:-- Arracan soil. Singour soil. Hingalee soil. Oxide or iron, (peroxide) 15,65 10,60 6,00 Water and saline matter 1,10 75 1,50 Vegetable matter and fibre 3,75 1,10 75 Silex 76,90 80,65 87,25 Alumina 2,00 4,50 1,50 ------- ------- ------- 99,40 97,60 97,00 Water and loss 60 2,40 3,00 ------- ------- ------- 100 100 100 From which it will be seen that the best tobacco soil hitherto found in India contains about sixteen per cent., or nearly one-sixth, of iron, which is mostly in a state of peroxide; and that the inferior sort of tobacco grows in a soil containing only six per cent., or one-sixteenth of iron, which is, moreover, mostly in the state of protoxide, or black oxide. Mr. Piddington thought it worth examining what the quantity of iron in the different sorts of tobacco would be, and found that while the ashes of one ounce, or 480 grains of Havana and Sandoway cheroots gave exactly 1.94 grains, or 0.40 per cent., of peroxide of iron the ashes of the same quantity of the Hingalee, or best Bengal tobacco, only gave 1.50 grains, or 0.32 per cent.; and it appears to exist in the first two in a state of peroxide, and in the last as a protoxide of iron; rendering it highly probable that the flavor of the tobacco to the smoker depends on the state and quantity of the iron it contains! Green copperas water, which is a solution of sulphate of iron, is often used by the American and English tobacconists and planters, to colour and flavor their tobacco; and this would be decomposed by the potass of the tobacco, and sulphate of potass and carbonate of iron is formed. Carbonate of iron is of an ochre-yellow color. Mr. Piddington says he took care to ascertain that this process had not been performed with the tobacco used for this experiment; and adds that Bengal cheroot makers do not know of this method. Mr. Laidley, of Gonitea, dissents from the idea suggested by Mr. Piddington that ferruginous matter in the soil is essential to the successful growth of tobacco. He observes that if we attend only to the iron contained, why every plant will be found to require a ferruginous soil; but tobacco contains a notable quantity of nitrate of potass and muriate of ammonia (the latter a most rare ingredient in plants), and these two salts are infinitely more likely to affect the flavor of the leaf than a small portion of oxide of iron, an inert body. Now as neither of these can be supplied by the atmosphere, we must search for them in the soil, and accordingly he imagined that a compost similar to the saltpetre beds which Napoleon employed so extensively in France, would be a good manure for tobacco lands; namely, calcareous matter, such as old mortar, dung, and the ashes of weeds or wood. He was aware that good tobacco might be grown in Beerbhoom, having raised some himself several years ago from American seed. The plants grew most vigorously, and he further observed, in confirmation of his opinion about the proper manure, that in other districts in which he had resided the natives always grew the tobacco (each for his own use) upon the heap of rubbish at his door, consisting of ashes, cow-dung, and offal of all kinds. While the soil of the Gangetic diluvium almost always contains carbonate of lime, the Beerbhoom soil does not, as far at least as Mr. Laidley had examined it. The following is the mode of culture pursued about the city of Coimbetore. Between the middle of August and the same time in September, a plot of ground is hoed and embanked into small squares; in these the seed is sown, and covered by hand three times at intervals of ten days. To secure a succession of seedlings water is then given, and the sun's rays moderated by a covering of bushes. Watering is repeated every day for a month, and then only every fifth day. The field in which the seedlings are transplanted, is manured and ploughed at the end of August. Cattle are also folded upon the ground. Four or five ploughings are given between mid September and the middle of October, when the field is divided as above into small squares. These are watered until the soil is rendered a mud. Plants of the first sowing are then inserted at the end of September, about a cubit apart, the transplanting being done in the afternoon. At intervals of ten days the seedlings of the other two sowings are removed. A month after being transplanted the field is hoed, and after another month the leading shoot of each plant is pinched off, so as to leave them not more than a cubit high. Three times during the next month all side shoots thrown out are removed. When four months old, the crop is ready for cutting. To render the leaves sweet the field is watered, and the plants cut down close to the surface, being allowed to remain when cut until next morning. Their roots are tied to a rope and suspended round the hedges. In fine weather the leaves are dry in ten days, but if cloudy they require five more days. They are then heaped up under a roof, which is covered with bushes and pressed with stones for five days. After this the leaves are removed from the stems, tied in bunches, heaped again, and pressed for four days longer. They are now tied in bundles, partly of the small leaf and partly of the large leaf bundles, and again put in heaps for ten days--once during the time the heaps being opened and piled afresh. This completes the drying. A thousand bundles, weighing about 570 lbs., is a good produce for an acre. In 1760, Ceylon produced a considerable quantity of tobacco, principally about Jaffna, a demand having sprung up for it in Travancore, and on the Malay coast. The cultivation spread to other districts of the island, Negombo, Chilaw, and Matura. Not long after the possession of the island by the British, a monopoly was created by an import duty of 25 per cent., _ad valorem_, and in 1811 the growers were compelled to deliver their tobacco into the Government stores at certain fixed rates. The culture and demand thereupon decreased. In 1853, the duty on the exports of tobacco from this island amounted to £8,386, and in 1836 to £9,514. Ceylon now exports a considerable quantity of tobacco. The value of that exported in 1844 was nearly £18,000: it went exclusively to British colonies. The shipments since have been as follows:-- 1848 £17,992 ---- 1849 22,300 ---- 1850 20,721 22,184 cwts. 1851 21,422 22,523 " 1852 20,531 21,955 " About 96,000 piculs of cigars, of five different qualities, are exported annually from Siam. A good deal of very fine tobacco is grown in the Philippines, and the Manila cheroots are celebrated all over the globe. The quantity of raw tobacco shipped from Manila in 1847 was 92,106 arrobas (each about a quarter of a cwt.); manufactured tobacco, 12,054 arrobas; and 1,933 cases of cigars. 5,220 boxes of cigars were shipped from Manila in 1844. 73,439 millions of cigars were shipped in 1850, and 42,629 quintals of leaf tobacco. The manufacture of cigars in Manila is a monopoly of the government, and not only is this the case, but it is a monopoly of the closest description, and any infringement of the assumed rights of the Spanish Indian government is visited by the most severe penalties. Public enterprise, however little of that commodity there now exists in the Spanish character, is thus kept down; and this is not only detrimental to the nation itself, but is also unjust towards those persons who are the purchasers of the article, enhanced in price, as is always the case, by monopoly. The cheroot, which now costs, free of duty, about one halfpenny, could be rendered for half that sum, according to well-authenticated opinions. To protect itself from illicit manufacturers, or smuggling of any kind in connection with cigars, the government is compelled to maintain an army of gendarmes, in order to adopt the most stringent means which despotic states alone tolerate. No person is, therefore, permitted to have even the tobacco leaf in its raw state on his premises, and gendarmes pay, at stated intervals, domiciliary visits to the habitations of the people, in search of any contraband materials. There are several extensive manufactories of cigars and cheroots belonging to the government in and near Manila. Mr. Mac Micking, in his recent work on the Philippines, thus describes the mode of manufacture by those employed by the government:-- In making cheroots women only are employed, the number of those so engaged in the factory at Manila being generally about 4,000. Beside these, a large body of men are employed at another place in the composition of cigarillos, or small cigars, kept together by an envelope of white paper in place of tobacco; these being the description most smoked by the Indians. The flavor of Manila cheroots is peculiar to themselves, being quite different from that made of any other sort of tobacco; the greatest characteristic probably being its slightly soporific tendency, which has caused many persons in the habit of using it to imagine that opium is employed in the preparatory treatment of the tobacco, which, however, is not the case. The cigars are made up by the hands of women in large rooms of the factory, each of them containing from 800 to 1,000 souls. These are all seated, or squatted, Indian like, on their haunches, upon the floor, round tables, at each of which there is an old woman presiding to keep the young ones in order, about a dozen of them being the complement of a table. All of them are supplied with a certain weight of tobacco, of the first, second, or third qualities used in composing a cigar, and are obliged to account for a proportionate number of cheroots, the weight and size of which are by these means kept equal. As they use stones for beating out the leaf on the wooden tables before which they are seated, the noise produced by them while making them up is deafening, and generally sufficient to make no one desirous of protracting a visit to the place. The workers are well recompensed by the government, as very many of them earn from six to ten dollars a month for their labor; and as that amount is amply sufficient to provide them with all their comforts, and to leave a large balance for their expenses in dress, &c., they are seldom very constant laborers, and never enter the factory on Sundays, or, at least, on as great an annual number of feast days as there are Sundays in a year. The Japanese grow a good deal of tobacco for their own consumption, which is very considerable. They consider that from Sasma as the best, then that from Nangasakay, Sinday, &c. The worst comes from the province of Tzyngaru; it is strong, of a black color, and has a disgusting taste and smell. The tobacco from Sasma is, indeed, also strong, but it has an agreeable taste and smell, and is of a bright yellow color. The tobacco from Nangasakay is very weak, in taste and smell perhaps the best, and of a bright brown color. The tobacco from Sinday is very good. The Japanese manufacture the tobacco so well, says Capt. Golownin, (Recollections of Japan,) that though I was before no friend to smoking, and even when I was at Jamaica could but seldom persuade myself to smoke an Havana cigar, yet I smoked the Japanese tobacco very frequently, and with great pleasure. The culture of tobacco is a very profitable article for the laborers, seeing that the produce is obtained from grounds which have already given the first crop. The qualities of Java tobacco are more and more prized in the European markets, the preparation and assortment are not yet all that could be desired, but they have progressed in this branch, and the contracts made with the new adventurers assure them of a considerable benefit. But before the Java tobaccos can find an assured opening in the European markets, it is necessary that the cultivators should make use of seed from the Havana or Manila. The residencies of Rembang, Sourabaya, Samarang, Chinbou, and Tagal, present districts suited for its culture; it has been carried on with success for a good many years in the residencies of Treanger, Pakalongan, and Kedu, but only for the consumption of the interior, and of the Archipelago. Tobacco is cultivated in Celebes, but merely in sufficient quantity for local consumption. It is exclusively grown by the Bantik population--the mode of preparation is the same as in Java; it is chopped very fine and mostly flavored with arrack. When bought in large quantities, it may be had for thirty cents the pound; but in smaller quantities it costs double that price. Tobacco is cultivated in New South Wales with much success. Australia produces a leaf equal to Virginia, or the most fertile parts of Kentucky, but the great difficulty is to extract the superabundant "nitre." The first crop in New South Wales exceeds one ton per acre, and the second crop off the same plants, yields about half the weight of the first. In 1844 there were about 871 acres in cultivation in New South Wales with tobacco, and the produce was returned at 6,382 cwts. In New England, New South Wales, as fine a "fig" as could be wished for is manufactured under the superintendence of a thorough-bred Virginia tobacco manufacturer--but the impossibility of extracting the nitre by the heating, or any other process, renders the flavor rank and disagreeable. Perhaps cheroots, or the lower numbers of cigars, manufactured from the Australian leaf, might prove more successful. In Sydney the time for sowing tobacco seed is September, but in Van Diemen's Land it should be a month later, as tobacco plants cannot stand the frost. The ground should be made fine, and in narrow beds three feet wide from path to path, to allow for weeding without stepping on the beds. The seed, being small, should not be raked in; but after the ground is raked fine, and perfectly clean, and well pulverised, mix the seed with wood ashes, and sow over the beds, and pat in with the spade, or tread in with the naked feet, which is preferable. The ground should be moist, but not much watered, or it moulds the plants. When about as large as moderate sized cabbage plants, they should be put out--three feet or three feet six in the rows, and five feet apart between the rows. When the plant rises to about two feet high, it will throw out suckers at each leaf, which must be carefully taken off with the finger and thumb, and all bottom and decayed leaves that touch the ground taken off. When the tobacco plant throws out flower, it must be topped off, leaving about twelve leaves in the stalk to ripen and come to maturity. When the leaves feel thick between the finger and thumb, and assume a mottled appearance, they are fit to cut. In "Tegg's New South Wales Almanac" it is stated that the end of July is the usual time for sowing the seed. In order, however, to prevent the plants from being subsequently destroyed by frost, care must be taken not to sow the seed until the frost has ceased in any respective locality (unless raised in a frame). Tobacco requires a rich light soil, and well manured. By the instructions for cultivating it, the plant must be three feet apart each way, which would give 4,840 plants to an acre; assuming that each plant would yield half a pound for the first crop, this would give 2,420 lbs. to an acre, which is only 180 lbs. in excess of a ton. In New South Wales several parties use the tobacco stems for sheep wash. One pound of tobacco is sufficient to wash five sheep on an average (one washing), which would give 12,100 sheep to one acre. Assuming that only one crop was grown in New Zealand in one year, of 2,420 lbs. to an acre, at 3d. per pound, (which is about half the market price of a fair sample of tobacco in bond,) it would amount to £30 5s. per acre. Three rows of Indian corn are planted outside the tobacco plants to shelter them from the wind. In order to save seed, a few plants are allowed to flower. The Virginian tobacco is the largest; it is known by a pink flower; the _Nicotiana rustica_ (common green) has a yellow flower. A planter in Northern Australia furnishes the following directions:-- The land selected for the growth of tobacco ought to be of the most fertile description, of a friable description, and upon which no water can rest within eighteen inches of the surface. Newly cleared brush lands of this nature are the most prolific; upon such, after good tillage, put the plants about four feet or more apart, in rows, and five feet six inches asunder. In interior or old ground, plant proportionately closer. Before topping or nipping off the head, all the lower leaves (that is such as may touch the ground) ought to be broken off, leaving only from five to seven for the crop, which will yield a greater weight and be of a superior quality than if double that number were left. When ripe, a dry and cloudy day should be selected to cut it, as the sun destroys its quality after cutting. It ought then to lie sufficiently long upon the ground so as to welt before carting to the sheds, hanging up each stalk next morning so as not to touch its fellow. The drying sheds ought to be built upon an elevated or dry spot, with a hoarded flour of rough split stuff, fifteen or eighteen inches from the ground, with apertures as windows to admit or to exclude the external atmosphere. In damp weather close all the doors and windows, also every night; in contrary weather open all. In these drying houses the stalks should remain suspended until the vegetable moisture is entirely evaporated, so that on a dry day the stems of the leaves will break like a glass pipe, and the finer parts crumble into snuff upon compression; after which, in humid weather, they will become quite pliable; then strip the leaves off the stems, make them up into hands, and pack them tightly into a close bin: when full, cover it with boards and old bagged stuff, upon which place heavy weights. In this state it undergoes the sweating process, which, in this colony, is little understood or not properly attended to, and yet, upon the skill displayed thereon, the quality of the tobacco greatly depends. I will therefore give some general directions upon this portion of the planter's office. If the tobacco happen to be too damp when put into the bin, it will attain either an injurious or a destructive degree of heat; it must therefore he watched for some days after it is packed. To an experienced operator I would say, if the heat exceed 80 degrees of temperature, immediately unpack and re-hang the whole, waiting its condition as before explained, before it is again put into the sweating bin. Should the degree of heat be below that stated, it may remain for weeks or until the heat has subsided. I have generally removed it from the sweating process in about fourteen or twenty days, sometimes considerably longer, regulating that act by the odor and color of the leaf. If, however, it appears to be attaining a very dark brown color and its heat not subsided, it should be taken out and closely pressed into large cases or casks, when it will again attain a gentle heat called the "second sweating," as is invariably the case with the hogsheads of the American leaf tobacco: this again improves its quality. Here the grower's operations terminate. It may be necessary to remark, that how skilful and experienced soever the grower may be, it is hardly possible for him to produce a good article upon a small scale; for with a less quantity than one ton to place in the sweating bin at a time, the requisite heat to insure success will not be generated. I would further observe, that the practice of the colonists in growing what they term a "second crop" is most injurious to their interests, their lands, and the quality and character of the colonial tobacco. The American planter never attempts it. I would therefore strongly recommend its discontinuance, and also never to crop one piece of land with tobacco more than two or three years in succession. The Americans rarely take more than two crops unless the land be new; after which they sow it down with grasses, in which state it remains for two or three years until it is again planted with tobacco. I would recommend this plan to the growers. The character of the American tobacco has been greatly advanced in the mercantile world by an ordinance regulating that source of national wealth. The planters are thereby obligated to deposit their crops in warehouses, over which sworn inspectors preside, who rigidly examine every hogshead, and if found to be of mercantile quality, grant the owner a certificate, by which instrument only he sells his produce. The purchaser is hereby safe in buying these certificates. The tobacco to which they refer is delivered to the holder on presentation to the inspector. I mention this not as applicable here at present, but it most probably may hereafter. When the colony is suffering severely for the want of labor, it may by some be deemed inopportune in offering remarks upon this article of commerce. To such dissentients I will remark, that a great portion of the work can be performed by women and children. A moiety of our anticipated increase of population will be available for this hitherto mismanaged source of wealth. At present the quantity grown in the colony is equal to three-fourths of its consumption, and which production is of a very inferior quality to the imported. These facts tend to show that my notice of the subject is not inopportune, and particularly so when the object is to point out those errors so generally adopted by the tobacco growers here. Years of practical experience, of personal observation upon the plantations of North America, and my having been, I believe, the grower of the greatest quantity of tobacco in the colony, qualify me to afford instructions thereon; whereby, if attended to, our tobacco will become fully equal to the American, as was proved to be the case by the crops I grew here (upwards of 40 tons),[56] which were sold in Sydney by the Commissariat Department at public auction, at an advance of twenty per cent. more than the imported leaf. As the duty on tobacco is about to be reduced, the present production may fall off, unless an immediate improvement in its quality take place. Instead of being importers of tobacco, we should, if it was grown here to perfection, be exporters of it to all our sister colonies; and in its raw state, also to the European markets. At present, for home consumption, there is a greater profit to be made by its cultivation, if skilfully managed, than in any part of the world; for the duty upon imported is a positive bonus to the grower. In 1849-50 there were fifteen manufactories of tobacco on a small scale in New South Wales, but these were reduced in 1851 to six. Many samples of tobacco grown in the colony have been pronounced by competent judges equal to Virginian, but a very considerable prejudice exists against it. There is, however, no doubt that the dealers dispose of a great deal as American tobacco, and get a best price for it. The reduction of the import duties on foreign tobacco, recently made by the Legislative Council, will probably retard the progress of the colonial production and manufacture of this article; but with an abundance of labor there is no question that this branch of industry will be again profitably resorted to. The quantity of tobacco manufactured in New South Wales, in 1847, was 1,321 cwt.; in 1848, 714 cwt.; in 1849, 2,758 cwt.; in 1850, 3,833 cwt.; in 1851, 4,841 cwt. A correspondent of the _Adelaide Observer_ recommends its culture in South Australia, and supplies the following useful information:-- Without entering into botanical details, I will simply state that the plant is of a shrubby nature, about five feet high, and ought not to be planted nearer than four feet from each other, in rows five feet apart--thus allowing for each plant a space of ground four feet by five, or 20 square feet. An acre will consequently furnish sufficient room for 2,178 plants. The tobacco plant will thrive in almost any climate, from the torrid zone to the temperature of Great Britain. It luxuriates in rich alluvial valleys, where the soil is either of a _loamy_ or a _peaty_ nature. Maiden soil is not recommended. The ground should be trenched, worked as fine as possible, and well manured. Tobacco will not answer unless the subsoil is thoroughly broken. The best manure is that obtained from the bullock-yard, and bark from the tan yard; and by two or three ploughings the earth can be brought to a proper consistency, and fit for the reception of the plants. The usual method adopted in New South Wales, is to raise the plants in a warm, sheltered bed, neither exposed to wind nor to the sun's rays; but if the weather is dry, they should be well watered night and morning. The time of sowing is the end of August or the beginning of September in the latitude of Sydney, according to the state of the weather; and they may be transplanted when they have attained their sixth leaf, which is generally about a month or five weeks after they are up. The period is rather later in this colony, and care should be taken that the plants have gained sufficient strength in the ground after transplanting to withstand the effect of the hot winds, and, if practicable, the aspect should be either N.E. or N.W., and the rows should incline towards either of these points. The most suitable spots in this colony for the cultivation of tobacco, are Lyndoch Valley and the districts round the town of Willunga and Morphett Vale. The greatest care is required from the cultivator to prevent the destruction of the plant from its greatest enemy, the black grub. Daily search should be made for it, and not a plant should be left unexamined; they make their appearance about the beginning of November, when the plants have scarcely had time to take root. The soil between the rows should be kept constantly stirred with a three-pronged fork, that air and the sun's rays may be admitted, which latter are as indispensable to the growing plant as injurious to the seedling. The labor is great, and from first to last requires the constant attention of one man throughout the year, with an additional hand for about six weeks during the process of curing. The profits even in bad seasons are considerable; but when the season and soil are favorable, they average upwards of 100 per cent. The consumption of tobacco is great in this colony, not only for personal use, but for sheep-wash; and the profits may be considerably greater for the lower leaves, which, owing to their gritty nature, cannot be manufactured, but may be advantageously cured for wash. It is not my office to argue the point as to the advantages which may accrue from a free trade in tobacco; but this I know, and confidently assert it, from actual experiments made in this province, that a more lucrative article cannot be grown. The consumption in South America, in 1850, was 147,178 lbs.; and the annual increase since 1840 has been a higher percentage than the increase of population, chiefly owing to extension in sheep-farming. The probable expense of cultivation per acre may be as under:-- £ s. d. Rent 0 10 0 Labor, 12 months 52 0 0 Ditto, 2 months 8 10 0 Ploughing three times 2 2 0 Harrowing twice 1 0 0 Manure, say 2 10 0 Seed, say 0 10 0 ---------- £67 2 0 The Sydney average quantity is said to be 11-1/3 cwt. per acre, say 10 cwt.; and the cost price per lb. will be 14½d., or £6 15s. 4d. per cwt. The profit will at once be seen on this article of consumption. * * * * * Miscellaneous Drugs.--The blood tree (_Croton gossypifolia_), an evergreen shrub, native of the Trinidad mountains, is remarkable for yielding, when wounded, a thick juice resembling blood in color, which is one of the most powerful astringents I know of, and as such would be valuable to medical science. The bark of _Croton Cascarilla_ is, as we have seen in a former section, aromatic, and the seeds of _C. Tiglium_, the physic nut, are purgative; so are those of the purging nut (_Jatropha multifida_), and another species (_J. gossypifolia_). The pods of cow-itch (_Mucuna pruriens_) act as a vermifuge; the roots of the _Ruellia tuberosa_, or manyroot, and the bulbs of the white lily (_Pancratium Carribæum_ and _maritimum_), are emetic. The Indian root or bastard ipecacuan (_Asclepias curassavica_) has medicinal properties. _A. tuberosa_ is used as a mild cathartic, and a remedy for a variety of disorders. _Hydrastis canadensis_, or Canadian yellow root, is a valuable bitter, and furnishes a useful yellow dye. _Knowltonia vesicatoria_ is used commonly as a blister in the Cape Colony. _Ranunculus saleratus_ (the _R. indicus_ of Roxburgh, and _B. camosus_ of Wallich), common in India, is also used by the natives for blistering purposes. A kind of sedge rush, common in swampy places in the West India islands, the _Adme cyperus_, enjoys a reputation for the cure of yellow fever. It is also stated to be cordial, diuretic and cephalic, serviceable in the first stages of the dropsy, good in vomitings, fluxes, &c. Dr. Impey, the residentiary surgeon of Malwa, has just confidence in the indigenous drugs in use by the natives of the East, many of which are quite unknown in European practice. He believes that, in the Indian bazaars and the jungle, drugs having precisely the same effect as those of Europe may be discovered, and has recently drawn up a list of ninety substances, which are perfect substitutes for an equal number of European medicines. The class of tonics, in particular, is most amply supplied, and the Englishman is not the only animal who suffers from disorders of the digestive organs. My friend Dr. Hamilton, of Plymouth, recently brought under the notice of the profession the medical properties of the prickly poppy or Mexican thistle (_Argemone Mexicana_). It is indigenous to and grows wild in the greatest profusion throughout the whole of the Caribbean islands, and may be found at every season of the year covered with its bright golden blossoms, and bearing its prickly capsules in all their several stages of maturity. It is an annual plant, attaining a height of about two feet, growing abundantly in low and hot uncultivated spots. Its stem is round and prickly, furnished with alternate branches and thorny leaves. The seeds possess an emetic quality. The whole plant abounds in a yellow milky juice, resembling gamboge in color, and not improbably possessing properties similar to the seeds. In Nevis the oil is obtained from the bruised seeds by boiling, and sold by the negroes in small phials, containing about an ounce each, under the name of "thistle oil," at the price of a quarter of a dollar each. The usual dose for dry bellyache is thirty drops upon a lump of sugar, and its effect is perfectly magical, relieving the pain instantaneously, throwing the patient into a profound and refreshing sleep, and in a few hours relieving the bowels gently of the contents. This oil seems fitted to compete in utility with the far more costly and less agreeable oil of the croton. The seeds of the sandbox (_Hura crepitans_) when bruised, operate powerfully as emetico-cathartic. It is probable that an oil might be obtained from them similar in its operation to the thistle oil. A cucurbitaceous fruit, one of the Luffas (called by Von Martius _Luffa purgans_), a tribe closely allied to the colocynth and mornordicas, growing in South America, is a powerful purgative, and is used in the province of Pernambuco, where it is called Cabacinha. The fruit is about the size of a small pear and resembles the wild cucumber. An infusion of a fourth part of one of these fruits is administered chiefly in the form of an injection. Another species (_Luffa drastica_, of Martius) is also employed for the same purpose. The _Luffa purgans_ grows spontaneously in the suburbs of Recieffe, the capital of the province of Pernambuco, and flowers in November and December. The fruit is a drastic purgative, and an infusion of it is used either internally or in the form of clyster. The tincture is prepared by macerating, for twenty-eight hours or more, four of the fruit deprived of the seeds in a bottle of spirit 21 degrees. The dose is three or four ounces daily, which occasions much sickness. * * * * * Poisons.--The vegetable kingdom (observes Mr. Simple), to which man is largely indebted for the materials of food, clothing, and shelter, produces also some of the most deadly poisons with which science, experience, or accident, has made him acquainted. In examining the poisonous productions of the vegetable kingdom, we find that their properties are generally due to the presence of some acid or alkali contained in the plant from which they are derived. Oil of bitter almonds and cherry laurel water are poisonous in consequence of containing prussic acid. Opium owes its activity to the alkaloid morphia. The Upas-tiente derives its energetic powers from the alkaloid strychnia; conia is the active principle of hemlock; veratria of hellebore; aconita of monk's hood; and although there are several poisonous plants in which the active principle has not yet been detected, there can be little doubt that such a principle exists, although it has hitherto eluded the researches of the chemist.--("Pharmaceutical Journal," vol. 2, p. 17.) The bark taken from the roots of the Jamaica dogwood (_Piscidia erythrina_), which is extensively distributed throughout the Archipelago of the Antilles, is used for stupefying fish. The pounded root is mixed with slaked lime and the low wines or lees of the distillery, and the mixture is put into small baskets or sacks, and so suffered to wash out gradually, coloring the water to a reddish hue. The fish rise to the surface in a few minutes, when they float as if dead. The expressed juice of the root of _Maranta Arundinacea_ is stated to be a valuable antidote to some vegetable poisons, and also serviceable in cases of bites or stings of venomous insects or reptiles. One of the most popular remedies for the bites of snakes is a decoction of the leaves of the Guaco, or snake plant, of South America, a species of willow which flourishes along the banks of the streams in the sultry regions shaded by other trees. It is said to be both a preventive and cure. Mr. Edward Otto, writing from Cuba to the "Gardener's Magazine" for May, 1842, p. 286, describes the guaco as a tree growing from four to eight feet in height, with beautiful dark green leaves, having a brown tinge round the margin. The blossoms are small, of a bluish brown, and hang like loose bunches of grapes at the points of the shoots, or even on the stem itself, as it has seldom branches. The milky sap is said to have poisonous effects. "I was told (he adds) that this plant is used efficiently in cholera and yellow fever." This tree is said to be the _Camæladia ilicifolia_ of Swartz, common in Antigua and Hayti, being known in Antigua by the popular name of the holly-leaved maiden plum. * * * * * ALOES.--The drug called aloes is the bitter, resinous, inspissated juice of the leaves of various species of an arborescent plant of the lily family, with a developed stem and large succulent leaves, growing principally in tropical and sub-tropical regions, and having a wide extent of range, being produced in Borneo and the East, Africa, Arabia, and the West Indies; many are also natives of the Cape of Good Hope. The plant will thrive in almost any soil, and, when once established, it is extremely difficult to eradicate. The cultivation and manufacture are of the most simple kind. The usual mode of propagating the plants is by suckers; and all the care required is to keep them free from weeds. From the high price which the best Barbados aloes fetches in the market, £7 per cwt., its culture might be profitably extended to many of the other islands. The aloes plant is indigenous to the soil of Jamaica, and although handled by thousands of the peasantry and others, there is not perhaps one in five thousand who understands its properties or the value of the plant. With the Jamaicans it is commonly used in fever cases, by slicing the leaves, permitting the juice to escape partially, and then applying them to the head with bandages;--this is the only generally known property which it possesses there. A series of trials made recently in Paris proved that cordage manufactured from the fibre of this plant grown in Algiers, was far preferable in comparative strength to that manufactured from hemp. Cables, of equal size, showed that that made of the aloe raised a weight of one-fifth more than that of hemp. The drug is imported into this country under the names of Socotrine, East Indian or Hepatic, Barbados, Cape and Caballine aloes. It contains a substance called Aloetine, which some regard as its active principle. The various species now defined are--_Aloe spicata_, _vulgaris_, _Socotrina_, _Indica_, _rubescens_, _Arabica_, _linguæ-formis_ and _Commelina_. The average imports in 1841 and 1842 were only about 170,780 cwts.; it is now much larger, and a great portion of the supply is drawn from the Cape colony. The mode of preparing the drug, which I have myself seen in the West Indies, is exceedingly simple. When the plant has arrived at proper maturity, the laborers go into the field with tubs and knives, and cut the largest and most succulent leaves close to the stalk; these are placed upright in the tubs, side by side, so that the sap may flow out of the wound. Sometimes a longitudinal incision is made from top to bottom of the leaf, to facilitate the discharge. The crude juice thus obtained is placed in shallow flat-bottomed receivers, and exposed to the sun until it has acquired sufficient consistency to be packed in gourds for exportation. In preparing the coarser kind, or horse aloes, the leaves are cut into junks and thrown into the tubs, there to lie till the juice is pretty well drained out; they are then squeezed by the hand, and water, in the proportion of one quart to ten of juice, is added, after which it is boiled to a due consistence and emptied into large shallow coolers. The following analysis by M. Edmond Robiquet of a specimen of Socotrine aloes, obtained from M. Chevallier, is given in the sixth volume of the "Pharmaceutical Journal," p. 277. The constituents in 100 parts were:-- Pure aloes (Aloetine) 85.00 Ulmate of potash 2.00 Sulphate of lime 2.00 Carbonate of potash } -------------lime } traces. Phosphate of lime } Gallic acid .25 Albumen 8. The true Socotrine aloes is the produce of _A. Socotrina_, which grows abundantly in the island of Socotra in the Indian Ocean. Lieutenant Wellstead says, the hills on the west side of the island are covered for an extent of miles with aloe plants. The aloe grows spontaneously on the limestone mountains of Socotra, from 500 to 3,000 feet above the level of the sea. The produce is brought to Tamarida and Colliseah, the principal town and harbor for exports. In 1833, the best quality sold for 2s. a pound, while for the more indifferent the price was 13d. The value is much impaired by the careless manner in which the aloes is gathered and packed. Aloes once formed the staple of its traffic, for which it was chiefly resorted to; but only small quantities are now exported. It was formerly shipped by the way of Smyrna and Alexandria, but is usually now brought by the way of Bombay; Melinda, on the Zanzibar coast, and Maccula on the Arabian shore, furnish the greater part of that sold in Europe as Socotrine aloes. It comes home in chests or packages of 150 to 200 lbs. wrapt in skins of the gazelle, sometimes in casks holding half a ton or more. It is somewhat transparent, of a garnet or yellowish red color. The smell is not very unpleasant, approaching to myrrh. Socotrine aloes, although long considered the best kind, is now below Barbados aloes in commercial value. About two tons were imported from Socotra in 1833, but a much larger quantity could be obtained if required. The price of Socotrine aloes in the Liverpool market, in the early part of 1853, was 30s. to £6 the cwt.; of Cape, 30s. to 32s. _East Indian_, or _Hepatic aloes_.-- The real hepatic aloes, so called from its liver color, is believed to be the produce of _A. Arabica_, or _perfoliala_, which grows in Yemen in Arabia, from whence it is exported by the way of Bombay to Europe. According to Dr. Thomson and the "Materia Medica," it is duller in its color than the other kinds, is bitterer, and has a less pleasant aroma than the Socotrine aloes. It should not be liquid, which deteriorates the quality. _A. Indica_--a species with reddish flowers, common in dry situations, in the north-west provinces of India, is that from which an inferior sort of the drug is produced. It is obtained in Guzerat, Salem, and Trichinopoly, and fetches a local price of 2d. to 3d. a pound. In the Bombay market, Socotrine aloes fetches wholesale 16s. to 20s. the Surat maund of 41 lbs., and Maccula aloes only 9s. _Barbados aloes_, is the produce of _A. vulgaris_, or _A. barbadensis_, a native of the Cape colony, and is often passed off for the Hepatic. It is brought home in calabashes, or large gourd shells, containing from 60 to 70 lbs. each, or more. It is duskier in hue than the East Indian species, being a darkish brown or black, and the taste is more nauseous and intensely bitter. In 1786 one hogshead and 409 gourds of aloes were exported from Barbados. In 1827, there were about 96,000 packages shipped from the island. In 1844, there were 4,600 packages exported. The exports have fallen off considerably, only about 850 gourds having been shipped in the season of 1849-50; but in 1851 it increased to 2,505 gourds. _Caballine_, or _Horse-aloes_, is the coarsest species or refuse of the Barbados aloes, and from its rank fetid smell is only useful for veterinary medicine. It is also obtained from Spain and Senegal. A very good description of the mode of cultivating and preparing the aloes in Barbados is given in the 8th vol. of the "London Medical Journal":-- The lands in the vicinity of the sea, that is from two to three miles, which are rather subject to drought than otherwise, and are so strong and shallow as not to admit of the planting of sugar-canes with any prospect of success, are generally found to answer best for the aloe-plant. The stones, at least the larger ones, are first picked up, and either packed in heaps upon the most shallow barren spots, or laid round the field as a dry wall. The land is then lightly ploughed and very carefully cleared of all noxious weeds, lined at one foot distance from row to row, and the young plants set like cabbages, at about five or six inches from each other. This regular mode of lining and setting the plants is practised only by the most exact planters, in order to facilitate the frequent weeding by hand; because if the ground be not kept perfectly clean and free from weeds, the produce will be very small. Aloes will bear being planted in any season of the year, even in the dryest, as they will live on the surface of the earth for many weeks without a drop of rain. The most general time of planting them, however, is from April to June. In the March following, the laborers carry a parcel of tubs and jars into the field, and each takes a slip or breadth of it, and begins by laying hold of a bunch of the blades, as much as he can conveniently grasp with one hand, whilst with the other he cuts it just above the surface of the earth as quickly as possible (that the juice may not be wasted), and then places the branches in the tub bunch by bunch or handful by handful. When the first tub is thus packed quite full, a second is begun (each laborer having two); and by the time the second is filled, all the juice is generally drained out of the blades in the first tub. The blades are then lightly taken out and thrown over the land by way of manure, and the juice is poured out into a jar. The tub is then filled again with blades, and so alternately, till the laborer has produced his jar full, or about four gallons and a half of juice, which is often done in six or seven hours, and he has then the remainder of the day to himself, it being his employer's interest to get each day's operation as quickly done as possible. It may be observed that although aloes are often cut in nine, ten, or twelve months after being planted, they are not in perfection till the second or third year, and that they will be productive for a length of time, say ten or twelve years, or even for a longer time, if good dung or manure of any kind is stirred over the field once in three or four years, or oftener if convenient. The aloe juice will keep for several weeks without injury. It is therefore not boiled till a sufficient quantity is procured to make it an object for the boiling house. In the large way, three boilers, or coppers are placed to one fire, though some have but two, and the small planters only one boiler. The boilers are filled with the juice, and as it ripens or becomes more inspissated by a constant but regular fire, it is ladled from boiler to boiler, and fresh juice is added to that farthest from the fire, till the juice in that nearest the fire (by much the smallest of the three) becomes of a proper consistency, to be skipped or ladled out into gourds or other small vessels used for its final reception. The proper time to skip or ladle it out of the last boiler is when it has arrived at what is termed a resin height, or when it cuts freely or in thin flakes from the edges of a small wooden slice that is dipped from time to time into the boiler for that purpose. A little lime water is used by some aloe boilers during the process, when the ebullition is too great. CAPE ALOES is the produce chiefly of _A. spicata_, and _A. Commelini_, which are found growing wild in great abundance in the interior of the Cape Colony. It has not the dark opaque appearance of the other species. About fifty miles from Cape Town is a mountainous tract, almost entirely covered with numerous species and varieties of the plant, and some of the extensive arid plains in the interior of the colony are crowded with it. The settlers go forth and pitch their waggous and campa on these spots to obtain the produce. The shipments from Table Bay and the eastern port of Algoa Bay are very considerable. The odor of the Cape aloes is stronger and more disagreeable than that of the Socotrine or Barbados, and the color is more like gamboge. It is brought over in chests and skins, the latter being preferred. Mr. George Dunsterville, surgeon of Algoa Bay, gives the following description of the manufacture of Cape aloes:-- A shallow pit is dug, in which is spread a bullock's hide or sheep's skin. The leaves of the aloe plants in the immediate vicinity of this pit are stripped off and piled up on the skin to variable heights. These are left for a few days. The juice exudes from the leaves, and is received by the skin beneath. The Hottentot then collects in a basket or other convenient article the produce of many heaps, which is then put into an iron pot capable of holding eighteen or twenty gallons. Fire is applied to effect evaporation, during which the contents of the pot are constantly stirred to prevent burning. The cooled liquor is then poured into wooden cases of about three feet square by one foot deep, or into goat or sheep skins, and thus is filled for the market. In the colony aloes realises about 2¼ d. to 3½ d. per pound. The Hottentots and Dutch boors employ indiscriminately different species of aloe in the preparation of the drug. The Cape aloes, which _is_ usually prized the highest in the English market, is that made at the Missionary institution of Bethelsdorp (a small village about nine miles from Algoa Bay, and chiefly inhabited by Hottentots and their missionary teachers). Its superiority arises not from the employment of a particular species of aloe, for all species are used, but from the greater care and attention paid to what is technically called the cooking of the aloes; that is, the evaporation, and to the absence of all adulterating substances (fragments of limestone, sand, earth, &c.), often introduced by manufacturers. Mr. Moodie, in his "Ten Years' Residence in Southern Africa," gives a somewhat similar account. Mr. Bunbury states that, about the neighbourhood of Graham's Town, three large kinds of aloe are very abundant, which form striking and characteristic features of the scenery; they grow irregularly scattered over the parched and naked faces of the hills, but most abundantly among the low broken ledges and knolls of sandstone rock, and are often seen spiring up above the evergreen bushes in the ravines, and crowning the cliffs. One kind grows to the height of a man. They are plants of a strange, rigid, and ungraceful appearance, but with very handsome flowers, which form tall and dense spikes, of a fine coral-red color in two of the species _(A. arborescens_ and _lineata?_), and of an orange scarlet in the third _(A. glaucescens?_). When in blossom they are conspicuous at a great distance, and might easily be mistaken, when seen from far off, for soldiers in red uniforms. The importance of this indigenous plant to the Cape Colony, may be estimated from the following figures:-- AMOUNT OF ALOES, THE PRODUCE OF THE COLONY, AND VALUE THEREOF, EXPORTED IN THE YEARS ENDING 5TH JANUARY 1841, 1842, AND 1846. lbs £ 1841 485,574 8,821 1842 602,620 11,877 1846 266,725 3,018 EXPORTS AND VALUE FROM THE EASTERN PROVINCE. lbs. £ 1835 68,042 474 1836 30,808 285 1837 13,400 115 1838 28,867 306 1839 75,500 918 1840 82,478 1,145 1841 220,214 4,271 1842 283,305 5,003 1844 318,035 3,225 EXPORTS AND VALUE FROM THE WESTERN PROVINCE. lbs. £ 1841 242,860 4,175 1842 379,315 6,874 1844 506,796 6,586 ASAFOETIDA.---This drug of commerce is procured from the milky juice of _Ferula asafoetida_, a plant recently described by Dr. Falconer, under the name of _Narthex asafoetida_. It is found in Persia, the mountains of Chorasan, the central table land of Affghanistan, and some seeds of it, sent to this country by Dr. Falconer, germinated in the Botanical Garden at Edinburgh, and are now vigorous thriving plants of six years growth. Its leaves have a resemblance to those of a pæony; the fruit is distinguished by divided and interrupted vittae, which form a network on the surface. The perennial roots grow to a very large size, and are seldom of any use until after four or five years' growth. The asafoetida is procured by taking successive slices off the top of the root and collecting the milky juice., which is allowed to concrete into masses of a fetid resinous gummy matter, with a sulphur oil, similar to that of garlic, which is probably its active ingredient. An inferior sort is obtained from _F. persica_, another species with very much divided leaves, growing chiefly in the southern provinces of Persia. It comes over usually in casks and cases. The British consumption of the drug is about 10,000 lbs. a year. A little is procured from Scinde. In 1825 the quantity imported was 106,770 lbs., in 1839 only 24 cwts. The wholesale price in the Liverpool market, in January 1853, was £1 to £3 10s. the cwt. CAMPHOR.--The Camphor tree (_Camphora officinarum_, _Laurus Camphora_) is a native of China, Japan, and Cochin China, of the laurel tribe, with black and purple veins. Camphor is procured from all parts of the tree, but it is obtained principally from the wood by distillation, and subsequent sublimation. Many plants, such as the cinnamon tree, supply a kind of camphor, but the common camphor of the shops is the produce chiefly of _C. officinarum._ Two kinds of unrefined camphor are known in commerce.--1. The Dutch, which is brought from Batavia, and is said to be the produce of Japan. This is imported in tubs covered by matting and each surrounded by a second tub, secured on the outside by hoops of twisted cane. Each tub contains about one cwt. Most of this goes to the continent. 2. Ordinary crude camphor is imported from Singapore and Bombay, in square chests lined with lead-foil, and containing 1¼ to 1½ cwts. It is chiefly produced in the island of Formosa, and is brought by the Chin Chew junks in very large quantities to Canton, whence foreign markets get supplied.--("Pereira's Materia Medica.") In the southern part of Japan the tree grows in such abundance that, notwithstanding the great consumption of it in the country, large quantities are exported. Koempfer says, that the Japanese camphor is made by a simple decoction of the wood and roots, but bears no proportion in value to that of Borneo. There is also an imitation of camphor in Japan, but every body can distinguish it from the genuine. The camphor of Sumatra is procured from the stem of a large tree, _Dryobalanops Camphora_, Colebrook; _D. aromatica_, Graertner. It is secreted in crystalline masses naturally into cavities of the wood. It supplies this camphor only after attaining a considerable age. In its young state it yields, however, by incision, a pale yellow liquid, called the liquid camphor of Borneo and Sumatra, which consists of resin and a volatile oil having a camphorated odor. An account of this tree, and of the mode of procuring the peculiar and high-priced camphor which it yields, is given by Dr. Junghuhn, who has travelled lately in Sumatra, and Prof. De Vriese, of Leyden, in the "Nederlandsch Kruidkundig Archief" for 1851. An abstract of the memoir, translated into English by Miss De Vriese, is published in "Hooker's Journal of Botany " for February and March 1852:-- The Dryobalanops is a gigantic tree, rising for fifty or even a hundred feet above those which compose the chief mass of the forests where they grow, just as the steeples of the churches appear above the roofs of the houses in a town. The trunks of the full-grown trees are from 7 to 10 feet in diameter at the very base, and from 5 to 8 feet higher up; they rise to the height of 100 or 130 feet, and their ample crown is from 50 to 70 feet in diameter. The tree has a limited range, being confined to the seaward slope of the mountains of southwestern Sumatra, most abundant on the lower slopes and the outlying hills of the alluvial plain, and extending in latitude from 1deg. 10m. to 2deg. 20m. N., and perhaps further to the north. Camphor oil occurs in all the trees, and is most abundant in the younger branches and leaves. The solid camphor is found only on the trunks of older trees, especially in fissures of the wood, and in smaller quantity than is generally supposed. Colebrooke, and authors who have copied from him, assert that camphor is found in the heart of the tree in such a quantity as to fill a cavity of the thickness of a man's arm, and that a single tree yields about eleven pounds. The price of this camphor, which at Padang sells for about 340 dollars per hundred weight, suffices to show that the account is much exaggerated. The camphor occurs only in small fissures, from which the natives, having felled the trees and split up the wood, scrape it off with small splinters or with their nails. From the oldest and richest trees they rarely collect more than two ounces. After a long stay in the woods, frequently of three months, during which they may fell a hundred trees, a party of thirty persons rarely bring away more than 15 or 20 pounds of solid camphor, worth from 200 to 250 dollars. The variety and price of this costly substance are enhanced by a custom which has immemorially prevailed among the Battas, of delaying the burial of every person who during his life had a claim to the title of Rajah (of which each village has one) until some rice, sown on the day of his death, has sprung up, grown and borne fruit. The corpse, till then kept above ground among the living, is now, with these ears of rice, committed to the earth, like the grain six months before; and thus the hope is emblematically expressed that, as a new life arises from the seed, so another life shall begin for man after his death. During this time the corpse is kept in the house, enclosed in a coffin made of the hollowed trunk of a Durion, and the whole space between the coffin and the body is filled with pounded camphor, for the purchase of which the family of the deceased Rajah frequently impoverish themselves. The camphor oil is collected by incisions at the base of the trunk, from which the clear balsamic juice is very slowly discharged. In Sumatra the best camphor is obtained in a district called Barus, and all good camphor bears that local name. It appears that the tree is cut down to obtain the gum and that not in one tenth of the trees is it found. Barus camphor is getting scarce, as the tree must be destroyed before it is ascertained whether it is productive or not. About 800 piculs are annually sent to China. The proportion between Malay and Chinese camphor is as eighteen to one; the former is more fragrant and not so pungent as the latter. Nine hundred and eighty-three tubs of camphor were exported from Java in 1843; 625 bales were imported in 1843, the produce of the Japanese empire; and 559 piculs exported from Canton in 1844. The price of unrefined camphor in the Liverpool market in July, 1853, was £4 to £4 10s. the cwt. There have been no imports there direct in the last two years. Camphor (says Dr. Ure) is found in a great many plants and is secreted in parity by several laurels; it occurs combined with the essential oils of many of the _labiacæ_; but it is extracted for manufacturing purposes only from the _Laurus Camphora_, which abounds in China and Japan, as well as from a tree which grows in Sumatra and Borneo, called in the country _kapur barus_, from the name of the place where it is most common. The camphor exists, ready formed, in these vegetables between the wood and the bark; but it does not exude spontaneously. On cleaving the tree _Laurus Sumatrensis (Qy. Dryobalanops Camphora)_, masses of camphor are found in the pith. The wood of the Laurus is cut into small pieces and put, with plenty of water, into large iron boilers, which are covered with an earthen capital or dome, lined within with rice straw. As the water boils, the camphor rises with the steam, and attaches itself as a sublimate to the stalks, under the form of granulations of a grey color. In this state it is picked off the straw and packed up for exportation to Europe."--(" Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures.") The price of camphor at Canton in July, 1850, was from fourteen to fifteen dollars per picul. Cinchona.--Peruvian or Jesuit's Bark--One of the most valuable and powerful astringents and tonics used in medicine, is the produce of several species of cinchona, natives of the Andes, from 11 north latitude to 20 south latitude, at elevations varying from 1,200 to 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, and in a dry rocky soil. There are at least twelve trees which are supposed to furnish the barks of commerce, and great obscurity prevails as to the species whence the various kinds of cinchona bark are derived. The names of yellow, red, and pale bark have been very vaguely applied, and are by no means well defined. Dr. Lindley mentions twenty-six varieties; of which twenty-one are well known. The barks are met with either in thick, large, flat pieces, or in thinner pieces, which curl inwards during drying, and are called quilled. Quinine is one of the most important of the vegetable alkaline bitters. It was first discovered by Vauquelin, in 1811, and its preparation on a large scale pointed out by Pelletier and Caventon in 1820. It is obtained by boiling the yellow bark (_Cinchona_) in water and sulphuric acid, and then treating it with lime and alcohol, when the quinine is precipitated in the form of a white powder. Upwards of 120,000 ounces are made annually in Paris. Cinchona, or the Peruvian bark, was gathered to the amount of two million dollars in one year recently, and the demand is constantly increasing. Peruvian bark is cut in the eastern Provinces of Bolivia, skirting the river Paraguay, and now conveyed an immense distance by mules over a mountainous region to El Puerto, the only port of Bolivia on the Pacific. It is thence brought by Cape Horn to the cities of the United States and Europe. Now that Government has been successful in opening the South American rivers, this important article of commerce will be furnished in market by the Paraguay and La Plata rivers, at a much reduced price. A species of bark from Colombia, known as Malambo or Matias bark, has been frequently administered by Dr. Alexander Ure as a substitute for cinchona with good effect. It offers the useful combination of a tonic and aromatic. It is supposed to be the produce of a species of _Drimys_. It is stated that in New Granada, and other districts of Central America, where the tree is indigenous, incisions are made in the bark, and there exudes an aromatic oil which sinks in water. Cinchona bark contains two alkaloids, cinchonia and quina, to which its active properties are due; the former is best obtained from gray bark, the latter from yellow bark. In combination with these there exists an acid called kinic acid. The imports of cinchona bark to this country are from 225,000 to 556,000 lbs. annually, and about 120,000 lbs. are retained for home consumption. It comes over in chests and serons, or ox-hides, varying from 90 to 200 lbs. We imported from France, in 1850, 489 cwt. of Peruvian bark, of the value of £6,840; and in 1851, 1,128 cwt., of the value of £15,787; also the following quantities of sulphate of quinine, on which there is a duty of 6d. and 3-10ths per ounce. oz. £ 1848 3,856 5,898 1849 1,114 1,560 1850 8,976 12,566 1851 7,605 10,647 The following is the arrangement of these barks adopted by Pereira, who has gone very fully into the subject:-- A. True cinchonas, with a brown epidermis. I. Pale barks 1. Crown or Loxa bark. _C. Condaminea_. 2. Gray or silver or Huanuco bark. _C. micrantha_. 3. Ash or Jaen bark. _C. ovata_. 4. Rusty or Huamalies bark. _C. pubescens_. II. Yellow barks. 5. Royal, yellow or Calisaya bark. _C. sp ?_ III. Red barks. 6. Red bark. _C. sp ?_ B. True cinchonas, with a white epidermis. I. Pale barks. 7. White Loxa bark. II. Yellow barks. 8. Hard Carthagena bark. _C. cordifolia_. 9. Fibrous ditto. Perhaps _C. cordifolia_. 10. Cuzco bark. _C. sp.?_ 11. Orange bark of Santa Fe. _C. lancifolia_. III. Red barks. 12. Bed bark of Santa Fe. _C. oblongifolia_. The genus Exostemma yields various kinds of false cinchona bark, which do not contain the cinchona alkalies. The following are some of the kinds noticed by Pereira:-- 1. St. Lucia or Piton bark. _Exostemma floribundum_. 2. Jamaica bark. _E. caribaeum_. 3. Pitaya bark. _E. sp?_ 4. False Peruvian bark. _E. peruvianum_. 5. Brazilian bark. _E. souzianum_. The mode adopted by the bark-peelers of obtaining cinchona varies somewhat in different districts. The Indians (says Mr. Stevenson, "Twenty Years' Residence in South America") discover from the eminences where a cluster of trees grow in the woods, for they are easily discernable by the rose-colored tinge of their leaves, which appear at a distance like bunches of flowers amid the deep-green foliage of other trees. They then hunt for the spot, and having found it out, cut down all the trees, and take the bark from the branches, and after they have stripped off the bark, they carry it in bundles out of the wood, for the purpose of drying it. The peelers commence their operation about May, when the dry season sets in. Some writers state that the trees are barked without felling. In a letter published in one of the Calcutta papers not long ago, from the pen, I believe, of Mr. Piddington, he strongly urged the introduction of the cinchona tree into British India:-- There is (he observes) one tree, the introduction and the copious distribution of which within certain appropriate points of the sub-Himalayan range, "would confer a greater blessing on the great body of natives, than any effort the Government has made or can make, and that is the cinchona bark tree. Without any reference to the greater or less force of medical theories as to the efficacy of cinchona bark, I now only take an experienced and practical view, well knowing that the sufferings of many millions of poor and rich natives, especially in the jungle districts, are yearly very great, and the mortality quite enormous from remittent and intermittent fevers, by far the greater part of which would be immensely relieved, or wholly cured, by the free use of cinchona bark. If by abundance the price be once brought within the poor native's reach, he will readily take to it, having no objection whatever on account of caste to anything of the nature of the bark of a tree. If the cinchona tree were once growing in abundance, quinine could be easily prepared in India, from the facility of procuring, and cheapness of spirits of wine used in the process of its elimination. I take it that every hundred Sepahees sick of fevers remaining in hospital off duty for thirty days, drawing an average pay of eight rupees each, form a full monthly loss to Government of eight hundred rupees; while a free use of quinine and bark would cure them in ten days on the average, costing at present about forty rupees; thus by the twenty days' services gained, Government would save nearly five hundred rupees. But the cinchona tree once glowing abundantly, quinine would of course become infinitely cheaper. Under a proper system of culture, quill bark only need be taken without destroying the trees, and an earlier return be obtained. There never yet has been a substitute found for cinchona bark and its salts, as an antiperiodic and tonic. It yet remains for some one to find an equally efficacious substitute, and thus make a fortune. In the mean time the importance of the cinchona is paramount. The cinchona tree, like the pimento, deteriorates under cultivation, and in moist, warm, rich valleys the bark becomes inert. The best bark is from trees growing on mountain tops or steep declivities. From the full accounts of Condamine, Mutis, and Humboldt, a soil and climate like that of the north west sub-Himalayan range is admirably adapted to the planting and prospering of cinchona trees. In Lord W. Bentinck's time, before there were steamers in or to India, seeing the immense benefit to be derived, I sent in a proposition to procure young cinchona plants from Vera Cruz, begging to be then permitted to proceed there on that account, and my proposition was civilly and even favorably received; but these were not the days to act on it. Of about the twenty species of cinchona trees the following would of course be the best to bring--the _Cinchona bineifolia_, the _cinchona cordifolia_, the _cinchona oblongifolia_, the _cinchona micrantha_, and the _cinchona condaminea_. The Calumba plant (_Cocculus palmatus_, Decandolle, or _Minispermum palmatum_) furnishes the medicinal Colombo root, which is one of the most useful stomachics and tonics in cases of dyspepsia. It is scarcely ever cultivated, the spontaneous produce of thick forests on the shores of Oibo and Mozambique and many miles inland on the eastern shores of Africa, Madagascar and Bombay, proving sufficient. The supplies principally go to Ceylon. The roots are perennial, and consist of several fasciculated, fusiform, branched, fleshy, curved and descending tubers, from one to two inches thick, with a brown warty epidermis; internally deep yellow, odorless, very bitter. The main roots are dug up by the natives in March (the hot season). The offsets are cut in slices and hung up on cords to dry in the shade. It is deemed fit to ship when, on exposure to the sun, it breaks short, and of a bad quality when it is soft and black.--("Pereira's Materia Medica.") It contains a bitter crystallizable principle called Calumbin. The commercial parcels are often adulterated with the roots of _Costus indicus, C. speciosus_, and _C. Arabicus_ (Kusmus, Putckuk, &c.). It is imported into this country in bags and chests of from one to three cwt., and ranges in price from £1 to £2 the cwt. The imports in 1846 to London were 82 packages, and in 1850, 214 packages, but the stock held in London is always large, being nearly 2,500 packages. Colocynth, furnished by _Cucumis colocynthis_ and _C. pseudocolocynthis_, is the dried medullary part of a wild species of gourd which is cultivated in Spain. It also grows wild in Japan, the sandy lands of Coromandel, Cape of Good Hope, Syria, Nubia, Egypt, Turkey, and the islands of the Grecian Archipelago. It may be obtained in the jungles of India in cart loads. The fruit, which is about the size of an orange, with a thin but solid rind, is gathered in autumn, when ripe and yellow, and in most countries is peeled and dried either in the sun or by stoves. It comes over from Cadiz, Trieste, Mogadore, &c., in cases, casks, &c., and duty was paid on about 11,000 lbs. in 1839. CUBEBS.--The dried unripe fruit of _P. Cubebi_, or _Cubeba qfficinalia_, a climbing plant of the pepper tribe, native of Prince of Wales' Island, Java, and the Indian islands furnishes the medicinal cubebs, which is used extensively in arresting discharges from mucous membranes. In appearance cubebs resemble black pepper, except that they are higher colored and are each furnished with a stalk two or three lines long. Dr. Blume says, that the cubebs of the shops are the fruit of _P. caninum_. This species of pepper, when fresh and good, contains nearly 10 per cent. of essential oil. In 1842 the quantity entered for home consumption was 67,093 lbs. The average imports are about 40 to 50 tons annually. 3 cases were imported into Liverpool in 1851. The price in the Liverpool market, in January 1853, was £3 10s. to £4 10s. the cwt. GAMBOGE.--This resinous juice, which is a most important article of commerce, is furnished by some of the plants of Gambogia, natives principally of South America. It is a powerful irritant, and is employed medicinally as a drastic and hydragogue cathartic. From its bright yellow color it is also used as a pigment. Gamboge fetches in the London market from £5 to £11 per cwt. Some of the species of _Stalagmites_ (Murray), natives of Ceylon and the East, yield a similar yellow viscid juice, hardly distinguishable from gamboge, and used for the same purpose by painters. They are a genus of fine ornamental trees, thriving well in soils partaking of a mixture of loam and peat. According to Koenig, the juice is collected by breaking off the leaves or young branches. From the fracture the gamboge exudes in drops, and is therefore called _gum gutta_. It is received on leaves, coco-nut shells, earthen pots, or in bamboos; it gradually hardens by age, and is then wrapped up in leaves prior to sale. The common gamboge of Ceylon is produced by a plant which Dr. Graham was led to view as a species of a new genus under the name of _Hebradendron Gambogoides_. A very different species, the _Garcinia Gambogia_, of Roxburgh, once supposed to produce gamboge, and indeed actually confounded by Linnæus with the true gamboge tree of Ceylon, he has proved not to produce gamboge at all. This substance is also obtained from several other plants, as the _Mangostana Gambogia_ (Gaertner), _Hypericwm bacciferum_ and _Cayanense_, natives of the East Indies, Siam and Ceylon, whence it is imported in small cakes and rolls or cylindrical twisted masses. Its composition is as follows: number 1 being an analysis by Professor Christison of a commercial specimen from Ceylon; number 2 of a fine sample of common ditto:-- 1 2 Resin, or fatty acid 78.84 74.8 Coloring matter 4.03 3.5 Gum 12.59 16.5 Residue 4.54 5.2 ----- ----- 100. 100. The average imports of gamboge into the port of London, during the past five or six years, have been from 400 to 500 chests of one to two cwt. each. Gentian.--The yellow gentian root (_Gentiana lutea_) is the officinal species, and a native of the Alps of Austria and Switzerland. The stems and roots of _G. amarella_ and _campestris_, British species, and _G. cruciata, purpurea, punctata_, &c., are similar in their effects, having tonic, stomachic, and febrifugal properties. So has _G. kurroo_ of the Himalayas. The root is generally taken up in autumn, when the plant is a year old. It is cut longitudinally into pieces of a foot or a foot and a half long. They are imported into this country in bales from Havre, Marseilles, &c., and a good deal comes from Germany. In 1839, 470 cwts. were entered for home consumption. Chiretta is the herb and root of _Agathotes Chirayta_, Don; _Gentiana Chirayta_, Fleming; or _Ophelia chirayta_, a herbaceous plant, growing in the Himalaya mountains about Nepaul and the Morungs. Ipecacuan.-- _Cephælis Ipecacuanhæ_, Richard, yields the ipecacuan of the shops. The plant is met with in the woods of several Brazilian provinces, as Pernambuco, Bahia and Rio Janeiro. It is found growing in moist shady situations, from 8 to 20 degs. south latitude. The roots, which are the officinal part, are contorted, knotty and annulated, and about the thickness of a goose quill. Besides this brown or gray annulated ipecacuan, there are spurious kinds, such as the striated or black Peruvian, the produce of _Pyschotria elliptica_, and other species; and white or amylaceous ipecacuan, furnished by _Richardsonia scabra_, an herbaceous perennial, native of the provinces of Rio Janeiro and Minas Geraes. _Manettia glabra_ or _cordifolia_, also furnishes ipecacuan in Buenos Ayres. It is imported into this country from Rio in bales, barrels, bags, and serons, and the average annual imports in the eight years ending in 1841 were 10,000 lbs. In 1840, the shipments from Rio were as much as 20,000 lbs. Castelnau states, that one expert hand can gather 15 lbs. of the ipecacuan root in a day, which will fetch in Rio one dollar per pound. He estimates that, from 1830 to 1837, not less than 800,000 lbs. of this drug were exported from the province of Matto Grosso to Rio. Jalap.--This drug is obtained from the dried tubers or root-stock of _Ipomoea Jalapa_ or _Convolvulus Jalapa_, a perennial plant, native of America. Some suppose it takes its specific name from Xalapa, in Mexico, whence we chiefly import it. It grows in the woods near Chicanquiaco, at an altitude of 6,000 feet above the level of the sea. Large quantities might be gathered and exported in Jamaica. The root is of a roundish tuberous form, black externally, and of a deep, yellowish grey within, and varies in size from that of a walnut to that of a moderate sized turnip. It contains a resin in which its active properties reside. It is brought to this country in thin transverse slices, and the amount entered for home consumption is about 45,000 lbs. a year. It is imported in bales, from Vera Cruz direct, or indirectly by way of New York, and other places. Two sorts of jalap root occur in commerce. The one which was first introduced into the market, and which is even at the present day most frequently met with, is obtained from the _Ipomoea Schiedeana_ of Zuccarini, a plant growing on the eastern declivity of the Mexican Andes, and discovered by Von Schiedes. The root, as met with in commerce, consists of pieces varying from the size of a nut to that of the fist, sometimes whole, sometimes cut into disks, and at other times divided into two or three portions. The external surface is of a more or less dark gray brown color, corrugated and rough. It is very hard, presents a shining resinous even surface when broken, and is difficult to reduce to powder. The powder is of a brownish color, has a faint peculiar odor and irritant taste. The second quality, which was introduced into commerce is great quantities a few years ago, by the name of stalk jalap, is now more scarce, and obtained from the _Ipomoea orazabensis_ of Pelletan, a plant growing without cultivation in the neighbourhood of the Mexican town of Orizaba. The root, as met with in the trade, consists of pieces varying from one to three inches in length, and 1½ to two inches in diameter. They are of a higher color than the first-named root, and of decidedly fibrous structure. The chief constituents of both varieties is a peculiar resin, of which they contain about 10 per cent. Scammony.--The root of _Convolvulus Scammonia_, another plant of the same family, affords, when cut, a gummy resinous exudation or milky juice, which soon concretes and forms scammony. The plant grows abundantly in Greece, the Grecian Islands, and various parts of the Levant. It is imported from Aleppo in drums, weighing from 75 to 125 lbs. each, and from Smyrna in compact cakes like wax packed in chests. In 1839, the quantity on which duty (2s. 6d. per lb.) was paid amounted to 8,581 lbs. The duty received for scammony, in 1842, was £607. A spurious kind is prepared from _Calystegia (Convolvulus) sepium_, a native of Australia, and several plants of the Asclepiadacæ order. Dr. Russell ("Med. Obs. and Inqui.") thus describes the mode of procuring scammony:-- Having cleared away the earth from the upper part of the root, the peasants cut off the top in an oblique direction, about two inches below where the stalks spring from it. Under the most depending part of the slope they affix a shell, or some other convenient receptacle, into which the milky juice flows. It is then left about twelve hours, which time is sufficient for the drawing off of the whole juice; this, however, is in small quantities, each root affording but a few drachms. This milky juice from the several roots is put together, often into the leg of an old boot, for want of some more proper vessel, when in a little time it grows hard, and is the genuine scammony. Various substances are often added to scammony while yet soft. Those with which it is most usually adulterated are wheat flour, ashes, or fine sand and chalk. Liquorice.--The plant which yields the liquorice root of commerce is _Glycirrhiza glabra_ or _Liquiritia officinalis_. It is a native of Italy and the southern parts of Europe, but has been occasionally cultivated with success in Britain, especially at Pontefract, in Yorkshire, and at Mitcham, in Surrey. The plant is a perennial, with pale blue flowers. It grows well in a deep, light, sandy loam, and is readily increased by slips from the roots with eyes. The root, which is the only valuable part, is long, slender, fibrous, of a yellow color, and when grown in England is fit for use at the end of three years. The sweet, subacid, mucilaginous juice is much esteemed as a pectoral. It owes its sweetness to a peculiar principle called glycrin or glycirrhiza, which appears also to be present in the root and leaves of other papilionaceous plants, as _G. echinata_ and _glandulifera, Trifoliwm alpinum_, and the wild liquorice of the West Indies, _Abrus precatorius_, a pretty climber. The greatest portion of our supplies of the extract, which amount to 7,000 or 8,000 cwts. a year, are obtained from Spain and Sicily. The juice, obtained by crushing the roots in a mill, and subjecting them to the press, is slowly boiled, till it becomes of a proper consistency, when it is formed into rolls of a considerable thickness, which are usually covered with bay leaves. It is afterwards usually re-dissolved, purified, and, when formed into small quills, is known as refined liquorice. In 1839, 1,166 tons of liquorice paste were exported from Naples, valued at £45 per ton. Mr. Poole, in his Statistics of Commerce, states that the consumption of liquorice root and paste in this country averages 500 tons per annum. 110 cwt. of the juice and 100 cwt. of the root are annually brought into Hull from the continent. Matico--the Peruvian styptic, a powerful vegetable astringent, was first made known to the medical profession of England by Dr. Jeffreys, of Liverpool, in the _Lancet_, as far back as January 5th, 1839. A paper on its history and power was published in May, 1843, in the "Transactions of the Provincial Medical and Surgical Association," vol. 10. It is stated to be the _Piper angustifolium_ of Ruiz and Parsons. Dr. Martin believes it to be a species of _Phlomis_. The leaves are covered with a fine hair. The powdered leaves of the _Eupatorium glutinosum_, under the name of Matico, are used about Quito for stanching blood and healing wounds. A good article on the pharmaceutical and chemical character of matico, by Dr. J.F. Hodges, appeared in the "Proceedings of the Chemical Society of London," in 1845. It is stated, by Dr. Martin, that, like the gunjah, which the East Indians prepare, from the _Cannabis Indica_, the leaves and flowers of the matico have been long employed by the sensual Indians of the interior of Peru to prepare a drink which they administer to produce a state of aphrodisia. The leaves and flowering tops of the plant are the parts imported and introduced to notice as a styptic, which property seems to depend on their structure and not on their chemical composition. Quassia.--The quassia wood of the pharmacopoeia was originally the product of _Quassia amara_, a tall shrub, never above fifteen feet high, native of Guiana, but also inhabiting Surinam and Colombia. It is a very ornamental plant, and has remarkable pinnate leaves with winged petioles. This wood is well known as one of the most intense bitters, and is considered an effectual remedy in any disorder where pure bitters are required. Surinam quassia is not, however, to be met with now. That sold in the shops is the tough, fibrous, bitter bark of the root of _Simaruba (Quassia) excelsa_ and _officinalis_, very large forest trees, growing in Cayenne, Jamaica, and other parts of the West India Islands, where they bear the local name of bitter-wood. Its infusion is used as a tonic. 23 tons of bitter-wood were shipped from Montego Bay, Jamaica, in 1851. Quassia acts as a narcotic poison on flies and other insects. Although prohibited by law, it is frequently employed by brewers as a substitute for hops. The duty of £8 17s. 6d. per cwt., levied on quassia, is intended to restrict its use for such a purpose. Rhubarb.--This most important plant belongs to the genus Rheum. The officinal rhubarb is the root of an undetermined species. There are about thirteen different kinds which are said to yield rhubarb. Lindley enumerates fifteen. I however take Professor Balfour's classification:-- 1. _Rheum palmatum_, native of Bucharia, which has perhaps the best title to be considered the true rhubarb-plant, grows spontaneously in the Mongolian empire on the confines of China. 2. _R. undulatum_, native of China, which yields much of the French rhubarb. 3. _R. compactum_, native of Tartary, another species yielding French rhubarb, and often cultivated in Britain for its acid petioles. 4. _R. Emodi_ (Wallich). This species yields a kind of Himalayan rhubarb. Its petioles are much used for their acid properties. 5. _R. Rhaponticum_, native of Asia. Used in France and Britain in the same way as the third species. It is much cultivated in the department of Morbihan. 6. _R. hybridum_ (Murr). Much cultivated in Germany for its root and in Britain for its stalks. 7. _R. Webbianum_ (Royle). 8. _R. Spiceformi_ (Royle). 9. _R. Moorcroftianum_ (Royle). Himalayan species or varieties. 10. _R. crassinervium_ (Fisch), a Russian species. 11. _R. leucorhizum_ (Pall), a Siberian and Altai species, said to yield imperial or white rhubarb. It has striped flowers, while all others are whitish green. 12. _R. Caspicum_ (Fisch), a Russian and Altai species. 13. _R. Ribes_, native of the Levant, but some say an Afghanistan or Persian species. All these grow in the cold parts of the world, as on the Altai mountains, in Siberia, Thibet, North of China, and on the Himalayan range. The rhubarb procured from one or more of these species is known in commerce under the names of Russian or Turkey, Chinese or East Indian, and English rhubarb. The plants all thrive well in a rich loamy soil, or light sandy soil, and are increased by divisions of the roots or by seed. The extent of country from which rhubarb of one kind or another is actually collected, according to Christison, stretches from Ludall, in 77½ east longitude, to the Chinese province of Shen-si, 29 degrees further east, and from the Sue-chan mountains, in north latitude 26 degrees, nearly to the frontiers of Siberia, 24 degrees northward. The best rhubarb is said to come from the very heart of Thibet, within 95 degrees east longitude and 35 degrees north latitude, 500 or 600 miles north of Assam. The Chinese rhubarb is inferior to that of Russia and Turkey. The price varies in China from 38 dollars per picul upwards, and about 1,500 piculs are annually exported, on an average at 50 dollars per picul. In 1844, 2,077 piculs were shipped from Canton for Great Britain; and of 95,701 lbs. imported in 1841, 43,640 lbs. were brought from China, 8,349 lbs. from the Philippines, 7,290 lbs. from the East Indies, and 33,710 lbs. from the United States; only 1,462 lbs. were brought from Russia. The imports from the East Indies have decreased more than 70 per cent. in the last twelve years, as compared with the preceding. The wholesale prices are, for round rhubarb, 8d. to 3s. per lb.; flat, 6d. to 3s. 3d. per lb.; Dutch trimmed, 6s. to 7s. per lb.; Russian, 13s. to 13s. 6d. per lb. In 1831, we imported 133,462 lbs. from the East India Company's possessions, and 6,901 lbs. from Russia. In 1843, only 71,298 lbs. came from the East. From China we received, in 1843, 172,882 lbs. The quantities of rhubarb on which duty of 1s. per lb. was paid in the six years ending 1840, were as follows;-- East Indian. Foreign. lbs. lbs. 1835 32,515 10,647 1836 36,836 7,752 1837 44,669 5,946 1838 37,026 7,402 1839 22,575 12,525 1840 16,745 22,203 The imports and consumption of rhubarb are thus stated in the _Pharmaceutical Journal_:-- Imports. Consumption. lbs. lbs. 1826 102,624 32,936 1831 140,395 40,124 1836 122,142 44,468 1841 95,701 67,877 1846 427,694 -- 1847 305,736 -- 1848 116,005 -- 1849 94,914 -- The rhubarb brought into Siberia grows wild in Chinese Tartary, especially in the province Gansun, on hills, heaths, and meadows, and is generally gathered in summer from plants of six years of age. "When the root is dug up, it is washed to free it from earthy particles; peeled, bored through the centre, strung on a thread, and dried in the sun. In autumn all the dried rhubarb collected in the province is brought in horsehair sacks, containing about 200 lbs., to Sinin (the residence of the dealers), loaded on camels, and sent over Mongolia to Kiachta, and the ports and capital of China. Sarsaparilla.--The root of various species of _Smilax_ constitutes the sarsaparilla of the shops. It is an evergreen climbing undershrub, having whitish green flowers, and grows readily from suckers. It is a native of the temperate and tropical regions of Asia and America. The officinal part is the bark, which comes off from the rhizomes. They are mucilaginous, bitter, and slightly acid. Sarsaparilla is used in decoction and infusion as a tonic and alterative. The following are enumerated as sources whence sarsaparilla of various kinds is derived. _Smilax China_ and _sagittæfolia_, yielding the Chinese root, are said to come from the province of Onansi in China. _S. pseudo China, S. Sarsaparilla, S. rubens_, and _S. Watsoni,_ furnish the drug of North America. The sarsaparilla distinguished in commerce as the Lisbon or Brazilian is the root of _S. papyracea_ of Poiret. It is an undershrub, the stem of which is compressed and angular below, and armed with prickles at the angles. The leaves are elliptic, acuminate, and marked with three longitudinal nerves. This species grows principally in the regions bordering the river Amazon, and on the banks of most of its tributary streams. It is generally brought from the provinces of Para and Maranham. It is in large cylindrical bundles, long and straight, and the flexible stem of the plant is bound round the bundles, so as to entirely cover them. Its fibres are very long, cylindrical, wrinkled longitudinally, and furnished with some lateral fibrils. Its color is of a fawn brown, or sometimes of a dark grey, approaching to black. The color internally is nearly white. Besides this species there are others indigenous, such as _S. officinalis_, which grows in the province of Mina; _S. syphilitica_, which grows in the northern regions, and three new species, _S. japicanga, S. Brasiliensis_, and _S_. _syringioides_. There is also met with in Brazil another plant, _Herreria sarsaparilla_, belonging to the same natural order, which abounds in the provinces of Rio, Bahia, and Mina, and the roots of which receive the name of wild sarsaparilla. From Mexico, Honduras, and Angostura very good qualities are imported. _S. zeylanica, glabra_, and _perfoliata_ furnish sarsaparilla from Asia, and _S. excelsa_ and _aspera_ are used as substitutes for the officinal drug in Europe. _Smilax officinalis_, found in woods near the Rio Magdalena in New Granada, furnishes the best in the market, which is commonly known as Jamaica Sarza. It differs from the other kinds in having a deep red cuticle of a close texture, and the color is more generally diffused through the ligneous part. It is shipped in bales, formed either of the spirally formed roots, as in the Jamaica and Lima varieties, or of unfolded parallel roots, as in the Brazilian varieties. The roots are usually several feet long, about the thickness of a quill, more or less wrinkled, and the whole quantity retained for home consumption, in 1840, was 143,000 lbs. In 1844, 184,748 lbs., and in 1845 111,775 lbs. were shipped from Honduras. The prices in the London market, at the close of 1853, were --Brazil, 1s. 3d. per lb.; Honduras, 1s. 3d. to 1s. 8d. per lb.; Vera Cruz, 6d. to 11d. per lb.; Jamaica, 1s. 8d. to 3s. 4d. per lb. The duty received on sarsaparilla in 1842 was £1,536. The average annual quantity of sarsaparilla obtained from Mexico and South America, exclusive of Brazil, and taken for home consumption, in the twelve years ending with 1843 was 37,826 lbs. IMPORTS OF BRAZILIAN SARSAPARILLA. lbs. 1827 28,155 1828 49,280 1829 52,772 1830 19,842 1831 31,972 1832 91,238 1833 13,077 1834 28,803 1835 22,387 1836 1,718 1837 12,842 1838 -- 1839 9,484 1840 4,141 1841 1,399 1842 5,572 The total imports in 1849 were 118,934 lbs. Sarsaparilla has been found growing in the Port Phillip district of Australia, and has been shipped thence in small quantities. It seems to be indigenous to the Bahamas, and is to be found on many of the out islands. Mr. Wm. Dalzell, of Abaco, collected some considerable quantity at a place called Marsh Harbor, which was found to be of a superior quality. Some thousands of pounds of sarsaparilla were brought to Falmouth, Jamaica, last year, and bought by merchants for export. It came from the parish of St. Elizabeth, and there are whole forests covered with this weed, for such in reality it is. It is too the real black Jamaica sarsaparilla, that is so much valued in the European and American markets. It is also found in other parts of the island. In 1798 3,674 lbs. of sarsaparilla were shipped from La Guayra; 2,394 lbs. in 1801 from Puerto Cabella, and 400 quintals from Costa Rica, in 1845, valued at eight dollars a quintal. SENNA.--Several varieties of Cassia, natives of the East, are grown for the production of this drug. The dried leaves of C. _lanceolata_ or _orientalis_, grown in Egypt, Syria, and Arabia, the true Mecca senna, are considered the best. In Egypt the leaves of _Cynanchum Arghel_ are used for adulterating senna, _Cassia obovata_ or _C. senna_, also a native of Egypt, cultivated in the East Indies, as well as in Spain, Italy, and Jamaica. It is a perennial herb, one or two feet high. In the East Indies there is a variety (_C. elongata_) common about Tinnivelly, Coimbatore, Bombay, and Agra, &c. Several of this species are common in the West India islands. The plants, which are for the most part evergreens, grow from two to fifteen feet high; they delight in a loamy soil, or mixture of loam or peat. The seed is drilled in the ground, and the only attention required by the plant is loosening the ground and weeding two or three times when it is young. The senna leaves imported from India are not generally so clean and free from rubbish as those from Alexandria. They are worth from 20s. to 27s. per cwt. in the Bombay market. The prices are--Alexandria, l½d. to 6d. per lb.; East Indian, 2d. to 3d. per lb.; Tinnevelly, 7d. to 9½d. per lb. Senna is collected in various parts of Africa by the Arabs, who make two crops annually; one, the most productive, after the rains in August and September, the other about the middle of March. It is brought to Boulack, the port of Cairo, by the caravans, &c., from Abyssinia, Nubia, and Sennaar, also by the way of Cossier, the Red Sea, and Suez. The different leaves are mixed, and adulterated with arghel leaves. The whole shipments from Boulack to Alexandria, whence it finds it way to Europe, is 14,000 to 15,500 quintals. The quantities imported for home consumption were-- From the East Indies. Other places. Total. lbs. lbs. lbs. 1838 72,576 69,538 142,114 1839 110,409 63,766 174,175 In 1840, 211,400 lbs. paid duty, which is now only 1d. per lb. In 1848, we imported 800,000 lbs. from India; in 1849, the total imports were 541,143 lbs. The imports into the United Kingdom were, in 1847, 246 tons; 1848, 402 tons; 1849, 240 tons. Alexandrian senna (_Cassia acutifolia_). This species is said by some to constitute the bulk of the senna consumed for medical purposes in Europe. It is much adulterated with the leaves of _Cynanchum Arghel, Tiphrosia apollinea_, and _Coriaria myrtifolia_. _C. lanceolata_ and _C. ethiopica_ furnish other species of the same article, the greater part of the produce of which find its way to India, through the Red Sea, Surat, Bombay and Calcutta, the imports into Calcutta, in 1849, having been 79,212 lbs. _C. obovata_ furnishes the Aleppo and Italian drug. At least eight varieties of senna leaf are known in commerce in Europe--1. the Senna palthe; 2. Senna of Sennaar or Alexandria; 3. of Tripoli; 4. of Aleppo; 5. of Moka; 6. of Senegambia; 7. the false or Arghel; 8. the Tinnevelly. In Egypt the senna harvest takes place twice annually, in April and September; the stalks are cut off with the leaves, dried before the sun, and then packed with date leaves. At Boulka, the drug is sorted, mixed, and adulterated, and passed into commerce through Alexandria. Alexandrian senna, according to Mr. Jacob Bell ("Pharmaceutical Journal," vol. 2, p. 63), contains a mixture of two or more species of true senna. It consists principally of _Cassia obovata_ and _C. obtusata_, and according to some authorities it occasionally contains _C. acutifolia_. This mixture is unimportant, but the _Cynanchum Arghel_, which generally constitutes a fifth of the weight on an average, possesses properties differing in some respects from true senna, and which render it particularly objectionable. The Tinnevelly senna, that most esteemed by the profession, is known by the size of the leaflets, which are much larger than those of any other variety; they are also less brittle, thinner and larger, and are generally found in a very perfect state, while the other varieties, especially the Alexandrian, are more or less broken. The leaves of the Cynanchum are similar in form to those of the lanceolate senna, but they are thicker and stiffer, the veins are scarcely visible, they are not oblique at the base, their surface is rugose, and the color grey or greenish drab; their taste is bitter and disagreeable, and they are often spotted with a yellow, intensely bitter gummo-resinous incrustation. Being less fragile than the leaflets of the true senna, they are more often found entire, and are very easily distinguishable from the varieties which constitute true Alexandrian senna. In their botanical character they are essentially different, being distinct leaves, not leaflets, which is the case with true senna. The SUMBUL root, which has recently been introduced into the French market, is the root of an umbelliferous plant, which is characterised by a strong odor of musk. The pilgrims, on their return from Mecca, generally import to Salonika, Constantinople, &c., among other articles of trade, various plants with a musk-like odor. The preparation of these vegetable substances is said to be effected by smearing them over with musk-balsam. FOOTNOTES: [Footnote 1: Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures.] [Footnote 2: Fractional parts are not necessary to include.] [Footnote 3: Dr. Lindley is in error as to the discriminating duties--British cacao pays 9s., and foreign 18s.] [Footnote 4: According to Breen's History of St. Lucia up to 1844.] [Footnote 5: Caffeine (the principle of coffee) and theobromine (the principle of cacao) are the most highly nitrogenised products in nature, as the following analysis will show:-- _Caffeine_, according to Pfaff and Liebig, contains-- Carbon 49.77 Hydrogen 5.33 _Nitrogen_ 28.78 Oxygen 16.12 _Theobromine_, according to Woskreseusky, contains-- Carbon 47.21 Hydrogen 4.53 _Nitrogen_ 35.38 Oxygen 12.80 Of the two, cacao contains the larger quantity of nitrogen; and this chemical fact explains why cacao should be so much more nutritive than tea, though the principle of tea (theine) is nearly identical with the principle of cacoa--tea containing in 100 parts 29.009 of nitrogen. On this subject Liebig has made an observation which I cannot avoid noticing. He says, "We shall never certainly be able to discover how men were led to the use of the hot infusion of the leaves of a certain shrub (tea), or of a decoction of certain roasted seeds (coffee). Some cause there must be, which would explain how the practice has become a necessary of life to whole nations. But it is surely still more remarkable that the beneficial effects of both plants on the health must be ascribed to one and the same substance, the presence of which in two vegetables, belonging to different natural families, and the produce of different quarters of the globe, could hardly have presented itself to the boldest imagination. Yet recent researches have shown, in such a manner as to exclude all doubt, that caffeine, the peculiar principle of coffee, and theine, that of tea, are in all respects identical."--_(Anim. Chem.,_ pp. 178-9.) We really can see nothing in all this but the manifestation of that instinct which, implanted in us by the Almighty, led the untutored Indian (as we are pleased to call him) to breathe into the nostril of the buffalo or the wild horse, and by that single act to subdue his angry rage, or that impelled the first discoverer of combustion to extract fire from the attrition of two pieces of wood. The American Indian, living entirely on flesh, "discovered for himself in tobacco smoke a means of retarding the change of matter in the tissues of the body, and thereby of making hunger more endurable."--(P. 179.) But the wonder ceases, when we reflect that man was endued with certain properties by his Maker which must have been at some remote period, of which we can form no idea, active and manifest the moment he breathed the breath of life. To inquire how he lost this property is not our business at present, but it is only by supposing the _quondam_ existence of such a property, active and manifest, that can in any way explain a first knowledge of the therapeutic, or threptic, qualities of plants and shrubs. With regard to the identity of theine, caffeine, theobromine, &c., it would be as well that the reader should keep in mind that it is so chemically _only_, for in appearance, taste, weight, odor, &c., no substances can differ more. Does the palate exert some peculiar action on the ingesta, so as to give to each a distinct sapor? Or _vice versa_?] [Footnote 6: In the West Indies, from my own experience, I have found this to be one of the worst descriptions of soil. _P.L.S._] [Footnote 7: Correspondent of the Singapore _Free Press_, December, 1852.] [Footnote 8: It is important, in considering what tea may be had from China, to consider the manner of its production. It is grown over an immense district, in small farms, or rather gardens, no farm producing more that 600 chests. "The tea merchant goes himself, or sends his agents to all the small towns, villages, and temples in the district, to purchase tea from the priests and small farmers; the large merchant, into whose hands the tea thus comes, _has to refire it and pack it for the foreign market."--(Fortune's Tea Districts.)_ This refiring is the only additional process of manufacture for our market. Mr. Fortune elsewhere, in his valuable work, giving an account of the cost of tea from the farmers, the conveyance to market, and the merchant's profit, states that " the small farmer and manipulator is not overpaid, but that the great profits are received by the middlemen." No doubt these men do their utmost to keep the farmers in complete ignorance of the state of the tea-market, that they may monopolise the advantages, but it is pretty certain that the news of a bold reduction of duty, and the promise of an immensely increased consumption, would reach even the Chinese farmers, and make them pick their trees more closely--a little of which amongst so many would make a vast difference in the total supply.] [Footnote 9: See article Thea, by Dr. Royle, in "Penny Cyclopædia," vol xxiv., p. 286.] [Footnote 10: Hooker's "Bot. Mag.," 1.3148. It is the Assam tea plant.] [Footnote 11: Report on Tea Cultivation submitted to House of Commons. See Blue Book, 1839, p. 1-3.] [Footnote 12: In a short time rain gauges will be established at Bheemtal, Huwalbaugh, Paoree, and Kaolagir, in order to measure the quantity of rain that falls annually, for the purpose of ascertaining how much the quantity and quality of the produce of tea is affected by the weather.] [Footnote 13: In China this process, according to the statement of tea manufacturers, is carried on to a great extent.] [Footnote 14: Dr. Jameson, in a late communication, remarks--"From the accounts I have received of that place (Darjeeling), I doubt not but that the plants there grown will yield tea of a superior description."] [Footnote 15: The crops of this district, such as rice, mundooa, and other grains, are so plentiful and cheap as scarcely to pay the carriage to the nearest market town, much less to the plains. In Almorah a maund of rice or mundooa sells for something less than a rupee; barley for eight annas; and wheat for a rupee.] [Footnote 16: There is frequently a discrepancy in the figures in the Parliamentary papers, which will account for a want of agreement in some of these returns.] [Footnote 17: See the "Pharmaceutical Journal" for June, 1849, p. 15, et seq.] [Footnote 18: Reports of Dr. Roxburgh, Mr. Touchet of Radanagore, and Mr. Cardin of Mirzapore, Cutna. Papers on East India Sugar, page 258.] [Footnote 19: Many are of opinion, that although the juice of this cane is larger in quantity, yet that it contains less sugar. There is some sense in the reason they assign, which is, that in the Mauritius and elsewhere it has the full time of twelve or fourteen months allowed for its coming to maturity--whereas the agriculture of India, and especially in Bengal, only allows it eight or nine months, which, though ample to mature the smaller country canes, is not sufficient for the Otaheite.] [Footnote 20: Roxburgh on the Culture of Sugar and Jaggary in the Rajahmundry Circar; Third Ap. to Report on East India Sugar, p. 2.] [Footnote 21: L'Exploitation de Sucreries. Porter on the Sugar Cane, 53,321.] [Footnote 22: That the above application would be beneficial, is rendered still more worthy of credit from the following experience:--In the Dhoon, the white ant is a most formidable enemy to the sugar planter, owing to the destruction it causes to the sets when first planted. Mr. G.H. Smith says, that there is a wood very common there, called by the natives _Butch_, through, which, they say, if the irrigating waters are passed in its progress to the beds, the white ants are driven away. (Trans. Agri-Hort. Soc. of India, v. 65.)] [Footnote 23: Fitzmaurice on the Culture of the Sugar Cane.] [Footnote 24: The kilogramme is equal to 2 lb, 3 oz. avoirdupois.] [Footnote 25: A lecture on the nutritive value of different articles of food, by C. Daubeny, M.D., "Gardener's Chronicle" (London), January 20th, 1849, p. 37.] [Footnote 26: Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, 1849, p. 646.] [Footnote 27: A lecture "On the Geographical Distribution of Corn Plants," by the Rev. E. Sidney--Proceedings of the Royal Institution (London), May 18th, 1849.] [Footnote 28: Boussingault's Rural Economy, American edition, pp. 85 and 86.] [Footnote 29: Zenas Coffin, one of the oldest whalemen in Nantucket, states that corn meal in tight rum puncheons when sent to the Went Indies will keep sweet, while in common flour barrels it will spoil. Report of the Commissioner of Patents for 1847, p. 133.] [Footnote 30: From remarks of Col. Skinner, and others, at a meeting of the American Institute, held in April 1846. Transactions of American Institute, 1846, p. 509 _et seq._] [Footnote 31: Comptes Rendus des Séances de L'Academie des Sciences, February 5th, 1819.] [Footnote 32: A Treatise on Diet and Regimen, by Wm. Henry Robertson, M.D., vol. i. p. 153.] [Footnote 33: The Plant: a Biography; by M.H. Schleiden, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Jena. English translation, p. 54.] [Footnote 34: Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society for 1847, p. 190. In this communication, Mr. Bentz does not describe the process which he adopts, but enumerates some of its supposed advantages.] [Footnote 35: Quoted by Boussingault, Rural Economy, Amer. edition, p. 410.] [Footnote 36: A Treatise on Diet and Regimen, by Wm. Henry Robertson, M.D., Vol. i. p. 140.] [Footnote 37: Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals, &c., by R.D. Thomson, M.D., p. 156.] [Footnote 38: Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology, translated by Prof. J.F.W. Johnston, p. 684.] [Footnote 39: See Dr. R.D. Thomson's Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals, &c.] [Footnote 40: Mulder's Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology; English Translation, p. 816.] [Footnote 41: I have had no opportunity of analysing samples of flour from the South-Western States, and therefore cannot extend this comparison to them.] [Footnote 42: Transactions of "Agri.-Hort. Society, of Calcutta," vol. iv. p. 125.] [Footnote 43: Dict. of Arts and Manufacture.] [Footnote 44: Pharmaceutical Journal, vol. 3, p. 138.] [Footnote 45: The glasses used were all of the sort described in Griffin's catalogue under the name of Clark's test-glasses. They were all, as nearly as possible, of the same size and shape.] [Footnote 46: I have determined the amount of nitrogen contained in the meal made from the whole maize, the growth of the colony, as also from plantain meal; I have also ascertained its amount in cassava meal, prepared in the manner mentioned in the text, and in meal prepared from the cassava sliced, dried, and ground without expressing the juice. Assuming Liebig's formula of Proteine, namely, C-48 N-6 H-36 0-4 the results stand thus:-- Nitrogen. Proteine compounds. Per cent. Per cent. Maize meal (unhusked) 1.73 10.72 Plantain meal .88 5.45 Cassava meal (juice expressed) .36 2.23 Ditto from the sliced and dried roots .78 4.83 ] [Footnote 47: Les Moyens de prévenir la Maladie des Pommes de Terre. Expériences et Conclusions de A.N.C. Bollman, Conseiller d'état, Professeur, &c. 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1853.] [Footnote 48: If cinnamon seeds after washing be exposed to the sun, even for twenty minutes, the shells will crack in two, and this prevents the seeds from growing.] [Footnote 49: No export duties exist in the Straits Settlements.] [Footnote 50: Since these remarks were written, the duty has been wholly abolished.] [Footnote 51: Although this was the amount of produce for 1842, it must be remarked that that crop was a complete failure, and the average crop for some years past has been 46,666 pounds.] [Footnote 52: Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures.] [Footnote 53: The vernacular name for stale or putrid urine.] [Footnote 54: "Lit" was the name applied to the plant, from which the dye was to be prepared, and "pig" is the Scotch synonym for any kind of earthenware vessel---in which the maceration was generally carried on.] [Footnote 55: Pitkins' Statistics of the United States.] [Footnote 56: A great portion of the crop I grew had leaves measuring two feet nine inches in length and eighteen inches wide, being larger than I ever knew to have been grown in America. The average weight I obtained per acre, was 25 cwt.; whereas I see by the public returns, the average of what is grown here is only 17 1-7th cwt.] INDEX. _Albrus precatorius_, 643 Acacia bark, 493 _Catechu_, 495, 577 _dealbata_, 505 _Acer saccharinum_, 205 Acre, coffee trees to the, 69 Achira plant, 355 Achote, a name for arnotto, 447 _Acrocomia fusiformis_, 519 _Adeps Myristica_, 402 _Adme cyperus_, 626 _Adenanthera Pavonina_, 378 _Adansonia digitata_, 378 African arrowroot, 353 lard, 525 purple millet, 307 Africa, pepper grown in, 422 tobacco culture in, 615 Agar-Agar moss, 378, 379 Agi or Guinea pepper, 429 Agave Americana--a substitute for soap, 574 Agaiti oil, 520 Agricultural wealth of tropical regions, 2 Aipi, 376 Akyab, exports of rice from, 297 _Aleurites triloba_, 521, 538 Alexandrian senna, 648 Algaroba beans, 313 bark, 503 Algiers, tobacco culture in, 615 Alizaine, 478 Alkanet root, 442 Allspice, the common name for pimento, 430 Almond oil, 510, 533 Aloes, statistics of exports from the Cape, 632 varieties of, 628 _Alpinia Galanga_, 419 _Cardamomum_, 419 _racemosa_, 414 _Alstræmeria pallida_, 330 _Althea rosea_, 442 _Amaranthus gangiticus_, 434 American arrowroot, 352 flour, countries to which, shipped, 223 Americans consume most coffee, 40 Amboyna wood, 439 _Amomum_, species of, 419 _Zingiber_, 414 _Anacardium occidentale_, 495, 521 Analyses, various, of tobacco, 592-93 Analysis of the coffee plant, 49 ashes of the coffee tree, 43 of catechu, 579 of Havana tobacco, 591, 615 of other varieties, 615 of oil cake, 546 of soils, 617 of soils, not so requisite abroad, 7 of the sugar cane, by Dr. Evans, 154 of sugar soils in the East, 172 _Anethum graveolens_, 376 _Sowa_, seeds of, 434 Angola weed, 486 Aniseed, 437 Antigua arrowroot, statistics of, 353 cost of cultivating sugar, 189 Ants, remedy for, 181 _Anchusa tinctoria_, 442 Andropogon, species of, 572 _Anileria_, a manufactory for indigo, 460 Apricot oil, 511, 536 Apios, 355, 371 Aquilaria, species of, 439 Arghel leaves, 647 _Arachis hypogoea_, 513 _Arenga saccharifera_, the _gomutus saccharifera_ of Rumphius, 136, 314 Areometer, an instrument for testing oil, 532 _Arbor alba_, 566 Areca nuts, value of the exports from Ceylon, 579 palm, 577 _Argemone Mexicana_, 511, 521, 626 Arnotto, 447 Arpent, a French land measure, about one-seventh less than an acre, 251 Arracan, exports of rice from, 297 _Arracacha esculenta_, 355, 375 Arrack, 556 used to flavor tobacco, 621 Arroba, a Spanish weight of 25 lbs., the fourth part of a quintal. Arrowroot, Benzon's analysis of, 348 culture and commerce of, 345 made from the Palmyra shoots, 376 starch of, 331, 334-35, 337 Arsenic for steeping grain, poisonous effects from, 233 _Artocarpus incisa_, 318, 330 _Arum colocasia_, 364 _esculentum_, 364 _Rumphii_, 365 Asafoetida, 633 _Asclepias curassavica_, 625 _gigantea_, 494 _tingens_, 442 Assamee, an Indian name for the ryot or cultivator, 467 Assam, introduction of tea culture, 94 tea sales, 98 Company, origin of, 98 manufacture of tea in, 126 Assaroo, rain sowing, 468 _Astoria theiformis_, used as tea at Santa Fe, 80 Attap leaf for thatching, 405, 559 Attar of roses, 570 Aucklandia, 438 _Auracaria Bidwillii_, 377 Australia, consumption of tea in, 87, 88 sugar cultivation recommended, 139 Austria production of beet-root sugar in, 197, 200 _Avicenna tomentosa_, 444 Avocado seed yields a dye stuff, 444 Awl tree, 443 Babool wood, 493 Bahu, a land measure in Java, equal to 71 acres. Bajree, the Indian name for _Holcus Spicatus_, 306 Bales of Cuba tobacco, size of, 613 Balfour (Prof.) on the starch in potatoes, 330 on species of rhubarb, 647 Ball's account of the cultivation, &c., of tea, 103 Banana, starch in, 331 used as a shade for the cacao, 15 _Baptista tinctoria_, 453 Barbacue, a platform for coffee drying, 69 _Baphia nitida_, 447 Barbados arrowroot, 337, 353 culture of aloes in, 630 cost of cultivating sugar, 189 ginger, 415 sugar crops of, 149 yam, 334, 335, 337, 338, 362 Barcelona, exports of cacao from, 13 Bark of the larch, its utility, 376 Barks for tanning, 492 Barley, history and consumption of, 255 imported, 218 meal imported, 218 produce of in England and Wales, 248, 256 average prices of, 256 Barrel of rice weighs 600 lbs. net, 291 Barus camphor, 634 Barwood, 445, 447 Basket of rice, a measure equal to 55½ lbs., English, _Bassia butyracea_, 136, 512 _longifolia_, 511 oil seeds of, 537 _Batatas edulis_, 330, 331, 357 _Bauhinia variegata_, 492 Bayley (Mr.), on consumption of tea in the manufacturing districts Bay rush or tapioca, 376 Beans, analysis of, 264 and peas, quantities imported, 313 imported, 218 Bearing time of different plants, 9 Beck (Prof.) on various wheats, 222 on the American breadstuffs, 226 Beet root sugar produced on the Continent, 144 cost of producing, 189, 204 Beet, varieties of the root, 191 Belgians, large consumers of coffee, 40 Belgium, production of beet root sugar in, 200 Benares, production of indigo in, 475 Ben, oil of, 523 Bencoolen, pepper grown in, 423 spice culture in, 412 Bengal, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 indigo, 464 introduction of the coffee tree into, 40 production of indigo in, 475 production of opium in, 580 rice, 296 Bennet on Ceylon, 316 Bennett (Dr.), description of gambier, 500 Berar, edible root of, 377 Berberry, a dye stuff, 442 Berbice, exports of coffee from, 73 Bergamot, essence of, 566 Berger's process of making rice starch, 344 Bermuda arrowroot, statistics of, 353 mode of cultivating arrowroot, 346 Berry wax, 540 Betel leaf, 577 Bhoe Moong, the Indian name for the ground nut, 515 Bhull rice lands, 293 Biggah, distinction between this land measure, 471 _Bignonia Chica_, 444 Bihai, 320 Bitter cassava, 331 _Bixa orellana_, 447 Black ginger, 415 pepper, statistics of, 428 tea, imports of the last fifteen years, 82 mode of manufacturing, 112 Blood tree, 625 Bollman (Prof.), on the potato rot, 359 Bolitus used as food, 377 Bonynge (Mr. F.) promotes tea culture in America, 97 _Borassus gomutus_, 315 Borneo, pepper produced in, 422 Bourbon, cacao grown in, 36 produce of rice in, 293 Bousa, an African beer, 308 Boussingault's analysis of wheat, 244 Boyams, food plant, 377 Bran, analysis of, 231 _Brassica oleracea_, oil from the seed, 539 Brazilian arrowroot, 330, 367, 369 Brazil, exports of coffee to America, 63 cost of producing sugar in, 189 culture of ginger, 418 production of coffee in, 40, 41, 63 introduction of the tea plant, 128 statistics of sugar production, 182 tobacco export from, 594 wood, 485 Bread fruit, 318, 330 made from millet, 306 nut of Jamaica, 319 stuffs of commerce, 217 Brick tea of Thibet, 92 British Guiana, coffee produced in, 73 West Indies, decline of coffee culture in, 40, 63, 67 exports of coffee from, 73 Brood-boon, 319 Bromelia Pinguin, fruit of, used for soap, 574 Broom corn, 307, 308 sedge, 308 _Brosimum Alicastrum_, edible nuts of, 319 _Broussonitia tinctoria_, 485 Brown bread, its wholesomeness, 230 Bruce, (Mr. C.A.) on the manufacture of tea in Assam, 126 _Buchanania latifolia_, 494, 521 Buckwheat, average weight of crop in New Brunswick, 253 oil from, 510 culture of, 259 analysis of, 260 Buck yam, 333, 335, 362 Bullhoof, yields a narcotic, 589 Bunbury (Mr.) on Cape aloes, 632 Butch wood, used to keep off ants, 181 _Butea frondosa_, 507 varieties of, 442 tannin from, 494 Butter of cacao, 11, 12 obtained from the dolichos bean, 313 _Cabacinha_, the Portuguese name for a purgative plant, 626 Caballine aloes, 630 Cacao beans or seeds, analysis of, 12 age at which may be transplanted, 6 expenses of a plantation, 33 information respecting, 9 plantation, enormous returns formerly obtained from, 34 quantity consumed in the United Kingdom, 11 total imports into the United Kingdom, 35 total imports from America and the West Indies, 35 trees, where indigenous, 33 oppressive duties levied on, 34 Cacomite, a species of Tigridia, 374 Cacoon, oil from, 511 Cadet's analysis of barks, 495 _Cæsalpinia_, species of, 446 _Brasiliensis_, 485 _Cæsalpinia Coriari_, 493 _oleospermum_, 511 Caffeine, analysis of, 80 Cajeput oil, 566 _Caladium costatium_, 377 _esculentum_, 331 _sagittifolium_, 334 Calambak wood, 439 _Calandra oryza_, 279 Calcutta, exports of castor oil, 545 Calidad, the best kind of Cuba tobacco, 613 California, tea proposed to be cultivated in, 97 _Callistemon ellipticum_, 505 _Calophyllum Inophyllum_, 513 Calumba plant, 638 Calumbin, 638 _Calystegia sepium_, 642 _Camassia esculenta_, 376 Camata, a variety of valonia, 508 _Camelina sativa_, 509, 511, 564 Camotes, a Spanish name for the sweet potato, 375 _Camæladia ilicifolia_, 628 Campbell (Dr. A.), on the tea culture at Darjeeling, 116 Camphor, on the collection of, 633 obtained from the roots of the cinnamon, 389 _Cannabis indica_, 643 Camwood, 447 Canada, production of maple sugar in, 206 West, grain exports of, 251 Canadian yellow root, 626 Canary Isles, millet exported from, 306 moss, 486 seed, 311 Candleberry myrtle, 540 Candlewood, 539 Candles made of cinnamon suet, 390 Candle tree, 521, 538 Cane sugar, composition of, 136, 155, 157 _Canella alba_, 396 Canna, species of, 355 _Canothus Americanus_, used as tea, 80 Caoutchouc, 539 Capa, a term in Cuba for good tobacco, 614 Cape aloes, manufacture of, 631 weed, 486 Capsicum, 428 _Carapa_, species yielding oil, 518 oil, 441, 519 _guianensis_, 512 Caracas, large produce of cacao in, 13 Caraveru, a red pigment, 444 Carraway seed oil, 437, 566 Cardomoms, bastard, 419 plants furnishing, 419 _Carduus Virginianus_, 376 Carob bean, 312, 313 Carolina rice, shipments of, 285 Carrageen, 379 Carrots, average weight per bushel in New Brunswick, 253 _Carthamus tinctoria_, 450 oil from, 512 Caruto, a name for the Lana dye, 444 Carver's treatise on tobacco culture, 607 _Carum carui_, 566 _Caryophyllus aromaticus_, 397 _Caryota urens_, 314 Cascarilla bark, 396 Cashew bark, 495 nut oil, 512 Cassareep, an antiseptic, 339, 343, 369 Cassava cakes, 342 culture of, 367 fecula of, 330 flour exports from St. Lucia, 369 meal, 341 roots, information respecting, 9 starch, yield per acre, 370 Cassia, a rival to cinnamon, 391 _auriculata_, 494 bark of China, superiority of, 393, 394 buds, 396 _lignea_, 394, 396 statistics of imports and consumption of, 394 Castor oil, 510, 511, 527, 536, 542, 563 Catechu or Cutch, 579 tannin in, 495 Cattle, consumption of Indian corn by, 271 Catty, a Chinese weight, 400 Cayenne, nutmeg introduced, 412 pepper grown in, 427 pepper, 429 pottage, 429 _Celastrus paniculatus_, 521 Celebes, coffee grown in, 62 production of coffee in, 41 rice culture in, 302 tobacco, 621 Centrifugal machine for sugar, 140 _Cephælis Ipecacuanhæ_, 641 _Ceratonia siliqua_, 312, 313 Cereal grasses, 216 _Ceroxyion andicola_, 541 _Cersium virginianum_, 376 _Cetraria islandica_, 343, 379 Ceylon arrowroot, 353 cardamoms, 419, 421 coco-nut culture in, 556 culture of rice in, 295 Ceylon, exports of castor oil from, 545 adapted for indigo culture, 475 gamboge, 639 the great seat of cinnamon culture, 383 pepper exported from, 426 imports of _Terra Japonica_, 502 moss, 379 produce of tobacco in, 619 production of coffee in, 41 tea plant introduced, 95 Value of the betel nuts exported, 579 Chay-root, 449, 478 _Chamarops Palmetto_, 495 Chandu, the prepared extract of the opium, 585 _Chenopodium quinon_, 310 Cherrots, Manilla, 619 Chesnuts, consumed in France, 361 Chest of opium, about 140 lbs., 58 Chick pea, 312 the inspissated juice of the poppy, 582 Chicory, extensive consumption of, 37 Chillies, growth of, 428 Chimo, powdered potatoes, 361 China, population of, 86 shipments of tea from, 84 Chinese arrowroot, 352 _Chironia sapinda_, 521 _Chloranthus_, flowers used to flavor tea, 85 Chocolate nuts, 11 imported, 35 paste, as prepared by the Marienna, 18 Christison (Prof.), analysis of gamboge, 640 Chiretta, 641 Chrysoptranic acid, 488 _Cibotium Billardieri_, 380 Cigars, consumption of, 596 duty received on, 597 large consumption of in New York, 599 profit on manufacture of, 612 number exported from Cuba, 614 exported from Siam, 619 Cinchona bark, 635 Cinnamon, 382 export duty on, 391 oil, 565 properties of good, 387 statistics of export from Ceylon, 390, 391 suet, 522 varieties of the tree, 386 Citronella oil, 565, 573 Clagett and Co.'s (Messrs.) tobacco circulars, 601 Clarifying cane juice, 155 Clark, (Mr.) on a new variety of tobacco, 613 Classification and arrangement adopted in the work, 5 _Claytonia acutiflora_, 371 Clerihew's coffee apparatus, 52 Climate suited for various plants, 9 Clove bark, 383 Cloves, 397 oil, 390, 398 statistics of, 411 varieties of the tree, 398 where grown, 402 Cobres a first quality of indigo, 456 Coca plant, 576 _Cocculus indicus_, 576 _palmatus_, 638 Cochin China, coco nut oil exported from, 556 culture of rice, 298 exports of cinnamon, 393 tea considered inferior, 94 Cochineal, value of the dye stuff, 440 Cocoa, see Cacao, 9 fat, 519 nut butter, 560 information respecting, 9 oil, 527 palm, 547 _Cocos nucifera_, 547 _fusiformis_, 519 or eddoes, 364 Cocum oil, 521 Coffee, adulteration of, and substitutes for, 37 consumption of, 39, 596 cultivation in Ceylon, 46 in Africa, 77 in India, 44 information respecting, 9 manures suited for, 50 tree, description of, 43 production in various countries, 41 produce per tree and per acre, 69, 481 leaf, suited for making a beverage by infusion, 78 Dr. Hooker's opinion thereon, 79 plantation, beauty of, 67 prices of, in London, 47 signs of its being properly cured, 71 trade, progress of, 36 Coimbatore, culture of tobacco in, 618. Coir, Coco nut, 551, 552, 555, 556. Colman (Mr.), on grain production, 219 on sugar, 204 _Colocasia_, varieties of cultivated, 364 _Colocynth_, 638 oil, 511 Colombo root, 638 shipments of coffee from, 48 Coloring principles of the lichens, 487 teas in China, 104 Colza oil, 510, 513, 539 _Conium Arracacha_, 375 Connecticut, culture of tobacco in, 606 Consumption of rhubarb, 645 _Convolvulus Jalapa_, 641 _Scammonia_, 642 Conquin tay, plantain meal, 324 Constantinople opium, 585 Consumption of arrowroot, 354 of arnotto, 449 cacoa in the United Kingdom, 36 cassia bark, 394 castor oil, 544 coco nut oil, 562 coffee, 36, 64, 596 coffee in various countries, 41 cinnamon, 391 cloves, 401 ginger, 418 indigo, 477 mace, 414 nutmegs, 414 opium, 580 palm oil, 527 pepper, 428 pimento, 431 sago in the United Kingdom, 318 sugar in India, 140 Great Britain, 139 tea, statistics of, 82, 596 tobacco, 596, 595 _Convolvulus batatas_, 333, 334, 356 Coolies employed in Mauritius, 150 Copey, a Cuba dye wood, 485 Copperah, 536, 549, 556, 560, 661 Corakan flour, 304 Coriander seed, 437 _Coriaria myrtifolia_, 493 Cork tree bark, 504 Corn, the common name for maize in America, 270 Cortes, a description of indigo, 456 _Corypha umbraculifera_, 316 _Costus Arabicus_, 438 _indicus_, &c., 638 Costa Rica, production of coffee in, 41, 64 Cotton, information respecting, 9 seed oil, 564 cake, 564 Courida bark, 495 Cow-itch, 625 Crane potato, 372 Crawfurd (Mr. J.), estimate of pepper produce, 422 _Croix lachryma_, 304 Crop hogshead of tobacco, weight of, 605 _Croton Cascarilla_, 396 _Eleuteria_, 397 _gossypifolia_, 625 oil, 522 _Tiglium_, 522 Cuba, coffee plantations in, 77 culture of tobacco in, 613 exports of coffee to America, 63 cost of producing sugar in, 147, 189 exports of coffee from, 73 progress of sugar cultivation in, 148 production of coffee in, 41 rice grown in, 292 statistics of coffee exported, 76 tobacco plantations in, 614 Cubebs, medicinal, 639 Cucumber seed oil, 512 _Cucumis Colocynthus_, 638 Cudbear, imports of, 486 452 Culilaban bark, 383 _Curcuma longa_, 419 species of, 434 varieties of, yielding E.I. arrowroot, 351 Curry stuff, imports into Ceylon, 434 Cush, an Indian name for millet, 306 Cutch, the Indian name for catechu, or gambier, 600 exported from Pinang, 503 imports of, 502 Cuyupa, an Indian tuber, 374 _Cycas circinalis_, 314 _Cynamchum_ leaves, 649 _Cynosurus corocanus_, 306 _Cytisus Cajan_, 304 _Dacrydium cupressinum_, 505 Dadap, a prop for the pepper, 425, 42 a name given in Java to the _Erythrina_, 55, 58 _Datisca cannabina_, 442 Davis' (Dr.), analysis of maize, 265 Day's analysis of barks, 495 Demerara, exports of coffee from, 73 rice grown in, 292 Dholl, the Indian name for varieties of _Cajanus_, 312 Dhak tree, bark of, 507 Dhurra, the Egyptian name for millet, 306 _Dicypellium caryophyllatum_, 384 _Didynamia gymosperma_, 520 Dietetic articles used for the preparation of popular beverages, 11 Dillock, a preparation with cayenne, 429 _Dioscorea aculeata_, 334, 362 _Diospyros glutinosa_, 494 _Dipterix odorata_, 434 _Dipterocarpus_, oil from, 511 Divi-divi, 503 Division of seasons in the tropics, 6 Dodder cake, 564 Dogwood, bark of, 627 _Dolichos biflorus_, varieties of, 312 _bulbosus_, roots used as food, 377 oil, 521 Domba oil, 513 Dominica, exports of coffee from, 73 introduction of the clove tree, 399 _Dracæna terminalis_, 355 Drimys bark, 636 Dryobalanops, species furnishing camphor, 634 Dubranfaut's process of sugar making, 197, 201 Dunsterville (Mr.), on Cape aloes, 631 Duquesne (M.), process of making sugar from beet, 202 Duration of various plants, 9 Dutch pound, lighter than the English avoirdupoise pound; 100 Dutch pounds equal to 101 and 1-5th lbs. Dutch West Indies, production of coffee in, 41 Duty, large, levied on tobacco, 598 Dye stuffs, various, 440 from British plants, 452 furnished by the cacao bean, 12 Dye woods, 445, 447 Eagle wood, 439 Earth mouse, 374 Earth-nut oil, 513 East India ginger, 416, 418 sugar, 139 cultivation in, 152 East Indies, imports of indigo from, 477 rhubarb, 645 Eddoes or cocos, 364 Edward's preserved potatoes, 361 Egyptian corn, 307 opium, 585 Elais, species furnishing palm oil, 524 _Elate sylvestris_ fruit, a masticatory, 579 _Elettaria Cardomomum_, 421 _Eleusine corocana_, 304 _Encephalartos cafer_, 319 English opium, 586 Eno bark, a black dye, 444 _Epidendrum_, species of, 431 _Ervum lens_, 312 Erythric acid, 489 Erythrina, a shade tree for the cacao, 15 _Erysimum perfoliatum_, oil from, 512 Essences, 565 Essential oils, 565 Ethiopian pepper, 421 _Eucalyptus_, bark of, for tanning, 494 _resinifera_, 506 _Eugenia caryophyllata_, 397 _Pimento_, 430 _Eulophia virens_, 354 _Eupatorium glutinosum_, 643 _Euphorbia Lathyris_, 510 _Euterpe montana_, 549 Evans' (Dr.) Sugar Planter's Manual, 140 _Evernia vulpina_, 488 _Evodia triphylla_, used as a perfume, 550 Factory maund, about 70 pounds, 471 _Fagara piperita_, 421 Fanega, a Spanish measure, the fifth part of an English quarter, equal to 12 quarrees, or 62 and 2-5ths acres, 13, 327 Fanegada, a Spanish land measure, 9 Farinaceous plants, 216 Fennel flower, 421 _Ferula asafoetida_, 633 Fern roots as food, 377, 380 _Fevillea scandens_, 511 Finlayson's description of gambier manufacture, 500 Fish oils consumed, 509 poison, 627 Fitzmaurice on the sugar cane, 180 Fixed oils, 510 Flax seed oil, 509, 501 Flores, a commercial classification of indigo, 456 Florida, tobacco culture in, 609 Flour, damaged, shipped from America, 227 and meal, our imports of, 218 obtained from spurry seed, 377 Flowering of the sugar cane, 182 Food plants of commerce, 217 nutritious properties of various kinds, 232 Foo-foo, the dough of the plantain, 324 Fortune (Mr. R.) on the tea districts, 89 engaged by the East India Company, 100 report on the Indian tea plantations, 106, 117 Fortune's (Mr. R.) wanderings in China, 103 Fownes (Mr.) on clarifying cane juice, 164 France, production of beet sugar in, 194, 200 rice cultivated in, 292 Frazla, the Arabian name for a bale of variable weight, in Mocha about 16 lbs. avoirdupoise, Free trade policy, effects of, 2 French berries for dyeing, 443 Slave Colonies, cost of producing sugar in, 189 West Indies, production of coffee in, 41 _Fucus amylaceus_, 380 _tenax_, furnishes glue, 378 as food for cattle, 379 Fundi or Fundungi, an African grain, 310 Fustic, 445, 447, 485 Gallipoli oil, 531 Gallo tannic acid, 492 _Galidupa arborea_, 521 Garancine, quantity and value of, 483, 484 Gambier plant, 496 Gamboge, 451 plants furnishing, 639 _Garcinea elliptica_, 451 Garbelled, a term for sorted or picked Gabilla, a finger or hank of tobacco, 613 Galangale root, 351, 418 _Garcinea Gambogia_, 640 Garnett (Mr. A.) on the culture of the plantain, 320 Galam butter, 538 _Gastrodia sesamoides_, 375 Gesner (Dr.), plants recommended by, for cultivation, 371 _Genipa Americana_, 444 _Genista tinctorea_, 453 _tomentosa_, 486 Gentian, plants furnishing it, 640 Ghee, 538 Ginger, culture of, 414 Gin, made from rye in Holland, 258 _Gigartina Iichenoides_, 379 Gingelie seed oil, 511, 533 oil, used to adulterate almond oil, 534 Ginseng, 436 Glen (Mr. J.), his experiments on Cassava starch, 370 Gloves made from bark, 376 Gluten contained in various grain crops, 264 definition of, 234 Gluten, composition of, 221 Glycirrhiza, 643 _Glyrine Apios_, 371 _subterranea_, 371 Glycerine, 643 _Glycirrhiza glabra_, 642 _Gnizotia oleifera_, 535 Gohyan, an Indian name for upland rice, 282 Gold of pleasure oil, 509 cake of, 564 Gomuti palm sugar, 136 315 _Gomatus saccharifer_, 314 Goor, the Indian name for half-made sugar, 308 Gorham's (Prof.) analysis of maize, 264 Gourds used for packing aloes, 630 _Gracelaria lichenoides_, 379 Graham (Dr.), on gamboge, 639 Gram, the Indian name for the _Ervum lens_, and _Cicer arietinum_, 312 Grain crops, 217 produce per acre in England, 219 of Paradise, 419, 420 average prices of in New Brunswick, 254 Grape sugar, properties of, 136 sugar, analysis of, 155 Grater for rasping arrowroot, 338 Grenada, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 Great Exhibition, results of, 2 Green tea, mode of manufacturing, 113 tea, imports of the last 15 years, 82 Griffith (Dr.) on tea plants in Assam, 111 Groundnut oil, 511 Guano, not much required in tropical countries, 7 Guayaquil, large exports of cocoa from, 13 _Guazuma ulmifolia_, 164 Guillemen's (M.) report on the tea plantations of Brazil, 128 Guiana, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 Guinea pepper, 429 grains, 420 yam, 331, 334, 335, 337, 362 corn, 306 Gums used by the dyers, 453 Gum tree of Australia, 494 Gun stock tree, 164 _Gunnera scabra_, 495 Gunny bags, rough canvas bags, 392 Guntang, an Indian dry measure of rather more than 15 pounds, 297 Guaco, or snake plant, 627 as a fertilizer, 278 _Gynerium saccharoides_, 136 _Gyrophora murina_, 486 _Hamatoxylon campechianum_, 484 Hamilton (Dr.), on oil of ben, 523 notices by, 617 Havana tobacco, classification of, 613 exports of tobacco from, 614 shipments of sugar from, 147 Hayti, exports of tobacco, 615 exports of ginger, 418 coffee from, 67 indigo from, 460 Hazel nut, oil from, 510 _Hebradendron Cambogoides_, 451, 639 Heather, dye from, 453 Hectare, a French land measure, equal to about 2½ acres, 204 Hectolitre, a French measure 192¼ bushel's Helot's lichen test, 452 Herreria sarsaparilla, 646 _Heliconia humilis_, 320 Hemlock tree, bark of, 494 Hemp seed oil, 509 Henna, a dye stuff, 486 Hepatic aloes, 630 Herring's palm kernel oil, 525 Hernandez (Mr.) on Cuba tobacco, 608 _Heuchera Americana_, 494 _Hibiscus rosa sinensis_, 494 Hingalee, the best Bengal tobacco, 617 Hino bark, 606 Hogs, large consumption of maize by, 271 Holcomb (Mr.) on the wheat crop of America, 245 _Holcus avenaceus_, 307 _spicatus_, 366 _saccharatum_, 306 Holland, tea sent to, 86 Honduras, export of indigo from, 460 Hooker (Dr.) on brick tea, 92 Hops, cascarilla bark used to adulterate, 397 Horse gram, 312 Hungary, production of beet sugar in, 197 _Hura crepitans_, 512, 626 Husking rice, 290 Hydraulic press for coco nut oil, 557 press, 329 _Hydrastica canadensis_, 625 _Hymenoea Courbaril_, 313 _Hyperanthera Moringa_, 523 Hypericum, species of, furnishes gamboge, 454, 640 Iceland moss, 343, 379 Illepe oil, 537, 511 _Ilex Paraguayensis_, indigenous to Brazil, 130 description of, 133 _Illicum anisatum_, 438 Impey (Dr.) on Malwa opium, 587 on Indian drugs, 626 Implements of colonial agriculture few and simple, 6 requisite for manufacturing tea, 115 Imports of arrowroot, 351, 354 arnotto, 449 cacao, from America and the West Indies, 35 cloves, 401 cinchona bark, 636 tea into Great Britain, 82 tobacco, 597 coco-nut oil, 562 palm oil, 525, 527 pimento, 431 opium, 580 nutmegs, 414 pepper, 428 castor oil, 544 sago, 318 indigo, 477 coffee, 37 Import commerce, our principal, articles furnished by the Vegetable Kingdom, 4 Incense wood, 439 Indigo, details of, 453 plants yielding, 442 information respecting, 10 mode of manufacturing, 457 production of in India, 474 in Natal, 463 _Indigofera_, species of, 453 India, tea culture in, 98 culture of indigo in, 463 Indiana, tobacco culture in, 607 Indian aloes, 630 berries, 576 corn, imports of, 263 information respecting, 9 analysis of, 264 sources of supply, 262, 263 starch, 343 meal imported, 218 yield per acre, 356 compared with Guinea corn, 307 meal, composition of, 307 opium, 586 root, 625 shot, 345 Indian corn, weight of, 280 madder, 484 Intoxicating liquors made from Cassava, 369 Iodine, 378 Ipecacuan, bastard, 653 641 _Ipomoea batatas_, 365 _brachypodo_, 522 _Jalapa_, 641 Ireland, tobacco consumed in, 596 cost of producing beet root sugar in, 193 Irish rock moss, 379 Iron, quantity of, in tobacco, 617 bark tree, 506 Irrigation for the tea plant never practised in China, 122 _Isatis Indigotica_,104 _tinctoria_, 452 Jaggery sugar, 555 Japanese camphor, 633 tobacco, 620 Japan, tea culture, 94 _Jatropha curcas_, oil from, 512 Jacobson's (Mr.) work on tea culture in Java, 102 Jalap, 641 Jamaica, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 culture of coffee in, 67 culture of Guinea corn, 306 decline of sugar production, 148, 149 exports of coffee from, 73 ginger, 415, 417 sarsa, 646, 47 Jameson (Dr.) on the culture of tea in India, 106 Java, cinnamon cultivated in, 383, 392 clove does not succeed there, 399 coffee exported to the United States, 63 coco-nut oil exported from, 556 cost of producing sugar in, 189 culture of coffee in, 53 culture of rice in, 299 cultivation of indigo in, 476 gambier grown in, 502 nutmegs exported from, 413 pepper grown in, 422-23 production of coffee in, 41 statistics of, 300 statistics of indigo exported, 476 statistics of tea culture in, 102 sugar culture in, 152 tea plantations, 94 tobacco, 621 Jack fruit tree, 319 Janipha, starch in, 331 _Manihot_, 315 Jasmine oil, 570, 574 _Jatropha gossypyfolia_, 625 _cureas_, oil from, 523 Jellies, clearness of, 337 Jesuit's bark, 635 Joar, the Indian name of the _Sorghum vulgare_ or millet, 304, 306 Job's tears, 304 Johnson (Dr.) on manufacture of rose water, 570 (Mr.) on indigo culture, 466 (Prof.) analyses of grain crops, 264 (Prof.) on grain crops of New Brunswick, 253 Jones's process for making rice starch, 344 Jumowah, irrigated sowings, 468 Juniperus, oil of, 565 Kafir bread, 319 Kamas root, an edible, 376 Kanari kernels made into cakes, 547 oil, 546 Katjang oil, produce of the ground nut, 515, 299 Kawan, the Java tallow tree, 511 Kashmir, culture of rice in, 295 Kemmayes, an Arabian truffle, 381 Kew Gardens, tea plant grows in, 101 Kekune oil, 539 Kentucky tobacco, statistics of, 598, 600 Keora oil, 565 Khoonte, the Indian name for a second cutting, 471 Kiln-drying madder, 481 of bread stuffs, 221, 229 Kilogramme, a French weight, equal to 21bs. 3oz. avoird., 194 Kino, Australian, 506 East India, 507 _Knowltonia vessicatoria_, 626 Koster's Travels in Brazil, 186 Kous-kous, 311 Kooyah plant, 376 Kukui oil, 539 Kumaon, tea plantations in, 117 Laudanum, 584 _Lawsonia inermis_, 486 _Laminaria saccharina_, 379 _Lathyrus tuberosus_,374 Larch bark edible, 376 _Laurus camphora_, 633, 35 La Guayra, cacao from, 13 production of coffee in, 41 exports of coffee from, 62 Lana dye, 444 _Lecythis Tabucajo_, 512 Lemon grass oil, 672 Legumes, varieties of, 312 Lecanora, species of, 432 Lentils, 312 Leaf tobacco shipped from the Havana, 614 Liberia, suitability for coffee culture, 77 Lichen tribe as food, 378 Lichens, 486 Lichenin, 343 _Licospermun racemosum_, 605 Lindley (Dr.) on the cinchonas, 635 Litmus, 452 Lignum aloes, 439 Litre, a French measure, equal to 1¾ English pint nearly, 202 Lime, its influence on cane juice, 161 Lindley (Prof.) on the wheat of South Australia, 221 Lindley's classification of the plantain tribe, 322 Liptospermum, oil of, 565 _Lilium Pomponium_, 356 Lindley (Dr.) on the lichens, 486 Linseed, 535 oil, 509, 537 imported, 563 cake imported, 564 Little (Mr.) on opium, 587 Libra, a Spanish kind of tobacco, 613 Liquorice, 642 paste, 643 Logwood, 445, 447, 484 Lotus seeds, used as food, 356 Locust tree, 313 pods, 503 Louisiana, cost of producing sugar in, 189 production of sugar in, 146 Loxa bark, 636 Luffas, properties of, 626 Luggie, a measuring rod, 471 Lucca oil, 531 Macfarlane (Mr. A.) on the tea plant,117 Madder, culture of, 478 Indian, 484 statistics of imports, 484 _Madia sativa_ oil, 520 _sativa_, 444 Mahowa oil, 537 _Maclura tinctoria_, 485 Mauritius weed, 486 Mangrove bark, for tanning, 493 Mac Micking (Mr.) on making cigars, 620 Margose oil, 537 Macaw tree, 519 Maxwell (Dr.) on Neem oil, 537 Marc of olives, 531 Mango, kernel of, for bread, 378 Marmala water, 574 Malabar cardamoms, 419 Manila, exports of indigo from, 476 exports of sugar from, 153 cigar making, 620 hemp, whence obtained, 321 Mattrasses, stuffed with blades of Indian corn, 281 Macculloch's (Mr.) estimate of indigo, 478 Maize, number of varieties cultivated, 278 analysis of, 264 imported, 218 meal, imported, 218 on the culture of, 260 sugar, 215 information respecting, 9 Dr. Phillip's analysis of, 307 starch of, 334, 335, 337, 343 system of culture in America, 273 culture in the East Indies, 282 immense produce per acre, 281 varieties grown in, Peru, 281 statistics of production in America, 269 statistics of exports from the United States, 272 Malphigia bark, for tanning, 495 Maslin, quantity grown in France, 250 Mace, imports of, 414 false color of, 409 proportion of, to nutmegs, 408 Malt, quantity made, 255 Mahoe, furnishes a dye stuff, 444 Mauritius, exports of pepper, 426 nutmeg introduced in, 412 pepper grown in, 422 cost of sugar cultivation in, 187, 189 tea culture in, 94 progress of sugar culture in, 150 clove culture of, 398, 401 black beans, 304 Mangrove bark, 450, 506 Madagascar cardamoms, 419 _Mangostana Gambogia_, 451, 640 Maple sugar, 205 _Manettia glabra_, 641 Madeira, introduction of the tea plant, 94 Madras, tea culture suitable for, 101 exports of indigo from, 464 cost of producing sugar in, 189 Marah (Mr.) prize essay on coffee culture, 69 Malambo bark, 636 Machinery for sugar, 140 for coffee, 51 for arrowrot, 350, 348 required for the plantain, 324 required for sago, 318 Magdalena river, cacao indigenous on its shores, 14 _Magnolia fuseata_, used to flavor tea, 85 Majoon, an opium confection, 585 Malabar, production of coffee in, 41 cassia, 394 ginger, 415 pepper produced in, 422 Malwa opium, 580 Manure, a special for tobacco, 592 Manures, suited to the coffee tree, 50 for the nutmeg, 406 suited for arrowroot, 347 scarcely required in tropical countries, 6 suited for the sugar cane, 172 suited to maize 278 Manioc, see Cassava Manihot, species of, 367 _utilissima_, 315 Mansana, a land measure of 100 square yards, or nearly two British statute acres, 455 Manyroot, 625 _Maranta arundinacea_, juice of an antidote to poisons, 627 _Marattia alata_, 380 Maryland tobacco, statistics of, 598, 600 Mate, a name for the Paraguay tea, 133 Matico, 643 Matias bark, 636 Maund of Surat, 39¼ lbs. an Indian weight of varable quantity _Melaleuca minor_, 566 _Metrosideros tomentosa_, 505 _Mesembryanthemum nodiflorum_, 494 _Menispermum coceulus_, 576 _palmatum_, 638 Megass, a name given to the dried cane stems, or trash used for fuel, 168 Meleguetta pepper, 420 Melsen's process of sugar boiling, 203 _Mespilus Bengalensis_, 443 Mendo, a wild sweet potato of North America, 372 Menomine, an Indian edible root, 372 Mexican thistle, 626 Mexico, imports of indigo from, 477 _Metroxylon sagus_, 314 Millet, varieties of, cultivated, 304 the great Indian, 306 Miller on tobacco culture, 608 Mill, rude one, used in Siam for hulling paddy, 302 for crushing plantain stems, 327 Mills for cleaning rice, 286, 288 Minot, a Canadian grain measure about one-eighth less than a bushel, 251 Milloco, a tuberous plant, 374 Mint, culture of, 567 Mimosa bark, 504 Mico or mijo, a vegetable butter made in Java, 313, 512 Monkey bread, 378 pot seed oil, 512 Morinda, species of, 443, 449 Morewood (Mr. E.), his exertions in Natal, 140 experiments in sugar culture, 187 Mocha, production of coffee in, 41 cultivation of coffee in,' 43 Mother cloves, definition of, 397 Moussache, the fecula of the manioc, 315 Mountain rice, 285, 290, 296 Morphia, proportion in opium, 584, 585 _Mora excelsa_, 495 _Morinda citrifolia_, 478 Moringa oil, 523 species of, 523 Musa, species of, 319 Musquash root of the Micmacs, 371 Mustard seed, 437 Muscovado sugar, cost of producing, 189 _Mucuna pruriens_, 625 _utilis_, 304 _Muchowa_ oil, 511 _Musa textilis_, 321 Mustard oil, 510, 511 seed, 509, 535 Munjeet, 449 _Munjestha_, 484 _Muracuja ocellata_, a narcotic, 489 _Myrica cerifera_, 494, 540 _macrocarpa_, 542 _Myrtus carophyllata_, 284 _Pimenta_, 430 _Myristica_, varieties of the tree, 401 _sebifera_, 512 Myrobolans, 506 Myrtle wax, 540 Mysore, production of coffee in, 41 _Napoota_ oil, 620 _Nauclea Gambir_, 496 Namur oil, 572 Natal Agricultural Society, its endeavours to promote sugar cultivation, 139 indigo culture in, 463 sugar culture in, 186 _Narthex asafoetida_, 633 _Nelumbium_, seed of, as food, 378 _speciosum_, the source of Chinese arrowroot, 352 New South Wales, suited for madder, 482 tobacco culture in, 621 Negrohead tobacco, 601 New Orleans, capabilities for rice culture, 287 exports of castor oil from, 545 _Nerium_, 453 _oleander_, 495 Neem tree oil, 511, 537 Nicaragua wood, 445, 447 _Nipa fruticana_, 136 Nipah, leaf for thatching, 559 Nicotine, 590 _Nicotium_, species of the plant, 590 Nitrogen, in grain, 307 in the starch plants, 342 234, 310 in the plantain, 323 Nigella, species of, 421 North West Provinces, tea culture in, 117 _Nostoe edulis_, 378 Northern Australia, directions for growing tobacco, 623 Nut oil, price of, 517 Nutgall, tannin in, 492, 495 Nut pine, 377 Nutmeg tree, 401 curing of, 409 wild, 412 _Nux vomica_, 577 _Nyctanthes arbortristes_, 494 _Nymphæa lotus_, starch obtained from, 352 Oats, proportion of oil in, 564 production of in the United Kingdom, 257 imported, 218 Oatmeal, imported 218 Oats and beans, produce of in England, 248 Oak bark, tannin in, 492 Ocas, a tuberous plant, 374 Ocoes or taniers, 331 _Ocymum tuberosum_, 356, 367 Ohio tobacco, statistics of, 598, 600 Oil of aniseed, 438 Oil, proportions of in various crops, 264 obtained from the Cacao seeds 11, 12 Oil of cubebs, 639 of camphor, 634 of cassia, 396 Oil of cloves, 398 of mace, 402 of cinnamon, 389, 390 spikenard, 565 of Ben, 523 cake, 513, 531 mills of India, 535 cakes of the castor seed, 545 cake from coco-nut, 552, 563 coco-nut, 551, 556, 561, 562 from maize, 564 of sandal wood, 565 cake imported, 564 cake, American, 565 Oilcake as a manure, 50 used in China, 313 Oil palm, 525 Oils, burning properties of various, 508 _Oldenlandia umbellata_, 449 Oleaginous plants, 509 _Olea fragrans_, 528 _Europea_, 527 Olives, mode of preserving the fruit, 530 Olive oil, prices of, 531 509, 527 sources of supply, 563 Omen-e-chah, the Indian name for a wild bean, 372 Onions, planted with arrow root, 347 _Ophelia chitrata_, 641 Opium, history and trade of, 580 Orceine, 488 Orchilla weed, 452 weed, imports of, 486 Orchids furnishing salep, 354 an edible species of, 375 roots of some used as food, 377 Orituco cacao, superior quality of, 14 Oryza, varieties of, 284 Orlong, a land measure in the East, equal to 1-1/3 acre, 297 O'Shaughnessy's analysis of Ceylon moss, 380 on opium, 584 Oswego starch factory, 343 Otto of khuskhus, 573 Otaheite cane, 153 Oude, production of indigo in, 464, 475 Oxalic acid, used for vinegar, 312 Oxley (Dr.) on nutmeg culture, 402 Paddy, a name for rice in the husk, 297 Patchouly, 537 Pannam kilingoes, 376 Parchment coffee, 60 _Pao Crava_, one of the spice barks, 384 _Pachyrrhizus angulatus_, 377 Palm oil, imports of, 527 sources of supply, 563 Palm oil, 509, 524 wine, 314 sugar, 136 Palma Christi, 542 Palmetto palm, 495 Palmyra nut, first shoot of, edible, 376 Pan, a masticatory, 577 Pancratium, species of, 625 Pandanus, fruit of eaten as food, 377 _odoratissimus_, 565 Panicum, various species of, 304 _spicatum_, of Roxburgh, 308 _Panax quinquefolium_, 436 _Palos de Velas_, 521 Paper made from plantain fibre, 335 _Papsalum exile_, 310 _Papaver somniferum_, 580 Paraguay tea plant common in Brazil. 130 description of, 133 extent of the trade, 133 Parietinic acid, 488 _Parmenteira cerifera_, 521 Parmelia, species of lichens, 486 a dye-stuff, 488 Peas, analysis of, 264 Peeling coffee, 51, 60 cinnamon, 316 Peligot (Mr.) on the composition of wheat, 230 Pepper, black, 421 pot, a West Indian dish, 369 prices of, 413 duty on, 424 Peppermint oil, 566 Peon, the Spanish term for a laborer, 135 _Persea gratissima_, 444 Perfumed oils, 569 Persian berries, 443 Peas imported, 218 Pessaloo, an Indian name for the _Phaseolus mungo_ Pereira's classification of the cinchonas, 636 Peruvian bark, 635 Pearl sago, 318 of Persia, 316 _Piper angustifolium_, 643 Petty rice, 310 _Pekea_, species of, yielding oil, 512 Pea-nut, 516 Persian tobacco, 615 Phaseolus, varieties of, 312 _Phaseolus Mungo max_, 171 _Phalaris caniesis_, 314 Phlomis, 643 Philippines, cassia brought from, 394 Philippine Islands, sugar cultivation in, 153 production of coffee in, 41 varieties of rice grown in, 302 Philippines, export of indigo from, 476 cigars made in, 620 Phillip's (Dr.) analyses of Guinea corn, 307 _Phyllodadus trichomanoides_, 505 Physic nut, 512, 625 Picul, a Dutch weight of 133-1/3 English pounds, 36 Piddington's (Mr.) analyses of tobacco, 617 Pigeon-pea, 304 Pignons, use of as food, 377 _Pimpinella Anisitm_, 437 Pimento, 430 Pinang, nutmegs in, 412 tea culture attempted, 95 clove culture in, 399, 400 pepper culture in, 425 Piper Betel, 577 _Cubebi_, 639 species of, 421 _Pinus Pinea_, seeds of the cones used for food, 377 Piney tallow, 512 Plantation sugar, imports, 139 Plantado passado, 323 Plantain, dye stuffs obtained from, 444 juice recommended for clarifying sugar, 162 information respecting, 9 starch in, 331 blight, 321 319 leaves, bags made of, 316 meal, 324, 341 Planche, his memoir on the sagos, 315 _Plumeria_, essences of, 524 _Plectranthus graveolens_, 573 Plough used in Brazil, 184 _Polygonum fagopyrum_, 260 _Poa Abyssinica_, 308 Pomegranates, for dyeing, 440 Potash an important element in maize, 267 large quantity in maize, 264 Potatoes, mode of keeping in Peru, 361 average weight per bushel in New Brunswick, 253 composition of, 227 imported, 218 composition of, 264 analysis of varieties, 362 yield per acre, 356 Potato, information respecting, 10 meal, syrup made from, 197 the wild, of North America, 372 starch in, 330 starch, used to adulterate arrowroot, 349 test for detecting, 349 starch, 334, 335, 337, 362 crop of the United States, 361 disease, 358 proposed cure for, 359, 60 crop in Ireland, 358 varieties of, 358 imports of, 359 crop in France, 361 Poisons, 627 _Pomme des Prairies_, of the Canadians, 373 Pounding coffee, 61 Population of Great Britain, &c., 87 of China, 86, 91, 298 Porto Rico, exports of coffee, 77 cost of producing sugar in, 189 production of coffee in, 41 exports of tobacco, 615 Poonac, as manure, 50 549, 552, 561 Pomegranate bark, 493, 495 Poonay oil, 511-13 _Polygonum tinctorium_, 453 _Pongamia glabra_, 521 _Pogostemon patchouly_, 573 Poppy, culture of, 581 oil, used to adulterate olive, 532 509-10-11-18 _Polypodium crassifolium_, used as a perfume, 550 Preserved Plantains, 323 Prices, average of sugar, 145 Prickly poppy, 626 Princeza snuff, 594 Prince of Wales Island, clove culture in, 399 _Prosopis pallida_, 313 Protein compounds, 307, 310, 342 Produce of various plants, 9 Production, average of various plants, 9 Provence oil, 531 Province Wellesley, clove culture in, 400 Prussia, tobacco consumed by, 596 production of beet sugar in, 197-98 Pruning coffee tree, 69 Psoralia, varieties of, 372 _Pteris esculenta_, 380 _Pterocarpus marsupium_, 493 _santalinus_, 445 species of, 507 Pulping mill for coffee, 51 Purging nut, 625 Pulse, culture of, 312 Putchuk or Costus, 438 638 Punjaub, proposed culture of tea in, 101 _Pustulatus_ moss, 486 Qually, an iron vessel for drying sago, 317 Quarree, a Spanish land measure, about 5¾ English acres, 326 Quassia wood, 643 Quas, a fermented Russian beverage, 308 Quercitron, 443 485 _Quercus tinctoria_, 443, 485 _suber_, 504 Quintal, the Spanish cwt., equal to 101¾ lbs. English, Quinine, imports of, 636 manufacture of, 635 Quillai, bark of, used for soap, 574 Quinoa, 310 species of, 507 Railways, large consumption of oil for, 513 Ramos (Mr.) his dessicating agent for sugar, 140, 162 _Ramalina fufuracea_, 486 Ram-til, 535 Ramsay (Mr. C. J.) on beet sugar manufacture, 200 Ranunculus, properties of, 626 Rape oil, 609 Rape seed, quantity imported, 563 oil, 513 cake, 564 _Raphis fabelliformis_, 314 Red pepper, 429 Sanders wood, 445 Sandal wood, 378 _Reseda lutea_, 452 Revenue from sugar, 143 Rhamnus, varieties of, 442 leaves of, used for tea in China, 105 _Rhizaphora mangle_, 493, 506 Rhubarb, 644 Rhus, species of, 450 _Ricinus communis_, 542 Rial, a Spanish coin worth 6d., 135 Rice starch, 344 imports of, 303 produce per acre, 356 meal for feeding pigs, 383 Rice imported, 218 starch, Jones's process, 303 consumption per head in the East 297 price of in China, 298 time it may be kept, 292 threshing mill for, 288 grown in Demerara, 292 history of, 283 American crop of, 285 returns of produce in Carolina, 291 weight per bushel, 290 _Richardsonia scabra_, 641 Rimu, or red pine, 505 Robertson (Mr.) on the collection of Paraguay tea, 133 Robiquet (E.) analysis of aloes, 629 Rocella dye, 452 species of lichens, 486 Room, an Indian dye stuff, 443 Roucou, a name for arnotto, 447 Rotation of crops, 243 Root crops, 355 prices of in New Brunswick, 254 Rollers, proportionate advantages of those with 3 & 4, 168 Roxburgh on the sugar cane, 179 Roses, cultivation of, 570 _Rottlera tinctoria_, 442 Royle's (Prof.) productive resources of India, 103 _Rubia cordifolia_, 484 _tinctorium_, 478 _Ruellia tuberosa_, 625 Ruellia, a dye stuff, 443 Rupee, an Indian coin worth about, 2s Russia, production of beet sugar in, 199 consumption of tea in, 92 tea sent to, 87 Rye, analysis of, 258 imported, 218 meal, imported, 218 Sappan wood, 445, 446, 447 Salisbury (Dr.), analysis of maize, 265 Saxony, beet sugar manufacture in, 199 Salt, recommended as a fertiliser, 172 _Santalum album_, 565 Saa-ga-ban root of the Indians, 371 Saga, the Java name for bread, 314 imported, 218 flour, exports of, 318 palms, 314 millet used for, 306 _Saccharum sinensis_ of Roxburgh, 136, 169 _violacum_, 136 Safflower, 450 Salangore sugar cane, an excellent variety, 154 Sandwich Islands, arrowroot made in, 352 Sandbox, seeds of, emetic, 626 tree, 512 Saul tree, wood useful for tea boxes, 114 Sarsaparilla, 645 _Saguerus Rumphii_, 314, 316 _inermis_, 314 _lævis_, 314 _farinifera_, 316 Salep, 354 Samshing, a refuse produce of opium, 585 Sandoway in Arracan produces superior tobacco, 616 Saponaceous plants, 674 Sapindus, varieties of, 574 _Salvadora persica_, 521 _Sapindus marginatus_, 521 Saouari oil, 512 _Sanguinaria canadensis_, 511 Scammony, 642 Scharling's (Dr.) test for adulterated arrowroot, 349 Schomburgk (Sir R.), arrowroot forwarded by, 352 discovers a new tuberous plant, 374 discovers wild plantains, 320 Scotland, produce of grain in, 249 Seed leaf tobacco, 606 wheat in France, 219 Senna, varieties of, 647 Sesame oil, 511, 533 _Setaria italica_, 305 _germanica_, 304 Shanghae oil, 511 Sheet lead, manufacture of for tea cases, 114 _Shorea robusta_, 114, 521 Shier (Dr.), his opinion on cassava starch, 370 analysis of the plantain, 323 on the starch producing plants, 331 Shea butter, 538 Shiraz tobacco, 613 Sicily oil, 531 Siam gamboge, 639 pepper produced in, 422 indigo found wild in, 476 exports of cardamoms, 419 _Sidu lanceolata_, 574 Sugar, obtained from the palm tree, 314 made from millet, 306 _Simaruba amara_, 643 Singapore, produce of gambier in, 501 exports of sago, 318 nutmeg trade of, 413 pepper grown in, 423, 424, 427 nutmeg trees in, 400 produce of mace, 414 extent of clove culture in, 399 Sinapis, species of, yielding oil, 512 Silica, essential for wheat soils, 240 Singhara nuts, 378 Sinde, culture of rice in, 293 Smith (Dr.), his experiments in tea culture in America, 95 Snuff, duty received on, 597 _Sorghum officinarum_, 136 _saccharatum_, 136 _avenaceum_, 307 _vulgare_, 304, 306 Soap, made from coco-nut oil, 559, 562 worts, 575 Soil suited to coffee, 68 for the nutmeg, 403 for cinnamon, analysis of, 384 best suited for wheat, 247 a due consideration and knowledge of, requisite to the planter, 7 suited for tobacco, 586, 587, 607 suited for indigo, 468 Solly (Prof.) on the want of a hand-hook for the cultivator, 1 on barks for tanning, 493 Society of Arts, premiums offered by, 2 Soconusco, the finest cacao, 13 Socotrine aloes, analysis of, 629 _Soja hispida_, 313 Soy, mode of making, 313 Sohrinjee oil, 478, 523 South Australia, tobacco culture in, 624 South Carolina, exports of rice from, 285 Sooranjee, 478, 523 _Spergula sativa_, flour from the seed, 377 _Sphoeroccus crispus_, 379 Spanish moss, 380 tobacco, on the mannagement of, 612 oil, 531 Spices, plants which furnish, 382 Spikenard oil, 572 _Spondius lutea_, 495 _Spergula sativa_, 512 _Stalagmites cambogoides_, 451 _gambogoides_, 63 Star anise, 438 Starch producing plants, 329 Starch contained in various grain crops, 264 made from maize, 265 plants, comparative yield per acre, 339 process of manufacture, 342 large proportion of in rice, 303 proportion of in potatoes, 362 _Statice coriaria_, 444 _Caroliniana_, 494 Stenhouse (Dr.) on the lichens, 490 _Stillingia sebifera_, 512 St. John's bread, 312-13 St. Lucia, cost of cultivating sugar, in, 189 exports of coffee from, 73 shipment of cassava flour, 369 St. Kitt's, cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 St. Domingo, exports of coffee to the United States, 63 St. Vincent, introduction of the clove to, 399 production of arrowroot in, 347 production of coffee in, 41 cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 arrowroot shipped from, 351 Straits settlements, nutmeg culture in, 407 cinnamon culture recommended, 387 Sumbul root, 649 Surat maund, 39¼ lbs., 401 Sumach, 450 tannin in, 495 Sunflower oil, 509-10-36 Sullivan (Mr.) on cost of beet root sugar, 191 Sugar, cost of producing in different countries, 189 Sugar cane, varieties of, 137, 153, 168 mills, relative advantages of different ones, 168 supply, demand and production, 141 plants from which it is obtained, 136, 216 Sugar, information respecting, 10 Sugar maple, 205 Sumatra, production of coffee in, 41 Sumatra, production of pepper in, 422 Sweet cassava, 331 Sweet potato, 330-31-37-65 Swift (Mr.) on the culture of madder, 480 Swamp potato, 373 _Sxygium carophyllæum_, 384 _Sylvanus surinamensis_, 279 Symplocos, varieties of, 442 Tacca plant, species of, 354 Tahiti arrowroot, 354 Talipot palm, furnishes sago, 316 Tallicoonah oil, 518 Tallow tree of China, 512 tree of Java, 511 burning properties of, 509 Tanping, a Chinese oil cake, 312 Tannin of nutgalls, 492 Tannia, 334-35-36-37 Tanahaka bark, 505 Tapioca sago, 315 369 _Tasmannia aromatica_, 421 Taro, 364 Tartareous moss, 486 Taniers, or ocoes, 331 Taurine, Leibig on, 80 Tea, total outlay for by the British public, 86 extent to which the consumption might be pushed, 89 local consumption of in China, 86, 91 tannin in, 495 consumption of, 596 oil, 518 range of prices, 83 consumption of in the British empire, 84 in all other countries, 84 Mr. Montgomery Martin's statistics of, 84 quantity that might be used free of duty, 84 value of the exports from China, high priced, used in the China market, 85 various Chinese names for, 105 immense trade in, 80 names of the green, 81 black, 81 original cost in China, 85 duty received on, 83 Teel or Til oil, 511, 533 Teff, an African bread, 308 Teinsing, a Chinese vegetable dye, 104 Temperature requisite for various plants, 8, 9 Tempering cane juice, 158 Tenacity of starches, 336 _Terminalia angustifolia_, 494 species of, 506 Terra Japonica, a misnomer, 490 statistics of imports, 502 Teuss, a Chinese legume, 312 oil, 215 Texas, production of sugar in, 147 _Thespesia populnea_, 444 _Thea viridis_, 103, 110 Bohea, 103, 110 Theine, analysis of, 80 Thistle oil, 511, 103, 110, 626 roots as food, 376 Theobromine, 11 _Theobroma_, description of the tree, 11 Tikoor, a local name for Indian arrowroot, 351 Til oil, 511 Tip-sin-ah, a wild prairie turnip of North America, 372 Tinnevelly senna, 648 Ti plant, 355 Tirhoot, production of indigo in, 475 Tobacco, memorial of American Chamber of Commerce, 595 culture of in the East, 615 duty paid on, 594 leaf, Prof. Johnston's analysis, 592 plant, 589 sources of supply, 601 fly, cure for, 607 statistics of American exports, 600 prohibited to be grown in England, 598 method of curing, 605 manufacture increasing in the United States, 599 number of persons engaged in the culture in America, 599 worm, 610 stems, trade in, 598 information respecting, 9 seed oil, 510-18 prices in London, 602 root, a wild edible plant, 376 cost of cultivating sugar in, 189 Tonquin beans, 434 Tous-les-mois, starch of, 330-33-35-37-40 Topinam bar, 365-76 Topping the coffee tree, 68 Towai bark, 505 Toddy, 555 Travers (Mr. J.I.) on consumption of tea, 87 Trinidad, exports of coffee from, 73 indigo in, 460 culture of coffee in, 72 cost of cultivating sugar, 189 _Tropæolum tuberosum_, 536 Tripa, a name for damaged tobacco leaves, 611 _Tripolium alpinum_, 643 Truffle, 381 Tuberous plants, new, recommended, 370 _Tuber cibarium_, 381 Turkey berries, 442 opium, 585 Turmeric, 419, 434, 442 used for coloring tea, 436 Turnips, average weight of crop in New Brunswick, 253 Turpentine, spirits of, 565 Typha bread, 380 Tye, a preparation of opium, 585 _Unearia Gambier_, 496 United States, production of sugar in, 145 supplies of coffee to, 63 imports of tea and value, 92 value of its agricultural produce, 222 former culture of indigo, 461 production of maple sugar in, 215 tea plant introduced, 95 Upland rice, 302 grown in Texas, 285 Ure (Dr.), on arrowroot manufacture, 347 on manioc starch, 368 on tannin in barks, 495 on indigo manufacture, 472 _Urania guianensis_, 444 _Valenaria edulis_, 376 Valonia, 507 Van Diemen's Land, culture of oats in, 258 Vanilla, 431 plant, grows in Brazil, 130 Vara, a Spanish land measure, 9 _Variolaris_, species of lichens, 486 Varzeas, a Portuguese name for low and marshy ground, 183 _Vateria indica_, 512 Vegetable butter, 538 wax, 540 soap, 574 Velvet moss, 486 Venezuela, coffee culture in, 62 _Verbesena sativa_, 535 _Vernonia anthelmentica_, 521 Vinegar, made from millet, 306 Virginian tobacco, statistics of, 598, 600 method of culture, 604 _Virola sebifera_, 401, 512 Voandzou, 371 Voelcker (Dr.), analysis of quinoa, 310 Volatile or essential oils, 565 _Vuelta abajo_, the best class of Cuba tobacco, 613 _arribo_, the inferior kind of ditto, 613 Vulpinic acid, 488 Wabessepin, a wild American potato, 372 Wages paid in the Mauritius, 150 Walnut, oil from, 510 Wangle, oil seed, 533 Watappinee, an Indian edible root, 372 Water, proportion of in different kinds of wheat, 221 quantity in potatoes, 227 for making starch, 341 Wax berries, 546 palm, 541 _Weinmaunia_, bark of, 499 _racemosa_, 505 Weight per bushel of crops in New Brunswick, 253 of coffee per bushel, 47 Wellstead (Lt.) on Socotro aloes, 629 Westring (Dr.) on the Swedish lichens, 489-90 West India ginger, 418 Wheat, weight of, as an index of value, 236 imported, 218 flour do., 218 culture, statistics of, 220 annual produce of, 219 analysis of, by Boussingault, 244 average price of, 249 best soil for, 247 consumption of in England, 248 produce of in England and Wales, 248 information respecting, 10 starch of, 331-35-36-37, 343 composition of the ash of, 241 yield per acre, 240 flour, various analyses of, 237 White pepper, statistics of, 428 Whisky, quantity of maize used for, 271 Wilcockes on Paraguay tea trade, 135 Williams's Middle Kingdom, extract from, 105 _Willoughbeia edulis_, 378 Wilson (Mr. T.) on the cost of producing sugar, 189 Wilson's rice-cleaning machine, 290 Winnowing coffee, 51 machine for tea, 116 Woad, 452 Wood dyes, 449 oil, 511 (Mr.) on indigo culture, Wool manufacture, oil consumed in, 510 Wray's practical sugar planter, 140 _Wrightia tinctoria_, 463 _Xanthoxylum piperitum_, 421 _ochroxylon_, 460 _Xiguilite_, the indigo shrub, 460 _Xylocarpus granatum_, 519 _Xylopia aromatica_, 421 Yam, back, 333, 335, 337-38-39, 362 Yams, varieties of cultivated, 362 Yampah root, 376 Yellow berries, 443 Yerba, Spanish and native name for the Paraguay tea tree, 133 _Yucca amarga_, 331 Yucca, the Peruvian name for cassava, 367, 375 Zamia, arrowroot obtained from, 319, 352 _pumila_, 330 Zanzibar, clove plantations in, 400 _Zea Mays_, description of, 260 _Zingiber officinale_, 414 _Zizania aquatica_, 284 Zones, Meyen's division of, 25 Zollverein, production of beet root sugar in, 198 
3452	----	None 
34586	----	Production Notes: Pg 8. The word 'is' has been changed to the word 'as' in line 2. Pg 8. The spelling of the word 'layed' has been retained. A TREATISE --ON-- GRAIN STACKING GIVING Instructions how to Properly Stack all kinds of Grain, so as to preserve in the best possible manner for Threshing and Market. BY JOHN N. DELAMATER. NORWALK, O.: The Norwalk Chronicle Print. 1884. Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1884, By JOHN N. DELAMATER, In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D.C. PREFACE So far as I am aware, this is an untried field of labor--a pioneer work which I have had under consideration for the last fifteen years; during which time the closest attention has been given to details of building, and careful observations made on results, when the stacks were being taken down. JOHN N. DELAMATER. [Illustration] TREATISE ON GRAIN STACKING. [Illustration] PLACING FOUNDATION. If convenient, make a foundation of rails, by placing three rails about four and one-half feet apart and parallel, and then add half or two thirds the length of a rail to each, and cover by laying rails crossways, and finish by laying a large rail or post in the center lengthways. This will form a foundation large enough for ten or twelve large loads. If rails, poles or boards cannot be had for an entire foundation, endeavor to get something to support the heads of a few center sheaves; for if sheaves are set on end to commence a stack, the middle is apt to settle too much. COMMENCING TO BUILD. On the rail foundation, lay around the center in the form of an ellipse, with the heads lapping well across the center rail; lap half and continue to lay towards the outside until foundation is covered. Now commence at the outside and lay a course around, neither laying out or drawing in, except to correct any little error that may occur in the elliptical form of the stack; complete the courses to the center, but don't fill the middle too full; if the outside is lower than the middle, lay a double course around outside; keep your stack _flat_--full as high at outside as center; build the first load straight up, neither laying out or drawing in, if the stack is to contain ten or twelve loads; if eight or nine, lay the last course out a little. LAYING OUT. If the stack is flat and as near an ellipse as the eye can judge, laying out and keeping the stack properly balanced will be very easy. Drive alternate loads on opposite sides of the stack: this will help to keep the stack properly balanced. If the eye detects a place that seems to be lower than the general level, it will be found that it was caused by laying out more there than at other points; to remedy this defect, draw in the next outside course at the low point six, eight or ten inches, according to the depression. The greater the depression, the more it should be drawn in, and the next inside course at the low point should be shoved out nearly to the buts of the outside course, then continue to build as though nothing had happened. If a high place should be observed, the next outside course should be laid farther out, and inside course at this point drawn well in. Glance frequently over the stack and see if the outside presents the appearance of an ellipse, and keep a sharp lookout for high and low spots. If the middle is too full, the outside will slip out, and an undesirable job of propping will begin. Put in two thirds of what is intended for the stack before commencing to draw in. Don't let a stack stand over night at this stage if it can be avoided, but put on the next two loads as quickly as possible, for the outside of the stack will settle rapidly. FILLING THE MIDDLE. Lay a tier of bundles through the center half the length of the stack, alternating heads and buts, then lay a course around with the heads lapping across the middle tier; now another tier through the center, and two courses around it; then another tier at center and courses around, until the center is three or four feet higher than the outside of the stack, and the last course layed laps half way from head to band on the outside course of the stack. It will be seen that while building the main part of the stack, the courses were laid from outside to center, and while filling the middle or putting in the stuffing, the courses are laid from center towards outside. Now commence outside, lay a course, heads out, half way from band to but on outside course, then turn buts out, lap half and lay to center; then lay a course around outside, neither laying out or drawing in. Now comes a point that should not be overlooked: Lay a course, buts out, lapping half way from heads to band on outside course; then lap half and lay to center. The reason for laying the buts of second course half way from heads to band is to give the buts of the next outside course above a chance to rest firmly on the course below, leaving no unoccupied space; if the buts of second course were laid out to the band of outside course, then the next outside course above, being drawn in, would rest one-third of the way from band to but, on the buts of the course below, leaving a space for rain to drive in and wet the stack. Draw in outside course rapidly; lay buts of second course half way from head to band on outside course as long as stack top is large enough; keep middle well piled up. A stack can be drawn in very rapidly, without danger of taking in water from a protracted rain, even if the outside of the stack grows green, no sheaf will be found wet above the band, and the middle of stack dry, for the buts of outside course will form a thatch roof to protect the stack. The placing of a few top bundles is a matter of small importance. If a stack has been properly built it will receive but little injury if top bundles should blow off. A strand or two of wire, with sticks or stones at the ends to weight them down, will usually hold the top in place. RECAPITULATION. The first load being built straight up and flat on top forms a firm and secure base on which to build the upper structure. Laying out or putting in the bulge is the most important part of the stack, for it contains the greater part of the grain; by laying out and keeping the stack _flat_, the work can be done rapidly, and when the stack settles the buts will hang down, for there is nothing to hold them up. Filling the middle corresponds to putting rafters on a building to support the roof. SUGGESTIONS. I have found in the course of a long experience, that a foundation eleven or twelve feet wide and eighteen or twenty feet long, and a stack built in the form of an ellipse, and so as to contain ten or twelve large loads, to be the most convenient and economical. Grain can be put into a stack of this size much more rapidly than in small stacks. If a stack is built much larger it will require more labor to pass the bundles across the stack, and will have to be carried much higher before it is topped out, which takes time and hard work. The elliptical form I have found the best; with a load driven to the side of the stack, the pitcher is never very far from the stacker; the stack is easily kept balanced, and at threshing time the grain is readily got to the machine. In a round stack of the same size, the stacker gets farther away from the pitcher, and it requires more skill to keep a round stack properly balanced; but if a round stack, after it is finished and settled, looks like an egg standing erect on the large end, that is good enough; it will not take water, and looks well, too. A square stack, or one with corners, is easily kept balanced, but in turning the corners there is too much fullness at the heads of the bundles, and when the stack settles there will usually be a sag on each side to catch water. Two stakes, one eight and the other ten rods away, and in line with the center of foundation, will sometimes assist the stacker in keeping his stack well balanced, for at a glance he can tell whether the center is in line with the stakes. A man may build, as his fancy dictates, either round, elliptical or square, but in _all_, the same general principles _must_ be observed--the lower part of the stack built straight up; put in a bulge which settles down around and nearly conceals the lower part, leaving the center of the bulge high; filling the middle to support the center of the top. These are the principles on which good stacking depends. If a man gets them well fixed in his mind and discards the idea that he must keep the middle full from the ground up, he will have but little damaged grain, even in the very worst of seasons. * * * * * A boy to hand bundles is usually more damage than good until a stack is half built, and then he should not be allowed to stand on outside course. If practical, drive alternate loads on opposite sides of the stack; this is very desirable, but if, from the nature of surroundings, it is necessary to drive all on one side, draw the top of the stack over a foot or two towards the side where the unloading is done; the opposite side will settle considerably the most, which will leave the stack straight up. FANCY STACKING. For a pyramid stack, build as usual up to within two or three rounds of where drawing in commences, then draw in a little at center of sides and ends to bring the curves to straight lines; keep the corners well out, observing the form of a rectangle in filling the middle, and finish to top. For a gothic stack, build an ordinary one until commencing to draw in, then draw in the oval corners and build center of sides and ends straight up. For an X stack draw in sides and ends; build center straight up. These stacks look very ornamental on a premium farm and will save well, but take more time to build than ordinary stack tops. SAMPLE STACK. With some, the idea seems to prevail, that the middle of the stack should be kept full from the ground up. With the center high enough to protect the stack after it is settled, it is impossible to lay out or even build straight up, for the outside sheaves are constantly slipping out, and the process of building rendered slow and tiresome, and when the stack is completed and settled, it will usually be found that the center has gone down so much and the outside so little, that the butts of the sheaves stick up and form excellent conductors to wet the stack. Usually at harvest the country is full of good stackers, and if, between that time and threshing, there is little or no rain, they live through and there is a good supply next year; but if, between stacking and threshing, a protracted rain occurs, vast multitudes are drowned, so that, at threshing time, but few good stackers are found alive. [Illustration] [Illustration] 
34729	----	generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) THE BOLL WEEVIL How to prosper in Boll Weevil Territory [Illustration: Prof. P. G. HOLDEN Director I H C Agricultural Extension Department] "A one crop system will impoverish any country, and in turn it will impoverish the people that are on its farms. It is only through diversification of crops and the using of our energies every day of the year, as well as our hands, that we can make a great rich country and a great, strong, vigorous people."--Prof. P. G. Holden. [Illustration: G. H. ALFORD Of I H C Agricultural Extension Department] HOW TO PROSPER IN BOLL WEEVIL TERRITORY By G. H. ALFORD PUBLISHED AND COPYRIGHTED BY THE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DEPARTMENT INTERNATIONAL HARVESTER COMPANY OF NEW JERSEY PROF. P. G. HOLDEN, Director CHICAGO, USA [Illustration: A good stalk of cotton] Introductory This book was prepared to furnish information on farming in the boll weevil territory. Special attention has been given to the production of cotton in infested districts and to showing how to adopt a system of farming which has been found profitable by many farmers in boll weevil territories. It was written by a man who has had practical experience all his life in growing cotton in Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. He later devoted a number of years to the special study of the boll weevil in the cotton fields of these states as special agent for the Farmers' Co-operative Demonstration Work. In addition to this, he is acquainted with the financial and economic conditions throughout the cotton belt. Dedicated to all Cotton Growers How to Prosper in Boll Weevil Territory The System of Farming Necessary to Obtain Best Results Under Average Conditions in Boll Weevil Territory In order to obtain profitable returns from farming in boll weevil territory, we must--First, grow an early crop of cotton; second, use every means possible to destroy the weevil and reduce their number to a minimum; third, follow a system of diversified farming. =Grow an Early Variety of Cotton:= To secure maximum cotton crops in spite of the boll weevil pest, the cotton grower must use every effort to bring the crop to maturity just as early in the season as possible. An early crop means profit--a late crop goes to the weevil, not to the farmer. If we are to succeed in growing cotton under boll weevil conditions we must-- 1. Reduce the cotton acreage so that the most effective cultural methods may be closely followed. It is often advisable to reduce the acreage 50 per cent. 2. Plant only warm, fertile, well-drained land. 3. Thoroughly prepare the seed bed before planting. Young cotton plants do not grow well in cloddy ground. [Illustration: Boll Weevil; enlarged above; natural size below] 4. Make heavy applications of commercial fertilizer where the soil responds to such treatment, for it will hasten maturity and increase the yield. 5. Plant early, rapid-fruiting, prolific cotton seed. 6. Plant the seed as early as the season will permit, in rows just about as wide apart as the cotton usually grows tall in the average season. 7. Commence to cultivate the young cotton just as soon as possible, and do not permit a crust to form or the field to become grassy. =Reduce the Cotton Acreage:= In many sections of the country, intensive farming--smaller farms and more thorough cultivation--is being profitably practiced. In boll weevil territory, we would likewise advocate "intensive" cotton growing--smaller acreage to cotton with more thorough cultivation--as a good step toward securing early and profitable cotton crops. For instance, many farmers in the boll weevil territory are now producing as much cotton on five acres by following proper methods as they formerly produced on ten acres, thus leaving half of their land to produce some other crop. =Plant on Fertile Soil:= This is one of the necessities in order to produce an early cotton crop. The land must be well-drained so that it will warm up early in the spring and retain the heat. It must contain plenty of humus or vegetable matter to prevent packing. Plenty of vegetable matter also increases the water-holding capacity of the soil, thus reducing the loss due to the droughts that may occur in summer. Where the soil has not enough humus and therefore will not hold a sufficient amount of water, the cotton crop will stop growing and putting on squares during a long drought, and will shed the squares and many of the small bolls already on the stalks. [Illustration: At left of each pair is a boll weevil. The weevils at the right are weevils often mistaken for boll weevils.] The soil may be kept in the proper condition of fertility for cotton by practicing a suitable rotation of crops, including legumes, and by turning under the corn stalks, the oat and pea stubble, and the grass. =Thoroughly Prepare the Soil:= The soil should be plowed deep for the following reasons: First, to increase the water-holding capacity; second, to let the water escape from the surface without running over the ground and washing it off; third, to permit the air to circulate freely for a considerable depth in the soil; fourth, to secure crops against droughts by enabling the cotton roots to go down to moisture; fifth, to increase the area from which plant roots may obtain food. It is advisable to flat break the land in the fall and winter and then bed it some time before the planting season. The bed should be disked or harrowed just before planting the cotton seed, but it is seldom advisable to re-bed the land just before planting. Cotton comes up quicker, grows off faster and begins bearing sooner on a well settled, firm seed bed. It is not wise to plant the cotton on freshly prepared land. [Illustration: The late cotton is for weevil--not for the farmer. The boll weevil prevented the above late cotton from making a single boll.] =Apply Commercial Fertilizers:= Where the soil responds to commercial fertilizer, it is advisable to make heavy applications to hasten maturity and increase the yield. It is best to use fertilizers which will stimulate the fruit rather than stalk growth. High grade, 16 per cent acid phosphate is the basis for increasing fruit and hastening maturity; cotton seed meal is usually the basis for stimulating stalk growth. A mixture of two parts of 16 per cent acid phosphate and one part of 6 per cent cotton seed meal is a good mixture for cotton on soil of average fertility. It will usually also pay to mix about ten pounds of nitrate of soda with every bushel of seed just before it is put into the planter. The nitrate of soda has a tendency to cause the young cotton to grow vigorously and resist the bad effects of cool nights. It also usually pays to make a side application of nitrate of soda just after the cotton has been thinned the first time. =Plant Early Varieties:= The production of an early cotton crop requires carefully selected seed of an early, rapid-fruiting, prolific variety. This seed may be purchased each year, or selected from cotton plants with low fruit limbs and short joints on the main stem and fruit limbs. With the weevil pest to combat, the value of using the earliest and most prolific seed cannot be over-estimated. It is advisable for the average farmer to buy the best early varieties from some reputable breeder and then use every known method to increase the earliness and productiveness of the cotton. Reports of tests at the Government Experiment Stations name the earliest and most prolific varieties of cotton. It is not good business to buy varieties of seed that have not been shown to be the earliest and most prolific by actual tests in the fields through a sufficient number of years to eliminate weather conditions. Seed should not be purchased because of high-sounding names or exaggerated claims. =Plant the Seed Early:= Seed should be planted just as early as the season will permit. This is important in the work of hastening the cotton crop to early maturity. The weevils do not multiply until the squares begin to form. They seldom become sufficiently numerous to destroy the squares as fast as they form, before the last of July. While it is important to plant as early as the season will permit, do not forget that cotton is a tropical plant and is badly effected by cold weather. =Cultivate the Young Cotton:= Cultivation should begin before the cotton comes up. This may be done by running a steel peg tooth harrow over the field either at right angles or diagonally across the rows. This helps to let the young cotton plants through and at the same time kills millions of tiny weeds and much grass just as they are coming up. The cultivation should be repeated when the little cotton is about five days old. This early cultivation kills the grass and weeds in the sprout and forms a soil mulch all over the field, which holds the moisture in the ground, thus making the little plants grow more rapidly. Early cultivation with the harrow will reduce the necessary work with the hoe to the minimum. If for any reason the peg tooth harrow cannot be used, the ordinary one-horse harrows should be used to stir the soil on top of the beds just before the cotton comes up. The harrow or cultivator used will kill the little grass and weeds and leave a shallow, loose layer of soil on the surface. All later cultivation should be made with such implements as the one or two-horse cultivators, disk harrows and heel sweeps. A turning plow is out of place in a cotton field unless the soil is devoid of vegetable matter and runs together after heavy rains or unless it rains for two or three weeks and it becomes necessary to plow under the grass. If the soil packs after heavy rains, it may be advisable to use the turning plow as a necessary evil, especially, when the cotton is young. If it should be necessary to use it to loosen the soil or to clean out the crop, by all means avoid deep cultivation late in the season. Be sure to use the harrow or cultivator a few days after using the turning plow to thoroughly pulverize the stirred soil and make a dust mulch. [Illustration: The upper illustration shows a cotton field planted late and yielding nothing. The lower illustration shows a field on the opposite side of the turnrow on same plantation, planted early, properly treated, and yielding three-quarters bale per acre. (Houter, Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1906.)] The essential thing in the cultivation of the cotton is to keep the ground free from grass and weeds and covered with a soil mulch. Frequent and shallow cultivation should be continued until the cotton begins to open. Most of the benefits of thorough preparation, early, rapid-fruiting seed, early planting and intensive, shallow cultivation may be lost unless the fields are given the utmost attention until the cotton begins to open. Frequent and shallow cultivation late in the season will not result in the death of many adult weevils, but it will knock many punctured squares to the hot ground and cause the cotton to remain green and continue to grow and put on squares to furnish food for the boll weevil. The boll weevil prefers squares to bolls and as long as the cotton puts on sufficient squares to furnish it with the necessary food it will not attack many bolls. Avoid deep cultivation late in the season, especially close to the cotton. If the plows cut the roots and cause the cotton to cease to put on squares the weevil will at once attack the bolls, which would otherwise not be injured. [Illustration: More and better corn must be grown in weevil territory. Above corn grown on I H C farm, Brookhaven, Miss.] How to Reduce Boll Weevil Best Methods of Reducing the Number of Weevil to a Minimum--Results of Many Experiments Conducted Remarkable results and profitable returns have been obtained by carefully applying the following methods of destroying the boll weevil: 1. Completely strip the cotton stalks of foliage, squares, and bolls--the weevils' sole food supply--plow the cotton stalks under good and deep, or burn them at the earliest possible moment. 2. During the winter, destroy the rubbish in and about the fields, which might serve as hibernating quarters for weevils. 3. When the weevils appear on the new cotton in the spring, pick them off and destroy them. 4. Pick up all punctured squares and destroy them for at least one month after the first squares form on the cotton. =Importance of Destroying the Food Supply:= The most important step in producing cotton in boll weevil territory is the early fall destruction of the foliage, squares, and immature punctured bolls on the cotton stalks, which constitute the weevils' only food supply. Thousands of experimenters, including the United States Bureau of Entomology, Government Agents in Farm Demonstration Work, the Louisiana State Crop Pest Commission, and thousands of successful farmers substantiate this statement that the early fall destruction of the cotton stalks is the most effective method that can be employed for the reduction of the number of weevil. An experiment conducted by the Bureau of Entomology in Calhoun County, Texas, showed that where the stalks on 410 acres of land were destroyed early in October, that the yield was increased $14.56 per acre. Another experiment was conducted on opposite sides of the Guadaulope River near Victoria, Texas. The stalks were burned on one farm the latter part of September and on the other they were allowed to stand until planting time. Forty acres, on the farm on which the stalks were destroyed, produced fifteen bales of cotton. Forty acres on the other farm made three and one-half bales. Experiments conducted by the Louisiana State Crop Pest Commission are summed up in the following extracts from Circular No. 28: "Where the cotton plants were destroyed before October 15, only 3 per cent of the weevils survived the winter to infest the next year's crop. Where the stalks were destroyed from October 15 to October 27, an average of about 15 per cent of the weevils passed through the winter successfully. Where the stalks were destroyed between November 1 and November 25, an average of approximately 22 per cent of the weevil survived the winter. Postponing the fall destruction of cotton stalks until the middle of December, or later, permitted over 43 per cent of the weevils to survive the winter and attack the next crop." _Where the stalks were destroyed before October 15, only 3 per cent of the weevils passed the winter. Where the stalks remained in the field until December 15, over 43 per cent of the weevils survived the winter._ These figures certainly emphasize very strikingly the value of early fall destruction of the boll weevil's food supply. =Methods of Destroying the Food Supply:= With the importance of early fall destruction of the cotton stalks fully realized, the cotton grower has before him the question of how best to accomplish this. There are three methods of destroying the squares, bolls, and foliage of the cotton stalks: 1. Pasturing; 2. Plowing under; 3. Burning. [Illustration: A mature cotton plant that was late in fruiting. The joints are long and the balls far out from the center and base of the stalk. The limbs have few joints and few bolls. Height of plant, 3 feet; balls 26--10 in lower half circle. Do not plant this type in weevil territory.] Pasturing the cotton fields is a good method of destroying squares, bolls and foliage where the cotton fields are fenced and where a sufficient number of cattle can be turned into a field to eat all the squares, bolls, and foliage in a few days. However, let it be distinctly understood that the practice of turning just a few head of cattle into a fifteen or twenty acre cotton field accomplishes no particular good. Every cotton grower knows from his own observation that two or three head of cattle to an acre, even when confined entirely to the cotton field, will eat very little of the green foliage in one week, and it must be kept in mind that it is vital to destroy as quickly and as completely as possible the food supply of the mature weevils and the breeding places of the immature weevils. Plowing cotton stalks under is an effective method of destroying the food supply of mature weevils and ending the lives of immature weevils where there are few stumps and roots, where the cotton stalks are small, and where large plows and strong teams can be had. Farmers who have attempted to plow under green cotton stalks early in the fall, laugh at the advice sometimes given to plow under the stalks at all times and under all conditions as a means of destroying the food supply of the weevil. They know from experience that such advice is often better theory than practice as the plowing under of green cotton stalks is very often a decidedly obstinate proposition. However, where large plows and strong teams are available, use them and completely bury the cotton stalks wherever it can be done. [Illustration: Velvet beans yield abundant crops and add nitrogen to the soil. A good crop for weevil territory] Burning the stalks is a practical method of destroying the weevils. On many farms and plantations there are not cattle enough to strip the cotton stalks thoroughly and completely of every particle of foliage, squares and bolls in a short time by pasturing. It is also often impossible to completely bury the cotton stalks. In such cases, it is absolutely necessary to cut, dry and burn them as soon as the cotton can be picked. By burning the stalks, the food supply of the adult weevil is destroyed, and weevils in immature stages in the squares and bolls are destroyed. A large majority of the adult weevils also perish in the flames, especially when the stalks are burned after sundown, as weevils retire to the stalk piles for the night at about that time. They seldom move about at night, and if care is taken not to disturb them when applying the torch, practically all will be destroyed. Of course, if the stalks are allowed to remain until a heavy frost has come, practically all of the mature weevils will have gone into winter hibernating quarters and the immature weevils in the squares and small bolls will have been frozen. Nothing will be gained in that case by burning the stalks and the best thing that can be done will be to cut the stalks and turn them under as deeply as possible. =Clean Up Hibernating Quarters:= Many weevils escape from the fields but all do not fly beyond the reach of the farmer. Surprising numbers have been found hibernating in cracks and holes in the ground and under grass, weeds and other trash. In January, 1907, in one instance, the United States Bureau of Entomology found 5,870 weevils per acre of which 70 per cent were alive. Most of the many examinations that have been made have shown more than one thousand live weevils per acre in the cotton fields. Many are found along the fence rows, hedges, ditch banks and in decayed logs and dead trees. Thousands more are found hibernating in nearby cornfields and old sorghum, cane and hay fields. Winter plowing of all cultivated fields is therefore another effective way of reducing the number of weevils, as the thousand or more weevils per acre in the cracks and holes in the ground and under the grass, weeds, trash and cornstalks can practically all be killed by deep winter breaking. =Picking Off the Weevils:= After the hibernating weevils emerge from their winter quarters in the spring and reach the young cotton, there is little further movement until the general dispersing season in August, September and October. The fact that the weevil does not move about much except in the fall makes it possible for the individual farmer to accomplish results from his own efforts in fighting the pest. There is little danger of weevils coming in from other fields until in August, by which time the cotton crop is normally set. For this reason, there need be no fear that time will be wasted which is spent in thoroughly picking off the weevils from the young cotton plants before the squares begin to form. Where the food supply of the weevil has not been destroyed early in the fall and strength added to this blow by plowing under the corn stalks, trash, weeds and other vegetable matter that serve as hibernating quarters, and by destroying practically all of the weevils hibernating along the fence rows, hedges and ditch banks, the over-wintered weevils are often sufficiently numerous to puncture all the squares as fast as they form. Where this is the case, no bottom crop and seldom a middle crop of cotton will be made unless the weevils are picked off and the punctured squares destroyed. [Illustration: An early cotton plant. The fruit limbs are low and close together on the stalk and the joints are short. Plants of this structure fruit early, rapidly and are well adapted to boll weevil conditions.] The possible progeny of a single pair of weevils, during a season, has been estimated at 12,755,100. Nature has provided a number of agencies to prevent such excessive multiplication; nevertheless, the picking off of a single pair of weevils from the young cotton plants may mean millions less later on. Before squares form on the cotton, the over-wintered weevils that have come out of winter quarters feed on the opening leaves or buds of the young cotton plants. Early in the morning it is an easy matter to find the weevils in the buds, where they can be easily picked off and destroyed. The only reason why the weevils cannot be eradicated by thoroughly picking them off, is that large numbers of over-wintered weevils do not emerge until after the squares begin to form. As soon as the squares form, the weevil gets on the inside of the bracts and feeds only by inserting its beak deep into the squares. After the squares begin to form, it is hardly practicable to pick the weevils off. =Destroy All Punctured Squares:= The weevils that survive the winter are all in the adult stage. They breed only in the squares and bolls and therefore cannot multiply until squares form. The most conspicuous indication of the presence of the boll weevil is the flaring of the square. When the weevil punctures a square, it turns yellow and the bracts flare open. The punctured squares usually fall to the ground in a few days. The over-wintered weevils live only a few weeks after coming out of winter quarters in the spring, as they die shortly after breeding in the squares and bolls. Therefore, if the young cotton plants are thoroughly picked two or three times just before the squares begin to form, and every punctured square is destroyed for at least one month after the first squares form, practically all of the over-wintered weevils will be dead and hence there will be few young weevils later on. If it were possible to destroy every punctured square and boll, and thereby prevent the appearance of new broods, the weevil pest could be exterminated in one year. At any rate, the results that can be accomplished behoove every farmer to work carefully and painstakingly to destroy all the punctured squares possible before the new broods of weevils are hatched. During the growing season, many weevils can be destroyed by co-operating with the natural agencies that tend to reduce their number. For instance, the weevils in the punctured squares that fall on the hot ground in July and August and are not shaded, are usually killed at once by the heat or will starve for lack of food, because of the hardening of the square. By using a brush on the cultivators to agitate the plants when cultivating the crop, many punctured squares will be knocked off onto the hot ground sooner than they would naturally fall off. At the same time, some of the adult weevils will also be shaken off onto the hot ground. When an adult weevil is thrown on a surface of finely pulverized, hot soil, it is killed almost instantly. =Attempts to Destroy Weevils with Poison:= In territory newly infested with the boll weevil, attempts continue to be made to destroy the weevils by poisoning. Of course the farmers soon learn better, but the experience is very expensive. If advocates of poison would only remember that after the squares begin to form on the cotton, the boll weevils feed only by inserting their beaks deeply into the squares or bolls, they would realize that it is impossible to place poison where the weevils will feed upon it. In all the experiments performed in the field by the United States Bureau of Entomology, very heavy applications throughout the season have failed to show any advantage in the use of poison. Therefore, do not waste any money on poisons. =Not Attracted by Light:= The weevil seldom moves at night. It is inactive after sundown. The weevil is never attracted to lights and hence the use of a trap lantern has no effect on them. [Illustration: Good corn must be grown in weevil territory] The Cotton Boll Weevil Its History, Habits, Food Supply and Life Rate of Increase and Damage Done to Crops =History:= The cotton boll weevil is not a native of the United States. It came from Mexico in 1892. It may have flown across the Rio Grande River near Brownsville, Texas, or it is possible that it was carried across in seed cotton. Since 1892, it has extended its range annually from fifty to one hundred and twenty-five miles until it has spread over Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, Arkansas, Mississippi and a part of Alabama. =Life and Habits:= The eggs are laid within the squares and bolls of the cotton plant. The weevil prefers the squares and seldom punctures a boll as long as there are numerous squares to puncture. The mouth of the adult weevil is located at the end of the snout. The weevil eats a small hole into the square or boll and then turns around and deposits one egg in the puncture and seals the hole with a small drop of a gluey substance to protect the egg from ants, rain and other destructive agencies. The weevil seldom deposits more than one egg in a square or boll until the squares and bolls become very scarce. The egg hatches in from three to fifteen days, depending on the temperature. The larvae is a tiny white footless grub, with a brown head and dark jaws. This grub feeds on the inside of the square or boll and passes into the pupae stage in from six to twelve days. The adult or mature weevil develops from the pupae stage in three to ten days and eats its way out of the square or boll. =How to Know a Boll Weevil:= The safest plan for one who is not well acquainted with the boll weevil is to send any doubtful specimen to an entomologist or to a government expert. There are a few characteristics, however, that will assist anyone in separating the boll weevil from the numerous other weevils that are often mistaken for it. On each front leg of the boll weevil are two spines--one somewhat larger than the other. The snout has a black shining appearance and the "feelers" are near the outer end. The boll weevil is usually from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch long and about half as broad. When they first come from the square or boll, they are almost pink but rapidly turn darker until they are of a dark brown or chocolate color. =Weevils' Food Supply:= The foliage, squares and bolls on cotton stalks constitute the weevils' sole food supply. The Mexican cotton boll weevil never feeds upon okra, peas, beans or other plants unless captured and placed in confinement and then only to a slight extent. =Rate of Increase:= The weevils that survive the winter begin to lay eggs when the first squares form on the cotton and successive broods continue to lay eggs until checked by heavy or killing frost in the late fall. Observations made by Drs. W. D. Hunter and W. E. Hinds, show that the female weevil deposits eggs at the rate of from three to five per day and continues to lay eggs for an average of twenty-eight days. The following is a quotation from Dr. W. D. Hunter, government entomologist in charge of the boll weevil work in the South: "A conservative estimate of the possible progeny of a single pair of weevils during the season beginning on June 20 and extending to November 4 is 12,755,000." [Illustration: Larvae of boll weevil in cotton square] =Life Period of Weevil:= Weevils born during the early summer live from fifty to seventy-five days. Weevils that are born late in the fall hibernate and large numbers live through the winter and for about twenty days after emerging in the spring. =Hibernation:= The immature weevils in the squares and bolls are usually killed during the winter. All adult weevils become dormant and the well protected weevils usually live through the winter and do great damage in the spring. The adult weevil spends the winter in hedges, broomsedge, woods, hay stacks, farm buildings, decayed logs, moss and dead trees. Rotation of Crops A Safe and Sane System of Crop Rotation in Boll Weevil Territory Absolutely Necessary When the boll weevil first appears in a territory, the first efforts at breaking away from all cotton usually consist in going largely into another single crop system of farming rather than the production of a variety of crops. The evils of the new system are usually as great as those of the all cotton system. Many farmers rush into the truck business. Of course, truck crops should be grown on every farm in the weevil territory, and, in some particular localities, they may constitute the main reliance for cash, but it seems that the truck business is a gamble for the average cotton farmer. Trucking has lured many a farmer to financial ruin. The crop rotation for the average cotton farmer should include oats, corn, some cotton, and at least one leguminous crop. Along with this should go the growing of hogs, mules, horses and cattle instead of having to buy them from other sections of the country. It is not possible for the farmer in the boll weevil territory to entirely supplant cotton as a money crop, but this crop should be supplemented with the growing of home supplies, as well as other crops which will produce cash returns. Cotton is one of the greatest cash crops, and while it should be the main money crop in the boll weevil territory north of latitude 32, it should not be the only cash crop grown. The safest plan either within or without the boll weevil territory is to follow a system of diversified farming. The cotton farmers, especially those in the boll weevil territory, cannot afford to depend entirely on cotton as a cash crop. A system of rotation suitable for cotton belt farmers should include some of the following staple crops: _Oats are probably_ the surest and best paying small grain crop that can be grown over practically the entire cotton belt. The same soil that will produce one bale of cotton per acre will grow 60 bushels of oats. At the average price that has prevailed for oats during the past five years, the 60 bushels will sell for $36 to $40, and the straw, when baled, will often pay the larger part of the expense of growing the grain. _The bale of cotton per acre land_ will produce about $30 worth of oats, at least one and a half tons of lespedeza hay, and five bushels of lespedeza seed. The lespedeza hay will sell for about $12 per ton and the lespedeza seed for about $3 per bushel. The total is $63 per acre. We are personally acquainted with a farmer who has averaged $65 per acre for eight years. _Thirty dollars worth of oats_ and twenty bushels of soy beans at $1.50 per bushel, and one and a half tons of soy bean hay at $8 per ton, means $72 per acre. These are very conservative figures. At the Mississippi Delta Experiment Station in 1912 the land produced ninety bushels of oats to the acre, twenty-two and a half bushels of soy beans, "after losing a good percentage of the beans by shattering," and 5,200 pounds of soy bean hay. The average yield of cotton on the same land was about 500 pounds of lint per acre. [Illustration: Oats in a three-year rotation with cotton and corn] _Oats and vetch_ sown together furnish more and better grazing and better hay than either when sown separately. There is no better hay than oats and vetch cut in the dough stage. Few hays will sell for a better price on the market. The oat and vetch hay provides a much more satisfactory ration for horses and mules than corn or leguminous hay. _Oats may be followed by cowpeas._ When the cowpeas are planted in rows on good land, well fertilized and cultivated, the yield is usually from ten to twenty bushels of peas and one and a half tons of hay. The peas usually sell for about $2 per bushel and the hay for about $12 per ton. _Ninety bushels of oats_ and sixty-seven bushels of peanuts were produced on the same land at the Mississippi Delta Experiment Station in one year. At the present prices for peanuts and peanut hay, it is a very profitable crop to grow after oats when properly handled. _When corn is planted_ on fertile soil thoroughly prepared, _properly fertilized_ and cultivated, the yield is usually about fifty bushels per acre. The average price per bushel is about 80 cents. Peas planted in corn at the last working will usually average about eight bushels of peas and a ton or more of valuable hay. The peavine hay can be harvested by live stock. _The growing of live stock_ will help to create extensive home markets for roughage and leguminous crops, keep the money at home that is usually sent to the north and west for pork products, mules, horses, hay, beef, and so on, and at the same time add greatly to the fertility of the soil. Pork can be produced in the cotton belt more easily than any other live stock. It would not be wise for the average cotton farmer to devote his farm exclusively to hog raising, yet it will certainly pay him to produce enough pork for home use and some to sell to supplement the money formerly obtained for cotton. Chickens, turkeys, ducks and other poultry sell for good prices and every cotton farmer in the weevil territory should raise some poultry for sale. The Labor Problem Plenty of good labor is an absolute necessity in growing cotton under boll weevil conditions. The tendency of newly infested districts is to neglect the laborer at the time when he needs support and encouragement. Thousands of families have moved out of a single county in one season to other cotton sections, while if they had been given a little encouragement to grow corn, grain, cowpeas, hogs, vegetables in his own garden, etc., he would have remained in the community where he is much needed. The farmers, planters, merchants and bankers must unite and see to it that the laborers have the actual necessities of life. He should be encouraged to grow his home supplies, a little cotton, a few chickens and his own pork. This method would put farming on a basis which will eliminate and do away with the necessity of sending to the north and west for bacon, lard, mules, corn, hay and other supplies. By working together and keeping our laborers satisfied we will keep them in the community where they are needed to till the soil and help build up our farms. The Debt Problem When traveling in weevil territory, we meet farmers almost daily who are anxious to sell their farms at from one-third to one-fifth of their real value. The farmers tell us that they are in debt and will never be able to pay out. They say that the boll weevil has come to destroy their cotton--their sole cash crop. Now these farmers are mistaken on two counts. First, cotton is not the only surplus money crop; second, the boll weevil does not prevent the growing of profitable crops of cotton in normal seasons. The cotton money is now used to pay for corn, bacon, lard, mules and hay. When the tenants and farmers all live at home and practice the most rigid economy, the cotton money will soon pay all debts. Life on the farm is robbed of practically all of its pleasures as long as we pay fifty per cent credit profits and the creditor constantly knocks at the door. The only people who really suffer in periods of hard times are the men who are in debt; men who owe money and are often compelled to sacrifice their property to meet the imperative demands of their creditors. The farmer who is out of debt when the boll weevil comes and has an abundance of high class food supplies on his farm is not materially affected. Many of the cotton farmers who are in debt when the boll weevil comes lose their homes. Labor Saving Implements The following is an extract from an address delivered at Greenville, Miss., in the boll weevil territory, by Dr. S. A. Knapp, a man who did more for real genuine progress in the South than any other one man has ever done. "The farmer who uses modern machinery in planting and cultivating his crop will succeed, and the one who does not will make a failure. The old way of making a crop by hand by the use of the hoe and plow must soon be a thing of the past. We must come to use the modern implements and the sooner we let the negro understand that he must work his crop in this way, the better off we shall be." [Illustration: Boll weevils attacking growing cotton boll] The Personal Element in the Boll Weevil Fight By B. L. Moss Editor Progressive Farmer, Birmingham, Alabama. A man's personal attitude and convictions play a large part in his successes and failures in all walks of life, and nowhere is the truth more apparent than in a farmer's attitude toward the boll weevil problem. Before the coming of the weevil, it is looked upon by nine farmers out of ten as a remote danger, doubtful in time of arrival and greatly exaggerated in its possibilities for damage. No preparations for it are made, the farm mortgage is left hanging like a cloud over the family homestead, and the old methods so long in vogue are left unchanged. Then the crash comes! The obsolete methods of the past are worthless against the weevil; the cotton crop is swept away, interest on the mortgage is unpaid, and its foreclosure is certain. This picture is the rule and not the exception. Such a situation calls forth the real qualities of the man. Many a farmer, for the first few years of the weevil invasion, has proven a quitter. He has failed because he did not think he could succeed. Usually he has been the identical man who failed to believe in and prepare for the coming of the weevil. The exceptional man has believed in and prepared for the weevil's coming, and he has succeeded. Incidentally, his success has shown out as a beacon light to his doubting neighbors and has ultimately pointed the way for them. Five years' experience tells me that you can raise cotton profitably in the presence of the boll weevil. The HOW of the matter is given by others in this booklet, but you, YOU, must take it up with the spirit of FIGHT. Believe that you can, swear that you will, and success is yours. [Illustration: Lespedeza a great hay crop for the lower South] The Boll Weevil's Influence in the Regeneration of the South By H. Guy Hathorn, Planter, Woodville, Miss. For many years the one crop system has been the bane of the cotton belt. When land was virgin, cheap and plentiful, the evil was not so apparent, and the necessity for a saner system was not so pressing. A depleted soil, unreliable labor and various other factors caused certain individuals to see the error of their way, and induced them to adopt a diversified system and the use of labor-saving implements. It was necessary for the great majority to receive a paralyzing shock before they would make any material change; that shock came in the shape of the boll weevil. As certain alternative medicines create great debility and languor of the body before the curative power can become operative, so has all business in any way connected with the growing of cotton suffered depression as a preliminary to the greater financial vigor and strength that comes after a few years' experience with stock raising and diversification as the rule, and with cotton occupying a secondary place in the farm operation. Letter from the Late Dr. S. A. Knapp to G. H. Alford Of course the heavy rains have been favorable to the weevil, and nothing else could have been expected in weevil territory than the weevil should appear and be rather plentiful on the young cotton. But our experience in this boll weevil fight is that it is far better to have a wet period at this time than later, when the plant is much larger and the squares more numerous. The farmer is inclined to look at the dark side of things. This early rain is rather a favorable symptom than otherwise because, in all probability, it will clear off and be warm and dry. In 1907 we had just such a period of rain a trifle later than this. It cleared off and in a few weeks nine-tenths of the weevil, so far as reported, had disappeared. The man who energetically clears out his cotton as soon as the weather permits and strictly follows our plan of intensive cultivation, will be quite sure to make a fair crop. We are not afraid of these early rains; it is the late rain, because if the planter now follows our plan and picks up the squares for a month, the weevils will be pretty nearly exterminated. In fact, if everybody would do it the weevil would do very little damage. But when there is a period of continuous rain after the plant has nearly matured, it is a much more difficult problem to handle. The sun has less access to the plant and it is more difficult to secure all the fallen squares. The greatest problem with which we have had to deal in boll weevil territory is the hopeless view of the farmer. He wants to plow up his cotton and put in something else, or he refuses to give his cotton the attention which it requires. If he follows our plan thoroughly he will succeed, and in future will make his crop hopefully as he did before the boll weevil appeared. Picking Weevils and Squares The following is the substance of a number of letters from Mississippi farmers relative to picking weevils and squares: Mr. T. L. Rush says that the first time he caught an average of fifty weevils per acre and the second time twenty-eight. The cost of picking the weevils was about fifty cents per acre. He gathered the punctured squares seven times at a cost of about $2.50 per acre. Mr. C. S. Rowland picked the weevils and squares on thirty-five acres of cotton at a cost of $43.60. Mr. J. W. Shelton picked an average of sixty-five weevils per acre off his little cotton for four weeks at a cost of 25 cents per hundred. Mr. J. M. Crawford found 268 weevils the first time; two hundred and fifty the second time, one hundred and ninety-seven the third time and one hundred and fifty the fourth time. He gathered one bushel of squares the first time and three bushels a second time. The cost was about $20.00 on the ten acres. Mr. A. W. Harrell picked over two acres of cotton three times and got one hundred and fifty weevils and seven hundred squares. It cost him about $2.00 per acre. Profitable Farming in South G. H. Alford, one of the agents of the government representing the agricultural department, talked to business men and planters at the Vicksburg Cotton Exchange last week and said some good things, among them the following: "The planters who keep their laborers and force them to grow plenty of corn, rice, potatoes, molasses, hogs and poultry for home use and to cultivate say six or seven acres of cotton, according to government instructions, will grow more prosperous every year. They will not grow as much cotton, but it will not be necessary for them to send two-thirds of the money obtained for cotton to other sections of the country to pay for farm products. Boll weevil or no weevil, prosperity will be the rule in Warren county when all of her people live on the products of the farms and grow cotton as a surplus crop. I meet planters every day who are anxious to sell their plantations. They tell me they are in debt and will never be able to raise the mortgage. They say that the boll weevil is here to destroy cotton--their money crop. They are mistaken on two counts. Profitable crops of cotton can be grown in spite of the boll weevil and cotton is not now a surplus money crop. They will grow profitable crops of cotton as a surplus crop in a year or so. They will then all live at home and grow say two-thirds as much cotton. The cotton money will then raise the mortgages instead of paying for corn, bacon, lard, mules, hay, etc. The boll weevil means diversified farming and stock raising. This means fertile soil and good farming. Fertile soil and good farming means high priced land. The boll weevil will probably keep the price of land down for two or three years, but diversified agriculture and the raising of good hogs, cattle, mules, horses and other stock will force the price up and up until it will sell for four or five times its present market value. Let every planter hold a tight grip on his land. There is no excuse for the blues. The northern farmers are getting rich. They cannot grow cotton. They cannot grow sugar cane, rice and many other crops that can be grown in Warren. Any crop will grow here that the northerners can grow. Diversified farming and stock raising and the growing of cotton as a surplus crop will put Warren county on the high road to genuine prosperity. [Illustration: Pigs idea of heaven] A Very Instructive Letter Letter from C. R. Byrnes, Natchez, Miss., to G. H. Alford: "We are just closing our second year of serious disaster from this little pest. We show a decided improvement in 1910 over the year of 1909. Our acreage is about one-half of what it was last year and we will make about the same crop as last year. In my individual case, I made last year seventeen bales on 150 acres; this year I will make the same crop on eighty acres. You are aware that I do not live on my own farm and have only negro tenants. I have directed the management by not exceeding two visits to the farm each week during the working season and have followed the government's directions as well as I could, situated as I am. If I had lived on my farm far better results could have been obtained. I have now more corn than I will require for next year's crop and a good start of hogs and cattle. My farm has been more than self-sustaining this year and I believe I will have a splendid return next year, as I have so little to buy. [Illustration: A tractor turning four furrows] My success is due to the aid of Government instructions. To illustrate: One of my negro tenants, when I told him in the month of May that he must send his entire family into his cotton patch and pick every punctured square from the cotton stalks and burn them and also kill the weevils to be found, objected; said he did not believe in it. I replied that the instructions were not original with me, that they were from the United States Government, after a fifteen years' study of the boll weevil, and if he thought he knew more about it than the Government I would try to place him in the employ of the Government and get one of their men to come and work his crop under his, the tenant's, direction. This remark had the desired effect. He got the weevils and will make three bales of cotton on eight acres, while he made only one and one-half bales on sixteen acres last year. Being a member of our Board of Supervisors, I insisted that our President, manager of the convict farm, plant five acres in cotton and work it under Government's instructions. He was opposed to planting any cotton. I insisted on it, stating that I was not after the money it would bring, but wanted it as an experiment and aid to our farmers, knowing that the labor was there under absolute control, and that there would be no reason why it could not be properly farmed. The five acres were planted and properly worked--two heavy bales have been ginned and another light bale will be picked. Now this was on thin upland, fertilized and worked as you would have directed. Splendid results, is it not? You are aware that this year and last year gave us too much rain in our section to successfully combat the weevil, but we have doubled the yield under similar conditions for each year and this increase is certainly due to the good work done by the Government in our behalf. Many more farmers will next year follow more closely your instructions and if we can get a normal season as to rainfall, the cotton crop will, in my opinion, show much more decidedly the value of the Government's work. No doubt but this pest will spread until it covers the entire cotton belt of the south. I can see work for you all the way to the Atlantic Seaboard--work in front of you and work behind you. Have you ever thought what a barren waste there might have been in the wake of this little giant were it not for the valuable assistance rendered by our Government? As it is we cover up his tracks almost as fast as they are made. Stand by us until we are able to stand alone. Then you and all connected with you in this good work will forever have the heart-felt thanks of all the farmers here." [Illustration: The modern method of preparing the soil] Boll Weevil Literature U. S. Senate Document 305, and Farmers' Bulletins 51, 74, 209, 211, 314, 344, 512. Published by U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Knapp's Method of Growing Cotton by H. E. Savely, and W. B. Mercier. Published by Doubleday, Page and Company, Garden City, N. Y. Southern Field Crops by J. F. Duggar. Published by the Macmillan Co., New York. Numerous publications may be obtained from the Louisiana Crop Pest Commission, Baton Rouge, La.; the Texas A. M. College, College Station; the Mississippi A. M. College, Agricultural College, Miss., and the Alabama A. M. College, Auburn, Ala. I H C Booklets These booklets will be sent to any address upon receipt of the amounts named below. Quantity lots are sent transportation charges collect. NAME Single Copies Quantities Each Each The Story of Bread $0 03 $0 02 The Creeds of Great Business Men 05 03 Getting a Start with Alfalfa in the Corn Belt 02 01 Lecture Notes for Alfalfa Charts 04 03 Studies in Alfalfa 04 03 Alfalfa Sermon 02 01 Sweet Clover 04 03 Seed Corn 03 02 Alfalfa in the Cotton Belt 02 01 For Better Corn in the Cotton Belt 02 01 Diversified Farming in the Cotton Belt 04 02 The Boll Weevil 04 03 The Cattle Tick 02 01 For Better Crops in the South 04 03 I H C Demonstration Farms in the South 02 01 For More and Better Corn in the Northwest 02 01 Poultry Book 02 01 The Golden Stream 05 02 The Disk Harrow 04 02 For Better Crops 06 03 Engine Operator's Guide 03 02 The Story of Twine 03 02 Binder Twine Industry 20 15 Harvest Scenes of the World 50 35 "The Rag Doll" for Testing Seed Corn-- Cloth, each 10c; per dozen, 75c. Paper, per dozen, 5c. Plans and Specifications for Farm Buildings, per plan, 5c. Besides the booklets named above, from time to time there will be issued other interesting agricultural booklets pertinent to crops in all parts of the United States. Future issues will treat such subjects as cowpeas, soy beans, peanuts, velvet beans, rice, sugar, cane, silos, feeds and feeding, weeds, insects, etc. Agricultural Extension Department Harvester Building Chicago, Ill. Transcriber's Notes: Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. Passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. 
34885	----	scanned images of public domain material from the Google Print archive. [Illustration: Book Cover] GARDEN ORNAMENTS [Illustration: TALL POPLARS LEND DIGNITY TO A GARDEN SETTING] GARDEN ORNAMENTS BY MARY H. NORTHEND ILLUSTRATED [Illustration] NEW YORK DUFFIELD & COMPANY 1916 Copyright, 1916, by DUFFIELD & CO. _I Dedicate This Garden Book to My Friend_ EKIN WALLICK CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE FOREWORD I. THE GARDEN PATH AND BORDER 3 II. THE PERGOLA AND ARCH 21 III. THE TEA HOUSE IN THE GARDEN 37 IV. THE GARDEN STEPS 53 V. ENTRANCES 71 VI. BIRD BATHS 89 VII. GARDEN SEATS 107 VIII. GARDEN POOLS 125 IX. THE SUN-DIAL IN THE GARDEN 143 X. THE FOUNTAIN 163 ILLUSTRATIONS TALL POPLARS LEND DIGNITY TO A GARDEN SETTING _Frontispiece_ LET GUTTERS OF COBBLESTONES LINE YOUR PATH _Facing p._ 3 A SUCCESSFUL GRASS PATH 6 A BRICK-PAVED PATH FLANKED BY MANY-HUED IRIS 12 THE SUNLIGHT SIFTS THROUGH THE SHELTERING VINES OF THE PERGOLA 21 BUILD YOUR PERGOLA WITH COBBLESTONE SUPPORTS AND RUSTIC TOP 24 THE MOSS GROWS BETWEEN THE STONE WALK 28 A TEA-HOUSE 37 STEPPING-STONES IN A GRASS PATH 42 LILY PONDS IN A FORMAL GARDEN 46 STONE STEPS ATTRACTIVELY PLANNED 53 A FOUNTAIN THAT SERVES AS A BACKGROUND FOR A LILY POND 58 MARBLE STEPS LEADING TO THE WATER IN A FORMAL GARDEN 64 AN OLD-FASHIONED GARDEN IS OFTEN ENTERED UNDER AN ARCH OF LATTICEWORK 71 A FINE DECORATIVE IRON GATEWAY 76 A SUCCESSFUL ENTRANCE TO A FORMAL GARDEN 82 THE CENTRAL FEATURE OF THE GARDEN MAY BE A BIRD-BATH 89 A WELL-PLACED BIRD-BATH 94 AN ORNAMENT DELIGHTFULLY USED TO MARK THE OPENING OF PATHS THROUGH WOODS 98 A FORMAL GARDEN SEAT 107 A SIMPLE AND ATTRACTIVE GARDEN SEAT 112 STATELY LILIES ADD CHARM AND DIGNITY TO A GRAVELLED WALK 118 A POND-LILY POOL OF A VERY ATTRACTIVE SHAPE 125 A LILY POND THAT FILLS CHARMINGLY A CORNER OF A GARDEN 130 THERE IS AN EVER-CHANGING BEAUTY TO A GARDEN WHOSE PATHS ARE BROKEN HERE AND THERE BY POOLS 136 GRASSY PATHS LEAD PLEASANTLY TO THE SUN-DIAL 143 THE SUN-DIAL IS A FEATURE IN ITSELF 148 AN OLD WELL USED EFFECTIVELY AS A DECORATIVE FEATURE 154 NARCISSUS STANDS IN THE HEART OF THE FOUNTAIN 163 A ROMAN FOUNTAIN PLACED AGAINST A VERY APPROPRIATE BACKGROUND 166 AN ARTISTIC FOUNTAIN PARTICULARLY WELL PLACED 170 THIS WALL FOUNTAIN WITH ITS SHELL BACKGROUND AND BASIN IS MOST FITTINGLY PLACED 174 FOREWORD Doubtless we have all realized the allurement of the garden, as we walk between the beds, drinking in the sweet perfume of the many flowers, or as we watch the birds perched on the branches or lazily swinging on the flowers, twittering to their mates as they sip the nectar or prune their plumage, after bathing in the sparkling water of the pool. There is more than enjoyment that comes to the garden lover through his life among the plants. He grows broader and becomes forgetful of the trivial cares and prejudices of every-day life as he watches their development. He comes to the garden for inspiration and finds it among the flowers. We are by nature garden lovers, and though with some the feeling has not as yet been developed, yet deep in the depths of their soul is a yearning for intercourse with Nature and her lessons--taught through the cultivation of flowers. It spells Contentment, Happiness and Love. It is a delight to visit gardens, and study the character of the designer. It is no hard matter to read through varied planting likes and dislikes in the owner. It brings us closer together, this mutual love of floriculture, and it is in discussion of this theme that we forget the sordid phases of life. Visit the gardens with me, listen to the anthem of the birds sung at morn and eventide. Learn their habits, and make them friends, so that they will nestle into your often lonely life, bringing with them a gladness that is not only delightful but alluring. Many a love story has been told among the flowers, many a real story has been developed as one sat gazing at some flower-laden field. Joy and sadness has been our varied lot since we began our garden work, but as the years go on, gladness predominates. We grow to look forward with a tender longing for the coming spring. We hang lovingly over the opening buds of the early flowers. We are glad that we, too, have grown to know the flowers, that we have learned through their poetic language solace for the wounded soul, and how to live better lives, through intercourse with them. To my many friends who have made it possible for me to visit their gardens, and to reproduce their carefully thought out schemes in pictures, I extend my hearty thanks. It has done much to make not only my life but other lives happier. It is with the hope that others may find the same enjoyment in this work that I have that I send it forth to perform its mission and with the hope that it may encourage others to start gardens of their own and to give to them a happiness they have never known before. If I have accomplished this I have met the desire of my heart. THE GARDEN PATH AND BORDER [Illustration: LET GUTTERS OF COBBLESTONES LINE YOUR PATH] CHAPTER I THE GARDEN PATH AND BORDER "All the world's a garden and we are garden lovers in it." This is not a new theme, for it has been in existence ever since the planting of the early flower plots, those that were in evidence in our grand-dames' time. There is a distinct atmosphere connected with those simple one-path gardens that is most delightful. It lies not only in the gravel paths and the stiff box-borders, but in the fragrant old-fashioned flowers that were grown promiscuously inside the trim line of box. Perchance some dainty line of cinnamon pinks whose delicate blossoms when we find them in the twentieth-century gardens, carry us back vividly to the Colonial days when they so often formed a part of the garden scheme. Great changes have taken place in the evolution of the posy beds, for, with the passage of time, they have developed into wide expanses of floral landscape, subtly moulded into charming pictures and fascinating vistas. In the planting and the planning of the flower beds of the present day many of the general motives of the older gardens have been retained. They have, however, been enlarged upon and developed until they are perfected in every detail. The landscape architect of to-day realizes that the achievements of yesterday can be interwoven with the possibilities of to-morrow. As we saunter leisurely through the twentieth-century garden, we come occasionally upon a simple box-border, much more scientifically treated than those of long ago. This special feature of garden culture should be planted in the early spring that it may obtain deep rooting, so as to resist the ravages of the winter season. The plants should not overcrowd but be set three inches apart in narrow, shallow trenches, with plenty of mulching to insure the best results. Unlike those found in the gardens of Colonial days, they should be carefully clipped, sometimes for topiary effects. Here and there, we come unexpectedly upon old-time flower plots, showing a box-border, not like those of the present day, carefully trimmed, but scraggly and unkempt, preserved for sentiment's sake. They still line the central walk, much as they did long years ago. In those days there was no laying-out of gardens or creating odd designs, but, instead, there was a simple, narrow, dividing line, worked out by the removal of turf and filling in with earth. Few realize that garden culture can be divided into periods, each one of which is well defined, so that it is possible to determine where the old-fashioned ideas left off and the new-fashioned ones began. The earliest period has a straight, simple path, about six feet in width. These gardens came into existence when our shipping was greater on the sea and the merchant princes demanded large and more elegant houses with gardens laid out in the rear. Many of these were planned by the mistresses of the stately homes, while some were designed by English or German gardeners, who in their planting reproduced the gardens across the seas. There are a few only that deviate from the general plan of the single walk dividing the beds and ending in a summer house, vine-clad, where the Colonial dames during the summer months held afternoon teas. These garden houses were the nucleus of the garden furniture that has come into fashion with the passing of time. One of the distinctive features connected with these gardens is the border. This varies in width with the size of the plot and the flowers enclosed. It must be borne in mind that the gardeners of those days knew little of the theory of color schemes, yet the results were pleasing to the eye, so much so that to-day the old-fashioned garden stands in a class by itself. With the evolution of gardens, new ideas sprang into existence. All landscape architects realize the importance of giving particular attention to the laying-out of the path. Here the bit of garden demands a straight path, yonder to bring gardens into unity a grass path should be laid, while level stretches demand charming floral treatment, wrought out through proper use of flowers in the borders. [Illustration: A SUCCESSFUL GRASS PATH] Every ambitious gardener realizes that during the summer months, his particular garden will be on dress parade, and must be always at its best. Therefore, he gives special attention to the trimming of the borders, the smoothing of the path and the right coloring in beds, so that no discordant note be found. Every part must be kept in good condition, for there are no closed doors for untidiness to skulk behind. This he knows means constant and unremitting care and that he may avoid sameness, he changes the flower scheme every year, to give a fresh note to the planting of his own particular plot. The greatest care must be taken that borders are properly balanced, for any deviation from this rule results in lop-sided effects that spell failure. No walk in any part of the garden but should be planned to serve a definite purpose, either to connect other paths or at its end to bring out some carefully laid plan that will lend a picturesque effect to the finished design. Let us take as an instance a curved path. First of all, we must realize that it is not following any haphazard plan but has a definite aim. Perchance it has been most carefully laid out to avoid the felling of a tree that is needed for picturesque effect, but whatever the object may be, it is fulfilled by the design of this particular path. There are to be found, quite frequently on large, extensive grounds, grass paths that cut the lawn, connecting separated gardens. In any case like this, how much better to introduce English stepping stones. There is a picturesque coloring in their soft, gray hue, contrasting pleasingly with a line of grass between. They also break the monotony given by a solid mass of green and lend to this particular part of the ground an old-world aspect. Have you ever stopped to think when planning for your next year's garden that designs can be easily varied to bring out some new thought and make a change that is alluring? It is the careful introduction of these novel ideas that gives zest to garden culture. Every person has a different idea of what is right in garden culture and unconsciously treats the old plan in an individual manner. A little touch here and there goes a great way in producing odd effects. Among the many materials that can be used for this feature of the garden is brick, and of this there are many kinds. For the old-fashioned garden the second-hand brick gives a Colonial atmosphere. For the gardens of to-day it is generally better to use the hard, burned brick--these can be laid in straight lines or herring-bone fashion as fancy dictates, and should show a line of straight brick or headers as they approach the border. This feature should be used generally in formal types of garden landscape. Great care should be taken, however, that the brick be laid perfectly dry and cemented in mortar. If you are looking for novelty, why not try cobblestones? They are very inexpensive, particularly if you live in a seaport town where the beaches are strewn with them. Be sure to pick out those that are nearest the same size and shape, for this gives a better effect. There is nothing that gives a better backing for earth beds, especially as they are easily kept weeded. If the cobblestones prove too conspicuous for the scheme of the garden, it is a comparatively easy matter to plant as a background a flowering plant that will in time fall over them and hide them from view. A turf walk is, properly speaking, the most effective path. It also has many advantages, chief among them the fact that it is not hard to keep up and can be replaced with very little trouble, save the cutting of new sod. Be very careful not to make the mistake of laying old sods that have been piled for a considerable length of time and have thus lost much of their vigor. In order to have them at their best they should be freshly cut and laid carefully in a rich foundation, the pieces joined as closely as possible together and the crevices filled in with either grass seed or dirt. Plenty of watering means success; still one should not be impatient, for it is not until a second season that grass comes to its own. One difficulty in a border like this, which can, however, be easily remedied, is that it needs constant cutting to keep the grass from overrunning the beds. If you are planning a garden of the English type, it is well to carry out the idea of introducing irregular stones for the walk. It is desirable that the stones should not all be of the same size, otherwise there will be no chance for grass and moss to grow between them and give them the old-world aspect. In gardens of this type such a path is really imperative, for the flowers crowd against the dividing line and would be much less interesting if stones were not introduced. Bear in mind, in dealing with this particular subject that the width of the walk depends in a great measure on the size of the garden. Here a narrow path is all that is necessary to carry out the scheme; there, a wide one seems to fit appropriately into the plan. It is not always possible to have gardens large enough to allow a wide path, yet the effect of one can be produced by a little contriving; for instance, if you use grass for the central feature with an earth border on either side. If you desire a successful garden you should seek for variety, not only in the cutting of the walk, but in the planting of the borders. To-day everybody is striving for originality and to work out odd ideas that still are practical. One should remember, too, that no two gardens are exactly alike, any more than two faces bear an exact resemblance. In describing the border, one might liken it to the setting of a gem. Doubtless, it might be said to be artificial but so is the planting of the flower plot. It is not nature's work, but designed by the hand of man and in it harmony should be developed in the highest degree. Let us take as an example the damp garden. This is usually laid out in one corner of the estate. If we should treat it with a gravel walk, what would be the result--dampness and disappointment. Now, let us change the whole plan and place stringers on which boards are laid, so nailed that they can be lifted during the winter season and stored away in a friendly barn or cellar. Watch the result and you will find it is always dry and practical for usage. Better still, if wearing properties do not have to be taken into consideration, use cedar boughs that resemble in contour miniature logs. They fit into place as if put there by nature, all the more if they are bordered by ferns. If you build at the further end a rustic summer house, it gives a refreshing touch. Many garden lovers delight in collecting wild flowers, digging them up in the neighboring woods to blossom in their cultivated garden. Why not give them a home by themselves in a rough rockery? This can easily be built from stones found on the estate. Here we deviate from the stilted idea of paths and introduce stone steps. These should be large and rough enough to fit in with our plan. Hardy ferns should be planted on either side and rock plants between the steps. You will then see the wisdom of creating a path like this which is in sympathy with the general idea of the garden. [Illustration: A BRICK-PAVED PATH FLANKED BY MANY-HUED IRIS] Landscape gardeners are at the present day endeavoring to work out results that are in harmony with any period that they are called upon to reproduce. Occasionally they come upon a subject that is very difficult to treat, such as the concrete walk. This is an absolute necessity in some locations. Yet, when finished, it presents a bare appearance and demands special treatment. Very successful results are produced by bright borders of flowering plants, and if in addition to this an arch of wire or rustic boughs is made for the entrance and covered with rambler roses, of which to-day there are many varieties, a happy solution will be found to the perplexing problem of a colorless path. During the time of blossoming, the touch of brightness adds to the effect while later on the bright green of the leaves relieves the cold gray of the concrete. The late Joseph Jefferson, in speaking of gardens and their borders, once said, "They are all expectation." And so they are from the early spring when the first bulbs come into bloom until the falling of the late chrysanthemum. As we con the seedman's list to prepare for the spring gardening, we go through the procession of the seasons noting the colors and finding a joy in anticipation that is exhilarating. In order to give correct handling to your paths, the color scheme of the borders should be taken into consideration. Different kinds of gardens demand varied treatment, and for this, the situation on the grounds and the type of the walk, should be carefully thought out. For earliest bloom, one should use bulbs. To have them at their best they should be planted in the fall, about six weeks before the hard frost sets in. Trenches are first dug, from twelve to eighteen inches deep, enriched and topped with a layer of sand, to insure the bulbs touching nothing else. Each bulb should be planted six inches deep and the same number of inches apart. They should be covered with from four to six inches of straw, dead leaves--hardwood ones being best for this purpose--or pine branches. Great care should be taken that these are not removed too early in the spring. Years of careful experiment have developed better colors and more strength in bulbs and have succeeded in producing a greater variety, both single to double. This evolution in bulbs makes it possible to choose suitable varieties for any border work. Snow drops are the first to poke their tiny heads up through the cold, hard earth. They rise above the snow, bringing gladness in their train. Then comes a procession of dainty bulbs including the hyacinth with its many hues, and the tulips, that stay by us until late in May, clothed in Dolly Varden gowns, or simple Quaker garb. It is a good plan to plant pansies among the bulbs, so that they will show their painted faces before the last bloom has disappeared. Many people in such borders use sweet alyssum for the outer row, but this, while it is decorative, is not always satisfactory for it grows so high that it is apt to shadow the major scheme. Bulbs can be left in the ground for a second year's blossoming or if new varieties are desired they can be carefully lifted and replaced by potted plants, such as the scarlet geranium or the dusty miller, whose soft gray sheen makes an interesting note of color as a foreground for the bed that stretches down to touch it, a solid mass of one-toned flowers. Within the last few years iris has become a popular accessory for border use. One reason for this is that it stays in bloom from the time of its first opening until the hot blast of the August sun touches its closed head. Well may this be termed the "fairy's favorite flower," it is so dainty in its hues. The rose moss or portulaca is a valuable border plant. It grows luxuriantly in sandy soil, where no moisture is retained, and seems to draw sufficient sustenance from the dews that fall at night, rather than from the unkindly sand which touches its tiny roots. One advantage in its use is that it grows quickly from seed, that is, if it is planted in a dry spot. The needle-shaped foliage is inconspicuous, while the blossoms are as brilliant as poppies and are produced in large numbers. A serious fault, however, is that it closes during the afternoon. If one decides to use portulaca, choose solid colors rather than to mix a mass of varied ones. For a shady bit of garden, why not try out delphiniums? They are not expensive, the roots costing about a dollar and a quarter a dozen, but they are so graceful that they are effective for use of this sort. The plants chosen must be in harmonious contrast to those that fill the beds, otherwise one shudders as they view the completed scheme and wonders how it is that the gardener is so color-blind. Hardy borders or annuals are used very often. Each of them having a distinctive charm, some gardens demanding one, and others another, so that one cannot dictate to the owner of a garden which kind is best for his use, it lies with his own whims and fancies, to develop beautiful combinations, and to work out variations of the last year's scheme, so that the gardens of yesterday may differ essentially from those of to-day. It may be that long borders of bright-eyed verbenas greet our eyes as we gaze upon the vari-colored beds, or perchance gorgeous Sweet Williams, vieing in hue are shown. Tall rosy spikes of lythrum lift their heads, while stately hollyhocks uncurl their silky petals, shaking out the tucks and wrinkles of the bud like newly awakened butterflies stretching their wings. There is a busy hum of bees as we saunter down the garden path, stopping now and again to watch their flight as they light on flowers to sip their nectar, furry with golden pollen dust. So we stand wondering what our grand-dames would say could they view, with us to-day, the transformation of the old-fashioned garden, into a magnificent show of rare plants in a well-developed design. THE PERGOLA AND ARCH [Illustration: THE SUNLIGHT SIFTS THROUGH THE SHELTERING VINES OF THE PERGOLA] CHAPTER II THE PERGOLA AND ARCH "I have made me a garden and orchard, and have planted trees and all kinds of fruit." Thus spake the wise Solomon who in all his glory found time to enjoy his flowers. Nowadays, blossoming plants are intermixed with marble fragments, and the garden contains many interesting features that were then unknown. Sir William Temple, on his return from a visit to Holland, where he went for garden study, tells us that he found that four things were absolutely necessary in order to complete a perfect garden. "Flowers, Fruit, Shade, and Water." Originality is to-day the key-note in every garden design. Gardens have been developed with the passing of time so that instead of one type we find an infinite variety of styles, each one of them so distinctive that one need have little fear of repetition in results. Here we find the formal, the Italian garden while over yonder is the wild, and the rambling one. They are carefully designed to bring out some individual scheme. Unlike the little posy plots of long ago with their unobtrusive green arbors, now we come upon a large space which has been laid out for picture effects. This is the work of the landscape architect, who takes as much pride in his garden structures, as does the architect in the design of his house. He vies with his rivals in producing odd effects with marble fragments and artistic combinations in his color scheme. Each one of the many types, that are shown at the present day, shows distinctive features. These appear and disappear in endless variety, and among them are the pergola and the arch, the latter a grandchild of the green arbor that was in evidence in our grand-dames' time. Unlike those seen in the old-fashioned gardens, it is not always built of wood. Sometimes it is so placed as to define the terraces, leading with its shadowy treatment to delightful glimpses of vistas beyond, well laid out for this very purpose. Again we find it shadowing the garden at one side, where it makes a covered walk, under which one can pass, and view the garden pleasantly. Simple and unostentatious were the early gardens, for not until 1750, was there found any trace of garden architecture in the North. It was about that year that one Theodore Hardingbrook, came to this country bringing with him a fund of information to strengthen and enlarge this line of work. He gathered around him a faithful, interested little band of students, and taught them new ideas, and awakened an ambition for new designs in Colonial flower plots. Then was evolved the little summer house with its cap of green, which stood generally at the foot of the garden path ending the central walk and it was then that the green arbor came into existence, spanning the centre of the little plot. Covered with vines it made a pleasant break in the otherwise straight lines of the old-fashioned garden, and it also gave a touch of old-world gardens to the new-world plan. This was not the commencement of pergola construction, which had its origin in the vineyards of sunny Italy. They were not like those of to-day, wonderfully beautiful in design but rude and rustic, roughly put together as a support for the vines. Through the intersecting crevices fell glorious clusters of pale green and royal purple grapes, to ripen in the glimmering shade. These rough arbors, shadowed by hardy vines, graced the Italian hillsides, when Columbus as a wool comber's son frolicked the summer days away long years before he discovered the new country that lay across the sea. The birth of this feature was not romantic but plebeian, for it was built for practical use only. The hardy Italian grape growers had come to a realizing sense that their fruit throve better if held aloft, and so they conceived the idea of a supporting arbor. As the bright sun filtered through the vines, the picturesqueness caught the attention of gardeners on large estates and from this was evolved the long pillared pathways over which cultivated vines were twined, casting their long shadows far over the path beyond in Roman gardens. When larger and better gardens were demanded to meet the architecture of the large, square, Colonial homes, green arbors were popular. They were crudely put together, often the work of the village carpenter, simple and unconventional in their treatment yet prettily draped with vines. During the summer months they were especially picturesque and inviting, with their little wooden seats placed on either side. To the garden came the gallant, dressed in knee breeches and wearing powdered wig, there to meet his lady love, bending low he plucked from the branches of the trailing vine a flower to deck his fair beloved's hair. [Illustration: BUILD YOUR PERGOLA WITH COBBLESTONE SUPPORTS AND RUSTIC TOP] These green arbors gave a distinct individuality to the old-time garden. Over them were carefully twined the Dutchman's pipe. It showed nestled away beneath its leaves, tiny, almost invisible little green pipes that were coveted by the little ones for "Let's pretend smoke." Invariably, the yellow and white Baltimore Belle rose sometimes known as the Seven Sisters, lent their charm, boldly peering out from under the vine to watch the lovers seated on the simple seats. They gave them a welcoming nod as they swayed to and fro in the passing breeze, mingling their blossoms, with a dainty Scotch rose and the pink moss, that seemingly grew on the same stem. It is the former rose that was the greatest favorite, for it lasted longer, giving dashes of yellow like sunshine to light the dark, autumnal days. Now and again, we come unexpectedly upon a garden such as this. It lies in the heart of a Colonial city, hidden away from passers-by behind a high paling fence. The twentieth century pergola in the modern garden lends itself to a great variety of treatment. It is an important feature and should be properly treated in order to bring out the right effect. Often the amateur, when dabbling with garden culture, neglects this feature on his grounds and gives it a wrong setting. It must be remembered that the mere setting out of a garden does not always bring about the best results. It should be done with some definite aim in view, such as color or suitability to situation. In this way only can one obtain perfection. There should be taken into consideration the formation of the different beds, especially those that are in close proximity. It cannot be a successful experiment unless carefully planned. If you have never tried to form combinations that will intensify the loveliness of the grounds by a happy gathering of right colors, you have missed a delightful experience. This idea does not come quickly to the amateur floriculturist, but once he fully grasps it, he turns as if by instinct to the structural part of the garden plan. It is then that he realizes that while he has not seemed to have progressed during his first year's work, yet he has laid a solid foundation that will stand him in good stead. In the midst of his garden he rears a house of flowers, placing it in a situation where he can watch the growth and maturing of the plants. Each corner of the garden is given separate treatment. In some gardens, where the space is small, it would be impossible to carry out the pergola scheme. Then it can be simplified and condensed into the child of the pergola, the arch, excellent for decorative effects. This means for flower showing can be made of wire, simply fastened to posts, bent into shape, or of wood and painted white; either of these methods is satisfactory and can, if properly used, be most successful. The arch, to fit in with the garden plan, should span the entrance. Over it should be trained either a blossoming vine or many, to work out a succession of bloom. Sometimes it will be the wisteria with its drooping clusters of lavender, or the rambler rose found in such a variety of colors to-day. These two with the clematis, are especially adapted for this purpose, if one is willing to use proper fertilizer and depth of planting. In order to insure better and more prolific growth, the vines should be cut back to about six or eight inches in height when first set out. It must be remembered in dealing with them that they are like little children, each one requiring individual care. We must also be sure that the soil is frequently stirred to avoid caking. Properly placed, the curved trellis is a joy. It gives a decorative setting to the garden proper. As the eye travels down the path, it greets a charming bit of color in the bed of solid green that tops the roof. The arch would not be a proper note of setting for every garden. There are only certain kinds with which it blends. The narrow path demands it, for it needs a break to show it at its best. A judicious fashioning of a series of arches, extending here and there along the entire depth of the walk is sometimes attractive. They serve to break the monotony and add a flower note that is delightful. In the planning of these, great care should be taken that they are set at proper intervals. They should be on the same level and correspond in width, otherwise the result would be a wavy line that is most distressing. [Illustration: THE MOSS GROWS BETWEEN THE STONE WALK] The color scheme depends on garden planting. If lavender is chosen it should be reproduced all through the line. Do not be so foolish as to choose one vine only but plant them in order to make a succession of bloom. One does not wish to view a spot of color now and a mass of green later on. There are so many different kinds of vines that can be planted for this use, each one of which is admirable, that it is hard to choose. Commencing with the earliest why not take the American or the loose-cluster wisteria. It has many advantages over other vines, in that it is a strong grower and bears an abundant cluster of flowers resembling the sweet pea in formation. One can reasonably assert, that the wisteria is the leading flower for the pergola or arbor. It dons a rich and graceful foliage and unlike other vines, has two distinct seasons of bloom. It is especially good if one wishes to carry out a one-tone color scheme, making lavender the key-note, and using this particular vine for the early bloom in May, at which time the luxuriant clusters of drooping flowers show their wonderful shading as they peer through the arches dropping down below the leafy growth and making a note of exquisite beauty. In August, when they show their second season of bloom, the flowers are less abundant. They should be followed by the Clematis Jackman. This vine, if it reaches maturity, is most effective, but it has the distinct disadvantage that though it starts right, and sends out shoots, they are apt to blight early and disappoint the gardener by dying before putting forth its wonderfully beautiful flowers. June, the month of roses, is a suitable time for one to watch for the blossoming of this vine. Many people avoid the Coboea Scandens on account of the large, conspicuous flowers it produces. They make a decided mistake when they shun this particular vine, for it has good qualifications for pergola covering. No vine grows more rapidly, as it reaches often from twenty-five to thirty feet in a single season. It bursts into blossom in July, in rich, purple, trumpet-shaped flowers. For the successful growth of vines many things have to be considered but principally the soil. The amateur makes a mistake in starving the ground, and thus losing half the quality it would otherwise have had. In order to obtain the best results, put plenty of barn-yard manure, or bone meal, at the foot of the trellis, and this should be plentifully renewed at the commencement of each year. Rambler roses are one of the most effective treatments for arbor or pergola growth, and the most popular of these are the white, yellow, crimson and pink. Each year new varieties are put upon the market and if one wishes to follow the new ideas they will be forced to constantly change the plants. In some cases, the pergola is used to form a trellised pavilion or summer house to shelter a marble statue and again with carved setting to outline a bed, as the central feature around which the flowers are arranged. Thus the simple vineyard trellis has been transformed into a gem of graceful construction, and we find it to-day, with its slender marble columns, supporting a delicately carved marble roof of slabs, over and through which the green of the vine, and the glint of the flower hover, dipping down between the intervening sections, in festoons of green and color. It can well be called a distinctive summer structure, for with the sun streaming through its mass of vines, it shadows the walks from May until late October. In the long winter months boxed in it stands like a sentinel guarding the long, bare paths, and showing a leafless network of interlacing vines. The pergola of to-day is not like that of yesterday. When first introduced into our gardens it was taken up on many small estates, and so badly designed that it combined badly with the garden. It was then it fell into disfavor and was pronounced a failure for use in our garden plan. But landscape gardeners, with an eye to the unique, felt that it was a necessary rounding-out of the garden design, and rescued from ignominy, it took its place in right surroundings, in the heart of the garden with a border of elaborate flower designs. Garden seats were placed inside and when it fronted on an Italian garden, a fountain was often introduced, the musical tinkle of the spouting water giving a special charm. Among the many designs the simplest is a simple rustic frame structure, appropriate for small or wild gardens. It is formed of cedar posts driven four feet into the ground, and reaching to the height of eight feet. This is covered with a beam or a slab roof structure over which is trained the morning glory, the California creeper, or the grape. This latter is much used, the picturesqueness of the ripening fruit adding to its attractiveness. These pergolas are generally eight feet wide and have for a flooring irregular flags through which peer grass or moss. This type of garden furniture is perfectly well adapted to Italian, English, or Colonial types of architecture, and is constructed often of marble. It is not merely an ornament but a useful adjunct to a garden, and can be made of concrete, or cobblestone, if one does not wish to go to the expense of using marble. There is a modern form of this feature that is a development from century-old customs, the porch-pergola which is fast supplanting the old covered porches of yesterday. This is designed with an open, vine-covered roof. It gives an added charm to the exterior of the house and furnishes a shady nook for sunny days, without the drawback of the old porch whose roof darkened the house in winter by withholding the sun. No one, no matter how small their grounds, need deny themselves a pergola. It is such an important feature and so decorative that it is almost a necessity. For the little backyard it may be simply a rustic porch planted in the middle of the garden. Properly laid out, it can be used as an out-of-doors living room. Across the end a hammock can be swung, while table and chairs can be fitted in at one side. THE TEA HOUSE IN THE GARDEN [Illustration: A TEA-HOUSE] CHAPTER III THE TEA HOUSE IN THE GARDEN There is a delightful imaginary intimacy that seemingly exists between we garden lovers who live in the twentieth century and those of early days. So closely are we connected by a common band of sympathy that we eagerly scan their books to glean here and there some important bit of garden lore that can be introduced into our work of to-day. It is this pleasant mingling of old and new-world gardens that gives to present-day designs such a delightful atmosphere. One of the old-time floriculturists, John Lyle, tells us in his old-fashioned way, about the flowers that bloomed ages before our grand-dames were born. "Gentlemen," he says, "what floure like you best in all this border? Here be fine roses, sweete violets, fragrant primroses, gille floures, carnations, sops of wine, sweete John, and what may please you at sight." Surely we see in retrospect, the gardens of that early day, and we come more and more to realize that all through the ages, the hand of Man has fashioned nothing more beautiful than a garden of flowers. The most famous poets have not found any more ideal trysting spot in which to place their lovers. Each individual part of the flower garden has its own distinctive charm. It lies not solely with the flowers that bloom so profusely in the beds nor with the marble fragments, for the romance of it all is centered in the little summer house, as it was quaintly named by our ancestors in the long ago. In these little tea houses, built in a retired part of the garden, the mistress loved to spend a pleasant summer afternoon, seated inside knitting flower thoughts into a shapely bag or reading some delightful book, which dropped from her hand, as she sat dreamily watching the unfolding of some favorite flower. Let us enter one of these gardens, rich in its summer garb, walk slowly down the path, stopping now and again to view some bud slowly unfold its petals one by one, disclosing a new specimen to be added to the ever-increasing number that are comprised in the floral scheme, and waving a welcome as it is tossed to and fro by every passing breeze. Over there against the white paling fence stands the stiff hollyhock nodding his satiny head to greet the dainty heliotrope who glances coquettishly up to meet his eye. Nearby is a dialetrea or bleeding heart, the pet of the little ones, who pluck them to form tiny boats with snow white sails to float down the lily pond. Bursting into bloom behind the stiff box border is the old-time "piny," sending bits of color into the sober green. None of the old Colonial gardens were considered complete without an ever varying assortment of bloom. There were the Sweet Williams, Bouncing Bet, and perky little Johnny-jump-up, sending greetings to his comrades nearby. Flowers are everywhere, they peer out at us from hidden corners, swing their heads in very ecstasy of enjoyment of their being. Simplicity was the key-note in the construction of those summer houses that came into existence during the latter part of the seventeenth century. They stand for the first type of garden furniture made in our country, coming into vogue after the close of the grim struggle for existence made by our Puritan forbears. Then when the tide turned, and money flowed into the colonies, houseowners had more time to devote to garden culture. Behind the large Colonial houses sprang into existence gardens devoted to flowers, the owners doing the best they could with the material at hand. These delightful little plots secluded from the world outside by high paling fences were the homes of the old-fashioned flowers, many of them descendants of the originals, brought over in the ships that first touched our shores. They were not like the twentieth-century ones constructed of marble or concrete clothed with vines and standing in a wealth of up-to-date blooms, showing slender marble columns and carved capitals supporting the marble roof. Rather are they covered with plain, every-day vines, such as the Dutchman's Pipe with its heavy leaving, clambering roses and the Bitter Sweet or Roxbury Waxwork, whose drooping bunches of yellow and red poke their heads through the lattice work, making a bit of bright color all through the winter months. This when the ground is covered with snow livens up the surroundings. On either side are planted a wealth of timely flowers, these include the Sweet William, the Hooded Larkspur, and the many-colored Phlox. Many of these little garden houses show such a variety of form that they are interesting, fitting into their surroundings as if they had always been there. Some are square, formed like a large box, depending for their picturesqueness on their coverings of vines. Others are round, and still again we find oblong summer houses, each one fitted up with seats and sometimes a rustic table. Occasionally, we come upon a more pretentious one that is two stories in height. They were planned in the early nineteenth century, some of these are still standing and among them we find that of Elias Haskett Derby, designed by Samuel McIntyre, Salem's noted architect and wood-carver. For years it stood on the grounds of the summer home of Mr. Derby and to-day is so well preserved that it seems as if it had been recently built. Exquisite carving is a feature of this particular tea house, where rural images top the roof. It is only in the gardens of the rich, that elaborate tea houses are found, simple designs grace the little gardens and are in harmony with their surroundings. The rustic summer house has its own mission to fulfill. Its cost can be determined by conditions. Some are finished in elaborately decorative designs while others show plain treatment. The best kind of wood to be used for this purpose is the red cedar which has wonderful lasting qualities. It is more expensive than the locust but out-wears any wood on the market. Great care should be taken that the supports be placed deep enough to avoid throwing by the heavy winter frost. Holes should be dug at least four feet deep, and squares of stone or cement pounded into the bottom to prevent its coming in contact with the earth and rotting. This makes a solid foundation, and durable. Do not have the roof made flat, so that water can stand upon it and rot it, but raise it slightly and either shingle or thatch it. This last is an old-time handicraft that has recently been revived. Following the old English rule, reeds are more endurable, while straw is admissible. An advantage of its use is that it grows handsomer with age. In its second year it has collected moss, weeds and plants, and these, matted down and weather-beaten, give it the hue of a gray lichen. If properly treated it will last for years. [Illustration: STEPPING-STONES IN A GRASS PATH] One should, if possible, when planning the garden, include a summer house. There is no more enjoyable feature that can be constructed on the grounds. Its design, size, situation and type, must correspond with the period of the garden. A formal lay-out should, in order to be correct, receive entirely different treatment in its setting from the Italian, while the rambling depends upon simpler characteristics to produce correct results. Rustic tea houses fit into this project appropriately. They would be entirely incongruous if placed in Italian gardens elaborate in their plan and full of wonderful bits of marble fragments transplanted from foreign lands. Fortunately for us, there are so many different types of gardens that one is not continually finding a repetition. Garden houses, covered with bark, fit into simple plans, such as the rambling and the wild gardens, their rustic effect being in harmony with the flowers and beds. It is one thing to plan a summer house but quite another to pick out a suitable situation. It should not be placed in the heart of the flowers more especially where there are tall blossoms. Let the beds in the foreground be low and show quiet colors, shading the height and brightness as they go farther afield, the most conspicuous being used for the extreme edge. Here, like a beautiful picture, they fit into the landscape and produce correct effects. Level stretches do not always bring about right results. If your ground slopes to the garden edge why not design a rustic tea house to fit into the hillside? Should you visit it of a clear afternoon, seat yourself on the wooden settle and glance around you, you will be delighted with the view obtained. Below is the garden rolled out like a carpet brightly patterned at your feet, smooth stretches of lawn between rest the eyes as they gaze off to the horizon when the blue of the sky seems to melt into the masses of waving bloom. Do not start this feature of the garden unless you have first planned situation, size and cost, otherwise you will be disappointed, and may feel it is more expensive than you wished. If you do not care to bed it underneath, you will be sorry. Every house of this sort should have a hard ashes or cement foundation in order to keep out the dampness. This is a serious fault which if not carefully watched results in quick rotting of the wood and constant expense. It is better to start right and in the end it will cost less. Posts used for supports should be made of cedar or locust, driven four feet into the ground and resting on stone supports, used as preservatives. They can be elaborately designed or simple in finish and if plenty of air and light are wished for, trellis supports can be used, but if it demands shade, shingles or canvas painted, are advisable, the former better for rounded effects and the latter when a flat surface is used. Marble is used prominently in Italian gardens, whose elaborate setting demands striking effects. Give the tea house a cover of soft green vines, dotted here and there with a bit of color and it will be a joy forever, taking on a dignity that is in keeping with its surroundings. Cement, no matter where it is used, is always effective. In coloring and lines it seemingly fits into the elaborate landscape scheme and it improves with age. There is an advantage in the use of cement, in that it costs nothing for repairs, is fireproof, does not collect vermin, and is never shabby. With its clinging vine cover, it is a desirable material for use in the construction of tea houses when wood and marble are not suitable. There is a romantic charm in vine-clad tea houses. The clinging vine lends a picturesqueness to the slender columns and the slanting roof emphasizes the beauty of it all. There are so many decorative vines that are suitable for its use that it would be impossible to name them all. For marble, delicate, tender climbers are the best. For concrete a larger leaf can be used to give more stable effects, while for rustic tea houses, the large, hardy vines and stronger climbers are more suitable. Each one has its own use, and appears at its best in congenial environment. The tiny canary-bird vine would make little show if allowed to clamber over rustic supports, while the Boston or Japanese ivy are especially adapted for this treatment. This is on account of the small, flat leaf that clings to the side, helping out the design without a deep massing of leaves. [Illustration: LILY PONDS IN A FORMAL GARDEN] Some summer houses depend upon hardy vines for their cover and others on tender climbers whose delicate tendrils wind in and out clouding but not hiding the exterior coloring. It is the wise man who is able to provide a suitable over-spread for houses of this description. It must be remembered that it is not the cover alone but the planting that surrounds it that aids in the picturesque effect. There is as much need of careful thought here as there would be in any part of the scheme. For right coloring, height, and time of blossoming help or mar the plan. There is as much difference in the growth of vines as there is in children. Some to be at their best require a very rich soil, while others will do equally well if it is poorer. The important thing, if you wish successful results, is to give them plenty of food, plenty of water and look out for a proper insecticide, in order not to retard their growth. A general rule that is permissible for almost any grounds is to dig a ditch from three to four feet deep and put in the bottom a foot of rotted manure. This can better be attended to in the fall, leaving time for it to get well soaked into the ground and ripen before planting. Fill in alternate layers of soil and manure until the trench is even with the ground. In clay soil, it is better in order to lighten it to mix in a little sand. For a rustic summer house, where heavy planting is needed, a honeysuckle is effective. The scarlet or Sempervirens is a very decorative variety and this differs greatly from the Japanese one, bearing tubular scarlet flowers that continue in blossom all summer. Of the many varieties this is the freest and the best. Its leaves are a blueish green which make a pleasing contrast with the coral color of the flower. The Clematis is always effective and is the best vine of medium growth in existence. Its small, white, star-shaped flowers, deliciously fragrant, cover the vine completely in August. The Japanese Clematis or Paniculata is most attractive. It prefers a sunny position, the foliage is handsome and at the end of August it bursts into a wonderful mass of fragrant, pure white, star-like flowers that last nearly a month. For shady places, the Helix or English ivy is advisable. This well-known, small-leafed ivy is perfectly hardy in this section and is much used for covering the ground in shady places where grass refuses to grow. Young growth sometimes gets winter killed, but this is due to sunburn rather than frost. For tea houses painted white and for concrete, wisteria takes a prominent place. It grows equally well in city and country, being able to withstand the smoke of cities. Of these the Multijuga loose cluster is advisable. It is not so strong a grower as the Chinese varieties but distinguished from them by long, loose clusters of purple flowers sometimes obtaining a length of two feet. The Crimson Glory Grape Vine, Coignetiae, is a strong grower, showing large, heart-shaped leaves, ten inches long, deep rich green on top and bright yellow beneath, which assume a brilliant scarlet in autumn. The grapes are black and form a pleasing contrast to the bright colors of the leaves. The Canary Bird Vine is suitable for either this kind of a tea house or a marble one. It is a beautiful, rapid, annual grower and when in blossom, the charming little canary-colored blooms bear a fancied resemblance to a bird with wings half expanded. Do not forget the Cardinal Climber which is a cross between the Cyprus Vine and the Star Glory. It attains a height of thirty feet or more with a beautiful form like laciniated foliage and is literally covered with a blaze of circular fiery cardinal red flowers from midsummer until frost. The flowers are about one and one-half inch in diameter and are borne in clusters from five to seven blossoms each. Wherever it has been grown it has attracted favorable comments. It delights in a warm sunshiny situation and good soil. The Kudzu Vine or Peuraria Thunbergiana is very popular. It came from Japan and is still rare. Its flowers are large clusters similar to a white Hydrangea and when in flower during July and August make a wonderful display. It is one of the best of the flowering vines to plant against a wall as it clings naturally to any rough surface. The plants selected for either side of the tea house need as much care in choosing right colors as do the vines. THE GARDEN STEPS [Illustration: STONE STEPS ATTRACTIVELY PLANNED] CHAPTER IV THE GARDEN STEPS The air was laden with the sweet fragrance of flowers. They wafted a delightful welcome to the hardy explorers, who, worn with the long voyage, viewed for the first time the rocky shores of New England. Their soothing influence brought heart to the wearied men, as they revelled in the spicy odors that brought in their train pleasant thoughts of the wonderful gardens they had left behind them. From the sandy coast of Florida to the bleak New England shores they felt its enticing power. So pungent was the perfume, that it touched the heart of Barlow, one of the commanders of Raleigh's expedition who wrote on landing on the newly discovered shore, "We smelt so sweet and strong a smell, as if we had been in the midst of some delicate garden. The woods were not such as we find in Europe, barren and fruitless, but the highest and reddest cedars, pines, cypresses, and many others of excellent quality. Of grapes we found a plenty climbing over every shrub and tree down to the waters very edge. I think in all the world there is not the like in abundance." Among the earliest settlers, came a colony of Spaniards choosing for their home the sunny shores of Florida. Here in the heart of the woodland they made clearings, laying out extensive grounds that followed no set plan, but with semblance of the old-world garden. Here they planted for coolness and shade, vines and trees, laid out their grounds with walks, paved like mosaic with vari-colored stones. In these gardens no semi-tropical plants, such as abounded on every side, were planted. It has always been man's way when warring with the wilderness that lay beyond his door, to gather into the enclosure flowers and plants that had been dear to his heart in his far-away native land, to re-establish the atmosphere of his old home in new surroundings. The colonists who settled on the southern shores of Virginia, were men of rank, wealthy men, who had left stately homes to settle in this unknown land. In the lay-out of their gardens they introduced the Elizabethean style of floriculture, following the fashion of the English gardens of that day. These old gardens showed terraces, steps, leading from walk to walk, paths laid at right angles, through which one walked to view the spaces intricately designed with "knotted" beds and mazes, each one of which conformed to details in the buildings of their stately homes. There were the first steps laid out in gardens in America, a novel feature that has been evolved into elaborate designs with the passing of the years. To-day no garden is complete that does not show some form of steps or terrace. Rockeries have come into vogue not only in large, elaborate garden plots but in simple little home grounds. They are approached by steps of stone that correspond with the rough, rural aspect of this feature of garden culture. Shy wild flowers peep timidly out from their homes between the crevices of the rock. Here in the early spring we find the cup-shaped crocus with its yellow tongue nestled contentedly in among the brown furred fern fronds, that soon will unfurl in dainty loveliness. Leading from the steps are grass banks and low walks, surrounding the rockery and affording pleasant promenades, from which to view the garden in its entirety. Like every other plan contrived by man, the garden step should be fashioned to fit into its proper place, adding and not detracting from the general picturesqueness. It depends upon the personality of the creator as to its success, for steps while seemingly a minor detail, can add or detract from a garden's beauty materially. One should never swerve from the thought that practicability should be the motive in planning stepping stones to connect different levels of your garden. They should not be added just for appearance sake, any more than one should wear a showy gown to attract attention. They should carry out some well-thought-out plan. It would be bad taste to introduce rustic steps into a formal garden, as much so as it would to place delicately wrought slabs of marble in the heart of a thicket. One should, that is if they wish to excel other creators in the introduction of original ideas, think out each individual part of the ground assigned for garden purposes and determine where each feature can make the best showing. It is then and then only that we come to a realizing sense not only of the kind of material that should be used but the shape and the setting. There should be a definite purpose in the use of this particular feature and the most important one is that it should be so arranged that one can reach different levels easily. There should be no precipitous pitch that makes one feel while ascending that they are performing tiresome gymnastic feats. This necessitates that they should be constructed on a gradual incline, thus making the ascent so easy that one is hardly conscious they are walking always upward until they have reached the top, and stand on level ground. This is often not enough considered and yet is most important. In laying the stepping stones, there should be definite proportions thought out between the risers, breadth of the treads and the height between. Any variation would produce awkward results. Great care should be taken in choosing slabs either of stone or marble that are of the same size. If the steps connect different parts of the garden scheme or lead to a rock garden, they should be cunningly introduced into the side of the ascent, placed so that they will add to the picturesqueness of the effect. They should break the hillside pleasingly, so that when completed they will form a pleasant picture, delightful for the eye to gaze upon. More than this, there should be planting, not only between the risers but on either side, and this requires careful thought, for a stately hollyhock rearing its gorgeous stock of rich coloring would be entirely out of place while delicate ferns or humble rock plants emphasize the desired effect. If the height of your step should be low, then risers, six inches in height would be in good form, and the treads in order to correspond must be twelve and a half inches in width. Should, however, five inches be the height needed, then an additional inch and a half should be added to the treads. This point is such an important one that garden owners and landscape architects should see that it is properly carried out, if they wish to get the right results. [Illustration: A FOUNTAIN THAT SERVES AS A BACKGROUND FOR A LILY POND] Ramping steps, if successfully developed, brings about an additional ease in mounting. This can be accomplished by placing the tread so that it shall imperceptibly slope downward. This is not an easy matter to accomplish successfully. It requires much care, so that the steps shall not slope too noticeably and yet enough to add to the comfort of the garden lover who walks from path to path using the steps to aid him in reaching the upper level of the ground. This idea of ramping is not original, for it has been carried out in the old Italian gardens for centuries, but it is only within recent years that it has been successfully developed by landscape gardeners in our country. Two important things connected with these stairways are ease and comfort. There is no doubt but within the last few years, marvels have been accomplished by introducing them into steep hillsides. In this way they connect the lower level and the terrace, making it practical to develop unused land for flower purposes. The placing of steps cannot be determined by cast-iron rules, rather should good taste predominate. Nothing can give such an awkward look to your garden or terrace as a series of narrow, cramped stairs. If, however, you should in the same place introduce a flight ample in proportion, then even if it is a small space there will be imparted to it an agreeable air of breadth. Be sure that each step should extend farther to the side than the one above it. They should be rectangular so that the outline of the stair mass is pyramidal or circular in formation. If stone is used, a very good result is brought about through the use of carefully selected field stone or cobble. There are sheltering crevices in which to plant tiny roots which when grown add much to the general appearance of the whole. If the garden is a formal one, a design in which architectural features play an important part, one should take great care in the arrangement of this flight. There is nothing that gives such a delightful atmosphere as a well-planned stairway. It conveys a much better picture than does a vista of successive flights of steps that ascend to higher grounds. The principal use for a feature such as this, is found to be in informal or unpretentious lay-outs, yet, fashioned in marble it is shown in the most elaborate Italian gardens found in this country. It takes on such a variety of forms and is available for so many purposes that it is fascinating to study where it will give best effects. Sometimes it helps out in the making of a garden pool. Here it is specially alluring, forming as it does, a step from one little world into another. If you wish originality in your work, do not attempt to copy from the plans of others. Surely there is no lack of material from which to draw and there is no reason why steps cannot be placed in any sort of a garden nook. The material depends on the style of garden, but wooden steps are not generally advisable on account of their rotting, which makes them need constant repair. It is far better to use stone, slabs of granite, concrete or marble, for each one of these has the lasting qualities that make them durable. Measure the space carefully before the work is commenced. You should make allowances for crevices between each step so that suitable planting may be carried out. It is a very good idea to have the wide spreading plants placed near the bottom, graduating to those of more moderate growth at the top. Careful consideration should also be given to the right planting on either side. Low plants should border the step with a background of taller ones. They may, if you like, be used to express the idea of balusters on either side and are much more picturesque than real ones. Do not forget that rich soil should be employed, for the plants need it to grow successfully. They require sustenance just as we need meat to feed our bodies. In many cases it can be rich loam taken from the woods, in other instances rotted manure can be used for a foundation with a heavy soil covering. Great care should be taken to make proper planting, for delicate growth near hardy is disastrous, the stronger plants absorbing the strength of the weaker ones and doing permanent harm. Do not flatter yourself that once planted nature will do the rest. This part of the ground demands continual care, for weeds--plants' enemies--will intrude and must be carefully removed lest they feed upon the soil, taking away the richness and starving the plants. Water is a necessity, for plants like human beings grow thirsty all the more when exposed to the dry heat of the summer season. For best effects a sprinkler should be used and it should be borne in mind that the plants should be thoroughly soaked and not given merely a surface treatment. The importance of this cannot be over-estimated, or through lack of proper drink the plants will be in no condition to put out their full strength during their season of blossoming. Better results will be obtained if each fall before the winter sets in, they should be given a heavy top dressing of grit. There is nothing that plants enjoy as much as this and it provides them with strength during the next year's growth. Concrete may not find favor with many garden lovers. It covers the surface so thoroughly that there is no place to introduce growth, but a little ingenuity and common sense removes this difficulty. Holes can be bored through the cement, and these should be large enough to allow the plants full scope to grow. Many people for step planting prefer a succession of blossoming plants while others care for growth only. If the former plan is worked out, a charming early bloomer is the Alpine Anemone. Of these the Pulsatilla, or "Pasque Flower," is effective. It shows rich purple blossoms, which rising above the green leaves with their downy, feathery collarette of green, develop into handsome seed heads, which are decorative. They nestle into the crevices of the rocks, sending forth their exquisite blossoms nine inches in diameter during the months of April and May. Variety is always delightful. For this decorative purpose why not use crocuses, "The Heralds of Spring." They thrive in any soil or situation, but in order to obtain the best growth, they should be planted in rich, deep, sandy loam. One of the choicest kinds is the Baron von Brunow. It is free flowering, putting forth large blossoms, dark blue in coloring. These can be mingled with a stripe variety such as La Majestueuse, which shows large, violet markings, exquisite in shading. The Giants, of which the Mont Blanc is a favorite, put out large, snow-white blossoms, forming an effective foil for the dark blue flowers of the other assortments. In planting your steps do not forget to have plenty of bulbs introduced among the other plants. The graceful dwarf anemone seemingly fit into this early scheme, their delicate blossoms giving a touch of daintiness. For the best results these should be planted in the fall six inches apart and three inches in depth. Few bulbs exceed in loveliness the Blanda-Blue, Winter Wind Flower. This is matchless in coloring, originating in the hills of Greece, and has been naturalized in this country, where it takes kindly to the soil and produces flowers of charming hue. A feature of this special plant is that it blossoms during the winter months as well as the early spring. You make no mistake if you place it in every development of steps in your garden. It naturalizes best in grassy places in warm soil, and it can be distinguished by its round, bulb-like roots. Should you, however, wish to have more than one variety, why not try the Bride, that puts forth a single white flower, or the single Fugens, "Irish Anemone," which is semi-double, found in shades of scarlet, blue and purple. [Illustration: MARBLE STEPS LEADING TO THE WATER IN A FORMAL GARDEN] Anyone can carry out their own idea as there are so many plants to draw from, each one of which is permissible for decorative effects. In our choosing let us not forget the Lily of the Valley. It is surely one of the most useful of our many spring flowers, pure white in coloring and delicately scented. For best development it should be planted in open ground, where it quickly spreads so that unless you wish masses of it, it will have to be separated almost every year. The Dutch Valley is an excellent kind to choose, as it sends forth so many flowering pits. This dainty little plant is a general favorite with everyone. Its sprays of drooping, white, wax-like, fragrant bells give a bit of color that is picturesque. If you are looking for evening bloom there is the �nothera or evening Primrose; this has the advantage of blooming all through the summer months. There are so many kinds, each one so beautiful that it is a difficult matter to pick out the most decorative. Of these the Arendsii is very popular, showing, as it does, a profusion of lovely rose-colored flowers, and it is to be preferred to the Speciosa. Then there is the Pilgrimi with its glorious golden clusters that seem to light the garden during the twilight hour. In your planting do not forget the Acre, or golden moss. This is a creeping variety and especially suitable for rock work. Its delicate growth makes it particularly appropriate for this use. The Vinca Minor can be mixed with this. This is evergreen, and excellent for covering or rockery, and can be combined with the Moss Pink, sometimes known as creeping phlox. This latter is in bloom in May or June. It shows broad sheets of rosy pink, white or lavender flowers, and an evergreen foliage. As it grows either in sun or shade, it is a very decorative plant to be used for step treatment. For the border can be used as a setting low, old-fashioned, hardy perennials, which are particularly adapted for grouping. In their planting use good soil, let them be placed where there is a reasonable amount of sunshine, keep them free from weeds and give them an occasional surface cultivation. It is better to set these out in the fall, so that some of them will blossom during April and May. The late blossomers, however, can be saved until early spring, like Asters, and Heleniums. In making the selection, consideration should be given to those that grow in certain settings, as while some will flourish luxuriantly in ordinary garden loam, others are not dependable unless very rich soil is given to them. For the outer border why not use hardy Candytuft (Iberis Sempervirens), which sends forth a profusion of white flowers in April or May, showing a spreading foliage that is evergreen and very attractive. With this can be grown the Rock Cress or Arabis Albida, which from April to June sends out sheets of pure white, fragrant flowers. Back of this one can plant the Fleur-de-lis. They should be given a sunny position in any kind of soil. As they come in all sorts of colors, there is no trouble in getting them to carry out the scheme that you have in hand. The Silver King, which is a silvery white with lavender shading, can be placed with the Florantina, which is light lavender, and the Pallida Dalmatica, which is lavender bloom. If you wish to carry out this color scheme further, why not try the Purpurea, which with its rich, royal purple, will make during the season one of the handsomest displays possible for a setting to the low growth decoratively used in steps. ENTRANCES [Illustration: AN OLD-FASHIONED GARDEN IS OFTEN ENTERED UNDER AN ARCH OF LATTICEWORK] CHAPTER V ENTRANCES We view our flower-plots at their best, gazing at them through the vine-clad entrance, as we glance down the gravel walk bordered on either side by masses of brilliant flowers. Involuntarily, our eyes wander along farther afield till we meet the background of trees clad in verdant foliage, a fitting setting for the picture laid out in patches of color, fitting into the canvas with a well-defined plan. We can but feel as we stand looking down on this paradise of flowers that we are thankful for the thought that first created gardens. When they came into existence it is hard to determine, for mention is found of flowers and the traditions of wonderful gardens, laid out long before man had chiseled the hieroglyphics depicted on Egyptian tombs. The love of flowers is a heritage handed down from generation to generation. Homer, when speaking of Laertes, trying in vain to find consolation in his flowers, while mourning the departure of Telemachus, goes on to show us that great men turn to gardens to heal sorrow. Philosophy was taught by Epicurus surrounded by his beloved pupils among the flowers. From the early Greeks the Romans took their first lesson in floriculture. It was after their invasion of Brittany that they introduced certain flowers and fruits, like grapes, roses and violets, into English gardens. The art of gardening advanced steadily, reaching its zenith in good Queen Elizabeth's time, when there were in England many pleasing gardens, formal and stiff, to be sure, but a fit setting for the architecture of that day. While the garden designs abounded in beautiful walks and flowers, yet the entrance to the grounds formed as it were the key-note to it all. Has it ever occurred to you, as you stood hesitating at the portals of the gardens, that these were suggestive of some well-thought-out plan, as like grim sentinels they stand guarding the flower treasures? There is as much contrast in this part of the plan as there is in the design itself. Here we find a narrow, forbidding entrance, giving no glimpse of the flowers within; again we come to a wide, welcoming one, beckoning, as it were, for us to pass through the portals and gaze with delight on the beauties hinted at beforehand and now disclosed to the eye. For Colonial treatment there is nothing more dignified or stately than the square wooden posts, inclosing a locust inner one. They are built of white pine, one of the most lasting woods to be found in our country, and are Colonial or Georgian in design. Many of them are ornamental, topped with balls, urns, or torch devices and with elaborate hand-carving, so wonderful in its design that architects copy them in their modified Colonial houses of to-day. This was the work of one of the most noted wood-carvers in our country, Samuel McIntyre, whose name is a household word to architects and landscape designers all over the country. There are two ways of treating the entrance. One of them is by adding an ornamental gate, corresponding in type with that of the posts. The other is to leave the posts gateless; while both are correct, yet the former way is more often used as it lends an air of privacy to the ground. It also helps out the effect planned by giving a touch of picturesqueness that would be otherwise lacking. A much too common mistake is the introduction of Southern architecture into Northern gateways; the lines and details do not always conform with the type of the house. Most of these gates are hung by iron or brass hinges, but the earliest ones use the strap hinge, which carries out the Colonial idea. The difficulty with the strap hinge is that it is not always strong enough to hold the gates without sagging, and the wider the entrance the heavier the strain. While the design varies, yet rarely do we find one constructed in the seventeenth century that is not simple and with picket effects. The pickets have pointed tops and are sometimes irregularly spaced, while the brace often shows an artistic curve. Occasionally, we find the posts yoked, through a connecting arch. This is often latticed and if rightly designed adds to the ornamental effect. An old lantern is sometimes an attractive feature. The arch should be painted to match the color of the posts, a very good combination for this use is pure white lead, or zinc, combined with linseed oil. If you do not care to mix it yourself it can be bought ready for use. For the best effects, a thin coat should be used at first and it depends upon how easily it is covered as to how many coats to apply. If you wish to give a better finish, have an excess of turpentine over linseed oil in the last coat. There is more economy in covering it properly at first, as otherwise it will have to be re-painted each year. With the evolution of garden culture has come a similar change in the design and material used to form our entrances. On the large estates of to-day, rarely if ever, do we find the ornamental Colonial. It would be as much out of place as if the mistress of the house affected silken brocades with wig and patches. The white paling fence, unless for simple cottages, has entirely gone out of style and in its place we find cement walls. Often these are topped with a coping of limestone. The gate-posts, being formed over strong locust posts that have been driven firmly into the ground, are supported by brick or cement foundation. Where the mansion shows in exterior brick, often with trimmings of limestone, the same idea is worked out in the wall. In cases like this an ornamental iron gate, hung on staples, supercedes the simple Colonial ones of former days. Occasionally, the name of the estate is interwoven in the ornamentation, or sometimes it is carved on the stone entrance posts. Natural material is coming more and more to be used and we find a rubble wall, constructed from stone and boulders picked up on the grounds, left often rough, and again filled in with red cement to make it more stable. The rubble wall is generally topped with cement laid perfectly flat. The entrance posts follow this same line of treatment and while they are often left hollow for several inches down, these are packed solidly inside with small rocks to keep them in place. The excavation is filled in with rich soil and bright blossoming plants introduced. This gives a bit of color scheme that is very effective as a foil for the cold gray of the stone. Vines are often planted at the foot of the posts, the turf being dug away for several inches, and rich loam introduced to better insure their growth. It depends entirely upon how heavy one wishes the covering to be as to the kind of vine planted. If it is the idea to hide it effectively from sight and produce massing of green, an entirely different planting should be made than if it was intended to have a delicate coloring of green that would only enhance the color of the background. [Illustration: A FINE DECORATIVE IRON GATEWAY] Right combinations are very important in this line of work. It would be foolish to use woodwork combined with heavy stone or iron. It is sometimes in better form to have wide slabs of granite or cement defining several layers of brick. The height and width naturally depend upon what it intends to imply. Low piers of masonry capped with a pointed effect should stand by themselves without any planting, as the latter often disfigures architectural effects. It is not always necessary that this feature of the exterior should be conspicuous, more particularly if the posts are constructed of wood. Treat them to a light creosote stain, thus giving a picturesque background for the overlapping vines. Sometimes combinations work out well in producing artistic results. With a rough stone pillar, it is sometimes in good taste to introduce gateways of oak, which while effective under certain conditions, are very bad under others. These are much more attractive the second year, when they have weathered to a picturesque pearly gray. This color harmonizes delightfully, not only with the walls but with the flowers and their foliage. An important thing that should not be forgotten is the use of wooden pegs and copper nails, neither of which are injured by rain. If you choose to use a wire fence, let the gate-post and gates correspond for it is far better than to combine materials inharmoniously. They are not only practical but light and in their construction there is a chance to work into the scheme ornamental designs. Do not finish this with a square box top, rather give it a bit of ornamentation such as a ball or a lantern. There can be had to-day so many ornamental lanterns, constructed of wrought iron, that they can be purchased in almost any type desired. It is far better not to cover the posts with vines and thus conceal the beauty of the work. The most effective way would be to build up wire arches and plant rambler roses back of the posts for them to run on. The Sweet Briar, if one is looking for perfume, is desirable. They can be purchased in single and semi-double flowers, created through the developing and crossing of the old-fashioned variety. Rambler roses are always in good taste. It is better to plant three or four kinds that show harmonious coloring. There is the Lord Penzance, a soft fawn, turning to lemon yellow in the center. This is particularly adaptable for covering arches as it is a strong grower and abundant blossomer. The Meg Merrilies fits into this color scheme, putting forth gorgeous crimson flowers during the six weeks of its flowering. Combine with these the Brenda, and you will find that this mixture lends a brightness that is very effective. Many people object to roses on account of their many enemies. One of the most common is the powdery mildew. This is easily distinguished by a powdery growth of white that is found on both leaves and shoots. Use sulphur very freely, and you will find it disappear. The stem cancer is a serious disease, and it is found on both the cane and the branches. In dealing with this the grower must not be afraid to use the pruning knife vigorously, so that the diseased parts can be thoroughly removed, in this way preventing spreading and the ruin of the vine. From the time of its planting the rambler needs constant attention, but it brings its own reward, in that there is no vine that can equal it in beauty. The advantage of having a variety of colors instead of one is readily seen, for it prevents a large mass of one individual color. There is a pleasure indescribable felt by lovers of plants when designing any feature of their grounds. This is particularly true with the gate and the planting. They must bear in mind, however, the true purpose of gates and their proper use on country estates. It is designed as a means of ingress, and as such, should be suited to the type of mansion. Therefore, into its plan should be worked the atmosphere of the residence as well as the characteristics of the surrounding country. For instance, a wooden fence and gate-post would be entirely inappropriate if one were dealing with a beautiful summer estate where the house was to be built of brick. Compositions should not be carelessly used and it should be remembered that there is great danger in our zeal for producing something unique, of going to the other extreme and giving an over-ornamental creation. One cannot be too particular in making the entrance and the adjoining fence accord with the idea one is trying to bring out in the whole plan. The driveway is of fully as much importance as the entrance. It should be kept scrupulously neat and free from weeds. To have it at its best it should be thoroughly under-drained, and for this the open-joint drain tile is advisable. It should be laid under ground and connected, if possible, with the sewer. Properly attended to, this keeps the road-bed dry and in good condition. The bed itself should be dug down for several feet, a foundation of earth from six to ten inches should be laid, over which can be thrown a layer six inches thick of either broken limestone or chopped trap rock. Cover the whole with a screening of limestone and finish it with gravel. Have it rolled hard and you realize the advantage as the season ends. The drive should be sufficiently wide for carriages to pass through without besmearing your gate-posts with mud and dust. One should realize that the driveway is in reality a foot-path enlarged, and should always be kept immaculate. The gate, if you wish to prevent its sagging, should open in the center. A two-part gate gives often a better effect than one long one. Nothing equals iron, which can be treated in so many different ways that there is little danger of repetition in design. The capping is as important as the post itself. Simple square box treatment is advisable in some cases. Balls fit into the scheme on some estates, while Colonial urns are in keeping with wooden posts and lantern effects belong to iron gateways. The latter, of course, are effective for lighting at night. Gas pipes can be laid under the roadway, connected with the ornamentation in such a way that they can be turned on from the house. In many entrances, side gates, similar to the main ones have been inserted, which relieve the main entrance from use by pedestrians. They can be so laid out as not to interfere with the use of the motor cars. They should be separated from the main driveway by a turf border and covered with gravel. Planting is very effective for this feature of the ground, and trees, that is if the right sort are chosen, are admirable, used in this connection. White birches lend a picturesqueness that cannot be equaled, but they are short-lived. The elm with its graceful branches seems to fit into every landscape scheme. Do not plant them too near the posts. If you do, their roots will reach out often causing upheaval and creating havoc. For best effects the trees should be used outside rather than inside the entrance. In the latter case they are too apt to cut off the view. [Illustration: A SUCCESSFUL ENTRANCE TO A FORMAL GARDEN] Many people prefer a hedge and this can be planted either with or without a fence. Arbor-vitae is practical for such use as is the Buckthorn and the Berberis Thunbergii (Thunberg's Japanese Barberry). This is a Japanese hedge with round, drooping habit. It leaves out in a fine brilliant green during the summer months and from autumn until December takes on a wonderful showing of color. During the winter months the branches, loaded with scarlet crimson berries, make an effective contrast with the white of the snow. Its value as a hedge is because it is impenetrable and thickly set with spines, never growing bare. The most popular shrub for hedge treatment is Privet-Ligustrum. It is very ornamental with a rich dark green foliage that is nearly evergreen and remains on the plant until late winter. It is a good grower under the most adverse circumstances. In order to form the most effective hedge it should be planted from ten to twelve inches apart and pruned back during the first two seasons. The Ampelopsis Arborea woodbine is useful for entrances. It is a distinct variation from the other forms, making a spreading bush rather than a strong climber. Its leaves are dark green and comparatively coarse, and its autumn coloring is superb. The Boston Ivy clings even to wood, its fine shoots cover walls and while it requires some covering during the first two or three winters of its life, yet it pays. In the fall, nothing can be so gorgeous as the varied colored tints of its foliage. The Clematis Paniculata should never be forgotten. It is a rapid and vigorous climber and can be depended upon to clothe large spaces quickly. Originally, it was introduced from Japan and is allied to our native Virgin's Bower. The flowers are effective, borne in long panicles which are white and their fragrance is perceptible a long distance away. They open the latter part of August, staying in bloom for nearly a month. Combined with this should be the Clematis Coccinea (Scarlet Clematis), whose showy bell-shape, brilliant scarlet flowers are produced in great profusion. The Wisteria is adapted to almost any purpose and can be used picturesquely on many types of entrances. The Wisteria Magnifica is admirable and resembles Frutescens, but it varies from it in that the clusters are larger and denser while the yellow lilac colored flowers have yellow spots. Among the other vines it is well to plant some that will give a touch of color during the dark, cold days of winter when the vines lie barren and bare, their leafless branches swaying in the wind. Why not use for that the Celastrus Scandens (Bitter Sweet or Wax Work). It is one of our native climbing plants and can be found in almost any part of the New England woods, a rapid grower, with attractive, light green foliage and yellow flowers, followed by bright orange red berries that are cheering in the fall and lead us to forget the shedding of the foliage by the other vines. In order to hide the base of the vine, ferns can be planted. It is better to use the hardy varieties rather than the more tender ones, although a combination of the two is always attractive. Take, for instance, the Adiantum Croweanum, which is one of the hardiest of the maiden hair species. This, like every other of its kind, should be well watered and fertilized, grown in a rich, open soil, with plenty of leaf mould. There is nothing difficult in their culture and they need absolutely no attention after planting. The Polypodium Vulgare, which is evergreen, showing smooth, shiny fronds resembling the Boston fern, is another that is adapted for this purpose. With these can be combined the Comptonia, or Sweet Fern, a native plant with fern-like, dark green scented foliage, very useful for foliage massing on rocky, barren places, and thriving best in dry, sterile soil. There are many more varieties and it would be impossible to mention them all. They are, each and every one, suitable for adding to the beauty of private gardens and estates. BIRD BATHS [Illustration: THE CENTRAL FEATURE OF THE GARDEN MAY BE A BIRD-BATH] CHAPTER VI BIRD BATHS John Burroughs, in his description of a garden, has told us that "To love the birds, to appreciate their place in the landscape," is one of the most important things. It does much to bring happiness into our lives. In the forming of a perfect garden, many things are requisite and among them are birds, flowers, bees, and the flashing butterfly who darts joyously from flower to flower, a thing of beauty and perishable as the day. Should anyone doubt the truth of these assertions, let him seat himself in some retired spot during a beautiful day in the month of roses. He can then listen to the song of the birds, caroling as they sway on the branches of the trees above our heads, nestling at our feet, or hidden away deep down in the heart of the flower beds. Birds are everywhere, they flit in and out of the garden, sipping sweet nectar from the blossoming plants, and flaunting their bright colors when catching the sunshine as they swing by. God made nothing more interesting than birds and man should care for them, giving them a distinctive place in his garden, realizing that through their industry they free the plants from harmful insects and slugs. The birds can be coaxed into anyone's garden, that is, if care is taken in proper planting, giving to the plots trees and plants that they love. Under the rose bushes place a bath, where they can come and preen their plumage, but if possible have it placed beyond the reach of intruding cats. When the custom of providing drinking cups to quench the thirst of our native birds first came into fashion, it is hard to determine. Perchance, it was in the early days when in 1621, the colonists built rail fences, to enclose their separate lots. Over these they trained the wild morning glory and sweet-scented honeysuckle, the perfume of which doubtless carried them back to the beautiful English gardens that still existed in their native land. Doubtless, during the life of William Penn, when he encouraged the laying out of old English gardens, he included in the design a planting to attract bird life. This was still further encouraged when the first botanical garden came into existence in 1728 through the thought of Bertram Bartran, of Philadelphia. He was a man who had traveled much and was thoroughly versed in the art of floriculture. In his garden he planted rare and practical seeds partly for the mere joy of carrying out his own whims. This garden, like many others, was individual in its planting, a quality that lent to it an additional charm. During the early seventeenth century there were imported into seaport towns principally at Salem, Massachusetts, unique bird baths. They came packed in among the cargo that was stowed away in the holds of the slow sailing ships that plied continuously between Singapore and the New England shores. Many of these were the result of orders given by the ship owners who wanted to set them in their posy beds, laid out at the rear of their stately homes. Rare were these shells with their fluted framework, and hard to find, yet so spacious that a whole colony of feathered songsters could hold concourse within their pearly depths. Underneath the shade of the drooping lilac, they peered out at us from the time the melting of the snow released the snow drops from their icy cover, thus allowing them to lift up their pure white heads as if in rejoicing to be free, to be followed later on by the gay little crocuses, clad in their gowns of many hues. Few of these baths are still in existence. We come across them occasionally, however, in old-fashioned gardens where they are treasured for sentiment's sake. Just as the rustic bird houses, constructed of weathered boards, and with floor covering of powdered sawdust or ground cork, have become a necessity in the twentieth-century garden, tempting the summer sojourners to rest their weary wings; so we must strive to create a homelike atmosphere so attractive to the little songsters that they will delight in revelling among the many flowers that are planted here. A barren waste of land has no pleasure for them, neither has a garden shorn of their favorite plants. There is no need of being deterred from using a feature such as this. A bird bath need not be expensive, just a simple box, zinc-lined and painted to correspond with the surroundings. The birds are not fussy as to the exterior of their outdoor bathroom; all they wish is comfort and a cooling drink during the hot summer days, when the dew has faded from the grass, and the sun hangs high in the heavens. It is then that all nature is panting from excessive heat. A simple zinc pan, large and wide enough, filled with fresh water daily, is as satisfactory to them, as a marble pool standing in the heart of the garden and surrounded by a bed of brilliant flowers. Place this pan in the heart of a grassy knoll, at the edge of the garden proper and watch results. You will not have long to wait before softly tripping through the grass or dropping from their leafy covert, one by one, they show their gratitude by revelling in the bath thus placed for their use. The most common type, if you wish to buy a bird bath, is the cement one. It can be modeled in any shape and to follow any line of treatment that you prefer. The simple, plain, low-lying ones are suitable for placing under the shadowy bush or tree. Hand carving would be as much out of place on a bath such as this, as if one used an expensive silver bowl for their benefit. To be sure a little ornamentation, simply worked out, makes them more artistic. This can be accomplished through proper planting. A delicate fern unfolding its fronds and drooping until it almost touches the water is appropriate, as is a low-lying pine that adds a bit of shade which is truly appreciated by your little visitors who perch on the curb, after shaking off the dust from their wings in the water below, and pour out their gratitude in a melody of song. For ornament why not use a cement bath that is shaped like a large vase. It makes an interesting feature in your twentieth-century garden, and gives a chance to depict a favorite flower from which the garden takes its name. Rising stately and dignified from their floral bed, showing wonderful and delicate carving, are marble baths exquisitely shaped and resting on a shaft of the same material. These are fitting for an Italian or a formal garden. They seem to blend in with an elaborate architectural scheme such as we find in the planning for the decoration of a large area. There is no particular place where they seemingly do not fit in. They are effective used as a central figure and surrounded with a circle of well-chosen blossoming plants and they harmonize in the landscape scheme even if used apart from the main gardens or designed to occupy a niche in the wall. Here they are just as enjoyable as if they stood prominently forth, the main axis around which the rest of the garden revolves. [Illustration: A WELL-PLACED BIRD-BATH] They can be made much more picturesque if one trains over their side a delicate vine whose tendrils cling to the foundation and bring out the color effectively. Plant for the birds' enjoyment and combine with this feature decorative beds, using not the strong colors, but the delicate, dainty, pink, blue, white and lavender, of the many varieties that are suitable for this purpose. Do not let the base of your expensive bird bath rest on the earth, rather place under it a pedestal of marble, granite, or cement. It need not be conspicuous, a growth of turf, the planting of an ivy or some other vine, will add much to its attractiveness, making an artistic foundation for it. Whoever lays out his garden plot with a thought of thorough enjoyment, he who looks forward to sitting under the vine, will take special thought of the birds. He will endeavor even if he is an amateur not to make an ugly muddle in his planting, but aim for picturesque garden vistas, and have his flowers properly balanced so they will show harmonious massing of colors. One should be as careful not to give sun-loving plants a shady place, as to put the shy little flowers in the glaring sunlight. It is a necessity if you are a bird lover, or if you wish to rid your plants of insects and your grounds of worms, to attract the birds. This can be accomplished by giving them not only proper planting but the right place where they may enjoy their daily bath. If you wish the best results, seek shade rather than sunshine. Our little friends prefer shelter to warmth, so cater to their taste in the placing of their drinking pool. It is rather important that you seek a spot, just near enough to the grounds to be companionable, there to place a mulberry tree. There is no fruit that is more to their mind than this and it will be a source of delight to watch the shyest birds reward you by flaunting their colors before you as they flit in and out, feeding off the berries so temptingly displayed for their exclusive use. It is a mistake to look upon the robin as common and a pest. This fact has been firmly fixed in our minds through his thieving qualities. When you consider that he has been known to devour as many as seventy worms a day, and multiply that by the voracity of his mate and his children, you will then commence to realize what a benefit he is to your garden. Try and cajole him into being a friend, and entice him to nest in the heart of your flower patch. Listen to his song; there is a mellow quality to his voice and he can put more expression into his music than any other bird. There is a flash of color and a burst of sweet melody, listen--there is a scarlet tanager, singing love songs to his mate. He is a veritable bird of Paradise and once sported fearlessly among our trees, but has now grown shy through being used as a target for the sportsman's gun. Cultivate him by all means. Toll him into your garden. Darting in and out of the garden one finds the humming bird, so tiny that he measures only from three and a half to three and three-quarters inches, the smallest bird in our country. There is a glint of color as he dashes fearlessly from flower to flower, his brilliant metallic throat and breast sparkling in the sunlight like a precious gem. The trumpet flowers with their deep cup-shape blossoms are his special delight, although he never scorns the sweet-scented flowers that he finds on every side. For a moment he poises in the air motionless, sighting his flower, then winging his flight, he drains the nectar, uttering a shrill little squeak of delight, as he spies some especially fat aphides on the garden foliage. These he shoots off like a streak of lightning rapidly searching for more food. How to attract the birds is a question that all bird lovers are seeking to answer. It is such a simple matter that you do not have to look far afield to obtain what you wish. There are many fruit-growing shrubs each one of which is suitable for his majesty's needs. These should be planted somewhere in the garden. If you prefer them surrounding the bird bath, you will have more chance for bird study, but they will come without that if you give them a chance and plenty of edible berries all the year round. The red berried elder is one of their favorites, as is the Canadensis or common elder, which flowers in June, and shows reddish purple berries during the autumn; then there is the Arbutifolia or red chokeberry. This is a native dwarf shrub, which is particularly tempting to the feathered tribe. When planning for this feature, one should remember that these bird-attracting shrubs should not be planted with only one idea in view. They should be made to form a part of the decorative plan, and the situation chosen should be among flowers that would bring out its artistic value, far more than if they were grouped in a mass. One is apt, in their enthusiasm in arranging their garden for the birds' benefit, to forget that attractive color schemes must be worked out, otherwise it will be a heterogeneous mass that will be an eye-sore rather than a pleasure. [Illustration: AN ORNAMENT DELIGHTFULLY USED TO MARK THE OPENING OF PATHS THROUGH WOODS] There is very little choice as to what kind of flowers to mix with the shrubs. Take it all in all, the perennials stand first. The reason for this is that they are more suitable for this purpose than annuals, which have to be re-planted every year. Like the shrubs the perennials die down in the fall and re-appear when the breath of spring sweeps over the land, in greater profusion and showing added vigor through having conserved their strength by resting during the winter months. You are very foolish if you have taken no thought for the future life of your shrub or perennial. Once planted they do not take care of themselves and if neglected it only means the survival of the fittest. Different species require different treatment, and a great many kinds need to be subdivided every two or three years. The scarlet and crimson Phlox, Spirea, and many other varieties should never be left longer than two years, they should then be carefully gone over and an experienced hand should determine how much should be left and what removed. If you have planting of Iris, Shaster daisies, and Veronicas, they can readily wait until the third year. The ground is of just as much importance as the planting. Just because you wish to grow flowers and shrubs, you must remember that they must have food to live on, that this food must be properly prepared and contain plenty of nourishment, otherwise you will have spent money and time for naught. First of all comes fertilizing. Doubtless, in some part of the ground you can find a corner that will be the proper place for the compost heap. In its selection, it is better that it should be concealed by shrubs or trellis, vine covered. It would be a blot in the landscape if you treated it otherwise. Every time you rake over the lawn or weed the garden, throw into a large basket the refuse and let it form part of the compost heap. The foundation for this should be plenty of manure and this, to be at its best, must be well rotted and mixed in with other material to lighten and bring about better results. You will be surprised, that is if you have never tried it, to see how quickly it grows. Almost before you know it you have enough to use in the garden next year. No matter how rich it is, a liberal amount of coarse bone meal added will pay in the end. Your fertilizer ready, as early as possible in the spring dig your ground to the depth of eighteen or more inches. It is better if the earth is pulverized; some people go so far as to sift it. Next put in your fertilizer, mixing it with the earth previously removed. Give it time to settle before planting and you will never be dissatisfied with results. Opinions vary as to proper time for planting perennials. Many people feel that the spring is the safest. It is foolish to follow this plan unless it can be accomplished as soon as the frost is well out of the ground. Many of them are likely to die. Therefore, if you pot them in the fall, and winter them under glass, the result will be much more satisfactory. It is simply the working out of the garden lover's idea as to what is correct and what incorrect as to the time of planting. Many kinds are better massed. This applies to the Sweet William, the Hollyhock, Delphinium, and other varieties, that seemingly belong to the same family. The hardy Asters, which are late flowering, are invaluable for massing. They burst into blossom at a period when the early frosts have lolled the more tender plants, making their bright hues a dominant feature in the garden. It is better to shade colors than to plant one variety. For September and October blossoming why not use the Abendrote or Evening Glow? It has a bright rosy red flower and is a very free bloomer. Mix with that the Glory of Colwall, which is ageratum blue, showing double flowers, grown on stout, erect stems. The pink of the blossom contrasts admirably with the rosy red. The White Queen will mix with these two colors very effectively. This is a pure, splendid white and comes into blossom at the same season of the year. A very interesting way of treating the defining line of the garden proper is by a low hedge. Many of these are berry bearing, thus working into the bird scheme. The Hawthorn Oxyacantha is well suited for this purpose. It is used in England for hedges and during the time of its blossoming shows a pure white, sweet-scented flower followed by a scarlet fruit. The Berberis is excellent for hedging. It blooms in the summer and is succeeded by a bright colored fruit that lasts into the winter. Once interested in this feature of garden culture, by careful study one will realize what an inexhaustible theme it becomes. Color shades in berries often help out landscape effects in winter, therefore it is best not to plant promiscuously. GARDEN SEATS [Illustration: A FORMAL GARDEN SEAT] CHAPTER VII GARDEN SEATS The ever-changing tide of fashion brings in its wake a constant development of new and original ideas in the furnishing of our garden plots. Flowers have been with us ever since the first settlement of our country and so has a love for life in the open. This is an inheritance that has deepened with the passing years. So rapidly has this developed that to-day it demands our gardens as living rooms. It is this aspect of garden life that develops new and unusual features in equipment. While we may flatter ourselves that we as garden lovers have originated this idea, yet it is of ancient origin. History relates that in the gardens of the early Romans and Greeks, garden seats were found. With the changing of styles in floral-culture the ornate came into existence, much used during the Italian Renaissance. Reproductions of their ideas are found in replica in many of the formal gardens of the twentieth century. Logs, carelessly thrown on the ground, may have been the first seats used by our garden ancestors. Later on with the development of the one-path posy bed, seats were hollowed out of old trees. They formed a picturesque bit, clothed during the summer months in their garments of green, for trailing vines were encouraged to run rampant over their sides. These with the green arbor or pergola and the vine-clad summer house were the three styles of seats favored by the Colonial dames. Styles and usage of furniture in this special way are as clearly defined as in interior decoration. The modern garden equipped with English, American or Italian furniture, gives a pleasing variety. The principal materials necessary for manufacture are stone, marble, terra cotta or wood. Of these, the latter suggests less expense, while the former can be purchased at any sum you wish. Stone or marble are absolutely necessary in formal or Italian gardens, as they provide a proper medium for expression that nothing else would satisfy. Look at the gleam of the white marble shown up by its background of green trees and see what a charm it has in the furnishing of your garden plot. Take it all in all, it is the only right setting for an elaborate garden, partly on account of its being a descendant of the Italian Renaissance period which makes it desirable in designs that follow out the character of that period. Rarely, if ever, do we find this simple in form, but rather elaborately carved with representations of animals or figures. As an ornamental feature, it cannot be excelled, but as a garden seat it is not practical, being cold and hard to sit upon. Properly speaking, it should be placed at the head of a walk or topping the garden steps. This is on account of its decorative character and the necessity of making it fit into the floral scheme. The price is prohibitive except to the rich, although it varies with the elaboration of the carving. Terra cotta, while not as often used, has its advantages. It can be moulded readily into any form desired. While it is not always suitable, yet its warmth of color, which is either buff or red, makes it admirable when one desires to bring out certain effects in the planting of beds. It is, perhaps, the least used of any of the materials. A seat four feet in length can be purchased for from forty dollars upwards. Concrete seats are the kind that are most commonly used for formal and informal gardens. We should remember, however, that we must not mix formal and informal furniture promiscuously, otherwise the result will be disastrous. One should bear in mind in treating this subject that formal pieces resemble well-bred people. They fit suitably into any place in their surroundings. It is far different, however, with informal pieces which are entirely wrong and out of place in formal settings. This fact applies to concrete which is suitable for almost any occasion for it possesses almost endless possibilities as far as form is concerned. Rightly mixed, it can be moulded into almost any shape that you desire, which accounts for the fact that in its designs many of the elaborate garden seats are copied. This makes it popular and constantly in demand, on account of its less cost. To all intents and purposes, it is quite as durable as stone or marble. It has still another advantage, in that its neutral gray tint harmonizes picturesquely with almost any setting of shrubbery or flowers. The least expensive of any of the materials that is used for this purpose is wood. It has this advantage, that it can be formed in such a great variety of shapes that there is always found some piece that is suitable for every taste and occasion. If you contrast it with marble or stone, you will realize that it has the advantage of being lighter in weight, and capable of being carried around from place to place with little or no trouble. Take it all in all, the best place for it to be at home in is the informal garden. The kind of garden that most of us live in and enjoy intimately is the plot where wooden settles and chairs are used. Care should be taken, however, in the selection of material in order that it may have lasting qualities. One reason for its use is that unlike marble and stone it is not cold to sit upon, and is really comfortable. The best kind of wood, if you can afford it, is teakwood, which lasts for centuries. It is the most expensive, particularly the antique pieces. Those of to-day are shoddily put together and cannot resist weathering as do the century-old ones. Many people prefer pine on account of less cost. This is all right, provided great care is taken to keep it well covered with paint of the glossy kind. The advantage of this over the other is that it can be readily wiped clean before using. Anyone who is a garden lover will appreciate this fact, for no matter how carefully placed, the seats will accumulate a reasonable amount of leaves and dirt. Plain settles and benches which belong to the informal type can be placed anywhere, according to inclination. These need not, of necessity, be made of plain wooden strips, but can be varied by making them rustic in design. Use for this purpose limbs of the same size without removing the bark. They require so little work in putting them together that a village carpenter can accomplish this task, or if you are a genius you can do it yourself. An objection which many people offer is that they need repairing often, or replacing. Considering the cost, this is not a serious objection. For a simple Colonial cottage, such pieces as these would be appropriate for use in your garden and you can add a tea table and a few chairs suggestive of afternoon tea, the position being determined by views, for the placing is of as much importance as the piece itself. If possible, have low-growing trees droop over it to give the required shade. [Illustration: A SIMPLE AND ATTRACTIVE GARDEN SEAT] For the elegant mansion, the home of the wealthy, more elaborate pieces are a necessity. One thing should not be forgotten in their choice and that is they should be heavy enough to stay on the ground and resist the strong northeast winds that during a heavy rain sweep over your flower-plot. Flagstone sometimes gives a variety as well as limestone, but there are several other materials that give a pleasing color and texture, such as the pink granite and the red, black and green slates. Of these, the red is most effective when streaked with another color. Do not choose the Quincy granite; the texture is cold in appearance and the weather never softens the color. A fault that must not be overlooked is to build your seats too high, thirteen inches being the proper height. The back should always be taken into consideration and made tall enough to support the head so that you will be comfortable when you come to view your garden plot. It is not always possible to have this piece of furniture placed under the shade of a tree or shrubbery. This necessitates the planning of a summer house, arbor or pergola. Over these, vines can be trained, so that in reality it is much more picturesque than if you had used simply the green shade. Chairs can be used for this same purpose, in fact, they are very good as they provide a variation of the general theme. They are particularly advisable if it is a backyard garden where a settle might prove too overpowering. Like the garden seat, they can be made of wood. Cedar and locust are preferable if you wish pretty rustic effects. Cypress also is lasting, and if you prefer to give it a coat of paint, it will do service for many years. For rustic chairs or seats, there is another idea for shelter that is practical. It is to roof it over and shingle the board. It has advantages over anything else in that it affords protection from the summer sun and acts as a windbreak on cold days, besides doing away with the dropping of insects from the leafy tangle of an arbor. No matter how charming a garden may be in its floral arrangement, it requires additions and accessories to display to the best advantage its worth. Just as a house is cozy or barren according to the style of furniture employed, so a garden is beautiful in proportion to the type of ornaments used. Probably the coming into style of the formal Italian type of garden has done much to develop this feature. Until late years, scant heed was paid to fitness, and in consequence much of the old-time charm found in the Colonial garden was lost. When planning for your garden seat or chair, take into consideration the planting. In your choice of colors you should vary the scheme to fit in with the particular seat. A white requires different surroundings from a gray or a rustic type. Wrong coloring brings about inharmonious effects and they should be carefully considered in the making a perfect whole. Another thing should be thought out and that is as to whether there is a shade provided by the over-hanging limbs of a tree or by the trailing of vines. Vines are always interesting. You can use them in a mass, showing one general effect, or you can combine them. Nothing is so pretty in the early spring as the Wisterias, on account of their being not only hardy, but tall growers. Many people claim the best varieties are those grafted on to specially selected stock, thus making them sure bloomers. The soil should also be taken into consideration, for while they thrive in light, sandy conditions, yet deep, rich earth promotes stronger growth. The Magnifica is, perhaps, as vigorous as any. It is such a rapid grower that it shoots up from thirty to forty feet in a season. It blossoms rather later than some varieties which show soft, lavender blue blooms. Why not mix this with the Chinese white, whose pure white flowers show long, drooping clusters. If you are looking for foliage in the early fall, the Vitis Henryana can be used. Its leaves are decorative in effect, being a velvety green with veins of silvery white. It is of Chinese origin and in the fall the foliage turns to a beautiful red. For July and August blossoming, there is the Bignonia Grandiflora or Mammoth-flowered Trumpet creeper. This is a splendid climbing vine, perfectly hardy, giving a growth of from eight to ten feet in a season. Its flowers, which are shown during July and August, are orange red and trumpet-shaped, following as they do after the Wisteria has faded, they bring about an entirely different color scheme. This makes it practical for one to plant a succession of bloom, making each set of flowers correspond with the coloring of the vines. A very pleasing contrast can be brought out by combining the magnolia-scented White Moon Flower, with a beautiful Blue Dawn. The former is a summer climber, growing from fifteen to twenty feet in height. It makes a beautiful shade for trellises and bears in the season a profusion of large trumpet-shape snow-white flowers that are richly scented and very beautiful. There is also a heavenly blue that combines artistically with the white. One feature of this vine is its thick, overlapping, glossy foliage, and its nightly scores of immense silky blooms which are of rare fragrance. By actual count a strong vine will bear from one to three thousand blossoms in a season. There has within the last few years been discovered a new variety that opens early in the morning and remains so nearly all day. The beautiful blue of the Paradise Flower is used when one wishes for this color in decorations. The clusters are large, showing from twenty to thirty at a time and it blossoms continually from the time it becomes established until frost. For a rustic seat, why not try the wild grape or Crimson Glory vine? It is so strong and hardy, notable for its heavy foliage which makes a splendid shade and in the fall is a mass of rich crimson. We have grown to think of morning glories as a pretty, small flower that grew in our grandmother's garden. Many of us have not realized that they have been developed until now they show gigantic bloom as large as the moon flowers. They have wonderful coloring, marking and variations of indescribable beauty. As a flowering vine they cannot be surpassed, the flowers being borne by the hundreds and of enormous size, measuring often five and six inches across. Many show a rich combination of shading blended together in an enchanting way, being spotted, penciled, mottled, and variegated in every conceivable manner. [Illustration: STATELY LILIES ADD CHARM AND DIGNITY TO A GRAVELLED WALK] If your garden seat is low, let your planting follow the same line, but if it is high and conspicuous, it can be accentuated by tall plants. Hollyhocks, with their stately stalks, are charming for this particular use. There is the hardy perennial with the foliage dwarf and compact. This is found in the Heuchera, which is easily grown from seed and reaches a height of eighteen inches. Of this variety, the Sanguinea is admirable, being the finest of all the red varieties, the flowers taking on the shade of coral red. If you wish, instead of a solid color, to make a combination, why not use the Sanguinea, Sutton's Hybrid, which is found in pretty shades of pink, as well as creamy white, rose and crimson. These blossom in July and August, their stately, well-filled cups, giving a distinction to the seat that could not well be missed. Fleur-de-lis, sometimes spoken of as the Fairy Queen's home, is always satisfactory and never fails to bloom. No flower can surpass this in delicacy of texture and coloring, and it rivals even the orchids of the tropics in its beauty. They thrive in almost every soil, being one of the easiest plants to cultivate, although a fairly rich earth will materially increase the number and size of the bloom. In planting them, nearly cover the rhizomes. The earliest flowering ones are the Germans, which come into bloom the latter part of May or early in June. These are followed by the Japan variety which follow closely on the former and stay in blossom for a month. Of the German, the Lohengrin is the most vigorous, deep violet mauve in coloring, and the flowers are nearly five inches deep, showing petals two inches across. In direct contrast is the Princess Victoria Louise, light sulphur yellow or rich violet red, edged with crimson, both of which varieties are very handsome. The double Iris is particularly beautiful for some situations. There is the Antelope with white ground flaked with purple; the Diana, reddish purple flaked with white; the Mount Fell, grayish white, veined with blue and showing yellow center; and the Victor, white veined, violet blue with purple center. Each one of these is well worthy of cultivation. Nothing is so beautiful as roses, be they climbing or dwarf. For the former, why not use the Climbing Jules Graveraux, which is one of the most valuable, ever-blooming climbers ever introduced. The value of this is that the blooms are immense in size, being as large or larger than any other rose. It even exceeds the J. B. Clark. These roses are perfectly double, white, tinged with blush pink, with a yellow base. In freedom of bloom, it is superior to either Mrs. Peary or Climbing Meteor. Then there is the Empress of China or Appleblossom rose, a strong rampant grower, and a very free bloomer. The buds are pointed, being soft red, turning to lighter. It blooms from May to December in the open ground. Tea Roses, distinguished by the delicate tea fragrance, are absolutely ever-blooming. They are carried through the winter even in the northern states with careful protection. The most satisfactory method is the banking up with soil. Of these, the yellow Souvenir de Pierre Notting is the most beautiful. It has been introduced by one of the foremost firms of France and is not exceeded by any rose sent out from that country. The blossoms are large, well filled, and open easily. The buds are beautiful and elongated. When fully bloomed, they show an apricot yellow, tinged with golden and mixed with orange yellow. One charm of these flowers is that the edge of the petal shades to a beautiful carmine rose. The open flower is full and double, it being an extremely free blossomer. One of the latest introductions is the Lady Hillingdon, the color being beyond description. Apricot yellow, shaded to orange on the outer edge of the petal, and becoming deeper and more intense as it reaches the center of the bloom. The buds are produced on long, strong, wiry stems, which are placed well above the foliage, thus giving it a slender and graceful effect. It is valuable in both the amateur and professional growers' gardens. It would be impossible to enumerate the different kinds that are used for this purpose. GARDEN POOLS [Illustration: A POND-LILY POOL OF A VERY ATTRACTIVE SHAPE] CHAPTER VIII GARDEN POOLS With the revival of old-time garden features that has been brought about through interest in floriculture, fascinating specialties have been evolved. This is particularly true of the garden pool which lends itself to almost every kind of setting. It is no new idea, this introduction of pools into even small gardens. The ancient Egyptians had great reverence for pools and we read of their interest in bringing into life the sacred Lotus, giving it a prominent place in their gardens. This may be better known to moderns as "the rose lily." In the early days it was used for religious purposes and was a prominent feature in their festivals. It was also used ornamentally for feasts where the walls were decorated with the beautiful blossoms that were repeated in the centerpiece for the elaborately-spread table. Not content with this use for decorative purposes, it was made in forms of garlands that were thrown over the shoulders of the assembled guests while wreaths of the same flower crowned their brows, great care being taken that a bud or cluster of blossoms was placed in the center of the forehead. Ever since that period, we read of the constant introduction of water into gardens of every clime. While pools were not commonly used during the Colonial period, they have to-day, with the coming in of the formal and Italian gardens, grown to be one of the most interesting features. The form and the immediate surroundings have been carefully thought out and depend upon the type and the shape of the whole plan. When the mercury registers at ninety and the whirling dust rises in clouds, parching one's throat as it settles like a dingy pall on sun-burned grass and drooping foliage, it is a pleasure to come suddenly upon a pond where over-hanging plants cast lengthened shadows far over the surface. They shelter the waxen lily cups that gleam like pearls against a background of dark green pods--a perpetual joy and delight to the eye. There is no doubt but water, be it large or small in area, holds a charm for us all. How much more if it is inhabited and made beautiful through the use of aquatic plants and fish. These scattered apparently carelessly over the surface of the water add much to its picturesqueness. This is particularly true during the season of bloom when we find varied colored cups, resting on saucers of green, lifting their heads above the surface as if in delight with their surroundings. Surely when you view a pond such as this you will find a double delight in watching a flutter of wings, a hopping about on the plants and glad dipping of little bills and uplifting of heads. These are the birds that form a part of garden life and who are attracted here by the flowers and the chance of a bath. Splashing and sparkling in the sunlight, they dive into the water below, drying themselves on the large pads that float artistically on the surface. Over yonder is a large gray cat bird calling to its mate. We can but note the fine proportion, the poise of the black head and the beauty of the satin gray coat which is pruned by the hour. There is the Indigo Bird, a delightful symphony of blue and cinnamon red. He sits swinging on a lily while his musical note comes to our listening ears. The Ruby Throated Humming Bird swings noiselessly over the pond, dipping his long beak here and there to gather honey from the wide-open flowers. It depends upon the size of the pool, the shape and the finish as to the planting. It is a great mistake to have it so thickly over-spread with leaves that no water is visible. A good rule to be observed is two-thirds water and one-third lilies. This gives a chance to watch the gold fish darting in and out for food. For a small beginning of a water garden, why not try a pocket in the rock? It is a very easy matter to arrange for lilies in a case like this. All you have to do is to cement the hollow, put in your loam and plant one or two roots. It is these diminutive water gardens that attract the birds more than the large pools, and they form a charming vista in the garden scheme. Little pockets of earth can be made to surround them, and here we can plant rock-loving plants that will give a touch of picturesqueness to this cunning little scheme. The shape of the garden determines that of the pool. A square garden demands square treatment in the lay-out of your design. A round garden, to be correct, should have a circular formation for the planting of your lilies. Then, too, the treatment of the planting should be determined by the formality or informality of the plan. Great care should be taken that they are not aimlessly placed but form a part of the design. Any attempt to digress from this rule is fatal for correct composition. Great attention should be paid to the margin. It should not be stiff and formal; it should rather be broken here and there, so that there will be open spaces showing between. Copy nature in this treatment and you will not go far astray. In order to make this pool successful, one thing should never be forgotten and that is that you are dealing with sun-loving plants to whom shadow is objectionable. There is another reason why the sunshine should fall unobstructed on the pond and that is that it shows reflections that are effective, and bring cheer to your garden plot. Many people consider that stagnant pools should not exist, as they are mosquito breeders. They do not realize that the stocking of pools with both fish and plants, carefully carried out so that they are properly balanced, results in the water never being putrid but remaining fresh and sweet, making a delightful water garden that is healthful and not malaria breeding. There are two essentials if you wish your idea to be successful; first, that the bottom be water-tight and second, that it be proof against frost. While these two things are easy to accomplish, yet many people fail in them. Cement is the only proper material to be used for foundation. Some people have an idea that puddled clay is cheaper. It may be if properly handled, but great care has to be taken that it is thoroughly puddled or it melts away and your work has been for naught. Cement is the most reliable material if correctly applied. Before putting it on, the pool should be dug out to the proper depth and size. It should then be well packed for several inches with broken stone. Over this should be put Portland cement, using one part of the former to three of sand. Some people cement it for six inches while others prefer to use two coats, each three inches thick. It should never be so high that it will come above the frost line which is two and a half feet in depth. Water lilies, as well as all kinds of aquatics, will grow in any kind of good garden soil; that is, if one-fifth well-rotted manure is added to it. Possibly this is not to be obtained and if so, a quart of ground bone allowed to each bushel of soil will bring about the right results. It should be remembered that the plants should be set out so they will get the greatest exposure to the sunlight. [Illustration: A LILY POND THAT FILLS CHARMINGLY A CORNER OF A GARDEN] We have supposed that you have chosen a spot for your water garden that obtains the greatest amount of sun, also that it is sufficiently sheltered from the winds. It has been dug down from fifteen to twenty-four inches and then carefully cemented. Now you are ready to plant your pool, the soil being taken into consideration. If, by some chance, you are not able to secure the kind recommended, it can be made of three parts rotted sod and one part cow manure. Remember that it should be thoroughly rotted if you do not wish ferment in the water. Too many people take little care on this subject and then wonder at the disappointing results. Possibly there is no place for your garden pool. In that case why not use half barrels or tubs? They have the advantage of taking up very little room, can easily be sunk in the ground and are really well worth the trial. Nothing should be used that has a diameter of less than two feet and the greater the surface space the better will be the result. Tub culture requires two-thirds filling of soil and covering with sand to have it the right depth. If more than one tub is used, why not make a rockery between? It has the advantage of making another feature for your garden, besides adding picturesqueness. There are two ways of planting as well as two kinds of tubers. They can be put directly in the soil, or they can be planted in tubs or boxes that can be sunk, but the latter recommends itself as more practical. The reason for this is that they are easily removed in winter and the water is kept much cleaner when the earth is free from tubers. It must be remembered that each plant requires from eight to nine square feet of surface room so that it would be bad taste to allow too many for an individual pool. If you wish, you can make the boxes yourself, using pieces of board for that purpose. Next come the gold fish. For a tub, only two are necessary, but for a pond one hundred feet in diameter, twenty-five should be used. These fish spawn in June and have been known to breed enough to stock a large pond. There is an old theory,--doubted by many, that the old fish turn cannibals and devour their progeny. These people advise the putting of roots and stock into a tub, this is so the egg may be attached, removed, and hatched separately. In cases like this the small fish are allowed to grow considerably before being returned to the tub. There are two kinds of tubers, the tender and the hardy. The latter require practically no care during the winter months, that is, always provided the water is deep enough to allow no freezing of the crown of the plant. They should be planted about the first of May and both varieties can be given the same treatment, with the exception that the hardy variety do best when planted in soil two feet deep and covered with six inches of water. All pools should have planting in addition to the tubers of submerged plants. This is to aerate the water and keep it pure and sweet. The best kinds to be used for this purpose are Anacharis Canadensis Gigantea, and Canbomba Viridifolia, ten of them being enough for a large pool. The former is a giant water weed with dark green ovate leaves and light stems. It is a quick grower and considered by authorities to be one of the best oxygenators in existence. The latter, sometimes known as Washington grass, is also popular. It has brilliant glossy green leaves, fan-shaped and more beautiful than a delicate fern. In addition to this why not use the Ludwigia Munlerti, which is one of the prettiest submerged plants. It shows small ovate leaves that are green on the upper side and pink on the under. This makes it distinct from any other aquarium plant. A great help in the way of nourishment for these water lilies is the application when first planted or in the early spring of dried blood manure. The proper way of using this is to broad cast it on the surface of the water, using one pound to every ten square feet of surface. Too many people make the mistake of keeping the water too cold. This necessitates the filling of the pool and the leaving it to grow warm through exposure to the sun for several days before planting. When additional water has to be added, it should be some that has stood in the sun for several days, as cold water injures the growth. The condition for growth is the same for both the tender and the hardy Nymphæas with the exception that the former should not be planted until after warm weather sets in. It is well, however, to grow them in pots so that they will be of fair size by June first when the weather has become suitable for their outdoor existence. If the pond is to be large, why not use groups, but if small, single ones will do. For their planting, the hardy variety can be sown in either fall or spring, as one fancies. They should have a small hole cut through the shell of each seed with a sharp knife that they may do better. For the tender kind, do not put them out until they are well started. They should be sown in pots or pans, covering the seeds with one-fourth of an inch of sand, giving them a thorough watering and allowing them to drain for an hour. Then submerge them under two inches of soil at a temperature of seventy degrees. These can be removed into separate pots when they have shown two leaves. This kind is very desirable for cutting, the best for this purpose being the night-blooming varieties. The Pygmæa hybrid type and the Laydekri, as well, are desirable for hardy variety. The former is the smallest water lily in cultivation, a free bloomer showing white flowers, one and a half inches in diameter, while the Pygmæa Helvola, yellow in coloring, is very dainty. A combination of these two colors is always interesting, while if you wish the latter kind, why not try the Laydekria Rosea, which is a French hybrid and one of the earliest in introduction. Only a few specimen plants are found cultivated at the present time. The flowers are of delicate pink with a deep golden center that deepens into a dark shade of rose, presenting a novel feature in that it seemingly is one plant showing different colors. Another variety of this same order is the Laydekri Lilacea, three to five inches across, shading from rosy lilac to bright carmine and sending forth a fragrance like a tea rose. The Sultan is also very valuable on account of its free flowering, the plants showing never less than six flowers open daily. These are of good size Solferina red with white shading and yellow stamens. This is very rare and therefore brings a high price. [Illustration: THERE IS AN EVER-CHANGING BEAUTY TO A GARDEN WHOSE PATHS ARE BROKEN HERE AND THERE BY POOLS] Of the day-blooming varieties, we find the Capensis with flowers of rich sky blue. This planted in contrast with the Ovalifolia, a new variety from East Africa, produces flowers eight to ten inches across of deep creamy white, faintly tinged with blue that deepen until the tips are a light corn flower blue with sulphur yellow stamens. The charm of this flower is its petals which are long and narrow, giving it a pretty star shape. For the night blooming Nymphæas, why not use the Dedoniensis, which throws out large, pure red flowers often showing from twelve to eighteen blooms at a single time, also the Dentata whose white flowers measure from eight to twelve inches in diameter and open out horizontally. Do not forget in your collection to include the Royal Water Lily. Of these, the Victoria Regia is a well-known species. While the plants are expensive, the seeds can be bought for a much more reasonable price and are more interesting as one can watch them from their start until blossoming. The Victoria Trickeri is also desirable. In good condition its leaves are from four and a half to five and a half feet across, a single plant having from twelve to fifteen leaves and producing three or four flowers in a single week. These flowers are picturesque, being white at the time of opening and changing to deep rose pink, admitting a strong fragrance not unlike that of a ripe pineapple. In addition to water lilies one should plant different aquatics, to make a variety. There is the Sagittaria Montevidensis, which attains gigantic proportions, growing four or five feet high with leaves fifteen inches long, the flower towering above, the foliage white with dark blotches at the base of each petal. Then there is the Butterfly Lily, a tender sub-aquatic plant that forms a dense clump three to six feet high bearing masses of pure white fragrant flowers that look like large white butterflies borne in large terminal clusters. The Water Poppy must not be forgotten. It is a very pretty aquatic plant with floating leaves and large yellow poppy-like flowers, and a continual bloomer. The border of the lily pond is of almost as much importance as the flowers themselves. Iris makes a good setting. Of these, the Iris Hexagona, or Blue Flag, is interesting from the fact that it is a hardy Southern kind, showing rich purple and blue with yellow markings three to four inches across and resembling the costliest and rarest orchid flowers. The Dalmatica is one of the finest of the German type. It grows four feet high with exceptionally large flowers of fine lavender, the falls shaded blue. The Japanese Iris is the grandest of all the hardy ones and the best are the double varieties with six petals. Kokinoiro, a rich royal purple with white veining is very satisfactory in growth. Combine it with the Sano-Watashi, which is white with canary yellow center, and the Tokyo, a magnificent large, white flower, and you will find one of the best combinations possible. Ornamental grasses are very effective for this use. Of these, there are so many varieties it would be impossible to name them all. One of the most ornamental kinds is the Zebra grass, which has long, narrow green leaves, striped white and feathery plumed. Mix it with the Pampas grass and you will note the artistic result. This grows very rapidly from seed planted in the spring and is useful for decorative purposes. The Feather grass, growing two feet in height, fits into this scheme as does the Tricholæna Rosea, which is rose tinted, making a color scheme when massed with the other ornamental grasses that is most fascinating. The form and surroundings of the pool, carefully thought out, make it a most desirable feature for both small and large gardens, and everyone, no matter how limited their means, can indulge in one if they wish. THE SUN-DIAL IN THE GARDEN [Illustration: GRASSY PATHS LEAD PLEASANTLY TO THE SUN-DIAL] CHAPTER IX THE SUN-DIAL IN THE GARDEN The life story of the sundial reads like a fascinating page from some old romance of an early century. The first record of its use was in the eighth century before Christ, when it was employed by the Babylonians for the purpose of marking time. Later on, it came into use in England, attached to public buildings. One of the most interesting was shown late in the sixteenth century on the Belton House, Lincolnshire, England. It was a representation of old Father Time and Cupid cutting stone. A passing fad at one time was diminutive sundials, so small that they folded and could be used much as watches are to-day. They soon became very popular and attracted the attention of royalty, when Charles I was seated on the throne. His collection was the largest in existence and represented all sorts of odd shapes and forms. The Stuarts were all interested in sundials, and Charles II had a large one designed and placed in the garden at Holyrood. While the first invented were crude, yet, as time went on, they became more popular, and different materials were used, such as wood, bronze and metal. The hour spaces were computed to comply with the locality in which they were placed. This required a great deal of thought and it was necessary to employ an expert workman. Flowers and hedge plants were occasionally used to represent this idea. One of these stood between the "Shakespeare garden" and the "garden of friendship" at Lady Warwick's summer home. The gnomon being of yew while the dial was worked out by the use of box, the lettering was outside and spelled the following motto--"Les Heures Heureuses ne se comptent pas." This, as far as we know, was the first attempt at the use of floriculture in time pieces. Sundials might be divided into two kinds, the perpendicular and the horizontal. Each one of these has its own special place, the former being used on buildings while the latter was for garden purposes solely. In New York, one of the old perpendicular dials may still be seen on the Dutch Reformed Church. The horizontal was extremely popular in both England and Scotland, so much so that no garden of any pretention was considered complete without one or more of these ornamental time-keepers. The high favor in which the "simple altar-like structure," with its "silent heart language," was held in England was well expressed by Charles Lamb, who said of the sundial, "It stood as the Garden god of Christian gardens." It is the revival of this old-time custom that has given a delightful touch of sentiment to the gardens of to-day, where sundials have become, more especially of late years, a permanent fixture. Many of these have interesting mottoes, some repeating the legends of other days, while later designs bear on their face a modern inscription. "_Let others tell of storm and showers, I'll only count your sunny hours._" "_Time goes you say--ah, no! Time stays, we go._" "_I mark the time, dost thou?_" "_Tyme passeth and speaketh not, Deth cometh and warneth not, Amend to-day and slack not, To-morrow thyself cannot._" By the time the American colonists had leisure to devote to the laying out of beautiful gardens, the day of the sundial was drawing to a close. The introduction of clocks had done away with the necessity of depending upon such fair-weather time pieces, and furthermore, they were no longer popular in other lands. So, despite its charm and value as an ornament, it was not widely adopted in this country. Of late years, however, in the general revival of old-time customs, this interesting feature for gardens has come into favor. The making of one of these time pieces can be carried out by a village carpenter, but the purchasing of an old one had better be done by an expert as there are so many reproductions placed to-day on the market. All that is essential in order to work out proper results is that the dial should have a firm and absolutely level base to rest on, and that the gnomon should point directly towards the North Star, so that time may be accurately computed. A stone pedestal is correct, although concrete is often used. The design depends largely upon the type of garden and the owner's taste. The beautiful, carved pedestals imported from Italy are suitable only for the formal garden, and for our simple, less pretentious ones, wood or stone can be used, although cement has become very fashionable. To soften the lines of a severely simple column, Ivy and other clinging vines can be placed around the base. The location is a matter that requires some thought, as the sundial's charm depends upon harmonious setting. It should be exposed to the sun continuously and placed far enough away from trees or buildings to preclude the possibility of its being shaded. There is no set rule that can be laid down for its placing. One is usually safe, however, in locating it at the intersection of two paths near a vine-clad pergola or within sight of a summer house or garden seat. Formal gardens use it frequently as a central feature. If, however, a water garden takes this central place, the sundial should be at the end of some alluring path surrounded by masses of bright bloom. The chief fault that we find in contrasting the sundials of a century ago with those of the twentieth century is that there is now too much sameness. They seem to follow the same lines, more perhaps, than any other form of garden furniture. This can be overcome by designing them yourself, working out new ideas in the decoration and its motto. Here the gnomons offer a chance for variation for instead of a plain, simple shaft, it can be changed into an ornamental design that helps out in changing it from monotony to originality. For the simple garden, why not make one yourself? It is not a hard matter, that is if you have any ingenuity. The only thing we must consider is to have it set perfectly even, to be sure the pedestal is carefully laid so that it will not tip and spoil the marking of the hours. There are so many materials that you can construct one from, there is no need of sameness. The most inexpensive is the rustic sundial. This is made from a small tree trunk. It should be about six to eight inches in diameter, tapering at the top, and show branches irregularly cut within three or four inches of the main trunk. There is a reason for this; it adds picturesqueness to the effect and gives pegs for the vines to climb over. Do not top it with a wooden dial. They are never satisfactory, for they are apt to warp and thus ruin the entire scheme. You need not go to great expense to procure a satisfactory one, for there are many materials to draw from, iron, brass and slate being the most desirable. The latter are not expensive as they cost simply the price of the material and engraving. It takes a piece that ranges from an inch to an inch and a half in thickness and should not be more than a foot square. For this, one should not pay more than seventy-five cents, although if it is cut round it will be a little more expensive. If you prefer to use brass it costs more and needs a machinist who is used to handling this material to put it together for you and burnish the surface. You must remember that this applies to the dial only, the pedestal being a separate proposition. [Illustration: THE SUN-DIAL IS A FEATURE IN ITSELF] For a little inexpensive time piece for your garden you can make one of wood, coloring it any shade that you like but so that it will contrast prettily with the flowers. The only thing that you must bear in mind is that care should be taken in its setting. If it is out of plumb it will not keep good time. Should you, by chance, be able to procure an old mill stone, it serves two purposes, first it is a practical foundation and second it lends an old-time setting that is appropriate. For a simple, every-day foundation, stones can be laid about six inches deep and filled in with mortar. Cement is also appropriate and oftentimes bricks can be used to good advantage. For a pedestal, a rather good idea is to use second-hand bricks. These can be cemented together with mortar, the red giving a touch of color to the drapery of the sundial that is picturesque. Sometimes a boulder is used for this purpose or a slab of stone. If you purchase a sundial, you should bear in mind that if it is a genuine antique, it may not be suitable for our latitude. In cases like that it is best to have it looked after by an expert and so placed that it will be a correct timekeeper. We tire of the same idea continuously reproduced so why not work out a design of your own? This is hard to do, however, unless cement is used, when some floral design or ornamentation that is appropriate for the garden can be introduced. For the dial the gnomon is made much more interesting if it shows a unique formation rather than a straight shaft, as in the sundial at Didsbury, England, where a harp is introduced, and in another case where a dragon holds the uplifted shaft. The situation of this feature has much to do with its practicability. As it is a sun-loving formation, its proper place is necessarily in the open, but whether surrounded by lawn or flowers, is something that everyone must decide for themselves. One reason against the flower setting is that it serves to hide the dial's meaning until you approach it closely. The eye is attracted to the bright blooming flowers rather than to the dial itself. This is not so if it has only a sward setting. It then becomes a prominent piece of garden furniture, its pure white surface standing out vividly from its surrounding of soft green grass. Occasionally, all attempt at floriculture or gardening is abandoned. This is when it stands in the heart of a garden at the intersection of two paths. Then care should be taken that in immediate proximity there should be pure white pebbles picked up on the beach. This may re-act on the shaft, giving it an air of sameness, and in that case different colored stones can be introduced. One can even go so far as to work out mottos in this way, forming the letters out of highly colored pebbles. To give it a rural appearance, some people set it in the heart of a bed of ferns. These can be chosen from a single variety such as the Boston fern, which is one of the most popular on account of its graceful fronds and the durability which causes it to keep green for a long time. Should, however, a lower growth be necessary, there is the Dreyii, which is a dwarf variety of the same species. A much better effect, however, is obtained by planting the dwarf fern as a border to the circle and placing inside the Elegantissima, which belongs to the crested variety and is especially adapted for massing. For a delicate, dainty setting, there is nothing more beautiful than the Adiantum Ruhm von Mordrecht, which is the most beautiful of all the maiden hair ferns and easily cultivated. It is so graceful that it seems to add an almost poetic touch to the foundation on which the sundial stands. Have you ever considered placing your sundial in the heart of a rose garden? Unconsciously, the sweet perfume of the rose does much to increase the sentiment of this particular feature of garden culture. It depends in part on the pedestal as to whether low roses or delicate climbing ones should be used. If it is a plain, simple shaft, it can be delicately draped to within a few inches of the dial, but great care should be taken to obtain delicate coloring that will bring out the whiteness of the marble. One should be very careful not to have the roses grow so high that only the dial is visible. This would spoil the idea which it represents--a sundial in a garden. One of the most artistic ways is to plant low, dwarf roses, near the pedestal just far enough away so there will be several inches of space between. The roses themselves should be planted in heavy clay loam, although light and sandy soil can be used for this purpose. Many people make a mistake in having their rose beds too rich. The fertilizer can be replaced, if exhausted, by fine-ground bone, which can be used only once a year. The dwarf Polyanthas are a charming class of ever-blooming roses with bushy habits. The flowers are double, delightfully fragrant and borne in large clusters, being covered with a large mass of bloom. For a combination planting, the Baby Dorothy is very effective; it is carnation pink, with the habit and growth similar to that of the Baby Rambler. The latter is very effective, rosy crimson in coloring, very free flowering, and useful in massing effects. Add to that Catherine Zeimet, which is a great acquisition, to the Baby Ramblers, and produces an abundance of double white flowers. Directly around the base of the pedestal, you can plant your climbing roses, taking great care to nip them back so that they will only show a tracery of leaves and flowers and allow the white of the sundial to peer through. For these, use the Lady Gay whose delicate cerise pink blossoms fade to soft white, making a most pleasing combination of white flowers, crimson buds and green foliage. In connection with that, why not plant the Source d'Or, which is deep yellow, gradually paling. This bears large clusters of double flowers, and shows fine foliage. For red, the Wall Flower is the best, as it shows a distinct coloring and has vigorous habits. Mix with that the Shower of Gold, a fine coppery gold color with glossy foliage. For the outer edge of the rose bed, do not forget those used in our grandmother's time. They have lasted long and on account of their sterling qualities are still popular. They have a range of coloring and are so absolutely hardy, easy to grow and fragrant that they are advisable for this use. The Clothilde Soupert is a good color to choose. It is a strong, vigorous grower, putting forth large, double flowers like a ball of snow. The color blends from soft shell pink to pure satiny white. Mix with these the Souvenir de Malmaison, which blooms well in hot weather, its rich colored flowers being of large size, doubled to the center and produced in abundance. [Illustration: AN OLD WELL USED EFFECTIVELY AS A DECORATIVE FEATURE] For a Hybrid, there is nothing more effective than the Killarney, whose color is a sparkling brilliant pink, the buds long and pointed, the petals very large and of great substance, being just as handsome in the bud form as in the full-blown flower. For a soft, pearly white, the Kaiserin Augusta Victoria is advisable, tinting to a soft lemon, its fragrance added to its beautifully formed flowers, make it a joy in your garden. A rustic sundial requires far different treatment, and only vines that bring forth white blossoms or pale colors should be used. If Clematis is chosen, the Duchess of Edinburgh is suitable as it shows double white flowers that are very fragrant. Mixed with this can be the Jackmania Alba, which is white, shaded with blue. The Fair Rosamond, if one wishes a combination, fits in with the color scheme, being tinted white with red stripes. The advantage of these flowers is that the blossoms open in masses that bring out the dark of the wood and lend themselves to picturesque effects. Around the foot of the sundial, why not plant Poppies, making a circle about five inches in width. The Perennial Poppies are among the most brilliant in coloring, the graceful bright-colored, cup-shaped flowers being borne on long stems. Mix with them the Oriental Poppies, which are the most showy plants possible for decorative effects. To fill in the spaces put in a package of Shirley, the combination of the three varieties giving a most fascinating touch of color. For the Shirley, why not use the finest mixed, as it will bring out white, delicate pink, deep crimson, and handsomely striped varieties. The Perennial is advantageous because it comes up every year while the Oriental are magnificent in coloring, more especially the Grand Mogul with bright crimson flower of immense size, the Princess Ena, bearing large, bright, orange-scarlet and the Marie Studholme, which is a delicate shade of salmon with a silver sheen. Nothing can give better effects for this style of sundial than the clematis with a poppy in the foreground. Color makes a great difference in proper planting, the white marble or concrete and possibly wood painted white, demands a strong color to bring out effectively the white of the surface. The gray stone is not picturesque unless blues, yellows, or reds are used. These three colors can be blended so that they form a scheme that is most attractive. When it comes to brick you will have to depend upon white, or light blue for coloring. More care should be taken with the planting around this kind of a pedestal than any other. The red of the brick demands more covering than any other type. The Hop vine fits into the scheme, but requires a great deal of trimming lest it overshadows the brick, making a mass of green without any hint of the brick below. The leaves are fine, three-lobed, and rough on both sides while the loose paper-like straw-yellow Hop in the fall hang gracefully from the brick, making a fluffy but attractive covering. Fragrance is necessary in the planting of a sundial, then why not use the Honeysuckle? The Brachypoda is particularly effective for this purpose. It shows white flowers in pairs, and sends forth a delicious perfume that attracts one even before the sundial is viewed. The Hall Evergreen Honeysuckle is also good for this purpose, being a strong grower and constant bloomer. The flowers open white, change to buff, and are very delicate in appearance. This sundial should be set in a circle of green. At the edge of the border plant Iris. This makes a more effective setting than if a whole bed of this should be used. The well-known, beautiful Iris of Japan displays a great variety of colors, the chief of which is white, maroon, dark blue and violet. Most of them are veined, mottled or flaked with different colors. There are both single and double varieties. The beauty of this plant is that it succeeds in any good soil, that is if well drained and given plenty of water when dry. They can be planted either in the late summer or spring, as desirable, and should be shown in masses, growing from two to three feet in height and lasting in blossom for a month. For double use the Antelope, which shows a white ground flaked with purple. Mix with it the Beauty which is a pure white. Add to it the Mount Hood, light blue, shaded darker in the center. These can be intermixed with the Crested Iris, a dwarf, showing handsome, light-colored flowers, and the Snow Queen, whose large snow-white blossoms are free flowering. The planting around the sundial rests with the whim of the owner, though, if out-of-the-way ideas can be evolved, it will add much to the attractiveness of this feature of the garden. THE FOUNTAIN [Illustration: NARCISSUS STANDS IN THE HEART OF THE FOUNTAIN] CHAPTER X THE FOUNTAIN Have you ever seated yourself in your garden, more especially on a warm summer day, and dreamily listened to the musical tinkle of the water that flowed from the mouth of the fountain, dripping down from the over-flowing basin into the pool below? It is then you realize what an attractive ornament it is for your garden for it appeals not only to the eye but to the ear. Lowell picturesquely describes his idea of this bit of garden furnishing when he speaks of it as "leaping and flashing," in the sunlight. While the pergola, the garden seat and the sundial each have their own appropriate use, they serve one purpose only. Not so the fountain, which never fails to convey a delightful impression of coolness, as it gurgles and murmurs, on its way. Surely there is nothing that gives to the garden a more picturesque charm than this, standing like a spot of color in a vivid setting of bright flowering plants. In the pool below one finds constantly changing pictures of the blue sky, snowy clouds or summer blossoms, each one worthy of its floral frame. As the garden fountain is merely an accessory and the beauty of the constantly dripping water and the rising of the spray are what constitutes its real charm, the conventional design can be simple or elaborate but it should follow the garden scheme. It depends upon its environment as to whether we make it the central feature in the design or a setting in the wall. Lovely effects can easily be produced if one is careful in trying to work out a right treatment, for the placing is fully as much of importance as the planting. Balance should be the main object. To the amateur who has had no special training in floriculture, the introduction of even a simple water spout is of interest. He watches its workings with a newly awakened enthusiasm, directing its course so that it falls artistically over the different levels of the rock garden into the home-made concrete pool below. The introduction of this water feature gives a distinctive touch to even the simplest little flower plot. For a larger garden, what is more alluring than a fountain sending forth a high, vapory stream, bursting into a cloud of filmy spray? This is especially true when it is viewed through a vista or at the ending of a vine-shaded pergola. Around it should be planted a carefully selected combination of flowers or shrubs, great care being taken that they blend harmoniously. The size of the fountain and the breadth of the pool lend themselves more or less effectively to producing alternating sunshine and shade on the surface of the water. The basin is, in a way, of as much importance as the fountain design. It is generally round, although occasionally an oblong design fits better into the landscape effect. It should be from two to three feet deep and so constructed that the sides slope outward much like the ordinary wooden water bucket. There is a practical reason for this, as it prevents cracking during the winter months. The cost naturally varies, the size materially affecting the price. The background demands more than passing notice. Nearness of trees is a decided drawback, as the falling leaves, especially in the autumn, mar the surface and clog the outlet and make it necessary to clean the basin frequently. The best time to plan for any garden ornament is just before the early fall. The flowers are in their prime and one can better determine placing than in the early spring when the garden lies bleak and desolate. Many garden lovers with a desire for originality feel confident that they can rely upon their imagination to work out color schemes even during the winter months. Fortunate is he who accomplishes this satisfactorily. There is great danger, however, that his castles in the air may fall to the ground through taking too much for granted. The grounds do not always meet requirements, and the result is not only wrong placing but an ornament that is either too large or too small for its allotted space. We are far too impatient to obtain results and it is this undue haste that often ruins the composition of gardens. There is a great satisfaction in adding to and improving our grounds, much more so than if the whole work were developed at once. Almost every garden into which careful thought has been placed grows with its years. Few, if any garden lovers, but have felt a keen sense of disappointment at the finished results of their garden schemes. What was satisfying the first year, has later brought about unhappy combinations. It is this fact that should be impressed on everyone's mind, if they wish a perfect lay-out. [Illustration: A ROMAN FOUNTAIN PLACED AGAINST A VERY APPROPRIATE BACKGROUND] Probably everybody who has become interested in floriculture finds the same difficulty in obtaining exactly what they wish. It is often hard to match ideas with reality. This is another reason for curbing one's impatience. The right things are sure to be found, that is if one is willing to take time. It is when comparing the gardens of the old world with those of to-day that we are impressed with the atmosphere of the twentieth-century garden, where nature is encouraged to be genuine rather than artificial. This is the height of success, the bringing into harmony of paths, ornaments, and flowers, omitting gaudy effects or over-crowding with marble fragments. Simplicity should be the key-note in arranging this part of our ground, a simplicity that has been worked out by careful thought for it means hard study to obtain natural effects. There are many materials from which our fountain can be manufactured. The most expensive of these are marble, terra cotta and manufactured stone, the former leading the list, while the latter is better suited to the moderate purse. This last is, in reality, a composition of marble dust with cement, and the result is most satisfactory, the finished product showing a smooth surface resembling as nearly as possible that of unpolished marble. In rare cases, however, chemicals have been used to produce an antique look. Many people are under the impression that manufactured stone is always white. As a matter of fact, in the finished product, there are as many as half a dozen neutral tints shown. These all incline to a soft, delicate gray, sometimes with a blueish cast. Terra cotta comes next in cost. A detriment to its use is that, particularly when it is shown in deep bronze coloring, it does not lend itself artistically to landscape effect, through lack of contrast with its surroundings. We find this material with both glazed and unglazed surfaces, the former being more expensive but not as practical as the latter. The most strongly recommended coloring is limestone gray, whose soft, delicate finish brings out the tone of the vines, and emphasizes the color of the surrounding flowers. Next comes the Pompeian red, only to be used under certain conditions on account of its color. Colonial yellow has also been introduced. The two last colors are rarely, if ever, used for fountain designs, the gray being considered much more advisable. There are many reasons why cement is considered practical; its cost, its wearing qualities, and its appropriate coloring. All these qualities lend themselves to constructive purposes, and making it decoratively most desirable. The architect who suits the design of the garden to the type of the house will take advantage of this particular material. He has his ideas concerning the effect that he wishes to bring out, to emphasize the design of the house. He realizes that there is something more than interest in botany to be shown if he wishes to make this part of his plan a success. We have grown to a realizing sense that for the best results it is better to employ a skilled man. No clever result can be brought out through an inexperienced person planning the grounds, that is, unless they have natural ability such as few people possess. We have only to go back to our Colonial ancestors and study effects. It is then we realize the difference between home planting and architectural planting. Cost is not the only thing to be taken into consideration when creating garden effects. Character should be considered as well. In order to obtain this satisfactorily, the accessories should be planned by a connoisseur, such as an architect becomes after many years' study of the subject. The fountain is the most important detail and requires more careful thought than any other part of the garden setting. It makes no difference what its construction is, so that it fits in with the scheme. Great care should be taken not to introduce different periods or materials when placing garden ornaments on our grounds. Take, as an instance, a home-made fountain and place it in close proximity with an imported one and note the result. You will see the lack of harmony. The Italian fountain belongs distinctively to the formal or Italian lay-out, and should never be used, with the exception of making a central feature on a lawn, in any other way. If you place the Greek fountain on a hillside where landscape effects have been worked out through the use of cascades that dash over terraces and under rustic bridges, you will see it is entirely out of place and in the wrong surroundings. [Illustration: AN ARTISTIC FOUNTAIN PARTICULARLY WELL PLACED] Occasionally, we come across an iron fountain painted black or red. This metal is cheap and stock designs can be purchased, but the very best ones are private orders and can never be reproduced. The price varies as with every other bit of garden furniture from a few dollars up to as many thousands. The advantage of this metal is that it fits into places where marble should be avoided. Pottery fountains have been used within the last few years, and many of them are very graceful, being turned and finished by hand. This type has a special mission in our garden, its proper placing being in New England where the gray rocks, hedges and evergreen predominate. This material is shown in more colors than almost any other. These include gray, brown, green, blue, and many shades of terra cotta. This variation of color makes it adapted to almost any situation. One advantage in their use is that, strongly reinforced as they are by galvanized steel wires, they are climate-proof and practically indestructible. The location of this special garden ornament demands serious attention. It is often placed where it will attract attention to some special feature that has been carefully worked out in detail. More especially is this true when it has been inserted as a part of the retaining wall and is surrounded by some choice vine whose flowers accentuate the architecture. There are so many forms and features connected with this special garden ornament that there need never be any sameness. It is an ideal medium with which to recreate the fauns, satyrs and nymphs of the garden. Animals, too, are often used and so are cupids. The planting, which is of as much importance as the ornamentation, depends upon the size of the pool and its location. Shade requires far different treatment from sunny exposures, while the heart of a grass plot lends itself to little or no floral embellishment. The finish of the pool influences the arrangement of the flowers. Should it be very ornamental, the planting should be far enough away not to shut off its picture effect in the landscape. If it is simply a curbing, it should have a setting of green or of low-growing plants. Often an effective treatment is worked out through a border of velvety turf outlined by plants. Peonies never fail to bring out the right coloring of the fountain, that is if they are far enough away not to cut off the design. They are called rightly the aristocrats of the flower garden. For mass planting, they are most effective, their great gorgeous blossoms, daintily dyed and ranging from white to the deepest red, their wonderful fragrance and their decorative value are unsurpassed. They can either be planted in solid color or in a combination that is artistic. The Couronne d'Or, beautiful white in coloring and showing blossoms of red in the center with a halo of yellow around, makes a picturesque contrast to the deep green of the tree leaves. The large, double, ball-shape bloom of the Felix Crousse intermixed with white, gives one of the most fascinating combinations of red and white. The beauty of peonies is that they grow anywhere although they do best in rich, deep soil and with a sunny exposure. They are perfectly hardy, require no protection and unlike most other plants are not infested by either insects or disease. All they ask for is plenty of water during their growing season. Grandmother's flowers, which are so fashionable to-day, are particularly desirable as a planting around a fountain. The sweet moss rose trailing through the grass and mixing its blossoms with the yellow of the Scotch rose is often used for low effects, or where very little coloring is advisable. The amount of planting and the height naturally depend upon the design of the individual fountain. Those that are ornamental are so effective that they need practically nothing to bring out right effects. Iris is always in good form. We find it to-day so highly developed that in comparison to the little fleur-de-lis that grows unmolested in the neighboring swamp, it seems scarcely a variety of the same flower. As we are able to buy both double and single Irises, we should make a choice and not mingle the two. The double with its flowers averaging from eight to ten inches across, is an artistic foil for the white of the fountain. Commencing with the German, which comes into bloom about the middle of May, we can follow the time of blossoming through the introduction of the Japanese Iris which lasts through July. In their planting, better effects are produced if two colors only are used. This can be supplemented by a third if the coloring is broken by the introduction of a thread of white. For the German, why not use the Honorabilis, which is a golden yellow with outside yellow petals shading to a mahogany brown, or the King of Iris, which is a clear yellow. The Florentina Alba gives the white coloring, its flowers being very large and fragrant. These two colors can be enhanced by the adding of the Camillian which is a delicate blue with falls tipped a little darker shade. These are more suited for a fountain with a low curbing or for an informal garden where cement is used. They give a very pretty effect, their flowers being pictured in the water below. [Illustration: THIS WALL FOUNTAIN WITH ITS SHELL BACKGROUND AND BASIN IS MOST FITTINGLY PLACED] Pansies are never out of place. A very pretty idea is to have them massed for as many as eight inches around the curb. Choose for these, bright-colored varieties rather than dark. The tufted pansies, which are one of the most important bedding plants in Europe, are rapidly growing in favor in our country. One reason for this is that they flower continuously for nearly eight months in the year. The flowers are not as large as those of the single pansy, but their bright colors make them a welcome addition to our garden. The rich, golden yellow, the violet with a dark eye and the white, are all three admirable for this purpose. Pansies love coolness and give their largest and finest flowers in early spring and late fall. They are so easy to grow, rioting in the cool, deep mellow beds they love, that everybody should use them. They will endure all winter long if protected by a few evergreen vines. The size needed for bedding for your fountain depends entirely upon the width of the bed. The most superb specimens are found among the orchid flowering ones. They take their name mainly from their tints and variation of color resembling the gorgeous shades seen in orchids. These are the most novel and distinctive strain that we have used for years. Have you ever considered the graceful effect of ornamental grasses? They can be used with telling effects for the margin of the fountain, although care must be taken not to plant those that grow to enormous height. The Euallia Japonica is appropriate. Its long, narrow, graceful green foliage, flowering into attractive plumes, give it a distinctive place for this purpose. Mix with it the Zebra grass, whose long blades are marked with broad yellow bands across the leaf. Intermix with this the hardy fountain grass which grows only four feet in height and has narrow foliage, bright green in coloring, cylindrical flower-heads carried well above the foliage, tinged with a bronze purple and is one of the most valuable of the hardy grasses. In the planting of the grasses, to make the best effect give the taller ones the outside row, letting the low ones fall over the water, mirroring in the surface below. One of the advantages in using this is that it attracts birds and butterflies. Nothing can attract the songsters quicker to your fountain than this kind of surrounding. Occasionally, we find that instead of planting, beds are geometrically laid out to surround this, the axis of the garden design. In cases like this we have to depend upon the borders for effect. These can be hedge-loving plants or they can be a solid, low planting. Scotch heather is very pretty. It should be grown in sunny places with moist surroundings. Its racimes of dark rose pink petals, lasting from July to September, make it very effective for this purpose. The Japanese Barberry can also be included, nothing equals it in artistic value. It requires but little pruning to keep it in shape, while its fruit or berries, assuming rich brilliant colors in the fall, are most effective when used for a setting like this. If possible, try for flowers that have fragrance. It adds so much to the effect to breathe in the sweet odor as you sit watching the shading of the flowers, the swaying of the birds, and listening to the musical tinkle of the water as it drips into the basin below. 
34893	----	scanned images of public domain material from the Internet Archive. [Illustration: Book Cover] BEAUTIFUL GARDENS IN AMERICA BOOKS BY LOUISE SHELTON PUBLISHED BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS * * * * * BEAUTIFUL GARDENS IN AMERICA. Illustrated. 4to _net_ $5.00 CONTINUOUS BLOOM IN AMERICA. Illustrated. 4to _net_ $2.00 THE SEASONS IN A FLOWER GARDEN. Illustrated. 12mo _net_ $1.00 [Illustration: PLATE I "Mariemont," Newport, R. I. Mrs. Thomas J. Emory _After an autochrome photograph by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] BEAUTIFUL GARDENS IN AMERICA BY LOUISE SHELTON [Illustration] SECOND EDITION NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1916 COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS DEDICATED TO THE PRAISE OF THOSE AMERICAN MEN AND WOMEN, OF WHATSOEVER PERIOD, WHO HAVE PLANTED SO BEAUTIFULLY THAT THEIR GARDENS ARE AN INSPIRATION TO OTHERS IN ALL GENERATIONS IN GREEN OLD GARDENS Here may I live what life I please, Married and buried out of sight, Married to pleasure, and buried to pain, Hidden away amongst scenes like these Under the fans of the chestnut trees: Living my child-life over again, With the further hope of a fuller delight, Blithe as the birds and wise as the bees. In green old gardens hidden away From sight of revel, and sound of strife, Here have I leisure to breathe and move, And do my work in a nobler way; To sing my songs, and to say my say; To dream my dreams, and to love my love, To hold my faith and to live my life, Making the most of its shadowy day. --VIOLET FANE. CONTENTS PAGE FOREWORD xv CHAPTER I. THE GARDEN AND ITS MEANING 1 II. CLIMATE IN AMERICA 8 III. NEW ENGLAND 13 MAINE 14 NEW HAMPSHIRE AND VERMONT 27 MASSACHUSETTS 37 RHODE ISLAND 79 CONNECTICUT 89 IV. NEW YORK 99 LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK 127 V. NEW JERSEY 155 VI. PENNSYLVANIA 187 VII. MARYLAND 205 VIII. VIRGINIA 219 IX. SOUTH CAROLINA 235 X. GEORGIA AND FLORIDA 247 XI. TENNESSEE AND MISSOURI 255 XII. ILLINOIS AND INDIANA 265 XIII. OHIO 277 XIV. MICHIGAN AND WISCONSIN 287 XV. NEW MEXICO 299 XVI. CALIFORNIA 303 XVII. OREGON AND WASHINGTON 323 XVIII. ALASKA 337 XIX. VANCOUVER ISLAND 340 A FEW GARDEN GATES 347 ILLUSTRATIONS COLOR-PLATES PLATE I "MARIEMONT," NEWPORT, R. I. _Frontispiece_ II } III } "FAIRLAWN," LENOX, MASS. _Facing page_ 42 IV THE AUTHOR'S CHILDHOOD GARDEN 106 V SOUTHAMPTON, L. I. 130 VI "GLEN ALPINE," MORRISTOWN, N. J. 160 VII } VIII } ROLAND PARK, BALTIMORE, MD. 210 _Plates I, V, VII, and VIII were reproduced from photographs colored by Mrs. Herbert A. Raynes, the basis of which were autochrome photographs._ HALF-TONE PLATES PLATE 1 "KENARDEN LODGE," BAR HARBOR, MAINE 2 "BLAIR EYRIE," BAR HARBOR, MAINE 3 } 4 } "HAMILTON HOUSE," SOUTH BERWICK, MAINE 5 } 6 } 7 } 8 } CORNISH, N. H. 9 } 10 } 11 OLD BENNINGTON, VT. 12 } 13 } "WELD," BROOKLINE, MASS. 14 } 15 WELLESLEY, MASS. 16 "HOLM LEA," BROOKLINE, MASS. 17 } 18 } "FAIRLAWN," LENOX, MASS. 19 } 20 } 21 } "BELLEFONTAINE," LENOX, MASS. 22 } 23 "OVERLOCH," WENHAM, MASS. 24 "FERNBROOKE," LENOX, MASS. 25 "CHESTERWOOD," GLENDALE, MASS. 26 } 27 } "RIVERSIDE FARM," TYRINGHAM, MASS. 28 } 29 "NAUM KEAG," STOCKBRIDGE, MASS. 30 "BROOKSIDE," GREAT BARRINGTON, MASS. 31 "ROCK MAPLE FARM," HAMILTON, MASS. 32 BROOKLINE, MASS. 33 LONGFELLOW'S GARDEN, CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 34 OLD WITCH HOUSE, SALEM, MASS. 35 "MARIEMONT," NEWPORT, R. I. 36 "THE ELMS," NEWPORT, R. I. 37 "VERNON COURT," NEWPORT, R. I. 38 "VILLASERRA," WARREN, R. I. 39 "WOODSIDE," HARTFORD, CONN. 40 "ELMWOOD," POMFRET, CONN. 41 POMFRET CENTRE, CONN. 42 "BRANFORD HOUSE," GROTON, CONN. 43 POMFRET CENTRE, CONN. 44 } AUBURN, N. Y. 45 } 46 SECTION OF A WILD GARDEN AT TUXEDO PARK, N. Y. 47 "WOODLAND," TUXEDO, N. Y. 48 "CRAGSWERTHE," TUXEDO, N. Y. 49 "BLITHEWOOD," BARRYTOWN-ON-HUDSON, N. Y. 50 } 51 } "WODENETHE," BEACON-ON-HUDSON, N. Y. 52 } 53 } THE AUTHOR'S CHILDHOOD GARDEN, NEWBURGH-ON-HUDSON, N. Y. 54 "ECHO LAWN," NEWBURGH-ON-HUDSON, N. Y. 55 } 56 } "MEADOWBURN," WARWICK, N. Y. 57 "RIDGELAND FARM," BEDFORD, N. Y. 58 SOUTHAMPTON, L. I. 59 } 60 } 61 } "THE ORCHARD," SOUTHAMPTON, L. I. 62 } 63 } 64 } "THE APPLETREES," SOUTHAMPTON, L. I. 65 SOUTHAMPTON, L. I. 66 } 67 } 68 } EAST HAMPTON, L. I. 69 } 70 "MANOR HOUSE," GLEN COVE, L. I. 71 CEDARHURST, L. I. 72 WESTBURY, L. I. 73 "MANOR HOUSE," GLEN COVE, L. I. 74 "SYLVESTER MANOR," SHELTER ISLAND 75 "CHERRYCROFT," MORRISTOWN, N. J. 76 "RIDGEWOOD HILL," MORRISTOWN, N. J. 77 MORRISTOWN, N. J. 78 } 79 } "BLAIRSDEN," PEAPACK, N. J. 80 } 81 "BROOKLAWN," SHORT HILLS, N. J. 82 } 83 } "DRUMTHWACKET," PRINCETON, N. J. 84 } 85 "ONUNDA," MADISON, N. J. 86 "GLEN ALPINE," MORRISTOWN, N. J. 87 "THORNTON," RUMSON, N. J. 88 HIGHLAND, N. J. 89 "ALLGATES," HAVERFORD, PA. 90 } ANDALUSIA, PA. 91 } 92 "EDGECOMBE," CHESTNUT HILL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 93 "KRISHEIM," CHESTNUT HILL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 94 } 95 } "WILLOW BANK," BRYN MAWR, PA. 96 "FANCY FIELD," CHESTNUT HILL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 97 "TIMBERLINE," BRYN MAWR, PA. 98 "BALLYGARTH," CHESTNUT HILL, PHILADELPHIA, PA. 99 "HAMPTON," TOWSON, MD. 100 "EVERGREEN-ON-AVENUE," BALTIMORE, MD. 101 "CYLBURN HOUSE," CYLBURN, BALTIMORE CO., MD. 102 "INGLESIDE," CATONSVILLE, MD. 103 "THE BLIND," HAVRE DE GRACE, MD. 104 } 105 } MONTPELIER, VA. 106 } 107 } 108 } "ROSE HILL," GREENWOOD, VA. 109 } 110 "MEADOWBROOK MANOR," DREWRY'S BLUFF, VA. 111 RICHMOND, VA. 112 } "MAGNOLIA GARDEN," CHARLESTON, S. C. 113 } 114 } 115 } "PRESTON GARDEN," COLUMBIA, S. C. 116 } 117 } 118 } "GREEN COURT," AUGUSTA, GA. 119 } 120 TROPICAL GROWTH, PALM BEACH, FLA. 121 "ROSTREVOR," KNOXVILLE, TENN. 122 LONGVIEW, TENN. 123 "HAZELWOOD," KINLOCH, MO. 124 LAKE FOREST, ILL. 125 "HARDIN HALL," HUBBARD'S WOOD, ILL. 126 } "THE FARMS," MONTICELLO, ILL. 127 } 128 } THE ROCK GARDEN, "ENGLISHTON PARK," LEXINGTON, IND. 129 } 130 "GWINN," CLEVELAND, OHIO 131 } 132 } CLIFTON, CINCINNATI, OHIO 133 } 134 "SHADYSIDE," PAINESVILLE, OHIO 135 } 136 } "INDIAN HILL," MENTOR, OHIO 137 "ORCHARD HOUSE," ALMA, MICH. 138 "GARRA-TIGH," BAY CITY, MICH. 139 "FAIRLAWN," GROSSE POINTS SHORES, MICH. 140 } "HOUSE-IN-THE-WOODS," LAKE GENEVA, WIS. 141 } 142 LAS CRUCES, N. M. 143 } "KIMBERLY CREST," REDLANDS, CAL. 144 } 145 "GLENDESSARY," SANTA BARBARA, CAL. 146 } 147 } "PIRANHURST," SANTA BARBARA, CAL. 148 } 149 ROSS, CAL. 150 PASADENA, CAL. 151 } 152 } 153 } "CAÑON CREST PARK," REDLANDS, CAL. 154 } 155 TYPICAL GROWTH IN CALIFORNIA 156 } 157 } "THORNEWOOD," TACOMA, WASH. 158 } 159 } 160 } SEATTLE, WASH. 161 SECTION OF A ROSE HEDGE BORDERING AN AVENUE IN PORTLAND, ORE. 162 "ROSECREST," PORTLAND HEIGHTS, PORTLAND, ORE. 163 "CLIFF COTTAGE," ELK ROCK, PORTLAND, ORE. 164 "HIGH HATCH," RIVERWOOD, PORTLAND, ORE. 165 } 166 } VICTORIA CITY, VANCOUVER ISLAND, B. C. 167 LONGVIEW, TENN. 168 "KNOCK-MAE-CREE," WESTPORT, CONN. 169 } 170 } "HAMILTON HOUSE," SOUTH BERWICK, MAINE 171 } 172 } "GLEN ALPINE," MORRISTOWN, N. J. 173 EAST HAMPTON, L. I. 174 "GLENDESSARY," SANTA BARBARA, CAL. 175 CLIFTON, CINCINNATI, OHIO. 176 "THORNEWOOD," TACOMA, WASH. TITLE-PAGE: EAST HAMPTON, L. I., ALBERT HERTER, ESQ. From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals. "A garden was wonderful at night--a place of strange silences and yet stranger sound: trees darkly guarding mysterious paths that ran into caverns of darkness; the scents of flowers rising from damp earth heavy with dew; flowers that were weary with the dust and noise of the day and slept gently, gratefully, with their heads drooping to the soil, their petals closed by the tender hands of the spirits of the garden. The night sounds were strangely musical. Cries that were discordant in the day mingled now with the running of distant water, the last notes of some bird before it slept, the measured harmony of a far-away bell, the gentle rustle of some arrival in the thickets; the voice that could not be heard in the noisy chatter of the day rose softly now in a little song of the night and the dark trees and the silver firelight of the stars." --HUGH WALPOLE. FOREWORD Books and magazines written by and for American architects usually show in their illustrations fine imitations of lovely French, English, and Italian formalism and works of art in marble or other stone ornamenting the gardens of great mansions in this country. The object of this book is to present, more particularly, another type of garden, demonstrating the cultured American's love of beauty expressed through plant life rather than in stone; showing the development of his ideal in more original directions, when planning for himself the garden spot in which he is to live rather than when building wholly in imitation of some accepted type of classic art. With but few exceptions, these illustrations are of a class which might be called personal gardens. The attractive features in nearly every view speak so eloquently for themselves that there seems but little need of detailed verbal description of each beautiful spot. In covering all sections of the country, occasion is given for the observation and study of widely varying climatic conditions, the results of which the author has also sought to consider. Some difficulty has been felt in properly ascribing the ownership of a number of the gardens illustrated. As a rule, there is but one recognized director of the garden's welfare--rarely are two members of a household equally interested. While he is by custom acknowledged master of the house, it is oftener she who rules supreme among the flowers. Misnaming the real possessor might be a serious mistake; attributing the ownership to two is superfluous; the benefit, where any doubt existed, has been therefore given to the fair sex, with due apology for possible errors. LOUISE SHELTON. MORRISTOWN, N. J., October 28, 1915. BEAUTIFUL GARDENS IN AMERICA A GARDEN Come not with careless feet To tread my garden's unfrequented ways. No highroad this, no busy clanging street, No place of petty shows and fond displays. Here there are blossoms sweet That shrink and pine from inconsiderate gaze; And here the birds repeat Only to loving ears their truest lays. Hither I can retreat And drink of peace where peace unravished stays. Herein are streams of sorrow no man knows-- Herein a well of joy inviolate flows; Come not with careless feet To soil my garden's sanctuary ways. --ANONYMOUS. I THE GARDEN AND ITS MEANING A world without flowers! What would it be? Among those who know, such a question needs no answer--and we are not seeking a reply from the uninitiated who, for lack of understanding and sympathy, can but gaze at us with wondering pity, when our gardens cause us to overlook so much that to them means life. But is there any life more real than the life in the garden for those who actually take part in its creation and nurture it carefully week by week and year by year? If, owing to this absorbing occupation, we fail to give a full share of ourselves to some of the social avocations of the busy world are we to be pitied for getting "back to the soil" to which we belong? Man was put by the Creator "in the Garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it," and even after his forced departure therefrom he was bidden to "till the ground," and the reward seems great to us who know the meaning of the signs and wonders continually being revealed in the garden world. In seeking the simpler life which many are now craving, if luxuries are blessings that we could do without, must we count the flower garden a luxury? Not while its beauty is a joy in which others may share, nor when it helps to keep at home our interests which make the real home. There is a luxury that often induces the roaming spirit, and doubtless were there fewer motors there would be still more gardens and incidentally more home life. Yet notwithstanding this temptation to roam, gardens are now on the increase in almost every section of the United States. We have made a brave beginning of which to be justly proud. If only we could live in the world more as we live in the garden, what joy and contentment would be brought into the daily life! In the garden hurry and noise are needless, for perfect system can prevail where each plant, each labor has its own especial time, and where haste is a stranger, quiet reigns. It is in the stillness of the green world that we hear the sounds that make for peace and growth. In the garden, too, we labor faithfully, as best we know how, in following rules that promise good results. Then at a certain time we must stand aside, consciously trusting to the source of life to do the rest. With hopeful eyes we watch and wait, while the mysterious unseen spirit brings life into plant and tree. When something goes wrong, how sublime is our cheerful garden philosophy, as smiling we say: "Just wait until we try next year!" And patiently we try again, and ever patiently, sometimes again and yet again. Our unwritten motto is: "If others can, then why not we?" Even the man who "contends that God is not" shows all this wondrous reliance in the unseen force within his garden. With hands plunged into the cool earth we seem to bury in the magic soil all thoughts that jar till we almost feel ourselves a part of the garden plan; as much in harmony with it as the note of the bird, the soft splash of the fountain, the tints of the flowers and their perfumes. This idea is better expressed in four lines found inscribed on an old garden seat: "The kiss of the sun for pardon, The song of the birds for mirth, One is nearer God's heart in a garden Than anywhere else on earth." It is not a selfish life--the object in view is not a narrow one. How few would be content to create a beautiful garden if none could see! And our pleasure is not complete until others have shared its sweetness with us. The gardener is developing nature in the simplest and truest way, following the thought of the first great Architect and gladdening the hearts of men with the vision beautiful of the possibilities within plant life. In the flower garden the efforts are for upbuilding, for giving back some of the beauty intended in the Perfect Plan, too often defaced by man's heedlessness. Dating back their beginning some two hundred years in certain Southern States, numerous gardens, beautiful with age, tell the story of the ardent garden lovers of earlier days, who had to send abroad for their green treasures which they planted and carefully tended, hopefully planning for the future. Many such gardens with their choice shrubs and trees still stand as green memorials to those long-ago people who had time and money for this luxury. Since then the hardships following war have brought sad neglect to the beautiful places--the number we can never guess--many of which, however, are now being aroused to fresh life by new owners who appreciate the charm and dignity of an ancient home. Hidden away in some of the old plantations of the South, and scattered over the Eastern States, near Philadelphia, along the Hudson River, and in parts of Massachusetts, the best of the older gardens are found. Beautiful, too, while often beyond reach of the camera, are many of the more modern creations so skilfully and lovingly fashioned by men and women of later generations. It is impossible to do justice in photography to some of them when certain conditions prevent the camera from being placed at a range favorable to getting a view of the larger portions in one photograph. Sometimes they are composed of three or four connecting sections, each bringing a surprised delight to the visitor passing from one to the other, but such an arrangement cannot be satisfactorily portrayed in a picture. One strange reason why some American gardens are not photographed for the public is that occasionally people are found who will not share their blessings with others less fortunate; who jealously keep in seclusion all the wealth of nature's sweetness contained in their garden plot. After all, is not the delight which belongs to a garden but a bit of borrowed glory from the Creator of sunlight, and of the kingdom of flowers? If a garden is worthy of showing to our intimates, can we close it to the stranger who may need even more to breathe inspiration from its peace and loveliness? The foreign custom of opening the fine places to the public on stated days is one that we should freely emulate. And to those who may not come to the gardens, what a boon is photography, especially in color, placing in our very hands the beauty that we crave! The views contained within this book show gardens that were planned, with but few exceptions, by their owners, earnestly laboring to express their sense of the beautiful in these their outdoor homes. And so great is the individuality evinced in most of them that there are hardly two gardens that resemble one another; for the differences in gardens are as many as the endless number of varying characters written in the faces of men. Both are stamped with the spirit behind them. In visiting gardens it is not difficult to distinguish between the ones fashioned by "love's labor" and those made by the practical gardener. More and more we are getting away from the cold, stiff planting of Canna, Coleus, and Salvia. Few of us can tolerate the impression of newness and rigidity in the garden, and as Father Time cannot help us fast enough we try to emulate him by stamping his mark of mellowness in innumerable ways upon the youthful garden. Then Mother Earth is consulted as to her unrivalled way for the grouping of her flower family, and she shows us the close company they keep--hand in hand over the whole meadow--nothing stands quivering alone, grasses and plants blending to fill all spaces. Then above, in the rainbow, we learn the harmony for our color scheme, and unto no nation on earth need we apply for the latest theories dealing with these subjects for the beautifying of our gardens. The more of the nature scheme we bring into them the greater satisfaction will they give. We should build the garden with a setting of fine trees grouped upon the outskirts, otherwise it will seem as incomplete as a portrait without a frame. Half of the charm attached to the beautiful old gardens of Europe lies in the richness of their backgrounds of stately hedges and trees. If comparisons were to be made between such views as those shown in this book and the pictures of English gardens, for instance, the differences would not in every case be favorable to England, although it must be admitted that age has given a dignity and grandeur to many English gardens that could hardly be surpassed. Time, doubtless, will add this dignity to our gardens, but can we not feel that we have already equalled some of the smaller English gardens when we consider the poetical beauty found in most of these illustrations? Unfortunately, except in a few localities, our climate does not encourage the perfect development of the choicest of the evergreen hedge-plants, and yet with time we can produce some moderately fine effects in hedges. We may not hope soon to rival the best of the foreign gardens that have been maturing through generations of continuous care. Favored not only by climate but by riches unknown to the early landowners of our States, the best of the old gardens across the sea stand for the combined dreams of the many minds which gradually evolved them, the loving handiwork of innumerable patient toilers who have successively ministered to them. Just as there are gardens peculiar to other nations, Dutch, French, Italian, etc., might we not give serious consideration to evolving some day a type peculiarly American, inasmuch as it would embody the poetic and artistic sense of our country? Such a result might be attained even should we claim the privilege of our individual liberty, to plant, each one for the expression of his own soul, thus keeping our gardens distinctly variable and original in type, and so ultimately national. II CLIMATE IN AMERICA Few subjects are more bewildering than that of climate in the United States, and its effect on gardens in different sections is an ever interesting study. Replying to the question as to which locality in the East might be said to have the longest continued flowering period, an expert in the Agricultural Department writes: "The question of plant life in relation to climate is a very large one and one about which it is hard to generalize without close study in the various parts of the country. Some little work along these lines is being attempted, but as yet we have been unable to make any report upon it." Correspondence with gardeners in the various States has furnished the brief data given in connection with the following chapters, showing that the local conditions as affecting garden culture are much more encouraging in some places than in others. Not only are there the matters of latitude and altitude to be considered, but often quite as important is the influence of the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic or of the Japan Current in the Pacific Ocean. Again, there is the moist climate by the sea, or the quality of soil, the periodic torrential rainfall of one section, and elsewhere the long months of drought. Generally speaking, our country is, in most parts, a land of sunshine, with usually sufficient rain and moisture to benefit plant life, and while we grumble at our sudden changes in temperature, how few of us realize the blessing of an abundant sunshine pervading the "great outdoors" and incidentally the gardens! Nowhere do flowers grow more luxuriantly, in greater variety, or through a season more prolonged than on the coasts of Oregon, Washington, and California,--soil, moisture, and temperature combining to make gardening a simpler task than it is elsewhere. The shore country of Southern California is a perpetual garden, with a climate almost unrivalled for plants and for humans. North of San Francisco the near approach of the Japan Current produces a climate quite similar to that of England, and with the exception of possibly two months (and even then an occasional Rose may bloom) flowers are found all the year round. This favored section of the Northwest nevertheless is not visited with as much sunshine as is found elsewhere, but its gardens blossom with little assistance save from the frequent rainfall, more welcome to plants than to men. In Kansas and the other flat and fertile States of the Middle West the garden period, on account of the long, dry summers, is usually limited to the weeks from late March to late June. In the more northern temperature of the lake region gardens which flourish all summer are numerous. The Atlantic States have a shorter blooming season than those on the Pacific coast. Throughout the South, east of New Mexico, the warm weather season is as prolonged as on the Pacific coast, and yet in the Southern States garden bloom is checked half-way through the summer by excessive heat and drought (except in the favored mountainous localities), which at least interrupt the continuous succession of flowers. For this reason gardening in the South except in spring, or in high altitudes, is generally discouraged. Although not stated as an indisputable fact, scientifically, we are inclined to believe that the seacoast section of the Maryland peninsula is the locality in the East especially favorable to the most prolonged season of bloom. Lying between sea and bay, this particular district in the latitude for early spring and late frost enjoys also the benefit of surrounding waters, escaping thereby the parching summer climate from which gardens of the interior suffer, to the west and south and to the north, almost as far as Philadelphia. In Maine conditions are different; April and May gardens are conspicuously absent. The flower season generally begins in mid-June and does not much exceed three months, but in that period the bloom is exceptionally luxuriant. The season is necessarily a short one, as it is throughout this latitude westward to Oregon, where after reaching the Coast or Cascade Range there is a change and the climate becomes more like that of England than Maine. Along the Atlantic coast from Maine to New Jersey, where the climate is ideal for flowers, the greatest proportion of Eastern gardens may be found, on the shore and inland as well. So much for the general climatic effects upon flowers of the more populous districts of our vast country. A few lines will suffice to treat the climate question in connection with hedge-plants. While the summer climate in the Southern States has not generally a salutary effect upon the flowers, yet it has favored the best development of Boxwood, Holly, and certain other choice shrubs and trees, which do not thrive well north of Philadelphia. Fine specimens of Boxwood are rare sights in New England, where the more severe winters have from time to time destroyed the top growth. Many old New England gardens show the characteristic Box-edged path, but the shrub is usually not over two feet high, and is likely to remain so unless eventually the winter climate should moderate. Boxwood is seen on the Pacific coast, north of San Francisco, but not to the south, where Cypress is popular. There is little Boxwood in the latitude of New York City, except for edgings, where for tall hedges Privet, Arbor-Vitæ, Hemlock, and Spruce are probably the most reliable evergreens. Arbor-Vitæ is unlikely to live longer than seventy years. Although all of our States are not represented in this volume, these views are taken so generally from almost every section that the climatic conditions describing one State may usually stand as well at least for the States immediately adjoining. The only section of the Union omitted is that part through which run the Rocky Mountains. As a rule, this part of the country is not in its nature open to the cultivation of formal gardens, although its wild flora is remarkable enough to deserve special treatment. In the brief chapters to follow there will be given more detail relating to climate, in order that we fellow gardeners in all parts of the Union may know something more about one another's garden program, our several problems, and our privileges in this outdoor life that we lead. III NEW ENGLAND With dreams of the English gardens ever before them, our Pilgrim fathers and mothers brought flower and vegetable seeds to the new land, and the earliest entries in old Plymouth records contain mention of "garden plotes."[1] John Josselyn, fifty years later, wrote a book called "New England Rarities Discovered," including a list of plants originally brought from old England, mentioning those suitable or not for this climate, and showing that our ancestors had lost no time in planting not only vegetables for the benefit of their bodies but flowers as well for the cheer of their souls. The New England States naturally have the largest representation in this book, owing to the fact that the climate of numerous Western and Southern States causes many of the inhabitants to find summer homes near the North Atlantic seaboard. It is not that the New Englander is a more ardent gardener, but rather that ardent gardeners from elsewhere are tempted by the soil and climate to join the Easterners in creating these flower "plotes," which beautify hundreds of hamlets in this section. On the coast particularly flowers grow most luxuriantly, even within a few hundred yards of the surf, where snug gardens protected by windbreak hedges blossom as serenely as in an inland meadow. Not long ago most people believed that gardening or gardens near the sea were an impossibility; but when they realized the hardiness of certain dense shrubs that make perfect hedges and windbreaks, gardens on the shore sprang rapidly into existence, and we of the inland are apt to envy nature's partiality to seaside flowers. MAINE At Bar Harbor on the island of Mount Desert, Maine, as in other places of this latitude, the season, of course, begins later and ends sooner than near New York City. The flowering period is from five to six weeks shorter at Bar Harbor. However, the wonderful summer climate somewhat atones for this briefer season, and the gardens of Maine can boast of unusual luxuriance, in richness of color and size of plants, with but little heat or prolonged drought to affect their best development. The hardier seeds sown in the open will germinate in mid-May; tender annuals in June; the plants of tender annuals go out soon after June 10. Daffodils appear about May 15, followed by late Tulips; German Iris appears in the week of June 10; Sweet William and Roses in early July; Delphinium in mid-July, and Hollyhocks about July 28. Late Phlox is at its best by mid-August. Thus the plants beginning to bloom near New York City in May and early June do not, on account of the colder spring, appear at Bar Harbor for several weeks to come, when they unite their bloom with the flowers of a later period. The slow-coming spring retards earlier bloom, but has less effect on that of midsummer. The summer residents owning gardens in Maine rarely arrive much before the last of June, and consequently such early bloomers as Tulips, etc., are not seen as often as in the milder climates. In this northern State frost usually destroys the garden by September 15. Not only is it possible to grow all the favorite flowers along the shore, but even on the islands lying off the coast of Maine there are innumerable little gardens, such as those at Isleborough, which revel in the moist sea climate of midsummer and blossom most satisfactorily until frost. At this point it is interesting to contrast the climate of the North Atlantic section with the region directly across the continent along the Pacific coast, where at Vancouver's Island, for instance, plant life enjoys a climate similar to that of England, with a growing season quite as prolonged. There are beautiful gardens at Bar Harbor, on the estates along the shore as well as farther inland. Most of them, screened by fine growths of trees and shrubbery from view of the highway, are equally well protected from sea-winds, blooming luxuriantly in spite of the fact that not very long ago the best authorities believed that gardens on this shore could never prosper. Two of the most noted at Mount Desert are shown in the following pages. At Kenarden Lodge the garden in the clear atmosphere of this northern climate is most beautiful in form and coloring, and its background of distant hills combines to intensify the charm of this famous place, which is in bloom all summer. The centre beds are filled with annuals in prevailing colors of pink, blue, and white, noticeably Snapdragon, Ageratum, Sweet Alyssum, pink Geranium, and Begonia. Planted in masses, these and other dependable annuals blossom as long as needed. The broad green sod paths act as a setting to the delicate hues covering the beds. The perennials are banked against the vine-covered walls. The Blair Eyrie garden on the High Brook Road is equally inviting and contains many other attractive features beyond the limits of this restricted view. Peacefully retired behind its boundaries of trimmed hedge and dense woodland, it must always delight the flower lover. Perennials abound with a good supply of enlivening annuals. Its surroundings of evergreen trees are in strong contrast to the brilliant tones of Phlox, Lilies, Hydrangeas, and Hollyhocks, and this garden as seen from an upper terrace is a blaze of lovely color framed in green. In southern Maine the garden at Hamilton House has no rival in that section of New England. The hand of an artist has wrought a perfect scheme delightfully in accord with an ideal environment; but pictures cannot do it justice. Within the grassy court of the main garden the several small open beds are filled with groups of annuals. The rear beds contain tall-growing perennials mixed with some annuals. There are weeks when the garden is all pink, and again all blue and white. It is surrounded on three sides with most artistic pergolas, from one side of which the view down the Piscataqua River is a picturesque feature. Stone steps on another side lead to an upper garden filled with bloom surrounding a quaint and ancient little building kept as a studio. In isolation, simplicity, and ripeness the atmosphere of the whole place breathes of olden days, and might well be taken as a model for a perfect American garden. Its gates may be seen in a later section. [Illustration: PLATE 1 "Kenarden Lodge," Mrs. John S. Kennedy, Bar Harbor, Maine] [Illustration: PLATE 2 "Blair Eyrie," Bar Harbor, Maine Garden of the late D. C. Blair, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 3 "Hamilton House," South Berwick, Maine. Mrs. George S. Tyson] [Illustration: PLATE 4 End of pergola] [Illustration: PLATE 5 Garden looking east "Hamilton House," South Berwick, Maine. Mrs. George S. Tyson] NEW HAMPSHIRE AND VERMONT Side by side, these twin States have much in common--climate, mountains, and old historical associations included. Owing to the short, cool summers of this latitude and altitude, there may be less attention given to flowers than in other parts of New England. But the few illustrations in the following pages are fine evidences of garden art, at least in the region of Cornish, the abode of artists, and where gardens are plentiful. The season opens about four weeks later than near New York City, and in early September frost lays waste the splendid bloom while still in its prime. Although flowers are slow in appearing, a perfection of growth later makes up for lost time. In fact, climatic conditions are so favorable to summer plants that, once started, the garden tasks are lighter than in warmer climates, where drought and pests are more prevalent. Possibly the most famous of Cornish gardens is that of Charles A. Platt, Esq., whose beautiful gardens in several States are numerous and noted. His own hillside place is a labyrinth of flowers, admirably suiting the environment, spacious and dignified in its rich simplicity. Perfectly in accord also with the atmosphere of this mountain country is the lovely garden of Stephen Parrish, Esq., delightfully unique and suggesting a little English garden. This enclosure of flowers is but a section of a broader plan where pool, grass, and trees are pleasant factors. Mrs. Hyde's garden is a mass of bloom composed chiefly of the longest-lived annuals and giving a charming color effect to this picturesque spot. The best gardens of Vermont, with its still greater area of uplands, are probably those in and around Manchester and Bennington. They are usually of the simplest character, and lovely under the personal care of devoted owners. One worthy of special attention is seen in the view of Longmeadow garden, which is an example of the great value of trees as a background, and a strong argument in their behalf. As a gem needs a setting, so the flowers, in even the most modest planting, are doubly fair when framed in luxuriant green. [Illustration: PLATE 6 Cornish, N. H. Charles A. Platt, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 7 Cornish, N. H. Charles A. Platt, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 8 Cornish, N. H. Mrs. George Rublee _From photographs by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 9 Cornish, N. H. Stephen Parrish, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 10 Cornish, N. H. Mrs. William H. Hyde _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 11 Old Bennington, Vt. Mrs. James A. Eddy] MASSACHUSETTS Probably no other section of the Union contains as many gardens, old and new, as does this fertile State, combining the advantages natural to the altitude of the beautiful Berkshires with the favorable climate of the coast. People representing nearly every State help to form the summer colonies of New England, more especially in Massachusetts. Everywhere the luxuriance of bloom is very marked and most noticeable on the coast, where all plants, especially certain less long-lived annuals like Poppies, Salpiglossis, and Mallows, reach their limit of perfection and continue at their best for an unusual period. In the latitude of Boston the season starts two weeks later than near New York City, and the gardens, beginning in the German Iris period, open about the fifth of June. The Sweet William and its contemporaries follow by late June; the Delphinium period is early July; Hollyhocks come about July 20. Tender annuals can be safely planted out soon after June 1. The garden season in the hill country opens a few days later than at Boston, and in the Berkshires the frost is apt to destroy the garden before September 20. Where the thermometer may drop occasionally to twenty degrees below zero, ample winter covering is necessary, and snow adds its still better protection to the plants during most of the winter months. The average summer heat is not excessive and, although droughts must sometimes be reckoned with, the water supply is generally sufficient. It would be a serious matter to attempt to name the best gardens in this State, for who could judge where such an infinite variety exists? At least some of the best examples in photography can be given, although each view but hints at the fuller beauty to be found in the garden itself. Of the many wonderful gardens in Massachusetts possibly the most remarkable of all is Weld, in Brookline, which is known to gardeners far and wide. There is nothing in America more extensive and more richly planted. The numerous beds are filled with bloom for many weeks, and each bed contains a massing of one variety, whether perennials or annuals, which, when it has finished flowering, is replaced by something of another period. The French features in the garden are prominent and the planting may be considered American in some respects--altogether a most pleasant combination. Of a distinctly opposite type but equally delightful is Holm Lea, near Brookline, and a score of photographs would be necessary to depict this place of flowering shrubs and perennial bloom bordering the winding grass paths leading from one lovely spot to another. An extremely interesting and unusual type in America is the stately green garden at Wellesley, at this time without a rival in its particular style of planting. Because of its frequent appearance in various magazines of the country it is too well known to need further description. Of still another class and very beautiful is one of the most noted gardens in the Berkshires planned entirely by the owner of Fairlawn, Lenox. It is a series of formal gardens, in coloring and setting most perfectly devised. But how useless a photographic description when applied to a combination of gardens spread over one or two acres! Several pools and many old shade-trees play an important part, and its charm is still more enhanced by the wide view of the distant hills fitting so perfectly into the garden scheme. Three fine illustrations of Bellefontaine but feebly suggest the beauty of a place made of splendid gardens, pools, and temple, long shaded grass walks lined with statuary and other features of Roman art, blending with the natural attractions of this estate. Gardens, lawns, and ponds have the rich woodlands as background, the hedges and shrubs are developed maturely, and everywhere there are charming effects in "green life." Most of this work, it is interesting to add, has been accomplished under the direction of the owner. Picturesque indeed are other Lenox gardens, including White Lodge. The latter place is noted for its little white garden enclosed in a tall green hedge, and the main garden, especially in June and August, contains a delicious color scheme. Broad grass steps are another feature of the place. Views were not obtainable in time for this volume. At Fernbrooke is found the garden of an artist and sculptor, a study in color and in garden design most artistically planned, but rambling enough to prevent a connected view in photography. Golden Italian gourds pendent from the pergolas; standard currant bushes bordering a path and covered with red berries as late as September; dwarf fruit trees too, used decoratively, are among the happy points of interest. The scheme of the garden of a famous sculptor at Chesterwood, in Glendale, is not as dependent on flowers as on the well-considered adjustment of garden equipment to the natural beauty of the environment. Sunshine mingling with the shadows of the spreading trees plays its part by giving life and color in changeful tones to the old stone seat and fountain. The vine-covered arch frames a view of the flower-bordered path which fades away into a woodland, and these with other sights gladsome to lovers of such art have given Chesterwood its place in the ranks of beautiful gardens. At Riverside Farm, overhanging the beautiful Tyringham Valley, and possessing possibly the most wonderful of all Berkshire views, is the dainty garden shown in the accompanying illustrations. It is the work of an artist, and truly a place of delight. The garden nestles to the hillside, enclosed in a low stone wall. On one side the sloping hill down which winding rough stone steps descend to the garden; on another side a rustic pergola and pool; the third side a line of old apple trees overhanging the wall; the fourth side contains the simple entrance, and beyond the boundaries on all three sides--the wonderful view. At Naumkeag, Stockbridge, the formal garden full of bloom, which is part of a larger plan, has a wide-spread reputation. It is especially noted for its battlement-cut hedge, and has as an accessory a splendid landscape background, so common to the Berkshires and so desirable to the garden beautiful. "Naumkeag" is the Indian name for Salem, meaning "Haven of Rest." Recently completed at Great Barrington, the spacious garden at Brookside is the best piece of Italian work in this section. The accompanying illustration gives but a faint idea of its size, its flowers, and its many other fine points. The two pictures illustrating the garden at Overloch, Wenham, and at Rock Maple Farm, Hamilton, are still other good examples of the variety and charm of the flower planting of this coast State. Both of these views are unique, and in fact how seldom do we find sameness in gardens! Mr. Longfellow's place at Cambridge, Doctor Weld's at Brookline, and The Witch's Place at Salem are typical of New England--the paths all edged with Box, which shrub, on account of frost blights, has never attained great height. These gardens are just simple, lovable little places filled with shadows and sunshine, some flowers, and the good scent of Box, which latter always seems so especially essential to old gardens. FOOTNOTES: [1] Quoted from "Old Time Gardens," by Alice Morse Earle. [Illustration: PLATE II "Fairlawn"] [Illustration: PLATE III "Fairlawn," Lenox, Mass. Miss Kneeland _From autochrome photographs_] [Illustration: PLATE 12 "Weld," Brookline, Mass. Mrs. Larz Anderson _From a photograph by The J. Horace McFarland Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 13 "Weld," Brookline, Mass. Mrs. Larz Anderson _From a photograph by Thomas Marr and Son_] [Illustration: PLATE 14 "Weld," Brookline, Mass. Mrs. Larz Anderson _From a photograph by Thomas Marr and Son_] [Illustration: PLATE 15 Wellesley, Mass. H. H. Hunnewell, Esq. _From a photograph by Wurts Bros._] [Illustration: PLATE 16 "Holm Lea," Brookline, Mass. Professor C. S. Sargent _From a photograph by The J. Horace McFarland Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 17 "Fairlawn," Lenox, Mass. Miss Kneeland _From a photograph by William Radford_] [Illustration: PLATE 18] [Illustration: PLATE 19 "Fairlawn," Lenox, Mass. Miss Kneeland _From photographs by William Radford_] [Illustration: PLATE 20 "Bellefontaine," Lenox, Mass. Giraud Foster, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 21 "Bellefontaine," Lenox, Mass. Giraud Foster, Esq. _From a photograph, copyright, by the Detroit Publishing Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 22 "Bellefontaine," Lenox, Mass. Giraud Foster, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 23 "Overloch," Wenham, Mass. J. A. Burnham, Esq. _From a photograph by Miss M. H. Northend_] [Illustration: PLATE 24 "Fernbrooke," Lenox, Mass. Thomas Shields Clark, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 25 "Chesterwood," Glendale, Mass. Daniel Chester French, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 26 "Riverside Farm," Tyringham, Mass. Mrs. Banyer Clarkson] [Illustration: PLATE 27 "Riverside Farm," Tyringham, Mass. Mrs. Banyer Clarkson _From photographs by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 28 "Riverside Farm," Tyringham, Mass. Mrs. Banyer Clarkson _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 29 "Naum Keag," Stockbridge, Mass. Joseph H. Choate, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 30 "Brookside," Great Barrington, Mass. Mrs. H. Hall Walker _From a photograph lent by Ferruccio Vitali_] [Illustration: PLATE 31 "Rock Maple Farm," Hamilton, Mass. George von L. Meyer, Esq. _From a photograph by Miss M. H. Northend_] [Illustration: PLATE 32 Brookline, Mass. Doctor Stephen Weld _From a photograph by The J. Horace McFarland Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 33 Longfellow's Garden, Cambridge, Mass. _From a photograph by The J. Horace McFarland Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 34 Old Witch House, Salem, Mass. _From a photograph by G. A. Spence_] RHODE ISLAND Limited space permits but a suggestion of the various types of planting along the Atlantic coast, which promises to become almost a continuous garden by the sea from New Jersey to Maine. Rhode Island contains some of the most magnificent places in the country, the majority of them situated near bay or sea, where they thrive in congenial environment. The quality of the climate as it affects plant life will be easily realized after reading of the climatic conditions of Massachusetts as well as of those to the south, on Long Island, for instance. The older gardens are found in the vicinity of Providence, while at Narragansett and Newport those of a later period abound. Newport by the sea, more famous than any other American summer resort, naturally possesses the greatest number of gardens on an elaborate scale. The coast at this point is somewhat sheltered, the air is mild, and there is sea moisture so beneficial to flowers. Windbreaks of hedges or walls are used where the winds blow strong off the water. Lovely and lovingly planned is the garden at Mariemont, a poetical spot, overflowing with color and sunshine, yet with shadowy retreats, and the stillness that belongs to an enclosure of grass paths. It might be taken for a bit of foreign garden from any part of the world, and possesses a quality of beauty of which one could never tire. The long, broad path with its brilliant border and distant vista is the central division of a charming plan.[2] Few estates in America are as imposing and as suggestive of the grandeur of an Italian or English country-seat as The Elms, and it is probably among the oldest of Newport's famous places. The illustration is limited to a narrow view of this great, green formal garden in some sections of which flowers are included in rich profusion. Probably no place at Newport is more noted for its beauty than Vernon Court, and, while necessity forces the omission of pictures showing many of its most elaborate features, a view of the stately formal garden is a welcome addition to this collection which aims to present a variety in types of planting in a few large formal gardens, as well as in those which are smaller and more personal. Vernon Court is not a new garden; it is unspoiled by garish accessories, and to the lover of the garden majestic it represents a perfect type. At Warren, near Providence, the place at Villaserra is delightfully located, sloping to a bay. Here is one of the favored gardens where old trees take an important part; in fact, of such consequence are they that the garden was undoubtedly made to the scheme of the trees and the water beyond--a beautiful sanctuary of blossoms and green life, shut in from the discord of the outside world. [Illustration: PLATE 35 "Mariemont," Newport, R. I. Mrs. Thomas J. Emory _From a photograph, copyright, by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 36 "The Elms," Newport, R. I. Edward J. Berwind, Esq. _From a photograph, copyright by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 37 "Vernon Court," Newport, R. I. Mrs. Richard Gambrill _From a photograph by Alman & Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 38 "Villaserra," Warren, R. I. Reverend Joseph Hutcheson _From a photograph lent by C. A. Platt, Esq._] CONNECTICUT Connecticut gardens are many, both inland and along the shores of the Sound. Those of the hilly western section have the advantage of a somewhat cooler altitude. Otherwise it is unnecessary to give further details as to climatic conditions,[3] as the northern boundary is about a hundred miles distant from northern New Jersey and the temperatures differ but little, although of course every hundred miles northward makes gardening a somewhat simpler proposition, because of slightly cooler conditions as well as a shortened flower season. In a reputed true story of the long-ago settlement of Old Saybrook there is mention of a woman's flower-garden, doubtless the earliest on Long Island Sound. Here the sheltered inlets and bays must have seemed a welcome haven to our Pilgrim fathers from the wind-swept coast of Plymouth, whence they had wandered, probably seeking fertile farmland. The gardens of this State, with some notable exceptions, are mainly those of a simpler type, made and tended by their owners, who living in them, will continue to beautify them more and more as time goes on. These unpretentious creations of flower lovers often show originality not always found in gardens of a more formal design, and might be considered typically American. Following the idea of simplicity, the first two illustrations of this chapter portray the "lovesome spot," where flowers predominate, with nothing to recall the splendor of other lands. A place for the harboring of flowers for the sake of the flowers, and this was surely the thought that brooded over the first New England gardens planted in the early half of the seventeenth century, when American gardens had their beginning. The glimpse through the arched gateway of the garden at Knock-Mae-Cree--in old Irish, Hill of My Heart--(Plate 168), and the curtailed view of the flowery planting in the Woodside garden stimulate a longing further to penetrate into these lovely sanctums. The garden at Elmwood is partly illustrated in the accompanying picture--it is further gracefully adorned with pergola and pool. Liberally designed without being elaborate, it has a charm that is all its own. Of quite another character is the perfect formal garden at Pomfret Center, appealing to the garden lover for its surpassing beauty in flower bloom, enhanced by the graceful architectural lines of the buildings surrounding the enclosure, and giving it the sense of complete privacy. Still another type of garden seen occasionally in America is that at Branford House, a magnificent estate at Groton near New London, and one of the famous places of that popular summer resort. This stately garden suggests some of the foreign gardens familiar to us through travel and books. FOOTNOTES: [2] See also the frontispiece. [3] These climatic conditions are explained in New Jersey chapter. [Illustration: PLATE 39 "Woodside," Hartford, Conn. Walter L. Goodwin, Esq. _From a photograph by The J. Horace McFarland Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 40 "Elmwood," Pomfret, Conn. Vinton Freedley, Esq. _From a photograph by Miss E. M. Boult_] [Illustration: PLATE 41 Pomfret Centre, Conn. Mrs. Randolph M. Clark _From a photograph by Miss E. M. Boult_] [Illustration: PLATE 42 "Branford House," Groton, Conn. Morton F. Plant, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 43 Pomfret Centre, Conn. Mrs. Randolph M. Clark _From a photograph by Miss E. M. Boult_] IV NEW YORK There are gardens, old and new, around the many wealthy cities of this great State, through the upper section, near Buffalo, Utica, Syracuse, Albany, etc., as well as to the south. It must suffice to give a few of the most picturesque views obtainable, almost all of which belong to places within one hundred miles of New York City. The garden at Auburn offers a vision of flowers in glorious profusion, combined with perfect order, which latter condition is not always easily attainable when plants are allowed a certain amount of freedom. The location of this garden, in western New York not far from Lake Ontario, is in about the latitude of northern Massachusetts--a climate congenial to flowers. A particular type of garden often predominates in some localities on account of the conformation of the land; as, for instance, in a mountainous section like Tuxedo Park, where the places are scattered over hilly woodland country, many of the gardens naturally develop into those of terraces, or else, ideal opportunities have created the rambling wild garden with winding paths, shaded pools, ferns and flowers. A glimpse of one of this kind is to be had in an accompanying illustration--an exquisite bit of semi-cultivated wildness that moves one to wish to see beyond the picture's limits. Among its formal gardens, Tuxedo at present has nothing more imposing than the one at Woodland. The wall-beds contain perennials in mass against the vine-clad background, and the central fountain is framed in broad beds of Roses, in bush and standard form. This garden's stately effects are enhanced by the richly developed forms of clipped evergreens in Boxwood and various Retinosporas, to all of which age, as must ever be the case, lends force and dignity. The Cragswerthe garden, a spacious plan on three connecting terraces, charmingly exemplifies the results obtainable by the exercise of good taste upon desirable opportunities. Each terrace illustrates, in harmony with the whole, a special beauty of its own. The hill gardens usually have also the advantage of a landscape background, as a rule a pleasant feature also in the Mount Kisco region of Westchester County, with its numerous hilltop homes. A garden with a view possesses a setting all its own; one that can hardly be imitated in that particular landscape at least, varying under the changing clouds, and therefore never monotonous. Such also is the opportunity in many Hudson River places, and only those who have lived in the highlands by this most beautiful of American rivers know the charm of the mountainsides, with their deep ravines and river vistas. There is space for but a few of the river gardens in these limited pages. The one at Blithewood, Barrytown-on-Hudson, is a charming example of a more modern garden, beautifully located and planted especially for May, June, and September. A vine-covered brick wall surrounds it on three sides, and a terra-cotta balustrade is the boundary on the river side. Chinese Junipers, not supposedly very hardy, are, however, the well-grown, clipped evergreens in sight. Barrytown is about a hundred miles from New York. Up on the Beacon Mountain the Wodenethe gardens were begun about seventy-five years ago, remaining ever since in the same family, and always celebrated for their beauty, due doubtless to the devoted and skilful care continuously given them. Trees, shrubs, and vines are rich in maturity; the impress of Father Time has so kindly marked the place, that of the older gardens Wodenethe is probably the finest on the Hudson. Not far away there was once another garden. Possibly there is nothing fairer than the dearest memories of childhood--sometimes doubtless wonderfully interwoven with the gossamer-like stuff of which air-castles are made--and so it is with deep satisfaction that the author can dwell upon views of an old garden relying on something more real than semi-dreams. To be able to duplicate this happy place for some other fortunate children would be a joy indeed, and some day the opportunity may be realized while the dream still lives. Nearly three acres of land might be required to contain the broad beds bordered with peach, plum, pear trees and shrubs, and edged with flowers--the great centre spaces filled with vegetables or small fruits. The outer court of this garden, on three sides, was formed by two rows of arching apple trees, as shown in an accompanying illustration. The fourth side was a lane running between an evergreen hedge and a line of Poplar and nut trees. The outer walks were broad, the inner intersecting paths were narrower; the tall planting in the various beds prevented a view from one path to another, and this was half of the garden's fascination to the children who played there in the games of make-believe. Always there was something unexpected awaiting them around the corner. Blissful the chance to become suddenly lost in grape vines, corn, or dense shrubbery when the world seemed to consist of just tree-tops, sunlight, flowers, fruits, and birds! What a contrast to the life of the average fortune-favored child of the present period! Echo Lawn is another lovely place near the river, as old, too, as Wodenethe, extensive in acres, abounding in splendid trees, and full of a beauty and charm peculiarly characteristic of the old places on the Hudson. The gardens, although of a later-date creation, are admirably fitted to the surroundings, and with pools, wall basins, and flower planting, hardly discernible in the illustration, are a rich addition to the noted river places. Twenty miles to the west of the Hudson River is Meadowburn Farm--famous through its owner, the author of "Hardy Garden" books. Two photographs, not hitherto published, must alone represent the acres of bloom on this interesting place. In describing it, eight gardens must be considered rather than _the_ garden. The Evergreen Garden (shown here), the May Flowering Hillside, the Lily and Iris Garden, the Pool Garden, the Perennial Garden, the Cedar Walk, the Vegetable Garden, bordered with flowers, and the Rose Garden. A rare treat for garden lovers who visit there by special arrangement. At Ridgeland Farm, in Westchester County, the owner has shown that the smallest garden possible when fitted to artistic surroundings and filled with harmonious bloom can, as a garden and as a picture, satisfy our craving for the beautiful quite as completely as a subject on a much larger scale. This fair little plot, with its brick paths and gay blossoms, continues in bloom for several months, which, in spite of narrow beds, is always possible in a well-planned and carefully tended garden. New York includes within its borders the climate of all the New England States, and, besides, the atmosphere of its lake shores and the milder sea climate of New York City and Long Island. Between the high altitudes of the Adirondacks on the north and the sea-level of Long Island on the south there is a difference of nearly four weeks in the opening of spring. Within a forty-mile radius of New York City and westward in the same latitude Daffodils appear about April 15; early Tulips and Phlox divaricata the last of April; late Tulips May 10; Lilies-of-the-Valley May 15; German Iris May 22 (florentina alba a trifle earlier); and by May 25 Lupins, Columbine, Pyrethrum hybrid, and Oriental Poppies, etc., arrive; Roses, Peonies, etc., about June 1; Sweet William, Anchusa, and their companions June 5; Campanula medium June 15; Delphinium June 20; Hollyhocks July 1 or a few days earlier. At the eastern end of Long Island Tulips, Lily-of-the-Valley, Roses, shrubs and tree foliage appear about a week later than the same near the city of New York. In our extremely variable climate it is impossible to have fixed dates for the opening of bloom. It must depend upon whether spring is early or late, which sometimes causes a difference of a week or ten days in the appearance of the flowers. Lily-of-the-Valley and German Iris seem less affected by variable springs than other plants. It is perfectly safe near Manhattan Island to plant out tender annuals May 25, and many venture it by May 15. Killing frost may be expected between October 1 and November 1--rarely earlier than October 1. Forty-five miles north of the city of New York, in such higher altitudes as Mount Kisco or Tuxedo Park, the spring opens about a week later. Within this radius of the city the summer thermometer occasionally rises above seventy-eight degrees, and in winter it may average possibly thirty to forty degrees above zero; only a few days know zero weather, and rarely does it drop below. At least once a winter there will come a period of weather as mild as fifty to sixty degrees, when one almost fears the premature appearance of some of the plants. It is on account of the thaws as well as the cold that the plants require a moderate covering to keep the ground as far as possible frozen hard and undisturbed by the sun, as frequent thawing injures the roots. A garden at the other extreme of the State, in the Adirondack Mountains, planted to begin with early Tulips, Phlox divaricata, and others of this period, will make its display about June 1. Lilies-of-the-Valley arrive soon after June 8; German Iris, Lupin, Pyrethrum, Oriental Poppy about June 15; Sweet William and Roses near July 1; Delphinium July 15; Hollyhocks July 25. Tender annuals are planted out about June 10, and a frost after that date is of rare occurrence. The first killing frost of autumn may be expected between the 15th and 20th of September. While the thermometer in summer fluctuates between sixty and eighty degrees, it often falls in winter to thirty degrees below zero. The hardy plants are well protected under the heavy snow covering which is usually the winter condition there. [Illustration: PLATE IV An outer walk The author's childhood garden _From a photograph, colored by H. Irving Marlatt_] [Illustration: PLATE 44 Auburn, N. Y. Mrs. C. D. MacDougall] [Illustration: PLATE 45 Auburn, N. Y. Mrs. C. D. MacDougall _From photographs by Emil J. Kraemer, by courtesy of Wadley & Smythe_] [Illustration: PLATE 46 Section of a wild garden at Tuxedo Park, N. Y. _From a photograph by C. P. Hotaling_] [Illustration: PLATE 47 "Woodland," Tuxedo, N. Y. Henry L. Tilford, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 48 A garden in three terraces "Cragswerthe," Tuxedo, N. Y. Mrs. Samuel Spencer _From photographs by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 49 "Blithewood," Barrytown-on-Hudson, N. Y. Mrs. Andrew C. Zabriskie] [Illustration: PLATE 50 "Wodenethe," Beacon-on-Hudson, N. Y. Mrs. Winthrop Sargent _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 51 "Wodenethe," Beacon-on-Hudson, N. Y. Mrs. Winthrop Sargent _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 52 The centre section] [Illustration: PLATE 53 The outer boundary The author's childhood garden, Newburgh-on-Hudson, N. Y.] [Illustration: PLATE 54 "Echo Lawn," Newburgh-on-Hudson, N. Y. Thaddeus Beals, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 55 The evergreen garden] [Illustration: PLATE 56 A path in the perennial garden "Meadowburn," Warwick, N. Y. Mrs. Helen Rutherfurd Ely] [Illustration: PLATE 57 "Ridgeland Farm," Bedford, N. Y. Mrs. Nelson Williams _From a photograph by F. Seabury_] LONG ISLAND, NEW YORK In considering the gardens belonging to the State of New York, its most favored garden centre is undoubtedly Long Island. Here soil and climate combine to encourage both vegetables and flowers. And on the shores, particularly of the south side and eastern end, the most satisfactory bloom is obtainable as a rule with less trouble than is expended upon the flowers of the interior. Not that Long Island is secure from periods of drought and visitations of rose-bugs, but on the whole the plants weather the obstacles better here than in other places of this latitude. There is a marked softness in the winter climate especially near the sea. Possibly nowhere else except in southern California does the Privet hedge make as remarkable growth as on the south shore, and near the west end there are highly prized specimens of old Box. Southampton, at the eastern end, in proportion to population has probably a greater number of gardens than any town in the State, almost all of them designed and developed by their owners, who have thus delightfully expressed their love for flowers. Most soul-satisfying, unique in many points, and overflowing with bloom all summer is Mrs. Wyckoff's garden at Southampton. Within three hundred yards of the beach it is truly a seaside garden, but the great Privet hedges, fourteen feet high, make perfect windbreaks for the protection of its bloom. Connected by arched openings in the Privet there are other enclosures for various planting schemes, and noticeable is the rather unusual variety of flowers growing in these several lovely gardens. The color grouping in the long, broad beds against the tall Privet background is as perfect as any planting known. The arbors on either side of the garden proper are formed of arches of Dorothy Perkins and Cedar trees alternating--the Cedars are bent and strapped at the top to produce a curve. The effect is both unusual and delightful. In the same place but farther from the sea is another famous garden, at The Orchard, the estate of James L. Breese, Esq. The garden was started about 1905 and is entirely original in design. The artistic sense of the owner is responsible for the dexterous touches which beautify the garden and pergolas. Neither photography nor word-picture could do justice to the exquisite harmony of coloring throughout this wonderful place, where bloom is continuous over a long period. Fashioned in Box-edged parterres after the old-time plan and dear to the heart of Americans is such a place as the sunny Box garden at The Appletrees, so charmingly portrayed in this chapter. There is a sweetness and trimness in its simplicity intermingling with the flowers to make it one of the fairest of garden-plots. We dwell with delight upon the picturesque view of a section of Mrs. Curtis's garden which might well have been taken from an English garden, so closely does it resemble that type which has been our inspiration more especially during the last ten years. In America the walled garden is found to be useful near the sea, and not undesirable in the cooler northern interior, but by many experts it is not advised in a warm climate, where it prevents the free circulation of air within its enclosure, from which condition some plants may suffer. In the near-by hamlet of East Hampton, Mrs. Lorenzo Woodhouse has an ingenious scheme of connecting formal gardens that are as remarkable in conception as they are exquisite in color harmony. In length the plan is considerably greater than the width, and the long vista from end to end presents to the artist's eye a lovely picture of flowers, pool, and arches. Near by, on Huntting Lane, the wild garden belonging to R. Cummins, Esq., is considered the best piece of work of its kind in the country. It is wonderfully composed with natural pools and streams, tea-houses and rustic bridges suggestive of the Japanese art, yet lovelier than the trim Oriental type of water garden because so delightfully wild and overgrown with massive plants, vines, and shrubs, without, however, being disorderly in appearance. It is an especially rare treat in early July at the season of Japanese Iris. At the west end of Long Island, near New York, gardens are almost as plentiful as those in the region of the Hamptons. For lack of space the illustrations of the lovely garden at Manor House, Glen Cove, and the picturesque pool at Cedarhurst must alone represent this section. Later periods of bloom succeed the Tulips at the Manor House, giving continuous color all summer to this charming place. The view of Mr. Steele's garden at Westbury is a fine example of an ideal hillside planting leading to the flower-beds on a lower level. * * * * * Probably the oldest garden in New York State is the one at Sylvester Manor, on Shelter Island, between the shores of Long Island and Connecticut. This charming little flower-plot is reached by a short flight of descending steps. Some of its old Boxwood appears in the illustration of the pool which is a part of the garden scheme. The original owners of Shelter Island were the Manhasset Indians. "In 1651 Nathaniel Sylvester came from England with his young bride, and here they planted the Box, still one of the wonders of the place, and erected the first manor-house with its oak doors and panels and mantels fitted in England, and brick tiles brought from Holland. The present house was built in 1737 with enough of the woodwork of the old house to maintain symmetry in traditions, and stands to-day as it has stood the better part of two centuries, filled with its old furniture, paintings, and curios. Here is kept the cloth of gold left by Captain Kidd and many other things that time and space forbid mentioning." The old homestead has always remained in the family in direct descent. [Illustration: PLATE V At the hour of sunset Southampton, L. I. Mrs. Peter B. Wyckoff _After an autochrome photograph by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 58 Arbor of cedars and roses alternating Southampton, L. I. Mrs. Peter B. Wyckoff _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 59 "The Orchard," Southampton, L. I. James Lawrence Breese, Esq. _From a photograph, copyright, by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 60 "The Orchard," Southampton, L. I. James Lawrence Breese, Esq. _From a photograph, copyright, by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 61] [Illustration: PLATE 62 "The Orchard," Southampton, L. I. James Lawrence Breese, Esq. _From photographs, copyright, by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 63 "The Appletrees," Southampton, L. I. Mrs. Henry E. Coe _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 64 "The Appletrees," Southampton, L. I. Mrs. Henry E. Coe _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 65 Southampton, L. I. Mrs. G. Warrington Curtis] [Illustration: PLATE 66 East Hampton, L. I. Mrs. Lorenzo E. Woodhouse _From photographs by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 67 East Hampton, L. I. Mrs. Lorenzo E. Woodhouse _From a photograph by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 68 The wild garden _From photographs by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 69 The wild garden East Hampton, L. I. Stephen Cummins, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 70 "Manor House," Glen Cove, L. I. Mrs. John T. Pratt _From a photograph by The J. Horace McFarland Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 71 Cedarhurst, L. I. Samuel Kopf, Esq. _From a photograph, copyright, by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 72 Westbury, L. I. Charles Steele, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 73 "Manor House," Glen Cove, L. I. _From photographs by The J. Horace McFarland Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 74 Ancient boxwood "Sylvester Manor," Shelter Island _From a photograph by David Humphreys_] V NEW JERSEY It would take much time and long travel to discover the State possessing the greatest number of fine gardens, but there is little risk of misstatement in placing New Jersey as fourth or fifth on the list; New York, including Long Island, in the lead, then Massachusetts, and possibly Pennsylvania or California next. Near the sea the climate is, of course, an especial incentive to flower-growing, and along the Jersey coast, especially in Monmouth County, there are numerous gardens. Many excellent specimens are to be seen at Princeton, Trenton, Short Hills, and Morristown, as well as in the country around Bernardsville, in all of which places garden clubs are rapidly developing the cult. Only about fifty miles separate Trenton, Princeton, and Monmouth Beach, in central Jersey, from Morristown, Short Hills, etc., at the north, so that spring gardens practically begin in both sections at the same time, with possibly not more than three or four days' difference between them. While the south Jersey soil does not always encourage gardening, the northern half of the State may be considered on the whole quite fertile, and the summer temperature is not too hot for flowers. Occasional droughts are to be expected, but the water-supply is usually adequate. In the northern part of the State the usual date for Crocuses is March 25; Daffodils, April 15; Lily-of-the-Valley, May 12; late Tulips, May 10; German Iris, May 22; Oriental Poppy, Columbine, Lupin, and Pyrethrum, May 26; Roses, Peonies, Anchusa, and Sweet William, early June; Delphiniums, June 20; Hollyhocks, July 1. In fact, the climatic condition, as it affects plant life, is very similar throughout the region surrounding New York City--not different enough to require special attention. The beautiful garden at Glen Alpine is one of prolonged bloom from May 22 until frost, and its planting plans are shown in the author's "Continuous Bloom in America." Both English and Italian inspiration commingle in this beautiful spot. Its setting of old trees on three sides, with the upsloping hill to the rear covered with choice blossom trees and evergreens, as well as the ancient hedge, furnish a background in keeping with the dignity of the place. The pergola is only the beginning of an interesting upper shrub and bulb garden with rambling paths. Other views are given in plates 86 and 172. At Cherrycroft, the garden also blooms continuously, and some of its plans are likewise given in the book above-mentioned. The pergola and tea-house lead out to a maze formed by a tall Arbor-Vitæ hedge. Adjoining is a Rose garden, more or less continually in bloom, and near by a garden for cutting-flowers. The outlook over the formal garden, both from house and pergola, is upon a sea of flowers, possibly unequalled in its profusion of bloom. The four beds encircling the pool are first covered with Pansies and English Daisies, each bed containing one large clump of German Iris, edged with Cottage Tulips. For later bloom, white Petunias fill two beds, light pink Petunias the other two beds. Surrounding the rim of the pool there are Campanula medium, alternating with fall-sown Larkspur, the former replaced by Balsam. The four large beds opposite the pool-beds are planted in predominating tones of yellow, blue, pink, and dark red respectively, with white freely intermixed. The beds on the upper level are treated rather similarly. At both Glen Alpine and Cherrycroft nurseries of cold-frames abundantly supply the many annuals and perennials required to fill the broad beds. The prevailing colors required in both gardens are pink, dark red, blues, and yellows. Of the latter, the stronger tones are used only in yellow and blue beds. If there is strict adherence to their planting schemes the richness of their bloom will continue through future seasons. But, alas! how uncertain the fulfilment, when the most necessary flowers may disappoint at the eleventh hour, or the gardeners fail to abide by the plans, especially concerning the color scheme! At Ridgewood Hill the planting is for spring and autumn bloom, and its three-terraced garden is an excellent piece of work, nestling to the hillside with its vista of hills beyond. This lovely nook deserves to rank among the best in terraced gardens. Mrs. Fraser's garden, enclosed within the semicircle of the house and a curving Hemlock hedge, is veritably a gem in lovely color-blending. All the periods of the garden season are represented here, difficult as it is to accomplish continuous bloom in narrow beds. First Pansies and early Tulips, followed by the later ones, flood the little court with wonderfully tinted tones. Then Lupins, Canterbury Bells, Sweet William, Chinese Delphinium and Lilium candidum, followed by Larkspur, Zinnia, Snapdragon, Scabiosa, Salpiglossis, Heliotrope, Ageratum, and compact Petunias, Gladioli, and September hardy Chrysanthemum. Constant ministration to the needs of this garden keeps it in a state of fresh bloom and order. The garden at "Onunda," Madison, attracts many visitors and has long been famous for its beauty and order. It is ablaze with color from May to October. Annuals in richest massing fill all the small beds, and perennials with annuals are closely grouped in the wall beds. The color effect is unusual and the adjoining Rose garden is complete with choicest bloom. The planting at Blairsden, near Peapack, is probably the most perfect in the State. The accompanying pictures give a limited idea of its beauty. The hill covered with wild shrubs sloping to the lake, the formal garden, the water garden and Rose garden, with the long inclined pathway seeming to lead out to space immeasurable into the green Garden of Everyman, combine with the scenery to make it a place of remarkable beauty. The formal garden with vine-covered brick wall is like the villa, Italian in design. The numerous gardens of Short Hills must be represented by one charming glimpse of Brooklawn, an idyllic spot embodying the creative sense of a poet. Its design is quite unusual in the garden world, and perfect in its simplicity. Informal rather than strictly formal, with beds of curving lines and grass paths it may be considered the most original plan in this collection. Old Princeton, with its picturesque university, is additionally favored in possessing gardens worthy of such associations and equalling the best in our country. The one at Drumthwacket is probably more reminiscent of English gardens than any other. The broad beds, profuse in glowing yet orderly bloom, are especially lovely in June. The garden has the benefit of ancient trees as a setting and the richness of its planting combined with the white balustrade lends a noble effect, comparing favorably with many of those abroad. The beautiful water garden, reached by a winding stone stairway, is encircled by willows and forest trees which fill the little lake with green reflections. A winter garden is a luxury so rare that one dwells with keenest pleasure upon the view from Thornton--a most perfect specimen of its kind. This evergreen planting is the central scheme of an elaborate plan and divides the perennial and Rose garden on one side from the "cutting" garden on the other. The best of the evergreens in clipped forms, Barberry with its bright winter berries, Laurel, and Rhododendron foliage unite to enliven the winter scene in this pleasant space, when outside all is gray and lifeless. Mrs. Seabrook's garden belongs to still another distinctly different class, illustrating a planting which appeals strongly to the many Americans who ardently admire simplicity in outdoor art. Here we find a sweet place in which to live in idle hours, with favorite flowers well-kept, a pool, and shaded retreats from summer sun. [Illustration: PLATE VI "Glen Alpine," Morristown, N. J. Mrs. Charles W. McAlpin _From a photograph, colored by Mrs. Herbert A. Raynes_] [Illustration: PLATE 75 "Cherrycroft," Morristown, N. J. Dudley Olcott, Esq. _From an autochrome photograph by Parker Brothers_] [Illustration: PLATE 76 A three-terraced garden "Ridgewood Hill," Morristown, N. J. Mrs. Frederic H. Humphreys _From a photograph by Parker Brothers_] [Illustration: PLATE 77 Morristown, N. J. Mrs. George C. Fraser _From a photograph by Parker Brothers_] [Illustration: PLATE 78 "Blairsden," Peapack, N. J. C. Ledyard Blair, Esq. _Reproduced by courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 79 "Blairsden," Peapack, N. J. C. Ledyard Blair, Esq. _Reproduced by courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 80 "Blairsden," Peapack, N. J. C. Ledyard Blair, Esq. _Reproduced by courtesy of Doubleday, Page & Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 81 "Brooklawn," Short Hills, N. J. Mrs. Edward B. Renwick _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 82 "Drumthwacket," Princeton, N. J. Mrs. Moses Taylor Pyne _From a photograph, copyright, by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 83 "Drumthwacket," Princeton, N. J. Mrs. Moses Taylor Pyne _From a photograph, copyright, by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 84 "Drumthwacket," Princeton, N. J. Mrs. Moses Taylor Pyne _From a photograph, copyright, by Miss Johnston--Mrs. Hewitt_] [Illustration: PLATE 85 "Onunda," Madison, N. J. Mrs. D. Willis James _From a photograph by Parker Brothers_] [Illustration: PLATE 86 "Glen Alpine," Morristown, N. J. Mrs. Charles W. McAlpin _From a photograph by Parker Brothers_] [Illustration: PLATE 87 "Thornton," Rumson, N. J. Mrs. J. Horace Harding _From a photograph by Alman & Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 88 Highland, N. J. Mrs. H. H. Seabrook _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] VI PENNSYLVANIA The most zealous advocate of gardening in the early days was William Penn, the original proprietor of the State, who persistently urged his Quaker followers to plant gardens around the homesteads. With numerous old ones and an ever-increasing number of new gardens the State stands among the foremost as a garden centre. In olden times the Quaker ideas against extravagant appearances resulted in the making of simpler places than those built by the people who settled in the Southern States; but these modest Pennsylvania gardens did not suffer the ravages of war, and many of them have lived serenely through the years. Andalusia came into the possession of the family of its present owners in 1795, and a village has gradually grown around the place. The garden is about one hundred years in age, and has been long noted for its trees and hedges, its fruits and old-fashioned flowers. The simplicity of its plan, so characteristic of the early gardens, detracts nothing from its charm, but rather is it filled with picturesque features that are truly American. At Fancy Field the formal garden is made somewhat on the plan of a type of small English garden that is becoming familiar to us through the English prints. This formal view is but one of a group or series of lovely enclosed and connecting gardens, all seemingly bound together by a long pergola bordering their rear;--a most pleasing study, as is also the garden at Edgecombe, with its old Box and perennials, shut in peacefully from the outer world and suggesting the type so dear to the heart of the lady of the olden time. Krisheim was the name given by some early German settlers in 1687 to a locality where is now a famous garden. This beautiful enclosure, in its spring garb, so unique in style, and with an adjoining flower garden, has its place among the best of the many that adorn the State. The garden at Willow Bank is a charming home of flowers, and its attraction is enhanced by the spacious green court surrounding it, giving double privacy to the flowery sanctum within. Typical of some of the splendid newer gardens of the State is the one at Timberline, rich in its background of old trees, gracefully designed and planted. It is one of the best productions of a celebrated architect. The Ballygarth garden, a section of which is shown in this chapter, is beautifully situated on one of the oldest estates near Philadelphia, and is of the kind so evidently the creation of a garden lover. Near Philadelphia the climate is slightly warmer than in north New Jersey, to which spring bloom comes at least a week later. In this vicinity German Iris appears about May 15, Sweet William, May 28, and Delphiniums, June 10, Hollyhocks, June 18. The time of the first frost is as variable as it is elsewhere. Pansies are usually wintered in the open, with a certain amount of covering. Tender annuals are set out about May 10. The soil is mostly fertile enough for good results in the garden. The best-known gardens lie chiefly in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. [Illustration: PLATE 89 "Allgates," Haverford, Pa. Horatio G. Lloyd, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 90 Andalusia, Pa. Mrs. Charles Biddle] [Illustration: PLATE 91 Andalusia, Pa. Mrs. Charles Biddle _From a photograph by C. R. Pancoast_] [Illustration: PLATE 92 "Edgecombe," Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. J. Willis Martin] [Illustration: PLATE 93 "Krisheim," Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pa. Dr. George Woodward _From a photograph by J. W. Kennedy_] [Illustration: PLATE 94 The outer court] [Illustration: PLATE 95 The inner garden "Willow Bank," Bryn Mawr, Pa. Mrs. Joseph C. Bright _From photographs by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] [Illustration: PLATE 96 "Fancy Field," Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. George Willing, Jr.] [Illustration: PLATE 97 "Timberline," Bryn Mawr, Pa. W. Hinckle Smith, Esq. _From a photograph by Julian A. Buckly_] [Illustration: PLATE 98 "Ballygarth," Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. B. Franklin Pepper] VII MARYLAND Flower gardens adorn many of the places in Maryland, most of them of the old-fashioned kind so characteristic of the Southern States, and others of a more recent date. The latter, though less elaborate than those of New England, are quite as attractive in the studied simplicity of their design. Conspicuous often are the Ivy-edged paths sometimes replacing the low Box border, and the great growths of Box and rare shrubs, once imported luxuries from old England, speak the prosperity of early days. In the low country of the interior the midsummer climate is humid and hot enough to discourage the flowers of this season, but when certain annuals are kept sufficiently moist and mulched they may pass unscathed through the trying season and join the few fall perennials for several weeks of bloom. Winter protection is not a matter of importance and Pansies need but an ordinary covering of leaves. An extreme of cold, which is rare, might bring disaster to the leaf-covered Canterbury Bell in the open, but this is one of the gambles in garden life. In Maryland, as generally elsewhere in this section, spring and June gardens prevail. The Crocus season opens in early March; Daffodils follow a little later; late Tulips and German Iris come near May 1; Sweet William and Peonies about May 20; and soon after the Delphiniums and Hollyhocks appear. Spring work begins three weeks earlier than in the latitude of Long Island, and frost may finish the persistent Marigold near November 1; but, as elsewhere, by that time green life has had its day, vitality has been spent, and nothing satisfactory can be expected of any but the hardy late Chrysanthemum. There is another region of this State to be separately accounted for that has been more or less overlooked, and where the climate is more inviting to summer gardening. From near Snow Hill, on the narrow peninsula south of Delaware, a resident writes in part: "As to this eastern shore, its flowers, climate, etc., too much cannot be said in its praise. The wonder is that this section has been overlooked by wealthy people seeking homes. With proper planting one can have flowers in the garden ten months of the year. During the winter Holly and other choice evergreens give plenty of color for the lawns." The distance across between the Chesapeake Bay and the sea is about thirty-five miles. Near the shore the place has a climate of its own, and summer gardens need not wilt as they do inland, providing they can at times be moderately sprinkled. Usually the summer climate is pleasant with an evening sea-breeze in hot weather; sometimes a prolonged dry spell causes many things to suffer, but as a rule all sorts of flowering plants succeed--Roses, China Asters, and bulbous plants especially grow to perfection. The illustrations representing Maryland are gathered from the vicinity of Baltimore, the particular garden region of the State. Hampton is the oldest of them all, being an entailed estate and one of two old manor-houses in Maryland still extant. A severe cold snap a few winters past did great damage to the Box, which in consequence had to be cut back, but time, it is hoped, may restore its original form and beauty. The spring view of one of Hampton's gardens was taken recently prior to the period of fullest bloom. This charming Box-edged parterre, with its fine surroundings and associations, is possibly the best-known in the South. Evergreen-on-Avenue is delightfully located on the outskirts of Baltimore, where many old country-seats abound. The lower garden only is discernible in the illustration, showing the dignity and charm of an evergreen garden, relieved by a massing of color in narrow beds which form a setting to the clipped Box and other shrubs. The upper garden is full of bloom and kept chiefly as a place for cutting-flowers. Some of the paths on this estate are edged with broad bands of Ivy. The wild garden at Roland Park is a work of art too intricately devised to be treated satisfactorily by picture or pen. The eye can only absorb and memory retain it, but description will ever fail to present it. At every turn there is a delightful surprise, at every season it is lovely; even January finds it so dressed in evergreen that winter seems far away. A few years ago the hillside was a wooded and abandoned stone-quarry until purchased for the purpose of creating a place of beauty out of chaos. An inspired imagination only could have wrought this miracle. The old Indian name for the Cylburn plantation was Cool Waters; it covers two hundred acres, about five miles beyond Baltimore. Cylburn House is of stone with broad verandas, and stands majestically on a high plateau, surrounded by gardens, shrubbery, and an extensive lawn, which is fringed by a beautiful primeval forest that stretches away on three sides to the valley below. The garden is one of the old-fashioned rambling kind, made lovely with a combination of tall shrubs and flowers and occasional trees. The fair little glimpse of a section of the garden at Ingleside breathes of spring perfume and color, with that indescribable sense of peace pervading especially a little enclosed garden where good taste and harmony prevail. So great is the impression of seclusion produced by the attractive picture that the farmer's cottage in the near background seems almost disconnected from this inviting spot. The four white standard Wistarias are remarkable enough to demand special attention. The beds are early filled with the Tulips of both periods, blooming in company with the Wistaria. Annuals follow, and the place is kept in long bloom under the careful supervision of the owner. At The Blind, Havre de Grace, on the Chesapeake, is a charming and typically Southern garden with ancient Box hedges for a background, and filled with the bloom of many old-fashioned hardy plants and shrubs. The property of two hundred acres is partly under cultivation and partly covered with Holly and ancient trees. Around the gray stone mansion in springtime the place is like a fairy-land, with hundreds of blossoming shrubs and fruit trees. Originally the land belonged to the Stumpp family, who acquired it by grant from one of the early English governors. It is now in the possession of a New Yorker, who keeps it as a shooting-preserve and stock-farm. [Illustration: PLATE VII A rock garden] [Illustration: PLATE VIII A rock garden Roland Park, Baltimore, Md. Mrs. Edward Bouton _After autochrome photographs_] [Illustration: PLATE 99 "Hampton," Towson, Md. Mrs. John Ridgely _From a photograph by Laurence H. Fowler_] [Illustration: PLATE 100 "Evergreen-on-Avenue," Baltimore, Md. Mrs. T. Harrison Garrett _From a photograph by Christhill Studio_] [Illustration: PLATE 101 "Cylburn House," Cylburn, Baltimore Co., Md. Mrs. Bruce Cotten _From a photograph by Art View Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 102 "Ingleside," Catonsville, Md. Mrs. A. C. Ritchie] [Illustration: PLATE 103 "The Blind," Havre de Grace, Md. James Lawrence Breese, Esq.] VIII VIRGINIA Virginia was the first of the States to adopt a luxurious mode of living. Its early men and women, so recently English, were not many of them of the strictly Puritan type, but rather the ease and pleasure loving class, and shortly their fertile plantations, developed by countless slaves, yielded rich results, and Virginia, followed soon by the neighboring States, became famous for homes and gardens on an extensive scale. One of the earliest and best of these estates was Mount Vernon, so well preserved and yet so familiar as not to need an introduction or even a space in this book. Brandon, Westover, Shirley, Berkeley, Castle Hill, and others on the River James, as well as some of the splendid places in the "hill country," have been renovated in recent years and should be considered among the treasures of America. Mr. William du Pont is the fortunate present owner of Montpelier, the home of President Madison, in Orange County, and situated between Charlottesville and Richmond. This splendid garden was planned by Mr. Madison soon after 1794. To quote Mr. Capen:[4] "On the plan of our House of Representatives, it is made in a series of horseshoe terraces leading down to a flat rectangular stretch of ground. The walk from the entrance to the garden passes first under a charming rustic arbor, and then through a dense Box hedge in which some of the bushes have grown so high that their branches form an arch overhead ... and when one emerges from the arch of Box he finds spread before him in panorama the entire garden ... the Box-edged aisle down its centre and every bed in flower.... It must have been a rare garden, for trees and shrubs sent to Mr. Madison by admirers from all over the world were jealously guarded and nurtured." At Rose Hill the terraced garden, with its distant view of hills and valley, is among the best-known places of this section. Here the flowers, most carefully tended, bloom considerably during the period from April to October, which is unusually prolonged for a Southern garden. Flowering plants and clipped evergreens border the broad, grassy terraces and an air of simple stateliness pervades this charming Virginia garden. Delightful indeed is the spacious formal garden at Meadowbrook Manor, on the James River. So cleverly arranged is the combination of trees and flowers that the latter do not suffer from near association with the trees--many of which are evergreens combining with the Box border to gladden the winter garden with summer green, and giving the livable, homey sense to this lovely enclosure in summer-time. In the old days the property was known as Sequin and belonged to relatives of Sir Thomas Gates of the same name. Upon this land in 1619 were operated the first iron-works in the country. Characteristic of the gardens of the older period is the lovely view of the garden on the Valentine place overgrown and ripe as only a garden can be that has lived through the years; unpretentious, yet richer in that mellowed growth than the most costly planting of modern date. In Virginia, mountains cover a part of the State, and the temperature necessarily varies according to locality. The climate, at least of Albemarle County, brings out the Crocuses in February or early March; winter Jessamine in early February, sometimes January; Daffodils in mid-March; Lily-of-the-Valley and Cottage Tulip early in April; German Iris in mid-April. Roses and Sweet William appear in early May; Delphinium in late May; Hollyhocks in early June; Phlox, July 1. And thus before midsummer's heat many of the best hardy perennials have come and gone. While summer bloom in the highlands is not necessarily destroyed by hot weather, unless unusual drought occurs, yet the autumn garden is apt to be a more refreshing sight with its fresh crop of Roses, the late Chrysanthemum, Cosmos, and indefatigable Zinnia. Of course to the south, and where altitude is lacking, the somewhat higher temperature will more or less alter these garden dates. FOOTNOTES: [4] "Country Homes of Famous Americans." [Illustration: PLATE 104 Ancient boxwood Montpelier, Va. Mrs. William du Pont _Reproduced by permission of Doubleday, Page & Co. From "Country Homes of Famous Americans"--Oliver B. Capen_] [Illustration: PLATE 105 Montpelier, Va. Mrs. William du Pont _Reproduced by permission of Doubleday, Page & Co. From "Country Homes of Famous Americans"--Oliver B. Capen_] [Illustration: PLATE 106 Montpelier, Va. Mrs. William du Pont] [Illustration: PLATE 107 Montpelier, Va. Mrs. William du Pont] [Illustration: PLATE 108 "Rose Hill"] [Illustration: PLATE 109 "Rose Hill," Greenwood, Va. Mrs. W. R. Massie] [Illustration: PLATE 110 "Meadowbrook Manor," Drewry's Bluff, Va. Mrs. Thomas F. Jeffress] [Illustration: PLATE 111 Richmond, Va. Garden of Mann S. Valentine, Esq. _From a photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals_] IX SOUTH CAROLINA There are few new gardens in South Carolina, but an untold number of old ones deserving to be revived. Around Charleston, especially, old-time mansions, quaint walls, and gateways abound that are an inspiration to lovers of graceful antiquities. To restore an abandoned garden must be indeed a joy to one with enough imagination to recreate flower places fitted to the surroundings. The illustrations in this chapter give some idea of the richness of the early gardens laid out by the wealthy owners of many generations past. Magnolia-on-the-Ashley, considered by some as one of the world's most beautiful sights, especially in springtime, is the most famous place in the State. It is owned by Colonel Drayton Hastie, who inherited it from his grandfather, the Reverend Mr. Drayton, an Episcopalian minister, in whose family it had remained since the latter part of the seventeenth century. In the days of the Reverend Mr. Drayton it was discovered that the garden had been laid out over land containing extremely valuable phosphate deposits, but neither he nor his descendants would have the place disturbed for the sake of an increased fortune, and the garden continues as it was, the delight in early spring of visitors from all over the world. To quote one who resides near by: "The garden first came into notice about a hundred years ago. In spite of all the cultivation, it still suggests the heart of the forest, with the old Oak and gray moss and wild flowers mingling with Cherokee Roses, Jessamine, etc. These Magnolia gardens are not only wonderfully beautiful, but, I believe, quite unique. The great show is not Magnolias, or even the Camellias, although they are lovely--but the Azaleas, which grow in such profusion and variety of shades that one loses all sense of individual plant and flowers and perceives only glowing, gleaming masses of color veiled by festoons of gray moss, giving one a delicious feeling of unreality, almost enchantment. In Owen Wister's 'Lady Baltimore' there is a beautiful description of Magnolia. The coloring on the post-cards is not in the least exaggerated." Live Oaks over two centuries old draped with gray moss suspended from the branches! This wonderful growth is not an uncommon sight in the Southern States. Columbia, the capital, has the famous Preston garden, and for many generations this beautiful property remained in the families of the Hamptons and Prestons. By a marriage a century ago the Hampton estate came into the possession of the Prestons, and for many years the stately garden with its aged Box and shade trees, its choice shrubs and plants, has been an object of veneration to garden lovers. A descendant writes: "There is no interest of importance attached to the past history of the Preston place, except that it has sheltered quite well known persons in its day, Henry Clay, Thackeray, and Miss Martineau among others, for its owner had acquaintances among prominent people in this country as well as abroad, and delighted in showing them hospitality when they happened in his neighborhood." After the war it shared the fate of almost all the other Southern estates that could no longer be maintained as in former years, and finally became a woman's college, and once more receives the needed care. In the low coastal country, including Charleston, spring opens in February with Camellias, Daffodils, and bulbs. German Iris appears at Charleston soon after March 15, Phlox in June. Delphinium and Hollyhock and some others do not thrive in this section. The flowers that are carried over for autumn bloom are hardy Chrysanthemum, with Cosmos, Salvia, Marigolds, and Zinnias, and a few others able under care to resist the summer heat. Frost may come by November 15, but in winter thin ice forms only about three times, with the thermometer at twenty-five degrees. White Camellias sometimes begin to blossom at Christmas time. Such is the climate of this level. In the higher regions of the State climatic conditions are somewhat different and the summer heat is not as extreme. [Illustration: PLATE 112 Azalea, Magnolia, and Camellia bloom "Magnolia Garden," Charleston, S. C. Colonel Drayton Hastie _From a photograph by The Carolina Arts and Crafts, Inc._] [Illustration: PLATE 113 Live oaks, with gray moss suspended from branches "Magnolia Garden," Charleston, S. C. Colonel Drayton Hastie _From a photograph by The Carolina Arts and Crafts, Inc._] [Illustration: PLATE 114 "Preston Garden," Columbia, S. C. _From a photograph by Lyle & Escobar_] [Illustration: PLATE 115 "Preston Garden"] [Illustration: PLATE 116 "Preston Garden," Columbia, S. C. _From photographs by Lyle & Escobar_] X GEORGIA AND FLORIDA Summer gardens, on account of the climate, are not attempted in the States of the far South; but as popular winter and spring resorts the grounds at these seasons about the villas and hotels are adorned with Palms, Roses, and other plants adapted to the climate. Charming spring gardens in formal designs are found in Georgia, where, because of its somewhat cooler climate and better soil, there are a greater number of private estates than in Florida. The former State doubtless suffered more than any other in the Civil War and, consequently, enforced neglect of the old gardens brought ruin to most of them. At present some of the finest places in Georgia are delightfully located outside of the larger towns, and many gardens, some new and others renewed after a half-century of oblivion, adorn the home grounds of those who are so fortunate as to reside here at the most favored seasons. The illustrations of the gardens at Green Court are fair samples of the extensive planting in many places. Spring bulbs begin to open in this lovely spot by the middle of February, Camellias often come in January, German Iris appears the middle of March, Delphiniums in April. In Georgia the summer heat finishes most of the bloom, and few would venture with autumn flowers. "The Roses, however, when well tended, rest during summer to bloom gloriously again in October and until the time of light frost, which comes in December." The interior of the larger garden at Green Court, surrounded with its splendid outer court, is more spacious than the glimpse through the gateway would suggest. The charm of this enclosure, like Southern hospitality, is a combination of bountifulness and grateful simplicity. Green Court deserves to stand as a representative garden of its State. With an almost similar climate the adjoining State of Alabama has its gardens also, but, unfortunately, photographs are not now available. Palms of every description are the characteristic plants of Florida. The State is generally flat and open, but in the north the country is more wooded, often wild and swampy, with picturesque winding little rivers meandering to the coasts. The conditions in the populous districts of Louisiana and Texas are so similar to Florida, where gardens are concerned, that it is unnecessary to use further space in describing plant life in these States. [Illustration: PLATE 117 The outer court surrounding the main garden "Green Court," Augusta, Ga. Mrs. H. P. Crowell] [Illustration: PLATE 118 A glimpse into the inner garden "Green Court," Augusta, Ga. Mrs. H. P. Crowell] [Illustration: PLATE 119 "Green Court," Augusta, Ga. Mrs. H. P. Crowell _From a photograph by A. H. Chaffee_] [Illustration: PLATE 120 Tropical growth, Palm Beach, Fla. _From a photograph by Brown Brothers_] XI TENNESSEE AND MISSOURI From Tennessee the following description of its garden life is agreeably presented: "Here in the South interest in this subject is always increasing. We have many old and beautiful gardens full of sentiment. The mistress of the place is always head gardener, and in no instance does she relinquish her position to another. I am filled with enthusiasm in garden matters, and would preach the gospel of the garden to all women." Daffodils appear in February, Lilies-of-the-Valley and Cottage Tulips in mid-April, German Iris soon after. The droughts of midsummer may injure but not necessarily destroy the flowers. The winter thermometer occasionally falls to twenty degrees above zero in the cooler districts, and such plants as Snapdragon and Campanula medium are more safely wintered in a slat-frame. But winter once over the tender annuals can be put out as early as April 25. These conditions apply almost equally to the neighboring States of Kentucky and North Carolina, having as well their records for old-time gardens. The planting at Rostrevor speaks delightfully for the many others belonging to this section of the South. This garden, filled with Lilies and other blossoms, shows that the Southern woman is as truly a flower lover as were they who planted the early gardens in the days before the war. What more tantalizing to the garden devotee than the glimpse beyond the gates of Longview garden as illustrated in this chapter, and again in a later section? Such views as these, so exceedingly artistic in themselves, suggest a still more lovely interior, at present withheld because adequate photographs are lacking. In Missouri, as in Kansas and elsewhere in the Middle West, there is great variableness of climate from year to year, and never is it an ideal district for _summer_ flower gardens. While much attention is being given to shrubbery and perennial beds bordering the lawn, there are few actual gardens, formal or otherwise. The discouragements of a trying summer climate limit the bloom in most of the places to the flowers of spring and June. Early flowering plants and bulbs, German Iris, Foxglove, Canterbury Bells, Columbine, Peonies, Lilium candidum, Roses, and Hollyhocks, give considerable satisfaction. But many other perennials are not at all permanent. To quote an experienced amateur gardener: "The climate of Kansas City, Missouri, is subject to every eccentricity, and at times is very trying. One of my experiences was a four or five inch snow-storm on the 3d of May after a month of warm spring weather, when German Iris and many other things were in full bloom, and Peonies in bud. Everything was mashed down and then it froze. Often when Peonies have been in bloom torrential rains have nearly ruined them. The greatest trouble with the summer garden is the extreme heat and dryness of the air. The earth can be kept moist around the plants, but many things wither in the dry air. With the greatest care a garden of annuals might be kept looking fairly well through July and August, but I am glad to get away from mine early in July." The climate of these adjoining Middle States is practically the same throughout, with possibly even more sunshine than in the eastern States. "In May and June there are frequent heavy showers, but rarely all-day rains. In the later summer and autumn cloudy days are exceptional. The eastern side of Missouri is said to be slightly cooler than the western part; Kansas City averages a somewhat higher summer temperature than Washington, D. C., which is in the same latitude. Spring bulbs and many spring perennials appear three weeks earlier than near New York City." The gardens usually look spent by September, but in the cooler sections, with an extra amount of summer care, there may be still seen flowers sufficient to adorn a garden during some weeks of autumn. The garden at Hazelwood, near St. Louis, is laid out with curving grass paths and broad beds. The bright display begins with Daffodils, and the beds retain rich bloom into the middle of June. In September, after good care, Marigolds, Zinnias, Snapdragon, Cosmos, hardy Asters, Chrysanthemum, and Helenium are the autumn decorations. Frost usually finishes everything about October 15. The winter temperature is often ten degrees below, and the tender plants, like Foxglove and Pansies, are more safely wintered under slat-frames covered with straw, and Larkspurs should have a light covering of leaves. Surely the gardens that are faithfully tended through such changes and chances of climate as found in this section bespeak the highest degree of devoted patience. [Illustration: PLATE 121 "Rostrevor," Knoxville, Tenn. Mrs. William C. Ross _From a photograph by James E. Thompson_] [Illustration: PLATE 122 Longview, Tenn. Mrs. James E. Caldwell _From a photograph by G. C. Dury Co. Reproduced by permission of the author of "Your Garden and Mine"_] [Illustration: PLATE 123 "Hazelwood," Kinloch, Mo. Mrs. Samuel W. Fordyce] XII ILLINOIS AND INDIANA Illinois, with its claim to countless fine estates, includes a plentiful share of gardens, and more especially in the lake region, where luxuriant growths of trees tell of congenial soil and climate. As a background the great lake stretches like a sea beyond many of the beautiful flower-borders, which bloom almost as richly as those near the distant ocean. Unfortunately some of the finest plantings are not illustrated in this book, which is limited to gardens of a formal design, and the type characteristic of Illinois is mostly informal, as so frequently seen in America,--an arrangement which does not lend itself satisfactorily to photography. In such a plan the flowers are usually massed in long, broad beds bordering the lawn, the front lines are laid in irregular curves, with trees and shrubs for the background. Groups of shrubs with other beds are sometimes used to break a wide stretch of lawn, and make a rambling and delightful sort of garden scheme. But in photography detail is lost when the camera is at sufficient distance to include more than a small section of such a design. For this reason pictures can never do full justice to the flower planting on such notable places as those of Albert N. Day, Esq., Lake Forest; Wm. C. Egan, Esq., Egandale, Highland Park; George Higginson, Esq., Meadow Farm; and W. G. Hibbard, Esq., both at Winnetka, and many others. The spring display of late Tulips at Highland Park and Lake Forest is especially remarkable. Masses of Darwins and Cottage varieties in perfect color blending are planted everywhere, in the woods, in shrubbery, and in borders. The illustration of the formal garden at Lake Forest, owned by Harold McCormick, Esq., gives a vivid idea of the form and finish of this charming place, which must always stand among the best of middle West gardens, well favored in the beauty of its surrounding trees and generously planted with perennials and shrubs. It has the charm of individuality rather uncommon to large gardens, and stands for that welcome type which seeks to be itself. Hardin Hall garden, with the great lake as a background, has recently joined the ranks of beautiful American gardens. Every new garden is as a jewel added to the crown of its State, and this little gem in planting is noted throughout the North Shore. Stepping-stones in the grass lead to another green enclosure, designed on a less formal plan,--the whole scheme being most artistically conceived. The climate near the lake is slightly cooler than in other localities, spring opening from one to two weeks later than inland. The difference in time of spring bloom on this shore and near New York City is only about a week. The climate on the lake front is especially variable. The country is a flat upland broken with wooded ravines. Out in central Illinois, in Piatt County, there are fifteen thousand acres belonging to a famous estate beyond Monticello. The Farms contains delightful gardens on an extensive scale, quite English in design, and as far as possible in keeping with the Georgian architecture of the house. Juniper Hibernica is freely used over the main garden, enriching with its deep evergreen tones the broad expanse of flower-bordered beds. The walls are covered with Chinese Wistarias, Japanese Honeysuckle, trained peach trees, nectarines, pears, and plums. Monticello is in the latitude of Philadelphia; the blooming dates almost correspond, but frost destroys a trifle earlier. The highest summer thermometer rarely reaches one hundred degrees, sometimes dropping in winter to twenty-seven degrees below. Tender annuals can usually be planted out after May 15. Mulching and watering is necessary to preserve the summer bloomers. Famous in the annals of southern Indiana is the large estate at Lexington known as Englishton Park, and for six generations the property of the English family. Problems of insufficient rain, poor soil, and rocky ground have been overcome by most scientific measures, and now a pool filled with Lilies and bordered with water-loving plants is a feature of a wonderful rock garden abundantly and tastefully planted with the perennials most suitable for rocks or for moisture. The Rose garden near by and long path leading to the house, bordered with beds of perennials, are further delightful tributes to the devoted labor of one who has spent much time on this, her gladdest task. [Illustration: PLATE 124 Lake Forest, Ill. Harold McCormick, Esq. _From a photograph by Julian A. Buckly_] [Illustration: PLATE 125 "Hardin Hall," Hubbard's Wood, Ill. Mrs. John H. Hardin] [Illustration: PLATE 126 "The Farms"] [Illustration: PLATE 127 "The Farms," Monticello, Ill. Robert Allerton, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 128 The rock garden, "Englishton Park"] [Illustration: PLATE 129 The rock garden, "Englishton Park," Lexington, Ind. Mrs. W. E. English] XIII OHIO The difference is slight between the climate of Ohio and other States of its latitude in the East and middle West. While there is no mountainous region, northern Ohio has the advantage of a great lake as its border. On a line with central Connecticut, the temperature of Cleveland is similarly favorable to flower growing, and garden enthusiasts are increasing. Like most of the Middle States, the country is rather flat and the soil fertile as a rule. But, except on the lake shore, the gardens suffer more or less from the hot weather and scarcity of moisture. In the northern half of Ohio spring bulbs appear simultaneously with those in northern New Jersey, and the later plants follow in the same succession. The southern half of Ohio is in the latitude of Maryland and its climatic conditions are almost similar. The spring and June gardens in the middle West give the best satisfaction. The climate is variable, as it is elsewhere throughout the country. One charming illustration conveys some idea of the garden at Gwinn, which is eight miles from Cleveland, and undoubtedly the most notable in this State. By early April the spring garden blooms with Hepatica, Crocus, Chionodoxa, Scilla, Sundrops, Pansy, English Daisy, Spring Beauty, Bloodroot, Trillium, Cypripedium, Violet, Tulip, Hyacinth, and Daffodil, followed soon by many later garden favorites. Sufficient water is supplied to carry the bloom safely through midsummer and September, and year by year the beauty of this garden is increasing with the maturing of its trees and shrubbery, and all that tends to complete the dignity of so noble a design. So artistically wrought are all the various features contributing to the beauty of the Clifton garden that choice of illustrations is made difficult when selection is limited to so few. This fact explains the omission of the little flower garden which even though charming must give place to the accompanying remarkable views. Not far from Cleveland Shadyside, on the lake, is another place of interest to flower lovers, and here a small formal garden has been recently completed in addition to the older water garden. This delightful spot is worthy of particular attention not only on account of the variety of plants adorning its banks, but for its picturesque setting as well. Indian Hill offers a glimpse of a fair little garden, with no suggestion of display; a vine-covered bower surrounded with flowers,--a creation of simple loveliness. [Illustration: PLATE 130 "Gwinn," Cleveland, Ohio. William G. Mather, Esq. _From a photograph by Julian A Buckly_] [Illustration: PLATE 131 A picturesque spot in Mrs. Taft's garden] [Illustration: PLATE 132 A corner in the pergola Clifton, Cincinnati, Ohio. Mrs. Samuel H. Taft] [Illustration: PLATE 133 The water garden Clifton, Cincinnati, Ohio. Mrs. Samuel H. Taft] [Illustration: PLATE 134 The water garden "Shadyside," Painesville, Ohio. Mrs. H. P. Knapp] [Illustration: PLATE 135 "Indian Hill"] [Illustration: PLATE 136 "Indian Hill," Mentor, Ohio. Mrs. John E. Newell] XIV MICHIGAN AND WISCONSIN Favored indeed are the gardens of these States, which border on the Great Lakes, some five hundred and eighty feet above sea-level. The country in most parts is fertile and flat, with a climate superior to that of New England in summer, and winters equally as cold. To quote our well known garden friend, Mrs. Francis King, of Alma, in central Michigan: "We have a very fine summer climate, most favorable to gardening; no humidity whatsoever, but dry and bracing, and while a short summer, a merry one for flowers. We must plan for a late spring, and frost is due in early September; but when we have learned these things it is very simple to arrange for them. Our rainfall is usually sufficient, and we practically never suffer from the heat. Hardy Chrysanthemums need a very sheltered position in winter. At Detroit, one hundred and fifty miles southeast of Alma, the trees are in spring foliage almost ten days earlier, partly owing to the distance southward and partly to the warming influence of Lake St. Clair." The garden at Orchard House, Alma, so vividly described in "The Well-Considered Garden," is too familiar to most gardeners to need description. Briefly, the planting over the large space is all balanced in predominating colors of rose, lavender, white, and palest yellow. Gray foliage and white flowers are freely used, and through the entire summer there is not one week when the whole garden is not gay with flowers from June until frost. To the northeast of Alma is the lovely garden at Garra-tigh, where Daffodils bloom, as in Alma, three weeks later than near the city of New York. Bay City is in the latitude of Portland, Maine, and central Oregon. This attractive garden shows the effective combination of flowers and trees so well arranged that the trees are not detrimental to the vigor of the plants, and the sunny garden space is doubly radiant by contrast, lying within the trees' encircling shadows. Garra-tigh is the Gaelic for House with the Garden. Near Detroit, at Fairlawn, Grosse Pointe Shores, on Lake St. Clair, where the country is flat and fertile, there is another delightful place of interest noted for the abundance of flowers covering several acres of land. The accompanying photograph was made in early September, when the best of the bloom had passed. In June and July the place is a glory with Lilies, Columbine, and Delphinium that are counted in hundreds, and earlier there are Tulips and Daffodils by the thousands. Behind the broad borders that edge the walks vegetables grow in great quantities. Early Tulips come the first week of May, late Tulips about May 20. Climate and soil combine to simplify the gardening tasks in this productive country. The House in the Woods, on Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, has a beautiful garden so well planned that it seems like an outdoor room to this charming villa. The planting scheme is moderate, easily maintained, and yet with beds broad enough to include without difficulty the plants for a long, continuous bloom. Opposite the house the picturesque studio, standing out against the wooded background, borders the garden on this side so that it lies within an enclosed court. [Illustration: PLATE 137 "Orchard House," Alma, Mich. Mrs. Francis King] [Illustration: PLATE 138 "Garra-tigh," Bay City, Mich. Mrs. William L. Clements] [Illustration: PLATE 139 "Fairlawn," Grosse Pointe Shores, Mich. Mrs. Benjamin S. Warren] [Illustration: PLATE 140 Studio from main house] [Illustration: PLATE 141 Court from studio terrace "House-in-the-Woods," Lake Geneva, Wis. Frederic Clay Bartlett, Esq.] XV NEW MEXICO The mountainous States of the West, from Montana to New Mexico, from Colorado almost to the Pacific, have a climate of their own, varying naturally according to latitude. A resident of Las Cruces, New Mexico, writes: "The first killing frost is usually to be expected from the 7th to the 25th of October, very often it is much later, and we have had tomatoes till December with the slightest possible protection. Many flowers in a sheltered position bloom in winter, such as Calendula, Violets, Wallflowers, and Pansies. The highest ordinary summer thermometer is ninety-two to ninety-eight degrees. The lowest usually in winter is fifteen degrees--occasionally it has gone down to fifteen or twenty degrees below zero, but that is most exceptional. The climate is extremely dry. Most of New Mexico is at a high altitude--we are about three thousand eight hundred feet above sea-level here. "As some plants blossom through the winter, it is hard to say when the garden begins to bloom. But about the middle of March we have Crocuses, followed the 1st of April by Jonquils, Narcissus, Tulips, and other bulbs, also German Iris, Lilac, Periwinkles, Cornflower, Mignonette. In the mountains near-by the California Poppies bloom at the same time. Then about mid-April come Tea Roses--and at the end of April or soon after the Peonies and Sweet Peas. The 1st of May or a little later Honeysuckles, Phlox, Snapdragon, Zinnias, and annual Larkspurs appear. Almost everything that is not extremely tender can be wintered in open ground without protection. Tender annuals should be planted out about the end of March. I transplanted some things last year the end of April, and the noonday sun was too much for them, though I shaded them for some time. We plant seeds of Pansies, Asters, Sweet Peas, etc., in the fall for best results." The garden at Mr. Barker's mountain home is delightfully fitted to its surroundings, where nature is supreme and all else studied simplicity. Flowers revel in their freedom without the restriction of conventional beds. Flowers, nature, and the simple life of the Southern hills is the message from this distant home. [Illustration: PLATE 142 Las Cruces, N. M. Percy W. Barker, Esq.] XVI CALIFORNIA The garden section of this State extends the length of its coast, and possibly fifty miles inland, and much is conveyed in a few words when it is described as one garden throughout this whole region. In the hill country mountains are admirable settings to tropical gardens, and from there to the sandy shores a delectable climate with prevailing westerly sea-winds encourages phenomenal growth of the choicest plants. Southern California is particularly blessed with a clear, dry, and balmy climate. Quoting an authority in Santa Barbara: "There is practically no frost in southern California; in the north there is some. There are flowers in our gardens at all times of the year. Tulips bloom in February and March; Daffodils, German Iris, and other hardies from February to May; also Lilies-of-the-Valley, which latter are more scarce on account of the dryness of the atmosphere. From March till autumn there is bloom from Sweet William, Phlox, and many others of their kind, while Geranium, the common Marguerite, and Heliotrope grow all the year around and become large bushes. Roses cover the tops of some villas; Cosmos, California Poppy, Zinnia, Nasturtium, and Stock are among the favorite annuals; and all, whether hardy or tender, may be planted out in March when the winter rains are over. Some of the favorite exotic shrubs used for their bloom are the Acacias, Genista, etc., Solanums, and Choisia Ternata." Quite common are the great Poinsetta plants and the soft, trailing Bougainvillea, with its exquisite red matching in tone the color of our autumn leaves. Boxwood is little used in this climate. Toward San Francisco and northward it is found in greater quantity. To the south it is replaced by Myrtus communis nanus, Myrtus microphylla, Veronica Andersonii for low hedges; Monterey Cypress, Eugenia myrtifolia, different species of Ligustrum (Privet), which are all evergreen here, Duranta Plumerii, and others. The highest temperature in Santa Barbara for a few days in fall is about eighty-six degrees Fahrenheit and the lowest in winter is forty degrees for a few days. The summers are very cool. The climate of Santa Barbara is quite similar to Sorrento, Italy, only better. The farther north on the coast the more rain. In Santa Barbara there is sunshine continually, except for the brief period of rain in winter. The warmest months are August, September, and October. From May to August there are fogs at night along the coast which keep the temperature down during the day. In this paradise of sunshine and flowers are found a bewildering number of wonderful subjects for photography, some of which must give an idea of the favored vegetation of California. At Kimberly Crest, as in the other views, most conspicuous is the brilliant clearness of the atmosphere. This beautiful country-seat is a sample of many which are built more or less on a similar plan, and especially noted for their profusion of choicest shrubs, trees, and flowering plants. At Glendessary is found one of California's favorite gardens, where the strong sunshine is moderated by the plentiful use of trees so carefully arranged that the shadows do not disturb the growths of flowers, which bloom abundantly throughout this lovely place. The flower garden at Piranhurst, named for Saint Piran, an Irish saint, is exceedingly picturesque. The wonderful Greek Theatre, with its wings of tall, clipped Cypress, is without a rival in this country. The design was modelled after one at the Villa Gori, in Italy. This remarkable planting, together with the Roses and other flora in the adjoining garden, combine to make it one of the most famous places on the coast. The owner of Piranhurst is also possessor of the garden at Ross, partly shown in the view of a fountain, with its hill background covered with massively grouped Hydrangeas and Rose vines. Perfectly complete in every detail is the lovely pool in Doctor Schiffman's garden. It seems more a product of the Old World across the sea, while fitting so happily into the tropical atmosphere of Pasadena. The marvellous growth of Banksia and Cherokee Roses, the field of Marguerites, and the background of snow-peaked mountains, all so characteristic of California, belong to Cañon Crest Park, an estate well known to many travellers. Wonderful, too, are the Palms that overarch the driveway, and beautiful the gardens and panorama beyond. The Cactus planting of a San Diego garden is an interesting study in the horticulture of California--this most favored State of the great Union. [Illustration: PLATE 143 "Kimberly Crest"] [Illustration: PLATE 144 "Kimberly Crest," Redlands, Cal. Mrs. J. A. Kimberly] [Illustration: PLATE 145 "Glendessary," Santa Barbara, Cal. Mrs. R. C. Rogers _From a photograph by Brock-Higgins_] [Illustration: PLATE 146 The Greek Theatre--the stage] [Illustration: PLATE 147 The Greek Theatre--the boxes "Piranhurst," Santa Barbara, Cal. Mrs. Henry Bothin] [Illustration: PLATE 148 "Piranhurst," Santa Barbara, Cal. Mrs. Henry Bothin] [Illustration: PLATE 149 Ross, Cal. Mrs. Henry Bothin] [Illustration: PLATE 150 Pasadena, Cal. Rev. Mr. Schiffman _From a photograph, copyright, by Detroit Publishing Co._] [Illustration: PLATE 151 "Cañon Crest Park"] [Illustration: PLATE 152 "Cañon Crest Park," Redlands, Cal. Mrs. Daniel Smiley] [Illustration: PLATE 153 "Cañon Crest Park"] [Illustration: PLATE 154 "Cañon Crest Park," Redlands, Cal. Mrs. Daniel Smiley] [Illustration: PLATE 155 A Cactus garden, Riverside, Cal. Typical growth in California _From a photograph by Brown Brothers_] XVII OREGON AND WASHINGTON In this coast region of the Northwest, shrubs, trees, and vines develop rapidly and give sooner to the garden the appearance of completeness than is the case in the drier climates. An authority from Portland says: "The growing season is long, lasting from March 1 to November 1, and in the places where lawns are well kept they are green throughout the entire winter. At this period, however, the grass does not grow enough to require clipping. Several shrubs, such as the Laurestinus, remain in foliage throughout the entire winter. Usually a few belated Roses are found on the bushes as late as Christmas, not the perfect blooms of summer, by any means, but sufficiently good-looking to adorn a vase in the drawing-room. The freezing weather would ordinarily come in January and be very limited in duration." In February the spring bulbs, Daffodils and Forsythia, appear. At Tacoma and throughout the coast section of Washington the climate differs but slightly from that of Portland, Oregon, the latter having probably less rain and mist, but the whole coast is ideal for flowers. The summer is the dryest season, when gardens will require some sprinkling but not to the extent necessary in most portions of the country. Another authority states that in this northwest coast district it is clear 43 per cent of the year between sunrise and sunset. On an average, 80 clear days, 122 partly clear days, 163 cloudy days. A day which is up to three-tenths cloudy is classed as clear. A day four-tenths to seven-tenths cloudy is classed as partly clear. Days in excess of four-tenths cloudy classed as cloudy. Near Tacoma, among majestic surroundings of forest and lake, with Mount Tacoma as a background, are the famous gardens of Thornewood, rich in flowers and shrubs and splendid garden architecture. Trees and hedges will wither and die, but the "everlasting hills" and the silver waters of American Lake will form a perpetual background to this beautiful place, built in 1880 and standing as the pioneer great garden of the State. Gardens even in the cities are becoming numerous, and attached to many fine residences the planting, though now in its youth, promises to add great adornment in the near future to these municipalities of the Northwest. Mr. Merrill's spacious place in Seattle, partly shown in two small views, illustrates the delightful possibilities of a town garden. The Rose hedge and lovely Rose garden at Rose Crest are typical of hundreds of others in Portland. The hedges are usually made up of Madame Caroline Testout Roses, the most popular sort there; in fact, Portland's official emblem. By June 1, along the curbing of the avenues, there are miles of Roses in bloom, and, as may be imagined, the effect is very pleasing. The climate of western Oregon is quite similar to favored portions of England, but has the advantage of more sunshine. The variety of vegetation is almost endless. Plants native to England will grow here that will not thrive in other parts of the United States, and the gardening tasks are simple in comparison to the toil necessary where gardens are subject to greater extremes of heat, cold, drought, and similar problems. Cliff Cottage and High Hatch, both about six miles south of Portland, on the Willamette River, possess gardens in their beginning, both interestingly planned and already known to garden lovers even beyond the limits of that State. The Cliff Cottage garden is designed in four terraces, with a rich background of primeval trees. Dwarf fruit trees and vegetables fill the beds that are all bordered with flowers. The stone stairway leading to the several terraces is in keeping with the natural surroundings of a wooded hillside. Rock planting is also a feature. The landscape in the distance is a beautiful outlook. High Hatch has a combination of upper and lower garden, partly in a rock garden, spread out over considerable undulating land with winding gravel paths and stone stairs connecting the various parts. A wide white stone balustrade divides the broad lawn from the gardens below, and a fine growth of aged pines completes the adornment of the place. [Illustration: PLATE 156 "Thornewood," Tacoma, Wash. Mrs. Chester Thorne] [Illustration: PLATE 157 "Thornewood"] [Illustration: PLATE 158 "Thornewood," Tacoma, Wash. Chester Thorne, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 159 Seattle, Wash. Robert Merrill, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 160 Seattle, Wash. Robert Merrill, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 161 Section of a Rose hedge bordering an avenue in Portland, Ore.] [Illustration: PLATE 162 "Rosecrest," Portland Heights, Portland, Ore. Mrs. F. I. Fuller] [Illustration: PLATE 163 A garden in three terraces "Cliff Cottage," Elk Rock, Portland, Ore. Peter Kerr, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 164 A rock garden leading to formal garden "High Hatch," Riverwood, Portland, Ore. Thomas Kerr, Esq.] XVIII ALASKA _Last_, but not least, comes Alaska; even if last to arrive on the map of the Union, yet not least in size of territory or in flowers, and with still another condition of climate to be considered. Alaskan gardens are as yet but tiny modest plots against the gray log cabins, suggesting the homes of our Pilgrim fathers on the milder New England coast so long ago, and as we think of the stone and marble pergolas in modern New England, there comes the suggestion: "Then why not Alaska likewise some day?" To those who think of Alaska only as a land of snow and ice, descriptions of its flower-surrounded log cabins seem like impossible dreams. Quoting from Reverend Mr. Lumpkin's paper: "In coming into Alaska, you first awake to the beautiful reality in Skagway. This is the point where the White Pass road is taken to make connection with the river boats for the interior. Your eyes rest upon the wonderful fulfilment of the flowers and your crag-weary soul is refreshed. "Every growing thing in Alaska seems to exemplify the Alaskan spirit, and that is to make the very best of bad conditions, and to make the very most of the many good ones. With the dark winters and short summers, every ray of sunshine has to be used, and when in the summer the sun shines all day and nearly all night for three months, there is no time for loafing in flower land. "Just take a walk down through Fairbanks in July and you will begin to think that wonders will never cease. You will see flowers, that at home you had to coax and nurse into growth, here in radiant, luxuriant masses. The Pansies are unusually large, whole borders of them, and paths bordered with beds a foot wide, filled to the edges with changeable velvet. Sweet Peas grow up to the tops of the fences, and then, if no further support is given them, over they go, back to the ground again. All summer the Nasturtiums climb nearer and nearer the roofs of the cabins, and bloom and bloom in sheer delight. Some paths are bordered with Poppies, big stately red and white, and white and pink ones, or the golden California beauties. These natives of warmer climes seem perfectly at home in the Northland. Asters scorn hothouses and grow in profusion wherever they are planted, and wherever they are they are beautiful. They are as large as the Chrysanthemums the Easterner delights in, and of all the various changes of colors. By them, perhaps, will be Dahlias as large and rich as any you have ever seen. The more beauty-loving and flower-loving the owner of the garden, the longer you will stay to look and wonder. Candytuft, Sweet Alyssum, and Mignonette will greet you from their accustomed places on the borders of beds of flowers, and you will almost smile at them as at some old-time friend. Then you will see where some daring gardener has bordered the beds with Phlox or Snapdragon, and you will feel compelled to admire the result. "Never have I seen such Begonias. The flowers are like Camellias, and the colors exquisite. Shades of pale yellow to deep yellow, pale pink to deep pink, and the pure white. The Geraniums, too, grow to giant size, and seem to be ever-blooming. One really is tempted to feel the stalks of some of them before it can be believed that they are not two plants tied together. There was a Geranium in one of the small towns which filled the window of a store. "Many cabins have five or more baskets hanging from the eaves. Imagine gray log cabins with birch baskets filled with blue Lobelias; flame-colored Nasturtiums climbing to the roof, beds of velvet Pansies, borders of crimson Poppies leading to the gate, where golden California Poppies make way for you to pass, and beyond, the distant Alaskan mountains, snow-covered and glistening in the sun. Imagine one cabin, and then think of streets of them; change your flower colors as you will, as a child changes his kaleidoscope, and you will have some idea of Alaska flower land."[5] FOOTNOTES: [5] From _The Alaskan Churchman_. XIX VANCOUVER ISLAND The lure of the far-famed gardens of the island so close to our shores is enticing enough to make a happy excuse for giving the space of a page to one of its smaller gardens. In the heart of this fair garden, in the country of the Englishman, at the end of this book on American gardens, the author, though a proud American, unhesitatingly admits that usually it is the Englishman who has inspired us to make gardens as nearly as possible like those of the mother country. Is it the old blood that is stirring within us, the common bond of past associations and brotherhood so often expressed in our physical resemblances as well as in many of our ideals? The garden in the accompanying illustrations shows a beautiful combination of flowers with picturesque old trees. The climate of this favored place is even more delightful and balmy than that of the mainland, and the charm of the great Pacific is doubly felt along these quiet shores. The untravelled may picture it as isolated and forsaken, but rather is it just enough retired to be apart without loneliness; and, except, in a few cities, excluding the turmoil of the world, yet hospitably open to the friendly passer-by. There is more sunshine here than in England, although the climates are very similar. On Vancouver Island there are the four distinct, well-defined seasons; the temperature is more like that of Portland than of Tacoma. The island is generously covered with vegetation, and when its native wild flowers are considered, in addition to the gardens in rich cultivation, it may well be called a garden island. [Illustration: PLATE 165 Victoria City, Vancouver Island, B. C.] [Illustration: PLATE 169 Victoria City, Vancouver Island, B. C.] A FEW GARDEN GATES [Illustration: PLATE 167 Longview, Tenn. Mrs. James E. Caldwell _From a photograph by G. C. Dury & Co. Reproduced by permission of the author of "Your Garden and Mine"_] [Illustration: PLATE 168 "Knock-Mae-Cree," Westport, Conn. Mrs. William Curtis Gibson _From a photograph by Brown Brothers_] [Illustration: PLATE 169] [Illustration: PLATE 170 "Hamilton House," South Berwick, Maine. Mrs. George S. Tyson] [Illustration: PLATE 171] [Illustration: PLATE 172 "Glen Alpine," Morristown, N. J. Charles W. McAlpin, Esq.] [Illustration: PLATE 173 East Hampton, L. I. Mrs. Theron G. Strong] [Illustration: PLATE 174 "Glendessary," Santa Barbara, Cal. Mrs. R. C. Rogers] [Illustration: PLATE 175 "Clifton," Cincinnati, Ohio. Mrs. Samuel H. Taft] [Illustration: PLATE 176 "Thornewood," Tacoma, Wash. Chester Thorne, Esq.] 
34570	----	Ginseng and Other Medicinal Plants [Frontispiece: Delights in His Ginseng Garden.] GINSENG AND OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS A Book of Valuable Information for Growers as Well as Collectors of Medicinal Roots, Barks, Leaves, Etc. BY A. R. HARDING Published by A. R. Harding Publishing Co. Columbus, Ohio Copyright 1908 By A. R. Harding Pub. Co. CONTENTS I. Plants as a Source of Revenue II. List of Plants Having Medicinal Value III. Cultivation of Wild Plants IV. The Story of Ginseng V. Ginseng Habits VI. Cultivation VII. Shading and Blight VIII. Diseases of Ginseng IX. Marketing and Prices X. Letters from Growers XI. General Information XII. Medicinal Qualities XIII. Ginseng in China XIV. Ginseng--Government Description, Etc. XV. Michigan Mint Farm XVI. Miscellaneous Information XVII. Golden Seal Cultivation XVIII. Golden Seal History, Etc. XIX. Growers' Letters XX. Golden Seal--Government Description, Etc. XXI. Cohosh--Black and Blue XXII. Snakeroot--Canada and Virginia XXIII. Pokeweed XXIV. Mayapple XXV. Seneca Snakeroot XXVI. Lady's Slipper XXVII. Forest Roots XXVIII. Forest Plants XXIX. Thicket Plants XXX. Swamp Plants XXXI. Field Plants XXXII. Dry Soil Plants XXXIII. Rich Soil Plants XXXIV. Medicinal Herbs XXXV. Medicinal Shrubs LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Delights in His Ginseng Garden Seneca Snake Root (Cultivated) in Blossom Indian Turnip (Wild) Canadian Snake Root (Cultivated) Blood Root (Cultivated) Sarsaparilla Plant (Wild) Ginseng Plants and Roots Garden Grown Ginseng Plants Northern Ginseng Plant in Bloom--June Plan for Ginseng Garden 24 x 40 Feet--Ground Plan One Line, Overhead Dotted A Lath Panel One, Two and Three Year Old Ginseng Roots Ginseng Plants Coming Up Bed of 10,000 Young Ginseng Plants in Forest One Year's Growth of Ginseng Under Lattice Shade A Healthy Looking Ginseng Garden Diseased Ginseng Plants Broken--"Stem Rot" End Root Rot of Seedlings The Beginning of Soft Rot Dug and Dried--Ready for Market A Three Year Old Cultivated Root Bed of Mature Ginseng Plants Under Lattice Some Thrifty Plants--An Ohio Garden New York Grower's Garden Forest Bed of Young "Seng" These Plants However Are Too Thick A Healthy Looking "Garden"--"Yard" Root Resembling Human Body Wild Ginseng Roots Pennsylvania Grower's Garden Ginseng (Panax Quinquefolium) Lady Slipper Young Golden Seal Plant in Bloom Golden Seal Plants Thrifty Golden Seal Plant Golden Seal in an Upland Grove Locust Grove Seal Garden Golden Seal (Hydrastis Canadensis) Flowering Plant and Fruit Golden Seal Rootstock Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga Racemosa), Leaves, Flowering Spikes and Rootstock Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum Thalictroides) Canada Snakeroot (Asarum Canadense) Virginia Serpentaria (Aristolochia Serpentaria) Pokeweed (Phytolacca Decandra), Flowering and Fruiting Branch Pokeweed Root May-Apple (Podophyllum Pellatum), Upper Portion of Plant with Flower, and Rootstock Seneca Snakeroot (Polygala Senega), Flowering Plant with Root Large Yellow Lady's Slipper (Cypripedium Hirsutum) Bethroot (Trillium Erectum) Culver's Root (Veronica Virginica) Flowering Top and Rootstock Stoneroot (Collinsonia Canadensis) Crawley-Root (Corallorhiza Odontorhiza) Marginal-Fruited Shield-Fern (Dryopteris Marginalis) Goldthread (Coptis Trifolia) Twinleaf (Jeffersonia Diphylla) Plant and Seed Capsule Canada Moonseed (Menispermum Canadense) Wild Turnip (Arisaema Triphyllum) Black Indian Hemp (Apocynum Cannabinum), Flowering Portion, Pods, and Rootstock Chamaelirium (Chamaelirium Luteum) Wild Yam (Dioscorea Villosa) Skunk-Cabbage (Spathyema Foetida) American Hellebore (Veratrum Viride) Water-Eryngo (Eryngium Yuccifolium) Yellow Jasmine (Gelsensium Sempervirens) Sweet Flag (Acorus Calamus) Blue Flag (Iris Versicolor) Crane's-bill (Geranium Maculatum), Flowering Plant, Showing also Seed Pods and Rootstock Dandelion (Taraxacum Officinale) Soapwort (Saponaria Officinalis) Burdock (Arctium Lappa), Flowering branch and Root Yellow Dock (Rumex Crispus), First Year's Growth Broad-Leaved Dock (Rumex Obtusifolius), Leaf, Fruiting Spike and Root Stillingia (Stillingia Sylvatica), Upper Portion of Plant and Part of Spike Showing Male Plant American Colombo (Frasera Carolinensis), Leaves, Flowers, and Seed Pods Couch-Grass (Agropyron Repens) Echinacea (Brauneria Augustifolia) Aletris (Aletris Farinosa) Wild Indigo (Baptisia Tinctoria), Branch Showing Flowers and Seed Pods Pleurisy Root (Asclepias Tuberosa) Bloodroot (Sanguinaria Canadensis), Flowering Plant with Rootstock Pinkroot (Spigelia Marilandica) Indian Physic (Porteranthus Trifoliatus) Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia Nudicaulis) American Angelica (Angelica Atropurpurea) Comfrey (Symphytum Officinale) Elecampane (Inula Helenium) Queen-of-the-Meadow (Eupatorium Purpureum) Hydrangea (Hydrangea Arborescens) Oregon Grape (Berberis Aquifolium) [Illustration: A. R. Harding] INTRODUCTION When the price of Ginseng advanced some years ago hundreds engaged in the business who knew little or nothing of farming, plant raising and horticulture. That they largely failed is not to be wondered at. Later many began in a small way and succeeded. Many of these were farmers and gardeners. Others were men who had hunted, trapped and gathered "seng" from boyhood. They therefore knew something of the peculiarities of Ginseng. It is from the experience of these men that this work is largely made up--writings of those who are in the business. Golden seal is also attracting considerable attention owing to the rapid increase in price during the early years of the present century. The growing of this plant is given careful attention also. Many other plants are destined to soon become valuable. A work gotten out by the government--American root drugs--contains a great deal of value in regard habits, range, description, common names, price, uses, etc., etc., so that some of the information contained in this book is taken therefrom. The prices named in the government bulletin which was issued in 1907 were those prevailing at that time--they will vary, in the future, largely according to the supply and demand. The greatest revenue derived from plants for medicinal purposes is derived from the roots, yet there are certain ones where the leaves and bark are used. Therefore to be complete some space is given to these plants. The digging of the roots, of course, destroys the plant as well as does the peeling of the bark, while leaves secured is clear gain--in other words, if gathered when matured the plant or shrub is not injured and will produce leaves each year. The amount of root drugs used for medicinal purposes will increase as the medical profession is using of them more and more. Again the number of people in the world is rapidly increasing while the forests (the natural home of root drugs) are becoming less each year. This shows that growers of medicinal roots will find a larger market in the future than in the past. Those who know something of medicinal plants--"Root Drugs"--can safely embark in their cultivation, for while prices may ease off--go lower--at times, it is reasonably certain that the general trend will be upward as the supply growing wild is rapidly becoming less each year. A. R. Harding. CHAPTER I. PLANTS AS A SOURCE OF REVENUE. With the single exception of ginseng, the hundred of plants whose roots are used for medical purposes, America is the main market and user. Ginseng is used mainly by the Chinese. The thickly inhabited Chinese Empire is where the American ginseng is principally used. To what uses it is put may be briefly stated, as a superstitious beverage. The roots with certain shapes are carried about the person for charms. The roots resembling the human form being the most valuable. The most valuable drugs which grow in America are ginseng and golden seal, but there are hundreds of others as well whose leaves, barks, seeds, flowers, etc., have a market value and which could be cultivated or gathered with profit. In this connection an article which appeared in the Hunter-Trader-Trapper, Columbus, Ohio, under the title which heads this chapter is given in full: To many unacquainted with the nature of the various wild plants which surround them in farm and out-o'-door life, it will be a revelation to learn that the world's supply of crude, botanical (vegetable) drugs are to a large extent gotten from this class of material. There are more than one thousand different kinds in use which are indigenous or naturalized in the United States. Some of these are very valuable and have, since their medicinal properties were discovered, come into use in all parts of the world; others now collected in this country have been brought here and, much like the English sparrow, become in their propagation a nuisance and pest wherever found. The impression prevails among many that the work of collecting the proper kind, curing and preparing for the market is an occupation to be undertaken only by those having experience and a wide knowledge of their species, uses, etc. It is a fact, though, that everyone, however little he may know of the medicinal value of such things, may easily become familiar enough with this business to successfully collect and prepare for the market many different kinds from the start. There are very large firms throughout the country whose sole business is for this line of merchandise, and who are at all times anxious to make contracts with parties in the country who will give the work business-like attention, such as would attend the production of other farm articles, and which is so necessary to the success of the work. If one could visit the buyers of such firms and ask how reliable they have found their sources of supply for the various kinds required, it would provoke much laughter. It is quite true that not more than one in one hundred who write these firms to get an order for some one or more kinds they might supply, ever give it sufficient attention to enable a first shipment to be made. Repeated experiences of this kind have made the average buyer very promptly commit to the nearest waste basket all letters received from those who have not been doing this work in the past, recognizing the utter waste of time in corresponding with those who so far have shown no interest in the work. The time is ripe for those who are willing to take up this work, seriously giving some time and brains to solving the comparatively easy problems of doing this work at a small cost of time and money and successfully compete for this business, which in many cases is forced to draw supplies from Europe, South America, Africa, and all parts of the world. From the writer's observation, more of these goods are not collected in this country on account of the false ideas those investigating it have of the amount of money to be made from the work, than from any other reason; they are led to believe that untold wealth lies easily within their reach, requiring only a small effort on their part to obtain it. Many cases may be cited of ones who have laboriously collected, possibly 50 to 100 pounds of an article, and when it was discovered that from one to two dollars per pound was not immediately forthcoming, pronounced the dealer a thief and never again considered the work. In these days when all crude materials are being bought, manufactured and sold on the closest margins of profit possible, the crude drug business has not escaped, it is therefore only possible to make a reasonable profit in marketing the products of the now useless weeds which confront the farmer as a serious problem at every turn. To the one putting thought, economy and perseverance in this work, will come profit which is now merely thrown away. Many herbs, leaves, barks, seeds, roots, berries and flowers are bought in very large quantities, it being the custom of the larger houses to merely place an order with the collector for all he can collect, without restriction. For example, the barks used from the sassafras roots, from the wild cherry tree, white pine tree, elm tree, tansy herb, jimson weed, etc., run into the hundreds of thousand pounds annually, forming very often the basis of many remedies you buy from your druggist. The idea prevalent with many, who have at any time considered this occupation, that it is necessary to be familiar with the botanical and Latin names of these weeds, must be abolished. When one of the firms referred to receives a letter asking for the price of Rattle Top Root, they at once know that Cimicifuga Racemosa is meant; or if it be Shonny Haw, they readily understand it to mean Viburnum Prunifolium; Jimson Weed as Stramonium Dotura; Indian Tobacco as Lobelia Inflata; Star Roots as Helonias Roots, and so on throughout the entire list of items. Should an occasion arise when the name by which an article is locally known cannot be understood, a sample sent by mail will soon be the means of making plain to the buyer what is meant. Among the many items which it is now necessary to import from Germany, Russia, France, Austria and other foreign countries, which might be produced by this country, the more important are: Dandelion Roots, Burdock Roots, Angelica Roots, Asparagus Roots, Red Clover Heads, or blossoms. Corn Silk, Doggrass, Elder Flowers, Horehound Herb, Motherwort Herb, Parsley Root, Parsley Seed, Sage Leaves, Stramonium Leaves or Jamestown Leaves, Yellow Dock Root, together with many others. Dandelion Roots have at times become so scarce in the markets as to reach a price of 50c per pound as the cost to import it is small there was great profit somewhere. These items just enumerated would not be worthy of mention were they of small importance. It is true, though, that with one or two exceptions, the amounts annually imported are from one hundred to five hundred thousand pounds or more. As plentiful as are Red Clover Flowers, this item last fall brought very close to 20c per pound when being purchased in two to ten-ton lots for the Winter's consumption. For five years past values for all Crude Drugs have advanced in many instances beyond a proportionate advance in the cost of labor, and they bid fair to maintain such a position permanently. It is safe to estimate the average enhancement of values to be at least 100% over this period; those not reaching such an increased price fully made up for by others which have many times doubled in value. It is beyond the bounds of possibility to pursue in detail all of the facts which might prove interesting regarding this business, but it is important that, to an extent at least, the matter of fluctuations in values be explained before this subject can be ever in a measure complete. All items embraced in the list of readily marketable items are at times very high in price and other times very low; this is brought about principally by the supply. It is usually the case that an article gradually declines in price, when it has once started, until the price ceases to make its production profitable. It is then neglected by those formerly gathering it, leaving the natural demand nothing to draw upon except stocks which have accumulated in the hands of dealers. It is more often the case that such stocks are consumed before any one has become aware of the fact that none has been collected for some time, and that nowhere can any be found ready for the market. Dealers then begin to make inquiry, they urge its collection by those who formerly did it, insisting still upon paying only the old price. The situation becomes acute; the small lots held are not released until a fabulous price may be realized, thus establishing a very much higher market. Very soon the advanced prices reach the collector, offers are rapidly made him at higher and higher prices, until finally every one in the district is attracted by the high and profitable figures being offered. It is right here that every careful person concerned needs to be doubly careful else, in the inevitable drop in prices caused by the over-production which as a matter of course follows, he will lose money. It will probably take two to five years then for this operation to repeat itself with these items, which have after this declined even to lower figures than before. In the meantime attention is directed to others undergoing the same experience. A thorough understanding of these circumstances and proper heed given to them, will save much for the collector and make him win in the majority of cases. Books and other information can be had by writing to the manufacturers and dealers whose advertisements may be found in this and other papers. CHAPTER II. LIST OF PLANTS HAVING MEDICINAL VALUE. The list of American Weeds and Plants as published under above heading having medicinal value and the parts used will be of especial value to the beginner, whether as a grower, collector or dealer. The supply and demand of medicinal plants changes, but the following have been in constant demand for years. The name or names in parenthesis are also applied to the root, bark, berry, plant, vines, etc., as mentioned: Balm Gilead (Balsam Poplar)--The Buds. Bayberry (Wax-Myrtle)--The Bark of Root. Black Cohosh (Black Snake Root)--The Root with Rootlets. Black Haw (Viburnum. Sloe.)--The Bark of Root. The Bark of Tree. Black Indian Hemp (Canadian Hemp)--The Root. Blood Root--The Root with Fibre. The Root with no Fibre. Blue Cohosh (Papoose Root. Squaw Root)--The Root. Blue Flag (Larger Blue Flag)--The Root. Burdock--The Root. The Seed. Cascara Sagrada (Chittem Bark)--Bark of Tree. Clover, Red--The Blossoms. Corn Silk Cotton Root--The Bark of Root. Cramp Root (Cranberry Tree. High Bush Cranberry)--The Bark of Tree. Culver's Root (Black Root)--The Root. Dandelion--The Root. Deer Tongue--The Leaves. Elder--The Dried Ripe Berries. The Flowers. Elecampane--The Root, cut into slices. Elm (Slippery Elm)--The Bark, deprived of the brown, outside layer. Fringe Tree--The Bark of Root. Gelsemium (Yellow Jasmine) (Carolina Jasmine)--The Root. Ginseng--The Root. Golden Seal (Yellow Root. Yellow Puccoon. Orange Root. Indian Dye. Indian Turmeric)--The Root. Gold Thread (Three-leaved Gold Thread)--The Herb. Hops--These should be collected and packed in such a manner as to retain all of the yellow powder (lupulin.) Hydrangea--The Root. Indian Hemp, Black (See Black Indian Hemp) Lady Slipper (Moccasin-Flower. Large Yellow Lady Slipper. American Valerian)--The Root, with Rootlets. Lobelia (Indian Tobacco)--The Herb. The Seed. Mandrake (May-apple)--The Root. Nettle--The Herb. Passion Flower--The Herb. Pipsissewa (Prince's Pine)--The Vine. Poke--The Berries. The Root. Prickly Ash (Toothache Tree. Angelica Tree. Suterberry. Pepper Wood. Tea Ash)--The Bark. The Berry. Sassafras--The Bark of the Root. The Pith. Saw Palmetto--The Berries. Scullcap--The Herb. [Illustration: Senega Snake Root (Cultivated) in Blossom.] Snake Root, Virginia (Birthwort-Serpentaria)--The Root. Snake Root, Canada (Asarabacca. Wild Ginger. So-called Coltfoot Root)--The Root. Spruce Gum--Clean Gum only. Squaw Vine (Partridge Berry)--The Herb. Star Root (See Unicorn False) Star Grass (See Unicorn True) Stillingia (Queen's Delight)--The Root. Stramonium (Jamestown-weed. Jimson-weed. Thorn-apple)--The Leaves. The Seed. Unicorn True (Star Grass. Blazing Star. Mealy Starwort. Colic Root)--The Root. Unicorn False (Star Root. Starwort)--The Root. Wahoo (Strawberry Tree. Indian Arrow. Burning Bush. Spindle Tree. Pegwood. Bitter Ash)--The Bark of Root. The Bark of Tree. White Pine (Deal Pine. Soft Deal Pine)--The Bark of Tree, Rossed. Wild Cherry--The thin Green Bark, and thick Bark Rossed. The dried Cherries. Wild Indigo (Horsefly Weed. Rattle-bush. Indigo Weed. Yellow Indigo. Clover Broom)--The Root. Wormseed, American (Stinking Weed. Jesuit Tea. Jerusalem Tea. Jerusalem Oak)--The Seed. Wild Yam (Colic Root. China Root. Devil's Bones)--The Root. Yellow Dock (Sour Dock. Narrow Dock. Curled Dock)--The Root. The following are used in limited quantities only: Arbor Vitae (White Cedar)--The Leafy Tips. Balmony (Turtle-head. Snakehead)--The Herb, free from large Stalks. Beth Root (Trillium Erectum. Wake Robin. Birth-root)--The Root. Birch Bark (Cherry Birch. Sweet Birch. Black Birch. Black Root (see culvers root)--The Bark of Tree. Blackberry (High Blackberry)--The Bark of Root. Black Willow--The Bark. The Buds. Boneset (Thoroughwort)--The Herb, free from large Stems. Broom Corn--The Seed. Broom Top (Scotch Broom)--The Flowering Tops. Bugle Weed (Water Horehound) The Herb, free from large Stems. Butternut--Bark of Root. Catnip--The Herb. Chestnut--The Leaves, collected in September or October while still green. Chicory (Succory)--The Root, cut into slices (Cross section.) Corn Ergot (Corn Smut)--The Fungus, replacing the grains of corn. False Bittersweet (Shrubby Bittersweet. Climbing Bittersweet. Wax-wort. Staff-tree)--The Bark of Tree. Garden Lettuce--The Leaves. Geranium (Cranesbill)--The Root of the wild Herb. Gravel Plant (May Flower. Ground Laurel. Trailing Arbutus)--The Leaves. Great Celandine (Garden Celandine)--Entire plant. Hellebore, False (Adonis Vernalis)--The Root. Hemlock--The Bark. The Gum. Horse Nettle--The Berries. The Root. Huckleberry--The Dried Berry. Life Everlasting (Common Everlasting. Cudweed)--The Herb. Life Root Plant (Rag-wort)--The Herb. Lovage--The Root. Maiden Hair--The Fern. Milkweed (Pleurisy Root)--The Root cut into Sections lengthwise. Motherwort--The Herb. Mountain Ash (Mountain Laurel (See Sheep Laurel)--The Bark of Tree. Mullein (Common Mullein)--The Leaves. Pennyroyal--The Herb. Peppermint The Leaves.--The Herb. Pitcher Plant (Side-Saddle Plant. Fly Trap. Huntsman Cup. Water Cup)--The Plant. Plantain (Rib-grass. Rib-wort. Ripple-grass)--The Leaves. Poison Oak (Poison Ivy)--The Leaves. Pumpkin--The Seed. Queen of the Meadow (Joe-Pye-Weed. Trumpet-Weed)--The Root. Ragweed (Wild Red Raspberry)--The Leaves. Rosinweed (Polar plant. Compass plant)--The Root. Rue--The Herb. Sage--The Leaves. Scouring Rush (Horsetail)--The Herb. Sheep Laurel (Laurel. Mountain Laurel. Broad-leafed Laurel. Calico Bush. Spoon Wood)--The Leaves. Sheep Sorrel (Field Sorrel)--The Leaves. Shepherd's Purse--The Herb. Skunk Cabbage--The Root. Spikenard--The Root. Stone Root--The Root. Tag Alder--The Bark. Tansy (Trailing Arbutus. See Gravel Plant)--The Herb. Veratrum Viride (Green Hellebore. American Hellebore)--The Root. Vervain (Blue Vervain)--The Herb. Virginia Stone Crop (Dutch Stone Crop) Wafer Ash (Hop Tree. Swamp Dogwood. Stinking Ash. Scrubby Trefoil. Ague Bark)--The Bark of Root. Water Avens (Throat Root. Cure All. Evan's Root. Indian Chocolate. Chocolate Root. Bennett Root)--The Root. Water Eryngo (Button Snake Root. Corn Snake Root. Rattle Snake's Weed)--The Root. Water Hemlock (Spotted Parsley. Spotted Hemlock. Poison Parsley. Poison Hemlock. Poison Snake Weed. Beaver Poison)--The Herb. Watermelon--The Seed. Water Pepper (Smart Weed. Arsmart)--The Herb. Water Ash--The Bark of Tree. White Oak (Tanners Bark)--The Bark of Tree, Rossed. White Ash--The Bark of Tree. White Poplar (Trembling Poplar. Aspen. Quaking Asp)--The Bark of Tree. Wild Lettuce (Wild Opium Lettuce. Snake Weed. Trumpet Weed)--The Leaves. [Illustration: Indian Turnip (Wild).] Wild Turnip (Indian Turnip. Jack-in-the-Pulpit. Pepper Turnip. Swamp Turnip)--The Root, sliced. Wintergreen (Checkerberry. Partridge Berry. Teaberry. Deerberry)--The Leaves. Witch Hazel (Striped Alder. Spotted Alder. Hazelnut)--The Bark. The Leaves. Yarrow (Milfoil. Thousand Leaf)--The Herb. Yellow Parilla (Moon Seed. Texas Sarsaparilla)--The Root. Yerba Santa (Mountain Balm. Gum Plant. Tar Weed)--The Leaves. CHAPTER III. CULTIVATION OF WILD PLANTS. The leading botanical roots in demand by the drug trade are the following, to-wit: Ginseng, Golden Seal, Senega or Seneca Snake Root, Serpentaria or Virginia Snake Root, Wild Ginger or Canada Snake Root, Mandrake or Mayapple, Pink Root, Blood Root, Lady Slipper, Black Root, Poke Root and the Docks. Most of these are found in abundance in their natural habitat, and the prices paid for the crude drugs will not, as yet, tempt many persons to gather the roots, wash, cure, and market them, much less attempt their culture. But Ginseng, Golden Seal, Senega, Serpentaria and Wild Ginger are becoming very scarce, and the prices paid for these roots will induce persons interested in them to study their several natures, manner of growth, natural habitat, methods of propagation, cultivation, etc. This opens up a new field of industry to persons having the natural aptitude for such work. Of course, the soil and environment must be congenial to the plant grown. A field that would raise an abundance of corn, cotton, or wheat would not raise Ginseng or Golden Seal at all. Yet these plants grown as their natures demand, and by one who "knows," will yield a thousand times more value per acre than corn, cotton or wheat. A very small Ginseng garden is worth quite an acreage of wheat. I have not as yet marketed any cultivated Ginseng. It is too precious and of too much value as a yielder of seeds to dig for the market. Some years ago I dug and marketed, writes a West Virginia party, the Golden Seal growing in a small plot, ten feet wide by thirty feet long, as a test, to see if the cultivation of this plant would pay. I found that it paid extremely well, although I made this test at a great loss. This bed had been set three years. In setting I used about three times as much ground as was needed, as the plants were set in rows eighteen inches apart and about one foot apart in the rows. The rows should have been one foot apart, and the plants about six inches apart in the rows, or less. I dug the plants in the fall about the time the tops were drying down, washed them clean, dried them carefully in the shade and sold them to a man in the city of Huntington, W Va. He paid me $1.00 per pound and the patch brought me $11.60, or at the rate of $1,684.32 per acre, by actual measure and test. [Illustration: Canadian Snake Root (Cultivated).] This experiment opened my eyes very wide. The patch had cost me practically nothing, and taking this view only, had paid "extremely well." But, I said, "I made this test at a great loss," which is true, taking the proper view of the case. Suppose I had cut those roots up into pieces for propagation, and stratified them in boxes of sandy loam through the winter, and when the buds formed on them carefully set them in well prepared beds. I would now have a little growing gold mine. The price has been $1.75 for such stock, or 75% more than when I sold, making an acre of such stuff worth $2,948.56. The $11.60 worth of stock would have set an acre, or nearly so. So my experiment was a great loss, taking this view of it. I am raising, in a small way, Ginseng, Lady Slipper, Wild Ginger and Virginia Snake Root, and am having very good success with all of it. I am also experimenting with some flowering plants, such as Sweet Harbinger, Hepatica, Blood Root, and Blue Bell. I am trying to propagate and grow some shrubs and trees to be used as yard and cemetery trees. Of these my most interesting one is the American Christmas Holly. I have not made much headway with it yet, but I am not discouraged. I know more about it than when I began, and think I shall succeed. There is good demand for Holly at Christmas time, and I can find ready sale for all I can get. I think the plants should sell well, as it makes a beautiful shrub. I think the time has come when the Ginseng and Golden Seal of commerce and medicine will practically all come from the gardens of the cultivators of these plants. I do not see any danger of overproduction. The demand is great and is increasing year by year. Of course, like the rising of a river, the price may ebb and flow, somewhat, but it is constantly going up. [Illustration: Blood Root (Cultivated).] The information contained in the following pages about the habits, range, description and price of scores of root drugs will help hundreds to distinguish the valuable plants from the worthless. In most instances a good photo of the plant and root is given. As Ginseng and Golden Seal are the most valuable, instructions for the cultivation and marketing of same is given in detail. Any root can be successfully grown if the would-be grower will only give close attention to the kind of soil, shade, etc., under which the plant flourishes in its native state. [Illustration: Sarsaparilla Plant (Wild).] Detailed methods of growing Ginseng and Golden Seal are given from which it will be learned that the most successful ones are those who are cultivating these plants under conditions as near those as possible which the plants enjoy when growing wild in the forests. Note carefully the nature of the soil, how much sunlight gets to the plants, how much leaf mould and other mulch at the various seasons of the year. It has been proven that Ginseng and Golden Seal do best when cultivated as near to nature as possible. It is therefore reasonable to assume that all other roots which grow wild and have a cash value, for medicinal and other purposes, will do best when "cultivated" or handled as near as possible under conditions which they thrived when wild in the forests. Many "root drugs" which at this time are not very valuable--bringing only a few cents a pound--will advance in price and those who wish to engage in the medicinal root growing business can do so with reasonable assurance that prices will advance for the supply growing wild is dwindling smaller and smaller each year. Look at the prices paid for Ginseng and Golden Seal in 1908 and compare with ten years prior or 1898. Who knows but that in the near future an advance of hundreds of per cent. will have been scored on wild turnip, lady's slipper, crawley root, Canada snakeroot, serpentaria (known also as Virginia and Texas snakeroot), yellow dock, black cohosh, Oregon grape, blue cohosh, twinleaf, mayapple, Canada moonseed, blood-root, hydrangea, crane's bill, seneca snakeroot, wild sarsaparilla, pinkroot, black Indian hemp, pleurisy-root, culvers root, dandelion, etc., etc.? Of course it will be best to grow only the more valuable roots, but at the same time a small patch of one or more of those mentioned above may prove a profitable investment. None of these are apt to command the high price of Ginseng, but the grower must remember that it takes Ginseng some years to produce roots of marketable size, while many other plants produce marketable roots in a year. There are thousands of land owners in all parts of America that can make money by gathering the roots, plants and barks now growing on their premises. If care is taken to only dig and collect the best specimens an income for years can be had. CHAPTER IV. THE STORY OF GINSENG. History and science have their romances as vivid and as fascinating as any in the realms of fiction. No story ever told has surpassed in interest the history of this mysterious plant Ginseng; the root that for nearly 200 years has been an important article of export to China. Until a few years ago not one in a hundred intelligent Americans living in cities and towns, ever heard of the plant, and those in the wilder parts of the country who dug and sold the roots could tell nothing of its history and use. Their forefathers had dug and sold Ginseng. They merely followed the old custom. The natural range of Ginseng growing wild in the United States is north to the Canadian line, embracing all the states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Delaware, New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Kentucky and Tennessee. It is also found in a greater part of the following states: Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. Until recently the plant was found growing wild in the above states in abundance, especially those states touched by the Allegheny mountains. The plant is also found in Ontario and Quebec, Canada, but has become scarce there also, owing to persistent hunting. It also grows sparingly in the states west of and bordering on the Mississippi river. Ginseng in the United States was not considered of any medical value until about 1905, but in China it is and has been highly prized for medical purposes and large quantities of the root are exported to that country. It is indeed doubtful if the root has much if any medical value, and the fact that the Chinese prefer roots that resemble, somewhat, the human body, only goes to prove that their use of the root is rather from superstition than real value. Of late years Ginseng is being cultivated by the Chinese in that country, but the root does not attain the size that it does in America, and the plant from this side will, no doubt, continue to be exported in large quantities. New York and San Francisco are the two leading cities from which exports are made to China, and in each of these places are many large dealers who annually collect hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth. The most valuable Ginseng grows in New York, the New England states and northern Pennsylvania. The root from southern sections sells at from fifty cents to one dollar per pound less. Ginseng in the wild or natural state grows largely in beech, sugar and poplar forests and prefers a damp soil. The appearance of Ginseng when young resembles somewhat newly sprouted beans; the plant only grows a few inches the first year. In the fall the stem dies and in the spring the stalk grows up again. The height of the full grown stalk is from eighteen to twenty inches, altho they sometimes grow higher. The berries and seed are crimson (scarlet) color when ripe in the fall. For three or four years the wild plants are small, and unless one has a practical eye will escape notice, but professional diggers have so persistently scoured the hills that in sections where a few years ago it was abundant, it is now extinct. While the palmy days of digging were on, it was a novel occupation and the "seng diggers," as they are commonly called, go into the woods armed with a small mattock and sack, and the search for the valuable plant begins. Ginseng usually grows in patches and these spots are well known to the mountain residents. Often scores of pounds of root are taken from one patch, and the occupation is a very profitable one. The women as well as the men hunt Ginseng, and the stalk is well known to all mountain lads and lassies. Ginseng grows in a rich, black soil, and is more commonly found on the hillsides than in the lowlands. [Illustration: Ginseng Plant and Roots.] Few are the mountain residents who do not devote some of their time to hunting this valuable plant, and in the mountain farm houses there are now many hundred pounds of the article laid away waiting the market. While the fall is the favorite time for Ginseng hunting, it is carried on all summer. When a patch of the root is found the hunter loses no time in digging it. To leave it until the fall would be to lose it, for undoubtedly some other hunter would find the patch and dig it. How this odd commerce with China arose is in itself remarkable. Many, many years ago a Catholic priest, one who had long served in China, came as a missionary to the wilds of Canada. Here in the forest he noted a plant bearing close resemblance to one much valued as a medicine by the Chinese. A few roots were gathered and sent as a sample to China, and many months afterwards the ships brought back the welcome news that the Chinamen would buy the roots. Early in its history the value of Ginseng as a cultivated crop was recognized, and repeated efforts made for its propagation. Each attempt ended in failure. It became an accepted fact with the people that Ginseng could not be grown. Now these experimenters were not botanists, and consequently they failed to note some very simple yet essential requirements of the plant. About 1890 experiments were renewed. This time by skilled and competent men who quickly learned that the plant would thrive only under its native forest conditions, ample shade, and a loose, mellow soil, rich in humus, or decayed vegetable matter. As has since been shown by the success of the growers. Ginseng is easily grown, and responds readily to proper care and attention. Under right conditions the cultivated roots are much larger and finer, and grow more quickly than the wild ones. It may be stated in passing, that Chinese Ginseng is not quite the same thing as that found in America, but is a variety called Panax Ginseng, while ours is Panax Quinquefolia. The chemists say, however, that so far as analysis shows, both have practically the same properties. It was originally distributed over a wide area, being found everywhere in the eastern part of the United States and Canada where soil and locality were favorable. Ginseng has an annual stalk and perennial root. The first year the foliage does not closely resemble the mature plant, having only three leaves. It is usually in its third year that it assumes the characteristic leaves of maturity and becomes a seed-bearer. The photos which accompany give a more accurate idea of the plant's appearance than is possible from a written description. The plants bloom very quickly after sprouting and the berries mature in August and September in most localities. When ripe, the berries are a rich deep crimson and contain usually two seeds each. The seeds are peculiar in that it usually takes them about eighteen months to germinate and if allowed to become dry in the meantime, the vitality will be destroyed. Western authorities have heretofore placed little value on Ginseng as a curative agent, but a number of recent investigations seem to reverse this opinion. The Chinese, however, have always placed the highest value upon it and millions have used and esteemed it for untold centuries. Its preparation and uses have never been fully understood by western people. Our Consuls in China have at various times furnished our government with very full reports of its high value and universal use in the "Flowery Kingdom." From these we learn that "Imperial Ginseng," the highest grade grown in the royal parks and gardens, is jealously watched and is worth from $40.00 to $200.00 per pound. Of course its use is limited to the upper circle of China's four hundred. The next quality comes from Korea and is valued at $15.00 to $35.00 per pound. Its use is also limited to the lucky few. The third grade includes American Ginseng and is the great staple kind. It is used by every one of China's swarming millions who can possibly raise the price. The fourth grade is Japanese Ginseng and is used by those who can do no better. Mr. Wildman, of Hong Kong, says: "The market for a good article is practically unlimited. There are four hundred million Chinese and all to some extent use Ginseng. If they can once become satisfied with the results obtained from the tea made from American Ginseng, the yearly demand will run up into the millions of dollars worth." Another curious fact is that the Chinese highly prize certain peculiar shapes among these roots especially those resembling the human form. For such they gladly pay fabulous prices, sometimes six hundred times its weight in silver. The rare shapes are not used as medicine but kept as a charm, very much as some Americans keep a rabbit's foot for luck. Sir Edwin Arnold, that famous writer and student of Eastern peoples, says of its medicinal values: "According to the Chinaman, Ginseng is the best and most potent of cordials, of stimulants, of tonics, of stomachics, cardiacs, febrifuges, and, above all, will best renovate and reinvigorate failing forces. It fills the heart with hilarity while its occasional use will, it is said, add a decade of years to the ordinary human life. Can all these millions of Orientals, all those many generations of men, who have boiled Ginseng in silver kettles and have praised heaven for its many benefits, have been totally deceived? Was the world ever quite mistaken when half of it believed in something never puffed, nowhere advertised and not yet fallen to the fate of a Trust, a Combine or a Corner?" It has been asked why the Chinese do not grow their own Ginseng. In reply it may be said that America supplies but a very small part indeed of the Ginseng used in China. The bulk comes from Korea and Manchuria, two provinces belonging to China, or at least which did belong to her until the recent Eastern troubles. Again, Ginseng requires practically a virgin soil, and as China proper has been the home of teeming millions for thousands of years, one readily sees that necessary conditions for the plant hardly exist in that old and crowded country. CHAPTER V. GINSENG HABITS. A few years ago Ginseng could be found in nearly every woods and thicket in the country. Today conditions are quite different. Ginseng has become a scarce article. The decrease in the annual crop of the wild root will undoubtedly be very rapid from this on. The continued search for the root in every nook and corner in the country, coupled with the decrease in the forest and thicket area of the country, must in a few years exterminate the wild root entirely. To what extent the cultivated article in the meantime can supplant the decrease in the production of the wild root, is yet to be demonstrated. The most important points in domesticating the root, to my opinion, is providing shade, a necessary condition for the growth of Ginseng, and to find a fertilizer suitable for the root to produce a rapid growth. If these two conditions can be complied with, proper shade and proper fertilizing, the cultivation of the root is simplified. Now the larger wild roots are found in clay soil and not in rich loam. It seems reasonably certain that the suitable elements for the growth of the root is found in clay soil. The "seng" digger often finds many roots close to the growing stalk, which had not sent up a shoot that year. For how many years the root may lie dormant is not known, nor is it known whether this is caused by lack of cultivation. I have noticed that the cultivated plant did not fail to sprout for five consecutive years. Whether it will fail the sixth year or the tenth is yet unknown. The seed of Ginseng does not sprout or germinate until the second year, when a slender stalk with two or three leaves puts in an appearance. Then as the stalk increases in size from year to year, it finally becomes quite a sizable shrub of one main stalk, from which branch three, four, or even more prongs; the three and four prongs being more common. A stalk of "seng" with eight well arranged prongs, four of which were vertically placed over four others, was found in this section (Southern Ohio) some years ago. This was quite an oddity in the general arrangement of the plant. Ginseng is a plant found growing wild in the deep shaded forests and on the hillsides thruout the United States and Canada. Less than a score of years ago Ginseng was looked upon as a plant that could not be cultivated, but today we find it is successfully grown in many states. It is surprising what rapid improvements have been made in this valuable root under cultivation. The average cultivated root now of three or four years of age, will outweigh the average wild root of thirty or forty years. When my brother and I embarked in the enterprise, writes one of the pioneers in the business, of raising Ginseng, we thought it would take twenty years to mature a crop instead of three or four as we are doing today. At that time we knew of no other person growing it and from then until the present time we have continually experimented, turning failures to success. We have worked from darkness to light, so to speak. In the forests of Central New York, the plant is most abundant on hillsides sloping north and east, and in limestone soils where basswood or butternut predominate. Like all root crops, Ginseng delights in a light, loose soil, with a porous subsoil. If a cultivated plant from some of our oldest grown seed and a wild one be set side by side without shading, the cultivated one will stand three times as long as the wild one before succumbing to excessive sunlight. If a germinated seed from a cultivated plant were placed side by side under our best mode of cultivation, the plant of the cultivated seed at the end of five years, would not only be heavier in the root but would also produce more seed. In choosing a location for a Ginseng garden, remember the most favorable conditions for the plant or seed bed are a rich loamy soil, as you will notice in the home of the wild plant. You will not find it on low, wet ground or where the Water stands any length of time, it won't grow with wet feet; it wants well drained soil. A first-class location is on land that slopes to the east or north, and on ground that is level and good. Other slopes are all right, but not as good as the first mentioned. It does not do so well under trees, as the roots and fibers from them draw the moisture from the plant and retard its growth. [Illustration: Garden Grown Ginseng Plant.] The variety of soil is so much different in the United States that it is a hard matter to give instructions that would be correct for all places. The best is land of a sandy loam, as I have mentioned before. Clay land can be used and will make good gardens by mixing leaf mold, rotten wood and leaves and some lighter soil, pulverize and work it thru thoroughly. Pick out all sticks and stones that would interfere with the plants. Ginseng is a most peculiar plant. It has held a place of high esteem among the Chinese from time immemorial. It hides away from man with seeming intelligence. It is shy of cultivation, the seed germinating in eighteen months as a rule, from the time of ripening and planting. If the seeds become dry they lose, to a certain extent, their germinating power. The young plant is very weak and of remarkably slow growth. It thrives only in virgin soil, and is very choice in its selection of a place to grow. Remove the soil to another place or cultivate it in any way and it loses its charm for producing this most fastidious plant. It has a record upon which it keeps its age, or years of its growth, for it passes a great many years in the ground, dormant. I have counted the age upon the record stem of small roots and found their age to be from 30 to 60 years. No plant with which I am acquainted grows as slowly as Ginseng. A great many superstitious notions are held by the people, generally, in regard to Ginseng. I think it is these natural peculiarities of the plant, together with the fancied resemblance of the root to man, and, also probably its aromatic odor that gives it its charm and value. Destroy it from the earth and the Materia Medica of civilization would lose nothing. I notice that the cultivated root is not so high in price by some two dollars as the wild root. If the root is grown in natural environment and by natural cultivation, i. e., just let it grow, no Chinaman can tell it from the wild root. We have at present, writes a grower, in our Ginseng patch about 3,500 plants and will this year get quite a lot of excellent seed. Our Ginseng garden is on a flat or bench on a north hillside near the top, that was never cleared. The soil is a sandy loam and in exposure and quality naturally adapted to the growth of this plant. The natural growth of timber is walnut, both black and white, oak, red bud, dogwood, sugar, maple, lin, poplar and some other varieties. We cultivate by letting the leaves from the trees drop down upon the bed in the fall as a mulch and then in the early spring we burn the leaves off the bed. Our plants seem to like this treatment very well. They are of that good Ginseng color which all Ginseng diggers recognize as indicative of good sized, healthy roots. [Illustration: Northern Ginseng Plant in Bloom--June.] I have had much experience in hunting the wild Ginseng roots, says another, and have been a close observer of its habits, conditions, etc. High shade is best with about one-half sun. The root is found mostly where there is good ventilation and drainage. A sandy porous loam produces best roots. Plants in dense shade fail to produce seed in proportion to the density of the shade. In high one-half shade they produce heavy crops of seed. Coarse leaves that hold water will cause disease in rainy seasons. No leaves or mulch make stalks too low and stunted. Ginseng is very wise and knows its own age. This age the plant shows in two ways. First, by the style of the foliage which changes each year until it is four years old. Second, the age can be determined by counting the scars on the neck of the bud-stem. Each year the stalk which carries the leaves and berries, goes down, leaving a scar on the neck or perennial root from which it grew. A new bud forms opposite and a little above the old one each year. Counting these stalk scars will give the age of the plant. I have seen some very old roots and have been told that roots with fifty scars have been dug. The leaf on a seedling is formed of three small parts on a stem, growing directly out of a perennial root and during the first year it remains that shape. The second year the stem forks at the top and each fork bears two leaves, each being formed of five parts. The third year the stem forks three ways and bears three leaves, each formed of five parts, much like the Virginia creeper. Now the plant begins to show signs of bearing seed and a small button-shaped cluster of green berries can be seen growing in the forks of the stalk at the base of the leaf stem. The fourth year the perennial stalk grows as large around as an ordinary lead pencil and from one foot to twenty inches high. It branches four ways, and has four beautiful five-pointed leaves, with a large well-formed cluster of berries in the center. After the middle of June a pale green blossom forms on the top of each berry. The berries grow as large as a cherry pit and contain two or three flat hard seeds. In September they turn a beautiful red and are very attractive to birds and squirrels. They may be gathered each day as they ripen and should be planted directly in a bed, or put in a box of damp, clean sand and safely stored. If put directly in the ground they will sprout the first year, which advantage would be lost if stored dry. A word to trappers about wild roots. When you find a plant gather the seed, and unless you want to plant them in your garden, bury them in the berry about an inch or inch and a half deep in some good, rich, shady place, one berry in each spot. Thus you will have plants to dig in later years, you and those who come after you. Look for it in the autumn after it has had time to mature its berries. Do not take up the little plants which have not yet become seed bearers. CHAPTER VI. CULTIVATION. The forest is the home of the Ginseng plant and the closer we follow nature the better results we get. I am growing it now under artificial shade; also in the forest with natural shade, says an Ohio party. A good shade is made by setting posts in the ground, nail cross-pieces on these, then cover with brush. You must keep out the sun and let in the rain and this will do both. Another good shade is made by nailing laths across, allowing them to be one-half inch apart. This will allow the rain to pass thru and will keep the sun out. Always when using lath for shade allow them to run east and west, then the sun can't shine between them. In selecting ground for location of a Ginseng garden, the north side of a hill is best, altho where the ground is level it will grow well. Don't select a low marshy piece of ground nor a piece too high, all you want is ground with a good drainage and moisture. It is the opinion of some people that in a few years the market will be glutted by those growing it for sale. I will venture to say that I don't think we can grow enough in fifty years to over-run the market. The demand is so great and the supply so scarce it will be a long time before the market will be affected by the cultivated root. The market has been kept up entirely in the past by the wild root, but it has been so carelessly gathered that it is almost entirely exhausted, so in order to supply this demand we must cultivate this crop. I prepare my beds five feet wide and as long as convenient. I commence by covering ground with a layer of good, rich, loose dirt from the woods or well-rotted manure. Then I spade it up, turning under the rich dirt. Then I cover with another layer of the same kind of dirt in which I plant my seed and roots. After I have them planted I cover the beds over with a layer of leaves or straw to hold the moisture, which I leave on all winter to protect them from the cold. In the spring I remove a part of the leaves (not all), they will come up thru the leaves as they do in their wild forest. All the attention Ginseng needs after planting is to keep the weeds out of the beds. Never work the soil after planting or you will disturb the roots. It is a wild plant and we must follow nature as near as possible. Ginseng can be profitably grown on small plots if it is cared for properly. There are three things influencing its growth. They are soil, shade and treatment. In its wild state the plant is found growing in rich leaf mold of a shady wood. So in cultivation one must conform to many of the same conditions in which the plant is found growing wild. In starting a bed of Ginseng the first thing to be considered is the selection of soil. Tho your soil be very rich it is a good plan to cover it with three or four inches of leaf mold and spade about ten inches deep so that the two soils will be well mixed. Artificial shade is preferable at all times because trees take nearly all the moisture and strength out of the soil. When the bed is well fitted, seed may be sown or plants may be set out. The latter is the quicker way to obtain results. If seeds are sown the young grower is apt to become discouraged before he sees any signs of growth, as it requires eighteen months for their germination. The cheapest way to get plants is to learn to recognize them at sight, then go to the woods and try to find them. With a little practice you will be able to tell them at some distance. Much care should be taken in removing the plant from the soil. The fewer fibers you break from the root, the more likely it will be to grow. Care should also be taken not to break the bud on top of the root. It is the stalk of the plant starting for the next year, and is very noticeable after June 1st. If it be broken or harmed the root will have no stalk the next season. It is best to start a Ginseng garden on a well drained piece of land, says a Dodge County, Wisconsin, grower. Run the beds the way the hill slopes. Beds should only be four to five feet wide so that they can be reached, for walking on the beds is objectionable. Make your walks about from four to six inches below the beds, for an undrained bed will produce "root rot." The ground should be very rich and "mulchy." Use well rotted horse manure in preparing the beds, for fresh manure will heat and hurt the plants. Use plenty of woods dirt, but very little manure of any kind. Set plants about six inches each way, and if you want to increase the size of the root, pinch off the seed bulb. In the fall when the tops have died down, cover the beds about two inches deep with dead leaves from the woods. We make our shades out of one-inch strips three inches wide and common lath. The north and west fence should be more tight to keep cold winds out. Eastern and southern side tight, two feet from the ground. From the two feet to top you may use ordinary staves from salt barrels or so nailed one inch apart. Have your Ginseng garden close to the house, for Ginseng thieves become numerous. I was raised in the country on a farm and as near to nature as it is possible to get, and have known a great deal of Ginseng from my youth up. Twenty-five years ago it was 75 cents a pound, and now it is worth ten times as much. Every one with any experience in such matters knows that if radishes or turnips are planted in rich, old soil that has been highly fertilized they will grow large and will be strong, hot, pithy and unpalatable. If planted in rich, new soil, they will be firm, crisp, juicy and sweet. This fact holds good with Ginseng. If planted in old ground that is highly fertilized, the roots will grow large, but the flavor is altogether different from that of the wild root, and no doubt specimens of large sizes are spongy and unpalatable to the Celestials compared to that of the wild root. If planted in rich, new ground and no strong fertilizer used, depending entirely upon the rich woods soil for enriching the beds, the flavor is bound to be exactly as that of the wild root. When the growers wake up to this fact, and dig their roots before they become too large, prices will be very satisfactory and the business will be on a sound basis. * * * We will begin in a systematic way, with the location, planting and preparing of the ground for the Ginseng garden, writes a successful grower--C. H. Peterson--of Blue Earth County, Minn. In choosing a location for a Ginseng garden, select one having a well-drained soil. Ginseng thrives best in wood loam soil that is cool and mellow, although any good vegetable garden soil will do very well. A southern slope should be avoided, as the ground gets too warm in summer and it also requires more shade than level or northern slope does. It is also apt to sprout too early in the spring, and there is some danger of its getting frosted, as the flower stem freezes very easily and no seed is the result. Then again if you locate your garden on too low ground the roots are apt to rot and the freezing and thawing of wet ground is hard on Ginseng. Laying out a garden nothing is more important than a good system both for looks, convenience and the growth of your roots later on. Do your work well as there is good money in raising Ginseng, and for your time you will be well repaid. Don't make one bed here and another there and a path where you happen to step, but follow some plan for them. I have found by experience that the wider the beds are, the better, providing that their width does not exceed the distance that you can reach from each path to center of bed to weed. For general purposes for beds 6 1/2 ft. is used for paths 1 1/2 ft. A bed 6 1/2 ft. wide gives you 3 1/4 ft. to reach from each path to center of bed without getting on the beds, which would not be advisable. An 18 in. path is none too wide after a few years' growth, as the plants nearly cover this with foliage. This size beds and paths are just the right width for the system of lath shading I am using, making the combined distance across bed and path 8 ft., or 16 ft. for two beds and two paths, just right to use a 1x4 rough 16 ft. fencing board to run across top of posts described later on. [Illustration: Plan for Ginseng Garden 24x40 Feet--Ground Plan one line, overhead dotted.] Now we will lay out the garden by setting a row of posts 8 ft. apart the length you desire to make your garden. Then set another row 8 ft. from first row running parallel with first row, and so on until desired width of your garden has been reached. Be sure to have post line up both ways and start even at ends. Be sure to measure correctly. After all posts are set run a 1x4 in. rough fence board across garden so top edge is even at top of post and nail to post. The post should be about 8 ft. long so when set would be a trifle over 6 ft. above ground. This enables a person to walk under shading when completed. It is also cooler for your plants. In setting the posts do not set them too firm, so they can be moved at top enough to make them line up both ways. After the 1x4 in. fence board is put on we will nail on double pieces. Take a 1x6 rough fence board 16 ft. long and rip it so as to make two strips, one 3 1/2 and the other 2 1/2 inches wide, lay the 3 1/2 in. flat and set the 2 1/2 in. strip on edge in middle of other strip and nail together. This had better be done on the ground so it can be turned over to nail. Then start at one side and run this double piece lengthwise of your garden or crosswise of the 1x4 in. fence board nailed along top of post and nail down into same. It may be necessary to nail a small piece of board on side of the 1x4 in. board where the joints come. Then lay another piece similar to this parallel with first one, leaving about 49 1/2 in. between the two. This space is for the lath panel to rest on the bottom piece of the double piece. Do not put double pieces so close that you will have to crowd the lath panels to get them in, but leave a little room at end of panel. You will gain about 1 1/2 in. for every double piece used in running across the garden. This has to be made up by extending over one side or the other a piece of 1x4 board nailed to end of 1x4 board nailed at top posts. Let this come over the side you need the shade most. Begin from the side you need the shade least and let it extend over the other side. It is advisable to run paths on outside of garden and extend the shading out over them. On sides lath can be used unless otherwise shaded by trees or vines. It will not be necessary to shade the north side if shading extends out over end of beds several feet. Give your plants all the air you can. In this system of shading I am using I have figured a whole lot to get the most convenient shading as well as a strong, substantial one without the use of needless lumber, which means money in most places. It has given good satisfaction for lath shade so far. Being easily built and handy to put on in spring and take off in fall. Now don't think I am using all lath shade, as I am not. In one part of garden I am using lath and in another part I am using some good elm trees. I think, however, that the roots make more rapid growth under the lath shade, but the trees are the cheaper as they do not rot and have to be replaced. They also put on their own shade. The leaves when the proper time comes also removes it when the time comes in the fall and also mulches the beds at the same time. We will now plan out the beds and paths. Use 1x4 in. rough 16 ft. fence boards on outside row of posts next to ground, nail these to posts, continue and do likewise on next row of posts, and so on until all posts have boards nailed on same side of them as first one, the post being just on inside edge of your beds. Then measure 6 1/2 ft. toward next board, drive a row of stakes and nail a board of same width to same the length of your garden that will make 18 in. between last row of boards and boards on next row nailed to post for the path. These boards answer several purposes, viz., keep people from walking on beds, elevates beds above paths, holds your mulching of leaves and adds to the appearance of your garden. After beds are made by placing the boards spade the ground about a foot deep all over the bed so as to work it up in good shape. After this is done fork it over with a six-tine fork. If bed is made in summer for fall or spring planting it is well to work it over several times during the summer, as the ground cannot be too mellow. This will also help kill the weeds. Then just before planting rake it down level. In case beds are made in woods cut, or better, grub out all trees not needed for shade, and if tree roots are not too large cut out all next to the surface running inside of boards in beds, and work the same as other beds. Lay out your beds same as for lath shade with paths between them. Don't try to plant Ginseng in the woods before making it into beds, as you will find it unsatisfactory. We will now make the lath panel before mentioned. [Illustration: A Lath Panel.] Place three laths so that when the laths are laid crosswise one of the laths will be in the middle and the other two, one at each end two inches from end. Can be placed at the end, but will rot sooner. Then begin at end of the three laths and nail lath on, placing them 1/2 in. apart until other end is reached, and if lath is green put closer together to allow for shrinkage. If you have many panels to make, make a table out of boards and lay strips of iron fastened to table where the three lath comes, so as to clinch nails when they strike the iron strips, which will save a lot of work. Gauges can also be placed on side of table to lay lath so they will be even at ends of panels when finished. Then lay panels in your double pieces on your garden, and if garden is not located in too windy a locality they will not blow out without nailing, and a wire drawn tight from end to end of garden on top of panels will prevent this, and is all that is necessary to hold them in place. In Central New York, under favorable conditions, Ginseng plants should be coming up the last of April and early May, and should be in the ground by or before April 1st, to give best results. Healthy roots, taken up last of March or early April will be found covered with numerous fine hair-like rootlets. These are the feeders and have all grown from the roots during the spring. They should be well established in the soil before plants appear. Fifteen minutes exposure to the sun or wind will seriously injure and possibly destroy these fine feeders, forcing the roots to throw out a second crop of feeders. Considering these conditions and frequent late seasons, our advice to beginners is, wait until fall for transplanting roots. But we are not considering southern conditions. Southern growers must be governed by their own experience and climatic conditions. It may be a matter of convenience sometimes for a northern grower to take up one or two year seedlings and transplant to permanent beds in spring. If conditions are favorable so the work can be done in March or early April, it may be allowable. Have ground ready before roots are taken up. Only take up a few at a time, protect from sun and wind, transplant immediately. Spring sowing of old seed. By this we mean seed that should have been sowed the fall before when one year old, but has been kept over for spring sowing. [Illustration: One, Two and Three Year Old Ginseng Roots.] There is other work that can be done quite early in the Ginseng gardens. All weeds that have lived thru the winter should be pulled as soon as frost is out of ground. They can be pulled easier then than any other time and more certain of getting the weed root out. Mulching should be looked to. When coarse material like straw or leaves has been used, it should be loosened up so air can get to the soil and the plants can come up thru the mulch. If very heavy, perhaps a portion of the mulch may need to be removed, but don't! don't! take mulch all off from beds of set roots. Seed beds sown last fall will need to be removed about time plants are starting up. But seed beds should have been mulched with coarse leaf loam, or fine vegetable mulch, and well rotted horse manure (half and half), thoroughly mixed together, this mulch should have been put on as soon as seeds were sown and covered with mulch one inch deep. If this was not done last fall it should be put on this spring as soon as snow is off beds. [Illustration: Ginseng plants "coming up."] There is another point that needs careful attention when plants are coming up. On heavy soil plants are liable to be earth bound; this is quite likely to occur on old beds that have not been mulched and especially in dry seasons. As the Ginseng stalk comes out of the ground doubled (like an inverted U) the plant end is liable to be held fast by the hard soil, causing injury and often loss of plants. A little experience and careful observation will enable one to detect earth bound plants. The remedy is to loosen soil around the plant. A broken fork tine about eight inches long (straightened) and drive small end in a piece of broom handle about four inches long for a handle, flatten large end of tine like a screwdriver; this makes a handy tool for this work. Force it into soil near plant, give a little prying movement, at same time gently pull on plant end of stalk until you feel it loosen, do not try to pull it out, it will take care of itself when loosened. There is not likely to be any trouble, if leaves appear at the surface of soil. This little spud will be very useful to assist in pulling weed roots, such as dandelion, dock, etc. Where movable or open shades are used, they need not be put on or closed till plants are well up; about the time leaves are out on trees is the general rule. But one must be governed to some extent by weather and local conditions. If warm and dry, with much sun, get them on early. If wet and cool, keep them off as long as practicable, but be ready to get them on as soon as needed. I would advise a would-be grower of Ginseng to visit, if possible, some gardens of other growers and learn all they can by inquiry and observation. In selecting a place for your garden, be sure it has good drainage, as this one feature may save you a good deal of trouble and loss from "damping off," "wilt," and other fungus diseases which originate from too damp soil. A light, rich soil is best. My opinion is to get soil from the forest, heap up somewhere for a while thru the summer, then sift thru sand sieve or something similar, and put about two inches on top of beds you have previously prepared by spading and raking. If the soil is a little heavy some old sawdust may be mixed with it to lighten it. The woods dirt is O. K. without using any commercial fertilizers. The use of strong fertilizers and improper drying is responsible for the poor demand for cultivated root. The Chinese must have the "quality" he desires and if flavor of root is poor, will not buy. * * * I wonder how many readers know that Ginseng can be grown in the house? writes a New York dealer. Take a box about 5 inches deep and any size you wish. Fill it with woods dirt or any light, rich soil. Plant roots in fall and set in cellar thru the winter. They will begin to come up about April 1st, and should then be brought out of cellar. I have tried this two seasons. Last year I kept them by a window on the north side so as to be out of the sunshine. Window was raised about one inch to give ventilation. Two plants of medium size gave me about 100 seeds. This season I have several boxes, and plants are looking well and most of them have seed heads with berries from one-third to three-fourths grown. They have been greatly admired, and I believe I was the first in this section to try growing Ginseng as a house plant. * * * As to the location for a Ginseng garden, I have for the past two years been an enthusiast for cultivation in the natural forest, writes L. C. Ingram, M. D., of Minnesota. It is true that the largest and finest roots I have seen were grown in gardens under lattice, and maintaining such a garden must be taken into account when balancing your accounts for the purpose of determining the net profits, for it is really the profits we are looking for. The soil I have found to be the best, is a rich black, having a good drain, that is somewhat rolling. As to the direction of this slope I am not particular so long as there is a rich soil, plenty of shade and mulch covering the beds. The selection of seed and roots for planting is the most important item confronting the beginner. Considerable has been said in the past concerning the distribution among growers of Japanese seed by unscrupulous seed venders. It is a fact that Japanese Ginseng seed have been started in a number of gardens, and unless successfully stamped out before any quantity finds its way into the Chinese market, the Ginseng industry in America, stands in peril of being completely destroyed. Should they find our root mixed, their confidence would be lost and our market lost. Every one growing Ginseng must be interested in this vital point, and if they are suspicious of any of their roots being Japanese, have them passed upon by an expert, and if Japanese, every one dug. [Illustration: Bed of 10,000 Young Ginseng Plants in Forest.] It is a fact that neighboring gardens are in danger of being mixed, as the bees are able to do this in carrying the mixing pollen. The safest way to make a start is by procuring seed and roots from the woods wild in your own locality. If this cannot be done then the seed and roots for a start should be procured from a reliable party near you who can positively guarantee the seed and roots to be genuine American Ginseng. We should not be too impatient and hasty to extend the garden or launch out in a great way. Learn first, then increase as the growth of new seed will permit. The next essential thing is the proper preparation of the soil for the planting of the seeds and roots. The soil must be dug deep and worked perfectly loose same as any bed in a vegetable garden. The beds are made four or five feet wide and raised four to six inches above the paths, which are left one and a half to two feet wide. I have had seed sown on the ground and covered with dirt growing beside seed planted in well made beds and the contrast in size and the thriftiness of roots are so great when seen, never to be forgotten. The seedlings growing in the hard ground were the size of oat kernels, those in the beds beside them three to nine inches long and weighing from four to ten times as much per root. In planting the seed all that is necessary is to scatter the stratified seed on top of the prepared bed so they will be one or two inches apart, then cover with loose dirt from the next bed then level with back of garden rake. They should be one-half to one inch covered. Sawdust or leaves should next be put on one to two inches for a top dressing to preserve moisture, regulate heat, and prevent the rains from packing the soil. The best time to do all planting is in the spring. This gives the most thrifty plants with the least number missing. When the plants are two years old they must be transplanted into permanent beds. These are prepared in the same manner as they were for the seed. A board six inches wide is thrown across the bed, you step on this and with a spade throw out a ditch along the edge of the board. In this the roots are set on a slant of 45 degrees and so the bud will be from one to two inches beneath the surface. The furrow is then filled and the board moved its width. By putting the roots six inches apart in the row and using a six-inch board your plants will be six inches each way, which with most growers have given best results. When the roots have grown three years in the transplanted beds they should be ready to dig and dry for market. They should average two ounces each at this time if the soil was rich in plant food and properly prepared and cared for. The plants require considerable care and attention thru each summer. Moles must be caught, blight and other diseases treated and the weeds pulled, especially from among the younger plants. As soon as the plants are up in the spring the seed buds should be clipped from all the plants except those finest and healthiest plants you may save for your seed to maintain your garden. The clipping of the seed buds is very essential, because we want the very largest and best flavored root in the shortest time for the market. Then if we grow bushels of seed to the expense of the root, it is only a short time when many thousands of pounds of root must compete with our own for the market and lower the price. CHAPTER VII. SHADING AND BLIGHT. In several years experience growing Ginseng, says a well known grower, I have had no trouble from blight when I shade and mulch enough to keep the soil properly cool, or below 65 degrees, as you will find the temperature in the forests, where the wild plants grow best, even during summer days. Some years ago I allowed the soil to get too warm, reaching 70 degrees or more. The blight attacked many plants then. This proved to me that growing the plants under the proper temperature has much to do with blight. When fungus diseases get upon wild plants, that is plants growing in the forest, in most cases it can be traced to openings, forest fires and the woodman's ax. This allows too much sun to strike the plants and ground in which they are growing. If those engaged, or about to engage, in Ginseng growing will study closely the conditions under which the wild plants flourish best, they can learn much that they will only find out after years of experimenting. Mr. L. E. Turner in a recent issue of "Special Crops" says: We cannot depend on shade alone to keep the temperature of the soil below 65 degrees--the shade would have to be almost total. In order to allow sufficient light and yet keep the temperature down, we must cover the ground with a little mulch. The more thoroughly the light is diffused the better for the plants. Now, when we combine sufficient light with say one-half inch of clean mulch, we are supplying to the plants their natural environment, made more perfect in that it is everywhere alike. The mulch is as essential to the healthy growth of the Ginseng plant as clothing is to the comfort and welfare of man; it can thrive without it no more than corn will grow well with it. These are plants of opposite nature. Use the mulch and reduce the shade to the proper density. The mulch is of the first importance, for the plants will do much better with the mulch and little shade than without mulch and with plenty of shade. Ginseng is truly and wholly a savage. We can no more tame it than we can the partridge. We can lay out a preserve and stock it with Ginseng as we would with partridges, but who would stock a city park with partridges and expect them to remain there? We cannot make a proper Ginseng preserve under conditions halfway between a potato patch and a wild forest, but this is exactly the trouble with a large share of Ginseng gardens. They are just a little too much like the potato patch to be exactly suited to the nature of Ginseng. The plant cannot thrive and remain perfectly healthy under these conditions; we may apply emulsions and physic, but we will find it to be just like a person with an undermined constitution, it will linger along for a time subject to every disease that is in the air and at last some new and more subtle malady will, in spite of our efforts, close its earthly career. Kind readers, I am in a position to know thoroughly whereof I write, for I have been intimate for many years with the wild plants and with every shade of condition under which they manage to exist. I have found them in the valley and at the hilltop, in the tall timber and the brambled "slashing," but in each place were the necessary conditions of shade and mulch. The experienced Ginseng hunter comes to know by a kind of instinct just where he will find the plant and he does not waste time searching in unprofitable places. It is because he understands its environment. It is the environment he seeks--the Ginseng is then already found. The happy medium of condition under which it thrives best in the wild state form the process of healthy culture. [Illustration: One Year's Growth of Ginseng Under Lattice Shade.] Mr. Wm E. Mowrer, of Missouri, is evidently not in favor of the cloth shading. I think if he had thoroughly water-proofed the cloth it would have withstood the action of the weather much better. It would have admitted considerably less light and if he had given enough mulch to keep the soil properly cool and allowed space enough for ventilation, he would not have found the method so disastrous. We will not liken his trial to the potato patch, but to the field where tobacco is started under canvas. A tent is a cool place if it is open at the sides and has openings in the top and the larger the tent the cooler it will be. Ginseng does splendidly under a tent if the tent is built expressly with regard to the requirements of Ginseng. In point of cheapness a vine shading is yet ahead of the cloth system. The wild cucumber vine is best for this purpose, for it is exactly suited by nature to the conditions in a Ginseng garden. It is a native of moist, shady places, starts early, climbs high and rapidly. The seeds may be planted five or six in a "hill" in the middle of the beds, if preferred, at intervals of six or seven feet, and the vines may be trained up a small pole to the arbor frame. Wires, strings or boughs may be laid over the arbor frame for the vines to spread over. If the shade becomes too dense some of the vines may be clipped off and will soon wither away. Another advantage of the wild cucumber is that it is very succulent, taking an abundance of moisture and to a great extent guards against excessive dampness in the garden. The vines take almost no strength from the soil. The exceeding cheapness of this method is the great point in its favor. It is better to plant a few too many seeds than not enough, for it is easy to reduce the shade if too dense, but difficult to increase it in the summer if too light. * * * This disease threatens seriously to handicap us in the raising of Ginseng, says a writer in "Special Crops." It does down, but is giving us trouble all over the country. No section seems to be immune from it, tho all seem to be spraying more or less. I know of several good growers whose gardens have gone down during the last season and this, and they state that they began early and sprayed late, but to no decided benefit. What are we to do? Some claim to have perfect success with spraying as their supposed prevention. Three years ago I began to reason on this subject and in my rambles in the woods, I have watched carefully for this disease, as well as others on the wild plant, and while I have now and then noted a wild plant that was not entirely healthy, I have never seen any evidence of blight or other real serious disease. The wild plant usually appears ideally healthy, and while they are smaller than we grow in our gardens, they are generally strikingly healthful in color and general appearance. Why is this so? And why do we have such a reverse of things among our gardens? I will offer my ideas on the subject and give my theories of the causes of the various diseases and believe that they are correct and time will prove it. At least I hope these efforts of mine will be the means of helping some who are having so much trouble in the cultivation of Ginseng. The old saw that the "proof of the pudding is in chewing the bag," may be amply verified by a visit to my gardens to show how well my theories have worked so far. I will show you Ginseng growing in its highest state of perfection and not a scintilla of blight or any species of alternaria in either of them, while around me I scarcely know of another healthy garden. To begin with, moisture is our greatest enemy; heat next; the two combined at the same time forming the chief cause for most diseases of the plant. If the soil in our gardens could be kept only slightly moist, as it is in the woods, and properly shaded, ventilated and mulched, I am sure such a thing as blight and kindred diseases would never be known. The reason for this lies in the fact that soil temperature is kept low and dry. The roots, as is well known, go away down in the soil, because the temperature lower down is cooler than at the surface. Here is where mulch plays so important a part because it protects the roots from so much heat that finds its way between the plants to the top of the beds. The mulch acts as a blanket in keeping the heat out and protecting the roots thereby. If any one doubts this, just try to raise the plants without mulch, and note how some disease will make its appearance. The plant will stand considerable sun, however, with heavy enough mulch. And the more sun it can take without harm, the better the root growth will be. Too much shade will show in a spindling top and slender leaves, and invariable smallness of root growth, for, let it be borne in mind always, that the plant must derive more or less food from the top, and it is here that the fungi in numerous forms proceed to attack. The plant will not grow in any other atmosphere but one surcharged with all kinds of fungi. This is the natural environment of the plant and the only reason why the plants do not all become diseased lies in the plain fact that its vitality is of such a high character that it can resist the disease, hence the main thing in fighting disease is to obtain for the plant the best possible hygienic surroundings and feed it with the best possible food and thus nourish it to the highest vitality. I am a firm believer in spraying of the proper kind, but spraying will not keep a plant free from disease with other important conditions lacking. Spraying, if heavily applied, is known as a positive injury to the plant, despite the fact that many claim it is not, and the pity is we should have to resort to it in self-defense. The pores of the leaflets are clogged up to a greater or less extent with the deposited solution and the plant is dependent to this extent of its power to breathe. Coat a few plants very heavily with spray early in the season and keep it on and note how the plants struggle thru the middle of a hot day to get their breath. Note that they have a sluggish appearance and are inclined to wilt. These plants are weakened to a great extent and if an excess of moisture and heat can get to them, they will perhaps die down. Another thing: Take a plant that is having a hard time to get along and disturb the root to some extent and in a day or two notice spots come upon it and the leaves begin to show a wilting. Vitality disturbed again. [Illustration: A Healthy Looking Ginseng Garden.] The finest plants I have ever found in the woods were growing about old logs and stumps, where the soil was heavily enriched with decaying wood. A good cool spot, generally, and more or less mulch, and if not too much shade present. Where the shade was too dense the roots were always small. I have in some instances found some very fine roots growing in the midst of an old stump with no other soil save the partially rotted stump dirt, showing thus that Ginseng likes decaying wood matter. Upon learning this, I obtained several loads of old rotten sawdust, preferably white oak or hickory and my bed in my gardens is covered at least two inches with it under the leaf mulch. This acts as a mulch and natural food at one and the same time. The leaves decay next to the soil and thus we supply leaf mold. This leaf mold is a natural requirement of the plant and feeds it also constantly. A few more leaves added each fall keep up the process and in this way we are keeping the plant wild, which we must do to succeed with it, for Ginseng can not be greatly changed from its nature without suffering the consequences. This is what is the matter now with so many of us. Let's go back to nature and stay there, and disease will not give us so much trouble again. One more chief item I forgot to mention was the crowding of the plants together. The smaller plants get down under the larger and more vigorous and have a hard struggle for existence. The roots do not make much progress under these conditions, and these plants might as well not be left in the beds. And also note that under those conditions the beds are badly ventilated and if any plants are found to be sickly they will be these kind. I shall plant all my roots henceforth at least ten inches apart each way and give them more room for ventilation and nourishment. They get more chance to grow and will undoubtedly make firm root development and pay largely better in the end. Corn cannot be successfully cultivated in rows much narrower than four feet apart and about two stalks to the hill. All farmers know if the hills are closer and more stalks to the hill the yield will be much less. At this point I would digress to call attention to the smallness of root development in the woods, either wild or cultivated, because the trees and tree roots sap so much substance from the soil and other weeds and plants help to do the same thing. The shade is not of the right sort, too dense or too sparse in places, and the plants do not make quick growth enough to justify the growing under such conditions, and while supposed to be better for health of plants, does not always prove to be the case. I have seen some gardens under forest shade that blighted as badly as any gardens. So many speak of removing the leaves and mulch in the spring from the beds. Now, this is absolutely wrong, because the mulch and leaves keep the ground from becoming packed by rains, preserves an even moisture thru the dry part of the season and equalizes the temperature. Temperature is as important as shade and the plants will do better with plenty of mulch and leaves on the beds and considerable sun than with no mulch, dry hard beds and the ideal shade. Roots make but little growth in dry, hard ground. Pull your weeds out by hand and protect your garden from the seng digger thru the summer and that will be your cultivation until September or October when you must transplant your young roots into permanent beds, dig and dry the mature roots. CHAPTER VIII. DISEASES OF GINSENG. The following is from an article on "The Alternaria Blight of Ginseng" by H. H. Whetzel, of Cornell University, showing that the author is familiar with the subject: Susceptibility of Ginseng to Disease. The pioneer growers of Ginseng thought they had struck a "bonanza." Here was a plant that seemed easily grown, required little attention after it was once planted, was apparently free from all diseases to which cultivated plants are heir and was, besides, extremely valuable. Their first few crops bore out this supposition. No wonder that a "Ginseng craze" broke out and that men sat up nights to figure out on paper the vast fortunes that were bound to accrue to those who planted a few hundred seeds at three cents each and sold the roots in five years at $12.00 a pound. Like many other grow-wealthy-while-you-wait schemes, nature herself imposed a veto. Diseases began to appear. The prospective fortune shrunk, frequently dried up and blew away or rotted and disappeared in the earth. Several factors contributed to this result: 1. The removal of a wild plant from its natural habitat to an entirely artificial one. 2. The encouragement by the application of manures and cultivation of a rapidity of growth to which the plant was by inheritance an entire stranger, thus weakening its constitution and depriving it of its natural ability to withstand disease. Cultivated roots in three years from the seed attain greater size than they often would in twenty years in the woods. 3. The failure in many cases to provide conditions in any degree approximating the natural habitat, as, for example, the failure to supply proper drainage that is in nature provided by the forest trees whose roots constantly remove the excess of rainfall. [Illustration: Diseased Ginseng Plants.] 4. The crowding of a large number of plants into a small area. This, in itself, is more responsible for disease epidemics than perhaps any other factor. Of all the twelve or fifteen, now more or less known, diseases of this plant one in particular stands out as _the disease_ of Ginseng. Altho one of the latest to make its appearance, it has in three or four years spread to nearly every garden in this state and its ravages have been most severe. This disease is the well known Alternaria Blight. The Most Common and Destructive Disease of Ginseng. The disease manifests itself in such a variety of ways, depending upon the parts of the plant attacked, that it is difficult to give a description by which it may always be identified. It is usually the spotting of the foliage that first attracts the grower's attention. If examined early in the morning the diseased spots are of a darker green color and watery as if scalded. They dry rapidly, becoming papery and of a light brown color, definite in outline and very brittle. With the return of moist conditions at night the disease spreads from the margin of the spot into the healthy tissue. The disease progresses rapidly so that in a very few days the entire leaf succumbs, wilts and hangs limp from the stalk. If the weather is wet, the progress of the disease is often astonishing, an entire garden going down in a day or two. Under such conditions the leaves may show few or no spots becoming thruout of a dark watery green and drooping as if dashed with scalding water. All parts of the top may be affected. The disease never reaches the roots, affecting them only indirectly. Cause of the Disease. The disease is the result of the growth of a parasitic fungus in the tissues of the Ginseng. This fungus is an Alternaria (species not yet determined) as is at once evident from an examination of its spores. These are in size and form much like those of the early Blight Alternaria of Potato. These spores falling upon any part of the plant above the ground will, if moisture be present, germinate very quickly, sending out germ tubes which pierce the epidermis of the host. These mycelium threads ramify thru the tissues of the leaf or stem as the case may be, causing death of the cells. From the mycelium that lies near or on the surface arise clusters or short brown stalks or conidiophores on the apex of which the spores are borne in short chains. The spores mature quickly and are scattered to healthy plants, resulting in new infections. Only one form of spores, the conidial, is at present known. That the Alternaria is a true parasite and the cause of the disease there can be no doubt. The fungus is constantly associated with the disease. Inoculation experiments carried on in the botanical laboratory this summer show conclusively that the germ tube of the spore can penetrate the epidermis of healthy Ginseng leaves and stems and by its growth in such healthy tissue cause the characteristic spots of the disease. This is of special interest as it adds another to the list of parasitic species of genus long supposed to contain only saprophytes. Upon the general appearance of so destructive a disease, one of the first questions of the growers was "where did it come from?" Believing that it was a natural enemy of the wild plant, now grown over powerful under conditions highly unnatural to Ginseng, I undertook to find proof of my theory. I visited a wooded hillside where wild Ginseng was still known to exist. After half a day's diligent search I obtained seventeen plants of different ages, one of which showed spots of the Blight. Examination with the microscope showed mycelium and spores of the Alternaria. Unfortunately I did not get pure cultures of the fungus from this plant and so could not by cross inoculations demonstrate absolutely the identity of the Alternaria on the wild plant with that of the cultivated. So far, however, as character of the spots on the leaves, size and form of the spores are concerned, they are the same. This, I believe, answers the question of the source of the disease. Introduced into gardens on wild plants brought from the woods, it has spread rapidly under conditions most favorable to its development; namely, those pointed out in the earlier part of this paper. The wind, I believe, is chiefly responsible for the dissemination of the spores which are very small and light. Not only does the wind carry the spores from plant to plant thruout the garden, but no doubt frequently carries them for longer distances to gardens near by. The spores are produced most abundantly under conditions favorable to such dissemination. During moist, cloudy weather the energies of the fungus are devoted to vegetative growth, the spreading of the mycelium in the host tissues. With the advent of bright sunny days and dry weather mycelium growth is checked and spore formation goes on rapidly. These spores are distributed when dry and retain their vitality for a long period. Spores from dried specimens in the laboratory have been found to germinate after several months when placed in water. The disease might also be very readily carried by spores clinging to the roots or seeds, or possibly even by the mycelium in the seeds themselves. The fungus very probably winters in the old leaves and stems or in the mulch, living as a saprophyte and producing early in the spring a crop of spores from which the first infections occur. Summer History of the Disease. Altho it is on the foliage that the disease first attracts the attention of the grower, it is not here that it really makes its first appearance in the spring. The stem is the first part of the plant to come thru the soil and it is the stem that is first affected. The disease begins to show on the stems very shortly after they are thru the soil, evident first as a rusty, yellow spot usually a short distance above the surface of the soil or mulch. The spot rapidly increases in size, becomes brown and finally nearly black from the multitude of spores produced on its surface. The tissue of the stem at the point of attack is killed and shrinks, making a canker or rotten strip up the side of the stem. Such stems show well developed leaves and blossom heads giving no evidence of the disease beneath. Occasionally, however, the fungus weakens the stem so that it breaks over. Growers have occasionally observed this "stem rot" but have never connected it with the disease on the leaves later in the season. [Illustration: Broken--"Stem Rot."] It is from the spores produced on these cankers on the stem that the leaves become infected. The disease begins to appear on the leaves some time in July and by the middle of August there is usually little foliage alive. Infection frequently occurs at the point where the five leaflets are attached to the common petiole. The short leaf stems are killed causing the otherwise healthy leaflets to droop and wilt. This manifestation of the disease has not generally been attributed to the Alternaria. The seedlings are frequently affected in the same way causing what is sometimes known as the "top blight of seedlings." From the diseased leaves and stems the spores of the fungus find their way to the seed heads which at this time are rapidly filling out by the growth of the berries. The compact seed heads readily retain moisture, furnishing most favorable conditions for the germination of any spores that find their way into the center of the head. That this is the usual course of seed head infection is shown by the fact that it is the base of the berry on which the spots start. These spots, of a rusty yellow color, gradually spread all over the seed which finally becomes shriveled and of a dark brown or black color. Spores in abundance are formed on the diseased berries. Affected berries "shell" from the head at the slightest touch. This manifestation of the disease has long been known as "seed blast." If the berries have begun to color the injury from the disease will probably be very slight. The "blasting" of the green berries, however, will undoubtedly reduce or destroy the vitality of the seed. There is a strong probability that the fungus may be carried over in or on the seed. [Illustration: End Root Rot of Seedlings.] The roots are only indirectly affected by this disease. The fungus never penetrates to them. Roots from diseased tops will grow perfectly normal and healthy plants the following season. It is in the leaves of the plant that practically all of the substance of the root is made. The bulk of this substance is starch. The destruction of the foliage, the manufacturing part of the plant, long before it would normally die means of course some reduction in the growth and starch content of the root. However, it seems probable that the greater portion of root growth is made before the blight attacks the foliage. This seems borne out by the fact that even blighted seedlings usually show nearly as good growth and bud development as those not blighted. In the case of older plants this is probably much more true as the latter part of the season is devoted largely to growing and maturing the berries. The Alternaria blight is dreaded chiefly because of its destructive effects on the seed crop. Preventive. The first experimental work on the control of this disease so far as I know, was carried out by Dr. I. C. Curtis of Fulton, N. Y. Having suffered the total loss of foliage and seed crop during the season of 1904, Dr. Curtis determined to test the efficacy of the Bordeaux mixture the following season as a preventive of the blight. The success of his work, together with this method of making and applying the mixture is given by him in Special Crops for January, 1906. Extensive experiments in spraying were carried out during the past season by the Ginseng Company at Rose Hill, N. Y., under the direction of the writer. During 1905 their entire seed crop was completely destroyed by the blight. Losses from the same disease the previous season had been very heavy. During 1905 they had succeeded in saving a very large proportion of their seedlings by spraying them with the Bordeaux mixture. Encouraged by this they began spraying early in the spring of 1906, just when the plant began to come thru the ground. This was repeated nearly every week during the season, the entire ten acres being sprayed each time. On account of poor equipment the earlier sprayings were not as thoroughly done as they should have been, and some disease appeared on the stalks here and there thruout the gardens. A new pump and nozzles were soon installed and all parts of the plant completely covered. Practically no blight ever appeared on the foliage. There was some loss from "blast of seed heads" due to a failure to spray the seed heads thoroughly while they were filling out. The seed heads Were doubtless infected from the diseased stalks that had not been removed from the garden. A very large seed crop was harvested. The formula of the Bordeaux used at Rose Hill was about 4-6-40, to each one hundred gallons of which was added a "sticker" made as follows: Two pounds resin. One pound sal soda (Crystals). One gallon water. Boiled together in an iron kettle until of a clear brown color. It is probable that more applications of Bordeaux were given than was necessary, especially during the middle part of the season when little new growth was being made. From these experiments it is evident that the problem of the control of the Alternaria Blight of Ginseng has been solved. Thorough spraying with Bordeaux mixture begun when the plants first come thru the ground and repeated often enough to keep all new growths covered, will insure immunity from the blight. Thoroughness is the chief factor in the success of this treatment. It is, however, useless to begin spraying after the disease has begun to appear on the foliage. * * * _To the President and Members of the Missouri State Ginseng Growers' Association._ Gentlemen--In response to a request from your secretary, I was sent early in August to investigate your Ginseng gardens, and, if possible, to give some help in checking a destructive disease which had recently appeared and had in a short time ruined much of the crop. Thru the aid of some of your association, at the time of my visit to Houston, and since that time, I have been furnished with valuable data and specimens of diseased plants. The summer of 1904 was marked by a very abundant rainfall. The shade of the arbors kept the soil beneath them moist, if not wet, for several weeks at a time. This moist soil, rich in humus and other organic substances, formed an exceedingly favorable place for the growth of fungi. Gardens under dense shade with poor drainage, suffered the greatest loss. All ages of plants were attacked and seemed to suffer alike, if the conditions were favorable for the growth of fungi. Symptoms of Disease and Nature of the Injury. Between the first and the fifteenth of May black spots having the appearance of scars appeared on the stems of the Ginseng plants. All ages of plants were attacked. The scars increased in number and grew in size, sometimes encircling the stem. The first indication of injury was seen when one leaflet after another turned brown; from them the disease spread down the petiole to the main stalk. Other stalks were attacked so badly that they broke off and fell over before the upper portions had even become withered. After the loss of the top from this disease the crown of the root was liable to be attacked by fungi or bacteria, causing decay. I found little of this in the gardens at Houston. The greatest loss caused by this disease lies in the destruction of the seed crop. I have succeeded in isolating and studying the fungus which causes this disease. The fungus belongs to the genus Vermicularia and occurs on a number of our common herbaceous plants. I found it near Columbia this autumn on the Indian turnip. The fungus lives beneath the epidermis of the Ginseng plant; breaking the epidermis to form the black scars in which the spores, or reproductive bodies, are produced. The spores when ripe are capable of germinating and infecting other plants. Treatment. Fortunately this disease can be effectually checked by the use of Bordeaux spraying mixture. Damping-off Disease. Another source of loss was in the damping-off of young plants. The fungus which causes this disease lives in the surface layer of the soil and girdles the plants at the surface layer of the ground, causing them to wilt and fall over. The trouble can be largely avoided by proper drainage and stirring the surface layer, thus aerating and drying the soil. The Wilt Disease. By far the most destructive and dangerous disease remains to be described. It made its appearance about the first week in July, causing the leaves to turn yellow and dry up; the seed stem and berries also dried up and died before reaching maturity. This was the disease which caused the greatest loss; whole plantations often being destroyed in a week. Neither the Bordeaux spraying mixture nor lime dust seemed to check its ravages. I have succeeded in isolating the fungus which is the cause of this destructive disease and have grown it in the laboratory in pure cultures for nearly five months. Cultures were made by scraping the dark spots on diseased stems with a sterile needle and inoculating sterilized bean pods or plugs of potato with the spores scraped from the stem. In two or three days a white, fluffy growth appears on the bean pod which rapidly spreads until it is covered with a growth which resembles a luxuriant mould. I have also isolated this fungus and made cultures from the soil taken from diseased beds. The fungus belongs to the genus Fusarium and is probably identical with the fungus which is so destructive in causing the wilt of cotton, watermelon and cowpeas, and which has been carefully studied by Smith and Orton of the United States Department of Agriculture. Treatment. It will be seen from this brief description of the fungus that it is an exceedingly difficult disease to combat. Living from year to year in the soil it enters the plants thru the roots and spreads upward thru the water-conducting channels. It does not once appear on the surface until the plant is beyond recovery. Obviously we cannot apply any substance to kill the fungus without first killing the plant it infests. There is but one conclusion to be drawn, viz.: That application of fungicides will not prevent the wilt disease. There are, however, two methods of procedure in combating the disease: First, the use of precautions against allowing the fungus to get started; second, the selection and breeding of varieties which will withstand the disease. From the very first the arbor should be kept free from all possible infection by the wilt fungus. Gardens should be small and located some little distance apart, then if one becomes infected with the disease it can be taken up before the disease infests a larger territory. If the roots have reached merchantable size they had best be dried and sold, since they are likely to carry the disease when transplanted. If they are transplanted they should be carefully cleaned and reset without bruising. Proper drainage is very necessary for a successful Ginseng garden. It is advisable to locate the garden on a gentle slope if possible. In all cases the ground should be well drained. The belief of many that the death of the Ginseng was due to the wet season was without foundation, because the fungus develops best in soil which is continually moist and shady. This also accounts for the well-known fact that all rots, mildews and rusts are worse in a rainy season than in a dry one. [Illustration: The Beginning of Soft Rot.] Ample ventilation must also be provided in building the arbor. Many arbors are enclosed at the sides too tightly. The material used for mulching should be of a sort which will not contaminate the garden with disease. Some fungi will be killed if the ground is allowed to freeze before putting on the mulch. The second and, to my mind, most promising mode of procedure lies in propagating a variety of Ginseng which will be resistant to the wilt disease. In every garden, no matter how badly diseased, there are certain plants which live thru the attacks of the disease and ripen seeds. These seeds should be saved and planted separately, the hardiest of their offspring should be used to propagate seeds for future planting. By thus selecting the hardiest individuals year after year it will be possible in time to originate a variety of parasitic fungi. There seems to me to be more hope in developing such a resistant variety of Ginseng than in discovering some fungicide to keep the disease in check. Bordeaux Mixture. It is surprising that any considerable number of farmers, horticulturists, Ginseng growers, etc., are ignorant of a preparation so necessary as Bordeaux for profitable cultivation of many crops. The following is taken from Bulletin 194 of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station. The advice given in this paper recently by Professor Craig is repeated and emphasized. Every farmer should have the bulletins issued by the experiment station of his own state and have them within easy reach at all times. Bordeaux mixture derives its name from the place of its discovery, Bordeaux, France. It consists of copper sulfate, which is commonly called blue vitriol or bluestone, fresh lime and water. Formulas used--Several strengths of the mixture are used under different conditions: 1. (2:4:50) Copper Sulfate 2 lbs. Quick Lime 4 " Water 50 gals. 2. (3:6:50) Copper Sulfate 3 lbs. Quick Lime 6 " Water 50 gals. 3. (4:4:50) Copper Sulfate 4 lbs. Quick Lime 4 " Water 50 gals. 4. (6:6:50) Copper Sulfate 6 lbs. Quick Lime 6 " Water 50 gals. Formula 1 is used for very tender foliage, as peach, plum, greenhouse plants, tender seedlings, etc. Formula 2 which is a half stronger than the preceding has about the same use but for slightly less tender leaves. Formula 3 is the formula for general use on apples, pears, asparagus, grapes, tomatoes, melons, strawberries, etc. Formula 4 is the strongest formula that is often used. It is considered best for potatoes and cranberries. It may be used on grapes, on apples and pears before blossoming and sometimes on other crops. It was once more commonly used, but, except as here quoted, it is generally being displaced by Formula 3. * * * Normal or 1.6 per cent. Bordeaux mixture: Copper-sulfate (Blue Vitriol) 6 pounds Quick-lime (Good stone lime) 4 " Water 50 gallons Six pounds of sulfate of copper dissolved in fifty gallons of water, when applied at the proper time, will prevent the growth of fungi. However, if applied in this form, the solution will burn the foliage. Four pounds of quick-lime to six pounds of copper will neutralize the caustic action. When sulfate of copper and lime are added in this proportion, the compound is Bordeaux mixture. Weighing of copper and lime at time of mixing is very inconvenient. Bordeaux mixture is best when used within a few hours after being mixed. Therefore a stock mixture of Bordeaux is impracticable. It is, however, practicable to have stock preparation of sulfate of copper and of lime ready for mixing when required. The lime should be fresh quick-lime and when slaked must always be covered with water to exclude the air. In this manner a "stock" mixture of lime can be kept all summer unimpaired. Sulfate of copper can be dissolved in water and held in solution until needed. One gallon of water will hold in solution two pounds of copper sulfate. To accomplish this the sulfate should be suspended at the surface of the water in a bag. The water most loaded with copper will sink to the bottom and the water least loaded will rise to the surface. If fifty pounds of sulfate are suspended in twenty-five gallons of water on an evening, each gallon of water will, when stirred the next morning, hold two pounds of sulfate. This will form the stock solution of copper sulfate. If three gallons of this solution are put in the spray barrel, it is equivalent to six pounds of copper. Now fill the spray barrel half full of water before adding any lime. This is important for if the lime is added to so strong a solution of sulfate of copper, a curdling process will follow. Stir the water in the lime barrel so as to make a dilute milk of lime, but never allow it to be dense enough to be of a creamy thickness. If of the latter condition, lumps of lime will clog the spray nozzle. Continue to add to the mixture this milk of lime so long as drops of ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate of potash) applied to the Bordeaux mixture continue to change from yellow to brown color. When no change of color is shown, add another pail of milk of lime to make the necessary amount of lime a sure thing. A considerable excess of lime does no harm. The barrel can now be filled with water and the Bordeaux mixture is ready for use. The preparation of ferrocyanide of potassium for this test may be explained. As bought at the drug store, it is a yellow crystal and is easily soluble in water. Ten cents worth will do for a season's spraying of an average orchard. It should be a full saturation; that is, use only enough water to dissolve all the crystals. The cork should be notched or a quill inserted so that the contents will come out in drops. A drop will give as reliable a test as a spoonful. The bottle should be marked "Poison." Dip out a little of the Bordeaux mixture in a cup or saucer and drop the ferrocyanide on it. So long as the drops turn yellow or brown on striking the mixture, the mixture has not received enough lime. "Process" Lime for Bordeaux Mixture. The so-called "new process," or prepared limes, now offered on the market, are of two classes. One consists of the quick-lime that has been ground to a powder. The other is the dry water-slaked lime made by using only enough water to slake the quick-lime, but not enough to leave it wet. Practically all of the process lime on the market is the ground quick-lime. When the hard "stone" lime becomes air-slaked it is evident to the eye from the change to a loose powdery mass. Should one of these prepared limes be to any considerable degree air-slaked, its appearance would be no indication of its real condition. A simple test for the presence of much carbonate of lime in these prepared limes, can be easily performed, a small amount of lime--1/4 teaspoonful--dropped on a little hot vinegar, will effervesce or "sizzle" if it contain the carbonate of lime, acting about the same as soda. A sample of a new process lime analyzed at this Station showed 30 per cent, magnesia. This came from burning a dolomitic limestone, that is, one containing carbonate of magnesia with the carbonate of lime. The magnesia does not slake with water like the lime and hence is useless in the Bordeaux mixture. There is no easy way outside a chemical laboratory of telling the presence of magnesia. As a general rule more "process" lime is required to neutralize the copper sulfate than good stone lime. It is always well to make Bordeaux mixture by using the ferrocyanide of potassium test--Cornell University. CHAPTER IX. MARKETING AND PRICES. Preparing Dry Root for Market--There are more growers of Ginseng, I believe, according to Special Crops, who are not fully posted on handling Ginseng root after it is harvested than there are who fail at any point in growing it, unless it may be in the matter of spraying. There are still many growers who have never dried any roots, and of course know nothing more than has been told them. Stanton, Crossley and others of the pioneers state freely in their writings that three pounds of green root (fall dug) would make one pound of dry. The market does not want a light, corky, spongy root, neither does it want a root that, when dried, will weigh like a stone. Root when offered to a dealer should be absolutely dry, not even any moisture in the center of the root. Root that is absolutely dry will, in warm, damp weather, collect moisture enough so it will have to be given a day's sun bath or subjected to artificial heat. A root should be so dry that it will not bend. A root the size of a lead pencil should break short like a piece of glass. You ask why this special care to have Ginseng root dry to the last particle of moisture more than any other root. The answer is that Ginseng has to cross the ocean and to insure against its getting musty when sealed up to keep it from the air, it must be perfectly dry. We know a great many growers have felt hurt because a dealer docked them for moisture, but they should put themselves in the dealer's place. When he disposes of the root it must be perfectly dry. At from $5.00 to $10.00 per pound moisture is rather expensive. The grower should see to it that his root is dry and then instruct the man he ships to that you will stand no cutting. [Illustration: Dug and Dried--Ready for Market.] One other cause of trouble between grower and dealer is fiber root. This light, fine stuff is almost universally bought and sold at $1.00 per pound. This seems to be the only stationary thing about Ginseng. It would seem that the fine root could be used in this country for Ginseng tincture, but it is not so strong as the regular root, and our chemists prefer the large cultivated root at $5.00 to $7.00 a pound. Now, when your Ginseng root is "dry as a bone," stir it around or handle it over two or three times, and in doing so you will knock off all the little, fine roots. This is what goes in the market as fiber root and should be gathered and put in a separate package. As I said before this fiber root is worth $1.00 per pound and usually passes right along year after year at that same price. Now as to color. It is impossible to tell just now what color the market will demand. We advise medium. We do not think the extreme dark will be as much sought for as formerly; neither do we think the snow white will be in demand. Now, you can give your Ginseng any color you desire. If you want to dry it white, wash it thoroughly as soon as you dig it. This does not mean two or three hours after being dug, but wash it at once. If you want a very dark root, dig it and spread on some floor and leave it as long as you can without the fiber roots breaking. This will usually be from three to five days. In washing we prefer to put it on the floor and turn a hose on it, and if you have a good pressure you will not need to touch the root with the hands. In any case do not scrub and scour the root. Just get the dirt off and stop. About one day after digging the root should be washed if a medium colored root is desired. After your root is washed ready to dry there is still a half dozen ways of drying. Many prefer an upper room in the house for small lots. Spread the root on a table or bench about as high as the window stool. Then give it lots of air. Another good method is to subject it to a moderate artificial heat--from 60 to 90 degrees. We have seen some very nice samples of dry root where the drying was all done on the roof of some building, where it was exposed to the sun and dew, but was protected from rain. The slower the drying the darker the root. Many suppose it is a difficult task to properly dry the Ginseng root, but it is not. The one essential is time. The operation cannot be fully and properly completed in much less than one month's time. Of course it should be dried fast enough so it will not sour, rot or mould. If you take a look at the root every day you can readily see if it is going too slow and, if you find it is, at once use artificial heat for a few hours or days if need be. No diseased or unsound root should ever be dried. After the root is once dry it should be stored in dry place. Early fall generally is a poor time to sell as the Chinese exporters usually crowd the price down at that time. In the Southern States artificial heat is seldom needed as the weather is usually warm enough to cure the roots about as they should be. In the Northern States, such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, New York and New England States, cold and frosty nights and chilly days usually come in October, and sometimes in September, so that artificial heat is generally required to properly dry fall dug roots. The statistics as published were compiled by Belt, Butler Co., buyers of Ginseng, 140 Greene St., New York: Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1886, $1.90 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1887, $2.10 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1888, $2.30 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1889, $2.85 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1890, $3.40 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1891, $3.40 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1892, $3.00 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1893, $3.00 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1894, $3.50 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1895, $3.25 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1896, $4.10 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1897, $3.25 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1898, $4.00 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1899, $6.00 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1900, $5.00 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1901, $5.50 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1902, $5.10 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1903, $6.20 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1904, $7.40 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1905, $7.00 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1906, $7.00 Average prices for wild Ginseng, Sept. 1st, 1907, $7.00 The prices as published, it will be noticed, were average prices paid for wild Ginseng September 1 of each year. Wild Ginseng has usually sold higher in the season, say October and November. Late in the season of 1904 it sold for $8.50 for good Northern root, which we believe was the top notch for average lots. From 1860 to 1865, Ginseng ranged from 66c to 85c per lb., and from that period until 1899 it gradually increased in price until in September of that year it brought from $3.50 to $6.50 per lb., according to price and quality. In 1900 prices ruled from $3.00 to $5.75 per lb., but this was due to the war then existing in China which completely demoralized the market. In 1901 prices ranged from $3.75 to $7.25 1902 prices ranged from 3.50 to 6.25 1903 prices ranged from 4.75 to 7.50 1904 prices ranged from 5.50 to 8.00 1905 prices ranged from 5.50 to 7.50 1906 prices ranged from 5.75 to 7.50 1907 prices ranged from 5.75 to 7.25 These prices cover the range from Southern to best Northern root. The above information was furnished from the files of Samuel Wells & Co., Cincinnati, Ohio, the firm which has been in the "seng" business for more than half a century. * * * U. S. GOVERNMENT REPORTS. Year Pounds Average price exported. per lb. 1858 366,055 $ .52 1868 370,066 1.02 1878 421,395 1.17 1888 308,365 2.13 1898 174,063 3.66 1901 149,069 5.30 * * * Export of Ginseng for ten months ending April, 1908, was 144,533 pounds, valued at $1,049,736, against 92,650, valued at $634,523, for ten months ending April, 1907, and 151,188 pounds, valued at $1,106,544 for ten months ending April, 1906. Since 1858 Ginseng has advanced from 52 cents a pound to $8.00 in 1907 for choice lots, an advance of 1400%. In September, 1831, Ginseng was quoted to the collector at 15 to 16 cents per pound. In the first place, practically all the Ginseng grown or collected from the woods in this country is exported, nearly all of it going to China, where it is used for medicinal purposes. The following figures are taken from the advanced sheets of the Monthly Summary of Commerce and Finance issued by the United States Department of Commerce and Labor. In the advanced sheets for June, 1906, we find under exports of Domestic Merchandise the following item: Twelve Months Ending June. Ginseng lbs. 1904 131,882 $851,820 1905 146,586 $1,069,849 1906 160,959 $1,175,844 From these figures it is clear that the Ginseng crop is of considerable proportions and steadily increasing. It is classed with chemicals, drugs, dyes and medicines and is in its class equaled or exceeded in value by only three things: copper sulphate, acetate of lime and patent medicines. These figures include, of course, both the wild and cultivated root. A little investigation, however, will soon convince any one that the genuine wild root has formed but a small portion of that exported in the last three years. This is for the very good reason that there is practically no wild root to be found. It has been all but exterminated by the "seng digger," who has carefully searched every wooded hillside and ravine to meet the demand of the last few years for green roots for planting. Practically all of the Ginseng now exported will of necessity be cultivated. Of all the Ginseng exported from this country, New York State very probably supplies the greater part. It was in that state that the cultivation of the plant originated and it is there that the culture has become most extensive and perfected. The largest garden in this country, so far as known, is that of the Consolidated Ginseng Company of New York State. Here about ten acres are under shade, all devoted to the growing of Ginseng. The crop is certainly a special one, to be successfully grown only by those who can bring to their work an abundance of time and intelligent effort. For those who are willing to run the risks of loss from diseases and who can afford to wait for returns on their investment, this crop offers relatively large profits. [Illustration: A Three Year Old Cultivated Root.] It is very simple to prepare a few wild roots for market. Wash them thoroughly, this I do with a tooth or nail brush, Writes a Northern grower, as they will remove the dirt from the creases without injury. Only a few roots should be put in the water at once as it does not benefit them to soak. I have usually dried wild roots in the sun, which is the best way, but never put roots in the hot sun before the outside is dry, as they are apt to rot. The cultivated root is more difficult to handle. They are cleaned the same as wild roots. On account of size and quality they have to be dried differently. My first cultivated roots were dried around the cook stove, which will answer for a few roots, providing the "lady of the house" is good natured. Last year I dried about 500 pounds of green roots and so had to find something different. I made a drier similar to Mr. Stanton's plan, i. e., a box any size to suit the amount of roots you wish to dry. The one I made is about two feet by two and a half feet and two and one-half feet high, with one side open for the drawers to be taken out. The drawers are made with screen wire for bottom. They should be at least two inches deep and two and one-half inches would be better. I bored a three-fourth-inch hole in the top a little ways from each corner and five in the center in about ten inches square, but now I have taken the top off, as I find they dry better. I started this on the cook stove, but did not like it as I could not control the heat. As I had two Blue Flame oil stoves I tried it over one of them and it worked fine. They were three-hole stoves, so I laid a board across each end for the drier to rest on. The drier has a large nail driven in each corner of the bottom so that it was four inches above the stove. Then I fixed a piece of galvanized iron about 10x20 inches so that it was about two inches above top of stove, for the heat to strike against and not burn the roots. At first I left out two of the lower drawers for fear of burning them. I only used the middle burner--and that turned quite low. I tried the flame with my hand between the stove and roots so as not to get it too high. In this way I could get a slow heat and no danger of burning, which is the main trouble with drying by stove. It would take from two to four days to dry them, according to size. As soon as they were dried they were put in open boxes so if there was any moisture it could dry out and not mould, which they will do if closed up tight. In using an oil stove one should be used that will not smoke. Never set the roots over when the stove is first lighted and they should be removed before turning the flame out, as they are apt to get smoked. Do not set stove in a draft. In packing the dry root in boxes I break off the fine fiber, then they are ready for market. Some time prior to 1907, or since cultivated Ginseng has been upon the market, its value has been from $1.00 to $2.00 per pound less than the wild and not in as active demand, even at that difference, as the wild. Today the value is much nearer equal. At first those engaged in the cultivation of Ginseng made the soil too rich by fertilizing and growth of the roots was so rapid that they did not contain the peculiar scent or odor of the genuine or wild. Of late years growers have learned to provide their plants with soil and surroundings as near like nature as possible. To this can largely be attributed the change. Preparing the Roots for Market. The roots are dug in the autumn, after the tops have died. Great care is taken not to bruise or injure them. They are then washed in rain water, the soil from all crevices and cracks being carefully cleaned away by a soft brush. Then they are wiped on a soft absorbent cloth, and are ready to be dried for market. The roots should never be split in washing or drying. It is of great importance, too, that the little neck or bud-stem should be unbroken, for if missing the root loses two-thirds of its value in Chinese eyes. The roots may be dried in the sun or in a warm, dry room, but never over a stove or fire. Some growers have a special drier and use hot air very much on the principle of an evaporator. This does the work quickly and satisfactorily. As soon as the little fibrous roots are dry enough, they arc either clipped off or rubbed away by hand, and the root returned to the drier to be finished. The more quickly the roots are dried the better, if not too much heated. Much of the value of the product depends on the manner in which it is cured. This method is the one usually employed in America, but the Chinese prepare the root in various ways not as yet very well understood in the United States. Their preparation undoubtedly adds to the value of the product with the consumer. Importance of Taste and Flavor. Soils and fertilizers have a marked influence on products where taste and flavor is important, as with tobacco, coffee, tea, certain fruits, etc. This is true of Ginseng in a very marked degree. To preserve the flavor which marks the best grade of Ginseng, by which the Chinese judge it, it is essential that the soil in the beds should be as near like the original native forest as possible. Woods earth and leaf mold should be used in liberal quantities. Hardwood ashes and some little bone meal may be added, but other fertilizers are best avoided to be on the safe side. When the chief facts of Ginseng culture had been ascertained, it naturally followed that some growers attempted to grow the biggest, heaviest roots possible in the shortest time, and hence fertilized their beds with strong, forcing manures, entirely overlooking the question of taste or flavor. When these roots were placed on the market the Chinese buyers promptly rejected them or took them at very low prices on account of defective quality. This question of flavor was a new problem to American buyers, for the reason stated and one which they were not prepared to meet at a moment's notice. Hence there has been a tendency with some exporters to be shy of all cultivated roots (fearing to get some of these "off quality" lots) until they were in position to test for flavor or taste by expert testers, as is done with wines, teas, coffees, tobaccos and other products where flavor is essential. This mistake led to the belief with some that the cultivated root is less valuable than the wild, but the very reverse is true. It has been proven by the fact that until these "off quality" lots appeared to disturb the market and shake confidence for the time being, cultivated roots have always commanded a much better price per pound than uncultivated. The grower who freely uses soil from the forest and lets forcing fertilizers severely alone, has nothing to fear from defective quality, and will always command a good price for his product. Ginseng should only be dug for the market late in the fall. In the spring and summer the plant is growing and the root is taxed to supply the required nutriment. After the plant stops growing for the season the root becomes firm and will not dry out as much as earlier in the season. It takes four to five pounds of the green root early in the season to make one of dry; later three green will make one of dry. In the Ginseng, like many other trades, there are tricks. In some sections they practice hollowing out roots while green and filling the cavity with lead or iron. When Ginseng is worth four or five dollars per pound and lead or iron only a few cents, the profit from this nefarious business can be seen. The buyers have "got on to" the practice, however, and any large roots that appear too heavy are examined. The filling of roots with lead, etc., has about had its day. Seng should be dug and washed clean before it wilts or shrinks; it should then be dried in the shade where the dust and dirt cannot reach it and should not be strung on strings. The roots should be handled carefully so as not to break them up, the more fiber the less the value, as well as size which helps to determine the value. The collecting of the root for the market by the local dealer has its charm; at least one would think so, to see how eagerly it is sought after by the collector, who often finds when he has enough for a shipment that he faces a loss instead of a profit. The continual decrease in the annual output of the root should produce a steadily advancing market. The price does advance from year to year, but the variation in the price of silver and the scheming of the Chinamen produces crazy spurts in the price of the root. Present prices are rather above average, but little can be predicted about future conditions. Chinese conservatism, however, leads us to believe present prices will continue. CHAPTER X. LETTERS FROM GROWERS. The culture of Ginseng has a pioneer or two located in this part of the country (N. Ohio), and having one-fourth of an acre under cultivation myself, it was with interest that I visited some of these growers and the fabulous reports we have been reading have not been much exaggerated, in my estimation, but let me say right here they are not succeeding with their acres as they did with their little patch in the garden. One party gathered 25 pounds of seed from a bed 40x50 feet last season, and has contracted 30 pounds of the seed at $36 per pound, which he intends to gather from this bed this season. He then intends to dig it, and I will try to get the facts for this magazine. Now, to my own experience. I planted three hundred roots in the fall of '99. The following season from the lack of sufficient shade they failed to produce any seed; I should have had two or three thousand seed. Understand, these were wild roots just as they were gathered from the forest. In 1901 I gathered about one pound or 8,000 seed, in 1902 three pounds and am expecting 30,000 seed from these 300 plants this season. Last season I gathered 160 seed from one of these plants and 200 seed bunches are not uncommon for cultivated roots to produce at their best. I have dug no roots for market yet, as there has been too great a demand for the seed. My one-fourth acre was mostly planted last season, and is looking very favorable at the present time. It is planted in beds 130 feet long and 5 feet wide; the beds are ridged up with a path and ditch 2 feet across from plant to plant, making the beds, including the paths, 7 feet wide. Beds arranged in this manner with the posts that support the shade set in the middle of the beds are very convenient to work in, as you do not have to walk in the beds, all the work being done from the paths. My soil is a clay loam and it was necessary for me to place a row of tile directly under one bed; this bed contains 1,000 plants and has been planted two years, and I find the tile a protection against either dry or wet weather; I shall treat all beds in a like manner hereafter. If you are thinking of going into the Ginseng business and your soil is sand or gravel, your chances for success are good; if your soil is clay, build your beds near large trees on dry ground or tile them and you will come out all right. In regard to the over-production of this article, would say that dry Ginseng root is not perishable, it will keep indefinitely and the producers of this article will not be liable to furnish it to the Chinaman only as he wants it at a fair market price. W. C. Sorter, Lake County, Ohio. * * * Even in this thickly settled country, I have been able to make more money digging Ginseng than by trapping, and I believe that most trappers could do the same if they became experts at detecting the wild plant in its native haunts. I have enjoyed hunting and trapping ever since I could carry a firearm with any degree of safety to myself, and have tramped thru woods full of Ginseng and Golden Seal for twenty years, without knowing it. Three years ago last summer I saw an advertisement concerning Ginseng Culture. I sent and got the literature on the subject and studied up all I could. Then I visited a garden where a few cultivated plants were grown, and so learned to know the plant. I had been told that it grew in the heavy timber lands along Rock River, so I thought I would start a small garden of some 100 or 200 roots. The first half day I found 6 plants, and no doubt tramped on twice that many, for I afterward found them thick where I had hunted. The next time I got 26 roots; then 80, so I became more adept in "spotting" the plants, the size of my "bag" grew until in September I got 343 roots in one day. That fall, 1904, I gathered 5,500 roots and 2,000 or 3,000 seed. These roots and seed I set out in the garden in beds 5 feet wide and 40 feet long, putting the roots in 3 or 5 inches apart anyway, and the seeds broadcast and in rows. I mulched with chip manure, leaf mold and horse manure. Covered with leaves in the fall, and built my fence. The next spring the plants were uncovered and they came well. I believe nearly every one came up. They were too thick, but I left them. The mice had run all thru the seed bed and no doubt eaten a lot of the seed. That spring I bought 5,000 seed of a "seng" digger and got "soaked." The fall of 1905 I dug 500 more roots and harvested 15,000 seeds from my beds. The roots were planted in an addition and seed put down cellar. Last fall I gathered 5,500 more roots from the woods, grew about 3,000 seedlings in the garden and harvested 75,000 seeds. I dug a few of the older roots and sold them. The worst enemy I find to Ginseng culture is Alternaria, of a form of fungus growth on the leaf of the plant. This disease started in my beds last year, but I sprayed with Bordeaux Mixture and checked it. I have not as yet been troubled with "damping off" of seedlings. I shall try Bordeaux if it occurs. My garden is now 100 feet by 50 feet, on both sides of a row of apple trees, in good rich ground which had once been a berry patch. I used any old boards I could get for the side fence, not making it too tight. For shade I have tried everything I could think of. I used burlap tacked on frames, but it rotted in one season. I used willow and pine brush and throwed corn stalks and sedge grass on them. For all I could see, the plants grew as well under such shade as under lath, although the appearance of the yard is not so good. I also ran wild cucumbers over the brush and like them very well. They run about 15 feet, so they do not reach the center of the garden until late in the season. I planted them only around the edge of the garden. [Illustration: Bed of Mature Ginseng Plants Under Lattice.] In preparing my soil, I mixed some sand with the garden soil to make it lighter; also, woods earth, leaf mold, chip manure and barnyard manure, leaving it mostly on top. I take down the shade each fall and cover beds with leaves and brush. This industry is not the gold mine it was cracked up to be. The price is going down, lumber for yard and shade is going up. The older the garden, the more one has to guard against diseases, so one may not expect more than average returns for his time and work. Still I enjoy the culture, and the work is not so hard, and it is very interesting to see this shy wild plant growing in its new home. In order to keep up the demand for Ginseng, we must furnish the quality the Chinese desire, and to do this, I believe we must get back to the woods and rotten oak and maple wood, leaf mold and the humid atmosphere of the deep woodlands. I have learned much during the short time I have been growing the plant, but have only given a few general statements. John Hooper, Jefferson Co., Wis. * * * I believe most any one that lives where Ginseng will grow could make up a small bed or two in their garden and by planting large roots and shading it properly, could make it a nice picture. Then if they could sell their seed at a good price might make it profitable, but when it comes down to growing Ginseng for market I believe the only place that one could make a success would be in the forest or in new ground that still has woods earth in it and then have it properly shaded. The finest garden I ever saw is shaded with strips split from chestnut cuts or logs. There are thousands of young "seng" in this garden from seedlings up to four years old this fall, and several beds of roots all sizes that were dug from the woods wild and are used as seeders. These plants have a spreading habit and have a dark green healthy look that won't rub off. It is enough to give "seng" diggers fits to see them. I have my Ginseng garden in a grove handy to the house, where it does fairly well, only it gets a little too much sun. I have a few hundred in the forest, where it gets sufficient shade and there is a vast difference in the color and thriftiness of the two. The seed crop will be a little short this fall in this section, owing to heavy frosts in May which blighted the blossom buds on the first seng that came up. My seed crop last fall was ten quarts of berries which are buried now in sand boxes. My plan for planting them this fall is to stick the seeds in beds about 4x4 inches. I see where some few think that the mulch should be taken off in the spring, which I think is all wrong. I have been experimenting for seven years with Ginseng and am convinced that the right way is to keep it mulched with leaves. The leaves keep the ground cool, moist and mellow and the weeds are not half so hard to keep down. It is surely the natural way to raise Ginseng. My worst trouble in raising Ginseng is the damping off of the seedlings. My worst pest is chickweed, which grows under the mulch and seems to grow all winter. It seeds early and is brittle and hard to get the roots when pulling. Plantain is bad sometimes, the roots go to the bottom of the bed. Gladd weed is also troublesome. I think one should be very careful when they gather the mulch for it is an easy matter to gather up a lot of bad weed seed. I see in the H-T-T where some use chip manure on their "seng" beds. I tried that myself, but will not use it again on seed beds any way. I found it full of slugs and worms which preyed on the seedlings. Sometimes cut worms cut off a good many for me. Grub worms eat a root now and then. Leaf rollers are bad some years, but the worst enemy of all is wood mice. If one does not watch carefully they will destroy hundreds of seed in a few nights. I find the best way to destroy them is to set little spring traps where they can run over them. There was a new pest in this locality this year which destroyed a big lot of seed. It was a green cricket something like a katydid. They were hard to catch, too. Thos. G. Fulcomer, Indiana Co., Pa. [Illustration: Some Thrifty Plants--An Ohio Garden.] The notions of the Chinese seem as difficult to change as the law of the Medes and Persians, and his notion that the cultivated article is no good, if once established, will always be established. This will be a sad predicament for the thousands who may be duped by the reckless Ginseng promoter. One principle of success in my business is to please the purchaser or consumer. This is the biggest factor in Ginseng culture. The Chinaman wants a certain quality of flavor, shape, color, etc., in his Ginseng, and as soon as the cultivators learn and observe his wishes so soon will they be on the right road to success. Ginseng has been brought under cultivation and by doing this it has been removed from its natural environments and subjected to new conditions, which are making a change in the root. The object of the Ginseng has been lost sight of and the only principle really observed has been to grow the root, disregarding entirely the notions of the consumer. Thousands have been induced by the flattering advertisements to invest their money and begin the culture of Ginseng. Not one-half of these people are familiar with the plant in its wild state and have any idea of its natural environments. They are absolutely unfit to grow and prepare Ginseng for the Chinese market. Thousands of roots have been spoiled in the growing or in the drying by this class of Ginseng growers. Many roots have been scorched with too much heat, many soured with not the right conditions of heat, many more have been spoiled in flavor by growing in manured beds and from certain fertilizers. All these damaged roots have gone to the Chinese as cultivated root and who could blame him for refusing to buy and look superstitious at such roots? Now as to profits. Not one-half the profits have been made as represented. Not one-half of those growing Ginseng make as much as many thousands of experienced gardeners and florists are making with no more money invested and little if any more labor and no one thinks or says anything about it. Many articles have appeared in the journals of the past few years, and when you read one you will have to read all, for in most part they have been from the over-stimulated mind of parties seeking to get sales for so-called nursery stock. Probably the first man to successfully cultivate Ginseng was Mr. Stanton, of New York State. His gardens were in the forest, from this success many followed. Then the seed venders and wide publicity and the garden cultivation under lattice shade. Then the refusal of the Chinese to buy these inferior roots. Now, it is my opinion the growers must return to the forest and spare no labor to see that the roots placed on the market are in accordance with the particular notions of the consumer. Ginseng growers may then hope to establish a better price and ready market for their root. The color required by the Chinese, so far as my experiments go, come from certain qualities of soil. The yellow color in demand comes to those roots growing in soil rich in iron. The particular aromatic flavor comes from those growing in clay loam and abundant leaf mold of the forest. I have found that by putting sulphate of iron sparingly in beds and the roots growing about two years in this take on the yellow color. I have three gardens used for my experiments, two in forest and one in garden. They contain altogether about twenty-five thousand plants. One garden is on a steep north hillside, heavily shaded by timber. These plants have a yellowish color and good aromatic taste. They have grown very slow here; about as much in three years as they grow in one year in the garden. The other forest garden is in an upland grove with moderate drain, clay loam and plenty of leaf mold; the trees are thin and trimmed high. The beds are well made, the roots are light yellow and good flavor, they grow large and thrifty like the very best of wild. I am now planting the seed six inches apart and intend to leave them in the bed without molesting until matured. The beds under the lattice in the garden have grown large, thick, white and brittle, having many rootlets branching from the ends of the roots, The soil is of a black, sandy loam. They do not have the fine aromatic flavor of those roots growing in the woods. The plants I have used in the most part were produced from the forest here in Minnesota and purchased from some diggers in Wisconsin. I have a few I procured from parties advertising seed and plants, but find that the wild roots and seeds are just as good for the purpose of setting if due care is exercised in sorting the roots. There has been considerable said in the past season by those desiring to sell nursery stock condemning the commission houses and ignoring or minimizing the seriousness of the condition which confronts the Ginseng grower in a market for his root. Now, I believe the commission men are desirous of aiding the Ginseng growers in a market for his roots so long as the grower is careful in his efforts to produce an article in demand by the consumer. In my opinion those who are desirous of entering an industry of this kind will realize the most profits in the long run if they devote attention to the study and cultivation of those medical plants used in the therapy of the regular practice of medicine, such as Hydrastis, Seneca, Sanguinaria, Lady Slipper, Mandrake, etc. They are easily raised and have a ready market at any of our drug mills. I have experimented with a number of these and find they thrive under the care of cultivation and I believe in some instances the real medical properties are improved, as Atropine in Belladonna and Hydrastine in Hydrastis. I have several thousand Hydrastis plants under cultivation and intend to make tests this season for the quantity of Hydrastine in a given weight of Hydrastis and compare with the wild article. It is the amount of Hydrastine or alkaloid in a fluid extract which by test determines the standard of the official preparation and is the real valuable part of the root. This drug has grown wonderfully in favor with the profession in recent years and this increased demand with decrease of supply has sent the price of the article soaring so that we are paying five times as much for the drug in stock today as we paid only three or four years ago. I trust that I have enlarged upon and presented some facts which may be of interest and cause those readers who are interested in this industry to have a serious regard for the betterment of present conditions, to use more caution in supplying the market and not allow venders to seriously damage the industry by their pipe dream in an attempt to find sales for so-called nursery stock. L. C Ingram, M. D., Wabasha County, Minn. * * * It was in the year of 1901, in the month of June, that I first heard of the wonderful Ginseng plant. Being a lover of nature and given to strolling in the forests at various times, I soon came to know the Ginseng plant in its wild state. Having next obtained some knowledge regarding the cultivation of this plant from a grower several miles away, I set my first roots to the number of 100 in rich, well-drained garden soil, over which I erected a frame and covered it with brush to serve as shade. In the spring of 1902 nearly all the roots made their appearance and from these I gathered a nice crop of seed later on in the season. That summer I set out 2,200 more wild roots in common garden soil using lath nailed to frames of scantling for shade. Lath was nailed so as to make two-thirds of shade to one-third of sun. This kind of shading I have since adopted for general use, because I find it the most economical and for enduring all kinds of weather it cannot be surpassed. During the season of 1903 I lost several hundred roots by rot, caused by an excessive wet season and imperfect drainage. In the seasons of 1903 and 1904 I set about 2,000 wild roots in common garden soil, mixed with sand and woods dirt and at this writing (July 9th, 1905) some of these plants stand two feet high, with four and five prongs on branches, thus showing the superiority of this soil over the others I have previously tried. [Illustration: New York Grower's Garden.] During my five years of practical experience in the cultivation of this plant I have learned the importance of well drained ground, with porous open sub-soil for the cultivation of Ginseng. My experience with clay hard-pan with improper drainage has been very unsatisfactory, resulting from the loss of roots by rot. Clay hard-pan sub-soil should be tile-drained. Experience and observation have taught me that Ginseng seed is delicate stuff to handle and it is a hard matter to impress upon people the importance of taking care of it. I have always distinctly stated that it must not be allowed to get dry and must be kept in condition to promote germination from the time it is gathered until sown. Where a consider able quantity is to be cared for, the berries should be packed in fine, dry sifted sand soon after they are gathered, using three quarts of sand and two quarts of berries. The moisture of the berries will dampen the sand sufficiently. But if only a few are to be packed the sand should be damp. Place one-half inch sand in box and press smooth. On this place a layer of berries; cover with sand, press, and repeat the operation until box is full, leaving one-half inch of sand on top; on this place wet cloth and cover with board. Place box in cellar or cool shady place. The bottom of the box should not be tight. A few gimlet holes with paper over them to keep the sand from sifting thru will be all right. Any time after two or three months, during which time the seeds have lost their pulp and nothing but the seed itself remains, seed may be sifted out, washed, tested and repacked in damp sand until ready to sow. Best Time to Sow Seed. Since it takes the seed eighteen months to germinate, seed that has been kept over one season should be planted in August or September. I like to get my old crop of seed out of the way before the new crop is harvested, and also because my experience has been that early sowing gives better results than late. One should be careful in building his Ginseng garden that he does not get sides closed too tight and thus prevent a free circulation of air going thru the garden, for if such is the case during a rainy period the garden is liable to become infected with the leaf spot and fungus diseases. The drop in price of cultivated root was caused chiefly thru high manuring, hasty and improper drying of the root. In order to bring back the cultivated root to its former standing among the Chinese, we must cease high manuring and take more pains and time in drying the root, and then we will have a steady market for American cultivated root for years to come. J. V. Hardacre, Geauga County, Ohio. * * * In 1900 I went to the woods and secured about fifty plants of various sizes and set them in the shade of some peach and plum trees in a very fertile spot. They came up in 1901, that is, part of them did, but the chickens had access to them and soon destroyed the most of them, that is, the tops. In 1902 only a few bunches came up, and through neglect (for I never gave them any care) the weeds choked them and they did no good. In 1903 the spirit of Ginseng growing was revived in me and I prepared suitable beds, shade and soil, and went to work in earnest. I secured several more plants and reset those that I had been trying to grow without care. In 1904 my plants came up nicely. I also secured several hundred more plants and set them in my garden. The plants grew well and I harvested about 1,000 seed in the fall. Several Ginseng gardens were injured by a disease that seemed to scald the leaves and then the stalk became affected. In a short time the whole top of the plant died, but the root remained alive. My Ginseng was not affected in this way, or at least I did not notice it. In 1905 I had a nice lot of plants appear and they grew nicely for a while, and as I was showing a neighbor thru the garden he pointed out the appearance of the disease that had affected most of the gardens in this county the previous year, and was killing the tops off of all the Ginseng in them this year. I began at once to fight for the lives of my plants by cutting off all affected parts and burning them. I also took a watering pot and sprinkled the plants with Bordeaux Mixture. This seemed to help, and but few of the plants died outright. I harvested several thousand seed. I placed the seed in a box of moist sand and placed them in the cellar and about one-third of them were germinated by the following spring, and there was not another garden in this vicinity, to my knowledge, that secured any seed. This fact caused me to think that spraying with Bordeaux Mixture would check the disease. It was certain that if the disease could not be prevented or quit of its own accord, Ginseng could not be grown in this county. In 1906 my plants came up nicely and grew as in the previous season. I noticed the disease on some of the plants about the last of May so I began removing the affected parts, also to sprinkle with Bordeaux Mixture with about the same results as the year before. In the fall I harvested about twelve or fifteen thousand seed. I might say here that I sprinkled the plants about every two or three weeks. I raised the only seed that was harvested in this vicinity, and most all the large "seng" was dried and sold out of their gardens. Early in 1907 I secured a compressed air sprayer, for I had come to the conclusion that spraying would be lots better than sprinkling. On the appearance of the first plants in the spring I began spraying and sprayed every week or ten days until about the first of September. I saved the life of most of my plants. For an experiment I left about five feet of one bed of two-year-old plants unsprayed. It grew nicely until about the 10th of June, then the disease struck it, and in about two or three weeks it was about all dead, while the remainder that was sprayed lived thru till frost, and many of them bore seed. I harvested about 20,000 seed in the fall. I believe if I had not persisted in the spraying I would not have harvested one fully matured seed, for none of my neighbors secured any. In September, 1906, I dug one bed of large roots thinly set on a bed 4x16 feet which netted me $8.49. In September, 1907, I dug a bed 4x20 feet which netted me $19.31. This is my experience. Of course I have omitted method of preparing beds, shade, etc. A. C Herrin, Pulaski County, Ky. * * * Many inquiries are continually being received concerning Ginseng, Some of the many questions propounded are as follows: Is Ginseng growing profitable? Is it a difficult crop to grow? How many years will it take to grow marketable roots? When is the best time to set plants and sow the seed? What kind of soil is best adapted to the crop? Does the crop need shade while growing? Do the tops of Ginseng plants die annually? Must the roots be dried before marketable? What time of year do you dig the roots? Does the cultivation of the plants require much labor? What are the roots used for and where does one find the best markets? About what are the dry roots worth per pound? How are the roots dried? How many roots does it take to make a pound? Have you sold any dry roots yet from your garden? How long does it take the seed of Ginseng to germinate? Do you sow the seeds broadcast or plant in drills? How far apart should the plants be set? Do you mulch beds in winter? Is it best to reset seedlings the first year? How many plants does it require to set an acre? What is generally used for shading? Has the plant or root any enemies? When does the seed ripen? How wide do you make your beds? Do you fertilize your soil? Will the plants bear seed the first year? What price do plants and seed usually bring? What does the seed look like? It will be almost impossible to answer all of the above questions, but will try to give a few points regarding Ginseng and Ginseng growing which may help some reader out. In the spring of 1899 I began experimenting with a few Ginseng plants, writes an Indiana party, and at present have thousands of plants coming along nicely from one to seven years old. Last fall I planted about eight pounds of new seed. The mature roots are very profitable at present prices. They are easily grown if one knows how. It takes about five years to grow marketable roots. The seed is planted in August and September; the plants set in September and October. A rich, dark sandy loam is the most desirable soil for the crop, which requires shade during growth. The plants are perennial, dying down in the fall and reappearing in the spring. The roots must be dried for market. They should be dug some time in October. Cultivation of the crop is comparatively simple and easy. The crop is practically exported from this country to China, where the roots are largely used for medicinal purposes. The best prices are paid in New York, Chicago, Cincinnati and San Francisco. Dry roots usually bring $4.00 to $8.00 per pound as to quality. The drying is accomplished the same way fruit is dried. The number of roots in a pound depends on their age and size. The seed of Ginseng germinates in eighteen months. Sow the seed in drill rows and set the plants about eight inches apart each way. Mulch the beds with forest leaves in the fall. The seedlings should be reset the first year. It requires about 100,000 plants to cover an acre. The shade for the crop is usually furnished by the use of lath or brush on a stationary frame built over the garden. Moles and mice are the only enemies of Ginseng and sometimes trouble the roots, but are usually quite easily kept out. The seed of Ginseng ripens in August. Seed beds are usually made four feet wide. The best fertilizer is leaf mould from the woods. The plants will not bear much seed the first year. The price of both seed and plants varies considerably. The seed looks like those of tomatoes, but is about ten times larger. Ginseng is usually found growing wild in the woods where beech, sugar and poplar grow. The illustration shows a plant with seed. Early in the season, say June and early July, there is no stem showing seed. (See cover.) The plant usually has three prongs with three large leaves and has small ones on each stem. Note the illustration closely. Sometimes there are four prongs, but the number of leaves on each prong is always five--three large and two small. The leading Ginseng states are West Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. It is also found in considerable quantities in Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, New York, and even north into Southern Canada. It is also found in other Central and Southern states. During the past few years the wild root has been dug very close, and in states where two or three years ago Ginseng was fairly plentiful is now considerably thinned out. In some sections "sengers" follow the business of digging the wild root from June to October. They make good wages quite often. It is these "sengers" that have destroyed the wild crop and paved the way for the growers. The supply of wild root will no doubt become less each year, unless prices go down so that there will not be the profit in searching for it. CHAPTER XI. GENERAL INFORMATION. Cultivated root being larger than wild takes more care in drying. Improper drying will materially impair the root and lessen its value. It is those who study the soil and give attention to their fruit that make a success of it. The same applies to growing Ginseng and other medicinal plants. When buying plants or seeds to start a garden it will be well to purchase from some one in about your latitude as those grown hundreds of miles north or south are not apt to do so well. Ginseng culture is now carried on in nearly all states east of the Mississippi River as well as a few west. The leading Ginseng growing states, however, are New York, Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky and Minnesota. Thruout the "Ginseng producing section" the plants are dug by "sengers" from early spring until late fall. The roots are sold to the country merchants for cash or exchanged for merchandise. The professional digger usually keeps his "seng" until several pounds are collected, when it is either shipped to some dealer or taken to the county seat or some town where druggists and others make the buying of roots part of their business. Here the digger could always get cash for roots which was not always the case at the country store. Quite often we hear some one say that the Chinese will one of these days quit using Ginseng and there will be no market for it. There is no danger, or at least no more than of our people giving up the use of tea and coffee. Ginseng has been in constant use in China for hundreds of years and they are not apt to forsake it now. The majority of exporters of Ginseng to China are Chinamen who are located in New York and one or two cities on the Pacific coast. There is a prejudice in China against foreigners so that the Chinamen have an advantage in exporting. Few dealers in New York or elsewhere export--they sell to the Chinamen who export. The making of Bordeaux Mixture is not difficult. Put 8 pounds bluestone in an old sack or basket and suspend it in a 50-gallon barrel of water. In another barrel of same size, slack 8 pounds of good stone lime and fill with water. This solution will keep. When ready to use, stir briskly and take a pail full from each barrel and pour them at the same time into a third barrel or tub. This is "Bordeaux Mixture." If insects are to be destroyed at the same time, add about 4 ounces of paris green to each 50 gallons of Bordeaux. Keep the Bordeaux well stirred and put on with a good spray pump. Half the value in spraying is in doing it thoroughly. It is our opinion that there will be a demand for Seneca and Ginseng for years. The main thing for growers to keep in mind is that it is the wild or natural flavor that is wanted. To attain this see that the roots are treated similar to those growing wild. To do this, prepare beds of soil from the woods where the plants grow, make shade about as the trees in the forests shade the plants, and in the fall see that the beds are covered with leaves. Study the nature of the plant as it grows wild in the forest and make your "cultivated" plants "wild" by giving them the same conditions as if they were growing wild in the forest. As mentioned in a former number, an easy way to grow roots is in the native forest. The one drawback is from thieves. The above appeared as an editorial in the Hunter-Trader-Trapper, August, 1905. Growing Ginseng and Golden Seal will eventually become quite an industry, but as we have said before, those that make the greatest success at the business, will follow as closely as possible the conditions under which the plants grow in the forests, in their wild state. Therein the secret lies. There is no class of people better fitted to make a success at the business than hunters and trappers, for they know something of its habits, especially those of the Eastern, Central and Southern States, where the plants grow wild. There is no better or cheaper way to engage in the business than to start your "garden" in a forest where the plant has grown. Forests where beech, sugar and poplar grow are usually good for Ginseng. The natural forest shade is better than the artificial. [Illustration: Forest Bed of Young "Seng." These Plants, However, Are too Thick.] This is a business that hunters and trappers can carry on to advantage for the work on the "gardens" is principally done during the "off" hunting and trapping season. The writer has repeatedly cautioned those entering the business of Ginseng culture to be careful. The growing of Ginseng has not proven the "gold mine" that some advertisers tried to make the public believe, but at the same time those who went at the business in a business-like manner have accomplished good results--have been well paid for their time. In this connection notice that those that have dug wild root for years are the most successful. Why? Because they are the ones whose "gardens" are generally in the forests or at least their plants are growing under conditions similar to their wild state. Therein the secret lies. The majority of farmers, gardeners, etc., know that splendid sweet potatoes are grown in the lands of the New Jersey meadows. The potatoes are known thruout many states as "Jersey Sweets" and have a ready sale. Suppose the same potato was grown in some swampy middle state, would the same splendid "Jersey Sweet" be the result? Most assuredly not. If the same kind of sandy soil which the sweet potato thrives in in New Jersey is found the results will be nearer like the Jersey. Again we say to the would-be grower of medicinal roots or plants to observe closely the conditions under which the roots thrive in their wild state and cultivate likewise, that is, grow in the same kind of soil, same density of shade, same kind and amount of mulch (leaves, etc.) as you observe the wild plant. The growing of medicinal plants may never be a successful industry for the large land owner, for they are not apt to pay so much attention to the plants as the person who owns a small place and is engaged in fruit growing or poultry raising. The business is not one where acres should be grown, in fact we doubt if any one will ever be successful in growing large areas. The person who has acres of forest land should be able to make a good income by simply starting his "gardens in the woods." The shade is there, as well as proper mulch, etc. In fact it is the forest where most of the valuable medicinal plants grow of their own accord. The conditions of the soil are there to produce the correct flavor. Some of the growers who are trying to produce large roots quickly are having trouble in selling their production. The dealers telling them that their roots have not the wild natural flavor--but have indications of growing too quickly and are probably cultivated. While plants can be successfully cultivated by growing under conditions similar to the forest yet if there are forest lands near, you had better make your "gardens" there. This will save shading. In the north, say Canada, New England and states bordering on Canada, shading need not be so thick as farther south. In those states, if on high land, even a south slope may be used. In other states a northern or eastern slope is preferred, altho if the shading is sufficiently heavy "gardens" thrive. Read what the various growers say before you start in the business, for therein you will find much of value. They have made mistakes and point these out to others. From 1892 to 1897 the writer was on the road for a Zanesville, Ohio, firm as buyer of raw furs, hides, pelts and tallow. The territory covered was Southern Ohio, Western Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Northern Kentucky. During that time Ginseng was much more plentiful than now. Once at Portsmouth a dealer from whom I occasionally bought hides, had 21 sugar barrels full of dried seng--well on to 3,000 pounds. It was no uncommon thing to see lots of 100 to 500 pounds. I did not make a business of buying seng and other roots, as it was not handled to any great extent by the house I traveled for, altho I did buy a few lots ranging from 5 to 100 pounds, The five years that I traveled the territory named I should say that I called upon dealers who handled 100,000 pounds or 20,000 annually. This represented probably one-fifth of the collection. These dealers of course had men out. Just what the collection of Ginseng in that territory is now I am unable to say as I have not traveled the territory since 1900, but from what the dealers and others say am inclined to think the collection is only about 10% what it was in the early '90s. This shows to what a remarkable extent the wild root has decreased. The same decrease may not hold good in all sections, yet it has been heavy and unless some method is devised the wild root will soon be a thing of the past. Diggers should spare the young plants. These have small roots and do not add much in value to their collection. If the young plants were passed by for a few years the production of the forest--the wild plant--could be prolonged indefinitely. A root buyer for a Charleston, W. Va., firm, who has traveled a great deal thru the wild Ginseng sections of West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana and Ohio says: The root is secured in greatest quantities from the states in the order named. Golden seal is probably secured in greatest quantities from the states as follows: West Virginia, Kentucky, Ohio, Missouri, Pennsylvania. A great deal is also secured from Western States and the North. The "sengers" start out about the middle of May, altho the root is not at the best until August. At that time the bur is red and the greatest strength is in the root. Many make it a business to dig seng during the summer. Some years ago I saw one party of campers where the women (the entire family was along) had simply cut holes thru calico for dresses, slipping same over the head and tied around the waist--not a needle or stitch of thread had been used in making these garments. Some of these "sengers" travel with horses and covered rig. These dig most of the marketable roots. Others travel by foot carrying a bag to put Ginseng in over one shoulder and over the other a bag in which they have a piece of bacon and a few pounds of flour. Thus equipped they stay out several days. The reason these men only dig Ginseng is that the other roots are not so valuable and too heavy to carry. Sometimes these men dig Golden Seal when near the market or about ready to return for more supplies. Some years ago good wages were made at digging wild roots but for the past few years digging has been so persistent that when a digger makes from $1.00 to $2.00 per day he thinks it is good. Some say that the Ginseng growing business will soon be overdone and the market over-supplied and prices will go to $1.00 per pound or less for dried root. If all who engage in the business were able to successfully grow the plant such might be the case. Note the many that have failed. Several complain that their beds in the forests are infested with many ups and downs from such causes as damp blight, root rot, animals and insect pests. A few growers report that mice did considerable damage in the older beds by eating the neck and buds from the roots. There seems to be a mistaken idea in regard to "gardens in the forest." Many prepare their beds in the forests, plant and cultivate much the same as the grower under artificial shade. While this is an improvement over the artificial shade, fertilized and thickly planted bed, it is not the way that will bring best and lasting results. Why? Because plants crowded together will contract diseases much sooner than when scattered. One reason of many failures is that the plants were too thick. Those that can "grow" in the forests are going to be the ones that make the greatest success. Farmers, horticulturists, gardeners, trappers, hunters, guides, fishermen who have access to forest land should carefully investigate the possibilities of medicinal root culture. Those who have read of the fortune to be made at growing Ginseng and other medicinal roots in their backyard on a small plat (say a rod or two) had best not swallow the bait. Such statements were probably written by ignorant growers who knew no better or possibly they had seed and plants for sale. Ginseng growing, at best, should be done by persons who know something of plants, their habits, etc, as well as being familiar with soil and the preparation of same for growing crops. CHAPTER XII. MEDICINAL QUALITIES. In reply to E. T. Flanegan and others who wish to know how to use Ginseng as a medicine, I will suggest this way for a general home made use, says a writer in Special Crops. Take very dry root, break it up with a hammer and grind it thru a coffee mill three or four times till reduced to a fine powder. Then take three ounces of powder and one ounce of milk sugar. To the milk sugar add sixty drops of oil of wintergreen and mix all the powders by rubbing them together and bottle. Dose one teaspoonful, put into a small teacupful of boiling water. Let it stay a little short of boiling point ten minutes. Then cool and drink it all, hot as can be borne, before each meal. It may be filtered and the tea served with cream and sugar with the meal. Made as directed this is a high grade and a most pleasant aromatic tea and has a good effect on the stomach, brain and nervous system. To those who have chronic constipation, I would advise one fourth grain of aloin, taken every night, or just enough to control the constipation, while taking the Ginseng tea. If the evening dose of Ginseng be much larger it is a good safe hypnotic, producing good natural sleep. The writer prefers the above treatment to all the whiskey and patent medicine made. To those who are damaged or made nervous by drinking coffee or tea, quit the coffee or tea and take Ginseng tea as above directed. It is most pleasant tasted and a good medicine for your stomach. I do not know just how the Chinese prepare it into medicine, but I suppose much of it is used in a tea form as well as a tincture. As it is so valuable a medicine their mode of administration has been kept a secret for thousands of years. There must be some medical value about it of great power or the Chinese could not pay the price for it. It has been thought heretofore that the Chinese were a superstitious people and Used Ginseng thru ignorance, but as we get more light on the medical value of the plant the plainer it gets that it is us fellows--the Americans--that have been and are yet in the "shade" and in a dark shade, too. We think the time not far off when it will be recognized as a medical plant and a good one, too, and its great medical value be made known to the world. For several years past I have been experimenting with Ginseng as a medical agent and of late I have prescribed, or rather added it, to the treatment of some cases of rheumatism. I remember one instance in particular of a middle-aged man who had gone the rounds of the neighborhood doctors and failed of relief, when he employed me. After treating him for several weeks and failing to entirely relieve him, more especially the distress in bowels and back, I concluded to add Ginseng to his treatment. After using the medicine he returned, saying the last bottle had served him so well that he wanted it filled with the same medicine as before. I attribute the curative properties of Ginseng in rheumatism to stimulating to healthy action of the gastric juices; causing a healthy flow of the digestive fluids of the stomach, thereby neutralizing the extra secretion of acid that is carried to the nervous membranes of the body and joints, causing the inflammatory condition incident to rheumatism. Ginseng combined with the juices of a good ripe pineapple is par excellent as a treatment for indigestion. It stimulates the healthy secretion of pepsin, thereby insuring good digestion without incurring the habit of taking pepsin or after-dinner pills to relieve the fullness and distress so common to the American people. The above compound prepared with good wine in the proper way will relieve many aches and pains of a rebellious stomach; and if I should advise or prescribe a treatment for the old "sang digger" who is troubled with dyspepsia or foul stomach, I would tell him to take some of your own medicine and don't be selling all to the Chinamen. [Illustration: A Healthy Looking "Garden"--"Yard."] I want to repeat here what I have often said to "sengers" of my acquaintance, especially those "get-rich-quick" fellows who have been dumping their half-grown and poorly cured Ginseng on the market, thereby killing the good-will of the celestial for a market and destroying the sale of those who cultivate clean and matured roots; they had much better give their roots time to mature in their gardens and if the market price is not what it ought to be to compensate for the labor, they had better hold over another season before selling. I have all the product of last season in Ginseng and Golden Seal in my possession, for the reason that the price did not suit me. Drug manufacturers ask $7.00 per pound for Fluid Extract Golden Seal wholesale. When they can make from one-half pound dried root one pound Fluid Extract Golden Seal costing them 75 cents, that's a pretty good profit for maceration and labeling. Ginseng has been used to some extent as a domestic medicine in the United States for many years. As far as I can learn, the home use is along the line of tonic and stimulant to the digestive and the nervous system. Many people have great faith in the power of the Ginseng root to increase the general strength and appetite as well as to relieve eructations from the stomach. As long ago as Bigelow's time, some wonderful effects are recorded of the use of half a root in the increase of the general strength and the removal of fatigue. Only the other day a young farmer told me that Ginseng tea was a good thing to break up an acute cold and I think you will find it used for rheumatism and skin diseases. It undoubtedly has some effect on the circulation, perhaps thru its action on the nervous system and to this action is probably due its ascribed anti-spasmodic properties. The use of Ginseng has largely increased within the last few years and several favorable reports have been published in the medical journals. One physician, whose name and medium of publication I cannot now recall, speaks highly of its anti-spasmodic action in relieving certain forms of hiccough. If this is true, it places it at once among the important and powerful anti-spasmodics and suggests its use in other spasmodic and reflex nervous diseases as whooping cough, asthma, etc. I have practiced medicine for eight years. I sold my practice one year ago and since have devoted my entire attention to the cultivation of Ginseng and experimenting with Ginseng in diseases and am satisfied that it is all that the Chinese claim for it; and, if the people of the United States were educated as to its use, our supply would be consumed in our own country and it would be a hard blow to the medical profession. It would make too long an article for me to enumerate the cases that I have cured; but, I think it will suffice to say that I have cured every case where I have used it with one exception and that was a case of consumption in its last stages; but the lady and her husband both told me that it was the only medicine that she took during her illness that did her any good. The good it did her was by loosening her cough; she could give one cough and expectorate from the lungs without any exertion. I believe it is the best medicine for consumption in its first stages and will probably cure. I wish the readers of Special Crops to try it in their own families--no difference what the disease is. Make a tea of it. A good way is to grate it in a nutmeg grater. Grate what would make about 15 grains, or about one-fourth to one-half teaspoonful and add half a pint or less of boiling water. The dose to be taken at meal times and between meals. In a cold on the lungs it will cure in two or three days, if care is taken and the patient is not exposed. My theory is that disease comes from indigestion directly or indirectly. Ginseng is the medicine that will regulate the digestion and cure the disease no difference by what name it is called; if the disease can be cured. Ginseng will cure it where no other drug will. I will cite one case; a neighbor lady had been treated by two different physicians for a year for a chronic cough. I gave her some Ginseng and told her to make a tea of it and take it at meal times and between meals; in two weeks I saw her and she told me that she was cured and that she never took any medicine that did her so much good, saying that it acted as a mild cathartic and made her feel good. She keeps Ginseng in her house now all the time and takes a dose or two when she does not feel well. I am satisfied that wonderful cures can be made with Ginseng and am making them myself, curing patients that doctors have given up; and if handled properly our supply will not equal the demand at home in course of five or six years, thus increasing the price. * * * At the last annual meeting of the Michigan Ginseng Association, Dr. H. S. McMaster of Cass Co. presented a paper on the uses of this plant, which appeared in the Michigan Farmer. He spoke in part as follows: "Ginseng is a mild, non-poisonous plant, well adapted to domestic as well as professional uses. In this respect it may be classed with such herbs as boneset, oxbalm, rhubarb and dandelion. The medicinal qualities are known to be a mild tonic, stimulant, nervine and stomachic. It is especially a remedy for ills incident to old age. "Two well-known preparations made--or said to be--from Ginseng root are on the market. One of these, called "Seng," has been for many years on druggists' shelves. It is sometimes used for stomach troubles and with good results. I think it is now listed by the leading drug houses. "Another called 'Ginseng Tone' is a more recent preparation, and is highly spoken of as a remedy. But for home or domestic use we would suggest the following methods of preparing this drug: "1st. The simplest preparation and one formerly used to some extent by the pioneers of our forest lands, is to dig, wash and eat the green root, or to pluck and chew the green leaves. Ginseng, like boneset, aconite and lobelia, has medicinal qualities in the leaf. "To get the best effect, like any other medicine it should be taken regularly from three to six times a day and in medicinal quantities. In using the green root we would suggest as a dose a piece not larger than one to two inches of a lead pencil, and of green leaves one to three leaflets. These, however, would be pleasanter and better taken in infusion with a little milk and sweetened and used as a warm drink as other teas are. "2nd. The next simplest form of use is the dried root carried in the pocket, and a portion as large as a kernel of corn, well chewed, may be taken every two or three hours. Good results come from this mode of using, and it is well known that the Chinese use much of the root in this way. "3d. Make a tincture of the dried root, or leaves. The dried root should be grated fine, then the root, fiber or leaves, separately or together, may be put into a fruit jar and barely covered with equal parts of alcohol and water. If the Ginseng swells, add a little more alcohol and water to keep it covered. Screw top on to keep from evaporating. Macerate in this way 10 to 14 days, strain off and press all fluid out, and you have a tincture of Ginseng. The dose would be 10 to 15 drops for adults. "Put an ounce of this tincture in a six-ounce vial, fill the vial with a simple elixir obtained at any drug store, and you have an elixir of Ginseng, a pleasant medicine to take. The dose is one teaspoonful three or four times a day. "The tincture may be combined with the extracted juice of a ripe pineapple for digestion, or combined with other remedies for rheumatism or other maladies. "4th. Lastly I will mention Ginseng tea, made from the dry leaves or blossom umbels. After the berries are gathered, select the brightest, cleanest leaves from mature plants. Dry them slowly about the kitchen stove in thick bunches, turning and mixing them until quite dry, then put away in paper sacks. "Tea from these leaves is steeped as you would ordinary teas, and may be used with cream and sugar. It is excellent for nervous indigestion. "These home preparations are efficacious in neuralgia, rheumatism, gout, irritation of bronchi or lungs from cold, gastro-enteric indigestion, weak heart, cerebro-spinal and other nervous affections, and is especially adapted to the treatment of young children as well as the aged. Ginseng is a hypnotic, producing sleep, an anodyne, stimulant, nerve tonic and slightly laxative." CHAPTER XIII. GINSENG IN CHINA. With the exception of tea, says the Paint, Oil and Drug Review, Ginseng is the most celebrated plant in all the Orient. It may well be called the "cure-all" as the Chinese have a wonderful faith in its curative and strengthening properties, and it has been appropriately called the "cinchona of China." It is considered to be a sovereign cure for fevers and weaknesses of all kinds, and is, indeed, the chief and most costly medicine of the Chinese Empire. Ginseng is found wild in the mountain forests of eastern Asia from Nepa to Manchuria. It once grew in Fukien, Kaighan and Shansi, but was supplanted by the Manchuria wild root. The root is carefully hunted for by the Manchus, who boast that the weeds of their country are the choice drugs of the Chinese, a boast which has much foundation in fact. Of the thirty-seven ports in China where the imperial maritime customs are established to import Ginseng, imports during 1905 were as follows: Shanghai, 103,802 pounds; Wuhu, 2,374; Kiuhiang, 2,800; Hankow, American clarified, 34,800; Wenchau 9,100; Chungking, American clarified, 6,200; Chefoo, 80,408; Canton, 75,800, and Foochow, 15,007. The total importation at these ports for the last four years were: 1902, 407,021 pounds; 1903, 404,000 pounds; 1904, 313,598 pounds, and 1905, 331,381 pounds. These figures, however, by no means cover all the Ginseng entering China, as much of it comes thru the native custom houses, which keep no tabulated data of exports and imports, and great quantities of it are smuggled into the country, especially over the Korean boundary line. Niuchwang is the one Chinese port which exports native Ginseng. Its exports for the last four years were, respectively, 228,000, 215,000, 57,000 and 160,900 pounds. To give an accurate price for Ginseng would be impossible, so greatly does it differ from the variety of the root offered to consumers. Some wild roots have been known to realize their weight in gold; while the cultivated variety can be purchased from 5 cents a pound up. Generally speaking, the present average prices are, for the best Ginseng, $12.00 a pound; for fair quality, $6.50, and for the ordinary, 50 cents to $1.00. Japan sends to China the cheapest Ginseng, a great deal of which is used to adulterate the highest quality from Korea. In values and quality of the root the four principal producing countries rank as follows: Manchuria, Korea, America and Japan. Prices often vary in accordance with the method used in clarifying the root. Some Chinese provinces prefer it white, others reddish and still others require it of a yellowish tinge. The Korean root is reddish in color, due, some say, to the ferruginous soil on which it grows, and, according to others, to a peculiar process of clarifying. Most of the Korean product goes to southern China by way of Hongkong. Wild Ginseng, from whatever country, always commands a better price than the cultivated article, chiefly because of Chinese superstition, which prefers root resembling man or some grotesque creature to that of the regular normal roots which cultivation naturally tends to produce. Chinese druggists, when questioned as to the real difference between the Manchuria wild and the American cultivated Ginseng root, admit that the difference in quality is mostly imaginary, altho there is a real difference in the appearance of the roots. But the Manchuria Ginseng comes from the Emperor's mother country and from the same soil whence sprang the "god of heaven" and therefore the Chinese regard it as infinitely more efficacious as a curative agent than any other Ginseng could possibly be. Many assert that the future demand for Ginseng will be a decreasing one, from the fact that its imaginary properties of curing every disease on earth will be dissipated in proportion to the advance of medical science. There can be no doubt, however, that Ginseng does possess certain curative properties and it can be safely asserted that it will require many generations, perhaps centuries, to shake the Chinaman's faith in his mysterious time-honored cure-all. [Illustration: Root Resembling Human Body.] American Ginseng, of which large quantities are annually exported to China, is classed, as a rule, with hsiyang, that is, west ocean, foreign or western country Ginseng. The imports of this article at Niuchwang for 1905 amounted in value to $4,612 gold. The exports of Manchurian Ginseng thru Niuchwang to Chinese ports for 1905 aggregated in value $180,199 gold and for 1904, $205,431 gold. Wild Manchuria Ginseng is rare, even in Manchuria, and its estimated valuation ranges at present from $450 to $600 gold a pound. The total imports of Ginseng into China for 1904 aggregated 277 tons, valued at $932,173.44 and for 1905 to 1,905 tons, valued at $1,460,206.59. The increased valuation of the imports of last year emphasizes the increased price of Ginseng in the Chinese market. Hsiyang, or American Ginseng, is marketed in China largely thru Hongkong and Shanghai foreign commission houses. Importations of the American product are increasing in bulk with each succeeding year, and the business gives every indication of becoming a very large one in a short time. * * * In most of the booklets and articles we have seen on Ginseng, the writers quote exorbitant figures as to what the root sells for in China. A good many of them quote from reports received from U. S. Consuls, who, when they give prices, reckon on Mexican dollars which are only about half the value of ours and some of them go so far as to quote retail prices for very small quantities of extra quality root. Some of the growers and dealers in this country, therefore, imagine that they are not paid what they should be for their stock and that there is an enormous profit for the men who ship to China. Such is an entirely wrong idea and can be best proven by the fact that during the past couple of years three of the leading export houses have gone out of business, owing to there being no money in it. We do not know of any business conducted on as small a percentage profit as Ginseng. Frequently prices paid in this country are in excess of the market in China. This not only means a direct loss to the exporter on his goods but also the cost of making clean (removing fibres, siftings and stems) shrinkage, insurance and freight. Business is also conducted on different lines from years ago. Then the buyers in China bought readily, prices were lower and more people could afford to use it. Today, prices are tripled and while the supply is smaller, the demand is very much less and Chinese buyers make the exporters carry it until they really need it, in a good many cases buying root and not taking it for three or four months, and consequently keeping the exporters without their money. The expense of carrying Ginseng is also heavy owing to the high rate of interest, which is 8% and over. The folly of depending upon U. S. Consul reports is shown in the great difference in the figures which they send. Many of these men have but very little knowledge of business, most of them knowing more about politics. It is not likely that this class of men will spend very much time in investigating a subject of this character. The market here for wild root since June 1st has been the dullest we have ever known and the same condition prevails in China. We are glad to state that cultivated root is selling at much better prices than last year. It is hard to account for the disfavor with which it was regarded a year ago in China, and the prejudice against it has been overcome more rapidly than we expected. At this time last year it was almost unsalable and we were buying as low as $3.00 to $4.00 per pound. Many houses declined to buy at all. Now that the prejudice against it has sort of worn off, we look for a good market and consider the outlook very favorable and would advise people not to give up their gardens in too great a hurry. We make a specialty of cultivated root and will be pleased to give information as to handling, drying, etc., to any reader who desires it. We have been buying Ginseng for over thirty years. Belt, Butler Co. New York. * * * Consul-General Amos P. Wilder of Hongkong, in response to numerous American inquiries as to the trade in Ginseng, with especial reference to the cultivated root, prices and importations, reports as follows: The Ginseng business is largely in the hands of the Chinese, the firms at Hongkong and Canton having American connections. (The five leading Hongkong Chinese firms in the Ginseng importing business are named by Mr. Wilder, as also the leading "European" importing concern, and all the addresses are obtainable from the Bureau of Manufacturers). I am authorized to say that American growers may correspond with the European concern direct relative to large direct shipments. They receive goods only on consignment and have some forty years' standing in this industry. This firm, as do the Chinese, buys in bulk and distributes thru jobbers to the medicine shops, which abound in all Chinese communities. The Cantonese have prestige in cleaning and preparing the root for market. Last year the best quality of Ginseng brought from $2,000 to $2,300 Mexican per picul (equal to 133 1/2 pounds), but selected roots have brought $2,400 to $2,550. It is estimated here that growers should net about $7.25 gold per pound. The buying price of Ginseng is uncertain. There being no standard, no price can be fixed. The American-Chinese shippers have the practice of withholding the Ginseng to accord with the demand in China. Owing to failures among Chinese merchants since the war and the confusion in San Francisco, trade in this industry has been slack and prices have fallen off. If the root is perfect and unbroken it is preferred. Much stress should be laid on shipping clean, perfect and attractive roots. Size, weight and appearance are factors in securing best prices, the larger and heavier the root the better. When the shipment arrives the importer invites jobbers to inspect the same. The roots are imported in air-tight casks in weight of about 100 pounds. It is certain that there are many different qualities of Ginseng and the price is difficult to fix (except on inspection in China). As to wild and cultivated roots, two or three years ago when cultivated Ginseng was new, buyers made no distinction and the price ruled the same; but having learned of the new industry, experts here assure me the roots can readily be distinguished. They say that the wild root is darker in color and rougher. The wild is preferred. Experts now allege a prejudice against the cultivated root, affirming that the wild root has a sweeter taste. The cultivated roots being larger and heavier, they first earned large prices, but are now at a disadvantage, altho marketable. [Illustration: Wild Ginseng Roots.] The cultivated is as yet but a small percentage of the entire importations, but is increasing. Seventy-five per cent of all importations are in the hands of the Chinese. Small growers in America will do best to sell to the collecting buyers in New York, Cincinnati and other cities. Hongkong annual importations are now about 100,000 pounds. Too many misleading and conflicting articles have been published on the subject of Ginseng culture in Korea, a true statement of the facts may be of interest. We all know the Korean Ginseng always commands a high price in China and I believe there must be a very good reason for it. Either the Korean method of cultivation, curing or marketing was superior to the American method or centuries of experience in its cultivation had taught him a lesson and a secret we had yet to learn. After considerable correspondence with parties in Korea which gave me very little information and to set my mind at rest on these questions, I went to Korea in 1903 for the sole purpose of obtaining all the information possible on Ginseng culture according to Korean methods and also if possible to secure enough nursery stock to plant a Ginseng garden in America with the best Korean stock. Strange to say, even after I reached the city of Seoul, the capital of Korea, I could not obtain any more reliable information on Ginseng than I already knew before I left America. They told me where the great Ginseng district was located, that 40,000 cattys were packed each year for export, etc., but as to the soil, planting, cultivation, irrigation, shading, curing, packing, etc., they knew nothing that was reliable. All the American people use sugar in one form or another, but how many could tell a person seeking for reliable information concerning the planting of the cane or sugar beet, of the character of the soil necessary, of its cultivation and irrigation, the process of refining, packing and marketing, etc. Comparatively few, indeed, and so it is with the Koreans on the cultivation of Ginseng. They all use it, but, like the Chinese, not one in several thousand ever saw a Ginseng plant growing. After considerable delay I secured a competent interpreter, a cook, and food supplies, and started from Seoul for the great Ginseng district, traveling part of the way by rail, then by sampan, and finally reached my destination on Korean ponies. Arriving at the Ginseng center, I lived among the Ginseng growers from the time the seed crop ripened until nearly all the five-year-old roots, or older ones, were dug up and delivered to the government at their drying grounds, which is about four acres in extent. This compound is enclosed on three sides by buildings from 100 to 150 feet in length and a uniform width of twelve feet and the rest of the compound with a high stone wall with a gate, which is closely guarded by soldiers armed with guns. Near the center of this compound is a well where the roots are washed as soon as they are received. There is no entrance from the outside to any of these buildings. Every one must pass the guards at the gate, for the buildings, together with the wall, make a complete enclosure. The Ginseng gardens are scattered over considerable territory, most of which is surrounded by a high stone wall about twenty or twenty-five miles in circumference, similar to the great wall of China, and which many years ago was the site of one of the ancient capitals of Korea. Part of the growers make a specialty of raising one-year-old plants, to supply those who have sufficient means to wait four years more for the roots to mature. Generally, speaking, the grower that produces the commercial root raises but little if any one-year roots. All Ginseng gardens are registered as required by law, stating how many kan (a kan of Ginseng is the width of the bed, about 30 inches and 5 1/2 feet long) are under cultivation, so the High Government Official, specially appointed for the Ginseng district, always knows how many roots should be available at harvest time and every grower must sell his entire crop that is five years old or over to the government and his responsibility does not cease until he has delivered his crop at the government drying grounds. His roots are then carefully selected and all that do not come up to a required size are rejected and delivered back to the grower and these he can either dry for his own use or he can transplant them and perhaps next year they will come up to the required standard. The Koreans pay great attention to the selection of their Ginseng seed. No plant is allowed to bear seed that is less than four years old and very little seed is used from four-year plants. Nearly all the seed comes from five-year-old plants and a little from six-year-old. Only the best and strongest appearing plants are allowed to bear seed, and even these very sparingly, as part of the seed head is picked off while in the blossom and from which they make a highly prized tea. The seed stem of all other plants are pinched off, forcing all the strength, as well as medicinal properties, into the root. Many of the best growers never allow their plants to bear seed, and only the required amount of seed is raised each year to supply the demand. After the seed is gathered, it is graded by passing it thru a screen of a certain size. This grader is made like an old-fashioned flour sieve, only the bottom is made of a heavy oil paper with round holes cut in it, and all seed that will pass thru these holes are destroyed, so only the largest and best seed are kept for planting. The soil which they use for their Ginseng garden is a very poor disintegrate granite, to which has been added leaf mould mostly from the chestnut oak, in the proportion of three-eighths leaf mould to five-eighths granite. The leaves are gathered in the spring and summer, dried in the sun, pulverized and sprinkled with water to help decomposition. This is the only fertilizer used. The beds are raised about eight inches above the level of the ground and are carefully edged with slabs of slate. What is called a holing board is used to mark the places for the seed. It is made of a board as long as the beds are wide (about thirty inches) and has three rows of pegs 1/2-inch long and 1 1/2 inches apart each way. A seed is planted in each hole and covered by pressing the soil down with the hands. About 1/4-inch of prepared soil is added to the bed and smoothed over. No other mulch is used. The roots are transplanted each year, setting them a little farther apart each time, until at the third transplanting, or at four years old, they are 6x6 inches apart, and at each transplanting the amount of leaf mould used in the prepared soil is reduced. (Note the difference between this and the American method of heavy fertilizing). Only germinated seed is planted and the time for planting is regulated by the Korean Calendar and not by the weather and if at that time it is at all cold, the beds are immediately covered with one or two thickness of rice straw thatch and as soon as the weather is suitable this thatch is removed and the shade erected. Each bed is shaded separately by setting a row of small posts in the ground 4 feet high and 5 1/2 feet or 1 kan apart, on the north side of each bed and on the south side a similar row, only about 1 foot high. Bamboo poles are securely lashed to these posts and they in turn support the cross pieces on which rests the roof covering, made of reeds woven together with a very small straw rope. At the time of the summer solstice, the rainy season comes on, so a thick covering of thatch is spread over the reed covering, which sheds the rain into the walks, while the back and front are enclosed with rush blinds, that on the north side being raised or lowered according to the temperature. If it is a very hot day the blinds are lowered from about 10 A. M. to 4 P. M., leaving the beds in almost darkness. The beds are all protected from the rain and are irrigated by sprinkling them when needed. At the close of the growing season, after the roots have gone dormant, all that are not dug up are covered with a layer of soil 7 or 8 inches thick. All the shade is pulled down except the posts and spread over the soil and the garden is left thus for the winter, and the grower selects another site to which he can move his plants in the spring, and each year new soil is prepared. From the time the roots are two years old there is another added care. They are now worth stealing, consequently the garden has to be watched day and night. A watch tower about 16 feet high is erected and the hands take turn about, occupying it as a sentry. Another man constantly patrols the garden during the night. The Koreans are the largest consumers of Ginseng in the world, in proportion to their population, and they have carefully cultivated it for centuries with the one particular object in view, "its medicinal properties." For quality always, rather than quantity. They sacrifice everything else for a powerful medicinal root, and they surely grow it. I have seen some remarkable results from its use during my stay in Korea. Say what we may about it, but it plays a very important part in the life of both the Korean and the Chinese people. Do you wonder now that the Korean Ginseng always commands a high price? If the American growers had followed closer along the lines of the Korean growers and aimed for a high grade of medicinal root, the market for American Ginseng would not be where it is today. That is, the cultivated Ginseng. The American growers have it in their own hands to either make a success or failure of Ginseng culture, but one thing is certain, heavy seed bearing, excessive fertilizing and rapid drying will never produce a high standard of Ginseng. The principal market of the world is ours if we only reach out for it with that high standard and maintain it and especially so if we will unite together and market our product thru one central agency controlled by the producers. Mr. Chinaman may sometimes be mistaken as to whether Ginseng is wild or cultivated. He may also be mistaken as to whether it comes from Korea or China (I have seen him make this mistake), but let him once sample a liberal dose of it, and he won't make any mistake as to whether it is good, medium or bad. * * * The Ginseng Trade. The following article by Mr. Burnett appeared in the Minneapolis Journal last February and shows what dealers think of the Ginseng industry: I wish you would give room for what I have to say in regard to an article in your Journal last fall by our ex-Consul, John Goodnow. Some things he says are correct: That the demand is based entirely on superstition; that the root has life-giving qualities; and that those having the nearest resemblance to human beings are most valuable. That is quite true. I have seen the Chinese exporters' eyes dance when they saw such roots in a lot. Now for the errors in what he said. He says the trade is in the hands of a syndicate and they only handle Korean Ginseng. Possibly this syndicate tells the Chinese retail merchants that to keep them from boycotting our American Ginseng. If so, why is it that the wild root this fall has been at ready sale at $6.75 to $7.10 per pound? We, who buy it, do not hold it and if we did not find a ready sale for it we would soon cease to buy it. There has been marketed in Minneapolis probably $50,000 worth this year and in the United States a million dollars' worth. So you see his error: for, either directly or indirectly, it gets to China at good prices. Chinese Superstitions. Now in regard to the cultivated root, to show your readers how the value is based on superstition, we will cite one instance in our experience. We sent our clerk to a laundry where there were a half dozen "Celestials" to sell some nice cultivated root. Some roots were manlike in shape. They tasted it, were delighted with it and bought it readily and told him to bring them all he could get, as what they did not need for their own use they would ship to their exporter in San Francisco. Our man told them he would be around in one week. We sent him again in just a week. He said on his return they "looked daggers" at him and said, "We no wantee your cultivated root." This convinced us they had shipped it to the agents of the syndicate at 'Frisco and received their returns. Now, does this not show that the demand is all based on superstition? It was very good until they were informed that it was cultivated. Now your readers may say, how can they distinguish between the cultivated and the wild? I will tell you; the cultivated is usually much firmer and twice as heavy as the wild and generally much cleaner. Then most of the cultivated has been raised from small, wild roots dug from the forests and in transplanting they have not taken pains to place the tap root straight in the earth. This causes it to be clumpy--that is, not straight like most wild roots. This, with its solidity and cleanliness makes it easy to tell from the wild roots. [Illustration: Pennsylvania Grower's Garden.] The Cultivated Plant. Now we have had a number of lots of cultivated that we got full prices for. They were roots grown from seeds, symmetrical in shape, not too large, not too clean and dug before they became very solid. My idea is, if not allowed to grow more than as large as one's fingers, when dry and dug immediately after the seeds are ripe, or even before, if seeds are not needed, and not washed too clean, we can find sale for such. At present the ordinary cultivated does not bring quite half the price of the wild. There are some who buy that for American use, several firms putting up Ginseng cures. Some people, like the Chinese, believe it has merits, but as the demand is limited the price is low. That the Chinese think that the root grown by nature has life-giving qualities and that cultivated has no virtues, is certain. The only way to do is to grow in natural woods soil (manure of any kind must be avoided, as it causes a rank growth) dig and wash it so they can't tell the difference. One thing is certain, it's a hardy plant, altho slow to get started, and good money can be made at $2.00 to $3.00 a pound. Instead of being hard to grow, as many persons think, it is very hard to kill. * * * A belief among the Chinese people is that Ginseng roots, especially if of peculiar shape, will cure practically all diseases of mind and body. The Chinese are not given to sentiment; their emotional nature is not highly developed; they are said to be a people who neither "kiss nor cuss," and their physical sensibilities are so dull that a Chinaman can lie down on his back across his wheelbarrow with feet and head hanging to the ground, his mouth wide open and full of flies and sleep blissfully for hours under the hottest July sun. There is nothing about them, therefore, to suggest that they possess the lively imagination to make them have faith in a remedy with purely imaginary virtues. Nevertheless, among these people, a plant not found by any medical scientist to possess any curative powers is used almost universally, to cure every kind of ailment and has been so used for generations. Intelligent Chinese resent the imputation of superstition to their people. But the fact remains that the Ginseng roots are valued according to the peculiarity of their shapes. The word Ginseng is composed of two Chinese words which mean man and plant, and the more nearly shaped like a man the roots are, the more they are valued. A root which is bifurcated and otherwise shaped like a man, may be sold as high as $10.00 an ounce; a recent secretary of the Chinese Legation explains this on the ground of being valued as a curio; but the curio is finally made into a decoction and swallowed, and the swallower evidently hopes that the fantastic shape of the root will make the medicine more potent. CHAPTER XIV. GINSENG--GOVERNMENT DESCRIPTION, ETC. The following is from a bulletin issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture--Bureau of Plant Industry--and edited by Alice Henkel: Panax Quinquefolium L. Other Common Names--American Ginseng, sang, red-berry, five-fingers. Habitat and Range--Ginseng is a native of this country, its favorite haunts being the rich, moist soil in hardwood forests from Maine to Minnesota southward to the mountains of northern Georgia and Arkansas. For some years Ginseng has been cultivated in small areas from central New York to Missouri. Description of Plant--Ginseng is an erect perennial plant growing from 8 to 15 inches in height and bearing three leaves at the summit, each leaf consisting of five thin, stalked ovate leaflets, long pointed at the apex, rounded or narrow at the base, the margins toothed; the three upper leaflets are largest and the two lower ones smaller. From 6 to 20 greenish yellow flowers are produced in a cluster during July and August, followed later in the season by bright crimson berries. It belongs to the Ginseng family (Araliaceae.) Description of Root--Ginseng has a thick, spindle-shaped root, 2 to 3 inches long or more, and about one-half to 1 inch in thickness, often branched, the outside prominently marked with circles or wrinkles. The spindle-shaped root is simple at first, but after the second year it usually becomes forked or branched, and it is the branched root, especially if it resembles the human form, that finds particular favor in the eyes of the Chinese, who are the principal consumers of this root. [Illustration: Ginseng (Panax Quinquefolium).] Ginseng root has a thick, pale yellow white or brownish yellow bark, prominently marked with transverse wrinkles, the whole root fleshy and somewhat flexible. If properly dried, it is solid and firm. Ginseng has a slight aromatic odor, and the taste is sweetish and mucilaginous. Collection and Uses--The proper time for digging Ginseng root is in autumn, and it should be carefully washed, sorted and dried. If collected at any other season of the year, it will shrink more and not have the fine, plump appearance of the fall dug root. The National Dispensatory contains an interesting item concerning the collection of the root by the Indians. They gather the root only after the fruit has ripened, and it is said that they bend down the stem of ripened fruit before digging the root, covering the fruit with earth, and thus providing for future propagation. The Indians claim that a large percentage of the seeds treated in this way will germinate. Altho once official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, from 1840 to 1880, it is but little used medicinally in this country except by the Chinese residents, most of the Ginseng produced in this country being exported to China. The Chinese regard Ginseng root as a panacea. It is on account of its commercial prominence that it is included in this paper. Cultivation--There is probably no plant that has become better known, at least by name, during the past ten years or more than Ginseng. It has been heralded from north to south and east to west as a money-making crop. The prospective Ginseng grower must not fail to bear in mind, however, that financial returns are by no means immediate. Special conditions and unusual care are required in Ginseng cultivation, diseases must be contended with, and a long period of waiting is in store for him before he can realize on his crop. Either roots or seeds may be planted, and the best success with Ginseng is obtained by following as closely as possible the conditions of its native habitat. Ginseng needs a deep, rich soil, and being a plant accustomed to the shade of forest trees, will require shade, which can be supplied by the erection of lath sheds over the beds. A heavy mulch of leaves or similar well rotted vegetable material should be applied to the beds in autumn. If roots are planted, they are set in rows about 8 inches apart and 8 inches apart in the row. In this way a marketable product will be obtained sooner than if grown from seed. The seed is sown in spring or autumn in drills 6 inches apart and about 2 inches apart in the row. The plants remain in the seed bed for two years and are then transplanted, being set about 8 by 8 inches apart. It requires from five to seven years to obtain a marketable crop from the seed. Seed intended for sowing should not be allowed to dry out, as this is supposed to destroy its vitality. Price--The price of wild Ginseng roots ranges from $5.00 a pound upward. The cultivated root generally brings a lower price than the wild root, and southern Ginseng roots are worth less than those from northern localities. Exports--The exports of Ginseng for the year ended June 30, 1906, amounted to 160,949 pounds, valued at $1,175,844. CHAPTER XV. MICHIGAN MINT FARM. Very few people know that the largest Mint farm in the world is owned and operated by an unassuming Michigan man named A. M. Todd, says Special Crops. His career is interesting. Born on a farm near St. Joseph, Mich., he early developed an idea that money was to be made in the growing of Peppermint. At that time the Mint oil industry was small and in a state of crudeness in America, for Europe was supposed to be the stronghold of the industry. To Europe went Mr. Todd to see about it. He returned filled with plans and enthusiasm. Some Details of the Business. The details are long, but the main facts can be briefly told. Eventually, while still a very young man, Mr. Todd purchased 1,400 acres of wild, swampy land in Allegan County, Mich. The purchase price was $25,000. He proceeded to hire a force of men to clear and ditch the new Mint farm. That was 20 or more years ago. Now, let us take a look at that farm as it is today. First we come to the main farm, called Campania, and comprising just 1,640 acres. Here are huge barns, comfortable houses for employer and employees, warehouses, ice houses, windmills, library, club rooms and bathrooms for use of employes; 17 miles of wide, deep, open drainage ditches; stills for distilling Peppermint oil; roadways, telephones and all the system and comfort of a little village founded and maintained by one thoughtful man. Not far away is a second farm, recently purchased where somewhat similar improvements are now going on. This farm is named Mentha, and consists of 2,000 acres. Then, farther north, a third farm completes the Todd domain. This place contains 7,000 acres and is known as Sylvania Range. The three farms, with a total acreage of 10,640 acres, are under one management and they form together the largest Mint farm in all the world. Starting with $100.00 capital, Mr. Todd's plant today is worth several hundred thousand dollars. Distiller as Well as Grower. But Mr. Todd is more than a Mint grower. With his distilleries he turns the crop into crude Peppermint oil; with his refineries he turns the crude oil into the refined products that find a ready market in the form of menthol, or as a flavoring essence for drinks, confectionery and chewing gum, or for use in medicine. Furthermore, he has been shrewd enough to figure out a method of utilizing, profitably, the by-products of the business, Mint hay. In other words, after the oil is extracted from a mass of Mint plants in a distillery vat, the resulting cake of leaves and stems is dried and fed to cattle. And, oddly enough, the animals greatly relish it and thrive upon it. Raises Shorthorns on Mint Hay. During the summer Mr. Todd has 500 Shorthorns grazing on his 7000-acre range, where they require no human attention during the season when his men are busy planting, cultivating and harvesting the first crop. Later, these same Shorthorns are driven from pasture to the big Campania barns, where the men care for them and feed them Mint hay from Mr. Todd's distilleries at a season when such workmen have little else to do. In this way the by-product is utilized and the regular force of men is kept employed all the year around. The growing of Mint is simple, yet there are some peculiar features about it. For instance, the land is so shaky at some seasons of the year that horses can not work on it unless they wear special, broad wooden shoes. This Mint soil, indeed, is something like the muck found in typical celery fields, being black, damp and loose. But it is less firm and more damp than the celery land at Kalamazoo. Setting New Mint Fields. The Mint root is perennial. Once in two or three years, however, the fields are renewed to improve the crop. When setting a new field the land is plowed and harrowed in the usual way. It is then marked out in shallow furrows into which the sets are evenly dropped by skilled planters who cover each dropped root by shoveling dirt over it with the foot. The rows are about 2 1/2 feet apart and the planting is done in early spring. The sets are obtained by digging up and separating the runners and roots from old plants. The planted rows soon send up shoots above ground and the new plants rapidly run or spread, necessitating hoeing and cultivating only until late July, at which time the field should be densely covered with a rank growth of waving green plants that forbid further cultural work. Harvesting the Mint. In August or September the field is mowed, raked and bunched; in fact, handled quite similarly to a clover hay field. After allowing the plants to dry a short time, the crop is loaded onto hay wagons and carted to the stills, where the essential oil is extracted by means of a system of steam distillation. The second year's crop is obtained by the simple method of plowing under the plants in the fall. The roots send up new shoots next season, while weeds are temporarily discouraged. No cultivation is attempted the second year, altho the hand pulling of weeds may sometimes prove desirable. We think the growing of Mint should not be attempted except on a large scale. We have had many queries touching the plant and manner of cultivation that we have taken this means to answer them. In boyhood days we were well acquainted with this industry in all its branches and can not advise the average Ginseng grower to undertake its culture for the reason that there is not money enough in it to be profitable on small areas of land. CHAPTER XVI. MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. Remember, unless thoroughly dried roots, herbs, leaves, barks, flowers and seeds are apt to heat or mold which greatly lessens their value. If badly molded they are of little value. The best time to collect barks is in the spring (when the sap is up) as it will peel easier at that time. Some barks must be rossed, that is, remove the outer or rough woody part. In this class are such barks as white pine, wild cherry, etc. Leaves and herbs should only be gathered when the plant is mature-grown. In curing they should be kept from the sun as too rapid curing tends to draw the natural color and this should be preserved as much as possible. Flowers should be gathered in the "height of bloom," for best results. They require considerable attention to preserve as they are apt to turn dark or mold. The time to gather seeds is when they are ripe. This can easily be determined by the leaves on the plant, vine or shrub which produced the seeds. Generally speaking, seeds are not ripe until early fall, altho some are. There has been a heavy demand for years for wild cherry bark, sassafras bark, black haw bark, prickly ash bark, slippery elm bark, cotton root bark as well as scullcap plants, (herbs) lobelia herb, golden thread herb and red clover tops. There has been a cash market for years for the following roots: Blood, senega, golden seal, poke, pink, wild ginger, star, lady slipper, black, mandrake, blue flag and queen's delight. If you have a few pounds of Ginseng or Golden Seal, pack carefully in a light box and ship by express. If less than four pounds, you can send by mail--postage is only one cent an ounce. A four-pound package by mail can be sent anywhere in America for 64 cents. Expressage, unless short distances, is apt to be more. [Illustration: Lady Slipper.] In shipping roots, herbs, leaves, seeds, etc., where the value is only a few cents per pound it is best to collect 50 pounds or more before making a shipment. In fact, 100 pounds by freight costs no more than 10, 20, 50 or any amount less than 100 as 100 pounds is the smallest charge. Some of the biggest liars in America seem to be connected with the "seng" growing business. They probably have seed or plants to sell. Be careful in buying--there are many rascals in the business. There is always a cash market for Ginseng and Golden Seal. In the large cities like New York, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Montreal, Cincinnati, etc., are dealers who make a special business of buying these roots. In hundreds of smaller cities and towns druggists, merchants, raw fur dealers, etc., buy them also. The roots, barks, leaves, etc., of less value are also bought pretty generally by the above dealers, but if you are unable to find a market for them it will pay you to send 10 cents for copy of Hunter-Trader-Trapper, Columbus, Ohio, which contains a large number of root buyers' advertisements as well as several who want bark, leaves, seeds, flowers, herbs, etc. Since 1858 Ginseng has increased in value one thousand four hundred per cent., but Golden Seal has increased in value in the same time two thousand four hundred per cent. Ginseng and Golden Seal should be packed tightly--light but strong boxes and shipped by express. The less valuable roots can be shipped in burlap sacks, boxes, barrels, etc., by freight. The various roots, barks, leaves, plants, etc., as described in this book are found thruout America. Of course there is no state where all grow wild, but there are many sections where several do. After reading this book carefully you will no doubt be able to distinguish those of value. Plants are of three classes--annuals, biennials, perennials. Annuals grow from seed to maturity in one year and die; biennials do not flower or produce seed the first year, but do the second and die; perennials are plants which live more than two years. Ginseng plants are perennial. Roots, leaves, barks, etc., should be spread out thin in some dry, shady place. A barn floor or loft in some shed is a good place, providing it is light and "airy," altho the direct sunlight should not shine upon the articles being "cured." Watch while curing and turn or stir each day. Prices given for roots, plants, leaves, etc., were those paid by dealers during 1907 unless otherwise specified. These prices, of course, were paid in the leading markets for fair sized lots. If you have only a few pounds or sold at some local market the price received was probably much less. The demand for the various articles varies and, of course, this influences prices--when an article is in demand prices are best. After studying the "habitat and range" of the various plants as published together with the illustrations, there should be no difficulty in determining the various plants. By "habitat" is meant the natural abode, character of soil, etc., in which the plant thrives best and is found growing wild. To illustrate: Seneca Snakeroot--habitat and range--rocky woods and hillsides are its favorite haunts. It is found in such places from New Brunswick, Canada and Western New England States to Minnesota and the Canadian Rocky Mountains, and south along the Allegheny Mountains to North Carolina and Missouri. From this it will be seen that it is useless to look for this plant in the Southern States, on the plains or in old cultivated fields, for such places are not its natural home. CHAPTER XVII. GOLDEN SEAL CULTIVATION. I learned when a boy, by actual experience, that Golden Seal and Ginseng will not grow in open cultivated fields or gardens. I tried it faithfully. The soil must be virgin, or made practically so by the application of actual "new land" in such quantities that to prepare an acre for the proper growth of these plants would be almost impossible. And to furnish and keep in repair artificial shade for, say, an acre, would cost quite a little fortune. Of course one may cultivate a few hundred or few thousand in artificially prepared beds and shaded by artificial means, but to raise these plants successfully in anything like large quantities we must let nature herself prepare the beds and the shade. When we follow nature closely we will not be troubled with diseases, such as blight and fungus. I know this by actual experience dear, and therefore dear to me. Plants propagate themselves naturally by seedage, root suckers, and by root formation upon the tips of pendulous boughs coming in contact with the ground. Man propagates them artificially in various ways, as by layering, cuttings, grafting or budding, in all of which he must follow nature. The Golden Seal plant is readily propagated by any of the three following methods: (1) by seed; (2) by division of the large roots; (3) by suckers, or small plants which form on the large fibrous roots. The seed berries should be gathered as soon as ripe, and mashed into a pulp, and left alone a day or two in a vessel, then washed out carefully and the seed stored in boxes of sandy loam on layers of rock moss, the moss turned bottom side up and the seed scattered thickly over it, then cover with about one-half inch of sandy loam, then place another layer of moss and seed, until you have four or five layers in a box. The box may be of any convenient size. The bottom of the box should be perforated with auger holes to secure good drainage. If water be allowed to stand upon the seeds they will not germinate, neither will they germinate if they become dry. The seeds should be kept moist but not wet. They may be sown in the fall, but, I think the better way, by far, is to keep your box of seeds in a cellar where they will not freeze until the latter part of winter or very early spring. If your seeds have been properly stratified and properly kept you will find by the middle of January that each little black seed has burst open and is wearing a beautiful shining golden vest. In fact, it is beginning to germinate, and the sooner it is put into the seed-bed the better. If left too long in the box you will find, to your displeasure, a mass of tangled golden thread-like rootlets and leaflets, a total loss. To prepare a seed-bed, simply rake off the forest leaves from a spot of ground where the soil is rich and loamy, then with your rake make a shallow bed, scatter the seeds over it, broadcast, being careful not to sow them too thick. Firm the earth upon them with the back of the hoe or tramp them with the feet. This bed should not be near a large tree of any kind, and should be protected from the sun, especially from noon to 3 P. M. The Golden Seal seedling has two round seed leaves upon long stems during the first season of its growth. These seed leaves do not resemble the leaves of the Golden Seal plant. The second and usually the third years the plant has one leaf. These seedlings may be set in rows in beds for cultivation in the early spring of the second or third year. This plant grows very slowly from seed for the first two or three years, after which the growth is more satisfactory. By the second method, i. e., by division of the large roots, simply cut the roots up into pieces about one-fourth inch long and stratify in the same way as recommended for seeds, and by spring each piece will have developed a bud, and will be ready to transplant into beds for cultivation. This is a very satisfactory and a very successful method of propagating this plant. The plants grow off strong and robust from the start and soon become seed bearing. [Illustration: Young Golden Seal Plant in Bloom.] By the third method we simply let nature do the work. If the plants are growing in rich, loose, loamy soil, so the fibrous roots may easily run in every direction, the whole bed will soon be thickly set with plants. These may be taken up and transplanted or may be allowed to grow and develop where they are. This is the method by which I propagate nearly all of my plants. It is a natural way and the easiest of the three ways to practice. As to the proper soil and location for a Golden Seal garden I would recommend a northern or northeastern exposure. The soil should be well drained and capable of a thrifty growth of deciduous trees. It should contain an ample supply of humus made of leaf mold. It will then be naturally loose and adapted to the growth of Golden Seal. Cut out all undergrowth and leave for shade trees that will grow into value. I am growing locust trees for posts in my Golden Seal garden. I do not think fruit trees of any kind suitable for this purpose. In preparing the ground for planting simply dig a trench with a mattock where you intend to set a row. This loosens up the soil and makes the setting easy. Set the plants in this row four to six inches apart. For convenience I make the rows up and down the hill. In setting spread the fibrous roots out each way from the large main root and cover with loose soil about one to two inches deep, firming the soil around the plant with the hands. Be very careful not to put the fibrous roots in a wad down in a hole. They do not grow that way. Plants may be set any time through the summer, spring or fall, if the weather he not too dry. The tops will sometimes die down, in which case the root will generally send up a new top in a few days. If it does not it will form a bud and prepare for growth the next spring. The root seldom if ever dies from transplanting. I know of no plant that is surer to grow when transplanted than Golden Seal. I make the rows one foot to fifteen inches apart. It does not matter as it will soon fill the spaces with sucker plants any way. The cultivation of Golden Seal is very simple. If you have a deep, loose soil filled with the necessary humus your work will be to rid the plot of weeds, and each fall add to the fall of forest leaves a mulch of rotten leaves. Do not set the plants deeper than they grew in a natural state, say about 1/2 to 3/4 inch. Spread the fibrous roots out in all directions and cover with leaf mold or some fine, loamy new soil. Water if the ground be at all dry. Then mulch with old forest leaves that have begun to decay. Let the mulch be about three or four inches deep and held on by a few light brush. The wind would blow the leaves away if not thus held in place. Be careful, however, not to press the leaves down with weights. [Illustration: Golden Seal Plants.] Remove the brush in the early spring, but let the leaves remain. The plants will come up thru them all right. This plant grows best in a soil made up entirely of decayed vegetation, such as old leaf beds and where old logs have rotted and fallen back to earth. If weeds or grass begin to grow in your beds pull them up before they get a start. Be careful to do this. Do not hoe or dig up the soil any way, The fibrous roots spread out in all directions just under the mulch. To dig this up would very much injure the plants. I think the plants should be set in rows about one foot apart, and the plants three or four inches apart in the rows. This would require about 1,000 plants to set one square rod. My Golden Seal garden is in a grove of young locust trees that are rapidly growing into posts and cash. The leaves drop down upon my Golden Seal and mulch it sufficiently. The locust belongs to the Leguminous family of plants, so while the leaves furnish the necessary shade they drink in the nitrogen from the atmosphere and deposit great stores of it in the soil. This makes the soil porous and loose and gives the plant a very healthy dark green appearance. We have only to follow the natural manner of the growth of the Golden Seal to be successful in its culture. Select a piece of sloping land, so as to be well drained, on the north or northeast side of the hill--virgin soil if possible. Let the soil be rich and loamy, full of leaf mold and covered with rotting leaves and vegetation. This is the sort of soil that Golden Seal grows in, naturally. It is hard to fix up a piece of ground, artificially, as nature prepares it, for a wild plant to grow in. So select a piece if possible that nature has prepared for you. Do not clear your land. Only cut away the larger timber. Leave the smaller stuff to grow and shade your plants. There is no shade that will equal a natural one for Ginseng or Golden Seal. Now, take a garden line and stretch it up and down the hill the distance you want your bed to be wide. Mark the place for the row along the line with a mattock, and dig up the soil to loosen it, so as to set the plants, or, rather, plant the roots easily. With a garden dibble, or some other like tool make a place for each plant. Set the plants 4 to 6 inches apart in the row. The crown of the plant or bud should be set about 1 inch beneath the surface. Firm the earth around the plant carefully. This is an important point and should be observed in setting any plant. More plants are lost each year by carelessly leaving the earth loose over and around the roots than from any other cause. Do not leave a trench in the row. This may start a wash. Let the rows be about 1 foot apart. If land is no item to you, the rows may be further apart. They will, if properly cared for, in a few years, by sending up sprouts from the roots, fill up the end completely. [Illustration: Thrifty Golden Seal Plant.] When you have finished setting your bed, cover it with a good mulch of rotten leaves from the forest and throw upon them some brush to keep the wind from blowing them away. By spring the leaves will settle down compactly and you will be pleased to see your plants grow luxuriously. October and November are the best months of the year in which to set Golden Seal plants. They are, also, the months in which it should be dug for the market. It may be set in the spring if the plants are near by. The roots will always grow if not allowed to dry before transplanting. If your bed does not supply you with plants fast enough by suckering, you may propagate plants by cutting the roots into pieces about one-fourth inch long, leaving as many fibrous roots on each piece as possible. These cuttings should be made in September or October and placed in boxes of sand over winter. The boxes should be kept in a cellar where they will not freeze. By spring these pieces will have developed a bud and be ready for transplanting, which should be done just as early as the frost leaves the ground so it can be worked. All the culture needed by this plant is to mulch the beds with forest leaves each fall and keep it clear of grass and field weeds. Wild weeds do not seem to injure it. Golden Seal transplants easily and responds readily to proper cultivation. There is no witchcraft in it. The seeds ripen in a large red berry in July to germinate, if planted at once, the next spring. The fibrous roots, if stratified in sand loam in the autumn, will produce fine plants. Any good, fresh, loamy soil, that is partially shaded will produce a good Golden Seal. You want soil that is in good tilth, full of humus and life, and free from grasses and weeds. It will stand a great deal more sunlight than Ginseng. It will also produce a crop of marketable roots much quicker than Ginseng. There is no danger of an over supplied market, as the whims of a nation changing, or of a boycott of a jealous people. I have my little patch of Golden Seal that I am watching and with which I am experimenting. I want to say right here that you do not need a large capital to begin the culture of these plants that are today being exploited by different parties for cultivation. Just get a little plot of virgin soil, say six yards long by one yard wide and divide it into two equal lots. Then secure from the woods or from some one who has stock to sell about 100 plants of each, then cultivate or care for your apron garden and increase your plantation from your beds as you increase in wisdom and in the knowledge of the culture of these plants. The Bible says "Despise not the day of small things." Do not, for your own sake, invest a lot of money in a "Seng" or Seal plantation or take stock in any exploiter's scheme to get rich quick by the culture of these plants. Some one has written a book entitled "Farming by Inches." It is a good book and should be in every gardener's library. Now, if there be any crops that will pay a big dividend on the investment farmed by inches "Seng" and Seal are the crops. CHAPTER XVIII. GOLDEN SEAL, HISTORY, ETC. The increasing use of Golden Seal in medicine has resulted in a wide demand for information about the plant, its identification, geographical distribution, the conditions under which it grows, methods of collecting and preparing the rhizomes, relations of supply and demand, and the possibilities of its cultivation. This paper with the exception of the part relating to cultivation was prepared (under the direction of Dr. Rodney H. True, Physiologist in Charge of Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations) by Miss Alice Henkel, Assistant in Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations; and Mr. G. Fred Klugh, Scientific Assistant in the same office, in charge of Cultural Experiments in the Testing Gardens, furnished the part treating of the cultivation of this plant. In the preparation of this paper, which was undertaken to meet the demand for information relative to Golden Seal, now fast disappearing from our forests, many facts have been obtained from Lloyd's Drugs and Medicines of North America. Lyster H. Dewey, Acting Botanist. Office of Botanical Investigations and Experiments, Washington, D. C, Sept. 7, 1904. History. As in the case of many other native medicinal plants, the early settlers learned of the virtues of Golden Seal thru the American Indians, who used the root as a medicine and the yellow juice as a stain for their faces and a dye for their clothing. The Indians regarded Golden Seal as a specific for sore and inflamed eyes and it was a very popular remedy with pioneers of Ohio and Kentucky for this affliction, as also for sore mouth, the root being chewed for the relief of the last named trouble. Barton in his "Collection for an Essay towards a Materia Medica of the United States," 1804, speaks of the use of a spiritual infusion of the root of Golden Seal as a tonic bitters in the western part of Pennsylvania and the employment of an infusion of the root in cold water as a wash for inflammation of the eyes. According to Dr. C. S. Rafinesque, in his Medical Flora in 1829, the Indians also employed the juice or infusion for many "external complaints, as a topic tonic" and that "some Indians employ it as a diuretic stimulant and escharotic, using the powder for blistering and the infusion for the dropsy." He states further that "internally it is used as a bitter tonic, in infusion or tincture, in disorders of the stomach, the liver," etc. It was not until the demand was created for Golden Seal by the eclectic school of practitioners, about 1747, that it became an article of commerce, and in 1860 the root was made official in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, which place it has held to the present time. Habitat and Range. Golden Seal occurs in patches in high open woods where there is plenty of leaf mold, and usually on hillsides or bluffs affording nature drainage, but it is not found in very moist or swampy situations, in prairie land, or in sterile soil. It is native from southern New York to Minnesota and western Ontario, south to Georgia and Missouri, ascending to an altitude of 2,500 feet in Virginia. It is now becoming scarce thruout its range. Not all of this region, however, produced Golden Seal in abundance. Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky and West Virginia have been the greatest Golden Seal producing states, while in some localities in southern Illinois, southern Missouri, northern Arkansas, and central and western Tennessee the plant, tho common, could not be said to be sufficiently plentiful to furnish any large amount of the root. In other portions of its range it is sparingly distributed. Common Names. Many common names have been applied to this plant in different localities, most of them bearing some reference to the characteristic yellow color of the root, such as yellow root, yellow puccoon, orange-root, yellow paint, yellow Indian paint, golden root, Indian dye, curcuma, wild curcuma, wild tumeric, Indian tumeric, jaundice root and yellow eye; other names are eyebalm, eye-root and ground raspberry. Yellow root, a popular name for it, is misleading, as it has been applied to other plants also, namely to gold thread, false bittersweet, twinleaf and the yellow-wood. The name Golden Seal, derived from its yellow color and seal-like scars on the root, has been, however, generally adopted. Description of the Plant. It is a perennial plant and the thick yellow rootstock sends up an erect, hairy stem about a foot in height, around the base of which are two or three yellowish scales. The stems, as they emerge from the ground, are bent over, the tops still remaining underground, and sometimes the stems show some distance above the surface before the tops are brought out from the soil. The yellow color of the roots and scales extends partly up the stem so far as it is covered by soil, while the portion of the stem above the ground has a purplish color. Golden seal has only two leaves (rarely three), the stem bearing these seeming to fork at the top, one branch supporting a large leaf and the other a smaller one and a flower. Occasionally there is a third leaf, much smaller than the other two and stemless. The leaves are prominently veined on the lower surface, and are palmately 5 to 9 lobed, the lobes broad, acute, sharply and unequally toothed. The leaves are only partially developed at flowering time and are very much wrinkled, but they continue to expand until they are from 6 to 8 inches in diameter, becoming thinner in texture and smoother. The upper leaf subtends or encloses the flower bud. Early in spring, about April or May, the flower appears, but few ever see it as it lasts only five or six days. It is greenish-white, less than half an inch in diameter, and has no petals, but instead three small petal-like sepals, which fall away as soon as the flower expands, leaving only the stamens--as many as 40 or 50--in the center of which are about a dozen pistils, which finally develop into a round, fleshy, berrylike head. The fruit ripens in July or August, turning a bright red and resembling a large raspberry, whence the common name ground raspberry, is derived. Each fruit contains from 10 to 20 small, black, shining, hard seeds. If the season has been moist, the plant sometimes persists to the beginning of winter, but if it has been a dry season it dies soon after the fruit is ripe, so that by the end of September no trace of the plant remains above the ground. In a patch of Golden Seal there are always many sterile stems, simple and erect, bearing a solitary leaf at the apex but no flower. Mr. Homer Bowers, of Montgomery county, Ind., who propagated Golden Seal from the seed for the purpose of studying its germination and growth, states that the plant grown from naturally sown seed often escapes observation during the first year of its existence owing to the fact that in this entire period nothing but two round seed leaves are produced and at this stage the plant does not look materially different from other young seedings. During its second year from seed one basal leaf is sent up, followed in the third year by another smaller leaf and the flower. Description of the Rhizome, or Rootstock. The rhizome (rootstock) and rootlets of Golden Seal, or hydrastis, as it is also known in the drug trade, are the parts employed in medicine. The full-grown rhizome, when fresh, is of a bright yellow color, both internally and externally, about 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 inches in length, and from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch in thickness. Fibrous yellow rootlets are produced from the sides of the rhizome. The fresh rhizome contains a large amount of yellow juice, and gives off a rank, nauseating odor. When dry the rhizome measures from one to two inches in length and from one-eighth to one-third of an inch in diameter. It is crooked, knotty, wrinkled, of a dull brown color outside, and breaks with a clean, short, resinous fracture, showing a lemon-yellow color if the root is not old. If the dried root is kept for a long time it will be greenish-yellow or brown internally, and becomes inferior in quality. On the upper surface of the rhizome are several depressions, left by former annual stems, which resemble the imprint of a seal; hence the name Golden Seal. The fibrous rootlets become very wiry and brittle in drying, break off readily and leaving only small protuberances, so that the root as found in commerce is sometimes almost bare. The dried rhizome has also a peculiar, somewhat narcotic, disagreeable odor, but not so pronounced as in the fresh material; an exceedingly bitter taste; and a persistent acridity which causes an abundant flow of saliva when the rhizome is chewed. Collection and Preparation of the Root. The root should be collected in autumn after the plants have matured. Spring-dug root shrinks far more in drying and always commands a lower price than the fall-dug root. After the roots are removed from the earth they should be carefully freed from soil and all foreign particles. They should then be sorted and small, undeveloped roots and broken pieces may be laid aside for replanting. After the roots have been cleaned and sorted they are ready to be dried or cured. Great care and judgment are necessary in drying the roots. It is absolutely necessary that they should be perfectly dry before packing and storing, as the presence of moisture induces the development of molds and mildews, and of course renders them worthless. The roots are dried by the exposure to the air, being spread out in thin layers on drying frames or upon a large, clean, dry floor. They should be turned several times during the day, repeating this day after day until the roots are thoroughly dried. If dried out of doors they should be placed under cover upon indication of rain and at night so that they may not be injured by dew. After the roots are thoroughly dried they may be packed as tightly as possible in dry sacks or barrels and they are then ready for shipment. Diminution of Supply. Altho, perhaps, in some secluded localities Golden Seal may still be found rather abundantly, the supply is rapidly diminishing and there is a growing scarcity of the plant thruout its range. With the advance of civilization and increase in population came a growing demand for many of our native medicinal plants and a corresponding decrease in the sources of supply. As the rich forest lands of the Ohio valley and elsewhere were required for the needs of the early settlers they were cleared of timber and cultivated, and the Golden Seal, deprived of the shelter and protection necessary to its existence, gradually disappeared, as it will not thrive on land that is cultivated. Where it was not destroyed in this manner the root diggers, diligently plying their vocation, did their share toward exterminating this useful little plant, which they collected regardless of the season, either before the plants had made much growth in the spring or before the seeds had matured and been disseminated, thus destroying all means of propagation. The demand for the root appears to be increasing, and the time seems to be not far distant when this plant will have become practically exterminated, so far as the drug supply is concerned. The cultivation of golden seal seems now to have become a necessity in order to meet the demand and save the plant from extinction. Prior to 1900 there seemed to be no one, so far as the Department of Agriculture could ascertain, who had ever attempted the cultivation of golden seal for the market. From that time on, many inquiries were directed to the Department by persons who were quick to note the upward tendency of prices for golden seal and there are now several growers in different parts of the country who have undertaken the cultivation of golden seal on a commercial scale. Cultivation. The United States Department of Agriculture has been carrying on experiments in the cultivation of Golden Seal on a small scale at Washington, D. C., since the spring of 1899, in the hope that methods might be worked out according to which this valuable wild drug plant could be grown on a commercial scale. In these experiments the aim has been to imitate the natural conditions of growth as closely as possible. The results that have thus far been obtained, while not as complete in some respects as would be desirable, seem to justify the conclusion that Golden Seal can be successfully cultivated. The methods of operation described apply to the conditions at Washington, and the treatment may need to be somewhat modified under other conditions of soil and climate. Necessary Soil Conditions. The soil conditions should imitate as closely as possible those seen in thrifty deciduous forest. The soil should contain an ample supply of humus, well worked into the ground, to secure the lightness and moisture-retaining property of forest soils. The best form of humus is probably leaf mold, but good results may be obtained by mulching in the autumn or early winter with leaves, straw, stable manure, or similar materials. After the soil has been prepared and planted, it is well to add a mulch in the fall as a partial protection to the roots during the winter, and the decay of this material adds to the value of the soil by the time the plants appear in the spring. The forest conditions are thus imitated by the annual addition of vegetable matter to the soil, which by its gradual decay accumulates an increasing depth of a soil rich in materials adapted to the feeding of the plants and to the preservation of proper physical conditions. The growth of the weeds is also hindered to a considerable extent. If sufficient attention is given to the presence of this mulch, the nature of the underlying soil is of less importance than otherwise. In the case of clay the thorough incorporation of a large amount of decayed vegetable matter tends to give lightness to the otherwise heavy soil, facilitating aeration and drainage. Since the roots of the Golden Seal do not grow well in a wet soil, thorough drainage is necessary. A lighter, sandy soil is improved by the addition of humus, since its capacity to hold moisture is thereby increased and the degree of fertility is improved. The looser the soil, the easier it is to remove the roots in digging without breaking or injuring them. Before planting, the soil should be thoroughly prepared to a depth of at least 6 or 8 inches, so as to secure good aeration and drainage. The good tilth thus secured will be in a degree preserved by the continued addition of the mulch. A further advantage of a careful preparation is seen in a decrease in the amount of cultivation required later. Artificial Shade. Since the Golden Seal grows naturally in the woods, it must be protected from the full light of the sun by artificial shade. That used in connection with the experiments of the Department was made of ordinary pine plastering lath, nailed to a suitable frame elevated on posts. The posts were of cedar 8 1/2 feet long, set 2 1/2 feet in the ground in rows 11 feet apart, and 16 feet distance from each other in the rows. Supports 2 by 4 inches were set on cedar blocks 2 feet long sunk below the soil surface in the middle of the 16-foot spaces. Pine pieces 2 by 4 inches were nailed edgewise to the tops of the posts and supports. The posts were notched to receive the 2 by 4-inch sticks. Pieces 2 by 4 inches were nailed across these at intervals of 4 feet. The laths were nailed to these, leaving spaces about an inch wide. This shade has been found to be satisfactory, as it is high enough above the ground to allow such work as is necessary in preparing and cultivating the land. If the lathing is extended 2 or 3 feet beyond the posts on the sunny sides, injury from the sun's rays at the edges of the area will be prevented. The sides may be protected by portable board walls about 2 feet high set around the edges. Protection from injury by winds when the tops are large may be thus secured. Too much dampness should be guarded against in the use of the board sides, since conditions might be developed favorable to the damping off fungus and to aphides during the hot, rainy periods. Trees may be used for shade, but this is in some ways to be regarded as unsatisfactory. When the shade produced is of the right density, the use of the moisture and raw food materials of the soil by the trees is an undesirable feature. Attention Required. The cultivation of Golden Seal is simple. Having secured a deep, loose soil, rich in humus, renewed annually by the application of a new mulch, the removal of weeds is the chief care. The soil, if properly prepared, will tend to maintain itself in good condition. The manner of treatment is very similar to that required by Ginseng, which is also a plant of moist woods. If the ground is thoroughly prepared, beds are not absolutely necessary. The plants may be grown in rows 1 foot apart and 6 inches apart in the rows. Beds may be thought by some to be more convenient, enabling the grower to remove the weeds and collect the seed more readily. If beds are used, they may be made from 4 to 8 feet wide, running the entire length of the shade, with walks from 18 inches to 2 feet wide between. Boards 6 or 8 inches wide are set up around the sides of the beds, being held in place by stakes driven on each side of the board in the center and at the ends. These beds are filled with prepared soil, and the plants are set 8 inches apart each way. Methods of Propagation. There are three possible ways of propagating the plant: (1) by seed; (2) by division of the rhizomes; (3) by means of small plants formed on the stronger fibrous roots. Thus far no success has been attained in growing Golden Seal from the seed. The second and third methods have given better results. Experiments With Seeds. Seeds just after ripening were planted in sandy soil mixed with well rotted stable manure and mulched lightly with manure. Other lots were kept over winter in a dry condition and planted in the spring in potting soil in a greenhouse. No seedlings have appeared, but a long rest period may be demanded and the seed may yet germinate. Experiments With Divided Rhizomes. In the spring of 1902, 40 plants were secured and planted under a shade of temporary character, but the season was too far advanced to permit of much growth during that year. In 1903, proper shade was supplied, all other conditions were better, and the plants made a good growth. The crop was dug about the middle of November 1903; the roots were weighed and divided. They were again planted and in May, 1904, there were found to be 150 strong plants and a few smaller ones as a result of this division, an increase of 275 per cent. This method of propagation seems to be the most important and the other two of second importance. The processes are simple and no skill is needed. The plant dies down in late summer and the stem decays, leaving a scar in its place on the rhizome. Two or more buds are formed on the sides of the rhizome and these accumulate energy for growth the following spring. If the root is cut in as many pieces as there are buds, giving each plant a portion of the rhizome, some fibrous roots, and one or more buds, the number of the plants can be doubled. The roots are planted and mulched and the process is complete. The rains pack the soil around the roots and they are ready to grow when spring comes. The process may be repeated every year and the number of roots increased indefinitely. The stronger fibrous roots of the larger plants dug in the autumn of 1903 were formed from a few inches to a foot from the rhizome. Some were about half an inch long, but the majority of them were smaller. The larger ones need no special treatment and may be planted with the main crop. The smaller ones should be planted in boxes or beds of well prepared soil, at a distance of about 3 inches apart, mulched with a thin coating of leaf mold or similar material, and grown in shade until large enough to transplant to the shelter with the larger plants. They will probably require at least three years to reach their full development. If they could be left undisturbed in the beds where they are formed they would receive nourishment from the older rhizomes and perhaps grow faster, but it is probably best to divide the older roots every year where propagation alone is desired, planting the smaller roots and the plants made by division of the rhizomes. The larger roots are marketed to more advantage than the smaller ones, so it is best to have the surplus consist of the larger roots. The frequent working of the soil allowed by this treatment will keep it in better condition than if left undisturbed for a longer period. Yield of Roots. The yield from the small plant grown by the Department was 4 pounds of green roots to an eighth of a square rod of soil, or 5,120 pounds per acre. This, when dried, would give about 1,500 pounds of marketable roots. The conditions were not very good, the shade being too close to the plants and the plants being set too far apart. The yield will probably be larger with the shade now in use. The 150 roots obtained by dividing the above crop now occupy less than one-fourth of a square rod and are set in rows one foot apart and 6 inches apart in the rows. Time Necessary to Mature Crop. The number of years necessary to produce the largest crop has not been definitely determined, but the roots begin to decay after the fourth year and the central and largest part of the root decays at the oldest scar, leaving two or more plants in place of the old one. No advantage can be gained by growing the plants more than three years and probably very little by growing them more than two years. For propagation alone, one year will give good results, while for maintaining a constant area and producing a crop, two or three years, depending upon the growth made, will give a good crop of large, marketable roots. Market Conditions. Golden Seal is a root the price of which has fluctuated widely, because of the alternate oversupply and scarcity, manipulation of the market, lack of demand, or other influences. High prices will cause the diggers to gather the root in abundance, thus overstocking the market, which the next season results in lower prices, at which diggers refuse to collect the root, thus again causing a shortage in the supply. Lack of demand usually brings about a shrinkage in price, even tho the supply is light, while an active demand will cause prices to advance in spite of a plentiful supply. The arrival of spring dug root has a weakening effect on the market, altho the fall dug root is always preferred. For the past few years, however, high prices have been steadily maintained and there appears to be but one cause for this and that is, as already pointed out, that the forests no longer yield unlimited quantities of this valuable root, as in former years, and the scant supply that can be had is inadequate to meet the constantly increasing demand. According to the market reports contained in the Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter, the year 1904 opened with a quotation of 74 to 75 cents, will soon advance (in one week early in February) from 76 cents to 95 cents. A still further advance occurred about the end of February, when the price went up from $1.00 to $1.25 per pound. In March the market was almost destitute of supplies, but lack of interest brought the price down to $1.10. In May the price again advanced to $1.25 and it was stated that the local supplies were being held by a small number of dealers, altho it was believed that together they held not more than 1,000 pounds. About June 1st the arrival of spring dug roots caused the market to sag, prices ranging from $1.10 to $1.18 during that month and in July from 90 cents to $1.10. In August the lowest price was $1.15 and the highest $1.50, no discrimination being made between the fall dug and the spring dug roots. From September 1st to October 15th, 1904, the price of Golden Seal varied but little, $1.35 being the lowest and $1.40 the highest quotation. No supplies worth mentioning can be obtained in the West; the stock in New York is short and the demand, especially for export, is increasing. It is impossible to ascertain the exact annual consumption of Golden Seal root, but the estimates furnished by reliable dealers place these figures at from 200,000 to 300,000 pounds annually, about one-tenth of which is probably used for export. It will be observed that the price of this article is very sensitive to market conditions and it seems probable that the point of overproduction would be easily reached if a large number of Golden Seal growers were to meet with success in growing large areas of this drug. By Alice Henkel, Assistant, and G. Fred Flugh, Scientific Assistant, Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations. U. S. Department of Agriculture. CHAPTER XIX. GROWERS' LETTERS. Considerable has been said the past few years concerning Hydrastis (Golden Seal) and I do not wish to enter on a long article describing this plant, but will make the facts brief and narrate some of my experiences with the plant under cultivation. The scientific name is Hydrastis Candensis, the common name Golden Seal, yellow root, puccoon root, Indian tumeric, etc., according to the section in which it is found. It is a perennial plant with an annual stem same as Ginseng, and appears above ground in the spring at the same time and manner. The stalk coming thru the ground bent and leaves folded. It has from one to three palmately five to nine lobed leaves, uneven and sharply toothed. The fruit or seed grows from the base of one of these leaves. Flower is first whitish green producing the fruit red and resembling a strawberry, maturing last of July and the first of August. The berry contains from fifteen to twenty small oval black shinny seeds. Only a portion of the stalks ever bear seed. From the middle to the last of September the stalks die down and when winter comes on the hydrastis bed appears the same as a Ginseng bed. The root stalk or rhizome is thick, rough covered with rounded indentations or eyes, dark yellow in color and having many long threadlike bright yellow fibres branching in all directions. It has one and sometimes as many as four buds which will produce the next season's stalks. Besides these there are many latent buds and little plantlets on the runners of fibrous roots. The root and all of its fibres is the part used in medicine. I presume it will be difficult to fix a date when this plant was first used in medicine. But it is known that the Indians used it in healing diseases and in preparing stains and paints when first observed by the white man. Dr. Rafinesque first makes mention of it in a medical work in 1828 and the elective physicians adopted it in their practice in 1847. The Pharmacopoeia of the U. S. in 1860 made Hydrastis an official drug and described the manufacture of different preparations. It has since gained in favor and in extent of application until at present it is almost the specific in the treatment of certain catarrhal conditions. Thousands of pounds being used by the physicians in different parts of the world variously estimated from 200,000 to 300,000 pounds annually, more extensively, as you see, than Ginseng. The price has advanced as given by the Drug Reporter, from 1894 of 18 to 23 cents a pound, to 1903, of 52 to 75 cents a pound, since 1903 to 1906 it has advanced to $1.10 to $1.30 a pound. The figures representing the highest and lowest quotations of those years. The price of the plant has advanced first because investigation has proven the value of the plant as a drug in the healing art increasing its consumption, second the consumption of and destruction of its habitat is limiting its supply. It is used in all countries, but not found in all countries in its wild state. The United States supplies the majority of the root. Its cultivation is very promising and profitable because only very few have entered the industry yet, the wild supply is becoming exhausted, the drug trade demands it and its consumption depends upon a sound demand. There is a promising opportunity in this industry and when I am speaking I am not offering inducements to get the rich quick individual, but to the careful, painstaking, plodding individual who is willing to give at least some labor for a handsome compensation. I have been one of the pioneers to begin the investigation and cultivation of this plant, and shall tell some of my experience in handling the plants. [Illustration: Golden Seal in an Upland Grove.] I procured four years ago several pounds of green Hydrastis root from a digger and set them out in three different patches. One in the open garden, one in an inclosure shaded in the garden, and one bed in a grove. I had the beds made the same as instructions had been given me for making beds for Ginseng. Ground loose and mellow, I selected only roots with buds formed, and set an inch under ground and six inches apart. This was in June. All the plants came up and all made a good growth except those in the open, the leaves on these remained small and pinched about two to three inches from the ground. In digging them I found that they had thrown out a number of fibrous roots. In the fall I procured and set several thousand roots in the woods. The next fall I set many more, but this time I cut the roots into three or four pieces and planted. All came the next summer, some not appearing above ground until June. I have had no success in planting seeds, so do not use this means of raising the plants. The method I use now is to cut the roots across so a latent bud will be on one piece, all small pieces broken and the fibers for some of these grow a plant. After preparing the beds loose I lay little trenches across and drop the pieces in these every two or three inches apart, then cover about an inch with loose dirt, then leaves and mulch. The best time I have found to plant is in September, the earlier the better, for the buds then form before freezing up and are ready to come in the spring early. They grow larger and thriftier if well rotted manure is in the ground and this does not interfere with the quality of the root. The largest roots I have seen grew in a hog lot supplied with hog manure. In three or four years I dig the roots, using a manure fork, the largest ones I wash and dry; the smaller ones and pieces I use for planting. I am arranging a barrel shaped affair closed at the ends and covered around with wire to wash the roots. The method is to put a rod thru with handles on ends and rest on grooves on posts immersed half way of barrel in running water and revolve. In this way I believe the roots can be washed readily by splashing and falling in the water, and tons of the roots easily handled and washed clean with little help. I have dried them by spreading on racks to dry in the sun. In bright sun it requires two or three days. As they wilt, I place on paper in order to save the fibres that break off. When making a business of growing these roots and having good, fresh roots in considerable quantity, a better price can be commanded by dealing direct with the drug mill. A great many of the roots when dug will weigh one ounce or more and the roots lose in weight about the same as drying Ginseng. Dr. L. C. Ingram, Wabasha County, Minn. * * * There has never been a time in the history of this country when the cultivation of certain medicinal plants, as Golden Seal, Ginseng, Seneca and others appealed so much to those interested in such things as the present. Many of these plants have hitherto been found growing wild in our woods and fields, and along our road sides and waste places, and have usually been gathered in an immature state and out of season, washed and cured in a slovenly manner and bartered at country stores for coffee and calico and other commodities. In this way the drugs and drug trade of the country have been supplied. I think it is very evident to the casual observer that this manner of supply is nearing its close finally and forever. The merchant who handles the stock may not know as yet the great and growing scarcity of almost all our medicinal plants. But the digger who has stood at the first end of the drug trade, in touch with the natural supply, knows that the fountains are dried up, in great measure, and that the streams of the trade must necessarily soon cease to flow or be supplied by artificial means. In most cases medicinal plants grow naturally in the best soils, the sandy, loamy, moist north hill sides, the rich, black coves at the heads of our small streams and in the rich alluvial bottoms along our larger creeks and small rivers. They will not grow in wet lands or on south hill sides. This should be remembered by the would-be culturist and the natural whims of the plant attended to, else failure and disappointment are sure. What I have said is peculiarly the case with Golden Seal, the yellow root of our locality, the ground raspberry of another, the yellow puccoon of another and probably bearing other local names in other localities. The natural habitat of Golden Seal has been cleared up for farming or grazing purposes, while the keen eyed "sanger" has ferreted out every nook and corner adapted to the growth of this plant and then ruthlessly dug it, little and big, old and young, until today it is a very scarce article. The Indians regarded Golden Seal as a sure remedy for sore and inflamed eyes, sore mouths, old sores, wounds, etc., and first taught the whites its use as a remedy. The pioneers used it as teas, washes and salves years before it became known to the medical fraternity. It did not become an article of commerce in any way until about the year 1847, and then it was so plentiful and so little used that the trade was supplied at 3 cents per pound for the dried root. I dug it myself, when a boy, as late as 1868, and received 5 cents per pound for the dried root, in trade, at a country store. I found it plentiful in patches in open woods where the ground was rich and favored the growth of paw paw, dogwood, walnut, elm, sugar maple, etc. It grew best in land well drained and full of leaf mold. Remember this, ye planters. Well, the demand has rapidly increased, and the supply, from the causes afore mentioned, has more rapidly decreased, until the price has risen from 3 cents to $1.50 per pound. Golden Seal was originally found growing in favorable localities from Southern New York west to Minnesota, thence south to Arkansas and east to Georgia and the hill regions of the Carolinas. Ohio, Indiana, West Virginia and Eastern Kentucky have been by far the greatest Golden Seal producing sections. Golden Seal is a perennial plant, the gnarly, knotty root of which is the part used in medicine. These knotty roots send out in every direction many long, slender, bright yellow, fibrous roots. Each root in spring early sends up one to six hairy stems six inches to fifteen or twenty inches in height, each stem supporting at the top one, or if a seed yielding plant, two large leaves, in shape somewhat resembling the leaf of the sugar maple, but thicker and more leathery. At the base of each stem are two or three scale like leaves starting from the root, around the stem and extending to the surface of the ground. These scales are yellow while the leaf stems are somewhat purplish in color. The seed bearing stocks fork near the top of the plant, each stem supporting a leaf, the smaller leaf enclosing a flower bud at the base and at the top of the leaf stem. The plants that are not of seed bearing age and size do not fork and have but one leaf. The flowers are greenish, about an inch in diameter and open, here, about the first of May. Then continue open about five days when the petals fall and the development of the seed berry begins. This berry ripens in July. When ripe it is red in color and resembles a large raspberry and contains about 20 to 30 small, round, black, shiny, hard seeds. These seeds, if stratified at once and kept in moist, sandy loam, will begin to open by the first of February, each seed showing a beautiful, bright, shiny, golden bud. The seeds should be planted very early. When it comes up the young plant has two leaves and does not develop any further leaf or stem growth during the first summer. The first two leaves do not look at all like those that follow. So, be careful or you will destroy your plants for weeds. Plants may be readily propagated by cutting up the roots into pieces, say 1/4-inch long and placing these root cuttings in boxes of loamy sand in the autumn. By spring each root cutting will have developed a fine bud and be ready for transplanting, which should be done as early as possible. The plant also propagates itself by sending up suckers from the fibrous roots. [Illustration: Locust Grove Seal Garden.] As to culture, I would say, follow nature. Do not plow and hoe and rake and make a bed as for onions. Just simply select a piece of virgin soil, if possible, and make rows, say one foot apart and set the plants about three or four inches apart in the rows. All the culture needful is to pull out the weeds, and, if the trees in the patch be not sufficient to furnish a good leaf mulch in the fall, attend to this by mulching with a good coat of forest leaves. My Golden Seal garden is in a locust grove that is rapidly growing into posts, so, you see, I am getting two very profitable crops off the same land at the same time. The plants should grow in a bed of this kind until it becomes full of roots, which will require three to five years. It is all the better if they are allowed to grow longer. The whole patch should be dug in the fall when the tops die down. The large roots should be carefully washed and cleansed of all foreign roots and fibers and dried on clean cloths in the shade, when it is ready for market and should be shipped in clean, new bags to some reliable dealer in the larger cities. There are plenty of them and I would advise that you write to several of them, telling them just what you have before you ship. I know from actual experience that good money may be made by the right party in the culture of Golden Seal. If a young man would start a garden of medicinal plants and attend to it at odd times, studying the nature of the plants and carefully save all seeds and add them to his stock, in a few years he would have a garden with a large sum of money. I have estimated an acre of Golden Seal at full maturity and as thick on the ground as it should be grown to be worth $4,840, or one dollar per square yard. It will not take a very great while to fill an acre with plants. Besides, if the land is planted in locust trees it is yielding two crops of wonderful value at the same time. One young man from Virginia says: "I have a piece of new ground just cleared up which I think would be just the thing, and then I could set out short stem red cherries to shade and cover the ground. Please let me hear from you at once." Well, if this piece of ground is on the right side of the hill, that is, the north or northeast or west slope, and is rich, loose and loamy, full of leaf mold and naturally well drained, it is all right for Golden Seal, but would it suit cherries? Cherries might do very well for shade, but I would prefer catalpa or locust or some other quick growing timber tree to any sort of fruit tree. One reason is that in gathering the fruit and in caring for the trees I think the Golden Seal would be trampled upon and injured, also the ground would be trampled and compacted and thus rendered unsuitable for this plant. The ground in which Golden Seal grows should be kept in its "new state" as much as possible. However, my Virginia friend may succeed well with his cherries and Seal. He must keep up the primitive condition of the soil and keep out weeds and grass. Another question, "How long will it take it to mature?" As to its "maturity," it may be dug, cleansed, dried and marketed at any time and in any stage of its growth. But I think that a setting of Golden Seal should be dug in the fall three or four years after planting; the large roots washed and cleansed and made ready for market, while the smaller roots should be used for resetting the bed. You will have enough small roots to set a patch ten or twelve times the size of the one you dig, as each root set will in three or four years produce ten to fifteen good plants besides yielding a lot of seed. "How much will it cost to plant one-eighth of an acre?" One-eighth of an acre contains twenty square rods, and to set one square rod, in rows eighteen inches apart would take 363 plants, and twenty square rods would take 20 times 363 plants, or 7,260 plants, which at $10.00 per thousand, would cost $72.60. But I would advise the beginner to "make haste slowly" in trying new things. A thing may be all right and very profitable if we understand it and give it proper culture, while it is very easy to make sad failure by over doing a good thing. So let the beginner procure a thousand or so plants and start his garden on a small scale, and increase his plantation from his own seed bed as his knowledge of the plant and its culture increases. A very large garden may be set in a few years from 1,000 plants. "Should the seed be sown broadcast?" To be successful with the seed requires great patience and pains. I make a large flat brush heap and burn it off in the fall. I then dig up the ground to the depth of three or four inches and place boards edgewise around this bed, letting them down into the ground two or three inches. These boards are to keep out mice and to prevent washing. I then sow the seeds in little trenches made with a hoe handle about six inches apart and pretty thick in the trenches and smooth over and tramp solid. Then sow a few handfuls of bone dust mulched with forest leaves and cover with brush to keep the leaves from blowing away. You are done now until spring. In the early spring, after freezing weather is over, carefully remove the brush and the mulch of leaves. Remember this must be done early as the plant wants to come up early. Watch for your young plants and carefully pull up every weed as soon as it shows itself. Mulch again in the fall and remove as before the next spring. Keep down weeds as before, and by fall you will have a fine lot of No. 1 two-year-old plants, which may be transplanted to the garden at once or early the next spring. I should have stated that Golden Seal seed should not be allowed to dry after gathering. They should be placed in layers of sand in a box and kept moist until planting time. They begin to germinate very early, and if you delay planting until spring you are nearly sure to lose them. As to the "profits," I want it distinctly understood that I do not think that every one who starts a bed or patch of Golden Seal will be a millionaire in a few years. But I do think, and in fact I know, that considering the land in cultivation, the time and expense of its culture, it is one of the most profitable crops that can be grown in this latitude. Lee S. Dick, Wayne County, W. Va. CHAPTER XX. GOLDEN SEAL--GOVERNMENT DESCRIPTION, ETC. The following is from a bulletin issued by the U. S. Department of Agriculture--Bureau of Plant Industry--and edited by Alice Henkel: Hydrastis Canadensis L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Hydrastis. Other Common Names--Yellowroot, yellow puccoon, orange-root, yellow Indian-paint, turmeric-root, Indian turmeric, Ohio curcuma, ground raspberry, eye-root, eye-balm, yellow-eye, jaundice-root, Indian-dye. Habitat and Range--This native forest plant occurs in patches in high, open woods, and usually on hill sides or bluffs affording natural drainage, from southern New York to Minnesota and western Ontario, south to Georgia and Missouri. Golden Seal is now becoming scarce thruout its range. Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky and West Virginia have been the greatest Golden Seal producing states. [Illustration: Golden Seal (Hydrastis Canadensis) Flowering Plant and Fruit.] Description of Plant--Golden Seal is a perennial plant belonging to the same family as the buttercup, namely the crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae.) It has a thick yellow rootstock, which sends up an erect hairy stem about 1 foot in height, surrounded at the base by 2 or 3 yellowish scales. The yellow color of the roots and scales extends up the stem so far as it is covered by soil, while the portion of the stem above ground has a purplish color. The stem, which has only two leaves, seems to fork at the top, one branch bearing a large leaf and the other a smaller one and a flower. A third leaf, which is much smaller than the other two and stemless, is occasionally produced. The leaves are palmately 5 to 9 lobed, the lobes broad, acute, sharply and unequally toothed; they are prominently veined on the lower surface and at flowering time, when they are very much wrinkled, they are only partially developed, but they continue to expand until they are from 6 to 8 inches in diameter becoming thinner in texture and smoother. The upper leaf subtends or incloses the flower bud. The greenish white flower appears about April or May, but it is of short duration, lasting only five or six days. It is less than half an inch in diameter, and, instead of petals, has three small petal-like sepals, which fall away as soon as the flower expands, leaving only the numerous stamens (as many as 40 or 50), in the center of which are about a dozen pistils, which finally develop into a round fleshy, berry-like head which ripens in July or August. The fruit when ripe turns a bright red and resembles a large raspberry, whence the common name "ground-raspberry" is derived. It contains from 10 to 20 small black, shining, hard seeds. [Illustration: Golden Seal Rootstock.] Description of Rootstock--The fresh rootstock of Golden Seal, which has a rank, nauseating odor, is bright yellow, both internally and externally, with fibrous yellow rootlets produced from the sides. It is from 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 inches in length, from 1/4 to 3/4 of an inch in thickness, and contains a large amount of yellow juice. In the dried state the rootstock is crooked, knotty and wrinkled, from 1 to 2 inches in length, and from one-eighth to one-third of an inch in diameter. It is a dull brown color on the outside and breaks with a clean, short, resinous fracture, showing a lemon-yellow color inside. After the rootstock has been kept for some time it will become greenish yellow or brown internally and its quality impaired. The cup-like depressions or stem scars on the upper surface of the rootstock resemble the imprint of a seal, whence the most popular name of the plant, golden seal, is derived. The rootstock as found in commerce is almost bare, the fibrous rootlets, which in drying become very wiry and brittle, breaking off readily and leaving only small protuberances. The odor of the dried rootstock, while not so pronounced as in the fresh material, is peculiar, narcotic and disagreeable. The taste is exceedingly bitter, and when the rootstock is chewed there is a persistent acridity, which causes an abundant flow of saliva. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root should be collected in autumn after the seeds have ripened, freed from soil, and carefully dried. After a dry season Golden Seal dies down soon after the fruit is mature, so that it often happens that by the end of September not a trace of the plant remains above ground; but if the season has been moist, the plant sometimes persists to the beginning of winter. The price of Golden Seal ranges from $1 to $1.50 a pound. Golden Seal, which is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is a useful drug in digestive disorders and in certain catarrhal affections of the mucous membranes, in the latter instance being administered both internally and locally. Cultivation--Once so abundant in certain parts of the country, especially in the Ohio Valley, Golden Seal is now becoming scarce thruout its range, and in consequence of the increased demand for the root, both at home and abroad, its cultivation must sooner or later be more generally undertaken in order to satisfy the needs of medicine. In some parts of the country the cultivation of Golden Seal is already under way. The first thing to be considered in growing this plant is to furnish it, as nearly as possible, the conditions to which it has been accustomed in its native forest home. This calls for a well-drained soil, rich in humus, and partially shaded. Golden Seal stands transplanting well, and the easiest way to propagate it is to bring the plants in from the forest and transplant them to a properly prepared location, or to collect the rootstocks and to cut them into as many pieces as there are buds, planting these pieces in a deep, loose, well-prepared soil, and mulching, adding new mulch each year to renew the humus. With such a soil the cultivation of Golden Seal is simple and it will be necessary chiefly to keep down the weeds. The plants may be grown in rows 1 foot apart and 6 inches apart in the row, or they may be grown in beds 4 to 8 feet wide, with walks between. Artificial shade will be necessary and this is supplied by the erection of lath sheds. The time required to obtain a marketable crop is from two to three years. CHAPTER XXI. COHOSH--BLACK AND BLUE. Black Cohosh. Cimicifuga Racemosa (L.) Nutt. Synonym--Actaea Racemosa L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Cimicifuga. Other Common Names--Black snakeroot, bugbane, bugwort, rattlesnakeroot, rattleroot, rattleweed, rattletop, richweed, squawroot. Habitat and Range--Altho preferring the shade of rich woods, black cohosh will grow occasionally in sunny situations in fence corners and woodland pastures. It is most abundant in the Ohio Valley, but it occurs from Maine to Wisconsin, south along the Allegheny Mountains to Georgia and westward to Missouri. Description of Plant--Rising to a height of 3 to 8 feet, the showy, delicate-flowered spikes of the Black Cohosh tower above most of the other woodland flowers, making it a conspicuous plant in the woods and one that can be easily recognized. [Illustration: Black Cohosh (Cimicifuga Racemosa) Leaves, Flowering Spikes and Rootstock.] Black Cohosh is an indigenous perennial plant belonging to the same family as the Golden Seal, namely, the crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae). The tall stem, sometimes 8 feet in height, is rather slender and leafy, the leaves consisting of three leaflets, which are again divided into threes. The leaflets are about 2 inches long, ovate, sharp pointed at the apex, thin and smooth, variously lobed and the margins sharply toothed. The graceful, spikelike terminal cluster of flowers, which is produced from June to August, is from 6 inches to 2 feet in length. Attractive as these flower clusters are to the eye, they generally do not prove attractive very long to those who may gather them for their beauty, since the flowers emit an offensive odor, which account for some of the common names applied to this plant, namely, bugbane and bugwort, it having been thought that this odor was efficacious in driving away bugs. The flowers do not all open at one time and thus there may be seen buds, blossoms, and seed pods on one spike. The buds are white and globular and as they expand in flower there is practically nothing to the flower but very numerous white stamens and the pistil, but the stamens spread out around the pistil in such a manner as to give to the spike a somewhat feathery or fluffy appearance which is very attractive. The seed pods are dry, thick and leathery, ribbed, and about one-fourth of an inch long, with a small beak at the end. The smooth brown seeds are enclosed within the pods in two rows. Any one going thru the woods in winter may find the seed pods, full of seeds, still clinging to the dry, dead stalk, and the rattling of the seeds in the pods as the wind passes over them has given rise to the common names rattle-snakeroot (not "rattlesnake"-root), rattleweed, rattletop and rattleroot. Description of Rootstock--The rootstock is large, horizontal and knotty or rough and irregular in appearance. The upper surface of the rootstock is covered with numerous round scars and stumps, the remains of former leaf stems, and on the fresh rootstocks may be seen the young, pinkish white buds which are to furnish the next season's growth. From the lower part of the rootstock long, fleshy roots arc produced. The fresh rootstock is very dark reddish brown on the outside, white within, showing a large central pith from which radiate rays of a woody texture, and on breaking the larger roots also the woody rays will be seen in the form of a cross. On drying, the rootstock becomes hard and turns much darker, both internally and externally, but the peculiar cross formation of the woody rays in both rootstock and roots, being lighter in color, is plainly seen without the aid of a magnifying glass. The roots in drying become wiry and brittle and break off very readily. Black cohosh has a heavy odor and a bitter, acrid taste. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root should be collected after the fruit has ripened, usually in September. The price ranges from 2 to 3 cents a pound. The Indians had long regarded black cohosh as a valuable medicinal plant, not only for the treatment of snake bites, but it was also a very popular remedy among their women, and it is today considered of value as an alterative, emmenagogue, and sedative, and is recognized as official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. Blue Cohosh. Caulophyllum Thalictroides (L.) Michx. Other Common Names--Caulophyllum, pappoose-root, squawroot, blueberryroot, blue ginseng, yellow ginseng. [Illustration: Blue Cohosh (Caulophyllum Thalictroides).] Habitat and Range--Blue Cohosh is found in the deep rich loam of shady woods from New Brunswick to South Carolina, westward to Nebraska, being abundant especially thruout the Allegheny Mountain region. Description of Plant--This member of the barberry family (Berberidaceae) is a perennial herb, 1 to 3 feet in height, and indigenous to this country. It bears at the top one large, almost stemless leaf, which is triternately compound--that is, the main leaf stem divides into three stems, which again divide into threes, and each division bears three leaflets. Sometimes there is a smaller leaf, but similar to the other, at the base of the flowering branch. The leaflets are thin in texture, oval, oblong, or obovate and 3 to 5 lobed. In the early stage of its growth this plant is covered with a sort of bluish green bloom, but it generally loses this and becomes smooth. The flowers are borne in a small terminal panicle or head, and are small and greenish yellow. They appear from April to May, while the leaf is still small. The globular seeds, which ripen about August, are borne on stout stalks in membranous capsules and resemble dark-blue berries. Description of Rootstock--The thick, crooked rootstock of Blue Cohosh is almost concealed by the mass of matted roots which surrounds it. There are numerous cup-shaped scars and small branches on the upper surface of the rootstock, while the lower surface gives off numerous long, crooked, matted roots. Some of the scars are depressed below the surface of the rootstock, while others are raised above it. The outside is brownish and the inside tough and woody. Blue Cohosh possesses a slight odor and a sweetish, somewhat bitter and acrid taste. In the powdered state it causes sneezing. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root is dug in the fall. Very often the roots of Golden Seal or twinleaf are found mixed with those of Blue Cohosh. The price of Blue Cohosh root ranges from 2 1/2 to 4 cents a pound. Blue Cohosh, official in the United States Pharmacopoeia for 1890, is used as a demulcent, antispasmodic, emmenagogue and diuretic. CHAPTER XXII. SNAKEROOT--CANADA AND VIRGINIA. Canada Snakeroot. Asarum Canadense L. Other Common Names--Asarum, wild ginger, Indian ginger, Vermont snakeroot, heart-snakeroot, southern snakeroot, black snakeroot, colt's-foot, snakeroot, black snakeweed, broadleaved asarabacca, false colt's-foot, cat's foot, colicroot. Habitat and Range--This inconspicuous little plant frequents rich woods or rich soil along road sides from Canada south to North Carolina and Kansas. Description of Plant--Canada snakeroot is a small, apparently stemless perennial, not more than 6 to 12 inches in height, and belongs to the birthwort family (Aristolochaceae). It usually has but two leaves which are borne on slender, finely hairy stems; they are kidney shaped or heart shaped, thin, dark green above and paler green on the lower surface, strongly veined, and from 4 to 7 inches broad. The solitary bell-shaped flower is of an unassuming dull brown or brownish purple and this modest color, together with its position on the plant, renders it so inconspicuous as to escape the notice of the casual observer. It droops from a short, slender stalk produced between the two leaf stems and is almost hidden under the two leaves, growing so close to the ground that it is sometimes buried beneath old leaves, and sometimes the soil must be removed before the flower can be seen. It is bell shaped, wooly, the inside darker in color than the outside and of a satiny texture. The fruit which follows is in the form of a leathery 6-celled capsule. [Illustration: Canada Snakeroot (Asarum Canadense).] Description of Rootstock--Canada snakeroot has a creeping, yellowish rootstock, slightly jointed, with this rootlets produced from joints which occur about every half inch or so. In the drug trade the rootstock is usually found in pieces a few inches in length and about one-eighth of an inch in diameter. These are four-angled, crooked, brownish and wrinkled on the outside, whitish inside and showing a large central pith, hard and brittle and breaking with a short fracture. The odor is fragrant and the taste spicy and aromatic, and has been said to be intermediate between ginger and serpentaria. Collection, Prices and Uses--The aromatic root of Canada snakeroot is collected in autumn and the price ranges from 10 to 15 cents a pound. It was reported as very scarce in the latter part of the summer of 1906. Canada Snakeroot, which was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1880, is used as an aromatic, diaphoretic and carminative. Serpentaria. (1) Aristolochia serpentaris L. and (2) Aristolochia reticulata Nutt. Pharmacopoeial Name--Serpentaria. [Illustration: Verginia Serpentaria (Aristolochia serpentaris).] Other Common Names--(1) Virginia serpentaria, Virginia snakeroot, serpentary, snakeweed, pelican-flower, snagrel, sangrel, sangree-root; (2) Texas serpentaria, Texas snakeroot, Red River snakeroot. Habitat and Range--Virginia serpentaria is found in rich woods from Connecticut to Michigan and southward, principally along the Alleghenies, and Texas serpentaria occurs in the Southwestern States, growing along river banks from Arkansas to Louisiana. Description of Virginia Serpentaria--About midsummer the queerly shaped flowers of this native perennial are produced. They are very similar to those of the better known "Dutchman's-pipe," another species of this genus, which is quite extensively grown as an ornamental vine for covering porches and trellises. Virginia serpentaria and Texas serpentaria both belong to the birth wort family (Aristolochiaceae). The Virginia serpentaria is nearly erect, the slender, wavy stem sparingly branched near the base, and usually growing to about a foot in height, sometimes, however, even reaching 3 feet. The leaves are thin, ovate, ovate lance shaped or oblong lance shaped, and usually heart shaped at the base; they are about 2 1/2 inches long and about 1 or 1 1/2 inches in width. The flowers are produced from near the base of the plant, similar to its near relative, the Canada snakeroot. They are solitary and terminal, borne on slender, scaly branches, dull brownish purple in color, and of a somewhat leathery texture; the calyx tube is curiously bent or contorted in the shape of the letter S. The fruit is a roundish 6-celled capsule, about half an inch in diameter and containing numerous seeds. Description of Texas Serpentaria--This species has a very wavy stem, with oval, heart-shaped, clasping leaves, which are rather thick and strongly reticulated or marked with a network of veins; hence the specific name reticulata. The entire plant is hairy, with numerous long, coarse hairs. The small, densely hairy purplish flowers are also produced from the base of the plant. Description of Rootstock--Serpentaria has a short rootstock with many thin, branching, fibrous roots. In the dried state it is thin and bent, the short remains of stems showing on the upper surface and the under surface having numerous thin roots about 4 inches in length, all of a dull yellowish brown color, internally white. It has a very agreeable aromatic odor, somewhat like camphor, and the taste is described as warm, bitterish and camphoraceous. The Texas serpentaria has a larger rootstock, with fewer roots less interlaced than the Virginia serpentaria. Collection, Prices and Uses--The roots of serpentaria are collected in autumn. Various other roots are sometimes mixed with serpentaria, but as they are mostly high-priced drugs, such as golden seal, pinkroot, senega and ginseng, their presence in a lot of serpentaria is probably accidental, due simply to proximity of growth of these plants. Abscess-root (Polemonium Reptans L.) is another root with which serpentaria is often adulterated. It is very similar to serpentaria, except that it is nearly white. The price of serpentaria ranges from 35 to 40 cents a pound. Serpentaria is used for its stimulant, tonic, and diaphoretic properties. Both species are official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. CHAPTER XXIII. POKEWEED. Phytolacca Decandra L. a. Synonym--Phytolacca Americana (L). a. Pharmacopoeial Name--Phytolacca. Other Common Names--Poke, pigeon-berry, garget, scoke, pocan, coakum, Virginia poke, inkberry, red inkberry, American nightshade, cancer-jalap, redweed. Habitat and Range--Pokeweed, a common, familiar, native weed, is found in rich, moist soil along fence rows, fields, and uncultivated land from the New England States to Minnesota south to Florida and Texas. Description of Plant--In Europe, where pokeweed has become naturalized from his country, it is regarded as an ornamental garden plant, and, indeed, it is very showy and attractive with its reddish purple stems, rich green foliage, and clusters of white flowers and dark-purple berries. The stout, smooth stems, arising from a very large perennial root, attain a height of from 3 to 9 feet and are erect and branched, green at first, then reddish. If a piece of the stem is examined, the pith will be seen to be divided into disk-shaped parts with hollow spaces between them. The smooth leaves are borne on short stems and are about 5 inches long and 2 to 3 inches wide, ovate or ovate oblong, acute at the apex, and the margins entire. The long-stalked clusters of whitish flowers, which appear from July to September are from 3 to 4 inches in length, the flowers numerous and borne on reddish stems. In about two months the berries will have matured and assumed a rich dark-purple color. These smooth and shining purple berries are globular, flattened at both ends, and contain black seeds embedded in a rich crimson juice. This plant belongs to the pokeweed family (Phytolaccaceae). a. Phytolacca Americana L. by right of priority should be accepted but P. Decandra L. is used in conformity with the Pharmacopoeia. [Illustration: Pokeweed (Phytolacca Decandra), Flowering and Fruiting Branch.] Description of Root--Pokeweed has a very thick, long, fleshy root, conical in shape and branches very much resembling that of horseradish and poisonous. In commerce it usually occurs in transverse or lengthwise slices, the outside a yellowish brown and finely wrinkled lengthwise and thickly encircled with lighter colored ridges. It breaks with a fibrous fracture and is yellowish gray within. The transverse slices show many concentric rings. There is a slight odor and the taste is sweetish and acrid. The root when powdered causes sneezing. [Illustration: Pokeweek Root.] Collection, Prices and Uses--The root of the Pokeweed, which is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is collected in the latter part of autumn, thoroughly cleaned, cut into a transverse or lengthwise slices, and carefully dried. It brings from 2 1/2 to 4 cents a pound. The root is used for its alterative properties in treating various diseases of the skin and blood, and in certain cases in relieving pain and allaying inflammation. It also acts upon the bowels and causes vomiting. The berries when fully matured are also used in medicine. The young and tender shoots of the pokeweed are eaten in spring, like asparagus, but bad results may follow if they are not thoroughly cooked or if they are cut too close to the root. CHAPTER XXIV. MAY-APPLE. Podophyllum Peltatum L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Podophyllum. Other Common Names--Mandrake, wild mandrake, American mandrake, wild lemon, ground-lemon, hog-apple, devil's-apple, Indian apple, raccoon-berry, duck's-foot, umbrella-plant, vegetable calomel. Habitat and Range--The May-apple is an indigenous plant, found in low woods, usually growing in patches, from western Quebec to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. Description of Plant--A patch of May-apple can be distinguished from afar, the smooth, dark-green foliage and close and even stand making it a conspicuous feature of the woodland vegetation. May-apple is a perennial plant, and belongs to the barberry family (Berberidaceae.) It is erect and grows about 1 foot in height. The leaves are only two in number, circular in outline, but with five to seven deep lobes, the lobes 2 cleft, and toothed at the apex; they are dark green above, the lower surface lighter green and somewhat hairy or smooth, sometimes 1 foot in diameter, and borne on long leafstalks which are fixed to the center of the leaf, giving it an umbrella-like appearance. The waxy-white, solitary flower, sometimes 2 inches in diameter, appears in May, nodding on its short stout stalk, generally right between the two large umbrella-like leaves, which shade and hide it from view. The fruit which follows is lemon shaped, at first green, then yellow, about 2 inches in length and edible, altho when eaten immoderately it is known to have produced bad effects. In a patch of May-apple plants there are always a number of sterile or flowerless stalks, which bear leaves similar to those of the flowering plants. [Illustration: May-apple (Podophyllum Pellatum), Upper Portion of Plant with Flower and Rootstock.] Description of Rootstock--The horizontally creeping rootstock of May-apple when taken from the ground, is from 1 to 6 feet or more in length, flexible, smooth, and round, dark brown on the outside and whitish and fleshy within; at intervals of a few inches are thickened joints, on the upper surface of which are round stem scars and on the lower side a tuft of rather stout roots. Sometimes the rootstock bears lateral branches. The dried rootstock, as it occurs in the stores, is in irregular, somewhat cylindrical pieces, smooth or somewhat wrinkled, yellowish brown or dark brown externally, whitish to pale brown internally, breaking with a short, sharp fracture, the surface of which is mealy. The odor is slight and the taste at first sweetish, becoming very bitter and acrid. Collection, Prices and Uses--The proper time for collecting the rootstock is in the latter half of September or in October. The price paid for May-apple root ranges from 3 to 6 cents a pound. May-apple root, which is recognized as official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is an active cathartic and was known as such to the Indians. CHAPTER XXV. SENECA SNAKEROOT. Polygala Senega L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Senega. Other Common Names--Senega snakeroot, Seneca-root, rattlesnake-root, mountain flax. Habitat and Range--Rocky woods and hillsides are the favorite haunts of this indigenous plant. It is found in such situations from New Brunswick and western New England to Minnesota and the Canadian Rocky Mountains, and south along the Allegheny Mountains to North Carolina and Missouri. Description of Plant--The perennial root of this useful little plant sends up a number of smooth, slender, erect stems (as many as 15 to 20 or more), sometimes slightly tinged with red, from 6 inches to a foot in height, and generally unbranched. The leaves alternate on the stem, are lance shaped or oblong lance shaped, thin in texture, 1 to 2 inches long, and stemless. The flowering spikes are borne on the ends of the stems and consist of rather crowded, small, greenish white, insignificant flowers. The flowering period of Seneca Snakeroot is from May to June. The spike blossoms gradually, and when the lower-most flowers have already fruited the upper part of the spike is still in flower. The seed capsules are small and contain two black, somewhat hairy seeds. The short slender stalks supporting these seed capsules have a tendency to break off from the main axis before the seed is fully mature, leaving the spike in a rather ragged-looking condition, and the yield of seed, therefore, is not very large. Seneca Snakeroot belongs to the milkwort family (Polygalaceae). A form of Seneca Snakeroot, growing mostly in the North Central States and distinguished by its taller stems and broader leaves, has been called Polygala Senega Var. Latifolia. [Illustration: Seneca Snakeroot (Polygala Senega), Flowering Plant with Root.] Description of Root--Seneca Snakeroot is described in the United States Pharmacopoeia as follows: "Somewhat cylindrical, tapering, more or less flexuous, 3 to 15 cm. long and 2 to 8 mm. thick, bearing several similar horizontal branches and a few rootlets; crown knotty with numerous buds and short stem remnants; externally yellowish gray or brownish yellow, longitudinally wrinkled, usually marked by a keel which is more prominent in perfectly dry roots near the crown; fracture short, wood light yellow, usually excentrically developed; odor slight, nauseating; taste sweetish, afterwards acrid." The Seneca Snakeroots found in commerce vary greatly in size, that obtained from the South, which is really the official drug, being usually light colored and small. The principal supply of Seneca Snakeroot now comes from Minnesota, Wisconsin, and farther northward, and this western Seneca Snakeroot has a much larger, darker root, with a crown or head sometimes measuring 2 or 3 inches across and the upper part of the root very thick. It is also less twisted and not so distinctly keeled. Seneca Snakeroot is often much adulterated with the roots of other species of Polygala and of other plants. Collection, Prices and Uses--The time for collecting Seneca Snakeroot is in autumn. Labor conditions play a great part in the rise and fall of prices for this drug. It is said that very little Seneca Snakeroot has been dug in the Northwest during 1906, due to the fact that the Indians and others who usually engage in this work were so much in demand as farm hands and railroad laborers, which paid them far better than the digging of Seneca Snakeroot. Collectors receive from about 55 to 70 cents a pound for this root. This drug, first brought into prominence as a cure for snake bite among the Indians, is now employed as an expectorant, emetic and diuretic. It is official in the Pharmacopoeia of the United States. CHAPTER XXVI. LADY'S-SLIPPER. (1) Cypripedium hirsutum Mill and (2) Cypripedium parviflorum Salisb. Synonym--(1) Cypripedium Pubescens Wild. Pharmacopoeial Name--Cypripedium. Other Common Names--(1) Large yellow lady's-slipper, yellow lady's-slipper, yellow moccasin-flower, Venus'-shoe, Venus'-cup, yellow Indian-shoe, American valerian, nerve-root, male nervine, yellow Noah's-ark, yellows, monkey-flower, umbil-root, yellow umbil; (2) small yellow lady's-slipper. Habitat and Range--Both of these native species frequent bogs and wet places in deep shady woods and thickets. The large yellow lady's-slipper may be found from Nova Scotia south to Alabama and west to Nebraska and Missouri. The range for the small yellow lady's-slipper extends from Newfoundland south along the mountains to Georgia and west to Missouri, Washington and British Columbia. Description of Plants--The orchid family (Orchicaceae), to which the lady's-slipper belong, boasts of many beautiful, showy and curious species and the lady's-slipper is no exception. There are several other plants to which the name lady's-slipper has been applied, but one glance at the peculiar structure of the flowers in the species under consideration, as shown in the illustration will enable any one to recognize them as soon as seen. The particular species of lady's-slipper under consideration in this article do not differ very materially from each other. Both are perennials, growing from 1 to about 2 feet in height, with rather large leaves and with yellow flowers more or less marked with purple, the main difference being that in hirsutum the flower is larger and pale yellow, while in parviflorum the flower is small, bright yellow, and perhaps more prominently striped and spotted with purple. The stem, leaves and inside of corolla or lip are somewhat hairy in the large yellow lady's-slipper, but not in the small yellow lady's-slipper. These hairs are said to be irritating to some people in whom they cause an eruption of the skin. [Illustration: Large Yellow Lady's Slipper (Cyrpripedium Hirsutum).] The leaves of the Lady's-Slipper vary in size from 2 to 6 inches in length and from 1 to 3 inches in width, and are broadly oval or elliptic, sharp pointed, with numerous parallel veins, and sheathing at the base, somewhat hairy in the large Lady's-Slipper. The solitary terminal flower, which appears from May to June, is very showy and curiously formed, the lip being the most prominent part. This lip looks like a large inflated bay (1 to 2 inches long in the large Lady's-Slipper), pale yellow or bright yellow in color, variously striped and blotched with purple. The other parts of the flower are greenish or yellowish, with purple stripes, and the petals are usually twisted. Description of Rootstock--The Rootstock is of horizontal growth, crooked, fleshy and with numerous wavy, fibrous roots. As found in commerce, the rootstocks are from 1 to 4 inches in length, about an eighth of an inch in thickness, dark brown, the upper surface showing numerous round cup-shaped scars, the remains of former annual stems, and the lower surface thickly covered with wavy, wiry, and brittle roots, the latter breaking off with a short, white fracture. The odor is rather heavy and disagreeable and the taste is described as sweetish, bitter and somewhat pungent. Collection, Prices and Uses--Both rootstock and roots are used and these should be collected in autumn, freed from dirt and carefully dried in the shade. These beautiful plants are becoming rare in many localities. Sometimes such high priced drugs as golden seal and senega are found mixed with the lady's-slipper, but as these are more expensive than the lady's-slipper it is not likely that they are included with fraudulent intent and they can be readily distinguished. The prices paid to collectors of this root range from 32 to 35 cents a pound. The principal use of Lady's-Slipper, which is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is as an antispasmodic and nerve tonic, and it has been used for the same purposes as valerian. CHAPTER XXVII. FOREST ROOTS. The facts set forth in the following pages are from American Root Drugs, a valuable pamphlet issued in 1907 by U. S. Department of Agriculture--Bureau of Plant Industry--and written by Alice Henkel. Bethroot. Trillium Erectum L. Other Common Names: Trillium, red trillium, purple trillium, ill-scented trillium, birthroot, birthwort, bathwort, bathflower, red wake-robin, purple wake-robin, ill-scented wake-robin, red-benjamin, bumblebee-root, daffydown-dilly, dishcloth, Indian balm, Indian shamrock, nosebleed, squawflower, squawroot, wood-lily, true-love, orange-blossom. Many of these names are applied also to other species of Trillium. Habitat and Range--Bethroot is a native plant growing in rich soil in damp, shady woods from Canada south to Tennessee and Missouri. Description of Plant--This plant is a perennial belonging to the lily-of-the-valley family (Convallariaceae). It is a low growing plant, from about 8 to 16 inches in height, with a rather stout stem, having three leaves arranged in a whorl near the top. These leaves are broadly ovate, almost circular in outline, sharp pointed at the apex and narrowed at the base, 3 to 7 inches long and about as wide, and practically stemless. Not only the leaves of this plant, but the flowers and parts of the flowers are arranged in threes, and this feature will serve to identify the plant. The solitary terminal flower of Bethroot has three sepals and three petals, both more or less lance shaped and spreading, the former greenish, and the petals, which are 1 1/4 inches long and one-half inch wide, are sometimes dark purple, pink, greenish, or white. The flower has an unpleasant odor. It appears from April to June and is followed later in the season by an oval, reddish berry. [Illustration: Bethroot (Trillium Erectum).] Various other species of Trillium are used in medicine, possessing properties similar to those of the species under consideration. These are also very similar in appearance to Trillium Erectum. Description of Root--Bethroot, as found in the stores, is short and thick, of a light-brown color externally, whitish or yellowish inside, somewhat globular or oblong in shape, and covered all around with numerous pale brown, shriveled rootlets. The top of the root generally shows a succession of fine circles or rings, and usually bears the remains of stem bases. The root has a slight odor, and is at first sweetish and astringent, followed by a bitter and acrid taste. When chewed it causes a flow of saliva. Collection, Prices and Uses--Bethroot is generally collected toward the close of summer. The price ranges from 7 to 10 cents a pound. It was much esteemed as a remedy among the Indians and early settlers. Its present use is that of an astringent, tonic, and alterative, and also that of an expectorant. Culver's-Root. Veronica Virginia L. (a) Synonym--Leptandra Virginica (L) Nutt. (a) Other Common Names--Culver's physic, blackroot, bowman's-root, Beaumont-root, Brinton-root, tall speedwell, tall veronica, physic-root, wholywort. Habitat and Range--This common indigenous herb is found abundantly in moist, rich woods, mountain valleys, meadows and thickets from British Columbia south to Alabama, Missouri and Nebraska. Description of Plant--Culver's-Root is a tall, slender stemmed perennial belonging to the figwort family (Scrophulariaceae). It is from 3 to 7 feet in height, with the leaves arranged around the simple stems in whorls of three to nine. The leaves are borne on very short stems, are lance shaped, long pointed at the apex, narrowed at the base, and sharply toothed, 3 to 6 inches in length and 1 inch or less in width. The white tube-shaped flowers, with two long protruding stamens, are produced from June to September and are borne in several terminal, densely crowded, slender, spikelike heads from 3 to 8 inches long. (a) Some authors hold that this plant belongs to the genus Leptandra and that its name should be Leptandra virginica (L.) Nutt. The Pharmacopoeia is here followed. [Illustration: Culver's Root (Veronica Virginica), Flowering Top and Rootstock.] The flowers, as stated, are usually white, tho the color may vary from a pink to a bluish or purple and on account of its graceful spikes of pretty flowers it is often cultivated in gardens as an ornamental plant. The fruits are small, oblong, compressed, many-seeded capsules. Description of Rootstock--After they are dried the rootstocks have a grayish brown appearance on the outside, and the inside is hard and yellowish, either with a hollow center or a brownish or purplish pith. When broken the fracture is tough and woody. The rootstock measures from 4 to 6 inches in length, is rather thick and bent, with branches resembling the main rootstock. The upper surface has a few stem scars, and from the sides and underneath numerous coarse, brittle roots are produced which have the appearance of having been artificially inserted into the rootstock. Culver's-root has a bitter and acrid taste, but no odor. Collection, Price and Uses--The rootstock and roots should be collected in the fall of the second year. When fresh these have a faint odor resembling somewhat that of almonds, which is lost in the drying. The bitter, acrid taste of Culver's-root also becomes less the longer it is kept, and it is said that it should be kept at least a year before being used. The price paid to collectors ranges from 6 to 10 cents a pound. Culver's-root, which is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is used as an alterative, cathartic and in disorders of the liver. Stone-Root. Collinsonia Canadensis L. Other Common Names--Collinsonia, knob-root, knobgrass, knobweed, knotroot, horse-balm, horseweed, richweed, richleaf, ox-balm, citronella. Habitat and Range--Stoneroot is found in moist, shady woods from Maine to Wisconsin, south to Florida and Kansas. Description of Plant--Like most of the other members of the mint family (Menthaceae), Stoneroot is aromatic also, the fresh flowering plant possessing a very pleasant, lemon-like odor. It is a tall perennial herb, growing as high as 5 feet. The stem is stout, erect, branched, smooth, or the upper part hairy. [Illustration: Stoneroot (Collinsonia Canadensis).] The leaves are opposite, about 3 to 8 inches long, thin, ovate, pointed at the apex, narrowed or sometimes heart-shaped at the base, and coarsely toothed; the lower leaves are largest and are borne on slender stems, while the upper ones are smaller and almost stemless. Stoneroot is in flower from July to October, producing large, loose, open terminal panicles or heads of small, pale-yellow lemon-scented flowers. The flowers have a funnel-shaped 2-lipped corolla, the lower lip, larger, pendant and fringed, with two very much protruding stamens. Description of Root--Even the fresh root of this plant is very hard. It is horizontal, large, thick, and woody, and the upper side is rough and knotty and branched irregularly. The odor of the root is rather disagreeable, and the taste pungent and spicy. In the fresh state, as well as when dry, the root is extremely hard, whence the common name "stoneroot." The dried root is grayish brown externally, irregularly knotty on the upper surface from the remains of branches and the scars left by former stems and the lower surface showing a few thin roots. The inside of the root is hard and whitish. Collection, Prices and Uses--Stoneroot, which is collected in autumn, is employed for its tonic, astringent, diuretic and diaphoretic effects. The price of the root ranges from 2 to 3 1/2 cents a pound. The leaves are used by country people as an application to bruises. Crawley-Root. Corallorhiza Odontorhiza (Wild) Nutt. Other Common Names--Corallorhiza, crawley, coralroot, small coralroot, small-flowered coralroot, late coralroot, dragon's-claw, chickentoe, turkey-claw, feverroot. Habitat and Range--Rich, shady woods having an abundance of leaf mold produce this curious little plant. It may be found in such situations from Maine to Florida, westward to Michigan and Missouri. Description of Plant--This peculiar native perennial, belonging to the orchid family (Orchidaceae) is unlike most other plants, being leafless, and instead of a green stem it has a purplish brown, sheathed scape, somewhat swollen or bulbous at the base and bearing a clustered head of purplish flowers 2 to 4 inches long. It does not grow much taller than about a foot in height. The flowers, 6 to 20 in a head, appear from July to September, and consist of lance-shaped sepals and petals, striped with purple and a broad, whitish, oval lip, generally marked with purple and narrowed at the base. The seed capsule is large oblong, or some what globular. [Illustration: Crawley-root (Corallorhiza Odontorhiza).] Description of Rootstock--The rootstock of this plant is also curious, resembling in its formation a piece of coral on account of which it is known by the name of "coralroot." The other common names, such as chickentoe, turkey-claw, etc., all have reference to the form of the rootstock. As found in commerce, Crawley-root consists of small, dark-brown wrinkled pieces, the larger ones branched like coral. The taste at first is sweetish, becoming afterwards slightly bitter. It has a peculiar odor when fresh, but when dry it is without odor. Collection, Prices and Uses--Crawley-root should be collected in July or August The price ranges from 20 to 50 cents a pound. Other species of Corallorhiza are sometimes collected and are said to probably possess similar properties. This root is aid to be very effective for promoting perspiration and it is also used as a sedative and in fever. CHAPTER XXVIII. FOREST PLANTS. Male Fern. Pharmacopoeial Name--Aspidium. Other Common Names: (1) Male shield-fern, sweet brake, knotty brake, basket-fern, bear's-paw root; (2) marginal-fruited shield-fern, evergreen wood-fern. Habitat and Range--These ferns are found in rocky woods, the male shield-fern inhabiting the region from Canada westward to the Rocky Mountains and Arizona. It is widely distributed also through Europe, northern Asia, northern Africa, and South America. The marginal-fruited shield-fern, one of our most common ferns, occurs from Canada southward to Alabama and Arkansas. Description of Plants--Both of these species are tall, handsome ferns, the long, erect fronds, or leaves, arising from a chaffy, scaly base, and consisting of numerous crowded stemless leaflets, which are variously divided and notched. There is but little difference between these two species. The male shield-fern is perhaps a trifle stouter, the leaves growing about 3 feet in length and having a bright-green color, whereas the marginal-fruited shield-fern has lighter green leaves, about 2 1/2 feet in length, and is of more slender appearance. The principal difference, however, is found in the arrangement of the "sori," or "fruit dots," These are the very small, round, tawny dots that are found on the backs of fern leaves, and in the male shield-fern these will be found arranged in short rows near the midrib, while in the marginal-fruited shield-fern, as this name indicates, the fruit dots are placed on the margins of the fronds. Both plants are perennials and members of the fern family (Polypodiaceae). [Illustration: Marginal-Fruited Shield-Fern (Dryopteris Marginalis).] Description of the Rootstock--These ferns have stout ascending or erect chaffy rootstocks, or rhizomes as they are technically known. As taken from the ground the rootstock is from 6 to 12 inches in length and 1 to 2 inches thick, covered with closely overlapping, brown, slightly curved stipe bases or leaf bases and soft, brown, chaffy scales. The inside of the rootstock is pale green. As found in the stores, however, male-fern with the stipe bases and roots removed measure about 3 to 6 inches in length and about one-half to 1 inch in thickness, rough where the stipe bases have been removed, brown outside, pale green and rather spongy inside. The stipe bases remain green for a very long period, and these small, claw-shaped furrowed portions, or "fingers" as they are called, form a large proportion of the drug found on the American market and, in fact, are said to have largely superseded the rootstock. Male-fern has a disagreeable odor, and the taste is described as bitter-sweet, astringent, acrid, and nauseous. Collection, Prices and Uses--The best time for collecting Male-fern root is from July to September. The root should be carefully cleaned, but not washed, dried out of doors in the shade as quickly as possible, and shipped to druggists at once. The United States Pharmacopoeia directs that "the chaff, together with the dead portions of the rhizome and stipes, should be removed, and only such portions used as have retained their internal green color." Great care is necessary in the preservation of this drug in order to prevent it from deteriorating. If kept too long its activity will be impaired, and it is said that it will retain its qualities much longer if it is not peeled until required for use. The unreliability sometimes attributed to this drug can in most instances be traced to the presence of the rootstocks of other ferns with which it is often adulterated, or it will be found to be due to improper storing or to the length of time that it has been kept. The prices paid for Male-fern root range from 5 to 10 cents a pound. Male-fern, official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, has been used since the remotest times as a remedy for worms. Grave results are sometimes caused by overdoses. Goldthread. Coptis Trifolia (L.) Salisb. Other Common Names--Coptis, cankerroot, mouthroot, yellowroot. Habitat and Range--This pretty little perennial is native in damp, mossy woods and bogs from Canada and Alaska south of Maryland and Minnesota. It is most common in the New England States, northern New York and Michigan, and in Canada, where it frequents the dark sphagnum swamps, cold bogs and in the shade of dense forests of cedars, pines and other evergreens. [Illustration: Goldthread (Coptis Trifolia).] Description of Plant--Any one familiar with this attractive little plant will agree that it is well named. The roots of Goldthread, running not far beneath the surface of the ground, are indeed like so many tangled threads of gold. The plant in the general appearance of its leaves and flowers very closely resembles the strawberry plant. It is of low growth, only 3 to 6 inches in height, and belongs to the crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae). The leaves are all basal, and are borne on long, slender stems; they are evergreen, dark green and shining on the upper surface and lighter green beneath, divided into three parts, which are prominently veined and toothed. A single small, white, star-shaped flower is borne at the ends of the flowering stalks, appearing from May to August. The 5 to 7 sepals or lobes of the calyx are white and like petals, and the petals of the corolla, 5 to 7 in number, are smaller, club shaped, and yellow at the base. The seed pods are stalked, oblong, compressed, spreading, tipped with persistent style and containing small black seeds. Description of Root--Goldthread has a long, slender, creeping root, which is much branched and frequently matted. The color of these roots is a bright golden yellow. As found in the stores, Goldthread consists usually of tangled masses of these golden-yellow roots, mixed with the leaves and stems of the plant, but the root is the part prescribed for use. The root is bitter and has no odor. Collection, Prices and Uses--The time for collecting Goldthread is in autumn. After removing the covering of dead leaves and moss, the creeping yellow roots of Goldthread will be seen very close to the surface of the ground, from which they can be easily pulled. They should, of course, be carefully dried. As already stated, altho the roots and rootlets are the parts to be used, the commercial article is freely mixed with the leaves and stems of the plant. Evidences of the pine-woods home of this plant, in the form of pine needles and bits of moss, are often seen in the Goldthread received for market. Goldthread brings from 60 to 70 cents a pound. The Indians and early white settlers used this little root as a remedy for various forms of ulcerated and sore mouth, and it is still used as a wash or gargle for affections of this sort. It is also employed as a bitter tonic. Goldthread was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1880. Twinleaf. Jeffersonia Diphylla (L.) Pers. Other Common Names--Jeffersonia, rheumatism-root, helmetpod, ground-squirrel pea, yellowroot. Habitat and Range--Twinleaf inhabits rich, shady woods from New York to Virginia and westward to Wisconsin. Description of Plant--This native herbaceous perennial is only about 6 to 8 inches in height when in flower. At the fruiting stage it is frequently 18 inches in height. It is one of our early spring plants, and its white flower, resembling that of bloodroot, is produced as early as April. [Illustration: Twinleaf (Jeffersonia diphylla), Plant and Seed Capsule.] The long-stemmed, smooth leaves, produced in pairs and arising from the base of the plant, are rather oddly formed. They are about 3 to 6 inches long, 2 to 4 inches wide, heart shaped or kidney shaped, but parted lengthwise into two lobes or divisions, really giving the appearance of two leaves; hence the common name "Twinleaf." The flower with its eight oblong, spreading white petals measures about 1 inch across, and is borne at the summit of a slender stalk arising from the root. The many-seeded capsule is about 1 inch long, leathery, somewhat pear shaped, and opening half way around near the top, the upper part forming a sort of lid. Twinleaf belongs to the barberry family. (Berberidaceae.) Description of Rootstock--Twinleaf has a horizontal rootstock, with many fibrous, much-matted roots, and is very similar to that of blue cohosh, but not so long. It is thick, knotty, yellowish brown externally, with a resinous bark, and internally yellowish. The inner portion is nearly tasteless, but the bark has a bitter and acrid taste. Collection, Prices and Uses--The rootstock is collected in autumn and is used as a diuretic, alterative, antispasmodic and a stimulating diaphoretic. Large doses are said to be emetic and smaller doses tonic and expectorant. The price paid for Twinleaf root ranges from about 5 to 7 cents a pound. Canada Moonseed. Menispermum Canadense L. Other Common Names--Menispermum, yellow parilla, Texas sarsaparilla, yellow sarsarparilla, vine-maple. Habitat and Range--Canada Moonseed is usually found along streams in woods, climbing over bushes, its range extending from Canada to Georgia and Arkansas. [Illustration: Canada Moonseed (Menispermum Canadense).] Description of Plant--This native perennial woody climber reaches a length of from 6 to 12 feet, the round, rather slender stem bearing very broad, slender-stalked leaves. These leaves are from 4 to 8 inches wide, smooth and green on the upper surface and paler beneath, roundish in outline and entire, or sometimes lobed and resembling the leaves of some of our maples, whence the common name "vine-maple" is probably derived. The bases of the leaves are generally heart shaped and the apex pointed or blunt. In July the loose clusters of small, yellowish or greenish white flowers are produced, followed in September by bunches of black one-seeded fruit, covered with a "bloom" and very much resembling grapes. Canada Moonseed belongs to the moonseed family (Menispermaceae.) Description of Rootstock--The rootstock and roots are employed in medicine. In the stores it will be found in long, straight pieces, sometimes 3 feet in length, only about one-fourth of an inch in thickness, yellowish brown or grayish brown, finely wrinkled lengthwise, and giving off fine, hairlike, branched, brownish roots from joints which occur every inch or so. The inside shows a distinct white pith of variable thickness and a yellowish white wood with broad, porous wood rays, the whole breaking with a tough, woody fracture. It has practically no odor, but a bitter taste. Collection, Prices and Uses--Canada Moonseed is collected in autumn and brings from 4 to 8 cents a pound. It is used as a tonic, alterative, and diuretic and was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia for 1890. Wild Turnip. Synonym--Arum Triphyllum L. Other Common Names--Arum, three-leaved arum, Indian turnip, jack-in-the-pulpit, wake robin, wild pepper, dragon-turnip, brown dragon, devil's-ear, marsh-turnip, swamp-turnip, meadow-turnip, pepper-turnip, starch-wort, bog-onion, priest's-pintle and lords-and-ladies. Habitat and Range--Wild Turnip inhabits moist woods from Canada to Florida and westward to Kansas and Minnesota. Description of Plant--Early in April the quaint green and brownish purple hooded flowers of the wild turnip may be seen in the shady depths of the woods. [Illustration: Wild Turnip (Arisaema Triphyllum).] It is a perennial plant belonging to the arum family (Araceae), and reaches a height of from 10 inches to 3 feet. The leaves, of which there are only one or two, unfold with the flowers; they are borne on long, erect, sheathing stalks, and consist of three smooth, oval leaflets, the latter are 3 to 6 inches long, and from 1 1/2 to 3 1/2 inches wide, net veined, and with one vein running parallel with the margins. The "flower" is curiously formed, somewhat like the calla lily, consisting of what is known botanically as a spathe, within which is inclosed the spadix. The spathe is an oval, leaflike part, the lower portion of which, in the flower under consideration, is rolled together so as to form a tube, while the upper, pointed part is usually bent forward, thus forming a flap of hood over the tube shaped part which contains the spadix. In fact it is very similar to the familiar flower of the calla lily of the gardens, except that, instead of being white, the wild turnip is either all green or striped with very dark purple, sometimes seeming almost black, and in the calla lily the "flap" is turned back, whereas in the wild turnip it is bent forward over the tube. Inside of the spathe is the spadix, also green or purple, which is club shaped, rounded at the summit, and narrowly contracted at the base, where it is surrounded by either the male or female flowers or both, in the latter case (the most infrequent) the male flowers being placed below the female flowers. In autumn the fruit ripens in the form of a bunch of bright scarlet, shining berries. The entire plant is acrid, but the root more especially so. Description of the Root--The underground portion of this plant is known botanically as a "corm," and is somewhat globular and shaped like a turnip. The lower part of the corm is flat and wrinkled, while the upper part is surrounded by coarse, wavy rootlets. The outside is brownish gray and the inside white and mealy. It has no odor, but an intensely acrid, burning taste, and to those who may have been induced in their school days to taste of this root wild turnip will be familiar chiefly on account of its never-to-be-forgotten acrid, indeed, caustic, properties. The dried article of commerce consists of round, white slices, with brown edges, only slightly shrunken, and breaking with a starchy fracture. Collection, Prices and Uses--The partially dried corm is used in medicine. It is dug in summer, transversely sliced, and dried. When first dug it is intensely acrid, but drying and heat diminish the acridity. It loses its acridity rapidly with age. Wild Turnip brings from 7 to 10 cents a pound. The corm of Wild turnip, which was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1870, is used as a stimulant, diaphoretic, expectorant, and irritant. CHAPTER XXIX. THICKET PLANTS. Black Indian Hemp. Apocynum Cannabinum L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Apocynum. Other Common Names--Canadian hemp, American hemp, amy-root, bowman's-root, bitterroot, Indian-physic, rheumatism-weed, milkweed, wild cotton, Choctaw-root. The name "Indian hemp" is often applied to this plant, but it should never be used without the adjective "black." "Indian hemp" is a name that properly belongs to Canabis indica, a true hemp plant, from which the narcotic drug "hashish" is obtained. Habitat and Range--Black Indian hemp is a native of this country and may be found in thickets and along the borders of old fields thruout the United States. Description of Plant--This is a common herbaceous perennial about 2 to 4 feet high, with erect or ascending branches, and, like most of the plants belonging to the dogbane family (Apocynaceae), contains a milky juice. The short-stemmed opposite leaves are oblong, lance shaped oblong or ovate-oblong, about 2 to 6 inches long, usually sharp pointed, the upper surface smooth and the lower sometimes hairy. The plant is in flower from June to August and the small greenish white flowers are borne in dense heads, followed later by the slender pods, which are about 4 inches in length and pointed at the apex. Other Species--Considerable confusion seems to exist in regard to which species yields the root which has proved of greatest value medicinally. The Pharmacopoeia directs that "the dried rhizome and roots of Apocynum cannabinum or of closely allied species of Apocynum" be used. [Illustration: Black Indian Hemp (Apocynum Cannabinum), Flowering Portion, Pods, and Rootstock.] In the older botanical works and medical herbals only two species of Apocynum were recognized, namely, A. cannabinum L. and A. androsaemifolium L., altho it was known that both of these were very variable. In the newer botanical manuals both of these species still hold good, but the different forms and variations are now recognized as distinct species, those formerly referred to cannabium being distinguished by the erect or nearly erect lobes of the corolla, and those of the androsaemifolium group being distinguished by the spreading or recurved lobes of the corolla. Among the plants that were formerly collected as Apocynum or varietal forms of it, and which are now considered as distinct species, may be mentioned in the following: Riverbank-dogbane (A. Album Greene), which frequents the banks of rivers and similar moist locations from Maine to Wisconsin, Virginia and Missouri. This plant is perfectly smooth and has white flowers and relatively smaller leaves than A. cannabinum. Velvet dogbane (A. pubescens R. Br.), which is common from Virginia to Illinois, Iowa and Missouri. The entire plant has a soft, hairy or velvety appearance, which renders identification easy. According to the latest edition of the National Standard Dispensatory it is not unlikely that this is the plant that furnishes the drug that has been so favorably reported upon. Apocynum androsaemifolium is also gathered by drug collectors for Apocynum cannabinum. Its root is likewise employed in medicine, but its action is not the same as that of cannabinum and it should therefore not be substituted for it. It closely resembles cannabinum. Description of Rootstock--The following description of the drug as found in commerce is taken from the United States Pharmacopoeia: "Of varying length, 3 to 8 mm. thick, cylindrical or with a few angles produced by drying, lightly wrinkled, longitudinally and usually more or less fissured transversely; orange-brown, becoming gray-brown on keeping; brittle; fracture sharply transverse, exhibiting a thin brown layer of cork, the remainder of the bark nearly as thick as the radius of the wood, white or sometimes pinkish, starchy, containing laticiferous ducts; the wood yellowish, having several rings, finely radiate and very coarsely porous; almost inodorous, the taste starchy, afterwards becoming bitter and somewhat acrid." Collection, Prices and Uses--The root of black Indian hemp is collected in autumn and brings from 8 to 10 cents a pound. It is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia and has emetic, cathartic, diaphoretic, expectorant and diuretic properties, and on account of the last-named action it is used in dropsical affections. The tough, fibrous bark of the stalks of Black Indian Hemp was employed by the Indians as a substitute for hemp in making twine, fishing nets, etc. Chamaelirium, or Helonias. Chamaelirium Luteum (L.) A. Gray. Synonym--Helonias Dioica Pursh. Other Common Names--Unicorn root, false unicorn-root, blazing star, drooping starwort, starwort, devil's-bit, unicorn's-horn. In order to avoid the existing confusion of common names of this plant, it is most desirable to use the scientific names Chamaelirium or Helonias exclusively. Chamaelirium is the most recent botanical designation and will be used thruout this article, but the synonym Helonias is a name very frequently employed by the drug trade. The plant with which it is so much confused, Aletris farinosa, will also be designated thruout by its generic name, Aletris. [Illustration: Chamaelirium (Chamaelirium Luteum).] Habitat and Range--This native plant is found in open woods from Massachusetts to Michigan, south to Florida and Arkansas. Description of Plant--Chamaelirium and Aletris (Aletris farinosa) have long been confused by drug collectors and others, owing undoubtedly to the transposition of some of their similar common names, such as "starwort" and "stargrass." The plants can scarcely be said to resemble each other, however, except perhaps in their general habit of growth. The male and female flowers of Chamaelirium are borne on separate plants, and in this respect are entirely different from Aletris; neither do the flowers resemble those of Aletris. Chamaelirium is an erect, somewhat fleshy herb, perennial, and belongs to the bunchflower family (Melanthiaceae.) The male plant grows to a height of from 1 1/2 to 2 1/2 feet, and the female plant is sometimes 4 feet tall and is also more leafy. The plants have both basal and stem leaves, where as Aletris has only the basal leaves. The basal leaves of Chamaelirium are broad and blunt at the top, narrowing toward the base into a long stem; they are sometimes so much broadened at the top that they may be characterized as spoon shaped, and are from 2 to 8 inches long and from one-half to 1 1/2 inches wide. The stem leaves are lance shaped and sharp pointed, on short stems or stemless. The white starry flowers of Chamaelirium are produced from June to July, those of the male plant being borne in nodding, graceful, plume-like spikes 3 to 9 inches long, and those of the female plant in erect spikes. The many seeded capsule is oblong, opening by three valves at the apex. Another species is now recognized, Chamaelirium obovale Small, which seems to differ chiefly in having larger flowers and obovoid capsules. Description of Rootstock--The rootstock of Chamaelirium does not in the least resemble that of Aletris, with which it is so generally confused. It is from one-half to 2 inches in length, generally curved upward at one end in the form of a horn (whence the common name, "unicorn") and having the appearance of having been bitten off. It is of a dark brown color with fine transverse wrinkles, rough, on the upper surface showing a few stem scars, and giving off from all sides numerous brown fibrous rootlets. The more recent rootlets have a soft outer covering, which in the older rootlets has worn away, leaving the fine but tough and woody whitish center. The rootlets penetrate to the central part of the rootstock, and this serves as a distinguishing character from Aletris, as a transverse section of Chamaelirium very plainly shows these fibers extending some distance within the rootstock. Furthermore, the rootstock of Chamaelirium exhibits a number of small holes wherever these rootlets have broken off, giving it the appearance of having become "wormy." It is hard and horny within and has a peculiar odor and a very bitter, disagreeable taste, whereas Aletris is not at all bitter. Collection, Prices and Uses--Chamaelirium should be collected in autumn. The prices paid to collectors may be said to range from about 30 to 45 cents a pound. In the fall of 1906 a scarcity of this root was reported. As already indicated, Chamaelirium and Aletris are often gathered and mistaken for each other by collectors, but, as will be seen from the preceding description, there is really no excuse for such error. From the confusion that has existed properties peculiar to the one plant have also been attributed to the other, but it seems now generally agreed that Chamaelirium is of use especially in derangements of women. Wild Yam. Dioscorea Villosa L. Other Common Names--Dioscorea, colicroot, rheumatism-root, devil's bones. Habitat and Range--Wild yam grows in moist thickets, trailing over adjacent shrubs and bushes, its range extending from Rhode Island to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. It is most common in the central and southern portions of the United States. Description of Plant--This native perennial vine is similar to and belongs to the same family as the well-known cinnamon vine of the gardens--namely, the yam family (Dioscoreaceae.) It attains a length of about 15 feet, the stem smooth, the leaves heart shaped and 2 to 6 inches long by 1 to 4 inches wide. [Illustration: Wild Yam (Dioscorea Villosa).] The leaves, which are borne on long, slender stems, are thin, green, and smooth on the upper surface, paler and rather thickly hairy on the under surface. The small greenish yellow flowers are produced from June to July, the male flowers borne in drooping clusters about 3 to 6 inches long, and the female flowers in drooping spikelike heads. The fruit, which is in the form of a dry, membranous, 3-winged, yellowish green capsule, ripens about September and remains on the vine for some time during the winter. Growing farther south than the species above mentioned is a variety for which the name Glabra has been suggested. According to C. G. Lloyd, there is a variety of Dioscorea Villosa, the root of which first made its appearance among the true yam roots of commerce, and which was so different in form that it was rejected as an adulteration. The plant, however, from which the false root was derived was found upon investigation to be almost identical with the true yam, except that the leaves were perfectly smooth, lacking the hairiness on the under surface of the leaf which is characteristic of the true wild yam. The false variety also differs in its habit of growth, not growing in dense clumps like the true wild yam, but generally isolated. The root of the variety, however, is quite distinct from that of the true wild yam, being much more knotty. Lloyd states further that the hairiness or lack of hairiness on the under side of the leaf is a certain indication as to the form of the root. Lloyd, recognizing the necessity of classifying these two yam roots of commerce, has designated the smooth-leaved variety as Dioscorea Villosa var. Glabra. Description of Rootstocks--The rootstock of the true wild yam runs horizontally underneath the surface of the ground. As found in commerce, it consists of very hard pieces, 6 inches and sometimes 2 feet in length, but only about one-fourth or one-half of an inch in diameter, twisted, covered with a thin, brown bark, whitish within and showing stem scars almost an inch apart on the upper surface, small protuberances on the sides, and numerous rather wiry rootlets on the lower surface. The false wild yam, on the other hand, has a much heavier, rough, knotty rootstock, with thick branches from 1 inch to 3 inches long, the upper surface covered with crowded stem scars and the lower side furnished with stout, wiry rootlets. Within it is similar to the true yam root. Collection, Prices and Uses--The roots are generally collected in autumn, and bring from 2 1/2 to 4 cents a pound. Wild Yam is said to possess expectorant properties and to promote perspiration, and in large doses providing emetic. It has been employed in bilious colic, and by the negroes in the South in the treatment of muscular rheumatism. CHAPTER XXX. SWAMP PLANTS. Skunk-Cabbage. Synonyms--Dracontium Foetidum L. Other Common Names--Dracontium, skunk-weed, polecat-weed, swamp-cabbage, meadow-cabbage, collard, fetid, hellebone, stinking poke, pockweed. Habitat and Range--Swamps and other wet places from Canada to Florida, Iowa and Minnesota abound with this ill-smelling herb. Description of Plant--Most of the common names applied to this plant, as well as the scientific names, are indicative of the most striking characteristic of this early spring visitor, namely, the rank, offensive, carrion odor that emanates from it. Skunk-Cabbage is one of the very earliest of our spring flowers, appearing in February or March, but it is safe to say that it is not likely to suffer extermination at the hand of the enthusiastic gatherer of spring flowers. In the latitude of Washington Skunk-Cabbage has been known to be in flower in December. It is a curious plant, with its hood shaped, purplish striped flowers appearing before the leaves. It belongs to the arum family (Araceae) and is a perennial. The "flower" is in the form of a thick, ovate, swollen spathe, about 3 to 6 inches in height, the top pointed and curved inward, spotted and striped with purple and yellowish green. The spathe is not like that of the wild turnip or calla lily, to which family this plant also belongs, but the edges are rolled inward, completely hiding the spadix. In this plant the spadix is not spike-like, as in the wild turnip, but is generally somewhat globular, entirely covered with numerous, dull-purple flowers. After the fruit has ripened the spadix will be found to have grown considerably, the spathe meantime having decayed. The leaves, which appear after the flower, are numerous and very large, about 1 to 3 feet in length and about 1 foot in width; they are thin in texture, but prominently nerved with fleshy nerves, and are borne on deeply channeled stems. [Illustration: Skunk Cabbage (Spathyema Foetida).] Description of Rootstock--Skunk-Cabbage has a thick, straight, reddish brown rootstock, from 3 to 5 inches long, and about 2 inches in diameter, and having a whorl of crowded fleshy roots which penetrate the soil to considerable depth. The dried article of commerce consists of either the entire rootstock and roots, which are dark brown and wrinkled within, or of very much compressed, wrinkled, transverse slices. When bruised, the root has the characteristic fetid odor of the plant and possesses a sharp acrid taste, both of which become less the longer the root is kept. Collection, Prices and Uses--The rootstock of Skunk-Cabbage are collected early in spring, soon after the appearance of the flower, or after the seeds have ripened, in August or September. It should be carefully dried, either in its entire state or deprived of the roots and cut into transverse slices. Skunk-Cabbage loses its odor and acridity with age, and should therefore not be kept longer than one season. The range of prices is from 4 to 7 cents a pound. Skunk-Cabbage, official from 1820 to 1880, is used in affections of the respiratory organs, in nervous disorders, rheumatism, and dropsical complaints. American Hellebore. Veratrum Viride Ait. Pharmacopoeial Name--Veratrum. Other Common Names--True veratrum, green veratrum, American veratrum, green hellebore, swamp-hellebore, big hellebore, false hellebore, bear-corn, bugbane, bugwort, devil's-bite, earth-gall, Indian poke, itchweed, tickleweed, duckretter. Habitat and Range--American Hellebore is native in rich, wet woods, swamps and wet meadows. Its range extending from Canada, Alaska, and Minnesota south to Georgia. Description of Plant--Early in spring, usually in company with the Skunk-Cabbage, the large bright green leaves of American Hellebore make their way thru the soil, their straight, erect leaf spears forming a conspicuous feature of the yet scanty spring vegetation. Later in the season a stout and erect leafy stem is sent up, sometimes growing as tall as 6 feet. It is solid and round, pale green, very leafy, and closely surrounded by the sheathing bases of the leaves, unbranched except in the flowering head. The leaves are hairy, prominently nerved, folded or pleated like a fan. They have no stems, but their bases encircle or sheathe the main stalk, and are very large, especially the lower ones, which are from 6 to 12 inches in length, from 3 to 6 inches in width, and broadly oval. As they approach the top of the plant the leaves become narrower. The flowers, which appear from May to July, are greenish yellow and numerous, and are borne in rather open clusters. American Hellebore belongs to the bunchflower family (Melanthiaceae) and is a perennial. This species is a very near relative of the European white hellebore (Veratrum album L.), and in fact has by some been regarded as identical with it, or at least as a variety of it. It is taller than V. album and has narrower leaves and greener flowers. Both species are official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. [Illustration: American Hellebore (Veratrum Viride).] Description of Rootstock--The fresh rootstock of American Hellebore is ovoid or obconical, upright, thick, and fleshy, the upper part of it arranged in layers, the lower part of it more solid, and producing numerous whitish roots from all sides. In the fresh state it has a rather strong, disagreeable odor. As found in commerce, American Hellebore rootstock is sometimes entire, but more generally sliced, and is of a light brown or dark brown color externally and internally yellowish white. The roots, which are from 4 to 8 inches long, have a shriveled appearance, and are brown or yellowish. There is no odor to the dried rootstock, but when powdered it causes violent sneezing. The rootstock, which has a bitter and very acrid taste, is poisonous. Collection, Prices and Uses--American Hellebore should be dug in autumn after the leaves have died and washed and carefully dried, either in the whole state or sliced in various ways. It deteriorates with age, and should therefore not be kept longer than a year. The adulterations sometimes met with are the rootstocks of related plants, and the skunk-cabbage is also occasionally found mixed with it, but this is probably unintentional, as the two plants usually grow close together. Collectors of American Hellebore root receive from about 3 to 10 cents a pound. American Hellebore, official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is an acrid, narcotic poison, and has emetic, diaphoretic, and sedative properties. Water-Eryngo. Eryngium Yuccifolium Michx. Synonym--Eryngium aquaticum. L. Other Common Names--Eryngium, eryngo, button-snakeroot, corn-snakeroot, rattlesnake-master, rattlesnake-weed, rattlesnake-flag. [Illustration: Water-Eryngo (Eryngium Yuccifolium).] Habitat and Range--Altho sometimes occurring on dry land, Water-Eryngo usually inhabits swamps and low, wet ground, from the pine barrens of New Jersey westward to Minnesota and south to Texas and Florida. Description of Plant--The leaves of this plant are grasslike in form, rigid, 1 to 2 feet long and about one-half inch or a trifle more in width; they are linear, with parallel veins, pointed, generally clasping at the base, and the margins briskly soft, slender spines. The stout, furrowed stem reaches a height of from 2 to 6 feet and is generally unbranched except near the top. The insignificant whitish flowers are borne in dense, ovate-globular, stout-stemmed heads, appearing from June to September, and the seed heads that follow are ovate and scaly. Water-Eryngo belongs to the parsley family (Apiaceae) and is native in this country. Description of Rootstock--The stout rootstock is very knotty, with numerous short branches, and produces many thick, rather straight roots, both rootstock and roots of a dark brown color, the latter wrinkled lengthwise. The inside of the rootstock is yellowish white. Water-Eryngo has a somewhat peculiar, slightly aromatic odor, and a sweetish mucilaginous taste at first, followed by some bitterness and pungency. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root of this plant is collected in autumn and brings from 5 to 10 cents a pound. Water-Eryngo is an old remedy and one of its early uses, as the several common names indicate, was for the treatment of snake bites. It was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1860, and is employed now as a diuretic and expectorant and for promoting perspiration. In large doses it acts as an emetic and the root, when chewed, excites a flow of saliva. It is said to resemble Seneca snakeroot in action. Yellow Jasmine or Jessamine. Gelsemium Sempervirens (L.) Ait. f. Pharmacopoeial Name--Gelsemium. Other Common Names--Carolina jasmine or jessamine, Carolina wild woodbine, evening trumpet-flower. Habitat and Range--Yellow jasmine is a plant native to the South, found along the banks of streams, in woods, lowlands, and thickets, generally near the coast, from the eastern part of Virginia to Florida and Texas, south to Mexico and Guatemala. Description of Plant--This highly ornamental climbing or trailing plant is abundantly met with in the woods of the Southern states, its slender stems festooned over trees and fences and making its presence known by the delightful perfume exhaled by its flowers, filling the air with fragrance that is almost overpowering wherever the yellow jasmine is very abundant. [Illustration: Yellow Jasmine (Gelsensium Sempervirens).] The smooth, shining stems of this beautiful vine sometimes reach a length of 20 feet. The leaves are evergreen, lance shaped, entire, 1 1/2 to 3 inches long, rather narrow, borne on short stems, and generally remaining on the vine during the winter. The flowers, which appear from January to April, are bright yellow, about 1 to 1 1/2 inches long, the corolla funnel shaped. They are very fragrant but poisonous, and it is stated the eating of honey derived from jasmine flowers has brought about fatal results. Yellow Jasmine is a perennial and belongs to a family that is noted for its poisonous properties, namely, the Logania family (Loganiaceae), which numbers among its members such powerful poisonous agents as the strychnine-producing tree. Description of Rootstock--The rootstock of the Yellow Jasmine is horizontal and runs near the surface of the ground, attaining great length, 15 feet or more; it is branched, and here and there produces fibrous rootlets. When freshly removed from the ground it is very yellow, with a peculiar odor and bitter taste. For the drug trade it is generally cut into pieces varying from 1 inch to 6 inches in length, and when dried consists of cylindrical sections about 1 inch in thickness, the roots, of course, thinner. The bark is thin, yellowish brown, with fine silky bast fibers and the wood is tough and pale yellow, breaking with a splintery fracture and showing numerous fine rays radiating from a small central pith. Yellow Jasmine has a bitter taste and a pronounced heavy odor. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root of Yellow Jasmine is usually collected just after the plant has come into flower and is cut into pieces from 1 to 6 inches long. It is often adulterated with portions of the stems, but these can be distinguished by their thinness and dark purplish color. The prices range from 3 to 5 cents a pound. Yellow Jasmine, which is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is used for its powerful effect on the nervous system. Sweet-Flag. Acorus Calamus L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Calamus. Other Common Names--Sweet cane, sweet grass, sweet myrtle, sweet rush, sweet sedge, sweet segg, sweetroot, cinnamon-sedge, myrtle-flag, myrtle-grass, myrtle-sedge, beewort. Habitat and Range--This plant frequents wet and muddy places and borders on streams from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, southward to Florida and Texas, also occurring in Europe and Asia. It is usually partly immersed in water, and is generally found in company with the cat-tail and other water-loving species of flag. [Illustration: Sweet Flag (Acorus Calamus).] Description of Plant--The sword like leaves of the Sweet-Flag resemble those of other flags so much that before the plant is in flower it is difficult to recognize simply by the appearance of its leaves. The leaves of the blue flag or "poison-flag," as it has been called, are very similar to those of the Sweet-Flag, and this resemblance often leads to cases of poisoning among children who thus mistake one for the other. However, as the leaves of the Sweet-Flag are fragrant, the odor will be a means of recognizing it. Of course when the Sweet-Flag is in flower the identification of the plant is easy. The sheathing leaves of this native perennial, which belongs to the arum family (Araceae), are from 2 to 6 feet in height and about 1 inch in width; they are sharp pointed and have a ridged midrib running their entire length. The flowering head, produced from the side of the stalk, consists of a fleshy spike sometimes 3 1/2 inches long and about one-half inch in thickness, closely covered with very small, greenish yellow flowers, which appear from May to July. Description of Rootstock--The long, creeping rootstock of the Sweet-Flag is thick and fleshy, somewhat spongy, and producing numerous rootlets. The odor is aromatic and agreeable, and taste pungent and bitter. The dried article, as found in the stores, consists of entire or split pieces of various lengths from 3 to 6 inches, light brown on the outside with blackish spots, sharply wrinkled lengthwise, the upper surface marked obliquely with dark leaf scars, and the lower surface showing many small circular scars, which, at first glance, give one the impression that the root is worm-eaten, but which are the remains of rootlets that have been removed from the rootstock. Internally the rootstock is whitish and of a spongy texture. The aromatic odor and pungent, bitter taste are retained in the dried article. Collection, Prices and Uses--The United States Pharmacopoeia directs that the unpeeled rhizome, or rootstock, be used. It is collected either in early spring or late in autumn. It is pulled or grubbed from the soft earth, freed from adhering dirt, and the rootlets removed, as these are not so aromatic and more bitter. The rootstock is then carefully dried, sometimes by means of moderate heat. Sweet-Flag deteriorates with age and is subject to the attacks of worms. It loses about three-fourths of its weight in drying. Some of the Sweet-Flag found in commerce consists of handsome white pieces. These usually come from Germany, and have been peeled before drying, but they are not so strong and aromatic as the unpeeled roots. Unpeeled Sweet-Flag brings from 3 to 6 cents a pound. Sweet-Flag is employed as an aromatic stimulant and tonic in feeble digestion. The dried root is frequently chewed for the relief of dyspepsia. Blue Flag. Iris Versicolor L. Other Common Names--Iris, flag-lily, liver-lily, snake-lily, poison-flag, water-flag, American fleur-de-lis or flower-deluce. Habitat and Range--Blue Flag delights in wet, swampy localities, making its home in marshes, thickets, and wet meadows from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Florida and Arkansas. Description of Plant--The flowers of all of the species belonging to this genus are similar, and are readily recognized by their rather peculiar form, the three outer segments or parts reflexed or turned back and the three inner segments standing erect. Blue Flag is about 2 to 3 feet in height, with an erect stem sometimes branched near the top, and sword shaped leaves which are shorter than the stem, from one-half to 1 inch in width, showing a slight grayish "bloom" and sheathing at the base. This plant is a perennial belonging to the iris family (Iridaceae), and is a native of this country. June is generally regarded as the month for the flowering of the Blue Flag, altho it may be said to be in flower from May to July, depending on the locality. The flowers are large and very handsome, each stem bearing from two to six or more. They consist of six segments or parts, the three outer ones turned back and the three inner ones erect and much smaller. The flowers are usually purplish blue, the "claw" or narrow base of the segments, variegated with yellow, green, or white and marked with purple veins. All of the species belonging to this genus are more or less variegated in color; hence the name "iris," meaning "rainbow," and the specific name "versicolor," meaning "various colors." The name poison-flag has been applied to it on account of the poisonous effect it has produced in children, who, owing to the close resemblance of the plants before reaching the flowering stage, sometimes mistake it for sweet flag. The seed capsule is oblong, about 1 1/2 inches and contains numerous seeds. [Illustration: Blue Flag (Iris Versicolor).] Description of Rootstock--Blue Flag has a thick, fleshy, horizontal rootstock, branched, and producing long, fibrous roots. It resembles sweet-flag (Calamus) and has been mistaken for it. The sections of the rootstock of Blue Flag, however, are flattened above and rounded below; the scars of the leaf sheaths are in the form of rings, whereas in sweet-flag the rootstock is cylindrical and the scars left by the leaf sheaths are obliquely transverse. Furthermore, there is a difference in the arrangement of the roots on the rootstock, the scars left by the roots in Blue Flag being close together generally nearer the larger end, while in sweet-flag the disposition of the roots along the rootstock is quite regular. Blue Flag is grayish brown on the outside when dried, and sweet-flag is light brown or fawn colored. Blue Flag has no well-marked odor and the taste is acrid and nauseous, and in sweet-flag there is a pleasant odor and bitter, pungent taste. Collection, Prices and Uses--Blue Flag is collected in autumn and usually brings from about 7 to 10 cents a pound. Great scarcity of Blue Flag root was reported from the producing districts in the autumn of 1906. It is an old remedy, the Indians esteeming it highly for stomach troubles, and it is said that it was sometimes cultivated by them in near-by ponds on account of its medicinal value. It has also been used as a domestic remedy and is regarded as an alterative, diuretic and purgative. It was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia of 1890. Crane's-Bill. Geranium Maculatum L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Geranium. Other Common Names--Spotted crane's-bill, wild crane's-bill, stork's-bill, spotted geranium, wild geranium, alum-root, alumbloom, chocolate-flower, crowfoot, dovefoot, old-maid's-nightcap, shameface. Habitat and Range--Crane's-Bill flourishes in low grounds and open woods from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Georgia and Missouri. Description of Plant--This pretty perennial plant belongs to the geranium family (Geraniaceae) and will grow sometimes to a height of 2 feet, but more generally it is only about a foot in height. The entire plant is more or less covered with hairs, and is erect and usually unbranched. The leaves are nearly circular or somewhat heart shaped in outline, 3 to 6 inches wide, deeply parted into three or five parts, each division again cleft and toothed. The basal leaves are borne on long stems, while those above have short stems. The flowers, which appear from April to June, are borne in a loose cluster; they are rose purple, pale or violet in color, about 1 inch or 1 1/2 inches wide, the petals delicately veined and woolly at the base and the sepals or calyx lobes with a bristle-shaped point, soft-hairy, the margins having a fringe of more bristly hairs. The fruit consists of a beaked capsule, springing open elastically, and dividing into five cells, each cell containing one seed. [Illustration: Crane's-bill (Geranium Maculatum), Flowering Plant, Showing also Seed Pods and Rootstock.] Description of Rootstock--When removed from the earth the rootstock of Crane's-bill is about 2 to 4 inches long, thick, with numerous branches bearing the young buds for next season's growth and scars showing the remains of stems of previous years, brown outside, white and fleshy internally, and with several stout roots. When dry, the rootstock turns a darker brown, is finely wrinkled externally, and has a rough spiny appearance, caused by the shrinking of the buds and branches and the numerous stem scars with which the root is studded. Internally it is of a somewhat purplish color. Crane's-bill root is without odor and the taste is very astringent. Collection, Prices and Uses--Crane's-bill root depends for its medicinal value on its astringent properties and as its astringency is due to the tannin content, the root should, of course, be collected at that season of the year when it is richest in that constituent. Experiments have proved that the yield of tannin in Crane's-bill is greatest just before flowering, which is in April or May, according to locality. It should, therefore, be collected just before the flowering periods, and not, as is commonly the case, in autumn. The price of this root ranges from 4 to 8 cents a pound. Crane's-bill root, which is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, is used as a tonic and astringent. CHAPTER XXXI. FIELD PLANTS. Dandelion. Taraxacum Officinale Weber, (a). Synonyms--Taraxacum taraxacum (L.) Karst: (a) Taraxacum densleonis Desf. Pharmacopoeial Names--Taraxacum. Other Common Names--Blow-ball, cankerwort, doon-head, clock, fortune-teller, horse gowan, Irish daisy, yellow gowan, one-o'clock. Habitat and Range--With the exception, possibly, of a few localities in the South, the dandelion is at home almost everywhere in the United States, being a familiar weed in meadows and waste places, and especially in lawns. It has been naturalized in this country from Europe and is distributed as a weed in all civilized parts of the world. Description of Plant--It is hardly necessary to give a description of the dandelion, as almost every one is familiar with the coarsely toothed, smooth, shining green leaves, the golden-yellow flowers which open in the morning and only in fair weather, and the round fluffy seed heads of this only too plentiful weed of the lawns. In spring the young, tender leaves are much sought after by the colored market women about Washington, who collect them by the basketful and sell them for greens and salad. Dandelion is a perennial belonging to the chicory family (Cichoriaceae) and is in flower practically throughout the year. The entire plant contains a white milky juice. Description of Root--The dandelion has a large, thick and fleshy taproot, sometimes measuring 20 inches in length. In commerce, dandelion root is usually found in pieces 3 to 6 inches long, dark brown on the outside and strongly wrinkled lengthwise. It breaks with a short fracture and shows the thick whitish bark marked with circles of milk ducts and a thin woody center, which is yellow and porous. It is practically without odor and has a bitter taste. [Illustration: Dandelion (Taraxacum Officinale).] Collections and Uses--Late in summer and in fall the milky juice becomes thicker and the bitterness increases and this is the time to collect dandelion root. It should be carefully washed and thoroughly dried. Dandelion roots lose considerably in drying, weighing less than half as much as the fresh roots. The dried root should not be kept too long, as drying diminishes its medicinal activity. It is official in the United States Pharmacopeia. Dandelion is used as a tonic in diseases of the liver and in dyspepsia. Imports and Prices--Most of the dandelion root found on the market is collected in central Europe. There has been an unusually large demand for dandelion root during the season of 1907 and according to the weekly records contained in "the Oil, Paint and Drug Reporter" the imports entered at the port of New York from January 1, 1907, to the end of May amounted to about 47,000 pounds. The price ranges from 4 to 10 cents a pound. Soapwort. Saponaria Officinalis L. Other Common Names--Saponaria, saponary, common soapwort, bouncing-bet, soaproot, bruisewort, Boston pink, chimney-pink, crow-soap, hedge-pink, old maid's pink, fuller's-herb, lady-by-the-gate, London-pride, latherwort, mock-gilliflower, scourwort, sheepweed, sweet-betty, wild sweet-william, woods-phlox, world's wonder. Habitat and Range--By one or another of its many common names this plant, naturalized from Europe, is known almost everywhere, occurring along roadsides and in waste places. Description of Plant--Soapwort is a rather pretty herbaceous perennial, 1 to 2 feet high, and belonging to the pink family (Silenaceae). Its smooth, stout and erect stem is leafy and sparingly branched, the leaves ovate, 2 to 3 inches long, smooth, prominently ribbed, and pointed at the apex. The bright looking, crowded clusters of pink (or in shady localities whitish) flowers appear from about June until far along in September. The five petals of the corolla are furnished with long "claws" or, in other words, they are narrowly lengthened toward the base and inserted within the tubular and pale green calyx. The seed capsule is oblong and one-celled. Description of Root--Soapwort spreads by means of its stolons, or underground runners. But the roots, which are rather long are the parts employed in medicine. These are cylindrical, tapering toward the apex, more or less branched, and wrinkled lengthwise. The whitish wood is covered with a brownish red, rather thick bark and the roots break with a short, smooth fracture. It is at first sweetish, bitter, and mucilaginous, followed by a persistently acrid taste, but it has no odor. [Illustration: Soapwort (Saponaria Officinalis).] Collection, Prices and Uses--As already indicated, the roots without the runners, should be collected either in spring or autumn. With water they form a lather, like soap, whence the common names soapwort, soaproot, latherwort, etc., are derived. The price ranges from 5 to 10 cents a pound. The roots are employed in medicine for their tonic, alterative and diaphoretic properties. The leaves are also used. Burdock. Arctium Lappa L. Synonym--Lappa major Gaertn. Pharmacopoeial Name--Lappa. Other Common Names--Cockle-button, cuckold-dock, beggar's-buttons, hurrbur, stick-buttons, hardock, bardane. Habitat and Range--Burdock, one of our most common weeds, was introduced from the Old World. It grows along road sides, in fields, pastures and waste places, being very abundant in the Eastern and Central States and in some scattered localities in the West. Description of Plant--Farmers are only too well acquainted with this coarse, unsightly weed. During the first year of its growth this plant, which is a biennial belonging to the aster family (Asteraceae), produces only a rosette of large, thin leaves from a long, tapering root. In the second year a round, fleshy, and branched stem is produced, the plant when full grown measuring from 3 to 7 feet in height. This stem is branched, grooved, and hairy, bearing very large leaves, the lower ones often measuring 18 inches in length. The leaves are placed alternately on the stem, on long, solid, deeply furrowed leafstalks; they are thin in texture, smooth on the upper surface, pale and woolly underneath; usually heart shaped, but sometimes roundish or oval, with even, wavy, or toothed margins. The flowers are not produced until the second year, appearing from July until frost. Burdock flowers are purple, in small, clustered heads armed with hooked tips, and the spiny burs thus formed are a great pest, attaching themselves to clothing and to the wool and hair of animals. Burdock is a prolific seed producer, one plant bearing as many as 400,000 seeds. [Illustration: Burdock (Arctium Lappa), Flowering Branch and Root.] Description of Rootstock--Burdock has a large, fleshy taproot, which when dry becomes scaly and wrinkled lengthwise and has a blackish brown or grayish brown color on the outside, hard, breaking with a short, somewhat fleshy fracture, and showing the yellowish wood with a whitish spongy center. Sometimes there is a small, white, silky tuft at the top of the root, which is formed by the remains of the bases of the leafstalks. The odor of the root is weak and unpleasant, the taste mucilaginous, sweetish and somewhat bitter. While the root is met with in commerce in its entire state, it is more frequently in broken pieces or in lengthwise slices, the edges of which are turned inward. The roots of other species of Arctium are also employed. Collection, Prices and Uses--Burdock root is official, and the United States Pharmacopoeia directs that it be collected from plants of the first year's growth, either of Arctium lappa or of other species of Arctium. As Burdock has a rather large, fleshy root, it is difficult to dry and is apt to become moldy, and for this reason it is better to slice the root lengthwise, which will facilitate the drying process. The price ranges from 5 to 10 cents a pound. The best root is said to come from Belgium, where great care is exercised in its collection and curing. Burdock root is used as an alterative in blood and skin diseases. The seeds and fresh leaves are also used medicinally to a limited extent. Yellow Dock. Rumex Crispus L. Other Common Names--Rumex, curled dock, narrow dock, sour dock. Habitat and Range--This troublesome weed, introduced from Europe, is now found thruout the United States, occurring in cultivated as well as in waste ground, among rubbish heaps and along the road side. Description of Plant--Yellow Dock is a perennial plant belonging to the buckwheat family (Polygonaceae), and has a deep, spindle shaped root, from which arises an erect, angular and furrowed stem, attaining a height of from 2 to 4 feet. The stem is branched near the top and leafy, bearing numerous long dense clusters formed by drooping groups of inconspicuous green flowers placed in circles around the stem. The flowers are produced from June to August, and the fruits which follow are in the form of small triangular nuts, like the grain of buckwheat, to which family the dock belongs. So long as the fruits are green and immature they can scarcely be distinguished from the flowers, but as they ripen the clusters take on a rusty brown color. The leaves of the yellow dock are lance shaped, acute, with the margins strongly waved and crisped, the lower long-stalked leaves being blunt or heart shaped at the base from 6 to 8 inches in length, while those nearer the top are narrower and shorter, only 3 to 6 inches in length, short stemmed or stemless. [Illustration: Yellow Dock (Rumex Crispus), First Year's Growth.] The broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusifolius L.), is known also as bitter dock, common dock, blunt-leaved dock, and butter-dock, is a very common weed found in waste places from the New England States to Oregon and south to Florida and Texas. It grows to about the same height as the yellow dock, to which it bears a close resemblance, differing principally in its more robust habit of growth. The stem is stouter than in yellow dock and the leaves, which likewise are wavy along the margin, are much broader and longer. The green flowers appear from June to August and are in rather long, open clusters, the groups rather loose and far apart. [Illustration: Broad-Leaved Dock (Rumex Obtusifolius), Leaf, Fruiting Spike and Root.] Description of Roots--Yellow Dock root is large and fleshy, usually from 8 to 12 inches long, tapering or spindle shaped, with few or no rootlets. When dry it is usually twisted and prominently wrinkled, the rather thick, dark, reddish brown bark marked with small scars. The inside of the root is whitish at first, becoming yellowish. The fracture is short, but shows some splintery fibers. The root, as it occurs in commerce, is either entire or occasionally split lengthwise. The darker colored root of the broad-leaved dock has a number of smaller branches near the crown and more rootlets. Dock roots have but a very faint odor and a bitter, astringent taste. Collection, Prices and Uses--The roots should be collected in late summer or autumn, after the fruiting tops have turned brown, then washed, either left entire or split lengthwise into halves or quarters and carefully dried. Yellow Dock root ranges from 4 to 6 cents a pound. In the United States Pharmacopoeia of 1890 "the roots of Rumex crispus and of some other species of Rumex" were official and both of the above-named species are used, but the Yellow Dock (Rumex crispus) is the species most commonly employed in medicine. The docks are largely used for purifying the blood and in the treatment of skin diseases. The young root leaves of both of the species mentioned are sometimes used in spring as pot herbs. CHAPTER XXXII. DRY SOIL PLANTS. Stillingia. Stillingia Sylvatica L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Stillingia. Other Common Names--Queen's-delight, queen's-root, silverleaf, nettle-potato. Habitat and Range--This plant is found in dry, sandy soil and in pine barrens from Maryland to Florida west to Kansas and Texas. Description of Plant--Like most of the other members of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae), stillingia also contains a milky juice. This indigenous, herbaceous perennial is about 1 to 3 feet in height, bright green and somewhat fleshy, with crowded leaves of a somewhat leathery texture. The leaves are practically stemless and vary greatly in form, from lance shaped, oblong, to oval and elliptical, round toothed or saw toothed. The pale yellow flowers, which appear from April to October, are borne in a dense terminal spike and consist of two kinds, male and female, the male flowers arranged in dense clusters around the upper part of the stalk and the female flowers occurring at the base of the spike. The seeds are contained in a roundish 3-lobed capsule. Description of Root--Stillingia consists of somewhat cylindrical or slenderly spindle shaped roots from 6 inches to a foot in length, slightly branched, the yellowish white, porous wood covered with a rather thick, reddish brown, wrinkled bark, the whole breaking with a fibrous fracture. As found in commerce, stillingia is usually in short transverse sections, the ends of the sections pinkish and fuzzy with numerous fine, silky bast fibres, and the bark showing scattered yellowish brown resin cells and milk ducts. It has a peculiar unpleasant odor, and a bitter, acrid and pungent taste. Collection, Prices and Uses--Stillingia root is collected in late autumn or early in spring, usually cut into short, transverse sections and dried. The price ranges from 3 to 5 cents a pound. This root, which is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, has been a popular drug in the South for more than a century and is employed principally as an alterative. American Colombo. Frasera Carolinensis Walt. Synonym--Frasera walteri Michx. Other Common Names--Frasera, meadowpride, pyramid-flower, pyramid-plant, Indian lettuce, yellow gentian, ground-century. Habit and Range American Colombo occurs in dry soil from the western part of New York to Wisconsin, south to Georgia and Kentucky. Description of Plant--During the first and second year of the growth of this plant only the root leaves are produced These are generally somewhat rounded at the summit, narrowed toward the base, and larger than the stem leaves, which develop in the third year. The leaves are deep green and produced mostly in whorls of four, the stem leaves being 3 to 6 inches in length and oblong or lance shaped. In the third year the stem is developed and the flowers are produced from June to August. The stem is stout, erect, cylindrical, and 3 to 8 feet in height. The flowers of American Colombo are borne in large terminal, handsome pyramidal clusters, sometimes 2 feet in length, and are greenish yellow or yellowish white, dotted with brown purple. They are slender stemmed, about 1 inch across, with a wheel shaped, 4-parted corolla The seeds are contained in a much compressed capsule. American Colombo is an indigenous perennial and belongs to the gentian family (Gentianaceae.) Description of Root--The root is long, horizontal, spindle shaped, yellow, and wrinkled. In the fresh state it is fleshy and quite heavy. The American Colombo root of commerce, formerly in transverse slices, now generally occurs in lengthwise slices. The outside is yellowish or pale orange and the inside spongy and pale yellow. The taste is bitter. American Colombo root resembles the official gentian root in taste and odor, and the uses are also similar. [Illustration: American Colombo (Frasera Carolinensis), Leaves, Flowers and Seed Pods.] Collection, Prices and Uses--The proper time for collecting American Colombo root is in the autumn of the second year or in March or April of the third year. It is generally cut into lengthwise slices before drying. The price of American Colombo root ranges from 3 to 5 cents a pound. The dried root, which was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1880, is used as a simple tonic. In the fresh state the root possesses emetic and cathartic properties. Couch-Grass. Agropyron repens (L.) Beauv. Synonym--Triticum repens L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Triticum. Other Common Names--Dog-grass, quick-grass, quack-grass, quitch-grass, quake-grass, scutch-grass, twitch-grass, witch-grass, wheat-grass, creeping wheat-grass, devil's grass, durfa-grass, Durfee-grass, Dutch-grass, Fin's-grass, Chandler's-grass. Habitat and Range--Like many of our weeds, couch-grass was introduced from Europe, and is now one of the worst pests the farmer has to contend with, taking possession of the cultivated ground and crowding out valuable crops. It occurs most abundantly from Maine to Maryland, westward to Minnesota and Minnesota, and is spreading on farms on the Pacific slope, but is rather sparingly distributed in the South. [Illustration: Couch-Grass (Agrophyron Repens).] Description of Plant--Couch-grass is rather coarse, 1 to 3 feet high, and when in flower very much resemble rye or beardless wheat. Several round, smooth, hollow stems, thickened at the joints, are produced from the long, creeping, jointed rootstock. The stems bear 5 to 7 leaves from 3 to 12 inches long, rough on the upper surface and smooth beneath, while the long, cleft leaf sheaths are smooth. The solitary terminal flowering heads or spikes are compressed, and consist of two rows of spikelets on a wavy and flattened axis. These heads are produced from July to September. Couch Grass belongs to the grass family (Poaceae.) Description of Rootstock--The pale yellow, smooth rootstock is long, tough and jointed, creeping along underneath the ground, and pushing in every direction. As found in the stores, it consists of short, angular pieces, from one eighth to one-fourth of an inch long, of a shining straw color, and hollow. These pieces are odorless, but have a somewhat sweetish taste. Collection, Prices and Uses--Couch-Grass, which is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, should be collected in spring, carefully cleaned, and the rootlets removed. The rootstock (not rootlets) is then cut into short pieces about two-fifths of an inch in length, for which purpose an ordinary feed-cutting machine may be used, and thoroughly dried. Couch-Grass is usually destroyed by plowing up and burn ing, for if any of the joints are permitted to remain in the soil new plants will be produced. But, instead of burning, the rootstocks may be saved and prepared for the drug market in the manner above stated. The prices range from 3 to 5 cents a pound. At present Couch-Grass is collected chiefly in Europe. A fluid extract is prepared from Couch-Grass, which is used in affections of the kidney and bladder. Echinacea. Brauneria Angustifolia (DC) Heller. Synonym--Echinacea angustifolia DC. Other Common Names--Pale-purple coneflower, Sampson-root, niggerhead (in Kansas.) Habitat and Range--Echinacea is found in scattered patches in rich prairie soil or sandy soil from Alabama to Texas and northwestward, being most abundant in Kansas and Nebraska. Tho not growing wild in the Eastern States, It has succeeded well under cultivation in the testing gardens of the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C. [Illustration: Echinacea (Brauneria Angustifolia).] Description of Plant--This native herbaceous perennial, belonging to the aster family (Asteraceae), grows to a height of from 2 to 3 feet. It sends up a rather stout bristly-hairy stem, bearing thick rough-hairy leaves, which are broadly lance shaped or linear lance shaped, entire, 3 to 8 inches long, narrowed at each end, and strongly three nerved. The lower leaves have slender stems, but as they approach the top of the plant the stems become shorter and some of the upper leaves are stemless. The flower heads appearing from July to October, are very pretty, and the plant would do well as an ornamental in gardens. The flowers remain on the plant for a long time, and the color varies from whitish rose to pale purple. The head consists of ray flowers and disk flowers, the former constituting the "petals" surrounding the disk, and the disk itself being composed of small, tubular, greenish yellow flowers. When the flowers first appear the disk is flattened or really concave, but as the flowering progresses it becomes conical in shape. The brown fruiting heads are conical, chaffy, stiff and wiry. Description of Root--Echinacea has a thick, blackish root, which in commerce occurs in cylindrical pieces of varying length and thickness. The dried root is grayish brown on the outside, the bark wrinkled lengthwise and sometimes spirally twisted. It breaks with a short, weak fracture, showing yellow or greenish yellow wood edges, which give the impression that the wood is decayed. The odor is scarcely perceptible and the taste is mildly aromatic, afterwards becoming acrid and inducing a flow of saliva. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root of Echinacea is collected in autumn and brings from 20 to 30 cents a pound. It is said that Echinacea varies greatly in quality due chiefly to the locality in which it grows. According to J. U. Lloyd, the best quality comes from the prairie lands of Nebraska and that from marshy places is inferior. Echinacea is said to be an alterative and to promote perspiration and induce a flow of saliva. The Indians used the freshly scraped roots for the cure of snake bites. Aletris. Aletris Farinosa L. Other Common Names--Stargrass, blazingstar, mealy starwort, starwort, unicorn-root, true unicorn-root, unicorn-plant, unicorn's-horn, colic-root, devil's-bit, ague-grass, ague-root, aloe-root, crow-corn, huskwort. A glance at these common names will show many that have been applied to other plants, especially to Chamaelirium, with which Aletris is so much confused. In order to guard against this confusion as much as possible, it is best not to use the common names of this plant at all, referring to it only by its generic name, Aletris. [Illustration: Aletris (Aletris Farinosa).] Habitat and Range--Aletris occurs in dry, generally sandy soil, from Maine to Minnesota, Florida and Tennessee. Description of Plant--As stated under Chamaelirium, this plant is often confused with the former by collectors and others, although there seems to be no good reason why this should be so. The plants do not resemble each other except in habit of growth, and the trouble undoubtedly arose from a confusion of the somewhat similar common names of the plants, as, for instance, "stargrass" and "starwort." Aletris may be at once distinguished by the grasslike leaves, which spread out on the ground in the form of a star, and by the slender spikes of rough, mealy flowers. This native perennial, belonging to the lily family (Liliaceae), is an erect, slender herb, 1 1/2 to 3 feet tall, with basal leaves only. These leaves are grasslike, from 2 to 6 inches long, and have a yellowish green or willow-green color. As already stated, they surround the base of the stem in the form of a star. Instead of stem leaves, there are very small, leaflike bracts placed at some distance apart on the stem. From May to July the erect flowering spike, from 4 to 12 inches long, is produced, bearing white, urn-shaped flowers, sometimes tinged with yellow at the apex, and having a rough, wrinkled and mealy appearance. The seed capsule is ovoid, opening by three halves, and containing many seeds. When the flowers in the spike are still in bud, there is a suggestion of resemblance to the female spike of Chamaelirium with its fruit half formed. Several other species are recognized by botanists, namely, Aletris Aurea Walt., A. lutea Small, and A. obovata Nash, but aside from the flowers, which in aurea and lutea are yellow, and slight variations in form, such as a more contracted perianth, the differences are not so pronounced that the plants would require a detailed description here. They have undoubtedly been collected with Aletris farinosa for years, and are sufficiently like it to be readily recognized. Description of Rootstock--Not only have the plants of Aletris and Chamaelirium been confused, but the rootstocks as well. There is, however, no resemblance between them. Aletris has a horizontal rootstock from one-half to 1 1/2 inches in length, rough and scaly, and almost completely hidden by the fibrous roots and remains of the basal leaves. Upon close examination the scars of former leaf stems may be seen along the upper surface. The rootlets are from 2 to 10 inches in length, those of recent growth whitish and covered with several layers of epidermis which gradually peel off, and the older rootlets of the rootstock showing this epidermis already scaled off, leaving only the hard, brown, woody center. The rootstock in commerce almost invariably shows at one end a tuft of the remains of the basal leaves, which do not lose their green color. It is grayish brown outside, whitish within, and breaks with a mealy fracture. It has no odor, and a starchy taste, followed by some acridity, but no bitterness. Collection, Prices and Uses--Aletris should be collected in autumn, and there is no reason why collectors should make the common mistake of confusing Aletris with Chamaelirium. By comparing the description of Aletris with that of Chamaelirium, it will be seen that there is scarcely any resemblance. Aletris ranges from 30 to 40 cents a pound. As indicated under Chamaelirium, the medicinal properties have also been considered the same in both plants, but Aletris is now regarded of value chiefly in digestive troubles. Aletris was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1870. Wild Indigo. Baptisia Tinctoria (L.) R. Br. Other Common Names--Baptisia, indigo-weed, yellow indigo, American indigo, yellow broom, indigo-broom, clover-broom, broom-clover, horsefly-weed, shoofly, rattlebush. Habitat and Range--This native herb grows on dry, poor land, and is found from Maine to Minnesota, south to Florida and Louisiana. Description of Plant--Many who have been brought up in the country will recognize in the wild indigo the plant so frequently used by farmers, especially in Virginia and Maryland, to keep flies away from horses, bunches of it being fastened to the harness for this purpose. [Illustration: Wild Indigo (Baptisia Tinctoris) Branch Showing Flowers and Seed Pods.] Wild Indigo grows about 2 to 3 feet in height and the clover-like blossoms and leaves will show at once that it belongs to the same family as the common clover, namely, the pea family (Fabaceae). It is an erect, much-branched, very leafy plant of compact growth, the 3-leaved, bluish green foliage somewhat resembling clover leaves. The flowers, as already stated, are like common clover flowers--that is, not like clover heads, but the single flowers composing these; they are bright yellow, about one-half inch in length and are produced in numerous clusters which appear from June to September. The seed pods, on stalks longer than the calyx, are nearly globular or ovoid and are tipped with an awl shaped style. Another species, said to possess properties similar to those of baptisia tinctoria and substituted for it, is B. alba R. Br., called the white wild indigo. This plant has white flowers and is found in the Southern States and on the plains of the Western States. Description of Root--Wild Indigo has a thick, knotty crown or head, with several stem scars, and a round, fleshy root, sending out cylindrical branches and rootlets almost 2 feet in length. The white woody interior is covered with a thick, dark brown bark, rather scaly or dotted with small, wart-like excrescences. The root breaks with a tough, fibrous fracture. There is a scarcely perceptible odor and the taste, which resides chiefly in the bark, is nauseous, bitter and acrid. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root of Wild Indigo is collected in autumn, and brings from 4 to 8 cents a pound. Large doses of Wild Indigo are emetic and cathartic and may prove dangerous. It also has stimulant, astringent and antiseptic properties, and is used as a local application to sores, ulcers, etc. The herb is sometimes employed like the root and the entire plant was official from 1830 to 1840. In some sections the young, tender shoots are used for greens, like those of pokeweed, but great care must be exercised to gather them before they are too far advanced in growth, as otherwise bad results will follow. A blue coloring matter has been prepared from the plant and used as a substitute for indigo, to which, however, it is very much inferior. Pleurisy-Root. Asclepias Tuberosa L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Asclepias. Other Common Names--Butterfly weed, Canada-root, Indian-posy, orange-root, orange swallowwort, tuberroot, whiteroot, windroot, yellow or orange milkweed. Habitat and Range--Pleurisy-Root flourishes in the open or in the pine woods, in dry, sandy or gravelly soil, usually along the banks of streams. Its range extends from Ontario and Maine to Minnesota, south to Florida, Texas and Arizona, but it is found in greatest abundance in the South. Description of Plant--This is a very showy and ornamental perennial plant, indigenous to this country, and belonging to the milkweed family (Asclepiadaceae); it is erect and rather stiff in habit, but with brilliant heads of bright orange-colored flowers that attract attention from afar. The stems are rather stout, erect, hairy, about 1 to 2 feet in height, sometimes branched near the top, and bearing a thick growth of leaves. These are either stemless or borne on short stems, are somewhat rough to the touch, 2 to 6 inches long, lance shaped or oblong, the apex either sharp pointed or blunt, with a narrow, rounded or heart shaped base. The flower heads, borne at the ends of the stem and branches, consist of numerous, oddly shaped orange colored flowers. The corolla is composed of five segments, which are reflexed or turned back and the crown has five erect or spreading "hoods," within each of which is a slender incurved horn. The plant is in flower for some time, usually from June to September, followed late in the fall by pods, which are from 4 to 5 inches long, green, tinged with red, finely hairy on the outside, and containing the seeds with their long, silky hairs. Unlike the other milkweeds, the Pleurisy Root contains little or no milky juice. Description of Root--The root of this plant is large, white and fleshy, spindle shaped, branching. As found in commerce it consists of lengthwise or crosswise pieces from 1 to 6 inches in length and about three-fourths of an inch in thickness. It is wrinkled lengthwise and also transversely and has a knotty head. The thin bark is orange brown and the wood yellowish, with white rays. It has no odor and a somewhat bitter, acrid taste. [Illustration: Pleurisy-Root (Asclepias Tuberosa).] Collection, Prices and Uses--The root, which is usually found rather deep in the soil, is collected in autumn, cut into transverse or lengthwise slices and dried. The price ranges from 6 to 10 cents a pound. Pleurisy-Root was much esteemed by the Indians, has long been used in domestic practice, and is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. It is used in disordered digestion and in affections of the lungs, in the last-named instance to promote expectoration, relieve pains in the chest, and induce easier breathing. It is also useful in producing perspiration. Other Species--Besides the official Pleurisy-Root there are two other species of Asclepias which are employed to some extent for the same purposes, namely, the common milkweed and the swamp-milkweed. The common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca L.) is a perennial, native in fields and waste places from Canada to North Carolina and Kansas. It has a stout, usually simple stem 3 to 5 feet in height and oblong or oval leaves, smooth on the upper surface and densely hairy beneath. The flowers, similar in form to those of Asclepias tuberosa, are pinkish purple and appear from June to August, followed by erect pods 3 to 5 inches long, woolly with matted hair and covered with prickles and borne on recurved stems. The plant contains an abundance of milky juice. The root of the common milkweed is from 1 to 6 feet long, cylindrical and finely wrinkled. The short branches and scars left by former stems give the root a round, knotty appearance. The bark is thick, grayish brown and the inside white, the root breaking with a short, splintery fracture. Common milkweed root has a very bitter taste, but no odor. It is collected in autumn and cut into transverse slices before drying. Common milkweed ranges from 6 to 8 cents a pound. Swamp-milkweed (Asclepias incarnata L.) is a native perennial herb found in swamps from Canada to Tennessee and Kansas. The slender stem, leafy to the top, is 1 to 2 feet in height, branched above, the leaves lance shaped or oblong lance shaped. The flowers, also similar to those A tuberosa, appear from July to September, and are flesh colored or rose colored. The pods are 2 to 3 1/2 inches long, erect, and very sparingly hairy. The root of the swamp-milkweed, which is also collected in autumn, is not quite an inch in length, hard and knotty, with several light brown rootlets. The tough white wood, which has a thick, central pith, is covered with a thin, yellowish brown bark. It is practically without odor, and the taste, sweetish at first, finally becomes bitter. This root brings about 3 cents a pound. CHAPTER XXXIII. RICH SOIL PLANTS. Bloodroot. Sanguinaria Canadensis L. Pharmacopoeial--Sanguinaria. Other Common Names--Redroot, red puccoon, red Indian-paint, puccoon-root, coonroot, white puccoon, pauson, snakebite, sweet-slumber, tetterwort, tumeric. Habitat and Range--Bloodroot is found in rich, open woods from Canada south to Florida and west to Arkansas and Nebraska. Description of Plant--This indigenous plant is among the earliest of our spring flowers, the waxy-white blossom, enfolded by the grayish green leaf, usually making its appearance early in April. The stem and root contain a blood-red juice. Bloodroot is a perennial and belongs to the same family as the opium poppy, the Papaveraceae. Each bud on the thick, horizontal rootstock produces but a single leaf and a flowering scape, reaching about 6 inches in height. The plant is smooth and both stem and leaves, especially when young, present a grayish green appearance, being covered with a "bloom" such as is found on some fruits. The leaves are palmately 5 to 9 lobed, the lobes either cleft at the apex or having a wavy margin, and are borne on leaf stems about 6 to 14 inches long. After the plants have ceased flowering the leaves, at first only 3 inches long and 4 to 5 inches broad, continue to expand until they are about 4 to 7 inches long and 6 to 12 inches broad. The under side of the leaf is paler than the upper side and shows prominent veins. The flower measures about 1 inch across, is white, rather waxlike in appearance, with numerous golden-yellow stamens in the center. The petals soon fall off, and the oblong, narrow seed pod develops, attaining a length of about an inch. [Illustration: Bloodroot (Sanguinaria Canadensis) Flowering Plant with Rootstock.] Description of Rootstock--When dug out of the ground Bloodroot is rather thick, round and fleshy, slightly curved at the ends, and contains a quantity of blood-red juice. It is from 1 to 4 inches in length, from one-half to 1 inch in thickness, externally reddish brown, internally a bright red blood color, and produces many thick, orange colored rootlets. The rootstock shrinks considerably in drying, the outside turning dark brown and the inside orange-red or yellowish with numerous small red dots, and it breaks with a short, sharp fracture. It has but a slight odor and the taste is bitter and acrid and very persistent. The powdered root causes sneezing. Collection, Prices and Use--The rootstock should be collected in autumn, after the leaves have died, and after curing, it should be stored in a dry place, as it rapidly deteriorates if allowed to become moist. Age also impairs its acridity. The price paid to collectors for this root ranges from about 5 to 10 cents per pound. Bloodroot was well known to the American Indians, who used the red juice as a dye for skins and baskets and for painting their faces and bodies. It is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia and is used as a tonic, alterative, stimulant and emetic. Pinkroot. Spigelia Marilandica L. Pharmacopoeial Name--Spigelia. Other Common Names--Carolina pinkroot, pinkroot, Carolina pink, Maryland pink, Indian pink, starbloom, wormgrass, wormweed, American wormroot. Habitat and Range--This pretty little plant is found in rich woods from New Jersey to Florida, west to Texas and Wisconsin, but occurring principally in the Southern States. It is fast disappearing, however from its native haunts. [Illustration: Pinkroot (Spigelia Marilandica).] Description of Plant--Pinkroot belongs to the same family as the yellow jasmine, namely, the Logania family (Loganiaceae), noted for its poisonous species. It is a native perennial herb, with simple, erect stem 6 inches to 1 1/2 feet high, nearly smooth. The leaves are stemless, generally ovate, pointed at the apex and rounded or narrowed at the base; they are from 2 to 4 inches long, one-half to 2 inches wide, smooth on the upper surface, and only slightly hairy on the veins on the lower surface. The rather showy flowers are produced from May to July in a terminal one-sided spike; they are from 1 to 2 inches in length, somewhat tube shaped, narrowed below, slightly inflated toward the center, and again narrowed or contracted toward the top, terminating in five lance shaped lobes; the flowers are very showy, with their brilliant coloring--bright scarlet on the outside, and the inside of the tube, and the lobes a bright yellow. The seed capsule is double, consisting of two globular portions more or less united, and containing numerous seeds. Description of Rootstock--The rootstock is rather small, from 1 to 2 inches in length and about one-sixteenth of an inch in thickness. It is somewhat crooked or bent, dark brown, with a roughened appearance of the upper surface caused by cup shaped scars, the remains of former annual stems. The lower surface and the sides have numerous long, finely branched, lighter colored roots, which are rather brittle. Pinkroot has a pleasant, aromatic odor, and the taste is described as sweetish, bitter and pungent. Collection, Prices and Uses--Pinkroot is collected after the flowering period. It is said to be scarce, and was reported as becoming scarce as long ago as 1830. The price paid to collectors ranges from 25 to 40 cents a pound. The roots of other plants, notably those of the East Tennessee pinkroot (Ruellia ciliosa Pursh), are often found mixed with the true Pinkroot, and the Ruellia ciliosa is even substituted for it. This adulteration or substitution probably accounts for the inertness which has sometimes been attributed to the true Pinkroot and which has caused it to fall into more or less disuse. It has long been known that the true Pinkroot was adulterated, but this adulteration was supposed to be caused by the admixture of Carolina phlox (Phlox Carolina L., now known as Phlox ovata L.), but this is said now to be no part of the substitution. The rootstock of Ruellia ciliosa is larger and not as dark as that of the Maryland pinkroot and has fewer and coarser roots, from which the bark readily separates, leaving the whitish wood exposed. Pinkroot was long known by the Indians, and its properties were made known to physicians by them. It is official in the United States Pharmacopoeia and is used principally as an anthelmintic. Indian-Physic. Porteranthus Trifoliatus (L.) Britton. Synonym--Gilenia Trifoliata Moench. Other Common Names--Gilenia, bowman's-root, false ipecac, western dropwort, Indian-hippo. Habitat and Range--Indian-Physic is native in rich woods from New York to Michigan, south to Georgia and Missouri. Description of Plant--The reddish stems of this slender, graceful perennial of the rose family (Rosaceae) are about 2 to 3 feet high, several erect and branched stems being produced from the same root. The leaves are almost stemless and trifoliate; that is, composed of three leaflets. They are ovate or lanceolate, 2 to 3 inches long, narrowed at the base, smooth and toothed. The nodding, white pinkish flowers are few, produced in loose terminal clusters from May to July. The five petals are long, narrowed or tapering toward the base, white or pinkish, and inserted in the tubular, somewhat bell shaped, red tinged calyx. The seed pods are slightly hairy. At the base of the leaf stems are small leaflike parts, called stipules, which in this species are very small, linear and entire. In the following species, which is very similar to trifoliatus and collected with it, the stipules, however, are so much larger that they form a prominent character, which has given rise to its specific name, stipulatus. [Illustration: Indian Physic (Porteranthus Trifoliatus).] Porteranthus stipulatus (Muhl.) Britton (Syn. Gillenia stipulacea Nutt.) is found in similar situations as P. trifoliatus, but generally farther west, its range extending from western New York to Indiana and Kansas, south to Alabama, Louisiana and Indian Territory. The general appearance of this plant is very similar to that of P. trifoliatus. It grows to about the same height, but is generally more hairy, the leaflets narrower and more deeply toothed, and the flowers perhaps a trifle smaller. The stipules, however, will generally serve to distinguish it. These are large, broad, ovate, acute at the apex, sharply and deeply notched and so much like leaves that but for their position at the base of the leaf stems they might easily be mistaken for them. With the exception of the name American ipecac applied to this plant, the common names of Porteranthus trifoliatus are also used for P. stipulatus. The roots of both species are collected and used for the same purpose. Description of Roots--The root Porteranthus trifoliatus is thick and knotty, with many smoothish, reddish brown rootlets, the latter in drying becoming wrinkled lengthwise and showing a few transverse fissures or breaks in the bark, and the interior white and woody. There is practically no odor and the woody portion is tasteless, but the bark, which is readily separable, is bitter, increasing the flow of saliva. Porteranthus stipulatus has a larger, more knotty root, with rootlets that are more wavy, constricted or marked with numerous transverse rings, and the bark fissured or breaking from the white woody portion at frequent intervals. Collection, Prices and Uses--The roots of both species are collected in autumn. The prices range from 2 to 4 cents a pound. Indian-Physic or bowman's root, as these names imply, was a popular remedy with the Indians, who used it as an emetic. From them the white settlers learned of its properties and it is still used for its emetic action. This drug was at one time official in the United States Pharmacopoeia, from 1820 to 1880. Its action is said to resemble that of ipecac. Wild Sarsaparilla. Arala Nudicaulis L. Other Common Names--False sarsaparilla, Virginia sarsaparilla, American sarsaparilla, small spikenard, rabbit's-root, shotbush, wild licorice. Habitat and Range--Wild Sarsaparilla grows in rich, moist woods from Newfoundland west to Manitoba and south to North Carolina and Missouri. Description of Plant--This native herbaceous perennial, belonging to the ginseng family (Araliaceae), produces a single, long-stalked leaf and flowering stalk from a very short stem, both surrounded or sheathed at the base by thin, dry scales. The leafstalk is about 12 inches long divided at the top into three parts, each division bearing five oval, toothed leaflets from 2 to 5 inches long, the veins on the lower surface sometimes hairy. The naked flowering stalk bears three spreading clusters of small, greenish flowers, each cluster consisting of from 12 to 30 flowers produced from May to June, followed later in the season by purplish black roundish berries, about the size of the common elderberries. [Illustration: Wild Sarsaparilla (Aralia Nudicaulis).] Description of Rootstock--Wild Sarsaparilla rootstock has a very fragrant, aromatic odor. Rabbits are said to be very fond of it, whence one of the common names, "rabbit's-root," is derived. The rootstock is rather long, horizontally creeping, somewhat twisted, and yellowish brown on the outside. The taste is warm and aromatic. The dried rootstock is brownish, gray and wrinkled lengthwise on the outside, about one-fourth of an inch in thickness, the inside whitish with a spongy pith. The taste is sweetish and somewhat aromatic. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root of Wild Sarsaparilla is collected in autumn, and brings from 5 to 8 cents a pound. This has long been a popular remedy, both among the Indians and domestic practice, and was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1880. Its use is that of an alterative, stimulant and diaphoretic and in this it resembles the official sarsaparilla obtained from tropical America. Similar Species--The American spikehead (Aralia racemosa L.), known also as spignet, spiceberry, Indian-root, petty-morrel, life-of-man and old-man's-root, is employed like Aralia nudicaulis. It is distinguished from this by its taller, herbaceous habit, its much-branched stem from 3 to 6 feet high and very large leaves consisting of thin, oval, heart shaped, double saw-toothed leaflets. The small, greenish flowers are arranged in numerous clusters, instead of only three as in nudicaulis and also appear somewhat later, namely, from July to August. The berries are roundish, reddish brown, or dark purple. The rootstock is shorter than that of nudicaulis and much thicker, with prominent stem scars, and furnished with numerous, very long, rather thin roots. The odor and taste are stronger than in nudicaulis. It is also collected in autumn, and brings from 4 to 8 cents a pound. The American spikenard occurs in similar situations as nudicaulis, but its range extends somewhat farther South, Georgia being given as the Southern limit. The California spikenard (Aralia californica Wats.) may be used for the same purpose as the other species. The plant is larger than Aralia racemosa, but otherwise is very much like it. The root is also larger than that of A. racemosa. CHAPTER XXXIV. MEDICINAL HERBS. American Angelica. Angelica Atropurpurea L. Synonym--Archangelica atropurpurea Hoffn. Other Common Names--Angelica, purple-stemmed angelica, great angelica, high angelicam, purple angelica, masterwort. Habitat and Range--American Angelica is a native herb, common in swamps and damp places from Labrador to Delaware and west to Minnesota. Description of Plant--This strong-scented, tall, stout perennial reaches a height of from 4 to 6 feet, with a smooth, dark purple, hollow stem 1 to 2 inches in diameter. The leaves are divided into three parts, each of which is again divided into threes; the rather thin segments are oval or ovate, somewhat acute, sharply toothed and sometimes deeply cut, and about 2 inches long. The lower leaves sometimes measure 2 feet in width, while the upper ones are smaller, but all have very broad, expanded stalks. The greenish white flowers are produced from June to July in somewhat roundish, many-rayed umbels or heads, which sometimes are 8 to 10 inches in diameter. The fruits are smooth, compressed and broadly oval. American Angelica root is branched, from 3 to 6 inches long, and less than an inch in diameter. The outside is light, brownish gray, with deep furrows, and the inside nearly white, the whole breaking with a short fracture and the thick bark showing fine resin dots. It has an aromatic odor, and the taste at first is sweetish and spicy, afterwards bitter. The fresh root is said to possess poisonous properties. The root of the European or garden angelica (Angelica officinalis Moench) supplies much of the angelica root of commerce. This is native in northern Europe and is very widely cultivated, especially in Germany, for the root. [Illustration: American Angelica (Angelica Atropurpurea).] Collection, Prices and Uses--The root is dug in autumn and carefully dried. Care is also necessary in preserving the root, as it is very liable to the attacks of insects. American Angelica root ranges from 6 to 10 cents a pound. American Angelica root, which was official in the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1820 to 1860 is used as an aromatic, tonic, stimulant, carminative, diuretic and diaphoretic. In large doses it acts as an emetic. The seeds are also employed medicinally. Comfrey. Symphytum Officinale L. Other Common Names--Symphytum, healing herb, knitback, ass-ear, backwort, blackwort, bruisewort, gum-plant, slippery-root. Habitat and Range--Comfrey is naturalized from Europe and occurs in waste places from Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Maryland. [Illustration: Comfrey (Symphytum Officinale).] Description of Plant--This coarse, rough, hairy, perennial herb is from 2 to 3 feet high, erect and branched, with thick, rough leaves, the lower ones ovate lance shaped, 3 to 10 inches long, pointed at the apex, and narrowed at the base into margined stems. The uppermost leaves are lance shaped, smaller and stemless. Comfrey is in flower from June to August, the purplish or dirty white, tubular, bell shaped flowers numerous and borne in dense terminal clusters. The nutlets which follow are brown, shinning and somewhat wrinkled. Comfrey belongs to the borage family (Boraginaceae.) Description of Root--Comfrey has a large, deep, spindle-shaped root, thick and fleshy at the top, white inside and covered with a thin, blackish brown bark. The dried root is hard, black and very deeply and roughly wrinkled, breaking with a smooth, white, waxy fracture. As it occurs in commerce it is in pieces ranging from about an inch to several inches in length, only about one-fourth of an inch in thickness, and usually considerably bent. It has a very mucilaginous, somewhat sweetish and astringent taste, but no odor. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root is dug in autumn, or sometimes in early spring. Comfrey root when first dug is very fleshy and juicy, but about four-fifths of its weight is lost in drying. The price ranges from 4 to 8 cents a pound. The mucilaginous character of Comfrey root renders it useful in coughs and diarrheal complaints. Its action is demulcent and slightly astringent. The leaves are also used to some extent. Elecampane. Inula Helenium L. Other Common Names--Inula, inul, horseheal, elf-dock, elfwort, horse-elder, scabwort, yellow starwort, velvet dock, wild sunflower. Habitat and Range--This perennial herb has been naturalized from Europe, and is found along the roadsides and in fields and damp pastures from Nova Scotia to North Carolina, westward to Missouri and Minnesota. It is a native also in Asia. Description of Plant--When in flower elecampane resembles the sunflower on a small scale. Like the sunflower, it is a member of the aster family (Asteraceae). It is a rough plant, growing from 3 to 6 feet in height, but producing during the first year only root leaves, which attain considerable size. In the following season the stout densely hairy stem develops, attaining a height of from 3 to 6 feet. [Illustration: Elecampane (Inula Helenium).] The leaves are broadly oblong in form, toothed, the upper surface rough and the under side densely soft-hairy. The basal or root leaves are borne on long stems, and are from 10 to 20 inches long and 4 to 8 inches wide, while the upper leaves are smaller and stemless or clasping. About July to September the terminal flower heads are produced, either singly or a few together. As already stated, these flower heads look very much like small sunflowers, 2 to 4 inches broad, and consist of long, narrow, yellow rays, 3 toothed at the apex, and the disk also is yellow. Description of Root--Elecampane has a large, long, branching root, pale yellow on the outside and whitish and fleshy within. When dry the outside turns a grayish brown or dark brown, and is generally finely wrinkled lengthwise. As found in commerce, elecampane is usually in transverse or lengthwise slices, light yellow or grayish and fleshy internally, dotted with numerous shining resin cells, and with overlapping brown or wrinkled bark. These slices become flexible in damp weather and tough, but when they are dry they break with a short fracture. The root has at first a strongly aromatic odor, which has been described by some as resembling a violet odor, but this diminished in drying. The taste is aromatic, bitterish and pungent. Collection, Prices, and Uses--The best time for collecting elecampane is in the fall of the second year. If collected later than that the roots are apt to be stringy and woody. Owing to the interlacing habit of the rootlets, much dirt adheres to the root, but it should be well cleaned, cut into transverse or lengthwise slices, and carefully dried in the shade. Collectors receive from 3 to 5 cents a pound for this root. Elecampane, which was official in the United States Pharmacopeia of 1890, is much used in affections of the respiratory organs, in digestive and liver disorders, catarrhal discharges and skin diseases. Queen-of-the-Meadow. Eupatorium Purpureum. Other Common Names--Gravelroot, Indian gravelroot, joe-pye-weed, purple boneset, tall boneset, kidney root, king-of-the-meadow, marsh-milkweed, motherwort, niggerweed, quillwort, slunkweed, trumpetweed. Habitat and Range--This common native perennial herb occurs in low grounds and dry woods and meadows from Canada to Florida and Texas. Description of Plant--The stout, erect, green or purple stem of this plant grows from 3 to 10 feet in height and is usually smooth, simple or branched at the top. The thin, veiny leaves are 4 to 12 inches long, 1 to 3 inches wide, ovate or ovate lance shaped, sharp pointed, toothed and placed around the stem in whorls of three to six. While the upper surface of the leaves is smooth, there is usually a slight hairiness along the veins on the lower surface, otherwise smooth. Toward the latter part of the summer and in early fall queen-of-the-meadow is in flower, producing 5 to 15 flowered pink or purplish heads, all aggregated in large compound clusters which present a rather showy appearance. This plant belongs to the aster family (Asteraceae). [Illustration: Queen-of-the-Meadow (Eupatorium Purpureum).] Another species which is collected with this and for similar purposes, and by some regarded as only a variety, is the spotted boneset or spotted joe-pye-weed (Eupatorium maculatum L.) This is very similar to E. purpureum, but it does not grow so tall, is rough-hairy and has the stem spotted with purple. The thicker leaves are coarsely toothed and in whorls of three to five and the flower clusters are flattened at the top rather than elongated as in E. purpureum. It is found in moist soil from New York to Kentucky, westward to Kansas, New Mexico, Minnesota, and as far up as British Columbia. Description of Root--Queen-of-meadow root, as it occurs in commerce, is blackish and woody, furnished with numerous long dark-brown fibers, which are furrowed or wrinkled lengthwise and whitish within. It has a bitter, aromatic and astringent taste. Collection, Prices and Uses--The root is collected in autumn and is used for its astringent and diuretic properties. It was official in the United States Pharmacopeia from 1820 to 1840. The price ranges from 2 1/2 to 4 cents a pound. CHAPTER XXXV. MEDICINAL SHRUBS. Hydrangea. Hydrangea Arborescens L. Other Common Names--Wild hydrangea, seven-barks. Habitat and Range--Hydrangea frequents rocky river banks and ravines from the southern part of New York to Florida, and westward to Iowa and Missouri, being especially abundant in the valley of the Delaware and southward. Description of Plant--Hydrangea is an indigenous shrub, 5 to 6 feet or more in height, with weak twigs, slender leaf stems and thin leaves. It belongs to the hydrangea family (Hydrangeaceae). The leaves are oval or sometimes heart shaped, 3 to 6 inches long, sharply toothed, green on both sides, the upper smooth and the lower sometimes hairy. The shrub is in flower from June to July, producing loose, branching terminal heads of small, greenish white flowers, followed by membranous, usually 2-celled capsules, which contain numerous seeds. Sometimes hydrangea will flower a second time early in fall. A peculiar characteristic of this shrub and one that has given rise to the common name "seven-barks", is the peeling off of the stem bark, which comes off in several successive layers of thin, different colored bark. Description of Root--The root is roughly branched and when first taken from the ground is very juicy, but after drying it becomes hard. The smooth white and tough wood is covered with a thin, pale-yellow or light-brown bark, which readily scales off. The wood is tasteless, but the bark has a pleasant aromatic taste, becoming somewhat pungent. [Illustration: Hydrangea (Hydrangea Arborescens).] Collection, Prices and Uses--Hydrangea root is collected in autumn and as it becomes very tough after drying and difficult to bruise it is best to cut the root in short transverse pieces while it is fresh and still juicy and dry it in this way. The price ranges from 2 to 7 cents a pound. Hydrangea has diuretic properties and is said to have been much used by the Cherokees and early settlers in calculous complaints. Oregon Grape. Berberis Aquifolium Pursi Pharmacopeial Name--Berberis. Other Common Names--Rocky Mountain grape, holly-leaved barberry, California barberry, trailing Mahonia. Habitat and Range--This shrub is native in woods in rich soil among rocks from Colorado to the Pacific Ocean, but is especially abundant in Oregon and northern California. [Illustration: Oregon Grape (Berberis Aquifolium).] Description of Plant--Oregon grape is a low-growing shrub, resembling somewhat the familiar Christmas holly of the Eastern states, and, in fact, was first designated as "mountain-holly" by members of the Lewis and Clark expedition on their way through the western country. It belongs to the barberry family (Berberidaceae), and grows about 2 to 6 feet in height, the branches sometimes trailing. The leaves consist of from 5 to 9 leaflets, borne in pairs, with an odd leaflet at the summit. They are from 2 to 3 inches long and about 1 inch wide, evergreen, thick, leathery, oblong or oblong ovate in outline, smooth and shining above, the margins provided with thorny spines or teeth. The numerous small yellow flowers appear in April or May and are borne in erect, clustered heads. The fruit consists of a cluster of blue or bluish purple berries, having a pleasant taste, and each containing from three to nine seeds. Other Species--While Berberis aquifolium is generally designated as the source of Oregon grape root, other species of Berberis are met with in the market under the name grape root, and their use is sanctioned by the United States Pharmacopoeia. The species most commonly collected with Berberis aquifolium is B. nervosa Pursh, which is also found in woods from California northward to Oregon and Washington. This is 9 to 17 inches in height, with a conspicuously jointed stem and 11 to 17 bright-green leaflets. Another species of Berberis, B. pinnata Lag., attains a height of from a few inches to 5 feet, with from 5 to 9, but sometimes more, leaflets, which are shining above and paler beneath. This resembles aquifolium very closely and is often mistaken for it, but it is said that it has not been used by the medical profession, unless in local practice. The root also is about the same size as that of aquifolium, while the root of nervosa is smaller. Some works speak of Berberis repens Lindl. as another species often collected with aquifolium, but in the latest botanical manuals no such species is recognized, B. repens being given simply as a synonym for B. aquifolium. Description of Rootstock--The rootstock and roots of Oregon grape are more or less knotty, in irregular pieces of varying lengths, and about an inch or less in diameter, with brownish bark and hard and tough yellow wood, showing a small pith and narrow rays. Oregon grape root has a very bitter taste and very slight odor. Collection, Prices and Uses--Oregon grape root is collected in autumn and brings from 10 to 12 cents a pound. The bark should not be removed from the rootstocks, as the Pharmacopoeia directs that such roots be rejected. This root has long been used in domestic practice thruout the West as a tonic and blood purifier and is now official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The berries are used in making preserves and cooling drinks. END OF GINSENG AND OTHER MEDICINAL PLANTS 
36064	----	FARM GARDENING WITH HINTS ON CHEAP MANURING Quick Cash Crops and How to Grow Them Compiled and Published, 1898 by JOHNSON & STOKES, Seed Growers and Merchants 217 and 219 Market St., Philadelphia, Pa. Copyright, 1898, by Johnson & Stokes [Illustration: Hilling Celery, as practised by Philadelphia Market Gardeners.] CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE. Making the Soil Rich 9 CHAPTER II. Choice of Location 24 CHAPTER III. Vegetables Suited to Farm Culture Everywhere 27 CHAPTER IV. Vegetables Suited to Farm Culture in Some Locations 75 CHAPTER V. Sashes and Bedding Plants 119 CHAPTER VI. The Strawberry 121 PREFACE. Farmers in the thickly populated Eastern and Middle States, or, in fact, east of the Mississippi River, cannot grow grains nor fatten beeves with the same profit as before the opening of the great West. Dairying still returns fair profits, but there is a widespread demand for cash crops adapted to farm culture, especially where railroads furnish quick access to towns and cities. In response to this demand, we beg to offer a short list of farm vegetables that can be grown with greater profit than grain, with hints about growing them. There is no real line dividing the vegetables of the market garden from those of the farm garden, but it may be assumed in a somewhat arbitrary way that those which do not yield at the gross rate of $250 per acre per year will not pay for the intense culture of high-priced land, although they will pay handsome profits in broad-acred operations under horse culture. Before offering a list of money crops to farmers we shall have a word to say in the following pages about economic manuring. Larger cash receipts and smaller cash expenditures will result in better bank balances. JOHNSON & STOKES. PHILADELPHIA, January 1, 1898. CHAPTER I. MAKING THE SOIL RICH. Everybody understands that the soil becomes impoverished by continued cropping, if no return be made in the form of manure or fertilizer. This impoverishment is sometimes real, while sometimes it is more apparent than real, owing to the exhaustion of only one or two elements of fertility. Farmers have learned a great deal about agricultural chemistry since the introduction of artificial fertilizers. They know that while plants demand many things for their growth, there are but three elements which are in danger of being exhausted in ordinary cropping. These three things are nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. =Lime.=--Lime is used on the land not for its direct results as a fertilizer, but because it has the ability to break up combinations already existing in the soil and set free the plant food that previously was in an insoluble form. Lime sometimes produces almost marvelous results; at other times no visible effects whatever. Hence, it is not a fertilizer, though in actual practice it is sometimes a fertilizing agent of great value. Land that has been much manured or long in sod is likely to be benefited by lime. Artificial manures, on the other hand, furnish real plant food in soluble form, and may be expected to produce crops invariably, year after year, if the soil be sufficiently moist. When a fertilizer contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash it is said to be complete. When any element is missing the fertilizer is said to be incomplete. Ground bone, wood ashes, South Carolina rock, kainit, etc., are examples of incomplete fertilizers. =Barnyard Manure.=--Barnyard manure is the best of all known fertilizers. Not only is it complete in character, but it has the highly valuable property of bulk. It is rich in humus or humus-forming materials. It opens and ventilates the soil, and improves its mechanical condition to a remarkable degree. Humus is a name for decaying organic matter. American market gardeners deem it entirely safe to use fifty to seventy-five tons of barnyard manure to the acre of ground in their intensive cultural operations. American farmers seldom apply more than ten or fifteen tons of such manure to the acre in the open field. The manufacture of artificial fertilizers had its origin in the fact that cultivators could not get enough manure from natural sources, and, hence, were compelled to go into the market and buy nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in other forms. =Closer Economy.=--With the increase of competition and consequent fall of prices a closer economy in cost of production is necessary. Prices have fallen most in respect to commodities that will bear long-distance freight transit and less in respect to the more perishable products of the soil. Hence, farmers have widely turned attention to small fruits and vegetables for money crops, instead of grains, and are now studying how to fertilize these crops in the most effective and economical manner. It is very evident that while great quantities of fertility are demanded by the new crops, there is no such margin of profit in their culture as to warrant wasteful methods, and no losses of home-produced fertility can be tolerated. =As to Saving Manure.=--A penny saved is a penny earned. A half ton of manure saved is a dollar earned; and, conversely, a half ton of manure wasted is a dollar wasted. In many American barnyards much of the manure is lost, partly by leaching and partly by escape of ammonia. It is estimated that as much as a third of the natural manure produced in this country is practically thrown away. The Cornell Station has announced that a pile of horse manure exposed to the weather will lose half of its value in six months. The Kansas Station reaches nearly the same conclusion about farmyard manure. Manure stored under cover may lose from 14 to 30 per cent. of its nitrogen (ammonia); and as this element is the most expensive of all to buy, it is evident that the loss is a very serious one, and one that should be avoided if possible. =General Principles of Storage.=--Having pointed out the fact that on many farms there is a loss of a large amount of excellent manure, it is now in order to name a remedy. The compass of this book is so limited that it is necessary to go straight to the point, omitting a detailed account of the chemical processes involved. The best-known method of keeping all the manure produced by farm animals is storage under a closed shed, supplemented with chemical preservatives. The shed need not cover the barnyard, but merely the manure pile. The preservatives cost little money, and eventually go to the soil in the form of excellent fertilizers. Not a cent paid for them need be lost. The manure shed should be large enough to work in with comfort; large enough to permit the heap or heaps of manure to be turned, worked over and shifted from place to place. A clay or earth floor will answer every purpose, and the shed may be of the cheapest character, provided it will turn the rain. The floor of the manure shed should slope inward from all directions, and the drainage around the shed should be outward, so that no rain-water or snow-water can enter. In theory, it may be best to put fresh manure on the land as quickly as possible. All leaching is then received by the soil, and little is lost, except through the air. In practice, this plan is not always a good one. It costs more to make ten trips to the field than one trip, and valuable time is wasted. It is quite out of the question to haul out manure every day or even every week. Besides, it is necessary in actual practice, especially in gardening or truck farming, to cover a whole piece of ground at one time, so that it may be plowed and seeded for the coming crop. The ground is usually available only a short time before this preparation, having, perhaps, been occupied by something else. It is desirable, moreover, that the manure when applied shall be ready for immediate service as plant food, which is not the case with the raw product. Fresh manure is but sparingly digestible by plant roots. Quicker cash results will be secured by applying prepared manure to the soil than by applying the product fresh from the stable. The manure shed has already been mentioned. A few dollars will build it. Sometimes a half barrel is sunken in the centre of the manure shed, and the drainage from the manure heaps collected there, and returned to the tops of the heaps. It is occasionally necessary to add water, when turning manure, to secure the desired degree of dampness and a gentle fermentation. This fermentation will cause the litter to fall to pieces, and will convert it into quickly-available plant food. No one who has never tried it will expect the generous heaps which will follow systematic and persevering efforts to accumulate and stack up the available manure materials on any farm. =Preservatives.=--The best-known common preservatives of manure in storage are gypsum, kainit and acid phosphate. Gypsum or land plaster holds ammonia, and is thus of the highest value as a preservative. Gypsum must be moist to be effective, and, hence, should be used regularly upon the fresh manure. Kainit, which is a low-grade sulphate of potash, checks fermentation, and hence prevents loss of ammonia. It contains much salt, and attracts and holds moisture. It should not be used under the feet of animals. Acid phosphate contains much gypsum, and unites with ammonia that would otherwise escape. The Geneva (N. Y.) Station recommends the use of one of the following per day: Per Horse. Per Cow. Per Pig. Per Sheep. Pounds. Pounds. Ounces. Ounces. Gypsum 1-1/2 1-3/4 4-1/2 3-1/2 Acid phosphate 1 1-1/8 3 2-1/2 Kainit 1-1/8 1-1/4 4 3-1/4 The advantage of using kainit and acid phosphate are that they add potash and phosphoric acid respectively, in which barnyard manure is likely to be deficient. In some soils the potash will be preferable; in others, phosphoric acid will do more good. =Value of Manure of Each Kind of Animal.=--It has been figured out that the average value of horse manure per year is $27 per animal; cattle, $19; hogs, $12; and sheep, $2. But these are not the only sources of manure on the farm. The hen-house will annually yield manure to the value of 25 to 50 cents per fowl, if intelligently cared for. The outhouse will produce fertility to the amount of $10 to $50 per year, according to the size of the family, the precautions as to loss by leaching, and the care given. The kitchen slops, including the scraps, are worth $10 to $25 per year, if properly composted. The wood ashes have a distinct and high fertilizing value; but not in the hen-house, where they are worse than wasted. And even coal ashes can be turned to account. Professor Roberts has suggested $250 per year as a conservative estimate of the value of the manure produced during seven winter months on a farm carrying four horses, twenty cows, fifty sheep and ten pigs. The estimated value may be made much higher in cases where farmers are willing to use thought and labor in preparation and preservation of home-made manures. =Solid Manure and Liquid Manure.=--The urine is the most valuable portion of the excretion of animals, according to the tables of the agricultural chemists. It is especially rich in nitrogen, and, hence, its strong odor under fermentation. It is also rich in potash. Its place is on the manure heap, not in a ditch leading to a brook. If it collects in quantities beyond the absorbing power of the manure pile, it should go on the compost heap or else be diluted and at once put upon the land. =When to Fertilize.=--The land is a good bank in which to deposit money in the form of manure; but there are certain portions of the year when the land bank declares no dividends. It is safe to put manure upon an unfrozen soil at any time, but the best, the quickest, and the largest results are obtained by manuring during the growing season, preferably just before planting the crop. Small applications, often repeated, are preferable to large, though rare, applications. Plants, like animals, consume small amounts of food each day, and cannot take a year's food at a single meal. =Humus.=--Humus, often referred to by agricultural writers, is a name for decaying organic matter in the soil. Green crops turned under, grass roots, stubble, leaves, long manure, etc., form humus. The term is a comprehensive one. Humus is a dark-colored substance, abundant in all rich ground. A lump of manure that has been lying in the ground for a year or two has become, practically, a mass of humus. =Minute Soil Workers.=--In all good soils there are myriads of small organisms, whose duty is to destroy organic matter and convert it into soil, or into humus, or into plant food. This explains the superiority of good, moist soil as compared to coal ashes for making compost heaps. Coal ashes are worth sifting, if the work can be done automatically; that is, by simply pouring the ashes upon a sloping wire screen. The coarse portion of the ashes, if not worth reburning, will at least make good walks, drives or road beds, while the fine portions make excellent absorbents to put under hen roosts. [Illustration: Some of the many Forms of Bacteria. (Magnified).] Hen manure and the product of the outhouse, whether containing sifted ashes or not, should go speedily into a heap of moist earth, for this earth will furnish the organisms to quickly convert the excreta into valuable soil. Sifted coal ashes usually contain some fertility on account of wood, garbage, etc., burned in the kitchen stove, but have value mainly as absorbents. Moist loam, on the other hand, teems with life, and has the wonderful ability not merely to hide organic matter, but to actually change its character, converting it into soil that retains none of its original characteristics. What was malodorous manure, offensive to smell and touch, is changed into an odorless, dark-colored material that leaves no stain upon the hands, and which is plant food of the best and most available character. =Economy in Manuring.=--True economy in manuring demands a comprehension of these simple matters. The methods are inexpensive, and are within the reach of every tiller of the soil. The whole matter may be summed up in a few words, as follows: Waste nothing, permit no fermentation or leaching, use preservatives, and learn the true art of making composts, including the functions of the minute organisms just described. No better use can be made of rainy days in summer or winter than in caring for manure; turning the piles, making compact stacks, adding needed moisture and preservatives, shaking out all lumps and putting undecayed portions into the centre of the heap. Ton after ton of the best kind of fertilizer can be accumulated on every farm in this manner, including not only what is now lost through careless handling, but also a large amount of good material that is now entirely overlooked on many farms. All rubbish, all litter, all dirt, has a fertilizing value. If certain waste products must go to the bonfire, the ashes can at least be saved and used during the next growing season. It is sometimes better to burn weeds and certain tough vines than to attempt to compost them; but the ashes should not be wasted. It is the saving of many little things that counts in the yearly total. Labor is money, but it is better to invest labor at home than to go to the fertilizer-maker for supplies and pay out cash. =The Fertilizer Man.=--The fertilizer man will always be with us, because he has a true place in the economy of the farm and garden. We must go to him for the preservatives already mentioned--for gypsum, for kainit and for acid phosphate; and also for complete fertilizers. These articles are all comparatively cheap. The fertilizer man can make but modest profits upon them. The purchase of high-grade goods from well-known and honest makers is to be commended, for it is strictly economical. The thing to be avoided is the blind buying of fertilizers from unknown or irresponsible makers or agents. This is worse than buying a cat in a bag, and results in great waste of good money. =Wood Ashes.=--Wood ashes is rich in potash, and is particularly valuable with potatoes, fruits of all kinds, etc. But it is a great error to mix wood ashes with fresh manure of any kind, especially with hen manure, as the escape of ammonia is hastened and much value is lost. =Natural and Artificial Manures.=--Where the home supply of manure is insufficient for a piece of ground, necessitating the addition of artificial manure, it is universally conceded to be good practice to stretch the natural product over the whole tract and then to go over the whole tract with an artificial fertilizer. =Irrigation.=[A]--In connection with a review of the home sources of manure the item of irrigation must not be overlooked, for it is thoroughly well established that water is a carrier of appreciable amounts of fertilizing materials. In European countries large areas of pasture and mowing lands are fertilized by water alone, the irrigation being regarded as of great value on this account, aside from the fact that it supplies moisture to the grass roots. Most streams in the United States contain more or less sewage, and in respect to irrigation are valuable on that account. [Footnote A: The reader is referred to our new book on this subject. It is entitled, "Irrigation by Cheap Modern Methods." See illustration next page, also pages 83 and 125.--Johnson & Stokes.] =Waste Products.=--Many waste or by-products, available for use as fertilizers, come from time to time within the reach of the farmer or gardener, especially to those living near towns or railroads. The average market house, be it said with regret, is none too clean, and refuse in considerable amounts could be had there for the trouble of sweeping. Cattle cars often contain several inches of valuable droppings, to be had for next to nothing. Street-scrapings are worth the trouble of hauling, if the distance is short. The manure lost on the highways is very great in amount, and may be worth the cost of collection. There will some day be a machine for gathering this manure from the roads by horse-power, as it would amply repay the expense of driving such a machine along every much-used highway. [Illustration: An Illustration from Johnson & Stokes' New Book--"Irrigation by Cheap Modern Methods."] =Value of Manure.=--Dr. Beal figures the values per ton of the several farm-made manures as follows: Hen manure, $7.07; sheep, $3.30; pigs, $3.29; horses, $2.21; cows, $2.02. [Illustration: Bacteroid Tubercles on Red Clover Root. Drawn from Nature.] These figures are based on the assumption that the animals are well fed, and that no leaching of the manure is allowed, with gypsum used as a preservative, and good care exercised in all respects. It must not be supposed that all manure has such value, or that any manure will retain such value under careless treatment. =Green Manuring.=--The system of green manuring, as formerly understood and practiced, had two purposes in view. One was to supply the soil with needed humus; the other to furnish winter protection and prevent washing. The practice is a very old one and has much to commend it. Not only do plant roots draw up fertility from considerable depths, to be afterward deposited in the superficial soil when the growing crop is turned down by the plow, but the process favors chemical changes in the soil by the admission of air and sunlight and by the decomposition of leaves, stems and roots. But nothing whatever in the way of new fertility is added by turning down a rye crop, for instance. [Illustration: Crimson or Scarlet Clover, a Nitrogen Gatherer.] =Cultivating the Legumes.=--The present system of green manuring contemplates something in addition to what was formerly gained, for agricultural sciences now recognizes the fact that nitrogen, the most expensive element of fertility, can be taken from the air and added to the plant food in the soil by means of certain plants which have the peculiar habit of regularly forming little tubercles or lumps on their feeding roots. These lumps are to be found on plants in perfect health, and are not parasitical in any hostile sense. The lumps are filled with small living organisms called bacteria, and, hence, have been called bacteroid tubercles. The minute tenants slowly but surely secrete nitrogen, and put it in a form adapted to plant growth. The plants which bear these root lumps belong to a group called legumes, of which clover, peas, beans, vetches, etc., are familiar examples. Curiously enough, nearly all the leguminous plants are thus fitted by nature by means of the root lumps to act as soil enrichers, and these plants have, therefore, assumed the highest agricultural significance. It is well known that such crops as cowpeas, crimson or scarlet clover, common red and pea vine or sapling clover, Soja beans, vetches, etc., can be used to add nitrogen to the soil in commercial quantities. The gain of new material, expressed in money, has been estimated as high as $25 per acre. This, therefore, is the avenue through which the farmer can most economically supply nitrogen to his land. If he will exercise all the economy heretofore suggested in the care of natural manures, and will grow legumes, he will not have much occasion to buy nitrogen in the market. =Grass vs. Clover.=--An idea of the great fertilizing value of the leguminous plants as compared with grasses may be obtained by a study of the following analyses from U. S. Farmers' Bulletin No. 16, by Dr. E. W. Allen, on "Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring and for Feeding": Fertilizing Value in Crop. Assumed Per Acre. Yield. Per Acre. Nitrogen. Phos. Acid. Potash. Hay from Tons. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Red top (a grass) 2 23·0 7·2 20·4 Timothy (a grass) 2 25·2 10·6 18·0 Red Clover (a legume) 3 62·1 11·4 66·0 Alfalfa (a legume) 3 65·7 15·3 50·4 Cowpea (a legume) 3 58·5 15·6 44·1 Soja bean (a legume) 3 69·6 20·1 32·4 =Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid, Potash.=--We have just noted the cheapest source of nitrogen. It can be collected by root tubercles at less than the commercial rate of 14 to 17 cents per pound. Phosphoric acid can be best secured, if a new supply becomes necessary, in the form of ground bone or in the form of acid phosphate. Either of these articles, if bought from a reliable dealer, is a good and economical thing to use. Potash is to be had most cheaply, perhaps, in the manner suggested heretofore: by the use of kainit as a preserver of stable manure. The kainit performs a double purpose if used in that way, and thus gets upon the land in a cheap manner. Muriate of potash and sulphate of potash are high-priced articles, but when bought from good houses are fully worth the money they cost. Except for the use of kainit, just mentioned, the muriate or sulphate would be the more economical form. Potash or phosphoric acid (or both), as may be determined by circumstances, are needed to aid crimson clover in its growth, and with the clover form a perfect manure. Barnyard manure is a perfect fertilizer, especially when preserved with kainit or acid phosphate; and a leguminous crop, if stimulated with phosphoric acid and potash, leaves the land in fine cropping condition. =Value of Green Manures.=--The cash value of green manuring is somewhat a matter of location. On light, sandy soils it will be found wise to turn the whole crop under with the plow, while on heavy loams this plan is of doubtful benefit. On the latter land it is conceded to be better practice to harvest the crop and feed it to stock, and return the resulting manure to the land. =Maximum Amounts of Manures.=--Nobody has yet ventured to fix the maximum amounts of natural or artificial manures that soils will bear, but these amounts are great. Reference has already been made to the number of tons of stable manure per acre used respectively by market gardeners and farmers in America. As to commercial fertilizers, the quantity has been pushed up to two tons per acre, with enormous crops in consequence, and with no bad results where the constituent of the fertilizer were well balanced and where the water-supply was ample. It is quite easy, however, to scorch or burn the foliage of growing plants by the improper use of acid fertilizers in dry weather. Of course, no such amount as two tons per acre would be used in ordinary farming or farm gardening, but only in certain intense cultural operations. CHAPTER II. CHOICE OF LOCATION. Almost every farm has a choice spot for a garden, some favored location where the soil is warm and mellow, and where, perhaps, shelter is afforded by hill or woodland. Such a spot, especially if it can be artificially irrigated, is capable of great things in the way of growing truck. The place of all others, if it can be had, is a rich meadow bank, on ground low enough for gravity irrigation and yet high enough to be out of the way of floods. Such a location is by no means rare. There are countless acres fulfilling these conditions, and every acre thus situated is capable of yielding in vegetables twenty-fold its value as pasturage. Such a meadow needs a few lines of underdrains and an irrigating ditch along the highest feasible level. Deep plowing of low land will rarely bring up the sub-soil, and, after a good coat of lime, the application of manure may be carried to almost any extent, with good results assured in advance. If a meadow is not available, the farm gardener will do the next best thing, whatever that may be, in choosing a place for vegetables, trusting the rainfall and depending on manure and good tillage for satisfactory crops. =As to Growing.=--The one point to be emphasized about the production of truck for market is that quick growth is necessary for quality, and, hence, for profits. Good soil, good cultivation and sufficient moisture are the essentials for rapid growth. =As to Marketing.=--A point of prime importance for all producers to remember is that price is largely a matter of taste and fancy. If the consumer can be attracted by the good appearance of vegetables or fruit, a sale is certain to be made. It will pay handsomely to keep at home all medium or second-quality stuff, offering nothing but the best for sale. [Illustration: Reproduction of a Photograph taken in Dock Street Wholesale Market, Philadelphia.] In the great wholesale and retail markets of Philadelphia, New York and Boston good stuff always moves quickly at fair prices, while poor stuff begs for buyers at rates yielding no profit to anybody. The wholesaler is frequently blamed for failure to obtain good prices when the fault is really with the producer, and is chargeable to poor stuff or poor packing. There is a good business opening everywhere for truckers who will ship only first-class stuff in new packages. Such produce reaches what is known as the fancy trade, and there is more than a living in it for enterprising growers. Truckers who rush their stuff to market in an unwashed, unsorted condition, in old or unclean baskets or boxes, may make expenses out of the business, but they will never do much more. There is a premium on quality and appearance. CHAPTER III. VEGETABLES SUITED TO FARM CULTURE EVERYWHERE. [Illustration: Loading the Market Wagon.] In this chapter are grouped a number of vegetables of easy culture. They may be grown with success almost anywhere. Some of them are produced by market gardeners, but by reason of the amount of ground which they occupy they are more particularly adapted to horse culture by farmers. The chapter will treat briefly of asparagus, beans, beets, cabbage, carrots, sweet corn, horseradish, parsnip, potato, pumpkin and squash, salsify, tomato, turnip, etc. ASPARAGUS. Asparagus demands a deep, rich, well-drained soil. Its culture is profitable, and it yields ready cash at an early season of the year, when other sales are limited. The cutting term covers six weeks, beginning (at Philadelphia) in the middle or latter part of April. Cutting must here cease in June, in order to give the roots ample time to regain strength and make vigorous tops. The gross product per acre, near Philadelphia, expressed in money, is, perhaps, $200 at this time. [Illustration: Donald's Elmira.] In selecting a situation for a bed, a warm spot should be chosen, having a deep and mellow soil, and with good natural or artificial drainage. A small area is better than a large one, as being more likely to receive sufficient manure; and it is desirable that the land should have been tilled for a year or two before the planting of the roots, and a heavy coat of manure incorporated with the soil--the more manure the better. =Roots.=--The roots are set in early spring, in deep trenches, 5 or 6 feet apart, made with a plow. If the plow be run both ways and the loose dirt shovelled out, it is quite easy to reach a depth of 15 or more inches. It is not material whether strong one-year-old roots or two-year-old roots be used. =Varieties.=--As to varieties, it is almost as much a matter of culture as of name; still, there are better and worse kinds. Asparagus varies in color from purple to green, and even to white. There are certain so-called mammoth sorts, whose shoots are larger, but less numerous than the old-fashioned kinds. There is a slight difference in flavor, also, but the preference of the local market must determine the farmer in making a choice of roots. If a green "grass" be preferred, that kind can be had from seedsmen; but, no matter how carefully the roots may be grown, there will be some slight variations in the color of the shoots, for asparagus does not always come true from seed. Market gardeners usually sort their asparagus shoots at bunching time; always for size, and sometimes for color, especially when supplying a fancy trade. As a rule, it is wise to select a variety that will produce a good number of large-sized shoots, such as Donald's Elmira or Barr's Mammoth, and trust to manure and culture for the best results. Quality of shoots depends on quick growth, and size depends somewhat on distance of the root under ground. The deeper the asparagus root under the surface, the larger in diameter will be the shoot, provided the plants are not crowded; a fact of which gardeners often take advantage by heaping soil up over the crowns of the plants during the growing season. ASPARAGUS.--Donald's Elmira is one of the best for the North. Palmetto is the asparagus generally grown in the South. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Setting out.=--The young roots should be set carefully, crowns up, at intervals of 1-1/2 to 2 feet, in the deep furrows or trenches heretofore mentioned. A few inches of manure can be put in the bottom, covering slightly with soil and about 6 inches of soil put upon them. The spaces between the rows may be cultivated during the first year, and some quick crop grown there. The working of this crop will gradually fill up the furrows about the stems of the young asparagus, which, during the first year, is quite small and insignificant in appearance. By fall, the furrows will be entirely filled and the surface of the patch level. The asparagus slug, the larva of the well-known beetle, may be kept down by occasionally dusting with slacked lime containing Paris green. The following year the asparagus will show up to some advantage, but should not be cut. The third year (second after planting) will yield some marketable shoots; but cutting should not continue more than two or three weeks. The fourth year the bed may be said to be in full bearing. =Treatment.=--The spring treatment of an asparagus bed in profit begins with a light plowing parallel with the rows, great care being observed to use a wheel on the plow so that not more than a few inches of soil may be turned, lest the crowns be cut and injured. The bed then lies until the cutting season is well advanced, when the plow may be again used. The first plowing was merely to break the surface of the ground and turn under the winter coat of manure, leaving the land level. The second plowing (if given) is to be toward the rows, for the purpose of throwing them further under the surface, so as to get larger shoots as warm weather advances. Another plowing, very shallow, followed by harrow or cultivator, should be given at the end of the cutting season, in June, to destroy all weeds and to encourage summer growth of the asparagus. The patch should be kept clear of weeds during the summer, and growth encouraged by cultivation. In the late autumn the tops are mowed off and burned, as there seems to be no economic way of composting them, for, if moved to the compost heap or barnyard, they will seed the whole farm with asparagus. There should be a good coat of manure for winter protection, to be turned under in early spring, as already mentioned. =Marketing.=--The preparation of the crop for market involves some time and trouble. The shoots are cut every day. Some growers do the work early in the morning, and carry the bunches to market the same day. Others cut and bunch one day, put in water over night and carry to market the following day. Circumstances must decide which is best. [Illustration: Acme Asparagus Buncher, with Knife Guard.] If asparagus is to be shipped long distances, it must either be packed in open crates (like strawberry crates), or else thoroughly chilled by ice before starting. Otherwise, it will heat and spoil. The usual asparagus bunch is just about the size of a dry-measure quart in diameter, and from 6 to 9 inches in length. In fact, a quart cup or tin fruit can is frequently used in shaping the bunch. Home-made wooden bunchers are also in common use. The Acme asparagus buncher is the best, coming in two sizes. The asparagus is tied in two places with raphia or soft string, and thus makes a neat and attractive package. The butts are cut off square with a knife after the bunch is finished, and in this shape asparagus will remain fresh for a long time, if kept standing in shallow water. In tying up the bunches the shoots are separated into two or three sizes. The small shoots are quite as good for food as the larger ones, but the latter always bring more money in market, which warrants the additional trouble involved. =Salt.=--Salt is frequently used on asparagus beds, but not always. Salt is sometimes an indirect fertilizer, acting upon fertility already in the soil, and having a distinct tendency to attract and hold moisture, but it has no direct fertilizing influence. It has a beneficial effect in helping to check the growth of weeds. =Fertilizers.=--Kainit is an excellent thing for asparagus beds, as it contains a considerable percentage of sulphate of potash, which is a direct fertilizer. It also contains a fourth of its bulk of salt. Ground bone, which contains nitrogen (ammonia) and phosphoric acid, is also a good thing to use on asparagus. It is very lasting in its action, and with the kainit makes a complete manure, especially in connection with the winter coat of stable manure. Asparagus is a gross feeder, and will take almost any amount of fertilizer. Market gardeners, who raise the most and best asparagus, depend mainly on enormous quantities of first-class stable manure; and this is probably the best fertilizer of all for this succulent and valuable vegetable. =Tools.=--No special tools are demanded in asparagus culture, though such tools are on the market. Any long knife will do for cutting the shoots, although a very good knife is especially made of solid steel, and can be bought for 25 cents. The cut should be made just below the surface of the ground, care being taken not to injure other shoots just coming up. Crooked shoots often make their appearance, resulting from injury done by the cutting knife. Other causes, such as insects, hard soil, etc., produce crooked or deformed shoots. Asparagus bunchers, made of wood and metal, mentioned in the seed catalogues, are sometimes used, the Acme, heretofore referred to, being the best and cheapest. [Illustration: Solid Steel Asparagus Knife.] Any light plow with a wheel will answer for the asparagus bed. A light-weight harrow is also desirable. Where asparagus trenches are laid out and dug by hand of course a garden line must be used, in order to have them straight and uniform. The practice of digging deep trenches for asparagus still prevails to some extent in private gardens, but the farm gardener must use cheaper methods. =Roots per Acre.=--With rows 5 feet apart and plants 2 feet apart in the rows, it is evident that each plant represents just 10 square feet of space. Hence, about 5,000 asparagus plants would be required for an acre of land set at these distances; they are, however, often set closer than this, sometimes at the rate of 7,000 roots and over per acre. An asparagus bed containing 100 roots will supply an ordinary family. BEANS. Bean-growing in a small way is fully warranted in every garden, but on a large scale it is a different question, being somewhat a matter of soil and location. =Food Value.=--The bean is one of the most excellent of human foods. Its botanical kinship is close to the pea, and both are legumes. The leguminous plants, it will be remembered, have the rare ability of obtaining nitrogen through the tubercles on their roots, taking this expensive element partly from the air, and not greatly impoverishing the soil by their growth. Something of the food value of the bean may be learned by comparing its chemical analysis with that of beef. In 100 pounds of beans there are 23 pounds of protein (nitrogenous matter), while in 100 pounds of beef there are but about 15 to 20 pounds of protein. Peas are almost as rich as beans in protein, which is the tissue-building element of all foods, and, hence, it is easy to realize the fact that both beans and peas are foods of the highest economic value. They are standard foods of the world, entering into the diet of soldiers, laborers and persons needing physical strength. It is generally safe to grow beans for the retail market of any town or centre of population, but to compete in the open wholesale market demands experience and good equipment on the part of the grower to insure profits. [Illustration: Improved Round Green Pod Extra Early Valentine Bean.] =Varieties and Types.=--The varieties of beans are well-nigh endless. Some demand poles, while some are dwarf, being called bush beans. The influence of man has developed the bean into a vast number of different forms, which frequently show a disposition to revert or go back to some ancestral type, no matter how carefully the seeds may be kept. The pole beans, in general terms, yield larger crops and bear through a longer season than the bush beans. The green-podded beans, as a rule, are more prolific and more hardy than the yellow-podded or wax beans. The climbers demand a whole season, and bear until frost. The bush beans are mostly employed where two or more crops are demanded per year from the ground. The so-called cut-short or snap-short beans are those in which the whole pod, in its green state, is used for food. They are of both types, climbing and bush. The Lima forms include a number of distinct beans, differing greatly in size and shape and also in habit of growth. BUSH BEANS (green pod).--We recommend Improved Round Pod Extra Early Valentine; also, New Giant Stringless Valentine. BUSH BEANS (yellow pod).--Wardwell's Kidney Wax and Davis' White Wax are largely grown in the South for shipment North. Valentine Wax is recommended for the North. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." WHITE FIELD OR SOUP BEANS.--We recommend Day's Leafless Medium and New Snowflake Field. For descriptions of these and other varieties, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." POLE LIMA BEANS.--We especially recommend Ford's Mammoth Podded Lima and Siebert's Early Lima. POLE SNAP BEANS.--Golden Andalusia Wax is one of the best yellow-pod pole beans, and Lazy Wife's one of the best green-pod sorts. DWARF LIMA.--Dreer's, Burpee's and Henderson's represent three distinct types. For full descriptions of beans, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Location.=--In choosing a spot for bean culture the farm gardener should select good mellow soil that has been manured the previous year. Fresh manure produces an excessive growth of vine at the expense of pods. =Making Ready.=--Much stable manure, which is rich in nitrogen, should be avoided. In good ordinary soil, with some rotted manure from the previous crop, the bean plant will do well. It will obtain nitrogen, in great part, from the air, as already explained. Old manure is very favorable as a starter, as it contains the minute organisms mentioned in the preceding pages. Complete fertilizers or those containing phosphoric acid and potash must be supplied. Only nitrogen is derived from the air. =Soil Inoculation.=--The soil of a new bean patch is sometimes inoculated with soil from an old patch, to get quick action of the bacteria (little organisms), which form the lumps or tubercles on the roots. The scattering of a little soil over the surface is all that is required. Care should be taken to avoid the transfer of soil for this purpose from a patch affected with rust or blight, as diseases are carried from place to place with only too much ease. =When to Plant.=--Beans may safely be planted when the apple is in bloom, in May; not so early as peas, as beans are less hardy. The ground should be dry and warm. Beans of all kinds demand shallow planting, as the seeds must be lifted from the ground in the earliest process of growth. The seed swells, bursts, sends a shoot (radicle) downward, and the two parts of the seed, called the seed-leaves, are pushed up into the daylight. Small round beans can take care of themselves, as they turn easily in the soil, but lima beans often perish in the effort to get above ground. This is why lima beans should always be planted eye down, and less than an inch deep. A half inch is deep enough for most beans. If lima beans are wanted extra early, they should be started on small squares of inverted sod, under glass. The earliest bush beans yield marketable pods within forty to fifty days from planting; the pole beans in from seventy to ninety days from planting. There should be successional plantings made of the bush beans from the first date to within fifty days of frost. The different types of beans are fully and carefully described in the seed catalogues. =Distances.=--Poles for beans should be set about 4 feet apart each way; or, in single rows, about 3 feet apart. Not more than three or four plants should be allowed to a hill. Wires stretched between posts, with strings down to the ground, are sometimes used. The bush beans are planted in rows 3 feet apart for horse culture, or half that distance where a hoe or hand cultivator is to be used. The plants in the rows should stand 3 or 4 inches apart for best yield. [Illustration: Plant of the New Valentine Wax Bean. The Earliest Wax or Yellow Podded Snap Short.] =On a Large Scale.=--In large field operations, where the dried bean is the object in view, a clover sod is a favorite location. The ground is enriched by 400 or 500 pounds of complete fertilizer, and the beans are planted with a grain drill, using every fourth tube. The culture is by horse-power, and the vines are pulled by hand or by means of a bean-harvester, and threshed with a flail or grain thresher. These white grocery beans are sold everywhere in large quantities. =Cultivation.=--All bean cultivation should be shallow. Nothing is gained by cutting the feeding roots. The climbing sorts twine "against the sun;" that is, in a contrary direction to the apparent motion of the sun. The shoots must be tied up several times, to keep them on their own poles. =Diseases.=--The worst bean enemies are rust and blight. In new soil, with good weather, these troubles seldom appear. During prolonged wet weather there seems to be no help for them. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is a preventive. The spraying should be done in advance of blossoming. The seed is sometimes soaked in Bordeaux mixture for an hour where rust is anticipated. Prevention is better than cure, and new soil and fresh seed are the best precautions. Diseased vines should be burned. =Insects.=--The weevil which attacks the bean is closely allied to the pea weevil. Some practical people say there is no remedy known; others recommend heating the beans to 145° for an hour; others use bisulphide of carbon in a closed vessel, along with the beans. =Profits.=--By far the largest cash receipts per acre are obtained by selling beans in their fresh state; preferably in the pods. The production of bush beans (pods) may run up to 75 or 80 bushels per acre, or even more. Lima beans are more profitably sold in the pods than shelled, though some markets demand the shelled article. The consumer gets a fresher and better article in the pods, and the producer is saved much trouble, and this method should be encouraged. Beans should be cooled, if possible, before shipment in bulk to distant markets, thus avoiding danger from heating, moulding and spotting. BEETS. Beets are produced in enormous quantities by market gardeners near all large cities, both under glass and in the open ground. They also have a place in the farm garden, as they are of easy culture. [Illustration: Crosby's Improved Egyptian, the Earliest Blood Turnip Beet.] Excellence in the table beet depends partly on variety, but mainly on the quickness of growth. Sweetness and succulence result from high culture in rich, mellow soil. Mangels and sugar beets, of course, have a place on every farm, for stock-feeding purposes, and table beets may also be grown, if good soil is available, for market purposes. The winter-keeping sorts are frequently in demand, and may be included among the farmer's cash crops. No amount of stable manure is excessive in beet-growing. Partially rotted manure is best. For horse culture the rows should be 3 feet apart. Five to six pounds of seed will plant an acre. PLANTING.--Planting may be done as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring, as the beet is hardy, and not injured by a little frost; and successional plantings may be made until June. The June sowing will produce autumn beets, which can be stored for winter use or sale. It is well to soak the seed in tepid water before planting; it should be scattered thinly in the rows and lightly covered. In dry weather the soil must be pressed firmly on the seed, to insure sufficient moisture for germination. The plants in the rows should be thinned out to 3 or 4 inches. It is very important to remember that the more space each plant has about it the sooner will it reach a marketable size. Beet plants standing 5 inches apart in the row will be ready long before plants standing only 2 inches apart. Beets vary in shape very considerably. Some are round and some are long, with intermediate grades. The turnip-shaped beets are the earliest, while the half-longs and longs are the heaviest. For market purposes, if sold in bunches, the round ones are the most profitable. [Illustration: Ford's Perfected Half-long Beet. The Best Winter Keeper.] The color of the foliage varies greatly; but the color of the leaf is not always typical of the root. Some of the blood beets have green leaves. There are many shades and colors of the roots, from deepest blood red to white, with zones of pink. The beet is an excellent and highly esteemed article of food, and is always in demand. BEETS.--For earliest, we especially recommend Crosby's Improved Egyptian and Surprise; for winter, Ford's Perfected Half-Long. Please see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Marketing and Storing.=--A bunch contains five, six or seven beets, with tops tied together and superfluous leaves cut off. The bunching and topping may be done in the field, and the bunches afterward washed in a tub of water, by means of a scrubbing brush. It always pays to send roots to market in a clean and attractive condition. Winter storage in cellars, under sand, is often practiced; or the beets may be kept in pits in the open ground, covered with straw and earth. =Enemies.=--The beet is remarkably free from enemies of any kind. The root sometimes cracks, and is occasionally attacked by insects, but the farmer or gardener has little to fear if soil be good and weather be favorable. All farmers attending market should have a few beets to help make up the weekly load for the wagon. CABBAGE. Early cabbage is not a farm gardener's crop at the North, though in the Southern States the early varieties can be grown by farmers for shipment to the great Northern markets. The Northern farmer, unless provided with glass, usually finds more profit in the later and larger sorts, which mature in autumn. =Soil.=--Rich, loamy soil, containing much clay, is best for this vegetable, which is a rank feeder. Large amounts of manure are demanded. The manure is best applied in a partially rotted form, as fresh manure of any kind (especially hog manure) is liable to produce the disease or deformity known as club-root, the spores of the disease apparently being in the fresh manure; though land too long cropped with cabbage is likely to produce the same disease without the application of fresh manure of any kind. [Illustration: Early Jersey Wakefield Cabbage.] =Seed.=--It is of especial importance that good seed be planted, as cabbage varies so much and shows such a disposition to go back to undesirable types that great dissatisfaction and loss attend all experiments with poorly-selected seed. The choice of seed not infrequently determines the size and success of the crop. Expert cabbage growers are well aware of this fact. [Illustration: Johnson & Stokes 'Market Gardeners' No. 2, Valuable for Early Summer or Winter Cabbage.] =Planting.=--The manure should be broadcasted, and an ample amount used, with a high-grade fertilizer in the row. The young plants, previously started in a seed-bed, should (at the North) be set out in July. The seed for late cabbage is planted in May. A quarter pound of seed will give enough plants for an acre. The rows should be 4 feet apart, and the plants 2-1/2 feet apart in the rows. These distances favor good cultivation and quick growth. In some parts of New England the seed is sown in the open field, in rows where the cabbage is to grow, but the practice of transplanting from seedbeds is found most satisfactory. The rainfall here usually insures a fair crop of cabbage, but any crop which requires transplanting in midsummer is liable to delay or injury in case of protracted dry weather. Hence, irrigation is desirable. At the distances just recommended for planting (4 � 2-1/2 feet) there would be 4,356 plants to the acre. In the case of such varieties as Johnson & Stokes' Earliest and Jersey Wakefield cabbage, where the number of plants per acre would be perhaps 10,000, the Michigan Experiment Station obtained 5,000 more marketable heads per acre under irrigation than where water was not used upon the growing crop. (This fact is mentioned in a book on irrigation just issued by the publishers of this book). =Varieties.=--The earliest varieties of cabbage have small, conical heads; the midsummer sorts mostly round heads; and the late or drumhead sorts have large, flat heads. There are cabbages which never head; as, for instance, the collards of the South; and there are varieties of crinkled-leaf cabbages, known as the Savoy types. The kales are closely related to the cabbages. Both cabbages and kales have purple-colored forms, sometimes called red forms. CABBAGE.--For early varieties for the South, we recommend Johnson & Stokes' Earliest, Early Jersey Wakefield and Charleston Wakefield; for both early and late in the North, Johnson & Stokes' Market Gardeners' No. 2, Louderback's All the Year Round; for late varieties for the North, New Rock Head Winter, Johnson & Stokes' Matchless Flat Dutch, Danish Ball Head. The Johnson & Stokes' Hard Heading Savoy Cabbage is of rare excellence. For descriptions of the many varieties of cabbage, please see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Cultivation.=--Thorough horse cultivation between the rows should be supplemented by a hand-hoe between the plants in the rows. The cultivation must be good and continuous until the heads begin to form. =Diseases and Insects Enemies.=--Club root has been mentioned. It is a fungous trouble. The best remedy is new ground. The black flea on very young plants can be conquered with air-slacked lime or wood ashes. The cut worm is troublesome only in spring; not with late cabbage. The root maggot is sometimes very destructive, both with cabbage and cauliflower. New ground is the most satisfactory remedy. Green aphides or lice often follow lack of strength in the cabbage. Pyrethrum powder, air-slacked lime, kerosene emulsion, etc., are used as remedies for lice. The pyrethrum may be used dry or in water, at the rate of a tablespoonful to two gallons. The green cabbage worm, one of the worst of all enemies, can be pretty effectually checked by means of air-slaked lime dusted over the leaves. Other caterpillars yield to the same treatment. =Bursting.=--Bursting of cabbage heads is caused by a second growth, the result, perhaps, of continued wet weather, or warm weather following cold weather. The best remedy is to cut part of the feeding roots, either by close cultivation or with a hoe. =Selling.=--Cabbage prices vary between extremes that are far separated. Early cabbage usually sells at a good profit. Summer and autumn prices may be low. Winter and spring prices are almost always fair, and occasionally extra. Pennsylvania farmers sometimes ship to wholesalers in the cities and sometimes sell at public sale in the open field, in the autumn, just as the crop stands. The latter plan is an excellent one, where auction prices warrant it. It avoids the cost and risk of storage, as each buyer removes and stores his purchase. =Storage.=--Cabbage will bear much freezing without injury. The art of winter storage is to put it where it will have the fewest changes of temperature, and where it will be cool and damp without being wet. The most common practice is to cover two or three rows of inverted heads, with roots attached, with from 6 to 12 inches of soil, making provision for good drainage by ditches on both sides of the wedge-shaped heap. [Illustration: Cutting Johnson & Stokes' Earliest Cabbage for Market. Photographed June 1st, in the Field of Messrs. Myers & Bowman, the well-known Philadelphia Market Gardeners. This was the first Home-grown Cabbage in Philadelphia Markets.] This system may be modified so as to include six or more rows of inverted cabbage, the heap being flat instead of wedge-shaped on top. It does not turn water so well, but in practice is usually satisfactory. A good plan is to use about 6 inches of soil, and to add straw or litter as the cold increases. Under a steady low temperature it is no trouble to keep cabbage through the winter, but it is hard to provide against the many changes of our variable climate. [Illustration: Johnson & Stokes' Matchless Late Flat Dutch Cabbage.] Where heads are to be carried over for seed, or where it is intended to head up soft cabbages during the winter (a feasible thing) the roots are set downward instead of upward. If care be taken to remove the roots without much injury, they may be set in furrows or trenches, and the earth heaped over the cabbages just as in the several ways above mentioned, and they will make decided growth during their life under ground. In fact, a cabbage with any sort of immature head in November will, under proper management, be in good marketable condition in March or April. Solid freezing in the trenches is not necessarily destructive, but if the temperature falls much below 15° (at the point occupied by the heads), there is danger that they will perish. They may be in good edible condition after such severe freezing, but the chances are that they will fail to grow if set out for seed. The cabbage decays with a strong, offensive smell when its tissues finally break down after repeated changes of temperature and moisture. A uniform temperature is favored by the use of earth in storage, and though storage in buildings and cellars is quite feasible, there is nothing better or cheaper than the soil of the open field. If the crop is not all to be marketed at one time, it is well to make a number of separate trenches, so that each can be wholly cleared of its contents at a single opening. These trenches and ridges must be made upon dry ground, where there is no standing water. =For Stock.=--Cabbages make good food for cows, but should be fed after milking; and frozen cabbages should never be fed in any considerable quantity, as they are liable to cause hoven or bloat. CARROTS. A sandy soil or light loam is best for carrots, but they will grow anywhere under good culture. Enormous quantities are grown by the market gardeners, both under glass and in the open ground, for use in soups and for seasoning purposes. The short or half-long varieties are demanded by this trade. [Illustration: Average Specimens of Rubicon Half-Long Carrots.] Farm gardeners will do best with half-long and long kinds, unless a special demand calls for the smaller carrots. The large half-long and long ones are suited to both culinary and stock-feeding purposes. It requires from three to four pounds of seed to the acre, depending on the distance between the rows. The plants should be from 3 to 5 inches apart in the rows, and the rows as near together as is feasible for horse work. Clean culture is demanded. The seed must be planted shallow, and may go into the ground as early as it can be worked in the spring, and from that time until the middle of June. The only danger about late planting is the possibility of dry weather. The carrot is quite free from insect or other enemies, as a rule, and its culture is not difficult. It demands thinning and hoeing after the plants are well above ground, but no extra attention of any kind. The winter storage is the same as for beets or turnips, either to be put away in earth-covered heaps or preserved in a cool, non-freezing root cellar. The so-called Belgian carrots (both yellow and white) are used only as stock food; though the other sorts, such as Rubicon, Danvers and Long Orange, if in excess of market demands, are equally good for stock. Cows and horses are fond of them, and they are most wholesome. The farm gardener should raise them, however, for their cash value in the produce markets. The carrot is in high favor with good cooks everywhere. The carrot does not demand excessively rich ground; in fact, too much manure tends to stimulate the growth of the top at the expense of the root, and fresh manure makes the root rough. The smaller carrots are bunched and sold like radishes or early beets. The larger kinds are sold by measure--about 60 cents or more per basket at this time (January, 1898). This is at the rate of $1.50 per barrel, or about $300 per acre. The crop is a good one, if near a market where carrots are demanded. CARROT.--We especially recommend Rubicon Half-Long for market or stock. See "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." SWEET CORN. There is no money crop more available to the farm gardener than sweet corn. It will grow anywhere, and the young ears are always in demand. Any sod land plowed shallow will yield a crop of sweet corn. It is easy in this latitude to have an unbroken succession of marketable ears from July 1st to October 1st, or even somewhat earlier and later. Shallow plowing and the use of a little fertilizer or compost in the hills will put the ground in order. A complete fertilizer is best. A compost containing hen manure is excellent. =Planting.=--Eight or ten quarts of seed are required to plant an acre of corn in hills, allowing for replanting of what is injured by grubs or other causes. The larger varieties should be planted 4 feet by 3; the rows 4 feet apart and the hills 3 feet apart, with not more than three stalks in a hill. The smaller varieties may be grown much closer--3 feet by 2. Any method may be used in laying out a corn field that will give each stalk (of the large kinds) the equivalent of 4 square feet of ground space. The dwarf sweet corns demand about half that space. =Varieties.=--The sweet corns require from sixty to eighty days to produce ears fit for boiling. The earliest varieties are small, and are lacking in sweetness as compared to the best intermediate types. Still, the early prices are so much better than midsummer prices, that the early varieties will always be grown for market. Indeed, the best profits of the business are from the extra early and extra late sales. Sweet corn should not be grown by shippers who are distant more than twenty-four hours from market, as the ears lose quality and flavor soon after being pulled from the stalks. Forty-eight hours from market is an extreme distance, but is feasible if the ears can be chilled in a cold storage house previous to shipment; otherwise, they will heat and spoil. Even when designed for a near-by market a load of sweet corn ears may heat and spoil during a single night. It is best to scatter them upon the grass, if pulled during the afternoon for shipment the following morning. The most profit to the grower will be found in ears which are not too large, as corn is often sold by the dozen, the large sorts being too weighty. The early kinds, though small, can be planted closely, and a large number of ears secured; and they are out of the way so soon that the ground can be used for celery or other late crop. Celery can be set out between the rows of corn, and thus be shaded to some extent during the critical period following transplanting. The Evergreens, Early and Late, and the shoe-peg types, such as Country Gentleman and Zig Zag Evergreen, are among the sweetest of all. The grains are of irregular shape and arrangement, and the appearance of the ears is not altogether prepossessing. When once known, however, they are in demand by consumers. The red-cob corns should be cooked by dropping into boiling water. If cooked slowly, the red color of the cob affects the appearance of the grains. SWEET CORN.--For first early, we recommend Burlington Hybrid and Mammoth White Cory. The former closely resembles a true sugar corn in appearance. For second early, Early Champion and New Early Evergreen; for late, original Stowell's Evergreen, Country Gentleman, Zig Zag Evergreen. See "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual" for descriptions of varieties. =Cultivation, Enemies, etc.=--Shallow culture, frequently repeated, is demanded by sweet corn. The growth at first is timid and slow; afterward, if well cultivated, the stalks grow with great rapidity and vigor. [Illustration: New Early Evergreen Sweet Corn.] To make the most of the stalks, they should be cut as soon as possible after the last ears have gone to market and fed to stock. Sweet corn stalks when dry make excellent fodder. The main enemies of corn are the cut worm, which is only troublesome in spring; a fungus which attacks the ears and which is always most prevalent on the small, early sorts; and a worm which cuts and injures the grain while the corn is in milk. Crows sometimes pull up the seeds, but can be disposed of by scattering a little yellow corn on the surface of the ground around the edges of the field. As the crow destroys many cut worms, it is better to feed him with corn than to shoot him. The prevalence of fungus-troubled or smutty corn is probably a symptom of weakness, the result of planting too early, or of too much wet weather. All plants that are weak are liable to fungus attacks, and it is the early corn that suffers most. This corn is often planted before the ground is sufficiently warm, and there is a consequent weakness of growth. Indian corn, at Philadelphia, should not be planted before May 10th, and yet it is not uncommon to see gardeners planting sweet corn two weeks earlier. They say they are "going to risk it." The result may be a good crop of corn, or it may be a crop of worms and fungus. Of course, the high price of the first corn in market is the excuse for the unseasonable date of planting. But it is not quite fair to blame the seed or the variety of corn for what is partly the result of the gardener's impatience. All traces of smut on corn stalks should be burned, and not allowed to be fed to cattle. =The Corn Worm.=--Far more destructive and disastrous than smut is the corn worm (Heliothis armiger). This is the cotton worm of the South, there called boll worm. It is also sometimes called the tomato worm. It is the larva of a day-flying moth. The difficulty in dealing with it is that when in the corn ear it is out of the reach of poisonous applications of any kind. Its depredations are extensive, especially in early corn. It prefers corn to all other foods, and cotton planters protect their crops by planting early corn in the cotton fields and then destroying the corn and the worms within the ears. The best remedy at the North is to feed all wormy ears to pigs; and to plow the corn land in autumn, when the insects are in the pupa or chrysalis state. If turned up by the plow, it is believed that they mostly perish. The worms are said to be cannibals, eating each other to a great extent. This worm is, perhaps, the greatest enemy with which the grower of sweet corn has to contend. The plan of feeding wormy ears to pigs offers the double advantage of destroying the enclosed pests, while at the same time fattening the pigs. =Successional Planting.=--The skillful farmer will arrange successional plantings of corn, beginning (at Philadelphia) May 10th and ending about July 10th. The first and last plantings should be of the early sorts; the intermediate plantings of the full-sized varieties. =Profits.=--Profits depend on location. The size of the crop should approximate 1,000 dozens of ears per acre, and the gross receipts should be $100 to $200 per acre, more or less, above the value of the fodder. =Suckering.=--Time is often spent in pulling the suckers from the stalks of sweet corn. Such time is wasted. If the suckers are let alone they will not reduce the number or quality of the marketable ears. HORSERADISH. Farmers who have soil that is both rich and deep can find profit in growing horseradish on a large scale, in connection with early peas, beans or sweet corn. The sets are planted in May, in the rows between crops, and after the crops are removed the horseradish makes its main growth. It is perfectly hardy, and comes on rapidly during the late summer and autumn months. Where the ground is not strong enough to produce large roots the first year, the business will not prove very remunerative. =The Sets.=--Horseradish sets are made by cutting small roots (1/4 to 1/2 inch in thickness) into pieces 6 or 8 inches long. The upper end is cut square off; the lower end with a slope. This is to get them right end up at planting time. The small roots are available in quantities in the autumn, when the large roots are trimmed for market. The sets are kept in sand during the winter, or buried in the open ground, in a carefully-marked spot, where they can be easily found in the spring. If planted 2 feet apart in rows 3 feet apart, each plant will represent 6 square feet of space, and, hence, about 7,300 sets will be needed for an acre. The method of planting is to strike out rows, and with a long dibber or crowbar make holes 8 or 10 inches deep. A set is dropped into each hole and the earth pressed about it. [Illustration: Ideal Hollow Crown Parsnip.] Shoots will soon appear above the surface, and when the early crop has been removed from the land, the horseradish should be well cultivated once or twice. Little further attention is needed. The roots should be lifted the same year, in December, and stored in an earth-covered heap or pit, or else in sand in a root cellar. The small lateral roots should be saved for the next year's sets. There is a good demand for horseradish, both wholesale and retail; but prices should be ascertained before going into the business in a large way. Good roots, after trimming and washing, should weigh half a pound or more each. PARSNIP. The cultural requirements of the parsnip are quite similar to those of the carrot. Any soil that is deep mellow and moderately rich may be used for parsnips. Fresh manure is to be avoided, as it makes the roots rough. [Illustration: Mammoth Sandwich Island Salsify as Bunched for Market.] The seed should be planted in early spring, while the ground is moist, as it germinates very slowly. It should be covered to a depth of half an inch, and the soil pressed down firmly. The plants must be thinned out to stand 3 or 4 inches apart. The parsnip is a vegetable of a perfectly hardy character. It may remain in the ground, just where it grows, all winter. The flavor is said to be improved by hard freezing, and no amount of freezing will hurt it. It has a high value as human food, and is demanded in large quantities in some markets. It also has a high value as a stock food, especially for cows. It should be fed after milking, in quantities not sufficient to taint the milk. The price is variable, but about the same as the carrot. PARSNIP.--We recommend Ideal Hollow Crown. For description, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." SALSIFY OR OYSTER PLANT. Salsify, oyster plant or vegetable oyster is a root of easy culture and of high food value. In shape it resembles the carrot and parsnip, and is as perfectly hardy as the latter. The seed should be sown an inch under the surface, in spring, in rows 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 feet apart, and the plants thinned to stand 5 inches apart in the rows. The culture is the same as for parsnips. Fresh manure must be avoided, as it makes the roots ill-shaped. The roots, under good treatment, will exceed an inch in diameter, and may attain a size of 2 inches or more. They may remain in the ground over winter, to be taken up whenever the frost permits or they may be taken up in late autumn and preserved in sand in a cellar. Good salsify is in demand where its merits are known. THE POTATO. The cultivation of the potato is so well understood by every American farmer and gardener that it seems unnecessary to discuss the details of cutting the tubers, planting, cultivating, harvesting, etc. The weak points of potato culture are most commonly the fertilizing and the treatment of diseases. These will be briefly discussed. As to lack of moisture, to be remedied by artificial watering, the reader is referred to our new book, entitled, "Irrigation by Cheap Modern Methods," in which a case is mentioned where water alone made a difference of 129 bushels per acre in the crop. POTATOES.--Best for the South, Bliss Triumph, Pride of the South, Crown Jewel, Early Thoroughbred. General crop in the North--Houlton Early Rose, Table King, Late Puritan, Rural New-Yorker No. 2. For descriptions of these and other varieties, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Fertilizing.=--A ton of potatoes (33-1/3 bushels) contains 4·2 pounds of nitrogen (equal to 5·1 pounds of ammonia), 1·5 pounds of phosphoric acid and 10 pounds of potash. This shows that nitrogen and potash are the elements mainly abstracted from the soil by a crop of potatoes. An analysis is not an infallible index of what must be applied to any soil, for that soil may be naturally rich in some one fertilizing element and deficient in the others. Only experiment will determine what is best. But a knowledge of the analysis of the crop is necessary to intelligent experimentation. Nitrogen and potash will evidently be demanded in most cases, yet the Ohio Station recently reports that "phosphoric acid has been the controlling factor in the increase of the potato yields" in the trials made there. This shows how greatly soils vary in their requirements. [Illustration: Harvesting Seed Potatoes near Houlton, Aroostook County, Maine.] Barnyard manure would answer all purposes and would be an ideal potato fertilizer, except for the fact that it so often carries with it the spores of such diseases as blight, scab and rot. Still, barnyard manure in a partly rotted condition is very widely used by potato growers. Clover sod is an excellent source of nitrogen, as heretofore explained. The clover is, perhaps, the best of the leguminous crops for green manuring purposes. Many successful potato farmers depend largely upon clover, supplementing it with a small amount of high-grade complete fertilizer in the rows. Where phosphoric acid is necessary, it can be had in the form of ground bone or acidulated rock, and potash can be had in the form of sulphate or as kainit. Where the scab is prevalent, it may prove better to use kainit, on account of the salt which it contains, as will be presently explained. =Planting.=--It requires from seven to ten bushels of tubers to plant an acre. Some growers use as much as fifteen bushels. The date of planting, depth, distance between rows, etc., are details for individual determination. Flat culture is better than ridge culture, so far as conservation of moisture is concerned. It is important that good Northern-grown seed be planted; tubers which have not lost their strength by excessive sprouting. Storage in a cool, dark, dry place is best for potatoes. Whether planted early or late, or at successional dates, must be determined by the market requirements of the grower. =Varieties.=--The varieties of potatoes are many, and while it is wise to experiment in a small way on new kinds, it is best to depend for business purposes on standard sorts that have been fully tested. =Irrigation.=--After the farmer has exhausted his best efforts in the preparation and fertilization of the soil, and after good seed has been planted and the best possible culture given, there may come a season of prolonged drouth that will defeat his purpose of securing a large crop. This result is not common, but neither is it rare; and where farmers are looking toward the high culture of certain special crops, it would be well for them to consider the matter of artificially watering their potato fields. [Illustration: An Average Tuber of Table King, One of the Best All Around Potatoes.] =Diseases and Enemies.=--Not counting dry weather, which sometimes robs the farmer of two-thirds of his crop, there are four diseases which exert a disastrous influence on the potato, and which are liable to occur any season. Two of these diseases are of the leaf and stem and two of the tubers. The two leaf troubles are respectively known as blight or downy mildew and the Macrosporium disease. The two tuber troubles are scab and rot. =Leaf Blights.=--No attempt will be made here to separately describe the two leaf diseases. Both destroy the foliage and check the further growth of both vine and tuber. The leaves turn brown or black, and the stem quickly wilts and falls. There can be no growth of tuber without vigorous health of vine. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture, in advance of the occurrence of any disease, is recommended. Bordeaux mixture for this purpose is made by using six pounds of copper sulphate and four pounds of quick lime, dissolved in separate wooden vessels, and the lime water poured into the dissolved blue stone. This should be diluted with water sufficient to fill a forty-five gallon barrel. Paris green to the amount of from one-quarter to three-quarters of a pound to the barrel should be added, to destroy beetles and other insects. The vines should be sprayed five or six times, beginning when they are 6 inches high, at intervals of ten days or two weeks. During rainy weather the spraying should be more frequent than during clear weather. The object is to prolong the life and vigor of the vines. The cost of the five or six sprayings, including labor at $1.50 per day, is put at not above $6 per acre, while the crop at stake may be affected to the extent of scores of bushels. =Scab and Rot.=--The evidence about scab and rot is still contradictory, but it is likely that these diseases will presently be under control. At the New Jersey Station, Professor Halsted completely conquered scab with an application of 300 pounds of flowers of sulphur per acre scattered in the rows, while the same treatment at the Ohio Station was less successful. At the latter station benefit was found in the use of salt, kainit, sulphate of potash, etc. The various experiments and observations on potato scab and rot seem to indicate that scab flourishes best on a soil inclined to be alkaline, while rot is most prevalent on a soil inclined to be acid. The use of lime increases scab, while the use of kainit diminishes it. The best practice, therefore, under present knowledge, would be to use clean seed on new ground, avoiding fresh stable manure. Clean seed can be had by treating tubers with corrosive sublimate. This substance is dissolved to the amount of 2-1/4 ounces, in two gallons of hot water, and (after standing a day) diluted with water so as to make fifteen gallons. In this solution the uncut seed potatoes should be soaked for an hour and a half. All unplanted seed potatoes should be destroyed, as the corrosive sublimate is highly poisonous. The use of sulphur, as recommended by Professor Halsted, will prove entirely satisfactory in some soils. In others, the use of kainit or sulphate of potash or acid phosphate would no doubt be found preferable. Where soil is badly affected with disease germs, it is unquestionably better to seek a new field than to attempt to disinfect the old one. A rotation of crops will probably restore diseased land to health more cheaply and more thoroughly than any other process. =Profits.=--Of potato profits it is not necessary to speak, except to remark that it costs but little more to produce 300 bushels to the acre than 100 bushels. There can be no doubt whatever that it pays handsomely to spray potato vines with the Bordeaux mixture. PUMPKINS AND SQUASHES. [Illustration: Mammoth Golden Cashaw Pumpkin, One of the Best for Market or Stock Feeding.] There is no clear dividing line between pumpkins and squashes, as they belong to the same botanic family--the Cucurbita. Some members of the group are clearly pumpkins, and others just as clearly squashes, but when an attempt is made to draw a sharp line between them, we get into difficulty. In general terms the pumpkin has a soft rind or shell and the squash a hard rind. But even this thumbnail test is not infallible. These vegetables belong on the farm, on account of the large ground space occupied by the vines. Pumpkins may be economically grown in corn fields, the seeds being planted along with the corn--one pumpkin seed to every fourth hill. No special care is needed besides the cultivation given the corn. Farmers should give far more attention to growing squashes, as they are much superior to pumpkins in food quality, both for the table and for stock. There are numbers of excellent squashes now catalogued by the seedsmen which many farmers have never tried, but which are worthy of cultivation for market purposes. When a farmer by experiment has found a high-quality squash adapted to his soil, he has put himself in possession of a product of permanent market value. PUMPKIN.--We especially recommend Mammoth Golden Cashaw and Winter Luxury. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." SQUASH.--Early varieties--Mammoth White Bush Scalloped, Giant Summer Crookneck. Winter-keeping varieties--Sweet Nut, Faxon, Chicago Warted, Hubbard, Early Prolific Orange Marrow. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." TOMATOES. Tomatoes may justly be rated among the leading crops available to farm gardeners. There is always a brisk market for selected, carefully-washed tomatoes, packed in new baskets. Such produce is seldom offered in excessive quantities. Any good corn land will produce good tomatoes. Excessive manuring is likely to stimulate the vines at the expense of the fruit. A little complete fertilizer or compost in the hills is desirable. Tomato seed of early varieties should be started under glass. The seed is sown on heat and the plants once or twice transplanted, and put in the open ground as soon as danger of frost is over. Little is gained by setting out too early, when the ground is cool. The tomato is of tropical origin, and makes rapid growth only at a temperature of 65° or upward. Indeed, it is suspected that one of the worst diseases to which the tomato is liable, the blight, is encouraged, if not wholly caused by too early planting in the open ground. =Varieties and Planting.=--At 4 feet apart each way, it will require about 2,700 tomato plants for an acre of land. In open field culture the tomato is always allowed to lie upon the ground. In garden culture, it is often tied to stakes or supported on trellises. Three ounces of seed will raise sufficient plants for an acre. There are many varieties of tomatoes, including the early and late market sorts, the yellow kinds, and the little pear-shaped and plum-shaped tomatoes, both red and yellow, used in pickling. The ideal market tomato is one of medium size and smooth shape. It must have firmness and depth, and the quality of ripening evenly all over. There should be neither greenness nor wrinkles around the calyx, nor should the fruit be of irregular shape. As to color, it is a matter of taste and neighborhood preference. Some markets demand red and some purple fruit. TOMATO.--We recommend, for earliest, Atlantic Prize and Money Maker; for second early and main crop, Brinton's Best, New Fortune; for late, Brandywine, Cumberland Red, Stone. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Successional Planting.=--If the first tomato plants be set in the open ground (at Philadelphia) May 15th to 20th, there should be at least one and preferably two later crops, because young, vigorous plants yield the most and best fruit. It is good practice to sow tomato seed in the open ground, say about middle of May, and again somewhat later. These out-of-door plants will come forward very rapidly, and will be ready to produce late summer and autumn crops. [Illustration: Atlantic Prize Tomatoes, as they Appear for Sale on Fruit Stands, etc., during the Spring Months.] =Cultivation.=--The tomato is of the easiest cultivation, and will grow even under neglect, but it so abundantly repays attention, that no farmer can afford to be careless about the matter. The nights of May are cool in the North, and the newly-set plant at first makes little growth. Cultivator and hand-hoe should both be kept in motion during this period, and in June also. In the latter month the tomato will make a sudden leap toward maturity, and will yield ripe fruit in July. The out-of-doors cropping season lasts for three full months. The tomato is now grown under glass almost everywhere, and is to be had in the market during all the months of the year. [Illustration: The Great B. B. (Brinton's Best) Tomato, Best for Main Crop.] The out-of-doors season is profitably prolonged by picking all the mature or nearly mature fruit when the first frost comes, in October, and placing these unripe tomatoes on straw in a cold frame. Covered with straw and with the sash to keep out frost, the fruit ripens in a satisfactory manner for several weeks. Such a frame must be well ventilated or the tomatoes will rot rather than ripen. [Illustration: New Fortune, one of the Best Second Early Tomatoes.] =Diseases and Enemies.=--Tomato diseases, fortunately, are not numerous. Blight sometimes sweeps off a whole field of early-set tomato plants, on farms where later plantings are quite healthy. This favors the theory that blight results from weakness caused by early planting in cold ground. It is a fungous disease, and may sometimes be prevented by the use of Bordeaux mixture. The same remedy is the best known preventive of black rot. Potato bugs may be either hand-picked or poisoned with Paris green. The tobacco worm sometimes causes much damage to the tomato. All diseased or blighted tomato vines should be promptly burned, and the crop carried to new soil the following year. =Marketing, Profits, etc.=--As already stated, choice tomatoes in clean baskets are always in demand, and a new basket will usually pay for itself on a single sale. The sum of $150 per acre may be quoted as the average gross receipts from tomatoes at present prices. This estimate is based on the low yield of a half-peck of fruit to each vine at 25 cents per basket. If sold retail, the tomatoes would command more money, while if sold in bulk to a canning factory the gross receipts might be larger or smaller, depending on the size of the general crop and other circumstances. TURNIPS AND RUTA BAGAS. Turnips and ruta bagas are closely related. The latter are turnips in fact, and are frequently called Swedes. The common method on many farms is to sow turnips broadcast, but it is a far better practice to sow both these and the ruta bagas in drills, so that they can be kept clear of weeds and worked by horse-power. Not only are these advantages secured, but the row system makes it possible to take out the superfluous plants, and secure roots of uniform size and shape. Turnips and ruta bagas have high economic value as foods, both for humanity and for live stock. =Turnips.=--Turnips are grown for market purposes both in spring and in fall. In the spring the seed should be sown early, in mellow soil. For the fall crop the seed may be sown either in July or August. The rows in garden or field may be as close as can be conveniently worked. TURNIP.--For earliest, we recommend Purple Top and White Milan. For fall crop, Mammoth Purple Top Globe and Golden Ball. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." [Illustration: Budlong or Breadstone Turnip.] =Ruta Bagas or Swedes.=--The seed of ruta baga or Swedish turnip should be sown (in the latitude of Philadelphia) in July, a little earlier than the seed of the common turnip. The ground should be well enriched with rotted manure, the rows 2-1/2 to 3 feet apart, the seed covered to the depth of half an inch, and the plants afterward thinned out so as to stand 6 or 8 inches apart in the row. The crop is almost always large and satisfactory. RUTA BAGA.--We recommend Myer's Purple Top Beauty and Budlong. For descriptions, see our "Garden and Farm Manual." [Illustration: Myer's Purple Top Beauty Ruta Baga.] =Storage.=--Turnips of all kinds sell well in the winter markets, to say nothing of their high value as stock foods. They are easily preserved in root cellars, covered with sand, or in pits in dry soil, covered with straw and earth to prevent freezing. [Illustration: Distribution of Water through Home-made Hose Pipe. An Illustration from our New Book--"Irrigation by Cheap Modern Methods." No Gardener should miss Reading this Work. See page 125.] CHAPTER IV. VEGETABLES SUITED TO FARM CULTURE IN SOME LOCATIONS. In this portion of the book are grouped a number of vegetables not adapted to every farm or location. The list includes celery, water cress, cucumbers, egg plants, kale, lettuce, melons, mushrooms, onions, peas, radishes, rhubarb, spinach, sweet potato, etc. Where favored locations for their production exist on farms they may be grown with profit, if markets are accessible. CELERY. On very many farms there are meadows with deep, rich soils that are now lying under grass; or, worse, under tussocks and swamp weeds. Some locations are subject to disastrous overflow during freshets, but innumerable spots exist where such meadows could with safety be converted into celery gardens, capable of easy irrigation, either situated above the level of floods or susceptible of artificial protection by means of cheap embankments. Such situations are entirely too valuable to use for pasturage. They are the truck gardens of the future. =Perfect Celery.=--The object in celery-growing is to produce thick, robust, tender, solid, crisp, sweet leaf stalks, free from rust or insect attacks. The essentials are rich land and plenty of water, and skill is required in the two points of bleaching and storing. But there are no mysterious processes to be learned. The Kalamazoo growers have, it is true, a rare advantage in their deep muck soil, with a permanent water level only a few inches or feet below the surface, but their success depends on accuracy of working detail almost as much as on perfection of soil. It is not necessary to go to Michigan for good celery ground. =Fertilizers.=--The best known fertilizer for celery is thoroughly rotted barnyard manure. Fresh manure is to be avoided for several reasons. It is less available for plant food, more likely to produce rust, and more liable to open the soil and render it too dry. Commercial fertilizers are not infrequently used, but there is a decided preference among many celery growers for the rotted stable product. Shallow plowing (5 inches) is practiced, as celery roots do not go deep. =Planting.=--It requires from 20,000 to 35,000 celery plants to the acre, according to their distances apart. In the intense culture at the great celery centres two crops (and even three crops) of celery are grown upon the land per year, by a system of planting between rows, but in the operations of farm gardeners not more than one crop per season is grown. This may follow an earlier market crop, such as peas, beans, onions or sweet corn, though where the farmer is hard pushed with other work, the celery may be grown without any other crop preceding it, but not upon newly-turned sod land, as the earth should be loose and mellow. Seed for early celery must be started under glass, but the farmer will find his best celery market in the autumn. April will, therefore, be ample time for sowing the seed, which should be scattered thinly in rows in finely-raked mellow soil in the open ground, and covered lightly. The seed is very slow to germinate, and the bed should be copiously watered until the plants are well started. In small operations, it is well to transplant at least once. In large operations, the plants are thinned out in the original rows, and carried from thence direct to the field. The upper leaves and the tips of the roots are cut off, and the plants are set firmly in the soil by means of a dibber. [Illustration: J. & S. Golder Self-Blanching Celery Prepared for Market.] =Dates and Distances.=--July is a proper time for setting out celery; preferably after a rain or during dull weather. The rows may be from 3 to 5 feet apart, depending on the purpose of the planter, and the plants 5 or 6 inches apart in the rows. If the celery is to be stored for blanching, 3-feet rows may be used. If it is to be blanched in the field, the distance between the rows should be greater, so that more loose soil will be available for hilling. One ounce of celery seed will furnish 2,500 to 3,000 plants. A half pound is sufficient to furnish plants for an acre. Even on good ground celery should not be set out later than August 15th (in the latitude of Philadelphia), and preferably earlier. The system of level planting is practiced by large growers everywhere. Trenching is still followed in some private gardens, but is too expensive for commercial operations. =Varieties.=--The so-called dwarf and half-dwarf varieties have pushed the larger kinds out of the market almost entirely, though seed of the giant sorts can still be obtained. The dwarf kinds are large enough for all purposes, however, and are in best favor everywhere. They are about 18 inches high, as compared to twice that height in the old-fashioned giant types. The favorites of late years for early celery are the self-blanching sorts, such as White Plume and Golden Self-Blanching, which are the result of the continued selection of individual plants or sports showing a tendency to blanch easily. For winter keeping, the Perle Le Grand, Winter Queen and Perfection Heartwell are the best. These varieties are beautiful as well as highly palatable. There are also red or pink sorts, of high table merit and good keeping qualities. CELERY.--We recommend Golden Self-Blanching and White Plume for early, Perle Le Grand for both early and late and Winter Queen for late. The latter is the very best keeper. See "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Cultivation.=--The proper culture of the celery has already been suggested in the allusion to its need for water and its shallow feeding habits. The surface soil should be highly enriched, the stirring of the soil very shallow, and the water supply copious, either by capillary attraction from below (as at Kalamazoo) or by rainfall or artificial irrigation. =Blanching.=--The first step in the process of blanching or bleaching is what is known as handling. This operation consists in grasping all the leaves of a celery plant in one hand, while with the other the soil is drawn together and packed so as to hold the stalks in an upright, compact position. This single operation will fit some of the early-planted sorts for market in the course of two weeks; though a second operation, called hilling, is usually considered desirable, even with the self-blanching sorts. See photograph on first page. The Kalamazoo growers depend on muck for field blanching, though they also use boards. Muck is merely a dark soil, containing or consisting mainly of vegetable matter. They first "handle," as just described, and about five days later draw 6 inches more of the muck about the celery stalks. Again, three days later, they draw an additional 2 inches about the stalks, and in two weeks from the start the celery is ready for market. These operations are frequently done by two men working together, one holding the stalks and the other drawing the soil to them. The first operation puts the stalks in an upright, compact position, so that little or no soil can get into the heart of the plant. The second draws about the plant all the soil that will conveniently remain there. The third merely supplements the second, as the hill has had time to become somewhat firm and has settled away a little from the upper leaves. Boards are used for summer blanching, as they are less heating than soil. Ordinary lumber, free from knot holes, is employed. The boards rest on their edges, one board on each side of the row, the tops being drawn together until within 2-1/2 inches of each other, and the lower edge of the board held in place either by stakes or by soil. The work of handling or hilling must be done only when the celery is dry and unfrozen. In fact, celery must never be handled when wet (except when preparing it for market), or it will surely be rusted and spoiled. The same practices of blanching celery as here mentioned in connection with the Kalamazoo operations are in vogue near Philadelphia and other Eastern cities, and are not new. The real reason that Kalamazoo is so celebrated is her possession of that wonderful black muck soil, underlaid with standing water. This has attracted the best celery growers of the country; men who have small places of from one to three acres, and who work out every detail to perfection, employing little labor outside of their own families and concentrating their efforts on the production of perfect celery crops. There are extensive celery growers at Kalamazoo, with tracts of thirty or more acres devoted exclusively to this vegetable, but the majority of the gardens there are small, and much hand-work is done. =Winter Storage.=--The art of the winter storage of celery, as practiced by large growers, is not hard to learn. Both at Kalamazoo and here in the Eastern States there are two methods in vogue. One is the use of especially-built houses, and the other is the open-field plan. [Illustration: Blanching Celery with Boards.] [Illustration: Winter Queen, the Best Late Winter Keeping Celery.] The celery house or "coop" is a low frame structure, half under ground, generally 14 or 16 feet wide, and as long as may be desired. There is a door in one end and a window in the other. The sides, ends and roof are double and filled with sawdust. There are wooden chimneys or ventilators at intervals of 12 feet along the peak of the roof, and sometimes there are glass windows in the roof, provided with wooden shutters. The celery stands upon the floor, which is of loose soil. There is a narrow walk lengthwise in the middle of the building, and boards extending from the central walk to the side walls separate the packed celery into narrow sections. No earth is placed between the celery stalks as they stand. They are, in fact, rooted in the soil of the floor, and are thus able to make the slight growth demanded for complete blanching. The various doors, windows and ventilators make it possible to keep the air fresh and wholesome, and during cold weather a stove may afford heat to the storage room. Artificial heat is not commonly required. Another method, cheaper and quite as satisfactory, especially on farms or in market gardens, is to trench the celery in the open field. The situation of the trench must be a dry one, where there will be no standing water. The trench must be nearly or quite as deep as the height of the celery, with perpendicular sides, and a foot or less in width. The stalks are set upright in the trench, with all decayed or worthless leaves removed, as closely as they will stand, without soil between them. To keep them in that condition is purely a matter of care. If they are buried deeply and the weather proves warm they will rot. But if the covering be decreased in warm weather and increased in cold weather, the celery can be kept in perfect condition. In private gardens celery is often planted in double rows, a foot apart, and wintered where it grows by covering deeply with soil. An excellent plan is to make an A-shaped trough of two boards to turn the rain, on top of which a greater or less amount of straw, leaves or litter may be piled, if needed. Mice sometimes do considerable damage to stored celery, but are more easily controlled in short trenches than in long ones. Small amounts of celery may be stored in cellars, in boxes a foot wide and a foot deep, with damp sand in the bottom. No soil is needed between the plants. The coolest and darkest part of the cellar is best for storage. =Diseases.=--Celery diseases are preventable and insect attacks are few. For blight, kainit is recommended, both in the seed-bed and open field. For rust, the Bordeaux mixture is advised. Hollow-stemmed or pithy celery is the result of poor stock or improper soil, and can be avoided by the use of more manure and more water. =New Process.=--The method of growing celery in highly enriched soil, with plants set 6 or 8 inches apart both ways, is quite feasible. The plants stand so close as to blanch each other to some extent, but the system has never attracted general favor. A great deal of water is required. Cultivation is possible only when the plants are small. =Profits.=--The use of celery is obviously on the increase, but the demand is for a first-class article. The cash results may be set at anywhere from $200 to $500 per acre. The actual net profits of well-conducted operations are considerable. WATER CRESS. Water cress, a vegetable closely allied to several other edible cresses, is used in very large quantities in all city restaurants. It is a much-esteemed winter relish, and is mostly served with every one of the thousands of beefsteak orders daily filled in the great eating houses and lunch rooms. The demand for it seems to be on the increase. [Illustration: Water Cress.] Water cress is of the easiest culture. It can be grown in the soil of a forcing house under glass, and is extensively produced in this way by market gardeners. The cheapest method is to grow it in running water, preferably near a spring head; and many such situations are available to farmers. Flat beds, made of loam, gravel, or sand, covered with 3 or 4 inches of warm, spring water, will yield great quantities of water cress in early spring; and the use of a few sash will keep the cress in growth during the winter. The cress should be cut frequently, as the young shoots are most succulent and tender. For market purposes the water cress is tied in bunches, and retailed at from 3 to 10 cents per bunch, or packed in pint boxes, leaves uppermost, and retailed for about 10 cents per box. These are winter and early spring prices. Water cress culture is profitable in favored locations. CUCUMBER. The cucumber market is not easily over-supplied, but the pickling tub should stand ready to receive all cucumbers not sold in a fresh condition. For field culture, good ground must be selected, and marked out with a plow, 4 � 4 feet; or, a little wider, if the soil is strong. At least one shovelful of well-rotted manure is dropped in every hill, and mixed with the soil, and a dozen seeds planted, to be thinned out finally to three or four plants. It is better to have extra plants, on account of the attacks of the striped beetle. The cucumber belongs to a botanic family which is naturally tender, and the seeds should not be sown until the soil is quite warm. For farm work, the planting season is the latter part of May and the whole of June; and even July is a suitable month, if the soil can be irrigated. It will require two pounds of seed for an acre. The variety sown should depend on the purpose in view; but in all commercial operations, well-known and thoroughly tested sorts should be chosen. Shallow cultivation is recommended. If an early market is to be supplied with cucumbers, the seeds may be started under glass, on bits of inverted sod or in small boxes, and set in the open ground on the arrival of settled warm weather; but the farmer will usually find it most profitable to sow the seeds where the plants are to remain. The most serious enemy of the cucumber vine is the striped beetle, which attacks the young plant and frequently ruins it. The remedy is air-slaked lime, or soot, or sifted coal ashes, or wood ashes diluted with dry road dust. The best preventive is salt or kainit, used in the hills. The true plan is to have strong, vigorous plants, which, as a rule, will resist and outgrow the striped beetle, and be not greatly injured by its attacks. There is a blight which sometimes destroys the cucumber vine, apparently the result of weakness following a prolonged drouth. The vine of the cucumber must be kept in vigorous growth, not only by cultivation and a sufficient water-supply, but by care in removing all the fruit as soon as formed, for, if the seeds be permitted to mature, the vine will quickly perish. It is the purpose of the vine's existence to produce ripe seeds, and it will make repeated and long-continued efforts to accomplish this end. In gathering the cucumbers, it is important to avoid injuring the vine. Some growers use a knife; others break the stem by a dexterous twist, without injuring the vine in the least. [Illustration: Johnson & Stokes' Perfected Jersey Pickle Cucumber.] It requires 300 cucumbers (more or less) of fair pickling size to make a bushel, and it is estimated that an acre will produce from 100 to 200 bushels, or even more. When the pickles are pulled while quite small, the number runs up to 125,000 per acre; and the pickle factories in some cases make their estimates on a yield of 75,000 per acre. The price is variable, but often quite profitable. CUCUMBER.--For planting in the South to ship to Northern markets use Improved Arlington White Spine. Giant of Pera is a fine table sort. For pickling, plant Johnson & Stokes' Perfected Jersey Pickle. For description see our "Garden and Farm Manual." =Downy Mildew.=--A disease which lately threatened to destroy the business of growing pickles in New Jersey and elsewhere, the downy mildew of the cucumber, can be fully overcome by spraying the vines with Bordeaux mixture. It requires six or seven applications, at intervals of a week or ten days, to conquer this comparatively new disease. Downy mildew is a fungous trouble affecting the leaves and destroying the further usefulness of the vine. A recent New York experiment showed a yield of $173 worth of pickles per acre under spraying as against complete failure where the Bordeaux mixture was not used. The cost of spraying was $9.50 per acre, leaving $163.50 per acre as the value of the crop saved by the operation. EGG PLANT. The advisability of growing egg plants in farm gardening operations is a question of location. On a suitable soil, near a good market, the operation will be a profitable one, if rightly managed. The egg plant is a tender vegetable, botanically allied to both the tomato and the potato, but less hardy than either, especially when young. For this reason it is best to delay sowing the seed, even in hot-beds, until cold weather is past, for the tender seedlings never fully recover from a chill or set-back. Indeed, for the farm gardener the month of May is early enough to sow the seed under glass, for this plant grows with great rapidity in a warm soil, and May-sown seed not infrequently yields plants that outstrip those sown a full month earlier. [Illustration: New Jersey Improved Large Purple Smooth Stem Egg Plant.] The egg plant demands a richer soil than either the potato or tomato. It also asks for more water. It is a rank feeder. A good stimulant, if rotted manure cannot be had, is nitrate of soda at the rate of 400 pounds to the acre. The farm gardener will do well to consider his market before engaging in the production of the egg plant on an extensive scale, for it is a perishable product. It bears shipment well, but its use is mainly limited to consumption while fresh. It may command a very high price at some seasons of the year and at other times be practically unsalable at any price, owing to an over-supply. If egg-plant seed be sown under glass in early May, and carefully protected against cool weather (especially at night), the young plants will be ready to transplant before the end of the month and large enough for the open field in June. They should be set in rows 4 feet apart, and about 3 feet apart in the row. Set at these distances, an acre of ground would accommodate about 3,500 plants. The enemy of the egg plant, in growth, is the potato bug, which must be hand-picked or poisoned. There is a rot which causes the fruit to drop from the stem before reaching maturity. This rot is a fungus, and the Bordeaux mixture is recommended for it. The blight which sometimes affects the foliage is in part at least caused by cold weather, and for this there is no remedy, except late planting. Every healthy plant should produce from two to six or more full-sized fruits, and it is therefore easy to calculate that an acre's product under favorable circumstances may be very large. EGG PLANT.--There is nothing equal to the New Jersey Improved Large Purple Smooth Stem for the use of farm gardeners. For description, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." [Illustration: Johnson & Stokes' Imperial, or Long Standing Kale.] KALE OR BORECOLE. Kale, of which there are many varieties, is a headless cabbage, closely allied to such vegetables as Brussels sprouts, collards, etc. It is one of the most hardy of vegetables, and in this latitude it will live over winter in the open ground, with only straw or litter as a protection. If cut for use when frozen it should be thawed out in cold water. The kales are among the most delicately flavored cabbages. Some of them are of such ornamental shape as to be full worthy of cultivation for decorative purposes. The height varies from 1 to 2 feet, and the colors include both greens, dark purples and intermediate shades. Kale demands a rich, deep soil. The seed should be sown in a border or seed-bed, and transplanted to the open field and set in rows, after the manner of cabbage. It is largely and profitably grown in the South for shipment to the great Northern markets. Where farmers are situated near centres of population where kale is in demand, its culture will be found profitable, as it requires even less labor than cabbage. It is planted both in spring and autumn. The former crop is for autumn consumption and the latter crop is carried over winter after the manner of spinach, protected by a light covering of some sort of litter. KALE.--For the South, we recommend Extra Dwarf Green Curled Scotch; for the North, Johnson & Stokes' New Imperial. See our "Garden and Farm Manual" for descriptions. LETTUCE. In some sections, especially in the South, lettuce can be grown with profit by farm gardeners. Depending on the latitude, the seed may be planted from autumn until spring. The plants are usually sheltered and headed under glass, or under muslin-covered sash, and are sent North in ventilated barrels. The lettuce is naturally a cool-weather plant, and its culture is easy. The seed is cheap and it germinates quickly. Well-grown lettuce always commands good prices. It is usual to start the seeds in a border or under a frame, and to prick out the plants into more roomy quarters as soon as they are large enough to handle. In a few weeks after transplanting, in good growing weather, they are headed ready for market. Good soil, abundance of moisture and free ventilation are essentials in lettuce production. [Illustration] In some parts of the North lettuce culture would be found profitable by farmers in the summer season, for there are varieties well adapted to high temperature, provided good soil and sufficient water be furnished. There is not a month in the year when lettuce is not demanded for use in salads, and this demand is likely to increase. LETTUCE.--For the South, we especially recommend Reichner's Early White Butter, Big Boston and New Treasure; for the North, New Sensation, Mammoth Salamander and Hornberger's Dutch Butter. Please see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." MELONS. Melon culture belongs on the farm rather than in the small market garden, on account of the large space occupied by the growing vines. An acre of ground will accommodate only about 450 watermelon hills (at 10 feet each way) or about 1,200 muskmelon or cantaloupe hills (6 feet each way), and hence the necessity for large areas of ground for the cultivation of these crops. The requirements of the various melons are quite similar. Broken sod ground or any green crop turned down favors their growth, and well-rotted stable manure in the hill is the best known stimulant. All the melons are tender, and are suited only to warm-weather growth, and this fact must be remembered in sowing the seed. Light alluvial soil near rivers or streams is adapted to melon growth, and many an old meadow now weedy and unprofitable might be used to advantage for one of these crops. [Illustration: New Black-eyed Susan Watermelon.] =The Watermelon.=--For cash-producing purposes the best watermelon is a large one, with a hard rind. It must have a dark pink or red centre and must be a good shipper. It should weigh thirty to forty pounds, and there should be 900 to 1,000 first-class melons to the acre. The best melon for family use or for a strictly retail trade is a medium-sized variety, which has a thin rind, pink or red flesh and extra sweetness, weighing from twenty to thirty pounds. The preparation of the ground has already been suggested. Two shovels of manure should go into each hill. The planting date is May in this latitude; or as soon as the ground is thoroughly warm. Four pounds of seed per acre will be required. But one plant per hill is allowed to grow. The end of the main shoots should be pinched off, to encourage branching and flowering. [Illustration] Cultivation should be thorough. Fungous diseases can be controlled by means of the Bordeaux mixture, except that it is difficult to reach the under side of the leaves. To prevent sunburn on melons, some growers sow buckwheat when the vines are in blossom, and thus secure a partial shade by the time the fruit is large enough to be injured by the sun. Generally, no protection is necessary. At $10 or $15 per hundred, the average wholesale price at Philadelphia, watermelon culture is profitable. Early prices are higher. WATER MELONS.--For shipping--Johnson's Dixie, Blue Gem, Duke Jones, Sweet Heart. For home market--Black-Eyed Susan, Florida Favorite, Kentucky Wonder, McIver's Wonderful Sugar. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Citron.=--This small round melon is cultivated in all respects as the watermelon, but being smaller the hills may be closer. It is used in making preserves. The name citron is frequently applied to certain of the cantaloupes. =Cantaloupes or Muskmelons.=--It is a matter of choice whether the green-fleshed or red-fleshed sorts are grown; or whether the variety be large or small. The sorts covered with strongly webbed or netted markings are in high favor for shipping to distant points, as they carry well. Flavor is in part at least a matter of temperature and sunshine. Cantaloupes may be nicely ripened by removing them from the vines and storing in dry, warm rooms. The usual planting distance is from 4-1/2 to 6 feet, in hills containing rotted manure. Compost, made of hen manure, is sometimes used in the hill, well mixed with the soil. Good cantaloupes are always in active demand. MUSK MELONS.--Early sorts for shipping--McCleary's Improved Jenny Lind, Netted Beauty, The Captain, Champion Market, Improved Netted Gem, Anne Arundel. Late sorts--The Princess, Johnson & Stokes' Superb, etc. See "Garden and Farm Manual" for descriptions. [Illustration: McCleary's Improved Early Jenny Lind Muskmelon.] =Enemies.=--In addition to the fungous diseases of the watermelon and cantaloupe, which are best treated with Bordeaux mixture, all melons are sometimes badly troubled with an aphis called the melon louse. The remedy is whale-oil soap--a pound in six gallons of water; or kerosene emulsion. The latter is made by dissolving half a pound of soft soap in one gallon of water; then adding two gallons of kerosene, churning violently; then diluting with ten or twelve gallons of water. This emulsion is put upon the melon vines in the form of a spray, and is one of the best insecticides known. It is to be used on all sucking insects, like lice and squash bugs. Biting insects are easily killed with Paris green--one pound in 100 pounds of flour or plaster, or in 150 gallons of water. [Illustration: Improved Early Netted Gem Muskmelon (Rose Gem Strain).] Where the land is suited to melon culture, in any part of the country, the farm gardener will find no more satisfactory or remunerative crop. MUSHROOMS. Under certain favored circumstances the mushroom may be grown as a farm gardener's crop. The requisites are horse manure and a dark cellar, cave or vault. If the manure be available and a suitable apartment at hand, the growing of mushrooms may be taken up for winter work. [Illustration: A Bed of Mushrooms from English Milltrack Spawn.] There are many ways of growing mushrooms, and they can be produced in any situation where a steady temperature of 60° can be maintained. A simple method is to prepare a bed consisting of horse manure and loam, three parts by measure of the former and one of the latter, the manure having been somewhat fermented and sweetened by allowing it to heat and turning it several times. A compact bed a foot deep is made. This bed will first heat and then cool. As it cools, when at 80° or 85° an inch below the surface, bits of brick spawn the size of a hen's egg are inserted about 9 inches apart. The bed must not be immediately covered, or the temperature will rise sufficiently to kill the spawn. In ten days, more or less, as shown by a thermometer, this danger will be past, and the bed should receive a coating of good loam an inch deep. No water is to be applied until after the bed is in full bearing. It is assumed that the temperature of the room or cellar has been uniformly 60°, day and night; that the bed has not been made where it could become water-soaked; that it is sufficiently moist, yet not wet; and that no draft of air has passed over the surface in a way either to reduce the temperature of the bed itself or to dry the soil upon the surface. If these conditions cannot be maintained, either by a specially favorable place or by means of covering the bed with litter, it is better to let mushrooms alone. The crop should appear in six or eight weeks, and should last two months, the total product being from one-half to one pound per square foot. The cash price is from 50 to 75 cents per pound in the large cities; and the crop is sufficiently profitable to warrant the losses which beginners so commonly experience. These losses are the result of carelessness or ignorance in the matter of details. The usual sources of failure are poorly prepared beds, the medium being either too wet or too dry; frequent changes of temperature; improper use of water; and, lastly, poor or stale spawn. Mushrooms are packed in small baskets lined with paper, and carefully covered to prevent evaporation. A five-pound package is a favorite shipping size. ONIONS. The onion is a national crop; as widely though not quite as extensively grown as the potato. It is available as a money crop for the farm gardener. =Choice of Soil.=--Heavy, stiff clay land is to be avoided. Sand and gravel dry out too quickly. Stony land renders good culture difficult. The best soil for onions is a deep, rich, mellow loam. Soils which afford natural advantages for irrigation should not be overlooked, as the rainfall is often lacking when greatly needed. =Fertilizers.=--Onion culture demands high manuring. No amount of rotted stable manure is likely to be excessive. A ton per acre of high-grade, complete fertilizer is not too much, if moisture can be supplied. Hen manure is a good top dressing for onion-beds, furnishing the needed nitrogen. Nitrate of soda is a good source of nitrogen, if nitrogen must be purchased. The clovers and other leguminous crops yield the cheapest nitrogen. Wood ashes, kainit, etc., furnish potash. Either ground bone or acid phosphate will give the needed phosphoric acid. An analysis of the onion shows that it carries away fertility in just about the proportions furnished by stable manure. It is a singular fact that onions can be grown year after year on the same ground, if well manured. Rotation is necessary only in case of the occurrence of disease or insect attack. The onion loves cool weather. =Planting.=--To grow onion sets, the seed is sown in close rows, at the rate of from fifty to sixty pounds per acre. To grow large onions direct from seed, five pounds of seed per acre will be required. To plant a field with onion sets will require twelve to fifteen bushels per acre, according to size of the set. [Illustration: A List of the most Popular American Onions.] An onion set is merely an immature bulb. Sets vary from the size of a large pea up to that of a walnut. When the seed is sown thickly the bulbs have no chance to grow, and the summer weather quickly ripens the tops, completely suspending the growth of the bulb. In some parts of the country onion sets cannot be grown with profit, as the tops refuse to die and the bulbs or sets do not ripen properly. In nearly all parts of the United States onions can be grown direct from the seed the first year; especially from seed grown around Philadelphia, which is earlier than Western-grown. It is quite customary in the South to sow onion seed in late summer or autumn; in August or September. This will give early spring onions of marketable size. In the North, within quite recent years, it has become the practice to sow onion seed in frames, in fall or early spring, and transplant the young onions to the open ground. This is sometimes spoken of as the new onion culture. Onion sets or young plants should be placed 3 or 4 inches apart, in rows a foot apart, if to be cultivated by hand; the rows farther apart if for horse work. The onion is hardy. Many varieties will live in the open ground over winter, if covered (at the North) with light litter. It is in this way that shoots for bunching are obtained early in the spring. The seed should be sown for sets when the apple is in bloom. Sets may be put into the ground earlier; in fact, as soon as the ground can be worked. The set should not produce seed the first year, though it often does so. It should, on the contrary, grow to the size of say 3 inches, and then ripen for winter storage. Excessively large onions are not desirable. To hasten maturity, the tops may be broken down or the roots may be cut by running a knife or sharp plow or cultivator along one side of the row. The onion, under favorable circumstances, will produce a crop of 800 bushels (fifty-six pounds to the bushel) per acre; though 500 bushels is nearer the average product. [Illustration: Weeding a Field of Onion Sets on our Bucks County Seed Farm near Philadelphia.] =Storage.=--The storage of onions and onion sets is simple. The bulbs should first be ripened on the ground, by a brief exposure to wind and sun. This completes the wilting of the tops. They should then be spread out on ventilated trays or racks, or a few inches in depth on a floor, in a dry, shady place, where the air is good, preferably a loft; not a damp cellar. Freezing will not injure them, but they must not be handled when they begin to thaw, or they will rot. They must not be bruised during the operation of gathering or during the process of storage. A popular and excellent method of wintering onions in cold climates is to spread straw to the depth of 18 inches on a dry floor or scaffold, and put on a layer of onions from 6 inches to a foot deep, and cover with 2 feet of straw. This will not always prevent freezing, but it checks all sudden changes. Onions not fully cured should never be kept in barrels, but spread out so as to be perfectly ventilated. Onion sets shrink greatly in storage; sometimes as much as one-half between fall and spring. =Varieties.=--There are many varieties of onions, some of American and some of foreign origin. The former are better keepers, but the latter are of milder flavor. The American sorts (Danvers, Southport Globe varieties, Wethersfield, Extra Early Red, Silver Skin, Strasburg, etc.) are usually considered to be the most profitable; but the foreign kinds (Prize Taker, Prize Winner, Pearl, Bermuda, Giant Rocca, Victoria, etc.) are profitable in those parts of the country where soil and climate warrant their growth from seed in a single season. The so-called tree onion is a perennial, of American origin, living out over winter. It is sometimes called Egyptian or top onion. It produces bulbs or sets at the top of the seed-stalk. The potato or multiplier onion divides its large bulb into numerous small ones, which in turn produce large onions the next year. ONIONS.--For farm gardeners' purposes, we especially recommend Philadelphia Yellow Globe Danvers, Mammoth Yellow Prizetaker, White Prize Winner. Earliest Onions are--Extra Early Red Globe Danvers, American Extra Early White Pearl, Rhode Island Yellow Cracker. The best for sets--Extra Early Red, Philadelphia Yellow Dutch and White Silver Skin. For descriptions of varieties, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Diseases and Enemies.=--To prevent maggot, the use of kainit is recommended; 600 pounds per acre. For onion smut, which may in part be cured by the kainit, the best known remedy is a change of soil. Thrip, which causes the cuticle of the leaves to become covered with whitish or yellowish spots, is best treated by means of kerosene emulsion, used as a spray. The onion fly may, in part, at least, be abated by the use of equal parts of wood ashes and land plaster dusted very thoroughly on the young plants. Stiff-necked onions, often called stags, are the result either of improper growth or poor stock. They are sometimes planted in autumn for use as scallions (scullions) the following spring. =Marketing.=--Onions are sometimes sold in the open field; a good plan when a fair price can be secured. After curing, as already described, they are usually sold by the bushel or barrel. They are always in demand, as the onion is a standard article of human food. In the green state they are sold either by measure, by the bunch, or by the rope. The latter method consists in tying the onions along wisps of straw. =Scallions.=--No small amount of money is expended by housekeepers in the early spring markets for scallions (scullions), or bunched onion shoots. These tender shoots are washed, tied and sold for 3 to 5 cents per bunch, retail, or half those figures wholesale. Scallions are produced from either sets or large onions planted the preceding autumn, and sheltered either by frames or litter, so as to encourage early spring growth. PEAS. It will require one and one-half to two bushels of peas to seed an acre, and no crop finds a more ready sale than fresh peas in the summer and autumn markets. Farmers who are near centres of population, or who enjoy good shipping facilities, will find peas a quick money crop. Any good soil will produce a crop of this excellent vegetable, but it must not be assumed because the pea is a legume, with nitrogen-collecting roots, that it will not well repay the application of manure to the soil. Peas and beans need less assistance than some other things, but they give good returns for the application of rotted manure or artificial fertilizer. The seed should be put into the ground in early spring, as soon as the soil is dry enough to receive it, beginning with the smooth, extra-early sorts, which are more hardy than the wrinkled varieties. A little subsequent frost will do no harm. The smooth, early sorts should be sown in rows, about 3 feet apart, the intermediate or half-dwarf sorts in rows 4 feet apart, and the tall, late varieties, in rows 5 feet apart. In field operations no sticks are used, and large pickings are taken even from the tall-growing vines while sprawling upon the ground; and the labor is vastly less where no sticks are employed. The early peas should stand closer in the rows than the later and larger sorts. The Extra Early kinds mature in fifty to fifty-five days from germination; the intermediate kinds in sixty-five to seventy days, and the tall and late kinds in seventy-five to eighty days. For autumn planting, the extra early varieties are used, and are planted until sixty days before frost. [Illustration: Plant of New Giant Podded Marrow Pea.] Mildew is a field enemy of the pea, resulting from unfavorable weather. The weevil often attacks the seed, but does not injure it for market purposes. The canning of green peas is now an industry of enormous extent in America. The peas are shelled and sorted by machinery, and thousands of bushels are annually disposed of in this manner. The wholesale market price of peas in the pod varies from 50 cents to $3 per bushel at Philadelphia. The latter price is for the early product. The usual retail price is 15 to 25 cents per half peck. The crop of green pods per acre may be rated at 100 bushels, more or less. PEAS.--Earliest for the South--Johnson & Stokes' New Record Extra Early, Alaska; second early--Johnson & Stokes' Second Early Market Garden; late--Giant Podded Marrow, Improved Stratagem, Crown Prince, Sugar Marrow. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." RHUBARB. In some parts of the United States rhubarb or pie plant is grown in very considerable quantities for market purposes, and with profit. Its culture is extremely simple. It is merely necessary to plant seed or roots, and to have the plants about 4 feet apart each way in a permanent bed. The plant is a perennial, lasting for many years. It is a rank feeder, and the more manure given it, the larger and more succulent will be the young shoots. The roots should be divided every five years, as they finally become too large. The demand for rhubarb continues through the spring and into summer, and large quantities are canned for pie-making. Five leaf stalks make a large bunch. It is worth $2 to $3 per 100 bunches, wholesale. RADISH. Farmers who retail their produce should raise radishes. Rich ground and abundant moisture are the requisites for quick growth, and upon quick growth depends good quality. Slow-growing radishes are hot and pithy. The early sorts are best for spring, but the so-called summer radishes are best for warm weather, as they are not so liable as the early kinds to become pithy. Enormous quantities of winter radishes are grown in autumn, for use and sale during the winter months. They are kept in sand, like other roots. [Illustration: Johnson & Stokes' Olive Scarlet, the Earliest Radish.] The early kinds mature in twenty to twenty-five days from sowing. Nitrate of soda in small quantities is one of the best known stimulants. Rotted stable manure is good, but hog manure and night soil are not in favor among radish growers, tending to produce insect attacks. The free use of lime, salt or kainit is recommended as a preventive against insects. Sometimes it is necessary to avoid manure of any kind, on account of maggots, depending wholly on artificial fertilizers. As a last resort the radish-bed must be removed to new ground, as the maggot renders radishes wholly unsalable. [Illustration: China Rose Winter Radish.] The green seed pods of radishes are sometimes used for pickling. The plant is closely related to the mustard. It is wrong to wait for radishes to grow large (except the winter sorts), as they are sweetest and most succulent when comparatively small. Crisp, sweet radishes always command ready money. RADISH.--Early, for the South--Scarlet Turnip White Tipped, Johnson & Stokes' Olive Scarlet, Philadelphia Gardeners' Long Scarlet. Summer radishes--Red and White Chartier, White Strasburg, Improved Yellow Summer Turnip. All seasons, radishes which are equally good for summer or winter--New Celestial, New Round Scarlet China. For winter use only--China Rose. For descriptions, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." SPINACH. Spinach (or spinage) is grown for its leaves, which are cooked in winter and spring for use as "greens." The leaf is sweet and palatable even when raw, but it is always stewed for table purposes. It is a cool weather plant, almost perfectly hardy. It may be sown in spring, for immediate use, or in the autumn for fall cutting, or for carrying over winter. [Illustration: Plants and Roots of Parisian Long Standing Spinach.] It is of the easiest culture, requiring ten or twelve pounds of seed per acre, either broadcasted or sown in rows. In small gardens it is usually grown in rows, but in open field culture it is more commonly broadcasted. Patches of many acres in extent are seen near the large cities. It is also grown quite extensively in some parts of the South for shipment to Northern markets during January and February. To prepare it for market the leaves are cut before the seed stalk appears, and after washing are barrelled or crated for shipment. Growers receive from $1.50 to $2.50 per barrel in Philadelphia and New York in the winter and spring. Where accessible to market, spinach is a profitable crop. Blight is the main enemy. The remedy is removal to another soil. Of spinach there are many types; some smooth and some with savoy or wrinkled leaves. The property of standing a long time before going to seed is desirable, especially when sown in the spring, as it increases the length of the cutting season. At the North a slight protection of litter or straw is necessary in winter. South of latitude of Washington no protection is needed. Spinach is cut even when frozen; in fact, at any time when there is no snow on the ground. By throwing it into cold water it quickly thaws, and affords a palatable and healthful food in midwinter. The dead or yellow leaves should be removed before sending it to market, and if carefully prepared it has an attractive green appearance during cold weather when other vegetables are scarce. The winter crop is larger than any other, but much is also grown for spring sales. It is admirably adapted to farm culture. SPINACH.--For spring planting, we recommend Parisian Long Standing; for autumn, American Savoy or Bloomsdale. See "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." THE SWEET POTATO. The cultivation of the sweet potato affords profitable employment to thousands of American farmers. It is pre-eminently a farmer's crop, on account of the ground space occupied. It demands a light or sandy soil, well drained and well manured. It has wonderful drouth-resisting qualities; though, on the other hand, it is quite unable to withstand continued cold, wet weather. Its territorial range may be said to include nearly the whole of the United States, where the soil is suited to its growth, and it is even cultivated in Canada. It will in all probability increase in favor as it is better known and the manner of preserving or storing it is better understood. SWEET POTATO.--We recommend and endorse the Hardy Bush or Vineless Sweet Potato. For description, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual." =Fertilizers.=--There is wide diversity of practice in the matter of enriching the land for sweet potatoes, and most of the standard manures are used, either in one place or another. There seems to be an almost universal endorsement of well-rotted stable manure, and next in favor is wood ashes. High-grade fertilizer of any kind, thoroughly incorporated with the soil, may be used. =Young Plants.=--Sweet potatoes are propagated by sprouts obtained by laying tubers on their sides, not touching each other, covered with soil, in specially prepared heated beds. These sprouts produce abundant rootlets while still attached to the parent tuber, and by pulling them with care, great numbers of young plants can be obtained. A second and even a third crop of young plants may be pulled from the same tubers. In the South no artificial heat is needed. =Growing the Slips or Sprouts as Practised in New Jersey.=--The fire-bed, so-called, is quite generally used in Southern New Jersey for obtaining slips or sprouts for spring planting. It is necessary to have bottom heat and a uniform temperature of about 70°. [Illustration: Plant of New Hardy Bush or Vineless Sweet Potato.] The fire-bed consists essentially of a pit about 15 by 50 feet in size. It is floored with boards laid upon cross pieces. Beneath the boards there is an air chamber. On top of the boards the bed is made. At one end is a furnace, with flues running out into the air space beneath the bed, but not reaching the chimney or smoke-pipe at the opposite end of the bed. At the hottest end of the bed the soil is over 6 inches deep. At the cool end a depth of 6 inches is quite sufficient. The whole bed is covered either with canvas muslin or with glass sashes, there being a ridge pole above the bed, running lengthwise with it, thus giving a double pitch to muslin or to glass. After the soil has been heated somewhat, the tubers are laid on the bed, about an inch apart, and covered with about 3 inches of good soil, and the soil, in turn, covered with leaves or hay, to increase the warmth of the bed. In a week, more or less, the sprouts will show above the surface of the soil, when the leaves or hay must be removed. The object in not connecting the flues from the furnace with the chimney is to economize heat. The air chamber under the entire bed becomes evenly heated, and the smoke escapes finally by the chimney. This chimney may be made of wood, and a height of 8 or 10 feet will afford ample draft. Either wood or coal may be burned, but preferably wood. The planting distance in the field is about 3 feet by 2, the young plants being set upon ridges. It requires about 9,000 plants to the acre. The work must not be done until the ground is warm. The crop is ready in from sixty to ninety days. =Cultivation.=--Shallow cultivation is all that is required. The vines at the North are not permitted to take root along their length, but in the South they are sometimes allowed to do so, and additional tubers thus secured. At the North the vines are lifted and turned, to clear the way for the cultivator and to prevent rooting. =Enemies.=--Black rot is one of the worst of sweet potato diseases. Stem rot is another serious enemy. The best treatment for these and other fungous troubles is prevention, and the best prevention is a healthy soil. It is, therefore, best to go to new land occasionally. =Harvesting.=--The common practice is to plow the sweet potatoes out of the ground just after the first frost has touched the vines. The tubers must be exposed to the air for a time, and partially dried. They are prepared for market, if wanted immediately, by rubbing off the soil and sorting into two sizes. =Storage.=--At the South one of the several methods of winter storage is to build a light wooden flue of lattice work, and pack about it a conical-shaped heap containing about forty or fifty bushels of sweet potatoes. Straw is used as a covering, with earth upon the straw, the earth to be increased as the weather becomes colder. Over the entire heap a rough shed is erected to turn the rain. The top of the flue or ventilator is closed with straw in really cold weather. The spot must be a dry one. The New Jersey sweet potato house is a stone building, say 16 � 18 feet on the inside, with walls 10 feet high, and a good roof. The building is half under ground, and the earth is banked up around it. There is a passage way through the centre, and the bins for the sweet potatoes are 6 to 8 feet square and 8 to 10 feet deep. There is a door on the south side, with window above, and a stove is placed inside the building, for use when required. The walls are plastered, and the under side of the roof is also covered with lath and plaster, and the place is thoroughly weather-proof. A house of this kind will afford storage room for 3,000 or more bushels of sweet potatoes, and will keep them in excellent condition, if all details receive proper attention. The requirements for successful storage are that the tubers shall not be too hot, nor too cold, nor too wet, and that sudden changes of temperature shall be avoided. The sweet potato crop may be said to vary from 100 to 150 bushels per acre, under ordinary management, with higher results under good conditions. CHAPTER V. SASHES AND BEDDING PLANTS. [Illustration] The cost of a hot-bed sash, glazed and painted, is somewhere about $2; and such a sash can be made to earn its cost every year. The farmer who has, say, a pair of sashes for hot-bed work and another pair for cold-frame work, can turn them to very good account in the early spring, not only in starting such bedding plants as may be required in his own operations, but in producing plants for his neighbors. It costs but little more to grow 1,000 than 100 cabbage, tomato or egg plants, and the surplus above the home requirement can be converted into dollars. =The Hot Bed.=--The hot-bed is merely a board-lined pit, containing fermenting manure, with a few inches of soil on the manure, and covered by a sash. The ordinary sash is about 3 � 6 feet. A board shutter, the exact size of the sash, or a mat of straw, completes the outfit. The depth of manure, depending on the purpose in view, should be from 1 to 2 feet, the depth of soil from 3 to 6 inches, and the distance from soil to glass about 4 inches at the start. As the manure ferments the soil will sink. =The Cold Frame.=--The cold frame is merely a piece of rich, mellow soil, enclosed by boards and covered with glass. There is no bottom heat of any kind, but it is a great deal warmer than the open soil, and serves a variety of purposes. In the hot-bed, made in February or March (in the latitude of Philadelphia), all tender things may be started. The usual seeds sown here at that date on heat are cabbage, cauliflower, radish, lettuce, onions, etc., followed by tomato, pepper, celery, egg plant, etc., including flower seeds, if desired. The cold frame is used through the winter for lettuce, onions, carrots, corn salad, spinach, etc., and in spring for the reception of the things started on heat, when the time arrives for transplanting and hardening them. Properly-managed sashes will do a great deal toward the production of early market crops, and profits not infrequently depend upon the item of earliness. The one thing for inexperienced persons to learn about sashes and their uses is the imperative necessity of free ventilation whenever the sun shines on the glass. CHAPTER VI. THE STRAWBERRY. In addition to the several vegetables enumerated in the preceding pages, there is one of the small fruits that has taken such a prominent place in what may be termed farm horticulture as to deserve mention here. It is the strawberry. This berry is, perhaps, the most popular small fruit in America, and because of its perishable character, is one that requires strictly local production. It cannot be shipped long distances without loss of character and flavor, and hence the local grower will never be crowded out of his own market. The culture of the strawberry is simple and easy. There are many ways of setting out plants, and the after-treatment also differs widely. There will always be controversy concerning the respective merits of the hill system and the matted row system. Each cultivator must decide for himself which is the better. For the farmer, whose acres are many and whose duties are pressing, there is, perhaps, no better way than to set strawberries in rows 4 feet apart, with plants 2 feet apart in the row, and to allow the plants to run together in the rows, giving sufficient attention to keep the alleys well stirred and the whole bed clear of weeds. To set an acre will require about 5,000 plants. The winter covering of litter should be raked into the walks or alleys as soon as winter is over and allowed to remain there as a mulch for keeping the soil cool and damp and for the purpose of keeping the berries clean. [Illustration: New Twice-Bearing French Strawberry "Mammoth Perpetual." For Description, see "Johnson & Stokes' Garden and Farm Manual."] As soon as the crop is off, the bed should be plowed, turning strawberries and litter under, and sweet corn or other quick crop at once planted. This will insure the gathering of two crops in two years; otherwise a strawberry crop means a two-years' use of the soil. The setting out of a new strawberry bed every spring is good practice; and it is altogether advisable for farmers to occasionally introduce new varieties of strawberries on their farms, to replace old or enfeebled sorts. The profits of strawberry culture are quite large, the gross receipts not infrequently running to $250 per acre. New boxes and crates are advisable, and are distinctly profitable. INDEX. Page. Asparagus 27 Bacteria 15, 19 Barnyard manure 10 Beans 33 Bedding plants 119 Beets 39 Bordeaux mixture 63 Borecole 91 Cabbage 42 Cantaloupe 97 Carrot 49 Celery 75 Citron 97 Cold frame 120 Crimson clover 20 Corn worm 55 Corrosive sublimate 64 Cucumber 85 Egg plant 88 Glass 119 Green manuring 19, 21, 22 Horseradish 56 Hot bed 119 Humus 14 Irrigation 17, 18, 62, 125 Kale 91 Kerosene emulsion 97 Legumes 19 Lettuce 92 Lime 9 Location, choice of 24 Marketing 24 Manure, storage 11 Manure, value of 13, 19 Melon louse 97 Melons 94 Mushrooms 99 Muskmelons 97 Onions 101 Oyster plant 58 Parsnip 57 Peas 108 Potato 59 Potato blight 63 Potato scab 63 Potato rot 63 Preservatives of manure 12 Pumpkin 65 Radish 110 Rhubarb 110 Ruta baga 72 Salsify 58 Salt 31 Sashes 119 Soil inoculation 36 Spinach 112 Squash 65 Strawberry 121 Swedes 72 Sweet potato 114 Tomatoes 66 Turnip 71 Waste products 17 Water cress 84 Whale-oil soap 97 Wood ashes 17 =Everybody Should Read our New Book= =IRRIGATION BY CHEAP MODERN METHODS= =Double the Crops--Water will do it. Strictly up-to-date. Fully Illustrated.= =Tells you just what you want to know in just the way you want to be told.= There is something here for every farmer and gardener. That thing is a sufficient water-supply. Irrigation makes deserts to rejoice and gardens to blossom. Nature often withholds needed moisture at critical times. Millions of dollars are lost annually through the uncertainties of the weather. After reading this work you will be surprised at the cheapness and practicability of irrigation, which will double the production at an expense of from $10 to $1,000, just according to what you want to spend, while it reduces soil culture to an exact science and enables the tiller of the soil to work on schedule time. For terms on which this book can be had, see our "Garden and Farm Manual," which is sent free to all who write for it. Compiled and published by =JOHNSON & STOKES= =..SEED GROWERS AND MERCHANTS..= =217 and 219 Market Street Philadelphia, Pa.= [Illustration: The Largest Seed Warehouse in the East Nos. 217 and 219 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.] Floracroft Seed Gardens and Trial Grounds In order to get the best results from our efforts, and make sure that customers shall receive from us the best seeds that the world produces, we have for many years maintained and carried on extensive trials at our Floracroft Seed Gardens and Trial Grounds, located about nine miles from our city warehouses. All operations are under the personal direction and management of one of our firm, who resides there. Here are planted each season, for thorough trial, samples of all "Novelties" offered by other seedsmen both in this country and Europe, as well as anything which may be sent us, claimed to be new and superior, by our amateur or market garden customers. By this means we are enabled to satisfy ourselves of the true character and value of any novelty before it can find a place in our catalogue. Many acres are also devoted to the production of pedigree stock seed, from which the seeds we offer are grown. We plant the best seeds obtainable; then go over the crop, plant by plant, carefully "rogueing" and destroying the inferior and selecting and saving only the best. This stock seed from selected plants is sent to be grown on our farms in localities where the conditions of soil and climate are best adapted to the perfect development of the particular variety. It is the product of such stock seed only that we offer for sale. Here are also located our Seed Testing Houses, where a sample of every lot of seed, whether grown by ourselves or grown for us under contract, is thoroughly tested, in mother earth, for vitality and purity of stock, and only those of satisfactory quality and germinating power are sold. In fact, we leave no stone unturned to gain and hold the confidence of all customers and secure them from disappointment. =JOHNSON & STOKES= =..SEEDSMEN..= =217 and 219 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa.= [Illustration] That grow into dollars for the professional market gardener will also grow the choicest vegetables and flowers in the Home Garden. =Our Garden and Farm Manual Tells All About Them= _It is Sent Free to Seed Buyers_ =Johnson & Stokes 217 and 219 Market Street PHILADELPHIA, PA=. Transcriber's Note * Obvious punctuation and spelling errors repaired. * Footnote moved to the end of the appropriate paragraph. * Notes moved to the end of the appropriate section. * Text enclosed between equal signs was in bold face in the original (=bold=). 
31729	----	(This file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) THE APPLE. THE KANSAS APPLE. THE BIG RED APPLE. The Luscious, Red-cheeked First Love of the Farmer's Boy. The Healthful, Hearty Heart of the Darling Dumpling. WHAT IT IS. HOW TO GROW IT. ITS COMMERCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. HOW TO UTILIZE IT. [Illustration] COMPILED AND REVISED BY THE KANSAS STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, WILLIAM H. BARNES, Secretary, State Capitol, Topeka, Kan. 1898. [Illustration: J.S. PARKS PRINTER TOPEKA] THE APPLE! WHAT IT IS. DEFINITION. =The fleshy pome or fruit of a rosaceous tree (_Pyrus malus_), the origin of which is probably the wild crab-apple of Europe, cultivated in innumerable varieties in the temperate zones.= =It is scarcely known in the wild state, but as an escape from cultivation its fruit becomes small, acid, and harsh, and is known as the crab; the cultivated crab-apple is the fruit of other species of _Pyrus_. Of the cultivated crabs there are the Siberian (_Pyrus prunifolia_), the Chinese (_Pyrus spectabillis_), and the Cherry-crab (_Pyrus baccata_), all natives of northern Asia.= =The apple was first introduced into America from England, in 1629, by the governor of Massachusetts Bay.= LAWS PERTAINING TO APPLE ORCHARDISTS. Extracts from General Statutes of Kansas, 1897. CUTTING OR DESTROYING FRUIT- OR SHADE-TREES. (Vol. 2, p. 374.) § 423. If any person shall cut down, injure or destroy or carry away any tree placed or growing for use, shade or ornament, or any timber, rails or wood standing, being or growing on the land of any other person, or shall dig up, quarry or carry away stones, ore or mineral, gravel, clay or mold, roots, fruits, or plants, or cut down or carry away grass, grain, corn, flax or hemp in which he has no interest or right, standing, lying or being on land not his own, or shall knowingly break the glass or any part of it in any building not his own, the party so offending shall pay to the party injured treble the value of the thing so injured, broken, destroyed or carried away, with costs, and shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall be subject to a fine not exceeding $500. DESTRUCTION BY FIRE. (Vol. 2, p. 372.) § 415. If any person shall wantonly and wilfully set on fire any woods, marshes or prairies so as thereby to occasion any damage to any other person he shall upon conviction be punished by fine not exceeding five hundred dollars and not less than fifty dollars, or by imprisonment in the county jail not more than six months and not less than ten days, or by both such fine and imprisonment. DECEPTION IN SALE OF TREES, PLANTS, ETC. (Vol. 2, p. 318.) § 126. Any person or persons who shall misrepresent, deceive or defraud any person or persons in the sale of any fruit, shade or ornamental tree or trees, or any vine, shrub, plant, bulb, or root, by substituting inferior or different varieties, or who shall falsely represent the name, age or class of any fruit, shade or ornamental tree or trees, or any vine, shrub, plant, bulb, or root, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and on conviction shall be fined not less than $10 nor more than $200, or by imprisonment in the county jail not less than thirty days nor more than six months, or by both such fine and imprisonment, and shall be liable to the party or parties injured thereby in treble the amount of all damages sustained, to be recovered in any court having jurisdiction thereof. TO PRESERVE ORDER AT HORTICULTURAL FAIRS. (Vol. 2. p. 955.) § 4. All county agricultural and horticultural societies, duly incorporated under the laws of this state, shall have power during the time of holding their fairs to appoint such police force and make such laws and regulations as shall be deemed necessary for the well ordering and government of the society. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. (Vol. 2. p. 944.) § 11. Green apples shall weigh forty-eight pounds per bushel. Dried apples shall weigh twenty-four pounds per bushel. AN ACT FOR THE PROTECTION OF BIRDS. (Vol. 2, p. 934.) § 1. The owner of an orchard may at any time shoot blue-jays, orioles, or yellowhammers. TABLE OF CONTENTS THE APPLE _page_ 5 THE STATE, BY DISTRICTS 42 A SUMMARY OF THE FOREGOING DISTRICT REPORTS 187 MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES RELATING TO ORCHARDS 191 ENEMIES OF THE APPLE 204 APPLES FOR THE TABLE 218 INDEX 225 THE APPLE. THE CHEMISTRY OF THE APPLE TREE. Written specially for "The Kansas Apple," By Prof. E. H. S. BAILEY, Chemist at the Kansas State University. In the cultivation of the apple tree, which, like most plants, gets its nourishment from two sources, the soil and the atmosphere, these must be first considered. From the soil come the mineral ingredients, those that are given back to the soil when the plant is burned, and from the atmosphere come the ingredients of no less importance in the growth of the tree, but which mostly disappear as invisible gases upon combustion. Upon the character of this soil, and upon the climate, a general term that may be said to cover the conditions of the atmosphere, depend the success of the horticulturist. In addition to this, insect pests are liable to constantly menace the crop. In the making of soils, a process that is constantly going on, the most important agents are water, air, frost, sunshine, and the action of living organisms. By this combined action, the mountain, with its rich store of mineral matter, is disintegrated, its constituents are partly dissolved in the water and partly carried mechanically to the plains below; the air is distributed through the soil; seeds are dropped; the living animal forms begin to multiply; the soil is enriched, and gradually it begins to be in a condition suitable to bear the simpler forms of vegetable life, which in turn decaying, add to the richness of the soil. Furthermore, the mechanical condition of the soil has much to do with the successful growth of the plant. If the soil is extremely fine, it is liable to become so compact that the rootlets cannot easily penetrate it, when it is of such a composition as to bake readily in the sun; if very coarse, like gravel, there is not a sufficient capacity to retain moisture. It should, however, be porous enough to allow the air to penetrate it, for upon the aeration of the soil depends much of its fertility. We loosen the soil about the roots of plants to allow the air to penetrate and give an opportunity for the chemical changes constantly undergoing in the soil. Then, too, the work of the earthworms in loosening the soil, and thus adding to its porosity, should not be overlooked. In this soil workshop, too, live and labor certain minute organisms that make it their business to enrich the soil by helping the rootlets to assimilate the nitrogen of the air. Since the soil is composed mostly of ingredients that come from the decomposition of rocks, it follows that is must be of very complex composition. Fortunately, however, there are only a few of the ingredients of the soil that are of interest to the agriculturist, as only a few of the elements, as they are called, go to make up the plant structure, or at least only a few are essential ingredients of the plant. Nitrogen, though very abundant in the air, is not abundant in the soil. In fact, the soil has to depend largely on the nitrogen compounds that are washed out of the atmosphere in small quantities by the rain. Another source of nitrogen is the action of certain bacteria, that make little sacs on the rootlets and, living on the juices of the plants, fix the nitrogen of the air, and thus fertilize the soil; especially on plants of the leguminous family, as peas, beans, and clover. Silicon, which with oxygen makes ordinary sand, is essential to the growth of plants and is everywhere found in abundance. Sulphur, united with oxygen and the metals to form sulphates, is generally abundant enough. The same may be said of chlorine, which, united with sodium or potassium, is always present in our prairie soils. Phosphorus, as it occurs in the phosphates, is one of the most essential ingredients of a fertile soil. Calcium and magnesium are found in combination as carbonates and sulphates, and, though essential, are usually abundant, especially where limestone rocks underlie the soil and outcrop in so many places. Potassium is found united with chlorine or sulphuric acid. It is one of the elements that is most liable to be exhausted from the soil by a succession of crops. Sodium exists almost everywhere. It is one of the elements of common salt, and, though much like potassium, cannot take the place of the latter in plant nurture. Iron is abundant and at the same time necessary in small quantities. The elements above mentioned, together with oxygen, are to be found in the ashes of plants. Besides, there are two elements that come largely from the atmosphere, namely carbon and hydrogen, which, united with oxygen, make up the bulk of the plant. Thus, wood is a substance containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with small quantities of nitrogen and mineral salts. The mineral salts represent about one per cent. of air-dried wood. Having considered in a general way the constituents of the plant, and having noticed the source of each of these constituents, it may be of interest to look at the composition of the soil as revealed by chemical analysis. "A" is the analysis of a soil from Finney county, as made in the laboratory of the Kansas State University, by the author. "B" is a soil from Wyandotte county, as reported in the report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture for 1874. "C" is a prairie soil from Dakota, as reported by Prof. E. Richards, of the department of agriculture. "A" "B" "C" Silica and insoluble 71.66 82.16 69.82 Iron and aluminum oxides 6.55 6.70 12.05 Calcium oxide 4.41 .68 .85 Magnesium oxide 1.02 .06 .87 Phosphoric anhydride .18 .08 .11 Chlorine .01 .03 .03 Potassium oxide .75 .05 .72 Sodium oxide .25 .11 .94 Sulphuric anhydride .06 .39 .12 Volatile and organic matter 3.98 5.44 8.90 Moisture 9.67 3.80 6.27 Undetermined, carbonic acid, etc. 1.48 .30 .22 ------ ------ ------ 100.00 100.00 100.00 In some cases it happens that there is a sufficient quantity of an ingredient in the soil, but it is not in a sufficiently _soluble_ form to be available. It will be noticed that in the analyses quoted above the amount of the necessary constituents of the soil to plant growth is not in any case large. The nitrogen may be present in the volatile and organic matter, and upon the proportion of this complex organic matter very often depends to a great extent the fertility of the soil. Some experiments made at one of the agricultural experiment stations upon the effect of "apple stock," that is, young trees raised for nursery purposes, on the soil, showed that in eleven tons of such stock the following quantities of ingredients were removed from the soil: Silica 50.6 lbs. Phosphoric acid 21.4 " Sulphuric acid 14.3 " Chlorine 1.3 " Carbonic-acid gas 94.9 " Iron oxide 6.1 " Lime 138.6 lbs. Magnesia 23.7 " Soda 21.3 " Potash 27.1 " ----------- Total 399.3 lbs. This is no inconsiderable quantity of material to be removed by a single crop. Professor Goessmann, in discussing the ash of fruits, gives the following analysis of the ash of the Baldwin apple; this would represent the mineral matter taken from the soil by the fruit: Potash, 63.54 per cent.; soda, 1.71; lime, 7.28; magnesia, 5.52, and phosphoric acid, 20.87. Comparing this with the ash of other fruits, it is seen that the amount of potash required is larger than in the case of other fruits except plums and peaches, and the amount of phosphoric acid is high, but not as high as in the case of some berries. The application is obvious; in order to successfully raise apples there must be an abundance of potash and of phosphoric acid in the soil, and these ingredients must be in an available form. If we compare the apple and the pear by an analysis for fertilizing constituents, or such constituents as are usually introduced into deficient soil by means of fertilizers, we have the following table: 1000 parts of the fruit contain, in the case of each, H2O N Ash K2O Na2O CaO MgO P2O5 SO3 SiO2 Apple 831 0.6 2.2 0.8 0.6 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 Pear 831 0.6 3.3 1.8 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.1 When we study the composition of the apple, to determine the "proximate principles," as they are called, it is noticed that we have the constituents mentioned in the discussion of the elements contained in the fruit combined to form various substances; thus: Apples. Pears. Cherries. Peaches. Water 82.04 83.95 75.73 84.99 Sugar 6.83 7.00 13.11 1.58 Free acid .85 .07 .35 .61 Albuminous substances .45 .26 .90 .46 Pectous substances .47 3.28 2.29 6.31 Soluble 14.96 10.90 17.25 9.39 Free acid in fruits is not neutralized by sugar, but it is well known that an abundance of sugar will cover up the sour taste of a fruit. The constituents above noted are mostly found in the expressed juice of the fruit, and give it its characteristic flavor. Without the sugar in these juices it would not be possible to make any alcoholic beverages from them. In the process of fermentation, in the case of apple juice, we have first the change of the sugar to alcohol and carbonic-acid gas, which imparts to cider its characteristic taste and tang. Afterwards, the alcoholic solution, in the presence of the organic matter, is subjected to what is called acetic fermentation; that is, the vinegar plant grows at the expense of the organic matter in the cider, and this beverage is converted into vinegar, containing acetic acid. It is a familiar fact that the change does not readily take place except when cider is exposed to the air, and this is shown to be true from a chemical standpoint, as the cider really is oxidized to make the vinegar; that is, it takes up oxygen from the air. The greater the proportion of sugar, the greater the quantity of alcohol, the stronger the vinegar will be. Grapes contain more than twice as much sugar as apples; hence, a wine that is made from them is stronger in alcohol than a cider made from apples. Cherries, as will be seen by reference to the table above, contain a large amount of sugar; hence their use in making cherry brandy, which contains a large per cent. of alcohol. It should be said, however, that in order to make brandy the cherry juice must be distilled. In this respect the process is similar to that employed in making apple brandy. After the juice has been extracted from the apples the pomace that remains is sometimes used as a fertilizer. This is valuable chiefly on account of the mineral salts contained in it. An analysis of the pomace shows that it contains: Water, 69.90 per cent.; ash, .71; albuminous substances, 1.58; fiber, 4.87; nitrogen, free extract, 21.24; fat, 1.71. The acid of the apple is usually considered to be malic acid, but really there are several acids mixed together. It is a mild and agreeable vegetable acid, and its presence adds much to the flavor of the fruit. The pectous and albuminous substances are those that assist in the formation of fruit jellies. Some of these substances are liquid when hot, and gelatinize on cooling; by too long boiling they lose this property of gelatinizing; hence the precaution that is taken in the making of fruit jellies not to boil the juice too long. The subject of the ripening of fruits like the apple has been extensively studied, as has also that of the subsequent decay. According to recent researches, early varieties of apples contain little starch when picked, and do not keep well. The season, soil, and age of the tree affect the composition of the fruit. It has been shown that sugar is sure to be formed from the starch in the process of ripening, after the fruit is taken from the tree, and during the winter the cane sugar is gradually, and finally almost entirely, changed to directly-reducing sugar. The maximum sugar content is reached earlier the earlier in the season the apple ripens. Late winter varieties reach this point as late as November. There is much starch in the latter when picked, which gradually changes to sugar on keeping. This process is analogous to the ripening of the banana. This fruit is picked while green, and from it is made by the natives of South America a flour which is a good farinaceous food, and readily answers the place of the starchy grains. We are familiar with the fact that as the fruit ripens it contains large quantities of sugar, and is edible uncooked, which fact is usually not true of starchy foods. The subject of the decay of the apple has been discussed in a very interesting way in the _Popular Science Monthly_ for May, 1893, by Byron D. Halsted. Though chemical changes take place here, also, and the apple is finally resolved mostly into carbonic-acid gas, water, and mineral salts, yet these changes are brought about by the action of various fungi which find a soil favorable to their growth in the apple pulp. Though apples are considered digestible and wholesome, their digestibility is much increased by cooking. This is especially true if some of the starch is not converted to sugar, for, as noted above, starch, to be readily assimilated in the system, should be cooked. There is probably no fruit that is so uniformly wholesome and so deservedly popular with all classes as the apple. The apple and pear were known in England before the conquest, and, indeed, probably before the Saxon invasion. They have been gradually "improved" from the wild crab-apple of Europe. It is stated on good authority that there is no country on the globe so well adapted to the growth of this fruit as the temperate regions of North America, and this seems to be demonstrated by the fact that the apples of the United States are superseding the native fruit in most of the civilized countries. ANALYSES OF THE ASH OF THE APPLE. Sap-wood. Heart-wood. Potash 16.19 6.620 Soda 3.11 7.935 Chloride of sodium .42 .210 Sulphate of lime .05 .526 Phosphate of peroxide iron .80 .500 Phosphate of lime 17.50 5.210 Phosphate of magnesia .20 .190 Carbonic acid 29.10 34.275 Lime 18.63 35.019 Magnesia 8.40 6.900 Silica 1.65 .700 Organic matter 4.60 2.450 ------ ------- Totals 100.65 100.535 ANALYSES OF APPLES. One hundred pounds of average apples contain the following: No. 1. Fiber 3.2 lbs. Gluten, fat, and wax .2 " Casein .16 " Albumen 1.4 " Dextrine .7 " Sugar 8.3 " Malic acid .3 " Water 82.66 " Error .08 " ---------- 100 lbs. No. 2. Nitrates 5 lbs. Carbonates 10 " Phosphate 1 " Water 84 " -------- 100 lbs. No. 3. Water 85.0 lbs. Sugar 7.6 " Acid 1.0 " Albuminous substances .22 " Insoluble matter 1.83 " Pectous Substances 3.88 " Ash .47 " ---------- 100 lbs. WEIGHT OF APPLES. Thirty-three hundred three-bushel barrels were weighed. The average net weight, barrel not included, was: Ben Davis, 134 pounds, or 44-2/3 pounds per bushel; Missouri Pippin, 136-2/3 pounds, or 45-5/9 pounds per bushel; Winesap, 144-3/4 pounds, or 48-1/4 pounds per bushel. Apples vary in weight in different seasons. Jonathans weighed in quantity three seasons give 134, 136 and 140 pounds per barrel, averaging 45-5/9 pounds per barrel. These weights are all net; they do not include the weight of the barrel. TIME OF BLOOMING IN LEAVENWORTH COUNTY. Observations taken through a period of eight years--1890 to 1897--show the Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, Winesap and Ben Davis in full bloom on April 25, 29, 30, 20, 22, 20, 22, 26. SOME APPLE-PRODUCING STATES. Quantity of apples grown in 1889 in states having more than Kansas, taken from the United States census of 1890: 1. Ohio 13,789,278 bus. 2. Michigan 13,154,626 " 3. Kentucky 10,679,389 " 4. Illinois 9,600,785 " 5. Indiana 8,784,038 " 6. Missouri 8,698,170 " 7. New York 8,493,846 " 8. Virginia 8,391,425 " 9. North Carolina 7,591,541 " 10. Pennsylvania 7,552,710 " 11. Tennessee 7,283,945 " 12. Iowa 5,040,352 " 13. West Virginia 4,439,978 " 14. Kansas 3,713,019 " AMERICAN APPLES ABROAD. Furnished by Walter Wellhouse, through courtesy of Simons, Shuttleworth & Co., Liverpool. ========================================================================= | Ports of Export. | Figures given represent barrels. Date. +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- | | | | | | Phila-| | | New | | Mont- | Port- | Balti-| del- | Hali- | St. | York. |Boston.| real. | land. | more. | phia. | fax. | Johns. ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- =1897.= | | | | | | | | Aug. 7 | 201| | | | | | | " 14 | 232| | | | | | | " 21 | 829| | | | | | | " 28 | 986| 30| 592| | | | | Sept. 4 | 2,178| 653| 793| | | | | " 11 | 6,608| 897| 2,470| | | | | " 18 | 7,873| 908| 6,178| | | | | " 25 | 9,435| 1,622| 9,623| | | | 2,106| Oct. 2 | 10,448| 1,849| 9,306| | | | 7,000| " 9 | 16,233| 3,823| 8,279| | | | | " 16 | 18,193| 7,738| 8,285| | | | 3,218| " 23 | 24,930| 15,212| 8,450| | | | 9,146| " 30 | 24,237| 19,660| 16,806| | | | 5,410| Nov. 6 | 22,469| 19,237| 31,811| | | 390| 4,216| " 13 | 15,747| 16,201| 20,816| | | | | " 20 | 27,219| 9,526| 31,441| | | 363| 5,000| " 27 | 18,261| 8,152| 8,463| 9,431| | 1,045| 1,285| Dec. 4 | 15,649| 8,449| | 6,889| | 200| 5,610| " 11 | 11,231| 6,799| | 6,605| | | 718| " 18 | 5,706| 3,244| | 300| | | 330| " 25 | 6,588| 1,939| | 3,735| | | | =1898.= | | | | | | | | Jan. 1 | 4,349| 3,521| | 7,469| | | | " 8 | 8,749| 3,643| | 13,775| | | 7,000| " 15 | 11,158| 5,587| | 9,920| | | 8,500| " 22 | 8,265| 4,756| | 10,979| | | | " 29 | 10,979| 4,376| | 5,634| | 480| 952| Feb. 5 | 3,463| 3,997| | 7,950| | 200| 3,046| 1,012 " 12 | 6,689| 2,407| | 7,687| 55| | | 1,523 " 19 | 4,187| 5,060| | 6,005| | | 2,740| " 26 | 6,613| 2,293| | 4,704| | 350| 2,108| 1,500 Mar. 5 | 4,886| 677| | 6,832| | | | " 12 | 6,005| 2,375| | 4,963| | 230| 2,702| " 19 | 6,497| 1,048| | 6,294| | | | 135 " 26 | 7,730| 4,368| | 299| | | | Apr. 2 | 7,142| 2,921| | 4,296| | | | " 9 | 6,863| 2,163| | 2,077| | 685| 4,999| " 16 | 5,783| 293| | 1,258| | | | " 23 | 3,093| 379| | | | | 682| " 30 | 1,190| 519| | | | | 1,270| May 7 | 1,500| | | | | | | June 11 | 1,500| | | | | | | +-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- Totals |361,894|176,322|163,313|126,261| 55| 3,943| 78,038| 4,170 ---------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- THE APPLE BUSINESS. By J. G. THOMPSON, of Edwardsville, Kan. Often the title of a book or essay gives little information as to what will follow, and under "The Apple Business" there are a variety of subjects, on any one of which an essay might be written. In this short paper I shall speak of our foreign markets. A Kansas apple in London is a long way from home. But it is there, and not at all disconcerted by its strange surroundings. What is our apple doing there? Was it imported as a curiosity? Is it there as evidence of some venture or speculation? Neither; it has passed the experimental stage and is on a perfectly legitimate errand. It has gone over for English gold and will send the same back to its Kansas home. Now comes the interesting part, which makes business of the transaction. If profitable, it means prosperity; and a wave of prosperity is what the whole country needs, and when the wave comes there will be a lot of folks who will want to make the inundation permanent. Apples, on arriving in London or Liverpool, are sold at auction on the docks, immediately on arrival, usually in twenty-barrel lots. Of each lot two barrels are opened, one is poured out on a table, and one has the head removed so that the faced end may be seen. This is called a "show," and in the account of sales the "shows" are charged for at the rate of one shilling each. AMERICAN APPLES ABROAD. European receivers of American apples, represented by Chas. Forster, 76-78 Park Place, N. Y. ================================================================= | Ports of Import. | | Figures given represent barrels. | Date. |----------------------------------------------| Total. |Liverpool.| London.|Glasgow.|Hamburg.|Various.| --------+----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------- =1897.= | | | | | | Aug. 7 | 168 | | 33 | | | 201 " 14 | 185 | | 47 | | | 232 " 21 | 455 | | 374 | | | 829 " 28 | 1,113 | | 495 | | | 1,608 Sept. 4 | 3,044 | | 580 | | | 3,624 " 11 | 7,605 | | 2,370 | | | 9,975 " 18 | 10,933 | 70 | 3,813 | | 143 | 14,959 " 25 | 12,960 | 2,494 | 6,425 | 657 | 250 | 22,786 Oct. 2 | 13,286 | 7,774 | 5,167 | 1,804 | 572 | 28,603 " 9 | 16,325 | 11,252 | 6,499 | 3,747 | 512 | 28,335 " 16 | 20,530 | 5,461 | 7,473 | 3,648 | 322 | 37,434 " 23 | 29,381 | 13,047 | 8,709 | 6,391 | 210 | 57,738 " 30 | 26,641 | 16,055 | 14,619 | 8,432 | 366 | 66,113 Nov. 6 | 39,615 | 9,449 | 18,897 | 8,371 | 1,791 | 78,123 " 13 | 33,631 | 4,338 | 7,579 | 6,650 | 566 | 52,764 " 20 | 29,167 | 11,226 | 18,288 | 13,755 | 1,113 | 73,549 " 27 | 26,308 | 7,169 | 3,588 | 7,686 | 1,886 | 46,637 Dec. 4 | 18,091 | 8,724 | 3,154 | 6,597 | 231 | 36,797 " 11 | 14,050 | 2,469 | 4,766 | 3,829 | 239 | 25,353 " 18 | 4,613 | 2,794 | 211 | 1,475 | 487 | 9,580 " 25 | 7,468 | 2,733 | 1,106 | 616 | 339 | 12,262 =1898.= | | | | | | Jan. 1 | 11,949 | 2,196 | | 617 | 577 | 15,339 " 8 | 19,486 | 9,428 | 709 | 2,644 | 900 | 33,167 " 15 | 17,747 | 11,952 | 1,450 | 4,011 | 5 | 35,165 " 22 | 16,332 | 4,885 | | 1,316 | 567 | 23,100 " 29 | 11,974 | 5,174 | 1,539 | 3,601 | 142 | 22,430 Feb. 5 | 3,546 | 4,987 | 417 | | 718 | 19,668 " 12 | 12,584 | 3,709 | 1,101 | 673 | 294 | 18,361 " 19 | 12,320 | 5,160 | 521 | | 41 | 18,042 " 25 | 10,234 | 4,656 | 1,353 | 1,325 | | 17,568 Mar. 5 | 8,431 | 3,284 | 100 | 505 | 75 | 12,395 " 12 | 9,192 | 6,389 | 424 | 270 | | 16,275 " 19 | 8,671 | 5,026 | 117 | 160 | | 13,974 " 26 | 7,747 | 4,078 | 381 | | 191 | 12,397 April 2 | 9,788 | 4,187 | 271 | | 113 | 14,359 " 9 | 6,917 | 8,493 | 1,192 | | 185 | 16,787 " 16 | 5,049 | 2,091 | 60 | | 134 | 7,334 " 23 | 2,059 | 2,095 | | | | 4,154 " 30 | 543 | 2,436 | | | | 2,979 May 7 | 1,500 | | | | | 1,500 June 11 | 1,500 | | | | | 1,500 |----------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------- Totals | 490,138 |198,281 |123,828 | 88,780 | 12,969 | 913,996 ----------------------------------------------------------------- I have just received the apple catalogue of Woodall & Co., of Liverpool, England, giving a list of sales made by them of 2451 barrels of American apples, from the 3d to the 10th of this month [December, 1897]. This catalogue gives the mark, brand or owner's name on barrel, the name of the variety, condition of fruit, and whether tight or loose in the barrel, the name of the vessel on which the fruit arrived, the point from which it was shipped, and the gross proceeds of the sales of these 2451 barrels--1047 were from Canada and 1404 from the United States. Last year I sold for export 1000 barrels of apples. The buyer told me it was very difficult to carry barreled apples across the water in good condition. And that, owing to the peculiar motion of the ship, apples which were tight when loaded would be loose and bruised on arrival at Liverpool. You may judge of the correctness of this statement when I tell you that, in the account of sales of 153 barrels, 142 are reported as loose and 11 tight. They are not all that bad, for further on 212 are reported as 171 tight and 41 loose. Apples when loose lose from $1 to $1.75 in value; a lot of 12--8 Winesap and 4 York Imperial, loose--were sold for 15s. 3d. or $3.80 per barrel; 43 Winesaps, loose, brought 14s. 9d. or $3.68. Newtown Pippins bring the highest price, ranging from $5 to $9 per barrel. The apples are mostly from Canada and New York, the varieties being principally Newtown Pippin, Baldwin, Greening, and [Northern] Spy; still I find in the list such familiar names as Ben Davis, Genet, and Winesap. On inquiry, I find the freight from Kansas City to New York is 63-1/2 cents, and from New York across the water, seventy-five cents per barrel. A report of sales would read something like this: One barrel Ben Davis, $3.80; freight, $1.35; commission, 20 cents; net proceeds, $2.25. This is supposing they should reach the other side loose. If, owing to superior skill in packing, they should reach their destination tight, the net proceeds would be $3 or $3.25. The Liverpool quotation on western Ben Davis, December 11, is $4 to $5 for tight; $3.50 to $4.38 for loose. I speak of one firm only; many others are in the same line. COMPARISON OF SEASONS, 1881 TO 1898. ======================================================================== | Ports of Export. | Figures represent barrels. |--------------------------------------------------------------- Date. | New | | Mont- | Port- |Halifax|Phil-|Bal- |Anna- | York. | Boston. | real. | land. |and St.|adel-|ti- | pol- | | | | |Johns. |phia.|more.| is. --------+---------+---------+--------+-------+-------+-----+-----+------ 1880-81 | 599,200| 510,300| 145,276| 39,908| 24,250|9,872| | 1881-82 | 75,889| 65,093| 56,433| 6,497| 13,805| | |21,535 1882-83 | 169,570| 102,409| 64,390| 16,890| 18,542|3,900| |19,893 1883-84 | 53,048| 7,145| 7,445| 9,811| 3,758| 325| | 1884-85 | 256,314| 307,130| 84,487| 71,460| 41,207| | | 8,612 1885-86 | 466,203| 221,724| 68,716| 87,301| 37,982| 186| | 3,161 1886-87 | 175,595| 303,479| 106,713|100,569| 94,606| | |26,965 1887-88 | 275,696| 163,916| 93,058| 25,215| 32,652| | |17,884 1888-89 | 474,337| 382,199| 291,307|145,825| 94,691| 860| |18,190 1889-90 | 169,557| 132,589| 162,526|122,433| 53,627| | |37,030 1890-91 | 76,503| 23,123| 182,095| 80,365| 89,190| | | 1891-92 | 537,247| 339,964| 320,457|163,145| 87,379| 550| 72| 1892-93 | 218,037| 204,138| 429,243|235,395|116,725| | | 1893-94 | 29,396| 4,796| 56,255| 49,344| 35,058| | | 1894-95 | 221,398| 523,123| 273,353|155,878|264,410| | | 1895-96{| 230,705| 84,771| 128,027|141,955|165,797| | | {|[A]13,610| |[A]1,861| | | | | 1896-97 | 570,327|1,015,029| 700,274|221,350|409,733|3,133| | 1897-98 | 361,894| 176,322| 163,313|126,261| 82,208|3,943| 55| Additionally in 1891-92, 1,337 barrels were exported from Newport News, and 215 from Norfolk. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- | Ports of Import. | Figures represent barrels. Date. |------------------------------------------------------------ |Liverpool.| London. | Glasgow.|Hamburg.| Various.| Total. --------------+----------+---------+---------+--------+---------+---------- 1880-81 | 839,444 | 177,936 | 216,391 | | 95,036 | 1,328,806 1881-82 | 133,784 | 46,147 | 59,266 | | 55 | 239,252 1882-83 | 253,432 | 46,975 | 81,269 | | 13,318 | 395,594 1883-84 | 46,661 | 4,843 | 29,685 | | 343 | 81,532 1884-85 | 491,898 | 123,081 | 137,631 | | 16,590 | 769,210 1885-86 | 537,695 | 147,102 | 176,445 | | 24,031 | 885,273 1886-87 | 468,553 | 187,840 | 138,756 | | 12,775 | 807,924 1887-88 | 346,557 | 104,072 | 139,517 | | 18,275 | 608,421 1888-89 | 790,502 | 279,374 | 272,068 | | 64,465 | 1,407,409 1889-90 | 418,850 | 128,248 | 116,449 | | 14,115 | 677,762 1890-91 | 252,548 | 116,705 | 80,772 | | 1,260 | 451,285 1891-92 | 917,535 | 224,356 | 282,553 | | 25,892 | 1,450,336 1892-93 | 798,291 | 174,405 | 220,790 | | 10,052 | 1,203,538 1893-94 | 101,205 | 32,581 | 38,524 | | 2,530 | 174,841 1894-95 | 853,198 | 388,535 | 173,312 | | 23,110 | 1,438,155 1895-96 {| 410,596 | 196,184 | 127,942 | | 16,533 | 751,255 {|[A]11,342 |[A]2,458 |[A]1,771 | | | [A]15,471 1896-97 |1,581,560 | 716,771 | 411,575 | 117,105| 92,835 | 2,919,846 1897-98 | 490,138 | 198,281 | 123,828 | 88,780| 12,969 | 913,996 --------------------------------------------------------------------------- [A] Boxes. During the week ending December 11, 1897, there were exported from the United States to Europe 25,447 barrels of apples; of these, Liverpool got 3335, London, 2580, Glasgow, 3567, Hamburg, 5264; equaling 14,756. The total export to Europe this year from the United States, up to December 11, is 586,906 barrels bringing this country over 1-1/2 million dollars. Last year we had a much larger crop, and up to this date had exported 2,087,573 barrels. Owing to the liability of getting loose in the barrel some shippers use boxes. We packed, last fall, 1000 boxes of Willow Twig and Ben Davis; these were packed in pear boxes, each apple wrapped in paper; the boxes (filled) would weigh about forty pounds. The apples are placed in layers six long by four wide and four layers deep, ninety-six apples to the box, putting the finest apples on top. The covers are put on with a lever press that presses on the ends of the boards and springs both the bottom and top of the box; the extra size in the middle is protected by cleats on the ends. The sides are of thicker boards and do not spring. If the apples should shrink in size, as apples do, the spring in the box will take up the slack. In loading on the car or ship, the boxes are placed on their edges. One thousand boxes make a good car-load, weighing about 40,000 pounds. A barrel will make about 4-1/2 boxes. These cases of selected apples are expected to sell readily for eight shillings (or $2) per box, and packed in this careful manner should go through in perfect condition. If they bring satisfactory prices, I predict that next year more than one Kansas orchard will be packing apples for foreign export. A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE WELLHOUSE ORCHARDS. In 1876 Mr. F. Wellhouse planted, at Glenwood, Leavenworth county, Kansas, 117 acres of apple trees, as follows: 60 acres of Ben Davis, 32 of Missouri Pippin, and 25 of Winesap. This orchard yielded, in 1880, 1594 bushels of apples, which sold for $1.50 per barrel, or $797; and in 1881 it yielded 3887 bushels, which sold for $4 per barrel, or $5184. In 1878 he planted, near Gardner, Miami county, 160 acres, as follows: 80 acres of Ben Davis, 40 of Missouri Pippin, 30 of Winesap, and 8 of Cooper's Early and 8 of Maiden's Blush. These two orchards, of 277 acres combined, yielded, in 1882, 12,037 bushels, which sold for $2.48 per barrel, or $9,950. In 1879 he planted, at Fairmount, Leavenworth county, 160 acres, as follows: 80 acres of Ben Davis, 40 of Jonathan, 30 of Winesap, and 8 of Cooper's Early and 8 of Maiden's Blush. These three orchards, of 437 acres combined, yielded as follows: 1883, 12,388 bushels, sold at $3.00 per barrel. 1884, 11,726 " " 2.04 " 1885, 15,373 " " 2.00 " 1886, 34,909 " " 1.45 " 1887, 33,790 " " 2.11 " 1888, 20,054 " " 1.81 " 1889, 11,952 " " 2.49 " 1890, 79,170 " " 3.00 " 1891, 63,698 " " 1.75 " 1892, 978 bushels. 1893, 900 " 1894, 47,374 " sold at $2.50 per barrel. 1895, 59,138 " 1896, 784 " 1897, 3,758 " 1898, 3,639 " not sold yet. In 1889 he planted, near Wakarusa, Osage county, 800 acres, as follows: 300 acres of Ben Davis, 200 of Missouri Pippin, 160 of Jonathan, 75 of York Imperial, and 65 of Gano. In 1895 this orchard yielded 3470 bushels. In 1894 he planted, near Tonganoxie, Leavenworth county, 300 acres, as follows: 100 acres of Ben Davis, 100 of Gano, 33 of Jonathan, 33 of York Imperial, and 34 of Missouri Pippin. In 1895 he sold nearly 21,780 bushels, put in cold storage 9000 bushels, and sent to dryer 26,600 bushels, making a total for 1895 of 57,380 bushels. In 1896 he set out, near Summit, Leavenworth county, 140 acres, making a total acreage of 620 acres of Ben Davis, 76 of Winesap, 409 of Missouri Pippin, 190 of Jonathan, 150 of York Imperial, 160 of Gano, 16 of Maiden's Blush, and 16 of Cooper's Early. During this time he sold thousands of bushels of "culls" that are not counted in this statement, excepting in 1895. These culls sold, per bushel, as follows: 1883, at 30 cents; 1884, at 15 cents; 1885, at 20 cents; 1886, at 13 cents; 1887, at 27 cents; 1888, at 14 cents; 1889, at 18 cents; 1890, at 20 cents; 1891, at 15 cents; 1894, at 20 cents. For profit, Mr. Wellhouse puts the Jonathan first, Ben Davis second, Missouri Pippin third, and Winesap fourth. He says Cooper's Early does not pay him. REVISED LIST OF APPLES Recommended for Kansas by the votes of the members of the State Horticultural Society, at its annual meeting, December, 1896: _List of Winter Varieties._ Ben Davis 44 votes. Winesap 42 " Jonathan 41 " Missouri Pippin 40 " Gano 30 " York Imperial 18 " Genet 12 " Smith's Cider 8 " Maiden's Blush 5 " Grimes's Golden 3 " Willow Twig 3 " Huntsman 2 votes. Mammoth Black Twig 2 " Early Harvest 2 " Gilpin 1 " Red Winter Pearmain 1 " Salome 1 " Rome Beauty 1 " Ortley 1 " Wagener 1 " White Pippin 1 " _Summer and Fall Varieties._ Early Harvest 19 votes. Red June 13 " Maiden's Blush 12 " Chenango 6 " Yellow Transparent 5 " Cooper's Early White 5 " Duchess of Oldenburg 4 " Red Astrachan 4 votes. Golden Sweet 2 " Keswick Codlin 2 " American Summer Pearmain 2 " Wealthy 2 " Orange Pippin 2 " Summer Swaar 1 " _Fall._ Maiden's Blush 20 votes. Grimes Golden Pippin 13 " Rambo 10 " Jonathan 10 " Pennsylvania Red Streak 3 " Cooper's Early White 3 votes. Lowell 3 " Fameuse 3 " Fall Wine 2 " Jefferis 2 " Hay's Wine 1 vote. Summer Rambo 1 " Munster 1 " Fall Pippin 1 " Northern Spy 1 " Rome Beauty 1 vote. Hubbardston's Nonsuch 1 " Huntsman's Favorite 1 " Sweet Russet 1 " _List for Family Orchard._ Jonathan 25 votes. Winesap 24 " Maiden's Blush 22 " Early Harvest 21 " Red June 15 " Missouri Pippin 13 " Grimes's Golden Pippin 13 " Ben Davis 12 " Rawle's Genet 12 " York Imperial 11 " Rambo 10 " Chenango Strawberry 8 " Cooper's Early White 8 " Yellow Transparent 7 " Jefferis 6 " Huntsman's Favorite 5 " Smith's Cider 4 " Wealthy 4 " Milam 3 " Rome Beauty 3 " Gano 3 " Red Winter Pearmain 2 " Willow Twig 2 " Fameuse 2 " Benoni 2 " Fink 2 " Duchess of Oldenburg 2 " Gilpin 1 vote. Golden Sweet 1 " Fall Pippin 1 " Newtown Pippin 1 " Sweet June 1 " Jersey Sweet 1 " Lansingburg 1 " Whitney No. 20 1 " Red Astrachan 1 " White Winter Pearmain 1 " American Summer Pearmain 1 " Minkler 1 " Yellow Bellflower 1 " Dominie 1 " Sweet Rambo 1 " Pennsylvania Red Streak 1 " Stark 1 " Lawver 1 " Lowell 1 " Fulton 1 " Roman Stem 1 " Red Winter Sweet 1 " Primate 1 " Klepsroth 1 " Garretson's Early 1 " Red Betigheimer 1 " Wagener 1 " DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES REFERRED TO IN THIS BOOK. BEN DAVIS. _Synonyms_: New York Pippin, Victoria Pippin, Victoria Red, Red Pippin, Kentucky Pippin, Baltimore Red, Baltimore Pippin, Baltimore Red Streak, Carolina Red Streak, and Funkhouser. The origin of this apple is unknown. J. S. Downer, of Kentucky, writes that old trees are there found from which suckers are taken in way of propagating. The tree is very hardy, a free grower, with very dark reddish brown, slightly grayish, young wood, forming an erect, round head, bearing early and abundantly. In quality it is not first rate, but from its early productiveness, habit of blooming late in the spring after late frosts, good size, fair, even fruit, keeping and carrying well, it is very popular in all the Southwest and West. Fruit medium to large. Form roundish, truncated conical, often sides unequal. Color yellowish, almost entirely overspread, splashed and striped with two shades of red, and dotted sparsely with aureole dots. Stalk medium, rather slender. Cavity narrow, deep, russeted. Calyx partially open. Basin wide, abrupt, slightly corrugated. Flesh white, tender, moderately juicy, pleasant, subacid. Core medium to large. Good to very good. December to March. Remarks on the Ben Davis by members of the State Horticultural Society: E. J. Holman (Leavenworth county): I favor Ben Davis because of its large size and good appearance; because it is long-lived, and attractive in appearance in market; because it is an early bearer; and, to sum it all up, because it is profitable to grow. J. W. Robison (Butler county): I favor Ben Davis because it is one of the most hardy, even, regular bearers; because it succeeds on a great variety of soils. It is handsome in appearance and attracts the eye in every market. F. W. Dixon (Jackson county): I favor Ben Davis because it is the most profitable variety. Phillip Lux (Shawnee county): It has a quality of sticking on until we are ready to pick. It gives good returns for our investment. J. F. Maxey (Franklin county): I favor it because of its large size and attractive appearance. G. L. Holsinger (Wyandotte county): I vote for it. G. W. Bailey (Sumner county): The Ben Davis has been the most profitable with us. It is very attractive and popular, and a good seller. A member: On account of its large size, attractive appearance, and good market qualities, I vote for it. B. F. Smith (Douglas county): I vote for it because it is the best commercial apple we have and stands high in the European markets. It sells for six dollars a barrel in Hamburg. WINESAP. _Synonyms_: Winesop and Potpie Apple. This is not only a good apple for the table, but it is also one of the very finest cider fruits, and its fruitfulness renders it a great favorite with orchardists. The tree grows rather irregularly, and does not form a handsome head, but it bears early, and the apples have the good quality of hanging late upon the trees without injury, while the tree thrives well on sandy, light soils. The tree is very hardy, and one of the most profitable orchard varieties wherever grown. Young wood reddish brown, with smooth red buds. Fruit of medium size, rather roundish oblong. Skin smooth, of a fine dark red, with a few streaks, and a little yellow ground appearing on the shady side. Stalk nearly an inch long, slender, set in an irregular cavity. Calyx small, placed in a regular basin, with fine plaits. Flesh yellow, firm, crisp, with a rich, high flavor. Very good. November to May. Remarks on the Winesap by members of the State Horticultural Society: C. C. Cook (Wabaunsee county): I strongly favor the Winesap, preferring it to any apple I grow. J. W. Robison (Butler county): The Winesap is desirable because of its deep, rich color, its attractiveness, and high flavor. Its one principal defect is over bearing. It is a good seller. E. J. Holman: The excellences of the Winesap consist in its color, its flavor, and its keeping quality. I would not recommend it for a commercial orchard. I recommend it for the family orchard only. W. G. Gano (Missouri): That is my view. I would not recommend it as a commercial apple. The tree grows straggling, and is subject to insects, and the winds affect them greatly, making them unprofitable in our orchards. As a family apple, when grown to perfection, we can hardly dispense with it. F. W. Dixon: The Winesap trees on my farm are twenty-five years old, and last year yielded ten bushels of marketable apples [per tree], besides culls. I would not recommend the Winesap as a commercial apple, as it is usually small. Phillip Lux: I must say a good word for the Winesap. It has many traits against it for profit; yet I would give it a place in the commercial orchard. It falls early, and must be picked early; but if planted in good, rich, black soil it will as a rule do well. It commands a good price, and is a good apple for variety. We cannot make it a leader, but should keep it among our commercial apples. James Sharp (Morris county): I consider it a good apple for my soil. It is a good apple if planted in a cool and moist red clay. In this they grow to a marketable size. G. L. Holsinger: I think I would not plant another Winesap, unless for family use. I would place it fifth or sixth on the list. After one or two good crops they generally play out. This year they were about the size of crab-apples. J. W. Robison: The Winesap in Butler county is prone to spur blight. In summer, when the hot sun comes, they dry up in clusters. As far south as we are they are hardly profitable. Farther north they do better. In Illinois, from one square of 200 trees (Winesaps) I gathered 3000 bushels of apples, in 1871. G. W. Bailey: I know no better apple for family use. In our country, in the low lands, they are fine, of fair size, producing well. While the tree is young the fruit is fine; after it gets older it overbears, and the fruit becomes small. I would not plant it for market. William Cutter (Geary county): I consider the Winesap good for family orchards, but when old inclined to overbear, which enfeebles the tree. While the tree is young it is among the best. It does not pay for market. B. F. Smith: I would drop it from the commercial list. If I were to plant 1000 trees I would plant only 200 Winesaps. I prefer the Ben Davis, but we should not all grow the same apple. We want variety. William Cutter: Every one likes Winesaps, but we cannot grow them at ordinary prices. George P. Whiteker (Shawnee county): I do not know a better apple. As remarked, when the tree gets old the fruit runs down in size. It is very deceiving. When it appears overloaded there are often not many on it. President Wellhouse: It has disappointed us every year. Some years they are very full, but many go to the cull piles. I vote against the Winesap. We have not planted any for ten years. Mr. Walter Wellhouse is here. He can tell us about the Winesap. Walter Wellhouse (Shawnee county): My experience is that, like some other apples, they will not grow in poor soils, but if the soil is suitable they are profitable. Dr. G. Bohrer (Rice county): I have noticed it is not so much in the quality of the soil as the quantity of moisture in it. Having trees on high ground, I irrigated one of them, and it bore fine apples. In Arkansas, where the land is too poor to raise corn the Winesap does well; but it will not grow on high, dry soil. They must have more than the ordinary amount of moisture. Secretary Barnes: T. W. Harrison, ex-mayor of Topeka, has Winesap apples growing about seven miles southwest of the city that are phenomenal. They are the largest I ever saw. They have been exhibited at our past meetings, and people would hardly believe them Winesaps. He cannot account for it; says it must be some kind of freak. I examined the trees myself. They are well grown, on high, rolling prairie. I would recommend those who desire Winesaps to get scions from Mr. Harrison. He has seven or eight trees in his orchard, all in one row, far ahead of any Winesaps I ever saw. Dr. G. Bohrer: Do you know whether there is a source of drainage to that point? Secretary Barnes: I do not. The trees are probably eighteen years old, and on rolling land. J. B. McAfee (Shawnee county): I have 145 Winesap trees in my orchard on high ground. They do reasonably well, but are not as large as Mr. Harrison's. Phillip Lux: Mr. Harrison's orchard lies on a southern slope. It is good orchard land. The soil is very loose. His Missouri Pippins are as good in proportion as his Winesaps. His apples are all good. J. F. Maxey: We have 300 or 400 acres in Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Janet. I would not discard the Winesap. JONATHAN. _Synonyms_: King Philip and Philip Rick. The Jonathan is a very beautiful dessert apple, and its great beauty, good flavor and productiveness in all soils unite to recommend it to orchard planters. The original tree of this variety is growing on the farm of Mr. Philip Rick, of Kingston, N. Y. It was first described by the late Judge Buel, and named by him in compliment to Jonathan Hasbrouck, Esq., of the same place, who made known the fruit to him. It succeeds wherever grown, and proves one of the best in quality, and most profitable either for table or market. The tree is hardy, moderately vigorous, forming an upright, spreading, round head. Young shoots rather slender, slightly pendulous, grayish brown. Fruit of medium size, regularly formed, roundish conical, or tapering to the eye. Skin thin and smooth, the ground clear light yellow, nearly covered by lively red stripes, and deepening into brilliant or dark red in the sun. Stalk three-fourths of an inch long, rather slender, inserted in a deep, regular cavity. Calyx set in a deep, rather broad basin. Flesh white, rarely a little pinkish, very tender and juicy, with a mild, sprightly, vinous flavor. This fruit evidently belongs to the Spitzenburg class. Best. November to March. Remarks on the Jonathan by members of the State Horticultural Society: Dr. G. Bohrer: Jonathan is probably the best apple I grow. They sell for the highest price in the general market. They produce fewer culls than other varieties. It is not a profuse bearer as far south as I am [Rice county]. It ripens too early, and is affected by strong winds. E. J. Holman: The Jonathan is one of the most desirable all-around apples, excellent as a dessert fruit, of a beautiful deep, bright color, of good quality and strong constitution. It is often called a fall apple, yet, if put in cold storage, it may be brought out even in June in good condition. I place it third as a commercial fruit. W. G. Gano: The Jonathan should be picked early and put in cold storage. I would place it second as a commercial apple. W. J. Griffing (Riley county): We consider it about fourth on the list as a commercial apple. J. B. McAfee: It is large, and about the second for profits in my orchard, which has been planted twenty-seven years. F. W. Dixon: I would place the Jonathan about third as a commercial apple. In our county it is longer lived than any other apple tree and freer from insects. James Sharp: Its only objection is its inclination to fall. I suppose, if picked early and put in cold storage, they may be as good, but do not look as well. Walter Wellhouse: I think the demand for Jonathan is declining some among large dealers. A few years ago they sold for an advance of from fifty cents to one dollar per barrel. In Minneapolis and Chicago the market still seems good for them; but if I were to plant now I would not plant as many Jonathans as five or ten years ago. G. P. Whiteker: The Jonathan sells better in our market [Topeka] than any other apple. They have a good reputation; none better. They must be picked early. Phillip Lux: I would place it fifth commercially, it drops so early, before coloring up; it stands more abuse than any other apple we have, and, if gathered early, will keep even without cold storage until the market improves. Dr. Q. Bohrer: I agree with Mr. Sharp. I think the farther west we go the poorer the fruit gets. You have more rainfall in the eastern part of the state. It is hardy, possibly hardier than Ben Davis, but it falls early. It is much like Winesap, requiring more moisture than other varieties. When not much exposed to winds it does well. Of late our rainfall is not sufficient, and they are not doing so well, but since trying irrigation they do better. William Cutter: I live too far west for the Jonathan. It will not stand drought or wind. It ripens too early. It is a cold-storage apple. The worst spur blight I ever saw was on them. B. F. Smith: It is a good wet-weather apple. If there is plenty of moisture, they do fine. I gather them about the 10th of September, and they keep until the next spring. I tried to see how long I could keep them. They should be about third on the commercial list. MISSOURI PIPPIN. _Synonym_: Missouri Keeper. It is said to have originated in the orchard of Brink Hornsby, Johnson county, Missouri. Tree hardy, a strong, upright, rather spreading grower, an early and abundant annual bearer. Fruit medium to large, roundish oblate, slightly oblique, somewhat flattened at the ends; skin pale, whitish yellow, shaded, striped and splashed with light and dark red, often quite dark in the sun, having many large and small light and gray dots; stalk short, small; cavity large, deep; calyx closed, or half open; basin rather abrupt, deep, slightly corrugated; flesh whitish, a little coarse, crisp or breaking, moderately juicy, subacid; good; core small. January to April. Remarks on the Missouri Pippin by members of the State Horticultural Society: C. C. Cook: I am a warm friend of the Missouri Pippin, and vote it second. It is a short-lived tree, but brings paying returns for expense and trouble. It has a fairly good flavor. J. W. Robison: The Missouri Pippin is a young and profuse bearer, and quite hardy with me. I should place it second on the list. E. J. Holman: I have eliminated it from my family orchard, and give it only standing-room as a commercial fruit, and there rate it second [in quality]. There can be more money made from it in a few years than from any apple we have. It is the youngest bearing tree we have. It grows to a good size, and by some is preferred to Ben Davis. The great merit of this apple is in its youthful productiveness, good color, and marketable quality. W. G. Gano: I do not approve of planting it thickly, intending to let it remain. It is apt to overbear, break in pieces, and become almost worthless. With proper care and thinning when too thick we can partially overcome this. W. J. Griffing: It is my second best apple. I consider the Winesap the best, as it has paid me the best, and I am planting for winter profit only these two. All apple trees die young with us. F. W. Dixon: I can add nothing new, but place it second on the list. James Sharp: It has been my most profitable variety. About four-fifths have been marketable. As to dying young, I would rather grow new ones. President Wellhouse: We will have to stick to it awhile yet in Kansas. When of good size they command a price in advance of the Ben Davis. G. P. Whiteker: It gives good satisfaction as a commercial apple. It bears young; and you can get good returns for eight or ten years, and then put out a new orchard. Phillip Lux: I would place the Missouri Pippin second on the commercial list. William Cutter: It is the youngest to bear. It is a Western apple. Other varieties gradually die out, but it sticks. The farther west you go the better it is. It stands drought and wind best of all. While it breaks off on the top, it is not a short-lived tree. B. F. Smith: I would place it second on the commercial list. GANO. Origin, Howard county, Missouri. Tree very hardy; has never been injured by the cold winters; bears very young, roots readily from its own stock, and can almost be grown from a cutting. Fruit bright red on yellow ground, no stripes; large, oblong, tapering to the eye; surface smooth, takes a very high polish, making it valuable as a stand fruit, thought by many to surpass the Ben Davis. Minute dots; basin shallow, sometimes deep; stem medium to long; flesh white, fine grained, tender, mild, pleasant subacid. An early, annual and prolific bearer. December to May. Remarks on the Gano by members of the State Horticultural Society: W. G. Gano: I cannot be against my namesake. I have found nothing yet that excels the parent trees. The Gano is creating a sensation, more especially in the southern part of Missouri. They prefer it to Ben Davis, and, where extensively planted and in bearing, it is creating a sensation. While I have no interest in it, other than the name, still I think we have in the Gano something that will stay. It is much like Ben Davis. E. J. Holman: I would class it and the Ben Davis as twins. James Sharp: I planted about 700 trees of it five years ago. This year I raised five apples. Two of these could not be told from Ben Davis. One looked like Jonathan. William Cutter: I class it with Ben Davis. It differs little except in color. Trees are alike, but I think it a younger bearer. I got my grafts from Lee's Summit, Mo., paying five dollars per 100 for them. One tree I gave to a friend was this year a wonder to all who saw it. President Wellhouse: We have seventy or eighty acres in Gano, planted five or six years ago. While the tree is much like Ben Davis, I can distinguish a difference in the apples. If I pile both kinds together I can see a difference; if I pick out a Gano and put it in the Ben Davis pile, neither I nor any other man on earth can tell it from the Ben Davis. I do not know whether it is distinct from the Ben Davis or not. If it is Ben Davis, it is all right. I hope it is distinct, but have so far been unable to settle the question. W. G. Gano: We originally found only one tree in an orchard in Pratt county, Missouri, and in the same orchard there were plenty of Ben Davis trees. There may have been a mix-up of these varieties, but you will not be disappointed if you get the Gano. President Wellhouse: Before planting, I went to Lee's Summit for three or four years in succession and examined the original trees, to see whether we ought to plant any; we concluded to plant, for if they were not a new apple they would be the Ben Davis anyhow. We may have obtained Ben Davis trees. Mrs. A. Z. Moore: My husband handles many of them on commission, and favors them both in the orchard and in the market. He says they are known as Jonathan, not as Gano, and while you may not distinguish them in a pile of Ben Davis, you will know the difference if you put your teeth into them. YORK IMPERIAL. _Synonym_: Johnson's Fine Winter. Origin thought to be York county, Pennsylvania. Tree moderately vigorous, productive. Young wood rich brown, downy. Fruit medium, oblate oblique, whitish, shaded with crimson in the sun, thinly sprinkled with light and gray dots. Stalk short. Calyx closed, or partially open. Basin large, deep. Flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, juicy, pleasant, mild subacid. Good to very good. Core compact, small. November to February. Remarks on the York Imperial by members of the State Horticultural Society: C. C. Cook: I have planted heavily of York Imperial. They are not yet in full bearing. They have given me good results. The trees are of large size and the growth indicates that they will be strong bearers. They are of rather a twig growth. I would put them about sixth on the commercial list. E. J. Holman: The York Imperial is an old apple. It is new to many of us because of its late sudden popularity. It has been sent to Europe, holding its own with Missouri Pippin and others. It is large, a good keeper, and growers always seem pleased with it. It seems to be growing popular. James Sharp: I have about 500 or 600 trees I planted on the recommendation of President Wellhouse, six years ago. This year they produced about 100 bushels. I think they will be profitable. President Wellhouse: I saw a gentleman from St. Louis who gathered about ten car-loads, and he was favorably impressed with it. We have many trees bearing. It keeps well in cellars. Phillip Lux: I would place them third on the commercial list. William Cutter: Mine are just beginning to bear. It is not a youthful bearer. I think it will be a popular apple. G. L. Holsinger: They commence to bear young. We have some that are twenty-two years old. This year they were full. Like the Jonathan, they mature too early and fall off. What I put in the cellar this year kept well, very few rotting. RAWLE'S JANET. _Synonyms_: Missouri Janet, Red Neverfail, Rawle's Jannet, Rawle's Jannetting, Rawle's Genet, Rock Remain, Rock Rimmon, Yellow Janett, Winter Jannetting, Jeniton, Jennett, Neverfail, Indiana Jannetting, and Raul's Gennetting. Originated in Amherst county, Virginia, on the farm of Caleb Rawle. Tree hardy, vigorous, spreading. It puts forth its leaves and blossoms much later than other varieties in the spring, and consequently avoids injury by late frost; it is, therefore, particularly valuable for the South and Southwest, where it is much cultivated. Young wood clear reddish brown; fruit rather large, oblate conic, yellowish, shaded with red and striped with crimson; stalk short and thick, inserted in a broad, open cavity; calyx partially open, set in a rather shallow basin; flesh whitish yellow, tender, juicy, pleasant subacid; good to very good; February to June. Remarks on the Rawle's Janet by members of the State Horticultural Society: C. C. Cook: I have been acquainted with the Janet from boyhood, but I have little, if any, use for them, because they overbear. It is a hard tree for me to do anything with; cannot get them into shape--die quick. E. J. Holman: I would only recommend a tree or two of them for the family orchard. It has had its day in the West, and is succeeded by more profitable varieties. H. L. Ferris (Osage county): I would not plant them to sell. They are too subject to diseases--bitter rot, etc. W. G. Gano: I think it could be discarded altogether. James Sharp: Will not pay for commercial orchard. G. P. Whiteker: Janets bring a good price. They are late keepers. We kept ours this year until we began to pick apples the following fall. It is not a good commercial apple. Phillip Lux: I would place it on the retired list. William Cutter: Only fit for family use. Trees overbear; fruit small. B. F. Smith: I would place it on the retired list. SMITH'S CIDER. _Synonyms_: Smith's, Fuller, Pennsylvania Cider, Popular Bluff, and Fowler. Origin, Bucks county, Pennsylvania. This apple is widely grown and much esteemed as a profitable market sort. The tree is a very vigorous, straggling, spreading grower, and productive. Young wood a rich, dark brown. Fruit medium to large, roundish oblate conic, yellow, shaded and striped with red, sparsely covered with gray dots. Stalk slender, of medium length, inserted in a deep, rather narrow cavity. Calyx closed, set in a broad, rather shallow basin. Flesh whitish, tender, juicy, crisp, pleasant, mild subacid. Good December to March. Remarks on the Smith's Cider by members of the State Horticultural Society: C. C. Cook: I planted Smith's Cider pretty heavily, and now regret it. It blights badly, and the apples fall off. I intend to replace it with York Imperial. E. J. Holman: It deserves a place in the family orchard, and a small place in the commercial orchard. They are as large as Ben Davis, and as great bearers, but they fall from the tree sooner. James Sharp: We had 500 Smith's Cider. Nearly all blighted and died; have never paid me. G. Whiteker: It is a splendid apple, but blights; I think it will not be profitable. B. F. Smith: We should not drop it from the list; it is a fairly good apple. MAIDEN'S BLUSH. A remarkably beautiful apple, a native of New Jersey, and first described by Coxe. It begins to ripen about the 20th of August, and continues until the last of October. It has all the beauty of color of the pretty little Lady Apple, and is much cultivated and admired, both for the table and for cooking. It is also very highly esteemed for drying. This variety forms a handsome, rapid-growing tree, with a fine spreading head, and bears large crops. It is very valuable as a profitable market sort. Fruit of medium size, very regularly shaped, and a little narrow towards the eye. Skin smooth, with a delicate waxen appearance, pale lemon yellow in the shade, with a brilliant crimson cheek next the sun, the two colors often joining in brilliant red. Stalk short, planted in a rather wide, deep hollow. Basin moderately depressed. Calyx closed. Flesh white, tender, sprightly, pleasant subacid. Good. Remarks on the Maiden's Blush by the members of the State Horticultural Society: C. C. Cook: It is all right to raise for a local market and for family use. Hardy tree. I planted probably 100. I cannot determine where to place it on the list. Probably others have had more experience with it than I have. E. J. Holman: The Maiden's Blush deserves a place in both the family and the commercial orchard. In its season it is unexcelled for market purposes, and is especially attractive. I should recommend it as a commercial apple. H. L. Ferris: I would place it first as a summer apple for local market. W. G. Gano: You certainly will not discard it. W. J. Griffing: It is about the earliest apple that will bear shipping in summer, and very profitable. F. W. Dixon: I find it rather a shy bearer, but the tree is long-lived and very hardy, and it deserves a place in the family orchard. I think there is no profit in them for a commercial orchard. President Wellhouse: They are long-lived and very hardy; I would recommend them for family, but not for commercial orchard. G. P. Whiteker: It comes at a time when there is much other fruit. I do not think it pays very well. Mine turn brown from some cause. Phillip Lux: It is our very best apple in its season; while talking of the commercial orchard, there is a demand for apples at all seasons of the year, and if we discard this, we will have nothing at its season. I would say, place it in the commercial orchard for export. W. J. Griffing: Do not know that it is profitable, but for quality the Maiden's Blush is worthy of a place among fruits. G. W. Bailey: As a summer apple for family and commercial orchards, I would place it at the head of the list. William Cutter: It is the best apple of its season for all purposes. B. F. Smith: It is the best commercial apple for summer trade we have. Secretary Barnes: At the late meeting of the Missouri Horticultural Society, the secretary stated that he thought there was good money in the Maiden's Blush. He said the trouble was, they were raised in too limited quantities. He said they should be raised in car lots for shipping to Northern cities; that they were quick growers and brought ready money, and at their season had little competition in the market. They come in when there are few apples obtainable, and he considers them profitable. H. L. Ferris: In my experience it bears only every other year. Is that the experience of others? President Wellhouse: The Maiden's Blush is the only summer apple that we have made pay. J. W. Robison: We have not grown Maiden's Blush very largely here. It is one of our old apples in Illinois, and it is the earliest, most regular and profuse bearer, and the best keeper of its season to ship in hot weather. It was named for its beauty, and is the most attractive apple grown. They last well if kept moderately cool. They are shipped largely in barrels, the earlier ones in boxes, from central Illinois north. The tree is tender in unusually cold seasons. Farther south there is no danger. I find it is a good apple to sell in a small way to grocerymen. GRIMES'S GOLDEN PIPPIN. _Synonym_: Grimes's Golden. This valuable apple originated many years since on the farm of Thomas Grimes, Brooke county, Virginia. In its native locality it is highly prized for the peculiar hardihood of the tree, withstanding uninjured the most severe winters, and never breaking in its limbs; also, for its uniform regular annual productiveness. Tree vigorous, hardy, upright, spreading, very productive; branches with peculiar knobs at the base of each, connecting it with the main limbs. Young wood dark, dull red brown, grayish. Fruit medium, roundish oblate, slightly conical. Skin uneven. Color rich golden yellow, sprinkled moderately with small gray and light dots. Stalk rather short and slender. Cavity rather deep, sometimes slightly russeted. Calyx closed, or partially open. Basin abrupt, uneven. Flesh yellow, compact, crisp, tender, juicy, rich, sprightly, spicy subacid; peculiar aroma. Core rather small. Very good to best. December to March. Remarks on the Grimes's Golden Pippen by members of the State Horticultural Society: C. C. Cook: I have not tried to ship any Grimes's Golden. I would place it about second on the list of summer [?] apples. With me it is a good, thrifty, hardy tree, but my orchard is young. J. W. Robison: I have grown it extensively. It is one of the best fall apples and one of the beauties. It does not keep well. It rots badly after it is gathered and goes to market in rather bad shape. It is not planted as much now as in the past. E. J. Holman: It stands in quality beside the Jonathan, and is a first-class dessert apple. It is a good bearer and ought to be in every family orchard, but I would not recommend it for the commercial orchard. H. L. Ferris: Mine bore very heavily and were large and fine. Sold well locally; never shipped any; think they should come next to the Maiden's Blush in the commercial orchard. W. G. Gano: The Grimes's Golden is the very best apple of its season. Should be in all family orchards, and have a small place in commercial orchards. J. B. McAfee: Like Mr. Gano, I consider it the very best apple that grows, and one of the most profitable in my orchard. I find it short-lived. I take best care of them for use of my family until about the 1st of November. F. W. Dixon: It is the best apple for family use, but drops badly. The tree is a good bearer but not long-lived. G. P. Whiteker: I plant Grimes's Golden and Maiden's Blush for profit. The Grimes's Golden is handsome and brings a good price, especially at this time of the year--December. Phillip Lux: I have had experience with it for years. In the family orchard we cannot do without it. We aim to keep it for our family as long as it lasts, say until February. In my opinion it is better than any pear that grows in our state. We should handle them with care, as we do pears. Put away carefully, in a cold, dry cellar, they retain their flavor and keep well. I think them worthy of a place in the commercial orchard. J. F. Maxey: I like to eat them; most of us do. There is a place for them as a fancy apple. William Cutter: I consider it the best-flavored apple grown for family use. Missouri and Arkansas have brought the big red apple into history, but now the big yellow apple is preferred by many consumers. I consider them extra fine. B. F. Smith: I pack mine in boxes as well as barrels. I consider them fine. G. Y. Johnson (Douglas county): I find the tree is not as hardy as I would like to have it. As far as the apple is concerned, it sells as well as any. HUNTSMAN'S FAVORITE. A seedling on the farm of John Huntsman, of Fayette, Mo. Tree vigorous, not a very early bearer, but is very productive annually when the tree has attained sufficient age; it is said to be a valuable and profitable fruit in the locality where it originated. Young shoots smooth, reddish brown; fruit large, oblate, slightly conic, often a little oblate; skin smooth, pale yellow, sometimes a shade of pale red or deep yellow in the sun, and a few scattering grayish dots; stalk short, small; cavity broad, deep, sometimes slight russet; calyx closed, or nearly so; basin large, deep, slightly corrugated; flesh pale yellow, a little coarse, crisp, tender, juicy, mild, rich subacid, slightly aromatic; very good; core rather small. December to March. Remarks on the Huntsman's Favorite by members of the State Horticultural Society: William Cutter: The Huntsman is long-lived and deserves a place in our list. E. J. Holman: The Huntsman is of the York Imperial order, an old variety, not sufficiently known. In Kansas City, I saw them on sale at six dollars per barrel. The tree is a good bearer, and will be planted more than it has been; it never blights. B. F. Smith: I agree with Mr. Holman. W. G. Gano: It is a very desirable orchard tree; it is just wonderful how our old orchards hold out; its quality and size are good. It has one fault: if put in cold storage it bleaches out, as most yellow apples do. I cannot keep yellow apples in cold storage, and the Huntsman has disappointed me; but if taken out and sold when just right it is a success, and sells in Kansas City at six dollars per barrel. MAMMOTH BLACK TWIG. This apple originated with John Crawford, near Ray's Mills, Washington county, Arkansas. It is conceded to be a seedling of the Black Twig (said to be a misnomer for the Winesap). It has been exhibited as the "Arkansaw." Mr. Crawford says he brought to Arkansas and planted seeds of the Limber Twig and Black Twig over fifty-five years ago, and this apple sprang from one of those seeds. Really an enlarged and improved Winesap. Tree a fine, upright, spreading grower. Remarks on the Mammoth Black Twig by members of the State Horticultural Society: William Cutter: My trees set fruit for three years, but it all dropped off. President Wellhouse: Mr. Munger says his were very small this year, but also that all his apples were small. G. W. Bailey: I have a few, planted eight years, but the fruit this year was very small. E. J. Holman: Many Mammoth Black Twig trees have been extensively propagated by nurserymen. We should know more about them. This variety came before the public with a "hurrah," and people were told it was an apple with the quality of Winesap and the vigor of Ben Davis. Mrs. A. Z. Moore (Missouri): My husband and I superintended sixty acres. We grew 500 bushels of them, all very fine. Of the tree I know little, but the apples were beautiful. They are of dark color and very handsome. B. F. Smith: Two years ago I was down the Port Arthur road, and saw some, and they were fine-looking apples; but on testing it I thought many others were better, though in the general trade I think it will do well. We have a few trees and they are rapid growers, but I would not recommend them for flavor. Mr. Adams: I can give you no particular information on this apple, but believe in the right location it is as fine as any grown. Location has much to do with its success. Walter Wellhouse: I examined some Mammoth Black Twigs in Leavenworth, and they were of good size--as large as any Winesap I ever saw, and of good color. L. D. Buck: It is a hardy grower. This year it is small. PECK'S PLEASANT. _Synonym_: Waltz Apple. A first-rate fruit in all respects, belonging to the Newtown Pippin class. It has long been cultivated in Rhode Island (where, we think, it originated) and in the northern part of Connecticut, and deserves extensive dissemination. It considerably resembles the Yellow Newtown Pippin, with more tender flesh, and is scarcely inferior to it in flavor. The tree is a moderate, upright, spreading grower, but bears regularly and well, and the fruit commands a high price in the market. The apples on the lower branches of old trees are flat, while those on the upper branches are nearly conical. Young shoots reddish brown, slightly downy. Fruit above medium size, roundish, a little ribbed, and slightly flattened, with an indistinct furrow on one side. Skin smooth, and, when first gathered, green, with a little dark red; but when ripe a beautiful clear yellow, with bright blush on the sunny side and near the stalk, marked with scattered gray dots. The stalk is peculiarly fleshy and flattened, short, and sunk in a wide, rather wavy cavity. Calyx woolly, sunk in a narrow, abruptly and pretty deeply sunk basin. Flesh yellowish, fine grained, juicy, crisp and tender, with a delicious, high aromatic, sprightly subacid. Very good or best. November to March. Remarks on Peck's Pleasant by members of the State Horticultural Society: H. L. Ferris: We have a large number; while generally small, they can be made larger by cultivation and care. They are the longest keepers I know of, and carry well in shipping. William Cutter: I was well acquainted with it in Illinois. Secretary Barnes: About a year and a half ago, Governor Morrill said to me, "Why don't you get your people to grow Peck's Pleasant? It is the best apple grown." E. J. Holman: I have several trees, planted in 1870. They have been light bearers. The apple is of high quality, and keeps until January. The color is not so good as Huntsman. They die early. H. L. Ferris: I cannot agree to that. I never had one die. C. C. Cook: It is a good apple for home use; not very profitable. W. G. Gano: Good family apple; green; subacid; elegant in quality. INGRAM. A new variety, grown from seed of Rawle's Janet, by Martin Ingram, of Greene county, Missouri. Tree productive, and the fruit especially valued for its long keeping. Fruit medium, or below, roundish oblate, orange yellow, mostly overspread with broken stripes of rich, warm red, gray russet dots, and slight marblings. Stalk slender. Calyx small. Flesh yellowish white, moderately juicy, crisp, mild subacid. Core above medium. Seeds dark brown. February to June. (Hort.) Remarks on the Ingram by members of the State Horticultural Society: Mrs. A. Z. Moore: I speak of this as the "coming apple" in southern Missouri. They are not very large; beautiful in color; have a tendency to overbear and grow in clusters. Must be picked by hand; is free from common diseases. J. F. Maxey: I am greatly interested in it. Very late last spring, while in Kansas City, I noticed a variety of apples that looked so fresh, with stems as green as if just picked, in shape and color like large Janets. They had come out of cold storage. I asked the name, and was told they were Ingram. I was told they were grown in the vicinity of Garden City, Kan. I wrote to Garden City, and received an answer from the grower, saying this apple was well worthy of growing. Mrs. A. Z. Moore: I have seen it kept until the following August. G. P. Whiteker: I got twenty barrels of them from Mr. Rose in Kansas City. I brought them here [Topeka] and retailed most of them, and got six dollars per barrel for them. I do not think we found two bad apples to the barrel. Most people thought them Janets. I believe it a profitable tree to plant. B. F. Smith: In collecting apples in Douglas county for the World's Fair, we could not tell them from the Janet, except in size. It is beautifully streaked, and the grower called it a variety of the Janet. LOWELL. _Synonyms_: Queen Anne, Tallow Apple, Michigan Golden, Golden Pippin of some, Greasy Pippin, and Orange. Origin unknown. Tree hardy, vigorous, spreading, productive. Young wood reddish brown. Fruit large, roundish, oval or conic, bright waxen yellow, oily. Stalk of medium length. Cavity deep, uneven. Basin deep, abrupt, and furrowed. Calyx closed. Flesh yellowish white, with a brisk, rich, rather acid flavor. Good to very good. September, October. Remarks on the Lowell by members of the State Horticultural Society: J. B. McAfee: I have realized more from my Lowells than from any other apple in my orchard. They are early and prolific. The Lowell has been the best-paying and the easiest-selling apple in our market [Topeka]. Phillip Lux: I planted mine in 1870. They blight badly and the fruit is often knotty. Have made no money from them. J. W. Robison: I grew it in Illinois. I planted it here in 1879 and 1880, and it paid there and here. It is a large, green, smooth apple, and follows the Maiden's Blush closely. The tree did not blight with me there or here. It is best cooked. It does not get mellow or soft. It is an old variety and is falling out. E. J. Holman: This apple is all right in such a market as Topeka in its season. It is not good to ship. Another apple we know little of is the Orange Pippin. There is two or three dollars in it where there is one dollar in the Maiden's Blush. It can be shipped to Liverpool and back in good condition. No other will compare with it in productiveness. It ought to be on our list. CELESTIA. Originated with L. S. Mote, Miami county, Ohio. A new variety, of good promise as an amateur sort. Fruit large, form roundish, conical, slightly ribbed. Color pale yellow, moderately sprinkled with gray or brown dots, and sometimes large dots of red. Stalk rather short and slender. Cavity deep, uneven. Calyx closed. Segments long, slender, partially recurved. Basin rather small, furrowed. Flesh yellowish, crisp, tender, juicy, very pleasant, rich, mild subacid. Core rather large. Very good. October. MINKLER. _Synonym_: Brandywine. This is an old variety which was first exhibited before the Illinois Horticultural Society, and, because it could not be identified, received, for the time being, the name of its exhibitor. At some future time it will probably be found identical with some variety long since named and described. Tree an irregular grower; good bearer and keeper. Fruit medium, roundish oblate, slightly conic, pale greenish yellow, striped and splashed with two shades of red. Flesh yellowish, compact, moderately juicy, mild, pleasant subacid. Good. Core small. January to March. KING OF TOMPKINS COUNTY. _Synonyms_: King, Tom's Red, Tommy Red. Origin uncertain; said to have originated with Thomas Thacher, Warren county, New Jersey. A valuable market apple. Tree very vigorous, spreading, abundant bearer annually. Young shoots very dark reddish brown, quite downy, especially toward the ends. Fruit large, globular, inclining to conic, sometimes oblate, angular. Color yellowish, mostly shaded with red, striped and splashed with crimson. Stalk rather stout and short, inserted in a large, somewhat irregular cavity. Calyx small and closed, set in a medium, slightly corrugated basin. Flesh yellowish, rather coarse, juicy, tender, with an exceedingly agreeable, rich, vinous flavor, delightfully aromatic. Very good to best. December to March. SUMMER QUEEN. _Synonyms_: Sharpe's Early, Lancaster Queen, and Polecat. This variety forms a large tree with somewhat pendent boughs, and is a profitable sort for orchards and marketing over a large territory. The fruit is large and broad at the crown, tapering toward the eye. The stalk is rather long, and is planted in a pretty deep cavity, sometimes partially closed. Calyx but little sunk, in a narrow plaited basin. Skin fine deep yellow in its ground, though well striped and clouded with red. Flesh aromatic, yellow, rich, and of good flavor. August and September. LAWVER. Origin uncertain. Introduced by George S. Parks, of Parkville, Mo., and said to have been found in an old Indian orchard in Kansas. Tree vigorous, spreading, an early and annual bearer; a beautiful fruit and a long keeper. Fruit large, roundish oblate. Color dark, bright red, covered with small dots. Stalk medium. Cavity deep, regular. Calyx small, closed. Basin medium, furrowed. Flesh white, firm, crisp, sprightly, aromatic, mild subacid. January to May. (_Prairie Farmer._) STARK. Origin unknown; grown in some parts of Ohio, and valued as a long keeper and profitable market fruit. Tree vigorous, upright, spreading. Young shoots dark brownish red. Fruit large, roundish, inclining to conic, sometimes a little elongated, and sometimes slightly oblique. Skin greenish yellow, shaded, splashed and striped with light and dark red over nearly the whole surface, and thickly sprinkled with light and brown dots, a portion of them aureole dots. Stalk short, rather stout, inserted in a medium cavity. Calyx closed. Basin rather large, slightly corrugated. Flesh yellowish, a little coarse, moderately juicy, mild subacid. Good. Core small. January to May. WHITE WINTER PEARMAIN. _Synonym_: Campbellite. Origin unknown; by some thought to be an old Eastern variety; highly esteemed at the West. Tree spreading, hardy, and thrifty, a regular and good bearer. Young shoots very short jointed, dull reddish brown, slightly grayish or downy at the ends. Fruit medium or above, roundish oblong conic, somewhat oblique. Stalk short, in a deep cavity. Calyx nearly closed. Segments long. Basin uneven. Skin pale yellow, with a slight blush or warm cheek, thickly sprinkled with minute brown dots. Flesh yellowish, tender, crisp, juicy, very pleasant subacid. Very good. January to April. SMOKEHOUSE. _Synonyms_: Millcreek Vandevere, Red Vandevere, English Vandevere. Origin, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania, near Millcreek, grown on the farm of ---- Gibbons, near his smokehouse; hence its name. An old variety, and popular in Pennsylvania. It somewhat resembles the old Pennsylvania Vandevere, and is supposed to be a seedling of it. Tree moderately vigorous, with a spreading head, a good bearer. Young wood dark, dull reddish brown. Fruit rather above medium, roundish oblate, skin yellow, shaded and splashed with crimson, and thickly sprinkled with large gray and brown dots. Stalk rather long, curved, inserted in a broad cavity. Calyx closed, set in a wide basin of moderate depth, slightly corrugated. Flesh yellowish, somewhat firm, juicy, crisp, rather rich subacid. Good. September to February. Valued for culinary uses. AUTUMN PEARMAIN. _Synonym_: Winter Pearmain. A slow-growing tree, but attains a large size. Branches slender, spreading. Fruit of medium size, roundish, narrowing gradually toward the eye. Color brownish yellow, mixed with green on the shaded side, but next the sun reddish, blended with yellow, streaked with deeper red, and sprinkled with numerous small brown specks. Stalk short, obliquely planted under a fleshy lip. Calyx small, set in a broad shallow basin, which is sometimes scarcely at all sunk, and obscurely plaited. Flesh pale yellow, crisp, firm, a little dry, but rich and high flavored. Core rather small. Quality very good. October to March. CHENANGO (STRAWBERRY). _Synonyms_: Frank, Buckley, Sherwood's Favorite, Strawberry, Jackson Apple, and Smyrna. Originated in the town of Lebanon, Madison county, New York. It is an apple pleasant to the taste and much esteemed as a table fruit wherever grown. Tree is vigorous, spreading. Young wood light reddish brown, downy. Fruit medium, oblong conic or oblong truncated conic, indistinctly ribbed. Color whitish, shaded, splashed and mottled with light and dark crimson over most of the surface; light dots. Stalk rather short, small. Cavity acute, somewhat uneven. Calyx closed, or partially open. Segments erect. Basin rather large, abrupt, slightly corrugated. Flesh white, tender, juicy, peculiar mild subacid. Core rather large. Very good. September and October. HAAS. _Synonyms_: Horse Apple, Summer Horse, Yellow Hoss, and Trippe's Horse. Origin supposed to be North Carolina. Tree vigorous, an annual, early and abundant bearer, valuable for drying and culinary purposes. Young wood light reddish brown. Fruit large, roundish, yellow, sometimes tinged with red, and small patches of russet. Flesh yellow, rather firm and coarse, tender, pleasant subacid. Good. Last of July and first of August. HAAS. _Synonym_: Ludwig. Originated on the land of ---- Ludwig, Bucks county, Pennsylvania, and considerably grown in its native locality. Fruit large, roundish, slightly conical, whitish, splashed, mottled and shaded with light red; many dots, with dark centers. Stalk short, slender. Cavity rather large, a little greenish russet. Calyx closed. Basin slightly corrugated. Flesh white, sometimes a little stained next the skin, fine grained, juicy, mild subacid. Core rather small. Good to very good. November to March. BAILEY'S SWEET. _Synonyms_: Edgerly's Sweet, Howard's Sweet, and Patterson's Sweet. Origin unknown; introduced by J. Edgerly, of Perry, Wyoming county, New York. Tree hardy, vigorous, upright, spreading, productive. This variety is regarded as profitable for all purposes, although perhaps a little too tender skin for shipping long distances. Fruit large, form roundish conical often approaching oblong, obscurely ribbed; color yellowish, mostly shaded and obscurely striped with red, and thickly sprinkled with minute dots. Stalk short and rather small, inserted in a narrow cavity. Calyx small, closed, set in a narrow, irregular basin. Flesh white, tender, not very juicy, almost melting, with a honeyed sweet flavor. Core rather large. Very good. November to March. SWEET JUNE. _Synonyms_: Summer Sweet and Hightop Sweet. Origin, Plymouth, Mass. An old variety, highly prized at the West. Growth upright, vigorous. Tree hardy, very productive, light reddish brown shoots. Fruit medium or below, roundish, regular. Skin very smooth. Color light yellow, partially covered with green dots. Stalk medium, inserted in a deep, narrow cavity, surrounded by thin russet. Calyx small, closed. Basin shallow, slightly furrowed. Flesh yellowish, very sweet, not very juicy, but pleasant and rich. Very good. August. WEALTHY. Originated by Peter M. Gideon, near St. Paul, Minn., from seed gathered in Maine about 1860. So far the tree has proved hardy, vigorous, and healthy. Fruit medium, oblate or roundish oblate; whitish yellow ground, shaded with deep, rich crimson in the sun, obscure broken stripes and mottlings in the shade, sometimes entirely covered with crimson, many light dots. Stalk short to medium, slender. Cavity green, russet. Calyx partially closed. Basin deep, abrupt, uneven. Flesh white, fine grained, stained with red, tender, juicy, lively, vinous subacid. Very good. Core small. Season, December to February. RED JUNE. _Synonyms_: Knight's Red June, Blush June, Georgia June, and Wilson's June. Origin somewhat uncertain, supposed to be Carolina. Tree very vigorous, upright, an early and abundant bearer, much esteemed at the South and Southwest as their best early apple; ripe a few days after Early Harvest; not equal to it in flavor, but more profitable as an orchard fruit. Fruit medium or below, oval, irregular, inclined to conic. Skin smooth, nearly the whole surface shaded with deep red, and almost of a purplish hue on the sunny side, and covered with a light bloom. Stalk variable in length, inserted in a small, narrow cavity. Calyx closed. Segments long, reflexed. Basin narrow, plaited. Flesh very white, tender, juicy, with a brisk subacid flavor. Core rather large. Very good. NOTE.--Carolina Striped June (Carolina June). This is generally confounded with the above, and is scarcely distinguishable, except that, as it ripens, it becomes striped. One is doubtless a seedling from the other. BALDWIN. _Synonyms_: Woodpecker, Pecker, Steel's Red Winter, Red Baldwin, and Butters. The Baldwin stands at the head of all New England apples, and is unquestionably a first-rate fruit in all respects. It is a native of Massachusetts, and is more largely cultivated for the Boston market than any other sort. Tree vigorous, upright, spreading, productive. Young shoots dull reddish brown. Fruit large, roundish, and narrowing a little to the eye. Color yellow in the shade, but nearly covered and striped with crimson, red, and orange in the sun, dotted with a few russet dots, and with radiating streaks of russet about the stalk. Calyx closed, and set in a rather narrow plaited basin. Stalk half to three-fourths of an inch long, rather slender for so large a fruit, planted in an even, moderately deep cavity. Flesh yellowish white, crisp, with that agreeable mingling of the saccharine and acid which constitutes a rich, high flavor. Very good. The tree is a vigorous, upright grower, and bears most abundantly. Ripe from November to March, but with us it is perfection in January. GOLDEN SWEET. _Synonyms_: Orange Sweeting and Early Golden Sweet. A celebrated Connecticut fruit. Tree very vigorous, spreading, forming a tree of moderate size, hardy and very productive. Young shoots reddish brown. Fruit above the medium size, roundish, scarcely flattened, fair, and well formed; when fully ripe, pale yellow or straw color. Stalk about an inch long, slender at its junction with the fruit. Calyx closed, and set in a basin of moderate depth. Flesh tender, sweet, rich, and excellent. Good to very good. August and September. A valuable sort for cooking, market, or stock feeding. COOPER'S EARLY (WHITE). Grown in Illinois and other Western states, where it is regarded by many as productive and profitable. Fruit medium, roundish, little flattened, pale yellow with faint blush, tinge of green at the stem. Flesh white, crisp, sprightly. September and October. (Elliott). NORTHERN SPY. This beautiful American fruit is one of the most delicious, fragrant and sprightly of all late dessert apples. It ripens in January, keeps until June, and always commands the highest market price. The tree is of rapid, upright growth, and bears moderate crops. It originated on the farm of Herman Chapin, of East Bloomfield, near Rochester, N. Y. The trees require high culture, and open heads to let in the sun; otherwise the fruit is wanting in flavor, and apt to be imperfect and knotty. Young shoots dark, reddish brown. The tree blooms late, often escaping vernal frosts. Fruit large, roundish, oblate, conical. Skin thin, smooth, in the shade greenish or pale yellow, in the sun covered with light and dark stripes of purplish red, marked with a few pale dots, and a thin white bloom. Stalk three-fourths of an inch long, rather slender, planted in a very wide, deep cavity, sometimes marked with russet. Calyx small, closed. Basin narrow, abrupt, furrowed. Flesh white, fine grained, tender, slightly subacid, with a peculiarly fresh and delicious flavor. Core large and open. Very good to best. December to June. DUCHESS OF OLDENBURG. _Synonyms_: Smith's Beauty of Newark, Russian, Borovitsky, and New Brunswick. This handsome Russian apple proves one of the most hardy and profitable varieties in cultivation, especially in our northwestern sections. The tree is vigorous, forming a roundish, upright, spreading head, requiring little or no pruning, and producing abundantly a fruit of fair, even and regular size, that, although not of the first quality, always commands a ready sale, as it is valuable for market and cooking, and passably good for dessert. Young shoots smooth, reddish. Fruit medium size, regularly formed, roundish oblate. Skin smooth, finely washed and streaked with red on a golden or yellow ground. Calyx pretty large and nearly closed, set in a wide, even hollow. There is a faint blue bloom on this fruit. The flesh is juicy, sprightly subacid. Ripens early in September. EARLY HARVEST. _Synonyms_: Prince's Harvest, July Pippin, Yellow Harvest, Large White Juneating, Tart Bough, Early French Reinette, and Sinclair's Yellow. An American apple; and taking into account its beauty, its excellent qualities for the dessert and cooking, and its productiveness, we think it the finest early apple yet known. It begins to ripen about the first of July, and continues in use all that month. The smallest collection of apples should comprise this and the Red Astrachan. Trees moderately vigorous, upright, spreading. Young shoots reddish brown. Fruit medium size. Form roundish, often roundish oblate, medium size. Skin very smooth, with a few faint white dots, bright straw color when fully ripe. Stalk half to three-fourths of an inch long, rather slender, inserted in a hollow of moderate depth. Calyx set in a shallow basin. Flesh very white, tender and juicy, crisp, with a rich, sprightly subacid flavor. Very good to best. Core small. TWENTY OUNCE. _Synonyms_: Morgan's Favorite, Eighteen Ounce Apple, Aurora, Coleman, Cayuga Red Streak, Lima, and Wine of Connecticut. A very large and showy apple. It is a good, sprightly fruit, though not very high flavored, but its remarkably handsome appearance and large size render it one of the most popular fruits in the market. The tree is thrifty, and makes a compact, neat head; bears regular crops, and the fruit is always fair and handsome. Young wood rich, brownish red. Fruit very large, roundish, slightly uneven, greenish yellow, boldly splashed and marbled with stripes of purplish red. Stalk short, set in a wide, deep cavity. Calyx small. Basin moderately deep. Flesh coarse grained, sprightly, brisk subacid. Good to very good. October to January. SWEET BOUGH. _Synonyms_: Large Yellow Bough, Early Sweet Bough, August Sweet, Sweet Harvest, Bough, and Washington. A native apple, ripening in harvest time, and one of the first quality, only second as a dessert fruit to the Early Harvest. It is not so much esteemed for the kitchen as the latter, as it is too sweet for pies and sauce, but it is generally much admired for the table, and is worthy of a place in every collection. Fruit above the middle size, and oblong ovate in form. Skin smooth, pale greenish yellow. Stalk rather long, and the eye narrow and deep. Flesh white, very tender and crisp when fully ripe, and with a rich, sweet, sprightly flavor. Ripens from the middle of July to the 10th of August. Tree moderately vigorous, bears abundantly, and forms a round head. Young shoots grayish brown, very slightly downy. PEWAUKEE. Raised from seed of Duchess of Oldenburg by George P. Pepper, of Pewaukee, Wis., who sends us specimens, and writes that the tree is strong and vigorous, center upright, very spreading, an annual bearer, and one of the hardiest and best for the Northwest; young shoots dark, brownish red. Fruit medium to large, roundish oblate, skin bright yellow, striped, splashed and mottled with light and dark red over most of the surface, covered with a thin greenish bloom, and many large and small light dots, a few being aureole; stalk short, small; cavity small; calyx closed; basin medium, slightly corrugated; flesh white, a little coarse, breaking, half tender; juicy, subacid, slightly aromatic; good; core small. January to May. NELSON SWEET. Origin unknown. Fruit medium to large. Form roundish oblate, regular. Color dull green, becoming yellow, sometimes bronzed with dull brown. Stalk rather long, slender. Cavity medium, acute, regular, green. Calyx medium, closed. Segments reflexed. Basin small, uneven. Flesh greenish yellow, firm, fine grained, juicy, sweet. Core medium. Good. May to July. (_American Journal of Horticulture._) RED ASTRACHAN. _Synonyms_: Deterding's Early, Astrachan Rogue, Robert Astrakan, Vermillion d'Ete, and Abe Lincoln. A fruit of extraordinary beauty, first imported into England, with the White Astrachan, from Sweden, in 1816. It bears abundantly with us, and its singular richness of color is heightened by an exquisite bloom on the surface of the fruit, like that of the plum. It is one of the handsomest dessert fruits, and its quality is good, but if not taken from the trees as soon as ripe it is liable to become mealy. Tree a vigorous grower, upright, spreading. An early and abundant bearer. Young shoots clear, reddish brown. Fruit pretty large, rather above the middle size, and very smooth and fair, roundish, a little narrowed toward the eye. Skin almost entirely covered with deep crimson, with sometimes a greenish yellow in the shade, and occasionally a little russet near the stalk, and covered with a pale white bloom. Stalk rather short and deeply inserted. Calyx partially closed, set in a slight basin, which is sometimes a little irregular. Flesh quite white, crisp, moderately juicy, with an agreeable, rich, acid flavor. Good to very good. Ripens from last of July to middle of August. BALTZBY. From Virginia. Tree spreading, productive. Fruit large, oblate, yellowish white, with a faint blush. Dots scattered, small, white. Flesh white, firm, somewhat tough, juicy, almost sweet. Good. October. MOUNTAINEER. _Synonym_: Mountain Sweet. From Pennsylvania. Fruit large, oblate, light yellow. Dots minute. Calyx small, closed. Stalk short, slender. Flesh white, breaking, very tender, fine grained, juicy, sweet. Good to very good. December. (Warder.) IMPERIAL. Of French origin. Fruit medium, oblate inclined to conic, yellow, shaded, splashed and striped with light and dark red, deepest in the sun. Stalk short. Calyx closed. Flesh white, crisp, tender, juicy, refreshing subacid. Good. October and November. (Warder.) FULTON STRAWBERRY. Originated with A. G. Downing, Canton, Fulton county, Illinois. Tree vigorous, stout, spreading grower, hardy; does not come early into bearing. Young wood grayish brown, slightly downy. Fruit medium, oblate, whitish, mostly overspread, striped, splashed and mottled with shades of red. Flesh whitish, tinged with pink, juicy, pleasant subacid. Good. Core small. September. ENGLISH SWEET. _Synonyms_: Ramsdell's Sweet, Ramsdell's Sweeting, Ramsdell's Red Pumpkin Sweet, Avery Sweet, and Ramsdell's Red Winter. This old variety is esteemed where grown for the large crops which it bears, and as a showy sweet apple for market, and profitable for stock feeding, as well as superior for cooking. The tree is very vigorous, grows remarkably straight and upright, comes early into bearing, and yields enormously every year. Young shoots clear, reddish brown, slightly grayish. Fruit rather above medium size, oblong, regularly shaped, and tapering slightly towards the eye; dark red, dotted with fawn-colored specks, and covered with a blue bloom. Flesh yellowish, very tender and mellow, usually sweet and rich. Good to very good. In weight the apple is light. October to February. WHITE JUNEATING. _Synonyms_: Joanneting, Juniting, Gennetting, Primiting, May of Virginia, Jennetting, Juneting, May Pippin, Caroline, Early May, Owen's Golden Beauty, Juneating, Ginetting, Early Jennetting, Yellow May, Carolina. This is an old variety, mentioned by Evelyn in 1660, and described by Ray in 1688, and is a very tolerable little apple, ripening among the very earliest, during the last of June and the first of July. It is very distinct from the Early Harvest, sometimes called by this name. Tree a moderate grower, and forms a roundish, upright, spreading head. Productive. Fruit small, round, a little flattened. Calyx closed. Stalk rather long and slender. Pale green at first, light yellow with sometimes a faint blush on the sunny side. Flesh crisp and of a pleasant flavor, but soon becomes dry. Good. HUBBARDSTON NONSUCH. _Synonyms_: John May, Old Town Pippin, and Hubbardston. A fine, large, early winter fruit, which originated in the town of Hubbardston, Mass. The tree is a vigorous grower, forming a handsome branching head, and bears very large crops. Young shoots dull, grayish brown, slightly downy. It is worthy of extensive orchard culture. Fruit large, roundish oblong, much narrowed near the eye. Skin smooth, striped with splashes and irregular broken stripes of pale and bright red, which nearly cover a yellowish ground. Calyx open. Stalk short, in a russeted hollow. Flesh yellow, juicy, and tender, with an agreeable mingling of sweetness and acidity in its flavor. Very good to best. October to January. HOLLAND PIPPIN. _Synonyms_: Summer Pippin, Pie Apple. This and the Fall Pippin are frequently confounded together. They are indeed of the same origin. One of the strongest points of difference lies in their time of ripening. The Holland Pippin begins to fall from the trees and is fit for pies about the middle of August, and from that time to the first of November is one of the very best kitchen apples. Fruit very large, roundish, a little more square in outline than the Fall Pippin, and not so much flattened, though a good deal like it, a little narrowed next the eye. Stalk half an inch long, thick, deeply sunk. Calyx small, closed, moderately sunk in a slight plaited basin. Skin greenish yellow or pale green, becoming pale yellow when fully ripe, washed on one side with a little dull red or pale brown, with a few scattered, large, greenish dots. Good. YELLOW TRANSPARENT. A new Russian variety, which was imported from St. Petersburg in 1870 by the department of agriculture, Washington, D. C., and promises to be valuable for a cold climate as an early fruit of good quality, ripening before the Tetofsky, with more tender and delicate flesh, but does not continue long in use. It is said that the tree so far has proved to be very hardy, moderately vigorous, upright, an early and good bearer annually. Fruit medium, roundish, oblate, slightly conical, slightly angular; skin clear white at first, becoming pale yellow when fully mature, moderately sprinkled with light and greenish dots, somewhat obscure. Stalk short to medium, rather slender; cavity rather large, sometimes a little greenish; calyx closed; basin medium, slightly corrugated, sometimes small protuberances; flesh white, half fine, tender, juicy, sprightly subacid; quality good to very good. Core medium. Season early in August, and a week or two before Tetofsky. BENTLEY'S SWEET. Origin unknown. Supposed Virginia. Tree moderately vigorous, hardy, good bearer and keeper, valuable in the Southwest in rich soils. Fruit medium, roundish, flattened at ends, sometimes slightly oblique, and sometimes sides unequal, pale yellowish green, shaded with pale red and, moderately sprinkled with light and brown dots. Stalk long, slender, curved. Cavity smooth, deep. Calyx large, closed, or partially open. Segments medium length, erect, sometimes a little recurved. Basin large, deep, corrugated. Flesh fine, whitish, compact, sweet, somewhat honeyed flavor. Core small. Very good. January to May. EARLY RIPE. Supposed origin, Pennsylvania, but unknown. Tree a free grower, and productive. Fruit medium, roundish oblate, pale yellow, sprinkled with a few gray dots. Stalk long, in a slightly russeted cavity. Calyx small, closed. Flesh white, tender, juicy, subacid. Good. August. DOCTOR WATSON. _Synonym_: Autumn Seek-no-farther. Origin unknown. A variety considerably grown in Indiana, where it is much esteemed. Tree moderately vigorous, spreading, productive. Fruit medium, oblate, sides sometimes unequal. Color greenish white, shaded and splashed in the sun with dull crimson. Stalk of medium length. Cavity broad, uneven. Calyx open. Basin large, rather deep. Flesh whitish yellow, rather firm, juicy, rich subacid. Core medium. Very good. September and October. MUSTER. Origin unknown. Fruit oblate, yellow, mostly covered with mixed red and splashes of crimson. Flesh yellow, fine grained, tender, juicy, subacid, aromatic. Best. Core small. August and September. (Warder.) WAGENER. Origin, Penn Yan, Yates county, New York. Tree thrifty, upright, hardy, and early bearer. Requires thinning to produce good-flavored fruit. When grown in the shade is wanting in flavor. Young wood light, reddish brown, slightly downy. Buds prominent. Fruit medium or above, roundish oblate, yellow, mostly shaded with crimson, obscurely striped, and splashed with light dots. Stalk nearly an inch long, rather slender, inserted in a large, broad, irregular cavity. Calyx small and closed, set in a rather abrupt, somewhat corrugated basin. Flesh yellowish, very tender, juicy, excellent, brisk, somewhat vinous. Very good to best. A very delicate apple. Ripe November to February. BROADWELL. _Synonym_: Broadwell Sweet. Originated with Jacob Broadwell, near Cincinnati, Ohio. An extremely valuable sweet apple, either for the table or cooking. Tree vigorous, quite hardy, very spreading, irregular, productive. Young shoots dull, reddish brown, downy. Fruit medium, oblate, somewhat conic. Color clear, bright yellow, brownish blush in the sun exposure, with carmine spots. Dots few, greenish, suffused beneath. Stalk rather short. Cavity broad, russeted. Calyx closed, with short segments. Basin regular. Flesh whitish, firm, juicy, rich, sweet. Core small. Very good. November to February. SUPERB. Origin, Franklin county, North Carolina. Tree tolerably vigorous, spreading, and a prodigious bearer. Fruit medium or above, roundish, oblate, regular. Skin green, rarely with a blush. Stalk of medium length, in a shallow cavity. Calyx large and open. Flesh yellow, solid, slightly coarse grained, rich, subacid. Good to very good. November to March. RAMBO. _Synonyms_: Fall Romanite, Gray Romanite, Striped Rambo, Delaware, Romanite, Seek-no-further, Bread and Cheese, Rambouillet, Trumpington, Large Rambo, and Terry's Redstreak. The Rambo is one of the most popular autumn or early winter fruits. It is a highly valuable apple for the table or kitchen, and the tree thrives well on light, sandy soil, being a native of the banks of the Delaware. The tree is of a vigorous, rather spreading habit, quite productive. Fruit of medium size, flat, smooth, yellowish white in the shade, streaked and marbled with pale yellow and red in the sun, and speckled with large rough dots. Stalk long, rather slender, curved to one side, and deeply planted in a smooth, funnel-like cavity. Calyx closed, set in a broad basin, which is slightly plaited around it. Flesh greenish white, very tender, rich, mild subacid. Very good. October to December. There is claimed to be distinct or subvariety of this, called Red Rambo, the fruit of which is more red; otherwise there is no perceptible difference. ROME BEAUTY. _Synonym_: Gillett's Seedling. Origin, southern Ohio. Tree a moderate grower; succeeds well at the Southwest. Young wood clear, reddish brown, slightly downy or gray. A late bloomer. Fruit large, roundish, approaching conic, yellow, shaded and striped with bright red, and sprinkled with light dots. Stalk an inch long, inserted in a large, deep cavity, surrounded by greenish russet. Calyx partially closed, set in a narrow, deep basin. Flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, sprightly, subacid. Good. Core rather large. October to December. ROMAN STEM. Originated at Burlington, N. J., and is much esteemed there. Tree very productive, spreading, irregular. Fruit scarcely of medium size, roundish, whitish yellow, with a faint brownish blush, sprinkled with patches of dark russet, and, when ripe, having a few reddish specks, unless the fruit is very fair. Stalk three-fourths of an inch long, inserted in a shallow cavity under a fleshy protuberance. Calyx set in a rather narrow basin, with a few plaits. Core hollow. Flesh tender, juicy, with a rich, pleasant, musky flavor. Very good. November to March. SNOW. _Synonyms_: Fameuse and Snow Chimney. A very celebrated Canada fruit (probably an old French variety), which has its name from the snow-white color of its flesh, or, as some say, from the village from whence it was first taken to England. It is an excellent, productive, autumn apple, and is especially valuable in northern latitudes. Tree moderately vigorous, round-headed, hardy. Young shoots reddish brown. Fruit of medium size, roundish, somewhat flattened. Skin with a ground of pale, greenish yellow, mixed with faint streaks of pale red on the shady side, but marked with blotches and short stripes of darker red, and becoming a fine, deep red in the sun. Stalk quite slender, half an inch long, planted in a narrow, funnel-shaped cavity. Calyx small, and set in a shallow, rather narrow basin. Flesh remarkably white, very tender, juicy, and with a slight perfume. Very good. Ripe in October and November. A regular bearer and a handsome dessert fruit. There is a variety under the name Striped Fameuse, claimed to be distinct, the fruit being more striped and less highly colored. AUTUMN STRAWBERRY. _Synonym_: Late Strawberry. Origin, Aurora, N. Y., on lands formerly owned by Judge Phelps. Tree vigorous, upright, spreading, hardy. Young wood smooth, reddish brown; a regular and early bearer. Fruit medium, roundish, inclined to conic, sometimes obscurely ribbed. Color whitish, striped and splashed with light and dark red, and often covered with a thin bloom. Stalk rather long, slender, curved. Cavity large, deep, slightly russeted. Basin abrupt, corrugated. Flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, pleasant, vinous subacid. Very good. October to December. GILPIN. _Synonyms_: Carthouse, Small Romanite, Gray Romanite, Roman Knight, Romanite of the West, and Little Romanite. A handsome cider fruit, from Virginia, which is also a good table fruit from February to May. A very hardy, vigorous and fruitful tree. Fruit of medium size, roundish, oblong. Skin very smooth and handsome, richly streaked with deep red and yellow. Stalk short, deeply inserted. Calyx in a round, rather deep basin. Flesh yellow, firm, juicy, and rich, becoming tender and sprightly in the spring. Good. MILAM. _Synonyms_: Harrigan, Winter Pearmain, Blair, and Thomas. Origin uncertain; much grown in some sections of the West; very productive, and keeps well. Fruit medium or below, roundish, greenish, shaded and striped with red. Flesh rather firm, pleasant subacid, not rich. Good. December to March. LIMBER TWIG. _Synonym_: James River. An apple much cultivated South and West. Origin, supposed North Carolina. Tree hardy and productive, roundish, spreading, somewhat drooping. Fruit medium or above, roundish oblate, inclining to conic, greenish yellow, shaded and striped with dull crimson, and sprinkled with light dots. Stalk of medium length, inserted in a broad, deep cavity, surrounded by thin, green russet. Calyx closed, set in a small, uneven basin. Flesh whitish, not very tender, juicy, with a brisk, subacid flavor. Good. January to April. BENONI. This excellent early apple is a native of Dedham, Mass. The tree is of vigorous, upright, spreading habit; hardy and productive; light, reddish brown. It is a valuable variety for market or table use. Fruit rather below medium size. Form roundish, oblate conical. Color pale yellow, shaded, striped and marbled with dark crimson, and thinly sprinkled with bright dots. Stalk short, slender. Cavity deep, russeted. Calyx closed. Segments persistent, sometimes a little recurved. Basin abrupt, quite deep, somewhat uneven. Flesh yellow, juicy, tender, pleasant subacid. Core small. Very good. August. ORTLEY. _Synonyms_: Ortley Pippin, Woolman's Long, Greasy Pippin, White Bell-flower, Van Dyne, Melting Pippin, Yellow Pippin, Woodward's Pippin, Davis White Bellflower, White Bellflower, White Detroit, Hollow-cored Pippin, Green Bellflower, Jersey Greening, Crane's Pippin, Inman, Tom Woodward's Pippin, Marrow Pippin, Ohio Favorite, Willow-leaf Pippin, White Pippin, Detroit, Davis, Warren Pippen, Golden Pippin, White Seek-no-further, and Tod's Golden Pippin. Origin, orchard of Michael Ortley, South Jersey. It grows pretty strongly, with upright, slender shoots, and bears abundantly. Fruit medium to large, roundish, oblong conic, greenish yellow, becoming fine yellow at maturity, sometimes with a sunny cheek. Stalk slender, of medium length, inserted in a deep, acute cavity, surrounded by russet. Calyx closed, set in an abrupt, somewhat corrugated basin. Flesh white, fine grained, tender, juicy, subacid, very pleasant. Good to very good. Core large. November to February. STAYMAN'S SUMMER. Originated on the grounds of Dr. J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kan. Tree hardy, vigorous, spreading, irregular, tough, wiry, droops like a weeping willow with ropes of fruit, never breaking a limb. An early bearer and very productive, very nearly equal to Benoni and Summer Pearmain, and handsomer. Fruit medium, round, regular, approaching conic; skin smooth, greenish yellow, splashed and striped with red and purple, covered with a white bloom; dots small, gray, scattered. Stem medium, rather slender. Cavity narrow, deep, irregular, russeted. Eye very small, closed. Basin narrow, shallow, furrowed. Core small, slightly open. Flesh greenish white, very juicy, brittle, sprightly, high flavored, mild acid. Very good. Use: Kitchen, table, and market. August and September. (_Western Pomologist._) STAYMAN'S WINESAP. A seedling of the Winesap, originated with Dr. J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kan. We give his description: "Tree very vigorous, open, irregular, spreading. Wood very dark; dark heavy foliage. An early and very abundant bearer. Tree much in appearance like the Winesap. Fruit hangs well on the tree. Fruit medium to large, heavy, oblate conical, regular, greenish yellow, mostly covered and indistinctly splashed, mixed and striped with dark, dull red; dots medium, numerous, distinct gray. Stem of medium length, slender. Cavity wide, deep, much russeted, extending, regular. Calyx large, open, or half closed. Segments large, erect. Basin rather narrow, abrupt, deep, furrowed. Core medium. Flesh yellow, firm, tender, juicy, rich, mild subacid, aromatic. Quality best. Season January to May." GARRETTSON'S EARLY. _Synonyms_: Somerset Harvest. Originated on the farm of John Garrettson, Somerset, N. J. Tree vigorous, upright, spreading, productive. Young wood brown, slightly downy. Fruit medium, roundish conic, yellowish, thickly covered with light specks. Stalk short. Cavity deep, acute. Calyx closed, in a small, abrupt, furrowed basin. Flesh white, tender, juicy, brisk subacid. Good; valuable for cooking. September. EARLY SUMMER PEARMAIN. _Synonym_: American Summer Pearmain. A rich, highly flavored fruit, much esteemed where it is known. It appears to be quite different from the Summer Pearmain (of the English), and is probably a seedling raised from it. It ripens gradually from the 10th of August to the last of September. Tree moderately vigorous, with slender branches, round headed. Young shoots dull, reddish brown. Fruit of medium size, oblong, widest at the crown, and tapering slightly to the eye. Skin red, spotted with yellow in the shade, but streaked with livelier red and yellow on the sunny side. Stalk three-fourths of an inch long, and pretty deeply inserted. Eye deeply sunk. Calyx closed. Segments short, erect. Basin abrupt, slightly corrugated. Flesh yellow, remarkably tender, with a rich and pleasant flavor. It often bursts when falling from the tree. Quality best. Core medium. EARLY JOE. Origin, orchard of Herman Chapin, Ontario county, New York. Tree of slow growth, productive; requires high culture for fair fruit. Fruit below medium, oblate, very slightly conic, smooth, yellowish, shaded and striped with red, and thickly sprinkled with greenish spots. Stalk of medium length, inserted in a large cavity surrounded by russet. Calyx closed. Basin moderate. Flesh whitish, tender, juicy, with a very agreeable vinous flavor. Best. Ripe middle of August to middle of September. JEFFERIS. Origin, Chester county, Pennsylvania. Growth medium, very productive. A fair and handsome fruit, of excellent quality, in use all of September. Young wood light, reddish brown, smooth. Fruit medium, oblate, inclined to conic, yellow, shaded and splashed with crimson, and thickly covered with large whitish dots. Stalk very short, inserted in a rather large cavity. Calyx closed, set in a round, open basin. Flesh white, tender, juicy, with a rich, mild, subacid flavor. Very good. September. WHITE PIPPIN. _Synonym_: Canada Pippin. This apple is much cultivated at the West, but of unknown origin. It is of the Newtown Pippin class, distinct from Canada Reinette. Tree thrifty, upright, a regular and good bearer. Young shoots dark, clear, reddish brown, downy. Fruit large, form variable, roundish, oblate, slightly oblique, greenish white, waxen, sprinkled with green dots, and becoming pale yellow at maturity, sometimes having a dull blush and a few brown dots. Stalk short, inserted in a large cavity, surrounded by green russet. Calyx small, nearly closed, set in an abrupt-furrowed basin. Flesh white, tender, crisp, juicy, fine, rich subacid. Very good to best. Core small. January to March. DOMINIE. _Synonyms_: English Rambo, Wells, Cheat, Hogan, Striped Rhode Island Greening, Cling Tight, English Red Streak, and English Beauty of Pennsylvania. This apple, extensively planted in the orchards on the Hudson and west, so much resembles the Rambo externally that the two are often confounded, and the outline of the Rambo may be taken as nearly a _facsimile_ of this. The Dominie is, however, of a livelier color, and the flavor and season of the two fruits are very distinct, the Rambo being rather a high-flavored early winter apple, while the Dominie is a sprightly, juicy, long-keeping winter fruit. Fruit of medium size, flat. Skin lively greenish yellow in the shade, with stripes and splashes of bright red in the sun, and pretty large russet specks. Stalk long and slender, planted in a wide cavity, and inclined to one side. Calyx small, in a broad basin, moderately sunk. Flesh white, exceedingly tender and juicy, with a sprightly, pleasant, though not high flavor. Young wood of a shoot lively light brown, and the trees are very hardy, and the most rapid growers and prodigious early bearers that we know--the branches being literally weighted down by the rope-like clusters of fruit. The Dominie does not appear to be described by any foreign author. Coxe says that he received it from England, but the apple he describes and figures does not appear to be ours, and we have never met with it in any collection here. It is highly probable that the Dominie is a native fruit. It is excellent from December to April. RHODE ISLAND GREENING. _Synonyms_: Burlington Greening, Russine, Bell Dubois, and Jersey Greening. The Rhode Island Greening is such a universal favorite, and so generally known, that it seems superfluous to describe it. It succeeds well in most of the northern sections of the United States, and on a great variety of soils. Where it succeeds it is one of the most esteemed and profitable among early winter fruits. [In Kansas it drops too early.] Tree a very vigorous, spreading grower. Young shoots reddish brown. Very productive. [Shy in Kansas.] Fruit large, roundish, a little flattened, pretty regular, but often obscurely ribbed, dark green, becoming greenish yellow when ripe, when it sometimes shows a dull blush near the stalk. Calyx small, woolly, closed, in a slightly sunken, scarcely plaited basin. Stalk three-fourths of an inch long, curved, thickest at the bottom. Flesh yellow, fine grained, tender, crisp, with an abundance of rich, sprightly, aromatic, lively, acid juice. Very good. November to February. PENNOCK. _Synonyms_: Pomme Roye, Large Romanite, Prolific Beauty, Roman Knight, Big Romanite, Neisley's Winter Penick, Pelican, Red Ox, Red Pennock, Pennock's Red Winter, and Gay's Romanite. Origin, Pennsylvania. Tree a strong, vigorous, upright, spreading grower, and very productive. Fruit quite large, oblique, generally flat, but occasionally roundish oblong, fine, deep red, with faint, indistinct streaks of yellow. Flesh yellow, tender and juicy, with a pleasant, half-sweet flavor. Good. November to March. KESWICK CODLIN. A noted English cooking apple, which may be gathered for tarts as early as the month of August, and continues in use till November. It is an early and a great bearer and a vigorous tree, and is one of the most profitable of orchard sorts for cooking or market. Tree very hardy, forming a large, regular, upright, spreading, round head. Fruit a little above the middle size, rather conical, with a few obscure ribs. Stalk short and deeply set. Calyx rather large. Skin greenish yellow, washed with a faint blush on one side. Flesh yellowish white, juicy, with a pleasant acid flavor. EMPEROR. Described by Verry Aldrich in the _Prairie Farmer_ as follows: Fruit medium, roundish, one-sided, orange, striped and shaded with red on the sun side, covered with white specks. Stalk short and slender. Cavity deep. Flesh white, fine grained, tender, juicy, pleasant, almost sweet. EARLY MARGARET. _Synonyms_: Margaret or Striped Juneating, Early Red Juneating, Red Juneating, Striped June, Eve Apple of the Irish, and Margaretha Apfel of the Germans. An excellent early apple, ripening about the middle of July, or directly after the Early Harvest. The tree while young is rather slender, with reddish brown, upright, woolly shoots. It is a moderate bearer. Fruit below medium size, roundish oblate, tapering towards the eye. Skin greenish yellow, pretty well covered by stripes of dark red. Flesh white, subacid, and, when freshly gathered from the tree, of a rich, agreeable flavor. Good. MOTHER. _Synonyms_: Queen Anne, Gardener's Apple. Origin, Bolton, Mass. Tree moderately vigorous, upright, and productive. Young shoots grayish brown, downy. One of the best of apples for dessert; rather too tender for shipment. Fruit medium. Form roundish, slightly conical. Color yellow, almost entirely overspread with light, clear, rich red, splashed and marbled with many deeper shades, many minute little dots. Stalk short, small. Cavity acute, often a little russeted. Calyx closed. Basin small, corrugated. Flesh yellow, tender, juicy, rich, aromatic subacid. Best. November to February. ARKANSAS BLACK. Medium, slightly conical, regular, smooth, glossy; yellow, generally covered with deep crimson, small, light-colored dots. Basin shallow. Eye small, closed. Cavity shallow, russeted. Stem medium. Flesh very yellow, fine grained, firm, juicy, subacid, rich. Very good. Arkansas. (Thomas.) WHITNEY. Medium, handsome, rich, good. Very hardy. Illinois. (Thomas.) NOTE. All the descriptions of apples given here are taken from Downing's "Fruit and Fruit-trees of America," excepting otherwise noted. THE STATE, BY DISTRICTS. For convenience, Kansas was divided by the official board into four fruit districts, simply quartering the state. The first district is composed of the following twenty-seven counties, in the northeast quarter. Reports, or rather experiences, from each of these counties will be found immediately following. We give below the number of apple trees in the first district, compiled from the statistics of 1897. Many thousands were added during the spring of 1898. DISTRICT No. 1--APPLE TREES, 1897. _Bearing._ _Not bearing._ _Total._ Atchison county 150,024 70,691 220,715 Brown county 160,583 57,488 218,071 Clay county 89,725 26,087 115,812 Cloud county 68,832 24,451 93,283 Dickinson county 110,351 31,926 142,277 Doniphan county 156,661 163,701 320,362 Douglas county 159,706 120,375 280,081 Franklin county 126,906 70,831 197,737 Geary county 39,148 19,357 58,505 Jackson county 123,485 84,533 208,018 Jefferson county 120,509 86,837 207,346 Johnson county 88,395 69,709 158,104 Leavenworth county 199,212 216,015 415,227 Marshall county 157,279 66,556 223,835 Miami county 101,541 82,069 183,610 Morris county 93,182 45,555 138,737 Nemaha county 140,278 62,535 202,813 Osage county 246,265 56,478 302,743 Ottawa county 40,538 30,149 60,687 Pottawatomie county 117,234 50,079 167,313 Republic county 128,076 58,662 186,738 Riley county 103,053 44,640 147,693 Saline county 74,648 24,400 99,048 Shawnee county 207,779 130,720 338,499 Wabaunsee county 108,942 50,195 159,137 Washington county 152,768 80,194 232,962 Wyandotte county 112,541 79,903 192,444 --------- --------- --------- Total in district 3,377,661 1,894,136 5,271,797 Acreage, about 600,000 300,000 900,000 * * * * * FRED WELLHOUSE & SON: Have been in Kansas since 1859, and grow no fruit but apples, having 117 acres in Leavenworth county, planted in 1876; 160 acres in Miami county, planted in 1878; 160 acres in Leavenworth county, planted in 1879; 800 acres in Osage county, planted in 1889, 1890, and 1891; 300 acres in Leavenworth county, planted in 1894; 140 acres in Leavenworth county, planted in 1896--total of about 100,000 trees, set out from two to twenty-two years. We prefer for commercial orchard, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, Winesap, and York Imperial, and for family orchard would add to these, Red June, Chenango, Maiden's Blush, Huntsman, and Rome Beauty. We tried sixteen acres of Cooper's Early White, but have discarded them as unprofitable, shy bearers. We consider upland the best if soil is of good quality. We have them on all slopes; can see no particular difference where soil is equal. We prefer rich, black soil (vegetable mold), clay subsoil. We plant in furrows, the rows thirty-two feet apart, the trees sixteen feet apart in the rows, running north and south. The best trees to plant are two years old, the lowest limb or limbs not over two feet from the ground. We grow most of our trees from our own root grafts. Cultivation: We cultivate for the first five years, by throwing the soil first to and then from the trees, with a single or a double turning plow, and grow only corn. At five years from planting we sow the ground to clover, and this with other growths, such as weeds, is left on the ground as a mulch and fertilizer. We have never used any windbreaks at any of our orchards. Think they would be an advantage in some localities. We use traps for rabbits, knife and wire for borers. We prune very little, such as removing broken limbs. We have never fertilized any of our orchards. We do not believe it pays to pasture orchards, and do not allow it. The insects that trouble us most are: Canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, fringed-wing bud moth, handmaid-moth or yellow-necked caterpillar, roundheaded borer and the tussock-moth caterpillar on our trees; and codling-moth, gouger and tree cricket on and in our fruit. We spray annually, using a horse-power machine, illustrated in former reports of the State Horticultural Society, for the leaf-eating insects named, using London purple and clear water, sometimes adding lime. We spray before the blossom opens, for bud moth, canker-worm and tent-caterpillar, and after the petals have fallen for codling-moth, tussock-moth, and fall web-worm. We have been successful except as to bud moth and fall web-worm. We believe we have greatly reduced the codling-moth by spraying, and we know we have destroyed the canker-worm. Have never successfully combated borers, excepting with knife and wire. Fall web-worms are burned in the tree with a gasoline torch, or the small limbs with webs are removed and burned. We have as yet found no particular method for fighting the bud moth successfully. We gather our apples by hand in common two-bushel seamless sacks, used in the same manner as for sowing grain. A strap of heavy leather is attached, making it easy for the shoulder. A hook and ring are also put on to facilitate the removal of the sack when emptying. We prefer common straight ladders, with sides from sixteen to twenty inches apart at the bottom and six inches at the top, rounds fourteen inches apart. We use bushel boxes for hauling from the orchard to packing-house. We sort into three grades: No. 1, No. 2, and culls. No. 1's are all sound and firm apples, of about from two and one-fourth to two and one-half inches in diameter, the size of the smallest depending on the variety. We put in the No. 2 grade those that have any defects barring them from the first grade, yet they make a good second-class for immediate use; we also pack in this grade any sound apples that run uniformally small. Of all packages tried, we prefer and use the three-bushel barrel, 17-1/8 inch head and 28-1/2 inch stave. When one head is removed, the barrel is turned over and a rap with the hand removes all trash. If we are packing a fine grade of fruit, we put a piece of white paper, cut a little less than the diameter of the barrel, in before facing. Barrels are double-faced or plated. We are careful to have the barrels rocked or shaken often while being filled. The name of variety and our trade-mark is put on the barrel with stencil or rubber stamp. No. 1's and 2's are hauled to shipping station in barrels; culls in bulk in ordinary farm wagon. We have never sold our crop in the orchard; always preferred to have it picked and packed under our own supervision. Our apples have been sold in car lots. Firsts and seconds have gone to wholesale dealers. Culls we have evaporated, sold to men who evaporate, to cider-mills, and to dealers who handle bulk apples. For drying, we use the New York hop kiln, Rival No. 2 parers, and upright bleachers, all of which have been reasonably satisfactory. We believe them the best we can get, considering the class of evaporated fruit in demand. White stock is best handled in fifty-pound boxes; chops, peelings and cores in sacks. We always found a ready market for dried fruit. Some years it paid well. We have wintered only in cold-storage plants, always in barrels, and it has been profitable. Ben Davis and Winesap have kept best, with Missouri Pippin a close second. Jonathan keeps well under proper conditions. If kept as late as March, it is generally necessary to repack, but not always. Our greatest loss has been on Jonathan, which in some instances, when kept late in the season, has reached ten per cent. We have never irrigated or watered any part of our orchards. Prices have ranged as follows with us: For No. 1, from $1.50 to $4; and No. 2, 90 cents to $2 per barrel. Culls have brought from 25 cents to 60 cents per 100 pounds; evaporated apples from 4 to 13 cents per pound; all these free on board. * * * * * A. E. HOUGHTON, Weltbote, Washington county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-nine years; have 100 apple trees, fifteen years old, twelve inches in diameter. For commercial and family orchards, I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Huntman's Favorite, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Rambo, and Jonathan. Have tried and discarded Dominie, Roman Stem, and Bellflower; the latter on account of shy bearing. Think bottom land, black, rich loam, and north aspect, the best. I prefer three-year-old, short, stout-bodied trees--the shorter the better--with limbs as low as they will grow. I cultivate my orchard to corn, potatoes or vines as long as it is possible to do the work. I use a plow, cultivator, and one-horse double-shovel plow. I cease cropping when they begin to bear, and plant to clover. I consider windbreaks essential; would not grow an orchard without one, and would use Osage orange, ash, Russian mulberry, or box-elder, planted in several rows on south and west. I wrap my trees with corn-stalks to protect from rabbits, and wash them with strong soapsuds, for borers, in May and June. I prune a great deal to let the sun, light and air in; I think it beneficial and that it pays. I never thin; but think it would be beneficial when the apples are large enough to tell the good ones from the bad. I think it advisable to use fertilizers on poor land. I never pasture my orchard under any circumstances whatever: do not think it advisable. My trees are bothered with borers. Some worm troubles my apples. I do not spray. I pick into a sack over the shoulder, as for sowing wheat. I sort into two classes as I pick, to avoid handling again, putting the sound, hand-picked in one pile and the windfalls in another; cover them with hay and let them stay out as long as I dare, then put them in the cellar; but the cellar is too warm; think an outdoor cellar or cave would be better; would like to put them in cold storage, which is far the best. I sell my apples in the orchard, or any way I can get the most for them; generally take them to town and sell them. I sell my second and third grades at home; feed the culls to the hogs. My best markets are Washington and Greenleaf. I have never tried distant markets. Never dry any. I store some apples in boxes, barrels, and bulk; am not very successful. I find that Winesap and Rawle's Janet keep best. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from fifty to seventy-five cents per bushel. There is not much sale for dried apples. We do most of our own work. * * * * * EDWIN TAYLOR, Delaware township, Wyandotte county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have about 5000 apple trees aged from eight to twelve years. The best varieties of apples for commercial orchards are not many. No one variety could be named which would be best for all locations or conditions. The Ben Davis is most largely planted in the West. Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, Willow Twig, Park's Keeper, are all valuable sorts. There are others. A family orchard is the most important orchard a farmer plants. It should contain a small number of trees and a large number of varieties. Two of a kind are a plenty. There should be at least twenty kinds. That will allow for a new variety to ripen in its season every two weeks or less in summer and fall and every three weeks during the winter. They should begin with the earliest and finish with the very longest keeper. These varieties will overlap, so that the farmer will almost always have two sorts to choose from. There should be sweet apples among them--particularly winter sweets. The names, characteristics, qualities, description, etc., of the twenty to thirty varieties that make up an ideal orchard would require a long chapter, if the subject was fully treated. Beginners in tree buying should be cautioned not to let the nurseryman run in half a dozen trees of each kind for the family orchard on them. Two trees of a kind are plenty, particularly as the surplus of the family orchard commonly goes to waste. The names should be carefully registered, so there will be no wondering what an apple is when it begins to bear. You can't keep company satisfactorily with an apple that you don't know the name of, any better than you can an unknown man. The best place to keep these family apples is in a dugout, in the side of a bank if possible, at all events good and deep, with the door at the north, and a good blow-hole in the south end. I don't know much about soils or location. I found myself in possession of some Kaw river timbered hills, clay soil carrying some sand; not good for much else; so I planted them--tops, sides, and draws--with apple trees, which have done well on the tops of the hills, sides of the hills, and in the valleys between the hills. Am inclined to suspect there is a great deal of gammon written about "slope" and "expanse" for orchards. My conclusion is that that is a good slope which you happen to have. Trees growing in the Kaw bottoms themselves, I observe, thrive and bear. The only cultivation I have ever given trees has been such as they got by being component parts of a corn-field, except that I have mainly given the tree rows extra cultivation, keeping them clean of grass and weeds. My orchards are now seeded to clover; clover is not valuable, for its own sake, among trees, but the trees thrive with it. Its greatest use, so far as I can see, is to make you mow the orchard where it is twice during the season. I prefer to stop cultivation in orchards when they are six years old. I have no knowledge of windbreaks, but I have had a great deal of "mechanical destruction" done by borers and rabbits. Both these pests are good "mechanics" in their way and willing to work. I have the borers hunted spring and fall. Small trees I have protected from rabbits by stalks, paper, or veneering. Rabbits are not hard to head off, but they won't let a case go by default. Some people depend upon traps, dogs, guns, poison, cats, washes, wagon grease and liver to keep the rabbits away. I have known all of these to fail, but I have never known a tree well tied up with corn-stalks to suffer from "mechanical destruction" via the rabbit route, unless the string broke. There is no law against having a good string. The only pruning I have ever done has been to take out water sprouts. I don't know whether it paid or not. But I like the looks of a tree better without the pompadour effect a top full of sprouts gives it. Never have thinned apples; orchards here are self-thinners. By picking time the fruit is fully half on the ground and commonly not too much on the trees. Have never used manure or any fertilizer on apple trees. I never pastured an orchard but once. One trial cured me. I judge that one trial is nearly always enough. It is not advisable to pasture orchards, not even with hogs. The greatest pest we have is the apple worm--son, I am told, of the codling-moth. Have made no effort to check it by spraying, or otherwise. I pick apples by hand; drop them into a sack hung over the shoulder; when the sack is full, it is emptied onto a sorting table. Make two classes of fruit: No. 1 and culls. Have never used any package but the barrel. Prefer the full-sized flour barrel. Fill barrel full enough to prevent rattling, when head is pressed in; mark faced head with variety, quality, and my name and address. Have never sold crop in orchard; often sell culls there. Have never sold a greater amount than one car-load at one time; have sold as little as one peck. The best market is sometimes at one place, sometimes at another. Minneapolis is the most distant market I have ever tried. Have mostly put my apples in cold storage. About one time out of three they have kept well. The fault was not in the apples; cold storage is either not understood or frequently mismanaged. Cold-storage people should be made to guarantee their work!--should not be paid for apples that are not delivered in the spring. Cold-storage rates (fifty cents per barrel) are absurdly high. I use male help, young and old, good and bad. Help commonly hard to get here in the fall. Wages ordinarily one dollar per day, without board. * * * * * C. D. MARTINDALE, Scranton, Osage county: I have been on this place thirteen years, and since coming here have set every tree now on it. Trees that I set out in the spring of 1885 measure six to ten inches in diameter. In 1895 I put out 350 apple trees; in 1896 I planted 250 more, part of them were three- and four-year-old, when set. I lost only thirteen out of the 600. A few of the Missouri Pippins bore fruit last year. I consider the following varieties, in the order named, best for commercial orchard: Ben Davis, Jonathan, Winesap, Grimes's Golden Pippin; and for family use I would add Maiden's Blush, Cooper's Early White, Missouri Pippin, and Rawle's Janet. I have tried and discarded Smith's Cider and Lowell, as they blight too much. I prefer bottom land if it is properly drained, as it is apt to be richer and the trees will not suffer as much in a dry season--black loam, with a porous subsoil, to let the surplus water soak away. I think a northern slope best, as the trees do not suffer as much from the sun on hot summer days. Apple trees have done best for me on a black loam underlaid with a porous subsoil that will take the surplus water and still hold moisture in summer. I plant by plowing light furrows (thirty-four feet apart) across the lay of the ground, then plowing two or four furrows together up and down the slope thirty-four feet apart, and run a lister in this big furrow, breaking up the ground as deeply as possible. I dip the roots of my trees in lye water, using one pound carbonate of lye to eight gallons of water. Then fill in with a spade around the roots, being careful not to leave any holes for mice to nest in. Two- or three-year-old trees, with roots and top well balanced, no forks to split down when the tree gets older, bark smooth and good color, I consider best. I prefer piece-root to whole-root grafts. My experience is that we get better trees on piece roots, as the union is lower down in the ground and the scion throws out roots, which makes the trees healthy and not wholly dependent on seedling roots. I cultivate my orchard till ten or twelve years old, and keep all weeds and grass away, using an eight-inch plow with one horse next to the trees and backfurrow to every other row; then use two horses and fourteen-inch plow for the middles. The next year I backfurrow to the rows left the year before; in this way we have no large back or dead furrows, but keep the ground level. In cultivating I use a fourteen-tooth Peerless harrow each side of the row, and cultivate the rest with two-horse cultivator; then use a good sharp hoe close to the trees. Corn is the best crop to raise among young trees, as it acts as a windbreak and a partial shade. After an orchard gets to bearing, seed to red clover. I would change from corn to clover eight or nine years after setting. Windbreaks are essential. I would have them on the south and west sides of the orchard, at least. I would make them of evergreen, Osage orange, or mulberry. I would not plant black walnut, cottonwood, or maple, as they are injurious to apple trees. Plant peach trees between the apple trees; they grow fast, and protect the apple until large enough to stand the winds. The best thing I have found to keep rabbits, mice, etc., off the trees is a protector made of five lath two feet long, woven with wire; they can be left on summer and winter, as sunlight and air can pass through to the bark and keep it healthy and keep the sun from scalding the bark; it also keeps the borers and the whippletree from doing much damage; they can be left on until the trees outgrow them. I cut out all limbs that are liable to rub each other at any future time, and all limbs that are liable to split down as the tree gets older; I also trim high enough to let a small horse walk under the limbs. I take off the back pad while working among the trees, so it will not be catching on the limbs; I think that it pays, and is beneficial. I have not thinned the fruit while on the trees. My trees are planted in alternate rows of different kinds, so I cannot tell what is best, blocks or mixed. I use all the barn-yard litter broadcast that I can get, and wish I had more. I shall plow under a good crop of red clover about every other year, and seed again the same year to clover, as I think it beneficial; I would do the same on all lands that I have yet tried. I do not let horses or cattle over one year old pasture in the orchard. I let calves and small pigs have access to the orchard, as they will eat up a great many wormy apples that drop, and help keep down the weeds. I think it advisable to pasture with young stock, and that it pays. My apple trees are troubled with canker-worm, twig-borer, and leaf-crumpler. The codling-moth troubled my apples some last year. I have not tried spraying as yet. I have found borers in a few trees that were out in the grass near the fence. I pick my apples by hand; using step-ladders for the lower limbs, and longer ladders, wide at the bottom and very narrow at the top, for the upper limbs. While picking in the inside of a tree, I use a half-bushel sack made to hang on a limb, and so arranged that it can be let to the ground and emptied without getting out of the tree. I make three grades of my apples: First, good size, smooth, free from worms, and good calyx; second, apples under size, a little specked and wormy; third, culls. I have been sorting from the pile, but think I shall use a table made with the back end the higher, and the top made of heavy canvas without end, and passing over rollers at each end, so the apples can be brought in reach without handling them; then I would arrange my barrels so that the apples can be placed in them without bruising. I prefer the three-bushel barrel to ship in; but for handling I want a one-bushel box with handholes in the ends. I would pack the barrels as tight as possible, and then mark the name of variety, grade and name of grower on it. I would ship them by fast freight or express. Sometimes I sell in the orchard. I have generally sold by retail and peddled, as I have a good set of customers. I can do as well to sell direct to the consumer as to sell at wholesale. I sell second grade to any one that will buy. I feed the culls to cattle and hogs, and let the hens have all they want. I have had a market near home for all I have grown; may have to look further when all my trees bear. I have not tried distant markets. What I have tried took all the profits. I do not think it pays to dry apples, unless on an extensive scale. I store my apples for winter market in a dry cellar. I pack in both barrels and boxes while in the cellar; prefer boxes, as they are easier to handle and sort from. I have not been as successful as I would like, but think I have done as well as many apple-growers have with the number of trees I have. The Ben Davis, Winesap and Janet have kept the best for me. I have not tried artificial cold storage. If apples are held any length of time, I repack, so as to be sure they are up to grade. I do not lose over two per cent. In the fall apples sold at about thirty cents per bushel, and through the winter fifty to eighty cents per bushel. I employ careful men to pick and handle my fruit. I pay from fifteen dollars to eighteen dollars a month and board. * * * * * S. REYNOLDS, Lawrence, Douglas county: I have lived in Kansas forty-three years; have an apple orchard planted from two to forty years. I planted my first orchard in 1858, and, not knowing anything about what sorts would be suitable for Kansas, I had to rely entirely on what the Missouri nurserymen recommended. Among the sorts planted which proved failures were Yellow Bellflower, Fulton Strawberry, White Winter Pearmain, Baldwin, the Russets and some others. Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Dominie and White Bellflower all did fairly well. Of all the sorts the Winesap has been the most profitable. If I had planted that first orchard chiefly to Winesaps, the cash receipts would have been more than double. My later experience and observations prove that the Missouri Pippin is the most profitable apple to grow for the market, the Winesap and Ben Davis following next in order. For a family orchard, I prefer Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Jonathan, and Winesap. I prefer second bottom, with a rich soil and a porous subsoil. I prefer two-year-old, vigorous trees, set in rows two rods apart. Use a potato hook. I consider the best plan of planting is to throw two furrows together, and plant on this double thickness of surface soil; the roots will luxuriate in this bed of fertile soil and with proper care the tree will make a vigorous growth. Plant early in the spring, before the buds start. I cultivate my orchard with a disc harrow followed by a common harrow, until they begin to bear; plant corn, potatoes or other hoed crop in a young orchard. Seed the bearing orchard to clover. Windbreaks are not essential in eastern Kansas. For rabbits I wrap the young trees; dig borers out. Pruning should be done at the time of planting. After that give the tree all the top it can grow. Never fear but the roots will keep pace with the top. Remember that every time you cut out a large limb you threaten the life of the tree. Give the tree plenty of room, so that the roots will not overreach each other. The moisture in the soil is only sufficient for one set of roots. About two rods apart is the proper distance. I prune with a knife to keep the limbs from crossing. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees, they usually thin themselves. My Ben Davis and Missouri Pippins are in mixed planting. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils after the trees begin to bear. I pasture my orchard in the fall after the fruit is gathered, with horses. I cannot see any injury. I never let horned cattle in. My trees are troubled with root aphis and roundhead borers. I do not spray. I find that all apples must be gathered before they are quite ripe if we want them to keep well. In order to have them in the best condition for keeping they must be picked without bruises; I hand-pick mine in a sack over the shoulder. They must be kept perfectly cool and at an even temperature. This of course can be done by placing them in cold storage. I sort from a table in the orchard into two classes, large and medium. Pack in barrels, mark with grade, and haul to market. I sell apples in the orchard, generally wholesale them; sell the best to shippers. Sell the culls for cider. My best markets are west and north. I have tried distant markets, through agents, and found it paid. I do not dry any apples, but sell many low-grade apples to the evaporating factory. Do not store any; sell in the fall to shippers. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from one dollar per barrel up. Dried apples from four to six cents per pound. I employ young men at one dollar per day. The profits from a good apple orchard are more than those from any other crop which requires no more labor and expense. The profits from one good crop of apples are more than from three crops of wheat or corn; but apple-growing, as well as the growing of all other kinds of fruit, requires constant, patient labor and attention, in order to be successful, and even then the money will not come in with a great rush. In conclusion, I would say, that the business of growing fruit is much more certain of success than that of mercantile business. It has been ascertained from actual statistics that, of every 100 merchants, fifty utterly fail in business, forty are only moderately successful, and of the remaining ten only one will become rich. * * * * * W. J. GRIFFING, Manhattan, Kan.: Were that old fisherman, Izaak Walton, alive to-day, and an enthusiastic fruit-grower of eastern Kansas, he would probably express himself in the book he would write, "The Complete Horticulturist," that "doubtless God might have made a better apple country than this, but doubtless He never did." If there is a strip of land in the United States equal in size to the eastern third of Kansas able to grow as many and as fine apples as this particular strip, it has yet to be discovered. Our own experience in this line dates back just forty years. In 1858 the old family account-book shows the purchase by my father of three dollars' worth of apple trees (the number not given). This amount judiciously expended now would secure considerable nursery stock; but the same record shows the purchase, the month previous, of wheat at two dollars per bushel; sugar, six pounds for one dollar; flour, five dollars per hundredweight; so the number of trees obtained was probably not large. The following year, however (1859), seventy-one apple trees and some cherry trees were purchased, at a cost of $17.75. These efforts to start an orchard were successful. The location was on the old homestead, about two and one-half miles east of what was at that time a frontier village called Topeka. The trees bore the first fruit in 1867. Other and more profitable orchards have been planted since then on the farm, but a few of the original plantation are still standing and bearing occasional crops of fruit (so my brother informs me). On locating at Manhattan in 1870, the sod was broken, and the following year an orchard was planted; and we have planted trees more or less every year since. It has proven a source of pleasure and profit. After it commenced bearing I do not recall a year when the crop was an entire failure, and though we cannot now command two dollars per bushel, as we could for the apples from the Topeka orchard, yet they have paid well. The number of varieties we have tried is no less than seventy-five, not including seedlings. The following varieties I would unhesitatingly recommend as having proved profitable and more or less hardy. For early summer, Early Harvest and Red Astrachan; both are tender apples when fully ripe and will then not bear shipping well. I have found it best to gather the ripest at least every other day and find buyers in the local market. The next to follow these, Chenango Strawberry, Maiden's Blush, and Pennsylvania Red Streak; the two latter are good shippers. The Pennsylvania Red Streaks are a decided success with me, and have paid nearly as well as my best winter sorts; don't fail to plant some of them. Next, I would recommend the following winter varieties in the order named: Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, Jonathan, and if you like a first-class sweet apple plant some Bentley Sweet, if you can obtain them. I have been obliged to top-graft some seedlings in order to perpetuate my own stock of them. I think it is also advisable to plant some Rawle's Janet trees. They are a late bloomer and will occasionally produce a crop when the other sorts have been injured by late freezing. In fact, they have the faculty of bearing in the "off" years, as we call them--years when the balance of the orchard is resting from previous labors. Much has been said as to the proper location for an orchard--bottom land or hilltop, level ground or sloping. The fact is, with careful attention to the trees, any good, rich soil will answer. Anything that can in a measure ward off the evil effects of the fierce summer gales and the droughts of July, August and September will tend to minimize the losses. Were it possible for me to choose a piece of land exactly to my notions, I should select a river-bottom farm in the neck of some large "horseshoe," being where it would be possible for the trees to reach down their roots and draw moisture during the dry season by natural subirrigation. Marketing the crop is the last but not the least work of the apple-grower. In fact, when the orchard is well established, this is about the only work connected with the orchard. And in that respect the orchard has a decided advantage over other farm crops, that require yearly preparation of the soil, sowing, harrowing, cultivating, etc., as well as the harvesting of the crop. The early summer apples can usually be sold on the local market at fair prices; the later summer and fall can be shipped, and are usually in fair demand by Western buyers. Ship only your best; it will hardly pay to send any other grade. There is usually a good demand at this point for winter varieties by farmers from the West, who come in and buy their winter supply by the wagon-load. Occasionally, if the Eastern crop is short, buyers from Chicago will be on the ground. We do not believe in holding apples long in the hope of obtaining higher prices. Cold storage will solve this difficulty of the orchardist; we hope it will prove a success. The most convenient thing to gather apples in from a tree or ladder that we have tried is a picking sack--a grain sack with a heavy wire or a stiff leather strap fastened around the mouth, and a broad strap connecting the top with the bottom of the sack. This can be carried over the shoulder with considerable comfort. There are always more or less inferior and unmarketable apples left after the best have been disposed of, and what to do with them is a question that confronts every great apple grower. For the last fourteen years we have been working this grade into vinegar. We found there was considerable to learn and care exercised to avoid losses. I will mention a few important things that are necessary to produce a good article of cider vinegar. First obtain good, iron-bound oak barrels--vinegar or whisky barrels preferred. Never use soft wood barrels of any kind. Paint them well with ocher before using; they will last longer. After filling with cider, keep in a shed until cool weather; then draw off and run into barrels in the cellar for winter, although, if well protected and not too full, they could remain out in the shed over winter. In the spring draw off again and run into other barrels; you will, in this, hasten the fermentation of vinegar and obtain an article free from sediment. It requires from one to two years for vinegar to cease working. Sell it then, and not before. Though it may be very strong, it will not keep pickles unless the process is complete. Much of the vinegar sold on the markets as apple vinegar is made from corn, and now that corn has risen in price it is possible that the price of this kind of vinegar may rise also. It has not the quality or flavor of cider vinegar, but it can be manufactured so cheaply that it has hurt the market for a better article. * * * * * Maj. FRANK HOLSINGER, Rosedale, Wyandotte county: Has resided in Kansas since March 7, 1867--thirty years; has 1500 apple trees from one to twenty-nine years planted, "big as a barn." Prefers Gano, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin and York Imperial for commercial purposes, and Early Harvest, Cooper's Early White, Maiden's Blush and Jonathan added for family use. Says life is too short to tell how many varieties he has tried and discarded. Prefers a loose soil, and used to think hilltop best, but says there is no choice between bottom and hilltop, and that any particular slope is a delusion, as all are equal. Plants medium two-year-old trees, "usually roots downward--tops up." Cultivates with double-shovel plow and hoe up to seven years, planting with corn or potatoes. Then grows clover and weeds, "weeds mostly," ceasing to cultivate when it becomes inconvenient. Says windbreaks are unnecessary, and should only be made of the sun--"let her shine"--and does not understand how a rabbit can do a _mechanical_ job of gnawing. Does not prune; he "trains"; leaves the pruning tools in the tool-house, and says it pays. Would thin apples on trees if labor did not come so high. His experience as to difference in fruitfulness between planting of one or of several kinds [together] is unsatisfactory. Believes fertilizers are good for trees if spread out, never if piled around the tree; would surely advise its use on all orchards. Would never allow an orchard pastured by any kind of live stock. Has a large list of insects to contend against, but is not bothered with leaf eaters, hence does not spray, and does not believe any one has lessened the codling-moth by spraying. Uses common sense on borers, and digs them out. He first mounds the tree, and thereby gets what larvæ there may be deposited high up in the collar, few remain; these I dig out, which is all "simple enough." He describes gathering apples thus: "Pick 'em by hand; surround the apple with your fingers, break back gently, which loosens the stem, then lay gently in the basket. It is very simple, the process." Makes two classes, one the best, the other of seconds. In the first we put all that seem perfect; in the second, all others that are not culls. Packs in barrels, well shaken down and pressed; marks with name of variety, and always rolls [?] them to market. Sells the best any way possible, peddles seconds, and lets the culls rot. His best market is Kansas City--three miles. Never dries any. Stores for winter in various ways. Has had varying success, and believes loss in cold store was owing to varying temperature and lack of proper care. Does not irrigate, but trusts in the Lord. Prices range from six dollars to ten dollars per barrel. For help he uses "men and mules," and pays as "little as possible, believing that is often too much." * * * * * JOHN E. SAMPLE, Beman, Morris county: Have been in Kansas twenty years; have 1000 trees planted twelve years, of Ben Davis, Rawle's Janet, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap; also Red and Sweet June, Early Harvest, and Maiden's Blush. Have discarded the Twenty-ounce Pippin as no good here. I have a deep, black loam with a clay subsoil, on upland, with southeast slope. I plant two-year-old trees a little deeper than they grow in the nursery, in rows thirty feet apart, and thirty feet in the rows, alternating the trees. I cultivate to corn and potatoes for about eight years, and then sow to red clover. I believe windbreaks beneficial, and would make them of red cedar or Russian apricots planted on the west, south and east sides, thirty feet from the orchard. I feed the rabbits corn and clover; have no trouble with borers. I prune heavily, to make the apples large and keep down too much wood growth. I fertilize my trees with timber dirt, and think it pays. I believe it pays and is advisable to pasture orchards with hogs. I pick by hand, and sort into three classes: large, medium, small and blemished. Have not dried any. Store in the cellar, in crates two feet long, ten inches wide, and eight inches deep. Have sold at fifty to eighty cents per bushel. * * * * * E. K. WOLVERTON, Barnes, Washington county: I have resided in Kansas twenty-eight years; have an apple orchard of 18,500 trees from five to twenty-seven years old. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin and Ben Davis, and for family orchard would add Duchess of Oldenburg. Have tried and discarded Winesap and Rawle's Janet on account of shy bearing and poor keeping quality. I prefer a rich bottom with a porous subsoil, an east and north slope. I prefer good, thrifty, two-year-old trees. I plant by wire after the principle of check-row corn-planting; make the links twenty feet long, tie a white cloth in each link coupling, make the line long enough to plant ten trees (eleven links in length), stretch the chain east and west, say on north side of plat intended for planting; stick a stake at every tag. Draw another line ten trees south of it, and stick a stake at every tag, and so on to the south side of the plat. Then draw the line from the northeast stake to the east stake of the second row, the one due south, having the north tag at the stake. Then plant at every tag, placing the tree on east side of wire. When the row is planted move the wire west to the next stake, and so on till you reach the west side. The ground should first be prepared by plowing as for corn; float off [?] every evening all that you have plowed that day, which leaves the ground in the best condition. I cultivate my orchard to corn for six to eight years. I plant twenty feet each way, and take an oak plant sixteen feet long, and place one section of a disc at each end of it, making it cut sixteen feet wide from outside to outside, and running within two feet of the trees at either end, leaving a space eight feet wide in the middle. Run another disc on that ground with another team and you have the space between the rows all clean of weeds if ground is in good condition when work is done. Cultivate both ways as often as necessary. I grow no crop in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are not essential. For rabbits I tie coarse grass around the trees with label wire, and leave it on two years. I also use traps. I do not prune my trees; it is too injurious to the trees. I do not thin my apples while on the trees; it is too expensive. My trees are planted in blocks. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; think it beneficial and would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. My apples are troubled with worms. I spray the first of May with London purple for canker and apple worms. I pick in baskets and sacks. Sort into two classes: marketable and culls, using a sorting table. Sell my apples in the orchard to wagons from the West. I evaporate the second- and third-grade apples when the crop is large; make the culls into cider and vinegar. I tried distant markets for two years and found they paid. When apples are abundant we dry for market; use the same kind of driers as are used at Fairmount; sell them in sacks to the stores, and find a ready market for them; but it does not always pay. I do not store any for winter market if I can sell them in the fall. I do not irrigate. Prices have been in 1896, twenty-five cents per bushel; 1897, forty cents per bushel. * * * * * J. A. HEWITT, Hiawatha, Brown county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years, and have an orchard of 900 trees twenty-six years old. For commercial purposes I prefer the Ben Davis, Winesap, and Jonathan; and for family use would add Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, and Grimes's Golden. Have tried and discarded some; very few varieties pay. I prefer high prairie. Have never grown any seedlings. I cultivate my orchard by planting to corn--raising no small grain--for a few years, then use the disc and harrow as long as the orchard lasts. I plant nothing in the bearing orchard, and cease cropping about eight years after setting. Windbreaks are essential to a growing orchard. I prune my trees a little every year to keep them in shape, and to let the sun in; I think it beneficial, and that it pays. Do not thin the fruit while on the trees, but think it would save time and pay well. I can see no difference whether trees are in blocks [of one kind] or mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard, but am sure it would be beneficial, judging by some that have fertilized; I would advise it on all soils. No! no! no! no! I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My apples are troubled with codling-moth. I do not spray. I sell my apples in the orchard at wholesale, yet sometimes retail them. I let my neighbors pick up the culls at ten cents per bushel. My best market is at home. I store apples successfully in bushel crates. I find the Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Ben Davis and Little Romanite keep best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about two per cent. * * * * * JAMES DUNLAP, Detroit, Dickinson county: Has lived in Kansas since October, 1871. Has an orchard of 1200 apple trees, 300 planted sixteen years, 700 planted eleven years, 200 planted six years. Considers Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Ben Davis and Jonathan best for market, and for family would add Red June, Early Harvest, Mammoth Black Twig, and Cooper's Early White. Have tried and discarded Yellow Transparent, Rambo, Fameuse, and others. Prefers bottom and eastern slope, sandy loam, with clay subsoil. Plants thrifty one-year-old trees in holes large enough to spread the roots out well, leaning the young trees slightly to the southwest. Cultivates both ways as close to the trees as possible, usually planting to corn until the orchard is about twelve years old; then pastures to calves in fore part of season, mowing off the grass and weeds later. Believes windbreaks very essential on north, west and south sides; uses Osage orange hedge and two rows of forest-trees, planting them seven feet apart and seven feet away from the apple trees, when orchard is started. For protection from rabbits he uses a wash of lye and soft soap on the tree. In pruning he believes it pays to cut out sap sprouts, and balance up the tree. He fertilizes by placing stable litter around the trees in winter, and spreading it in the spring, and says it pays. Says it certainly pays and does no harm to pasture the old orchards with calves. He is troubled with canker-worm, flathead borer, tarnish plant-bug, fall web-worm, and leaf-crumpler, also with codling-moth. He sometimes sprays for codling-moth and canker-worm, and thinks he has reduced both of them materially. Cuts out borers and washes the tree with lye. Has tried kerosene oil on borers and says it did not seem to injure the trees. He picks in baskets, dumps in piles in the orchard, and covers with coarse hay. Sorts into two classes--sellers and cider apples. Uses barrels as a package. Makes cider vinegar and hog feed of culls, and sells his good apples in various ways; has sold in orchard. His best markets are the surrounding towns and the neighboring farmers. Never dries any, and only stores enough for winter use of family. Price in 1896 was seventy-five cents for best, fifty cents for seconds. Hires no help. * * * * * ROBERT MONTGOMERY, Troy, Doniphan county: Came to Kansas in 1857; served three years in the United States army, and have been here ever since. I have 4000 apple trees that have been set from twenty to thirty years. My market varieties are Ben Davis, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin. For family use I added Yellow Transparent, Red June, Chenango Strawberry, White Winter Pearmain, Rawle's Janet, and Nelson's Sweet. I have discarded the Baldwin, Spitzenberg, Northern Spy, Early Harvest, and Early Pennock. Bottom land is not good; hills and hollows are best, with north or east slope; what we call mulatto soil is best. I prefer thrifty two- or three-year-old trees with low tops. Half of my trees are planted thirty feet each way. I now plant in rows two rods apart north and south and one rod apart in the row. I raise corn and potatoes among my trees for five or seven years, cultivating with the plow and the hoe; afterward I seed to clover; a disc can be used to good advantage every year; I keep the orchard in clover. Windbreaks are beneficial on high land, made of cottonwood, or better of cedar or Norway spruce, planted on the south side when you plant the orchard. I protect from rabbits with wooden protectors, leaving them on the year round. I cut the borers out with a knife, also use a wire. I shape the head of young trees by cutting out all the watersprouts with pruning shears and saw; old trees must be pruned or the apples will be small. Barn-yard litter is beneficial on thin land, not necessary on rich land, but ashes are good on any soil. I pasture my orchard in summer with young horses and hogs. I think it advisable, as the hogs eat the apples that drop and destroy the worms. I have never sprayed. I pick in half-bushel baskets, and sacks with an iron hoop in the mouth; pour them in barrels and haul them to the barn, except those we wish to ship at once, which we sort in the orchard. I make two classes--good, sound, merchantable apples, and seconds. I have a culler that holds one barrel. I sort into a barrel, throwing the culls into another barrel, and I afterward sort the culls, for seconds; I pack in eleven-peck barrels, full and pressed solid, marked with the name of the variety written on the barrel. I sell the best at wholesale in barrels, the second grade by car-loads in bulk; the culls I give away, feed to hogs and cows, and make into cider. My best market is East and North. Have never shipped more than 500 or 600 miles away, and it paid. Have never dried any, and only store in barrels in my barn until I get a sale for them, never later than December. Price in the orchards in 1896 was seventy-five cents per barrel; in 1897, one dollar and a half. I use men for picking, at one dollar per day and their dinner. * * * * * F. W. DIXON, Holton, Jackson county: Has been in Kansas twenty-seven years; has an apple orchard of 6000 trees, set from three to twenty-five years. Grows and recommends for commercial orchard: Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, and Gano. For family orchard: Winesap, Ben Davis, Jonathan, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Maiden's Blush, and Rawle's Janet. Has tried and discarded Yellow Transparent, Early Harvest, Red June, Wagener, Willow Twig, Dominie, Roman Stem, Seek-no-further, Porter, Pound Sweet, Nyack Pippin, and Minkler, because they did not pay; some blighted and failed to bear. Prefer timber soil, or sandy loam with open clay subsoil; bottom land is good if it has not a hard-pan subsoil. Apples will not succeed well planted on ordinary sod, with impervious subsoil. Plant thrifty two-year-old trees, from four to six feet high, well branched. Cultivate as long as the tree lives; use turning plow in spring, and follow with harrow every week during summer until orchard comes into bearing; then get some tool that will stir the ground two to three inches deep, and cultivate often. Cultivation pays better than fertilizer or anything else. He grows small fruit among the trees, but believes corn the best crop up to eight or nine years; then grows nothing. Does not think windbreaks essential, and would have none on the east or north; would not object to windbreak of Russian mulberry, or other hardy trees, on south and west. For rabbits, he wraps the trees, and keeps two good beagle hounds. Does not prune, except to keep watersprouts off, and cuts out limbs that cross. Thinks the wind thins the fruit sufficiently. Believes the best apples are self-pollenizers, and need no other varieties near, and that it does not pay to grow others. Never use any fertilizer. If orchard "runs out," would have another ready to take its place. Allows no stock in orchard. Is not troubled with insects. Has sprayed a little for tent-caterpillar. He digs out borers with a knife. His best market has been at home, selling by the bushel or wagon-load to farmers who do not grow any. Believes thorough cultivation better than irrigation. Prevailing prices, thirty-five to seventy-five cents per bushel. Uses male help, at one dollar per day without board. * * * * * S. H. DOMONEY, Aurora, Cloud county: Have been in Kansas ten years. Have an orchard of ---- trees, planted from twelve to fourteen years, of Ben Davis, Winesap and Missouri Pippin for market, and Red June, Duchess of Oldenburg, Cooper's Early White and Kansas Keeper for family use. I prefer limestone soil with gravelly subsoil, in the bottom, with north slope, if possible. Prefer trees two years old with low heads. "I like a tree with a tap-root." Plow deeply and plant in loose soil, thirty feet apart each way. I grow potatoes and sweet corn for six or seven years, after which I sow orchard-grass. The best tool for cultivating is a disc harrow. Growing no crop in the orchard. I think windbreaks are essential, and prefer Russian mulberry, three rows, planted six by eight feet apart. I like the mulberry best because they come into leaf early and hold their foliage late. I prune a little, to thin out and let the sun in. I believe it would pay to thin fruit on the trees. I use stable litter, and fertilizer from the hog-pen, and think it pays if not put too close to the tree. I tried pasturing with hogs, but don't think it advisable, as they destroy the trees to get apples. I spray some with London purple after the bloom falls, to destroy canker-worm and codling-moth, and think I have reduced the latter by such spraying. I dig borers out. We pick by hand, and sort into very best, second best, and culls. I sell at retail and to the grocers in Concordia, Kan. I make some cider, and feed culls to the hogs; never dried any; winter some in barrels and boxes, and find Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin the best keepers. I do not irrigate. Use no hired help. Prices have ranged from fifty cents in summer to eighty cents in winter. * * * * * H. L. FERRIS, Osage City, Osage county: A citizen of Kansas for twenty-one years. Have an orchard of 4000 apple trees--200 twenty years, 1800 seventeen years, 2000 sixteen years planted. Prefer, for commercial purposes, Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin; for family orchard: Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Romanite, and Maiden Blush; have discarded Rawle's Janet. Prefer good upland corn ground, with sand or gravel subsoil, north and east slope. I plow deep, and plant large two-year-old trees, shallow, and mound up; shorten roots and branches. Cultivate with plow and harrow from youth to old age. Grow corn in young orchard up to six years, afterward nothing. Prefer a windbreak on south, west, and north, of box-elders, Osage orange, or peach. Rub liver on trees to repel rabbits, and use a knife for borers. To prune with a little saw makes the trees grow faster, and the apples grow larger, and it pays. Use stable and barn-yard litter to fertilize with, and it pays. Would not allow live stock to run in orchard. Am troubled with roundheaded borers and codling-moth. Spray in May and June for bitter rot and fungous diseases. Fight borers with a five-eighths chisel, a wire, and coal-tar. Pick from step-ladders into tin pails hung to branch with wire hook; haul in boxes on spring wagon to packing place. Sort on tables into three grades--first, second, and cider apples; pack into eleven- or twelve-peck barrels. Sell in all ways; have sold in orchard. Ship the best; best market in Texas. Send six-inch apples to where they are scarce; culls I sell cheaply at home, evaporate some, and make vinegar. Use a Zimmerman evaporator and Eureka parers. Sell dried fruit at retail, have shipped some; do not think it pays, do not find a ready market. Store for winter use in boxes in cellar successfully; find Romanite and Winesap keep best; lose about one-fourth. Have irrigated some from a pond with an eight-inch hose and steam-power pump. Average price has been fifty cents per bushel for apples and five cents a pound for dried apples. Use male help gathering, and female help at dryer, paying eight to ten cents per hour. * * * * * A. OBERNDORF, Centralia, Nemaha county: Have lived in Kansas nineteen years. Have an apple orchard of 4200 trees, from three to twenty years planted. I am told Ben Davis and Gano are the best apples for commercial purposes; for family use I would prefer Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, Duchess of Oldenburg, Maiden's Blush, Ben Davis, Winesap, and Rawle's Janet. I prefer hilltop with northern slope. I prefer one-year-old, switch-like trees, set 16×30 feet. I plant young orchards to corn, using double-shovel and diamond plow, and harrow; plant the bearing orchard to clover and cease cropping at five years. For rabbits I use paint during summer and wrap during winter. I also use paint for borers. I prune with shears and knife to secure an open center; do not think it beneficial. Never thin apples. I fertilize with barn-yard litter; it seems to benefit the trees and prolong their fruitfulness. Do not pasture my orchard. My old trees are affected with flathead borer and leaf-roller. The codling-moth trouble my apples. I sprayed three seasons; saw no benefit, so quit. I pick by hand, in a basket. I sort into three classes: First class, for market; second class, for immediate sale, and small ones, for cider. I usually sell at the nearest market. Best market is at home. Never dry any. I store for winter markets in cellar, in barrels, boxes, and in bulk, and am successful; find that the Winesap and Rawle's Janet keep best. We have to repack stored apples before marketing; sometimes lose more than at other times. Do not irrigate. Price has been fifty cents per bushel. I hire help at one dollar per day, or twenty dollars per month and board. * * * * * P. M. HOWARD, Clyde, Cloud county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-six years; have an apple orchard of 450 trees. For market purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Rawle's Janet, and Jonathan; and for family orchard Ben Davis, Winesap, Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Jonathan, and Wealthy. Would prefer a deep loam soil, clay subsoil, if not too close to the top, and almost level. I prefer two-year-old, low-head trees with no forks, planted in furrows. I cultivate my orchard to corn planted east and west as long as I can, using the plow and cultivator shallow; and cease cropping when the trees so shade the crop that there is no profit; I grow clover or weeds in a bearing orchard, and mow and leave on the ground for a mulch. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of Osage orange planted in rows 2×4 or 2×6 feet. For rabbits I wrap the trees with corn-stalks, and for borers I mulch and keep the trees growing. I prune my trees when planted; I think it beneficial. I never thin the fruit on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with anything of a coarse nature that is not easily disturbed; I would advise its use on all soils, unless very rich, deep clay soil; in such soil perhaps clean cultivation would be all that is necessary. I would add that my observations and experiences have taught me that the people of Kansas have lost millions of dollars from and through lack of knowing what we should have known. I think that the State Horticultural Society is doing a great and good work with _limited_ appropriations. I have never seen any one yet who read the reports from the horticultural department but what was in full sympathy with your labors, but wondered why more reports were not sent out. I think our legislators should be more wise; consequently, more liberal in their appropriations for the work and distribution of the same, not only to the farmers, but to people in towns and cities; their needs are in proportion as great as the farmers'. As to the fruit business: On the southeast quarter of section 26, township 4, range 1, is one of the _best_ orchards I know of in Republic county (not the largest). It consists of about 450 apple trees, also peaches, cherries, pears, and grapes. Myself, little girls and wife planted it. I wish to tell you how every one of the different fruits have abundantly paid for labor and all cost, and left their owners a fair profit. The soil of this successful orchard is a black loam, upland prairie, clay subsoil; loam eighteen inches to two feet deep, previously cultivated in corn and potatoes, plowed, not listed. Lay of land: Two slight ridges; a wide draw; slope east and west. Trees more vigorous and bear as well in draw as on upland. Varieties: Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Maiden's Blush, mostly the first four. Planting: Distance, thirty by thirty feet, furrowed out with a fourteen-inch plow, running two furrows across each way. Cleaned out all loose dirt to make room for all roots to spread without turning up. The little girls held the trees, tops leaning to the southwest about five degrees. I covered the roots well, tramped firmly, and filled with loose earth. Leave furrows so as to hold water on upper side of tree. After all trees were out I gave each one a slight mulch of sorghum refuse. Cultivation: Crop always corn; rows running east and west. Rows far enough from trees so horses or singletrees would not touch them. Cultivate shallow, with one horse, and light plow with very short singletree. Pruned some. All limbs where cut off were painted. Cut close and smooth; wounds healed readily. Tried to prune so that air and sun would go through and not against the trees. Pinch off all water or tender sprouts. To protect from rabbits and borers I stand corn-stalks running clear up to branches around body; tie at top and bottom; keep trees low, a little heavier on southwest side. I believe with thorough cultivation and stalk protection we would hear of less borers. All mulch was kept away from bodies of trees. I believe it all nonsense not to prune, but it should be done while they are young. My observation has been all my life that a well-balanced tree is longer lived, has more bushels of fruit, of better quality, smoother limbs and trunks. So I would say if you do not intend to protect the bodies of your young trees and prune do not buy or plant them; it does not do to sow oats, wheat, rye, millet or any grain crops in your orchard. It is an easy way to keep weeds down and a sure way to kill your orchard. It does not pay to pasture even with calves; chickens are at all times beneficial; hogs after your orchard has matured so the trees can resist the hog, when he rubs against them, which the hog is sure to do, and perhaps he will pull some of the lower limbs. I have never sprayed, but firmly believe it profitable. Next year I expect to plant out a new orchard and cultivate along the line of the one I have told about, with such help as I can get from the horticultural department. * * * * * D. S. HAINES, Edwardsville, Wyandotte county: Has been in Kansas twenty-six years; has 3000 apple trees from two to twenty-five years old. Commercial varieties, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, and Willow Twig; and for family use, Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, Maiden's Blush, Jonathan, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Rawle's Janet, Celestia, and Winesap. Has tried and discarded Bellflower, Pennock, Baldwin, McAfee's Nonesuch and others for barrenness. Best location, hilltop, sandy loam with clay subsoil--any slope will do. Plants either in fall or spring, two-year-old thrifty trees, fifteen by thirty feet apart, a little deeper than they stood in the nursery. Grows corn, potatoes, cabbage, etc., well cultivated, among the trees, but not to crowd them, for five or six years. Uses a spading harrow where no crop is grown. After six years sows to clover. Needs no windbreaks in his section. Traps and shoots rabbits. Takes borers out with knife. Prunes very little; cuts out dead or broken limbs, as they are no good, and take up room. Never has thinned apples on the trees, but believes it would be all right. Sees no difference in fruitfulness if trees are in blocks of a kind or mixed up. Would use barn-yard litter, but not close to the trees; believes in it on all soils. Does not pasture, and thinks it would not pay. Is troubled with borers, tent-caterpillars, leaf-rollers, leaf-crumblers, and codling-moths. Never sprays. Picks in sacks. Packs in orchard, in twelve-peck barrels well pressed. Uses table for sorting (described elsewhere) and makes Nos. 1, 2 and 3 grades. Marks name of variety and own name on barrel head. Sells his best in car lots at wholesale, the culls to peddlers. Generally markets at Kansas City. Has tried distant markets and made it pay. Never dried any. Stores for winter in barrels in cold store; not always satisfactory; thinks the cold-storage business not yet fully understood; says Ben Davis and Jonathan keep best. Sometimes repacks, at a loss of one-tenth to one-sixth. Does not irrigate. Prices have ranged from two to five dollars per barrel. Paid last year one dollar per day to men who could do a good day's work. * * * * * E. M. GRAY, Perry, Jefferson county: I have lived in Kansas forty years; my orchard of twenty acres has been planted twenty years. For market, I prefer Ben Davis and Jonathan on poor land; and Missouri Pippin and Winesap on rich land. For family orchard, Early Harvest, Red June, Winesap, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Missouri Pippin, and Huntsman's Favorite. Have tried and discarded Grimes's Golden Pippin, Lawver, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Huntsman's Favorite; they are not profitable, are too small when grown on poor land. I prefer yellow clay bottom, with an east, south or northern aspect. I prefer large, healthy, two-year-old trees, planted with a lister, subsoil plow, and spade. I cultivate my orchard to corn, small fruit, potatoes and nursery stock seven years, with a cutaway disc harrow, and cease cropping after eight years; I plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of Russian mulberry, Osage orange, or cedars, by planting two rows of them on the south and west sides of the orchard. For rabbits I keep a shot-gun and dogs. I do not prune; don't think it beneficial. I do not thin my apples while on the tree, but think it would pay. My trees are in mixed plantings; my Ben Davis are fuller and redder planted close by Jonathan and Winesap. I do not fertilize my orchard, but think it would be beneficial, and would advise its use on all exhausted soils in old orchards. Do not pasture my orchard; would not advise it, don't think it would pay. My trees are troubled with flathead borers, and my apples with curculio. I do not spray. I dig borers out with a knife. Pick my apples by hand; have light-weight men climb the trees and pick in meal sacks, then lay on tables. Sort into two classes: First, perfect, well colored, smooth, and good size; second, wormy, fair, and small size. Pack in three-bushel barrels, well rounded up; mark the variety of apples on the barrel with a stencil; haul to market on a hay-frame wagon. I sell in the orchard, wholesale, retail, and peddle; sell the best to highest bidder; sell the culls to driers or ship South or West. My best markets are where apples are scarcest. Do not dry any; it does not pay. Don't store any; I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-twelfth of them. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from $2 to $2.75 per barrel; dried apples, five cents per pound. I employ men at seventy-five cents per day. Apple-growing in Kansas, on high prairie land, is not very profitable to the grower, unless he has a good windbreak on south and west sides of his orchard. In 1880 I planted twenty acres of apples trees of many varieties; Ben Davis and Jonathan were the only ones that paid me on high land. In 1895 I planted thirty acres to apples; fifteen acres on upland and fifteen acres on second bottom, sloping east and north. On the upland I put nothing but Ben Davis and Jonathan; on the bottom I planted Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Mammoth Black Twig, Gano, Winesap, and Jonathan--cross-fertilizing the Ben Davis every fifth row with the Mammoth Black Twig, Jonathan, and Winesap. I believe that cross-fertilization is beneficial to an orchard in making fruit more plentiful, larger, smoother, better color and quality. It is believed by many that Ben Davis, Jonathan and Winesap are self-fertilizers, and don't require crossing; that being the case, they should have the cross near by, in order to not decrease the species or run it out. Professor Darwin says self-fertilization is abhorrent to nature, and the same rule that applies to small fruits is equally applicable to apples. Why not? Fruits and premium awards are my best advertisers. I have succeeded in carrying off most of the awards in every show I exhibited at, and have premiums on file to show for some. All my fruits are set for cross-fertilization, and I shall continue to set that way. Many have said and will say they see no difference; perhaps they are not close observers, and have given the subject little study. I have given the subject twenty-five years' study and experience, and think I am not mistaken. I think there is more money to be made on our high upland in pears, small fruits, and stone fruits. They pay me better than apples. The Grimes's Golden Pippin would be a good apple to grow if the trees did not die after two or three crops. The Lawver apples fail to hang on the trees. The Missouri Pippin will not stand up on our high land unless surrounded by windbreaks; they look here like a Kansas cyclone had passed through them--the limbs all blew off last fall. Winesaps fall off badly, and are affected with bitter rot. For trial purposes, I recommend Mammoth Black Twig, Gano, and York Imperial. * * * * * Dr. J. STAYMAN, Leavenworth, Leavenworth county: We came to Kansas thirty-nine years ago, and traveling over the eastern portion of the state selected Leavenworth as the most desirable point to commence tree and fruit-growing. We were then engaged in that business in Illinois, and had collected over 1000 varieties of apples, which we brought to Kansas; among them were nearly all the leading varieties then grown and many new and rare kinds of local reputation. Our object in making this collection was to grow them side by side, under the same conditions, to ascertain their value. In 1860 we set an orchard of a few hundred trees, consisting of about seventy varieties, two years old. Among them were Ben Davis, Winesap, York Imperial, Willow Twig, Rambo, Rawle's Janet, White Pippin, and Jonathan, and the leading apples generally grown, including summer and fall varieties. At the same time we set out about 1000 root grafts in a nursery. We then collected over 1000 more [scions] and top-grafted them [into standard trees], to get the fruit sooner. Over 1000 of these were received from the late Charles Downing. From this collection, and from specimens of fruit received, we have been able to accurately describe over 2200 varieties, with an outline cut of each, with seeds and core and all other characteristics. And to ascertain what effect climate had upon each variety, we kept an accurate meteorological record of the weather. This we furnished to the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C., for ten years. We also grew the leading varieties on an elevation 400 feet higher, and on various aspects not over two miles apart, and learned what effect elevation and aspect had upon the bearing quality of different varieties. For commercial orchard I prefer Stayman, Winesap, York Imperial, Jonathan, and White Pippin. It will be noticed that in the commercial list we omitted Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Gano, and Willow Twig. These varieties are all productive and profitable, but we believe the time has come (or soon will be) that the public will demand something better, and to meet this demand we have made the change; but to those who do not believe in progress the above varieties will prove at least productive, if not so profitable as in the past. In making out the list of apples we have hesitated somewhat in heading the list with Stayman, not from any doubt about the apple, but from the fact that it is not generally known; but this objection can be made against any apple when first introduced. The following is the description we gave twenty-one years ago in our fruit notes: "Fruit large, heavy, form oblate conic, regular; color greenish yellow; mostly covered, splashed and striped with dark red; flesh yellow, firm, fine, tender, juicy, rich, mild, aromatic, subacid; quality good to best; season January to May. Seedling of Winesap; bore the ninth year from the seed." After fruiting this apple over twenty years we can add the following: It is a strong grower, has a darker leaf, is a better bearer, hangs on the tree better, is of larger size, is of much better quality, and will keep better than Winesap. Charles Downing gave a similar description of this apple in his appendix. [Stayman Winesap.] R. J. Black, of Ohio, one of the best-posted pomologists, who has fruited it for years, puts it at the head of both the commercial and family lists, and says: "It has all the qualities of the Winesap without any of its faults." Prof. H. E. Van Deman, who has fruited it and seen it fruited in Delaware, puts it at the head of the list, and writes in respect to the change of name: "Stayman (apple) is worth almost a lifetime to produce." "Now, I have been so impressed with its coming value and popularity, that I have thought it ought to be shortened in name to _Stayman_." J. W. Kerr, of Delaware, says: "It is superior to its parent, the Winesap, in size, color, flavor, and keeping quality. The tree is more vigorous in growth. After several years' fruiting, I have no hesitation in saying it is the finest all-round winter apple that has come under my notice." Professor Heiges writes us about the same in substance. Prof G. H. Powell, of the Delaware Experiment Station, says: "In quality it equals the Northern Spy, and is in season from October to May." We could give many quotations of equal value from _Rural New Yorker_, _Green's Fruit Grower_, and _National Stockman and Farmer_. Since writing the above we find the following in the last-named paper of May 26: "One variety, Stayman, mentioned frequently in these columns, a seedling raised by our correspondent, Dr. J. Stayman, of Kansas, from the old Winesap, receives special commendation. It is remarkable that, in the wide section of country between Kansas and Delaware, in Ohio, Indiana, Pennsylvania, and Missouri, wherever this variety has been tried, it has developed the same excellences of size, quality, and keeping, as well as of vigor and productiveness. Lovers of choice apples will not fail to make a note of this." Winesap we place second on the list, after a fair trial of over thirty-five years side by side with Ben Davis. Give it good soil and high cultivation and but few apples will excel it. York Imperial we place third. It is not of the highest quality, but it is better than Ben Davis, and will keep in a common cellar, and command a high price. It is very productive in alternate years, and a hardy tree. Although we introduced this apple into the state thirty-eight years ago, yet its commercial value is scarcely known. Jonathan, perhaps, should stand at the head of the list for its great beauty, fine quality, and productiveness; but it matures so early, drops so badly, keeps so poorly, and requires so much care in handling, that we hesitate doing so. It is, however, a very profitable apple when well handled, and cannot be omitted, as no other in its season equals it. White Pippin: This apple of unknown origin and seldom mentioned should be better known, as it is far superior to the famous Newtown or Albemarle Pippin of the same type. We have had it in bearing on high and low land as long as any other apple, and find it very productive in alternate years, of the best quality, and bringing the best price. It keeps better, drops less, is of larger size, equal in quality, and will bring as high a price, where known, as the Jonathan. In a commercial orchard there should be few, if any, fall or summer varieties, unless favorably located; they should be of the best shipping and market varieties, as Early Ripe, Duchess of Oldenburg, Orange Pippin, Cooper's Early White, Jefferis, Muster, and Dr. Watson. These are all early bearers, very productive and salable, and of fine quality for table or kitchen. Those best for a family orchard are Stayman, Winesap, Jonathan, White Pippin, Mason's Orange, Summer Extra, Garretson's Early, Summer Pearmain, Early Joe, Jefferis, Early Ripe, Duchess of Oldenburg, Dr. Watson, Muster, and Wagener; and for sweet apples there are none better than Broadwell, Ramsdell, Superb, Baltzby, and Mountaineer. All these apples are early bearers, productive, and fine for family use, and we cannot well discard any; but eight or ten trees, of summer and fall varieties together, are enough to supply the largest family. It is better, however, to plant one of each variety, that we may have a succession of fruit throughout the season; also, if one variety should fail, others might not. It would require a very long list to name all we have tried and discarded, but we will name some: Rawle's Janet we reject, as it runs too small and cracks badly; Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Willow Twig, Gano, Arkansas Black and Mammoth Black Twig are all productive, but of poor quality; Maiden's Blush, Lowell, Porter, Rome Beauty, Western Beauty, Fulton, Trenton Early, Cole's Quince, and many others, because they ripen too irregularly and drop too badly. The White Winter Pearmain, Lawver, McAfee and Kansas Keeper blight badly and are not sure bearers; Early Harvest and Red Astrachan are not hardy; Summer Rose, Early Strawberry and Benoni are fine, but too small; Primate, Chenango and Gulley of Pennsylvania are too tender to handle; Smith's Cider, Hay's Wine, Fallawater, Scott's Best and Nonpareil Russet are productive, but ripen early and are not profitable. Many Southern winter varieties are too small, such as Haley, Gully, Kittageskee, and Harris. Few if any Eastern winter apples are of any value here, as Northern Spy, Baldwin, Canada Red, Swaar, Sutton Beauty and Melon all ripen too early, and become poor, dry, fall apples. It is the same with all Northern apples, from whatever source or locality. It is a mistake to think we can find a winter apple adapted to Kansas that originated north of Kansas, under a lower mean temperature. This we have fully demonstrated beyond the possibility of a doubt. Early apples require a specific amount of heat to bring them to maturity from the time the fruit forms. If brought from a colder climate to a warmer one, you hasten its growth and accelerate its maturity just in proportion to the difference in mean temperature of the two localities, and consequently it ripens in the fall here. I prefer hilltop for quality, keeping, and color, and bottom for size. Hilltop and steep bluffs are the best for all kinds of winter apples, as they produce the richest fruit, with the finest color, and they keep the best and are not so subject to injurious pests. Fifty feet of abrupt elevation is equal in its effect to fifty miles of latitude south on frosty nights. It retards spring growth as much as forty miles north. An elevation of 400 feet makes a difference of from ten to twenty-five per cent. in the amount of saccharine matter in fruit, to which rich quality, fine flavor and aroma are due. Bottom land produces the largest apples, more murky in color and more irregular in bearing. Rolling, intermediate Kansas land will prove satisfactory. East and south slopes hasten the maturity of fruit, and are the best for early varieties; a northern slope retards the ripening of fruit and is the best for winter apples. The best specimens of apples we ever saw in Kansas grew on a northern bench about thirty feet below the top of an elevation of 400 feet, on good, rich, well-drained soil. They were large in size, clear in color, and perfect in form. We prefer any good soil that will produce a good corn crop, with a well-drained clay subsoil; mucky, wet or hard-pan soils are not fit for fruit. Land that produces a good crop of wheat is rich enough. We have seen a very heavy crop of York Imperial at its native home on quite thin freestone land. Almost any of the land in Leavenworth county is naturally rich enough if we only keep it so. I prefer two-year-old untrimmed trees, set in furrows made with a two-horse plow, no deeper than we plant the trees, but wide enough to take in the roots. We set them about two inches deeper than they stood in the nursery, on the solid subsoil, and pack the dirt firmly amongst the roots; lean or set the heaviest top to the southwest. The largest and heaviest roots, if convenient, should be in the same direction. After filling the hole, bank up a steep mound of earth around the tree. If this is properly done no ordinary wind will ever move it. We prefer two-year-old or strong one-year-old trees, because they can be set more rapidly, cost less labor, less money, live better, and grow more stocky. We want them taken up with care, give no pruning whatever, neither "cut their tops in to balance the roots," when planting in orchard. Trees that are taken up when young and set out in an open orchard without pruning grow stronger and more stocky, bear sooner, and are less subject to blight, sun-scald, and the attack of flathead and roundhead borers. We have root-grafted as many as 500,000 in one season on sections of roots from two to six inches long with scions from three to twenty inches long, to see which were the best. Two-inch sections from one-year roots, grafted with scions about six inches long, set deep enough to form roots on the stock, are best. This "whole-root graft" is simply a _humbug_. It is the strength and vigor of seedling roots, not the length of them, that make the best-rooted trees. No sensible man will pretend to graft whole seedlings [roots] and set them out in a nursery. It cannot be done with success. We must cut off a portion of the root to do it. The question arises, how much? It is then not a whole root, and it becomes a question what length of root is best. It is not advisable to bud or graft seedling trees in the nursery, for all seedlings are not of the same vigor and hardiness; consequently the trees would differ similarly. I plant my orchard to corn, potatoes, garden-truck, and small fruits, and keep this up, with clean cultivation, using a Planet jr. horse hoe, until they begin to bear, and cease cropping after ten years, planting nothing unless the above-mentioned crops or clover in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are injurious unless planted at least 200 feet from the orchard. The best protection is to plant the two outer rows of fruit-trees close together; they can be cut out, if desired, when they become too thick. This is better than high-growing shelter trees or evergreens. We want a free circulation of air to pass among the trees. A high and heavy protection produces an eddy which blights and sun-scalds the trees, as well as hastens the ripening and dropping of apples. We have had no occasion to use any protection from rabbits and borers since we quit pruning off the lower limbs. Pruning is not thoroughly understood. Trees are pruned to make them live, grow fast and stocky, and also slender; to make them bear young, give form, light and air, and to make them look alike; to bear heavy crops and fine specimens. It is claimed all this can be done by pruning; it can be accomplished without pruning in a much shorter time and without extra labor. We do not recommend pruning apple trees at any times excepting _after_ the trees are well established in the orchard; then the lower limbs _may_ be gradually removed to form the head, about two feet from the ground; but the longer we allow them to remain the heavier and stockier they become; for the body of the tree increases in size just in proportion to the amount of foliage on the lower limbs. We prune off dead, broken and sucker limbs, and have no objections to taking off limbs that chafe each other (if this should happen from neglect). We have lost more trees from pruning than from all other causes together. We have seen large orchards just in their prime that have been so injured from pruning that they never recovered. On the other hand, I have seen orchards that were so neglected, dilapidated and crowded that I thought a thorough pruning would make them more productive. I never thin the fruit on the trees; it is not necessary. Pollination is no doubt an important factor in productiveness, size, quality, and form. We have had no opportunity to test the result with apples, as our varieties are all mixed up together. We would not plant in an orchard large blocks of any variety excessively; better have them intermixed with other varieties that bloom at the same time. The pollen of one variety may be congenial to some, while it may be neglected [repelled] by another; we will have to learn this by experience, or plant a less number of varieties together. We have little experience yet in planting large orchards of few kinds. Perhaps none of these varieties that are esteemed so highly are congenial to each other. We had better go slow about planting out 10,000 to 20,000 of one kind together. We may have gone too far now. We do not use any fertilizer for our trees only as we crop the land. The virgin soil of our county does not need fertilizing if planted in orchard until the tree comes into bearing, except we crop the land. It is, however, a mistake to think we can grow an orchard and crop the ground at the same time, without any injury to the orchard, unless we restore the lost fertility in some way. Orchards so exhaust the soil in about sixteen years' cropping that it is worth little afterwards. "It is estimated that an acre of apples in good bearing removes annually about forty-nine pounds of nitrogen, thirty-eight pounds of phosphoric acid, and seventy-two pounds of potash. If the fertility and productiveness of the orchard is to be kept up, these fertilizing elements must be returned in some form." At the market value of these fertilizing materials, it amounts annually to about twelve dollars an acre. It is estimated that an orchard will be in full bearing in about ten years. Then in six years of full bearing it will have exhausted the soil to the amount of seventy-two dollars per acre. Take in consideration the previous cropping of ten years, need we wonder what is the matter with our orchard? Should we diminish the feed of a vigorous horse annually for ten years, do you think he could pull the same load, or be of much value? The nitrogen is the most expensive element, representing about half of the whole, yet it can be restored to the soil by crimson or red clover, peas, vetches, beans, cow-peas, or turnips, which have the ability of converting the free nitrogen of the air into available plant food. The best method of accomplishing this end is to grow these crops on the land and plow them under in their green state at about maturity. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable and does not pay. My apples are troubled with codling-moth. I do not spray. For borers, I bank the trees, so that if they deposit their eggs they can be gotten out easily. I pick my apples in baskets and sacks from a ladder, and sort them into three classes: first, second, and culls. I pack in baskets and barrels; press them in barrels, and mark with name of variety. I wholesale my apples in the orchard to dealers; market the best in baskets and barrels, sell my second and third grades the best way I can, and throw the culls away. My best market is at home. I never tried distant markets, and do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples for winter in boxes and barrels in a cellar, and find Ben Davis, Stayman, Willow Twig and York Imperial keep best. In storing apples for winter, they should be picked before they are too ripe and when the weather is not too hot; when picked they should be taken at once to shade and packed and stored away in the cool of the evening. They should be well sorted, packed in tight barrels, and headed up to exclude the light and air. They will keep longer if each apple is wrapped with paper. The temperature of your cave or cellar should be reduced as much as possible by throwing the doors open at night and closing them through the day. A gradual reduction and a regular temperature is better than a sudden change. Apples should not be hauled about in the hot sun before storing them away, neither should they be placed in cold storage at once. The change is too sudden. It is the same in taking them out of cold storage. It should not be done at once. A storing room for this purpose should be provided in every cold-storage plant. I do not have to repack stored apples if they are sold early, but if not until late we have to repack. The loss depends upon the variety. I have tried irrigation on a small scale, but do not irrigate now. Prices have been from fifty cents to two dollars per barrel. I employ men that are capable of packing apples, paying from five to ten cents per hour. We seldom hear anything about fall planting, as if it was a settled fact that the spring was the best or the only time it could be done successfully. All of our trees for the last thirty-eight years have been transplanted in the fall, excepting the last three years they were set out in the spring. The difference is decidedly in favor of fall planting; they start in growth earlier and make a much stronger growth the first season, and there is a gain of nearly a year in size over those planted in the spring, and they certainly have lived better. Why should they not do better? We have more time and less hurry to do the work well, the ground is in better condition, the trees have more time to callus and become firmly established. It is often too wet to take the trees up and transplant them early, and late setting is not advisable. The distance trees should be set apart is a more important matter than is generally supposed. Very few ever think how large a tree will grow and the space it will occupy. Almost every thrifty variety will grow and spread, and require a foot of space each year; that would be ten feet in ten years and forty feet in forty years; in other words, the trees will meet in forty years if set forty feet apart. This holds good in Kansas; consequently, forty feet apart is too close to plant trees if we expect an orchard to last that long. Apple trees will bear and be profitable for that length of time if they have sufficient space, receive proper care and cultivation, and the fertility of the soil is not allowed to become exhausted. Many set their trees 16×32 feet for the purpose of getting a large crop when the trees first come into bearing, with the intention of cutting out every other row when they crowd, but we fear very few if any ever think this will have to be done in fifteen years from the setting or the orchard would be ruined and the land very much impoverished. It would be much better and more profitable to set the trees 24×24 feet and cut every other row out in twenty-four years, at least one way, and if they crowded, both ways, and not crop the land at all, except to keep up the fertility of the soil. By this method we could have a good bearing orchard for forty years or longer, which would pay better than closer planting and cropping the land to pay the expenses. * * * * * DAVID BROWN, Richmond, Franklin county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-four years; have an orchard of 2000 trees, averaging twenty years planted, composed entirely of Ben Davis, Jonathan, and Winesap; have discarded everything else. I would plant on nothing but deep upland soil, planting good yearling trees. I grow no crop in the orchard, and cultivate thoroughly always with plow and harrow. I have quit pruning, as it kills the trees. Never pasture the orchard. I spray with London purple for the canker-worm and codling-moth. Borers I cut out. I always sell at wholesale to shippers at about eighty cents per barrel. Never dry any or store any for winter. * * * * * FRANCIS GOBLE, Leavenworth, Leavenworth county: Have been in Kansas over forty-three years. I have 13,000 apple trees, ranging in age from last spring's setting to forty years. For commercial purposes I use Ben Davis, Winesap, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, Ingram, Maiden's Blush, Grimes's Golden Pippin, and Smith's Cider. For family use I would advise Jonathan, Winesap, Early Harvest, Rambo, and Milam. I have tried and discarded numerous varieties. I prefer medium to high land, with a clay and loam soil on a subsoil of clay and sand; any slope is better than southwest. I have planted trees of all ages, and all look well. I plant thirty-two feet east and west and sixteen feet north and south. I believe in thorough cultivation with plow, harrow, etc., as long as the orchard lives. Sometimes the orchard requires a certain kind of cultivation, at other times a different cultivation. In a young orchard I usually grow corn, potatoes, wheat, melons, or pumpkins. In a bearing orchard I usually grow nothing, though sometimes I take a crop of millet or pumpkins from the ground. I cease cropping entirely at from five to seven years. Windbreaks are not necessary here; they make their own windbreak if kept thoroughly cultivated and full of life. Thorough protection will largely prevent borers; if any are found in the tree I remove them with a knife and wire. For rabbits I wrap with paper or other material. I prune with a saw to keep down surplus wood growth and improve the quality of the apples. It is beneficial if carefully done, a little every spring and not much at once. I believe thinning will pay when the trees are abnormally full. Remove as nearly as possible all defective fruit when half grown, and what is left will be of higher grade in size, color, and quality. I believe a decomposed stable fertilizer is necessary on some soils. Better not pasture with any stock whatever; I do not think it advisable; I think the profit (?) would be an expensive one. Am troubled somewhat with canker-worm, bud moth, borers, leaf-rollers, codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. I sprayed one year for insects generally with London purple through the spring season, and do not think it was a success. I pick about as Judge Wellhouse does, and sort into three classes; the best we make firsts, the best half of the balance we call seconds, and the balance are simply culls. We pack in barrels and haul to market with wagons provided with racks holding sixteen barrels each. I sell my best apples at wholesale, but have never sold them in the orchard; the second grade I sell to groceries and peddlers; the culls I sell to anybody, usually in the orchard. I have never tried distant markets. I never dry any. I store for winter in a cold store built for the purpose on my own farm, which has been described in the paper. I have also tried artificial cold storage, and the Jonathans kept well. [See Cold Store.] * * * * * E. P. DIEHL, Olathe, Johnson county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years; have an apple orchard of 700 trees, twenty inches in diameter, twenty-nine years old. For market I prefer York Imperial, Jonathan, Winesap, and Ben Davis, and for family orchard Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Winesap, and York Imperial. Have tried and discarded Bellflower, Dominie, Pennsylvania Red Streak, and White Winter Pearmain. I prefer hilltop with a mulatto limestone soil, northeast aspect. Would plant two-year-old trees, forty feet apart. I plant my orchard to corn and potatoes for five years, using a cultivator; cease cropping after six years; plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of trees, planted on the south, west, and north. I prune with a knife and saw; think it beneficial. I thin the fruit on my trees the latter part of May, and think it pays. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard; think it beneficial and that it pays. Pasture my orchard very little, late in the fall, with horses; think it advisable and that it pays. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, bud moth, root aphis, bagworm, flathead borer, roundhead borer, woolly aphis, twig-borer, and oyster-shell bark-louse; and my apples with codling-moth. I spray with London purple, using a force-pump, and think I have reduced the codling-moth. Those insects not affected by spraying I dig out with knife and wire. I hand-pick my apples from a step-ladder into a sack with a hoop in the mouth. Sort into three classes: first, second, and third; pack by hand in three-bushel barrel, mark with stencil, and ship by rail. I sell my apples in the orchard, wholesale and retail. Sell my best ones to apple dealers. Sell my second- and third-grade apples at the stores; make vinegar of the culls. I have dried apples with an American dryer with satisfaction; after dry, pack in barrels; we find a ready market for them and think it pays. I store apples for winter in bulk in a cave and am successful; I find York Imperial and Rawle's Janet keep best. We have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about twenty per cent. of them. I do not irrigate. I get six cents per pound for dried apples. I employ men at $1.25 per day. In the growing of apples in Kansas many things are to be well considered. That injunction of Davy Crockett's must be kept constantly in view to be successful: "Be sure you're right, then go ahead." First, to select varieties that are well adapted to your soil; next, location; last but not least, the preparation of the soil and future care. Many of the varieties that are well adapted to the Eastern states are unprofitable here. Another great mistake is the planting of too many varieties. When I first came to this state thirty years ago, I consulted Col. A. S. Johnson, now of Topeka. From him I obtained a great deal of valuable information, he having had thirty-six years of Kansas experience. I should, no doubt, have planted many that I did not, owing to the information obtained of him; so it may be seen that, by proper care, experience, and observation, we may be of benefit to the rising generation. Having selected your varieties by consulting the published fruit list of the Kansas State Horticultural Society, next select your location. Select, if you can, the highest northern slope; next east, next west. Put your ground in good order by plowing and subsoiling at least fifteen inches deep. Should there be any tenacious soil or spouty places, tile with four-inch tile, forty feet apart, three feet deep. A great mistake is made by many in planting too closely. I have trees twenty-eight years old, forty feet from tip to tip. Plant to some cultivated crop for six years, then seed to clover; trim your trees each February; keep the borers out, and if they do get into your trees hunt them out; spray your trees frequently at the proper time to prevent the noxious insects from getting the start of you, and when your trees commence to bear commence to fertilize by turning under clover and stable litter. Horace Greeley once said: "You might as well expect milk from a cow tied to a stake as apples from an orchard uncared for." * * * * * A. MUNGER, Hollis, Cloud county: I have lived in Kansas fifteen years; have an apple orchard of seventy-five trees twelve inches in diameter, eighteen feet high, seventeen years old. I prefer for market Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and, to a limited extent, Yellow Transparent and Grimes's Golden Pippin, and for a family orchard add Early Harvest and Maiden's Blush. Have tried and discarded the Willow Twig on account of blight and rot. I prefer bottom land, with a loose subsoil, and young and stocky trees. I plant my orchard to potatoes, beans and vines for ten years, and use a cultivator that keeps three inches very mellow, and cease cropping when impossible to cultivate. I grow weeds in the orchard and mow them. Windbreaks are not essential, but are very desirable; would make them of Osage orange, Russian mulberries, or box-elder. Set the first row four feet apart, the second six inches, and never trim; the third six feet. For rabbits I use traps and gun. I hunt the borers and encourage the birds. I prune my trees so as to give air and sunshine; think it pays. Do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My apples are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard in the winter with stable litter fresh from the stable; it appears to do good, and would advise its use, with judgment, on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs and calves. I do not think it advisable among young trees. My trees are troubled with leaf-roller, and my fruit with codling-moth. I spray just after the blossom falls, with Paris green, for the codling-moth. Prices have been from 25 cents to $1 per bushel. What the future of apple-growing in northern central Kansas may be, it is of course impossible to tell, but from the success of the few orchards that have been planted, and after being planted have received some attention besides that bestowed by calves and pigs, it would seem well worth a trial. There are years when the best attention possible cannot prevent damage and some loss from drought, especially on upland. For this reason bottom land would seem more suitable for an orchard in this county, even though subject to some disadvantages. In some orchards on low land only a few feet above the water-level, where a sandy subsoil admits of a free natural subirrigation, the thrift and productiveness of the trees have been unusually good. Cold seems to be dreaded less than hot, dry weather in the latter part of the summer, although late spring frosts sometimes do damage. Even the traditional "north slope" might have its advantages somewhat balanced in this county by the valley lands that retain a large amount of moisture. A good soil with a loose subsoil that holds the greatest possible amount of water are the most important requirements as to location. If the cultivation is then such as to save the water of early summer rains to the best advantage until the dry weather of the late summer comes, it will be drawn upon, and some very dry seasons may be tided over without much loss. Plowing in the spring and very frequent shallow cultivation afterwards are, as yet, the best known means to this end; and as a general rule they are sufficient to answer every purpose as far west as central Kansas, without artificial watering, as the average rainfall shows; but if the early rains are allowed to go to waste by falling on the hard ground and running directly off, or by rapid evaporation from an undisturbed surface, where capillary force is rapidly carrying back to the surface what has already soaked in, we invite ultimate failure when the drought comes. Cultivate once a week, or after each rain, when they come oftener than that, with something that will keep two or three inches of very fine, mellow earth on the surface, and will cause an amount of water to be retained in the soil below the earth mulch that will surprise any one who has never tried it. An ordinary harrow will do very well, or better a five-tooth cultivator, behind which I fasten a 2×4 scantling with large wire nails driven through it, about two inches apart, weighted on the back edge to keep it right side up; the scantling is cut as long as the width of the cultivator. At one operation the cultivator and this harrow leave the ground about like a hand-rake would, marked only by the footprints of the driver. Last summer this was used several times where young peach trees had been set out, going around each row and sometimes over the entire ground. There was no time during the summer that the trees stopped growing or showed signs of needing more moisture than they had. Nine hundred and ninety-four lived, the horses killed two, and the borers two more. Fifteen years ago I bought a small farm having on it a small family orchard of seventy-two apple trees. It included several varieties, from summer to winter sorts. The trees were 28×28 feet apart, with peach trees alternating both ways, making three times as many peaches as apples in the orchard. The land was cultivated until the trees were ten years old, then sowed to timothy and clover. The timothy soon died out; but the clover lived for a few years, but is gone now. It happened that some of the years that it was not cultivated were some of the driest during the fifteen, and several trees died of blight. Would this have happened if the cultivation had been continued? I have gone to plowing and cultivating again, anyway, with no crop in the orchard. The trees are now fifteen or twenty feet high, and about twelve inches in diameter at the ground. The peach trees have mostly been cut out. Cannot see that they did any harm, unless it might have been harder on the apple trees during the dry season; but if it was, the peaches were worth about as much as the apples, and the trees make a quick, bushy growth, thus forming a shelter for the apple trees, which now stand straight and are well balanced. We have had a peach crop about half of the years. Potatoes, beans and vine crops were raised in the orchard the first few years. It was surrounded by a windbreak of cottonwood and box-elder trees, several rows, seven feet apart each way. This is certainly very beneficial; but Russian mulberries grow as well, make a thicker top, and at the same time invite birds to keep up their quarters there and make their homes with us, "a consummation devoutly to be wished." Osage orange, planted the same as for a hedge and never cut back, will make a better windbreak than cottonwood or box-elder, and a fence at the same time. This orchard has borne variable crops, some good, some light, but always fruits. It is on bottom land sloping very slightly to the southeast; soil a sandy loam with a clay subsoil. It has been pruned considerably, but not very much at a time. One man in this county who succeeds well with apples never prunes, except to keep the center open to sun and air. Another near him gave his orchard a severe trimming a few years ago, and had no fruit, but some dead trees for two or three years afterward. In planting, the ground should be well plowed, then mark off one way with a plow or lister. Twice to the row with the lister, with three or four horses, and the subsoiler well down, will make a very good preparation for small trees without much digging, and small trees are best for several reasons: they are cheaper, less work to set out, and more likely to live. Set stakes to go by, and, in planting, cross the furrows. We have just finished setting 2000 peach trees in this way, and very little digging was needed. Then cultivate well and often. Rub off shoots that start where limbs are not wanted, and start an evenly balanced top of four or five limbs. A year after the trees are set out, if any of them are leaning much, dig away the dirt on the side from which they lean, and set them up straight, tramping the dirt well on the opposite side. With winter will come the rabbits, and they will girdle the trees if not prevented. Many and varied are the sure cures for them, but none are perfect. A wash of ordinary whitewash and a pint of sulphur to the bucketful, applied with a brush or swab to the bodies of the trees, generally stops their work, but if the rain washes it off it must be put on again or they will resume operations. A little coal-oil added to the whitewash prevents the rain from having so much effect on it; make it thin, so it will not scale off so badly. Two applications have been enough for our young trees the past winter. We also use traps which are very similar to the Wellhouse traps, described in the Kansas State Horticultural Report for 1897. Tarred paper, corn-stalks, veneering, screen wire, cloth tied around the trees, or a woven-wire fence around the entire orchard, are all among the practical means used to fence against rabbits; but don't try the plan of one of my neighbors, unless you have too many trees; he applied coal-tar; it kept the rabbits off, and his orchard is now a treeless corn-field. During winter we haul manure direct from the stable and spread under the trees (not against them) out as far as the ends of the limbs. On good ground I would not do much of this until the trees get to bearing, as it would interfere somewhat with cultivation and would not be needed, but when a good annual crop is taken from the orchard something must be returned, or the supply is going to run out. On thin land rotten manure applied when the trees are small will do them good. Pasturing an orchard at any time is of doubtful expediency; it is safer not to. I have sprayed but once. That was done just after the blossoms fell, and again ten days later. There were fewer wormy apples than usual. That was last year. Think I will try it further. For a home orchard Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent, Maiden's Blush, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Winesap, Missouri Pippin and Ben Davis do well here and keep up a supply from first to last. For commercial planting Ben Davis is perhaps best here as elsewhere. Missouri Pippin does well; Winesap bears enormously, but is too small, and gets smaller as the trees get older. There is a good local demand here for Grimes's Golden Pippin and a few of any very early variety. Willow Twig has been worthless on account of blight and rot. Encourage birds by every means, and never let one, or a nest, be disturbed, unless it is that belligerent little alien, the English sparrow. They are at war with all the feathered tribe, even with their own relations, and should be exterminated. Don't begrudge birds a few feeds of cherries and berries, when they work for nothing and board themselves nearly all the year. * * * * * A. H. BUCKMAN, Topeka, Shawnee county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years; have an apple-orchard of 1000 trees two to twenty-six years old. For market I prefer Maiden's Blush, Jonathan, Winesap, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Huntsman's Favorite; and for a family orchard White Juneating (the earliest apple known), Red June, Early Ripe, Duchess of Oldenburg, Sweet June, Fulton Strawberry, Cooper's Early White, Smokehouse, Maiden's Blush, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Ben Davis, Ramsdell Sweet, Roman Stem, and Red Romanite. I have tried and discarded King, on account of rot, falls early, water core, short-lived; Kansas Keeper, on account of blight, poor tree; Yellow Bellflower, on account of being a shy bearer and rot; Willow Twig, on account of blight; Lansingburg, on account of blight when the tree is young; R. I. Greening, on account of its falling early, and rot. Baldwin, falls early and rots. Lawver, no good on my soil. McAfee's Nonsuch, poor bearer. Rambo, not acclimated. Northern Spy, rots. Pryor's Red, ripens unevenly, and is affected with scab. Dominie, there are many better of its season. Esopus Spitzenburg, rots badly. Rome Beauty, good some seasons. Ohio Nonpareil, poor bearer, falls before ripe. Lowell, blights while trees are young. Winter Swaar, rots before perfectly ripe. Autumn Swaar, good of its season, and should have a place in the family orchard. York Imperial, poor quality; rots too bad for commercial purposes. American Summer Pearmain, shy bearer while young. White Winter Pearmain, is affected with scab and is no good. Red Winter Pearmain, falls off early; the tree is poor. Gilliflowers, black and red, rot badly. Pennsylvania Red Streak, affected with scab; very good some seasons; trees die early. Sweet Bough, trees die early. Bentley Sweet, keeps all right, moderate bearer; tree appears to be tender. Clayton, rots and is no good. Calvert is a poor bearer and rots with me. Pound Pippin, no value. Iowa Blush, no value, small. Red Vandervere, no value; rots. Vandervere Pippin, moderate bearer and rots. Pennock Summer, good market in its season. Pennock, fairly good; we have plenty better. Early Harvest is affected with scab some seasons. Early Ripe is better and larger and to be preferred. Smith's Cider, blight, poor tree. Red Astrachan, poor bearer. Roxbury Russet, all russets fail with me. Jefferis, quality fine, but will not bear. Ortley, good, but is inclined to rot. I prefer hilltop having a drift soil, but the subsoil is of more importance than the surface soil. I prefer a north or northeast aspect. I prefer two-year-old, medium-sized trees, clear of root aphis, set in a dead furrow, with peach trees between north and south. I cultivate my trees six years after planting, with a plow and five-tooth one-horse cultivator. Plant the young orchard to corn; cease cropping after six or seven years, and then seed down to clover. Windbreaks are essential; would make them by planting one to six rows of Osage orange, red cedar or catalpas all around the orchard. The boys hunt the rabbits with shot-guns. I wash the trees with a carbolic-acid wash for borers. I prune with a knife and saw to balance the top, keep down watersprouts, and to get rid of useless wood. I think it pays and is beneficial, as it shades the body of the tree and keeps off the flathead borers. I do not thin the fruit. Can see no difference whether trees are in blocks of one variety, or mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter all over the ground, and wood ashes around the trees, but do not believe it pays, and would not advise it on all soils; any soil that is suitable for an orchard will not need enriching until after it ceases to be profitable. I pasture my orchard with hogs and calves; I think it advisable under certain conditions, and find it pays. My trees are troubled with root aphis, roundhead borers and buffalo tree-crickets; and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand, from a ladder, into a sack with a strap over the shoulder. I sell the bulk of my apples in the orchard, from piles, at wholesale and retail; sell the grocers and fruit dealers what are left of my best apples. Make cider of the second and third grades of apples. Feed the culls to the hogs. My best market is in Topeka. Never tried distant markets. Do not dry any. I store some apples for winter in bulk, in boxes and in barrels in a cellar. I have to repack stored apples before marketing. Apples have been about forty cents a bushel in the orchard for the last ten years. * * * * * E. HIGGINS, Seabrook, Shawnee county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-six years; have an apple orchard of 250 trees twenty-five years old. For market I prefer Winesap, Jonathan, Maiden's Blush, Smith's Cider, and Ben Davis; for family orchard, Winesap, Jonathan, Maiden's Blush, Red June, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. Have tried and discarded Kansas Keeper on account of blight. I prefer hilltop; best below lime rock, with a northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old, low-headed trees, set thirty feet each way. I plant to corn for four years, then cease cropping, and seed to clover. I have a windbreak on the south side made of Osage orange, to keep the hot winds off. I prune lightly to thin out some of the middle branches; I think it pays. I do not thin my fruit. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, and plow it under. I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I sow my orchard to oats, and pasture with hogs with rings in their noses; they live on the oats, and don't hurt the trees, but with the help of the chickens they keep the canker-worms off. My trees are troubled with round- and flathead borers. I do not spray. I hand-pick my apples; sort into two classes--shipping and cider. I sell my apples in the home market; sell second and third grades to the cider-mills. Never tried distant markets. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples in bulk in a cellar; find Winesap to keep best. Prices have been from fifty to sixty cents per bushel. I employ young men at seventeen dollars per month. * * * * * J. C. BECKLEY, Spring Hill, Johnson county: I have lived in the state thirty years; have an apple orchard of 130 trees, twenty-eight years old and large for their age. For a commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin; and for family use Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Jonathan, and Winesap. I have tried and discarded Smith's Cider, Talman (Sweet), Rambo, Fameuse, Willow Twig, White Winter Pearmain, Roman Stem, Dominie, Fallawater, Wagener, Baldwin, and White Pippin, because they mature too soon, fall off and rot long before it is time to pick them. I prefer hilltop with a dark mulatto soil and a clay subsoil, with a western aspect. I prefer two-year-old trees, with plenty of fibrous roots, and a well-developed top, set forty by forty feet. I cultivate my orchard till it is six or seven years old with a common plow and harrow. In a young orchard I plant potatoes, corn, pumpkins, melons, and garden-truck; I cease cropping after eight or nine years, and seed bearing orchard to clover. Windbreaks are not essential, unless on the south and north sides; would make them of cedar or evergreens. I would not make a windbreak at all. For rabbits I wrap the trees. When hunting borers I take knife and chisel and pare all gum and dirt off of the roots; then I cut wherever I see signs of a borer until I get him, and if he has gone too deep to cut out I take a No. 20 wire six or eight inches long, bend a very small hook on one end, and run it up in the hole he has made, and ninety-nine times out of 100 pull him out. When done put some alkali of some kind around the tree, such as lime, ashes, or soft soap; then cover up. I prune with a saw or knife, cutting out the crossed limbs and shaping the top. I think it pays while the trees are young. I never thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with stable and hog manure; I think it very beneficial, and advise its use on all soils, especially on old orchards. I pasture my orchard with hogs, and think it advisable at times. It pays. My trees are troubled with canker-worms, roundhead borers, and leaf rollers, and my apples with codling-moths. I have never sprayed, but intend to this spring, in April and May. I am going to use a dust sprayer with London purple and Paris green for canker-worm. I pick my apples by hand from a ladder into a sack, sort into two classes by hand, pack in a two-bushel crate, fill full, with blossom end up, mark with the grade, and ship to market-place by freight. I retail apples in the orchard; sell my best ones in crates; feed the culls to hogs. Best market is at home; never tried distant markets. We sun-dry some apples for home use, then heat on the stove and put into paper sacks. I am quite successful in storing apples in bulk, boxes and barrels in a cellar. Ben Davis, Winesap and Little Romanite keep best. Sometimes I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one per cent. of them. Prices have been about sixty cents per bushel, and dried apples five to six cents; evaporated apples, seven to eight cents. * * * * * ALBERT PERRY, Troy, Doniphan county: Have lived in Kansas forty-one years; have an apple orchard of 5000 trees, planted from five to twenty-four years. I grow for commercial purposes, first, Jonathan; second, Ben Davis, York Imperial, and Mammoth Black Twig. Ten years hence those who now plant Ben Davis will probably regret it. [?] There is a growing demand for a better eating apple. I now plant Jonathans and York Imperial. The latter is a good bearer, and a vigorous tree, however aged. For family orchard, I would advise adding to these Rambo and Fall Strawberry [Chenango]. I have tried and discarded many others. Prefer bottom, loess formation, near Missouri river. No slope has any advantage over another. Cultivate with plow and harrow, growing corn as an orchard crop for five years; then seed to clover and blue grass only. Do not care for windbreaks. Where there are windbreaks apples on trees do not get sufficient air. I protect from rabbits by tying corn-stalks about young trees. Prune some. I believe all apple blossoms are self-pollinating, and there is no advantage in mixed plantings. Need no fertilizers but clover in my locality. Believe it pays to pasture the orchard with horses in the winter; if you have a stack of hay for them to go to they will not harm the trees. Am troubled with codling-moth and apple curculio. Spray for codling-moth ten days after the apple is formed, and believe I have reduced their number. I use the knife for borers. Pick in baskets; deliver to packers in orchard. The aphis appears to do no particular injury to tree or fruit. Burn fall web-worm with a coal-oil torch. Sort into number one, fancy, number two, fair but defective in shape, color, or otherwise, and culls. Pack in three-bushel barrels, pressed so they will not shake. Sell firsts in orchard; sell seconds in car lots in bulk; sell culls in bulk for cider or vinegar. My best market is in the orchard. Have tried consigning to distant markets, but it did not pay. Have stored second grades for winter in boxes and barrels and in bulk, and made it pay. Ben Davis, Winesap and Rawle's Janet kept best. We sort and lose about one-fifth of the second grade only. Prices have run from $1 to $1.50 per barrel, of late years, in the orchard. For help in care of orchard I use men. In picking season I use all kinds of help. No experts. Pay from $1 to $1.50 per day. * * * * * J. H. ROACH, Lowemont, Leavenworth county: Have been in Kansas forty-two years. Have an apple orchard of 5500 trees; 800 planted thirty years, 1200 planted thirteen years, and 3500 planted three years. For commercial purposes I prefer Jonathan, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Willow Twig. For family use I prefer Jonathan, Huntsman's Favorite, and Winesap. I have discarded Yellow Bellflower, Rawle's Janet, and Russets. I prefer black loam with red gravel subsoil, hilltop with extreme north slope, no matter how steep. I plant thrifty two-year-old trees, thirty-three feet apart each way, except Missouri Pippin, which may be closer. Cultivate up to twelve years of age; grow corn until seven, then clover two years; then corn one year, after that clover with a little timothy, to keep the weeds down. I cease cropping the clover when the orchard is from twelve to fourteen years old. I consider windbreaks harmful. Any good axle grease or "dope" will keep off rabbits. I trim until five years old with a pocket-knife, to give shape and stout branches. I believe fertilizers are beneficial, put on every second or third year. I pasture my bearing orchard with horses and cattle, after the fruit is gathered until the 1st of January; think it is advisable and a benefit; allow no hogs in at any time. Am bothered some with borers and codling-moth. Have never tried spraying, but would advise it. We pick in sacks fastened over the shoulder with a snap and ring. Usually sell in the orchard. Have tried artificial cold storage satisfactorily, and think it the most reasonable plan. Prices have ranged from $1 to $1.50 per barrel, for firsts and seconds, in the orchard. I employ men at seventy cents per day. * * * * * A. D. ARNOLD, Longford, Clay county: Have lived in Kansas twenty years. Have 300 apple trees, sixteen years planted, from ten to fifteen inches in diameter. Grow only Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin for all purposes. I prefer bottom land in this locality, sandy loam with a northern aspect. Plant two-year, stocky trees, with a low top. I cultivate with the plow and disc, and grow no crop in the orchard. I believe a windbreak of box-elder or evergreens is beneficial but not essential. I prune very little, using my knife with judgment. I use stable litter as a mulch, and think it pays. I never pasture my orchard. Have few insects but codling-moth. I shade the body of the tree to keep borers out, and dig them out if any get in. I use ladders, and pick into baskets, and sort into two classes--perfect and imperfect. My trees have never borne a full crop, only enough for home use and the neighbors. We have had several dry seasons, causing the fruit to fall badly. * * * * * J. S. GAYLORD, Muscotah, Atchison county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-six years; have 5000 apple trees, planted from one to twelve years. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, Winesap, and York Imperial, and for family would add Yellow Transparent, Cooper's Early White, Maiden's Blush, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Jonathan, Rawle's Janet, and Little Romanite. I prefer hilltop with eastern slope, and would plant only two-year-old trees. I have grown both seedlings for stock and root grafts, in the nursery. I believe in thorough cultivation with two-horse cultivator and double-shovel plow, using a five-tooth cultivator near the trees. I crop with corn from seven to nine years, and then sow to clover. I do not think windbreaks essential. For rabbits and to prevent borers I use equal parts of carbolic acid and water as a wash. I prune a little by cutting back on the north side and keeping out the watersprouts, which I think pays. I think it pays to thin apples by hand in July and August. I have used some stable litter in the orchard, and think it pays. I pasture horses in my orchard during winter, but no stock at any other time. I spray, after blossoms fall, three times, two weeks apart, with Paris green, for the codling-moth, and my apples are quite free from worms. I dig out borers and pick off worm nests. I pick by hand in half-bushel baskets, sell at wholesale, and the buyer sorts to suit himself. I have never dried or stored any. Prices in 1896 and 1897, seventy-five cents per barrel; spring of 1898, $1.25 to $1.65. I use laborers at one dollar per day. * * * * * ALEX. SPIERS, Linn, Washington county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years. For commercial orchard I prefer Jonathan, Cooper's Early White, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Rawle's Janet, Dominie, Winesap; and for family orchard Jonathan, Winesap, Cooper's Early White, and Ben Davis. Have tried and discarded Yellow Bellflower on account of shy bearing. I prefer rolling upland, black, sandy loam with porous subsoil, and a southeast slope. I prefer two-year-old trees; have tried root grafts and seedlings with good success. I cultivate with a diamond plow up to bearing age. Windbreaks are essential, and I would make them of ash, box-elder, maple, and elm; I would plant either the young trees or seed. I prune with a saw, and use a chisel on watersprouts. I think it beneficial. I thin by shaking the tree when the fruit is small. I fertilize; think it benefits the trees, by making them grow stronger, and they fruit better; think it advisable on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs, but would not advise it; does not pay. Flathead borer and fall web-worm affect my trees. I spray, as soon as the bloom falls, with London purple. I sometimes sell my apples in the orchard, and sometimes from the cellar. I store apples in the cellar, and am successful. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * THEO. BEDKER, Linn, Washington county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years; have an apple orchard of 100 trees from two to twelve years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, and for a family orchard Winesap. I prefer bottom land with a sandy loam and a northeast aspect. I plant my trees in squares thirty feet apart. I cultivate my orchard for three years with a single-horse cultivator. Plant corn and potatoes in a young orchard; cease cropping after four years; plant timothy and clover mixed in bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of willows, by planting on north and south sides of the orchard. For rabbits I wrap the trees with corn-stalks in the winter, and dig the borers out. I prune my trees with a saw to make thinner; I think it beneficial, and that it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I do not think it would pay. I fertilize my orchard with slaked lime, and would advise it on all soils. It helps to keep off borers. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable. My apple trees are troubled with bud moth, twig-borer, and leaf-crumpler, and my apples with curculio. I have sprayed when in bloom with London purple, but do not think I have reduced the codling-moth. I pick my apples by hand, and sort into two classes--good keepers and cider apples. Put them all in one pile and then sort. I prefer barrels or boxes, from three to twenty bushels; fill them full. I retail my apples. I sell the best in sacks by the bushel. Make cider for vinegar of the culls. Never tried distant markets. I dry some for home use in the sun; this is satisfactory. I am successful in storing apples in boxes and barrels in the cellar. I find the Rawle's Janet and Winesap keep best. I never tried artificial cold storage; I lose about one-twentieth of my stored apples. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from thirty-five to fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * JOHN FULCOMER, Belleville, Republic county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; have raised for market Ben Davis, Winesap, and Jonathan; would prefer for family orchard Early Harvest, Red June, Duchess of Oldenburg, Cooper's Early White, Smith's Cider, Minkler, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Ben Davis, Golden Sweet, and Maiden's Blush. Have tried and discarded about all varieties excepting the above named on account of being tender and unprofitable. I prefer bottom land, limestone soil with a gravel subsoil, and a northeast or eastern slope. I prefer for planting strong, stocky yearlings--never over two years old--set at the crossing of furrows plowed with a lister. I cultivate my orchard to potatoes, pumpkins, squashes, melons, or any low hoed crop. I use an ordinary ten- or twelve-inch plow, and a five-tooth cultivator, and keep this up until they begin to bear; then seed to clover, mow it, and let it rot on the ground; then let the clover seed fall under, harrow, and let come up again. Windbreaks are beneficial; would make them of ash and Osage orange, by planting a few rows of trees inside of the hedge. To protect against rabbits, I wrap the trees. I prune with a saw and knife to remove chafing and dead limbs, and to make the tree more healthy and vigorous. I think it beneficial. I never thin the fruit on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with coal and wood ashes; think it beneficial, and would advise their use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, and my apples with codling-moth. I never have sprayed to any extent. I hand-pick my apples, in one-half bushel splint baskets; sort into two classes as soon as picked. * * * * * LOW. MILLER, Perry, Jefferson county: Have lived in Kansas thirty years. Have an apple orchard of 2400 trees from one to fifteen years old. For commercial purposes I prefer Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and Ben Davis, and for family orchard Early Harvest, Red Winter Pearmain, Cooper's Early White, and Rambo. I prefer bottom land, clay soil and a porous subsoil, with a north and east slope. I prefer two-year-old, low-headed, stocky trees, planted twenty-five by thirty feet. I cultivate my orchard to corn for six years, using a plow, cultivator, and harrow, and cease cropping after six or seven years. Grow only weeds in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of maples, planted two rods apart around orchard. For rabbits I keep two hounds and a shot-gun. I get after the borers with a knife. I prune with a knife to keep out watersprouts. Never have thinned fruit on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, and think it has proven beneficial, but would not advise its use on all soils. I pasture my orchard with horses, but would not advise it. I doubt if it pays. My trees are troubled with borers, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. Pick my apples by hand into sacks. I sort into three classes--first, second, and culls--into baskets from the ground. I sell apples in the orchard at wholesale. I market my best apples in barrels; sell second and third grades to vinegar and cider-mills. My best market is at home. Never tried distant markets. Do not dry any. I store some apples in bulk in a cellar, and am successful. Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin keep best. Prices have been seventy-five cents to $1.50 per barrel. I employ men and boys at one dollar per day. * * * * * WM. GURWELL, Fanning, Doniphan county: I have lived in Kansas thirty-five years; have 5000 apple trees, planted from two to thirty years. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Jonathan, White Winter Pearmain, and Rawle's Janet; and would add for family use Early Harvest and Dominie. Have tried and discarded Yellow Bellflower; not prolific in this climate. I prefer hill with black loam and clay subsoil; any slope but southwest is good. I prefer two-year-old trees, and set them in holes dug two and half to three feet square with a spade, and set the trees two or three inches deeper than they stood in the nursery. Have tried home-grown root grafts, and was successful. I cultivate to corn, potatoes, pumpkins, and melons, using plow and harrow. I crop a bearing orchard lightly, and cease when in full bearing. I kill the rabbits. I prune with saw, knife, and clippers, and think it beneficial. I seldom thin fruit on the trees. My trees are planted in blocks. I fertilize the land near the trees with stable litter; I would advise its use on thin soil. I pasture my orchard with calves and hogs, and think it advisable; it pays in some orchards. Trees are troubled with borers; I hunt the borers with a wire. We pick carefully in large baskets and sacks from a step-ladder; I pack in barrels. My best market is northwest of here; I sometimes sell in the orchard at wholesale, retail, and peddle; dry and make cider of the culls; never dry for market. I sometimes store a few apples, and find the Winesap, White Winter Pearmain and Rawle's Janet keep the best. We have to repack stored apples before marketing them. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from 60 cents to $1.25 per barrel. I employ all kinds of help, and pay one dollar per day. * * * * * SAMUEL H. BERT, Moonlight, Dickinson county: Have been in Kansas nineteen years; have 500 apple trees from four to twenty-two years planted; the oldest are twelve inches in diameter. For commercial purposes use Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Janet, and for family use would add Red June and Maiden's Blush. Have tried and discarded Red Streak, Romanite, Rambo, and Bellflower. I prefer bottom in this locality with a northeast slope. I plant twenty-eight or thirty feet apart. I plant two-year-old trees; rather plant a yearling than three-year-olds. Have never tried root grafts or seedlings. I cultivate even my oldest trees, using a plow and harrow; it pays. I grow corn in young orchard until too large; then nothing, just cultivate. Windbreaks are essential, and should be made of Osage orange or mulberries; but not too close to the orchard. I tie corn-stalks around the trees to protect from rabbits, and keep the trees low, to shade the trunks to protect against borers. I prune to prevent forks, to keep from splitting. I thin apples when necessary; this should be done when they are about half grown. I prefer to plant my trees in blocks. An orchard should be fertilized with fine stable litter. I would advise the use of it, especially on upland soil. Never pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with flathead borers. Never sprayed much, but think it would be beneficial. I pick in sack hung over shoulder. We make three classes of our apples--large, small, and specked. Have no particular way to market; sell any way I can, but never in the orchard. We make cider, boiled cider and apple-butter of the culls. Never have tried distant markets. Never dry any. Store some for winter in bulk and in barrels in cellar; am successful; find that the Winesaps keep best. Have never tried artificial cold storage. We have to repack stored apples before marketing; lost very few this winter, as I kept them out of the cellar until December; then they kept well. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from 60 cents to $1.50 per barrel. * * * * * G. E. SPOHR, Manhattan, Riley county: Have resided in Kansas twenty-six years. Have an orchard of 3000 trees, nineteen years planted. Originator of the Spohr apple (described elsewhere). Plants for commerce Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Ben Davis; for family orchard, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Maiden's Blush, and Early Harvest. Have tried fifty varieties, but think none of them paid better than those named. I live on bottom land, eight feet to water. Any slope is good. Prefer sandy loam. Plant two-year-old, well-pruned trees, in large holes. Cultivate thoroughly, planting to corn until seven years old; then seed to alfalfa. I favor windbreaks of Scotch or Austrian pines, planted in three rows ten feet apart. I believe in pruning, and always have my knife open when in the orchard, and trim at all times; like to have trees, not brush piles. The deity governing Kansas winds thins the fruit sufficiently. Apple trees are more fruitful if varieties are mixed in planting. Use all the two- and three-year-old stable litter I can get. Do not pasture my orchard. Spray with London purple one week before and two weeks after blooming, for canker-worm, leaf-roller, and codling-moth, and have reduced the latter by it. I hunt the borers and go after them with a hot (?) iron. Pick by hand, and sort to suit customers. Pack in eleven-peck barrels, and mark with stencil. Sell my best apples to shippers, and make vinegar and hog and cattle feed of culls. My best market is Colorado, but I sell in orchard. I store successfully for winter in a cave in bulk, and find Winesap and Missouri Pippin the best keepers, losing about ten per cent. Prices average fifty cents per bushel. Pay help from $12.50 per month to 75 cents per day and board. * * * * * R. D. OSBORNE, Soldier, Jackson county: Have lived in the state thirty-one years; have 500 apple trees, from three to sixteen years planted. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, York Imperial, Gano, and Winesap; for family orchard, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and, for summer, Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, and Cooper's Early White. Have tried and discarded Vandevere, as it does not bear, and Willow Twig on account of blight; Rawle's Janet no good on market. I prefer hilltop if well cultivated; otherwise bottom, with a loam soil and a sandy subsoil, and a southeast slope to protect from southwest winds. I plant two-year-old trees, three feet to head, not less than three limbs to form head, thirty feet each way. I cultivate with plow, harrow and spade the square immediately surrounding the tree. I plant corn in the young orchard and seed the bearing orchard to clover; cease cropping at five or six years. I think windbreaks essential on southwest, and would plant Osage orange or Russian mulberry. I wrap with grass or tarred paper to protect from rabbits. I prune in May to spread the top and thin the fruit. I seldom thin the fruit, but it will pay to thin the last of May. I fertilize with stable litter, but would advise it only on hill orchards. I pasture the orchard with hogs and horses, and think it advisable, and that it pays. My apples are troubled with codling-moth. I spray during May, after the blossom has fallen, with kerosene emulsion, sulphate of copper, and London purple, for codling-moth, blight, and insects generally. I think I have reduced the codling-moth. I treat borers with crude carbolic acid diluted with water. I dig around tree down to the roots, dam outside, fill around tree with water and acid strong enough to tingle your tongue. I hand-pick from ladders by the ordinary method. Never sell in orchard; make cider of second- and third-grade apples; feed culls to stock. My best markets are Holton and Topeka; never have tried distant markets. Never dry any. Store but few apples in an orchard cave, nine feet deep, eight feet wide by twenty-four feet long. The apples are put on shelves about ten inches deep. * * * * * H. L. JONES, Salina, Saline county: Have lived in Kansas forty-four years; have an apple orchard of 6000 trees, planted from five to twenty-five years. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Jonathan, Lowell, Cooper's Early White, Grimes's Golden Pippin, and Wealthy. For family orchard would plant Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Jonathan, Winesap, Missouri Pippin. Have tried and discarded Alexander as a shy bearer which rots on the tree. Prefer bottom land here, sandy soil, free from clay or hard-pan. Preferable with northeast slope. Plant well-branched two-year-old trees; turn deep cross-furrows the distance the trees are wanted apart; cultivate in corn until the trees are five or six years old; after that use the plow and disc harrow and plant nothing. I emphatically believe that windbreaks are essential. They may be made of anything hardy and suitable, as Osage orange, box-elder, walnut, etc. To protect from rabbits, wrap with grass or corn-stalks. I only prune with shears and saw, to clear the limbs off the ground a little. I believe stable litter is good for an orchard. I pasture very little, and do not think it good for an orchard. I spray as soon as the leaves start, with Paris green or London purple, mostly for canker-worm, and doubt its effect upon codling-moth. Thrifty trees are not usually bothered with borers, and unthrifty trees should be made into firewood. Our pickers use sacks with strap over the shoulder. We sort into four classes: First, large, sound fruit; second, small sound fruit; third, slightly damaged fruit; fourth, culls. Very little packing is done here; apples are usually sold to shippers in bulk. I sell my culls to hundreds of farmers in this and adjoining counties for canning, apple-butter, etc. My best market is here in Salina. I have tried distant markets, but it did not pay very well. Have never dried any; stored but few for winter in baskets and barrels. I find the Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Rawle's Janet and Romanite are the best keepers. Our loss in keeping varies with the season and the condition of the apples at picking time. Have never irrigated any. Prices during the past six years have varied from twenty-five to fifty cents per bushel. I use men and boys to help pick and at spraying time in the spring, usually paying one dollar per day. * * * * * N. CHRISTENSEN, Mariadahl, Pottawatomie county: I have lived in Kansas forty years. Have an apple orchard of four acres, from five to twenty-five years planted. For all purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. I prefer second-bottom land with a black loam, a clay subsoil, and a northeast slope. I prefer good two-year-old trees planted thirty feet apart, alternated with peaches. I have cultivated my orchard to corn, but do not think it advisable. I used a plow, cultivator and disc for eight years. I have cultivated the young orchard both ways twelve times, and shall keep on with the disc and harrow. I cease cropping after six or eight years, and then grow alfalfa. Windbreaks are not essential. I use wire-cloth as a protection against rabbits; I would not risk an apple or pear tree without it. I prune with a knife, saw and shears when the trees are young; I think it beneficial, as it makes the trees healthier. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; I spread it all over the ground and then harrow it in. I pasture my orchard with calves after it is six or eight years old and has been seeded to grass; I think it pays in an old orchard. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillars and borers. I have not sprayed yet, but think I shall this spring with Bordeaux mixture. I pick my apples by hand; sort into two classes. I feed my second and third grades and culls to the calves and hogs; have made cider of them, but could not find market for it. I have tried shipping apples to distant markets, but it did not pay. I dry some apples for home use, using stove and sun; neither way is satisfactory. I store my best apples in bulk in a cellar under the house; am not very successful; I find Ben Davis and Winesap keep the best. Prices have been from twenty-five to fifty cents per bushel. I do not hire any help; the family does the work. * * * * * H. R. ROBERTS, Perry, Jefferson county: I have lived in Kansas since 1859; have an apple orchard from four to twenty-eight years old. For a commercial orchard I prefer Jonathan, Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Maiden's Blush; and for a family orchard Red June, Maiden's Blush, Jonathan, Winesap, and Rawle's Janet. I prefer midland altitude or bottom, with a rich loam and a clay subsoil, and a northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old trees with upright heads, set 30×40 feet in squares. I cultivate my trees with a plow and cultivator until they occupy most of the ground. I plant corn and potatoes in a young orchard, and cease cropping when the size of the trees renders it impossible. I seed the bearing orchard to red clover. Windbreaks are not essential; a hedge fence is all that is necessary, and this ought not to be nearer than forty feet of the trees. For rabbits I wrap the trees; and dig the borers out with a knife. I prune sparingly with a knife or sharp ax to remove all dead or injured limbs; I think it pays. I thin the fruit when the trees are overloaded, by taking off one-half after they are the size of marbles. My trees are planted in blocks for convenience in picking. I fertilize my orchard with all the barn-yard litter I can get, scattered broadcast; would advise its use on all soils unless already very rich. I am sorry to confess I have pastured my orchard with hogs; it is not advisable. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, root aphis, roundhead borers, and buffalo tree-hopper; and my apples with codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. I have sprayed just as the buds open for canker-worm; have also sprayed for codling-moth. I pick all the apples I can reach from the ground in baskets, and the rest from ladders into sacks; I handle very carefully. I sort into two classes from a table as they come from the trees; pack in eleven-peck barrels for fall use, and twelve-peck barrels for winter use, carefully shaken and pressed; mark with the grade and name of variety and haul to market on wagon. I always sell in the orchard by car lots, when I can. I retail the scattered ones; send the third grade to the cider-mills. My best markets are sometimes both east and west of here. I never ship to commission men; it don't pay. I don't dry nor store any. I do not irrigate. I employ men and boys (men preferred). Pay one dollar per day and dinner. * * * * * W. D. KERN, Baldwin, Douglas county: I have resided in Kansas thirty-nine years. Have an apple orchard of 775 trees four years old. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Willow Twig, and for family orchard Yellow Transparent, Maiden's Blush, and Jonathan. I prefer a loose, porous subsoil on a north slope. I prefer one- or two-year-old trees, set twenty-two feet apart north and south and thirty-three feet east and west. I plant my orchard to corn, potatoes, and clover, and keep up the cultivation until they are bearing well, using a diamond plow and one-horse cultivator. I never cease cropping. Windbreaks are not essential, but if they were I should make them of four or five rows of maple or some quick-growing trees, on the south and west sides of the orchard. For rabbits I use wooden tree wrappers, and dig the borers out. I prune to give the tree shape and let in the sun; I think it pays, as it keeps the tree from overbearing. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees, but think it would pay. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter, and would advise it on all soils when it needs it. I pasture my orchard with hogs; I think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with canker-worms, tent-caterpillars, borers, tree-hoppers, and leaf-rollers, and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I do not spray. I hand-pick my apples into buckets and sacks from step-ladders. I sell my apples in the orchard at wholesale. I sell the best to shippers, and the second and third grades the best way I can. I sell or feed the culls to the stock. Never tried distant markets. I do not dry any. Some years I am successful in storing apples in barrels and boxes in a cellar. Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep best. I never tried artificial cold storage. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-fourth of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from sixty cents to one dollar per eleven-peck barrel. I employ men at ten cents per hour. * * * * * JAMES SHARP, Morris county: Have been in Kansas twenty-eight years. Have an orchard in Morris county of 8000 trees, planted from two to thirteen years. I grow for market Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, and York Imperial; would add for family Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded Yellow Bellflower, Lawver, Willow Twig, and Smith's Cider; the former is barren, the others blight. I prefer second bottom with northeast slope; soil loose, black loam, with red clay subsoil. I plant in furrows each way, 16×30 feet, running a subsoiler in the furrows, and use straight, smooth, two-year-old trees. Have tried root grafts, but they need nursery care at first. I cultivate at all ages, while young with plow, and old orchard with reversible disc. I grow corn in young orchard, and after five or six years keep the ground bare with the disc. I think windbreaks essential, and use Osage orange, elm, ash, Austrian pine, and cedars. Catch the rabbits; and cultivate well as a protection from borers. Do not prune much; take out a little brush if necessary to more readily reach the fruit. Never have thinned apples. Have never fertilized, and am decidedly opposed to pasturing orchards with any kind of stock. Am troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, flathead borer, woolly aphis, twig-borer, fall web-worm, leaf-roller, leaf-crumbler, and codling-moth. Spray regularly with London purple; cannot say it has reduced the codling-moth any; for borers I keep my trees thrifty by constant cultivation. We pick in candy pails, but find it bruises the fruit too much. I sort by hand in three classes, commercial size Nos. 1 and 2, and culls. I pack in three-bushel barrels, stenciled with name of variety and grower, and ship by freight. Sell any way I can; have never sold in the orchard; sell culls for apple-butter, and make some cider; have marketed at good prices at Pueblo, Colo.; have never dried any for market. I store some for winter in boxes, barrels and in bulk in a cellar, and find that Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin keep best. I usually have to sort over those kept through, and lose perhaps one-fifth. Have never irrigated. My average returns are about fifty cents per bushel. For help I use men at one dollar per day. * * * * * JAMES WILSON, Assaria, Saline county: Lived in Kansas twenty years; has an orchard of five acres, twenty-three years planted. For commerce he uses Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Jonathan, and for family use would add Maiden's Blush, Grimes's Golden Pippin, and Rawle's Janet. Has discarded Rambo as too shy a bearer. Prefers light soil, with a heavy subsoil in the bottom, with a southern slope. Plants thirty feet apart each way. Grows no crop in orchard, and cultivates with stirring plow and cultivator until the trees completely shade the ground. Believes windbreaks necessary, and would plant box-elder, three feet apart, in rows three feet apart, so as to shut out all wind. Binds with corn-stalks to protect against rabbits. Prunes by cutting off lower limbs and thinning center; says it is beneficial, and makes fruit larger and of better color. Thins apples on trees when the size of marbles, and believes it pays. On pollination he says: "I had one tree that stood alone, and never bore fruit until I got honey-bees; then it bore all right." Uses no fertilizers. Allows no live stock in the orchard. Has sprayed just after the blossom fell, with London purple and Bordeaux mixture, for the last five years, and it has reduced codling-moth. Uses knife and soap-suds for borers. Picks and sorts into three classes--sound and big, medium and affected, and culls. Sells in orchard and in Salina; makes vinegar and hog feed of culls. Never shipped any apples. Stores for winter by burying in bulk, and is successful. The Missouri Pippin and Rawle's Janet keep best. Prices from fifty to seventy-five cents per bushel. Uses boys from fourteen to twenty years of age for help, and pays fifty cents to one dollar per day with board. * * * * * J. W. WILLIAMS, Holton, Jackson county: I have lived in the state forty years; have an apple orchard of 225 trees of various ages, the oldest being thirty-nine years. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Jonathan; and for a family orchard Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Dominie, Lowell, and Winesap. Have tried thirty varieties and discarded all excepting the above mentioned. I prefer a rich soil with a porous subsoil and a north slope; can see little difference between hilltop and bottom orchards. I prefer two-year-old trees, with symmetrical form, for setting; when planting I trim all affected roots and prune lightly; set them inclined to the southwest. I cultivate my orchard as long as it lives with a plow and harrow--plow shallow; plant the young orchard to potatoes, beans, vines, and sometimes corn, using a one-horse diamond plow, and am careful to harrow afterward. I cease cropping six or seven years after setting, and plant a bearing orchard to red clover. I think windbreaks are essential; would make them of most any kind of rapid-growing trees planted in groves on the east and south sides of the orchard. For rabbits I wrap the trees, and dig the borers out. I prune with a penknife to keep the trees in good shape. It pays if properly done, and is not too severe. I have thinned my fruit by hand when of the size of hickory-nuts. Think trees do best in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter and ashes; I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs part of a day at a time when the apples fall badly. Don't let them in at will. I think it pays and is advisable, for they destroy the moth. My trees are troubled with both round- and flathead borers, and my apples with codling-moth. I spray, using a hand sprayer, with Bordeaux mixture and London purple, when the blossom falls, for codling-moth and curculio. It has not been beneficial. I burn the [tent] caterpillars. I pick my apples by hand in a sack over the shoulder, and sort into three classes--first, finest; second, fair; third, culls. I sort from the ground or a table. I sell apples in the orchard, wholesale and retail, and have no trouble in selling my first-grade apples. I sell and make cider of the second and third grades, and also dry some of them. Feed the culls to hogs or other stock. My best market is at home. We dry some in a common dry-house which is very satisfactory; after they are dry we put them into sacks to keep from millers; we find a market for them, but it does not pay well. I am fairly successful in storing apples on shallow shelves in the cellar; Winesap and Rawle's Janet keep best. I do not irrigate. Apples have been about fifty cents per bushel, and dried apples three to five cents per pound. * * * * * ANDREW SWANSON, Dwight, Morris county: I have resided in Kansas seventeen years, and have an apple orchard of 1800 trees eight years old, eight to ten feet tall. For market I prefer Winesap, Ben Davis, and Missouri Pippin; and for family orchard would add Jonathan and Maiden's Blush. I have tried and discarded Rome Beauty, Huntsman's Favorite, and Minkler. I do not like them. I have upland, with a poor soil and a gumbo subsoil, with a north and east aspect. I prefer two-year-old trees, set thirty feet apart each way. I cultivate my orchard with a stirring plow, and intend to keep it up as long as I live; plant corn or any cultivated crop in the young orchard, and cease when there is no room; plant nothing in the bearing orchard. I think a hedge fence all around the orchard as a windbreak would be beneficial. For rabbits, I wrap the trees with wire screening, and leave it on. I prune my trees every winter, or when I have time, to thin the top and to give shape; I think it pays, and is very beneficial. I do not thin my fruit--the wind does that for me. I fertilize my orchard, and think it beneficial, and would advise it on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable and does not pay. My trees are troubled with leaf-rollers and other insects. I give the culls to hogs. I am successful in storing apples in bulk in an arched cellar; Winesap, Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin keep best. I never tried artificial cold storage. I do not irrigate. Price has been seventy-five cents per bushel; dried apples eight to ten cents per pound. * * * * * F. B. HARRIS, White City, Morris county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-five-years, and have an orchard of 800 trees, planted from ten to fifteen years ago. For commercial purposes I prefer Maiden's Blush, Cooper's Early White, Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. For a family orchard I would put out the same, adding Red June, Jonathan, and Smith's Cider. I have discarded the Willow Twig, as it rots too easily. I prefer hilltop, north slope, soil as deep as possible, and a gumbo subsoil. Would plant two-year-old trees with perfect crown growth, twenty feet north and south, thirty feet east and west. My last planting, ten years ago, was of root grafts, and I like it first rate. I grow corn in the orchard for about ten years, then nothing. I cultivate thoroughly, plowing until the soil is doubled, and then use the disc pulverizer. I believe windbreaks to be very, very, very essential, and would make of Osage orange on the outside, and any quick-growing forest-tree next to the orchard. For protection against rabbits, I tie with weeds and twine. I prune with a jackknife, a two-inch thin-bladed chisel, and mallet. It does pay, and is beneficial until the trees are ten years old. I tried thinning, but it proved more injury than profit. I use all the fertilizer from stables and stock-yards that I can get, spread all over the ground, and believe it would pay on any soil. I would allow no live stock in the orchard but poultry, and would not allow them to roost in the trees. I have some trouble with tent-caterpillars, roundheaded borers, fall web-worm, and curculio. I spray with London purple, first when the bloom falls, then every ten days until three times, with a spray pump, using London purple. I do not know whether I have reduced the codling-moth any or not. I treat the borers with penknife and probe, others with rough handling--eternal, vigilant destruction. I pick from step-ladders into pails; place in sack to haul to the barn or shed. We sort into two classes--first, all sound and marketable, second for cider. I sort by hand from the pile, three or four bushels at a time. We pack in bushel-and-a-half sacks, filled from the half-bushel measure, mark with the name of variety, and haul to market in spring wagon. I retail and peddle them, making the culls into cider and vinegar. My best market is our nearest town; tried distant market last fall and it paid. We dry some, pack into tight boxes as soon as dried and store in dark place, and find a ready market at the stores at six cents per pound. It does not pay very well, but saves waste. I only store for family use, in headless barrels; generally keep well. Ben Davis keeps the best. We lose from one-fourth to one-half. I believe irrigation would be a good thing. Prices have been from thirty-five cents to seventy-five cents per bushel. Use only home help. * * * * * M. D. WELTNER, Westmoreland, Pottawatomie county: Have been in Kansas eighteen years. Planted 800 apple trees ten years ago. I do not own this orchard at present. I planted Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Jonathan, and Maiden's Blush. I prefer sandy or black loam, with clay subsoil, bottom land or gentle slope to the north. I set good, thrifty, clean, two-year-old trees. I thoroughly plow my ground, then run a lister for the row, and throw out with spade or shovel where the trees are to go. I cultivate with potatoes and corn, using the plow, harrow, and five-tooth cultivator, until ten or twelve years old, then sow to clover. I use no windbreaks. For rabbits I wrap with building paper or wire screen. I believe it pays to prune with the knife and saw a little each year, to train the tree to grace, beauty, and profit. I never tried thinning fruit. Would fertilize with a little stable litter spread over the ground. Never would pasture an orchard. Had some canker-worm and curculio, but never tried spraying. I pick from a step-ladder into a shoulder sack. * * * * * V. E. HATHAWAY, Council Grove, Morris county: Have lived in Kansas thirty years; have an orchard of 1000 trees two to twelve inches in diameter. Have tried and discarded Willow Twig and Smith's Cider on account of blight. I prefer a gravel or clay bottom with northern slope. I prefer healthy trees set forty by twenty feet. I cultivate my orchard to corn until too large, plowing very shallow. Windbreaks are beneficial; would make them of cedar. I prune by cutting out the inner limbs that rub; I think it pays. I do not thin the fruit on the trees. I sometimes fertilize with stable litter; would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, and my fruit by codling-moth. I spray just after the blooms fall with London purple, and think I have reduced the codling-moth. I dig out insects not affected by spraying. I pick my fruit from inside of tree from a ladder. Sort into three classes. Pack in apple barrels, pressed down, and marked with the quality; then transport to market on a wagon. I wholesale, retail, and peddle; sometimes sell in the orchard. Feed the culls to hogs. My best market is at home; never tried distant markets. Do not dry any. I store apples in boxes or barrels, and am successful. I find Missouri Pippin, Winesap and Ben Davis keep best. We have to repack stored apples before marketing, and lose about one-eighth or one-tenth. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * S. MARTY, Longford, Clay county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years; have an apple orchard of 200 trees from seven to fifteen years old, eight to ten inches in diameter. Have tried and discarded Grimes's Golden Pippin and Willow Twig. I prefer sandy bottom, loam soil, with a north or northeast aspect. I prefer two-year-old, low, stocky trees, set in rows thirty-six feet each way. Have tried root grafts with very good success. I cultivate my trees eight years; first four to potatoes, using a disc harrow; plow shallow among young trees; plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of Osage orange and box-elder on both south and west sides of the orchard. I trap and shoot the rabbits. I prune very little; only cut out the branches that interfere. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter; I think it beneficial. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable. Do not spray. Sort into two classes: good and bad. * * * * * J. L. STEELE, Minneapolis, Ottawa county: Have lived in Kansas fourteen years. Have 200 apple trees from six to twelve years old. I prefer bottom land with sandy loam and similar subsoil, north slope. I plant two-year-old trees branched near the ground, in deep furrows made by plow. Have tried root grafts with good success. I cultivate with corn and potatoes, using disc and harrow all the time; plant nothing in bearing orchard; cease cropping when about eight or ten years old. Windbreaks are essential, on the south; would make them of honey-locust, two or three feet apart in the row. I wrap the tree with corn-stalks to protect from rabbits. Have not been troubled with borers. I only prune out the limbs that interfere with others. Never thin apples. I fertilize with stable litter, and think it beneficial; would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm. I spray with London purple when the worms first begin their work, to kill leaf-eating insects; do not think I have reduced the codling-moth. I irrigate with a 4-1/2-inch-cylinder pump and well. * * * * * J. C. CAMPBELL, Campbell, Washington county: Have lived in Kansas fifteen years; have 250 trees from three to fourteen years old, eight to twelve inches in diameter. I prefer for family orchard Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Rawle's Janet. I prefer hilltop with deep soil and red subsoil, and an eastern slope. I prefer three-year-old trees, set 24×30 feet, as deep as they were in the nursery. I cultivate in buckwheat for eight years with the plow; after that plant nothing. Windbreaks are essential on the southwest or north and south; would make them of Osage orange; plant them forty feet distant and do not trim. For rabbits I wrap with corn-stalks and leave them on summer and winter. I prune with a saw; then cover the wound with wax; I think it beneficial. Have never thinned fruit. Never use fertilizer; do not think it advisable. Do not pasture my orchard; would not advise it. My trees are affected with twig-borer and leaf-roller. The codling-moth troubles my apples. I do not spray. I pick my apples early and leave them in piles in the orchard until cold weather. * * * * * WILLIAM YOUNG, Brantford, Washington county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-one years. Have 200 apple trees, five to twenty-five years planted, four to twelve inches in diameter. I prefer for commercial orchard Winesap, Ben Davis, and Rawle's Janet. I prefer bottom land, with black loam and clay subsoil. I prefer three-year-old trees, good, smooth bark, and three or four branches. Have tried root grafts and seedlings with good success. I cultivate in corn, using plow for thirteen years; plow toward the trees one year, then away the next. Windbreaks are essential, and I would make them of cottonwood, box-elder or catalpa planted in rows on the north side. Am not troubled with rabbits or borers. I prune with a saw and knife, to produce better fruit; I think it beneficial. I fertilize with stable litter and wood ashes; I would advise its use on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs; think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled some with insects; codling-moth troubles my apples. I pick my apples by hand into a basket, then sort and put in the cellar. I sort into two classes, good and bad; we sort as we pick them. I sell my apples at home and in town, sometimes in orchard; retail, wholesale, or peddle. Make cider for vinegar of culls. My best market is Clifton; never tried distant markets. Never dry any. I store some for winter market in thin layers on shelves, in cellar seven feet deep, and find the Winesap keeps best. Prevailing price has been eighty cents. * * * * * H. E. PENNY, Hiawatha, Brown county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years. Have 1800 apple trees--600 planted fifteen years, 1200 planted ten years. Grow nothing but Ben Davis. Planted two-year-old trees, twenty-four by thirty feet, on a southern slope. Cultivate in corn for ten years and then sow to clover. I prune only to keep the watersprouts from bothering the tree. I believe fertilizing pays, although I have not tried it. I never allow any stock but poultry in the orchard. I spray after the bloom has fallen, and ten days later, with Paris green, to destroy the codling-moth. We sort out only one grade, allowing the culls to rot. We pack in three-bushel barrels, and usually sell in the orchard at wholesale. Our best market is Minneapolis, Minn., but I have not made shipping pay. I have tried artificial cold storage; they did not keep satisfactorily, I do not know why. I had to repack, and lost over twenty per cent. Prices have varied from 75 cents to $1.50 per barrel. For help, I use boys at fifty cents to seventy-five cents per day. * * * * * J. D. HAZEN, Leona, Doniphan county: Have been in Kansas forty years; have an apple orchard of 13,200 trees; 10,000 have been planted fourteen years, and 3200 for two years. I would plant nothing but Ben Davis for commercial purposes. For the family orchard I would add Winesap, Jonathan, and Rawle's Janet. Prefer rather high land, well underdrained, with a northeast slope. I plant good two-year-old trees, in rows two rods apart east and west, and the trees one rod apart in the row north and south. I grow corn or potatoes for six years, then seed down to clover. I cultivate the trees while young with a small one-horse plow. I think windbreaks essential on the south and west sides; Osage orange is good, set the same as for a fence, and allowed to grow tall. I wrap my trees against rabbits, and try all ways to destroy them. I prune with the saw to get the trees up so I can get around them, and believe it pays, or I would not do it. Have been at it fifteen years, and see no harm. Don't think it would pay to thin apples on the trees. I believe it is better to mix varieties in the orchard; I have 7000 Ben Davis and 300 Winesaps in one orchard, and where the Winesaps are mixed with the Davis the trees are always fuller. I believe fertilizing would be good, but my orchard is too large to practice it. I pasture with horses in the spring, and believe it does no harm, and that it pays. Canker-worm is my worst insect pest, and I have been spraying for many years, using one pound of London purple to 160 gallons of water. I spray when the blossoms fall, using a big tank and a small engine to pump. I cannot say that I have reduced the codling-moth any by spraying. I cut borers out. I sort into two classes, No. 1's and No. 2's, bests and second bests; best ones go into firsts, and those that are not rotten in No. 2. I have a table, or what I call a culler; the apples are picked and put into these cullers; I have twelve men to each culler and a boss over them. They stand and cull the apples. I have the cullers numbered, so if any one puts up bad apples I can catch him. I use barrels for the No. 1's; fill and press so they will not shake. I put them up in good shape, and sell at wholesale to the first buyer that comes. I ship my culls and second-grade apples to western Kansas and to Nebraska in cars in bulk. I never send to commission men. I have never tried drying, or storing apples for winter. For family use I put away some in barrels, and keep the above varieties successfully. Prices, last year, two dollars per barrel; a year ago, one dollar per barrel; two years ago, $1.50 per barrel. I use any help I can get, paying seventy five cents per day and board. * * * * * J. B. AVERY, Clifton, Washington county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years; have an apple orchard of 1500 trees, from five to fourteen years planted, three to fifteen inches in diameter. For planting I prefer two-year-old whips. I cultivate my orchard to potatoes or any hoed crop, when it is first planted; keep this up as long as the roots and branches will admit. I have used a disc and common drag harrow for the last three years. I plant my bearing orchard to clover. I prune my trees with a pruning knife and saw when necessary. I fertilize my orchard with thoroughly rotted stable litter. I think it beneficial and would advise its use on all soils. I have pastured eight acres of my orchard with calves; have not seen any injury. I sort my apples into three classes--first, second, and culls. I sell my apples to neighbors, restaurants, stores, etc. The culls I dry, make cider, feed to pigs, and give away. Clifton is my best market; have never tried distant markets. I store some in boxes, barrels and sacks in a cellar. * * * * * T. S. ANDERSON, Oneida, Nemaha county: Have been in Kansas twenty-seven years; have an orchard of 1000 trees fifteen years old, ten to eighteen inches in diameter. Prefer for market Ben Davis and Winesap; for family use, many kinds. Have discarded Rawle's Janet, Early Pennock, Bellflower, and Russets. I prefer limestone soil; bottom land with northern slope. I plant two-year-old, straight-bodied, thrifty looking, live trees. I cultivate in corn, with riding plow, for six years, and then seed to grass. I believe a windbreak is essential, and would make it of Osage orange, maple, or cottonwood. I prevent rabbits and borers by painting with ashes and lime. I prune with saw and knife to make larger apples, and give them better color, and think it pays. I do not thin, and would put fertilizer from the barn-yard on the land. I pasture my orchard with cattle and hogs, but do not think it advisable. I am troubled some with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, root aphis, borers, codling-moth, and curculio, but do not spray. I gather only the best by hand, and put them immediately in a bin in the cellar. I sell to stores, use plenty at home, make cider, and feed the hogs on culls. My best market is Seneca, Kan. Have never tried drying apples. I store for winter on shallow shelves, six inches deep and two feet wide, in a dry cellar, and keep them successfully; Ben Davis and Winesap keep the best. Prices have ranged from twenty-five to seventy-five cents per bushel. I use common laborers, and pay from one to two dollars per day. * * * * * HOWARD MORTON, Tescott, Ottawa county: I have lived in Kansas thirty-two years; I have twenty old apple trees and 400 set two years ago. I prefer Ben Davis, Gano and York Imperial for market, and Maiden's Blush, Early Harvest and Winesap for family use. My orchard is in a bottom with a north slope. I plant two-year-olds with a fair amount of large roots, in furrows made with a lister, and enlarged with a spade where necessary. I cultivate with a disc harrow as long as possible, and grow nothing on the ground among the trees. I believe windbreaks are essential, and would make them by planting Osage orange, Russian mulberry and box-elders in rows six feet apart. I do not prune much; only thin out inside shoots to prevent contact. I believe it pays to thin the fruit some when the apples are perhaps half grown. I use no fertilizers. I do not pasture my orchard. I spray a little before the buds swell, after the blossoms fall, and two weeks later, with Bordeaux mixture, to prevent wormy apples. I dig out borers with a jack-knife and a small wire. * * * * * I. N. MACY, Longford, Clay county: Have lived in Kansas fifteen years; have 150 apple trees nine years old, from fifteen to eighteen feet high. For family orchard prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, and Jonathan. I prefer bottom land. I plant two-year-old trees. I cultivate in corn for the shade as long as there is room, using the plow, cultivator, and harrow, and cease cropping when trees shade the ground. Windbreaks are beneficial on the south. I prune to balance the top and prevent the limbs from chafing; I think it beneficial. I never thin apples. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter, keeping my ground as rich as a garden, and would advise its use on all soils. I never pasture my orchard; it is sure death to it; allow nothing larger than chickens in it. I spray only for canker-worms, using Paris green and lime, when in bloom; am successful. I do not irrigate. * * * * * A. C. GRIESA, Lawrence, Douglas county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin, and, for a family orchard, the leading medium early and late sorts. I prefer upland or second bottom with a clay subsoil; all slopes, if well drained, are good, excepting south. I prefer good two-year-old trees, set in land laid off with a plow. I plant my orchard to corn for four years and use an eight-tooth cultivator; cease cropping when the trees are four or six inches in diameter; plant clover in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are not essential in this locality. For rabbits I wrap the trees, and dig the borers out. I prune when the trees are young to thin the top; I think it beneficial and that it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees, but would advise doing so when the fruit is one-third grown. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter, and would advise its use, especially on uplands. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, root aphis, flathead and roundhead borers, and woolly aphis; and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray, but would advise it. I am sure it would reduce the codling-moth. I hand-pick my apples in a sack over the shoulder. * * * * * A. G. AXELTON, Randolph, Riley county: I have lived in Kansas forty years; have an apple orchard of 300 trees eighteen years old, sixteen feet high. For a family orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Maiden's Blush. I prefer black bottom land with a clay subsoil, and a northern slope. For planting I prefer two-year-old, straight, smooth trees. I cultivate my orchard till the trees begin to bear, with a cultivator and hogs, planting nothing. Windbreaks are not essential. For rabbits I wrap the trees with paper. I do not prune my trees, nor thin the fruit while on the trees. I do not fertilize. I pasture my orchard with hogs at certain times in the spring when worthless apples are dropping. My trees are troubled with canker-worm and tent-caterpillar. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand and carry them to the cellar. I do not store any apples for winter market. * * * * * C. H. TAYLOR, Eskridge, Wabaunsee county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-eight years. Have 1400 apple trees, five to fifteen years old, six to twelve inches in diameter. For market I grow Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Jonathan; for family orchard I would advise Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Cooper's Early White, Maiden's Blush, and Jonathan; and I would discard nearly all others. I prefer bottom land, with black loam and open subsoil, north slope. Would plant one- or two-year-old, low-top trees, twenty-five feet apart each way. I have grown root grafts with success. I shall cultivate as long as the trees live, growing corn among them until the growth of the trees prevents it. I believe all the windbreak necessary is an ordinary fence. I use traps for the rabbits and a knife for the borers. I thin the fruit on the trees in the early summer, after they are well set. I believe barn-yard fertilizer beneficial to any orchard. I pasture my orchard with hogs, and think it advisable, and that it pays. I have some insects, but do not spray; I burn some. I pick by hand in half-bushel baskets; sort into two classes, market and cider; pack into barrels, and usually sell in the orchard at wholesale. Never shipped to a distant market. Do not dry any. Have stored some for winter in the cellar in bulk, and find that the Missouri Pippin, Winesap and Rawle's Janet keep the best. I do not irrigate. Price averages about twenty-five cents per bushel. I use ordinary farm hands at fifteen to twenty dollars per month. * * * * * FRANK SEIFERT, Strawberry, Washington county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years; have an apple orchard of 150 trees, from three to twenty years planted. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap, and for family orchard would add Maiden's Blush. Have tried and discarded Willow Twig on account of blight. I prefer limestone upland with an eastern aspect. I prefer three-year-old trees for planting. I cultivate my orchard for eight or ten years with a plow and harrow. I seed bearing orchard to red clover. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of one row of box-elder and two rows of plums. I fertilize my orchard with straw and hay, and think it advisable, on all soils. I never pasture my orchard; it is not advisable. I do not spray. I pick my apples the old way. [?] Sell my apples in the orchard. I sometimes store for winter in bulk in an arched cellar, and am successful. I find the Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin and Winesap keep equally well. Prices have been from fifty to seventy-five cents per bushel. * * * * * J. T. TRAVIS, Aurora, Cloud county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-six years; have an apple orchard of seventy-five trees from five to twenty years old. I prefer low land, black loam soil with clay subsoil, and a northern slope. I prefer two-year-old trees, straight, with no forks, the limbs low down, planted in furrows made by a plow. I cultivate my orchard as long as I can get through it, with potatoes and sweet corn, using a harrow often enough to keep weeds down and ground smooth. Cease cropping when the trees get too large for sweet corn to do any good. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of Russian mulberry, planted in two or three rows, eight to ten feet apart, on all sides of the orchard. I prune little, only enough to thin out the tops and keep limbs from rubbing each other, and to give light. I fertilize my old orchard with any kind of coarse stable litter; I pile it in heaps between the trees and let it lay until it rots. I pasture my orchard with hogs when it grows to wild rye and is too large for me to plow; I think it advisable only when the trees get foul; it pays if not pastured with too many and they are not kept on too long. My trees are troubled with leaf-roller, and my apples with codling-moth. I have sprayed, but only to a limited extent. * * * * * SAM KIMBLE, Manhattan, Riley county: Have been in Kansas thirty-eight years. Have an orchard of 2500 trees not yet in bearing. They have been planted three, four and five years. I have set out for market Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap, and for family use about thirty kinds, in variety. I am located on upland, with clay subsoil, mainly northwest slope. I planted three-year-old trees, stocky and low headed, in holes twenty-five by thirty feet apart, getting on my knees to work the soil in about the roots. I crop to corn, cultivating well, and shall keep this up as long as three rows can be fairly grown between two rows of trees. I believe in plowing if you do not get too close to the trees. When my orchard comes into bearing I shall keep up the cultivation but grow no crop. I believe windbreaks are very desirable, and should make them of cottonwood, elms, or any quick-growing forest-trees. To keep off rabbits I tie on corn-stalks with binder twine. I prune carefully to shorten the heads and keep down watersprouts, and believe it beneficial. I believe thinning will pay when the fruit sets too thickly. I believe in lots of fertilization, and use all the stable litter I can get; I don't think you can use too much. I believe that young calves might be pastured to advantage in an old orchard. Have not sprayed any, and depend on rains for water. * * * * * J. B. STARNS, Fairmount, Leavenworth county: Have lived in the state forty-one years; have 1800 apple trees, extra large, seventeen years old. Planted for market Ben Davis, Winesap, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin; and for early use Early Harvest, Cooper's Early White, Maiden's Blush, and the Gennettan. Have discarded the Red June as too small and falling too badly. My ground is black loam upland, sloping north and east. I planted two-year-old trees in furrows made by the plow, twenty by thirty-two feet. Would cultivate in corn for five years, using the breaking-plow and cultivator; then sow to clover. Windbreaks are not necessary here. I trap the rabbits. For borers I bank around the trees in May, and take it away in September; this exposes the tree, and the borers are taken out easily with a knife. I prune some, and think it pays to take off watersprouts and shape the tree a little. Do not thin, and do not fertilize. I pasture in the spring and fall, after the apples are gathered, with pigs; it is an experiment. I have some tent-caterpillar, twig-borer, and codling-moth. Have never sprayed any. I pick in sacks and baskets, emptying into bushel boxes, which are hauled on wagons made for that purpose, to the place for packing. I make three grades: shippers, seconds, and cider or driers. The boxes are taken from the wagon and culled, and shippers packed in barrels; the rest are put in piles, which are afterward culled, and the seconds put by themselves. We mark barrels with name of variety, and haul to market on wagons made for the purpose. We often sell at wholesale in the orchard; we sell the seconds in bulk. My best market is Leavenworth; have never shipped any away. Have never dried any, and do not store any for winter. Prices have ranged from 50 cents to $1.75 per barrel. I use men only, and pay $1.50 per day. * * * * * D. N. BARNS, Leavenworth, Leavenworth county: I have lived in Kansas thirty-seven years; have 2000 apple trees twenty years old. The best for commercial purposes is New York Pippin [Ben Davis]. For family orchard I prefer Jonathan, Winesap, Minkler, Huntsman's Favorite, and Lowell. I have tried and discarded Nonesuch. I prefer bottom land, with black loam soil and clay subsoil, with south slope, in my locality. I plant good, stout, thrifty trees, two to three years old, sixteen and one-half by thirty-three feet apart. I cultivate until the trees are large enough to shade the ground. In the young orchard, for the first seven or eight years, I usually grow corn, wheat, or oats; in a bearing orchard I grow orchard-grass and timothy and clover, separate or together. I have not yet ceased cropping. I believe windbreaks are essential, made of hills, trees, or hedge fence. For this purpose I would advise to first find the hills; then plant the orchard and trees or hedge. I dig out the borers, and trap or shoot the rabbits. I believe it pays to prune some to get rid of surplus wood. I believe it pays to thin apples and I do it in July. I fertilize by pasturing with cows, and believe it pays. Am troubled with some insects, but have never sprayed. We pick from a ladder, each man carrying two baskets; we sort into two classes on a table. In the first class we put apples not damaged too much and large enough, and in the other we place the small ones. * * * * * J. F. RUHLIN, Wetmore, Nemaha county: Has been in Kansas seventeen years. Owns an apple orchard of 1150 trees, set out from one to three years. Set Ben Davis, Jonathan, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and for family orchard would add the Maiden's Blush, Rambo, Rome Beauty, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. Has discarded Early Harvest, Red June, and Red Astrachan. Wants upland always, north or northeast slope if possible, and a loose, friable soil, with gravelly subsoil. On planting, he says he uses two-year-old, short, stocky trees with bushy tops and lots of roots, which he prunes back at setting. Sets trees deeper than they grew at the nursery, 20×30 feet. Puts a barrel half full of soil and water on a sled, and puts ten to twenty trees into it at a time; takes out a tree and sets it with as little exposure of roots to the air as possible. Cultivates well, keeping the ground clean in the tree row all summer. This winter, 1897-'98, he saw fine ten-year-old trees completely girdled by mice, in an orchard that was neglected last summer, and weeds and grass allowed to grow next the trees; these held the snow around the trees, and allowed the mice to burrow under to the tree. Grows corn as a protection to the trees in summer, using a five-tooth one-horse cultivator, shallow and often, near the trees, until they begin to bear, when he sows to clover, and mows frequently. Thinks windbreaks are essential, and if used would make them of Osage orange or mulberry, not very close to trees on north and west sides. Protects from rabbits by wrapping with corn-stalks and will try leaving them on this summer as a protection from sun-scald. Prunes interlocking limbs to get into shape; believes it beneficial. Believes thinning would pay on choice varieties if tree was very full. Believes in using all the barn-yard litter possible, especially on poor soil. Never has pastured orchard, but might put in horses or sheep. Thinks it would hardly pay. Never has sprayed, but believes in it. Digs out borers. Prefers to wholesale fruit in orchard. * * * * * JOSEPH C. REA, Brenner, Doniphan county: Have been in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have 4000 trees six to twelve years old. I prefer for commercial orchard Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin; add, for family orchard, Minkler. Discarded Lawver because it did not bear. I prefer side-hill, clay loam, with a north slope. Prefer trees without forks, and plant a little deeper than in the nursery. I cultivate with the plow and cultivator until they begin to bear. I plant a young orchard to corn, a bearing orchard to clover, and cease cropping when they begin to bear. Windbreaks are not essential. I wrap my trees with corn-stalks to protect from rabbits. I prune to improve the fruit, and think it beneficial. Never dry apples. Think that if Jonathans are planted near other trees they are better, bigger, and fuller. Winesap and Chenango Strawberry are varieties adjoining mine. Do not fertilize; would not advise its use. Do not pasture orchard; not advisable. My trees are troubled with buffalo tree-hopper. I dig borers out. I pick by hand and sort from a table. I sort into three classes--first, the fairest and reddest; second, smaller and paler; third, rough and poor. I prefer three-bushel barrels to pack in; fill as full as possible, and mark with my name. I sell in orchard, also wholesale. Leave culls on ground. My best market is home; the buyers come and get them. I store in barrels, and find that Minkler and Mammoth Black Twig keep best. I got $1000 for 805 barrels last year. I employ young men and boys, and pay $1.25 to $1.50 per day. * * * * * ELI HOFFMAN, Donegal, Dickinson county: Have been in Kansas nineteen years. Have 500 apple trees, nine years planted, made up of 150 Ben Davis, 150 Missouri Pippin, 75 Winesap, and 125 of summer and fall varieties. I prefer bottom land; don't want hilltop, unless level; don't want any slope; would subsoil the year before planting, then plant twenty-four feet apart each way the following year. Grow corn or potatoes the first four years, and after that, nothing. Cultivate up to nine years old; the disc and corn cultivator are good the first years; I keep it as clean as a California orange grove; cease cropping after four years. I think windbreaks are necessary, and would make them of a double row of mulberries eight feet apart. For rabbits I put wire screen around the trees. I use the pruning-knife and saw to give air. I would not pasture an orchard. Have not sprayed, but intend to, with London purple. * * * * * E. M. GLASPEY, Nortonville, Jefferson county: Have lived in Kansas fourteen years. Have 700 apple trees from twenty to twenty-five years old. Prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin and Winesap for market; and Winesap, Golden Sweet and Early Harvest for family use. I prefer bottom land with a north aspect, soil suitable for wheat is good for apples; would turn in cattle after the crop is gathered, and think it pays. When the bloom falls I spray with London purple. I pick in half-bushel baskets and place in large piles in the orchard. I sort into three grades; No. 1 is best, which I generally sell to shippers; No. 2 next, which I sell in the city to families or to dealers; the culls I peddle out, and also make into cider. My best market is Atchison. I shipped once to a commission house in Topeka, but it did not pay. I never dry any; sometimes I store for winter in bulk in the cellar, and find that Missouri Pippin and Willow Twig keep the best. I employ men and boys at seventy-five cents to one dollar per day. * * * * * W. H. TUCKER, Effingham, Atchison county: Has lived in Kansas thirty-eight years; has an orchard of 500 trees, 200 of them planted twenty years and 300 planted six years. Advises for commercial orchard Ben Davis, Gano, and Missouri Pippin, and adds to them for family orchard Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Genneting, and Jonathan. Has discarded Smith's Cider. Prefers rich, sandy upland with red clay subsoil, with a northeast slope. He planted vigorous four-year-old trees, first plowing, then twice harrowing; then furrow out deeply each way thirty feet apart, and set a tree at each crossing. He cultivates with ordinary tools from six to eight years, until trees begin to bear, growing corn, potatoes or beans in the orchard; then seeds to clover. Believes windbreaks essential and makes his of soft maple, ash, and walnut. For rabbits he uses Frazer's axle grease, and kills borers with knife. Prunes little until after the trees are fifteen years old; prunes only to give shape and keep from being too brushy. Uses stable manure and lime as fertilizers and believes it would pay on all soils he ever saw. Pastures his old orchard with hogs at certain times of the year, and says it pays. Is troubled some with insects, and sprays twice each year with London purple. Has not been fully successful. Picks in baskets and sacks. Makes two grades--selects and sound fair size. Packs only in barrels; often sells in orchard. For last few years has used a few culls for vinegar, and let the rest rot on the ground. Best market is at home. Has tried distant markets and made it pay. Never dries any, and for the last six years has stored none for winter. Prices have ranged from twenty to forty cents per bushel. Uses farm help at seventy-five cents to one dollar per day. * * * * * J. F. HANSON, Olsburg, Pottawatomie county: Have lived in Kansas thirty years; have an orchard of 1500 trees, ten and twelve years old. Use for commercial purposes Winesap, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin. For family use I add Maiden's Blush and Early Harvest. My land is a black loam, in the bottom, with an east slope. I plow deep, then list a furrow each way, and plant at the crossing. I usually grow millet in the orchard for seven or eight years, and then--if anything--clover or orchard-grass. I believe windbreaks are essential, and would place on the north and west sides Osage orange or mulberry trees. For rabbits, I wrap my trees. For the borers, I use whitewash. I do not pasture. I have some insects, but have not sprayed. I pick by hand, and sort into two classes, according to size and quality. I retail my best in the orchard and elsewhere; of the culls I make cider. I store for winter in barrels in the cellar; am successful in keeping Winesap, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin, losing only about one-tenth. Prices have run from twenty cents to one dollar per bushel. For picking, I use boys from town. * * * * * WILLIAM J. HENRY, Lowemont, Leavenworth county: Been in Kansas twenty-seven years; have 2500 apple trees; 1600 bearing and 900 younger. For market varieties I use Ben Davis and Jonathan; for family orchard, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Maiden's Blush, and Early Harvest. I prefer bottom land for Ben Davis and hilltop for Jonathan; northeast slope is best. The soil preferred for most apples should be clay, while for Ben Davis I prefer black loam. I plant good healthy two-year-olds, twenty-four by twenty-four feet on the hill, and thirty by thirty feet in the bottom. I have grown root grafts with great success. I cultivate in corn for six years, with a diamond and shovel plow, with a single horse, and by all means avoid a turning plow. After this I grow weeds or clover, but use a mowing-machine. Windbreaks are essential here, and should be made of a heavy hedge or forest on the northwest. I wrap with brown paper for mice and rabbits. Use a knife on borers, which are the only insects that bother me. I prune to shape the tree when young, and to increase the quality of the fruit when older; it is beneficial, and pays. Winds in Kansas are more than sufficient for thinning purposes, and often thin to excess. I have tried apple trees in blocks of a kind, and also mixed, and can see no difference in fertility. I use stable litter, rotten straw, etc.; it is next to cultivation. I would always use such on thin soil, and on rich soil if it is not cultivated. I turn any and all kinds of stock in after gathering the fruit, and think it pays, but I would not allow any live stock in a young orchard. I am troubled some with canker-worm, flathead borer, and codling-moth. I spray from the shedding of the bloom until of the size of peas, using London purple, to perfect the fruit. I believe I have reduced the codling-moth some. For picking I use good careful hands, with baskets and ladders. We sort on a cull table in the orchard into No. 1 and No. 2. I prefer eleven-peck barrels, filled full enough to head without bruising, stencil the end and haul to market in a lumber wagon. I often sell in the orchard my best apples in barrels; the second grade I often sell in the orchard, too; third grade I peddle; culls I make into cider. My best local market is Lowemont; best distant market is Denver, Colo. I never dry any. I store in an out cellar covered with dirt, in barrels, and find Winesap keeps the best. I lose about one-tenth. Prices for the last four years have run from 75 cents to $1.50 per barrel. I use the most careful men, and pay seventy-five cents and board, or $1.25 without board. * * * * * CHAS. WARDEN, Leonardville, Riley county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; have an apple orchard of 300 trees, from five to sixteen years planted. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin; and for family, Maiden's Blush, and some other varieties. I prefer hilltop with black loam and clay subsoil, with an eastern slope. I plant two- and three-year-old trees in deep furrows thrown out with a plow. I plant my orchard to potatoes and beans for eight years, using a cultivator, and cease cropping when the trees shade the ground; plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of soft maple, Russian mulberry, or ash, two rows around the orchard, three rods from the apple trees. To protect from rabbits, I wrap the trees with stalks and straw. I prune my trees with a saw, so that I can get in to pick the fruit. I think it beneficial. I never thin the fruit while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard; think it has been beneficial, and would advise it on all soils. Do not pasture my orchard. Trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar. I spray after the apples have formed, with London purple, to kill the insects. After picking my apples, I leave them in piles in the orchard until cold weather, when I carry them in. Sort into two classes--cider, and selling; peddle my best apples, and make cider of the second and third grades. Clay Center is my best market. Never dry any. I store some for winter on shelves eight inches deep, and am successful. I find Winesap keeps best. We have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about fifteen per cent. I do not irrigate. Price has been seventy-five cents per bushel. I employ men at one dollar per day. * * * * * PHILLIP LUX, Topeka, Shawnee county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years. Have an apple orchard of 1200 trees from six to nine years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, York Imperial, and Grimes's Golden Pippin, and for family would add to the above Benoni, Maiden's Blush, Early Harvest, Red June, Duchess of Oldenburg, Early Ripe, and Yellow Transparent. Have tried and discarded Willow Twig, Smith's Cider, Kansas Keeper, Wagener, Talman Sweet and White Winter Pearmain on account of blight and other good reasons. I prefer clay upland and subsoil, with northeast aspect. I use only number one two-year-old trees, planted in furrows opened up with a plow, and deep enough to receive them without the use of a spade. I plant sixteen by thirty-two feet. I cultivate my orchard to corn for four or five years, using a hoe, plow, and five-shovel cultivator with one horse; cease cropping after four or five years; grow clover and weeds in a bearing orchard, mowing twice a year and let lay on the ground. Windbreaks are not absolutely necessary. For rabbits I find wood veneers to be best and cheapest; they come in blocks; turn one end to the sun or fire to dry; then put on coal-tar and stick this end in the ground. I prune a little during the first five years after planting, keeping the heaviest part of top to the southwest. It will always pay if judiciously done. I never thin my apples while on the trees. Do not pasture the orchard with anything but chickens; it pays in eggs. My trees are troubled with roundhead borer, fall web-worm, leaf-roller, and canker-worm, and my apples with codling-moth. Have not sprayed, but soon intend to, with London purple. I dig borers out with a knife. I pick apples in half-bushel baskets; sort into two classes, putting all fine, sound and good size in first grade. I pack in three-bushel barrels and send to market as soon as ready by railroad. I sometimes sell my apples in the orchard. I also wholesale and retail, and sell the second and third grades where I can get the most for them; feed the culls to stock or let rot. Have tried distant markets and found it paid. Do not dry any. * * * * * FAYETTE A. SMITH, Belleville, Republic county: I have lived in Kansas thirty-one years; have an orchard of 200 apple trees from six to eight years old. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin; and for family, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Rawle's Janet. I have tried and discarded Cooper's Early White; it is too tender. I prefer two feet of good soil on a hill; don't care what is below if drainage is good; think a northern slope best. I prefer fresh, vigorous, two-year-old trees with well-formed top, set in land plowed for two preceding years in deep furrows both ways; open holes with hoe, then tramp dirt well around roots. I cultivate my orchard with corn or potatoes for ten or fifteen years, using a small one-horse stirring plow, wrapping the ends of the singletree. Cease cropping when the trees get too large. Windbreaks are not essential, but think they might be beneficial to some kinds, on the south side, to protect from hot winds. Would make them of Russian mulberry or willows. Any smell of blood or fresh meat will keep the rabbits off; I do not like wrappers, as they harbor vermin. I prune my trees some, cutting out small limbs to let in light; think it beneficial. I thin the fruit on my trees by knocking them off with a pole, if I can't do better, at any time; it pays when overloaded. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; do not put it close to trees; think it beneficial if not too coarse; would advise its use on soils where it will not force too rank a growth. I pasture my orchard with growing calves, but do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar, flathead borer, and leaf-roller; and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I do not spray; but think it would be beneficial. I pick my apples from a common orchard platform ladder. Do not raise any apples for market. Do not dry or store any, or irrigate. Prices have been twenty-five to sixty cents in the fall, fifty cents to one dollar in the winter. Average about sixty cents per bushel for good apples. Dried apples have been five to seven cents per pound. * * * * * J. F. CECIL, North Topeka, Shawnee county: I have lived in Kansas twenty years. Have an apple orchard of 200 trees, six to eight years planted, three to four inches in diameter. I prefer for market Winesap, Grimes's Golden Pippin, York Imperial, and Missouri Pippin; and for family orchard Red June, Benoni, Summer Rambo, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, and Rawle's Janet. My orchard is situated on a hill. I prefer mulatto soil, with red subsoil. I prefer young, thrifty trees, planted in furrows made with a plow and subsoiler. I plant my orchard four to six years with any cultivated crop; if it is corn or potatoes I use an ordinary corn cultivator; at other times I use an Acme harrow. I cease cropping when the trees begin to bear, and then plant to clover. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of Osage orange, evergreens, or any body of timber, placed so remote that the orchard is not deprived of its nourishment. For rabbits I wrap the trees, and use potash for borers. I trim my trees while young with a knife, to encourage low heads; it pays if done moderately. It pays to thin Winesap and Rawle's Janet while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; would advise its use on all soils. Do not pasture my orchard. Trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, bagworm, flathead borer, buffalo tree-hopper, fall web-worm, leaf-miner, and leaf-crumpler; and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I have spayed with Paris green for the above-mentioned insects; am satisfied that I have checked them. * * * * * JAMES M. WILLIAMS, Home, Nemaha county: I have lived in Kansas nearly eighteen years. I have 400 apple trees, fifteen years planted, and of good size. I prefer bottom land, black soil, with clay and limestone subsoil, sloping a little to the south. I prefer to plant good three-year-old trees, twenty-four by thirty feet apart; I cultivate all the time with cultivator and harrow. I grow corn in the orchard from eight to ten years, and oats after that. I think windbreaks are essential, and would make them of native timber, planted south of the orchard. I prune with a knife and saw, and believe it makes the fruit larger and better; I never thin on the tree. I like to put plenty of stable litter and old straw at the roots of the tree in winter. I pasture with hogs after the oats come up; they eat all the windfall apples and thus destroy insects. Am troubled some with caterpillars, borers, and codling-moth. Have never sprayed any. I pick by hand in sacks, from step-ladders, and put in piles. We sort by hand into three classes--No. 1's and No. 2's for market, and No. 3 for the hogs. I sell my best by the wagon-load in the orchard; my seconds I sell the same way, but cheaper. I never dry any. I store in the cellar, in barrels, for winter sales to winter dealers. I find the best keepers are Winesap and Rawle's Janet. Prices in the fall, forty cents; in the winter, seventy-five cents. I hire men for help and pay one dollar per day and board. * * * * * H. C. COOPER, Morganville, Clay county: I have been in Kansas twenty-eight years; have 300 apple trees, planted fifteen and nineteen years. The best for commercial purposes are Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Rome Beauty; for family use, Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Grimes's Golden Pippin and Winesap. I have tried and discarded Willow Twig; it rots on the tree, and, by the time it gets to bearing, dies. The Snow rots on the south side and dies. The Keswick Codlin is a good bearer but too short-lived. I prefer side-hill, sloping to the north, soil a black loam, without hard-pan or joint clay. I prefer trees two years old, limbs two feet from the ground and not too heavy top, set thirty-five feet apart, at the junction of furrows run out both ways with a lister. I grow nothing in an orchard. Do not cultivate. I simply keep down the weeds, and let the tree take care of itself. I don't think the roots should be troubled in Kansas. I believe windbreaks are essential; and would put them of box-elder on the north and west of the orchard. For protection against rabbits, when you first set your tree take a good handful of slough-grass long enough to reach to the first limb, tie at the top, in the middle, and bottom, and leave it on till it rots off; neither rabbits, borers nor sun-scald will trouble a tree thus covered. Cut out watersprouts; but never cut off a limb without good reason. Put stable litter around your trees in a circle for the first three years. Never pasture the orchard. Am troubled with some insects, and have never sprayed but four trees as an experiment; the apples did not rot or fall off. We pick by hand from a ladder, and sort and place in piles in the cellar, each kind by itself. I market my best apples at home, selling some in the orchard; the culls I make into vinegar. I store some for winter in bulk in a cellar cave, and find that the Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep the best. I pay fifty cents per day for help. * * * * * J. B. WILCOX, Muscotah, Atchison county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-five years; have 4000 trees seventeen years planted. Prefer Winesap, Missouri Pippin and Ben Davis for market, and would add Grimes's Golden Pippin, and Jonathan for family orchard. Have tried and discarded many varieties. I prefer a black loam, with clay subsoil, on a northern slope. I cultivate for six or eight years in corn, and then seed to clover. Do not think windbreaks are a necessity. I pasture my orchard with horses and cattle; don't think it advisable, and don't think it pays. I am troubled with canker-worm and round-headed borers. I spray with Paris green for canker-worm, and dig borers out with the knife. I sell my best fruit at wholesale, often in the orchard. With the poorest culls I do nothing. I find my best market right at home. Prices have ranged from seventy-five cents to two dollars per barrel. I pay three cents per bushel for gathering. * * * * * GEO. A. WISE, Reserve, Brown county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-nine years. Have an orchard of 22,000 apple trees; 150 are eighteen years old, the rest are twenty-four years old. I have the Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, York Imperial, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin, and for my own use add to the above Grimes's Golden, and some summer varieties. I have tried and discarded Willow Twig as short-lived, and Northern Spy for shy bearing. In this county I would choose upland, northern slope, with black loam soil. Would plant two-year-old, sound trees, without fork, thirty-three feet apart each way, and three inches deeper than they grew in the nursery. I cultivate thoroughly, planting to corn from six to eight years. I use a disc harrow and one-horse, five-tooth cultivator; I then sow to red clover, and cease cropping when the limbs reach out far enough to prevent me passing through with the hay-rack. While I would not object to a windbreak on the south side, I do not think it necessary. I wrap my trees with grass and am not bothered with rabbits. I believe in pruning trees while young; I cut off limbs that do not stand at an angle of forty-five degrees, and thin out to prevent being top-heavy. I have never thinned apples on the trees, but believe it would pay. I fertilize the ground all over with stable litter. I believe it does no harm and pays to pasture the orchard with hogs. I have never sprayed any. I pick apples by hand from a step-ladder into half-bushel measures, and sort into three grades--first, sound, and not wormy; second, may be wormy, but otherwise sound; third, cider. I pack in barrels, and sell at wholesale, usually in the orchard. I sell the second-grade apples in bulk; make culls into cider and feed to horses and cattle. Never have tried a distant market. Never dried any. Sometimes store a few for winter in bulk in a cave; not satisfactory. Find that the Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep best. Some years apples keep better than they do others. Have never tried irrigation. Prices have varied from sixty cents to $1.25 per barrel. I use all kinds of help, paying from seventy-five cents to one dollar per day. * * * * * H. M. RICE, Muscotah, Atchison county: Have resided in Kansas twenty-eight years. Have an apple orchard of 8000 trees--5000 one year planted, 500 five years planted, 1000 seven years planted, 500 nine years planted, 1000 ten years planted. Planted for commercial purpose Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Grimes's Golden Pippin, and for family use advise Winesap, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Jonathan, Red June, Rawle's Janet, and Romanite. Declare Golden Russet and Sops of Wine no good. Use upland; prefer north or northeast slope; any good corn land will do. Plant good, thrifty two-year-old trees, eighteen feet apart north and south, and thirty-four feet apart east and west. Am trying 5000 root grafts. Cultivate with five-tooth cultivator with twenty-inch singletree, and a mule; up to bearing age, with corn and potatoes as a ground crop; after that seed to clover. Do not think windbreaks essential for large orchards; would advise three rows of soft maples around small orchards. Use against rabbits a wash of equal parts carbolic acid and water. It pays to remove watersprouts. Use all the barn-yard litter available. Pasture with horses and colts in winter only; it pays. Spray from the time the leaves appear until the apples are as big as hickory-nuts, to kill canker-worm, codling-moth, and leaf-crumpler. For borers, wash trees about June 1 with equal parts carbolic acid and water, and if any get in after that dig them out with a knife. Sort into firsts, seconds, and culls. Use barrels well shaken and pressed, marked with variety and name of grower. Usually wholesale as soon as picked. Make culls into vinegar when I cannot sell them in bulk. Never dried any, and put none away for winter except a few in boxes for family use. Find that Missouri Pippin, Rawle's Janet and Romanite keep the best. Prices run from $1.50 to $3 per barrel. Use men, women, and boys, and pay 1-1/2 to 2 cents per bushel for hand picking. * * * * * H. C. RIGGS, Wetmore, Nemaha county: Has lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; has an orchard of 400 trees, set from two to twenty years. Advises for market Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and for family use adds Cooper's Early White, Red June, and Jonathan. Has discarded Willow Twig and White Winter Pearmain, because both "rot on the trees." Prefers porous clay or loam in dry bottom, with north aspect. Plants two-year-old, low-top, fibrous-rooted trees with a spade, after marking out both ways with a plow. Grows corn and potatoes in orchard, and cultivates up to eight or ten years with double-shovel plow. Would put windbreaks of cottonwood or soft maple on southern exposure. Protects from rabbits by wrapping. Prunes with saw and chisel, and says it pays. Uses well-rotted stable litter while orchard is young. Thinks cautious pasturing with hogs or young calves would pay. Is troubled with some insects, but does not spray. Picks and sorts into three classes: "Winter storage," "immediate use," and "cider apples." Sells mostly in orchard. Dries only for family use. Stores in bulk, and finds that Ben Davis keeps best. Says that his trees that got the waste water from the well were much benefited. Price, about seventy-five cents per barrel. * * * * * P. S. TAYLOR, Eskridge, Wabaunsee county: Have been in Kansas thirty-two years; have 1100 trees planted eleven years, that are now thirty-two inches in circumference. I prefer for market Ben Davis, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and York Imperial, and for family use would advise Jonathan, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Winesap, and York Imperial. Have discarded Rawle's Janet, Cooper's Early White, and Smith's Cider, also Winesap as a market apple. Prefer a deep, sandy loam, with clay subsoil, bottom or slope land, with northeast aspect. Plant thrifty, medium-sized, three-year-old trees twenty feet apart north and south, and forty feet east and west. I cultivate for six years in corn and potatoes; then sow to clover, plowing this under every third or fourth year, using the Acme harrow run shallow. I believe windbreaks are beneficial, and would prefer two rows of white elms mismatched. I wrap the trunks of trees, for protection against rabbits. I believe in pruning out all watersprouts and crossing branches; it facilitates gathering and the fruit colors better. I have tried thinning on Missouri Pippins, Winesaps, and Romanites, knocking them off with a pitchfork. I believe in fertilizing orchards on all prairie soils with barn-yard litter. I pasture my orchard when the trees are vigorous and the soil not wet, with calves and pigs; I believe it pays if done with moderation. I spray after the petals fall, using Paris green for codling-moth, and believe I have reduced them. For borers I use a knife and wire. I pick by hand in half-bushel baskets and sort into three classes: perfect, medium size, and culls. We sort from bins in a light, airy shed, and pack carefully by hand into standard barrels, marked firsts and seconds, and haul to market on springs. I sell my second grade fruit to western wagoners; we feed culls to hogs and cows. We do best in our home market. For winter we store in bins in the cellar, and are usually successful. Prices have ranged from fifty cents to one dollar. For help I employ only my three sons, and give them an interest in the proceeds. * * * * * THOMAS ARBUTHNOT, Cuba, Republic county: Have been in Kansas thirty years. Have 6000 apple trees nine years old. I prefer two-year-old trees, five to six feet tall, planted after a lister run as deep as possible. I cultivate with the plow and disc, growing corn in the orchard for six or seven years; after that nothing. I believe in windbreaks. I prune a little. Never thin the fruit. Do not use any fertilizer on the ground, and never pasture the orchard. I do not spray, but use a torch every evening to burn the insects; one torch will draw the insects about 300 feet, and we think this better than spraying. [Such lights are liable to destroy as many beneficial as noxious insects.] I sell to wagons, as there is sufficient demand here from the western counties to take in that way all that I have to spare. Have never dried any, nor stored any for winter. I do not irrigate. Prices have been, twenty-five cents for culls, and forty to fifty cents per bushel for everything else. My orchard is only commencing to bear fruit on all the trees. * * * * * ELBRIDGE CHASE, Padonia, Brown county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-nine years. Have 2800 apple trees thirteen years old, running from five to eight inches in diameter, made up of equal numbers of Ben Davis, Jonathan, Winesap, and Rawle's Janet. I would discard the latter. I prefer hilltop with deep vegetable or sandy loam. My trees are doing best on an eastern slope. I plant thrifty four-year-olds. I believe in cultivation with the plow and disc harrow until the trees shade the ground so that weeds cannot grow much. I grow corn for a few years, then clover for two years, after that no crop whatever. Have no use for windbreaks, and use lath two feet long stuck in the ground around the trees to protect from rabbits. I prune with a saw, knife, and shears, to keep the trees in good shape and not too brushy, and believe it pays. I do not believe it would pay to thin apples on the tree. I would not pasture my orchard. I do not spray. I gather in sacks hung over the shoulder, as for sowing grain. Sort into two classes, packed into three-bushel barrels, pressed in and marked with the name of the variety. I sell at wholesale, but never have sold in the orchard. Minneapolis, Minn., has been my best market. We use part of the culls for cider. Never dried any. Do not store any for winter, and do not irrigate. Prices have ranged at from one dollar to two dollars per bushel. I use men and boys, and pay from two to three cents per bushel for fruit left in baskets at foot of trees. For other work than picking I pay $1.25 per day. * * * * * J. H. BATEMAN, Holton, Jackson county: Have lived in Kansas forty years. Have 900 apple trees; 200 have been planted twenty-five years, 700 have been planted four years. Have made more money out of Ben Davis than any other. For family use my choice is White Winter Pearmain and Rawle's Janet. I have tried and discarded Dominie and Winesap. I prefer hilltop, with northeast slope, and a deep, friable soil; hard clay is not good. I would plant two- or three-year-olds, in a deep furrow, preferably subsoiled. Would cultivate as long as it don't cut the roots, with a two-horse cultivator, and would grow corn four or five years, then seed to clover. I believe windbreaks are very beneficial; would make them of walnut or maple. Osage orange is fairly good; all may be raised from young trees or seed. I wrap young trees in the fall with paper to protect from rabbits. I prune with the knife to prevent friction. Never tried thinning on the trees; believe it would be beneficial. Fertilizers make the trees thriftier, but cause the roots to run nearer the surface; consequently the trees suffer more in drought. I have pastured to a limited extent with calves and horses; hogs injure the trees. The worst insects I have are the flat-headed borer, which I cut out, and the curculio. Have never sprayed, but think I will. We pick from a ladder into pails or baskets and sort into two classes; we pick the best from the trees, and shake the others to the ground. I sometimes sell in the orchard; I wholesale when I can, but sell more to the buyers at the railroad station. I make some cider, and feed the balance of the culls to hogs. Our best markets are the apple buyers at Holton. Have never shipped any or dried any. I store only for home use, in boxes in my cellar, and find that Rawle's Janet and Romanite are the best keepers. I use farm hands at from seventeen dollars to twenty dollars per month. * * * * * JOHN GRAVES, Day, Washington county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-one years. Have an orchard of 6025 trees; 25 of these have been planted twenty years, 400 seventeen years, 1200 ten years, 400 seven years, 4000 two years. For market I grow Winesap and Ben Davis. For family use I add Missouri Pippin, Snow, and Early Harvest. Winesap best of all. I prefer hilltop, as the gophers are bad on the bottom. I prefer a black soil with lots of gravel and small stones in it. Believe that north and east slopes are best. I plant two-year-old trees with short bodies, twenty-five feet apart each way. I cultivate with corn for about ten years, using the stirring plow and cultivator. I believe windbreaks are essential, and would use four rows of cherry trees set close together, or a row of hedge or box-elder, mainly on the south; some on the north. For protection from rabbits I tie corn-stalks around the trees, and keep them on for three or four years, winter and summer. I prune some with the pocket-knife and saw. I do not thin the fruit unless I think the limbs are going to break. I would use no fertilizer unless the soil is very poor. Never pasture the orchard. I sprayed one year with London purple, using a barrel with a pump in it. I could not see that it did any good, so I let them go. I pick in buckets from a step-ladder. People come from the west with wagons and take the apples right out of the orchard, and they don't sort much. I make some culls into cider and let the rest lay under the trees and rot. The price last year was seventy-five cents per bushel, and the year before thirty-five cents. I store a few for winter in thin layers, one above another, in a rack in the cellar, and am successful. Winesaps keep the best. For picking I use good careful men at one dollar per day. * * * * * GODFREY FINE, Maxson, Osage county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-nine years. I have 700 trees planted, five, ten and twenty-seven years. For market I use Missouri Pippin and Ben Davis; for family use I plant Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Lowell and Jonathan for summer, and Missouri Pippin and Winesap for winter. If I were putting out now I would only plant Missouri Pippin and Winesap. I prefer bottom, and such soil as has formerly been brush and timber land. A part of my orchard slopes a little to the south. I plant thrifty two-year-olds, with the top leaning to the southwest. I cultivate until they begin bearing; the plow is as good a tool as any, but care must be taken not to injure the roots. The best crop is buckwheat or potatoes; I have had strawberries and blackberries in the orchard, but do not consider it best; I cease cropping after they come into bearing. I believe in windbreaks; I do not know what would be best; mine is protected by natural forest-trees and Osage-orange hedge. To protect from borers, I use a wash with lye or strong soap-suds. I tie corn-stalks around young trees to protect from rabbits. I believe it pays to prune with the saw to improve the quality of the fruit. I think stable litter is good for old orchards, but should not be put close up around the body of the tree. I should pasture very little, as stock of all kinds destroy the trees and injure the fruit. I have sprayed little, but cannot say much about it. I pick by hand, and do not pack at all, as those that I do not find a market for here at home I sell to shippers. I sell many in the orchard, and when there is a full crop I sell to shippers and they grade and mark them. I sell culls for cider when there is a call for them. I tried drying, but did not find it profitable. I do not store any apples for winter, as I have no good place. Prices per bushel have ranged from twenty-five to fifty-five cents. I use men for help, and pay seventy-five cents per day. * * * * * JESSE WOLVERTON, Barnes, Washington county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-three years; have an apple orchard of 6000 trees, five to twenty-one years planted. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, and Jonathan, and for family orchard would add Early Harvest, Oldenburg, and Smith Cider. Have tried and discarded Willow Twig, Lawver, Talman's Sweeting, Stark, Wagener, Missouri Superior and Red Astrachan on account of blight and shy bearing. I prefer hilltop or bottom with a porous subsoil which is reasonably rich. My trees planted on hard-pan are dying. I prefer two-year-old, straight, thrifty trees, planted in land prepared as for corn. I cultivate my orchard to corn (once to broom-corn) as long as the corn does well, using a double shovel and a twelve-inch plow. I sow bearing orchard to oats, one bushel to the acre, and let stand. Cease cropping after seven or eight years. To protect the trees from rabbits I wrap with long grass. I prune some to form heads two or three feet from the ground, and cut all watersprouts with a knife; but do little of this until the trees are twelve years planted. Have thinned apples on trees; it does not pay. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with all the barn-yard litter I can get, and think it beneficial. A neighbor fertilizes his orchard very heavily and receives splendid crops. I pasture six acres of my orchard with hogs; they keep it well cultivated; have not thought it an injury yet. No orchard ought to be seeded to grass in this county. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, and leaf-crumpler; my apples with codling-moth and gouger. I sprayed twice last year with London purple, one or two pounds [?] to a barrel of water, before and after they blossomed; it was an utter failure. When the worms appeared I increased the amount to three pounds to the barrel, without any effect. [This must have been poor London purple.--Sec.] I gather my apples in sacks with a hoop in the open end; then put on the sorting table, using bushel boxes and a wagon with a plank platform to haul them on. I sort into three classes: firsts, seconds, and culls. Sell firsts in orchard to Ryan & Richardson; sell second and third grades to teams. Make cider of the culls and those we cannot sell. My best markets are north and northwest. I never dry any. I store from 5 to 700 bushels in a basement under granary, and am fairly successful; find Ben Davis and Rawle's Janet keep best. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five to seventy-five cents per bushel. I employ men, and pay from fifty cents to one dollar per day. * * * * * THEODORE OLSEN, Green, Clay county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years. Have an apple orchard of 200 trees, fifteen feet high, eighteen years old. I prefer for commercial purposes Ben Davis and Winesap, on second bottom, black soil, with a northeast slope. I plant three-year-old trees, not very deep, and cultivate my orchard to corn, using a cultivator run very shallow every year, and cease cropping when they begin to bear; then plant nothing. Windbreaks are essential here; I have trees planted around my orchard. I protect from rabbits by wrapping the trees with corn-stalks. I never prune, and do not thin the fruit on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with straw, and would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with flathead borers and leaf-crumplers, and my apples by gouger. I spray with Paris green in June; have not reduced the codling-moth. Pick my apples; sort into two classes, pack in bushel boxes, sell in the orchard, also retail; I make cider of culls. My best market is Green. I never dry any. I store some in boxes in a cellar, and am fairly successful; I find Ben Davis keeps best. We have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about ten per cent. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * HARRY L. BROWN, Muscotah, Atchison county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-two years. Have an apple orchard of 150 trees, ten to twenty-five years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and Grimes's Golden Pippin; and for family orchard Maiden's Blush, Early Harvest, Red June, Smith's Cider, and Rambo. I prefer hilltop, with a deep, sandy loam, and a gravel subsoil, northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old, straight, thrifty trees, carefully set, 30×35 feet. I plant my orchard to corn, potatoes, beans and garden-truck for ten or twelve years, using a one-horse cultivator between the rows and around the trees, and cease cropping after twelve or fifteen years; plant strawberries or small fruits in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of two rows of evergreens planted around the orchard. I trap the rabbits, and wash and cut out the borers. I prune to thin and keep the tree in shape; think it beneficial, and that it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with horse- and cow-stable litter; think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils, unless very rich. I pasture my orchard with nothing but chickens; it is not advisable; does not pay. My trees are troubled with flathead and twig-borers, leaf-rollers and crumplers; and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I do not spray. I pick my apples from ladders into baskets and sacks, and sort, as I gather them, into three classes: perfectly sound, second best, and culls. I pack in baskets and boxes. I retail and peddle my apples; feed the culls to stock. My best markets are near-by towns; never tried distant markets. We sun-dry some, and pack in sacks and boxes; we find a ready market for them; it pays. Am successful in storing apples for home use in boxes and bins in a cellar, and find Ben Davis, Winesap, Rawle's Janet and Smith's Cider keep the best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from forty to fifty cents per bushel, and dried apples five cents per pound. I pay men eighteen to twenty dollars per month, or one dollar per day. * * * * * F. W. WILCOX, Corning, Nemaha county: I have resided in the state twenty-three years; have an apple orchard of seventy-five trees, all sizes and ages. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, and Wealthy. I prefer a dark, loose soil, on a hillside with a north and east slope. I prefer good, healthy three-year-old trees, set in holes dug two feet deep and three feet across. I plant my orchard to sweet corn, using a cultivator, and cease cropping when I think necessary and seed down to red clover. Windbreaks are essential--would make them of Osage orange. I prune my trees with a saw to give shape; I think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with rotten stable litter, but would not advise its use on all soils. I pasture my orchard with horses, and think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with canker-worms, tent-caterpillar and flathead borer. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand in pails. Sort into three classes--first, second, and cast out. I do not dry any. I store a few for winter market. I do not irrigate. * * * * * JAMES ANDERSON, Leonardville, Riley county. I have lived in Kansas seventeen years; have an apple orchard of 200 trees from one to sixteen years old, four to sixteen feet high. For market I prefer Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, and Ben Davis, and for a family orchard Early Harvest, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Jonathan, and Ben Davis. I prefer bottom land with black loam and clay subsoil, with a southern slope. When setting trees, I dig holes four feet in diameter and three feet deep; put black loam in the bottom for the roots. I plant my orchard to potatoes for three or four years, using a plow. I cease cropping at the end of this time, and mow, and leave everything on the ground. Sow red or white clover in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential on the north and south sides of the orchard; would make them of maple, cottonwood, or Osage orange. I have Osage orange on the north and a creek with native timber on the south. For rabbits I wrap the trees. When I see a black spot on a tree I hunt for and dig borers out. I prune off all the interfering branches and watersprouts. I do this for fruit; it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I keep the varieties together when planting. I fertilize my orchard by putting stable litter a foot thick on the north side, which is the highest, and when it rains the liquid from it runs all the way down and fertilizes the trees. I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. It is not advisable, and does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, and my apples with codling-moth. I have sprayed with all the sprays recommended, and think I have reduced the codling-moth a little. I pick my apples by hand from a step-ladder, and sort into two classes--sound, wormy and windfalls. Put the sound ones in the cellar; make cider of the others. I sell apples in the orchard, mostly at retail. They sell the best in town in the winter. My best market is in towns west of here. I have tried distant markets, but it did not pay. I do not dry any. I store a few apples in boxes, barrels, and bulk, in a cellar. Those that keep best are Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Jonathan. Have to repack stored apples before marketing; lose about ten per cent. The average price has been fifty cents per bushel. I employ men at twenty dollars per month. * * * * * F. A. SCHERMERHORN, Ogden, Riley county: I have lived in the state thirty-eight years. Have an apple orchard of 4000 trees from twelve to thirty-seven years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Jonathan; and for a family orchard Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Missouri Pippin, Maiden's Blush, and Early Harvest. I have tried and discarded Willow Twig and Smith's Cider on account of blight; and McAfee, Snow and Lawver on account of shy bearing. I prefer rolling land having a clay loam and clay subsoil. I prefer two-year-old trees, with heads twenty inches from the ground, set in the spring, about two rods apart. I cultivate all the time, even in bearing orchards, using an Acme harrow, planting corn; cease cropping after four years; put nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are not essential if the orchard is large. For rabbits I wrap the trees. I dig borers out with a knife. I prune my trees, and think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are planted in blocks--800 Ben Davis in one and 700 Missouri Pippins in another; all bear well. I fertilize my orchard some, but not much. I think it would be beneficial on poor soil, but would not advise it on all soils. I pasture my orchard with horses after the fruit is gathered; can't see any harm. My trees are troubled with canker-worm and root aphis, and my apples with codling-moth. I spray as soon as the bloom falls, and two or three times afterward, with arsenic, for insects. Think I have reduced the codling-moth. I wash young trees twice during the summer season with diluted soft soap for borers. Pick my apples by hand, and sort into two classes. I pack in the standard apple barrel, fill with a head press, mark with variety and grade, and haul to depot on wagon. I sometimes sell apples in the orchard by the wagon-load. I ship my best apples, and sell the culls for what I can get. My best market is west. Have tried distant markets and found it paid. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples in barrels; Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin keep best. I do not irrigate. Prices last fall were two dollars per barrel or fifty cents per bushel to wagoners. I employ men at one dollar per day and board. * * * * * A. CHANDLER, Argentine, Wyandotte county. Have lived in the state twenty-two years; have an apple orchard of 400 trees from one to nine years old. For market I prefer Jonathan, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and York Imperial; and for family orchard Huntsman's Favorite, Maiden's Blush, and Jonathan. Have tried and discarded Grimes's Golden Pippin and Smith's Cider on account of blight. I prefer hilltop, with a clay soil and a light subsoil, and an east slope, as it will get the morning sun and no southwest winds. I prefer two-year-old trees five to six feet high, well branched, set twenty-eight by thirty feet; I also have some twenty by thirty feet. I plant my orchard to corn, potatoes, tomatoes and cabbage for seven years, using a cultivator and harrow (I like the Acme and spading harrow). Cease cropping after seven years; plant bearing orchard to blackberries and raspberries, but this is not advisable; clover or cow-peas are better. Windbreaks are essential on the prairie; would make them of a double row of Osage orange or evergreens, on the south and west. For rabbits I wrap the trees with paper or veneering, and for borers I mound the tree up. I prune a little with my pocket-knife to remove dead and crossed limbs; it does not pay to saw and chop. I thin my fruit by hand when the crop is heavy, not later than July 15. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with ashes and bone-meal; both are beneficial, but not necessary in good potash soils. I pasture my orchard with six-months-old pigs--think it advisable in an orchard that is over four years old. My trees are troubled with canker-worms, round- and flathead borers and tent-caterpillar, and my trees with codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. I spray with London purple and Paris green, using a hand pump. For borers I wash the trees with whale-oil soap, carbolic acid, and sulphur, and then mound the trees up. I pick my apples in baskets, from a ladder wide at the bottom and narrow at the top, and leave the apples in the orchard four to six weeks, then sort into three classes, from a padded table 5×12 feet, sloping; pack into twelve-peck barrels, mark with variety, and haul to market on a spring wagon. Sometimes I sell apples in the orchard at retail; pack my best apples in one-peck baskets for stand trade, my second grade in barrels. Feed the culls to the hogs; cider does not pay. My best market is Kansas City. Have tried distant markets, but it did not pay--too great freight and commission charges. I am successful in storing apples in barrels in an earth cave five feet deep, earth sides and roof; keep it open when not freezing; apples can be stored in bulk by leaving a space of six inches at the sides and bottom. Jonathan and Gano keep best. I have tried artificial cold storage and lost fifteen per cent. of my apples. I found it too expensive and unreliable. I have to repack the stored apples before marketing, and lose from fifteen to forty per cent. of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been: Jonathan, $3 to $5 per barrel; Ben Davis, $2.25 to $3 per barrel. I employ men mostly, at from $1 to $1.25 per day. * * * * * STEPHEN STOUT, Axtell, Marshall county: I have lived in the state nineteen years; have an apple orchard of 800 trees twelve to fifteen years old. For market I prefer Winesap, Ben Davis, Jonathan, Maiden's Blush, Cooper's Early White, Duchess of Oldenburg, and Huntsman's Favorite; and for family orchard, the first five varieties mentioned. Have tried and discarded Willow Twig and White Winter Pearmain, because the trees are not healthy. I prefer hilltop, with a black loam, and a clay subsoil having a reddish color, and a northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old, low-head, heavy, stocky trees, set in big holes, leaning the tree a little to the southwest; fill the hole half full, and then pour in a pail of water and fill up with earth. I have always plowed and cultivated my orchard, but I will have to quit soon, as the trees are getting too large. I use a stirring plow, spring-tooth cultivator, and a harrow. Plant corn in a young orchard, and leave the stalks standing all winter; cease cropping after ten or twelve years; grow great big weeds in a bearing orchard, and plow them under in July. Windbreaks are essential on the south and west sides of the orchard; would make by planting Osage orange seed very thick, and tend well for three years. For rabbits I paint the trees with a mixture of sulphur, soap and lard the first fall after planting, then every alternate year for three or four times; it will also keep off insects, mice, and bark-louse, and the trees will be slick and smooth, with no place for insects to harbor. I prune very little; keep out watersprouts, and let the sun into the top. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings, but cannot see any benefit from it. I fertilize my orchard by plowing under the green weeds. I think a vegetable mold is what the trees require; think it beneficial, and would advise it on all soils. I pasture my orchard in the spring with sows and pigs; think it advisable, and that it pays. Codling-moth troubles my apples. I spray right after the blossom falls, and a few days later, with London purple, for the codling-moth, and we are getting away with him. For borers and other insects I allow the birds in the orchard, and do not allow the boys to go in with guns, or disturb them at all. I pick my apples by hand from a step-ladder, and pile them under the tree. I sort in two classes from a long, wide, sloping board with sides. I pack in barrels from the piles in the orchard. Wagons come from the west and buy the apples from the orchard at wholesale; sell the second grade to apple peddlers; make cider for vinegar of the culls. My best market is at home; never have tried distant markets. Do not dry any. I store apples for our own use, and have apples the year round. The Little Romanite keeps best. I do not irrigate. Apples wholesale at twenty-five cents per bushel in the orchard. I employ men at $1.25 per day. I had twenty-four very fine Siberian crabs--Hyslop, Transparent, and Whitney. They were affected with blight. Nearly all of the Siberian trees were dead from the effects of it, and one day, while in the orchard watching the movements of the birds and boys, I saw a striped woodpecker fly to one of the trees, and he found what he supposed to be a grub, but when he got through the bark he was very much disappointed, wiped his bill, and flew to another tree, where he continued to wipe and clean his bill; so I went to the tree mentioned, and found the bark very loose and sour where he had punctured it. I compared the smell and taste with the blighted twigs and found them the same. I cut the bark that was loose from the tree, and found the rapid growth of the bark and the flow of the sap had bursted the bark from the wood, and this sap had soured and been taken up by the other sap and poisoned the ends of the new growth; hence, it blighted. It was sap poison, like blood poison. I then used the knife freely, splitting the body and limbs. I saved twenty out of twenty-four of the trees. I then went over the orchard and cured all the trees in one season; never been bothered since. The woodpecker taught me a lesson, and I relate it to show the value of birds in the orchard. * * * * * A. C. MOORE, Wanamaker, Shawnee county: I have lived in Kansas thirty-three years; have an apple orchard of 400 trees, from twelve to seventeen years old. For market I prefer Winesap, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and Ben Davis; and for a family orchard Red Astrachan, Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Smokehouse, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded Tulpehocken; it rots on the tree and will not keep. I prefer bottom land, with sandy loam and clay subsoil, and a north slope. I prefer two-year-old trees, with full top and roots, set fifteen inches deep, in furrows checked with the plow; plant where furrows cross. I plant my orchard to corn eight years, using a plow, harrow, and cultivator; cease cropping at the end of this time and seed to clover. Windbreaks are essential on the south; would make them of Osage orange fifteen rods distant, to protect the orchard from the hard and hot south winds. For rabbits I wrap the young trees with paper. I prune my trees after they are eight years old, with the saw, to give light and thin the top. I think it beneficial. I do not thin my apples; enough fall off. I fertilize my orchard by mowing the clover, and think it beneficial to young trees, and would advise the use of clover fertilization on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; is not advisable. My trees are troubled with borers, and my apples with some insect that stings them and causes them to fall off. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand with care. Sort into two classes, pack in barrels, in layers, by hand, mark with variety, and haul to shipping place or market in lumber wagon. I wholesale my best apples; make vinegar of the second and third grades and culls. Topeka is my best market; never tried distant markets. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples in barrels in a cellar; I also bury some. I find Romanite keeps best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-eighth of them. I do not irrigate. Price has been fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * THOMAS BUCKMAN, Topeka, Shawnee county: I have lived in the state twenty-nine years. Have an apple orchard of 1300 trees from six to twenty-seven years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis and Jonathan; and for family orchard Rare Ripe, Maiden's Blush, and Winesap. I prefer black soil with a porous subsoil, and a northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old, small-size trees, with good roots, set in holes dug with spade in well-cultivated ground. I cultivate my orchard six years with a five-tooth cultivator; plant corn in a young orchard, and cease cropping when six years old, and sow clover in the bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of Osage orange, by setting the plants twelve inches apart. For the rabbits I use traps and wrap the young trees with corn-stalks. I dig the borers out with a knife. I prune to remove crossed limbs and to keep the tree well balanced; I think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I do not fertilize my orchard, but think it would be beneficial on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs, but do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with roundhead borers, and my apples with codling-moth and tree-cricket. I spray, after the blossom falls, with London purple. Pick apples into a sack over the shoulder from a slide ladder; sort under the tree, and put the best in crates made to hold one bushel level full; we let them remain in the shade of the tree until danger of freezing; then sort and store in the cellar, one box on top of another. I sell apples in the orchard, wholesale and retail to customers in Topeka; make cider of the second and third grades, and give the culls to hogs. Topeka is my best market. Have tried distant markets, but they do not always pay. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples in bushel crates. I find Rawle's Janet and Winesap keep best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-fifth of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from thirty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * M. SANDERS, Broughton, Clay county: I have lived in Kansas thirty-eight years. Have an apple orchard of 400 trees, three to ten inches in diameter. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Grimes's Golden Pippin, and Red Astrachan; and for family orchard Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. I prefer bottom land having a sandy subsoil, and a southeast slope. I prefer two-year-old, low-headed trees. In the spring I open deep furrows both ways with a plow, and plant the trees at the cross, fill the hole with good soil. I cultivate my orchard for six or eight years, using a common plow till four years old, then use a shovel plow, and plant early corn, potatoes, etc., in the young orchard; cease cropping after six or eight years; plant nothing in a bearing orchard, but keep up shallow cultivating with a disc or plow. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of three rows of box-elder or Osage orange. I prune with a small saw or knife, to thin the top. I fertilize my orchard with yard litter and ashes, scattering it all over the ground; would advise it on all soils. I have pastured my orchard with hogs, but have quit it. I now pasture with cows; I tie their heads down, but do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar, bud moth, and twig-borers, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand in a basket, and sort into two classes. Sell my apples to storekeepers and Indians; make cider and vinegar, and give away the second and third grades; feed the culls to the hogs and cattle. My best market is at home; never tried distant markets. Don't dry any. I have stored apples in boxes and barrels, and find Ben Davis and Winesap keep best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing one-third to one-half of them. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * JOHN REED, Oak Hill, Clay county: I have resided in the state twenty years; have an apple orchard of 100 trees six years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis and Winesap; and for family orchard add Jonathan and a few early varieties. I prefer low land with a porous subsoil, and a northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old trees with branches one foot from the ground. When setting I dig big holes and loosen up the subsoil about a foot. I find this gives the best satisfaction. I have always cultivated my orchard, and intend to do so three or four years longer; I plow twice a year--in spring, and the middle of June; I keep the ground well stirred. I planted corn the first three years, listed it in, but would not recommend it, as the trees will do better if the land is plowed. Windbreaks are essential on the south and west sides of the orchard; would make them of two rows of cottonwood trees planted zigzag with one another. For rabbits I wrap with corn-stalks. I dig borers out and wash the trees with lye water twice a year for the first three years; it keeps the tree nice and clean and the borers out. I prune my trees, by cutting out the limbs that cross, and to keep the trees from leaning to the north, and it pays. I fertilize my orchard with decayed corn-cobs. I think it beneficial, and would advise it on all soils, as I think too much straw mulching is an injury to the trees when they get old. I do not pasture my orchard; it does not pay. My trees were troubled with canker-worms last spring. I do not spray. My best market is in the neighborhood. Prices last fall were fifty to sixty cents per bushel. * * * * * GEO. R. BARNES, Chapman, Dickinson county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; have an apple orchard of six acres old enough to be at their best. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, and Winesap, and for family use Early Harvest, Red June, Maiden's Blush, and Missouri Pippin. I prefer a low bottom with a black loam, and a north slope. I prefer two-year-old, well-balanced trees, set in holes large enough to receive them, twenty-four by twenty-four feet. I cultivate my young orchard to corn and potatoes, using a disc harrow, and cease cropping when they begin to bear. I plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks would be beneficial on the south to protect the orchard from the hot south winds. I would make it of walnut trees, because they sap the ground the least. To protect them from the borers, I leave the branches low down, and when we see any sawdust I dig him out with a knife. I prune very little with knife and saw to balance the trees. I do not thin the fruit on the trees. Some say if you expect to get a load of apples from a tree you must give it a load of manure every time it bears, and I think this is right, but don't put it too close to the tree. I pasture my orchard with nothing but poultry; it is not advisable; it makes the ground too hard. Codling-moth troubles my apples very much. I do not spray. I sell apples in the orchard; peddle the best ones; make cider and vinegar of the culls. Don't dry any for market--just enough for family use. Prices have been from forty to seventy-five cents per bushel. * * * * * A. M. ENGLE, Moonlight, Dickinson county: I have lived in Kansas nineteen years. Have an orchard of 600 apple trees ten to eighteen years old. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Rawle's Janet, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. I prefer bottom or low land with a dark loam, and a north or northeast aspect. I prefer stout, low-headed, two-year-old trees, planted sixteen or eighteen feet east and west and thirty or thirty-two feet north and south. I think an orchard ought to have as much cultivation as a corn-field. I grow early corn in my young orchard, using an Acme and cutaway harrow, and cultivate as for corn. I cease cropping when fairly bearing. Plant nothing in a bearing orchard unless for fertilizing, but keep cultivating. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of evergreen, box-elder, Osage orange, maples, cottonwood, etc. For rabbits I rub the trees with axle grease, or tar and fish oil, or old lard, mixed; apply with a cloth. For borers I wash with lye or strong soap-suds. I prune my trees severely when planting, and watch them for several years, and cut out all branches that rub or crowd, and cut out buds so that the tree will not have too many limbs for foundation; I think it pays. I thin the fruit while on the trees; begin early when the trees are full, and continue all through the season, whenever I see imperfect fruit; think it pays big. My trees are mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with well-rotted stable litter and wood ashes; I would especially advise the use of wood ashes. I pasture my orchard very little; would put hogs in if the limbs were not too low and full of apples; I think it would pay. My trees are troubled with flathead borer and canker-worm, and my apples with codling-moth. I intend spraying this year with Paris green and London purple for the worms, and Bordeaux mixture for blight and fungous diseases, as soon as the blossoms fall. In picking I use foot ladders and one-half-bushel baskets, unless the variety is very hard; then I use sacks. Sort into three classes. Pack in barrels shaken and pressed down, then headed, and marked with name of variety, and haul to shipping point on wagon. Sell some apples in the orchard; let the grocer have the best to sell on commission; sell second and third grades the best way I can; make cider of culls. My best market is at Abilene; never tried distant markets. Dry only for home use. Am successful in storing apples in barrels and tight boxes, in a cave; find Winesap and Rawle's Janet keep well till June. Put my apples in the cave when the weather is cold, and keep it open cold nights, but am careful to not let it freeze. Think it best to repack stored apples when kept late. If they are well managed you will not lose five per cent., probably not two per cent. Do not irrigate, but would if I had water facilities. Prices last fall were from forty to fifty cents per bushel in the orchard, but the apples I kept over netted me $1.25 to $1.35 per bushel. I employ men and women; think women best and cheapest for sorting. Pay fifty, sixty and seventy-five cents per day. I do not consider myself a successful horticulturist, but believe, if I had known as much about the nature or necessity of the orchard when we came to Kansas nineteen years ago as I do now, I could have made a success of it, even here in central Kansas. I would especially say that I do not believe there can be success with an orchard exposed on upland. There might possibly be some success as a family orchard, with a good windbreak planted around it, especially on the south side, but I would not take ten, twenty or thirty acres of exposed upland, with apple trees enough to plant it, as a gift, if I must plant and tend it, for the produce of it for ten or more years. I do not know of a single such orchard that is worth having. I would advise selecting low ground, sloping north and east, with an elevation or good timber protection on south and west; land inclining to bottom or good "draw." My belief is that, with a good selection of varieties, and the proper kind of land and location, apple-raising could be made quite profitable here. Keeping the apples in cellars is a mistake; a good cave kept as cold as possible without freezing is far better. I think apples should be placed on the north side of some shed or building before being put in the cave, and kept cool, and put into cave before freezing. Last fall I sold my choice apples at the orchard at from forty to fifty cents per bushel. I kept some in barrels in the cave. They were in good demand later. About the holidays I got $1.25, and since then $1.35. I had a contract with a grocer to sell them for fifteen per cent., and they netted me as above. I have some in very fine condition in my cave yet [April 27]. I still open the cave on cold nights. * * * * * THOMAS E. TAYLOR, Pearl, Dickinson county: I have lived in the state seventeen years. Have an apple orchard of seventy trees, fifty of which are twelve years old, and the other twenty are eighteen years old. I prefer Maiden's Blush, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded Lowell, Jonathan, Grimes's Golden Pippin, and Willow Twig, on account of blight. I prefer bottom land having a sandy soil and a clay subsoil, with a north slope. I prefer two-year-old healthy trees, set in ground which has been plowed very deep. I water the tree well when I plant it. I have cultivated as long as it was possible to get between the trees. I generally use a common plow and disc harrow during the summer, where I have no crop in. I grow corn, Kafir-corn and potatoes in a young orchard. Cease cropping my orchard when twelve years old. I mow the weeds with a machine. I think windbreaks a benefit; would make them of box-elder, ash, or red cedar. I use a pruning-knife on my trees every year, leaving the branches quite thick on the south side. I think it pays. Never have thinned the fruit on the trees. I fertilize my orchard every two or three years with stable litter. I think it beneficial. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable, does not pay. Do not spray. Prices at picking time are forty to fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * H. DUBOIS, Burlingame, Osage county: I have lived in Kansas forty-one years. Have an orchard of fifty apple trees from ten to twenty years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin, and would add for family orchard Early Harvest, Duchess of Oldenburg, and Maiden's Blush. I prefer a rich bottom having a red subsoil, and a northeast slope. I prefer thrifty, two-year-old, medium-height trees, set thirty feet each way. I cultivate my orchard as long as it lives with a shovel plow and cultivator, and keep the ground stirred. Plant potatoes in a young orchard, and cease cropping when the trees begin to bear; then sow oats and let the pigs eat it off while it is green. Windbreaks are not essential here, but some have forest-trees planted on the north side of their orchards. I prune my trees in the spring to give shape; cannot say whether it is beneficial or not. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter. I pasture my orchard with pigs until the ripe fruit begins to fall; I think it advisable and that it pays, as the pigs eat all the wormy and worthless fruit that falls. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar, root aphis, round- and flat-headed borers, and woolly aphis, and my apples with codling-moth. * * * * * A. J. KLEINHANS, Grantville, Jefferson county: I have lived in the state forty-one years. Have an apple orchard of 300 trees, twenty to twenty-five years old. For market I prefer Winesap and Ben Davis; and for family orchard Summer Astrachan, Bellflower, and White Winter Pearmain. Have tried and discarded Missouri Pippin, Russet, Baldwin, Red Astrachan, Little Romanite, and Pound Pippin. My orchard is situated in the Kaw valley. I plant my orchard to corn, until the trees get too large; then cease cropping and seed to clover and timothy. I prune lightly, to keep the limbs off the ground and let in the sun and light; I think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I pasture my orchard late in the fall with young dehorned cattle; I think it advisable and that it pays. My trees are troubled with canker-worms; and my apples with codling-moths. I do not spray. I sell apples in the orchard at wholesale. * * * * * J. W. ATKINSON, Perry, Jefferson county: I have resided in Kansas seventeen years; have an apple orchard of 2100 trees from two to eighteen years old. For market I prefer Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Jonathan. I have tried and discarded Ben Davis; the tree is not hardy. I prefer a porous, red-clay subsoil, and a northeast or east aspect. I cultivate my orchard to corn six years from setting, and cease cropping after twelve years. I seed the bearing orchard to clover. Windbreaks are essential on the south and west sides of the orchard; when possible, natural forest is best. I prune my trees sparingly to improve the grade of fruit; I think it pays when properly done. I do not thin the fruit on the trees. Can see no difference whether trees are in block [of one kind] or mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard when it needs it with barn-yard litter and wood ashes; would not advise it on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with root aphis, and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I spray twice after the blossom falls, with Paris green. I can get rid of borers only by persistent effort. I sort my apples into four classes: No. 1, No. 2, drying, and stock and cider. Pack in twelve-peck barrels, and market in apple racks. I sometimes wholesale my apples in the orchard. Never tried distant markets. I do not dry any. Am successful in storing in barrels in a fruit house which is built near the crest of a hill with a fall of 14 in 100 feet. Excavated twenty-three by fifty-three feet; depth at extreme back end, fourteen feet; at front seven feet. Tile ditch fourteen inches deeper than the excavation next to bank, filled with broken rock. Stone wall ten feet high; fine broken rock between wall and bank from ditch to top of wall around the entire building. The front end of the building stands three feet out of the ground, allowing two windows in the front with refrigerator shutters, also a refrigerator door. Heavy timbers, supported by posts covered with bridge lumber, constitute the framework, upon which is seven feet of earth. Through the roof are five sewer-pipe ventilators covered by thimble tops. In the front end are four small ventilators. In the extreme back end is placed an elevator building forming an opening six feet square; this extends eight feet above the top of the earth covering. There are three windows and one door in the elevator building. By means of small ventilators the house can be ventilated very gradually, but by the elevator opening in the back end of the building, and the windows and door in the front end, the air can all be swept out by natural draft and replaced by fresh air. Five minutes is sufficient to thoroughly ventilate. During all this extreme wet weather the floor of the building has been dust dry. * * * * * Dr. CHAS. WILLIAMSON, Washington, Washington county: I have lived in Kansas forty years. My first planted orchard is thirty-eight years old and the second thirty years. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Rawle's Janet; and for family use Ben Davis, Winesap, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, Rambo, Early June, and Romanite. I have tried and discarded Cooper's Early White, because it is a short-lived tree and a shy bearer. I prefer bottom land with a black loam and a clay subsoil, with a north and east slope. I plant trees thirty feet apart. I would advise cultivation for three years; seed bearing orchard to white clover. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of mulberries and cedar; plant seed for mulberries and set small cedars. For rabbits I use traps and dogs. I prune, but not very much; I cut out watersprouts and dead limbs, and thin out the top so as to let sun in. I never have thinned the fruit on the trees, but think it would pay. I keep bees to help pollinize the blossoms. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; trees and plant life, as well as stock, need food. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable. I have sprayed with London purple. I protect my trees from the sun, and the bark being full of sap the borers will not trouble them. I hand-pick my apples and pack in barrels in the orchard. I sell in the orchard at retail. My best market is at home. Do not dry any. I store some apples, and find Ben Davis, Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep best. When packing apples for storing I wrap each apple in paper and put a paper between the layers in the boxes; then put them in the cellar, and they keep well. I open the cellar door on warm days. Prices have been from 35 cents to $1.10 per bushel. There is not a state in the union but what is profiting by the experiences of such men as friend Wellhouse, the "Apple King," and other horticulturists, who are leaving a legacy to future generations. My experience in orcharding has been as an amateur ever since 1856. My orchard has been for home use, but now, with my experience gained here in Kansas, I am planting in the Ozark country, near Olden, exclusively for market purposes (the same can be done in Kansas), but takes longer to come to maturity. Taxes are low in Missouri. The orchardist should not be assessed on his fruit-trees and pay the penalty for being energetic and a pusher in horticulture. In Kansas, thanks to the life work of the members of the State Horticultural Society, we have reached a point where the culture of fruit is an assured success; and there is more money in it than in hog or corn raising. The trouble has been, too many worthless varieties have been planted, and now that they are bearing are profitless; and the worst of it is they are repeating the same mistake each year. I have saved some valuable trees from the borers by taking a quarter-inch bit and boring a hole and putting in strychnine or sulphur, and the tree lived on while all others died; even in the black locust it was successful. I then plug the outside portion of the hole. Let some one explain the reason who understands the circulation of the sap. * * * * * ERNST FAIRCHILD, Hiawatha, Brown county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years; have an apple orchard of fifteen acres, twelve years old. For market I prefer Jonathan, Ben Davis, and Rawle's Janet; and for a family orchard Snow, Winesap, and some sweet varieties. I prefer an east slope. I cultivate my orchard to corn or oats for eight or nine years, using a disc and harrow, and cease cropping at the end of this time and seed down to clover. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of forest-trees set in rows, on the north and west sides. I prune my trees to give shape. I pick my apples in square tin pails which have false bottoms; slide the fruit out at the bottom. I make vinegar of the cull apples. Prices have been from sixty cents to one dollar per barrel. I employ men and boys--men at one dollar per day and boys seventy-five cents per day. * * * * * NEILS HANSON, Willis, Brown county: I have resided in the state thirty-two years; have an orchard of 200 apple trees twenty years old. For all purposes, I prefer Ben Davis, Jonathan, Willow Twig, and Strawberry. Have tried and would discard Willow Twig and Lawver. I prefer bottom land having a clay soil and a north or east slope. When planting trees, I dig a hole two feet deep and four feet square. I cultivate my orchard eight or ten years, using a plow, and spade around the trees. I plant corn or oats in a young orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of maples or willows and cultivate the same as a crop. I prune to thin the tops, and think it beneficial. I thin the fruit when small, if the trees are overloaded. Can see no difference whether the trees are planted in blocks of one kind, or mixed up. I fertilize my orchard, but not close to the trees; would not advise it on bottom land. I pasture my orchard with calves and hogs, but it is not advisable; it does not pay. I do not spray. I am experimenting with my trees; I make a hole two inches deep, one-fourth inch in diameter, put in medicine and plug up tight with grafting wax over it. It is claimed to kill all the insects on the tree for four or five years to come. I can tell the results this fall. It costs $10 to try it. [Hear! hear!] My neighbors spray their trees when in blossom, and say it pays. I pick my apples by hand, sort into two classes, and pack in barrels, filled full, and marked with consignee's name and hauled to shipping place on wagon. I never sell apples in the orchard, because they [the pickers] ruin the trees. I wholesale my best, second and third grade apples to the one offering the most for them. I feed the culls to hogs. Hiawatha is my best market. I never tried distant markets; it would not pay, unless in car-load lots. I dry apples, put them in sacks and hang in a dry place, and find a ready market for them; it pays. Am successful in storing apples in boxes--made of lath an inch apart--in an arched cave. I find Ben Davis and Rawle's Janet keep best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-tenth of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been about one dollar per barrel. I pay eighteen to twenty dollars per month and board for help. * * * * * ISAAC M. TAYLOR, Richmond, Franklin county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years; have about fifty apple trees eight years old, ten feet high. For market I prefer Jonathan and Ben Davis; for a family orchard, Romanstem, Gilpin, Rawle's Janet, Winesap, and Hubbardston's Nonesuch. Have tried and discarded McAfee Nonesuch, Belleflower, and Missouri Pippin. I prefer a gentle east slope at the bottom of a hill, with a deep sandy loam or four feet of red land on lime rock. I prefer two-year-old trees set thirty by thirty feet apart, in holes dug eighteen inches deep, and filled one-third full of surface soil. I cultivate my orchard as long as it lasts with a twelve-inch plow; throw the dirt away first of June, and back in August; then harrow it. I plant potatoes and corn in a young orchard, and cease cropping after ten years. I plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of rows of Osage orange on the north and south sides of the orchard. I prune as little as possible. I fertilize my orchard with cow-stable and horse-stable litter mixed; I think it beneficial, and would advise it on all soils, unless very rich. I pasture my orchard once in a while with hogs without rings in their noses, so they can hunt worms. My trees are troubled with borers. I do not spray. I pick my apples in sack from ladders. Sort into three classes, and peddle them. I use Topping's driers and Williams's parers; they are satisfactory. After drying I pack in fifty-pound boxes. I find a ready market in Kansas City for them, but it does not pay. I am successful in storing apples in small boxes and barrels in a cellar; Gilpin and Ben Davis keep best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about five per cent. I do not irrigate. Prices were thirty-five to fifty cents in the fall; seventy-five cents to one dollar in the spring [1897]. * * * * * JOHN GREGG, Willis, Brown county: I have been in Kansas since '68; have an apple orchard of 120 trees about twenty years old. For a commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Gano, and Dominie; and would add for a family orchard Red June, Holland Pippin, and Yellow Transparent. I have tried and discarded Willow Twig on account of blight, and Missouri Pippin on account of blight and shy bearing. I prefer high land with a porous clay subsoil, and a north, northeast or northwest aspect. When planting trees I dig deep, wide holes, lean the tree to the southwest, apply water, then fill and tramp well. I cultivate my orchard for five years with an orchard disc; plant corn and potatoes. Seed bearing orchard to clover. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of honey-locust, maple, ash etc., on the south and west sides of the orchard. For rabbits I wrap the trees with corn-stalks. I prune mostly in June, to give the trees shape; I think it pays. I do not thin my fruit, but think it would pay. I do not fertilize my orchard to any extent; think clover is good left on the ground. I do not pasture my orchard; it does not pay. My apples are troubled with codling-moth. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand into a basket or sack. The shippers do the sorting. I wholesale, retail and peddle my apples; sell the best to shippers, culls to neighbors or make cider of them. My best market is at home; never tried distant markets. Do not dry or store any. Prices have been from seventy-five cents to one dollar per barrel. * * * * * WILLIAM CUTTER, Junction City, Geary county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years; have an apple orchard of 4000 trees. For a commercial orchard I prefer the list recommended by the State Horticultural Society. I prefer a rich bottom with a north aspect. I prefer two-year-old trees four or five feet tall, branched low. I cultivate my orchard as long as it lives with a disc harrow or plow. The first five years I plant a crop that requires cultivation, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are very beneficial; would make them of two rows of Russian mulberries set ten feet apart in a row. I prune very little when young to balance the tree; I think it pays. I do not thin my fruit while on the trees, but think it would pay if I had time. I fertilize my old orchard with stable litter, and think it advisable on all soils. If you do not do this you must prune. I do not pasture my orchards. My trees are troubled with canker worm, root aphis, flathead borer, roundhead borer, woolly aphis, and leaf-roller, and my apples with codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. I spray for canker-worm and codling-moth--the oftener the better. I think I have reduced the codling-moth. I dig the borers out, and kill the rabbits. I carefully pick my apples by hand from a step-ladder, into half-bushel baskets, and sort into three classes--first, second, and culls. Pack in barrels rounded up and marked on the head; then send to market by rail. I sell some apples in the orchard, usually at wholesale. My best markets are south--Texas. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing in boxes, barrels and bulk for home market; I find Fink keeps best. Never tried artificial cold storage. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-fourth of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. I pay my help one dollar per day and board. * * * * * A. H. GRIESA, Lawrence, Douglas county: I have lived in the state thirty-one years. Have an apple orchard of 1000 trees, from six to eighteen years old. For a commercial orchard I prefer Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Winesap; and for a family orchard Yellow Transparent, Early Melon, Jonathan, and Gano. I have tried and discarded Gilpin, Lawver, and McAfee; they were not productive or good. I prefer a sandy river bottom. I prefer one-year-old trees, set as they grew in the nursery. I cultivate my orchard to small fruits, using a disc or cultivator; cease cropping when the trees spread too much. The more cultivation the better. Windbreaks are not essential. I trap the rabbits; and dig the borers out in May and September. I prune my trees a little each year, to let in sunshine; I think it pays and is beneficial. I thin the fruit while on the trees a very little; but it would pay to while the fruit is small. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter and ashes; and would advise their use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; but think it would pay, with calves and young pigs. My trees are troubled with borers and aphis, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. I pick by hand, and sort into three classes; pack in three-bushel barrels, facing the bottoms, and ship to market by freight or express. I sell apples in the orchard; sell the second and third grades to evaporators. I have tried distant markets, and found it paid. I do not dry any. I am fairly successful in storing apples in boxes and barrels, in a barn cellar, for market and family use, and find the Fink and Cullins keep best. Never tried artificial cold storage. I have to repack stored apples before marketing; the per cent. lost depends on the variety. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from seventy-five cents to two dollars per barrel. I pay my help one dollar per day. * * * * * WILLIAM BOND, Rossville, Shawnee county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-one years; have an apple orchard of about 300 trees, from five to twenty-five years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap; and for a family orchard would add Chenango Strawberry and Maiden's Blush. I have tried and discarded Rawle's Janet on account of rot, worms, and shy bearing, and Smith's Cider on account of blight. I prefer bottom land having a deep, porous subsoil and an east or south slope. I prefer two-year old trees, set in rows thirty feet apart each way. I cultivate my orchard with corn or potatoes for six or eight years, using a common cultivator, and cease cropping at the end of this time; plant the bearing orchard to clover. Windbreaks would be beneficial; would make them of forest-trees or Osage orange, by planting in three close rows on the south and west sides of the orchard. For rabbits I tie split corn-stalks around the trees. I prune very little; just enough to keep the head open and the watersprouts off. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are planted with one variety in a row. I do not fertilize my orchard. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable. My trees are troubled with canker-worms and flathead borers, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand. I sell apples in the orchard; also wholesale, retail and peddle some. The home market is best; never tried distant markets. I do not dry or store any. I do not irrigate. Apples were fifty cents per bushel in the fall of 1897. I paid my help one dollar per day. * * * * * REUBEN WALTON, Aurora, Cloud county: I have lived in Kansas twenty years. Have an apple orchard of 200 trees from six to eighteen years old. For a commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Late Emperor, and Maiden's Blush; and for a family orchard Winesap, Cooper's Early White, Late Emperor, Maiden's Blush, and Rhode Island Greening. I prefer a north slope with a rich black loam and limestone subsoil. I prefer two-year-old, well-rooted trees, set twenty feet apart. I cultivate my orchard to potatoes for ten years, using a double shovel plow, and cease cropping at the end of this time, planting the bearing orchard to grass. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of evergreens. I dig borers out. I prune to give the trees more air and better shape; I think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees; the hail and dry weather generally do that for me. My trees are in mixed plantings. I have one apricot tree which never bore until a swarm of bees came and lit on it, and it has borne every year since then [??]. I do not fertilize my orchard; our soil does not need it. I pasture my orchard all the time, with hogs and pigs. It is not advisable, as they injure the trees, but they pick up the wormy fruit. My trees are troubled with canker-worms, and my apples with codling-moth. I spray with London purple and Paris green three times, when we have the time and water to spare. Think I have reduced the codling-moth. I pick my fruit by hand and sell some apples to the neighbors in the orchard. I feed culls to pigs. I never tried distant markets. I have apples dried on shares for family use. It does not pay to dry for market. I am partially successful in storing apples in barrels in a cellar under the house. I find Rhode Island Greening, Ben Davis, Duchess of Oldenburg and Emperor keep best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing one-fourth of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty to thirty cents per bushel. * * * * * W. D. CELLAR, Edwardsville, Wyandotte county: Been in Kansas twelve years; have 2000 apple trees from two to eight years of age, comprising Ben Davis, Jonathan, Gano and Missouri Pippin for commercial purposes, and Maiden's Blush, Early Harvest, Bailey Sweet, Huntsman's Favorite, Grimes' Golden Pippin and Winesap for family orchard. I have discarded the McAfee and Lawver as unproductive. I prefer loose soil, and hill land with an east and north slope. Plant thrifty two-year-old trees, in rows 25×30 feet. I cultivate to corn, berries, etc., until seven or eight years old, with the Planet jr. horse hoe, and then sow to clover. Windbreaks are not needed in our locality. I prune conservatively, cutting out broken or interlacing branches, and suckers at the base; I believe it pays. Have never thinned on the tree, and fertilize with barn-yard litter and clover. I do not pasture my apple orchard. Am troubled some with insects, but have not sprayed. I dig out borers, which I think may be largely prevented by the use of wooden tree wrappers. I pick in the ordinary way and divide into two classes: select, sound, smooth apples above two inches in diameter; number two, sound apples too small for select. I do this on a sorting table, and pack in twelve-peck barrels, pressed down, and marked with a stencil. I sell at wholesale, sometimes in the orchard; culls I sell in the orchard or the Kansas City market. Our best market is Kansas City. I have shipped to distant markets and made it pay. Have never dried any. Have stored for winter in barrels in cold store; they have not kept satisfactorily, I cannot say why; Jonathan and Missouri Pippin kept best this past winter. I had to repack this spring and lost twenty per cent. Prices have ranged from 10 cents to $1.50 per bushel. For help I use men, and pay one dollar per day. * * * * * C. D. GAISER, Lansing, Leavenworth county: Have lived in Kansas forty years. Have 5000 trees eight years old, of Gano, Ben Davis, Jonathan, and Huntsman's Favorite; I grow no others. My location is hilltop, with good, rich soil, and a clay subsoil; slope makes no difference. I plant two- and three-year-old trees, 15×30 feet, and cultivate to corn for seven or eight years, and then sow to clover and timothy. I never prune, thin, or fertilize; and allow no stock in the orchard. I do not spray, but dig the flat-headed borer out with a knife. I use ladders, and gather in baskets and pour into a wagon, and sort in unloading; I make only two classes, culls and good apples. I ship my best apples to different points in barrels, and it pays; my culls I make into cider. Have never tried drying apples. I store some for winter in bulk, and keep them successfully. I use men and boys for help. I sell for $1.25 to $1.50 per barrel. * * * * * W. H. ROBINSON, Dunlap, Morris county: Has lived in Kansas thirty years; has 1000 apple trees, planted from two to nineteen years. Prefers Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Grimes's Golden Pippin and Jonathan for commercial purposes, and Early Harvest, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Duchess of Oldenburg and Cooper's Early White for family use. Has turned down Rawle's Janet, as they rot on the trees. All on best bottom land, clay subsoil. Plants two-year-old trees thirty-five feet apart each way, with nothing [?] between. Plants to corn, and cultivates well up to twelve years. Is protected on the southwest by a belt of timber. Keeps rabbits off by wrapping with corn-stalks. Prunes to make the tree healthier and apples finer; says it pays. Plants varieties in alternate rows, but does not say why. Uses all the stable litter he can get. Pastures with cows after gathering; says they eat the culls and wormy fruit, and it pays. He advises others to try it. Sprays with London purple before blooming, after blooming, and ten days later for tent-caterpillar and codling-moth, and believes he has reduced both of them. Has no borers--thinks "a stitch in time saves nine." Picks and sorts into two classes, first and second. Always sells in the orchard to western apple haulers. Lets the cows have all culls he does not use for cider. Price in orchard for picked apples, forty to fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * J. H. TAYLOR, Rhinehart, Dickinson county: Lived in Kansas twenty-two years. Have 700 apple trees, out from one to nineteen years. Prefer, for commercial purposes, Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Rawle's Janet; and for family orchard add Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, and Rambo. Have discarded all the specially recommended eastern [?] varieties as shy bearers, and too warm for Grimes's Golden Pippin. Prefers to plant on good black loam, in ravines facing north. Plants two-year-old thrifty trees, some 33×33, others 33×16-1/2 feet. Have tried to grow root grafts, with poor success. Cultivate all the time with disc and plow; grow corn for five or six years, afterward nothing. Does not need windbreak, but would use if required--about fifteen rows of ash and catalpa, planted four by four feet. Wraps trees from rabbits. Mice ate bark off and completely girdled roots six inches in diameter under the ground last winter (1897-'98). Prunes some to keep the top balanced and low, to prevent sun-scald and effects of wind. Uses fresh stable litter as a mulch, and believes it pays. Does not pasture at any time. Has few insects, and does not spray much, says rains wash it off too readily. Picks in baskets, and finds the family the best market; stores for winter in boxes and barrels, and is successful with Rawle's Janet, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. Prices have run from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. Uses farm help at fifteen to eighteen dollars and board per month. * * * * * JAMES LAWRY, Hollis, Cloud county: I have lived in the state sixteen years; have an apple orchard of 140 trees from six to fourteen years old. For all uses I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. I have discarded the Willow Twig because they die out. I prefer a clay soil. I prefer three-year-old trees set in big holes. I cultivate my orchard about five years with a one-horse shovel plow. I plant potatoes or sweet corn in a bearing orchard, and cease cropping when the trees cover the ground, and sow red clover in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of mulberries. I prune with a saw, to make them more productive; I think it pays. I never thin my fruit while on the trees. Can see no difference whether trees are in block of one kind or mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard, or spray. I pick my apples by hand from a ladder. I do not sell in the orchard. I do not pasture my orchard. Don't dry any. * * * * * LEVI KIMMAL, Concordia, Cloud county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-five years; have an apple orchard of 120 trees eighteen years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap; and for a family orchard Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Limber Twig, and Maiden's Blush. I have tried and discarded Golden Russet on account of shy bearing. I prefer a sandy loam with a clay subsoil, having a north or northwest aspect. I prefer two-year-old trees for planting. I plant my orchard up to bearing with potatoes and corn; then seed down to red clover. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of several rows of Osage orange on the south side of the orchard. I prune my trees; thin out the top to let the sun in for coloring. My trees are more fruitful when planted in blocks. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; I think it beneficial because it mulches, enriches, and holds the moisture, and would advise its use on all soils; no land is so good but what stable litter will make it better. I do not pasture my orchard; I do not think it advisable; but I mow all the weeds or whatever grows in the orchard and leave it on the ground for a mulching. My trees are troubled with twig-borers and leaf-rollers, and my apples with codling-moth. I have sprayed my trees when in blossom with Paris green; did not succeed last year. I dig borers out and pick the bad fruit (if there is any) off. I hand-pick my apples for winter use into baskets from step-ladders. I sell apples in the orchard; would rather sell that way than to hold them. I feed the culls to pigs. My best market is at home; I never tried a distant market. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples for home use in a cellar. I do not irrigate, but use stable litter for moisture. Winter apples brought fifty cents per bushel; dried apples three or four cents per pound. * * * * * SENECA HEATH, Muscotah, Atchison county: I have lived in the state thirty-one years; have an apple orchard of 2080 trees from three to thirty-six years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, York Imperial, Jonathan, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Stark, and on rich, moist soil, Winesap; and for a family orchard Early Margaret, Early June, Early Harvest, Cooper's Early White, Sweet Bough, Keswick Codlin, Maiden's Blush, Red Astrachan, Autumn and Summer Pearmain, Rambo, Fulton, Smith's Cider, and Newtown Pippin (if given extra care). Have tried and discarded Tompkins County King--the borers kill it on all soils--and Willow Twig on account of blight. I prefer upland with a black sandy or gravelly loam and a good limestone soil, with a porous subsoil as a necessity, and a northeast slope. I prefer thrifty one-year-old trees, set in plowed furrows and covered with a spade; "hill up" rather than "dig down." I cultivate my orchard to corn or any cultivated crop for eight years, using a plow and harrow, and cease cropping at the end of this time, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard; it does not pay. Windbreaks are essential, especially on upland. I would make them of red cedar, soft maple, or Osage orange, by planting in rows and cultivating four to six years. For rabbits I use tarred paper, and wood ashes for borers. I prune my trees with a saw and shears to produce fruit and shape; I think it pays, but the Ben Davis and Jonathan grow into handsomer shapes if left alone. If a tree is growing too rapidly to set fruit, prune in June. I thin the fruit while on the trees by picking off the wormy and defective ones. I keep this up until nearly grown; it pays. My trees are in mixed plantings, and believe they are more fruitful. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter, ashes, salt, and lime, and would advise it on all excepting rich soils, where it ought not to be used until after the trees have fruited five to eight years. Probably the cheapest and best fertilizer on upland is clover mowed and left to decay where it fell. Weeds are also good if mowed when two feet high and left on the ground. I pasture my orchard with pigs, calves, and horses, but it does not pay. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillars and round-headed borers, and my apples with codling-moth. I spray with a two-horse wagon sprayer, also a hand sprayer, when the blossom falls, with Paris green, and think I have reduced the codling-moth. I burn tent-caterpillars with a coal-oil lamp or torch. I pick my apples by hand into half-bushel baskets, from ladders. I sell my apples in the orchard. I sell, feed to the stock, and make cider of the culls. I do not dry any, but think it would pay. I have stored apples in barrels, and found the Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Stark and Baldwin keep best. I am not always successful; will not store any more until I build a fruit house. I do not irrigate, but intend to. Prices have been from 75 cents to $1.75 per barrel. I employ men and boys, and pay two cents per bushel for picking. * * * * * ED. SANDY, Linn, Washington county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years. Have an apple orchard of 100 trees, fifteen years old. I prefer a north slope. I plant my orchard to corn, using a cultivator; and continue cultivating bearing orchard. I prune my trees. Do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter, and think it beneficial; I would advise its use only on upland. I do not pasture my orchard. My apples are troubled with codling-moth and curculio. I have sprayed with Paris green for worms, and am not very successful. * * * * * J. A. COURTER, Barnes, Washington county: Have lived in Kansas since 1869; have an apple orchard of 150 trees, set from nine to twenty-five years. I prefer bottom land with a northeast slope. I cultivate my orchard to corn all the time. Windbreaks are not essential. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; my trees grew fine, but for the last three or four years they have blighted badly. I do not spray. I store some apples for winter use in boxes in a cave. * * * * * THOMAS BROWN, Palmer, Washington county: I have resided in the state twenty-eight years. Have an apple orchard of 500 trees from three to twenty years old. For a commercial orchard I prefer Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Ben Davis, and for family orchard Cooper's Early White, Maiden's Blush, and Jonathan. I prefer sandy land on an east slope. I plant trees in rows sixteen by twenty-one feet. I mulch my orchard with straw, and plow every three or four years. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of maple or box-elders, planted around the orchard. I prune some, but it does not pay. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I pasture my orchard some with swine, but it is not advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with fall web-worms. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand. I sometimes sell the apples in the orchard at retail. My best market is at home; I never tried distant markets. I do not dry any. Am successful in storing apples in boxes and barrels in a cellar. Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep best. I never tried cold storage. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-third of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been about fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * D. J. FRASER, Peabody, Marion county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-three years; have 380 apple trees ten inches in diameter, twenty-two years planted. I prefer for commercial purposes Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Grimes's Golden Pippin, and Maiden's Blush; and for family use would add Early Harvest, Sweet June, and Winesap; have tried and discarded about thirty other varieties, because they did not yield or were subject to disease. I prefer bottom land, with north slope, made land. I plow out deep, dead furrow; set trees and plow the earth back to the trees. I prefer two- or three-year-old strong trees. Have tried root grafts and seedlings with good success. I cultivate the trees the first ten years with the plow and harrow. I grow nothing in a young orchard, and seed the old orchard to clover. I think windbreaks are essential on the south, and would make them of Osage orange or mulberry, planted in double rows, a few feet apart. Wrap trees for rabbits, and for borers keep trees thrifty. I prune some to keep the top balanced, and think it beneficial. I have thinned fruit some, but do not think it pays. My trees are in mixed plantings, and I keep bees. I have used fertilizer, but could not see much benefit; would advise it only on thin soils. I have pastured my orchard with hogs, and think it advisable; it pays. My trees are bothered with canker-worm, root aphis, flathead borer, and twig-borer; the codling-moth troubles my apples. I have sprayed with Bordeaux mixture, London purple, and Paris green; could not see much good; have reduced the codling-moth some. I pick my apples the old-fashioned way--with a sack. Practically, the crop has been so light that very few have been sold, and they were fall apples. Have never dried any; have never stored any. Do not irrigate. Prices have been unsatisfactory. * * * * * J. B. MOSHER, Lawrenceburg, Cloud county: I have lived in Kansas seventeen years. Have an orchard of 150 trees, planted from one to seventeen years. For family orchard would plant Early Harvest, Cooper's Early, Duchess of Oldenburg, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, and Ben Davis. Medium elevation, with northern or northeastern slope, and clay-loam soil with clay subsoil, is preferable. When planting, I dig a hole large enough to receive the roots, and plant healthy two-year-old trees, trained to a switch, so that I can train the top to suit. Have tried root grafts and seedlings; both have done well. I cultivate while the trees are young, and use only harrow and mowing-machine after they begin to bear. I plant any hoed crop among the trees while young, and cease when the trees begin to bear. I think windbreaks essential, and use maple, box-elder, and Scotch pine. For rabbits I use traps and shot-gun. I use a knife for the borers. I prune when the tree needs it; use the saw on large trees and the knife on small trees. I thin the fruit sometimes when it sets too thickly, as soon as it shows, and it pays most emphatically. I cannot see any difference in trees whether set in blocks or mixed up. I use some barn-yard fertilizer, and think it beneficial; would advise its use as the trees begin to bear. I pasture my orchard with pigs and poultry; think it advisable, and think it pays. My trees are troubled with bud moth, flathead borer, and twig-borer; some seasons I also have leaf-roller and leaf-crumpler. The codling-moth troubles my apples. I spray some to destroy these insects, with indigo and London purple, using a pump. I do not know that I have reduced the codling-moth any. For borer I form a basin around the tree and fill with water, repeating several times; I sometimes pick them. I use an ordinary fruit ladder, and sack with ends tied together and swung over the shoulder. I make but one class, viz., market all the perfect apples. I carefully put in a fruit-house and let stay a week or so, then carefully sort over by removing all unsound or faulty ones. I do not ship. I have a good market at home. I never sell in the orchard; usually market in bushel boxes. I usually feed second- or third-class fruit to hogs. My best market is Concordia. Have never tried distant markets. I have never dried any apples. I store some for winter use in an ordinary cellar; am successful, and find Winesap, Rawle's Janet and Missouri Pippin keep the best. We have to repack after storing, and lose about one-third. I do not irrigate. Winesap, Missouri Pippin and Rawle's Janet usually sell at one dollar per bushel; Ben Davis, at seventy-five cents per bushel. * * * * * C. C. GARDINER, Bradford, Wabaunsee county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-nine years, in this county fourteen years; have 750 apple trees ten years planted. For commercial orchard I would plant Ben Davis, Winesap and Missouri Pippin; for family use, add Jonathan and Maiden's Blush. Have tried and discarded Keswick Codlin; tree is tender. I prefer hilltop, north and west or northeast slope, black loam with a yellowish clay subsoil. I plant thirty feet apart, using one- and two-year-old, low-headed trees. Have tried root grafts; had good success. I cultivate until the trees are six or seven years old with the plow and cultivator. I grow corn in a young orchard, and clover in a bearing orchard; cease cropping when six or seven years old. Windbreaks are beneficial on the south and west; they should be made of quick-growing trees. I wrap the trees with paper to protect against rabbits. I prune but little to thin top; am doubtful if it pays. Never thin apples on trees. I fertilize the land with well-rotted manure, but not close the trees; I would advise its use on all soils; I think it beneficial; I sometimes pasture my orchard with hogs; do not think it advisable; pays only in getting rid of wormy fruit. My trees are troubled with leaf-roller, and my apples with codling-moth. Do not spray. Gather my apples by hand, and sort into two classes, first, second and culls. * * * * * ISAAC E. WOLF, Longford, Clay county: Have been in Kansas twenty-one years; have 200 apple trees nineteen years old, and 100 apple trees six years old. Prefer Ben Davis, Winesap and Missouri Pippin for market, and Maiden's Blush, Duchess of Oldenburg and Smith Cider for family orchard. The Red Astrachan and Early Harvest are shy bearers. My orchard is on sandy soil with clay subsoil; the trees look healthy. I prefer two-year-old trees, and lay the ground off in squares, making large holes. In young orchard I plant corn for ten years, cultivating both ways; after that I grow nothing, but cultivate with the disc as long as I can get through it. Am cultivating my old orchard. I think windbreaks are a necessity on the south, west, and north, and would make them of walnut and box-elder. For rabbits I rub on strong grease. I prune with shears such limbs as rub one another, and am sure it pays. I don't think it pays to thin fruit on the trees. I believe in fertilizing the ground, but not too close to the trees; it won't hurt any soil. Allow no stock in the orchard. The twig-borer is the worst insect in my orchard. I tried spraying on some trees, and some I did not, and my apples were all alike. I watch for borers closely, and cut them out. I pick in a grain sack, and make three classes. The best I keep for spring, the second class for winter, and the culls I turn into cider. I peddle my apples out at home. We dry some apples and have a good market at home. We store for winter in the cellar in bulk, and find that Winesap, Rawle's Janet and Missouri Pippin are the best keepers. FRUIT DISTRICT No. 2. Following is the second fruit district, comprising twenty-three counties, in the northwest quarter of state. Reports, or rather experiences, from each of these counties will be found immediately following. We give first the number of apple trees in this district, compiled from statistics for 1897. Many thousands were added in the spring of 1898. _Bearing._ _Not bearing._ _Total._ Cheyenne 211 1,708 1,919 Decatur 3,925 4,990 8,915 Ellis 3,846 1,321 5,167 Ellsworth 17,491 12,474 29,965 Gove 214 1,202 1,416 Graham 508 3,636 4,144 Jewell 120,509 56,550 177,059 Lincoln 19,619 18,846 38,465 Logan 468 1,465 1,933 Mitchell 55,806 20,624 76,430 Morton 264 171 435 Norton 7,220 6,803 14,023 Osborne 21,647 15,043 36,690 Phillips 16,765 9,486 26,251 Rawlins 806 2,065 2,871 Rooks 8,127 6,815 14,942 Russell 6,788 5,045 11,833 Sheridan 218 1,148 1,366 Sherman 169 1,477 1,646 Smith 41,919 22,988 64,907 Thomas 509 470 979 Trego 745 1,409 2,154 Wallace 223 1,343 1,566 ------- ------- ------- Total in district 327,997 197,079 525,076 Estimate in acreage 60,000 35,000 105,000 * * * * * WILLIAM BAIRD, Vesper, Lincoln county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; have an apple orchard of 300 trees, from one to fifteen years old; the old ones measuring twelve inches in diameter. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Huntsman's Favorite; and for family orchard Maiden's Blush, Ben Davis, and Missouri Pippin. Think I shall discard Red Astrachan and Red Betigheimer on account of shy bearing. I prefer bottom, sandy soil, clay subsoil, and a northwest slope. I prefer good, stocky, low-headed, yearling trees set from twenty-five to thirty feet in the row; have tried root grafts; that is the only successful way to grow trees here. I cultivate my orchard to potatoes for the first two or three years, after that to any kind of vines. I use a stirring plow, plowing very shallow near the trees and deeper near the center. I grow nothing in a bearing orchard, and cease cropping after five years. I think windbreaks are essential, and would make them of seedling peach, Russian mulberry or any quick-growing trees, in three or four rows on the south side of the orchard. I trap the rabbits, and use my knife on the borers; am not troubled with them very much. I prune trees while young to give the proper shape to the top, and later to remove the crossed limbs and cause them to spread out and shade the trunk and as much space as possible. I have thinned the fruit on trees to a limited extent; it should be done when about the size of quail eggs. Think it makes little difference whether trees are planted in block or mixed up. I do not fertilize my orchard; the soil is rich enough; water is what it needs. I pasture my orchard with hogs, and think it advisable, as they eat all the wormy fruit and destroy many insects by rooting; I find it pays. My trees are troubled with root aphis; my apples are bothered by codling-moth, gouger, and blue jays. I spray with London purple and lime, about 100 gallons of water to one pound of purple and six pounds of lime. I think Paris green would be better. I spray for canker-worm as soon as I see them, and am of the opinion that one application is enough, but do not think spraying of any use for codling-moth, as the moth itself does not eat anything but the honey from the base of the bloom, and not enough of the poison reaches them to amount to anything. My method of fighting them is, as soon as the moth appears in the spring, to put old fruit cans in the trees filled with sweet water. This attracts the moths and they drown in it. I also burn torches in the orchard at night. Another way is to hang a lantern over a tub of water that has a little coal-oil in it; this will kill a great many insects. I hand-pick my fruit into sacks slung over the shoulder; I use a step-ladder for those I cannot reach. I sell apples in orchard; also retail; sell best ones to best customers; I dry second and third grades; of culls I make cider and vinegar and feed to pigs. My best market is at home. I dry some apples; use a Victor evaporator, and one that I made; after drying we heat in an oven, and put in double paper bags, and find a ready market; but it does not pay. I store apples in five-bushel boxes, in a tunnel-like cellar, dug in solid sand-rock; it is fifty feet long, five feet wide, and six and one-half feet deep, with rooms on each side; it is perfectly dry and the temperature even, but it is too warm for winter; I find it is excellent for summer and fall apples. Those that keep best are Rawle's Janet and Missouri Pippin. We have to repack stored apples before marketing; I do not lose many. I use or sell as soon as fit. I irrigate my orchard from a small creek fed by springs. I have two large dams, with ditches running along the hillside, with gates to let the water into the ditches; from the main ditch I have laterals, also provided with gates; the surplus and seepage goes back into the creek below the main dam; the creek below the dam has small dams in it to hold the seepage water at the desired height--which serves for subirrigation, the best irrigation in the world. The water should not stand nearer than five feet of the surface for apples. I run the water between the rows in wide, shallow ditches, any time from March to September. It is not necessary to have a creek to irrigate an orchard. A good, big ditch along the hillside above the orchard will catch enough melted snow and rain to pay for its construction; this should run into a reservoir. Prices have been from seventy-five cents to one dollar, and dried apples from five to twelve and one-half cents per pound. * * * * * PETER NOON, Vesper, Lincoln county: I have lived in Kansas thirty years. Have forty apple trees eleven years old, eight to ten inches in diameter, twelve to fifteen feet high. I prefer for all purposes Winesap and Ben Davis. I prefer bottom land with a black soil and sandy subsoil. I plant young trees in rows twenty-five feet each way. I cultivate my orchard for seven years with plow and harrow, raising no crop. Windbreaks are essential; I use cottonwood trees, planted in three rows, around my orchard. I prune with a saw to make the trees bear better and keep them from getting top-heavy; I think it beneficial. I thin my fruit on the trees by hand in July. I never pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with bud moth. I do not spray. I pick by hand. Never dry any. Do not store any. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from seventy-five to eighty cents per bushel, and dried apples eight cents per pound. * * * * * JACOB WEIDMAN, Lincoln, Lincoln county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years. Have an apple orchard of about 1000 trees, nineteen years old. For commercial purposes I prefer Winesap, Ben Davis, Rawle's Janet, Huntsman's Favorite, Jonathan, Maiden's Blush, Early Harvest, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Duchess of Oldenburg, Autumn Strawberry, Rambo, and Gano. For family orchard would prefer Winesap, Huntsman's Favorite, Gilpin, Milam, Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Red June, and Limber Twig, the last one being a very good keeper. Have tried and discarded Red Astrachan, Lawver, Golden Russet, Yellow Bellflower, Willow Twig and Smith's Cider on account of blight. I prefer bottom land with rich soil and loose subsoil, with a northern slope. I prefer two-year-old stocky trees planted in a furrow. I have tried root grafts with the best success; the best trees in this county were grown by me. I cultivate my orchard to corn, using a stirring plow; I cease cropping after six years, but keep cultivating until the trees smother the weeds. Windbreaks are essential. I have native timber on three sides, the south, west, and north; and a hill on the east. For rabbits I wrap the trees with corn-stalks, which also protects them from sun-scald. Am never troubled with borers. I prune moderately to give shape to young trees, and to let the sun and air to the fruit on old trees; many trees are injured by heavy pruning. I never thin. Mixed plantings of trees are best; my Jonathan do well; all do well that bloom at the same time. I do not fertilize. I never pasture my orchard; would not advise it. My trees are troubled with woolly aphis and root-louse. I have sprayed with London purple; last year I sprayed with Paris green and my apples were free from worms; if London purple is used without lime it burns the leaves; Paris green does not mix well, and has to be stirred all the time. I am going to use carbonate of soda and white arsenic this year; four parts carbonate of soda to two parts of white arsenic, and one gallon of water; boil for fifteen minutes, then add another gallon of water and use two quarts of this to fifty gallons of water. I pick my apples in a sack from a ladder. I sell apples in the orchard; have regular customers for the winter apples. I supply some stores with early and fall apples; never peddle any. I put my second-grade apples in piles of about thirty bushels each, and cover lightly with dirt until cold weather comes. A little freezing will not hurt them. In March or April I market them, and get as much for them as I get for the first-class ones in the fall. Those that keep best are: Ben Davis, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, Gilpin, and Milam. We dry some apples for home use. We put them on frames in a spent hotbed under glass, to keep flies off. I have a large cellar in which I store apples; have never packed them in barrels. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from 35 cents to $1.50 per bushel. Have help of my own. * * * * * L. P. ASHCROFT, Shibboleth, Decatur county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-two years. Have 100 apple trees, eight to twelve years old, four to ten inches in diameter. I prefer for commercial purposes Ben Davis, Winesap, and Willow Twig. I prefer upland with a south slope. I plant two-year-old, low, bushy, stout-top trees. To set, I plow deep and dig deep holes, in the fall. I cultivate my orchard every year from May 1 to July 1, and late in the fall. I use the harrow in the spring, disc and harrow later on, and lister in the fall. I think windbreaks would be beneficial on the south, and would make them of buildings and sheds of all kinds. I am troubled with small borers in the limbs. I prune out the inside of trees to let sun and air through. I think it beneficial, and that it pays. I never thin apples; the wind does the thinning. My trees are in mixed plantings, and I believe would bear every year if they did not freeze. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter on top of heavy snows. I think it beneficial, if not too close to the trees. I would advise its use on all soils if applied at the right time and in the right manner. I do not pasture my orchard; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with small borers, and my fruit with some insects. I do not spray. I have used coal-oil for borers, but do nothing now. We pick our own fruit. * * * * * W. D. STREET, Oberlin, Decatur county: I have resided in the state thirty-seven years. Have an apple orchard of fifty trees seven or eight years old, about six inches in diameter. My orchard is situated on low, bottom land. I prefer two-year-old trees, set in plowed land and dug holes. I plant my orchard to garden crops, corn, and potatoes. I plow shallow, and use a harrow and weed-cutter. I plant the same crops in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; mine are natural timber along the creek. I prune a little with knife and saw, to preserve shape; cannot say that it has been beneficial, or that it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees; it would probably benefit. I fertilize my orchard some with stable litter. I think it beneficial, as the land is heavily cropped with truck. I would not advise it on all soils. I pasture my orchard with cattle, horses, and hogs, but do not think it advisable. I have not sprayed yet, but intend to when my orchard is older. I pick my apples by hand. I store apples for home use. With a dam across a creek, I raise water into a pond, and irrigate. Seepage, percolation and capillary attraction do the rest. * * * * * JAMES L. WILLIAMS, McDonald, Rawlins county: I have resided in Kansas nineteen years. Have an apple orchard of sixty trees, planted eight years; planted ten acres in 1895. I prefer for family orchard Jonathan, Rambo, Senator, Rawle's Janet, and Gano. I planted my orchard on a hillside; the small orchard is in the bottom; they have a clay subsoil, and slope in every direction, but would prefer a northern slope. I prefer three-year-old trees, set in holes dug four feet deep, five feet wide, filled in the bottom with soil hauled from the creek. [?] I cultivate my trees with a cultivator and harrow; I think the life of the tree depends on the cultivation, and that we will have to keep it up as long as the tree lives. I plant potatoes and turnips in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks would be a benefit, and should be made of Russian mulberry or red cedar, set in four or five rows around the orchard. For rabbits I rub axle grease on the trees. I commence pruning when I set the trees out, using a knife and saw, to keep the tops from getting too heavy and to give shape; I think it pays. Never have thinned the fruit while on the trees, but would if my trees should ever be overloaded; I think it would pay. I fertilize my orchard from the sheep corral; it keeps the ground moist and is food for the trees. Would not advise its use on bottom land, as the growth would be too rapid. I pasture my orchard with hogs, but do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with grasshoppers and flathead borers. I dig borers out in the spring, then wash the tree with strong soap-suds, which I think eradicates all lice and insects that may be in the bark of the tree; it gives the tree a hearty, vigorous growth. I do not irrigate, but cultivate instead. * * * * * J. R. CALDWELL, Oberlin, Decatur county: I have lived in Kansas thirteen years. Have an apple orchard of 110 trees, thirteen years old, six inches in diameter. For fall or winter market I prefer Winesap, Ben Davis, and Jonathan, and for summer, Cooper's Early White, Maiden's Blush, Red June, Winesap, Ben Davis, and Jonathan. Have tried and discarded Rawle's Janet; it is not a good bearer in this locality. I prefer upland, with a deep, rich loam, and an eastern slope. I prefer three-year-old trees, with lengthy bodies and not much top, set in holes dug three by three, one and one-half to two feet deep; fill the bottom with some of the same dirt. I cultivate my orchard to corn and potatoes ten or twelve years, using a cultivator and stirring plow; cease cropping after ten or twelve years. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of forest-trees, by planting or transplanting them. For rabbits I wrap the trees with corn-stalks. I prune to keep the limbs from rubbing; for any other reason it does not pay. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are planted in rows. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter; think it beneficial, and that it would be good for all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable, and does not pay. My trees are troubled with flathead borer and tent-caterpillar, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. I hand-pick my apples and sell them in our home market. I do not dry or store any. Do not irrigate. Price has been one dollar per bushel. Dried apples have been from five to six cents per pound. * * * * * B. F. CAMPBELL, St. Francis, Cheyenne county: I have lived in Kansas since 1885. Have an apple orchard of 200 trees, from two to seven years planted. I prefer bottom land, subirrigated, that is sandy, with a northern aspect. I prefer one-year-old trees planted in rows twenty feet apart. I cultivate my orchard to vegetables as long and as often as I can, using a harrow; cultivate after every rain if possible, and the drier the ground, the oftener the better. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of cottonwood, as they make the finest growth with us. For rabbits I wrap the trees with cloth; have not been able to catch or poison the gophers yet. I prune to maintain low heads and to make shapely trees without forks, and think it beneficial. I never thin my fruit. Do not think it makes any difference whether trees are planted in blocks of one variety, or mixed up. I mulch my orchard to retain moisture; would not advise it on all soils, as the moles make their home in it and soon kill the trees. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable. The gophers have done more damage by cutting off the roots than all the other pests. Am also troubled with grasshoppers. Never have sprayed, but am going to this spring; will use the same chemicals as are used at the experiment station. I irrigate [sub]; can flood the ground, but don't need to; it is wet enough without. * * * * * J. W. SOMER, Wilson, Ellsworth county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-two years; have an apple orchard of seventy-five trees. For all purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, and Smith's Cider. Have tried and discarded Arkansas Black, Lawver, Jonathan, and Rawle's Janet. I prefer limestone bottom land with southeast slope. I prefer two-year-old trees three to five feet tall. I cultivate my orchard two or three years with a common stirring plow and cultivator, and plant nothing. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of forest-trees, walls, or Osage hedge. They ought to be planted before starting the orchard. For rabbits I wrap my trees with corn-stalks. I prune only to make trees symmetrical. Do not thin my apples. I mulch my trees; think it beneficial, but would not advise it on all soils. Do not pasture my orchard. Trees are troubled with twig-borer. * * * * * J. D. GRIFFITHS, Kanopolis, Ellsworth county: Have lived in Kansas eighteen years; have an apple orchard of thirty trees. Have some trees planted on bottom land. I cultivate my orchard to sweet corn as long as the trees will admit, using a plow and a one-horse, five-tooth cultivator. I prune to give trees good shape. I fertilize my orchard with well-rotted stable litter. Do not pasture my orchard. Am troubled with no insect but borers. I spray the trees when leafing out, and once a week for five or six weeks after that time, to ward off the insects. I probe for insects not affected by spraying. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. Dried apples have been about eight cents per pound. * * * * * M. E. WELLS, Athol, Smith county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-six years; have an orchard of twelve acres, from five to fourteen years. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin; and for family orchard Early Harvest and Winesap. I prefer hilltop of thin clay, resting on yellow silt, with a northern slope. I prefer two-year-old, stocky trees planted in dead furrows. I cultivate my orchard to corn as long as there is space enough between the rows; use two five-tooth cultivators lashed together, and cease cropping after twelve years. Windbreaks are not essential. I protect against rabbits and borers by eternal vigilance in hunting them. I prune by cutting out limbs, so they will not crowd each other; think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard; I think shallow cultivation is better. I do not pasture my orchard with anything excepting chickens. Trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar; some worm affects my apples. I sometimes spray with lime and copperas, and have not been very successful. Insects not affected by spraying I dig out with penknife and wire. I pick my apples by hand from a common ladder; sort into three classes--first, smooth and free from worms; second, free from worms; the balance in the third grade. I sell apples in the orchard; also retail them. I handle the best apples very carefully, one at a time, and place in crates. Keep the second and third-grade apples at home; feed the culls to hogs. My best market is in the orchard; never tried distant markets. Never dry any. I store apples for winter in a cellar on shelves, one layer of fruit on each shelf--am successful; Ben Davis keeps best. Never tried artificial cold storage. Do not irrigate. Price has been fifty cents per bushel. I employ women, because they handle the fruit with more care than men do; I pay one dollar per day. * * * * * ISAAC CLARK, Oberlin, Decatur county: I have lived in Kansas ten years. I have 1250 apple trees, eight years planted, as fine as they can be. My market varieties are: Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Rawle's Janet, and Ben Davis, and for family I added Maiden's Blush, Red Astrachan, and Sweet June. I prefer clay soil, on hilltop; any slope is good. Plant trees in good condition and fine appearance, on ground plowed deep and disced just as deeply. I cultivate very often with five-tooth cultivator, and never quit. Every third year I plow with a one-horse diamond plow. I raised melons for the first three years; after that nothing. I have no use for windbreaks. I tie with corn-stalks, to protect against rabbits. I prune very little, to form the top, with knife and saw; keep straggling branches out. I use very little fertilizer; only on thin soil. I never pasture the orchard. Have some twig-borers and leaf-crumplers. I have never sprayed yet; it may soon be necessary. I have kept my trees tied up with corn-stalks for six years; the bodies are healthy; no sun-scald and no borers. My best market is at home. I have stored some for winter, in barrels in a cave, and find that the Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Rawle's Janet keep best, the latter keeping until July. I have been able to sell in the spring at fifty cents per peck. * * * * * JOHN M. C. KROENLIN, Lincoln, Lincoln county: I have resided in Kansas twenty-one years. Have an apple orchard of 178 trees, from four to fourteen years old, three to twelve inches in diameter. For market I prefer Winesap and Missouri Pippin, and for family use Missouri Pippin, Cooper's Early White, and Winesap. I prefer bottom land, with a black loam soil and sandy subsoil; I believe a level location best. For planting I prefer two-year-old trees, set in holes dug three feet square and one and one-half feet deep; throw out all soil and use good surface soil; never apply water to the roots. I cultivate my orchard until the trees are seven years old, using a disc, and then a harrow to level the ground, and plant no crop. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of Russian mulberries, on south and west sides. I have cottonwood windbreaks on the east and north of my orchard; those on the east protect the trees from the morning sun, thereby lessening the danger when there is frost on the buds, and those on the north I keep trimmed high, so as to admit of a free circulation of air, which is a protection against frost. For rabbits I wrap my trees with corn-stalks, which I think the best way. I prune with an ax, knife, and saw, and think it beneficial and that it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with well-rotted cow-stable litter, which I think has been beneficial. I do not pasture my orchard; I do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, but not bad, and my apples with codling-moth. I spray after the blossoms fall, with London purple (which will kill every time), for canker-worm. I stand on step-ladder and pick my apples by hand. I sell them in the orchard, at retail, and feed the culls to the chickens. Lincoln is my best market. Have never tried distant markets. Don't dry any; it does not pay. I am successful in storing apples in bulk in a cellar, and find Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep best. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from ten cents to two dollars per bushel, the same season; dried apples four cents per pound. * * * * * J. H. SAYLES & SON, Norcatur, Decatur county: Have been in Kansas fifteen years; have 300 apple trees, eight years planted, six inches in diameter. For market I planted Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Winter Duchess (?), and I added for family use Jonathan, Duchess of Oldenburg, and Red June. I have tried and discarded the Mann, Walbridge, Baldwin, Northern Spy, and Red Astrachan. I have black, northwest Kansas prairie soil, with northeast slope. Our well is seventeen feet deep, and fruit never fails. Plant low, healthy, two-year-old trees, in deep furrows, plowed parallel with the slope, putting the trees twenty by thirty feet. I have raised some splendid seedlings. I draw on large quantities of stable litter. I grow nothing in the orchard; cultivate with double shovel, drag, and hoe, keeping the ground flat. I believe windbreaks are essential, and would make them of Russian mulberry and white elm, set one row of elm one year old, twelve to twenty-four inches, then two rows of Russian mulberry six feet apart, alternating. For rabbits I fence with wire. I prune with knife and saw, thinning out the tops, and think it pays. I believe in thinning the fruit as soon as it is large enough, and would plant mixed varieties. Our Jonathan never bore until the Ben Davis near by bloomed. I scatter stable litter as for grain, and it is beneficial, as trees not fertilized die out here; it is good on all kinds of soil. Never pasture the orchard. We have some leaf-roller, fall web-worm, and codling-moth, but have never sprayed any. We dig borers out with a wire. We pick by hand, and sort into three grades: numbers 1 and 2, and cider stock. We never sell in the orchard, but retail our best in one-bushel crates. Our culls we feed out to farm stock early. Our best market is at home and west; never tried distant markets. Have never tried drying or storing for winter. Do not irrigate, but cultivate often. Prices range from 60 cents to $1.25 per bushel. We use some farm help at fifteen to eighteen dollars per month. * * * * * W. J. BRUMAGE, Beloit, Mitchell county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-four years; have an orchard of 1000 very large apple trees, from twelve to twenty years old. For commercial purposes would prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Duchess of Oldenburg, Early Harvest, Red June, Willow Twig, Maiden's Blush, Cooper's Early White, and Pewaukee, and for family orchard Ben Davis, Winesap, Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, and Duchess of Oldenburg. I prefer hilltop, clay loam, with northeast slope. I plow a ditch and set two-year-old trees a little deeper than they were in the nursery. Have tried root-grafts and seedlings; were no good. I cultivate with garden-truck until twelve or fourteen years old, using a plow to stir the ground, and seed bearing orchard to grass. I use no windbreaks. I prune to keep the tree from getting bushy; I think it beneficial. I never thin my fruit. Cannot see any difference in trees whether planted in blocks or mixed up. Use no fertilizer, and would not advise its use. Do not pasture orchard; do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, flathead borers, twig-borer, and leaf roller. Codling-moth and curculio trouble my fruit. I spray with London purple, using a pump, just after the blossom falls, for the codling-moth, and think I have reduced them. I pick my fruit by hand, and pack in barrels. I sort into two classes, good and bad. Have sold them in the orchard; sometimes retail; my best market is home; have never tried distant markets. I make vinegar of the culls. Never dry any. Store some for winter market in bulk in a cave; am successful; Winesap, Willow Twig and Ben Davis keep the best. Have never tried artificial cold storage. Have to repack stored apples before marketing; we lose about one-fourth. Do not irrigate. Prices average about fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * JOHN E. DAVID, Winona, Logan county: Have lived in Kansas thirteen years; have an apple orchard of ninety trees from seven to ten years old. I prefer level land, black loam with a clay subsoil, and an eastern slope. I prefer thrifty, healthy trees, set in holes three feet deep. I cultivate my orchard to beans and melons, using a cultivator and plow for six years; then cease cropping. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of honey-locust, planted in rows on north [?] and south. For protection from rabbits I use wire screening, and dig the borers out. I prune my trees with a knife to give big growth, and think it beneficial. I never thin my apples while on the trees. My trees are planted in blocks. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; think it beneficial and would advise it out here. I never pasture my orchard. Am not troubled with insects. Do not spray. Do not irrigate. * * * * * P. F. JOHNSON, Oberlin, Decatur county: Have lived in Kansas seven years; Have 200 apple trees, four to eight years old, and seven to fifteen feet high. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis. For family use, Red June, Winesap, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Jonathan, and Ben Davis. I prefer bottom land, with deep, black loam and clay subsoil, north slope. I plant two-year-old trees, in rows north and south, as close as the different varieties will allow. I cultivate as long as the trees live, with plow and cultivator, allowing them to go no deeper than three inches. I plant the young orchard to beans, pumpkins, and squashes; the same in a bearing orchard, and never cease cropping. Windbreaks are essential. I would make them of Russian mulberry and ash, and keep them cultivated. I tie dry corn-stalks around young trees to protect from rabbits. Never prune. Never thin. I use stable litter as a fertilizer and mulch; I think it advisable in this latitude. I pasture my orchard in fall and winter with hogs, and think it advisable. My trees are troubled with roundhead borer, twig-borer, and grasshoppers. I do not spray. Have never irrigated, but intend to soon. Prices have been from $1 to $1.50 per bushel. * * * * * W. B. STOCKARD, Beloit, Mitchell county: I have lived in the state since 1871. Have an apple orchard of 800 trees. For all purposes I prefer Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Jonathan, and Jefferis. Have tried and discarded Ben Davis and Limber Twig. I prefer bottom land with a clay subsoil; southeast slope. I prefer two-year-old trees, planted twenty-four feet apart, then thin them out when they crowd. I cultivate my orchard to corn and potatoes, using a cultivator and drop harrow, and cease cropping when about six years old; plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are not essential. To protect the trees from rabbits I rub with rabbits' blood, and whitewash for borers. I prune very little; remove dead limbs, and clip the others; think it beneficial if not too severe. I do not thin my fruit while on the trees; it does not pay. It is not necessary to set trees in mixed plantings when you keep bees. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; think corn-stalks best, it has proven beneficial; would advise its use on all soils. Do not pasture my orchard; is not advisable; does not pay. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar, bud moth, root aphis, bag-worm, roundhead borer, woolly aphis, twig-borer, oyster-shell bark-louse, and my apples with curculio. I spray just before the bud swells, and after they bloom, with white arsenic; sal soda and lime for canker-worms and moths; think I have reduced the codling-moth. I hand-pick my apples; sort into two classes. Sell in the orchard, wholesale, retail, and peddle; keep the best apples at home; make vinegar of the second and third grades, and culls. Never tried distant markets. Find a ready market for dried apples; but it does not pay. I store apples for winter use in a circular arched cave, in barrels; find Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep best. I do not irrigate. Price has been fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * P. WAGNER, Dresden, Decatur county: I have lived in the state twelve years. Have an apple orchard of fifty trees, planted last spring. I prefer hilltop, with an east or north aspect. I cultivate my orchard with a cultivator and harrow, growing no crop. Would make windbreaks of locust trees. For rabbits I use barrel staves. I do not prune, or thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, and think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. I do not spray. I water my orchard. Apples have been one dollar per bushel; dried apples, five cents per pound. * * * * * JOHN ELDER, Glen Elder, Mitchell county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; have an apple orchard of 280 trees, from twelve to twenty-six years planted. For family orchard I prefer Cooper's Early White, Early Harvest, Chenango Strawberry, Maiden's Blush, Missouri Pippin, and Ben Davis. Have tried and discarded Willow Twig, Lowell, and White Winter Pearmain, on account of blight and sun-scald. I prefer hill land, with black loam soil and clay subsoil; a northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old trees, planted in dead furrows. I cultivate my orchard to corn for a number of years, using a lister, while the trees are young, and a disc when they get older. I cease cropping after six or eight years, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. When windbreaks are close enough to do good they sap the ground too much. I wrap the trees to protect them from rabbits, and keep them growing and healthy, for borers. I prune my trees, and think it beneficial. I do not thin the fruit on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, and think it keeps a tree healthy and growing, which will protect it from borers and other insects. Do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable. My apples are troubled with curculio and gouger. I have sprayed after the blossom fell, with Paris green, London purple, and blue vitriol; don't know that I reduced the codling-moth any. For insects not affected by spraying I bored a one-half inch hole in the trees this spring and filled it with sulphur; then plugged it up. [?????] I sell apples in the orchard; also retail. I do not dry any. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * C. A. PERDUE, Beloit, Mitchell county: Have lived in Kansas eighteen years. Have an apple orchard of about 250 trees. I prefer the Missouri Pippin for commercial purposes. I prefer a black loam soil with a clay subsoil; north slope. In planting trees, I would set them thirty feet apart; mine are twenty feet and are too close. I have cultivated my orchard, but think I did not do it right. A light culture to keep the soil loose on top, to act as a mulch, would, I think, be beneficial. Think it best to grow no crop in the orchard. I think windbreaks would be beneficial. For rabbits I use woven wire. I prune to lessen the tops; I think it ought to be done every year, so as never to cut any large limbs; I think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees, but think it would be an advantage. I have put stable litter in my orchard two or three times during the last fifteen years, but do not think it necessary; the land is rich enough without; would not advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, bud moth, and flathead borer. I do not spray. Always sell in the local market. I do not dry any. I store some for winter use, in a cellar in boxes, barrels, and bins. We have to repack stored apples before marketing. Prices for winter apples have been from fifty to seventy-five cents. * * * * * CHAS. VAIL, Colby, Thomas county: I have lived in Kansas twelve years; have an apple orchard of 150 trees seven years old, from seven to eleven feet. I plant my orchard to corn and potatoes for two or three years, then nothing; use a common cultivator. Windbreaks are not essential. For rabbits I use tar paper. I prune very little, and rub off young sprouts. Can see no difference whether trees are in blocks of a kind or mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard; it is very injurious here. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with tobacco worms [?] and grasshoppers. I do not spray. Do not irrigate. * * * * * HUDSON BROS., Kanopolis, Ellsworth county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-four years; have an apple orchard of fifty trees, six to thirty years old, from four to eighteen inches in diameter. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap, and for family use would add Duchess of Oldenburg. I prefer sandy bottom land. I plant three-year-old trees thirty feet apart each way, in well-plowed land. I cultivate my orchard to corn or potatoes till the trees are ten years old; sow rye in bearing orchard; mow in June, and then plow; never have ceased cropping. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of forest-trees planted in a belt around the orchard. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter; think it beneficial; would advise its use to a certain extent on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs, and think it advisable. My trees are troubled with flathead borers. I do not spray. * * * * * E. W. O'TOOLE, Collyer, Trego county: I have resided in Kansas nineteen years. Have an apple orchard of sixty-four trees, twenty-two of which are fourteen years old, and thirty-seven inches in circumference. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, and for family Early Harvest and Winesap. I prefer black loam with sandy bottom, south slope. I plant two-year-old trees, in rows eighteen feet apart. I do not cultivate my orchard, but mulch it with hay for four years. Windbreaks are essential here; would make them of cottonwood trees, planted in rows around the orchard. For protection against rabbits I use whitewash and tar paper. I prune to thin the tops; think it beneficial. The wind thins my apples for me. I fertilize my orchard with hay; think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. Do not pasture my orchard. I shall spray this year after the bloom falls with London purple and lime water. I peddle my apples. This is the best market, because they are scarce. I am successful in keeping a few bushels in a pit; the Missouri Pippin keeps best. I do not irrigate. I am located on bottom land. Price has been one dollar per bushel. * * * * * M. A. WILSON, Atwood, Rawlins county: I have resided in the state nineteen years; have an apple orchard of fifty trees ten years old, six inches in diameter. For all purposes I prefer Winesap and Ben Davis. I prefer bottom land with a dark loam and a clay subsoil, with a northern slope. I prefer two-year-old trees with good tops and stocky bodies, set in early spring, sixteen to twenty feet apart. I plant my orchard to corn, potatoes, and garden-truck, using a hoe and cultivator; have never ceased cropping. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of Russian mulberries planted twelve feet apart each way; trim and cultivate them. For rabbits I wrap the trees with rags or burlap cut in strips three or four inches wide; begin at the bottom and wind up; if the limbs are near the ground, wrap them, too. I prune with a small keyhole saw and shears to keep the tree hardy, and think it pays. I thin my apples when they are about half grown; it pays. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; it has been beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. Do not pasture my orchard. Trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar and flathead borer. I do not spray. I stand on a step-ladder and pick my apples, laying them in the baskets as carefully as though they were eggs. I sort into two classes--best, and second grade. I sell apples in the orchard; retail the best, second and third grades; use and sell the culls. Home is my best market. I do not dry or store any for winter market. I irrigate, lifting the water twenty feet by an elevator and horse power from creek. Prices have been from $1 to $1.60 per bushel. Dried apples, sixteen pounds for one dollar. I employ hands at from fifteen dollars to eighteen dollars per month. * * * * * F. T. M. DUTCHER, Phillipsburg, Phillips county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-six years; have an apple orchard of 100 trees from eight to ten years old. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Winesap, and for family orchard Ben Davis and Winesap. I prefer a bottom which has a sandy soil and a clay subsoil, with a northeast slope. I set two-year-old trees in listed ditches. I plant my orchard to potatoes as long as possible; use a five-tooth cultivator; cease cropping when the trees shade the ground, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are not essential. For rabbits I tie corn-stalks around the tree, leaving them on the year round. I prune my trees with a knife; think it beneficial, and that it pays. I thin apples, if necessary, as soon as established. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, and would advise its use on all soils. I never pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with borers, and my apples with curculio. I do not spray. I dig borers out. I make only one grade of my apples, and feed the culls to pigs, and use all the rest at home. I do not dry any. I irrigate a little; have a pond around the trees. * * * * * D. E. STEVENS, Norton, Norton county: I have resided in the State eighteen years. Have an apple orchard of 100 trees from ten to fifteen years old, three to six inches in diameter. My orchard should be composed of Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Pewaukee, Jonathan, Willow Twig, Maiden's Blush, Snow and two kinds of Russets (and I haven't a Russet in the orchard!!), Early Harvest, one or two sweets (and I haven't a sweet in the orchard!), which proves to me that an agent will sell you any variety you want, and ship what they happen to have. I prefer bottom land with a loamy soil and a clay subsoil, with a northern slope. I prefer three-year-old, low-top trees, cut back, set in a furrow made with a lister and dug out with a spade. I plant my orchard to corn, using a stirring plow and harrow, and am still cultivating; would plant corn or clover in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of Russian mulberries. For rabbits I wrap with fine meshed wire. I prune my trees with a saw and knife to give sunlight, and make larger fruit; think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I mulch my orchard late in the fall with coarse manure; would advise it on all soils, unless very rich. Feed your soil if you would have thrifty trees. I pasture my orchard with hogs; I think it advisable, and that it pays because they keep the soil loose. Trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, and borers; and my apples with worms. I do not spray, but ought to. I hand-pick my apples. I dry some for family use. I do not irrigate, but am confident we need more water. * * * * * JESSE ROYER, Gove, Gove county: Have lived in Kansas thirteen years. I have four apple trees seven years old. I prefer upland with an eastern or northeast slope. For planting, I prefer good two-year-old trees. I cultivate my orchard all the time; would plant corn, and cultivate with any tool that would do good work and kill the weeds; would not plant any crop in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of any kind of forest-trees excepting walnut; plant two or three rows of them all around the orchard. I prune some to give shape to trees and take out all dead branches, and think it pays. I think a good rich [?] mulching would be beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. Do not pasture my orchard. I would spray if it was necessary; insects are not very bad here. I do not dry any. FRUIT DISTRICT No. 3. Following is the third fruit district, comprised of thirty-one counties in the southwest quarter of the state. Reports, or rather experiences, from each of these counties will be found immediately following. We give below the number of apple trees in the third district, compiled from the statistics of 1897. Many thousands were added in the spring of 1898. _Bearing._ _Not bearing._ _Total._ Barber 12,901 16,384 29,285 Barton 25,146 24,196 49,342 Clark 735 1,942 2,677 Comanche 1,010 1,512 2,522 Edwards 3,378 6,672 10,050 Finney 6,139 10,559 16,698 Ford 2,281 4,178 6,459 Grant 852 300 1,152 Gray 410 2,715 3,125 Greeley 10 402 412 Hamilton 741 2,242 2,983 Harper 36,296 20,508 56,804 Haskell 328 141 469 Hodgeman 415 675 1,090 Kearny 4,405 7,312 11,717 Kingman 39,249 23,416 62,765 Kiowa 1,683 2,212 3,895 Lane 1,647 2,524 4,171 Meade 1,340 2,200 3,540 Ness 1,188 1,630 2,818 Pawnee 11,137 7,800 18,937 Pratt 12,894 12,963 25,857 Reno 141,460 280,713 422,173 Rice 65,069 45,133 110,202 Rush 2,118 2,629 4,747 Scott 229 1,936 2,165 Seward 432 602 1,034 Stafford 22,914 27,377 50,291 Stanton 10 150 160 Stevens 897 1,651 2,548 Wichita 90 959 1,049 ------- ------- ------- Total in district 397,304 513,633 910,937 Estimated acreage 60,000 100,000 160,000 * * * * * D. J. McNEAL, Scott, Scott county: I have lived in Kansas ten years; have an apple orchard of sixty-five trees five years old, seven feet high. I prefer a clay soil with a north aspect. I plant two-year-old trees in ground that has been plowed for two years before planting. I cultivate my orchard with a disc harrow and cultivator, and plant nothing. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of cottonwoods. I rub rabbits' blood on the trees to protect them from other rabbits. I prune my trees with a knife and a fine saw; I think it beneficial. I have fertilized my orchard with stable litter, but it causes a too rapid growth; I would not advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable; it does not pay. I am not troubled with insects, and do not spray. I do not irrigate, but think it would pay. * * * * * G. O. VICK, Fowler, Meade county: Have lived in Kansas fourteen years. I planted an apple orchard twelve years ago; have about fifty Missouri Pippins, that have not failed to give us a crop for seven or eight years; last fall we got three bushels from a single tree--the most ever taken from one tree by us. They are fine keepers, and are said to be much better, both in color and flavor, than those grown farther east. We have kept them in fine condition until July following, and then the supply gave out. Have no trees where they can be irrigated, but hope to put out an orchard next spring that can be irrigated. I have the finest location [for irrigation] in the West, and will do my best. I prefer valley land, with a southeast slope. Prices have been two dollars per bushel. * * * * * C. A. BLACKMORE, Sharon, Barber county: I have lived in the state about five years; have an orchard of 1100 apple trees, three years old, two inches in diameter, seven feet high. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Early Harvest, Benoni, and Maiden's Blush. When planting a family orchard select varieties from the earliest to the latest, that they may be well supplied. In planting a commercial orchard I would study the wants and demands of the people, also the varieties best adapted to our soil and climate. Do not be like an experiment station and plant all varieties catalogued. A mongrel orchard, like mongrel stock, is not good property. The man who has a hundred bushels of some one good variety of apples can always get the best price for them; but if the hundred bushels consisted of ten or a dozen varieties there would not be enough of any one variety to attract a buyer, and consequently he must take what he can get for them. Select such varieties as the market demands, and then confine your planting to as few varieties as possible, and your commercial orchard will attract buyers. I prefer a bottom, with a dark, sandy or red land, with a reddish clay subsoil, north or northeast slope. I plant thrifty two-year-old trees, in ground plowed deeply and marked off with a lister sixteen by thirty feet; then set the trees four to six inches deeper than they stood in the nursery, in holes dug at the crossings. I haul my trees to the field in a barrel two-thirds full of water, take them out one at a time and trim all the broken and long roots, arranging them in natural positions and turning the ends down in the hole, leaning the tree toward the two P. M. sun; then I fill the hole, using a rammer while a boy shovels the dirt in. If the soil is dry pour two or three gallons of water on the roots. When the water has soaked away finish filling the hole, and tramp the soil lightly around the tree. When they are all set, cut them well back. I cultivate my orchard from early spring to the 1st of September, using a plow, cultivator, and disc; I plant corn in a young orchard, and cease cropping after eight years, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential on the south and west, and I would make them of Russian mulberries. For rabbits I rub rabbits' blood on the trees twice during the winter. Borers I cut out the first year; after that I drown them out by cultivation. I prune my trees while they are small, to give shape. I think it pays, as you do not have to cut off large branches when grown. Do not have to thin fruit here in Kansas. I do not plant a solid block of any one kind of trees; I intermingle the varieties in alternate rows, and insure more perfect pollination. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; it pays especially well on sandy soil, and I would advise its use on all soils. Don't expect your trees to produce something for nothing; feed them. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable, and does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, bud moth, root aphis, bag-worm, flathead borer, roundhead borer, woolly aphis, twig-borer, and oyster-shell bark-louse, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. Hunt the insect eggs and nests in your trees, and destroy the source of much loss to your fruit this season. In picking, I use a ladder to reach the apples in the top of the trees; put them in a grain sack over my shoulder with a stick in the mouth; have gathered sixty bushels per day for weeks at a time in this way. Prices have been from one dollar to two dollars per bushel, and dried apples five to eight cents per pound. * * * * * A. D. EINSEL, Greensburg, Kiowa county: I have lived in the state twelve years. I plant thrifty one-year-old trees, in holes large enough to receive the roots, cover the roots with earth, and then pour in a pail of water. When this is soaked away fill the hole nearly full of earth. I cultivated my orchard to corn, using a spring-tooth harrow, to keep the soil loose and kill the weeds. Am going to plant another apple orchard. I think western Kansas will yet grow apples. * * * * * A. N. PATTERSON, Ford, Ford county: I have lived in Kansas seventeen years. Have an apple orchard of 100 trees five years old. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter. Do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable. I do not irrigate. * * * * * JOHN HINDS, Olcott, Reno county: I have resided in the state thirteen years. Have an apple orchard of 500 trees; 375 of them are three years old, and the balance eight years old. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, and Grimes's Golden Pippin; and for family orchard Early Harvest and Maiden's Blush. I have tried and discarded Greening, Baldwin, and Missouri Keeper. I prefer a sandy bottom with a clay subsoil, and eastern aspect. I prefer three-year-old trees, set in the spring. I prune the roots and tops when setting. I plant my orchard to corn or potatoes for six or eight years; plow shallow; cease cropping after eight years, and plant nothing but clover and orchard-grass in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of mulberries planted one or two feet apart all around the orchard. For rabbits I make a varnish and apply to the trees in the fall. I prune my trees in June when they are large, so as to let in light and sun; I use a tree pruner; think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, but do not put it close to the trees; I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs; I think it pays. My trees are troubled with fall web-worm and leaf-roller. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand; sort into three classes from piles. Pack them in barrels and haul to market on wagon. I sell apples in the orchard at retail. Make vinegar of the culls. I store some apples for home use. Price has been one dollar per bushel. * * * * * HENRY MILLER, Ulysses, Grant county: Have lived in Kansas fifteen years. I have 256 apple trees, nine and ten years planted, from three to five inches in diameter. I grow for market Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Ben Davis, adding for family use Maiden's Blush and Grimes's Golden Pippin. I prefer bottom land, northeast slope, sandy soil, and gypsum subsoil. I plant in squares twenty-four by twenty-four feet. I have cultivated up to date with stirring plow and cultivator. I grow garden-truck among my trees until seven years old; after that nothing. I believe windbreaks essential in this county, and would make them of Russian mulberry, cottonwood, and locust. I would plant on the outside a row of mulberry four feet apart; next, a row of cottonwood or locust eight feet apart. To prevent destruction by rabbits I rub with fresh blood. I prune with a knife to prevent watersprouts from getting too thick; I am sure it pays, and lets sunshine into the center of the trees. I use stable litter, straw or rotted hay for fertilizer. I do not pasture my orchard, and have no insects but grasshoppers. Our crop has been light, owing to dry weather. I sell largely in the orchard. Our best market is at home. We dry a few for home use. I keep some for winter use, in a cave dug out and covered with earth. I do not irrigate. The prevailing price for apples is one dollar per bushel, and of dried apples, six cents per pound. * * * * * E. T. DANIELS, Kiowa, Barber county: I have lived in the state twenty-five years. Have an apple orchard of 150 trees, from ten to sixteen years old, four to eight inches in diameter. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Jonathan, Twenty-ounce Pippin, Maiden's Blush, and Rawle's Janet. Would plant the same varieties for a family orchard. Have tried and discarded Ben Davis, Early Harvest, Smith's Cider, Lawver, Fink, Walbridge, and McAfee; they will not stand the heat and drought. I prefer bottom land, with heavy loam and red subsoil, southeast slope, sheltered from north and south winds. I prefer a good yearling tree, planted in a dead furrow; after planting, plow two furrows to the tree, and then harrow. I plant my orchard to corn for two years only, using a twelve-inch plow, cultivator, and harrow. I cultivate my orchard as long as it lives, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential on the south and north; would make them of a belt of deciduous trees, six rods wide on the north, and one-half as wide on the south; would make this of native trees--elm, ash, or mulberry. For rabbits I wrap the trees with hay. I prune my young trees with the thumb and finger mostly, forming low heads; bearing trees I prune very little, except to take out the blighted limbs. I thin my apples when too full, when about the size of marbles; believe it pays. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter and ashes, but cannot see any benefit; think it would do no harm, unless heavy coats of coarse manure are plowed under. Never have pastured my orchard, but am going to very soon; am fencing now, so I can turn in hogs. My trees are troubled with twig-borer, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. I sell apples in the orchard, and peddle the best second and third grades; give the culls to the hogs. My best market is in Oklahoma; never have tried distant markets. I am successful in keeping apples for family use in bulk in a cyclone cellar dug in the red rock. Missouri Pippin keep the best for me. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * D. D. WHITE, Enon, Harper county: Have lived in Kansas twenty years; have 500 apple trees planted from three to eighteen years. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. For family orchard I would add Maiden's Blush and Grimes's Golden Pippin. I prefer sandy bottom with an eastern slope. I would plant yearling trees, with every limb cut off, in rows twenty feet north and south, and forty feet east and west. Cultivate with double-shovel plow until they get too big to get among them, and grow nothing near them. I believe in a windbreak of mulberry, or any trees planted thickly, on the south. I prune only so that I can get under the trees. I use plenty of barn-yard litter, for it pays in the orchard. I pasture my orchard with hogs, and think it advisable, as it pays. I have sprayed, but never saw any good in it. I dig the borers out with a wire, unless they are in the heart of the tree, and then there is no help for the tree. I pick from a step-ladder, and sort into three classes: windfalls, wormy, and perfect. In picking we drop the decayed and gnarly to the ground, carry the rest in baskets to the barrel, put the perfect ones in one barrel, and the others in another. Do not disturb the best ones until you sell; the others should be sorted again before you sell. I sell some in the orchard, but peddle mostly; my best I sell to the stores in the spring; of the culls I make cider. My best market is the towns in the "Strip." I dry some satisfactorily on a cook-stove evaporator, pack in flour sacks, and find a ready and profitable market for them in the spring. I store successfully for winter in bulk and in barrels in a cave with eighteen-inch wall arched over from the bottom. I find that Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin and Winesap keep the best. We lose, perhaps, one-sixteenth. I do not irrigate. Prices range from 50 cents to $1.50 per bushel, and dried apples from five to twelve cents per pound. I use only farm hands at fifteen dollars per month and board. * * * * * AMOS JOHNSON, Ellinwood, Barton county: Have been in Kansas twenty-three years; have an orchard of 2000 apple trees, planted from three to twelve years. Varieties for market: Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Smith's Cider, and Northern Spy; for family use, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Smith's Cider, Maiden's Blush, and Red June. Have no use whatever for Ben Davis. Prefer bottom land, with black, sandy soil and a southern aspect. Plant good, thrifty two-year-old trees 25×25 feet. I plant corn or potatoes for three or four years, and after that nothing; thoroughly cultivate with the plow, disc, and harrow. I think a windbreak on the south side very essential, and would make it of cottonwood and Russian mulberry, in five rows, alternating, six feet apart. I use soap and turpentine for the borers, and hounds for the rabbits. I believe pruning pays, and makes the fruit much nicer. I use common pruning shears, and prune so that the sun can get in. Never have thinned apples on the trees, but believe it would be a good thing. I believe in fertilizing with stable litter; think it keeps the orchard thrifty and more fruitful. I have never kept any stock in the orchard, but believe it would be advisable and no detriment to pasture with hogs in June and July. Have never sprayed any. I pick from step-ladders into baskets, and sort into three classes: No. 1 are sold in barrels, No. 2 in bulk, and No. 3 go for cider. I have sold a few wagon-loads in the orchard, but I sell my best apples by the bushel late in winter; I usually sell the second-grade apples first, and make the culls into cider. My best market is in the counties north and west of us; have never tried a distant market. Never dried any. For winter we store in barrels, and are successful. The Missouri Pippin and Willow Twig keep best. I irrigate on a small scale. Prices average about one dollar per bushel. * * * * * S. S. DICKINSON, Larned, Pawnee county: Has lived in Kansas thirty-three years, and has an apple orchard of 1800 trees, planted from seven to fifteen years. For commercial purposes he prefers Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Willow Twig, Ben Davis, and Rome Beauty, and for family use adds early apples. Has tried and discarded Red Winter Pearmain, because of blight. He is located in river bottom, with sandy soil, and a blue clay subsoil. Prefers a north and east slope. Plants two-year-old trees, with heads two feet from the ground, in deep dead furrows. Cultivates until the middle of July with a disc harrow, plow, and weeder. Never ceases cultivation. In the young orchard he plants corn, potatoes, and garden-truck, and would plant the same in a bearing orchard, and cease cropping when the trees got too large. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of any fast growing timber, by planting two rows, six to eight feet apart, and three feet in the row. For borers and rabbits he uses paint, whitewash, and poison. He prunes his trees with a knife and shears, and thins out the tops to let the sun in, and thinks it pays, and is beneficial. He thins the fruit as soon as he sees that it is too thick. His trees are in mixed plantings, and fertilized with all the stable litter he can get. He finds it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. Does not pasture his orchard, excepting in late fall and early winter, when he lets the calves run in to tramp the ground, and thinks it advisable. His trees are troubled with canker-worm, bark-louse, and some other insects; and his fruit with codling-moth. He sprays his trees twice before the buds open, with Bordeaux mixture and arsenical solution, for blight; thinks he has reduced the codling-moth. Picks his apples from the trees into sacks, and hauls in a padded wagon box. Sorts them from tables into three classes--extra, good, and medium. Never sells apples in the orchard; wholesales, retails and peddles them. His best market is at home, but he has not enough to fill it. Does not dry any. Is successful in keeping a few apples for winter market in barrels and boxes in a cellar, as near air-tight as possible. They keep well until May 25, and he does not find it necessary to repack stored apples before marketing. He does not irrigate. Prices have been: Wholesale, 60 cents to $1.20 per bushel; retail, 80 cents, $1.40 to $1.60 per bushel. He employs good help at one dollar per day and board. * * * * * F. F. HANSBERRY, Larned, Pawnee county: Have resided in Kansas twenty-three years. Have 1400 apple trees nine years planted. For market, Ben Davis, Winesap, Red Edgar (?), Haas, and for family orchard Ben Davis, Winesap, Maiden's Blush, and Whitney (crab) No. 20. I have discarded the Missouri Pippin, as the tree is too short-lived. I prefer second bottom, with sandy soil and clay subsoil; always choose north or northeast aspect. I always plant good one-year-old trees, twenty by thirty feet apart, putting Missouri Pippins between the wide way, to be cut out later on. I grow and graft all my trees. Cultivate with a disc cultivator until the trees come into full bearing; after that every second year. I grow no crop in the orchard. I believe windbreaks are essential on south side; I think mulberry trees best, and would plant a double row two feet apart, in rows four feet apart, the nearest row forty feet away from apple trees. I shoot and trap the rabbits. I only prune enough to keep the tree well balanced. I often thin Winesaps on the tree because I think they need it, and it pays. I believe in mixed plantings, and therefore plant Ben Davis among all the others. I spread stable litter among my trees after they come into bearing; sandy soil, I think, requires the most fertilizer. I pasture in a small way, putting my little calves in, in the spring. Am only bothered with a few codling-moth and flat-headed borers. I do not spray, but I make way with all the fallen fruit. I hunt borers and kill with a wire. Pick by hand as soon as well colored; sort into two classes; the best is first, and all sound smaller fruit second. We pack in barrels by hand, marking with the variety and class. We sell ours all at home; usually they are engaged before they are picked. Our second grade we keep at home; culls are made into cider. Our apples are sold in Dodge City and Larned. Have never shipped any; have never dried any. I store some second grade in barrels and bulk in the cellar, and find that Missouri Pippins, Ben Davis, and Winesaps keep the best, and I do not lose over three per cent. Some seasons I irrigate, with windmills. Prices vary from 75 cents to $1.25 per bushel. * * * * * L. G. MORGAN, Richfield, Morton county: I have lived in Kansas forty-three years; have an apple orchard of 125 trees, medium size, ten years old. For all purposes I prefer Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Maiden's Blush. I prefer black loam bottom, with clay subsoil, northern slope. I plant two-year-old trees with small tops, well rooted, in large holes, and filled in with well-worked soil. I cultivate my orchard to vines, using a stirring plow and hoe, and cease cropping after six years, but keep cultivating, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of forest-trees planted in hit-and-miss rows around the orchard. Am not troubled with rabbits and borers. I prune with a saw and knife to give shape; think it beneficial. I thin apples on the trees as soon as large enough. My trees are in mixed plantings; Maiden's Blush are surrounded by Pippins and Rambos. I think they are more fruitful. I do not fertilize. I pasture my orchard with chickens and turkeys; I think it advisable, to keep out bugs. Trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar. I pick my apples by hand into baskets from step-ladders, and sort into three classes, choice, common, and culls, while gathering. I pack in barrels, placing a layer in the bottom, mark with paint, and haul to market on a wagon. I sell apples in the orchard, also retail to merchants; make cider of culls. Richfield is my best market. Do not dry any. Am successful in storing apples for winter in boxes and barrels in cellar; find Missouri Pippin and Winesap keep best. Lose about two per cent. of the stored apples. I irrigate my trees direct from a well, in ditches running close to the trees. Price has been one dollar per bushel. * * * * * E. MORGAN, Hutchinson, Reno county: I have lived in Kansas seventeen years; have sixty acres of apples, from four to sixteen years old. For commercial orchard I prefer Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Winesap; and for family orchard Early Harvest, Cooper's Early White, Maiden's Blush, Jonathan, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. Have tried and discarded Snow and Early Pennock on account of blight. I prefer river bottom with a clay subsoil. I plant two-year-old, large, thrifty trees, at the crossings of furrows made with a lister, twenty by thirty feet. I cultivate for the first four years to corn and garden-truck, using a Planet jr. cultivator, then use a one-horse plow for two years, and cease cropping when bearing begins heavily, and plant nothing. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of one row of Osage orange, on the west side of orchard. For rabbits I use tree paint and wood veneers. I prune my trees in the winter, to produce health and give good form; think it beneficial, and that it pays. I do not thin my fruit while on the trees, but think it would pay. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; think it beneficial; would advise its use on sandy land. My trees are troubled with flathead borer, and my fruit with codling-moth and curculio. I do not spray. I pick my apples from ladders; pile those taken from eight trees together and cover with hay. Sort into three classes: First, sound and large; second, sound and small; third, spotted. I sell apples in the orchard, also wholesale and retail; pack my best in bushel boxes and sell to grocers. Sell my second and third grades to peddlers and farmers from the west. My best market is at home. Have tried distant markets and found they paid. Am successful in storing apples in bulk in a bank cellar, Winesap and Missouri Pippin keeping the best. Do not irrigate. Good apples sold here this winter for one dollar per bushel. I employ farm hands at farm wages. * * * * * C. H. LONGSTRETH, Lakin, Kearny county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-nine years. I have 3400 apple trees--500 eleven years old, 1200 eight years old, 700 six years old, and 1000 set this spring. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. For family use I would advise Early Harvest, Red June, Maiden's Blush, Chenango Strawberry, Smith's Cider, Huntsman's Favorite, Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. Have discarded the Red Astrachan, Willow Twig, and Cooper's Early White, as they will not bear. I prefer second bottom, not too high or too low; sandy loam, with loose clay subsoil; any slope is good, north preferred. I prefer small-sized, well rooted, two-year-old trees, planted with a spade, in deeply plowed, thoroughly prepared ground, and would cultivate until they die of old age. I use a sixteen-inch disc, Acme harrow, Thomas's smoothing harrow, and Barnes's weeder. I grow small fruit and vegetables among the trees until of bearing age. Would plant windbreaks of six or eight rows of North Carolina poplars, honey and black locust, Russian mulberry, white ash, and box-elder, one-year seedlings, two feet apart, in rows four feet apart, on the north and south side of orchard. For rabbits, I wrap my trees as soon as possible after planting. I prune with a knife to admit sun and air, and to keep down suckers and limbs that rub each other. I thin all through the season, taking out imperfect fruit as far as possible, and it pays. I don't think it necessary to mix varieties to insure fruitfulness, yet this spring I planted 1000 Missouri Pippins, filling every sixth row with Winesaps for a test. The varieties I have discarded as not bearing were thoroughly mixed in with other kinds. I would use no fertilizers unless on very thin soil, and then would prefer to use before planting. I use fertilizers after the trees come into bearing, but up to bearing age good, thorough cultivation in the early part of the season is all that I would give. I do not pasture orchards; it might be advisable to turn hogs in to eat up windfalls affected with codling-moth, but never any other stock. Am troubled only with root aphis, codling-moth, and curculio. I spray right after the blossoms fall with London purple, for codling-moth, and have reduced them to a great extent. Have prevented borers by wrapping. I contemplate using kerosene emulsion on curculio and insects that I cannot reach with poison. I pick in canvas lined half-bushel baskets, and sort into firsts, seconds, and culls, carefully, by hand. I pack in boxes, if I can get them; have used barrels well shaken and pressed down, marked with stencil, and shipped by rail. Denver has been our best market thus far; sometimes I have sold most of my apples in the orchard; never have to peddle any. I feed the culls to my hogs. Never dry any, but think I will try it in the near future, as there is a good home market for a large part of them. Have stored a good many in cellar in barrels and in bulk; some I have buried. I don't like either plan, and am figuring to put up some kind of cold-storage building for future use. Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Ben Davis, in the order named, have kept best for me, my losses being about one-fifth. I irrigate by flooding the ground all over thoroughly when necessary. Prices have ranged from 75 cents to $1.25 per bushel; from $2.50 to $3 per barrel. I use the best men I can get, and pay $1 a day and board, or $1.50 per day without board. * * * * * A. W. SWITZER, Hutchinson, Reno county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-six years; have 2000 apple trees twelve, fifteen and eighteen years old. Winesap, Missouri Pippin and Ben Davis for market purposes; Maiden's Blush, Rambo and Roman Stem added for family use. Have discarded Limber Twig and Willow Twig, both subject to blight. I prefer bottom land, sandy loam soil, and sandy subsoil; north slope is best. Plant two-year-old, low-headed trees, in holes large enough to receive all the roots without crowding, one inch deeper than in the nursery. Plant to corn until five or six years of age; then nothing. Plow and cultivate both ways to kill the weeds. I believe windbreaks are a necessity, and should be made of trees planted two or three rods wide, four feet apart, on the south side. Wrap the trees with straw or hay to protect from rabbits and borers. I prune with a saw to thin out where too thick, and to keep down the watersprouts; it certainly pays. I use stable litter and old hay in the orchard for fertilizer. Do not think it pays or is advisable to pasture orchard. I spray when the bloom begins to fall, three times for codling-moth, with London purple and Paris green, and I am satisfied I have reduced them. For the borer I use a knife and a wire. I pick in baskets, and pile in long rows in the orchard. I sort into two classes, and sell the best in the orchard to men who haul them west. The culls go for cider. I do not irrigate, and I do not dry or store any apples. Prices have varied from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. I use common farm labor at fifteen to eighteen dollars per month. * * * * * J. C. CURRAN, Curran, Harper county. I have lived in Kansas fifteen years. Have fifty apple trees eleven years old. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and York Imperial, and for family orchard add some summer and fall varieties. Have tried and discarded Rawle's Janet, on account of slow growth. Bellflower is a fall apple here; and Jonathan is too small. I prefer bottom land, sandy loam, subirrigated, water at six feet. I prefer good two-year-old trees, head twenty-eight inches from the ground, planted in spring, after March winds. I cultivate my orchard all the time with a disc drawn by four horses. I plant no crop. Have some weeds and rabbits. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of mulberries planted not closer than forty feet to the first row of trees; would buy the mulberry sprouts from the nursery. I keep the rabbits down with dogs and shot-guns; dig borers out. I never thin my apples; the wind does it for me. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter, but think it injurious to the trees. Do not pasture my orchard. Trees are troubled with canker-worm and tent-caterpillar, and fruit with curculio. I do not spray. Pick apples by hand. Never dry apples; it does not pay. Do not irrigate. Prices have been fifty cents per bushel in the fall, and one dollar per bushel in the winter. * * * * * JOHN H. GOSCH, Norwich, Kingman county: I have lived in Kansas twenty years. Have an apple orchard of 100 trees eighteen years old. I prefer a bottom having dark soil. I plant two-year-old trees in large holes, well watered. I cultivate my orchard shallow, and mulch, using a disc. Never plant anything among the trees. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of two or three rows of mulberries, on the north and south sides of the orchard. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, but do not put it near the trees; think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all southwestern Kansas soil. Am not bothered with insects. Do not spray. Apples have been one dollar per bushel. * * * * * L. W. LEACH, Kingman, Kingman county: I have lived in Kansas twenty years. Have an apple orchard of about 300 trees, from fourteen to eighteen years old. Those that do the best here are Red June, Maiden's Blush, and Cooper's Early White. * * * * * H. E. JESSEPH, Danville, Harper county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-five years; have an apple orchard of 800 trees, 100 of them but one year old and the other 700 are fourteen years old. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Winesap, and for a family orchard Grimes's Golden Pippin, Stark, and Cooper's Early White. Have tried and discarded the Nonesuch. I prefer bottom land with a deep loam that goes to water, with a north aspect. I prefer two-year-old trees set sixteen feet apart. I plant my orchard to corn for about eight years, using a disc harrow; and cease cropping at the end of that time. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of Osage orange, Russian mulberries, or cottonwood, by planting all around the orchard, making it the heaviest on the south side. For rabbits I wrap the young trees with corn-stalks, and borers I dig out. I prune with pruning-shears and a chisel to increase the fruit; I think it pays. I thin my fruit while on the trees in June and July, and find it pays. My trees are in mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard, but would advise it on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with flathead borer, and my fruit with codling-moth. I do not spray. I hand-pick my apples in a sack, one corner of which is tied up to the top, it has a strap eighteen inches long to put over the shoulder; spread the top of the sack and pick with both hands. Sort my apples into two classes: first and second. I pick the best first, letting the inferior ones stay on the trees; I afterwards shake these off and send to the cider mill. I sell apples in the orchard. Make cider and vinegar of the second and third grades and culls. My best market is at home in the orchard. Never tried distant markets. Do not dry any; cannot find a ready market for them and it does not pay. Am successful in storing apples for winter use in bulk, in an outside cave; find the Little Red Romanite and Missouri Pippin keep best. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from sixty to seventy-five cents per bushel. I employ careful young men at one dollar per day or twenty-five dollars per month. * * * * * SAM JONES, Springfield, Seward county: I have lived in Kansas thirteen years. Have an apple orchard of fifty trees. I am not keeping them for the fruit, but for the pleasure of the birds--to build nests and sing their sweet songs in. I cultivate my orchard all the time to keep the weeds down; plant it to vines, such as squashes, pumpkins, melons, etc. Do not pasture my orchard. I do not know of anybody that ever irrigated. In regard to "the Kansas Apple," in this part of the state, they are no good. I will say there never was ten bushels of apples grown in Seward county. I planted out two acres of apple trees ten years ago; they grew, and looked very well. I took good care of them, but they never would bear; and that is the experience of every one else. I cannot tell the cause, unless it gets too dry and hot, with hot winds. [Such things were said of the whole state of Kansas by many intelligent men thirty years ago. Mr. Jones does not tell what varieties he tried, and his remarks need not discourage any whose lot is cast in Seward county. While there are only 1034 apple trees reported in the whole county, yet the low price of trees should encourage every farmer to plant a few of the hardier varieties, if only as an experiment.--Secretary.] * * * * * JOSEPH BAINUM, Langdon, Reno county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-five years. Have an apple orchard of twenty trees, most of them ten years old. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin and Winesap, and for family would add Early Pennock and Maiden's Blush. Ben Davis would not do any good for me. I prefer bottom or table land with a heavy subsoil and a northern slope. I prefer two-year-old trees with low heads, set in a ditch. I cultivate my orchard to corn as long as I can get in with a plow; I also use a disc and harrow. I cease cropping when the trees need all the moisture; do not plant anything in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of mulberry trees, set thirty or forty feet away from the orchard. For rabbits I use axle grease and sulphur mixed. I prune, leaving the tops low, and thin out the branches so as to give air and produce larger fruit; it has paid me. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter but do not put it close to the trees; I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I have pastured my orchard with cattle and hogs; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. Trees are troubled with flathead borer and leaf-roller, and my apples with codling-moth. I have sprayed, but not lately, with London purple for codling-moth, just after the blossoms fell; it did not pay--did not reduce the codling-moth any. I go after insects not affected by spraying with a small wire. I pick my apples by hand in half-bushel baskets; sort into three classes--largest and sound, second best, and cider. I wholesale, retail, and peddle, and make the culls into cider and vinegar. Never have tried distant markets. I dry some with a Stutzman dryer; it is satisfactory. I pack them in cracker boxes and find a ready market for them at times; it does not pay. Am successful in storing apples two feet deep in bins, one above another, in a cellar walled up with rock; never tried any excepting Missouri Pippin and Winesap. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about five per cent. I irrigate my orchard with water pumped into a reservoir 80×120 feet, and three feet deep. Prices have been from 50 cents to $1.25 per bushel; dried apples, ten cents per pound. I employ women at fifty cents per day. * * * * * A. S. DRAKE, Bucklin, Ford county: Have lived in Kansas twenty years, and have 330 apple trees from three to eleven years old, part of them ten inches in diameter. I prefer good keeping apples for family use. I prefer bottom land, subirrigated, with a north and east slope. I prefer two-year-old trees, set the same depth as they grow in the nursery. I cultivate my orchard from three to eight years, in potatoes, with a plow and harrow; I plant nothing in a bearing orchard, and cease cropping when they shade the ground. Windbreaks are essential where orchards are exposed. I would make them of forest-trees. I protect from rabbits by wrapping with poultry wire. I dig borers out. I prune very little, just enough to stop top growth; I think it has been beneficial. I thin my apples when the limbs are unable to support them. I mulch only to hold back the bloom. I do not pasture my orchard. Borers trouble my trees. My apples are not troubled with insects. I pick my apples by hand, and put them carefully into a basket. I sort into two classes: first, sound and smooth; second, unsound. I do this work by hand. I pack in barrels, pressed full. My best market is at home; we eat and cook the best, and the culls I donate to the children. I never dry any. I store some in barrels, and am successful. I find those I keep from the family keep best. [?] The prevailing price has been one dollar per bushel. I employ men by the month. * * * * * FRED MOORE, Great Bend, Barton county: I have lived in Kansas twelve years. Have 200 apple trees from one to sixteen years old. For family orchard I prefer Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Maiden's Blush. I prefer bottom land, with north slope. I cultivate every year with stirring plow and harrow; plant nothing; think windbreaks essential, made of forest-trees. I wrap my trees with rags to protect from rabbits. I prune with a saw to thin the branches. I never thin apples. I fertilize with stable litter. My trees are troubled with flathead borers. Worms trouble my apples. I do not spray. I dig borers out with a knife, in August and September. Price has been fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * W. G. OSBORNE, Medicine Lodge, Barber county: Have lived in Kansas since 1865. Have 150 apple trees, from two to fourteen years planted. I prefer root grafts, and plant in rows twenty to twenty-five feet each way. I cultivate in corn, using a plow. Keep rabbits down with hounds. I prune with a knife. I fertilize with barn-yard litter. Do not spray or irrigate. * * * * * JOSEPH LEWIS, Bluff City, Harper county: I have been in Kansas twenty-two years; have an orchard of 1000 trees; the first were set in 1881. The varieties are Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis and Winesap for market, and Duchess of Oldenburg, Maiden's Blush and English Rambo for family use. I prefer bottom land, of level, sandy loam. I plant two-year-old thrifty trees in rows two rods apart. I grow nothing in the orchard, and never cease cultivating with a stirring plow, disc, and harrow. I believe windbreaks are essential in this county, and would make them of any thrifty forest-tree; Russian mulberry is good. I would put double rows around the orchard. I prune with shears and saw to thin the tops. I never use any fertilizer, and never allow stock in the orchard. Am troubled some with the flat-headed borer, which I remove with a knife. I spray with London purple just as the bloom begins to fall. I pick by hand, and sell in the orchard and otherwise; never dried any. I store for winter market in a cave in bulk, and am successful. The best keepers I find are Limber Twig, Striped Vandevere, and Ben Davis. Prices prevailing have been fifty cents per bushel; dried apples, from five to seven cents per pound. * * * * * JOHN PIMM, Enon, Barber county: I have lived in Kansas sixteen years. Have an apple orchard of 2250 trees from four to twelve years old. For commercial purposes I prefer York Imperial, Ben Davis, Mammoth Black Twig, and Nero, also Shackleford; and for family orchard Jonathan, Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded White Winter Pearmain, Red Astrachan, and Mann. I prefer bottom land with a northern slope. I prefer two-year-old trees planted in a deep dead furrow. I cultivate my orchard to corn and garden-truck; cultivate four or five times during a season, the more the better; I use a disc; believe an orchard should always be cultivated. I cease cropping after six or seven years, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of two rows of mulberries. For rabbits I use wrappers of wood veneer. I prune to shape the tree and to get rid of all surplus wood, and think it beneficial. I do not thin my fruit on the trees; the insects and wind do it for me. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with flathead borer and twig-borer, and my apples with codling-moth. I have sprayed with London purple. * * * * * L. L. LOVETTE, Toronto, Woodson county: I have lived in Kansas thirty-two years; have an apple orchard of thirty trees twelve to twenty years old. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin and Winesap, and for family use would add Early Harvest and Smith's Cider. Have tried and discarded Fall Pippin, Northern Spy, and Rambo. I prefer level prairie land well enriched, with black limestone soil and a sandy subsoil, northern aspect, to hold the trees back in the spring. I prefer large, smooth trees with good roots, planted in large holes with rotten chip manure. I cultivate my orchard to hoed crops, using a diamond plow. I plant bearing orchard to white beans, peanuts, etc., and cease cropping when well in bearing. Windbreaks are essential; I use soft maple four feet apart, in four rows around the orchard. For rabbits I wrap my trees with slough grass. I pasture my orchard with hogs, and think it advisable. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar and borers, and my apples with curculio. I sprayed once with Bordeaux mixture; have no faith in it; I may possibly have reduced the codling-moth a little. I now watch and burn the insects. [?] I pick my apples in a sack over the left shoulder, from a step-ladder wide at the bottom and narrow at the top. Sort into three classes: first take out all inferior for cider, then put the sound ones in the barn until late in the fall, when I sort, keeping No. 1's for spring, No. 2's for winter, and use all the rest for cider. I sell some apples in the orchard to neighbors, and some to grocerymen. I haul my best apples to market in a spring wagon with hay under them. We use many culls and give some away. My best market is at home. I dry some for market, then put them in sacks and keep in a cool place; find a ready market for them, but it does not pay. I store apples for winter market in a pit; am successful; find Winesap, Rawle's Janet and Missouri Pippin keep best. We have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about ten per cent. of them. I water my trees artificially. Prices have been from $1 to $1.50 per bushel. I employ young men at one dollar per day and board. * * * * * B. F. COX, Fowler, Meade county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-one years; have an apple orchard of 125 trees ten years old, six to ten inches in diameter. For family orchard I prefer Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Ben Davis, Gennetting, and Rawle's Janet. I prefer hill land, with a northeast slope, having a clay subsoil. I prefer two-year-old trees, set at crossing of furrows run both ways. I cultivate my orchard all the time with a plow and harrow; it is too dry in this climate to let weeds grow. Do not plant any crop. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of African tamarix, set in three or four rows around the orchard. For rabbits I grease lightly in the fall and wash off in the spring. I prune my young orchard with a knife, to balance the tree properly. I think it pays. Never have thinned the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter. I think it has been beneficial, and would advise its use on all clay soils. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar and roundhead borer, and my apples with worms. I spray when in bloom, and again after blooming, with London purple. Do not think I have reduced the codling-moth any. I pick my apples by hand, and sort into two classes--family apples and hog apples. Am successful in storing apples for winter use in boxes in a cellar. I find Ben Davis and Rawle's Janet keep best. I irrigate my orchard, using a windmill and pump with a four-inch cylinder. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * Dr. JAMES MYERS, Hutchinson, Reno county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-nine years. Have about 3000 apple trees eight years old, six to eight inches in diameter; fine, large trees. For market I prefer Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Ben Davis; for home use, Early Harvest, Northern Spy, and Maiden's Blush. Most other varieties that are a success in the East are a failure here. I am satisfied with a few of the best varieties. In this county lowland is the best. I prefer a sandy land, on a clay subsoil, and a north slope, every time. I plant two- and three-year-old, clean, thrifty trees. I mark the ground in squares of one rod and plant in every other crossing, mismatching to make the trees zigzag. I will cultivate the orchard for forty years in this county if they live so long. I would grow corn amongst them for the first three or four years; after that, nothing; the less crop the better. I believe windbreaks are essential in small orchards, but in large orchards the trees will protect each other. For windbreaks I would plant maple or mulberry, at least two rods away from the apple trees. For protection against rabbits and borers, take lime and Portland cement, equal parts, mix with sweet milk to the consistency of paint; add one tablespoonful of Paris green, and apply with a brush; it will never fail. I prune while the tree is young; then the wound does not affect them so much; it pays, and is very necessary. I have never thinned, but think it necessary, just before the apples are half grown. I use no fertilizer whatever. I do not pasture my orchard much, but when I do it is with hogs, and I think it advisable when the fruit is wormy and falling off. I have some insects, but have never sprayed. For borers I use a knife. I pick in baskets, just as late as possible. * * * * * J. O. EMERY, Cimarron, Gray county: Have lived in Kansas twelve years; have 400 apple trees four years planted, of the following varieties: Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Arkansas Black, Mammoth Black Twig, Rawle's Janet, and a few Yellow Transparent. Prefer bottom land in this county; plant only fifteen feet apart each way on account of the wind. Grow no crop in the orchard, and cultivate every two weeks until the 1st of August with a five-tooth cultivator. Have a double row of locusts and Osage-orange hedge all around the orchard, and consider windbreaks a necessity. I prune out the inside branches, leaving only four or five limbs, so they will not grow scrubby, and think it beneficial. I plowed under forty loads of stable litter to the acre before planting. I would not pasture an orchard. Am troubled some with web-worm and twig-borer, and have used a spray in June and August of concentrated lye and cold water; also, some Paris green and London purple for worms. I irrigate my orchard once every two weeks, from a reservoir 70×140 feet, and have apple trees that made 4-1/2 feet of growth last year. My reservoir is supplied by two windmills running four- and six-inch pumps. * * * * * BEN. McCULLOGH, Ellinwood, Barton county: Have been in Kansas twenty-two years; have the biggest grove in Comanche township, Barton county, covering twenty acres, most of it in fruit of all kinds. Have 300 apple trees, planted from five to fourteen years, from eight to sixteen inches in diameter; varieties, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Rawle's Janet. Have discarded the Nonesuch. My orchard is second bottom, black, sandy soil, and perfectly level. I planted two-year-old trees in rows both ways. I grow corn and potatoes in the orchard until the trees shade the ground pretty well, and then I grow nothing, but cultivate the ground until they get big and old enough to go without it. I believe windbreaks are essential in this country; mine is composed of three rows around the orchard, of box-elder and cottonwood. I wrap my trees while small to protect from the rabbits. Wash with lye for borers. While small I prune out the middle of the tree with knife and saw, but let the lower limbs grow to protect the trunk. I believe stable litter beneficial in an orchard, and use plenty of it. I do not believe in pasturing an orchard. I never spray. I always sell my fruit in the orchard; some wagons come forty miles for it, and pay me from fifty to seventy-five cents per bushel. * * * * * B. LEONHART, Kiowa, Barber county: Have lived in Kansas thirteen years. Have 300 apple trees, planted from nine to ten years. Am uncertain as to best varieties. Plant in low ground or a "draw"; advise any loose soil, but no clay subsoil (?); like east or northern slope. Plant fresh one-year-old trees, in "deep subsoil trenched." Have planted root grafts eighteen inches long, where they are now growing, and are the pride of my orchard. Hot sun and wind make the fruit woody and sapless. Plant no crop in orchard, but plow yearly and harrow all summer. Believe in windbreaks made of locust or anything that will grow, planted in deep subsoiled furrows on south and west of orchard. For rabbits I use, in summer, lime, grass, and cow-dung, mixed. In winter I use clay with dead rabbit pounded into it. Prune to keep limbs from rubbing, and shorten in for bearing; not sure that either pays. Plant permanent orchard, and fill between with early-bearing varieties like Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, etc. [presumably to cut out afterward]. Use no fertilizers. Never let stock run in orchard. Encourage the birds, and spray some years with London purple and Bordeaux mixture before and after leafing out. Think I have reduced codling-moth. Thrifty trees never contain borers. * * * * * J. L. LIGGITT, Belpre, Edwards county: Has resided in Kansas thirty years; has a family orchard of 125 trees, planted from three to thirteen years, and advises Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, and Jefferis. For commerce he recommends Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin. Prefers valley land sloping east or west, with sandy soil and clay subsoil. Plants sixteen feet east and west, and thirty-two feet north and south, after a lister. Plants to corn and beans for fifteen years, lessening the number of rows as the trees grow; uses a one-horse cultivator. Thinks a windbreak a necessity, and would make of evergreens, if possible; next, of box-elder, planted four feet each way after deep listing. Uses axle grease against rabbits. Prunes sparingly for shape, and says it certainly pays. Thinks thinning should frequently be done when trees appear to be overloaded. Believes trees should be in mixed plantings to produce best. Uses barn-yard litter to fertilize, and says it will pay, if scattered over the entire surface. Believes that pasturing with hogs is advisable, and makes the trees more productive. Has never sprayed, and is seldom troubled with leaf-eating insects. Removes borers with a wire or some pointed instrument twice a year. Picks from step-ladder by hand into baskets or buckets. Makes three classes--first, perfect in form and color; second, sound but not so regular in size; third, culls. Packs in three-bushel barrels carefully by hand, marked with name of variety and quality or class. Sells any way possible. Has shipped successfully to Missouri river cities. * * * * * H. CLAY HODGSON, Little River, Rice county: Has been in the state twenty-six years. Has an orchard of 5000 trees, planted from five to twenty years. Uses Winesap, Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin for both commercial and family orchard. Has tried and discarded Willow Twig, Lawver and Smith's Cider on account of blight. Says bottom land of black loam, with clay subsoil, is preferable in this section. Plants two-year-old trees, in trenches made with plow and subsoiler. Cultivates with disc and harrow, from one to twelve years, growing corn for first five to eight years, afterward nothing. Thinks windbreaks made of several rows of Osage orange or box-elder on south side a great help. Prunes while young to make a more open head. Advises the use of manure on all orchards. Does not allow stock in the orchard. As soon as the leaves appear he sprays with London purple for canker-worms, and believes he has reduced codling-moth by it. Picks in sacks, with corners tied together and hung over the shoulder. Makes two classes, market and culls. Piles his apples as picked in the orchard, and sorts out for market from the piles, leaving the culls for cider. Sells mostly in orchard. Best market is home towns; never shipped any. Stores some in a cave, in bulk, for winter, and makes a success of it. Winesaps keep best. Sold last fall (1897) at 75 cents per bushel; during winter, at $1 to $1.25. Uses ordinary farm help at twenty dollars per month and board. * * * * * A. S. HUFF, Sharon, Barber county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years; have an apple orchard of 130 trees ten years old. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Large Romanite, and Missouri Pippin, and for family orchard Missouri Pippin, Little Romanite, Limber Twig, and Winesap. I prefer level land with sand as deep as I can get it, with [natural] subirrigation. I use strong, thrifty trees, set in furrows plowed as deeply as possible, and then dug out. I cultivate my young orchard to corn with one-horse, five-tooth cultivator, as long as I can get in the orchard, and cease cropping only when they commence bearing, and plant nothing after that. Windbreaks are essential, and I would make them of Russian mulberry or box-elder, set six feet apart in rows running east and west, on the north and south sides. I protect from rabbits by wrapping with corn-stalks, and use lye for borers. I prune very little with a saw to keep out watersprouts, hardly enough to pay here in Kansas. Do not thin the fruit on my trees; it thins itself. I do not need to fertilize; would advise it on clay soil. I never pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable, unless you wish to destroy your trees. My trees are troubled with flathead borer, and my apples with curculio. Never have sprayed; insects not affected by spraying I gouge out with a wire, and apply concentrated lye in April and August. I pick my apples from ladders set up around the trees, one with four legs made solid, with steps on one side and a broad board on top to set baskets on. I sort into four classes, keeping those of a uniform size separate from the small ones. I keep my apples in an apple house. I generally sell in the orchard; always get $1.50 for my best, packed in boxes and sold at the nearest towns, at retail. I make cider for vinegar of the culls. My best market is at home; never tried distant markets. Never dry any; it does not pay. I store all I do not sell in orchard, in a cellar 12×16 feet, six feet in the ground, with earth on top; they do not freeze. I find the Winesap, Limber Twig and Little Romanite keep best. We do not have to repack stored apples before marketing; only lose about one per cent. I do not irrigate. Prices have been $1.25 per bushel. I hire no help; my own family does the work. * * * * * E. F. REEVE, Greensburg, Kiowa county: I have lived in Kansas twenty years; I prefer Missouri Pippins for a commercial orchard. I like a sandy bottom with a north slope. I prefer two- or three-year-old trees having bright bark; plant them by throwing out a deep furrow, and then making large holes in the furrow. I cultivate my orchard with a one-horse cultivator, planting no crop, and keep the orchard clean, never stopping cultivation. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of Russian mulberry or Osage orange, on the north, west and south sides of the orchard, especially on the south. I do not prune my trees, nor thin my apples. I do not fertilize my orchard, and would not advise it in this section. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar. Have not sprayed. Sort my apples into one class, cut out the rot, and make into apple dumplings [?]. Never sell apples in the orchard; keep them all for home use; my best market is at home. I do not dry any for market; they sometimes dry on the trees, the effect of hot winds. This is not very satisfactory, and does not pay. I do not store any for market. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from seventy-five cents to one dollar per bushel; dried apples, eight and one-third cents per pound. * * * * * G. W. HOLLENBACK, Coldwater, Comanche county: I have resided in the state thirty-seven years; have an apple orchard of 200 trees from six to nine years old, four to eight inches in diameter. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Winesap, and for family orchard Maiden's Blush, Smith's Cider, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. Have tried and discarded Rawle's Janet on account of poor quality, and Willow Twig on account of shy bearing. I prefer a northeast slope, with sandy loam and clay subsoil; bottom causes the trees to grow too rank. I prefer two- or three-year-old trees with low, well-balanced tops, set thirty feet each way. I give my orchard thorough cultivation, on account of lack of moisture; I will continue indefinitely using a plow and corn cultivator, and plant nothing. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of double row of peach trees on south side, to keep the trees in shape. I prune to give form; I think it pays, as they would become too dense if not pruned. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees, but think some varieties would be better if they were. My trees are planted with each variety in a separate row. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; think it beneficial, but would not advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. Flathead borers are in my trees, but if they are kept thrifty the borers will give little trouble. My apples are troubled with codling-moths. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand and sell in bulk in the local market. I do not dry any. I am quite successful in storing apples in pits for winter use; the Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis and Winesap keep the best. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from $1 to $1.25 per bushel. * * * * * J. J. ABLARD, Lawndale, Pratt county: I have lived in Kansas twelve years. Have an apple orchard of 200 trees from three to six years old. For family orchard I prefer Missouri Pippin, Nickajack, Winesap, and Maiden's Blush. I prefer second bottom, sandy loam, with clay subsoil, and an eastern or northern slope. I prefer two-year-old trees, four feet high, branched low, planted 24×24 feet, in a furrow plowed very deeply, north and south. I plant my orchard to corn, using a cultivator, plow, and cutaway harrow, and cease cropping when the trees need all the support. Windbreaks are a benefit; I would make them of white or green ash and mulberry, by planting and cultivating three or four rows on the south and west. For rabbits I wrap the trees with rags, long straw, or grass. I prune just enough to balance the head; I think it pays and that it is beneficial. My trees are in mixed plantings. I do not fertilize, and would not advise its use. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with flathead borer and grasshoppers, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray, and I dig the borers out. I do not dry any. * * * * * D. E. BRADSTREET, Dighton, Lane county: I have lived in Kansas nineteen years; have an apple orchard of 200 trees; my oldest are nine years. I think Jonathan a good family apple; I have not discarded any. I prefer bottom with a loam, porous subsoil, and a southern slope. I prefer two-year-old whole-root trees, set twenty feet east and west and thirty feet north and south. I cultivate my orchard to garden vegetables, such as cabbage, tomatoes, etc., using a one-horse cultivator; have not ceased cropping yet. Windbreaks are essential, and I would make them of two rows of locusts, close together, all around, excepting on the east side of the orchard. I prune with a saw to thin the top; I think it has paid. I never thin fruit on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings, and think it best. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; it is beneficial in keeping the weeds down, but would not advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. I do not spray. I never dry any apples. Never store any. Do not irrigate. Prices have been one dollar per bushel. Do not hire any help; myself and boys do the work. * * * * * C. L. GUNN, Heizer, Barton county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-one years. Have an apple orchard of 110 trees, from ten to twenty-five years old; the largest ones are fifteen inches in diameter. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Maiden's Blush, and Duchess of Oldenburg, and for family orchard Early Harvest and White Winter Pearmain. I prefer creek bottom with a loose and porous soil and subsoil. Young trees should not be headed too low, as the lower limbs will lay on the ground when the tree gets older and begins to bear. I cultivate my trees until too large, using a disc harrow. I do not plant any crop; do not think it advisable in this dry climate. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of forest-trees, on the north and south. I prune my trees, but have not had enough experience to tell whether it is beneficial or not. I thin my fruit while on the trees to prevent the limbs from breaking. I do not fertilize; it is not needed here. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable. My apples are troubled with codling-moth and curculio. I spray with London purple about the time the blossoms fall. I do not dry any apples nor irrigate. Price has been seventy-five cents per bushel. * * * * * JOHN SIMON, Garden City, Finney county: I have lived in the state eighteen years; have an apple orchard of 150 trees, from two to fifteen years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap; and for family orchard Early Harvest, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded Russet and Willow Twig. I prefer second bottom, sandy soil, with clay subsoil. I prefer one- or two-year-old trees, set twenty-five to forty feet apart. I plant my orchard to garden-truck, using a disc harrow, and cease cropping when they begin to bear. I plant nothing in a bearing orchard, but keep up the cultivation to keep the ground clean and loose. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of cottonwood, box-elder, and Osage orange, putting a belt of timber around the orchard. For rabbits I wrap with corn-stalks in the fall. I prune with knife and shears to keep the tree in shape; I think it pays. I never have thinned the fruit while on the tree, but think it would pay on some varieties. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter while I am cropping the ground; but would not advise its use unless you have plenty of water. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable, and does not pay. My trees are troubled with twig-borer, canker-worm, and leaf-roller, and my fruit with codling-moth. I spray when the bloom falls, and ten days later, with London purple, for codling-moth; and I think I have reduced them. Borers do not trouble my trees when they have plenty of water. I hand-pick my apples; sort into three classes--first, second, and refuse. I sell some apples in the orchard, but retail most of them to the stores; make cider of the third grade and culls. My best market is at home. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples in bulk in a cellar; find the Missouri Pippin, Winesap and Arkansas Black keep best. I irrigate thoroughly in the winter, early spring, and again before the fruit begins to ripen. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * Dr. G. BOHRER, Chase, Rice county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-five years. Have an apple orchard of 700 trees from nineteen to twenty-two years old. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, and for family use I add Smith's Cider, Wagener, and White Pippin. Have tried and discarded Missouri Pippin and Winesap; they require more moisture than the others mentioned above. I prefer a bottom, with black loam and a porous subsoil; an eastern slope. I prefer well-grown one-year-old trees, set thirty-four feet east and west, and twenty feet north and south. I plant my orchard to corn for ten years, using a plow and harrow; think a disc would be as good. I cease cropping after ten years, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential on the south and west sides of the orchard, and I would make them of Osage orange or box-elder, planted ten feet apart. For rabbits I wrap the trees with slough grass until six years old. I prune lightly, taking out the limbs which rub each other and balancing the trees. I think it pays. I do not thin the apples while on the tree. I do not fertilize my orchard; it is not needed in this locality. I pasture my orchard with horses and pigs, and think it advisable. I find it does not injure the trees. My apples are troubled with codling-moth. I do not spray. I pick by hand for storing, and sort into two classes, the good and the bad ones; the bad I make cider of and feed to hogs. I generally sell my best apples in the orchard on the trees, or any way I can. We sun-dry some apples, and find a ready market for them. It pays. I am fairly successful in keeping apples in bulk in a cave, and find Ben Davis and Rawle's Janet keep best. I irrigate a few trees. Prices have been from twenty cents to one dollar per bushel, and dried apples six to seven cents per pound. * * * * * J. T. EVERHART, Pratt, Pratt county: I have lived in the state twenty years. For a family orchard I prefer Missouri Pippin, on sandy bottom land, with a north slope. I plant two-year-old trees, deeply. I plant my orchard to potatoes for five years, using a plow. Plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of rows of Russian mulberries planted every six feet. I prune only to keep the tree in shape. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. Cannot see any difference whether the trees are in blocks of a kind or in mixed plantings. I do not fertilize; would not advise its use on the soil here. I pasture my orchard with hogs; think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with borers and sun-scald. I spray my trees when in bloom, and after it has fallen, with London purple only. My best market is at home; never have tried distant markets. I irrigate my trees on the upland four or five months. Prices have been from 75 cents to $1.50 per bushel. * * * * * JAMES CRAIG, Garden City, Finney county: Have been in Kansas nineteen years. Have an orchard of 1300 trees, planted twelve years, trees running from twelve to eighteen feet high. Cultivate up to this time with twenty-inch disc harrow, and grow no crop. Windbreaks are essential in this county. I would not allow stock in my orchard. I dig out the borers, and intend to try spraying this year. I pick by hand, and sell largely in the orchard. My best market is Garden City. I make cider and vinegar of the culls. I have never dried any. I store in bulk for winter, and am successful in keeping the Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Ben Davis. I irrigate by flooding. The average price has been about sixty cents per bushel. * * * * * JOHN BAILEY, Harper, Harper county: I have resided in Kansas twenty years. Have an apple orchard of 400 trees, set sixteen years, eight to twelve inches in diameter. For all purposes I prefer Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Jonathan. Have tried and discarded Rawle's Janet, because the fruit cracks open, Snow, because they are poor, and White Winter Pearmain, because the tree is subject to disease. I prefer good, sandy soil, with a northeast slope. I prefer healthy two-year-old trees, with good roots, planted twenty-eight feet apart each way. I cultivate my orchard every year with a cultivator and harrow, to keep the ground loose and mellow, and plant nothing. Windbreaks are not essential. For rabbits I wash the tree with weak lye and sulphur; have found no remedy for borers, excepting to keep the trees healthy and growing. I prune, to let in sun and keep the limbs from rubbing; I think it pays, and that it has been beneficial. I thin my fruit by pulling it off when small; I think it pays; it keeps the trees from breaking. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; I do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, woolly aphis, and twig-borer, and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I spray after the blossoms fall, and once a week for three or four weeks after that, with London purple, for all insects. I dig borers out with a fine wire. I sort my apples into three classes--first, second, and cider. I sell my apples in the orchard, wholesale, retail, and peddle. Sell the best ones in barrels. Make cider and vinegar of the culls. My best markets are at home and Oklahoma territory. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples in bulk; find the Missouri Pippin keeps best. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * JACOB REDIGER, Maherville, Barton county: I have lived in Kansas twelve years. Have an apple orchard of 200 trees eighteen years old. I prefer sandy bottom land near the river, with a north slope. I cultivate my orchard all the time with a disc and harrow, planting no crop. Windbreaks are not essential. I prune with a saw and knife, and think it pays. Never have thinned my apples, but if it were necessary would do it before they begin to hang down. My trees are in mixed plantings. I mulch my orchard with stable litter and straw; would not advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard, but think it would be advisable, as they would eat insects. My trees are troubled with flathead borer, and my apples with curculio. The first of June I dig the borers out with a penknife and cut their heads off. I pick my apples by hand. I sell apples in the orchard at retail; feed the culls to hogs. My best market is among the neighbors. I store apples for my own use by burying, and find the Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis and Romanite keep best. I do not irrigate, but ought to. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel at picking time. * * * * * N. MAYRATH, Dodge, Ford county: I have lived in Kansas twenty years. Have 250 apple trees eight to twelve years old, six to ten inches in diameter. I prefer upland for fruit, a sandy loam, with a northern aspect. I prefer two-year-old grafts, planted thirty by thirty feet east and west. Have tried root grafts with success. I cultivate my orchard to garden-truck and hoed crops, using plow in spring, then the disc or Acme harrow. I keep the ground clear of weeds and mellow up to the middle of July. I cease cropping after four or five years, planting nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential here in western Kansas, and I would make them of Russian mulberry, in one or more rows, north and south of the orchard. * * * * * M. M. WILSON, Zionville, Grant county: I have resided in Kansas fourteen years; have an apple orchard of 300 trees ten years old, four to six inches in diameter. I prefer sandy bottom land. * * * * * THOMAS E. HOCKETT, Hugoton, Stevens county: I have lived in the state thirteen years; have an apple orchard of sixty trees eight years old, eight to twelve feet high. I prefer dark, sandy loam. I dig large holes, set one-year-old trees, putting top soil around the roots. I cultivate my orchard with a stirring plow and hoe, and plant nothing; am still cultivating. Windbreaks are essential. I would make them of two or three rows of mulberry trees. For protection from rabbits I rub dead rabbit on the tree, and repeat if necessary when we have much rain. I prune very little. Do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are planted in blocks. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. I do not spray; am not troubled with insects. I hand-pick my apples. I do not dry or store any for market. I do not irrigate. * * * * * GEO. T. ELLIOTT, Great Bend, Barton county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-one years. Have an apple orchard of 800 trees from two to ten years old, and three to seven inches in diameter. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Jonathan. I prefer a sandy bottom, with a northeast aspect. I prefer three-year-old trees set twenty feet apart, in land which has been plowed deeply and subsoiled. I cultivate my orchard as long as I can get among the trees, with a disc that throws dirt out first, and one that throws dirt in second. I cease cropping after the first year; plant nothing in a bearing orchard. I have a windbreak made of black locust and mulberries. I prune with pruning-knife and shears to form the tops. I think it pays. I do not thin my apples while on the trees. I believe all orchards should be set in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, and think it beneficial on sandy soil. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with flathead borers and tent-caterpillars, and my apples with curculio. I do not spray. I hand-pick my apples. I do not irrigate; but think a windmill and a good pond would pay. * * * * * J. B. SCHLICHTER, Sterling, Rice county: I have lived in Kansas since 1871. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Willow Twig, and Rawle's Janet, and for a family orchard Maiden's Blush and Early Harvest. I have tried and discarded Ben Davis because they died when eighteen or twenty years old; they are no good here. I prefer a northeast slope, with a sandy loam and a clay subsoil. I prefer small two-year-old trees, set 16×24 feet, rows running north and south. I plant my orchard to corn up to bearing age, using the plow and harrow, and plant nothing after they begin to bear, but keep up the cultivation. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of two or three rows of Russian mulberries, on the south side of the orchard. I do not prune my trees; it does not pay. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable. I do not spray. I pick my apples by hand, the old way; sort into two classes. I dry some. FRUIT DISTRICT No. 4. Following is the fourth district, composed of twenty-four counties in southeast quarter of the state. Reports, or rather experiences, from each of these counties will be found immediately following. We give below the number of apple trees in the fourth district, as compiled from the statistics of 1897. Many thousands were added in the spring of 1898. _Bearing._ _Not bearing._ _Total._ Allen 122,015 64,449 186,464 Anderson 111,372 46,719 158,091 Bourbon 175,961 40,570 216,531 Butler 182,827 53,966 236,793 Chase 46,762 25,191 69,953 Chautauqua 96,865 22,853 119,718 Cherokee 238,331 92,067 330,398 Coffey 167,255 68,247 235,502 Cowley 172,648 50,767 223,415 Crawford 143,089 34,798 177,887 Elk 101,601 34,343 135,944 Greenwood 117,840 70,224 188,064 Harvey 85,471 30,613 116,084 Labette 257,915 83,345 341,260 Linn 108,654 45,285 153,939 Lyon 161,295 116,176 277,471 Marion 86,838 64,359 151,197 McPherson 122,538 38,498 161,036 Montgomery 121,282 35,572 156,854 Neosho 159,443 61,754 221,197 Sedgwick 182,363 74,742 257,105 Sumner 140,613 36,961 177,574 Wilson 139,869 47,876 187,745 Woodson 72,815 24,485 97,300 --------- --------- --------- Total in district No. 4 3,315,862 1,163,660 4,479,522 Estimated acreage 650,000 220,000 870,000 * * * * * WM. SNYDER, Towanda, Butler county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; have an orchard of 1200 trees--200 twenty-six years old, diameter twelve to fifteen inches, thirty feet high; 700 twelve years old, eight to ten inches in diameter at base, twelve to fifteen feet high; 300 eight years old, five to six inches in diameter at the ground, eight to ten feet high. For all purposes I prefer Summer Rose, Early Harvest, Duchess of Oldenburg, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Ben Davis. Bottom land is best for Ben Davis and Winesap; other varieties named will do better on high ground. Northeast slope is preferable; black loam with clay subsoil. I plant healthy three-year-old trees, branching three feet from ground, in deep furrows, crossmarked with plow; stand trees erect, and tramp earth firmly about the roots. I cultivate my orchard five years with plow and cultivator, and grow corn in young orchard. I cease after five years, and grow nothing in bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of peach, Russian mulberry, or cedar, by planting several rows on south of orchard. For rabbits, fence with two-foot poultry netting; for borers, whitewash and cultivate. I prune just a little with saw or shears to remove interlocking branches only; it pays. Never have thinned my fruit; believe it does not pay. Can distinguish no difference whether trees are in blocks of one kind or mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard. Stable litter would, I think, benefit thin soil. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable, and does not pay. My apple trees are troubled with canker-worm, root aphis, and fall web-worm. Have sprayed for fifteen years, for canker-worm and codling-moth. Have used London purple and arsenate of lime. I spray for canker-worm as soon as they hatch and the buds begin to open, and again before bloom opens; for codling-moth, at time the bloom drops. I have reduced the codling-moth very much. I pick my apples by hand, from a ladder, into baskets, and sort into two classes usually; first class, for market, picked by hand; second class, for cider, shaken off. Have never used packages of any kind. Usually deliver in wagon. I sell apples in the orchard, wholesale and retail. Sell best to my neighbors, in orchard. Second and third grades I sell cheap and convert into cider and vinegar. The culls I feed to cattle and hogs. My best market is in the orchard and at Wichita; never have tried distant markets. Never dry any. Sometimes I store apples for winter market in a cellar, but prefer a cave; store in boxes and bulk. Am fairly successful; have apples in cellar at this time (May 1), Missouri Pippin, Winesap, Ben Davis, and Grimes's Golden Pippin, in the order named. Never have tried artificial cold storage; have to repack stored apples, if late, losing from ten to fifteen per cent. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from 50 cents to $1.50 per bushel. I employ the best help I can get, and pay seventy-five cents per day and board. * * * * * R. O. GRAHAM, Altoona, Wilson county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have an apple orchard of forty trees from five to eight years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Willow Twig, Rawle's Janet, and Grimes's Golden Pippin; and for family orchard I would add Maiden's Blush, Red Astrachan, and Red June. I have tried and discarded Belleflower, Limber Twig, and King of Tompkins County; they are no good. I prefer a clay bottom, with a north or northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old, round-top trees, with whole roots, set in dug holes, in the fall or spring, as deeply as they stood in the nursery. I cultivate my orchard five to eight years, with a hoed crop, or just keep the ground clean, and sow oats and sometimes red clover in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of Osage orange. I prune to give shape, and to keep limbs from crossing; I think it beneficial, and that it pays. I seldom thin my fruit while on the trees; I pick them off when the size of walnuts. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with well-rotted stable litter; put it between the rows; it has proven very beneficial; I would advise it on all soils, but less of it on bottom land. I never pasture my orchard, excepting with pigs, to eat the oats or clover, which I think advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with bark-louse, twig-borer, web-worm, tent-caterpillar, and canker-worm, and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I spray my trees while in bloom, and two or three times afterward, with London purple and some Paris green; have greatly reduced the codling-moth. For rabbits I wrap the trees with corn-stalks and tie with a string. Borers I dig out, and then with a goose-quill or a spray nozzle I blow insecticides into the hole. I pick my apples by hand into sacks or pails from a step-ladder; sort into three classes; pack very closely into two and one-half bushel barrels, and mark with variety and grade; haul to market on wagon. I have sold apples in the orchard; I dispose of them any way I can; I feed culls to the hogs. My best markets are Kansas City, Denver, and Western points; have tried distant markets, and found it paid; but better sell at home. I do not dry many apples; it does not pay for good apples. I am fairly successful in storing apples in boxes, barrels and bulk in a cellar. I find Ben Davis, Jonathan and Rawle's Janet keep best. Never tried artificial cold storage. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about ten per cent. of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from 75 cents to $1.25 per bushel for winter apples. I employ men at one dollar per day. * * * * * FRED. WAHLENMAIER, Arkansas City, Cowley county: I have resided in the state thirty-five years. Have an apple orchard of five acres, twenty-four years old. I prefer Maiden's Blush for a family orchard. I prefer a sandy loam, hilltop, with a north slope. I prefer two-year-old trees, planted thirty feet apart. I plant my young orchard to corn, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. I prune my trees, to produce better and more fruit. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter. I pasture my orchard with calves. My trees are troubled with canker-worms and roundhead borers. I sprayed last year for canker-worms, with coal-oil and water, when the leaves were coming out. I wholesale my apples. Make cider of the culls. My best market is Arkansas City. We sun-dry some apples for our own use. I have stored some apples in the cellar; never have tried artificial cold storage. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five to sixty cents per bushel. * * * * * C. R. DAVIDSON, Yates Center, Woodson county: I have lived in Kansas fifteen years; have an apple orchard with trees from five to twenty years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Winesap, and Maiden's Blush, and for family orchard add Early Harvest. Have tried and discarded Yellow Bellflower; it will not bear. I prefer bottom land with a northern slope which has a black loam. I prefer two- or three-year-old trees, set in rows thirty feet east and west, and sixteen feet north and south. I plant my orchard with corn four or five years, using a cultivator, and cease cropping after six or eight years; Kafir-corn does well in a bearing orchard. For rabbits I think wire screening is best. I prune my trees to let in air; think it beneficial, and that it pays. Do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; it strengthens and invigorates the trees; would advise its use on all soils unless very rich. I pasture my orchard with calves, because they do not hurt the trees; I think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with web-worm, and my apples with curculio. I spray with London purple, one tablespoonful to two gallons of water, to destroy the curculio. I think I have reduced the codling-moth. For borers I use ashes; throw them around the tree, or make a lye of them, and wash the tree and throw some around the roots. I pick my apples from a ladder into baskets. * * * * * G. K. AYERS, Furley, Sedgwick county: I have lived in the state twenty-seven years. Have an apple orchard of 300 trees, twenty-one years planted, eight to fourteen inches in diameter. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, and Winesap, and for family orchard Sweet June, Duchess of Oldenburg, Maiden's Blush, Baldwin, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Jonathan, Rome Beauty, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded Red Astrachan and Rambo for unproductiveness; White Winter Pearmain as unproductive, short-lived, and a poor seller. I prefer for an apple orchard the best corn land, in a bottom. I prefer two-year-old trees, with good roots not mangled, set in squares thirty feet each way. I cultivate my orchard to corn or vines, using a plow, harrow and cultivator eight or ten years in the orchard, and cease cropping after ten years. I plant a bearing orchard to orchard-grass and timothy (blue-grass is injurious). Windbreaks would be an advantage on the south and west; would make them of live trees; plant Osage orange next to orchard and forest-trees outside of it. For rabbits I wrap the young trees; also shoot and trap them, especially the jacks. I prune very cautiously, and mostly on the north side, using a saw and knife, to give symmetry and keep limbs from crowding; I think it beneficial. I fertilize portions of my orchard with stable litter; would not advise it on all soils, as I think an orchard can be overstimulated. I have pastured the orchard with calves and hogs, but do not now; it does not pay; do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, flathead borer, and fall web-worm, and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I spray April 15 and May 10, on later date, with London purple, for insects. Think I have reduced the codling-moth. For insects not affected by spraying, I keep the tree in a healthy condition. Pick my apples by hand; sort into three classes--market, cooking, and cider. I sell apples in the orchard, wholesale, retail, or peddle; sell the best apples in the orchard or to dealers; peddle the second and third grades; make cider of the culls. I find the nearest markets to be the best; never have tried distant markets. Do not dry any. Do not store any, but think I shall. Do not irrigate, but would if I had the water. Prices have been fifty cents to one dollar per bushel for best winter apples. * * * * * H. A. CONDRA, Longton, Elk county: I have resided in Kansas twenty-one years; have an apple orchard of seventy-five trees, twenty years old, ten to sixteen inches in diameter, twenty to twenty-five feet high. I have thirty more which are but two years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin; and for family orchard Red Astrachan, Maiden's Blush, Rawle's Janet, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. I prefer a bottom which has a rich loam, with a gravel subsoil and a north or east slope. I prefer two-year-old trees having but two limbs, both starting from the same place, set in holes four to six feet in diameter, two feet deep, filled in with good dirt. I cultivate my orchard to corn--so as to keep weeds down and hold moisture--use a disc harrow and cultivator so as to keep the soil loose and fine two or three inches down. I cease cropping after eight or ten years, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are not essential. For rabbits I use tin from the roofs of burned buildings or building paper. I prune with a saw and an ax to thin the tops and keep the limbs above my head; think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are planted in blocks [of same kind]. I fertilize my orchard with any well-rotted manure; I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils, especially on old orchards. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, leaf-roller, and leaf-crumpler, and my apples with codling-moth. I spray when the leaves first come out, when in blossom, and once or twice afterwards, ten days apart, with London purple and Bordeaux mixture for codling-moth and leaf-eating worms. Think I have reduced the codling-moth some. I stand on a step ladder and pick my apples by hand in a small basket, then pour them into a wagon. I sort into three classes--sound, blemished, and rotten. Sound ones are put in crates, blemished are made into cider, and the rotten ones go to the hogs. I pack in crates, for convenience, and then store in the cellar. They are made of lath and 1×12 boxing lumber. The lath are sawed across in the middle, the lumber into lengths of fourteen inches. The bottom and sides are lath one-half inch apart. This makes an airy crate, easy to handle, two feet long, fourteen inches wide and twelve inches deep, which when rounded up will hold one and one-half bushels of apples. I sell apples in the orchard; also retail and peddle. My best apples are usually sold in the orchard. Of the second and third grades we make cider, apple-butter, and vinegar. The hogs get the culls. My best market is at home. I do not dry; cannot find a ready market, and it does not pay. I am successful in storing apples in crates in a cellar which has a wareroom overhead; the walls are of sandstone two feet thick, with six inches of dry sand between the ceiling of the cellar and the floor of the wareroom. A door is in the south end, and a window in the north, with screens so the outside shutter is open all the time except at noonday sun, and when raining or freezing. There is an air-shaft through ceiling to roof. The racks or shelves are made of 1×4 lumber, and there is one inch of space between the crates when slipped in, thus allowing the air to circulate around them. I have apples in the cellar now (April 25) while my neighbors who stored in bulk have none fit to eat; all are rotten. I find Rawle's Janet and Winesap keep best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-tenth of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have averaged thirty-five cents per bushel. Dried apples have been four cents for sun-dried and eight cents for evaporated. * * * * * T. H. GUEST, Grafton, Chautauqua county: I have lived in this county twenty years. Have an apple orchard of 3000 trees ten years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, White Winter Pearmain, and Little Romanite; and for family orchard Red June, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Early Harvest, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. Have tried and discarded Bellflower and Willow Twig on account of blight. I prefer bottom land, with a black, sandy loam, clay subsoil, and northern aspect. I prefer one-year-old trees--switches--planted with a lister. I cultivate my orchard to corn eight years, then use a disc harrow, running both ways, keeping a dust mulch; I cease cropping at bearing age and plant nothing. Never put alfalfa in an orchard. Windbreaks are not essential here. For rabbits I use lath and woven wire, and concentrated lye for borers. I prune with a saw and shears, to increase the size and color of the fruit; I think it beneficial, and that it pays. I never thin the fruit while on the trees, but believe it would pay. My trees are in mixed plantings; I have Gilpin or Little Romanite growing beside Missouri Pippins; they blossom the same time. At picking time in the fall I have noticed a very marked difference in the Gilpin, it having the peculiarities of the Missouri Pippin: the increase in size, with the white specks and oblong shape peculiar to the Missouri Pippin. I also noticed a difference in the Romanite for two rows in; I tried keeping some of them until spring; some were quite mellow, and the flavor was much superior to that of the Romanites not near the Missouri Pippins. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, but would not advise its use on heavy soils. Do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable, and does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, root aphis, flathead borer, fall web-worm, and leaf-roller; and my apples with codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. I spray successfully when the fruit buds appear in the spring, with Paris green, London purple and Bordeaux mixture for canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, and curculio. I hand-pick my apples in sacks and baskets from step-ladders, and sort into two classes--first and second--as we pick them; put them into two different vessels, and let the culls drop. I pack my apples in two-bushel packages, with blossom end down, mark with the grower's and consignee's names, and haul to market on a heavy truck. I sell some apples in the orchard to buyers from the territory. I make cider and vinegar of the culls, but do not dry, store nor irrigate any. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * G. W. RHODES, Lowe, Chautauqua county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-two years. Have an orchard of 500 apple trees from five to twenty years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis and Jonathan, and for family orchard Ben Davis, Ortley, Maiden's Blush, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. Have tried and discarded Lawver, King and Baldwin on account of shy bearing. I prefer hilltop, with deep loam, limestone soil, and clay subsoil, with northeast slope. I prefer straight one-year-old trees, with plenty of roots, set in squares of twenty-five feet. I cultivate my orchard to corn or potatoes while the trees are small, using a plow and cultivator, and cease cropping after ten years; plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are not essential, but would be beneficial; would make them of evergreens. For borers I wash the trunks of small trees with carbolic acid and strong soap-suds. I prune to thin the tops, so I can get in to gather the apples; it pays. I have thinned the fruit while on the trees, but not lately; haven't time; but think it pays. My trees are planted in rows, each variety by itself. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter while I am cultivating; when the trees get larger I mow the grass and weeds and let lay as a mulch, and afterwards as a manure; this is all needed. Never have pastured the orchard, but think hogs with rings in their noses would be a benefit. My apples are troubled with codling-moth. I spray after the blossom falls with arsenates, for all kinds of insects that come early, especially the codling-moth; think I have reduced them. I pick my apples by hand from a ladder, bench, or get into the tree. We sort into two grades, large and small; sell them in the orchard to people from the west and Oklahoma, who haul them off in wagons. We have a great many dried apples, dried by the neighbors on shares; we find a ready market for them. I am quite successful in storing apples in bulk in a cave arched over with stone. Ben Davis, Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep best. Prices have been from twenty-five to sixty cents per bushel in the fall, and from $1 to $1.50 in the winter. * * * * * JASON HELMICK, Cloverdale, Chautauqua county: Has lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. For all commercial purposes he prefers Missouri Pippin and Winesap, and adds a few summer and fall varieties for family use. Has tried and discarded Bellflower, because the fruit drops off, and Ben Davis, because it cannot stand heat and drought--the trees decay early. He prefers north or northeast slope, bottom land, with a deep, porous soil, the more porous the better. He pastures his orchard with horses, cattle, and hogs, and thinks it advisable if done with care; it pays. His trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar, flat-headed borer, and leaf-roller, which do little damage. His greatest drawback is drought and heat. He does not spray, and cuts borers out in August or earlier, and kills the caterpillars. Picks his apples by hand. Never sells them in the orchard; raises mostly for home use. Stores some in boxes in a cellar. Does not irrigate. Marketable apples usually sell for twenty-five cents per bushel. * * * * * J. W. GOODELL, Sedan, Chautauqua county: Have lived in Kansas fifteen years; have an orchard of 200 trees, which are nine years old. For a commercial orchard I would plant Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin; and for a family orchard would add Early Harvest. Have tried and discarded Lowell and Yellow Bellflower as too tender for the climate. I prefer bottom land having a black, sandy loam, and a northern slope, and plant one-year-old trees, thirty by thirty feet. I cultivate with a disc, and am still cultivating, growing corn in the orchard for nine or ten years. Windbreaks are essential. I would make them of natural oak if possible. For borers and rabbits I use concentrated lye and lath jackets. I prune my trees with a saw and shears, and think it pays and is beneficial. I never thin apples while on the trees, and have never fertilized. Do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, root aphis, fall web-worm, and leaf-roller, and my apples with codling-moth and gouger. I spray for canker-worm and all other insects before and after the foliage appears, and think I have reduced the codling-moth. I dig the borers out with a wire and wash the tree with lye. Pick my apples into baskets, and sort into firsts, seconds, and culls. I sell in the orchard, and make cider of the culls. Do not dry any. I store some for winter market in a cave. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from forty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * A. D. CHAMBERS, Hartford, Lyon county: Have been in Kansas thirty-two years. Have 3500 apple trees; 1500 of them have been planted twenty-five years; 2000 of them six years. I prefer for market Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap, and for family orchard would add Early Harvest, Red Astrachan, Maiden's Blush, and Rambo. Have discarded Yellow Bellflower because it won't bear; Milam, because it is too small; Rawle's Janet, off on color. Only a few varieties should be in a commercial orchard. I prefer bottom land; mine slopes to the north. Any soil is good, either clay or loam. I would set thrifty two-year-old trees in furrows. I have raised thousands of root grafts in the nursery, growing my own seedlings to graft on. I cultivate in corn until they begin to show fruit, then in millet twice; I have never cultivated the orchard without a crop. When the ground gets bad, break it up and put in millet to shade the ground. I have never used any windbreaks; plant my trees close, to protect each other from the wind. I use axle grease for rabbits, and have had very little trouble with borers. I prune in the early years to shape the tree; later, to remove surplus wood, and think it increases the size of the apple. I believe stable litter is beneficial; I have applied it only on heavy clay soil. I pasture my orchard to a slight extent with horses and cows. I do not gather the down apples, but let my stock gather them. I have sprayed with London purple for canker-worm and tent-caterpillar; I use a barrel and a wagon, from first of May on, and am only partially successful; I think I have reduced the codling-moth some. I pick with baskets and wagons, and pile the apples in the orchard. I sort into three classes--first, shipping; third, culls; second, betweens. As I sell to shippers at wholesale, I put in the first class as small ones as the contract will allow; the second class includes all that look salable, and I sell them in the home markets; I sell what culls I can, and make cider of the others. I do not ship any. My apples mostly go south. I tried shipping once, but it did not pay. I do not dry any, nor store any for winter. Have never irrigated. Prices vary from 20 cents to $1.25 per bushel, according to variety, time of year, etc. I use men and women for picking, and pay three cents per bushel. * * * * * B. RONEY, Benedict, Wilson county: Have lived in Kansas since the fall of 1869; have 1400 apple trees, planted from six to twenty-seven years. For market I prefer Baldwin, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Jonathan, Ben Davis; for family, Red June, Maiden's Blush, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, and Jonathan. I have discarded the Russets (the fruit is inferior), and Bellflower (the trees are not hardy). I prefer north-slope upland with deep limestone soil and clay subsoil. I plant thrifty three-year-old, not overgrown trees with good heads, thirty feet east and west, twenty feet north and south, to protect from the wind. I set in the spring, in a rye-field or stubble ground, running out furrows and putting in with a spade. I cultivate with a small stirring plow with one horse, for the furrows next the tree. I grow corn until the trees should bear, and then change to red clover, and mow to keep the weeds down. I believe windbreaks are essential, but care should be taken not to have many soft-wood trees near the orchard to breed insects. An elevation on the south or southwest will be found beneficial. For rabbits, wrap in the winter; for borers, wash with lime in the spring. Keep out all watersprouts; thin the top of the tree, so that the sun may penetrate; balance the top; cut out the center shoot--it pays. After trees begin to bear I would fertilize with stable litter. Hogs are good in the orchard in the spring to destroy insects, but should not be allowed to root much. I spray with London purple and Paris green when in full bloom [how about bees?], and again in ten days, and give a third spray a few days after, if any insects are on the trees. We have a good home market. For winter I find that Rawle's Janet and Romanite keep the best. Prices have ranged from forty to seventy-five cents per bushel. * * * * * GEO. HILDRETH, Altamont, Labette county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-nine years; have an orchard of 1225 trees, from ten to twenty-seven years old. For commercial orchard prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin and Jonathan for winter, and Early Harvest and Red June for summer; for family use I prefer Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Rambo, Missouri Pippin, and Jonathan. Have tried and discarded Golden Russet and many others. I prefer a porous or well-drained soil, north by northeast slope; it is too hot in bottom, and too dry on hilltop. I plant two-year-old trees in rows running north and south, trees twelve to sixteen feet apart in the row; have grown very few seedlings. I cultivate with corn while young, and rye or wheat and keep it pastured down when bearing. I plow between rows once in fore part of July. I have a tall hedge for windbreak. I prune to keep the top balanced, and do not allow it to get too thick; I think it has been beneficial. Have never thinned apples on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings, the varieties are Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and others. I fertilize sometimes, I think it beneficial and would advise it on poor land. I pasture my orchard with hogs and sheep, and think it advisable; it pays. Have some insects but not in great quantity. I spray with London purple after the bloom falls off--one pound of London purple in from 50 to 100 gallons of water. Think I have reduced the number of codling-moth. In picking I use a sack swung over the shoulder, and a light ladder. I classify to suit the purchaser, doing the sorting in a cool place and usually packing the best in barrels, and sell at wholesale, often in the orchard; feed the culls to hogs; never tried distant markets. I sometimes store for winter market in barrels and keep in cave surrounded with hay; am not always successful. I find those that keep best are Little Romanite, Rawle's Janet, Ben Davis, and Missouri Pippin; never tried artificial cold-storage. Seldom have to repack stored apples before marketing; lose about one-fourth. The prevailing price this year has been fifty to seventy-five cents per bushel. * * * * * A. S. DENNISON, Columbus, Cherokee county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-one years; have an apple orchard of 200 trees, fourteen years old. I prefer for commercial purpose Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin; and for family use Red June and Early Harvest. I prefer bottom land, with black loam, gravel subsoil, and northeast slope. I prefer one-year-old trees, set sixteen feet at first; thin to thirty-two feet. I cultivate my young orchard with potatoes and strawberries for ten years, then sow to clover, plowing again in two years; I never cease cropping; cultivate with plow, disc, and harrow. I wrap the trees for rabbits. I prune with a saw and knife, and think it beneficial. I never thin apples. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, but would not advise it on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs and calves, and think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar, and my apples with codling-moth. I spray for codling-moth with London purple and Paris green immediately after the blossoms fall, and again in ten days. I think I have reduced the codling-moth. I dig borers out. I pick my apples from a ladder in a basket. I sort into three classes--sound, medium, and small and unsound. I pack in barrels carefully, and haul to shipping point in spring wagon. I sell in orchard; also wholesale, retail, and peddle; market most of them at home; make vinegar of the culls. My best market is home. Never dry any. I store some for winter in barrels in cellar; am not always successful; Ben Davis keeps best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, and lose about ten per cent. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. I employ men at one dollar per day. * * * * * D. C. SEIBERT, Columbus, Cherokee county: Has been in Kansas twenty-two years, and has an orchard from five to twenty years old. For commercial purposes he prefers Ben Davis and Limber Twig, and for the family adds Maiden's Blush. Prefers dark soil with a low southern slope, if not wet. Prefers two-year-old trees set about thirty feet apart. Cultivates with a disc harrow until four or five years old. Grows corn for five or six years. Thinks windbreaks essential; would make them of Osage orange all around the orchard. Prunes his trees, and thinks it beneficial, and that it pays. Does not thin apples on the trees; says the wind does that for him. Fertilizes his trees while young with stable litter, and would advise it on all soils. Pastures his orchard with calves and hogs, and thinks it advisable, and that with the hogs it pays. His trees are troubled with bark-louse and leaf-roller, and his apples with codling-moth. He sprays his trees with London purple, and thinks he has reduced the codling-moth; for borers, and other insects not affected by spraying, he throws salt over the roots of the trees. Picks his apples by hand. Wholesales, retails and peddles them. His best markets are in his county; has never tried distant markets. Does not dry any. Is successful in storing apples in bulk in a cave for winter markets, the Limber Twig and Rawle's Janet keeping best; has never tried artificial cold storage. Does not irrigate. Prices have been from forty to sixty-five cents per bushel. * * * * * JOHNSON KELLER, Arkansas City, Cowley county: Have lived in Kansas for twenty-one years. Have 2000 apple trees fourteen years old. I grow for market Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Smith's Cider. For family orchard I prefer Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Cooper's Early White, Ben Davis, and Missouri Pippin. I have discarded Gennetting, Winesap, Rambo, Red Astrachan, and many others that were worthless in this locality. I prefer second bottom, dark sandy loam, with north and east aspect. I plant two-year-old trees thirty feet apart, in holes four feet square, dug one foot too deep, and filled up with surface soil. I cultivate thoroughly as long as the orchard lives, with stirring plow and disc, and crop with corn as long as it will even make fodder, or until the trees shade the ground too much to raise anything. For small orchards I would recommend a windbreak of Osage orange set far enough apart on the south to grow in the shape of trees. For rabbits I use nothing but corn-stalks tied around the trees. I prune in moderation to keep the trees low; much pruning will kill trees in this locality. I thin apples some on the trees, at any time after they are the size of hickory-nuts. I find the best pollinators are a good apiary of bees. I believe in using plenty of stable litter well mixed with potash, but in moderation near the trees. Nothing except hogs should be allowed in an orchard. They destroy nearly all the insects. I spray for canker-worm as soon as they begin to hatch, and believe I reduced the codling-moth fifty per cent. last spring. For borers I wash the bodies of the trees early in spring and twice in May with soft soap and lime. For picking I use a long-handled device of my own invention, and sort into two classes: No. 1, best and largest; No. 2, medium. One week after they are put in the packing-house we pack in barrels, with hay or straw between the layers. We market our best apples and sell our second and third grades at home, and make all culls into cider and vinegar. Have tried distant markets, but did not generally pay. Never dried any. We store for winter in a fruit house and cave, in barrels, and are successful. Our best keepers have been Missouri Pippin and Winesap. Our loss on winter apples runs from three to five per cent. Prices in the fall, twenty-five to forty cents; in winter, 75 cents to $1.25 per bushel. For help we use common laborers at from seventy-five cents to one dollar per day. * * * * * WM. N. SMITH, Brownsville, Chautauqua county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years. I have an apple orchard of fifty trees twenty years old and twelve inches in diameter. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap, and for family orchard I would add Maiden's Blush and Bellflower. I prefer bottom land, black, sandy loam, with a clay bottom and a north slope. I plant my trees thirty-six feet each way. I plant my orchard to corn and potatoes, using a disc, and plant tame grass in a bearing orchard, and cease cropping when they begin to bear. Windbreaks are essential. I would make them of Osage orange, and would surround the orchard with a fence of the same. I prune to keep the limbs from rubbing, and I think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard; am on bottom land, which does not need it, but think it would be beneficial on some soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs, but do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, flathead borer, roundhead borer, twig-borer, and leaf-roller. I spray with Paris green and London purple when the worms are at work on the leaves. I dig borers out. I hand-pick my apples in baskets from ladders, and sort into two classes--large and perfect in number one, small and perfect in number two; the balance for cider. I pack in barrels filled full, and mark with the grade; then haul to market in a wagon. I make the culls into cider. Coffeyville is my best market. I dry some and find a ready market for them; it pays. I am successful in storing apples in bulk in a cellar, and find Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin and Winesap keep best. Prices have been about fifty cents per bushel; dried apples, five cents per pound. * * * * * C. E. HILDRETH, secretary Altamont Horticultural Society, Altamont, Labette county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. I have an apple orchard of 15,000 trees eight years old, five inches in diameter, and prefer Ben Davis, Jonathan and Missouri Pippin for market; and for family use Early Harvest, Red June, Jonathan, Maiden's Blush, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. I prefer gray or red soil, porous subsoil, with an eastern slope. I set first-class, two-year-old, well-branched trees, in large furrows, deeply plowed out, twenty feet north and south, and thirty-two feet east and west. For six years I grow corn in the orchard, cultivating well; after that nothing. I plow shallow, and disc or harrow until midsummer as often as the weeds start. I cultivate as long as the trees live. To protect from rabbits I use sixteen-inch lath woven with four strands of wire. I prune, to allow only three or four main branches. I believe in fertilizer, and would use it if I had it. I think pasturing in the orchard advisable, with young cattle or hogs, and that it pays. Am troubled some with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, and codling-moth; for these I spray with London purple, using a tank, with a pump run by a sprocket and chain, from a wagon wheel. I believe I have reduced the codling-moth by spraying. We pick in a sack over the shoulder, as used in sowing oats. I sort only into first class and culls, as emptied by the pickers on canvas-covered tables. I use eleven-peck barrels, marking the name of variety and quality. Sell only at wholesale, making cider of the culls. Have shipped to distant markets, but it did not pay. Have never dried any, but think I ought to. * * * * * J. S. HACKNEY, Walton, Harvey county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have an orchard of 325 apple trees twenty-four years old, eight to sixteen inches in diameter. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Snow, Maiden's Blush, Huntsman's Favorite, and Grimes's Golden Pippin, and would plant the same for family orchard. Have tried and discarded Winter Strawberry and Paradise Pippin for shy bearing. I prefer high land, rich subsoil, with north slope. I prefer two-year-old grafts, the more fibrous roots the better. I checked my land to corn and then dug out the hill of corn where tree was to stand. I raise my own root grafts. I cultivate my young orchard with corn, wheat, and oats, using disc and smoothing harrow. I plant a bearing orchard to clover, and cease cropping when the limbs interfere with work. I think windbreaks are essential, and would make them of rapid-growing forest-trees. To protect the trees from rabbits, I wash them with blood and liver and tie up. I prune while young to shape and balance the top, and think it beneficial. I never thin apples. I fertilize with barn-yard litter and wood ashes. I pasture my orchard with hogs and young cattle; think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar; my fruit with codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. I spray for the above-named insects after the blossom has fallen and until apples are as large as quail eggs. I think I have reduced the codling-moth. For the insects not affected by spraying I wash with soap and strong lye. I spray with London purple, Paris green, and kerosene emulsion. We pick apples by hand and are careful not to bruise them. I sort into two classes; the small and defective go to the chickens. I generally retail my apples toward spring; sell second and third grades wherever I can; make cider of culls. My best markets are home and Newton. Do not dry any for market. I store 300 or 400 bushels of apples in a cellar 32×32 feet, cemented sides and bottom, with plenty of windows and doors for ventilation; am fairly successful; Ben Davis and Winesap keep best. I have to repack them before marketing. I do not irrigate. Prices have been 40 cents to $1.75 per bushel. I employ ordinary farm hands at $200 per year. * * * * * P. C. BROWN, Cherryvale, Montgomery county: I have lived in Kansas eighteen years; have an apple orchard of 600 trees from six to twenty-four years old. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis and Jonathan, and for family orchard would add Maiden's Blush, Lowell, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. Have tried and discarded Missouri Pippin, Lawver, and Roxbury Russet. I prefer a first or second bottom, with a northern or western aspect, sandy loam with gravelly subsoil. I prefer two-year-old, well-headed trees, set thirty by thirty. I have some set thirty by fifteen feet, but intend to grub every other one out when large. I plant my orchard to corn or potatoes, cultivating two or four times a year until they begin to bear, using a stirring plow, Acme harrow, and Planet jr. horse cultivator. Never cease cropping, but pasture with hogs. Sow grass and clover in a bearing orchard. Do not cut and take crop off more than twice after they begin to bear. Windbreaks are not essential, but if they were I should make them of any kind of trees or hedges, by planting on south and west sides. For rabbits I inclose the tree with wire screening. I dig the borers out. I prune trees while young, until they begin to bear, by cutting out the cross branches and watersprouts. This will promote wood growth, if done in early spring. It is generally beneficial. I have thinned the fruit sometimes, but it does not pay. Can't see any difference whether trees are in blocks of one variety or in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with lime and ashes in limited quantities. It is beneficial only on loose, loamy soil; would not advise its use on heavy clay soils. I pasture my orchard after it comes into full bearing with swine and poultry. I think it advisable and that it pays, if too many are not put in. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, root aphis, twig-borer, fall web-worm, and leaf-roller. I spray just after the leaves start and three times afterwards, a week or ten days apart, using London purple and lime water for the foliage and fruit-eating insects; think I have reduced the codling-moth materially. I spray early for canker-worm, and just after the blossoms drop for codling-moth and curculio. I hand-pick my apples from a step-ladder, in a sack hung over the shoulder; sort into three classes--first, smooth and not specked; second, rough and specked; third, partly rotten, for vinegar. I sort into baskets from a table which has a rim around the edge. I pack my first-grade apples in barrels pressed full, then headed, marked with a stencil, and hauled to market on a wagon. I wholesale my best apples to home buyers, and also fill orders from a distance; sell my second- and third-grade apples to home buyers, and make into sweet cider; make vinegar of culls and feed them to hogs. My best market is at home; have tried distant markets; did not pay. Do not dry any. Am fairly successful in storing apples in barrels, boxes and shallow bins in a cellar; find Rawle's Janet, Ben Davis and Jonathan keep best. Weather is too warm in the fall in this latitude to keep apples successfully. I have to repack stored apples two or three times, losing from one-third to three-fourths of them; it varies with the season and time of picking. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. I employ the best help there is to be had, at from 75 cents to $1.25 per day. * * * * * JOHN HART, Sedan, Chautauqua county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years, and have an apple orchard of 400 trees, ten years planted. I prefer for commercial orchard Ben Davis, and for family orchard Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Winesap, Ben Davis, and Arkansas Black. I prefer sandy bottom land, and plant my trees in furrows. I cultivate my orchard to corn as long as it is possible to grow anything, but plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are beneficial. I would make them of Osage orange or wild goose plums. I prune with a saw, to thin out the centers and keep off suckers. I think it beneficial. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter. I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on some lands. I do not pasture my orchard, nor would I advise it. I spray with London purple in the spring, and am successful. I sell my apples in the orchard, and do not dry any for market. Missouri Pippin keeps better than other stored apples. * * * * * JAMES McNICOL, Lost Springs, Marion county: Have been in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have an apple orchard of 12,000 trees, set from three to ten years. Prefer Missouri Pippins alone for commercial orchard, and Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Missouri Pippin and Grimes's Golden Pippin for family orchard. Have discarded White Winter Pearmain as not hardy. I prefer bottom land, northern slope, with rich surface soil and porous subsoil. After plowing out deep furrows, subsoil with a lister; then select well-rooted, two-year-old trees and plant carefully. Distance apart is an important matter; if too close, the trees, no matter how well cultivated, will suffer for moisture; if too far apart, the wind will play havoc with trees and fruit. I would plant close rows running east and west, as each row would help break the wind when the trees in the row reach each other. I would plant twenty feet apart in the row, and the rows thirty feet apart, and would recommend planting a row of cherry, dwarf pear, plum or peach between the apple rows, provided they are cut out at the proper time to not allow them to rob the orchard of moisture. Cultivate often to a good old age with a disc and Acme harrow. Grow corn or Kafir-corn for five or six years, leaving a good space next the trees, not for weeds, but to be well cultivated. A silly policy is to cultivate the corn that costs less than five cents per row for seed four times, and leave the tree row that costs two dollars or more uncultivated. Do not use a stirring plow; it hills up around the trees too much. If you list your corn, go east and west one year, north and south the next year. Keep the ground well cultivated; grow nothing after five or six years, not even weeds or clover. Cultivate at right angles and diagonal. Whenever you are blessed with a good rain in summer don't wait until the weeds start, but cultivate as soon as the ground will bear it. Keep a dust mulch on by cultivation; few know the great value of a dust mulch. For a family orchard a five-tooth cultivator near the trees, and a two-horse cultivator for the middles, will do. Use the harrow often. Six days' work at the proper time will keep a five-acre orchard in good shape through the season. Some say this is not a fruit country. It is not and never will be to the one who has no time to cultivate; but to the careful cultivator there is great reward, for the very same reason. I believe it essential to have windbreaks, and advise planting three or more rows of honey-locust and Russian mulberry for windbreaks, on the south and west sides. For rabbits I use wooden tree wraps, also traps, guns, and dogs. I prune a little, to keep the top balanced. I use no fertilizers, and would never allow stock pastured in orchard. Am troubled with root aphis, leaf-crumpler, and codling-moth. I practice spraying with blue vitriol for codling-moth. I prevent borers by keeping the ground well cultivated. * * * * * MIKE GAMER, Strong City, Chase county: Have lived in Kansas since February 14, 1877. Have 180 apple trees from one to twenty years old. For commercial orchard would prefer Maiden's Blush and Ben Davis. Have tried and discarded Rambo and Pennock, because of rot. I prefer dry bottom. I prefer trees four to six feet high, planted thirty feet apart. I cultivate in corn for ten years, and seed a bearing orchard to grass. I think windbreaks are essential; would make them of Osage orange or trees, a row outside of the orchard. Am troubled with rabbits and borers. I prune, and think it beneficial. I pasture my orchard with pigs, and think it advisable. My trees are troubled with flathead borer, and my fruit with codling-moth. I wash the trees with soap-suds for insects. I sell my apples in the orchard; make cider of the culls. I store apples in bulk in a cellar, and find the Romanite and Missouri Pippin keep the best. Prices have been from twenty-five to sixty cents. * * * * * GEORGE SCHENCK, Le Roy, Coffey county: Have lived in Kansas eighteen years, and have 1200 apple trees from ten to thirty years old. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis and Winesap. I prefer bottom land. I cultivate my orchard to corn, using a lister and other tools; I crop as long as it is possible to cultivate. Windbreaks are not essential. I think fertilization with barn-yard litter beneficial on upland orchard, but would not advise its use on rich bottom. I have pastured my old orchard with calves and hogs. * * * * * C. F. PFLAGER, Elk, Chase county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have 300 apple trees from one to twelve years old. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis, Willow Twig, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Romanite; for family orchard, Maiden's Blush, Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent, and Baldwin. I have tried and discarded Sweet Gennetting, because of rot, and when ripe it is too small for market; Caswinculet, because it sun-scalds and dries up, and Early White will not stand the climate. I prefer bottom land, with sandy soil. I prefer two-year-old trees, with low top, without forks, set four inches above the graft, at an angle of thirty degrees south. Have grown some seedlings with good success. I cultivate my orchard with potatoes and tobacco, using a plow and cultivator, until four years old; I plant nothing in a bearing orchard, and cease cropping when they commence to bear. Windbreaks are essential here, and I would make them of Osage orange and forest-trees; if Osage orange is used, plant it twenty feet from the orchard, or it will injure the fruit-trees. I wrap my trees with corn-stalks or rags to protect from rabbits, and wash the trees with lye water for borers; I also dig them out. I have pruned with clippers, and found it injurious to the trees; I only cut out watersprouts. I never thin my apples; they thin themselves. My trees are in mixed plantings and bear well. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter; I also use fertilizer from the chicken yard, and would advise its use on all soils. I never pasture my orchard; it injures the trees, and does not pay. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, flathead borer, and leaf-roller. Curculio trouble my apples. I do not spray, but my neighbors do, and are not successful. I pick my apples by hand into half-bushel baskets, and put them in a wagon, with hay in the bottom. I sort into three or four classes, putting the red, yellow and green in separate piles. I pack my apples in sacks, and haul to market in a wagon. I often sell in the orchard; retail my best at stores, peddle the second and third grades, and make cider for vinegar of the culls. My best markets are Elmdale, Chase county, and Marion, Marion county; have never tried distant markets. We dry a few apples; use a parer, corer, and slicer; it is satisfactory; then pack them in flour sacks; but it does not pay. I store some in boxes and barrels in a cave; am successful; those that keep best are Romanite and Red Winter Pearmain. Never have tried artificial cold storage. We have to repack stored apples before sending to market; lose about five per cent. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel, and dried apples five cents per pound. I employ farm hands at from ten dollars to eighteen dollars per month. * * * * * THOMAS W. SMITH, Baxter Springs, Cherokee county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years. My trees were destroyed in the storm of 1895. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. Prefer hilltop with an east slope. I cultivate at six years; seed a bearing orchard to clover. Windbreaks are not essential. Never thinned apples. Pasture my orchard with cows and horses. Prices during winter have been forty cents per bushel. * * * * * S. H. BAILEY, Uniontown, Bourbon county: I have lived in Kansas fifteen years, and have an orchard of 150 apple trees thirty years old. I prefer Canada Pippin [Downing calls this White Pippin], Ben Davis, Rome Beauty, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and Maiden's Blush, for all purposes. I prefer hillside land, with a northeastern slope. I plant apple trees thirty feet apart each way. I cultivate in potatoes, corn, or any hoed crop, using a hoe and cultivator. I sow a bearing orchard to clover, and cease cropping at ten or twelve years. Windbreaks are essential, and I would make them of Osage orange planted thirty feet from the trees. I prune a little every year, to get rid of dead limbs, and also thin out the center of trees, to improve the fruit. I use a saw and knife. My trees are in block. It is beneficial to mulch with old hay or straw in drought. I pasture my orchard with small calves, but would not advise it, as it does not pay. I sprayed with a pump, using London purple, but it did little good. I cut borers out, and then pour coal-oil in the holes. I hand-pick my apples in a sack, using a ladder. I sort into two classes--good and second best. If for home use, I put them in rail pens for about three weeks; then sort out the good ones and make cider of the culls. I pack in three-bushel barrels, and ship to Kansas City. I sell my best apples to shippers. I dry and make cider of the second- and third-class apples, and feed the culls to the hogs and cows. I store some for home use, and would store more if I had cold storage. We have to repack stored apples before selling, and lose about one-half of them. I have sold Canada Pippins from fifty cents to two dollars per bushel. I employ men and boys, and pay from fifty cents to seventy-five cents per day and board. * * * * * W. T. WALTERS, Emporia, Lyon county: I have been in Kansas nearly twenty-one years. I have 700 apple trees; 200 thirty years old, 100 eleven years old, and 400 seven years old. Market varieties, Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Jonathan; and for family have added Red Astrachan, Red June, Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, and Rambo. I prefer bottom land if not too low; I have apples when they dry up on the hill. Prefer a rich, dark loam, with a slightly porous subsoil, and northeast slope. Use two-year-old thrifty trees, with well-balanced head. Fall plow deeply, throw two or three furrows each way, leaving a deep dead furrow, cross lightly with one furrow, and plant at the crossings. I grow corn, sweet and Irish potatoes for eight or ten years, then seed to clover. I cultivate with a one-horse plow, using a hoe around trees. In my oldest orchard I grow nothing, but use the disc freely. I believe windbreaks necessary on upland, but not in our bottom. Use corn-stalks tied around the tree for rabbits. I prevent borers by keeping the trees thrifty. I prune with knife and saw only to remove dead limbs and keep others from rubbing together, and I think it pays. I think thinning would pay, with cheap labor. Have used coarse stable litter in my orchard; think it has paid in larger and better-colored fruit; would advise its use for bearing trees. I would pasture my orchard with calves, hogs, and sheep, if I had them; I believe if judiciously done it would pay. I spray before the buds open, after the bloom drops, and ten days later, with London purple and lime, for canker-worm and codling-moth; have kept the canker-worm in check, but have not prevented my apples from getting wormy and falling. I hand-pick in sacks and baskets; pack in tight, eleven-peck barrels; but sell most of my apples in the orchard to teamsters from the West. I sell culls to the cider and canning factories. My best market is in the orchard. Never shipped but once; not satisfactory. I store some in tight barrels in the cellar, and find Winesaps keep the best. We lose from ten to twenty-five per cent. of them; some winters they keep better than others. Never dried any, and have not irrigated. Prices from thirty to fifty cents per bushel at picking time. I use men and boys at from fifty cents to one dollar per day. * * * * * C. L. KENDRICK, Waverly, Coffey county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-five years. Have an apple orchard of 375 trees, eighteen years planted. For commercial purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap; for family orchard, Early Harvest, Summer Queen, and Sherwood's Favorite [Chenango]. Have tried and discarded Bellflower and Rawle's Janet; they are a failure. I prefer hilltop, with a deep clay soil, slightly sandy, and a north or northeast slope. I prefer two-year-old trees, with smooth, heavy bodies, and a low top, set in holes forty feet apart, with a little loose dirt thrown in the bottom, the trees leaning a little to the southwest. I cultivate my orchard to sweet corn and castor-beans, using a disc run deep, excepting close to trees; I cease cropping after five years, and sow a bearing orchard to clover. Windbreaks are essential, and I would make them of maple, Russian mulberry, or Osage orange, set in rows close together, and cut top off maples at four feet. I use building paper as a protection against rabbits, and for borers I whitewash the trees; then remove about three inches of earth from the trees and pour some around the roots. I prune with a saw and shears, to admit more air and sun; I think it beneficial, and that it pays. I never thin my fruit on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings, and I find them and Mrs. Garrison's and several others' are thus more fruitful; the varieties used are Ben Davis, Jonathan, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Sherwood's Favorite, planted in alternate rows east and west. I never fertilize my orchard; I think clover left in an orchard for two years and then plowed or cut in with a disc is the best fertilizer for an orchard after it begins to bear. I never pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with bag-worm, roundhead borer, bark-louse, and fall web-worm. My apples are troubled with curculio. I spray with London purple and lime, with a pump, just after the fruit is formed, for web-worm and curculio. I think I have reduced the codling-moth by spraying. I get after insects not affected by spraying with a knife. I gather apples by hand in a sack, and sort into three classes: the large and smooth, second size, and culls. I sort from the piles after picking; then sell or bury them. I prefer two-and-one-half-bushel barrels, with straw in the bottom and around the sides, marked with a tin tag, and hauled to market in a heavy spring wagon. I sell in the orchard, wholesale, retail, and peddle; I sell my best apples to shippers, peddle the second and third grades, and make cider of the culls. My best market is Ottawa; have never tried a distant market. I store apples in bulk or bin, in a fruit house built on a well-drained place; the house is made of flax straw, posts, and wire or boards to hold the straw in place; the walls are three and one-half feet thick, four and one-half feet high, and the roof two and one-half feet, with ventilator in the center. The door is in the east end. I use two doors, one on the inside, and one on the outside, filling the space between with flax straw. Am successful in keeping apples, and find those that keep best are Jonathan, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Smith's Cider. Winter apples have been forty-five cents per bushel. * * * * * W. J. ALBRIGHT, Julia, Kingman county: Have lived in Kansas eighteen years; have an apple orchard of 500 trees, six to seventeen years old, four to ten inches in diameter, I prefer bottom land for an orchard. I cultivate my orchard by subsoiling and shallow cultivation, using a disc and Acme harrow; I grow nothing in a bearing orchard, not even weeds. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of Osage orange or Russian mulberries. Am not troubled with rabbits or borers. I prune some; it makes better trees. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with cow-stable litter, but do not think it beneficial. I do not pasture my orchard. My apples are troubled with codling-moth. I sprayed five years with Paris green and London purple, and was not successful. I gather my fruit off the ground. My best market is at home. We dry apples for home use, and do not store any. I irrigate with a windmill and earth reservoir; it makes big trees. * * * * * L. J. HAINES, Galena, Cherokee county: Has been in Kansas nineteen years. Has an orchard of 2500 trees, fourteen years planted, averaging eighteen inches in diameter, planted for commercial purposes, and comprising Willow Twig, Ben Davis, and Winesap, which varieties he would also recommend for family orchard. Has tried and discarded Snow and Missouri Pippin, as they would not bear fruit; cannot tell why. Prefers alluvial soil, with clay subsoil susceptible of good drainage, south slope preferred. Cultivates always with plow, leaving a deep center furrow. Tries to eradicate all growth between the trees in a bearing orchard. Believes windbreaks are essential; uses maple. Prunes, to stimulate trunk and fruit growth. Fertilizes with wood ashes, and says they should be used on all soils that lack potash. Pastures his orchard in spring with calves and hogs, and believes it pays. Sprays April 1, April 30, and June 1, with London purple, copperas, Paris green, and Bordeaux mixture. Not fully successful, but believes he reduces the codling-moth. For borers he lixiviates the ground. This, he claims, kills by contact under the ground. Plow in fall in time to let the rains settle in, and too late to keep it from freezing; freeze them out. Sorts into three classes: Middling [fair], bad, and worse. Hand packed in barrels, stem down, best on top, and marked "First class." He sells at wholesale, sometimes in orchard. Feeds culls to stock. Has found Kansas City, Omaha and Denver to be the best markets. Dries apples on Fay drier, made in Cincinnati, for home use only, and not satisfactory. Stores apples for winter in bulk in cave, and finds Ben Davis the best keeper. For help he uses boys at fifty cents per day, and men at one dollar per day. * * * * * A. J. SALTZMAN, Burrton, Harvey county: I have lived in Kansas thirty-one years. Have an apple orchard of 500 trees from one to twelve inches in diameter. For commercial orchard I would prefer Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Ben Davis, Cooper's Early White, and Jonathan; and for family orchard Early Harvest, Lawver, Jonathan, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded Willow Twig and Large Romanite on account of blight, and the fruit rots and specks. I prefer hilltop, with sandy loam and clay subsoil, and a north or northwest aspect. Prefer two-year-old trees, with good, thrifty roots, planted thirty feet apart each way. I cultivate my orchard to corn, potatoes, Kafir-corn and cane for five or six years, with plow and cultivator, and cease cropping when the orchard begins to bear. I plant bearing orchard to rye, oats, and artichokes, and then turn in hogs. Windbreaks are essential; would makes them of evergreens or Russian mulberries, planted four feet apart. I prune with a saw, pruning-hook, knife, and sometimes an ax, to give proper shape to the tree, and to let in air and light; I think it pays. I do not thin the fruit on the trees, but think it should be done. I fertilize my orchard with barn-yard litter, and think it beneficial; I would advise its use on all soils. I pasture my orchard after five or six years with hogs, and think it advisable and that it pays. My trees are troubled with root aphis, but not bad, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray. I hand-pick my apples, in baskets, or in a sack over the shoulder, and put them in barrels, boxes, or wagon. I sort into two classes: first, sound, for market or home use; second, for vinegar. I sort them as I pick, and drop the vinegar ones on the ground, and gather afterwards. I pack my apples in bushel boxes (that is the best way) while picking. I sell apples in the orchard; also wholesale, retail, and peddle. I make second- and third-grade apples into vinegar, or feed them to hogs. My best market is at home. Have tried distant markets, and found it sometimes paid. I do not dry any, and am successful at storing apples in bulk in a cellar; sometimes I bury them; I find Winesap, Limber Twig and Little Romanite keep best. We have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing from ten to fifteen per cent. of them. I do not irrigate, but think it would pay. Prices have been from forty cents to one dollar per bushel; dried apples from five to six cents per pound. * * * * * J. B. SAXE, Fort Scott, Bourbon county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-nine years. Have an apple orchard of 800 trees from fifteen to twenty-seven years old. For commercial orchard I prefer Ben Davis and Willow Twig, and for family orchard would add Winesap and Jonathan. Have tried and discarded Baldwin, Yellow Bellflower, Maiden's Blush, Early Harvest, Sweet Bough, Bailey's Sweet, Roxberry Russet, Fall Strawberry, King of Tompkins County, and several Russian varieties; all are worthless. I prefer hilly land, with loam soil and clay subsoil, northeast slope. I prefer one- or two-year-old medium-sized trees, set twenty to thirty feet apart. Plant my orchard to corn, raspberries, and blackberries, using a plow and cultivator--a one-horse cultivator between the rows, for five or six years; cease cropping when the trees begin to bear. Windbreaks are not essential. I poison the rabbits, and am not bothered with borers. Prune a little with a pruning knife to keep the head open; think it pays, and is beneficial. Have never thinned apples while on the trees. I do not fertilize; our soil is rich enough; ashes or potash might be beneficial. I think hogs beneficial in an orchard. My trees are troubled with root aphis, and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. Pick apples by hand from a ladder into a bag. Sort into two classes, perfect and imperfect, from piles on the grass or ground. Pack my apples in barrels by hand, mark with my name, and haul to market in a spring wagon. Generally sell apples in the orchard, also wholesale; peddle the second and third grades, and make culls into cider for vinegar. Never dry any. I stored some in boxes in the cellar last fall, also buried some in the ground, and was successful. Found Limber Twig and Rawle's Janet kept best. We had to repack stored apples before marketing; lost about one-half of those in the cellar, but very few of those buried in the ground. Do not irrigate. Prices were about forty cents per bushel at wholesale in the fall on the trees. * * * * * S. F. C. GARRISON, El Dorado, Butler county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; have an apple orchard of 1000 trees, twenty to twenty-five years old, ten to twelve inches in diameter. I prefer for commercial purposes Ben Davis, Winesap, King of Tompkins County, and Rawle's Janet; and for family orchard Maiden's Blush, Milam, Jonathan, and Sweet Bough. Have tried and discarded Keswick Codlin, Willow Twig and Dominie on account of blight. I prefer second bottom, reddish soil, with liver-red subsoil, and a north slope. I prefer two-year-old, short-trunk, smooth and round trees. In planting, plow both ways with a coulter and subsoiler, then dig out. I cultivate my orchard to corn for three or four years, using a plow; I cease cropping after eight years, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. I use sulphur mixed with axle grease to protect against rabbits. For borers I use fish oil spurted in with sewing-machine oiler. I prune the under limbs to prevent hanging on the ground. It does not pay, and is not very beneficial. I thin Rawle's Janet apples when the smallest ones are as large as marbles. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize with stable litter, and think it beneficial; but would not advise its use on all soils. Never pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, root aphis, twig-borer, leaf-roller, and bark-louse, and my apples with curculio. I spray with London purple and strychnine when the leaves are small; think I have reduced the codling-moth. I pick my apples (from step-ladders where high) into baskets. Sort into three classes: cider, specked, and sound. We leave them in piles until they sweat, then dry and sort. I prefer two-and-one-half bushel barrels, packed with a nice layer on the bottom (this will be top when opened), then mark with the name of fruit, and haul to market by rail or wagon. I sell in orchard, wholesale, retail, and peddle, and make cider of the culls. My best markets are Wichita, Pueblo, Leadville, the Strip, and Eldorado. Have tried distant markets, but it does not pay. I never dry any for market. I store some apples for winter market in bulk; am not very successful; find Winesap keeps the best. Have to repack stored apples before marketing; lose about ten per cent. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel; dried apples, four and one-half cents per pound. I employ young men, at from seventy-five cents to one dollar per day. I have sprayed carefully for three years, and am glad to report no worms this year [1898]. Winesap not full--too full and dry last year, Maiden's Blush full, Rawle's Janet very full, Sweet Bough full, Limber Twig full, Milam full, Ben Davis fair, Northern Spy fair, Little Romanite light, Jonathan light, Willow Twig and King (of Tompkins county) full, Talman Sweet full, and Pound Sweet full. Trees must not be trimmed up too high, as is too much the practice. A low, broad top will hold the least sprinkle of rain longer, and the wind will not have much chance to dry the earth under the trees. There are millions of hair roots just at the surface, in the compost, or loose earth, to immediately absorb the moisture if wind and sun are kept off. The buds set better when the trunks are short, and kept as cool as possible, so that the sap can run freely to the terminal buds, and also make buds, when, if high and dry, no bud formation can occur. Trees should be short in trunk, broad top, and limbs nearly to the ground. No hogs nor calves should be allowed in the orchard, but all the chickens possible. Cut off all dead branches, and fill up vacancies. Trees should be two or three years old when set. When setting make a good large hole, and in the center make a hill or cone of earth. Then spread the roots out in their natural position, and after this fill in some earth and press lightly. Set two or three inches deeper than they grew in the nursery, trim close, and leave no acute forks. Compel the limbs to start at obtuse or right angles from the trunk; if they bend over to the north, anchor with string and stake. The art and science of horticulture are little studied in Kansas. It takes good judgment and a scientific turn of mind to be successful in orcharding. Chemistry, botany and physiology are especially necessary to make it a delightful work in life. We must run back to the original, which was no doubt far beyond anything we as yet have, or we could not improve at all. The beauty ran down as man did, and it will be a long time before perfection is reached. * * * * * D. M. ADAMS, Rome, Sumner county: I have lived in Kansas fourteen years; have an apple orchard of 140 trees from eight to twelve years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. I prefer bottom land for an orchard. I prefer three-year-old trees set fifteen by thirty feet; mine are planted thirty by thirty. I plant my orchard to corn for four years, using a cultivator and harrow, and cease cropping after four or five years. I plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential here. For rabbits I use a gun and traps, and for borers I wash with soap-suds. I should thin my apples if there was a heavy crop. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, and think it beneficial. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable. My trees are troubled with borers. I do not spray. * * * * * WILLIAM PRICE, El Dorado, Butler county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-five years; have 1200 apple trees, planted twelve to eighteen years, running from eight to twelve inches in diameter. My market varieties are Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, Large Romanite, and Jonathan; for family I have added Early Harvest, Red June, Red Astrachan, and Maiden's Blush. I have discarded Rawle's Janet, as they grow in clusters and rot on the trees. My location is on hilltop, with a loose clay soil, and a north aspect. I plant two-year-old upright trees, with good roots, in deep furrows thrown out each way, and subsoiled. I cultivate same as corn, and grow corn as a crop, for small grains and millet breed insects. In the bearing orchard I grow nothing. I cultivate with the disc harrow, cultivator, and plow, until the trees cover the ground, from twelve to fifteen years from planting. I wash the trees three times a year with a solution of soft-soap suds and crude carbolic acid. I believe windbreaks are essential, and would make them of rapid, dense-growing trees; I use Russian mulberry, planted in three rows, twelve feet apart, mismatched. For rabbits I rub the trees with sulphur and grease. If trees are washed with carbolic acid and soap-suds, no borer will ever attack them. I trim very slightly to keep down watersprouts; to trim as they do in the East does not pay here. I do not thin, but believe fruit would sometimes be larger and better for it. I believe in fertilizing, and prefer cow-yard litter, sheep litter, and hay; on rich bottom land I would use hay mulching. Mulching should be removed from around the trees for hoeing, and then replaced. I never pasture an orchard. Am troubled some with canker-worm, twig-borer, and codling-moth. I spray three or four times in a season, from eight to ten days apart, according to the weather, beginning as soon as the blossoms appear, with a large force-pump, and a rod with double nozzle, for canker-worm, web-worm, and codling-moth. I have lessened the codling-moth by using copper sulphate solution very early [?]. For borers I use London purple, copper sulphate, Bordeaux, and Paris green [?]. We pick by hand, and sort into two classes: First, the finest fruit; third, the culls, and second, betweens. Sell some in the orchard, from a bushel to wagon-loads. Sell my best apples on orders from merchants and citizens. The second grade same as the first, if desired. The culls I make into vinegar, which I sell in the home market. Our best market is at home. I tried shipping, but transportation charges were too high; have not tried drying. I store for winter outdoors, covered with hay and dirt, so as not to freeze. The Romanite keeps best. I make my piles of twenty bushels, and lose perhaps one-twentieth. Do not irrigate. Prices of late: First class, fifty cents; second class, thirty-five cents per bushel. I use young men and boys at from fifty cents to one dollar per day and board. I have one of the best small orchards in the state. Have been successful in planting and growing trees. * * * * * R. E. LAWRENCE, Wichita, Sedgwick county: I have resided in the state twenty-eight years; have an apple orchard of 300 trees from twenty to twenty-four years old. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin and Ben Davis, and for family orchard would add Winesap, Early June, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. I prefer bottom land with a sandy loam soil and porous subsoil. I prefer two-year-old trees set thirty feet apart each way. I cultivate my orchard to corn or potatoes for several years, using a common cultivator; cease cropping when they begin to bear, and sow to orchard-grass. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of forest-trees. I prune to thin the branches; think it beneficial. Do not thin the fruit while on the trees. My trees are in mixed plantings. I do not fertilize my orchard. I do not pasture my orchard. Codling-moth troubles my apples; have not sprayed. Pick my apples by hand; sort into two classes--marketable and cider. I sell some apples while in the orchard at retail. Sell my best apples in home market, and make cider of culls. Never tried distant markets. Do not dry any. Don't store any. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * S. S. WEATHERBY, Le Roy, Coffey county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have 500 apple trees, twelve years planted, six inches in diameter. Grow only Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. Have discarded Willow Twig on account of blight. My location is in the bottom, with rich loam and sandy subsoil. I have planted in rows thirty-two feet distant; cultivate in corn for four years after planting, and use the disc harrow as much as possible. In a bearing orchard I would put clover. Believe windbreaks are essential, made of any kind of forest-trees, planted thickly, in two or three rows around the orchard, and cultivated while small. Protect from rabbits with a dog and gun, and also by wrapping the trees. Prune very little; simply keep down sprouts and remove crossed limbs. Have never thinned on the tree, and believe barn-yard litter useful as a fertilizer. I pasture with a few calves, but think it does not pay. Am troubled with some insect, and spray moderately in May with London purple, for web-worm and leaf-crumpler. Pick from the wagon, driving under the trees. Sell at both wholesale and retail, and my best market is the commercial buyer. Feed my culls mostly to the pigs. Never have dried any, nor stored any for winter. Have a pipe running from my water-tank, by which means have watered a few trees for a number of years, and these trees are very large and yield very fine fruit. If I were to start again, instead of planting 500 apple trees I would plant sixty, and dig a well and put a windmill in the midst of them; and I am confident I would get more satisfactory returns. * * * * * J. A. MULLINEAUX, Cherryvale, Montgomery county: I have been in Kansas twenty-nine years. Have 350 apple trees of various ages and sizes, mainly Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin. Have tried and discarded the Romanite as too small. I prefer bottom or second-bottom land, red soil, with sandy subsoil, and a south slope. I plant two-year-old trees in the spring, 32×32 feet; cultivate for four years, growing oats as a crop; also grow oats in a bearing orchard. Believe windbreaks or an Osage-orange hedge are beneficial. I tie corn-stalks around my trees to keep off the rabbits. I never prune at all. Do not thin fruit on the trees. I fertilize with stable litter while trees are young. Believe it pays to pasture orchards with hogs, as they destroy worms. I am troubled some with borers, web-worms, and codling-moth, but have never practiced spraying. I pick by hand, and sort into first and second classes, and pack in bushel boxes, selling at wholesale; haul to market on a rack; make my culls into cider. My best market is Cherryvale. Never have dried any. Do not irrigate. I store for winter in bulk in the cellar, and am successful in keeping Missouri Pippin and Ben Davis. Price here is $1.50 per bushel. * * * * * O. M. RECORD, Thayer, Neosho county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-one years; have 400 apple trees eight years old. My land is eastern slope, clay subsoil; I plant 20×28, first subsoiling the row. Cultivate to corn and potatoes with a plow, common cultivator, and five-tooth cultivator, until eight years old; then sow to clover. I believe a windbreak is essential, and like Russian mulberry planted on the south and west. To protect from rabbits and borers I use a wash made of soap, lime, and crude coal-oil. I prune with the shears to balance the top properly, and think it pays. I think varieties that grow in clusters like Rawle's Janet should be thinned to a single specimen. I use stable litter, as my land is a light, sandy loam and needs it. I pasture my orchard with hogs, but not too many; if they run short of feed they will sometimes bark the trees. I am troubled some with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, leaf-roller, and codling-moth. I spray as soon as the bloom is off and twice afterwards with lime and crude oil, to kill the leaf eaters and fungus, and have probably reduced the codling-moth. I look for borers in the fall and dig them out with a knife. My orchard is yet too young to describe picking, sorting, etc. I intend to build a pond and try wetting the ground when the trees need it. * * * * * CHAS. DIEMURT, Murdock, Butler county: I have been in Kansas thirty years; have 400 apple trees eight years old. I have Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Dominie, Grimes's Golden Pippen, Rome Beauty, Rambo, Early Harvest, Bellflower, Rawle's Janet, Willow Twig, Red June, Maiden's Blush, and Duchess of Oldenburg. I prefer hilltop, with sandy soil, and a red, sandy subsoil, with western slope. I plant two-year-old, low, stocky trees, two rods apart each way. I cultivate with plow and cultivator. I whitewash with lime and blood to keep the rabbits off, and lime to keep off borers and other insects. I prune, taking off only surplus limbs, and think it beneficial. I never thin apples. I fertilize to improve the tree; I think it advisable. Am troubled with canker-worm, leaf-crumplers, and codling-moth. I spray when the leaves are just out with London purple for canker-worm, and think I have reduced the codling-moth. For insects that are not affected by spraying, I wash the trees with lime during the fall, and in the spring with strong soap suds. I pick my apples by hand, and sort into two classes--best for eating, second for cider. For packing I prefer boxes made of slats [lath?], two feet wide by four feet long, and one foot deep. I sell some in the orchard, make cider of the culls, and store some in boxes, and am successful. I find the Missouri Pippin and Winesap keep best. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * F. M. SAVAGE, Burden, Cowley county: Have been in Kansas twenty-seven years; have a small orchard of 375 trees that have been set from four to twenty-two years. I would recommend for all purposes Ben Davis, Winesap, and Missouri Pippin. Tried Northern Spy, but it did not do well. My location is on hilltop, north slope, with a black loam soil and clay subsoil. I plant two-year-old thrifty trees with a spade, in large, deep holes. Would cultivate as long as they live, with a plow, and grow no crop among the trees. I think a windbreak of several rows of Osage orange on the south side is a necessity. For borers and rabbits wash with whale-oil soap, digging out any borers that may be in with a knife. I prune with a knife, saw, and ax, and believe it pays. I use stable litter in my orchard. Tried pasturing my orchard once with hogs, but do not think it advisable. Have some borers, tent-caterpillars, and codling-moth, but have never sprayed any. Pick in baskets, buckets, and sacks, and sort into two classes--first, to sell or put away; second, culls. Prefer large boxes, with the fruit laid in carefully, each kind by itself. I wholesale as many as possible, sell some in the orchard, and make cider of culls. My best market is at home. Have never tried drying. Keep them successfully over winter in bulk in the cellar for family use; Winesap keeps best. Prices have run from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * S. B. BROWN, Waverly, Coffey county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-six years. Have 1100 apple trees from three to twenty-five years old. My market varieties are Winesap and Missouri Pippin; for family orchard I add Yellow Transparent and Grimes's Golden Pippin. My location is hilltop, with a northern slope. I plant two-year-old trees by running a furrow with a plow and opening holes with a shovel. I cultivate with a plow and cultivator from ten to twelve years, growing corn for ten years; after that, nothing. I believe windbreaks are essential, and would make them of Osage orange or maples, on the east, north, and northwest. For rabbits I wrap the trees; for borers I wash with soft soap. I prune to make the apples larger. I use stable litter between the rows. I do not think it advisable to pasture the orchard. I do not spray, and am troubled with canker-worm, flat-headed borer, and curculio. We hand-pick into sacks, and sort into four grades--No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, and culls. I peddle my best apples; make culls into cider. My best market is Waverly; never tried distant markets. I have dried apples on the Zimmerman drier with satisfaction. I box the dried product and find a ready market for it, and think it pays. I do not store any apples. The prevailing price for apples is fifty cents per bushel, and for dried apples twelve cents per pound. I use men for help, and pay one dollar per day. * * * * * DICK MAY, Elk, Chase county: Have lived in Kansas since 1860. Have a family apple orchard of sixty trees eighteen years old. I prefer Ben Davis and Winesap, on bottom land with a second slope. I cultivate my orchard fourteen years, using a cultivator, and plant corn in a young orchard and orchard-grass in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; I would make them of timber by planting in groves. For rabbits I wrap the trees; and use soap-suds for borers. I prune with a pruning-knife, and think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I would advise the use of fertilizers on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with roundhead borer, and tent-caterpillar. I do not spray. I pick by hand and sort into two classes. I haul to market in a wagon and wholesale them. I have put apples in cold storage and find Winesap and Missouri Pippin keep best and satisfactorily. I have to repack stored apples before marketing. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel, and dried apples six cents per pound. * * * * * E. O. BEAVERS, Ottumwa, Lyon county: Have been in Kansas twenty-three years. Have 2000 apple trees, from one to twenty-three years planted. Prefer for market Winesap, Mammoth Black Twig, Gano, Ben Davis, and Missouri Pippin; and for family use Winesap, Mammoth Black Twig, Gano, Ben Davis, Jonathan, and Early Harvest. Have tried and discarded Lawver, because they do not hang on until maturity. I prefer a north slope of high, level, bottom land, with black soil and clay subsoil. Plant two-year-old, whole-root, round-topped trees, in large holes dug two feet deep and filled for six inches with surface soil, packed well. Have now in bearing some good seedlings. Grow corn in orchard from eight to ten years, and cultivate the tree rows well with shallow plowing, and harrow and cultivator. After ten years sow to red clover. Want a windbreak of timber on south. Shoot the rabbits. Prune with saw and axe to "get nicer apples," and think it pays exceedingly well. Prefer to plant in blocks of a kind, as they are more fruitful. Use stable litter, but not close up to the trees. Believe it pays to pasture with hogs, if not overstocked. Have canker-worm and codling-moth; spray three times, the first before blooming, for canker-worm. Have surely reduced codling-moth by spraying. Borers never bother any. Pick by hand from common ladders, with sack over shoulder. Sort into three classes: No. 1 perfect, No. 2, and culls. Have a different man to pick out each grade. Use eleven-peck barrels; face two layers, then fill, shake, and press. Usually sell marketable fruit in orchard to shippers. Sell culls by wagon-loads in orchard. My best near-by market is Emporia, Kan. Have shipped to a distant market and made it pay. I have stored some in barrels in cellar, and all kept well, Winesap perhaps a little the better. Prices range from forty to sixty cents per bushel. I employ the best experienced men I can get, and pay one dollar per day of ten hours. * * * * * J. ELLISON, Chautauqua, Chautauqua county: Has lived thirty-two years in Kansas. Has an orchard of 800 trees--300 fifteen years, and 500 twelve years planted. Prefers Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Rawle's Janet and Jonathan for market, and for family use adds Maiden's Blush. Has discarded every other kind; the above are the only profitable ones. Prefers sandy loam with clay subsoil, high eastern slope, protected on north. Sets three-foot yearling trees in spring, marking out with fourteen-inch plow, thirty-five feet apart each way, and set at crossing. Cultivates with stubble plow in April, then keeps harrow going until August 1. Uses hoe around trees. Grows corn in orchard until ten years old; then keeps ground well cultivated. Does not desire windbreaks. Feeds the rabbits poisoned fruit. Says borers are not troublesome if cultivation is kept up every two weeks through June and July. Prunes any time from January to June, to improve the fruit and prolong the life of the tree. Says stable litter on all sandy loam, not nearer than three feet from the tree, will make the fruit larger, crisper, and better flavor. Allows no stock but poultry in the orchard. Sprays with London purple, on April 10, 20, 30, and May 10, for canker-worms, and destroys them completely. Has cleaned out the codling-moth, too. For borers he washes his trees in June and September with carbolic acid ten pounds, sulphur forty pounds, lime enough to make a thick whitewash. On picking he sorts into three grades: No. 1, select, large, sound, smooth; No. 2, small and sound; No. 3, knotty and specked. Uses for marketing one-bushel baskets packed full. His best market is in the orchard, selling by wagon-loads. He uses some culls for vinegar and gives many to his neighbors. Does not dry any. Stores some for winter in trenches in bulk, in the soil, covered with pure earth, and they keep as follows: Missouri Pippin, first; Rawle's Janet, second; Ben Davis, third. Prices vary from forty cents to one dollar per bushel. Uses common farm help at sixty cents to eighty cents per day. * * * * * N. SANFORD, Oswego, Labette county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have an apple orchard of 150 trees, twenty-four years old, ten inches in diameter. For all purposes I prefer Red June, Jonathan, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Rome Beauty, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded Ben Davis, White Winter Pearmain, Red Winter Pearmain, and Missouri Pippin; they don't do well here. I prefer clay bottom land with north aspect. I prefer well-grown two-year-old trees, set a little deeper than nurserymen recommend. I cultivate my orchard to corn or potatoes four years, using a five-tooth cultivator, and cease cropping after six years. I plant nothing but raspberries and blackberries in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are not essential. For rabbits I wrap the young trees with cloth. I prune the tree while young to give shape and get rid of dead branches; I think it pays. I do not thin my apples while on the trees; it does not pay. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter and ashes; would advise their use on all soils. I pasture my orchard in early spring and during the fall and winter with horses and cattle; think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, bud moth, root aphis, and twig-borer, and my apples with codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. I spray with a force-pump; use Paris green, London purple and Bordeaux mixture for canker-worms and all other pests. I pick my apples from ladders with care; sort into two classes--first, all large and sound; second, small and sound; pack them in eleven-peck barrels as we pick them; fill the barrels full with a little pressure; mark with variety and grade. I wholesale, retail and peddle my apples; I evaporate the second and third grades and culls. My best market is Colorado; I have tried distant markets and found they paid. I dry apples with a home-made drier, which is quite satisfactory; after they are dry we pack in fifty-pound boxes, but do not find a ready market; they pay some years if the quality is good. Am successful in storing apples in barrels in a stone cellar, and find Winesaps keep best. I have to repack stored apples, losing about one-sixth or one-eighth of them. Do not irrigate. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel; dried apples from five to nine cents, if fancy. I employ women at fifty cents per day for preparing the evaporated apples. * * * * * C. G. WICKERSHAM, Parsons, Labette county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-six years. Have an apple orchard, the oldest of which are twenty-seven years. For all purposes I prefer Jonathan, Grimes's Golden Pippin, and Winesap. I prefer hilltop, with the very best of black soil, having a north or northwest slope. I prefer two- or three-year-old medium-sized trees, set in holes dug for them. I cultivate my orchard to potatoes, using a common cultivator, and cease cropping after ten or fifteen years; nothing should be planted in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of three to six rows of elms. We destroy all the rabbits we can. I prune the trees when first set out to shorten in the limbs; then keep it up every year; it pays big. I do not thin the fruit on the trees; the wind does it for me; it pays to not have the trees too full. Makes no material difference whether the trees are in block of one variety or mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with slightly rotted stable litter, and think it pays, and is beneficial. I would advise its use on all soils, but not as extensively on rich soils. I pasture my orchard with chickens only; they are a benefit and pay well. My apples are troubled with codling-moth, curculio, and bud moth. I spray with London purple, Paris green, and Bordeaux mixture. I pick my apples by hand, sort in from three to six grades, and put them on hay in the shade. Pack in one- and one-and-a-half-bushel packages. I wholesale, retail and peddle a very little. Give the culls to neighbors who have no apples. Have tried distant markets, but it did not pay. Home market is best. I do not dry any. I store some in a frost-proof house. Have to repack stored apples. I water my orchard frequently. * * * * * O. W. HECKETHORN, McPherson, McPherson county: I have resided in Kansas twenty-four years; have an apple orchard of 350 trees; 180 of them are twelve years old; the balance are younger. For market I prefer Missouri Pippin and Maiden's Blush; for family use, Maiden's Blush. I prefer a sandy loam with an east or northeast aspect. I prefer two-year-old, low-headed trees, planted in rows thirty feet apart. I cultivate my orchard as long as the weeds grow, and plant a young orchard to corn, using a small cultivator and disc. Cease cropping after eight or nine years, and plant nothing in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of peach trees planted close together. I have pruned to shape trees, but do not prune at all now. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter; I think it beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils. I do not pasture my orchard. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar, and my apples with curculio. * * * * * A. B. MANN, Toronto, Woodson county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years. Have an apple orchard of fifty trees, twenty years old, twelve inches in diameter. For all purposes I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin. My trees are planted on a hilltop, with north slope, having a black limestone soil. I prefer two-year-old trees, set in rows twenty feet apart. I cultivate my orchard to sweet corn until four years old, using a plow and harrow, then cease cropping; put clover in a bearing orchard. We make windbreaks of Osage orange on the north side of the orchard. For rabbits I use lath, and dig borers out. I prune with a chisel and mallet; think it pays. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees. I do not mix my trees when planting. I fertilize my orchard between the rows with stable litter; would not advise its use on all soils. I have pastured my orchard with hogs, but do not think it advisable, as it does not pay. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar and flathead borer, and my apples with codling-moth. I do not spray; my neighbors do, without success. I hand-pick my apples. * * * * * D. W. COZAD, La Cygne, Linn county: I have resided in the state twenty-five years. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Jonathan, Willow Twig, and Missouri Pippin, and for family orchard, Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, Winesap, Rawle's Janet, and Huntsman's Favorite. Have tried and discarded Lawver, Yellow Bellflower, Gilpin, and Cooper's Early White, on account of shy bearing, poor quality, and small size. I would choose hill for some and valley land for others, according to variety planted; would prefer southeast aspect with limestone soil and porous subsoil. I prefer one-year-old trees. I cultivate my orchard to corn and potatoes, using a surface cultivator and harrow; cease cropping at bearing age and sow to clover. Windbreaks are essential. I would make them of double rows of evergreens on the north and west. Protect from rabbits and borers by "eternal vigilance." I prune with a saw and knife for symmetry, air, and light, and think it pays. I thin the fruit while on the trees, at different times; it pays. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter and clover; would advise its use on all soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs; think it advisable, and that it pays. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, root aphis, flathead borer, and woolly aphis; my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I pick my apples by hand; sort into three classes, sound and large, sound and small, and culls. I sell apples in the orchard, wholesale, retail, and peddle. Sell my best apples from the cellar, also second grade. Of the culls we make cider and feed to the hogs. My best market is at home. I do not dry any. I am successful in storing apples in barrels in a cellar and a cave; I find the Gilpin, McAfee, Rawle's Janet and Willow Twig keep best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing about one-twentieth of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been: Summer, twenty-five to thirty cents; fall, forty to fifty cents; winter sixty to eighty cents per bushel. I employ men at ten cents an hour. * * * * * W. M. BARNGROVER, Hamilton, Greenwood county: I have been in Kansas seventeen years, and have an orchard of 100 apple trees fifteen years old, twenty-four inches in circumference. For market I prefer Ben Davis, and for family use Winesap. I prefer bottom land, with a black loam soil and a red clay subsoil. I prefer two-year-old, low-headed trees, set in big holes. I cultivate my orchard about every four years with a disc and harrow, and sow English blue-grass in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential to orchards on the hills; I would make them of a row of maples between every row of apple trees. For rabbits and borers I paint the body of the tree with a solution of coal-tar and carbolic acid. I prune my trees to protect them from the hard winds; always trim the highest limbs--never the low ones. I fertilize my orchard with about twelve inches of old hay for four years, and think it should be used on all soils, as the tree growth will be one-third larger. I pasture my orchard with calves, and think it advisable and that it pays. My trees are troubled with leaf-rollers. I spray with Paris green. In picking, I use a step-ladder and a pole with a hook on the end. On the under side of the pole I sew a long sack [a canvas tube]; the apples fall in this sack and roll down to me. I pack in barrels; sell in orchard; use the waste apples at home. Have tried distant markets; it did not pay. Do not dry any. I store apples for winter in barrels, and find White Winter Pearmain keeps best. I have to repack stored apples before marketing; the loss depends a great deal on the season. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from thirty cents to one dollar per bushel. Home-dried apples, four and one-half cents per pound. * * * * * DAVID LEHMAN, Halstead, Harvey county: I have resided in Kansas nineteen years; have an orchard of 180 apple trees sixteen years old, eight to twelve inches in diameter. For market I prefer Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Ben Davis, and Jonathan, and for family orchard would add Maiden's Blush. I prefer hilltop with a black loam and an east slope. I prefer one- or two-year-old trees, two feet tall, with good roots, set thirty feet apart in rows. I cultivate my orchard to corn for ten years, using a harrow and five-tooth cultivator very shallow. Cease cropping after ten years, and plant turnips in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of red cedar, ash, or catalpa, by planting eight by eight feet in rows. I prune my trees when young with a pruning-knife to get rid of all unnecessary limbs; I think it pays. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter that will not heat, and would advise its use on all soils, but lightly on rich soils. I pasture my orchard with hogs, but do not think it advisable; it does not pay. My trees are troubled with borers, and my apples with curculio. For insects not affected by spraying, I use one box of concentrated lye and four ounces of tincture of tobacco to four gallons of water; wash well with a swab three times a year--the 15th of June, July, and August. * * * * * W. W. GARDNER, Chanute, Neosho county: Has lived in Kansas thirteen years. Has 1000 well-grown trees, set seven years. Prefers for commerce Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Huntsman's Favorite, and for family orchard adds Maiden's Blush and Rome Beauty. Prefers north slope, upland. Plants two-year-olds, with straight centers, at sixteen to eighteen feet apart, in rows twenty-two to twenty-four feet apart. Cultivates with two-horse cultivator, often enough to keep the weeds down; then harrows, aiming to keep the ground mellow. Grows corn from nine to ten years, then clover; says small grain hurts trees. Thinks evergreens best for windbreaks, but does not think such protection essential. Keeps dogs for the rabbits. Prunes with hedge shears, and says it certainly pays. Believes barn-yard litter beneficial in any orchard, on any soil. While he thinks pasturing not advisable, and that it will not pay, he says he will probably pasture in fore part of seasons with calves, after he has seeded to clover. Sprays with London purple and lime as soon as canker-worm appears. Is not troubled with borers. Would irrigate if he could. Has yet had too little fruit to market. * * * * * HENRY NEIL, Weir, Cherokee county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-eight years; have 148 apple trees, from three years old to very large. For market I use Ben Davis; for family, Early Harvest, Winesap, and Romanite. I prefer hilltop, with an eastern slope, black loam soil, with gravelly subsoil. I plant two-year-old thrifty trees, thirty-three feet apart each way, in the spring. I cultivate until they bear, growing corn and potatoes, after that grass. I prefer a disc cultivator. I think windbreaks are a great help; and Osage orange is the best I know of. For rabbits I tie stalks or wire cloth around the tree. Have never had any borers. I trim with a saw and knife to take out superfluous wood and give light, and I think it pays. I never have thinned any. I think barn-yard fertilizer will pay in the orchard. I pasture my orchard very little, and think it does not pay. I have never sprayed any, and believe tent-caterpillar is the worst insect that troubles me. I pick in a sack tied over my shoulder, and sort into three classes--number one, the very best; number two, those that are specked; number three, culls. I generally sell to retailers, at our home market, and make cider of the culls; never tried a distant market. Have never dried any. I store sometimes in bulk in a cellar under the house, and find that Winesap and Romanite keep the best. Prices run from twenty-five cents to one dollar per bushel, and dried fruit from two and a half to six cents per pound. I use regular monthly farm help. * * * * * JOHN A. MAGILL, Roper, Wilson county: I have resided in Kansas thirty-one years. Have an orchard of 7000 trees, sixteen acres of it twenty-five years old, and sixty acres six years old. I think Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin are the best varieties for all purposes. Discarded the Bellflower because it would not bear. I prefer bottom land with a north aspect, black soil, and clay subsoil. Plant good one-year-old trees, 33×20 feet. Cultivate with plow and "gopher." I grow corn and castor-beans in the orchard as long as it will pay. Believe windbreaks are necessary, made of anything that will check the wind; would plant trees on the south and west. Keep rabbits off by wrapping. I prune enough to keep in shape. I believe it pays to pasture the orchard with hogs in the winter, and think they get away with canker-worms. I spray for canker-worm and codling-moth with London purple, and think I have checked the codling-moth to some extent. I pick and sort by hand in two classes only--marketable and culls. I wholesale in bulk, make cider of the culls, and find my best market in Texas. I never dry any; never store any for winter; have never irrigated. Average price about forty cents per bushel. * * * * * J. T. COCHRAN, Ottumwa, Lyon county: Have lived in Kansas thirteen years; my orchard is in Coffey county, and contains 800 trees; 100 have been planted thirty-five years, and 700 twelve years. I market Winesap, Ben Davis, and Missouri Pippin, and add to this for family use Jonathan and some early apples. I prefer ashy bottom land. I would plant trees in good condition thirty by thirty-five feet. Cultivate in corn about eight years, then sow to clover. I believe that a windbreak of hedge or forest-trees should be planted on the southwest, in rows four feet apart. I prune in fall and winter with a saw, and my experience is that it makes better fruit. I have never thinned on the tree. Barn-yard litter scattered through the orchard improves the land. I pasture with hogs early in spring and late in fall; they eat the refuse apples. Am troubled with canker-worm, web-worm, and codling-moth. I spray with London purple and air-slaked lime just as soon as I see the insect, or as soon as the trees are in bloom. I think I have reduced the codling-moth. I pick in a sack tied and hung on the shoulder, using a ladder against the tree. I sort into two classes: No. 1, clear of rot; No. 2, clear of bruises. Pack in eleven-peck barrels, full and pressed. I wholesale mostly; suits me best to sell in orchard. The culls and seconds I sell at home. My best market is Fort Worth, Texas. Freight is too high to send farther. Never dry any; store in a cellar in barrels for home use only. Am not always successful. Winesap keeps best. I lose one-fourth sometimes. Prices range from 70 cents to $1.37 per barrel. I use good trusty men, at one dollar per day. * * * * * W. M. FLEEHARTY, La Cygne, Linn county: Have lived in Kansas thirty years. Have an orchard of 325 trees, mostly thirty years old, twelve to twenty-four inches in diameter. I prefer for commercial purposes Winesap, Ben Davis, and Willow Twig, and for family use Winesap, Willow Twig, Rawle's Janet, and Milam. Have tried and discarded Esopus Spitzenburg, on account of sun-scald. Prefer hilltop with square-jointed [?] subsoil, and northeast slope, deep, rich soil. I plant in check plats. Have tried root grafts. I cultivate until the trees interfere with working. I plant young orchard to corn and potatoes; bearing orchard to nothing, and cease cropping when it injures the limbs of the trees. Windbreaks are essential sometimes, and should be made of Osage orange, because of its quick growth. I prune when limbs interfere. I thin apples a little. Do not mix my trees; bees do the work. Fertilizers are beneficial on all soils. Pasture my orchard with hogs and calves. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, root aphis, bag-worm, flathead borer, roundhead borer, woolly aphis, twig borer, fall web-worm, leaf-roller, leaf-crumpler, and others. My apples are troubled with codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. Spray when the blossoms are open, with Bordeaux mixture; have not reduced the codling-moth. I use the knife on borers and insects that are not affected by spraying. Sort into two classes; have both perfect. Sell in the orchard sometimes. Store some apples for winter market; have not tried artificial cold storage. We have to repack stored apples before marketing, losing one to ten per cent. The prevailing price has been sixty cents per bushel. I employ men at from fifteen to eighteen dollars per month. * * * * * F. L. KENOYER, Independence, Montgomery county: I have lived in the state ten years, and have an apple orchard of 240 trees from three to nine years old. For market I prefer Jonathan, Missouri Pippin, and Ben Davis, and for family use add Maiden's Blush. I prefer hilltop with a sandy loam and a porous subsoil. I prefer two-year-old, low-headed trees, with plenty of roots. I plant them one rod north and south, and two rods east and west. I will cultivate my orchard as long as the trees live with a Planet jr. twelve-tooth cultivator. I plant strawberries in a bearing orchard; they are as good as clover. Windbreaks would be beneficial; I would make them of Osage orange. For rabbits I rub blood on the trees. I dig the borers out with a knife and wire. I prune very little, with the pruning shears, to remove watersprouts and interlocking limbs. It preserves their symmetry, but does not make them more fruitful. I do not thin the fruit while on the trees; the wind does it for me. My trees are in mixed plantings. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter between the trees. It is very beneficial, and I would advise its use on all soils excepting very rich bottoms, where it would cause too much wood growth at the expense of the fruit. I do not pasture my orchard; it is not advisable. My trees are troubled with canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, root aphis, roundhead borer, and leaf-crumpler, and my apples with codling-moth and curculio. I am successful in spraying, using London purple with a pump when the canker-worms appear, and a few days afterward. For root-lice I remove the earth from around the trees and pour in tobacco water. I do not dry any. I do not irrigate. Prices have been forty cents for apples in the fall, one dollar per bushel during the winter, while home-grown lasted, and two dollars per bushel now (April). Dried apples sold for five to ten cents per pound, according to quality. * * * * * J. H. BILSING, Udall, Cowley county: I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years. Have an orchard of sixty apple trees from sixteen to twenty-six years old. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Limber Twig, Jonathan, and Grimes's Golden Pippin, and for family use Jonathan, Grimes's Golden Pippin, Red June, and Maiden's Blush. Have tried and discarded Big Romanite; it is a good grower but a poor bearer. I prefer bottom land with sandy loam and clay subsoil, and a north slope. Prefer thrifty two-year-old trees, set in land which has been plowed as deeply as possible, and the soil loosened fifteen to eighteen inches by digging. My trees are set 30×30 feet; this is a little too wide north and south. I am still cultivating my first planting of trees, use a plow, harrow, and cultivator. Plant corn in a young orchard, and cease cropping after eight or ten years. Windbreaks are essential; would make them of peach groves for quick growth, or for slower and surer growth would make them of several rows of Osage orange or ash, set fifteen to sixteen feet east and west by breaking rows. I prune my trees from the beginning with a pocket-knife; think it pays. Do not thin the fruit on the trees. Fertilize my orchard with ashes and stable litter; think it beneficial, as it keeps the ground from packing, and also keeps the trees vigorous; would not advise its use on very sandy soils. Do not pasture my orchard; am going to try it with young pigs and calves. My trees are troubled with root aphis and borers, and my apples with codling-moth, curculio, and gouger. Have sprayed three seasons, soon after the blossom fell and until the apples were the size of marbles, using London purple; think I killed the first brood of codling-moth, but a later brood came which hurt the fruit. * * * * * F. H. BURNETT, Benedict, Wilson county: I have lived in the state fifteen years. Have 2200 apple trees six years old, of fair size. Planted for market Gano, Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Jonathan, and for family use Jonathan, Winesap, Gano, Early Harvest, and Maiden's Blush. Bottom land is best in this locality. I prefer soil somewhat clayish, underlaid with limestone, with a north or east slope. Prefer good one- and two-year-old, stocky, low-headed trees. Would plant on upland twenty by thirty-two feet, and on rich bottom twenty-four by thirty-six feet. I believe in thorough cultivation, and during the first two years I use the hoe. I cultivate until five or six years old, usually growing corn, as it protects the trees from the strong south winds. I then sow to clover, changing every two or three years to castor-beans or corn. Trees planted close north and south form their own windbreaks. For rabbits, wrap the trees. I prune a little to keep the trees from getting too heavy on the north side. I should thin Missouri Pippins to keep from overbearing. I should use sawdust and barn-yard fertilizer on hard-pan spots. I allow no live stock in the orchard but poultry. Am troubled some with leaf-rollers and canker-worm. I spray as soon as the leaves start, for canker-worm and leaf-roller, using one pound of London purple to 120 gallons of water. For borers, keep the trees thrifty; borers cannot thrive, as the sap will kill them. I believe it would be well during the first two years to wash the trees with a solution of soft soap, coal-oil, and water, in May and June. I sort in first, second, and cider or culls; pack in three-bushel barrels so full they cannot bruise. I expect to put in an evaporator and use natural gas for fuel, and think it will pay. I recommend subsoiling to retain moisture. Prices have ranged here from thirty to fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * F. S. HALL, Fulton, Bourbon county: Has lived in Kansas fourteen years. Have 10,000 apple trees from two to eight years old. For commercial purposes the Ben Davis and Arkansas Black are doing best. Will not plant any more Missouri Pippins. My orchard is on a hill, with northeast slope, black soil, set thirty-three feet east and west and sixteen feet north and south. Set one- and two-year-old well-branched trees. Cultivate entirely with a disc, and allow nothing to grow within six feet of the trees. Grow only clover, and expect to grow only clover in my orchard. Think an Osage hedge a good windbreak. Use tar paper and traps against rabbits. Prune nothing above twenty inches from the ground. Never thinned apples on trees. Fertilize with ashes and all the manure I can get, and turn under clover. Think such fertilizers beneficial for apples on all soils. Opposed to pasturing an orchard. Not much troubled with insects. Spray before and after blooming, first with Bordeaux mixture, then sulphate of copper and either Paris green or London purple. Think I have reduced the codling-moth by this method. Keep down borers by cultivation and a wash of lime, concentrated lye, and carbolic acid. * * * * * R. N. MARK, Strawn, Coffey county: Have lived in Kansas thirty years. Have an orchard of twelve acres; trees twelve years old. For commercial purposes I prefer Winesap and Ben Davis. Timber bottom is best. I cultivate my orchard to corn and potatoes, and cease cropping when ten or twelve years old; plant potatoes in a bearing orchard. Windbreaks are essential on the south; would make them of forest-trees. To protect from rabbits I wrap young trees, or kill rabbits, cut open, and rub thoroughly on the tree. I prune my trees to give proper shape, and think it beneficial, especially on poor land, as it makes the trees more productive. Do not thin fruit on the trees. I pasture my orchard carefully with hogs and calves at any time when it is not wet. Trees are troubled with canker-worm. I spray early and often with London purple. I pick my apples in sacks from ladders. The shipper [buyer] sorts from barrels in orchard. I sell my first grade in the orchard; also second- and third-grade apples in the orchard. We sell the culls. Do not dry any; does not pay. I store very few. Average price of apples is fifty cents per bushel. * * * * * W. M. FRENCH, Chicopee, Crawford county: I have resided in the state eighteen years. Have an apple orchard of 200 trees twelve years old, averaging six inches in diameter. For market I prefer Ben Davis, Winesap, Missouri Pippin, Willow Twig, and Jonathan; and for family orchard would add Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, and Rambo. Have tried and discarded Limber Twig; it does not mature. I prefer bottom with an eastern or northern slope, having a good deep soil with a clay subsoil. I prefer three-year-old, stocky trees, set in holes dug 3×3 feet and 2-1/2 feet deep, filled with surface soil. I cultivate my orchard to corn as long as I can without injuring the trees, and use a plow; avoid ridging too much. I cease cropping after nine to twelve years. I sow the bearing orchard to millet or something to be mowed. Windbreaks are not essential, but think they would be beneficial; would make them of catalpa or maples, set in two or three rows on north, south and west sides. I prune my trees with a saw to keep the top from getting too heavy; I think it beneficial, and that it pays. Shall not thin my fruit this year. I can see no difference whether trees are in blocks of one kind or mixed. I fertilize my orchard with stable litter, putting it in trenches between the trees; I avoid putting it around them. I think it has proven beneficial, and would advise its use on all soils, unless very rich and the tree growth very strong. I pasture my orchard a little with calves, but do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar. I do not spray. I hand-pick in a basket from a step-ladder. I sort into two classes, and wholesale, retail, and peddle. The home market takes all my best apples; the culls are fed to hogs and made into cider. Never have tried distant markets. Do not dry any. Am successful at storing apples in bulk in a cellar; find Ben Davis, Winesap, Willow Twig and Rawle's Janet keep best. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. * * * * * J. C. ROSS, Havana, Montgomery county: Have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years; have an orchard of 100 apple trees twenty-three years old. I prefer for all purposes Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap. Have tried and discarded Rawle's Janet and Romanite. I prefer low land at foot of hills, with deep loam subsoil and a medium slope. I set my trees twenty feet apart. I cultivate in oats and corn up to bearing with common twelve-inch stirring plow. Windbreaks are essential on north; would make them of Osage orange planted in rows. Rabbits are hard to contend with; for borers I use a solution of slaked lime. I prune with a saw; do not think it very beneficial, as the rain gets in, and the wood decays. I never thin apples. My trees are in mixed varieties. I mulch my trees with straw, and think it beneficial. I pasture with calves and hogs; do not think it advisable; it does not pay. Am somewhat troubled with insects; I spray with a solution of coal-oil, using a small pump; think I have reduced the codling-moth. For borers I dissolve lime to a paste in water, and apply to the roots with a scrub broom. I pick my fruit from ladders. I sort into three classes: first, second, and third. I use common barrels to pack the fruit in; mark, and send by freight to near-by markets. I wholesale sometimes, and sometimes sell in orchard; market my best apples at near-by towns; I make cider and vinegar of culls. I dry some fruit; use a large pan filled with hot water; then put in sacks and boxes. I find a ready market; think it pays. I store some apples in a cellar in large, open boxes, and in bulk. Some rot; those that keep best are Winesap, Rawle's Janet, and Romanite. We have to sort stored apples before marketing them; we lose from one-fourth to one-third of them. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. I use any kind of help I can get, and pay seventy-five cents per day. * * * * * J. K. P. HOUSE, Cloverdale, Chautauqua county. I have lived in Kansas twenty-seven years, and have 250 large trees, planted twenty-six years. I prefer for commercial orchard Ben Davis, and for family orchard Dominie, Early Harvest, Rhode Island Greening, and Grimes's Golden Pippin. I prefer bottom land, with a black loam and clay subsoil, with north slope. I plant two-year-old, medium-top trees, in well-cultivated ground, and mix the top soil with the roots. I have tried root grafts, but not satisfactory. I cultivate shallow every year, using the cultivator after the tree is grown. I grow oats in a young orchard, but nothing in a bearing orchard, and cease cropping when about eight years old. Windbreaks are essential on high ground. I would make them of walnut trees planted in rows. I never thinned the fruit. My trees are in mixed plantings, and prove satisfactory. I do not fertilize, and would only advise it on high land. I pasture my orchard with hogs, and think it advisable. My trees are troubled with tent-caterpillar, bagworm and roundhead borer. I pick in a sack swung around the neck. I sell fruit in the orchard, and make cider of the culls. My best market is at home; but I have shipped to distant markets. It paid in an early day. I have dried some apples in the sun, then heat and pack in barrels, and find a ready market for them, but it does not pay. I store some fruit for home use, and find that Winesap and White Winter Pearmain keep best. I have never tried artificial cold storage. I do not irrigate. Prices have been from $1 to $1.50 per bushel, and for dried fruit six to eight and one-third cents per pound. * * * * * WILLIAM BURDEN, Leeds, Chautauqua county: Have been in Kansas twenty-one years. Have 400 apple trees from eight to twenty years old. I prefer for commercial orchards Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Winesap, and for family orchard Early Harvest, Maiden's Blush, and Jonathan. Have tried and discarded Willow Twig, Rawle's Janet, and Russet. I prefer limestone bottom land, with north slope. I plant twenty-eight by thirty feet, using two-year-old trees. I cultivate eight years with plow and cultivator. I grow corn among young trees, clover in a bearing orchard, and cease cropping after eight years. Need no windbreaks. Wrap trees with corn-stalks to keep off rabbits. I prune to keep down watersprouts and limbs from rubbing; I think it beneficial. Never thin the fruit on the trees. Have not tried mixed plantings of trees. I do not fertilize. I pasture my orchard with horses, but do not think it advisable. My trees are troubled with root aphis, roundhead borer and leaf-roller. Do not spray. I pick fruit by hand. I sell mostly to farmers living farther west; sometimes sell in the orchard and sometimes retail. Make vinegar of culls. Never tried distant markets; never dry any. Store some apples in cave in boxes; am successful; find that Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin and Winesap keep best. Do not irrigate. Prevailing price, thirty cents per bushel; five cents per pound for dried apples. * * * * * EBERT SIMON, Welda, Anderson county: Have lived in Kansas thirty-one years; have 300 apple trees, fifteen inches in diameter, twenty years old. I prefer for commercial orchard Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, Winesap, and Gano; and for family orchard Winesap, Missouri Pippin, and Jonathan. I prefer hilltop, with black loam and porous subsoil, with north slope. I plant three-year-old whole-root grafts. I cultivate in corn for five years with one-horse cultivator; seed a bearing orchard to clover. Windbreaks are essential on the south. I prune with the saw to let the sun in, and think it beneficial. Never have thinned apples. I sometimes use stable litter as a fertilizer, but would not advise its use on all soils. Sometimes I pasture my orchard with hogs and horses, and think it advisable. I hand-pick my apples. I sell in the orchard, peddle the second and third grades, make vinegar of culls, and feed some to hogs; never tried distant markets. Never dry any. Prices have been from $1 to $1.50 per barrel. A SUMMARY OF THE FOREGOING DISTRICT REPORTS. Ben Davis is the leading market apple, followed closely by Missouri Pippin. These two lead all others, and are followed by Winesap and Jonathan. Rawle's Janet, York Imperial, Huntsman's Favorite, Grimes's Golden Pippin and Maiden's Blush are also favorites. We find the Yellow Bellflower, Newtown Pippin, Lawver and a few others are condemned all over the state. In the eastern third of the state hilltop or slope is preferred to bottom land, but in the central and western portions bottom land is preferred. The reason for this is obvious. Any good soil is satisfactory, if subsoil is porous. The favorite distance seems to be thirty-two feet east and west and sixteen to twenty feet north and south, some putting peach or early-bearing apples between, the wide way, to be cut out when they crowd. This undoubtedly brings the quickest returns, but many believe it robs the permanent trees of their future sustenance. Twenty-four prefer one-year-old trees; 7 one to two years old; 153 two-year-old; 10 two- to three-year-old; 21 three-year-old; 3 want four-year-old, and 59 give no age. It is only a matter of cost and convenience. A one-year-old tree costs less and allows the would-be orchardist to set more trees for a given amount of cash. The one- and two-year-old trees require the removal of less earth, and are more readily handled and planted. There is no reason why an apple tree three inches in diameter cannot be transplanted as easily as an elm or maple. A man is willing to set a few large shade-trees at a cost of one dollar to five dollars per tree, but cannot feel that it is economy to set orchard trees at as great individual expense. "Whole-root grafts" is a misleading appellation, as it will be found to be only a crown graft. Its advocates make great claims that are at variance with the facts. There can scarcely be such a thing unless grafted on a seedling without removal of such seedling from the earth. Our best nurserymen prefer the second cut, about one and one-half to three inches taken from the seedling root a couple of inches below the crown. In any case the piece of root taken has little influence on the future tree. All our ordinary varieties make roots from the scion, and the original seedling root may be found--like the piece of potato we plant--shriveled and useless in the midst of the new roots. The nature of the root growth shows this plainly, as all its peculiarities will be found to be a counterpart of the roots of the variety from which the scion was cut. It is folly to pay any added price for so-called "whole-root grafts." A very great majority believe in thorough cultivation, at least for from six to ten years; some during the life of the tree. Nearly all agree that Indian corn is the best crop to grow in a young orchard; it shades the ground, and protects from wind. The corn in a young orchard should not be cut in the fall, neither should the stalks be pastured; let them stand till spring as a partial protection; it pays. Many parts of the state, especially the western half, believe windbreaks on the south and west very valuable, if not quite necessary. Forest-trees with the outside row or rows of Russian mulberries, and perhaps an Osage orange hedge, seem to meet the general opinion. As a protection from rabbits, the ever-present corn-stalks seem most economical, and the favorite. The cost is little, and the boys and girls, or the farmer and his wife, at odd times can put them on. It is an open question as to the benefit or harm of leaving them on permanently for the first five years. It looks slovenly, but certainly has many arguments in its favor. The serio-comic idea of boring into an apple tree and placing therein sulphur, asafetida or other drugs does not really deserve a serious thought. It is impossible for the tree to assimilate these substances, especially sulphur, and carry them to the foliage or fruit for preventive or any other purpose. Boring and plugging--like any other threatened death to the tree--may cause temporary fruitfulness, as also will girdling. While several washes are claimed to prevent or destroy borers, the large majority of extensive orchardists believe the knife and a hooked wire in the hands of a thoroughgoing employee the best and surest way of knowing that you destroy the larva of this persistent and destructive insect. Smearing trees with any undiluted grease, especially axle grease made from petroleum refuse, is hazardous, and the man who advises it is an enemy to your orchard. If you have applied it, the sooner you wash it off the longer will your orchard thrive. Pruning has its advocates, but the Eastern style of a long stem has scarcely a follower in our state; a great majority simply cut out "watersprouts" and limbs that cross or rub, or are wind-broken. Thinning on the trees has many advocates, but few followers. All admit it would often improve the size and quality, yet most growers believe the difference would not be sufficient to pay for the labor, and it would require skilled labor to do it without injury. A large number, perhaps a majority, believe it pays to apply fertilizers, more especially barn-yard litter, to the orchard; but cases are known where it has done much harm. All agree that it should be kept away from the body of the tree. As to pasturing the orchard, some think it pays; others that it does no harm; others still--and they are many--condemn it. The larger proportion of those who pasture confine the stock to calves, colts, and pigs. Some would allow only poultry in the orchard, and the poultry must not roost in the trees. This latter point is an excellent one. We find we have plenty of insects; this is natural. Insects settle in a country that provides proper food for them and their larva. As apple trees are planted in new localities the insects that delight in apple-tree wood, apple-tree roots, apple-tree foliage and apple-tree fruits immigrate, grow, and multiply. Spraying or using some preventive or destroyer has become necessary, and the man who believes it unnecessary and intends to trust to nature or providence or God will find no truer saying than "God helps those who help themselves." Sit down calmly and watch the worms eat your trees, trust to the woodpecker and the sparrows, and you will in time buy apples from your more active, thoroughgoing neighbor, or go without. Methods of picking do not vary much, yet all agree that it should be done carefully. If shaken from the tree, poured out carelessly, or jolted about in a lumber wagon, it simply increases the culls and decreases the cash returns. Sorting is done in various ways (a sorting table or device is explained elsewhere), but a majority seem to make three classes: First class, the unblemished best of each variety; culls, which are the unmarketable, specked, bruised and gnarled fruit; second class, which are between the other two, and really valuable for immediate use. In some cases the "second best" have been put in cold storage, and they sold well after the usual fall glut. Packing: While there are many who handle in a small way in boxes--and the time is near when all fancy apples will be marketed in boxes--yet all the larger growers use barrels, and it is encouraging to find they use full twelve-peck barrels. The eleven-peck barrels should be boycotted out of existence. Marketing: In our large apple-growing districts the crop is generally wholesaled, either in the orchard or subject to delivery at the railroad, generally in barrels. In the western half of the state the apples are largely taken in bulk, in wagons, hauled farther west and south, and sold at a good profit to the wagoner. Thousands of wagon-loads are thus disposed of every year. The same wagons often appear in the same neighborhood year after year, to the mutual advantage of all. Shipping to distant markets by the growers, especially when consigned, has been generally unsatisfactory. I need not give reasons; my own experience along similar lines makes me "hot under the hat" when I think over it. Drying is not practiced to the extent that it ought to be. It seems almost a sin to allow so many thousands of bushels of apples to rot on the ground every year simply because the owner lacks faith in his ability to turn them into a product that will keep while he looks up a market. Dried apples are in demand--hundreds of tons of them--and Kansas dried apples stand as good chances to bring as remunerative prices to the manufacturer as those from other states. If the work is economically done a profit is sure. Storing for winter is described elsewhere. Cold storage, cave storage, and cellar storage: All know that, after the perishable and inferior apples are gone, good winter apples bring sure and large returns. How best to preserve them is a vital question. The art of keeping apples by the artificial cold-storage process is yet imperfect and unsatisfactory, and the losses have been so great that, unless the owner of the plant will take part of the risk, at least to the extent of his fee, he will find the average grower standing back. To lose your apples, and then pay fifty cents per barrel to the man whose ignorance or carelessness may have caused the loss, is a burden too heavy to be borne. The hillside cave is described elsewhere, and the orchardist who has such a cave well built, and gives it careful attention, will save a large portion of the fee, and have his apples always under his own supervision, besides saving in hauling, and perhaps railroad freight to and from a distant cold-storage plant. House cellars, small caves and buried heaps each and all have their advocates, mostly for family use or among the small growers. It seems to be determined that the Winesap is the better keeper, followed closely by the Missouri Pippin and Ben Davis. Of less marketable varieties, Rawle's Janet and Rambo seem to keep best. The per cent. of loss, excepting in a few cases, does not seem great considering the (usually) greatly increased value of the sound apples. The reports from those who irrigate are not as full as we could wish. It is claimed that with irrigation every apple becomes a perfect specimen of its kind; that there are no culls. If this is so, and we hope it is, what a grand opening for those rightly situated. Our Lakin correspondent sells his apples at top prices at the tree for cash, to men who could but do not heed the injunction, "Go thou and do likewise." Prices, like wages, vary greatly. Apples put on board cars in a northeastern county at twenty cents per bushel often retail in western groceries at one dollar per bushel. The railroad and grocer get the "lion's share." On the whole, a close study of all that is in this book ought to give an impetus to the planting of proper varieties, the careful and complete destruction of insects, the growing, picking, packing and marketing of more profitable apples, all to the glory of the Kansas grower and incidentally swelling his bank account. This means better dwellings, better furniture therein, better food on the tables, better education for the children, and more and better literature in the house. If these aims are realized, then the labor of the compiler shall not have been in vain, but will prove to be a help in making Kansas and the Kansas apple known throughout the whole world. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES RELATING TO ORCHARDS. APPLE CULTURE. A paper read by JACOB GOOD, of Coffeyville, Kan., before the Kansas State Horticultural Society, at a summer meeting in Coffeyville, June 22, 1898. Beginning in the early Roman period, the apple has been handed down through the successive ages as the standard fruit. True, the hard, bitter, uneatable crab or wild apple of former times was not much like the tempting apple of to-day; yet it is the parent of all, or nearly all, the varieties of apples so much prized at the present time. From its great hardiness, easy cultivation, and long continuance through the whole twelve months, it may be styled the "king" of all fruits. The apple tree is now one of the most widely diffused of fruit-trees, and in the estimation of many is the most valuable. But what has brought about this great change in tree and fruit? The same cause which makes the man of America or Europe superior to the tribes of northern Africa or India. The same cause by which the most wonderful inventions of any age have been placed before the public, viz., cultivation and constant attention. Having made these questions a study for twenty-five years or more, and having gathered all the points possible from the experience of the fruit-growers with whom we have come in contact, we have become thoroughly convinced that the growth of a perfect fruit is possible in this climate. One of the main difficulties in a general fruit-growing business is encountered in a hard subsoil--too hard when it is dry and too soft and yielding when wet. Deep and thorough draining is therefore a great requisite in tree culture. The next step would be the means for securing plenty of moisture. We would first open trenches each way not less than twenty-five feet apart. They should be thrown out as deep as can be done with a plow, then followed by subsoiler twelve to eighteen inches deep. Draw the surface earth back into the crosses creating a mound. Plant the trees there and fill up the ditches by back-furrowing, and bring the land to a perfect level. It will not pay to plant trees on hard-pan soil without preparation. It is better to avoid the hard-pan altogether, and select a deep, rich subsoil. Trees planted in river bottoms have been known to be vigorous and productive after twenty-five years; while those on the prairie hard-pan planted at the same time have entirely disappeared. The best time for planting is in November, in order that the fiber roots may be ready for the first warm days of February. Nice, healthy trees, from two to three years old, should be selected; cut the tops back and trim off most of the fiber roots. The reason for cutting the tops back is to make the tree more productive, more easily harvested, and to aid in keeping off the tree borers, of which we will speak later. Our orchards should not be allowed to grow up in waste and neglect, neither should they be planted in those things which sap the life of the soil and leave nothing to sustain the tree. One of the main causes of non-productiveness of the apple orchard is land starvation. An orchard cannot produce fruit in addition to a crop of wheat, oats, rye, etc.; and so, if a man continues to take off crops of these every year, he simply does it at the expense of his trees. There are crops, however, which may be used with good effect, such as corn, peas, hay, potatoes, etc. In this the owner gets the profit of his fruit and also the use of his land. Yet, with all our care of the soil, minuteness in following directions as to setting out and trimming, etc., there are other difficulties still to overcome. Many kinds of insects may infest the trunks and larger branches of the trees. Among them are the apple-tree louse, round- and flathead borers, San Jose scale, canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, etc. I would name the borers and San Jose scale [None yet found in the state.--Sec.] as being the worst of the pests with which to contend. The borers attack the trunks and larger limbs of the trees; they seek the sunny side of the tree, not being found where the sap is abundant or where there is a continual shade. Under the first they drown, and under the last they weaken and die. This is a strong argument in favor of low heading and shady growth of the trees. The parent of the borer, a long, green or pale brown beetle, may be caught and destroyed, but it is not to be presumed that all the beetles can be caught; it becomes necessary to examine the trees quite often, in order to destroy the worms hatched from the eggs of the uncaptured beetles. To detect the spots which indicate the whereabouts of these worms is, to the inexperienced, quite a difficult undertaking; for during the spring, and until quite late in the summer, there are no external marks save a small speck, or perhaps a dark blue line so fine that it will not attract the attention of those not understanding the cause. When they are first detected a sharp knife may be used to remove them, but if they have entered the wood, about the only way of removing them is by means of a probe made of common broom wire, with which to thrust them through or drag them out of their holes. The San Jose scale, a native of Australia, was first found on the American continent in California in 1873. It has not troubled Kansas yet, but it is quite prevalent in the Western States, and, as it spreads rapidly, it is much feared. Its detection is almost the work of a specialist, yet there are a few general characteristics which may be detected by the naked eye; for instance, the bark of the tree loses its vigorous, healthy appearance, and takes on a rough, gray, scurfy deposit. As yet I have heard of no permanent cure. Spraying has a great deal to do with keeping off the insects--of which the canker-worm is getting to be one of the worst--from the upper branches of the trees. It is a mistake to think that a tree should not be sprayed because it has not been infested by any insect or fungous growth. The attacks of both are often unnoticed at first, and the man who is not prepared for them often neglects spraying until it is too late to save the crop of that year. My experience in regard to the varieties of apples grown has been quite varied. My first orchard, in 1871, did well; I took great pains in setting it out, and for five years there were none of the injurious insects which make us so much trouble. In my second orchard, ten years later, I made great mistakes in the varieties I chose, some of them not being adapted to either soil or climate. By the time I set my third orchard, six years from then, my experience had taught me that the varieties which were best for home and commercial purposes, and which were best adapted to both the soil and climate, were the Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin, and Mother, and in these varieties I planted most of my orchard. The habits of the Ben Davis and Missouri Pippin are too well known to need further description. In my orchard I found them both short-lived. My Ben Davis began to die out at twenty years, and a very few reached the age of twenty-six. The Mother is an apple not so well known. It originated at Bolton, Mass. Tree is moderately vigorous, upright, and productive; one of the best apples on the list there, and I consider it equally so here. Thomas, the American fruit culturist, in his description of the apple, says it is rather large, oblong, ovate, approaching conical; slightly and obtusely ribbed; color a light, warm, rich red, on a yellow ground; moderately juicy, rich, very mild subacid, with a mixture of sweet. Growth slow; late autumnal and early winter. However, it ripens earlier in this climate; follows the Maiden's Blush. Downing says no orchard is complete without it. While the Ben Davis, Missouri Pippin and Mother are my favorites for productiveness, we have other varieties that are quite productive and long-lived trees, such as the Early Margaret or Striped June, that is an annual and profuse bearer and one of our earliest. Duchess of Oldenburg has never failed with me. Maiden's Blush has given good success. We have the Romanite, Rawle's Janet and Limber Twig that are good keepers, but owing to size are not desirable for home use or market. I find more complaint of the Ben Davis than any other apple, though its beauty invariably causes it to sell. My greatest mistake in planting was in selecting Rhode Island Greening and Nonsuch, which have proven almost non-bearers. The trees are healthy and grow almost like an elm or oak. A number of varieties, such as the Mammoth Black Twig, Arkansas Black, Muklen, Rome Beauty, I have not fruited, and cannot tell as to their qualities in this locality. In all my experience in the apple line I find that no orchard will grow and bear without attention, and constant attention at that. The apple tree requires as much interest from its owner as cattle do from the stock-raiser. From a tiny seed, it is subject to disease and pests which, if not destroyed, will destroy it. I would say in conclusion that success in apple raising comes only through eternal vigilance. ORCHARD CULTURE. By JAMES McNICOL, Lost Springs, Marion county, Kansas. Orchard culture being my subject, of course the varieties of trees are supposed to be carefully selected and planted; but the distance apart is important. If too close, no matter how thorough the cultivation, they will suffer for moisture; and if too wide apart the winds will play havoc with the trees and fruit. What is best for this locality, to break the prevailing south winds and yet have plenty of space for the roots to find moisture? Is it better to plant closely north and south or east and west? I would prefer close rows running east and west, as each row would help break the wind when the trees in the row reached each other--then how close in the row and how far apart the rows? I would plant the trees twenty feet apart in the rows and the rows thirty feet apart. I would like to recommend planting a row of cherry, dwarf pear, plum or peach between each apple row, provided they are cut out when they rob each other of moisture. Eternal vigilance is the price of fruit, but, in central Kansas, to eternal vigilance you must add thorough cultivation. For a few years cultivated crops may be grown, leaving a good space next to the trees to be cultivated--not to grow up in weeds. Do not, like one of my neighbors, cultivate the corn row, that cost only about five cents a row for seed, four times, and leave the tree row, which cost two dollars per row, uncultivated. Do not use a stirring plow; it will hill up earth around the trees too much. With a lister you can list in your corn or furrow out potato rows, running east and west one year, and north and south the next. Growing crops for five or six years is long enough; then cultivation should be done with a disc, an Acme or a common harrow; I prefer a reversible disc. Acme is all right if you do not let the weeds get the start of you (which you should never do, but you will sometimes); then the disc is the implement. Whatever tool you use keep it a going, east, west, and diagonal, and when blessed with a good rain through the summer don't wait till the weeds get started, but cultivate as soon as dry enough to form a dust mulch. Few seem to know the value of a dust mulch. A high state of cultivation can be kept up in the orchard with what implements the farmer has. Use the one-horse, five-tooth cultivator close to the trees, and the two-horse cultivator for the middle, going both ways; then pulverize with the harrow; use the harrow often. Six days' work at the proper time will keep a five-acre orchard in good shape the whole season. "But," says some one, "it doesn't pay; this is not a fruit country." No, it is no fruit country, and never will be, to the one who has no time to cultivate; but to the one that will there is a big reward, for the very reason that it is not a fruit country. ORCHARD TREATMENT. A paper read before the Kansas Horticultural Society, by W. D. CELLAR, of Edwardsville, Kan. A wide difference of opinion prevails as to the proper distance apart for apple trees, some growers maintaining that forty feet is close enough, while others plant as close as fifteen feet. With varieties that come into bearing early, planting close in the row north and south, with the intention of cutting out every other tree when they are large enough to crowd, may be good husbandry. Two or three crops might be secured before it would be necessary to cut out the extra trees. The objections are, that the orchard cannot be so thoroughly cultivated, and the drain necessary to grow the extra trees might so debilitate the soil as to seriously affect succeeding crops. One grower says: "I am satisfied it will pay in the short run, but it remains to be seen whether it will pay in the long run." In this section, where we have so much wind and sunshine, twenty-five to thirty feet seems to be the proper distance for apple trees, fifteen feet for plums, and fifteen by twenty feet for peach and cherry, and twenty feet for pear trees. Upland is thought better than river bottom for orchards, and a north or east slope is chosen for apples. A difference in location is required for different varieties of apples. A vigorous-growing variety will do well on the thin soil of the hills, while a variety deficient in root vigor, which might be profitable in deep soil, would not thrive on the hilltops. I gathered this year from eight-year-old Missouri Pippin trees, planted in the deep soil of a creek bottom, five bushels of apples to the tree, while Missouri Pippins in the same orchard, on the hilltops, planted at the same time and having the same treatment, yielded scarcely a bushel to the tree. In the same orchard Jonathans yielded about as well on the hill as in the valley. I would not choose an exposed north or northwest slope for peaches or cherries. Better an east, or even a south slope. Professor Whitten, of the Missouri State Agricultural College, has recommended whitening peach trees in winter by spraying with lime to prevent premature swelling of the buds. In my locality the best varieties of apples, from a commercial standpoint, are Ben Davis, Jonathan, and Missouri Pippin. More Kieffer and Duchess pears are planted than any other kind. The leading peaches are Elberta, Old Mixon Free, Stump, Champion, Smock, and Salway. The most profitable plum is the Wild Goose. Some of the Japans, Abundance and Burbank promise well. Of cherries, Dyehouse, Early Richmond, Montmorency, English Morello and Ostheim make a succession in the order named, and are the best for either a family or commercial orchard. Cultivation of the orchard for the first few years is deemed absolutely necessary to success, but it is a serious problem how to cultivate the hills, and at the same time keep them from washing into the hollows and so denuding the roots of the trees at the top. I know one orchard in which a back furrow has been thrown to each tree row in the same direction for several years, leaving a dead furrow (which has become a ditch) between the rows. It looks like a field of huge sweet-potato rows, with the trees standing on tripods or "quadrapeds" at the top of the ridges. Neither back furrow nor dead furrow should be made in the tree row. As few dead furrows as possible should be left. They should be frequently changed, and should never run up and down the hill. If ditches have started, they cannot be stopped by plowing them full of earth; the loose soil will wash out at the first rain. Fill them with old hay, straw, stalks, or brush. Old raspberry or blackberry canes are excellent for this purpose. Begin at the bottom and work up the hill, letting the forkfuls overlap like shingles. Drive a stake through at frequent intervals, and secure firmly at the top; else a hard freshet will wash it all out. Deep ditches may be filled by dams of loose stone a rod or two apart. On many farms these stones need to be gathered anyway, and one may "kill two birds with one stone" by filling a big ditch with a good many stones. "An ounce of prevention, however, is worth a pound of cure," and the best prevention from washing that I know of is clover. I would advise seeding a hill orchard as soon as the trees have had a year or two of vigorous growth. The orchard may be cultivated after the spring rains, and seeded again in time to prevent washing the next winter. After the orchard is seven or eight years old, I should leave it in clover and weeds, mowing two or three times a year to make a mulch and prevent tall growth of weeds. "Hogs in the orchard" is generally condemned. I have seen old orchards, however, that were decidedly benefited by hogs. Hogs and plums go together. This is no theory, but an established fact. Let them rub the trees as much as they will; let them tramp the ground till it is as bare and as hard as the road. It will do no harm; it will do good. Hogs may not like green apples, but there is something specially delectable to a hog in a green, wormy plum. He will pick up every one that drops, and so diminish the crop of curculio. In my locality, pruning of apple and cherry orchards is practiced very sparingly. Cutting out broken, decayed and interlacing branches and the suckers at the base seems to be about all the pruning that is desirable. Peach and plum orchards are likewise neglected, though some growers practice heading in to make the trees grow more compact, and to thin the fruit. I think that, with tall and straggling apple trees, such as Missouri Pippin, Winesap, or Minkler, heading in might be profitably practiced. The question as to the profit of spraying for insects and fungi, as far as my observation goes, is not settled yet. The theory is all right--indeed, it has become one of the strongest articles of faith in the horticulturist's creed. When the subject comes up in the horticultural meeting all commend it. Very few growers, however, make a business of spraying. Most of the growers in my locality who used to spray have quit it. They deny that they have lost faith in it, but they don't do it. My opinion, based not on my own experience, but the practice--or rather lack of practice--of others, is that, save in exceptional cases, it doesn't pay; that the ravages of codling-moth and curculio are not appreciably lessened by spraying; that the loss from scab in this dry climate is so light as not to justify the cost of spraying; that, just as many of the doctrines of the churchmen would die out if the preachers should turn teachers, so the doctrine of spraying as a cure-all would die out if the pump men and experimenters should turn fruit-growers; that the average man believes in a perfunctory way many things which his experience forbids him to practice. The damage from borers is a serious drawback to orcharding. There are various patent contrivances and washes that are recommended to prevent the work of borers, but all, so far as my observation goes, fall short of complete success. The only safe way is to hunt the borers out. This should be done twice a year, late in August, when the newly hatched ones are large enough to be easily seen, and in April or May, after they have come up out of the roots, to get the ones overlooked in the fall. Rabbits the past year have been specially troublesome. In my locality they frequently attack large trees, six to ten inches in diameter, and, in some instances, entirely destroy them. Their mischief for the most part, however, is confined to young orchards, and may be prevented by wrapping the trees with grass, stalks, paper, or, better than anything else, wooden wrappers made especially for the purpose. These wrappers are now manufactured in Kansas City. They cost about one-third of a cent each, are easily put on, and last four or five years. They are said to protect the tree from sun-scald and borer also, but I would not rely on them as a protection from borers, but would remove them and hunt the borers at least once a year. PICKING AND PACKING. Description of sorting table used by D. S. HAINES, Edwardsville, Wyandotte county, Kansas. Our packing-house is on hilly land, and it is considerable trouble to haul apples to it. My packer now sorts and packs right in the orchard, using a sorting table. This table stands say three feet high and ten feet long, and three and one-half feet wide, with a common six-inch board on edge on the side. The men in picking use a ladder twelve to eighteen feet long. We did wrong in making our ladders; we could have bought them already made that were lighter and just the right thing. We set this sorting table among the trees; the men fill their sacks, emptying them on this table, which is carpeted; they barrel the apples up beside this table by letting them through an opening into a barrel. An apron is so arranged as to let the apples fall on it, and gently roll into the barrel without bruising. A man heads the barrels as soon as packed. In packing apples in the field we found that something solid was needed upon which to shake the barrels. The man who fills the barrels shakes them to make them more solid; then when pressed they bruise less. Our man can head about 100 barrels a day. In our rough country it is a great advantage to sort and pack in the orchard. We move this table about in the orchard. The expense to pick and pack a barrel of apples is about twenty cents. A PICKING SACK. Description of one used by FRED WELLHOUSE. We usually pick two rows of apples at a time, using gangs of twelve men with a foreman. We cannot use more to advantage. Each man has a common grain sack with a leather fastened to the bottom, as used in sowing grain. These picking sacks are made by taking a strong two-bushel grain sack. Sew a leather strap six inches long and four inches wide to a bottom corner of the sack. On the loose end of this strap fasten a strong metallic hook. To the upper corner on same side of sack fasten a strong metallic ring or link. Opposite this ring fasten with rivets a piece of iron six or eight inches long and about half an inch wide and one-eighth an inch thick, rounded, across the sack mouth at the edge to hold the sack open. This sack is worn under the left arm, the strap going over the right shoulder and hooking in front. We use ladders from twelve to sixteen feet long. The top of the ladder is made narrow so it can be put between the limbs, being just wide enough at top to set one foot on at a time. The apples are picked and put in bushel boxes on a platform on a wagon. The boxes are sixteen inches wide, twenty-four inches long, and eight inches deep, holding about a bushel, sixteen to a wagon. A DISCUSSION ON PACKAGES. Edwin Snyder, Jefferson county: I want to say something about marking packages. I had a nice crop of Jonathan apples; expert men barreled them for me, and put my address on the end of the barrel, outside. The commission man just took his little knife and raked it [the address] off. It is policy to put your name on [packages] if going to a wholesaler, but not to a commission house. I know economy pays in handling fruits, from packing to marketing. I should think boxes better [than barrels]. We have had trouble with barrel hoops breaking. I do not believe it best to sort too closely. If you put first-class apples on top, and second-class on the bottom, your customers expect to find the best on top and worst on bottom. B. F. Smith: I have been in Kansas City, and never saw a name scratched off a barrel yet. In grading strawberries, give each picker six boxes in a tray; have them fill three with large berries and three with medium size [impracticable]; allow no inferior or small ones put in. A Member: About fifty per cent. of our fruit, especially apples, is not readily marketed. Can we possibly handle this fifty per cent. so as to make it pay the expense of handling the better part of the fruit? Edwin Taylor: If the culls are fifty per cent. of the crop, it is not difficult to make them pay for handling the entire crop. This year the culls would readily sell at fifteen cents in the orchard. Last year there was no trouble to sell "down apples" for ten cents in the orchard. The cost of packing is slightly more or less than fifteen cents a barrel. If your apples are scattered, more; if near together, less. Dr. G. Bohrer: Would it not pay better to work them [the culls] into cider and vinegar? Edwin Taylor: No, sir. I had rather they would rot on the ground than be made into cider. A Member: Our second grade brought forty cents a crate; the best, sixty cents. It pays me best to mix them. I ship to Kansas City, and they handle my fruit with success. H. L. Ferris: This year I sent a Minnesota man a car load of very small Winesap and Missouri Pippin apples, such as we use for making cider, in exchange for potatoes. I sold part of the potatoes at seventy-five cents and eighty cents, and some are in the cellar. Geo. Van Houten: In our state [Iowa] we are most successful in handling apples in barrels. For a small trade, bushel boxes made of light material may serve better. Many car-loads are sent out in eight-pound baskets. HOGS IN THE ORCHARD. Question: _Does swine grazing injure orchards?_ J. W. Robison: Not if the hogs are kept out of it. It is death to an orchard to let hogs in. To let them rub against the trees closes the pores, and growth ceases. We notice in the newspapers that fish oil, axle grease, etc., keep off rabbits. I tried using axle grease two years. You could see the mark around where the oil had been, and note where growth had stopped below this mark. By washing this with soap, we were enabled to get the trees to grow again. Hogs, as I stated before, will, by rubbing, close the pores. The tramping hardens the soil and shuts out any percolation of water into it. As well plant a tree in the middle of the road as where hogs have been. They, of all animals, tramp the ground the hardest. Samuel Reynolds: Would pigs injure the soil? T. A. Stanley: I have had experience in this, yet, while I do not know anything about the gentleman's land packing, I believe it benefits some orchards to run hogs in them. I tried it on an orchard that had ceased bearing. I inclosed the orchard and put hogs in for a year or more. New growth started on the trees, and they at once began to bear, and bore for several years after I took the hogs out. I could see no injury caused by their rubbing the trees. I do not think they will rub the trees if the orchard is large. I do not see what injury they do. After the apples grew large enough, if wormy they fell, and the hogs ate the apples and the worms also. Edwin Taylor: I have had a little experience in that line. I fenced around a twenty-acre orchard, expecting to combine horticulture and agriculture right there. My hogs were lousy, and they did rub the trees, and whenever they rub they destroy. Anybody who tries it will find they will absolutely squeal for something to eat when there are bushels of apples on the ground. I was at large expense to fence, but was so disappointed with the hog business that I took the fence down. COLD STORAGE. By GEO. RICHARDSON, of Leavenworth, Kan. It has been well said that "Necessity is the mother of invention." Cold storage of the present time is understood as "mechanical refrigeration," and in general, the preservation of perishable articles by means of low temperature, hence, the act of reducing the temperature of any body, or maintaining the same below the temperature of the atmosphere, is called refrigeration, or more familiarly known as cold storage, produced by the employment of machinery of various types. Of those mostly in use, are the compression system, using anhydrous ammonia as a refrigerant, by expanding the ammonia either directly through coils of pipe arranged in the storage rooms, or through coils of pipe that are submerged in salt brine, where the brine is reduced to a low temperature and then forced and circulated through pipes in the storage rooms, one being known as direct expansion, the other, brine circulation, but both accomplish same results. To utilize anhydrous ammonia requires complicated and expensive machinery, and to those not acquainted with the subject it may seem strange that more units of heat are produced by the burning of coal, wood or oil than there are units of cold produced to reduce the temperature of storage rooms. Of the uses and benefits of cold storage it can be truthfully stated, that nothing in recent years has been of more direct benefit to the farmer, stock-raiser, and fruit-grower. But a brief period has passed since cellars, caves and underground grottos served as the best means, and in a limited way under certain conditions of weather, for the protection and preservation of perishable articles. To-day machinery has made it possible to control temperature at any degree and in all climates. The burning heat under the equator would not be an impediment to secure a zero temperature in a cold-storage room. The construction and successful operation of the mammoth packing-houses are the outgrowth of the success of the application of mechanical refrigeration, where any day of the year a market is made for live stock. But few years have elapsed since the vast herds of South American cattle had no value, except for their hides, horns, and tallow, and the great bands of Australian sheep for their wool. Now immense refrigerating plants are in operation, freezing the beef and mutton, with fleets of ocean steamers equipped with refrigerating machinery and storage rooms filled with frozen meat for European markets. From the United States the dressed-beef traffic is of large proportions. Storage speculators are always ready buyers at remunerative prices for butter and eggs, that in value exceed the great wheat crop of America. To fruit-growers, especially those engaged in apple culture, cold storage is attracting more than common interest, as it has been demonstrated a grand success in the preservation of apples from three to six months longer, in good condition, than in natural storage that is subject to the changeable influences of the atmosphere. At the same time, the apples retain their original and individual flavor, color, and crispness. Cold storage, or mechanical refrigeration, arrests fermentation and decay, or, better stated, prolongs the life and keeping qualities. Of the advantages gained, it offers a place of safe-keeping for future market, and affords a protection for the grower if market conditions are not favorable; such as an overstocked market, consequently low prices, caused largely and influenced by many other varieties of fruit that are in season while the apple crop is being gathered. Again, the fact of the existence of cold-storage houses has brought into the field speculators, which has a wholesome influence, and oftentimes strengthens the markets and lessens the quantity that would of necessity be forced on sale at an earlier period at a great sacrifice, which is the situation this year, where the enormous crops of New York, New England and Michigan apples are being sold at from fifty to seventy-five cents a barrel (including barrels) placed aboard cars, for the want of proper and sufficient storage facilities to relieve part of the burden. No such condition or low price has yet been felt by the Western grower. There may be years when the buyers will look far into the future and think they can see visions of long prices, when it would be wise for the growers to sell, as there is some risk to be taken as to future markets being lower than prices in the fall, but such is not the rule. From six years' experience with mechanical refrigeration and the storage of Western-grown apples, there has not been a year but what a profit has been shown over and above the cost of storage, insurance, and minor incidental charges. One of the first to make the experiment, and who have been patrons of Ryan & Richardson's cold storage, at Leavenworth, since the plant was erected, were Wellhouse & Son, the largest apple growers in the United States, and the records show a net profit of from fifty cents a barrel, as the lowest of any year, to as high as $1.50 other years. It is gratifying to state that, in all the years, not a single car-load was rejected when sold. Much of the success must be given credit to the grower who gathers his crop at the right time, in a careful manner, graded and packed according to the requirements of the trade. Then, if the cold storage to which he intrusts the care of his crop uses the same watchfulness as to necessary temperature, proper ventilation at the right time, the result usually will be gratifying and remunerative to both. A FRUIT DRYER. The dryers used by Wellhouse & Son are made as follows: A rough building eighteen feet square and sixteen feet to the eaves is built. In building the roof, a lantern or ventilator is built along the ridge, over an opening in the ridge two feet wide. At eight feet from the ground is built a slatted floor. The timbers [?] upon which this floor is laid are best made of one-inch boards, ten to twelve inches wide, placed only ten or twelve inches apart. The floor slats are best made of poplar, as pine often flavors the fruit. They are sawn from inch lumber one and one-half inches on one face and one and one-quarter inches on the other face. The slats are nailed to the floor joists [?] with the wide faces uppermost and about one eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch apart, thus making the crevices wider below, which, together with the narrowness of the floor joists [?], allows free circulation and prevents clogging. The lower floor is of earth, cinders, stone, or other material. On each side, near the ground, are two openings, each two feet square, with shutters to close them; these are to admit fresh air, and can be closed to regulate draft. A chimney is built up through the center of the building, out through the roof. A door is made to each floor; in front of the upper door is built a balcony reached by outside stairs. This completes the dryer. It may be used for storing hay, fodder, tools, etc., after the drying season is over. The upper floor might be made removable. Many farmers have a suitable building if the slatted floor is added. Any kind of a wood or coal stove (or a brick furnace) is placed in the lower room and a good heat kept up; maximum 150 degrees. The prepared fruit is simply spread evenly upon the slatted floor from four to twelve inches deep. Fire must be continuous, and a dryer eighteen feet square will dry 100 bushels in twenty-four hours. Bleaching is done as follows: An upright box about two feet square and twelve feet long is built outside against the balcony. A set of trays are made to fit it; these trays have bottoms of galvanized-wire screening. A pot of sulphur is kept burning on the ground under the center of said box, the apples, peeled and cored, are placed in the tray and the tray slid in above the sulphur. An endless chain mechanism moves the tray up ten to twelve inches and another goes in; as they come to the top an employee removes them and runs the fruit through a slicer and then spreads it out on the drying floor. In twenty-four hours the product will be dry, but not alike; they are then piled up under cover, and pass through a sweat, making them alike throughout. As soon as cool they are packed, and pressed into boxes for shipment. This dryer costs but little, and the building may be used eight to ten months of the year for any cleanly purpose. President Wellhouse has six of these dryers in a row in one of his orchards. A single bleacher answers for several dryers. THE MOYER FRUIT EVAPORATOR. Bill of lumber for dry-house: Four pieces 2×4, 10 feet long; flooring, 150 feet; 1×1 strips, for trays, 400 feet, lineal measure; 1×2, 47 feet, lineal measure; 1×4, for tray rest in center, 47 feet, lineal measure. How to build and operate: For the house or box part, take four pieces of 2×4, 56 inches long, and four pieces 2×4, 37-1/2 inches long; nail together with the short pieces on the inside, lapping the long ones on the end of the shorter--thus making a frame 52×37-1/2 on the inside. This makes the sills and plates. Close three sides of this with matched flooring, up and down, seven feet high; now you have a box seven feet high, 52×37-1/2 inches. Leave the one side open to be closed with four doors similar to double stable doors, and in the exact center of this door space nail a 1×2 inch piece up and down to nail tray rest to. This will give two rows of trays. Put comb roof on with the flooring, leaving a vent open at comb two inches the entire length of box. Make a V trough, which turn upside down with one inch blocks under the corners; this gives ventilation and also keeps out the rain; also make two six-inch holes below, to be opened or closed as needed; this admits cold air and drives the hot air up, causing complete draft. When the evaporator is full of fruit, the holes below should be open full size, except at night, when fruit is nearly dried, they should be closed, or partly so, which is done by tacking a small piece of board over hole, which can be pushed to one side and a nail or screw hold it in place. For the trays to rest on, take a piece 1×4, 37-1/2 inches long, nail a two-inch piece of same length in center of this, on top; this gives one inch on each side for rabbet; this is for center, and the rabbet rest is nailed to it through the 1×2 inch in front, and through the siding on rear side. For the outside rabbet, one piece 1×1 inch, 37-1/2 long; this nailed to the end of the box forms rabbet for the trays to rest on. As many of these tray rests can be made as needed to fill the box to near the top of doors. Place the first ones twelve inches from bottom of box, and continue up, placing them three and one-half inches apart. The trays are made of 1×1 inch strips for the frame part, and are 2×3 feet square; bottom is made of plastering lath sawed in two, and also cut in two lengthwise, as they are too wide; nail these to bottom of frame, three-sixteenths of an inch apart. When used for berries or sweet corn, tack cheese cloth stretched tightly over the lath. There should be four doors, in order to have as small a space open as possible in attending to the fruit; these are hung by light hinges to outside and fastened by a wooden button screwed to center upright. The lumber can all be bought at planer ready for use cheaper than it can be cut by hand. For the furnace, build a box of brick or stone as large on the inside as the house, letting the most of the wall extend on the outside, in order to have all the space possible inside, for heating. Build into this wall at the bottom and ends a piece of heavy stack or sheet iron; any old smoke-stack will do, but must be at least one foot in diameter: if smoke-stack is used, split it and spread as much as possible, to have large enough place for fire and all the heating surface possible. This open edge of iron must be well plastered down with mortar, or brick and mortar, that no smoke may get inside. Let it extend just through the wall to a flue built at the end on the outside, of brick or stone, as high or a little higher than the wall; then a common six-inch stovepipe set on, to run as high as the evaporator, will do. A damper in pipe is an advantage to check draft and control heat, and pipe should be at least one foot from evaporator. The mouth of furnace should be at same end as the ventilator holes in the evaporator, and can be closed by a piece of sheet iron with a small draft underneath, the same as a stove door. Set your box evaporator on this wall, and mud or plaster it down tight. In using, always have your house well heated before putting in fruit. The top of wall must be fully one foot above top of iron; this will make two feet space from iron to first tray. In putting the trays in, shove the first one clear back, let second be flush in front, the third clear back again--placing them the same in both sides; this sends the heated air directly over each tray to the top. A MISSOURI APPLE HOUSE. The property of Col. J. C. Evans, Harlem, Mo., president of Missouri State Horticultural Society. Dimensions: Length, 200 feet; width, 46 feet; depth, 11 feet; earth bank, 5-1/2 feet thick. Capacity, 15,000 barrels. Cost, $1,000 and eighty-five loads of sawdust. Double floor overhead, with eight inches of sawdust between. Roof projects three feet all round. Ground slopes away rapidly, to carry away water. Winter entrance through anteroom 12×12. Driveway twelve feet wide through whole length. MANY WAYS OF USING CULL APPLES. Cider: Newly made sweet cider is both pleasant and healthful, and is a useful ingredient in some culinary preparations; but it should be used fresh from the press or not more than twenty-four hours old. To make it, cut out all the rotten and bruised spots, also the worms and their burrows. To make cider or vinegar from rotten and wormy apples ought to be considered a crime. The famous Russet cider of New York is made from sound Russet apples and brings top price. Sweet cider may be canned or bottled and will keep interminably, if heated to 160 degrees and kept hot for twenty minutes, then canned and sealed as for fruit. Boiled cider, that is, reduced to one-fifth by boiling, and canned, is a nice article for culinary use, for making apple-butter, apple-sauce and in apple or mince pies. It would sell. Cider vinegar is the best for home use and market. No one having an apple orchard should ever buy vinegar, and ought to have some to sell to neighbors or at the stores. To make: Sweet cider carefully made should be placed in clean, sweet, oak barrels, placed in a room where sun and frost cannot reach it. The barrels should be laid on their sides, with the open bung-hole upward, and double mosquito net or wire tacked over it. It requires from eighteen months to two years to become first class, but there is no more labor excepting to rack or siphon it off from the sediment; do not be impatient; make some every year, and if you are a "rustler" you will make good money out of it. Our home demand requires over 50,000 barrels per month. Apple-butter, to be good, requires boiled cider, and if to the boiled cider is added the good parts of the best culls, and carefully and skilfully boiled, either with or without spices, it sells for one dollar per gallon and is very profitable. Dried apples: The best of the culls, carefully trimmed, peeled, cored, and quartered or sliced, may be dried in the sun and air anywhere in Kansas. A cheap rack of poles or slats three or four feet above the ground, a lot of trays made of lath with muslin bottoms and plenty of mosquito netting to spread on hoops or bars above the fruit to keep off flies, are all that is needed. Do not leave them spread out during rain, or at night. The trays can be piled at night, with the fruit in them, under a shed or cover. Keep all vermin from them and stir often. Evaporated apples sell better, and by many are preferred. [I like the sun-kissed ones the best.--Sec.] There are numerous patent evaporators, all very good; but any ingenious man can make his own. The evaporators in which the Wellhouse culls are dried are very simple. President Wellhouse says he spent over $2,500 on patent dryers without any satisfaction, and then built his own, which are described elsewhere. ENEMIES OF THE APPLE.[A] [A] We are pleased to acknowledge our obligations for much of the following valuable information on our insect enemies and for the loan of cuts used to Prof. J. M. Stedman, of Columbia College, Mo., and Prof. E. E. Faville, of the Kansas Agricultural College. APPLE-WORMS. Many believe that worms are the parents of worms, and that they come suddenly, like a "wolf on the fold." A letter is received at this office telling of the sudden appearance in immense numbers of a worm that is destroying all that is before it, and wondering where they came from "so suddenly." Speaking of apple pests, the canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, the worm (larva) of the handmaid-moth, and the apple-worm (larva of the codling-moth), they did not come (travel) from anywhere; and no difference if they cover your trees, or are like the "sands on the seashore," they were all hatched right there on your trees. An observer looks at an apple or a nut with a hole in it, and says, "There is where the worm went in." It is directly the opposite; that is where the worm went out. He hatched from an egg, placed on, near by or just under the surface of the fruit; and eating a burrow to the core it grew large and plump, became a full-grown worm, burrowed to the surface, and passed out. When you see worms hanging in great numbers from single webs or the bole of your tree alive, with myriads of worms crawling, some up, some down, some crosswise, know of a surety that they are not going _up_, but coming _down_ to Mother Earth. Insect life changes more in a day than humanity does in a year. These worms have quit feeding, and are in a nervous, uneasy, often blind and skin-tight condition, going through a change from the luxury of leaf or fruit eating to a desire and ability to burrow into a living tomb several inches below the earth's surface. These myriads of worms are doing you no harm now; they will never eat again, no matter how tempting the morsel. This shows the absurdity of bands of cotton, etc., placed about a tree when the bole is covered with worms, "to keep them from going up." The real parents, the ones that lay the eggs and propagate their species, are usually winged moths or butterflies. A beautiful moth that you admire and will not allow your child to hurt may be the parent of the disgusting and destructive worms covering your trees or shrubs. In the following pages, we have tried in the least and simplest language to describe our commonest and most objectionable apple pests. SPRING CANKER-WORM. This is the worm that the amateur and the very busy man suddenly discovers in April defoliating his apple trees, and, on examination, he finds them in such myriads that he imagines some power has suddenly sown them broadcast over his orchard. See fig. 1. Had he been observant during the sunny middays of February, he would have noticed insects similar to figure 2 crawling up the bole of the tree, and looking closer, a little later, he would see small masses of eggs, shown in figures 3 _a_ and _b_, glued fast, usually near the base of limbs or twigs. [Illustration: FIG. 1.] [Illustration: FIG. 2. Adult Female.] [Illustration: FIG. 3. _a_, Eggs deposited at base of limb. _b_, Egg mass.] [Illustration: FIG. 4. _a_, Larva, or worm. _b_, Cluster, and a magnified egg.] Along early in April these eggs, warmed by the same sun that swells the buds and causes the green tips of the leaves to protrude, hatch into tiny worms looking like a dark thread snipped into bits about an eighth of an inch long. These millions of tiny worms, scarcely visible, occupy their time eating and growing, and the orchardist is possibly unaware of the army he is feeding until they grow into lusty, fat worms, from one and one-eighth to one and one-fourth inches long, of a dark olive-green color, with black heads. See _a_, fig. 4. If disturbed they quickly spin a single web and fall suspended at its end, as in fig. 1. Their life, as worms, lasts only about six weeks, then they seem suddenly to have vanished. They have gone into the earth to pass into the pupa state, coming out the following spring as adults; the males with wings to fly, the female wingless, as in fig. 2, to crawl up the tree as described. Now, as these myriads of tiny worms must make the tons of grown worms entirely from the foliage on the trees in which they hatched, it is plain that the said foliage must suffer, and it will look as if scorched by fire. _Remedies._ Bands smeared with sticky material put tightly around the tree bole early in February has stopped many a female from crawling up to lay her eggs. Spraying with London purple or Paris green, one pound with two pounds of lime and 150 gallons of water, is the common remedy. To be efficacious the drug must be of a normal strength, say forty-five per cent. arsenic, and as the worms grow larger and stronger the water must be lessened. When the worms are an inch or more long it may require only fifty gallons of water. Another formula is, two pounds white arsenic, four pounds sal soda, two gallons of water; boil until the arsenic is dissolved. One pint is enough for forty gallons of water. As the worms usually feed on the under side of the leaves, spraying should be from below as much as possible. "The early bird catches the worm" is true here. Therefore, spray while the worms are tiny and the foliage thin, and the work will count as the "stitch in time," destroying nine hundred and ninety-nine. TENT-CATERPILLAR. Nearly every one has seen the "tents" of these in neglected trees. See fig. 5. They usually betoken the too busy man--the man with too many irons in the fire. They are large, unsightly bunches of webs, closely woven together at the forks of twigs at the ends of limbs or branches. The parents of these worms are moths (see fig. 6) which appear in June each year, and deposit their eggs in clusters containing two or three hundred, surrounding small twigs. See fig. 7. Sharp eyes, a sharp knife and nimble fingers will bring many to the kitchen fire. These eggs hatch in the warm days of spring, and the tiny worms immediately seek and devour the tender buds and leaves. The day they hatch they begin to build the "tent." Those from the same mass of eggs, say 250, combine to make the home nest or tent. They come out from this tent to feed in the morning, return for a _siesta_ or sleep, and emerge again in the afternoon for a second feed. [Illustration: FIG. 5. Tent with larvæ.] [Illustration: FIG. 6. Adult.] [Illustration: FIG. 7.] [Illustration: FIG. 8. Tent-caterpillar.] They live in this way four or five weeks, becoming, when full grown, about two inches long and nearly as large as a lead-pencil. See fig. 8. They are black, with light-colored tufts of hair on the back. Down the center of the back is a white line bordered with irregular yellowish lines. The sides of the body are marked with pale blue, while the under side of the worm is black. When grown they pass to the ground and hunt a sheltered place, where they spin a cocoon, from which, in about three weeks, emerges the adult moth, fig. 6, the color of which varies from yellowish to reddish brown. The front wings each contain two oblique, whitish lines, dividing the wing into three nearly equal parts. These moths are night flyers during the last half of June and first half of July. They eat nothing. The female lays her eggs as described, and dies. _Remedies._ Spare the birds; put up boxes for the bats and owls. Cut off the egg clusters during the winter. Cut and burn the tents, or burn the tents on the tree, with any kind of a torch. Early morning or late evening is the time, as they are then all home. Spray the foliage nearest the tents with solutions for canker-worm. CODLING-MOTH. The apple-worm, which every apple eater has found many times in the apple, is the child of the codling-moth. See _b_, fig. 9. It is a scourge all over the apple-growing district. It destroys or reduces the value of the apple crop many millions of dollars annually. [Illustration: FIG. 9. _a_, Female Codling-moth. _b_, Larva of same in apple.] The parent--adult insect, or moth--see _a_, fig. 9, is a small moth with a spread of wings three-fourths of an inch, the first pair marked with wavy lines of gray and brown, with a large, oval brown spot, streaked coppery, on hinder margin. The hind wings are yellowish brown. These moths appear, and begin to lay on the surface of the leaves, in the calyx, or on the surface of the apple, about the 1st of May. The eggs hatch in about one week, and the young worm immediately begins to burrow into the apple, working its way to the center, where it works around the core, gaining strength and size for about three weeks, when it leaves the apple and seeks a hiding place in which to spin its cocoon, the favorite place being under projections of the rough bark of the tree. When first hatched these worms are small, hardly one-eighth of an inch long, white, with a black head and shoulders. When mature, the body is pinkish and the head and shoulders brown. The adult, _a_, fig. 9, issues from the cocoon in about two weeks, appearing near June 15. They commence at once to lay eggs. The worms of this, the second brood, live in the apple all winter, and it is these that disgust the apple eater and cut the profits of the orchardist. _Remedies._ The same spray as for canker-worms, used just after the petals of the blossom fall. No eggs are deposited earlier than this. At this time the calyx cup is open, and a little poison in it is apt to prove fatal to the infant worm. In a few days after the egg is laid the calyx closes, and no spray will reach the worm. Remember, this early spraying does away with the parents of the _second_ brood, and hence should not be neglected. Bands of burlaps, paper or other material, loosely tied about the tree before June 1, make attractive places for the worms to pupate in. These bands should be examined often, say weekly, and all worms killed. Fallen fruit should be gathered and fed to stock. Cellars, caves and fruit houses should be thoroughly cleaned and fumigated and the cleanings burned every spring, as many thousands of moths are wintered over in them. FLAT-HEADED BORER. The adult, fig. 10, is flat, about three-eighths of an inch long, of a greenish black with coppery reflections. They appear about the last of May and deposit eggs from then until September. They generally lay their eggs in a diseased portion of the tree, where it has been bruised, or sun-scalded, or in trees of weak vitality, in bad health from lack of cultivation or moisture, or from soil poverty. The eggs are small and yellowish, and are found singly or in numbers in crevices in the bark. The larva, or borer, fig. 11, when young, is yellowish, with a broad, flat head; it soon bores to the sap-wood, where it feeds. At this time it is easily discovered by the "castings" from the opening. As they become older and larger they bore into the harder wood, making flattened chambers. In about a year they gnaw a channel to the outside, excepting a thin layer of bark, and backing a little way they crowd castings to the front and change into the perfect insect, emerging about the last of May. [Illustration: FIG. 10. Adult Flat-headed Borer.] [Illustration: FIG. 11. Larva of a Flat-headed Borer.] _Remedies._ Keep the tree thrifty, free from bruises or sun-scald, and the flow of sap will drown them. If any are detected by the castings, cut in, and use a hooked wire to pull them out. Some washes will deter the female from depositing eggs. For instance: Equal parts of soft soap and sal soda, with enough crude carbolic acid to give a strong odor. Apply with a brush several times in a season, especially where the bark appears unhealthy. ROUND-HEADED BORER. Attacks the same trees under the same conditions as the flat-headed borer. The adult, fig. 12, is about five-eighths of an inch long, brown above, with two white stripes the whole length of the back. Head and under surface grayish. It is a night flyer. The female appears about June 1, and stays until September. She deposits her eggs at night, in small incisions made angling into the bark, generally near the ground. In about two weeks they hatch, and the little borers, _a_, fig. 13, begin to bore their way into the inner bark and sap-wood, leaving the bore filled with "castings," fig. 14. For two summers they stay in the sap-wood and do great damage, often girdling young trees. After the second winter they cut channels up into the hard wood; attaining their growth by fall, they burrow outward to the under side of the bark, and there remain until spring, changing to adults. See _b_, fig. 13. They then gnaw through the bark, and emerge about June 1 to propagate their species. _Remedies._ Same as for flat-headed borer. [Illustration: FIG. 12. Adult Round-headed Borer, greatly enlarged.] [Illustration: FIG. 13. Larva and pupa of the Round-headed Borer.] [Illustration: FIG. 14. _a_, Incision in which egg is deposited; _b_, same, the wood has been split along line _a_; _e_, showing egg in place; _c_, showing how egg is inserted under bark; _d_, egg greatly magnified; _e_, hole through which adult emerged; _f_, channel of larva; _g_, insect in pupal state just before issuing as an adult.] TREE WASHES FOR BORERS. Observations by members of the Kansas State Horticultural Society. A. Chandler: I used a tree wash last year on apple trees for borers and insects. I have been troubled in my timber (recently cleared) land with borers, and if I had not taken this precaution they would have been worse. It is known as the "Carnahan tree wash." Obtaining it ready prepared in a can, I applied it in June with a whitewash brush to the tree trunks and a portion of the limbs, and found it very beneficial. While it will not _destroy_ the borer, I think it will prevent the borer beetle from depositing eggs on the outside. From the healthy appearance of the tree and the smooth appearance of the bark, I think it equals anything I ever tried. It is also good for the prevention of other insects, as tree-crickets, etc., and I think it will destroy the curculio to some extent, and will prevent insects climbing the trees. My trees never looked more thrifty. I cannot say it will prevent root-rot. F. Holsinger: I would like to inquire whether your ground was thoroughly cultivated? A. Chandler: All the cultivation I could give would not prevent borers. I applied the wash from the ground up, as far as I could reach. It costs about two cents per tree from four to six years old, and I do not know but what that might be reduced. This wash is obtained in gallon and half-gallon cans. It should be applied about twice a year--spring and fall--costing about four cents per year for each tree. T. A. Stanley: Would not a strong lime wash do as well. A. Chandler: No; I have no success with it. If the borer is in the tree, you must dig him out with a knife. By examination you can tell whether borers have deposited eggs or not. I do not say it will rid the tree of borers if they have been allowed to deposit eggs and are left for years. It makes the tree grow more vigorous. I do not know what is in this tree wash, but it did no damage. B. F. Smith: Chandler has tried this wash, and it has proven successful with him. There are always new things being tried. If he has found something good for trees, we should not object to it. If I receive a package I will try it. T. A. Stanley: My experience with borers will date back as far as fifty years ago, when I was a boy, and the best thing to exterminate them with was a jack-knife. A Boston gentleman visiting my father went into the orchard and asked father if he had ever seen any borers. Father told him he knew nothing about them (they were something new in those days). Examining a tree, he took out his jack-knife and went to work near the ground, and he soon showed why the tree was not doing well. With his knife he dug the borer out and said the jack-knife was the best exterminator he knew of. My experience is, if you will attend to it about the 1st of June, when the beetles come out on the tree and deposit their eggs behind loose scales of bark, and wash the tree with strong lime wash, it will kill them. I prefer lime wash to any "nostrum" ever introduced. When they once get into the tree no wash will take them out. Horticulturists have been deceived enough by patent nostrums. E. J. Holman: By instinct this insect never lays its eggs on the surface. It lays as completely in the wood as the locust, which punctures almost to the heart of a twig. A borer lives three years in the wood; the third year it comes out in perfect form. It goes below in the wood every winter, and the third spring passes the cocoon stage there. They lay about fifty eggs, each placed separate and apart in the wood. Rarely does an egg fail to hatch. J. W. Robison: These beetles are very fierce. Put a half dozen into a bottle and they will beat a bull fight, and will not stop until they kill each other. She is a philosopher; she makes punctures sideways, so the eggs can be laid in a row, and the bark close over them. It is only a few days until they hatch; open the lip where deposited and you can see them plainly. Without cutting the bark, thrust your knife under the lip and you can hear the eggs crack. The larva works round and round until of the size of a pea, and then usually starts upward until he gets level with the surface of the ground, staying there until the next season. He comes up early in the spring. My practice is to hoe around the tree before the time for the round-headed borer to deposit eggs. I keep the weeds clear, so that I can see where the borer went in. If he has been in a year or two he is near the middle, and you had better let him alone, as it will injure the tree to remove him. It is impossible to get rid of these borers by a wash, because the eggs are covered. There is no connection between the round-headed and flat-headed borers. T. A. Stanley: It requires three years for the borer to mature and come out. In my experience, the borer selects a spot where loose bark is on the tree, and goes in where it is tender. It lays eggs in even rows. These eggs stay under the bark but a short time when they hatch and the little worm eats into the tender bark, and goes through it, to live and grow there; when large enough they go into the body of the tree. They stay there for three years. Scrape off the bark and put whitewash on the eggs and it will destroy them. President Wellhouse: By taking a knife, cutting into the tree, and running a hooked wire in, you can pull them out. Each female beetle deposits fifty or sixty eggs, and we find it better and less expensive to hunt the borers early in the spring. By carefully examining the bottom of the tree for six or eight inches above the ground you will see a little brown spot. He came to the bark the fall previous, and sets about two inches back in his cavity. If you wait till May, he is out and gone; he is easier taken out in spring than later. By killing the insect you prevent the egg laying. We always have our men hunt for the insects that are about to come out. It is easy to find the little brown spot about the size of your finger end, and you can kill them by pouring a few drops of coal-oil from a machine can into the cavity. Dr. J. Stayman: Can we prevent the borer from entering the tree? I have practiced banking up my trees as steep as I can, about a foot high; less may do. The beetle will not deposit eggs where the tree is banked up. I have practiced this for thirty years, and have never seen a borer in my trees since I began it. Like these gentlemen, I at first cut out the borers. We can prevent them by banking up early in the spring. By instinct, it knows the bank will wash down. If it deposits its eggs, how easy to scrape away the mound. I never saw a flathead borer on a tree that was banked. They always work on the south side, where the sun shines on the tree. BUD MOTH. This insect is often very destructive, attacking the blossom and leaf-buds, and in a few mouthfuls destroying that which must make the leaves and fruit, "nipping in the bud" the entire crop of fruit and debilitating the tree. This worm works in early spring, as soon as the buds begin to open; it delights in the prominent terminal buds and its work stops all new growth, causes many leaves to turn brown, and thus brings to the notice of the orchardist its bad work. The moth measures about three-quarters of an inch across its wings, and is mainly a gray color, the middle of the fore wings being lighter, or creamy. This insect first appears on the buds as a small, dark brown worm, about one-fourth of an inch long, with shining black head and shoulders. It imbeds itself in the center of the bud, tying the leaves together with its web. It is an irregular worker, and leaves the bud in a ragged, brown, dilapidated condition. Its work is most destructive in the nursery, destroying terminal shoots, which sadly interferes with the growth and symmetry of the young tree. Sometimes it burrows from the bud into the pith of the twig for several inches, killing the shoot to the tip. The worm finally settles upon a leaf, cutting the leaf stalk partly off, so that the leaf withers; it then rolls this soft, wilted leaf into a tube around its body, fastening it with webs and lining it for a nest. From this tube nest it comes forth only at night to feed, and when disturbed it hastens into it out of sight. In feeding, it draws leaves towards its home by silken threads, thus forming a bunch of partly eaten leaves, which turn brown, making the nest conspicuous. After attaining its growth it lies as a pupa in its silk-lined tube about ten days, when it emerges an adult moth, and in three or four days begins to lay its eggs. These moths appear from about June 1 and remain to July 5 or July 10. They are night flyers, and do no damage in the winged state. As the worms are leaf-eaters, spraying with London purple or Paris green, as for canker-worms, must kill many. Whenever their nests are seen they should, if possible, be gathered and burned, and in a badly infested orchard it will pay to rake and burn all the leaves under the trees. APPLE CURCULIO. [Illustration: FIG. 15. _a_, Beetle, natural size; _b_, beetle, magnified; _c_, side and back view of same, magnified.] [Illustration: FIG. 16. _a_, Pupa stage; _b_, larva, or worm. Hair-lines to the left of pupa show natural size.] This insect, fig. 15, is usually of a uniform rusty brown color. Four humps or tubercles are easily seen, two on each wing cover near the rear. The snout varies from half to the full length of the insect. With this snout it drills round holes into the apple; these holes are made for food, and are about one-tenth of an inch deep, widened out below like a gourd. The female deposits an egg in such hole, which soon hatches into a tiny worm that usually burrows to the core, and produces a reddish excrement. In a month, when fully grown, the worm is soft and white, without feet, wrinkled, and curved crosswise, as in _b_, fig. 16; too humped and crooked to crawl about out of the apple, it stays in and changes to pupa, as in _a_, fig. 16, leaving the apple as a perfect beetle after two or three weeks. It passes the winter in the adult state and begins laying eggs about June 1, continuing until late in August. President Wellhouse says he has surely reduced them by spraying. LEAF-CRUMPLER, or LEAF-ROLLER. [Illustration: FIG. 17. FIG. 18. Here _a_ represents worm case; _b_, case attached to a limb; _c_, head and first segments; _d_, perfect moth. All are magnified; the hair-lines just under the moth, _d_, represent the natural size.] The parent of this is a small grayish moth, _d_, fig. 17, which emerges from the unsightly mass of dry leaves, as in _b_, fig. 18, formed the previous season by the insect, and may be seen, gathered, and burned, during the winter. The female immediately begins laying eggs upon the leaves of the tree. During the fore part of June small, brownish worms appear, which at once construct tubular silken cases, in which they hide. They leave these cases, generally at night, to feed. As they grow they attach webs to the partly eaten leaves and gather them about themselves, so that finally the irregular mass of leaves completely hides the tubular case. In the spring, as the buds swell and the leaves appear, they come out and do great damage. They grow until in May, when they close up the opening to the case, and in two weeks the moth emerges, as above. _Remedies._ There are two parasites that prey upon them. Collect the cases and tufts of leaves during the winter and burn them. The spray recommended for canker-worm is successful in destroying them. TWIG-GIRDLER, TWIG-PRUNER, and TWIG-BORER. Sometimes trouble orchards, but in Kansas they are not bad. Their habits are indicated by their names, and it is scarcely necessary to describe them in this work. Numerous bulletins are issued free, describing them and their habits. See fig. 19. [Illustration: FIG. 19. Twig-girdler at work.] ROOT-LOUSE, or WOOLLY APHIS. The young are hatched from a minute egg laid in crevices of the bark, near the ground, and are covered with white down. The grown female measures about one-tenth of an inch in length, oval in shape, with black head and feet, dusty legs and antennæ. They attach themselves to the branches and trunk with their long beaks, sucking the vitality from the tree, which they will kill if in large numbers. During the summer the females are wingless, but at autumn both sexes have wings, and it is in this condition that they spread rapidly. They are produced alive at this time of the year with wonderful rapidity. Where plentiful the trunk and branches have a moldy appearance. "Lady-birds" and their larvæ, the larvæ of lace-winged flies and syrphus-flies, the small chalcid fly and spiders devour them. No birds are known to feed upon them. _Remedy._ Plenty of lye wash, even soap-suds or soap wash is good. Kerosene emulsion is good. The insect above described is only one form, viz., woolly aphis. The other form, as root-louse, is described below. To the public they are two distinct insects. ROOT-LOUSE. They work underground, puncturing the root to draw its nourishing juice, causing the root tissue to expand into knots and irregularities, _a_, fig. 20, thus making the roots unhealthy and very brittle. These insects are often found in myriads, looking like bluish-white wool, on the roots. Certain beetles, maggots and flies prey upon them, but to only a small extent. [Illustration: FIG. 20. Root-louse.] _Remedy._ Scalding water, at 150 degrees, poured on the uncovered roots. If some concentrated lye is added it is still better. Filling above the roots with tobacco dust is recommended. Soap-suds and wood ashes are beneficial. Young trees from the nursery, if infested, should have the roots well trimmed (burn the trimmings) and then dipped in lye. If quite hot it is still better. FRINGED-WING APPLE-BUD MOTH. [Illustration: FIG. 21.] [Illustration: FIG. 22.] [Illustration: FIG. 23.] The following is condensed from bulletin No. 42, written by Prof. J. M. Stedman, entomologist of the state university, Columbia, Mo.: The fringed-wing apple-bud moth is a new and heretofore undescribed species of insect, increasing rapidly and infesting new areas. The best spray to destroy them is, one pound pure Paris green, three pounds of fresh lime, and 150 gallons of water, constantly agitated while spraying. First application as soon as the buds open sufficiently to give the tree a green tinge; second, five days later; third, at time flower-buds open; if it rains do it over at once. Kill the worms before they eat into the bud. The egg is very small, light yellow, and oval, and apt to escape notice. The young worm is also very small when hatched and of a light yellow color, which afterwards turns to pale green, a shining black head, and a brown spot (which soon turns black) back of the head. It has three pairs of dark-colored true legs under its fore parts, and five pairs of prolegs under the rear three-fifths of the body. As soon as hatched they begin to feed on the unfolding leaves, and at once crawl to the heart of the expanded flower or leaf-bud. [Illustration: FIG. 24. Work of the Fringed-wing Apple-bud Moth.] The destructive effects cause the tree to look as if swept by fire, owing to the brown and partly developed foliage. See fig. 24. These worms (fig. 21) complete their growth in about four weeks, enter the earth, and, passing one or two inches below the surface, spin a cocoon. They come out as adult moths in about six weeks, or about the middle of July. Fig. 22 is the moth enlarged; fig. 23, natural size. The females soon begin to lay eggs, singly, on the young apple leaves. From these eggs a second brood is hatched more quickly than the spring brood. This second brood often eats through the heart of the terminal bud into the twig. When grown, this second brood enters the ground as did the first, but do not come forth as adults until the following spring. RABBITS. [Illustration: FIG. 25.] [Illustration: FIG. 26.] The Wellhouse rabbit trap, of which we here give description and illustrations, is one used by President Wellhouse. He has 3000 of them, distributed two per acre, and says it is the result of thirty years' experience. He uses nothing else to protect his trees. Figure 25 is a longitudinal section of the trap. Figure 26 is a front-end view of the trap, on a scale three times that of fig. 25, and shows the details of the door. The trap consists of a box made of fence boards (old ones preferred) six inches wide and one inch thick. The boards are cut twenty-two inches long, and the top and bottom boards are nailed onto the side boards, thus making the opening four inches wide and six inches high. The door, _a_, is made of wire, shaped as shown in fig. 26, and hung to under side of the top board with two staples, shown at _dd_. The trigger, _b_, is of wire, bent as in fig. 25, spread out, or with a loop or figure 8, at the hanging end, and is fastened loosely along the center on the under side of the top board with two staples. To operate the trap, push the door, _a_, inward, and with the forefinger catch the hooked end of the trigger, _g_, and pull it forward until the door rests on the wire above the hook at _g_. The rabbit enters the trap, prompted by curiosity or otherwise, and by so doing pushes the trigger, _c_, back as he would a little brush in a hollow log, without any suspicion or alarm. This action loosens the door, which falls behind him, its lower edge resting against the shoulder at _f_, and bunny is then caught. This trap was invented by Walter Wellhouse, but it is not patented. He uses no bait. The trap cannot be sprung by birds or wind. If new lumber is used, it must be stained some dark color, using material not offensive to a rabbit's delicate sense of smell. APPLES FOR THE TABLE. Compiled, by request, by Miss GERTRUDE COBURN, Professor of Domestic Economy, Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa. Chemical analysis of apples, fairly representing the average composition, indicates that the total nutriment is about fifteen per cent. of the whole weight, and consists principally of sugar, organic acid, and pectin (which gelatinizes when boiled and cooled). Although the fruit is thus shown to be but slightly nutritious, it is generally palatable and wholesome. It easily supplies variety in diet throughout the year, and it has the advantage of being suitable for any meal and combining agreeably with many other common food materials. When ripe, and carefully selected, the uncooked apple is toothsome and healthful, either alone and between meals or as one of the table fruits. The indigestible skin and cellulose, with the water and acid, contribute to the dietetic value, in that they make the whole raw apple a laxative food, especially effective when eaten before breakfast or at night. Cooked entire, and without any addition, the well-flavored apple is among the most perfect and economical of the subacid fruits for every-day use, and for the invalid's tray is seldom surpassed. Baked in its own juice, with sugar and additional flavoring, or boiled in syrup, it is relished equally with the breakfast mush, the dinner meat, and the supper bread and cake. Combined with cream, custard, whipped white of egg, or tapioca, which add nutriment without destroying the fruit flavor, it affords a delicate dessert, inexpensive and easily prepared. Steamed or baked, with a light covering or crust of biscuit dough or pastry, it has a variety of forms, all used for dinner, and usually made complete with sweetened cream, or in other cases with a bit of good cheese. The skin, while not digestible, is not often injurious, and as the best flavor is contained in the surface portion of the apple, careless paring is wasteful and unnecessary, especially when the fruit is to be baked. The unbroken envelope retains the steam produced as the juice is heated, thus hastening the process of expanding and bursting the tiny cells and converting the firm pulp into a delicate sauce. This suggests that, in order to produce the desirable lightness, the oven should be sufficiently hot to change the water of the fruit into steam. If the skin is tough or for other reasons is removed, the clean, unblemished parings, with the cores, may be simmered in water until the flavor and color make it a useful addition for pudding sauce, preserves, or jelly. It is usually best to remove the core before cooking, and, when the apple (as for compote) is not to be otherwise cut after paring, it should be cored before the skin is taken off, to prevent breaking. The various forms of boiled and steamed apples are attractive and generally liked. The requisites are: To select good fruit and wash it clean before cutting; to remove only a thin paring, _all_ of the core, and the bruised, discolored and defective parts; to intensify rather than obscure the apple flavor, using only enough of sugar, spice, or lemon, when any is needed, to accomplish this purpose; to use granite or porcelain-lined utensils (avoiding even tin covers) and silver or wooden spoons; to retain by slow cooking and careful handling the perfect form of the fruit, or else to produce, by stirring and straining, a light, lumpless sauce; to serve the apple preparation with the same respectful and dainty care that is usually bestowed upon the rarer but not more worthy pineapple and orange. In the summer and autumn, when the fruit is at its best, no additional flavor is needed. Toward spring, when it becomes less palatable, the deficiency may be best supplied with a little lemon juice and grated rind, a bit of pineapple or quince, a few drops of almond extract or rose water, or a few whole cloves. Sweet apples which are dry and rather tasteless may be utilized satisfactorily if stewed, canned or preserved with one-third their bulk of quince. Apples, Raw, for Breakfast.--Select fresh, unspotted apples of good flavor, but not very sour, wash and wipe thoroughly, and arrange tastefully, alone or with other fruit. For serving, use small plates and fruit-knives, to be removed with them. Individual taste must decide whether the fruit should be eaten before or after the heavier part of the breakfast. Apples and Cream.--A delicious breakfast dish, to be served with the cooked cereal or alone, consists of fresh, mellow, sweet apples, pared and sliced, sprinkled with fine sugar and dressed with cream. Apples and Bread and Milk.--For a summer luncheon, a bowl of rich milk and bread may be pleasantly varied by the addition of a ripe sweet apple, pared and thinly sliced. If the fruit is not thoroughly ripe and mellow, it is improved by slow baking until quite soft. Baked Apples.--Select moderately tart or very juicy sweet apples, of equal size. Wash them, remove the cores (or at least the blossom ends) and any imperfections, with the skin also, if it is objectionable. Put in a shallow baking dish, and fill the cavities with sugar and such flavoring as seems to be demanded, allowing from one-third to one-half of a cup of sugar and about one-fourth of a teaspoonful of nutmeg or cinnamon to eight apples, with sometimes the juice and grated rind of half a lemon. Cover the bottom of the dish with boiling water (which may need to be replenished if the fruit is not very juicy), and bake in a hot oven until soft, basting often with the syrup in the dish. Sweet apples need to bake longer and more slowly than sour, and when done should be very soft. Set the baking dish in a cool place until the fruit is almost cold, then transfer the apples to a glass dish and pour the syrup, which should be thick and amber colored, around them. Apples in Bloom. (By consent, from "Boston Cooking-School Cook-Book," by Miss Farmer.)--Select eight red apples, cook in boiling water until soft, turning them often. Have water half surround apples. Remove skins carefully, that the red color may remain, and arrange on a serving dish. To the water add one cup sugar, grated rind one-half lemon, and juice one orange; simmer until reduced to one cup. Cool, and pour over apples. Serve with sweetened whipped cream or cream sauce. Baked Apple-Sauce. (By consent, from "Every-Day Dishes," by Mrs. E. E. Kellogg.)--Pare, core and quarter apples to fill an earthen crock or deep pudding dish, taking care to use apples of uniform degree of hardness and pieces of the same size. For two quarts of fruit thus prepared, add a cup of water and, if the apples are sour, a cup of sugar. Cover closely, and bake in a moderate oven several hours, or until of a dark red color. Sweet apples and quinces, in the proportion of two parts of apple to one of quince, baked in this way, are also good. Cut the apples into quarters, but slice the quinces much thinner as they are more difficult to cook. Put a layer of quince on the bottom of the dish, and alternate with layers of apple until the dish is full. Add cold water to half cover the fruit, and stew in the oven, well covered, without stirring, until tender. Fruit cooked in this way may be canned while hot and kept for a long period. Stewed Apples.--Pare, quarter and core six or eight tart apples; put them into a granite kettle, strew with one cup or less of sugar, add juice of half a lemon and a few bits of the yellow rind; cover with boiling water and simmer (not boil) until tender. Dish carefully, without breaking, and serve cold. Green-Apple Sauce.--For sour green apples it is best to use a sharp silver knife, to prevent discoloration. Cut the apples in quarters, remove the cores and skin, and drop them as fast as pared into a bowl of cold water. Skim them out into a granite kettle with a large bottom, so that there will not be much depth to the apples. Add boiling water enough to show among the pieces, cover tightly, and cook quickly. Shake the pan occasionally, and as soon as the fruit is soft mash it with a silver fork, add sugar to taste, and when it is dissolved remove from the fire. Serve hot or cold. This sauce should be free from lumps, light colored and not very sweet. A pinch of salt may be an improvement. Apple-Sauce For Goose or Pork.--Pare, quarter and core six tart apples. Put them in a granite saucepan, cover with water, boil until tender, and press through a colander; add a teaspoonful of butter, a dash of nutmeg or cinnamon, and sugar to taste, being careful to keep the sauce tart. Canned Apples. (By consent, from Mrs. Rorer's "Philadelphia Cook-Book.")--To four pounds of apples use one pound of sugar, the juice and yellow rind of one lemon, and one quart of water. Choose fine ripe Pippins or Bellflowers. Pare, core, and throw them into cold water. When you have sufficient to fill one or two jars, lift them carefully from the water, weigh, then put them in a porcelain-lined kettle, cover with boiling water, bring quickly to the boiling-point, and then stand them over a moderate fire, where they will scarcely bubble, until tender. While they are cooking, put the sugar and water into another kettle, stir with a clean wooden spoon until the sugar is thoroughly dissolved, add the lemon, and boil three minutes. With a perforated skimmer lift the apples from the water, hold a moment until drained, and then slide them carefully into the boiling syrup; continue until the bottom of the kettle is covered; boil until the apples are sufficiently tender to admit a straw, then lift them carefully and slide one at time into the jar. The jars should be thoroughly cleaned and heated and set on a folded wet towel. After passing a silver spoon handle around the inside of the filled jar to break any air bubbles present, screw on the top as quickly as possible. Stand the jars in a warm place in the kitchen over night, and in the morning again tighten the covers and put away in a cool, dark, dry closet. Apple Compote. (By consent, from Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook-Book.")--Make a syrup with one cup of sugar, one cup of water, and a square inch of stick cinnamon. Boil slowly for ten minutes, skimming well. Core and pare eight or ten tart apples and cook until nearly done in the syrup. Drain, and cook them for a few minutes in the oven, with the door open. Boil the syrup until almost like a jelly. Arrange the apples on a dish for serving, fill the core cavities with jelly or marmalade, and pour the syrup over them. Put whipped cream around the base and garnish the cream with jelly. Apple Preserves. (By consent, from Mrs. Rorer's "Philadelphia Cook-Book.")--Core and pare fine ripe Pippins, and cut them into quarters. Weigh, and to each pound allow one pound of granulated sugar and a half pint of boiling water, the grated rind of one and the juice of two lemons. Boil the sugar and water until clear (about three minutes), skimming when necessary; add the lemon juice and rind, then the apples, and _simmer_ gently until they are clear and tender, but not broken; then stand aside to cool. When cold put them into jars, cover closely, and stand them in a cool, dark place for one week. At the end of that time turn them carefully into the kettle, bring them to the boiling-point, and _simmer_ for five minutes; then return them to the jars, cover closely with tissue paper brushed over with the white of an egg, and put in a dark, cool place to keep. Apple Butter. (By consent, from Mrs. Rorer's "Philadelphia Cook-Book.")--This should be made from new cider, fresh from the press, and not yet fermented. Fill a porcelain-lined kettle with cider, and boil until reduced one-half. Then boil another kettleful in the same way, and so continue until you have sufficient quantity. To every four gallons of boiled cider allow a half-bushel of nice, juicy apples, pared, cored, and quartered. The cider should be boiled the day before you make the apple butter. Put the boiled cider in a very large kettle, and add as many apples as can be kept moist. Stir frequently, and when the apples are soft beat with a wooden stick until they are reduced to a pulp. Cook and stir continuously until the consistency is that of soft marmalade and the color is very dark brown. Have boiled cider at hand in case it becomes too thick, and apples if too thin. Twenty minutes before you take it from the fire add ground cinnamon and nutmeg to taste. It requires no sugar. When cold, put into stone jars and cover closely. Apple Jelly. (By consent, from Mrs. Rorer's "Philadelphia Cook Book.")--Lady Blush or Fall Pippins are best for jelly. The first make a bright-red jelly, and the latter an almost white jelly. Wipe the fruit, cut it into pieces without paring or removing the seeds. Put into kettle and barely cover with cold water; cover the kettle, and boil slowly until the apples are very tender; then drain them through a flannel jelly bag--do not squeeze or the jelly will be cloudy. To every pint of this juice allow one pound of granulated sugar. Put the juice into the kettle and bring it quickly to the boiling-point; add the sugar and stir until dissolved, and then boil rapidly and continuously until it jellies, skimming as a scum rises to the surface. Twenty minutes is usually sufficient for the boiling, though not always. After fifteen minutes' boiling begin the testing by taking out one teaspoonful of the boiling jelly, pouring it into the bottom of a saucepan, and standing it in a cool place for a moment. Scrape it up with the side of a spoon, and, if jellied, the surface will be partly solid; if not, boil a few minutes longer and try again; as soon as it jellies roll the tumblers in boiling water and fill with the boiling liquid. Stand aside until cold and firm (about twenty-four hours). If the glasses have lids put them on; if not, cover with two thicknesses of tissue paper and paste the edges down over the edge of the tumbler. Then moisten the papers with a sponge dipped in cold water, so that when it dries it will shrink and be tight. Keep in a cool, dark place. Apple Rose Cream. (By consent, from Mrs. E. E. Kellogg's "Every-Day Dishes.")--Wash, core, slice and cook without paring a dozen fresh Snow apples until soft and very dry. Rub through a colander to remove skins, add sugar to taste and the beaten whites of two eggs, beating vigorously until stiff; add a teaspoonful of rose-water for flavoring, and serve at once or keep on ice. It is important that the apples be very dry, as otherwise the cream will not be light. Other varieties of apples may be used, and flavored with vanilla or pineapple. It is sometimes better to steam the apples than to stew them tender. Apple Tapioca Pudding. (By consent, from Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook-Book.")--Pick over and wash three-quarters of a cup of pearl tapioca. Pour one quart of boiling water over it, and cook in the double boiler until transparent; stir often and add a half teaspoonful of salt. Core and pare seven apples. Put them in a round baking dish and fill the core cavities with sugar and lemon juice. Pour the tapioca over them and bake until the apples are very soft. Serve hot or cold, with sugar and cream. A delicious variation may be made by using half pears or canned quinces and half apples. Apple and Rice Pudding.--Steam one cupful of rice in two cupfuls of boiling salted water until soft. With this, line a buttered pudding dish on the sides and bottom, leaving a portion for the top. Fill the dish with thinly sliced tart apples and cover with the remainder of the rice. Put the dish in a steamer and steam until the apples are found to be tender by running a fork into them. Set it away to cool and invert the dish so that the pudding will come out entire. Serve with sweetened cream, thin custard, or fruit sauce. Flavoring may be added to the apple according to taste. Dutch Apple Cake. (By consent, from Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook-Book.")--One pint flour, one-half teaspoonful salt, two heaping teaspoonfuls baking-powder, one-fourth cup butter, one egg, one scant cup milk, four sour apples, two tablespoonfuls sugar. Mix the dry ingredients in the order given; rub in the butter, beat the egg and mix it with the milk, then stir this into the dry mixture. The dough should be soft enough to spread half an inch thick on a shallow baking pan. Core, pare and cut four or five apples into eighths; lay them in parallel rows on top of the dough, the sharp edge down, and press enough to make the edge penetrate slightly. Sprinkle the sugar on the apple. Bake in a hot oven twenty or thirty minutes. To be eaten hot with butter as a tea cake, or with lemon sauce or with sugar and cream as a pudding. Scalloped Apples. (By consent, from Mrs. Lincoln's "Boston Cook-Book.")--Mix half a cup of sugar and an eighth of a teaspoonful of cinnamon or the grated rind of half a lemon. Melt half a cup of butter and stir it into one pint of soft bread crumbs; prepare three pints of sliced apples. Butter a pudding dish, put in a layer of crumbs, then sliced apple, and sprinkle with sugar; then another layer of crumbs, apple, and sugar, until the materials are used. Have a thick layer of crumbs on top. When the apples are not juicy, add half a cup of cold water; and if not tart apples, add the juice of half a lemon. Bake about an hour, covering at first to prevent burning. Serve with cream. Ripe berries and other acid fruits may be used instead of the apples, and oat-meal or cracked-wheat mush in place of the bread crumbs. Brown Betty. (By consent, from "Century Cook-Book.")--In a quart pudding dish arrange alternate layers of sliced apples and bread crumbs; season each layer with bits of butter, a little sugar, and a pinch each of ground cinnamon, cloves, and allspice. When the dish is full pour over it a half cupful each of molasses and water mixed; cover the top with crumbs. Place the dish in a pan containing hot water, and bake for three-quarters of an hour, or until the apples are soft. Serve with cream or with any sauce. Raisins or chopped almonds improve the pudding. Friar's Omelet. (Mrs. Treat.)--Stew six or seven good-sized apples as for apple-sauce; when cooked and still warm stir in one teaspoonful of butter and one cupful of sugar; when cold, stir in three well-beaten eggs and a little lemon juice. Now put a small piece of butter into a saucepan, and, when hot, add to it a cupful of bread crumbs and stir until they assume a light-brown color. Butter a pudding mold, and sprinkle on the bottom and sides as many of these bread crumbs as will adhere; fill in the apple preparation, sprinkle bread crumbs on top, bake it for fifteen or twenty minutes, and turn it out on a good-sized platter. It can be eaten with or without a sweet sauce. Baked Apple Dumplings.--Make a short pie-crust; roll it thin and cut it into squares large enough to cover an apple. Select apples of the same size, core and pare them, and fill the space with sugar, butter, and a little ground cinnamon or nutmeg. Place an apple in each square of pie-crust; wet the edges with water or white of egg, and fold together so that the points meet on the top. Pinch and turn the edges so that they are fluted. Bake in a moderate oven about forty minutes, or until the apples are soft without having lost their form. Serve with hard sauce or with sugar and cream. Steamed Apple Dumplings.--Core and pare six or eight apples. Make a biscuit dough, using four cups of flour, two heaping teaspoonfuls of baking-powder, one large tablespoonful of butter, one teaspoonful of salt, and one cup of milk. Use more or less milk as is needed to make a soft dough that will roll out without being sticky. Roll the dough about half an inch thick and cut in squares to cover the apples, as in the preceding recipe, after sweetening and flavoring. Place the dumplings on a dinner plate which can be set in the steamer. Steam forty minutes and serve from the same plate, with hard sauce or sweetened cream. A variation of this recipe, which is sometimes more convenient, is as follows: Cut the apples into eighths, and put them, with half a cup of water, into a granite pudding pan; roll the biscuit dough out to fit the pan, and cover the apples; cover the pan, and steam or cook in the oven. Sprinkle sugar thickly over the top and serve in the pudding pan, with hard sauce in another dish. Apple Pie. (By consent, from "Boston Cooking-School Cook-Book," by Miss Farmer.)--Four or five sour apples, one-third cup sugar, one-fourth teaspoon grated nutmeg, one-eighth teaspoon salt, one teaspoon butter, one teaspoon lemon juice, few gratings lemon rind. Line pie plate with paste. Pare, core, and cut the apples into eighths; put row around the plate one-half inch from the edge, and work toward the center until the plate is covered; then pile on the remainder. Mix sugar, nutmeg, salt, lemon juice and rind and sprinkle over the apples. Dot over with butter. Wet edges of under crust, cover with upper crust, and press edges together. Bake forty to forty-five minutes in a moderate oven. A very good pie may be made without butter or lemon. Cinnamon may be substituted for nutmeg. Evaporated apples soaked over night in cold water may be used in place of the fresh fruit. Apple Fritters.--Core and pare three or four apples. Cut them crosswise into slices one-third of an inch thick, leaving the opening in the center. Sprinkle with lemon, sugar, and spice. Let stand one hour. Dip each slice in fritter batter, and fry in deep, hot fat. Drain, and sprinkle with powdered sugar. Serve hot, with or without hard sauce. Batter For Fritters.--One cup flour, one-fourth teaspoonful salt, two-thirds cup milk, yolks and whites of two eggs beaten separately, one tablespoonful olive oil or melted butter. Mix salt and flour, add milk gradually, yolks of eggs, butter, and stiff whites. A tablespoonful of sugar may be added, if liked. Fried Apples.--Cut slices one-half inch thick across the apple without removing skin or core, or cut the apple in quarters and remove the core. Sauté the apples in butter or drippings until tender and light brown, but not soft enough to lose form. Serve on the same dish with pork chops. Apple Water (for invalids).--Wipe, core and pare one large sour apple. Put two teaspoonfuls sugar in the core cavity, and bake until tender. Pour one cup boiling water over the baked apple, let it stand one-half hour, strain, and serve. INDEX. American apples abroad: exports, 10; comparison of seasons, 12 Analysis of the apple, 9; of apple ash, 8 Apple, what it is, 3; business, 10; culture, 191; for the table, 218; tree, chemistry of, 5 Apple trees in district No. 1, 42; in district No. 2, 121; in district No. 3, 133; in district No. 4, 154 Birds, 69 Cellars for apples, Evans, 202; other, 45, 109, 158 Chemistry of apples, 7, 8, 9; of apple trees, 5; of prairie soil, 6 Cider, boiled, 202; sweet, 202; vinegar, 50, 202 Cold storage, 44, 64, 189; by Geo. Richardson, 198 Crabs, 104 Culls, to use, 202 Description of varieties: Arkansas Black, 41; Autumn Pearmain, 29; Autumn Strawberry, 37; Bailey's Sweet, 30; Baldwin, 30; Baltzby, 33; Ben Davis, 15; Benoni, 38; Bentley's Sweet, 35; Broadwell, 36; Celestia, 27; Chenango (Strawberry), 29; Cooper's Early (White), 31; Dominie, 39; Dr. Watson, 35; Duchess of Oldenburg, 32; Early Harvest, 32; Early Joe, 39; Early Margaret, 41; Early Ripe, 35; Early Summer Pearmain, 39; Emperor, 41; English Sweet, 34; Fulton's Strawberry, 34; Gano, 20; Garretson's Early, 39; Gilpin, 37; Golden Sweet, 31; Grimes' Golden Pippin, 24; Haas, 29; Holland Pippin, 34; Hubbardston's Nonsuch, 34; Huntsman's Favorite, 25; Imperial, 33; Ingram, 26; Jefferis, 39; Jonathan, 18; Keswick Codlin, 40; King of Tompkins County, 28; Large Yellow Bough, 32; Lawver, 28; Limber Twig, 37; Little Romanite, 37; Lowell, 27; Maiden's Blush, 22; Mammoth Black Twig, 25; Milam, 37; Minkler, 28; Missouri Pippin, 19; Mother, 41; Mountaineer, 33; Muster, 35; Nelson's (Sweet), 33; Northern Spy, 31; Ortley, 38; Peck's Pleasant, 26; Pennock, 40; Pewaukee, 33; Rambo, 36; Rawle's Janet, 21; Red Astrachan, 33; Red June, 30; Rhode Island Greening, 40; Roman Stem, 3; Rome Beauty, 36; Smith's Cider, 22; Smokehouse, 29; Snow, 37; Stark, 28; Stayman's Summer, 38; Stayman's Winesap, 38; Summer Queen, 28; Superb, 36; Sweet June, 30; Sweet Bough, 32; Twenty Ounce, 32; Wagener, 35; Wealthy, 30; White Bellflower (see Ortley), 38; White Juneating, 34; White Pippin, 39; White Winter Pearmain, 29; Whitney, 41; Winesap, 16, 38; Yellow Transparent, 35; York Imperial, 21; Discussion on packages, 197; on tree washes and borers, 210 Dried apples, 203 Drugging trees, 188 Evaporated apples, 203 Evaporator, Moyer's, 201; Wellhouse, 200 Fruit house, 202 Grain injurious to orchards, 57 Hogs in orchard, 198 House for apples, 148 Insects: Bud moth, 212; Canker-worm, 204; Codling-moth, 206; Curculio, 213; Flat-headed borer, 208; Fringed-wing bud moth, 215; Leaf-crumpler, 213; Leaf-roller, 213; Root-louse, 214; Round-headed borer, 210; Tent-caterpillar, 206; Twig-borer, 214; Twig-girdler, 214; Twig-pruner, 214; Woolly aphis, 214; Worms, 201 Irrigation, 122, 124 Laws for orchardists, 4 Orchard treatment, by W. D. Cellar, 194; culture, by James McNicol, 193 Packages, 197 Picking and packing, by D. S. Haines, 196 sacks, by F. Wellhouse, 196 Quantity in states exceeding Kansas, 9 in Kansas, 9 Rabbits, 188 Rabbit remedies, 188, 217 Rabbit trap, Wellhouse, 217 Receipts for cooking apples: Apples, baked, 219; in "bloom", 219; with bread and milk, 219; for breakfast, 219; Brown Betty, 222; butter, 202, 221; canned, 220; compote, 220; and cream, 219; Dutch cake, 222; dumplings, baked, 148, 223; dumplings, steamed, 223; Friar's omelet, 222; fried, 223; fritters, 223; jelly, 221; pie, 223; preserves, 220; and rice pudding, 222; rose cream, 221; sauce, baked, 219; sauce for goose, 220; sauce, for pork, 220; sauce, green, 220; scalloped, 222; stewed, 220; for the table, 218; tapioca pudding, 221; water, for invalids, 223 Secretary's summary of report, 187 Sorting table, 196 Spraying, 188 Spray mixture, 123 State apple production, 9 Time of apple blooming, 9 Trees, number in first district, 42; number in second district, 121; number in third district, 133; number in fourth district, 154 Varieties referred to in this book, 15 Voted list of apple varieties, 14 Vinegar, 50 Washes for borers, 210 Weight of apples, 9 Wellhouse apple orchard, 13 Whole-root grafts, 187 Windbreaks, 187 Worms, 204 REPORTS ON APPLE CULTURE. FIRST DISTRICT--NORTHEASTERN COUNTIES. Atchison county: Brown, Henry L., Muscotah, 101; Gaylord, J. S., Muscotah, 73; Heath, Seneca, Muscotah, 116; Rice, H. M., Muscotah, 96; Tucker, W. H., Effingham, 91; Wilcox, J. B., Muscotah, 95 Brown county: Chase, Elbridge, Padonia, 98; Fairchild, Ernst, Hiawatha, 110; Gregg, John, Willis, 112; Hanson, Neils, Willis, 111; Hewett, J. A., Hiawatha, 53; Penny, H. E., Hiawatha, 84; Wise, Geo. T., Reserve, 95 Clay county: Arnold, A. D., Longford, 73; Cooper, H. C., Morgantown, 95; Macy, I. N., Longford, 86; Marty, S., Longford, 83; Olsen, Theo., Green, 100; Reed, John, Oak Hill, 106; Sanders, Max, Broughton, 105; Wolf, Isaac E., Longford, 119 Cloud county: Domony, S. H., Aurora, 55; Howard, P. M., Clyde, 56; Kimmal, Levi, Concordia, 116; Lawry, James, Hollis, 116; Mosher, J. B., Lawrenceburg, 118; Munger, A., Hollis, 67; Travis, J. T., Aurora, 88; Walton, Reuben, Aurora, 114 Dickinson county: Barnes, George R., Chapman, 106; Bert, Samuel, Moonlight, 76; Dunlap, James, Detroit, 53; Engle, A. M., Moonlight, 107; Hoffman, Eli, Donegal, 90; Taylor, T. E., Pearl, 108; Taylor, J. H., Rhinehart, 115 Doniphan county: Gurwell, Wm., Fanning, 75; Hazen, J. D., Leona, 85; Montgomery, Robt., Troy, 54; Perry, A., Troy, 72; Rea, Joseph C., Brenner, 90 Douglas county: Griesa, A. C., Lawrence, 87; Griesa, A. H., Lawrence, 113; Kern, W. D., Baldwin, 79; Reynolds, Samuel, Lawrence, 48 Franklin county: Brown, David, Richmond, 65; Taylor, Isaac M., Richmond, 111 Geary county: Cutter, Wm., Junction City, 112 Jackson county: Bateman, J. H., Holton, 98; Dixon, F. W., Holton, 54; Osborne, R. D., Soldier, 77; Williams, J. W., Holton, 81 Jefferson county: Atkinson, J. W., Perry, 109; Glaspey, E. M., Nortonville, 91; Gray, E. M., Perry, 58; Kleinhans, A. J., Grantville, 109; Miller, Lou, Perry, 75; Roberts, H. R., Perry, 78 Johnson county: Beckley, J. C., Spring Hill, 71; Diehl, E. P., Olathe, 66 Leavenworth county: Barns, D. N., Leavenworth, 89; Gaiser, C. D., Lansing, 115; Goble, Francis, Leavenworth, 65; Henry, William J., Lowemont, 92; Roach, J. H., Lowemont, 72; Starns, J. B., Fairmount, 89; Stayman, Dr. J., Leavenworth, 59; Wellhouse, Walter, Topeka (orchard in Leavenworth county), 42 Marshall county: Stout, Stephen, Axtell, 103 Morris county: Harris, F. B., White City, 82; Hathaway, V. E., Council Grove, 83 Morris county: Robinson, W. H., Dunlap, 115; Sample, John E., Beman, 51; Sharp, James, Parkerville, 80; Swanson, Andrew, Dwight, 81 Nemaha county: Anderson, T. S., Oneida, 86; Oberndorf, jr., A., Centralia, 56; Riggs, H. C., Wetmore, 96; Ruhlin, J. F., Wetmore, 89; Wilcox, F. W., Corning, 101; Williams, James M., Home, 94 Osage county: Dubois, H., Burlingame, 108; Ferris, H. L., Osage City, 55; Fine, Godfrey, Maxson, 99; Martindale, C. D., Scranton, 46 Ottawa county: Morton, Howard, Tescott, 86; Steele, J. L., Minneapolis, 83 Pottawatomie county: Christenson, N., Mariadahl, 78; Hanson, J. F., Olsburg, 91; Weltner, M. D., Westmoreland, 82 Republic county: Arbuthnot, Thos., Cuba, 97; Fulcomer, John, Belleville, 74; Smith, Fayette A., Belleville, 93 Riley county: Anderson, James, Leonardville, 101; Axleton, A. G., Randolph, 87; Griffing, W. J., Manhattan, 49; Kimble, Sam., Manhattan, 88; Schermerhorn, F. A., Ogden, 102; Spohr, G. E., Manhattan, 76; Warden, Chas., Leonardville, 92 Saline county: Jones, H. L., Salina, 77; Wilson, James, Assaria, 80 Shawnee county: Bond, William, Rossville, 113; Buckman, A. H., Topeka, 69; Buckman, Thomas, Topeka, 105; Cecil, J. F., North Topeka, 94; Higgins, E., Seabrook, 71; Lux, Phillip, Topeka, 93; Moore, A. C., Wanamaker, 104 Wabaunsee county: Gardiner, C. C., Bradford, 119; Taylor, C. H., Eskridge, 87; Taylor, P. S., Eskridge, 97 Washington county: Avery, J. B., Clifton, 85; Bedker, Theo., Linn, 74; Brown, Thomas, Palmer, 117; Campbell, J. C., Campbell, 84; Courter, J. A., Barnes, 117; Graves, John, Day, 99; Houghton, A. E., Weltbote, 44; Sandy, Ed., Linn, 117; Seifert, Frank, Strawberry, 88; Spiers, Alexander, Linn, 74; Williamson, Dr. Chas., Washington, 110; Wolverton, E. K., Barnes, 52; Wolverton, Jesse, Barnes, 99; Young, William, Brantford, 84 Wyandotte county: Cellar, W. D., Edwardsville, 114; Chandler, A., Argentine, 103; Haines, D. S., Edwardsville, 58; Holsinger, F., Rosedale, 51; Taylor, Edwin, Edwardsville, 45 SECOND DISTRICT--NORTHWESTERN COUNTIES. Cheyenne county: Campbell, B. F., St. Francis, 125 Decatur county: Ashcroft, L. P., Shibboleth, 123; Caldwell, J. R., Oberlin, 124; Clark, Isaac, Oberlin, 126; Johnson, P. T., Oberlin, 128; Sales, S. H. & Son, Norcatur, 127; Street, W. D., Oberlin, 124; Wagner, P., Dresden, 129 Ellsworth county: Griffiths, J. D., Kanopolis, 125; Hudson Bros., Kanopolis, 130; Somer, J. W., Wilson, 125 Gove county: Royer, Jesse, Gove, 132 Lincoln county: Baird, William, Vesper, 121; Kroenlin, John M. C., Lincoln, 127; Noon, Peter, Vesper, 122; Weidman, Jacob, Lincoln, 123 Logan county: David, John E., Winona, 128 Mitchell county: Brumage, W. J., Beloit, 128; Elder, John, Glen Elder, 129; Perdue, C. A., Beloit, 130; Stockard, W. B., Beloit, 129 Norton county: Stevens, D. E., Norton, 132 Phillips county: Dutcher, F. T. M., Phillipsburg, 131 Rawlins county: Williams, James L., McDonald, 124; Wilson, M. A., Atwood, 131 Smith county: Wells, M. E., Athol, 26 Thomas county: Vail, Chas., Colby, 130 Trego county: O'Toole, E. W., Collyer, 131 THIRD DISTRICT--SOUTHWESTERN COUNTIES. Barber county: Blackmore, A. C., Sharon, 134; Daniels, E. T., Kiowa, 136; Huff, A. S., Sharon, 147; Leonhart, B., Kiowa, 146; Osborne, W. G., Medicine Lodge, 143; Pimm, John, Enon, 144; White, D. D., Enon, 136 Barton county: Elliott, Geo. T., Great Bend, 153; Gunn, C. L., Heizer, 149; Johnson, Amos, Ellinwood, 137; Moore, Fred., Great Bend, 143; McCullough, Ben., Ellinwood, 146; Rediger, Jacob, Maherville, 152 Comanche county: Hollenback, G. W., Coldwater, 148 Edwards county: Liggitt, J. S., Belpre, 147 Finney county: Craig, James, Garden City, 151; Simon, John, Garden City, 150 Ford county: Drake, A. S., Bucklin, 143; Mayrath, Nicholas, Dodge, 152; Patterson, A. N., Ford, 135 Grant county: Miller, Henry, Ulysses, 135; Wilson, M. M., Zionville, 152 Gray county: Emery, J. O., Cimarron, 146 Harper county: Bailey, John, Harper, 151; Curran, J. C., Curran, 141; Jesseph, H. E., Danville, 141; Lewis, Joseph, Bluff City, 144 Kearny county: Longstreth, C. H., Lakin, 139 Kiowa county: Einsel, A. D., Greensburg, 135; Reeve, E. F., Greensburg, 148 Kingman county: Albright, J. W., Julia, 169; Gosch, John H., Norwich, 141; Leach, L. W., Kingman, 141 Lane county: Bradstreet, D. E., Dighton, 149 Meade county: Cox, B. F., Fowler, 145; Vick, G. O., Fowler, 134 Morton county: Morgan, L. G., Richfield, 138 Pawnee county: Dickinson, S. S., Larned, 137; Hansberry, F. F., Larned, 138 Pratt county: Ablard, L. L., Lawndale, 149; Everhart, J. T., Pratt, 151 Reno county: Bainum, Joseph, Langdon, 142; Hinds, John, Olcott, 135; Morgan, E., Hutchinson, 139 Myers, Dr. James, Hutchinson, 145; Switzer, A. W., Hutchinson, 140 Rice county: Bohrer, Dr. G., Chase, 150; Hodgson, H. Clay, Little River, 149; Schlichter, J. B., Sterling, 153 Seward county: Jones, Sam., Springfield, 142 Scott county: McNeal, D. J., Scott, 133 Stevens county: Hockett, Thomas E., Hugoton, 152 FOURTH DISTRICT--SOUTHEASTERN COUNTIES. Anderson county: Simon, Ebert, Welda, 186 Bourbon county: Bailey, S. H., Uniontown, 168; Hall, F. S., Fulton, 184; Saxe, J. B., Fort Scott, 171 Butler county: Diemurt, Chas., Murdock, 175; Garrison, S. F. C., El Dorado, 171; Price, William, El Dorado, 173; Snyder, Wm., Towanda, 154 Chase county: Gamer, Mike, Strong City, 166; May, Dick, Elk, 176; Pflager, Chas. F., Elk, 167 Chautauqua county: Burden, William, Leeds, 186; Ellison, J., Chautauqua, 177; Goodell, J. W., Sedan, 159; Guest, T. H., Grafton, 158; Hart, John, Sedan, 165; Helmick, Jason, Cloverdale, 159; House, J. K. P., Cloverdale, 185; Rhodes, G. W., Lowe, 159; Smith, W. N., Brownsville, 163 Cherokee county: Dennison, A. S., Columbus, 161; Haines, L. J., Galena, 170; Neil, Henry, Weir, 181; Seibert, D. C., Columbus, 162; Smith, Thomas W., Baxter Springs, 167 Coffey county: Brown, S. B., Waverly, 176; Kendrick, C. L., Waverly, 169; Mark, R. N., Strawn, 184; Schenck, Geo., Le Roy, 167; Weatherby, S. S., Le Roy, 174 Cowley county: Bilsing, J. H., Udall, 183; Keller, Johnson, Arkansas City, 162; Savage, F. M., Burden, 175; Wahlenmaier, Fred., Arkansas City, 156 Crawford county: French, W. M., Chicopee, 184 Elk county: Condra, H. A., Longton, 157 Greenwood county: Barngrover, W. M., Hamilton, 180 Harvey county: Hackney, J. S., Walton, 164; Lehman, David, Halstead, 180; Saltzman, A. J., Burrton, 170 Labette county: Hildreth, C. E., Altamont, 163; Hildreth, Geo. A., Altamont, 161; Sanford, N., Oswego, 177; Wickersham, C. G., Parsons, 178 Linn county: Cozad, D. W., La Cygne, 179; Fleeharty, W. M., La Cygne, 182 Lyon county: Beavers, E. O., Ottumwa, 176; Chambers, A. D., Hartford, 160; Cochran, J. T., Ottumwa, 181; Walters, W. T., Emporia, 168 Marion county: Fraser, D. J., Peabody, 118; McNicol, James, Lost Springs, 166, 193 McPherson county: Heckethorn, O. W., McPherson, 179 Montgomery county: Bowen, P. C., Cherryvale, 164; Good, Jacob, Coffeyville, 191; Kenoyer, F. L., Independence, 182; Mullineaux, J. A., Cherryvale, 174; Ross, J. C., Havana, 185 Neosho county: Gardner, W. W., Chanute, 180; Record, O. M., Thayer, 175 Sedgwick county: Ayers, G. K., Furley, 156; Lawrence, R. E., Wichita, 174 Sumner county: Adams, D. M., Rome, 173 Wilson county: Burnett, F. H., Benedict, 183; Graham, R. O., Altoona, 155; Magill, John A., Roper, 181; Roney, B., Benedict, 160 Woodson county: Davidson, C. R., Yates Center, 156; Lovett, L. L., Toronto, 144; Mann, A. B., Toronto, 179 Transcriber's Notes Subscripts that appeared in chemical formulas have simply been replaced with the regular character in the text version. Thus the water is H2O. Mixed fractions in the text version have been represented with a hyphen separating the whole and fractional parts. Thus two and five eighths is 2-5/8. There was no table of contents in the original; I added a short one for the reader's convenience. Changed 'horticulural' to 'horticultural' on page 4: "horticultural societies". Changed 'CoO' (cobalt oxide) to 'CaO' (calcium oxide) in header of table on page 7. The numbers in table No. 1 on page 9 only add to 97 lbs. I left them as is. A good guess would be that water should be 85.66 lbs. Changed '49-5/9' to '45-5/9' to correct the arithmetic on page 9: "averaging 45-5/9 pounds per barrel". The last two lines of text on page 11, "like this: One barrel Ben Davis, $3.80; freight, $1.35; commission, 20 cents; net proceeds, $2.25. This is supposing they should reach the other side loose.", apparently belong on page 12. They were moved after "A report of sales would read something". The acreages for the Wellhouse orchards don't add up right on page 14, but I just left them as is. On pages 29 and 30, there are two varieties both called Haas. I've left them as is. Changed 'greet' to 'great' on page 40: "on a great variety of soils". Changed 'Average' to 'Acreage' in table on page 42 to be consistent with other tables: "Acreage, about". Changed 'caterpiller' to 'caterpillar' on page 43: "canker-worm and tent-caterpillar". Changed 'successfuly' to 'successfully' on page 43: "never successfully combated". Changed 'Kanses' to 'Kansas' on page 48: "suitable for Kansas". Changed 'togther' to 'together' on page 48: "two furrows together". Left 'oak plant sixteen feet long' on page 52, although I suspect the author meant 'plank'. Changed 'wifh' to 'with' on page 58: "with a knife". Changed 'occassion' to 'occasion' on page 63: "had no occasion". Changed 'caterpiller' to 'caterpillar' on page 66: "canker-worm, tent-caterpillar, bud moth". Removed extra word 'of' on page 67: "amount of water". Changed 'staight' to 'straight' on page 69: "set them up straight". Changed 'paris' to 'Paris' on page 72: "London purple and Paris green". Changed comma to period on page 75: "planted two rods apart around orchard." Changed 'Domine' to 'Dominie' on page 75: "Early Harvest and Dominie". Changed 'spliting' to 'splitting' on page 76: "keep from splitting". Changed 'caterpillas' to 'caterpillars' on page 81: "the [tent] caterpillars". Changed comma to period on page 81: "Winesap and Rawle's Janet keep best." Added comma on page 82: "Westmoreland, Pottawatomie county". Changed 'mixure' to 'mixture' on page 86: "with Bordeaux mixture". Changed 'empyting' to 'emptying' on page 89: "emptying into bushel boxes". Removed extra period at end of sentence on page 93: "with London purple." Changed 'fell' to 'fall' on page 94: "fall web-worm". Removed extra word 'the' on page 102: "all the way down". Removed extra word 'out' on page 104: "twenty out of twenty-four". Left the text "I plant potatoes or sweet corn in a bearing orchard" on page 116, although it seems more likely that "non-bearing" was intended. Changed 'filed' to 'filled' on page 122: "filled with sweet water". Removed extra word 'a' between 'I' and 'plow' on page 124: "I plow shallow". Changed 'stable-litter' to 'stable litter' on page 129: "with stable litter". Changed 'north-east' to 'northeast' on page 129 for spelling consistency: "a northeast slope". Removed repeated word 'for' on page 141: "wind does it for me". Changed period to semi-colon on page 143: "plant nothing;". Changed 'nor' to 'not' on page 143: "Do not spray". Changed 'caterpiller' to 'caterpillar' on page 144: "tent-caterpillar and borers". Removed extra hyphen after 'in' on page 146: "in the orchard". Changed comma to period to end sentence on page 155: "in the order named.". Changed 'Tomkins' to 'Tompkins' on page 155: "King of Tompkins County". Changed 'thing' to 'think' on page 164: "think it advisable". Changed 'culivator' to 'cultivator' on page 167: "plow and cultivator". Changed comma to period to end sentence on page 167: "they thin themselves.". Changed 'windbreake' to 'windbreaks' on page 170: "windbreaks are essential". Changed 'nothwest' to 'northwest' on page 170: "northwest aspect". Changed 'two-year old' to 'two-year-old' on page 171: "two-year-old medium-sized trees". Also on page 174: "prefer two-year-old trees". Changed comma to period to end sentence on page 176: "repack stored apples before marketing.". Inserted hyphen on page 179: "codling-moth". Changed 'yearss' to 'years' on page 184: "eighteen years". Removed extra word 'a' on page 187: "a couple of inches". Changed 'cornstalks' to 'corn-stalks' on page 188 to be consistent with all other spellings: "the ever-present corn-stalks". Removed extra word 'of' on page 189: "part of the risk". Changed garbled text 'o beet nasily see' to 'to be easily seen' on page 196. Changed 'figures 3 and 5' to 'figures 3 _a_ and _b_' on page 204 to match up with the figures. The caption for figure 4 on page 205 is missing the explanation for figures c and d. Changed 'coccoon' to 'cocoon' on page 206: "spin a cocoon". Removed extra word 'a' between 'one' and 'at' on page 220: "one at time into the jar". Changed 'Domine' to 'Dominie' on page 225: "Dominie, 39". Changed 'Burrto' to 'Burrton' on page 229: "Saltzman, A. J., Burrton". Kept both 'leaf-crumpler' and 'leaf-crumbler', though I suspect the different writers meant the same insect. Kept inconsistent spelling of 'Axelton' and 'Axleton'; 'bagworm' and 'bag-worm'; 'Belleflower', 'Bell-flower' and 'Bellflower'; 'Christensen' and 'Christenson'; 'Domony' and 'Domoney'; 'Gennetting', 'Genneting' and 'Gennettan'; "Grimes'" and "Grimes's"; 'jackknife' and 'jack-knife'; 'Lovett' and 'Lovette'; 'McCullogh' and 'McCullough'; 'Morganville' and 'Morgantown'; 'Nonsuch' and 'Nonesuch'; 'Pippin' and 'Pippen'; 'pollenizer' and 'pollinator'; 'round-headed' and 'roundheaded'; 'Sayles' and 'Sales'; 'soap-suds' and 'soapsuds'; 'Spitzenburg' and 'Spitzenberg'; 'Vandevere' and 'Vandervere'. 
29659	----	file was produced from images produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) The Rural Manuals EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING The Rural Manuals EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY MANUAL OF GARDENING--_Bailey_ MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS--_Harper_ FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK--_Bailey_ MANUAL OF FRUIT INSECTS--_Slingerland and Crosby_ MANUAL OF WEEDS--_Georgia_ THE PRUNING-MANUAL--_Bailey_ MANUAL OF FRUIT DISEASES--_Hesler and Whetzel_ MANUAL OF MILK PRODUCTS--_Stocking_ MANUAL OF VEGETABLE-GARDEN INSECTS--_Crosby and Leonard_ MANUAL OF TREE DISEASES--_Rankin_ MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING--_Van Rensselaer, Rose, and Canon_ MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING--_Hedrick_ MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING BY U. P. HEDRICK HORTICULTURIST OF THE NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION New York THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1919 _All rights reserved_ COPYRIGHT, 1919, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Setup and electrotyped. Published June, 1919. Norwood Press J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE Seventy-nine books on grapes enrich the pomology of North America, not counting numerous state and national publications. Pomological writers in America have been partial to the grape, for other fruits do not fare nearly so well. Twenty-two books are devoted to the strawberry, fourteen to the apple, to the peach nine, cranberry eight, plum five, pear nine, quince two, loganberry one, while the cherry, raspberry, and blackberry are not once separated from other fruits in special books. Thus, though a comparative newcomer among the fruits of the country, the grape has been singled out for a treatise more times than all other fruits of temperate climates combined--seventy-nine books on the grape, seventy on all other fruits. This statement of partiality does not lead to an apology for a new book on the grape. There is urgent need for a new book. But three of the seventy-nine treatises on this fruit are contemporary, and all but one, a handbook on training, are records from vanished minds. Methods change so rapidly and varieties multiply so fast, that to keep pace there must be new books on fruits every few years. Besides, the types of grapes are so diverse, and different soils, climates, and treatments produce such widely dissimilar results, that many books are required to do justice to this fruit--the vineyard should be seen through many eyes. Commercial grape-growing is now a great industry in America, and deserves a treatise or its own. But there are also many demands for information on grape-growing by those who grow fruits for pleasure, especially by those who are escaping from cities to suburban homes, for the grape is a favorite fruit of the amateur. And so, though Pleasure and Profit are a hard team to drive together, this manual is written for both commercial and amateur grape-growers. In particular, the needs of the amateur are recognized in the chapter on varieties, where many sorts are described which have little or no commercial value. No other fruit offers the enchantment of novelty to be found in the grape. Alluring flavors, sizes, and colors abound, of which the amateur wants samples. The commercial grower who plants but one variety often finds himself dissatisfied with the humdrum of the business. He should emulate the amateur and plant more kinds, if only for pleasure, remembering the adage, "No profit grows where is no pleasure ta'en." Greater pleasure in grape-growing, then, is offered as the justification of the long chapter on varieties. At the risk of too broad spreading, the author discusses, in a book mainly devoted to native grapes, the culture of European grapes in the far West. The chief aim is, of course, to set forth information that will be helpful to growers of these grapes in the western states, there being no treatises to which western growers can refer, other than bulletins from state and national agricultural institutions. There is, however, another reason for attempting to cover the whole field of grape-growing in America. It is certain that eastern grape-growers will sometime grow European grapes. Western vineyards might well be enlarged with plantings of native grapes. On the supposition, then, that the culture of both European and native grapes is to become less and less restricted in America, the author has ventured to discuss the culture of all grapes for all parts of North America. In the preparation of this manual, the author's "The Grapes of New York," a book long out of print and never widely distributed, has been laid under heavy contribution, especially in the description of varieties. Acknowledgments are due to F. Z. Hartzell for reading the chapter on Grape Pests and their Control and for furnishing most of the photographs used in making illustrations of insects and fungi; to F. E. Gladwin for similar help in preparing the two chapters on pruning and training the grape in eastern America; to Frederic T. Bioletti for permission to republish from a bulletin written by him from the Agricultural Experiment Station of California almost the whole chapter on Grape Pruning on the Pacific Slope; and to O. M. Taylor and to R. D. Anthony for very material assistance in reading the manuscript and proofs. U. P. HEDRICK. GENEVA, N. Y., Jan. 1, 1919. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE 1 II GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS 16 III PROPAGATION 36 IV STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES 61 V THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT 73 VI FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES 97 VII PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 108 VIII TRAINING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA 123 IX GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC COAST 150 X EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA 184 XI GRAPES UNDER GLASS 192 XII GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 204 XIII MARKETING GRAPES 230 XIV GRAPE PRODUCTS 250 XV GRAPE BREEDING 273 XVI MISCELLANIES 284 XVII GRAPE BOTANY 300 XVIII VARIETIES OF GRAPES 330 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES PLATE PAGE I. Two views of vineyards in California; a vineyard in the orchard region of central California, and a vineyard in southern California 14 II. Fitting the land for planting 34 III. Cover-crop; cow-horn turnips, and rye 48 IV. A well-tilled vineyard of Concords 60 V. Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New York; Malvasia and Chasselas Golden 72 VI. Black Hamburg 82 VII. Barry. Delaware 96 VIII. Brighton 106 IX. Campbell Early 114 X. Clinton 122 XI. Concord 138 XII. Diana 148 XIII. Dutchess 164 XIV. Eaton 182 XV. Eclipse 190 XVI. Elvira 202 XVII. Empire State 218 XVIII. Herbert 228 XIX. Iona 248 XX. Isabella 272 XXI. Jefferson 282 XXII. Lindley. Lucile 298 XXIII. Lutie. Pocklington 328 XXIV. Moore Early 340 XXV. Muscat Hamburg 350 XXVI. Niagara 360 XXVII. Salem 370 XXVIII. Triumph 380 XXIX. Vergennes 390 XXX. Winchell 400 XXXI. Worden 416 XXXII. Wyoming 432 FIGURES IN THE TEXT FIGURE 1. A shoot of _Vitis vinifera_ 3 2. A shoot of _Vitis Labrusca_ 6 3. A shoot of _Vitis rotundifolia_ 10 4. A shoot of _Vitis æstivalis_ 12 5. A shoot of _Vitis vulpina_ 14 6. Planting cuttings 40 7. A cutting beginning growth 40 8. Cutting off the trunk 46 9. Cutting the cleft 47 10. Inserting the cion 47 11. The completed graft 47 12. Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing the cleft-graft and the whip-graft. (Adapted from Husmann) 51 13. Vine ready for pruning 113 14. A "go-devil" for collecting prunings 119 15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end posts 120 16. Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune 127 17. Keuka method of training 130 18. Single-stem four-cane Kniffin training 133 19. Umbrella method of training 134 20. Two-trunk Kniffin training 135 21. Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead method 144 22. A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm renewal method 145 23. Forms of head pruning 154 24. Forms of head pruning 155 25. Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes tied to horizontal trellis 156 26. Single vertical cordon with fruit-spurs 157 27. Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit-spurs 158 28. Three-year-old vine ready for pruning 169 29. Vine of Fig. 28 after pruning for vase-formed head 169 30. Three-year-old vines: A, pruned for a vase-formed, and B, for a fan-shaped head 170 31. Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed head 171 32. Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed head 172 33. Fan-shaped vines: A, before pruning; B, after pruning 173 34. Vertical cordon, young vine pruned 176 35. Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning 177 36. Leaf-galls of the phylloxera 205 37. The grape root-worm 207 38. Root-worm beetle 207 39. Injuries caused by beetles of the grape root-worm 207 40. Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle 209 41. First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper 212 42. The fifth and the mature stages of the grape leaf-hopper 212 43. A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry moth 214 44. Work of black-rot of the grape 219 45. Grapes attacked by downy-mildew 221 46. Packing grapes on a packing-table 234 47. Climax baskets in two sizes 236 48. William Robert Prince 274 49. E. S. Rogers 275 50. T. V. Munson 277 51. Staminate and perfect flower clusters on one vine 285 52. Ringing grape-vines; showing tools for ringing and ringed vines 292 53. A grape flower; showing the opening cap and stamens 305 54. Grape flowers; showing upright and depressed stamens 306 MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING CHAPTER I THE DOMESTICATION OF THE GRAPE The domestication of an animal or a plant is a milestone in the advance of agriculture and so becomes of interest to every human being. But, more particularly, the materials, the events and the men who direct the work of domestication are of interest to those who breed and care for animals and plants; the grape-grower should find much profit in the story of the domestication of the grape. What was the raw material of a fruit known since the beginning of agriculture and wherever temperate fruits are grown? How has this material been fashioned into use? Who were the originative and who the directive agents? These are fundamental questions in the improvement of the grape, answers to which will also throw much light on the culture of it. Botanists number from forty to sixty species of grapes in the world. These are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, all but a few being found in temperate countries. Thus, more than half of the named species come from the United States and Canada, while nearly all of the others are from China and Japan, with but one species certainly growing wild in southwestern Asia and bordering parts of Europe. All true grapes have more or less edible fruits, and of the twenty or more species grown in the New World more than half have been or are being domesticated. Of the Old World grapes, only one species is cultivated for fruit, but this, of all grapes, is of greatest economic importance and, therefore, deserves first consideration. THE EUROPEAN GRAPE The European grape, _Vitis vinifera_ (Fig. 1), is the grape of ancient and modern agriculture. It is the vine which Noah planted after the Deluge; the vine of Israel and of the Promised Land; the vine of the parables in the New Testament. It is the grape and the vine of the myths, fables, poetry and prose of all peoples. It is the grape from which the wines of the world are made. From it come the raisins of the world. It is the chief agricultural crop of southern Europe and northern Africa and of vast regions in other parts of the world, having followed civilized man from place to place in all temperate climates. The European grape has so impressed itself on the human mind that when one thinks or speaks of the grape, or of the vine, it is this Old World species, the vine of antiquity, that presents itself. The written records of the cultivation of the European grape go back five or six thousand years. The ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans grew the vine and made wine from its fruit. Grape seeds have been found in the remains of European peoples of prehistoric times, showing that primitive men enlivened their scanty fare with wild grapes. Cultivation of the grape in the Old World probably began in the region about the Caspian Sea where the vine has always run wild. We have proof of the great antiquity of the grape in Egypt, for its seeds are found entombed with the oldest mummies. Probably the Phoenicians, the earliest navigators on the Mediterranean, carried the grape from Egypt and Syria to Greece, Rome and other countries bordering on this sea. The domestication of the grape was far advanced in Christ's time, for Pliny, writing then, describes ninety-one kinds of grapes and fifty kinds of wine. [Illustration: FIG. 1. A shoot of _Vitis vinifera_.] It can never be known exactly when the European grape came under cultivation. There is no word as to what were the methods and processes of domestication, and whose the minds and hands that remodeled the wild grape of Europe into the grape of the vineyards. The Old World grape was domesticated long before the faint traditions which have been transmitted to our day could possibly have arisen. For knowledge of how wild species of this fruit have been and may be brought under cultivation, we must turn to New World records. AMERICAN GRAPES Few other plants in the New World grow wild under such varied conditions and over such extended areas as the grape. Wild grapes are found in the warmer parts of New Brunswick; on the shores of the Great Lakes; everywhere in the woodlands of the North and Middle Atlantic states; on the limestone soils of Kentucky, Tennessee and the Virginias; and they thrive in the sandy woods, sea plains and reef-keys of the South Atlantic and Gulf states. While not so common west of the Mississippi, yet some kind of wild grape is found from North Dakota to Texas; grapes grow on the mountains and in the cañons of all the Rocky Mountain states; and several species thrive on the Mexican borders and in the far Southwest. While it is possible that all American grapes have descended from an original species, the types are now as diverse as the regions they inhabit. The wild grapes of the forests have long slender trunks and branches, whereby their leaves are better exposed to the sunlight. Two shrubby species do not attain a greater height than four or five feet; these grow in sandy soils, or among rocks exposed to sun and air. Another runs on the ground and bears foliage almost evergreen. The stem of one species attains a diameter of a foot, bearing its foliage in a great canopy. From this giant form the species vary to slender, graceful, climbing vines. Wild grapes are as varied in climatic adaptations as in structure of vine and grow luxuriantly in every condition of heat or cold, wetness or dryness, capable of supporting fruit-culture in America. So many of the kinds have horticultural possibilities that it seems certain that some grape can be domesticated in all of the agricultural regions of the country, their natural plasticity indicating, even if it were not known from experience, that all can be domesticated. Leif the Lucky, the first European to visit America, if the Icelandic records are true, christened the new land Wineland. It has been supposed that this designation was given for the grapes, but recent investigations show that the fruits were probably mountain cranberries. Captain John Hawkins, who visited the Spanish settlements in Florida in 1565, mentions wild grapes among the resources of the New World. Amadas and Barlowe, sent out by Raleigh in 1584, describe the coasts of the Carolinas as, "so full of grapes that in all the world like abundance cannot be found." Captain John Smith, writing in 1606, describes the grapes of Virginia and recommends the culture of the vine as an industry for the newly founded colony. Few, indeed, are the explorers of the Atlantic seaboard who do not mention grapes among the plants of the country. Yet none saw intrinsic value in these wild vines. To the Europeans, the grapes of the Old World alone were worth cultivating, and the vines growing everywhere in America only suggested that the grape they had known across the sea might be grown in the new home. That American viticulture must depend on the native species for its varieties began to be recognized at the beginning of the nineteenth century, when several large companies engaged in growing foreign grapes failed, and a meritorious native grape made its appearance. The vine of promise was a variety known as the Alexander. Thomas Jefferson, ever alert for the agricultural welfare of the nation, writing in 1809 to John Adlum, one of the first experimenters with an American species, voiced the sentiment of grape experimenters in speaking of the Alexander: "I think it will be well to push the culture of this grape without losing time and efforts in the search of foreign vines, which it will take centuries to adapt to our soil and climate." [Illustration: FIG. 2. A shoot of _Vitis Labrusca_.] Alexander is an offshoot of the common fox-grape, _Vitis Labrusca_ (Fig. 2), found in the woods on the Atlantic coast from Maine to Georgia and occasionally in the Mississippi Valley. The history of the variety dates back to before the Revolutionary War, when, according to William Bartram, the Quaker botanist, it was found growing in the vicinity of Philadelphia, by John Alexander, gardener to Governor Penn of Pennsylvania. Curiously enough, it came into general cultivation through the deception of a nurseryman. Peter Legaux, a French-American grape-grower, in 1801 sold the Kentucky Vineyard Society fifteen hundred grape cuttings which he said had been taken from an European grape introduced from the Cape of Good Hope, therefore called the "Cape" grape. Legaux's grape turned out to be the Alexander. In the new home the spurious Cape grew wonderfully well and as the knowledge of its fruitfulness in Kentucky, Ohio and Indiana spread, demand for it increased, and with remarkable rapidity, considering the time, it came into general cultivation in the parts of the United States then settled. _The Labrusca or fox-grapes._ Of the several species of American grapes now under cultivation, the Labrusca, first represented by the Alexander, has furnished more cultivated varieties than all the other American species together, no less than five hundred of its varieties having been grown in the vineyards of the country. There are several reasons why it is the most generally cultivated species. It is native to the parts of the United States in which agriculture soonest advanced to a state where fruits were desired. In the wild, the Labruscas are the most attractive, being largest and handsomest in color; among all grapes it alone shows black-, white- and red-fruited forms on wild vines. There is a northern and a southern form of the species, and its varieties are, therefore, widely adapted to climates and to soils. The flavor of the fruits of this species, all things considered, is rather better than that of any other of our wild grapes, though the skins in most of its varieties have a peculiar aroma, somewhat pronounced in the well-known Concord, Niagara and Worden, which is disagreeable to tastes accustomed to the pure flavors of the European grapes. All Labruscas submit well to vineyard operations and are vigorous, hardy and productive, though they are more subject to the dreaded phylloxera than are most of the other cultivated native species. Of the many grapes of this type, at least two deserve brief historical mention. Catawba, probably a pure-bred Labrusca, the first American grape of commercial importance, is the most interesting variety of its species. The origin of the variety is not certainly known, but all evidence points to its having been found about the year 1800 on the banks of the Catawba River, North Carolina. It was introduced into general cultivation by Major John Adlum, soldier of the Revolution, judge, surveyor and author of the first American book on grapes. Adlum maintained an experimental vineyard in the District of Columbia, whence in 1823 he began the distribution of the Catawba. At that time the center of American grape culture was about Cincinnati, and an early shipment of Adlum's Catawbas went to Nicholas Longworth of that city and was by him distributed throughout the grape-growing centers of the country. As one of the first to test new varieties of American grapes, to grow them largely and to make wine commercially from them, Nicholas Longworth is known as the "father of American grape culture." Catawba is still one of the four leading varieties in the vineyards of eastern America. The characters whereby its high place is maintained among grapes are: Great elasticity of constitution, by reason of which the vine is adapted to many environments; rich flavor, long-keeping quality, and handsome appearance of fruit, qualities which make it a very good dessert grape; high sugar-content and a rich flavor of juice, so that from its fruit is made a very good wine and a very good grape-juice; and vigor, hardiness and productiveness of vine. The characters of Catawba are readily transmissible, and it has many pure-bred or hybrid offspring which more or less resemble it. The second commercial grape of importance in American viticulture is Concord, which came from the seed of a wild grape planted in the fall of 1843 by Ephraim W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts. The new variety was disseminated in the spring of 1854, and from the time of its introduction the spread of its culture was phenomenal. By 1860 it was the leading grape in America and it so remains. Concord furnishes, with the varieties that have sprung from it, seventy-five per cent of the grapes grown in eastern America. The characters which distinguish the vine are: Adaptability to various soils, fruitfulness, hardiness and resistance to diseases and insects. The fruits are distinguished by certainty of maturity, attractive appearance, good but not high flavor, and by the fact that they may be produced so cheaply that no other grape can compete with this variety in the markets. Concord is, as Horace Greeley well denominated it in awarding the Greeley prize for the best American grape, "the grape for the millions." The histories of these two grapes are typical of those of five hundred or more other Labruscas. Out of a prodigious number of native seedlings, an occasional one is found greatly to excel its fellows and is brought under cultivation. _The Rotundifolia or Muscadine grapes._ Long before the northern Labruscas had attained prominence in the vineyards of the North, a grape had been domesticated partially in the South. It is _Vitis rotundifolia_ (Fig. 3), a species which runs riot from the Potomac to the Gulf, thriving in many diverse soils, but growing only in the southern climate and preferring the seacoast. Rotundifolia grapes have been cultivated somewhat for fruit or ornament from the earliest colonial times. It is certain that wine was made from this species by the English settlers at Jamestown. Vines of it are now to be found on arbors, in gardens or half wild on fences in nearly every farm in the South Atlantic states. That the Rotundifolias have not been more generally brought under cultivation is due to the bountifulness of the wild vines, which has obviated the necessity of domesticating them. The fruit of its varieties, to a palate unaccustomed to them, is not very acceptable, having a musky flavor and odor and a sweet, juicy pulp, which is lacking in sprightliness. Many, however, acquire a taste for these grapes and find them pleasant eating. The great defect of this grape is that the berries part from the pedicels as they ripen and perfect bunches cannot be secured. In fact, the crop is often harvested by shaking the vines so that the berries drop on sheets beneath. Despite these defects, a score or more varieties of this species are now under general cultivation in the cotton-belt, and interest in their domestication is now greater than in any other species, with great promise for the future. [Illustration: FIG. 3. A shoot of _Vitis rotundifolia_.] _The Æstivalis or summer-grapes._ The South has another grape of remarkable horticultural possibilities. This is _Vitis æstivalis_ (Fig. 4), the summer-grape or, to distinguish it from the Rotundifolias, the bunch-grape of southern forests. There are now a score or more well-known varieties of this species, the best known being Norton, which probably originated with Dr. D. N. Norton, Richmond, Virginia, in the early part of the nineteenth century. The berries of the true Æstivalis grapes are too small, too destitute of pulp and too tart to make good dessert fruits, but from them are made our best native red wines. Domestication of this species has been greatly retarded by a peculiarity of the species which hinders its propagation. Grapes are best propagated from cuttings, but this species is not easily reproduced by this means and the difficulty of securing good young vines has been a serious handicap in its culture. There are two subspecies of _Vitis æstivalis_ which promise much for American viticulture. _Vitis æstivalis Bourquiniana_, known only under cultivation and of very doubtful botanical standing, furnishes American viticulture several valuable varieties. Chief of these is the Delaware, the introduction of which sixty years ago from the town of Delaware, Ohio, raised the standard in quality of New World grapes to that of Old World. No European grape has a richer or more delicate flavor, or a more pleasing aroma, than Delaware. While a northern grape, it can be grown in the South, and thrives under so many different climatic and soil conditions and under all is so fruitful, that, next to the Concord, it is the most popular American grape for garden and vineyard. Without question, however, Delaware contains a trace of European blood. [Illustration: FIG. 4. A shoot of _Vitis æstivalis_.] Another offshoot of this subspecies is Herbemont, which, in the South, holds the same rank that Concord holds in the North. The variety is grown only south of the Ohio, and in this great region it is esteemed by all for a dessert grape and for its light red wine. It is one of the few American varieties which finds favor in France, being cultivated in southwest France as a wine-grape. Its history goes back to a colony of French Huguenots in Georgia before the Revolutionary War. Very similar to Herbemont is Lenoir, also with a history tracing back to the French in the Carolinas or Georgia in the eighteenth century. The other subspecies of _Vitis æstivalis_ is _Vitis æstivalis Lincecumii_, the post-oak grape of Texas and of the southern part of the Mississippi Valley. Recently this wild grape has been brought under domestication, and from it has been bred a number of most promising varieties for hot and dry regions. _The Vulpina or river-bank grapes._ The North, too, has a wine-grape from which wines nearly equaling those of the southern Æstivalis are made. This is _Vitis vulpina_ (_V. riparia_), the river-bank grape, a shoot of which is shown in Fig. 5, the most widely distributed of any of the native species. It grows as far north as Quebec, south to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Rocky Mountains. Fully a century ago, a wine-grape of this species was cultivated under the name Worthington, but the attention of vineyardists was not turned to the Vulpinas until after the middle of the last century, when the qualities of its vines attracted the attention of French viticulturists. Phylloxera had been introduced from America into France and threatened the existence of French vineyards. After trying all possible remedies for the scourge, it was discovered that the insect could be overcome by grafting European grapes on American vines resistant to phylloxera. A trial of the promising species of New World grapes showed that vines of this species were best suited for the reconstruction of French vineyards, the vines being not only resistant to the phylloxera but also vigorous and hardy. At present, a large proportion of the vines of Europe, California and other grape-growing regions are grafted on the roots of this or of other American species, and the viticulture of the world is thus largely dependent on these grapes. [Illustration: FIG. 5. A shoot of _Vitis vulpina_.] The French found that a number of the Vulpina (Riparia) grapes introduced for their roots were valuable as direct producers for wines. The fruits of this species are too small and too sour for dessert, but they are free from the disagreeable tastes and aromas of some of our native grapes and, therefore, make very good wines. The best known of the varieties of this species is the Clinton, which is generally thought to have originated in the yard of Dr. Noyes, of Hamilton College, Clinton, New York, about 1820. It is, however, probably the Worthington, of which the origin is unknown, renamed. There are possibly a hundred or more grapes now under cultivation wholly or in part from Vulpina, most of them hybrids with the American Labrusca and the European Vinifera, with both of which it hybridizes freely. _Domesticated species of minor importance._ In the preceding paragraphs we have seen that four species of grapes constitute the foundation of American viticulture. Nine other species furnish pure-bred varieties and many hybrids with the four chief species or among themselves. These are _V. rupestris_, _V. Longii_, _V. Champinii_, _V. Munsoniana_, _V. cordifolia_, _V. candicans_, _V. bicolor_, _V. monticola_ and _V. Berlandieri_. Several of these nine species are of value in the vineyard or for stocks upon which to graft other grapes. The domestication of all of these is just begun, and each year sees them more and more in use in the vineyards of the country. [Illustration: PLATE I.--Two views of vineyards in California. _Top_, a vineyard in the orchard region of central California; _bottom_, a vineyard in southern California.] CHAPTER II GRAPE REGIONS AND THEIR DETERMINANTS Happily, the grape in its great diversity of forms accommodates itself to many conditions, so that some variety of the several cultivated species will produce fruit for home use, if not as a market commodity, in every part of America adapted to general agriculture. But commercial grape-growing on this continent is confined to a few regions, in each of which it is profitable only in ideal situations. In fact, few other agricultural industries are more definitely determined by environment than the grape-industry. Where are the grape regions of America? What determines the suitability of a region for grape-growing? Answers to these questions furnish clews to the culture of this fruit and help in estimating the potentialities of a new region or of a location for grape-growing. THE GRAPE REGIONS OF AMERICA There are four chief grape-growing regions in North America, with possibly twice as many more subsidiary ones. These several regions, each of which has its distinct varieties and to less extent distinct species, and in each of which grapes are grown for somewhat widely different purposes, give a great variety of industrial conditions to the grape-growing of the continent. Nevertheless, the regions have much in common in their environment. It is from their differences and similarities that most can be learned in the brief discussions of the regions that follow. _The Pacific slope._ The Pacific slope takes precedence among the grape regions of the continent, exceeding all others combined in the production of grapes and grape products. California is the viticultural center of this great region, grapes being grown within her bounds from the foot of Mount Shasta on the north to Mexico on the south and from the foothills of the Sierras on the east to the forest that borders the coast on the west. So outlined, California might appear to be one vast vineyard, but it is only in favored valleys, plains and low hills in the territory bounded that the vine is sufficiently well suited to be productive. Outliers of this main region of the Pacific slope run north into Oregon, Washington, Idaho and even into British Columbia, forced more and more eastward the farther north to escape humidity from the ocean which northward passes farther and farther inland. Other outliers of the main region are found eastward in Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico and even Utah and Colorado, though for the most part in these states grape-growing is still insignificant. Plate I shows typical vineyards in California. The grapes grown on the Pacific slope are almost exclusively Vinifera varieties, though a few American grapes are planted in the Pacific Northwest. This is not because American varieties cannot be grown, although they succeed rather less well here than on the eastern seaboard, but because the Viniferas are liked better, and climate and soil seem exactly to suit them. Viticulture on the Pacific slope is divided into three interdependent industries which are almost never quite independent of each other--the wine industry, raisin industry and table-grape industry. Each of these industries depends on grapes more or less specially adapted to the product, the special characteristics being secured chiefly through somewhat distinct types of grapes but depending partly on soil and climatic conditions. The manufacture of unfermented grape-juice is not yet a success in this region for the reasons that Vinifera grapes do not make a good unfermented juice, and American grapes are not grown in sufficient quantities to warrant the establishment of grape-juice plants. Bioletti gives the extent of the grape-growing industry in California as follows:[1] "The vineyards of California covered in 1912 about 385,000 acres. Of this total, about 180,000 acres were producing wine-grapes. Roughly, 50 per cent of the wine was produced in the great interior valleys, including most of the sweet wines; 35 per cent was produced by the valleys and hillsides of the Coast ranges, including most of the dry wines; the remaining 15 per cent was produced in Southern California and included both sweet and dry. "The raisin-grape vineyards covered about 130,000 acres, of which about 90 per cent were in the San Joaquin Valley, 7 per cent in the Sacramento, and 3 per cent in Southern California. "The shipping-grape vineyards are reckoned at 75,000 acres, distributed about as follows: 50 per cent in the Sacramento Valley, 40 per cent in San Joaquin, 6 per cent in Southern California, and 4 per cent in the Coast ranges." _The Chautauqua grape-belt._ The Chautauqua grape-belt, lying along the northeastern shore of Lake Erie in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio, is the second most important grape region in America. The "belt" is a narrow strip of lowland averaging about three miles in width, lying between Lake Erie and a high escarpment which bounds the belt on the south throughout its entire length of a hundred or more miles. Here climate and soil seem to be exceptionally favorable for grape-growing. Climate is the chief determinant of the boundaries of this belt, since there are several types of soil upon which grapes do equally well in the region, and when the climate changes at the two extremities of the belt where the escarpment becomes low, or when the distance between the lake and the escarpment is great, grape-growing ceases to be profitable. The growers of this region are organized into selling associations so that estimates of acreage and yields are obtainable. At present writing, 1918, there are in this belt in New York about 35,000 acres of grapes; in Pennsylvania and Ohio, about 15,000 acres, much the greater part of which is in Pennsylvania. The average yield of grapes to the acre for the region is about two tons. The average total production for the past five years has been about 100,000 tons, of which 65,000 tons are shipped as table-grapes, and 35,000 tons are used in the manufacture of wine and grape-juice. Among varieties, Concord reigns supreme in the Chautauqua belt. The writer, in 1906, made a canvass of the region, vineyard by vineyard, and found that 90 per cent of the acreage of the belt was set to Concord, 3 per cent to Niagara, 2 per cent to Worden and the remaining 5 per cent to a dozen or more varieties of which Moore Early and Delaware led. The manufacture of grape-juice on a commercial scale began in the Chautauqua belt and most of this product is still produced in the region. Here, only Concord grapes of the best quality are used for grape-juice. The growth of this industry is most significant for the future of grape-growing in the region. Twenty years ago grape-juice was a negligible factor in the grape industry of this region; at present, the annual output is in the neighborhood of 4,000,000 gallons. Grape-juice-makers now determine the price of grapes for the region, and while the quantity used is less than that for table-grapes, the time is not distant when it will be greater. _The Niagara region._ Fifty miles due north of the Chautauqua belt, across the end of Lake Erie and the narrow isthmus of Niagara, is a smaller belt on the southern shore of Lake Ontario so similar in soil, climate and topography that in these respects the two regions might be considered as identical. This is the Niagara region, Canada's chief grape-producing area. It is bounded on the north by Lake Ontario; on the south, at a distance of one to three miles by the high Niagara escarpment; to the east it crosses the Niagara River into New York; and in the west tapers to a point at Hamilton on the westward extremity of Lake Ontario. Here, again, is the influence of climate distinctly manifested. As this belt passes into New York, it widens and the influence of Lake Ontario is less and less felt to the eastward, and in consequence grape-growing becomes less and less profitable. There were, according to the Ontario Bureau of Industries, in 1914, about 10,850 acres of grapes in the Niagara region in Canada, and possibly 4,000 acres more near the Niagara River and along the shore of Lake Ontario in New York. The Niagara grape originated on the American side of the Niagara region and is here planted more extensively than elsewhere. Grape-growing in this region is similar in all respects to that of the Chautauqua belt, the same varieties and nearly identical methods of pruning, cultivation, spraying and harvesting being employed. The crop is chiefly used as table-grapes but the grape-juice industry is growing. _The Central Lakes region of New York._ In the central part of western New York are several remarkable bodies of water known as the Central Lakes. Three of these are large and deep enough to give ideal climatic conditions for grapes, and about these lakes are grouped several important areas of vineyards, making this the third most important grape region in America. The region assumes further importance because most of the champagne made in America is produced here, and it is the chief center of still wines in eastern America as well. It is further distinguished by its distinctive types of grapes, Catawba and Delaware taking the place of Concord and Niagara, the sorts that usually predominate in eastern grape regions. The main body of this region lies on the steep slopes of the high lands surrounding Keuka Lake. On the shores of this lake there are, approximately, 15,000 acres of grapes. Adjacent to this main body are several smaller bodies about the neighboring lakes. Thus, at the head of Canandaigua Lake and on its shores are about 2500 acres; near Seneca and between Seneca and Cayuga Lakes there are probably 1500 acres more. In a few specially favored places on other of these Central Lakes, there are possibly 1000 acres, making all told for this region, about 20,000 acres. Again it is climate that sets the seal of approval on the region for viticulture. In addition to the benefits of deep bodies of water, high and sloping lands cause the frosts to cease early in the spring and hold them in abeyance in the autumn, giving an exceptionally long season. Champagne-making began here about 1860; at present there are a score or more manufacturers of champagne, wine and brandy, the output being annually about 3,000,000 gallons of wine and 2,000,000 bottles of champagne. Recently the manufacture of grape-juice has begun and the industry is now flourishing. _Minor grape regions._ Viticulture is commercially important in several other regions than those outlined. Thus, in the valley of the Hudson River, grapes have been grown commercially for nearly a hundred years, the industry reaching its height between 1880 and 1890, when there were 13,000 acres under cultivation. For some years, however, grape-growing along the Hudson has been on the decline. Another region in which viticulture reaches considerable magnitude is in several islands in Lake Erie near Sandusky, Ohio, the product going largely for the manufacture of wine. At one time grapes were grown commercially on the banks of the Ohio River about Cincinnati and westward into Indiana. The industry here, however, is a thing of the past. Another region in which grape-growing was once of prime importance but now lags has its center at Hermann, Missouri. The newest grape-producing area worthy of note is in southwestern Michigan about the towns of Lawton and Paw Paw. A small but very prosperous grape-growing region has its center at Egg Harbor, New Jersey. Ives is the mainstay among varieties in this region. In the southern states, Muscadine grapes are grown in a small way in every part of the cotton-belt and varieties of other native species are to be found in home vineyards in the upland regions, but nowhere in the South can it be said that grape-growing is a commercial industry. THE DETERMINANTS OF GRAPE REGIONS Climate, soil, site, the surface features of the land, insects, fungi and commercial geography are the chief factors that determine regions for money-making in grape-growing. This has been made plain in the foregoing discussion of grape regions, but the several factors must be taken up in greater detail. To bound the regions is of less importance than to understand why they exist--less needful to remember, more needful to understand. From what has been said, the reader has no doubt already concluded that successful grape-growing is in largest measure due to kindliness in climate. _Climate_ Under the assumption, then, that climate, of all factors, is chief in playing providence to the grape, let us examine somewhat critically the relations of climate to grape-growing. When analyzed, the essentials of climate, as it governs grape-growing, are found to be six: first, length of season; second, seasonal sum of heat; third, amount of humidity in summer weather; fourth, dates of spring and autumn frosts; fifth, winter temperature; sixth, air currents. _Length of season._ To reach true perfection, each grape variety has a length of season of its own. With each, if it is grown in too low a latitude, the vine is uninterrupted in growth; its leaves tend to become evergreen; and not infrequently it produces at the same time blossoms, green fruits and ripe fruits. This is, of course, the extreme to which grapes pass in the far South. Again, many northern varieties fail where southern grapes succeed because the fruits pass too rapidly from maturity to decay. On the other hand, very often southern grapes are hardy in vine in the North, but the season is not sufficiently long for the fruit to mature and to acquire sufficient sugar to give them good keeping quality, properly to pass through vinous fermentation, or even to make a good unfermented grape-juice. In the uneven topography of this continent, it is not possible to state the range in latitude in which grapes can be cultivated to advantage, for latitude is often set aside by altitude. Thus, isothermal lines, or lines of equal temperature, are much curved in America and do not at all coincide with the parallels of latitude. Other factors, of course, than length of season enter into the ripening of grapes. The daily range in temperature, not always dependent on latitude, affects ripening. Cool nights may offset warm days and delay ripening. Certainly rains, fogs and humid air delay maturity. The bottom heat of loose, warm, dry gravelly or stony soils hastens maturity. Sunshine secured by a sunny aspect or shelter hastens maturity. _The seasonal sum of heat._ Successful cultivation of the grape depends on a sufficient amount of heat during the summer season. The theory is that buds of the grape commence to start when the mean daily temperature reaches a certain height, and that the sum of the mean daily temperature must reach a certain amount before grapes ripen. Manifestly, this sum must vary much with different varieties, low for the earliest sorts, high for the latest. There have been many observations as to the temperatures at which buds of the grape start growth, so that it is now known that the temperature varies in accordance with locality and degree of maturity. Roughly speaking, grape buds start at temperatures from 50° to 60° F. The seasonal sum of heat for ripening is probably 1600 to 2400 units. A variety ought not to be planted, therefore, in a region in which the average seasonal sum of heat is not sufficiently high. The seasonal sum of heat can be determined for a locality from data published by the United States Weather Bureau; and by comparing with the sum of heat units in localities where a variety is known to thrive, the grape-grower can determine whether there is sufficient heat for any particular variety. The grape seldom suffers from hot weather in a grape region. The fruit is sometimes scalded in the full blaze of a hot sun, but the ample foliage of the vine usually furnishes protection against a burning sun. At maturing time, the heat of an unclouded sun, if the air circulates freely, insures a finely finished product. Deep planting helps to offset the harmful influences of warm climates. _Humidity of summer weather._ The grape is very sensitive to moisture conditions, and grows best in regions where the summer rainfall is comparatively light. A damp and cloudy summer brings disaster to the vineyard in several ways; as small growth of vine, small set of fruit, a crop of poor quality, and the development of the several fungous diseases. Although the grape stands drought, a superfluity of moisture in the soil may do little harm, as is shown in irrigated vineyards, but a humid air is fatal to success especially if the air is both warm and wet. Moist weather during the time of maturity is particularly disastrous to the grape, as are frequent fogs. Cold wet weather in blooming time is the grape-grower's vernal bane, since it most effectually prevents the setting of fruit. It may be laid down as a rule that the grape lives by sunlight, warmth and air--it often thrives on the desert's edge. These considerations make it manifest that the monthly and seasonal means of precipitation must be considered in selecting a locality to grow grapes. _Spring and autumn frosts._ The average date at which the last killing frost occurs in the spring often determines the limit in latitude at which the grape can be grown. Even in the most favored grape region of the continent, killing frosts occasionally destroy the grape crop, and there are few seasons in which frost does not take some toll. Thus on May 7, 1916, frost all but ruined the crop of wine- and table-grapes in the great grape region of northern California where frosts are seldom expected in May. Little or nothing can be done to protect grapes from frost. Windbreaks as often favor the frost as the vine, and smudging or heating the vineyards is too expensive to be practical. In growing grapes, therefore, the commonly recognized precaution of selecting a site near water, on slopes or in a warm thermal belt must be exercised. The limits of grape culture are also determined by early autumn frosts. The grape stands two or three degrees of frost, but anything lower usually destroys the crop. Here, again, the only precaution is to take pains in selecting the site. _The use of weather data and dates of life events of the grape._ These considerations of length of season, humidity and spring and fall frosts make it plain that the grape-grower must synchronize these phases of climate with the life events of the grape. In particular, he must study weather data in relation to the blooming and ripening of grapes. Usually, the necessary weather data may be secured from the nearest local weather bureau, while the date of blooming and ripening may be obtained from the state experiment stations in the states where the grape is an important crop. _Winter temperature._ Varieties of native grapes are seldom injured in America by winter-killing, since they are usually planted in climates in which wild grapes withstand winter conditions. Native varieties follow the rule that plant and climate are truly congenial in regions in which the plant thrives without the aid of man. A few varieties of native grapes fare badly in the winter's cold of northern grape regions, and the tender Vinifera vine is at the mercy of the winter wherever the mercury goes below zero. In cold climates, therefore, care must be exercised in selecting hardy varieties and in following careful cultural methods with the tender sorts. If other climatic conditions are favorable, however, winter-killing is not an unsurmountable difficulty, since the grape is easily protected from cold, so easily that the tender Viniferas may be grown in the cold North with winter protection. _Air currents._ Currents of air are of but local importance in growing tree-fruits, but are of general and vital importance in growing the grape. The direction, force and frequency of prevailing winds are often controlling factors in the suppression of fungous diseases of the grape, and the presence of fungi often means success or failure in regions in which the grape is planted. Winds are beneficial, too, when they bring warm air or dry air, and when they keep frosty air in motion. The air must move in all grape regions, whether from cañon, mountain, lake or sea. Sunlight, warmth, and air in motion are life to the grape. Sometimes winds may be detrimental; as when too cold, too blustering, or when they bring hail, the latter being about the most disastrous of all natural calamities. Windbreaks are of small value and are often worse than useless. Having planted his vineyard, the grape-grower must take the winds as they blow. _Soils for grapes_ A prime requisite for a vineyard being earth in which vines will grow, successful grape-growing is eminently dependent on the selection of soil. Many mistakes are made in the great grape regions in planting on unsuitable soils, the planter going on the assumption that any soil in a grape region should be good enough for the grape. But the crust of the earth in grape regions is not all grape soil. In New York, for example, much of the land in the three grape regions is better fitted for producing crops for the mason or road-mender than for the grape-grower. Other soils in these regions are fit for vineyards only when tiled, and tiling does not make all wet land fit for tilling. Heavy, clammy clays, light sands, soils parched with thirst, thin or hungry soils--on all of these the grower may plant but will seldom harvest. _The ideal soil._ Grapes may be well grown in a wide range of soils if the land is well drained, open to air and if it holds heat. But without these essentials, whatever the soil, all subsequent treatment fails to produce a good vineyard. Generally speaking, the grape grows best in a light, free-working, gravelly loam, but there are many good vineyards in gravelly or stony clays, gravel or stone to furnish drainage, let in the air and to hold heat. Contrary to general belief, the grape seldom thrives in very sandy soils unless there is a fair admixture of clay, considerable decomposing vegetable matter and a clay subsoil. The latter, however, must not come too close to the surface. Some of the best vineyard lands in the country are very stony, the stones hindering only in making the land difficult to till. Nearly all grapes require a friable soil, compactness being a serious defect. Virgil, writing in Christ's time, gave good advice as to soil for the vine: "A free loose earth is what the vines demand, Where wind and frost have help'd the lab'rer's hand, And sturdy peasants deep have stirr'd the land." Cold, churlish, sticky or clammy clays are never to the liking of the grape. Great fertility is not necessary in grape lands. Indeed, the grape is conspicuous among cultivated plants for ability to nourish itself where the food supply is scant. Soils naturally too rich produce an overgrowth of vine, the season's wood does not mature, the crop does not set, and the grapes lack sugar, size, color and flavor. Good physical condition and warmth in a well-watered, well-aired soil enable the grape to search far and wide for its food. _Drainage._ No cultivated grape endures a wet soil; all demand drainage. A few sorts may thrive for a time in moist, heavy land, but more often they do not live though they may linger. The water-table should be at least two feet from the surface. If by chance this comes naturally, so much the better, but otherwise the land must be tile-drained. Sloping land is by no means always well drained, many hillsides having a subsoil so impervious or so retentive of moisture that under-drainage is a necessity. The texture of the land is usually improved so greatly by good drainage that the grower has little need to rely on the clemency of the season in carrying on vineyard cultivation in well-drained land. _Soil adaptations._ In the refinement of viticulture, grape-growers find that particular varieties grow best in a particular soil, the likes and dislikes being determined only by trial, for the peculiarities which adapt a soil to a variety are not analyzable. Some varieties, on the other hand, the Concord being a good example, grow fruitfully in a great variety of soils. Each of the several species with their varieties has quite distinct adaptations to soils. This is taken advantage of in planting varieties on uncongenial soils after they have been grafted on a vine which finds itself at home in the particular soil. Much has been accomplished in growing varieties on uncongenial soils by consorting them with other stocks, an operation which has brought forth volumes of discussion as to the adaptabilities of cions to stocks and stocks to soils, subjects to receive attention on a later page. _Insects and fungi_ The profitable grape regions of the country have all been established in regions comparatively free from grape insects and fungi. If pests came later in considerable numbers, the industry, in the old days, perished. Here and there in the agricultural regions of the country may be found a sorry company of halt and maimed vines, remnants of once flourishing vineyards, brought to their miserable condition by some scourge of insects or fungi. The advent of spraying and of better knowledge of the habits of the pests has greatly lessened the importance of parasites as a factor in determining the value of a region for grape-growing; but even in the light of the new knowledge, it is not wise to go against Nature in regions where pests are strongly intrenched. _Commercial factors_ The dominant factors that lead to the planting of large areas to any one fruit are often economic ones; as transportation, markets, labor, facilities for making by-products, and opportunity to join in buying and selling organizations. All of these factors play an important part in determining the bounds of grape regions, but a lesser part than in the establishment of large areas of other fruits, for the reason that the grape is so largely grown for raisins, wine, champagne and grape-juice, products condensed in form, made with little labor, easily transported, which keep long and find ready market at any time. Again, where natural conditions are favorable for grape-growing, the crop comes almost as a gift from Nature; whereas, if the grower must breast the blows of unfavorable natural circumstances, no matter how favorable the economic factors may be, the vineyard is seldom profitable. Natural factors, therefore, outweigh economic ones in grape-growing, but the latter must be considered in seeking a site for a vineyard, a task discussed under several heads to follow. _Accessibility to markets._ Markets ought to be accessible in commercial grape-growing. A location in which there is a good local market, and at the same time ample facilities for shipping to distant markets, is desirable. If there are also opportunities to dispose of any surplus to makers of raisins, wine or grape-juice, the grower has well-nigh attained the ideal. Further to be desired are good roads, short hauls, quick transportation, reasonable freight rates, refrigerator service and coöperative agencies. The more of these advantages a grower has at his disposal, the less likely he is to fail in commercial competition. _General_ versus _local markets._ The grower must be reminded rather than informed that he must decide in locating his vineyard whether he will grow for distant markets, for manufacturing into grape products, or for local markets. Determination to grow grapes once made, subsequent procedure at every step depends on the disposition to be made of the product. Summarized, the differences in growing grapes for the two markets are: For the general market: the acreage should be large; the market may be distant; the varieties few; the cost of production low; sales large and prices low; the dealings are with middlemen; and extensive culture is practiced. For the local market: the acreage may be small; the market must be near and prices must be high; the sales are direct to the consumer; there must be succession in ripening; and intensive culture is practiced. For the general market, the vineyard is the unit; for the local market, the variety should be the unit. In this discussion, however, "large acreage" and "extensive culture" set against "small acreage" and "intensive culture" may mislead. This is a case in which a large endeavor may be a small endeavor, and a small endeavor a large one; or, in which it may be well to take the advice of Virgil, who advised Roman vineyardists, "Praise great estates; farm a small one." The grape-growing of the times tends more and more to growing for general markets. The grower plants to skim a comparatively small return from a large area. This division of grape-growing is now well developed in America. Intensive grape-growing for local markets is not well developed. There are, however, many opportunities in America for easy triumphs in fruit-growing in the planting of vineyards for local markets. No other fruit responds to fine art in culture so well as the grape. Given choicely good varieties and a finely finished product, and the grower may have almost what he desires for the produce of his skill. With the grape, too, palm of merit goes with skill in culture; among all who grow plants, only the florist can rival the viticulturist in guiding the development of a plant to a special end. In cultivating, fertilizing, training, grafting, pruning, spraying, in every cultural operation, the grape-grower has opportunities to sell his skill not given in so high degree to the grower of other fruits. _Labor._ A great advantage in the congregation of vineyardists in grape regions is found when labor must be obtained. Skilled labor is required to cultivate the vine, and such labor can be freely secured only in centers of viticulture. Grape-growing is a specialists' business, and it takes more than a day or a season to make a vine-dresser out of a farmer, gardener or an orchardist. Expert labor is most easily obtained and is of best quality where grapes abound. Common labor must be somewhat abundant, also, in good vineyard locations, for such rush tasks as tying and picking. In these two operations, women, children or other unskilled labor may be employed to advantage. The grape harvest must often be hurried, and to keep it in full swing a near-by city from which to draw pickers is a great asset. _Vineyard sites._ Within a grape region, the site is important in determining where to plant. The site is the local position of the vineyard. Sites cannot be standardized, and therefore no two are alike. The cardinal natural factors to be secured in a site are warmth, sun, air and freedom from frost. These factors have been discussed in a general way under the climate of grape regions, but one needs to particularize a little more closely to ascertain how they affect individual vineyards. Warmth, sun, air and frostlessness are best secured by proximity to water, high land and proper exposure. _Proximity to water._ The favorable influences of water are well illustrated in the grape regions of New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Canada. All of the grape districts in these regions are bounded on one or more sides by water. The equalizing effects of large bodies of water on temperature, warmer winter and cooler summer, are so well known as scarcely to need comment. Hardly less important than the effects of water on temperature are the off-shore breezes of night and the in-shore breezes of day which blow on large bodies of water. These keep the air of the vineyard in constant motion and so prevent frosts in spring and autumn, and also dry foliage and fruit so that spores of fungi have difficulty in finding foothold. But if water brings fogs, dews and humidity, as does the Pacific, grapes must be planted inland; otherwise leaf, bloom and fruit are born in the blight of fungi. The benign influences of water are felt in the eastern grape regions at distances of one to four miles, seldom farther. These narrow belts about the eastern waters are bounded on the landward side by high bluffs over which many showers fail to pass and which protect the belts below from heavy dews. Where the background of bluffs in these regions sinks to level land, vineyards cease. Vineyards are usually some distance above the water, the range in altitude running from fifty to five hundred feet. Where the altitude is much higher, immunity to frosts and winter freezing ceases, for the reason that the atmosphere is rarer and drier so that heat radiates rapidly from the land. As the height increases, also, the revels of the wind play havoc with the vines. Yet, one is often surprised to find good vineyards at the level of the lakes or, on the other hand, crowning high hills. Altitude in grape-growing must, therefore, be determined by experiment. We know very little of the formation of the thermal belts on high land so favorable to the grape. _The lay of the land._ We associate the grape with rugged land; as the vines on the banks of the Rhine, the rolling lands of Burgundy, the slopes of Vesuvius and Olympus, the high hills of Madeira, the cloud-capped mountains of Teneriffe, mountain slopes in California and the escarpments of grape regions in eastern America. These examples prove how well adapted rolling lands, inclined plains and even steep and rocky hillsides are to the culture of the vine. Virgil long ago wrote, "Bacchus is partial to broad, sunny hills." Yet rolling lands are not essential to the culture of the grape, for in Europe and America very good grapes are grown on unsheltered plains, provided the land has an elevation on one or more boundaries above the surrounding country. If the conditions of soil and climate which the grape requires can be found on level land or moderate slopes, such situations are much better than steep declivities, since on these the cost of all vineyard operations is greater and heavy rains erode the soil. The soil on hills, too, is often scant and niggardly. Level land, however, must not be shut in on all sides by higher land as untimely frost will often lay waste vines in such a situation. _Exposures._ The exposure, or the slope of the land toward a point of the compass, is important in choosing a site for the vineyard, although the value of particular exposures is often exaggerated. Let it be remembered that good grapes may be grown in vineyards exposed to any point of the compass, but that slight advantages may sometimes come, depending on the particular environment of the plantation, and then solve the problem according to conditions. The following are theories as to exposure: A southern exposure is warmer and hence earlier than a northern, and is, therefore, the best slope for early grapes as well as for very late ones liable to be caught by frost. Northward and westward slopes retard the leafing and blooming period, thus often enabling the grape to escape untimely spring frosts; though to plant on such slopes may be robbing Peter to pay Paul, as what is gained in retardation in spring may be lost in the fall with the result that the vines may be caught by frost and may fail to ripen their crop. Frost damage is usually greatest on a bold eastern slope, and vines suffer most in winter freezes on this exposure, since the direct rays of the rising sun strike the frozen plants so that they are more injured than otherwise by rapid thawing. In locations near bodies of water, the best slope is toward the water, regardless of direction. The exposure may sometimes be selected to advantage with reference to the prevailing winds. [Illustration: PLATE II.--Fitting the land for planting.] CHAPTER III PROPAGATION The grape commends itself to commercial and amateur growers alike by its ease of propagation. The vines of all species may be propagated from seed, and all but one of the several cultivated species may be grown readily from cuttings or layers. All yield to grafting of one kind or another. Seeds are planted only to produce new varieties. At one time stocks were grown from seed, but this practice has fallen into disrepute because of the great variations in the seedlings. Varieties on their own roots and stocks are for most part propagated from cuttings. In the production of stocks, the viticulturist sets the orchardist a good example, for there can be no question that all tree-fruits suffer from being grown on seedling stocks. The grape is a vigorous, self-assertive plant and once it is started, whether from seeds, cuttings or layers, seldom fails to grow. SEEDLINGS Growing seedling grapes is the simplest of operations. The seeds are taken from the grapes at harvest time, after which they must pass through a resting period of a few months. At once or in a month or two, the seeds should be stratified in moist sand and stored in a cold place until spring, when they may be sown in flats or in the open ground; or seed may be sown in a well-prepared piece of garden land in the autumn. When planted in the open, autumn or spring, the seeds are put in at the depth of an inch, an inch or two apart and in rows convenient for cultivation. Subsequent care consists of cultivation if the seed are sown in garden rows, and in pricking out when true leaves appear if planted in flats. In ground that crusts, an expedient is to mix grape seed with apple seed; the apple seedlings, being more vigorous, break the crust and act as nurse plants to the more tender grapes. Sometimes it is helpful to the young plants to mulch the ground lightly with lawn clippings or moss. Grape seedlings grow rapidly, often making from two to three feet of wood in a season. The young plants are thinned or set to stand four or five inches apart in the nursery row. At the end of the first season, all plants are cut back severely and almost entirely covered with earth by plowing up to the row on both sides. This earth, of course, is leveled the following spring. If the seasons are propitious and all goes well, the seedlings are ready for the vineyard at the end of the second season, but if for any reason they have fared badly during their first two years, it is much better to give them a third season in the nursery. Seedling vines are seldom as vigorous as those from cuttings, and unusual care must be taken in setting in the vineyard, though the operation is essentially the same as that to be described for vines from cuttings. The third season the vines are kept to a single shoot and are pinched back when the canes reach a length of five or six feet. In the autumn, they are pruned back to two or three feet. In the spring of the fourth season, the trellis is put up and a few fruits may be allowed to ripen. The vines of promise may now be selected. The plants, however, must fruit twice or oftener before it can be told whether hopes are consummated or must be deferred. Growing seedlings for new varieties is a game full of chances in which, while there may be little immediate or individual gain, there is much pleasure. It is hardly too much to say that the grape industry of eastern America, with its 300,000 acres and 1500 varieties, betokens the good that has come from growing seedling grapes. DORMANT CUTTINGS Vines for vineyards, with the exception of varieties of Rotundifolia, are propagated from cuttings of hard wood taken from the season's canes when the vines are pruned. The inactive buds in these cuttings may be brought into active growth, and roots induced to grow from the cut surfaces by various means. By this miracle of Nature, an infinite number of plants, in an endless procession, may be propagated from the product of a single seed, each plant complete in its heredity and differing from its fellows only in accordance with environment. _Time to make cuttings._ A good cutting should have a protective callus over the cut and this requires time, so that the sooner cuttings are made after the wood becomes thoroughly dormant the better. Besides, the cutting should use its stored food material for the formation of adventitious roots rather than have it pass into buds, as it quickly does late in the dormant season when buds are about to open. If cuttings must be made late in the season, transplanting must be delayed as long as possible, and the cuttings be set in a northerly aspect to prevent the premature development of the buds. However, the grape responds surprisingly well to the call of Nature in forming roots, and great importance need not be attached to the time at which the cuttings are made. _Selecting cutting wood._ Cuttings are made from one-year-old wood; that is, canes produced during the summer are taken for cuttings in the fall. Immature canes and those with soft, spongy wood ought not to be used. Strong vigorous canes should be given preference over weak growth, but most nurserymen maintain that very large canes do not make as good cuttings as do those of medium size, the objection to large size being that the cuttings do not root as well. Short-jointed wood is better than long-jointed. Cuttings from vines weakened by insects and fungi are liable to be weak, soft, immature and poorly stored with food. The wood should be smooth and straight. _Making the cutting._ Grape cuttings vary in length from four inches to two feet, the length depending on the climate and the soil of the nursery and the species and variety. The hotter and drier the climate and the lighter the soil, the longer the cutting needs to be. Six to nine inches, however, is the usual length in the climate of eastern America, while on the Pacific slope the length varies from eight to fifteen inches. For convenience in handling, all cuttings should be approximately of the same length, to insure which some kind of simple gauge is needed. Various gauges are used, as marks cut in the working table, a stick of the required length, or a cutting-box. In making the cuttings, a slanting cut is made close below the lowest bud, while about an inch of wood is left above the upper bud. When possible, a heel of old wood is left at the lower end; or, still better, a whorl of buds, as roots usually start from each bud. The finished cuttings are tied in bundles, all butts one way, and are then ready to be heeled-in. This is done by burying in trenches, butts up, and covering with a few inches of soil. It is important to invert the cuttings in trenching, since otherwise the tops often start to grow before the butts are properly calloused, and it is very essential that the tops remain dormant until roots appear to support the new growth. _Planting the cuttings._ Cuttings are planted in the nursery in rows wide enough apart for cultivation and two or three inches apart in the row. Trenches are made with a plow; perpendicular if the cuttings are shorter, and a little slanting if longer than six inches. The cuttings are set at a depth which permits the upper buds to project above the ground, as shown in Fig. 6. When the cuttings in a row are placed, two inches of soil are put in and pressed firmly about the base of the cuttings. Then the trench is evenly filled with earth and the cultivator follows. Doing duty by the young plants consists in cultivating often during the summer to keep the soil moist and mellow. [Illustration: FIG. 6. Planting cuttings.] The cuttings are planted as soon as the ground is warm and dry enough to work. To delay planting too long invites injury from drought, which almost annually parches the land in eastern America. Irrigation gives more leeway to planting time in the West. When warm sunny weather, accompanied by an occasional shower, predominates, the cuttings start growth almost at once, as shown in Fig. 7, and by fall, all things being propitious, make a growth from four to six feet. With the cuttings three inches and the rows three feet apart, 58,080 vines may be grown to the acre. [Illustration: FIG. 7. A cutting beginning growth.] _Single-eye cuttings._ New and rare varieties are propagated from single-eye cuttings, thereby doubling the number of plants from the propagating wood. This method gives an opportunity, also, to start the work of propagating early in the season, since single-eye cuttings are nearly always rooted by artificial heat. But the greatest value of the method is that some varieties which cannot be propagated in any other way readily grow under artificial heat from single-eyes. Well-grown vines so propagated are as good as those grown by any other method, but the great disadvantage is that unless much care and skill are used, vines from these cuttings are poor and quite worthless. It is also a more expensive method than growing from long cuttings out of doors. There are several ways of making single-eye cuttings. The most common form of the cutting is the single bud with an inch of wood above and below, the ends being cut with a slant. Some modify this form by cutting away the wood on the side opposite the bud, exposing the pith the whole length of the cutting. In another form, a square cut is made directly under the bud, leaving an inch and a half of wood above. Or this last form is modified by making a long sloping cut from the bud to the upper end, thereby exposing the maximum amount of cambium. Advantages are claimed for each form, but these are mostly imaginary, and the cutting may be made to suit the fancy of the propagator if a few essentials are observed. Single-eye cuttings are made in the fall and are stored in sand until late winter, about February in New York. At this time the cuttings are planted horizontally an inch deep in a sand propagating bench in a cool greenhouse. If the cuttings are not well calloused, they remain one or two weeks in a temperature of 40° to 50° without bottom heat, but well-made cuttings are calloused and ready to strike root so that brisk bottom heat can be applied at once. After six weeks or two months, the young plants are ready to pot off or to transplant in a cold-frame or cool greenhouse. If but a few plants are to be grown, they may be started in two- or three-inch pots, shifting into larger pots once or twice as growth progresses. In early summer, the young plants are set in nursery rows out of doors and by fall the young vines should be strong and vigorous. Single-eyes are also started in hot-beds, cold-frames and even in the open air without the aid of artificial heat. In hot-beds and cold-frames, the method is only a modification of that described for greenhouses. Out of doors the cuttings are given the same conditions under which long cuttings are rooted, except that the whole of the short cutting is buried an inch deep in the nursery row. HERBACEOUS CUTTINGS Grapes are easily propagated from herbaceous cuttings, although since the vines are weak and the method expensive, they are seldom used. Green cuttings are usually taken from plants forced in greenhouses, but may be taken in summer from vineyard vines. A green cutting is usually cut with two buds with the leaf at the upper one left on. The cuttings are set in propagating beds of sand, or pots of sand, in close frames under which there is brisk bottom heat. To prevent excessive evaporation, the frames are kept closed and the atmosphere warm and moist. As growth progresses, or if mildew appears, the frames are more and more ventilated. In two to four weeks, the cuttings should have rooted sufficiently well to be transplanted to pots. Herbaceous cuttings made in the summer must be kept under glass until the following spring. LAYERING The grape is readily propagated from layers of either green or mature wood, the method being certain, convenient and producing extra vigorous plants. The drawback is that fewer plants can be obtained by layering than from cuttings with a given amount of wood. Varieties of some species, however, cannot be propagated by cuttings, and with these layering becomes of supreme importance to the propagator. Nearly all varieties of Rotundifolia and some of Æstivalis are best grown from layers. So far as is known, all varieties of cultivated species may be grown by layering, and since the method is simple and certain and the vines vigorous and easily handled, this method is commended to small growers of grapes. _Dormant wood layering._ The work of layering mature wood usually begins in the spring, but the vines from which the layers are to be taken should have received preliminary treatment the preceding season. The vines to be layered are severely cut back a year or more before the layering is to be done to induce a vigorous growth of canes. Strong vigorous canes are laid in a shallow trench, two to five inches deep, in which they are fastened with wood or wire pegs or staples. The trench is then partly filled with fine, moist, mellow earth which is firmly packed about the cane. Roots strike and shoots spring from each joint. When the young plants are well above ground, the trench is completely filled, and then, or a little later, the young plants are staked to keep them out of the way of the cultivator. The following fall the young vines are ready to transplant. The essentials of layering have been given, but a number of non-essentials may be helpful under some conditions. Thus, dormant wood may be layered in the fall, in which case the cane is usually notched or ringed at the joint to induce the formation of roots. The less the number of joints covered, the stronger the young vines, so that while the number is usually five, six or more extra vigorous plants may be obtained by covering only one or two joints. In propagating Rotundifolia grapes, it is expected that lateral branches will make the tops of the new plants. These, at the time of layering, are cut back to eight or ten inches, all on the same side of the vine, and are not left closer together than twelve inches. In nursery practice, Rotundifolia vines are trained along the ground for layering. Vines on arbors, in greenhouses, or on sides of buildings are easily layered in boxes or pots of soil. Plants grown from layers are not as conveniently handled as those from cuttings. _Green wood layering._ Layered plants from green wood are sometimes grown to multiply quickly new or rare varieties. The work is accomplished in midsummer by bending down and covering shoots of the present season's growth. Strong plants are seldom obtained from summer-layering and it is never safe to attempt to grow more than one or two plants from a shoot. The most forceful culture possible must be given summer-layered plants after the separation from the parent vine. It is very generally agreed that plants from summer-layers not only do not give good plants, but that the parent vine is injured in taking an offspring from it in this way. _Layering to fill vacancies in the vineyard._ There is sure to be an occasional gap even in the best vineyard. Young plants set in vacancies must compete with neighboring full-grown vines, and often in a bit of land so unfavorable that it may have been the cause of the demise of the original occupant. Under these circumstances, the newcomer stands a poor chance for life. A plant introduced by layering a strong cane from a near-by vine has little difficulty in establishing itself on its own roots, after which it can be separated from the parent. Such layering is best done by taking in early spring a strong, unpruned cane from an adjoining plant in the same row and covering an end joint six inches deep in the vacant place, but leaving sufficient wood on the end of the cane to turn up perpendicularly out of the soil. This free end becomes the new plant and by the following fall or spring may be separated from its parent. Not infrequently the young plant bears fruit the second season on its own roots. This method is of especial value in small plantations, whereby the trouble of ordering one or two plants is avoided and the advantage of early fruiting is obtained. GRAFTING Since grafting grapes is intimately connected with stocks, the growing of which is a modern practice, grafting is thought of as a new process in growing this fruit. Quite to the contrary, it is an old practice. Cato, the sturdy old Roman grape-grower who lived nearly two hundred years before Christ, speaks of grafting grapes, although Theophrastus, the Greek philosopher, wrote a hundred years before "the vine cannot be grafted upon itself." However, until it became necessary to grow Vinifera grapes on resistant stocks to avoid the ravages of phylloxera, grafting the grape was not at all common among vineyardists and is not now except where vines susceptible to phylloxera must be grown in consort with roots resistant to this insect, or to modify the vigor of the top by a stock more vigorous or less vigorous. For these two purposes, grafting is now in some grape regions one of the most important vineyard operations. In grafting the grape, there is a time and a way, not so particular as many believe, but rather more particular than in grafting most other fruits. If the essentials of grafting are kept in mind, one has considerable choice of details. Grafting consists in detaching and inserting one or several buds of a mother plant on another plant of the same or a similar kind; the bud stock is the cion, the rooted plant is the stock. The essentials may be set forth in three statements: First, the prime essential is that the cambium layers, the healing tissue lying between the bark and wood, meet in the cion and stock; second, that method of grafting is best in which the cut tissues heal most rapidly and most completely; third, the greater the amount of cambium contact, as compared with the whole cut surface, the more rapidly and completely the wounds will heal. Out of a great many, the following are a few of the simplest methods in use in grafting the grape, any one of which may be modified more or less as occasion calls. _Vineyard grafting in eastern America._ [Illustration: FIG. 8. Cutting off the trunk.] In eastern America, the growing vine is usually grafted. At the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the operation is very successfully performed on old vines as follows: Preparatory to grafting, the earth is removed from around the stock to a depth of two or three inches. The vines are then decapitated at the surface of the ground and at right angles with the axis of the stock. If the grain is straight, the cleft can be made by splitting with a chisel, but more often it will have to be done with a thin-bladed saw through the center of the stock for at least two inches. The cion is cut with two buds, the wedge being started at the lower bud. The cleft in the stock is then opened, and the cion inserted so that the cambium of stock and cion are in intimate contact. If the stock is large, two cions are used. The several operations in grafting are shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10 and 11. Grafting wax is unnecessary, in fact is often worse than useless, and if the stock is large the graft is not even tied. Raffia is used to tie the graft in young vines. It suffices to mound the graft to the top of the cion with earth, for the purposes of protection and to keep the graft moist. Two or three times during the summer, sprouts coming from the stock or roots from the cion should be removed. [Illustration: FIG. 9. Cutting the cleft.] A method used with fair success at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station with young vines is to plant one-year-old stocks in the nursery row as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring. Just as the vines start in growth, these are cut off at the surface of the ground and whip- or cleft-grafted with a two-eye cion. The graft is tied with raffia, after which it is all but covered with a mound of soil. This is a case in which the work must be done at the accepted time, as it is fatal to delay. [Illustration: FIG. 10. Inserting the cion.] [Illustration: FIG. 11. The completed graft.] R. D. Anthony describes another method as follows:[2] "A method which a Pennsylvania grower of Viniferas has found very satisfactory is to root the Vinifera cuttings, and grow them one year on their own roots; then the vine which is to be used as a stock is planted in the vineyard and the rooted cutting planted beside it so that the shoots from the two may be brought in contact with each other. In June when the plants are in full growth, two vigorous shoots (one from each vine) are brought together and a cut two or three inches long made in each parallel to the length of the cane removing from one-third to one-half of the thickness of the shoot. These flat surfaces exposed by the cuts are then brought into contact with the cambium tissues touching and are tied in place. The tops are checked somewhat by breaking off some of the growth. The following spring the Vinifera roots are cut off below the graft and the top of the stock above the graft is removed." In the subsequent care of these young vines, the grower must take time by the forelock and tie the grafts to suitable stakes; otherwise they are liable to be broken off at the union by wind or careless workmen. Grafted vineyards must have extra good care in all cultural operations, and even with the best of care from 5 to 50 per cent of the grafts will fail or grow so poorly as to make regrafting necessary, this being the most unfavorable circumstance of field grafting. Regrafting is done one joint lower than the first operation to avoid dead wood; this brings the union below the surface of the ground, and the vineyardist must expect many cion roots to try his patience. _Vineyard grafting on the Pacific slope._ Vineyard grafting, according to Bioletti,[3] was formerly the commonest method of starting resistant vineyards in California. After stating that it is best whenever possible to plant good cuttings rather than roots, and that the grafting should usually be done the year after planting, Bioletti gives the following directions for grafting:[4] "Wherever possible the vines should be grafted at or above the surface of the ground. In many cases, however, it will be necessary to go below the surface to find a smooth, suitable part of the stock where grafting is possible. "The kind of graft to use will depend on the size of the stock. For stocks up to 2/3 inch in diameter the methods of tongue and wire grafting already described are the best. For larger vines up to 3/4 inch a modification of the ordinary tongue graft is the best. If the tongue graft were made in the usual way with stocks of this size, it would be necessary to use excessively large scions, which is undesirable, or to have the barks unite only on one side. By cutting the bevel of the stock only part way through the vines, it is possible to make a smaller scion unite on both sides. For still larger vines, those over 3/4 inch in diameter, the best graft is the ordinary cleft. "No wax or clay should be used on the graft. Anything which completely excludes the air prevents the knitting of the tissues. A little clay, cloth, or a leaf may be placed over the split in the stock when the cleft graft is used, simply to keep out the soil. Otherwise there is nothing more suitable or more favorable to the formation of a good union that can be put around the graft than loose, moist soil. If the soil is clayey, stiff or lumpy, it is necessary to surround the union with loose soil or sand brought from outside the vineyard. "It will usually be necessary to tie the grafts. A well-made cleft graft often holds the scion with sufficient force to prevent its displacement and no tying is necessary. Wherever there is any danger of the graft moving, however, it should be tied. There is nothing better for this purpose than ordinary raffia. The raffia should not be bluestoned, as it will last long enough without and will be sure to rot in a few weeks, and the trouble of cutting it will be avoided. Cotton string or anything which will keep the graft in place for a few weeks may also be used. "As soon as the graft is made and tied, a stake should be driven and the union covered with a little earth. The hilling up of the graft may be left for a few hours, except in very hot, dry weather. Finally, the whole graft should be covered with a broad hill of loose soil 2 inches above the top of the scion. "Field grafting should not be commenced as a rule, except in the hottest and driest localities, before the middle of March. Before that there is too much danger that heavy rains may keep the soil soaked for several weeks--a condition very unfavorable to the formation of good unions. In any case the grafting should not be done while the soil is wet. Grafting may continue as long as the cuttings can be kept dormant. It is difficult to graft successfully, however, when the bark of the stock becomes loose, as it does soon after the middle of April in most localities." As in the East, it is necessary in California to remove suckers from the roots and roots from the cions once or twice during the summer. Suckers should not be allowed to overshade the graft, though it is best not to remove them until danger of disturbing the graft is past. The grafts should be staked and the vines looked after as recommended for eastern conditions. [Illustration: PLATE III.--Cover-crops. _Top_, cow-horn turnips; _bottom_, rye.] _Bench grafting._ The resistant vineyards of France and California are now started almost entirely with bench-grafted vines. It has been learned in these regions that a grafted vine, to be a permanent success, must have the consorting parts perfectly united, and that the sooner the grafting is done in the life of stock and cion the better the union. Cions of the variety wanted are, therefore, grafted on resistant roots or resistant cuttings in the workshop and then planted in the nursery. Bench grafting has the advantage over field grafting in time gained and in securing a fuller stand of vines. Bench grafting really begins with the selection of cuttings, since success largely depends on good cuttings of both stock and cion. Cuttings are taken from strong healthy vines and are of medium size, with short to medium joints. The best size is one-third of an inch in diameter, that of stock and cion being the same since the two must match exactly. The cutting-wood may be taken from the mother vines at any time during the dormant season up to two weeks before buds swell in the spring, and the cuttings can then be made as convenience dictates, though meanwhile the wood must be kept cool and moist, which is best done by covering them with moist but not wet soil or sand in a cellar or cool shed. In California, the best results are obtained when the grafting is done in February or March, though it may be begun earlier and continued a month later. _Preparation of cuttings._ The stocks are cut into lengths of about ten inches, a gauge being used to secure uniform length. The cut at the bottom is made through a bud in such a way as to leave the diaphragm. The top cut is made as near ten inches from the bottom as possible, leaving about one and one-half inches above the top bud for convenience in grafting. The stock is then disbudded, taking both visible and adventitious buds, the latter indicated by woody enlargements, to keep down the number of suckers. [Illustration: FIG. 12. Bench-grafted cuttings of grape, showing both the cleft-graft and the whip-graft.] The cion should be made with but one bud, thereby gaining the advantage of having every cion the same length so that all unions are at the same distance below the surface of the ground in the nursery. The cion is made with about two and one-half inches of internode below the bud and one-half inch above, a sharp knife being the best tool for making the cuts. Stock and cion cuttings are now graded to exactly the same diameters, this being necessary to secure perfection in the unions. Three methods of uniting stock and cion are illustrated in Fig. 12. It suffices to grade by the eye into three lots--large, small and medium--but some nurserymen prefer to secure even greater accuracy by the use of any one of several mechanical gauges. The methods of uniting stock and cion may be described best by quoting Bioletti, from whom most of the details already given have been summarized:[5] _Tongue grafting._ "When the stocks and scions are prepared and graded the grafter takes a box of stocks and a box of the corresponding size of scions and unites them. Each is cut at the same angle in such a way that when placed together the cut surface of one exactly fits and covers the whole of the cut surface of the other. The length of cut surface should be from three to four times the diameter of the cutting, the shorter cut for the larger sizes and the longer for the thinner. This will correspond to an angle of from 14.5 to 19.5 degrees. The cut should be made with a sliding movement of the knife. This will make the cut more easily and more smoothly. "The cut should be made with a single quick motion of the knife. If the first cut is not satisfactory, a completely new one should be made. There should be no paring of the cut, as this will make an irregular or wavy surface and prevent the cuttings coming together closely in all parts. "The tongues are made with a slow, sliding motion of the knife. They are commenced slightly above one-third of the distance from the sharp end of the bevel and cut down until the tongue is just a trifle more than one-third the length of the cut surface. The tongue should be _cut_, not _split_. The knife should not follow the grain of the wood, but should be slanted in such a way that the tongue will be about one-half as thick as it would be if made by splitting. Before withdrawing the knife it is bent over in order to open out the tongue. This very much facilitates the placing together of stock and scion. "The stock and scion are now placed together and, if everything has been done properly, there will be no cut surface visible and the extremity of neither stock nor scion will project over the cut surface of the other. It is much better that the points should not quite reach the bottom of the cut surface than that they should overlap, as the union will be more complete and the scions will be less liable to throw out roots. If the points do overlap, the overlapping portion should be cut off, as in the Champin grafts. "A skillful grafter, by following the above-described method, will make grafts most of which will hold together very firmly. Many of them would be displaced, however, in subsequent operations, so that it is necessary to tie them. This is done with raffia or waxed string. The only object of the tying is to keep the stock and scion together until they unite by the growth of their own tissues, so that the less material used the better, provided this object is attained. For the formation of healing tissue air is necessary, so that clay, wax, tinfoil or anything that would exclude the air should not be used. The tying material is passed twice around the point of the scion to hold it down firmly, and then with one or two wide spirals it is carried to the point of the stock, which is fastened firmly with two more turns and the end of the string passed under the last turn. The less string is used the more easily it is removed later in the nursery. "Untreated raffia should be used for late grafts which are to be planted directly out in the nursery, but if the grafts are to be placed first in a callusing bed it is best to bluestone the raffia in order to prevent rotting before the grafts are planted. This is done by steeping the bundles of raffia in a three per cent solution of bluestone for a few hours and then hanging them up to dry. Before using, the raffia should be washed quickly in a stream of water in order to remove the bluestone which has crystallized on the outside and which might corrode the graft. "Some grafters prefer waxed string for grafting. The string should be strong enough to hold the graft, but thin enough to be broken by hand. No. 18 knitting cotton is a good size. It is waxed by soaking the balls in melted grafting wax for several hours. The string will absorb the wax, and may then be placed on one side until needed. A good wax for this purpose is made by melting together one part of tallow, two parts of beeswax, and three parts of rosin." _Wire grafting._ "The merits claimed for this method are that it is more rapid, requires less skill, and does away with the troublesome tying and still more troublesome removal of the tying material. Practiced grafters can obtain as large a percentage of No. 1 unions by this method as by any other, and unpracticed grafters can do almost as well as practiced. Another advantage of the method is that the scions have less tendency to make roots than with the tongue graft. "It consists essentially of the use of a short piece of galvanized iron wire inserted in the pith of stock and scion for the purpose of holding them together, thus replacing both tongues and raffia. It has been objected that the iron would have a deleterious effect on the tissues of the graft, corroding them, or causing them to decay. There seems, however, no reason to expect any such result, and vines grafted in this way have been bearing for years without showing any such effect. "The preparation and grading of stocks and scions are exactly the same for this method as for the tongue graft. "Stock and scion are cut at an angle of 45 degrees. A piece of galvanized iron wire two inches long is then pushed one inch into the firmest pith. This will usually be the pith of the stock, but it will depend on the varieties being grafted. The scion is then pushed on to the wire and pressed down until it is in contact with the stock. If the cuttings have large pith it is better to use two pieces of wire, one placed in the stock first and the other in the scion. "The length of wire to use will vary with the size and firmness of the cuttings, but 2 inches will usually be found most satisfactory. Wire of No. 17 gauge is the most useful size." _Making bundles._ "If the grafts are to be planted out directly in the nursery, they may be simply laid in boxes or trays, covered with damp sacks, and carried out to be planted as soon as made. It is usually better, however, to place them for several weeks in a callusing bed before planting. In this case it is necessary for convenience of handling to tie them up into bundles. No more than twenty grafts should be placed in a bundle, and ten is better. If the bundles are too large there is danger of the grafts in the middle becoming moldy or dry. "A stand is very convenient. It consists of a piece of board 12 inches, on one end of which is nailed a cleat 6 inches by 4 inches and under the other end a support of the same size. Two 4-inch wire nails are driven through the board from below, 4 inches apart and 5 inches from the cleat. Two other 4-inch nails are driven similarly at 1-1/2 inches from the other end. The grafts are laid on this stand with the scions resting against the cleat, and are then tied with the two pieces of bluestoned raffia that have previously been placed above each pair of nails. This arrangement insures all the scions, and therefore the unions, being at the same level, and puts both ties below the union where they will not strain the graft. The tying is more expeditious and less liable to disturb the unions than if the bundles are made without a guide. "A skillful grafter will make about one hundred tongue grafts on cuttings per hour, or from sixty-five to seventy-five per hour if he does the tying as well. Wire grafts can be made at the rate of two hundred and fifty or more per hour, and by proper division of labor where several grafters are employed this number can be easily exceeded. These estimates do not include the preparation and grading of the cuttings." _Grafting rooted cuttings._ The cion may be grafted on a stock rooted in the nursery the previous season, much the same methods being used as with cuttings. This method is employed to utilize cuttings too small to graft, the added sizes attained in the nursery making them large enough, and in grafting on stocks which root with difficulty, thus saving the making of grafts which never grow. The stocks, in this method, are cut so that the cions may be inserted as the original cutting and not as the new growth. The roots, for convenience in handling, are cut back to an inch or thereabouts in length. _The callusing bed._ If bench grafts are planted at once in the nursery, most of them fail. They are, therefore, stratified in a callusing bed where moisture and temperature can be controlled. Bioletti describes a callusing bed and its use as follows:[6] "This callusing bed is usually a pile of clean sand placed on the south side of a wall or building and surrounded by a board partition where there is no possibility of its becoming too wet by the flow of water from a higher level or from an overhanging roof. It should be protected, if necessary, by a surrounding ditch. It should be furnished with a removable cover of canvas or boards to protect it from rain and to enable the temperature to be controlled by the admission or exclusion of the sun's rays. A water-proof wagon-cover, black on one side and white on the other, is excellent for this purpose. "The bottom of the callusing bed is first covered with 2 or 3 inches of sand. The bundles of grafts are then placed in a row along one end of the bed, and sand well filled in around them. The bundles should be placed in a slightly inclined position with the scions uppermost, and the sand should be dry enough so that it sifts in between the grafts in the bundle. The bundles of grafts are then covered up completely with sand, leaving it at least 2 inches deep above the top of the scion. Another row is then placed in the same manner until the bed is full. Finally a layer of 2 or 3 inches of moss or straw is placed over all. "In the callusing bed we should endeavor to hasten and perfect the union of stock and scion as much as possible while delaying the starting of the buds and the emission of the roots. The latter processes require more moisture than the formation of healing tissue, therefore the sand should be kept comparatively dry. Between 5 and 10 per cent of water in the sand is sufficient. The purer the sand the less water is necessary. There should be a little more moisture present than in the sand used for keeping the cuttings over winter. Too much moisture will stimulate the emission of roots and starting of buds without aiding the callus formation. "All the vital processes progress more rapidly when the cuttings are kept warm. To delay them, therefore, we keep the sand cool, and to hasten them we make it warm. In the beginning of the season and up to the middle of March we keep the sand cool. This is done by keeping the bed covered during the day when the sun is shining, and uncovering occasionally at night when there is no fear of rain. If the black-and-white wagon-cover is used, the white side should be placed outward to reflect the heat. The temperature should be kept about 60° F. or lower. "About the middle of March the temperature of the bed should be raised. This is done by removing the cover during warm days and carefully covering at night. If necessary the layer of moss or straw should be removed on sunny days and then replaced. The temperature of the sand at the level of the unions should be about 75° F. during this period. If the temperature rises higher than this, there will be a more abundant production of callus, but it will be soft, easily injured, and liable to decay. "At the end of four weeks after warming the bed, the union should be well cemented. The callus should not only have formed copiously around the whole circumference of the wound, but it should have acquired a certain amount of toughness due to the formation of fibrous tissue. It should require a pull of several pounds to break the callus and separate stock and scion. When the callus has acquired this quality the grafts are in condition to be planted in the nursery, and may be handled without danger. If taken from the bed while the callus is still soft, many unions will be injured and the grafts will fail, or unite only on one side. "If left as long as this in the callusing bed most of the scion buds will have started and formed white shoots. These shoots, however, should not be more than 1/2 to 1 inch long. If they are longer the bed has been kept too wet or too warm. Roots will also have started from the stock, but these also should not be over 1/2 inch long. The grafts should be handled as carefully as is practicable, but there is no objection to breaking off any scion shoots or stock roots which have grown too long. It is almost impossible to save them, and new ones will start after the grafts are planted, and make a perfectly satisfactory growth." _Care in the nursery._ The grafts are planted in the nursery, and are given much the same care recommended for cuttings. They may be set in trenches made with plow or spade; or they may be planted in very shallow trenches with a dibble. After planting, the grafts are covered with an inch or two of soil, thus forming a wide ridge in the nursery row with the union of the grafts at the original level of the soil. Cultivation should begin at once and be frequent enough to prevent the formation of a crust, in order that the young shoots may not have difficulty in forcing their way through the soil. Roots start on the cions sooner than on the stock, the soil being warmer at the surface, and help sustain the cions until the stocks are well rooted, at which time all roots started on the cion are removed, and at the same time the tying material is cut if it has not rotted. Suckers are removed as soon as they show above ground. The grafts are dug as soon as the leaves fall and the young vines become dormant, after which they are sorted in three lots, according to size of top and root, and heeled-in in a cool moist place until they are to be planted. _Nursery_ versus _home-grown vines._ The verdict of all vineyardists is that it is better to buy nursery-grown vines than to attempt to grow them. The high quality of the vines which can be purchased and the reasonable purchase price make it hardly worth while to try home-grown vines, especially since considerable investment, experience and skill are required to grow good vines. "PEDIGREED" GRAPE VINES Many viticulturists, in common with orchardists, believe that their plants should be propagated only from parents which have good characters, that is, are vigorous, healthy, productive, and bear fruit of large size, perfect form, good color and good quality. They believe, in short, that varieties can be improved by bud selection. There is, however, but little in either theory or fact to substantiate the belief of those who say that varieties once established can be improved; or, on the other hand, that they degenerate. Present knowledge and experience indicate that heredity is all but complete in varieties propagated from parts of plants. The multitude of grapes in any variety, all from one seed, are morphologically one individual. A few kinds of grapes go back to Christ's time, and these seem to agree almost perfectly with the descriptions of them made by Roman writers 2000 years ago. How, then, can the differences between vines of a variety in every vineyard in the land be explained? Ample explanation is found in "nurture" to account for the variation in vines without involving a change in "Nature." Soil, sunlight, moisture, insects, disease, plant-food, and the stock in the case of grafted vines, give every vine a distinct environment and hence a distinct individuality of its own. Peculiarities in a vine appear and disappear with the individual. A variety can be changed temporarily by its environment, but remove the incidental forces and it snaps back into its same old self. Heredity is not quite complete in the grape, however; for, now and then, sports or mutations appear which are permanent and, if sufficiently different, become a strain of the parent variety or possibly a new variety. There are several such sports of the Concord under cultivation. The grape-grower can tell these sports from the modifications brought about by environment only by propagation. If a variation is transmitted unchanged through successive generations of the grape, as occasionally happens, it may be looked on as a new form. "Pedigreed" vines, then, should be subject to a test of several generations in an experimental vineyard before the grape-grower pays the price demanded for the supposed improvement. [Illustration: PLATE IV.--A well-tilled vineyard of Concords.] CHAPTER IV STOCKS AND RESISTANT VINES Phylloxera, a tiny root-louse, made its appearance in France in 1861 and began multiplying with a fury unparalleled in the insect world. By 1874, the pest had become so widespread in Europe that it threatened the very existence of the great vineyard industry of that continent. All attempts to bring the pest under control failed, although the French government offered a reward of 300,000 francs for a satisfactory remedy. Numerous methods of treating the soil to check the ravages of the insect were tried, also, but none was efficacious. Finally, it dawned on European vineyardists that phylloxera is not a scourge in America, its habitat, and that European vineyards might be saved by grafting Vinifera vines on the roots of immune American grapes. At once the reconstruction of vineyards in Europe was begun by grafting the grapes on phylloxera-resistant roots. Meanwhile, consternation spread to California when it was discovered that phylloxera was running riot in some of the vineyards of the Pacific slope; however, with the knowledge derived from viticulturists in Europe, they too began reconstructing vineyards on immune roots, without the same success as the Europeans, it is true, but with such measure of success that it soon became the approved method of growing grapes in this great region. Through the use of resistant stocks, phylloxera is now defied in Vinifera regions. Millions of American stocks are annually struck at home, in Europe and wherever Vinifera grapes are grown, to be top-worked with varieties susceptible to phylloxera. Seldom has mastery over a pest been so complete; but, to triumph over the tiny insect, the industry has had to be revolutionized. Resistant stocks, in their turn, brought innumerable new problems, many of which are still unsolved. Investigations and experiences in rehabilitating vineyards have been carried on for forty years, the results set forth in books and bulletins and yet there are many problems to be solved. The grape-grower in regions infested with phylloxera is always under the necessity of taking advantage of the latest demonstration of practices in the use of resistant stocks. These practices are best studied in the experiments of state experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture, and in the vineyards of leading grape-growers, since even those most needing elucidation can be but briefly discussed in the following paragraphs. The wild vines of a species are always seedlings and are hence exceedingly variable. The first vineyards of resistant stocks were vines grafted on stocks of wild vines, and the results were very unsatisfactory; for, naturally, there was divergence in many characters and especially in the vigor of the vines. Also, there was difficulty in grafting, since some wild vines are stout and others slender; some bear grafts well, while others do not. It soon became apparent that to succeed, varieties must be selected from the different species for vineyard work. The great task of the experimenter and grape-grower, therefore, has been to select varieties of the several species sufficiently resistant, vigorous and otherwise possessed of characters fitting them to become good stocks. Out of vast numbers tested, a few are now generally recognized as best for the several groups of Vinifera grapes and the several distinct regions in which these grapes are grown. _Resistant species and varieties._ The reconstruction of phylloxera-ridden vineyards by the use of resistant stocks is possible only because some species and varieties are, as has been said, more resistant to the root-louse than others. All degrees of resistance exist, as would be suspected, from immunity to great susceptibility. It is obvious that the foundation of the art of growing resistant vineyards is exact knowledge of the immunities and susceptibilities of the many varieties and species of grapes. From the first use of resistant vines, experimenters everywhere have set themselves at work to determine not only what the most resistant vines are, but what the causes and conditions of immunity. In spite of a wealth of empirical discoveries as to what grapes can best resist the root-louse, causes and most of the conditions of immunity are still little understood. Definite, useful knowledge, so far, goes little further than the establishment of lists of species and varieties, the latter subject to change, that are most useful in setting resistant vineyards. Phylloxera does little damage to species of Vitis native to the same general region in which the pest has its habitat, but nevertheless there are some differences in resistance in American grapes. Munson, one of the best American authorities on the resistance of species to phylloxera, says:[7] "Rotundifolia is entirely immune, then Rupestris, Vulpina, Cinerea, Berlandieri, Champini, Candicans, Doaniana, Æstivalis and Lincecumii are so high in resistance as to be practically uninjured, though they may be attacked, while Labrusca is low in resistance and is much weakened in clay soils, if infested, and Vinifera is entirely non-resistant." Some of these species are hard to propagate and difficult to suit in soil and climate so that but two of them are much used for resistant stocks. The two most used are Rupestris and Vulpina (Riparia), of both of which there are varieties which give satisfaction. Bioletti, a leading authority on resistant stocks in California, says:[8] "Varieties of resistant stocks which will in all probability be used in California are Rupestris St. George (du Lot), Riparia × Rupestris 3306, Riparia × Rupestris 3309, Riparia Solonis 1616, Mourvèdre × Rupestris 1202, Aramon × Rupestris 2, Riparia gloire, and Riparia grande glabre. These are all varieties which have given excellent varieties for years in Europe, and have all been tested successfully in California. Among them are varieties suitable for nearly all the vineyard soils of California, with perhaps the exception of some of the heavier clays. "The only one of these varieties which has been planted extensively in California is the Rupestris St. George. There can be little doubt, however, that it will fail to give satisfaction in many soils, and though we may not find something better for all our soils it is probable that we will repeat the experience of Southern France and find that in most soils there is some other variety that gives better results. Without attempting to describe these varieties, but to give some idea of their merits and defects and of the soils most suited to each, the following indications are given, based principally on the opinions of L. Ravaz and Prosper Gervais, and on a still limited experience in California: "The Rupestris St. George is remarkably vigorous and grows very large, supporting the graft well even without stakes. It roots easily and makes excellent unions with most vinifera varieties. It is well suited to deep soils where its roots can penetrate. Its defects are that it is very subject to root-rot, especially in moist soils; it suckers badly and it suffers from drought in shallow soils. Its great vigor produces coulure with some varieties and often necessitates long pruning. "In moist or wet soils 1616 or 3306 had given better results in France and gives indications of doing equally well here. In drier soils 3309 will probably be found preferable. "Aramon Rupestris No. 2 is suited to the same soils as Rupestris St. George, and does particularly well in extremely gravelly soils. It has some of the defects of the St. George and is moreover more difficult to graft, and its only advantage in California is that it is rather less susceptible to root-rot. "There are no better resistant stocks than Riparia gloire and Riparia grande glabre, wherever they are put in soils that suit them. They do well, however, only in deep, rich, alluvial soils which are neither too wet nor too dry. Their grafts are the most productive of all, and ripen their grapes from one to two weeks earlier than the grafts on St. George. Their principal defect is that they are very particular as to the soil, and they never grow quite as large as the cion. The gloire is the most vigorous, and the difference of diameter is less with this variety than with any other Riparia. "The Mourvèdre × Rupestris 1202 is extremely vigorous, roots and grafts easily, and is well adapted to rich, sandy and moist soils. In drier and poorer soils its resistance is perhaps not sufficient. "The most promising varieties for general use at present seem to be the two hybrids of Riparia and Rupestris, 3306 and 3309. They have great resistance to the phylloxera, root and graft almost as easily as St. George, and are quite sufficiently vigorous to support any variety of vinifera. The former is more suited to the moister soils and wherever there is danger of root-rot, and the latter to the drier soils. In general, they are suited to a larger variety of soils and condition than perhaps any other varieties. "Riparia gloire should be planted only on rich, deep alluvial soil containing an abundance of plant food and humus, what would be called good garden land, such as river bank soil not liable to overflow. "In most other soils Riparia × Rupestris 3306 is to be recommended, except those that are rather dry, where 3309 is to be preferred, or those which are very wet, where Solonis × Riparia 1616 is surer to give good results." The value of a species or variety for a resistant stock may be judged somewhat by the visible effect of the phylloxera on the roots of the vines. On susceptible species, the punctures of the insects rapidly produce swellings which vary in size and number in accordance with resistance of the species. Technically, the first swelling on the young tender rootlets of the vine is called a nodosity. The presence of a few nodosities on the root system does not indicate that a vine is not a valuable resistant stock. When the nodosity begins to decay and becomes of a cancerous nature, it is called a tuberosity. These tuberosities decay more or less rapidly and deeply, and when they rot deeply cause enfeeblement or death to the vine. Thus, on Vinifera varieties the tuberosities are several times larger and decay sets in much more quickly than on American species which show these tuberosities. Ratings as to resistance of species are usually made from the size and number of the tuberosities, though when these are found producing a scab-like wound which scales off, there may be high resisting power. In order to convey with some degree of definiteness the power of resistance to phylloxera, an arbitrary scale has been agreed on by viticulturists. In this scale, maximum resistance is indicated by 20 and minimum by 0. Thus, the resisting power of a good Vulpina is put as 19.5 and that of a poor Vinifera variety as 0. ADAPTATIONS OF RESISTANT STOCKS TO SOILS AND CLIMATES Resistance, of course, counts for naught in a stock which comes from a species unsuited to the soil and climate or other circumstances of the locality in which the vineyard is to be planted. The several species used for stocks differ widely in the requirements affecting growth so that the grower must make certain that the resistant stock he selects will find congenial surroundings. Stocks in congenial circumstances are frequently more resistant than others inherently more resistant, but which are not otherwise adapted to the particular conditions of the vineyard. Species of grapes vary greatly in their root systems, some having thick, others slender roots; the roots of some are soft, of others hard; some have roots going down deeply, others are almost at the surface of the ground. Manifestly these various root-forms are but adaptations to loose and heavy, dry and moist, deep and shallow soils, or to some circumstance of climate. A vine bruised by adversity is in no condition to withstand phylloxera. Therefore, since the adaptability of a variety to a soil or climate may be changed by the stock, the adaptations of stocks to soils and climates must have attention. _Affinity of stock and cion._ Different varieties of grapes do not behave alike on the same stocks, and different stocks may affect varieties differently. Even when the kinship is close, some grapes resist all the appliances of art to make a successful union; while, on the other hand, quite distinct species often seem foreordained to be joined. For example, Rotundifolia, which has the highest resistance to phylloxera of any species, is useless as a stock because it is impossible to graft any other grape on it, while Vulpina and Rupestris unite readily with varieties of Vinifera, the slight decrease in the vigor of the grafted vines serving oftentimes to increase fruitfulness. Something more is necessary, then, than botanical kinship. Just what is necessary, no one knows, beyond: that there must be conformity in habit between stock and cion; that the two must start in growth at approximately the same time; and that the tissues must be sufficiently alike that there be proper contact in the union. Yet these facts do not sufficiently explain all of the affinities and antipathies which species and varieties of grapes show to each other. Unfortunately, the grape-grower has had but little to guide him in selecting stocks and has had to learn by making repeated trials. PROPER PLANTING OF GRAFTED VINES Europeans and Californians long ago learned that failures with grafted vines often came from setting the vines too deep in the soil, the result being that the cions struck root and became independent, whereupon the stock dies or becomes so moribund that the beneficial effects are lost. There are grape-growers who argue that it is beneficial to the vine to have roots from both stock and cion, but experience and experiments very generally teach the contrary, it being found that in most grafts the cion roots grow more vigorously than stock roots and eventually starve out the latter. The disastrous effects of cion-rooting are often to be found, also, when grafting has been done on old vines in the vineyard; and, again, when the graft is too close to the root system. Another cause of failure is that different stocks require that the vineyard soil be treated differently, especially at planting time. Vulpina stocks require that the soil be much more deeply plowed than for Viniferas on their own roots, since Vulpinas are deep-rooted and are exacting in the depth of root-run required. Those who have had most experience with resistant stocks maintain that all American grapes require rather deeper plowing than European grapes on their own roots. INFLUENCE OF THE STOCKS ON THE CION Up to the present, the growing of grafted grapes has been carried on with little thought of the mutual influence of stock and cion; grapes have been grafted only to secure vines resistant to phylloxera. Yet there can be no doubt that stock and cion react on one another, and that any variety of grapes is influenced for better or worse in characters of vine and fruit by the stock upon which it is grafted. A plant is a delicate mechanism, easily thrown out of gear, and all plants, the grape not the least, are more or less changed in the adjustments of stock and cion. One could fill a large volume on the supposed reciprocal influence of stock and cion in fruits. Space suffices, here, however, to mention only those proved and those having to do with the influence of the stock on the cion when the grape is grafted. _Influence of stocks on European grapes summarized._ Common experience in Europe and California indicates that varieties of Vinifera grapes grafted on resistant stocks which are perfectly adapted to soil and climate produce not only larger crops but sweeter or sourer grapes; that the crop ripens earlier or later; that the vine is often more vigorous; and that there are some minor differences depending on the stock used. Wine-makers assert that the character of their product may be affected for better or worse by the stock. Often vines are so improved by grafting that the extra expense of the operation and of the stock is paid for; although, to be sure, about as often the effects are deleterious. The successes and failures of vineyards on resistant stocks make plain that the vine-grower must study the many problems which stocks present and exercise utmost intelligence in the selection of the proper stock. _Influence of stocks on American grapes._ No doubt American species of grapes may be as profoundly modified by stocks as the European species, but there is but little evidence on this phase of grape-growing to be drawn from the experience of vineyardists. One rather conclusive experiment, however, shows that American grapes may be improved by growing them on stocks which give them better adaptations to their environment. The experiment was tried in the Chautauqua grape-belt in western New York by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. The test was carried on for eleven years, during which time many interesting possibilities in grafting grapes in this region came to light. It was proved that the stock materially affects the vigor and productiveness of the vine and the quality of the grapes. The following brief account is taken from Bulletin No. 355 of the New York Station: In this experiment a number of varieties were grafted on St. George, Riparia Gloire and Clevener stocks, and a fourth group on their own roots. The varieties grafted were: Agawam, Barry, Brighton, Brilliant, Campbell Early, Catawba, Concord, Delaware, Goff, Herbert, Iona, Jefferson, Lindley, Mills, Niagara, Regal, Vergennes, Winchell and Worden. The planting plan and all of the vineyard operations were those common in commercial vineyards. Yearly accounts of the vineyard show that the vines passed through many vicissitudes. The experiment was started in 1902 when St. George and Riparia Gloire stocks from California were set and grafted in the field. Many of these died the first year. The winter of 1903-04 was unusually severe, and many more vines were either killed or so severely injured that they died during the next two years. The vines on St. George, a very deep-rooting grape, withstood the cold best. Fidia, the grape root-worm, was found in the vineyards early in the life of the vines and did much damage in some years. In the years of 1907 and 1909 the crops were ruined by hail. But despite these serious setbacks it was evident throughout the experiment that the grafted grapes made better vines and were more productive than those on their own roots. As an example of the differences in yield, a summary of the data for 1911 may be given. In this year, an average of all the varieties on own roots yielded at the rate of 4.39 tons to the acre; on St. George, 5.36 tons; on Gloire, 5.32 tons; on Clevener, 5.62 tons. The crops on the grafted vines were increased through the setting of more bunches and the development of larger bunches and berries. The grapes on the vines grafted on Gloire and Clevener ripened a few days earlier than those on their own roots, while with St. George a few varieties were retarded in ripening. Changing the time of maturity may be very important in grape regions where there is danger of early frost to late-ripening sorts, and where it is often desirable to retard the harvest time of early grapes. In the behavior of the vines, the results correspond closely with those given for yields. In the growth ratings of varieties on different stocks, the varieties on their own roots were rated in vigor at 40; on St. George, at 63.2; on Gloire, at 65.2; on Clevener, at 67.9. There is no way of deciding how much the thrift of the vines depends on adaptability to soil, and how much on other factors. Since all of the varieties were more productive and vigorous on grafted vines than on their own roots it may be said that a high degree of congeniality exists between the stocks and varieties under test. The experiment suggests that it would be profitable to grow fancy grapes of American species on grafted vines, and that it is well within the bounds of possibility that main-crop grapes can be grafted profitably. In the general tuning-up of agriculture now in progress, it may be expected that soon American as well as European varieties of grapes will be grown under some conditions and for some purposes on roots other than their own. DIRECT PRODUCERS Attempts innumerable have been and are still being made to secure, by hybridizing _V. vinifera_ and American species of grapes, varieties that will resist phylloxera, the mildew and black-rot. The grapes of this continent are relatively immune to all of these troubles, and if hybrids could be obtained to produce directly, without grafting, grapes with the good qualities of the Viniferas--in short, European grapes on American vines--the cultivated grape flora of the whole world might be changed. So far, a "direct producer" that is wholly satisfactory in either Europe or California has not been found for the wine or raisin industries, although a number of varieties are rated as very good table grapes, and a few are used in wine-making. The best of the direct producers are Lenoir, Taylor, Noah, Norton's Virginia, Autuchon, Othello, Catawba, and Delaware. [Illustration: PLATE V.--Vinifera grapes grown out of doors in New York. _Top_, Malvasia; _bottom_, Chasselas Golden.] CHAPTER V THE VINEYARD AND ITS MANAGEMENT A vineyard is more artificial than other plantations of fruits, since the vine requires greater discipline under cultivation than tree or bush. Yet greater art is required only when the attempt is made to grow the grape to perfection, for the vine bears fruit if left to indulge in riotous growth wheresoever it can strike root. Vineyard management, therefore, may represent the consummate art of three thousand or more years of cultural subserviency; or it may be so primeval in simplicity as to approach neglect. The grape is so wonderfully responsive to good care, however, that no true lover of fruit will profane it with neglect, but will seek, rather, to give it a favorable situation, its choice of soils and such generous care as will insure strong, vigorous, productive vineyards of choicely good fruit. Grape-growing is a specialists' business, for the culture of the grape is unlike that of any other fruit. The essentials of vineyard management, however, are easily learned. Indeed, care of the vine comes almost instinctively; for the grape has been cultivated since prehistoric times and the races of the world are so familiar with it through sacred literatures, myths, fables, stories and poetry, that its care is prompted by natural impulse. The grape has followed civilized man so closely from place to place through the temperate climates of the world, that rules and methods of culture have been developed for almost every condition under which it will grow, so that every grape-grower may profit by the successes and failures of the generations that preceded him. Grape-growing is not, however, an art wholly governed by rules of the past to be carried on by common laborers who use hands only, but is one in which its followers may make use of science and may put thought, skill and taste into their work. LAYING OUT THE VINEYARD Vineyards are laid out for the most part after accepted patterns for each of the great grape regions of America. The vines are always planted in rectangles, usually at a less distance apart in the rows than the rows are from each other, but sometimes in squares. Pride in appearance and convenience in vineyard operations make perfect alignment imperative. Many varieties of grapes, especially of American species, are partially self-sterile, so that some varieties must have others interplanted with them for cross-pollination. This is usually done by setting alternate rows of the variety to be pollinated and the cross-pollinator. All self-fertile varieties are set in solid blocks because of convenience in harvesting. _Direction of rows._ Some grape-growers attach considerable importance to the direction in which rows run, holding either that the full blaze of the sun at mid-day is desirable for vine, soil and fruit, or that it is detrimental. Those who desire to provide fullest exposure to the sun plant rows east and west when the distance between vines is less than the distance between rows; north and south when vines are farther apart in the row than the rows are from each other. When shade seems more desirable, these directions are reversed. Most often, however, the rows are laid out in accordance with the shape of the vineyard; or, if the land is hilly, the rows follow the contour of the declivities to prevent soil erosion by heavy rains. _Alleys._ For convenience in vineyard operations, especially spraying and harvesting, there should always be alleys through a vineyard. On hilly lands, the alleys are located to secure ease in hauling; on level lands they are usually arranged to cut the vineyards into blocks twice as long as wide. An alley is usually made by leaving out a row of vines. Many vineyards are laid out with rows far enough apart so that alleys are not needed. _Distances between rows and plants._ There are great variations in the distances between rows and plants in different regions, and distances vary somewhat in any one region. Distances are influenced by the following considerations: Rich soils and large vigorous varieties require greater distances than poor soils and less vigorous varieties; sometimes, however, it is necessary to crowd a variety in the vineyard so that by reducing its vigor fruitfulness may be promoted. Usually the warmer the climate, or the exposure, the greater should be the distance between vines. Very often the topography of the land dictates planting distances. But while taking in account the preceding considerations, which rightly suggest the distances between plants in the row, convenience in vineyard operations is the factor that most often fixes the distance between rows. The rows must be far enough apart in commercial vineyards to permit the use of two horses in plowing, spraying and harvesting. Planted in squares, the distance varies from seven feet in garden culture to nine feet in commercial vineyards for eastern America. More often, however, the rows are eight or nine feet apart, with the vines six, seven or eight and in the South ten or twelve feet apart in the rows. Planting distances are less, as a rule, on the Pacific slope than in eastern regions; that is, the distances between the rows are the same, to permit work with teams, but the distance between plants in the rows is less, sometimes being no greater than three and a half or four feet. The rank-growing Rotundifolias of the southern states need much room, nine by sixteen feet being none too much. Sunshine must govern the distance apart somewhat. Grapes picked in the pleached alleys of closely set vineyards of the North and East are few, small and poor; farther south, shade from the vines may be a requisite for a good crop. The number of vines to the acre must be determined before growing or buying plants. This is done by multiplying the distance in feet between the rows by the distance the plants are apart in the row, and dividing 43,560, the number of square feet in an acre, by the product. PREPARATION FOR PLANTING It is impossible to put too much emphasis on the necessity of thorough preparation of the land before planting the grape. Extra expenditure to secure good tilth is amply repaid by increased growth in the grape, and all subsequent care may fail to start the vines in vigorous growth if the land is not in good tilth preparatory to planting. The vineyard is to stand a generation or more, and its soil is virtually immortal, two facts to suggest perfect preparation. The land should be thoroughly well plowed, harrowed, mixed and smoothed. The better this work is done, the greater the potentialities of the vineyard. Here, indeed, is a time to be mindful of the adage which comes from Cato, a sturdy old Roman grape-grower of 2000 years ago: "The face of the master is good for the land." Preparation is a series of operations in which it is wise to take advantage of time and begin a year before the vines are to be set. The land must be put in training to fit it for the long service it is to render. The two great essentials of preparation are provision for drainage and thorough cultivation. Both, to be performed as the well-being of the grape require, take time, and a year is none too short a period in which to do the work. Moreover, newly drained and deeply plowed land requires time for frost, air, sunshine and rain to sweeten and enliven the soil after the mixture by these operations of live topsoil with inert subsoil. _Drainage._ The ideal soil, as we are often told, resembles a sponge, and is capable of retaining the greatest possible amount of plant-food dissolved in water, and at the same time is permeable for air. This ideal, sponge-like condition is particularly desirable for the grape, especially native species, because the vines of all are exceedingly deep-rooted. Moreover, grapes thrive best in a warm soil. While, therefore, the roots may make good use of nutritious solutions, if not too diluted, in an undrained soil, they suffocate and do not receive sufficient bottom heat. It must be made emphatic that the grape will not thrive in water-logged land. Unless the land is naturally well drained, under-drainage must be provided as the first step in the preparation of land for the vineyard. Tile-draining is usually best done by those who make land-draining their business, but information as to every requirement of land and detail of work may be secured from many texts, so that grape-growers may perform the work for themselves. In concluding the topic, the reader must be reminded that high and hill lands are not necessarily well drained, and low lands are not necessarily wet even if the surface is level. Often hilltops and hillsides need artificial draining; much less often valley lands and level lands may not need it. To assume, too, that gravelly and shaley soils are always well drained often leads directly contrary to the truth. Sandy and gravelly soils need drainage nearly as often as loamy and clayey ones. Following tiling, if the land has had to be under-drained, the vineyard should be graded to fill depressions and to make the surface uniform. Usually this can be done with cutaway, tooth or some other harrow, but sometimes the grader or road-scraper must be put in use. _Fitting the land._ Preparatory cultivation should begin the spring preceding planting by deep plowing. If the land has been used long for general farming so that a hard plow-sole has been formed by years of shallow plowing, a subsoil-plow should follow in the furrow of the surface plow, although it is seldom advisable to go deeply into the true hardpan. Fitting the land must not stop here but should continue through the summer with harrow and cultivator to pulverize the soil almost to its ultimate particles. Such cultivation can be sufficiently thorough, and be made at the same time profitable, by growing some hoed crop which requires intensive culture. If the soil lacks humus, a cover-crop of clover or other legume might well be sown in early summer to be plowed under in late fall. Or, if stable manure is available, this generally should be applied the fall before planting. Stable manure applied at this time to a soil inclined to be niggardly puts an atmosphere in the forthcoming vineyard wholly denied the grower who must rely on commercial fertilizers. The land should be plowed again, deeply and as early in the fall as possible, harrowed thoroughly, or possibly cross-plowed and then harrowed. The land must go into the winter ready for early spring planting and the fall work must be done promptly and with a sturdy team and sharp, bright tools. The grower must keep in mind that no opportunity will offer during the life of the vineyard to even up for slackness in the start and that a vineyard of dingy, unhappy vines may be the result of neglect at this critical time. Good tilth should proceed until the earth is fairly animated with growth when the vines are planted. Plate II shows a piece of land well fitted for planting. _Marking for planting._ Given level land, a well-made marker, a gentle team and a careful driver with a surveyor's eye, and a vineyard may be marked for planting with a sled-marker, a modified corn-marker or even a plow. Some such marker method is commonest in use in laying out vineyard rows, but it is patent to the eye of every passer-by in grape regions that the commonest method is not the best to secure perfect alignment of row and vine. The combination named for good work with any of the marker methods is found too seldom. If the marker method is used, it is put in practice as follows: The rows being marked at the distance decided on, a deep furrow is plowed along the row by going both ways with the plow; this done, small stakes are set in the furrow at the proper distances for the vines, taking care to line them both ways. Planting holes are thus dug in the furrow with the stakes as a center. Marking by means of a measuring wire or chain is the best method of locating vines accurately in a vineyard. The measuring wire varies according to the wishes of the user from two to three hundred feet or may be even longer. The best wires are made of annealed steel wire about an eighth of an inch in diameter. At each end of the wire is a strong iron ring to be slipped over stakes. The wire is marked throughout its length by patches of solder at the distances desired between rows of vines; to make these places more easily seen, pieces of red cloth are fastened to them. Sometimes this measuring wire is made of several strands of small wire, giving more flexibility and making marking easier, since by separating the strands at the desired points, pieces of cloth may be tied to mark distances. In using the wire, the side of the vineyard which is to serve as the base of the square is selected and the wire is stretched, leaving at least one rod from road or fence for a headland. With the wire thus stretched, a stake is placed at each of the distance tags to represent the first row of vines. Beginning at the starting point, sixty feet are measured off in the base line and a temporary stake is set; eighty feet at a right angle with the first line are then measured off at the corner stake, judging the angle with the eye; then run diagonally from the eighty-foot stake to the sixty-foot stake. If the distance between the two stakes is one hundred feet, the corner is a right angle. With the base lines thus started at right angles to each other, one can measure off with the measuring wire as large an area as he desires by taking care to have the line each time drawn parallel with the last, and the stakes accurately placed at the marking points on the wire. Still another method which may be put to good use in laying out a vineyard, especially if the vineyard is small, is to combine measure and sight. The distances about the vineyard are measured and stakes set to mark the ends of the rows around the area. Good stakes can be made from laths pointed at one end and whitewashed at the other. A line of stakes is then set across the field each way through the center, in places, of course, which the two central rows of vines will fill. When these are in place, if the area is not too large or too hilly, all measurements can be dispensed with and the vines can be set by sighting. A man at the end of the row has three laths to sight by in each row and a second man should drive stakes as directed by the sighter. Accurate work can be done by this method, but it requires time, a good eye and much patience in the man who is sighting. SELECTING AND PREPARING THE VINES Young grape vines covet life, for they are usually vigorous and not easily injured. Hence, the plants may be brought from a distance without fear of loss. The local nurseryman is, however, a good adviser as to varieties if he is honest and intelligent, and, other things equal, he should be patronized. But if the grower's needs cannot be met at home, he should not hesitate to seek a nurseryman at a distance. This is more necessary with the grape than other fruits because young grapes are well and cheaply grown in certain localities only. With the grape, as with all fruit plants, it is much better to buy from the grower than from tree peddlers. _Selecting vines._ Unless the buyer knows what he wants, selecting vines is gambling pure and simple. Fortunately, there are several marks of good vines very helpful to those who know them. One should first make sure that the roots and tops are alive to the remotest parts. The vines should have a good clean, healthy look with trunk diameter large enough to indicate vigorous growth, and an ample spread of roots. Large size is not as desirable as firm, well-matured wood and an abundance of roots. Vines with internodes of medium length for the variety are better than those with great length or very short internodes. Such precautions as are possible should be taken to insure varieties true to name, although here the reputation of the nurseryman must be depended on except for the few varieties which may be known at sight in the nursery. First-grade one-year-old vines are usually better than two-year-olds. Stunted vines are not worth planting and two-year-old vines are often stunted one-year-olds. A few weak-growing varieties gain in vigor if allowed to remain in the nursery two years--three years, never. _Handling and preparing the vines._ The better vines are packed, transported and cared for in the field, the quicker will the roots take hold and the vines make the vigorous start on which so much depends. The nurseryman should be requested not to prune much before packing and to pack the vines well for shipping. The vines should be heeled-in as soon as they reach their destination. If the vines are dry on arrival, they should be drenched well before heeling-in. It sometimes happens that the vines are shriveled and shrunken from excessive drying, in which case the plants often may be brought back to plumpness by burying them root and branch in damp earth, to remain a week or possibly two. To heel-in, a trench should be double furrowed in light, moist soil, the vines spread out in the trench two or three deep, and then earth shoveled over the roots and half the tops, sifting it in the roots, after which the soil is firmed. The vines may thus be kept in good condition for several weeks if need arises. The vines are prepared for planting by cutting away all dead or injured roots and shortening-in the healthy roots. Grape roots can be cut severely if healthy stubs remain, the removal of small roots and fibers doing no harm, since fibers are of value only as indicating that the vine is strong and vigorous. Fresh fibers come quickly from stout, healthy roots. Most of the fibers of a transplanted vine die, and laying them out in the hole to preserve them, as is so often recommended, is but a useless burial rite. On good healthy vines, the stubs of the roots, when cut back, will be four to eight inches in length. The root system having been considerably pruned, the reciprocity between roots and tops must be taken into account and the top pruned accordingly. To reduce the work of the leaves to harmonize with the activities of the roots, the top should be pruned to a single cane and two, never more than three, buds. The vine is now ready for planting and, the soil being in readiness, planting should proceed apace. [Illustration: PLATE VI.--Black Hamburg (×1/2).] PLANTING The dangers and difficulties of planting hardwooded plants are greatly exaggerated. The tyro, in particular, is impressed with his responsibilities at this time, and often sends a hurry-up call to experiment station or nurseryman to "send him a man to plant." If the land is properly prepared and the plants in good condition, the operation of planting is easily, quickly and safely accomplished. There is no need, in planting the vine, of such puttering overniceties as laying out the roots to preserve the fibers, watering each vine as it is set, inserting the vine in a gingerly fashion to make sure that it stands in its new abode as it stood in the old, or puddling the roots in pail or tub of water. On the other hand, the slap-dash method of a Stringfellow who cuts off all small roots and uses a crowbar in place of a spade is not doing duty by the plant, and burying the roots deep in the earth or covering them close to the surface is courting failure. _Digging the holes._ This is a simple task in land in good tilth. The holes need only be large and deep enough to hold the roots without undue cramping. Herein is again manifested the wisdom of thoroughly preparing the land; for, in well-prepared land, the hole is really as large as the vineyard. Even in the condition of poor tilth, deep holes are often a menace to the life of the plant, especially if drainage is not provided, for the deep hole becomes a tub into which water pours and stands to soak the roots of dying vines. An extra spurt in digging holes cannot take the place of perfect fitting of the land. There is nothing to commend the practice of digging holes in a leisure time that all may be ready when the time to plant arrives. The vines will strike root best in the freshly turned, moist soil of newly dug earth, which can be firmly set about the roots when the vine is planted. Neither is time saved in digging beforehand, for the sun-baked and rain-washed sides of holes long dug would surely have to be pared afresh. It is, however, quite worth while to throw the surface soil to one side and that lower to the other, that a spadeful of moist, virile, surface soil may be put next to the roots. There are, no doubt, some soils in which the holes might be blasted out with dynamite, as, for instance, in a shallow soil with the hardpan near the surface and good subsoil beneath. It is very questionable, however, whether these defective soils should be used for commercial plantings as long as there still remain unplanted many acres in all grape regions of good deep land for the grape. To such as are attracted by "dynamite farming," minute descriptions of methods of use of dynamite and even demonstrations may be secured from manufacturers of the explosive. _Time to plant._ The best time to plant the vine in cold climates is early spring, when sun and showers arouse the spirit of growth in plants, and nutritive solutions proceed quickly and unerringly to their preappointed places. At this time, the much mutilated vine can undertake best the double task of making fresh roots and opening the dormant leaves. Fall planting puts forward the work, thus diminishing the rush of early spring when vineyard operations crowd, and, no doubt, when all is favorable, enables the vines to start a little more quickly. However, there are frequently serious losses from planting in the fall. In cold winters the grip of frost is sufficient to wrench the young vine from its place and sometimes all but heaves it out of the soil. There is, also, great liability of winter-killing in vines transplanted in the autumn, not because of greater tenderness of the plant, but because of greater porosity of the loosened soil which enables the cold to strike to a greater depth. These two objections to fall planting can be overcome largely by mounding up the earth so as practically to cover the vines, leveling the mound in early spring; but this extra work more than offsets the labor saving in fall planting. In climates in which the soil does not freeze in the winter, the vines may be set in the autumn if all is favorable. Often, however, conditions are not favorable to fall planting in warm climates, since autumn rains frequently soak the soil so that it cannot be placed properly about the roots; and, moreover, in a cold, water-logged soil the inactive roots begin to decay; or the soil may be too dry for fall planting. Under such conditions, it is often better to delay planting in warm climates until spring when better soil conditions can be secured. Fall or spring, the soil should be reasonably dry, warm and mellow when the work is done. The best time to plant must necessarily vary from year to year, and the vineyardist must decide exactly when to undertake planting in accordance with the conditions of soil and weather, mindful that the Psalmist's injunction that there is "a time to plant, and a time to pluck up that which is planted" is subject to several conditions requiring judgment. The grape puts out its leaves late in the spring, making the temptation great to delay planting; late-set plants, however, need special care lest they suffer from the summer droughts which annually parch the lands of this continent. _The operation of planting._ All being in readiness, planting proceeds rapidly. A gang of four men work to advantage. Two dig holes, a third holds the vines and tramps the earth as the remaining man shovels in earth. Except in large vineyards, four men are seldom available, and gangs of two or three must divide the work among its members as best suits conditions. A tree-setting board is not needed in planting grapes, although some growers use it. The man who holds the vines in the hole and tramps as the shoveler fills, must align the plant after the stake is removed and see that it stands perpendicularly in the hole. The stake, a lath, is set in its old place in the hole to serve as a support for the growing vine and to mark it so that the cultivator does not pull up the young plant. The soil must be set firm about the roots of the plant, but zeal in tramping should diminish as the hole is filled, leaving the topsoil untramped, smooth, loose and pulverized, a dust mulch--the best of all mulches--to prevent evaporation. The depth to which vines should be set is a matter of controversy. This should be governed by the soil more than by any other factor, although some varieties need a deeper root-run than others. The rule to plant to the depth the vine stood in the nursery row is safe under most conditions, although in light, hungry or thirsty soils the roots should go deeper; and, on the other hand, in heavy soils, not so deep. Deep planting is a more common mistake than shallow planting, for roots under most conditions stand exposure better than internment, going down being more natural than coming up for a root seeking a place to its liking. Watering at planting is necessary only when the land is parched with drought or in regions in which irrigation is practiced. When necessary, water should be used liberally, at least a gallon or two to a vine. After the earth has been firmed about the roots and the hole is nearly filled, the water should be poured in and the hole filled without more firming. Under dry weather conditions, some prefer to puddle the roots; that is, to dip them in thin mud and plant with the mud adhering. In making the puddle, loose loam and not sticky clay is used, as clay may bake so hard as to injure the roots. With puddling, as with watering, the surface soil should be left loose and soft without traces of the puddling below. Manure or fertilizer about the roots or even in the hole are not necessary or even desirable. If the soil is to be enriched at all at planting time, the fertilizer should be spread on the surface to be cultivated in or to have its food elements leak down as rains fall. In land in which the providential design for grapes is plainly manifested, the vine at no time responds heartily to fertilizers, the good of stable manure probably coming for the most part from its effects on the texture and water-holding capacity of the soil. The newly set plant is not in need of outside nourishment; to put rank manure or strong commercial fertilizers about the roots of a young newly set vine is plant infanticide. CARE OF YOUNG VINES Virgil calls the period in the life of the vine between the setting and the first vintage, the "tender nonage," and tells us that at this time the vines need careful rearing; so they do, now as then, American grapes as well as the grapes of ancient Rome. Fortunately, any departure from normal well-being is easily told in the grape, for the color of the leaf is as accurate an index to the health and vigor of the vine as the color of the tongue or the beat of the pulse in man. A change of color from the luxuriant green of thrifty grape foliage, especially the yellow hue indicating that the leaf-green is not functioning properly, suggests that the vines are sick or need nursing in some detail of care. When all goes well, however, the amazing energy of Nature is nowhere better seen among plants than in the growth of the grape, so that much of the care is in the use of the knife; in fact, as we shall see, the grape almost lives by the knife the first two years out. _The first year._ The vines having been pruned and staked at planting, these operations need no attention in the first summer. Many varieties send up several shoots as growth starts, and, except in the case of grafted plants and in the event of the suckers coming from the stock, these should be left to feed the vine and help to establish a good root system. Vines making a strong growth should be tied to the stake, at least the strongest shoot, to keep the wind from whipping it about and to keep the plants out of the way of the cultivator. The only knack in tying is to keep the vine on the windward side of the stake, thus saving the breaking of tying material. The first year's pruning, though severe, is easily done. All but the strongest cane are cut out and this is pruned back to two buds, nearly to the ground, so that the vines are much as when set in the vineyard. This pruning, and that of the next two years, has as the object the establishment of a good root system and the production of a sturdy trunk at the height at which the vine is to be headed. It is important that the cane from which the trunk is to come be healthy and the wood well ripened. Pruning may be done at any time after the leaves fall, though most growers give preference to late winter. In cold climates it is a good practice to plow up to the young vines for winter protection, in which case the pruning should be done before plowing. Every detail of vineyard management should be performed with care and at the accepted time in this critical first year. Cultivation must be intensive, insects and fungi must be warded off, mechanical injuries avoided, vines that have refused to grow must be marked for discard, and the vineyard be put down to a cover-crop in early August if it was not earlier planted to some hoed catch-crop. _The second year._ Work begins in the spring of the second year with the setting of trellis posts on which one wire is put up. The vine is not yet ready to train but the slender lath of the first season is not sufficient support, and the one wire on the future trellis saves the expense of staking. Tying requires some care and is usually done with string or bast. As the summer proceeds, suckers from the roots are removed and some growers thin the shoots on the young vine; some think it necessary also to top the growth if it becomes too luxuriant and so keep the cane within bounds. Suckers must be cut or broken off at the points where they originate, otherwise several new ones may start from the base of the old. If the vines are topped, it must be kept in mind that summer pruning is weakening, and the tips of shoots should, therefore, be taken when small, the object being to direct the growth into those parts of the vine which are to become permanent. Pruning, the second winter the vine is out, depends on the vigor of the plant. If a strong, healthy, well-matured cane over-tops the lower wire of the trellis, it should be cut back so that the cane may be tied to the wire; otherwise the vine should again be cut almost to the ground, leaving but three or four buds. If the cane be left, in addition to sturdiness and maturity, it should be straight, for it is to become the trunk of the mature vine. The training of the young vine is now at an end, for the next season the vine must be started toward its permanent form, instructions for which are given in the chapter on pruning. The summer care of the vineyard does not differ materially in the second year from that of the first. Intensive cultivation continues, the vines are treated for pests and the annual cover-crop follows cultivation. Many varieties, if vigorous, will set some fruit in this second summer, but the crop should not be allowed to mature, the sooner removed the better, as fruiting at this stage of growth seriously weakens the young vines. CATCH-CROPS AND COVER-CROPS A catch-crop is one grown between the rows of another crop for profit from the produce. A cover-crop is a temporary crop grown, as the term was first used, to protect the soil, but the word is now used to include green-manuring crops as well. Catch-crops seldom have a place in most vineyards, but cover-crops are often grown. _Catch-crops._ Catch-crops are not, as a rule, profitable in commercial vineyards; they may bring temporary profit but in the long run they are usually detrimental to the vines. It may pay and the grape may not be injured in some localities, if such truck crops as potatoes, beans, tomatoes and cabbage are grown between the rows or even in the rows for the first year and possibly the second. Land, to do duty by the two crops, however, must be excellent and the care of both crops must be of the best. Growing gooseberries, currants, any of the brambles, or even strawberries, is a poor procedure unless the vineyard is small, the land very valuable or other conditions prevail which make intensive culture possible or necessary. The objections to catch-crops in the vineyard are two: they rob the vines of food and moisture and endanger them to injury from tools in caring for the catch-crop. Sometimes the grape itself is planted as a catch-crop in the vineyard. That is, twice the number of vines required in a row for the permanent vineyard are set with the expectation of cutting out alternate vines when two or three crops have been harvested and the vines begin to crowd. This practice is preferable to inter-planting with bush-fruits, yet there is not much to commend it if the experience of those who have tried it is taken as a guide. Too often the filler vines are left a year too long with the result that the permanent vines are checked in growth for several years following. The profits from the fillers are never large, scarcely pay for the extra work, and if the permanent vines are stunted, the filler must be put down as a liability rather than as an asset. _Cover-crops._ In an experiment being conducted by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, grapes do not give a very appreciable response to cover-crops in yield of fruit or growth of vine.[9] There seem to be no other experiments to confirm the results at the New York Station, and grape-growers nowhere have used cover-crops very generally for the betterment of their vineyards. There is doubt, therefore, as to whether grapes will respond profitably to the annual use of cover-crops in yield of fruit, which, of course, is the ultimate test of the value of cover-crops, but a test hard to apply unless the experiment runs a great number of years. Leaving out the doubtful value of cover-crops in increasing the supply of plant-food and thereby producing an increase in yield, there are at least three ways in which cover-crops are valuable in the vineyard. Thus, it is patent to all who have tried cover-crops in the vineyard that the land is in much better tilth and more easily worked when some green crop is turned under in fall or spring; it is not unreasonable to assume, though it is impossible to secure reliable experimental data to confirm the belief, that cover-crops protect the roots of grapes from winter-killing; certainly it may be expected that a cover-crop sowed in midsummer will cause grapes to mature their wood earlier and more thoroughly so that the vines go into the winter in better condition. The only objection to be raised against cover-crops in the vineyard is that pickers, mostly women, object to the cover-crop when wet with rain or dew and usually choose to pick in vineyards having no such crop. This seemingly insignificant factor often gives the grape-grower who sows cover-crops much trouble in harvest time. Several cover-crops may be planted in vineyards as clover, vetch, oats, barley, cow-horn turnip, rape, rye and buckwheat. Combinations of these usually make the seed too costly or the trouble of sowing too great. Yet some combinations of a leguminous and non-leguminous crop would seem to make the best green crop for the grape. Thus, a bushel of oats or barley plus ten pounds of clover or twenty pounds of winter vetch, a combination often used in orchards, should prove satisfactory in the vineyard. Or, doubling the amount of seed for each, these crops could be alternated, with a change in the rotation every four or six years, with cow-horn turnip or rape. Turnip and rape require at least three pounds of seed to the acre. The cover-crop is sown in midsummer, about the first of August in northern latitudes, and should be plowed under in the fall or early spring. Under no circumstances should the green crop be permitted to stand in the vineyard late in the spring to rob the vines of food and moisture. The weather map must be watched at sowing time to make sure of a moist seed-bed. Plate III illustrates two vineyards with well-grown cover-crops. TILLAGE Grape-growers are not in the fog that befuddles growers of tree-fruits in regard to tillage. He is a sloven, indeed, who permits his vines to stand a season in unbroken ground, and there are no growers who recommend sod or any of the modified sod-mulches for the grape. Tillage is difficult in hilly regions and the operation is often neglected in hillside vineyards, as in the Central Lakes region of New York, but even here some sort of tillage is universal. The skip of a single season in tilling stunts the vines, and two or three skips in successive seasons ruin a vineyard. No one complains that grapes suffer from over-tilling as one frequently hears of tree-fruits. There is no tonic for the grape that compares with cultivation when the leaves lack color and hang limp and the vine has an indefinable air of depression; and there is nothing better than cultivation to rouse latent vigor in a scorching summer, or when drought lays heavy on the land. _Tillage tools._ The tools to be used in tilling grapes vary with the topography of the vineyard, the kind of soil and the preferences of the vineyardist. The best tool is the one with which the ground can be well fitted at least expense. Good work in the vineyard requires at least two plows, a single-horse and a two-horse plow. The latter, except on very hilly land, should be a gang-plow. For commercial vineyards of any considerable size, several cultivators are necessary for different seasons and conditions of the soil. Thus, every vineyard should have a spring-tooth and a disc harrow, one of the several types of weeders, a one-horse and a sulky cultivator. If weeds abound, it is necessary to have some cutting tool, or an attachment to one of the cultivators, to slide over the ground and cut off large weeds. Another indispensable tool in a large vineyard is a one-horse grape-hoe, to supplement the work of which there must be heavy hand-hoes. Very often the surface soil must be pulverized, and a clod-crusher, roller or a float becomes a necessity. A full complement of bright, sharp tools at the command of the grape-grower goes far toward success in his business. _Tillage methods._ There are several reliable guides indicating when the vineyard needs to be tilled. The vineyardist who is but a casual observer of the relation of vineyard operations to the life events and the welfare of his vines will take the crop of weeds as his guide. It is, of course, necessary to keep down the weeds, but the man who waits until weeds force him to till will make a poor showing in his vineyard. The amount of moisture in the soil is a better guide. The chief function of tillage is to save moisture by checking evaporation and to put the soil in such condition that its water-holding capacity is increased. The physical condition of the land is another guide. Tilling when the soil needs pulverizing furnishes a greater feeding surface for the roots. Tillage begins with plowing in early spring. Whether provided with a cover-crop to be turned under or hard and bare, the land must be broken each spring with the plow. Plowing is best done by running a single furrow with a one-horse plow up to or away from the vines as occasion calls and then following with a two-horse or a gang-plow. Some growers use a disc harrow instead of the plow to break the land in the spring, but this is a doubtful procedure in most vineyards and is impossible when a heavy green-crop covers the land. Tillage with harrow, cultivator, weeder or roller then proceeds at such intervals as conditions demand, seldom less than once a fortnight, until time to sow the cover-crop in midsummer. About the time grapes blossom, the grape-hoe should be used to level down the furrow turned up to the vines in the spring plowing. Tillage should always follow a heavy rain to prevent the formation of a soil crust, this being a time when he who tills quickly tills twice. The number of times a vineyard should be tilled depends on the soil and the season. Ten times over with the cultivator in one vineyard or season may not be as effective as _five_ times in another vineyard or another season. In some regions, as in New York, the grower is so often at the mercy of wet weather in early spring that the plowing is best done in the fall, and spring operations must then open with harrowing with some tool that will break the land thoroughly. The depth to till is governed by the nature of the soil and the season. Heavy soils need deep tilling; light soils, shallow tilling; in wet weather, till deeply; in dry weather, lightly. Grape roots are well down in the soil and there is little danger of injuring them in deep tillage. The depth of plowing and cultivating should be varied somewhat from season to season to avoid the formation of a plow-sole. In some regions plowing and cultivating may be made a means of combating insects and fungi, and this regulates the depth of tillage. Thus, in the Chautauqua grape-belt of western New York, the pupa of the root-worm, a scourge of the grape in this region, is thrown out and destroyed by the grape-hoe just as it is about ready to emerge as an adult to lay its eggs on the vines. In all regions, leaves and mummied grapes bearing countless myriads of spores of the mildews, black-rot and other fungi are interned by the plow and cannot scatter disease. The time in the season to stop tillage depends on the locality, the season and the variety. It is a good rule to cease cultivation a few weeks before the grapes attain full size and begin to color, for by this time they will have weighted down the vines so that fruit and foliage will be in the way of the cultivator. In the North, cultivation ceases in the ordinary season about the first of August, earlier the farther south. Rank-growing sorts, as Concord or Clinton, do not need to be cultivated as late as those of smaller growth and scantier foliage, as Delaware or Diamond. The cover-crop seed is covered the last time over with the cultivator. Plate IV shows a well-tilled vineyard of Concords. IRRIGATION The grape, as a rule, withstands drought very well, several species growing wild on the desert's edge. Even in the semi-arid regions of the far West, where other fruits must always be irrigated, the grape often grows well without artificial watering. Irrigation is practiced in vineyards in the United States only on the Pacific slope and here the practice is not as general as with other fruit crops. Whether the grape shall be grown under irrigation or not is a local and often an individual question answered with regard to several conditions; as the local rainfall, the depth and character of the soil, the cost of water and ease of irrigation. These conditions are all correlated and make about the most complex and difficult problem the growers of grapes in semi-arid regions have to solve. As long, however, as the grape-grower can grow fairly vigorous vines and harvest a fairly bountiful crop by natural rainfall, he should not irrigate; for, even though the crop offsets the cost, there are several objections to growing grapes under irrigation. The vines are subject to more diseases and physiological troubles; the fruit is said to lack aroma and flavor; grapes grown on irrigated land do not stand shipment well, the unduly inflated grapes often bursting; wine-makers do not like irrigated grapes as well as those from non-irrigated lands; and watery grapes from irrigated lands make inferior raisins. It is maintained, however, with a show of reason, that grapes suffer in irrigated vineyards in the ways set forth only when the vines are over-or improperly irrigated. [Illustration: PLATE VII.--Barry (×2/5). Delaware (×2/5).] CHAPTER VI FERTILIZERS FOR GRAPES As regards fertilizers, the grape-grower has much to learn and in learning he must approach the problem with humility of mind. For in his experimenting, which is the best way to learn, he will no sooner arrive at what seems to be a certain conclusion, than another season's results or the yields in an adjoining vineyard will upset the findings of past seasons and those obtained in other places. Unfortunately, there is little real knowledge to be obtained on the subject, for grape-growers have not yet broken away from time-worn dictums in regard to fertilizers and still follow recommendations drawn from work with truck and field crops. This is excused by the fact that there have been almost no comprehensive experiments in the country with fertilizers for grapes. No fallacies die harder than the pronouncements of chemists a generation ago that fertilizing consists in putting in the soil approximately that which the plants take out; and that the chemical composition of the crop affords the necessary guide to fertilizing. These two theories are the basis of nearly every recommendation that can be found for the use of fertilizers in growing crops. The facts applied to the grape, however, are that the average tillable soil contains a hundred or a thousand times more of the chemical constituents of plants than the grape can possibly take from the soil; and many experiments in supplying food to plants show that the chemical composition of the plant is not a safe guide to their fertilizer requirements. Later teachings in regard to the use of fertilizers are: That the quantity of mineral food in a soil may be of far less importance than the quantity of water, and that the cultivator should make certain that there is sufficient moisture in his land so that the mineral salts may be readily dissolved and so become available as plant-food; that far too much importance has been attached to putting chemicals in the soil and too little to the physical condition of the soil, whereby the work of bacteria and the solvent action of organic acids may make available plant-food that without these agencies is unavailable. These brief and simple statements introduce to grape-growers some of the problems with which they must deal in fertilizing grapes, and show what a complex problem of chemistry, physics and biology fertilizing the soil is; how difficult experimental work in this field is; and how cautious workers must be in interpreting results of either experiment or experience. An account of an experiment in fertilizing a vineyard may make even more plain the difficulties in carrying on experiments in fertilizing fruits and the caution that must be observed in drawing conclusions. AN EXPERIMENT IN FERTILIZING GRAPES The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is experimenting with fertilizers for grapes at Fredonia, Chautauqua County, the chief grape region in eastern America. The experiment should be of interest to every grape-grower from several points of view. It not only shows that there are many and difficult problems in fertilizing grapes, but also the results of the use of manure, commercial fertilizers and cover-crops in a particular vineyard; it suggests the fertilizers to be used and the methods of use; and it furnishes a plan for an experiment by grape-growers who want to try such an experiment and draw their own conclusions. An account of the experiment and the results for the first five years follows:[10] _Tests at Fredonia._ "In the vineyard at Fredonia eleven plats were laid out in a section of the vineyard where inequalities of soil and other conditions were slight or were neutralized. Each plat included three rows (about one-sixth of an acre) and was separated from the adjoining plats by a 'buffer' row not under test. One plat in the center of the section served as a check, and five different fertilizer combinations were used on duplicate plats at either side of the check. Plats 1 and 7 received lime and a complete fertilizer with quick-acting and slow-acting nitrogen; Plats 2 and 8 received the complete fertilizer but no lime; on Plats 3 and 9 potash was omitted from the complete fertilizer combination; Plats 4 and 10 received no phosphorus; Plats 5 and 11, no nitrogen; and Plat 6 was the check. The materials were applied at such rates that they provided for the first year 72 pounds of nitrogen per acre, 25 pounds of phosphorus and 59 pounds of potassium; and for each of the last four years two-thirds as much nitrogen and phosphorus and eight-ninths as much potassium. The lime was applied the first and fourth years in quantity to make a ton to the acre annually. Cover-crops were sown on all plats alike and were plowed under in late April or early May of each year. These differed in successive years, but included no legumes. The crops used were rye, wheat, barley and cow-horn turnips separately and the last two in combination. "The cultivation differed only in thoroughness from that generally used in the Belt, the aim being to maintain a good dust mulch during the whole growing season. Pruning by the Chautauqua System was done throughout by one man, who pruned solely according to the vigor of the individual vines and left four, two or three, or no fruiting canes as appeared best. The vineyard was thoroughly sprayed, all plats alike. "Low winter temperatures, affecting immature wood and buds caused by unfavorable weather of the previous season, reduced yields materially during two of the five years, and practically neutralized any anticipated benefit from fertilizers. Following the first of these low-crop years, came a season, 1911, in which favorable conditions, acting upon vines left undiminished in vigor by the light crop of the previous year resulted in heavy and quite uniform yields on all the plats. "The yields for the five years are shown in Table I; and a summary showing the average gains from each treatment is given in Table II, with the average financial balance after deducting the cost of fertilizer application from the increased returns from the plats receiving them. TABLE I.--YIELD OF GRAPES (TONS PER ACRE) IN FERTILIZER EXPERIMENTS ========================================================================= Plat.| | | | | | |5-year No. | | 1909 | 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 |avg. -----+-------------------------+------+------+------+------+------+------ | |_Tons_|_Tons_|_Tons_|_Tons_|_Tons_|_Tons_ 1 |Complete fertilizer; lime| 4.48 | 2.10 | 5.37 | 3.46 | 2.14 | 3.51 2 |Complete fertilizer | 4.76 | 2.21 | 5.71 | 4.30 | 2.83 | 3.96 3 |Nitrogen and phosphorus | 5.17 | 2.14 | 5.61 | 4.00 | 2.25 | 3.83 4 |Nitrogen and potash | 4.25 | 2.55 | 5.64 | 4.10 | 2.85 | 3.87 5 |Phosphorus and potash | 3.41 | 2.00 | 5.44 | 4.35 | 1.78 | 3.39 6 |Check | 3.38 | 2.10 | 5.32 | 3.60 | 1.24 | 3.12 7 |Complete fertilizer; lime| 4.69 | 2.38 | 5.62 | 4.80 | 3.04 | 4.10 8 |Complete fertilizer | 4.66 | 2.07 | 5.71 | 4.98 | 2.72 | 4.02 9 |Nitrogen and phosphorus | 4.99 | 2.04 | 5.35 | 4.89 | 2.61 | 3.97 10 |Nitrogen and potash | 4.79 | 2.26 | 5.91 | 4.89 | 3.07 | 4.18 11 |Phosphorus and potash | 4.99 | 1.87 | 5.03 | 4.21 | 1.97 | 3.61 ========================================================================= TABLE II.--AVERAGE INCREASE IN GRAPE YIELDS AND AVERAGE FINANCIAL GAIN FROM FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS N = nitrogen, P = phosphorus, K = potassium, Ca = lime. Gains in tons per acre. ======================================================================== | N, P, | N, P, | N, P. | N, K. | P, K. | K, Ca. | K. | | | ----------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- | _Tons_ | _Tons_ | _Tons_ | _Tons_ | _Tons_ First plat of pair | 3.51 | 3.96 | 3.83 | 3.87 | 3.39 Second plat of pair | 4.10 | 4.02 | 3.97 | 4.18 | 3.61 |---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Average | 3.80 | 3.97 | 3.90 | 4.02 | 3.50 Check plat | 3.12 | 3.12 | 3.12 | 3.12 | 3.12 |---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Average gain | .68 | .85 | .78 | .90 | .38 Average financial gain| $5.82 | $13.84 | $14.05 | $18.54 | $6.99 ======================================================================== From this last table the benefit from nitrogen appears quite evident since every combination in which it appears gives a substantial gain over the one from which it is absent. Phosphorus and potassium without the nitrogen, lead to only a slight increase over the check; and lime appears to be of no benefit. Financially, the complete fertilizer and lime combination, the nitrogen and phosphorus combination and the phosphorus and potassium combination failed to pay their cost in five of the ten comparisons; the complete fertilizer was used at a loss four times out of ten; and the nitrogen and potassium combination three times out of ten. Lime had no appreciable effect on either vines or fruit. "No effect of the fertilizers on the fruit itself, aside from yield, was shown for the first three years; but in 1912, and even more markedly in 1913, the fruit from the plats on which nitrogen had been used was superior in compactness of cluster, size of cluster and size of berry. In 1912 also, when early ripening was a decided advantage, the fruit on the nitrogen plats matured earlier than that on the check plats. In 1913 the favorable ripening season and the smaller crop tended to equalize the time of ripening on all plats. The grapes on the phosphorus-potassium plats were better in quality than those in the check plats but not as good as those on the plats where nitrogen was used. "Other indexes also show plainly the benefit from nitrogen in this vineyard; for size and weight of leaf, weight of wood produced and number of fruiting canes left on the vines were all greater where fertilizers, and particularly nitrogen, had been used. The three-year averages (1911-1913) of the measurements for these characteristics are shown in Table III: TABLE III.--COMPARATIVE PRODUCTION OF LEAVES, WOOD AND FRUITING CANES ON GRAPE VINES DIFFERENTLY FERTILIZED (Averages for three years.) ======================================================================= FERTILIZER APPLICATION | LEAF | WOOD | FRUITING | WEIGHT[11] | PRUNED[12] | CANES LEFT[13] ----------------------------+------------+------------+---------------- | _Grams._ | _Lbs._ | Complete fertilizer; lime | 1,033 | 1,295 | 2,468 Complete fertilizer | 1,010 | 1,367 | 2,609 Nitrogen and phosphorus | 1,047 | 1,272 | 2,585 Nitrogen and potassium | 1,069 | 1,401 | 2,646 Phosphorus and potassium | 964 | 1,086 | 2,326 Check | 930 | 915 | 2,110 ======================================================================= _Coöperative experiments._ "In order to secure information as to the behavior of fertilizers on the different soils of the Grape Belt, coöperative tests were carried on in six vineyards owned, respectively, by S. S. Grandin, Westfield; Hon. C. M. Hamilton, State Line; James Lee, Brocton; H. S. Miner, Dunkirk; Miss Frances Jennings, Silver Creek; and J. T. Barnes, Prospect Station. The soil in these vineyards included gravelly loam, shale loam and clay loam, all in the Dunkirk series, and the experiments covered from two to two and a half acres in three cases and about five acres in each of the other vineyards. The work continued four years in all but one of the experiments, which it was necessary to end after the second year. "The general plan of the tests was much like that at Fredonia in most of the vineyards, with the additions of plats for stable manure and for leguminous and non-leguminous cover crops with and without lime. From two to six check plats were left for comparison in each vineyard. As already stated the results were often inconsistent in duplicate plats in the same vineyard, and if one test appeared to point definitely in a certain direction, the indication would be negatived by results in other vineyards. In these experiments the yield of fruit was the only index to the effect of treatments as it was not possible to weigh leaves or pruned wood, or to count the canes left. "Nitrogen and potassium in combination, which gave the largest gains and greatest profit in the Station vineyard at Fredonia, showed a 13 per ct. increase in yield on one plat in the Jennings vineyard and a 9 per ct. decrease on the other; in the Miner vineyard this combination apparently resulted in a 25 per ct. increase; in the Lee vineyard in a 2-1/2 per ct. loss; in the Hamilton vineyard a 17 per ct. gain; and in the Grandin vineyard neither gain nor loss. In only two of the five vineyards in which this combination was tested was the gain great enough to pay the cost of the fertilizer applied. Similar discrepancies, or absence of profitable gain, mark the use of the other fertilizer combinations. "Even stable manure, the standby of the farmer and fruit-grower, when applied at the rate of five tons per acre each spring, and plowed in, did not, on the average, pay for itself. Indeed, there were few instances among the 60 comparisons possible, in which more than a very moderate profit could be credited to manure. The average increase in yield following the application of manure alone was less than a quarter of a ton of grapes to the acre; while the use of lime with the manure increased the gain to one-third of a ton per acre. The ton of lime to the acre annually would not be paid for by the gain of 175 pounds of grapes. Cover-crops were used in five of the six coöperative experiments and proved even less adapted to increasing crop yields than did the manure. There was no appreciable gain, on the average, from the use of mammoth clover; indeed, a slight loss must be recorded for the clover except upon the plats which were also limed, and even with the lime the average yields on check plats and mammoth clover plats differed by only one one-hundredth of a ton. Wheat or barley with cow-horn turnips made a slightly better showing, as the plats on which these crops were turned under, without lime, averaged about one-twentieth of a ton to the acre better than the checks. With these non-legumes, lime was apparently a detriment, as the plants with the lime yielded a tenth of a ton less, on the average, than those without it." _Practical lessons from the Fredonia experiment._ From this experiment it becomes clear that the use of fertilizers in a vineyard is a local problem. General advice is of little value. It is evident also that the fertilization of vineyards is so involved with other factors that only carefully planned and long continued work will give reliable information as to the needs of vines. Indeed, field experiments even in carefully selected vineyards, as the coöperative experiments show, may be so contradictory and misleading as to be worse than useless, if deductions are made from the results of a few seasons. The experiment, however, has brought forth information about fertilizing vineyards that ought to be most helpful to grape-growers. Thus, the results suggest: _Only vineyards in good condition respond to fertilizers._ It is usually waste to make applications of fertilizers in poorly drained vineyards, in such as suffer from winter cold or spring frosts, where insect pests are epidemic and uncontrolled or where good care is lacking. The experiments furnish several examples of inertness, ineffectiveness or failure to produce profit when the fertilizers were applied under any of the conditions named. They emphasize the importance of paying attention to all of the factors on which plant growth is dependent. Moisture, soil temperature, aëration, the texture of the soil, freedom from pests, cold and frosts, as well as the supply of food may limit the yield of grapes. _A vineyard soil may have a one-sided wear._ It is certain in some of the experiments and strongly indicated in others that the soil is having a one-sided wear--that only one or a very few of the elements of fertility are lacking. The element most frequently lacking is nitrogen. Exception will probably be found in very light sands or gravels which are often deficient in potash and the phosphates; or on soils so shallow or of such mechanical texture that the root range of the vine is limited; or in soils so wet or so dry as to limit the root range or prevent biological activities. These exceptions mean, as a rule, that the soils possessing the unfavorable qualities are unfitted for grape-growing. The grape-grower should try to discover which of the fertilizing elements his soil lacks and not waste by using elements not needed. _Grape soils are often uneven._ The marked unevenness of the soil in the seven vineyards in which these experiments were carried on, as indicated by the crops and the effects of the fertilizers, furnishes food for thought to grape-growers. Maximum profits cannot be approached in vineyards in which the soil is as uneven as in these, which were in every case selected because there was an appearance of uniformity. A problem before grape-growers is to make uniform all conditions in their vineyards, and the vines must be kept free from pests if fertilizers are to be profitably used. _How a grape-grower may know when his vines need fertilizers._ A grape-grower may assume that his vines do not need fertilizers if they are vigorous and making a fair annual growth. When the vineyard is found to be failing in vigor, the first step to be taken is to make sure that the drainage is good; the second step, to control insect and fungous pests; the third, to give tillage and good care; and the fourth step is to apply fertilizers if they be found necessary. Few vineyards will be found to require a complete fertilizer. What the special requirements of a vineyard are can be ascertained only by experiment and are probably not ascertainable by analyses of the soil. This experiment furnishes suggestions as to how the grape-grower may test the value of fertilizers in his own vineyard. _Applying fertilizers._ When it is certain that vines need fertilization, and what is wanted is known, the fertilizers should be put on in the spring and be worked in by the spring cultivation. Stable manure should be plowed under. Grape roots forage throughout the whole top layer of soil so that the land should be covered with the fertilizer, whether chemical or barnyard manure. Applications of commercial fertilizers are generally spread broadcast, though it is better to drill them in if the foliage is out on the vines and thus avoid possible injury to tender foliage. Commercial fertilizers should be mixed thoroughly and in a finely divided state. In leachy soils, nitrate of soda ought not to be applied too early in the season, as it will quickly wash down out of reach of the grape roots. [Illustration: PLATE VIII.--Brighton (×2/3).] _Over-rich soils._ Some soils are too rich for the grape. On these the growth is over-luxuriant, the wood does not mature in the autumn, fruit-buds do not form and the fruit is poor in quality. Certain varieties can stand a richer soil than others. Over-richness is a trouble that may cure itself as the vines come in full bearing and make greater demands on the soil for food. It is well, however, on a soil that is suspected of being too rich or so proved by the behavior of the vines, to provide an extra wire on the trellis, to prune little and thus take care of the rampant growth. Some soils, however, and this is often the case, are so rich that the grape cannot be made to thrive in them; the vines waste their substance in riotous living, producing luxuriant foliage and lusty wood but little or no fruit. CHAPTER VII PRUNING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA The inexperienced look on pruning as a difficult operation in grape-growing. But once a few fundamentals are grasped, grape-pruning is not difficult. There is much less perplexity in pruning the grape than in pruning tree-fruits. Pruning follows accepted patterns in every grape region, and when the pattern is learned the difficulties are easily overcome. The inexperienced are confused by the array of "principles," "types," "methods," "systems" and the many technical terms that enter into discussions of grape-pruning. Some of the technicalities come from European practices, and others originated in the infancy of grape-growing in this country when there was great diversity in pruning. Divested of much that is but jargon, an inexperienced man can easily learn in a few lessons, from word of mouth or printed page, how to prune grapes. The simplicity of pruning has led to slighting the work in commercial vineyards, by too often trusting it to unskilled hands. Then, too, in this age of power-propelled tools, pride in hand labor has been left behind, and few grape-growers now take time and trouble to become expert in pruning. Simple as the work may seem to those long accustomed to it, he who wants to put into his pruning painstaking intelligence and to taste the joy of a task well done finds in this vineyard operation an ample field for pleasure and for the development of greater profits. The price to be paid by those who would thus attempt perfection in pruning the vine is forward vision, the mechanic's eye, the gardener's touch, patience, and pride in handicraft. Simple as pruning is, the pruner soon learns that it is an art in which perfection is better known in mind than followed in deed. The theory is easy but there are some stumbling blocks to make its consummation difficult. It is an art in which rules do not suffice, for no two vineyards can be pruned alike in amount or method, and every grape-grower finds his vineyard a proper field for the gratification of his taste in pruning. Happily, however, enlightened theory and sound practice are in perfect accord in grape-pruning, so that specific advice is well founded on governing principles. One cannot, of course, learn to prune unless he understands the habit of the grape-vine and is familiar with the terms applied to the different parts of the vine. As a preliminary to this chapter, therefore, knowledge of Chapter XVII, in which the structure of the grape-vine is discussed, is necessary. The next step is to distinguish between pruning and training. PRUNING AND TRAINING DISTINGUISHED The grape is pruned to increase in various ways the economic value of the plant by increasing the quantity and value of the crop. This is pruning proper. Or grapes are pruned to make well-proportioned plants with the parts so disposed that the vines are to the highest degree manageable in the vineyard. This is training. To repeat, the grape-plant is pruned to regulate the crop; it is trained to regulate the vine. Grape-growers usually speak of both operations as "pruning," but it is better to keep in mind the two conceptions. The distinctions between pruning and training must be made more apparent by setting forth in greater detail the results attained by the two operations. _Results attained in pruning to regulate the crop._ Proper pruning of vines in their first year in the vineyard, which, as we have seen, consists of cutting the young plants back severely, brings the vines in productive bearing a year or two years earlier than they would have borne had the pruning been neglected. This early pruning, since it is done with an eye to the vigor of each vine, insures greater uniformity in the growth and productiveness of the vineyard. Uniformity thus brought about is important not only for the time being, but for the future development of the vines, since weak vines, if unpruned, are stunted and may require years to overtake more vigorous vines in the vineyard. The quality of the crop may be regulated by pruning. When vines bear too heavily, the grapes are small, and wine-makers have found that they seldom develop sugar and flavor as do grapes on vines not over-bearing. Grapes on vines too heavily laden seldom ripen or color well. Not only are the grapes on poorly pruned and unpruned vines poor in quality but the grapes on such vines are usually not well distributed and therefore ripen and color unevenly. The results just mentioned follow because the bunches in a poorly distributed crop receive varying amounts of light and heat depending on the distance from the ground, the distance from the trunk and on the amount of shade. Pruning may be used to regulate the quantity of grapes borne in a vineyard and so be made somewhat helpful in preventing alternate bearing. Abnormally large crops are usually followed by partial crop failure and biennial bearing sometimes sets in, but the large crop may be reduced by pruning and the evil consequences wholly or partly avoided. It follows that pruning must depend much on the vigor of the vine; for a weak vine may be so pruned as to cause it to overbear; and, on the other hand, a vigorous vine pruned in the same way might not bear at all. _Results attained in pruning to regulate the vine._ It is necessary to regulate the shape of the vine by training so that tilling, spraying, pruning and harvesting can be easily performed and the crop be kept off the ground. The cost of production is always less in a well-pruned vineyard because all vineyard operations are more easily carried out. The life of a vineyard is lengthened when the vines are well trained, because when the parts of a vine are properly disposed on trellis or stake the plants are less often injured in vineyard operations. Moreover, not infrequently vines die from over-production and consequent breaking of canes or trunks which might have been prevented by pruning to shape the vine. Suckers and water-sprouts are less common on well-trained vines. It is necessary, too, by training to keep the bunches away from trunk, canes and other bunches and so prevent injury to the grapes. Lastly, fashion, taste or a more or less abnormal use of the grapes, may prescribe the form in which a vine is trained. Fashion and taste run from very simple or natural styles to exceedingly complex, formal ones, depending, often, on the variety, the environment or other condition, but just as often on the whim of the grape-grower. The grape is a favorite ornamental for fences, arbors and to cover buildings; for all of these purposes the vines must be trained as occasion calls. SOME PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING Leaving the shaping of the plant out of consideration and having in mind pruning proper, all efforts in pruning are directed toward two objects: (1) The production of leafy shoots to increase the vigor of the plant. (2) The promotion of the formation of fruit-buds. The first, in common parlance, is pruning for wood; the second, pruning for fruit. _Pruning for wood._ Some grapes, in common with varieties of all fruits, produce excessive crops of fruit so that the plants exhaust themselves, to their permanent injury and to the detriment of the crop. Something must be done to restore and increase vegetative vigor. The most natural procedure is to lessen the struggle for existence among the parts of the plant. The richer and the more abundant the supply of the food solution, the greater the vegetative activity, the larger the leaves and the larger and stouter the internodes. Obviously, the supply of food solution for each bud may be increased by decreasing the number of buds. The weaker the plants, therefore, the more the vine should be cut. The severe pruning in the first two years of the vine's existence is an example of pruning for wood. The vine is pruned for wood in the resting period between the fall of leaf and the swelling of buds the following spring. _Pruning for fruit._ Growers of all fruits soon learn that excessive vegetative vigor is not usually accompanied by fruitfulness. Too great vigor is indicated by long, leafy, unbranching shoots. Some fruit-growers go so far as to say that fruitfulness is inversely proportionate to vegetative vigor. There are several methods of diminishing the vigor of the vine; as, withholding water and fertilizers, stopping tillage, the method of training and by pruning. Pruning is used to decrease the vigor of the vine, in theory at least, for the practice is not always so successful, by pruning the roots or by summer-pruning the shoots. Root-pruning the grape at intervals of several years is a regular practice with some varieties in warm countries, Europe more especially, but is seldom or never practiced in America except when planting and when roots arise from the cion above the union of stock and cion. Summer-pruning to induce fruitfulness consists in removing new shoots with newly developed leaves. These young shoots have been developed from reserve material stored up the preceding season, and until they are so far developed that they can perform the functions of leaves they are to be counted as parasites. When, therefore, these shoots are pruned or pinched away, the plant is robbed of the material used by the lusty shoot which up to this time has given nothing in return. The vigor of the plant is thus checked and fruitfulness increased. Summer-pruning may become harmful if delayed too long. The time to prune is past with the grape when the leaves have passed from the light green color of new growth to the dark green of mature leaves. Fruit-bearing may be augmented by bending, twisting or ringing the canes, since all of these operations diminish vegetative vigor. Ringing is the only one of these methods in general use, and this only for some special variety or special purpose, and usually with the result that the vigor of the vine is diminished too much for the good of the plant. Ringing is discussed more fully in Chapter XVI. _The manner of fruit-bearing in the grape._ Before attempting to prune, the pruner must understand precisely how the grape bears its crop. The fruit is borne near the base of the shoots of the current season, and the shoots are borne on the wood of the previous year's growth coming from a dormant bud. Here is manifested one of Nature's energy-saving devices, shoot, leaves, flowers and fruit spring in a short season from a single bud. In the light of this fact, pruning should be looked on as a simple problem to be solved mathematically and not as a puzzle to be untangled, as so many regard it. For an example, a problem in pruning is here stated and solved. A thrifty grape-vine should yield, let us say, fifteen pounds of grapes, a fair average for the mainstay varieties. Each bunch will weigh from a quarter to a half pound. To produce fifteen pounds on a vine, therefore, will require from thirty to sixty bunches. As each shoot will bear two or three bunches, from fifteen to thirty buds must be left on the canes of the preceding year. These buds are selected in pruning on one or more canes distributed on one or two main stems in such manner as the pruner may choose, but usually in accordance with one or another of several well-developed methods of training. Pruning, then, consists in calculating the number of bunches and buds necessary and removing the remainder. In essence pruning is thinning. _Horizontal_ versus _perpendicular canes._ An old dictum of viticulture is that the nearer the growing parts of the vine approach the perpendicular, the more vigorous the parts. The terminal buds, as every grape-grower knows, grow very rapidly and probably absorb, unless checked, more than their share of the energy of the vine. This tendency can be checked somewhat by removing the terminal buds, which also helps to keep the plants within manageable limits, but is better controlled by training the canes to horizontal positions. Grape canes are tied horizontally to wires to make the vines more manageable and to reduce their vigor and so induce fruitfulness; they are trained vertically to increase the vigor of the vine. _Winter-pruning._ Winter-pruning of the vineyard may be done at any time from the dropping of the leaves in the autumn to the swelling of the buds in the spring. The sap begins to circulate actively in the grape early in the spring, even to the extremities of the vine, and most grape-growers believe this sap to be a "vital stream" and that, if the vine is pruned during its flow, the plant will bleed to death. The vine, however, is at this season of so dropsical a constitution that the loss of sap is better denominated "weeping" than "bleeding." It is doubtful whether serious injury results from pruning after the sap begins to flow, but it is a safe practice to prune earlier and the work is certainly pleasanter. The vine should not be pruned when the wood is frozen, since at this time the canes are brittle and easily broken in handling. On the other hand, it is well to delay pruning in northern climates until after a heavy freeze in the autumn, to winterkill and wither immature wood so that it can be removed in pruning. [Illustration: PLATE IX.--Campbell Early (×2/3).] _Summer-pruning._ There are three kinds of summer-pruning, the removal of superfluous shoots, heading-in canes to keep the vines in manageable limits and the pruning to induce fruitfulness discussed on a foregoing page, which need not have further consideration. It is very essential that the grower keep these three purposes in mind, especially as there is much dispute as to the necessity of two of these operations. All agree that the vine usually bears superfluous shoots that should be removed. These are such as spring from small, weak buds or from buds on the arms and trunk of the vine. These shoots are useless, devitalize the vine, and hinder vineyard operations. A good practice is to rub off the buds from which these shoots grow as they are detected, but in most vineyards the vines must be gone over from time to time as the shoots appear. Still another kind of superfluous shoots, which ought to be removed as they appear, are those which grow from the base of the season's shoots, the so-called secondary or axillary shoots. These are usually "broken out" at the time the shoots from weak buds are removed. While there is doubt as to the value of heading-back the vine in the summer for the sole purpose of inducing fruitfulness, there can be no doubt that it is desirable for the purpose of keeping some varieties within bounds. Heading-back is not now the major operation it once was, the need of severe cutting being obviated by putting the vines farther apart, by training high on three or even four wires and by adopting one of the drooping systems of training. The objections to heading-back in the summer are that it often unduly weakens the vines, that it may induce a growth of laterals which thicken the vines too much, and that it delays the maturing of the wood. These bad effects, however, can be overcome by pruning lightly and doing the work so late in the season that lateral growths will not start. Most vineyardists who keep their plantations up find it necessary to head back more or less, depending on the season and the variety. The work is usually done when the over-luxuriant shoots begin to touch the ground. The shoots are then topped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or similar tool. RENEWING FRUITING WOOD There are two ways of renewing the fruiting wood on a grape-vine, by canes and from spurs. The manner of renewing refers to pruning and not to training, for either can be used in any method of training. _Cane renewals._ Renewal by canes is made each year by taking one or more canes, cut to the desired number of buds, to supply bearing shoots. By this method the most of the bearing wood is removed each year, new canes taking the place of the old. These renewal canes may be taken either from the head of the vine or from the ground, though the latter is little used except where vines must be laid down for winter protection. Canes may be renewed indefinitely, if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, without enlarging the head from which the canes are taken out of proportion to the size of the trunk. Renewing by canes is a more common method than renewal by spurs, as will be found in the discussion of methods of training. [Illustration: FIG. 13. Vine ready for pruning; _i_, the stem; _g_, arms; _d_, canes; _s_, shoots; _b_, spurs. The faint lines near the bases of the canes indicate the points where they should be pruned off in the winter, leaving spurs for the production of shoots the following season.] _Spur renewal._ In renewing by spurs, a permanent arm is established to right and left on the canes. Shoots on this arm are not permitted to remain as canes but are cut back to spurs in the dormant pruning. Two buds are left at this pruning, both of which will produce bearing shoots; the lower one, however, is not suffered to do so but is kept to furnish the spur for the next season. The shoot from the upper bud is cut away entirely. When this process is carried on from year to year, the spurs become longer and longer until they become unwieldy. Occasionally, however, happy chance permits the selection of a shoot on the old wood for a new spur. Failing in this, a new arm must be laid down and the spurring goes on as before. The objections to renewing by spurs are: it is often difficult to replace spurs with new wood, and the bearing portion of the vine gets farther and farther from the trunk. For these reasons, spur-renewing is generally in disfavor with commercial grape-growers, though it is still used in one or two prominent methods of training, as will be discovered in this discussion. Figure 13 shows a vine ready for pruning. THE WORK OF PRUNING The pruner may take his choice between several styles of hand pruning-shears with which to do his work. The knife is seldom used except in summer-pruning, and here, more often, the shoots are broken out or pinched out. In winter-pruning, the cane is cut an inch or thereabout beyond the last bud it is desired to leave; otherwise the bud may die from the drying out of the cane. The canes are usually allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is done, though growers who use the Kniffin method of training may cut them loose before they prune. Two men working together do the work of pruning best. The more skilled of the two severs the wood from the bearing vine, leaving just the number of buds desired for the next season's crop. The less skilled man cuts tendrils and severs the cut canes from each other so that the prunings may be moved from the vineyard without trouble by the "stripper." Not the least of the tasks of pruning is "stripping" the brush and getting it out of the vineyard. The prunings cling to the trellis with considerable tenacity and must be pulled loose with a peculiar jerk, learned by practice, and placed on the ground between the rows. Stripping is done, usually by cheap labor, at any time after the pruning until spring, but must not be delayed until growth starts or the young buds may suffer as the cut wood is torn from the trellis. The brush is hauled to the end of the row by hand or by horse-power applied to any one of a dozen devices used in the several grape regions. One of the best is the device in common use in the Chautauqua vineyards of western New York. A pole, twelve feet long, four inches in diameter at the butt and two at the top, is bored with an inch hole four feet from the butt. A horse is hitched to this pole by a rope drawn through the hole, and the pole, butt to the ground, is then pulled between rows, the small end being held in the right hand. The pole, when skillfully used, collects the brush, which is dumped at the end of the row by letting the small end fly over towards the horse. The "go-devil," shown in Fig. 14, is another common device for collecting prunings. [Illustration: FIG. 14. A "go-devil" for collecting prunings.] THE TRELLIS The trellis is a considerable item in the grape-grower's budget, since it must be renewed every fifteen years or thereabouts. Wires are strung in the North at the end of the second season after planting, but in the South the growth is often so great that the wires must be put up at the end of the first season. Trellises are of the same general style for commercial vineyards; namely, two or three wires tautly stretched on firmly set posts. Occasionally slat trellises are put up in gardens but these are not to be recommended for any but ornamental purposes. _Posts._ Strong, durable posts of chestnut, locust, cedar, oak or reënforced cement are placed at such distance apart that two or three vines can be set between each two posts. The distance apart depends on the distance between vines, although the tendency now is to have three vines between two posts. The posts are from six to eight feet in length, the heaviest being used as end posts. In hard stony soils it may be necessary to set the end posts with a spade, but usually sharpened posts can be driven into holes made with a crowbar. In driving, the operator stands on a wagon hauled by a horse and uses a ten- or twelve-pound maul. The posts are driven to a depth of eighteen or twenty-four inches for the end posts. However set, the posts must stand firm to hold the load of vines and fruit. The end posts must be braced. As good a brace as any is made from a four-by-four timber, notched to fit the post halfway up from the ground, and extending obliquely to the ground, where it is held by a four-by-four stake. A two-wire trellis and a common method of bracing end posts are shown in Fig. 15. The posts on hillsides must lean slightly up-hill, otherwise they will almost certainly sooner or later tilt down the slope. The posts are usually permitted to stand a little higher at first than necessary so that they may be driven down should occasion call; driving is usually done in the early spring. [Illustration: FIG. 15. A trellis and a common method of bracing end posts.] _Wire for the trellis._ Four sizes of wire are in common use for vineyard trellises; nos. 9, 10, 11 and 12. Number 9, the heaviest, is often used for the top wire with lighter wires lower. The following figures show the length of wire in a ton: No. 9, 34,483 ft. No. 10, 41,408 ft. No. 11, 52,352 ft. No. 12, 68,493 ft. From these figures the number of pounds required to the acre is easily calculated. Common annealed wire makes a durable trellis, but many growers prefer the more durable galvanized wire, the cost of which is slightly greater. The wires are fastened to the end posts by winding once around the post, and then each wire is firmly looped about itself; they are secured to the intervening posts by ordinary fence staples so driven that the wire cannot pull through of its own weight but with space enough to permit tightening from season to season. The size and length of the staples depend on whether the posts are hard or soft wood. The longest and largest staples are used with soft woods, as cedar or chestnut. An acre requires from nine to twelve pounds of staples. The wires should be placed on the windward sides of posts and on the up-hill side in hillside vineyards. The distance between wires depends on the method of pruning. The wires must be stretched taut on the posts, for which purpose any one of a half-dozen good wire stretchers may be purchased at hardware stores. Some growers loosen the wires after harvest to allow for the contraction in cold weather and others use some one of several devices to relieve the strain. Most growers, however, find it necessary to go over the vineyard each spring to drive down loosened posts and stretch sagging wires, and so take no precautions to release wires in the fall. All agree that the wires must be kept tight during the growing season to protect buds, foliage and fruit from being injured from whipping. _Tying._ The canes are tied to the trellis in early spring, and under most systems of pruning the growing shoots are tied in the summer. This work is done by cheap men, women, boys and girls. A great variety of material is used to make the tie, as raffia, wooltwine, willow, inner bark of the linden or basswood, green rye straw, corn husks, carpet-rags and wire. The same materials are not usually employed for both canes and shoots, since the canes are tied firmly to hold them steady and the work is done early before there is danger of breaking swelling buds, while the summer shoots are tied to hold for a shorter time and more loosely to permit growth in diameter. Tying usually follows accepted patterns in one region but varies greatly in different regions. There is a knack to be learned in the use of each one of the materials named, but with none is it difficult, and an ingenious person can easily contrive a tie of his own to suit fancy or conditions. [Illustration: PLATE X.--Clinton (×2/3).] CHAPTER VIII METHODS OF TRAINING GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA The grape-grower takes great liberties with Nature in training his plants. No other fruit is so completely transformed by the grower's art from its natural habit of growth. Happily, the grape endures cutting well, and the pruner may rest assured that he may work his will in pruning his vines, following to his heart's desire a favorite method with little fear of seriously injuring his vines. Because of its accommodation to the desires of man in the disposition of the vine, there are many methods of training the grape; there being in the commercial vineyards of eastern America a dozen or more. However, the differences and similarities are so marked that the several methods fall into a simple classification which makes conspicuous their chief features. Thus, all of the methods fall under two chief heads: (1) The disposition of shoots; (2) the disposition of canes. _The disposition of shoots._ Bearing shoots are disposed of in three ways in training grapes; shoots upright, shoots drooping, and shoots horizontal. The terms explain themselves, but the three methods need amplification since their adoption is not optional with growers but depends on several circumstances. Shoots are trained upright in several methods in which two or more arms or canes are laid to right and left, sometimes horizontally, sometimes obliquely along or across horizontal wires. As the shoots grow upward, they are tied to wires above. The upright methods are supposed to distribute the bearing wood more evenly on the vines and to insure greater uniformity in the fruit. In the upright methods, also, the canes and arms are left nearer the ground, which is thought to be an advantage in small, weak or slow-growing varieties. Delaware, Catawba, Iona and Diana are examples of varieties thought to grow best when trained to one of the upright methods. In the several methods in which the shoots droop, however the canes may be disposed, the shoots are not tied but are allowed to droop at will. These methods are comparatively new but are being rapidly adopted because of several marked advantages. Usually one less wire can be used in a drooping method than in an upright one; since the shoots are not tied, much labor is saved in summer tying; the ground can be tilled with less danger to the vines; and there is less sun-scalding of the fruit, since the pendant foliage protects the clusters. Grape-growers generally agree that strong-growing varieties like Concord, Niagara, Brighton, Diamond and most of the hybrids between European grapes and native species grow best when the shoots droop. Shoots are trained horizontally in but one recognized method, the Hudson Horizontal, to be described in detail later. Since this method is all but obsolete, there is still less reason for discussing it here, the expressive name sufficing for present purposes. _Disposition of canes._ There are many recognized methods of disposing of the canes in training the grape. The chief of these are discussed in the pages that follow, their names being set down for the present in the classification that follows. CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS OF TRAINING THE GRAPE IN EASTERN AMERICA I. Shoots upright: 1. Chautauqua Arm. 2. Keuka High Renewal. 3. Fan. II. Shoots drooping: 1. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin. 2. Two-stem, Four-cane Kniffin. 3. Umbrella Kniffin. 4. Y-stem Kniffin. 5. Munson. III. Shoots horizontal: 1. Hudson Horizontal. _I. Shoots upright_ Systematic training of the grape in America began toward the middle of the nineteenth century with a method in which the shoots were trained upright from two permanent horizontal arms. These arms are laid to right and left on a low wire and bear more or less permanent spurs, from each of which two shoots are produced each season to bear the crop. The number of spurs left on each arm depends on the vigor of the vine and the space between vines. As the shoots grow upward, they are tied to upper wires, there being three wires on the trellis for this method. This method is now known as the Horizontal Arm Spur. It has a serious fault in its troublesome spurs and has almost entirely given way to a modification called the Chautauqua Arm method, much used in the great Chautauqua grape-belt. As one of the chief methods of training the grape in eastern America, this must be described in detail. _The Chautauqua Arm method._ The trellis for this method has two wires, although occasionally three are used. The lower wire is eighteen or twenty inches above the ground and the second thirty-four inches above the lower. If three are used, the wires are twenty inches apart. F. E. Gladwin, in charge of the vineyard laboratory of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station at Fredonia, in the heart of the Chautauqua belt, describes this method of training as follows: "The vines are cut back to two buds at each pruning the first two years. If the vines are vigorous two canes are tied up at the beginning of the third year; if scant, but one is left and this, if the growth is extremely unfavorable, is cut back to two buds. The canes are carried up obliquely to the upper wire when the growth permits and are there firmly tied either with twine or fine wire, the latter being more commonly used. The canes are also loosely tied to the lower wire. The pruning for the fourth year consists in cutting away all but two or three canes and a number of spurs from the arms formed by tying up the two canes the previous year. The vine now consists of two arms, arising from near the ground, with two or three canes of the previous year, and several two-bud spurs at intervals along the arms. As far as possible such canes as have arisen but a short distance above the lower wire are selected. All the old wood projecting beyond the last cane retained on each of the arms is cut away. The arms of the third year are bent down from their oblique position and are tied firmly to the lower wire, to the right and left of the center of the vine. These are now permanent arms. The vine at this time consists of two arms, arising from near the ground, tied to the lower wire to the right and left of the center, and on these are two or three canes, pruned long enough to reach to the middle wire at least, and if possible to the upper. They are tied so that they stand in a vertical or oblique position. Along the arms at intervals of a few inches are spurs, consisting of two buds. If the vineyardist maintains the arms permanently, these spurs furnish the fruiting wood for the succeeding year. [Illustration: FIG. 16. Chautauqua training; vine ready to prune.] "At the pruning for the fifth year one of the arms is cut away entirely, close to the point of its origin. The remaining arm, reaching from the ground to a point a few inches below the level of the lower wire, now becomes the permanent stem. The vineyardist must now provide for the arm cut away. This is done by the selection of a cane, arising from the remaining arm at a point below the lower wire, either directly, or from a spur left for the purpose. This is pruned to reach the top wire and is tied obliquely to it. This cane at the next pruning is tied down to the lower wire and becomes the second arm. Then the same selection of canes and spurs is made from it as was made at the previous pruning, and the canes are tied up as before. However, if the grower desires to retain both arms of the preceding year for a few years, canes that have grown from the spurs may be tied up and provision made for the following year through further spurring. If but a single arm is retained, it is pruned in the same way. Spurs may be obtained from canes that have arisen from dormant buds on the arm, or by spurring in the basal canes of the fruiting wood of the year previous. A combination of both methods of renewal will in the long run work out the better, as the repeated spurring in of the basal canes will result in greatly lengthened spurs that will require frequent cutting out. While the canes that arise directly from dormant buds on wood two years and over are not necessarily the best fruiting ones, they can, however, be utilized for renewal purposes. "The ideal vine pruned to this system now consists of a stem reaching from sixteen or eighteen inches above the ground level or a few inches below the level of the lower wire. Such a vine is shown in Figure 16. From the head two arms arise, one extending to the right, the other to the left and tied along the lower wire, each arm not extending for more than two feet and a half to either side of the head. From the arms two canes on each are tied vertically or obliquely to the top wire. In addition there are left two or three spurs, growing from the upper side of each arm, located at well-spaced intervals starting close to the head; these may be used for the renewal of the arms. The shoots are not tied. "One of the chief faults of the Chautauqua Arm method is the tendency of the best matured, and most desirable canes to develop at or near the upper wire, while those lower down are often too short, or so poorly matured as to be unfitted for fruiting purposes. When the wood, bearing the well-developed upper canes, is brought down for arms, a considerable interval of the arm from the head to the point where the canes arise is without fruiting wood. Under such conditions the growth will be again thrown to the extremities. If spurring on the arms has been practiced, this undesirable condition is eliminated. With either type of renewal, spurring should be practiced. The fruit from vines trained by this method reaches its highest development at or near the level of the upper wire, that on the lower shoots is, as a rule, quite inferior. This comes from the fact that the sap flow is more vigorous at these upper points, resulting in more and healthier leaves, which, in turn, influence the fruit for the better." _Keuka High Renewal._ Several methods of training pass under the general term "High Renewal," the significance of which becomes apparent in the discussion of the Keuka High Renewal method which is probably now the most common of the several types. In most of these methods the trellis is put up with three wires, but occasionally only two wires are used and still less often four. The lowest wire on the three-wire trellis is eighteen or twenty inches from the ground with twenty-inch intervals between wires. Gladwin, who has direct charge of vineyard experimental work about Keuka Lake for the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, describes current practices in pruning according to this method as follows: "At each pruning for the first two years the vines are cut back to two buds. However, with strong-growing varieties like Concord, Niagara and Isabella, and under good soil conditions, the stem may be formed the second year. With moderate-growing varieties and under average conditions, the formation of the stem is left until the third year. The straightest and best-matured cane is left for the purpose. This is carried to the lower wire and there firmly tied with willow. As soon as the shoots have made sufficient growth they are loosely tied to the wires that they may be kept away from the tillage tools. The fourth year the head of the vine is formed. This should stand a few inches below the lower wire. Two canes growing from the stem near this position are selected, one being tied to the right and the other to the left along the lower wire. In the Keuka Lake District, the canes are tied with willows. In addition, at least two spurs of two buds each are retained near the head. With Concord, the canes may carry about ten buds each, but with Catawba, as grown on the hillsides of the Central Lakes Region of New York, the canes should not carry above six buds each. As the shoots develop from the horizontal canes, they are tied with rye straw to the middle and upper wires. This summer tying is almost continuous after the shoots are long enough to reach the middle wire. "The following year all the wood is cut away except two or three canes that have developed from the basal buds of the canes put up the previous year, or that have grown from the spurs. In the event of a third cane being retained, it is tied along the middle wire. Spurs are again maintained close to the head for renewal purposes. The other two canes are tied along the lower wire as before. If the same spurs are used for a few years they become so long that the canes arising from them reach above the wire and cannot be well managed in the 'willowing.' It is desirable to provide new spurs annually, selecting those canes for the purpose that arise from the head of the vine or near it. It is possible by careful pruning to so cut away the old wood that practically all that remains after each pruning is the stem. Thus the vine is renewed almost to the ground. When the stem approaches the end of its usefulness, a shoot is allowed to grow from the ground, and the old one is cut away. Figure 17 shows a vine pruned by the Keuka method. [Illustration: FIG. 17. Keuka method of training.] "This method of training is especially well adapted to slow growing varieties, or those situated on poor soils, where but little wood growth is made. It is ideally adapted for the growing of Catawba on the hillsides of Keuka Lake. It is well adapted to late-maturing varieties planted out of their zone. Concord, growing under average conditions, is too vigorous to be trained by this method. It makes a tremendous growth of wood out of all proportion to the quantity of fruit, which is inclined to be very inferior. The chief objection to this method is the amount of summer tying involved which comes at a time when attention to tillage should be given. It might prove profitable in the growing of dessert varieties that have been discarded because of lack of vigor. On thin hillside soils, Catawba requires training modelled after this method but on the heavier upland ones, with shorter pruning, it can be grown on the Chautauqua Arm plan. Delaware, Iona, Dutchess, Campbell, Eumelan, Jessica, Vergennes and Regal are, as a rule, grown to better advantage when trained by the High Renewal method." _Fan-training._ The only other method now in use in which the shoots may be trained upright is that in which the canes are disposed of in fan-shape. This method was much used a generation ago but is rapidly becoming obsolete. In fan-training the renewals are made yearly from spurs near the ground, and the fruiting canes are carried up obliquely and so form a fan. The great advantage in fan-training is that a trunk is almost dispensed with, which greatly facilitates laying down the vine in winter where winter-protection is needed. There are several objections to this method in commercial plantations. The chief one is that the spurs become long, crooked and almost unmanageable so that renewals from the root must be made frequently. Another is that the fruit is borne close to the ground and becomes soiled with mud in dashing rains. The vines, also, are inconvenient in shape for tying. There are two or three modifications of fan-training which may be described as mongrel methods between this and the High Renewal and Horizontal Arm methods, none of which, however, is now in general favor. _II. Shoots drooping_ Quite by accident, William Kniffin, a stone mason living at Clintondale, New York, in the Hudson River grape region, discovered that grapes of large size and handsome appearance could be grown on vines in which the canes were trained horizontally with the shoots drooping. He put his discovery in practice and from it have come the several methods of training grapes which bear his name. Kniffin's discovery was made about 1850 and the merits of his methods spread so rapidly over eastern America that by the end of the century the various Kniffin methods were more generally used than any others. Grape-growers now agree that strong-growing vines like Concord, Niagara and Clinton are best trained to one or another of the Kniffin methods. There are several modifications of Kniffin's method, three of which are now in common use, the most popular being the Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin. The trellis for the three methods carries two wires, the lower placed at the height of three to three and a half feet and the upper from two to two and a half feet above it. To permit this height of wires, the posts must be from eight to eight and a half feet in length, and must be firmly set with the end posts well braced. _Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin._ As practiced at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the vines are trained as follows: One trunk is carried to the top wire the third year after planting, or if the growth is not long enough at this time, it is carried to the lower wire and there tied. In this case, the following year a cane is extended to the top wire. This trunk is permanent. If the stem reaches the upper wire the third year, growers break out many of the developing shoots and allow only the strongest to grow, choosing those that arise close to the wires. The stem should be tied tightly to the top wire and somewhat loosely to the lower. If girdling results at the top, it is not objectionable as the head of the vine should be below rather than above the wire. When the shoots are sufficiently hardened, those growing close to the wires should be loosely tied to prevent injury during cultivation. At the beginning of the fourth year, as shown in Fig. 18, the vine should consist of a stem extending from the ground to a point below the top wire. From this, all but two canes and two spurs of two buds each have been cut away below each wire level. As growth is most vigorous at the top of the stem, four to six more buds are left on the upper than on the lower canes. A vine of which the stem reaches the upper wire the third year should support the next season canes, aggregating twenty-two buds with eight additional buds on the spurs. If the growth is weak, only half this number should be left. [Illustration: FIG. 18. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin training.] The tying at this time consists of fastening the stem loosely, with ordinary grape twine, to the lower wire, and with the same material the canes are tied along the two wires to right and left of the stem. The canes should be tied tightly toward the trunk so that they cannot slip out of the twine. Ordinarily tying at this time is sufficient for the year, but if conditions for growth are unfavorable, the twine may rot before the tendrils take hold of the wires, and a partial second tying may be necessary. After the fourth season, the pruner has greater choice of fruiting-wood for the following year. It may be chosen from the basal canes of the preceding year's wood or the canes that develop from the spurs may be used. The choice should depend on the accessibility and maturity of the wood. At each pruning, the possibilities for obtaining fruiting wood for the following year must receive consideration. It is possible to use the same spurs for two or three years, but after this they should be cut away and new ones retained. After the first spurring, spurs should be selected from wood older than two years. The shoots from such wood bear but little fruit and hence make good fruiting canes for the next year. _Umbrella Kniffin._ Since most of the fruit on vines trained by the Four-cane Kniffin method is borne on the two upper canes, some growers in the Hudson River Valley dispense with the lower canes and cut the upper ones long enough to bear the crop. In this method the trunk is brought to the top wire and the head formed as in the Four-cane Kniffin. When the vines are pruned at the close of the third year, two long canes are left at the head of the vine with two renewal spurs. These long canes are drooped over the upper wire obliquely down to the lower wire to which they are tied just above the last bud, forming an umbrella-shaped top as shown in Fig. 19. The renewals are made as in the Four-cane Kniffin. This method reduces the amount of leaf surface to the minimum, so that care must be taken to insure healthy leaf growth. The amount of fruiting-wood put up is also reduced to the minimum, so that the yield is low unless good cultivation is provided, in which case, with some varieties and on some soils, the yield is up to the average and the crop is first-class as regards size of bunch and berry, compactness of bunch and maturity. [Illustration: FIG. 19. Umbrella method of training.] _The Two-trunk Kniffin._ The Two-trunk Kniffin, illustrated in Fig. 20, is another modification with the aim of securing greater fruitfulness. This method also provides an equal number of buds on both wires. Two trunks are brought from the root, one to the upper, the other to the lower wire. The fruiting canes are taken off and are disposed of as in the Four-cane Kniffin. The trunks are usually tied together to hold them in place. This method is in restricted use in the Hudson River Valley where it is known under the name given here and as "Double Kniffin" and "Improved Kniffin." In experiments in training grapes at Fredonia, New York, under the direction of the New York Experiment Station, this method proves to be one of the poorest in growing Concords. The grapes fall short in size of bunch and berry and do not mature as well as under the other drooping methods of training. [Illustration: FIG. 20. Two-trunk Kniffin training.] _The Y-trunk Kniffin._ Still another modification of the Kniffin method is one in which a crotch or Y is made in the trunk midway between the ground and the lower wire. The theory on which this method is founded is that sap for the lower canes is better supplied than in a straight or continuous trunk and that the lower canes thus become as productive as those on the upper wire. The theory is probably wrong but is accepted by many notwithstanding. The methods of pruning, renewing fruiting-wood and tying are the same as in the Single-stem Kniffin, except, of course, that each stem supports two canes and two spurs. This method was in somewhat common use some years ago in parts of western New York but is now disappearing. _The Munson method._ An ingenious modification of the Kniffin principle was devised by Elbert Wakeman, Oyster Bay, Long Island, and afterwards improved and brought into prominence by the late T. V. Munson of Denison, Texas; it is now much used in southern vineyards. The method is described as follows by Munson:[14] "The posts should be of some durable strong wood, such as Bois d'Arc (Osage), Cedar, heartwood of Catalpa, Black Locust or White Oak. The end posts of every row should be large and strong and be set three and one-half or four feet in the ground and well tamped. The intermediate posts, which may be much lighter than the end posts, should be six and one-half or seven feet long and set two to two and one-half feet in the ground, with twenty-four feet spaces between posts, which will take three vines, eight feet apart, or two vines twelve feet apart. After the posts are set, a three-eighths-inch hole should be bored through each post, four feet from the surface of the ground, in the direction in which the row runs, leaving six inches or more of post above the hole. These holes are for the admittance of the middle, lower wire of the trellis. "For each end post prepare for cross-arm, a piece of two by four hard pine or oak, two feet long, and at one inch from either end, and one inch from the upper side, bore a three-eighths of an inch bit-hole, or saw into upper side half an inch, which will take less time and do as well, to pass the lateral wires through, and in the middle of the lower side, saw a notch one-half inch deep. For each intermediate post, prepare a board of similar wood, two feet long, one inch thick by four broad, and likewise bore or notch. "Through the holes in the posts run a No. 11 galvanized wire, fasten at one end, tighten at the other end by a wire stretcher and fasten. This will be the middle and lower wire of the trellis, and all that will be needed the first year, when the young vines are trained up a string, tied from the vine (when set) to the wire, and along it. The arms, and the two lateral wires which they bear, need not be put on the trellis until after the vines are pruned and tied the next winter. To put on the cross-arms, use no bolts or nails, only No. 11 galvanized wire. "Each end cross-arm is placed inside the post, and against it on top of the wire, already through the posts, notch-side downward, straddling the wire, to keep it from sliding. Then take a piece of same size wire, about seven feet long, pass one end through the bit-hole or saw-notch, in one end of arm and fasten it by looping and twisting about six inches of the end back upon itself, then while one person holds the cross-arm in place, the operator carries the wire down around the post once near the ground, staples it on each side and brings the other end up to the opposite end of arm, puts it through the bit-hole, or saw-notch, draws it tightly, keeping the arm level, and fastens the end of the wire as was done the other. Wire nippers and pliers will be needed for this work. Then take another piece of wire about two feet long, and put it twice around the cross-arm and the post where they come together, above the middle wire, and firmly tie them together, crossing the wire as it goes around. This will hold the arm in place and not weaken or split the arm as do nails and bolts, and will be longer-lasting, quicker and cheaper, and more elastic, so that when struck by the hames or collar in cultivation, it gives a little, receiving no damage. "Likewise place the cross-arms on the intermediate posts, leaving the ends of the wire projecting about six inches after fastening, for a purpose soon to be mentioned. Then draw the two lateral wires through the bit-holes in the ends of the arms, or drop into the saw-notches, if such are made, throughout the row, tighten with the wire stretcher and fasten. Then return along each lateral wire, wrapping ends of wire at the ends of the arms very closely and tightly around the through-going lateral wires, as telegraph and telephone wires are wrapped in splicing. This is quickly done with the proper pliers, and prevents the arms from slipping out of proper position. Now the trellis is complete, and will need little or no repairs, and looks very neat, especially if painted. "Pruning and training on the Munson trellis is very simple and easy with a little instruction for a few minutes with a vine or two pruned for example. The vine the first season is allowed to grow up on to the middle wire by a string around which it is coiled by hand, by going over the vineyard once or twice until the selected shoot of each vine is upon the wire, after which it is allowed to ramble at freedom over the wires. By getting on to the trellis the first year, one strong shoot, and allowing no other to grow, a partial crop can be had the second year, without damage, on all but weak growers, like Delaware, that should not be allowed to bear until the third year. At the first regular pruning (all prunings should be done in November or December, after leaf fall, and never so late as to cause the vines to bleed), the vine should be cut back to two or three buds that have reached the middle wire, if weak growers, if strong, with heavy growth, six or eight buds each, to two arms, one going each way along the lower wire from where the ascending vine first touches the wire. After the vines are thus pruned, the outer end of each arm is firmly tied to the lower wire, along which it is gently coiled. These two ties hold the vine firmly in place. The buds on the arms push and ascend, passing over the lateral wires, clinging thereto with their tendrils, and hang over like a beautiful green drapery shading the fruit and body of the vine according to its natural habit. [Illustration: PLATE XI.--Concord (×2/3).] "On the canopy trellis, all the summer pruning required is, to go through the vineyard at or a few days before blooming time, and with a light sharp butcher knife, clip off the tips of all advanced shoots to be left for bearing, leaving two or three leaves beyond the outer flower cluster. From the shoots near the crotch, selected for bearing arms the next year, pick the flower clusters, and strip off or rub off all shoots and buds that start on trunk of vine below crotch. This latter is very important, as such shoots, if left, eat up the nourishment of the land with no return but added work at pruning time. "It will be found that the shoots at the ends of the arms usually start first and strongest, and if not clipped back, will not allow the buds back toward the crotch to start well, but if clipped, all other desirable buds then push. "In about six to ten days after the first clipping, a second one is usually necessary, especially if the weather is moist and warm, and the land rich. The first clipped shoots, as well as those not clipped the first time, will need clipping back this time, the end buds on the first clipped having pushed vigorously. "At a second year's pruning and others following, the old arms with all the bearing shoots on them are cut off down to the new arms and the new arms cut back to lengths they can fill with fruit and well mature. In this, critical judgment and knowledge of capabilities of different varieties are more required in the pruner than in any other of the training work. Some varieties, such as the Delaware, cannot carry more than three to four arms, two feet long, while Herbemont can more easily carry four arms each eight feet long, hence such as Delaware should be planted eight feet or less apart, while Herbemont and most of the Post-Oak grape hybrids, should be twelve to sixteen feet apart. In other words, each variety should be set that distance apart that it will fill the trellis with fruit from end to end, and mature it well, so as to better economize space. "By the third year, the vine should come to full bearing, and be pruned with four bearing arms, two to go each way along the lower wire of trellis, gently coiling around the wire, one arm in one direction, the other in opposite direction, and should be in about equal lengths, so that one firm tie with jute yarn, near the ends, will be all the tying the vines will need--that is, two ties to each vine--the least required by any trellis system, and the pruning is also simplest and the results every way the best. "Some of the advantages of this trellis are its cheapness, its simplicity, bringing the work up breast-high so that pruning, tying, harvesting, spraying, can be done in an erect position, saving back strain; perfect distribution of light, heat and air to foliage and fruit; shielding from sunscald and birds; giving free ventilation and easy passage of wind through the vineyard without blowing down the trellis or tender shoots from the vines, and allowing ready passage from row to row, without going around, thus getting larger and better crops at less expense and increasing length of life of vineyard and the pleasure of taking care of it." This method does not seem to be adapted to the needs of grapes in northern vineyards, and in the South such weak-growing sorts as Delaware do not thrive when so trained. Several "modified Munson methods" are in use in the southern states, but those most commonly employed do not depart greatly from the method here described. _III. Shoots horizontal_ _Hudson horizontal._ There is now in use but one method of training shoots horizontally. In this method the trellis is made by setting posts eight or ten feet apart and connecting them by two slats, one at the top of the posts, the other about eighteen inches from the ground. Strands of wire are stretched perpendicularly between the slats at ten- or twelve-inch intervals. One cane is trained from a trunk from one to two feet high on the trellis; it rises perpendicularly from the ground and is tied to the top slat. The shoots push out right and left and are tied horizontally to each wire as they reach it. The cane is usually allowed to bear about six shoots on each side. The grapes set at the base of the shoots so that the bunches hang one over the other, making a pretty sight. This method is too expensive for a commercial vineyard but is often used in gardens and for ornamental plantings. Only weak-growing sorts, as Delaware, Iona or Diana are adapted for this method. Delaware does remarkably well under horizontal training. The use of slats and wires in horizontal training are often reversed. The alternative from the method just described is to set posts sixteen or eighteen feet apart upon which are strung two wires as for the ordinary trellis. Perpendicular slats are then fastened to these wires to which the shoots are tied. Two slats, fifteen inches apart, are provided on each side of a fruiting cane, which, with the slat for the support of the cane, give five to a vine. Or the vine may be supported by a stake driven in the ground. In both of these methods, a shoot must be taken out from the head of the vine each season for the next season's fruiting-wood. This shoot is tied to the central wire or slat and is now allowed to fruit. Thus the vine starts each spring with a single cane. Grapes are grown under these horizontal methods chiefly, if not only, in the Hudson River Valley and even here they are going out of use. TRAINING ON ARBORS, PERGOLAS AND AS ORNAMENTALS The grape is much used to cover arbors, pergolas, lattices and to screen the sides of buildings, few climbing plants being more ornamental. Leaf, fruit and vine have been favorite subjects for reproduction by ornamentalists of all ages. As yet, however, it is seldom seen in cultivated landscapes except to secure shade and seclusion. Grown for æsthetic purposes, the grape is seldom fruitful, for the vines can rarely be cultivated or deprived of their luxuriant growth as in the vineyard. Nevertheless, grapes grown as ornamentals can be trained so as to serve the double purpose of ornamental and fruit-bearing plant. Grown on the sides of a building, the grape often can be made to bear large crops of choicely fine fruit. The ancients had learned this, for the Psalmist says: "Thy wife shall be like the fruitful vine by the sides of thine house." In all ornamental plantings on arbors or pergolas, if fruit is to be considered, the permanent trunk is carried to the top of the structure. Along this trunk, at intervals of eighteen inches, spurs are left from which to renew the wood from year to year. The vines should stand six or eight feet apart, depending on the variety, and one cane is left, three or four feet long, on each spur when the pruning is done. Shoots springing from these cover intermediate spaces soon after growth begins. Provision, of course, must be made for a new cane each season, and this is done by saving a shoot springing from spur or trunk at pruning time. The same method of training, with modifications to suit the case, may be employed on sides of buildings, walls, fences and lattices. If the object to be covered is low, however, and especially if fruit as well as a covering is wanted, perhaps a better plan is annually to renew from a low trunk or even back to the root. In this low renewal, a new cane, or two or three if desired, should be brought out each season, thus securing greater vigor for the vine, but greatly delaying, especially in the case of high walls, the production of a screen of foliage. PRUNING AND TRAINING MUSCADINE GRAPES The Muscadine grapes of the South are so distinct in characters of growth and fruit-bearing that their requirements as to pruning and training are quite different from the methods so far given. Until recent years when these grapes have become of commercial importance, it was thought by southern vineyardists that the Muscadines needed little or no pruning and some held that pruning injured the vines. Now it is found that Muscadines respond quite as readily as other types of grapes to pruning and training. Husmann and Dearing[15] give following directions for pruning Muscadines: "Two systems of training are employed with Muscadine grapes: (1) The horizontal or overhead system, by which the growth is spread as an overhead canopy about 7 feet above the ground and supported by posts; and (2) the upright or vertical system, in which the growth is spread over a trellis. "In the overhead system a single trunk is caused to grow erect from the ground alongside a permanent post. When the vine has reached the top of the post it is pinched in or cut back, so as to make it throw out shoots to grow and spread out from the head of the vine as the spokes of a wheel radiate from the hub. (The overhead training of Muscadines is shown in Fig. 21; upright training, in Fig. 22.) [Illustration: FIG. 21. Rotundifolia vines trained by the overhead method.] "In the upright systems the fruiting arms are either radiated from a low vine head, like the ribs of a fan, or they are taken off as horizontal arms from a central vertical trunk. "Where the vineyard is not given close personal attention and pruning and other vineyard practices are neglected the best results will be obtained with the overhead trellis. Moreover, such a trellis permits cross-plowing and cultivation and is better adapted for grazing hogs, sheep, or cattle on cover crops grown in the vineyard. On the other hand, the careful vineyardist can expect the best and earliest results from vines on the upright or vertical supports. The upright trellis facilitates pruning, harvesting, spraying, and intercropping throughout the life of the vineyard; it is also easier to repair and can be erected from $10 to $20 an acre cheaper than the overhead trellis. The use of both the upright system and the overhead trellis has netted the growers profitable returns. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. The prospective grower, knowing his own conditions, must determine which training system is best suited to his conditions. [Illustration: FIG. 22. A Rotundifolia vine trained by the 6-arm renewal method.] "During the first year after planting, a strong stake reaching 4 feet above the ground at each vine is sufficient support. A trellis should be erected the second season, though the upper wires of an upright trellis and the secondary wires of an overhead trellis may be added later, as the vines need them. In erecting an upright trellis the posts should be set midway between the vines, the distances apart varying with the distances between the plants. The end posts of the rows should be firmly braced. Three wires are generally used, placed 24, 42, and from 56 to 60 inches from the ground. "In erecting an overhead trellis, the usual method is to place a substantial, durable post reaching 7 feet above the ground at each of the permanent vines. Rows of extra heavy, well-braced posts, running parallel with and also at the ends of the rows of vines, are set at the boundaries of the vineyard. There are a number of different ways of arranging the wires. Usually No. 10 galvanized wires are securely fastened to the tops of the boundary posts on the four sides of a vineyard and then are run along and securely fastened on the tops of the inside post down each row in both directions as governor wires. As needed, No. 14 wires 2 feet apart are run parallel with the governor wires until in this manner the entire area has been covered. "A cheaper but less durable overhead trellis is made by running No. 9 governor wires in only one direction and the secondary wires only at right angles to the governor wires, the secondary wires being fastened to the governor wires wherever they cross. "Some growers construct arbors entirely of wood, using slats or poles instead of wires. "The pruning of Muscadine grapes during the first three years is mainly for the purpose of establishing the permanent parts and adjusting the other parts of the vine to the desired training system for future usefulness. After that the pruning is primarily a matter of renewing the bearing surface and keeping the vines healthy, vigorous, and productive. "During the first season the trunk of the vine should be established. From this the main fruiting branches are started the second season. These, under favorable circumstances, will bear a small crop of fruit the third season. After that the purpose of pruning should be to renew growth, to increase or decrease the bearing surface, and to maintain the shape of the vine. "Severe pruning usually removes most of the fruit-bearing wood and throws the vine into vigorous wood growth. No pruning, on the other hand, causes a growth which is too much distributed, weak, and incapable of bearing good crops. Therefore, the grape grower should study the vines sufficiently to enable him to judge each year the proper severity of pruning for the best results. This will depend on the variety, the age of the vines, the fertility of the soil, etc. Muscadine grapes bear their fruit in small clusters. It is therefore necessary to maintain a large fruiting surface in order to secure a proper tonnage of fruit. This is accomplished by developing a series of fruiting arms, spurring along these, and lengthening them as the vines become stronger. Such fruiting arms can be maintained for a number of years, but after a time it is desirable to renew them. This is done by cutting out the arm and starting a new one from a cane that has been previously grown for such purposes. It is preferable to renew systematically only one or, at most, two arms on a vine each year. This gradual renewal does not disturb the vigor of the vine, but keeps it productive, healthy, and strong. The pruning can be quickly and easily done if systematically practiced from the time the vines are started." REJUVENATING OLD VINES When pruning and training are neglected, a vineyard soon becomes a sorry company of halt and maimed vines. These neglected vines can rarely be reshaped and restored to their pristine vigor. If the old vines seem capable of throwing out a strong new growth, it is almost always better to grow a new top by taking out canes from the roots and so rejuvenate. The energy and activity of Nature are seldom seen to better advantage than in these new tops, if the old tops are cut back severely and the vineyard given good care. The new canes grow with the gusto of the biblical bay tree, making it difficult oftentimes to keep them within bounds. Usually this new top can be treated essentially as if it were a new vine. Not infrequently the cane will make sufficient growth and mature well enough so that it may be left as a permanent trunk at the end of the first season. If, however, the wood is short, weak and soft, it should be cut back in the autumn to two or three buds from one of which a permanent trunk can be trained the next season from which a good top can be formed in another season. The old top is discarded as soon as the new trunk is tied to the trellis. Old vineyards are often rejuvenated in this way to advantage and return profits to their owners for years; but if the soil is poor and the vines weak, attempts to renew the tops seldom pay. Occasionally rejuvenating old vines by pruning is worth while. When such an attempt is made, it is best to cut back severely at the winter-pruning, leaving two, three or four canes, depending on the method of training, of six, eight or ten buds. The amount of wood left must depend on the vigor of the plant and the variety. The success of such rejuvenation depends much on selecting suitable places on the old vine from which to renew the bearing wood. It requires good judgment, considerable skill and much experience to rejuvenate successfully an old vineyard by remodeling the existing top, and if the vines are far gone with neglect it is seldom worth while. Sometimes old vines or even a whole vineyard can be rejuvenated most easily by grafting. This is particularly true when the vines are not of the kind wanted, and when the vineyard contains an occasional stray vine from the variety to which it is planted. Directions for grafting are given on pages 45 to 50. The grafted vine is readily brought into shape, under any of the several methods of training, by treating it as a young vine. [Illustration: PLATE XII.--Diana (×3/5).] CHAPTER IX GRAPE-PRUNING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE The methods of pruning and training native grapes, discussed in the last two chapters, do not apply to the Vinifera grapes grown in the favored valleys of the Rocky Mountains and on the Pacific slope. As we have already seen, the Vinifera or Old World grape differs markedly in habits of growth from the American species so that it would not be expected that pruning which applies to the one would apply to the other types. The fundamentals, to be sure, are much the same and the different species of grapes are about equally subservient to the shears of the pruner, but while pruning to regulate fruit-bearing finds many similarities in Old and New World grapes, the training of the vines is radically different. European practices in pruning and training Vinifera grapes are so many and so diverse that the first growers of this fruit in America were at a loss to know how to prune their vines. But, out of a half century of experience, American growers of Old World grapes have adapted from European practices and have devised to meet new conditions, methods which serve very well in the new home for this old grape. Since the culture of the Old World grape is centered in California, almost confined to that state, California practice may be taken as a pattern in pruning and training the vines of this species. VINE PRUNING IN CALIFORNIA[16] The systems of pruning in use in California may be divided into two classes according to the arrangement of the arms on the trunk of the vine. In the commonest systems, there is a definite head to the trunk, from which all the arms arise symmetrically at nearly the same level. The vines of these systems may be called "headed vines." In the other systems, the trunk is elongated four to eight feet and the arms are distributed regularly along the whole or the greater portion of its length. The vines of these systems, owing to the rope-like form of the trunks, are called "cordons." The headed vines are divided according to the length of the vertical trunk into high, 2-3 feet, medium, 1-1-1/2 feet, and low, 0-6 inches. The cordons may be vertical or horizontal, according to the direction of the trunk, which is from four to eight feet long. The horizontal cordons may be single (unilateral) or composed of two branches extending in opposite directions (bilateral). Double and even multiple vertical cordons occur, but they are very inadvisable and have no advantages. The arrangement of the arms of a headed vine may be symmetrical in all directions at an angle of about 45 degrees. Such a vine is said to be "vase-formed," though the hollow center which this term implies is not essential. This is the form used in the great majority of our vineyards whether of wine, raisin, or shipping grapes. It is suitable for the "square" system of planting and cross cultivation. Where vines are planted in the avenue system, particularly when trellised and where cross cultivation is impossible, the arms are given a "fan-shaped" arrangement in a vertical plane. This arrangement is considered to be essential for the economical and easy working of trellised vines. On the vertical or upright cordon, the arms are arranged at as regular intervals as possible on all sides of the trunk from the top to within twelve or fifteen inches of the bottom. On the horizontal cordon the arms are arranged similarly, but as nearly as possible on the upper side of the trunk only. Each of these systems may again be divided into two subsystems, according to the management of the annual growth or canes. In one, spurs of one, two, or three eyes are left for fruit production. This system is called short or spur pruning. In the other, long canes are left for fruit production. This is called long or cane pruning. In rare cases an intermediate form is adopted in which long spurs or short canes of five or six eyes are left. In cane pruning, each fruit cane is accompanied by one or two short renewal spurs. These must also accompany half-long pruning. Systems of pruning, when only long canes are left without renewal-spurs, are not in use in California. In all systems, replacing-spurs are left wherever and whenever needed. Other modifications are introduced by the manner of disposal of the fruit canes. These may be tied up vertically to a stake driven at the foot of each vine or bowed in a circle and tied to this same stake, or they may be tied laterally to wires stretching along the rows in a horizontal, ascending or descending direction. The different systems differ therefore in: (1) the shape, length, and direction of the trunk; (2) the arrangement of the arms; (3) the use of fruit spurs or fruit canes with renewal spurs; (4) the disposal of the fruit canes. The principal possibilities of the pruning are shown in the following table: A. HEAD PRUNING: VASE-FORM } { (_a_) Fruit spurs or } { 1. High trunk: } { (_b_) Half-long canes and renewal } { spurs or 2. Medium trunk: } with { } { (_c_) Fruit canes and renewal 3. Low trunk: } { spurs; canes vertical } { or bowed. B. HEAD PRUNING: FAN-SHAPED; TRELLISED 1. High trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes descending. 2. Medium trunk: Fruit canes and renewal spurs; canes horizontal or ascending. C. CORDON PRUNING 1. Vertical: Spur; half-long; cane. 2. Horizontal-unilateral: Spur; half-long; cane. 3. Horizontal-bilateral: Spur; half-long; cane. All possible combinations indicated by this table represent 24 variations. Some of these combinations, however, are not used and some are rare. The most common are shown in Figs. 23, 24, 25, 26 and 27. Figure 23 B represents a headed, vase-formed vine, with a medium trunk and short fruit spurs. This is the most common system used in all parts of California and is suited for all small growing vines which bear on the lower buds, for most wine grapes and for Muscats. The unit of pruning in this case is a fruit spur of 1, 2, or 3 internodes, according to the vigor of the variety and of the individual cane. Figure 23 A differs from 23 B only in the higher trunk and longer arms. It is commonly used for Tokay and other large growing varieties, especially when growing in rich soil and when planted far apart. [Illustration: FIG. 23. Forms of head pruning: _A_, spur pruning with high trunk; _B_, spur pruning with medium trunk; _C_, half-long with medium trunk.] Figure 23 C has the same form of body as A and B, except that the arms are somewhat less numerous. The unit of pruning is a short fruit cane of four to five internodes, accompanied by a renewal spur of one internode. It is suited for vigorous table grapes, which do not bear well on short spurs. It is used especially for the Cornichon and Malaga in rich soil. This is a difficult system to keep in good shape owing to the tendency for all the vigor to go to the growth on the ends of the fruit canes. It is difficult to obtain vigorous canes on the renewal spurs. Occasional short pruning is usually necessary to keep the vines in proper shape. Figure 24 A is similar to 23 C in form, but the number of arms is still further reduced to 2, 3, or at most 4. The unit of pruning is a fruit cane of 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 feet with its renewal spur. Owing to the length of the fruit canes they require support and are tied to a high stake. This method is used in a large number of vineyards with Sultanina, Sultana and certain wine grapes, especially Semillon and Cabernet. It is not to be recommended in any case, as it has several very serious defects. The difficulty of obtaining new wood from the renewal spurs is even greater than in the system shown in Fig. 23 C. The length and vertical position of the fruit canes cause the main growth and vigor of the vine to be expended on the highest shoots. The renewal spurs are thus so shaded that, even though their buds start, the shoots make but a weak growth. The result is that at the following pruning all the good new wood is at the top of the fruit canes of the previous year, where it cannot be utilized. The pruner has to choose then between reverting to spur pruning and getting no crop or using the weak growth from the renewal spurs for fruit canes, in which case he may get blossoms but little or no fruit of any value. [Illustration: FIG. 24. Forms of head pruning: _A_, vertical fruit canes and renewal spurs; _B_, bowed fruit canes and renewal spurs.] Other defects of this method are that the fruiting shoots are excessively vigorous and therefore often tend to drop their blossoms without setting and the fruit when produced is massed together so that it ripens unevenly and is difficult to gather. It also requires a tall and expensive stake. Figure 24 B represents an improvement on the last system. It differs only in the method of treating the fruit canes. These are bent over in the form of a circle and tied by their middle part to a stake which may be smaller and lower than that needed for the vertical canes. This bowing of the canes has several useful effects. The change of direction moderates the tendency of the vigor of the vine to expend itself only on the terminal shoots. More shoots therefore are formed on the fruit canes and as their vigor is somewhat decreased they tend to be more fruitful. The slight mechanical injury caused by the bending operates in the same direction. [Illustration: FIG. 25. Head pruning: fan-shaped head; fruit canes tied to horizontal trellis.] The excess of vigor thus being diverted from the fruit canes causes the renewal spurs to form vigorous shoots, which soon grow above the fruit shoots and obtain the light and air they need for their proper development. This method is used successfully for certain wine grapes such as Riesling, Cabernet, and Semillon. It is unsuited to large vigorous varieties or for vines on rich soil planted wide apart. In these cases two fruit canes are usually insufficient and, if more are used, the grapes and leaves are so massed together that they are subject to mildew and do not ripen evenly or well. The bowing and tying of the canes requires considerable skill and care on the part of the workmen. The body, arms, and annual pruning of the system shown in Fig. 25 are similar to those of Fig. 24, with the exception that the arms are given a fan-shaped arrangement in one plane. It differs in the disposal of the fruit canes, which are supported by a trellis stretching along the row from vine to vine. This method is largely used for the Sultanina (Thompson's Seedless), and is the best system for vigorous vines which require long pruning, wherever it is possible to dispense with cross cultivation. It is also suitable for any long-pruned varieties when growing in very fertile soil. Figure 26 is a photograph of a four-year-old Emperor vine, illustrating the vertical cordon system. It consists of an upright trunk 4-1/2 feet high with short arms and fruit spurs scattered evenly and symmetrically from the top to within fifteen inches of the bottom. This system is used in many Emperor vineyards in the San Joaquin Valley. [Illustration: FIG. 26. Single vertical cordon with fruit spurs.] Its advantages are that it allows the large development of the vine and the large number of spurs which the vigor of the Emperor demands, without, on the one hand, crowding the fruit by the proximity of the spurs or, on the other hand, spreading the vine so much that cultivation is interfered with. It also permits cross cultivation. One of its defects is that the fruit is subjected to various degrees of temperature and shading in different parts of the vine and the ripening and coloring are often uneven. A more vital defect is that it cannot be maintained permanently. The arms and spurs at the top of the trunk tend to absorb the energies of the vine and the lower arms and spurs become weaker each year until finally no growth at all is obtained below. After several years, most of the vines therefore lose their character of cordons and become simply headed-vines with abnormally long trunks. The cordon can be reëstablished in this case by allowing a vigorous sucker to develop one year from which to form a new trunk the next. The following year the old trunk is removed entirely. An objection to this method is that it makes very large wounds in the most vital part of the vine--the base of the trunk. Figure 27 is a photograph of a four-year-old Colombar vine, illustrating the unilateral, horizontal cordon system. It consists of a trunk about seven feet long, supported horizontally by a wire two feet from the ground. Arms and spurs are arranged along the whole horizontal part of the trunk. [Illustration: FIG. 27. Unilateral horizontal cordon with fruit spurs.] This system accomplishes the same objects as the vertical cordon. It allows a large development of the vine and numerous fruit spurs without crowding. It is superior to the vertical cordon in the distribution of the fruit, which is all exposed to approximately the same conditions owing to the uniform distance from the ground of the fruit spurs. All parts of the trunk producing an annual growth of wood and fruit are equally exposed to light and the tendency of the growth to occur principally at the part of the trunk farthest removed from the root is counteracted by the horizontal position. There is not the same difficulty therefore in maintaining this form of vine permanently that there is with the vertical cordon. This system should not be used for small weak vines, whether the weakness is a characteristic of the variety or due to the nature of the soil. It is suited only to very vigorous varieties such as Emperor, Almeria, and the Persian grapes when growing far apart in rich, moist soil. _Periods of development._ The first year in the life of a vine is devoted to developing a vigorous root system; the next two or three years to building up a shapely trunk and head, and a like period to forming the full complement of arms. At the end of from five to nine years the framework of the vine is complete and should undergo no particular change of shape except a gradual thickening of trunk and arms. There are, therefore, several periods in the life of the vine with varying objects, and the methods of pruning must vary accordingly. These periods do not correspond exactly to periods of time, so it may be misleading to speak of pruning a two-year-old or a three-year-old vine. One vine under certain conditions will reach the same stage of development in two years that another will reach only in three or four years under other conditions. The range of time of these periods is about as follows: First period--Formation of a strong root system 1 to 2 years Second period--Formation of stem or trunk 1 year Third period--Formation of head 2 to 3 years Fourth period--Complete development of the arms 2 to 3 years Total time of formation of framework 6 to 9 years Under exceptionally favorable conditions the first and second periods may be included in the first year and a completely formed vine may be obtained in five years. _Before planting._ For planting, cuttings, one-year-old rooted vines, or bench grafts are used. In all cases, they need some attention from the pruner. The usual way to prune a good rooted vine of average size having a single cane at the top and several good roots at the bottom is to shorten the cane to one or two buds and the roots to two or four inches, according to their size. Shortening the cane makes the vine less liable to dry out before rooting and forces the growth from the lower buds which produce more vigorous shoots. The roots are shortened so that there will be no danger of the ends being turned upwards when planted. If they are to be planted in a large hole, they may be left as long as five or six inches; if to be planted with a crowbar or dibble, they must be cut back to half an inch. If the rooted vine has several canes, all but one should be removed entirely, and this one shortened to one or two eyes. The one left should be that which is strongest, has the best buds, and is the best placed. Where a horizontal cane is left, it should be cut back to the base bud. Otherwise the main growth may occur at a higher bud and the vine will have a crook which will result in a badly formed trunk. If canes are growing from different joints, it is usually best to leave the lower cane if they are equally vigorous. This brings the buds from which growth will come nearer to the roots, and leaves less of the original cutting, which are advantages. The upper joint between the canes is, moreover, often more or less decayed or imperfect. _First growing season._ The treatment during the first spring and summer will depend on what growth the vines are expected to make and on whether the vines are staked the first year. With cuttings and with both rooted vines and grafts where the growth will be moderate, staking the first year is unnecessary, though it has some slight advantages. In these cases, no pruning of any kind is necessary until the winter following the planting, except in the case of bench grafts. The pruning in the last case is confined to the removal of the suckers from the stock and roots from the cion. If the stocks have been well disbudded by the nurseryman, few suckers will develop. In moist soil, the cion roots may develop vigorously and must be removed before they grow too large, or they may prevent the proper development of the resistant roots. The removal of roots should usually be done some time in July. For this purpose the hill of soil is scraped away from the union and after the cion roots and suckers are removed it is replaced. In this second hilling up, the union should be just barely covered so that the soil round the union will be dry and unfavorable to a second growth of roots. Later in the season, about September, the soil should be removed entirely from around the union and any new roots that may have formed removed. The union is then left exposed to harden and mature, so that it will pass the winter without injury. _First winter pruning._ At the end of the first growing season, an average good vine will have produced from three to five canes, the longest of which will be from two to three feet long. Soon after the leaves have fallen in December or early in January the vines should be pruned. The method is precisely similar to that used for rooted vines before planting except that the main roots are not touched. All the canes are removed entirely except one. This one should be well matured, at least at the base, and should have well-formed eyes. It is shortened to two eyes. It is well also to cut off all shallow roots within three or four inches of the surface. This is necessary in the case of grafted vines if any have escaped the summer root-cutting. Some of the vines may have made an exceptionally large growth. Such vines may sometimes possess a cane large enough from which to start the trunk in the way described later for the second winter pruning. _Staking._ If the vines have not been staked before, the stakes should be driven soon after pruning and before the starting of the buds. In order to preserve the alignment of the vineyard, the stakes should be driven on the same side of every vine at a uniform distance. The best distance is about two inches. If driven closer they may injure large roots or even the main underground stem if the vines have not been carefully planted vertically or slanting towards the side on which the stake is to be placed. The side on which the stake should be placed depends on the direction of the prevailing winds during the growing season. This side is the leeward. That is, the stake should be so placed that the wind will press the vine towards the stake instead of away from it. This will much facilitate the work of keeping the vine upright and attached to the stake. If the vine is on the other side the pressure of the wind will stretch the string tight and the swaying of the vine will gradually wear the string until it breaks, necessitating retying. By carefully observing this rule, very few vines will require retying even if weak material like binding twine is used. _Second summer pruning._ Before the starting of the buds, in the spring following the planting, most of the vines appear about the same as when they were planted. There is, however, a very notable difference, in that they have well-developed root systems in the soil where they were formed. The result is that they make a much more prompt and early start and will produce a much larger growth than they did the first season. For this reason they require very careful attention from the pruner during the spring and summer of the second season. Vines neglected at this time, in this respect, may make as large a growth, but a large part of it will be wasted, the vines will be misformed and it will require from one to two years longer to develop a suitable framework and to bring them into bearing, even though they are properly handled during subsequent years. The more vigorous the vines, the more necessary it is to handle them properly during this period. The main object during this second growing season is to develop a single, strong, vigorous and well-ripened cane from which to form the permanent trunk of the vine. This is done by concentrating all the energies of the vine into the growth of a single shoot. As soon as the buds start, or when the most precocious has developed a shoot of a few inches in length, the vines should be disbudded. This consists in rubbing off with the hand all buds and shoots except the two largest and best placed. The lowest, upright shoots are usually the best. Leave only those which will make a straight vine. It is better to leave less developed buds than a shoot which, when it grows, will make an awkward crook with the underground stem. After this disbudding, the two shoots left will grow rapidly, as they receive all the energies of the root system. When the longest have grown from ten to fifteen inches, they should be tied to the stake. Unless this is done, they are liable to be broken off by any heavy wind, owing to their soft, succulent texture. Only the best placed and most vigorous of the two shoots should be tied up. If this shoot is growing upright and near the stake, this can be done without any danger of injuring it. In this case the second shoot should be removed. If the shoot has to be bent over in tying it to the stake it may be injured. In such a case the second shoot should be allowed to grow until it is known whether the first has been injured. In case of injury the second shoot can be tied up the next time the vines are visited and the injured shoot removed. At the tying up of the reserved shoots, all new shoots which have developed since the first disbudding should be removed. The shoots should be tied up loosely, as they are soft and easily injured, and they should be brought around carefully to the windward side of the stake. The shoots will require tying once more when they have grown another foot or eighteen inches. There will then be two ties, one at two or three inches from the top of the stake and the other at about the middle. If the vines have a tall stake and are to be headed very high, another tying higher up may be needed later. With vines making only a moderate growth, no other pruning will be needed until the winter. Exceptionally vigorous vines, however, may make a cane eight, ten or more feet long. Such a cane is heavy and is very likely to break the ropes by which it is attached to the stake. In this case it may break off at the bottom, or at least will form an awkward crook near the ground when it matures. In either case it is difficult to form a good trunk the following year. Even when the ties do not break, the cane will not be well suited for the commencement of a trunk, as the joints will be so long that it will be impossible to leave enough well-placed buds at the winter pruning. Both these difficulties are avoided by timely topping. When such vigorously growing canes have grown twelve or eighteen inches above the top of the stake they are cut back about level with the stake. This is most conveniently done with a long-bladed knife or piece of split bamboo. After topping, the cane ceases to grow in length and laterals start at most of the joints. It is less exposed to the action of the wind, and the laterals supply the buds needed for forming the vine at the winter pruning. [Illustration: PLATE XIII.--Dutchess (×2/3).] The result of the second season's growth, then, has been to produce a single vigorous cane with or without laterals. This is the cane which is to develop into the final and permanent trunk of the vine. It must not only be large and vigorous, but must be properly matured. If the vine is allowed to grow too late in the season, an early frost may destroy the unmatured cane, and much of the results of the year's growth will be wasted. Such a frost may indeed kill the entire vine. Grafted vines are particularly liable to injury from this cause, as if they are killed down to the union they are completely ruined. Ungrafted vines when killed to the ground may be renewed from a sucker next year. This sucker, however, is likely to grow with such vigor that it is even more liable to injury from an autumn frost than the original shoot. This late growth is much more likely to occur with young vines than with old. The old vines stop growing earlier because their energies are directed into the crop, and as they produce a larger amount of foliage they draw more upon the moisture of the soil, which therefore dries out earlier. Late growth of the young vines must be prevented and the wood matured before frost if possible. This is accomplished by means which promote the drying of the soil in autumn. Late irrigations should be avoided. Cultivation should usually stop by midsummer. In very moist, rich soils, it is often an advantage to grow corn, sunflowers or similar crops between the rows of vines to take off the surplus moisture. In some cases it is good practice to let the summer weeds grow for the same purpose. _Second winter pruning._ With vines which have been treated as described and to which no accident has happened, the second winter pruning is very simple. It consists simply in cutting back the single cane which has been allowed to grow to the height at which it is desired to head the vine. The vine so pruned consists of a single cane which with the older wood at the base reaches nearly to the top of the stake, or fifteen inches. This if properly treated will develop into a vine with a trunk of about twelve inches, though this length can be modified slightly, as will be explained later. This cane consists of about seven or eight joints or internodes, with an equal number of well-formed eyes and an indefinite number of dormant buds, principally near the base of the cane or junction of the one- and two-year-old wood. Only the buds on the upper half of this cane will be allowed to grow. These buds--about four--should give six to eight bunches of grapes and four, six, or eight shoots from which to form the spurs at the following winter pruning. With a vine which has been cut back to form a high head, the cane is about twenty-four inches long and can be used to form a trunk eighteen inches high, though this height can be modified as in the last case. As with the shorter cane, only the buds on the upper half will be allowed to produce shoots. These--about six--should give ten to twelve bunches and the shoots necessary for the formation of spurs. In all cases a full internode has been left above the top bud. This is done by cutting through the first bud above the highest which it is desired to have grow. This cut is made in such a way as to destroy the bud but to leave the diaphragm intact and part of the swelling of the node. This upper internode is left partly to protect the upper bud, but principally to facilitate tying. By making a half-hitch around this internode, the vine is held very firmly. If the swelling at the node of the destroyed bud is not left, many vines will be pulled out of the hitch when they become heavy with leaves and supple with the flow of sap in the spring. In tying the vines, no turns or hitches must be made around any part except this upper internode. A hitch below the top bud will result in a crook-necked vine, as the top will bend over in the summer under the weight of the foliage. A hitch lower down is even more harmful, as it will girdle and strangle the vine. A second tie about half way from the upper to the ground is always necessary to straighten the cane. Even if the cane is straight when pruned, a second tie is needed to keep it from curving under the pressure of leaves and wind in the spring. For high-headed vines three ties are usually necessary. For the top tie, wire is particularly suitable. It holds better than twine and does not wear. Even though it is not removed, it does no harm, as the part around which it is wound does not grow. The lower ties should be of softer material, as wire has a tendency to cut into the wood. They should be placed so that the cane is able to expand as it grows. With thin and especially with round stakes this means that the tie must be loose. With large, square stakes there is usually sufficient room for expansion, even when the twine is tied tight. _Third summer pruning._ During the third season, average well-grown vines will produce their first considerable crop and develop the canes from which will be formed the first arms. Such a vine, soon after the starting of the buds in spring, will have one vigorous shoot about three inches long grown from the old wood and five fruit buds started above on the cane. All the buds and shoots below the middle of the cane should be removed. This will leave the four or five fruit buds and will give the vine the opportunity to produce eight or ten bunches of grapes. These buds will produce also at least four or five shoots. If the vine is very vigorous and the season favorable, they may produce eight, ten or more. When the five shoots grow, the height of the head will be determined at the next winter pruning by which of the corresponding canes are left as spurs. If the highest two canes are cut back to spurs and all others removed, the vine will be headed as high as possible, as these two spurs form the two first arms which determine the length of the trunk. If the lowest two canes are chosen and all of the vine above them removed, the trunk will be made as low as possible. Intermediate heights can be obtained by using some other two adjacent canes and removing the rest. It is often advisable to leave some extra spurs lower than it is desired to head the vine and to remove these lower spurs the following winter after they have borne a crop. For example, the three or four upper canes might be left, if the vine is vigorous enough, and the lowest one or two of these removed at the next pruning. This, however, is not often necessary with properly handled vines and is objectionable because it makes large wounds in the trunk. _Third winter pruning._ At the end of the third season's growth the vine should have a straight, well-developed trunk with a number of vigorous canes near the top from which to form the arms. Figure 28 represents a well-grown vine at this period. No shoots have been allowed to grow on the lower part of the trunk and the five buds allowed to grow above have produced nine vigorous canes. The pruner should leave enough spurs to supply all the fruit buds that the vine can utilize. The number, size and thickness of the canes show that the vine is very vigorous and can support a large crop. It will depend somewhat on the variety how many buds should be left. For a variety whose bunches average one pound, and which produces two bunches to the shoot, twelve fruit buds should give about twenty-four pounds, or about seven tons per acre, if the vines are planted 12 by 6 feet, as these were. The number of spurs will depend on their length. Six spurs of two buds each will give the required number, but as some of these canes are exceptionally vigorous they should be left a little longer, in which case a smaller number of spurs will suffice. [Illustration: FIG. 28. Three-year-old vine ready for pruning.] When the number and length of the spurs are decided on, the canes should be chosen which will leave these spurs in the most suitable position for forming arms. This position will depend on whether we want a vase-form or fan-shaped vine. In the first case, we choose those which will distribute the spurs most evenly and symmetrically on all sides, avoiding any which cross or point downwards. In the second case, we choose only those canes which run in the direction of the trellis, avoiding canes which stick out between the rows. Downward pointing canes may be used in this case. [Illustration: FIG. 29. Vine of Fig. 28 after pruning for vase-formed head.] Figure 29 shows the vine after pruning for a vase-formed head. The pruner has used two of the strongest canes to form two three-bud spurs and three of medium vigor to form three two-bud spurs. The head is of good shape, though some of the spurs are a little too low. One, two, or three of these can be removed at the following winter pruning, and the permanent arms and head of the vine formed from canes which develop on the two highest spurs. If the vine were too high, the head could be developed the next year from the three lowest spurs and the upper part removed. [Illustration: FIG. 30. Three-year-old vines: _A_, pruned for a vase-formed, and _B_, for a fan-shaped head.] Figure 30 shows vines of the same age of practically perfect shape. Less spurs have been left because the vines were less vigorous. It is easier to properly shape vines which make only a moderate growth during the first three seasons. On the other hand, very vigorous vines can finally be brought into practically perfect shape and the somewhat larger and more numerous wounds necessary are more easily healed by a vigorous vine. _Pruning after the third winter._ For the pruner who understands the pruning of young vines and has brought them to approximately the form represented in Figs. 29 and 30, the subsequent winter pruning is very simple. It involves, however, one new idea--the distinction between fruit and sterile wood. Up to the third winter pruning, this distinction is not necessary; first, because practically all the wood is fruit wood, and second, because the necessity of forming the vine controls the choice of wood. From this time on, however, this distinction must be carefully made. At each winter pruning a number of spurs of fruit wood must be left to produce the crop to be expected from the size and vigor of the vine. Besides these fruit spurs, it may be necessary to leave spurs of sterile wood to permit of increasing the number of fruit spurs the following year. This will be made clear by comparing Figs. 30 A and 31. Figure 30 A shows a vine at the third winter pruning with two fruit spurs of two buds each and one fruit spur of one bud--five fruit buds in all. If these five fruit buds all produce vigorous shoots during the following summer, they will supply five canes of fruit wood which can be used to form five fruit spurs at the following winter pruning, which will be about the normal increase necessary. Some of these fruit buds, however, may produce weak shoots or shoots so badly placed that they would spoil the shape of the head if used for spurs. Other shoots, however, will be produced from base, secondary and adventitious buds which, while less fruitful, can be used to form spurs for the starting of new arms. [Illustration: FIG. 31. Four-year-old vine pruned for vase-formed head.] Figure 31 shows a vine after the fourth winter pruning which had developed from a vine similar to that shown in Fig. 30 A. From the three fruit spurs left the previous year four canes have been chosen for the fruit spurs of this year. The old spur on the left has furnished two new spurs and the two old spurs at the right each one new spur. The pruner, judging that the vine is sufficiently vigorous to stand more wood, has formed two spurs from water sprouts which, while not likely to produce much fruit the first season, will supply fruit wood for the following year. The result is a very well-shaped vine with six almost perfectly balanced spurs. These spurs will develop into permanent arms, some of them furnishing finally two or three. Figure 32 shows a high-headed vine of the same age. It has five spurs, of which four are fruit spurs and one a spur of sterile wood left to shape the vine. The two more or less horizontal spurs on the right will bear fruit the following autumn and will be removed entirely at the following winter pruning, as they are badly placed. The arms of the vine will then be developed from the three upright spurs, which are excellently placed. [Illustration: FIG. 32. Four-year-old vine pruned for high vase-formed head.] Each year thereafter the same process must be followed. First, enough fruit spurs, as well placed as possible, must be left to produce the crop. Second, on most vines supplementary spurs of sterile wood must be left to supply more arms where they are needed, and finally, when the full complement of arms has developed, to supply new arms to replace those which have become too long or are otherwise defective. _Fan-shaped vines._ With headed vines, the treatment up to the third winter is the same except for the variations in the height of the head. At the third winter pruning, however, the formation of the head commences, and the pruner determines whether it shall be vase-formed or fan-shaped. The production of a vase-formed head has already been described. At the third winter pruning, the vine should be pruned to two spurs, as shown in Fig. 30 B. More vigorous vines should _not_ be given more spurs, as in Figs. 29 and 30 A, but the spurs should be made longer, with four, five, or even six eyes in some cases. This is in order to obtain some fruit, which might not be obtained from long pruning varieties by leaving many spurs. With extremely vigorous vines one fruit cane may be left at this pruning. The wires of the trellis should be put up this year, if this has not already been done. Fig. 33 A and 33 B illustrates the second step in the production of a fan-shaped head. This form of head is used only for trellised vines and long-pruned varieties. The formation of the head and the management of the fruit canes are therefore conveniently discussed together. [Illustration: FIG. 33. _A_, before pruning; _B_, after pruning.] By comparing the pruned vine, Fig. 33 B, with the unpruned, Fig. 33 A, the method of pruning will be made clear. The unpruned vine shows two arms, the spurs of the previous year, from one of which have grown three vigorous canes and from the other two somewhat less vigorous. The pruned vine shows a complete unit, that is, a fruit cane with its accompanying renewal spur on the vigorous side and a spur for the production of fruit wood for the following year on the other side. If the vine had been more vigorous two complete units would have been left and one or two extra spurs. As the form of the vine is determined by the renewal spurs, special attention should be paid to their position. In this case, the middle cane on one arm and the lower cane on the other have been used for renewal spurs. This brings them both to the same height above the ground and determines the place of the permanent arms. The next year each of these spurs will furnish a fruit cane and one or two renewal spurs. The arms will thus in two or three years be increased to four, or, with very large vines, to six. These spurs should be chosen as nearly as possible in the plane of the trellis, that is, they should not project out sideways. Figure 25 shows vines of this kind of full size and in full bearing. The fruit canes also should be as nearly as possible in the direction of the trellis, though this is not so important, as they can be bent over to the wire when tied up, and in any case they are removed the next year. _Double-headed vines._ Some growers attempt to arrange the arms of their vines in two stages, one above the other, forming double-headed or two-crowned vines. The method is applied to both vase-formed and trellised vines. It is open to the same criticisms as the vertical cordon, the chief of which is that it cannot be maintained permanently. The lower head or ring of arms finally becomes weak and fails to produce wood. It is easier to maintain in trellised vineyards and has some advantages, the chief of which is that it makes it easier to keep the vine in the single plane and to prevent arms getting into the inter-rows. The double trunk is not necessary and is, in fact, a disadvantage, as one trunk has a tendency to grow at the expense of the other. _Vertical and bowed canes._ Figure 24 A shows a long-pruned vine in which the fruit canes have been tied vertically to a tall stake. This is a method used commonly in many vineyards. The unit of pruning is the same as in the method just described, consisting of a fruit cane and a renewal spur. The framework of the vine consists of a trunk of medium height, with a vase-formed head consisting of three or four arms. The defects of this system have been pointed out on page 155. It is used with fair success with seedless Sultanas and with some wine grapes such as Colombar, Semillon, Cabernet, and Riesling, in the hands of skillful pruners. The results with Sultanina are very unsatisfactory. By this method, on most of the vines, the fruit canes start from high up near the middle of the stake, and are therefore too short for the best results. The canes which start from low down are in most cases suckers, and therefore of little value for fruit bearing. Figure 24 B shows a vine with bowed canes. The method of pruning is exactly the same as in the method just described. The bowing of the canes, however, overcomes some of the defects of that method. It is used regularly in many wine grape vineyards of the cooler regions. It is unsuited for very vigorous vines in rich soil. _Vertical cordons._ In head pruning, the treatment of young vines up to the second or third winter pruning is identical for all systems. In cordon pruning the treatment for the first and second is also the same. That is, the vine is cut back to two buds near the level of the ground until a cane sufficiently long to serve for the formation of the trunk is obtained. In the vertical cordon the trunk is three to four feet long instead of one to two, as in head pruning. This makes it necessary to have a longer and more vigorous cane to start with. It may require a year longer to obtain this. That is to say, at the end of the second season's growth many vines will not have a single cane sufficiently developed to give the necessary three and one-half feet of well-ripened wood and properly developed buds. At the second winter pruning, therefore, it will often be necessary to cut the vine back to two buds, as at the first winter pruning. [Illustration: FIG. 34. Vertical cordon, young vine pruned.] Finally, a cane of the required length will be obtained. The vine is then formed as already described for the second winter pruning of headed vines, except that the cane is left longer. When such a vine is pruned, spurs are left at intervals along the trunk, as shown in Fig. 34. Each of these spurs is a fruit spur and is also the commencement of an arm. The future treatment of these arms is the same as that of the arms in head pruning. _Horizontal cordons._ During the first two or three years, vines which are to be given the form of horizontal cordons are treated exactly as for vertical cordons, that is, they are pruned back to two buds each winter and the growth forced by disbudding into a single cane during the summer. As soon as a well-ripened cane of the required length is obtained, it is tied to a wire stretched horizontally along the row at from fifteen to twenty-four inches from the ground. For this system of pruning, the rows should be twelve to fourteen feet apart and the vines six, seven, or eight feet apart in the rows. As the cordon or trunk of each vine should reach the next vine, it will have to be six to eight feet long. The best shape is obtained when the trunk is all formed one year from a single cane. It is necessary, however, sometimes to take two years for the formation of the trunk. In any case, the cane first tied down should reach at least half way to the next vine. The following year a new cane from the end of this should be used to complete the full length of the trunk. In attaching the cane to the wire, it must be bent over in a gentle curve and care taken not to break or injure it. The proper form of the bend is shown in Figs. 27 and 35. Sharp bends should be avoided. [Illustration: FIG. 35. Unilateral horizontal cordon with half-long pruning.] The cane should be placed on top of the wire, but should not be twisted around it. The end should be tied firmly and the rest of the cane supported by strings tied loosely in order to avoid girdling when the cane grows. In the following spring, most of the buds on a good cane will start. If the cane is short jointed, some of the shoots should be removed and only those shoots allowed to develop which are conveniently situated for permanent arms. If the vines are to be short pruned, the arms should be developed every eight to twelve inches from a few inches beyond the bend to the extreme end. For long pruning, the arms should be farther apart, twelve to twenty inches. Shoots starting from the top of the cane and growing vertically upwards are to be preferred. As the shoots develop, the strongest should be pinched repeatedly, if necessary. This will tend to force the growth of the weaker shoots and to equalize the vigor of all. At the end of the season, there should be from five to ten canes growing on each cordon of full length. These canes are then pruned back to two or three buds, or a little longer for long-pruned varieties. During the following spring and summer, the vines should be carefully suckered and unnecessary water sprouts removed. Any shoots coming from the lower side of the cordon should be removed early to strengthen the growth in the shoots on the upper side. Such vines are apt to become dry or decayed on the upper side. At the end of this year, which should be the fourth or fifth from planting at the latest, the cordon will be fully formed and the final style of pruning can be applied. A short-pruned cordon vine is shown in Fig. 27. The arms and spurs are a little too numerous and too close together. If this vine required the number of buds shown it would have been better to have left the fruit spurs longer and to have left fewer and shorter wood spurs. The upper vine of Fig. 35 shows a cordon pruned half long. This is an excellent system for Malaga, Emperor, and Cornichon when growing in very fertile soil. It gives the half-long fruit canes, which these varieties need to produce good crops. The fruit canes may be attached to a wire twelve or fifteen inches above the cordon or bent down and tied to the cordon itself, as in the lower vine of the figure. The first method is the more convenient, but the second is necessary where there is difficulty in obtaining satisfactory growth from the renewal spurs. When the fruit canes are tied down, as indicated in the lower vine, renewal spurs may not be needed, as vigorous shoots will usually be obtained from the lower buds of the fruit canes. _Choice of a system._ In choosing a system, we must consider carefully the characteristics of the particular variety we are growing. A variety which bears only on the upper buds must be pruned "long," that is, must be given fruit canes. It should be noted that many varieties, such as Petite Sirah, which will bear with short pruning when grafted on resistant roots require fruit canes when growing on their own roots. In general, grafted vines require shorter pruning than ungrafted. If pruned the same, the grafted vines may overbear and quickly exhaust themselves. This seems to be the principal reason for the frequent failure of Muscat vines grafted on resistant stock. The cultural conditions also affect the vine in this respect. Vines made vigorous by rich soil, abundant moisture, and thorough cultivation require longer pruning than weaker vines of the same variety. The normal size of the bunch is also of importance. This size will vary from one-quarter of a pound to 2 or 3 pounds. It is difficult to obtain a full crop from a variety whose bunches are very small without the use of fruit canes. Spurs will not furnish enough fruit buds without crowding them inconveniently. On the other hand, some shipping grapes may bear larger crops when pruned long, but the bunches and berries may be too small for the best quality. The possibilities of development vary much with different varieties. A Mission or Flame Tokay may be made to cover a quarter of an acre and develop a trunk four or five feet in circumference. A Zinfandel vine under the same conditions would not reach a tenth of this size in the same time. Vines in a rich valley soil will grow much larger than on a poor hillside. The size and shape of the trunk must be modified accordingly and adapted to the available room or number of vines to the acre. The shape of the vine must be such as to protect it as much as possible from various unfavorable conditions. A variety susceptible to oïdium, like the Carignane, must be pruned so that the fruit and foliage are not unduly massed together. Free exposure to light and air are a great protection in this respect. The same is true for varieties like the Muscat, which have a tendency to "coulure" if the blossoms are too moist or shaded. In frosty locations, a high trunk will be a protection, as the air is always colder close to the ground. The qualities required in the crop also influence our choice of a pruning system. With wine grapes, even, perfect ripening and full flavor are desirable. These are obtained best by having the grapes at a uniform height from the ground and as near to it as possible. The same qualities are desirable in raisin grapes, with the addition of large size of the berries. With shipping grapes, the size and perfection of the berries and bunches are the most essential characteristics. The vine, therefore, should be so formed that each bunch hangs clear, free from injurious contact with canes or soil and equally exposed to light and air. The maximum returns in crop depend on the early bearing of young vines, the regularity of bearing of mature vines and the longevity of the vineyard. These are insured by careful attention to all the details of pruning, but are possible only when the vines are given a suitable form. The running expenses of a vineyard depend in a great measure on the style of pruning adopted. Vines of suitable form are cultivated, pruned and the crop gathered easily and cheaply. This depends also both on the form of vine adopted and on care in details. It is impossible, therefore, to state for any particular variety or any particular location the best style of pruning to be adopted. All that can be done is to give the general characteristics of the variety and to indicate how these may be modified by grafting, soil or climatic or other conditions. The most important characteristic of the variety in making a choice of a pruning system is whether it normally or usually requires short, half-long, or long pruning. With this idea, the principal grapes grown in California, together with all those grown at the Experiment Station on which data exist, have been divided into five groups in the following list: 1. _Varieties which require long pruning under all conditions._--Clairette blanche, Corinth white and black, Seedless Sultana, Sultanina white (Thompson's Seedless) and rose. 2. _Varieties which usually require long pruning._--Bastardo, Boal de Madeira, Chardonay, Chauché gris and noir, Colombar, Crabbe's Black Burgundy, Durif, Gamais, Kleinberger, Luglienga, Marsanne, Marzemino, Merlot, Meunier, Muscadelle de Bordelais, Nebbiolo, Pagadebito, Peverella, Pinots, Rieslings, Robin noir, Ruländer, Sauvignon blanc, Semillon, Serine, Petite Sirah, Slancamenca, Steinschiller, Tinta Cao, Tinta Madeira, Trousseau, Verdelho, Petit Verdot, Wälcherisling. 3. _Varieties which usually require short pruning._--Aleatico, Aligoté, Aspiran, Bakator, Bouschets, Blaue Elbe, Beba, Bonarda, Barbarossa, Catarattu, Charbono, Chasselas, Freisa, Frontignan, Furmint, Grand noir, Grosseblaue, Green Hungarian, Malmsey, Mantuo, Monica, Mission, Moscatello fino, Mourisco branco, Mourisco preto, Negro amaro, Palomino, Pedro Zumbon, Perruno, Pizzutello di Roma, Black Prince, West's White Prolific, Quagliano, Rodites, Rozaki, Tinta Amarella, Vernaccia bianca, Vernaccia Sarda. 4. _Varieties which require short pruning under all conditions._--Aramon, Burger, Chardonay, Chauché gris and noir, Colombar, Crabbe's Black Burgundy, Durif, Black Morocco, Mourastel, Muscat of Alexander, Napoleon, Picpoule blanc and noir, Flame Tokay, Ugni blanc, Verdal, Zinfandel. 5. _Varieties of table grapes which usually require half-long or cordon pruning._--Almeria (Ohanez), Bellino, Bermestia bianca and violacea, Cipro nero, Dattier de Beirut, Cornichon, Emperor, Black Ferrara, Malaga, Olivette de Cadenet, Pis-de-Chevre blanc, Schiradzouli, Zabalkanski. These lists must not be taken as indicating absolutely for all cases how these varieties are to be pruned. They simply indicate their natural tendencies. Certain methods and conditions tend to make vines more fruitful. Where these occur, shorter pruning than is indicated may be advisable. On the other hand, other methods and conditions tend to make the vines vigorous at the expense of fruitfulness. Where these occur, longer pruning may be advisable. The more usual factors which tend towards _fruitfulness_ are: Grafting on resistant vines, especially on certain varieties such as those of Riparia and Berlandieri; Old age of the vines; Mechanical or other injuries to any part of the vine; Large development of the trunk, as in the cordon systems. The more usual factors which tend towards _vigor_ at the expense of fruitfulness are: Rich soil, especially large amounts of humus and nitrogen; Youth of the vines; Excessive irrigation or rainfall (within limits). In deciding what system of pruning to adopt, all these factors, together with the nature of the vine and the uses to which the fruit is to be put, must be considered. It is best when the vineyard is started to err on the side of short pruning. While this may diminish slightly the first one or two crops, the vines will gain in vigor and the loss will be made up in subsequent crops. If the style of pruning adopted results in excessive vigor of the vines, it should be gradually changed in the direction of longer pruning with the object of utilizing this vigor in the production of crop. This change should be gradual, or the risk is run of injuring the vitality of the vines by one or two excessively heavy crops. Finally, each year the condition of the individual vine should determine the kind of pruning to be adopted. If the vine appears weak, from whatever cause, it should be pruned shorter or given less spurs or fruit canes than the year before. On the contrary, if it appears unnecessarily vigorous, more or longer spurs or fruit canes should be left. Every vine should be judged by itself. It is not possible to give more than general directions for the pruning of the whole vineyard. It cannot be well pruned unless the men who do the actual pruning are capable of using sufficient judgment to properly modify their methods for each individual vine. [Illustration: PLATE XIV.--Eaton (×4/5).] CHAPTER X EUROPEAN GRAPES IN EASTERN AMERICA As we have seen, there were many efforts to grow European grapes in America during the first two centuries in the settlement of the country. The various attempts, some involving individuals, others corporations and in early days even colonies, form about the most instructive and dramatic episodes in the history of American agriculture. All endeavors, it will be remembered, were failures, so dismally and pathetically complete that we are wont to think of the two hundred years from the first settlements in America to the introduction of the Isabella, a native grape, as time wasted in futile culture of a foreign fruit. The early efforts were far from wasted, however, for out of the tribulations of two centuries of grape-growing came the domestication of our native grapes, one of the most remarkable achievements of agriculture. The advent of Isabella and Catawba wholly turned the thoughts of vineyardists from Old World to New World grapes. So completely, indeed, were viticulturists won by the thousand and more native grapes, that for the century which followed no one has planted Old World grapes east of the Rockies, while vineyards of native species may be found North and South from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Meanwhile, much new knowledge has come to agriculture, old fallacies have received many hard knocks and chains of tradition in which the culture of plants was bound, have been broken. In no field of agriculture have workers received greater aid from science than in viticulture. Particularly is this true of the diseases of the vine. The reports of the old experimenters were much the same, "a sickness takes hold of the vines and they die." What the sickness was and whether there were preventatives or remedies, no one knew a hundred years ago. But in the last half century we have learned much about the ills of grapes and now know preventatives or remedies for most of them. We know also that the early vine-growers failed, in part at least, because they followed empirical European practices. Is it not possible that with the new knowledge we can now grow European grapes in eastern America? The New York Agricultural Experiment Station has put this question to test, with results indicating that European grapes may now be grown successfully in eastern America. The following is an account of the work with this fruit at the New York Station. EUROPEAN GRAPES AT THE NEW YORK EXPERIMENT STATION[17] In the spring of 1911, the Station obtained cuttings of 101 varieties of European grapes from the United States Department of Agriculture and the University of California. The cuttings obtained were grafted on the roots of a heterogeneous collection of seedlings, five years set, representing a half dozen species of Vitis. These stocks had little to recommend them except that all were vigorous, well established and all were more immune to phylloxera than the Old World varieties. From four to six grafts of each of the hundred varieties were made and a stand of 380 vines resulted, the percentage of loss being exceedingly small. The success in grafting was probably due to the method used, the value of which had been proved in previous work on the Station grounds. The method of grafting and details of care follow: _Details of care._ In grafting, the earth was removed from the plants to a depth of two or three inches. The vines were sawed squarely off below the surface of the ground. The stock was then split for a cleft graft. Two cions, made as described on page 46, were inserted in each cleft and tied in place with waxed string. Wax was not used as it does not stick in grafting grapes, because of the bleeding of the stock. After setting the cion, the earth was replaced and enough more of it used to cover stock and cion to prevent evaporation. This method of grafting is available to those who have old vineyards. It is so simple that the veriest tyro can thus graft grapes. Were young plants or cuttings used as stocks, some method of bench grafting would, of course, be resorted to. The cultivation and spraying were precisely that given native grapes. There has been no coddling of vines. The fungous diseases which helped to destroy the vineyards and vexed the souls of the old experimenters were kept in check by two sprayings with bordeaux mixture; the first application was made just after the fruit set, the second when the grapes were two-thirds grown. Some years a third spraying with a tobacco concoction was used to keep thrips in check. Phylloxera was present in the vineyard but none of the varieties seemed to suffer from this pest. The stocks used were not those best suited either to the vines grafted on them or to resist phylloxera. Unquestionably some of the standard sorts used in France and California from _Vitis rupestris_ or _Vitis vulpina_, or hybrids of these species, would give better results. From theoretical consideration, it would seem that the _Vitis vulpina_ stocks should be best suited to the needs of eastern America. It was thought by the old experimenters that European grapes failed in New York because of unfavorable climatic conditions. It was said that the winters were too cold and the summers too hot and dry for this grape. During the years the Station vineyard of Viniferas has been in existence, there have been stresses of all kinds of weather to which the variable climate of New York is subject. Two winters have been exceedingly cold, killing peach and pear trees; one summer gave the hottest weather and hottest day in twenty-five years; the vines have withstood two severe summer droughts and three cold, wet summers. These test seasons have proved that European grapes will stand the climate of New York as well as the native varieties except in the matter of cold; they must have winter protection. To growers of American grapes, the extra work of winter protection seems to be an insuperable obstacle. The experience of several seasons in New York shows that winter protection is a cheap and simple matter. Two methods have been used; vines have been covered with earth and others have been wrapped with straw. The earth covering is cheaper and more efficient. The vines are pruned and placed full length on the ground and covered with a few inches of earth. The cost of winter protection will run from two to three cents a vine. Since European vines are much more productive than those of American grapes, the added cost of winter protection is more than offset by the greater yield of grapes. Trellising, also, is simpler and less expensive for the European grapes, helping further to offset the cost of winter protection. _Pruning._ It is apparent at once that European grapes must have special treatment in pruning if they are to be laid on the ground annually. Several modifications of European and California practices can be employed in the East to bring the plants in condition for winter laying-down. All methods of pruning must have this in common; new wood must be brought up from the base of the plant every year to permit bending the plant. This can be done by leaving a replacing spur at the base of the trunk. If two-eye cions are used when the plants are grafted and both buds grow, the shoot from the upper can be used to form the main trunk, while that from the lower bud will supply the replacing spur. Each year all but one of the canes coming from this spur are removed and the remaining one is cut back to one or two buds until the main trunk begins to be too stiff to bend down readily, then one cane from the spur is left for a new trunk and another is pruned for a new renewal spur. The main trunk is carried up only to the lower wire of the trellis. At the winter pruning, two one-year canes are selected to be tied along this wire, one on each side, and the two renewal spurs chosen for tying up and new renewal spurs left. For the best production, different varieties require different lengths of fruit canes, but the work at Geneva has not progressed far enough so that recommendations can be made for particular varieties. It has been found best, however, to prune weak vines heavily and vigorous ones lightly. Under normal conditions, from four to eight buds are left on each cane, depending on the vigor of the vine. With some of the older seedlings used for stocks in 1911 which were so large that two cions were used, and in many of those where the roots seemed to have sufficient vigor to support the larger top, two trunks were formed, one from each graft. By spreading these into a V and making the inner arms shorter, very satisfactory results were secured. The type of growth in Vinifera is different from that of native grapes. The young shoots which spring from the one-year canes, instead of trailing to the ground or running out along the trellis wires, grow erect. Advantage must be taken of this in the pruning system adopted in the East. The canes and the renewal spurs as described above are tied along the lower wire; then the young shoots which come from these grow upward to the second wire. When the shoots are four to six inches above this wire, they are pinched off just above the wire and any which have not already fastened themselves are tied to prevent the wind breaking them off. At the same time, if any of the axial buds on the shoots have begun to form secondary shoots, they are rubbed off, beginning with the node next above the upper cluster and going down to the old cane. This gives the cluster more room and better light. Soon after the first heading-back, the upper buds of the young shoot start lateral growth. The secondary branches usually grow upright and when they are several inches high they are topped with a sickle. This heading-back results in stockier and more mature canes for the following year, and if properly done adds to the fruitfulness of the vine and the fruit matures better. _General considerations._ The grower of European grapes grafted on American vines may be prepared to be surprised at the growth the vines make. At the end of the first season, the grafts attain the magnitude of full-sized vines; the second season they begin to fruit more or less abundantly, and the third year they produce approximately the same number of bunches as a Concord or Niagara vine; and, as the bunches of most varieties are larger than those of the American grapes, the yield, therefore, is greater. The European varieties, also, may be set more closely than the American sorts, since they are seldom such rampant growers. It is too early to reason from this short experiment that we are to grow varieties of European grapes commonly in the East, but the behavior of the vines under discussion seems to indicate that we may do so. At the New York Station, the European varieties are as vigorous and thrifty as American vines and quite as easily managed. Why may we not grow these grapes if we protect them from phylloxera, fungi and cold? In Europe, there are varieties of grapes for nearly every soil and condition in the southern half of the continent. In eastern Europe and western Asia, the vines must be protected just as they must be protected here. It seems almost certain that from the many sorts selected to meet the various conditions of Europe, we shall be able to find kinds to meet the diverse soils and climates of this continent. And here we have one of the chief reasons for wishing to grow these grapes that American grape-growing may not be so localized as at present. Probably we shall find that European grapes can be grown under a greater diversity of conditions than native varieties. The culture of European grapes in the East gives this region essentially a new fruit. If any considerable degree of success attends their culture, wine-making in eastern America will be revolutionized, for the European grapes are far superior to the native sorts for this purpose. Varieties of these grapes have a higher sugar- and solid-content than do those of the American species and for this reason, as a rule, keep longer. We may thus expect that through these grapes the season for this fruit will be extended. The European varieties are better flavored, possessing a more delicate and a richer vinous flavor, a more agreeable aroma, and are lacking in the acidity and the obnoxious foxy taste of many American grapes. Many consumers of fruit will like them better and the demand for grapes thus will be increased. The advent of the European grape in the vineyards of eastern America ought to greatly increase the production of hybrids between this species and the American species of grapes. As we have seen, there are many such hybrids, but curiously enough scarcely more than a half dozen varieties of European grapes have been used in crossing. Most of these have been greenhouse grapes and not those that could be expected to give best results for vineyard culture. As we come to know the varieties best adapted to American conditions, we ought to be able to select European parents to better advantage than we have done in the past and by using them produce better hybrid sorts. _Varieties._ From the eighty-five varieties of European grapes now fruiting on the grounds of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, the following are named as worth trying in the East for table grapes: Actoni, Bakator, Chasselas Golden, Chasselas Rose, Feher Szagos, Gray Pinot, Lignan Blanc, Malvasia, Muscat Hamburg, Palomino and Rosaki. These and other European grapes are described in Chapter XVIII; Chasselas Golden and Malvasia are illustrated in Plate V. [Illustration: PLATE XV.--Eclipse (×2/3).] CHAPTER XI GRAPES UNDER GLASS Grape-growing under glass is on the decline in America. Forty or fifty years ago the industry was a considerable one, grapes being rather commonly grown near all large cities for the market, and nearly every large estate possessing a range of glass had a grapery. But grapes are better and more cheaply grown in Europe than in America, and the advent of quick transportation permits English, French and Belgian grape-growers to send their wares to American markets more cheaply than they can be grown at home. For the present, the world war has stopped the importation of luxuries from Europe, and American gardeners ought to find the culture of grapes under glass profitable; they may expect also to be able to hold the markets for many years to come because of the destruction of Belgian houses and the shortage of labor in Europe resulting from the war. Amateur gardeners ought never to let the culture of grapes under glass wane, since the hot-house grape is the consummation of the gardener's skill. Certainly the forcing of no other fruit yields such generous rewards. Grapes grown under glass are handsomer in appearance and better in quality than those grown out-of-doors. The clusters often attain enormous size, a weight of twenty to thirty pounds being not uncommon. The impression prevails that to grow grapes under glass, one must have expensive houses; this is not necessary, and "hot-house grapes" is a misnomer, the fruit really being grown in cold or relatively cool houses which need not be expensive. Grapes are grown under glass with greater ease and certainty than is imagined by those who form the opinion from buying the fruit at high prices in delicatessen stores. A grapery need not be an expensive luxury, and the culture of grapes under glass can be recommended to persons of moderate means who are looking for a horticultural hobby. THE GRAPERY Almost any of the various modifications of greenhouses can be adapted to growing grapes. Firms constructing greenhouses usually have had experience in building graperies, and, as a rule, it will pay to have these professional builders put up the house. If the actual work is not done by a builder, it is possible to purchase plans and estimates, from which, if sufficiently detailed, local builders can work. On small places there is no doubt that the lean-to houses are most suitable, being inexpensive and furnishing protection from prevailing winds. These lean-tos should face the south and may be built against the stable, garage or other building; or better, a brick or stone wall to the north may be erected. It is possible to build a small grapery as a lean-to out of hot-house sash. In commercial establishments and for large estates, where the grapery must be more or less ornamental, a span-roof house is rather better adapted to the grapery than a lean-to, especially if the house is not to be used for the production of grapes early in the season. On account of the exposure of the span-roof house on all sides, however, rather more skill must be exercised in growing grapes in them than in the better protected lean-to grapery. Whatever the house, it must be so constructed as to furnish an abundance of light, a requisite in which much is gained by having large-size glasses for the glazing. The glass must be of the best quality, otherwise the foliage and fruit may be blistered by the sun's rays being focused through defective spots. Light, heat, moisture and good ventilation are all required in the grapery. Brick or stone are preferable to woodwork, as heat and moisture in the grapery are quickly destructive to wood foundations. If wood is used, only the most durable kinds should enter into the construction of the house. The under structure of masonry or of wood should be low, not higher than 18 inches or 2 feet before the superstructure of glass begins. The grapery must be well ventilated. There must be large ventilators at the peak of the house and small ones just above the foundation walls or in the foundation walls themselves. The ventilation should be such that the house can be kept free from draughts or sudden changes of temperature, as the grape under glass is a sensitive plant, and subject to mildew. Plenty of air, therefore, is an absolute necessity to the grapes, especially during the ripening of the fruit. The lower ventilators in graperies are seldom much used until the grapes begin to color, at which time the new growth, foliage and fruit are hardened, but from this time on upper and lower ventilators must be so manipulated that the houses are always generously aired. Grapes can be forced in cold houses without the aid of artificial heat and formerly these cold graperies were very popular; but in the modern houses for growing this fruit, artificial heat is now considered a necessity, even though the heating apparatus may seldom be in use. For a finely finished product, a little heat to warm the room and dry the atmosphere may be absolutely necessary at a critical time, this often saving a house of grapes. Of heating apparatus, little need be said. Standard boilers for heating greenhouses with either steam or hot water are now to be purchased of many designs for almost every style and condition of house. Since the grapery seldom requires high heat, hot water is rather to be preferred to steam, although there is no objection to steam, especially if the grapery is a part of a large range of glass. _The border._ The border in which the vines are to be planted is the most important part of the grapery. All subsequent efforts fail if the border lacks in two imperatives, good drainage and a soil that is rich but not too rich. The grapery must be built on well-drained land or elevated above the ground to permit the construction of a properly drained border. "Border," in the sense of its being a strip or a narrow bed just inside the house, is now a misnomer, though the name undoubtedly comes from the fact that narrow beds inside the house were at one time used in which to plant vines. The border in a modern grapery now occupies all of the ground surface inside the house and may extend several feet outside the house. Much skill is required in building the border. A good formula is: Six parts loamy turf from an old pasture; one part of well-rotted cow manure; one part of old plaster and one part of ground bone. These ingredients are composted and if the work is well done will meet very well the soil and food requirements of the grape. This formula can be varied according to soil conditions and somewhat in accordance with the variety planted. Unless natural drainage is well-nigh perfect, the border must be under-drained with tile and in any case a layer of old brick or stone is needful to make certain that the drainage is perfect. At least two feet, better three feet, of the border compost should be placed above the drainage material. In a border made as described, the grape finds ample root-run, but not too much, as in a surprisingly short time roots are found throughout all parts of this extensive border. The care of the border is a matter of considerable moment and varies, of course, with those in charge. The usual procedure is to spade the outside border, if the border extends outside, before winter, after which it is covered with a coating of well-rotted manure, without any particular attempt having been made to keep out the frost, as a certain amount of freezing outside of the house is held to be beneficial. The inside border must be spaded just before the vines are started in the spring, having been covered previously with well-rotted manure. The time at which the vines are to be started in growth is determined by whether an early or a late crop of grapes is wanted. For an early crop, the vines must be started early in February; for a late crop, a month or even two months later suffices. So started, the first crop of grapes comes on in June or July, the later ones following in August or September. It is related that Napoleon I, to secure saltpetre for making gunpowder, composted "filth, dead animals, urine and offal with alternate layers of turf and lime mortar," and asserted that "a nitre-bed is the very pattern of a vine-border" and that "when the materials have been turned over and over again for a year or two they are in exactly the proper state to yield either gunpowder or grapes." Napoleon's niter-bed is not now considered a good model for a grape-border, as the fruit produced in so rich a soil, though abundant, is coarse and poorly flavored, and the vines complete their own destruction by over-bearing. Gardeners hold that a grape-border may be too rich in plant-food, especially too rich in nitrogen. VARIETIES Out of the 2000 or more Vinifera grapes, probably not more than a score are grown under glass, and of these but a half dozen are commonly grown. Black varieties have the preference for indoors, especially if grown for the market, where they bring the highest prices. They are also as a rule more easily handled indoors than the white sorts. However, as we shall see, one or two white kinds are indispensable in a house of any considerable size. Of black grapes, Black Hamburg carries the palm of merit because it is most easily grown, best stands neglect, is a heavy producer, sets its fruit well, the grapes mature early; and, in particular, it meets the requirements of the unskilled gardener better than any other grape. The clusters are not as large and the flavor not as good as that of some other sorts. Muscat of Alexandria is the best of the white varieties. It is, however, a hard grape to handle since it requires a high temperature to bring it to perfection, is a little shy in setting fruit and the grapes are not very certain in coming to maturity; it also requires a long season. A good quality is that it may be kept long after cutting, much longer than Black Hamburg. For an earlier white grape, Buckland Sweetwater has much to recommend it; it ripens from two to three weeks earlier than Muscat of Alexandria and is much more easily grown. It is good in quality but not of high quality. Buckland Sweetwater may be well grown in the house with Black Hamburg, whereas it is almost impossible to grow Muscat of Alexandria in the same house with Black Hamburg. Muscat Hamburg is a cross between Black Hamburg and Muscat of Alexandria, and is an intermediate in most fruit characters between these two standard sorts. It is not, however, very generally grown, although it well deserves to be because of its large, beautiful, tapering clusters of black grapes of finest quality. Grizzly Frontignan adds novelty to luxury in the list of indoor grapes. The fruits are mottled pink in color, deepening sometimes to a dark shade of pink, and are borne in long, slender clusters. The grapes ripen early and are unsurpassed in quality but are, all in all, rather difficult to grow. Barbarossa and Gros Colman are the two best late black grapes, especially for those who are ambitious to grow clusters of large size with large berries. Both are very good in quality. Neither of the two is particularly easy to grow, since they require a long time to ripen; but, to offset this, both keep longer than any other sorts after ripening. Because of the large size of the berries, thinning must begin early and must be rather more severe than with other grapes. This variety is now largely grown in England for exportation to this country in early spring. White Nice and Syrian are two white sorts which attain largest size in clusters, specimens weighing thirty pounds being not infrequent, but are coarse and poor in quality and are, therefore, hardly worth growing. Alicante is a black sort often grown for the sake of variety, since it departs from the Vinifera type rather markedly in flavor. The grapes have very thick skins and may be kept longer than those of any other variety. Lady Downs is another late-keeping black grape of highest quality, but difficult to grow. The bunches and berries are small in comparison with other standard sorts, characters that do not commend the variety to most gardeners. Perhaps a dozen more sorts might be named worthy of trial in American graperies, but the list given covers the needs of commercial establishments and will meet the wants of most amateur growers. PLANTING AND TRAINING Two-year-old vines are most commonly planted. The vines are set inside the house at least a foot from the walls and four feet apart. The grapery must be built on piers with spaces of at least two feet between, and the vines are placed opposite these openings in the foundation. When planted, the vines are cut back to two or three buds, and when these start the strongest are selected for training, the others being rubbed off. The grapery must be strung with wires running lengthwise of the house at about fifteen inches from the glass. Greenhouse supply merchants furnish at a low price cast iron brackets to be fastened to the rafters to hold these wires. As the growing vines reach one wire after another, they are tied with raffia to hold them in place. Usually, young vines will reach the peak of the house by midsummer, and as soon as this goal is attained must be pinched so that the cane may thicken up and store food in the lateral buds for the coming season. When the wood is well matured, the vine is cut back to half or one-third its length, depending on the variety, laid on the ground and covered for the winter. An item of no small importance in winter care is to keep out mice, this pest being inordinately fond of grape buds, and once the buds are destroyed the vines are ruined for the coming season. The second year's work is largely a repetition of that of the first. The vines are permitted to reach the peak of the house and are again stopped by pinching. A considerable number of laterals spring up on each side of the main vine, and these must be thinned as they develop to stand at the distance apart of the wires to which they are fastened. This is pre-supposing that the gardener has chosen the spur method of pruning, the method generally used in America and the one, all things considered, which gives best results. The selection of the laterals the second year, therefore, is a matter of much importance since spurs are to be developed from them. Care should be taken to have these spurs regularly distributed over the length of the vine. This second year, grapes must not be permitted to develop on the terminal shoots, but a few clusters may be taken from the laterals in which case the laterals are pinched two buds beyond the cluster, the pinching continuing throughout the season if the laterals persist in breaking, as they will do in most cases. At the end of the season, the terminal is shortened at least one-half, and the laterals are pinched back to a bud as close as possible to the main stem. The vines are then put down for the winter as at the close of the first season. The work of the third season is a repetition of that of the second, with the exception that the vine is permitted to fruit throughout its whole length, although not more than one pound of fruit to a foot of main vine is permitted. The plants are now established and the only pruning in this and succeeding years is to cut the laterals at the close of each season close to the main stem, leaving strong healthy buds of which at least one, usually more, will be found close to the stem. If more than one bud starts, only the strongest is chosen, although often an extra one is needed to fill a vacancy on the opposite side. After the third or fourth season, depending somewhat on the variety, two pounds of fruit or more to the foot of the main stem can be permitted. The novice, however, is likely to permit his vines to overbear with the result that the crop is cast, or the berries rattle, or the fruit turns sour before ripening. From the beginning to the finish of the season, in this method of pruning, much pinching of laterals is required. No hard and fast rule can be laid down for this pinching, but, roughly speaking, all new growth beyond the second joint from the cluster should be pinched out as fast as it shows. With most varieties, this means that the lateral is kept about eighteen inches from the main stem. After a few years, well-developed spurs form at the base of the original laterals, and from these spurs the new wood comes year after year. An alternative method of pruning is to permit the new canes to grow up from a bud near the ground each season. When the vine is well established, this new cane is fruited throughout its entire length, the laterals being pinched as described under the spur method. This method of pruning is known as "the long cane method." Gardeners hold that they can grow better fruit with this than with the spur method, but the difficulties are greater and the crop is not as large. CARE OF THE VINES With the cultivation of all varieties indoors, more clusters set than the vines can carry. This means that a part of the clusters must be removed, an operation that depends on the variety and one that requires experience and judgment on the part of the gardener. Roughly speaking, half the clusters are taken, leaving the other half as evenly distributed on each side of the vine as possible. The time to take these clusters is also a delicate matter, since some sorts are shy in setting and the clusters must not be taken until the berries are formed and it can be seen how large the crop will be. As a rule, however, this thinning of clusters may be begun as soon as the form of the cluster can be seen. It is very necessary also, especially with all sorts bearing large berries, that grapes be thinned in the cluster. The time to thin the cluster varies with the variety. Sorts which set fruit freely can be thinned sooner than those which are shy in setting. On the one hand, the thinning must not be done too soon as it cannot be told until the berries are of fair size which have set seed and which have not; however, if thinning is neglected too long, the berries become over-crowded and the task becomes difficult. The thinning is performed with slender scissors, and the bunches must not be touched with the hand, as touching impairs the bloom and disfigures the fruit. The clusters are turned and steadied by a small piece of pencil-shaped wood. Thinning is practiced not only to permit the berries to attain their full size but also to permit the bunches to attain as great size as possible. If too severely thinned, the clusters flatten out after maturity. This is especially the case when too many berries are taken from the center of the bunch. A large cluster of grapes is made up of several small clusters, making it necessary to tie up the upper clusters or shoulders of the bunch to permit the berries to swell without being thinned too severely. Grapes intended for long keeping require more thinning than those to be used at once after picking, since, in keeping, the berries mold or damp-off in the center of the bunch if it is too compact. The vines in the grapery must be watered with considerable care. The amount of water to be used depends on the composition of the borders and the season of growth. If the border is loose and well-drained, the supply of water must be large; if close and retentive, but a small amount of moisture is required. Watering must not be done during the period of blossoming, since dry air is necessary for proper pollination. When the grapes begin to show color, the vines are heavily watered, after which little if any water is applied. Some gardeners mulch the vines with hay to retain the moisture in the house and keep the atmosphere dry. Ventilating the grapery is another important detail of the season's work. Proper ventilation is difficult to secure in the early spring months when the dryness of the sun on the one hand, and cold air on the other, make it difficult to avoid draughts and regulate the temperature. Another troublesome time is when the grapes begin to color, as it is then necessary for the grapery to have air at night; but when too much air enters, there is danger from mildew. Towards the end of the season, all parts of the plant become harder in texture and the grapery may then be more generously aired. After the fruit is cut, the houses are ventilated in full so that the wood may ripen properly. PESTS Several pests vex the gardener in growing grapes indoors. Of these, mealy-bug, red-spider, thrips and mildew are most troublesome. In a well-conducted grapery, there is never an intermission in the warfare against these pests. Mealy-bug is usually a sign of sloth on the part of the gardener. In a grapery devoted exclusively to grape-growing, it should never be seen, but, since gardeners must often grow other plants in the grapery, mealy-bug sooner or later appears and is often hard to dislodge. It is best repelled by removing the loose bark on the trunks which harbor the pest and then washing with kerosene emulsion. When this becomes necessary, not only the vines but the rafters and all parts of the house should be sprayed with the emulsion. Red-spider is another pest usually found in the grapery, but it thrives only in a dry atmosphere and is easily gotten rid of by syringing. As soon as red-spider appears in a house its appearance is usually known by the reddish tinge on the foliage; syringing should be kept up until the pest is disposed of, keeping the house damp in all except dull weather. Syringing is done only when plenty of air can be given and when it can be followed by sunlight so that the water remains on the vines as short a time as possible. Thrips, another small insect, is sometimes troublesome but not often and is now easily controlled by applications of nicotine. Much care must be taken in the application of nicotine late in the season, otherwise the fruit will be injured. The only fungous disease of the grape troublesome in the greenhouse is mildew. Mildew is usually brought on by a sudden change of temperature or by draughts in the grapery. Gardeners are of the opinion that east winds, in particular, give unfavorable conditions for mildew and prefer to open the ventilators to the west. If taken in time, mildew is easily kept in check by preventing the conditions which favor it, and by dusting the vines in dry sunshine with sulfur. [Illustration: PLATE XVI.--Elvira (×2/3).] CHAPTER XII GRAPE PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL In common with other cultivated fruits, grapes are at the mercy of numerous insect and fungous pests unless man intervenes with remedial or preventive treatment. Happily for viticulture, knowledge of the pests of the vine has made such advancement in recent years that practically all are now controlled by remedial or preventive measures. Possibly no field of agriculture has had greater need, or received greater aid from science in the study and control of insects and diseases than grape-growing. A separate treatise would be required to treat the pathological troubles of the grape fully; only such details of the life histories of the several pests to be discussed as are essential to a proper understanding of the control of the parasites can be given here. INSECT PESTS Insects troubling the grapes are numerous, at least 200 having been described in America, most of which have their habitat on the wild prototypes of the cultivated vines of this continent. For this reason, with a few exceptions, the insect pests of the grape in America are widely distributed, abundant, and, therefore, often very destructive to vineyards unless vigorously combated. The many pestiferous species vary greatly in importance, depending on locality, weather and the variety. Phylloxera, however, the country over, is most common and deserves first attention. _Phylloxera._ This minute sucking insect (_Phylloxera vastatrix_), injures the grape by feeding on its roots. Decay usually follows its work on the roots and is often more injurious than the harm done directly by the parasite. This decay is always much more serious on European vines than on those of our native species. The phylloxera is a native of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains, from whence it was introduced into France and from France into California, where it causes much greater damage than elsewhere in the United States. Wherever the pest is found, it is more injurious in heavy than in sandy soils. In fact, in very sandy soils the vines are often sufficiently resistant to be practically immune. [Illustration: FIG. 36. Leaf-galls of the phylloxera.] The life history of the phylloxera is very complex where the different forms of the insect appear and need not be entered into in detail here. East of the Rockies, the most evident indication of the presence of the pest is great numbers of leaf-galls on the under side of the leaves of the grape as shown in Fig. 36. These galls, however, are seldom to be seen in California and are not present on Concords and some other varieties in the East. The winter egg may be taken as the beginning of the life cycle of the phylloxera. From a single winter egg a colony may arise, the first insect after hatching making its way to the leaves where it becomes a gall-maker and gives rise to a new generation of egg-laying root-feeders. On varieties and in regions where the gall form is not found, the insect probably goes directly from the winter egg to the roots. Once the pest is established on the roots, generation follows generation throughout the growing period of the vines, as many as seven or eight occurring in one season. From midsummer until the close of the growing season, some of the eggs deposited by the root-feeders develop into nymphs which acquire wings and emerge from the soil to form new colonies from eggs deposited on the under side of the leaf. An individual insect deposits from three to six eggs of two sizes, from the larger of which come the females and these, after fertilization, move to the rough bark of the vine and deposit the winter egg for the renewal of the cycle. Several methods of control have been employed in Europe and California, as treatment by carbon bisulfide injected in the soil; flooding in vineyards that can be irrigated; confining the vines to sandy soils; and, most important, planting vines grafted on resistant stocks, there being great variation in immunity of species of American grapes to phylloxera. The subject of stocks resistant to this pest has been discussed in Chapter IV and need not be taken up again. East of the Rockies, treatment is not necessary with American grapes. _The grape root-worm._ The grape root-worm is the most harmful of the insect pests of grapes in the grape-belt along the shores of Lake Erie in Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. This root-worm (Fig. 37) is the larva of a grayish-brown beetle (_Fidia viticida_), shown in Fig. 38. The worms feed at first on the rootlets and later on the bark of the larger roots of the vines so that the injured plants show roots devoid of rootlets and bark channeled by the pest. So plain is the work of the root-worm that the grower never need be at a loss as to the cause of vines injured by this pest. The worms feed during the latter part of the growing season, reaching full growth at this time. The next June they transform into pupæ and in late June or early July emerge as adult beetles. [Illustration: FIG. 37. The grape root-worm.] [Illustration: FIG. 38. Root-worm beetle.] The presence of the adult beetles is more easily detected on the foliage than is that of the larvæ on the roots, for the feeding beetles ravenously devour the upper sides of the leaves, leaving chain-like markings, shown in Fig. 39, their destructiveness decreasing somewhat after a few days from their first appearance. A fortnight after the beetles begin their attack on the foliage the female begins laying her eggs, to the number of 200, placing them under the rough bark of trunk and cane. These hatch in late July or August and the young grubs at once seek the roots. [Illustration: FIG. 39. Injuries caused by beetles of the grape root-worm.] Two methods of control have been devised: destruction of the beetles before they lay their eggs; and destruction of the pupæ while in the ground. When the beetles are present in large numbers, many of them may be destroyed by spraying with a mixture of cheap molasses and arsenate of lead, using molasses at the rate of two gallons to a hundred gallons of water and the arsenate of lead at the rate of six pounds. This should be followed by a second spraying a week later, using bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) and three pounds of arsenate of lead. This second spray serves to repel migrating beetles from the vines. The molasses spray is ineffective unless several days of fair weather follow the spraying, as rain washes the material from the foliage. Bordeaux mixture is not easily affected by rain. In moderately infested vineyards, bordeaux mixture and arsenate are used instead of molasses and arsenate of lead, followed in about ten days with a second application of the same material. An effective method of reducing the number of beetles is the destruction of the pupæ. This is best done by leaving a low ridge of earth under the vines at the last seasonal cultivation to remain until most of the larvæ have pupated, and then be leveled with a horse-hoe and later with a harrow. The horse-hoe and harrow crush many of the pupæ and break the cells of others to the great destruction of the pest. This latter method of control is not adequate in itself and in bad infestations both should be used. When the infestation is only moderate, this latter method is not advised, owing to the lateness of the time of horse-hoeing. It is good horticultural practice to horse-hoe the latter part of May or early June. To wait for the pupal stage of the root-worm delays the work until numerous small roots start which would be destroyed by the horse-hoe. Spraying will control a moderate infestation. _The grape-vine flea-beetle._ In the warm days of May and June when the buds of grapes are swelling, a shining steel-blue beetle may often be found in the vineyards of eastern America feeding on the tender buds of the grape. From its color the insect is often called the steely-beetle, and from its activity and habit of jumping it is known as the flea-beetle (_Haltica chalybea_). The vine is seldom seriously injured by this pest but many buds are destroyed, causing the loss of the fruit that should have developed from the buds. It is true that new buds often develop after the injury, but these, as a rule, produce only foliage. [Illustration: FIG. 40. Eggs of grape-vine flea-beetle.] The life history of the flea-beetle is such that the pest is not hard to control, the chief steps in its development being as follows: The beetles deposit small orange-colored eggs, cylindrical in form, illustrated in Fig. 40, about the buds and in crevices of the bark of the canes in May or June. Most of these eggs are hatched by the middle of June. The larvæ feed upon the foliage until about July first and then crawl to the ground in which they form cells and pupate. The latter part of July the adults emerge and seek wild vines upon which they feed, entering hibernation rather early in the fall. The beetles hibernate under leaves, in rubbish and in the shelter of the bark of trees and vines, but emerge in the warm days the following spring to seek vineyards. Two methods of control have been developed to keep this pest under. The vines should be sprayed with three pounds of arsenate of lead in fifty gallons of water when the larvæ are feeding on the foliage; or the beetles when feeding may be knocked into a pan containing a shallow layer of kerosene. The former is the cheaper and more effective method provided the grape-grower has the foresight to discover the larvæ, since the larvæ of this summer produce the beetles that will destroy the buds next spring. When the adults migrate from wild vines, or the larvæ were not destroyed in the vineyard, collecting the adults is the only practical method. The destruction of wild vines near a vineyard helps to give immunity from this pest. _The rose-chafer._ The rose-chafer (_Macrodactylus subspinosus_), a long-legged beetle of a yellowish-brown color, about a third of an inch in length, often appears in vineyards in vast swarms toward the middle of June in northern states and about two weeks earlier in southern states east of the Rocky Mountains. Often they overrun gardens, orchards, vineyards and nurseries, and usually, after having done a vast amount of damage in the month of their devastating presence, the beetles disappear as suddenly as they came. Vineyards on or near sandy soils are most often infested, the larvæ of the beetle seeming to live in considerable numbers only in these light soils. The chief damage to the grape is done to the blossom; in fact the insects, after feeding on the blossoms during the blossoming period, usually migrate to blossoms of any one of several shrubs. The larvæ feed on the roots of grasses, having particular liking for the roots of foxtail, timothy and blue-grass. Some knowledge of the life history of these beetles is essential to effective control. The beetles emerge as adults in June and after feeding a short time begin to mate, although egg-laying does not take place until the insects have been out for a fortnight or more. The females burrow into the soil and deposit their eggs, seldom more than twenty-five in number, which begin to hatch in about ten days. The young larvæ feed during the remainder of the summer on roots of grasses. They are seldom found deeper than six inches while feeding, but as cold weather approaches they burrow deeper to avoid sudden changes of temperature. The following spring they again come near the surface to feed. The grubs form cells from which the pupæ emerge, as we have seen, about the middle of June, timing their appearance very closely to the blossoming of Concord grapes. The methods of control are three, namely: destruction of the larvæ; cultivation to kill the pupæ; and spraying to kill the beetles. Since the larvæ feed on the roots of grasses in sandy soils, it is easy to locate the feeding ground of the pest and plant it to cultivated crops which destroy the grasses and therefore the larvæ. The second method of destruction is similar, consisting of cultivation to kill the pupæ. This is accomplished by thorough cultivation during the pupating stage to break the cells and crush the pupæ, thus preventing the emergence of the beetles. The third method, however, is the most effective and consists of spraying the vineyard with a sweetened arsenical spray. The spraying should be done as soon as the beetles appear, using arsenate of lead six pounds, molasses one gallon and water one hundred gallons. It is often necessary to make a second application a week later. If rain occurs within thirty-six hours after spraying, the application should be repeated as soon as the weather clears. _The grape leaf-hopper._ From Canada to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, wherever the grape is grown, the small leaf-hopper (_Typhlocyba comes_) infests the grape in greater or less numbers, feeding on the lower surface of the leaf. Grape-growers commonly call these insects "thrips," a name, however, which really belongs to a very different class of insects. The injury done by this pest varies greatly with the season and the locality, in some regions it being comparatively harmless and in others exceedingly destructive in seasons when it occurs in abundance. There is great variation also in individual vineyards, those near favorable hibernating places and early spring food plants often being injured seriously season after season in succession. These leaf-hoppers obtain their food by piercing the epidermis on the under side of the leaf surface and sucking the sap, and add further injury by inserting their eggs underneath the skin of the leaf. The punctures greatly decrease the starch-producing area of the leaf with the result that the vigor of the plant is lowered, and the quality of the fruit decreased. [Illustration: FIG. 41. First four stages of the grape leaf-hopper. (Enlarged.)] [Illustration: FIG. 42. The fifth and the mature stages of the grape leaf-hopper. (Enlarged.)] The life history of the leaf-hopper is very well known. The eggs are deposited in June or early July, and hatch from June 15 to July 10 in New York, the season being earlier or later as one goes south or north. The young leaf-hoppers are wingless, the nymph stage, but reach the adult stage in late July and August, at which time many of them mate, and eggs are laid from which a second brood may develop, although usually only one full brood is produced in a season in the northern states. Figures 41 and 42 show the several life stages of the leaf-hopper. Insects which become adults in the latter part of July feed on the foliage until autumn and then seek winter quarters, passing the winter in the adult stage under fallen leaves, in dead grass or other similar protection. The hibernating place must be dry and for this reason sandy knolls are most favored by the insects. The adults emerge in the warm days of spring and then seek food first on the strawberry, then migrate to red and black raspberries or blackberries, if raspberries are not present. They remain upon these hosts until the grape leaves expand and then migrate to these to feed, lay their eggs and die. Three methods of control are in use to prevent the ravages of the leaf-hopper: avoiding the planting of raspberries near grapes; spraying with contact insecticides; and the destruction of hibernating places. Since the leaf-hoppers feed especially on the raspberry before the leaves of the grape have expanded in the spring, avoiding planting these two plants near each other is a very effective method of control. The contact spray must touch the body of the insect and must, therefore, be applied before the nymphs develop wings. The best spray is a half pint of Black Leaf 40 to a hundred gallons of water or bordeaux mixture. It is applied to the under side of the foliage by a trailing hose or by an automatic grape leaf-hopper spray devised by F. Z. Hartzell and described in bulletin 344 of the New York Experiment Station. The destruction of hibernating places is almost as effective a method of control as spraying. All weeds and strong-stalked grasses which die in the fall and all rubbish in the vineyard should be destroyed. It is quite worth while, also, to burn leaves and rubbish in fence rows and waste places near infested vineyards in the autumn or early winter. Cover-crops which remain green during the winter do not harbor the leaf-hoppers. _The grape-berry moth._ This pest is widely distributed, attacking the grape wherever grown in North America. The insect feeds on all varieties but is especially destructive to grapes with tender skins and such as grow in compact bunches. Its work is detected usually in compact grape clusters where a number of berries are injured by a "worm." The "worm" is a dark-colored caterpillar, the larva of the grape-berry moth (_Polychrosis viteana_.) There are two broods of this caterpillar, the first of which feeds on the stems and external portions of the young berries, while the second attacks the berries. The loss to the fruit-grower is of two kinds, the loss of the fruit and the marring of clusters which entails the cost of picking out worthless berries. Figure 43 shows the work of the grape-berry moth. The damage is usually greatest near woodlands since the trees cause more snow to lodge in the adjoining vineyards, this protection permitting a greater percentage of pupæ to survive. [Illustration: FIG. 43. A bunch of grapes despoiled by the grape-berry moth.] The moth passes the winter in the pupal state on leaves underneath the vine, emerging about the time grapes are blossoming. The sexes then mate and the eggs are laid on the stems, blossom clusters and newly set fruit. After reaching full growth, the caterpillars cut out a portion of the leaf from which they make a pupal case by means of silken threads, and here pupate for the second brood which emerges in late July and August. Eggs are laid at once and from these come the caterpillars which live entirely in the berry. The larvæ leave the berries about the time the fruit is ripe, form cocoons on the leaves and hibernate. The moths are small, brown in color, mottled with gray and so much the color of the grape cane that they can hardly be detected when resting on the wood. The grape-berry moth is difficult to control but much can be done to curtail its ravages. Spraying after the fruit sets is the most effective preventive. Bordeaux mixture should be used (4-4-50) to which has been added one and one-half pounds of resin-fish-oil soap and three pounds arsenate of lead. A second application of the same spray is advisable in early August. In a small vineyard or with a slight infestation, it often pays to pick and destroy the berries infested by the spring brood. Plowing infested vineyards in late fall or early spring to bury all leaves prevents the emergence of many of the moths. To be effective, this practice must cover the leaves deeply directly under the vines and this earth must remain until after the time for the adults to emerge. Plowing under leaves is not as effective on sandy as on heavy soils, since sandy soils do not become sufficiently compact to prevent the escape of moths. _Insect pests of minor importance._ Of the 200 species of insects that feed more or less on the grape, entomologists mention several others than those described that in occasional years or localities become abundant and cause serious injury. Thus, there are several species of cut-worms which sometimes feed on the expanding buds of the young leaves of grapes. The damage of these cut-worms to the grape is greater in California than in other parts of the United States, but nevertheless they occasionally feed on the vines in eastern regions to the detriment of the crop. The most satisfactory control measure for cut-worms is the application of poisoned bait placed on the ground at the base of the vines. In California there is a grape root-worm (_Adoxus obscurus_) quite distinct from the grape root-worm of eastern America which injures both the roots and the parts of the vine above ground. As in the eastern species, the best evidence of infestation of this pest is the narrow chain-like strips eaten out of the leaves, though the insect also gouges out part of the petioles, pedicels, berries and shoots and works under ground, eating the rootlets and bark of the larger roots. Infested vines show a stunted condition, the canes fail to attain a normal growth and often the vines are killed outright. As in the case of the eastern species, this root-worm is the larva of a beetle, the life history of the insect not being greatly different from that of the eastern beetle. Two methods of control are fairly effective: the adult beetles may be jarred from the vine and captured on a screen when the infestation is restricted to small areas; or the beetles may be poisoned with the arsenical spray recommended for the eastern species. Both jarring and spraying often have to be repeated as new infestations appear. The grape leaf-folder (_Desmia funeralis_) is another insect pest of vineyards in California, and occasionally in the East, which works, however, only in restricted localities and in occasional years. In California, the insects are detected in a vineyard by the characteristic rolling of the leaves in which a tube rather less than the diameter of a lead pencil is formed for the home of the larvæ. The larvæ feed on the free edge of the leaf in the interior of the roll and are thus protected by the outer layers. In the East the caterpillar merely folds the edges of the leaves together. This leaf-folder hibernates as a chrysalis, coming forth in early spring to lay eggs on the vine shortly after the foliage has appeared. There are two broods in California and the northern states and three broods in the southern states. The leaf-folder is easily disposed of by spraying with an arsenical spray just after the eggs hatch and before the larva is protected by its roll of leaves. Still another pest found throughout the United States and especially destructive in California is the hawk-moth (_Pholus achemon_), the larvæ of which occasionally do serious damage to small areas of vines. These larvæ are very similar to the large worms, familiar to all, which attack the tomato and tobacco. The insect hibernates in the pupal state in the ground where it may be distinguished as a large cylindrical object of dark brown color. The moths emerge about the middle of May and deposit their eggs on the leaves of the grape, upon which the larvæ when hatched immediately begin to feed. There are several species of these hawk-moths, all of which have essentially the same life history. It is not a difficult pest to control since the larvæ are easily killed with arsenical sprays; or if there are but occasional specimens they may be picked by hand. There are several species of the hawk-moth which attack the grape but this is the common one. In eastern grape-growing regions, there are two other destructive grape insects widely distributed, but each noteworthy as pests only in the Appalachian region of West Virginia and neighboring states. One is the grape-curculio (_Craponius inæqualis_), not essentially different from the familiar curculio of the plum and cherry. This snout-beetle feeds freely on the upper surface of the leaves and the bark of fruit stems, and the female in laying eggs devours the tissues of the grapes in excavating her egg chamber. The grape-curculio is effectively destroyed by spraying with an arsenical spray in the spring as the beetles appear on the vines and before egg-laying begins. Another insect pest of this region is the grape-vine root-borer (_Memythrus polistiformis_) closely allied to the peach-borer, known by all fruit-growers and the squash-vine borer known to the growers of vegetables. This borer is the larva of a moth and is a whitish grub with a brown head which, when fully grown, is about one and three-quarters inches in length. The body is slender, distinctly segmented and has a sparse covering of short, stiff hairs. These larvæ burrow into the grape-root, at first confining themselves to the softer portions of the bark, often encircling the root several times, but later bore with the grain of the wood and by the end of the season so destroy the roots as to leave only the thin membrane of the outer bark intact. This pest is difficult to deal with. The borers cannot be removed by "worming" as in the peach, and neither can the roots be protected by sprays or washes. No one variety of the grape seems more immune than another. Thorough cultivation in the months of June and July to destroy the insects while in their cocoons at the surface of the ground seems to be the only method of stopping their ravages, and this is not always effective. FUNGOUS DISEASES OF THE GRAPE The grape is ravaged by four or five fungous diseases in America, unless the utmost vigilance is exercised to keep the parasites in check. Happily for commercial viticulture, there are regions, as we have seen in the description of grape regions in Chapter I, so fortunate in their freedom from fungous diseases that there is little uncertainty in grape-growing and but small expense in controlling diseases. Also modern science has discovered the life history of all the important diseases and devised fairly effective means of combating them. All of the fungous parasites of the grape in America are indigenous, having long subsisted on wild vines. They are, therefore, all widely distributed, and as cultivation has presented to them great numbers of grape plants in continuous areas, the diseases have increased rapidly in intensity, at times have swept like wildfire through grape regions devastating and utterly ruining great areas of vines. Means, however, are now at hand in remedial and preventive treatment, which, while because of cost may not permit the grapes to be grown profitably in all parts of America, do permit their culture for home use in practically all agricultural districts in the country. [Illustration: PLATE XVII.--Empire State (×2/3).] _Black-rot._ [Illustration: FIG. 44. Work of black-rot of the grape.] This is the most widely distributed and the most destructive fungous disease of the grape in the region east of the Rocky Mountains. Fortunately, it is unknown on the Pacific coast. The disease is caused by a parasitic fungus (_Guignardia Bidwellii_) which gains entrance to the grape plant by means of minute spores distributed chiefly by wind and rain. Black-rot passes the winter in mummied grapes, on dead tendrils or on small, dead areas on the canes. In the spring, the fungus spreads from these spots to the leaves and forms brown leaf spots about a fourth of an inch in diameter, or oblong, black spots on the shoots, leaves, petioles and tendrils. Later the disease spreads to the fruits, not usually attracting attention until the berries are at least half grown. Soon after the ravages of the fungus become apparent on the berries, the fruits turn black, shrivel and become covered with minute black pustules which contain the summer-spores. Figure 44 shows the work of black-rot. In the winter and spring, another form called the winter- or resting-spore is produced upon these old, shriveled, mummied berries, and these carry the disease over from one season to another. Since the disease is carried through the winter in mummied fruits and diseased wood, the desirability of destroying these mummied grapes and the leaves and prunings of infected vines as soon as possible is apparent. This treatment, however, is not sufficient, and the disease can be effectually controlled only by thorough spraying with bordeaux mixture (4-4-50). The first application should be made just before the grape blossoms; the second, shortly after blossoming. The amount of material applied matters less than evenness in distribution and fineness of the spray as applied. In rainy seasons, perhaps a third or a fourth application should be made in regions where the disease is serious; the third is made when the berries are the size of a pea; the fourth, as the berries become large enough to touch each other. _Downy-mildew._ Downy-mildew (_Plasmopara viticola_) rivals black-rot for first place among fungous diseases of the grape. It is found in all grape regions east of the Rocky Mountains but does most harm in northern localities. Like black-rot, downy-mildew attacks all the tender growing parts of the vine, but is chiefly found on the foliage and is usually less destructive than black-rot. As first seen on the foliage, the work of the fungus appears as greenish-yellow, irregular spots upon the upper surface which later become reddish-brown. At the same time on the under surface of the leaf, a thin, white downy growth puts forth. The spores of the fungus are produced on this downy growth, and under favorable conditions are distributed by wind and water to all tender parts of the vine, where they germinate and begin their work of destruction. The fruit is attacked when partly grown, as shown in Fig. 45, becoming covered with the gray down of the fungus, the "gray-rot" of the grape-grower. If the berries escape the disease until half grown, the fungus causes a brownish-purple spot that soon covers the whole grape, giving the disease at this stage the name of "brown-rot." Besides the summer-spores, another form of reproductive bodies is produced in the winter to carry the fungus through the resting period. [Illustration: FIG. 45. Grapes attacked by downy-mildew.] Downy-mildew, like black-rot, spreads most rapidly and does most injury in hot, wet weather. As with practically all diseases of the grape, much can be accomplished in the way of control of the disease by destroying infested leaves, shoots and berries which contain the winter spores, but these sanitary measures are not sufficiently effective and vineyards must be sprayed as recommended for black-rot, except that the first application should be made before the blossom-buds appear. _Powdery-mildew._ Less troublesome than downy-mildew in the East, powdery-mildew (_Uncinula necator_), unless checked, is capable of destroying the entire crop of European grapes on the Pacific slope. In the East it sometimes causes great loss on the several varieties known as "Rogers hybrids" and, curiously enough, is often a rather serious disease of the Concord. The disease is caused by a superficial fungus which passes the winter on fallen leaves and also on the canes. The spores begin to germinate a few weeks after the grape blossoms, but the disease is not often found until the grapes are nearly half grown. The fine white filaments of the fungus, which constitute the vegetative portion of the parasite, then attack the leaves, shoots and fruit, sending up short irregular branches on which great numbers of spores are borne. These give the upper surface of the leaf a gray, powdery appearance, hence the name. Eventually the diseased leaves become light brown and if the disease is severe, soon fall. Infected berries take on a gray, scurfy appearance, speckled with brown, are checked in growth and often burst on one side, exposing the seeds. The berries, however, do not become soft and shrunken as when attacked by the downy-mildew. The disease passes the winter in resting-spores produced late in the growing season. Powdery-mildew differs from other fungous diseases of the grape in being more prevalent in hot, dry seasons than in cold, wet ones. In eastern America powdery-mildew is controlled by the treatment recommended for black-rot. When black-rot is not prevalent, two sprays with bordeaux mixture are recommended; the first in early July and the second about two weeks later. On the Pacific coast, however, powdery-mildew or "oïdium" as it is often called there, the name coming from Europe, is more cheaply and more successfully combated by dusting with flowers of sulfur. Dusting is often done by hand or with perforated cans but this is wasteful and uncertain, and any one of several sulfur-sprayers may be used which does the work better. _Anthracnose._ Another widespread disease is anthracnose (_Sphaceloma ampelinum_), called "birds-eye-rot" because of the peculiar spots produced on the affected fruits, which attacks leaves, shoots and fruits of the vine. It first appears on the leaves in small, irregular, dark brown sunken spots with a dark margin. Later it appears on the fruits, having much the same appearance though the spots are usually larger and more sunken, the disease being most characteristic on the fruit, however. Frequently two or more spots unite and so cover the greater part of the berry. The fruits become hard, more or less wrinkled, and the diseased area often ruptures, exposing the seed, much as with powdery-mildew. The spores of the fungus are produced in great numbers on diseased areas during the growing season and are borne on thread-like filaments which live throughout the winter in the tissues of the vine and are ready for new growth in the spring. Winter-spores have not yet been discovered. Anthracnose is widely distributed in eastern America but seldom causes great or general loss, most of the commercial grapes being relatively immune to the disease. A few sorts rather commonly grown in home vineyards, as Diamond, Brighton and Agawam, suffer most from anthracnose. Spraying with bordeaux mixture, as recommended for black-rot, is usually sufficient to keep the disease in check. _Dead-arm disease._ A troublesome disease of recent appearance is now doing considerable damage in the Chautauqua grape-belt along the shores of Lake Erie, being most common on the Concord. From the fact that it is usually found on one arm of the vine it is called "dead-arm disease" (_Cryptosporella viticola_.) The disease is caused by a fungus which passes the winter in small, black fruiting bodies in the dead parts of the vine. Early in the spring the fungus spreads by means of spores to the young shoots and later in the season attacks mature berries, producing small, black, oblong spots of black-rot. Sooner or later, if the diseased shoot is not cut off, the fungus spreads to the arms or trunk of the vine, producing a slow, dry rot which eventually kills the affected part. Fortunately, the presence of the disease is quickly detected by small yellowish leaves, much crimped about the margin. The fungus is easily controlled by marking the diseased arms when the first symptoms appear and cutting these off at pruning time. If the vine is much mutilated by such pruning, usually suckers can be brought up from beneath the surface of the ground to renew the vine. The applications of bordeaux mixture recommended for black-rot are valuable in preventing the dead-arm disease. The disease is largely prevented by renewing the old wood of the vine as soon as the trunk begins to show a gnarled appearance. _Shelling._ In eastern America, especially in the Chautauqua grape-belt, grape-growers not infrequently lose a large part of the crop by the premature falling of the grapes from the stems. The trouble is an ancient one and is designated as "shelling" or "rattling." This premature dropping usually begins at the end of a cluster, and clusters farthest from the trunk are earliest affected. When vineyards suffer badly from this shelling, the vines often take on a sickly appearance, the foliage falling off in color and the outer margins of the leaves drying up more or less. The fallen fruit has an insipid taste and is, of course, worthless even if it could be harvested. The cause of the trouble is not known. Grapes may "rattle" on high land or low land, on poor soil or rich soil, on heavy or light soil. A vineyard may be affected one year and not the next. Grape-growers usually attribute the trouble to faulty nutrition, but applications of fertilizers have not proved a preventive. Old and well-established vineyards seem freer from the trouble than new and poorly established plantings. The most reasonable theory as to the cause of shelling is that it comes from faulty nutrition of the vine, but the conditions so affecting the nutrition are not yet satisfactorily determined. _Diseases of minor importance._ Ripe-rot or bitter-rot (_Glomerella rufomaculans_) is a disease due to the same fungus causing the bitter-rot of the apple. As the name indicates, the disease usually appears on the fruit at ripening time and under favorable conditions continues after the grapes are picked. It may also attack the leaves and stems. The first indication of the fungus is the appearance of reddish-brown spots which spread and eventually cover the whole fruit. The berries do not shrivel, but the rotted surface becomes dotted with pustules in which the spores are borne. It is hard to tell how much damage this disease does, but it is not usually great and the late applications of bordeaux mixture for black-rot or powdery-mildew are very effective in controlling it. Crown-gall, now known to be a bacterial disease which causes knots or galls on the roots of various wild and cultivated plants, sometimes attacks grape roots or even the vines above ground. Occasionally, the disease is rather serious, but it is not often to be reckoned with in the vineyard regions of America. Fungicides are useless in combating the disease and all that can be done is to exercise great care in planting infected stock. It is doubtful whether crown-gall ever seriously injures vines in northern regions, although it may occasionally do so in the South. In California there is a somewhat mysterious disease known as "Anaheim disease," because of its having first made its appearance in the vicinity of Anaheim. As near as can be learned, the disease first appeared in 1884 and then spread rapidly from forty to fifty miles from the point where it began its ravages, causing direct and indirect loss of many millions of dollars, and leading to the abandonment of grape-growing in some parts of southern California. Fortunately, in recent years the Anaheim disease is less aggressive but still does more or less damage. The nature and the treatment of this disease are not as yet fully determined, although several experimenters are studying the trouble. Californians whose vineyards suffer from this disease should apply to the experiment station at Berkeley for the latest information in regard to it. Coulure is another trouble of the vine in California of which little is yet known, either as to cause or treatment. The term signifies the failure of the fruit to set or to remain on the clusters. The trouble occurs in varying degrees from the loss of a few berries to the complete shelling of the fruit from the stem. It is worse in some localities than others and in some varieties than others. Various causes have been assigned to the disease, chief of which, and most probable, are unfavorable climatic conditions. CONTROL OF INSECTS AND DISEASES From the number of insects and diseases found on the grape, it would seem that, literally, "pestilence walketh in darkness and destruction wasteth at noonday" in the vineyards of the country. But not many of the ills that grape-flesh is heir to are ever found in one region, and the vineyard is seldom attacked by many diseases or insects in a single season. There was a time, as we have said before, when grape-growers were so beset by pests which they could not control, that viticulture was one of the most uncertain fields in agriculture. But one brilliant discovery after another has brought the pests of the grape under the hand of man until now there are but few that need cause much expense in treatment or worry as to the outcome. Plants cannot be attacked by diseases unless infection is permitted. It follows that by proper sanitation most of the insect pests of the vine can be kept out of the vineyard. _Vineyard sanitation._ By changing or modifying environment, immunity can be secured from many of the pests of the grape and damage may be reduced with most if not all. Cultivation, as has been noted under several insect pests and one or two of the diseases of the grape, is an effective method of eliminating grape pests. In the case of insects, it destroys the insects themselves and the hibernating places as well. The vineyard should never be kept in sod, but always under thorough and frequent cultivation. Vineyard sanitation is greatly improved, also, if cover-crops which remain green during the winter are planted after the last cultivation. Cultivation should usually be preceded by deep plowing in the fall or spring to turn under fallen leaves and weeds or grass in which hibernating insects may pass the winter. The surroundings of the vineyard should be looked after. Fence-rows and waste lands which cannot be cultivated may often be burned over to destroy the hibernating places of grape insects. As a rule, it is unwise to plant the bramble berries or even strawberries in vineyards, or adjoining vineyards, since these plants afford hibernating places and food plants for some of the grape insects, especially the destructive leaf-hopper. Lastly, precaution should be taken by destroying all wild grape-vines near vineyards, as these frequently harbor insects and diseases, the flea-beetle finding the wild grape-vine almost a necessity to its existence. _Spraying._ Definite rules cannot be laid down for spraying vineyards the country over. The literature on this subject is plentiful in any state in which grapes are largely grown, within the reach of the grape-grower, and is not difficult to understand once it is in hand. Every grape-grower should secure and study the publications of the state experiment stations having to do with the control of insects and diseases. The number of applications and the sprays to be used vary greatly in different parts of America. On the Pacific slope the only application yearly required in most vineyard regions is dusting with flowers of sulfur for powdery-mildew. Several other pests may, however, from year to year, or in one locality or another, require special treatment. In the grape regions of New York, many grape-growers do not spray at all, but these are usually slovens or procrastinators whose profits are small and uncertain. In the grape regions of the northeastern states, orderly vineyardists spray at least once with bordeaux mixture (4-4-50) in which is put three pounds of arsenate of lead, no matter how few insects and fungi are present. This treatment is given soon after the blossoms fall. In more southern regions it may be necessary to make a similar treatment soon after the first leaves appear, again after the blossoms fall and every two weeks thereafter until the grapes begin to turn in color, making as many as four, five or even six applications in all. To these regular applications of bordeaux mixture and arsenate of lead, contact insecticides, as some of the nicotine preparations, may have to be added; or, for special purposes as specified in discussing the several pests, cheap molasses is added. It is doubtful, however, whether the grape can be grown with commercial success where insects and fungi prevail and are so pestiferous as to require annually more than two or three applications of spraying mixtures. [Illustration: PLATE XVIII.--Herbert (×2/3).] CHAPTER XIII MARKETING THE CROPS AND VINEYARD RETURNS Viticulture, as all divisions of agriculture, is made up of two quite distinct phases of activity: growing the crop and marketing the crop. The subjects to be treated in this and the next chapter belong rather more to marketing than to cultural activities. Treated in detail, these operations constitute matter sufficient for a separate treatise, and only an outline of present practices is in place in a text such as this devoted to the culture of the fruit. The several operations to be discussed are picking, packing, storing, shipping and marketing. HARVESTING IN THE EAST AND NORTH As the consummation of the care of the vine, the in-gathering of the crop is celebrated in all European countries with rejoicings in song, dance and mirth. In America the vintage is less of an event than in Europe, but it is more picturesque and diverting than the harvest of most other crops. It is work in which youth and old age, as well as those in the prime of life in both sexes, can take part and is reputed as a most healthful occupation. For these reasons, the grape harvest in America, as in Europe, has somewhat the air of a holiday, so that workers are usually readily found for the several operations of harvesting. Laborers come as grapes begin to ripen from near-by cities and towns and neighboring country-sides in such numbers that the care of the crop is speedily accomplished. _Pickers._ As a rule, pickers are hired by the piece rather than by the day, experience having demonstrated that so paid they do more and better work. There is usually much diversity in race, age and condition of life of pickers so that harmonious and efficient work is scarcely possible without a competent foreman in charge who must often be assisted by a sub-foreman. Efficient supervision doubles the picking capacity of a gang of workers, and, moreover, is necessary to see that the fruit is picked and packed with proper care. In hiring pickers, it is usually stipulated that a part of the pay is to be reserved until the close of the season; otherwise those disposed to have a holiday leave when the weather becomes unpleasant or seek greener pastures when the grapes become scarce. _Time to pick._ Unlike some fruits, grapes must not be picked until they are fully ripe, as unripe grapes do not mature after picking. Grapes not matured lack the necessary percentage of sugar and solids to keep well and have not developed their full flavor. Many growers make the mistake of sending grapes to the market before fully ripe, a mistake easily made with some varieties because they acquire full color before full maturity. Color, therefore, is not a good guide as to the time to pick. In the northern and eastern states, late varieties of grapes may be allowed to hang on the vines for some little time after maturity, the late autumn suns giving them a higher degree of sweetness and perfection. Some growers run the risks of light frosts to further maturity and to secure the added advantage of the removal of many leaves from the vines. Ripeness is indicated by a combination of signs difficult to describe but easily learned by experience. These signs are: first, a characteristic color; second, full development of flavor and aroma; third, a softer texture of the pulp and a slight thickening of the juice so that it is more or less sticky; fourth, the ends of the stems turn from green to brown; fifth, the berries pull more readily from their stems; sixth, the seeds are free or more nearly free from the pulp and usually turn from green to brown. _Picking appliances._ But few appliances are needed in picking grapes. Shears are a necessity. These are of special make and can be bought from dealers in horticultural supplies, costing from 75 cents to $1. Some growers, after picking, pack the fruit in the field in the receptacles in which it is to go to market. The greater number, however, pick in trays which are taken to the packing-house and allowed to stand until the fruit is wilted before packing for shipment. Trays may be of several sizes and shapes, but are usually shallow flats holding from twenty-five to thirty-five pounds. The picked fruit is taken from the vineyard to the packing-shed in a wagon with flexible springs to prevent jarring and jolting. Large growers usually have specially built one-horse platform wagons, the front wheels of which pass under the platform. _Picking accounts._ It is no small matter to keep a picking account with pickers. Business-like growers use one of several kinds of tickets or tags in keeping accounts. Probably the most common method is to give a ticket to the picker when the receptacle of grapes is delivered, the grower either keeping half of the original or a duplicate of it. Objections to ticket systems are that the pickers often lose the tickets, are irregular in returning them, or exchange them with other pickers. To obviate the disadvantages of tickets, some growers use tags which bear the picker's name and are attached to his person. These tags have marginal numbers or divisions which are canceled by a punch as pickers deliver the grapes. Still another method is to keep book accounts with each picker in which case payment is made by the pound, each receptacle being put on the scales as brought in from the field, credit being given for the number of pounds. It is the duty of those in charge to see that each picker finishes the row or the part of the row to which he is assigned, and that he does not wander over the vineyard in search of the best picking. _Packing-houses and their appliances._ The commercial grape-grower must have a house for packing and storing. Houses differ in design and fitting for almost every vineyard. Sometimes the house is a combination one for packing and storing. Often the packing-house is a halfway place between the vineyard and the shipping station, in which case it is an open shed or a lightly constructed building. In these field packing-houses there are usually no provisions for storing. The better types of combined houses are provided with a cellar for the storage of grapes, the first floor is used for packing, and the attic provides a place for the storage of baskets and crates. In all such houses provision must be made for thorough ventilation, especially for the storage cellar if the grapes are to be kept for any length of time. Properly ventilated, the temperature of the grape cellar can be kept as low as 50° F. during September and October. The cellar floor in these houses is usually of dirt better to regulate the moisture-content of the room. Often the first floor is divided into two rooms, one to be used for packing and the other as a shipping room. A good combination packing-and-storage-house of this type can be built for $1000 to $2000. Now that cold storage facilities can be secured in most grape-growing regions, and the rates of storage are becoming more reasonable, there is less need of storage-houses. Packing-houses are so simple in construction and may be so different in design that it is neither possible nor necessary to describe them in detail. A building that protects the workers from the elements and affords conveniences in packing serves the purpose. Such a packing-house, which is often located in the vineyard, should be well lighted, should be connected with the storage-room for baskets and should have advantages for delivering the packages from the storage-room to the packing-room and from the packing-room to the shipping-room. Its size will depend on the quantities of grapes to be packed. The house must be built so that it can be kept clean and sweet. [Illustration: FIG. 46. Packing grapes on a packing-table.] Every packing-house, whatever the design, must be furnished with tables for holding the trays while the fruit is being packed. Usually these tables are so made that the picking trays are set before the packers on an inclined table. The packer transfers the grapes from the trays into the baskets in which the fruit is to be sold. The trays of grapes as they come from the field are set before the worker, who then packs the fruit into the basket from the left. As the baskets are filled, they are placed on a flat ledge or shelf in front of the packer and are then taken off by an attendant. Empty baskets are usually held in store on a higher shelf convenient to the packer and from time to time are replenished by the attendant. Figure 46 shows a packing-table of the kind just described. Sometimes the packing-table is circular and revolves, the packers sitting about the table. The baskets are held on the lap and the packer takes the grapes off the table which is turned as fresh fruit is brought in. This circular table is not in general use; its only advantage is that it permits the packer to select from a larger quantity of fruit. _Grading grapes._ Grapes are more easily graded than most other fruits; for usually there are but two grades, firsts and culls. It is difficult to specify exactly what firsts are, since a number of factors must be considered which bring in play the judgment of the grader. At least, firsts must have the following qualities: The bunches must be approximately uniform in size; there must be few or no berries missing from the stems; the grapes must be fully ripe, of a uniform degree of ripeness and uniformly colored; and the fruit must be free from insect and fungous injuries. It is easier to give specifications for culls, since all grapes not firsts are culls. In large vineyards, only good fruit or the best fruit is worth grading. It is more advisable to sell poor fruit by the ton with little or no grading. It follows, also, that the higher the price, the more special the market, and the more carefully the crop is picked, the more profitable it is to grade. The work of grading is done in the packing-shed when the fruit is transferred from the trays into the selling receptacles. A pair of slender scissors made for the purpose, to be purchased from dealers in horticultural supplies, is used to trim out diseased and crushed berries. The fruit must be permitted to wilt for a few hours, a half day or overnight, before it can be graded to advantage. In this work of grading, the greatest care should be taken to keep the fruit clean and fresh, to sort out broken bunches and to preserve the bloom. The less handling, the more finely finished is the product. _Grape packages in eastern grape regions._ Packages for grapes are less varied than those for any other fruit, selling receptacles in the states east of the Rocky Mountains being much the same for all regions. Dessert grapes are universally packed in gift packages--that is, packages which are given away when the fruit is sold--and this insures a clean dainty package. It seems imperative that a uniform style of package should be used the country over for the general market, but up until this time, although there have been both national and state laws passed, uniformity has not been secured. A national law is needed establishing standard commercial packages so that the grower may safely ship from one state to another without being a law-breaker. Such a package should be based on cubic-measure and not on weight as is often advocated; for grapes cannot be shipped without some loss from sampling in transit; and there are also losses in weight by evaporation so that the grower, although trying to comply with the law, may become technically a law-breaker if the standard is based on weight. [Illustration: FIG. 47. Climax baskets in two sizes.] The most popular package for the grape in eastern grape regions is the Climax basket made in various styles and sizes. These are cheap, easily packed and handled, nest well in shipment and are durable. Three sizes are commonest in use, the five-pound, the ten-pound and the twenty-pound basket. The five-pound basket usually holds only a little over four pounds; the ten-pound about eight pounds; and the twenty-pound rather less than twenty pounds. Two sizes of Climax baskets are shown in Fig. 47. It is commonly understood, however, that the packages are short in weight, and as grapes are retailed by the basket and not by the pound, short weight does not really deceive. These baskets are made of thin wood veneer with a light wood binding at the top and bottom. The cover is of wood and is usually fastened on with staples. The handle is either of wood or of wire. When well made, the baskets are firm and symmetrical, without splinters and are clean and white. Packages carried over from year to year become dingy in color, but the wood may be whitened by fumigating in the storage-room with sulfur. The baskets also become yellow and discolored if left in the sun and must, therefore, be stored in clean, dark, dry rooms. When grapes are sold by weight to manufacturers of wine or grape-juice, they are usually delivered in the picking trays which, if the market is near at hand, are always returned. If they are to be shipped far, they go to market in twenty-pound baskets or bushel baskets, although the latter are not regarded with favor by consumers. _Packing._ Grapes packed indoors, as has been said, are allowed to stand from a few to twenty-four hours after being picked to permit them to wilt. When thus wilted they are much more easily packed and do not shrink in transportation, so that the basket usually reaches the market well filled with fruit. Each bunch of grapes is placed separately in the basket after all unmarketable berries have been removed. The bunches are arranged in concentric tiers, the top layer being placed with special care. When the basket is filled, the grapes rise a little above the level of the basket, care being taken not to have the fruit project too much so that the grapes will be crushed when putting on the cover. In all this work, the berries are handled as little as possible, so as not to destroy the bloom. Care is taken, also, that the fruit is free from spraying material and is otherwise clean and fresh. Much less pains need be taken when the grapes are packed in trays to be sold by weight, but even in this there must be method in filling the trays, otherwise there will be many open spaces and corners between bunches. Practically all commercial grape-growers now use labels on their packages. These not only add to the attractiveness of the packages, but are a guarantee of the contents, both as to name of the variety and the quality of the fruit. These labels are, also, a sign by which a grower's fruit may be distinguished and are, therefore, a valuable advertising medium. Some growers have registered their labels in the United States Patent Office in order to prevent others from using them. Obviously, it is not desirable or worth while to label a poor grade of grapes. _Storing grapes._ The commercial grape-grower now stores his grapes in cold storage warehouses if he keeps them any length of time after harvesting. There is no question but that keeping a part of the crop in artificially cooled houses is a great benefit to the grape-grower, since it prolongs the season for selling by some three or four months. Formerly, native grapes could be secured in general markets only until Thanksgiving time or thereabouts, but now American grapes are very generally offered for sale in January and February, while the European grapes from California are in the market nearly the year around. The grape-grower need make little or no preparation of his product in putting it in cold storage except to make sure that the product is first class in every respect. It would be a waste of money and effort to attempt to store any but clean, sound, well-matured, well-packed grapes. The grape-grower, however, seldom need concern himself with storing, since the crop is usually stored by the buyers. Few small growers seem to have learned the art of keeping grapes in common storage, There are but few difficulties in keeping European grapes for several months after picking if they are stored under favorable conditions. Not all, but several of the native grapes may also be kept practically throughout the winter if proper precautions are taken. Among these varieties Catawba is the standard winter sort, but Diana, Iona, Isabella, Rogers' hybrids and Vergennes, all rather commonly grown, may be kept by the small grower. To insure keeping, these native grapes must be handled most carefully. The fruit is picked a few days before it is dead ripe and the bunches placed in trays holding forty or fifty pounds. It is important that the temperature be reduced gradually so that there are no sudden changes. If the nights are cool, a valuable aid is to leave the grapes out-of-doors in crates the night after they are picked, placing them in a cool building or dry cellar early the next morning. The cellar or store-room should be well ventilated and should be such that the temperature is not variable, care being taken that the air in every part of the storage room is changed. Draughts, however, should be avoided or stems and berries will shrivel. If a temperature from 40° to 50° can be maintained, the varieties named may be kept until March or April. An expensive store-room is not necessary and ice to cool the room is not only unnecessary but undesirable. If the storage-room is too dry, the grapes wilt and lose flavor; if, on the other hand, the atmosphere is too damp, the grapes mold. It is essential, therefore, to strike a medium between an atmosphere too dry and one too wet. It is possible that a light fumigation with sulfur or formaldehyde might help to keep down molds in these common storage grape-rooms, but as to the value of fumigation there seems to be no experimental evidence. Grapes grown on clay lands are said to be firmer and to keep better than those grown on gravel or lighter soils. Some years ago there was an association in Ohio known as The Clay-Growers Association which handled only grapes grown on clay lands. The members of this association believed that their grapes were much more desirable for storage than grapes from regions where the soil was lighter. HARVESTING AND HANDLING MUSCADINE GRAPES The Muscadine grapes of the South Atlantic and Gulf states are unique in vine and fruit, are used for different purposes and go to different markets from the grapes of the North, so that they may be considered almost a distinct fruit. Not only are cultural requirements peculiar to this fruit, as we have seen, but the methods of harvesting and marketing are quite distinct. These are well set forth by Husmann and Dearing[18] as follows: "Rotundifolia vines have been almost entirely grown on overhead arbors in the past, the fruit being made into wine, and under such conditions the general practice of jarring the grapes from the vines is perhaps the most practical method of harvesting. If the vines are trained to upright trellises or if the fruit is intended for shipping or table use the grapes should be picked by hand in order to be sound and clean. On account of the presence of leaves, twigs, etc., mixed with the grapes jarred from the vines, wine and grape-juice manufacturers will pay 5 to 15 cents a bushel more for hand-picked grapes. The growers who make a practice of hand picking claim that the work can be done at practically no greater expense than is necessary to shake off and clean a crop, and the increased price obtained for the fruit will more than pay the difference. "A description of the harvesting of the Rotundifolia grapes by the jarring method will be interesting to those not familiar with it. Poles are attached to sheets of canvas measuring 6 by 12 feet and having leather handles. A man is placed at each end of the sheets and four men with two sheets work together. The wide sides of the two sheets are brought close together under each vine, with the trunk of the vine in the middle. The vines are then jarred, the berries falling into the sheets. Those not caught by the sheets or that have fallen to the ground by the shaking of the trellis when the fruit of the adjoining vines was harvested, etc., and which are usually of the best quality, are picked by hand. The writers are informed that it costs approximately 15 cents a bushel to harvest the fruit on the ground and 12 cents to harvest that which falls on the sheets. "The fruit is put in boxes or barrels, and if the quantity is not large the leaves, sticks, etc., which become mixed with the fruit are removed by hand. If there is a considerable quantity of fruit some mechanical means, such as ordinary grain fan mills, are used to clean it. After cleaning, the fruit is hauled or shipped to the winery. In wineries with modern equipment there are blowers which thoroughly clean the fruit. These are located near the end of the elevators that carry the fruit to the crusher. "A common and very objectionable practice followed in harvesting Rotundifolia grapes, especially by the jarring method, is that of gathering the fruit all at once, whereas there should be at least three periods of harvesting. When harvested at one time the best quality of fruit ripens, falls to the ground, and is lost before the harvest is commenced and the last part of the crop is thrashed from the vines in a half-ripe condition along with the ripe fruit. In this manner not only is the first and best fruit entirely lost, but the harvested fruit is inferior in quality, which necessarily results in a poor product from the entire yield." _Returns from Muscadine grapes._ "Great variations occur in the yields from Rotundifolia vines. At times there are record-breaking yields and, again, small yields are reported, the small yields resulting from black-rot, coulure, wet weather, self-sterility, lack of cultivation, fertilization, lack of pruning, age of vines, and various other causes. In spite of this, Rotundifolia vines are said to be among the safest and most prolific of fruit-bearing plants. While in one of the largest Rotundifolia vineyards there has been only a partial crop during the last three years, owing to various causes, another grower reports a yield of 177 bushels of grapes from 4-year-old James vines, in addition to a bale of cotton to the acre. A Florida grower estimated his crop of white Rotundifolia and Thomas grapes for the season of 1911 at 280 bushels to the acre. An average yield of 27 bushels an acre from 4-year-old vines, 100 bushels from 5-year-old vines, and 150 bushels to the acre when the vines are in full bearing should be obtained. "The prices paid for Rotundifolia grapes depend on the season, the quality of fruit, and the market. In years when the crop is short better prices are usually paid than when there is a heavy crop. Aside from the grapes sold and shipped to wineries, grapes as a rule sell for more in the cities and larger towns than in smaller places, the local demand being somewhat in proportion to the population. In such localities fruit of good quality will bring a much better price than inferior fruit. Hand-picked fruit in half-bushel peach baskets or in berry boxes usually brings from $1 to $2 per bushel. Grapes harvested by jarring are usually sent to the wineries and bring an average of 75 cents per bushel of 60 pounds. The highest price paid for this quality of fruit was reached in 1910, when $2.25 per bushel (f.o.b. shipping point) was paid for white Rotundifolia. "In many localities certain growers have built up quite a reputation for themselves in choice, hand-picked fruit, which they ship to special customers in distant markets. For this purpose the James variety is usually grown because the berries adhere well and are of good size and flavor. Several growers ship as far north as New York and Boston, getting from $2.00 to $2.50 gross per bushel crate. In shipping, three styles of carriers are used--the 24-box strawberry crate, the 6-basket peach crate, and the 8-pound basket. More attention should be given to this phase of the industry. The varieties best suited for shipping are the James, Memory, Flowers, and Mish. "In the fall of 1910 shipments of the James, Thomas, and Eden varieties were sent from the Rotundifolia experiment vineyard at Willard, N. C., to Washington D. C., part of the consignment being in strawberry boxes and the remainder in bushel baskets. No important difference could be noted in the two lots on their arrival in Washington. The James variety arrived in perfect condition in both packages; of the Eden 30 per cent and of the Thomas 35 per cent had shelled. More extensive experiments along this line are contemplated." HANDLING THE GRAPE IN CALIFORNIA Grapes are grown in California for three purposes, wine, raisins and the table. The handling of the crop for raisins and wine is best taken up in a discussion of these products in the chapter on by-products of the grape, leaving only table grapes to be discussed at this place. The table-grape industry of the Pacific slope is dependent on the wide distribution of the product in eastern markets for a profitable sale of the crop, since production is so great that but a small part of the crop is consumed in the markets of the Pacific slope. The growers in this region, therefore, have special problems, chief of which are those of successful shipment over long distances. California annually ships in the neighborhood of 10,000 carloads of table grapes, all of which must be handled within a period of about two months. As competition increases, it becomes more and more necessary to extend the area over which the fruit is to be sold; to lengthen the marketing season through cold storage; and for both of these purposes to devise new or to improve present methods of handling the fruit. The two requisites for the successful shipment of this great bulk of grapes are: The fruit must reach the markets in sound condition; and it must have sufficient market-holding quality to remain sound for a considerable length of time after it arrives in the markets. Experience has thoroughly demonstrated to grape-growers in California that decay in grapes is largely dependent on the presence of injuries to the grape berries, to the pedicels or to the stems of the bunches. Methods of handling grapes, therefore, and the type of package used, must be such that the product is injured as little as possible. _Careful handling._ In the shipment of European grapes from California, it has been found that it pays to go to much extra trouble in handling the crop. The bunches are picked with care to avoid bruising or crushing berries, and as far as possible they are lifted only by the main stems. They are then laid with care in the picking trays which are filled only one layer deep. In moving the trays to the packing-house, they are handled carefully, the trays being moved only on wagons with springs. In sorting, special care is taken to remove all injured and unsound berries and not to injure others in the bunch, here again handling the clusters by the stems. In packing, the bunches are placed firmly in the baskets with care not to crush or bruise the stems or to injure the pedicels of the berries. A slight injury of either berry or pedicel permits the spores of the fungus causing decay to gain entrance into the fruit. _Shipping packages._ The most common package for table-grapes in California is a square basket holding about five pounds. These baskets are placed for shipment in fours in crates. The bunches of some varieties may be too large for these small baskets, and these extra large-clustered grapes are packed in oblong baskets holding in the neighborhood of eight pounds, two baskets filling a crate. No good filler seems yet to have been devised for packing grapes in California. The cork dust in which grapes from the Mediterranean are received is not available and a good substitute has not yet been found. Sawdust is sometimes used but has not proved satisfactory in holding the decay and the fruit absorbs disagreeable flavors from the wood. Occasionally, however, grapes from California are sent to eastern markets packed in dry redwood sawdust and these seem to come through in good condition and not to have absorbed a disagreeable flavor. Reports seem to indicate that this specially selected redwood sawdust is proving much better than the ordinary sawdust experimented with some years ago. _Shipping._ Considerable work has been done by the United States Department of Agriculture to determine how table-grapes could best be shipped from the far West and reach the eastern markets in good condition. The crop is, of course, shipped in refrigerator cars and much depends on the cooling of these cars and especially on the temperature at which the grapes are kept while in transit. To carry well over the 3000 miles of mountain and desert, heat and cold, the best type of refrigerator car must be used. It does not appear that the pre-cooling so advantageous to citrous and other tree-fruits is worth the trouble and expense with table-grapes, as it does not seem to prevent decay. Cooling cannot be substituted for careful handling, which seems as yet the most necessary precaution to be taken in the preparation of these grapes for eastern shipment. MARKETING Table-grapes from both eastern and western grape regions are now almost entirely shipped in carload lots. Since few grape-growers are prepared to load a car quickly with grapes, some kind of coöperation is required, or the crop must be handled by large buyers. Coöperative methods are becoming more and more popular, although a large part of the grape crop, both East and West, is now handled by buyers. There are several important advantages in selling through a coöperative organization. Thus, in selling coöperatively, the grapes are graded and packed in accordance with one standard; more favorable transportation rates can be secured by a coöperative association; and, most important of all, the output can be distributed to the grape markets of the country without the disastrous competition that attends individual marketing. In some of these organizations, also, supplies needed by the grape-grower in producing a crop are purchased more economically than by individuals; in particular, grape packages can be purchased better by an organization than by an individual. As the grape industry and competition grow in the different regions of the country, the necessity of forming marketing organizations becomes greater. Such organizations must be founded on the principles which many experiments have shown best govern fruit-marketing associations. It is not possible to discuss these principles at length, but the following fundamentals will suffice: An ideal coöperative association is one in which there are no profits nor dividends. Every member of the whole organized association is a producer. All of the product grown by a member is sold through the association. The association is democratic, all members having an equal voice in its management and all sharing alike in its successes and failures. When profits arise of necessity, they are distributed to the members of the association in proportion to the amount of business each has done. The work of the organization is conducted at as near cost as possible and profits are declared only after expenses, depreciation, interest on capital for future operations are deducted. Thus it is seen that the plan of the organization is to give each member as nearly as possible the exact price his fruit has brought in the markets. VINEYARD RETURNS Grape-growing as a business is a comparatively new industry in America. It is true that the first attempts at growing this fruit were made to found an industry, but these were complete and dismal failures, and the start in growing grapes in America eventually came as a pleasing hobby. In evolving from a hobby into vineyard culture on a large scale, the business side of the industry long lagged. At present, with increasing competition, manifold uncertainties in vineyard conditions, and much unbusinesslike administration, interest in cultural operations, with which pioneers in the industry were chiefly concerned, is eclipsed by the conception that grape-growing is a highly developed commercial enterprise requiring for success careful business management. Unfortunately there is nowhere a substantial body of figures from which growers can obtain a fair conception of what the outgo and income of average vineyards in grape regions are. The value of such data to investors or to those making an effort to keep track of the finances of their business is obvious, and an attempt is made here to put the reader in possession of figures that ought to be helpful. The data given, although scant and fragmentary, show fairly accurately the cost of producing grapes, selling prices and profits in the culture of this fruit in one of the great grape regions. The New York Agricultural Experiment Station is carrying on experiments to determine the outgo and income from vineyards in the Chautauqua grape-belt. The work is not yet finished, nor could the findings be published in detail before being sent out by the Station, but F. E. Gladwin, in charge of the work, has consented to set down summaries of costs and returns taken from vineyards at Fredonia, which will serve as a guide to planters of grapes in this region at least: _First Year_ Interest on value of land @ $200 per acre $12.00 Preparation of land 8.00 Cost of vines per acre 12.00 Planting 4.00 Cultivating 6.00 ------ Total expenditure for first year $42.00 _Second Year_ Interest on value of vineyard @ $225 per acre $13.50 Cultivating, hand hoeing, etc. 9.25 Pruning 1.00 ------ Total expenditure for second year $23.75 _Third Year_ Interest on value of vineyard @ $250 per acre $15.00 Pruning 2.50 Posts (cost of) @ .10 240 24.00 Setting and driving 6.50 Wire and wiring, staples, etc. 11.65 Tying and twine 1.45 Cultivating, plowing, harrowing 9.25 Spraying 4.00 No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 500 $80.00 Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand 10.00 Picking @ .01 per basket 5.00 Packing @ .01 per basket 5.00 Hauling .003 1.50 ------ Outgo for third year $95.85 ------ Income $80.00 _Fourth Year_ Interest on value of vineyard @ $300 per acre $18.00 Pruning 2.50 Tying 2.90 Spraying and materials 4.00 Cultivating, plowing, harrowing, hand-hoeing and plowing back one furrow 9.25 Trellis upkeep, driving posts, tightening wires, etc. 2.50 Pulling and poling out brush 1.69 No. baskets sold @ .16 per basket 1000 $160.00 Cost of baskets @ $20 per thousand 20.00 Picking @ .01 per basket 10.00 Packing @ .01 per basket 10.00 Hauling .003 3.00 ------ Outgo for fourth year $83.84 ------- Income $160.00 Outgo for four years $245.44 Income for four years 240.00 _Estimates for Succeeding Years_ Gross income $125-200 Outgo 75- 85 [Illustration: PLATE XIX.--Iona (×3/5).] CHAPTER XIV GRAPE PRODUCTS Over-production, with the attendant losses caused by glutted markets, is a factor which, like frosts and freezes, is ever in the mind of the grape-grower. No season passes but that some of the grape regions of the country suffer from over-production. Not uncommonly the grape industry in a region is better off in a season when the crop is small and prices high, than when the crop is large and prices low. In every part of the country where grapes are grown, over-production has been a great deterrent to viticulture; this, in spite of the fact that grape-growers have availed themselves of the opportunity to manufacture products from this fruit. Thus, wine and raisins are made from the grape in California, and a large part of the harvest in the East goes into wine, champagne and grape-juice. But the growth of prohibition now threatens the wine and champagne industries of the country, in fact may be said to have driven them to the wall, making the need of new outlets in manufactured products a greater necessity. Under these conditions, grape-growers must seek in every way to enlarge the sale of the crop to manufacturers with the hope that thus, together with more perfect distribution of his commodities, the inroads made by prohibition on the industry may be offset and the over-production of table-grapes be better prevented. With this brief emphasis on the importance of manufactured products of the grape, we approach the discussion of the several possible outlets to over-production in this fruit. WINE The manufacture and use of wine in America, as has been intimated, is likely to cease through prohibition. Therefore, whatever may be said of this product of the grape is of less and less interest to grape-growers. However, a few years of grace probably remain for the making of wines in America, and since wine-making yet offers the greatest outlet for the grape crop, next to table-grapes, wine must be considered as a factor in the grape industry. Since the demand and price for grapes depend very largely on the kind of wine to be made, it is necessary to characterize the wines made in America. Wine, it should be said, is the product of alcoholic fermentation of the grape. Alcoholic fermentations made from other fruits are not, strictly speaking, wines. Natural wines are divided into three broad groups; dry, sweet and sparkling wines. Dry wines are those in which sugar has been eliminated by fermentation; sweet wines those in which sufficient sugar remains to give a sweet taste; and sparkling wines are those which contain sufficient carbonic acid gas to give a pressure of several atmospheres in the bottle. The carbonic acid gas is produced in sparkling wines by fermentation in the bottle of a dry wine. The color in these three classes of wine may be red or white, depending on whether or not the color is extracted from the skins in the process of fermentation. To make red wine, of course, the grapes to be fermented must have red coloring matter in skin or juice or both. Each of these groups of wine includes a very large number of kinds distinguished by the name of the region, the locality or the name of the vineyard in which a wine is made. Wines are still further distinguished according to the year of the vintage. _Wine-making._ There are four distinct stages in the making of wine after the grapes are grown. The first is the harvesting of the grapes when they have reached the proper stage of maturity, which is known as "wine-making ripeness." This stage of ripeness is determined by means of a must-scale or saccharometer. The wine-maker squeezes the juice from a number of bunches of grapes into a receptacle into which he drops the must-scale, whereupon the sugar-content of the juice is indicated on the scale, determining whether the proper stage of ripeness has been reached. Suitable varieties of grapes having been grown, it is necessary that they be permitted to hang on the vine until the proper degree of ripeness is developed, after which they are delivered at the winery as free as possible from injury or decay. The second stage is the preparation of the grapes for fermentation. The grapes are weighed on arriving at the winery and are then conveyed either by hand or more often by a mechanical conveyor to the hopper or crusher. The ancient method of crushing, which still prevails in some parts of Europe, was to tramp the grapes with bare feet or wooden shoes. Tramping has been superseded by mechanical crushers which break the skin but do not crush the seeds. The best mechanical crushers consist of two-grooved revolving cylinders. As the grapes pass through the crusher, they fall into the stemmer, a machine which tears off the stems, discharging them at one end, while the seeds, skins, pulp and juice pass through the bottom to the presses usually on the floor below. There are several types of wine-presses, all of which, however, are modifications of screw, hydraulic or knuckle-joint power. In large wineries, the hydraulic press has almost driven out the other two forms of power and when great quantities of grapes must be handled a number of hydraulic presses are usually in operation. The grape pomace is built up into a "cheese" by the use of cloths and racks variously arranged. The "cheese" is then put under heavy pressure from which the juice or "must" is quickly extracted. The third stage is fermentation. The "must" is carried from the press into open tanks or vats which hold from 500 to 5000 gallons or even more. The yeast cells which cause fermentation may be introduced naturally on the skins of the grapes; or in many modern wineries the "must" is sterilized to rid it of undesirable micro-organisms and a "starter" of "wine-yeast" is added to start the fermentation. Yeast organisms attack the sugar and must, breaking it up into alcohol and carbonic acid gas, the latter passing off as it is formed. When active fermentation ceases, the new wine is drawn from the pomace and is put into closed casks or tanks where it undergoes a secondary fermentation, much sediment settling at the bottom of the cask. To rid the new wine of this sediment, it must be drawn off into clean casks, an operation called "racking." The first racking usually takes place within a month or six weeks. A second racking is necessary at the end of the winter and a third is desirable in the summer or fall. The fourth stage is the aging of the wine. Before aging begins, however, the wine usually must be rendered perfectly clear and bright by "fining." The materials used in fining are isinglass, white of egg or gelatine. These, introduced into the wine, cause undissolved matters to precipitate. The wine is now ready for bottling or consumption. Most wines acquire a more desirable flavor through "aging," a slow oxidation in the bottles. _Champagne._ When champagne wines have gone through their first fermentation, they are racked off into casks to age until their quality can be ascertained, after which a blend of several different wines is made. This blend is called the "cuvée." The cuvée is bottled and a second fermentation starts. The bottles are now put in cool cellars, corded in horizontal layers with thin strips of wood between each layer of bottles. The champagne in this stage is said to be in "tirage." The carbonic acid gas generated at this second fermentation is confined in the bottles and absorbed by the wine. When the bottle is uncorked, the gas, seeking to escape, produces the sparkling effect desirable in sparkling wines. After the wine has been in tirage for one or two years, the bottles are placed in A-shaped racks, the neck of the bottle pointing downward so that the sediment formed during fermentation drops to the cork. To further the settling of the sediment, workmen turn or shake each bottle daily for a period of one to three months. The bottles are then taken to the finishing room, cork down and the wine is "disgorged." Disgorging is accomplished by freezing a small quantity of wine in the neck of the bottle containing the sediment, after which the cork is removed and with it the frozen sediment. The bottle is refilled, recorked, wired, capped, and the champagne is ready for shipment. _The vintage._ The wine-making season the world over is known as the "vintage." The time at which the vintage begins depends, of course, on the region, the variety of grapes, the growing season and the location of the vineyard. Its duration, also, depends on these same factors. The season is usually lengthened by the fact that wine-makers require for their purposes a number of varieties of grapes which ripen at different times. Before or during the vintage, representatives of wine cellars usually make contracts for the number of tons of grapes required at a certain price a ton. The notion prevails that grapes for wine and grape-juice need not be first-class. This is far from the truth. To make good wine the grapes must be carefully harvested, transported with as little injury as possible and must be protected from dirt, mold and fermentation before reaching the winery. European vintagers maintain that grapes picked at sunrise produce the lightest and most limped wines and yield more juice. They say, also, that the grapes should not be gathered in the heat of the day because fermentation sets in at once. These niceties are not observed in America. _Prices paid for wine grapes._ Supply and demand regulate the price paid for wine grapes. There is always demand for good wine grapes, although a poor product often goes begging for market. In the East, the highest prices are paid for the grapes used in making champagne. The champagne region of the East is confined to a few localities along Lake Erie and to western New York about Keuka Lake, where the industry is most largely developed. The varieties used in champagne-making in the East are Delaware, Catawba, Elvira, Dutchess, Iona, Diamond and a few other sorts. Prices differ with the many conditions affecting the grape and champagne industries, perhaps the average price for Catawba, the grape chiefly used in making champagne in this region, being from $40 to $50 a ton. Choicer grapes, as Delaware, Iona and Dutchess, often sell from $75 to $100 a ton. Concords are sometimes utilized in making dry wines in the eastern states, $30 or $40 a ton being the average price. Ives and Norton are much used for red wines and sell for top prices. Wine-makers in the East are at a disadvantage in producing wines other than champagne, since the price paid on the Pacific slope for wine grapes is much lower; Grapes for sweet wine in California often sell as low as $6 or $7 a ton, the average price being $10 or $12. Grapes for dry wines, such as Zinfandel and Burger, bring on the Pacific coast from $10 to $12 a ton. Choice varieties of grapes in this region, such as Cabernet, Sauvignon, Petite Sirah and Riesling, bring from $22 to $24. The eastern wine-makers, however, have the advantage of being close to the largest and best markets in the country. Wines made in the East are very different from those made in California and supply a different market. A few years ago most of the Muscadine grapes grown in the South were used for wine-making. From these grapes wine has been made since colonial times, and for a century there have been some large vineyards of Muscadine grapes in the South from which wine was made in a commercial way. Since Muscadine grapes do not sell well in the markets in competition with the grapes of the North or the Pacific slope, the Muscadine grape industry has been dependent on the wine industry of the section in which the fruit is produced. The growth of prohibition in the South, however, has driven the wine industry to the North and West and there is now little wine manufactured from Muscadine grapes in the South, although some grapes are shipped North for wine-making. The wine made from these grapes is very distinct in flavor and on that account a special trade has been developed for it. It is possible that this special trade will keep up the demand for Muscadine wine so that some part of the crop may be shipped to wine-making states to supply this demand. GRAPE-JUICE When properly made, grape-juice is the undiluted, unsweetened, unfermented juice of the grape and contains no preservatives, fermentation being prevented by sterilization with heat. The product is as ancient as wine, and, therefore, as the cultivation of the vine, for all wine-making peoples have used new wine or grape-juice as a beverage. For centuries physicians in wine-making countries have prescribed grape-juice as it comes from the wine-press for certain maladies, the treatment constituting an essential part of the grape-cures of European countries. The process of making an unfermented grape-juice that will keep from season to season as an article of commerce is, however, a modern invention, and is the outcome of the discoveries of the last half century regarding the control of the agents of fermentation. The manufacture of commercial grape-juice in America, to which country the industry is confined, began as a home practice following the fundamental processes of canning fruit. Toward the close of the last century, several inventive minds discovered methods of making a commercial product and began developing markets for their wares. The beginning of the present century found the new industry in full swing, since which time its growth has been truly marvelous. In 1900 the amount of grape-juice made in the United States was so small as to be negligible in the census report of that year. By 1910, the annual output had reached for the whole country over 1,500,000 gallons and at present writing, 1918, it is well above 3,500,000 gallons per annum. The manufacture of grape-juice is no longer a home industry but a great commercial enterprise. It is an industry closely associated with grape-growing, however, and as such needs further consideration here. _Grape-juice regions._ The manufacture of grape-juice is centered in the Chautauqua grape-belt in New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. So far, the demand seems to be almost wholly for juices made from native grapes, the juice of European grapes grown on the Pacific slope being so sweet as to be insipid. Possibly 80 per cent of the grape-juice now manufactured in America comes from a single variety, the Concord. There can be no question, however, but that sooner or later grape-juices of distinct qualities will be made from many varieties of grapes, thus giving wider sale and greater variation for the product. A very good sparkling grape-juice is now on the market and its reception seems to promise a great increase in the production of an article that closely simulates champagne in color and sparkling vivacity, but not, of course, in taste, since it contains no alcohol. The grape-juice industry has been started and is in a flourishing condition in several other grape regions than the Chautauqua belt which is now its center. There are factories at Sandusky, Ohio, using grapes grown in the Kelly Island district; in southwestern Michigan there are several factories; and the industry still survives at Vineland, New Jersey, which probably should be called the original home of the manufacture of grape-juice. In the South, some grape-juice is made from Muscadine grapes, but this product seems not as yet to have been well received in the markets. _Commercial methods of making grape-juice._ There is at present a great diversity of methods and of apparatus employed in the grape-juice manufacturing plants throughout the country. Since the industry is in its infancy, and the attempt has been made to hold some of the methods as trade secrets, the diversity of methods and appliances is not to be wondered at. No doubt there will be greater uniformity of method and machinery and, therefore, greater efficiency, as the industry develops. Husmann[19] gives the following account of the manufacture of grape-juice in the eastern states and in California: "Sound, ripe, but not over-ripe, grapes are used. These are first crushed or, in case the stems are to be removed, are run through a combined stemmer and crusher. If the machinery is stationed high enough, the crushed fruit can be run through chutes directly into the presses or kettles; otherwise, it must be pumped into them by means of a pomace or must pump or carried in pomace carts or tubs. "If a white or light colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes are first pressed, the juice which comes from the press being heated to about 165° F., skimmed, run through a pasteurizer at a temperature of between 175° and 200° F. into well-sterilized containers, and then placed in storage. "If a colored juice is desired, the crushed grapes are heated immediately, usually in aluminum kettles having double bottoms, which prevent the steam from coming in contact with the contents. These kettles usually contain revolving cylinders, the arms of which keep the crushed grapes thoroughly stirred while they are being heated to about 140° F. The simultaneous heating and stirring help to extract the coloring matter from the skins, tear the cells of the berries, increase the quantity of juice obtained per ton of fruit, and give to the must many ingredients of red wine, with the substitution of grape sugar for alcohol of the wine. "The aluminum kettles are filled and emptied in rotation, thereby making continuous manipulation possible. The presses should be situated below the kettles, so that the hot juice can be drained directly into them. The expressed juice is then reheated to about 165° F., skimmed, and run through the pasteurizer in the same manner in which the white juice is handled. The juice passes from the pasteurizer while still hot (about 160° F.) into the container, which should be sealed immediately. The lower the temperature (above the freezing point) at which these containers are then stored, the less is the danger of fermentation and the more rapidly the juice will clear and deposit its sediment. "The ordinary receptacles in which the juice is stored are 5-gallon demijohns, 20-gallon carboys, or clean, new barrels or puncheons, well washed and drained. All containers should be thoroughly sterilized before they are filled, and the covers, corks, bungs, cloths, etc., used in sealing them should be scrupulously clean and carefully sterilized. If barrels or puncheons are used as containers, they are placed on skids and firmly wedged to prevent movement. As the juice cools, air laden with fermentation germs is apt to be drawn into the barrels by the decrease in the volume of the liquid. In order to prevent this, tight air-filtering plugs of sterilized cotton are sometimes used instead of the ordinary bungs of solid wood. "The type of pasteurizer differs in almost every establishment. As the industry is of comparatively recent development commercially, there are few models on the market and each manufacturer has constructed the model best suited to his particular ideas or requirements. There are two general types, however, (1) open, double-bottomed kettles in which the juice is heated to the required temperature and then drawn off, and (2) continuous pasteurizers in which the juice is heated to the required temperature as it passes through the water bath. "The presses also show great variation in different establishments, either hydraulic, screw or lever power being used, and there is a marked difference between the types of pomace containers. Sometimes the crushed grapes are heaped on burlap cloths the sides of which are folded in, and these burlaps are placed one on top of the other in the press; sometimes press baskets take the place of these burlaps. "The manufacturers in California and those in the grape-growing regions of the Rocky Mountains seem to have adopted entirely different methods of handling the juice after it is first pasteurized and stored. Most of the eastern juices are red and are obtained from the Labrusca varieties, generally the Concord. When the juice comes from the presses, some manufacturers strain it to remove the coarse particles and then pour it directly into well-sterilized bottles; others siphon it off the sediment in the containers in which it is stored after the first pasteurization and pour it into pasteurized bottles. In either case, the bottles are securely corked and then repasteurized. The California juices, however, both red and white, are made exclusively from Vinifera varieties. They are allowed to settle in the original containers and are siphoned out of these and carefully filtered to make them clear and bright. "The clearing of the juice is sometimes facilitated by fining or adding a small quantity of a substance which coagulates and when settling carries down with it the solid matters causing cloudiness in the liquid. Such finings may be applied at the time of the first pasteurization or just before the final filtration and bottling. In the latter case the juice is drawn off the settlings in containers, the finings are added, and the juice again pasteurized into other receptacles. When it clears, it is either bottled directly or first passed through a filter, drawn into carefully sterilized bottles, securely corked, and then repasteurized. Care must be taken that the final sterilization is not at a higher temperature than the previous one; otherwise, solid matter may be precipitated and the must clouded again. "A simple and efficient form of sterilizer consists of a wooden trough provided with a wooden grating which is raised 2 inches from the bottom and on which rest the filled bottles in wire baskets. The trough contains enough water to submerge the bottles and is kept at a temperature of 185° F. by means of a steam coil beneath the grating. It requires about 15 minutes for the must at the bottom of the bottles to reach that temperature; for packages of other sizes it is necessary to make a test with a thermometer in order to determine how long it takes for the entire contents to reach 185°. "To prevent the corks from being expelled during sterilization, they are either tied down with a strong twine or with some contrivance such as the cork holder. In order that mold germs may not enter the must through the corks, especially if a poor quality of cork is used, the necks of the corked bottles are dipped in heated paraffin before putting on the caps, or the corks are sealed down with sealing wax. It is also well to keep the bottles on their rider to prevent the corks drying out." _Home methods of making grape-juice._ The principles involved in making grape-juice in the home are the same as those used in canning. The grapes may be crushed by hand or in mills similar or identical with the small cider-mills owned by many farmers. In making a light-colored juice, the crushed grapes are put in a cloth sack and hung up to drain, or the filled sack may be twisted by two persons until the greater part of the juice is expressed. The juice is then sterilized in a double-boiler by heating it at a temperature of 180° to 200° F., care being taken that the thermometer never goes above 200°. The sterilized juice is now poured into a glass or enameled vessel to stand for twenty-four hours, after which it is drained from the sediment and strained through several thicknesses of clean flannel. The juice is now put in clean bottles preparatory to a second sterilization, care being taken that at least an inch of space is left at the top for the liquid to expand when heated. The second sterilization may be conducted in a wash-boiler or similar receptacle. The filled bottles must not rest on the bottom of the boiler but should be separated from it with a thin board. The boiler is filled with water up to within an inch of the tops of the bottles and heated until the water begins to boil. The bottles should then be taken out and corked immediately, using only new corks. After corking, the bottles are further sealed by dipping the corks in melted paraffin. A cheap corking machine is a great convenience in this work, and in any case the corks should be soaked for at least a half hour in warm but not boiling water. The process varies somewhat in the making of red grape-juice. The crushed grapes are heated to a temperature of 200° F., and are then strained through a drip bag without pressure, after which the liquid is set away in glass or enamel vessels to settle for twenty-four hours. Except for this difference in the preliminary treatment of the juice, the methods are the same in making the red or the light-colored product. For proper keeping it is not necessary to let the juice settle after it is strained, but a clearer and brighter product is obtained if the juice is permitted to settle. In either case the grape-juice should keep indefinitely if the work has been well done. As soon as bottles are opened, fermentation begins with the formation of alcohol. RAISINS The grape is best conserved as a raisin. Canning is seldom practiced with this fruit. A raisin is a dried grape. Tree-fruits are evaporated as by-products, but the raisin is a primary product. This is a difference worth noting; for with tree-fruits the cream of the crop goes to the fresh fruit market, while with the grape the entire crop of raisin varieties may go into the cured product. The raisin industry is dependent on a sunny and rainless climate and hence in America is confined to the grape regions of certain parts of California. In this state, raisin-making is a rich resource of the grape-grower, the annual output now averaging well above 200,000 pounds, grown on 120,000 acres of land, and having a market value of $10,000,000. Fresno County, California, produces nearly 60 per cent of the output of the state and the city of Fresno is the center of the industry. The raisin industry does not stand alone in California, as some raisin grapes, notably Muscat of Alexandria, are good dessert sorts and are also much used for wine and brandy. Only the first crop of the variety named is used for raisins, while practically all of the second crop each season is made into wine and brandy. Raisins proper are mostly made from the Muscat of Alexandria, although other large, white, sweet grapes are sometimes used. Sultana raisins, naturally seedless, are made from Sultanina and the Sultana. The dried currants of commerce are made from grapes, and of these California produces small quantities from White Corinth. The following account of raisin-making is given by Husmann:[20] "In the raisin districts grapes are ripe by the middle of August, the season often lasting into November. The average time necessary for drying and curing a tray of raisins is about three weeks, depending on the weather, the earliest picked grapes drying in ten days and the later ones often taking four weeks or more. "The method of drying is very simple. The bunches are cut from the vines and placed in shallow trays 2 feet wide, 3 feet long, and 1 inch high on which the grapes are allowed to sun-dry, being turned from time to time by simply placing an empty tray upside down on the full one and then turning both over and taking off the top tray. After the raisins are dried they are stored away until they are packed and prepared for shipment. Some of the larger growers, in order not to run so much risk in drying on account of rain, and also to enable them to handle the crop fast enough, have curing houses, where the curing is finished after having been partially done outside." _Dipping and scalding raisins._ "The operation of dipping and scalding is designed to accomplish several purposes, namely, to cleanse the fruit, to hasten its drying, and to give the dried fruit a lighter color. In dipping and drying, the fruit, immediately after being cut from the vines, is either dipped in clear water to first rinse it of particles of dust and other foreign matter, or it is taken direct to the scalder and immersed in a boiling alkaline mixture called 'legia' (lye) until the grapes show an almost imperceptible cracking of the skin, the operation consuming perhaps from one-fourth to one-half of a minute. This dipping calls for skill on the part of the operator, the duration of the emersion depending on the strength and temperature of the mixture and the condition of the fruit. Desiccation follows the scalding process, which is accomplished on trays in the sun, the same as undipped raisins cured entirely by solar heat. On account of the scald they cure rapidly, and the fruit is also often of lighter color when cured. "The following formula has been used for Sultana and Sultanina grapes at Fresno: "Fifteen pounds of 'Greenbank's 98-per cent lye' are boiled in 100 gallons of water. This mixture is for grapes containing 25 per cent of sugar. Should their sugar content be less, enough lye is added to remove the bloom and open the pores of the skin of the grapes. After dipping, the grapes are spread on trays and sulphured for 1 to 1-1/2 hours. Observation will show whether it may be necessary to vary this formula a trifle to suit conditions of ripeness and influence of temperature. The length of time required for dipping is ascertained by experience, and differs with the strength of the lye, the heat of the solution, and the thickness of the skins of the grapes." _Packing raisins._ "The raisins as received at the packing house are weighed and the loose raisins and those that are to be shipped as dried grapes are immediately run through a stemmer and grader which stems, cleans, and assorts the raisins into three or four different grades, after which they are packed and shipped to various parts of the country, some also being exported. Those producing cluster or layer raisins (if they have not already been equalized) are first stored in the equalizing rooms. In these rooms the sweat boxes, filled with layers of new raisins, are stacked and left usually from 10 to 30 days, or long enough for the overdried berries to absorb moisture from the under-dried ones. This sweating also properly softens and toughens the stems, which prevents their breaking and enables them to hold the berries better. In California, where the climate is so dry, no first class pack could be made without thus first equalizing the raisins. After having been equalized the raisins are taken out, assorted into the different grades, and placed in trays holding 5 pounds each. The trays of the same grades are then pressed and stacked away in piles ready for packing. "Pressing the raisins so that they look well and so none are burst open is work requiring experience and good judgment. It takes four pressed trays to fill a 20-pound box. The loose raisins that have dropped from the cluster through handling before they were equalized are also graded, the largest, of course, making the choicest pack." _Classes of raisins._ "Previous to the consolidated organization of the packers the three best grades of raisins on the stems were known as 'Imperial,' 'Dehesia,' and 'Fancy Clusters,' respectively. The California Raisin Growers Association established classification and grades similar to those of the Spanish raisin packers, on which the French trade names are also based. The original Spanish, as well as English terms with which they correspond, and the different grades in descending order of quality are shown in the following table: ========================================================================= SPANISH TERMS|FRENCH TERMS |ENGLISH TERMS |CALIFORNIA TERMS -------------+---------------+----------------------+-------------------- Imperial |Imperiaux Extra|Extra Imperial Cluster|Six-Crown Cluster Imperial Bajo|Imperiaux |Imperial Cluster |Five-Crown Cluster Royan Bajo |Royaux |Royal Cluster |Four-Crown Cluster Cuarta (4a) |Surchoix Extra |Choicest |Three-Crown Cluster Quinta (5a) |Choix Extra |Choice Cluster |Two-Crown Cluster ========================================================================= "The grading is optical, as a result of experience, there being no linear or cubic measurement standard. Thus, a nice cluster with all berries of large size, would be a 'Six-Crown Cluster,' such being the very finest raisins on the stem. 'Five-Crown Clusters' were formerly the 'Dehesia' cluster, and 'Four-Crown Clusters' were formerly 'Fancy Clusters.' Grades less than 'Four-Crown' on the stems (the 'Three-Crown' and 'Two-Crown') are known as 'Layers,' or 'London Layers.' These are placed in boxes containing 20 pounds net; in half boxes of 10 pounds; and quarter boxes of 5 pounds; and in fancy boxes containing 2-1/2 pounds. Loose raisins, or raisins off the stem, are graded into Two-Crown, Three-Crown, and Four-Crown raisins by being run through screens the meshes of which are thirteen thirty-seconds, seventeen thirty-seconds, and twenty-two thirty-seconds of an inch in size, respectively. The Sultanina (erroneously called Thompson Seedless), and the Sultana are packed in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the case." _Seeded raisins._ "The invention of a raisin-seeding machine by George E. Pettit in the early seventies, and its use, has had a wonderful effect on the industry. "Seeded raisins were first put on the market by the late Col. William Forsythe, of Fresno, Cal., who at first found it very difficult to dispose of 20 tons. The output in the last 15 years has increased from 700 tons to 50,000 tons per annum, and their popularity is constantly increasing. In 1900 about 14,000 tons were placed on the market, in 1905 about 21,000 tons, in 1910 about 31,000 tons, and in 1913 about 49,000 tons. The seeding machines in present use can turn out 300 tons per day. Seeded raisins are now the most important branch of the raisin industry. "A brief outline of how seeded raisins are prepared will prove interesting. The raisins are first exposed to a dry temperature of 140° F. for three to five hours, after which they are put through a chilling process so that the pedicels can be easily removed, and are then thoroughly cleansed by being passed through cleaning machines. They are then taken by automatic carriers to another room, spread out on trays, and exposed to a moist temperature of 130° F. to bring them back to their normal condition. The raisins pass to the seeding machine, where they are carried between rubber-faced rollers and the impaling device of the seeding machine which catches the seeds and removes them from the fruits as they are flattened between the surfaces of the rollers. The impaled seeds are removed from the roller by a whisking device in such a way as to be caught in a separate receptacle. The seeded raisins pass through chutes to the packing tables on the floor below. "The seeded or loose raisins are packed in 50-pound boxes; in 1-pound cartons, 36 to the case; in 12-ounce cartons, 45 to the case; and some in bulk in 25-pound boxes. "Information has recently been sent out to the effect that the California Associated Raisin Co. is arranging to do away with the grades in seeded raisins, so there will only be one grade. This contemplates using all of the Three-Crown, the smallest of the Four-Crown, and the best of the Two-Crown in one blended grade. "From the seeds, formerly used as a fuel, a number of by-products are now made. "The seeds and pedicels removed from the raisins in seeding vary from 10 to 12 per cent of the original weight of the raisins according to their conditions and quality. "The grading, seeding, facing, and packing have become separate branches of the industry, and the work is nearly all done by especially trained women, who have become experts at it. The establishments in which this work is done furnish employment for over 5000 persons. The aggregate pay roll each month during the season is between $200,000 and $350,000." GRAPE-VINEGAR A very good vinegar can be made from grapes, although as yet this outlet for over-production is not largely utilized in America. Grapes which are unsuitable for raisins, dessert, wine-making or grape-juice can be used for vinegar-making. Under the most favorable conditions, grape-vinegar cannot compete in cheapness with vinegar made from numerous other products and must, therefore, always sell at a high price. Indeed, it is doubtful whether a high-grade grape-vinegar can be manufactured at a less price than good wine. The production of grape-vinegar requires as much care, but possibly not as much expert knowledge, as the making of wine. Unlike the latter, however, the vinegar can be produced on a small scale for domestic purposes by any one possessing a knowledge of wine-making or vinegar-making. Grape-vinegar may be manufactured from either white or red grapes, although that from white grapes is generally preferred. It may be made either directly from grapes or from wine, the acetifying process being the same for both. There are, therefore, two distinct stages in the manufacture of this product. First, there must be alcoholic fermentation by which the sugar in the grape is changed into alcohol with the escape of carbonic acid gas. Second, acetic fermentation must follow the alcoholic fermentation by which the alcohol is changed into acetic acid. BY-PRODUCTS OF GRAPE INDUSTRIES There are several valuable by-products in the wine-making and grape-juice industries, and even raisin-making yields a by-product in the seeds taken from the raisins. The utilization of these wastes has been rendered profitable in Europe, and there is no reason why by-products should not yield considerable profit in America, as a few already do. Good authorities state that if all the wastes of the grape crop could be utilized the value of the crop would be increased over 10 per cent. _Pomace._ The pomace or marc, the residue left after grape pressing, is the most valuable of the by-products of the wine and grape-juice manufacturers. If the pomace is permitted to ferment, and afterwards is distilled, a product called pomace-brandy is made. Unscrupulous wine-makers often add water and sugar to pomace, after which it is refermented and the resulting product is sold as wine. Notwithstanding the fact that the word "wine" as applied to this product is a misnomer, the total amount of such wine made and consumed in America is large. Piquette is another product in which the pomace is put into fermenting vats, sprinkled with water and the liquid after a time is drawn off, carrying with it the wine contained in the pomace. This liquid is re-used in other pomace, until it is high enough in alcoholic strength, when it is distilled into "piquette" or "wash." In Europe, the pomace from stemmed grapes is said to make a sheep and cattle food of more or less value when salted slightly and stored in silos. The pomace is also oftentimes used as a manure, for which it has considerable to recommend it, being rich in potash and nitrogen. Acetic acid is made from pomace by drying it in vapor-tight rooms, during which process 50 to 60 per cent of the weight of the pomace becomes vapor, and this, condensed, yields considerable quantities of acetic acid. _Cream-of-tartar._ The lees of wine, the sediment which settles in the casks in which new wine or grape-juice is stored, form a grayish or reddish crust on the inside of the receptacle. This is the argol or wine-stone of the wine-maker, and from it is made cream-of-tartar, an article considerably used in medicine, the arts and for culinary purposes. From 20 to 70 per cent of the lees consist of either cream-of-tartar, or of calcium tartrate, the latter also having commercial value. Red wines are much richer in argol than white wines. A ton of grapes yields from one to two pounds of argol. This product becomes a source of considerable profit in large wineries and in grape-juice manufacturing plants. _Seeds._ In Europe, the seeds are separated from the pomace and used in various ways. They are also utilized to a smaller extent in America, especially when separated from raisins. The seeds are used as food for horses, cattle and poultry, for which they are said to have considerable value. If crushed and ground, the seeds yield a clear yellow oil which burns without smoke or smell and which may also be employed as a substitute for olive oil. A ton of grapes yields from forty to one hundred pounds of seeds from which may be made from three to sixteen pounds of oil. This oil is also used as a substitute for linseed oil and in soap-making. Besides oil, the seeds yield tannin. After the oil and tannin have been taken from the seeds, there remains a meal which may still be utilized as a stock food or as a fertilizer. DOMESTIC USES FOR GRAPES At present, when food conservation is being emphasized everywhere, mention of the domestic use for grapes is particularly appropriate. The country over, no fruit is more generally grown than the grape; yet grape products are not as common for home use as those of several other fruits, although many attractive and appetizing preserves can be made from grapes without the use of large quantities of sugar, spices or other ingredients. Few housekeepers realize the high quality and the cheapness of the products that can be made from the grape. Thus, grape-juice, jelly, jam, marmalade, grape-butter, catsup, spiced grapes, canned grapes, conserves in which grapes are used, preserves and mince-meat are among the desirable culinary products easily and cheaply prepared from home-grown grapes or those bought in the market. Only simple domestic utensils are needed in the preparation of any of these products. Grape-sirup is less easily produced, yet can be made in any home without the addition of sugar. It is not only a good table sirup, but is a most useful sugar substitute for the preparation of other culinary products. The Muscadine grapes in the South, to be purchased by almost every householder in southeastern United States, in particular, are useful for these domestic products. Recipes for all of these products can be found in cook books, and one or two bulletins and circulars from the United States Department of Agriculture give recipes for preparing grapes for domestic purposes. Farmers' Bulletin 859 entitled _Home Uses for Muscadine Grapes_ is a particularly valuable publication on this subject. It is interesting to note that several large manufacturers of grape-juice are putting on the market grape jams, jellies and marmalades. It would seem that these delicious and wholesome products would find a ready sale in the markets of the country, and that their manufacture would prove profitable to the maker and to the grape-grower. The greater the use of grapes for their products, the better the grower can breast the blows of unfavorable markets and over-production. [Illustration: PLATE XX.--Isabella (×2/3).] CHAPTER XV GRAPE-BREEDING Chance, pure and simple, has been the greatest factor in the production of varieties of American grapes. From the millions of wild plants, an occasional grape of pre-eminent merit has caught the eye of the cultivator and has been brought into the vineyard to be the progenitor of a new variety. Or in the vineyards, more often in near-by waste lands, from the prodigious number of seedlings that spring up, pure or cross-bred, a plant of merit becomes the foundation of a new variety. An interesting fact in the domestication of the four chief species of American grapes is that none came under cultivation until forms of them, striking in value, had been found. Catawba, representing the Labrusca grapes; the Scuppernong, the Rotundifolias; Norton, from _Vitis æstivalis_; Delaware and Herbemont from the Bourquiniana grapes; and Clinton from _Vitis vulpina_, are, after a century, scarcely excelled, although in each species there are now many new varieties. That our best grapes have come from chance is not because of a lack of human effort to produce superior varieties. Of all fruits, the grape has received most attention in America from the generation of plant-breeders just passing. Grape-breeders have produced 2000 or more varieties, a medley of the heterogeneous characters of a dozen species. That so many of this vast number are worthless is due more to a lack of knowledge of plant-breeding than to a lack of effort, for the order and system in plant-breeding that now prevail, disclosed by recent brilliant discoveries, were unknown to grape-breeders of the last century. GRAPE HYBRIDS As early as 1822, Nuttall, a noted botanist, then at Harvard, recommended "hybrids betwixt the European vine and those of the United States which would better answer the variable climates of North America." In 1830, William Robert Prince, Fig. 48, fourth proprietor of the then famous Linnean Botanic Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, grew 10,000 seedling grapes "from admixture under every variety of circumstance." This was probably the first attempt on a large scale to improve the native grapes by hybridizing, although little seems to have come of it. Later, a Dr. Valk, also of Flushing, grew hybrids from which he obtained Ada, the first named hybrid, the introduction of which started hybridizers to work in all parts of the country where grapes were grown. [Illustration: FIG. 48. William Robert Prince.] Soon after Valk's hybrid was sent out, E. S. Rogers, Fig. 49, Salem, Massachusetts, and J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, began to give viticulturists hybrids of the European Vinifera and the American species which were so promising that enthusiasm and speculation in grape-growing ran riot. Never before nor since has grape-growing received the attention in America as given during the introduction of Rogers' hybrids. It was the expectation of all that we were to grow in America, in these hybrids, grapes but little inferior, if at all, to those of Europe. A statement of the difference between European and American grapes shows why American viticulturists have been so eager to grow either pure-breds from the foreign grape or hybrids with it. [Illustration: FIG. 49. E. S. Rogers.] European grapes have a higher sugar-and-solid content than the American species; they, therefore, make better wines and keep much longer after harvesting and can be made into raisins. Also, they have a greater variety of flavors, which are more delicate, yet richer, with a pleasanter aroma, seldom so acid, and are always lacking the disagreeable, rancid odor and taste, the "foxiness," of many American varieties. There is, however, an unpleasant astringency in some of the foreign grapes, and many varieties are without character of flavor. American table-grapes, on the other hand, are more refreshing, the unfermented juice makes a pleasanter drink, and lacking sweetness and richness, they do not cloy the appetite so quickly. The bunches and berries of the European grapes are larger, more attractive and are borne in greater quantities. The pulp, seeds and skins are somewhat objectionable in all of the native species and scarcely so at all in the Old World sorts. The berries of the native grapes shell from the stem so quickly that the bunches do not ship well. The vines of the Old World grapes are more compact in habit and require less pruning and training than do those of the native grapes; and, as a species, probably through long cultivation, they are adapted to more kinds of soil, to greater differences in environment and are more easily propagated than the American species. Because of these points of superiority in the Old World grape, since Valk, Allen and Rogers showed the way, American grape-breeders have sought to unite by hybridization the good characters of the Old World grape with those of the American. Nearly half of the 2000 grapes cultivated in eastern America have more or less European blood in them. Yet, despite the efforts of the breeders, few of these hybrids have commercial value. Whether because they are naturally better fixed, or long cultivation has more firmly established them, the vine characters of _Vitis vinifera_ more often appear in varieties arising as primary hybrids between that and the native species, and the weaknesses of the foreign grape, which prevent their cultivation in America, crop out. Hybrids in which the vinifera blood is more attenuated, as secondary or tertiary crosses, give better results. Several secondary hybrids now rank among the best of the cultivated grapes. Examples are Brighton and Diamond. The first is a cross between Diana-Hamburg, a hybrid of a Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed in its turn with Concord, a Labrusca; the second is a cross between Iona, also a hybrid between a Vinifera and a Labrusca, crossed with Concord. Both were grown from seed planted by Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, in 1870. Brighton was the first secondary hybrid to attract the attention of grape-breeders, and its advent marked an important step in breeding grapes. The signal success achieved by hybridizers of the European grape with native species quickly led to similar amalgamations among American species. Jacob Rommel, of Morrison, Missouri, beginning work about 1860, hybridized Labrusca and Vulpina grapes so successfully that a dozen or more of his varieties are still cultivated. All are characterized by great vigor and productiveness; and, although they lack the qualities which make good table-grapes, they are among the best for wine-making. Rommel has had many followers in hybridizing native species, chief of whom was the late T. V. Munson, Fig. 50, Denison, Texas, who literally made every combination of grapes possible, grew thousands of seedlings and produced many valuable varieties. [Illustration: FIG. 50. T. V. Munson.] _Improvement by selection._ Selection, continued through successive generations, so important in the improvement of field and garden plants, has played but small part in the domestication of the grape. The period between planting and fruiting is so long that progress would be slow indeed were this method relied on. Moreover, selection, as a method in breeding, is possible only when plants are bred pure, and it is the experience of grape-breeders that in pure breeding this fruit loses in vigor and productiveness and that the variations are exceedingly slight and unstable. Many pure-bred grapes have been raised on the grounds of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station under the eyes of the writer, of which very few have surpassed the parent or have shown promise for the practice of selection. _New varieties from sports._ Bud-sports or mutations now and then arise in grapes. But not more than two or three of the 2000 varieties now under cultivation are suspected of having arisen in this way. It is true that mutations seem to occur rather often in grapes, but they are easily confused with variations due to environment and are usually too vague to lay hands on. Until the causes of these mutations are known and until they can be produced and controlled, but little can be hoped for in the amelioration of grapes through mutations. HYBRIDIZING THE GRAPE Hybridization has been the chief means of improving the grape. At present, from what is being accomplished by many workers, it looks as if it will long continue to be the best means of improving this fruit. Since the grape-grower must depend on new varieties for progress, as old varieties cannot be changed, it should be the ambition of growers to produce varieties better than those we now have. Many amateur and professional grape-growers in the past have found breeding grapes a pleasing and profitable hobby, so that much knowledge has accumulated in regard to manipulating the plants in hybridization, and the results that follow in the offspring of hybridization. _How to hybridize._ It is assumed that the reader is familiar with the botany of flowers and the essential principles in crossing plants. If he is not, he must carefully study the structure of flowers, especially those of the grape, so as to be able to distinguish the different organs and to discover when the pollen and stigma are ready for the work of pollination. He should, also, read any one of several current books on plant-breeding. The first task in crossing grapes is to remove the anthers before the flower opens, a process known as emasculation. This is necessary to prevent self-pollination. This first operation having been performed, the cluster of grape-flowers must be tied securely in a bag to protect it from foreign pollen which otherwise would surely be carried to the stigma by insects. As soon as the stigma is ready to receive the pollen, the bag is removed and pollen from the male parent is applied, after which the bag is again put on the flower to remain until the grapes are well set. By examining the stigmas in the flowers of uncovered grapes, the operator can tell approximately whether the covered stigma is ready to receive pollen. The time required after covering depends, of course, on the age of the bud when emasculation takes place. It is, by the way, best to delay emasculation until just before the flowers open, but one must be certain that the anthers have not discharged their pollen before the flower has been emasculated. Emasculation is a simple operation. The essential organs of the grape-flower are covered by a small cap; this in some grapes must be removed before the anthers can be reached. In many native grapes, however, the cap and the anthers may be removed at one stroke by the operator. The best tool for this is a small pair of forceps. Each of the blades of the forceps in working with native grapes should have a sharp cutting surface, but with Vinifera sorts, where the cap must be removed before the anthers can be reached, forcep blades with a flat surface are best. There is, of course, some danger when the buds are well developed that the pollen may be squeezed out and so reach the stigma or adhere to the instrument and thus contaminate future crosses. The first danger must be avoided carefully by the skill of the operator, while the second is easily overcome by sterilizing the forceps in alcohol. An effort should be made to fertilize as many of the flowers in the cluster as possible, but success is not always certain; when there is doubt, the uncertain flower should be removed from the cluster. The flower from which the pollen is to be taken must be protected from wind and insects; otherwise pollen from another flower may be left on it. Protection should be given by tying the flowers in a bag while still in bud. There are various ways of obtaining pollen from ripe anthers and applying it to the stigma of the flowers to be crossed. The simplest is to crush the anthers, thus squeezing out the pollen, after which, with a brush, scalpel or other instrument, it may be placed upon the stigma. A brush is very wasteful of pollen and often becomes a source of contamination to future crosses, so that the scalpel is the better implement of the two. When pollen is plentiful, as will usually be the case when a man is working with vines in his own vineyard, by far the best method is to take the cluster from the male vine and apply the pollen directly to the stigma of the flower to be crossed, thereby making certain of fresh pollen and an abundance of it. The stigma, if pollen suffice, should be covered with pollen. Grape pollen does not keep well and an effort should be made to have it as fresh as possible. The work of pollination is best performed in bright, sunny weather when the pollen is very dry. As may be seen from the foregoing statements, tools and methods are of less importance than care in doing the work. The only tool absolutely necessary is a pair of forceps, although a hand-lens is often helpful. Bags for covering the flowers should be just large enough and no larger. A bag to cover the pollen-producing flower may well be an ordinary manilla bag sufficiently large to amply cover the flower-cluster. It is helpful, however, to have a light transparent oiled bag through which one can see the condition of the anthers. It is desirable that the bag for the female flower be permitted to remain until the fruits ripen as a protection against birds and fungi. It must, therefore, be of larger size. While the bags are still flat, a hole is made near the opening through which a string is passed which can be tied when the upper end of the bag is squeezed about the cluster. _Choosing the parents._ Very much depends on the immediate parentage in hybridizing grapes. Some varieties when crossed produce much higher averages of worthy offspring than others. There is so much difference in varieties in this respect that to discover parents so endowed should be the first task of the grape-breeder. Fortunately, considerable work has been done by several experiment stations in breeding grapes, and their accumulated knowledge, together with that from such workers as Rogers, Ricketts, Campbell and Munson, furnishes beginners with good starting points. There is no way possible of discovering what the best progenitors are except by records of performance. Very often varieties of high cultural value are worthless in breeding because their characters seem not to be transmitted to their progeny and, to the contrary, a good-for-nothing variety in the vineyard is often valuable in breeding. From present knowledge it does not appear that new characters are introduced in plants by hybridizing. A new variety originating from hybridization is but a recombination of the characters of the parents; the combination is new but the characters are not. Thus, one parent of a hybridized grape may contribute color, size, flavor and practically all the characters of the fruit, while the other parent may contribute vigor, hardiness, resistance to disease and the characters of the vine. Or these and other characters in the make-up of a new grape may be intermingled in any mathematical way possible. The grape-breeder must make certain that one or the other of the parents possesses the particular characters he desires in his new grape. It is now known that the characters of the grape, in common with those of other plants, are inherited in accordance with certain laws discovered by Mendel. The early workers in grape-breeding did not know of these laws and could not take aim in the work they were doing. Consequently, hybridization was a maze in which these breeders often lost themselves. Mendel's discoveries, however, assure a regularity of averages and give a definiteness and constancy of action which enable the grape-breeder to attain with fair certainty what he wants if he keeps patiently at his task. The grape-breeder should inform himself as to what Mendel's laws are, and on the work that has been done on the inheritance of characters of the grape. A technical bulletin published by the State Experiment Station at Geneva, New York, and another from the North Carolina Station at Raleigh give much information on the inheritance of characters in certain grapes, and further information can be secured by applying to the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington for literature on the subject. The grape-breeder can hope to progress only by making many combinations between different varieties and growing large numbers of seedlings. He should extend his work to all varieties which show promise in the breeding of grapes for the particular purpose he has in mind. The seed may be saved and planted as directed in the chapter on propagation. Unless he desires to make scientific interpretations of his results, weak seedlings should be discarded the first year, and a second discard may be made before the young plants go in the vineyard. The breeder will soon discover that he can tell fairly well from the character of the seedlings whether they are of sufficient promise to keep. Thus, if the number of leaves is small or if the leaves themselves are small, the vine is of doubtful value; if the internodes are exceedingly long, the prospect is poor; slenderness of cane, if accentuated, does not promise well; on the other hand, great stoutness and very short internodes are not desirable indications. Through these and other signs, the breeder will come quickly to know which vines should eventually go to the vineyard. RESULTS OF GRAPE-BREEDING There are now 2000 or more varieties of grapes of American origin, all produced within approximately a century. It is doubtful whether any other cultivated plant at any time in the history of the world has attained such importance in so short a time from the wild state as American grapes. It would seem that almost every possible combination between species worth considering has been made. Through hybridization, species and varieties have become so mixed that the grape-breeder cannot now work intelligently with these gross forms and must work with characters rather than with species and varieties which are but combinations of characters. Great progress, it is true, has been made in the past in breeding grapes in America, but the work has been wholly empirical and extremely wasteful. Many varieties have been called, but few have been chosen. With the new knowledge of breeding and with the experience of past workers, progress should be made with greater certainty. From what has been done and from work now under way, it is not too much to say that we shall soon be growing grapes everywhere in America, and kinds so diverse that they will meet not only all purposes to which grapes are now put, but also the demand for better grapes made by more critical consumers. [Illustration: PLATE XXI.--Jefferson (×3/5).] CHAPTER XVI MISCELLANIES There yet remain several phases of grape-culture essential to success, none of which quite deserves a chapter and none of which properly falls into any of the foregoing chapters. The subjects are not closely related, are by no means of equal importance, yet all are too important to be relegated to the limbo of an appendix and are, therefore, thrown into a chapter of miscellanies. CROSS-POLLINATION The blooming of the vine had little significance to the grape-grower, the blooming period being so late that grapes are seldom caught by frost, until the discovery was made that many varieties of grapes are unable to fertilize themselves, and that failure of crops of these varieties was often due to the self-sterility of the variety. Until this discovery, the uncertainty attending the setting of the grape in these varieties was one of the discouragements of grape-growing. Following investigations of the self-sterility of the tree-fruits, an investigation of the grape showed that the vines of this fruit are often self-sterile. This knowledge has in some degree modified the planting of all home collections and has more or less affected the plantings of commercial sorts. Varieties of American grapes show most remarkable differences in the degree of self-fertility. Many sorts fruit perfectly without cross-pollination. Others set no fruit whatsoever if cross-pollination is not provided for. Most varieties, however, are found in groups between the two extremes, neither self-fertile nor self-sterile. Figure 51 shows staminate and perfect clusters on one vine. Some varieties show no variation in the degree of self-sterility or self-fertility; others behave differently in regard to these characters under different environment. Now and then the widest variations are to be found in a variety in respect to self-fertility. [Illustration: FIG. 51. Staminate and perfect clusters on one vine; _right_, staminate; _left_, perfect.] Following the lead of Beach at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, several workers have made careful studies of the self-fertility of the grape, and now the cultivated varieties of native grapes are divided into four groups in accordance with the degree of self-fertility. Class I includes self-fertile varieties having perfect or nearly perfect clusters; Class II includes self-fertile varieties having clusters loose but marketable; Class III includes varieties which are so imperfectly self-fertile that the clusters are generally too loose to be marketable; Class IV includes self-sterile varieties. The following is a list of commonly cultivated grapes classified according to the divisions just given: CLASSIFICATION OF GRAPES ACCORDING TO SELF-FERTILITY CLASS I. Clusters perfect or varying from perfect to somewhat loose. Berckmans Bertha Cottage Croton Delaware Diana Etta Janesville Lady Washington Lutie Moore Early Poughkeepsie Pocklington Prentiss Rochester Senasqua Winchell CLASS II. Clusters marketable; moderately compact or loose. Agawam Brilliant Brown Catawba Champion Chautauqua Clinton Colerain Concord Dutchess Early Victor Elvira Empire State Fern Munson Hartford Iona Isabella Isabella Seedling Jefferson Jessica Lady Mills Missouri Riesling Perkins Rommel Triumph Ulster CLASS III. Clusters unmarketable. Brighton Canada Dracut Amber Eumelan Geneva Hayes Lindley Noah Northern Muscadine Vergennes CLASS IV. Self-sterile. No fruit develops on covered clusters. America Aminia Barry Black Eagle Clevener Creveling Eldorado Faith (?) Gaertner Grein Golden Hercules Jewel Massasoit Maxatawney (?) Merrimac Montefiore Requa Salem Wyoming In the main, the cause of infertility, as with other fruits, is the impotency of pollen on the pistils of the same variety. There are a few cases in which pollen does not seem to be formed abundantly, but these are very few. There are a few cases, also, in which the pistil does not become receptive until after the pollen has lost its vitality; these, however, are very few. In a greater number of cases the pollen is found defective. However, dismissing all of these as the exception, the rule is that self-sterility is due, as has been said, to the lack of affinity between pollen and pistils produced on the vines of some varieties. Nature is helpful to the grape-grower in giving a guide to self-fertility. The length of stamens is a fairly safe indication of self-fertility. All grapes which are self-fertile bear flowers with long stamens, although the latter are not a sure sign of self-fertility, as a few varieties with long stamens are self-sterile. On the other hand, short or recurved stamens are always associated with complete or nearly complete self-sterility. The remedy for self-sterility is inter-planting. Only the varieties named in Classes I and II in the foregoing classification should be planted alone. The sorts named in Classes III and IV must be planted near other sorts which bloom at the same time in order that their flowers may be cross-pollinated. It is evident that the grape-grower must have some knowledge of the relative time that grapes bloom, if he is to plant intelligently to secure cross-pollination. The following table, taken from Bulletin 407 of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, shows the blooming time of grapes at that Station. Variations due to location and season must be expected, but within the bounds of the regions in which these grapes are grown variations will be slight. When this table is used for other regions than New York, it must be borne in mind that the farther south, the longer the blooming season; the farther north, the shorter the season. _Blooming dates of grapes._ From three years' records, the average length of blooming season for grapes was twenty days, nineteen days in 1912 and 1914 and twenty-two days in 1913. The first date in the average year of 1912 was June 14, while for 1914, it was June 7: TABLE IV.--SHOWING BLOOMING TIME OF GRAPES ===================================================================== | VERY | | MID- | | VERY | EARLY | EARLY | SEASON | LATE | LATE -------------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+--------- Agawam | | | * | | America | | | | * | August Giant | | | * | | Bacchus | * | | | | Barry | | | * | | Beacon | | | | * | Bell | | * | | | Berckmans | | * | | | Black Eagle | | | * | | Brighton | | | * | | Brilliant | | | * | | Brown | | | * | | Campbell Early | | | * | | Canada | | * | | | Canandaigua | | | * | | Carman | | | | | * Catawba | | | * | | Champion | | * | | | Chautauqua | | | * | | Clevener | * | | | | Clinton | * | | | | Colerain | | | * | | Columbian Imperial | | | * | | Concord | | | * | | Cottage | | * | | | Creveling | | | * | | Croton | | | | * | Delago | | | * | | Delaware | | | * | | Diamond | | | * | | Diana | | | * | | Downing | | | * | | Dracut Amber | | * | | | Dutchess | | | | * | Early Victor | | * | | | Eaton | | | * | | Eclipse | | | * | | Eldorado | | | * | | Elvira | | * | | | Empire State | | | * | | Etta | | | * | | Eumedel | | | * | | Eumelan | | | | * | Faith | | * | | | Fern Munson | | | | * | Gaertner | | | * | | Geneva | | | * | | Goethe | | | * | | Gold Coin | | | * | | Grein Golden | | * | | | Hartford | | | * | | Headlight | | | * | | Helen Keller | | | * | | Herbert | | | * | | Hercules | | | * | | Hicks | | | * | | Hidalgo | | | * | | Hosford | | | * | | Iona | | | | * | Isabella | | * | | | Janesville | * | | | | Jefferson | | | | | * Jessica | | * | | | Jewel | | | * | | Kensington | | * | | | King | | | * | | Lady Washington | | | | * | Lindley | | | * | | Lucile | | | * | | Lutie | | | * | | McPike | | | * | | Manito | | | | * | Martha | | | * | | Massasoit | | | * | | Maxatawney | | | * | | Merrimac | | | * | | Mills | | | * | | Missouri Riesling | | * | | | Montefiore | | | * | | Moore Early | | | * | | Moyer | | | * | | Nectar | | | * | | Niagara | | | * | | Noah | | * | | | Northern Muscadine | | * | | | Norton | | | | | * Oporto | * | | | | Ozark | | | | * | Peabody | | | * | | Perfection | | | * | | Perkins | | | * | | Pierce | | | * | | Pocklington | | | * | | Poughkeepsie | | | | * | Prentiss | | | * | | Rebecca | | | * | | Regal | | | * | | Requa | | | * | | Rochester | | | * | | Rommel | | | * | | Salem | | | * | | Secretary | | | * | | Senasqua | | | | | * Stark-Star | | | | | * Triumph | | | | | * Ulster | | * | | | Vergennes | | | * | | Winchell | | | * | | Worden | | | * | | Wyoming | | | * | | ===================================================================== RINGING GRAPE VINES The ringing of woody plants is a well-known horticultural practice. Three objects may be attained by ringing: unproductive plants may be brought into bearing by ringing; the size of the fruits may be increased and thereby the plants be made more productive; and the maturity of the fruit may be hastened. In European countries, ringing has long been practiced with all tree-fruits and the grape, but in America the operation is recommended only for the apple and the grape and with neither fruit is ringing widely practiced. Experiments carried on at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station by Paddock, as reported in Bulletin 151 from this Station, show that ringing may well be practiced by grape-growers under some conditions. Since Paddock's experiments, and possibly to some extent before, the grape has been ringed to produce exhibition fruits or a fancy product for the market. Ringing consists in taking from the vine a layer of bark around the vine through the cortex and bast of the plant. The width of the wound varies from that of a simple cut made with a knife to a band of bark an inch in diameter. The operation is performed during that period of growth in which the bark peels most readily from the vine, the period of greatest cambial activity. The term "ringing" is preferred to "girdling," a word sometimes used, since the latter properly designates a wound which extends into and usually kills the plant. The theory of ringing is simple. Unassimilated sap passes from the roots of the plant to the leaves through the outer layer of the woody cylinder. In the leaves this raw material is acted on by various agents, after which it is distributed to the several organs of the plant through vessels in the inner bark. When plants are ringed, the upward flow of sap is continued as before the operation, but the newly made food compounds cannot pass beyond the injury, and therefore the top of the plant is supplied with an extra amount of food at the expense of the parts below the ring. The extra food produces the results noted. It turns out in practice that ringing is usually harmful to the plant, as one might expect from so unnatural an operation. Injury to the plant arises from the fact that parts of the vine are starved at the expense of other parts; and because, when the bark is removed, the outer layers of the woody cylinder dry out very quickly and thus check to some extent the upward flow of sap through evaporation from the exposed wood. Thus, not infrequently, the plant's vitality is seriously drained. Nevertheless, vineyards may be found in which ringing has been extensively practiced many seasons in succession and which continue to yield profitable crops, the growers having learned to perform the work of ringing so as to injure the vines but little. Ringing without harm to the plant depends much on the way in which the vines have been pruned. For instance, if the vines are pruned to the two-arm Kniffin method, the ringing of bark should be done from both arms just beyond the fifth bud. Thus, the ten buds left on the vine produce enough leaf surface to supply the food necessary to keep the vine in vigorous condition. When the four-arm Kniffin method is used, the two top arms only are ringed, and even so three or four buds must be left on each for renewals. Whatever the method of training, it will be seen from these examples that some unringed wood must be left to the vine with which to supply leafy shoots to support the vine. Some growers ring their vines only every other year, thus giving them an opportunity to recover from whatever loss of vigor they may have sustained in the season of ringing. Several other considerations are important in ringing: First, the vines must not be permitted to carry too large a crop. Again, the amount of fruit on the ringed portion of the vine must depend on the amount of leaf surface not only of the plant but of the ringed arms, each ringed arm acting somewhat independently so far as its crop is concerned. If too many clusters are left on the ringed arms, it always follows that the fruit is inferior and often worthless. Lastly, all fruit between the rings and the trunk must be removed, for it does not mature properly and so adds only to the drain on the plant's vitality. As to the results, it is certain from the experiments that have been conducted and from the experience of grape-growers, that the maturity of the fruit is hastened, and berries and bunches are larger when the ringing has been done intelligently. Many growers hold that fruit produced on ringed vines is never quite up to the mark in quality and in firmness of fruit. There seems to be a difference in opinion about this falling off in quality, however, although unquestionably, choice sorts, as Delaware, Iona and Dutchess, suffer more or less in quality. It is commonly agreed, also, that varieties, the fruits of which crack badly, as the Worden, suffer more from cracking on ringed than on unringed vines. Experiment and experience prove that the best results of ringing are obtained if the work is done when the grapes are about one-third grown. Of course the exact time depends on the season and on the variety. The operation is variously performed and is easily done with a sharp knife, but when large vineyards are to be ringed the grower ought to provide himself with some simple tool. Paddock, in the bulletin previously mentioned, pictures two of these tools and these are reproduced in Fig. 52. [Illustration: FIG. 52. Tools used in ringing grape-vines are shown in 1 and 2; while 3 and 4 show ringed vines at the beginning and the close of the season.] In conclusion it must be said that it is doubtful whether the gains attained by ringing offset the losses. The practice is chiefly of value only when exhibition clusters of grapes are wanted or when it is necessary to hasten the maturity of the crop. Always, however, the work must be performed with intelligence and judgment or the losses will offset the gains. BAGGING GRAPES In some localities bagging is considered an essential to profitable grape-growing. The bags serve to protect the grapes against birds. In some grape regions vineyards suffer more from the depredations of robins and other birds than from all other troubles. Grapes bearing small berries and having tender pulp and those which shell most readily from the stem suffer most. Of standard sorts, Delaware is probably more enticing to robins than any other variety. There is only one way of preventing damage to grapes from birds and that is by bagging the clusters. Bagging is also an effective means of protecting the grape from several fungi and insects. In home plantations or small commercial vineyards, bagging the bunches often eliminates the necessity of spraying for fungi and for most of the insects that trouble the grape. Because of the warmth afforded by the bags, bagged grapes ripen a little earlier and are of somewhat higher quality than those not bagged. Grapes bagged are protected from early frost, thus prolonging the season. Grapes that have been protected from the elements during the summer are more attractive than those exposed to the weather, since the fruits are free from weather marks and present a fresh, bright appearance, which puts them in a grade above unbagged grapes. Bagging often enables the grower to sell his crop as a fancy product. Grapes are bagged as soon as the fruits are well set, the sooner the better if protection against fungi is one of the purposes. Under no circumstances, however, should the clusters be bagged while in blossom. A patent bag made for the purpose may be purchased or, serving equally well, the common one and one-half and two-pound manila bags used by grocers prove satisfactory. One of the patent bags which is known as the Ideal Clasp Bag has a metal clasp attached to the top for securing the bag in place over the cluster. In using the grocer's bag, before it is put in place the corners of both the top and bottom are cut off by placing several bags on a firm level surface and using a broad-shaped chisel. Cutting off the corners of the top enables the operator to close the bag neatly over the cluster, while cutting off the corners of the bottom furnishes a means of escape for any water that gets in the bag. In putting the bag in place, the top is pinned above the lateral from which the bunch hangs, and must not be fastened about the small stem of the cluster, as the wind blowing the bag almost invariably breaks the cluster from the vine. The largest pins to be purchased in dry-goods stores are used in pinning the bags. The bags remain until the grapes are picked. Wet weather does not injure bags and seemingly they grow stronger with exposure to sun and wind. The cost of the bags and the work of putting them on is no small item. To secure the best results, the work must be done at the period between the dropping of the blossoms and the formation of the seeds, when the grapes are about the size of a small pea. This is a busy time for the grape-grower, which adds to the cost. When the work is conducted on a large scale, the cost is about two dollars a thousand bags, this figure covering both the cost of bags and labor. Women do the work more expeditiously than men and soon become very skillful in putting on the bags. Despite the trouble and cost of bagging, growers seeking to produce a fancy product find that the expenditure proves profitable. WINTER-PROTECTION OF GRAPES With a little care as to winter-protection, grapes may be grown profitably in northern regions where, without protection, the vines are killed or injured by low temperatures. Indeed, it is little short of amazing how well grapes can be grown in northern regions where nature wears a most austere countenance in winter, if hardy early sorts are planted in warm soils and situations, and the vines are covered in the winter. Occasionally one finds grapes grown profitably in commercial vineyards in the northern states in regions where protection must be given to prevent winter-killing, the extra work of giving protection being more than offset by the high price received in local markets for the fruit. In all locations in which winter-protection must be given, several other precautions are helpful or even necessary. Thus, cultivation must cease early in the season, and a cover-crop be sown to help harden and mature the vines. The grapes, also, must not be planted in soils rich in nitrogen, and nitrogenous fertilizers must be applied with care. The pruning should be such as does not induce great growth. These simple precautions to hasten maturity often suffice in climates where the danger of winter-killing is but slight, but where danger is imminent the vines must be covered either by wrapping or by laying down. Wrapping with straw may suffice for a few vines, but when many vines are to be protected, laying them down is cheaper and much more effectual. By laying down is meant that the vines must be placed on the ground and there be protected by earth and snow or other covering. It is obvious that to protect thus, the vines must receive special training; otherwise the trunks may be too stiff for bending. Some method of training must be chosen in which renewals may be made rather frequently from the ground so that if the trunks become large, clumsy and unpliable, a more manageable trunk can be trained. If the provisions for renewal are kept in mind, any one of the several methods of training grapes explained in Chapter VIII on training may be used. Laying down must be preceded by pruning, after which the arms and trunk are loosened from the wires and bent to the ground. Bending is facilitated by removing a spade full of earth from the side of the vine in the direction in which the vine is to be bent. The trunk is then laid on the earth and sufficient soil placed on it to keep it in place on the ground. If the danger of winter-killing is great because of the tenderness of the variety or the austerity of the climate, it often becomes necessary to cover the whole plant lightly with earth. Small growers often make use of coarse manure, straw, corn-stalks or similar covering, in which case the vines are held on the ground by fence-rails or other timbers; but protecting with material that must be brought into the vineyard is expensive and not more satisfactory than earth. The vines can be put down at any time after the leaves drop and before the earth begins to freeze. It is more important that the vines be taken up at the proper time in the spring. If uncovered too early and cold weather follows, injury may result and more harm be done than if the vines had not been covered. On the other hand, if the earth is permitted to remain too long, foliage and vine are tender both to sunshine and frost. A grape-grower in New York who has had much experience in laying down vines in a vineyard of some thirty or forty acres says that the work may be done at a cost of $6 an acre at the average wage paid for farm-labor. It must be expected in a large plantation, no matter how well the work of covering is done, that occasionally a trunk will be broken, making it necessary to graft the vine if a shoot does not spring up from below the break. RIPENING DATES AND LENGTH OF SEASON FOR GRAPES Every grape-grower should know when his varieties may be expected to ripen and the length of season that they will keep. The commercial fruit-grower by all means should have this information. It is not sufficient that he know only roughly at what season his varieties ripen; for, to take the turn of the market, he must know exactly when a variety will ripen and how long it will keep. He needs this information, also, that he may distribute his labor better throughout the picking season. Unfortunately, the data as to ripening time given by originators and introducers of varieties are not always reliable. This untrustworthiness of data is readily accounted for in several ways: First, growers do not generally agree as to when grapes are ripe nor as to how long they are fit to eat. Again, much confusion as to when varieties ripen and how long they will keep arises from the fact that grapes ripen at different times in different places, and it is difficult for the grape-grower in Maine to make allowance in season for varieties, the time of ripening of which is given for Maryland. There are also other causes than the seasonal differences in grape regions for variability in ripening time; thus, some soils are warmer and quicker than others, and on these grapes ripen earlier. Application of nitrogenous fertilizers may delay the period of ripening somewhat. Grapes ripen perceptibly earlier on old plants than on young ones. Lastly, every vineyard in a particular region has its own particular climate caused by the lay of land, nearness to water, air currents and altitude which cause small differences in ripening. The following table taken from Bulletin No. 408 of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station gives the ripening dates of grapes at Geneva, New York. It is necessary that the reader know something about the conditions affecting the ripening time at Geneva. The latitude is 42° 50' 46". The altitude is 525 feet above sea level. The vineyard lies a mile west of a relatively large body of water. The soil is a cold heavy clay which must delay ripening time somewhat. The land is level. The data are given as an average for three seasons, 1913-1915. The figures given for "weeks in common storage" cover a variable number of years, but for all varieties three or more years. The grapes, after being picked, were at once placed in common storage in a room on the second floor of a building. There conditions were not ideal, and no doubt the season of storage would have been prolonged somewhat had the fruit been kept in a better storage-room. TABLE V.--SHOWING THE RIPENING TIME OF GRAPES ===================================================================== | WEEKS IN | | | | | | COMMON | VERY | | MID- | | VERY | STORAGE | EARLY | EARLY | SEASON | LATE | LATE -------------------+----------+-------+-------+--------+------+------ Agawam | | | | | * | America | | | * | | | Barry | 28 | | | * | | Beacon | 7 | | | * | | Bell | 8 | | * | | | Berckmans | 21 | | | * | | Black Eagle | 18 | | | * | | Brighton | 20 | | | * | | Brilliant | 11 | | | * | | Brown | 6 | | | * | | Campbell Early | 12 | | * | | | Canada | 17 | | | | * | Canandaigua | 20 | | | | * | Carman | 17 | | | * | | Catawba | 21 | | | | | * Champion | 6 | | * | | | Chautauqua | 10 | | | | * | Clevener | 13 | | | | * | Clinton | 21 | | | | | * Colerain | 8 | | | * | | Columbian Imperial | 7 | | | | * | Concord | 8 | | | * | | Cottage | 5 | | * | | | Creveling | 16 | | * | | | Croton | 23 | * | | | | Delago | 25 | | | | | * Delaware | 15 | | * | | | Diamond | 10 | | * | | | Diana | 17 | | | | | * Downing | | | | | * | Dracut Amber | 9 | | * | | | Dutchess | 23 | | | * | | Early Ohio | | * | | | | Early Victor | 11 | * | | | | Eaton | 6 | | | | * | Eclipse | 7 | * | | | | Eldorado | 17 | * | | | | Elvira | 18 | | | * | | Empire State | 24 | | | | * | Etta | 15 | | | | | * Eumelan | 17 | | * | | | Faith | 11 | | | * | | Fern Munson | 11 | | | | | * Gaertner | 17 | | | * | | Geneva | 22 | | * | | | Goethe | 18 | | | | | * Gold Coin | 10 | | | | * | Grein Golden | 12 | | | | * | Hartford | 8 | | | * | | Headlight | 8 | * | | | | Helen Keller | 26 | | | | * | Herbert | 27 | | | * | | Hercules | 13 | | | | * | Hicks | 10 | | | * | | Hidalgo | 12 | | | * | | Hosford | 6 | | | | * | Iona | 13 | | | | * | Isabella | 11 | | | * | | Janesville | 13 | | | * | | Jefferson | 18 | | | | | * Jessica | 12 | | * | | | Jewel | 12 | | * | | | Kensington | 19 | | | | * | King | | | * | | | Lady Washington | 16 | | | | * | Lindley | 27 | | | * | | Lucile | 9 | | | * | | Lutie | 4 | * | | | | McPike | 7 | | | * | | Manito | 7 | | | | * | Martha | 10 | | | * | | Massasoit | 16 | | | * | | Maxatawney | 12 | | | * | | Merrimac | 31 | | | * | | Mills | 29 | | | | * | Missouri Riesling | 6 | | | | * | Montefiore | 9 | | | * | | Moore Early | 6 | * | | | | Moyer | 9 | | * | | | Nectar | 10 | | * | | | Niagara | 10 | | * | | | Noah | 10 | | | * | | Northern Muscadine | 9 | | | * | | Norton | 7 | | | | | * Oporto | 12 | | | * | | Ozark | 11 | | | | * | Peabody | | | | | * | Perfection | 8 | | | * | | Perkins | | | | | * | Pierce | | | | | * | Pocklington | | | * | | | Poughkeepsie | 15 | | * | | | Prentiss | 16 | | | | * | Rebecca | 18 | | | * | | Regal | 16 | | | | * | Requa | 30 | | | * | | Rochester | 7 | | | * | | Rommel | 10 | | | * | | Salem | 27 | | | | * | Secretary | 25 | | | | * | Senasqua | 13 | | | | * | Stark-Star | 10 | | | | | * Triumph | 15 | | | | | * Ulster | 21 | | | | * | Vergennes | 28 | | | | * | Wilder | 11 | | | | * | Winchell | 6 | * | | | | Worden | 6 | | * | | | Wyoming | 9 | | * | | | ===================================================================== [Illustration: PLATE XXII.--Lindley (×1/2). Lucile (×1/2).] CHAPTER XVII GRAPE BOTANY The grape-grower must know the gross structure and the habits of growth of the plants properly to propagate, transplant, prune and otherwise care for the grape. Certainly he must have knowledge of the several species from which varieties come if he is to know the kinds of grapes, understand their adaptations to soils and climates, their relation to insects and fungi, and their value for table, wine, grape-juice and other purposes. Fortunately, the botany of the grape is comparatively simple. The organs of vine and fruit are distinctive and easily discerned and there are no nearly related plants cultivated for fruit with which the grape can possibly be confused. Botanists, it is true, have dug pitfalls for those who seek exact knowledge as to the names and characters of the many species, but, fortunately, each of the cultivated species constitutes a natural group so distinct that the grape-grower can hardly mistake one for another in either fruit or vine. PLANT CHARACTERS AND GROWTH HABITS OF THE GRAPE A grape plant is a complex organism with its many separate parts especially developed to do one or a few kinds of work. The part of a plant devoted to one or a group of functions is called an organ. The chief organs of the plant are the root, stem, bud, flower, leaf, fruit and seed. Flowers and leaves, it is true, develop from buds and the seeds are parts of the fruits, but for descriptive purposes the vine may well be divided into the parts named. These chief organs are further divided as follows: _The root._ _Root-crown_: The region of the plant in which root and stem unite. _Tap-root_: The prolongation of the stem plunging vertically downward. _Rootlets_: The ultimate divisions of the root; usually of one season's growth. _Root-tips_: The extreme ends of the rootlets. The roots of some species of the grape are soft and succulent as those of _V. vinifera_, while the same organs in other species, as in most American grapes, are hard and fibrous. They may also be few or numerous, deep or shallow, spreading or restricted, fibrous or non-fibrous. The structure of the root thus becomes important in distinguishing species. _The stem._ _Stem or trunk_: The unbranched main axis of the plant above ground. _Branches or arms_: Main divisions of the trunk. _Head_: The region from which branches arise. _Old wood_: Parts of the vine older than one year. _Canes_: Wood of the current season. _Spurs_: Short pieces of the bases of canes; usually one or two nodes with a bud each. _Renewal spurs_: Spurs left to bear canes the following year. _Shoots_: Newly developed succulent stems with their leaves. _Fruit-shoots_: Flower and fruit-bearing shoots. _Wood-shoots_: Shoots which bear leaves only. _Laterals_: Secondary shoots arising from main shoots. _Water sprouts_: Shoots arising from adventitious buds. _Suckers_: Shoots arising from below ground. _Nodes_: Joints in the stem from which leaves are or may be borne. _Internodes_: The part between two nodes. _Diaphragm_: The woody tissue which interrupts the pith at the node. _Bloom_: The powdery coating on the cane. _Tendril_: The coiled, thread-like organ by which the vine grasps an object and clings to it. Species of grapes have very characteristic vines. A glance at a vine enables one to tell the European grape from any of the American grapes; so, also, one is able to distinguish most of the American species by the aspect of the vine. Many varieties of any species of grape are readily told by the size and habits of the plant. Size of vine is rather more variable than other gross characters because of the influence of environment, such as food, moisture, light, isolation and pests; yet, size in a plant or the parts of a plant is a very reliable character when proper allowances are made for environment. The degree of hardiness is a very important diagnostic character in determining both species and varieties of grapes and very largely indicates their value for the vineyard. Thus, the varieties of the European grape are less hardy than the peach, while our American Labruscas and Vulpinas are as hardy as the apple. The range of varieties as to hardiness falls within that of the species, and cultivated varieties hardier than the wild grape are not found. Grapes are designated in descriptions of varieties and species as hardy, half-hardy and tender. Habit of growth varies but little with changing conditions and is thus an important means of distinguishing species and varieties and not infrequently stamps the variety as fit or unfit for the vineyard. Habit of growth gives aspect to the vine. Thus, a vine may be upright, drooping, horizontal, stocky, straggling, spreading, dense or open. The vine may grow rapidly or slowly and may be long-lived or short-lived; the trunk may be short and stocky or long and slender. These several characters largely determine whether a vine is manageable in the vineyard. Productiveness, age of bearing and regularity of bearing are distinctive characters with cultivated grapes. The care given the vine influences these characters; yet all are helpful in identifying species and varieties and all must be considered by the grape-grower. Immunity and susceptibility to diseases and insects are most valuable diagnostic characters of species and varieties of grapes. Thus, species differ widely in resistance to phylloxera, the grape-louse, to the grape leaf-hopper, the flea-beetle, berry-moth, root-worm, powdery-mildew, downy-mildew, anthracnose and other insect and fungous troubles of this fruit. The structure of the bark is an important distinguishing character for some species, but is of little importance in identifying the variety and has no economic value to the fruit-grower. In most species of grapes, the bark has distinct lenticels and on the old wood separates in long thin strips and fibers; but in two species from southeastern North America, the bark bears prominent lenticels and never shreds. Smoothness, color and thickness are other attributes of the bark to be noted. Canes of different species vary greatly in total length and in length of internodes. They vary also in size, in number and in color, while the shape in some species is quite distinctive, being in some round, in others angular and in still others flattened. The direction of growth in canes, whether sinuous, straight or zigzag, is an important character. Nodes and internodes are indicative characters in some species, being more or less prominent, angular or flattened, while the internodes are long or short. The diaphragm distinguishes several species of grapes. The cane contains a large pith and this in most species is interrupted by woody tissue, forming a diaphragm at the nodes. In the Rotundifolia grapes the diaphragm is absent, while in several other American species it is very thin and in still others quite thick. The character of the diaphragm is best observed in year-old canes. In studying the diaphragm, notice should be taken also of the pith, which is very variable in size. Young shoots of the grape offer a ready means of distinguishing species and varieties through their color and the amount and character of the pubescence. Shoots may be glabrous, pubescent or hairy and even spiny. The tendril is one of the organs most used in determining species and varieties of grapes. In some species, as _V. Labrusca_, there is a tendril or an inflorescence opposite nearly every leaf, continuous tendrils. All other species have two leaves with a tendril opposite each and a third leaf without a tendril, intermittent tendrils. To study this organ it is necessary to have vigorous, healthy, typical canes. Tendrils may be long or short, stout or slender; simple, bifurcated or trifurcated; or smooth, pubescent or warty. The number of inflorescences borne by species is an important character in some cases. All species, excepting _V. Labrusca_, average two inflorescences to a cane, but _V. Labrusca_ may bear from three to six inflorescences, each in the place of a tendril opposite the leaf. _The bud._ _Bud_: An undeveloped shoot. _Fruit-bud_: A bud in which a shoot bearing flowers originates. _Wood-bud_: A bud in which a shoot bearing only leaves originates. _Latent bud_: A bud which remains dormant for one or more seasons. _Adventitious bud_: A bud arising elsewhere than the normal position at a node. _Eye_: A compound bud. _Main bud_: The central bud of an eye. _Secondary bud_: The lateral bud of an eye. Buds of different species of grapes vary greatly in time of opening as they do somewhat in varieties, so that the time the buds begin to swell is a fine mark of distinction. The angle at which the bud stands out from the branch is of some value in determining species. Differences in color, size, shape, position and amount of pubescence of buds must all be noted in describing grapes. The scales of the buds vary more or less in size and in thickness. _The flower._ _Staminate_: Having stamens and not pistils; a male flower. _Pistillate_: Having pistils and not stamens; a female flower. _Dioecious_: Said when the stamens are on one plant and the pistils on another. _Polygamous_: Said when flowers on a plant are in part perfect (having both stamens and pistils) while others are staminate or pistillate. _Hermaphrodite_: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils. _Fertile_: Said of a flower capable of bearing seed without pollen from another flower. _Sterile_: Said of a flower without or with abortive pistils. _Perfect_: Said of a flower having both stamens and pistils. _Imperfect_: Said of a flower wanting either stamens or pistils. _Peduncle_: The stalk of a flower-cluster. _Pedicel_: The stalk of each particular flower. The time of bloom is an easy mark of distinction between several species of grapes and helps to distinguish varieties in a species as well. Most species of grapes bear fertile flowers on one vine and sterile flowers on another and are, therefore, polygamous-dioecious. Sterile vines bear male flowers with abortive pistils so that, while they never produce fruits themselves, they usually assist in fertilizing others. Fertile flowers are capable of ripening fruits without cross-pollination. Vines with female flowers only are seldom found. In most species of the grape, plants with sterile flowers and those with complete flowers are found mixed in the wild state, but usually only the fertile plants have been selected for cultivation. Plants raised from seeds of any of the species, however, furnish many sterile vines. [Illustration: FIG. 53. The grape flower. I. Opening bud showing the way in which the cap becomes loosened at the base. II. Diagrammatic illustration of grape stamens.] The degree of fertility of blossoms is also a fine mark of distinction in species and varieties of the grape. Fertile vines are of two kinds in most species. The flowers on one kind are perfect hermaphrodites, while in the other kind the stamens are smaller and shorter than the pistil and eventually bent down and curved under. The two kinds of stamens are shown in Figs. 53 and 54. These may be called imperfect hermaphrodites since they are seldom as fruitful as the perfect hermaphrodites unless fertilized from another plant. Examined with a microscope, it is found that self-sterile plants usually bear abortive pollen and that the percentage of abortive pollen grains varies greatly in different varieties. The upright or depressed stamen does not always indicate the condition of the pollen, since there are many instances in which upright stamens bear impotent pollen and occasionally the depressed stamens bear perfect pollen. [Illustration: FIG. 54. Grape flowers. _Left_, upright stamens of Delaware; _right_, depressed stamens of Brighton.] _The leaf._ _Blade_: The expanded portion of the leaf. _Lobe_: The more or less rounded division of the leaf. _Sinus_: The recess or bay between two lobes. _Petiole_: The leaf-stalk. _Petiolar sinus_: The sinus about the petiole. _Basal sinuses_: The two sinuses toward the base of the blade. _Lateral sinuses_: The two sinuses toward the apex of the blade. The size, shape and color of the leaves are quite distinctive of species and more or less so of varieties, if allowances are made for variation due to environment. The lobing of leaves is a very uniform character in most species, some having lobes and others having entire leaves. The upper surface of the leaf in some species is smooth, glossy and shiny and in others is rough and dull. The lower surface shows similar variations and has, besides, varying amounts of pubescence, down and bloom. In some species the down resembles cobwebs. The number, size and shape of the lobes are important in distinguishing both varieties and species, as are also the petiolar, basal and lateral sinuses. As in most plants, the margins of the leaves, whether serrate, dentate or crenate, are often distinguishing characters. The petiole in different species varies from short to long and from stout to slender. Lastly, the time at which the leaves fall is often a good distinguishing mark. _The fruit._ _Peduncle and pedicel_: Defined as in flower. _Brush_: The end of the pedicel projecting into the fruit. _Base_: The point of attachment of bunch or berry. _Apex_: The point opposite the base. _Bloom_: The powdery coating on the fruit. _Pigment_: The coloring matter in the skin. _Quality_: The combination of characters that makes grapes pleasant to the palate, sight, smell and touch. _Foxiness_: The rancid taste and smell of some grapes which are similar to the effluvium of a fox. Of all organs the fruit is most responsive to changed conditions and hence most variable. Yet the fruits furnish most valuable characters for determining both species and varieties. Size, shape, compactness and the number of clusters on a shoot must be noted. Coming to the berry, size, shape, color, bloom, adherence of stigma to the apex and adhesion of fruit to the pedicel are all of value. Difference in adherence of the skin to the pulp separates European from all American grapes. The thickness, toughness, flavor and pigment of the skin have more or less value. The color, firmness, juiciness, aroma and flavor of the flesh, as well as its adherence to seed and skin, are valuable marks in describing grapes. All species and varieties are well distinguished by the time of ripening and by keeping quality. The color of the juice is a plain and certain dividing line between some species and many varieties. _The seed._ _Beak_: The narrow prolonged base of the seed. _Hilum_: The scar left where the seed was attached to the seed-stalk. _Chalaza_: The place where the seed-coats and kernel are connected. _Raphe_: The line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the chalaza. Seeds are accounted of much value in determining species. The size and weight of seed differ greatly in different species, as they do also in varieties of any one species. Thus, of native grapes, Labrusca has the largest and heaviest seeds and Vulpina has the smallest seed, while those of Æstivalis are of medium size and weight. The shape and color of seed offer distinguishing marks, while the size, shape and position of the raphe and chalaza furnish very certain marks of distinction in some species. THE GENUS VITIS The genus Vitis belongs to the vine family (Vitaceæ) in which most botanists also put the wood-vines (Ampelopsis), of which Virginia creeper is the best-known plant. The genus Cissus, to which belong many southern climbers, is combined with Vitis by some botanists. Vitis is separated from Ampelopsis and Cissus by marked differences in several organs, of which, horticulturally at least, those in the fruit best serve to distinguish the group. Species of Vitis, with possibly one or two exceptions, bear pulpy edible fruits; species of Ampelopsis and Cissus bear fruits with pulp so scant that the berries are inedible. Vitis is further distinguished as follows: The plants are climbing or trailing, rarely shrubby, with woody stems and mostly with coiling, naked-tipped tendrils. The leaves are simple, palmately lobed, round-dentate or heart-shaped-dentate. The stipules are small, falling early. The flowers are polygamo-dioecious (some plants with perfect flowers, others staminate with at most a rudimentary ovary), five-parted. The petals are separated only at the base and fall off without expanding. The disk is hypogynous with five nectariferous glands which are alternate with the stamens. The berry is globose or ovoid, few-seeded and pulpy. The seeds are pyriform and beak-like at the base. SPECIES OF AMERICAN GRAPES The number of species of grapes in the world depends on the arbitrary limits set for a species of this fruit, and knowledge of the genus is yet too meager to set these limits with certainty. Indeed, the men who have made grape species have seldom been able to outline the habitats of their groups with much certainty. In habitat, it should be said, grapes are confined almost wholly to temperate and subtropical regions. However, the grape-grower is not much concerned with species of grapes other than those that have horticultural value. Of these, in America, there are now ten more or less cultivated either for fruit or for stocks. The following descriptions of these ten species are adapted from the author's The Grapes of New York, published in 1908 by the state of New York (Chapter IV, pages 107-156). CONSPECTUS OF CULTIVATED SPECIES OF VITIS _A._ Skin of mature berry separating freely from the pulp. _B._ Nodes without diaphragms; tendrils simple. 1. _V. rotundifolia._ 2. _V. Munsoniana._ _BB._ Nodes with diaphragms; tendrils forked. _C._ Leaves and shoots glabrous at maturity and without bloom; tendrils intermittent. _D._ Leaves thin, light, bright green, generally glabrous below at maturity except perhaps in the axils of the veins with a long or at least a prominent point and usually long and sharp teeth or the edge even-jagged. _E._ Leaves broader than long; petiolar sinus usually wide and shallow. 3. _V. rupestris._ _EE._ Leaves ovate in outline; petiolar sinus usually medium to narrow. 4. _V. vulpina._ _DD._ Leaves thick, dull colored or grayish-green, often holding some close, dull pubescence below at maturity, shoots and leaves nearly always more or less pubescent when young; the teeth mostly short. 5. _V. cordifolia._ 6. _V. Berlandieri._ _CC._ Leaves rusty or white tomentose or glaucous blue below, thick or at least firm. _D._ Leaves flocculent or cobwebby or glaucous below when fully grown. 7. _V. æstivalis._ 8. _V. bicolor._ _DD._ Leaves densely tomentose or felt-like beneath throughout the season; covering white or rusty white. _E._ Tendrils intermittent. 9. _V. candicans._ _EE._ Tendrils mostly continuous. 10. _V. Labrusca._ _AA._ Skin and pulp of mature berry cohering. (Old World.) 11. _V. vinifera._ 1. _Vitis rotundifolia_, Michx. Muscadine Grape. Bull Grape. Bullet Grape. Bushy Grape. Bullace Grape. Scuppernong. Southern Fox Grape. Vine very vigorous, sometimes, when without support, shrubby and only three or four feet high; when growing in the shade often sending down aërial roots. Wood hard, bark smooth, not scaling, with prominent warty lenticels; shoots short-jointed, angled, with fine scurfy pubescence; diaphragms absent; tendrils intermittent, simple. Leaves small, broadly cordate or roundish; petiolar sinus wide, shallow; margin with obtuse, wide teeth; not lobed; dense in texture, light green color, glabrous above, sometimes pubescent along veins below. Cluster small (6-24 berries), loose; peduncle short; pedicels short, thick. Berries large, globular or somewhat oblate, black or greenish-yellow; skin thick, tough and with a musky odor; pulp tough; ripening unevenly and dropping as soon as ripe. Seeds flattened, shallowly and broadly notched; beak very short; chalaza narrow, slightly depressed with radiating ridges and furrows; raphe a narrow groove. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very late. The habitat of this species is southern Delaware, west through Tennessee, southern Illinois, southeastern Missouri, Arkansas (except the northwestern portions), to Grayson County, Texas, as a northern and western boundary, to the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf on the east and south. It becomes rare as one approaches the western limit but is common in many sections of the great region outlined above, being most abundant on sandy, well-drained bottom lands and along river banks and in swampy, thick woodlands and thickets. The climate most suitable for Rotundifolia is that in which cotton grows, and it thrives best in the lower portions of the cotton-belt of the United States. The fruit of Rotundifolia is very characteristic. The skin is thick, has a leathery appearance, adheres strongly to the underlying flesh and is marked with lenticel-like russet dots. The flesh is more or less tough but the toughness is not localized around the seed as in the case of Labrusca. The fruit and most of the varieties of the species are characterized by a strong, musky aroma and are lacking in sugar and acid. Some varieties yield over four gallons of must to the bushel. Wine-makers are divided in opinion as to its value for wine-making, but at present the most promising outlook for Rotundifolia varieties is as wine, grape-juice and culinary grapes. Rotundifolia does not produce fruit suitable for shipping as dessert grapes chiefly because the berries ripen unevenly and when ripe drop from the cluster. The common method of gathering the fruit of this species is to shake the vines at intervals so that the ripe berries drop on sheets spread below the vines. The juice which exudes from the point where the stem is broken off causes the berries to become smeared and gives them an unattractive appearance. Owing, however, to the tough skin, the berries do not crack as badly as other grapes would under the same conditions, but nevertheless they are not adapted to long-distance shipments. Under reasonably favorable conditions, the vines attain great age and size and when grown on arbors, as they often are, and without pruning, they cover a large area. Rotundifolia is remarkably resistant to the attacks of all insects and to fungal diseases. The phylloxera do not attack its roots and it is considered as resistant as any other, if not the most resistant of all American species. The vines are grown from cuttings only with difficulty and this prevents the use of this species as a resistant stock. However, under favorable circumstances, and with skillful handling, this is a successful method of propagation. Under unfavorable circumstances, or when only a few vines are desired, it is better to depend on layers. As a stock upon which to graft other vines, this species has not been a success. There is great difficulty in crossing Rotundifolia with other species, but several Rotundifolia hybrids are now on record. 2. _Vitis Munsoniana_, Simpson. Florida Grape. Everbearing grape. Bird Grape. Mustang Grape of Florida. Vine slender, usually running on the ground or over low bushes. Canes angular; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, simple. Leaves smaller and thinner than Rotundifolia and rather more circular in outline; not lobed; teeth open and spreading; petiolar sinus V-shaped; both surfaces smooth, rather light green. Cluster with more berries but about the same size as in Rotundifolia. Berry one-third to one-half the diameter, with thinner and more tender skin; black, shining; pulp less solid, more acid and without muskiness. Seeds about one-half the size of those of Rotundifolia, similar in other respects. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very late. The habitat of _V. Munsoniana_ is central and southern Florida and the Florida Keys. It extends south of the habitat of Rotundifolia and blends into this species at their point of meeting. Munsoniana appears to be a variation of Rotundifolia, fitted to subtropical conditions. It is tender, not enduring a lower temperature than zero. In the matter of multiplication, it differs from _V. rotundifolia_ in that it can be propagated readily from cuttings. Like Rotundifolia it is resistant to phylloxera. 3. _Vitis rupestris_, Scheele. Mountain Grape. Rock Grape. Bush Grape. Sand Grape. Sugar Grape. Beach Grape. A small, much branched shrub or, under favorable circumstances, climbing. Diaphragm thin; tendrils few, or if present, weak, usually deciduous. Leaves small; young leaves frequently folded on midrib; broadly cordate or reniform, wider than long, scarcely ever lobed, smooth, glabrous on both surfaces at maturity; petiolar sinus wide, shallow; margin coarsely toothed, frequently a sharp, abrupt point at terminal. Cluster small. Berries small, black or purple-black. Seeds small, not notched; beak short, blunt; raphe distinct to indistinct, usually showing as a narrow groove; chalaza pear-shaped, sometimes distinct, but usually a depression only. Leafing, blossoming and ripening early. This species is an inhabitant of southwestern Texas, extending eastward and northward into New Mexico, southern Missouri, Indiana and Tennessee to southern Pennsylvania and the District of Columbia. Its favorite places are gravelly banks and bars of mountain streams or the rocky beds of dry watercourses. This species is rather variable both in type and growth. It was introduced into France at about the same time as Vulpina, and the French vineyardists selected the most vigorous and healthy forms for grafting stock. These pass under the various names of Rupestris Mission, Rupestris du Lot, Rupestris Ganzin, Rupestris Martin, Rupestris St. George and others. In France, these varieties have given particularly good results on bare, rocky soils with hot, dry exposures. In California, Rupestris does not flourish in dry locations, and as it suckers profusely and does not take the graft as readily as Vulpina and Æstivalis, it is not largely propagated. The clusters of fruit are small, with berries about the size of a currant and varying from sweet to sour. The berry is characterized by much pigment under the skin. The fruit has a sprightly taste wholly free from any disagreeable foxiness. Rupestris under cultivation is said to be very resistant to rot and mildew of the foliage. The vine is considered hardy in the Southwest. The attention of hybridizers was attracted to this species over thirty years ago, and various hybrids have been produced of great promise for grape-breeding. The root system of Rupestris is peculiar in that the roots penetrate at once deeply into the ground instead of extending laterally as in other species. Like those of Vulpina, the roots are slender, hard and resistant to phylloxera. The species is easily propagated by cuttings. The vines bench-graft readily but are difficult to handle in field grafting. 4. _Vitis vulpina_, Linn. (_V. riparia_, Michx.). Winter Grape. River Grape. Riverside Grape. Riverbank Grape. Sweet-scented Grape. Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots cylindrical or angled, usually smooth, slender; diaphragms thin; tendrils intermittent, slender, usually bifid. Leaves with large stipules; leaf-blade large, thin, entire, three- or lower ones often five-lobed; sinuses shallow, angular; petiolar sinus broad, usually shallow; margin with incised, sharply serrate teeth of variable size; light green, glabrous above, glabrous but sometimes pubescent on ribs and veins below. Cluster small, compact, shouldered; peduncle short. Berries small, black with a heavy blue bloom. Seeds two to four, small, notched, short, plump, with very short beak; chalaza narrowly oval, depressed, indistinct; raphe usually a groove, sometimes distinct. Very variable in flavor and time of ripening. Vulpina is the most widely distributed of any American species of grape. It has been discovered in parts of Canada north of Quebec and from thence southward to the Gulf of Mexico. It is found from the Atlantic coast westward, most botanists say, to the Rocky Mountains. Usually it grows on river banks, on islands or in upland ravines. Vulpina has always been considered of great promise in the evolution of American grapes. It can hardly be said that it has fulfilled expectations, there probably being no pure variety of this species of more than local importance, and the results of hybridizing it with other species have not been wholly successful. Attention was early turned to Vulpina because of the qualities presented by the vine rather than those of the fruit, particularly its hardiness and vigor. However, both of these qualities are rather variable, although it is only reasonable to suppose that in such a widely distributed species, plants found in a certain region would have adapted themselves to the conditions there present; thus, it should be expected that the northern plants would be more hardy than those from the South, and that the western prairie forms would be more capable of resisting drouth than those from humid regions. It is, consequently, impossible to say what conditions best suit this species. It may be said, however, that Vulpina is adapted to a great variety of soils and locations; vines have withstood a temperature of 40 to 60 degrees below zero and they show equal ability in withstanding the injurious effects of high temperatures in the summer. On account of its habit of early blooming, the blossoms sometimes suffer from late frosts in the spring. While Vulpina is not a swamp grape and is not found growing under swampy conditions, it is fond of water. In the semi-arid regions always, and in humid regions usually, it is found growing along the banks of streams, in ravines, on the islands of rivers and in wet places. It is not nearly so capable of withstanding drouth as Rupestris. Vulpina likes a rather rich soil, but in France has been found to do poorly on limestone land and calcareous marls. The French tell us, however, that this is a characteristic of all our American grapes, and that Vulpina is more resistant to the injurious effects of an excess of lime than either Rupestris or Æstivalis. The fruit of Vulpina is usually small, there being occasional varieties of medium size or above. The clusters are of medium size and, if judged from the standpoint of number of berries, might frequently be called large. The flavor is usually sharply acid but free from foxiness or any disagreeable wild taste. If eaten in quantity, the acidity is likely to affect the lips and end of the tongue. When the acidity is somewhat ameliorated, as in the case of thoroughly ripe or even over-ripe and shriveled fruit, the flavor is much liked. The flesh is neither pulpy nor solid and dissolves in the mouth and separates readily from the seed. The must of Vulpina is characterized by an average amount of sugar, varying considerably in the fruit from different vines, and by an excess of acid. Vulpina is very resistant to phylloxera, the roots are small, hard, numerous and branch freely. The roots feed close to the surface and do not seem to be well adapted to forcing their way through heavy clays. Vulpina grows readily from cuttings and makes a good stock for grafting, its union with other species being usually permanent. When Vulpinas were first sent to France to be used as a stock in reconstituting the French vineyards, it was found that many of the vines secured from the woods were too weak in growth to support the stronger-growing Viniferas. On this account the French growers selected the more vigorous forms of the Vulpinas, to which they gave varietal names, as Vulpina Gloire, Vulpina Grand Glabre, Vulpina Schribner, Vulpina Martin and others. With these selected Vulpinas, the graft does not outgrow the stock. Vulpina is less resistant to black-rot than Æstivalis but somewhat more resistant than Labrusca. The foliage is rarely attacked by mildew. One of the chief failings of this species is the susceptibility of the leaves to the attack of the leaf-hopper. The Vulpinas are generally late in ripening; the fruit is better in quality in long seasons and should be left on the vines as late as possible. 5. _Vitis cordifolia_, Michx. Winter Grape. Frost Grape. Fox Grape. Chicken Grape. Heart-leaved Vitis. Possum Grape. Sour Winter Grape. Vine very vigorous, climbing. Shoots slender; internodes long, angular, usually glabrous, sometimes pubescent; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad stipules; leaf-blade medium to large, cordate, entire or indistinctly three-lobed; petiolar sinus deep, usually narrow, acute; margin with coarse angular teeth; point of leaf acuminate; upper surface light green, glossy, glabrous; glabrous or sparingly pubescent below. Clusters medium to large, loose, with long peduncle. Berries numerous and small, black, shining, little or no bloom. Seeds medium in size, broad, beak short; chalaza oval or roundish, elevated, very distinct; raphe a distinct, cord-like ridge. Fruit sour and astringent and frequently consisting of little besides skins and seeds. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very late. Owing to the fact that Cordifolia and Vulpina have been badly confused, the limits of the habitat of this species are difficult to determine. The best authorities give the northern limit as New York or the Great Lakes. The eastern limit is the Atlantic Ocean and the southern limit, the Gulf of Mexico. It extends westward, according to Engelmann, to the western limits of the wooded portion of the Mississippi Valley in the North, and, according to Munson, to the Brazos River, Texas, in the South. It is found along creeks and river banks sometimes mixed with Vulpina, having about the same soil adaptations as that species. It is a very common species in the middle states and frequently grows on limestone soils, but is not indigenous to such soils. Cordifolia makes a good stock for grafting, being vigorous and forming a good union with most of our cultivated grapes. It is seldom used for this purpose, however, on account of the difficulty of propagating it by means of cuttings. For the same reason vines of it are seldom found in cultivation. 6. _Vitis Berlandieri_, Planch. Mountain-Grape. Spanish Grape. Fall Grape. Winter Grape. Little Mountain Grape. Vine vigorous, climbing; shoots more or less angled and pubescent; pubescence remaining only in patches on mature wood; canes mostly with short internodes; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, long, strong, bifid or trifid. Leaves with small stipules; leaf-blade large, broadly cordate, notched or shortly three-lobed; petiolar sinus rather open, V- or U-shaped, margin with broad but rather shallow teeth, rather dark glossy green above, grayish pubescence below when young; becoming glabrous and even glossy except on ribs and veins, when mature. Clusters large, compact, compound, with long peduncle. Berries small, black, with thin bloom, juicy, rather tart but pleasant tasting when thoroughly ripe. Seeds few, small, short, plump, oval or roundish, with short beak; chalaza oval or roundish, distinct; raphe narrow, slightly distinct to indistinct. Leafing, flowering and ripening fruit very late. Berlandieri is a native of the limestone hills of southwest Texas and adjacent Mexico. It grows in the same region with _V. monticola_, but is less restricted locally, growing from the tops of the hills down and along the creek bottoms of these regions. Its great virtue is that it withstands a soil largely composed of lime, being superior to all other American species in this respect. This and its moderate degree of vigor have recommended it to the French growers as a stock for their calcareous soils. The roots are strong, thick, and very resistant to phylloxera. It is propagated by cuttings with comparative ease, but its varieties are variable, some not rooting at all easily. While the fruit of this species shows a large cluster, the berries are small and sour, and Berlandieri is not regarded as having promise for culture in America. 7. _Vitis æstivalis_, Michx. Blue Grape. Bunch Grape. Summer Grape. Little Grape. Duck-shot Grape. Swamp Grape. Chicken Grape. Pigeon Grape. Vine very vigorous, shoots pubescent or smooth when young; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad stipules; leaf-blade large, thin when young but becoming thick; petiolar sinus deep, usually narrow, frequently overlapping; margin rarely entire, usually three- to five-lobed; teeth dentate, shallow, wide; upper surface dark green; lower surface with more or less reddish or rusty pubescence which, in mature leaves, usually shows in patches on the ribs and veins; petioles frequently pubescent. Clusters long, not much branched, with long peduncle. Berries small, with moderate amount of bloom, usually astringent. Seeds two to three, of medium size, plump, smooth, not notched; chalaza oval, distinct; raphe a distinct cord-like ridge. Leafing and ripening fruit late to very late. The division of the original species has reduced the habitat materially, confining it to the southeastern part of the United States from southern New York to Florida and westward to the Mississippi River. Æstivalis grows in thickets and openings in the woods and shows no such fondness for streams as Vulpina, or for thick timber as Labrusca, but is generally confined to uplands. Under favorable circumstances, the vines grow to be very large. Æstivalis is preëminently a wine grape. The fruit usually has a tart, acrid taste, due to the presence of a high percentage of acid, but there is also a large amount of sugar, the scale showing that juice from this species has a much higher percentage of sugar than the sweeter-tasting Labruscas. The wine made from varieties of Æstivalis is very rich in coloring matter and is used by some European vintners to mix with the must of European sorts in order to give the combined product a higher color. The berries are destitute of pulp, have a comparatively thin, tough skin and a peculiar spicy flavor. The berries hang to the bunch after becoming ripe much better than do those of Labrusca. This species thrives in a lighter and shallower soil than Labrusca and appears to endure drought better, although not equaling in this respect either Vulpina or Rupestris. The French growers report that Æstivalis is very liable to chlorosis on soils which contain much lime. The leaves are never injured by the sun and they resist the attacks of insects, such as leaf-hoppers, better than any other American species under cultivation. Æstivalis is rarely injured by black-rot or mildew, according to American experience, but French growers speak of its being susceptible to both. The hard roots of Æstivalis enable it to resist phylloxera, and varieties with any great amount of the blood of this species are seldom seriously injured by this insect. An objection to Æstivalis, from a horticultural standpoint, is that it does not root well from cuttings. Many authorities speak of it as not rooting at all from cuttings, but this is an over-statement of the facts, as many of the wild and cultivated varieties are occasionally propagated in this manner, and some southern nurseries, located in particularly favorable situations, make a practice of propagating it by this method. Varieties of this species bear grafting well, especially in the vineyard. _Vitis æstivalis Lincecumii_, Munson. Post-oak Grape. Pine-wood Grape. Turkey Grape. Vine vigorous, sometimes climbing high upon trees, sometimes forming a bushy clump from two to six feet high; canes cylindrical, much rusty wool on shoots; tendrils intermittent. Leaves very large, almost as wide as long; entire or three-, five-, or rarely seven-lobed; lobes frequently divided; sinuses, including petiolar sinus, deep; smooth above, and with more or less rusty pubescence below. (The north-Texas, southwestern Missouri and northern Arkansas form shows little or no pubescence but has fine prickly spines at base of shoots and shows much blue bloom on shoots, canes and the under side of the leaves.) Fruit small to large, usually larger than typical Æstivalis, usually black, with heavy bloom. Seeds larger than Æstivalis, pear-shaped; chalaza roundish. Lincecumii inhabits the eastern half of Texas, western Louisiana, Oklahoma, Arkansas and southern Missouri on high sandy land, frequently climbing post-oak trees, hence the name, post-oak grape, by which it is locally known. Lincecumii has attracted considerable attention through the work of H. Jaeger and T. V. Munson in domesticating it, both of whom considered it one of the most, if not the most, promising form from which to secure cultivated varieties for the Southwest. The qualities which recommend it are: First, vigor; second, capacity to withstand rot and mildew; third, hardiness and capacity to endure hot and dry summers without injury; fourth, the large cluster and berry which were found on certain of the wild vines. The fruit is characteristic because of its dense bloom, firm, yet tender texture and peculiar flavor. The cultivated varieties have given satisfaction in many sections of the Central Western and Southern states. Like Æstivalis, it is difficult to propagate from cuttings. The north-Texas glaucous form of this variety mentioned in the technical description above is the _V. æstivalis glauca_ of Bailey. This is the type of Lincecumii that Munson has used in breeding work. _Vitis æstivalis Bourquiniana_, Bailey. Southern Æstivalis. Bourquiniana differs chiefly from the type in having thinner leaves; the shoots and under side of the leaves are only slightly reddish-brown in color; the pubescence usually disappears at maturity; the leaves are more deeply lobed than is common in Æstivalis; and the fruit is larger, sweeter and more juicy. Bourquiniana is known only in cultivation. The name was given by Munson, who ranks the group as a species. He includes therein many southern varieties, the most important of which are: Herbemont, Bertrand, Cunningham and Lenoir, grouped in the Herbemont section; and Devereaux, Louisiana and Warren, in the Devereaux section. Munson has traced the history of this interesting group and states that it was brought from southern France to America over one hundred fifty years ago by the Bourquin family of Savannah, Georgia. Many botanists are of the opinion that Bourquiniana is a hybrid. The hybrid supposition is corroborated to a degree by the characters being more or less intermediate between the supposed parent species, and also by the fact that up to date no wild form of Bourquiniana has been found. The only northern variety of any importance supposed to have Bourquiniana blood is the Delaware, and in this variety only a fraction of Bourquiniana blood is presumably present. Bourquiniana can be propagated from cuttings more easily than the typical Æstivalis but not so readily as Labrusca, Vulpina or Vinifera. Many of the varieties of Bourquiniana show a marked susceptibility to mildew and black-rot; in fact, the whole Herbemont group is much inferior in this respect to the Norton group of Æstivalis. The roots are somewhat hard, branch rather freely and are quite resistant to phylloxera. 8. _Vitis bicolor_, Le Conte. Blue Grape. Northern Summer Grape. Northern Æstivalis. Vine vigorous, climbing; shoots cylindrical or angled, with long internodes, generally glabrous, usually showing much blue bloom, sometimes spiny at base; diaphragms thick; tendrils intermittent, long, usually bifid. Leaves with short, broad stipules; leaf-blade large; roundish-cordate, usually three-, sometimes on older growth shallowly five-lobed, rarely entire; petiolar sinus variable in depth, usually narrow; margin irregularly dentate; teeth acuminate; glabrous above, usually glabrous below and showing much blue bloom which sometimes disappears late in the season; young leaves sometimes pubescent; petioles very long. Cluster of medium size, compact, simple; peduncle long. Berries small, black with much bloom, acid but pleasant tasting when ripe. Seeds small, plump, broadly oval, very short beak; chalaza oval, raised, distinct; raphe distinct, showing as a cord-like ridge. Bicolor is readily distinguished from Æstivalis by the absence of the reddish pubescence and by blooming slightly later. The habitat of Bicolor is to the north of that of Æstivalis, occupying the northeastern, whereas Æstivalis occupies the southeastern quarter of the United States. Like Æstivalis, this species is not confined to streams and river banks but frequently grows on higher land also. It is found in north Missouri, Illinois, southwestern Wisconsin, Indiana, southern Michigan, Ohio, Kentucky, Pennsylvania, New York, southwestern Ontario, New Jersey and Maryland and by some botanists is reported as far south as western North Carolina and west Tennessee. The horticultural characters of Bicolor are much the same as those of Æstivalis. About the only points of difference are that it is much hardier (some of the Wisconsin vines stand a temperature as low as 20 degrees below zero); it is said to be slightly less resistant to mildew and more resistant to phylloxera. Like Æstivalis, Bicolor does not thrive on limy soils and it is difficult to propagate from cuttings. The horticultural possibilities of Bicolor are probably much the same as those of Æstivalis, although many think it to be more promising for the North. It is as yet cultivated but little. Its chief defect for domestication is the small size of the fruit. 9. _Vitis candicans_, Englem. Mustang Grape. Vine very vigorous, climbing; shoots and petioles densely wooly, whitish or rusty; diaphragm thick; tendrils intermittent. Leaves with large stipules; blade small, broadly cordate to reniform-ovate, entire or in young shoots and on young vines and sprouts usually deeply three- to five-, or even seven-lobed; teeth shallow, sinuate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide, sometimes lacking; dull, slightly rugose above, dense whitish pubescence below. Clusters small. Berries medium to large, black, purple, green, or even whitish, thin blue bloom or bloomless. Seeds usually three or four, large, short, plump, blunt, notched; chalaza oval, depressed, indistinct; raphe a broad groove. The habitat of this grape extends from southern Oklahoma, as a northern limit, southwesterly into Mexico. The western boundary is the Pecos River. It is found on dry, alluvial, sandy or limestone bottoms or on limestone bluff lands and is said to be especially abundant along upland ravines. Candicans grows well on limestone lands, enduring as much as 60 per cent of carbonate of lime in the soil. The species blooms shortly before Labrusca and a week later than Vulpina. It requires the long hot summers of its native country and will stand extreme drouth but is not hardy to cold, 10 or 15 degrees below zero killing the vine outright unless protected; and a lesser degree of cold injuring it severely. The berries, which are large for wild vines, have thin skins under which there is a pigment which gives them, when first ripe, a fiery, pungent taste but which partly disappears with maturity. The berries are very persistent, clinging to the pedicel long after ripe. Candicans is difficult to propagate from cuttings. Its roots resist phylloxera fairly well. It makes a good stock for Vinifera vines in its native country, but owing to the difficulty of propagation is seldom used for that purpose. In the early days of Texas, it was much used for the making of wine but as it is deficient in sugar, and as the must retains the acrid, pungent flavor, it does not seem to be well adapted for this purpose. It is not regarded as having great promise for southern horticulture and certainly has none for the North. 10. _Vitis Labrusca_, Linn. Fox-Grape. Vine vigorous, stocky, climbing; shoots cylindrical, densely pubescent; diaphragms medium to thick; tendrils continuous, strong, bifid or trifid. Leaves with long, cordate stipules; leaf-blade large, thick, broadly cordate or round; entire or three-lobed, frequently notched; sinuses rounded; petiolar sinus variable in depth and width, V-shaped; margin with shallow, acute-pointed, scalloped teeth; upper surface rugose, dark green, on young leaves pubescent, becoming glabrous when mature; lower surface covered with dense pubescence, more or less whitish on young leaves, becoming dun-colored when mature. Clusters more or less compound, usually shouldered, compact; pedicels thick; peduncle short. Berries round; skin thick, covered with bloom, with strong musky or foxy aroma. Seeds two to four, large, distinctly notched, beak short; chalaza oval in shape, indistinct, showing as a depression; raphe, a groove. Labrusca is indigenous to the eastern part of North America, including the region between the Atlantic Ocean and the Alleghany Mountains. It is sometimes found in the valleys and along the western slopes of the Alleghanies. Many botanists say it never occurs in the Mississippi Valley. In the first-named area it ranges from Maine to Georgia. It has the most restricted habitat of any American species of horticultural importance, being much exceeded in extent of territory by _V. rotundifolia_, _V. æstivalis_ and _V. vulpina_. Labrusca has furnished more cultivated varieties, either pure-breeds or hybrids, than all other American species together. The reason for this is partly, no doubt, that it is native to the portion of the United States first settled and is the most common grape in the region where agriculture first advanced to the condition at which fruits were desired. This does not wholly account for its prominence, however, which must be sought elsewhere. In its wild state, Labrusca is probably the most attractive to the eye of any of our American grapes on account of the size of its fruit, and this undoubtedly turned the attention of those who were early interested in the possibilities of American grape-growing to this species rather than to any other. The southern Labrusca is quite different from the northern form and demands different conditions for its successful growth; in the North, at least two types of the species may be distinguished. Vines are found in the woods of New England which resemble Concord very closely in both vine and fruit, excepting that the grapes are much smaller in size and more seedy. There is also the large-fruited, foxy Labrusca, usually with reddish berries, represented by such cultivated varieties as Northern Muscadine, Dracut Amber, Lutie and others. Labrusca is peculiar amongst American grapes in showing black-, white- and red-fruited forms of wild vines growing in the woods. Because of this variability, it is impossible to give the exact climatic and soil conditions best adapted to the species. It is reasonable to suppose, however, that the ideal conditions for this species under cultivation are not widely different from those prevailing where the species is indigenous. In the case of Labrusca, this means that it is best adapted to humid climates, and that the temperature desired varies according to whether the variety comes from the southern or northern form of the species. The root system of Labrusca does not penetrate the soil deeply, but the vine is said to succeed better in deep and clayey soils than Æstivalis. It endures an excess of water in the soil, and, on the other hand, requires less water for successful growing than Æstivalis or Vulpina. In spite of its ability to withstand clayey soils, it seems to prefer loose, warm, well-drained sandy lands to all others. The French growers report that all varieties of this species show a marked antipathy to a limestone soil, the vines soon becoming affected with chlorosis when planted in soils of this nature. In corroboration of this, it may be said that Labrusca is not often found wild in limestone soils. The Labruscas succeed very well in the North and fairly well in the Middle West as far south as Arkansas, where they are raised on account of their fruit qualities, for here the vines are not nearly so vigorous and healthy as are those of other species. In Alabama, they are reported to be generally unsatisfactory, and in Texas the vines are short-lived, unhealthy, and generally unsatisfactory, particularly in the dry regions. There are some exceptions to this, as for instance, in the Piedmont region of the Carolinas, where, owing to elevation or other causes, the climate of a southern region is semi-northern in its character. The grapes of Labrusca are large and usually handsomely colored. The skin is thick, covering a layer of adhering flesh, which gives the impression of its being thicker than it actually is; the berry is variable in tenderness, sometimes tough, but in many cultivated varieties is so tender that it cracks in transportation. The skin of this species usually has a peculiar aroma, generally spoken of as foxy, and a slightly acid, astringent taste. Beneath the skin there is a layer of juicy pulp, quite sweet and never showing much acidity in ripe fruit. The center of the berry is occupied by rather dense pulp, more or less stringy, with considerable acid close to the seeds. Many object to the foxy aroma of this species, but, nevertheless, the most popular American varieties are more or less foxy. Analyses show that the fruit is usually characterized by a low percentage of sugar and acid, the very sweet-tasting fox-grapes not showing as high a sugar-content as some of the disagreeably tart Æstivalis and Vulpina sorts. This, in addition to the foxiness which furnishes an excess of aroma in the wine, has prevented Labrusca varieties from becoming favorites with the wine-makers, but most of the grape-juice now manufactured is made from them. In addition to the characters enumerated, it may be said that Labrusca submits well to vineyard culture, is fairly vigorous and generally quite productive. It grows readily from cuttings and in hardiness is intermediate between Vulpina, the hardiest of our American species, and Æstivalis. The roots are soft and fleshy (for an American grape) and in some localities subject to attacks of phylloxera. None of the varieties of Labrusca has ever been popular in France on this account. In the wild vines, the fruit is inclined to drop when ripe. This defect is known as "shattering" or "shelling" among grape-growers and is a serious weakness in some varieties. Labrusca is said to be more sensitive in its wild state to mildew and black-rot than any other American species, but the evidence on this point does not seem to be wholly conclusive. In the South, and in some parts of the Middle West, the leaves of all varieties of Labrusca sunburn and shrivel in the latter part of the summer. The vines do not endure drouth as well as Æstivalis or Vulpina and not nearly so well as Rupestris. 11. _Vitis vinifera_, Linn. Vine variable in vigor, not so high climbing as most American species; tendrils intermittent. Leaves round-cordate, thin, smooth, and when young, shining, frequently more or less deeply three-, five-, or even seven-lobed; usually glabrous but in some varieties the leaves and young shoots are hairy and even downy when young; lobes rounded or pointed; teeth variable; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, usually overlapping. Berries very variable in size and color, usually oval though globular. Seeds variable in size and shape, usually notched at upper end and characterized always by a bottle-necked, elongated beak; chalaza broad, usually rough, distinct; raphe indistinct. Roots large, soft and spongy. The original habitat of the species is not positively known. De Candolle, as noted in the first part of this work, considered the region about the Caspian Sea as the probable habitat of the Old World grape. There is but little doubt that the original home of _V. vinifera_ is some place in western Asia. Neither American nor European writers agree as to the climate desired by Vinifera, for the reason, probably that all of the varieties in this variable species do not require the same climatic conditions. There are certain phases of climate, however, that are well agreed on: the species requires a warm, dry climate and is more sensitive to change of temperature than American species. Varieties of this species can be grown successfully in a wide variety of soils, being much less particular as to soils than American sorts. Certain characters of the fruit of this species are not found in any American forms: First, the skin, which is attached very closely to the flesh and which is never astringent or acid, can be eaten with the fruit; second, the flesh is firm, yet tender, and uniform throughout, differing in this respect from all American grapes which have a sweet, watery and tender pulp close to the skin with a tough and more or less acid core at the center; third, the flavor has a peculiarly sprightly quality known as vinous; fourth, the berry adheres firmly to the pedicel, the fruit seldom "shattering" or "shelling" from the cluster. In the various hybrids that have been made between American and Vinifera varieties, it is usually found that the desirable qualities of Vinifera are inherited in about the same proportion as the undesirable ones. The fruit is improved in the hybrid but the vine is weakened; quality is usually purchased at the expense of hardiness and disease-resisting power. Vinifera may be grown very readily from cuttings. [Illustration: PLATE XXIII.--Lutie (×1/2). Pocklington (×1/2).] CHAPTER XVIII VARIETIES OF GRAPES Nature has expended her bounties in fullest measure for the vineyard. More than 2000 varieties of grapes are described in American viticultural literature, and twice as many more find mention in European treatises on the vine. Few other fruits offer the novelties given the grape in flavors, aromas, sizes, colors and uses. The vineyard, then, to fulfill commercial potentialities, should supply grapes throughout the whole season, and of the several colors and flavors and for all uses. A prime requisite for a vineyard being well-selected varieties, an assortment of all kinds and for all places in America is here described. ACTONI (Vinifera) Actoni is a table-grape of the Malaga type which ripens at Geneva, New York, late in October, too late for the average season in the East but worth trying in favorable locations. It is grown in California but is not a favorite sort. The following brief description is made from fruit grown at Geneva: Clusters large, shouldered, tapering, loose; berries medium to very large, long-oval to oval, clear green yellow; flesh crisp, firm; flavor sweet; quality good. AGAWAM (Labrusca, Vinifera) _Randall, Rogers No. 15_ The qualities commending Agawam are large size and attractive appearance of bunch and berry; rich, sweet aromatic flavor; vigor of vine; and capacity for self-fertilization. For a grape having its proportion of European parentage, the vine is vigorous, hardy and productive. The chief defects in fruit are a thick and rough skin, coarse, solid texture of pulp and foxy flavor. The vine is susceptible to the mildews and in many localities does not yield well. Although Agawam ripens soon after Concord, it can be kept much longer and even improves in flavor after picking. The vines prefer heavy soils, doing better on clay than on sand or gravel. This is one of the grapes grown by E. S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts. It was introduced as No. 15 but in 1861 was given the name it now bears. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid to trifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent, flocculent; lobes lacking; terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; lateral sinus very shallow; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers on plan of six, nearly self-fertile, open late; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps until midwinter. Clusters medium to large, short, broad, tapering, loose; pedicel short; brush very short, pale green. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-red with thin bloom, very persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, tough, stringy, solid, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, two to five, large, long, brown. ALMERIA (Vinifera) This is one of the varieties commonly found in eastern markets from Almeria and Malaga, Spain, although occasionally it may come from California where the variety, or similar varieties confused with it, is now grown. This sort is remarkable for its wonderful keeping qualities; it is adapted only to hot interior regions. The Almeria cultivated by the California Experiment Station is described as follows: "Vine vigorous; leaves of medium size, round and slightly or not at all lobed, quite glabrous on both sides, teeth obtuse and alternately large and small; bunches large, loose or compact, irregular conical; berries from small to large, cylindrical, flattened on the ends, very hard and tasteless." AMERICA (Lincecumii, Rupestris) The notable qualities of America are vigor of growth and health of foliage in vine, and persistence of berries, which have strongly colored red juice, high sugar-content and excellent flavor. The grapes wholly lack the foxy taste and aroma of Labrusca and the variety, therefore, offers possibilities for breeding sorts lacking the foxy flavor of Concord and Niagara. America has great resistance to heat and cold. Also, it is said to be a suitable stock upon which to graft Vinifera varieties to resist phylloxera. The vigor of the vine and the luxuriance of the foliage make it an excellent sort for arbors. America was grown by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Jaeger No. 43 pollinated by a male Rupestris. It was introduced about 1892. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark reddish-brown with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin; upper surface glossy, smooth; lower surface light green, hairy; lobes lacking or faint, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep and wide; teeth of average depth and width. Flowers self-sterile, usually on plan of six, open late; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season or later, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, irregular, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with small warts; brush short, thick with red tinge. Berries small, variable in size, round, purplish-black, glossy with purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh dull white with faint red tinge, translucent, tender, melting, spicy, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, two to five, long, pointed, yellowish-brown. AMINIA (Labrusca, Vinifera) Aminia is one of the best early grapes, its season being with or a little after Moore Early. The grapes are of high quality and attractive appearance, but the bunches are small, variable in size, not well formed and the berries ripen unevenly. The vine is vigorous but is neither as hardy nor as productive as a commercial variety should be. In 1867 Isadora Bush, a Missourian, planted vines of Rogers No. 39 from several different sources. When these came into bearing, he distinguished three varieties. Bush selected the best of the three and, with the consent of Rogers, named it Aminia. In spite of Bush's care, there are two distinct grapes cultivated under this name. Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, lacking in productiveness. Canes rough, long, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid or bifid, persistent. Leaves large; upper surface dull, smooth; lower surface light green, pubescent; lobes three; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, irregular, conical, sometimes with a long shoulder, loose; pedicel long with few warts; brush short, thick, brownish-red. Berries variable, round, dull black with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tender, adherent with purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh greenish, translucent, tender, solid, coarse, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to six, very large. AUGUST GIANT (Labrusca, Vinifera) August Giant is a hybrid between Labrusca and Vinifera in which the fruit characters are those of the latter species. In appearance and taste of berry, the variety resembles Black Hamburg. The vine is usually vigorous and, considering its parentage, is very hardy. The foliage is thick and luxuriant but subject to mildew. Vigor of vine, beauty of foliage and the quality of the fruit make the variety desirable for the amateur. It needs a long-maturing season. August Giant was grown by N. B. White, Norwood, Massachusetts, in 1861, from seed of an early, large-berried, red Labrusca pollinated by Black Hamburg. Vine very vigorous, hardy, subject to mildew. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green or bronzed, pubescent; lobes three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, frequently closed and overlapping; lateral sinus shallow or a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters of average size, short, broad, irregularly tapering, single-shouldered, loose; pedicel long, thick with large warts; brush short, thick, green or with brown tinge. Berries large, oval, purplish-red or black, dull with thick bloom, firm; skin tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, tough, stringy; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, blunt, light brown. BACCHUS (Vulpina, Labrusca) Bacchus is an offspring of Clinton which it resembles in vine and leaf characters, but surpasses in quality of fruit and in productiveness of vine. The special points of merit of the variety are: resistance to cold, resistance to phylloxera, freedom from fungi and insects, productiveness, ease of multiplication and capacity to bear grafts. Its limitations are: poor quality for table use, inability to withstand dry soils or droughts, and nonadaptability to soils containing much lime. The variety originated with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, and was first exhibited by him in 1879. Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, dark brown with bloom at the nodes which are enlarged and flattened; tendrils bifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface dull green, smooth; lobes three, terminal one acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, wide. Flowers open early, self-sterile; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well, hangs long. Clusters small, slender, uniform, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with a few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries small, round, black, glossy, covered with thin bloom, hang well to pedicels, firm; skin thin, adherent, contains much wine-colored pigment, slightly astringent; flesh dark green, translucent, fine-grained, tough, vinous, spicy; fair quality. Seeds clinging, one to four, many abortive, large, short and wide, plump, sharply pointed, brown. BAKATOR (Vinifera) This is a Hungarian wine grape but its high quality and early season make it a desirable table-grape in the East. It seems to be grown but little on the Pacific slope. The following description is made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York: Vine medium in vigor, productive. Young leaves tinged red at edges, upper surface glossy; mature leaves large, round, upper surface dull, lower surface downy; lobes five, terminal lobe acuminate; basal sinus deep, medium to narrow, closed to overlapping; lower lateral sinus deep, variable in width; upper lateral sinus deep, usually narrows; margins dentate, teeth shallow to medium deep. Flowers appear late; stamens reflexed. Fruit ripens at Geneva the first or second week in October and keeps well in storage; clusters above medium in size, medium in length, broad, frequently double-shouldered, tapering, medium to loose; berries medium to small, oval, light red becoming dark when fully ripe, with thick bloom; skin thin, tender, adherent to the pulp; flesh greenish, juicy, tender, melting, vinous, sweet; quality very good. BARRY (Labrusca, Vinifera) Barry (Plate VII) is one of the best American black grapes, resembling in berry and in flavor and keeping quality of fruit its European parent, Black Hamburg. The appearance of berry and bunch is attractive. The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive but susceptible to mildew. The ripening season is just after that of Concord. For the table, for winter keeping and for the amateur, this variety may be highly recommended. Barry was dedicated in 1869, by E. S. Rogers, who originated it, to Patrick Barry, distinguished nurseryman and pomologist. The variety is grown in gardens throughout the grape regions of eastern America. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark brown with heavy bloom; nodes flattened; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to three, terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters short, very broad, tapering, often subdividing into several parts, compact; pedicel with small warts. Berries large, oval, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with heavy bloom, adherent; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, tender, stringy, vinous, pleasant-flavored; good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, deeply notched, with enlarged neck, brown. BEACON (Lincecumii, Labrusca) Another of T. V. Munson's hybrids is Beacon. It is not well adapted to northern regions but does very well in the South. The vine is vigorous and bears a handsome, compact mass of foliage which retains its color and freshness through drouths and heat. Munson grew Beacon in 1887 from seed of Big Berry (a variety of Lincecumii) pollinated by Concord, the vine bearing first in 1889. Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, productive. Canes short, slender, light brown. Leaves healthy, thick, dark green, sometimes rugose; veins showing indistinctly through the slight pubescence of the lower surface. Flowers open in mid-season, on plan of five or six, self-fertile. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, usually high-shouldered, compact. Berries variable in size, round, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, firm; skin tough, adherent with a large amount of purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh tender, aromatic, spicy, vinous, mildly subacid; good. Seeds free, large, broad, blunt, notched. BERCKMANS (Vulpina, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) In Berckmans we have the fruit of Delaware on the vine of Clinton. The berry and bunch resemble Delaware in shape; the fruit is of the same color; bunch and berry are larger; the grapes keep longer; the flesh is firmer but the quality is not so good, the flesh lacking tenderness and richness in comparison with Delaware. The vine of Berckmans is not only more vigorous, but is less subject to mildew than that of Delaware. The vine characters are not, however, as good as those of Clinton. The variety is poorly adapted to some soils, and on these the grapes do not color well. In spite of many good qualities, Berckmans is but an amateur's grape. The name commemorates the viticultural labors of P. J. Berckmans, a contemporary and friend of A. P. Wylie, of Chester, South Carolina, who originated the variety. Berckmans came from Delaware seed fertilized by Clinton, the seed having been sown in 1868. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark brown; nodes prominent, flattened; internodes short; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves small, thin; upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface pale green, glabrous; lobes one to three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow. Flowers open early, self-fertile; stamens upright. Fruit ripens with Delaware. Clusters shouldered, compact, slender; pedicel long, slender with few warts; brush short, light green. Berries small, oval, Delaware-red, darker when well ripened, covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale yellowish-green, translucent, fine-grained, tender, melting, vinous, sweet, sprightly; very good. Seeds free, one to four, small, broad, blunt, brown. BLACK EAGLE (Labrusca, Vinifera) The fruit of Black Eagle is of the best, but the vine lacks in vigor, hardiness and productiveness and is self-sterile. Bunch and berry are large and attractive. The season is about with Concord. Black Eagle has wholly failed as a commercial variety, and its several weaknesses prevent amateurs from growing it widely. The variety originated with Stephen W. Underhill, Croton-on-Hudson, New York, from seed of Concord pollinated by Black Prince. It fruited first in 1866. Vine vigorous, precariously hardy, unproductive. Canes rough, thick, reddish-brown with light bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth to rugose; lobes five; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; lateral sinus wide, narrowing towards top, deep. Flowers open in mid-season, self-sterile; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, tapering, single-or double-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, slender with few warts; brush short, pale green. Berries variable in size, oval, black, glossy with thick bloom; skin tender, thin, adherent with wine-colored pigment; flesh pale green, translucent, tender, vinous; good. Seeds free, one to four, large. BLACK HAMBURG (Vinifera) Black Hamburg (Plate VI) is an old European sort, long the mainstay in forcing-houses in Belgium, England and America and now popular out of doors in California. It is an excellent table-grape but, while it keeps well, its tender skin does not permit its being shipped far, especially when grown out of doors. The vine is subject to disease. The following description of the fruit is made from grapes grown in the greenhouse: Bunches very large, often a foot in length and weighing several pounds; very broad at the shoulder and gradually tapering to a point; compact, oftentimes too compact; berries very large, round or slightly round-oval; skin rather thick; dark purple becoming black at full maturity; flesh firm, juicy, sweet and rich; quality very good or best. Season early in the forcing-house but rather late out of doors. BLACK MALVOISE (Vinifera) This variety is rather widely grown in California as an early table-grape and might be worth trying in eastern grape regions. While the fruit is not of the best quality, it is good. The following description is compiled: Vine vigorous, healthy and productive; wood long-jointed, rather slender, light brown. Leaves of medium size, oval, evenly and deeply five-lobed; basal sinus open, with nearly parallel sides; upper surface smooth, almost glabrous; lower surface slightly tomentose on the veins and veinlets. Bunches large, loose, branching; berries large, oblong, reddish black with faint bloom; flesh firm, juicy, crisp; flavor lacking in richness and character; quality not high. Season early, keeping and shipping but poorly. BLACK MOROCCO (Vinifera) Black Morocco very generally meets the approval of grape-growers on the Pacific slope without being a prime favorite for either home use or commerce. The grapes are not high enough in quality for a home vineyard, and, while they ship well, are hard to handle because of the large size and rigidity of the bunches. Another fault is that the vines are subject to root-knot. The chief asset of the variety is handsome appearance of fruit. This variety is remarkable for the number of second-crop bunches which it produces on the laterals. The following description is compiled: Vine very vigorous, productive; canes spreading, few. Leaves medium to small, very deeply five-lobed; the younger leaves truncate at base, giving them a semi-circular outline, with long, sharp teeth alternating with very small ones; glabrous, or nearly so, on both sides. Bunches very large, short, shouldered, compact and rigid; berries very large, round, often misshapen from compression; dull purple, lacking color in the center of the bunch; flesh firm, crisp, neutral in flavor, lacking in richness; quality rather low. Season late, keeping and shipping well. BRIGHTON (Labrusca, Vinifera) Brighton (Plate VIII) is one of the few Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids which have attained prominence in commercial vineyards. It ranks as one of the leading amateur grapes in eastern America and is among the ten or twelve chief commercial sorts of this region. Its good points are: for the fruit, high quality; for the vine, vigorous growth, productiveness, adaptability to various soils and ability to withstand fungi. Brighton has two serious defects which keep it from taking higher rank as a commercial variety: it deteriorates in quality very quickly after maturity, so that it cannot be kept for more than a few days at its best, hence cannot well be shipped to distant markets; and it is self-sterile to a more marked degree than any other commonly-grown grape. Brighton is a seedling of Diana Hamburg pollinated by Concord, raised by Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York. The original vine fruited first in 1870. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, subject to mildew. Canes long, numerous, light brown; nodes enlarged, usually flattened; internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three when present, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width; lateral sinus shallow; teeth narrow. Flowers open late, self-sterile; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, heavily shouldered, loose; pedicel thick; brush pale green with brown tinge, thick, short. Berries irregular, large, oval, light red, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green, transparent, tender, stringy, melting, aromatic, vinous, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to five, broad, light brown. [Illustration: PLATE XXIV.--Moore Early (×3/5).] BRILLIANT (Labrusca, Vinifera, Bourquiniana) Brilliant is a cross between Lindley and Delaware. In cluster and size of berry it resembles Lindley; in color and quality of fruit it is about the same as Delaware, differing chiefly in having more astringency in the skin. Its season is about with Delaware. The grapes do not crack or shell, therefore ship well, and have very good keeping qualities, especially on the vine where they often hang for weeks. The vine is vigorous and hardy. The defects which have kept Brilliant from becoming one of the standard commercial sorts are: marked susceptibility to fungi, variability in size of cluster, unevenness in ripening and unproductiveness. In favorable situations this variety pleases the amateur, and the commercial grower often finds it profitable. The seed which produced Brilliant was planted by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, in 1883 and the variety was introduced in 1887. Vine vigorous, hardy, rather unproductive. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface gray-green, downy; obscurely three-lobed with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal and lateral sinuses obscure and shallow when present; teeth intermediate in depth and width. Flowers open late, self-fertile; stamens upright. Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium, blunt, cylindrical, usually shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with a few small warts; brush short, thick, pale green with reddish tinge. Berries round, dark red, glossy with thin bloom, strongly adherent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, stringy, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds clinging, one to four, large, broad, elongated, plump, light brown. BROWN (Labrusca) In spite of many encomiums in the past quarter century, Brown has not received favorable recognition from fruit-growers. The quality is not high, the berries shatter badly, and the vine is lacking in vigor. Brown is a seedling of Isabella which came up in a yard at Newburgh, New York, about 1884. Vine hardy, productive. Canes short, slender, dark brown; tendrils continuous. Leaves healthy, light green, glossy; veins well defined, distinctly showing through the thick bronze of the lower surface. Flowers open early, self-fertile stamens upright. Fruit large, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, slender, cylindrical or tapering, usually single-shouldered. Berries intermediate in size, oval, black with thick bloom, drop soon after ripening; skin adherent; flesh juicy, tough, fine-grained, a little foxy, mild next the skin but tart at center; good. Seeds short, blunt, light brown. CAMPBELL EARLY (Labrusca, Vinifera) The meritorious qualities of Campbell Early (Plate IX) are: The grapes are high in quality when mature; free from foxiness and from acidity about the seeds; have small seeds which easily part from the flesh; are early, ripening nearly a fortnight before Concord; bunch and berry are large and handsome; and the vines are exceptionally hardy. Campbell Early falls short in not being adapted to many soils; the variety lacks productiveness; the grapes attain full color before they are ripe and are, therefore, often marketed in an unripe condition; the bunch is variable in size; and the color of the berry is not attractive. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, grew this variety from a seedling of Moore Early pollinated by a Labrusca-Vinifera hybrid. It bore first in 1892. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes thick, dark reddish-brown, surface roughened with small warts; nodes flattened; internodes short; shoots pubescent; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface green, glossy; lower surface bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three, usually entire, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus pubescent; lateral sinus wide or a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters usually large, long, broad, tapering, single-shouldered; pedicel short, slender with small warts; brush long, light wine color. Berries usually large, round, oval, dark purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, thin, adherent with dark red pigment, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, coarse, vinous, sweet from skin to center; good. Seeds free, one to four, light brown, often with yellow tips. CANADA (Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera) Canada is considered the most desirable hybrid between Vulpina and Vinifera. The variety shows Vinifera more than Vulpina parentage; thus, in susceptibility to fungal diseases, in shape, color and texture of foliage, in the flavor of the fruit and in the seeds, there are marked indications of Vinifera; while the vine, especially in the slenderness of its shoots and in the bunch and berry, shows Vulpina. Canada has little value as a dessert fruit but makes a very good red wine or grape-juice. Canada is a seedling of Clinton, a Labrusca-Vulpina hybrid, fertilized by Black St. Peters, a variety of Vinifera. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, planted the seed which produced Canada in 1860. Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, ash-gray, reddish-brown at nodes with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, trifid or bifid. Leaves thin; upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface pale green, hairy; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus variable in depth and width; lateral sinus deep and narrow; teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-sterile, early; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters long, slender, uniform, cylindrical, compact; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush short, light brown. Berries small, round, purplish-black, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh dark green, very juicy, fine-grained, tender, spicy, pleasant vinous flavor, agreeably tart; good. Seeds free, one to three, blunt, light brown. CANANDAIGUA (Labrusca, Vinifera) Canandaigua is worth attention because of the exceptionally good keeping qualities of the grapes. The flavor is very good at picking time but seems, if anything, to improve in storage. The vine characters are those of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids, and in these the variety is the equal of the average cultivated hybrid of these two species. The characters of the fruit, also, show plainly an admixture of Vinifera and Labrusca so combined as to make the grapes very similar to the best of such hybrids. Canandaigua is a chance seedling found by E. L. Van Wormer, Canandaigua, New York, growing among wild grapes. It was distributed about 1897. Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, few, reddish-brown, faint bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils semi-continuous, bifid, dehisce early. Leaves large, thin; upper surface light green; lower surface gray-green. Flowers sterile or sometimes partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit late mid-season, keeps unusually well. Clusters variable in size, usually heavily single-shouldered, loose to medium. Berries large, oval, black, covered with thick bloom, persistent; skin adherent, thin, tough; flesh firm, sweet and rich; good, improves as season advances. Seeds long with enlarged neck. CARMAN (Lincecumii, Vinifera, Labrusca) Carman is a grape having the characters of three species and hence is of interest to grape improvers. It has not become popular with growers, chiefly because the grapes ripen very late and are not of high quality. The most valuable character of the variety is that of long keeping, whether hanging on the vine or after harvesting. T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, raised Carman from seed of a wild post-oak grape taken from the woods, pollinated with mixed pollen of Triumph and Herbemont. It was introduced in 1892. Vine very vigorous, hardy, rather productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, glossy, older leaves rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal sinus absent or shallow; lateral sinus shallow when present. Flowers self-fertile or nearly so, open very late; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, tapering, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush short, slender, wine-colored. Berries small, round, slightly oblate, purplish-black, glossy, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, free; flesh yellowish-green, tender, post-oak flavor, vinous, spicy; good to very good. Seeds free, one to four, small, blunt, brown. CATAWBA (Labrusca, Vinifera) _Arkansas, Catawba Tokay, Cherokee, Fancher, Keller's White, Lebanon, Lincoln, Mammoth Catawba, Mead's Seedling, Merceron, Michigan, Muncy, Omega, Rose of Tennessee, Saratoga, Singleton, Tekomah, Tokay, Virginia Amber._ Catawba has long been the standard red grape in the markets of eastern America, chiefly because the fruit keeps well and is of high quality. The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive, but the foliage and fruit are susceptible to fungi. These two faults account for the decline of Catawba in grape regions in the United States and for its growing unpopularity. In botanical characters and in adaptations and susceptibilities, the variety suggests Vinifera crossed with Labrusca. The characters of Catawba seem readily transmissible to its offspring and, besides having a number of pure-bred descendants which more or less resemble it, it is a parent of a still greater number of cross-breeds. As with Catawba, most of its progeny show Vinifera characters, as intermittent tendrils, Vinifera color of foliage, a vinous flavor wholly or nearly free from foxiness, and the susceptibilities of Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids to certain diseases and insects. Catawba was introduced by John Adlum, District of Columbia, about 1823. Adlum secured cuttings from a Mrs. Scholl, Clarksburgh, Montgomery County, Maryland, in the spring of 1819. Its further history is not known. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface grayish-white, heavily pubescent; lobes sometimes three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus often lacking; lateral sinus narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open late, stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, single-or sometimes double-shouldered, loose; pedicel with a few inconspicuous warts; brush short, pale green. Berries of medium size, oval, dull purplish-red with thick bloom, firm; skin thick, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, vinous, sprightly, sweet and rich; very good. Seeds free, frequently abortive, two, broad-necked, distinctly notched, blunt, brown. CHAMPION (Labrusca) _Beaconsfield, Early Champion, Talman's Seedling_ Champion is a favorite early grape with some growers, although the poor quality of the fruit should have driven it from cultivation long ago. The characters which have kept it in the market are earliness, good shipping qualities, attractive appearance of fruit, and a vigorous, productive, hardy vine. The hardiness of the vine and the short season of fruit development make it a good variety for northern climates. This grape is best in appearance of fruit, in quality and in the quantity produced, on light sandy soils. The origin of Champion is unknown. It was first grown about 1870 in New York. Vine very vigorous, hardy and productive. Canes of average size, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; shoots pubescent; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface dull gray, downy; lobes usually three, often obscurely five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright. Fruit early, three weeks before Concord, season short. Clusters medium in size, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, compact; pedicel short with inconspicuous warts; brush white tinged with bronze. Berries medium in size, round, dull black covered with heavy bloom, soft; skin thick, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, foxy; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad, long, blunt, light brown. CHASSELAS GOLDEN (Vinifera) _Chasselas Dore, Fontainebleau, Sweetwater_ Several qualities have made Chasselas Golden a favorite grape wherever it can be grown. The variety is adapted to widely differing environments; the season of ripening is early; while not choicely high, the quality of the grapes is good and they are beautiful, clear green tinged with beautiful golden bronze where exposed to the sun. Chasselas Golden is a popular variety on the Pacific slope and should be one of the first Viniferas to be tried in the East. The following description was made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York: Vine medium in vigor, very productive; buds open in mid-season. Young leaves tinged with red on both upper and lower surfaces, thinly pubescent to glabrous; mature leaves medium to above in size, slightly cordate; upper surface glabrous, lower surface slightly pubescent along the veins; lobes five in number, terminal lobe acuminate; basal sinus broad and rather deep; lower lateral sinus variable, usually broad and sometimes deep; upper lateral sinus broad and frequently deep; teeth large, obtuse to rounded. Flowers late; stamens upright. Fruit ripens early and keeps well in storage; clusters large, long, broad, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder, compactness medium; berries medium to above, slightly oval, pale green to clear yellow, with thin bloom; skin thin, tough, adherent, slightly astringent; flesh greenish, translucent, firm, juicy, tender, sweet; good. CHASSELAS ROSE (Vinifera) Chasselas Rose is very similar to Chasselas Golden, differing chiefly in smaller bunch and berry and slightly different flavor which is possibly better. It is a standard sort in California and should be planted in the East where the culture of Viniferas is attempted. The description is made from fruit grown at Geneva, New York: Vine of medium vigor, productive. Opening leaves tinged with red on both surfaces, mature leaves small, round; upper surface medium green, somewhat dull, smooth; lower surface glabrous; lobes three; basal sinus medium in depth and of variable width; lateral sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow, wide, dentate. Flowers appear late; stamens upright. Fruit ripens the second week in October and is a good keeper though it loses its flavor in storage; clusters above and below medium, long, tapering to cylindrical, compact; berries medium in size, roundish-oval, light red changed to violet-red by the bloom; skin thin, astringent, juicy, tender, sweet, mild; quality good. CHAUTAUQUA (Labrusca) In appearance of fruit, Chautauqua is very similar to Concord, its parent, but the grapes ripen a few days earlier and are of better quality, although they do not differ in these respects sufficiently to make the variety much more than an easily recognized strain of Concord. Chautauqua is a volunteer seedling of Concord, found near Brocton, New York, by H. T. Bashtite about 1890. Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes long, thick, cylindrical; internodes long; tendrils continuous, trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round, dark green; upper surface dark green; lower surface tinged with bronze; leaf entire or faintly three-lobed. Flowers semi-fertile, open in mid-season or earlier; stamens upright. Fruit early in mid-season. Clusters medium to large, broad, sometimes single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, round or slightly oval, purplish-black with abundant bloom, shatter badly; skin thin, very astringent; flesh tough, vinous, sweet at skin, acid at center; good to very good. Seeds few, free, broad, plump. CLEVENER (Vulpina, Labrusca) This variety has long been grown in New Jersey and New York, and in both states is highly esteemed as a wine-grape. The fruit is remarkable in coloring very early and in ripening late. The vine is hardy, very vigorous, succeeds in various soils, and since it bears grafts well is an excellent sort upon which to graft varieties not thriving on their own roots. Clevener is self-sterile and must be planted with some other variety to set fruit well. In spite of its good qualities, Clevener is hardly holding its own in commercial vineyards, and it is not a desirable fruit for the amateur who wants a table-grape. Clevener has been raised in the vicinity of Egg Harbor, New Jersey, since about 1870, but its place and time of origin are unknown. Vine a rampant grower, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark reddish-brown with heavy bloom; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves unusually large, dark green with well-defined ribs showing through the thin pubescence of the under surface; lobes wanting or faint; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-sterile, open very early; stamens reflexed. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters do not always fill well, small, short, slender, irregularly tapering, often with a single shoulder. Berries small, round or slightly flattened, black, glossy, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, thin, inclined to crack, adherent with much purplish-red pigment; flesh reddish-green, juicy, tender, soft, fine-grained, aromatic, spicy; good. Seeds free, notched, sharp-pointed, dark brown. CLINTON (Vulpina, Labrusca) _Worthington_ Clinton (Plate X) came into prominence because of vigor, hardiness, fruitfulness and immunity to phylloxera. A serious defect is that the vines bloom so early that the blossoms are often caught by late frosts in northern climates. Other defects are: the fruit is small and sour, and the seeds and skins prominent. The fruit colors early in the season but does not ripen until late, a slight touch of frost improving the flavor. Clinton bears grafts well, making a quick and firm union with Labrusca and Vinifera, and the vines are easily propagated from cuttings. This variety has been used widely in grape-breeding, and its blood can be traced in many valuable varieties. The offspring of Clinton are usually very hardy, and this, taken with its other desirable characters, makes it an exceptionally good starting-point for breeding grapes for northern latitudes. Clinton is an old sort, the Worthington, known as early as 1815, renamed; it began to attract attention about 1840. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; shoots smooth; tendrils intermittent, sometimes continuous, bifid. Leaves hang until late in the season, small, thin; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface pale green, glabrous; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, urn-shaped; basal and lateral sinuses shallow; teeth wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, uniform, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, very slender, smooth; brush tinged with red. Berries small, round, oval, purplish-black, glossy, covered with thick bloom, adherent, firm; skin very thin, tough, free from pulp with much wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh dark green, juicy, fine-grained, tough, solid, spicy, sour, vinous. Seeds adherent, two, short, blunt, brownish. [Illustration: PLATE XXV.--Muscat Hamburg (×2/3).] COLERAIN (Labrusca) This is one of the numerous white seedlings of Concord and one of the few with sufficient merit to be kept in cultivation. The vine has the characteristic foliage and habit of growth of its parent, but the fruit is earlier by a week, is of much higher quality and lacks the foxiness of most Labruscas. The grapes are sprightly and vinous, and neither seeds nor skin are as objectionable as in the parent. The fruit hangs to the vine and keeps well, but owing to tender pulp does not ship well. The variety is unproductive in some localities. Colerain is worthy a place in home vineyards. David Bundy, Colerain, Ohio, grew this variety from seed of Concord planted in 1880. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes slender, dark reddish-brown; nodes flattened; internodes short, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface bronze, downy; leaf not lobed, terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal and lateral sinus very shallow when present; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, opening in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early. Clusters medium in size and length, slender, blunt, tapering, irregular, strongly shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, smooth; brush green. Berries round, light green, glossy with thin bloom, persistent; skin unusually thin, tender, adherent, unpigmented, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, soft, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, one to three, small, broad, notched, short, plump, brown. COLUMBIAN IMPERIAL (Labrusca, Vulpina) _Columbian, Jumbo_ Columbian Imperial is a Labrusca-Vulpina hybrid chiefly remarkable for the great size of its reddish-black berries, although the vine is so exceptionally healthy and vigorous as to give it prominence for these characters as well. The variety has remarkably thick leathery leaves which seem almost proof against either insects or fungi. The quality of the fruit, however, is inferior, and the small clusters vary in number of berries and these shell easily. The only value of the variety is for exhibition purposes and for breeding to secure the desirable characters named. The parentage of Columbian Imperial is unknown. It originated with J. S. McKinley, Orient, Ohio, in 1885. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark reddish-brown, heavily pubescent, spiny; nodes prominent; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves green, very thick; lower surface pale green shading into bronze on older leaves with little pubescence; lobes three, indistinct; teeth sharp, shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright. Fruit late. Clusters medium in size, sometimes shouldered; peduncle slender; pedicel long; brush long, slender, green. Berries very large, round, slightly oval, dull reddish-black with faint bloom, firm; skin thick, tough, unpigmented; flesh juicy, tough, sweet at the skin but acid at center; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, large, plump, broad, blunt. CONCORD (Labrusca) Concord (Plate XI) is the most widely known of the grapes of this continent, and with its offspring, pure-bred and cross-bred, furnishes 75 per cent of the grapes of eastern America. The preëminently meritorious character of Concord is that it adapts itself to varying conditions; thus, Concord is grown with profit in every grape-growing state in the Union and to an extent not possible with any other variety. A second character which commends Concord is fruitfulness--the vine bears large crops year in and year out. Added to these points of superiority, are: hardiness; ability to withstand the ravages of diseases and insects; comparative earliness; certainty of maturity in northern regions; and fair size and handsome appearance of bunch and berry. Concord also blossoms late in the spring and does not suffer often from spring frosts, nor is the fruit often injured by late frosts. The crop hangs well on the vine. The variety is not, however, without faults: the quality is not high, the grapes lacking richness, delicacy of flavor and aroma, and having a foxy taste disagreeable to many; the seeds and skin are objectionable, the seeds being large and abundant and difficult to separate from the flesh, and the skin being tough and unpleasantly astringent; the grapes do not keep nor ship well and rapidly lose flavor after ripening; the skin cracks and the berries shell from the stems after picking; and the vine is but slightly resistant to phylloxera. While Concord is grown in the South, it is essentially a northern grape, becoming susceptible to fungi in southern climates and suffering from phylloxera in dry, warm soils. The botanical characters of Concord indicate that it is a pure-bred Labrusca. Seeds of a wild grape were planted in the fall of 1843 by E. W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts, plants from which fruited in 1849. One of these seedlings was named Concord. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; shoots pubescent; tendrils continuous, long, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface light bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus variable; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus obscure and frequently notched; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps from one to two months. Clusters uniform, large, wide, broadly tapering, usually single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick, smooth; brush pale green. Berries large, round, glossy, black with heavy bloom, firm; skin tough, adherent with a small amount of wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, solid, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, broad, distinctly notched, plump, blunt, brownish. COTTAGE (Labrusca) In vine and fruit, Cottage resembles its parent, Concord, having, however, remarkably large, thick, leathery leaves. It is noted also for its strong, branching root system and canes so rough as to be almost spiny. The fruit is better in quality than that of its parent, having less foxiness and a richer, more delicate flavor. The crop ripens from one to two weeks earlier than Concord. The good qualities of the variety are offset by comparative unproductiveness and unevenness in ripening. Cottage is recommended as an early grape of the Concord type for the garden. This variety was grown from seed of Concord by E. W. Bull, Concord, Massachusetts. It was introduced in 1869. Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy. Canes rough, hairy, long, numerous, dark brown; nodes enlarged; shoots very pubescent; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth or rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, pubescent; leaf entire with terminal acute; petiolar sinus deep and wide; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit does not keep well. Clusters of medium size, broad, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with a few small warts; brush dark red. Berries of medium size, round, dull black with heavy bloom, drop badly from pedicel, firm; skin thick, tender, adherent with dark purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh juicy, tough, solid, foxy; good. Seeds free, one to four, large, broad, blunt, light brown. CREVELING (Labrusca, Vinifera) _Bloom, Bloomburg, Catawissa, Columbia Bloom_ Creveling was long a favorite black grape for the garden, where, if planted in good soil, it produces fine clusters of large, handsome, very good grapes. Under any but the best of care, however, the vine is unproductive and sets loose, straggling bunches. The variety is markedly self-sterile. The origin of Creveling is uncertain. It was introduced about 1857 by F. F. Merceron, Catawissa, Pennsylvania. Vine vigorous, not hardy, often unproductive. Canes long, numerous, thick, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; shoots glabrous; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three, or obscurely five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, closed, overlapping; basal sinus very shallow; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers on plan of six, self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters long, broad, irregularly tapering, single-shouldered, the shoulder often connected to the cluster by a long stem, loose; brush thick, dark wine-color. Berries large, oval, dull black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent with wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, stringy, tender, coarse, foxy; good. Seeds free, one to five, broad, notched, blunt, light brown. CROTON (Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) The fruit of Croton is a feast both to the eye and to the palate. Unfortunately the vine is difficult to grow, being adapted to but few soils and proving unfruitful, weak in growth, precariously tender and subject to mildew and rot in unfavorable situations. The grapes have a delicate, sweet Vinifera flavor with melting flesh which readily separates from the few seeds. The crop hangs on the vines until frost and keeps well into the winter. In spite of high quality of fruit, Croton has never become widely distributed, wholly failing as a commercial variety. It originated with S. W. Underhill, Croton Point, New York, from a seed of Delaware pollinated by a European grape. Fruits were first exhibited in 1868. Vine vigorous, tender, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves of medium size, hang late; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes five, terminal one blunt; basal sinus narrow; lateral sinus deep and narrow; petiolar sinus narrow, often closed and overlapping; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters uniform, very large, long, slender, irregularly tapering with heavy shoulder, very loose; pedicel long, thick with inconspicuous warts; brush green. Berries irregular in size, round-elongated, yellowish-green with thin bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, tough, adherent, unpigmented; flesh green, transparent, very juicy, melting, vinous, pleasant, agreeably sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to three, elongated, notched, sharply pointed. CUNNINGHAM (Bourquiniana) _Long, Prince Edward_ Cunningham is cultivated very little in America, but in France, at one time, was one of the best-known grapes, both as a direct producer and as a stock for European varieties. It was much sought for by the French as a stock for large Vinifera cions, the size of the vine giving an opportunity for making a good graft. In the South, where the variety originated, Cunningham is not largely grown, as there are several other varieties of its type superior in fruit and vine. The vine is a capricious grower and is particular as to soil and climate. The grapes make a deep yellow wine of a very good quality but have little value as table-grapes. Cunningham originated with Jacob Cunningham, Prince Edward County, Virginia, about 1812. Vine vigorous, spreading, productive. Canes large, long with stiff reddish hairs at base; shoots showing considerable bloom; tendrils intermittent, usually trifid. Leaves large, thick, round, entire or lobed; smooth and dark green above, yellowish green below, pubescent; petiolar sinus narrow, frequently overlapping. Clusters of medium size, long, sometimes shouldered, very compact; pedicel long, slender with small warts; brush short, light brown. Berries small, purplish-black with thin bloom; skin thin, tough with much underlying pigment; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly; quality poor or but fair. Seeds two to five, oval. CYNTHIANA (Æstivalis, Labrusca) _Arkansas, Red River_ There is controversy as to whether this variety differs from Norton. The two ripen at separate times, and the fruits differ a little so that they must be considered as distinct. Cynthiana is particular as to soil and location, preferring sandy loams and does not thrive on clays or limestones. While very resistant to phylloxera, this variety is not much used as a resistant stock because it is not easily propagated. The vines are resistant to mildew, black-rot, and anthracnose and are strong, vigorous growers. The cycle of vegetation for Cynthiana is long, the buds bursting forth early and the fruit maturing very late. The variety has no value as a table-grape but in the South is one of the best grapes for red wine. No doubt it will prove one of the best southern sorts for grape-juice. Cynthiana was received about 1850 by Prince, of Flushing, Long Island, from Arkansas, where it was found growing in the woods. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes medium in length, numerous, reddish-brown with thick bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; shoots glabrous; tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid. Leaves thick, firm; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface tinged with blue, faintly pubescent, cobwebby; lobes variable in number, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, closed, sometimes overlapping; basal sinus shallow; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow; stamens upright. Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters medium to small, long, tapering, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, with numerous warts; brush short, thick, wine-colored. Berries small, round, black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent with purple pigment, astringent; flesh dark green, translucent, juicy, tough, firm, spicy, tart; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to six, small, short, blunt, dark brown. DELAWARE (Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera) _French Grape, Gray Delaware, Ladies' Choice, Powell, Ruff_ Delaware (Plate VII) is used wherever American grapes are grown as the standard to gauge the quality of other grapes. Added to high quality in fruit, the variety withstands climatic conditions to which all but the most hardy varieties succumb, is adapted to many soils and conditions, and bears under most situations an abundant crop. These qualities make it, next to Concord, the most popular grape for garden and vineyard now grown in the United States. Besides the qualities named, the grapes mature sufficiently early to make the crop certain, are attractive in appearance, keep and ship well and are more immune than other commercial varieties to black-rot. Faults of the variety are: small vine, slow growth, susceptibility to mildew, capriciousness in certain soils and small berries. The first two faults make it necessary to plant the vines more closely than those of other commercial varieties. Delaware succeeds best in deep, rich, well-drained, warm soils, but even on these it must have good cultivation, close pruning and the crop must be thinned. Delaware is grown North and South, westward to the Rocky Mountains. It is now proving profitable in many southern locations as an early grape to ship to northern markets. It is an especially desirable grape to cultivate in small gardens because of its delicious, handsome fruit, its compact habit of growth and its ample and lustrous green, delicately formed leaves which make it one of the most ornamental of the grapes. Delaware can be traced to the garden of Paul H. Provost, Frenchtown, New Jersey, where it was growing early in the nineteenth century, and from whence it was taken to Delaware, Ohio, in 1849 and from there distributed to fruit-growers. Vine weak, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous, slender, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five in number, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus narrow and shallow when present; lateral sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, slender, blunt, cylindrical, regular, shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush light brown. Berries uniform in size and shape, small, round, light red, covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, unpigmented, astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, tender, aromatic, vinous, refreshing, sweet; best in quality. Seeds free, one to four, broad, notched, short, blunt, light brown. DIAMOND (Labrusca, Vinifera) Few other grapes surpass Diamond in quality and beauty of fruit. When to its desirable fruit characters are added hardiness, productiveness and vigor of vine, the variety is surpassed by no other green grape. Diamond is a diluted hybrid between Labrusca and Vinifera and the touch of the exotic grape is just sufficient to give the fruit the richness in flavor of the Old World grape and not overcome the refreshing sprightliness of the native fox-grapes. The Vinifera characters are wholly recessive in vine and foliage, the plant resembling closely its American parent, Concord. Diamond is well established North and South and can be grown in as great a range of latitude as Concord. Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, grew Diamond about 1870 from Concord seed fertilized by Iona. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, brown with a slight red tinge; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface light bronze, downy; lobes three in number, indistinct; petiolar sinus very shallow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters medium to short, broad, blunt, cylindrical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with a few inconspicuous warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries large, ovate, green with a tinge of yellow, glossy, covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, tender, melting, fine-grained, aromatic, sprightly; very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad and long, sharp-pointed, yellowish-brown. DIANA (Labrusca, Vinifera) Diana (Plate XII) is a seedling of Catawba to which its fruit bears strong resemblance, differing chiefly in having lighter color, in being less pulpy and more juicy. The flavor resembles that of Catawba but has less of the wild taste. The chief point of superiority of Diana over Catawba is in earliness, the crop ripening ten days sooner, making possible its culture far to the north. The defects of Diana are: the vine is tender in cold winters; the grapes ripen unevenly; the berries and foliage are susceptible to fungi; and the vine is a shy bearer. Diana demands poor, dry, gravelly soil without much humus or nitrogen. On clays, loams or rich soils, the vines make a rank growth, and the fruits are few, late and of poor quality. The vine needs to be long pruned and to have all surplus bunches removed, leaving a small crop to mature. Diana is a satisfactory grape for the amateur, and where it does especially well proves profitable for the local market. Mrs. Diana Crehore, Milton, Massachusetts, grew Diana from seed of Catawba, planted about 1834. Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, often unproductive. Canes pubescent, long, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, heavily pubescent; lobes three to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, wide, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow; lateral sinus narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, occasionally shouldered, compact; pedicel covered with small warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries medium in size, slightly ovate, light red covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, slightly adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, fine-grained, vinous, good. Seeds adherent, one to three, light brown. [Illustration: PLATE XXVI.--Niagara (×2/3).] DOWNING (Vinifera, Æstivalis, Labrusca) Downing is well worthy a place in the garden because of the high quality, handsome appearance and good keeping qualities of the grapes. Added to these qualities of the fruits are fair vigor and health of vine. When grown as far north as New York, the vine should be laid down in the winter or receive other protection. In most seasons, unremitting warfare must be kept up to check mildew. In appearance of bunch and berry, Downing is distinct, the clusters being large and well-formed and the berries having the oval shape of a Malaga. The flesh, also, shows _Vitis vinifera_ in texture and quality, while neither seeds nor skins are as objectionable as in pure-bred American varieties. J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, first grew Downing about 1865. Vine tender to cold, unproductive. Canes short, few, slender, dark green with an ash-gray tinge, surface covered with thin bloom, often roughened with a few small warts; nodes much enlarged, strongly flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, round, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, rugose; lower surface dark green, glabrous; lobes one to five, terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus narrow, closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow and narrow when present; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth wide, deep. Flowers open late; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps until spring. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, sometimes loosely shouldered; pedicel slender, covered with numerous warts; brush long, slender, green. Berries large, markedly oval, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with light bloom, strongly persistent, firm; skin thick, tender, adherent; flesh green with a yellow tinge, translucent, very juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, mild; very good in quality. Seeds free, one to three, notched, long, brown. DRACUT AMBER (Labrusca) Dracut Amber is representative of the red type of Labrusca. The fruit has no particular merit, its thick skin, coarse pulp, seeds and foxy taste all being objectionable. However, the vine is very hardy, productive, and ripens its fruit early so that this variety becomes valuable in locations where a vigorous, hardy, early grape is wanted. Asa Clement, Dracut, Massachusetts grew Dracut Amber from seed planted about 1855. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, cobwebby; lobes three to five with terminal one obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow, wide; teeth shallow. Flowers on plan of six, semi-fertile, mid-season. Fruit early, season short. Clusters short, broad, cylindrical, irregular, rarely shouldered, compact; pedicel short, covered with warts; brush long, light yellowish-green. Berries medium to large, oval, dull pale red or dark amber, covered with thin bloom, soft; skin very thick, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, very foxy; inferior in quality. Seeds adherent, two to five, large, broad, light brown. DUTCHESS (Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana? Æstivalis?) Dutchess (Plate XIII) is not grown largely in commercial vineyards because of several faults, as: the vine is tender to cold; the berries do not ripen evenly; berries and foliage are susceptible to fungi; and in soils to which it is not adapted, berries and bunches are small. In spite of these defects, Dutchess should not be discarded by the grape-lover, for there are few grapes of higher quality. The grapes are sweet and rich, yet do not cloy the appetite; although of but medium size, they are attractive, being a beautiful amber color with distinctive dots; the flesh is translucent, sparkling, fine-grained and tender; the seeds are small, few and part readily from the pulp; the skin is thin, yet tough enough for good keeping; and the bunches are large and compact when well grown. The variety is self-fertile and, therefore, desirable when only a few vines are wanted. The clusters are especially fine when bagged. A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New York, grew Dutchess from seed of a white Concord seedling pollinated by mixed pollen of Delaware and Walter. The seed was planted in 1868. Vine vigorous, an uncertain bearer. Canes dark brown with light bloom, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves irregular in outline; upper surface pale green, pubescent; leaf entire with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus shallow when present; lateral sinus medium in depth or a mere notch. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long, slender, tapering with a prominent single shoulder; pedicel slender, smooth; brush amber-colored. Berries of medium size, round, pale yellow-green verging on amber, some showing bronze tinge with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin sprinkled with small dark dots, thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet, of pleasant flavor; quality high. Seeds free, one, two or occasionally three, small, short, sharp-pointed, brown. EARLY DAISY (Labrusca) The qualities of Early Daisy render the variety more than commonplace. Its earliness commends it, the ripening period being eight or ten days earlier than Champion or Moore Early, making it one of the very earliest varieties. For a grape maturing at its season, it both keeps and ships well. Early Daisy would seem to be as desirable as Hartford or Champion. The variety originated with John Kready, Mount Joy, Pennsylvania, in 1874, as a seedling of Hartford. Vine vigorous, hardy, produces fair crops. Canes of medium length, numerous, slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves small, light green; upper surface rugose; lower surface slightly pubescent, cobwebby; lobes wanting or faintly three; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers nearly self-sterile. Fruit early. Clusters small to medium, often blunt at ends, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush reddish, slender. Berries of medium size, round, dull black, covered with heavy bloom, persistent; skin tough, purplish-red pigment; flesh tough, solid, aromatic, tart at the skin, acid at center; inferior in flavor and quality. Seeds numerous, adherent, of average size, dark brown. EARLY OHIO (Labrusca) Early Ohio is remarkable, chiefly, in being one of the earliest commercial grapes. The fruit resembles that of Concord, of which it is probably a seedling. Notwithstanding many defects, Early Ohio is grown somewhat commonly, although its culture is on the wane. The variety was found in 1882 by R. A. Hunt, Euclid, Ohio, between rows of Delaware and Concord. Vine weak, tender, usually unproductive. Canes short, slender, brown with a red tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves intermediate in size; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green tinged with bronze, pubescent; lobes wanting or one to three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, tapering; pedicel slender with a few small warts; brush slender, tinged with red. Berries variable in size, round, purplish-black, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, aromatic; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, notched, brown with yellowish-brown tips. EARLY VICTOR (Labrusca, Bourquiniana?) Early Victor is highest in quality of early black grapes. It is especially pleasing to those who object to the foxiness so marked in Hartford and Champion. Were the season but a few days earlier and bunch and berry a little larger, Early Victor would be the best grape to start the grape season. The vines are hardy, healthy, vigorous and productive, with growth and foliage resembling Hartford, which is probably one of its parents, Delaware being the other. The bunches are small, compact, variable in shape and the berries are about the size and shape of those of Delaware. Its season is that of Moore Early or a little later, although, like many black grapes, the fruit colors before it is ripe and is often picked too green. Unfortunately the fruit is susceptible to black-rot and shrivels after ripening. John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, first grew Early Victor about 1871. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark brown, surface pubescent; nodes enlarged; internodes long; tendrils continuous, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface white, heavily pubescent; lobes three to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width; basal sinus shallow and wide when present; lateral sinus narrow. Flowers semi-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit very early, does not keep well. Clusters small, variable in shape, cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, covered with numerous small warts; brush wine-colored or pinkish-red. Berries small, round, dark purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent, contains much red pigment, astringent; flesh greenish-white, opaque, fine-grained, aromatic, vinous; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, broad, notched, blunt, dark brown. EATON (Labrusca) Eaton (Plate XIV) is a pure-bred seedling of Concord which it surpasses in appearance but does not equal in quality of fruit. The flesh is tough and stringy, and though sweet at the skin, is acid at the seeds and has the same foxiness that characterizes Concord, but with more juice and less richness, so that it is well described as a "diluted" Concord. The grape-skin is very similar to that of Concord, and the fruit packs, ships and keeps about the same, perhaps not quite as well because of the greater amount of juice. The season is a few days earlier than Concord. The vine is similar in all characters to that of its parent. The grapes ripen unevenly, the flowers are self-sterile, and in some locations the vine is a shy bearer. The variety has not found favor with either grower or consumer. Eaton originated with Calvin Eaton, Concord, New Hampshire, about 1868. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes thick, light brown with blue bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round, thick; upper surface dark green; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, often notched; teeth shallow. Flowers semi-sterile, early; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, short, broad, blunt, sometimes double-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, thick, smooth; brush slender, pale green. Berries large, round, black with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, broad, notched, plump, blunt. ECLIPSE (Labrusca) Eclipse (Plate XV) is a seedling of Niagara and, therefore, a descendant of Concord which it resembles, differing chiefly in earlier fruit which is of better quality. Unfortunately, the bunches and berries are small. The vines are hardly surpassed by those of any other variety, being hardy, healthy and productive, qualities that should commend it for commercial vineyards. The ripe fruit hangs on the vines for some time without deterioration, and the grapes do not crack in wet weather. The crop ripens several days earlier than that of Concord. Eclipse originated with E. A. Riehl, Alton, Illinois, from seed planted about 1890. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes medium in length, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green; lower surface white with a bronze tinge, heavily pubescent; lobes wanting or three with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus narrow, often notched; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters of medium size, broad, tapering, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick, covered with small warts; brush long, pale green. Berries, large, oval, dull black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin tender, slightly adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, foxy, sweet; good. Seeds free, one to four, short, broad, distinctly notched, blunt, brown. EDEN (Rotundifolia, Munsoniana?) Eden is of value as a general-purpose grape for the South and is interesting as one of the few supposed hybrids with _V. rotundifolia_. It is probably a hybrid between the species named and _V. Munsoniana_, another southern wild grape. The vine is exceedingly vigorous and productive and thrives on clay soils, whereas most other Rotundifolias can be grown successfully only on sandy lands. Eden was found some years ago on the premises of Dr. Guild, near Atlanta, Georgia. Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy and bearing a dense canopy of foliage. Canes darker in color than most other Rotundifolias. Leaves of medium size and thickness, longer than wide; petiolar sinus wide; marginal teeth rounded; leaf-tip blunt. Flowers perfect. Fruit early, distinct first and second crops, ripens uniformly. Clusters large, loose, bearing from five to twenty-five berries which adhere fairly well to the pedicels. Berries round, one-half inch in diameter, dull black, faintly specked; skin thin, tender; flesh soft, juicy, pale green, sprightly; good in quality. ELDORADO (Labrusca, Vinifera) The fruit of Eldorado is delicately flavored, with a distinct aroma and taste and ripens about with that of Moore Early--a time when there are few other good white grapes. The vines inherit most of the good qualities of Concord, one of its parents, excepting ability to set large crops. Even with cross-pollination, Eldorado sometimes fails to bear and is not worth growing unless planted in a mixed vineyard. The clusters are so often small and straggling under the best conditions that the variety cannot be recommended highly to the amateur; yet its delightful flavor and its earliness commend it. J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, grew Eldorado about 1870 from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen's Hybrid. Vine vigorous, hardy, an uncertain bearer. Canes long, few, thick, flattened, bright reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, rarely continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large to medium, irregularly round, dark green; upper surface rugose on older leaves; lower surface tinged with brown, pubescent; lobes wanting or faintly three; petiolar sinus deep; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open late; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters do not always set perfectly and are variable in size, frequently single-shouldered; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush short, yellow. Berries large, round, yellowish-green changing to golden yellow, covered with thin bloom; flesh tender, foxy, sweet, mild, high flavored; good to very good in quality. Seeds intermediate in size and length, blunt, yellowish-brown. ELVIRA (Vulpina, Labrusca) Although it has never attained popularity in the North, Elvira (Plate XVI), after its introduction into Missouri about forty years ago, reached the pinnacle of popularity as a wine-grape in the South. The qualities which commended it were: great productiveness; earliness, ripening in the North with Concord; exceedingly good health, being almost free from fungal diseases; great vigor, as shown by a strong, stocky growth and ample foliage; and almost perfect hardiness even as far north as Canada. Its good qualities are offset by two defects: thin skin which bursts easily, thus wholly debarring it from distant markets; and flavor and appearance not sufficiently good to make it a table-grape. Elvira originated with Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri, from seed of Taylor. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, dark brown; nodes flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thin; upper surface light green, pubescent, hairy; lobes wanting or one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, often notched; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters short, cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel smooth; brush short, greenish-yellow with brown tinge. Berries medium in size, round, green with yellow tinge, dull with thin bloom, firm; skin very thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, foxy, sweet; fair in quality. Seeds free, one to four, medium to large, blunt, plump, dark brown. EMPEROR (Vinifera) Emperor is one of the standard shipping grapes of the Pacific slope, being one of the mainstays of the interior valleys. On the coast and in southern California, it is irregular in bearing, and on the coast the fruits often fail to ripen. It is chiefly grown in the San Joaquin Valley. It could hardly be expected to ripen even in the most favored grape regions in the East. The following brief description is compiled: Vine strong, healthy and productive. Leaves very large, with five shallow lobes; teeth short and obtuse; light green in color; glabrous above, wooly beneath. Bunches very large, loose, sometimes inclined to be straggling, long-conical. Berries large, dull purple, oval; flesh firm and crisp; skin thick; flavor and quality good. Ripens late and keeps and ships well. EMPIRE STATE (Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera) Empire State (Plate XVII) competes with Niagara and Diamond for supremacy among green grapes. The variety is as vigorous in growth, as free from parasites, and on vines of the same age is as productive, but is less hardy, and the grapes are not as attractive in appearance as those of the other varieties named. In particular, the clusters are small in some localities, a defect which can be overcome only by severe pruning or by thinning. The quality is very good, approaching the flavor of the Old World grapes, its slight wild taste suggesting one of the Muscats. Empire State ripens early, hangs long on the vine and keeps well after picking without losing flavor. This grape originated with James H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, bearing fruit first in 1879. Vine vigorous, somewhat tender. Canes short, few, slender, brownish; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves small; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth or somewhat rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three to five when present, terminal one acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus variable in depth and width; lateral sinus deep, narrow, often enlarged at base; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with small warts; brush short, light green. Berries medium or small, round, pale yellowish-green, covered with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, adherent to the pulp, slightly astringent; flesh pale yellowish-green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, agreeably flavored; good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, broad, notched, short, blunt, plump, brown. [Illustration: PLATE XXVII.--Salem (×2/3).] ETTA (Vulpina, Labrusca) In appearance, taste and texture of fruit, Etta is very similar to Elvira, of which it is a seedling. The small, yellow clusters which characterize Elvira are reproduced in Etta, which differs chiefly in having a shoulder quite as large as the main bunch itself and in having a better flavor, lacking the slight foxiness of Elvira. The vine is very vigorous, hardy, and is productive to a fault. The fruit ripens with that of Catawba. The tendency of Elvira to crack and overbear influenced the originator of that variety, Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri, to try for a grape without these faults, and the result was Etta from seed of Elvira. The fruit was first exhibited in 1879. Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, light to dark brown; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, somewhat cobwebby. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small, short, broad, irregularly cylindrical, usually with a short, single shoulder but sometimes so heavily shouldered as to form a double bunch, very compact. Berries small, round, pale green, dull with thin bloom, shattering when over-ripe, firm; skin thin, tender; flesh juicy, fine-grained, tough, stringy, slightly foxy, mild; fair in quality. Seeds free, long, blunt, brown. EUMELAN (Labrusca, Vinifera, Æstivalis) _Washington_ The good qualities of Eumelan are: vines above the average in vigor, hardiness and productiveness; clusters and berries well formed, of good size and handsome color; flesh tender, dissolving into wine-like juice under slight pressure; and pure flavor, rich, sweet, vinous. The season is early, yet the fruit keeps much better than that of most other grapes maturing with it and becomes, therefore, a mid-season and late grape. The defects of the variety are susceptibility to mildew, self-sterile flowers and difficulty in propagation. The latter character has greatly hindered its culture, as the vines can be secured only at extra expense and nurserymen are loath to grow the variety at all. Eumelan may be recommended to amateur growers. It is a chance seedling which grew from seed, about 1847, in the yard of a Mr. Thorne, Fishkill Landing, New York. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, covered with bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, smooth; lobes usually three with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, variable in width; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps until late winter. Clusters long, slender, tapering, often with a long, loose, single shoulder; pedicel short, slender with a few small warts; brush short, stubby, pale green. Berries of medium size, round, black, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent with wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh dark green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, stringy, spicy and aromatic, sweet; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, wide, blunt, plump, brown. FAITH (Vulpina, Labrusca) Although spoken of as a desirable grape in some regions, Faith is of little value in most localities. The fruit is unattractive in appearance, and the quality is not high. If the variety has any preëminently good character, it is productiveness. The blossoms put forth so early that they often suffer from spring frosts. Faith is of the same breeding as Etta and from the same originator, Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri, both having come from seed of Elvira. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, cylindrical; nodes prominent; internodes long; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark green; upper surface dark green, dull; lower surface grayish-green, thinly pubescent; lobes wanting or faint; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-sterile to partly self-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, variable in length, usually slender, often heavily single-shouldered, loose; pedicel short, slender, warty; brush pale green, slender. Berries small, round, dull green, frequently with a yellow tinge changing to pale amber, with abundant bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, adherent, astringent; flesh juicy, tender, agreeably flavored; fair to good in quality. Seeds numerous, broad, dark brown. FEHER SZAGOS (Vinifera) This variety succeeds rather well at Geneva, New York, bearing fruits of excellent quality. It has two defects, dull color of the berries and irregular bunches. It is worth trying in the East. Feher Szagos is said to make a very good raisin in California and usually appears in lists of table-grapes for that state. Vines vigorous, somewhat uncertain bearers. Opening leaves pubescent, red along the edges and a tinge of red on the upper surface. Flowers have upright stamens. Fruit usually ripens the first week in October and does not keep well in storage; clusters large to medium, broad, loose, frequently irregular because of poor setting of fruit; berries large, oval to elliptical, rather dull green, with thin bloom; skin thick, tender, neutral; flesh greenish, translucent, juicy, meaty, tender, sweet; quality of the best; seeds free. FERN MUNSON (Lincecumii, Vinifera, Labrusca) _Admirable, Fern, Hilgarde, Munson's No. 76_ Fern Munson is a southern grape not adapted to northern regions, 40° north latitude being its limit of adaptation. The fruits show some very good characters, as attractive appearance, agreeable quality and unobjectionable seeds and skin. The vines are vigorous and productive, but the foliage is not healthy although very abundant. This variety originated with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Post-oak with mixed pollen. The seed was planted in 1885, and the variety was introduced by the originator in 1893. Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark brown with a faint red tinge; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface rugose and heavily wrinkled; lower surface dull, pale green with a bronze tinge, faintly pubescent. Flowers semi-fertile, open very late; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, irregularly tapering, usually single-shouldered, often with many abortive fruits. Berries large, round, slightly flattened, dark purplish-black, glossy, covered with thin bloom, strongly persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, astringent; flesh juicy, tough, firm, fine-grained, vinous, briskly subacid; good. Seeds adherent, broad. FLAME TOKAY (Vinifera) This is the leading shipping grape of the Pacific slope where it is everywhere grown under the name "Tokay," with several modifying terms, as "Flame," "Flame-colored" and "Flaming." The fruit is not especially high in quality nor attractive in appearance, but it ships and keeps well, qualities making it popular in commercial vineyards. The description is compiled. Vine very vigorous, luxuriant in growth of canes, shoots and leaves; very productive; wood dark brown, straight with long joints. Leaves dark green with a brown tinge; lightly lobed. Bunches very large, sometimes weighing eight or nine pounds, moderately compact; shouldered. Berries large, oblong, red when mature, covered with lilac bloom; flesh firm, crisp, sweet; quality good. Season late, keeps and ships well. FLOWERS (Rotundifolia) Flowers is a late, dark-colored Rotundifolia very popular in the Carolinas. The variety is noted for its vigorous and productive vines, its large fruit-clusters and grapes that cling in the cluster unusually well for a variety of this species. The crop ripens in North Carolina in October and November. The fruit is valuable only for wine and grape-juice, having little to recommend it for dessert purposes. Flowers was found in a swamp near Lamberton, North Carolina, more than a hundred years ago by William Flowers. Improved Flowers, probably a seedling of Flowers, was found near Whiteville, North Carolina, about 1869. It differs from its supposed parent in having a more vigorous and productive vine and larger clusters, the berries of which cling even more tenaciously. Vine vigorous, healthy, upright, open, very productive. Canes long, slender, numerous. Leaves variable but average medium in size, longer than broad, pointed, cordate, thick, dark green, smooth, leathery; margins sharply serrate; flowers perfect. Fruit very late, keeps well. Clusters, large, consisting of ten to twenty-five berries. Berries large, round-oblong, purple or purplish-black, clinging well to the cluster-stem; skin thick, tough, faintly marked with dots; pulp white, lacking in juice, hard, sweetish, austere in flavor; poor for a table-grape but excellent for grape-juice. GAERTNER (Vinifera, Labrusca) The berries and clusters of Gaertner are large and handsomely colored, making a very showy grape. The plant is vigorous, productive and as hardy as any of the hybrids between Labrusca and Vinifera. In view of these qualities, Gaertner has not received the attention it deserves, probably because it is more capricious as to soils than some others of its related hybrids. As a market grape, the variety has the faults of ripening unevenly and of shipping poorly. The fruit keeps well and this, with the desirable qualities noted, makes it an excellent grape for the home vineyard. Gaertner is often compared with Massasoit, the two varieties being very similar in fruit characters, but Gaertner is of distinctly better quality than Massasoit. The variety originated with E. S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts. It was first mentioned about 1865. Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, productive. Canes long, dark reddish-brown, surface covered with thin bloom; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, round; upper surface dark green; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Flowers self-sterile, open late; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, matures unevenly, keeps only fairly well. Clusters medium in size, short, cylindrical, usually with a single shoulder but sometimes double-shouldered, loose with many abortive fruits. Berries large, round-oval, light to dark red, glossy, covered with bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-grained, tough, stringy, agreeably vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, large, broad, distinctly notched, brown. GENEVA (Vinifera, Labrusca) Geneva is surpassed by so many other grapes of its season in quality that it has never become popular, although it has much to recommend it. The vine is vigorous and productive, although not quite hardy, and the berries and clusters are attractive; the fruit is nearly transparent and there is so little bloom that the grapes are a lustrous green or iridescent in sunlight; the berries cling well to the stem and the fruit keeps exceptionally well. Geneva originated with Jacob Moore, Brighton, New York, from seed planted in 1874 from a hybrid vine fertilized by Iona. Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes covered with thin bloom; tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; lobes three to five, acute; petiolar sinus, shallow, wide; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile or partly fertile, open late; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, ships well and keeps into the winter. Clusters large, blunt at the ends, usually not shouldered, with many abortive fruits; pedicel long, slender, smooth; brush long, green. Berries large, oval, dull green changing to a faint yellow with thin bloom; skin thick, tough, unpigmented; flesh pale green, tender, soft, vinous, sweet at skin but tart at center; fair to good. Seeds of medium size and length. GOETHE (Vinifera, Labrusca) Of all Rogers' hybrids, Goethe shows Vinifera characters most, resembling in appearance the White Malaga of Europe, and not falling far short of the best Old World grapes in quality. But the variety is difficult to grow, especially where the seasons are not long enough for full maturity. The vine is vigorous to a fault; it is fairly immune to mildew, rot and other diseases; and, where it succeeds, the vines bear so freely that thinning becomes a necessity. Added to high quality, which makes it an excellent table-grape, Goethe keeps well. Goethe was first mentioned in 1858 under the name of Rogers' No. 1. Vine vigorous, hardy. Canes short, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, bifid to trifid. Leaves irregularly round, thin; upper surface light green, glossy; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed, terminus broadly acute; petiolar sinus narrow, closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, often a notch; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters short, broad, tapering, frequently single-shouldered, usually two bunches to shoot; pedicel long, thick with numerous conspicuous warts; brush long, slender, yellowish-brown. Berries very large, oval, pale red covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender, adherent, faintly astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, tender with Vinifera flavor; very good. Seeds adherent, one to three, large, long, notched, blunt, brown. GOLD COIN (Æstivalis, Labrusca) In the South, where alone it thrives, Gold Coin is a handsome market variety of very good quality. The vines are productive and are unusually free from attacks of fungal diseases. The variety originated with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, from seed of Cynthiana or Norton pollinated by Martha and was introduced by the originator in 1894. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes slender, numerous; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface light green, slightly rugose; lower surface pale green, tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright. Fruit late mid-season, keeps long. Clusters medium to small, usually single-shouldered. Berries large, round-oval, yellowish-green with a distinct trace of reddish-amber, with thin bloom, usually persistent; skin covered with small, scattering brown dots, thin, tough; flesh faintly aromatic, tart from skin to center; good. Seeds free, numerous, medium in size. GREEN EARLY (Labrusca, Vinifera) Green Early is a white grape coming in season with Winchell, which surpasses it in most characters, quality in particular. Green Early was found in 1885, growing by the side of a ditch near a Concord vineyard, on land belonging to O. J. Green, Portland, New York. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes variable in length and thickness, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size, medium green; upper surface dark green, glossy; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes wanting or faintly five; teeth shallow, narrow; stamens upright. Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters variable in size, length and breadth, sometimes single-shouldered, variable in compactness. Berries large, oval, light green tinged with yellow, with thin bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, tender, inclined to crack; flesh tough and aromatic, sweet at skin but acid at center; fair in quality. Seeds medium in size, length and breadth, sharp-pointed. GREIN GOLDEN (Vulpina, Labrusca) Grein Golden is very similar to Riesling, but the vine is much stronger in growth. For a variety of the Taylor group, both cluster and berry are large and uniform, which, with the attractive color of the berries, make it a most handsome fruit. The flavor, however, is not at all pleasing, being an unusual commingling of sweetness and acidity very disagreeable to most palates. The quality of the fruit condemns it for table use, although it is said to make a very good white wine. Nicholas Grein, Hermann, Missouri, first grew Grein Golden about 1875. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, lightly pubescent; lobes lacking or one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, wide, obscure; teeth deep. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, irregular, often heavily single-shouldered, loose; pedicel with a few inconspicuous warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries uniform in size, large, round, golden yellow, glossy with thin bloom, persistent; skin very thin, tender; flesh green, translucent, very juicy, tender, vinous; good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, plump, light brown. GROS COLMAN (Vinifera) _Dodrelabi_ Gros Colman has the reputation of being the handsomest black table-grape grown. It is one of the favorite hot-house grapes in England and eastern America and is commonly grown out of doors in California. The variety is remarkable for having the largest berries of any round grape, borne in immense bunches, and for the long-keeping qualities, although the tender skins sometimes crack. The following description is compiled: Vine vigorous, healthy and productive; wood dark brown. Leaves very large, round, thick, but slightly lobed; teeth short and blunt; glabrous above, wooly below. Bunches very large, short, well filled but rather loose; berries very large, round, dark blue; skin thick but tender; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and good; quality not of the highest. Season late and the fruits keep long. HARTFORD (Labrusca) The vine of Hartford may be well characterized by its good qualities, but the fruit is best described by its faults, because of which the variety is passing out of cultivation. The plants are vigorous, prolific, healthy and the fruit is borne early in the season. The canes are remarkable for their stoutness and for the crooks at the joints. The bunches are not unattractive, but the quality of the fruit is low, the flesh being pulpy and the flavor insipid and foxy. The berries shell badly on the vine and when packed for shipping, so that the fruit does not ship, pack or keep well. The grapes color long before ripe, and the flowers are only partly self-fertile, so that in seasons when there is bad weather during blooming time the clusters are loose and straggling. The original vine of Hartford was a chance seedling in the garden of Paphro Steele, West Hartford, Connecticut. It fruited first in 1849. Vine vigorous, very productive. Canes long, dark brown, covered with pubescence; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent; lobes variable; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers partly self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early. Clusters medium in size, long, slender, tapering, irregular, often with a long, large, single shoulder, loose; pedicel short with a few small warts; brush greenish. Berries medium in size, round-oval, black, covered with bloom, drop badly; skin thick, tough, adherent, contains much purplish-red pigment, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, firm, stringy, foxy; poor in quality. Seeds free, one to four, broad, dark brown. [Illustration: PLATE XXVIII.--Triumph (×3/5).] HAYES (Labrusca, Vinifera) In 1880, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded a certificate of merit to Hayes for high quality in fruit. This brought it prominently before grape-growers and for a time it was popular, but when better known several defects became apparent. The vine is hardy and vigorous, but the growth is slow and the variety is a shy bearer. Both bunches and berries are small, and the crop ripens at a time, a week or ten days earlier than Concord, when there are many other good green grapes. Excellent though it is in quality, the variety is hardly worth a place in any vineyard. John B. Moore, Concord, Massachusetts, is the originator of Hayes. It is a seedling of Concord out of the same lot of seedlings as Moore Early. It was first fruited in 1872. Vine variable in vigor and productiveness, hardy and healthy. Canes numerous, slender; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves uniform in size; upper surface dark green; lower surface pubescent; lobes one to three; teeth shallow, small. Flowers almost self-sterile, open medium late; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size and length, often single-shouldered; pedicel long, slender; brush small, pale green. Berries medium in size, round, greenish-yellow, covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender with a few small reddish-brown dots; flesh fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet at the skin, agreeably tart at center, mild; good. Seeds few, of average size, short, plump, brown. HEADLIGHT (Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) Headlight is more desirable for southern than for northern vineyards, yet it is worthy of trial in the North. Its meritorious characters are: productiveness, outyielding Delaware, with which it competes; disease-resistant foliage and vines; more than average vigor of vine; high quality of fruit, being almost the equal of Delaware in flavor and having tender, melting pulp which readily parts from the seeds; and earliness, ripening before Delaware and hanging on the vines or keeping after being picked for some time without deterioration. The originator of Headlight, T. V. Munson, states that the variety came from seed of Moyer fertilized by Brilliant. The seed was planted in 1895 and the grape was introduced in 1901. Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes short, few in number, slender, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils continuous, short, bifid, very persistent. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, covered with a few small warts; brush yellowish-brown. Berries small, round, dark red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, very juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to three, small, light brown. HERBEMONT (Bourquiniana) _Bottsi, Brown French, Dunn, Herbemont's Madeira, Hunt, Kay's Seedling, McKee, Neal, Warren, Warrenton_ In the South, Herbemont holds the same rank as Concord in the North. The vine is fastidious as to soil, requiring a well-drained warm soil, and one which is abundantly supplied with humus. Despite these limitations, this variety is grown in an immense territory, extending from Virginia and Tennessee to the Gulf and westward through Texas. The vine is remarkably vigorous, being hardly surpassed in this character by any other of our native grapes. The fruits are attractive because of the large bunch and the glossy black of the small berries, and are borne abundantly and with certainty in suitable localities. The flesh characters of the fruit are good for a small grape, neither flesh, skin nor seeds being objectionable in eating; the pulp is tender, juicy, rich, sweet and highly flavored. The ample, lustrous green foliage makes this variety one of the attractive ornamental plants of the South. Herbemont is known to have been in cultivation in Georgia before the Revolutionary War, when it was generally called Warren and Warrenton. In the early part of the last century, it came to the hands of Nicholas Herbemont, Columbia, South Carolina, whose name it eventually took. Vine very vigorous. Canes long, strong, bright green, with more or less purple and heavy bloom; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round, entire, or three to seven-lobed, nearly glabrous above and below; upper surface clear green; lower surface lighter green, glaucous. Flowers self-fertile. Fruit very late. Clusters large, long, tapering, prominently shouldered, compact; pedicels short with a few large warts; brush pink. Berries round, small, uniform, reddish-black or brown with abundant bloom; skin thin, tough; flesh tender, juicy; juice colorless or slightly pink, sweet, sprightly. Seeds two to four, small, reddish-brown, glossy. HERBERT (Labrusca, Vinifera) In all that constitutes a fine table-grape, Herbert (Plate XVIII) is as near perfection as any American variety. For a Vinifera-Labrusca hybrid, the vine is vigorous, hardy and fruitful, ranking in these respects above many pure-bred Labruscas. While the fruit ripens with Concord, it keeps much later and packs and ships better. The variety is self-sterile and must be set near other varieties. Herbert is deserving attention from commercial growers who supply a discriminating market, and its many good qualities give it high place as a garden grape. The variety is one of Rogers' hybrids, named Herbert in 1869. Vine very vigorous, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, round; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green with some pubescence; leaf entire, terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, closed, overlapping; basal and lateral sinuses lacking; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, two to three clusters per shoot, heavily single-shouldered, loose; pedicel thick with small russet warts; brush yellowish-green. Berries large, round-oval, flattened, dull black, covered with thick bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained; very good. Seeds adherent, three to six, large, broad, notched, long with swollen neck, blunt, brown with yellow tips. HERCULES (Labrusca, Vinifera) Hercules is characterized by very large berries, fruit handsomely colored and cluster large and well-formed. The flavor, while not of the best, is good. Added to the desirable qualities of the fruit, the vines are hardy, vigorous and productive. These good characters, however, cannot make up for the several defects of the variety. The grapes drop and crack badly and the pulp is tough and adheres too firmly to the seed for a dessert grape, so that the variety is worthless except for breeding purposes. Hercules was introduced by G. A. Ensenberger, Bloomington, Illinois, about 1890; its parentage is unknown. Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent; lobes one to three, terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters very large, broad, tapering, one to three clusters per shoot, compact; brush pale green. Berries very large, round, black, glossy with heavy bloom, firm; skin adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, very tough, coarse, stringy, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, broad, deeply notched, blunt, brown. HICKS (Labrusca) Hicks is a remarkably good grape and were it not that the fruit is almost identical with that of Concord, ripening with it or a little earlier, it would have a place in the viticulture of the country. However, since it was introduced some years ago and has not found great favor with growers, it seems that it cannot make headway against Concord, with which it must compete. In many localities the vines are more prolific than those of Concord and of stronger growth. Hicks was introduced in 1898 by Henry Wallis, Wellston, Missouri, who states that it is a chance seedling sent from California about 1870 to Richard Berry, a nurseryman of St. Louis County, Missouri. Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes medium to long, numerous, reddish-brown, covered with thin bloom; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy; lower surface white, changing to a heavy bronze, strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, often single-shouldered. Berries large, round, purplish-black with heavy bloom, shatter when over-ripe, firm; skin tender with dark wine-colored pigment; flesh green, juicy, tough, fine-grained, faintly foxy; good. Seeds adherent, large, short, broad, blunt, brown. HIDALGO (Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) The grapes of Hidalgo are rich, sweet, delicately flavored, and with color, size and form of berry and bunch so well combined as to make the fruits singularly handsome. The skin is thin but firm and the variety keeps and ships well. The vines, however, are doubtfully hardy, variable in vigor and not always fruitful. While Hidalgo may not prove of value for the commercial vineyard, in favorable situations it may give a supply of choice fruit for the amateur. The parentage of Hidalgo, as given by its originator, T. V. Munson, is Delaware, Goethe and Lindley. The variety was introduced by the originator in 1902. Vine variable in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes thick, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round, thick; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, bronzed, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus wanting; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers semi-fertile, open after mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, often blunt, not shouldered, one to two bunches per shoot, compact; pedicel long, slender with small warts; brush yellowish-green with brown tinge. Berries large, oval, greenish-yellow, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, transparent, juicy, tender, melting, aromatic, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, two to four, large, plump, light brown. HIGHLAND (Vinifera, Labrusca) Few varieties of black grapes equal Highland in appearance and quality of fruit. When given good care under favorable conditions, the bunches are unusually large and handsome in appearance, sometimes attaining a weight of two pounds, and bear beautiful bluish-black berries with the fine flavor and tender texture of Jura Muscat, one of its parents. The flesh is solid, firm and the fruit keeps and ships well. The vine is vigorous, productive to a fault but is doubtfully hardy. Where the climate is temperate and the season long enough for the vine and fruit of Highland to develop, this is one of the choicest grapes for the amateur. The variety originated about the close of the Civil War with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, from seed of Concord fertilized by Jura Muscat. Vine variable in vigor, productive, healthy. Canes long, numerous, dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent; lobes one to five, terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, variable in width; basal sinus shallow, narrow; lateral sinus a notch; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, usually single-shouldered, usually two bunches per shoot; pedicel long, thick, smooth; brush green with yellow tinge. Berries large, round-oval, purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, free; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, vinous; good. Seeds free, one to six, large, long, notched, brown. HOPKINS (Rotundifolia) Hopkins is named by grape-growers in the South Atlantic states as the best early Rotundifolia grape. Its season in North Carolina begins early in August, nearly a month before any other. It is, also, one of the best in quality and for quality and earliness should be in every home vineyard in the region in which it grows. Hopkins was found near Wilmington, North Carolina, about 1845, by John Hopkins. Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, upright. Leaves of medium size, variable, cordate, longer than broad, thick, leathery, smooth, dark green; margins sharply serrate. Flowers self-fertile. Fruit very early. Clusters large, containing from four to ten berries. Berries large, dark purple or almost black, round-oblong, shelling badly; skin thick, tough, faintly marked with dots; pulp white, tender, juicy with a sweet, pleasant flavor; one of the best of the Rotundifolias in quality. HOSFORD (Labrusca) Hosford is an offspring of Concord, differing from the parent chiefly in the greater size of bunch and berry and in being less fruitful. The variety is surpassed by Worden and Eaton, of the same type, and is probably not worth cultivation. It is claimed by some that Hosford is identical with Eaton but there are noticeable differences in both vine and fruit characters. The vine looks very like that of Concord except that the indentations along the margins of the leaves are deeper. Hosford originated in the garden of George Hosford, Ionia, Michigan, about 1876, as a chance seedling growing between two Concord vines. Vines lacking in vigor, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, few in number, slender; nodes enlarged; internodes very short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface light green, rugose; lower surface grayish-white to bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes faint; petiolar sinus wide; teeth small, sharp. Flowers shallow, semi-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters large, tapering, slightly shouldered, compact; pedicel short with small warts; brush slender, green. Berries large, round-oval, dull black with abundant bloom, persistent; skin thick, tender; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds few, large, broad, blunt, plump, brown. HYBRID FRANC (Vinifera, Rupestris) Hybrid Franc is the best-known cross between Rupestris and Vinifera. It is one of the few varieties used in Europe as a resistant stock now recommended for a direct producer. The vines are hardy, vigorous and very productive. The fruit is fit only for wine or grape-juice, being too acid to eat out of hand. The coloring matter in the fruit is very intense and might be used in giving color to grape products. The variety is of French origin. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes numerous, thick, light brown with blue bloom; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, thin; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface green, hairy along ribs and large veins; lobes three to five with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; lateral sinus a notch. Flowers semi-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, short, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel long, slender with few small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries small, oblate, black, glossy with thick bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender with very dark wine-colored pigment; flesh green with reddish tinge, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, spicy, tart; fair in quality. Seeds free, one to five, small, short, light brown. IDEAL (Labrusca, Vinifera, Bourquiniana) Ideal is a handsome seedling of Delaware, from which it differs chiefly in being larger in bunch and berry, attaining in both of these characters nearly the size of Catawba. In Kansas and Missouri, this variety is highly recommended, not only for the high quality of the fruit, ranking with Delaware in quality, but because of vigorous, healthy, productive vines. But farther north the vines are precariously hardy and not sufficiently fruitful, healthy nor vigorous to warrant high recommendation. Ideal originated with John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, from seed of Delaware, about 1885. Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long. Leaves large, variable in color; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus deep, wide; teeth deep, narrow; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, heavily shouldered; pedicel thick; brush green. Berries large, round, dark red with thin bloom, usually persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent; flesh green, tender, aromatic, sweet next the skin, acid at the center; good to very good. Seeds adherent, large, plump, brown. IONA (Labrusca, Vinifera) In flavor, the fruit of Iona (Plate XIX) has a rare combination of sweetness and acidity, pure, delicate and vinous. The flesh is transparent, melting, tender, juicy and of uniform consistency quite to the center. The seeds are few and small and part readily from the flesh. The color is a peculiar dark-red wine with a tint of amethyst, variable and not always attractive. The bunch is large but loose, with berries varying in size and ripening unevenly. The fruit may be kept until late winter. The vine characters of Iona are not as good as those of the fruit. To do well, the vine must have a soil exactly suited to its wants, seemingly thriving best in deep, dry, sandy or gravelly clays. Iona responds especially well when trained against walls or buildings, attaining under such conditions rare perfection. The vines are doubtfully hardy and in many parts of the North must have winter protection; they are not vigorous and are inclined to overbear, to remedy which they must have close pruning. In localities in which mildew and rot thrive, the variety is badly attacked by these diseases. Iona originated with C. W. Grant, Iona Island, New York, from seed of Diana planted in 1885. Vine weak, doubtfully hardy, unproductive. Canes short, light brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface grayish-green, heavily pubescent; lobes three to five with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus of medium depth and width; basal sinus shallow; lateral sinus shallow, wide; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, sometimes double-shouldered, slender, tapering, loose; brush pale green. Berries uniform, oval, round, dull, light and dark red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, slightly astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, melting, vinous; very good. Seeds free, one to four, small, broad, plump, brown. [Illustration: PLATE XXIX.--Vergennes (×2/3).] ISABELLA (Labrusca, Vinifera) _Alexander, Black Cape, Christie's Improved Isabella, Conckling's Wilding, Constantia, Dorchester, Gibb's Grape, Hensell's Long Island, Payne's Early, Helene, Woodward_ Isabella (Plate XX) is now of little more than historical interest, it having been one of the mainstays of American viticulture. In appearance, the fruit of Isabella is fully as attractive as that of any black grape, the clusters being large and well formed and the berries glossy black with thick bloom. The flavor is good, but the thick skin and muskiness in taste are objectionable. The grapes keep and ship well. Isabella is surpassed in vine characters by many other kinds, notably Concord, which has taken its place. The lustrous green, ample foliage which remains late in the season, and the vigor of the vine, make this variety an attractive ornamental, well adapted for growing on arbors, porches and trellises. The origin of Isabella is not known. It was obtained by William Prince, Flushing, Long Island, about 1816 from Mrs. Isabella Gibbs, Brooklyn, New York. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous with heavy pubescence, thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, smooth, glossy; lower surface whitish-green, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present with terminal lobe obtuse; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, often closed, overlapping; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, frequently notched; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered; pedicel slender, smooth; brush long, yellowish-green. Berries medium to large, oval, black with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, meaty, some foxiness, sweet; good. Seeds one to three, large, broad, distinctly notched, short, brown with yellow tips. ISABELLA SEEDLING (Labrusca, Vinifera) Isabella Seedling is an early, vigorous, productive offspring of Isabella. In fruit characters it greatly resembles its parent, but ripens its crop earlier and has a more compact bunch. Like that of its parent, the fruit is of good quality and keeps remarkably well. This seedling is now grown more than Isabella and, while not of any considerable commercial importance, is far more deserving attention as a market grape than some of the poorly flavored kinds more generally grown. There are several varieties under this name. Two are mentioned by Warder; one of Ohio and one of New York origin. The Isabella Seedling here described originated with G. A. Ensenberger, Bloomington, Illinois, in 1889. Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark brown, often with a red tinge, with thin bloom; nodes prominent, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent or continuous, bifid. Leaves healthy, large, thick; upper surface green, dull; lower surface pale green or grayish-green, occasionally with a tinge of bronze, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, loose, compact. Berries large, oval, often pear-shaped, dull black with thick bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick with some red pigment; flesh pale green, juicy, tender, coarse, vinous; good. Seeds numerous, free, large, broad, notched, dark brown. ISRAELLA (Labrusca, Vinifera) Israella came from C. W. Grant contemporaneously with Iona and was heralded as the earliest good grape in cultivation. For several years after its introduction, it was widely tried but was almost everywhere discarded because of the poor quality and unattractive appearance of the fruit and lack of vigor, hardiness and productiveness in the vine. Grant grew Israella from seed of Isabella planted in 1885. Vine lacking in vigor, unproductive. Canes slender, dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to five, faint; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; teeth shallow, sharp; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, of medium length and breadth, tapering, often single-shouldered, compact, frequently with many abortive fruits. Berries of medium size, round-oval, black or purplish-black with thin bloom, inclined to drop, soft; skin thick, tough with a large amount of purplish-red pigment; flesh pale green, juicy, stringy, mild, sweet from skin to center; fair in quality. Seeds free, medium in size, notched, blunt, light brown, often covered with grayish warts. IVES (Labrusca, Æstivalis) _Ives' Madeira, Ives' Seedling, Kittredge_ Ives has a high reputation as a grape for making red wine, being surpassed only by Norton for this purpose. The vine is hardy, healthy, vigorous and fruitful. The fruit is poor in quality, colors long before ripe, has a foxy odor, and the flesh is tough and pulpy. The bunches are compact, with well-formed, jet-black grapes, which make them attractive. The vine is easily propagated and is adapted to any good grape soil, but is so rampant in growth that it is difficult to manage. The variety is not widely cultivated. Ives was grown by Henry Ives from seed planted in 1840 in his garden in Cincinnati, Ohio. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, thick, reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five when present with terminal one acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow; lateral sinus narrow; teeth shallow. Fruit late mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, tapering, frequently single-shouldered, compact, often with numerous abortive berries; pedicel slender with numerous small warts; brush short, slender, pale with a reddish-brown tinge. Berries oval, jet-black with heavy bloom, very persistent, firm; skin tough, adherent, wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, often abortive, broad, short, blunt, plump, brown. JAMES (Rotundifolia) James is one of the largest of the Rotundifolia grapes and probably the best general-purpose variety of this species. The vine is noted for vigor and productiveness. It cannot be grown north of Maryland. It thrives in sandy loam soils with clay subsoil. The variety was found by B. W. M. James, Pitt County, North Carolina. It was introduced about 1890 and was placed on the grape list of the American Pomological Society fruit catalog in 1899. Vine vigorous, healthy, productive. Canes slender, numerous, long, slightly trailing. Leaves of medium size, thick, smooth, leathery, cordate, as broad as long, with a serrate margin. Flowers open late; stamens reflexed. Fruit ripens late, hangs on the vine for three weeks, keeps well. Clusters small, containing from four to twelve berries, irregular, loose. Berries large, three-fourths to one and one-fourth inches in diameter, round, blue-black, marked with specks; skin thick, tough. Pulp juicy, sweet; good in quality. JANESVILLE (Labrusca, Vulpina) Endowed with a constitution enabling it to withstand cold to which most other grapes succumb, Janesville has made a place for itself in far northern localities. Moreover, the grapes ripen early, being about the first to color although they are not ripe until some time after coloring. The vine also is healthy, vigorous and productive. The fruit, however, is worthless when better sorts can be grown. The clusters and berries are small, the grapes are pulpy, tough, seedy, have a thick skin and a disagreeable acid taste. Janesville was grown by F. W. Loudon, Janesville, Wisconsin, from chance seed planted in 1858. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes spiny, numerous, dark brown; nodes flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small, thin; upper surface glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, lightly pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal and lateral sinuses lacking; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open very early; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters small, short, cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, covered with small, scattering warts; brush dark wine color. Berries round, dull black with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent with dark wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh pale reddish-green, translucent, juicy, tough, coarse, vinous, acid; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to six, large, broad, angular, blunt, dark brown. JEFFERSON (Labrusca, Vinifera) Jefferson (Plate XXI) is an offspring of Concord crossed with Iona, and resembles Concord in vigor, productiveness and healthiness of vine, and Iona in color and quality of fruit. The vine produces its fruit two weeks later than Concord and is not as hardy, faults that debar it from taking high rank as a commercial grape. Fortunately the vines yield readily to laying down for winter protection so that even in commercial plantations it is not difficult to prevent winter injury. The bunches of Jefferson are large, well-formed, compact with berries of uniform size and color. The flesh is firm yet tender, juicy with a rich, vinous flavor and a delicate aroma which persists even after the berries have dried into raisins. The fruit ships and keeps well, the berries adhering to the cluster and the fruit retaining its freshness into late winter. Jefferson is widely distributed and is well known by viticulturists in eastern America. It is not particular as to localities, if the season be long and the climate temperate, and thrives in all soils. The variety originated with J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York; it fruited first in 1874. Vine vigorous, healthy, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes short, numerous, light to dark brown; nodes enlarged, round; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid or trifid. Leaves healthy; upper surface light green, older leaves rugose; lower surface pale green, strongly pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow, often a mere notch; teeth regular, shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open late; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with a few inconspicuous warts; brush long, slender, pale yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, light and dark red, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, very firm; skin thick, tough, free, slightly astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, coarse-grained, tender, vinous; good to best. Seeds free, one to four, broad, short, blunt, plump, brown. JESSICA (Labrusca, Vinifera) Jessica is an early, hardy, green grape. The fruit is sweet, rich, sprightly and almost free from foxiness, but is unattractive and does not keep well. The clusters and berries are small, and the clusters are too loose for a good grape. Jessica may be commended for earliness and hardiness and is, therefore, desirable, if at all, in northern regions. William H. Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario, grew Jessica from seed planted some time between 1870 and 1880. Vine medium in vigor, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark brown with red tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, glossy, often rugose; lower surface pale green, very pubescent; lobes three; petiolar sinus narrow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit very early. Clusters small, slender, tapering, usually single-shouldered. Berries small, round, light green, often tinged with yellow, covered with thin bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, adherent, faintly astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, tender, soft, sprightly, sweet; good. Seeds adherent, medium to broad, notched, brown. JEWEL (Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera) The notable characters of Jewel are earliness and high quality in fruit; although, as compared with Delaware, its parent, the vine is vigorous, healthy and hardy. In form and size of bunch and berry, Jewel closely resembles Delaware, but the grapes are deep black in color. The flesh characters and flavor of the fruit are much like those of Delaware, the pulp being tender yet firm, and the flavor having the same rich, sprightly, vinous taste found in the parent. The seeds are few and small. The skin is thin but tough, and the grapes ship well, keep long, do not shell, and although early, hang until frost. Jewel is a most excellent grape, worthy the place among black grapes that Delaware has among red varieties. In particular, it is recommended for earliness and for localities in the North where standard varieties do not ripen. John Burr, Leavenworth, Kansas, grew Jewel from seed of Delaware planted about 1874. Vine vigorous, healthy, hardy, productive. Canes slender, light reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves scant, thick; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three when present with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, wide; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit early. Clusters small, slender, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender; brush short, wine-colored. Berries medium in size, round, dark purplish-black, dull with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, wine-colored pigment; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, sprightly, vinous, sweet; very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, frequently one-sided, blunt, light brown. KENSINGTON (Vinifera, Vulpina) Kensington has several very meritorious fruit and vine characters. The vine resembles that of Clinton, its Vulpina parent, in vigor, hardiness, growth and productiveness, but the fruit has many of the characters of the European parent, Buckland Sweetwater. The grapes are yellowish-green, large, oval and borne in loose clusters of medium size. In quality the fruit of Kensington is not equal to that of Buckland Sweetwater but is much better than that of Clinton. The flesh is tender and juicy with a rich, sweet, vinous flavor. The hardiness of the vine and the high quality of the fruit should make Kensington a favorite green grape in northern gardens. This variety was grown by William Saunders, London, Ontario. It was sent out some time between 1870 and 1880. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, slender, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils persistent, intermittent or continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves thin; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent, hairy; lobes wanting or one to three with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus shallow when present; lateral sinus shallow, usually a notch; teeth deep and wide. Flowers self-fertile, open early, stamens upright. Fruit mid-season. Clusters large, cylindrical, often heavily single-shouldered, loose, frequently with many undeveloped berries; pedicel long and slender with small, inconspicuous warts; brush short, pale green. Berries variable in size, oval, yellowish-green, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, faintly astringent; flesh green, transparent, juicy, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, two to four, wrinkled, large, long, broad, sharp-pointed, yellowish-brown. KING (Labrusca) King is similar to Concord, compared with which the vine is more vigorous and prolific, time of ripening and length of season the same, the clusters are one-fourth larger, the grapes are more persistent, the pulp is more tender, the flavor nearly the same but more sprightly, the seeds fewer in number, the wood harder and of shorter joints and the pedicels larger. King was found in the Concord vineyard of W. K. Munson, Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1892. The vine was set for Concord and is supposed to be a bud-sport of that variety. Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes large, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, slightly flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous or intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves unusually large, thick; upper surface green, dull; lower surface grayish-white changing to slight bronze, pubescent; lobes three when present, terminal one acute; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, irregularly tapering, usually single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, round, black with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, very juicy, tough, stringy and with some foxiness; good. Seeds adherent, few, large, short, broad, lightly notched if at all, blunt, plump, light brown. LADY (Labrusca, Vinifera) The vine of Lady is much like that of Concord, its parent, although not quite so vigorous nor productive, but ripens its fruit fully two weeks earlier. The fruit is much superior to that of Concord in quality, being richer, sweeter and less foxy. The grapes hang on the vines well but deteriorate rapidly after picking. The term, "ironclad," used by grape-growers to express hardiness and freedom from disease, is probably as applicable to Lady as to any other of the Labrusca grapes. The foliage is dense and of a deep glossy green, neither scalding under a hot sun nor freezing until heavy frosts, making it an attractive ornament in the garden. Lady is deservedly popular as a grape for the amateur and should be planted for near-by markets. It succeeds wherever Concord is grown, and because of its early ripening is especially adapted to northern latitudes where Concord does not always mature. Although the fruit ripens early, the buds start late, often escaping late spring frosts. When Lady was first heard of, it was in the hands of a Mr. Imlay, Muskingum County, Ohio. George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, introduced it in 1874. Vine vigorous, hardy, medium in productiveness, healthy. Canes short, slender, dark reddish-brown; nodes flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes one to five with terminal one acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; lateral sinus variable in depth and width; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters small, short, slender, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick, smooth; brush slender, long, greenish-white. Berries large, round, light green, often with a tinge of yellow, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin covered with small, scattering, dark dots, thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh greenish-white, translucent, juicy, tender, aromatic; very good. Seeds free, few, broad, light brown. LADY WASHINGTON (Labrusca, Vinifera) Lady Washington is in many respects a most excellent grape but falls short in quality and does not excel in vine characters. The grapes make a good appearance, keep and ship well and are tender, juicy and sweet. The vines are luxuriant, hardy, for a grape with Vinifera blood, and healthy although slightly susceptible to mildew. As an exhibition grape, few green varieties show better when grown with care than Lady Washington. In the West and Southwest, the variety is said to succeed better than any other Concord seedling. Lady Washington is another of J. H. Ricketts' fine seedlings, this variety having come from seed of Concord fertilized by Allen's Hybrid. It was introduced in 1878. Vine vigorous, productive. Canes long, few, thick, dark brown; nodes greatly enlarged, variable in shape; internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, older leaves strongly rugose, glossy; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf entire with terminal acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, frequently closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, broad, irregularly cylindrical, single-shouldered, frequently double-shouldered, loose; pedicel short with numerous conspicuous warts; brush very short, greenish. Berries variable in size, round-oblate, yellow-amber, glossy with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, tender, adherent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy and tender, stringy, aromatic, sweet; very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, brown. [Illustration: PLATE XXX.--Winchell (×2/3).] LENOIR (Bourquiniana) _Alabama, Black El Paso, Black July, Black Spanish, Blue French, Burgundy, Cigar Box Grape, Devereaux, Jack, Jacques, July Sherry, Longworth's Ohio, MacCandless, Ohio, Springstein, Warren_ Lenoir is a tender southern grape which has been used largely in France and California as a resistant stock and a direct producer. The fruit is highly valued for its dark red wine and is very good for table use. The vine is very resistant to phylloxera and withstands drouth well. The origin of Lenoir is unknown. It was in cultivation in the South as long ago as the early part of the last century. Nicholas Herbemont states in 1829 that its name was given from a man named Lenoir who cultivated it near Stateburg, South Carolina. Vine vigorous, thrifty, semi-hardy, productive. Canes numerous, with some bloom at the nodes; tendrils intermittent. Leaves from two to seven-lobed, usually five, with characteristic bluish-green color above and pale green below. Clusters variable, medium to very large, tapering, usually shouldered. Berries small, round, dark bluish-purple, nearly black with lilac bloom; skin thick, tough; flesh juicy, tender, sweet, very rich in coloring matter. LIGNAN BLANC (Vinifera) _White July, Luglienga, Joannenc_ At Geneva, New York, Lignan Blanc ripens first of all grapes, native or European. It is not of highest quality but is better than any other early grape and makes a valuable addition to the home vineyard. It is a favorite grape in Europe and is rather commonly grown in California. This variety offers excellent material for hybridization with native grapes. Vine vigorous, medium productive; buds open early; opening leaves light green, glossy, tinged with red along the edges, thinly pubescent. Leaves medium in size, roundish, somewhat dull green, slightly rugose; lower surface glabrous; blade thick; lobes usually five though sometimes three; petiolar sinus medium in depth, wide; lower lateral sinus medium in depth, narrow; upper lateral sinus shallow, narrow; margin dentate; teeth long, narrow. Flowers appear early for a Vinifera; stamens upright. Fruit ripens the first of September and is a good keeper; clusters above medium in size, tapering, medium compact; berries medium to large, oval, yellowish-green, with thin bloom; skin thin, tender, neutral; flesh greenish-white, firm, juicy, meaty, sweet; quality good. LINDLEY (Labrusca, Vinifera) By common consent, Lindley (Plate XXII) is the best of the red grapes originated by Rogers in his crosses between Labrusca and Vinifera. The bunches are of only medium size and are loose, but the berries are well-formed, of uniform size and an attractive dark red color. The flesh is firm, fine-grained, juicy, tender with a peculiarly rich aromatic flavor. The skin is thick and tough but is not objectionable in fruit fully ripe. The fruit keeps and ships well, and the berries neither crack nor shatter. The vine is vigorous, hardy for a Vinifera hybrid, healthy but, as with most of its kind, susceptible to mildew. The chief defects of Lindley are self-sterility, precariousness in bearing and lack of adaptation to many soils. Lindley is a general favorite in the garden. In 1869 Rogers gave this grape its name in honor of John Lindley, the English botanist. Vine vigorous, usually hardy, susceptible to mildew. Canes very long, dark reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, usually flattened; internodes long, thick; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, dull, slightly rugose; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; obscurely three-lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, broad, cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered, the shoulder being connected to the bunch by a long stem, loose; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries large, round-oval, dark-red with faint bloom; skin tough, adherent, unpigmented, strongly astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous; good to best. Seeds adherent, two to five, notched, brown. LUCILE (Labrusca) In vigor, health, hardiness and productiveness, Lucile (Plate XXII) is not surpassed by any native grape. Unfortunately, the fruit characters are not so desirable. The size, form and color of bunches and berries are good, making a very attractive fruit, but the grapes have an obnoxious, foxy taste and odor and are pulpy and seedy. Lucile is earlier than Concord, the crop ripening with that of Worden or preceding it a few days. For an early variety, the fruit keeps well and in spite of thin skin ships well. The vine thrives in all grape soils. Lucile may be recommended where a hardy grape is desired and for localities in which the season is short. J. A. Putnam, Fredonia, New York, grew Lucile. The vine fruited first in 1890. It is a seedling of Wyoming, which it resembles in fruit and vine and surpasses in both. Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes long, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, firm; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf with terminus acute; petiolar sinus shallow, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus a notch when present; teeth shallow. Flowers self-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, very compact; pedicel short, thick with few, small, inconspicuous warts; brush light brown. Berries large, round, dark red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, stringy, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, broad, short, blunt, dark brown. LUTIE (Labrusca) Lutie (Plate XXIII) is chiefly valuable for its vine characters. The vines are vigorous, hardy, healthy and fruitful, although scarcely equaling Lucile in any of these characters. Pomologists differ widely as to the merits of the fruit, some claiming high quality for it and others declaring that it is no better than a wild Labrusca. The difference of opinion is due to a peculiarity of the fruit; if eaten fresh, the quality, while far from being of the best, is not bad, but after being picked for several days it develops so much foxiness of flavor and aroma that it is scarcely edible. Lutie is a seedling found by L. C. Chisholm, Spring Hill, Tennessee. It was introduced in 1885. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes short, slender, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged; internodes short; tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface bronze or whitish-green, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright. Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, short, broad, blunt, cylindrical, usually not shouldered, compact; pedicel short with small, scattering warts; brush slender, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull with thin bloom, drop badly from pedicel, firm; skin tender, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, foxy; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, large, broad, short and blunt, dark brown. MALAGA (Vinifera) Malaga is one of the favorite table-grapes in California and also a popular grape to ship to eastern markets. In some parts of southern California, where the Muscats do not thrive, it is much grown, and in the San Joaquin Valley it is rather largely used in making raisins. It requires a long season and probably could not be grown in eastern regions except in the most favored localities. The description is compiled. Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive; wood reddish-brown, short-jointed. Leaves of medium size, smooth, leathery; light glossy green above, lighter below; deeply lobed. Bunches very large, long, loose, shouldered, sometimes scraggly; stem long and flexible; berries very large, oval, yellowish-green, covered with light bloom; skin thick; flesh firm, crisp, sweet and rich; quality good. Season late, keeps and ships well. McPIKE (Labrusca) McPike is noteworthy because of the large size of the berries and bunches. It is very similar to its parent, Worden, differing in having fewer but larger berries, grapes not as high in flavor and fewer and smaller seeds. Because of the thin, tender skin, the berries crack badly. The grapes shell more or less, and the vines are less productive than those of Worden. The faults named debar it from becoming a commercial grape and it is not high enough in quality to make it of value for the amateur. This variety originated with H. G. McPike, Alton, Illinois, from seed of Worden planted in 1890. Vine vigorous, hardy, very productive. Canes of medium length, dull reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes very short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-white, heavily pubescent; leaf entire with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal and lateral sinuses lacking. Flowers nearly self-fertile. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad, irregularly tapering, usually not shouldered; pedicel long, thick, smooth; brush long, slender, green with brown tinge. Berries unusually large, round, purplish-black with heavy bloom, firm; skin cracks, adherent to pulp, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, stringy, vinous; fair to good. Seeds adherent, one to four, short, broad, blunt, plump, light brown. MARION (Vulpina, Labrusca) _Black German, Marion Port_ Marion so closely resembles Clinton in botanical and horticultural characters as to be clearly of the same type. The vine is vigorous and hardy, but hardly sufficiently productive, and is susceptible to mildew and leaf-hoppers. The fruit is pleasantly sweet and spicy, although not high enough in quality for a table-grape, but makes a very good dark red wine. The fruit colors early but ripens late, hangs well on the vines and improves with a touch of frost. Marion was brought to notice by a Mr. Shepherd, Marion, Ohio, about 1850. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, dark reddish-brown, covered with bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes very long; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves very large; upper surface dark green, glossy; lower surface pale green, smooth; leaf entire, terminus acuminate; petiolar sinus very deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal and lateral sinuses usually lacking; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-sterile, open very early; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short, slender, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with a few inconspicuous warts; brush very short, wine-colored. Berries small, round, black, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent with much wine-colored pigment, astringent; flesh dark green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, sprightly, spicy, tart; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, medium in size, broad, short, very plump, brown. MARTHA (Labrusca, Vinifera) Martha was at one time a popular green grape, but the introduction of superior varieties has reduced its popularity until now it is but little grown. It is a seedling of Concord and resembles its parent, differing chiefly as follows: fruit green, a week earlier, bunch and berry smaller, flavor far better, being sweeter, more delicate and less foxy. The vine of Martha is a lighter shade of green, is less robust, and the blossoms open a few days earlier than those of Concord. One of the defects of Martha, and the chief cause of its going out of favor, is that it does not keep nor ship well. The variety is still being planted in the South but is generally abandoned in the North. Samuel Miller, Calmdale, Pennsylvania, grew Martha from seed of Concord; it was introduced about 1868. Vine hardy, productive, susceptible to attacks of mildew. Canes long, dark reddish-brown, surface with thin bloom, roughened; nodes enlarged, slightly flattened; tendrils continuous, or intermittent, bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface light green; lower surface light bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes wanting or faint; petiolar sinus shallow, very wide; teeth irregular. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early mid-season. Clusters medium in size, tapering, single-shouldered, loose; pedicel short, slender; brush very short, green. Berries medium in size, round, light green with thin bloom, persistent; skin thin, very tender, adherent; flesh pale green, juicy, tough, fine-grained, slightly foxy; very good. Seeds few in number, adherent, broad, blunt, dark brown. MASSASOIT (Labrusca, Vinifera) Massasoit is distinguished as the earliest of Rogers' hybrids, ripening with Delaware. The grapes have the peculiarity of being best before full maturity, developing, after ripening, a degree of foxiness which impairs the quality. In shape and size of berry and bunch, there is a striking resemblance to Isabella, but the color is that of Catawba. The texture of the fruit is especially good, firm but tender and juicy, while the flavor is rich and sweet. The vine is vigorous, hardy and productive but subject to mildew and rot. Massasoit is worth a place in the home vineyard and as an early grape of fine quality for local markets. Vine very vigorous, hardy, very productive, subject to rot and mildew. Canes long, thick, dark brown with reddish tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves variable in size; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow, narrow, obscure; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open late; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters variable in size, broad, cylindrical, frequently single-shouldered; pedicel slender with a few indistinct warts; brush pale green. Berries large, round-oval, dark brownish-red, dull with thin bloom, very persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, soft, stringy, foxy; good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, broad, distinctly notched, plump, blunt. MAXATAWNEY (Labrusca, Vinifera) While at one time very popular, grape-growers now seldom hear of Maxatawney. It is a southern grape, ripening its fruit in the North only occasionally. The variety is interesting historically as being the first good green grape and as showing unmistakable Vinifera characters, another example of the fortuitous hybridization which gave so many valuable varieties before artificial hybridization of Vinifera with native grapes had been tried. In 1843, a man living in Eagleville, Pennsylvania, received several bunches of grapes from Maxatawney. The seeds of these grapes were planted and one grew, the resulting plant being the original vine of Maxatawney. Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes medium in length, slender, reddish; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves large, dark green, thick; lower surface grayish-white with tinge of bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters small to medium, short, slender, cylindrical, occasionally with a small, single shoulder, compact; pedicel long, slender, warty; brush long, yellow. Berries variable in size, oval, pale red or dull green with amber tinge, with thin bloom, persistent; skin tough, astringent; flesh tender, foxy; good to very good. Seeds free, few, large, very broad, blunt. MEMORY (Rotundifolia) Memory is one of the best of the Rotundifolia grapes for the garden and local markets, its fruits being especially good for dessert. As yet, however, the variety has not been widely distributed even in North Carolina where it originated. The vine is given credit for being the most vigorous grower and the most productive of the grapes of its species. Memory is probably a seedling of Thomas, which it much resembles, having been found in a vineyard of Thomas grapes near Whiteville, North Carolina, by T. S. Memory, about 1868. Vine very vigorous, healthy, productive. Leaves large, longer than broad, thick, smooth with coarsely serrate margins. Flowers perfect. Fruit ripens in September in North Carolina; clusters large, with from four to twelve berries which hang unusually well for a variety of V. Rotundifolia. Berries very large, round-oblong, deep brownish-black, almost jet black; skin thick; flesh tender, juicy, sweet; good to best. MERRIMAC (Labrusca, Vinifera) Merrimac is often accredited as the best black grape among Rogers' hybrids, but an analysis of the characters of the several black varieties grown by Rogers shows that it is surpassed by Wilder, Herbert and possibly Barry. The vine is strong in growth, productive, hardy and exempt from fungal diseases; but the grapes are not high in quality, and flesh, skin and seed characters are such that the fruit is not as pleasant to eat as the other black varieties named. Merrimac is worthy a place in collections for the sake of variety. Rogers gave this variety the name Merrimac in 1869. Vine vigorous, usually hardy, productive. Canes slender, dark brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, short, bifid. Leaves large, thin; upper surface very light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent and cobwebby; lobes three with terminal one obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth shallow. Flowers self-sterile, open in mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable in size, broad, tapering; pedicel slender, covered with numerous inconspicuous warts; brush wine-colored. Berries large, round, black, glossy with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, stringy; good. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad, long, with enlarged neck, brown. MILLS (Labrusca, Vinifera) The bunches and berries of Mills are large and well-formed; the berries are firm and solid, with the skin adherent as in Viniferas; the flesh is juicy and parts readily from the seeds; the flavor is rich, sweet and vinous; and the grapes are hardly surpassed in keeping quality. But when the fruit characters of Mills have been praised, nothing further can be said in its favor. The vines are neither vigorous, hardy nor fruitful and are very subject to mildew; neither wood nor roots ripen well in the North in average seasons; and the variety is a most difficult one for nurserymen to grow. Mills is of doubtful commercial value, but for the garden it is possible that the grower may be able to graft it to advantage on some variety with better vine characters. William H. Mills, Hamilton, Ontario, grew Mills about 1870 from seed of Muscat Hamburg fertilized by Creveling. Vine medium in vigor, hardiness and productiveness. Canes long, thick, light brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, cobwebby; lobes three to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus intermediate in depth and width; basal and lateral sinuses deep and wide; teeth deep. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, slender, cylindrical, often double-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with numerous, small warts; brush long, wine-colored. Berries large, oval, jet-black with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, tough, adherent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, rich, tender, sprightly, vinous, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, one to three, large, brown. MISH (Rotundifolia) Mish is a favorite Rotundifolia in North Carolina, being planted extensively in some parts of that state. Its outstanding characters are vigor and productiveness in vine and high quality in the fruit. Mish is named by many as the best all-round Rotundifolia, being of value for dessert, wine and grape-juice. The variety was found by W. M. Mish, about 1846, near Washington, North Carolina. Vine very vigorous, productive, healthy, open in growth; canes somewhat trailing. Leaves large, round, thick, smooth, leathery with coarsely dentate margin. Flowers perfect. Fruit late, does not ripen uniformly, keeps and ships well. Clusters of medium size with from six to fifteen berries which cling well to the pedicel. Berries of medium size, round-oval, deep reddish-black with numerous conspicuous dots; skin thin, cracking in wet weather; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, exceptionally well flavored; very good to best. MISSION (Vinifera) Of all grapes, Mission has probably played the most important part in the vineyards of California. Grown from the earliest times at the old missions, its source or its name has never been determined. Its viticultural value for table and wine-press was early appreciated by California grape-growers, and its culture rapidly spread to every county in the state adapted to grape-growing. With vines vigorous, healthy and productive, bearing grapes of delicious quality, Mission is a mainstay on the Pacific slope, surpassed by few vineyard varieties for general usefulness. The description is compiled. Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed, grayish-brown, dull, dark. Leaf medium to large, slightly oblong, with large, deeply-cut compound teeth; basal sinus widely opened, primary sinuses narrow and shallow; smooth on both sides with scattered tomentum below, bright green above, lighter below. Bunch divided into many small, distinct lateral clusters, shouldered, loose, sometimes very loose; berries of medium size, purple or almost black with heavy bloom; skin thin; flesh firm, crisp, juicy, sweet, rich and delicious. Seeds rather large and prominent; season late. MISSOURI RIESLING (Vulpina, Labrusca) Missouri Riesling attains perfection only in the South. The vines are hardy, vigorous, productive and healthy in the North, as a rule, but the fruit is lacking in quality. In the South, Missouri Riesling is a beautiful fruit when well grown and has many good qualities of fruit and vine. It originated with Nicholas Grein, Hermann, Missouri, about 1870, probably from seed of Taylor. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes very long, numerous, thick, dark brown; nodes enlarged; internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent; lobes five with terminal one acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; basal sinus shallow, wide; lateral sinus deep, wide; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late, does not keep nor ship well. Clusters short, cylindrical, single-shouldered; pedicel long with few small warts; brush green. Berries of medium size, round, yellowish-green changing to light red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin sprinkled with small brown dots, thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, lacking in aroma, mild; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to four, surface rough, dark brown. MONTEFIORE (Vulpina, Labrusca) Montefiore is extensively grown in Missouri and the Southwest but is almost unknown in the North and East. It is reported as succeeding in the Lake District of Ohio and, with the exception that it is uncertain in bearing and not always productive, it grows well in sections of New York. While it is essentially a wine-grape, yet it is pleasing in taste and texture of fruit and is far better in quality than many of the coarser Labruscas commonly cultivated. It keeps and ships well and presents an attractive appearance. Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri, grew this variety about 1875 from seed of Taylor fertilized by Ives. Vine vigorous and hardy. Canes long, thick, dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils continuous, long, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; lobes three when present with terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow when present; teeth deep. Flowers semi-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, short, tapering, single-shouldered, the shoulder being connected to the bunch by a long stem, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush red. Berries small, oval, often compressed, black, glossy with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, melting, vinous, sweet; fair to good. Seeds free, one to five, small, broad, faintly notched, short, plump, brown. MOORE EARLY (Labrusca) Moore Early (Plate XXIV) is the standard grape of its season. Its fruit cannot be described better than as an early Concord. The vines are readily distinguishable from those of Concord, differing chiefly in being less productive. To grow the variety satisfactorily, the soil must be rich, well-drained and loose, must be frequently cultivated, and the vines should be pruned severely. The bunches of Moore Early are not as large as those of Concord and are less compact; the berries shell rather more easily, and the skin cracks more readily. The flesh characters and the flavor are essentially those of Concord, although the quality is not as high as in the older variety. The quality is, however, much higher than that of Champion and Hartford, its chief competitors, and varieties which it should replace. Moore Early is by no means an ideal grape for its season, but until something better is introduced it will probably remain the best early commercial sort. Captain John B. Moore, Concord, Massachusetts, originated this variety from seed of Concord, planted about 1868. Vine vigorous, hardy, unproductive. Canes short, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, dull; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; leaf usually not lobed, terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus a notch when present; teeth shallow, narrow. Flowers fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, length, and breadth, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose; pedicel short, thick, smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries large, round, purplish-black, firm; skin tender, adherent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough with slight foxiness; fair to good. Seeds one to four, large, broad, plump, blunt, brown with yellow tinge at tips. MOSCATELLO (Vinifera) _Moscatello Nero. Black Muscat_ Beautiful in appearance and having a delicate Muscat taste and aroma, this variety is one of the good table-grapes of the Pacific slope. Unfortunately it ripens so late that it is hardly worth trying in the East. The variety has the reputation of being very productive. The description is compiled. Vine vigorous, healthy, very productive. Leaves of medium size, with deep upper and shallow lower sinuses; glabrous above, slightly downy below, very hairy on the veins, with long, sharp teeth. Bunch large to very large, long, loose, conico-cylindrical, winged; berries very large, borne on long slender pedicels, dark purple, almost black; skin thin but tough; flesh rather soft, juicy; flavor sweet, rich, aromatic, musky; quality very good. Season late, does not keep well. MOYER (Labrusca, Bourquiniana) _Jordan, Moyer's Early Red_ Moyer is almost a counterpart of its parent, Delaware. Were it not that the variety is from one to two weeks earlier than Delaware, and somewhat hardier, hence better adapted for cold regions, it could have no place in viticulture. Compared with Delaware, the vine is hardly as vigorous and is less productive, but is freer from rot and mildew. The bunches are much like those of Delaware but have the fault of setting fruit imperfectly even when cross-pollination is assured; the berries are a little larger, of much the same color and of like flavor, rich, sweet, with pure vinousness and without a trace of foxiness. The fruit keeps well, ships well and does not crack nor shell. Moyer is well established in Canada, proving perfectly hardy wherever Concord is grown, possibly standing even more cold. W. H. Read, Port Dalhousie, Ontario, raised the original vine of Moyer, about 1880, from seed of Delaware fertilized by Miller's Burgundy. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive. Canes numerous, slender, dull, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves small; upper surface dark green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green or with faint blue tinge, heavily pubescent; lobes two to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus shallow; basal sinus shallow when present; lateral sinus shallow, narrow; teeth very shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile, open early; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps well but loses color if kept too long. Clusters small, short, slender, tapering, sometimes single-shouldered; pedicel short with small warts; brush yellowish-green. Berries small, oblate, dark red with faint bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, free, astringent; flesh translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, short, very blunt, brown with yellow tinge at tips. MUSCATEL (Vinifera) _White Frontignan_ This old and standard sort is rather commonly grown in some of the grape regions of California to follow Chasselas Golden. It might be tried with some show of success in favored grape regions in the East. The description is compiled. Vine of medium size, vigorous, healthy; canes strong, spreading, reddish-brown with short internodes. Leaves of medium size, thin, five-lobed; glabrous except on the lower sides of the well-marked ribs where a few hairs show. Bunches long, cylindrical, regular, compact; berries round, golden-yellow becoming amber; flavor sweet, rich, aromatic, peculiar; quality very good. Season late mid-season, keeps and ships well. [Illustration: PLATE XXXI.--Worden (×2/3).] MUSCAT HAMBURG (Vinifera) Muscat Hamburg (Plate XXV) is an old European grape well known in some parts of America in greenhouse graperies, since it is one of the best for forcing. All who know the beautiful fruits of this variety grown in forcing-houses will want to test it out of doors, where at the Geneva, New York, Experiment Station, they have done well, many clusters attaining a weight of a pound and a half to two pounds. The accompanying plate, the fruit much less than half natural size, shows what a fine grape Muscat Hamburg is. One is struck with wondering admiration at a vine laden with these grapes growing alongside Concord, Niagara or Delaware. The quality is delectable, the quintessence of the flavors and aromas which make the grape a favorite fruit. The grapes keep long and retain their form, size, color and rich, delicate flavor almost to the end. This variety is a treasure to the amateur; and the professional who wants another grape for local markets should try grafting over a few vines of some native to this sort, following the directions given in Chapter X in caring for the vines. Vines vigorous, tender, need protection during the winter; canes long, numerous, slender to medium, light brown, darker at the nodes which are enlarged and flattened. Leaves medium to large, intermediate in thickness; upper surface light green, dull; lower surface pale green, faintly pubescent, densely hairy. Fruit ripens in October, ships and keeps well; clusters very large, long, broad, tapering, single or double-shouldered. Berries large, firm, oval, very dark purplish-red, covered with lilac bloom, very persistent; skin thick, adheres strongly to the pulp; flesh pale green, translucent, meaty, very juicy, tender, vinous, musky, sweet, rich; very good to best; seeds separating easily from the pulp, large. MUSCAT OF ALEXANDRIA This is possibly the leading table- and raisin-grape of the Pacific slope. From the literature or from a visit to vineyards, one cannot make out whether one or several varieties are grown under the name. Probably there are several strains grown under the distinctive name "Muscat" which applies to these sweet, light yellow, musky grapes. This is one of the standard sorts to force indoors but requires too long a season for out of doors in the East. The following description is compiled: Vine short, straggling, bushy, sometimes forming a bush rather than a vine, very productive; wood gray with dark spots, short-jointed. Leaf round, five-lobed; bright green above, lighter green below. Bunches long and loose, shouldered; berry oblong, light yellow and transparent when fully mature, covered with white bloom; flesh firm, crisp; flavor sweet and very musky; quality good. Season late, the laterals producing a second and sometimes even a third crop. NIAGARA (Labrusca, Vinifera) Niagara (Plate XXVI) is the leading American green grape, holding the rank among grapes of this color that Concord maintains among black varieties. It is, however, a less valuable grape than Concord, and it is doubtful whether it should be ranked much higher than several other green grapes. In vigor and productiveness, when the two grapes are on equal footing as to adaptability, Niagara and Concord rank the same. In hardiness of root and vine, Niagara falls short of Concord; it cannot be relied on without winter protection where the thermometer falls below zero. Niagara has much of the foxiness of the wild Labrusca, distasteful to many palates. Both bunches and berries of Niagara are larger than those of Concord and are better formed, making a handsomer fruit if the colors are liked equally well. The fruit shells as badly as that of Concord and does not keep longer. Both vine and fruit of Niagara are more susceptible to fungal diseases than those of Concord, especially to black-rot, which proves a veritable scourge with this variety in unfavorable seasons. Niagara was produced by C. L. Hoag and B. W. Clark, Lockport, New York, from seed of Concord fertilized by Cassady planted in 1868. Vine vigorous, lacking in hardiness, very productive. Canes long, thick, reddish-brown deepening in color at the nodes which are enlarged and slightly flattened; internodes long, thick; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thick; upper surface glossy, dark green, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five with terminus acute; petiolar sinus of medium depth and width; basal sinus shallow, wide, often toothed; lateral sinus wide, frequently toothed; teeth shallow, variable in width. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, frequently single-shouldered, compact; pedicel thick with a few, small, inconspicuous warts; brush pale green, long. Berries large, oval, pale yellowish-green with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, adherent, astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, foxy; good. Seeds free, one to six, deeply notched, brown. NOAH (Vulpina, Labrusca) Noah is little grown at present outside of Missouri, where it is still planted somewhat. Noah and Elvira are often confused but there are very marked differences. The clusters of Elvira are smaller, the berries are more foxy in taste, and the skins are more tender and crack more readily than do those of Noah. The large, dark, glossy green leaves make the vines of this variety very handsome. As with Elvira and other varieties of this group, Noah is of little value in the North. It originated with Otto Wasserzieher, Nauvoo, Illinois, from seed of Taylor planted in 1869. Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus very shallow when present; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, open early; stamens upright. Fruit late mid-season, does not ship nor keep well. Clusters variable in size, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short with a few small warts; brush short, brown. Berries small, round, light green tinged with yellow, dull with thin bloom, firm; skin adherent to pulp; flesh yellowish-green, translucent, juicy, tough, fine-grained, vinous, sprightly; good. Seeds adherent, one to four, dark brown. NORTHERN MUSCADINE (Labrusca) That this variety, together with Lucile, Lutie and other grapes with the foxy taste strongly marked, has not become popular, in spite of good vine characters, is evidence that the American public do not desire such grapes. In appearance of fruit, Northern Muscadine is much like Lutie, the two being distinguished from other grapes by an unmistakable odor. A serious defect of the fruit is that the berries shatter badly as soon as they reach maturity. Taken as a whole, the vine characters of this variety are very good and offer possibilities for the grape-breeder. The variety originated at New Lebanon, New York, and was brought to notice by D. J. Hawkins and Philemon Stewart of the Society of Shakers about 1852. Vine vigorous, productive, healthy, hardy. Canes slender, dark brown, heavily pubescent; tendrils continuous, bifid, dehisce early. Leaves large, round, thick; upper surface dull, rugose; lower surface dark bronze, heavily pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early mid-season, does not keep well. Clusters medium in size, short, occasionally single-shouldered, compact. Berries large, oval, dark amber with thin bloom, drop badly from the pedicel; skin tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, soft, very foxy, sweet; poor in quality. Seeds free, numerous, large, broad, faintly notched, long, brown. NORTON (Æstivalis, Labrusca) Norton is one of the leading wine-grapes in eastern America, the fruit having small value for any other purpose than wine or, possibly, grape-juice. The vine is hardy but requires a long, warm season to reach maturity so that it is seldom grown successfully north of the Potomac. Norton thrives in rich alluvial clays, gravels or sands, the only requisite seemingly being a fair amount of fertility and soil warmth. The vines are robust; very productive, especially on fertile soils; as free, or more so, from fungal diseases as any other of our native grapes; and are very resistant to phylloxera. The bunches are of but medium size and the berries are small. The grapes are pleasant eating when fully ripe, rich, spicy and pure-flavored but tart if not quite ripe. The variety is difficult to propagate from cuttings and to transplant, and the vines do not bear grafts well. The origin of Norton is uncertain, but it has been under cultivation since before 1830, when it was first described. Vine very vigorous, healthy, half-hardy, productive. Canes long, thick, dark brown with abundant bloom; nodes much enlarged; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, occasionally continuous, long, bifid, sometimes trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round; upper surface pale green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus usually absent; lateral sinus shallow or a mere notch when present. Flowers self-fertile, late; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters medium in size, short, broad, tapering, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with a few warts; brush dull, wine-colored. Berries small, round-oblate, black, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thin, free with much dark red pigment; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, spicy, tart. Seeds free, two to six, small, brown. OPORTO (Vulpina, Labrusca) Oporto was at one time in demand as a wine grape because its wine resembled in color and flavor that from Oporto. The variety is now scarcely known, being inferior in most of its horticultural characters to others of its species, but might be valuable in breeding for some of its characters. The vine is very hardy, unusually free from fungal diseases, is very resistant to phylloxera and has been used in France as a phylloxera-resistant grafting-stock. The juice is very thick and dark, a deep purple, hence suitable for adding color to wine or grape-juice. The origin of Oporto is unknown. It was brought into cultivation about 1860 by E. W. Sylvester, Lyons, New York. Vine very vigorous, hardy, healthy, variable in productiveness. Canes long, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long, diaphragm thin; tendrils continuous, bifid. Stamens reflexed. Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small, cylindrical, often single-shouldered. Berries medium in size, round, black, glossy with abundant bloom, persistent, firm; skin very thin, tender, with much dark wine-colored pigment; flesh white, sometimes with purple tinge, juicy, fine-grained, solid, sweet, spicy; fair quality. Seeds free, numerous, small, broad, faintly notched, sharply pointed, plump, dark brown. OTHELLO (Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca) _Arnold's Hybrid, Canadian Hamburg, Canadian Hybrid_ In France, Othello does remarkably well as a direct producer and is used also for a resistant stock. While most of its characters are spoken of in the superlative by the French, in America the variety is not so highly esteemed because of susceptibility to fungi. Moreover, the fruit matures so late that it could never become a valuable variety for the North. It is in no sense a table-grape but makes a well-colored, pleasant wine. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, grew Othello from seed of Clinton fertilized by Black Hamburg and planted in 1859. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves of average size; upper surface light green, dull and smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; lobes three to five with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep, very narrow, frequently closed and overlapping; basal sinus shallow, narrow; lateral sinus deep; teeth deep, wide; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps fairly well. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, frequently with a loose single shoulder, compact; pedicel long, slender with numerous small warts; brush short, wine-colored. Berries large, oval, black, glossy with abundant bloom, very persistent; skin thin, tough, adherent with red pigment; flesh dark green, very juicy, fine-grained, tough, sprightly; low in quality. Seeds free, one to three, neck sometimes swollen, brown. OZARK (Æstivalis, Labrusca) Ozark belongs to the South and to Missouri in particular. Its merits and demerits have been threshed out by the Missouri grape-growers with the result that its culture is somewhat increasing. It is a grape of low quality, partly, perhaps, from over-bearing, which it habitually does unless the fruit is thinned. The vine is healthy and a very strong grower, but is self-sterile, which is against it as a market sort. In spite of self-sterility and low quality, Ozark is a promising variety for the country south of Pennsylvania. Ozark originated with J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas, from seed of unknown source. The variety was introduced about 1890. Vine very vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, thick with thin bloom, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, usually bifid. Leaves dense, large; upper surface light green; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent, cobwebby; lobes three to five; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; serrations shallow, narrow. Flowers self-sterile or nearly so, open late; stamens reflexed. Fruit late, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a long, loose shoulder, very compact; pedicel short, thick, smooth; brush long, red. Berries variable in size, dull black with abundant bloom, persistent; skin tough with much wine-colored pigment; flesh tender, mild; fair in quality. Seeds free, small. PALOMINO (Vinifera) _Golden Chasselas, Listan_ This variety seems to be grown in California under the three names given--while in France Palomino is described as a bluish-black grape. Palomino seems to be grown commonly in California as a table-grape and is worth trying in eastern America. The variety received under the name Palomino from California at the New York Experiment Station has the following characters, agreeing closely with those set down by Californian viticulturists: Fruit ripens about the 20th of October, keeping qualities good; clusters medium to large, long, single-shouldered, tapering, loose; berries medium to small, roundish, pale greenish-yellow, thin bloom; skin and the adhering flesh medium tender and crisp, flesh surrounding seeds melting; flavor sweet, vinous; quality good. PEABODY (Vulpina, Labrusca, Vinifera) Peabody is as yet a comparatively unimportant offspring of Clinton. The grapes are of excellent quality. It appears to do better in the northern tier of states or in Canada, than farther south. This variety was grown by J. H. Ricketts about 1870. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, light brown with ash-gray tinge, darker at nodes, covered with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size; upper surface dark green, thin; lower surface pale green, nearly glabrous; lobes three, acuminate; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; serration deep, narrow. Flowers semi-fertile, mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters large, long, usually with a shoulder connected to the bunch by a long stem, compact; pedicel short, slender, warty; brush short, green. Berries oval, black, glossy, covered with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough; flesh very juicy, tender, vinous, spicy, agreeably sweet at the skin, tart at the center; good. Seeds free, broad. PERFECTION (Labrusca, Bourquiniana, Vinifera) Perfection is a seedling of Delaware, which it greatly resembles but does not equal in fruit; its fruits being hardly as high in quality, do not keep as well, shrivel more before ripening, and shell more readily. In its vine characters, it is much more like a Labrusca than Delaware, suggesting that it is a Delaware cross. In the Southwest, Perfection is considered a valuable early red grape. J. Stayman, Leavenworth, Kansas, grew Perfection from seed of Delaware; it was sent out for testing about 1890. Vine vigorous, healthy, injured in severe winters, productive. Canes of medium length and number, slender; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves healthy, medium in size; upper surface light green; lower surface grayish-white with a tinge of bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes wanting or three to five; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; serration shallow. Flowers self-fertile or nearly so, open in mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early. Clusters usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender, smooth; brush short, yellow. Berries small, round, red but less brilliant than Delaware with faint bloom, inclined to drop from pedicel, soft; skin thin, free from astringency; flesh medium in juiciness and tenderness, vinous, mild, sweet; good in quality. Seeds adherent, numerous, small, often with an enlarged neck. PERKINS (Labrusca, Vinifera) At one time Perkins was grown largely as an early grape but has been discarded very generally on account of the poor quality of the fruit. The pulp of the grape is hard and the flavor is that of Wyoming and Northern Muscadine, grapes characterized by disagreeable foxiness. As with nearly all Labruscas, Perkins is a poor keeper. Notwithstanding the faults of its fruit, the variety may have value in regions where grape-growing is precarious; for in fruiting it is one of the most reliable grapes cultivated, the vines being hardy, vigorous, productive and free from fungal diseases. Perkins is an accidental seedling found about 1830 in the garden of Jacob Perkins, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes long, numerous, thick, dark brown, deepening in color at the nodes, surface heavily pubescent; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes long; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, thick; upper surface rugose; lower surface heavily pubescent; veins distinct; lobes three; petiolar sinus deep, narrow; serration shallow. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright. Fruit early, ships well. Clusters of medium size and length, broad, cylindrical, often with a single shoulder, compact; pedicel short, thick, warty; brush long, yellow. Berries large, oval, pale lilac or light red with thin bloom, inclined to drop from the pedicel, soft; skin thin, tough, without pigment; flesh white, juicy, stringy, fine-grained, firm, meaty, very foxy; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, numerous, medium in size, notched. POCKLINGTON (Labrusca) Before the advent of Niagara, Pocklington (Plate XXII) was the leading green grape. The variety has the fatal fault, however, of ripening its crop late, which with some minor defects has caused it to fall below Niagara for northern grape districts. Pocklington is a seedling of Concord and resembles its parent in vine characters; the vines are fully equal to or surpass those of Concord in hardiness, but are of slower growth and not quite as healthy, vigorous nor productive. In quality, the grapes are as good if not better than those of Concord or Niagara, being sweet, rich and pleasantly flavored, although as with the other grapes named, it has too much foxiness for critical consumers. Pocklington is not equal to several other grapes of its season in quality, as Iona, Jefferson, Diana, Dutchess and Catawba, but it is far above the average and for this reason should be retained. John Pocklington, Sandy Hill, New York, grew Pocklington from seed of Concord about 1870. Vine medium in vigor, hardy. Canes of medium length, number and size, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size, thick; upper surface light green, glossy; lower surface tinged with bronze, pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, wide; teeth narrow. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, cylindrical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with a few small warts; brush short, green. Berries large, oblate, yellowish-green with tinge of amber, with thin bloom, firm; skin with scattering russet dots, thin, tender, adherent, faintly astringent; flesh light green with yellow tinge, translucent, juicy, tough, fine-grained, slightly foxy; good. Seeds adherent, one to six, of medium length and breadth. POUGHKEEPSIE (Bourquiniana, Labrusca, Vinifera) Poughkeepsie has been known long on the Hudson River, yet it is now little grown there and has not been disseminated widely elsewhere. In quality of fruit, it is equal to the best American varieties, but the vine characters are all poor and the variety is thus effectually debarred from common cultivation. Both vine and fruit resemble those of Delaware, but in neither does it quite equal the latter. In particular, the vine is more easily winter-killed and is less productive than that of Delaware. The grapes ripen a little earlier than those of the last named sort and this, with their beauty and fine quality, is sufficient to recommend it for the garden at least. About 1865, A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New York, grew Poughkeepsie from seed of Iona fertilized by mixed pollen of Delaware and Walter. Vine of medium vigor. Canes short, thick, dark reddish-brown; tendrils intermittent, frequently three in line, bifid or trifid. Leaves small; upper surface green, glossy, older leaves rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, late; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters small, tapering, usually single-shouldered, very compact. Berries small, round, pale red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, tender, without pigment; flesh pale green, very juicy, tender, melting, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, small, broad, with enlarged neck, brown. PRENTISS (Labrusca, Vinifera) Prentiss is a green grape of high quality, once well known and generally recommended, but now going out of cultivation because the vine is tender to cold, lacks in vigor, is unproductive, uncertain in bearing and is subject to rot and mildew. There are vineyards in which it does very well and in such it is a remarkably attractive green grape, especially in form of cluster and in color of berry, in these respects resembling the one-time favorite, Rebecca, although not so high in quality as that variety. Its season is given as both before and after Concord. Prentiss always must remain a variety for the amateur and for special localities. It originated with J. W. Prentiss, Pulteney, New York, about 1870 from seed of Isabella. Vine weak. Canes thick, light to dark brown; tendrils continuous, bifid. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light green, rugose in the older leaves; lower surface pale green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit variable in season, about with Concord, keeps well. Cluster medium in size, tapering, sometimes with a single shoulder, compact. Berries medium in size, oval, light green with a yellow tinge, thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin tough, without pigment; flesh pale green, juicy, foxy; good. Seeds adherent, numerous, notched, short, sharp-pointed, dark brown. PURPLE CORNICHON (Vinifera) _Black Cornichon_ By virtue of attractive appearance and excellent shipping qualities of the fruit, this variety takes high place among the commercial grapes of California. Late ripening is another quality making it desirable, while its curious, long, curved berries add novelty to its attractions. The fruit does not take high rank in quality. The description has been compiled. Vine very vigorous, healthy and productive; wood light brown striped with darker brown, short-jointed. Leaves large, longer than wide, deeply five-lobed; dark green above, lighter and very hairy below; coarsely toothed; with short, thick petiole. Bunches very large, loose or sometimes scraggly, borne on long peduncles; berries large, long, more or less curved, dark purple, spotted, thick-skinned, borne on long pedicels; flesh firm, crisp, sweet but not rich in flavor; quality good but not high. Season late, keeps and ships well. REBECCA (Labrusca, Vinifera) In the middle of the last century, when grape-growing was in the hands of the connoisseurs, Rebecca was one of the sterling green varieties. It is wholly unsuited for commercial vineyards and for years has been disappearing gradually from cultivation. The fruit is exceptionally fine, consisting of well-formed bunches and berries, the latter handsome yellowish-white and semi-transparent. In quality, the grapes are of the best, with a rich, sweet flavor and pleasing aroma. But the vine characters condemn Rebecca for any but the amateur. The vines lack in hardiness and vigor, are susceptible to mildew and other fungi and are productive only under the best conditions. The original vine was an accidental seedling found in the garden of E. M. Peake, Hudson, New York, and bore its first fruit in 1852. Vine weak, sometimes vigorous, doubtfully hardy. Canes long, numerous, slender, dull brown, deepening in color at the nodes; tendrils continuous or intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size; upper surface dark green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers self-fertile; stamens upright. Fruit late mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters small, short, cylindrical, rarely with a small, single shoulder, compact. Berries of medium size, oval, green with yellow tinge verging on amber, thin gray bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, without pigment; flesh pale green, very juicy, tender, melting, vinous, a little foxy, sweet; good to very good. Seeds free, short, narrow, blunt, brown. RED EAGLE (Labrusca, Vinifera) Red Eagle is a pure-bred seedling of Black Eagle which it resembles in all characters except color of fruit. Vine and fruit exhibit the characters found in Rogers' hybrids. It takes high rank as a grape of quality and can be recommended for the garden. The variety originated with T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, and was sent out in 1888. Vine medium in vigor and hardiness, productive. Canes few, slender, dark brown with heavy bloom; nodes prominent, flattened; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent; lobes three to five with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, sometimes closed and overlapping; basal sinus wide; lateral sinus deep, wide; teeth deep, wide. Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens upright. Fruit early mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, tapering, single-shouldered, sometimes double-shouldered, loose with many abortive berries; pedicel very long, slender; brush green with brown tinge. Berries variable in size, round, light to very dark red with heavy bloom, persistent, soft; skin thick, tender, adherent with some red pigment; flesh green, transparent, juicy, very tender, melting, slightly foxy, tart; very good. Seeds free, one to five, large, long, blunt, light brown. REGAL (Labrusca, Vinifera) Regal is an offspring of Lindley, which it greatly resembles. The fruit is attractive in appearance and high in quality. A seemingly insignificant fault might make Regal undesirable in a commercial vineyard; the clusters are borne so close to the wood that it is difficult to harvest the fruit and avoid injury to the berries next to the wood. The variety is worthy of extensive culture in vineyards and gardens. Regal originated with W. A. Woodward, Rockford, Illinois, in 1879. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes intermediate in length and size, numerous, dark reddish-brown. Tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface green, glossy and rugose; lower surface pale green with a bronze tinge, strongly pubescent. Flowers self-fertile, mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, keeps well. Clusters small, broad, cylindrical, usually with a short single shoulder, sometimes double-shouldered, very compact. Berries large, round, purplish-red with faint bloom, persistent. Skin thin, tough, without pigment. Flesh pale green, very juicy, fine-grained, tender, musky; good. Seeds free, numerous, long, narrow, notched, blunt with a short neck, brown. REQUA (Labrusca, Vinifera) This is one of Rogers' hybrids which equals other grapes of its color and season. The grapes are attractive in cluster and berry and are of very good quality but are subject to rot and ripen too late for northern regions. The variety was named Requa in 1869, it having been previously known as No. 28. Vine vigorous, hardy except in severe winters, medium in productiveness. Canes long, thick; tendrils continuous or intermittent, trifid or bifid. Leaves medium in size, dark green, often thick and rugose; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent. Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens reflexed. Fruit late, keeps long. Clusters large, cylindrical, often with a long, single shoulder, compact. Berries large, oval, dark, dull red covered with thin bloom, strongly adherent; skin thin, tough, adherent; flesh pale green, tender, stringy, vinous, foxy, sweet; good to very good. Seeds adherent, medium in size and length, broad, blunt. ROCHESTER (Labrusca, Vinifera) The fruit of Rochester is a large-clustered red grape, handsome and very good in quality. The vine is a strong grower, productive and free from diseases. The variety is difficult to propagate and, therefore, not in favor with nurserymen. The grapes are sweet, rich and vinous but should be used as soon as ripe, as they do not keep well and the berries quickly shatter from the bunch. As an attractive early red grape, Rochester is worth a place in the garden and in favored locations for a special market. Ellwanger and Barry, Rochester, New York, in 1867 grew Rochester from mixed seed of Delaware, Diana, Concord and Rebecca. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive. Canes long, dark reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-green, pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus shallow; teeth shallow. Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit does not keep well. Clusters large, broad, tapering, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, slender with few warts; brush slender, yellowish-brown. Berries medium, oval, purplish-red, dull with thin, lilac bloom, drop from the pedicel, soft; skin thick, tough, inclined to crack, free, without pigment, astringent; flesh pale green, transparent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, vinous, sweet; good to very good. Seeds free, one to three, large, short, broad, dark brown. [Illustration: PLATE XXXII.--Wyoming (×2/3).] ROMMEL (Labrusca, Vulpina, Vinifera) Rommel is rarely cultivated in the North, because the vines lack in robustness, hardiness and productiveness and are susceptible to the leaf-hopper; and the grapes do not attain high quality and crack as they ripen. The bunch and berry are attractive in form, size and color. At its best, Rommel is a good table-grape and makes a fine white wine. It is worth growing in the South. T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, originated Rommel in 1885, from seed of Elvira pollinated by Triumph, and introduced it in 1889. Vine vigorous in the South. Canes long, numerous, thick, reddish-brown, surface roughened; nodes enlarged, often flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves medium in size, round, thick; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface pale green, free from pubescence but slightly hairy; leaf not lobed, terminus acute to acuminate; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow when present; teeth deep. Flowers semi-fertile, late; stamens upright. Fruit mid-season, ships and keeps well. Clusters medium to short, broad, cylindrical, single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, smooth; brush short, pale green. Berries large, roundish, light green with a yellow tinge, glossy, persistent, firm; skin thin, cracks badly, tender, adherent, without pigment or astringency; flesh greenish, translucent, juicy, tender, melting, stringy, sweet; fair to good. Seeds free, one to four, broad, sharp-pointed, plump, brown. ROSAKI (Vinifera) Rosaki is a table-and raisin-grape of southeastern Europe and Asia Minor. According to some of the California nursery companies, it is grown in that state under the name Dattier de Beyrouth, although it would seem from French descriptions that there is a separate, very late variety of the latter name. Rosaki is similar to Malaga and there is a possibility that in some of the warmer parts of the East, it may be grown commercially as a substitute for the latter. The variety seems to be little grown on the Pacific slope. Vines vigorous, usually very productive. Leaves large, roundish, rugose, usually five-lobed; terminal lobe acuminate; petiolar sinus moderately deep to deep, medium broad; lower lateral sinus shallow, broad, occasionally lacking; upper lateral sinus shallow to medium, broad; margins broadly and bluntly dentate. Fruit ripens the third week in October, keeping qualities excellent; clusters large, loose, tapering, shouldered; berries large to very large, oval to long-oval, pale yellow-green; flesh translucent, tender, meaty, vinous, sprightly; quality good to very good. ROSE OF PERU (Vinifera) Rose of Peru is a favorite table-grape in California, confused with and possibly the same as Black Prince. Its chief commendable characters are handsome appearance and high quality of fruit and very productive vines. It is not adapted for shipping and does not enter plentifully into commerce. Its season is so late that the variety is hardly worth trying in the East, and yet it has matured in favorable seasons at Geneva, New York. The following description is compiled: Vine vigorous, healthy, productive; wood short-jointed, dark brown. Leaves of medium size; deep green above, lighter green and tomentose below. Bunches very large, shouldered, very loose, often scraggly; berry large, round, black with firm, crackling flesh; skin rather thin and tender; flavor sweet and rich; quality very good to best. Season late, keeping rather well but not shipping well. SALEM (Labrusca, Vinifera) _Rogers' No. 22, Rogers' No. 53_ Salem (Plate XXVII) is the one of Rogers' hybrids of which the originator is said to have thought most, and to which he gave the name of his place of residence. The two chief faults, unproductiveness and susceptibility to mildew, are not found in all localities, and in these districts, near good markets, Salem ought to rank high as a commercial fruit. The vine is hardy, vigorous and productive and bears handsome fruit of high quality. This variety was christened Salem by Rogers in 1867, two years earlier than his other hybrids were named. Vine vigorous, hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes long, dark brown; nodes enlarged; tendrils continuous or intermittent, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves variable in size; upper surface dark green, dull; lower surface pale green with slight bronze tinge, pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, notched. Flowers sterile, mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, short, broad, tapering, heavily shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick with small warts, enlarged at point of attachment to berry; brush short, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull, persistent, soft; skin thick, adherent, without pigment, astringent; flesh translucent, juicy, tender, stringy, fine-grained, vinous, sprightly; good to very good. Seeds one to six, large, long and broad, blunt, brown. SCUPPERNONG (Rotundifolia) _American Muscadine, Bull, Bullace, Bullet, Fox Grape, Green Scuppernong, Green Muscadine, Hickman, Muscadine, Roanoke_ Scuppernong is preëminently the grape of the South, the chief representative of the great species, _V. rotundifolia_, which runs riot in natural luxuriance from Delaware and Maryland to the Gulf and westward from the Atlantic to Arkansas and Texas. Scuppernong vines are found on arbors, in gardens, or half wild, on trees and fences on nearly every farm in the South Atlantic states. As a rule, these vines receive little cultivation, are unpruned and are given no care of any kind; but even under neglect they produce large crops. The vines are almost immune to mildew, rot, phylloxera, or other fungal or insect pests; they give not only an abundance of fruit but on arbors and trellises are much prized for their shade and beauty. The fruit, to a palate accustomed to other grapes, is not very acceptable, having a musky flavor and a somewhat repugnant odor, which, however, with familiarity becomes quite agreeable. The pulp is sweet and juicy but is lacking in sprightliness. The grapes are not suitable for the market since the berries drop from the bunch in ripening and become more or less smeared with juice so that their appearance is not appetizing. Vine vigorous, not hardy in the North, very productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, ash-gray to grayish-brown; surface smooth, thickly covered with small, light brown dots; tendrils intermittent, simple. Leaves small, thin; upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface very pale green, pubescent along the ribs; veins inconspicuous. Flowers very late; stamens reflexed. Fruit late, ripens unevenly, berries drop as they mature. Clusters small, round, unshouldered, loose. Berries few in a cluster, large, round, dull green, often with brown tinge, firm; skin thick, tough with many small russet dots; flesh pale green, juicy, tender, soft, fine-grained, foxy, sweet to agreeably tart; fair to good. Seeds adherent, large, short, broad, unnotched, blunt, plump, surface smooth, brown. SECRETARY (Vinifera, Vulpina, Labrusca) Injured by mildew and rot which attack leaves, fruit and young wood, the vines of Secretary are able to produce good grapes only in exceptional seasons and in favored localities. The fruit characters of Secretary, however, give the grapes exceptionally high quality, the berries being meaty yet juicy, fine-grained and tender, with a sweet, spicy, vinous flavor. The bunches are large, well-formed, with medium-sized, purplish-black berries covered with thick bloom, making a very handsome cluster. While the vine and foliage somewhat resemble those of Clinton, one of its parents, the variety is not nearly as hardy, vigorous nor productive. Moreover, in any but favored localities in the North, its maturity is somewhat uncertain. These defects keep Secretary from becoming of commercial importance and make it of value only to the amateur. Secretary is one of the first productions of J. H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, the original vine coming from seed of Clinton fertilized by Muscat Hamburg, planted in 1867. Vine vigorous, doubtfully hardy, variable in productiveness. Canes numerous, light brown, conspicuously darker at nodes, surface covered with thin, blue bloom; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves small to medium, thin; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface pale green, glabrous. Flowers semi-fertile, early; stamens upright. Fruit ripens after Concord, keeps and ships well. Clusters large, long, cylindrical with a large, single shoulder, often loose and with many abortive fruits. Berries large, round, flattened at attachment to pedicel, dark purplish-black, glossy, persistent, firm; skin tough with wine-colored pigment; flesh green, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous, sweet; good. Seeds free, large, broad, notched, long, dark brown. SENASQUA (Labrusca, Vinifera) The vine of Senasqua lacks in vigor, hardiness, productiveness and health. The grapes are of good quality, and when well grown are up to the average fruits of the Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids. Unfortunately the berries have a tendency to crack which is aggravated by the bunches being so compact as to crowd the berries. Senasqua is one of the latest grapes to open its buds and is, therefore, seldom injured by late frosts. It can be recommended only for the garden for the sake of variety. Stephen W. Underhill of Crown Point, New York, originated Senasqua from seed of Concord pollinated by Black Prince. Vine weak and tender, often unproductive. Canes short, few, reddish-brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid or bifid. Leaves light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface whitish-green, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal and lateral sinuses shallow and narrow when present. Flowers fertile, late; stamens upright. Fruit a little later than Concord, keeps well. Clusters large, broad, irregularly tapering, usually with a small, single shoulder, very compact; pedicel thick, smooth, enlarged at point of attachment; brush short, reddish. Berries large, round, reddish-black, persistent, firm; skin thick, tender, cracks, adherent, contains some wine-colored pigment; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, meaty, vinous, spicy; good. Seeds free, one to five, long, narrow, one-sided, light brown. SULTANA (Vinifera) This variety was formerly the standard seedless grape in California for home use and raisins, but it is now outstripped by Sultanina. Sultana is possibly better flavored than Sultanina but the vines are hardly as vigorous or productive and the berries often have seeds. The description is compiled. Vines vigorous, upright, productive. Leaves large, five-lobed, with large sinuses, light in color, coarsely toothed. Bunches large, long, cylindrical, heavily shouldered, sometimes not well filled, often loose and scraggly; berries small, round, firm and crisp, golden-yellow, sweet with considerable piquancy; quality good. SULTANINA (Vinifera) _Thompson's Seedless_ Sultanina is one of the standard seedless grapes of the Pacific slope, grown both to eat out of hand and for raisins. Probably it can be grown in home plantations in favored parts of eastern America where the season is long and warm. The following description is compiled from Californian viticulturists: Vine very vigorous, very productive; trunk large with very long canes. Leaves glabrous on both sides, dark yellow-green above, light below; generally three-lobed, with shallow sinuses; teeth short and obtuse. Bunch large, conico-cylindrical, well filled, with herbaceous peduncles; berries oval, beautiful golden-yellow color; skin moderately thick; flesh of rather neutral flavor; very good. TAYLOR (Vulpina, Labrusca) _Bullitt_ While it is from the species to which Taylor belongs that we must look for our hardiest vines, nevertheless this grape and its offspring, although not tender to cold, do best in southern regions, as they require a long warm summer to mature properly. The quality of the fruit of Taylor is fair to good, the flavor being sweet, pure, delicate and spicy and the flesh tender and juicy; but the bunches are small and the flowers are infertile so that the berries do not set well, making very imperfect and unsightly clusters. The skin is such, also, that it cracks badly, a defect seemingly transmitted to many of the seedlings of the variety. The vine is strong, healthy, hardy but not very productive. The original vine of Taylor was a wild seedling found in the early part of the last century on the Cumberland Mountains near the Kentucky-Tennessee line by a Mr. Cobb. Vine vigorous to rank, healthy, hardy, variable in productiveness. Leaves small, attractive in color, smooth. Flowers bloom early; stamens reflexed. Fruit ripens about two weeks before Isabella. Clusters small to medium, shouldered, loose or moderately compact. Berries small to medium, roundish, pale greenish-white, sometimes tinged with amber; skin very thin; pulp sweet, spicy; fair to good in quality. TRIUMPH (Labrusca, Vinifera) When quality, color, shape and size of bunch and berry are considered, Triumph (Plate XXVIII) is one of the finest dessert grapes of America. At its best, it is a magnificent bunch of golden grapes of highest quality, esteemed even in southern Europe where it must compete with the best of the Viniferas. In America, however, its commercial importance is curtailed by the fact that the fruit requires a long season for proper development. Triumph has, in general, the vine characters of the Labrusca parent, Concord, especially its habit of growth, vigor, productiveness and foliage characters, falling short in hardiness, resistance to fungal diseases and earliness of fruit, the fruit maturing with or a little later than Catawba. While the vine characters of Triumph are those of Labrusca, there is scarcely a suggestion of the coarseness, or of the foxy odor and taste of Labrusca, and the objectionable seeds, pulp and skin of the native grape give way to the far less objectionable structures of Vinifera. The flesh is tender and melting and the flavor rich, sweet, vinous, pure and delicate. The skins of the berries under unfavorable conditions crack badly, the variety, therefore, neither shipping nor keeping well. Triumph was grown soon after the Civil War by George W. Campbell, Delaware, Ohio, from seed of Concord fertilized by Chasselas Musque. Vine vigorous. Canes long, dark brown with much bloom; nodes enlarged; tendrils intermittent, long, trifid, sometimes bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus obtuse; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present; teeth deep, wide. Flowers self-fertile, late; stamens upright. Fruit very late. Clusters very large, long, broad, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, smooth; brush short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, oval, golden yellow, glossy with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thin, inclined to crack, adherent, without pigment, slightly astringent; flesh light green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tender, vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, one to five, small, brown. ULSTER (Labrusca, Vinifera) The vines of Ulster set too much fruit in spite of efforts to control the crop by pruning; two undesirable results follow, the bunches are small and the vines, lacking vigor at best, fail to recover from the overfruitfulness. These defects keep the variety from becoming of importance commercially or even a favorite as a garden grape. The quality of the fruit is very good, being much like that of Catawba, and under favorable conditions it is an attractive green with a red tinge. The fruit keeps well when the variety is grown under conditions suited to it. Ulster originated with A. J. Caywood, Marlboro, New York, and was introduced by him about 1885. Its parents are said to be Catawba pollinated by a wild Æstivalis. Both vine and fruit show traces of Labrusca and Vinifera, but the Æstivalis characters, if present, are not apparent. Vine hardy, productive, overbears. Canes short, slender, dark brown, surface roughened and covered with faint pubescence; nodes enlarged and flattened; internodes short; tendrils intermittent, bifid, dehisce early. Leaves small, thick; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface grayish-white, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus medium to wide; basal sinus absent; lateral sinus a notch when present; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers self-fertile, early; stamens upright. Fruit late mid-season. Clusters long, cylindrical, often single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, with numerous warts; brush short, yellowish-green. Berries medium in size, round, dark dull red with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, faintly aromatic, slightly foxy; good to very good. Seeds free, one to six, medium in size, plump, brown. VERDAL (Vinifera) _Aspiran Blanc_ Verdal is one of the standard late grapes of the Pacific slope, ripening among the last. The grapes are seen seldom in distant markets and the quality is not quite good enough to make it a very great favorite for home plantations. Vigor and hardiness of vines commend it as do the large and handsome fruits, and these qualities, with late ripening, will probably long keep it on grape lists in the far West. The description is compiled. Vines vigorous, hardy, healthy and productive; canes rather slender, half erect. Leaves of medium size, glabrous on both surfaces, except below near the axis of the main nerve; sinuses well marked and generally closed, giving the leaf the appearance of having five holes; teeth long, unequal, acuminate. Bunches large to very large, irregular, long-conical, usually compact; shoulders small or lacking; berries large or very large, yellowish-green; skin thick but tender; flesh crisp, firm; flavor agreeable but not rich; quality good. Season very late, keeping and shipping well. VERGENNES (Labrusca) The most valuable attribute of Vergennes (Plate XXIX) is certainty in bearing. The vine seldom fails to bear although it often overbears, causing variability in size of fruits and time of ripening. With a moderate crop, the grapes ripen with Concord, but with a heavy load from one to two weeks later. Vergennes is somewhat unpopular with vineyardists because of the sprawling habit of the vines which makes them untractable for vineyard operations; this fault is obviated by grafting on other vines. The grapes are attractive, the quality is good, flavor agreeable, the flesh tender, and seeds and skin are not objectionable. Vergennes is the standard late-keeping grape for northern regions, being very common in the markets as late as January. The original vine was a chance seedling in the garden of William E. Greene, Vergennes, Vermont, in 1874. Vine variable in vigor, doubtfully hardy, productive, healthy. Canes long, dark brown; nodes enlarged, strongly flattened; tendrils continuous, long, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, thin; upper surface light green, glossy, rugose; lower surface pale green, very pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus broadly acute; petiolar sinus wide; teeth shallow. Flowers semi-sterile, mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit late, keeps and ships well. Clusters of medium size, broad, cylindrical, sometimes single-shouldered, loose; pedicel with numerous small warts; brush slender, short, pale green. Berries large, oval, light and dark red with thin bloom, persistent; skin thick, tough, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, juicy, fine-grained, somewhat stringy, tender, vinous; good to very good. Seeds free, one to five, blunt, brown. WALTER (Vinifera, Labrusca, Bourquiniana) Were it not almost impossible to grow healthy vines of Walter, the variety would rank high among American grapes. But stunted by fungi which attack leaves, young wood and fruit, it is possible only in exceptionally favorable seasons satisfactorily to produce crops of this variety. Besides susceptibility to diseases, the vines are fastidious to soils, everywhere variable in growth and are injured in cold winters. As if to atone for the faults of the vine, the fruit of Walter is almost perfect, lacking only in size of bunch and berry. The bunch and berry resemble those of Delaware, but the fruit is not as high in quality as that of its parents. Walter is adapted to conditions under which Delaware thrives. A. J. Caywood, Modena, New York, grew this variety about 1850 from seed of Delaware pollinated by Diana. Vine vigorous. Canes medium in length and size, dark reddish-brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils intermittent, bifid. Leaves thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface tinged with bronze, heavily pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus narrow; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus a notch if present. Flowers mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters medium in size, broad, cylindrical, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender, with small, scattering warts; brush short, slender, green with brown tinge. Berries small, ovate, red, glossy with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin very tough, adheres slightly, unpigmented; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, somewhat foxy, vinous, aromatic; good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to four, small, sharp-pointed, light brown. WILDER (Labrusca, Vinifera) The fruit of Wilder is surpassed in quality and appearance by other of Rogers' hybrids, but the vine is the most reliable of any of these hybrid sorts, being vigorous, hardy, productive, and, although somewhat susceptible to mildew, as healthy as any. Wilder is not as well known in the markets as it should be, and now that fungal diseases can be controlled by spraying should be more commonly planted in commercial vineyards, especially for local markets. Wilder is one of the forty-five Labrusca-Vinifera hybrids raised by E. S. Rogers, Salem, Massachusetts, having been described first in 1858. Vine vigorous, hardy, productive, susceptible to mildew. Canes long, numerous, reddish-brown, darker at the nodes; internodes long; tendrils intermittent, bifid or trifid. Leaves large, irregularly round; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent; usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus deep, narrow, often closed and overlapping; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow, narrow, or a mere notch when present. Flowers self-sterile, mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit early mid-season, keeps and ships well. Clusters variable in size, short, broad, tapering, heavily single-shouldered, loose; pedicel long, thick with numerous warts; brush thick, green with tinge of red. Berries large, oval, purplish-black with heavy bloom, persistent, firm; skin thick, adherent to pulp, with bright red pigment, astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender; good. Seeds adherent, one to five, long, light brown. WINCHELL (Labrusca, Vinifera, Æstivalis) _Green Mountain_ The vines of Winchell (Plate XXX) are vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive, and the fruit is early, of high quality and ships well--altogether a most admirable early grape. There are some minor faults which become drawbacks in the culture of Winchell. The berries, and under some conditions the bunches, are small and the bunch is loose with a large shoulder. Sometimes this looseness becomes so pronounced as to give a straggling, poorly-formed cluster; and the shoulder, when as large as the cluster itself, which often happens, makes the cluster unsightly. The grapes shell when fully ripe, a serious fault. Again, while the crop usually ripens evenly, there are seasons when two pickings are needed because of the unevenness in ripening. Lastly, the skin is thin and there is danger in unfavorable seasons of the berries cracking, although this is seldom a serious fault. These defects do not offset the several good characters of Winchell which make it the standard early green grape, deserving to rank with the best early grapes of any color. The original vine was raised by James Milton Clough, Stamford, Vermont, about 1850 from seed of an unknown purple grape. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, very productive. Canes long, numerous, slender, dark brown with thin bloom; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, sometimes intermittent, bifid. Leaves large; upper surface light green, glossy, smooth; lower surface dull green, tinged with bronze, faintly pubescent; lobes three to five with terminal lobe acute; petiolar sinus deep; basal sinus shallow; teeth shallow, wide. Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early, keeps and ships well. Clusters long, slender, cylindrical, often with a long shoulder, compact; pedicel short, slender with few inconspicuous warts; brush greenish-white. Berries small, round, light green, persistent, soft; skin marked with small, reddish-brown spots, thin, tender, slightly astringent; flesh green, translucent, juicy, tender, fine-grained, sweet; very good to best. Seeds free, one to four, small, plump, wide and long, blunt, brown. WOODRUFF (Labrusca, Vinifera?) Woodruff is a handsome, showy, brick-red grape with large clusters and berries, but its taste belies its looks, for the flesh is coarse and the flavor poor. The variety would not be worth attention were it not for its excellent vine characters; the vines are hardy, productive and healthy. The grapes ripen a little before Concord and come on the market at a favorable time, especially for a red grape. Woodruff originated from C. H. Woodruff, Ann Arbor, Michigan, as a chance seedling which came up in 1874 and fruited first in 1877. Vine very vigorous, hardy. Canes dark brown; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, bifid or trifid. Leaves round; upper surface light green, dull, rugose; lower surface greenish-white, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed with terminus acute; petiolar sinus wide; basal sinus lacking; lateral sinus shallow and narrow when present; teeth shallow. Flowers semi-fertile, early; stamens upright. Fruit ripening before Concord. Clusters broad, widely tapering, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel short, thick, smooth; brush long, pale green. Berries large, round, dark red, dull, firm; skin thin, tender, adherent, slightly astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, coarse, very foxy; fair in quality. Seeds adherent, one to five, broad, short, plump, blunt, brown. WORDEN (Labrusca) Of the many offspring of Concord, Worden (Plate XXXI) is best known and most meritorious. The grapes differ chiefly from those of Concord in having larger berries and bunches, in having better quality and in being a week to ten days earlier. The vine is equally hardy, healthy, vigorous and productive but is more fastidious in its adaptations to soil, although now and then it does even better. The chief fault of the variety is that the fruit cracks badly, often preventing the profitable marketing of a crop. Besides this tenderness of skin, the fruit-pulp of Worden is softer than that of Concord, there is more juice, and the keeping qualities are not as good, so that the grapes hardly ship as well as those of the more commonly grown grape. Worden is very popular in northern grape regions both for commercial plantations and the garden. It is a more desirable inhabitant of the garden, because of higher quality of fruit than Concord, and under conditions well suited to it is better as a commercial variety, as the fruit is handsomer as well as of better quality. In the markets the fruit ought to sell for a higher price than Concord if desired for immediate consumption, and if it can be harvested promptly, as it does not hang well on the vines. Its earlier season is against it for a commercial variety and, with the defects mentioned, will prevent its taking the place of Concord to a great degree. Worden was originated by Schuyler Worden, Minetto, Oswego County, New York, from seed of Concord planted about 1863. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes large, thick, dark brown with reddish tinge; nodes enlarged, flattened; tendrils continuous, slender, bifid, sometimes trifid. Young leaves tinged on the under side and along the margins of upper side with rose-carmine. Leaves large, thick; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface light bronze, pubescent; leaf usually not lobed; petiolar sinus wide, often urn-shaped; teeth shallow. Flowers fertile, mid-season; stamens upright. Fruit early. Clusters large, long, broad, tapering, usually single-shouldered, compact; pedicel slender with a few small warts; brush long, light green. Berries large, round, dark purplish-black, glossy with heavy bloom, firm; skin tender, cracks badly, adheres slightly, contains dark red pigment, astringent. Flesh green, translucent, juicy, fine-grained, tough, foxy, sweet, mild; good to very good. Seeds adherent, one to five, large, broad, short, blunt, brown. WYOMING (Labrusca) _Hopkins Early Red, Wilmington Red, Wyoming Red_ Such value as Wyoming (Plate XXXII) possesses lies in the hardiness, productiveness and healthiness of the vine. The appearance of the fruit is very good, the bunches are well formed and composed of rich amber-colored berries of medium size. The quality, however, is poor, being that of the wild Labrusca in foxiness of flavor and in flesh characters. It is not nearly as valuable as some other of the red Labruscas hitherto described and can hardly be recommended either for the garden or the vineyard. Wyoming was introduced by S. J. Parker of Ithaca, New York, who states that it came from Pennsylvania in 1861. Vine vigorous, hardy, healthy, productive. Canes numerous, slender, dark reddish-brown covered with blue bloom; nodes enlarged, frequently flattened; tendrils continuous, short, bifid. Leaves of average size and thickness; upper surface light green, dull, smooth; lower surface dull green with tinge of bronze, pubescent; lobes one to three with terminus acute; petiolar sinus shallow, wide; basal sinus usually wanting; lateral sinus shallow and wide when present; teeth shallow. Flowers sterile, mid-season; stamens reflexed. Fruit early, keeps well. Clusters slender, cylindrical, compact; pedicel short, slender with small warts; brush slender, pale green with brown tinge. Berries medium, round, rich amber red with thin bloom, persistent, firm; skin tender, adherent, astringent; flesh pale green, translucent, juicy, tough, solid, strongly foxy, vinous; poor in quality. Seeds adherent, one to three, slightly notched, light brown. FOOTNOTES: [1] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Report of International Congress of Viticulture_, 88. 1915. [2] Anthony, R. D. _N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 632_: 88. 1917. [3] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180_: 135. 1906. [4] _Ibid._, 136-138. [5] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180_: 108-112. [6] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180_: 113-118. [7] Munson, T. V. _Foundations of American Grape Culture_, 217. 1909. [8] Bioletti, Frederic T. _Calif. Exp. Sta., Bul. 180_: 96-97. 1906. [9] For an account of this experiment, see Bul. 381 of the N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., Geneva. [10] Quoted from Bul. No. 381, N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. [11] Each weight is of 300 green leaves, 5 from each of 60 vines. The first leaf beyond the last cluster was selected. [12] Amount to the acre of wood pruned in fall. [13] Number to the acre. [14] Munson, T. V. _Foundations of American Grape Culture_: 224-227. 1909. [15] Husmann, George C., and Dearing, Charles. _Muscadine Grapes. Bul. 709, U. S. Dept. Agr._: 16-19. 1916. [16] The remainder of this chapter is republished by permission from _Bul. 246, Calif. Exp. Sta., Vine Pruning in California_, published in 1916 by F. T. Bioletti. Not all of the bulletin is reproduced, but the parts republished are transcribed verbatim. All of the illustrations in this chapter have been redrawn from Professor Bioletti's bulletin. [17] The following account is founded on work carried on by the author at the N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta., accounts of which have been given before several horticultural societies in 1916, 1917 and 1918. [18] Husmann, Geo. C., and Dearing, Charles. _The Muscadine Grapes_, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 273: 33-36. 1913. [19] Husmann, George C. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bul. No. 644. [20] Husmann, George C. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. No. 349. 1916. INDEX (Names of species, and synonyms of varietal names, are in italics.) Actoni, 330. Adaptations of stocks, 66. Adlum, John, mentioned, 58. _Admirable_, 373. _Adoxus obscurus_, 216. Æstivalis grapes, 11. Affinity of stock and cion, 67. Agawam, 331. Air currents, 27. _Alabama_, 401. Alexander, 5, 6. _Alexander_, 391. Alicante, for forcing, 198. Alleys, 75. Almeria, 331. Amadas & Barlowe, mentioned, 5. America, 332. _American Muscadine_, 435. Aminia, 333. Anaheim disease, 226. Anthony, on grafting, 47. Anthracnose, control of, 223. description of, 223. Aramon × Rupestris, 2, 64. Arbors, training vines on, 142. _Arkansas_, 345, 357. _Arnold's Hybrid_, 422. _Aspiran Blanc_, 442. August Giant, 333. Bacchus, 324. Bagging grapes, 293. cost of, 294. Bakator, 335. Barbarossa, for forcing, 197. Bark, structure of, 303. Barry, 335. Bartram, on the Alexander, 7. Beach Grape, 313. Beacon, 336. _Beaconsfield_, 346. Beak defined, 308. Bench grafting, 50. essentials of, 50. operation of, 51. preparing cuttings for, 51. Berckmans, 337. Berry, characters of, 308. Bioletti, on callusing beds, 56. on grafting, 48, 52. on pruning in California, 151. on resistant stocks, 63. quoted, 18. Bird Grape, 312. Bitter-rot, 225. _Black Cape_, 391. _Black Cornichon_, 429. Black Eagle, 338. _Black El Paso_, 401. _Black German_, 406. Black Hamburg, for forcing, 197. _Black July_, 401. Black Malvoise, 339. Black Morocco, 339. _Black Muscat_, 415. Black rot, control of, 320. description of, 319. _Black Spanish_, 401. Bloom defined, 301. Blooming dates of grapes, 288. Blooming, time of, 305. _Blue French_, 401. Blue Grape, 318, 322. Borders in graperies, making, 195. care of, 195. _Bottsi_, 382. Bowed canes, 174. Branches defined, 301. Brighton, 340. Brilliant, 341. Brown, 342. _Brown French_, 382. Brush defined, 307. Buckland Sweetwater, for forcing, 197. Buds, characters of, 304. defined, 304. _Bull_, 435. Bull, Ephraim W., mentioned, 9. Bull Grape, 310. _Bullace_, 435. Bullace Grape, 310. _Bullet_, 435. Bullet Grape, 310. _Bullitt_, 439. Bunch Grape, 318. _Burgundy_, 401. Bush Grape, 312. Bushy Grape, 310. By-products of the grape, 269. Callusing bed, 56. Campbell Early, 342. Canada, 343. _Canadian Hamburg_, 422. _Canadian Hybrid_, 422. Canandaigua, 344. Canandaigua Lake grape region, 21. Cane-renewal, 116. Canes, characters of, 303. defined, 301. disposition of, in pruning, 124. Care of young vines, 87. Carman, 344. Catawba, 345. history of, 8. _Catawba Tokay_, 345. Catch crops, 89, 90. Cato, on grafting, 45. quoted, 76. Cayuga Lake grape region, 21. Central Lake grape region, 20. Chalaza defined, 308. Champagne, 253. Champagne industry, 21. Champion, 346. Chasselas Golden, 347. _Chasselas Dore_, 347. Chasselas Rose, 348. Chautauqua, 348. Chautauqua grape-belt, 18. Chautauqua training, 125. _Cherokee_, 345. Chicken Grape, 317, 318. _Cigar Box Grape_, 401. Clevener, 349. Climate and grape-growing, 23. Clinton, 15, 350. Colerain, 351. Columbian Imperial, 351. _Columbian Jumbo_, 351. Commercial factors, 30. Concord, 352. history of, 9. Constantia, 391. Coöperative fertilizer experiments, 102. Cordon pruning, 153. Cordons, horizontal, 176. vertical, 175. Cottage, 354. Coulure, 226. Cover-crops, 89, 91. _Craponius inæqualis_, 217. Cream of tartar, 270. Cross-pollination, 284. Croton, 355. Crown-gall, 225. _Cryptosporella viticola_, 224. Cunningham, 356. Cuttings, dormant, 38. hard-wood, 38. herbaceous, 42. planting, 39. single-eye, 40. time to make, 38. Cutting wood, selecting, 38. Cut-worms on grapes, 315. Cynthiana, 357. Dead-arm disease, control of, 324. description of, 324. Delaware, 11, 358. Depth to plant, 86. _Desmia funeralis_, 216. Determinants of grape regions, 22. _Devereaux_, 401. Diamond, 359. Diana, 360. Diaphragm, characters of, 303. defined, 301. Digging holes, 83. Direct producers, 71. Direction of rows, 74. Distances in planting, 75. _Dodrelabi_, 379. _Dorchester_, 391. Double-headed vines, 174. Double Kniffin, 135. Downing, 361. Downy mildew, control of, 222. description of, 220. Dracut Amber, 362. Drainage for grapes, 28, 77. Duck-shot Grape, 318. _Dunn_, 382. Dutchess, 362. Dynamite in digging holes, 84. _Early Champion_, 346. Early Daisy, 363. Early Ohio, 364. Early Victor, 364. Eaton, 365. Eclipse, 366. Eden, 367. Egg Harbor grape region, 22. Eldorado, 368. Elvira, 369. Emasculating grape-flowers, 279. Emperor, 369. Empire State, 370. Etta, 371. Eumelan, 371. European grapes, in eastern America, 184. grafting, 186. varieties for eastern America, 191. Everbearing Grape, 312. Exposures for grapes, 34. Factors limiting yield, 105. Faith, 372. Fall Grape, 318. _Fancher_, 345. Fan-training, 131. Feher Szagos, 373. _Fern_, 373. Fern Munson, 373. Fertilizers, applying, 106. effects on leaves, 102. effects on vines, 102. effects on yield, 101, 102. experiment, 98. necessity of, 97. when needed, 106. _Fidia viticida_, 206. Fitting land, 78. Flame Tokay, 374. Flesh, characters of, 308. Florida Grape, 312. Flowers, 373. Flower, characters of, 305. _Fontainebleau_, 347. Fox Grape, 317, 324. _Fox Grape_, 435. Fox grapes, cultivation of, 7. Foxiness defined, 307. _French Grape_, 358. Frost Grape, 317. Frosts and grape-growing, 25. Fruit-bearing, manner of, 113. Fruit, characters of, 307. parts of, 307. Fungi, determinants of grape regions, 29. Fungous diseases of the grape, 218. Gaertner, 375. Geneva, 376. _Gibbs Grape_, 391. Gladwin, on Chautauqua training, 126. on Keuka training, 129. on vineyard returns, 248. _Glomerella rufomaculans_, 225. "Go-devil," 119. Goethe, 377. Gold Coin, 377. _Golden Chasselas_, 424. Grading grapes, 235. Grading land, 78. Grafting, 45. at New York Station, 46. bundling grafts after, 55. essentials of, 45. European grapes, 186. rooted cuttings, 56. Grafted vineyards, care of, 48. Grafting wax, 54. Grafts, care of, in nursery, 58. number made per hour, 56. Grape, botany of, 300. by-products of, 269. domestication of, 1. habitats of, 4. habits of growth of, 302. mutations in the, 60. number of species of, 1. organs of, 300. pests of, 204. products, 250. Grape-berry moth, control of, 215. life history of, 213. Grape-breeding, 273. results of, 282. Grape-curculio, 217. Grape hawk-moth, 217. Grape-hybrids, 274. Grape-juice, commercial making, 258. development of industry, 257. making at home, 262. regions in which made, 257. Grape leaf-folder, 216. Grape leaf-hopper, control of, 213. life history of, 211. Grape regions, determinants of, 16. in California, 18. Grape root-worm, Californian, 216. eastern, control of, 206. life history of, 206. Grape seedlings, 37. Graperies, 193. borders in, 195. care of vines in, 201. construction of, 193. essentials of, 194. heating, 194. varieties for, 196. ventilating, 194, 202. watering, 202. Grapes, American, 4. classified as to self-fertility, 296. domestic use of, 271. European, 2. forcing, 194. immunity to disease, 303. immunity to insects, 303. propagation of, 37. under glass, 192. Grape-vinegar, 269. Grape-vine root-borer, 217. Grape-vine flea-beetle, control of, 209. life history of, 208. Greeley, Horace, mentioned, 9. Green Early, 378. _Green Mountain_, 445. _Green Scuppernong_, 435. Grein Golden, 378. Grizzly Frontignan, for forcing, 197. Gros Colman, 379. for forcing, 197. _Guignardia Bidwellii_, 220. _Haltica chalybea_, 209. Hardiness of grapes, 302. Hartford, 380. Hartzell, mentioned, 213. Harvesting, in California, 243. in the East, 230. Muscadine grapes, 240. Hawkins, Captain John, mentioned, 5. Hayes, 381. Heading-back canes, 116. Headlight, 281. Heart-leaved Vitis, 317. Heating vineyards, 25. Heeling-in vines, 82. _Helene_, 391. Herbaceous cuttings, 42. Herbemont, 12, 382. Herbert, 383. Hercules, 384. Hermann grape region, 22. _Hickman_, 435. Hicks, 285. Hidalgo, 385. Highland, 386. _Hilgarde_, 373. Hilum defined, 308. Hopkins, 387. _Hopkins Early Red_, 448. Horizontal cordons, 176. Hosford, 388. Hudson horizontal training, 141. Hudson River grape region, 21. Humidity in grape-growing, 25. _Hunt_, 382. Husmann, on making grape-juice, 258. on raisin-making, 264. Husmann & Dearing, on harvesting Muscadine grapes, 240. on pruning Muscadine grapes, 143. Hybrid Franc, 388. Hybridizing grapes, 278. Hybrids, secondary, 276. Ideal, 389. Improved Kniffin, 135. Inflorescences, number of, in species, 304. Insect pests, 204. Insects as determinants of grape regions, 29. Internodes defined, 301. Iona, 390. Irrigation, 95. Isabella, 390. _Isabella_, 391. Isabella Seedling, 392. Israella, 392. Ives, 393. _Jack_, 401. James, 394. Janesville, 394. _Jaques_, 401. Jarring Muscadine grapes, 241. Jefferson, 395. Jefferson, Thomas, on native grapes, 5. Jessica, 396. Jewel, 397. _Joannenc_, 402. _Jordan_, 415. _July Sherry_, 401. _Kay's Seedling_, 382. _Keller's White_, 345. Kensington, 398. Kentucky Vineyard Society, 7. Keuka Lake grape region, 21. King, 399. _Kittredge_, 393. Kniffin, Wm., mentioned, 132. Labels for packages, 238. Labor, determinant of grape regions, 32. _Ladies' Choice_, 358. Lady, 399. Lady Downs, for forcing, 198. Lady Washington, 400. Lake Erie grape region, 22. Laterals defined, 301. Lawton grape region, 22. Layering, 42. dormant wood, 43. essentials of, 43. green wood, 44. to fill vacancies, 44. Laying down vines, 295. Laying out vineyards, 74. Leaf-margins, characters of, 307. Leaf, characters of, 307. parts of, 306. _Lebanon_, 345. Legaux, Peter, mentioned, 7. Leif the Lucky, mentioned, 5. Lenoir, 13, 401. _Lignan Blanc_, 403. Lime, effects of, 101, 104. _Lincoln_, 345. Lindley, 402. Listan Blanc, 402. Little Grape, 318. Little Winter Grape, 318. _Long_, 356. Longworth, Nicholas, mentioned, 8. Lucile, 403. _Luglienga_, 402. Lutie, 404. _Macrodactylus subspinosus_, 210. Malaga, 405. _Mammoth Catawba_, 435. Marion, 406. _Marion Port_, 406. Marketing, 230, 246. coöperative, 246. Markets, accessibility, 30. general _versus_ local, 31. Marking for planting, 79. Martha, 407. Massasoit, 408. Maxatawney, 409. _McKee_, 382. McPike, 405. _Mead's Seedling_, 345. Mealy-bug, 202. Memory, 409. _Memythrus polistiformis_, 217. Mendel's laws, 281. _Merceron_, 345. Merrimac, 410. _Michigan_, 345. Mildew in graperies, 203. Mills, 411. Mish, 411. Mission, 412. Missouri Riesling, 413. Montefiore, 413. Moore Early, 414. Moore, Jacob, mentioned, 276. Moscatello, 415. _Moscatello Black_, 415. Mountain Grape, 313, 318. Moyer, 415. _Moyer's Early Red_, 415. Muncy, 345. Munson, mentioned, 277. on pruning, 136. on resistant species, 63. Munson method of pruning, 136. Muscadine Grape, 310. _Muscadine_, 435. Muscadine grapes for wine, 256. Muscatel, 416. Muscat Hamburg, 417. for forcing, 197. Muscat of Alexandria, 418. Mustang Grape, 323. of Florida, 312. Mutations in improving grapes, 277. Napoleon I, mentioned, 196. _Neal_, 382. Niagara, 418. Niagara grape region, 20. Nitrogen, benefits from, 101. Noah, 419. Nodes defined, 301. Nodosities, 66. Northern Æstivalis, 322. Northern Muscadine, 420. Northern Summer Grape, 322. Norton, 421. Norton, Dr. D. N., mentioned, 11. Noyes, Dr., mentioned, 15. Number of vines to the acre, 76. _Ohio_, 401. Ohio River grape region, 22. Oporto, 422. Othello, 422. Ozark, 423. Packages for California, 245. for eastern America, 236. for Muscadine grapes, 243. Packing houses, 233. construction of, 234. cost of, 233. Packing, in the East, 237. Muscadine grapes, 241. Packing tables, 234. Palomino, 424. Paw Paw grape region, 22. _Payne's Early_, 391. Peabody, 424. Pedicel defined, 305. Peduncle defined, 305. Perfection, 425. Pergolas, training vines on, 142. Perkins, 426. Pests in graperies, 202. Petiole, characters of, 307. _Pholus achemon_, 217. Phosphorus, benefits from, 101. Phylloxera, 13, 61, 205. control of, 206. _Phylloxera vastatrix_, 205. Pickers, 231. Picking, accounts for, 232. appliances, 232. time of, 231. Pigeon Grape, 318. Pine-wood Grape, 320. Piquette, making, 270. Planting, 83, 85. distances, 75. grafted vines, 68. in graperies, 198. _Plasmopara viticola_, 220. Pliny, mentioned, 2. Plowing the vineyard, 94. to combat pests, 95. Pocklington, 426. Pollen, characters of, 306. Pollinating in hybridizing, 280. _Polychrosis viteana_, 214. Pomace as a by-product, 270. Possum Grape, 317. Posts, 119. bracing, 120. material, 119. setting, 120. Post-oak Grape, 320. Post-oak grapes, 13. Potassium, benefits from, 101. Poughkeepsie, 427. Powdery mildew, control of, 223. description of, 222. _Powell_, 358. Pre-cooling grapes, 245. Prentiss, 428. Preparation for planting, 76, 82. Preparing vines for planting, 80, 81. _Prince Edward_, 356. Prince, W. R., mentioned, 274. Profits from fertilizers, 101. Pruning, before planting, 160. cordon method, 153. European grapes in eastern America, 107. fan-shaped, 153, 172. first summer, 160. first winter, 161. for fruit, 112. for wood, 112. in eastern America, 108. Muscadine grapes, 143. on the Pacific slope, 150. principles of, 111. second summer, 161. second winter, 163. single vertical cordon, 157. summer, 115. third summer, 167. third winter, 168. to regulate the crop, 110. to regulate the vine, 111. unilateral horizontal cordon, 158. vase-form, 153. winter, 114. work of, 118. Pruning and training distinguished, 109. Prunings, collecting, 118. Purple Cornichon, 429. Quality defined, 307. Raffia, in grafting, 54. Raisin industry, seat of, 263. Raisin-making, account of, 264. Raisin output, value of, 263. Raisins, classes of, 266. dipping and scalding, 264. packing, 265. seeded, 267. varieties for, 263. _Randall_, 331. Raphe defined, 308. Rating as to resistance to phylloxera, 66. Rattling, 224. Rebecca, 429. Reciprocal influence of stock and cion, 68. Red Eagle, 430. _Red River_, 357. Red-spider in graperies, 202. Refrigerator cars for grapes, 245. Regal, 431. Rejuvenating old vines, 147. Renewal by canes, 116. by spurs, 117. Renewing fruiting wood, 116. Requa, 431. Returns from Muscadine grapes, 242. Ricketts, J. H., mentioned, 274. Ringing grape vines, 289. operation of, 290. results of, 291. theory of, 290. Riparia Gloire, 64, 65. Riparia grande glabre, 64, 65. Riparia Solonis, 64. Ripening dates for grapes, 296. Ripe-rot, control of, 225. description of, 225. River Grape, 314. Riverbank Grape, 314. Riverbank grapes, 13. Riverside Grape, 314. _Roanoke_, 435. Robins, depredations of, 293. Rochester, 432. Rock Grape, 313. Rogers, E. S., mentioned, 274. Rommel, 433. Rommel, Jacob, mentioned, 276. Root, its parts named, 301. Root-forms of grapes, 67. Rootlets defined, 301. Root-tip defined, 301. Rosaki, 433. Rose chafer, control of, 211. life history of, 210. Rose of Peru, 434. _Rose of Tennessee_, 345. Rotundifolia grapes, 9. _Ruff_, 358. Rupestris St. George, 64. Salem, 435. Sand Grape, 313. Sandusky grape region, 22. Sanitation in the vineyard, 227. _Saratoga_, 345. Scuppernong, 310, 435. Seasonal sum of heat, 24. Secretary, 436. Seedlings, selecting, 37. Seeds, as by-products, 271. characters of, 308. parts of, 308. Selecting vines, 81. Selection in improving grapes, 277. Self-sterility in grapes, 285. cause of, 286. remedy for, 287. Senasqua, 437. Seneca Lake grape region, 21. Shelling, 424. Shipping from California, 245. Shoots, characters of, 303. defined, 301. disposition of, in training, 123. drooping, in training, 132. horizontal, in training, 141. upright, in training, 125. Single-eye cuttings, 40. making, 41. planting, 41. Single-stem, Four-cane Kniffin, 132. _Singleton_, 345. Single vertical cordon, 157. Sites for vineyards, 26, 32. Skin, characters of, 308. Smith, Captain John, mentioned, 5. Smudging vineyards, 25. Soil adaptations, 29. fertility, 28. Soils for grapes, 27. ideal, 28. over-rich, 107. uneven, 105. Sour Winter Grape, 317. Southern Æstivalis, 321. Southern Fox Grape, 310. Spanish Grape, 318. Species, conspectus of, 310. resistant to phylloxera, 62. _Sphaceloma ampelinum_, 223. Sports in improving grapes, 277. Spraying suggestions, 228. _Springstein_, 401. Spurs defined, 301. Spur-renewal, 117. Staking vines, 162. Stamens, characters of, 306. Stem defined, 301. its parts named, 301. Stocks, resistant to phylloxera, 61. for American grapes, 69. for European grapes, 69. Storage-room for grapes, 239. Storing grapes, 238. Stripping, 118. Suckers defined, 301. Sugar Grape, 313. Sultana, 438. Sultanina, 438. Summer Grape, 318. Summer grapes, 11. Summer pruning, 115. Swamp Grape, 318. Sweet-scented Grape, 314. _Sweetwater_, 347. Syrian, for forcing, 198. _Talman's Seedling_, 346. Tap-root defined, 301. Taylor, 439. _Tekomah_, 343. Tendrils, characters of, 304. defined, 301. Theophrastus, on grafting, 45. Thinning in graperies, 201. _Thompson's Seedless_, 438. Thrips, 211. in graperies, 202. Tillage, 92. methods, 93. time to cease, 95. tools for, 93. Time to plant, 84. _Tokay_, 345. Tongue grafting, 52. Training, Chautauqua method, 125. classification of methods, 125. in eastern America, 123. fan-method, 131. in graperies, 198. Keuka method, 139. Trellises, 119. Triumph, 440. Tuberosities, caused by phylloxera, 66. Turkey Grape, 320. Two-trunk Kniffin, 135. Tying, 122. _Typhlocyba comes_, 211. Ulster, 441. Umbrella Kniffin, 134. _Uncinula necator_, 222. Unilateral horizontal cordon, 158. Valk, Dr., mentioned, 274. Varieties of European grapes for eastern America, 191. Varieties resistant to phylloxera, 62. Verdal, 442. Vergennes, 442. Vertical canes, 174. cordons, 175. Vinegar from grapes, 269. Vines, nursery _versus_ home grown, 59. "pedigreed," 59. rejuvenating old, 147. resistant to phylloxera, 61. young, care of, 87. Vineyard grafting, in eastern America, 45. on Pacific slope, 48. Vineyard, management, 73. returns in the East, 247. sanitation, 227. sites, 32. Vintage, time of, 254. Virgil, on soils, 28. quoted, 31, 34, 37. _Virginia Amber_, 345. Vitis, genus defined, 308. _Vitis æstivalis_, 11, 318. _Bourquiniana_, 11, 321. _glauca_, 321. _Lincecumii_, 13, 320. _Berlandieri_, 318. _bicolor_, 322. _candicans_, 323. _cordifolia_, 317. _Labrusca_, 7, 324. _Munsoniana_, 312. _riparia_, 314. (Syn. of _V. vulpina_.) _rotundifolia_, 9, 310. _rupestris_, 313. _vinifera_, 2, 328. _vulpina_, 314. Vulpina grapes, 13. as direct producers, 13. Wakeman, Elbert, mentioned, 136. Walter, 443. _Warren_, 382, 401. _Warrenton_, 382. _Washington_, 371. Water, influence of, on climate, 23. Watering, at planting, 86. in graperies, 202. Water sprouts defined, 301. Weather data and grape-growing, 26. _White July_, 402. White Nice, for forcing, 198. White Frontignan, 416. Wilder, 444. _Wilmington Red_, 448. Winchell, 445. Windbreaks in grape-growing, 25, 27. Wine, aging, 253. crushing grapes for, 252. fermentation of, 253. fining, 253. kinds of, 251. racking, 253. yeasts for, 253. Wine-grapes, prices paid for, 255. Wine-making, 252. Wire for trellises, 121. Wire grafting, 54. _Winter Grape_, 314, 317, 318. Winter-killing, 26. precautions against, 295. Winter protection of grapes, 187, 294. cost of, 296. Winter-pruning, 114. Woodruff, 446. _Woodward_, 391. Worden, 446. _Worthington_, 15, 350. Wyoming, 448. _Wyoming Red_, 448. Yields in fertilizer experiments, 100, 101. Y-trunk Kniffin training, 136. Printed in the United States of America. The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects. A NEW RURAL MANUAL EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY Manual of Tree Diseases BY W. HOWARD RANKIN, A.B., PH.D. Assistant Professor of Plant Pathology New York State College of Agriculture, at Cornell University _Illustrated, 12mo, $2.50_ The diseases of the more common trees of the United States are treated in this volume. The discussions of these diseases are grouped into chapters under the common name of the trees affected, and the chapters are arranged alphabetically. In a general chapter are included discussions of the diseases common to all kinds of trees, such as samping-off of seedlings, temperature injuries to leaves and woody parts, smoke and gas injuries, wood-rots, and the like. The species of trees affected, the geographic distribution, destructiveness, and symptoms of the different diseases are presented in full. The aim of the authors has been to furnish a descriptive guide for the diagnosis of tree diseases and the general methods of their control. 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"An indispensable work of reference to every one interested in the land and its products, whether commercially or professionally, as a student or an amateur," is the _Boston Transcript's_ characterization of it, while _Horticulture_ adds that "it is very live literature for any one engaged in any department of the horticultural field." "This really monumental performance will take rank as a standard in its class. Illustrations and text are admirable.... Our own conviction is that while the future may bring forth amplified editions of the work, it will probably never be superseded. Recognizing its importance, the publishers have given it faultless form. The typography leaves nothing to be desired, the paper is calculated to stand wear and tear, and the work is at once handsomely and attractively bound."--_New York Daily Tribune._ THE MACMILLAN COMPANY Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 
36870	----	COTTON, ITS PROGRESS FROM THE FIELD TO THE NEEDLE: BEING A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE CULTURE OF THE PLANT, ITS PICKING, CLEANING, PACKING, SHIPMENT, AND MANUFACTURE. [Illustration] NEW YORK: PUBLISHED BY ROBERT LOGAN & CO., 51 DEY-STREET. 1855. OLIVER & BROTHER, STEAM PRINTERS, No. 32 Beckman-Street, New-York. PREFACE. Among the utilitarian gifts of nature and art we know of none in more general use, or of greater practical value, than sewing-cotton. The taste which turns into graceful shapes the products of the loom, the executive skill which converts them into convenient and elegant apparel, would be powerless without this simple accessory. It is the food of the needle, and might almost be called the thread of life to thousands of the gentler sex. Yet as it passes through the delicate fingers of mothers, wives, and daughters, ministering to so many wants, and creating so many beautiful superfluities, little thought is bestowed upon the labor, the care, the dexterity, and the scientific ability required in producing the article. The cultivation of the raw material, the processes of picking, ginning, packing, shipping, combing, spinning, and twisting, are among the most interesting operations in the whole range of agriculture and manufactures; and we think the ladies, for whose especial convenience such a vast amount of industry, skill, and talent is employed, will not be unwilling to trace with us in a familiar way the progress of this great domestic staple from the field to the needle. We therefore claim their attention to the following short treatise, from which, without being fatigued by dry details, they may derive a tolerably accurate idea of what capital, labor, and science have done to bring to its present perfection the simple article of sewing-cotton. CULTIVATION OF THE COTTON PLANT. The cotton-planting season in all the Southern States commences in April. The seed is sown in drills, a negro girl following the light plough which makes the furrow, and throwing the seed into the shallow trench as she moves along. A harrow follows to cover up the deposits, and the work of "planting" is completed. About two and a half bushels of seed are required for an acre of ground. [Illustration] In a week or ten days the cotton is "up," when a small plough is run along the drills, throwing the earth _from_ the tender plants. The next process is "scraping;" in other words, thinning out and earthing up the plants, so as to leave each in the centre of a little hill, some two feet distant from its nearest neighbors. The dexterity and accuracy with which this feat is accomplished are wonderful; and there are few spectacles more animated and picturesque than that of a hundred active field-hands flourishing their bright hoes among the young vegetation, each striving to outstrip the others in "hoeing out his row." Several ploughings and hoeings intervene between the first of May and the last of June. In July the cotton fields burst into bloom, _creaming_ the landscape with a sea of blossoms, the flower being very nearly of the same tint as the ultimate product in its unbleached state. The new beauty thus imparted to the scenery is, however, ephemeral. The blossoms unfold in the night, are in their full glory in the morning, and by noon have begun to fade. On the following day their cream-color has changed to a dull red, and before sunset the petals have fallen, leaving inclosed in the calyx the germ or "form" of the filamental fruit. The cotton plant, in its progress towards maturity, is liable to the assaults of as many enemies as the young crocodile on the banks of the Nile; but among them all, the "army-worm" is the most destructive. This worm is produced from the eggs of a chocolate-colored moth of particularly harmless and demure appearance; but its name is legion, its ravages terrific. No one who has beheld an invasion of these caterpillars can ever forget it. Deep trenches are dug to arrest their progress, but these are soon filled up by the accumulating myriads; and onward move the living destroyers over the bodies of the buried masses. Huge logs are drawn through the trenches by yokes of oxen, and the multitudinous swarms crushed to a paste, of which the effluvium taints the air for miles; but still the incursion, if checked, is not arrested. When the planter sees the army-worm in his fields, he is ready to give up his crop in despair. By the middle of July the "bolls" or "forms" begin to open; and the cotton fields, when viewed from a short distance, present the appearance of being covered with ridges of white surf. Toward the close of the month the _picking_ season commences, and is continued without intermission until the Christmas holidays. Each field-hand is supplied with a basket and a bag. The basket is placed at the end of the cotton row, and the bag, as fast as filled, is emptied into it. It is a pleasant sight, on "the old plantation," to see the pickers returning at nightfall from their work, with their well-filled baskets picturesquely poised upon their woolly heads. Falling into line with the stoutest in the van, they move along through the twilight, too tired to talk or sing, anxious only to deposit their store in the packing-house, and retire to their "quarters" to rest. A first-rate hand will pick from three hundred to three hundred and fifty pounds of cotton per day. [Illustration] The next process is the "ginning," or separation of the cotton from the seeds. The invention of the cotton-gin by Eli Whitney, a New England youth, in 1793, marked a new epoch in the cotton trade, and at once more than quadrupled the value of the article as a national staple. Arkwright had already introduced the spinning-frame, and through the genial influence of these two great inventions, a pound of cotton, formerly spun tediously by hand into a thread of five hundred feet, was lengthened into a filament of _one hundred and fifty miles_; and the value of our cotton exports was increased in sixty years from fifty thousand to one hundred and twelve millions of dollars! [Illustration: PACKING PRESS.] After the "ginning" comes the "baling" of the cotton, which ends the labor bestowed upon it on the plantation. In this process powerful screw-presses are employed. The cotton is inclosed in Kentucky bagging, and the contents of each bale are compressed by the screw almost to the solidity of stone. The cotton is now ready for market. [Illustration] Toward the close of the packing season there are jolly times on the plantation. Fox-hunting and racing are the order of the day. The Southern planter, like the "fine old English gentleman," opens house to all, and all goes "merry as a marriage bell." Sambo rubs up his old musket, and is out after the ducks, while Dinah's shining face wears an extra gloss in anticipation of the holidays. Throughout the holidays there is high festival in the negro quarters. "The shovel and the hoe" are laid down, and the fiddle is continually going. So ends the cotton season. Shipment on the Mississippi. The cotton, being packed, is to be sent to market. For this purpose it is "hauled," generally by oxen, to the nearest landing on the river, where the bales are rolled down the banks and stowed on board freight boats bound to New Orleans or Mobile. This process is technically called "bumping." There are certain plantations famous for the tenacious and beautiful quality of their cotton, from which the supplies for DICK & SONS' celebrated sewing-cotton mills at Glasgow are principally derived. [Illustration] Delivery and Re-shipment at New Orleans. [Illustration] It would be difficult to describe the scene of bustle and seeming confusion presented by the levee at New Orleans when the bulk of the new crop begins to come in. The songs and clamor of the negro stevedores, at work in the holds and on the decks of the vessels; the sharp authoritative expletives of the overseers and masters; the eager conversations of the merchants, and the preternatural activity into which the occasion seems to have spurred all the energies of Southern life, are to Northern ears and eyes at once amusing and confounding. But order reigns amidst this seeming chaos. The Mississippi boats are rapidly relieved of their bulky cargoes, and the cotton is warehoused or re-shipped, as the case may be, with marvellous celerity. Generally the shipments for the Clyde Mills, Glasgow, are among the first of the season; and the primest article in the market is always selected for DICK & SONS by the New Orleans agents of the firm. [Illustration: DICK & SONS' CLYDE THREAD-MILLS.] Arrival at Glasgow. The view of the CLYDE THREAD-MILLS, furnished by our engraver from accurate drawings taken on the spot, affords a very good idea of the extensive manufactory of DICK & SONS, from which this country is now supplied with the most perfect, even, and tenacious sewing-cotton made in the world. The cotton for the mills, after having been unloaded and inspected by the revenue officers, is conveyed at once to the mills, where there is an immense amount of warehouse room for the raw material, independent of the space devoted to machinery and the storage of the manufactured article. Of the latter, however, there is never a large accumulation, the active and ever-increasing demand taxing to the utmost the facilities of production, great as they are. The Manufacturing, &c. A full description of the processes of scutching, carding, spinning, twisting, bleaching, and spooling, through all of which the cotton passes before it is packed for exportation in the form of thread, would require more space than we can devote to them in this treatise, and, moreover, would be rather dry reading for the ladies, for whose information and amusement this little publication is intended. It is sufficient to say, that all the latest improvements in machinery, in each of the above branches, have been introduced at the Clyde Works; and that as regards the perfection of their mechanical facilities, as well as in point of capacity, they have no rivals in the United Kingdom. Manufactured Article in New York. The consignments of DICK & SONS' spool-cotton to this city are on a scale of magnitude which those who have never reflected upon the immense and universal consumption of the article would scarcely believe. The bulk of the importations is received by the Collins' line of steamers, and delivered at the Collins' wharf, whence it is conveyed to the New York agency of the firm, 51 DEY-STREET. To the trade it is unnecessary to say, that DICK & SONS' _six-cord spool-cotton_ is the best in the market; and ladies generally are aware that in strength, uniformity of thickness, and closeness of fibre, it is superior to any other sewing-thread in use. [Illustration] Mr. Dick, senior, has probably had more experience as a manufacturer of the article than any other man living. Prior to commencing business on his own account he had been for nearly thirty years the manager of a factory celebrated for producing a superior description of sewing-cotton, also well known in the United States. Hence the cotton of DICK & SONS came into the market with a ready-made popularity. The name of Mr. DICK was a guarantee of its excellence, and a large demand for it spontaneously sprang up in the United States, Canada, the West Indies, and the British possessions in India, and throughout the world. [Illustration] Infinite pains are taken to retain for the article the celebrity it has acquired. Every spool is inspected before it leaves the factory at Glasgow, so that no defective specimens can possibly reach the hands of consumers. CONCLUSION. The history of the culture of cotton, and of its application to the uses of man, forms an almost romantic episode in the annals of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures. We have already mentioned the extraordinary impetus given to its production, sale, and use by the introduction of Whitney's saw-gin, for separating the seeds from the wool, in the years 1793 and 1794. Since that time the progress of the demand and consumption has been no less wonderful. In 1794 the export rose from 187,000 lbs., the sum total for the previous year, to 1,601,760 lbs. The next year it was over 6,000,000 lbs. In 1800 it had advanced to about 18,000,000 lbs., and in 1810 to upwards of 93,000,000 lbs. The last returns before us are for 1852, when the export of the short staple variety alone exceeded one thousand one hundred millions of pounds! To this aggregate we suppose about one hundred millions of pounds may be added for the sea-island and other long-fibred cottons. It may well be doubted whether among all the fabrics into which this enormous amount of raw material is converted there is one more valuable than sewing-cotton. We think if the question were put to the ladies to-morrow, whether the textile fabrics produced from cotton, or cotton sewing-thread, were the most indispensable to their comfort and convenience, every thimbled hand would be held up in favor of the latter. Sewing-silk is too expensive for ordinary exigencies, and linen thread cannot be spun of the same smooth and even fibre as cotton thread; and besides, being liable to knot and twist, is apt to cut the lighter and more fragile products of the loom. Abolish sewing-cotton, and you abolish muslin embroidery and innumerable delicate and fairy-like embellishments of female loveliness, which taste and fashion have endorsed. Every lady is by habit a connoisseur in the article. She examines the spools with a critical eye; she tries the strength of the thread; she passes it through her fingers to test its evenness and compactness, and when seated at her work, detects in a moment any defects which may have been overlooked by the manufacturer. To this ordeal the six-cord cotton-thread of DICK & SONS is cheerfully submitted. It challenges inspection and comparison. There is little necessity, however, for an appeal to the ladies in relation to its good qualities, for they have them already at their fingers' ends. 
36279	----	WOOD AND GARDEN [Illustration: _Frontispiece._] WOOD AND GARDEN NOTES AND THOUGHTS, PRACTICAL AND CRITICAL, OF A WORKING AMATEUR By GERTRUDE JEKYLL _With 71 Illustrations from Photographs by the Author_ [Illustration] Second Edition Longmans, Green, and Co. 39 Paternoster Row, London New York and Bombay 1899 _All rights reserved_ Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. At the Ballantyne Press PREFACE From its simple nature, this book seems scarcely to need any prefatory remarks, with the exception only of certain acknowledgments. A portion of the contents (about one-third) appeared during the years 1896 and 1897 in the pages of the _Guardian_, as "Notes from Garden and Woodland." I am indebted to the courtesy of the editor and proprietors of that journal for permission to republish these notes. The greater part of the photographs from which the illustrations have been prepared were done on my own ground--a space of some fifteen acres. Some of them, owing to my want of technical ability as a photographer, were very weak, and have only been rendered available by the skill of the reproducer, for whose careful work my thanks are due. A small number of the photographs were done for reproduction in wood-engraving for Mr. Robinson's _Garden_, _Gardening Illustrated_, and _English Flower Garden_. I have his kind permission to use the original plates. G. J. CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY 1-6 CHAPTER II JANUARY 7-18 Beauty of woodland in winter -- The nut-walk -- Thinning the overgrowth -- A nut nursery -- _Iris stylosa_ -- Its culture -- Its home in Algeria -- Discovery of the white variety -- Flowers and branches for indoor decoration. CHAPTER III FEBRUARY 19-31 Distant promise of summer -- Ivy-berries -- Coloured leaves -- _Berberis Aquifolium_ -- Its many merits -- Thinning and pruning shrubs -- Lilacs -- Removing Suckers -- Training _Clematis flammula_ -- Forms of trees -- Juniper, a neglected native evergreen -- Effect of snow -- Power of recovery -- Beauty of colour -- Moss-grown stems. CHAPTER IV MARCH 32-45 Flowering bulbs -- Dog-tooth Violet -- Rock-garden -- Variety of Rhododendron foliage -- A beautiful old kind -- Suckers on grafted plants -- Plants for filling up the beds -- Heaths -- Andromedas -- Lady Fern -- _Lilium auratum_ -- Pruning Roses -- Training and tying climbing plants -- Climbing and free-growing Roses -- The Vine the best wall-covering -- Other climbers -- Wild Clematis -- Wild Rose. CHAPTER V APRIL 46-58 Woodland spring flowers -- Daffodils in the copse -- Grape Hyacinths and other spring bulbs -- How best to plant them -- Flowering shrubs -- Rock-plants -- Sweet scents of April -- Snowy Mespilus, Marsh Marigolds, and other spring flowers -- Primrose garden -- Pollen of Scotch Fir -- Opening seed-pods of Fir and Gorse -- Auriculas -- Tulips -- Small shrubs for rock-garden -- Daffodils as cut flowers -- Lent Hellebores -- Primroses -- Leaves of wild Arum. CHAPTER VI MAY 59-76 Cowslips -- Morells -- Woodruff -- Felling oak timber -- Trillium and other wood-plants -- Lily of the Valley naturalised -- Rock-wall flowers -- Two good wall-shrubs -- Queen wasps -- Rhododendrons -- Arrangement for colour -- Separate colour-groups -- Difficulty of choosing -- Hardy Azaleas -- Grouping flowers that bloom together -- Guelder-rose as climber -- The garden-wall door -- The Pæony garden -- Moutans -- Pæony varieties -- Species desirable for garden. CHAPTER VII JUNE 77-88 The gladness of June -- The time of Roses -- Garden Roses -- Reine Blanche -- The old white Rose -- Old garden Roses as standards -- Climbing and rambling Roses -- Scotch Briars -- Hybrid Perpetuals a difficulty -- Tea Roses -- Pruning -- Sweet Peas autumn sown -- Elder-trees -- Virginian Cowslip -- Dividing spring-blooming plants -- Two best Mulleins -- White French Willow -- Bracken. CHAPTER VIII JULY 89-99 Scarcity of flowers -- Delphiniums -- Yuccas -- Cottager's way of protecting tender plants -- Alströmerias -- Carnations -- Gypsophila -- _Lilium giganteum_ -- Cutting fern-pegs. CHAPTER IX AUGUST 100-111 Leycesteria -- Early recollections -- Bank of choice shrubs -- Bank of Briar Roses -- Hollyhocks -- Lavender -- Lilies -- Bracken and Heaths -- The Fern-walk -- Late-blooming rock-plants -- Autumn flowers -- Tea Roses -- Fruit of _Rosa rugosa_ -- Fungi -- Chantarelle. CHAPTER X SEPTEMBER 112-124 Sowing Sweet Peas -- Autumn-sown annuals -- Dahlias -- Worthless kinds -- Staking -- Planting the rock-garden -- Growing small plants in a wall -- The old wall -- Dry-walling -- How built -- How planted -- Hyssop -- A destructive storm -- Berries of Water-elder -- Beginning ground-work. CHAPTER XI OCTOBER 125-143 Michaelmas Daisies -- Arranging and staking -- Spindle-tree -- Autumn colour of Azaleas -- Quinces -- Medlars -- Advantage of early planting of shrubs -- Careful planting -- Pot-bound roots -- Cypress hedge -- Planting in difficult places -- Hardy flower border -- Lifting Dahlias -- Dividing hardy plants -- Dividing tools -- Plants difficult to divide -- Periwinkles -- Sternbergia -- Czar Violets -- Deep cultivation for _Lilium giganteum_. CHAPTER XII NOVEMBER 144-157 Giant Christmas Rose -- Hardy Chrysanthemums -- Sheltering tender shrubs -- Turfing by inoculation -- Transplanting large trees -- Sir Henry Steuart's experience early in the century -- Collecting fallen leaves -- Preparing grubbing tools -- Butcher's Broom -- Alexandrian Laurel -- Hollies and Birches -- A lesson in planting. CHAPTER XIII DECEMBER 158-170 The woodman at work -- Tree-cutting in frosty weather -- Preparing sticks and stakes -- Winter Jasmine -- Ferns in the wood-walk -- Winter colour of evergreen shrubs -- Copse-cutting -- Hoop-making -- Tools used -- Sizes of hoops -- Men camping out -- Thatching with hoop-chips -- The old thatcher's bill. CHAPTER XIV LARGE AND SMALL GARDENS 171-187 A well done villa-garden -- A small town-garden -- Two delightful gardens of small size -- Twenty acres within the walls -- A large country house and its garden -- Terrace -- Lawn -- Parterre -- Free garden -- Kitchen garden -- Buildings -- Ornamental orchard -- Instructive mixed gardens -- Mr. Wilson's at Wisley -- A window garden. CHAPTER XV BEGINNING AND LEARNING 188-199 The ignorant questioner -- Beginning at the end -- An example -- Personal experience -- Absence of outer help -- Johns' "Flowers of the Field" -- Collecting plants -- Nurseries near London -- Wheel-spokes as labels -- Garden friends -- Mr. Robinson's "English Flower-Garden" -- Mr. Nicholson's "Dictionary of Gardening" -- One main idea desirable -- Pictorial treatment -- Training in fine art -- Adapting from Nature -- Study of colour -- Ignorant use of the word "artistic." CHAPTER XVI THE FLOWER-BORDER AND PERGOLA 200-215 The flower-border -- The wall and its occupants -- _Choisya ternata_ -- Nandina -- Canon Ellacombe's garden -- Treatment of colour-masses -- Arrangement of plants in the border -- Dahlias and Cannas -- Covering bare places -- The Pergola -- How made -- Suitable climbers -- Arbours of trained Planes -- Garden houses. CHAPTER XVII THE PRIMROSE GARDEN 216-220 CHAPTER XVIII COLOURS OF FLOWERS 221-228 CHAPTER XIX THE SCENTS OF THE GARDEN 229-240 CHAPTER XX THE WORSHIP OF FALSE GODS 241-248 CHAPTER XXI NOVELTY AND VARIETY 249-255 CHAPTER XXII WEEDS AND PESTS 256-262 CHAPTER XXIII THE BEDDING FASHION AND ITS INFLUENCE 263-270 CHAPTER XXIV MASTERS AND MEN 271-279 INDEX 280 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FRONTISPIECE _face title_ A WILD JUNIPER _face page_ 19 SCOTCH FIRS THROWN ON TO FROZEN WATER BY SNOWSTORM " 27 OLD JUNIPER, SHOWING FORMER INJURIES " 29 JUNIPER, LATELY WRECKED BY SNOWSTORM " 29 GARDEN DOOR-WAY WREATHED WITH CLEMATIS GRAVEOLENS " 39 COTTAGE PORCH WREATHED WITH THE DOUBLE WHITE ROSE (_R. alba_) " 39 WILD HOP, ENTWINING WORMWOOD AND COW-PARSNIP " 43 DAFFODILS IN THE COPSE " 48 MAGNOLIA STELLATA " 50 DAFFODILS AMONG JUNIPERS WHERE GARDEN JOINS COPSE " 51 TIARELLA CORDIFOLIA " 53 HOLLYHOCK, PINK BEAUTY. (_See page 105_) " 53 TULIPA RETROFLEXA " 55 LATE SINGLE TULIPS, BREEDERS AND BYBLOEMEN " 55 TRILLIUM IN THE WILD GARDEN " 61 RHODODENDRONS WHERE THE COPSE AND GARDEN MEET " 65 GRASS WALKS THROUGH THE COPSE " 66 RHODODENDRONS AT THE EDGE OF THE COPSE " 68 SOUTH SIDE OF DOOR, WITH CLEMATIS MONTANA AND CHOISYA " 72 NORTH SIDE OF THE SAME DOOR, WITH CLEMATIS MONTANA AND GUELDER-ROSE " 72 FREE CLUSTER-ROSE AS STANDARD IN A COTTAGE GARDEN " 77 DOUBLE WHITE SCOTCH BRIAR " 81 PART OF A BUSH OF ROSA POLYANTHA " 82 GARLAND-ROSE SHOWING NATURAL WAY OF GROWTH " 82 LILAC MARIE LEGRAYE (_See page 23_) " 84 FLOWERING ELDER AND PATH FROM GARDEN TO COPSE " 84 THE GIANT LILY " 96 CISTUS FLORENTINUS " 101 THE GREAT ASPHODEL " 101 LAVENDER HEDGE AND STEPS TO THE LOFT " 105 HOLLYHOCK, PINK BEAUTY " 105 SOLOMON'S SEAL IN SPRING, IN THE UPPER PART OF THE FERN-WALK " 107 THE FERN-WALK IN AUGUST " 107 JACK (_See page 79_) " 117 THE "OLD WALL" " 117 ERINUS ALPINUS, CLOTHING STEPS IN ROCK-WALL " 121 BORDERS OF MICHAELMAS DAISIES " 126 PENS FOR STORING DEAD LEAVES " 150 CAREFUL WILD-GARDENING--WHITE FOXGLOVES AT THE EDGE OF THE FIR WOOD. (_See page 270_) " 150 HOLLY STEMS IN AN OLD HEDGE-ROW " 153 WILD JUNIPERS " 154 WILD JUNIPERS " 156 THE WOODMAN " 158 GRUBBING A TREE-STUMP " 161 FELLING AND GRUBBING TOOLS (_See page 150_) " 161 HOOP-MAKING IN THE WOODS " 167 HOOP-SHAVING " 169 SHED-ROOF, THATCHED WITH HOOP-CHIP " 169 GARLAND-ROSE WREATHING THE END OF A TERRACE WALL " 178 A ROADSIDE COTTAGE GARDEN " 185 A FLOWER-BORDER IN JUNE " 200 PATHWAY ACROSS THE SOUTH BORDER IN JULY " 202 OUTSIDE VIEW OF THE BRICK PERGOLA SHOWN AT PAGE 214, AFTER SIX YEARS' GROWTH " 202 END OF FLOWER-BORDER AND ENTRANCE OF PERGOLA " 210 SOUTH BORDER DOOR AND YUCCAS IN AUGUST " 210 STONE-BUILT PERGOLA WITH WROUGHT OAK BEAMS " 214 PERGOLA WITH BRICK PIERS AND BEAMS OF ROUGH OAK " 214 EVENING IN THE PRIMROSE GARDEN " 217 TALL SNAPDRAGONS GROWING IN A DRY WALL " 251 MULLEINS GROWING IN THE FACE OF DRY WALL (_See "Old Wall," page 116_) " 251 GERANIUMS IN NEAPOLITAN POTS " 267 SPACE IN STEP AND TANK-GARDEN FOR LILIES, CANNAS, AND GERANIUMS " 268 HYDRANGEAS IN TUBS, IN A PART OF THE SAME GARDEN " 268 MULLEIN (VERBASCUM PHLOMOIDES) AT THE EDGE OF THE FIR WOOD " 270 A GRASS PATH IN THE COPSE " 270 WOOD AND GARDEN CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY There are already many and excellent books about gardening; but the love of a garden, already so deeply implanted in the English heart, is so rapidly growing, that no excuse is needed for putting forth another. I lay no claim either to literary ability, or to botanical knowledge, or even to knowing the best practical methods of cultivation; but I have lived among outdoor flowers for many years, and have not spared myself in the way of actual labour, and have come to be on closely intimate and friendly terms with a great many growing things, and have acquired certain instincts which, though not clearly defined, are of the nature of useful knowledge. But the lesson I have thoroughly learnt, and wish to pass on to others, is to know the enduring happiness that the love of a garden gives. I rejoice when I see any one, and especially children, inquiring about flowers, and wanting gardens of their own, and carefully working in them. For the love of gardening is a seed that once sown never dies, but always grows and grows to an enduring and ever-increasing source of happiness. If in the following chapters I have laid special stress upon gardening for beautiful effect, it is because it is the way of gardening that I love best, and understand most of, and that seems to me capable of giving the greatest amount of pleasure. I am strongly for treating garden and wooded ground in a pictorial way, mainly with large effects, and in the second place with lesser beautiful incidents, and for so arranging plants and trees and grassy spaces that they look happy and at home, and make no parade of conscious effort. I try for beauty and harmony everywhere, and especially for harmony of colour. A garden so treated gives the delightful feeling of repose, and refreshment, and purest enjoyment of beauty, that seems to my understanding to be the best fulfilment of its purpose; while to the diligent worker its happiness is like the offering of a constant hymn of praise. For I hold that the best purpose of a garden is to give delight and to give refreshment of mind, to soothe, to refine, and to lift up the heart in a spirit of praise and thankfulness. It is certain that those who practise gardening in the best ways find it to be so. But the scope of practical gardening covers a range of horticultural practice wide enough to give play to every variety of human taste. Some find their greatest pleasure in collecting as large a number as possible of all sorts of plants from all sources, others in collecting them themselves in their foreign homes, others in making rock-gardens, or ferneries, or peat-gardens, or bog-gardens, or gardens for conifers or for flowering shrubs, or special gardens of plants and trees with variegated or coloured leaves, or in the cultivation of some particular race or family of plants. Others may best like wide lawns with large trees, or wild gardening, or a quite formal garden, with trim hedge and walk, and terrace, and brilliant parterre, or a combination of several ways of gardening. And all are right and reasonable and enjoyable to their owners, and in some way or degree helpful to others. The way that seems to me most desirable is again different, and I have made an attempt to describe it in some of its aspects. But I have learned much, and am always learning, from other people's gardens, and the lesson I have learned most thoroughly is, never to say "I know"--there is so infinitely much to learn, and the conditions of different gardens vary so greatly, even when soil and situation appear to be alike and they are in the same district. Nature is such a subtle chemist that one never knows what she is about, or what surprises she may have in store for us. Often one sees in the gardening papers discussions about the treatment of some particular plant. One man writes to say it can only be done one way, another to say it can only be done quite some other way, and the discussion waxes hot and almost angry, and the puzzled reader, perhaps as yet young in gardening, cannot tell what to make of it. And yet the two writers are both able gardeners, and both absolutely trustworthy, only they should have said, "In my experience _in this place_ such a plant can only be done in such a way." Even plants of the same family will not do equally well in the same garden. Every practical gardener knows this in the case of strawberries and potatoes; he has to find out which kinds will do in his garden; the experience of his friend in the next county is probably of no use whatever. I have learnt much from the little cottage gardens that help to make our English waysides the prettiest in the temperate world. One can hardly go into the smallest cottage garden without learning or observing something new. It may be some two plants growing beautifully together by some happy chance, or a pretty mixed tangle of creepers, or something that one always thought must have a south wall doing better on an east one. But eye and brain must be alert to receive the impression and studious to store it, to add to the hoard of experience. And it is important to train oneself to have a good flower-eye; to be able to see at a glance what flowers are good and which are unworthy, and why, and to keep an open mind about it; not to be swayed by the petty tyrannies of the "florist" or show judge; for, though some part of his judgment may be sound, he is himself a slave to rules, and must go by points which are defined arbitrarily and rigidly, and have reference mainly to the show-table, leaving out of account, as if unworthy of consideration, such matters as gardens and garden beauty, and human delight, and sunshine, and varying lights of morning and evening and noonday. But many, both nurserymen and private people, devote themselves to growing and improving the best classes of hardy flowers, and we can hardly offer them too much grateful praise, or do them too much honour. For what would our gardens be without the Roses, Pæonies, and Gladiolus of France, and the Tulips and Hyacinths of Holland, to say nothing of the hosts of good things raised by our home growers, and of the enterprise of the great firms whose agents are always searching the world for garden treasures? Let no one be discouraged by the thought of how much there is to learn. Looking back upon nearly thirty years of gardening (the earlier part of it in groping ignorance with scant means of help), I can remember no part of it that was not full of pleasure and encouragement. For the first steps are steps into a delightful Unknown, the first successes are victories all the happier for being scarcely expected, and with the growing knowledge comes the widening outlook, and the comforting sense of an ever-increasing gain of critical appreciation. Each new step becomes a little surer, and each new grasp a little firmer, till, little by little, comes the power of intelligent combination, the nearest thing we can know to the mighty force of creation. And a garden is a grand teacher. It teaches patience and careful watchfulness; it teaches industry and thrift; above all, it teaches entire trust. "Paul planteth and Apollos watereth, but God giveth the increase." The good gardener knows with absolute certainty that if he does his part, if he gives the labour, the love, and every aid that his knowledge of his craft, experience of the conditions of his place, and exercise of his personal wit can work together to suggest, that so surely as he does this diligently and faithfully, so surely will God give the increase. Then with the honestly-earned success comes the consciousness of encouragement to renewed effort, and, as it were, an echo of the gracious words, "Well done, good and faithful servant." CHAPTER II JANUARY Beauty of woodland in winter -- The nut-walk -- Thinning the overgrowth -- A nut nursery -- _Iris stylosa_ -- Its culture -- Its home in Algeria -- Discovery of the white variety -- Flowers and branches for indoor decoration. A hard frost is upon us. The thermometer registered eighteen degrees last night, and though there was only one frosty night next before it, the ground is hard frozen. Till now a press of other work has stood in the way of preparing protecting stuff for tender shrubs, but now I go up into the copse with a man and chopping tools to cut out some of the Scotch fir that are beginning to crowd each other. How endlessly beautiful is woodland in winter! To-day there is a thin mist; just enough to make a background of tender blue mystery three hundred yards away, and to show any defect in the grouping of near trees. No day could be better for deciding which trees are to come down; there is not too much at a time within sight; just one good picture-full and no more. On a clear day the eye and mind are distracted by seeing away into too many planes, and it is much more difficult to decide what is desirable in the way of broad treatment of nearer objects. The ground has a warm carpet of pale rusty fern; tree-stem and branch and twig show tender colour-harmonies of grey bark and silver-grey lichen, only varied by the warm feathery masses of birch spray. Now the splendid richness of the common holly is more than ever impressive, with its solid masses of full, deep colour, and its wholesome look of perfect health and vigour. Sombrely cheerful, if one may use such a mixture of terms; sombre by reason of the extreme depth of tone, and yet cheerful from the look of glad life, and from the assurance of warm shelter and protecting comfort to bird and beast and neighbouring vegetation. The picture is made complete by the slender shafts of the silver-barked birches, with their half-weeping heads of delicate, warm-coloured spray. Has any tree so graceful a way of throwing up its stems as the birch? They seem to leap and spring into the air, often leaning and curving upward from the very root, sometimes in forms that would be almost grotesque were it not for the never-failing rightness of free-swinging poise and perfect balance. The tints of the stem give a precious lesson in colour. The white of the bark is here silvery-white and there milk-white, and sometimes shows the faintest tinge of rosy flush. Where the bark has not yet peeled, the stem is clouded and banded with delicate grey, and with the silver-green of lichen. For about two feet upward from the ground, in the case of young trees of about seven to nine inches diameter, the bark is dark in colour, and lies in thick and extremely rugged upright ridges, contrasting strongly with the smooth white skin above. Where the two join, the smooth bark is parted in upright slashes, through which the dark, rough bark seems to swell up, reminding one forcibly of some of the old fifteenth-century German costumes, where a dark velvet is arranged to rise in crumpled folds through slashings in white satin. In the stems of older birches the rough bark rises much higher up the trunk and becomes clothed with delicate grey-green lichen. The nut-walk was planted twelve years ago. There are two rows each side, one row four feet behind the other, and the nuts are ten feet apart in the rows. They are planted zigzag, those in the back rows showing between the front ones. As the two inner rows are thirteen feet apart measuring across the path, it leaves a shady border on each side, with deeper bays between the nearer trees. Lent Hellebores fill one border from end to end; the other is planted with the Corsican and the native kinds, so that throughout February and March there is a complete bit of garden of one kind of plant in full beauty of flower and foliage. The nut-trees have grown into such thick clumps that now there must be a vigorous thinning. Each stool has from eight to twelve main stems, the largest of them nearly two inches thick. Some shoot almost upright, but two or three in each stool spread outward, with quite a different habit of growth, branching about in an angular fashion. These are the oldest and thickest. There are also a number of straight suckers one and two years old. Now when I look at some fine old nut alley, with the tops arching and meeting overhead, as I hope mine will do in a few years, I see that the trees have only a few stems, usually from three to five at the most, and I judge that now is the time to thin mine to about the right number, so that the strength and growing power may be thrown into these, and not allowed to dilute and waste itself in growing extra faggoting. The first to be cut away are the old crooked stems. They grow nearly horizontally and are all elbows, and often so tightly locked into the straighter rods that they have to be chopped to pieces before they can be pulled out. When these are gone it is easier to get at the other stems, though they are often so close together at the base that it is difficult to chop or saw them out without hurting the bark of the ones to be left. All the young suckers are cut away. They are of straight, clean growth, and we prize them as the best possible sticks for Chrysanthemums and potted Lilies. After this bold thinning, instead of dense thickety bushes we have a few strong, well-branched rods to each stool. At first the nut-walk looks wofully naked, and for the time its pictorial value is certainly lessened; but it has to be done, and when summer side-twigs have grown and leafed, it will be fairly well clothed, and meanwhile the Hellebores will be the better for the thinner shade. The nut-catkins are already an inch long, but are tightly closed, and there is no sign as yet of the bright crimson little sea-anemones that will appear next month and will duly grow into nut-bearing twigs. Round the edges of the base of the stools are here and there little branching suckers. These are the ones to look out for, to pull off and grow into young trees. A firm grasp and a sharp tug brings them up with a fine supply of good fibrous root. After two years in the nursery they are just right to plant out. The trees in the nut-walk were grown in this way fourteen years ago, from small suckers pulled off plants that came originally from the interesting cob-nut nursery at Calcot, near Reading. I shall never forget a visit to that nursery some six-and-twenty years ago. It was walled all round, and a deep-sounding bell had to be rung many times before any one came to open the gate; but at last it was opened by a fine, strongly-built, sunburnt woman of the type of the good working farmer's wife, that I remember as a child. She was the forewoman, who worked the nursery with surprisingly few hands--only three men, if I remember rightly--but she looked as if she could do the work of "all two men" herself. One of the specialties of the place was a fine breed of mastiffs; another was an old Black Hamburg vine, that rambled and clambered in and out of some very old greenhouses, and was wonderfully productive. There were alleys of nuts in all directions, and large spreading patches of palest yellow Daffodils--the double _Narcissus cernuus_, now so scarce and difficult to grow. Had I then known how precious a thing was there in fair abundance, I should not have been contented with the modest dozen that I asked for. It was a most pleasant garden to wander in, especially with the old Mr. Webb who presently appeared. He was dressed in black clothes of an old-looking cut--a Quaker, I believe. Never shall I forget an apple-tart he invited me to try as a proof of the merit of the "Wellington" apple. It was not only good, but beautiful; the cooked apple looking rosy and transparent, and most inviting. He told me he was an ardent preacher of total abstinence, and took me to a grassy, shady place among the nuts, where there was an upright stone slab, like a tombstone, with the inscription: TO ALCOHOL. He had dug a grave, and poured into it a quantity of wine and beer and spirits, and placed the stone as a memorial of his abhorrence of drink. The whole thing remains in my mind like a picture--the shady groves of old nuts, in tenderest early leaf, the pale Daffodils, the mighty chained mastiffs with bloodshot eyes and murderous fangs, the brawny, wholesome forewoman, and the trim old gentleman in black. It was the only nursery I ever saw where one would expect to see fairies on a summer's night. I never tire of admiring and praising _Iris stylosa_, which has proved itself such a good plant for English gardens; at any rate, for those in our southern counties. Lovely in form and colour, sweetly-scented and with admirable foliage, it has in addition to these merits the unusual one of a blooming season of six months' duration. The first flowers come with the earliest days of November, and its season ends with a rush of bloom in the first half of April. Then is the time to take up old tufts and part them, and plant afresh; the old roots will have dried up into brown wires, and the new will be pushing. It thrives in rather poor soil, and seems to bloom all the better for having its root-run invaded by some stronger plant. When I first planted a quantity I had brought from its native place, I made the mistake of putting it in a well-prepared border. At first I was delighted to see how well it flourished, but as it gave me only thick masses of leaves a yard long, and no flowers, it was clear that it wanted to be less well fed. After changing it to poor soil, at the foot of a sunny wall close to a strong clump of Alströmeria, I was rewarded with a good crop of flowers; and the more the Alströmeria grew into it on one side and _Plumbago Larpenti_ on the other, the more freely the brave little Iris flowered. The flower has no true stem; what serves as a stem, sometimes a foot long, is the elongated style, so that the seed-pod has to be looked for deep down at the base of the tufts of leaves, and almost under ground. The specific name, _stylosa_, is so clearly descriptive, that one regrets that the longer, and certainly uglier, _unguicularis_ should be preferred by botanists. What a delight it was to see it for the first time in its home in the hilly wastes, a mile or two inland from the town of Algiers! Another lovely blue Iris was there too, _I. alata_ or _scorpioides_, growing under exactly the same conditions; but this is a plant unwilling to be acclimatised in England. What a paradise it was for flower-rambles, among the giant Fennels and the tiny orange Marigolds, and the immense bulbs of _Scilla maritima_ standing almost out of the ground, and the many lovely Bee-orchises and the fairy-like _Narcissus serotinus_, and the groves of Prickly Pear wreathed and festooned with the graceful tufts of bell-shaped flower and polished leaves of _Clematis cirrhosa_! It was in the days when there were only a few English residents, but among them was the Rev. Edwyn Arkwright, who by his happy discovery of a white-flowered _Iris stylosa_, the only one that has been found wild, has enriched our gardens with a most lovely variety of this excellent plant. I am glad to be able to quote his own words:-- "The finding of the white _Iris stylosa_ belongs to the happy old times twenty-five years ago, when there were no social duties and no vineyards[1] in Algiers. My two sisters and I bought three horses, and rode wild every day in the scrub of Myrtle, Cistus, Dwarf Oak, &c. It was about five miles from the town, on what is called the 'Sahel,' that the one plant grew that I was told botanists knew ought to exist, but with all their searching had never found. I am thankful that I dug it up instead of picking it, only knowing that it was a pretty flower. Then after a year or two Durando saw it, and took off his hat to it, and told me what a treasure it was, and proceeded to send off little bits to his friends; and among them all, Ware of Tottenham managed to be beforehand, and took a first-class certificate for it. It is odd that there should never have been another plant found, for there never was such a free-growing and multiplying plant. My sister in Herefordshire has had over fifty blooms this winter; but we count it by thousands, and it is _the_ feature in all decorations in every English house in Algiers." [1] The planting of large vineyards, in some cases of private enterprise, had not proved a financial success. Throughout January, and indeed from the middle of December, is the time when outdoor flowers for cutting and house decoration are most scarce; and yet there are Christmas Roses and yellow Jasmine and Laurustinus, and in all open weather _Iris stylosa_ and Czar Violets. A very few flowers can be made to look well if cleverly arranged with plenty of good foliage; and even when a hard and long frost spoils the few blooms that would otherwise be available, leafy branches alone are beautiful in rooms. But, as in all matters that have to do with decoration, everything depends on a right choice of material and the exercise of taste in disposing it. Red-tinted Berberis always looks well alone, if three or four branches are boldly cut from two to three feet long. Branches of the spotted Aucuba do very well by themselves, and are specially beautiful in blue china; the larger the leaves and the bolder the markings, the better. Where there is an old Exmouth Magnolia that can spare some small branches, nothing makes a nobler room-ornament. The long arching sprays of Alexandrian Laurel do well with green or variegated Box, and will live in a room for several weeks. Among useful winter leaves of smaller growth, those of _Epimedium pinnatum_ have a fine red colour and delicate veining, and I find them very useful for grouping with greenhouse flowers of delicate texture. _Gaultheria Shallon_ is at its best in winter, and gives valuable branches and twigs for cutting; and much to be prized are sprays of the Japan Privet, with its tough, highly-polished leaves, so much like those of the orange. There is a variegated Eurybia, small branches of which are excellent; and always useful are the gold and silver Hollies. There is a little plant, _Ophiopogon spicatum_, that I grow in rather large quantity for winter cutting, the leaves being at their best in the winter months. They are sword-shaped and of a lively green colour, and are arranged in flat sheaves after the manner of a flag-Iris. I pull up a whole plant at a time--a two-year-old plant is a spreading tuft of the little sheaves--and wash it and cut away the groups of leaves just at the root, so that they are held together by the root-stock. They last long in water, and are beautiful with Roman Hyacinths or Freesias or _Iris stylosa_ and many other flowers. The leaves of Megaseas, especially those of the _cordifolia_ section, colour grandly in winter, and look fine in a large bowl with the largest blooms of Christmas Roses, or with forced Hyacinths. Much useful material can be found among Ivies, both of the wild and garden kinds. When they are well established they generally throw out rather woody front shoots; these are the ones to look out for, as they stand out with a certain degree of stiffness that makes them easier to arrange than weaker trailing pieces. I do not much care for dried flowers--the bulrush and pampas-grass decoration has been so much overdone, that it has become wearisome--but I make an exception in favour of the flower of _Eulalia japonica_, and always give it a place. It does not come to its full beauty out of doors; it only finishes its growth late in October, and therefore does not have time to dry and expand. I grew it for many years before finding out that the closed and rather draggled-looking heads would open perfectly in a warm room. The uppermost leaf often confines the flower, and should be taken off to release it; the flower does not seem to mature quite enough to come free of itself. Bold masses of Helichrysum certainly give some brightness to a room during the darkest weeks of winter, though the brightest yellow is the only one I much care to have; there is a look of faded tinsel about the other colourings. I much prize large bunches of the native Iris berries, and grow it largely for winter room-ornament. Among the many valuable suggestions in Mrs. Earle's delightful book, "Pot-pourri from a Surrey Garden," is the use indoors of the smaller coloured gourds. As used by her they give a bright and cheerful look to a room that even flowers can not surpass. [Illustration: A WILD JUNIPER.] CHAPTER III FEBRUARY Distant promise of summer -- Ivy-berries -- Coloured leaves -- _Berberis Aquifolium_ -- Its many merits -- Thinning and pruning shrubs -- Lilacs -- Removing suckers -- Training _Clematis flammula_ -- Forms of trees -- Juniper, a neglected native evergreen -- Effect of snow -- Power of recovery -- Beauty of colour -- Moss-grown stems. There is always in February some one day, at least, when one smells the yet distant, but surely coming, summer. Perhaps it is a warm, mossy scent that greets one when passing along the southern side of a hedge-bank; or it may be in some woodland opening, where the sun has coaxed out the pungent smell of the trailing ground Ivy, whose blue flowers will soon appear; but the day always comes, and with it the glad certainty that summer is nearing, and that the good things promised will never fail. How strangely little of positive green colour is to be seen in copse and woodland. Only the moss is really green. The next greenest thing is the northern sides of the trunks of beech and oak. Walking southward they are all green, but looking back they are silver-grey. The undergrowth is of brambles and sparse fronds of withered bracken; the bracken less beaten down than usual, for the winter has been without snow; only where the soil is deeper, and the fern has grown more tall and rank, it has fallen into thick, almost felted masses, and the stalks all lying one way make the heaps look like lumps of fallen thatch. The bramble leaves--last year's leaves, which are held all the winter--are of a dark, blackish-bronze colour, or nearly red where they have seen the sun. Age seems to give them a sort of hard surface and enough of a polish to reflect the sky; the young leaves that will come next month are almost woolly at first. Grassy tufts show only bleached bents, so tightly matted that one wonders how the delicate young blades will be able to spear through. Ivy-berries, hanging in thick clusters, are still in beauty; they are so heavy that they weigh down the branches. There is a peculiar beauty in the form and veining of the plain-shaped leaves belonging to the mature or flowering state that the plant reaches when it can no longer climb, whether on a wall six feet high or on the battlements of a castle. Cuttings grown from such portions retain this habit, and form densely-flowering bushes of compact shape. Beautiful colouring is now to be seen in many of the plants whose leaves do not die down in winter. Foremost amongst these is the Foam-flower (_Tiarella cordifolia_). Its leaves, now lying on the ground, show bright colouring, inclining to scarlet, crimson, and orange. _Tellima_, its near relation, is also well coloured. _Galax aphylla_, with its polished leaves of hard texture, and stalks almost as stiff as wire, is nearly as bright; and many of the Megaseas are of a fine bronze red, the ones that colour best being the varieties of the well-known _M. crassifolia_ and _M. cordifolia_. Among shrubs, some of the nearly allied genera, popularly classed under the name Andromeda, are beautiful in reddish colour passing into green, in some of the leaves by tender gradation, and in others by bold splashing. _Berberis Aquifolium_ begins to colour after the first frosts; though some plants remain green, the greater number take on some rich tinting of red or purple, and occasionally in poor soil and in full sun a bright red that may almost be called scarlet. What a precious thing this fine old Berberis is! What should we do in winter without its vigorous masses of grand foliage in garden and shrubbery, to say nothing of its use indoors? Frequent as it is in gardens, it is seldom used as well or thoughtfully as it deserves. There are many places where, between garden and wood, a well-considered planting of Berberis, combined with two or three other things of larger stature, such as the fruiting Barberry, and Whitethorn and Holly, would make a very enjoyable piece of shrub wild-gardening. When one reflects that _Berberis Aquifolium_ is individually one of the handsomest of small shrubs, that it is at its very best in mid-winter, that every leaf is a marvel of beautiful drawing and construction, and that its ruddy winter colouring is a joy to see, enhanced as it is by the glistening brightness of the leaf-surface; and further, when one remembers that in spring the whole picture changes--that the polished leaves are green again, and the bushes are full of tufted masses of brightest yellow bloom, and fuller of bee-music than any other plant then in flower; and that even then it has another season of beauty yet to come, when in the days of middle summer it is heavily loaded with the thick-clustered masses of berries, covered with a brighter and bluer bloom than almost any other fruit can show,--when one thinks of all this brought together in one plant, it seems but right that we should spare no pains to use it well. It is the only hardy shrub I can think of that is in one or other of its varied forms of beauty throughout the year. It is never leafless or untidy; it never looks mangy like an Ilex in April, or moulting like a Holly in May, or patchy and unfinished like Yew and Box and many other evergreens when their young leafy shoots are sprouting. We have been thinning the shrubs in one of the rather large clumps next to the lawn, taking the older wood in each clump right out from the bottom and letting more light and air into the middle. Weigelas grow fast and very thick. Quite two-thirds have been cut out of each bush of Weigela, Philadelphus, and Ribes, and a good bit out of Ceanothus, "Gloire de Versailles," my favourite of its kind, and all the oldest wood from _Viburnum plicatus_. The stuff cut out makes quite a respectable lot of faggoting. How extremely dense and hard is the wood of Philadelphus! as close-grained as Box, and almost as hard as the bright yellow wood of Berberis. Some of the Lilacs have a good many suckers from the root, as well as on the lower part of the stem. These must all come away, and then the trees will have a good dressing of manure. They are greedy feeders, and want it badly in our light soil, and surely no flowering shrub more truly deserves it. The Lilacs I have are some of the beautiful kinds raised in France, for which we can never be thankful enough to our good neighbours across the Channel. The white variety, "Marie Legraye," always remains my favourite. Some are larger and whiter, and have the trusses more evenly and closely filled, but this beautiful Marie fills one with a satisfying conviction as of something that is just right, that has arrived at the point of just the best and most lovable kind of beauty, and has been wisely content to stay there, not attempting to pass beyond and excel itself. Its beauty is modest and reserved, and temperate and full of refinement. The colour has a deliciously-tender warmth of white, and as the truss is not over-full, there is room for a delicate play of warm half-light within its recesses. Among the many beautiful coloured Lilacs, I am fond of Lucie Baltet and Princesse Marie. There may be better flowers from the ordinary florist point of view, but these have the charm that is a good garden flower's most precious quality. I do not like the cold, heavy-coloured ones of the bluish-slaty kinds. No shrub is hardier than the Lilac; I believe they flourish even within the Arctic Circle. It is very nearly allied to Privet; so nearly, that the oval-leaved Privet is commonly used as a stock. Standard trees flower much better than bushes; in this form all the strength seems to go directly to the flowering boughs. No shrub is more persistent in throwing up suckers from the root and from the lower part of the stem, but in bush trees as well as in standards they should be carefully removed every year. In the case of bushes, three or four main stems will be enough to leave. When taking away suckers of any kind whatever, it is much better to tear them out than to cut them off. A cut, however close, leaves a base from which they may always spring again, but if pulled or wrenched out they bring away with them the swollen base that, if left in, would be a likely source of future trouble. Before the end of February we must be sure to prune and train any plants there may be of _Clematis flammula_. Its growth is so rapid when once it begins, that if it is overlooked it soon grows into a tangled mass of succulent weak young stuff, quite unmanageable two months hence, when it will be hanging about in helpless masses, dead and living together. If it is left till then, one can only engirdle the whole thing with a soft tarred rope and sling it up somehow or anyhow. But if taken now, when the young growths are just showing at the joints, the last year's mass can be untangled, the dead and the over-much cut out, and the best pieces trained in. In gardening, the interests of the moment are so engrossing that one is often tempted to forget the future; but it is well to remember that this lovely and tenderly-scented Clematis will be one of the chief beauties of September, and well deserves a little timely care. In summer-time one never really knows how beautiful are the forms of the deciduous trees. It is only in winter, when they are bare of leaves, that one can fully enjoy their splendid structure and design, their admirable qualities of duly apportioned strength and grace of poise, and the way the spread of the many-branched head has its equivalent in the wide-reaching ground-grasp of the root. And it is interesting to see how, in the many different kinds of tree, the same laws are always in force, and the same results occur, and yet by the employment of what varied means. For nothing in the growth of trees can be much more unlike than the habit of the oak and that of the weeping willow, though the unlikeness only comes from the different adjustment of the same sources of power and the same weights, just as in the movement of wind-blown leaves some flutter and some undulate, while others turn over and back again. Old apple-trees are specially noticeable for their beauty in winter, when their extremely graceful shape, less visible when in loveliness of spring bloom or in rich bounty of autumn fruit, is seen to fullest advantage. Few in number are our native evergreens, and for that reason all the more precious. One of them, the common Juniper, is one of the best of shrubs either for garden or wild ground, and yet, strangely enough, it is so little appreciated that it is scarcely to be had in nurseries. Chinese Junipers, North American Junipers, Junipers from Spain and Greece, from Nepaul and Siberia, may be had, but the best Juniper of all is very rarely grown. Were it a common tree one could see a sort of reason (to some minds) for overlooking it, but though it is fairly abundant on a few hill-sides in the southern counties, it is by no means widely distributed throughout the country. Even this reason would not be consistent with common practice, for the Holly is abundant throughout England, and yet is to be had by the thousand in every nursery. Be the reason what it may, the common Juniper is one of the most desirable of evergreens, and is most undeservedly neglected. Even our botanists fail to do it justice, for Bentham describes it as a low shrub growing two feet, three feet, or four feet high. I quote from memory only; these may not be the words, but this is the sense of his description. He had evidently seen it on the chalk downs only, where such a portrait of it is exactly right. But in our sheltered uplands, in sandy soil, it is a small tree of noble aspect, twelve to twenty-eight feet high. In form it is extremely variable, for sometimes it shoots up on a single stem and looks like an Italian Cypress or like the upright Chinese Juniper, while at other times it will have two or more tall spires and a dense surrounding mass of lower growth, while in other cases it will be like a quantity of young trees growing close together, and yet the trees in all these varied forms may be nearly of an age. [Illustration: SCOTCH FIRS THROWN ON TO FROZEN WATER BY SNOWSTORM.] The action of snow is the reason of this unlikeness of habit. If, when young, the tree happens to have one main stem strong enough to shoot up alone, and if at the same time there come a sequence of winters without much snow, there will be the tall, straight, cypress-like tree. But if, as is more commonly the case, the growth is divided into a number of stems of nearly equal size, sooner or later they are sure to be laid down by snow. Such a winter storm as that of the end of December 1886 was especially disastrous to Junipers. Snow came on early in the evening in this district, when the thermometer was barely at freezing point and there was no wind. It hung on the trees in clogging masses, with a lowering temperature that was soon below freezing. The snow still falling loaded them more and more; then came the fatal wind, and all through that night we heard the breaking trees. When morning came there were eighteen inches of snow on the ground, and all the trees that could be seen, mostly Scotch fir, seemed to be completely wrecked. Some were entirely stripped of branches, and stood up bare, like scaffold-poles. Until the snow was gone or half gone, no idea could be formed of the amount of damage done to shrubs; all were borne down and buried under the white rounded masses. A great Holly on the edge of the lawn, nearly thirty feet high and as much in spread, whose head in summer is crowned with a great tangle of Honeysuckle, had that crowned head lying on the ground weighted down by the frozen mass. But when the snow was gone and all the damage could be seen, the Junipers looked worse than anything. What had lately been shapely groups were lying perfectly flat, the bare-stemmed, leafless portions of the inner part of the group showing, and looking like a faggot of dry brushwood, that, having been stood upright, had burst its band and fallen apart in all directions. Some, whose stems had weathered many snowy winters, now had them broken short off half-way up; while others escaped with bare life, but with the thick, strong stem broken down, the heavy head lying on the ground, and the stem wrenched open at the break, like a half-untwisted rope. The great wild Junipers were the pride of our stretch of heathy waste just beyond the garden, and the scene of desolation was truly piteous, for though many of them already bore the marks of former accidents, never within our memory had there been such complete and comprehensive destruction. [Illustration: OLD JUNIPER, SHOWING FORMER INJURIES.] [Illustration: JUNIPER, LATELY WRECKED BY SNOWSTORM.] But now, ten years later, so great is their power of recovery, that there are the same Junipers, and, except in the case of those actually broken off, looking as well as ever. For those with many stems that were laid down flat have risen at the tips, and each tip looks like a vigorous young ten-year-old tree. What was formerly a massive, bushy-shaped Juniper, some twelve feet to fifteen feet high, now covers a space thirty feet across, and looks like a thick group of closely-planted, healthy young ones. The half broken-down trees have also risen at the tips, and are full of renewed vigour. Indeed, this breaking down and splitting open seems to give them a new energy, for individual trees that I have known well, and observed to look old and over-worn, and to all appearance on the downward road of life, after being broken and laid down by snow, have some years later, shot up again with every evidence of vigorous young life. It would be more easily accounted for if the branch rooted where it touched the ground, as so many trees and bushes will do; but as far as I have been able to observe, the Juniper does not "layer" itself. I have often thought I had found a fine young one fit for transplanting, but on clearing away the moss and fern at the supposed root have found that it was only the tip of a laid-down branch of a tree perhaps twelve feet away. In the case of one of our trees, among a group of laid-down and grown-up branches, one old central trunk has survived. It is now so thick and strong, and has so little top, that it will be likely to stand till it falls from sheer old age. Close to it is another, whose main stem was broken down about five feet from the ground; now, what was the head rests on the earth nine feet away, and a circle of its outspread branches has become a wholesome group of young upright growths, while at the place where the stem broke, the half-opened wrench still shows as clearly as on the day it was done. Among the many merits of the Juniper, its tenderly mysterious beauty of colouring is by no means the least; a colouring as delicately subtle in its own way as that of cloud or mist, or haze in warm, wet woodland. It has very little of positive green; a suspicion of warm colour in the shadowy hollows, and a blue-grey bloom of the tenderest quality imaginable on the outer masses of foliage. Each tiny, blade-like leaf has a band of dead, palest bluish-green colour on the upper surface, edged with a narrow line of dark green slightly polished; the back of the leaf is of the same full, rather dark green, with slight polish; it looks as if the green back had been brought up over the edge of the leaf to make the dark edging on the upper surface. The stems of the twigs are of a warm, almost foxy colour, becoming darker and redder in the branches. The tips of the twigs curl over or hang out on all sides towards the light, and the "set" of the individual twigs is full of variety. This arrangement of mixed colouring and texture, and infinitely various position of the spiny little leaves, allows the eye to penetrate unconsciously a little way into the mass, so that one sees as much tender shadow as actual leaf-surface, and this is probably the cause of the wonderfully delicate and, so to speak, intangible quality of colouring. Then, again, where there is a hollow place in a bush, or group, showing a cluster of half-dead stems, at first one cannot tell what the colour is, till with half-shut eyes one becomes aware of a dusky and yet luminous purple-grey. The merits of the Juniper are not yet done with, for throughout the winter (the time of growth of moss and lichen) the rugged-barked old stems are clothed with loveliest pale-green growths of a silvery quality. Standing before it, and trying to put the colour into words, one repeats, again and again, pale-green silver--palest silvery green! Where the lichen is old and dead it is greyer; every now and then there is a touch of the orange kind, and a little of the branched stag-horn pattern so common on the heathy ground. Here and there, as the trunk or branch is increasing in girth, the silvery, lichen-clad, rough outer bark has parted, and shows the smooth, dark-red inner bark; the outer covering still clinging over the opening, and looking like grey ribands slightly interlaced. Many another kind of tree-stem is beautiful in its winter dress, but it is difficult to find any so full of varied beauty and interest as that of the Juniper; it is one of the yearly feasts that never fails to delight and satisfy. CHAPTER IV MARCH Flowering bulbs -- Dog-tooth Violet -- Rock-garden -- Variety of Rhododendron foliage -- A beautiful old kind -- Suckers on grafted plants -- Plants for filling up the beds -- Heaths -- Andromedas -- Lady Fern -- _Lilium auratum_ -- Pruning Roses -- Training and tying climbing plants -- Climbing and free-growing Roses -- The Vine the best wall-covering -- Other climbers -- Wild Clematis -- Wild Rose. In early March many and lovely are the flowering bulbs, and among them a wealth of blue, the more precious that it is the colour least frequent among flowers. The blue of _Scilla sibirica_, like all blues that have in them a suspicion of green, has a curiously penetrating quality; the blue of _Scilla bifolia_ does not attack the eye so smartly. _Chionodoxa sardensis_ is of a full and satisfying colour, that is enhanced by the small space of clear white throat. A bed of it shows very little variation in colour. _Chionodoxa Lucilliæ_, on the other hand, varies greatly; one may pick out light and dark blue, and light and dark of almost lilac colour. The variety _C. gigantea_ is a fine plant. There are some pretty kinds of _Scilla bifolia_ that were raised by the Rev. J. G. Nelson of Aldborough, among them a tender flesh-colour and a good pink. _Leucojum vernum_, with its clear white flowers and polished dark-green leaves, is one of the gems of early March; and, flowering at the same time, no flower of the whole year can show a more splendid and sumptuous colour than the purple of _Iris reticulata_. Varieties have been raised, some larger, some nearer blue, and some reddish purple, but the type remains the best garden flower. _Iris stylosa_, in sheltered nooks open to the sun, when well established, gives flower from November till April, the strongest rush of bloom being about the third week in March. It is a precious plant in our southern counties, delicately scented, of a tender and yet full lilac-blue. The long ribbon-like leaves make handsome tufts, and the sheltered place it needs in our climate saves the flowers from the injury they receive on their native windy Algerian hills, where they are nearly always torn into tatters. What a charm there is about the common Dogtooth Violet; it is pretty everywhere, in borders, in the rock-garden, in all sorts of corners. But where it looks best with me is in a grassy place strewn with dead leaves, under young oaks, where the garden joins the copse. This is a part of the pleasure-ground that has been treated with some care, and has rewarded thought and labour with some success, so that it looks less as if it had been planned than as if it might have come naturally. At one point the lawn, trending gently upward, runs by grass paths into a rock-garden, planted mainly with dwarf shrubs. Here are Andromedas, Pernettyas, Gaultherias, and Alpine Rhododendron, and with them three favourites whose crushed leaves give a grateful fragrance, Sweet Gale, _Ledum palustre_, and _Rhododendron myrtifolium_. The rock part is unobtrusive; where the ground rises rather quickly are a couple of ridges made of large, long lumps of sandstone, half buried, and so laid as to give a look of natural stratification. Hardy Ferns are grateful for the coolness of their northern flanks, and Cyclamens are happy on the ledges. Beyond and above is the copse, or thin wood of young silver Birch and Holly, in summer clothed below with bracken, but now bristling with the bluish spears of Daffodils and the buds that will soon burst into bloom. The early Pyrenean Daffodil is already out, gleaming through the low-toned copse like lamps of pale yellow light. Where the rough path enters the birch copse is a cheerfully twinkling throng of the Dwarf Daffodil (_N. nanus_), looking quite at its best on its carpet of moss and fine grass and dead leaves. The light wind gives it a graceful, dancing movement, with an active spring about the upper part of the stalk. Some of the heavier trumpets not far off answer to the same wind with only a ponderous, leaden sort of movement. Farther along the garden joins the wood by a plantation of Rhododendrons and broad grassy paths, and farther still by a thicket of the free-growing Roses, some forming fountain-like clumps nine paces in diameter, and then again by masses of flowering shrubs, gradating by means of Sweetbriar, Water-elder, Dogwood, Medlar, and Thorn from garden to wild wood. Now that the Rhododendrons, planted nine years ago, have grown to a state and size of young maturity, it is interesting to observe how much they vary in foliage, and how clearly the leaves show the relative degree of relationship to their original parents, the wild mountain plants of Asia Minor and the United States. These, being two of the hardiest kinds, were the ones first chosen by hybridisers, and to these kinds we owe nearly all of the large numbers of beautiful garden Rhododendrons now in cultivation. The ones more nearly related to the wild _R. ponticum_ have long, narrow, shining dark-green leaves, while the varieties that incline more to the American _R. catawbiense_ have the leaves twice as broad, and almost rounded at the shoulder where they join the stalk; moreover, the surface of the leaf has a different texture, less polished, and showing a grain like morocco leather. The colour also is a lighter and more yellowish green, and the bush is not so densely branched. The leaves of all the kinds are inclined to hang down in cold weather, and this habit is more clearly marked in the _catawbiense_ varieties. There is one old kind called _Multum maculatum_--I dare say one of the earliest hybrids--for which I have a special liking. It is now despised by florists, because the flower is thin in texture and the petal narrow, and the truss not tightly filled. Nevertheless I find it quite the most beautiful Rhododendron as a cut flower, perhaps just because of these unorthodox qualities. And much as I admire the great bouncing beauties that are most justly the pride of their raisers, I hold that this most refined and delicate class of beauty equally deserves faithful championship. The flowers of this pretty old kind are of a delicate milk-white, and the lower petals are generously spotted with a rosy-scarlet of the loveliest quality. The leaves are the longest and narrowest and darkest green of any kind I know, making the bush conspicuously handsome in winter. I have to confess that it is a shy bloomer, and that it seems unwilling to flower in a young state, but I think of it as a thing so beautiful and desirable as to be worth waiting for. Within March, and before the busier season comes upon us, it is well to look out for the suckers that are likely to come on grafted plants. They may generally be detected by the typical _ponticum_ leaf, but if the foliage of a branch should be suspicious and yet doubtful, if on following the shoot down it is seen to come straight from the root and to have a redder bark than the rest, it may safely be taken for a robber. Of course the invading stock may be easily seen when in flower, but the good gardener takes it away before it has this chance of reproaching him. A lady visitor last year told me with some pride that she had a most wonderful Rhododendron in bloom; all the flower in the middle was crimson, with a ring of purple-flowered branches outside. I am afraid she was disappointed when I offered condolence instead of congratulation, and had to tell her that the phenomenon was not uncommon among neglected bushes. When my Rhododendron beds were first planted, I followed the usual practice of filling the outer empty spaces of the clumps with hardy Heaths. Perhaps it is still the best or one of the best ways to begin when the bushes are quite young; for if planted the right distance apart--seven to nine feet--there must be large bare spaces between; but now that they have filled the greater part of the beds, I find that the other plants I tried are more to my liking. These are, foremost of all, _Andromeda Catesbæi_, then Lady Fern, and then the dwarf _Rhododendron myrtifolium_. The main spaces between the young bushes I plant with _Cistus laurifolius_, a perfectly hardy kind; this grows much faster than the Rhododendrons, and soon fills the middle spaces; by the time that the best of its life is over--for it is a short-lived bush--the Rhododendrons will be wanting all the space. Here and there in the inner spaces I put groups of _Lilium auratum_, a Lily that thrives in a peaty bed, and that looks its best when growing through other plants; moreover, when the Rhododendrons are out of flower, the Lily, whose blooming season is throughout the late summer and autumn, gives a new beauty and interest to that part of the garden. The time has come for pruning Roses, and for tying up and training the plants that clothe wall and fence and pergola. And this sets one thinking about climbing and rambling plants, and all their various ways and wants, and of how best to use them. One of my boundaries to a road is a fence about nine feet high, wall below and close oak paling above. It is planted with free-growing Roses of several types--Aimée Vibert, Madame Alfred Carrière, Reine Olga de Wurtemburg, and Bouquet d'Or, the strongest of the Dijon teas. Then comes a space of _Clematis Montana_ and _Clematis flammula_, and then more Roses--Madame Plantier, Emélie Plantier (a delightful Rose to cut), and some of the grand Sweetbriars raised by Lord Penzance. From midsummer onward these Roses are continually cut for flower, and yield an abundance of quite the most ornamental class of bloom. For I like to have cut Roses arranged in a large, free way, with whole branches three feet or four feet long, easy to have from these free-growing kinds, that throw out branches fifteen feet long in one season, even on our poor, sandy soil, that contains no particle of that rich loam that Roses love. I think this same Reine Olga, the grand grower from which have come our longest and largest prunings, must be quite the best evergreen Rose, for it holds its full clothing of handsome dark-green leaves right through the winter. It seems to like hard pruning. I have one on a part of the pergola, but have no pleasure from it, as it has rushed up to the top, and nothing shows but a few naked stems. [Illustration: GARDEN DOOR-WAY WREATHED WITH CLEMATIS GRAVEOLENS.] [Illustration: COTTAGE PORCH WREATHED WITH THE DOUBLE WHITE ROSE (_R. alba_).] One has to find out how to use all these different Roses. How often one sees the wrong Roses used as climbers on the walls of a house. I have seen a Gloire de Dijon covering the side of a house with a profitless reticulation of bare stem, and a few leaves and flowers looking into the gutter just under the edge of the roof. What are generally recommended as climbing Roses are too ready to ramp away, leaving bare, leggy growth where wall-clothing is desired. One of the best is climbing Aimée Vibert, for with very little pruning it keeps well furnished nearly to the ground, and with its graceful clusters of white bloom and healthy-looking, polished leaves is always one of the prettiest of Roses. Its only fault is that it does not shed its dead petals, but retains the whole bloom in dead brown clusters. But if a Rose wishes to climb, it should be accommodated with a suitable place. That excellent old Rose, the Dundee Rambler, or the still prettier Garland Rose, will find a way up a Holly-tree, and fling out its long wreaths of tenderly-tinted bloom; and there can be no better way of using the lovely Himalayan _R. Brunonis_, with its long, almost blue leaves and wealth of milk-white flower. A common Sweetbriar will also push up among the branches of some dark evergreen, Yew or Holly, and throw out aloft its scented branches and rosy bloom, and look its very best. But some of these same free Roses are best of all if left in a clear space to grow exactly as they will without any kind of support or training. So placed, they grow into large rounded groups. Every year, just after the young laterals on the last year's branches have flowered, they throw out vigorous young rods that arch over as they complete their growth, and will be the flower-bearers of the year to come. Two kinds of Roses of rambling growth that are rather tender, but indispensable for beauty, are Fortune's Yellow and the Banksias. Pruning the free Roses is always rough work for the hands and clothes, but of all Roses I know, the worst to handle is Fortune's Yellow. The prickles are hooked back in a way that no care or ingenuity can escape; and whether it is their shape and power of cruel grip, or whether they have anything of a poisonous quality, I do not know; but whereas hands scratched and torn by Roses in general heal quickly, the wounds made by Fortune's Yellow are much more painful and much slower to get well. I knew an old labourer who died of a rose-prick. He used to work about the roads, and at cleaning the ditches and mending the hedges. For some time I did not see him, and when I asked another old countryman, "What's gone o' Master Trussler?" the answer was, "He's dead--died of a canker-bush." The wild Dog-rose is still the "canker" in the speech of the old people, and a thorn or prickle is still a "bush." A Dog-rose prickle had gone deep into the old hedger's hand--a "bush" more or less was nothing to him, but the neglected little wound had become tainted with some impurity, blood-poisoning had set in, and my poor old friend had truly enough "died of a canker-bush." The flowering season of Fortune's Yellow is a very short one, but it comes so early, and the flowers have such incomparable beauty, and are so little like those of any other Rose, that its value is quite without doubt. Some of the Tea Roses approach it in its pink and copper colouring, but the loose, open, rather flaunting form of the flower, and the twisted set of the petals, display the colour better than is possible in any of the more regular-shaped Roses. It is a good plan to grow it through some other wall shrub, as it soon gets bare below, and the early maturing flowering tips are glad to be a little sheltered by the near neighbourhood of other foliage. I do not think that there is any other Rose that has just the same rich butter colour as the Yellow Banksian, and this unusual colouring is the more distinct because each little Rose in the cluster is nearly evenly coloured all over, besides being in such dense bunches. The season of bloom is very short, but the neat, polished foliage is always pleasant to see throughout the year. The white kind and the larger white are both lovely as to the individual bloom, but they flower so much more shyly that the yellow is much the better garden plant. But the best of all climbing or rambling plants, whether for wall or arbour or pergola, is undoubtedly the Grape-Vine. Even when trimly pruned and trained for fruit-bearing on an outer wall it is an admirable picture of leafage and fruit-cluster; but to have it in fullest beauty it must ramp at will, for it is only when the fast-growing branches are thrown out far and wide that it fairly displays its graceful vigour and the generous magnificence of its incomparable foliage. The hardy Chasselas, known in England by the rather misleading name Royal Muscadine, is one of the best, both for fruit and foliage. The leaves are of moderate size, with clearly serrated edges and that strongly waved outline that gives the impression of powerful build, and is, in fact, a mechanical contrivance intended to stiffen the structure. The colour of the leaves is a fresh, lively green, and in autumn they are prettily marbled with yellow. Where a very large-leaved Vine is wanted nothing is handsomer than the North American _Vitis Labrusca_ or the Asiatic _Vitis Coignettii_, whose autumn leaves are gorgeously coloured. For a place that demands more delicate foliage there is the Parsley-Vine, that has a delightful look of refinement, and another that should not be forgotten is the Claret-Vine, with autumnal colouring of almost scarlet and purple, and abundance of tightly clustered black fruit, nearly blue with a heavy bloom. Many an old house and garden can show the far-rambling power of the beautiful _Wistaria Chinensis_, and of the large-leaved _Aristolochia Sipho_, one of the best plants for covering a pergola, and of the varieties of _Ampelopsis_, near relations of the Grape-Vine. The limit of these notes only admits of mention of some of the more important climbers; but among these the ever-delightful white Jasmine must have a place. It will ramble far and fast if it has its own way, but then gives little flower; but by close winter pruning it can be kept full of bloom and leaf nearly to the ground. [Illustration: WILD HOP, ENTWINING WORMWOOD AND COW-PARSNIP.] The woods and hedges have also their beautiful climbing plants. Honeysuckle in suitable conditions will ramble to great heights--in this district most noticeable in tall Hollies and Junipers as well as in high hedges. The wild Clematis is most frequent on the chalk, where it laces together whole hedges and rushes up trees, clothing them in July with long wreaths of delicate bloom, and in September with still more conspicuous feathery seed. For rapid growth perhaps no English plant outstrips the Hop, growing afresh from the root every year, and almost equalling the Vine in beauty of leaf. The two kinds of wild Bryony are also herbaceous climbers of rapid growth, and among the most beautiful of our hedge plants. The wild Roses run up to great heights in hedge and thicket, and never look so well as when among the tangles of mixed growth of wild forest land or clambering through some old gnarled thorn-tree. The common Brambles are also best seen in these forest groups; these again in form of leaf show somewhat of a vine-like beauty. In the end of March, or at any time during the month when the wind is in the east or north-east, all increase and development of vegetation appears to cease. As things are, so they remain. Plants that are in flower retain their bloom, but, as it were, under protest. A kind of sullen dulness pervades all plant life. Sweet-scented shrubs do not give off their fragrance; even the woodland moss and earth and dead leaves withhold their sweet, nutty scent. The surface of the earth has an arid, infertile look; a slight haze of an ugly grey takes the colour out of objects in middle distance, and seems to rob the flowers of theirs, or to put them out of harmony with all things around. But a day comes, or, perhaps, a warmer night, when the wind, now breathing gently from the south-west, puts new life into all growing things. A marvellous change is wrought in a few hours. A little warm rain has fallen, and plants, invisible before, and doubtless still underground, spring into glad life. What an innocent charm there is about many of the true spring flowers. Primroses of many colours are now in bloom, but the prettiest, this year, is a patch of an early blooming white one, grouped with a delicate lilac. Then comes _Omphalodes verna_, with its flowers of brilliant blue and foliage of brightest green, better described by its pretty north-country name, Blue-eyed Mary. There are Violets of many colours, but daintiest of all is the pale-blue St. Helena; whether it is the effect of its delicate colouring, or whether it has really a better scent than other varieties of the common Violet, I cannot say, but it always seems to have a more refined fragrance. CHAPTER V APRIL Woodland spring flowers -- Daffodils in the copse -- Grape Hyacinths and other spring bulbs -- How best to plant them -- Flowering shrubs -- Rock-plants -- Sweet scents of April -- Snowy Mespilus, Marsh Marigolds, and other spring flowers -- Primrose garden -- Pollen of Scotch Fir -- Opening seed-pods of Fir and Gorse -- Auriculas -- Tulips -- Small shrubs for rock-garden -- Daffodils as cut flowers -- Lent Hellebores -- Primroses -- Leaves of wild Arum. In early April there is quite a wealth of flower among plants that belong half to wood and half to garden. _Epimedium pinnatum_, with its delicate, orchid-like spike of pale-yellow bloom, flowers with its last year's leaves, but as soon as it is fully out the young leaves rush up, as if hastening to accompany the flowers. _Dentaria pinnata_, a woodland plant of Switzerland and Austria, is one of the handsomest of the white-flowered _cruciferæ_, with well-filled heads of twelve to fifteen flowers, and palmate leaves of freshest green. Hard by, and the best possible plant to group with it, is the lovely Virginian Cowslip (_Mertensia virginica_), the very embodiment of the freshness of early spring. The sheaf of young leafage comes almost black out of the ground, but as the leaves develop, their dull, lurid colouring changes to a full, pale green of a curious texture, quite smooth, and yet absolutely unreflecting. The dark colouring of the young leaves now only remains as a faint tracery of veining on the backs of the leaves and stalks, and at last dies quite away as the bloom expands. The flower is of a rare and beautiful quality of colour, hard to describe--a rainbow-flower of purple, indigo, full and pale blue, and daintiest lilac, full of infinite variety and indescribable charm. The flowers are in terminal clusters, richly filled; lesser clusters springing from the axils of the last few leaves and joining with the topmost one to form a gracefully drooping head. The lurid colouring of the young leaves is recalled in the flower-stems and calix, and enhances the colour effect of the whole. The flower of the common Dog-tooth Violet is over, but the leaves have grown larger and handsomer. They look as if, originally of a purplish-red colour, some liquid had been dropped on them, making confluent pools of pale green, lightest at the centre of the drop. The noblest plant of the same family (_Erythronium giganteum_) is now in flower--a striking and beautiful wood plant, with turn-cap shaped flowers of palest straw-colour, almost white, and large leaves, whose markings are not drop-like as in the more familiar kind, but are arranged in a regular sequence of bold splashings, reminding one of a _Maranta_. The flowers, single or in pairs, rise on stems a foot or fifteen inches high; the throat is beautifully marked with flames of rich bay on a yellow ground, and the handsome group of golden-anthered stamens and silvery pistil make up a flower of singular beauty and refinement. That valuable Indian Primrose, _P. denticulata_, is another fine plant for the cool edge or shady hollows of woodland in rather good, deep soil. But the glory of the copse just now consists in the great stretches of Daffodils. Through the wood run shallow, parallel hollows, the lowest part of each depression some nine paces apart. Local tradition says they are the remains of old pack-horse roads; they occur frequently in the forest-like heathery uplands of our poor-soiled, sandy land, running, for the most part, three or four together, almost evenly side by side. The old people account for this by saying that when one track became too much worn another was taken by its side. Where these pass through the birch copse the Daffodils have been planted in the shallow hollows of the old ways, in spaces of some three yards broad by thirty or forty yards long--one kind at a time. Two of such tracks, planted with _Narcissus princeps_ and _N. Horsfieldi_, are now waving rivers of bloom, in many lights and accidents of cloud and sunshine full of pictorial effect. The planting of Daffodils in this part of the copse is much better than in any other portions where there were no guiding track-ways, and where they were planted in haphazard sprinklings. [Illustration: DAFFODILS IN THE COPSE.] The Grape Hyacinths are now in full bloom. It is well to avoid the common one (_Muscari racemosum_), at any rate in light soils, where it becomes a troublesome weed. One of the best is _M. conicum_; this, with the upright-leaved _M. botryoides_, and its white variety, are the best for general use, but the Plume Hyacinth, which flowers later, should have a place. _Ornithogalum nutans_ is another of the bulbous plants that, though beautiful in flower, becomes so pestilent a weed that it is best excluded. Where and how the early flowering bulbs had best be planted is a question of some difficulty. Perhaps the mixed border, where they are most usually put, is the worst place of all, for when in flower they only show as forlorn little patches of bloom rather far apart, and when their leaves die down, leaving their places looking empty, the ruthless spade or trowel stabs into them when it is desired to fill the space with some other plant. Moreover, when the border is manured and partly dug in the autumn, it is difficult to avoid digging up the bulbs just when they are in full root-growth. Probably the best plan is to devote a good space of cool bank to small bulbs and hardy ferns, planting the ferns in such groups as will leave good spaces for the bulbs; then as their leaves are going the fern fronds are developing and will cover the whole space. Another way is to have them among any groups of newly planted small shrubs, to be left there for spring blooming until the shrubs have covered their allotted space. Many flowering shrubs are in beauty. _Andromeda floribunda_ still holds its persistent bloom that has endured for nearly two months. The thick, drooping, tassel-like bunches of bloom of _Andromeda japonica_ are just going over. _Magnolia stellata_, a compact bush some five feet high and wide, is white with the multitude of its starry flowers; individually they look half double, having fourteen to sixteen petals. _Forsythia suspensa_, with its graceful habit and tender yellow flower, is a much better shrub than _F. viridissima_, though, strangely enough, that is the one most commonly planted. Corchorus, with its bright-yellow balls, the fine old rosy Ribes, the Japan Quinces and their salmon-coloured relative _Pyrus Mauleii_, _Spiræa Thunbergi_, with its neat habit and myriads of tiny flowers, these make frequent points of beauty and interest. In the rock-garden, _Cardamine trifoliata_ and _Hutchinsia alpina_ are conspicuous from their pure white flowers and neat habit; both have leaves of darkest green, as if the better to show off the bloom. _Ranunculus montanus_ fringes the cool base of a large stone; its whole height not over three inches, though its bright-yellow flowers are larger than field buttercups. The surface of the petals is curiously brilliant, glistening and flashing like glass. _Corydalis capnoides_ is a charming rock-plant, with flowers of palest sulphur colour, one of the neatest and most graceful of its family. [Illustration: MAGNOLIA STELLATA.] [Illustration: DAFFODILS AMONG JUNIPERS WHERE GARDEN JOINS COPSE.] Border plants are pushing up vigorous green growth; finest of all are the Veratrums, with their bold, deeply-plaited leaves of brilliant green. Delphiniums and Oriental Poppies have also made strong foliage, and Daylilies are conspicuous from their fresh masses of pale greenery. Flag Iris have their leaves three parts grown, and Pæonies are a foot or more high, in all varieties of rich red colouring. It is a good plan, when they are in beds or large groups, to plant the dark-flowered Wallflowers among them, their colour making a rich harmony with the reds of the young Pæony growths. There are balmy days in mid-April, when the whole garden is fragrant with Sweetbriar. It is not "fast of its smell," as Bacon says of the damask rose, but gives it so lavishly that one cannot pass near a plant without being aware of its gracious presence. Passing upward through the copse, the warm air draws a fragrance almost as sweet, but infinitely more subtle, from the fresh green of the young birches; it is like a distant whiff of Lily of the Valley. Higher still the young leafage of the larches gives a delightful perfume of the same kind. It seems as if it were the office of these mountain trees, already nearest the high heaven, to offer an incense of praise for their new life. Few plants will grow under Scotch fir, but a notable exception is the Whortleberry, now a sheet of brilliant green, and full of its arbutus-like, pink-tinged flower. This plant also has a pleasant scent in the mass, difficult to localise, but coming in whiffs as it will. The snowy Mespilus (_Amelanchier_) shows like puffs of smoke among the firs and birches, full of its milk-white, cherry-like bloom--a true woodland shrub or small tree. It loves to grow in a thicket of other trees, and to fling its graceful sprays about through their branches. It is a doubtful native, but naturalised and plentiful in the neighbouring woods. As seen in gardens, it is usually a neat little tree of shapely form, but it is more beautiful when growing at its own will in the high woods. Marshy hollows in the valleys are brilliant with Marsh Marigold (_Caltha palustris_); damp meadows have them in plenty, but they are largest and handsomest in the alder-swamps of our valley bottoms, where their great luscious clumps rise out of pools of black mud and water. _Adonis vernalis_ is one of the brightest flowers of the middle of April, the flowers looking large for the size of the plant. The bright-yellow, mostly eight-petalled, blooms are comfortably seated in dense, fennel-like masses of foliage. It makes strong tufts, that are the better for division every four years. The spring Bitter-vetch (_Orobus vernus_) blooms at the same time, a remarkably clean-looking plant, with its cheerful red and purple blossom and handsomely divided leaves. It is one of the toughest of plants to divide, the mass of black root is like so much wire. It is a good plan with plants that have such roots, when dividing-time comes, to take the clumps to a strong bench or block and cut them through at the crown with a sharp cold-chisel and hammer. Another of the showiest families of plants of the time is _Doronicum_. _D. Austriacum_ is the earliest, but it is closely followed by the fine _D. Plantagineum_. The large form of wood Forget-me-not (_Myosotis sylvatica major_) is in sheets of bloom, opening pink and changing to a perfect blue. This is a great improvement on the old smaller one. Grouped with it, as an informal border, and in patches running through and among its clumps, is the Foam-flower (_Tiarella cordifolia_), whose flower in the mass looks like the wreaths of foam tossed aside by a mountain torrent. By the end of the month the Satin-leaf (_Heuchera Richardsoni_) is pushing up its richly-coloured leaves, of a strong bronze-red, gradating to bronze-green at the outer edge. The beauty of the plant is in the colour and texture of the foliage. To encourage full leaf growth the flower stems should be pinched out, and as they push up rather persistently, they should be looked over every few days for about a fortnight. [Illustration: TIARELLA CORDIFOLIA. (_Height, 12 inches._)] [Illustration: HOLLYHOCK, PINK BEAUTY. (_See page 105._) (_Height, 9 feet._)] The Primrose garden is now in beauty, but I have so much to say about it that I have given it a chapter to itself towards the end of the book. The Scotch firs are shedding their pollen; a flowering branch shaken or struck with a stick throws out a pale-yellow cloud. Heavy rain will wash it out, so that after a storm the sides of the roads and paths look as if powdered sulphur had been washed up in drifts. The sun has gained great power, and on still bright days sharp _snicking_ sounds are to be heard from the firs. The dry cones of last year are opening, and the flattened seeds with their paper-like edges are fluttering down. Another sound, much like it but just a shade sharper and more _staccato_, is heard from the Gorse bushes, whose dry pods are flying open and letting fall the hard, polished, little bean-like seeds. Border Auriculas are making a brave show. Nothing in the flower year is more interesting than a bed of good seedlings of the Alpine class. I know nothing better for pure beauty of varied colouring among early flowers. Except in varieties of _Salpiglossis_, such rich gradation of colour, from pale lilac to rich purple, and from rosy pink to deepest crimson, is hardly to be found in any one family of plants. There are varieties of cloudings of smoky-grey, sometimes approaching black, invading, and at the same time enhancing, the purer colours, and numbers of shades of half-tones of red and purple, such as are comprised within the term _murrey_ of heraldry, and tender blooms of one colour, sulphurs and milk-whites--all with the admirable texture and excellent perfume that belong to the "Bear's-ears" of old English gardens. For practical purposes the florist's definition of a good Auricula is of little value; that is for the show-table, and, as Bacon says, "Nothing to the true pleasure of a garden." The qualities to look for in the bed of seedlings are not the narrowing ones of proportion of eye to tube, of exact circle in the circumference of the individual pip, and so on, but to notice whether the plant has a handsome look and stands up well, and is a delightful and beautiful thing as a whole. [Illustration: TULIPA RETROFLEXA.] [Illustration: LATE SINGLE TULIPS, BREEDERS AND BYBLOEMEN.] Tulips are the great garden flowers in the last week of April and earliest days of May. In this plant also the rule of the show-table is no sure guide to garden value; for the show Tulip, beautiful though it is, is of one class alone--namely, the best of the "broken" varieties of the self-coloured seedlings called "breeders." These seedlings, after some years of cultivation, change or "break" into a variation in which the original colouring is only retained in certain flames or feathers of colour, on a ground of either white or yellow. If the flames in each petal are symmetrical and well arranged, according to the rules laid down by the florist, it is a good flower; it receives a name, and commands a certain price. If, on the other hand, the markings are irregular, however beautiful the colouring, the flower is comparatively worthless, and is "thrown into mixture." The kinds that are the grandest in gardens are ignored by the florist. One of the best for graceful and delicate beauty is _Tulipa retroflexa_, of a soft lemon-yellow colour, and twisted and curled petals; then Silver Crown, a white flower with a delicate picotee-like thread of scarlet along the edge of the sharply pointed and reflexed petals. A variety of this called Sulphur Crown is only a little less beautiful. Then there is Golden Crown, also with pointed petals and occasional threadings of scarlet. Nothing is more gorgeous than the noble _Gesneriana major_, with its great chalice of crimson-scarlet and pools of blue in the inner base of each petal. The gorgeously flamed Parrot Tulips are indispensable, and the large double Yellow Rose, and the early double white La Candeur. Of the later kinds there are many of splendid colouring and noble port; conspicuous among them are _Reine d'Espagne_, _Couleur de vin_, and _Bleu celeste_. There are beautiful colourings of scarlet, crimson, yellow, chocolate, and purple among the "breeders," as well as among the so-called _bizarres_ and _bybloemen_ that comprise the show kinds. The best thing now in the rock-garden is a patch of some twenty plants of _Arnebia echioides_, always happy in our poor, dry soil. It is of the Borage family, a native of Armenia. It flowers in single or double-branching spikes of closely-set flowers of a fine yellow. Just below each indentation of the five-lobed corolla is a spot which looks black by contrast, but is of a very dark, rich, velvety brown. The day after the flower has expanded the spot has faded to a moderate brown, the next day to a faint tinge, and on the fourth day it is gone. The legend, accounting for the spots, says that Mahomet touched the flower with the tips of his fingers, hence its English name of Prophet-flower. The upper parts of the rock-garden that are beyond hand-reach are planted with dwarf shrubs, many of them sweetly scented either as to leaf or flower--_Gaultherias_, Sweet Gale, Alpine Rhododendron, _Skimmias_, _Pernettyas_, _Ledums_, and hardy Daphnes. _Daphne pontica_ now gives off delicious wafts of fragrance, intensely sweet in the evening. In March and April Daffodils are the great flowers for house decoration, coming directly after the Lent Hellebores. Many people think these beautiful late-flowering Hellebores useless for cutting because they live badly in water. But if properly prepared they live quite well, and will remain ten days in beauty. Directly they are cut, and immediately before putting in water, the stalks should be slit up three or four inches, or according to their length, and then put in deep, so that the water comes nearly up to the flowers; and so they should remain, in a cool place, for some hours, or for a whole night, after which they can be arranged for the room. Most of them are inclined to droop; it is the habit of the plant in growth; this may be corrected by arranging them with something stiff like Box or Berberis. _Anemone fulgens_ is a grand cutting flower, and looks well with its own leaves only or with flowering twigs of Laurustinus. Then there are Pansies, delightful things in a room, but they should be cut in whole branches of leafy stem and flower and bud. At first the growths are short and only suit dish-shaped things, but as the season goes on they grow longer and bolder, and graduate first into bowls and then into upright glasses. I think Pansies are always best without mixture of other flowers, and in separate colours, or only in such varied tints as make harmonies of one class of colour at a time. The big yellow and white bunch Primroses are delightful room flowers, beautiful, and of sweetest scent. When full-grown the flower-stalks are ten inches long and more. Among the seedlings there are always a certain number that are worthless. These are pounced upon as soon as they show their bloom, and cut up for greenery to go with the cut flowers, leaving the root-stock with all its middle foliage, and cutting away the roots and any rough outside leaves. When the first Daffodils are out and suitable greenery is not abundant in the garden (for it does not do to cut their own blades), I bring home handfuls of the wild Arum leaves, so common in roadside hedges, grasping the whole plant close to the ground; then a steady pull breaks it away from the tuber, and you have a fine long-stalked sheaf of leafage held together by its own underground stem. This should be prepared like the Lent Hellebores, by putting it deep in water for a time. I always think the trumpet Daffodils look better with this than with any other kind of foliage. When the wild Arum is full-grown the leaves are so large and handsome that they do quite well to accompany the white Arum flowers from the greenhouse. CHAPTER VI MAY Cowslips -- Morells -- Woodruff -- Felling oak timber -- Trillium and other wood-plants -- Lily of the Valley naturalised -- Rock-wall flowers -- Two good wall-shrubs -- Queen wasps -- Rhododendrons -- Arrangement for colour -- Separate colour-groups -- Difficulty of choosing -- Hardy Azaleas -- Grouping flowers that bloom together -- Guelder-rose as climber -- The garden-wall door -- The Pæony garden -- Moutans -- Pæony varieties -- Species desirable for garden. While May is still young, Cowslips are in beauty on the chalk lands a few miles distant, but yet within pleasant reach. They are finest of all in orchards, where the grass grows tall and strong under the half-shade of the old apple-trees, some of the later kinds being still loaded with bloom. The blooming of the Cowslip is the signal for a search for the Morell, one of the very best of the edible fungi. It grows in open woods or where the undergrowth has not yet grown high, and frequently in old parks and pastures near or under elms. It is quite unlike any other fungus; shaped like a tall egg, with the pointed end upwards, on a short, hollow stalk, and looking something like a sponge. It has a delicate and excellent flavour, and is perfectly wholesome. The pretty little Woodruff is in flower; what scent is so delicate as that of its leaves? They are almost sweeter when dried, each little whorl by itself, with the stalk cut closely away above and below. It is a pleasant surprise to come upon these fragrant little stars between the leaves of a book. The whole plant revives memories of rambles in Bavarian woodlands, and of Mai-trank, that best of the "cup" tribe of pleasant drinks, whose flavour is borrowed from its flowering tips. In the first week in May oak-timber is being felled. The wood is handsomer, from showing the grain better, when it is felled in the winter, but it is delayed till now because of the value of the bark for tanning, and just now the fast-rising sap makes the bark strip easily. A heavy fall is taking place in the fringes of a large wood of old Scotch fir. Where the oaks grow there is a blue carpet of wild Hyacinth; the pathway is a slightly hollowed lane, so that the whole sheet of flower right and left is nearly on a level with the eye, and looks like solid pools of blue. The oaks not yet felled are putting forth their leaves of golden bronze. The song of the nightingale and the ring of the woodman's axe gain a rich musical quality from the great fir wood. Why a wood of Scotch fir has this wonderful property of a kind of musical reverberation I do not know; but so it is. Any sound that occurs within it is, on a lesser scale, like a sound in a cathedral. The tree itself when struck gives a musical note. Strike an oak or an elm on the trunk with a stick, and the sound is mute; strike a Scotch fir, and it is a note of music. [Illustration: TRILLIUM IN THE WILD GARDEN.] In the copse are some prosperous patches of the beautiful North American Wood-lily (_Trillium grandiflorum_). It likes a bed of deep leaf-soil on levels or cool slopes in woodland, where its large white flowers and whorls of handsome leaves look quite at home. Beyond it are widely spreading patches of Solomon's Seal and tufts of the Wood-rush (_Luzula sylvatica_), showing by their happy vigour how well they like their places, while the natural woodland carpet of moss and dead leaves puts the whole together. Higher in the copse the path runs through stretches of the pretty little _Smilacina bifolia_, and the ground beyond this is a thick bed of Whortleberry, filling all the upper part of the copse under oak and birch and Scotch fir. The little flower-bells of the Whortleberry have already given place to the just-formed fruit, which will ripen in July, and be a fine feast for the blackbirds. Other parts of the copse, where there was no Heath or Whortleberry, were planted thinly with the large Lily of the Valley. It has spread and increased and become broad sheets of leaf and bloom, from which thousands of flowers can be gathered without making gaps, or showing that any have been removed; when the bloom is over the leaves still stand in handsome masses till they are hidden by the fast-growing bracken. They do not hurt each other, as it seems that the Lily of the Valley, having the roots running just underground, while the fern-roots are much deeper, the two occupy their respective _strata_ in perfect good fellowship. The neat little _Smilacina_ is a near relation of the Lily of the Valley; its leaves are of an even more vivid green, and its little modest spikes of white flower are charming. It loves the poor, sandy soil, and increases in it fast, but will have nothing to say to clay. A very delicate and beautiful North American fern (_Dicksonia punctilobulata_) proves a good colonist in the copse. It spreads rapidly by creeping roots, and looks much like our native _Thelipteris_, but is of a paler green colour. In the rock-garden the brightest patches of bloom are shown by the tufts of dwarf Wallflowers; of these, _Cheiranthus alpinus_ has a strong lemon colour that is of great brilliancy in the mass, and _C. Marshalli_ is of a dark orange colour, equally powerful. The curiously-tinted _C. mutabilis_, as its name implies, changes from a light mahogany colour when just open, first to crimson and then to purple. In length of life _C. alpinus_ and _C. Marshalli_ are rather more than biennials, and yet too short-lived to be called true perennials; cuttings of one year flower the next, and are handsome tufts the year after, but are scarcely worth keeping longer. _C. mutabilis_ is longer lived, especially if the older growths are cut right away, when the tuft will generally spring into vigorous new life. _Orobus aurantiacus_ is a beautiful plant not enough grown, one of the handsomest of the Pea family, with flowers of a fine orange colour, and foliage of a healthy-looking golden-green. A striking and handsome plant in the upper part of the rockery is _Othonna cheirifolia_; its aspect is unusual and interesting, with its bunches of thick, blunt-edged leaves of blue-grey colouring, and large yellow daisy flowers. There is a pretty group of the large white Thrift, and near it a spreading carpet of blue Veronica and some of the splendid gentian-blue _Phacelia campanularia_, a valuable annual for filling any bare patches of rockery where its brilliant colouring will suit the neighbouring plants, or, best of all, in patches among dwarf ferns, where its vivid blue would be seen to great advantage. Two wall-shrubs have been conspicuously beautiful during May; the Mexican Orange-flower (_Choisya ternata_) has been smothered in its white bloom, so closely resembling orange-blossom. With a slight winter protection of fir boughs it seems quite at home in our hot, dry soil, grows fast, and is very easy to propagate by layers. When cut, it lasts for more than a week in water. _Piptanthus nepalensis_ has also made a handsome show, with its abundant yellow, pea-shaped bloom and deep-green trefoil leaves. The dark-green stems have a slight bloom on a half-polished surface, and a pale ring at each joint gives them somewhat the look of bamboos. Now is the time to look out for the big queen wasps and to destroy as many as possible. They seem to be specially fond of the flowers of two plants, the large perennial Cornflower (_Centaurea montana_) and the common Cotoneaster. I have often secured a dozen in a few minutes on one or other of these plants, first knocking them down with a battledore. Now, in the third week of May, Rhododendrons are in full bloom on the edge of the copse. The plantation was made about nine years ago, in one of the regions where lawn and garden were to join the wood. During the previous blooming season the best nurseries were visited and careful observations made of colouring, habit, and time of blooming. The space they were to fill demanded about seventy bushes, allowing an average of eight feet from plant to plant--not seventy different kinds, but, perhaps, ten of one kind, and two or three fives, and some threes, and a few single plants, always bearing in mind the ultimate intention of pictorial aspect as a whole. In choosing the plants and in arranging and disposing the groups these ideas were kept in mind: to make pleasant ways from lawn to copse; to group only in beautiful colour harmonies; to choose varieties beautiful in themselves; to plant thoroughly well, and to avoid overcrowding. Plantations of these grand shrubs are generally spoilt or ineffective, if not absolutely jarring, for want of attention to these simple rules. The choice of kinds is now so large, and the variety of colouring so extensive, that nothing can be easier than to make beautiful combinations, if intending planters will only take the small amount of preliminary trouble that is needful. Some of the clumps are of brilliant scarlet-crimson, rose and white, but out of the great choice of colours that might be so named only those are chosen that make just the colour-harmony that was intended. A large group, quite detached from this one, and more in the shade of the copse, is of the best of the lilacs, purples, and whites. When some clumps of young hollies have grown, those two groups will not be seen at the same time, except from a distance. The purple and white group is at present rather the handsomest, from the free-growing habit of the fine old kind _Album elegans_, which forms towering masses at the back. A detail of pictorial effect that was aimed at, and that has come out well, was devised in the expectation that the purple groups would look richer in the shade, and the crimson ones in the sun. This arrangement has answered admirably. Before planting, the ground, of the poorest quality possible, was deeply trenched, and the Rhododendrons were planted in wide holes filled with peat, and finished with a comfortable "mulch," or surface-covering of farmyard manure. From this a supply of grateful nutriment was gradually washed in to the roots. This beneficial surface-dressing was renewed every year for two years after planting, and even longer in the case of the slower growing kinds. No plant better repays care during its early years. Broad grass paths leading from the lawn at several points pass among the clumps, and are continued through the upper parts of the copse, passing through zones of different trees; first a good stretch of birch and holly, then of Spanish chestnut, next of oak, and finally of Scotch fir, with a sprinkling of birch and mountain ash, all with an undergrowth of heath and whortleberry and bracken. Thirty years ago it was all a wood of old Scotch fir. This was cut at its best marketable maturity, and the present young wood is made of what came up self-sown. This natural wild growth was thick enough to allow of vigorous cutting out, and the preponderance of firs in the upper part and of birch in the lower suggested that these were the kinds that should predominate in their respective places. [Illustration: RHODODENDRONS WHERE THE COPSE AND GARDEN MEET.] It may be useful to describe a little more in detail the plan I followed in grouping Rhododendrons, for I feel sure that any one with a feeling for harmonious colouring, having once seen or tried some such plan, will never again approve of the haphazard mixtures. There may be better varieties representing the colourings aimed at in the several groups, but those named are ones that I know, and they will serve as well as any others to show what is meant. The colourings seem to group themselves into six classes of easy harmonies, which I venture to describe thus:-- 1. Crimsons inclining to scarlet or blood-colour grouped with dark claret-colour and true pink. In this group I have planted Nigrescens, dark claret-colour; John Waterer and James Marshall Brook, both fine red-crimsons; Alexander Adie and Atrosanguineum, good crimsons, inclining to blood-colour; Alarm, rosy-scarlet; and Bianchi, pure pink. 2. Light scarlet rose colours inclining to salmon, a most desirable range of colour, but of which the only ones I know well are Mrs. R. S. Holford, and a much older kind, Lady Eleanor Cathcart. These I put by themselves, only allowing rather near them the good pink Bianchi. 3. Rose colours inclining to amaranth. 4. Amaranths or magenta-crimsons. 5. Crimson or amaranth-purples. 6. Cool clear purples of the typical _ponticum_ class, both dark and light, grouped with lilac-whites, such as _Album elegans_ and _Album grandiflorum_. The beautiful partly-double _Everestianum_ comes into this group, but nothing redder among purples. _Fastuosum florepleno_ is also admitted, and _Luciferum_ and _Reine Hortense_, both good lilac-whites. But the purples that are most effective are merely _ponticum_ seedlings, chosen when in bloom in the nursery for their depth and richness of cool purple colour. My own space being limited, I chose three of the above groups only, leaving out, as of colouring less pleasing to my personal liking, groups 3, 4, and 5. The remaining ones gave me examples of colouring the most widely different, and at the same time the most agreeable to my individual taste. It would have been easier, if that had been the object, to have made groups of the three other classes of colouring, which comprise by far the largest number of the splendid varieties now grown. There are a great many beautiful whites; of these, two that I most admire are Madame Carvalho and Sappho; the latter is an immense flower, with a conspicuous purple blotch. There is also a grand old kind called Minnie, a very large-growing one, with fine white trusses; and a dwarf-growing white that comes early into bloom is Cunningham's White, also useful for forcing, as it is a small plant, and a free bloomer. [Illustration: GRASS WALKS THROUGH THE COPSE.] Nothing is more perplexing than to judge of the relative merits of colours in a Rhododendron nursery, where they are all mixed up. I have twice been specially to look for varieties of a true pink colour, but the quantity of untrue pinks is so great that anything approaching a clear pink looks much better than it is. In this way I chose Kate Waterer and Sylph, both splendid varieties; but when I grew them with my true pink Bianchi they would not do, the colour having the suspicion of rank quality that I wished to keep out of that group. This same Bianchi, with its mongrel-sounding name, I found was not grown in the larger nurseries. I had it from Messrs. Maurice Young, of the Milford Nurseries, near Godalming. I regretted to hear lately from some one to whom I recommended it that it could not be supplied. It is to be hoped that so good a thing has not been lost. A little way from the main Rhododendron clumps, and among bushy Andromedas, I have the splendid hybrid of _R. Aucklandi_, raised by Mr. A. Waterer. The trusses are astoundingly large, and the individual blooms large and delicately beautiful, like small richly-modelled lilies of a tender, warm, white colour. It is quite hardy south of London, and unquestionably desirable. Its only fault is leggy growth; one year's growth measures twenty-three inches, but this only means that it should be planted among other bushes. [Illustration: RHODODENDRONS AT THE EDGE OF THE COPSE.] The last days of May see hardy Azaleas in beauty. Any of them may be planted in company, for all their colours harmonise. In this garden, where care is taken to group plants well for colour, the whites are planted at the lower and more shady end of the group; next come the pale yellows and pale pinks, and these are followed at a little distance by kinds whose flowers are of orange, copper, flame, and scarlet-crimson colourings; this strong-coloured group again softening off at the upper end by strong yellows, and dying away into the woodland by bushes of the common yellow _Azalea pontica_, and its variety with flowers of larger size and deeper colour. The plantation is long in shape, straggling over a space of about half an acre, the largest and strongest-coloured group being in an open clearing about midway in the length. The ground between them is covered with a natural growth of the wild Ling (_Calluna_) and Whortleberry, and the small, white-flowered Bed-straw, with the fine-bladed Sheep's-fescue grass, the kind most abundant in heathland. The surrounding ground is copse, of a wild, forest-like character, of birch and small oak. A wood-path of wild heath cut short winds through the planted group, which also comprises some of the beautiful white-flowered Californian _Azalea occidentalis_, and bushes of some of the North American Vacciniums. Azaleas should never be planted among or even within sight of Rhododendrons. Though both enjoy a moist peat soil, and have a near botanical relationship, they are incongruous in appearance, and impossible to group together for colour. This must be understood to apply to the two classes of plants of the hardy kinds, as commonly grown in gardens. There are tender kinds of the East Indian families that are quite harmonious, but those now in question are the ordinary varieties of so-called Ghent Azaleas, and the hardy hybrid Rhododendrons. In the case of small gardens, where there is only room for one bed or clump of peat plants, it would be better to have a group of either one or the other of these plants, rather than spoil the effect by the inharmonious mixture of both. I always think it desirable to group together flowers that bloom at the same time. It is impossible, and even undesirable, to have a garden in blossom all over, and groups of flower-beauty are all the more enjoyable for being more or less isolated by stretches of intervening greenery. As one lovely group for May I recommend Moutan Pæony and _Clematis montana_, the Clematis on a wall low enough to let its wreaths of bloom show near the Pæony. The old Guelder Rose or Snowball-tree is beautiful anywhere, but I think it best of all on the cold side of a wall. Of course it is perfectly hardy, and a bush of strong, sturdy growth, and has no need of the wall either for support or for shelter; but I am for clothing the garden walls with all the prettiest things they can wear, and no shrub I know makes a better show. Moreover, as there is necessarily less wood in a flat wall tree than in a round bush, and as the front shoots must be pruned close back, it follows that much more strength is thrown into the remaining wood, and the blooms are much larger. I have a north wall eleven feet high, with a Guelder Rose on each side of a doorway, and a _Clematis montana_ that is trained on the top of the whole. The two flower at the same time, their growths mingling in friendly fashion, while their unlikeness of habit makes the companionship all the more interesting. The Guelder Rose is a stiff-wooded thing, the character of its main stems being a kind of stark uprightness, though the great white balls hang out with a certain freedom from the newly-grown shoots. The Clematis meets it with an exactly opposite way of growth, swinging down its great swags of many-flowered garland masses into the head of its companion, with here and there a single flowering streamer making a tiny wreath on its own account. On the southern sides of the same gateway are two large bushes of the Mexican Orange-flower (_Choisya ternata_), loaded with its orange-like bloom. Buttresses flank the doorway on this side, dying away into the general thickness of the wall above the arch by a kind of roofing of broad flat stones that lay back at an easy pitch. In mossy hollows at their joints and angles, some tufts of Thrift and of little Rock Pinks have found a home, and show as tenderly-coloured tufts of rather dull pink bloom. Above all is the same white Clematis, some of its abundant growth having been trained over the south side, so that this one plant plays a somewhat important part in two garden-scenes. Through the gateway again, beyond the wall northward and partly within its shade, is a portion of ground devoted to Pæonies, in shape a long triangle, whose proportion in length is about thrice its breadth measured at the widest end. A low cross-wall, five feet high, divides it nearly in half near the Guelder Roses, and it is walled again on the other long side of the triangle by a rough structure of stone and earth, which, in compliment to its appearance, we call the Old Wall, of which I shall have something to say later. Thus the Pæonies are protected all round, for they like a sheltered place, and the Moutans do best with even a little passing shade at some time of the day. Moutan is the Chinese name for Tree Pæony. For an immense hardy flower of beautiful colouring what can equal the salmon-rose Moutan Reine Elizabeth? Among the others that I have, those that give me most pleasure are Baronne d'Alès and Comtesse de Tuder, both pinks of a delightful quality, and a lovely white called Bijou de Chusan. The Tree Pæonies are also beautiful in leaf; the individual leaves are large and important, and so carried that they are well displayed. Their colour is peculiar, being bluish, but pervaded with a suspicion of pink or pinkish-bronze, sometimes of a metallic quality that faintly recalls some of the variously-coloured alloys of metal that the Japanese bronze-workers make and use with such consummate skill. [Illustration: SOUTH SIDE OF DOOR, WITH CLEMATIS MONTANA AND CHOISYA.] [Illustration: NORTH SIDE OF THE SAME DOOR, WITH CLEMATIS MONTANA AND GUELDER-ROSE.] It is a matter of regret that varieties of the better kinds of Moutans are not generally grown on their own roots, and still more so that the stock in common use should not even be the type Tree Pæony, but one of the herbaceous kinds, so that we have plants of a hard-wooded shrub worked on a thing as soft as a Dahlia root. This is probably the reason why they are so difficult to establish, and so slow to grow, especially on light soils, even when their beds have been made deep and liberally enriched with what one judges to be the most gratifying comfort. Every now and then, just before blooming time, a plant goes off all at once, smitten with sudden death. At the time of making my collection I was unable to visit the French nurseries where these plants are so admirably grown, and whence most of the best kinds have come. I had to choose them by the catalogue description--always an unsatisfactory way to any one with a keen eye for colour, although in this matter the compilers of foreign catalogues are certainly less vague than those of our own. Many of the plants therefore had to be shifted into better groups for colour after their first blooming, a matter the more to be regretted as Pæonies dislike being moved. The other half of the triangular bit of Pæony ground--the pointed end--is given to the kinds I like best of the large June-flowered Pæonies, the garden varieties of the Siberian _P. albiflora_, popularly known as Chinese Pæonies. Though among these, as is the case with all the kinds, there is a preponderance of pink or rose-crimson colouring of a decidedly rank quality, yet the number of varieties is so great, that among the minority of really good colouring there are plenty to choose from, including a good number of beautiful whites and whites tinged with yellow. Of those I have, the kinds I like best are-- Hypatia, pink. Madame Benare, salmon-rose. The Queen, pale salmon-rose. Léonie, salmon-rose. Virginie, warm white. Solfaterre, pale yellow. Edouard André, deep claret. Madame Calot, flesh pink. Madame Bréon. Alba sulfurea. Triomphans gandavensis. Carnea elegans (Guerin). Curiosa, pink and blush. Prince Pierre Galitzin, blush. Eugenie Verdier, pale pink. Elegans superbissima, yellowish-white. Virgo Maria, white. Philomèle, blush. Madame Dhour, rose. Duchesse de Nemours, yellow-white. Faust. Belle Douaisienne. Jeanne d'Arc. Marie Lemoine. Many of the lovely flowers in this class have a rather strong, sweet smell, something like a mixture of the scents of Rose and Tulip. Then there are the old garden Pæonies, the double varieties of _P. officinalis_. They are in three distinct colourings--full rich crimson, crimson-rose, and pale pink changing to dull white. These are the earliest to flower, and with them it is convenient, from the garden point of view, to class some of the desirable species. Some years ago my friend Mr. Barr kindly gave me a set of the Pæony species as grown by him. I wished to have them, not for the sake of making a collection, but in order to see which were the ones I should like best to grow as garden flowers. In due time they grew into strong plants and flowered. A good many had to be condemned because of the raw magenta colour of the bloom, one or two only that had this defect being reprieved on account of their handsome foliage and habit. Prominent among these was _P. decora_, with bluish foliage handsomely displayed, the whole plant looking strong and neat and well-dressed. Others whose flower-colour I cannot commend, but that seemed worth growing on account of their rich masses of handsome foliage, are _P. triternata_ and _P. Broteri_. Though small in size, the light red flower of _P. lobata_ is of a beautiful colour. _P. tenuifolia_, in both single and double form, is an old garden favourite. _P. Wittmanniana_, with its yellow-green leaves and tender yellow flower, is a gem; but it is rather rare, and probably uncertain, for mine, alas! had no sooner grown into a fine clump than it suddenly died. All Pæonies are strong feeders. Their beds should be deeply and richly prepared, and in later years they are grateful for liberal gifts of manure, both as surface dressings and waterings. Friends often ask me vaguely about Pæonies, and when I say, "What kind of Pæonies?" they have not the least idea. Broadly, and for garden purposes, one may put them into three classes-- 1. Tree Pæonies (_P. moutan_), shrubby, flowering in May. 2. Chinese Pæonies (_P. albiflora_), herbaceous, flowering in June. 3. Old garden Pæonies (_P. officinalis_), herbaceous, including some other herbaceous species. I find it convenient to grow Pæony species and Caulescent (Lent) Hellebores together. They are in a wide border on the north side of the high wall and partly shaded by it. They are agreed in their liking for deeply-worked ground with an admixture of loam and lime, for shelter, and for rich feeding; and the Pæony clumps, set, as it were, in picture frames of the lower-growing Hellebores, are seen to all the more advantage. [Illustration: FREE CLUSTER-ROSE AS STANDARD IN A COTTAGE GARDEN.] CHAPTER VII JUNE The gladness of June -- The time of Roses -- Garden Roses -- Reine Blanche -- The old white Rose -- Old garden Roses as standards -- Climbing and rambling Roses -- Scotch Briars -- Hybrid Perpetuals a difficulty -- Tea Roses -- Pruning -- Sweet Peas, autumn sown -- Elder-trees -- Virginian Cowslip -- Dividing spring-blooming plants -- Two best Mulleins -- White French Willow -- Bracken. What is one to say about June--the time of perfect young summer, the fulfilment of the promise of the earlier months, and with as yet no sign to remind one that its fresh young beauty will ever fade? For my own part I wander up into the wood and say, "June is here--June is here; thank God for lovely June!" The soft cooing of the wood-dove, the glad song of many birds, the flitting of butterflies, the hum of all the little winged people among the branches, the sweet earth-scents--all seem to say the same, with an endless reiteration, never wearying because so gladsome. It is the offering of the Hymn of Praise! The lizards run in and out of the heathy tufts in the hot sunshine, and as the long day darkens the night-jar trolls out his strange song, so welcome because it is the prelude to the perfect summer night; here and there a glowworm shows its little lamp. June is here--June is here; thank God for lovely June! And June is the time of Roses. I have great delight in the best of the old garden Roses; the Provence (Cabbage Rose), sweetest of all sweets, and the Moss Rose, its crested variety; the early Damask, and its red and white striped kind; the old, nearly single, Reine Blanche. I do not know the origin of this charming Rose, but by its appearance it should be related to the Damask. A good many years ago I came upon it in a cottage garden in Sussex, and thought I had found a white Damask. The white is a creamy white, the outsides of the outer petals are stained with red, first showing clearly in the bud. The scent is delicate and delightful, with a faint suspicion of Magnolia. A few years ago this pretty old Rose found its way to one of the meetings of the Royal Horticultural Society, where it gained much praise. It was there that I recognised my old friend, and learned its name. I am fond of the old _Rosa alba_, both single and double, and its daughter, Maiden's Blush. How seldom one sees these Roses except in cottage gardens; but what good taste it shows on the cottager's part, for what Rose is so perfectly at home upon the modest little wayside porch? I have also learnt from cottage gardens how pretty are some of the old Roses grown as standards. The picture of my neighbour, Mrs. Edgeler, picking me a bunch from her bush, shows how freely they flower, and what fine standards they make. I have taken the hint, and have now some big round-headed standards, the heads a yard through, of the lovely Celeste and of Madame Plantier, that are worth looking at, though one of them is rather badly-shaped this year, for my handsome Jack (donkey) ate one side of it when he was waiting outside the studio door, while his cart-load of logs for the ingle fire was being unloaded. What a fine thing, among the cluster Roses, is the old Dundee Rambler! I trained one to go up a rather upright green Holly about twenty-five feet high, and now it has rushed up and tumbles out at the top and sides in masses of its pretty bloom. It is just as good grown as a "fountain," giving it a free space where it can spread at will with no training or support whatever. These two ways I think are much the best for growing the free, rambling Roses. In the case of the fountain, the branches arch over and display the flowers to perfection; if you tie your Rose up to a tall post or train it over an arch or _pergola_, the birds flying overhead have the best of the show. The Garland Rose, another old sort, is just as suitable for this kind of growth as Dundee Rambler, and the individual flowers, of a tender blush-colour, changing to white, are even more delicate and pretty. The newer Crimson Rambler is a noble plant for the same use, in sunlight gorgeous of bloom, and always brilliant with its glossy bright-green foliage. Of the many good plants from Japan, this is the best that has reached us of late years. The Himalayan _Rosa Brunonii_ is loaded with its clusters of milk-white bloom, that are so perfectly in harmony with its very long, almost blue leaves. But of all the free-growing Roses, the most remarkable for rampant growth is _R. polyantha_. One of the bushes in this garden covers a space thirty-four feet across--more than a hundred feet round. It forms a great fountain-like mass, covered with myriads of its small white flowers, whose scent is carried a considerable distance. Directly the flower is over it throws up rods of young growth eighteen to twenty feet long; as they mature they arch over, and next year their many short lateral shoots will be smothered with bloom. Two other Roses of free growth are also great favourites--Madame Alfred Carrière, with long-stalked loose white flowers, and Emilie Plantier. I have them on an east fence, where they yield a large quantity of bloom for cutting; indeed, they have been so useful in this way that I have planted several more, but this time for training down to an oak trellis, like the one that supports the row of Bouquet d'Or, in order to bring the flowers within easier reach. Now we look for the bloom of the Burnet Rose (_Rosa spinosissima_), a lovely native plant, and its garden varieties, the Scotch Briars. The wild plant is widely distributed in England, though somewhat local. It grows on moors in Scotland, and on Beachy Head in Sussex, and near Tenby in South Wales, favouring wild places within smell of the sea. The rather dusky foliage sets off the lemon-white of the wild, and the clear white, pink, rose, and pale yellow of the double garden kinds. The hips are large and handsome, black and glossy, and the whole plant in late autumn assumes a fine bronzy colouring between ashy black and dusky red. Other small old garden Roses are coming into bloom. One of the most desirable, and very frequent in this district, is _Rosa lucida_, with red stems, highly-polished leaves, and single, fragrant flowers of pure rosy-pink colour. The leaves turn a brilliant yellow in autumn, and after they have fallen the bushes are still bright with the coloured stems and the large clusters of bright-red hips. It is the St. Mark's Rose of Venice, where it is usually in flower on St. Mark's Day, April 25th. The double variety is the old _Rose d'amour_, now rare in gardens; its half-expanded bud is perhaps the most daintily beautiful thing that any Rose can show. [Illustration: DOUBLE WHITE SCOTCH BRIAR.] After many years of fruitless effort I have to allow that I am beaten in the attempt to grow the Grand Roses in the Hybrid Perpetual class. They plainly show their dislike to our dry hill, even when their beds are as well enriched as I can contrive or afford to make them. The rich loam that they love has to come many miles from the Weald by hilly roads in four-horse waggons, and the haulage is so costly that when it arrives I feel like distributing it with a spoon rather than with the spade. Moreover, even if a bed is filled with the precious loam, unless constantly watered the plants seem to feel and resent the two hundred feet of dry sand and rock that is under them before any moister stratum is reached. But the Tea Roses are more accommodating, and do fairly well, though, of course, not so well as in a stiffer soil. If I were planting again I should grow a still larger proportion of the kinds I have now found to do best. Far beyond all others is Madame Lambard, good alike early and late, and beautiful at all times. In this garden it yields quite three times as much bloom as any other; nothing else can approach it either for beauty or bounty. Viscountess Folkestone, not properly a Tea, but classed among Hybrid Noisettes, is also free and beautiful and long-enduring; and Papa Gontier, so like a deeper-coloured Lambard, is another favourite. Bouquet d'Or is here the strongest of the Dijon Teas. I grow it in several positions, but most conveniently on a strong bit of oak post and rail trellis, keeping the long growths tied down, and every two years cutting the oldest wood right out. It is well to remember that the tying or pegging down of Roses always makes them bloom better: every joint from end to end wants to make a good Rose; if the shoots are more upright, the blooming strength goes more to the top. The pruning of Tea Roses is quite different from the pruning required for the Hybrid Perpetuals. In these the last year's growth is cut back in March to within two to five eyes from where it leaves the main branch, according to the strength of the kind. This must not be done with the Teas. With these the oldest wood is cut right out from the base, and the blooming shoots left full length. But it is well, towards the end of July or beginning of August, to cut back the ends of soft summer shoots in order to give them a chance of ripening what is left. When an old Tea looks worn out, if cut right down in March or April it will often throw out vigorous young growth, and quite renew its life. [Illustration: PART OF A BUSH OF ROSA POLYANTHA.] [Illustration: GARLAND-ROSE, SHOWING NATURAL WAY OF GROWTH.] Within the first days of June we can generally pick some Sweet Peas from the rows sown in the second week of September. They are very much stronger than those sown in spring. By November they are four inches high, and seem to gain strength and sturdiness during the winter; for as soon as spring comes they shoot up with great vigour, and we know that the spray used to support them must be two feet higher than for those that are spring-sown. The flower-stalks are a foot long, and many have four flowers on a stalk. They are sown in shallow trenches; in spring they are earthed up very slightly, but still with a little trench at the base of the plants. A few doses of liquid manure are a great help when they are getting towards blooming strength. I am very fond of the Elder-tree. It is a sociable sort of thing; it seems to like to grow near human habitations. In my own mind it is certainly the tree most closely associated with the pretty old cottage and farm architecture of my part of the country; no bush or tree, not even the apple, seems to group so well or so closely with farm buildings. When I built a long thatched shed for the many needs of the garden, in the region of pits and frames, compost, rubbish and burn-heap, I planted Elders close to the end of the building and on one side of the yard. They look just right, and are, moreover, every year loaded with their useful fruit. This is ripe quite early in September, and is made into Elder wine, to be drunk hot in winter, a comfort by no means to be despised. My trees now give enough for my own wants, and there are generally a few acceptable bushels to spare for my cottage neighbours. About the middle of the month the Virginian Cowslip (_Mertensia virginica_) begins to turn yellow before dying down. Now is the time to look out for the seeds. A few ripen on the plant, but most of them fall while green, and then ripen in a few days while lying on the ground. I shake the seeds carefully out, and leave them lying round the parent-plant; a week later, when they will be ripe, they are lightly scratched into the ground. Some young plants of last year's growth I mark with a bit of stick, in case of wanting some later to plant elsewhere, or to send away; the plant dies away completely, leaving no trace above ground, so that if not marked it would be difficult to find what is wanted. [Illustration: LILAC MARIE LEGRAYE. (_See page 23._)] [Illustration: FLOWERING ELDER AND PATH FROM GARDEN TO COPSE.] This is also the time for pulling to pieces and replanting that good spring plant, the large variety of _Myosotis dissitiflora_; I always make sure of divisions, as seed does not come true. _Primula rosea_ should also be divided now, and planted to grow on in a cool place, such as the foot of a north or east wall, or be put at once in its place in some cool, rather moist spot in the rock-garden. Two-year-old plants come up with thick clumps of matted root that is now useless. I cut off the whole mass of old root about an inch below the crown, when it can easily be divided into nice little bits for replanting. Many other spring-flowering plants may with advantage be divided now, such as Aubrietia, Arabis, Auricula, Tiarella, and Saxifrage. The young Primrose plants, sown in March, have been planted out in their special garden, and are looking well after some genial rain. The great branching Mullein, _Verbascum olympicum_, is just going out of bloom, after making a brilliant display for a fortnight. It is followed by the other of the most useful tall, yellow-flowered kinds, _V. phlomoides_. Both are seen at their best either quite early in the morning, or in the evening, or in half-shade, as, like all their kind, they do not expand their bloom in bright sunshine. Both are excellent plants on poor soils. _V. olympicum_, though classed as a biennial, does not come to flowering strength till it is three or four years old; but meanwhile the foliage is so handsome that even if there were no flower it would be a worthy garden plant. It does well in any waste spaces of poor soil, where, by having plants of all ages, there will be some to flower every year. The Mullein moth is sure to find them out, and it behoves the careful gardener to look for and destroy the caterpillars, or he may some day find, instead of his stately Mulleins, tall stems only clothed with unsightly grey rags. The caterpillars are easily caught when quite small or when rather large; but midway in their growth, when three-quarters of an inch long, they are wary, and at the approach of the avenging gardener they will give a sudden wriggling jump, and roll down into the lower depths of the large foliage, where they are difficult to find. But by going round the plants twice a day for about a week they can all be discovered. The white variety of the French Willow (_Epilobium angustifolium_) is a pretty plant in the edges of the copse, good both in sun and shade, and flourishing in any poor soil. In better ground it grows too rank, running quickly at the root and invading all its neighbours, so that it should be planted with great caution; but when grown on poor ground it flowers at from two feet to four feet high, and its whole aspect is improved by the proportional amount of flower becoming much larger. Towards the end of June the bracken that covers the greater part of the ground of the copse is in full beauty. No other manner of undergrowth gives to woodland in so great a degree the true forest-like character. This most ancient plant speaks of the old, untouched land of which large stretches still remain in the south of England--land too poor to have been worth cultivating, and that has therefore for centuries endured human contempt. In the early part of the present century, William Cobbett, in his delightful book, "Rural Rides," speaking of the heathy headlands and vast hollow of Hindhead, in Surrey, calls it "certainly the most villainous spot God ever made." This gives expression to his view, as farmer and political economist, of such places as were incapable of cultivation, and of the general feeling of the time about lonely roads in waste places, as the fields for the lawless labours of smuggler and highwayman. Now such tracts of natural wild beauty, clothed with stretches of Heath and Fern and Whortleberry, with beds of Sphagnum Moss, and little natural wild gardens of curious and beautiful sub-aquatic plants in the marshy hollows and undrained wastes, are treasured as such places deserve to be, especially when they still remain within fifty miles of a vast city. The height to which the bracken grows is a sure guide to the depth of soil. On the poorest, thinnest ground it only reaches a foot or two; but in hollow places where leaf-mould accumulates and surface soil has washed in and made a better depth, it grows from six feet to eight feet high, and when straggling up through bushes to get to the light a frond will sometimes measure as much as twelve feet. The old country people who have always lived on the same poor land say, "Where the farn grows tall anything will grow"; but that only means that there the ground is somewhat better and capable of cultivation, as its presence is a sure indication of a sandy soil. The timber-merchants are shy of buying oak trees felled from among it, the timber of trees grown on the wealden clay being so much better. CHAPTER VIII JULY Scarcity of flowers -- Delphiniums -- Yuccas -- Cottager's way of protecting tender plants -- Alströmerias -- Carnations -- Gypsophila -- _Lilium giganteum_ -- Cutting fern-pegs. After the wealth of bloom of June, there appear to be but few flowers in the garden; there seems to be a time of comparative emptiness between the earlier flowers and those of autumn. It is true that in the early days of July we have Delphiniums, the grandest blues of the flower year. They are in two main groups in the flower border, one of them nearly all of the palest kind--not a solid clump, but with a thicker nucleus, thinning away for several yards right and left. Only white and pale-yellow flowers are grouped with this, and pale, fresh-looking foliage of maize and Funkia. The other group is at some distance, at the extreme western end. This is of the full and deeper blues, following a clump of Yuccas, and grouped about with things of important silvery foliage, such as Globe Artichoke and Silver Thistle (_Eryngium_). I have found it satisfactory to grow Delphiniums from seed, choosing the fine strong "Cantab" as the seed-parent, because the flowers were of a medium colour--scarcely so light as the name would imply--and because of its vigorous habit and well-shaped spike. It produced flowers of all shades of blue, and from these were derived nearly all I have in the border. I found them better for the purpose in many cases than the named kinds of which I had a fair collection. The seedlings were well grown for two years in nursery lines, worthless ones being taken out as soon as they showed their character. There is one common defect that I cannot endure--an interrupted spike, when the flowers, having filled a good bit of the spike, leave off, leaving a space of bare stem, and then go on again. If this habit proves to be persistent after the two years' trial, the plant is condemned. For my liking the spike must be well filled, but not overcrowded. Many of the show kinds are too full for beauty; the shape of the individual flower is lost. Some of the double ones are handsome, but in these the flower takes another shape, becoming more rosette-like, and thereby loses its original character. Some are of mixed colouring, a shade of lilac-pink sliding through pale blue. It is very beautiful in some cases, the respective tints remaining as clear as in an opal, but in many it only muddles the flower and makes it ineffective. Delphiniums are greedy feeders, and pay for rich cultivation and for liberal manurial mulches and waterings. In a hot summer, if not well cared for, they get stunted and are miserable objects, the flower distorted and cramped into a clumsy-looking, elongated mop-head. Though weak in growth the old _Delphinium Belladonna_ has so lovely a quality of colour that it is quite indispensable; the feeble stem should be carefully and unobtrusively staked for the better display of its incomparable blue. Some of the Yuccas will bloom before the end of the month. I have them in bold patches the whole fifteen-feet depth of the border at the extreme ends, and on each side of the pathway, where, passing from the lawn to the Pæony ground, it cuts across the border to go through the arched gateway. The kinds of Yucca are _gloriosa_, _recurva_, _flaccida_, and _filamentosa_. They are good to look at at all times of the year because of their grand strong foliage, and are the glory of the garden when in flower. One of the _gloriosa_ threw up a stout flower-spike in January. I had thought of protecting and roofing the spike, in the hope of carrying it safely through till spring, but meanwhile there came a damp day and a frosty night, and when I saw it again it was spoilt. The _Yucca filamentosa_ that I have I was told by a trusty botanist was the true plant, but rather tender, the one commonly called by that name being something else. I found it in a cottage garden, where I learnt a useful lesson in protecting plants, namely, the use of thickly-cut peaty sods. The goodwife had noticed that the peaty ground of the adjoining common, covered with heath and gorse and mossy grass, resisted frost much better than the garden or meadow, and it had been her practice for many years to get some thick dry sods with the heath left on and to pack them close round to protect tender plants. In this way she had preserved her Fuchsias of greenhouse kinds, and Calceolarias, and the Yucca in question. The most brilliant mass of flower in early July is given by the beds of _Alströmeria aurantiaca_; of this we have three distinct varieties, all desirable. There is a four feet wide bed, some forty feet long, of the kind most common in gardens, and at a distance from it a group grown from selected seed of a paler colour; seedlings of this remain true to colour, or, as gardeners say, the variety is "fixed." The third sort is from a good old garden in Ireland, larger in every way than the type, with petals of great width, and extremely rich in colour. _Alströmeria chilense_ is an equally good plant, and beds of it are beautiful in their varied colourings, all beautifully harmonious, and ranging through nearly the same tints as hardy Azaleas. These are the best of the Alströmerias for ordinary garden culture; they do well in warm, sheltered places in the poorest soil, but the soil must be deep, for the bunches of tender, fleshy roots go far down. The roots are extremely brittle, and must be carefully handled. Alströmerias are easily raised from seed, but when the seedlings are planted out the crowns should be quite four inches under the surface, and have a thick bed of leaves or some other mild mulching material over them in winter to protect them from frost, for they are Chilian plants, and demand and deserve a little surface comfort to carry them safely through the average English winter. Sea-holly (_Eryngium_) is another family of July-flowering plants that does well on poor, sandy soils that have been deeply stirred. Of these the more generally useful is _E. Oliverianum_, the _E. amethystinum_ of nurserymen, but so named in error, the true plant being rare and scarcely known in gardens. The whole plant has an admirable structure of a dry and nervous quality, with a metallic colouring and dull lustre that are in strong contrast to softer types of vegetation. The black-coated roots go down straight and deep, and enable it to withstand almost any drought. Equalling it in beauty is _E. giganteum_, the Silver Thistle, of the same metallic texture, but whitish and almost silvery. This is a biennial, and should be sown every year. A more lowly plant, but hardly less beautiful, is the wild Sea-holly of our coasts (_E. maritimum_), with leaves almost blue, and a handsome tuft of flower nearly matching them in colour. It occurs on wind-blown sandhills, but is worth a place in any garden. It comes up rather late, but endures, apparently unchanged, except for the bloom, throughout the late summer and autumn. But the flower of this month that has the firmest hold of the gardener's heart is the Carnation--the Clove Gilliflower of our ancestors. Why the good old name "Gilliflower" has gone out of use it is impossible to say, for certainly the popularity of the flower has never waned. Indeed, in the seventeenth century it seems that it was the best-loved flower of all in England; for John Parkinson, perhaps our earliest writer on garden plants, devotes to it a whole chapter in his "Paradisus Terrestris," a distinction shared by no other flower. He describes no less than fifty kinds, a few of which are still to be recognised, though some are lost. For instance, what has become of the "_great gray Hulo_" which he describes as a plant of the largest and strongest habit? The "gray" in this must refer to the colour of the leaf, as he says the flower is red; but there is also a variety called the "_blew Hulo_," with flowers of a "purplish murrey" colouring, answering to the slate colour that we know as of not unfrequent occurrence. The branch of the family that we still cultivate as "Painted Lady" is named by him "Dainty Lady," the present name being no doubt an accidental and regrettable corruption. But though some of the older sorts may be lost, we have such a wealth of good known kinds that this need hardly be a matter of regret. The old red Clove always holds its own for hardiness, beauty, and perfume; its newer and dwarfer variety, Paul Engleheart, is quite indispensable, while the beautiful salmon-coloured Raby is perhaps the most useful of all, with its hardy constitution and great quantity of bloom. But it is difficult to grow Carnations on our very poor soil; even when it is carefully prepared they still feel its starving and drying influence, and show their distaste by unusual shortness of life. _Gypsophila paniculata_ is one of the most useful plants of this time of year; its delicate masses of bloom are like clouds of flowery mist settled down upon the flower borders. Shooting up behind and among it is a tall, salmon-coloured Gladiolus, a telling contrast both in form and manner of inflorescence. Nothing in the garden has been more satisfactory and useful than a hedge of the white everlasting Pea. The thick, black roots that go down straight and deep have been undisturbed for some years, and the plants yield a harvest of strong white bloom for cutting that always seems inexhaustible. They are staked with stiff, branching spray, thrust into the ground diagonally, and not reaching up too high. This supports the heavy mass of growth without encumbering the upper blooming part. Hydrangeas are well in flower at the foot of a warm wall, and in the same position are spreading masses of the beautiful _Clematis Davidiana_, a herbaceous kind, with large, somewhat vine-like leaves, and flowers of a pale-blue colour of a delicate and uncommon quality. The blooming of the _Lilium giganteum_ is one of the great flower events of the year. It is planted in rather large straggling groups just within the fringe of the copse. In March the bulbs, which are only just underground, thrust their sharply-pointed bottle-green tips out of the earth. These soon expand into heart-shaped leaves, looking much like Arum foliage of the largest size, and of a bright-green colour and glistening surface. The groups are so placed that they never see the morning sun. They require a slight sheltering of fir-bough, or anything suitable, till the third week of May, to protect the young leaves from the late frosts. In June the flower-stem shoots up straight and tall, like a vigorous young green-stemmed tree. If the bulb is strong and the conditions suitable, it will attain a height of over eleven feet, but among the flowering bulbs of a group there are sure to be some of various heights from differently sized bulbs; those whose stature is about ten feet are perhaps the handsomest. The upper part of the stem bears the gracefully drooping great white Lily flowers, each bloom some ten inches long, greenish when in bud, but changing to white when fully developed. Inside each petal is a purplish-red stripe. In the evening the scent seems to pour out of the great white trumpets, and is almost overpowering, but gains a delicate quality by passing through the air, and at fifty yards away is like a faint waft of incense. In the evening light, when the sun is down, the great heads of white flower have a mysterious and impressive effect when seen at some distance through the wood, and by moonlight have a strangely weird dignity. The flowers only last a few days, but when they are over the beauty of the plant is by no means gone, for the handsome leaves remain in perfection till the autumn, while the growing seed-pods, rising into an erect position, become large and rather handsome objects. The rapidity and vigour of the four months' growth from bulb to giant flowering plant is very remarkable. The stem is a hollow, fleshy tube, three inches in diameter at the base, and the large radiating roots are like those of a tree. The original bulb is, of course, gone, but when the plants that have flowered are taken up at the end of November, offsets are found clustered round the root; these are carefully detached and replanted. The great growth of these Lilies could not be expected to come to perfection in our very poor, shallow soil, for doubtless in their mountain home in the Eastern Himalayas they grow in deep beds of cool vegetable earth. Here, therefore, their beds are deeply excavated, and filled to within a foot of the top with any of the vegetable rubbish of which only too much accumulates in the late autumn. Holes twelve feet across and three feet deep are convenient graves for frozen Dahlia-tops and half-hardy Annuals; a quantity of such material chopped up and tramped down close forms a cool subsoil that will comfort the Lily bulbs for many a year. The upper foot of soil is of good compost, and when the young bulbs are planted, the whole is covered with some inches of dead leaves that join in with the natural woodland carpet. [Illustration: THE GIANT LILY.] In the end of July we have some of the hottest of the summer days, only beginning to cool between six and seven in the evening. One or two evenings I go to the upper part of the wood to cut some fern-pegs for pegging Carnation layers, armed with fag-hook and knife and rubber, and a low rush-bottomed stool to sit on. The rubber is the stone for sharpening the knife--a long stone of coarse sandstone grit, such as is used for scythes. Whenever I am at work with a knife there is sure to be a rubber not far off, for a blunt knife I cannot endure, so there is a stone in each department of the garden sheds, and a whole series in the workshop, and one or two to spare to take on outside jobs. The Bracken has to be cut with a light hand, as the side-shoots that will make the hook of the peg are easily broken just at the important joint. The fronds are of all sizes, from two to eight feet long; but the best for pegs are the moderate-sized, that have not been weakened by growing too close together. Where they are crowded the main stalk is thick, but the side ones are thin and weak; whereas, where they get light and air the side branches are carried on stouter ribs, and make stronger and better-balanced pegs. The cut fern is lightly laid in a long ridge with the ends all one way, and the operator sits at the stalk end of the ridge, a nice cool shady place having been chosen. Four cuts with the knife make a peg, and each frond makes three pegs in about fifteen seconds. With the fronds laid straight and handy it goes almost rhythmically, then each group of three pegs is thrown into the basket, where they clash on to the others with a hard ringing sound. In about four days the pegs dry to a surprising hardness; they are better than wooden ones, and easier and quicker to make. People who are not used to handling Bracken should be careful how they cut a frond with a knife; they are almost sure to get a nasty little cut on the second joint of the first finger of the right hand--not from the knife, but from the cut edge of the fern. The stalk has a silicious coating, that leaves a sharp edge like a thin flake of glass when cut diagonally with a sharp knife; they should also beware how they pick or pull off a mature frond, for even if the part of the stalk laid hold of is bruised and twisted, some of the glassy structure holds together and is likely to wound the hand. CHAPTER IX AUGUST Leycesteria -- Early recollections -- Bank of choice shrubs -- Bank of Briar Roses -- Hollyhocks -- Lavender -- Lilies -- Bracken and Heaths -- The Fern-walk -- Late-blooming rock-plants -- Autumn flowers -- Tea Roses -- Fruit of _Rosa rugosa_ -- Fungi -- Chantarelle. _Leycesteria formosa_ is a soft-wooded shrub, whose beauty, without being showy, is full of charm and refinement. I remember delighting in it in the shrub-wilderness of the old home, where I first learnt to know and love many a good bush and tree long before I knew their names. There were towering Rhododendrons (all _ponticum_) and Ailanthus and Hickory and Magnolias, and then Spiræa and Snowball tree and tall yellow Azalea, and Buttercup bush and shrubby Andromedas, and in some of the clumps tall Cypresses and the pretty cut-leaved Beech, and in the edges of others some of the good old garden Roses, double Cinnamon and _R. lucida_, and Damask and Provence, Moss-rose and Sweetbriar, besides tall-grown Lilacs and Syringa. It was all rather overgrown, and perhaps all the prettier, and some of the wide grassy ways were quite shady in summer. And I look back across the years and think what a fine lesson-book it was to a rather solitary child; and when I came to plant my own shrub clump I thought I would put rather near together some of the old favourites, so here again we come back to Leycesteria, put rather in a place of honour, and near it Buttercup bush and Andromeda and Magnolias and old garden Roses. [Illustration: CISTUS FLORENTINUS.] [Illustration: THE GREAT ASPHODEL.] I had no space for a shrub wilderness, but have made a large clump for just the things I like best, whether new friends or old. It is a long, low bank, five or six paces wide, highest in the middle, where the rather taller things are planted. These are mostly Junipers and Magnolias; of the Magnolias, the kinds are _Soulangeana_, _conspicua_, _purpurea_, and _stellata_. One end of the clump is all of peat earth; here are Andromedas, Skimmeas, and on the cooler side the broad-leaved Gale, whose crushed leaves have almost the sweetness of Myrtle. One long side of the clump faces south-west, the better to suit the things that love the sun. At the farther end is a thrifty bush of _Styrax japonica_, which flowers well in hot summers, but another bush under a south wall flowers better. It must be a lovely shrub in the south of Europe and perhaps in Cornwall; here the year's growth is always cut at the tip, but it flowers well on the older wood, and its hanging clusters of white bloom are lovely. At its foot, on the sunny side, are low bushy plants of _Cistus florentinus_. I am told that this specific name is not right; but the plant so commonly goes by it that it serves the purpose of popular identification. Then comes _Magnolia stellata_, now a perfectly-shaped bush five feet through, a sheet of sweet-scented bloom in April. Much too near it are two bushes of _Cistus ladaniferus_. They were put there as little plants to grow on for a year in the shelter and comfort of the warm bank, but were overlooked at the time they ought to have been shifted, and are now nearly five feet high, and are crowding the Magnolia. I cannot bear to take them away to waste, and they are much too large to transplant, so I am driving in some short stakes diagonally and tying them down by degrees, spreading out their branches between neighbouring plants. It is an upright-growing Cistus that would soon cover a tallish wall-space, but this time it must be content to grow horizontally, and I shall watch to see whether it will flower more freely, as so many things do when trained down. Next comes a patch of the handsome _Bambusa Ragamowski_, dwarf, but with strikingly-broad leaves of a bright yellow-green colour. It seems to be a slow grower, or more probably it is slow to grow at first; Bamboos have a good deal to do underground. It was planted six years ago, a nice little plant in a pot, and now is eighteen inches high and two feet across. Just beyond it is the Mastic bush (_Caryopteris mastacanthus_), a neat, grey-leaved small shrub, crowded in September with lavender-blue flowers, arranged in spikes something like a Veronica; the whole bush is aromatic, smelling strongly like highly-refined turpentine. Then comes _Xanthoceras sorbifolia_, a handsome bush from China, of rather recent introduction, with saw-edged pinnate leaves and white flowers earlier in the summer, but now forming its bunches of fruit that might easily be mistaken for walnuts with their green shucks on. Here a wide bushy growth of _Phlomis fruticosa_ lays out to the sun, covered in early summer with its stiff whorls of hooded yellow flowers--one of the best of plants for a sunny bank in full sun in a poor soil. A little farther along, and near the path, comes the neat little _Deutzia parviflora_ and another little shrub of fairy-like delicacy, _Philadelphus microphyllus_. Behind them is _Stephanandra flexuosa_, beautiful in foliage, and two good St. John's worts, _Hypericum aureum_ and _H. Moserianum_, and again in front a Cistus of low, spreading growth, _C. halimifolius_, or something near it. One or two favourite kinds of Tree Pæonies, comfortably sheltered by Lavender bushes, fill up the other end of the clump next to the Andromedas. In all spare spaces on the sunny side of the shrub-clump is a carpeting of _Megasea ligulata_, a plant that looks well all the year round, and gives a quantity of precious flower for cutting in March and April. I was nearly forgetting _Pavia macrostachya_, now well established among the choice shrubs. It is like a bush Horse-chestnut, but more refined, the white spikes standing well up above the handsome leaves. On the cooler side of the clump is a longish planting of dwarf Andromeda, precious not only for its beauty of form and flower, but from the fine winter colouring of the leaves, and those two useful Spiræas, _S. Thunbergi_, with its countless little starry flowers, and the double _prunifolia_, the neat leaves of whose long sprays turn nearly scarlet in autumn. Then there comes a rather long stretch of _Artemisia Stelleriana_, a white-leaved plant much like _Cineraria maritima_, answering just the same purpose, but perfectly hardy. It is so much like the silvery _Cineraria_ that it is difficult to remember that it prefers a cool and even partly-shaded place. Beyond the long ridge that forms the shrub-clump is another, parallel to it and only separated from it by a path, also in the form of a long low bank. On the crown of this is the double row of cob-nuts that forms one side of the nut-alley. It leaves a low sunny bank that I have given to various Briar Roses and one or two other low, bushy kinds. Here is the wild Burnet Rose, with its yellow-white single flowers and large black hips, and its garden varieties, the Scotch Briars, double white, flesh-coloured, pink, rose, and yellow, and the hybrid briar, Stanwell Perpetual. Here also is the fine hybrid of _Rosa rugosa_, Madame George Bruant, and the lovely double _Rosa lucida_, and one or two kinds of small bush Roses from out-of-the-way gardens, and two wild Roses that have for me a special interest, as I collected them from their rocky home in the island of Capri. One is a Sweetbriar, in all ways like the native one, except that the flowers are nearly white, and the hips are larger. Last year the bush was distinctly more showy than any other of its kind, on account of the size and unusual quantity of the fruit. The other is a form of _Rosa sempervirens_, with rather large white flowers faintly tinged with yellow. [Illustration: LAVENDER HEDGE AND STEPS TO THE LOFT.] [Illustration: HOLLYHOCK, PINK BEAUTY.] Hollyhocks have been fine, in spite of the disease, which may be partly checked by very liberal treatment. By far the most beautiful is one of a pure pink colour, with a wide outer frill. It came first from a cottage garden, and has always since been treasured. I call it Pink Beauty. The wide outer petal (a heresy to the florist) makes the flower infinitely more beautiful than the all-over full-double form that alone is esteemed on the show-table. I shall hope in time to come upon the same shape of flower in white, sulphur, rose-colour, and deep blood-crimson, the colours most worth having in Hollyhocks. Lavender has been unusually fine; to reap its fragrant harvest is one of the many joys of the flower year. If it is to be kept and dried, it should be cut when as yet only a few of the purple blooms are out on the spike; if left too late, the flower shakes off the stalk too readily. Some plantations of _Lilium Harrisi_ and _Lilium auratum_ have turned out well. Some of the _Harrisi_ were grouped among tufts of the bright-foliaged _Funkia grandiflora_ on the cool side of a Yew hedge. Just at the foot of the hedge is _Tropæolum speciosum_, which runs up into it and flowers in graceful wreaths some feet above the ground. The masses of pure white lily and cool green foliage below are fine against the dark, solid greenery of the Yew, and the brilliant flowers above are like little jewels of flame. The Bermuda Lilies (_Harrisi_) are intergrouped with _L. speciosum_, which will follow them when their bloom is over. The _L. auratum_ were planted among groups of Rhododendrons; some of them are between tall Rhododendrons, and have large clumps of Lady Fern (_Filix foemina_) in front, but those that look best are between and among Bamboos (_B. Metake_); the heavy heads of flower borne on tall stems bend gracefully through the Bamboos, which just give them enough support. Here and there in the copse, among the thick masses of green Bracken, is a frond or two turning yellow. This always happens in the first or second week of August, though it is no indication of the approaching yellowing of the whole. But it is taken as a signal that the Fern is in full maturity, and a certain quantity is now cut to dry for protection and other winter uses. Dry Bracken lightly shaken over frames is a better protection than mats, and is almost as easily moved on and off. The Ling is now in full flower, and is more beautiful in the landscape than any of the garden Heaths; the relation of colouring, of greyish foliage and low-toned pink bloom with the dusky spaces of purplish-grey shadow, are a precious lesson to the colour-student. [Illustration: SOLOMON'S SEAL IN SPRING, IN THE UPPER PART OF THE FERN-WALK.] [Illustration: THE FERN-WALK IN AUGUST.] The fern-walk is at its best. It passes from the garden upwards to near the middle of the copse. The path, a wood-path of moss and grass and short-cut heath, is a little lower than the general level of the wood. The mossy bank, some nine feet wide, and originally cleared for the purpose, is planted with large groups of hardy Ferns, with a preponderance (due to preference) of Dilated Shield Fern and Lady Fern. Once or twice in the length of the bank are hollows, sinking at their lowest part to below the path-level, for _Osmunda_ and _Blechnum_. When rain is heavy enough to run down the path it finds its way into these hollow places. Among the groups of Fern are a few plants of true wood-character--_Linnæa_, _Trientalis_, _Goodyera_, and _Trillium_. At the back of the bank, and stretching away among the trees and underwood, are wide-spreading groups of Solomon's-seal and Wood-rush, joining in with the wild growth of Bracken and Bramble. Most of the Alpines and dwarf-growing plants, whose home is the rock-garden, bloom in May or June, but a few flower in early autumn. Of these one of the brightest is _Ruta patavina_, a dwarf plant with lemon-coloured flowers and a very neat habit of growth. It soon makes itself at home in a sunny bank in poor soil. _Pterocephalus parnassi_ is a dwarf Scabious, with small, grey foliage keeping close to the ground, and rather large flowers of a low-toned pink. The white Thyme is a capital plant, perfectly prostrate, and with leaves of a bright yellow-green, that with the white bloom give the plant a particularly fresh appearance. It looks at its best when trailing about little flat spaces between the neater of the hardy Ferns, and hanging over little rocky ledges. Somewhat farther back is the handsome dwarf _Platycodon Mariesi_, and behind it the taller Platycodons, among full-flowered bushes of _Olearia Haasti_. By the middle of August the garden assumes a character distinctly autumnal. Much of its beauty now depends on the many non-hardy plants, such as Gladiolus, Canna, and Dahlia, on Tritomas of doubtful hardiness, and on half-hardy annuals--Zinnia, Helichrysum, Sunflower, and French and African Marigold. Fine as are the newer forms of hybrid Gladiolus, the older strain of gandavensis hybrids are still the best as border flowers. In the large flower border, tall, well-shaped spikes of a good pink one look well shooting up through and between a wide-spreading patch of glaucous foliage of the smaller Yuccas, _Tritoma caulescens_, _Iris pallida_, and _Funkia Sieboldi_, while scarlet and salmon-coloured kinds are among groups of Pæonies that flowered in June, whose leaves are now taking a fine reddish colouring. Between these and the edge of the border is a straggling group some yards in length of the dark-foliaged _Heuchera Richardsoni_, that will hold its satin-surfaced leaves till the end of the year. Farther back in the border is a group of the scarlet-flowered Dahlia Fire King, and behind these, Dahlias Lady Ardilaun and Cochineal, of deeper scarlet colouring. The Dahlias are planted between groups of Oriental Poppy, that flower in May and then die away till late in autumn. Right and left of the scarlet group are Tritomas, intergrouped with Dahlias of moderate height, that have orange and flame-coloured flowers. This leads to some masses of flowers of strong yellow colouring; the old perennial Sunflower, in its tall single form, and the best variety of the old double one of moderate height, the useful _H. lætiflorus_ and the tall Miss Mellish, the giant form of _Harpalium rigidum_. _Rudbeckia Newmanni_ reflects the same strong colour in the front part of the border, and all spaces are filled with orange Zinnias and African Marigolds and yellow Helichrysum. As we pass along the border the colour changes to paler yellow by means of a pale perennial Sunflower and the sulphur-coloured annual kind, with Paris Daisies, _Oenothera Lamarkiana_ and _Verbascum phlomoides_. The two last were cut down to about four feet after their earliest bloom was over, and are now again full of profusely-flowered lateral growths. At the farther end of the border we come again to glaucous foliage and pale-pink flower of Gladiolus and Japan Anemone. It is important in such a border of rather large size, that can be seen from a good space of lawn, to keep the flowers in rather large masses of colour. No one who has ever done it, or seen it done, will go back to the old haphazard sprinkle of colouring without any thought of arrangement, such as is usually seen in a mixed border. There is a wall of sandstone backing the border, also planted in relation to the colour-massing in the front space. This gives a quiet background of handsome foliage, with always in the flower season some show of colour in one part or another of its length. Just now the most conspicuous of its clothing shrubs or of the somewhat tall growing flowers at its foot are a fine variety of _Bignonia radicans_, a hardy Fuchsia, the Claret Vine covering a good space, with its red-bronze leaves and clusters of blue-black grapes, the fine hybrid Crinums and _Clerodendron foetidum_. Tea Roses have been unusually lavish of autumn bloom, and some of the garden climbing Roses, hybrids of China and Noisette, have been of great beauty, both growing and as room decoration. Many of them flower in bunches at the end of the shoots; whole branches, cut nearly three feet long, make charming arrangements in tall glasses or high vases of Oriental china. Perhaps their great autumnal vigour is a reaction from the check they received in the earlier part of the year, when the bloom was almost a failure from the long drought and the accompanying attacks of blight and mildew. The great hips of the Japanese _Rosa rugosa_ are in perfection; they have every ornamental quality--size, form, colour, texture, and a delicate waxlike bloom; their pulp is thick and luscious, and makes an excellent jam. The quantity of fungous growth this year is quite remarkable. The late heavy rain coming rather suddenly on the well-warmed earth has no doubt brought about their unusual size and abundance; in some woodland places one can hardly walk without stepping upon them. Many spots in the copse are brilliant with large groups of the scarlet-capped Fly Agaric (_Amanita muscaria_). It comes out of the ground looking like a dark scarlet ball, generally flecked with raised whitish spots; it quickly rises on its white stalk, the ball changing to a brilliant flat disc, six or seven inches across, and lasting several days in beauty. But the most frequent fungus is the big brown _Boletus_, in size varying from a small bun to a dinner-plate. Some kinds are edible, but I have never been inclined to try them, being deterred by their coarse look and uninviting coat of slimy varnish. And why eat doubtful _Boletus_ when one can have the delicious Chantarelle (_Cantharellus cibarius_), also now at its best? In colour and smell it is like a ripe apricot, perfectly wholesome, and, when rightly cooked, most delicate in flavour and texture. It should be looked for in cool hollows in oak woods; when once found and its good qualities appreciated, it will never again be neglected. CHAPTER X SEPTEMBER Sowing Sweet Peas -- Autumn-sown annuals -- Dahlias -- Worthless kinds -- Staking -- Planting the rock-garden -- Growing small plants in a wall -- The old wall -- Dry-walling -- How built -- How planted -- Hyssop -- A destructive storm -- Berries of Water-elder -- Beginning ground-work. In the second week of September we sow Sweet Peas in shallow trenches. The flowers from these are larger and stronger and come in six weeks earlier than from those sown in the spring; they come too at a time when they are especially valuable for cutting. Many other hardy Annuals are best sown now. Some indeed, such as the lovely _Collinsia verna_ and the large white Iberis, only do well if autumn-sown. Among others, some of the most desirable are Nemophila, Platystemon, Love-in-a-Mist, Larkspurs, Pot Marigold, Virginian Stock, and the delightful Venus's Navel-wort (_Omphalodes linifolia_). I always think this daintily beautiful plant is undeservedly neglected, for how seldom one sees it. It is full of the most charming refinement, with its milk-white bloom and grey-blue leaf and neat habit of growth. Any one who has never before tried Annuals autumn-sown would be astonished at their vigour. A single plant of Nemophila will often cover a square yard with its beautiful blue bloom; and then, what a gain it is to have these pretty things in full strength in spring and early summer, instead of waiting to have them in a much poorer state later in the year, when other flowers are in plenty. Hardy Poppies should be sown even earlier; August is the best time. Dahlias are now at their full growth. To make a choice for one's own garden, one must see the whole plant growing. As with many another kind of flower, nothing is more misleading than the evidence of the show-table, for many that there look the best, and are indeed lovely in form and colour as individual blooms, come from plants that are of no garden value. For however charming in humanity is the virtue modesty, and however becoming is the unobtrusive bearing that gives evidence of its possession, it is quite misplaced in a Dahlia. Here it becomes a vice, for the Dahlia's first duty in life is to flaunt and to swagger and to carry gorgeous blooms well above its leaves, and on no account to hang its head. Some of the delicately-coloured kinds lately raised not only hang their heads, but also hide them away among masses of their coarse foliage, and are doubly frauds, looking everything that is desirable in the show, and proving worthless in the garden. It is true that there are ways of cutting out superfluous green stuff and thereby encouraging the blooms to show up, but at a busy season, when rank leafage grows fast, one does not want to be every other day tinkering at the Dahlias. Careful and strong staking they must always have, not forgetting one central stake to secure the main growth at first. It is best to drive this into the hole made for the plant before placing the root, to avoid the danger of sending the point of the stake through the tender tubers. Its height out of the ground should be about eighteen inches less than the expected stature of the plant. As the Dahlia grows, there should be at least three outer stakes at such distance from the middle one as may suit the bulk and habit of the plant; and it is a good plan to have wooden hoops to tie to these, so as to form a girdle round the whole plant, and for tying out the outer branches. The hoop should be only loosely fastened--best with roomy loops of osier, so that it may be easily shifted up with the growth of the plant. We make the hoops in the winter of long straight rent rods of Spanish Chestnut, bending them while green round a tub, and tying them with tarred twine or osier bands. They last several years. All this care in staking the Dahlias is labour well bestowed, for when autumn storms come the wind has such a power of wrenching and twisting, that unless the plant, now grown into a heavy mass of succulent vegetation, is braced by firm fixing at the sides, it is in danger of being broken off short just above the ground, where its stem has become almost woody, and therefore brittle. Now is the moment to get to work on the rock-garden; there is no time of year so precious for this work as September. Small things planted now, while the ground is still warm, grow at the root at once, and get both anchor-hold and feeding-hold of the ground before frost comes. Those that are planted later do not take hold, and every frost heaves them up, sometimes right out of the ground. Meanwhile those that have got a firm root-hold are growing steadily all the winter, underground if not above; and when the first spring warmth comes they can draw upon the reserve of strength they have been hoarding up, and make good growth at once. Except in the case of a rockery only a year old, there is sure to be some part that wants to be worked afresh, and I find it convenient to do about a third of the space every year. Many of the indispensable Alpines and rock-plants of lowly growth increase at a great rate, some spreading over much more than their due space, the very reason of this quick-spreading habit being that they are travelling to fresh pasture; many of them prove it clearly by dying away in the middle of the patch, and only showing vigorous vitality at the edges. Such plants as _Silene alpestris_, _Hutchinsia alpina_, _Pterocephalus_, the dwarf alpine kinds of _Achillea_ and _Artemisia_, _Veronica_ and _Linaria_, and the mossy Saxifrages, in my soil want transplanting every two years, and the silvery Saxifrages every three years. As in much else, one must watch what happens in one's own garden. We practical gardeners have no absolute knowledge of the constitution of the plant, still less of the chemistry of the soil, but by the constant exercise of watchful care and helpful sympathy we acquire a certain degree of instinctive knowledge, which is as valuable in its way, and probably more applicable to individual local conditions, than the tabulated formulas of more orthodox science. One of the best and simplest ways of growing rock-plants is in a loose wall. In many gardens an abrupt change of level makes a retaining wall necessary, and when I see this built in the usual way as a solid structure of brick and mortar--unless there be any special need of the solid wall--I always regret that it is not built as a home for rock-plants. An exposure to north or east and the cool backing of a mass of earth is just what most Alpines delight in. A dry wall, which means a wall without mortar, may be anything between a wall and a very steep rock-work, and may be built of brick or of any kind of local stone. I have built and planted a good many hundred yards of dry walling with my own hands, both at home and in other gardens, and can speak with some confidence both of the pleasure and interest of the actual making and planting, and of the satisfactory results that follow. The best example I have to show in my own garden is the so-called "Old Wall," before mentioned. It is the bounding and protecting fence of the Pæony ground on its northern side, and consists of a double dry wall with earth between. An old hedge bank that was to come away was not far off, within easy wheeling distance. So the wall was built up on each side, and as it grew, the earth from the hedge was barrowed in to fill up. A dry wall needs very little foundation; two thin courses underground are quite enough. The point of most structural importance is to keep the earth solidly trodden and rammed behind the stones of each course and throughout its bulk, and every two or three courses to lay some stones that are extra long front and back, to tie the wall well into the bank. A local sandstone is the walling material. In the pit it occurs in separate layers, with a few feet of hard sand between each. The lowest layer, sometimes thirty to forty feet down, is the best and thickest, but that is good building stone, and for dry walling we only want "tops" or "seconds," the later and younger formations of stone in the quarry. The very roughness and almost rotten state of much of this stone makes it all the more acceptable as nourishment and root-hold to the tiny plants that are to grow in its chinks, and that in a few months will change much of the rough rock-surface to green growth of delicate vegetation. Moreover, much of the soft sandy stone hardens by exposure to weather; and even if a stone or two crumbles right away in a few years' time, the rest will hold firmly, and the space left will make a little cave where some small fern will live happily. The wall is planted as it is built with hardy Ferns--_Blechnum_, Polypody, Hartstongue, _Adiantum_, _Ceterach_, _Asplenium_, and _Ruta muraria_. The last three like lime, so a barrow of old mortar-rubbish is at hand, and the joint where they are to be planted has a layer of their favourite soil. Each course is laid fairly level as to its front top edge, stones of about the same thickness going in course by course. The earth backing is then carefully rammed into the spaces at the uneven backs of the stones, and a thin layer of earth over the whole course, where the mortar would have been in a built wall, gives both a "bed" for the next row of stones and soil for the plants that are to grow in the joints. [Illustration: JACK. (_See page 79._)] [Illustration: THE "OLD WALL."] The face of the wall slopes backward on both sides, so that its whole thickness of five feet at the bottom draws in to four feet at the top. All the stones are laid at a right angle to the plane of the inclination--that is to say, each stone tips a little down at the back, and its front edge, instead of being upright, faces a little upward. It follows that every drop of gentle rain that falls on either side of the wall is carried into the joints, following the backward and downward pitch of the stones, and then into the earth behind them. The mass of earth in the middle of the wall gives abundant root-room for bushes, and is planted with bush Roses of three kinds, of which the largest mass is of _Rosa lucida_. Then there is a good stretch of Berberis; then Scotch Briars, and in one or two important places Junipers; then more Berberis, and Ribes, and the common Barberry, and neat bushes of _Olearia Haastii_. The wall was built seven years ago, and is now completely clothed. It gives me a garden on the top and a garden on each side, and though its own actual height is only 4-1/2 feet, yet the bushes on the top make it a sheltering hedge from seven to ten feet high. One small length of three or four yards of the top has been kept free of larger bushes, and is planted on its northern edge with a very neat and pretty dwarf kind of Lavender, while on the sunny side is a thriving patch of the hardy Cactus (_Opuntia Raffinesquiana_). Just here, in the narrow border at the foot of the wall, is a group of the beautiful _Crinum Powelli_, while a white Jasmine clothes the face of the wall right and left, and rambles into the Barberry bushes just beyond. It so happened that these things had been planted close together because the conditions of the place were likely to favour them, and not, as is my usual practice, with any intentional idea of harmonious grouping. I did not even remember that they all flower in July, and at nearly the same time; and one day seeing them all in bloom together, I was delighted to see the success of the chance arrangement, and how pretty it all was, for I should never have thought of grouping together pink and lavender, yellow and white. The northern face of the wall, beginning at its eastern end, is planted thus: For a length of ten or twelve paces there are Ferns, Polypody and Hartstongue, and a few _Adiantum nigrum_, with here and there a Welsh Poppy. There is a clump of the wild Stitchwort that came by itself, and is so pretty that I leave it. At the foot of the wall are the same, but more of the Hartstongue; and here it grows best, for not only is the place cooler, but I gave it some loamy soil, which it loves. Farther along the Hartstongue gives place to the wild Iris (_I. foetidissima_), a good long stretch of it. Nothing, to my mind, looks better than these two plants at the base of a wall on the cool side. In the upper part of the wall are various Ferns, and that interesting plant, Wall Pennywort (_Cotyledon umbilicus_). It is a native plant, but not found in this neighbourhood; I brought it from Cornwall, where it is so plentiful in the chinks of the granite stone-fences. It sows itself and grows afresh year after year, though I always fear to lose it in one of our dry summers. Next comes the common London Pride, which I think quite the most beautiful of the Saxifrages of this section. If it was a rare thing, what a fuss we should make about it! The place is a little dry for it, but all the same, it makes a handsome spreading tuft hanging over the face of the wall. When its pink cloud of bloom is at its best, I always think it the prettiest thing in the garden. Then there is the Yellow Everlasting (_Gnaphalium orientale_), a fine plant for the upper edge of the wall, and even better on the sunny side, and the white form of _Campanula cæspitosa_, with its crowd of delicate little white bells rising in June, from the neatest foliage of tender but lively green. Then follow deep-hanging curtains of Yellow Alyssum and of hybrid rock Pinks. The older plants of Alyssum are nearly worn out, but there are plenty of promising young seedlings in the lower joints. [Illustration: ERINUS ALPINUS, CLOTHING STEPS IN ROCK-WALL.] Throughout the wall there are patches of Polypody Fern, one of the best of cool wall-plants, its creeping root-stock always feeling its way along the joints, and steadily furnishing the wall with more and more of its neat fronds; it is all the more valuable for being at its best in early winter, when so few ferns are to be seen. Every year, in some bare places, I sow a little seed of _Erinus alpinus_, always trying for places where it will follow some other kind of plant, such as a place where rock Pink or Alyssum has been. All plants are the better for this sort of change. In the seven years that the wall has stood, the stones have become weathered, and the greater part of the north side, wherever the stone work shows, is hoary with mosses, and looks as if it might have been standing for a hundred years. The sunny side is nearly clear of moss, and I have planted very few things in its face, because the narrow border at its foot is so precious for shrubs and plants that like a warm, sheltered place. Here are several Choisyas and Sweet Verbenas, also _Escallonia_, _Stuartia_, and _Styrax_, and a long straggling group of some very fine Pentstemons. In one space that was fairly clear I planted a bit of Hyssop, an old sweet herb whose scent I delight in; it grows into a thick bush-like plant full of purple flower in the late summer, when it attracts quantities of bumble-bees. It is a capital wall-plant, and has sown its own seed, till there is a large patch on the top and some in its face, and a broadly-spreading group in the border below. It is one of the plants that was used in the old Tudor gardens for edgings; the growth is close and woody at the base, and it easily bears clipping into shape. The fierce gales and heavy rains of the last days of September wrought sad havoc among the flowers. Dahlias were virtually wrecked. Though each plant had been tied to three stakes, their masses of heavy growth could not resist the wrenching and twisting action of the wind, and except in a few cases where they were well sheltered, their heads lay on the ground, the stems broken down at the last tie. If anything about a garden could be disheartening, it would be its aspect after such a storm of wind. Wall shrubs, only lately made safe, as we thought, have great gaps torn out of them, though tied with tarred string to strong iron staples, staples and all being wrenched out. Everything looks battered, and whipped, and ashamed; branches of trees and shrubs lie about far from their sources of origin; green leaves and little twigs are washed up into thick drifts; apples and quinces, that should have hung till mid-October, lie bruised and muddy under the trees. Newly-planted roses and hollies have a funnel-shaped hole worked in the ground at their base, showing the power of the wind to twist their heads, and giving warning of a corresponding disturbance of the tender roots. There is nothing to be done but to look round carefully and search out all disasters and repair them as well as may be, and to sweep up the wreckage and rubbish, and try to forget the rough weather, and enjoy the calm beauty of the better days that follow, and hope that it may be long before such another angry storm is sent. And indeed a few quiet days of sunshine and mild temperature work wonders. In a week one would hardly know that the garden had been so cruelly torn about. Fresh flowers take the place of bruised ones, and wholesome young growths prove the enduring vitality of vegetable life. Still we cannot help feeling, towards the end of September, that the flower year is nearly at an end, though the end is a gorgeous one, with its strong yellow masses of the later perennial Sunflowers and Marigolds, Goldenrod, and a few belated Gladioli; the brilliant foliage of Virginian Creepers, the leaf-painting of _Vitis Coignettii_, and the strong crimson of the Claret Vine. The Water-elder (_Viburnum opulus_) now makes a brave show in the edge of the copse. It is without doubt the most beautiful berry-bearing shrub of mid-September. The fruit hangs in ample clusters from the point of every branch and of every lateral twig, in colour like the brightest of red currants, but with a translucent lustre that gives each separate berry a much brighter look; the whole bush shows fine warm colouring, the leaves having turned to a rich red. Perhaps it is because it is a native that this grand shrub or small tree is generally neglected in gardens, and is almost unknown in nurserymen's catalogues. It is the parent of the well-known Guelder-Rose, which is merely its double-flowered form. But the double flower leaves no berry, its familiar white ball being formed of the sterile part of the flower only, and the foliage of the garden kind does not assume so bright an autumn colouring. The nights are growing chilly, with even a little frost, and the work for the coming season of dividing and transplanting hardy plants has already begun. Plans are being made for any improvements or alterations that involve ground work. Already we have been at work on some broad grass rides through the copse that were roughly levelled and laid with grass last winter. The turf has been raised and hollows filled in, grass seed sown in bare patches, and the whole beaten and rolled to a good surface, and the job put out of hand in good time before the leaves begin to fall. CHAPTER XI OCTOBER Michaelmas Daisies -- Arranging and staking -- Spindle-tree -- Autumn colour of Azaleas -- Quinces -- Medlars -- Advantage of early planting of shrubs -- Careful planting -- Pot-bound roots -- Cypress hedge -- Planting in difficult places -- Hardy flower border -- Lifting Dahlias -- Dividing hardy plants -- Dividing tools -- Plants difficult to divide -- Periwinkles -- Sternbergia -- Czar Violets -- Deep cultivation for _Lilium giganteum_. The early days of October bring with them the best bloom of the Michaelmas Daisies, the many beautiful garden kinds of the perennial Asters. They have, as they well deserve to have, a garden to themselves. Passing along the wide path in front of the big flower border, and through the pergola that forms its continuation, with eye and brain full of rich, warm colouring of flower and leaf, it is a delightful surprise to pass through the pergola's last right-hand opening, and to come suddenly upon the Michaelmas Daisy garden in full beauty. Its clean, fresh, pure colouring, of pale and dark lilac, strong purple, and pure white, among masses of pale-green foliage, forms a contrast almost startling after the warm colouring of nearly everything else; and the sight of a region where the flowers are fresh and newly opened, and in glad spring-like profusion, when all else is on the verge of death and decay, gives an impression of satisfying refreshment that is hardly to be equalled throughout the year. Their special garden is a wide border on each side of a path, its length bounded on one side by a tall hedge of filberts, and on the other side by clumps of yew, holly, and other shrubs. It is so well sheltered that the strongest wind has its destructive power broken, and only reaches it as a refreshing tree-filtered breeze. The Michaelmas Daisies are replanted every year as soon as their bloom is over, the ground having been newly dug and manured. The old roots, which will have increased about fourfold, are pulled or chopped to pieces, nice bits with about five crowns being chosen for replanting; these are put in groups of three to five together. Tall-growing kinds like _Novi Belgi_ Robert Parker are kept rather towards the back, while those of delicate and graceful habit, such as _Cordifolius elegans_ and its good variety Diana are allowed to come forward. The fine dwarf _Aster amellus_ is used in rather large quantity, coming quite to the front in some places, and running in and out between the clumps of other kinds. Good-sized groups of _Pyrethrum uliginosum_ are given a place among the Asters, for though of quite another family, they are Daisies, and bloom at Michaelmas, and are admirable companions to the main occupants of the borders. The only other plants admitted are white Dahlias, the two differently striped varieties of _Eulalia japonica_, the fresh green foliage of Indian Corn, and the brilliant light-green leafage of _Funkia grandiflora_. Great attention is paid to staking the Asters. Nothing is more deplorable than to see a neglected, overgrown plant, at the last moment, when already half blown down, tied up in a tight bunch to one stake. When we are cutting underwood in the copse in the winter, special branching spray is looked out for our Michaelmas Daisies and cut about four feet or five feet long, with one main stem and from two to five branches. Towards the end of June and beginning of July these are thrust firmly into the ground among the plants, and the young growths are tied out so as to show to the best advantage. Good kinds of Michaelmas Daisies are now so numerous that in selecting those for the special garden it is well to avoid both the ones that bloom earliest and also the very latest, so that for about three weeks the borders may show a well-filled mass of bloom. [Illustration: BORDERS OF MICHAELMAS DAISIES.] The bracken in the copse stands dry and dead, but when leaves are fluttering down and the chilly days of mid-October are upon us, its warm, rusty colouring is certainly cheering; the green of the freshly grown mossy carpet below looks vividly bright by contrast. Some bushes of Spindle-tree (_Euonymus europæus_) are loaded with their rosy seed-pods; some are already burst, and show the orange-scarlet seeds--an audacity of colouring that looks all the brighter for the even, lustreless green of the leaves and of the green-barked twigs and stems. The hardy Azaleas are now blazing masses of crimson, almost scarlet leaf; the old _A. pontica_, with its large foliage, is as bright as any. With them are grouped some of the North American Vacciniums and Andromedas, with leaves almost as bright. The ground between the groups of shrubs is knee-deep in heath. The rusty-coloured withered bloom of the wild heath on its purplish-grey masses and the surrounding banks of dead fern make a groundwork and background of excellent colour-harmony. How seldom does one see Quinces planted for ornament, and yet there is hardly any small tree that better deserves such treatment. Some Quinces planted about eight years ago are now perfect pictures, their lissome branches borne down with the load of great, deep-yellow fruit, and their leaves turning to a colour almost as rich and glowing. The old English rather round-fruited kind with the smooth skin is the best both for flavour and beauty--a mature tree without leaves in winter has a remarkably graceful, arching, almost weeping growth. The other kind is of a rather more rigid form, and though its woolly-coated, pear-shaped fruits are larger and strikingly handsome, the whole tree has a coarser look, and just lacks the attractive grace of the other. They will do fairly well almost anywhere, though they prefer a rich, loamy soil and a cool, damp, or even swampy place. The Medlar is another of the small fruiting trees that is more neglected than it should be, as it well deserves a place among ornamental shrubs. Here it is a precious thing in the region where garden melts into copse. The fruit-laden twigs are just now very attractive, and its handsome leaves can never be passed without admiration. Close to the Medlars is a happy intergrowth of the wild Guelder-Rose, still bearing its brilliant clusters, a strong-growing and far-clambering garden form of _Rosa arvensis_, full of red hips, Sweetbriar, and Holly--a happy tangle of red-fruited bushes, all looking as if they were trying to prove, in friendly emulation, which can make the bravest show of red-berried wild-flung wreath, or bending spray, or stately spire; while at their foot the bright colour is repeated by the bending, berried heads of the wild Iris, opening like fantastic dragons' mouths, and pouring out the red bead-like seeds upon the ground; and, as if to make the picture still more complete, the leaves of the wild Strawberry that cover the ground with a close carpet have also turned to a crimson, and here and there to an almost scarlet colour. During the year I make careful notes of any trees or shrubs that will be wanted, either to come from the nursery or to be transplanted within my own ground, so as to plant them as early as possible. Of the two extremes it is better to plant too early than too late. I would rather plant deciduous trees before the leaves are off than wait till after Christmas, but of all planting times the best is from the middle of October till the end of November, and the same time is the best for all hardy plants of large or moderate size. I have no patience with slovenly planting. I like to have the ground prepared some months in advance, and when the proper time comes, to do the actual planting as well as possible. The hole in the already prepared ground is taken out so that the tree shall stand exactly right for depth, though in this dry soil it is well to make the hole an inch or two deeper, in order to leave the tree standing in the centre of a shallow depression, to allow of a good watering now and then during the following summer. The hole must be made wide enough to give easy space for the most outward-reaching of the roots; they must be spread out on all sides, carefully combing them out with the fingers, so that they all lay out to the best advantage. Any roots that have been bruised, or have broken or jagged ends, are cut off with a sharp knife on the homeward side of the injury. Most gardeners when they plant, after the first spadeful or two has been thrown over the root, shake the bush with an up and down joggling movement. This is useful in the case of plants with a good lot of bushy root, such as Berberis, helping to get the grains of earth well in among the root; but in tree planting, where the roots are laid out flat, it is of course useless. In our light soil, the closer and firmer the earth is made round the newly-planted tree the better, and strong staking is most important, in order to save the newly-placed root from disturbance by dragging. Some trees and shrubs one can only get from nurseries in pots. This is usually the case with Ilex, Escallonia, and Cydonia. Such plants are sure to have the roots badly matted and twisted. The main root curls painfully round and round inside the imprisoning pot, but if it is a clever root it works its way out through the hole in the bottom, and even makes quite nice roots in the bed of ashes it has stood on. In this case, as these are probably its best roots, we do not attempt to pull it back through the hole, but break the pot to release it without hurt. If it is possible to straighten the pot-curled root, it is best to do so; in any case, the small fibrous ones can be laid out. Often the potful of roots is so hard and tight that it cannot be disentangled by the hand; then the only way is to soften it by gentle bumping on the bench, and then to disengage the roots by little careful digs all round with a blunt-pointed stick. If this is not done, and the plant is put in in its pot-bound state, it never gets on; it would be just as well to throw it away at once. Nine years ago a hedge of Lawson's Cypress was planted on one side of the kitchen garden. Three years later, when the trees had made some growth, I noticed in the case of three or four that they were quite bare of branches on one side all the way up for a width of about one-sixth of the circumference, leaving a smooth, straight, upright strip. Suspecting the cause, I had them up, and found in every case that the root just below the bare strip had been doubled under the stem, and had therefore been unable to do its share of the work. Nothing could have pointed out more clearly the defect in the planting. There are cases where ground cannot be prepared as one would wish, and where one has to get over the difficulty the best way one can. Such a case occurred when I had to plant some Yews and Savins right under a large Birch-tree. The Birch is one of several large ones that nearly surround the lawn. This one stands just within the end of a large shrub-clump, near the place of meeting of some paths with the grass and with some planting; here some further planting was wanted of dark-leaved evergreens. There is no tree more ground-robbing than a Birch, and under the tree in question the ground was dust-dry, extremely hard, and nothing but the poorest sand. Looking at the foot of a large tree one can always see which way the main roots go, and the only way to get down any depth is to go between these and not many feet away from the trunk. Farther away the roots spread out and would receive more injury. So the ground was got up the best way we could, and the Yews and Savins planted. Now, after some six years, they are healthy and dark-coloured, and have made good growth. But in such a place one cannot expect the original preparation of the ground, such as it was, to go for much. The year after planting they had some strong, lasting manure just pricked in over the roots--stuff from the shoeing-forge, full of hoof-parings. Hoof-parings are rich in ammonia, and decay slowly. Every other year they have either a repetition of this or some cooling cow manure. The big Birch no doubt gets some of it, though its hungriest roots are farther afield, but the rich colour of the shrubs shows that they are well nourished. As soon as may be in November the big hardy flower-border has to be thoroughly looked over. The first thing is to take away all "soft stuff." This includes all dead annuals and biennials and any tender things that have been put in for the summer, also Paris Daisies, Zinnias, French and African Marigolds, Helichrysums, Mulleins, and a few Geraniums. Then Dahlias are cut down. The waste stuff is laid in big heaps on the edge of the lawn just across the footpath, to be loaded into the donkey-cart and shot into some large holes that have been dug up in the wood, whose story will be told later. The Dahlias are now dug up from the border, and others collected from different parts of the garden. The labels are tied on to the short stumps that remain, and the roots are laid for a time on the floor of a shed. If the weather has been rainy just before taking them up, it is well to lay them upside down, so that any wet there may be about the bases of the large hollow stalks may drain out. They are left for perhaps a fortnight without shaking out the earth that holds between the tubers, so that they may be fairly dry before they are put away for the winter in a cellar. Then we go back to the flower border and dig out all the plants that have to be divided every year. It will also be the turn for some others that only want division every two or three or more years, as the case may be. First, out come all the perennial Sunflowers. These divide themselves into two classes; those whose roots make close clumpy masses, and those that throw out long stolons ending in a blunt snout, which is the growing crown for next year. To the first division belong the old double Sunflower (_Helianthus multiflorus_), of which I only keep the well-shaped variety Soleil d'Or, and the much taller large-flowered single kind, and a tall pale-yellow flowered one with a dark stem, whose name I do not know. It is not one of the kinds thought much of, and as usually grown has not much effect; but I plant it at the back and pull it down over other plants that have gone out of flower, so that instead of having only a few flowers at the top of a rather bare stem eight feet high, it is a spreading cloud of pale yellow bloom; the training down, as in the case of so many other plants, inducing it to throw up a short flowering stalk from the axil of every leaf along the stem. The kinds with the running roots are _Helianthus rigidus_, and its giant variety Miss Mellish, _H. decapetalus_ and _H. lætiflorus_. I do not know how it may be in other gardens, but in mine these must be replanted every year. Phloxes must also be taken up. They are always difficult here, unless the season is unusually rainy; in dry summers, even with mulching and watering, I cannot keep them from drying up. The outside pieces are cut off and the woody middle thrown away. It is surprising what a tiny bit of Phlox will make a strong flowering plant in one season. The kinds I like best are the pure whites and the salmon-reds; but two others that I find very pretty and useful are Eugénie, a good mauve, and Le Soleil, a strong pink, of a colour as near a really good pink as in any Phlox I know. Both of these have a neat and rather short habit of growth. I do not have many Michaelmas Daisies in the flower border, only some early ones that flower within September; of these there are the white-flowered _A. paniculatus_, _Shortii_, _acris_, and _amellus_. These of course come up, and any patches of Gladiolus are collected, to be dried for a time and then stored. The next thing is to look through the border for the plants that require occasional renewal. In the front I find that a longish patch of _Heuchera Richardsoni_ has about half the plants overgrown. These must come up, and are cut to pieces. It is not a nice plant to divide; it has strong middle crowns, and though there are many side ones, they are attached to the main ones too high up to have roots of their own; but I boldly slice down the main stocky stem with straight downward cuts, so as to give a piece of the thick stock to each side bit. I have done this both in winter and spring, and find the spring rather the best, if not followed by drought. Groups of _Anemone japonica_ and of _Polygonum compactum_ are spreading beyond bounds and must be reduced. Neither of these need be entirely taken up. Without going into further detail, it may be of use to note how often I find it advisable to lift and divide some of the more prominent hardy plants. Every year I divide Michaelmas Daisies, Goldenrod, _Helianthus_, _Phlox_, _Chrysanthemum maximum_, _Helenium pumilum_, _Pyrethrum uliginosum_, _Anthemis tinctoria_, _Monarda_, _Lychnis_, _Primula_, except _P. denticulata_, _rosea_, and _auricula_, which stand two years. Every two years, White Pinks, Cranesbills, _Spiræa_, _Aconitum_, _Gaillardia_, _Coreopsis_, _Chrysanthemum indicum_, _Galega_, _Doronicum_, _Nepeta_, _Geum aureum_, _Oenothera Youngi_, and _Oe. riparia_. Every three years, _Tritoma_, _Megasea_, _Centranthus_, _Vinca_, _Iris_, _Narcissus_. A plasterer's hammer is a tool that is very handy for dividing plants. It has a hammer on one side of the head, and a cutting blade like a small chopper on the other. With this and a cold chisel and a strong knife one can divide any roots in comfort. I never divide things by brutally chopping them across with a spade. Plants that have soft fleshy tubers like Dahlias and Pæonies want the cold chisel; it can be cleverly inserted among the crowns so that injury to the tubers is avoided, and it is equally useful in the case of some plants whose points of attachment are almost as hard as wire, like _Orobus vernus_, or as tough as a door-mat, like _Iris graminia_. The Michaelmas Daisies of the _Novæ Angliæ_ section make root tufts too close and hard to be cut with a knife, and here the chopper of the plasterer's hammer comes in. Where the crowns are closely crowded, as in this Aster, I find it best to chop at the bottom of the tuft, among the roots; when the chopper has cut about two-thirds through, the tuft can be separated with the hands, dividing naturally between the crowns, whereas if chopped from the top many crowns would have been spoilt. Tritomas want dividing with care; it always looks as if one could pull every crown apart, but there is a tender point at the "collar," where they easily break off short; with these also it is best to chop from below or to use the chisel, making the cut well down in the yellow rooty region. Veratrums divide much in the same way, wanting a careful cut low down, the points of their crowns being also very easy to break off. The Christmas Rose is one of the most awkward plants to divide successfully. It cannot be done in a hurry. The only safe way is to wash the clumps well out and look carefully for the points of attachment, and cut them either with knife or chisel, according to their position. In this case the chisel should be narrower and sharper. Three-year-old tufts of St. Bruno's Lily puzzled me at first. The rather fleshy roots are so tightly interlaced that cutting is out of the question; but I found out that if the tuft is held tight in the two hands, and the hands are worked opposite ways with a rotary motion of about a quarter of a circle, that they soon come apart without being hurt in the least. Delphiniums easily break off at the crown if they are broken up by hand, but the roots cut so easily that it ought not to be a difficulty. There are some plants in whose case one can never be sure whether they will divide well or not, such as Oriental Poppies and _Eryngium Oliverianum_. They behave in nearly the same way. Sometimes a Poppy or an Eryngium comes up with one thick root, impossible to divide, while the next door plant has a number of roots that are ready to drop apart like a bunch of Salsafy. Everlasting Peas do nearly the same. One may dig up two plants--own brothers of say seven years old--and a rare job it is, for they go straight down into the earth nearly a yard deep. One of them will have a straight black post of a root 2-1/2 inches thick without a break of any sort till it forks a foot underground, while the other will be a sort of loose rope of separate roots from half to three-quarters of an inch thick, that if carefully followed down and cleverly dissected where they join, will make strong plants at once. But the usual way to get young plants of Everlasting Pea is to look out in earliest spring for the many young growths that will be shooting, for these if taken off with a good bit of the white underground stem will root under a hand-light. Most of the Primrose tribe divide pleasantly and easily: the worst are the _auricula_ section; with these, for outdoor planting, one often has to slice a main root down to give a share of root to the offset. When one is digging up plants with running roots, such as Gaultheria, Honeysuckle, Polygonum, Scotch Briars, and many of the _Rubus_ tribe, or what is better, if one person is digging while another pulls up, it never does for the one who is pulling to give a steady haul; this is sure to end in breakage, whereas a root comes up willingly and unharmed in loosened ground to a succession of firm but gentle tugs, and one soon learns to suit the weight of the pulls to the strength of the plant, and to learn its breaking strain. Towards the end of October outdoor flowers in anything like quantity cannot be expected, and yet there are patches of bloom here and there in nearly every corner of the garden. The pretty Mediterranean Periwinkle (_Vinca acutiflora_) is in full bloom. As with many another southern plant that in its own home likes a cool and shady place, it prefers a sunny one in our latitude. The flowers are of a pale and delicate grey-blue colour, nearly as large as those of the common _Vinca major_, but they are borne more generously as to numbers on radical shoots that form thick, healthy-looking tufts of polished green foliage. It is not very common in gardens, but distinctly desirable. In the bulb-beds the bright-yellow _Sternbergia lutea_ is in flower. At first sight it looks something like a Crocus of unusually firm and solid substance; but it is an Amaryllis, and its pure and even yellow colouring is quite unlike that of any of the Crocuses. The numerous upright leaves are thick, deep green, and glossy. It flowers rather shyly in our poor soil, even in well-made beds, doing much better in chalky ground. Czar Violets are giving their fine and fragrant flowers on stalks nine inches long. To have them at their best they must be carefully cultivated and liberally enriched. No plants answer better to good treatment, or spoil more quickly by neglect. A miserable sight is a forgotten violet-bed where they have run together into a tight mat, giving only few and poor flowers. I have seen the owner of such a bed stand over it and blame the plants, when he should have laid the lash on his own shoulders. Violets must be replanted every year. When the last rush of bloom in March is over, the plants are pulled to pieces, and strong single crowns from the outer edges of the clumps, or from the later runners, are replanted in good, well-manured soil, in such a place as will be somewhat shaded from summer sun. There should be eighteen inches between each plant, and as they make their growth, all runners should be cut off until August. They are encouraged by liberal doses of liquid manure from time to time, and watered in case of drought; and the heart of the careful gardener is warmed and gratified when friends, seeing them at midsummer, say (as has more than once happened), "What a nice batch of young Hollyhocks!" In such a simple matter as the culture of this good hardy Violet, my garden, though it is full of limitations, and in all ways falls short of any worthy ideal, enables me here and there to point out something that is worth doing, and to lay stress on the fact that the things worth doing are worth taking trouble about. But it is a curious thing that many people, even among those who profess to know something about gardening, when I show them something fairly successful--the crowning reward of much care and labour--refuse to believe that any pains have been taken about it. They will ascribe it to chance, to the goodness of my soil, and even more commonly to some supposed occult influence of my own--to anything rather than to the plain fact that I love it well enough to give it plenty of care and labour. They assume a tone of complimentary banter, kindly meant no doubt, but to me rather distasteful, to this effect: "Oh yes, of course it will grow for you; anything will grow for you; you have only to look at a thing and it will grow." I have to pump up a laboured smile and accept the remark with what grace I can, as a necessary civility to the stranger that is within my gates, but it seems to me evident that those who say these things do not understand the love of a garden. I could not help rejoicing when such a visitor came to me one October. I had been saying how necessary good and deep cultivation was, especially in so very poor and shallow a soil as mine. Passing up through the copse where there were some tall stems of _Lilium giganteum_ bearing the great upturned pods of seed, my visitor stopped and said, "I don't believe a word about your poor soil--look at the growth of that Lily. Nothing could make that great stem ten feet high in a poor soil, and there it is, just stuck into the wood!" I said nothing, knowing that presently I could show a better answer than I could frame in words. A little farther up in the copse we came upon an excavation about twelve feet across and four deep, and by its side a formidable mound of sand, when my friend said, "Why are you making all this mess in your pretty wood? are you quarrying stone, or is it for the cellar of a building? and what on earth are you going to do with that great heap of sand? why, there must be a dozen loads of it." That was my moment of secret triumph, but I hope I bore it meekly as I answered, "I only wanted to plant a few more of those big Lilies, and you see in my soil they would not have a chance unless the ground was thoroughly prepared; look at the edge of the scarp and see how the solid yellow sand comes to within four inches of the top; so I have a big wide hole dug; and look, there is the donkey-cart coming with the first load of Dahlia-tops and soft plants that have been for the summer in the south border. There will be several of those little cartloads, each holding three barrowfuls. As it comes into the hole, the men will chop it with the spade and tread it down close, mixing in a little sand. This will make a nice cool, moist bottom of slowly-rotting vegetable matter. Some more of the same kind of waste will come from the kitchen garden--cabbage-stumps, bean-haulm, soft weeds that have been hoed up, and all the greenest stuff from the rubbish-heap. Every layer will be chopped and pounded, and tramped down so that there should be as little sinking as possible afterwards. By this time the hole will be filled to within a foot of the top; and now we must get together some better stuff--road-scrapings and trimmings mixed with some older rubbish-heap mould, and for the top of all, some of our precious loam, and the soil of an old hotbed and some well-decayed manure, all well mixed, and then we are ready for the Lilies. They are planted only just underground, and then the whole bed has a surfacing of dead leaves, which helps to keep down weeds, and also looks right with the surrounding wild ground. The remains of the heap of sand we must deal with how we can; but there are hollows here and there in the roadway and paths, and a place that can be levelled up in the rubbish-yard, and some kitchen-garden paths that will bear raising, and so by degrees it is disposed of." CHAPTER XII NOVEMBER Giant Christmas Rose -- Hardy Chrysanthemums -- Sheltering tender shrubs -- Turfing by inoculation -- Transplanting large trees -- Sir Henry Steuart's experience early in the century -- Collecting fallen leaves -- Preparing grubbing tools -- Butcher's Broom -- Alexandrian Laurel -- Hollies and Birches -- A lesson in planting. The giant Christmas Rose (_Helleborus maximus_) is in full flower; it is earlier than the true Christmas Rose, being at its best by the middle of November. It is a large and massive flower, but compared with the later kinds has a rather coarse look. The bud and the back of the flower are rather heavily tinged with a dull pink, and it never has the pure-white colouring throughout of the later ones. I have taken some pains to get together some really hardy November-blooming Chrysanthemums. The best of all is a kind frequent in neighbouring cottage-gardens, and known hereabouts as Cottage Pink. I believe it is identical with Emperor of China, a very old sort that used to be frequent in greenhouse cultivation before it was supplanted by the many good kinds now grown. But its place is not indoors, but in the open garden; if against a south or west wall, so much the better. Perhaps one year in seven the bloom may be spoilt by such a severe frost as that of October 1895, but it will bear unharmed several degrees of frost and much rain. I know no Chrysanthemum of so true a pink colour, the colour deepening to almost crimson in the centre. After the first frost the foliage of this kind turns to a splendid colour, the green of the leaves giving place to a rich crimson that sometimes clouds the outer portion of the leaf, and often covers its whole expanse. The stiff, wholesome foliage adds much to the beauty of the outdoor kinds, contrasting most agreeably with the limp, mildewed leafage of those indoors. Following Cottage Pink is a fine pompone called Soleil d'Or, in colour the richest deep orange, with a still deeper and richer coloured centre. The beautiful crimson Julie Lagravère flowers at the same time. Both are nearly frost-proof, and true hardy November flowers. The first really frosty day we go to the upper part of the wood and cut out from among the many young Scotch Firs as many as we think will be wanted for sheltering plants and shrubs of doubtful hardiness. One section of the high wall at the back of the flower border is planted with rather tender things, so that the whole is covered with sheltering fir-boughs. Here are Loquat, Fuchsia, Pomegranate, _Edwardsia_, _Piptanthus_, and _Choisya_, and in the narrow border at the foot of the wall, _Crinum_, _Nandina_, _Clerodendron_, and _Hydrangea_. In the broad border in front of the wall nothing needs protection except Tritomas; these have cones of coal-ashes heaped over each plant or clump. The Crinums also have a few inches of ashes over them. Some large Hydrangeas in tubs are moved to a sheltered place and put close together, a mound of sand being shovelled up all round to nearly the depth of the tubs; then a wall is made of thatched hurdles, and dry fern is packed well in among the heads of the plants. They would be better in a frost-proof shed, but we have no such place to spare. The making of a lawn is a difficulty in our very poor sandy soil. In this rather thickly-populated country the lords of the manor had been so much pestered for grants of road-side turf, and the privilege when formerly given had been so much abused, that they have agreed together to refuse all applications. Opportunities of buying good turf do not often occur, and sowing is slow, and not satisfactory. I am told by a seedsman of the highest character that it is almost impossible to get grass seed clean and true to name from the ordinary sources; the leading men therefore have to grow their own. In my own case, having some acres of rough heath and copse where the wild grasses are of fine-leaved kinds, I made the lawn by inoculation. The ground was trenched and levelled, then well trodden and raked, and the surface stones collected. Tufts of the wild grass were then forked up, and were pulled into pieces about the size of the palm of one's hand, and laid down eight inches apart, and well rolled in. During the following summer we collected seed of the same grasses to sow early in spring in any patchy or bare places. One year after planting the patches had spread to double their size, and by the second year had nearly joined together. The grasses were of two kinds only, namely, Sheep's Fescue (_Festuca ovina_) and Crested Dog's-tail (_Agrostis canina_). They make a lawn of a quiet, low-toned colour, never of the bright green of the rather coarser grasses; but in this case I much prefer it; it goes better with the Heath and Fir and Bracken that belong to the place. In point of labour, a lawn made of these fine grasses has the great merit of only wanting mowing once in three weeks. * * * * * I have never undertaken the transplanting of large trees, but there is no doubt that it may be done with success, and in laying out a new place where the site is bare, if suitable trees are to be had, it is a plan much to be recommended. It has often been done of late years, but until a friend drew my attention to an article in the _Quarterly Review_, dated March 1828, I had no idea that it had been practised on a large scale so early in the century. The article in question was a review of "The Planter's Guide," by Sir Henry Steuart, Bart., LL.D. (Edinburgh, 1828.) It quoted the opinion and observation of a committee of gentlemen, among whom was Sir Walter Scott, who visited Allanton (Sir Henry Steuart's place) in September 1828, when the trees had been some years planted. They found them growing "with vigour and luxuriance, and in the most exposed situations making shoots of eighteen inches.... From the facts which they witnessed the committee reported it as their unanimous opinion that the art of transplantation, as practised by Sir Henry Steuart, is calculated to accelerate in an extraordinary degree the power of raising wood, whether for beauty or shelter." The reviewer then quotes the method of transplantation, describing the extreme care with which the roots are preserved, men with picks carefully trying round the ground beneath the outer circumference of the branches for the most outlying rootlets, and then gradually approaching the bole. The greatest care was taken not to injure any root or fibre, these as they were released from the earth being tied up, and finally the transplanting machine, consisting of a strong pole mounted on high wheels, was brought close to the trunk and attached to it, and the tree when lowered, carefully transported to its new home. Every layer of roots was then replanted with the utmost care, with delicate fingering and just sufficient ramming, and in the end the tree stood without any artificial support whatever, and in positions exposed to the fiercest gales. The average size of tree dealt with seems to have had a trunk about a foot in diameter, but some were removed with complete success whose trunks were two feet thick. In order that his trees might be the better balanced in shape, Sir Henry boldly departed from the older custom of replanting a tree in its original aspect, for he reversed the aspect, so that the more stunted and shorter-twigged weather side now became the lee side, and could grow more freely. He insists strongly on the wisdom of transplanting only well-weathered trees, and not those of tender constitution that had been sheltered by standing among other close growths, pointing out that these have a tenderer bark and taller top and roots less well able to bear the strain of wind and weather in the open. He reckons that a transplanted tree is in full new growth by the fourth or fifth year, and that an advantage equal to from thirty to forty years' growth is gained by the system. As for the expense of the work, Sir Henry estimated that his largest trees each cost from ten to thirteen shillings to take up, remove half a mile, and replant. In the case of large trees the ground that was to receive them was prepared a twelvemonth beforehand. * * * * * Now, in the third week of November, the most pressing work is the collecting of leaves for mulching and leaf-mould. The oaks have been late in shedding their leaves, and we have been waiting till they are down. Oak-leaves are the best, then hazel, elm, and Spanish chestnut. Birch and beech are not so good; beech-leaves especially take much too long to decay. This is, no doubt, the reason why nothing grows willingly under beeches. Horse and cart and three hands go out into the lanes for two or three days, and the loads that come home go three feet deep into the bottom of a range of pits. The leaves are trodden down close and covered with a layer of mould, in which winter salad stuff is immediately planted. The mass of leaves will soon begin to heat, and will give a pleasant bottom-heat throughout the winter. Other loads of leaves go into an open pen about ten feet square and five feet deep. Two such pens, made of stout oak post and rail and upright slabs, stand side by side in the garden yard. The one newly filled has just been emptied of its two-year-old leaf-mould, which has gone as a nourishing and protecting mulch over beds of Daffodils and choice bulbs and Alströmerias, some being put aside in reserve for potting and various uses. The other pen remains full of the leaves of last year, slowly rotting into wholesome plant-food. With works of wood-cutting and stump-grubbing near at hand, we look over the tools and see that all are in readiness for winter work. Axes and hand-bills are ground, fag-hooks sharpened, picks and mattocks sent to the smithy to be drawn out, the big cross-cut saw fresh sharpened and set, and the hand-saws and frame-saws got ready. The rings of the bittle are tightened and wedged up, so that its heavy head may not split when the mighty blows, flung into the tool with a man's full strength, fall on the heads of the great iron wedges. [Illustration: PENS FOR STORING DEAD LEAVES.] [Illustration: CAREFUL WILD-GARDENING--WHITE FOXGLOVES AT THE EDGE OF THE FIR WOOD. (_See page 270._)] Some thinning of birch-trees has to be done in the lowest part of the copse, not far from the house. They are rather evenly distributed on the ground, and I wish to get them into groups by cutting away superfluous trees. On the neighbouring moorland and heathy uplands they are apt to grow naturally in groups, the individual trees generally bending outward towards the free, open space, the whole group taking a form that is graceful and highly pictorial. I hope to be able to cut out trees so as to leave the remainder standing in some such way. But as a tree once cut cannot be put up again, the condemned ones are marked with bands of white paper right round the trunks, so that they can be observed from all sides, thus to give a chance of reprieve to any tree that from any point of view may have pictorial value. Frequent in some woody districts in the south of England, though local, is the Butcher's Broom (_Ruscus aculeatus_). Its stiff green branches that rise straight from the root bear small, hard leaves, armed with a sharp spine at the end. The flower, which comes in early summer, is seated without stalk in the middle of the leaf, and is followed by a large red berry. In country places where it abounds, butchers use the twigs tied in bunches to brush the little chips of meat off their great chopping-blocks, that are made of solid sections of elm trees, standing three and a half feet high and about two and a half feet across. Its beautiful garden relative, the Alexandrian or Victory Laurel (_Ruscus racemosus_), is also now just at its best. Nothing makes a more beautiful wreath than two of its branches, suitably arched and simply bound together near the butts and free ends. It is not a laurel, but a _Ruscus_, the name laurel having probably grown on to it by old association with any evergreen suitable for a victor's wreath. It is a slow-growing plant, but in time makes handsome tufts of its graceful branches. Few plants are more exquisitely modelled, to use a term familiar to the world of fine art, or give an effect of more delicate and perfect finish. It is a valuable plant in a shady place in good, cool soil. Early in summer, when the young growths appear, the old, then turning rusty, should be cut away. No trees group together more beautifully than Hollies and Birches. One such happy mixture in one part of the copse suggested further plantings of Holly, Birches being already in abundance. Every year some more Hollies are planted; those put in nine years ago are now fifteen feet high, and are increasing fast. They are slow to begin growth after transplanting, perhaps because in our very light soil they cannot be moved with a "ball"; all the soil shakes away, and leaves the root naked; but after about three years, when the roots have got good hold and begun to ramble, they grow away well. The trunk of an old Holly has a smooth pale-grey bark, and sometimes a slight twist, that makes it look like the gigantic bone of some old-world monster. The leaves of some old trees, especially if growing in shade, change their shape, losing the side prickles and becoming longer and nearly flat and more of a dark bottle-green colour, while the lower branches and twigs, leafless except towards their ends, droop down in a graceful line that rises again a little at the tip. [Illustration: HOLLY STEMS IN AN OLD HEDGE-ROW.] The leaves are all down by the last week of November, and woodland assumes its winter aspect; perhaps one ought rather to say, some one of its infinite variety of aspects, for those who live in such country know how many are the winter moods of forest land, and how endless are its variations of atmospheric effect and pictorial beauty--variations much greater and more numerous than are possible in summer. With the wind in the south-west and soft rain about, the twigs of the birches look almost crimson, while the dead bracken at their foot, half-draggled and sodden with wet, is of a strong, dark rust colour. Now one sees the full value of the good evergreens, and, rambling through woodland, more especially of the Holly, whether in bush or tree form, with its masses of strong green colour, dark and yet never gloomy. Whether it is the high polish of the leaves, or the lively look of their wavy edges, with the short prickles set alternately up and down, or the brave way the tree has of shooting up among other thick growth, or its massive sturdiness on a bare hillside, one cannot say, but a Holly in early winter, even without berries, is always a cheering sight. John Evelyn is eloquent in his praise of this grand evergreen, and lays special emphasis on this quality of cheerfulness. Near my home is a little wild valley, whose planting, wholly done by Nature, I have all my life regarded with the most reverent admiration. The arable fields of an upland farm give place to hazel copses as the ground rises. Through one of these a deep narrow lane, cool and dusky in summer from its high steep banks and over-arching foliage, leads by a rather sudden turn into the lower end of the little valley. Its grassy bottom is only a few yards wide, and its sides rise steeply right and left. Looking upward through groups of wild bushes and small trees, one sees thickly-wooded ground on the higher levels. The soil is of the very poorest; ridges of pure yellow sand are at the mouths of the many rabbit-burrows. The grass is of the short fine kinds of the heathy uplands. Bracken grows low, only from one to two feet high, giving evidence of the poverty of the soil, and yet it seems able to grow in perfect beauty clumps of Juniper and Thorn and Holly, and Scotch Fir on the higher ground. On the steeply-rising banks are large groups of Juniper, some tall, some spreading, some laced and wreathed about with tangles of Honeysuckle, now in brown winter dress, and there are a few bushes of Spindle-tree, whose green stems and twigs look strangely green in winter. The Thorns stand some singly, some in close companionship, impenetrable masses of short-twigged prickly growth, with here and there a wild Rose shooting straight up through the crowded branches. One thinks how lovely it will be in early June, when the pink Rose-wreaths are tossing out of the foamy sea of white Thorn blossom. The Hollies are towering masses of health and vigour. Some of the groups of Thorn and Holly are intermingled; all show beautiful arrangements of form and colour, such as are never seen in planted places. The track in the narrow valley trends steadily upwards and bears a little to the right. High up on the left-hand side is an old wood of Scotch Fir. A few detached trees come half-way down the valley bank to meet the gnarled, moss-grown Thorns and the silver-green Junipers. As the way rises some Birches come in sight, also at home in the sandy soil. Their graceful, lissome spray moving to the wind looks active among the stiffer trees, and their white stems shine out in startling contrast to the other dusky foliage. So the narrow track leads on, showing the same kinds of tree and bush in endless variety of beautiful grouping, under the sombre half-light of the winter day. It is afternoon, and as one mounts higher a pale bar of yellow light gleams between the farther tree-stems, but all above is grey, with angry, blackish drifts of ragged wrack. Now the valley opens out to a nearly level space of rough grass, with grey tufts that will be pink bell-heather in summer, and upstanding clumps of sedge that tell of boggy places. In front and to the right are dense fir-woods. To the left is broken ground and a steep-sided hill, towards whose shoulder the track rises. Here are still the same kinds of trees, but on the open hillside they have quite a different effect. Now I look into the ruddy heads of the Thorns, bark and fruit both of rich warm colouring, and into the upper masses of the Hollies, also reddening into wealth of berry. [Illustration: WILD JUNIPERS.] Throughout the walk, pacing slowly but steadily for nearly an hour, only these few kinds of trees have been seen, Juniper, Holly, Thorn, Scotch Fir, and Birch (a few small Oaks excepted), and yet there has not been once the least feeling of monotony, nor, returning downward by the same path, could one wish anything to be altered or suppressed or differently grouped. And I have always had the same feeling about any quite wild stretch of forest land. Such a bit of wild forest as this small valley and the hilly land beyond are precious lessons in the best kind of tree and shrub planting. No artificial planting can ever equal that of Nature, but one may learn from it the great lesson of the importance of moderation and reserve, of simplicity of intention, and directness of purpose, and the inestimable value of the quality called "breadth" in painting. For planting ground is painting a landscape with living things; and as I hold that good gardening takes rank within the bounds of the fine arts, so I hold that to plant well needs an artist of no mean capacity. And his difficulties are not slight ones, for his living picture must be right from all points, and in all lights. [Illustration: WILD JUNIPERS.] No doubt the planting of a large space with a limited number of kinds of trees cannot be trusted to all hands, for in those of a person without taste or the more finely-trained perceptions the result would be very likely dull or even absurd. It is not the paint that make the picture, but the brain and heart and hand of the man who uses it. CHAPTER XIII DECEMBER The woodman at work -- Tree-cutting in frosty weather -- Preparing sticks and stakes -- Winter Jasmine -- Ferns in the wood-walk -- Winter colour of evergreen shrubs -- Copse-cutting -- Hoop-making -- Tools used -- Sizes of hoops -- Men camping out -- Thatching with hoop-chips -- The old thatcher's bill. It is good to watch a clever woodman and see how much he can do with his simple tools, and how easily one man alone can deal with heavy pieces of timber. An oak trunk, two feet or more thick, and weighing perhaps a ton, lies on the ground, the branches being already cut off. He has to cleave it into four, and to remove it to the side of a lane one hundred feet away. His tools are an axe and one iron wedge. The first step is the most difficult--to cut such a nick in the sawn surface of the butt of the trunk as will enable the wedge to stick in. He holds the wedge to the cut and hammers it gently with the back of the axe till it just holds, then he tries a moderate blow, and is quite prepared for what is almost sure to happen--the wedge springs out backwards; very likely it springs out for three or four trials, but at last the wedge bites and he can give it the dexterous, rightly-placed blows that slowly drive it in. Before the wedge is in half its length a creaking sound is heard; the fibres are beginning to tear, and a narrow rift shows on each side of the iron. A few more strokes and the sound of the rending fibres is louder and more continuous, with sudden cracking noises, that tell of the parting of larger bundles of fibres, that had held together till the tremendous rending power of the wedge at last burst them asunder. Now the man looks out a bit of strong branch about four inches thick, and with the tree-trunk as a block and the axe held short in one hand as a chopper, he makes a wooden wedge about twice the size of the iron one, and drives it into one of the openings at its side. For if you have only one iron wedge, and you drive it tight into your work, you can neither send it farther nor get it out, and you feel and look foolish. The wooden wedge driven in releases the iron one, which is sent in afresh against the side of the wedge of oak, the trunk meanwhile rending slowly apart with much grieving and complaining of the tearing fibres. As the rent opens the axe cuts across diagonal bundles of fibres that still hold tightly across the widening rift. And so the work goes on, the man unconsciously exercising his knowledge of his craft in placing and driving the wedges, the helpless wood groaning and creaking and finally falling apart as the last holding fibres are severed by the axe. Meanwhile the raw green wood gives off a delicious scent, sweet and sharp and refreshing, not unlike the smell of apples crushing in the cider-press. [Illustration: THE WOODMAN.] The woodman has still to rend the two halves of the trunk, but the work is not so heavy and goes more quickly. Now he has to shift them to the side of the rough track that serves as a road through the wood. They are so heavy that two men could barely lift them, and he is alone. He could move them with a lever, that he could cut out of a straight young tree, a foot or so at a time at each end, but it is a slow and clumsy way; besides, the wood is too much encumbered with undergrowth. So he cuts two short pieces from a straight bit of branch four inches or five inches thick, levers one of his heavy pieces so that one end points to the roadway, prises up this end and kicks one of his short pieces under it close to the end, settling it at right angles with gentle kicks. The other short piece is arranged in the same way, a little way beyond the middle of the length of quartered trunk. Now, standing behind it, he can run the length easily along on the two rollers, till the one nearest him is left behind; this one is then put under the front end of the weight, and so on till the road is reached. Trees that stand where paths are to come, or that for any reason have to be removed, root and all, are not felled with axe or saw, but are grubbed down. The earth is dug away next to the tree, gradually exposing the roots; these are cut through with axe or mattock close to the butt, and again about eighteen inches away, so that by degrees a deep trench, eighteen inches wide, is excavated round the butt. A rope is fastened at the right distance up the trunk, when, if the tree does not hold by a very strong tap-root, a succession of steady pulls will bring it down; the weight of the top thus helping to prise the heavy butt out of the ground. We come upon many old stumps of Scotch fir, the remains of the original wood; they make capital firewood, though some burn rather too fiercely, being full of turpentine. Many are still quite sound, though it must be six-and-twenty years since they were felled. They are very hard to grub, with their thick taproots and far-reaching laterals, and still tougher to split up, their fibres are so much twisted, and the dark-red heart-wood has become hardened till it rings to a blow almost like metal. But some, whose roots have rotted, come up more easily, and with very little digging may be levered out of the ground with a long iron stone-bar, such as they use in the neighbouring quarries, putting the point of the bar under the "stam," and having a log of wood for a hard fulcrum. Or a stout young stem of oak or chestnut is used for a lever, passing a chain under the stump and over the middle of the bar and prising upwards with the lever. "Stam" is the word always used by the men for any stump of a tree left in the ground. [Illustration: GRUBBING A TREE-STUMP.] [Illustration: FELLING AND GRUBBING TOOLS. (_See page 150._)] A spell of frosty days at the end of December puts a stop to all planting and ground work. Now we go into the copse and cut the trees that have been provisionally marked, judged, and condemned, with the object of leaving the remainder standing in graceful groups. The men wonder why I cut some of the trees that are best and straightest and have good tops, and leave those with leaning stems. Anything of seven inches or less diameter is felled with the axe, but thicker trees with the cross-cut saw. For these our most active fellow climbs up the tree with a rope, and makes it fast to the trunk a good way up, then two of them, kneeling, work the saw. When it has cut a third of the way through, the rope is pulled on the side opposite the cut to keep it open and let the saw work free. When still larger trees are sawn down this is done by driving in a wedge behind the saw, when the width of the saw-blade is rather more than buried in the tree. When the trunk is nearly sawn through, it wants care and judgment to see that the saw does not get pinched by the weight of the tree; the clumsy workman who fails to clear his saw gets laughed at, and probably damages his tool. Good straight trunks of oak and chestnut are put aside for special uses; the rest of the larger stuff is cut into cordwood lengths of four feet. The heaviest of these are split up into four pieces to make them easier to load and carry away, and eventually to saw up into firewood. The best of the birch tops are cut into pea-sticks, a clever, slanting cut with the hand-bill leaving them pointed and ready for use. Throughout the copse are "stools" of Spanish chestnut, cut about once in five years. From this we get good straight stakes for Dahlias and Hollyhocks, also beanpoles; while the rather straight-branched boughs are cut into branching sticks for Michaelmas Daisies, and special lengths are got ready for various kinds of plants--Chrysanthemums, Lilies, Pæonies and so on. To provide all this in winter, when other work is slack or impossible, is an important matter in the economy of a garden, for all gardeners know how distressing and harassing it is to find themselves without the right sort of sticks or stakes in summer, and what a long job it then seems to have to look them up and cut them, of indifferent quality, out of dry faggots. By the plan of preparing all in winter no precious time is lost, and a tidy withe-bound bundle of the right sort is always at hand. The rest of the rough spray and small branching stuff is made up into faggots to be chopped up for fire-lighting; the country folk still use the old word "bavin" for faggots. The middle-sized branches--anything between two inches and six inches in diameter--are what the woodmen call "top and lop"; these are also cut into convenient lengths, and are stacked in the barn, to be cut into billets for next year's fires in any wet or frosty weather, when outdoor work is at a standstill. What a precious winter flower is the yellow Jasmine (_Jasminum nudiflorum_). Though hard frost spoils the flowers then expanded, as soon as milder days come the hosts of buds that are awaiting them burst into bloom. Its growth is so free and rapid that one has no scruple about cutting it freely; and great branching sprays, cut a yard or more long, arranged with branches of Alexandrian Laurel or other suitable foliage--such as Andromeda or Gaultheria--are beautiful as room decoration. Christmas Roses keep on flowering bravely, in spite of our light soil and frequent summer drought, both being unfavourable conditions; but bravest of all is the blue Algerian Iris (_Iris stylosa_), flowering freely as it does, at the foot of a west wall, in all open weather from November till April. In the rock-garden at the edge of the copse the creeping evergreen _Polygala chamæbuxus_ is quite at home in beds of peat among mossy boulders. Where it has the ground to itself, this neat little shrub makes close tufts only four inches or five inches high, its wiry branches being closely set with neat, dark-green, box-like leaves; though where it has to struggle for life among other low shrubs, as may often be seen in the Alps, the branches elongate, and will run bare for two feet or three feet to get the leafy end to the light. Even now it is thickly set with buds and has a few expanded flowers. This bit of rock-garden is mostly planted with dwarf shrubs--_Skimmia_, Bog-myrtle, Alpine Rhododendrons, _Gaultheria_, and _Andromeda_, with drifts of hardy ferns between, and only a few "soft" plants. But of these, two are now conspicuously noticeable for foliage--the hardy Cyclamens and the blue Himalayan Poppy (_Meconopsis Wallichi_). Every winter I notice how bravely the pale woolly foliage of this plant bears up against the early winter's frost and wet. The wood-walk, whose sloping banks are planted with hardy ferns in large groups, shows how many of our common kinds are good plants for the first half of the winter. Now, only a week before Christmas, the male fern is still in handsome green masses; _Blechnum_ is still good, and common Polypody at its best. The noble fronds of the Dilated Shield-fern are still in fairly good order, and _Ceterach_ in rocky chinks is in fullest beauty. Beyond, in large groups, are prosperous-looking tufts of the Wood-rush (_Luzula sylvatica_); then there is wood as far as one can see, here mostly of the silver-stemmed Birch and rich green Holly, with the woodland carpet of dusky low-toned bramble and quiet dead leaf and brilliant moss. By the middle of December many of the evergreen shrubs that thrive in peat are in full beauty of foliage. _Andromeda Catesbæi_ is richly coloured with crimson clouds and splashes; Skimmias are at their best and freshest, their bright, light green, leathery foliage defying all rigours of temperature or weather. Pernettyas are clad in their strongest and deepest green leafage, and show a richness and depth of colour only surpassed by that of the yew hedges. Copse-cutting is one of the harvests of the year for labouring men, and all the more profitable that it can go on through frosty weather. A handy man can earn good wages at piece-work, and better still if he can cleave and shave hoops. Hoop-making is quite a large industry in these parts, employing many men from Michaelmas to March. They are barrel-hoops, made of straight poles of six years' growth. The wood used is Birch, Ash, Hazel and Spanish Chestnut. Hazel is the best, or as my friend in the business says, "Hazel, that's the master!" The growths of the copses are sold by auction in some near county town, as they stand, the buyer clearing them during the winter. They are cut every six years, and a good copse of Chestnut has been known to fetch £54 an acre. A good hoop-maker can earn from twenty to twenty-five shillings a week. He sets up his brake, while his mate, who will cleave the rods, cuts a post about three inches thick, and fixes it into the ground so that it stands about three feet high. To steady it he drives in another of rather curly shape by its side, so that the tops of the two are nearly even, but the foot of the curved spur is some nine inches away at the bottom, with its top pressing hard against the upright. To stiffen it still more he makes a long withe of a straight hazel rod, which he twists into a rope by holding the butt tightly under his left foot and twisting with both hands till the fibres are wrenched open and the withe is ready to spring back and wind upon itself. With this he binds his two posts together, so that they stand perfectly rigid. On this he cleaves the poles, beginning at the top. The tool is a small one-handed adze with a handle like a hammer. A rod is usually cleft in two, so that it is only shaved on one side; but sometimes a pole of Chestnut, a very quick-growing wood, is large enough to cleave into eight, and when the wood is very clean and straight they can sometimes get two lengths of fourteen feet out of a pole. [Illustration: HOOP-MAKING IN THE WOODS.] The brake is a strong flat-shaped post of oak set up in the ground to lean a little away from the workman. It stands five and a half feet out of the ground. A few inches from its upper end it has a shoulder cut in it which acts as the fulcrum for the cross-bar that supports the pole to be shaved, and that leans down towards the man. The relative position of the two parts of the brake reminds one of the mast and yard of a lateen-rigged boat. The bar is nicely balanced by having a hazel withe bound round a groove at its upper short end, about a foot beyond the fulcrum, while the other end of the withe is tied round a heavy bit of log or stump that hangs clear of the ground and just balances the bar, so that it see-saws easily. The cleft rod that is to be shaved lies along the bar, and an iron pin that passes through the head of the brake just above the point where the bar rides over its shoulder, nips the hoop as the weight of the stroke comes upon it; the least lifting of the bar releases the hoop, which is quickly shifted onwards for a new stroke. The shaving tool is a strong two-handled draw-knife, much like the tool used by wheelwrights. It is hard work, "wunnerful tryin' across the chest." The hoops are in several standard lengths, from fourteen to two and a half feet. The longest go to the West Indies for sugar hogsheads, and some of the next are for tacking round pipes of wine. The wine is in well-made iron-hooped barrels, but the wooden hoops are added to protect them from the jarring and bumping when rolled on board ship, and generally to save them during storage and transit. These hoops are in two sizes, called large and small pipes. A thirteen-foot size go to foreign countries for training vines on. A large quantity that measure five feet six inches, and called "long pinks," are for cement barrels. A length of seven feet six inches are used for herring barrels, and are called kilderkins, after the name of the size of tub. Smaller sizes go for gunpowder barrels, and for tacking round packing-cases and tea-chests. The men want to make all the time they can in the short winter daylight, and often the work is some miles from home, so if the weather is not very cold they make huts of the bundles of rods and chips, and sleep out on the job. I always admire the neatness with which the bundles are fastened up, and the strength of the withe-rope that binds them, for sixty hoops, or thirty pairs, as they call them, of fourteen feet, are a great weight to be kept together by four slight hazel bands. [Illustration: HOOP-SHAVING.] [Illustration: SHED-ROOF, THATCHED WITH HOOP-CHIP.] In this industry there is a useful by-product in the shavings, or chips as they call them. They are eighteen inches to two feet long, and are made up into small faggots or bundles and stacked up for six months to a year to dry, and then sell readily at twopence a bundle to cut up for fire-lighting. They also make a capital thatch for sheds, a thatch nearly a foot thick, warm in winter, and cool in summer, and durable, for if well made it will last for forty years. I got a clever old thatcher to make me a hoop-chip roof for the garden shed; it was a long job, and he took his time (although it was piece-work), preparing and placing each handful of chips as carefully as if he was making a wedding bouquet. He was one of the old sort--no scamping of work for him; his work was as good as he could make it, and it was his pride and delight. The roof was prepared with strong laths nailed horizontally across the rafters as if for tiling, but farther apart; and the chips, after a number of handfuls had been duly placed and carefully poked and patted into shape, were bound down to the laths with soft tarred cord guided by an immense iron needle. The thatching, as in all cases of roof-covering, begins at the eaves, so that each following layer laps over the last. Only the ridge has to be of straw, because straw can be bent over; the chips are too rigid. When the thatch is all in place the whole is "drove," that is, beaten up close with a wooden bat that strikes against the ends of the chips and drives them up close, jamming them tight into the fastening. After six months of drying summer weather he came and drove it all over again. Thatching is done by piece-work, and paid at so much a "square" of ten by ten feet. When I asked for his bill, the old man brought it made out on a hazel stick, in a manner either traditional, or of his own devising. This is how it runs, in notches about half an inch long, and dots dug with the point of the knife. It means, "To so much work done, £4, 5s. 0d." IIXXX·I·, IIXXXX·II[V] IIII[V]XX,IIXX CHAPTER XIV LARGE AND SMALL GARDENS A well done villa garden -- A small town garden -- Two delightful gardens of small size -- Twenty acres within the walls -- A large country house and its garden -- Terrace -- Lawn -- Parterre -- Free garden -- Kitchen garden -- Buildings -- Ornamental orchard -- Instructive mixed gardens -- Mr. Wilson's at Wisley -- A window garden. The size of a garden has very little to do with its merit. It is merely an accident relating to the circumstances of the owner. It is the size of his heart and brain and goodwill that will make his garden either delightful or dull, as the case may be, and either leave it at the usual monotonous dead-level, or raise it, in whatever degree may be, towards that of a work of fine art. If a man knows much, it is more difficult for him to deal with a small space than a larger, for he will have to make the more sacrifice; but if he is wise he will at once make up his mind about what he will let go, and how he may best treat the restricted space. Some years ago I visited a small garden attached to a villa on the outskirts of a watering-place on the south coast. In ordinary hands it would have been a perfectly commonplace thing, with the usual weary mixture, and exhibiting the usual distressing symptoms that come in the train of the ministrations of the jobbing-gardener. In size it may have been a third of an acre, and it was one of the most interesting and enjoyable gardens I have ever seen, its master and mistress giving it daily care and devotion, and enjoying to the full its glad response of grateful growth. The master had built with his own hands, on one side where more privacy was wanted, high rugged walls, with spaces for many rock-loving plants, and had made the wall die away so cleverly into the rock-garden, that the whole thing looked like a garden founded on some ancient ruined structure. And it was all done with so much taste that there was nothing jarring or strained-looking, still less anything cockneyfied, but all easy and pleasant and pretty, while the happy look of the plants at once proclaimed his sympathy with them, and his comprehensive knowledge of their wants. In the same garden was a walled enclosure where Tree Pæonies and some of the hardier of the oriental Rhododendrons were thriving, and there were pretty spaces of lawn, and flower border, and shrub clump, alike beautiful and enjoyable, all within a small space, and yet not crowded--the garden of one who was a keen flower lover, as well as a world-known botanist. I am always thankful to have seen this garden, because it showed me, in a way that had never been so clearly brought home to me, how much may be done in a small space. Another and much smaller garden that I remember with pleasure was in a sort of yard among houses, in a country town. The house it belonged to, a rather high one, was on its east side, and halfway along on the south; the rest was bounded by a wall about ten feet high. Opposite the house the owner had built of rough blocks of sandstone what served as a workshop, about twelve feet long along the wall, and six feet wide within. A low archway of the same rough stone was the entrance, and immediately above it a lean-to roof sloped up to the top of the wall, which just here had been carried a little higher. The roof was of large flat sandstones, only slightly lapping over each other, with spaces and chinks where grew luxuriant masses of Polypody Fern. It was contrived with a cement bed, so that it was quite weather-tight, and the room was lighted by a skylight at one end that did not show from the garden. A small surface of lead-flat, on a level with the top of the wall, in one of the opposite angles, carried an old oil-jar, from which fell masses of gorgeous Tropæolum, and the actual surface of the flat was a garden of Stonecrops. The rounded coping of the walls, and the joints in many places (for the wall was an old one), were gay with yellow Corydalis and Snapdragons and more Stonecrops. The little garden had a few pleasant flowering bushes, Ribes and Laurustinus, a Bay and an Almond tree. In the coolest and shadiest corner were a fern-grotto and a tiny tank. The rest of the garden, only a few yards across, was laid out with a square bed in the middle, and a little path round, then a three-feet-wide border next the wall, all edged with rather tall-grown Box. The middle bed had garden Roses and Carnations, and Mignonette and Stocks. All round were well-chosen plants and shrubs, looking well and happy, though in a confined and rather airless space. Every square foot had been made the most of with the utmost ingenuity, but the ingenuity was always directed by good taste, so that nothing looked crowded or out of place. And I think of two other gardens of restricted space, both long strips of ground walled at the sides, whose owners I am thankful to count among my friends--one in the favoured climate of the Isle of Wight, a little garden where I suppose there are more rare and beautiful plants brought together within a small space than perhaps in any other garden of the same size in England; the other in a cathedral town, now a memory only, for the master of what was one of the most beautiful gardens I have ever seen now lives elsewhere. The garden was long in shape, and divided about midway by a wall. The division next the house was a quiet lawn, with a mulberry tree and a few mounded borders near the sides that were unobstrusive, and in no way spoilt the quiet feeling of the lawn space. Then a doorway in the dividing wall led to a straight path with a double flower border. I suppose there was a vegetable garden behind the borders, but of that I have no recollection, only a vivid remembrance of that brilliantly beautiful mass of flowers. The picture was good enough as one went along, especially as at the end one came first within sound and then within sight of a rushing river, one of those swift, clear, shallow streams with stony bottom that the trout love; but it was ten times more beautiful on turning to go back, for there was the mass of flowers, and towering high above it the noble mass of the giant structure--one of the greatest and yet most graceful buildings that has ever been raised by man to the glory of God. It is true that it is not every one that has the advantage of a garden bounded by a river and a noble church, but even these advantages might have been lost by vulgar or unsuitable treatment of the garden. But the mind of the master was so entirely in sympathy with the place, that no one that had the privilege of seeing it could feel that it was otherwise than right and beautiful. Both these were the gardens of clergymen; indeed, some of our greatest gardeners are, and have been, within the ranks of the Church. For have we not a brilliantly-gifted dignitary whose loving praise of the Queen of flowers has become a classic? and have we not among churchmen the greatest grower of seedling Daffodils the world has yet seen, and other names of clergymen honourably associated with Roses and Auriculas and Tulips and other good flowers, and all greatly to their bettering? The conditions of the life of a parish priest would tend to make him a good gardener, for, while other men roam about, he stays mostly at home, and to live with one's garden is one of the best ways to ensure its welfare. And then, among the many anxieties and vexations and disappointments that must needs grieve the heart of the pastor of his people, his garden, with its wholesome labour and all its lessons of patience and trust and hopefulness, and its comforting power of solace, must be one of the best of medicines for the healing of his often sorrowing soul. I do not envy the owners of very large gardens. The garden should fit its master or his tastes just as his clothes do; it should be neither too large nor too small, but just comfortable. If the garden is larger than he can individually govern and plan and look after, then he is no longer its master but its slave, just as surely as the much-too-rich man is the slave and not the master of his superfluous wealth. And when I hear of the great place with a kitchen garden of twenty acres within the walls, my heart sinks as I think of the uncomfortable disproportion between the man and those immediately around him, and his vast output of edible vegetation, and I fall to wondering how much of it goes as it should go, or whether the greater part of it does not go dribbling away, leaking into unholy back-channels; and of how the looking after it must needs be subdivided; and of how many side-interests are likely to steal in, and altogether how great a burden of anxiety or matter of temptation it must give rise to. A grand truth is in the old farmer's saying, "The master's eye makes the pig fat;" but how can any one master's eye fat that vast pig of twenty acres, with all its minute and costly cultivation, its two or three crops a year off all ground given to soft vegetables, its stoves, greenhouses, orchid and orchard houses, its vineries, pineries, figgeries, and all manner of glass structures? But happily these monstrous gardens are but few--I only know of or have seen two, but I hope never to see another. Nothing is more satisfactory than to see the well-designed and well-organised garden of the large country house, whose master loves his garden, and has good taste and a reasonable amount of leisure. I think that the first thing in such a place is to have large unbroken lawn spaces--all the better if they are continuous, passing round the south and west sides of the house. I am supposing a house of the best class, but not necessarily of the largest size. Immediately adjoining the house, except for the few feet needed for a border for climbing plants, is a broad walk, dry and smooth, and perfectly level from end to end. This, in the case of many houses, and nearly always with good effect, is raised two or three feet above the garden ground, and if the architecture of the house demands it, has a retaining wall surmounted by a balustrade of masonry and wrought stone. Broad and shallow stone steps lead down to the turf both at the end of the walk and in the middle of the front of the house, the wider and shallower the better, and at the foot of the wall may be a narrow border for a few climbing plants that will here and there rise above the coping of the parapet. I do not think it desirable where there are stone balusters or other distinct architectural features to let them be smothered with climbing plants, but that there should be, say, a _Pyrus japonica_ or an Escallonia, and perhaps a white Jasmine, and on a larger space perhaps a cut-leaved or a Claret Vine. Some of the best effects of the kind I have seen were where the bush, being well established, rose straight out of the grass, the border being unnecessary except just at the beginning. The large lawn space I am supposing stretches away a good distance from the house, and is bounded on the south and west by fine trees; away beyond that is all wild wood. On summer afternoons the greater part of the lawn expanse is in cool shade, while winter sunsets show through the tree stems. Towards the south-east the wood would pass into shrub plantations, and farther still into garden and wild orchard (of which I shall have something to say presently). At this end of the lawn would be the brilliant parterre of bedded plants, seen both from the shaded lawn and from the terrace, which at this end forms part of its design. Beyond the parterre would be a distinct division from the farther garden, either of Yew or Box hedge, with bays for seats, or in the case of a change of level, of another terrace wall. The next space beyond would be the main garden for hardy plants, at its southern end leading into the wild orchard. This would be the place for the free garden or the reserve garden, or for any of the many delightful ways in which hardy flowers can be used; and if it happened by good fortune to have a stream or any means of having running water, the possibilities of beautiful gardening would be endless. [Illustration: GARLAND-ROSE WREATHING THE END OF A TERRACE WALL.] Beyond this again would come the kitchen garden, and after that the stables and the home farm. If the kitchen garden had a high wall, and might be entered on this side by handsome wrought-iron gates, I would approach it from the parterre by a broad grass walk bounded by large Bay trees at equal intervals to right and left. Through these to the right would be seen the free garden of hardy flowers. For the kitchen garden a space of two acres would serve a large country house with all that is usually grown within walls, but there should always be a good space outside for the rougher vegetables, as well as a roomy yard for compost, pits and frames, and rubbish. And here I wish to plead on behalf of the gardener that he should have all reasonable comforts and conveniences. Nothing is more frequent, even in good places, than to find the potting and tool sheds screwed away into some awkward corner, badly lighted, much too small, and altogether inadequate, and the pits and frames scattered about and difficult to get at. Nothing is more wasteful of time, labour, or temper. The working parts of a large garden form a complicated organisation, and if the parts of the mechanism do not fit and work well, and are not properly eased and oiled, still more, if any are missing, there must be disastrous friction and damage and loss of power. In designing garden buildings, I always strongly urge in connection with the heating system a warmed potting shed and a comfortable messroom for the men, and over this a perfectly dry loft for drying and storing such matters as shading material, nets, mats, ropes, and sacks. If this can be warmed, so much the better. There must also be a convenient and quite frost-proof place for winter storing of vegetable roots and such plants as Dahlias, Cannas, and Gladiolus; and also a well-lighted and warmed workshop for all the innumerable jobs put aside for wet weather, of which the chief will be repainting and glazing of lights, repairing implements, and grinding and setting tools. This shop should have a carpenter's bench and screw, and a smith's anvil, and a proper assortment of tools. Such arrangements, well planned and thought out, will save much time and loss of produce, besides helping to make all the people employed more comfortable and happy. I think that a garden should never be large enough to be tiring, that if a large space has to be dealt with, a great part had better be laid out in wood. Woodland is always charming and restful and enduringly beautiful, and then there is an intermediate kind of woodland that should be made more of--woodland of the orchard type. Why is the orchard put out of the way, as it generally is, in some remote region beyond the kitchen garden and stables? I should like the lawn, or the hardy flower garden, or both, to pass directly into it on one side, and to plant a space of several acres, not necessarily in the usual way, with orchard standards twenty-five feet apart in straight rows (though in many places the straight rows might be best), but to have groups and even groves of such things as Medlars and Quinces, Siberian and Chinese Crabs, Damsons, Prunes, Service trees, and Mountain Ash, besides Apples, Pears, and Cherries, in both standard and bush forms. Then alleys of Filbert and Cob-nut, and in the opener spaces tangles or brakes of the many beautiful bushy things allied to the Apple and Plum tribe--_Cydonia_ and _Prunus triloba_ and _Cratægus_ of many kinds (some of them are tall bushes or small trees with beautiful fruits); and the wild Blackthorn, which, though a plum, is so nearly related to pear that pears may be grafted on it. And then brakes of Blackberries, especially of the Parsley-leaved kind, so free of growth and so generous of fruit. How is it that this fine native plant is almost invariably sold in nurseries as an American bramble? If I am mistaken in this I should be glad to be corrected, but I believe it to be only the cut-leaved variety of the native _Rubus affinis_. I have tried the best of the American kinds, and with the exception of one year, when I had a few fine fruits from Kittatinny, they had been a failure, whereas invariably when people have told me that their American Blackberries have fruited well, I have found them to be the Parsley-leaved. Some members of the large Rose-Apple-Plum tribe grow to be large forest trees, and in my wild orchard they would go in the farther parts. The Bird-cherry (_Prunus padus_) grows into a tree of the largest size. A Mountain Ash will sometimes have a trunk two feet in diameter, and a head of a size to suit. The American kind, its near relation, but with larger leaves and still grander masses of berries, is a noble small tree; and the native white Beam should not be forgotten, and choice places should be given to Amelanchier and the lovely double Japan Apple (_Pyrus malus floribunda_). To give due space and effect to all these good things my orchard garden would run into a good many acres, but every year it would be growing into beauty and profit. The grass should be left rough, and plentifully planted with Daffodils, and with Cowslips if the soil is strong. The grass would be mown and made into hay in June, and perhaps mown once more towards the end of September. Under the nut-trees would be Primroses and the garden kinds of wood Hyacinths and Dogtooth Violets and Lily of the Valley, and perhaps Snowdrops, or any of the smaller bulbs that most commended themselves to the taste of the master. Such an orchard garden, well-composed and beautifully grouped, always with that indispensable quality of good "drawing," would not only be a source of unending pleasure to those who lived in the place, but a valuable lesson to all who saw it; for it would show the value of the simple and sensible ways of using a certain class of related trees and bushes, and of using them with a deliberate intention of making the best of them, instead of the usual meaningless-nohow way of planting. This, in nine cases out of ten, means either ignorance or carelessness, the planter not caring enough about the matter to take the trouble to find out what is best to be done, and being quite satisfied with a mixed lot of shrubs, as offered in nursery sales, or with the choice of the nurseryman. I do not presume to condemn all mixed planting, only stupid and ignorant mixed planting. It is not given to all people to take their pleasures alike; and I have in my mind four gardens, all of the highest interest, in which the planting is all mixed; but then the mixture is of admirable ingredients, collected and placed on account of individual merit, and a ramble round any one of these in company with its owner is a pleasure and a privilege that one cannot prize too highly. Where the garden is of such large extent that experimental planting is made with a good number of one good thing at a time, even though there was no premeditated intention of planting for beautiful effect, the fact of there being enough plants to fall into large groups, and to cover some extent of ground, produces numbers of excellent results. I remember being struck with this on several occasions when I have had the happiness of visiting Mr. G. F. Wilson's garden at Wisley, a garden which I take to be about the most instructive it is possible to see. In one part, where the foot of the hill joined the copse, there were hosts of lovely things planted on a succession of rather narrow banks. Almost unthinkingly I expressed the regret I felt that so much individual beauty should be there without an attempt to arrange it for good effect. Mr. Wilson stopped, and looking at me straight with a kindly smile, said very quietly, "That is your business, not mine." In spite of its being a garden whose first object is trial and experiment, it has left in my memory two pictures, among several lesser ones, of plant-beauty that will stay with me as long as I can remember anything, one an autumn and one a spring picture--the hedge of _Rosa rugosa_ in full fruit, and a plantation of _Primula denticulata_. The Primrose was on a bit of level ground, just at the outer and inner edges of the hazel copse. The plants were both grouped and thinly sprinkled, just as nature plants--possibly they grew directly there from seed. They were in superb and luxuriant beauty in the black peaty-looking half-boggy earth, the handsome leaves of the brilliant colour and large size that told of perfect health and vigour, and the large round heads of pure lilac flower carried on strong stalks that must have been fifteen inches high. I never saw it so happy and so beautiful. It is a plant I much admire, and I do the best I can for it on my dry hill; but the conditions of my garden do not allow of any approach to the success of the Wisley plants; still I have treasured that lesson among many others I have brought away from that good garden, and never fail to advise some such treatment when I see the likely home for it in other places. [Illustration: A ROADSIDE COTTAGE GARDEN.] Some of the most delightful of all gardens are the little strips in front of roadside cottages. They have a simple and tender charm that one may look for in vain in gardens of greater pretension. And the old garden flowers seem to know that there they are seen at their best; for where else can one see such Wallflowers, or Double Daisies, or White Rose bushes; such clustering masses of perennial Peas, or such well-kept flowery edgings of Pink, or Thrift, or London Pride? Among a good many calls for advice about laying out gardens, I remember an early one that was of special interest. It was the window-box of a factory lad in one of the great northern manufacturing towns. He had advertised in a mechanical paper that he wanted a tiny garden, as full of interest as might be, in a window-box; he knew nothing--would somebody help him with advice? So advice was sent and the box prepared. If I remember rightly the size was three feet by ten inches. A little later the post brought him little plants of mossy and silvery saxifrages, and a few small bulbs. Even some stones were sent, for it was to be a rock-garden, and there were to be two hills of different heights with rocky tops, and a longish valley with a sunny and a shady side. It was delightful to have the boy's letters, full of keen interest and eager questions, and only difficult to restrain him from killing his plants with kindness, in the way of liberal doses of artificial manure. The very smallness of the tiny garden made each of its small features the more precious. I could picture his feeling of delightful anticipation when he saw the first little bluish blade of the Snowdrop patch pierce its mossy carpet. Would it, could it really grow into a real Snowdrop, with the modest, milk-white flower and the pretty green hearts on the outside of the inner petals, and the clear green stripes within? and would it really nod him a glad good-morning when he opened his window to greet it? And those few blunt reddish horny-looking snouts just coming through the ground, would they really grow into the brilliant blue of the early Squill, that would be like a bit of midsummer sky among the grimy surroundings of the attic window, and under that grey, soot-laden northern sky? I thought with pleasure how he would watch them in spare minutes of the dinner-hour spent at home, and think of them as he went forward and back to his work, and how the remembrance of the tender beauty of the full-blown flower would make him glad, and lift up his heart while "minding his mule" in the busy restless mill. CHAPTER XV BEGINNING AND LEARNING The ignorant questioner -- Beginning at the end -- An example -- Personal experience -- Absence of outer help -- Johns' "Flowers of the Field" -- Collecting plants -- Nurseries near London -- Wheel-spokes as labels -- Garden friends -- Mr. Robinson's "English Flower-Garden" -- Mr. Nicholson's "Dictionary of Gardening" -- One main idea desirable -- Pictorial treatment -- Training in fine art -- Adapting from Nature -- Study of colour -- Ignorant use of the word "artistic." Many people who love flowers and wish to do some practical gardening are at their wit's end to know what to do and how to begin. Like a person who is on skates for the first time, they feel that, what with the bright steel runners, and the slippery surface, and the sense of helplessness, there are more ways of tumbling about than of progressing safely in any one direction. And in gardening the beginner must feel this kind of perplexity and helplessness, and indeed there is a great deal to learn, only it is pleasant instead of perilous, and the many tumbles by the way only teach and do not hurt. The first few steps are perhaps the most difficult, and it is only when we know something of the subject and an eager beginner comes with questions that one sees how very many are the things that want knowing. And the more ignorant the questioner, the more difficult it is to answer helpfully. When one knows, one cannot help presupposing some sort of knowledge on the part of the querist, and where this is absent the answer we can give is of no use. The ignorance, when fairly complete, is of such a nature that the questioner does not know what to ask, and the question, even if it can be answered, falls upon barren ground. I think in such cases it is better to try and teach one simple thing at a time, and not to attempt to answer a number of useless questions. It is disheartening when one has tried to give a careful answer to have it received with an Oh! of boredom or disappointment, as much as to say, You can't expect me to take all that trouble; and there is the still more unsatisfactory sort of applicant, who plies a string of questions and will not wait for the answers! The real way is to try and learn a little from everybody and from every place. There is no royal road. It is no use asking me or any one else how to dig--I mean sitting indoors and asking it. Better go and watch a man digging, and then take a spade and try to do it, and go on trying till it comes, and you gain the knack that is to be learnt with all tools, of doubling the power and halving the effort; and meanwhile you will be learning other things, about your own arms and legs and back, and perhaps a little robin will come and give you moral support, and at the same time keep a sharp look-out for any worms you may happen to turn up; and you will find out that there are all sorts of ways of learning, not only from people and books, but from sheer trying. I remember years ago having to learn to use the blow-pipe, for soldering and other purposes connected with work in gold and silver. The difficult part of it is to keep up the stream of air through the pipe while you are breathing the air in; it is easy enough when you only want a short blast of a few seconds, within the compass of one breath or one filling of the bellows (lungs), but often one has to go on blowing through several inspirations. It is a trick of muscular action. My master who taught me never could do it himself, but by much trying one day I caught the trick. The grand way to learn, in gardening as in all things else, is to wish to learn, and to be determined to find out--not to think that any one person can wave a wand and give the power and knowledge. And there will be plenty of mistakes, and there must be, just as children must pass through the usual childish complaints. And some people make the mistake of trying to begin at the end, and of using recklessly what may want the utmost caution, such, for instance, as strong chemical manures. Some ladies asked me why their plant had died. They had got it from the very best place, and they were sure they had done their very best for it, and--there it was, dead. I asked what it was, and how they had treated it. It was some ordinary border plant, whose identity I now forget; they had made a nice hole with their new trowel, and for its sole benefit they had bought a tin of Concentrated Fertiliser. This they had emptied into the hole, put in the plant, and covered it up and given it lots of water, and--it had died! And yet these were the best and kindest of women, who would never have dreamed of feeding a new-born infant on beefsteaks and raw brandy. But they learned their lesson well, and at once saw the sense when I pointed out that a plant with naked roots just taken out of the ground or a pot, removed from one feeding-place and not yet at home in another, or still more after a journey, with the roots only wrapped in a little damp moss and paper, had its feeding power suspended for a time, and was in the position of a helpless invalid. All that could be done for it then was a little bland nutriment of weak slops and careful nursing; if the planting took place in the summer it would want shading and only very gentle watering, until firm root-hold was secured and root-appetite became active, and that in rich and well-prepared garden ground such as theirs strong artificial manure was in any case superfluous. When the earlier ignorances are overcome it becomes much easier to help and advise, because there is more common ground to stand on. In my own case, from quite a small child, I had always seen gardening going on, though not of a very interesting kind. Nothing much was thought of but bedding plants, and there was a rather large space on each side of the house for these, one on gravel and one on turf. But I had my own little garden in a nook beyond the shrubbery, with a seat shaded by a _Boursault elegans_ Rose, which I thought then, and still think, one of the loveliest of its kind. But my first knowledge of hardy plants came through wild ones. Some one gave me that excellent book, the Rev. C. A. Johns' "Flowers of the Field." For many years I had no one to advise me (I was still quite small) how to use the book, or how to get to know (though it stared me in the face) how the plants were in large related families, and I had not the sense to do it for myself, nor to learn the introductory botanical part, which would have saved much trouble afterwards; but when I brought home my flowers I would take them one by one and just turn over the pages till I came to the picture that looked something like. But in this way I got a knowledge of individuals, and afterwards the idea of broad classification and relationship of genera to species may have come all the easier. I always think of that book as the most precious gift I ever received. I distinctly trace to its teaching my first firm steps in the path of plant knowledge, and the feeling of assured comfort I had afterwards in recognising the kinds when I came to collect garden plants; for at that time I had no other garden book, no means of access to botanic gardens or private collections, and no helpful adviser. One copy of "Johns" I wore right out; I have now two, of which one is in its second binding, and is always near me for reference. I need hardly say that this was long before the days of the "English Flower-Garden," or its helpful predecessor, "Alpine Plants." By this time I was steadily collecting hardy garden plants wherever I could find them, mostly from cottage gardens. Many of them were still unknown to me by name, but as the collection increased I began to compare and discriminate, and of various kinds of one plant to throw out the worse and retain the better, and to train myself to see what made a good garden plant, and about then began to grow the large yellow and white bunch Primroses, whose history is in another chapter. And then I learnt that there were such places (though then but few) as nurseries, where such plants as I had been collecting in the cottage gardens, and even better, were grown. And I went to Osborne's at Fulham (now all built over), and there saw the original tree of the fine Ilex known as the Fulham Oak, and several spring-flowering bulbs I had never seen before, and what I felt sure were numbers of desirable summer-flowering plants, but not then in bloom. Soon after this I began to learn something about Daffodils, and enjoyed much kind help from Mr. Barr, visiting his nursery (then at Tooting) several times, and sometimes combining a visit to Parker's nursery just over the way, a perfect paradise of good hardy plants. I shall never forget my first sight here of the Cape Pondweed (_Aponogeton distachyon_) in full flower and great vigour in the dipping tanks, and overflowing from them into the ditches. Also I was delighted to see the use as labels of old wheel-spokes. I could not help feeling that if one had been a spoke of a cab-wheel, and had passed all one's working life in being whirled and clattered over London pavements, defiled with street mud, how pleasant a way to end one's days was this; to have one's felloe end pointed and dipped in nice wholesome rot-resisting gas-tar and thrust into the quiet cool earth, and one's nave end smoothed and painted and inscribed with some such soothing legend as _Vinca minor_ or _Dianthus fragrans_! Later I made acquaintance with several of the leading amateur and professional gardeners, and with Mr. Robinson, and to their good comradeship and kindly willingness to let me "pick their brains" I owe a great advance in garden lore. Moreover, what began by the drawing together of a common interest has grown into a still greater benefit, for several acquaintances so made have ripened into steady and much-valued friendships. It has been a great interest to me to have had the privilege of watching the gradual growth, through its several editions, of Mr. Robinson's "English Flower-Garden," the one best and most helpful book of all for those who want to know about hardy flowers, offering as it does in the clearest and easiest way a knowledge of the garden-treasures of the temperate world. No one who has not had occasional glimpses behind the scenes can know how much labour and thought such a book represents, to say nothing of research and practical experiment, and of the trouble and great expense of producing the large amount of pictorial illustration. Another book, though on quite different lines, that I find most useful is Mr. Nicholson's "Illustrated Dictionary of Gardening," in eight handy volumes. It covers much the same ground as the useful old Johnson's "Gardener's Dictionary," but is much more complete and comprehensive, and is copiously illustrated with excellent wood-cuts. It is the work of a careful and learned botanist, treating of all plants desirable for cultivation from all climates, and teaching all branches of practical horticulture and such useful matters as means of dealing with insect pests. The old "Johnson" is still a capital book in one volume; mine is rather out of date, being the edition of 1875, but it has been lately revised and improved. It would be delightful to possess, or to have easy access to, a good botanical library; still, for all the purposes of the average garden lover, these books will suffice. I think it is desirable, when a certain degree of knowledge of plants and facility of dealing with them has been acquired, to get hold of a clear idea of what one most wishes to do. The scope of the subject is so wide, and there are so many ways to choose from, that having one general idea helps one to concentrate thought and effort that would otherwise be wasted by being diluted and dribbled through too many probable channels of waste. Ever since it came to me to feel some little grasp of knowledge of means and methods, I have found that my greatest pleasure, both in garden and woodland, has been in the enjoyment of beauty of a pictorial kind. Whether the picture be large as of a whole landscape, or of lesser extent as in some fine single group or effect, or within the space of only a few inches as may be seen in some happily-disposed planting of Alpines, the intention is always the same; or whether it is the grouping of trees in the wood by the removal of those whose lines are not wanted in the picture, or in the laying out of broad grassy ways in woody places, or by ever so slight a turn or change of direction in a wood path, or in the alteration of some arrangement of related groups for form or for massing of light and shade, or for any of the many local conditions that guide one towards forming a decision, the intention is still always the same--to try and make a beautiful garden-picture. And little as I can as yet boast of being able to show anything like the number of these I could wish, yet during the flower-year there is generally something that at least in part answers to the effort. I do not presume to urge the acceptance of my own particular form of pleasure in a garden on those to whom, from different temperament or manner of education, it would be unwelcome; I only speak of what I feel, and to a certain degree understand; but I had the advantage in earlier life of some amount of training in appreciation of the fine arts, and this, working upon an inborn feeling of reverent devotion to things of the highest beauty in the works of God, has helped me to an understanding of their divinely-inspired interpretations by the noblest minds of men, into those other forms that we know as works of fine art. And so it comes about that those of us who feel and understand in this way do not exactly attempt to imitate Nature in our gardens, but try to become well acquainted with her moods and ways, and then discriminate in our borrowing, and so interpret her methods as best we may to the making of our garden-pictures. I have always had great delight in the study of colour, as the word is understood by artists, which again is not a positive matter, but one of relation and proportion. And when one hears the common chatter about "artistic colours," one receives an unpleasant impression about the education and good taste of the speaker; and one is reminded of an old saying which treats of the unwisdom of rushing in "where angels fear to tread," and of regret that a good word should be degraded by misuse. It may be safely said that no colour can be called artistic in itself; for, in the first place, it is bad English, and in the second, it is nonsense. Even if the first objection were waived, and the second condoned, it could only be used in a secondary sense, as signifying something that is useful and suitable and right in its place. In this limited sense the scarlet of the soldier's coat, and of the pillar-box and mail-cart, and the bright colours of flags, or of the port and starboard lights of ships, might be said to be just so far "artistic" (again if grammar would allow), as they are right and good in their places. But then those who use the word in the usual ignorant, random way have not even this simple conception of its meaning. Those who know nothing about colour in the more refined sense (and like a knowledge of everything else it wants learning) get no farther than to enjoy it only when most crude and garish--when, as George Herbert says, it "bids the rash gazer wipe his eye," or when there is some violent opposition of complementary colour--forgetting, or not knowing, that though in detail the objects brought together may make each other appear brighter, yet in the mass, and especially when mixed up, the one actually neutralises the other. And they have no idea of using the colour of flowers as precious jewels in a setting of quiet environment, or of suiting the colour of flowering groups to that of the neighbouring foliage, thereby enhancing the value of both, or of massing related or harmonious colourings so as to lead up to the most powerful and brilliant effects; and yet all these are just the ways of employing colour to the best advantage. But the most frequent fault, whether in composition or in colour, is the attempt to crowd too much into the picture; the simpler effect obtained by means of temperate and wise restraint is always the more telling. CHAPTER XVI THE FLOWER-BORDER AND PERGOLA The flower-border -- The wall and its occupants -- _Choisya ternata_ -- Nandina -- Canon Ellacombe's garden -- Treatment of colour-masses -- Arrangement of plants in the border -- Dahlias and Cannas -- Covering bare places -- The pergola -- How made -- Suitable climbers -- Arbours of trained Planes -- Garden houses. I have a rather large "mixed border of hardy flowers." It is not quite so hopelessly mixed as one generally sees, and the flowers are not all hardy; but as it is a thing everybody rightly expects, and as I have been for a good many years trying to puzzle out its wants and ways, I will try and describe my own and its surroundings. There is a sandstone wall of pleasant colour at the back, nearly eleven feet high. This wall is an important feature in the garden, as it is the dividing line between the pleasure garden and the working garden; also, it shelters the pleasure garden from the sweeping blasts of wind from the north-west, to which my ground is much exposed, as it is all on a gentle slope, going downward towards the north. At the foot of the wall is a narrow border three feet six inches wide, and then a narrow alley, not a made path, but just a way to go along for tending the wall shrubs, and for getting at the back of the border. This little alley does not show from the front. Then the main border, fourteen feet wide and two hundred feet long. About three-quarters of the way along a path cuts through the border, and passes by an arched gateway in the wall to the Pæony garden and the working garden beyond. Just here I thought it would be well to mound up the border a little, and plant with groups of Yuccas, so that at all times of the year there should be something to make a handsome full-stop to the sections of the border, and to glorify the doorway. The two extreme ends of the border are treated in the same way with Yuccas on rather lesser mounds, only leaving space beyond them for the entrance to the little alley at the back. [Illustration: A FLOWER-BORDER IN JUNE.] The wall and border face two points to the east of south, or, as a sailor would say, south-south-east, half-way between south and south-east. In front of the border runs a path seven feet wide, and where the border stops at the eastern end it still runs on another sixty feet, under the pergola, to the open end of a summer-house. The wall at its western end returns forward, square with its length, and hides out greenhouses, sheds, and garden yard. The path in front of the border passes through an arch into this yard, but there is no view into the yard, as it is blocked by some Yews planted in a quarter-circle. Though wall-space is always precious, I thought it better to block out this shorter piece of return wall on the garden side with a hedge of Yews. They are now nearly the height of the wall, and will be allowed to grow a little higher, and will eventually be cut into an arch over the arch in the wall. I wanted the sombre duskiness of the Yews as a rich, quiet background for the brightness of the flowers, though they are rather disappointing in May and June, when their young shoots are of a bright and lively green. At the eastern end of the border there is no return wall, but another planting of Yews equal to the depth of the border. Notched into them is a stone seat about ten feet long; as they grow they will be clipped so as to make an arching hood over the seat. The wall is covered with climbers, or with non-climbing shrubs treated as wall-plants. They do not all want the wall for warmth or protection, but are there because I want them there; because, thinking over what things would look best and give me the greatest pleasure, these came among them. All the same, the larger number of the plants on the wall do want it, and would not do without it. At the western end, the only part which is in shade for the greater part of the day, is a _Garrya elliptica_. So many of my garden friends like a quiet journey along the wall to see what is there, that I propose to do the like by my reader; so first for the wall, and then for the border. Beyond the _Garrya_, in the extreme angle, is a _Clematis montana_. When the _Garrya_ is more grown there will not be much room left for the Clematis, but then it will have become bare below, and can ramble over the wall on the north side, and, in any case, it is a plant with a not very long lifetime, and will be nearly or quite worn out before its root-space is reached or wanted by its neighbours. Next on the wall is the beautiful Rose Acacia (_Robinia hispida_). It is perfectly hardy, but the wood is so brittle that it breaks off short with the slightest weight of wind or snow or rain. I never could understand why a hardy shrub was created so brittle, or how it behaves in its native place. I look in my "Nicholson," and see that it comes from North America. Now, North America is a large place, and there may be in it favoured spots where there is no snow, and only the very gentlest rain, and so well sheltered that the wind only blows in faintest breaths; and to judge by its behaviour in our gardens, all these conditions are necessary for its well-being. This troublesome quality of brittleness no doubt accounts for its being so seldom seen in gardens. I began to think it hopeless when, after three plantings in the open, it was again wrecked, but at last had the happy idea of training it on a wall. Even there, though it is looked over and tied in twice a year, a branch or two often gets broken. But I do not regret having given it the space, as the wall could hardly have had a better ornament, so beautiful are its rosy flower-clusters and pale-green leaves. As it inclines to be leggy below, I have trained a Crimson Rambler Rose over the lower part, tying it in to any bare places in the _Robinia_. [Illustration: PATHWAY ACROSS THE SOUTH BORDER IN JULY.] [Illustration: OUTSIDE VIEW OF THE BRICK PERGOLA SHOWN AT PAGE 214, AFTER SIX YEARS' GROWTH.] Next along the wall is _Solanum crispum_, much to be recommended in our southern counties. It covers a good space of wall, and every year shoots up some feet above it; indeed it is such a lively grower that it has to endure a severe yearly pruning. Every season it is smothered with its pretty clusters of potato-shaped bloom of a good bluish-lilac colour. After these I wanted some solid-looking dark evergreens, so there is a Loquat, with its splendid foliage equalling that of _Magnolia grandiflora_, and then Black Laurustinus, Bay, and Japan Privet; and from among this dark-leaved company shoots up the tender green of a Banksian Rose, grown from seed of the single kind, the gift of my kind friend Commendatore Hanbury, whose world-famed garden of La Mortola, near Ventimiglia, probably contains the most remarkable collection of plants and shrubs that have ever been brought together by one man. This Rose has made good growth, and a first few flowers last year--seedling Roses are slow to bloom--lead me to expect a good show next season. In the narrow border at the foot of the wall is a bush of _Raphiolepis ovata_, always to me an interesting shrub, with its thick, roundish, leathery leaves and white flower-clusters, also bushes of Rosemary, some just filling the border, and some trained up the wall. Our Tudor ancestors were fond of Rosemary-covered walls, and I have seen old bushes quite ten feet high on the garden walls of Italian monasteries. Among the Rosemaries I always like, if possible, to "tickle in" a China Rose or two, the tender pink of the Rose seems to go so well with the dark but dull-surfaced Rosemary. Then still in the wall-border comes a long straggling mass of that very pretty and interesting herbaceous Clematis, _C. Davidiana_. The colour of its flower always delights me; it is of an unusual kind of greyish-blue, of very tender and lovely quality. It does well in this warm border, growing about three feet high. Then on the wall come _Pyrus Maulei_ and _Chimonanthus_, Claret-Vine, and the large-flowered _Ceanothus_ Gloire de Versailles, hardy _Fuchsia_, and _Magnolia Soulangeana_, ending with a big bush of _Choisya ternata_, and rambling above it a very fine kind of _Bignonia grandiflora_. Then comes the archway, flanked by thick buttresses. A Choisya was planted just beyond each of these, but it has grown wide and high, spreading across the face of the buttress on each side, and considerably invading the pathway. There is no better shrub here than this delightful Mexican plant; its long whippy roots ramble through our light soil with every sign of enjoyment; it always looks clean and healthy and well dressed, and as for its lovely and deliciously sweet flowers, we cut them by the bushel, and almost by the faggot, and the bushes scarcely look any the emptier. Beyond the archway comes the shorter length of wall and border. For convenience I planted all slightly tender things together on this bit of wall and border; then we make one job of covering the whole with fir-boughs for protection in winter. On the wall are _Piptanthus nepalensis_, _Cistus ladaniferus_, _Edwardsia grandiflora_, and another Loquat, and in the border a number of Hydrangeas, _Clerodendron foetidum_, _Crinums_, and _Nandina domestica_, the Chinese so-called sacred Bamboo. It is not a Bamboo at all, but allied to _Berberis_; the Chinese plant it for good luck near their houses. If it is as lucky as it is pretty, it ought to do one good! I first made acquaintance with this beautiful plant in Canon Ellacombe's most interesting garden at Bitton, in Gloucestershire, where it struck me as one of the most beautiful growing things I had ever seen, the beauty being mostly in the form and colouring of the leaves. It is not perhaps a plant for everybody, and barely hardly; it seems slow to get hold, and its full beauty only shows when it is well established, and throws up its wonderfully-coloured leaves on tall bamboo-like stalks. There is nothing much more difficult to do in outdoor gardening than to plant a mixed border well, and to keep it in beauty throughout the summer. Every year, as I gain more experience, and, I hope, more power of critical judgment, I find myself tending towards broader and simpler effects, both of grouping and colour. I do not know whether it is by individual preference, or in obedience to some colour-law that I can instinctively feel but cannot pretend even to understand, and much less to explain, but in practice I always find more satisfaction and facility in treating the warm colours (reds and yellows) in graduated harmonies, culminating into gorgeousness, and the cool ones in contrasts; especially in the case of blue, which I like to use either in distinct but not garish contrasts, as of full blue with pale yellow, or in separate cloud-like harmonies, as of lilac and pale purple with grey foliage. I am never so much inclined to treat the blues, purples, and lilacs in gradations together as I am the reds and yellows. Purples and lilacs I can put together, but not these with blues; and the pure blues always seem to demand peculiar and very careful treatment. The western end of the flower-border begins with the low bank of Yuccas, then there are some rather large masses of important grey and glaucous foliage and pale and full pink flower. The foliage is mostly of the Globe Artichoke, and nearer the front of _Artemisia_ and _Cineraria maritima_. Among this, pink Canterbury Bell, Hollyhock, Phlox, Gladiolus, and Japan Anemone, all in pink colourings, will follow one another in due succession. Then come some groups of plants bearing whitish and very pale flowers, _Polygonum compactum_, _Aconitum lycoctonum_, Double Meadowsweet, and other Spiræas, and then the colour passes to pale yellow of Mulleins, and with them the palest blue Delphiniums. Towards the front is a wide planting of _Iris pallida dalmatica_, its handsome bluish foliage showing as outstanding and yet related masses with regard to the first large group of pale foliage. Then comes the pale-yellow _Iris flavescens_, and meanwhile the group of Delphinium deepens into those of a fuller blue colour, though none of the darkest are here. Then more pale yellow of Mullein, Thalictrum, and Paris Daisy, and so the colour passes to stronger yellows. These change into orange, and from that to brightest scarlet and crimson, coming to the fullest strength in the Oriental Poppies of the earlier year, and later in Lychnis, Gladiolus, Scarlet Dahlia, and Tritoma. The colour-scheme then passes again through orange and yellow to the paler yellows, and so again to blue and warm white, where it meets one of the clumps of Yuccas flanking the path that divides this longer part of the border from the much shorter piece beyond. This simple procession of colour arrangement has occupied a space of a hundred and sixty feet, and the border is all the better for it. The short length of border beyond the gateway has again Yuccas and important pale foliage, and a preponderance of pink bloom, Hydrangea for the most part; but there are a few tall Mulleins, whose pale-yellow flowers group well with the ivory of the Yucca spikes and the clear pink of the tall Hollyhocks. These all show up well over the masses of grey and glaucous foliage, and against the rich darkness of dusky Yew. Dahlias and Cannas have their places in the mixed border. When it is being dismantled in the late autumn all bare places are well dug and enriched, so that when it comes to filling-up time, at the end of May, I know that every spare bit of space is ready and at the time of preparation I mark places for special Dahlias, according to colour, and for groups of the tall Cannas where I want grand foliage. There are certain classes of plants that are quite indispensable, but that leave a bare or shabby-looking place when their bloom is over. How to cover these places is one of the problems that have to be solved. The worst offender is Oriental Poppy; it becomes unsightly soon after blooming, and is quite gone by midsummer. I therefore plant _Gypsophila paniculata_ between and behind the Poppy groups, and by July there is a delicate cloud of bloom instead of large bare patches. _Eryngium Oliverianum_ has turned brown by the beginning of July, but around the group some Dahlias have been planted, that will be gradually trained down over the space of the departed Sea-Holly, and other Dahlias are used in the same way to mask various weak places. There is a perennial Sunflower, with tall black stems, and pale-yellow flowers quite at the top, an old garden sort, but not very good as usually grown; this I find of great value to train down, when it throws up a short flowering stem from each joint, and becomes a spreading sheet of bloom. One would rather not have to resort to these artifices of sticking and training; but if a certain effect is wanted, all such means are lawful, provided that nothing looks stiff or strained or unsightly; and it is pleasant to exercise ingenuity and to invent ways to meet the needs of any case that may arise. But like everything else, in good gardening it must be done just right, and the artist-gardener finds that hardly the placing of a single plant can be deputed to any other hand than his own; for though, when it is done, it looks quite simple and easy, he must paint his own picture himself--no one can paint it for him. I have no dogmatic views about having in the so-called hardy flower-border none but hardy flowers. All flowers are welcome that are right in colour, and that make a brave show where a brave show is wanted. It is of more importance that the border should be handsome than that all its occupants should be hardy. Therefore I prepare a certain useful lot of half-hardy annuals, and a few of what have come to be called bedding-plants. I like to vary them a little from year to year, because in no one season can I get in all the good flowers that I should like to grow; and I think it better to leave out some one year and have them the next, than to crowd any up, or to find I have plants to put out and no space to put them in. But I nearly always grow these half-hardy annuals; orange African Marigold, French Marigold, sulphur Sunflower, orange and scarlet tall Zinnia, Nasturtiums, both dwarf and trailing, _Nicotiana affinis_, Maize, and Salpiglossis. Then Stocks and China Asters. The Stocks are always the large white and flesh-coloured summer kinds, and the Asters, the White Comet, and one of the blood-red or so-called scarlet sorts. Then I have yellow Paris Daisies, _Salvia patens_, Heliotrope, _Calceolaria amplexicaulis_, Geraniums, scarlet and salmon-coloured and ivy-leaved kinds, the best of these being the pink Madame Crousse. [Illustration: END OF FLOWER-BORDER AND ENTRANCE OF PERGOLA.] [Illustration: SOUTH BORDER DOOR AND YUCCAS IN AUGUST.] The front edges of the border are also treated in rather a large way. At the shadier end there is first a long straggling bordering patch of _Anemone sylvestris_. When it is once above ground the foliage remains good till autumn, while its soft white flower comes right with the colour of the flowers behind. Then comes a long and large patch of the larger kind of _Megasea cordifolia_, several yards in length, and running back here and there among taller plants. I am never tired of admiring the fine solid foliage of this family of plants, remaining, as it does, in beauty both winter and summer, and taking on a splendid winter colouring of warm red bronze. It is true that the flowers of the two best-known kinds, _M. cordifolia_ and _M. crassifolia_, are coarse-looking blooms of a strong and rank quality of pink colour, but the persistent beauty of the leaves more than compensates; and in the rather tenderer kind, _M. ligulata_ and its varieties, the colour of the flower is delightful, of a delicate good pink, with almost scarlet stalks. There is nothing flimsy or temporary-looking about the Megaseas, but rather a sort of grave and monumental look that specially fits them for association with masonry, or for any place where a solid-looking edging or full-stop is wanted. To go back to those in the edge of the border: if the edging threatens to look too dark and hard, I plant among or just behind the plants that compose it, pink or scarlet Ivy Geranium or trailing Nasturtium, according to the colour demanded by the neighbouring group. _Heuchera Richardsoni_ is another good front-edge plant; and when we come to the blue and pale-yellow group there is a planting of _Funkia grandiflora_, whose fresh-looking pale-green leaves are delightful with the brilliant light yellow of _Calceolaria amplexicaulis_, and the farther-back planting of pale-blue Delphinium, Mullein, and sulphur Sunflower; while the same colour of foliage is repeated in the fresh green of the Indian Corn. Small spaces occur here and there along the extreme front edge, and here are planted little jewels of colour, of blue Lobelia, or dwarf Nasturtium, or anything of the colour that the place demands. The whole thing sounds much more elaborate than it really is; the trained eye sees what is wanted, and the trained hand does it, both by an acquired instinct. It is painting a picture with living plants. I much enjoy the pergola at the end of the sunny path. It is pleasant while walking in full sunshine, and when that sunny place feels just a little too hot, to look into its cool depth, and to feel that one has only to go a few steps farther to be in shade, and to feel that little air of wind that the moving summer clouds say is not far off, and is only unfelt just here because it is stopped by the wall. It feels wonderfully dark at first, this gallery of cool greenery, passing into it with one's eyes full of light and colour, and the open-sided summer-house at the end looks like a black cavern; but on going into it, and sitting down on one of its broad, low benches, one finds that it is a pleasant subdued light, just right to read by. The pergola has two openings out of it on the right, and one on the left. The first way out on the right is straight into the nut-walk, which leads up to very near the house. The second goes up two or three low, broad steps made of natural sandstone flags, between groups of Ferns, into the Michaelmas Daisy garden. The opening on the left leads into a quiet space of grass the width of the flower and wall border (twenty feet), having only some peat-beds planted with Kalmia. This is backed by a Yew hedge in continuation of the main wall, and it will soon grow into a cool, quiet bit of garden, seeming to belong to the pergola. Now, standing midway in the length of the covered walk, with the eye rested and refreshed by the leafy half-light, on turning round again towards the border it shows as a brilliant picture through the bowery framing, and the value of the simple method of using the colours is seen to full advantage. I do not like a mean pergola, made of stuff as thin as hop-poles. If means or materials do not admit of having anything better, it is far better to use these in some other simple way, of which there are many to choose from--such as uprights at even intervals, braced together with a continuous rail at about four feet from the ground, and another rail just clear of the ground, and some simple trellis of the smaller stuff between these two rails. This is always pretty at the back of a flower-border in any modest garden. But a pergola should be more seriously treated, and the piers at any rate should be of something rather large--either oak stems ten inches thick, or, better still, of fourteen-inch brickwork painted with lime-wash to a quiet stone-colour. In Italy the piers are often of rubble masonry, either round or square in section, coated with very coarse plaster, and lime-washed white. For a pergola of moderate size the piers should stand in pairs across the path, with eight feet clear between. Ten feet from pier to pier along the path is a good proportion, or anything from eight to ten feet, and they should stand seven feet two inches out of the ground. Each pair should be tied across the top with a strong beam of oak, either of the natural shape, or roughly adzed on the four faces; but in any case, the ends of the beams, where they rest on the top of the piers, should be adzed flat to give them a firm seat. If the beams are slightly curved or cambered, as most trunks of oak are, so much the better, but they must always be placed camber side up. The pieces that run along the top, with the length of the path, may be of any branching tops of oak, or of larch poles. These can easily be replaced as they decay; but the replacing of a beam is a more difficult matter, so that it is well to let them be fairly durable from the beginning. [Illustration: STONE-BUILT PERGOLA WITH WROUGHT OAK BEAMS.] [Illustration: PERGOLA WITH BRICK PIERS AND BEAMS OF ROUGH OAK. (_See opposite page 202._)] The climbers I find best for covering the pergola are Vines, Jasmine, Aristolochia, Virginia Creeper, and Wistaria. Roses are about the worst, for they soon run up leggy, and only flower at the top out of sight. A sensible arrangement, allied to the pergola, and frequent in Germany and Switzerland, is made by planting young Planes, pollarding them at about eight feet from the ground, and training down the young growths horizontally till they have covered the desired roof-space. There is much to be done in our better-class gardens in the way of pretty small structures thoroughly well-designed and built. Many a large lawn used every afternoon in summer as a family playground and place to receive visitors would have its comfort and usefulness greatly increased by a pretty garden-house, instead of the usual hot and ugly, crampy and uncomfortable tent. But it should be thoroughly well designed to suit the house and garden. A pigeon-cote would come well in the upper part, and the face or faces open to the lawn might be closed in winter with movable shutters, when it would make a useful store-place for garden seats and much else. CHAPTER XVII THE PRIMROSE GARDEN It must be some five-and-twenty years ago that I began to work at what I may now call my own strain of Primroses, improving it a little every year by careful selection of the best for seed. The parents of the strain were a named kind, called Golden Plover, and a white one, without name, that I found in a cottage garden. I had also a dozen plants about eight or nine years ago from a strong strain of Mr. Anthony Waterer's that was running on nearly the same lines; but a year later, when I had flowered them side by side, I liked my own one rather the best, and Mr. Waterer, seeing them soon after, approved of them so much that he took some to work with his own. I hold Mr. Waterer's strain in great admiration, and, though I tried for a good many years, never could come near him in red colourings. But as my own taste favoured the delicately-shaded flowers, and the ones most liked in the nursery seemed to be those with strongly contrasting eye, it is likely that the two strains may be working still farther apart. They are, broadly speaking, white and yellow varieties of the strong bunch-flowered or Polyanthus kind, but they vary in detail so much, in form, colour, habit, arrangement, and size of eye and shape of edge, that one year thinking it might be useful to classify them I tried to do so, but gave it up after writing out the characters of sixty classes! Their possible variation seems endless. Every year among the seedlings there appear a number of charming flowers with some new development of size, or colour of flower, or beauty of foliage, and yet all within the narrow bounds of--white and yellow Primroses. [Illustration: EVENING IN THE PRIMROSE GARDEN.] Their time of flowering is much later than that of the true or single-stalked Primrose. They come into bloom early in April, though a certain number of poorly-developed flowers generally come much earlier, and they are at their best in the last two weeks of April and the first days of May. When the bloom wanes, and is nearly overtopped by the leaves, the time has come that I find best for dividing and replanting. The plants then seem willing to divide, some almost falling apart in one's hands, and the new roots may be seen just beginning to form at the base of the crown. The plants are at the same time relieved of the crowded mass of flower-stem, and, therefore, of the exhausting effort of forming seed, a severe drain on their strength. A certain number will not have made more than one strong crown, and a few single-crown plants have not flowered; these, of course, do not divide. During the flowering time I keep a good look-out for those that I judge to be the most beautiful and desirable, and mark them for seed. These are also taken up, but are kept apart, the flower stems reduced to one or two of the most promising, and they are then planted in a separate place--some cool nursery corner. I find that the lifting and replanting in no way checks the growth or well-being of the seed-pods. I remember some years ago a warm discussion in the gardening papers about the right time to sow the seed. Some gardeners of high standing were strongly for sowing it as soon as ripe, while others equally trustworthy advised holding it over till March. I have tried both ways, and have satisfied myself that it is a matter for experiment and decision in individual gardens. As nearly as I can make out, it is well in heavy soils to sow when ripe, and in light ones to wait till March. In some heavy soils Primroses stand well for two years without division; whereas in light ones, such as mine, they take up the food within reach in a much shorter time, so that by the second year the plant has become a crowded mass of weak crowns that only throw up poor flowers, and are by then so much exhausted that they are not worth dividing afterwards. In my own case, having tried both ways, I find the March sown ones much the best. The seed is sown in boxes in cold frames, and pricked out again into boxes when large enough to handle. The seedlings are planted out in June, when they seem to go on without any check whatever, and are just right for blooming next spring. The Primrose garden is in a place by itself--a clearing half shaded by Oak, Chestnut, and Hazel. I always think of the Hazel as a kind nurse to Primroses; in the copses they generally grow together, and the finest Primrose plants are often nestled close in to the base of the nut-stool. Three paths run through the Primrose garden, mere narrow tracks between the beds, converging at both ends, something like the lines of longitude on a globe, the ground widening in the middle where there are two good-sized Oaks, and coming to a blunt point at each end, the only other planting near it being two other long-shaped strips of Lily of the Valley. Every year, before replanting, the Primrose ground is dug over and well manured. All day for two days I sit on a low stool dividing the plants; a certain degree of facility and expertness has come of long practice. The "rubber" for frequent knife-sharpening is in a pail of water by my side; the lusciously fragrant heap of refuse leaf and flower-stem and old stocky root rises in front of me, changing its shape from a heap to a ridge, as when it comes to a certain height and bulk I back and back away from it. A boy feeds me with armfuls of newly-dug-up plants, two men are digging-in the cooling cow-dung at the farther end, and another carries away the divided plants tray by tray, and carefully replants them. The still air, with only the very gentlest south-westerly breath in it, brings up the mighty boom of the great ship guns from the old seaport, thirty miles away, and the pheasants answer to the sound as they do to thunder. The early summer air is of a perfect temperature, the soft coo of the wood-dove comes down from the near wood, the nightingale sings almost overhead, but--either human happiness may never be quite complete, or else one is not philosophic enough to contemn life's lesser evils, for--oh, the midges! CHAPTER XVIII COLOURS OF FLOWERS I am always surprised at the vague, not to say reckless, fashion in which garden folk set to work to describe the colours of flowers, and at the way in which quite wrong colours are attributed to them. It is done in perfect good faith, and without the least consciousness of describing wrongly. In many cases it appears to be because the names of certain substances have been used conventionally or poetically to convey the idea of certain colours. And some of these errors are so old that they have acquired a kind of respectability, and are in a way accepted without challenge. When they are used about familiar flowers it does not occur to one to detect them, because one knows the flower and its true colour; but when the same old error is used in the description of a new flower, it is distinctly misleading. For instance, when we hear of golden buttercups, we know that it means bright-yellow buttercups; but in the case of a new flower, or one not generally known, surely it is better and more accurate to say bright yellow at once. Nothing is more frequent in plant catalogues than "bright golden yellow," when bright yellow is meant. Gold is not bright yellow. I find that a gold piece laid on a gravel path, or against a sandy bank, nearly matches it in colour; and I cannot think of any flower that matches or even approaches the true colour of gold, though something near it may be seen in the pollen-covered anthers of many flowers. A match for gold may more nearly be found among dying beech leaves, and some dark colours of straw or dry grass bents, but none of these when they match the gold are bright yellow. In literature it is quite another matter; when the poet or imaginative writer says, "a field of golden buttercups," or "a golden sunset," he is quite right, because he appeals to our artistic perception, and in such case only uses the word as an image of something that is rich and sumptuous and glowing. The same irrelevance of comparison seems to run through all the colours. Flowers of a full, bright-blue colour are often described as of a "brilliant amethystine blue." Why amethystine? The amethyst, as we generally see it, is a stone of a washy purple colour, and though there are amethysts of a fine purple, they are not so often seen as the paler ones, and I have never seen one even faintly approaching a really blue colour. What, therefore, is the sense of likening a flower, such as a Delphinium, which is really of a splendid pure-blue colour, to the duller and totally different colour of a third-rate gem? Another example of the same slip-slop is the term flame-coloured, and it is often preceded by the word "gorgeous." This contradictory mixture of terms is generally used to mean bright scarlet. When I look at a flame, whether of fire or candle, I see that the colour is a rather pale yellow, with a reddish tinge about its upper forks, and side wings often of a bluish white--no scarlet anywhere. The nearest approach to red is in the coals, not in the flame. In the case of the candle, the point of the wick is faintly red when compared with the flame, but about the flame there is no red whatever. A distant bonfire looks red at night, but I take it that the apparent redness is from seeing the flames through damp atmosphere, just as the harvest-moon looks red when it rises. And the strange thing is that in all these cases the likeness to the unlike, and much less bright, colour is given with an air of conferring the highest compliment on the flower in question. It is as if, wishing to praise some flower of a beautiful blue, one called it a brilliant slate-roof blue. This sounds absurd, because it is unfamiliar, but the unsuitability of the comparison is scarcely greater than in the examples just quoted. It seems most reasonable in describing the colour of flowers to look out for substances whose normal colour shows but little variation--such, for example, as sulphur. The colour of sulphur is nearly always the same. Citron, lemon, and canary are useful colour-names, indicating different strengths of pure pale yellow, inclining towards a tinge of the palest green. Gentian-blue is a useful word, bringing to mind the piercingly powerful hue of the Gentianella. So also is turquoise-blue, for the stone has little variety of shade, and the colour is always of the same type. Forget-me-not blue is also a good word, meaning the colour of the native water Forget-me-not. Sky-blue is a little vague, though it has come by the "crystallising" force of usage to stand for a blue rather pale than full, and not far from that of the Forget-me-not; indeed, I seem to remember written passages in which the colours of flower and firmament were used reciprocally, the one in describing the other. Cobalt is a word sometimes used, but more often misused, for only water-colour painters know just what it represents, and it is of little use, as it so rarely occurs among flowers. Crimson is a word to beware of; it covers such a wide extent of ground, and is used so carelessly in plant-catalogues, that one cannot know whether it stands for a rich blood colour or for a malignant magenta. For the latter class of colour the term amaranth, so generally used in French plant-lists, is extremely useful, both as a definition and a warning. Salmon is an excellent colour-word, copper is also useful, the two covering a limited range of beautiful colouring of the utmost value. Blood-red is also accurately descriptive. Terra-cotta is useful but indefinite, as it may mean anything between brick-red and buff. Red-lead, if it would be accepted as a colour-word, would be useful, denoting the shades of colour between the strongest orange and the palest scarlet, frequent in the lightest of the Oriental Poppies. Amber is a misleading word, for who is to know when it means the transparent amber, whose colour approaches that of resin, or the pale, almost opaque, dull-yellow kind. And what is meant by coral-red? It is the red of the old-fashioned dull-scarlet coral, or of the pink kind more recently in favour. The terms bronze and smoke may well be used in their place, as in describing or attempting to describe the wonderful colouring of such flowers as Spanish Iris, and the varieties of Iris of the _squalens_ section. But often in describing a flower a reference to texture much helps and strengthens the colour-word. I have often described the modest little _Iris tuberosa_ as a flower made of green satin and black velvet. The green portion is only slightly green, but is entirely green satin, and the black of the velvet is barely black, but is quite black-velvet-like. The texture of the flower of _Ornithogalum nutans_ is silver satin, neither very silvery nor very satin-like, and yet so nearly suggesting the texture of both that the words may well be used in speaking of it. Indeed, texture plays so important a part in the appearance of colour-surface, that one can hardly think of colour without also thinking of texture. A piece of black satin and a piece of black velvet may be woven of the same batch of material, but when the satin is finished and the velvet cut, the appearance is often so dissimilar that they may look quite different in colour. A working painter is never happy if you give him an oil-colour pattern to match in distemper; he must have it of the same texture, or he will not undertake to get it like. What a wonderful range of colouring there is in black alone to a trained colour-eye! There is the dull brown-black of soot, and the velvety brown-black of the bean-flower's blotch; to my own eye, I have never found anything so entirely black in a natural product as the patch on the lower petals of _Iris iberica_. Is it not Ruskin who says of Velasquez, that there is more colour in his black than in many another painter's whole palette? The blotch of the bean-flower appears black at first, till you look at it close in the sunlight, and then you see its rich velvety texture, so nearly like some of the brown-velvet markings on butterflies' wings. And the same kind of rich colour and texture occurs again on some of the tough flat half-round funguses, marked with shaded rings, that grow out of old posts, and that I always enjoy as lessons of lovely colour-harmony of grey and brown and black. Much to be regretted is the disuse of the old word murrey, now only employed in heraldry. It stands for a dull red-purple, such as appears in the flower of the Virginian Allspice, and in the native Hound's-tongue, and often in seedling Auriculas. A fine strong-growing border Auricula was given to me by my valued friend the Curator of the Trinity College Botanic Garden, Dublin, to which he had given the excellently descriptive name, "Old Murrey." Sage-green is a good colour-word, for, winter or summer, the sage-leaves change but little. Olive-green is not so clear, though it has come by use to stand for a brownish green, like the glass of a wine-bottle held up to the light, but perhaps bottle-green is the better word. And it is not clear what part or condition of the olive is meant, for the ripe fruit is nearly black, and the tree in general, and the leaf in detail, are of a cool-grey colour. Perhaps the colour-word is taken from the colour of the unripe fruit pickled in brine, as we see them on the table. Grass-green any one may understand, but I am always puzzled by apple-green. Apples are of so many different greens, to say nothing of red and yellow; and as for pea-green, I have no idea what it means. I notice in plant-lists the most reckless and indiscriminate use of the words purple, violet, mauve, lilac, and lavender, and as they are all related, I think they should be used with the greater caution. I should say that mauve and lilac cover the same ground; the word mauve came into use within my recollection. It is French for mallow, and the flower of the wild plant may stand as the type of what the word means. Lavender stands for a colder or bluer range of pale purples, with an inclination to grey; it is a useful word, because the whole colour of the flower spike varies so little. Violet stands for the dark garden violet, and I always think of the grand colour of _Iris reticulata_ as an example of a rich violet-purple. But purple equally stands for this, and for many shades redder. Snow-white is very vague. There is nearly always so much blue about the colour of snow, from its crystalline surface and partial transparency, and the texture is so unlike that of any kind of flower, that the comparison is scarcely permissible. I take it that the use of "snow-white" is, like that of "golden-yellow," more symbolical than descriptive, meaning any white that gives an impression of purity. Nearly all white flowers are yellowish-white, and the comparatively few that are bluish-white, such, for example, as _Omphalodes verna_, are of a texture so different from snow that one cannot compare them at all. I should say that most white flowers are near the colour of chalk; for although the word chalky-white has been used in rather a contemptuous way, the colour is really a very beautiful warm white, but by no means an intense white. The flower that always looks to me the whitest is that of _Iberis sempervirens_. The white is dead and hard, like a piece of glazed stoneware, quite without play or variation, and hence uninteresting. CHAPTER XIX THE SCENTS OF THE GARDEN The sweet scents of a garden are by no means the least of its many delights. Even January brings _Chimonanthus fragrans_, one of the sweetest and strongest scented of the year's blooms--little half-transparent yellowish bells on an otherwise naked-looking wall shrub. They have no stalks, but if they are floated in a shallow dish of water, they last well for several days, and give off a powerful fragrance in a room. During some of the warm days that nearly always come towards the end of February, if one knows where to look in some sunny, sheltered corner of a hazel copse, there will be sure to be some Primroses, and the first scent of the year's first Primrose is no small pleasure. The garden Primroses soon follow, and, meanwhile, in all open winter weather there have been Czar Violets and _Iris stylosa_, with its delicate scent, faintly violet-like, but with a dash of tulip. _Iris reticulata_ is also sweet, with a still stronger perfume of the violet character. But of all Irises I know, the sweetest to smell is a later blooming one, _I. graminea_. Its small purple flowers are almost hidden among the thick mass of grassy foliage which rises high above the bloom; but they are worth looking for, for the sake of the sweet and rather penetrating scent, which is exactly like that of a perfectly-ripened plum. All the scented flowers of the Primrose tribe are delightful--Primrose, Polyanthus, Auricula, Cowslip. The actual sweetness is most apparent in the Cowslip; in the Auricula it has a pungency, and at the same time a kind of veiled mystery, that accords with the clouded and curiously-blended colourings of many of the flowers. Sweetbriar is one of the strongest of the year's early scents, and closely following is the woodland incense of the Larch, both freely given off and far-wafted, as is also that of the hardy Daphnes. The first quarter of the year also brings the bloom of most of the deciduous Magnolias, all with a fragrance nearly allied to that of the large one that blooms late in summer, but not so strong and heavy. The sweetness of a sun-baked bank of Wallflower belongs to April. Daffodils, lovely as they are, must be classed among flowers of rather rank smell, and yet it is welcome, for it means spring-time, with its own charm and its glad promise of the wealth of summer bloom that is soon to come. The scent of the Jonquil, Poeticus, and Polyanthus sections are best, Jonquil perhaps best of all, for it is without the rather coarse scent of the Trumpets and Nonsuch, and also escapes the penetrating lusciousness of _poeticus_ and _tazetta_, which in the south of Europe is exaggerated in the case of _tazetta_ into something distinctly unpleasant. What a delicate refinement there is in the scent of the wild Wood-Violet; it is never overdone. It seems to me to be quite the best of all the violet-scents, just because of its temperate quality. It gives exactly enough, and never that perhaps-just-a-trifle-too-much that may often be noticed about a bunch of frame-Violets, and that also in the south is intensified to a degree that is distinctly undesirable. For just as colour may be strengthened to a painful glare, and sound may be magnified to a torture, so even a sweet scent may pass its appointed bounds and become an overpoweringly evil smell. Even in England several of the Lilies, whose smell is delicious in open-air wafts, cannot be borne in a room. In the south of Europe a Tuberose cannot be brought indoors, and even at home I remember one warm wet August how a plant of Balm of Gilead (_Cedronella triphylla_) had its always powerful but usually agreeably aromatic smell so much exaggerated that it smelt exactly like coal-gas! A brother in Jamaica writes of the large white Jasmine: "It does not do to bring it indoors here; the scent is too strong. One day I thought there was a dead rat under the floor (a thing which did happen once), and behold, it was a glassful of fresh white Jasmine that was the offender!" While on this less pleasant part of the subject, I cannot help thinking of the horrible smell of the Dragon Arum; and yet how fitting an accompaniment it is to the plant, for if ever there was a plant that looked wicked and repellent, it is this; and yet, like Medusa, it has its own kind of fearful beauty. In this family the smell seems to accompany the appearance, and to diminish in unpleasantness as the flower increases in amiability; for in our native wild Arum the smell, though not exactly nice, is quite innocuous, and in the beautiful white Arum or _Calla_ of our greenhouses there is as little scent as a flower can well have, especially one of such large dimensions. In Fungi the bad smell is nearly always an indication of poisonous nature, so that it would seem to be given as a warning. But it has always been a matter of wonder to me why the root of the harmless and friendly Laurustinus should have been given a particularly odious smell--a smell I would rather not attempt to describe. On moist warmish days in mid-seasons I have sometimes had a whiff of the same unpleasantness from the bushes themselves; others of the same tribe have it in a much lesser degree. There is a curious smell about the yellow roots of Berberis, not exactly nasty, and a strong odour, not really offensive, but that I personally dislike, about the root of _Chrysanthemum maximum_. On the other hand, I always enjoy digging up, dividing, and replanting the _Asarums_, both the common European and the American kinds; their roots have a pleasant and most interesting smell, a good deal like mild pepper and ginger mixed, but more strongly aromatic. The same class of smell, but much fainter, and always reminding me of very good and delicate pepper, I enjoy in the flowers of the perennial Lupines. The only other hardy flowers I can think of whose smell is distinctly offensive are _Lilium pyrenaicum_, smelling like a mangy dog, and some of the _Schizanthus_, that are redolent of dirty hen-house. There is a class of scent that, though it can neither be called sweet nor aromatic, is decidedly pleasing and interesting. Such is that of Bracken and other Fern-fronds, Ivy-leaves, Box-bushes, Vine-blossom, Elder-flowers, and Fig-leaves. There are the sweet scents that are wholly delightful--most of the Roses, Honeysuckle, Primrose, Cowslip, Mignonette, Pink, Carnation, Heliotrope, Lily of the Valley, and a host of others; then there is a class of scent that is intensely powerful, and gives an impression almost of intemperance or voluptuousness, such as Magnolia, Tuberose, Gardenia, Stephanotis, and Jasmine; it is strange that these all have white flowers of thick leathery texture. In strongest contrast to these are the sweet, wholesome, wind-wafted scents of clover-field, of bean-field, and of new-mown hay, and the soft honey-scent of sun-baked heather, and of a buttercup meadow in April. Still more delicious is the wind-swept sweetness of a wood of Larch or of Scotch Fir, and the delicate perfume of young-leaved Birch, or the heavier scent of the flowering Lime. Out on the moorlands, besides the sweet heather-scent, is that of flowering Broom and Gorse and of the Bracken, so like the first smell of the sea as you come near it after a long absence. How curiously scents of flowers and leaves fall into classes--often one comes upon related smells running into one another in not necessarily related plants. There is a kind of scent that I sometimes meet with, about clumps of Brambles, a little like the waft of a Fir wood; it occurs again (quite naturally) in the first taste of blackberry jam, and then turns up again in Sweet Sultan. It is allied to the smell of the dying Strawberry leaves. The smell of the Primrose occurs again in a much stronger and ranker form in the root-stock, and the same thing happens with the Violets and Pansies; in Violets the plant-smell is pleasant, though without the high perfume of the flower; but the smell of an overgrown bed of Pansy-plants is rank to offensiveness. Perhaps the most delightful of all flower scents are those whose tender and delicate quality makes one wish for just a little more. Such a scent is that of Apple-blossom, and of some small Pansies, and of the wild Rose and the Honeysuckle. Among Roses alone the variety and degree of sweet scent seems almost infinite. To me the sweetest of all is the Provence, the old Cabbage Rose of our gardens. When something approaching this appears, as it frequently does, among the hybrid perpetuals, I always greet it as the real sweet Rose smell. One expects every Rose to be fragrant, and it is a disappointment to find that such a beautiful flower as Baroness Rothschild is wanting in the sweet scent that would be the fitting complement of its incomparable form, and to perceive in so handsome a Rose as Malmaison a heavy smell of decidedly bad quality. But such cases are not frequent. There is much variety in the scent of the Tea-Roses, the actual tea flavour being strongest in the Dijon class. Some have a powerful scent that is very near that of a ripe Nectarine; of this the best example I know is the old rose Goubault. The half-double red Gloire de Rosamène has a delightful scent of a kind that is rare among Roses. It has a good deal of the quality of that mysterious and delicious smell given off by the dying strawberry leaves, aromatic, pungent, and delicately refined, searching and powerful, and yet subtle and elusive--the best sweet smell of all the year. One cannot have it for the seeking; it comes as it will--a scent that is sad as a forecast of the inevitable certainty of the flower-year's waning, and yet sweet with the promise of its timely new birth. Sometimes I have met with a scent of somewhat the same mysterious and aromatic kind when passing near a bank clothed with the great St. John's Wort. As this also occurs in early autumn, I suppose it to be occasioned by the decay of some of the leaves. And there is a small yellow-flowered Potentilla that has a scent of the same character, but always freely and willingly given off--a humble-looking little plant, well worth growing for its sweetness, that much to my regret I have lost. I observe that when a Rose exists in both single and double form the scent is increased in the double beyond the proportion that one would expect. _Rosa lucida_ in the ordinary single state has only a very slight scent; in the lovely double form it is very sweet, and has acquired somewhat of the Moss-rose smell. The wild Burnet-rose (_R. spinosissima_) has very little smell; but the Scotch Briars, its garden relatives, have quite a powerful fragrance, a pale flesh-pink kind, whose flowers are very round and globe-like, being the sweetest of all. But of all the sweet scents of bush or flower, the ones that give me the greatest pleasure are those of the aromatic class, where they seem to have a wholesome resinous or balsamic base, with a delicate perfume added. When I pick and crush in my hand a twig of Bay, or brush against a bush of Rosemary, or tread upon a tuft of Thyme, or pass through incense-laden brakes of Cistus, I feel that here is all that is best and purest and most refined, and nearest to poetry, in the range of faculty of the sense of smell. The scents of all these sweet shrubs, many of them at home in dry and rocky places in far-away lower latitudes, recall in a way far more distinct than can be done by a mere mental effort of recollection, rambles of years ago in many a lovely southern land--in the islands of the Greek Archipelago, beautiful in form, and from a distance looking bare and arid, and yet with a scattered growth of lowly, sweet-smelling bush and herb, so that as you move among them every plant seems full of sweet sap or aromatic gum, and as you tread the perfumed carpet the whole air is scented; then of dusky groves of tall Cypress and Myrtle, forming mysterious shadowy woodland temples that unceasingly offer up an incense of their own surpassing fragrance, and of cooler hollows in the same lands and in the nearer Orient, where the Oleander grows like the willow of the north, and where the Sweet Bay throws up great tree-like suckers of surprising strength and vigour. It is only when one has seen it grow like this that one can appreciate the full force of the old Bible simile. Then to find oneself standing (while still on earth) in a grove of giant Myrtles fifteen feet high is like having a little chink of the door of heaven opened, as if to show a momentary glimpse of what good things may be beyond! Among the sweet shrubs from the nearer of these southern regions, one of the best for English gardens is _Cistus laurifolius_. Its wholesome, aromatic sweetness is freely given off, even in winter. In this, as in its near relative, _C. ladaniferus_, the scent seems to come from the gummy surface, and not from the body of the leaf. _Caryopteris Mastacanthus_, the Mastic plant, from China, one of the few shrubs that flower in autumn, has strongly-scented woolly leaves, something like turpentine, but more refined. _Ledum palustre_ has a delightful scent when its leaves are bruised. The wild Bog-myrtle, so common in Scotland, has almost the sweetness of the true Myrtle, as has also the broad-leaved North American kind, and the Candleberry Gale (_Comptonia asplenifolia_) from the same country. The myrtle-leaved Rhododendron is a dwarf shrub of neat habit, whose bruised leaves have also a myrtle-like smell, though it is less strong than in the Gales. I wonder why the leaves of nearly all the hardy aromatic shrubs are of a hard, dry texture; the exceptions are so few that it seems to be a law. If my copse were some acres larger I should like nothing better than to make a good-sized clearing, laying out to the sun, and to plant it with these aromatic bushes and herbs. The main planting should be of Cistus and Rosemary and Lavender, and for the shadier edges the Myrtle-leaved Rhododendron, and _Ledum palustre_, and the three Bog-myrtles. Then again in the sun would be Hyssop and Catmint, and Lavender-cotton and Southernwood, with others of the scented Artemisias, and Sage and Marjoram. All the ground would be carpeted with Thyme and Basil and others of the dwarfer sweet-herbs. There would be no regular paths, but it would be so planted that in most parts one would have to brush up against the sweet bushes, and sometimes push through them, as one does on the thinner-clothed of the mountain slopes of southern Italy. Among the many wonders of the vegetable world are the flowers that hang their heads and seem to sleep in the daytime, and that awaken as the sun goes down, and live their waking life at night. And those that are most familiar in our gardens have powerful perfumes, except the Evening Primrose (_Oenothera_), which has only a milder sweetness. It is vain to try and smell the night-given scent in the daytime; it is either withheld altogether, or some other smell, quite different, and not always pleasant, is there instead. I have tried hard in daytime to get a whiff of the night sweetness of _Nicotiana affinis_, but can only get hold of something that smells like a horse! Some of the best of the night-scents are those given by the Stocks and Rockets. They are sweet in the hand in the daytime, but the best of the sweet scent seems to be like a thin film on the surface. It does not do to smell them too vigorously, for, especially in Stocks and Wallflowers, there is a strong, rank, cabbage-like under-smell. But in the sweetness given off so freely in the summer evening there is none of this; then they only give their very best. But of all the family, the finest fragrance comes from the small annual Night-scented Stock (_Matthiola bicornis_), a plant that in daytime is almost ugly; for the leaves are of a dull-grey colour, and the flowers are small and also dull-coloured, and they are closed and droop and look unhappy. But when the sun has set the modest little plant seems to come to life; the grey foliage is almost beautiful in its harmonious relation to the half-light; the flowers stand up and expand, and in the early twilight show tender colouring of faint pink and lilac, and pour out upon the still night-air a lavish gift of sweetest fragrance; and the modest little plant that in strong sunlight looked unworthy of a place in the garden, now rises to its appointed rank and reigns supreme as its prime delight. CHAPTER XX THE WORSHIP OF FALSE GODS Several times during these notes I have spoken in a disparaging manner of the show-table; and I have not done so lightly, but with all the care and thought and power of observation that my limited capacity is worth; and, broadly, I have come to this: that shows, such as those at the fortnightly meetings of the Royal Horticultural Society, and their more important one in the early summer, whose object is to bring together beautiful flowers of all kinds, to a place where they may be seen, are of the utmost value; and that any shows anywhere for a like purpose, and especially where there are no money prizes, are also sure to be helpful. And the test question I put to myself at any show is this, Does this really help the best interests of horticulture? And as far as I can see that it does this, I think the show right and helpful; and whenever it does not, I think it harmful and misleading. The love of gardening has so greatly grown and spread within the last few years, that the need of really good and beautiful garden flowers is already far in advance of the demand for the so-called "florists" flowers, by which I mean those that find favour in the exclusive shows of Societies for the growing and exhibition of such flowers as Tulips, Carnations, Dahlias, and Chrysanthemums. In support of this I should like to know what proportion of demand there is, in Dahlias, for instance, between the show kinds, whose aim and object is the show-table, and the decorative kinds, that are indisputably better for garden use. Looking at the catalogue of a leading Dahlia nursery, I find that the decorative kinds fill ten pages, while the show kinds, including Pompones, fill only three. Is not this some indication of what is wanted in gardens? I am of opinion that the show-table is unworthily used when its object is to be an end in itself, and that it should be only a means to a better end, and that when it exhibits what has become merely a "fancy," it loses sight of its honourable position as a trustworthy exponent of horticulture, and has degenerated to a baser use. When, as in Chrysanthemum shows, the flowers on the board are of _no use anywhere but on that board_, and for the purpose of gaining a money prize, I hold that the show-table has a debased aim, and a debasing influence. Beauty, in all the best sense, is put aside in favour of set rules and measurements, and the production of a thing that is of no use or value; and individuals of a race of plants capable of producing the highest and most delightful forms of beauty, and of brightening our homes, and even gardens, during the dim days of early winter, are teased and tortured and fatted and bloated into ugly and useless monstrosities for no purpose but to gain money. And when private gardeners go to these shows and see how the prizes are awarded, and how all the glory is accorded to the first-prize bloated monster, can we wonder that the effect on their minds is confusing, if not absolutely harmful? Shows of Carnations and Pansies, where the older rules prevail, are equally misleading, where the single flowers are arrayed in a flat circle of paper. As with the Chrysanthemum, every sort of trickery is allowed in arranging the petals of the Carnation blooms: petals are pulled out or stuck in, and they are twisted about, and groomed and combed, and manipulated with special tools--"dressed," as the show-word has it--dressed so elaborately that the dressing only stops short of applying actual paint and perfumery. Already in the case of Carnations a better influence is being felt, and at the London shows there are now classes for border Carnations set up in long-stalked bunches just as they grow. It is only like this that their value as outdoor plants can be tested; for many of the show sorts have miserably weak stalks, and a very poor, lanky habit of growth. Then the poor Pansies have single blooms laid flat on white papers, and are only approved if they will lie quite flat and show an outline of a perfect circle. All that is most beautiful in a Pansy, the wing-like curves, the waved or slightly fluted radiations, the scarcely perceptible undulation of surface that displays to perfection the admirable delicacy of velvety texture; all the little tender tricks and ways that make the Pansy one of the best-loved of garden flowers; all this is overlooked, and not only passively overlooked, but overtly contemned. The show-pansy judge appears to have no eye, or brain, or heart, but to have in their place a pair of compasses with which to describe a circle! All idea of garden delight seems to be excluded, as this kind of judging appeals to no recognition of beauty for beauty's sake, but to hard systems of measurement and rigid arrangement and computation that one would think more applicable to astronomy or geometry than to any matter relating to horticulture. I do most strongly urge that beauty of the highest class should be the aim, and not anything of the nature of fashion or "fancy," and that every effort should be made towards the raising rather than the lowering of the standard of taste. The Societies which exist throughout the country are well organised; many have existed for a great number of years; they are the local sources of horticultural education, to which large circles of people naturally look for guidance; and though they produce--and especially the Rose shows--quantities of beautiful things, it cannot but be perceived by all who have had the benefit of some refinement of education, that in very many cases they either deliberately teach, or at any rate allow to be seen with their sanction, what cannot fail to be debasing to public taste. I will just take two examples to show how obvious methods of leading taste are not only overlooked, but even perverted; for it is not only in the individual blooms that much of the show-teaching is unworthy, but also in the training of the plants; so that a plant that by nature has some beauty of form, is not encouraged or even allowed to develop that beauty, but is trained into some shape that is not only foreign to its own nature, but is absolutely ugly and ungraceful, and entirely stupid. The natural habit of the Chrysanthemum is to grow in the form of several upright stems. They spring up sheaf-wise, straight upright for a time, and only bending a little outwards above, to give room for the branching heads of bloom. The stems are rather stiff, because they are half woody at the base. In the case of pot-plants it would seem right only so far to stake or train them as to give the necessary support by a few sticks set a little outwards at the top, so that each stem may lean a little over, after the manner of a Bamboo, when their clustered heads of flower would be given enough room, and be seen to the greatest advantage. But at shows, the triumph of the training art seems to be to drag the poor thing round and round over an internal scaffolding of sticks, with an infinite number of ties and cross-braces, so that it makes a sort of shapeless ball, and to arrange the flowers so that they are equally spotted all over it, by tying back some almost to snapping-point, and by dragging forward others to the verge of dislocation. I have never seen anything so ugly in the way of potted plants as a certain kind of Chrysanthemum that has incurved flowers of a heavy sort of dull leaden-looking red-purple colour trained in this manner. Such a sight gives me a feeling of shame, not unmixed with wrathful indignation. I ask myself, What is it for? and I get no answer. I ask a practical gardener what it is for, and he says, "Oh, it is one of the ways they are trained for shows." I ask him, Does he think it pretty, or is it any use? and he says, "Well, they think it makes a nice variety;" and when I press him further, and say I consider it a very nasty variety, and does he think nasty varieties are better than none, the question is beyond him, and he smiles vaguely and edges away, evidently thinking my conversation perplexing, and my company undesirable. I look again at the unhappy plant, and see its poor leaves fat with an unwholesome obesity, and seeming to say, We were really a good bit mildewed, but have been doctored up for the show by being crammed and stuffed with artificial aliment! My second example is that of _Azalea indica_. What is prettier in a room than one of these in its little tree form, a true tree, with tiny trunk and wide-spreading branches, and its absurdly large and lovely flowers? Surely it is the most perfect room ornament that we can have in tree shape in a moderate-sized pot; and where else can one see a tree loaded with lovely bloom whose individual flowers have a diameter equal to five times that of the trunk? But the show decrees that all this is wrong, and that the tiny, brittle branches must be trained stiffly round till the shape of the plant shows as a sort of cylinder. Again I ask myself, What is this for? What does it teach? Can it be really to teach with deliberate intention that instead of displaying its natural and graceful tree form it should aim at a more desirable kind of beauty, such as that of the chimney-pot or drain-pipe, and that this is so important that it is right and laudable to devote to it much time and delicate workmanship? I cannot but think, as well as hope, that the strong influences for good that are now being brought to bear on all departments of gardening may reach this class of show, for there are already more hopeful signs in the admission of classes for groups arranged for decoration. The prize-show system no doubt creates its own evils, because the judges, and those who frame the schedules, have been in most cases men who have a knowledge of flowers, but who are not people of cultivated taste, and in deciding what points are to constitute the merits of a flower they have to take such qualities as are within the clearest understanding of people of average intelligence and average education--such, for instance, as size that can be measured, symmetry that can be easily estimated, thickness of petal that can be felt, and such qualities of colour as appeal most strongly to the uneducated eye; so that a flower may possess features or qualities that endow it with the highest beauty, but that exclude it, because the hard and narrow limits of the show-laws provide no means of dealing with it. It is, therefore, thrown out, not because they have any fault to find with it, but because it does not concern them; and the ordinary gardener, to whose practice it might be of the highest value, accepting the verdict of the show-judge as an infallible guide, also treats it with contempt and neglect. Now, all this would not so much matter if it did not delude those whose taste is not sufficiently educated to enable them to form an opinion of their own in accordance with the best and truest standards of beauty; for I venture to repeat that what we have to look for for the benefit of our gardens, and for our own bettering and increase of happiness in those gardens, are things that are beautiful, rather than things that are round, or straight, or thick, still less than for those that are new, or curious, or astonishing. For all these false gods are among us, and many are they who are willing to worship. CHAPTER XXI NOVELTY AND VARIETY When I look back over thirty years of gardening, I see what an extraordinary progress there has been, not only in the introduction of good plants new to general cultivation, but also in the home production of improved kinds of old favourites. In annual plants alone there has been a remarkable advance. And here again, though many really beautiful things are being brought forward, there seems always to be an undue value assigned to a fresh development, on the score of its novelty. Now it seems to me, that among the thousands of beautiful things already at hand for garden use, there is no merit whatever in novelty or variety unless the thing new or different is distinctly more beautiful, or in some such way better than an older thing of the same class. And there seems to be a general wish among seed growers just now to dwarf all annual plants. Now, when a plant is naturally of a diffuse habit, the fixing of a dwarfer variety may be a distinct gain to horticulture--it may just make a good garden plant out of one that was formerly of indifferent quality; but there seems to me to be a kind of stupidity in inferring from this that all annuals are the better for dwarfing. I take it that the bedding system has had a good deal to do with it. It no doubt enables ignorant gardeners to use a larger variety of plants as senseless colour-masses, but it is obvious that many, if not most, of the plants are individually made much uglier by the process. Take, for example, one of the dwarfest Ageratums: what a silly little dumpy, formless, pincushion of a thing it is! And then the dwarfest of the China Asters. Here is a plant (whose chief weakness already lies in a certain over-stiffness) made stiffer and more shapeless still by dwarfing and by cramming with too many petals. The Comet Asters of later years are a much-improved type of flower, with a looser shape and a certain degree of approach to grace and beauty. When this kind came out it was a noteworthy novelty, not because it was a novelty, but because it was a better and more beautiful thing. Also among the same Asters the introduction of a better class of red colouring, first of the blood-red and then of the so-called scarlet shades, was a good variety, because it was the distinct bettering of the colour of a popular race of garden-flowers, whose red and pink colourings had hitherto been of a bad and rank quality. It is quite true that here and there the dwarf kind is a distinctly useful thing, as in the dwarf Nasturtiums. In this grand plant one is glad to have dwarf ones as well as the old trailing kinds. I even confess to a certain liking for the podgy little dwarf Snapdragons; they are ungraceful little dumpy things, but they happen to have come in some tender colourings of pale yellow and pale pink, that give them a kind of absurd prettiness, and a certain garden-value. I also look at them as a little floral joke that is harmless and not displeasing, but they cannot for a moment compare in beauty with the free-growing Snapdragon of the older type. This I always think one of the best and most interesting and admirable of garden-plants. Its beauty is lost if it is crowded up among other things in a border; it should be grown in a dry wall or steep rocky bank, where its handsome bushy growth and finely-poised spikes of bloom can be well seen. [Illustration: TALL SNAPDRAGONS GROWING IN A DRY WALL.] [Illustration: MULLEINS GROWING IN THE FACE OF DRY WALL. (_See "Old Wall," page 116._)] One of the annuals that I think is entirely spoilt by dwarfing is Love-in-a-Mist, a plant I hold in high admiration. Many years ago I came upon some of it in a small garden, of a type that I thought extremely desirable, with a double flower of just the right degree of fulness, and of an unusually fine colour. I was fortunate enough to get some seed, and have never grown any other, nor have I ever seen elsewhere any that I think can compare with it. The Zinnia is another fine annual that has been much spoilt by its would-be improvers. When a Zinnia has a hard, stiff, tall flower, with a great many rows of petals piled up one on top of another, and when its habit is dwarfed to a mean degree of squatness, it looks to me both ugly and absurd, whereas a reasonably double one, well branched, and two feet high, is a handsome plant. I also think that Stocks and Wallflowers are much handsomer when rather tall and branching. Dwarf Stocks, moreover, are invariably spattered with soil in heavy autumn rain. An example of the improver not knowing where to stop in the matter of colouring, always strikes me in the Gaillardias, and more especially in the perennial kind, that is increased by division as well as by seed. The flower is naturally of a strong orange-yellow colour, with a narrow ring of red round the centre. The improver has sought to increase the width of the red ring. Up to a certain point it makes a livelier and brighter-looking flower; but he has gone too far, and extended the red till it has become a red flower with a narrow yellow edge. The red also is of a rather dull and heavy nature, so that instead of a handsome yellow flower with a broad central ring, here is an ugly red one with a yellow border. There is no positive harm done, as the plant has been propagated at every stage of development, and one may choose what one will; but to see them together is an instructive lesson. No annual plant has of late years been so much improved as the Sweet Pea, and one reason why its charming beauty and scent are so enjoyable is, that they grow tall, and can be seen on a level with the eye. There can be no excuse whatever for dwarfing this, as has lately been done. There are already plenty of good flowering plants under a foot high, and the little dwarf white monstrosity, now being followed by coloured ones of the same habit, seems to me worthy of nothing but condemnation. It would be as right and sensible to dwarf a Hollyhock into a podgy mass a foot high, or a Pentstemon, or a Foxglove. Happily these have as yet escaped dwarfing, though I regret to see that a deformity that not unfrequently appears among garden Foxgloves, looking like a bell-shaped flower topping a stunted spike, appears to have been "fixed," and is being offered as a "novelty." Here is one of the clearest examples of a new development which is a distinct debasement of a naturally beautiful form, but which is nevertheless being pushed forward in trade: it has no merit whatever in itself, and is only likely to sell because it is new and curious. And all this parade of distortion and deformity comes about from the grower losing sight of beauty as the first consideration, or from his not having the knowledge that would enable him to determine what are the points of character in various plants most deserving of development, and in not knowing when or where to stop. Abnormal size, whether greatly above or much below the average, appeals to the vulgar and uneducated eye, and will always command its attention and wonderment. But then the production of the immense size that provokes astonishment, and the misapplied ingenuity that produces unusual dwarfing, are neither of them very high aims. And much as I feel grateful to those who improve garden flowers, I venture to repeat my strong conviction that their efforts in selection and other methods should be so directed as to keep in view the attainment of beauty in the first place, and as a point of honour; not to mere increase of size of bloom or compactness of habit--many plants have been spoilt by excess of both; not for variety or novelty as ends in themselves, but only to welcome them, and offer them, if they are distinctly of garden value in the best sense. For if plants are grown or advertised or otherwise pushed on any other account than that of their possessing some worthy form of beauty, they become of the same nature as any other article in trade that is got up for sale for the sole benefit of the seller, that is unduly lauded by advertisement, and that makes its first appeal to the vulgar eye by an exaggerated and showy pictorial representation; that will serve no useful purpose, and for which there is no true or healthy demand. No doubt much of it comes about from the unwholesome pressure of trade competition, which in a way obliges all to follow where some lead. I trust that my many good friends in the trade will understand that my remarks are not made in any personal sense whatever. I know that some of them feel much as I do on some of these points, but that in many ways they are helpless, being all bound in a kind of bondage to the general system. And there is one great evil that calls loudly for redress, but that will endure until some of the mightiest of them have the energy and courage to band themselves together and to declare that it shall no longer exist among them. CHAPTER XXII WEEDS AND PESTS Weeding is a delightful occupation, especially after summer rain, when the roots come up clear and clean. One gets to know how many and various are the ways of weeds--as many almost as the moods of human creatures. How easy and pleasant to pull up are the soft annuals like Chickweed and Groundsel, and how one looks with respect at deep-rooted things like Docks, that make one go and fetch a spade. Comfrey is another thing with a terrible root, and every bit must be got out, as it will grow again from the smallest scrap. And hard to get up are the two Bryonies, the green and the black, with such deep-reaching roots, that, if not weeded up within their first year, will have to be seriously dug out later. The white Convolvulus, one of the loveliest of native plants, has a most persistently running root, of which every joint will quickly form a new plant. Some of the worst weeds to get out are Goutweed and Coltsfoot. Though I live on a light soil, comparatively easy to clean, I have done some gardening in clay, and well know what a despairing job it is to get the bits of either of these roots out of the stiff clods. The most persistent weed in my soil is the small running Sheep's Sorrel. First it makes a patch, and then sends out thready running roots all round, a foot or more long; these, if not checked, establish new bases of operation, and so it goes on, always spreading farther and farther. When this happens in soft ground that can be hoed and weeded it matters less, but in the lawn it is a more serious matter. Its presence always denotes a poor, sandy soil of rather a sour quality. Goutweed is a pest in nearly all gardens, and very difficult to get out. When it runs into the root of some patch of hardy plant, if the plant can be spared, I find it best to send it at once to the burn-heap; or if it is too precious, there is nothing for it but to cut it all up and wash it out, to be sure that not the smallest particle of the enemy remains. Some weeds are deceiving--Sow-thistle, for instance, which has the look of promising firm hand-hold and easy extraction, but has a disappointing way of almost always breaking short off at the collar. But of all the garden weeds that are native plants I know none so persistent or so insidious as the Rampion Bell-flower (_Campanula Rapunculus_); it grows from the smallest thread of root, and it is almost impossible to see every little bit; for though the main roots are thick, and white, and fleshy, the fine side roots that run far abroad are very small, and of a reddish colour, and easily hidden in the brown earth. But some of the worst garden-weeds are exotics run wild. The common Grape Hyacinth sometimes overruns a garden and cannot be got rid of. _Sambucus ebulis_ is a plant to beware of, its long thong-like roots spreading far and wide, and coming up again far away from the parent stock. For this reason it is valuable for planting in such places as newly-made pond-heads, helping to tie the bank together. _Polygonum Sieboldi_ must also be planted with caution. The winter Heliotrope (_Petasites fragrans_) is almost impossible to get out when once it has taken hold, growing in the same way as its near relative the native Coltsfoot. But by far the most difficult plant to abolish or even keep in check that I know is _Ornithogalum nutans_. Beautiful as it is, and valuable as a cut flower, I will not have it in the garden. I think I may venture to say that in this soil, when once established, it cannot be eradicated. Each mature bulb makes a host of offsets, and the seed quickly ripens. When it is once in a garden it will suddenly appear in all sorts of different places. It is no use trying to dig it out. I have dug out the whole space of soil containing the patch, a barrow-load at a time, and sent it to the middle of the burn-heap, and put in fresh soil, and there it is again next year, nearly as thick as ever. I have dug up individual small patches with the greatest care, and got out every bulb and offset, and every bit of the whitish leaf stem, for I have such faith in its power of reproduction that I think every atom of this is capable of making a plant, only to find next year a thriving young tuft of the "grass" in the same place. And yet the bulb and underground stem are white, and the earth is brown, and I passed it all several times through my fingers, but all in vain. I confess that it beats me entirely. _Coronilla varia_ is a little plant that appears in catalogues among desirable Alpines, but is a very "rooty" and troublesome thing, and scarcely good enough for garden use, though pretty in a grassy bank where its rambling ways would not be objectionable. I once brought home from Brittany some roots of _Linaria repens_, that looked charming by a roadside, and planted them in a bit of Alpine garden, a planting that I never afterwards ceased to regret. I learnt from an old farmer a good way of getting rid of a bed of nettles--to thrash them down with a stick every time they grow up. If this is done about three times during the year, the root becomes so much weakened that it is easily forked out, or if the treatment is gone on with, the second year the nettles die. Thrashing with a stick is better than cutting, as it makes the plant bleed more; any mutilation of bruise or ragged tearing of fibre is more harmful to plant or tree than clean cutting. Of bird, beast, and insect pests we have plenty. First, and worst, are rabbits. They will gnaw and nibble anything and everything that is newly planted, even native things like Juniper, Scotch Fir, and Gorse. The necessity of wiring everything newly planted adds greatly to the labour and expense of the garden, and the unsightly grey wire-netting is an unpleasant eyesore. When plants or bushes are well established the rabbits leave them alone, though some families of plants are always irresistible--Pinks and Carnations, for instance, and nearly all Cruciferæ, such as Wallflowers, Stocks, and Iberis. The only plants I know that they do not touch are Rhododendrons and Azaleas; they leave them for the hare, that is sure to get in every now and then, and who stands up on his long hind-legs, and will eat Rose-bushes quite high up. Plants eaten by a hare look as if they had been cut with a sharp knife; there is no appearance of gnawing or nibbling, no ragged edges of wood or frayed bark, but just a straight clean cut. Field mice are very troublesome. Some years they will nibble off the flower-buds of the Lent Hellebores; when they do this they have a curious way of collecting them and laying them in heaps. I have no idea why they do this, as they neither carry them away nor eat them afterwards; there the heaps of buds lie till they rot or dry up. They once stole all my Auricula seed in the same way. I had marked some good plants for seed, cutting off all the other flowers as soon as they went out of bloom. The seed was ripening, and I watched it daily, awaiting the moment for harvesting. But a few days before it was ready I went round and found the seed was all gone; it had been cut off at the top of the stalk, so that the umbel-shaped heads had been taken away whole. I looked about, and luckily found three slightly hollow places under the bank at the back of the border where the seed-heads had been piled in heaps. In this case it looked as if it had been stored for food; luckily it was near enough to ripeness for me to save my crop. The mice are also troublesome with newly-sown Peas, eating some underground, while sparrows nibble off others when just sprouted; and when outdoor Grapes are ripening mice run up the walls and eat them. Even when the Grapes are tied in oiled canvas bags they will eat through the bags to get at them, though I have never known them to gnaw through the newspaper bags that I now use in preference, and that ripen the Grapes as well. I am not sure whether it is mice or birds that pick off the flowers of the big bunch Primroses, but am inclined to think it is mice, because the stalks are cut low down. Pheasants are very bad gardeners; what they seem to enjoy most are Crocuses--in fact, it is no use planting them. I had once a nice collection of Crocus species. They were in separate patches, all along the edge of one border, in a sheltered part of the garden, where pheasants did not often come. One day when I came to see my Crocuses, I found where each patch had been a basin-shaped excavation and a few fragments of stalk or some part of the plant. They had begun at one end and worked steadily along, clearing them right out. They also destroyed a long bed of _Anemone fulgens_. First they took the flowers, and then the leaves, and lastly pecked up and ate the roots. But we have one grand consolation in having no slugs, at least hardly any that are truly indigenous; they do not like our dry, sandy heaths. Friends are very generous in sending them with plants, so that we have a moderate number that hang about frames and pot plants, though nothing much to boast of; but they never trouble seedlings in the open ground, and for this I can never be too thankful. Alas that the beautiful bullfinch should be so dire an enemy to fruit-trees, and also the pretty little tits! but so it is; and it is a sad sight to see a well-grown fruit-tree with all its fruit-buds pecked out and lying under it on the ground in a thin green carpet. We had some fine young cherry-trees in a small orchard that we cut down in despair after they had been growing twelve years. They were too large to net, and their space could not be spared just for the mischievous fun of the birds. CHAPTER XXIII THE BEDDING FASHION AND ITS INFLUENCE It is curious to look back at the old days of bedding-out, when that and that only meant gardening to most people, and to remember how the fashion, beginning in the larger gardens, made its way like a great inundating wave, submerging the lesser ones, and almost drowning out the beauties of the many little flowery cottage plots of our English waysides. And one wonders how it all came about, and why the bedding system, admirable for its own purpose, should have thus outstepped its bounds, and have been allowed to run riot among gardens great and small throughout the land. But so it was, and for many years the fashion, for it was scarcely anything better, reigned supreme. It was well for all real lovers of flowers when some quarter of a century ago a strong champion of the good old flowers arose, and fought strenuously to stay the devastating tide, and to restore the healthy liking for the good old garden flowers. Many soon followed, and now one may say that all England has flocked to the standard. Bedding as an all-prevailing fashion is now dead; the old garden-flowers are again honoured and loved, and every encouragement is freely offered to those who will improve old kinds and bring forward others. And now that bedding as a fashion no longer exists, one can look at it more quietly and fairly, and see what its uses really are, for in its own place and way it is undoubtedly useful and desirable. Many great country-houses are only inhabited in winter, then perhaps for a week or two at Easter, and in the late summer. There is probably a house-party at Easter, and a succession of visitors in the late summer. A brilliant garden, visible from the house, dressed for spring and dressed for early autumn, is exactly what is wanted--not necessarily from any special love of flowers, but as a kind of bright and well-kept furnishing of the immediate environment of the house. The gardener delights in it; it is all routine work; so many hundreds or thousands of scarlet Geranium, of yellow Calceolaria, of blue Lobelia, of golden Feverfew, or of other coloured material. It wants no imagination; the comprehension of it is within the range of the most limited understanding; indeed its prevalence for some twenty years or more must have had a deteriorating influence on the whole class of private gardeners, presenting to them an ideal so easy of attainment and so cheap of mental effort. But bedding, though it is gardening of the least poetical or imaginative kind, can be done badly or beautifully. In the _parterre_ of the formal garden it is absolutely in place, and brilliantly-beautiful pictures can be made by a wise choice of colouring. I once saw, and can never forget, a bedded garden that was a perfectly satisfying example of colour-harmony; but then it was planned by the master, a man of the most refined taste, and not by the gardener. It was a _parterre_ that formed part of the garden in one of the fine old places in the Midland counties. I have no distinct recollection of the design, except that there was some principle of fan-shaped radiation, of which each extreme angle formed one centre. The whole garden was treated in one harmonious colouring of full yellow, orange, and orange-brown; half-hardy annuals, such as French and African Marigolds, Zinnias, and Nasturtiums, being freely used. It was the most noble treatment of one limited range of colouring I have ever seen in a garden; brilliant without being garish, and sumptuously gorgeous without the reproach of gaudiness--a precious lesson in temperance and restraint in the use of the one colour, and an admirable exposition of its powerful effect in the hands of a true artist. I think that in many smaller gardens a certain amount of bedding may be actually desirable; for where the owner of a garden has a special liking for certain classes or mixtures of plants, or wishes to grow them thoroughly well and enjoy them individually to the full, he will naturally grow them in separate beds, or may intentionally combine the beds, if he will, into some form of good garden effect. But the great fault of the bedding system when at its height was, that it swept over the country as a tyrannical fashion, that demanded, and for the time being succeeded in effecting, the exclusion of better and more thoughtful kinds of gardening; for I believe I am right in saying that it spread like an epidemic disease, and raged far and wide for nearly a quarter of a century. Its worst form of all was the "ribbon border," generally a line of scarlet Geranium at the back, then a line of Calceolaria, then a line of blue Lobelia, and lastly, a line of the inevitable Golden Feather Feverfew, or what our gardener used to call Featherfew. Could anything be more tedious or more stupid? And the ribbon border was at its worst when its lines were not straight, but waved about in weak and silly sinuations. And when bedding as a fashion was dead, when this false god had been toppled off his pedestal, and his worshippers had been converted to better beliefs, in turning and rending him they often went too far, and did injustice to the innocent by professing a dislike to many a good plant, and renouncing its use. It was not the fault of the Geranium or of the Calceolaria that they had been grievously misused and made to usurp too large a share of our garden spaces. Not once but many a time my visitors have expressed unbounded surprise when they saw these plants in my garden, saying, "I should have thought that you would have despised Geraniums." On the contrary, I love Geraniums. There are no plants to come near them for pot, or box, or stone basket, or for massing in any sheltered place in hottest sunshine; and I love their strangely-pleasant smell, and their beautiful modern colourings of soft scarlet and salmon-scarlet and salmon-pink, some of these grouping beautifully together. I have a space in connection with some formal stonework of steps, and tank, and paved walks, close to the house, on purpose for the summer placing of large pots of Geranium, with sometimes a few Cannas and Lilies. For a quarter of the year it is one of the best things in the garden, and delightful in colour. Then no plant does so well or looks so suitable in some earthen pots and boxes from Southern Italy that I always think the best that were ever made, their shape and well-designed ornament traditional from the Middle Ages, and probably from an even more remote antiquity. [Illustration: GERANIUMS IN NEAPOLITAN POTS.] There are, of course, among bedding Geraniums many of a bad, raw quality of colour, particularly among cold, hard pinks, but there are so many to choose from that these can easily be avoided. I remember some years ago, when the bedding fashion was going out, reading some rather heated discussions in the gardening papers about methods of planting out and arranging various tender but indispensable plants. Some one who had been writing about the errors of the bedding system wrote about planting some of these in isolated masses. He was pounced upon by another, who asked, "What is this but bedding?" The second writer was so far justified, in that it cannot be denied that any planting in beds is bedding. But then there is bedding and bedding--a right and a wrong way of applying the treatment. Another matter that roused the combative spirit of the captious critic was the filling up of bare spaces in mixed borders with Geraniums, Calceolarias, and other such plants. Again he said, "What is this but bedding? These are bedding plants." When I read this it seemed to me that his argument was, These plants may be very good plants in themselves, but because they have for some years been used wrongly, therefore they must not now be used rightly! In the case of my own visitors, when they have expressed surprise at my having "those horrid old bedding plants" in my garden, it seemed quite a new view when I pointed out that bedding plants were only passive agents in their own misuse, and that a Geranium was a Geranium long before it was a bedding plant! But the discussion raised in my mind a wish to come to some conclusion about the difference between bedding in the better and worse sense, in relation to the cases quoted, and it appeared to me to be merely in the choice between right and wrong placing--placing monotonously or stupidly, so as merely to fill the space, or placing with a feeling for "drawing" or proportion. For I had very soon found out that, if I had a number of things to plant anywhere, whether only to fill up a border or as a detached group, if I placed the things myself, carefully exercising what power of discrimination I might have acquired, it looked fairly right, but that if I left it to one of my garden people (a thing I rarely do) it looked all nohow, or like bedding in the worst sense of the word. [Illustration: SPACE IN STEP AND TANK-GARDEN FOR LILIES, CANNAS, AND GERANIUMS.] [Illustration: HYDRANGEAS IN TUBS, IN A PART OF THE SAME GARDEN.] Even the better ways of gardening do not wholly escape the debasing influence of fashion. Wild gardening is a delightful, and in good hands a most desirable, pursuit, but no kind of gardening is so difficult to do well, or is so full of pitfalls and of paths of peril. Because it has in some measure become fashionable, and because it is understood to mean the planting of exotics in wild places, unthinking people rush to the conclusion that they can put any garden plants into any wild places, and that that is wild gardening. I have seen woody places that were already perfect with their own simple charm just muddled and spoilt by a reckless planting of garden refuse, and heathy hillsides already sufficiently and beautifully clothed with native vegetation made to look lamentably silly by the planting of a nurseryman's mixed lot of exotic Conifers. In my own case, I have always devoted the most careful consideration to any bit of wild gardening I thought of doing, never allowing myself to decide upon it till I felt thoroughly assured that the place seemed to ask for the planting in contemplation, and that it would be distinctly a gain in pictorial value; so there are stretches of Daffodils in one part of the copse, while another is carpeted with Lily of the Valley. A cool bank is covered with Gaultheria, and just where I thought they would look well as little jewels of beauty, are spreading patches of Trillium and the great yellow Dog-tooth Violet. Besides these there are only some groups of the Giant Lily. Many other exotic plants could have been made to grow in the wooded ground, but they did not seem to be wanted; I thought where the copse looked well and complete in itself it was better left alone. But where the wood joins the garden some bold groups of flowering plants are allowed, as of Mullein in one part and Foxglove in another; for when standing in the free part of the garden, it is pleasant to project the sight far into the wood, and to let the garden influences penetrate here and there, the better to join the one to the other. [Illustration: MULLEIN (VERBASCUM PHLOMOIDES) AT THE EDGE OF THE FIR WOOD.] [Illustration: A GRASS PATH IN THE COPSE.] Under the Bracken in both pictures is a wide planting of Lily of the Valley, flowering in May before the Fern is up. (_See page 61._) CHAPTER XXIV MASTERS AND MEN Now that the owners of good places are for the most part taking a newly-awakened and newly-educated pleasure in the better ways of gardening, a frequent source of difficulty arises from the ignorance and obstructiveness of gardeners. The owners have become aware that their gardens may be sources of the keenest pleasure. The gardener may be an excellent man, perfectly understanding the ordinary routine of garden work; he may have been many years in his place; it is his settled home, and he is getting well on into middle life; but he has no understanding of the new order of things, and when the master, perfectly understanding what he is about, desires that certain things shall be done, and wishes to enjoy the pleasure of directing the work himself, and seeing it grow under his hand, he resents it as an interference, and becomes obstructive, or does what is required in a spirit of such sullen acquiescence that it is equal to open opposition. And I have seen so many gardens and gardeners that I have come to recognise certain types; and this one, among men of a certain age, is unfortunately frequent. Various degrees of ignorance and narrow-mindedness must no doubt be expected among the class that produces private gardeners. Their general education is not very wide to begin with, and their training is usually all in one groove, and the many who possess a full share of vanity get to think that, because they have exhausted the obvious sources of experience that have occurred within their reach, there is nothing more to learn, or to know, or to see, or to feel, or to enjoy. It is in this that the difficulty lies. The man has no doubt done his best through life; he has performed his duties well and faithfully, and can render a good account of his stewardship. It is no fault of his that more means of enlarging his mind have not been within his grasp, and, to a certain degree, he may be excused for not understanding that there is anything beyond; but if he is naturally vain and stubborn his case is hopeless. If, on the other hand, he is wise enough to know that he does not know everything, and modest enough to acknowledge it, as do all the greatest and most learned of men, he will then be eager to receive new and enlarged impressions, and his willing and intelligent co-operation will be a new source of interest in life both to himself and his employer, as well as a fresh spring of vitality in the life of the garden. I am speaking of the large middle class of private gardeners, not of those of the highest rank, who have among them men of good education and a large measure of refinement. From among these I think of the late Mr. Ingram of the Belvoir Castle gardens, with regret as for a personal friend, and also as of one who was a true garden artist. But most people who have fair-sized gardens have to do with the middle class of gardener, the man of narrow mental training. The master who, after a good many years of active life, is looking forward to settling in his home and improving and enjoying his garden, has had so different a training, a course of teaching so immeasurably wider and more enlightening. As a boy he was in a great public school, where, by wholesome friction with his fellows, he had any petty or personal nonsense knocked out of him while still in his early "teens." Then he goes to college, and whether studiously inclined or not, he is already in the great world, always widening his ideas and experience. Then perhaps he is in one of the active professions, or engaged in scientific or intellectual research, or in diplomacy, his ever-expanding intelligence rubbing up against all that is most enlightened and astute in men, or most profoundly inexplicable in matter. He may be at the same time cultivating his taste for literature and the fine arts, searching the libraries and galleries of the civilised world for the noblest and most divinely-inspired examples of human work, seeing with an eye that daily grows more keenly searching, and receiving and holding with a brain that ever gains a firmer grasp, and so acquires some measure of the higher critical faculty. He sees the ruined gardens of antiquity, colossal works of the rulers of Imperial Rome, and the later gardens of the Middle Ages (direct descendants of those greater and older ones), some of them still among the most beautiful gardens on earth. He sees how the taste for gardening grew and travelled, spreading through Europe and reaching England, first, no doubt, through her Roman invaders. He becomes more and more aware of what great and enduring happiness may be enjoyed in a garden, and how all that he can learn of it in the leisure intervals of his earlier maturity, and then in middle life, will help to brighten his later days, when he hopes to refine and make better the garden of the old home by a reverent application of what he has learnt. He thinks of the desecrated old bowling-green, cut up to suit the fashion of thirty years ago into a patchwork of incoherent star and crescent shaped beds; of how he will give it back its ancient character of unbroken repose; he thinks how he will restore the string of fish-ponds in the bottom of the wooded valley just below, now a rushy meadow with swampy hollows that once were ponds, and humpy mounds, ruins of the ancient dikes; of how the trees will stand reflected in the still water; and how he will live to see again in middle hours of summer days, as did the monks of old, the broad backs of the golden carp basking just below the surface of the sun-warmed water. And such a man as this comes home some day and finds the narrow-minded gardener, who believes that he already knows all that can be known about gardening, who thinks that the merely technical part, which he perfectly understands, is all that there is to be known and practised, and that his crude ideas about arrangement of flowers are as good as those of any one else. And a man of this temperament cannot be induced to believe, and still less can he be made to understand, that all that he knows is only the means to a further and higher end, and that what he can show of a completed garden can only reach to an average dead-level of dulness compared with what may come of the life-giving influence of one who has the mastery of the higher garden knowledge. Moreover, he either forgets, or does not know, what is the main purpose of a garden, namely, that it is to give its owner the best and highest kind of earthly pleasure. Neither is he enlightened enough to understand that the master can take a real and intelligent interest in planning and arranging, and in watching the working out in detail. His small-minded vanity can only see in all this a distrust in his own powers and an intentional slight cast on his ability, whereas no such idea had ever entered the master's mind. Though there are many of this kind of gardener (and with their employers, if they have the patience to retain them in their service, I sincerely condole), there are happily many of a widely-different nature, whose minds are both supple and elastic and intelligently receptive, who are eager to learn and to try what has not yet come within the range of their experience, who show a cheerful readiness to receive a fresh range of ideas, and a willing alacrity in doing their best to work them out. Such a servant as this warms his master's heart, and it would do him good to hear, as I have many times heard, the terms in which the master speaks of him. For just as the educated man feels contempt for the vulgar pretension that goes with any exhibition of ignorant vanity, so the evidence of the higher qualities commands his respect and warm appreciation. Among the gardeners I have known, five such men come vividly to my recollection--good men all, with a true love of flowers, and its reflection of happiness written on their kindly faces. But then, on the other hand, frequent causes of irritation arise between master and man from the master's ignorance and unreasonable demands. For much as the love of gardening has grown of late, there are many owners who have no knowledge of it whatever. I have more than once had visitors who complained of their gardeners, as I thought quite unreasonably, on their own showing. For it is not enough to secure the services of a thoroughly able man, and to pay good wages, and to provide every sort of appliance, if there is no reasonable knowledge of what it is right and just to expect. I have known a lady, after paying a round of visits in great houses, complain of her gardener. She had seen at one place remarkably fine forced strawberries, at another some phenomenal frame Violets, and at a third immense Malmaison Carnations; whereas her own gardener did not excel in any of these, though she admitted that he was admirable for Grapes and Chrysanthemums. "If the others could do all these things to perfection," she argued, "why could not he do them?" She expected her gardener to do equally well all that she had seen best done in the other big places. It was in vain that I pleaded in defence of her man that all gardeners were human creatures, and that it was in the nature of such creatures to have individual aptitudes and special preferences, and that it was to be expected that each man should excel in one thing, or one thing at a time, and so on; but it was of no use, and she would not accept any excuse or explanation. I remember another example of a visitor who had a rather large place, and a gardener who had as good a knowledge of hardy plants as one could expect. My visitor had lately got the idea that he liked hardy flowers, though he had scarcely thrown off the influence of some earlier heresy which taught that they were more or less contemptible--the sort of thing for cottage gardens; still, as they were now in fashion, he thought he had better have them. We were passing along my flower-border, just then in one of its best moods of summer beauty, and when its main occupants, three years planted, had come to their full strength, when, speaking of a large flower-border he had lately had made, he said, "I told my fellow last autumn to get anything he liked, and yet it is perfectly wretched. It is not as if I wanted anything out of the way; I only want a lot of common things like that," waving a hand airily at my precious border, while scarcely taking the trouble to look at it. And I have had another visitor of about the same degree of appreciative insight, who, contemplating some cherished garden picture, the consummation of some long-hoped-for wish, the crowning joy of years of labour, said, "Now look at that; it is just right, and yet it is quite simple--there is absolutely nothing in it; now, why can't my man give me that?" I am far from wishing to disparage or undervalue the services of the honest gardener, but I think that on this point there ought to be the clearest understanding; that the master must not expect from the gardener accomplishments that he has no means of acquiring, and that the gardener must not assume that his knowledge covers all that can come within the scope of the widest and best practice of his craft. There are branches of education entirely out of his reach that can be brought to bear upon garden planning and arrangement down to the very least detail. What the educated employer who has studied the higher forms of gardening can do or criticise, he cannot be expected to do or understand; it is in itself almost the work of a lifetime, and only attainable, like success in any other fine art, by persons of, firstly, special temperament and aptitude; and, secondly, by their unwearied study and closest application. But the result of knowledge so gained shows itself throughout the garden. It may be in so simple a thing as the placing of a group of plants. They can be so placed by the hand that knows, that the group is in perfect drawing in relation to what is near; while by the ordinary gardener they would be so planted that they look absurd, or unmeaning, or in some way awkward and unsightly. It is not enough to cultivate plants well; they must also be used well. The servant may set up the canvas and grind the colours, and even set the palette, but the master alone can paint the picture. It is just the careful and thoughtful exercise of the higher qualities that makes a garden interesting, and their absence that leaves it blank, and dull, and lifeless. I am heartily in sympathy with the feeling described in these words in a friend's letter, "I think there are few things so interesting as to see in what way a person, whose perceptions you think fine and worthy of study, will give them expression in a garden." INDEX Adonis vernalis, 52 Alcohol, its gravestone, 12 Alexandrian laurel, 16 Alströmerias, best kinds, how to plant, 92 Amelanchier, 52, 182 Ampelopsis, 43 Andromeda Catesbæi, 37; A. floribunda and A. japonica, 50; autumn colouring, 128, 165 Anemone fulgens, 57; japonica, 109, 207 Aponogeton, 194 Apple, Wellington, 12; apple-trees, beauty of form, 25 Aristolochia Sipho, 43 Arnebia echioides, 56 Aromatic plants, 235 Artemisia Stelleriana, 104 Arum, wild, leaves with cut daffodils, 58 Auriculas, 54; seed stolen by mice, 260 Autumn-sown annuals, 113 Azaleas, arrangement for colour, 69; A. occidentalis, 70; autumn colouring, 128; as trained for shows, 246 Bambusa Ragamowski, 102 Beauty of woodland in winter, 7, 153 Beauty the first aim in gardening, 2, 196, 244, 248, 253, 254 Bedding-out as a fashion, 263 and onward; bedding rightly used, 265 Berberis for winter decoration, 16; its many merits, 21 Bignonia radicans, large-flowered variety, 110 Birch, its graceful growth, 8; colour of bark, 9; fragrance in April, 51; grouped with holly, 152 Bird-cherry, 182 Bitton, Canon Ellacombe's garden at, 206 Blue-eyed Mary, 44 Books on gardening, 192 and onward Border plants, their young growth in April, 51 Bracken, 87; cut into layering-pegs, 98; careful cutting, 99; when at its best to cut, 106; autumn colouring, 127 Bramble, colour of leaves in winter, 20; in forest groups, 44; in orchard, 181; American kinds, 182 Briar roses, 80, 104 Bryony, the two wild kinds, 43 Bulbous plants, early blooming, how best to plant, 49 Bullfinch, a garden enemy, 262 Butcher's broom, 151 Cactus, hardy, on rock-wall, 119 Caltha palustris, 52 Campanula rapunculus, 257 Cardamine trifoliata, 50 Carnations, 94; at shows, 243 Caryopteris mastacanthus, 102 Ceanothus, Gloire de Versailles, 205 Cheiranthus, alpine kinds, 62 Chimonanthus fragrans, 229 Chionodoxa sardensis and C. Lucilliæ, 32 Choisya ternata, 63, 71, 205 Christmas rose, giant kind, 144 Chrysanthemums, hardy kinds, 144; as trained at shows, 245 Cistus laurifolius, 37; C. florentinus, 101; C. ladaniferus, 102, 206 Claret vine, 110 Clematis cirrhosa, 14; C. flammula when to train, 24; wild clematis in trees and hedges, 43; C. montana, 71, 203; C. Davidiana, 95, 205 Clergymen as gardeners, 175 Clerodendron foetidum, 110, 206 Climbing plants, 202; for pergola, 215 Colour, of woodland in winter, 19; of leaves of some garden plants, 21; colour-grouping of rhododendrons, 66; of azaleas, 69; colour of foliage of tree pæonies, 73; colour arrangement in the flower-border, 89, 109, 207; colour of bracken in October, 127; of azaleas and andromedas in autumn, 128; of bark of holly, 152; study of, 197; of flowers, how described, 221 and onward Copse-cutting, 166 Corchorus japonicus, 50 Coronilla varia, 259 Corydalis capnoides, 50 Cottage gardens, 4, 185; roses in, 79 Cottager's way of protecting tender plants, 91 Cowslips, 59 Crinums, 206 Crinums, hybrid, 110, 119; protecting, 146 Crocuses, eaten by pheasants, 261 Daffodils in the copse, 34; planted in old pack-horse tracks, 48 Dahlias, staking, 114; digging up, 133 Delphiniums, 89; grown from seed, 90; D. Belladonna, 91 Dentaria pinnata, 46 Deutzia parviflora, 103 Digging up plants, 139 Discussions about treatment of certain plants, 3 Dividing tough-rooted plants, 53; spring-blooming plants, 85; how often, 136; suitable tools, 136 and onward Dog-tooth violets, 33, 47 Doronicum, 53 Dressing of show flowers, 243 Dried flowers, 17 Dwarfing annuals, 249 Edwardsia grandiflora, 206 Elder trees, 83; elder-wine, 84 Epilobium angustifolium, white variety, 86 Epimedium pinnatum, 16, 46 Erinus alpinus, sown in rock-wall, 121 Eryngium giganteum, 93; E. maritimum, 93; E. Oliverianum, 93, 209. Eulalia japonica, flowers dried, 17 Evergreen branches for winter decoration, 16 Everlasting pea, dividing and propagating, 138 Experimental planting, 183 Felling trees, 162 Fern Filix foemina in rhododendron beds, 37, 106; Dicksonia punctilobulata, 62; ferns in rock-wall, 120; polypody, 121, 165 Fern-pegs for layering carnations, 98 Fern-walk, suitable plants among groups of ferns, 107 Flower border, 133, 200 Forms of deciduous trees, beauty of, 25 Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima, 50 Forget-me-not, large kind, 53 Foxgloves, 270 Fungi, Amanita, Boletus, Chantarelle, 111 Funkia grandiflora, 212 Galax aphylla, colour of leaves in winter, 21 Gale, broad-leaved, 101 Garden friends, 194 Garden houses, 215 Gardening, a fine art, 197 Garrya elliptica, 202 Gaultheria Shallon, value for cutting, 16; in rock-garden, 165 Geraniums as bedding plants, 266 and onward Gourds, as used by Mrs. Earle, 18 Goutweed, 257 Grape hyacinths, 49, 258 Grass, Sheep's-fescue, 69 Grasses for lawn, 147 Grey-foliaged plants, 207 Grouping plants that bloom together, 70 Grubbing, 160; tools, 150, 261 Guelder-rose as a wall-plant, 71; single kind, 129 Gypsophila paniculata, 95, 209 Half-hardy border plants in August, 108, 210 Happiness in gardening, 1, 274 Hares, as depredators, 260 Heath sods for protecting tender plants, 91 Heaths, filling up Rhododendron beds, 37; wild heath among azaleas, 69; cut short in paths, 70; ling, 106 Hellebores, caulescent kinds in the nut-walk, 9; for cutting, 57, 144; buds stolen by mice, 260. Heuchera Richardsoni, 53, 135 Holly, beauty in winter, 8; grouped with birch, 152; cheerful aspect, 154 Hollyhocks, the prettiest shape, 105 Honey-suckle, wild, 43 Hoof-parings as manure, 133 Hoop-making, 166, and onward Hop, wild, 43 Hutchinsia alpina, 50 Hyacinth (wild) in oak-wood, 60 Hydrangeas, protecting, 146; at foot of wall, 206 Hyssop, a good wall-plant, 121 Iris alata, 14; I. foetidissima, 120; I. pallida, 129 Iris stylosa, how to plant, 13; white variety, 14; time of blooming, 33, 164 Ivy, shoots for cutting, 17 Japan Privet, foliage for winter decoration, 16 Japan Quince (Cydonia or Pyrus), 50 Jasminum nudiflorum, 164 Junction of garden and wood, 34, 270 Juniper, its merits, 26; its form, action of snow, 27; power of recovery from damage, 29; beauty of colouring, 30; stems in winter dress, 31; in a wild valley, 154, and onward Kitchen-garden, 179; its sheds, 179, 180 Larch, sweetness in April, 51 Large gardens, 176 Lavender, when to cut, 105 Lawn-making, 146; lawn spaces, 177, 178 Leaf mould, 149 Learning, 5, 189, 190, 273 Lessons of the garden, 6; in wild-tree planting, 154; in orchard planting, 183; of the show-table, 241 Leucojum vernum, 33 Leycesteria formosa, 100 Lilacs, suckers, as strong feeders, good kinds, 23; standards best, 24 Lilium auratum among rhododendrons, 37, 106; among bamboos, 106 Lilium giganteum, 95; cultivation needed in poor soil, 142 Lilium Harrisi and L. speciosum, 106 Lily of the valley in the copse, 61 Linaria repens, 259 London Pride in the rock-wall, 120 Loquat, 204 Love-in-a-mist, 251 Love of gardening, 1 Luzula sylvatica, 61 Magnolia, branches indoors in winter, 16; magnolia stellata, 50; kinds in the choice shrub-bank, 101 Mai-trank, 60 Marking trees for cutting, 151 Marsh marigold, 52 Masters and men, 271 Mastic, 102 Meconopsis Wallichi, 165 Medlar, 129 Megaseas, colour of foliage, 17; M. ligulata, 103; in front edge of flower-border, 211 Mertensia virginica, 46; sowing the seed, 84 Mice, 260, 261 Michaelmas daisies, a garden to themselves, 125; planting and staking, 126; early kinds in mixed border, 135 Mixed planting, 183; mixed border, 206 Morells, 59 Mulleins (V. olympicum and V. phlomoides), 85; mullein-moth, 86, 270 Muscari of kinds, 49 Musical reverberation in wood of Scotch fir, 60 Myosotis sylvatica major, 53 Nandina domestica, 206 Narcissus cernuus, 12; N. serotinus, 14; N. princeps and N. Horsfieldi in the copse, 48 Nature's planting, 154 Nettles, to destroy, 259 Novelty, 249 Nut nursery at Calcot, 11 Nut-walk, 9; catkins, 11; suckers, 11 Oak timber, felling, 60 Old wall, 72, 116 and onward Omphalodes verna, 45 Ophiopogon spicatum for winter cutting, 16 Orchard, ornamental, 181 Orobus vernus, 52; O. aurantiacus, 62 Othonna cheirifolia, 63 Pæonies and Lent Hellebores grown together, 76 Pæony moutan grouped with Clematis montana, 70; special garden for pæonies, 72; frequent sudden deaths, 73; varieties of P. albiflora, 74; old garden kinds, 75; pæony species desirable for garden use, 75 Pansies as cut flowers, 57; at shows, 243 Parkinson's chapter on carnations, 94 Pavia macrostachya, 103 Pea, white everlasting, 95 Pergola, 212 Pernettya, 165 Pests, bird, beast, and insect, 259 Phacelia campanularia, 63 Pheasants, as depredators, 261; destroying crocuses, 261 Philadelphus microphyllus, 103 Phlomis fruticosa, 103 Phloxes, 135 Piptanthus nepalensis, 63, 206 Planes pollarded, 215 Planting early, 129; careful planting, 130; planting from pots, 131; careful tree planting, 148 Platycodon Mariesi, 108 Plume hyacinth, 49 Polygala chamæbuxus, 164 Polygonum compactum, 136; Sieboldi, 258 "Pot-pourri from a Surrey garden," 18 Primroses, white and lilac, 44; large bunch-flowered kinds as cut flowers, 58; seedlings planted out, 85; primrose garden, 216 Primula denticulata, 184 Progress in gardening, 249 Prophet-flower (Arnebia), 56 Protecting tender plants, 145 Pterocephalus parnassi, 107 Pyrus Maulei, 50 Queen wasps, 63 Quince, 128 Rabbits, 260 Ranunculus montanus, 50 Raphiolepis ovata, 204 Rhododendrons, variation in foliage, 35; R. multum maculatum, 35; plants to fill bare spaces among, 37; arrangement for colour, 64 and onward; hybrid of R. Aucklandi, 69; alpine, 165 Ribbon border, 266 Ribes, 50 Robinia hispida, 203 Rock garden, making and renewing, 115 Rock-wall, 116 and onward Rosemary, 204 Roses, pruning, tying, and training, 38; fence planted with free roses, 38; Reine Olga de Wurtemburg, 38; climbing and rambling roses, 39; Fortune's yellow, Banksian, 40; wild roses, 43; garden roses: Provence, moss, damask, R. alba, 78; roses in cottage gardens, ramblers and fountains, 79; free growth of Rosa polyantha, 80; two good, free roses for cutting, 80; Burnet rose and Scotch briars, Rosa lucida, 81; tea roses: best kinds for light soil, pegging, pruning, 82; roses collected in Capri, 105; second bloom of tea roses, 110; jam made of hips of R. rugosa, 111, 184; R. arvensis, garden form of, 129; R. Boursault elegans, 192; China, 205; their scents, 235 Ruscus aculeatus, 151; R. racemosus, 152 Ruta patavina, a late-flowering rock-plant, 107 Sambucus ebulis, 258 Satin-leaf (Heuchera Richardsoni), 53 Scilla maritima, 14; S. sibirica, S. bifolia, 32 Scents of flowers, 229 and onward Scotch fir, pollen, 53; cones opening, 54; effect of sound in fir-wood, 60 Show flowers, 242 Show-table, what it teaches, 241 Shrub-bank, 101; snug place for tender shrubs, 121 Shrub-wilderness of the old home, 100 Skimmeas, 101, 165 Slugs, 262 Smilacina bifolia, 61 Snapdragon, 251 Snowstorm of December 1886, 27 Snowy Mespilus (Amelanchier), 52 Solanum crispum, 204 Solomon's seal, 61 Spindle-tree, 127 Spiræa Thunbergi, 50, 104; S. prunifolia, 104 St. John's worts, choice, 103 Stephanandra flexuosa, 103 Sternbergia lutea, 139 Sticks and stakes, 163 Storms in autumn, 122 Styrax japonica, 101 Suckers of nuts, 11; robbers, how to remove, 24; on grafted rhododendrons, 36 Sunflowers, perennial, 134 Sweetbriar, rambling, 39; fragrance in April, 51 Sweet-leaved small shrubs, 34, 57, 101 Sweet peas, autumn sown, 83, 112 Thatching with hoop-chips, 169 Thinning the nut-walk, 10; thinning shrubs, 22; trees in copse, 151 Tiarella cordifolia, 53; colour of leaves in winter, 21 Tools for dividing, 136; for tree cutting and grubbing, 150; woodman's, 158; axe and wedge, 159; rollers, 160; cross-cut saw, 162 Training the eye, 4; training Clematis flammula, 24 Transplanting large trees, 147 Trillium grandiflorum, 61 Tritomas, protecting, 146 Tulips, show kinds and their origin, 55; T. retroflexa, 55; other good garden kinds, 56 Various ways of gardening, 3 Verbascum olympicum and V. phlomoides, 85 Villa garden, 171 Vinca acutiflora, 139 Vine, black Hamburg at Calcot, 12; as a wall-plant, 42; good garden kinds, 42; claret vine, 110, 205; Vitis Coignettii, 123 Violets, the pale St. Helena, 45; Czar, 140 Virginian cowslip, 46; its colouring, 47; sowing seed, 84 Wall pennywort, 120 Water-elder, a beautiful neglected shrub, 123 Weeds, 256 Wild gardening misunderstood, 269 Wilson, Mr. G. F.'s garden at Wisley, 184 Window garden, 185 Winter, beauty of woodland, 7 Wistaria chinensis, 43 Whortleberry under Scotch fir, 51, 61 Woodman at work, 158 Woodruff, 60 Wood-rush, 61, 165 Wood-work, 163 Xanthoceras sorbifolia, 103 Yellow everlasting, 120 Yuccas, some of the best kinds, 91; in flower-border, 201 THE END Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. Edinburgh & London Transcriber's Notes: 1. Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been retained from the original. (where both are acceptable usage) 2. Inconsistencies in the use of capitalisation and spelling within botanical names have been retained from the original (where both are acceptable usage). 3. Punctuation has been normalised. 4. Page numbering format in the index has been standardised. 5. The following words have been changed: p. 52 Amelancheir to Amelanchier: The snowy Mespilus (_Amelanchier_) p. 89 at to as: such as Globe Artichoke p. 93 Olivieranum to Oliverianum: useful is _E. Oliverianum_ p. 109 Rudbekia to Rudbeckia: _Rudbeckia Newmanni_ reflects p. 110 accomypaning to accompanying: the accompanying attacks p. 100 Ailantus to Ailanthus: and Ailanthus and Hickory p. 138 Olivieranum to Oliverianum: and _Eryngium Oliverianum_. p. 206 foetidium to foetidum: Hydrangeas, _Clerodendron foetidum_ p. 209 Olivieranum to Oliverianum: _Eryngium Oliverianum_ has turned p. 281 ladaniferns to ladaniferus: C. ladaniferus, 102, 206 p. 281 Olivieranum to Oliverianum: E. Oliverianum, 93, 209 p. 285 Coignetti to Coignettii: Vitis Coignettii, 123 6. p. 170 in the bill of sale, a "letter" best described as an inverted V, is here represented by [V]: IIXXX·I·, IIXXXX·II[V] IIII[V]XX, IIXX 
36872	----	MAKING A ROSE GARDEN _THE HOUSE & GARDEN MAKING BOOKS_ It is the intention of the publishers to make this series of little volumes, of which _Making a Rose Garden_ is one, a complete library of authoritative and well illustrated handbooks dealing with the activities of the home-maker and amateur gardener. Text, pictures and diagrams will, in each respective book, aim to make perfectly clear the possibility of having, and the means of having, some of the more important features of a modern country or suburban home. Among the titles already issued or planned for early publication are the following: _Making a Lawn_; _Making a Tennis Court_; _Making a Garden Bloom This Year_; _Making a Fireplace_; _Making Roads and Paths_; _Making a Poultry House_; _Making a Hotbed and Cold-frame_; _Making Built-in Bookcases_, _Shelves and Seats_; _Making a Rock Garden_; _Making a Water Garden_; _Making a Perennial Border_; _Making a Shrubbery Group_; _Making a Naturalized Bulb Garden_; with others to be announced later. [Illustration: An English rose garden that is nearly ideal in its arrangement. All the paths are of grass, the beds being sunk a few inches below the turf level in order to conserve the moisture.] MAKING A ROSE GARDEN _By_ HENRY H. SAYLOR NEW YORK McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY 1912 COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY McBRIDE, NAST & CO. Published February, 1912 CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 CLASSIFICATION 3 LOCATION AND SOIL 11 PREPARATION AND PLANTING 20 FERTILIZING 25 PRUNING 30 PESTS 38 PROPAGATION 40 WINTER PROTECTION 44 LISTS OF DEPENDABLE ROSES 46 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 51 THE ILLUSTRATIONS A ROSE GARDEN WITH THE IDEAL ARRANGEMENT OF GRASS PATHS _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE ULRICH BRUNNER, A RED HYBRID PERPETUAL ROSE 4 MARÉCHAL NEIL, A TENDER CLIMBING TEA ROSE 8 KILLARNEY, ONE OF THE BEST HYBRID TEAS 12 A GARDEN FOR ROSES ONLY 14 A DORMANT TEA ROSE AS IT COMES FROM THE GROWER 22 A STOCK OF MANETTI GRAFTED WITH AN IMPROVED VARIETY 42 A "STANDARD" ROSE 44 INTRODUCTION I well remember the caution given me by a noted horticulturist when, in the sudden awakening to the joys of gardening, I was about to attempt the cultivation of nearly everything named in the largest seed and plant catalogue I could find: "Leave the rose alone; it is not worth fighting for." And leave it alone I did, until one day I was browsing about an old book shop and came upon a well-thumbed copy of good old Dean Hole's "A Book About Roses." Let me tell you that there is something radically wrong with the person who can read that book and then go on plodding along his dreary, roseless way. But why, if there is such a book as that to be had, do I presume to put forth what can at best be but a feeble ray in its predecessor's blaze of inspiration? Merely because Dean Hole's book, and a later volume by the Rev. Andrew Foster-Melliar that is almost as inspiring, with perhaps even more helpful guidance, are both written for the English rosarian and for a cool, moist climate that necessitates a somewhat different method of procedure throughout as compared with that which would bring success in growing roses here in America. Then too, there is to my mind something encouraging in a very small book, a book that will merely attempt to lay the foundations for the superstructure that, after all, only experience can bring. Perhaps there are those who, like myself, are content with the bare essentials of classification, content to be told the basic rudiments of cultivation, and who are in haste to be done with all of these homely means to an end, that they may begin growing roses. Making a Rose Garden CLASSIFICATION When one considers the fact that the majority of botanists recognize over a hundred species of the genus _Rosa_, and that a French botanist lists and describes 4,266 species from Europe and western Asia alone, it will readily be understood that this chapter can give but a rough, working knowledge of groups and species. Fortunately the amateur rosarian in the United States is concerned with very few of the species, largely for the reason that the efforts of our rosegrowers have naturally been confined to a few important groups where general merit is most strongly marked. Indeed, for the purposes of a modest rose garden, one would not go far wrong if he limited his choice of varieties to the Hybrid Teas, Hybrid Perpetuals and a few of the Teas, with several of the _wichuraiana_ and _rugosa_ hybrids for trellis and hedge. The name Hybrid Perpetual is borne by an enormous group of roses which have been derived from various species, crossed and recrossed until the parentage is in most cases hopelessly involved. The "Perpetual" half of the name signifies that the rose continues to bloom more or less frequently throughout the summer. As a matter of fact, it is usually _less_. Teas or Tea-scented China roses form a distinct group that is readily recognized by the characteristic scent of the flowers and by the smoothness of its leaves. Teas are, in a way, the aristocrats of the rose garden. They bloom with no great blare of trumpets in June, like the Perpetuals, but they keep steadily at their work of producing exquisite blooms, one or two at a time, throughout the summer. Their one serious handicap is a lack of hardiness, which they possess only in a slight and very variable degree; and they must be very carefully protected in the north to bring them safely through the winter. Even though I were forced to buy new plants each spring, however, I would not have a rose garden without Teas. [Illustration: Ulrich Brunner, a red Hybrid Perpetual that has achieved an excellent reputation. The H.P. type is characterized by hardiness and great freedom of bloom in June. Thereafter throughout the summer the burden of display must be borne by the Teas and Hybrid Teas.] Hybrid Teas, as the name signifies, are successful crosses between the Tea and roses in the Hybrid Perpetual group. This class combines the persistence of the Tea with the sturdier growth of the Perpetuals, and from it we shall probably get the great bulk of our garden roses for some years to come. The Moss Rose, of which you will surely want a representative in your garden, belongs in the Provence group, as will be seen in the tabular classification at the end of this chapter. Who does not know its beautiful buds in their setting of mossy stems? This rose, like many a one that has not gotten such a grip on our affections, has refused steadfastly to mix its blood with another species, and has retained its good points and its bad ones for over three hundred years. It is quite hardy but is rather susceptible to mildew. There are other roses, too, outside the larger and best-known groups--roses that, because of some superlative merit in one direction or because of past associations, lay a strong hand on our heart-strings and plead for an obscure corner of the new rose garden: the bristling Scotch Rose, the fragrant Damasks, the sweetbrier or eglantine with its inimitable fragrant foliage, the Penzance Brier Hybrids, the White Banksian of southern gardens with its odor of violets, the Persian Yellow of our grand-mothers' gardens, and the hundred-petaled Cabbage Rose, parent of the Moss. Climbing roses are to be found in many of the groups--Wichuraiana, Ayrshire, Polyantha, Musk, Noisette and as sports in the Hybrid Perpetual, Tea and Hybrid Tea groups. It is in another class, however, that we may look for the ideal American roses of the future. Not many years ago, came to us three natives of Japan, _Rosa wichuraiana_, _Rosa multiflora_ and _Rosa rugosa_. From the first two has been developed by our American hybridizers the race of Ramblers, while from the third has come such sturdy children as Conrad F. Meyer, perhaps the ideal hedge rose for our northern climate. In the estimation of Professor Charles S. Sargent, the dean of American horticulture, it is along the line of _rugosa_ hybrids that we shall succeed in filling our gardens with large, beautiful, hardy and continuously flowering roses. The climate of the South and California seems ideally suited to the Teas, producing a wealth of exquisite bloom that fills those of us that live in more trying surroundings with envy. In the South also they have the Cherokee Rose (_Rosa lævigata_ or _sinica_), flourishing along roadsides and in great masses on the prairies, its long, arching stems bearing a wealth of pure white, single flowers, four or five inches across, in a setting of brilliant, evergreen foliage. It is one of our American hybridizers' hopes and aims to cross this with a hardy rose to gain sufficient stamina for the North. And out in Oregon, the Hybrid Perpetuals and Hybrid Teas grow to a size and beauty that is unsurpassed the world over. Practically every kind of rose can be grown in the Puget Sound district, and the amateurs of that locality seem to have as little trouble with rose pests as we do here with our hardy decorative shrubs. [Illustration: Marechal Neil, a tender climbing Tea rose, dark golden-yellow in color, requires winter protection in the North. The Tea is the aristocrat of the rose garden, unapproached for delicate fragrance, refined form of the individual blooms, and continued flowering throughout the summer.] To sum up the whole matter of classification and to show the relative positions of many groups that, for lack of space, have not even been mentioned above, the following tabular key is given--a slightly modified form of the classification given in the Cyclopedia of American Horticulture: _I. Summer-flowering Roses, blooming once only_ A. Large-flowered (double). 1. Growth branching or pendulous; leaf wrinkled. _Provence_ Moss Pompon Sulphurea 2. Growth firm and robust; leaf downy. _Damask and French_ Hybrid French Hybrid Provence Hybrid Bourbon Hybrid China 3. Growth free; leaf whitish above; spineless. _Alba_ B. Small-flowered (single and double). 1. Growth climbing; flowers produced singly. _Ayrshire_ 2. Growth short-jointed, generally, except in Alpine. _Briers_ Austrian Scotch Sweet Penzance Prairie Alpine 3. Growth climbing; flowers in clusters. _Multiflora_ Polyantha 4. Growth free; foliage persistent (more or less shiny). _Evergreen_ Sempervirens Wichuraiana Cherokee Banksian 5. Growth free; foliage wrinkled. _Pompon_ _II. Summer- and Autumn-flowering Roses, blooming more or less continuously_ A. Large-flowered. 1. Foliage very rough. _Hybrid Perpetual_ _Hybrid Tea_ _Moss_ 2. Foliage rough. _Bourbon_ _Bourbon Perpetual_ 3. Foliage smooth. _China_ Tea Lawrenceana (Fairy) B. Smaller-flowered. 1. Foliage deciduous a. Habit climbing. _Musk_ Noisette _Ayrshire_ _Polyantha_ Wichuraiana Hybrids b. Habit dwarf, bushy. _Perpetual Briers_ Rugosa Lucida Microphylla Berberidifolia Scotch 2. Foliage more or less persistent. _Evergreen_ Macartney Wichuraiana LOCATION AND SOIL If there is any secret in connection with the growing of beautiful roses in abundance, it lies in the strict observance of a few fundamental principles through which the rose plants, or bushes if you will, are given a location and soil which they will find congenial and nourishing. If for one moment you may have thought that success depends upon some particular insecticide for the annihilation of the aphis, or some hard-and-fast rule for pruning, or the use of a fertilizer having magical attributes, dismiss that thought from your mind, once and for all time. Insecticides, judicious pruning and suitable manuring have each an important part in the campaign, but transcending all of these is the first choice of location and the preparation of the garden in which the roses are to grow. Warfare against the rose's enemies can be but a one-sided, hopeless struggle if we are working against nature all the way through. Far easier and more certain in effect will be our first efforts to establish the rose plants themselves so firmly in healthful, congenial surroundings that they, rather than we, will bear the brunt of the battle against the insect pests. In China I am told that a custom once prevailed whereby the emperor paid his physician a good salary as long as the ruler kept his good health. If he fell ill the physician's pay stopped; if he died, off came the practitioner's head. Be generous in the amount of thought and care you give in providing health, food and strength for your rose plants, and as a result you will have to give very little thought and care to curing disease and killing off the rose-bugs and slugs. In the first place let us take up the matter of situation. Unfortunately most of us will have little leeway in this, for the average suburban place is not one that will offer hill and valley, windswept open space and warm shelter. The ideal location is to be found neither on a hilltop where the winter winds would play havoc with our winter protection, nor in a low hollow where frosts are always more frequent. A gentle slope to the south, well above nearby low spots into which the cold air will drain, sheltered in some way from the north, would be all that we could ask. In the matter of this shelter, however, we meet a further difficulty, for our rose garden must be kept well away from any trees. It is a matter of common knowledge that the root system of a tree will, as a rule, extend as far out from the base as the tree rises about the ground. Obviously it would be merely a waste of time and effort to locate the rose garden where the hungry roots of trees would rob it of the food supply furnished the roses. In general, therefore, we shall have to use the wall of a house or a garden wall for our needed protection, though in case of necessity we could sink a masonry wall or an iron plate as a barrier between the upper rich soil of our rose beds and the roots of the sheltering trees. [Illustration: Killarney, the comparatively new Hybrid Tea rose, having a beautiful shell-pink color, has achieved a wide popularity. The Hybrid Tea combines in a measure the hardiness of the Hybrid Perpetual with the continuous flowering habit of the Tea.] Sun, it is perhaps unnecessary to say, is essential, though it will be found that if the beds are in shade for the first part of the morning one will have greater opportunity of enjoying the roses at their best--before the dew has been drunk from their petals by the thirsty midsummer rays. The matter of the size and design of the rose bed is of comparatively little importance; what really is vital, however, is that the roses be permitted to have the beds to themselves--absolutely. But recently I read a magazine article purporting to be good advice for the rose-growing amateur. Therein appeared words of regret that the rose must needs have such bare, gaunt stalks, and suggesting as a remedy the growing of some vine about the base of the bush--I am not sure, indeed, that the honeysuckle was not specifically named for the place. I can well imagine that the result might be a very beautiful honeysuckle, but we should look there for the rose in vain. [Illustration: Keep the roses by themselves; they will not only thrive better, but their beauty seems not to be increased by comparison with other flowers.] The Queen of Flowers will brook no liberties of this kind. She insists upon reigning alone in her glory, and anyone who dares presume to introduce even a low-growing, shallow-rooted ground cover with the intention of making the rose bed seem less bare, will never see his roses at their best. Personally I have never felt that a rose garden need be in the least unattractive. There is one type of beauty that might be represented by a carpet of creeping phlox; there is another that belongs to the rose garden, bearing its single blooms here and there, sparsely, among the green foliage and thorny stems. In the former instance one looks at the mass effect without a thought of the beauty of individual flowers; in the latter case one's glance seeks out instinctively the single bloom to drink in its beauty and fragrance. Ah, but you say, how about the time when there is not a single rose in sight? There need be no such time between spring and fall if you plant your rose garden to best advantage. There is no need nor reason to put all the June-blooming roses together, with the Teas and Hybrid Teas off by themselves in another place. If the remontant types are interspersed throughout your garden you need never, between May and October, look for a rose in vain. The shape of the beds, too, may be such as to avoid an appearance of "too much dirt" in the rose garden. For my own part I would have a rectangular garden and simple parallelograms for the beds, although the rose garden about a central feature has its strong attractions. But if you arrange the beds in long narrow units--four feet wide for a double row of plants or twenty inches wide for a single row, and as long as your purse will allow, having the paths between the rows of turf rather than gravel or brick, and the beds slightly sunk below this turf, the rose garden need never be less than most attractive. Avoid beds wider than will accommodate two rows of plants, for it is essential that every rose bush in the garden be immediately accessible from a path. [Illustration: A suggestion for a rectangular rose garden with paths of turf. The beds are about forty inches wide, the paths four feet, excepting the center one, which is five feet in width. A hedge, which might be of _rugosa_, contributes a desirable air of seclusion.] To those intensely practical persons who object to walking through dew-wet paths in the morning tour of the rose garden, let me point out the obvious impossibility of having gravel paths immediately adjacent to the rose beds, and the continued care required to keep in a presentable condition a narrow strip of sod between path and bed. Now as to the preparation of the rose bed itself. First of all, dig the soil out to a depth of two feet at least, keeping the top soil and sods and the subsoil in separate piles as they are taken out. Loosen up the floor of the trench with a pick and on this, if the ground needs draining, which it will if it is a compact, sodden surface, put a layer of stones, cinders and other material that will not decompose. On top of this place the best of the sub-soil mixed with a generous dressing of well-rotted manure. Finally, add the sod, well broken up, and the top soil, also enriched with manure. Then fill in the bed with enough good top soil, unmanured, to bring it two or three inches above the adjoining surface. Make sure that the surface of the bed, after it has settled, will be about one inch below that of the adjoining sod in order to retain the moisture from rain. This preparation of the bed should be done at least several weeks in advance of planting time. In composing the soil for the rose bed, it is well to remember that the Hybrid Perpetuals require a heavy soil containing some clay. For Teas and Hybrid Teas a lighter, warmer soil is better. In his most admirable "Book of the Rose," the Rev. Andrew Foster-Melliar tells an amusing incident in connection with soil. The good rector was dining out and had been served with a generous portion of plum pudding. It was very dark, rich, strong and greasy. Absent-mindedly he sat back in his chair gazing at the dish intently. His hostess, noticing his hesitancy, asked if anything were wrong with the pudding. "Oh, no," replied the rector unthinkingly, "I was thinking what rare stuff it would be to grow roses in." Top soil from an old pasture, if it be a moderately heavy loam, taken with the grass roots and chopped very fine, will do excellently for the Hybrid Perpetuals. For the Teas and Hybrid Teas, mix with soil of this kind about one-quarter of its bulk of sand and leaf mold to lighten it. Remember that all the manure that is used should be incorporated with the lower two-thirds of the bed; the upper third should not contain any recently added manure as it is apt to harm the roots of new plants. PREPARATION AND PLANTING In the vicinity of New York and further north, I think it will be found that spring planting is best. South of Philadelphia many roses are set out in the fall, for here they become well established before cold weather sets in, and are therefore ready to start active growth at the first touch of spring. If spring planting is chosen the plants must be put in the ground early--at the very first opportunity--so that they will have time to become firmly established before hot weather. Pot-grown plants from a greenhouse cannot, of course, be set out until all danger from frost is past. Roses that are planted so late cannot be expected to show really satisfying results in bloom the first year. Roses that are planted early in the spring, if field-grown stock as explained below, will with proper cultivation give at least a reasonable amount of bloom the first year, though not so much as in later years. One hears a great deal of argument on the question of whether roses are best grown on their own roots or when grown on a sturdier stock, such as Manetti for Hybrid Perpetuals and brier for Hybrid Teas, which are probably the best rose stocks for this country. It seems to be the general consensus of opinion that roses budded on these stocks will thrive much more luxuriantly and give much better blooms than those which depend upon their own root systems. It is necessary, however, to set the point at which the shoot is budded to the stock about two inches beneath the surface; otherwise there is the constant danger that suckers will spring from the root and, if overlooked for a time, these will kill the more desirable shoots. Several kinds of roses are offered by the dealers for setting out in the spring. There are the pot-grown roses mentioned above--the only form in which many of the climbers may be readily obtained. Mail-order houses make a practice of sending out the Hybrid Perpetuals, Hybrid Teas and Teas also in this form of very young plants grown from cuttings under glass during the winter. Costing more, and surely far more dependable, are the field-grown roses that have originally been budded on Manetti or brier and, usually in two-year-old form, taken out of the ground the previous fall while dormant, to lie in cold houses until ready for planting. Such roses as these will surely bloom the first season and are far better equipped for the shock of being set into the open ground again than the pot-grown plants that have never had a taste of real garden life. A word of warning might profitably be uttered against the cheap roses budded on _multiflora_ stock, grown in Holland and sold in some of the department stores. They are short-lived and very poor in comparison with plants on brier and Manetti. _Multiflora_ has been entirely discarded as a stock by English and Irish growers. Roses on their own roots have the advantage of being cheaper, due to the saving of labor in striking cuttings rather than budding--one-year-old plants costing a dollar for six to a dozen; two-year and three-year-old bushes, which are, of course, far more desirable, cost more in proportion. Dormant, field-grown budded roses cost, in the two-year-old size, from thirty-five cents to a dollar each. [Illustration: A dormant Tea rose as it is received from the grower for planting in March. After planting it should be still further pruned.] Before setting the plants examine each carefully and cut off the broken roots with a sharp knife, as well as all eyes that may appear on the root stock, in order to forestall suckers. The plants should be set immediately upon their receipt from the nurseryman, so that they will not become dried out. If they seem dry it may be well to puddle the roots in thin mud just before setting. Make the hole large enough to accommodate all of the plant's roots without crowding, remembering to put the budding point not less or more than two inches below the surface and with the roots spread out nearly horizontally, but inclining downward towards their ends and without crossing one another. This will not be an easy matter, for in shipment the roots will have probably been so compressed that they extend almost directly downward from the collar. After the plants have been firmly set and the earth carefully packed in around the roots, rake the soil to loosen it up over the whole surface. The soil will probably be moist enough at the time to need no watering. With the pot-grown plants, the moist ball of earth that comes about the roots is carefully retained intact and placed in the hole prepared for the plant. Set the plant firmly in place by pressure with the soles of your shoes, give a generous watering and finally break up the surface of the soil with a rake. It is absolutely essential to keep the surface of the ground loosened with a hoe and a sharp steel rake throughout the summer. After very hard rain loosen the soil as soon as it is dry enough to work, to conserve the moisture. FERTILIZING In striking contrast to the exquisite beauty of the rose is the food that we must give it in abundance if we would have the most healthy plants. But for the true rose enthusiast the turning over of a muck heap to find manure in just the right form, or the dilution of the by-products of the cow barn with water to make the best stimulant, have nothing about them that is in the least objectionable. If the soil at our disposal is inclined to be rich in clay, we can probably do no better than incorporate well-decomposed stable manure with it, by raking it, well pulverized, into the surface in the early spring. In sandy or gravelly soils, however, cow manure or that from the pigsty will serve far better. It must be remembered that when properly set out the rose plant is comparatively shallow-rooted, so that this raking of fine old manure into the soil must be just that, and _not_ the deep digging of half-rotted manure into the bed with a spading-fork. The aim in the method advocated is to put the solid manure where the spring rains will carry it in time to the feeding roots, and in the liquid form in which it is readily assimilated. The theory of this manurial feeding will make clear the fact that a proper application of liquid manure has practically all the advantages of the former method without its drawbacks. For solid manure, if applied to the beds in quantities sufficient to be of real value, has a tendency to keep the needed air out of the top soil, and to bring in its train an abundance of weeds that will be hard to exterminate. So that, with the exception of light sandy soils, where the humus is needed, we shall do well to feed the rose garden liquid nourishment. The time when this stimulant will be most effective is in the months of May and June, when most of the plants are putting all their efforts into the forming buds. Withhold the liquid in dry spells, for it is most appreciated immediately after a good, soaking rain. Avoid getting the manure on the foliage, and make sure that it errs on the side of weakness rather than strength. Suspending a burlap sack containing a bushel of cow manure in a barrel of water for two days, will give a solution that needs dilution with its own bulk of water. A half-gallon to a plant each week will be a sufficient normal feeding. Immediately after dosing the beds go over them with a rake or prong-hoe and loosen up the surface to prevent evaporation. A vital principle in feeding rose plants is one that seems to be overlooked instinctively by seven out of ten amateur gardeners. It is this: A strong-growing, healthy plant needs and will absorb a large quantity of liquid manure; a sickly plant, or one that is not yet well established, does not need and cannot absorb even the normal quantity of this food. Yet how often are we tempted to feed to excess this weakling and withhold food from that nearby sturdy bush, because the latter "doesn't need it." Just bear in mind the fact that we do not give burgundy to a puny child that is struggling against the effects of malnutrition, but that a healthy, growing boy can consume an astonishing amount of food and drink. To review the year's activities in fertilizing: let us put a top dressing of rough manure over the beds in the fall, about three inches deep, with further protection where the climate demands it. In the spring we shall rake off the coarse portion of this covering, leaving the finely pulverized manure to be raked gently into the top soil if it needs this additional humus (the manure's food value will have been washed down by the winter's rain and snow). If our soil is clayey the whole top dressing will be hoed off. In May and June come the generous applications of the liquid manure, and for the Teas and Perpetuals that really do continue to flower, these applications may well be continued through the summer at less frequent intervals, leaving off at the end of August, let us say, so as not to encourage unnecessarily the late summer's growth of wood. Although not many of us, in all probability, will meet the unusual condition of having for our rose gardens only an over-fertilized soil in a long-used garden, it may be well to mention the fact that such a soil will not produce good roses. Treatment with lime will help matters for a time, but if within the range of possibility we should remake the garden with virgin soil. The use of nitrate of soda and like stimulants may be undertaken sparingly in the spring, but these are better left to those gardeners who have learned, possibly through disastrous experiences, how properly to use them. PRUNING The rose is one of those plants that seem to need the firm hand of man to direct them in the way they should grow. If left to their own devices, most of the highly cultivated roses revert quickly to lower types; they need the pitiless pruning-knife to spur them to their best endeavor. It will readily be seen that severe pruning, as a general principle, tends towards greater beauty of individual blooms, while light pruning is conducive to a better rounded-out form of bush at the expense of the flowers. Or, again, the severe pruning gives quality of bloom as opposed to quantity of bloom. Always cut back the plants severely when first setting them out--Teas and Hybrid Teas less than the Hybrid Perpetuals, and the climbers least of all. Unreasonable as it may seem, the plants of vigorous habit of growth need less pruning than the less active ones. Pruning may be started with the dwarf Hybrid perpetuals in March--leaving four or five canes three feet in length if large masses of bloom are wanted. The result will be a large number of small flowers. If, on the other hand, fewer and larger flowers are wanted, all weak growth should be removed and every healthy cane retained and cut back in preparation for the plant's development. The weakest should not have more than four inches of wood left on the root, while the strongest may have eight or nine inches. Always prune a cane about a quarter of an inch above an outside bud unless the cane is very far from the vertical, when an inside one should be left for the terminal shoot. See that the wood is not torn or bruised in the operation. The pruning of Hybrid Teas and Teas had better be postponed until the first signs of life appear. The bark becomes greener and the dormant buds begin to swell. Dead or dying wood will then readily be noticeable and it may be removed. Remember that these two classes do not need such severe pruning as do the Hybrid Perpetuals; twice the amount of wood may safely be left if it seems promising. Dormant rose plants bought in the spring will arrive from the growers already partly pruned. In general, from one-half to two-thirds of the remaining length of cane should be cut off when the plants are set out, removing entirely all bruised or dead wood. Bear in mind always, if your conscience revolts at such severe cutting, that the strongest dormant buds are nearest the base of the plant and it is these we want to force into growth to bear the prize blooms. With the ramblers very little cutting is needed; merely cut back the shoots that seem to be outdistancing their neighbors by too much, and cut out entirely the dead canes. The _rugosa_ is intended to be a bush rather than a strong, lean plant for prize blooms. Merely cut out old, dry wood and trim back the longer shoots to the desired form. Use a first-class pair of pruning shears in order that the work may be done quickly and, above all, with clean cuts that show no tearing or abrasion of the bark. PESTS Once more let me repeat the fact that by far the most effective campaign against the insects and other pests that infest rose plants is to be found, not in sprayings and dustings, but rather in maintaining to the best of our ability a condition of health in the plant itself. Prevention here, as always, is better than cure. Nor can it be too strongly emphasized that the daily use of a powerful but finely divided spray from the hose will make life on the rose plant miserable for practically all of the parasites. The following are the chief enemies that we may encounter in the rose garden. They are briefly described so as to be recognizable when found, and for the annihilation or keeping in check of each is given one of the many remedies. Practically every rosarian develops, after a time, his own pet formulæ for these poisons, so that rose books will be found to contain a wonderfully varied assortment of weapons--so numerous in fact that one would think the army of rose pests could never live to continue their depredations another season. _Aphis or Green Fly_ A small, pale green louse, winged or wingless, with a soft, fat, oval body apparently too big for its legs. A single aphis in five generations may become the progenitor of 6,000,000,000. Tobacco smoke is an excellent weapon, or, if a spray is found more convenient to apply, a solution of 4 oz. of tobacco stems boiled for 10 min. in 1 gal. of soft water, will do. The same weight of quassia chips may be substituted for the tobacco. If the tobacco is used, the cheapest that can be bought is the best for the purpose. Strain the solution and add 4 oz. of soft soap while it is still hot, stirring well to dissolve the soap. Another remedy--1 qt. of soft soap boiled in 2 qts. of soft water, adding 1 pt. of paraffin before cooling--is well recommended. It should be applied diluted with soft water to ten times its bulk. The paraffin acts as an astringent which, together with the soft soap, cleanses the plant of honey-dew, which is exuded by the aphis to protect its feet against cold and wet. _Mildew_ A fungous disease that may appear when the rose plants are in a damp, shady or ill-ventilated location. Although some varieties are more susceptible than others to this disease, the rose garden located out in the open, where the air has unobstructed access, will not be troubled much by mildew. When the disease appears late in the autumn it need not be feared. Dusting flowers of sulphur upon the foliage, taking care to reach the under side of leaves as well as the upper, and upon the ground about the plants, is a well established remedy. It will be found convenient to shake the powder from a baking-powder can, the end of which is punched with holes, if a regular powder gun is not at hand. Use the sulphur in the early morning, when the dew will help to hold it on the leaves, or else spray the plants with water beforehand. _Rose Thrip_ A small, yellowish white insect with transparent wings, usually found on the _under_ side of the rose leaves. This pest appears in swarms and in an astonishingly short time turns the foliage yellow. If the pest appears, spray the rose plants daily with a hose as suggested above. If this does not prove efficacious, dust the under side of the leaves with white hellebore in a powder gun. Whale oil soap solution, in the proportions of 5 oz. of soap to 1 gal. of water, is a very good remedy. It is easier to dissolve the soap if the water is hot. _Rose Caterpillar or Leaf-roller_ Several kinds of caterpillars may appear, varying from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in length, and either green, yellow or brown in color. They have a habit of enveloping themselves in the rose leaves, or boring their way into the flower buds. In the latter case they are very apt to be overlooked. Powdered hellebore will hinder their progress, but by far the most effective weapons are the finger and thumb--gloved, if you insist. _Rose Chafer or Rose-bug_ This brown beetle, less than one-half inch in length, is one of the best-known rose pests. It is a slow-moving creature that appears suddenly in armies in the blooming season in June, and is the more annoying for the reason that it devotes its attention almost entirely to the flowers themselves. Paris green, dusted over the plants, will kill the pest, but this poison has a disagreeable way of showing no intelligent discrimination in the choice of its victims. Really the only satisfactory method of attack is to knock the stupid creatures off the flowers into a tin of kerosene and then burn it. _Rose Slug_ The larvæ of a saw-fly which comes up out of the ground in May and June. The female makes incisions in the leaves and deposits her eggs, which hatch out in about two weeks. The slugs will eat an astonishing amount of leaf if not checked. They are about a half-inch long, green, and will be found on the upper side of the leaf. Powdered white hellebore, dusted on the foliage, or the solution of whale oil soap mentioned for the Rose Thrip, will keep it in check. _White Grub_ An underground enemy that feeds on the roots of rose plants. The withering or sickliness of the plant is sufficient reason to cause a thorough search to be made by lifting it. The grub, which is provided with six legs near the head, and which coils itself into a crescent shape when in repose, is particularly fond of strawberry plants, so it will be well to keep these some distance away from the rose garden. There is no insecticide that will be effective, because of the underground point of attack. Lifting the plant and removing the grub is the only thing that can be done. _Bark Louse or White Scale_ This appears when the rose bush is grown in a damp, shady place. It is snow white and individual scales are about one-tenth of an inch in diameter, irregularly round. Cut off and burn badly infested shoots. Spray with 1 lb. of soap in 1 gal. of water in early winter and again in early spring. Weaker summer applications may be used also--1 lb. in 4 or 6 gal. once in three weeks throughout the season will reach all the larvæ. _Our Allies_ It is well to remember that there are friends of the rose in the lower animal world as well as enemies--the toad, lady-bug, ground-bird and swallow, particularly. The toad is sometimes brought by the English gardeners from a distance to help wage war on the pests; the lady-bug may be passed thankfully by when seen; and it may be well to try attracting the birds to the rose garden by scattering a few crumbs there daily--not too many, but just enough to arouse a real appetite for insect pests. PROPAGATION The propagation of his own stock is a task for which the expert is better fitted than the beginner for whom this book is written. Nevertheless, I doubt whether the amateur will pass through his first year of rose growing without wishing to make an attempt to multiply the stock of those roses which have with him been most successful, or to bud a choice variety from a friend's garden on the foster-parent stock for his own place. Whereas in England the process of budding is carried on very widely and with fair success among amateur and professional rosarians alike, with us this means of propagation seems fraught with greater difficulty. Excepting in the case of varieties that do not readily root from cuttings, this latter method of propagation is generally adopted where roses on their own roots are desired. The best time for taking cuttings from a plant is towards the end of the summer, when the ripe wood of the current year's growth will be available. Ten inches is a convenient length for the pieces and some rosarians feel that if a "heel," or portion of older wood, remains on the lower end there will be greater likelihood of rooting. Remove all but the two top leaves and set the cutting in a light soil, or even in pure sand, so that only the two upper buds are exposed. Leave the cuttings in the ground until the following autumn, when those that have taken root may be transplanted and set at a less depth in their permanent quarters. Budding is a far more interesting process to carry through, and by it we may have sturdier roses on a stock like Manetti or brier. A very sharp knife is required, with some raffia for tying the bud securely into the stock. In the limited scope of this book I can but indicate very roughly the general procedure, and, indeed, budding is far more readily learned by watching a skilled rosarian do it than by reading many pages of description. Briefly, then, a bud, which may be found under any petiole, is carefully sliced, with its surrounding bark and backing of wood, from the half-ripe stalk of the variety to be propagated, leaving the petiole in place to serve as a handle. This is probably best done in July. After removing very gently the wood backing from the bark and bud, the latter are slipped into a T-shaped incision in the foster stock, this incision to be made through the bark to the actual wood of the stalk. The bud and its supporting bark are inserted between the wood and bark of the stock, the latter then being wrapped with a few turns of raffia to hold the bud in place. After a period of a month the bud will either have taken hold or failed, and the tie may be removed. The rose plants that we buy already budded on Manetti or brier are produced in this way, excepting that the bud is inserted very low on the stock, so that the junction will be underground. This is the more desirable place for budding, insuring, if we nip the suckers as they may appear, a plant that above ground shows only the shoots of the desired variety. [Illustration: A shoot of an improved variety of rose grafted and held in place with raffia to the stock of a sturdy growth like Manetti. At the right is a "sucker" or growth from the root, and it must be cut off as soon as it appears.] Grafting is practiced only in the case of roses grown under glass, when the scions are cleft into stocks of Manetti or brier grown in pots for the purpose. Layering is used as a means of increasing the stock only in the case of roses that do not readily strike from cuttings. It consists of bending down a long shoot so that a section of it may be pegged underground to take root. Propagation by seed is limited to the efforts to obtain new varieties after cross-fertilization, and is a discouragingly slow and uncertain process. WINTER PROTECTION It will be a red-letter day for amateur rosarians when the existing favorites among rose plants shall have been so improved by cross-breeding that we can leave off all the winter overcoats of straw, brush and earth, with the happy knowledge that spring will find as many live plants in the rose garden as we rejoiced in during the previous season. [Illustration: In England the "standard" rose, having a long stem of the foster stock, is quite common. With us it is less frequently seen on account of the bother of proper winter protection.] Although the Hybrid Perpetuals are, for the most part, sufficiently hardy to withstand an ordinary winter unprotected, it is still the part of wisdom to conserve their energy and health by hoeing up the earth about their bases and putting over all a top dressing of rough manure when protecting the Hybrid Teas and Teas. In the northern states it will be well to tie up the tops of the latter with straw or to surround the bed with a border of boards or wire netting, after winter has set in, and cover the plants with a thick blanket of leaves held down by brush. This protection should be removed gradually in March. Where the winters are particularly severe, a still more certain precaution is to dig up the plants and lay them in well-drained trenches, covering them with earth and a further layer of leaves, straw or brush. The aim is not to protect the plants from freezing at all, but to prevent the alternate freezing and thawing that is so disastrous. Another treatment for tender roses is to winter them in boxes of soil in a cool cellar. In case this is done, see that the earth is not allowed to dry out entirely. At planting time in the spring the dormant plants will be taken out, dipped in a bucket of thin mud and replanted in the garden. While we may be willing for the present to take such precautions with the garden roses, most of us will not care to coddle the climbers to anything like this extent. Beyond hoeing up a mound of earth about the bases of these and top-dressing them, we shall let the climbers fight their own battles, and leave the result to the principle of the survival of the fittest. LISTS OF DEPENDABLE ROSES It is a difficult matter, indeed, to select, from the experience of rose growers and from the long lists of the nurserymen's catalogues, a few that may be safely named as the best roses. In fact, it is a task that no one would care to undertake. It may be helpful, however, to add the following list; these are by no means the only good roses, but in choosing any or all of these the amateur cannot well go astray. For the benefit of his experience and advice regarding these lists, I am indebted, among others, to Dr. Robert Huey, of Philadelphia--probably the most experienced amateur grower of roses in the United States. It has been thought best not to attempt individual descriptions nor to go very far into details of color. The lists, then, are grouped into rough sub-divisions under the main colors, and it will be understood that "pink," for instance, will include a rather wide range of varying tints. HYBRID PERPETUALS _White_--Merveille de Lyon, White Baroness, Frau Karl Druschki, Margaret Dickson, Mabel Morrison, Gloire Lyonnaise (in reality a Hybrid Tea, but as it blooms only in June it may be included in the Hybrid Perpetual class). _Pink_--Baroness Rothschild, Caroline D'Arden, Heinrich Schultheis, Her Majesty, Lady Arthur Hill, Mrs. George Dickson, Mrs. Harkness, Susan Marie Rodocanachi, Mrs. John Laing, Paul Neyron, Marie Finges, Marquise de Castellane, Mrs. R. S. Sharman-Crawford, Souvenir de la Malmaison. _Red_--Captain Hayward, Fisher Holmes, General Jacqueminot, Oscar Cordel, Ulrich Brunner, Duke of Edinburgh, Duke of Teck, Anne de Diesbach, Duke of Fife, Étienne Levet, Prince Arthur, Ard's Rover (climber). Prince Camille de Rohan is the best of the very dark roses, among which also are Sultan of Zanzibar, Louis Van Houtte, and Xavier Olibo. These, however, are weak growers and frequently do not bring their blossoms to perfection. TEAS _White_--White Maman Cochet, Hon. Edith Gifford. _Pink_--William R. Smith, Maman Cochet, Souvenir d'un Ami, Duchesse de Brabant, Mrs. B. R. Cant. _Yellow_--Harry Kirk, Étoile de Lyon, Francisca Krueger, Isabelle Sprunt, Safrano, Marie Van Houtte. HYBRID TEAS _White or light-colored and mixed_--Viscountess Folkestone, Pharisaer, Molly Sharman-Crawford, Ellen Wilmot, Grace Molyneaux, Antoine Revoire, Joseph Hill, Mrs. A. R. Waddell, Betty, Prince de Bulgarie, La Tosca, Kaiserin Augusta Victoria. _Pink_--Killarney, Lady Alice Stanley, Lady Ursula, Dean Hole, Lyon Rose, Dorothy Page Roberts, Madame Edmée Metz, Lady Ashtown, Mrs. Charles Custis Harrison, Caroline Testout, La France. _Yellow_--Duchess of Wellington, Mrs. Aaron Ward, Madame Ravary, Madame Mélanie Soupert, Madame Hector Leuillot, Melody. _Red_--George C. Waud, Lawrent Carle, Gruss an Teplitz, Château de Closvoges, Étoile de France. MOSS ROSES _White_--Blanche Moreau. _Pink_--Crested Moss. RUGOSA AND ITS HYBRIDS _White_--Blanc Double de Coubert; _Rosa rugosa_, var. _alba_. _Pink_--Conrad F. Meyer. _Red_--Arnold; _Rosa rugosa_, var. _rubra_. WICHURAIANA HYBRIDS _White_--Wichuraiana, White Dorothy. _Pink_--Lady Gay, Dorothy Perkins, W. C. Egan, Sargent. _Red_--Hiawatha. NOISETTES _Yellow_--Cloth of Gold, Rêve d'Or (climber), Fortune's Yellow. POLYANTHAS _White_--Trier, Catherine Ziemet. _Pink_--Tausendschön, Clothilde Soupert. _Red_--Carmine Pillar. PRAIRIE ROSES _White_--Baltimore Belle. _Pink_--Rosa _setigera_. AUSTRIAN BRIERS _Yellow_--Harrison's Yellow, Persian Yellow, Austrian Copper. A GLOSSARY OF TERMS Anther--a rounded knob-like form at the top of the stamen, containing the pollen. Callus--a swelling which occurs at the base of a cutting previous to the formation of roots. Calyx--the narrow green leaves or sepals forming the covering for the bud. Corymb--a group of flower stalks arising from a common stalk and forming a level top. Cutting--a section of a stalk containing several eyes or dormant buds, taken for the propagation of a new plant. Disbud--to deprive a stalk of flower buds by pinching or rubbing these off. It is done in order to throw more energy into the remaining bud or buds. Hep or hip--the seed pod. Hybrid--a new species resulting from the cross-fertilization of two species. Leaflet--a single member of the compound leaf borne by all rose plants. Maiden plant--a plant blooming for the first time after being budded or grafted to a stock. Ovary--the hollow lower end of a pistil, containing the embryo seeds. Panicle--a cluster of flowers borne irregularly on a stem. Petiole--the stalk to which the several leaflets are attached. Pistil--the seed-bearing organ in the center of a flower, consisting of one or more styles, one or more stigmas and the ovary. Pollen--the powdery substance found in the anthers. Remontant--applied to roses that flower the second time in a summer. Sepals--the narrow green leaves of a pithy texture forming the calyx. Sport--a shoot or sucker from a plant, showing some peculiar feature or features distinguishing it from its parent. Stamens--the male organs surrounding the pistil. Stigma--the upper end of the pistil, capable of receiving the pollen and connected with the ovary by a tube extending down through the style. Style--the erect columnar support of the stigma. Sucker--a branch or shoot proceeding from the root or stem of a plant, below the surface of the ground. Frequently used as meaning a shoot from the root-stock of a budded or grafted plant. 
37034	----	A Revised And Illustrated Treatise On Grain Stacking GIVING _Instructions how to Properly Stack Bound Grain so as to Preserve, in the best possible manner, for THRESHING and MARKET._ ILLUSTRATED _So as to Furnish a Comprehensive View of the Theoretical Parts_ BY JOHN N. DeLAMATER, NORWALK, OHIO 1884. Copyright 1884 by JOHN N. DeLAMATER, All Rights Reserved. THE NORWALK CHRONICLE PRINT. PREFACE. So far as I am aware, this is an untried field of labor--a work which I have had under consideration for the last fifteen years; during which time the closest attention has been given to details of building, and careful observations made on results, when the stacks were being taken down. JOHN N. DeLAMATER. TREATISE ON GRAIN STACKING. PLACING FOUNDATION. If convenient, make a foundation of rails, by placing three rails about four and one-half feet apart and parallel, and then add half or two thirds the length of a rail to each, and cover by laying rails crossways, and finish by laying a large rail or post in the center lengthways. This will form a foundation large enough for ten or twelve large loads. If rails, poles or boards cannot be had for an entire foundation, endeavor to get something to support the heads of a few center sheaves; for if sheaves are set on end to commence a stack, the middle is apt to settle too much. COMMENCING TO BUILD. On the rail foundation, lay around the center in the form of an ellipse, with the heads lapping well across the center rail; lap half and continue to lay towards the outside until foundation is covered. Now commence at the outside and lay a course around, neither laying out or drawing in, except to correct any little error that may occur in the elliptical form of the stack; complete the courses to the center, but don't fill the middle too full; if the outside is lower than the middle, lay a double course around outside; keep your stack _flat_--full as high at outside as center; build the first load straight up, neither laying out or drawing in, if the stack is to contain ten or twelve loads; if eight or nine, lay the last course out a little. LAYING OUT. If the stack is flat and as near an ellipse as the eye can judge, laying out and keeping the stack properly balanced will be very easy. Drive alternate loads on opposite sides of the stack; this will help to keep the stack properly balanced. If the eye detects a place that seems to be lower than the general level, it will be found that it was caused by laying out more there than at other points; to remedy this defect, draw in the next outside course at the low point, six, eight or ten inches, according to the depression. The greater the depression, the more it should be drawn in, and the next inside course at the low point should be shoved out nearly to the buts of the outside course, then continue to build as though nothing had happened. If a high place should be observed, the next outside course should be laid farther out, and inside course at this point drawn well in. Glance frequently over the stack and see if the outside presents the appearance of an ellipse, and keep a sharp lookout for high and low spots, for they will throw the stack out of balance. If the middle is too full, the outside will slip out, and an undesirable job of propping will begin. Put in two-thirds of what is intended for the stack before commencing to draw in. Drive so as to leave a little space between load and stack. Don't let a stack stand over night at this stage if it can be avoided, but put on the next two loads as quickly as possible, for the outside of the stack will settle rapidly. FILLING THE MIDDLE. Lay a tier of bundles through the central part half the length of the stack, alternating heads and buts, then lay a course around with the heads lapping across the middle tier; now another tier through the center, and two courses around it; then another tier at center and courses around, until the center is three or four feet higher than the outside, depending on size of the stack, and the last course laid laps half way from head to band on the outside course of the stack. It will be seen that while building the main part of the stack, the courses were laid from outside to center, and while filling the middle or putting in the stuffing, the courses are laid from center towards outside. Now commence outside, lay a course, heads out, half way from band to but on outside course; in small stacks omit last instruction; then turn buts out, lap half and lay to center; then lay a course around outside, neither laying out or drawing in. Now comes a point that should not be overlooked: lay a course, buts out, lapping half way from heads to band on outside course; then lap half and lay to center. The reason for laying the buts of second course half way from heads to band is to give the buts of the next outside course above a chance to rest firmly on the course below, leaving no unoccupied space; if the buts of second course were laid out to the band of outside course, then the next outside course above, being drawn in, would rest one-third of the way from band to but, on the buts of the course below, leaving a space for rain to drive in and wet the stack. Draw in outside course rapidly; lay buts of second course half way from head to band on outside course as long as stack top is large enough; keep middle well piled up. A stack can be drawn in very rapidly, without danger of taking in water from a protracted rain, even if the outside of the stack grows green, no sheaf will be found wet above the band, and the middle of stack dry, for the buts of outside course will form a thatch roof to protect the stack. The placing of a few top bundles is a matter of small importance. If a stack has been properly built it will receive but little injury if top bundles should blow off. A strand or two of wire, with sticks or stones at the ends to weight them down, will usually hold the top in place. RECAPITULATION. The first load being built straight up and flat on top forms a firm and secure base on which to build the upper structure. LAYING OUT OR PUTTING IN THE BULGE.--This is the most important part of the stack, for it contains the greater part of the grain; by laying out and keeping the stack _flat_, the work can be done rapidly, and when the stack settles the buts will hang down, for there is nothing to hold them up. Filling the middle corresponds to putting rafters on a building to support the roof. SUGGESTIONS. I have found in the course of a long experience, that a foundation eleven or twelve feet wide and eighteen or twenty feet long, and a stack built in the form of an ellipse, and so as to contain ten or twelve large loads, to be the most convenient and economical. Grain can be put into a stack of this size much more rapidly than in small stacks. If a stack is built much larger it will require more labor to pass the bundles across the stack, and will have to be carried much higher before it is topped out, which takes time and hard work. The elliptical form I have found the best; with a load driven to the side of the stack, the pitcher is never very far from the stacker; the stack is easily kept balanced, and at threshing time the grain is readily got to the machine. In a round stack of the same size, the stacker gets farther away from the pitcher, and it requires more skill to keep a round stack properly balanced; but if a round stack, after it is finished and settled, looks like an egg standing erect on the large end, that is good enough; it will not take water, and looks well, too. A square stack, or one with corners, is easily kept balanced, but in turning the corners there is too much fullness at the heads of the bundles, and when the stack settles there will usually be a sag on each side to catch water. Two stakes, one eight and the other ten rods away, and in line with the center of foundation, will sometimes assist the stacker in keeping his stack well balanced, for at a glance he can tell whether the center is in line with the stakes. A man may build, as his fancy dictates, either round, elliptical or square, but in _all_, the same general principles _must_ be observed--the lower part of the stack built straight up; put in a bulge which settles down around and nearly conceals the lower part, leaving the center of the bulge high; filling the middle to support the center of the top. These are the principles on which good stacking depends. If a man gets them well fixed in his mind and discards the idea that he must keep the middle full from the ground up, he will have but little damaged grain, even in the very worst of seasons. Very small stacks should be built like ordinary stack tops. A boy to hand bundles is usually more damage than good until a stack is half built, and then he should not be allowed to stand on outside course. If practical, drive alternate loads on opposite sides of the stack; this is very desirable, but if, from the nature of surroundings, it is necessary to drive all on one side, draw the top of the stack over a foot or two towards the side where the unloading is done, and keep it a little the lowest; the opposite side will settle considerably the most, which will leave the stack straight up. FANCY STACKING. For a pyramid stack, build as usual up to within two or three rounds of where drawing in commences, then draw in a little at center of sides and ends to bring the curves to straight lines; keep the corners well out, observing the form of a rectangle in filling the middle, and finish to top. For a Gothic stack, build an ordinary one until commencing to draw in, then draw in the oval corners and build center of sides and ends straight up. For an X stack draw in sides and ends; build corners straight up. These stacks look very ornamental on a premium farm and will save well, but take more time to build than ordinary stack tops. SAMPLE STACK. With some, the idea seems to prevail, that the middle of the stack should be kept full from the ground up. With the center high enough to protect the stack after it is settled, it is impossible to lay out or even build straight up, for the outside sheaves are constantly slipping out, and the process of building rendered slow and tiresome, and when the stack is completed and settled, it will usually be found that the center has gone down so much and the outside so little, that the buts of the sheaves stick up and form excellent conductors to wet the stack. Usually at harvest the country is full of good stackers, and if, between that time and threshing, there is little or no rain, they live through and there is a good supply next year; but if, between stacking and threshing, a protracted rain occurs, vast multitudes are drowned, so that, at threshing time, but few good stackers are found alive. 
37362	----	BEAUTIFUL BULBOUS PLANTS FOR THE OPEN AIR. _________________________________________ | | | The "Beautiful" Series. | | By JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S., N.R.S. | | | | _With 33 Coloured Plates by John Allen, | | Large Crown 8vo., Cloth Gilt, 6/-each._ | | | | =Beautiful Roses= for Garden and | | Greenhouse. Culture, Propagation, | | Pruning. | | | | =Beautiful Flowering Trees and | | Shrubs= for British and Irish | | Gardens. | | | | =Beautiful Garden Flowers= for | | Town and Country. | |_________________________________________| PLATE 1. _FRONTISPIECE._ IXIAS (1-6) BEAUTIFUL BULBOUS PLANTS FOR THE OPEN AIR. BY JOHN WEATHERS, F.R.H.S., N.R.S., LECTURER ON HORTICULTURE TO THE MIDDLESEX COUNTY COUNCIL FORMERLY OF THE ROYAL GARDENS, KEW: ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY, &C. AUTHOR OF "A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS." "BEAUTIFUL ROSES." "BEAUTIFUL FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS," "BEAUTIFUL GARDEN FLOWERS." With 33 full page Coloured Plates by Mrs. Philip Hensley. LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT, & CO., Ltd. DAY & SON (25 YEARS LITHOGRAPHERS TO THE QUEEN AND THE PRINCE OF WALES), 32, WESTMINSTER MANSIONS, S.W. PREFACE. Although many articles have appeared from time to time in the horticultural newspapers and periodicals dealing with various aspects of the subject, it cannot be said that Bulbous Plants have hitherto received the attention they deserve in gardening literature. This volume therefore appears at an opportune moment to meet a recognised want, and in fulfilment of the promise made in the preface to "BEAUTIFUL GARDEN FLOWERS." While Bulbous Plants as a class have been somewhat neglected, it may be noted that one or two families have been dealt with specially in years gone by. In this connection mention may be made of the magnificent "Monograph of the Genus Lilium," by Mr. H. J. Elwes; the "Narcissus, its History and Culture," by Mr. F. W. Burbidge, M.A., and Mr. J. G. Baker, F.R.S.; a "History of the Genus Crocus," by the Hon. and Rev. Dean Herbert, whose original drawings and MS. notes are preserved in the Lindley Library. Mr. Geo. Maw has also dealt specially with the "Crocus"; and more recently the Rev. Eugene Bourne with the "Daffodil"; Miss Jekyle and Mr. Goldring with "Lilies," &c. A glance at the coloured plates will perhaps be sufficient to give the reader a good idea as to the numerous kinds of Bulbous Plants now grown in gardens, and of the marvellous range of colour to be found in their blossoms. It has not been considered advisable to include in this volume such hothouse bulbous plants as Eucharis, Crinum, Hymenocallis, Pancratium, but only those kinds that are most likely to give general, if not universal, satisfaction when grown in the open air according to the cultural instructions to be found under the heads of the various genera. In the preparation of this work I have to acknowledge my indebtedness to the Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, through whose kindness I have had opportunities for examining the bulbs or corms of the rarer plants referred to in the letterpress. I also owe my best thanks for the specimens kindly supplied to illustrate the work by A. Worsley, Esq., of Isleworth; Messrs. Barr and Son, of Covent Garden; Messrs. Wallace and Company, of Colchester; Messrs. Ware, of Feltham; and Mr. Perry, of Winchmore Hill. JOHN WEATHERS. LIST OF PLATES. PLATE. FIG. PLATE. FIG. 1. IXIAS (_Frontispiece_) 1-6 18. CAMASSIA CUSICKI 70 LILIUM PYRENAICUM 71 2. SCILLA SIBIRICA MULTIFLORA 7 ALLIUM ERDELII 72 GALANTHUS NIVALIS 8 IXIOLIRION PALLASI 73 CHIONODOXA LUCILIÆ 9 HYACINTHUS AZUREUS 10 19. ORNITHOGALUM PYRAMIDALE 74 BREVOORTIA IDA-MAIA 75 3. BULBOUS IRISES: BRODIÆA LAXA 76 I. HISTRIO 11 BRODIÆA IXIOIDES 77 I. BAKERIANA 12 I. KOLPAKOWSKYANA 13 20. GALTONIA CANDICANS 78 I. DANFORDIÆ 14 SISYRINCHIUM GRANDIFLORUM 79 I. PERSICA 15 BRODIÆA HOWELLI LILACINA 80 4. DAFFODILS: 21. EARLY-FLOWERING ELLEN WILLMOTT 16 GLADIOLI 81-83 MDME. DE GRAAFF 17 22. CALOCHORTUS VENUSTUS 84 HORSFIELDI 18 CALOCHORTUS ALBUS 85 CALOCHORTUS PULCHELLUS 86 5. DAFFODILS CYCLAMINEUS 19 23. GLADIOLUS OPPOSITIFLORUS 87 TRIANDRUS ALBUS 20 LILIUM CANADENSE, VARS. 88-89 PRINCESS MARY OF CAMBRIDGE 21 GLORIA MUNDI 22 24. LILIUM TIGRINUM 90 SIR WATKIN 23 BRODIÆA BRIDGESI 91 6. DAFFODILS: 25. LILIUM TENUIFOLIUM 92 GRAND MONARQUE 24 LILIUM HANSONI 93 SOLEIL D'OR 25 LILIUM LONGIFLORUM 94 WEARDALE PERFECTION 26 LULWORTH 27 26. LILIUM MARTAGON ALBUM 95 WATSONIA ARDERNEI 96 7. GARDENIA NARCISSUS 28 LILIUM RUBELLUM 97 POET'S NARCISSUS 29 LILIUM COLCHICUM 98 HYACINTHUS AMETHYSTINUS 30 27. WATSONIA MERIANA 99 8. FRITILLARIAS: WATSONIA ALBA 100 F. MOGGRIDGEI 31 WATSONIA ANGUSTA 101 F. WALUJEWI 32 MONTBRETIA F. MELEAGRIS ALBA 33 CROCOSMIÆFLORA 102 F. RECURVA 34 28. GLADIOLUS NANCEIANUS 103 GLADIOLUS LEMOINEI 104 9. TULIPS 35-38 GLADIOLUS CHILDSI 105 10. TULIPS 39-42 29. ZEPHYRANTHES ATAMASCO 106 ORNITHOGALUM ARABICUM 107 11. HYACINTHS 43-46 ORNITHOGALUM NUTANS 108 12. LEUCOJUM VERNUM 47 30. CRINUM MOOREI 109 MUSCARI CONICUM 48 TIGRIDIA LILACEA 110 ERYTHRONIUM JOHNSONI 49 TECOPHILÆA CYANOCROCUS 50 31. BELLADONNA LILY 111 DIERAMA PULCHERRIMA 112 13. BRODIÆA UNIFLORA 51-52 CHIONODOXA SARDENSIS 53 32. TULBAGHIA VIOLACEA 113 ERYTHRONIUM DENS-CANIS 54-55 ZEPHYRANTHES CANDIDA 114 CRINUM POWELLI ALBUM 115 14. ENGLISH IRISES 56-59 LYCORIS SQUAMIGERA 116 15. SPANISH IRISES 60-63 33. CROCUS MEDIUS 117 COLCHICUM SPECIOSUM 118 16. MADONNA LILY 64 STERNBERGIA LUTEA 119 FRITILLARIA IMPERIALIS, STERNBERGIA MACRANTHA 120 VARS. 65-66 CROCUS OCHROLEUCUS 121 CROCUS SPECIOSUS 122 17. LILIUM CROCEUM 67 ALLIUM MOLY 68 SCILLA PERUVIANA ALBA 69 CONTENTS. PAGE Preface v List of Plates viii Index ix Introduction 1 Geographical Distribution 6 Something about Bulbs and Corms 7 Soil for Bulbous Plants 16 Hints to Beginners 18 How Deep should Bulbs be Planted? 22 Natural Sinking of Bulbs and Corms 25 Bulbs without Contractile Roots 27 Propagation of Bulbous Plants:-- By Offsets, Bulbils, Leaf-Scales, Division, Seeds. 29-36 Lifting and Storing Bulbs 36 Combinations of Bulbous and Non-Bulbous Plants 38 Naturalising Bulbous Plants in the Grass 41 Bulbous Plants under Trees and Shrubs 43 Bulbous Plants for Cut Flowers 43 Bulbous Plants for Cold Greenhouses 46 Bulbous Plants for Window Boxes 48 Descriptions, Culture, Propagation, &c., of the Best Bulbous Plants for the Open Air 50 Enemies of Bulbous Plants 141 Manuring Bulbous Plants 148 INDEX _________________________________________________________________ | Acis, 96 | Combinations with | Greenhouses, | | Ajax Daffodils, 111 | Bulbs, 38 | bulbs for, 46 | | Allium, 50 | Contractile | Grubs, 141 | | Amaryllis, 51 | Roots, 27 | | | Angel's Tears, 116 | Corbularia, 114 | Habranthus, 81 | | Anomatheca, 92 | Corms, 12 | Homeria, 55 | | Antholyza, 53 | Corn Flag, 78 | Hyacinth, Grape, 106| | | Corn Lily, 89 | " Musk, 108 | | Babiana, 53 | Crinum, 66 | " Ostrich | | Baboon Root, 53 | Crocosma, 67 | feather, 107 | | Basal rot, 147 | Crocus, 68 | " Star, 122 | | Basic Slag, 148 | " Autumn, 70, 65 | " Wood, 121 | | Beginners, | " Chilian, 126 | Hyacinths | | Hints to, 18| " Cloth of Gold, 70| " in glasses, 84 | | Belladonna Lily, 51 | " " Silver, 69| " in pots, 85 | | Bessera, 54 | Cut Flowers, | Hyacinthus, 82 | | Bicolor | bulbs for, 43 | | | Daffodils, 112 | Cyclobothra, 59 | Iris, 86 | | Bloomeria, 55 | | " English, 87 | | Bluebell, 121 | Daffodils, 108 | " Spanish, 87 | | " Spanish, 121 | Daffodils, Ajax, 111| Ixia, 89 | | Bobartia, 55 | " Bicolor, 112 | Ixiolirion, 91 | | Bravoa, 55 | " Hooped | | | Brevoortia, 56 | Petticoat, 114 | Jacobæa Lily, 124 | | Brodiæa, 56 | " Star, 112 | Jonquil, 116 | | Bulbils, 32, 95 | " in Scilly Isles,4| " Queen Anne's, 116| | Bulbocodium, 58 | " Tenby, 111 | Joss Flower, 115 | | Bulbs, buying, 19 | Dierama, 71 | | | " and corms, 7 | Dog's Tooth | Kainit, 142, 149 | | " in grass, 41 | Violet, 72 | | | " lifting, 36 | | Lapeyrousia, 92 | | " sinking of, 25 | Enemies of bulbous | Leaf-scales, 31 | | " storing, 37 | plants, 141 | Leaves, | | Butter and Eggs, 113| Erythronium, 72 | importance of, 13 | | | Eucomis, 73 | Lent Lily, 111 | | Calochortus, 58 | | Leopard Lily, 102 | | Calliprora lutea, 57| Ferraria, 74 | Leucojum, 92 | | Camassia, 62 | Fire Cracker, | LILIUM, 93 | | Camass Root, 62 | Californian, 56 | Alexandræ, 97 | | Chionodoxa, 63 | Flag, Corn, 78 | auratum, 99 | | Chiono-Scilla, 63 | Flowers, | Batemanniæ, 97 | | Chlorogalum, 64 | when to pick, 45 | Bloomerianum, 101 | | Cloves, 30 | Fritillaria, 75 | Browni, 100 | | Codlins and | Fungoid diseases,146| bulbiferum, 97 | | Cream, 113 | | Burbanki, 103 | | Colchicum, 64 | Gagea, 76 | canadense, 103 | | | Galanthus, 77 | candidum, 97 | | | Galtonia, 78 | Catesbæi, 103 | | | Ganymede's Cup, 116 | chalcedonicum, 98 | | | Gladiolus, 78 | colchicum, 102 | | | Glory of the Snow,63| | | | Grass, | | | | bulbs in the, 41 | | | | Green leaves, | | | | value of, 13 | | |_____________________|_____________________|_____________________| _________________________________________________________________ | concolor, 100 | " Madonna, 97, 146 | Seed sowing, 36 | | cordifolium, 104 | " Mariposa, 58 | Sisyrinchium, 123 | | croceum, 98 | " Orange, 98 | Snowdrop, 77 | | Dalhansoni, 98 | " Sacred, 115 | Snowflake, 92 | | dauricum, 98 | " Swamp, 104 | Soap Plant, 64 | | elegans, 100 | " Tiger, 103 | Soil for bulbs, 16 | | excelsum, 99 | " Turk's Cap, 102 | Soot, 142 | | giganteum, 100 | Lime, 142 | Sparaxis, 124 | | Grayi, 104 | Liver | Sparrows, 144 | | Hansoni, 101 | of Sulphur, 146 | Spawn, 30 | | Henryi, 98 | Lycoris, 105 | Sprekelia, 124 | | Humboldti, 101 | | Squill, 120 | | japonicum, 101 | Madonna Lily,97,146 | Star of | | kewense, 101 | Manures | Bethlehem, 117 | | Krameri, 101 | for Bulbs, 148 | " " yellow, 76 | | lancifolium, 102 | Meadow Saffron, 64 | Sternbergia, 125 | | Leichtlini, 101 | Merendera, 105 | Storing bulbs, 37 | | Loddigesianum, 102| Merodon, 144 | Superphosphate, 148 | | longiflorum, 101 | Milla, 106 | Swamp Lily, 104 | | maritimum, 104 | Montbretia, 128 | Sword Lily, 78 | | Marhan, 98 | Muscari, 106 | | | Martagon, 102 | | Tecophilæa, 126 | | monadelphum, 102 | Narcissus, 108 | Tiger Flower, 127 | | pardalinum, 102 | " Fly, 144 | Tiger Lily, 103 | | pomponium, 98 | " Poet's, 110 | Tigridia, 127 | | Parryi, 104 | " Polyantha, 114 | Trees and Shrubs, | | pyrenaicum, 99 | " Tazetta, 114 | bulbs under, 43 | | Roezli, 102 | " When to plant,109 | Tritonia, 128 | | rubellum, 99 | Naturalising | Tuberose, 119 | | speciosum, 102 | bulbs, 41 | Tulbaghia, 130 | | superbum, 104 | Nitrate of soda, 142| Tulip, 131 | | Szovitsianum, 102 | Nothoscordum, 117 | Tulip, Cottage, 137 | | tenuifolium, 102 | | " Darwin, 136 | | testaceum, 99 | Offsets, 29 | " Dragon, 136 | | Thunbergianum, 100| Orange Lily, 98 | " Mayflowering, 137| | tigrinum, 103 | Ornithogalum, 117 | " Parrot, 136 | | umbellatum, 99 | | " Seedling, 134 | | Washingtonianum,99| Pancratium, 118 | " Star, 59 | | Lilies, | Planting bulbs, 22 | " Wild, 2 | | distribution of, 95| Polianthes, 119 | Turk's Cap Lily,102| | " planting, 96 | Poor Men's | | | "for damp soils,103| Orchids, 87 | Watsonia, 138 | | Lily Disease, 146 | Propagation, 29 | Window boxes, | | Lily | Puschkinia, 119 | bulbs for, 48 | | " of the Field, 126| | Winter Daffodil, 125| | " Jacobæa, 124 | Quamash, 62 | Wireworms, 141 | | " Leopard, 102 | | | | | Roots, | Zephyranthes, 140 | | | contractile, 27 | Zephyr Flower, 140 | | | | | | | Sacred Lily, 115 | | | | Salicylic Acid, 147 | | | | Salt, 143 | | | | Schizostylis, 120 | | | | Scilla, 120 | | |_____________________|_____________________|_____________________| BEAUTIFUL BULBOUS PLANTS. INTRODUCTION. The cultivation of Bulbous Plants has reached a point of popularity at the present day that it has never before attained. And there is every reason to believe that this popularity is increasing from year to year as more people become better acquainted with these plants, and the ease with which the great majority of them may be grown in almost any garden. Indeed there are now so many kinds of bulbous plants that there is no difficulty in making a selection to suit the smallest garden or the most modest purse. Of course, some kinds, such as Tulips, Daffodils and Narcissi, Hyacinths, Crocuses, Snowdrops, Scillas, Bluebells, Chionodoxas, Grape Hyacinths, Lilies, Colchicums, Gladioli, and Montbretias, will be always probably amongst the first favourites with garden lovers. But there is no reason why the Mariposa Lilies and Star Tulips, the Brodiæas and Millas, the Sternbergias and Fritillarias, and many others should not in the course of time become almost equally popular when they become better known. Some kinds of bulbous plants have been known in British Gardens--and no doubt in continental ones also--ever since such a thing as gardening proper came to be distinguished from mere agriculture. Our native or naturalised bulbs--such as the Snake's Head Fritillary (_Fritillaria Meleagris_), the Yellow Star of Bethlehem (_Gagea lutea_), as well as the white ones (_Ornithogalum nutans_, _pyrenaicum_, and _umbellatum_), the Autumn Crocus (_Colchicum autumnale_), the Lent Lily or Daffodil (_Narcissus Pseudo-Narcissus_), the Snowdrop (_Galanthus nivalis_), the Snowflake (_Leucojum vernum_), the Grape Hyacinth (_Muscari racemosum_), the Squill (_Scilla verna_), and the Bluebell (_S. festalis_), the Martagon Lily (_Lilium Martagon_), and the Wild Tulip (_Tulipa sylvestris_) have been grown as garden plants for 400 years or more. The great monastic establishments were the seats of gardening as of learning, and it is in connection with them we find the first traces of bulbous or any other plants being intelligently cultivated. Besides the plants mentioned, our earliest garden records show that such bulbous plants as the Dog's Tooth Violet (_Erythronium Dens-Canis_), the Crown Imperial (_Fritillaria imperialis_), _Gladiolus communis_, the Garden Hyacinth (_Hyacinthus orientalis_), the Madonna Lily (_Lilium candidum_), the Poet's Narcissus and the Jonquil (_N. poeticus_ and _N. Jonquilla_), the Star Hyacinth (_Scilla amoena_), the Lily of the Field (_Sternbergia lutea_), and Gesner's Tulip (_T. Gesneriana_), were among the first kinds cultivated from the beginning of the 16th century, and they are all more popular to-day than ever. Following these we find such Tulips as _suaveolens_ and _Clusiana_, the yellow-flowered Onion (_Allium Moly_), the Cloth of Gold Crocus (_C. Susianus_), the Byzantine Gladiolus (_G. byzantinus_), and others in the 17th century. The beginning of the 18th century saw the introduction to our gardens of the Belladonna Lily (_Amaryllis Belladonna_), and later on the Babianas, Ixias, and other Gladioli like _blandus_, _cuspidatus_, and _cardinalis_. It is to the 19th century, however, that we owe not only many introductions of new kinds, but also the development of the great enterprise that has been shown in their extensive cultivation, and the natural methods of using them in the garden. To this period, and especially to the latter half of it, belong most of our fine Lilies, Bulbous Irises, Mariposa Lilies and Star Tulips, Brodiæas, Chionodoxas, Scillas, and American Dog's Tooth Violets. It has also been the age when the florist's varieties of Gladiolus, Daffodils, Tulips, Hyacinths, and Crocuses have been brought almost, if not quite, to the acme of perfection by intelligent cultivation and careful selection. All this has led to the growth of many kinds of bulbous plants having become a huge industry. Dutch bulbs have for many generations been famous, and many kinds will, no doubt, continue to retain their hold upon the public owing to the undoubted advantage of the climate under which they are grown. But experience has proved that such bulbous plants as Tulips and Daffodils at least can be grown equally well in some parts of the British Islands, notably in Cambridgeshire, Lincolnshire, the Scilly Isles, and parts of Ireland. It has been stated that over five hundred millions of bulbs are used for decorative purposes in Great Britain alone every year, and that the value of imported bulbs ranges from £5,000,000 to £8,000,000 annually. The growth of Daffodils and Narcissi alone in the Scilly Isles within the past forty years has been nothing less than phenomenal. Mr. T. A. Dorrien-Smith, of Tresco Abbey, has stated that the first lot of flowers was sent to Covent Garden Market about 1865, and realised £1. It was not, however, until about 1880 that Daffodil growing in these Islands became at all remunerative, and some idea of their growth since then may be gained from the fact (vouched for by the same authority) that 65 tons of flowers were exported from the Scilly Isles in 1885, 85 tons in 1886, 100 tons in 1887, 188 tons in 1888, and 198 tons in 1889; and on one day alone--the 25th February, 1896--30-1/2 tons of Narcissi, comprising 3,258,000 blooms in 4,849 boxes, were shipped to Penzance for market. Cultivation on such an extensive scale, of course, means a considerable reduction in price, and, from a commercial point of view, ordinary Daffodil growing may be said to have reached bedrock prices a long time ago. However, of late years, our American cousins have taken a keen interest in the importation of bulbs from Europe, and as gardening is a comparatively new industry in that extensive country, we may expect that it will afford a good market for many years to come. Not many years ago certain kinds of Tulips, Daffodils, Hyacinths, &c., were a drug in the English markets, and could be had at a very low price. Since, however, the Americans have become fond of bulb-growing, these particular kinds have advanced considerably in price, in some cases 100 to 150 per cent., because it so happened they were just the sorts that were liked on the other side of the Atlantic. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. It is curious to note in this respect that almost every part of the temperate and sub-tropical regions of the globe have contributed some class of bulbous plants now to be found in cultivation. Central and Southern Europe and Northern Africa have supplied us with various Daffodils and Narcissi, Tulips, &c. From Asia Minor and Turkestan, the Chionodoxas, and many bulbous Irises and Fritillarias have been introduced. California and other parts of North America have produced the Mariposa Lilies, all the Dog's Tooth Violets, except the common British one, the Brodiæas, &c., while South Africa has given us the Gladiolus, Montbretias, and Tritonias, Crocosma, and other beautiful plants. And the Lilies, which form a large group in themselves, are to be found in almost every temperate clime north of the equator (see page 95). When these facts are borne in mind, the reader will readily understand the necessity of trying to imitate, as far as possible, in our own climate the various natural conditions under which these plants are found. PLATE 2. SCILLA SIBIRICA MULTIFLORA (7) GALANTHUS NIVALIS (8) CHIONODOXA LUCILIÆ (9) HYACINTHUS AZUREUS (10) SOMETHING ABOUT BULBS AND CORMS. There is so much confusion of thought as to what a "bulbous" plant really is, that it may be as well at the beginning of this volume to endeavour to clear up the haziness that exists in regard to the matter. It seems to be taken for granted that any plant with a swollen or thickened stem or rootstock is a "bulbous" one. And this impression is no doubt confirmed when one consults the bulb catalogues issued by nurserymen. In these publications--chiefly, no doubt, for the sake of convenience and to avoid unnecessary extra expense in printing--a large number of plants are enumerated as if they were really bulbous. It is, therefore, not at all unnatural that the amateur should come to the conclusion that everything mentioned between the covers of a bulb catalogue should be truly bulbous in nature. Even some publications on bulbous plants have adopted the same loose nomenclature. Thus we find such non-bulbous plants as Aconites, Anemones, Dahlias, Dicentras, Day-Lilies, Hepaticas, Solomon's Seal, Astilbe japonica, Tropæolums, Lily of the Valley, Corydalis, Torch Lilies, Pæonies, Christmas Roses, and many others described as "bulbous" plants, while some that are really so, and worthy of cultivation, are not even mentioned. Some of the plants referred to above have thickened stems or roots, and will be found described in their proper places in the companion volume to this--"BEAUTIFUL GARDEN FLOWERS." They belong to several different families of plants. True bulbous plants, however (with which we may include those having "corms"), are confined to very few families. Indeed, they are restricted to one of the two large groups of flowering plants, viz., that in which the leaves usually have parallel veins, and the flowers have their parts in circles of three or six. This group of plants is known to botanists as "monocotyledons," and is still further distinguished by having only _one_ seed-leaf, as may be seen when the seeds of any of them sprout, as shown in the Tulip, p. 35. It is within the limits of this definition, therefore, that all the plants described in this book come. They all have parallel-veined leaves, and the parts of their flowers are in "threes" or "sixes," as may be seen by consulting the coloured plates. PLATE 3. BULBOUS IRISES I. HISTRIO, (11) I. BAKERIANA, (12). I. KOLPAKOWSKYANA, (13) I. DANFORDIÆ, (14) I. PERSICA (15) There is an apparent contradiction to this rule in the Daffodils (Narcissi) in which the "trumpet" or "corona" in the centre makes a seventh organ. A similar growth may be seen in such bulbous plants as the Eucharis, Hymenocallis, Pancratium, &c., that are usually grown under glass. This corona is analogous to the ligules or scale-like outgrowths so noticeable on the petals of the Campions (Lychnis), the chief difference being that in the Narcissi the ligules are joined together, become much larger, and often constitute the most attractive feature of the flowers. =Definition of a "Bulb".=--Perhaps the very best-known example of a true bulb is the common or garden Onion. Another example is shown in the sketch of a Hyacinth and Tigridia. Illustration: TUNICATED BULB OF HYACINTH in section showing "Disc," and Scale Leaves _s. l._ Illustration: TIGRIDIA BULB, Showing thick Contractile Roots. The bulbs of Daffodils, Tulips, Snowdrops, Scillas, &c., all conform very closely to the Onion in structure. It will be noticed that at the base of the Hyacinth, for example, is a flattish or deltoid mass of tissue. This is called the "disc" and is really the stem portion of the bulb. On the upper surface it bears a number of thick scaly leaves packed very close together, and rolled round each other, with the flower-spike in the centre; while from the under surface, the roots emanate when growth takes place. It may be easily imagined by the reader that if the "disc" were drawn out lengthwise, and if a space separated one scale-leaf from another, that the bulb would be very similar in appearance to an ordinary leafy stem. Nature, however, has a certain object in view in modifying the stems and leaves in such a manner that they are tightly packed away when at rest, within a brown protecting coat, so that they resemble the large scale-protected flower-buds that may be seen in winter on Horse-chestnuts, Lilacs, Ash, &c. The thick scale-leaves are really storehouses in which food has been stored up by the larger and broader green leaves that perform the functions of assimilation, respiration, &c., above the ground during the growing period. When the bulb begins to grow, the food in the thick scale-leaves is drawn up to supply nourishment to the flower-stem, until the new green leaves can manufacture or elaborate a fresh supply in the sunlight from the raw materials drafted into them from the soil by the roots. Under favourable circumstances more food is elaborated than is necessary for the wants of the plant, and then extra growths or young bulbs called "offsets" are developed at the base, or rather the side, of the older bulb. It should be mentioned here, however, that all bulbs do not vegetate in the same way. In many cases the original bulb persists for several seasons, as in the Daffodil and Hyacinth, for example; but in others it vanishes completely during the period of growth, and is absorbed, or swallowed up, as it were, by the flower stem. The most common example of this among bulbs is the Tulip, to which more detailed reference has been made at p. 133. =Kinds of Bulbs.=--Most true bulbs are constructed like the Onion, Daffodil, Snowdrop, or Hyacinth, in having the scale-leaves rolled round each other, forming different layers or coats. Such bulbs are said to be "tunicated." In the case of the Liliums, however, the scale-leaves only lap over each other at the edges, and are arranged spirally round the central axis. These bulbs are called "scaly," or "imbricated," and are shown in the annexed sketch on p. 12. The individual scales are much thicker at the base than at the apex, and in the case of tunicated bulbs, they are also thicker on one side than the other. By this arrangement, the various "coats" can be rolled round each other more tightly, and without wasting any space. Illustration: SCALY BULB OF LILY. =Definition of a "Corm".=--In outward appearance, many corms are so much like bulbs, that the two terms are interchangeable and loosely applied, at least, among gardeners. By cutting a "corm" through the centre lengthwise, a great difference, however, will be noticed in the structure. In the bulb, the "disc" is small and unimportant, while the scale-leaves upon it are the most conspicuous feature. In the "corm," on the other hand, the "disc" is the all-important feature, and is devoid of any thick scale-leaves upon it. The new growths appear on the top or sides, and the lines round the circumference show where the sheathing papery scale-leaves were attached. In the "corm" then, it is the disc, and not the scale-leaves, that is the great storehouse of food. PLATE 4. DAFFODILS ELLEN WILLMOTT, (17. MDME. DE GRAAFF, 18. HORSFIELDI) =Growth of a Corm.=--The vegetation of the corm is very remarkable, and somewhat resembles that of the Tulip. When a corm commences to grow, the reserve material within it is used up for the benefit of the flowers and leaves. The result of this absorbing process is that by the end of the season the old corm has almost vanished, or is reduced to a dry shrivelled, woody, and lifeless mass, incapable of further growth, and attached to the base of the new corms, as shown in the annexed sketches of Gladiolus and Crocus on page 14. These new corms are the direct result of the work that has been done by the green leaves in the daylight, and after a period of rest, they go through precisely the same process the following season--vanishing themselves, but leaving others behind to carry on the work of producing flowers, and, if possible, seeds. Illustration: GLADIOLUS. _o. c._ old corm; _c. r._ contractile roots; _n. c._ new corms with "spawn" (_s_.) at base. Illustration: CROCUS CORM. _o. c._ old corm; _n. c._ new corm with growths. =The importance of Green Leaves to Bulbs and Corms.=--If the reader wishes to be successful in growing bulbous plants in his garden he must have very great respect for the green leaves of his plants, and always endeavour to keep them in the cleanest and healthiest possible condition. From what has just been said about the production of new bulbs in the Tulip, and new corms in the Crocus and Gladiolus, it is obvious that the leaves play a most important part. Indeed, without their aid there would be neither bulbs nor corms to carry on the work of the plants from year to year. In the form of carbon-dioxide the leaves eat up the carbon and oxygen from the atmosphere. Under the influence of sunlight the gas is decomposed, so that the oxygen is given off again into the air, while the carbon is retained for the production of starch and other materials. These are elaborated in the cells of the leaves, and after undergoing certain changes pass down the stems and are stored up in the bulbs or corms beneath the surface of the soil. It is only _green_ healthy leaves that can perform this important work satisfactorily. When the foliage therefore begins to turn yellow and wither, it may be taken for granted that its work for the season is coming to a close, and the bulbs or corms are going to enjoy a well-earned rest. It should, perhaps, be mentioned also that leaves can only become green in day light; and although some bulbous plants like a certain amount of shade, it would never do to exclude the light from them altogether, or even to plant them in places where they could not get an adequate amount of sunshine, or diffused light, during the day. SOIL FOR BULBOUS PLANTS. Comparatively few of the bulbous plants mentioned in this volume will require anything better than ordinary good garden soil that has been deeply dug, contains a certain amount of well-decomposed manure, and is well-drained so that the water freely passes away. Such a soil will give general satisfaction, with the least amount of trouble, especially if it is inclined to be light rather than heavy. To secure really first-class results, however, the soil in beds or borders that are to be planted with bulbs should be particularly well-prepared in advance. A heavy soil, that is, one inclined to hold water, and of a clayey nature, will require a good deal more labour to bring it into a proper condition than a soil that is already friable and in a fair state of tilth. The heavy soil should be not only deeply dug to a depth of two feet or more, taking care not to bring the lower layers to the surface in the operation, although they should be turned over and pulverised as much as possible where they are. Plenty of sand or road-grit should be incorporated with a heavy soil, not only to keep it "open," but also to increase its warmth--a matter of some importance in our cold wet winters. The upper layer of soil, say a foot from the surface, may be still further improved by the admixture of old cow-manure and soot. In very bad soils, powdered quicklime may also be added, not only to absorb superfluous moisture, but to render the soil sweeter and more fertile. On no account, however, should fresh, rank manure be dug into the soil just before the bulbs are planted, as the heat and gases generated by its decomposition are often injurious to the extremely tender tips of the young roots. PLATE 5. (DAFFODILS 19. CYCLAMINEUS, 20. TRIANDRUS ALBUS, 21. PRINCESS MARY OF CAMBRIDGE, 22. GLORIA MUNDI, 23. SIR WATKIN) An ordinary good garden soil--that is, one that is regularly dug, hoed, manured, and cropped with some class of plants--will only need to be well dug for bulbs, and to have some well-decayed manure and soot incorporated with it a week or two before planting. For some bulbs, such as the Mariposa Lilies (Calochorti), some of the bulbous Irises, and a few other kinds, it may be necessary to take particular pains with the preparation of the soil for them. Attention has been specially called to plants of this nature, where such has been considered necessary. It should be remembered that when bulbous plants are attacked by fungoid diseases, referred to at p. 145, it is very often the result of a badly prepared soil, and not to any inherent defect in the bulbs. HINTS TO BEGINNERS. There is a beginning to everything, and the cultivation of bulbous plants is no exception to the rule. It is probable in many cases that the beginner at bulb-growing falls into precisely the same errors as the beginner with other classes of plants. The most common error of all, perhaps, is that he wants to grow at once every bulbous plant known. He sees a book, like the present one for example, and admires the beautiful pictures of bulbous plants in it. The result may be--and I hope it will be--a keen desire to invest in the bulbs that can produce such charming blossoms. But this keen desire should be tempered with discretion. His garden may be only a small one, and perhaps already stocked with many other plants. As he cannot hope to get the whole of Kew Gardens into it at once, it would be as well to start with only a few _kinds_ of bulbs. I do not mean of a _few bulbs_ of _many_ kinds, as he is almost sure to be disappointed in the results. In these days of imperial thought it is no use thinking of producing an effect in a garden with six bulbs of either Snowdrops, Crocuses, Tulips, or Daffodils. It is as well to think of the larger bulbs like the Lilies and choice Hyacinths in _dozens_; of the medium sized ones like Tulips, Daffodils, Tritonias, and bedding Hyacinths in _hundreds_; and of the smaller ones like Crocuses, Snowdrops, Spanish Irises, Scillas, Chionodoxas, and Bluebells in _thousands_. The dearer and choicer kinds are better left alone, perhaps, until some advance has been made with the others. =Buying Bulbs.=--To buy bulbous plants in dozens, hundreds, or thousands of course means money. The beginner, however, is not advised to buy large quantities of _all_ the kinds mentioned to begin with, as the cost might be prohibitive, or the convenience for their proper treatment inadequate. What is strongly recommended, however, is to start with a large number of any one, two, or three kinds as can be afforded one year, instead of frittering away the same amount of money over a few bulbs each of perhaps a dozen different kinds which will fail to produce the anticipated effect later on. It is much better, for instance, to buy, say 100 bulbs of cottage or Mayflowering Tulips, than to invest in 100 bulbs belonging to eight different genera. The 100 Tulips would make a fine show in the garden, because there would probably be enough of them; whereas the other bulbs, although quite as handsome in their own way would be lost, or at least inconspicuous, owing to the small number of each in flower at the same time. If only one or two kinds of bulbs can be bought in sufficient quantity each season, with care they can be increased each year afterwards, and need not be purchased again. This will permit of the purchase of a sufficient number of one or two other kinds the following year, and as these will increase and multiply in the same way, there will be quite a large number of excellent bulbs available at the end of a few years. Each season there is a larger and better display than the preceding one, and that is a result very rarely attained, even after several years' labour, and a lot of money has been spent, when the principle of having only a _few_ bulbs of _many_ kinds is adopted. If the effect is not produced the first season, enthusiasm is likely to be killed, or the interest in bulb-growing may be seriously diminished. The beginner is strongly advised to start with such easily-grown and effective bulbs as Tulips, Daffodils, and Spanish Irises, afterwards adding Montbretias or Tritonias, Gladiolus, Liliums, Chionodoxas, Scillas, Snowdrops, Grape Hyacinths, Crocuses, &c., according to fancy. Of course all these may be started with, but as stated before, each kind should be purchased in sufficient quantity to make a bold and effective display when in blossom. PLATE 6. DAFFODILS (24. GRAND MONARQUE, 25. SOLEIL D'OR, 26. WEARDALE PERFECTION, 27. LULWORTH) =A Word of Warning.=--Beginners must not run away with the idea that the largest bulbs give the most blossom. In many instances this is very far from being the case--notably with the florists' Hyacinth--which is a most deceptive bulb. Small heavy bulbs are much better than large light ones--that is light or heavy according to their size. In Daffodils, too, there is a good deal of variety in the shape and size of different varieties, some being naturally smaller than others, and yet capable of throwing fine blossoms. All healthy bulbs, no matter to what genus they belong, should be firm and solid, and not soft and pappy to the touch. A distinction must also be made between well-ripened "flowering bulbs," and those often advertised as "planting bulbs." The latter are perfectly sound, but being merely offsets from the "flowering" bulbs, are not likely to flower the first year after planting, although a few of the stronger ones may do so. When one can afford to await a couple of years, "planting" bulbs offer a cheap means of stocking a garden, as a thousand can be purchased for a few shillings. The other hints, necessary for a beginner, will be found in the following pages attached to the different groups of bulbs or corms he may wish to grow. HOW DEEP SHOULD BULBS BE PLANTED? This question has been agitating the minds of gardeners for some considerable time, and has given rise to a certain amount of discussion. Some advocate very deep planting, on the strength of having discovered the bulbs of such plants as Snowdrops, &c., a foot or more beneath the surface of the soil without any decrease in vigour. On the contrary, it has been contended that the plants have shown unusual sturdiness, notwithstanding the amount of reserve material the bulbs must have expended before the leaves were able to reach the light. It is natural that bulbs that are left in beds and borders for a few years without lifting should be found at a greater depth than is generally recommended for the planting of new bulbs. In the course of time the soil is turned up more or less deeply, and any bulbs in it are almost sure to be buried deeper than they were before; or frequent top dressings of soil or manure may have been given, and thus place the bulbs still further from the light. It is possible, however, that bulbs get buried deeply owing to the downward pull of their own contractile roots referred to below. Although I am not going to recommend very deep planting, there is one great advantage in having bulbs in the open air well covered with soil, viz., that the temperature of the soil at one, two, or three feet is often as much as 20 degrees higher than it is immediately on the surface during very cold and frosty weather. This is a wonderful provision of Nature for the protection of all kinds of roots and bulbs beneath the soil in winter. In the following pages the average size of the bulbs or corms of different genera is given. It will be noticed that they vary from half an inch in diameter in some of the smaller Narcissi, to three, four, or five inches in some of the Liliums. Between these two extremes there are nearly all shapes and sizes, and it is not unnatural that the amateur should be somewhat puzzled as to the depth he ought to plant any particular bulb. For planting bulbs in the open air, I venture to propound a safe general rule, viz.:--_cover a bulb or corm with about twice its own depth of soil_. Thus a bulb one inch through from top to bottom would be planted about three inches deep, so that it would be covered with two inches of soil. The adoption of this principle means fairly deep planting in the case of large bulbs. There are a few exceptions, however, to this rule, but they have been noted in the proper place. Illustration: DIBBER. The actual planting of bulbs in formal beds may be done with either a garden trowel or dibber. The trowel is better for the larger bulbs like Liliums, and may of course be used for smaller bulbs if found to be more convenient. The dibber is useful for making holes at very regular distances apart in the lines, and into each hole a bulb may be dropped in, afterwards covering it over with soil. Illustration: _Wrong_ and _Right_ way of planting Bulbs with Dibber. A blunt dibber as shown in the sketch, will be found more useful than a pointed one for the work, although it may not be pushed into the soil so readily. The danger of a sharp-pointed dibber is shown in the sketch. A fairly large bulb is liable to be hung up in the hole as its diameter is greater than that of the dibber at a certain depth. Under these circumstances roots would not be emitted so readily from the base, as when the bulb is resting flat on the bottom of the hole as shown in the sketch to the right. PLATE 7. GARDENIA NARCISSUS (28) POET'S NARCISSUS (29) HYACINTHUS AMETHYSTINUS (30) THE NATURAL SINKING OF BULBS AND CORMS. In connection with the question of planting, attention may be directed to a very interesting and remarkable power possessed by the roots of many bulbs and corms. A glance at the sketches of Gladiolus, Tritonia, Nothoscordum, and Lilium, will show the reader some thick fleshy roots with conspicuous rings on them. They are readily distinguished from the finer fibrous roots, and, as may be readily supposed, their functions are quite distinct. To thoroughly understand what these thick-ringed roots are for, the reader will remember what has been said at page 13 about the way in which the old corms of Crocuses and Gladioli disappear, or are surmounted in autumn by new ones. If the plants were not disturbed for several years, one would imagine that as the new corms were always produced _on top_ of the old ones, they would sooner or later come through the surface of the soil, and thus run the risk of being either parched by drought, or shrivelled up by the heat of the summer sun; or, again, of being frozen to death in winter. And yet, examination of the corms will show that the new ones are quite as deep down in the soil, if not deeper, than their predecessors. This remarkable state of affairs to preserve what may be called the _status quo_ is entirely due to the action of the thick, ringed roots referred to above. These roots usually strike straight down into the soil. When they have gone as far as Nature intended them to, they begin to contract much in the same way apparently as a worm does when going into its burrow, and for this reason they have been called "contractile." Illustration: NOTHOSCORDUM BULB. Showing Contractile Roots. Illustration: TRITONIA CORMS. During the process of contraction a tremendous force must be exerted to enable the roots to pull the corms or bulbs down to their proper level in the soil. The passive resistance of the latter is overcome, and as a result its particles are pressed much closer together than they were before. Sometimes this pulling power of the roots is exerted horizontally instead of vertically, and this accounts for the spreading of many bulbous plants like Tulips, Grape Hyacinths, &c., over a large area in the course of a few years when left undisturbed. =Bulbous Plants without Contractile Roots.=--Some bulbous plants have not the advantage of contractile roots to keep them down in the soil, so they must secure this desirable end by different means. Illustration: COLCHICUM. _o. c._ old corm; _n. c._ new growth; _o. r._ old roots. Illustration: BULBOCODIUM. _o. c._ old corm; _n. c._ new growth; _o. r._ old roots. A glance at the sketches of Colchicum and Bulbocodium will show a peculiar method of growth. The new corm instead of being produced on top of the old one, is developed at the side. Note, however, that the new corm is not on the same level as the old one. That would be no advantage whatever. Therefore it takes, as it were, a step _downwards_, so as to be well out of reach of mowing machines, rats, and mice, and other enemies, and also probably because it knows it will be much warmer in winter when several inches below the surface. The same principle seems to be employed by the bulbs of the Dog's Tooth Violets (_Erythronium_), as may be seen from the sketch--the new bulb to the right being distinctly lower than the older one to the left. Illustration: ERYTHRONIUM. PLATE 8. FRITILLARIAS (31. MOGGRIDGEI, 32. WALUJEWI, 33. MELEAGRIS ALBA, 34. RECURVA) PROPAGATION OF BULBOUS PLANTS. Perhaps there is no one class of plants that have so many ways of being easily increased as bulbous plants proper. Some kinds, _e.g._, Liliums, Alliums, may be increased in four different ways--from offsets and "spawn," scales, bulbils, and, last of all, seeds. =Offsets.=--The great mass of bulbous and cormous plants, however, are so readily multiplied by detaching the offsets from the parent bulb or corm, that the other methods are rarely employed except by trade growers. Nearly all hardy bulbous plants produce offsets freely. These offsets represent a superabundance of nourishment that has been elaborated in the leaves, and very often there are several smaller ones attached to the base of the larger ones that have been produced in precisely the same way. In the case of Daffodils, Tulips, Hyacinths, Crocuses, Gladiolus, and a host of others, the new offsets are pressed against the sides or on top of the older ones. In the drawing of the Tulip (p. 30), three new bulbs are to be seen surrounding all that is left of the old bulb. This latter has practically vanished up the main axis from the disc to produce flowers and leaves--hence it follows that the Tulip bulb somewhat resembles the corm in its vegetative characters. The bulbs taken out of the soil in early summer are not those that were planted the previous autumn. Besides "offsets," some plants produce numerous small vegetative bodies called "cloves" or "spawn." These are shown in the drawing of the Gladiolus (p. 14), where two strong flowering corms have been developed on top of the old shrivelled one. At the base of each of these are numerous small outgrowths among the contractile roots. If these growths or spawn are taken off and stored in sandy soil until spring, they may then be planted in special beds, and in the course of two or three years will reach the flowering size. Illustration: Tulip. _d._ disc of old bulb; _f. s._ flower and leaf-stalk which have eaten up old bulb; _n. b._ new bulb and offsets. The Liliums are a large and interesting group of bulbous plants. Many of them produce offsets freely round the base of the old bulb. There are several species, however (_e.g._, _canadense_, _Grayi_, _maritimum_, _pardalinum_, _Parryi_, _superbum_), which have creeping rootstocks or rhizomes, and the new offsets are produced along these at intervals as shown in the drawing. =Division.=--Bulbs or corms are rarely cut up for purposes of propagation. The best example in which this method of increase is practised is the Gladiolus. The larger corms, if they show two or more crown-growths, may be carefully cut down between them with a sharp knife. The cut surfaces may be dipped in soot, not only to dry it more rapidly, but also to prevent any stray spores of fungoid diseases from germinating. Illustration: RHIZOME (_r_) WITH OFFSETS. =Leaf-Scales.=--The thick, fleshy, deltoid scales of many of the Liliums will develop buds at the base, as shown in the drawing, when detached and inserted almost vertically in sandy soil. In about three or four years flowering bulbs can be produced by this means. A somewhat analogous process is adopted with Hyacinths. The old bulb is slashed across the base of the disc two or three times into the fleshy scales. The cut surfaces dry up, and by-and-bye small buds or bulblets, as shown on the sketch of the Lily scale, make their appearance. In due course these bulblets are detached and planted in light sandy soil. The propagation of the florists' varieties of Hyacinths by this means is not altogether satisfactory, as the old bulbs themselves undergo a deterioration in our variable climate. Illustration: Scale leaf (_s. l._) of Lily bulb showing new growth (_n. b._) at base. PLATE 9. TULIPS (35-38) =Bulbils.=--These are vegetative growths--neither seeds, bulbs, nor offsets--that appear in the axils of the aërial leaves, as shown in the sketch. Many Liliums, like _bulbiferum_, _tigrinum_, _speciosum_, _Leichtlini_, and some of the Alliums produce them with great regularity. It is thought that bulbils are borne by some plants and not others, because the conditions for the fertilisation or ripening of the seeds are not favourable. In such cases, therefore, Nature has provided such plants with this means of reproduction by bulbils, rather than allow them to run the risk of dying out altogether. In Kerner and Oliver's "Natural History of Plants" it is stated that "There are two forms of Orange Lily indigenous to Europe. One (_Lilium croceum_), occurring especially in the Pyrenees and South of France, almost always ripens fruits and forms no bulbils in its leaf-axils. The other (_Lilium bulbiferum_), found in the valleys of the Central and Northern Alps, hardly ever fruits, but is characterised by the bulbils it produces in the axils of its leaves; bulbils which disarticulate in autumn and are scattered by the wind. But there is no difference noticeable in the structure of the flowers in these two Orange Lilies, and it is difficult to explain their difference in mode of propagation, save on the assumption that in the regions where _Lilium bulbiferum_ grows those insects are wanting which should convey its pollen from flower to flower. As the Orange Lily possesses no arrangements for autogamy (_i.e._, self-fertilisation), no fruits are formed in the absence of insect visits. It appears that this plant has lost the capacity for autogamy; at any rate, if a stigma be pollinated with pollen from the same flower on plants in a garden, no result follows. On the other hand, offshoots in the form of numerous bulbils are produced by _Lilium bulbiferum_, by means of which it is propagated and dispersed. In several valleys of the Central Alps it does not flower at all, and thus obviously depends entirely upon its bulbils for propagation." Illustration: BULBILS in leaf-axils. The bulbils should not be detached from the stems until the latter are quite ripe, and the foliage shows signs of withering. They may be sown as if they were large seeds. They possess the advantage over seeds, however, inasmuch as they produce flowering bulbs two or three seasons before the bulbs from real seeds come to maturity. =Bulbous Plants from Seeds.=--The would-be raiser of bulbous plants from seeds must be gifted with a good deal of patience, and be systematic in his methods, otherwise he will find it is no sinecure to wait from five to ten years before a flower appears from the seeds he sowed at the beginning of those periods. Even when the blossoms do appear, the great majority of them are likely to be inferior in almost every way to their progenitors. The raising of bulbous plants from seeds, therefore, is not likely to find many enthusiastic disciples among amateur growers, who, as a rule, are content to cultivate the varieties that have been evolved by generations of gardeners. Under these circumstances it is most fortunate that bulbous plants can be so readily multiplied by offsets. Of course, in large gardens and nurseries, where there is a trained staff of men, it is a comparatively easy matter to save and sow a certain quantity of seeds each year. After the first period of waiting is over, each season sees a fresh lot of seedlings burst into blossom. Any particularly fine forms are marked, and afterwards increased by means of the offsets or bulbils. Illustration: TULIP SEEDLING. _b._ young bulb; _r._ first root; _s. l._ seed leaf; _s. c._ seed-coat. The annexed drawing shows a seedling Tulip. The germination is very similar to that of the common garden Onion. The swollen portion at the base represents the first stage in the development of the bulb, and each year for six or seven seasons sees it increase in size, and ultimately large and strong enough to blossom. =Sowing Seeds.=--The seeds of all the perfectly hardy bulbous plants may be sown in the open air, in beds specially prepared for the purpose. The soil should be a light sandy loam with a good sprinkling of leaf-mould in it. The "drills" may be drawn about one inch deep, and as the seedlings in many cases are left to look after themselves until they bloom, the seeds should be sown very thinly--two or three inches apart--so as to allow for future development. It would scarcely be wise, in the case of choice or rare varieties, to trust the seeds to the open air. They may, however, be sown in pots or pans, and after two or three seasons' growth they will be large enough for transferring to the open air. The seeds of bulbous plants may be sown in spring if they ripen late in the year; or in early autumn if they ripen in summer. LIFTING AND STORING BULBS. PLATE 10. TULIPS (39-42) As all bulbous plants have a period of rest at some season of the year, it is a matter of some little importance whether the bulbs or corms in the soil shall be taken up, or left in the ground from year to year. It will be noticed in many instances in the following pages that certain kinds are recommended to be left in the ground for three or four seasons without being disturbed. This practice may be adopted with advantage when bulbs are naturalised in the grass, the rock-garden, by the sides of lakes, &c., and in thin shrubberies or borders, where they are not likely to be rooted up during the year. In the formal flower beds, however, in which Tulips, Daffodils, Hyacinths, Crocuses, &c., are planted for a display in spring and early summer, it is necessary to lift them after flowering, not only to make way for the summer "bedding" plants, but also to allow of the beds being re-dug and re-arranged if necessary. The best time for lifting the bulbs is usually when the leaves have commenced to turn yellow. Some do this earlier than others, but in all cases, it is a sign that growth has ceased, and that bulbs or corms in the soil are ripe, and will be improved by a period of rest. =Storing.=--When lifted by means of a fork, the bulbs may be spread out to dry, either in the sun, or in some dry and airy shed. After a few days they may be gone over and cleaned by hand, taking off the old leaves, and putting the offsets or bulbils in separate receptacles from the large and well-ripened bulbs that are to be used for next year's display. The bulbs lifted in early summer (_e.g._, Tulips, Daffodils, Hyacinths, &c.) may be spread out in thin layers--not heaps--upon shelves in a cool, airy shed, where they can remain without injury until the time of planting in autumn comes round. In the case of bulbs or corms that are lifted in autumn when the leaves begin to fade, like the Gladiolus, the same process of cleaning is gone through, but care must be taken to keep them where the frost will not touch them during the winter. It is a good plan to store them in dry sand or earth in shallow boxes, and place them in dry, airy cellars or sheds until the spring. COMBINATIONS OF BULBOUS AND NON-BULBOUS PLANTS. While bulbous plants alone, especially when used in large quantities, make an effective display in the garden, they can be made much more attractive by the exercise of a little art and a pleasing combination with other plants that come into blossom at the same period. In the first place, true bulbous plants, like Tulips, Daffodils, and Bluebells for example, that flower at the same time may be mixed together for planting in grassy banks, or near the margins of lakes, &c., where they are not likely to be disturbed for several years. Similar combinations may be made with Snowdrops, Chionodoxas, Scillas, Leucojums, Crocuses, &c., that appear in the spring; and with Colchicums, autumn-flowering Crocuses, and Sternbergias in the late autumn. In the next place, the grace and beauty of bulbous plants proper are enhanced by judiciously mixing them with plants of a non-bulbous nature. Among these latter may be noted the following as being particularly useful:--Wallflowers, Forget-me-Nots, Polyanthuses, Primroses, White Arabis (_A. albida_), and Yellow Alyssum (_A. saxatile_), Violas and Pansies, the Winter Aconite (_Eranthis hiemalis_, and _E. cilicica_), Silene, Aubrietia. These are all useful for planting in the autumn at the same time as the bulbs of Tulips, Daffodils, Hyacinths, Crocuses, Snowdrops, Scillas, Chionodoxas, &c. Where formal beds are necessary the non-bulbous plants may be put in first, leaving sufficient space between the plants for the insertion of the bulbs afterwards. To secure effect and contrast, a little skill, or rather knowledge, of the different plants used, is necessary. Haphazard and careless combinations are not to be encouraged in the formal flower-beds. It would be a mistake, for instance, to mix three or four different kinds of bulbs (_e.g._, Snowdrops, Tulips, Daffodils, or Hyacinths) with Wallflowers, Forget-me-Nots, or any of the other plants mentioned above. The effect would be ludicrous, and give the beds a higgledy-piggledy appearance. Nor would it be wise to use one kind of plant in such a way that the other would be smothered or practically concealed from view. This could happen easily with combinations of such plants as Wallflowers or Forget-me-Nots, and such bulbs as Crocuses, Snowdrops, &c. The true idea of combination should be such that one plant is really as prominent as the other when in blossom--each one, in fact, lending and borrowing at the same time some charm from the other. Colours of course play an important part in this scheme, and care should be exercised at the time of planting _not_ to combine Yellow Polyanthuses, Yellow Wallflowers, or Yellow Violas, for instance, with Yellow Tulips or Daffodils; and so on. PLATE 11. HYACINTHS (43-46) The following are a few suggested combinations that will look well:-- 1. =Violas= (Blue), beneath White, Red, or Yellow Tulips or Daffodils. 2. =Violas= (Yellow), beneath White or Scarlet Tulips or Hyacinths. 3. =Violas= (White), beneath Scarlet or Yellow Tulips or Daffodils. 4. =Wallflowers= (Red), with Yellow, White, or Orange Tulips or Daffodils. 5. =Wallflowers= (Yellow), with Scarlet, Pink, White, or Red Tulips. 6. =Forget-me-Nots= (Blue), with all Tulips, Red and White Hyacinths, and Daffodils. 7. =Aubrietia= (Purple), with Tulips or Daffodils. 8. =White Arabis=, with Tulips, Daffodils, or Hyacinths. 9. =Yellow Alyssum=, with red-flowered or white-flowered Tulips or Hyacinths. 10. =Silene= (Rose), with White or Yellow Tulips and Daffodils. NATURALISING BULBOUS PLANTS IN THE GRASS. Although it has only been recognised of late years, owing chiefly to the teachings of Mr. Robinson, there is no place so natural perhaps for the artistic display of bulbous plants as in some piece of grass-land, whether it be a meadow, a sloping bank, the margin of a piece of water, or even a lawn. Every lover of bulbous plants, however, cannot gratify his individual tastes as to where he would like his bulbs to blossom, and he must perforce make the best of the piece of ground--large or small as it may be--that happens to be at his disposal. In large parks and gardens there is no difficulty, or there ought to be none, in securing suitable sites to show off the natural graces of the various bulbous plants recommended for the purpose in this volume. And even in small suburban gardens, where one often sees a piece of grass lying bare and cheerless in winter, a better use might be made of bulbs. Ce n'est que le premier pas qui coûte. Once the initial cost and labour of getting the bulbs beneath the turf is over there is joy ever afterwards, and keen anticipation in watching the spring and autumn Crocuses, Sternbergias, Snowdrops, Snowflakes, the smaller Fritillaries, the Chionodoxas, Scillas, and Bluebells, Narcissi, Grape Hyacinths, and even Tulips, when one is not in too great a hurry to get the mowing done early in the year. One group or another of these plants (to which may be added the tuberous winter Aconite, with its glistening yellow blossoms) may be grown in the smallest of gardens, and will brighten them year after year without trouble or expense, until, perhaps, they become so crowded, that lifting and re-planting becomes essential to prevent suffocation. BULBOUS PLANTS UNDER TREES AND SHRUBS. Early flowering bulbs are capital for planting beneath deciduous trees on lawns or in large parks and gardens. The bulbs bloom at a period when the trees are leafless, and therefore sufficient sunlight is able to percolate through the bare branches for their benefit. Such kinds as Snowdrops, Scillas, Chionodoxas, &c., are excellent for this purpose, and may be left for several seasons without disturbance, provided they get a top-dressing of well-decayed manure during the autumn. Before the trees expand their leaves, the bulbous plants beneath have finished their work for the season, so the absence of light during the summer does not interfere with them in the least. On the other hand, however, they enjoy the cool refreshing shade of the tree foliage, which prevents them from being shrivelled up. BULBOUS PLANTS FOR CUT FLOWERS. There are comparatively few of the bulbous plants mentioned in this volume that are not fit to be cut for the adornment of bowls, vases, &c., in the dwelling house. Some kinds, of course, are much better suited for the purpose than others, and it would be difficult indeed to surpass the elegance of the Daffodils, Tulips, Wood Hyacinths, and Bluebells in the spring and early summer. Following these we have numerous Liliums--white, yellow, orange, red, variously blotched and speckled, and provided with long wiry stems that are often a great advantage. The late summer and autumn flowering kinds are best represented by the Montbretias, Tritonias, Gladiolus, Brodiæas, and Sparaxis. The dwarf-flowering bulbous plants, like Snowdrops, Crocuses, Grape Hyacinths, Chionodoxas, Colchicums, Sternbergias, Leucojums, &c., although they look charming in bold masses in the garden, scarcely afford much length of stalk to enable them to be used with great effect in bowls, vases, &c., by themselves. As a groundwork to taller-stemmed blossoms, however, they are often found to come in very useful. It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to say that the more simply and naturally flowers are "bunched" the better they look in room decorations. Very often indeed, it is difficult to improve on a bunch of flowers picked at random in the garden and placed in bowls of water as they are--with stems of various lengths, and the blossoms facing in different directions. That some people have extraordinary notions as to what a "bunch" of flowers really means may be gathered from an inspection of any ordinary local flower show in the kingdom. At such exhibitions a "bunch" of flowers is generally as large, flat, unwieldy, and squatty as possible--the various kinds being jammed together as if they were "sticks" of Asparagus done up for market. Educated judges have been endeavouring for some years to get an improvement in the method of putting bunches of flowers together, but with very little success up to the present. The same old order of things prevaileth. PLATE 12. LEUCOJUM VERNUM, (47) MUSCARI CONICUM (48), ERYTHRONIUM JOHNSONI (49), TECOPHYLÆA CYANOCROCUS (50). =When to pick Flowers.=--Of course, when people want flowers they will pick them at any time--if they happen to be in their own gardens, not in other people's. It may be as well, however, to remind the reader that if picked either early in the morning--the earlier the better--or in the evening after sunset, flowers last much longer in a cut state, than if they are picked at any other period of the day. Perhaps the very worst time to pick flowers is from mid-day to 2 or 3 o'clock--especially in summer. The heat takes a good deal of substance out of the blossoms, and many get so "blown" that if cut at that particular period of the day, the petals never recover, but drop off in a few hours. Tulips are well-known examples of this. In the morning and evening, the petals close up to a point--really to prevent the pollen from getting drenched with dew or rain. But when the sun shines, they open out, and lie well back from the stamens so that insects may be lured to take the pollen from one flower to another. In this state the blossoms should not be cut or pulled as they will last but a short time. The water in which flowers are stood should be fresh and clean. If some time has elapsed before the flowers are placed in it, about an inch or so of the stems may be cut off with a sharp knife, so as to allow a layer of fresh cells to come in contact with the water. Some flowers last much longer than others in a cut state, and the period may be prolonged a little by putting a pinch of salt, or a little clean charcoal in the water at the same time. BULBOUS PLANTS FOR COLD GREENHOUSES. How often one hears complaints as to the lack of flowers during the coldest months of the year. And how often one sees, in almost empty greenhouses, bare shelves that could be made gay with blossom, and with but little labour or expense. This can be done easily enough by selecting early flowering bulbs, and having them "potted up" early in the autumn, so that they will have made plenty of roots by, say, Christmas time. The pots most generally useful are 5-inch ones (often called 48's). These should have some broken pieces put in the bottom for drainage, and over this a layer of moss or fibre to prevent the soil from choking it up later on. A compost made up of three parts of rich fibrous loam, one part of silver or river sand, and one part of leaf-soil, all well mixed, should be prepared. A handful or two is placed over the drainage, and one, two, three, or five bulbs, according to size, may then be placed on a level bottom. The pot is then filled to within about a quarter of an inch of the rim, the soil being firmly pressed down between the bulbs, the tops of which may be either level with the surface or beneath it. In any case, it is not necessary to bury bulbs that are going to have the protection of a greenhouse so deep as those planted in the open air, where they will have no protection from the weather. The bulbs, having been potted, and labelled if necessary, say sometime in October or November, need not be taken into the greenhouse at once. It is better to keep them in the open air, covered with two or three inches of fine ashes or coco-nut fibre until the bulbs have made plenty of new roots in the soil, or they may be sheltered in a cold frame. Any time after this, as many pots as may be required are taken out of the ashes or fibre, the remains of which should be washed from the pots and shaken off the surface of the soil. If there is a slight warmth in the greenhouse, just enough to keep the frost out on cold nights, so much the better, but too much heat is unnecessary, unless one wishes to "force" bulbs into very early bloom. This, however, generally means exhaustion, if not death, to the bulbs so artificially treated. There are many kinds of bulbous plants suitable for the decoration of cold greenhouses in winter and early spring in the way indicated, and the following may be regarded as a good selection:--Bulbocodiums, Chionodoxas, Crocuses (Spring), Erythroniums, Fritillarias (dwarf), Snowdrops, Hyacinths, Snowflakes, Grape Hyacinths, Dwarf Narcissi, Puschkinias, Scillas, Sternbergia Fischeriana, Bulbous Irises, Tecophilæa--all of which are described in their respective places in this work. BULBOUS PLANTS FOR WINDOW BOXES. PLATE 13. BRODIÆA UNIFLORA (51-52), CHIONODOXA SARDENSIS (53), ERYTHRONIUM DENS-CANIS (54-55) When the Zonal Pelargoniums, Marguerites, Fuchsias, Lobelias, &c., have done their duty in the window boxes during the summer and autumn months, it is essential that something else must take their places for the winter and spring months, unless they are to be left bare. Dwarf shrubs, of course, like Aucubas, Golden Privet, Cupressus, Skimmias, &c., are much favoured, and rightly so. But in conjunction with them many kinds of bulbous plants may be used, and planted at the same time as the shrubs. Snowdrops and Crocuses are great favourites for the edges of boxes. Besides these, however, the beautiful blue-flowered Grape Hyacinths (Muscari), the Chionodoxas and Scilla sibirica, may be used in a similar way and with great effect, or as a carpet beneath the shrubs. If the latter are not placed too close together, space may be left for a few bulbs of Tulips and Daffodils to peep out between them. Of course, window boxes filled entirely with bulbous plants would probably look much more artistic than those having a mixture of shrubs and bulbs. Combinations in miniature could be made in the same way as suggested for the open air beds on p. 41. Boxes planted with Polyanthuses, Primroses, Forget-me-Nots, Silene, White Arabis, Yellow Alyssum, Wallflowers, &c., as well as bulbs, would not look bare in autumn or winter, and would be very effective when in blossom in the spring time. DESCRIPTIONS, CULTURE, PROPAGATION, &c., OF THE BEST BULBOUS PLANTS FOR THE OPEN AIR. =ALLIUM.=--Although about 250 species of this liliaceous genus are known, only a dozen or so are usually met with in gardens--the limited number being probably due to the pungent and not altogether agreeable odour they emit when bruised or cut. In fact, the plants may be briefly described as more or less ornamental Onions, as they belong to the same family as this well-known esculent, and naturally possess a family likeness. The bulbs are tunicated, the leaves either flat as in the Leek, or roundish and hollow as in the ordinary Onion, while the 6-petalled starry flowers are borne in umbels on the top of the shoot that springs out of the bulb under the ground. The kinds mentioned below flourish in ordinary good garden soil of a gritty nature, that has been deeply dug and well-manured. They are useful for the decoration of the flower border in bold patches, but are probably more natural in grass-land, where they can remain for several years undisturbed. The bulbs may be planted in early autumn, 3 or 4 inches deep--more or less according to the size of the bulbs, and will come into blossom from April and May, till July or August. As cut flowers, they are very ornamental, but unfortunately, they are not greatly used in this way owing to their odour, which some people find quite unbearable. Propagation is effected by means of offsets from the bulbs, or seeds. Two species--_A. Moly_, and _A. neapolitanum_--are often forced into early blossoms in the greenhouse, in the way mentioned at p. 46. The following are the best kinds:--_Neapolitanum_, _Erdeli_ (see Plate 18, fig. 72), _karataviense_, _triquetrum_, _ursinum_, and _zebdanense_, all with white or whitish flowers; _acuminatum_, _hirtiflorum_, _Macnabianum_, _narcissiflorum_ (or _pedemontanum_), _Ostrowskianum_, _Schuberti_, and _Suworowi_, representing rose, magenta, crimson, lilac, and purple shades; the best yellow-flowered kinds are, _Moly_ (Plate 17, fig. 68), _flavum_, and _orientale_; while _coeruleum_ (or _azureum_) is the most attractive species with blue flowers. _A. acuminatum_ is the dwarfest of these, being only about a foot high, the others rarely exceeding 1-1/2 to 2 feet, except perhaps _hirtiflorum_ and _Suworowi_, which often are 3 feet high. =AMARYLLIS Belladonna= (_Belladonna Lily_).--This charming member of the Narcissus family deserves more extensive cultivation than it enjoys at present. It is a native of South Africa, and has large bulbs--3 to 4 inches or more deep--with thickish, silky-woollen coats, and strap-shaped leaves, usually 12 to 18 inches long. About August and September, the sweet-scented funnel-shaped blossoms of a soft rosy colour (see Plate 31, fig. 111) are produced on top of a stout stalk, 12 to 18 inches high, after the foliage has withered. Some varieties are better than others, but the best of all is that which originated at Kew, and is remarkable for having three or four dozen rich rosy crimson flowers on a scape 2 to 3 feet high. The Belladonna Lily can only be grown satisfactorily in the open air in the milder parts of the kingdom. The bulbs should be planted about 9 inches deep in a well-drained loamy soil containing plenty of sand and leaf-soil. Beneath a wall facing due south is generally a good position for the plants. In winter, cold rains should be kept off by placing a layer of leaves or litter over the dormant bulbs. The simplest way to increase the stock is to detach the offsets from the old bulbs whenever the latter are disturbed--say every fourth or fifth year. _Note._--The gorgeous plants grown in greenhouses under the name of Amaryllis rightly belong to the genus Hippeastrum, and are too tender for open air culture in our climate. PLATE 14. ENGLISH IRISES (56-59) =ANTHOLYZA.=--The brown-coated corms, sword-like leaves, and the bright-coloured tubular flowers of these plants very much resemble those of the closely-related genus Gladiolus. Indeed, what suits the Gladiolus will suit the Antholyzas in the way of a well-drained loamy soil. A somewhat warmer and sunnier position is, however, necessary, as these South African plants have not been acclimatised by selection and hybridisation in the same way as the Gladiolus. The best-known kinds are _æthiopica_, with spikes of scarlet and greenish flowers; _caffra_, rich scarlet; _Cunonia_, scarlet and black; _fulgens_, rich coppery rose; and _paniculata_, with red, brown, and yellow blossoms, and apparently the hardiest of all. They are all best increased by offsets. =BABIANA= (_Baboon Root_).--Charming plants of the Iris family, with fibrous-coated corms about an inch in diameter, stiffish, hairy, plaited leaves, and dense spikes of funnel-shaped flowers. The latter, in most cases, are sweetly scented and brilliantly coloured, and in a cut state, are exceedingly handsome for decorative work. Unfortunately the plants are not very hardy, and can only be grown in the open air in the very warmest and mildest parts of the kingdom with anything like success. In favourable localities the corms should be planted 3 or 4 inches deep, in mild weather, any time between September and November. The soil should be very light, loamy, and well-drained, and the position should be the warmest and sunniest in the garden. Plenty of sand or grit around the corms is an advantage, and a covering of leaves or litter will keep off cold winter rains. Babianas are very useful for cool greenhouse decoration, and may be easily grown in pots, only giving water when roots have developed, and the new leaves are beginning to show. (See p. 46). The best kinds are _disticha_, pale blue; _plicata_, violet blue; _ringens_, scarlet; _stricta_, the three outer segments of which are white, the three inner lilac-blue with a dark blotch at the base. This is the best-known kind, and there are many forms of it, notably _angustifolia_, bright blue tinged with pink; and _rubro-cyanea_, brilliant blue and crimson. All increased by offsets. =BESSERA elegans.=--A pretty liliaceous plant, 1-1/2 to 2 feet high, with slender rush-like leaves, and scarlet or scarlet and white bell-shaped blossoms. Being a native of Mexico it is rather tender, and can only be grown out of doors in the mildest parts of the British Isles in the same way as the Babianas. As a pot plant it may be grown in a cool greenhouse. Increased by offsets from the brown silky-coated corms. =BLOOMERIA aurea.=--This is the best known species. It is a native of California and belongs to the Lily family. The small corms are covered with netted pale brown coats, from which spring long narrow leaves, and umbels of bright yellow starry flowers about June or July. _B. Clevelandi_ is another species with smaller yellow flowers. The corms of both kinds should be planted in warm sunny spots in well-drained sandy loam and leaf-soil in the autumn, and a little protection with leaves or litter may be given in cold wet winters. =BOBARTIA aurantiaca.=--This pretty member of the Iris family is also known under the name of _Homeria_. It has roundish corms, an inch or more in diameter, covered with pale brown shaggy fibrous coats. The orange-red or yellow blossoms appear in summer and last a long time. The plant is a native of South Africa, and can only be grown in the mildest parts of the kingdom in the same way as the Babianas, Ixias, &c., which see. Increased by offsets. =BRAVOA geminiflora.=--A graceful Mexican plant of the Narcissus family, with roundish fibrous-coated corms over an inch in diameter, and narrow sword-like leaves 12 to 18 inches long. The bright red or scarlet tubular blossoms droop in pairs from stalks 1 to 2 feet high from July onwards. In the milder parts of the kingdom this plant may be grown easily in sheltered sunny spots in rich sandy loam and leaf-soil, protection being only needed in severe winters from cold heavy rains or hard frosts by means of leaves or litter. Increased by offsets in autumn or seeds sown in spring. =BREVOORTIA Ida-Maia= (_Brodiæa coccinea_).--This beautiful Liliaceous plant is popularly known as the "Californian Fire Cracker." It has roundish corms an inch or so in diameter, with brown fibrous coats. The leaves are very narrow, while the tubular flowers are borne in loose umbels in June or July on top of slender wiry stalks 2 to 3 feet high. The shape and colour of the individual blossoms are shown on Plate 19, fig. 75. They are very attractive in bold masses, and are excellent for cutting purposes. In the garden it is essential to support the slender flower-stems with thin sticks to keep the blossoms from trailing in the dirt. During September and October is the best time to plant the corms 3 to 4 inches deep, in rich sandy loam, in warm sunny spots in the border or rock-garden, where they should be allowed to remain for three or four seasons before they need be disturbed. Increased by offsets and seeds. PLATE 15. SPANISH IRISES (60-63) =BRODIÆA.=--The plants belonging to this genus have practically the same characters as those of Brevoortia, the chief differences being that many (but not all) of the Brodiæas have six fertile stamens instead of three, and the perianth in many cases is more funnel or bell-shaped than cylindrical. The corms are about the same size with netted, brown, silky coats, but are quite distinct from those in the section formerly known under the names of _Milla_ and _Triteleia_. The cultural treatment is precisely the same as detailed under Brevoortia above. An idea as to the beauty of the blossoms of some of the kinds may be gained from a glance at Plates 13, 19, 20, and 24, in which _B. laxa_ (fig. 76), _B. ixioides_ (fig. 77) (also known as _Calliprora lutea_), _B. Bridgesi_ (fig. 91), _B. Howelli lilacina_ (fig. 80), and _B. uniflora_ (figs. 51 and 52) (the last named being remarkable for having flowers singly instead of in umbels), are respectively depicted. Other species well worth growing are _californica_, rosy-purple; _capitata_, lilac or violet, and its white variety _alba_; _congesta_, deep violet; _Douglasi_, bright blue; _gracilis_, bright yellow; _grandiflora_, violet-blue; _Hendersoni_, salmon-yellow striped with purple; _Howelli_, porcelain-white striped with blue; _hyacinthina_, purple, and its white variety _lactea_; _Leichtlini_, white; _multiflora_, pale blue; _Orcutti_, lilac; _peduncularis_, porcelain-white to rosy-purple; _Purdyi_, rosy-purple to lilac; _rosea_, rose-red to pinkish-purple; _Sellowiana_, yellow; and _stellaris_, reddish-purple to deep blue. To these may be added _B. volubilis_, remarkable for having twining stems often 12 feet long, and having 15 to 30 rose-coloured flowers in an umbel. =BULBOCODIUM vernum.=--A charming Crocus-like plant of the Lily family, closely related to the Meadow Saffrons (Colchicum), as may be seen by comparing the method of lateral growth of the brown-coated corms--each an inch or more in diameter. It is a native of the Alps. In mild seasons it often produces its violet or rosy-purple funnel-shaped flowers in January, not more than 6 inches from the ground, and remains in blossom in company with Snowdrops, Leucojums, &c. The leaves appear afterwards and elaborate food for the production of next year's corms before they wither. A rich well-drained loam with a little sand and leaf-soil suits it very well, and the corms may be planted in September or October about 4 inches deep, in bold masses in the rock garden or grass-land, and left alone for a few years, after which there will be numerous offsets to increase the stock. As slugs are very fond of the young growths, they must be carefully looked for morning and evening, and a little soot or lime carefully spread round the plants may help to check them (see p. 142). =CALOCHORTUS= (_Mariposa Lily_).--A very distinct group of Liliaceous plants with brown-coated bulbs, narrow leaves, and very showy and distinct-looking blossoms--some of which are shown in Plate 22, fig. 84, and also in Plate 20 of the companion volume "BEAUTIFUL GARDEN FLOWERS." Joined to the Mariposa Lilies proper are the "Star Tulips," formerly known under the name of _Cyclobothra_--well-known representatives of which are shown in the same Plate, figs. 85 and 86. They are quite distinct in the appearance of the flowers, but botanically they are considered to be identical in the important characters. Both groups are well worth growing in the milder parts of the kingdom in warm sunny parts of the garden. This is essential as most of them are natives of California, Oregon, Arizona, and parts of Mexico, where they have plenty of sunshine and are not subject to the cold drenching rains that often characterise the British winter. In colder districts where they would be unable to survive the ordinary winter, the plants may be brought to perfection in a cold frame so long as they are free from frost and heavy rains. The soil in which they appear to flourish best seems to be sharp sand, leaf-soil and road grit, well mixed together with a little loam added. The bed--in which the bulbs are to be planted 3 to 4 inches deep, from September to November, but not later--should be raised above the general level, the better to throw the water off in winter. If the beds or borders are facing south and slightly sloping, so much the better. A light covering with reeds or bracken is advisable during severe weather, but should be removed on all warm days, and altogether from February and March, as the young growths will then begin to push through the soil. After the flowering period--_i.e._, July and August--is over, and the foliage has withered, the bulbs may be either lifted and carefully stored in sand or dry earth until the planting season comes round again; or, better still, lights may be placed over them to keep the bulbs dry and allow them to ripen thoroughly and naturally. If the latter treatment is adopted the bulbs need not be disturbed for three or four years, and will give better blossom on the whole in consequence. It must be remembered that although the bulbs dislike moisture when dormant, they must have a sufficient supply during active growth, otherwise they may soon become parched and withered. The easiest way to increase the plants is by means of offsets. When seeds ripen they may be sown very thinly in pots or pans in spring, and the seedlings may remain for a couple of seasons before being transplanted. Sometimes "bulbils" (see p. 32) are produced on the stems, and may be sown in light sandy soil as if they were seeds. From seeds and bulbils it takes from three to six years to produce a flowering bulb. There are now several kinds of Mariposa Lily in cultivation. Of these the varieties of the _venustus_ group are undoubtedly the handsomest. (See Plate 22, fig. 84.) They grow about 18 inches high, and have cup-shaped flowers 3 inches across, having three very large and three very small segments. The colour of the type is white, yellow at the base, deeply stained with crimson, and having a conspicuous blotch at the base. In the variety _alba_ the flowers are wholly white; _lilacinus_, deep lilac; _purpurascens_, lilac-purple; _citrinus_, lemon-yellow; _oculatus_, with rosy buds passing into white, with a deep blackish-purple blotch in the centre of a yellow base; and _Vesta_, flowers very large, white flushed with rose, and marked with brown and yellow at the base. Other kinds are _albus_, with drooping pearly-white flowers (Plate 22, fig. 85); _apiculatus_, lemon-yellow; _Benthami_, bright yellow; _coeruleus_, lilac or creamy-white, densely bearded with blue hairs; _clavatus_, golden-yellow; _elegans_, white tinged with purple, but rich pink in the variety _amoenus_; _flavus_, yellow, drooping; _Goldyi_, old gold with hairy centre; _Howelli_, creamy-white; _Kennedyi_, orange-red; _lilacinus_, pink, purple, or lilac, a fine species; _luteus_, yellow or orange, with purple hairs; _Plummeræ_, large soft lilac flowers, with golden-yellow hairs and blotched with purple; _pulchellus_, orange-yellow, sweet-scented, drooping (see Plate 22, fig. 86); _Purdyi_, white, spotted with purple, and covered with long white hairs; _splendens_ pale lilac, with silky white hairs and deep purple blotches at base; and _Weedi_, yellow. =CAMASSIA.=--Graceful-looking North American plants of the Lily family, with rather large ovoid bulbs, strap-shaped tapering leaves, and loose racemes of starry blossoms which usually appear from May to July, and are useful for decorations when cut. They flourish in ordinary good and well-drained garden soil in warm sheltered spots. The bulbs should be planted in September or October, and covered with about twice their own depth of soil. They may be left undisturbed for a few seasons, but in that case a mulching of well-decayed manure in autumn would be beneficial. New plants are most readily secured by offsets from the old bulbs. Seeds, however, are freely produced in most places and should be sown in cold frames as soon as ripe. (See p. 36). PLATE 16. MADONNA LILY (64) FRITILLARIA IMPERIALIS, VARS. (65-66) There are only a few species, the best being _C. esculenta_, the Quamash or Camass Root of the North American Indians. The blue flowers, each about 2 inches across, are borne on scapes 1-1/2 to 3 feet high, and look very handsome above the narrow arching leaves. _C. Cusicksi_, with porcelain-blue flowers (see Plate 18, fig. 70), grows 3 to 4 feet high. _C. Fraseri_, with very pale-blue flowers, is about 1-1/2 feet high; while _C. Leichtlini_ grows 3 to 4 feet high, and has large creamy-white blossoms, about 3 inches in diameter. =CHIONODOXA Luciliæ= (_Glory of the Snow_).--This charming harbinger of spring is a native of Asia Minor, where it pushes its beautiful brilliant blue and white blossoms (see Plate 2, fig. 9) through the snow-clad mountains early in the year. It has ovoid bulbs about 1 to 2 inches deep, arching leaves, and each flower-stalk 6 to 10 inches high, carries from six to twenty blossoms in February, March, and April. There are several fine varieties, the best being _gigantea_ (or _grandiflora_), with very large flowers; _sardensis_, shown on Plate 13, fig. 53, has gentian-blue flowers. The variety _alba_ has pure-white flowers, and _Tmolusi_ and _Alleni_ are also good varieties. A hybrid between _C. Luciliæ_ and _Scilla bifolia_ is known as _Chiono-scilla_, but is not common. Other Chionodoxas are _C. cretica_, with white or pale-blue flowers very scantily produced; and _C. nana_, with white or lilac-tinted flowers. Chionodoxas flourish in ordinary good garden soil, and are suitable for the rockery, flower-border, beneath deciduous trees in shrubberies, or in the grass. To be effective in any of these positions they should be planted in hundreds and thousands, and in grass-land may be mixed with the smaller-flowered kinds of Narcissus (_e.g._, _minimus_, _cyclamineus_, _triandrus_). In the latter case the bulbs may be left alone for years with advantage, as they never interfere with mowing operations. Offsets are freely produced from the old bulbs, and are the easiest means of increasing the stock. Seeds may be sown when ripe, but they take a few years to produce flowering bulbs (see p. 34). =CHLOROGALUM pomeridianum= (_Soap Plant_).--A distinct looking plant about 2 feet high, with blue-green leaves and spikes of whitish purple-veined flowers, that usually open in the afternoon during the summer months. It flourishes in ordinary soil, and may be increased by offsets from the old bulbs. The best time to plant is in autumn. =COLCHICUM= (_Meadow Saffron_).--In the autumn, when the landscape looks more or less dreary, the Colchicums relieve the monotony with their bright appearance. The bulbs are peculiarly one-sided, and differ a good deal in size according to the species, so that they should be planted at various depths according to size. The best time for planting is July, or not later than August, and if massed in bold patches in the grass, flower-border, shrubbery, or rock-garden, the effect later on will be much more effective than if the bulbs were put in sparingly. A rich sandy loam will suit most kinds, but any good and well-drained garden soil will give satisfactory results. It may be remarked that most kinds produce their flowers without the leaves. The latter appear the following spring to elaborate food for the new bulbs, dying down during the summer. Colchicums are best propagated by offsets. Seeds may also be sown about midsummer when thoroughly ripe, and will produce flowering bulbs in five or six years (see p. 34). There are many kinds, the most popular being: _C. autumnale_, a British plant, popularly known as the "Autumn Crocus"--owing to the shape and bright purple colour of its cup-shaped blossoms, which appear from the end of August to November. There are many varieties of it such as _album_, white; with a double form; _maximum_, purple; _purpureum_, purple rose; and _striatum_, red striped with white. _C. Bivonæ_ has flowers chequered with white and purple. _C. Bornmülleri_, a fine species with rosy-lilac flowers. _C. byzantinum_ has pale rose blossoms. _C. giganteum_, flowers rosy, very large. _C. libanoticum_, white. _C. montanum_ produces its lilac-purple or whitish flowers in February and March. _C. Parkinsoni_ has white flowers distinctly veined and chequered with violet-purple. The flowers of _C. speciosum_, shown in Plate 33, fig. 118, appear in September and October, and vary from reddish or rose-purple to deep crimson-purple. _C. variegatum_ (a very old species also called _Parkinsoni_) has its rosy flowers beautifully chequered with violet purple. =CRINUM.=--Most of the Crinums require the protection of a greenhouse or hothouse in our climate. The kinds mentioned below, however, may be grown in the open air in the milder parts of the country. The large and broad strap-shaped leaves, 2 to 4 feet long, more or less gracefully recurving from the long-necked bulbs, are in themselves a noble sight, but their beauty is considerably enhanced when the large, funnel-shaped blossoms are borne in clusters on the top of a stout, fleshy stalk. Given a rich and well-drained, loamy soil, warm-sheltered spots, and sufficient moisture during active growth, and the hardy Crinums usually flourish. They may be increased by offsets taken from the base of the large old bulbs; or by means of the large fleshy bulb-like seeds that are produced in favourable seasons. The seed needs only to be placed on the top of moist soil in a pot, and under the shelter of a greenhouse or cold frame will soon germinate in its own peculiar way. The best-known hardy Crinums are _C. Moorei_, a native of South Africa. It has large long-necked bulbs, broad bright-green leaves 2 to 3 feet long, and clusters of soft-pink flowers, each 6 inches or more across, on a scape 2 to 3 feet high (see Plate 30, fig. 109). _C. Powelli_, with a reddish wash down the centre of the petals, and its pure white variety _album_ (Plate 32, fig. 115) are also two very fine plants for the out-door garden. They are really forms, or hybrids perhaps, of the South African _S. longifolium_ (or _C. capense_), which has large white flowers with a central reddish stain on the outside of the petals. It is quite as hardy as the other kinds and may be treated in the same way. =CROCOSMA aurea.=--This beautiful Iridaceous plant is perhaps better known as _Tritonia aurea_. It is a native of South Africa, and has fibrous-coated corms, narrow sword-shaped leaves, and brilliant orange-red starry blossoms borne on branched stems about 2 feet high, in August or September. It likes a rich sandy loam and leaf-soil and soon makes fine clumps in the milder parts of the kingdom. In cold districts and the north generally, the corms may be lifted in October or November, when the leaves have withered, and may be stored in sand or soil until spring. Then they may be replanted, any offsets from the older corms being placed in separate beds and grown on until large enough for flowering. As a pot plant for greenhouse decoration, the Crocosma is most useful. After potting in spring, the pots may be plunged (_i.e._, sunk up to the rims) in ashes or fibre, and plenty of water should be given during the summer months when the growth is active. When the flower-spikes appear the plants may be taken into the greenhouse or conservatory. PLATE 17. LILIUM CROCEUM (67) ALLIUM MOLY (68) SCILLA PERUVIANA ALBA (69) =CROCUS.=--The popularity of the Crocus is undoubted, but popular favour generally confines itself to the white, blue, lilac, purple, yellow, and striped varieties of _C. aureus_, the Old Dutch yellow Crocus, and _C. vernus_. These all flower from February to April, and when planted in hundreds and thousands in the borders or grass-land they are then indeed a glorious sight, especially if naturalised with Snowdrops, Leucojums, and Bulbocodiums. The individual blossoms do not last long, but they are thrown up so profusely from the roundish corms beneath, that they give a continuous glow for several weeks in early spring. The above all flourish in light sandy loam and leaf-soil. To secure the best results the corms should be planted about 3 inches deep in September or October. When possible, as in grass-land for example, the plants should not be disturbed for a few seasons, so they may increase as Nature intended. In this way they will produce a more striking picture each succeeding year, especially if they have had the advantage of a top-dressing with well-decayed manure in autumn. When the corms have to be lifted each year to make way in the borders for summer-flowering plants, the best time to take them up is when the foliage has begun to wither. This process is often hastened by twisting the narrow leaves and tying them into little bundles. Apart from the ordinary spring-flowering Crocuses, _aureus_ and _vernus_ (a selection of which can be obtained from any bulb catalogue), there are several natural species which also flower in spring, and may be planted and grown exactly in the same way. Amongst these the best known are _alatavicus_, white and yellow; _Balansæ_, orange-yellow; _banaticus_, bright purple and white; _biflorus_, white to pale lavender, known as the "Cloth of Silver Crocus," of which there are many beautiful forms; _Biliotti_, purple; _carpetanus_, lilac to white; _chrysanthus_, orange-yellow, with several varieties; _dalmaticus_, lilac and yellow; _etruscus_, purple and yellow, striped; _Fleischeri_, white and yellow, veined purple; _Imperati_, lilac-purple, with deeper stripes; _Korolkowi_, yellow; _reticulatus_ or _variegatus_, white to deep lilac, veined purple; _stellaris_, orange; _suaveolens_, lilac and yellow, veined purple; _Susianus_ or _revolutus_, deep orange, known as the "Cloth of Gold Crocus"; _versicolor_, purple to white, veined purple; and _vitellinus_, orange. =Autumn-Flowering Crocuses.=--Colchicums, and especially _C. autumnale_, are popularly known as "Autumn Crocuses." They belong, however, to the Lily family, and must not be confused with those species of Crocus proper which belong to the Iris family, and also flower during the autumn months, sometimes even as late as December, when the blossoms are often spoiled by the weather, unless protected with handlights or frames. At this period they are very useful, with the Colchicums and Sternbergias, for the decoration of grassy slopes and banks, and may be intermingled with them in places where they can remain undisturbed for some years. The chief difference in the cultivation of Spring and Autumn Crocuses, is that the corms of the latter should be planted in July, or not later than August--in fact, at the same time as the Colchicums. The following are among the best Autumn Crocuses:--_Asturicus_, violet, purple; _Boryi_, white and yellow; _cancellatus_, white to purple, and lilac; _caspius_, white tinted rose; _Clusi_, pale purple and white; _hadriaticus_, white and purple; _iridiflorus_ or _byzantinus_, purple, lilac; _Karduchorum_, lilac, veined with purple; _longiflorus_, lilac, yellow, sweet-scented; _medius_, purple, veined, see Plate 33, fig. 117; _ochroleucus_, creamy-white, orange, see Plate 33, fig. 121; _pulchellus_, lavender-blue and yellow, veined; _Salzmanni_, lilac to white, veined; _sativus_, lilac, veined purple; the well-known "Saffron Crocus" of commerce, with several varieties; _Scharojani_, orange-yellow; _speciosus_, lilac, purple, with deeper veins, see Plate 33, fig. 122; and _zonatus_, rosy-lilac, veined purple. All Crocuses may be easily increased by offsets, which may be detached when the corms are lifted. Seeds take about three years to produce flowering corms (see p. 34). =DIERAMA= (=Sparaxis=) =pulcherrima.=--This is a charming South African plant with fibrous-coated corms, and long narrow sword-like leaves. It has beautiful funnel-shaped flowers, which droop from thread-like stalks about September and October, a period when they are sometimes injured by the bad weather. The blossoms, which are shown on Plate 31, fig. 112, are usually crimson in colour, but there also exist white, pale-red, and prettily-striped forms, all borne on stalks 3 to 6 feet high, and beautiful for cutting purposes. _D. pendula_, with deeply veined lilac flowers, is another species not so well known. The plants cannot be considered hardy, except in the milder parts of the kingdom. In less favoured spots they may be planted in spring in warm sunny spots sheltered from cold winds, and if left in the ground in winter should be protected from cold rains and frosts with litter, bracken, lights, &c. A light sandy loam, with a little leaf-soil, will suit the plants best, and they may be increased by offsets. =ERYTHRONIUM= (_Dog's Tooth Violet_).--These pretty plants of the Lily order have more or less oblong or cylindrical bulbs, sometimes with creeping rhizomes, and leaves more or less marbled or blotched or sometimes green. The 6-petalled blossoms are, more or less, drooping, but are usually conspicuous above the foliage and render the plants very attractive either in the rock-garden, flower-border, or grass-land. The plants like a moist sandy loam and leaf-soil, which, however, must be well drained so that the bulbs may not decay with the winter rains. Offsets are the easiest means of increasing the stock, and are best taken off after the flowers are over and the leaves have withered, _i.e._, about midsummer. PLATE 18. CAMASSIA CUSICKI (70) LILIUM PYRENAICUM (71) ALLIUM ERDELII (72) IXIOLIRION PALLASI (73) The Common Dog's Tooth Violet (_E. Dens-Canis_) is an old-world plant, and has been in cultivation many years. It has blue-green leaves, marbled with dull purple, and the flowers are of a soft rose or purple hue, although there are various shades (as shown on Plate 13, fig. 54), including a white one. There are now many other species and varieties in cultivation--all natives of temperate North America, and well worthy of a place in the garden. They all blossom from March to May, and vary in height from 3 to 12 inches. The following are the best known at present:--_Albidum_, white, tinged yellow, or wholly yellow in the variety _bracteatum_; _americanum_, golden yellow, tinged purple; _citrinum_, lemon yellow; _Dens-Canis_ (see Plate 13, figs. 54 and 55); _giganteum_, white, suffused with orange or yellow; _grandiflorum_, yellow; _Hartwegi_, creamy-white and orange; _Hendersoni_, rose to purple with yellow centre; _Howelli_, yellow and orange; _Johnstoni_, rosy-pink (see Plate 12, fig. 94); _montanum_, creamy-white; _propullans_, rose-purple; _purpurascens_, pale yellow tinged purple, or lilac in the variety _grandiflorum_; this species has sometimes about a dozen flowers on a scape; and _revolutum_, pink to rosy-purple, or white with a yellow centre in the variety _Bolanderi_ or _Smithi_. =EUCOMIS punctata.=--This bold-looking plant is probably the best and most ornamental member of the genus. It has very large bulbs and tufts of gracefully spreading and recurved wavy leaves, bright shining green above, and densely spotted with purple beneath. The creamy-white or yellowish starry blossoms, with a conspicuous violet ovary in the centre, appear from July to September, and are packed close together on a stout purple spotted scape 1-1/2 to 2 feet high. Other species are _bicolor_, with unspotted leaves and greenish-yellow flowers; _nana_, which grows only about 9 inches high, has brownish-green blossoms; _undulata_, greenish-yellow ones; _regia_, white; and _pallidiflora_, with leaves over 2 feet long, and 4 inches or more broad, has greenish-white flowers. They are all natives of South Africa, and may be grown in warm sheltered spots in the milder parts of the country. They like a rich and well-drained sandy loam, and if left undisturbed for a few years, will probably require protection in bleak localities from winter rains and frost. They may be increased by offsets. It takes four or five years to secure flowering bulbs from seeds. =FERRARIA undulata.=--A distinct looking Iridaceous plant with tunicated bulbs, sword-like wavy leaves, and peculiar dull-purple flowers, each with six wavy segments spotted with purple, and appearing in March and April. This plant flourishes in well-drained sandy loam and leaf-soil, and may be considered fairly hardy in the milder parts of the kingdom. Increased by offsets. =FRITILLARIA.=--There are fifty species or more belonging to this genus, but many of them, although highly interesting, are so dull in colour or small in blossom, that they are only likely to be met with in botanical collections. The common Crown Imperial (_F. imperialis_), shown in Plate 16, figs. 65 and 66, with its sturdy stems, 2 to 3 feet high, bright green wavy leaves, and bright yellow drooping blossoms, is probably the best known; but there are many forms of it in which the flowers vary in colour from yellow to orange and bright red. The Snake's Head (_F. Meleagris_) is another well-known species to be seen growing naturally in moist meadows in parts of England. Its beautiful white, rosy or purple blossoms (see Plate 8, fig. 33) droop from the stalks, 1 to 1-1/2 feet high in April and May, and are beautifully chequered with deeper coloured bands. For naturalising in the grass with Narcissi, Dog's Tooth Violets, &c., this is a very valuable plant. _F. Moggridgei_, a dwarf form of the purple, brown, and yellow _delphinensis_, is another good garden plant shown on Plate 8, fig. 31. The following kinds may be used for naturalising in the grass or for grouping in nooks of the rock-garden:--_Fusco-lutea_, _aurea_, _citrina_, _lusitanica_, _lutea_, _askabadensis_ (finely figured in "FLORA AND SYLVA,") _discolor_, _pallidiflora_, _pudica_, _Thunbergi_, _Whittalli_, all with yellow or greenish-yellow blossoms, and ranging from 6 to 12 inches high. To these may be added _F. recurva_ (Plate 8, fig. 34), a Californian species, about 1 foot high, and remarkable for its drooping bright orange-scarlet blossoms, the interior of which is yellow blotched with purple. _F. camtschatcensis_, the "Black Lily," has deep blackish-red flowers. It flourishes in moist sandy loam and peat. _F. Walujewi_, with narrow tendril-tipped leaves, has silver-grey flowers suffused with purple brown, and spotted with red and white within (see Plate 8, fig. 32). To these may be added _armena_, dark purple; _Elwesi_, green and purple; _pyrenaica_, green and purple, spotted; _persica_ or _libanotica_, chocolate, purple and green; _latifolia_, purple, lilac, yellow, &c. The Fritillarias have bulbs of various sizes, and many of them--notably those of _F. imperialis_--emit a very strong and disagreeable odour. They produce offsets freely in most cases, and in this way the stock may be increased. The best time for lifting and transplanting the bulbs is after the foliage has withered. PLATE 19. ORNITHOGALUM PYRAMIDALE (74) BREVOORTIA IDA-MAIA (75) BRODIÆA LAXA (76) BRODIÆA IXIOIDES (77) =GAGEA lutea.=--This British plant, with small roundish bulbs, and long narrow leaves, is called the "Yellow Star of Bethlehem" on account of its yellow starry flowers, with a green central line, appearing from March to May on stalks about 6 inches high. It grows in ordinary garden soil and may be increased by offsets. =GALANTHUS= (_Snowdrop_).--The common British Snowdrop (_G. nivalis_) is an old time garden favourite, not only on account of the purity of its blossoms--almost rivalling the whiteness of the snow--but because they appear during the very dullest months of the year, often before Christmas, and lasting till the Crocuses, early Narcissi, Chionodoxas, Bulbocodiums, Leucojums, &c., come to keep them company. A few blooms are shown on Plate 2, fig. 8, not because it was necessary to tell the reader what a Snowdrop was like, but to record the general appearance of other Snowdrops that are now to be met with in cultivation. The most important of these are _Elwesi_, with its varieties _globosus_ and _robustus_, all of which have large flowers; _Fosteri_ has been called the "King of Snowdrops" on account of its fine leaves and flowers. Other fine kinds are _Imperati_, _latifolius_, and _plicatus_, the last named recognised by its long broad and plaited leaves. Indeed there are many other varieties--including double-flowered ones--but it is doubtful if the ordinary observer would see any great difference between them and the best forms of the common Snowdrop. They all have roundish bulbs--some larger than others, and offsets are freely produced from them. They flourish in the border or rock-garden in rich sandy soil and leaf-mould, but their natural dwelling place is in the grass, where they should be planted in hundreds and thousands and left to take care of themselves, as they are in many gardens in the kingdom. =GALTONIA= (=Hyacinthus=) =candicans.=--A noble-looking South African plant, with large roundish bulbs and strap-shaped leaves over 2 feet long. The pure white sweet-scented blossoms (shown on Plate 20, fig. 78) appear during the summer months, 20 or 30 in a raceme, drooping from stout stalks about 4 feet high. =G. princeps= is somewhat similar but not so attractive in appearance, as its white flowers are faintly tinged with green. Both kinds flourish in good garden soil and should be planted in bold clumps for effect in the flower border, and in warm sunny spots, where they may remain undisturbed for several years, until it is necessary to give them more space, or to detach the offsets for increasing the stock. =GLADIOLUS= (_Corn Flag_; _Sword Lily_).--There are several species of Gladiolus rarely seen outside botanic gardens. The florists' varieties, like _brenchleyensis_, _Colvillei_, _Childsi_, _gandavensis_, _Lemoinei_, and _nanceianus_, are much more popular owing to the brilliancy and beauty of their blossoms. _G. brenchleyensis_ (practically a form of _gandavensis_) is remarkable for its glowing scarlet flowers; _G. Childsi_ (raised from _gandavensis_ and _Saundersi_) attains a height of four or five feet, and has spikes of bloom often 2 feet or more long. The blossoms are 6 to 9 inches across, and possess many shades of purple, scarlet, crimson, salmon, white, pink, yellow, often beautifully mottled and blotched in the throat (Plate 28, fig. 105). _G. Colvillei_ (raised from _cardinalis_ and _tristis_) is an early-flowering plant about 2 feet high, with crimson purple and also pure white flowers--according to the variety. The form known as "The Bride" is the best white (Plate 21, fig. 81). Other early-flowering forms are shown in figs. 82 and 83. _G. gandavensis_ (raised from _cardinalis_ and _psittacinus_) forms a charming group as various in colour as the _Childsi_ forms, the individual flowers being variously striped and blotched with distinct colours. _G. Lemoinei_ (raised from _purpureo-auratus_ and _gandavensis_) is the origin of a beautiful number of hybrids, distinguished by having a large golden-yellow blotch on the lower segments, bordered with scarlet, crimson, purple, maroon, &c. (Plate 28, fig. 104). The colours are as numerous and as delicate as in the _Childsi_ and _gandavensis_ sections. The _nanceianus_ hybrids are remarkably fine plants, and are only comparable with those of the _Childsi_ group, although the blossoms are not quite so large. The colours vary from purple, claret, violet, carmine, orange, red, scarlet, violet, &c., and are all spotted in various ways (see Plate 28, fig. 103). The kinds of Gladioli just mentioned may be grown to perfection in a well-drained loamy soil, which has been deeply dug and well manured the autumn previous to planting. From the beginning to the end of March is an excellent time to plant the corms or tubers, each one being inserted in a hole made with a stout dibber, or in a drill about 4 or 5 inches deep, and about a foot apart. Having covered the corms and made the soil fairly firm, little more is needed beyond keeping weeds down, until the flower spikes begin to show in July and August. Short stakes may then be supplied so as to keep the trusses upright. To secure extra fine blossoms the plants, when well-established, should be watered two or three times a week with liquid cow-manure to which a little soot and guano has been added. During hot dry summers especially, copious waterings should be given. PLATE 20. GALTONIA CANDICANS (78) SISYRINCHIUM GRANDIFLORUM (79) BRODIÆA HOWELLI LILACINA (80) When the flowers have faded, and the leaves begin to turn yellow, the corms may be taken up and carefully stored in a dry, airy, frost-proof place until the following March. New plants may be raised from the offsets, and also the spawn or cloves to be found at the base of the new corms. They should be detached and stored, and the following April may be sown like seeds in drills about two inches deep. The larger corms may also be carefully cut in two at planting time, the cut surfaces being dipped in powdered charcoal, soot, or freshly-slaked lime. Where space will permit, the following natural species of Gladioli may also be grown:--_G. blandus_, 1 to 2 feet high, white, with red markings and a yellow tube; _G. byzantinus_, 2 feet, red, shaded with violet or purple; _G. dracocephalus_, 1 to 2-1/2 feet, soft yellow, striped and spotted with purple; _G. floribundus_, 1 foot, has flowers varying from white to flesh colour and deep red. _G. oppositiflorus_ has white flowers, washed with rose or purple (Plate 23, fig. 87); _G. psittacinus_, 3 feet, rich scarlet, lined and spotted with yellow; _G. purpureo-auratus_, 3 to 4 feet, sulphur yellow, blotched with purple; and _G. Saundersi_, 2 to 3 feet, crimson or soft scarlet, spotted with pink and white. As they are all natives of South Africa they should be planted in warm sunny spots in March or April, and lifted the following autumn when growth has ceased. =HABRANTHUS pratensis.=--A pretty Chilian plant, with ovoid bulbs about 1-1/2 inches through, and narrow leaves 1 to 1-1/2 feet long. The funnel-shaped, orange-red or scarlet blossoms appear in early summer on stems 1 to 2 feet high. Rich sandy-loam and leaf-soil, and warm sheltered spots are most suitable for this plant. In bleak localities the bulbs must be protected in winter. Increased by offsets. =HYACINTHUS= (_Hyacinth_).--The florists' Hyacinth, evolved from _H. orientalis_, has been for generations a great garden favourite, and is still amongst the most popular of bulbous plants for the decoration of the out-door garden, or for growing in conservatories, or the dwelling-house in more or less ornamental receptacles. There is a good deal of difference in the size of Hyacinth bulbs, but the reader must not imagine that the largest bulbs will throw up the best truss of flowers. Indeed it is often the case that quite a small bulb comparatively, will give a finer display than one much larger. Size, therefore, is not the main point about Hyacinth bulbs. Weight or density is the most important feature, and bulbs that are in any way soft or flabby may be regarded as useless. =Hyacinths in the Open Air.=--What are known as "Bedding Hyacinths," to be had in various colours--red, rose, pink, white, blue, violet and yellow--are generally grown out of doors. They should be planted in October, or not later than November, 5 to 6 inches deep, and 6 to 8 inches apart, care being taken when planting round, oval, oblong, or other shaped beds to keep the lines or curves equidistant so as to secure uniformity in the results. The varieties should not be mixed when formal beds are planted. In vacant spaces in the flower border, however, mixed Hyacinths look very well. Although these Hyacinths will grow well in ordinary good garden soil that has been deeply dug, and contains some well-decayed manure, it may be said that a light sandy loam that has had some old cow-manure incorporated with it some weeks previously is regarded as the best. When the soil is naturally heavy it must be well turned up, and have plenty of sand or grit mixed with it as well as old manure. In such a soil, a further precaution may be taken to have a handful of sand placed in the hole under each bulb to further improve the drainage. Combinations with out-door Hyacinths are sometimes made by covering the surface of the beds with such plants as Forget-me-Nots, Polyanthuses or Primroses, Silenes, White Arabis, Yellow Alyssum, and sometimes Narcissi bulbs are planted alternately with the Hyacinths, the object in all cases being to produce a fine effect and contrast in colours in spring. When the plants are in bloom they require but little attention, except perhaps a slender stick here and there to some flower-truss that has been blown down by the wind, or topples over with its own weight. As soon as the blossoms have withered, the flower stems should be cut away, leaving the still green leaves to assimilate food until they begin to turn yellow. The yellowing leaves indicate that the bulbs may be taken up, dried, and cleaned, and stored away in cool airy places until the following September or October. As Hyacinths, however, deteriorate in our fickle climate, it is better to buy new bulbs each year for planting formal beds, while the old ones may be planted in ordinary flower border or shrubbery. PLATE 21. EARLY-FLOWERING GLADIOLI (81-83) =Hyacinths in Glasses, &c.=--Ornamental bowls, glasses, vases, &c., of various designs afford an easy and interesting means for growing Hyacinths in the dwelling house. Many fail to have good results with Hyacinths grown in these receptacles because they allow the bulbs to touch the water, or they place them in too high a temperature to begin with. The bulbs should not actually touch the water, the base being little more than 1/8-inch away from the surface. They should then be stood in a dark place with a temperature of about 40° to 45° F., until roots have developed into the water. The plants may then be exposed to more light, after which all that is necessary is to change the water occasionally, about once a week, so that the roots may secure a fresh supply of oxygen. The finest bulbs give the best results naturally when grown in this way. What are known as "Miniature Hyacinths" are suitable for growing in bowls, vases, &c., in moist moss and charcoal, or in Jadoo fibre, or even in coco-nut fibre. Indeed, Hyacinths generally may be grown more easily, perhaps, in this way, instead of in water, the only point to bear in mind being to get the roots started in a cool place before the flower-stem and leaves begin to grow. =Hyacinths in Pots.=--For greenhouse and conservatory decoration Hyacinths are most useful. One large bulb or three smaller ones may be placed in a 5-inch pot in light sandy soil, the top of the bulbs being well above the surface. The pots should be placed in the open air and covered with fine ashes or coco-nut fibre. Roots soon develop, after which the bulbs may be brought in as required, and can be had in blossom long before those in the open ground begin to appear. In warm greenhouses the graceful Roman and Italian Hyacinths may be flowered in the same way. For a selection of Hyacinths of various colours the reader will find it best to consult a good bulb catalogue or a nurseryman. Plate 11 shows a few varieties, but the size of the page renders it impossible to show them in all their natural grandeur. Besides the florist's Hyacinths there are one or two natural species that are worth growing in the rockery, flower border, or in the grass. These are the Spanish Hyacinth (_H. amethystinus_), with bright blue drooping blossoms, or white in the variety _albus_, in May and June (see Plate 7, fig. 30). The other is _H. azureus_, which very much resembles one of the Muscaris, and sends up its sky-blue drooping flowers as early as February (see Plate 2, fig. 10). Hyacinths may be increased by offsets. These may be stored in dry sand until planting time in the autumn, when they should be placed in beds by themselves, and will reach the flowering stage, with care, in two or three seasons. Full-sized bulbs are induced to develop bulblets by cutting them cross-wise, about half-way through from the base, or scooping the bottom out into a hollow. The bulbs are placed to dry after cutting, and by and bye the bulblets appear. They may be detached and planted like the offsets. =IRIS= (_Flag_).--As the various kinds of Irises, known as "rhizomatous," "bearded," "beardless," and "oncocyclus or cushion," have already been dealt with in "A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS," and in the companion volume to this, "BEAUTIFUL GARDEN FLOWERS," it is only necessary here to refer to the "Bulbous" Irises, as coming appropriately within the scope of this work. The best-known examples of Bulbous, or Xiphion Irises, as they are sometimes called, are the Spanish Iris (_I. Xiphium_) and the English Iris (_I. xiphioides_). Varieties of the last-named are shown on Plate 14, while forms of the Spanish Iris will be found in "BEAUTIFUL GARDEN FLOWERS," Plate 20, and also in this work, Plate 15. Besides these well-known examples of Bulbous Irises, there are many others now well-known. They are, however, much smaller in stature as a rule, more fragile, so utterly distinct in appearance from the ordinary Flag Irises, and so curiously and beautifully coloured, that many amateurs liken them to orchids, although, perhaps, they can scarcely be termed "Poor Men's" Orchids like their commoner relatives. On Plate 3, five species of charming and early flowering Bulbous Irises are shown, and a glance will show that no description could do real justice to the charming beauty of the blossoms. The following comprise some of the best kinds of Bulbous Irises:--_I. alata_, and its numerous varieties, bright lilac-purple to white, October to December; _I. Bakeriana_ (fig. 12), sky blue and white, blotched with violet, January to March; _I. Boissieri_, reddish purple, June; _I. caucasica_, pale yellow, February and March; _I. Danfordiæ_, or (_Bornmüllieri_) golden yellow, February (fig. 14); _I. juncea_, golden-yellow, fragrant, June and July; _I. Kolpakowskyana_ (fig. 13) has reddish-purple and golden-yellow, with purple veins in March; _I. orchioides_ has very large bulbs and bright-yellow flowers in March and April; _I. persica_ (fig. 15), and its varieties, with light purple, lavender, lilac, sea-green, and other shades of colour, and usually distinctly spotted and sweet-scented during February and March; _I. pumila_, lilac, purple, or deep violet, April. _I. reticulata_ has deep violet fragrant flowers in February and March; there are very many distinct varieties of it, such as _cyanea_, bright blue; _Histrio_, blue, blotched with golden-yellow, December to March (fig. 11); _Histrioides_, bright blue tinted with violet; _humilis_, rich red, purple, orange, and white; _Krelagei_, claret purple and yellow; _purpurea_, reddish purple; _sophenensis_, varying from reddish and bluish purple to lilac and lavender; _I. Rosenbachiana_, variable in colour, purple, yellow, and white to rich crimson and purple blue, March and April; _I. sindjarensis_ has sweet-scented slaty-blue flowers; and _I. stenophylla_ or _Heldreichi_, mauve purple, February and March. PLATE 22. CALOCHORTUS VENUSTUS (84) CALOCHORTUS ALBUS (85) CALOCHORTUS PULCHELLUS (86) The Spanish and English Irises flourish in ordinary good and well-drained garden soil containing a fair amount of sand or grit, and humus. The English varieties on the whole require a somewhat moister situation and rather heavier soil than the Spanish. They flower profusely, and their many shades of colour make the long-stalked blossoms great favourites for decorative purposes. The different colours can be had separately from the nurseryman or florist, but a mixed collection will afford great pleasure to those who do not wish to be burdened with the fancy names given in catalogues. The smaller kinds of Bulbous Irises--like those shown on Plate 3--require to be treated a little more carefully than the Spanish and English varieties. Indeed many of the choicer and rarer varieties are safer grown in pots of rich sandy soil in cold frames. They flower early in the year, and, if exposed in the open border or rock-garden, the blossoms would be probably not only considerably disfigured, but the cold rains and frosts might kill the bulbs. When grown in the open air, warm sheltered spots should be selected for them, and the soil should be a well-drained sandy loam with a little leaf-soil. If the plants are flourishing, they may be left in the same spot for three or four seasons. After this it is better to lift them when the leaves have withered, and then any offsets may be detached to increase the stock. As a rule the best time to plant bulbous Irises is in September or October, but not later. =IXIA= (=African Corn Lily=).--If the reader will turn to Plate 1, he or she will at once admit that the Ixias are a charming class of bulbous plants. The picture was prepared from specimens kindly supplied by Messrs. Wallace & Co., of Colchester. There are many other shades and combinations of colour besides those represented, and happy would be the amateur who succeeded in raising such lovely flowers in his garden--either in the open air or under glass. The Ixias are natives of South Africa, and have smooth or fibrous-coated, round and flattish corms, about an inch in diameter. The sword-shaped leaves are strongly veined, and the beautiful blossoms are borne on stems 1 to 2 feet, during June and July. Some of the best varieties are shown on Plate 1, and attention is especially directed to the charming soft sea-green flowers of _I. viridiflora_, having a dark blotch in the centre. To these may be added the deep-red or crimson-flowered _speciosa_ or _crateroides_. It is a pity that such elegant flowers cannot be grown in the open air in every part of the British Islands. Unfortunately they are not hardy enough for this, and consequently the best results out of doors are only likely to be secured in the mildest parts of the kingdom. The best time to plant is from September to November. The corms should be about 3 inches beneath the surface of the soil. This should be a light, sandy loam; if inclined to be heavy, it should be raised in small beds above the general level to secure better drainage, and a little sand may be placed round each corm, also with the same object in view. In the event of cold rains and frosts in winter, the bulbs should be protected with litter, bracken, &c., to be removed at the end of February or March when the leaves begin to appear. Where it is impossible to grow Ixias successfully in the open air, they may be grown in pots in cold frames or for the decoration of the greenhouse or conservatory. The corms should be potted in September or October, and kept under ashes or fibre in the open until roots have developed, after which they may be brought inside to develop. Ixias are best increased by offsets. =IXIOLIRION montanum.=--This beautiful plant (also known as _I. Pallasi_ and _I. tataricum_) has long-necked ovoid bulbs about an inch in diameter, and tufts of grassy leaves. The charming lilac blossoms, as shown on Plate 18, fig. 73, are borne in early summer in loose clusters on stems a foot or more high, and are very useful in a cut state. There is a good deal of variation in the colour, which has led to different names being given from time to time. _I. Kolpakowskyanum_ is a rare and little known species from Turkestan. It has much smaller bulbs than _montanum_, and the blue or whitish blossoms appear somewhat earlier in the year. Ixiolirions may be grown successfully in the milder parts of the kingdom in warm sheltered spots in the flower-border or rock-garden. They should be planted about 3 inches deep in September or October in light sandy soil, and in cold localities should be protected with litter, &c., in winter. =LAPEYROUSIA= (=Anomatheca=) =cruenta.=--A pretty South African plant, 6 to 12 inches high, with irregular roundish corms about 2 inches in diameter, and narrow sword-shaped leaves. The deep crimson or blood-red blossoms, with a still deeper-coloured blotch on each of the three inner segments, appear in late summer in loose clusters on slender stalks, and are very striking when seen in large masses. This species, although perhaps a trifle hardier, may be grown in the same way as the Ixias (see p. 90). The corms, however, being larger, should be planted about 6 inches deep, and new plants may be secured by detaching the offsets when the leaves have withered. PLATE 23. GLADIOLUS OPPOSITIFLORUS (87) LILIUM CANADENSE, VARS. (88-89) =LEUCOJUM= (_Snowflake_).--Beautiful plants closely related to the Snowdrops, and somewhat resembling them in bulbs, and leaves, and flowers. The Spring Snowflake (_L. vernum_) is the first of the group to produce its drooping sweet-scented blossoms in March and April. They are usually borne singly on a slender stalk 6 to 12 inches high, and are white in colour with more or less conspicuous green tips to the petals, as shown in Plate 12, fig. 47. The next best-known kind is the Summer Snowflake--the paradoxical name of _L. æstivum_. The pure white flowers, tipped with green, appear in May and June, sometimes as many as six being borne on a stem. _L. pulchellum_ is closely related to this species, but has narrower leaves, and produces its smaller blossoms somewhat later. The pretty little plants, formerly known as _Acis_, are now included with the Leucojums. They all have small white drooping blossoms on slender stems 6 to 12 inches high, those of _hyemalis_ and _trichophylla_, appearing in April, while those of _autumnalis_ appear in autumn. The Snowflakes flourish in rich sandy soil, and appear to advantage in the rock-garden or in the grass, where they may be massed in the same way as Snowdrops, &c. Most of them are easily increased by offsets. =LILIUM= (_Lily_).--Of all the hardy bulbous plants that may be grown in the open air in our climate, the Lilies may be looked upon as the most noble. Not only are many of them giants in stature among other hardy bulbs, but there is nothing to equal their individual blossoms in size, or their general gracefulness of appearance when borne collectively on the leafy stems. They differ in another respect from other bulbous plants described in this book, and that is in having "scaly" bulbs as shown on page 12. All the other plants have either bulbs with several coats rolled round each other (tunicated), or else they are solid, when they are known as corms. But in the Lilies neither of these two types appears. What are known as the "scales" are fleshy leaves that have been specially modified under the surface of the soil to act as reservoirs or storehouses for the surplus food that the green aërial leaves on the stems have elaborated for them during the daytime. There are a large number of species of Lilium, differing greatly in size and blossom, and it is therefore only natural to expect the bulbs to vary a good deal also. Indeed, there are very large and very small bulbs, comparatively speaking, and they display a good deal of difference in their vegetation, and in producing offsets. For example, most kinds develop new bulbs or offsets round the base of the older bulb, while others, like _canadense_, _Grayi_, _pardalinum_, _Parryi_, and _superbum_, develop their new bulbs along creeping stems or rhizomes as shown in the sketch on page 31. Useful as the offsets are for the purpose of increasing the stock, some kinds, notably _bulbiferum_, _Browni_, _speciosum_, and _tigrinum_, often develop what are called "bulbils" in the axils of the aërial leaves. These bulbils are small bulb-like bodies, which, when sown and covered with soil as if they were large seeds, will develop into flowering bulbs in the course of two or three years. The origin of these bulbils is more fully dealt with at p. 32. Besides these two fairly easy means of increasing the stock of Lilies, many kinds may be also raised from seeds, which at the end of three, six, or eight years, will have produced bulbs large enough to throw up flowering stems. Raising Lilies from seed is more common now than it used to be, especially in America, where some lovely hybrids have been raised, such as _Burbanki_, _Dalhansoni_, _Marhan_, &c. =Distribution of Lilies.=--As Liliums are distributed throughout all parts of the north temperate hemisphere--extending from California in the west, to China and Japan in the east, across the continents of North America, Europe, and Asia--they are therefore found naturally growing in different soils, and under various climatic conditions, in all degrees of sunshine and shadow, drought and moisture. In the British flower garden they are, as a rule, best in positions where they will be shaded from the hot mid-day sun, as the flowers will last much longer than if exposed too much. They should not, however, be planted in deep shade under trees, or among their roots, as the latter would absorb too much food and moisture from the Lilies, while the overhanging boughs would prevent the rain from reaching the bulbs in sufficient quantity. During vigorous growth, Lilies like plenty of water, but the soil must at the same time be so well drained that it shall readily pass away from the bulbs. ("A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO GARDEN PLANTS.") =Time and Depth of Planting.=--If bulbs can be secured early in autumn, say in September or October, that would be the best time to plant Lilies. But very often bulbs of certain kinds cannot be secured till spring, so that planting must necessarily take place then. The depth at which Lily bulbs are to be planted depends greatly upon the size of the individual bulbs; some kinds are planted about 6 inches deep, while others require a depth of 9 or 10 inches. A safe general rule to follow, is to cover the bulbs with about twice their own depth of soil when planting in the open air. If a piece of peat be placed beneath each bulb at the time of planting, and a layer of sand about half-an-inch thick round them, they will root much more freely. An exception to the general rule seems to be _L. giganteum_ (see p. 100). When Liliums are hardy enough to be left undisturbed for several seasons in the same place, a good top-dressing or "mulching" of well-decayed manure in autumn will be of great advantage in replenishing the food for the roots. So far as culture is concerned, Liliums may be arranged in three distinct groups as follows:-- I. LILIES THAT FLOURISH IN ORDINARY GOOD GARDEN SOIL, OR BETTER STILL, IN STRONG LOAM THAT HAS BEEN DEEPLY DUG AND ENRICHED WITH WELL-DECAYED MANURE IN ADVANCE. _Alexandræ_, 2 to 3 feet high, with pure white flowers, 6 to 8 inches across in July and August. _Batemanniæ_, 3 to 5 feet high, flowers rich apricot, 4 to 5 inches across. _Bulbiferum_, 2 to 4 feet high, with erect crimson flowers spotted with brown; May and June. _Candidum_, the well-known "Madonna Lily," 3 to 5 feet high, with sweet-scented pure-white flowers, 3 to 4 inches across, and ten to thirty on an erect truss in June. When subject to disease in any locality, it is almost useless attempting to grow this Lily. (See Plate 16, fig. 64). _Chalcedonicum_, a fine "Turk's Cap" Lily, 2 to 3 feet high, with drooping bright scarlet flowers in July and August; there are several varieties, including _maculatum_, a spotted one. _Croceum_, the "Orange or Saffron Lily," with somewhat cobwebby stems 3 to 6 feet high, and golden orange, funnel-shaped flowers, spotted with purple at the base; June and July. (See Plate 17, fig. 67). _Dalhansoni_, a pretty hybrid between _dalmaticum_ and _Hansoni_, about 5 feet high, with dark brownish-purple flowers in June and July. _Dauricum_ or _davuricum_ grows 2 to 3 feet high, and has orange-scarlet flowers spotted with blackish-purple. _Henryi_, 3 to 6 feet high (sometimes much taller) with jagged-surfaced orange-red flowers from July to September. _Marhan_, a lovely hybrid between the white-flowered _Martagon_ and _Hansoni_. It grows 4 to 5 feet high, and has clear orange-yellow flowers with red-brown streaks and spots. _Pomponium_, a fine "Turk's Cap" species, 2 to 3 feet high, with drooping, bright-red, orange-yellow, flowers. PLATE 24. LILIUM TIGRINUM (90) BRODIÆA BRIDGESI (91) _Pyrenaicum_ is closely related to _pomponium_, but is somewhat taller, and has bright-yellow flowers, blotched with crimson at the base (see Plate 18, fig. 71). _Rubellum_, a beautiful species about 2 feet high, with bell-shaped rosy-pink flowers in June (see Plate 26, fig. 97). _Testaceum_ (or _excelsum_), a fine Lily, 5 to 6 feet high, with somewhat drooping, soft, buff-yellow or apricot-coloured flowers, dotted with orange-red. _Umbellatum._ A number of Lilies are grouped under this name, being apparently hybrid varieties between _croceum_, _davuricum_, and _elegans_. The prevailing colours are orange, orange-red, and apricot, with darkly-spotted and unspotted forms. _Washingtonianum_ grows 3 to 6 feet high, and has sweet-scented, drooping, funnel-shaped flowers of a pure white tinged with lilac or purple. The soil should be particularly well-drained for this Californian Lily. II. LILIES THAT FLOURISH IN SANDY LOAM, PEAT, AND LEAF-SOIL. _Auratum_, a well-known Lily, 2 to 6 feet high, with ivory-white flowers, often 9 to 12 inches across, with a conspicuous yellow band down the centre, and deep purple blotches all over the inner surface. There are several varieties, some poor, some excellent, amongst the latter being _platyphyllum_ with very large heavily-spotted flowers. There is a white unspotted form of this called _virginale_, closely related to which is _Wittei_, the flowers of which, however, are stained with yellow down the centre. _Browni_, 2 to 4 feet high, with bell-shaped flowers, pure white with a central purple line. _Concolor_, grows 1 to 3 feet high, and has bright scarlet flowers. There are several varieties, such as _Buschianum_ and the dwarf _pulchellum_, scarlet, spotted with black; _Coridion_, bright yellow, spotted with red; _Partheneion_, orange-yellow, faintly spotted; and _luteum_, yellow, spotted with purple-red. _Elegans_ (or _Thunbergianum_), 1 to 2 feet high, with erect cup-shaped scarlet flowers, slightly spotted with purple at the base. _Giganteum_, a gigantic Himalayan Lily, with stems from 6 to 10, and sometimes 14 feet high, furnished with large heart-shaped oval leaves. The flower stem is 1 to 2 feet long and has drooping funnel-shaped blossoms of a greenish-white, suffused with violet-purple in the throat. Unlike other Liliums, the large conical bulbs of this species are not buried deeply in the soil. They are sunk in the soil about one-third of their depth, and are usually planted in April or May. In the event of spring frosts, the bulbs should be protected with dry leaves or litter. _Hansoni_, 3 to 4 feet high, flowers drooping, bright orange yellow, and heavily spotted with dark purple-brown (see Plate 25, fig. 93). _Humboldti_ (or _Bloomerianum_), 4 to 8 feet high, flowers orange-yellow, drooping, spotted with purple at the base; more conspicuous in the variety _ocellatum_, the yellow blossoms of which are tipped with crimson or purple. _Japonicum_, 1 to 3 feet high, with sweet-scented pure white flowers faintly tinged with purple outside. _Kewense_, a beautiful hybrid between _Henryi_ and a variety of _Browni_; it grows about 6 feet high, and has buff-coloured flowers about 8 inches across, fading off to creamy white at the tips. _Krameri_ is like _japonicum_, but taller, and with pink flowers. _Leichtlini_, 3 to 4 feet high, with drooping citron-yellow flowers heavily spotted with purple. _Longiflorum_, a very handsome Lily, 2 to 3 feet high, with large tubular pure white flowers. There are many so-called varieties of this species, including _Harrisi_, _eximium_, and _Takesima_--all very popular for forcing in pots for greenhouses (see Plate 25, fig. 94). _Martagon_, the "Turk's Cap," Lily, 2 to 3 feet high, with many tiers of drooping purple-red or violet-rose flowers, spotted with carmine, but white in the tall growing variety _album_ (see Plate 26, fig. 95). _Monadelphum_ (or _Loddigesianum_) is a vigorous Lily, 3 to 5 feet high, with soft bright yellow flowers, which in the variety _Szovitsianum_ (or _colchicum_) are spotted with blackish-purple (see Plate 26, fig. 98). _Pardalinum_, known as the "Leopard Lily," grows 3 to 8 feet high, and has drooping orange-red flowers spotted with dark purple at the base. There are several varieties, some being more highly coloured and spotted than others. _Roezli_, 2 to 3 feet high, with dark blotched orange-red flowers. _Speciosum_, also well-known as _lancifolium_, grows 2 to 3 feet high, and has white flowers suffused with rose, the lower portion of the segments being deeper in colour, and covered with papillæ. There are many varieties such as _album_, white; _Krätzeri_, white tinged with green down the centre; _Melpomene_, deep crimson-purple, &c. _Tenuifolium_, so called from its grass-like leaves, grows 1 to 2 feet high, and has small drooping scarlet blossoms (see Plate 25, fig. 92). _Tigrinum_, the "Tiger Lily," with woolly stems 2 to 4 feet high, and deep orange-red flowers heavily spotted with blackish-purple. (See Plate 24, fig. 90.) III. LILIES THAT FLOURISH IN VERY MOIST BUT WELL-DRAINED SANDY LOAM, PEAT, AND LEAF-SOIL. THEY ARE EXCELLENT FOR PLANTING IN SHADY BORDERS, UNDER NORTH WALLS, OR BY THE SIDE OF PONDS, &c. _Burbanki_, a fine hybrid between _pardalinum_ and _Parryi_. Flowers, pale orange-yellow, spotted with chocolate and flushed with crimson at the tips. A single stem often has as many as twenty or thirty blooms upon it. _Canadense_, a rhizomatous "Turk's Cap" Lily, 2 to 4 feet high, with drooping funnel-shaped flowers varying in colour from bright orange-red to pale red, the upper portion of the segments being heavily spotted with purple-brown. (See Plate 23, figs. 88 and 89.) There are several forms such as _rubrum_, _flavum_, _parvum_, &c. _Catesbæi_, an elegant species, 1 to 2 feet high, having erect bell-shaped flowers of a bright orange-red heavily spotted with purple. _Cordifolium_, a very distinct-looking Lily, 3 to 4 feet high, having broadly heart-shaped ovate leaves, and tubular white flowers with violet-brown spots at the base. _Grayi_ is closely related to _canadense_, but has deep crimson flowers heavily blotched with purple at the yellowish base. _Maritimum_ is a pretty Lily, 3 to 5 feet high, with small deep red bell-shaped flowers spotted with dark purple. _Parryi_ is another rhizomatous Lily, 2 to 6 feet high. The more or less drooping flowers are citron-yellow, spotted with purple-brown, and are sweetly fragrant. _Superbum_ is known as the "Swamp Lily" of North America. It has creeping rhizomes which produce bulbs at intervals, and the violet-purple stems grow 4 to 10 feet high. The drooping orange-red flowers, sometimes as many as twenty to forty on a stem, are heavily spotted with violet-purple. The variety _carolinianum_ (also known as _autumnale_ and _Michauxianum_) has flowers like those of the type, but the plants only grow about 2 feet high. PLATE 25. LILIUM TENUIFOLIUM (92) LILIUM HANSONI (93) LILIUM LONGIFLORUM (94) Most of the Lilies described in these three sections may be grown in beds by themselves on the grass, or they may be planted in clumps in borders or shrubberies where they will have plenty of space and enough sunshine to enable them to develop fully. The peat-loving kinds--those in the second and third sections--are excellent for planting amongst such plants as Rhododendrons, Azaleas, Kalmias, and other peat-loving shrubs. =LYCORIS squamigera.=--This distinct Japanese plant is closely related to the Belladonna Lily (see p. 51). It has rather long-necked roundish bulbs, 2 to 3 inches in diameter, and strap-shaped leaves about a foot long. From July to September, after the leaves have withered, the large sweet-scented rosy-lilac flowers (see Plate 32, fig. 116) are borne on a stout stalk 2 to 3 feet high. This plant may be grown out of doors in the milder parts of the kingdom in warm sheltered spots, such as against a well on a south border. It likes rich well-drained sandy loam and leaf-soil, but grows freely in ordinary good garden soil. There are other species that may probably succeed in the open air in the same way, such as _aurea_, golden-yellow; _straminea_, pale yellow with a pink central line and red dots; and _radiata_, bright red. =MERENDERA Bulbocodium.=--A pretty Pyrenean plant closely related to _Bulbocodium vernum_. It grows only 3 or 4 inches high, and produces its rosy-lilac funnel-shaped flowers in autumn at the same time as some of the true Colchicums. The narrow sickle-shaped leaves appear after the flowers are over and remain fresh and green till spring. There are a few other species, but they are practically unknown in gardens. The Merendera may be grown exactly in the same way as the Colchicums, in the border, rock-garden, or best of all in the grass. The stock may be increased by offsets and seeds. =MILLA biflora.=--There is now only one Milla, the plants formerly known under that name being now included in the genus Brodiæa (see p. 56). _M. biflora_ has rather small bulbs with fleshy roots and narrow, grass-like, blue-green leaves. The pretty pure white salver-shaped blossoms appear in August and September usually two to four on stems about 6 inches high. Being a native of Mexico, _M. biflora_ should be grown in warm sheltered spots in the rock-garden or border, in a rich sandy loam, the bulbs being planted about 4 inches deep. Increased by offsets. =MUSCARI= (_Grape Hyacinth_).--A charming class of plants with roundish bulbs about 1 inch in diameter, narrow leaves, and conical clusters of urn-shaped or tubular blossoms drooping from stems 3 to 6 inches high. Although the Grape Hyacinths may be easily grown in patches or edgings in the ordinary flower border, there is no place that shows off their sheets of brilliant blue blossoms so well as a grassy bank, or a nook in the rockery, where they should be planted in large numbers. They naturally like a rich and well drained soil with plenty of grit or sand in it, and some leaf-soil. The bulbs should be planted about 3 inches deep in September and October, and when naturalised in the grass may be left for several seasons without being disturbed. Most of the kinds blossom in March, April, and May, and are easily increased by offsets. Seeds may also be sown (see p. 36). The following is a selection of the best kinds. The flowers are blue in all cases, except where otherwise mentioned, and the general appearance of the blossoms is as shown by _M. conicum_ in Plate 12, fig. 48:--_Armeniacum_; _botryoides_, with a white-flowered variety _album_; _comosum_, the monstrous form of which, with twisted and wavy bluish-violet filaments, is known as the Ostrich Feather Hyacinth; _conicum_ (see Plate 12, fig. 48), of which there is a beautiful brilliant blue variety called "Heavenly Blue." _Heldreichi_, like _botryoides_, but larger; _Maweanum_; _neglectum_; _racemosum_; _amphibolus_ porcelain blue; and _Szovitsianum_. There are other colours besides blue among the Grape Hyacinths. Thus the "Musk Hyacinth" (_M. moschatum_) has sweet-scented blossoms which change from purple at first to greenish-yellow tinged with violet. It has a yellow flowered variety called _flavum_ or _macrocarpum_. Some forms of _neglectum_ are salmon-pink, while the blossoms of _M. paradoxum_ might be described almost as black. =NARCISSUS= (_Daffodil_).--What so charming in the spring-time as "a host of Golden Daffodils"? The varieties are now almost legion, and they are still being added to by enthusiastic hybridists in various parts of the kingdom. The crossing of one section with another may possibly worry the botanist, but there is no fear that the gardener will not welcome any new variety that may be raised. Although thousands of the older Daffodils may be bought for a few shillings, the rarer varieties still command a respectably high price, and will naturally continue to do so until the stock has been considerably increased. There is scarcely a nook in the garden, large or small, where Daffodils cannot be grown. And yet it is astonishing to note their general absence from suburban gardens, where they would not only grow freely, but also make a cheerful picture in the spring-time. PLATE 26. LILIUM MARTAGON ALBUM (95) WATSONIA ARDERNEI (96) LILIUM RUBELLUM (97) LILIUM COLCHICUM (98) Daffodils--with the exception, perhaps, of a very few varieties--require as little attention, and even less than Snowdrops or Crocuses. Once planted they may be left undisturbed for years, and as each season comes round they gaily shoot their blue-green strap-shaped leaves and creamy or golden blossoms through the ground. They grow in almost any soil, but prefer a rather stiff and well-drained loam. They are appropriate in any situation in the flower border or rockery. But their natural position is undoubtedly in the grass, or-- "Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze," As Wordsworth has it. =When to Plant.=--The best time to plant Daffodil bulbs is from the end of August to November. As there is a great difference in the size of the bulbs, according to the variety, the depth of planting should vary accordingly. Thus bulbs 1 to 2 inches deep from top of neck to base should be planted quite 3 or 4 inches deep, while larger ones will be planted 4 to 6 inches deep in proportion, and about the same distance apart, except, of course, when they are used between other plants like Tulips, Wallflowers, Polyanthuses, &c., for a combination display in spring. Most of the Daffodils are valuable for cutting and decorative purposes generally when in season, and when one has the convenience of a greenhouse--cold or otherwise--the flowering period can be extended from Christmas onwards. Daffodils are most easily increased by the offsets from the old bulbs. These may be lifted in early summer, when the leaves have begun to turn yellow. Seeds may also be sown when ripe (see page 36), but to secure them the plants must be left much longer in the ground, so as to mature them. Nearly all kinds of Daffodils--especially those having only one flower on a stem--may be grown in the open air. There are hundreds of varieties to choose from, but the uninitiated may start with such kinds as the beautiful white and flat-flowered "Poet's Narcissus" (_N. poeticus_), which is also called the "Pheasant's Eye" Narcissus, because of the crimson and orange circles round the rim of the flat saucer-like "corona" in the centre (see Plate 7, fig. 29). There are several varieties of the Poet's Narcissus, one of the best for ordinary purposes being _ornatus_. Where the soil is particularly rich and well-drained the double-flowered variety, called the "Gardenia" Narcissus, owing to the shape of its beautiful white blossoms (see Plate 7, fig. 28), may be grown. Unfortunately this variety often comes "blind," that is, the blossoms remain undeveloped in the papery sheath on top of the stem. To check this the bulbs are best lifted and transplanted early to fresh soil. Another popular and easily-grown Daffodil is the common Double Yellow one known as _Telamonius plenus_ or _Van Sion_. It is a form of the Tenby Daffodil (_N. obvallaris_) which is a single form with beautiful yellow flowers, having a large "trumpet" or corona in the centre. Closely related to this is the Great Spanish Daffodil (_N. major_) which has large bright lemon-yellow flowers, which are still larger and of richer yellow in the variety _maximus_. ="Ajax" Daffodils.=--To these may be added the numerous forms, of which the common Lent Lily (also called "Ajax" or "Trumpet Daffodil") is the type, and which has pale sulphur-yellow blossoms with a lemon-yellow "trumpet." Some of the finest Daffodils, with large spreading flowers and correspondingly large and deep trumpets, belong to this section, among which may be mentioned _Ard Righ_ or _Yellow King_, _C. W. Cowan_, _Colleen Bawn_, _Emperor_, _Glory of Leiden_, _Golden Spur_, _Henry Irving_, _Hudibras_, _John Nelson_, _Madame de Graaff_ (see Plate 4, fig. 17), _Monarch_, _W. Goldring_, &c. All these have single flowers varying in colour from almost pure white (as in _C. W. Cowan_, _Colleen Bawn_, and _Madame de Graaff_) to deep golden-yellow in many of the other varieties. There are a few double-flowered forms of the "Lent Lily," the best known being _Capax_, lemon-yellow; _grandiplenus_, deep yellow, _plenissimus_, and the Old Double Lent Lily grown in Gerarde's garden over 300 years ago. ="Bicolor" Daffodils.=--Another very fine group of Trumpet Daffodils are those known as "bicolors," so called because the spreading segments are one colour (generally white or creamy), while the trumpet is another colour (usually some shade of soft or deep yellow). Amongst the most popular forms in this group may be mentioned _Ellen Willmott_ (see Plate 4, fig. 16), _Empress, Grandee_, _Horsfieldi_ (see Plate 4, fig. 18), _Mrs. J. B. M. Camm_, _Mrs. Morland Crossfield,_ _Mrs. Walter T. Ware_, _Princeps_ or _Irish Giant, Victoria,_ and _Weardale Perfection_ (see Plate 6, fig. 26). The "=Star Daffodils=" (_N. incomparabilis_) have spreading starry petals, and a cup or chalice-like corona or trumpet in the centre. They are a very free growing group, the commoner kinds of which (such as _Autocrat_, _Cynosure_, _Stella_) may be naturalised in thousands in the grass, where they may be seen at "a glance tossing their heads in sprightly dance." Some other very fine forms are _C. J. Backhouse_, _Frank Miles_, _Geo. Nicholson_, _Gloria Mundi_ (see Plate 5, fig. 21), _Lulworth_ (see Plate 6, fig. 27), _Mary Anderson_, _Sir Watkin_ (see Plate 5, fig. 23), and _Princess Mary of Cambridge_ (see Plate 5, fig. 21), &c., but there are many others. There are also several double varieties of Star Daffodils, the most common being "Butter and Eggs," _Orange Phoenix_ (or _Eggs and Bacon_) and _Sulphur Phoenix_ (or _Codlins and Cream_). There are many other kinds of Daffodils which have only one flower on a stem, many of them being natural or artificial hybrids. Space will not permit detailed descriptions, but the following may be looked upon as the best:--_Backhousei_, _Barri_ (with several forms), _Bernardi_, _Burbidgei_, (with several forms), _gracilis_, _Humei_, _intermedius_, _Johnstoni_ (with several forms), _Leedsi_ (with several fine forms), _Macleayi_, _moschatus_ (with several forms, the best being _cernuus_), _muticus_, and _Nelsoni_ (with several forms). In the foregoing sections the blossoms are all of a fairly large size, and borne on stalks a foot or more high. There is, however a charming group in which the blossoms are in most cases comparatively small and the flower stalks short. These kinds are valuable for planting in bold masses in partially shaded places in the rockery, or in short grass. _N. cyclamineus_ is a charming little Daffodil. It belongs to the Lent Lily group botanically. The blossoms, however, are much smaller; the segments being lemon-yellow, and abruptly turned back upon the stalk from the orange-yellow cylindrical "trumpet." (See Plate 5, fig. 19.) _N. minor_ is another miniature form of Lent Lily, with gracefully-twisted sulphur-yellow segments surrounding a deeper yellow spreading "trumpet." The variety _minimus_ is smaller still, with rich yellow flowers, while _plenus_ (or _Rip Van Winkle_) is a double variety. One kind that differs conspicuously from all others is the "Hooped Petticoat" or "Medusa Trumpet" Daffodil (_N. Bulbocodium_), at one time considered a distinct genus (_Corbularia_). It is a charming species, having bright-yellow flowers, the chief characteristic of which is the cone-like or broadly funnel-shaped trumpet. There are several varieties, such as _citrinus_ (lemon-yellow), _conspicuus_ (golden-yellow), _Graellsi_ (primrose-yellow), _monophyllus_ (snow-white, leaves solitary), _nivalis_, (orange-yellow). PLATE 27. WATSONIA MERIANA (99) WATSONIA ALBA (100) WATSONIA ANGUSTA (101) MONTBRETIA CROCOSMIÆFLORA (102) =Polyanthus or Tazetta Narcissus.=--Passing from the Daffodils with solitary flowers on a stalk, we come to a small group in which several blossoms adorn the top of the stem. The most important of these is perhaps the Polyanthus or Bunch Narcissus (_N. Tazetta_) which was well-known to the old Greek and Roman poets, although in a wild state it is met with eastwards across Europe and Asia, to China and Japan. The typical _N. Tazetta_ has 4 to 8 flowers on top of the stem, the spreading segments being pure white and the cup-shaped corona lemon-yellow. There are many varieties, and although the individual blossoms are not very large, they are sometimes produced in much larger numbers than the type. The best-known varieties are the _Scilly White_, _Grand Soleil d'or_, _Grand Monarque_ (Plate 6, figs. 24 and 25), and the _Paper White_--all largely grown in the open air in the Scilly Isles--but rather too tender for out-door cultivation in less favoured parts of the kingdom. Of late years, a Chinese form (really only _N. Tazetta_) called the "Sacred Lily" or "Joss Flower," has attracted attention, and has been recommended for growing in ornamental bowls, &c., in drawing-rooms, in a compost (if it can be called such) of pebbles and clean water. The common mistake made in growing the Joss Lily in this way is that the plants do not get sufficient light in ordinary rooms, and consequently both leaves and stems are too weak to stand erect. Other Daffodils with several flowers on a stalk are the Sweet-Scented Jonquil (_N. Jonquilla_), easily recognised by its roundish leaves and rich yellow flowers with a cup-shaped corona. There are several varieties including a double one known as "Queen Anne's Jonquil." The Rush-leaved Jonquil (_N. juncifolius_) with roundish rush-like leaves is closely related, its bright yellow blossoms being distinguished from those of the Jonquil by being fewer and having broader ovate segments. _N. triandrus_, popularly called "Ganymede's Cup," is a charming little species with 1 to 6 pure-white flowers in which the segments are bent back from the cup-shaped corona. There are several varieties, including a lovely white one (_albus_) called "Angel's Tears," shown on Plate 5, fig. 20. _Concolor_, pale yellow; _calathinus_, white or sulphur-yellow; _pallidulus_, primrose-yellow; while _pulchellus_ has primrose-yellow segments and a white corona. The bulbs of _N. triandrus_ and its varieties being rather small--half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter--the spots where they are planted should be marked, otherwise they are apt to get lost or destroyed. Until the stock is large they are probably safer grown in pots in cold frames. As new varieties and hybrids are being added each year, the reader who wishes to grow novelties is advised to consult the bulb catalogues of such firms as Messrs. Barr & Sons, Covent Garden; Messrs. Ware, Feltham; Mr. Hartland, of Cork; Mr. Perry, Winchmore Hill, &c. =NOTHOSCORDUM fragrans.=--A sturdy North American plant, 1 to 2 feet high, with roundish oblong bulbs, having thick fleshy roots. It is closely related to the Alliums, as may be seen by its umbels of white starry flowers, the segments of which are keeled with lilac on the outside. This species grows in ordinary good garden soil of a gritty nature, and is easily increased by offsets. =ORNITHOGALUM= (_Star of Bethlehem_).--Although a large genus, only a few species are considered worth growing, except in botanical collections. The best known representative of the group is probably the Common Star of Bethlehem (_O. umbellatum_), which is now naturalised in copses and meadows in some parts of England, and may be utilised in the same way in large gardens with an abundance of grass-land. The clusters of pure-white starry blossoms appear in May and June, on stalks about 1 foot high, and are keeled with green behind. Very similar in appearance are the flowers of _O. arabicum_, which, however, appear in June and July, and are much larger, sometimes 2 inches across, with golden anthers, and a shining black ovary in the centre, as shown in Plate 29, fig. 107. Unfortunately, this species is rather tender in the colder parts of the kingdom, and should be protected in winter. As an alternative the plants may be grown in pots in cold greenhouses, or in glasses of water in the same way as Hyacinths (see p. 84.) _O. nutans_, the drooping white flowers of which are also shown on Plate 29, fig. 108, is almost as hardy as _O. umbellatum_, and may be naturalised in the same way. _O. arcuatum_ has pure white erect flowers in May and June on stalks 2 feet or more high. _O. pyramidale_, the white flowers of which have a green stripe behind, and are borne on stalks 1-1/2 to 2 feet high in June and July, is another species worth growing in masses in the shrubberies, or in the grass (see Plate 19, fig. 74); and _O. pyrenaicum_, with pale yellow-green flowers may be given similar treatment. Ordinary well-drained garden soil of a more or less sandy nature will suit the Ornithogalums. They are easily increased by offsets. =PANCRATIUM.=--Most of the plants in this genus require to be grown in heat and moisture under glass. Two species, however--both with clusters of white sweet-scented flowers on stout stalks 1 to 2 feet high--can be grown in the open air in the milder parts of the British Islands. They are _P. illyricum_ and _P. maritimum_, both natives of Southern Europe. They have large pear-shaped bulbs with a tapering neck 9 to 12 inches long, and consequently require to be planted pretty deeply, say about a foot in September. A well-drained sandy loam and leaf-soil suits them best, and they may be increased by offsets. =POLIANTHES tuberosa= (_Tuberose_).--Although what are known as African, American, Italian, and Pearl Tuberoses, are usually grown in warm greenhouses, nevertheless the plants may be grown with a fair degree of success in the open air in the milder parts of the kingdom. The thickish bulbs, about 2 inches through, may be planted out about the end of May, only just covering the tops with an inch or two of soil. The thin and narrow leaves will soon appear, and about August the pure waxy-white heavily-scented blossoms will be thrown up on stalks 2 to 3 feet high, that may require a thin stake to keep them erect. There are single and double-flowered varieties, the latter being most popular for cultivation under glass. For this purpose the bulbs may be treated as advised at p. 46. =PUSCHKINIA scilloides.=--A charming little plant, with ovoid bulbs about an inch through, and narrow leaves about 6 inches long. About March and April the white or very pale blue blossoms appear, and are decorated with a conspicuous deep-blue line down the centre of each segment. Warm sheltered spots in the rock-garden or flower border, and a compost of rich sandy loam and leaf-soil suit this plant best. The bulbs should be planted, 3 or 4 inches deep, in September or October (but not later), and may, if convenient, remain in the same spot for three or four seasons without being lifted. This is best done when the foliage has withered, and will give an opportunity for detaching the offsets to increase the stock. =SCHIZOSTYLIS coccinea.=--A charming South African plant, 2 to 3 feet high, with the appearance of a Gladiolus in the sword-like leaves. The brilliant crimson blossoms, each about 2 inches across, appear from September to November, and consequently often get spoiled by the weather unless protected. They are excellent for cutting and valuable so late in the season. The plants flourish in rich sandy loam, peat and leaf-soil, and are more satisfactory in the open air in the mildest parts of the kingdom. In other parts they should be planted on a sheltered south border where they can be protected in winter if necessary. Grown in pots, the plants are popular for greenhouse decoration. Increase is effected by dividing the thickish rootstocks in spring. PLATE 28. GLADIOLUS NANCEIANUS (103) GLADIOLUS LEMOINEI (104) GLADIOLUS CHILDSI (105) =SCILLA= (_Squill_; _Bluebell_).--The Squills and Bluebells are amongst the most charming of our spring-flowering bulbous plants, and it is astonishing that they are not more extensively utilised for naturalising in the grass, with Snowdrops, Crocuses, Narcissi, Chionodoxas, &c., with which they harmonise so well. Preferring partially shaded spots, they are particularly valuable for planting in woodland walks, and beneath our native trees in parks and pleasure grounds. The hardier kinds require practically no cultivation, and will flourish in any of the places indicated or in ordinary garden soil in the rock-garden or flower border. The best time to plant is about September and October, and as the bulbs are 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, they should be buried about 3 or 4 inches deep, and in hundreds and thousands if possible instead of in twos and threes. The best-known member of the genus is undoubtedly our Common British Bluebell or Wood Hyacinth (_S. festalis_). It is to be found in abundance in woods and copses, and from April to June sends up its tall stalks of drooping bell-shaped flowers, the colour of which varies from bluish-purple to white or pink, according to the several varieties, such as _alba_, _rosea_, and _rubra_, &c. Another fine species is the Spanish Bluebell (_S. hispanica_ or _S. campanulata_), perhaps the finest-looking Bluebell in the open air. The ordinary variety has porcelain-blue flowers on stalks a foot or more high. It is surpassed in beauty, however, by its white variety _alba_, which flowers freely and grows vigorously. There are also forms with pink or rosy flowers, such as _rosea_ or _carnea_, _rubra_, &c., all of which appear in April and May. The species, however, that finds so much favour for autumn planting is _S. sibirica_, a charming species, with purple-coated bulbs, and bright porcelain-blue blossoms with more or less spreading segments. They appear in February and March on stalks 3 to 6 inches high, but are more numerous in the variety called _multiflora_ (see Plate 2, fig. 7). Owing to its early blooming, it is of course a great favourite with other early flowering plants. Other kinds of Scilla that may be grown in the open air in the same way as those already mentioned are:--The Star Hyacinth (_S. amoena_), which requires rather warm sheltered spots. It has bright indigo blue flowers with spreading segments from March to May. _S. bifolia_ grows 6 to 9 inches high, and produces its bright-blue, bell-shaped flowers in March. There are several forms of it, such as _alba_, white, _rosea_, pale rose, &c. _S. hyacinthoides_, bluish-lilac; _S. italica_, blue; _S. verna_, porcelain-blue; _S. patula_, deep blue with white edges; and _S. monophylla_, with blue or violet flowers, all appearing in April and May. Quite distinct in appearance from all these is _S. peruviana_, which, by the way, is not a native of Peru, but of the Mediterranean region. It has large, pear-shaped bulbs, and rosettes of leaves 6 to 12 inches long, with bristly margins. The bright blue starry blossoms appear in May and June, and are borne in broadly conical clusters, which elongate during the flowering period. There are white (_alba_) and yellow (_lutea_) varieties, the first-named of which is shown on Plate 17, fig. 69. This species may be grown in warm sheltered spots in the border or rock-garden, in dryish, well-drained soil. The bulbs should be planted 4 to 6 inches deep, and in cold localities should be protected from severe frosts in winter. Scillas may be increased by offsets taken from the old bulbs when the foliage has withered. =SISYRINCHIUM grandiflorum.=--This is the best garden plant out of about fifty species. Like Schizostylis coccinea, it can scarcely be called a "bulbous" plant, as it has only short thickened rootstocks. It grows about a foot high, having striated leaves, and deep purple blossoms (as shown in Plate 20, fig. 79), which, however, are white in the variety _album_. It is an excellent plant for the rock-garden, where it should be planted in bold clumps, in light sandy loam and peat. Increased by division of the rootstocks about September. =SPARAXIS.=--The plant best known under this name has been already described as _Dierama pulcherrima_ at p. 71. The Sparaxis proper are little known plants, the best known being (i) _grandiflora_, which grows 1 to 2 feet high, and has bell-shaped flowers of deep violet-purple in April and May. There are many colour variations of this species (including a white one), several of them having a deeper coloured blotch at the base of the petals. (ii) _Tricolor_, resembles grandiflora in appearance, but has rich orange-red blossoms with purple-brown blotches on the yellow base of the petals. There are also several forms of this species with white, rose, or purple flowers, all having a yellow centre with distinct blotches at the base of the petals. These South African plants require the same treatment as _Dierama pulcherrima_ or the Ixias (see p. 89). They like warm sheltered spots in the mildest parts of the kingdom, and when well-grown are very showy and useful for cutting. PLATE 29. ZEPHYRANTHES ATAMASCO (106) ORNITHOGALUM ARABICUM (107) ORNITHOGALUM NUTANS (108) =SPREKELIA formosissima= (_Jacobæa Lily_).--A fine Mexican plant, with roundish bulbs 2 to 3 inches in diameter, and narrow strap-shaped leaves 12 to 18 inches long. In the open air the irregular bright crimson blossoms, each about 6 inches across, appear about August, and never fail to attract attention. Unfortunately, the Jacobæa Lily, of which there are a few colour variations, can scarcely be considered as perfectly hardy in the mildest parts of the British Islands. It often flowers, however, when the bulbs are planted out about the end of May or early in June, when danger from frost is practically over. The flowers often appear before the foliage, but the bulbs should not be lifted in autumn for storing until the leaves show signs of withering. New plants are secured from offsets. =STERNBERGIA.=--Charming plants, with roundish bulbs about 2 inches in diameter, and strap-shaped leaves, which are in their prime sometimes with the blossoms, as in _S. lutea_, and sometimes long before the latter appear, as in _S. macrantha_. The bulbs should be planted in spring, 5 or 6 inches deep, in rich and well-drained sandy loam and leaf-soil. When in bold clumps the flowers present a charming sight, either in the grass, rock-garden, flower border, or margins of thin shrubberies. All kinds have beautiful crocus-like yellow flowers as shown in Plate 33. _S. lutea_ (fig. 119), variously known as the "Winter Daffodil" and "Yellow Star Flower," is considered to be the "Lily of the Field" mentioned in the Scriptures. It blooms in September and October, the yellow flowers nestling amongst the leaves. There are several forms of it, differing chiefly in the size of the blossoms and width of the leaves. _S. macrantha_ (fig. 120) is a still finer species, with flowers much larger than those of _S. lutea_, with which they appear in autumn. Other species are _colchiciflora_, the bulbs of which are only about an inch in diameter, and the pale-yellow sweet-scented flowers appear in autumn. _S. Fischeriana_ also has bright golden-yellow blossoms, but differs from its relatives in producing them during the spring months--February onwards--instead of in the autumn. =TECOPHILÆA cyanocrocus.=--This distinct and charming Chilian plant, popularly known as the "Chilian Crocus," has fibrous-coated corms and narrow wavy leaves. The beautiful Violet-scented, funnel-shaped flowers of a brilliant blue, with a white centre, appear in March and April, borne in loose trusses. (See Plate 12, fig. 50.) The variety _Leichtlini_ differs in having deeper blue flowers than the type, and without the white centre. In the milder parts of the kingdom the Chilian Crocus may be grown in the open air in warm sheltered spots, such as on a south border at the base of a wall or fence. Rich sandy loam and leaf-soil is a good compost into which the corms may be planted, 6 to 9 inches deep, about September. In winter it may be necessary to give protection with litter, bracken, &c., in the event of severe frosts or continuous cold rains. The plants are most readily increased by offsets. =TIGRIDIA Pavonia= (_Peacock Tiger Flower_).--There are several species of Tiger Flowers, but the one here mentioned, and its several varieties, are the most useful for the out-door garden. They have bulbs 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, and plaited Gladiolus-like leaves. The blossoms, however, one of which is shown on Plate 30, fig. 110, are of exceptional beauty and brilliance amongst bulbous plants, and although they do not last a long time individually, they nevertheless follow each other so rapidly that the plants are scarcely ever without flowers during the summer months. The coloured picture will convey a far better idea as to the colouring and blotching of the flowers than any printed description. There are other varieties of _T. Pavonia_ besides the one shown on the Plate. Perhaps the best are _grandiflora_, very large and brilliant; _conchiflora_, yellow blotched with purple; _Wheeleri_, deep red; and _alba_, pure white spotted with purple. The Tiger Flowers are natives of Mexico, and therefore cannot be grown successfully in the open air in all parts of the kingdom. In the mildest parts, however, the bulbs may be left in the ground during the winter months, care being taken to protect them with leaves, litter, &c., during severe weather, or from heavy cold rains. In less favoured spots, where they nevertheless blossom out of doors in summer, the bulbs may be taken up about the end of October when the foliage has withered, and they may then be stored in frost-proof places in sand until the following April or May. Whenever the bulbs are lifted the offsets should be detached to increase the stock. The warmest, most sheltered, and sunniest spot in the garden is obviously the best place for Tigridias. In addition to this the soil should be a well-drained sandy loam enriched with old cow-manure and leaf-soil. During active growth, and especially in the hot dry seasons, it is necessary to keep the plants well-supplied with water, otherwise the results are likely to be the reverse of satisfactory. =TRITONIA.=--This genus contains a handsome group of plants with fibrous-coated corms, like those of a Gladiolus, but much smaller. The plants formerly known as Montbretia are now also included in this genus, but the corms in some cases (e.g., _M. crocosmiæflora_) have slender creeping rhizomes, from which new corms are developed by the end of the season. The leaves are more or less like those of a Gladiolus, but somewhat narrower, and often curved, while the showy blossoms are borne in slender graceful spikes, that are very useful for cutting. Only a few species and their numerous varieties are cultivated in the open air, being either massed in bold clumps in the ordinary flower border or rockery, or as beds by themselves in the grass. Being natives of South Africa, warm, sheltered, and sunny situations, and a light loamy soil, enriched with leaf-soil or well-decayed manure, naturally suit them best. Although perfectly hardy in all except the bleakest parts of the kingdom, the kinds mentioned below are best taken up and replanted each year or two in the spring time. It is not, however, essential to lift the corms in the autumn and store them in sand except in very cold parts where protection would be troublesome perhaps. A glance at the drawings on p. 26 will show the reader that offsets are freely produced, and in this way the kinds are most easily propagated. The kinds most suitable for open air culture are: _T. crocata_ (formerly known under the names of _Ixia_ and _Gladiolus_) grows about 2 feet or more high, having broadly sword-shaped and curved leaves, and spikes of yellow or orange-coloured blossoms in June and July. There is a good deal of variation in the colour, some varieties being much paler or darker than others, and spotted with red, yellow, or brown. _T. crocosmiæflora_, better known as _Montbretia_, is a graceful and popular garden plant, really a hybrid between _Crocosma aurea_ (see p. 67) and _T. Pottsi_. It grows 2 to 2-1/2 feet high, and resembles a small Gladiolus in foliage. The brilliant orange-red blossoms appear in great profusion from July onwards to October or November, and are always attractive when grown in bold masses. There are numerous varieties of it--one, _Etoile de Feu_--being shown on Plate 27, fig. 102; others being _Germania_, _Globe d'or_, &c. _T. Pottsi_, also better known perhaps as a Montbretia, grows 3 to 4 feet high, having narrow tapering sword-like leaves, and bright yellow funnel-shaped flowers suffused with red. They are borne in gracefully nodding spikes from August onwards, and exhibit great variation in colour and markings according to the many varieties that are now in commerce. The plant known as _Tritonia aurea_ is described in this work as _Crocosma_ (see p. 67). PLATE 30. CRINUM MOOREI (109) TIGRIDIA LILACEA (110) =TULBAGHIA violacea.=--A pretty little South African plant with narrow leaves and slender spikes of violet-purple flowers, as shown in Plate 32, fig. 113. This species seems to be hardy in the Thames Valley and milder parts, but must be grown in large quantities to produce anything like an effect. It grows well in ordinary well-drained garden soil. =TULIPA= (_Tulip_).--Although the days of the ridiculous Tulip craze of the seventeenth century have happily passed away, the love of Tulips has increased by leaps and bounds, and thousands are now cultivated where formerly dozens or hundreds were tolerated. Whether grown in lines or circles in formal beds, in irregular clumps in the flower border or rock-garden, or naturalised on grassy banks, Tulips constitute one of the most pleasing and brilliant features in the garden during the spring and early summer months. Indeed, one can hardly imagine what the garden would be like at this period of the year without the beauteous forms and glorious tints of the Tulip. The well-known brown-coated bulbs, 1 to 2 inches in diameter, are now so cheap that they come within the reach of the most modest purse, and there is no reason why Tulips should not be found in every cottage garden in the kingdom. The culture of the Tulip is quite as easy as that of the common Daffodil. There is one important difference, however, between the Tulip and the Daffodil. While the latter likes partial shade, the Tulip enjoys plenty of sunshine, and shelter from bleak winds. Any good garden soil that has been deeply dug, and enriched with well-decayed manure some time previous to planting will produce fine blossoms. In the open air the bulbs should be planted about 4 inches deep, and not more than 6, even in bleak localities, as a safeguard against frost. The best time for planting is from the beginning of September to the end of October, and care should be taken when planting formal beds to see that the lines are perfectly straight, and the bulbs buried at a similar depth throughout. To secure the latter result a blunt dibber may be used, marked at the required depth with a cross-piece nailed on, or a piece of hoop iron that can be slid up or down to any particular depth. In this way, and by planting each bed with the same variety, uniformity in height, colour, and period of flowering will be secured. In vacant spaces in the flower border and rock-garden, such formality would be out of place, and in such positions mixed Tulips produce a more natural effect. Although effective in themselves, the beauty of Tulips is greatly enhanced by planting them in beds that are already carefully arranged with such plants as Wallflowers, Polyanthuses, Primroses, Pansies, or Violas, Dwarf Saxifrages, Double White Arabis, (_A. albida flore pleno_), Yellow Alyssum (_A. saxatile_), Forget-me-Nots, Aubrietias, and such like plants that blossom about the same period and make an effective screen to hide the ground between the blue-green leaves of the Tulips. In arranging combinations, it is as well to have the Tulips and carpet plants arranged so that the colour of the one shall be quite distinct and in lively contrast with that of the others. Thus White Tulips may have Yellow Arabis, Primroses, Polyanthuses, &c., beneath them. On the other hand, red Tulips should not be mixed with red Wallflowers, although they look remarkably effective with yellow ones. And so on, more or less in accordance with the principles laid down at p. 38. For the benefit of those who take up their Tulip bulbs each year (when the flowers have withered being usually the earliest period for this operation) it may be as well to mention, that the bulb that is lifted about midsummer, is not the same as that planted in autumn. Indeed it is quite a new bulb altogether, and, as a rule, contains all the elements necessary for the production of leaves and blossoms the following season. The Tulip bulb planted in autumn is used up in the formation of leaves and flowers, that are produced in early summer. Whence then comes the bulb that is taken out of the soil when the flowering period is over? It has been made out of the raw material that has been assimilated by the leaves under the influence of sunlight. Very often there is more than sufficient food for the formation of a large flowering bulb, in which case the surplus food is converted into offsets at the base of the large bulb. These offsets, if planted and grown on for two or three seasons in specially prepared beds of light soil, will develop into flowering bulbs. They should, therefore, never be thrown away as useless. =Seedling Tulips.=--Besides offsets (some of which drop several inches below the parent bulb, and are called "droppers.") Tulips may also be raised from seeds if one has the requisite patience and convenience. When seeds are required, the old plants must of course be left in the soil until the seed capsules have thoroughly ripened. The seeds should be sown very sparsely in drills, in carefully-prepared beds of light soil, and may be left undisturbed for about five or seven years, until the first flowers appear. Of course weeds must be kept down regularly, and to facilitate this operation, the seed beds should not be more than 4 or 5 feet wide, and the drills quite a foot apart. The first flowers of a seedling Tulip are called "Breeders" or "Mother Tulips" and are of one colour throughout, although the seeds may have been saved from beautifully pencilled or flaked blossoms. When a "breeder" Tulip develops markings of a different colour, it is said to "break" or "rectify." Such rectified flowers are then divided into two groups, (_a_) those with a pure white centre, base, or ground, and (_b_) those with a pure yellow centre. The white centred flowers (_a_) are again divided into (i) _Roses_, the flowers of which are various shades of pink, rose, scarlet, crimson, cerise, &c., and (ii) _Bybloemens_, the flowers of which display various shades of lilac, lavender, violet, purple, brown, purple-black, &c. The yellow-centred flowers (_b_) are called _Bizarres_, with various shades of orange, scarlet, crimson, purple-black, brown, &c. These various classes of "rectified" Tulips have the petals either "feathered" or "flamed." A "feathered" Tulip has the petals beautifully pencilled and feathered round the edges only; while a "flamed" Tulip differs in having bright streaks, bands, or flames of a distinct colour shooting up the centre of each petal from the base, and forking out towards the pencilled and feathered margins. Only specialists in what are called the "florist's Tulip," however, take a keen delight in drawing these distinctions. There are some hundreds of varieties of Tulips enumerated in nurserymen's catalogues, but it is unnecessary to grow many of them to make an effective display. The following--arranged according to the predominating colour--may be regarded as a good selection for planting in the open ground in autumn:-- =Single Varieties for Planting Out.=--_Red, Scarlet, Crimson, and Pink._--Artus, Bacchus, Belle Alliance, Couleur de Cardinal, Crimson King, Duc Van Thol, Pottebakker, Proserpine, Rose Luisante, Rose Gris de Lin. _Orange, Brownish, and Terra Cotta._--Cardinal's Hat, Duc Van Thol, Leonardo da Vinci, Prince of Austria, and Thomas Moore. _Yellow._--Bouton d'Or (Plate 9, fig. 37), Canary Bird, Chrysolora, Gold Finch, Golden Crown, Mon Trésor, Pottebakker, and Yellow Prince. _White or Blush._--Albion (or White Hawk), Jacht van Delft, White Swan, Grand Duchess, Joost von Vondel, La Reine, Immaculée, and Pottebakker. _Purple and Violet._--Molière, Purple Crown, President Lincoln. _Red, Pink, Rose, or Violet, with White._--Bride of Haarlem, Cottage Maid, Couleur ponceau, Standard Royal, Wapen van Leiden, Picotee (Plate 9, fig. 36). _Red and Yellow combined._--Brutus, Duchesse de Parma, Keizerskroon. =Double flowered Tulips.=--_Scarlet and Crimson combined._--Imperator Rubrorum, Rex Rubrorum, Rubra maxima. _Pink and Rose._--Couronne des Roses, Murillo, Raphael, Rose d'Amour, Salvator Rosa. _White._--Alba maxima, Grand Vainqueur, La Candeur, Rose blanche. _Red and Yellow combined._--Duc Van Thol, Gloria Solis, Tournesol, Princess Alexandra. _Orange or Yellow._--Tournesol, Yellow Rose, Miroir. =Parrot or Dragon Tulips.=--These remarkable looking flowers are supposed to be descended from the curious green and yellow-striped _T. viridiflora_. The petals are cut and jagged into all kinds of peculiar shapes, while the colours are chiefly a mixture of reds, crimsons, greens, and yellows. PLATE 31. BELLADONNA LILY (111) DIERAMA PULCHERRIMA (112) =Darwin Tulips.=--These are a very popular class of self-coloured Tulips derived from _T. Gesneriana_. They are in fact "breeder" Tulips referred to on p. 134. The individual blossoms are large and cup-shaped, and are borne on stalks 1-1/2 to 2 feet high. There are numerous named varieties (for which a catalogue should be consulted), but a mixed collection will give a grand display, the colours being shades of apricot, yellow, carmine, rose, pink, crimson, maroon, and white. With the Darwin Tulips may be associated what are known as the "Cottage" or "May Flowering" Tulips--vigorous kinds with tall stems and fine large flowers, that are admirably adapted for the decoration of the garden. For vases, bowls, &c., they are also excellent. =Natural Species or Wild Tulips.=--Apart from the almost innumerable florists' varieties of Tulips, keen interest has been taken of late years in the cultivation of the natural species of Tulip which are found growing wild in various parts of South Europe, Asia Minor, Turkestan, &c. There are quite a large number of these natural species now to be had, but the cream of them may be said to be _Gesneriana_, _Greigi_, _macropsila_, and _Oculus Solis_, all with scarlet or crimson blossoms and black blotches at the base. Other useful kinds for bedding out or for naturalising with Daffodils, Bluebells, &c., are _Eichleri_, _fulgens_, _Hageri_, _macrostyla_, _maculata_, _Didieri_, _Ostrowskyana_, _planifolia_, _lurida_, _undulatifolia_, _suaveolens_, all with bright red or deep crimson blossoms except _suaveolens_ which is bordered with yellow. Yellow flowered kinds are _australis_ (Plate 10, fig. 40), _Batalini_, _flava_, _Billietiana_, _galatica_, _neglecta_, _retroflexa_, _sylvestris_, _strangulata_ (speckled and streaked with red), _viridiflora_ (with broad green band down the centre), _Sprengeri_ (petals tipped with red), and _Kolpakowskyana_. Apart from their value in the garden, Tulips are also popular as cut flowers. As most of them produce their blossoms on sturdy stems 1-1/2 to 2-1/2 feet high, they are easily picked, and when bunched in vases with foliage, or grasses, or even by themselves, they add a luxurious appearance to any apartment. The great mistake many make in picking Tulip flowers is that they gather them often in the middle of the day when the petals are wide open, especially if there is strong sunshine. In the expanded state the blossoms do not last very long. They should therefore be picked either early in the morning or late in the evening, when the petals are closed in over the stamens and ovary in the centre. There is no need to actually _cut_ the stems. By holding them close to the ground and giving a staccato pull upwards, they come away easily from the bulb, and possess the advantage of being a few inches longer than those cut with a knife or scissors. =WATSONIA.=--Although popularly called "Bugle Lilies" the Watsonias really belong to the Iris family. They have fibrous-coated corms, stiffish, ribbed, sword-like leaves, and more or less funnel-shaped flowers. They are indigenous to South Africa, and may be grown in the open air under much the same conditions as Ixias, viz., warm, sheltered spots, and in light sandy soil. In the mildest parts of the kingdom the corms may be left in the ground during the winter, if necessary, but they should be protected in severe weather with litter, &c. In less favoured spots, it is safer to lift the corms in autumn when the leaves have withered, and store them in dry soil or sand until the spring. The varieties depicted on Plate 27, figs. 99 to 101, show some of the most graceful kinds. _W. Meriana_, fig. 99 (also known as _Antholyza_) has several varieties including a scarlet one (_coccinea_), a white one (fig. 100), and a pink and white one (_rosea-alba_), which bear their blossoms during the summer months on stems 2 to 3 feet high. _W. rosea_ resembles a Gladiolus in appearance, and indeed was once known as _G. pyramidatus_. It has several forms, including _angusta_, shown in the plate (fig. 101). Perhaps the most charming variety of all, however, is the beautiful _Ardernei_, the large pure white blossoms of which always attract attention owing to their purity and delicacy (Plate 26, fig. 96). As a pot plant for conservatory decoration, _W. Ardernei_ is very valuable, owing to its graceful appearance. In the open air it requires warm, sheltered, and sunny positions, and a rich sandy soil. =ZEPHYRANTHES= (_Zephyr Flower_).--Beautiful plants with small brown-coated bulbs about an inch in diameter, from which spring narrow leaves and rather large funnel-shaped flowers, only one, however, on each stem. There are only a few species that may be grown in the open air in the mildest parts of the kingdom. The soil cannot be too well drained, and should consist of a rich sandy loam, while the position should be the warmest and most sheltered in the garden. The kinds most likely to succeed are _Atamasco_, a native of the damp woods and fields of Virginia. The flowers shown on Plate 29, fig. 106, are at first pure white, but become tinted with pink or purple. _Z. candida_, the "Swamp Lily" of La Plata, has pure white blossoms, as shown on Plate 32, fig. 114, as have also _Treatiæ_ and _tubispatha_, while _carinata_ and _rosea_ both have rose-coloured flowers. The average height of these kinds is about a foot, and they may be increased from offsets or from seeds. At one time the Zephyr Flowers were grown in warm greenhouses, but experience has proved that they are much hardier than was at first supposed. PLATE 32. TULBAGHIA VIOLACEA (113) ZEPHYRANTHES CANDIDA (114) CRINUM POWELLI ALBUM (115) LYCORIS SQUAMIGERA (116) ENEMIES OF BULBOUS PLANTS. Bulbous plants are subject to the attacks of various insect and fungoid pests in the same way as other plants are, and steps should be taken to free the plants from them whenever they appear, or to prevent them appearing at all. It is easier to carry out the latter recommendation when insect enemies only are to be dreaded, but it is quite another matter with fungoid diseases, the presence of which is only revealed when they have reached the "fruiting" or spore stage, and have already done a certain amount of mischief. =Wireworms, Grubs, &c.=--When a soil is infested with any of these pests, the gardener may be almost sure to find his choicest roots or bulbs eaten by them. He should, therefore, take the precaution to have the ground turned up, if possible, some time before planting, so that these pests may be brought to the surface and exposed to the keen eyes of the "birds in the air" who are always on the watch for any choice morsels that are likely to improve their voices. It would not be safe, however, to trust altogether to the natural enemies of these pests who are usually endowed with keen powers for evading their attacks. It may be necessary, therefore, to lay traps of pieces of potato, carrot, parsnip, or any fleshy and enticing material in their haunts, and examine them regularly. A piece of stick thrust into these substances will make a convenient handle for lifting them up for examination. The best time of course to catch the enemy is when he is dining off his piece of potato, parsnip, or carrot. He and his friends should then be led forth for execution beneath the weight of the foot, or into a bucket of boiling water, or in any other way that the ingenious reader may devise. The main thing, however, to bear in mind is that the enemy must be _killed_ without mercy or remorse. And no matter how ruthlessly he is persecuted, it will be found each season that there are still some of his family left to carry on a guerilla warfare against the gardener and his plants. So that one must be really always on the watch for attack, and, like a wise general, be ready to meet it, or spoil it altogether. Besides using traps of potatoes, carrots, &c., _nitrate of soda_ and _kainit_ have been found very useful for ridding the soil of these pests. About 2lbs. of nitrate of soda or kainit to a square rod (30-1/4 square yards) has been found an ample dressing. It should be distributed evenly over the surface of the soil, when the latter is in a moist--but not sodden--condition. =Lime and Soot.=--Slugs and snails are great marauders among the young growths of bulbous and other plants, and may be kept in check by the use of nitrate of soda, and kainit, as well as by birds. These remedies may be supplemented, or even supplanted, by the use of lime and soot. These substances are always easy to obtain, and will be found of great use not only in keeping the garden free from insect pests, but also because of their manurial value. When lime is used for checking the attacks of slugs or snails it should be freshly slaked, that is, a little caustic or quick-lime should be broken down into a fine white powdery mass by having a little water poured over it. When the heat has subsided the powdered lime may be sprinkled around and between the crowns of the plants that are being attacked by slugs. Should it come in contact with the slimy bodies of these it will soon kill them. Soot that has been exposed to the air for several weeks will be found a good preventive also against these pests, and it has the advantage of not being so conspicuous amongst the plants as lime. Fresh soot from the chimney should on no account be strewn amongst the young crowns or growths of plants, as the poisonous matters in it may kill them as well as the slugs. Slaked lime and seasoned soot may be mixed together, and then strewn over the surface of the soil. Even common salt is a good slug destroyer, and may be applied in either a liquid or solid form. Lime-water is also an excellent cleanser, and may be given to the soil freely without injury to the plants. Where large numbers of Daffodils are grown one must keep a watch for the grub of the Narcissus fly (_Merodon equestris_ or _Narcissi_), an insect resembling a small and slender bumble-bee in appearance. It lays its eggs in the early summer months in the Narcissi, and the grubs from these bore their way into the fleshy part of the bulb, damaging the growths and flower stems for next season. When the bulbs are being lifted or planted, any that are soft to the touch are very likely affected, and should be examined for the pest. Any badly affected should be burned. Those not so badly injured may be steeped in water in July or August, for about a week, to drown the maggots which at this period have caused but little mischief. When the perfect Merodon insects are on the wing from about the middle of May to the middle of July they may be enticed to drown themselves in saucers containing strong solutions of sugar or treacle, placed amongst the plants. Although most birds in the garden may be looked on with a friendly eye, one must make an exception in the case of _Passer domesticus_,--otherwise known as the common sparrow. He will tear your Crocuses--especially the yellow ones--to tatters out of sheer mischief. If he would only eat the petals or make a nest of them there would be some excuse; but no, he simply tears them to pieces and flings them, so to speak, in your face. Mrs. Sparrow is no doubt just as bad, and therefore should have her nest and the eggs therein confiscated and destroyed on every possible occasion. A few strands of _black_ cotton thread stretched over the Crocuses will be found to yield a certain amount of protection against attack. =Fungoid Diseases.=--Of the fungoid diseases affecting bulbous plants happily there are few; and even these are not troublesome to any alarming extent in the open air. Snowdrops are sometimes attacked with a kind of mildew known scientifically as _Botrytis galanthina_. The fungus attacks bulbs, leaves, and flower-stems one after the other, and effectually stops the plants from flowering. As soon as this disease is seen on the plants, the affected portions should be carefully picked off and burned. Once the disease reaches the black spot-like stage, there is little hope for the plants so that they had better be burned straight away. Colchicums, Crocuses, Tulips, Hyacinths, Daffodils, Gladioli, and others are affected from time to time with one fungoid disease or another, probably because the soil in which they grow has not been particularly well-prepared, and is full of some organic matter that can only be disposed of by the addition of freshly-slaked lime, and deep digging at the earliest opportunity. When any of the plants referred to are badly attacked with any fungoid disease, the simplest and best remedy is to burn them--and thus kill the spores and prevent them spreading. It will be cheaper to buy new bulbs the following season, and to grow them in _another_ portion of the garden, rather than try to reclaim the old ones whose doom in any case is only a matter of time. Perhaps one of the worst diseases affecting bulbous plants is that which for some years past has ravaged plants of the Madonna Lily (_Lilium candidum_). The bulbs seem to be fairly free from the disease, but the leaves and stems become so badly affected in some parts of the country that they cannot perform their functions, with the result that no blossoms are borne, or only misshapen ones. There is at present, I believe, no effectual remedy against the Lily disease, and once it appears in a garden, the culture of the Madonna Lily is doomed from that moment. As a preventive, the plants might be sprayed several times during the season, from January onwards, with a solution made by dissolving one ounce of liver of sulphur in a gallon of hot water, and adding 2-1/2 gallons more of water. This should be applied with a fine-sprayed syringe, and is a good preventive against many kinds of fungoid attacks. If used near white woodwork and comes in contact with it, the paint will be discoloured. Of late years, the bulbs that are imported in such large numbers from Japan have been more or less afflicted with a fungoid disease that appears to be very difficult to check. This disease may be the result of over cultivation, or too intense cultivation to secure large quantities of plants in a comparatively short time. The Bermuda Lily disease is probably the result of similar efforts to get rich too quickly. So that one natural remedy against the disease would be to grow the bulbs more naturally and allow them to ripen fully before disturbing them. However, as people in Europe must have Lilies, they take the best that can be provided. On arrival of the bulbs they should be carefully examined, and any diseased or decayed portions taken off and burned. As a preventive against any spores germinating, the bulbs may be well rolled in freshly slaked lime, and allowed to dry in a cool airy place for a day or two before planting or potting. Mr. Massee, in his book on "Plant Diseases," recommends submerging the bulbs in a 1 per cent. solution of salicylic acid for 20 minutes, and after thoroughly drying them, to kill the spores of the fungus. PLATE 33. CROCUS MEDIUS (117) COLCHICUM SPECIOSUM (118) STERNBERGIA LUTEA (119) STERNBERGIA MACRANTHA (120) CROCUS OCHROLEUCUS (121) CROCUS SPECIOSUS (122) A peculiar fungoid disease, known as "basal rot," attacks Daffodils and Narcissi in soil that is cold and heavy or badly drained. It causes the leaves to become brown at the tips, and the bulbs to become rootless and swollen, while the tunics are soft and rotten at the base. The best way to check this disease is to have the bulbs lifted, and if they can only be grown in the same soil again, this should be deeply dug to let the water pass away from it, and some road grit and leaf-soil should be incorporated with it before re-planting. Some freshly slaked quicklime may be afterwards pricked into the top with the fork. MANURING BULBOUS PLANTS. When bulbous plants, like Tulips, Hyacinths, Daffodils, &c., are planted and lifted annually, they can hardly be said to require any special manuring during the period of their growth, as the soil in which they are planted is, or ought to be, usually well prepared and manured in advance in the way recommended at p. 16. But even when such bulbs are planted and lifted every year, they might be considerably improved by the application of a little artificial manure at the right time. For instance, in December or January a little _basic slag_ (10 to 20 pounds to about 30 square yards) would supply phosphatic food to roots later on in the season when it would be useful for the development of the blossoms. A little _superphosphate of lime_ at the rate of four to eight pounds to 30 square yards, would also be useful, applied about March or April. _Kainit_ is a cheap potash manure, and may be applied at the same time as the basic slag at the rate of one or two pounds to the same area--either by itself or mixed with the slag. It contains a good deal of common salt, and should therefore be applied _before_ root-action commences, otherwise it may prove injurious to the new roots. The necessity for manuring becomes more important in the case of bulbous plants that are to be left in the same soil for several years. Like other plants, of course, they rob the soil of a certain amount of food, and unless this is returned in some way the soil gradually becomes poorer and the plants less vigorous. One of the best ways, perhaps, to supply fresh food for the roots of the bulbous plants is to give the soil a good top-dressing or mulching of well-decayed manure in the early autumn months. This will gradually decay during the ensuing winter and spring months and yield up its food. During this period it will also prevent the heat, that was taken into the soil in the summer, from escaping too rapidly by radiation. It would be more harmful than useful to apply a mulching of manure in the depth of winter or early spring, as it would prevent the sun's rays from warming the roots. Where Lilies, Tulips, Daffodils, Crocuses, Snowdrops, and many other kinds of bulbous plants are naturalised in the grass, in flower borders, or amongst trees and shrubs, a good dressing of well-decomposed manure in the early autumn will prove highly beneficial each year. The basic slag, kainit, and superphosphate may be also applied at the seasons mentioned, if considered desirable. Transcribers Note 1. Preface Hynenoclis changed to Hymenocalis 2. Page 50 End of first paragraph word added "umbels form on the top of the that spring out of the bulb" changed to "umbels form on the top of the _shoot_ that spring out of the bulb" 3. Page 56 "three or fours seasons" changed to "three or four seasons" 4. Page 57 "(also known a _Calliprora lutea_)" changed to "(also known as _Calliprora lutea_)" 5. Page 57 "rose-red to to pinkish-purple;" changed to "rose-red to pinkish-purple;" 6. Page 110 "when the leaves have begun to turn yellow, Seeds may" changed to "when the leaves have begun to turn yellow. Seeds may" 7. Page 134 "a large flowering bulbs," change to "a large flowering bulb," 8. Page 75 Closing bracket added "(finely figured in "FLORA AND SYLVA")" 9. Throughout ligature [oe] changed to oe 10. Page 175 Madame de Graaf changed to Madame de Graaff 11. PLATE 25 TERMIFOLIUM changed to TENUIFOLIUM to match list of plates and text. 
37388	----	generously made available by The Internet Archive.) TOBACCO LEAVES [Illustration: PLANT OF KENTUCKY TOBACCO _From a Sketch by W. A. Brennan_] TOBACCO LEAVES BEING A BOOK OF FACTS FOR SMOKERS BY W. A. BRENNAN Department of Medical Sciences The John Crerar Library PUBLISHED FOR Index Office, Inc. BY The Collegiate Press GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY MENASHA, WISCONSIN 1915 _First issue December, 1915_ _Copyright 1915 by W. A. BRENNAN_ CONTENTS PAGE INTRODUCTION 7 CHAPTER I 11 _Historical, Botanical._ CHAPTER II 19 _The Cultivation of the Tobacco Plant._ Climatic and soil conditions--Treatment of the growing plant--Shade grown tobacco--Harvesting. CHAPTER III 29 _Production of Tobacco._ Countries which produce tobacco and amount--Production in the New World other than in the United States--Varieties. CHAPTER IV 39 _Production of Tobacco in the United States._ Total production--Amount produced by the different States-- Varieties raised--Description of the different varieties. CHAPTER V 53 _The Chemical Composition of the Tobacco Plant._ Organic and inorganic matters contained in tobacco and the part they play--Analysis of various tobaccos--Nicotine. CHAPTER VI 61 _The Curing of Tobacco Leaf._ Objects of curing--Methods. CHAPTER VII 67 _The Marketing and Sale of Tobacco Leaf._ Methods of disposal by the grower--The warehouse system-- Direct purchase--Principal markets in the United States-- Prices. CHAPTER VIII 75 _Rehandling and Fermentation of Tobacco Leaf Prior to Manufacture._ Selection of leaf--Treatment and blending--Objects and methods of manufacturers fermentation--Action of microbes. CHAPTER IX 88 _Manufactured Products of Tobacco in the United States._ Statistics of production and consumption--Amount of capital invested--Number of plants, etc. CHAPTER X 93 _Cigars: Historical and General Facts._ History--Statistical information regarding the cigar business in the United States. CHAPTER XI 99 _Cigars and Their Qualities._ Qualities of cigars and cigar leaf--Imported cigars--Havanas-- Domestic cigars. CHAPTER XII 111 _Cigar Making._ Hand-made cigars--Machine-made cigars--Classification of cigars--Terms used in the cigar trade. CHAPTER XIII 121 _Pipe Smoking and Chewing Tobacco._ Qualities required--Description of kinds--Perique tobacco-- Statistics. CHAPTER XIV 131 _Cigarettes._ Statistics--Kinds and where made--Imported cigarettes-- Domestic cigarettes--Cigarette papers. CHAPTER XV 143 _Snuff._ How made--Qualities--Description of kinds. CHAPTER XVI 149 _Tobacco Smoking Pipes._ History--How made and materials used in making--Meerschaum-- Briar root--Amber--Special kinds of pipes--Care of pipes. CHAPTER XVII 171 _Effects of Tobacco Smoking on the Human System._ Physical and other effects--Opinions of medical men quoted and discussed. CHAPTER XVIII 195 _The Beneficial Effects of Tobacco._ Its disinfecting action--A protection against infectious disease--Psychological effects of smoking. CHAPTER XIX 207 _Miscellaneous._ Revenue, taxation, etc., in connection with tobacco--Free imports--The insect pests which attack tobacco--Tobacco flavoring fluids, etc.--Formulae. INTRODUCTION This little book is intended for the man who uses tobacco. While there is a very extensive literature concerning tobacco, yet it is surprising how few books there are written expressly for the smoker. Much has been written concerning culture, production and manufacture; the historical and anecdotal aspects have been catered for; pamphlets and books abusing and denouncing the use of tobacco are plentiful; but the smoker will find it difficult to get a book just giving him the facts concerning tobacco and smoking, which he ought to know, and omitting matters, which, although interesting, are not necessary. This little book is an attempt to fulfil that purpose; and it is felt that no apology is needed for its appearance. If the average user of tobacco is questioned concerning the matters treated in the following pages, he will be found ignorant of them. This ought not be so. The custom of tobacco smoking is so general and so intimate a part of the daily life of the great majority of men, that a better acquaintance with the plant, its qualities, uses and effects, should be cultivated and welcomed. No claim is made for originality. The facts here stated have been gathered from various sources and the only credit claimed is for putting them together in a concise and consecutive form. The object aimed at is to give information. Whether the custom of tobacco smoking is desirable, whether in any individual case it would be beneficial or otherwise to smoke--these and similar questions are left to the reader's own judgment from the facts and opinions presented, as well as from his own observations. The man who uses tobacco daily should know what he is doing. If statements are made either verbally or in print concerning the custom he should be able to verify them or show that they are incorrect. It is trusted that the information given in these pages will enable him to form a clear judgment whatever the judgment may be. It may be felt that many aspects of the use of tobacco and matters connected with it have either not been touched on, or only referred to very briefly. The reader who may desire further information will find it in the bibliographical references given throughout the book. These references have generally been consulted by the author and his indebtedness is acknowledged here. TO MY WIFE CHAPTER I HISTORICAL--BOTANICAL HISTORICAL The history of tobacco commences with the discovery of the New World by Columbus. The Chinese claim that it was known and used by them much earlier, but there appears to be no evidence to support this claim. Columbus found the natives of Cuba smoking the dried leaves, and his followers are said to have brought the plant to Spain about 1512. Oviedo published a book entitled _La Historia general de las Indias_ in Seville in 1526, in which he mentions pipe smoking. It may be inferred that this custom was well established in Spain then. Sir Walter Raleigh is usually credited with having brought tobacco to England for the first time from Virginia in 1586; and the Virginian Colonists are known to have cultivated the plant at that time; but there is evidence enough to show that Sir Francis Drake was the first to introduce the plant into England. Drake's voyages were made between 1570 and 1580 and he brought the plant with him in one of these. Some give the date of introduction by Drake as 1560. Raleigh was, however, probably the first English distinguished smoker, and he cultivated the plant on his estate at Youghal, Ireland. There is no doubt about the culture of tobacco by the early English Colonists in the U. S., but it is doubtful whether the plant was introduced by them from England or whether they continued a culture learned from the Natives. From Virginia it spread to the other colonies. In Peru and other parts of South America the growing of tobacco was well established at the time of the Spanish Conquest. In 1560 Jean Nicot, the French Ambassador at Lisbon, sent some tobacco to Catherine de Medici as a cure for headache. Catherine was pleased with it and is said to have become quite addicted to its use. Tobacco was designated the "Queen's herb" and the "Sovereign herb" from this circumstance and Nicot himself is perpetuated in the word "Nicotine" and its derivatives. Many persons erroneously give credit to Nicot for the introduction of tobacco into Europe. It is quite clear, however, from Oviedo's book, quoted above, that the plant was known in Spain very much earlier; and it is most probable that the immediate followers of Columbus brought samples of the leaves and pipes back to Spain with them. Moreover, in 1558, Phillip II of Spain sent Francisco Hernandez, a physician, to investigate the resources, etc., of Mexico, and on his return he brought back tobacco as one of the products, and grew it as a drug. From Spain and England, the use of tobacco spread by degrees all over the known world. REFERENCES PENN, W. A. _The Soverane Herbe; a history of Tobacco._ Chapters I, II. London and New York, 1901. BOUANT, E. _Le Tabac; culture et industrie._ Paris, 1901. SHEW, JOEL. _Tobacco; its history, nature and effects on the body and mind._ Wortley, 1876. BILLINGS, E. R. _Tobacco; its history, varieties, culture, etc._ Chapters II, IV. Hartford, Conn., 1895. COMES, O. _Histoire, geographie, statistique du Tabac. Son introduction et son expansion dans tous les pays depuis son origine jusqu' à la fin du XIX siècle._ Naples, 1900. FAIRHOLT, F. W. _Tobacco; its history and associations._ London, 1876. WOLF, JAKOB. _Der Tabak und die Tabakfabrikate._ Chapter I. Leipzig, 1912. BOTANICAL Tobacco belongs to the family of plants known in botany under the name of _Solanaceæ_. Other well-known members of this family are the Irish potato, the red pepper, the tomato, the egg-plant, etc. American tobacco belongs almost exclusively to that group of this family which comprise the genus _Nicotiana_. Of this genus there are about 50 separate species, one of which, _Nicotiana Tabacum_, supplies almost all the tobacco of commerce. Plants of this species grow from 2 feet to 9 feet in height; they have numerous wide-spreading leaves sometimes as much as 3 feet in length; these leaves may be oval, oblong, pointed, or lanceolate in shape, and are generally of a pale green color when young; they are arranged alternately in a spiral on the stem; the root is large and fibrous; the stem is erect, round and viscid, branching near the top. The alternate arrangement of the leaves on the stalk, succeeding each other spirally, so that the 9th overhangs the 1st, the 10th the 2nd, and so on, is very characteristic. The distance on the stalk between the leaves is about 2 inches. Flowers are in large clusters, with corollas of rose color, or white tinged with pink. The leaves and stalks are covered with soft downy hair. The plant is perennial but crops are usually raised from seed. Of this species (N. Tabacum) there are probably more than 100 varieties grown in the U. S. alone. Some of the best known will be described later. To this same species (N. Tabacum) Havana, East Indian and European tobaccos principally belong. The other important species are: _Nicotiana Persica._ Grown in Persia. This has a white flower and the leaves almost enwrap the stem. It is used almost exclusively as a pipe-smoking tobacco. Some claim that this is only a variant of N. Tabacum. _Nicotiana Repanda._ This is a species of Cuban tobacco entirely different from that grown in the Havana district. It is also called Yara. _Nicotiana Rustica._ A kind of wild growing tobacco principally cultivated in Mexico, and which is claimed as the parent of some of the Turkish, Syrian and Latakia tobaccos although many authorities claim that these tobaccos belong to the species _N. Tabacum_. The European tobacco is hardier than the American parent plant. The leaves are smaller. _N. Rustica._ Also includes common Hungarian and Turkish tobaccos. There are large and small leaved varieties. _N. Crispa._ Grown in Syria and largely in Central Asia. Used as a cigarette tobacco in the Orient. It has been stated above that there are many varieties of _N. Tabacum_ in the U. S. Of these the most important are known to botanists by the names, _Nicotiana Tabacum Macrophylla_ and _Nicotiana Tabacum Angustifolia_. Maryland tobacco belongs to the _Macrophylla_ variety and there are many other types differing from each other according to shape of the leaf, size of the stalk, etc. Virginian tobacco is of the _Angustifolia_ variety, and of this also there are many different types. Most European and other grown tobaccos have been raised from original plants of the Maryland and Virginian varieties. It should be remembered that there is no essential difference in cigar, pipe smoking or cigarette tobaccos. The differences are physical only. All kinds may be obtained from the same species or even the same variety of the species by suitable culture and crossing. REFERENCES ANASTASIA, G. E. _Le varietá della Nicotiana Tabacum._ Scafati, 1906. COMES, O. _Delle razze dei tabacchi._ Naples, 1905. KILLEBREW, J. B. and MYRICK H. _Tobacco leaf; its culture and cure, marketing and manufacture._ Part I. New York, 1897. LOCK, C. G. W. _Tobacco growing, curing, and manufacturing._ Chapter I. London and New York, 1886. WOLF, J. _Der Tabac._ Chapter II. Leipzig, 1912. BILLINGS, E. R. _Tobacco; its history, varieties, etc._ Chapter I. Hartford, Conn., 1875. CHAPTER II THE CULTIVATION OF THE TOBACCO PLANT CLIMATIC AND SOIL CONDITIONS. TREATMENT OF THE GROWING PLANT. SHADE GROWN TOBACCO. HARVESTING. THE CULTIVATION OF THE TOBACCO PLANT A few general facts concerning the culture of the tobacco plant and its treatment until it reaches the hands of the manufacturers will be of interest for the smoker. The general principles underlying the culture of tobacco are the same whether it is intended for the cigar, pipe smoking or cigarette trade; but the treatment of the leaf after it is harvested differs considerably. Tobacco is a perennial plant. It is, however, usually raised each year from seed. The seedlings are usually ready for planting towards the end of May and are generally planted between the last week in May and the middle of June. The successful raising of tobacco depends on four principal factors: (1) the climate, (2) the nature of the soil, (3) the seed, and (4) on the method of culture. The _climate_ must be such as to favor rapid growth and therefore must furnish sufficient heat and moisture during the time the plant is growing. The fineness of the texture and the elasticity of the leaf depend on the climate. On the _soil_ the plant depends for its food, and for the absorption of those chemical constituents on which depend the burning qualities, the strength and the color. The physical qualities of the plant, structure and form, thickness of veins, size, shape and distribution of leaves, are derived from the _seed_. Finally, on the _method of cultivation_ (including the curing process) depends in part the final color, flavor and aroma; the type and trade value; that is to say, on successful culture and harvesting and treatment at the right time and in the best way, must depend the grower's hopes of the final value of his crop. The quantity of nicotine, essential oils, etc., on which flavor and strength depend, is regulated to the greatest extent by the time of cutting. The nature of the soil is a very important matter in the culture of tobacco, for the color of the cured tobacco leaf depends almost entirely on the soil. The light colored leaf is grown on light colored soil and the darker leaf is grown on heavy, dark soil. The best type of soil for the raising of tobacco intended for the cigar trade is a warm, deep, sandy loam which rests on permeable well-drained subsoil. The very light colored yellow tobacco cannot be raised except on light colored, porous soils; and so susceptible is this matter of the coloring of the leaf that it has been noted that the darkening of the soil by a liberal allowance of stable manure will, on a very light colored soil, change the color of the tobacco leaf from a bright yellow to a mahogany shade. Very light sandy soils or very light loams with clayey subsoils are usually chosen for these light yellow tobaccos. Although by processes subsequent to growth it is possible to darken the color of tobacco leaf, there is no known process that will make a dark leaf light in color. Moreover, the soil must be very fertile and rich in the special substances needed by the growing plant. This is all the more necessary because tobacco is a rapidly growing plant, and reaches its maturity within a few months after its planting. The rapidity of growth therefore demands a rich fertile soil well stored with plant food. Good manuring, or liberal treatment with fertilizers, is essential for keeping such soils in prime condition, because the period of growing must not be extended. Tobacco is usually planted in rows, the rows being from three to four feet apart, the usual arrangement being that the plants are generally about 12 or 18 inches apart in the row. Some planters, however, give the plants more room for many reasons, varying the distance between the plants even as much as 30 inches. Cigar leaf tobacco plants are usually placed about 14 inches apart. There are various operations necessary during the growth of the plant. The most important of these for our purpose are those known as "priming" or "thinning out" and "cutting." Priming is usually done when the plant is well advanced in growth, but the time varies with different growers and according to the species. It consists in removing the lower or imperfect leaves from the plant, or these which have in any way become injured from insect or other harmful agencies. As a general rule the larger the number of leaves there is on a plant the lower is the quality of the subsequently cured leaf. An average of about 10 leaves to each plant is what is favored by most growers, and the plants are usually thinned to this extent. Seed buds are removed also at the same time and for the same reason. If the plants are "thinned" late and when they are approaching full growth the leaves removed are not destroyed, but are cured separately and sold as inferior quality and are usually called "primings" or "planters lugs." In the Southern American States the time allowed for the growth and maturing of the plant is somewhat longer than in the eastern and more northerly states where the soil, owing to richer fertilization, favors the rapid growth. Moreover, a stronger quality of tobacco is wanted and the extra time allows the plant to effect a greater elaboration in its cells of the oils and gums, etc., which contribute particularly to strength and flavor. SHADE GROWN TOBACCO The matter of rapid growth has, however, its limitations. Too much sunlight is considered a disadvantage. Under such powerful action, nutrition is drawn quickly from the soil and the plants ripen too quickly. Under such circumstances the leaves tend to become heavy bodied and not very large in size. To defeat this tendency and produce large, thin silky leaves for the cigar trade, the grower sometimes covers his field with a tent of cheese-cloth or similar protection from the glare of the sun. The ripening process is thereby slowed and the leaves are thinner, larger and lighter in shade. This method is employed principally in Cuba, Florida and Connecticut where cigar wrapper leaves are produced, and such tobacco is known as shade-grown. Tobacco which has been planted out at the end of May or early in June is usually ready for harvesting at the end of August or beginning to middle of September. The actual time of harvesting varies a good deal according to the variety grown and the physical condition concerned in the growing of the plant. The heavier tobaccos which are intended for the export trade are usually harvested late. The most important operations connected with the culture of the tobacco leaf are the "yellowing" and "curing" processes, and, as these commence with the cutting of the plant, this latter must be done under strictly favorable conditions in order to insure proper results. The cutting must not be done while the sun is very hot, or while there is rain, or before the plant is fully matured. On the other hand, after the plant has reached its maturity, it must not be allowed to continue its growth, which along with other things would be likely to increase its nicotine content which is not desirable. The experienced tobacco grower knows well from the appearance of the plant when it is best fitted for cutting. The leaves become thick and heavy and assume a drooping appearance. They become crisp with a tendency to break easily, and a mottled, spotty look is noticeable on them. The surface becomes gummy and oily; the oily substances increases and exudates as the days pass. When these signs appear the tobacco is cut on the first day when the weather favors. It is usual in most cases to split the stalks down the middle and allow the leaves to wilt, before the stalk is entirely cut through. After sufficient wilting the leaves are gathered in piles and exposed to the action of the sunlight; or they are stuck by the stalks on poles or framework and so exposed that the sun and air have free access to all parts. This is the best and most approved practice. "Yellowing" of the leaf is very rapid after the plant is cut; it is the natural effect due to cutting off the food supply of the leaf and the consequent slow death of the vitality of the cells. It must be remembered that the leaves are large, varying in size (according to species) from 12 inches to over 2 feet in length. Such a leaf needs a large quantity of food and the sudden cutting off of the supply effects a rapid change in appearance. The leaves are allowed to hang on the scaffolds 3 to 5 days until they are fully yellowed. They are then ready for the process of "curing," which is the most important operation connected with cultivation. The "curing" and "fermentation" which the leaf undergoes are chemical actions and their success depends on the proper method of "yellowing." The leaves must not be exposed to the sun too long, because the cells would lose their vitality too rapidly and be unfitted for the new part they have to play in the curing process. The chemical changes will be explained in subsequent chapters. It is desired that the reader should understand that to ensure a successful final issue the planter has need to watch continuously and to know all the conditions. If the leaf does not "yellow" properly no amount of after care in curing will make up for this deficiency. In tobacco growing as in everything else, to ensure final high quality each step in the process must be executed with skill, care, and judgment. The yield of tobacco per acre varies from about 300 lbs. of leaf in the southern states to 1,000 lbs. or more in the eastern. 700 to 800 lbs. per acre is considered a good average crop. REFERENCES KILLEBREW AND MYRICK. _Tobacco leaf; its culture and cure, marketing and manufacturing._ Part I. New York, 1897. BILLINGS, E. R. _Tobacco; its history, varieties, culture, etc._ Chapter XIII. Hartford, Conn., 1875. LAURENT, L. _Le tabac; sa culture et sa préparation production et consummation dans les divers pays._ Paris, 1900. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Farmers' Bulletins Nos. 6 and 60. _Tobacco._ U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Bureau of Plant Industry. Bulletin 96. _Tobacco breeding._ CHAPTER III THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO TOTAL PRODUCTION. COUNTRIES WHICH CULTIVATE TOBACCO. PRODUCTION IN THE NEW WORLD OTHER THAN IN THE UNITED STATES. THE WORLD'S PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO The world's recorded annual crop of tobacco leaf is over one million tons. The latest government figures available are those for 1912 and 1913, and show 2,696,401,379 and 2,722,190,030 lbs. respectively. Of this amount Asia and America produce each about 350,000 tons, Europe about 250,000 tons and the rest of the world the balance. The details of the production in the U. S. will be given in the next chapter. The principal Asiatic countries which produce tobacco are China, Japan, Afghanistan, India, Persia and Asia Minor. China has an immense production and consumption of tobacco, a large portion of which finds its way into western markets for the cigar and cigarette trade and is sold as "Turkish" tobacco. No figures as to production are available. British India and Afghanistan produce good tobacco, a lot of which is used in Hindustan and other Eastern countries. The Persian crop is known to be large, but there are no available records of it. In Persia most of the tobacco raised is of the species known as Nicotiana Persica. This is generally known under its trade name of Tumbach or _Tumbeki_ (or more correctly Teymbeki). This is the common Eastern name for tobacco. It is considerably exported to the countries in the neighborhood of Persia and is smoked in the pipe known as the Narghilli. In this pipe the teymbeki burns in contact with a piece of incandescent charcoal. The smoker draws the vapor through a flexible tube which passes to the bottom of a water chamber and passes above it, whence it is inhaled. The narghili is technically a water pipe. The teymbeki is very strong in nicotine, containing up to 5 or 6 per cent. Japan produces large and medium size leaf of good color but poor in quality. It is generally used for pipe and cigarette trade. The statistics of production for Asia are extremely unreliable. When we consider the teeming populations of China, India and other Eastern countries and the prevalence of the smoking habit, it is very probable that the figure of production (350,000 tons annually) is much under the mark. There is very little export of tobacco from the United States or Europe to the East. Whatever tobacco is consumed there is mostly of its own production. EUROPEAN PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO In Europe the principal tobacco producing countries are Germany, France, Austria, Russia, Italy and Turkey. Germany has nearly 40,000 acres under tobacco cultivation in Rhenish Bavaria, Baden, Hesse, and Alsace-Lorraine. The annual production is about 50 to 70 million lbs.; and in addition nearly 3 times that much is imported. German home grown leaf is medium to large in size, of fair body, heavy and with coarse veins. It is used for cigar filler and pipe, but is not suited for cigar wrappers. (See the chapter on cigars.) French tobacco is raised from Virginia seed. It is dark, coarse and heavy and is suitable for plug and snuff making only. Russia is the largest European producer. Russian tobacco leaf is very large in size and like the French is coarse, dark and heavy and is only fit for plug and snuff making. There is a lighter kind grown from Turkish seed in South Russia which is fit for cigarettes. Italy has made several attempts to cultivate good tobacco, and several different types are produced. A dark heavy leaf is grown from Virginia seed, and a type from Kentucky seed is also produced. These types are suitable to the dark, heavy fertile soils of Middle and North Italy. In the lighter sandy soil of the south, the varieties grown are raised from Turkish seed and are similar in appearance and quality to the genuine Turkish tobacco. Hungary is a heavy grower of tobacco and produces some of the best in Europe. There is a heavy dark type, of a rich brown color, medium sized leaf with small and thin veins, which is used in cigar manufacture. A small bright yellow leaf is also grown, poor in quality and aroma, which is used for pipe smoking and cigarettes. The most important foreign tobacco as regards U. S. consumers is that known as Turkish. The leaves of the Turkish tobacco are small (about 8" long), clear yellow in color, and have a special aroma, which renders them peculiarly suitable for the manufacturing of cigarettes. The principal producing centers are Macedonia, Albania, Syria, Palestine and Trebizond, that raised in Macedonia being per-haps the most celebrated. Just like the Cuban leaf, the very best grades of Turkish tobacco are not exported, but are kept for domestic consumption. _Latakia_ tobacco is produced in the northern part of Syria. This tobacco has a very small nicotine content. It is produced by a special fabrication and is in very great demand as an ingredient of pipe smoking mixtures. The District of Cavalla in the Province of Roumelia, is one of the most important tobacco centers in the Turkish Empire. There are about 75,000 acres under tobacco cultivation and the annual production is about 10,000,000 lbs. The American Tobacco Co. has a large establishment here through which it purchases its Turkish leaf, amounting to over 6 million lbs. yearly, for the manufacture of Turkish cigarettes, etc. The total importation of Turkish leaf into the United States during 1913 was: From Turkey in Europe 10,816,048 lbs. From Turkey in Asia 18,955,295 lbs. Greece and the Balkan States produce tobacco which partakes of the qualities of Hungarian and Turkish, the Grecian leaf being used a good deal as a substitute for genuine Turkish tobacco. TOBACCO PRODUCED IN THE NEW WORLD OTHER THAN IN UNITED STATES The government of Canada has given a lot of attention to experiments in connection with the growth of tobacco in the Dominion, but only with indifferent success. The leaf is raised principally from Virginian seed, but is large and coarse and is only fit for inferior plug and snuff making. Cuban Tobacco. The tobacco raised in the Island of Cuba is the most celebrated in the world for cigar making. The leaf is of a rich, brown color; narrow and small in size, varying from 8 to 18 inches in length. Its richness of flavor and the peculiar aroma are its chief characteristics. Cuba produces annually about 300,000 to 500,000 bales of tobacco varying in weight from 80 to 150 lbs. per bale, nearly one-half of which is exported to the United States alone. The importation of Cuban leaf into the United States over a series of years is shown below: _Cuban leaf imports into the U. S. (lbs.)_ 1855-1860 == 7,014,485 } 1871-1875 == 8,985,465 } Average 1886-1890 == 15,532,075 } Yearly 1896-1900 == 10,811,173 } Imports. 1901-1905 == 24,048,837 } Year 1914 == 26,617,545 } The value in 1900 was $ 8,478,251 The value in 1905 was $13,348,000 The Province of _Pinar del Rio_ produces about 70 per cent of the entire Cuban crop. In this is the District of _Vuelto Abajo_ which is celebrated the world over for the very finest cigar tobacco. The District of Habana or Havana produces about 13 per cent and Santa Clara about 13 per cent. The Cubans themselves favor the dark "Maduro" fully ripened leaves. At present a good deal of Cuban cigar leaf is grown under shade with the result that although when fully mature they are light in color, they are rich in flavor. The value of the cigar leaf imported by the U. S. from Cuba averages at present about 14 or 15 million dollars annually. Porto Rican leaf possesses many of the qualities of good Havana leaf, and like the latter is used in cigar manufacture. The annual production is about 120,000 bales. The U. S. imports from 4 to 5 million lbs. annually. Further particulars regarding Cuban and Porto Rican leaf will be given in the chapters concerning cigars. Mexico produces a tobacco, large as to leaf, dark in color, with heavy body and coarse veins. The tobacco is very strong in flavor. The best grades approach the Cuban tobacco in quality and are imported and used as substitutes for it. The U. S. importation is small. The annual production is about 34 million lbs. The best quality is produced in the neighborhood of Vera Cruz, and only a small portion is exported, principally to Cuba. Brazilian tobacco leaf is brown in color, medium in size, and medium in body. It possesses fair qualities as a cigar tobacco, for which purpose it is generally used in South America, which is its principal market. EAST INDIAN AND PHILIPPINE TOBACCO The Dutch East Indies (Sumatra and the adjacent islands) produce yearly about 180 million lbs. of tobacco, all of which is used in the cigar business. Of this the United States takes about from 30,000 to 40,000 bales of Sumatran leaf, about 5-1/2 million lbs. About 2 lbs. of this leaf wraps 1,000 cigars. The Philippine Islands produce from 50 to 100 million lbs., of tobacco annually. The crop for 1913 was 101,544,736 lbs. The imports into the United States are principally as manufactured cigars by special arrangements which will be referred to later on in the chapter on cigars. CHAPTER IV PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO IN THE UNITED STATES TOTAL PRODUCTION. AMOUNT PRODUCED BY THE DIFFERENT STATES. VARIETIES RAISED. DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES. PRODUCTION OF TOBACCO LEAF IN THE UNITED STATES The amount of tobacco leaf raised annually in the United States varies from 700 million lbs. to 1,000 million lbs. Thus, according to the Government Statistical Reports, the production in 1909 was 1,055,764,806 lbs., being an unusually high figure. The production in 1913 was 953,734,000 lbs. and in 1914, 1,034,679,000 lbs. The average crop may be taken as about 800 million lbs., about half of which is exported as leaf, and the other half manufactured in the U. S. into cigars, smoking and chewing tobaccos, etc., and consumed in the U. S. To produce this immense crop over one million acres of rich, fertile land is under culture, the actual government figures for 1913 being 1,216,000 acres, and for 1914, 1,224,000, and the value of the raw crop is from 80 to 100 million dollars, which works out to an average value of from 10 to 12 cents per lb. The cost of producing the best grades of cigar leaf in the Eastern States is from 8 to 10 cents per lb.; in Wisconsin from 5 to 10 cents. The price paid to the growers is from 5 to 15 cents, except for the highest grades (cigar wrapper leaf) for which special prices, up to 40 or 50 cents, may be paid. Smoking and chewing leaf of average grade fetches from 6 to 7 cents per lb. From these figures it will be seen that the agricultural industry of tobacco growing is a most important one, and it is constantly increasing both in the quantity produced and in value. About 45 of the states in the Union are engaged in tobacco culture, the principal states and the quantities produced being as follows (for 1914): Kentucky 364 million lbs. North Carolina 172 " " Virginia 114 " " Tennessee 63 " " Ohio 78 " " Wisconsin 54 " " Pennsylvania 48 " " Connecticut 35 " " South Carolina 36 " " Maryland 17 " " Indiana 12 " " Massachusetts 11 " " Other states 30 " " ---- Total 1034 " " Virginia was, until recently, the premier tobacco state. Tobacco was first raised in Virginia about 1619 when the quantity produced was about 20,000 lbs. By 1753 the records show that over 50 million lbs. were raised annually, all of which was exported. At this time and until about the period of the Civil War, Europe was dependant more than now on America for her tobacco supply, as at present a considerable part of her needs is supplied by her own production. Tobacco was not grown in Kentucky till about 1785 and a little later in Tennessee and Ohio. The cigar leaf industry of the New England States did not come into activity till about 1830. Cigar leaf was raised in Florida about the same time but was discontinued and was not resumed till fifty years later. Virginia, Maryland and Tennessee have shown a declining annual production since the Civil War. Thus Virginia in 1860 produced nearly 30 per cent of the total U. S. crop, whereas at present it produces about 12 per cent only. The causes which have contributed to the decline in tobacco culture in the Southern States are the loss of slave labor as well as the loss of capital during the war; more particularly it is due to the impoverishing of the soil without adequate fertilization. Thus with superior fertilization and intensive methods, Massachusetts and Connecticut give 1,750 lbs. to the acre, as against 870 and 580 lbs. for Kentucky and Tennessee. In Massachusetts and Connecticut the cost for fertilizer _per farm_ is $227 as against $17 and $4 respectively in Tennessee and Kentucky. Moreover, the Northern farms are smaller than the Southern. VARIETIES OF TOBACCO RAISED The varieties of tobacco raised are mainly of the native American species; but in some states (in Florida particularly) plants are raised from imported Cuban and Sumatran seed, in an endeavor to produce cigar leaf equal in quality to the leaf now imported from these places which commands a high price in the trade. The raising of cigar leaf tobacco from foreign seed began in Florida about 1902; and, although on the whole, the cultivation has been very successful, yet it cannot be said that the hoped for results have been fully realized. It was claimed for the Florida grown Sumatran leaf that in many ways it surpassed the native Sumatran leaf. Certainly the experimental samples of this Florida leaf exhibited by the U. S. at the Paris Exposition of 1900 were judged to be superior both in appearance and style and other matters. However, this superiority does not appear to have been upheld, for in the trade the native grown Sumatran leaf still holds its rank. Similarly in the case of Florida grown Cuban leaf which at the same Exposition was voted as equal to the native. The native leaf, however, whether due to the soil or not, has a finer flavor and aroma, and the best grades of native grown Cuban tobacco still hold the palm as the premier cigar tobacco of the world. The leaf raised in Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Florida, Massachusetts, and New York State, is generally used for the cigar trade (see the chapters on cigars). Ohio and Florida (Cuban seed) leaf mostly used as cigar fillers; Connecticut and Florida (Sumatran seed), Pennsylvania and New York leaf mostly as wrapper leaf, the inferior leaves being used as fillers. Wisconsin leaf is used principally as cigar binder leaf. The total amount of cigar tobacco raised is roughly about one-fifth of the entire tobacco crop. The southern states produce the bulk of the export dark, heavy leaf. West Kentucky and Tennessee particularly, as well as Virginia, the Carolinas and Maryland, export considerable quantities. This tobacco is fire-cured. For the domestic trade, however, (pipe-smoking, chewing and cigarettes) the tobacco grown in these states is flue-cured, the principal product being of a bright yellow color, characteristic of this region. This "yellow tobacco belt" extends from the coast across to the North Carolina Mountains, through Tennessee and South Carolina, Southern Virginia, Southern Ohio, a few parts of Kentucky, some of Eastern Missouri and Arkansas. The best soils are those which are of a light sandy or sandy clay nature and they need not be deep or rich. In this region the very finest pipe-smoking tobaccos are raised. Whilst the U. S. has not been able to produce a cigar wrapper tobacco equal in quality to the Cuban or Sumatran, in pipe-smoking and cigarette tobaccos she stands without a rival. There are about 100 different varieties of tobacco grown in the U. S., many of these being approximately the same and are synonymous. Subvarieties are easily obtained by crossing. Cross-fertilization easily takes place where different strains are produced in the same locality. On this account when it is desired to keep a variety pure, care must be exerted to see that seed is collected from pure strains. On the other hand, the ease of producing new varieties gives opportunity to the various State Agricultural Experimental Stations to try out new strains for desirable qualities. The enumeration of the differences between the various varieties would be tiresome for the reader, yet it will be well for the user of tobacco to know some of these varieties, their characteristics and other particulars concerning them. These are given here: LEADING VARIETIES OF AMERICAN TOBACCOS BURLEY. The variety known as _White Burley_ has a long broad leaf, whitish in appearance when growing. The points of the leaf hang down towards the ground when growing, often even touching the ground. The leaf is thin in texture, has a mild flavor, low nicotine content and good absorbing qualities. It is one of the most popular tobaccos in the U. S. and is used for pipe-smoking and chewing tobaccos and cigarettes. It cures to a bright yellow brown color. There is a variety known as _Red Burley_ which has a thin leaf narrowing from center to top. The leaves are of a characteristic cinnamon color and are more elastic than those of _White Burley_. Burley tobacco is raised principally in Ohio, Kentucky, Virginia, Maryland, Missouri and Indiana. CONNECTICUT SEEDLEAF. Large, strong leaves, thin and elastic, silky in texture, small fibers, sweetish taste and light in color. Used in the cigar trade as fillers and wrappers and grown in New England, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and to a smaller extent in Wisconsin, Minnesota, Indiana, Illinois and Florida. CONNECTICUT BROADLEAF. A modification of the above, the leaves being broader in proportion to their length. They are up to 35 inches long and 22 inches wide. Largely used in the cigar trade as filler and wrappers. Both the Connecticut Seedleaf and Broadleaf are superior to the imported Sumatran leaf in flavor and aroma, but are inferior in elasticity and covering qualities. Grown principally in Connecticut and New York States. ORINOCO. There are 3 varieties of this name: (1) _Short Orinoco._ Broad leaf, upright growth and open habit, light colored, much ruffled. Grown in Virginia and Missouri. (2) _Big Orinoco._ Short, broad leaf. Grown in Virginia, Missouri, North Carolina, Tennessee and West Virginia. (3) _Yellow Orinoco._ Long, narrow, tapering leaf with fine texture. The sweetest variety grown. Grown in Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, Tennessee, West Virginia and Missouri. Orinoco tobacco leaf is used largely for plug and smoking tobaccos and for the export trade. VIRGINIAN. Sun and air-cured tobacco. Leaf is medium in size. Very bright brown color. Is rich in gums and oils which makes it sweet and fragrant and gives it a pleasant taste. Hence it is a favorite chewing tobacco. PRYOR. There are several varieties under this name: (1) _Medley_ or _White Pryor_ has a very broad leaf with silky texture and tough fiber. (2) _Blue Pryor._ Large, long fine leaf and good color. (3) _Silky Pryor._ A long sharp-pointed leaf; grows thin on the stalk; very tough and pliant. (4) _Yellow Pryor._ Heavy, wide leaf, fine bright color, tough and weighs well. Pryor is used principally for the export trade and to some extent also in the home trade both for cigar and plug and smoking tobaccos. It is grown generally throughout Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri and Indiana, the White variety being extensively grown in Virginia. LITTLE DUTCH. A very favorite pipe-smoking tobacco. It has a small nicotine content (less than 1%). The leaf is small; narrow, thick and short; dark brown in color, glossy surface and sweet in taste. It is grown extensively in the Miami Valley of Ohio. SUMATRA SEED. Grown principally in Florida from imported Sumatran seed. The leaf is light in weight and color, not long compared with other seedleaf varieties. Very narrow and with fine ribs. Used in cigar trade and grown extensively also in the New England states. CUBAN SEED. This has the usual qualities of Cuban tobacco but with inferior fragrance and aroma to the native grown. Principally raised in Pennsylvania, New York, Wisconsin, Connecticut and Florida for the cigar trade. PERIQUE. A special variety of tobacco grown only in a small area of Louisiana. The leaf is medium in size, has a fine fiber with small stems. Tough, gummy and glossy. It is grown in a deep, rich soil and grows very rapidly. Its special characteristics are acquired in the curing, which is a special process peculiar to itself, and which will be described in the chapter on Manufactured Tobaccos. REFERENCES _Yearbooks of the United States Department of Agriculture._ 1914 and previous. HOAGLAND, I. G. _The Tobacco Industry._ In _Quarterly of the National Fire Protection Association_. 1907. Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. JACOBSTEIN, M. _The Tobacco Industry in the United States._ New York, 1907. BILLINGS, E. R. _Tobacco; its history, varieties, culture, manufacture and commerce._ Hartford Conn., 1875. CHAPTER V THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE TOBACCO PLANT ORGANIC AND INORGANIC MATTERS CONTAINED IN TOBACCO AND THE PARTS THEY PLAY. ANALYSIS OF VARIOUS TOBACCOS. NICOTINE. THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE TOBACCO PLANT The tobacco plant when subjected to chemical analysis is found to contain all or most of the following substances: _Mineral Bases._ Potash, Lime, Magnesia, Oxides of Iron and Manganese, Ammonia, Silica. _Mineral Acids._ Nitric, Hydrochloric, Sulphuric and Phosphoric. _Organic Base._ Nicotine. _Organic Acids._ Malic, Citric, Acetic, Oxalic, Pectic and Ulmic. _Other Organic Substances._ Nicotianin, Green and Yellow Resin, Wax and Fat, Nitrogenous Substances and Cellulose. The substances which differentiate tobacco from other plants and form its chief characteristics are Nicotianin, Nicotine and Malic Acid. The percentage in which the important substances exist in tobacco is given below: Nicotine From 1 to 9% Malic and Citric Acids From 10 to 14% Oxalic Acid From 1 to 2% Resins, Oils and Fats From 4 to 6% Pectic Acid About 5% Cellulose From 7 to 8% Albumenoids About 25% Ash From 12 to 30% When tobacco is burned, chemical changes occur; the organic and other compounds are decomposed. The volatile matters pass off in the smoke if the combustion is complete, and the mineral ash remains. In ordinary pipe or other tobacco smoking, however, the combustion is not complete and many decomposition products remain with the mineral ash. In tobacco smoke the following can usually be found: Furfurol, Marsh Gas, Hydrogen Sulphide, Hydrogen Cyanide, Organic Acids, Phenols, Empyreumatic Oils, Pyridine, Picoline Series and possibly some Nicotine. The ash left after complete combustion is important, as much of the smoking qualities of the tobacco depends on its constituents. An average sample gives the following analysis (in 100 parts): AVERAGE MINERAL CONTENTS OF TOBACCO ASH Potash About 27% Soda About 3% Lime About 40% Magnesia About 9% Sodium Chloride About 9% Sulphuric Acid About 3% Silica About 5% Lime Phosphate About 4% REMARKS ON SOME OF THE SUBSTANCES FOUND IN TOBACCO _Nicotine_ Of all the substances found in tobacco, nicotine is the most important. Nicotine in the pure state is a colorless liquid having a specific gravity of 1.027. It is an organic base having the chemical formula C{10}H{14}N{2}. It is extremely acid and burning to the taste, and is a virulent poison. It easily volatilizes; is inflammable, and is soluble in water, alcohol, ether and some fixed oils. Nicotine has the characteristic peculiar odor of tobacco. The amount of nicotine in tobacco is said to depend on the nature of the soil in which it is grown; rich, heavy soils and strong nitrogenous manuring favor the production of a large nicotine content; and light, sandy soils the opposite. Moreover the nicotine content depends on the age and development of the plant. An investigation by Chuard and Mellet showed nicotine contents of leaves: In young plants 7 weeks old contained .0324% In plants 10 weeks old contained .0447% In plants 13 weeks old contained .4989% In plants 19 weeks old contained .9202% The longer the plant is permitted to grow the larger will be its nicotine content. Schlössing has made a similar investigation and found that in the same plant the nicotine content varies from 0.79% when young to 4.32% when fully matured. Most nicotine is found in the ribs and veins. H. B. Cox (_American Druggist_ V. 24, 1894, p. 95) investigated the nicotine contents of various manufactured tobaccos. These were not "proprietary tobaccos" but samples obtained from different sources at random. His results are given here: NICOTINE CONTENTS OF DIFFERENT TOBACCOS _Nicotine_ Syrian Tobacco leaf (a) .612% American Chewing Leaf .935% Syrian Tobacco Leaf (b) 1.093% Chinese Tobacco Leaf 1.902% Turkish Coarse Cut 2.500% Golden Virginia (whole strips) 2.501% Gold Flake Virginia 2.501% Navy Cut (light) 2.530% Light Kentuckian 2.733% Navy Cut (dark) 3.64 % Best "Bird's Eye" 3.931% Cut Cavendish (a) 4.212% Best Shag (a) 4.907% Cut Cavandish (b) 4.970% Best Shag (b) 5.00 % Algerian Tobacco (a) 8.813% French Grown Tobacco 8.711% Algerian Tobacco (b) 8.90 % The average of a number of samples of Syrian tobacco showed 1 to 2% nicotine, Manila and Havana 1 to 3%, Virginia and Kentucky from 2 to 7%, and French tobaccos about 9%. Most of the nicotine in tobacco becomes volatilized and decomposed during combustion; a small part, however, may form a solution with the water which is also one of the combustion products. One of the decomposition products of nicotine is _Pyridine_ Pyridine is usually found in tobacco smoke. When condensed it is a colorless non-oily liquid and is considerably less toxic than nicotine. Reference will be made later on to the effects of nicotine and pyridine on the human system. _Potash_ Potash is important as on its amount depends the burning qualities of the tobacco. It is sometimes present in the ash to the extent of 30%, being converted into potassium carbonate by burning. Not only for free burning is the potash valuable, but also for the better volatilization of the nicotine and other substances. The more perfect the combustion, the fewer deleterious compounds are formed. Chlorides, if present, retard the burning of the tobacco, and hence a tobacco which contains a high percentage of chloride, even if it is rich in potash salts, is a poor burning tobacco and therefore faulty. While it is important that the burning should be free and the volatilization as perfect as possible, yet the smoker does not want his tobacco to burn too rapidly. To meet this some manufacturers prepare "slow burning" tobaccos generally by the addition of some chemical which checks the potash. The aroma and flavor of the tobacco depend to a great extent on the waxes, resins and oils, as well as on certain of the organic acids. REFERENCES U. S. DISPENSATORY. 1907 (19th Edition). KISSLING. _The Chemistry of Tobacco._ _Scientific American_ (Supp.) 1905, Vol. 60, No. 1560. CHUARD & MELLETT. _Variation de Nicotine dans les differents organes de la plante de Tabac._ Comp. Rend. Acad. d. Sc. (Paris) 1912. Vol. 155, p. 293. PEZZOLATO, A. _Conferenza Sulla Chimica applicato alla technologia del Tabacco._ (Rome. 1903.) WOLF, JACOB. _Der Tabak und die Tabak fabrikate._ Chapter III. Leipzig, 1912. SCHLOSSING. _Sur la production de la nicotine par la culture du Tabac._ Compt. Rend. Acad. d. Sc. (Paris), 1910. Vol. 151, p. 23. CHAPTER VI THE CURING OF TOBACCO LEAF OBJECTS OF CURING. METHODS. THE CURING OF TOBACCO LEAF The "curing" of tobacco leaf is the process of drying out which has for its object the following specific actions: (1) The expelling of the sap and superfluous moisture. (2) The completion of the "yellowing" process and the fixing of the desired color. (3) The preservation of the juices, etc., which give the characteristic flavor and aroma. (4) To give the necessary toughness and suppleness to the leaf. The first part of the curing is done by the grower in curing sheds on the farm immediately after the cutting of the crop; the final part, or the fermentation part is usually done by the leaf dealer or manufacturer in special buildings called leaf-houses. There are three methods of curing in use by the growers, i. e., sun curing, air curing, and artificial heat curing. In the case of the tobacco known as _Perique_ the curing process is more or less peculiar to itself. "Sun" and "air" curing are much slower processes than the curing by artificial heat. All cigar leaf tobacco is sun-cured, and as a general rule pipe smoking and chewing tobacco are cured by artificial heat. For the purpose of drying and curing by artificial heat, the leaf is hung up in specially constructed curing houses or sheds. It is found that after the exposure to the sun for the first process of "yellowing" tobacco leaf still contains 1 lb. of water approximately in each plant. The first part of the process of curing consists in drawing off this superfluous moisture. Dry heat is applied at a temperature of 90° F. to 120° F. for about 16 to 30 hours to effect this. A further exposure of about 48 hours at a temperature of 125° or so is necessary to complete the curing, and fix the color. The stems and stalks being thicker take a longer time and generally require 9 to 10 hours further exposure and a temperature which may range as high as 175° F. before they are fully cured, the temperature being graded hourly until the maximum necessary is reached. The process of curing varies considerably in different states. Some growers prefer to put the tobacco into the sheds immediately after cutting, and allow very little exposure in the fields. The temperature is usually kept steady at about 90° F. Again the process is different according to the quality of tobacco required. For the heavy type of leaf which is intended for the export trade, the curing in the sheds is done by an _open_ fire, the fuel being usually hardwood logs. The smoky, creosotic flavor is absorbed by the leaf, and, although this flavor is not relished by the smokers of the U. S., it is much liked in Europe. The curing in such cases may last for 4 or even 5 days. The tobacco is suspended on poles by the stalks and the fires are built on the floor immediately under them so that the carbonaceous products are easily absorbed by the open pores of the leaf. The chewing and pipe smoking tobacco, as well as cigarette tobaccos including all the bright yellow tobaccos used in the U. S. are usually cured by _Flue_ curing. In this case the heat comes from pipes which run around the curing houses and are fed from a furnace in an adjoining chamber or in a cellar. The temperature can be easily regulated. "Flue" curing is generally completed in about 4 days. "Flue" curing does not clog up the pores of the leaf which therefore remain more absorbent than in the open fire cured tobacco. This is an important matter for the manufacturers because the flue cured leaf will absorb twice as much of the flavoring sauces (which are added to certain kinds of tobacco) than tobacco leaf cured by open fires. Air exposure of 6 to 8 weeks (sometimes extended to 3 or 4 months) is necessary when tobacco is cured by exposure to the sun and air. It is claimed, however, that this method of curing preserves far better the natural flavor of the leaf; and, where flavor and aroma are highly important, this method is always preferred. Hence all cigar leaf tobaccos are cured by exposure to natural sunlight and not by artificial heat. "Air" curing as distinct from sun curing is generally done in open sheds which are thoroughly ventilated and kept as far as possible at a temperature of about 75° F. The leaf is usually allowed to cure while attached to the stalk, but Florida curers generally prefer to strip the leaf and treat it separately. The finer classes of pipe smoking tobaccos are air cured. After the curing is completed the color of the leaf is usually fixed. Generally speaking, the riper the leaf the lighter will be its color when cured. Thus the bottom leaves of the plant will be lighter in color than the upper leaves because they are more mature. (_For references see end of Chapter VIII_) CHAPTER VII THE MARKETING AND SALE OF TOBACCO LEAF METHODS OF DISPOSAL BY THE GROWER. THE WAREHOUSE SYSTEM. DIRECT PURCHASE. PRINCIPAL MARKETS IN THE UNITED STATES. PRICES. THE MARKETING AND SALE OF TOBACCO LEAF When the tobacco leaf is fully cured it is at once prepared for the market. The first step is the planters' classification of the leaf. In the case of pipe smoking and chewing tobacco the planter collects all the imperfect, injured leaves, or those inferior from any cause, and ties them in bundles. These are the planters _lugs_. All other grades are _leaf_. Slightly injured leaves are classed as _low-leaf_ or _seconds_. The others are classed _medium_, _good_, _fine_ and _selected_ leaf, according to grade, color, quality, etc. In the case of cigar leaf tobacco a similar classification is made, more care being taken owing to the very great difference in price between the better and poorer qualities. This difference may be as much as 20c in the lb., the finer and more suitable leaf being eagerly sought for. Pipe smoking and chewing tobacco leaf is usually packed in hogsheads or cases each weighing from 1,000 to 1,400 lbs. The operation of packing the leaf is called "prizing." Cigar leaf is usually put up in "hands." A "hand" consists of from 25 to 75 leaves tied together. Four hands tied together make a "carrot" and 80 carrots go to the bale, but the size of the bale varies considerably. The tobacco is then ready for the buyer. There are two systems of disposing of the planters' product: (1) direct purchase by the manufacturer or by a middleman from the grower; and (2) what is known as the warehouse system. In the southern states the warehouse system prevails. Every important tobacco section in the south has its public warehouse which is under the control and supervision of state law. Many of these warehouses are long established, that at Richmond, Va., dating as far back as 1730, and those at Louisville and Clarksville about 1839. On appointed days the planter brings his leaf to the warehouse. Here it is entered as "loose leaf" or "inspected leaf." In the case of loose leaf, the tobacco is open to the inspection of prospective buyers, who examine it and afterwards bid on it. In the case of "inspected leaf" the warehouse officials first examine the consignments, grade them and mark them according to their judgment, taking samples. The samples are open to buyers' inspection and form the basis of sale. Tobacco auctions are regularly held when the buyers assemble and bid on the "loose leaf" and "inspected" lots. Prices of the various grades are fixed and sales take place at the day's price. The principal tobacco markets are: For Kentucky and Tennessee--At Louisville, Clarksville and Cincinnati. For Maryland and Ohio--At Baltimore. For North Carolina--At Durham and Winston. For Virginia--At Richmond. The warehouse system has the great advantage that the proceedings are open and the prices are recorded and published. Hence growers can know how the market fluctuates and judge the best time for sale. This is not the case when the sale is private between the buyer and seller as is customary in the eastern and northern states. Here the price actually received by the grower is often different from that given out as paid. The price of tobacco leaf has had many vicissitudes during the past 25 years, the price often having reached so low a point as to discourage producers. Thus at Winston, N. C., the price has gradually fallen from 12.3c per lb. in 1889 to 6.3c in 1896. In the same period Burley leaf at Louisville and Cincinnati fell from 10c to 7-1/2c. Prices similarly dropped in other centers. The price of cigar leaf has latterly increased. In 1900 prices ran from 6 to 15 cents; in 1905 from 8 to 17 cents. Many conditions at home and abroad affect the price, such as bad harvests or inferior grades of produce. The tobacco trust has been very unjustly blamed by many for the falling price of tobacco. As a matter of fact and record, however, the concentration of buying power by eliminating the middleman and the small dealers has not only placed the grower in a better position by giving him a better price, as recent records show, but it has benefited the consumer also who can obtain the superior grades at a lower price. It is the middleman's profit that has been cut. Moreover, the concentrated buying power of the large interests here has been an effective force in keeping up tobacco leaf prices against the foreign buyers. It must be remembered that about half of our crop is exported. The buyers of this portion, who are principally the agents of foreign governments (in the cases where tobacco is a government monopoly as in France, Italy, etc.) assemble at the auctions and bid in the usual way. As this competition is very limited there is always an opportunity for such buyers to agree among themselves as to the limit of prices. This has been one of the important factors which has kept the prices of tobacco leaf down. The concentration of American buying power has, however, been a formidable check on it, the prices received by the growers being now fair and reasonable, and such as are the result of a healthy market, where the factors of supply and demand have their full share of effect. The government statistics show that for 1914 the prices of leaf varied from 5.5c to 20c for common to good varieties. (_For references see end of Chapter VIII_) CHAPTER VIII REHANDLING AND FERMENTATION OF TOBACCO LEAF PRIOR TO MANUFACTURE SELECTION OF LEAF. TREATMENT AND BLENDING. OBJECTS AND METHODS OF FERMENTATION. ACTION OF MICROBES. REHANDLING AND FERMENTATION OF TOBACCO LEAF PRIOR TO MANUFACTURE We have seen how the tobacco passes from the grower to the manufacturer or leaf dealer. Before it is fitted, however, for manufacture into cigars or other finished products the leaf must go through many processes, the most important of which is fermentation. These processes, which are usually known as rehandling, are carried out in special buildings which are called leaf houses and stemmeries. The procedures in different leaf houses may vary somewhat, but the general principles and objects in view are the same in all. Moreover, the treatment is different, according to the ulterior disposition of the leaf, i. e. whether intended for cigars, pipe smoking or other product. The general treatment as carried out in large establishments is about as follows: The leaf as soon as it is received whether in casks, cases, bales, or otherwise is opened up and inspected in the casing room. Large concerns which manufacture or deal in cigar and other kinds of leaf, sort out the different kinds suitable for each class of product, i. e. wrappers, fillers, binders, cigarette leaf, plug leaf, etc. These are distributed to either special houses or departments. The tobacco leaf when first received is usually dry and brittle. The bundles are carefully opened up and the leaves loosened and spread out on large trucks where they are sprayed with water. When the leaf has soaked the water and is pliable it undergoes a sorting which is done by selecting leaves from different cases or even bundles of leaves and in a general way arranging them so that each truckfull represents a blend of the different kinds of leaf which are suitable for the purpose in view. These sorted packages are then roughly fastened together and after being again sprinkled thoroughly are sent to the "sweating" room to undergo fermentation which may last several weeks. The temperature of this room must be carefully regulated and is usually kept at about 90° F. The selection and blending of the different kinds of leaf is most important. It requires accurate and expert knowledge in choosing leaves and kinds possessing different strengths and other qualities and in combining them in such proportions that the final effect of the blend gives just what is required. It is particularly in this expert treatment of the leaf before manufacture that the greatest advance has been made in the tobacco industry. The smoker has the advantage and satisfaction of knowing that not only does he get the benefit of improved scientific knowledge and sanitary conditions by which anything that might be harmful or undesirable is removed, but that handling the leaf in large quantities effects great economics and procures for him the benefit of choicest selected grades at a reduced cost. It may be said here incidentally that leaves of the very best tobaccos which are defective merely in size, or color, etc., are put through exactly the same processes as the choicer quality leaves, and are used in the manufacture of the popular priced machine-made "little cigars" and "cheroots." It will be necessary now to digress for a short time and consider what happens during the process of fermentation. FERMENTATION OF TOBACCO The fermenting of tobacco leaf has for its principal objects, (1) the removal of acrid matters, (2) the fixing of the color, and (3) the production of flavor. Fermentation can only take place under suitable conditions of heat and moisture, and is essentially a chemical process during which certain organic compounds stored in the plant are split up and others formed. A certain amount of fermentation takes place in the curing houses during the "yellowing" of the leaf after it has been harvested, but as we have seen the main process of fermentation does not occur until it is "rehandled" by the manufacturers. The general opinion held at present as the result of investigation is that the transformations which are effected in the leaf are purely the result of chemical processes. As the plant slowly dies and decomposes special ferments are produced. These ferments set up an oxidization process which splits up the complex organic compounds which still exist in the leaf cells. The starch in the plant is changed into sugar which is slowly consumed. There is a decrease in the fats and gummy substances, also in nicotine and nitrogenous compounds, and there is a formation of certain organic acids such as malic, citric and oxalic which are essential in the production of flavor. Briefly it may be said that the process is an attempt by the plant to prolong its existence by feeding on its own substance, by drawing on its own reserves and on its own structure for the food which its cells no longer receive through the natural growing process. When the struggle is over the "fermentation" is complete. The necessity for maturing tobacco has long been known but the exact nature of the changes that take place during the process were not understood. Since the discoveries of Louis Pasteur regarding the part played by bacteria in general fermentative processes it has been generally claimed by bacteriologists that the changes wrought in the leaf and the production of flavor are solely the work of bacteria. Although this view has not been proved it has never been fully disproved, and there appears to be no doubt that the microbes known to exist in the leaf during the fermentation process play an important part in the process. Fermentation can only take place as stated under suitable conditions of heat and moisture and these are the conditions which favor the development of microbes and enable them to work. The results obtained are probably partially due to chemical action and partly to bacterial action, the two being complementary to each other. In 1899 Suchsland, a German scientist, startled the tobacco world by asserting that the flavor of tobacco was in no way due to the effects of the soil and climate where it was grown, but was solely due to microbic action, and that the specific flavor and aroma of any given tobacco could be artificially produced by the cultivation of selected bacteria and allowing the tobacco to cure and ferment under their action. He conducted a series of experimental investigations in which he searched for and isolated the specific microbes found in the best West Indian tobacco. From these he made artificial cultures and introduced them into heaps of inferior, coarse German tobacco which was undergoing curing. His results were such that the smoking quality of the leaf was entirely changed. It could scarcely be distinguished from the best Cuban tobacco and experts and connoisseurs failed to identify the product as German tobacco. A company was formed to exploit the new ideas commercially, but it does not appear to have met with success. Other investigations failed to obtain Suchsland's results and extensive investigation in the Agricultural Experimental Station in the United States have not up to now produced any results confirmatory of the theory. We can now proceed to follow the course of the tobacco in its peregrinations through the leaf house. On their return from the first fermentation the bundles go to the picking department. Leaves which are damaged or unsuitable in any way are here picked out and put aside to be used in the cheaper grades. The leaves are then subjected to a thorough cleaning to remove particles of sand, clay, etc., packed tightly in bundles and returned to the sweating department to undergo further fermentation and to allow for a thorough interchange of the aroma of the different blends. In due course the bundles pass to the stemming department for the removal of the midribs which usually form nearly one-third of the entire weight. The resulting half leaves are then arranged in piles of 50, each pile forming a "book." From the stemming department the books pass to the drying room where any superfluous moisture is removed by hot air currents. From the drying room the books pass to the ordering room where they undergo inspection for color, size, etc., and subjected to further treatment if necessary. Here they are finally packed in cases and stored for several months to allow perfect and uniform blending after which they are ready for shipment to the factory. Filler leaf for the finest cigars may stand in these cases for two or three years. Leaf which is intended for chewing or pipe smoking is not subjected to so great an elaboration of processes as cigar leaf, as the matters of uniformity of color, and delicacy as well as individuality of aroma are not of such great importance. Usually such tobacco leaf is fermented in bulk, and the removal of the stems is done before the principal fermentation. After the preliminary selection of varieties, sorting, stemming and cleaning, the leaf is dipped into large vats containing flavors; and after drying are subjected to steaming. They are then packed away in bulk in the sweating department where they slowly ferment until required for use. These "bulks" or stacks may contain many tons of leaf. They require constant turning over, etc. Indeed it may be said that every step in these processes requires constant care. Temperature, moisture, length of exposure, etc., must all be carefully seen to. Otherwise the tobacco will spoil. In the case of tobacco leaf intended for export trade rehandling consists mainly of stemming and removal of moisture. This is done before shipment in order to reduce the weight as customs duty is levied in accordance with the weight of the imported packages in the countries importing. REFERENCES U. S. DEPART. OF AGRIC. _Farmers' Bulletins_ 6 and 60. LAUREUT, L. _Le Tabac, sa culture et sa preparation, production et consommation._ Paris, 1900. BOUANT, E. _Le Tabac; culture et industrie._ Paris, 1901. BOEKHOUT UND DE VRIES. _Uber Tabacfermentation._ "Centralbl. f. Bakter," 1909. 2 Abteil. Vol. 24, p. 496. LOEW, O. _Sind Bakterien die Ursache der Tabakfermentation?_ "Centralbl. f. Bakter," 1909. Vol. 6, p. 108. KILLEBREW AND MYRICK. _Tobacco Leaf._ Part I. New York, 1897. SUCHSLAND, E. _Bobachtungen über die Selbsterwärmung des fermentierenden Tabaks._ In "Festschrift 200-Jahr Jubel. d. Verein. Friedrichs Universit." Halle-Wittenberg, 1894. WOLF, JAKOB. _Der Tabak und die Tabakfabrikate._ Chapter IV. Leipzig, 1912. HOAGLAND, J. G. _The Tobacco Industry._ In _Quarterly of the Nat. Fire Protec. Assn._, 1907. Vol. 1, Nos. 2 and 4. JACOBSTEIN, M. _The Tobacco Industry in the U. S._ Chapter II. New York, 1907. CHAPTER IX MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF TOBACCO IN THE UNITED STATES STATISTICS OF PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION. AMOUNT OF CAPITAL INVESTED, ETC. MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS OF TOBACCO. GENERAL REMARKS The importance and magnitude of the tobacco manufacturing industry in the United States will be best understood from a consideration of the following statistics taken from the latest available government records: (_For all Manufactured Products_) Cost of materials used (1905)==$126,000,000 (1909)== 177,000,000 Value of the product (1905)== 331,000,000 (1909)== 417,000,000 No. of establishments (1905)== 16,828 (1909)== 15,822 No. of persons employed, more than one-third being women (1905)== 160,000 (1909)== 197,000 The figures are given in round numbers. The total capital invested in this industry is between $300,000,000 and $400,000,000. There are more than one and a quarter millions acres in the U. S. under cultivation of tobacco which yields a crop at present approximating to 1,000 million lbs. of leaf annually. The industry shows an absolutely increasing condition in every particular at each census. During the past 45 years the value of the product has increased more than $300,000,000. In addition to the trade in manufacturing in the U. S. there is the export trade principally in unmanufactured leaf. This amounts at present to about $54,000,000 annually. The price of export leaf has been continuously increasing despite of the fact that the production of leaf abroad is increasing. Thus in 1886 the average export price of leaf from the U. S. was 8-1/2c per lb. In 1914 it was more than 12c. The following statement shows at a glance the marvelous increase in the tobacco industry: _Comparative Statement of Manufactured Tobacco in the U. S. (all products)_ Capital No. of persons Value of invested. employed. product. Year 1880 $ 39,000,000 86,000 $126,000,000 Year 1890 90,000,000 117,000 195,000,000 Year 1900 111,000,000 142,000 264,000,000 Year 1905 324,000,000 159,000 330,000,000 Year 1909 197,000 417,000,000 In addition to the number of persons employed in manufacturing we must take into account those employed (as well as the capital invested) in the agricultural and distributing ends. The export manufacturing trade is not important, being only valued at about 3 million dollars annually. The value of the home manufactured products which in 1905 was shown at $330,000,000 is distributed as follows. Cigars $198,000,000 Cigarettes 16,000,000 Chewing and smoking tobaccos 109,000,000 Snuff 6,000,000 Other products 1,000,000 ------------ Total $330,000,000 For the increase in the present value of the product these figures would be proportionately increased. In the year 1913 the United States exported about 350 million lbs. of unmanufactured tobacco leaf, and in 1914, 449 million lbs. This was distributed as follows: To Great Britain and Ireland 174 million lbs. To Canada 17 " " To France 55 " " To Germany 32 " " To Italy 45 " " To Netherlands 28 " " To Spain 17 " " To Japan 16 " " To China 11 " " To Belgium 11 " " To Africa, Australia, etc. 43 " " ---- Total 449 " " The largest export manufacturing trade was to Asia, the cigarettes exported there having a value of 2-1/2 million dollars. The consumption of manufacturing products of tobacco in the U. S. has increased continuously since 1863 when it was 1.6 lbs. per head to the present time when it is 5-1/2 lbs. per head of the total population. This works out at about 16 lbs. per head for each male over 16 years. The consumption of tobacco in the U. S. is higher than in any other country and has increased more rapidly. For the past 40 years the consumption per head in U. S. has increased 240%; in England 56%; in France 24%; in Germany 23%. From this fact different deductions might be made. It may be that the Americans smoke more because they are fonder of tobacco than Europeans; or because they get better and cheaper tobacco; or because they can better afford to buy tobacco. The greatest percentage of increase in the United States is in the consumption of cigars. The manufactured products are classed as (1) cigars, (2) pipe smoking and chewing tobaccos, (3) cigarettes, (4) snuff. To each of these separate chapters will be devoted. (_For references see Chapter XV_) CHAPTER X CIGARS. HISTORICAL AND GENERAL FACTS HISTORY. STATISTICAL INFORMATION REGARDING THE CIGAR BUSINESS IN THE UNITED STATES. CIGARS. HISTORICAL AND GENERAL FACTS When the Spaniards landed for the first time on American soil they found the natives smoking the rolled-up tobacco leaves, that is a cigar. For a cigar is nothing more, four centuries having made little change in the Cuban cigar. The word _cigar_ is most probably derived from the Spanish word _cigarer_--to roll. Other derivations are given, but this seems etymologically the correct one; and we will rest content with it. In Spanish America to the present day the custom of smoking tobacco in the rolled form, either as cigars or cigarettes, prevails, rather than the custom of smoking in pipes which was the method of the northern aborigines from whom the English colonists adopted it. Smoking was introduced into Spain in the cigar form and into England in the pipe form. Cigars, however, at the present time, both in North and South America, form the principal item in the tobacco account of the people; we shall therefore enter somewhat fully into matters concerning their manufacture, etc. Although, as stated, it is in the cigar form that smoking was introduced into Spain, it was not till about 1790 that cigars were used generally in Europe. A factory for the manufacture of cigars was established at Hamburg in 1796. The custom did not spread rapidly and did not reach any considerable proportion in England till about 1830 when the high duties were considerably reduced. Cigar making has always been a staple industry in Cuba. It was there when the Europeans landed and it is there still. Its record is unbroken. There was always a greater or lesser exportation to Europe and elsewhere. THE CIGAR BUSINESS OF THE U. S. Of the various manufactured products of tobacco leaf, the cigar trade is the most important in the U. S., its value being greater than that of all other tobacco products combined. The magnitude of this branch of the tobacco business may be gauged when we state that at the present time there are made annually in the U. S. cigars of all kinds to the amount of about 8-1/2 billions. The Census Bureau Report for 1912 shows that for that year the number of full-sized cigars made and on which tax was paid was in round numbers 7,500,000,000, and of "little cigars," that is under the regular size, about 1,000,000,000. These figures are certainly stupendous, particularly when we consider that, in addition, at least several hundred more were imported and that only about 2,000,000 were exported. Uncle Sam evidently likes to smoke cigars. To make these cigars requires a consumption of 136 million lbs. of cigar leaf. Nearly 50 million lbs. of this is imported at a gross cost (exclusive of duties) of about 35 million dollars, the rest of the leaf is home grown. The principal imports are from Cuba. In 1912 we imported cigar leaf from Cuba in amount nearly 23 million lbs. and in 1913 this increased to over 27 million lbs. valued at more than 16 million dollars. The imports of East Indian (Sumatran) leaf varies from 6 to 8 million lbs. and costs from 7 to 8 million dollars. Although the amount of imported leaf used in cigar making shows a steady increase, being now more than 50% greater than a decade ago, yet the proportion of foreign leaf to home-grown leaf in the whole manufacture shows a steady decrease. This speaks well for the improving quality of American grown leaf. There are in the United States about 26,000 cigar factories, both large and small. The large number of establishments is due to the fact that cigar making is still to a large extent a hand-making industry. About 135,000 persons are directly employed in the manufacture, nearly half of whom are women. The capital engaged in the business is reported as 150 millions and the value of the product 200 million dollars annually. The actual consumer pays about 300 million dollars for the cigars smoked, the difference between the cost of the product and the latter figure being the expense and profit of the retail handlers. The enormous growth of the cigar trade is seen when it is compared with 1860. In that year the annual value of this product was only 9 million dollars. The two states of New York and Pennsylvania are the centers of cigar manufacture. Between them they make nearly half of the entire product, Pennsylvania leading with about two thousand million cigars annually. Florida makes about 300 million. The price paid by the consumer works out to an average of about 4c for each cigar. CHAPTER XI CIGAR MAKING HAND-MADE CIGARS. MACHINE-MADE CIGARS. CLASSIFICATION OF CIGARS. TERMS USED IN THE CIGAR TRADE. CIGAR MAKING It was inevitable that modern progress should invade and revolutionize the old and slow methods of cigar making; and so it has. Smoking is a sentimental occupation and lends itself easily to romantic associations. A good deal of romance and sentiment still hangs around the hand-made cigar and cigarette. In an up-to-date cigar factory, however, the whir of machinery and the precise, regular movements of automatic contrivances give little scope for sentiment. Up to 1870 cigars were hand-made. All that was necessary was an inexpensive board, a cutting knife, and a block of wood with a stationary knife, known as a "tuck," for measuring and cutting the finished cigar. About the time stated the "mold" was introduced. The mold is a wooden block about 18" x 6" x 3", a tool which facilitates the shaping of the "bunch" or filler part of the cigar and presses it into shape. This mold is now used in most "hand-made" cigar factories where the labor is subdivided into "bunch-makers" and "rollers," the latter putting on the binder and wrapper and finishing the cigar. It is the introduction of practically automatic machinery, however, which is revolutionizing the cigar-making business, and slowly but surely driving the "hand-made" cigar into the position occupied by the "hand-made" cigarette. And the writer cannot see why this should not be so. As it has been said, there is much sentiment about hand-made cigars. But common sense seems to be on the side of the machine. We quite understand the difficulty of killing old prejudices and time honored customs; but it is difficult to understand how the flavor or quality of a cigar filler can be different whether it is pressed into the shape by a machine or by the hand of a workman; or what the precise improvement is when a wrapper leaf is put on and licked by a workman rather than by a clean machine under perfect sanitary conditions. However, sentiment still persists. Imaginary, or perhaps real, charms are ascribed to the hand-made goods and the smoker is willing and even wishful to pay a higher price for his fancy. The result is that the small factory is still predominant. It depends more on labor than on capital. But the large factories have an immense production. The condition will be best shown by stating that in less than 1 per cent of the cigar making establishments of the U. S. nearly 50 per cent of the entire output is made, or, putting it another way, nearly three-fourths of all the licensed cigar factories produced less than one-tenth of the product. Of the 26,000 establishments in the U. S. only in 2 is the annual output more than 50 million and in 27 the output runs from 25 to 50 million. Pennsylvania establishments, principally in Philadelphia, produce 28% of the entire U. S. cigar output; New York State, principally New York City, comes next with about 20%; and Ohio, principally Cincinnati, third with about 8%. For machine-made goods the principal machines used are the bunch rollers and the suction table. The former rolls the bunch of filler leaves and presses them into shape. The suction table is used for wrapping the cigar. The operator places the wrapper leaf on a perforated plate. By pressing a foot lever a vacuum is created beneath this plate which holds the leaf smooth and snug against the table. The perforated plate is exactly the form which the wrapper must be to properly fit the cigar. It is easily cut around and trimmed to shape. The bunch from the bunch roller is then quickly encased in the wrapper. Human labor is necessary only to feed the machines and to spread the wrappers. 25,000 bunches can easily be wrapped in a week at a cost of $6 to $9 for labor (principally female) and the upkeep of the machine. This in labor alone would formerly cost as much as $75.00. In the smaller "hand-made" factories, the method of procedure is about as follows: The leaf on receipt is opened and moistened. The "filler" leaf is separated from the wrapper. The filler leaf is made up into "books," a "book" being a bunch of leaves suitable for one cigar. The loose books are then allowed to ferment for a week or so when they are ready for use. The bunchmaker selects and arranges his leaves from each book, selects his binder and rolls the whole into cigar form. If a mold is used he puts the bunch in a matrix of the mold and fastens down the cover until the leaves are pressed into shape. They then go to the wrapper man and are wrapped either by machine or by hand, according to the class of goods. The wrapping is begun at the lighting end and finished at the point which is called the head. After trimming to gauge, the cigar is ready for inspection and classification according to color, etc., and for banding. Cigars according to their manufacture are classed for trade purposes in various ways. The trade nomenclature embraces the following descriptions: Cigars, little cigars, all-tobacco cigars, stogies and cheroots. Cigars proper have many subdivisions: (1) IMPORTED CIGARS. This term is usually confined to cigars made in Cuba, and does not include Porto Rican or Philippines. (2) PORTO RICO CIGARS. } } Used for cigars made in those places. (3) PHILIPPINE CIGARS. } (4) CLEAR HAVANAS. This term denotes a cigar made by hand in the U. S. of Cuban tobacco exclusively and in the same style as in Cuba. (5) SEED AND HAVANA. Up to about 50 years ago there were no clear Havanas made in the U. S., the best produced being a combination of Havana leaf and leaf grown in the states from imported Havana seed. Hence the term which ordinarily means an American made cigar, the filler being wholly or partly of Cuban tobacco and the wrapper, a domestic or Sumatran leaf. (6) DOMESTIC CIGARS. This term is used for cigars made in the U. S. in contra-distinction to imported cigars. (7) NICKEL GOODS. Ordinary 5c cigars made either entirely, of domestic tobacco or with a Sumatran wrapper, and usually made partly or wholly by machine. It also usually includes "segundos" or "seconds," i. e., cigars of a better type made to sell at higher prices but which on account of some defect are rejected on inspection. Sometimes clear Havanas made of scrap filler and inferior wrapper are included. These cigars have a vast variety of designations and make up the general stock of most cigar stores. The cost of production does not usually exceed $20.00 per thousand and they sell to dealers at from $25.00 to $30.00. (8) STOGIES, TOBIES, ETC. CHEROOTS. Cigar shaped rolls of cheap domestic tobacco made quickly by machine, and of various sizes. Cheroots are open at both ends. The filler of stogies is usually a western grown leaf of full size, but rough quality. They are manufactured principally in Louisville, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, Wheeling, etc. One of the large tobacco companies operates about 25 large cigar factories in various centers of the U. S. Here are made all classes of domestic cigars, but all are made under the same conditions of sanitation, economic handling and strict supervision. The leaf is prepared, selected, fermented, blended, etc., in the company's own special leaf houses and is despatched to the various factories as needed. All the better class of domestic cigars are hand-made, machinery being used in making the cheaper grades. There are special factories for the making of "little cigars," of which a vast number are made on account of their popularity. These include the package goods and those put up in cardboard boxes of which such brands as "Virginia Cheroots" and "Royal Bengals" are types. By the terms "little cigar" the trade recognizes all cigars under the regular standard size and which weigh less than 3 pounds per thousand. In some "little cigar" factories these little cigars are not made from inferior leaf. They are made usually from the small leaves of the tobacco intended for higher priced goods, but which on account of faulty size cannot be used. The leaf is, however, cured and prepared in exactly the same way. In addition the "scrap" or waste portions of the high priced leaf is used for fillers for little cigars. The little cigars of this type are usually of first-rate quality and on account of their small cost give excellent value to the smoker. CIGARS. MISCELLANEOUS There are a good many terms used in the cigar trade to denote color, size, quality, etc., which smokers should know the meaning of. Most of these terms are Spanish, because the cigar trade was for a long time confined to Cuba. _Terms used to denote the quality of cigar leaf_ DESECHO. The finest quality; the top leaves of plant; best because they have received most sunshine and dew. DESECHITO. Good leaves but inferior to desecho. LIBRA. Good leaves but small in size; the smaller top and bottom leaves. INJURIADO. Injured leaves; root leaves soil stained and injured by insects. _Terms used to denote color_ Note: The color term refers to the wrapper only. Many smokers judge the mildness or strength of a cigar by its outside color. This is a fallacy. The wrapper constitutes only about 2 per cent of the cigar weight. Moreover color is no criterion of strength. The darkest cigar may be and usually is very mild. The color is due (1) to the soil, (2) to the age of the plant when cut, and (3) to the length of time of curing and fermentation. As a general rule the lighter the color the more inferior and immature is the tobacco. Cigar smokers should remember this. CLARO or CLARA. Very light colored. The lightest shade known in selected leaves. COLORADO. Red; medium in color. COLORADO CLARA. Light Brown. COLORADO MADURO. Dark Brown. MADURO. Ripe; very dark, almost black in color. _Terms used to denote size and shape_ CONCHAS. Shell; cigars so marked are 4-1/4" long. CONCHA FINA. A first quality Concha. CONCHA ESPECIAL. Finely finished and somewhat larger than a Concha. LONDRES. London. Specially made for the London market and on account of its shape and length. REGALIAS. A cigar of a finer grade of tobacco than is used in Londres or Conchas. DAMAS. Ladies; small cigar about 3" long. PANATELAS. A long thin cigar that has been heavily pressed. NON PLUS ULTRA. A large handsome cigar made from the finest tobacco. ESCEPCIONALES. Exceptionally large sized cigar. OPERA. A small after-dinner cigar about 3-1/4" long. PRINCESSES. Like the Opera, but thinner. COQUETTAS. Flirt; 3-1/2" long. BREVAS. A short, thick cigar. NOBLESSE. The largest and most expensive cigars. In addition to the above there is a multitude of trade names, such as Club House, Hoffman House, Rothschilds, Invincibles, Perfectos, etc., etc. Some of these terms merely denote particular brands put out by certain makers and to distinguish their products. The Spanish terms refer to the cigar itself and not to the maker. They may be used by any maker, and no longer refer to any standard of excellence. (_See references end of Chapter XV_) CHAPTER XII CIGARS AND THEIR QUALITIES QUALITIES OF CIGARS AND CIGAR LEAF. IMPORTED CIGARS. HAVANAS. DOMESTIC CIGARS. CIGARS AND THEIR QUALITIES A cigar consists essentially of three distinct parts: the body or inner part called the _filler_; the covering of the filler which is called the _binder_; and the outside finishing cover which is called the _wrapper_. Cuban cigars, however, consist of filler and wrapper only. Except in the case of cigars made in Cuba the wrapper leaf is usually of a different class of tobacco from the rest of the cigar, as the qualities to be fulfilled by each part is different. The qualities required in a cigar must be viewed both from the smokers' and the manufacturers' standpoints and the leaf must be such as to conform to these qualities. Thus the smoker is concerned with the burning quality, the taste, flavor, aroma, color, general appearance and strength of the cigar. The manufacturer in addition to seeking leaf that will answer the smokers' requirements also has an eye to economy and requires the leaf to have qualities regarding size, weight, texture, etc. Therefore, in the best cigar leaf the following qualities are more or less essential: (1) good color, (2) fair body, (3) a continuous pleasant aroma, (4) fine texture combined with a certain toughness, (5) small ribs and veins, (6) good combustion so that it will hold fire for 4 or five minutes. The burning must be free and even with a white or whitish-brown ash which remains intact until cigar is three-fourths smoked, (7) good size of leaf, (8) must be elastic and souple, must not be brittle, (9) it must be free from spots and light in weight. Some of these qualities are essential in filler leaf; some in wrapper leaf. Thus the _color_ of filler leaf does not matter; neither does the aroma of the wrapper the essential qualities of which are color, lightness and elasticity. The cigars consumed in the U. S. are either (a) Imported or (b) Home Manufactured. (_a_) IMPORTED CIGARS The most important of the imported cigars are those that come from Cuba, Porto Rico and the Philippines. Up to the time of the Civil War cigars were imported principally from Germany and Cuba and the value was about 4-1/2 million dollars annually. High import duties have, however, altered this and the number of imported cigars is nearly 90 per cent less than formerly. The value of the import has not, however, fallen so much, that is to say only the higher grades of cigars are imported. The value of cigars now imported does not exceed 3 million dollars annually and they are principally Cuban. CUBAN, OR SO-CALLED HAVANA, CIGARS As the strictest laws are enforced in Cuba against the importation of tobacco, it follows that all genuine so-called Havana cigars are made of Cuban tobacco. The Havana Tobacco Co. controls about 260,000 acres of the best Cuban tobacco land and has 25 factories in the City of Havana. Here Havana cigars are made in all grades from those which can be bought at 2 for 25c to those which cost $2.00 each. The high priced are very limited in quality, being made from tobacco grown in specially favored districts. The Province of Pinar del Rio produces 70 per cent of the whole Cuban crop, and includes the celebrated District of Vuelta Abajo in which the finest cigar tobacco in the world is grown; the Provinces of Havana and Santa Clara each produces about 13 per cent of the Cuban crop. Havana Partidio leaf is of very fine quality and is used principally as wrappers of clear Havanas. Havana Remedios leaf comes from Santa Clara, has a high flavor, rather heavy body and is used mostly for fillers. The very finest Havana cigars never leave Cuba, for the merchant keeps them for his own use. He is a smoker before a trader. The crop of the very best Vuelta Abajo tobacco is so small that not more than about 30,000 cigars can be made from it. These are kept for private purchasers and none go on the market. The finest Havanas are of an even tint of rich dark brown, free from all stains and spots, burning freely to a white or whitish-brown ash, and holding fire for 4 or 5 minutes. Altogether the District of Vuelta Abajo produces about one-quarter million bales of leaf annually and about one-tenth of this is high class and produces up to 20 dollars per lb. on the spot. As stated previously, Cuban cigars have no binder. They consist of filler and wrapper only and are all hand-made. The unique position which these cigars have held for so long is due not only to perfect curing and blending of the leaf, but also to the superior skill of the Cuban workmen who are the most expert cigarmakers and blenders in the world, and who in the best factories are allowed to take all the time they need in making the cigar. Some of these "Tabacqueros" have been making the same brand of cigar for 20 years or longer. Of the total annual output of Cuban made cigars, England takes about 40 per cent, the U. S. about 25 per cent and Germany 13 per cent. In 1913, the U. S. imported 659,358 lbs. of cigars and cheroots from Cuba valued for $3,999,410. PORTO RICO CIGARS From Porto Rico the U. S. ships about 125 million cigars annually. PHILIPPINE CIGARS The laws in force between the U. S. and the Philippine Islands, governing the tariff, provide for the importation annually from the Philippines to the U. S. free of import duties, of cigar wrapper leaf and filler leaf mixed or packed with more than 15 per cent of wrapper leaf, not in excess of 300,000 lbs.; of filler leaf alone not in excess of 1,000,000 lbs.; and manufactured cigars in number not exceeding 150,000,000. The shipping must be direct. As the Philippine leaf is excellent and labor there is cheap, the U. S. smoker is thus enabled to get a very good smoke at a small cost. The full number of cigars allowed at least is imported. In 1913 the importation of Philippine cigars and cheroots to the U. S. was 1,641,832 lbs. valued at $2,296,823. HOME MANUFACTURED CIGARS For the home manufactured cigar trade the leaf used is either imported or home grown. Imported cigar leaf comes principally from Cuba, Dutch East Indies (Sumatra, Java, etc.), Porto Rico, Mexico, Brazil, and the Philippines. Imported Cuban leaf is used both as fillers and wrappers. The U. S. as already stated imports about 26 million lbs. annually. The leaf varies in length from 8" to 18"; is a rich brown color, and its principal characteristic is its fine flavor and aroma, which is unequalled by any other tobacco in the world. The Sumatran leaf is perhaps more important in the U. S. cigar trade than the Cuban leaf. It is used exclusively as wrappers, on account of its fine light brown color, its elastic texture and light weight. The genuine imported leaf is much less in weight than that grown from Sumatran seed in Florida. About 2 lbs. of imported Sumatran leaf will wrap 1,000 cigars. Its length is usually from 14 to 20 inches and the U. S. imports annually about 7 million lbs., valued at about 5 million dollars. The use of Sumatran leaf as a wrapper for home-made cigars has increased remarkably in the last quarter century. In the quinquennium ending 1885 the number of such cigars was 34 millions. In the last quinquennium the number exceeded 2,000 millions. The Sumatran leaf has little aroma or flavor and its value is for appearance only. The average prices paid by the United States for imported cigar leaf in 1914 was: for leaf suitable for cigar making, 127c per lb.; for "other leaf," 50.44c per lb. OTHER IMPORTED CIGAR LEAF Since the introduction of tax-free manufactured cigars from the Philippines the importation of leaf has declined. Mexican leaf is used as a substitute for Cuban, to which it is inferior. The imports of cigar leaf tobacco from Porto Rico and Brazil are relatively unimportant. CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO GROWN IN THE U. S. The home grown tobacco leaf used in the cigar manufacturing trade of the U. S. is grown principally in the states of Connecticut, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Wisconsin, Florida, Georgia, and Texas. The Connecticut leaf is used for wrappers and binders. The Ohio and Pennsylvania leaf almost exclusively for fillers. Wisconsin produces binder leaf particularly. The leaf grown elsewhere is used mostly as wrappers. It is usual, however, to use the imported and Sumatran leaf as wrappers for all high class home-made cigars. The finest American grown wrapper leaf is raised in Connecticut. The best known brands are known as Connecticut Seedleaf and Connecticut Broadleaf, both varieties raised originally from imported Havana seed. The leaf is destitute of thick fibers and has a fine texture. They run from 14" to 26" in length, giving good wrapping capacity. The Pennsylvania leaf is also classed as Seed and Broadleaf. It is about the same size as the Connecticut, but does not equal it in quality. The principal varieties in Ohio are the Gebhardt, Zimmer, Spanish, and Little Dutch. These do not usually exceed 20" in length. Florida cigar leaf is usually small, running from 10" to 14" in length. (_For references see Chapter XV_) CHAPTER XIII PIPE SMOKING AND CHEWING TOBACCOS QUALITIES REQUIRED. DESCRIPTION OF KINDS. PERIQUE TOBACCO. STATISTICS. PIPE SMOKING AND CHEWING TOBACCOS For pipe smoking mixtures the tobacco leaf used is of various kinds. Preferred strains of leaf from Virginia, North and South Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Maryland, and East Ohio, to which is added sometimes Turkish, Latakia, Perique, and a little Havana. The blend is made while the tobacco is in leaf form, portions of the desired kinds being assembled in accordance with a formula followed by the manufacturer. The leaf is then put through the required mechanical processes. The qualities necessary in pipe smoking tobaccos are that it must burn evenly, slowly, smoothly and thoroughly; it must have an agreeable aroma; it must not cause a burning or acrid sensation in the mouth when smoked; it is desirable that its nicotine contents should be low. Appearance is not of any consequence, but the manufacturer looks for leaf that, in addition to the above qualities, is free from gumminess as this interferes with granulation and cutting; also that the leaf may be a good absorbing kind in order that it may imbibe the juices with which this class of manufactured tobacco is treated both for chewing and pipe smoking. As the taste of smokers with regard to the flavor and aroma of pipe tobacco varies considerably, some desiring a strong, others a mild or light tobacco, this must be taken into account by the manufacturer and the blends graded accordingly. Pipe smoking tobaccos are distinguished according to the different mechanical processes used in their production. Thus there are (1) _Granulated_, (2) _Plug-cut_, (3) _Long-cut_, (4) _Fine-cut_, etc. In former days it was customary for smokers to buy their tobacco in the roll or twist and cut and manipulate it themselves. This custom has, however, passed away almost entirely in the U. S. It still survives to a large extent in Europe where smokers prefer their tobacco moist. In the U. S. pipe smoking tobacco is usually cut and ready for the pipe and sold in packages or cans. GRANULATED is tobacco that has been flaked by breaking or cutting machines with blunt teeth or saws and then passed over a series of oscillating sieves of graded mesh. PLUG-CUT or CUT-PLUG is first made into plugs by pressure. These plugs are then cut into thin slices convenient for crumbling. The slices are put up in packages in which form the smoker uses it. Special forms of cut-plug are, bird's-eye, short-cut, cube-cut, straight-cut, curly-cut, wavy-cut and cavendish-cut; the name being determined by the shape of the cut slices. "Navy-cut" is a particular kind of plug which was originally prepared directly by shipmen. LONG-CUT tobacco is leaf cut into long shreds. It differs from plug-cut in not having been pressed into solid plugs before cutting. FINE-CUT is finer and shorter shreds than the long-cut, and the tobacco used is usually of a less gummy kind. Other varieties known in the trade are: GERMAN SMOKING. A coarse-grained, heavy tobacco with strong flavor. It is a coarse granulated tobacco. STRIPS. A fine shredded or powdered tobacco used principally in the mining camps of Pennsylvania. SCRAP. Smoking tobacco made up from cigar clippings and cheap cigar leaf of the filler and binder type. PERIQUE TOBACCO Perique tobacco is a specially dark, rich variety having special qualities which render it desirable as a component in pipe smoking mixtures, or for straight smoking. Genuine Perique is grown and prepared only in the Parish of St. James in the State of Louisiana by the descendants of the old French Colonists. The properties which it possesses are essentially due to the peculiar method of curing and fermentation and not to any peculiarity in the leaf itself. It is the only tobacco in the United States that is grown and put in its final condition for the consumer by the farmer. It is said that the output of genuine Perique is small, being well under 50,000 lbs. annually. But there is a good deal of substitute Perique sold in lieu of the genuine kind. The tobacco is raised on a black, deep, exceedingly rich soil. The leaf is medium in size, about 18" long, and a rapid grower. The stem is small, the fiber tough and gummy. In curing no artificial heat is used. The leaf is hung in sheds for about 10 days. It is then stripped into half leaves. These are taken in bundles of about 20 each and converted into rough "twists." A dozen or so "twists" are packed in a box 11" square the weight being about 50 lbs. The contents of the box are then submitted to a pressure of about 7000 lbs. for at least 24 hours. The tobacco is then taken out and the twists again opened up. The leaves are exposed to the air and sunlight until an exudate appears on them and is reabsorbed. This is done over and over again for at least 10 days or until in appearance the tobacco is quite black. That is to say the curing of Perique is accomplished by allowing it to soak its own juice and then submitting to heavy pressure and repeating this process several times. When the leaf is cured it is made into rolls or "carottes." A cotton cloth 24" x 18" is taken and covered with leaves. Others are spread crosswise over these. Then rolled and a thin rope is wound very tightly about each bundle or "carotte." This process like the curing is repeated over and over again. One man can handle about 10 carottes in a day, the weight being about 4 lbs. each. Perique is considered to have a finer aroma than any other pipe smoking tobacco and its presence in a mixture is at once detected by the experienced smoker. It is said to contain only 1/4 of the citric acid, 1/2 of the nitric acid and 6 times as much acetic acid as tobacco cured in air. The resultant aroma is rich and fragrant, and the taste is smooth, delicate and agreeable. It is also claimed that it stimulates the brain without in any way being hurtful to the digestive or nervous systems. When the carottes are finally made it is usual to leave them under pressure for at least 12 months. The aroma is said to improve as the tobacco grows older. It has been stated above that much of the Perique tobacco is a substitute for the genuine. This substitute is made by taking inferior leaf and submitting it to a similar process, i. e., pressure and oxidation repeatedly. The process is abridged but a black tobacco results particularly when certain darkening ingredients are added. The moral is if you want genuine Perique be sure where you get it, and don't grudge the price. CHEWING TOBACCO The particular qualities required in leaf for this purpose are toughness, sweetness of taste, and a richness in oils and gums. Suitable leaf having been selected the leaf is cut and moulded into small plugs or "chews" which are put up in boxes for the market. Flavoring essences are of course plentifully used. As well as plug, chewing tobacco may be of the variety known as _twist_, the leaves being spun and twisted in a continuous roll. The plug consists of a wrapper and filler like the cigar, the brighter and better grades of leaf being used as wrappers. Burley leaf and the yellow leaf tobacco of Virginia, Kentucky and the Carolinas are principally used. The substances used for flavoring are liquorice, cane sugar, maple sugar, molasses, and rum, principally. The plugs are packed in boxes of 72 lbs. each, and also smaller boxes of 10 and 12 lbs. each. The principal centers of the manufacture of pipe smoking and chewing tobacco are Missouri (St. Louis); North Carolina (Durham and Winston); Kentucky (Louisville); New Jersey (Jersey City); Virginia (Richmond) and Ohio (Cincinnati). There are altogether about 400 establishments employing about 20,000 persons, and the value of the product is over 100 million dollars annually. This class of products is by its nature more suitable for concentration of manufacture than either cigars or cigarettes. Hence the small number of establishments. Only about 10 million lbs. of manufactured tobacco is exported. (_See references end of Chapter XV_) CHAPTER XIV CIGARETTES STATISTICS. KINDS AND WHERE MADE. IMPORTED CIGARETTES. DOMESTIC CIGARETTES. CIGARETTE PAPERS. CIGARETTES A cigarette according to the meaning of the word is a small cigar. It consists of a roll of loose tobacco wrapped in a case of either paper or tobacco-leaf. In the latter case it is known as an all-tobacco cigarette. Since the introduction of cigarette making machinery the output of cigarettes in the United States has grown enormously. This will be seen from the following figures which represent the output of cigarettes for the past 25 years: Number of cigarettes Year manufactured in the United States. 1890 2,000,000,000 1895 3,500,000,000 1900 4,000,000,000 1905 6,500,000,000 1910 7,000,000,000 These figures taken from Government Reports are given in round numbers. They include "little cigars" which form about 15% of the totals. About one-third is at present exported. In addition to the manufactured cigarettes there is, of course, the large amount of cigarettes made directly by the smoker himself. There are only about 500 establishments in the whole U. S. engaged in cigarette manufacture and about ten of these manufacture four times as many as all the rest together. There would in fact be fewer factories except for the popularity of certain brands of hand-made cigarettes. 95% of the total output is made in 4 cities, i. e., New York, Durham, N. C.; Richmond, Va.; and New Orleans. New York City alone manufactures about 60% of the whole; Richmond about 16%; New Orleans about 10% and Durham the balance. Every country manufactures its own peculiar brand of cigarettes. The best known and most popular kinds of cigarettes are those known as Virginian, Turkish, Havana, Porto Rican, Mexican, Russian and Philippine. The Havana, Porto Rican, Mexican and Philippine cigarettes are usually of the all-tobacco kind--the others being paper wrapped. They are generally made from the cuttings and smaller leaves of cigar leaf tobacco. Turkish cigarettes are celebrated all the world over. The name is however mostly a misnomer, for nearly all the so-called Turkish cigarettes proper are made in Egypt, Greece, etc., and not in Turkey. In Egypt, however, the best Turkish cigarettes are made from tobacco grown in Turkey (in Europe) which is imported, as no tobacco is grown in Egypt. The peculiar flavor of Egyptian Turkish cigarettes is due to special methods known only to the makers there. The crop of Turkish tobacco, particularly of the better kinds suitable for cigarettes, is small and less than half of it is exported. The supply of genuine Turkish cigarette tobacco is, therefore, strictly limited and does not find its way into ordinary channels. Much of so-called "Turkish" tobacco comes from China, and other parts of Asia. From Turkey, in Europe, the United States annually imports at present about ten million lbs., the actual government figures for 1913 being 10,816,048 lbs. valued at about 5-1/2 million dollars. From Turkey in Asia the imports in 1912 were 11,233,546 lbs., and in 1913, 18,955,295, this latter being valued at nearly 5 million dollars. It does not follow that all this latter is Turkish. It was probably in large part collected from distant points and shipped from ports in Asia Minor. The imports of Turkish tobacco during 1914 are considerably reduced on account of the war. One American company which does an immense business in the cigarette line maintains at Cavallo a large establishment for the direct purchase and treatment of its own Turkish leaf. This plant handles about 6 million lbs. of leaf annually. The American smoker of home-made Turkish cigarettes has the advantage of knowing that his leaf is genuine and bought economically. The most valued kind of Turkish tobacco is that grown in the Caza of Yenidji on the Vardar River region in Roumelia. The Latakia tobacco grown in the hilly part of Northern Syria is also celebrated as a cigarette tobacco. This tobacco has a low nicotine percentage (less than one per cent) and its peculiar aroma is due to its exposure for nearly 6 months to the smoke of the tree known as Quercus Ilex. Very choice parcels of these tobaccos fetch in the open market from $3 to $5 per lb.; lower grades are bought from 25c per lb. and up. The best known grades of cigarettes made from genuine Turkish leaf are the _La Ferme_ of Leipzig and St. Petersburg; the _Nestor_ and _Melachrino_ of Egypt; the _Monopol_ of New York; and the _Dubec_ of Richmond. In the Turkish hand-made cigarette there is no flavoring of any kind. In Europe the Turkish cigarettes are usually made by Greeks who are special adepts at this work. The paper wrappers are imported from France or Austria. The native cigarette makers as a rule blend their own leaf and cut or shred it by hand. An expert workman can make about 3,000 cigarettes per day. In the United States, Turkish cigarettes are of two kinds, imported and domestic. The imported include those purchased already made from Egypt, England, France, etc. In 1913 the value of cigarettes purchased directly by the U. S. from Egypt was about $25,000 and from England $22,000, other countries less. In 1914 the total cost of imported cigarettes (not including those from Philippine Islands) was $79,554. The value of such trade is, therefore, not large. The Turkish cigarettes made in the States are termed Domestic Turkish, and are usually hand-made, though not by any means exclusively so. It appears to be nothing more than an idiosyncrasy to consider that a hand-made cigarette is better than a machine-made one. As in the case of cigars, other things being equal it would appear that on many considerations, hygienic as well as mechanical, the balance is in favor of the machine. However, many still think there is some peculiar talismanic virtue in a hand-made cigarette and are willing to pay a higher price. There is, of course, a pleasure in making one's own cigarettes, but when they are bought made the advantage of hand-making is not very apparent. There are many variants of the Turkish cigarette. Besides the common paper wrapped variety some have fillers of Turkish tobacco with Havana or Virginia leaf wrapper; others have mixed fillers of Turkish, Virginia, Havana or Perique, two or more or all kinds being mixed. Each type of cigarette has its own special votaries. Cigarettes of this variety are not, however, so popular in the United States as in other countries where the cigarette is the most pronounced type smoked. The American cigarette is generally made of Yellow Virginian tobacco and is popular all the world over. The secret of success in good cigarette making lies in the selection and blending of the leaf so that the proper strength and characteristics may be secured. As a general rule no adulterants of any kind are added to the tobacco except in some of the very cheap kinds in which the leaf is sometimes treated with a glycerine solution in order to give it a sweetish taste. The solution is quite harmless. The machinery for the manufacture of cigarettes has been brought to such perfection that it is quite automatic. The only hand work required is the feeding of the tobacco into the hoppers. The cutting, rolling, wrapping, tipping and packing are all done quite mechanically, the cigarettes being turned out all ready for the smoker. In the large factories the processes are under strict hygienic conditions, which is not usually the case in the small workshops where the hand-made goods are prepared. The various machines used in the manufacturing processes are highly complicated and a detailed description of them would be too technical for these pages. The paper used for wrapping cigarettes has frequently been the subject of most unwarranted attacks and the most absurd statements have been made regarding it. Investigation and analysis of the paper used in the very cheapest grades of cigarettes by competent authorities have failed to find anything deleterious to health. The paper used for this purpose is made principally in France. It is of the kind known as rice paper although it has no connection whatever with rice. It is a vegetable substance being made usually from the membranes of the bread fruit tree or else from fine trimmings of flax and hemp. The materials are thoroughly washed and treated with lime and soda before and after pulping. Careful analysis are made to see that nothing is left that might be harmful and the manufacturers use the greatest care and judgment to see that their product is as pure and perfect as possible as it is their interest that it should be so. The paper is extremely thin and light, very combustible, and gives off very little smoke. These are the only qualities necessary and there is not the least reason to use any harmful ingredients, as the required qualities can be obtained by the ordinary manufacturing processes. Moreover, the best paper can be manufactured and supplied at a very low cost. From France the United States annually imports about $500,000 worth of cigarette paper and from Austria about $120,000 worth. Most manufactured cigarettes have a protective tip at the mouth end. This not only keeps the cigarette intact but prevents the tobacco from being wetted by the saliva. As already stated, nicotine is soluble in water, and its entrance to the mouth in this form is thus obviated. The tips are made of various substances, cork, straw, goldleaf, cherry wood, etc., in fact any water-proof substance that is harmless, nonadherent and smooth can be used. Cigarettes must according to the law of the U. S. be put up in packages of 5, 8, 10, 15, 20, 50 or 100, and the packages must not contain any lottery or chance ticket nor any indecent picture. Much criticism, that is to a large extent groundless, has been directed against the habit of cigarette smoking. It has been shown by many investigators that when not carried to excess the cigarette is the safest method of using tobacco. The reader is referred to the remarks regarding cigarettes in the chapter respecting the effect of tobacco on the human system; but it may be as well here to quote a recent editorial from one of the leading representative medical journals of the United States, the opinion stated in which should go far towards removing the absurd prejudice against the cigarette. From the _New York Medical Journal_ of July 25, 1914 (Editorial): "Particularly do the uninformed enjoy an attack on the cigarette; it is cheap; it is small; and its patrons, numerous as they are, yet form an insignificant minority in our immense population. Therefore, the cigarette and its users are fair game for cheap and silly sneers; sneers which are capable, however, of cowing an entire legislature, as in Georgia at this moment. Yet, beyond cavil, it has been proved scientifically that of all methods of using tobacco, cigarette smoking is the least harmful. Some months ago the _Laucet_ undertook a careful laboratory study of the various ways of consuming tobacco, with the result that it was found that the cigarettes, Egyptian, Turkish and American, yielded the least amount of nicotine to the smoke formed; the cigar came next in point of harmlessness, while the pipe overshadowed the cigar to the extent that from 70 to 90% of nicotine was said to exist in its smoke. "As to the paper of cigarettes the attacks are simply preposterous. * * * * * "Men are well within their rights in forbidding cigarette smoking and other pleasures and distractions to their employes; it is another matter when they seize an opportunity to compound with vices they have a mind to, by damning one they're not inclined to, especially when the latter affords solace and recreation to millions perfectly capable of judging what is and what is not good for them. In Europe where a good deal of logical thinking still prevails, there is probably not one smoker of distinction in any walk of life who does not include the cigarette in his nicotian armamentarium." (_See references end of Chapter XV_) CHAPTER XV SNUFF HOW MADE. QUALITIES. DESCRIPTION OF KINDS. SNUFF A century ago snuff taking was the principal form in which tobacco was used. The custom pervaded all classes of society and it was used by both sexes. The habit has to a very large extent died out; and it is rarely now that one sees a snuff box in use. Nevertheless there is still a very large trade in snuff manufacture, and it is used very extensively in many countries. It will surprise many to know that about 24 million lbs. of snuff are manufactured and used annually in the U. S. and that within recent years the percentage of increase in the use of this form of tobacco has been higher than in the case of cigar, cigarette or pipe smoking kinds. The value of the snuff manufactured annually is appraised for revenue purposes at about 6 million dollars. The process of the manufacture of snuff or tobacco powder, is essentially based on long and thorough fermentation as all bitter substances, acid and essential oils, as well as a large part of the nicotine, must be removed. Strong, coarse tobacco is suitable for the purpose, the darker types of Virginian and Tennessee tobaccos being used. Strong tobacco does not necessarily contain a high percentage of nicotine as is usually supposed. Strength has nothing to do with nicotine content; but whatever amount of nicotine the tobacco possesses, at least one-half must be removed by fermentation. As a general rule tobacco leaf which is at least 2 years old is used and this is submitted to a further fermentation process of a special kind for a period varying from 2 to 6 months. When the fermentation process is complete, the tobacco, while still in leaf and unpowdered, is technically known as snuff. There are two principal kinds of snuff and there are many varieties of each kind principally differing in flavor and minor qualities. The two kinds of snuff are known as Wet and Dry. These terms are due to the difference in the mode of manufacture. In making wet snuff, the tobacco leaves are ground up into grain form _before_ the fermentation takes place. It only becomes snuff when the fermentation is completed. In the dry kind the grinding does not take place until _after_ the fermentation is completed, when the fermented leaves are thoroughly dried. The grinding is then done in a muller similar to a mortar and pestle--this operation being conducted by machinery on a large scale. After grinding the snuff is put through a sieving process and is then sent to the seasoning department, thus occupying from 2 to 6 months or even longer. Various flavors--attar of roses and such like--are added to give the snuff different scents and flavors. The various names under which brands of snuff are put up are survivals of names applied to snuff made by methods no longer in vogue: SCOTCH SNUFFS are all dry. There are various kinds--strong, plain, sweet, salt, high-toast, etc. MACCABOY is a semi-wet snuff. SWEDISH SNUFFS usually contain a large percentage of moisture. The grains are coarse and usually highly flavored. Snuff taking is still extensive among the Swedish people. RAPPEE is a snuff made after the French fashion. REFERENCES (Chapters IX to XV) U. S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE. BUREAU OF THE CENSUS. _Report of 13th Census_, 1910. (Vol. on _Manufacturers_, 1912-1913.) U. S. DEPT. OF COMMERCE AND LABOR. BUREAU OF CORPORATIONS. _Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Tobacco Industry._ Vol. I, 1909, Continued. IVENS, W. M. _Brief and argument in certain appeals from the Circuit Court of U. S. for Southern District of New York._ (Tobacco Monopoly, 1911.) HOAGLAND, I. G. _The Tobacco Industry._ In _Quarterly of the National Fire Protection Assn._, 1907. Vol. I, Nos. 2 and 4. JACOBSTEIN, M. _The Tobacco Industry in the U. S._ New York, 1907. CHAPTER XVI SMOKING PIPES HISTORY. MATERIALS USED IN MAKING. MEERSCHAUM. BRIAR ROOT. AMBER. SPECIAL KINDS OF PIPES. CARE OF PIPES. PIPES The history of tobacco smoking pipes began with the discovery of tobacco by the Spaniards. How long before that event they were used is not known, but that they were used by the Indians and others for a long period is quite clear from many items of evidence. The reader who desires information concerning pre-Columbian tobacco pipes is referred to the _Pipes and smoking customs of the American Aborigines_, by J. D. McQuire, based on the material in the U. S. National Museum 1889, and other similar archaological works. The first mention of pipes in literature appears to have been made by Oviedo in 1535 in his work _La historia general de las Indias_ (Part 1). In this there is a small wood cut which is the oldest known picture of a pipe. This pipe was shaped like a Y--the two ends of which were placed in the nose and the tobacco leaves in the stem. The smoke was inhaled. Oviedo says that this pipe was called "Tabaca" from which the name tobacco was probably derived. Admiral John Hawkins was the first to mention the pipe in English literature in 1564. Raleigh's famous smoking feat did not take place until 1586. The Indian pipes were principally of clay and this material was used in England for the first pipes made there and continued in sole use for about 250 years. From England it came to New England, with the first colonists. The Spaniards of South America did not generally use pipes. Meerschaum as a pipe making material was not known in Europe till 1723. It came about in this way: There was then in Pesth (Austria-Hungary) an honest old shoemaker, Karl Kowates, who, when he was not making or mending shoes, made pipes. Count Andrassy was one of his pipe patrons. The Count while on a mission to Turkey in 1723 was presented with a lump of meerschaum. The lightness and porosity of the material suggested to him that it would be a very suitable substance for a pipe bowl and on his return to Pesth he handed the lump to Karl to make a pipe of it. It seems Karl made two, one for the Count and one for himself. But Karl did more than that. The nature of his shoe work made his hands waxy and he noticed that wherever the pipe was waxed by his hands it turned into spots of clear brown color. He thus discovered the coloring qualities of meerschaum. Karl's first pipe is still preserved (it is said) at Pesth. The new material became very popular and it spread from Austria all over pipe-smoking Europe. Wooden pipes do not appear to have come into use till the early part of the 19th Century. There is a good deal of interesting lore concerning early clay pipes into which it is not proposed to enter here. It will be interesting, however, to note that in William Penn's land transactions with the Indians, 300 clay pipes (probably English make) were one of the articles of barter. The earliest clay pipe stems were about 9 inches long. The long stem pipes with glazed ends were introduced about the year 1700 and were known as "Aldermen." The pipe known as the "Churchwarden" with a very long, thin, curved stem which was typical of a leisurable smoke did not come into use till about 1819. In those days smokers did not commonly carry pipes around with them. When a man arrived at an inn or tavern he ordered a pipe and tobacco, just as he ordered his dinner. The "Cutty" or "Aberdeen" with the short stem was, however, used by those who needed a pocket pipe. It is very surprising how little changes the pipe has undergone. The original pipe was a simple bowl and stem, and the best pipe today is a plain bowl and stem; for although hundreds of devices and all kinds of patents have been tried, the true smoker prefers the simple plain pipe which offers no obstacle to the clear drawing of the smoke from the burning tobacco. The materials used for pipes differ in various countries. Pipes are made of clay, porcelain, wood, metal, glass, ivory, horn, cane, bamboo, stone, etc. There is no known material which in the opinion of smokers equals genuine meerschaum as a material for pipes. This is on account of its lightness, its coolness, its absorbing qualities and its capabilities of high polish and assumption of a beautiful color when used from soaking the essential oils of the tobacco. Its friability, however, renders it more suitable for use as a home pipe than for a work-a-day pipe. For the work-a-day and knock-about pipe the wooden pipe with short stem is without a rival. The qualities which are essential for a wooden pipe are many and it is difficult if not impossible to get any material that will answer all of them. The wood for such a pipe must be hard and practically incombustible, yet light. It must be sapless and inodorous so that when heated the fragrance of the tobacco would not be mingled with that of the wood and be lost. In addition it must be a good absorber, cool and have beauty of grain and be susceptible of a high polish and must not be brittle. The wood known as briar root possesses these qualities to a greater extent than any other wood known. It will be described in more detail later. Myall, a native Austrian wood of a very dark color, hard and of good grain has many excellent qualities for pipes, but is brittle. Maple, juniper and cherry and several other woods are used to a limited extent. MEERSCHAUM Meerschaum is a light, porous, clayey substance composed of magnesium, oxygen and silicon. It is chemically described as a hydrated silicate of magnesia and its chemical formula is MgSi{2}O{4} + 2H{2}O. The word _meerschaum_ is composed of two German words, i. e., Meer, the sea; and Schaum, foam, and literally means "the foam of the sea." A popular belief being that the substance was petrified sea foam. The circumstances under which meerschaum came to be used for smoking pipes have already been detailed. Meerschaum occurs as a mineral more or less scattered all over the world, but the largest quantities and probably the best qualities occur in Asia Minor. In the United States, the mineral is found in South Carolina. Other mines occur in Spain, Greece and Morocco. The principal mines in Asia Minor are situated about 250 miles southwest of Constantinople, on the plains of Eskishahr. Meerschaum has been in use for sundry purposes in the Orient for many centuries and the mines of Asia Minor have been worked for at least 1,000 years. The result is that they are now approaching exhaustion. The area in which the mineral occurs principally is small, about six square miles, and in this area many thousands of pits are worked. The soil is alluvial and in these deposits the meerschaum is found in soft lumps and nodules having no definite or regular shape. It also occurs in veins among the Serpentine rocks and marls. Although it is soft when taken out of the ground it rapidly hardens when exposed to the air. It is roughly shaped and cleaned at the mines and from thence sent to the dealers who further prepare it by waxing and polishing and put it on the market in the conditions in which it reaches the pipe makers. The principal European depots for meerschaum are Constantinople and Vienna. It is usually packed in boxes containing about 50 lbs. each and sells for from 50c to $4.00 per lb. The lumps on reaching the manufacturers are first cut with a band saw into suitable sized blocks according to the size and shape of the pipes desired. These blocks are then thoroughly soaked in water until they are thoroughly saturated. The soaking renders the material soft and soapy and gives it the consistency of cheese, so that it is then easily shaped into the desired form which the pipe is to take. It is then dried and hardened again and on completion the bowl is hollowed out and the stem drilled. If the pipe is a plain one without carving it is finished on a lathe and filed ready for polishing. It is also threaded for the mouthpiece. The pipe is then sent to the drying room for such time as is necessary to expel all moisture. The final treatment for the smoothing of the surface is done by fine sandpaper and other special substances, then immersing in melted white beeswax for three to five minutes and finally the giving of a high polish with precipitated chalk, cotton and flannel being the usual rubbing materials used. Meerschaum by its nature is particularly adapted for carving. The hand carving of such pipes requires artistic and dexterous craftsmen, who are experts in this particular class of work. There are various imitations of meerschaum. One is made from burnt gypsum soaked with lime in a solution of gum arabic. This forms a hard, creamy plaster and is capable of receiving a highly smooth and polished marble-like surface. Another form of imitation is made of a hardened plaster of Paris highly polished and tinted in a solution of gamboge and dragon's blood, being afterwards treated with paraffin or stearic acid. All cheaper grades of meerschaum pipes, holders, etc., are made of this or similar compounds and it is very hard for the average smoker to distinguish them as the ordinary tests will not suffice. The absorption and coloring qualities are about the same. Such imitations cost about half as much as the genuine article or even sometimes less. It should be added that the chips and dust resulting from the working of the genuine meerschaum are bonded together with a solution and moulded and this is also sold as meerschaum. The number of genuine meerschaum pipes annually manufactured is probably much less than one-half a million, while there are probably three or four times as many imitations. BRIAR ROOT As we have seen briar root is found to be the most suitable wood for pipe smoking. The word briar is not named from wild briar. The word is a corruption of the French name La Bruyère, meaning the heather shrub of that name which grows along the Mediterranean coast of France, Spain and neighboring countries. It is the root of this shrub which is the substance used. The shrub is especially cultured for the purpose of pipe making; but the area in which the best briar root grows is very limited. It takes considerable time and the result is that the supply of the most suitable wood is far below the demand. The cultivation of the briar root is a simple matter. It consists merely in pruning the growth as much as possible so as to encourage and strengthen the roots. The very best qualities of briar root come from Corsica and the neighborhood of Leghorn. It is very finely grained, hard and tough, does not char and heats slowly. When full grown and ready for the market the wood is rough sawn into blocks, varying in size from 3 inches square up, according to the market sizes required, and allowed to season. When fully seasoned the blocks are packed in boxes each containing from 200 to 300 of these blocks. They are then sent to the dealers or direct to the pipe factories as the case may be. In the factory the blocks are sorted and then undergo a sweating process in steam vats for ten to twelve hours. This steaming gives the wood the familiar brown-yellow tint of the natural briar root uncolored. After sweating the blocks are sent to the drying room as all traces of moisture must be removed. This usually takes several months. For pipe making the workman selects his block and roughly trims it to size. It is then placed in the frazing machine. This usually has three cutters revolving at very high speed, making several thousand revolutions per minute. The center cutter shapes out the block and the outer knives cut away the wood on the outside so as to form the block roughly into the shape of a pipe bowl and stem. This is then placed in a special lathe for cutting irregular forms. It is usual to fit in it a metal pattern of the particular shape chosen for the pipe. A circular cutting tool is set in motion and the briar block, which turns with the metal pattern, is mechanically cut to the exact shape of the pattern. After cutting, the pipe passes to the sandpapering machines where both inside and outside are thoroughly treated, and it gets a first polishing or smoothing on a pumice stone wheel. The next process is the boring of the stem which is done in a drilling machine by a steel wire having a cutting top rapidly turned by a lathe. The thread on the end of the stem for the mouthpiece is formed by a special machine. The pipe is then ready for polishers and finishers. It is first sandpapered four times, twice with rough and twice with fine on revolving wheels. Unless the wood is to be left its natural color, it is dropped into a vat of stain until it acquires the color desired. After drying it is ready for "buffing." A "buff" is a wheel made of many layers of cloth, leather, etc., which revolves very rapidly. For pipe buffing these buffs are usually Tripoli buff, sheepskin buff, muslin and cotton flannel buff. The Tripoli takes off any sediment held by the edges of the grain. The sheepskin buff burns the color fast into the wood. The muslin and cotton bring out the grain and gives the wood its final delicate lustre and finish, which are done when the stem and mountings have been put on. The pipes are then ready for final stamping with name and packing. The process is much the same with all other hard woods. Pipe factories are found in most countries. French briar pipes are justly celebrated, but the American pipes are better made. Within recent years calabash has come into vogue to a large extent as a pipe making material. The calabash is a South African squash and has a special softness of flavor. The curved stem end of the calabash is used, being lined with plaster of Paris, and quite a large trade has sprung up in South Africa in growing calabash for the pipe trade, the principal point being Cape Town. THE PIPE STEM It is very important that suitable material be selected for the mouthpiece of the pipe. In fact from many points of view the mouthpiece is the most important part of the pipe for the smoker, because damage to the lips must be particularly avoided, and a defective, rough, or badly made mouthpiece is apt to cause damage. There are three very important qualities which the material must have: (1) It must be hard enough to resist indentation from the teeth and yet not feel gritty. (2) It must be capable of receiving a perfectly smooth surface and of retaining it under the action of saliva. (3) It must not be a rapid heater so that it will not burn the lips, or crack or splinter under action of heat. Other very desirable qualities are toughness, beauty of appearance and freedom from taste or odor under all circumstances of use. Amber has a unique place in fulfilling these conditions. Amber is a fossil gum or resin, the juice of pine trees, which in course of time has become petrified like coal. Amber is found is various parts of the world, but is more plentifully found along the sandy shores of East Prussia bordering on the Baltic Sea. This area was in time long past the site of pine forests. The amber is found very often to occur with lignite or brown coal. It is dug out of the cliffs or mined like coal out of the ground. Sometimes it is washed in from the sea. In size it varies from the size of a pea to lumps as large as an orange. When first dug up it is usually of a pale yellow color, but this becomes darker on exposure. The manufacture of commercial amber is a government monopoly in Prussia. The pieces are all melted down at a temperature of about 550° F., and then after purification it is cast into slabs about 7/8 inch to 1-5/8 inches thick and four inches to eight inches long, in which form it is sold to dealers. There are two qualities, opaque and transparent, the opaque being the tougher. The cost varies considerably, the inferior kinds being sold for $2.00 per pound, and the finest specimens cost up to $60.00 per pound. By far the largest quantity of amber used for ordinary pipes is imitation amber. The manufacture of this is a trade secret. It is so good and fulfills its purpose so well that only experts can distinguish it from genuine amber. There are many substitutes for amber. Good vulcanite, except for the matter of appearance is little inferior to amber as mouthpiece material. Cut vulcanite is cool and smooth, but moulded vulcanite is liable to be rough to the lips and should be avoided. Vulcanite mouthpieces are usually sold already finished direct to the pipe makers. Except for the matter of brittleness unglazed clay is a most excellent pipe stem. Clay is usually cool and very absorbent of the acrid oils occurring in the distillation of tobacco. When the end of a clay stem is protected by a rubber band, it forms a very good mouthpiece. Bone and other materials are also used as mouthpieces. Ebonite is used, but is objectionable because it spoils the flavor of the tobacco. Celluloid is a dangerous substance and should not be used as a pipe stem. The smoker should avoid biting the mouthpiece as it roughens it. It is far better to discard a mouthpiece when it becomes indented, rough or worn in any way. A damaged mouthpiece should on no account be used when the lips are chapped or lacerated because the irritation may, if continued, lead to ulceration and tobacco juice is not beneficial to skin lesions. SPECIAL PIPES German pipes are, as might be expected, the most correct in scientific principle. The pipe has two bowls the upper of which is for the tobacco. This fits into a socket which allows the oils and aqueous solutions due to the distillation to pass into the lower bowl, very little getting into the stem. The bowls are usually of porcelain and the long curved stem is of wood mostly cherry. The Dutch pipe is similar to the German except that the stem is long and straight which allows the bowl to rest on the ground. The German pipe is usually held in the hand by the lower bowl. In Turkey and Oriental countries the water pipe is used. This form of pipe originated in Persia. The pipe consists of a receptacle for the tobacco, which has a perforated bottom. This holder fits into a cup from which a hollow tube leads into a jar containing water. The tube passes through the stopper of the jar and descends almost to the bottom of the water. Another tube, the inhaling tube, also passes through the stopper of the jar, but does not reach to the surface of the water. On drawing through the inhaler a vacuum is created in the air space above the surface of the water in the jar which induces suction through the other tube below the water level. The smoke therefore bubbles through the water and is cooled before it reaches the mouth of the smoker. It, however, requires a considerable amount of effort to draw the smoke through. Water pipes are used extensively among the better classes of the East. Some of them are very gorgeous affairs, the bowls being of the richest crystal and the fittings gold or silver set with gems. Sometimes they have several smoking tubes so as to accommodate more than one smoker. The water pipe used by the Shah of Persia is said to be worth $400,000.00. In Turkey the water pipe is known by the name of Hookak. In Egypt it is called Nargeeleh (or Narghile) because the water vessel is usually a cocoa nut for which the Arabic name is Na'rghee'leh. The Hookak usually stands on the floor and is ponderous, with many smoking tubes. The Nargeeleh is a hand pipe. In Eastern countries, however, besides the water pipe the ordinary clay bowl pipe is used to a very large extent, being fitted with a wooden stem from 3 to 5 feet in length. All these pipes are essentially home pipes, as it is not habitual with the Eastern people to smoke except when seated. In China both sexes commonly smoke pipes--a water pipe made of brass is usually smoked by the richer classes. The poorer classes use a clay pipe with a bamboo stem. The principal importation into the United States of foreign made pipes and smokers' articles is from Austria, England and Germany. The latest government statistics show that from England $278,000, from Austria about $280,000, and from Germany about $139,000 worth of such goods are annually imported. These are principally pipes. Cigarette paper, briar root, etc., are not included in these figures. The total importation value in 1912 (exclusive of duty) from Europe was $1,478,000. THE CARE OF PIPES An experienced smoker lays down the following rules for the care of pipes. The rules apply whether a man uses one or half a dozen pipes: (1) When a pipe is used for the first time wipe out the bowl with a cloth. Then thoroughly wet or dampen it. Before the moisture evaporates fill the pipe. Light evenly and be careful not to burn the rim with the lighted match. The tobacco being damp next the wood will not redden there, hence the wood will not char but a sooty film will form. (2) Ashes should be allowed to remain in the pipe till thoroughly cooled. Then emptied. The object of this is to allow the liquid residue to soak into the pores of the new wood. (3) Do not scrape the inner surface of the bowl. The thin coating of carbon (the "cake") which is formed on it is a nonconductor of heat and prevents the wood from overheating or cracking. It keeps the pipe cool and is a good absorber. (4) After half a dozen smokes the rule of removing the ashes should be reversed. They should be removed promptly after smoking. Blow through the mouthpiece after smoking. By this time the inner surface of bowl is sufficiently soaked and coated and continuation makes it acrid and sodden. (5) Always allow your pipe to cool and dry before resmoking. Use pipe cleaners and pipe spoon for cleaning. When the "cake" becomes too thick part of it may be removed but always leave a layer next the wood. Be careful not to scrape the surface of the bowl. (6) A pipe should not be used continuously for more than a few weeks or a month. It should then be cleaned and allowed rest unused for a while. It is well to allow it to hang where the sunlight can play on it. Acrid matters will dry out and the pipe will be sweet when smoked again. It is a good plan to pack the bottom of the bowl with powdered chalk when it is resting. When a pipe tastes acrid it requires more than ordinary cleaning. If one has the opportunity a most excellent way is to blow steam through it, first removing the mouthpiece. Another way recommended by a smoker who says it is most efficacious is to fit a cork into the bowl of the pipe. Make a hole in the cork, into which the nozzle of a soda siphon will fit snugly. Direct the mouthpiece into some emptying vessel and force about a wine glass of the soda water from the siphon through the pipe. It will clean it out effectively. If you are smoking a meerschaum and desire it to color well and evenly it is a good plan to use a false upper bowl to fit inside the bowl of your pipe. The rim of fire where the tobacco is burning makes the pipe bowl too hot and does not allow that part to color. The false bowl will prevent this. Some smokers think that covering a meerschaum bowl with chamois will cause it to color well. The chamois will not aid the coloring but it will protect the bowl from being touched by the hand during the process and thus avoiding a spotty effect, particularly if the hand should be moist or greasy. During the progress of the coloring the pipe should never be allowed to get too hot. The time required to color a pipe depends on the tobacco used. If it is a rich oily tobacco, the time necessary is shorter than with a dry tobacco. Imitation meerschaum of the cheaper kind are sometimes artificially colored by the makers. This is done by boiling the pipe in an oily solution of nicotine, the formula for which as given in the _American Druggist_, V. 58, is: Crude nicotine (oil of tobacco)==[ounce] i. Olive oil==[ounce] ii. Yellow wax==[ounce] viii. The pipe is kept in the boiling solution from 10 to 15 minutes and rapidly absorbs it. The surface is capable of a high polish. REFERENCES PENN, W. A. _The Soverane Herbe: a History of Tobacco._ London and New York, 1901. FAIRHOLT, F. W. _Tobacco; its History and Associations._ London, 1876. CHAPTER XVII EFFECTS OF TOBACCO SMOKING ON THE HUMAN SYSTEM PHYSICAL EFFECTS. OPINIONS OF MEDICAL MEN QUOTED AND DISCUSSED. EFFECTS OF TOBACCO SMOKING ON THE HUMAN SYSTEM It is a matter of very great importance for the user of tobacco that he should have clear information regarding the beneficial and harmful effects of tobacco on the human mind and body. There are very few matters which have been the subject of such varied opinions; such exaggeration and misconception. Those who are opposed to the use of tobacco have not hesitated to ascribe to it every form of evil, physical, mental and moral. Insanity, epilepsy, cancer, malignant throat disease, blindness, heart disease and a host of other diseased conditions are traced to tobacco smoking by its enemies. On the other hand the users of tobacco are scarcely less vehement in holding that no harmful effects follow, but ascribing all kinds of virtue as resulting from its use. It is not our object in this chapter to justify or recommend the use, or to advise the avoidance of tobacco; we think it is a matter that the individual should decide for himself. Moreover, we think that no general rules governing all cases can be laid down, but that each individual must judge for himself whether the use of tobacco is justified in his own particular case or not, taking into consideration all the circumstances that affect him. The important thing is that he should possess clear and correct information with regard to the effects of tobacco as far as such have been scientifically determined; and from the observation of its effects on his own organism to determine whether in his own case the practice is beneficial or otherwise and to what extent it may be pursued if he desires to smoke. We, therefore, purpose to submit the facts which have been determined by the most careful scientific investigators and others of high standing, who, from their experience in the investigation of the causes of disease, are best qualified to offer opinions which may be accepted as authoritative. A perusal of the vast amount of literature both for and against the use of tobacco brings out certain points very largely. First, in the case of the opponents, the most sweeping statements are made without a particle of scientific proof in support of them, by persons who are in no way qualified to make such statements. Statistics are quoted most recklessly and accepted as conclusive, although in most cases there is no logical connection between the matter of the statistics and the absolute effects of tobacco. If there is a question of a certain condition, it is not sufficient to show that the person suffering from it was a user of tobacco and to allege, therefore, that tobacco was the cause of the condition. It must be shown conclusively that no other circumstances than the use of tobacco could have caused this condition. Dr. T. W. Jenkins, of Albany, N. Y., (New York _Medical Journal_, 1915, V. 102, p. 355), who was awarded a prize by this leading medical journal for his essay on tobacco smoking says: "The first thing to bear in mind is that considering the large amount of tobacco used very little harm results, and care should be taken not to incriminate tobacco when the troubles under observation may be due to other causes." Secondly, among the investigators themselves who have made impartial inquiries about the effects of tobacco, there is sometimes a wide difference of opinion in the interpretation of results and in the relation of cause and effect. Thus most varied opinions exist on the subject of nicotine. The result is that it is difficult for the average man to come to a satisfactory conclusion on the subject; for it cannot be said that the scientific knowledge of the effects of tobacco smoking on the human system as presented to us today is final or sufficiently well determined to enable definite and true conclusions to be arrived at. Thirdly, there is the widespread error of ascribing the evils of the _abuses_ of tobacco to the _use_ of tobacco. This matter of the _use_ and _abuse_ of tobacco cannot be put too clearly. Most medical investigators have based their results clearly on the _excessive_ use of tobacco. It is a very rare thing to find a medical investigator drawing attention to any harmful results following the moderate use of tobacco, and it appears a just statement to make that the majority of men use tobacco in moderation. It appears to be true that excessive smoking is harmful and is capable of producing deleterious effects on the respiratory and nervous systems in man, but it has never been scientifically proved that the moderate use of tobacco has any particularly harmful effects. Moreover, it is well-known to the medical profession and so stated constantly that in many cases where the use of tobacco has produced bad effects on the eye, nerves, etc., its use is contra-indicated, owing to the condition of the subject due to other causes and that such results would not occur in a normally healthy subject. Therefore, because tobacco when used excessively or when used by persons who are not constitutionally fitted for it, produces bad effects, it is not logical to argue, as many opponents of tobacco smoking do, that the use of tobacco is universally harmful. Fourthly, the conclusions arrived at by some investigators, are based on experiments made on animals, and it appears quite open to criticism, and is in fact disproved by common experience, that such results will follow when applied to man. Hinging on this is the question of immunity and toleration. The human system will easily after use tolerate effects which at first it rebels against. This may easily be seen in muscular and other efforts. Let a man who is constantly leading a sedentary life suddenly walk 10 miles. The result is almost prostration and he will not recover from it for a considerable time. Let him, however, commence by walking a mile or two and gradually at each walk increase the distance, and in a short while he will be able to walk 10 miles without feeling any fatigue. Similarly running or other rapid exercise to a person not used to it will produce such rapid disturbances in the respiration and circulation as even to be fatal, while the seasoned athlete may perform such feats without the least ill effects. To take animals or persons who have never before used tobacco and to argue or conclude that the effects of tobacco smoke on them are the effects of tobacco on smokers generally is absurd. Yet such experimental results are very often made the basis of denunciation of tobacco smoking. Finally most investigators have made their inquiries for the exclusive purpose of discovering the evil effects of tobacco smoking. They proceed to their work with a biassed mind. They have already assumed that the habit is harmful and they simply want to find out how much harm they can discover. They are prejudiced from the beginning. It is to this class of investigator that Dr. John Aikman refers to (New York _Medical Journal_, Oct. 30, 1915), when he says: "In reading the literature on the use of tobacco we are impressed by the fact that much of it is written by persons greatly opposed to the use of the plant, and naturally prejudiced." It is quite conceivable that a man may investigate the evil effects which follow from wearing clothes and shoes and he could undoubtedly find some evil effects; but the users of such articles could very justly say that the beneficial results of such habits more than outweighed the demonstrated harm that might occur. And then the user of tobacco might say that the beneficial effects of smoking more than compensated for any slight harm that may happen. For tobacco has undoubtedly many excellent effects, and no one knows this better than the smoker himself. He will readily admit that excess is bad. He will readily admit that the use of tobacco is not suitable to immature persons, or in fact to many other persons, but he insist that in the majority of cases, it is not only practically harmless but that it has many desirable qualities, for that is proved by his own experience and the experience of millions of other smokers in all ages and under all conditions. We will now proceed to consider some of the effects which have been ascribed to tobacco smoking and give expressed opinions concerning them. PHYSICAL EFFECTS OF TOBACCO SMOKING The principal deleterious effects on the human system ascribed to the use of tobacco are: (a) Throat diseases. (b) Disturbance of vision. (c) Heart troubles (smokers' heart). (d) Disturbance of the digestive organs (dyspepsia, etc.). (e) Disturbance of the nervous system. (f) Disturbance of nutrition. As regards (a) throat diseases, the following is the opinion of Dr. H. Reik of the Johns Hopkins University, surgeon to the Baltimore Eye, Ear and Throat Hospital, as expressed by him in the Boston _Medical and Surgical Journal_, Vol. 162, p. 856, 1910: "There is not one scintilla of evidence that malignant disease of the throat is due in any way to the use of tobacco; and if it be admitted that carcinoma (cancer) of the lip or tongue has been produced by smoking, it is clearly _not tobacco_, but traumatism (i. e., injury) from the stems of the pipe or other tobacco container that is responsible. "It does not appear or at least has not been proven that tobacco causes any definite characteristic lesions of the nose, throat or ear." Dr. Reik is a man of high standing in the medical profession. His opinion is clear and unmistakable and it is presumed he has seen thousands of cases of nose and throat diseases and knows what he is talking about. Dr. Reik refers to the question of so-called smokers' cancer. Cancer is a disease which attacks all kinds of people and may occur in widely different parts of the body. The causation of this disease is not known to the medical profession but what is known about it is that it usually occurs on the site of some previous injury. Thus cancer may occur on the tongue as the result of the constant irritation of a jagged broken tooth. Dr. I. C. Bloodgood (Boston _Medical and Surgical Journal_, No. 2, 1914), who has examined 200 cases of lip cancer says that smoking is a common factor, the disease when occurring being usually on the site of a neglected and ulcerated smoker's burn. The burn may be a charring of the skin due to a very hot pipe stem or burning cigar stem. He says, moreover, that if the burn is not continued and there is no other injury, this defect may heal without evidence of ulceration. Similarly a cancer may be the result of continual use of a broken or rough pipe stem or from using a dirty pipe stem on a broken skin. All these are clearly matters which the average smoker easily and usually avoids. It is, however, clear that tobacco itself is in no way responsible for cancer, and no responsible medical writer on the subject alleges that it is. Most of the medical writers who have inscribed injurious physical effects on the nervous system, heart and sense organs, to excessive tobacco smoking have stated that these effects are due to the toxic action of the alkaloid nicotine known to exist in tobacco. There is a wide difference, however, in the results obtained by different writers as to the amount of the nicotine in tobacco which finds its way with the tobacco smoke. Moreover, some of the investigators who have done very careful work do not consider that nicotine is the toxic element, but the substance called pyridine which is derived from it. Dr. Bush (quoted below) referring to this matter says: "From a review of the literature it would appear that extensive studies had been made as to the effects on living organisms of the alkaloid, nicotine. From such studies a great number of writers, especially laymen, have adopted the hasty conclusion that tobacco smoking entailed like results. "Comparatively few studies have been made of the effects of tobacco smoking on human beings; and such as have been made fail to state if the tobacco used or the smoke produced was examined for nicotine or its congeners. The absence of an examination necessarily causes some doubt in the causative faction of the phenomena. Some authors are rather inclined to conclude that nicotine alone is the pathogenic factor in tobacco smoking, but since the presence of nicotine _per se_ in tobacco smoke is debatable and since other toxic substances are demonstrable, it would seem as if the whole subject still remained open for investigation." The nicotine contained in ordinary tobacco, according to many authors, ranges from about 1 to 8 or 9 per cent. Lee's investigation (_Journal of Physiology_, 1908, p. 335) found that about half of the total nicotine was present in the smoke--according to Lee the pyridin seemed to be entirely without influence. Lehmann (_Archiv für Hygiene_, 1909, p. 319) found that from 80 to 90% of the total nicotine in a cigar or cigarette was to be found in the smoke. He found also that in the case of cigars about 10 to 18% of the nicotine in the smoke is absorbed by the smoker and that cigarette smoke absorbed by the smoker contains a less proportion of the nicotine in the tobacco than is the case with cigars. The general opinion is, however, that about one-seventh of the nicotine in the tobacco will be found in the smoke. Entirely at variance with these results are those obtained recently by A. D. Bush, M.D., Instructor of Physiology in the University of Vermont (New York _Medical Journal_, March 14, 1914), and those obtained in the laboratory investigation by the London _Laucet_. Bush made long and extensive investigations on the effects of tobacco smoking and criticised the results of previous workers. He shows very clearly that in many cases the conclusions drawn by them as regards nicotine contained in tobacco smoke are either entirely erroneous or that the deductions made from the investigations were not warranted by the facts observed. He points out the fact that most writers on the subject have overlooked the fact of the great discrepancy between the possible effects arising from the administration of the amount of nicotine in a cigar and the actual effect produced on the smoker of the cigar. He asks this pertinent question: "If a cigar contains 0.085 grains nicotine, and if one-seventh of the nicotine of the tobacco is present in the smoke and if but .004 grains is capable of causing death, why does the smoker not absorb enough nicotine to cause his demise?" As a result of his careful experiments, Bush found that although nicotine was present in all the samples of tobacco tested there was no nicotine whatever found in the smoke, except in the case of cigarettes and in this case only traces were found. The reason of this is given as due to the rapid burning of the cigarette which did not allow sufficient time for the complete decomposition of the nicotine. Pyridine was, however, found in the smoke of all tobacco burned. Pyridine is only one-twentieth as toxic as nicotine. Bush concluded, therefore, that pyridine and not nicotine is the toxic factor in tobacco smoke. The same fact was stated several years ago by Rideal (_Disinfection and Preservation of Food_, London and New York, 1903, p. 254), who says: "Tobacco smoke, contrary to popular belief, does not contain nicotine, which is decomposed by the heat; but pyridine and its homologues and the beneficial effects of tobacco in many cases of asthma must be attributed to this latter." The _Lancet_ investigation (see _Lancet_, Ap. 6, 1912, pp. 944-947) was made because "a recent review of numerous analysis of tobacco which have been published from time to time raises some doubt as to whether the results given correctly represent the actual alkaloidal contents of the tobacco." Moreover, to find the relationship of the true amount of nicotine in any tobacco to that in the smoke produced by the combustion of that tobacco, and any modification caused by the method of smoking. The investigation was conducted under the strictest conditions, the most recent methods of chemical research being employed. The following table (given by the _Lancet_) shows the nicotine contents of various tobacco samples and the percentage of nicotine in the smoke: Description of Tobacco. Per Cent Per Cent Per Cent Nicotine Nicotine Nicotine in Tobacco in Smoke in Smoke (Pipe). (Cigarette). Virginian Cigarettes (Sample 1) 1.40 0.74 0.12 Virginian Cigarettes (Sample 2) 1.60 0.60 0.06 Caporal (French) Tobacco 2.60 2.20 0.95 Turkish Cigarettes 1.38 0.51 Egyptian Cigarettes 1.74 0.21 Pipe Smoking Mixture (1) 2.85 2.20 2.25 Pipe Smoking Mixture (2) 2.81 1.53 Pipe Smoking Mixture (3) 2.04 0.23 Perique Tobacco 5.30 1.27 0.57 Cavendish Tobacco 4.15 3.85 Latakia Tobacco 2.35 1.20 Havana Cigar 0.64 0.20 From this analysis it appears that pipe mixtures contain the largest amount of nicotine in the tobacco (2.04-2.85%). Egyptian and Turkish cigarette tobaccos come next (1.38-1.74%). Virginian cigarette tobacco shows similar figures (1.40-1.60%). French tobacco (Caporal) contains 2.60%, and Perique 5.30%. For all practical purposes the tobaccos consumed by the public according to this report seldom contain more than 3% of nicotine and generally less, the average being about 2%, which is much lower than previous writers lead us to expect. The cigarette, whether Egyptian, Turkish or American, yields the least amount of its total nicotine to the smoke formed, while the pipe yields a very large portion (in some cases between 70 and 80%) of its nicotine to the smoke. Analysis of cigar smoke gives figures midway between the two. With the results of Bush and the _Lancet_ before him the user of tobacco will be better able to judge of the opinions of those who describe the effects of nicotine on the vision, heart, digestive organs, etc., as likely to be the results of tobacco smoking. Thus the disturbance of vision ascribed to tobacco smoking is called tobacco amblyopia. Dr. W. S. Franklin of San Francisco (_Calif. State Jour. of Med._, 1909, V. 7, p. 85), says that to produce this disease it is necessary to smoke daily from .75 to 1.0 gms. of pure nicotine. If 17% of the nicotine of tobacco is carried in the smoke, in order to absorb that quantity 7 or 8 cheap domestic cigars, 10 or 11 Cubans or 60 cigarettes should be smoked. Now very few smokers consume this amount and according to Bush, and the _Lancet_, and others there is no such percentage of nicotine in the smoke. To the use of tobacco is ascribed an acid dyspepsia--this, however, is noticed more particularly in habitual chewers and in this case the nicotine not being burnt has no chance of being decomposed. All writers have agreed that chewing is the worst way that tobacco can be used. Dr. R. V. Dolbey says: (_Northwest Medicine_, 1909, V. 1 p. 99). "In chewing, quantities of watery extract of tobacco are swallowed and taken down with the food containing a large percentage of nicotine and causing severe dyspepsia. While tobacco juice solution in the laboratory kills intestinal bacteria, excessive tobacco chewing does not have this effect on the human body owing to the fact that the gastric and pancreatic juices act on it and alter it." Dr. I. S. Gilfilian discusses the effects of tobacco on the heart in the St. Paul _Medical Journal_, July, 1912, p. 338. He says that the important part whether organic changes in the cardio-vascular system may be produced by tobacco is still doubtful, and that it has never been shown that smokers suffer more from organic heart disease than nonsmokers. General opinion is that smoking lessens the pulse rate and slightly increases the blood pressure, and that it is a cause of arterio-sclerosis. With regard to arterio-sclerosis, Dr. A. Lorand of Carlsbad who is a world-wide authority on the effects of toxic substances on the blood, says in his book, _Old Age Deferred_ (English translation, 1910, p. 367): "Clinically we have observed the great frequency of arterio-sclerosis in _great_ smokers, but we do not think that two or three light cigars a day, but never before meals, can do any harm save in exceptional cases. Indeed there are a few instances of persons living to be over 100, notwithstanding the fact that they were smokers--a fact contrary to the observation of Hufeland who pretends that he never heard of such a case. The famous English painter, Frith, who died in October, 1909, used to smoke 6 cigars a day, and Mr. F. of Chartres, in France, passed last year his 100th birthday in spite of his having taken snuff all his life." If there were any serious lesions caused in the human system by the continued use of tobacco we might naturally expect that life insurance companies would take notice of it, but hear what they have to say (_Medical Record_, New York, July 12, 1913): Dr. H. G. Turney, at the meeting of Life Insurance Medical Officers Association, London, January, 1913, said that as far as observation and study of the literature went he did not consider that there was much evidence that the habit of smoking can be convicted of any serious effect on the mortality table. One must confess rather to a feeling of surprise that the life-long absorption of so potent a drug as nicotine by a large proportion of the male population should not be accompanied by more obvious results in the way of serious injury to the cardiac muscle than appears to be the case. Dr. A. Marvin of the Department of Pharmacology, Vermont University, made numerous experiments on the effects produced by tobacco. In the cases of the respiratory system, he states that in rapid smoking the respiratory rate is increased, due more to the effort than to the drug. In deliberate smoking there is very little effect. In the digestive system the effects produced were, increased flow of saliva and stimulation of the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines. Marvin did not find any important symptoms of systemic irregularities except where there was excessive use of tobacco. He says: "Tobacco produces, _when used to excess_, symptoms in a very small per cent and often it is only one factor in producing the conditions observed." A very cautiously expressed and noncommittal opinion. It is to be remembered that of the percentage of nicotine in tobacco smoke only a small portion is drawn into the smoker's system. The greater part passes off again in the smoke passed out; also that the products of combustion of tobacco include acqueous solution as well as smoke; it will not probably be questioned that some of this watery solution is drawn into the mouth as well as the smoke and probably contains minute quantities of nicotine or its derivatives. The smoker may obviate any slight harmful effects of these substances by care. If he is a cigar smoker he must avoid chewing or sucking the butt end of the cigar in which the acqueous solution finally gathers, and he would find it better to smoke long thin cigars which afford a small area behind the burning point for the collection of acqueous vapor and give a better combustion. Judged from these viewpoints the best and most expensive thick cigar is likely to be more harmful than the very worst kind of a cigarette, for although there may be a much smaller percentage of nicotine in the cigar tobacco, a much larger proportion of it may reach the mouth of the smoker through the water produced by combustion, in the case of the cigar than in the case of the cigarette. Every cigar and cigarette smoker should use a holder for the reason stated. The cigarette from the nicotine point of view is the least objectionable form of smoking. In fact expert opinion is recognizing that unless where the smoke is inhaled cigarette smoking if not excessive is probably harmless. It is hard, of course, to kill a popular prejudice, but we have to deal with demonstrated facts not prejudices. In the case of inhalation of cigarette smoke the danger is from carbon monoxide gas and not from nicotine. When the difference of opinion amongst authoritative investigators are discounted their general results will be found to agree very well with the general facts observed by all users of tobacco. What they see is that probably seventy per cent of the adult male population under all conditions and circumstances use tobacco within limits of moderation. They see around them men who have for many years used it, and they do not observe any particular harmful results in the user of tobacco compared with the nonuser. Men as a rule are not more nervous, more subject to heart troubles or age troubles than women, who as a sex, do not use tobacco. Smokers do not deny and never have denied that the abuse of tobacco is harmful. The general view that both scientific investigators and popular observation is able to support is well expressed by Clouston, who is a world known authority on nervous and mental disease. (See _Hygiene of Mind_, 3rd Ed. London, 1906, p. 260.) "If its use is restricted to full grown men, if only good tobacco is used not of too great strength, and if it is not used to excess, then there are no scientific proofs that it has any injurious effects, if there is no idiosyncracy against it.... Speaking generally, it exercises a soothing influence when the nervous system is in any way irritable. It tends to calm and continuous thinking and in many men promotes the digestion of food. "Tobacco, properly used may, in some cases, undoubtedly be made a mental hygienie." Mann (_Brit. Med. Journal_, 1908, V. II, p. 1673), expresses a similar opinion thus: "Most men if they choose to smoke can do so within certain limits without injury to health. Some men can exceed such limits with apparent impunity. The extent of the limitation must be determined by each man for himself." CHAPTER XVIII THE BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF TOBACCO ITS DISINFECTING ACTION. PROTECTION AGAINST INFECTIOUS DISEASE. PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF SMOKING. THE BENEFICIAL QUALITIES OF TOBACCO In the previous chapters the possible harmful effects of using tobacco have been dealt with at length. In this chapter we shall deal shortly with some positive beneficial effects. There is very little doubt that tobacco is a strongly protective agent against infection from disease. Its germicidal qualities are well-known and recognized. It is now recognized by medical writers that the mouth is one of the principal, if not the principal channel of infection for many infective diseases. The cavities of the teeth are the breeding places of hosts of pathogenic bacteria, of which there are about 100 different varieties arising from decaying food and other sources. These destructive agents, many of them highly pathogenic, easily find their way from the mouth through various channels to the inside of the body. Many infective organisms floating in the air are drawn into the mouth in the act of respiration and this is a common method of falling a victim to contagion. The effect of tobacco juice on the bacteria of the human mouth was investigated by Dr. W. D. Fullerton and is reported by him in the _Cleveland Med. Journal_ 1912, page 585. In his experiments Fullerton used tobacco juice obtained from the human mouth by chewing plug tobacco. He also used a solution of smoke obtained from a well seasoned pipe. These were first thoroughly sterilized in order to obtain a pure natural mixture of tobacco and saliva. Cultures of well-known species of bacteria were made using every laboratory precaution so as to obtain accurate results. Specimens of these bacterial cultures were then submitted to the action of the tobacco juice. It was found that exposure for one hour killed or rendered innocuous 15 to 98 per cent of the bacteria; exposure for 24 hours acted similarly on from 84 to 100%. Dr. Fullerton gives his opinion, from his results, that it seems that a pipeful of tobacco was more toxic to bacteria than one chew; but chewing tends to loosen retained food particles, foci of bacteria, etc., and much of this is ejected from the mouth. Fullerton's work agreed very well with the results obtained by other workers in the same line of investigation. In Miller's _Micro-organisms of the Human Mouth_, p. 246, it is stated that the organisms of the mouth lead only a miserable existence in a mixture of an infusion of tobacco, sugar and saliva; and that the smoke of the last one-third or the first one-fourth of a Colorado Claro cigar sterilized ten cubic centimeters of beef extract solution which had been richly inoculated with bacteria from decayed teeth. Arnold, _Lancet_ (London, 1907) reports similar experiences with some of the most virulent types of infective bacteria. Both nicotine and its derivative pyridine as well as the tarry oils resulting from tobacco distillation are strong and effective disinfectants; and formaldehyde, one of the most powerful germicides known, is so formed. Trillat, _Annales de l'Institut Pasteur_ (Paris), Vol. 19, p. 722, shows that 100 grams of pipe tobacco will yield .063 grams and 100 grams weight of cigar .118 grams of formaldehyde. Also that a dilution of 1/1000 formaldehyde is germicidal to all bacteria although it has very little deleterious effects on man. As far as can be ascertained there has not been very much investigation for the purpose of demonstrating the actual results of clinical experience regarding the antiseptic qualities of tobacco in the case of smokers, but facts, so far as they have been recorded, bear out the experiments. Rideal _Disinfection and Preservation of Food_ (London and New York, 1903) states that the investigations of Tessarini showed that tobacco smoke passed over the organisms of human cholera and pneumonia killed them in from 10 to 30 minutes. He also states that the Cigar Manufacturers Association of Hamburg reported that in the cholera epidemic of 1892 in that city, only 8 out of 5,000 employes in the cigar factories there were attacked by the disease and that, there were only 4 deaths. Professor Wenck, of the Imperial Institute of Berlin, has published an account of this cholera epidemic (see _Laucett francaise_, Paris, 1912, p. 1425). His conclusions favor the preservative action of tobacco. It was clearly shown that slightly moist tobacco was a fatal germicide for the cholera bacillus; all microbes die in it in 24 hours. The examination of cigars made in Hamburg during the epidemic showed that they were absolutely free from bacilli. Wenck asserts also that cholera microbes die in 1/2 hour, 1 hour, and 2 hours after having been placed in contact with the smoke of Brazilian, Sumatran and Havana tobacco. The fumes of tobacco will besides kill in five minutes the cholera microbes obtained from saliva. Fullerton already quoted examined a small number of mouths (74) in the Johns Hopkins Hospital at Baltimore. Of those who did not use tobacco in any form a larger percentage showed signs of dental caries and decay of an advanced stage than in the case of tobacco users. Similarly in the case of women who never used tobacco; and, although there was a much greater care and cleansing of the teeth, yet the percentage of decay and disease was higher than in the case of men using tobacco. Fullerton says, "The smoking or chewing of tobacco is decidedly germicidal. Chewing, by exercising the teeth, helps nutrition and eliminates pathological agencies both by destroying them _in situ_ and by removing them in the expectoration." Rideal (already quoted) mentions that Dr. Burney, the senior medical officer of Greenwich Hospital, London, asserts that the tobacco smoking inmates of that institution enjoyed comparative immunity from epidemics. From these opinions and examples it seems quite clear that whatever portions of the decomposition products of tobacco reach the mouth and mix with the saliva, or propagate themselves in the immediate surroundings of the smoker, are likely to have extremely good effects. It would be easy to multiply these opinions but there is no use laboring the argument. There is a matter, however, it will do no harm to mention here. Today it is being gradually recognized by the medical profession that the conditions which lead ultimately to gastric and intestinal ulcer including appendicitis are entirely due to infection. At the 1912 meeting of the British Medical Association this was clearly manifested and some of the leading authorities in England pointed out the importance of the mouth as a focus of infection in such diseases. Now if this is so, it is at once apparent how important tobacco as a mouth disinfectant and germicide becomes; and it may incidentally throw some light (otherwise unexplained) on the fact constantly observed that in persons under 30 years old these diseases are far more common amongst women than in the case of men. The use of tobacco is not asserted as a reason, but it may be. With regard to other beneficial effects--Clouston, Fullerton and Marvin, state that the moderate use of tobacco has a beneficial effect on the digestive system as in general it causes an increased flow of saliva and gastric juice which helps in the digestion of food; it also stimulates the muscles and mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines. The sedative effects of tobacco on the nerves is a preventative of nervous dyspepsia and is valuable for the promotion of good digestion. While much has been written on the effects of excessive smoking on the nervous system little has been said of the good effects of moderate smoking. Every smoker realizes that the soothing effects of tobacco on the nerves is perhaps its most valuable property. Clouston's opinion, already quoted (and none could be better), is that "tobacco exercises a soothing influence when the nervous system is in anyway irritable; it tends to calm and continuous thinking." Fullerton says, "It gives a composure and feeling of well-being which are beneficial to mind and body." Of these facts there can be no doubt because they are matters of common daily observation and experience. Most smokers find a solace and quieting influence from their evening smoke after the worries of a troublesome day which no other agent can give them. The effect produced may be partly psychological but that does not matter. Indeed the strenuousness of life in the age in which we live seems to demand such a help and nothing appears to supply the want so efficiently, so pleasantly, and with less harm, than a quiet smoke. It puts the smoker at peace with himself and at peace with others. Bush found in his investigations on the mental effects of tobacco on college students that there was a temporary loss of ten per cent in mental efficiency in certain faculties of the mind. This is probably true enough though his results are not quite conclusive. On the other hand many men find that they can think more clearly and more consecutively when helped by a smoke. Indeed they smoke when they have a knotty problem to solve. The point need not be argued; all smokers will agree with it. Judged from a psychological standpoint the effects of tobacco are entirely favorable. To the sleepless, the worried, to him who is troubled in mind or vexed in spirit, the pipe or cigar is a never-failing remedy to soothe and cheer. It is the feeling of betterment which it engenders and the spirit of good will which tobacco creates that are responsible for its universal use by men differing widely in grade and condition of life as well as in mental caliber; it reaches the common springs which move humanity; its qualities are those which have made the pipe a symbol of peace and a bond of fellowship and union between man and man from Pole to Pole. From a general summing up of the opinions which have been quoted the question might finally be asked, "Is tobacco on the whole harmful or beneficial to its users?" The answer seems to be this: "Tobacco to the extent used on the average has some slight injurious effects and some slight beneficial effects on the physical system. It is an excellent preservative agent against contagious and infectious disease. Mentally its effects are overwhelmingly beneficial." In every particular case a man must judge for himself, taking account of his individual idiosyncrasies and conditions whether the use of tobacco is beneficial to him or otherwise. REFERENCES _Laucet._ London, 1906. Vol. I, p. 984. _The germ-destroying properties of tobacco._ ARNOLD, M. B. _On the effects of the Exposure of Tobacco Smoke on the growth of pathogenic micro-organisms._ _Laucet._ London, 1907. Vol. I, p. 1220. MURRAY, J. C. _Smoking; when injurious, when innocuous, when beneficial._ London, 1871. LEZARS, I. _The use and abuse of Tobacco._ Philadelphia, 1883. CHAPTER XIX MISCELLANEOUS REVENUE, TAXATION, ETC., IN CONNECTION WITH TOBACCO. FREE IMPORTS. DISEASES OF TOBACCO. TOBACCO FLAVORS. FORMULAE. NOTES The "per capita" consumption of tobacco in the U. S. has increased from 1.6 lbs. in 1863 to between 5 and 6 lbs. at the present time. * * * * * At the present time the United States collects about 70 million dollars annually from domestic taxation on manufactured tobacco; and, in addition, about 25 million in import duties. The actual total income from tobacco in 1912 was 96 million dollars. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1913, tax was paid on the following "withdrawn for consumption": Cigars weighing more than 3 lbs. per thousand, 7,699,037,543. Cigars weighing less than 3 lbs. per thousand, 1,033,778,160. Cigarettes weighing more than 3 lbs. per thousand, 18,194,311. Cigarettes weighing less than 3 lbs. per thousand, 14,276,771,160. Snuff, lbs., 33,209,488. Tobacco, chewing and smoking, lbs., 401,362,620. * * * * * In France, Spain, Austria, Italy and other countries the government has a monopoly over the manufacture and sale of tobacco products. Purchase of leaf in the U. S. is made through government agents. * * * * * The quantities of tobacco which may be imported "free of duty" into European countries is as follows: Austro-Hungary--12 cigars, 35 grams tobacco. Belgium-None. Bulgaria--50 cigars, 50 cigarettes, 50 grams tobacco. Denmark--None. Egypt--25 cigars, 100 cigarettes, 200 grams tobacco. France--80 cigars, 300 cigarettes. Germany--Enough for immediate use. Great Britain--12 cigars, 20 cigarettes. Holland--None. Italy--6 cigars, 15 cigarettes. Norway--100 cigars. Portugal--None. Russia--100 cigars, 100 cigarettes, 100 grams tobacco. Spain--None. Sweden--None. Turkey--None. * * * * * In U. S. 50 cigars and 300 cigarettes may be imported free. * * * * * Small variations in the cost of manufacture (including the cost of leaf), which do not exceed 10%, are usually borne by the manufacturer, and do not affect the price to the consumer. But increase in taxation, either internal revenue or tariff, usually occasions a diminution in consumption as it invariably increases the cost. THE DISEASES OF TOBACCO DUE TO INSECT PESTS, ETC. Tobacco, from the seed bed to the storage of the manufactured products, is subject to attack by insects, etc., and vigilance must at all times be exercised to keep it free from such harmful influences. Only a few of the principal agencies attacking tobacco will be mentioned here as the subject is of more interest to the specialist than to the smoker. The growing plant is particularly subject to Cut-worm disease and Horn-worm disease. _Cut-worms_ are the larvae of several species of moths. They injure the young, tender plant and feed on the leaves. _Horn-worms_ are the larvae of the Sphinx Moth. 2 or 3 will ruin a plant in one day. Stored tobacco is subject to many diseases. _Bud caterpillars_, the _leaf-miner_ or _split-worm_ and the _Tobacco flea beetle_ are minute beetles which attack it. _Mosaic disease_, _Frog-eye_ or _Leaf-spot_ are probably bacterial diseases. In addition, tobacco, particularly during the curing process, is subject to pole-burn, pole-sweat, or house-burn, stem-rot, white-vein, and various forms of mould, all these being probably due to bacteria. For additional information see: U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. _Farmers' Bulletin_, 120. HOWARD, L. O. _The principal insects affecting the tobacco plant._ Washington, D. C., 1900. U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. _Bureau of Entomology._ Bulletin 65. SPECKLED OR SPOTTED CIGARS Many smokers of cigars have the idea that there is some special virtue in a cigar that shows specks or spots of discoloration in the leaf. As a matter of fact such spots have nothing whatever to do with the quality of the tobacco. The occurrence of such spots is accounted for differently. Some say the spots are due to certain bacteria which attack the leaf either when growing or fermenting and this most probably is the correct view. Others say that the spots are due to rain drops which, sprinkled on the leaves, act as lenses and concentrate the rays of the sun, thus causing a burning of the leaf in such spots. Some think the spots are caused by a worm. On account of the prejudice of smokers for speckled cigars dealers have been known to produce this appearance in the leaf artificially. There are different methods although resort is not often had at the present time to this practice as the belief in this sign is no longer as prevalent as formerly. The following are examples of such cigar speckling preparation, the chief ingredient being some active oxidizing agent: Cigar speckling fluid: (Method 1.) Powdered Ammonium Carbonate and a concentrated solution of (H{2}O{2}). Dissolve one part of the Ammonium Carbonate in 25 parts of the (H{2}O{2}). Touch the cigar with this in spots with the end of a pointed stick. This gives the appearance of speckled Sumatran leaf. (Method 2.) The following method is said to be used by a large firm: Sodium Carbonate--3 parts. Chlorinated Lime--1 part. Hot Water--8 parts. Dissolve the washing soda in the hot water, add the chlorinated lime, and heat to the boiling point. When cool decant and cork tightly. This is sprinkled over the tobacco.--From _American Druggist_, Vol. 83, p. 328. Specks are sometimes caused by fluids used to destroy insects which attack the cigar after manufacture. TOBACCO FLAVORING ESSENCES In the chapter treating of the manufacture of smoking and chewing tobacco it was stated that the tobacco leaf was often treated by certain flavoring essences. The following are quoted as examples of such essences: Cascarilla Bark--1 ounce. Fluid Extract Valerian--1 ounce. Tonka Bean--2 drams. English Rum--3 ounces. --From _Pharmaceutical Era_, V. 21, 1899, p. 252. The following essences are said to be used in France and Germany: (1) For every 1,000 kilos. of tobacco take 4 kilos. of purified potash; 5 kilos. table salt; 10 kilos. canella water; 10 kilos. rose water; 5 kilos. melilotte water; 2.8 grams tonka bean; pulverized. Color the whole with 4 grams English red. Add when the tobacco is cut up. (2) 12 kilos. soda; 4 kilos. salts of tartar; 10 kilos. canella water; 10 kilos. rose water; 5 kilos. melilotte water; 2.8 grams tonka bean; 4 kilos. simple syrup; 5 kilos. French brandy; 6 kilos. red sandal wood.--From _Pharmaceutical Era_, V. 24, p. 67. CIGAR FLAVORS Although the best cigars are made from the natural leaf and depend solely on its flavor and aroma, in the inferior article manufacturers sometimes resort to flavoring fluids. The following examples of cigar flavoring fluid formulae are taken from the _Pharmaceutical Era_, V. 24, p. 455: _Formula 1._ Extr. Vanilla--1/2 gal. Alcohol and Jamaica Rum,--each, 1/2 gal. Tinct. Valerian--8 ounces. Carraway Seed--2 ounces. English Valerian Root--2 ounces. Bitter Orange Peel--2 ounces. Tonka Bean--4 drams. Myrrh--16 ounces. _Formula 2._ Valerianic Acid--3 drams. Acetic Ether--40 minims. Butyric Ether--10 minims. Alcohol--4 pints. _Formula 3._ Fluid Extr. Valerian--1 ounce. Tinct. Tonka Bean--8 ounces. Alcohol--enough to make 16 ounces. FORMULA TO IMPROVE THE BURNING QUALITIES OF TOBACCO 2 lbs. of Saltpeter. Half gallon of Alcohol (100% proof). 1 gallon Port Wine. 9 gallons Lukewarm Water. Mix these ingredients thoroughly together, and add to every 100 lbs. weight of tobacco. OVERCOMING DESIRE FOR TOBACCO (From _The American Druggist_, V. 51, 1908.) Kalometzer (Bulletin Medical, 1907) states that rinsing mouth with solution of silver nitrate (1/4 of 1% strength) will overcome the desire. PREVENTING INJURIOUS ACTION OF NICOTINE A process for the treatment of tobacco leaves preventing in a way injurious action of nicotine and of acrid empyreumatic acid products, was devised some years ago by Professor Gerold of Halle. His process is thus described: He employs for 8 kilograms of tobacco leaves containing the usual percentage of nicotine a decoction prepared by boiling 15 grams of tannic acid with 1-1/2 kilograms of water until the weight is reduced to one kilogram; then 30 grams of the essential oil of origanum vulgare are added, after which the decoction is immediately removed from the fire. Having stood for some minutes the mixture is filtered and allowed to cool to about 16° C., when the preparation is ready to be spread over the previously weighed tobacco. When the absorption of this mixture by the tobacco leaves is completed, they are subjected to slight pressure and moderate heat, after which they are ready for the manufacture of the various tobacco products. * * * * * Tannic acid is a well-known antidote for nicotine poisoning, and it is claimed for Gerold's process that while the undistilled nicotine is neutralized in its toxic qualities only by the tannic acid, that this does not influence at all its peculiar odor nor most of its other characteristics.--From the _Pharmaceutical Era_, July 27, 1899, p. 144. * * * * * Havana cigars are generally better if smoked fresh; domestic cigars are better if allowed to age in the box several months before using. * * * * * Remember that the phosphorus or sulphur of a match may spoil the flavor of a fine cigar. Be careful when you are lighting it to use only the edge of the match flame. * * * * * If the total number of cigars smoked annually in the United States were placed end to end they would encircle the whole world more than twenty times. INDEX Air Curing of Leaf, 66 Amber, 162 American Production of Tobacco Other Than in U. S., 35 Analysis of Tobacco, 55 Asia, Production of Tobacco in, 31 Bacterial Diseases, Effects of Tobacco on, 197 Blends of Tobacco, How Made, 78 Briar Root, 158 Cancer and Tobacco, 180 Chemical Constituents of Tobacco, 55 Chewing Tobaccos, 128 Cigar and Cigarette Holders, Value of, 191 Cigar Business in U. S., 96 Cigar Flavors, 215 Cigar Leaf Tobacco Grown in U. S., 119 Cigarette Paper, 139 Cigarette Smoking, Criticisms of, 140 Cigarettes, American, 138 Cigarettes, Kinds of, 134 Cigarettes, Nicotine in Smoke of, 187 Cigarettes, Statistics, 133 Cigarettes, Turkish, 135 Cigarettes, Turkish, Manufactured in the U. S., 137 Cigars, Classification of, 104 Cigars, Composition of, 113 Cigars, Desirable Qualities of, 113 Cigars, Hand-made, 101 Cigars, History, 95 Cigars, Imported Kinds, in U. S., 114 Cigars, Machine-made, 103 Cigars, Manufactured in U. S., 117 Cigars, Speckles or Spots on, 212 Cigars, Statistics of Production and Consumption in U. S., 96 Cigars, Various Terms Regarding, 107 Coloring Meerschaum Pipes, 169 Consumption of Tobacco in U. S., 92 Cuban Cigar Leaf, 118 Cuban Tobacco, 35 Curing of Tobacco Leaf, 63 Digestive System and Use of Tobacco, 202 Diseases of Tobacco Leaf, 211 Disinfecting Action of Tobacco, 199 East Indian Tobacco, 38 Europe, Production of Tobacco, 32 Exportation of Tobacco from U. S., 91 Eyes and Use of Tobacco, 189 Fermentation of Tobacco, Action of Microbes, 81 Fermentation of Tobacco, Chemistry, 80 Fermentation of Tobacco Leaf, 79 Flavoring Essences, 214 Flue Curing of Leaf, 65 Hand-made Cigars, 101 Havana Cigars, 115 Holders for Cigars and Cigarettes, Value of, 191 Infection, Value of Tobacco Smoking Against, 197 Insects Affecting Tobacco Leaf, 211 Life Insurance and Tobacco, 188 Machine-made Cigars, 103 Manufactured Products of Tobacco in U. S., Statistics, 89 Meerschaum, 155 Microbes, Action in Fermentation of Tobacco, 81 Mind, Effects of Tobacco Smoking, 202 Mouthpiece of Pipes, Importance, 161 Nerves, Effect of Tobacco Smoking on, 202 Nicotine, 57 Nicotine, Amount in Tobacco Smoke, 183 Nicotine Contents of Tobaccos, 185 Nicotine Effects on Human System, 182 Open Fire Method of Curing Leaf, 65 Packing of Tobacco Leaf for Market, 69 Perique Tobacco, 50, 125 Philippine Cigars, 117 Pipe Smoking Tobaccos, Kinds of, 124 Pipe Smoking Tobacco, Qualities of, 123 Pipe Stem, Importance, 161 Pipes, Briar Root, Making of, 159 Pipes, Care of, 167 Pipes, History of, 151 Pipes, Importation of, Into U. S., 166 Pipes, Materials Used in Making, 154 Pipes, Meerschaum, Coloring, 169 Pipes, Meerschaum, Making of, 156 Pipes, Special Kinds of, 164 Plug Tobacco for Chewing, 128 Potash, Importance in Tobacco, 59 Psychological Effects of Tobacco Smoking, 202 Rehandling of Tobacco Leaf, 77 Revenue Derived from Tobacco, 209 Shade Grown Tobacco, 25 Smoke, Tobacco, Nicotine in, 187 Snuff, Manufacture, Statistics and Kinds, 145 Soils, Influence on Quality of Tobacco, 22 Suchsland's Experiments With Bacteria on Tobacco Leaf, 81 Sumatran Cigar Leaf, 118 Teeth and Tobacco, 201 Terms Used in Cigar Trade, 107 Throat Diseases Due to Use of Tobacco, 179 Tobacco, Analysis of Contents, 55 Tobacco, Botanical Information, 15 Tobacco, Burning Qualities of, 216 Tobacco, Culture, 21 Tobacco, Denicotianized, 216 Tobacco, Effects of on Body, 173 Tobacco, Exportation from U. S., 91 Tobacco, Flavoring Essences, 214 Tobacco, Free Importation in Different Countries, 210 Tobacco, History, 13 Tobacco Leaf, Prices of, 71 Tobacco Manufacturing Industry, Capital, etc., 89 Tobacco Plant, Varieties, 16 Treatment of Leaf Before Manufacture, 82 Turkish Tobacco, 34 United States, Production of Tobacco, 41 Varieties, Botanical of, Tobacco Plant, 16 Varieties of American Grown Tobacco Leaf, 44, 46 Vulcanite, as Pipe Stem Material, 163 Warehouse System of Sale of Tobacco Leaf, 70 Water Pipes, 165 Yellowing of Tobacco Leaf, 27 Transcriber's Notes: Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. Subscripted characters are indicated by {subscript}. The use of the ounce symbol is represented in this text as [ounce]. The following misprints have been corrected: "Moveover" corrected to "Moreover" (page 14) "posesses" corrected to "possesses" (page 37) "is" corrected to "in" (page 41) "5 five" corrected to "5" (page 65) "tabacco" corrected to "tobacco" (page 66) "Suchslanl" corrected to "Suchsland" (page 85) "filled" corrected to "filler" (page 116) "orginally" corrected to "originally" (page 119) "(4)" added (page 124) "on" corrected to "or" (page 127) "ingrediants" corrected to "ingredients" (page 128) "Dunham" corrected to "Durham" (page 134) "know" corrected to "known" (page 154) "junipe" corrected to "juniper" (page 155) "MgSi_{2}04" corrected to "MgSi_{2}O_{4}" (page 155) "work" corrected to "word" (page 155) "stearie" corrected to "stearic" (page 158) "batter" corrected to "better" (page 165) "occuring" corrected to "occurring" (page 181) "pirty" corrected to "dirty" (page 181) "mode" corrected to "made" (page 185) "of" corrected to "or" (page 212) "Mot" corrected to "Hot" (page 213) "Druggest" corrected to "Druggist" (page 214) Other than the corrections listed above, spelling inconsistencies have been retained from the original. 
37607	----	GARDEN DESIGN BY THE SAME ALPINE FLOWERS for English Gardens. Second Edition. THE SUB-TROPICAL GARDEN; or, Beauty of Form in the Flower Garden. Second Edition. HARDY FLOWERS. Description of upwards of 1300 of the most ornamental species, with Directions for their Arrangement, Culture, etc. Fourth and Cheaper Edition. THE WILD GARDEN; or, Our Graves and Gardens made beautiful by the Naturalisation of Hardy Exotic Plants. Illustrated by ALFRED PARSONS. Second Edition. John Murray. THE ENGLISH FLOWER GARDEN: Style, Position, and Arrangement. Followed by a Description of all the best Plants for it--their Culture and Arrangement. Second Edition, 1889. John Murray. GOD'S ACRE BEAUTIFUL; or, The Cemeteries of the Future. Third Edition. With Illustrations. London: John Murray. New York: Scribner & Welford. Published in a cheaper form and with additions under the name-- CREMATION AND URN-BURIAL. Cassell & Co., Limited. THE PARKS AND GARDENS OF PARIS. Considered in Relation to the Wants of other Cities, and of Public and Private Gardens. Being notes made in Paris Gardens. Third Edition. Illustrated. London: John Murray. JOURNALS THE GARDEN. An Illustrated Weekly Journal of Gardening in all its branches. Vol. XL. GARDENING ILLUSTRATED. For Town and Country. A Weekly Journal for Amateurs and Gardeners. Vol. XIII. FARM AND HOME. A Weekly Illustrated Journal of Agriculture in all its branches. Stock, Dairy, Tillage, Stable, Pasture, Orchard, Market-Garden, Poultry, House. Vol. X. WOODS AND FORESTS. A Weekly Illustrated Journal of Forestry, Ornamental Planting, and Estate Management. Vols. I. and II. 1885. GARDEN DESIGN AND ARCHITECTS' GARDENS Two reviews, illustrated, to show, by actual examples from British gardens, that clipping and aligning trees to make them 'harmonise' with architecture is barbarous, needless, and inartistic by W. Robinson, F.L.S. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street 1892 To Sir Philip Currie, K.C.B. PREFACE That we might see, eyes were given us; and a tongue to tell accurately what we had got to see. It is the alpha and omega of all intellect that man has. No poetry, hardly even that of Goethe, is equal to the true image of reality--had one eyes to see that.--T. CARLYLE, _Letters to Varnhagen Von Ense_. _The one English thing that has touched the heart of the world is the English garden. Proof of this we have in such noble gardens as the English park at Munich, the garden of the Emperor of Austria at Laxenberg, the Petit Trianon at Versailles, the parks formed of recent years round Paris, and many lovely gardens in Europe and America. The good sense of English writers and landscape gardeners refused to accept as right or reasonable the architect's garden, a thing set out as bricks and stones are, and the very trees of which were mutilated to meet his views as to "design" or rather to prove his not being able to see the simplest elements of design in landscape beauty or natural form. And some way or other they destroyed nearly all signs of it throughout our land._ _In every country where gardens are made we see the idea of the English garden gratefully accepted; and though there are as yet no effective means of teaching the true art of landscape gardening, we see many good results in Europe and America. No good means have ever been devised for the teaching of this delightful English art. Here and there a man of keen sympathy with Nature does good work, but often it is carried out by men trained for a very different life, as engineers in the great Paris parks, and in our own country by surveyors and others whose training often wholly unfits them for the study of the elements of beautiful landscape. Thus we do not often see good examples of picturesque garden and park design, while bad work is common. Everywhere--unhappily, even in England, the home of landscape gardening--the too frequent presence of stupid work in landscape gardening offers some excuse for the two reactionary books which have lately appeared--books not worth notice for their own sake, as they contribute nothing to our knowledge of the beautiful art of gardening or garden design. But so many people suppose that artistic matters are mere questions of windy argument, that I think it well to show by English gardens and country seats of to-day that the many sweeping statements of their authors may be disproved by reference to actual things, to be seen by all who care for them. We live at a time when, through complexity of thought and speech, artistic questions have got into a maze of confusion. Even teachers by profession confuse themselves and their unfortunate pupils with vague and hyper-refined talk about art and "schools" and "styles," while all the time much worse work is done than in days when simpler, clearer views were held. To prove this there is the example of the great Master's work and the eternal laws of nature, on the study of which all serious art must be for ever based. Beneath all art there are laws, however subtle, that cannot be ignored without error and waste; and in garden design there are lessons innumerable both in wild and cultivated Nature which will guide us well if we seek to understand them simply._ _These books are made up in great part of quotations from old books on gardening--many of them written by men who knew books better than gardens. Where the authors touch the ground of actuality, they soon show little acquaintance with the subject; and, indeed, they see no design at all in landscape gardening and admit their ignorance of it. That men should write on things of which they have thought little is unhappily of frequent occurrence, but to find them openly avowing their ignorance of the art they presume to criticise is new._ _A word or two on the state of architecture itself may not be amiss. From Gower Street to the new Law Courts our architecture does not seem to be in a much better state than landscape gardening is, according to the architects to whom we owe the "Formal Garden" and "Garden Craft"! It is William Morris--whose "design" these authors may respect--who calls London houses "mean and idiotic rabbit warrens:" so that there is plenty to do for ambitious young architects to set their own house in artistic order!_ _As regards "formal gardening," the state of some of the best old houses in England--Longleat, Compton-Wynyates, Brympton, and many others, where trees in formal lines, clipped or otherwise, are not seen in connection with the architecture--is proof against the need of the practice. As regards the best new houses, Clouds, so well built by Mr. Philip Webb, is not any the worse for its picturesque surroundings, which do not meet the architect's senseless craving for "order and balance"; while Batsford, certainly one of the few really good new houses in England, is not disfigured by the fashions in formality the authors wish to see revived, and of which they give an absurd example in a cut of Badminton. There is, in short, ample proof, furnished both by the beautiful old houses of England and by those new ones that have any claim to dignity, that the system they seek to revive could only bring costly ugliness to our beautiful home-landscapes._ W. R. July 1, 1892. CONTENTS PAGE GARDEN DESIGN 1 NATURAL AND FALSE LINES 5 "UNCULTIVATED NATURE" 8 THE TRUE LANDSCAPE 13 BUILDINGS IN RELATION TO THE GARDEN 16 TIME AND GARDENS 20 TRUE USE OF A GARDEN 23 FORMAL GARDENING 25 "NATURE," AND WHAT WE MEAN BY IT 31 "ALL OUR PATHS" ARE CROOKED! 35 "THE ONLY GARDEN POSSIBLE!" 40 "NO DESIGN IN LANDSCAPE" 43 NO GRASS IN LANDSCAPE GARDENING! 46 "IMPROVING" BATTERSEA PARK! 50 NATURE AND CLIPPED YEWS 53 NO LINE IN NATURE! 62 "VEGETABLE SCULPTURE" 66 ILLUSTRATIONS RHIANVA To face page 2 GROUP OF TREES ON GARDEN LAWN AT GOLDER'S HILL, HAMPSTEAD Page 4 WAKEHURST To face page 6 GILBERT WHITE'S HOUSE AT SELBORNE " 10 EXAMPLE OF FORMAL GARDENING Page 12 LONGLEAT To face page 16 OLD PLACE, LINDFIELD " 18 ARUNDEL CASTLE " 20 TAILPIECE Page 22 WEST DEAN To face page 24 ATHELHAMPTON HALL, DORSET " 26 THE VICARAGE GARDEN, ODIHAM " 30 UNCLIPPED TREES AT THE LITTLE TRIANON Page 34 WESTONBIRT To face page 36 THRUMPTON HALL " 40 TAILPIECE Page 45 GOODWOOD To face page 46 AVENUE IN PARIS " 50 CLIPPED TREES AT THE LITTLE TRIANON Page 52 THE "GRANGE," HARTLEY WINTNEY To face page 54 A YEW TREE ON MOUNTAIN, N. ENGLAND " 56 BUILDING IN PARIS " 58 BROADLANDS, HANTS " 64 WARREN HOUSE, COOMBE WOOD " 66 DRUMMOND CASTLE " 68 MADRESFIELD " 70 TAILPIECE Page 73 "The number of those who really think seriously before they begin to write is small; extremely few of them think about _the subject itself;_ the remainder think only about the books that have been written on it."--ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER. GARDEN DESIGN[1] [1] _The Formal Garden in England._ By Reginald Blomfield and F. Inigo Thomas. London: Macmillan and Co. A beautiful house in a fair landscape is the most delightful scene of the cultivated earth--all the more so if there be an artistic garden--the rarest thing to find! The union--a happy marriage it should be--between the house beautiful and the ground near it is worthy of more thought than it has had in the past, and the best ways of effecting that union artistically should interest men more and more as our cities grow larger and our lovely English landscape shrinks back from them. The views of old writers will help us little, for a wholly different state of things has arisen in these mechanical days. My own view is that we have never yet got from the garden, and, above all, the home landscape, half the beauty which we may get by abolishing the needless formality and geometry which disfigure so many gardens, both as regards plan and flower planting. Formality is often essential in the plan of a flower garden near a house--_never_ as regards the arrangements of its flowers or shrubs. To array these in lines or rings or patterns can only be ugly wherever done! That men have never yet generally enjoyed the beauty that good garden design may give is clear from the fact that the painter is driven from the garden! The artist dislikes the common garden with its formality and bedding; he cannot help hating it! In a country place he will seek anything but the garden, but may, perhaps, be found near a wild Rose tossing over the pigsty. This dislike is natural and right, as from most flower gardens the possibility of any beautiful result is shut out! Yet the beautiful garden exists, and there are numbers of cottage gardens in Surrey or Kent that are as "paintable" as any bit of pure landscape! [Illustration: _Rhianva. Terraced garden, but with picturesque planting and flower gardening_] Why is the cottage garden often a picture, and the gentleman's garden near, wholly shut out of the realm of art, a thing which an artist cannot look at long? It is the absence of pretentious "plan" in the cottage garden which lets the flowers tell their tale direct; the simple walks going where they are wanted; flowers not set in patterns; the walls and porch alive with flowers. Can the gentleman's garden then, too, be a picture? Certainly; the greater the breadth and means the better the picture should be. But never if our formal "decorative" style of design is kept to. Reform must come by letting Nature take her just place in the garden. [Illustration: _Group of trees on garden lawn at Golder's Hill, Hampstead; picturesque effect in suburban garden_] NATURAL AND FALSE LINES After we have settled the essential approaches, levels, and enclosures for shelter, privacy, or dividing lines around a house, the natural form or lines of the earth herself are in nearly all cases the best to follow, and in my work I face any labour to get the ground back into its natural level or fall where disfigured by ugly banks, lines, or angles. In the true Italian garden on the hills we have to alter the natural line of the earth or "terrace" it, because we cannot otherwise cultivate the ground or move at ease upon it. Such steep ground exists in many countries, and where it does, a like plan must be followed. The strictly formal in such ground is as right in its way as the lawn in a garden in the Thames valley. But the lawn is the heart of the true English garden, and as essential as the terrace is to the gardens on the steep hills. English lawns have too often been destroyed that "geometrical" gardens may be made where they are not only needless, but harmful both to the garden and home landscape. Sometimes on level ground the terrace walls cut off the view of the landscape from the house, and, on the other hand, the house from the landscape! I hold that it is possible to get every charm of a garden and every use of a country-seat without sacrifice of the picturesque or beautiful; that there is no reason why, either in the working or design of gardens, there should be a single false line in them. By this I mean hard and ugly lines such as the earth never follows, as say, to mention a place known to many, the banks about the head of the lake in the Bois de Boulogne. These lines are seen in all bad landscape work, though with good workmen I find it is as easy to form true and artistic lines as false and ugly ones. Every landscape painter or observer of landscape will know what is meant here, though I fear it is far beyond the limits of the ideas of design held by the authors of the _Formal Garden_. Also, that every charm of the flower garden may be secured by avoiding wholly the knots and scrolls which make all the plants and flowers of a garden, all its joy and life, subordinate to the wretched conventional design in which they are "set out." The true way is the opposite. We should see the flowers and feel the beauty of plant forms, with only the simplest possible plans to ensure good working, to secure every scrap of turf wanted for play or lawn, and for every enjoyment of a garden. [Illustration: _Wakehurst. Elizabethan house with grounds not terraced_] "UNCULTIVATED NATURE" Such views I have urged, and carry them out when I can, in the hope of bringing gardening into a line with art, from which it is now so often divorced. It is natural that these views should meet with some opposition, and the consideration of the _Formal Garden_ gives the opportunity of examining their value. The question, briefly stated, is this: Are we, in laying out our gardens, to ignore the house, and to reproduce uncultivated Nature to the best of our ability in the garden? Or are we to treat the house and garden as inseparable factors in one homogeneous whole, which are to co-operate for one premeditated result? No sane person has ever proposed to ignore the house. So far from ignoring the house in my own work, where there is a beautiful house it tells me what to do! Unhappily, the house is often so bad that nothing can prevent its evil effect on the garden. "_Reproducing uncultivated Nature_" is no part of good gardening, as the whole reason of a flower garden is that it is a home for cultivated Nature. It is the special charm of the garden that we may have beautiful natural objects in their living beauty in it, but we cannot do this without care and culture to begin with! Whether it be Atlas Cedar or Eastern Cypress, Lily-tree or American Mountain Laurel, all must be cared for at first, and we must know their ways of life and growth if we are to treat them so that they will both grow well and be rightly placed--an essential point. And the more precious and rare they are the better the place they should have in the flower garden proper or pleasure ground,--places always the object of a certain essential amount of care even under the simplest and wisest plans. If we wish to encourage "uncultivated Nature" it must surely be a little further afield! A wretched flowerless pinched bedding plant and a great yellow climbing Tea Rose are both cultivated things, but what a vast difference in their beauty! There are many kinds of "cultivated Nature," and every degree of ugliness among them. Sir C. Barry's idea was that the garden was gradually to become less and less formal till it melted away into the park. Compromises such as these, however, will be rejected by thoroughgoing adherents of the formal gardens who hold that the garden should be avowedly separated from the adjacent country by a clean boundary line, a good high wall for choice. (_The Formal Garden._) Would any one put this high wall in front of Gilbert White's house at Selborne, or of Golder's Hill at Hampstead, or many English houses where the erection of a high wall would cut off the landscape? Not a word about the vast variety of such situations, each of which would require to be treated in a way quite different from the rest! There are many places in every county that would be robbed of their best charms by separating the garden from the adjacent country by a "good high wall." [Illustration: _Gilbert White's house at Selborne. Example of many gardens with lawn coming to windows and flowers on its margin_] The custom of planting avenues and cutting straight lines through the woods surrounding the house to radiate in all directions was a departure from that strictly logical system which separated the garden from the park, and left the latter to take care of itself, a system which frankly subordinated Nature to art within the garden wall, but in return gave Nature an absolutely free hand outside it. (_The Formal Garden._) Nature an "_absolutely free hand_"! Imagine a great park or any part of an estate being left to Nature with an "absolutely free hand"! If it were, in a generation there would be very little to see but the edge of the wood. Callous to the beauty of English parks, he does not know that they are the object of much care, and he abuses all those who ever formed them, Brown, Repton, and the rest. [Illustration: _Example of formal gardening, with clipped trees and clipped shrubs in costly tubs_] THE TRUE LANDSCAPE Mr. Blomfield writes nonsense, and then attributes it to me-- that is to say, we go to Claude, and having saturated our minds with his rocks and trees, we return to Nature and try to worry her into a resemblance to Claude. I am never concerned with Claude, but seek the best expression I can secure of our beautiful English real landscapes, which are far finer than Claude's. At least I never saw any painted landscape like them--say that from the Chestnut Walk at Shrubland, looking over the lovely Suffolk country. That is the precious heritage we have to keep. And that is where simple and picturesque gardening will help us by making the garden a beautiful foreground for the true landscape, instead of cutting it off with a "high wall" or anything else that is ugly and needless. The lawns are not to be left in broad expanse, but to have Pampas Grasses, foreign shrubs, etc., dotted about on the surface. I have fought for years against the lawn-destruction by the terrace-builders and bedding-out gardeners! But how are we to have our lawns in "broad expanse" if we build a high wall near the house to cut off even the possibility of a lawn? This has been done in too many cases to the ruin of all good effect and repose, often to shut out as good landscapes as ever were painted! There are flagrant cases in point to be found in private gardens in the suburbs of London. There is much bad and ignorant landscape work as there is bad building everywhere, but errors in that way are more easily removed than mistakes in costly and aimless work in brick and stone. At Coombe Cottage, when I first saw its useless terrace wall shutting out the beautiful valley view from the living rooms, I spoke of the error that had been made, but the owner thought that, as it had cost him a thousand pounds, he had better leave it where it was! BUILDINGS IN RELATION TO THE GARDEN The place of formal gardening is clear for ever. The architect can help the gardener much by building a beautiful house! That is his work. The true architect, it seems to me, would seek to go no farther. The better the real work of the architect is done, the better for the garden and landscape. If there are any difficulties of level about the house beautiful, they should be dealt with by the architect, and the better his work and the necessary terracing, if any, are done, the pleasanter the work of the landscape or other gardener who has to follow him should be. [Illustration: _Longleat. Type of nobler English country seat with old house and picturesque planting_] That a garden is made for plants is what most people who care for gardens suppose. If a garden has any use, it is to treasure for us beautiful flowers, shrubs, and trees. In these days--when our ways of building are the laughing-stock of all who care for beautiful buildings--there is plenty for the architect to do without spoiling our gardens! Most of the houses built in our time are so bad, that even the best gardening could hardly save them from contempt. Our garden flora is now so large, that a life's work is almost necessary to know it. How is a man to make gardens wisely if he does not know what has to be grown in them? I do not mean that we are to exclude other men than the landscape gardener proper from the garden. We want all the help we can get from those whose tastes and training enable them to help us--the landscape painter best of all, if he cares for gardens and trees--the country gentleman, or any keen student and lover of Nature. The landscape gardener of the present day is not always what we admire, his work often looking more like that of an engineer. His gardening near the house is usually a repetition of the decorative work of the house, of which I hope many artistic people are already tired. And as I think people will eventually see the evil and the wastefulness of this "decorative" stuff, and spend their money on really beautiful and artistic things, so I think the same often-repeated "knots" and frivolous patterns must leave the artistic garden, and simpler and dignified forms take their place. To endeavour to apply any one preconceived plan or general idea to every site is folly, and the source of many blunders. The authors are not blind to the absurdities of the architectural gardeners, and say, on page 232:-- Rows of statues were introduced from the French, costly architecture superseded the simple terrace, intricate parterres were laid out from gardeners' pattern books, and meanwhile the flowers were forgotten. It was well that all this pomp should be swept away. We do not want this extravagant statuary, these absurdities in clipped work, this aggressive prodigality. But though one would admit that in its decay the formal garden became unmanageable and absurd, the abuse is no argument against the use. Certainly not where the place calls for it, and all absolutely necessary stone-work about a house should be controlled by the architect; beyond that, nothing. To let him lay out our home landscapes again with lines of trees, as shown in the old Dutch books, and with no regard to landscape design and to the relations of the garden to the surrounding country, would be the greatest evil that could come to the beautiful home landscapes of Britain. [Illustration: _Old Place, Lindfield. Picturesque garden of old English house, admitting of charming variety in its vegetation_] TIME AND GARDENS Not one word of the swift worker, Time! Its effect on gardens is one of the first considerations. Fortress-town, castle, and moat all without further use! In old days gardens had to be set within the walls; hence, formal in outline, though often charming inside. To keep all that remains of such should be our first care; never to imitate them now! Many old gardens of this sort that remain to us are far more beautiful than the modern formal gardening, which by a strange perversity has been kept naked of plants or flower life! When safety came from civil war, then came to us the often beautiful Elizabethan house, free of all moat or trace of war. At one time it was rash to make a garden away from the protecting walls. Now, any day in a country place beautiful situations may be found for certain kinds of gardens far away from the house, out of sight of it often. [Illustration: _Arundel Castle. Example of situation in which a certain amount of terracing is essential. This does not necessarily mean that the vegetation around should be in formal lines, as much better and more artistic effects are obtained otherwise_] Again, in the home fighting days there was less art away from the home. Rugged wastes and hills; vast woodland districts near London; even small houses moated to keep the cattle from wolves--fear of the rough hills and woods! In those days an extension of the decorative work of the house into the garden had some novelty to carry it off, while the kinds of cultivated trees and shrubs were few. Hence if the old gardeners wanted an evergreen line, hedge, or bush of a certain height, they clipped an evergreen tree into the size they wanted. Notwithstanding this we have no evidence that anything like the geometrical monotony often seen in our own time existed then. To-day the ever-growing city, pushing its hard face over the once beautiful land, should make us wish more and more to keep such beauty of the earth as may be still possible to us. The horror of railway embankments, where were once the beautiful suburbs of London, cries to us to save all we can save of the natural beauty of the earth. [Illustration: Tailpiece] TRUE USE OF A GARDEN It is surely flying in the face of Nature to fill our gardens with tropical plants, as we are urged to do by the writers on landscape gardening, ignoring the entire difference of climate and the fact that a colour which may look superb in the midst of other strong colours will look gaudy and vulgar amongst our sober tints, and that a leaf like that of the Yucca, which may be all very well in its own country, _is out of scale and character_ amidst the modest foliage of our English trees. (_The Formal Garden._) A passage full of nonsense! The true use and first reason of a garden is to keep and grow for us plants _not_ in our woods and mostly from other countries than our own! The Yucca, we are told by the authors, is a "plant out of scale and character among the modest foliage of our English trees"! The Yuccas of our gardens are natives of the often cold plains of Eastern America, hardy in, and in every way fitted for, English gardens, but _not_ amidst English trees. Is the aim of the flower-garden to show the "modest foliage" of English trees when almost every country house is surrounded by our native woods? According to such childish views, the noble Cedars in the park at Goodwood and on the lawn at Pain's Hill are out of place there! What is declared by Mr. Blomfield to be absurd is the soul of true gardening--to show, on a small scale it may be, some of the precious and inexhaustible loveliness of vegetation on plain or wood or mountain. This is the necessary and absolutely only true, just and fair use of a garden! [Illustration: _West Dean. Example of country seat in which terracing is needless, and in which turf may and indeed must often come to at least one side of the house_] FORMAL GARDENING The very name of the book is a mistake. "Formal gardening" is rightly applied only to the gardens in which both the design and planting were formal and stupidly formal like the upper terrace of the Crystal Palace, Kensington Gore, as laid out by Nesfield, Crewe Hall; and Shrubland, as laid out by Barry, in which, as in others of these architects' gardens, strict orders were given that no plants were to be allowed on the walls. The architect was so proud of his design, that he did not want the gardener at all, except to pound up bricks to take the place of flower colour! It may be necessary to explain to some that this pounded brick and tile in lieu of colours has frequently been laid down in flower-gardens in our own day. To old gardens like Haddon and Rockingham, in which the vegetation about the house is perfectly free and natural in form, the term "formal gardening" is quite unfitted. But those who attack the old English formal garden do not take the trouble to understand its very considerable differences from the Continental gardens of the same period. No one has "attacked" old English gardens. Part of my work has been to preserve much record of their beauty. The necessary terraces round houses like Haddon may be and are as beautiful as any garden ever made by man. Can anything be more unlike than the delicate veil of beautiful climbers and flowers over the grey walls of the courtyard at Ightham Mote and the walls of some gardens of our own day? The great dark rock-like feudal Berkeley is clad with Fig and Vine and Rose as far as they can reach. No trace in these old gardens of the modern "landscape architect," who said, My walls are not made for plants, and for my beds I prefer coloured brick! [Illustration: _Athelhampton Hall, Dorset. Old English house with trees in their natural form_] What, then, is the kind of "Formal Gardening" that is bad? It is the purely formal or stone garden made for its own sake, often without a shadow of excuse. The garden of the Crystal Palace in part; the stone garden at the head of the Serpentine; Versailles; the Grand Trianon; Caserta, Schönbrunn are among the public gardens of Europe where this kind of garden is seen. Great harm has come to many a fair English lawn through this system. Let us learn by one instance, easily seen, the harm done in formal gardening, even where the ground called for an amount of terracing not usual in the plains and mostly gentle lawns of England--I mean the flower-garden at Shrubland Park, laid out by Sir Charles Barry, of which I have recently altered the plan and which I planted with graceful life where I found bare walls. We will assume that the main terrace lines here are right, as the place stands on a bluff, and speak of a secondary evil of this formal gardening, which arose, I think, about the time Barry laid out Shrubland. That was that the walls of the house or garden were _not_ to be graced by plants, and that to secure the keeping of the design, coloured gravels were to take the place of flowers. This rule, as is well known, has been carried out in many gardens--it was rigid here. I see it in some of the new gardens, and in asking at Worth Park why a long terra-cotta wall had not climbers on it, was told the designer would not allow it! Yet Nature clothes the rock walls with beautiful life, even to the snow line, where the gems of the flower world stain the rocks with loveliest flowers. The crag walls of every alpine valley are her gardens; the Harebells toss their azure bells from the seams of the stones in the bridges across the mountain streams; the ruins of the temples of the great peoples of old, who really could build nobly, grow many a wild flower. Even when we take the stone and build with it, tender colours of lowly plants soon come and clothe the stone. But the maker of these miserable garden walls, without use or need, says in effect, _Here Nature shall not come to hide my cleverness. I have built walls, and bare they must be!_ Well, with this bareness of the wall there were the usual geometrical pattern beds, many filled with sand and broken stone, and only very low and formal beds of flowers pinched into very low carpets, with much Box often edging beds a foot across. When I first went one spring day with Mr. Saumarez, we saw a large showy bed, and on going near, found it composed of pieces of broken brick painted yellow, blue, and red! So, apart from needless formality of design and bare walls where no walls were wanted, there was often an ugly formality of detail, a senseless attempt to leave Nature out of the garden, an outrage against all that ever has or ever can make a garden delightful throughout the year by ruling that even the walls of the house should not shelter a Rose! And that is only part of what we get by letting "builders and decorators" waste precious means in stone that should be devoted to the living treasures of garden, lawn, or wood. [Illustration: _The formal garden, with its insistence on strong bounding lines, is, strictly speaking, the only "garden" possible._--R. F. BLOMFIELD _The Vicarage Garden, Odiham. One of numerous British gardens in which the conditions here declared to be essential are absent_] "NATURE" AND WHAT WE MEAN BY IT As to a natural school of landscape gardening, the authors say: A great deal is said about Nature and her beauty, and fidelity to Nature, and so on; but as the landscape gardener never takes the trouble to state precisely what he means by Nature, and, indeed, prefers to use the word in half a dozen different senses, we are not very much the wiser so far as principles are concerned. They make this statement as if all beautiful natural landscape were a closed book; as if there were no stately Yews, in natural forms, on the Merrow Downs, as well as clipped Yews at Elvaston; as if the tree-fringed mountain lawns of Switzerland did not exist; or lovely evergreen glades on the Californian mountains, or wild Azalea gardens on those of Carolina, or even naturally-grown Planes in London squares. There are many gardens and parks which clearly show what is meant by the "natural" style; and though, like others, this art is too often imperfect, we have so many instances of its success, that it is curious to find any one shutting his eyes to them. There are lessons in picturesque gardening in every country in Europe and in many parts of North America. Mr. Olmstead's work in America and Mr. Robert Marnock's in England teach them; they may be learnt in many English gardens--from Sir Richard Owen's little garden in Richmond Park to Dunkeld--even small rectory and cottage gardens, wholly free of architectural aids, show the principle. It was but a few weeks ago, in the garden of the English Embassy in Paris, that I was struck with the simplicity of the lawn and plan of the garden there, and its fitness for a house in a city. To support their idea that there is and can be no natural school of landscape gardening, the authors suppose what does not exist, and describe A piece of ground laid out with a studied avoidance of all order, all balance, all definite lines, and the result a hopeless disagreement between the house and its surroundings. This very effect can be seen in the efforts of the landscape gardener, and in old country houses, such as Barrington Court, near Langport, where the gardens have not been kept up. Here, instead of taking one of the many good examples in Britain, they take poor, beautiful old Barrington, now an ill-kept farmhouse, with manure piled against the walls and the ceiling of the dining-room propped up with a Fir pole! The foolish proposition here laid down, that, because a garden is picturesque there must necessarily be a "_studied avoidance of all order, all balance, all definite lines_," is disproved by hundreds of gardens in England. Why did not the authors take Miss Alice de Rothschild's garden at Eythorpe, or any beautiful and picturesque English garden, to compare with their results in stone and clipped and aligned trees? [Illustration: _Unclipped trees at the Little Trianon. (Compare with cut on p. 52.)_] "ALL OUR PATHS" ARE CROOKED! For instance, because Nature is assumed never to show straight lines, all paths are to be made crooked; because in a virgin forest there are no paths at all, let us in our acre and a half of garden make as little of the paths as possible. Deception is a primary object of the landscape gardener. (_The Formal Garden._) This, too, in the face of the facts of the case, of proof ready for the authors, in gardens in every country, from Prospect Park at Brooklyn to the English park at Munich. The fact that the Phoenix Park at Dublin is laid out in a fine, picturesque way does not forbid a great straight road through it--a road finer than in any strait-laced park in France. The late Robert Marnock was the best landscape gardener I have known, and I never saw one of his many gardens where he did not make an ample straight walk where an ample straight walk was required--as, indeed, many may remember is the case in the Botanic Gardens in the Regent's Park, laid out by him. Again, Nature is said to prefer a curved line to a straight, and it is thence inferred that all the lines in a garden, and especially paths, should be curved. The utter contempt for design of the landscape gardener is shown most conspicuously in his treatment of paths. He lays them about at random, and keeps them so narrow that they look like threads, and there is barely room to walk abreast. The opposite of this is indeed the truth, for many gardens and parks laid out with some regard to landscape beauty are partly spoiled by the size and number of the walks, as in the gardens around Paris--the Parc Monceau and Buttes Chaumont, for instance. The slightest knowledge of gardens would show that walks like threads are no necessary part of landscape gardening! [Illustration: _Westonbirt_] This error shows well the effect of men reading and writing about what they have not seen. The axiom on which landscape gardening rests is declared by Messrs. Blomfield and Thomas to be _Whatever Nature does is right; therefore let us go and copy her (p. 5)._ Here is a poor sneer at true art, not only at art in landscape gardening, but in all the fine arts. The central and essential idea of the landscape art is choice of what is beautiful--not taking the salt waste in Utah, or a field of weeds, or a Welsh slope of decayed slate, or the bog of Allen, or the thousand other things in Nature that are monotonous or dull to us, even though here and there beautiful as a wide bog may be. We can have in a garden a group of Scotch Firs as good in form as a fine group in wild Nature, and so of the Cedar of Lebanon and many of the lovely trees of the world. We can have bits of rock alive with alpine flowers, or pieces of lawn fringed with trees in their natural forms and as graceful as the alpine lawns on the Jura. So of all other true art. The Venus of Milo is from a noble type of woman--not a mean Greek. The horses of the Parthenon are the best types of Eastern breed, full of life and beauty, not sickly beasts. Great landscape painters like Corot, Turner, and Troyon show us in their work the absurdity of this statement so impertinently used. They seek not ugly things because they are natural, but beautiful combinations of field, and hill, wood, water, tree, and flower, and grass, selecting groupings which go to make good composition, and then waiting for the most beautiful effects of morning, evening, or whatever light suits the chosen subject best, so give us lovely pictures! But they work always from faithful study of Nature and from stores of knowledge gathered from Nature study, and that is the only true path for the landscape gardener; as all true and great art can only be based on the eternal laws of Nature. "THE ONLY GARDEN POSSIBLE!" The word "garden" itself means an enclosed space, a garth or yard surrounded by walls, as opposed to unenclosed fields and woods. The formal garden, with its insistence on strong bounding lines, is, strictly speaking, the only "garden" possible. All other gardens are, of course, impossible to the authors--the Parc Monceau, the informal gardens about Paris, Glasnevin, the Botanic Gardens in Regent's Park and at Sheffield, Golder's Hill, Greenlands, Pendell Court, Rhianva, and the thousand cottage, rectory, and other British gardens where no wall is seen! The Bamboo garden at Shrubland, the Primrose garden at Munstead, the rock and other gardens, which we must keep in quiet places away from any sight of walls, are all "_impossible_" to these authors! How much better it would be for every art if it were impossible for men to write about things of which by their own showing they have not even elementary knowledge! [Illustration: _Thrumpton Hall. A type of numerous English gardens with informal planting_] And the sketches in the book show us what these possible gardens are! They are careful architects' drawings, deficient in light and shade; not engraved, but reproduced by a hard process, some being mere reproductions of old engravings; and diagrams of old "knots" and "patterns," with birds and ships perched on wooden trellises, without the slightest reference to any human or modern use. A curious one of Badminton will show fully the kind of plan the authors wish to see revived. Some of the illustrations show the evils of the system which the authors advocate, notably one of Levens Hall, Westmoreland, a very interesting and real old garden. Interesting as it is from age, the ugliness of the clipped forms takes away from the beauty of the house. Even in sketches of gardens like Montacute and Brympton, the beauty of the gardens is not well shown. The most interesting drawings, it is not surprising to find, are the informal ones! Many of the others show the _evil_, not the good, of the system advocated, by their hard lines and the emphasising of ugly forms. "NO DESIGN IN LANDSCAPE" Horticulture stands to garden design much as building does to architecture. This book has been written entirely from the standpoint of the designer, and therefore contains little or no reference to the actual methods of horticulture. Throughout the book it is modestly assumed that there can be no "design" in anything but in lines of stone, and clipped trees to "harmonise" with the stone, and to bring in "order" and "balance." A Longleat, Highclere or Little Trianon, or any of the many English places which are planted in picturesque ways can show no design; but a French town, with its wretched lines of tortured Limes, is "pure" and "broad" in design. _The naiveté_ of the book in this respect is often droll. One amusing passage is on p. 54:-- However rich the details, there is no difficulty in grasping the principle of _a garden laid out in an equal number of rectangular plots_. Everything is straightforward and logical; you are not bored with hopeless attempts to master the bearings of the garden. This is the kitchen gardener's view, and that of the market gardener of all countries, but the fun is in calling the idea of it "_grasping a principle_"! At this rate makers of chessboards have strong claims to artistic merit! No wonder that men who call a "principle" the common way of setting out kitchen and cabbage gardens from Pekin to Mortlake can see no design in the many things that go to make a beautiful landscape! Equally stupid is the assumption, throughout the book, that the people the authors are pleased to term "landscapists" flop their houses down in the Grass, and never use low walls for dividing lines, nor terraces where necessary, never use walls for shelter or privacy, have no "order" or "balance," and presumably allow the Nettles to look in at the windows, and the cattle to have a fine time with the Carnations! [Illustration: Tailpiece] NO GRASS IN LANDSCAPE GARDENING! The following glaring piece of injustice is due to want of the most elementary consideration of garden design:-- Grass-work as an artistic quantity can hardly be said to exist in landscape gardening. It is there considered simply as so much background to be broken up with shrubs and Pampas Grass and irregular beds (p. 135). The opposite of this is the fact. Grass-work as an "artistic quantity" did not exist in anything like the same degree before landscape gardening. One of the faults of the formal style of gardening still seen in France and Austria is that there is little or no Grass. Compare the Jardin des Plantes in Paris with the Parc Monceau, or the many other gardens about Paris in which Grass is an "artistic quantity." One of the most effective reasons indeed for adopting the English landscape garden was that it gave people some fresh and open Grass, often with picturesque surroundings, and, nowadays, one can hardly travel on the continent and not see some pleasant results of this. In England, the landscape gardeners and writers have almost destroyed every trace of the stiff old formal gardens, and we cannot judge the ill effects of the builder's garden so easily as in France. As a rule, the want of rest and freshness in tropical and sub-tropical gardens is due to the absence of those broad and airy breadths of greensward which, in gardens at least, are largely due to landscape gardening. Think of Warwick without its turf and glorious untrimmed Cedars! [Illustration: _Goodwood. Example of large English places in which the grass sweeps up to the house_] Consider the difference between a picturesque landscape like the Emperor of Austria's stately garden at Laxenberg, near Vienna, and the gardens in the same city formed of miserable clipped trees in lines! Grass as an "artistic quantity" is finely visible at Laxenberg; in the old clipped gardens gravel and distorted trees are the only things seen in quantity--we cannot call it "artistic." "Landscapist" is used throughout the book as a term of contempt. The authors take some of the worst work that is possible, and condemn all in the same opprobrious terms, as if we were to condemn the noble art of the builders of the Parthenon on seeing a "jerry" building in London. They may be quite sure that there _is_ a true and beautiful art of landscape gardening, notwithstanding their denunciations, and it is none the less real because there is no smug definition of it that pleases the minds of men who declare that it does not exist. The horticulturist and the gardener are indispensable, _but they should work under control_, and they stand in the same relation to the designer as the artist's colourman does to the painter, or, perhaps it would be fairer to say, as the builder and his workmen stand to the architect. What modesty! The men whose business it is to design gardens are heartily abused. How very graceful it would be on the part of one of them to write an essay telling architects how to build, and showing that to build well it is not necessary to know anything about the inhabitants or uses of a house! "IMPROVING" BATTERSEA PARK! Perhaps after the cemetery, the ugliest things in the fair land of France are the ugly old lines of clipped Limes which deface many French towns. Readers who have not seen these things can have no idea of their abominable hardness and ugliness, the natural form of the trees being destroyed, and deformed and hideous trees resulting from constant clipping. These gouty lines of clipped trees are praised as "noble walls" "pure and broad" in design, while Such a place, for instance, as Battersea Park is like a bad piece of architecture, full of details which stultify each other. The only good point in it is the one avenue, and this leads to nowhere. If this park had been planted out with groves and avenues of Limes, like the boulevard at Avallon, or the squares at Vernon, or even like the east side of Hyde Park between the Achilles statue and the Marble Arch, at least one definite effect would have been reached. There might have been shady walks, and noble walls of trees, instead of the spasmodic futility of Battersea Park. Battersea Park, like many others, may be capable of improvement; but here we have men who want to supplant its lawns, grassy playgrounds, and pretty retired gardens with Lime trees like those of a French town, and lines and squares of trees like those at Vernon, which I once saw half bare of leaves long before the summer was over! [Illustration: _Avenue in Paris. Showing that even in a land of clipped trees clipping is not essential_] The authors see with regret that the good sense of planters has for many years been gradually emancipated from the style (as old as the Romans and older) of planting in rows. It was the very early and in a very real sense a barbarous way. Since the days when country places were laid out "in a number of rectangular plots," whole worlds of lovely things have come to us--to give one instance only, the trees of California, Oregon, and the Rocky Mountains. For men to talk of designing homes for such things, who say they have no knowledge of them, is absurdity itself! [Illustration: _Clipped trees at the Little Trianon_] "_An unerring perception told the Greeks that the beautiful must also be the true, and recalled them back into the way. As in conduct they insisted on an energy which was rational, so in art and in literature they required of beauty that it, too, should be before all things rational._"--PROFESSOR BUTCHER, in _Some Aspects of the Greek Genius_. NATURE AND CLIPPED YEWS The remarks quoted below on Nature and the clipping shears are not from Josh Billings, but from _The Formal Garden_, of which the literary merit, we are told in the preface, belongs to Mr. Blomfield. A clipped Yew tree is as much a part of Nature--that is, subject to natural laws--as a forest Oak; but the landscapist, by appealing to associations which surround the personification of Nature, holds up the clipped Yew tree to obloquy as something against Nature. So far as that goes, it is no more unnatural to clip a Yew tree than to cut Grass. I believe we cut Grass when we want hay, or soft turf to play on, but disfiguring a noble tree is not a necessary part of our work either for our profit or pleasure. Perhaps, as is probable, Mr. Blomfield has never noticed what a beautiful tree a Yew in its natural form is. It is not only on the hills he may see them. If he will come and see them in my own garden in a high wind some day, or when bronzed a little with a hard winter, he may change his amusing notions about clipped Yews. I think I can give Mr. Blomfield a rational explanation of why it is foolish to clip so fair a tree or any _tree_. I clip Yews when I want to make a hedge of them, but then I am clipping a hedge, and not a tree. I hold up "the clipped Yew tree to obloquy," as the tree in its natural form is the most beautiful evergreen tree of our western world--as fine as the Cedar in its plumy branches, and more beautiful than any Cedar in the colour of its stem. In our own day we have seen trees of the same great order as the Yew gathered from a thousand hills--from British Columbia, through North America and Europe to the Atlas Mountains, and not one of them has yet proved to be so beautiful as our native Yew when it is allowed to grow unclipped root or branch. But in gardens the quest for the strange and exotic is so constant, that few give a fair chance to the Yew as a tree, while in graveyards where it is so often seen in a very old state, the frequent destruction of the roots in grave-digging prevents the tree from reaching its full stature and beauty, though there are Yews in English churchyards that have lived through a thousand winters. [Illustration: _The "Grange," Hartley Wintney_] I do not clip my Yews, because clipping destroys the shape of one of the most delightful in form of all trees, beautiful, too, in its plumy branching. It is not my own idea only that I urge here, but that of all who have ever thought of form, foremost among whom we must place artists who have the happiness of always drawing natural forms. Let Mr. Blomfield stand near one of the Cedar-like Yews by the Pilgrim's Way on the North Downs, and, comparing it with trees cut in the shape of an extinguisher, consider what the difference means to the artist who seeks beauty of form. Clipping such trees does not merely deserve "obloquy"; it is worse than idiotic, as there is a sad reason for the idiot's ways. If I use what in the Surrey nurseries are called "hedging Yews" to form a hedge, high or low, I must clip them to form my hedge, and go on doing so if I wish to keep it, or the hedge would soon show me that it was "subject to natural laws," and escape from the shears. What right have we to deform things given us so perfect and lovely in form? No cramming of Chinese feet into impossible shoes is half so wicked as the wilful distortion of the divinely beautiful forms of trees. The cost of this hideous distortion alone is one reason against it, as one may soon find out in places where miles of trees cut into wall-like shape have to be clipped, as at Versailles and Schönbrunn! This clipping is a mere survival of the day when gardens had very few trees, and it was necessary to clip the few they had to fit certain situations to conform to the architect's notion of "garden design." This is not design at all from any landscape point of view; and though the elements which go to form beautiful landscape, whether home landscape or the often higher landscape beauty of the open country, are often subtle, and though they are infinitely varied, they are none the less real. The fact that men when we had few trees clipped them into walls and grotesque shapes to make them serve their notions of "design" is surely not a reason why we, who have the trees of a thousand hills with trees of almost every size and shape among them, should violate and mutilate some of the finest natural forms! [Illustration: _A Yew Tree on Mountain, N. England_] Thus while it may be right to clip a tree to form a wall, dividing-line, or hedge, it is never so to clip trees grown as single specimens or groups, as by clipping such we only get ugly forms--unnatural, too. Last autumn, in Hyde Park, I saw a man clipping Hollies at the Rotten Row end of the Serpentine, and asking him why it was done, he said it was to "keep them in shape," though, to do him justice, he added that he thought it would be better to let them alone. Men who clip so handsome a tree as the Holly when taking no part in a hedge or formal line are blind to beauty of form. To tolerate such clipped forms is to prove oneself callous to natural beauty of tree form, and to show that we cannot even see ugliness. [Illustration: _Building in Paris. Showing that intimate association with buildings does not necessitate clipping or distortion of trees_] Take, again, the clipped Laurels by which many gardens and drives are disfigured. Laurel in its natural shape in the woods of west country or other places, where it is let alone, is often fine in form, though we may have too much of it. But it is planted everywhere without thought of its stature or fitness for the spot, and then it grows until the shears are called in, and we see nearly every day its fine leaves and free shoots cut short back into ugly banks and sharp, wall-like, or formless masses, disfiguring many gardens without the slightest necessity. There is no place in which it is used clipped for which we could not get shrubs quite suitable that would not need mutilation. It is not only clipped trees that are ugly, but even trees like the Irish Yew, Wellingtonia, and some Arbor-vitæ, which frequently assume shapes like extinguishers or the forms of clipped trees. It often happens that these, when over-planted or planted near houses, so emphasise ugly forms about the house, that there is no beauty possible in the home landscape. Many of such ugly, formless trees have been planted within the last generation, greatly to the injury of the garden landscape. In the old gardens, where, from other motives, trees were clipped when people had very few Evergreens or shrubs of any kind, or where they wanted an object of a certain height, they had to clip. It is well to preserve such gardens, but never to imitate them, as has been done in various English and American gardens. If we want shelter, we can get it in various delightful ways without clipping, and, while getting it, we can enjoy the beautiful natural forms of the finest Evergreens. Hedges and wall-like dividing lines of green living things will now and then be useful, and even may be artistically used; they are sometimes, however, used where a wall would be better, walls having the great advantage of not robbing the ground near. A wall is easily made into a beautiful garden with so many lovely things, too, from great scrambling yellow Roses to alpine flowers. To any one with the slightest sympathy with Nature or art these things need not be said. NO LINE IN NATURE! Now as a matter of fact in Nature--that is, in the visible phenomena of the earth's surface--there are no lines at all; "a line" is simply an abstraction which conveniently expresses the direction of a succession of objects which may be either straight or curved. "Nature" has nothing to do with either straight lines or curved; it is simply begging the question to lay it down as an axiom that curved lines are more "natural" than straight. Then men must never again talk of the "lines" of a ship! Perhaps Mr. Blomfield would accept a plumb line? One can hardly leave London an hour before a person who looks at the landscape may see the lines or boundaries between one mass and another. Who could stand amongst downs or an alpine valley and say there are no lines in them, inasmuch as one of the most visible and delightful things in all such cases is the beauty of those lines? This is the key of the whole question of landscape gardening. There is no good landscape gardening possible without a feeling for the natural gradation and forms of the earth. It can be seen in little things, like the slope of a field as well as in the slope of a mountain, and it is the neglect of this which leaves us so little to boast of in landscape work. In a country slightly diversified it is, of course, more important than in a perfectly flat one, but in all diversified ground no good landscape work can be done without regarding the natural gradation of the earth, which will often tell us what to do. It is blindness to this principle which makes so many people cut their roads and walks crudely through banks, leaving straight sharp sides--false lines, in fact--when a little care and observation would have avoided this and given a true and beautiful line for a road or walk. Once the necessary levels are settled and the garden walks by straight walls about the house are got away from, we soon come to ground which, whether we treat it rightly or not, will at once show whether the work done be landscape work or not. No plan, it seems to me, is so good as keeping to the natural form of the earth in all lawn, pleasure ground, and plantation work. Roads, paths, fences, plantations, and anything like wood will be all the better if we are guided by natural lines or forms, taking advantage of every difference of level and every little accident of the ground for our dividing lines and other beginnings or endings. In the absence of any guidance of this sort, what we see is brutal cutting through banks, lines like railway embankments--without the justification there is for the sharpness of a railway embankment--and ugly banks to roads, very often ugly in their lines too. If we are ever to have a school of true landscape gardening, the study and observation of the true gradation of the earth must be its first task. [Illustration: _Broadlands, Hants_] "VEGETABLE SCULPTURE"[2] [2] _Garden Craft, Old and New._ By John D. Sedding. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co. This gentleman, unfortunately without any knowledge of plants, trees, or landscape beauty, launches out into the dreary sea of quotations from old books about gardens, and knows so little of where he is going, that he is put out of his course by every little drift of wind. One goes through chapter after chapter thinking to get to the end of the weary matter only to find again nothing but quotations, even to going back to an old book for a song. When at last we come to a chapter on "_Art in the Garden,_" this is what is offered us as sense on a charming subject, familiar to many, so that all may judge of the depth of this foolish talk about it! Such a writer discussing in this way a metaphysical or obscure subject might swim on in his inky water for ever, and no one know where he was! Let us here point to the fact, that any garden whatsoever is but Nature idealised, pastoral scenery rendered in a fanciful manner. It matters not what the date, size, or style of the garden, it represents an idealisation of Nature. _Real_ nature exists outside the artist and apart from him. The Ideal is that which the artist conceives to be an interpretation of the outside objects, or that which he adds to the objects. The garden gives imaginative form to emotions the natural objects have awakened in man. The _raison d'être_ of a garden is man's feeling the _ensemble_. But we cannot allow him to bring the false and confusing "art" drivel of the day into the garden without showing the absurdity of his ideas. [Illustration: _Warren House, Coombe Wood_] The illustrations are of the most wretched kind produced by some process, the only interesting one being one of Levens. The most childish ideas of the garden prevail--indeed we hardly like to call them childish, because children do put sensible questions and see clearly. For instance, for the author there is no art in gardening at all--the "art" consists entirely of building walls and planting Yew hedges. Thus the work of the late James Backhouse, who knew every flower on the hills of Northern England, and expressed that knowledge in his charming rock garden, is not art, but cutting a tree into the shape of a cocked hat _is_ art, according to Mr. Sedding! He assumes that landscape gardeners all follow artistic ways, and that only architects make terraces; whereas the greatest sinners in this respect have been landscape gardeners--Nesfield and Paxton. He has paid so little attention to the subject, that he says that the landscape gardener's only notion is to put Grass all around the house! It does not even occur to him that there may be Grass on one side of a house and gardens of various sorts at the others, as at Goodwood, Shrubland, Knole, and that a house may have at each side a different expression of landscape gardening! [Illustration: _Drummond Castle. Example of beautiful garden in Scotland, in position requiring terracing_] He takes the _English Flower Garden_ as the expression of landscape gardening practice; whereas the book, in all the parts that treat of design, is a protest against the formation by landscape gardeners of costly things which have nothing to do with gardening and nothing to do with true architecture. The good architect is satisfied with building a beautiful house, and that we are all the happier for. But what we have to deplore is that men who are not really architects, who are not gardeners, should cover the earth with rubbish like the Crystal Palace basins, the thing at the top of the Serpentine, and the Grand Trianon at Versailles. Here is a specimen of Mr. Sedding's knowledge of the landscape art. For the "landscape style" does not countenance a straight line, or terrace, or architectural form, or symmetrical beds about the house, for to allow these would not be to photograph Nature. As carried into practice, the style demands that the house shall rise abruptly from the Grass, and the general surface of the ground shall be _characterised by smoothness and bareness (like Nature!)_. If he had even taken the trouble to see a good garden laid out by Mr. Marnock or anybody worthy of the name of landscape gardener, he would find that they knew the use of the terrace very well. If he had taken the trouble to see one of my own gardens, he would find beds quite as formal, but not so frivolous as those described in the older books, and lines simple and straight as they can be. Where Barry left room for a dozen flowers at Shrubland I put one hundred; so much for the "_bareness_"! [Illustration: _Madresfield. Example of modern English garden_] On page 180 he says:-- I have no more scruple in using the scissors upon tree or shrub, where trimness is desirable, than I have in mowing the turf of the lawn that once represented a virgin world. There is a quaint charm in the results of the topiary art, in the prim imagery of evergreens, that all ages have felt. And I would even introduce Bizarreries on the principle of not leaving all that is wild and odd to Nature outside of the garden paling; and in the formal part of the garden _my Yews should take the shape of pyramids, or peacocks, or cocked hats, or ramping lions in Lincoln green, or any other conceit I had a mind to, which vegetable sculpture can take_. After reading this I saw again some of the true "vegetable sculpture" that I have been fortunate to see; Reed and Lily, a model for ever in stem, leaf, and bloom; the grey Willows of Britain, sometimes lovelier than Olives against our skies; many-columned Oak groves set in seas of Primroses, Cuckoo flowers and Violets; Silver Birch woods of Northern Europe beyond all grace possible in stone; the eternal garland of beauty that one kind of Palm waves for hundreds of miles throughout the land of Egypt,--a vein of summer in a lifeless world: the noble Pine woods of California and Oregon, like fleets of colossal masts on mountain waves--saw again these and many other lovely forms in garden and woodland, and then wondered that any one could be so blind to the beauty of plant and tree as to write as Mr. Sedding does here. From the days of the Greeks to our own time, the delight of all great artists has been to get as near this divine beauty as the material they work with permits. But this deplorable "_vegetable sculptor's_" delight is in distorting beautiful natural forms; and this in the one art in which we enjoy the living things themselves, and not merely representations of them! The old people from whom he takes his ideas were not nearly so foolish, as when the Yew tree was used as a shelter or a dividing line, and when a Yew was put at a garden door for shelter or to form a hedge, it was necessary to clip it if it was not to get out of all bounds. But here is a man delighting for its own sake in what he calls with such delicate feeling "_vegetable sculpture_," in "cocked hats" and "ramping lions"! [Illustration: Tailpiece] Printed by R. & R. Clark, Edinburgh * * * * * TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: Minor punctuation errors and inconsistent hyphenation have been corrected without comment. All other variations in spelling and inconsistent hyphenation have been retained as they appear in the original book. 
38024	----	DWARF FRUIT TREES OTHER BOOKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR [Illustration] LANDSCAPE GARDENING PLUMS AND PLUM CULTURE FRUIT HARVESTING, STORING, MARKETING SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY [Illustration: DWARF CHERRY TREE Two years planted] DWARF FRUIT TREES THEIR PROPAGATION, PRUNING, AND GENERAL MANAGEMENT, ADAPTED TO THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA _By_ F. A. WAUGH _ILLUSTRATED_ NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1906 COPYRIGHT, 1906 BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY PREFACE The commercial interests have so continuously and completely held the horticultural stage in America during the last two decades that it has been impossible for amateur horticulture to get in a word edgewise. Any public speaker or writer has had to talk about several acres at a time or he would not be listened to. He has been obliged to insist that his scheme would pay on a commercial scale before anyone would hear, much less consider, what he had to tell. But now a change is coming. Different conditions are already upon us. A thousand signs indicate the new era. With hundreds--yes thousands--of men and women now horticulture is an avocation, a pastime. They grow trees largely for the pleasure of it; and their gardens are built amidst surroundings which would make commercial pomology laugh at itself. And so I undertake to offer the first American fruit book in a quarter century which can boldly declare its independence of the professional element in fruit growing. I am confident that dwarf fruit trees have some commercial possibilities, but they are of far greater importance to the small householder, the owner of the private "estate," the village dweller, the suburbanite and the commuter. In other words, while I hope that all good people will be interested in dwarf fruit trees and that some of them will share the enthusiasm of which this book is begotten, I do not want anyone to think that I have issued any guaranty, expressed or implied, that dwarf trees will open a paying commercial enterprise. Because the argument that a thing pays has been so long the only recommendation offered for any horticultural scheme, many persons have formed the habit of assuming that every sort of praise stands on this one foundation. F. A. WAUGH. _Massachusetts Agricultural College, 1906._ TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE v I. General Considerations 1 II. Advantages and Disadvantages 8 III. Propagation 22 IV. Pruning 33 V. Special Forms 41 VI. General Management 51 VII. Dwarf Apples 63 VIII. Dwarf Pears 76 IX. Dwarf Peaches 83 X. Dwarf Plums 90 XI. Bush Fruits 99 XII. Fruit Trees in Pots 106 XIII. Personalia 112 Index 125 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Dwarf Cherry Tree _Frontispiece_ FIG. PAGE 1 Dwarf Apple Trees in Western New York 3 2 Trained Cordon Apple Trees 5 3 Bismarck Apple 7 4 Pear Tree Trained as an Espalier 9 5 Bush Apple Tree 11 6 Plums as Upright Cordons 17 7 Paradise Apple Stocks in Early Spring 25 8 The Western Sand Cherry 30 9 Upright Cordon Plum 31 10 Bush Apple 34 11 Bush Apple, Three Years Old, Before Pruning 37 12 Bush Apple, Same Tree, After Pruning 37 13 Cordon Pears Before Pruning 39 14 Cordon Pears After Pruning 39 15 Pears in Double U Form 43 16 Pears in U Form 45 17 Apricots in U Form 47 18 Pear in Espalier 48 19 Old Espalier Pears on Farm House Wall 49 20 Horizontal Cordon Apple and Other Dwarf Trees 52 21 Design for a Back Yard Fruit Garden 53 22 Dwarf Fruit Garden 55 23 Fruit Gardening and Landscape Gardening Combined 59 24 A Fruit Garden Containing Many Dwarf Trees 61 25 Dwarf Apples on Prof. L. H. Bailey's Farm, New York 65 26 Upright Cordon Apples 67 27 Horizontal Cordon Apple Trees 71 28 Young Orchard of Dwarf Pear in Western New York 76 29 Dwarf Pear in the Old and Profitable Yeomans Orchard, New York 77 30 Orchard of Dwarf Duchess Pear, Lockport, N. Y. 79 31 Pyramid Pears in a German Orchard 80 32 Dwarf Peach in Nursery 84 33 Espalier Peach, Hartford, Conn. 85 34 Peach in Fan Espalier on Wall--England 87 35 Peach Trees Trained Under Glass 88 36 Plum Trees Trained as Upright Cordons 91 37 Burbank Plums on Upright Cordons Trained to Trellis 95 38 Currants as Fan Espaliers on Trellis 100 39 Gooseberry Fan Espalier 102 40 Tree Form Gooseberry 104 41 A Fruiting Peach in Pot 108 42 A Fig Tree in a Pot 110 43 Dwarf Pear 117 44 Chenango Apples in Prof. L. H. Bailey's Orchard 121 DWARF FRUIT TREES I GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS A dwarf fruit tree is simply one which does not reach full size. It is not so large as it might be expected to be. It is smaller than a normal tree of the same variety and age. There are indeed some trees which are normally dwarf, so to speak. They never reach a considerable size. They are smaller than other better known and related species. For example, the species _Prunus pumila besseyi_ is sometimes called the dwarf sand cherry, simply because it is always notably smaller than related species. The Paradise apple is spoken of as a dwarf because it never attains the stature which other apples attain. But in the technical sense, as the term is used by nurserymen and pomologists, a dwarf tree is one which is made, by some artificial means, to grow smaller than normal trees of the same variety. These artificial means used for making dwarf trees are chiefly three: (1) propagation on dwarfing stocks, (2) repressive pruning, and (3) training to some prescribed form. DWARFING STOCKS The most common and important means of securing dwarf trees is that of propagating them on dwarfing stocks. These are simply such roots as make a slower and weaker growth than the trees from which cions are taken. This will be understood better from a concrete example. The quince tree normally grows slower than the pear, and usually reaches about half the size at maturity. Now pear cions will unite readily with quince roots and will grow in good health for many years. But when a pear tree is thus dependent for daily food on a quince root it fares like Oliver Twist. It never gets enough. It is always starved. It makes considerably less annual growth, and never (or at least seldom) reaches the size which it might have reached if it had been growing on a pear root. This is, somewhat roughly stated, the whole theory of dwarfing fruit trees by grafting them on slow-growing stocks. The tree top is always under-nourished and thus restrained in its ambitious growth of branches, as seen in Fig. 1. While the tree is made thus smaller by being grafted on a restraining root, it is not affected in its other characteristics. At least theoretically it is not. It still bears the same kind of fruit and foliage. Bartlett pear trees budded on quince roots yield fruit true to name. The pears are still Bartletts, and can not be told from those grown on an ordinary tree. Sometimes the fruit from dwarf trees seems to be better colored or better flavored than that from standard trees; but such differences are very delicate and usually receive slight thought. [Illustration: FIG. 1--DWARF APPLE TREES IN WESTERN NEW YORK] Dwarf fruit trees have not been very largely grown in America, but have been much more widely used in Europe. This statement holds good either for commercial plantations or for private fruit gardens. They are coming into more common use in this country because, in both market orchards and amateur gardens, our pomology is coming to be somewhat more like that of Europe. Our conditions are approaching those of the Old World, even though they will always be very different from those of Europe in horticultural matters. Dwarf fruit trees are particularly valuable in small gardens; and small gardens are becoming constantly more popular among our urban, and especially our suburban, population. This matter is discussed more fully in another chapter. Fruit of finer quality can be grown on dwarf trees, as a general rule, than can usually be grown on standard trees. Every year there are more people in America who are willing to take any necessary pains to secure fruit of extra quality. This remark applies particularly to amateur fruit growers and to owners of private estates who grow fruit for their own tables, but it is no less true of a certain class of fruit buyers, especially in the richer cities. Although $3 a barrel is still a high price for ordinary good apples, sales of fancy apples at $3 a dozen fruits are by no means infrequent in the city markets every winter. [Illustration: FIG. 2--TRAINED CORDON APPLE TREES From Loebner's "Zwergobstbäume"] In this respect also we are approaching European conditions. In the markets of the continental capitals in particular fancy fruits are frequently sold at prices which seem almost incredible to an American. Single apples sometimes bring 50 cents to a dollar, and peaches an equal price. Just recently a story has been going the rounds of the newspapers that the caterer for the Czar's table sometimes pays as high as $15 apiece for peaches for the royal table. Hereupon a solemn American editor remarked that if the whole royal family should live upon nothing but peaches it would still be cheaper than carrying on the Japanese war. Now if there is anywhere within reach a market for apples or peaches at $3 a dozen specimens--and there unquestionably is--then it will pay to grow fancy fruits with special care to meet this demand. This kind of fruit can be grown better upon dwarf trees than upon standards in many cases, if not in most. At least such is the conviction of the present writer. Moreover this has been the experience in the old country. With such facts in view there seems to be a possible future for dwarf fruit trees, even for commercial purposes. Their present utility in amateur gardens and on wealthy private estates can not be questioned. These various amateur and commercial adaptations of dwarf trees will have to be more carefully analyzed and discussed in a future chapter, and the subject may therefore be dropped for the present. [Illustration: FIG. 3--BISMARCK APPLE, FIRST YEAR PLANTED 22 inches high; bearing 4 fruits] II ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES It is a good prejudice which expects every man who writes anything to be enthusiastic over his subject. Such enthusiasm doubtless leads a writer many times to over-state his case, and to claim more than the calm judgment of the multitude will ratify. And on the other hand, readers usually tacitly discount the statements of any man who writes about any matter in which he is plainly interested. The present writer knows that he is also under the ban, and that the reader firmly expects him to claim more for dwarf fruit trees than their merits will fairly warrant. This expectation the writer hopes to disappoint. It will be enough to set down here the obvious advantages and disadvantages which the horticulturist will meet in handling dwarf fruit trees. These statements are mostly of matters of common experience and they need no coloring to make them serve their present purpose. We may fairly set down the following good points standing more or less generally to the credit of dwarf fruit trees: 1. _Early bearing._--This is a sufficiently obvious advantage. The Alexander apple will bear the second year after planting when grown as a dwarf, while it requires six to ten years to come into bearing as a standard. This habit of early bearing proves valuable in many ways. It encourages men to plant trees. The disinclination of old men to plant trees rests upon the slenderness of the chance that they will ever gather of the fruit. But a man may plant dwarf trees whenever his expectation of life is two years or more. Such trees would serve octogenarians, consumptives and those sentenced to be hanged for murder. [Illustration: FIG. 4--PEAR TREE, TRAINED AS AN ESPALIER] Early bearing--to return to the subject--makes dwarf trees valuable to that large and unfortunately growing class of citizens who rent the premises where they live. They do not expect to stay more than five or six years in any one place. In that length of time ordinary trees would not begin to yield any fruit. But with dwarf trees there is excellent probability of seeing something ripen. Then again early bearing is a great advantage when one is testing new or old varieties. It is a great advantage when a commercial orchard is designed and when dwarf trees are used for fillers as explained below. 2. _Small size._--The very smallness of the dwarf trees has many advantages in it. The trees are easier to reach and to care for. They are easier to prune and to spray. This facility in spraying is what has chiefly recommended smaller fruit trees to commercial fruit growers in recent years. Particularly in those places where the San José scale is a perennial problem a very large tree becomes an impossibility, and the smaller the trees can be the better it suits. The small size of dwarf trees permits the planting of larger numbers on a given area. This is specially worth while to the amateur who has a small garden where only three or four standard trees could grow, but where he can comfortably handle forty or fifty dwarfs. Yet it is also worth the consideration of the commercial fruit grower who is trying to earn a profit on expensive land. If he can increase the number of bearing trees on each acre, especially during the early years of establishing his orchard, it almost certainly means increased income. [Illustration: FIG. 5--BUSH APPLE TREE, THREE YEARS PLANTED] 3. _High quality._--It is not perfectly certain that every kind of fruit can be produced in higher quality on dwarf trees than on standards, but such is the general rule. This is notably true of certain pears, as Buerré Giffard and Doyenne du Comice, and it is generally the case with all apples that can be successfully grown on Paradise roots. One can secure size, color, flavor and finish on an Alexander or a Ribston Pippin, for example, which can never be secured on a standard tree. One who has not seen this thing done will hardly understand it; those who have will not need more argument. Such plums as we have fruited on dwarf trees have shown similar improvement in quality, being always distinctly superior to the same varieties grown on standard trees. The significance of these facts will appear at once to any one familiar with the course of the fruit markets in America. There are greater rewards awaiting the fruit grower who can produce fruit of superior quality than the one who succeeds merely in increasing the quantity of his output. SPECIAL USES FOR DWARF TREES These various items of advantage recommend dwarf fruit trees for several specific purposes, some of which are worth pointing out in detail. 1. _For suburban places._--A large and increasing percentage of our population now lives the suburban life--in that zone where city and country meet. They have small tracts of land, which, however, they too often lease instead of owning. On these they do more or less gardening,--usually more, in proportion to the size of their holdings. For them dwarf fruit trees are a precious boon. It is possible to plant three hundred to five hundred dwarf fruit trees on a quarter of an acre, where less than a dozen standard trees would flourish. This gives the opportunity to experiment with all sorts and varieties of fruits, a privilege very dear to the heart of the commuter. The dwarf fruit trees also work more readily into a scheme of more or less ornamental gardening, where fruits are combined with vegetables and flowers. Especially if some sort of formal gardening is attempted, the cordons, espaliers and pyramids exactly suit the demands. Then the fact, already mentioned, that the dwarf trees come into bearing much sooner, is a consideration of the highest value to the suburban gardener. He fully expects to move from one home to another at least once in ten years, if not once in five. With the best of intentions and the most favorable of opportunities he can hardly expect to settle down anywhere for life. The suburbs themselves change too rapidly for that; and the place which today is away off in the country may be all covered with factories five years from now. It is terribly discouraging, under such circumstances, to plant a tree knowing that ten years must pass before any considerable fruitage can be expected from it. It is altogether another feeling with which one plants a tree which promises fruit within two or three years. So that, whatever the drawbacks to the planting of dwarfs, they are the salvation of the suburban garden. For such circumstances they can be freely recommended, without exception or reservation. 2. _For orchard fillers._--As commercial orcharding becomes more refined, under the stress of modern competition, and as good orchard land increases in value, up to one hundred, two hundred, or even three hundred dollars an acre, new methods must be adopted with a view to increasing the returns. This opportunity looms especially large for the first few years after the establishment of the commercial orchard, more particularly the apple orchard. When standard trees are planted thirty-five to the acre, which is now the usual practice, the land is not more than one-fourth occupied for the first five years, and not more than half occupied for the first ten years. Indeed it is full twenty years from the time of planting before the thirty-five apple trees will use the whole acre. And since a good farmer can not afford to let expensive land lie idle he has before him a very pretty problem to determine how the space between the standard trees shall be utilized during the early years of the orchard's growth. Several different methods are in vogue for the solution of this problem; but probably the best one is that system which supplies fillers or temporary trees between the standard or permanent ones. In an orchard of standard apple trees these fillers may very properly be dwarf apple trees; or between standard pears dwarf pears may be planted. If there are thirty-five standard apple trees to an acre, and if a dwarf tree is placed half way between each two standards in every direction, including the diagonal direction, this will make one hundred and five dwarf trees, or one hundred and forty trees in all, instead of the thirty-five trees with which the acre of apple orchard land is more commonly furnished. The dwarf apple trees will be bearing good crops at the end of five years at most; and they can be kept on the land for five years longer at the least, before they will begin to crowd the permanent standards. During these five years, if the orchard has a paying management at all, they will easily pay all the expenses of the enterprise, and should leave a substantial balance of profit. As this system of filling, or interplanting, commercial orchards is becoming more and more common, the suitability of dwarf trees, for this purpose, becomes more generally evident. 3. _For school gardens._--Thus far school gardens in America have been mostly temporary and experimental affairs. But we are already satisfied that they have come to stay, and that gardening in some form will be a permanent feature of the curriculum in many of our best schools. As soon as a school garden becomes a permanent institution, with ground of its own to be held in use year after year, the dependence on annual crops will give way to the use of various perennial plants, shrubs and trees. And among these dwarf fruit trees will naturally be one of the first introductions. Their small size adapts them to the school premises, their habit of early bearing again serves to recommend them most strikingly, and the special opportunity which they offer to pupils to observe details of pruning and other items of tree management, make them almost a first necessity in the permanent school garden. 4. _For covering walls and fences._--There are many places about every farm, suburban establishment, or even about many city homes, where back walls and fences could be put out of sight very agreeably by almost any sort of foliage. Various ornamental climbers and creepers are in vogue for this service; but a certain number of such unattractive walls and fences could be treated quite as acceptably, from the esthetic point of view, with trained fruit trees, and the result would be more satisfactory in some other ways. Apples or pears trained as cordons or espaliers, or peaches, nectarines, or cherries in fan forms, will thrive on almost any brick or wooden wall, except those with a northern front. It is necessary only to supply a proper soil, to plant sound trees of proper sorts, and to give them the prescribed care. The result is not only a thing of beauty but one of practical utility as well. There are many places where the owner of a city or suburban lot can secure the fun and the substantial benefits belonging to the fruit grower on land that would be otherwise wasted, if he will only build a woven wire fence on the property line between him and his not-too-agreeable neighbor, using this fence as a support for a row of cordon plums, pears or apples. If he has time and inclination to do a little more work with the trees he can better plant U-form peaches, nectarines or apricots, or he can grow plums in U-form, or he can have fan-form cherry trees, or apples or pears in Verrier-palmettes. One of the most interesting and productive lots in the author's dwarf fruit garden is a row of plum trees on such a woven wire trellis. The trees in this row stand two feet apart, and form a perfect screen. (Fig. 6.) The majority of the trees which were necessarily taken for planting this row were not propagated on suitable stocks, and many varieties were introduced for experimental purposes which were obviously unadapted to this mode of training, but nevertheless the net result has been highly satisfactory. [Illustration: FIG. 6--PLUMS AS UPRIGHT CORDONS, SET TWO FEET APART] In a very similar manner apple, pear or plum trees may be trained so as to form an arched arbor way. In this kind of make-up they present a most agreeable novelty. An example of this kind of training is shown in the illustration, page 5. For this purpose cordon trees are usually best; though peach or apricot trees in U-form or double U-form will answer very well. Even apple trees or pears formed as palmettes-Verrier can be carried up over an arched trellis. Mr. Geo. Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" tells of carrying apple trees up over the slate roof of an outbuilding, with marked success. The fruit-bearing portion of the trees, lying there on the slate roof beautifully exposed to the sun above, and assisted by the heat absorbed and radiated by the slate, yielded large crops of apples of very superior quality. SOME DISADVANTAGES There are, of course, some disadvantages in growing dwarf fruit trees, and these should be examined with as much care as the advantages. The more important ones are as follows: 1. _Greater expense._--The trees are somewhat harder to propagate, and therefore cost more. There is no general demand for them in America, so that they are carried by only a few nurseries and are not looked upon as staple goods even with those dealers; and on this account the price is necessarily increased. Thus each tree costs more than a similar tree of the same age and variety propagated in the usual way. But the greatest increase of expense comes from the fact that many more trees are required to plant the same area. There is often an advantage, as already argued, in planting more trees to the acre, but it costs something to gain this advantage. An acre of ground can be planted with thirty-five standard apple trees set thirty-five feet apart each way, and these trees will cost, roughly estimating retail prices at $12 a hundred, $4.20. To plant an acre to dwarf apple trees, setting them six feet apart each way, which is about as thick as these trees should ever be planted, will require 1,210 trees. Estimating the retail price roughly at $15 a hundred this would make the first cost $181.50--a considerably greater initial investment in the orchard. 2. _The trees are shorter lived._--This statement is true for certain kinds of dwarf trees, but not for others. Certain varieties of pears, for example, which do not unite well with the quince root, naturally make short lived trees. On the other hand other varieties of pears appear to live as long and thrive fully as well on quince roots as on pear roots. There is a common belief, especially in England, that apples worked on French paradise roots are apt to be short-lived. The nurserymen who hold this belief contend, however, that the so-called English Paradise, more properly called Doucin, supplies a stock on which apples will live to as great an age as on any other stock whatever. There is some evidence to show that vigorous varieties of plums worked on Americana roots or on dwarf sand cherry are shorter lived than the same varieties on freer growing stocks. In many cases, however, dwarf trees live as long as standards; and in almost all cases they live long enough. 3. _They require more care._--This objection stands particularly against the dwarf trees trained in special and intricate forms. Such trees undoubtedly do require more careful attention, more frequent going-over, and more hand work in the course of the year. It is probably not true that apples, pears, plums or peaches in bush or pyramid forms require any more labor or attention than standard trees to secure equally good results. On the other hand it must not be forgotten, as has already been pointed out, that whatever care may be required is much more easily given the dwarf trees than the standards. 4. _They are not a commercial success._--This statement, too, though undoubtedly having some truth in it, can not stand without qualification. It is certainly true that no one could grow ordinary varieties of apples, like Baldwin or Ben Davis for instance, on dwarf trees in competition with men who are growing the same varieties on standards. It is probably true that fancy varieties of apples can be grown with profit on dwarf trees, but even this can not be strongly urged. So far as apples are concerned the chief value of dwarf trees for modern commercial enterprises in America will come through their use as fillers between rows of standard trees. In the case of pears the situation is somewhat more favorable to dwarf trees. There are a number of orchards in this country where pears have been successfully grown for market, these many years, on dwarf trees. The famous and everywhere planted Bartlett succeeds admirably on the quince stock wherever the soil is suited to it. No successful commercial orchards of dwarf peaches or plums can be cited in this country, individual trees of these kinds even being extremely rare; yet there is good reason to suppose that under favorable conditions dwarf peaches and plums may have some commercial value. Such value may be more in the way of supplementing standard trees than in superseding them, but it is still worth consideration. So that, after all, when we say that dwarf fruit trees are not a commercial success we mean merely that they will not take the place of standard trees. The large market orchards must always continue to be made up of standard trees; but in their own way the dwarf trees will find a limited place even in commercial operations, and this use of them seems destined to be more general in the future than it has been in the past. III PROPAGATION The propagation of dwarf fruit trees is in some senses a more critical and interesting problem than the propagation of ordinary nursery stock. The successful production of a dwarf fruit tree depends primarily on its propagation. The selection of stocks for dwarfing purposes is necessarily a complicated matter. Under the terms of the problem it is impossible that the stock and the cion which are wedded together should be very closely related. The stock must be distinctly different and pronouncedly dwarfer in his habit of growth. It is not always an easy matter to find a stock which is thus distinctly different from the tree which it is desired to grow and which will at the same time form with it a vigorous and long lived union. It is necessary further that the propagation can be carried on with ease and with a fair degree of success in commercial nurseries. If difficult methods of grafting are required, or if only a small stand of nursery trees can be secured, the undertaking becomes too expensive from the nurseryman's point of view. The methods of propagating dwarf trees are for the most part the same as those used in reproducing the same kinds of fruit on standard stocks. As a matter of fact nearly all dwarf trees are propagated by budding. Apples, pears, and plums can be readily grafted, but budding is simpler, speedier, and usually the cheaper process in the nursery. In the upper Mississippi Valley, where plums are somewhat extensively worked on Americana plum roots, grafting is rather common. The side graft and the whip graft are the forms most used. The theory of the production of a dwarf fruit tree by the restraining of its growth has already been mentioned in another chapter. The dwarf stock simply supplies less food than is required for the normal growth of the variety under propagation, and the tree is, in a sense, starved or stunted into its dwarf stature. As the selection of proper stocks--the adaptation of stock to cion--is one of the fundamental problems in dwarf fruit growing, we may now address ourselves to that. We will take up the different classes of fruit in order. THE APPLE Everyone who has observed the wild or native apples which grow in New England pastures must frequently have noticed certain dwarf and slow-growing specimens. It it not difficult to find such which do not reach a height of five feet in ten years of unobstructed growth. If the cions of ordinary varieties of apples like Greening and Winesap should be grafted upon these stocks, the result would be a dwarf Greening or Winesap. If these dwarf wild apples could be produced with certainty and at a low price, they would furnish a source of supply for dwarf apple stocks. The Paradise apple so-called (Fig. 7) is simply one of these dwarf varieties which can be reproduced freely and cheaply. This reproduction is secured nearly always by means of mound layerage. As the variety does not come true to seed, any more than such varieties as King or Hubbardston do, some such method of propagation is necessary. This Paradise apple is naturally inclined to stool out somewhat from the roots. This habit is encouraged by cutting the plants back to the ground. When the young shoots are thrown up they are banked up with a hoe or by plowing furrows up against the rows of plants. The young shoots then form roots at the base and these rooted shoots or layers are removed when one year old. They are then planted in nursery rows in the spring, where they are usually budded the following July or August. These Paradise stocks are largely grown in France. Practically all the supply comes from that country. The nurserymen who grow dwarf apple trees in America import their stocks from France during the winter, plant them in nursery rows early in the spring, bud the stocks the following July or August, and have the dwarf apple trees for sale the second year following. This Paradise is the dwarfest stock known for apples. Its effect on nearly all varieties is very marked, causing them to form very small trees and to bear very early. Some of the more vigorous varieties, like Northern Spy for instance, do not submit kindly to such treatment. For this, or possibly for more recondite reasons, a few varieties do not succeed well on Paradise roots. The writer would be glad to give a list of such varieties which are not adapted to the Paradise stock, but confesses he is unable to do so. [Illustration: FIG. 7--PARADISE APPLE STOCKS IN EARLY SPRING] The Doucin stock is simply another variety of dwarf apple. It is more vigorous and larger growing than the Paradise, and, therefore, produces a tree, when ordinary varieties are grafted upon it, about midway in size between the ordinary standard apple and the same variety growing upon Paradise. This Doucin is sometimes called the English or Broad-Leaved Paradise, but this name is misleading. It will be well to remember this in buying stocks or in buying trees in England. Dwarf apples are largely propagated in England, but the trees which are said to be on Paradise roots are often on Doucin. This confusion comes about from the Englishman's habit of calling Doucin the Broad-Leaved Paradise. The Doucin is perhaps better for the free-growing bush form trees, especially where excessive dwarfing is not needed. For orchard planting in the United States this Doucin stock would be likely to suit many growers better than Paradise. For trees which are to be kept within very narrow bounds, or those which are to be trained in particular forms, the Paradise stock is better. For all sorts of cordon apple trees, the Paradise is essential. THE PEAR Dwarf pears are always propagated on quince roots. Any kind of a quince may be used as a stock for pears, but the one commonly employed by nurserymen is the Angers quince, named after Angers, France, from which place the supply largely comes. Almost all the quince stocks used by nurserymen in America are imported from France. As in dealing with apple stocks, the importation is made during the winter, the stocks are planted in nursery rows in the early spring, and are usually budded in July or August of the same year. A few varieties of pears do not make good unions with the quince. In some cases this antipathy is overcome by the expedient of double-working. The quince root is first budded with some variety which unites well with it. After this pear cion has grown one year, the refractory variety is budded upon this pear shoot. The complete tree, when it leaves the nursery, consists of three pieces,--a quince root below, a pear top above, and a short section of only one or two inches in length of some other variety of pear which simply holds together the two essential parts of the tree. This practise of double-working is sometimes undertaken with other kinds of fruit for special purposes. There are no other cases, however, in which it becomes a generally recognized commercial practise. THE PEACH The peach is dwarfed by budding it upon almost any kind of a plum root, especially upon the smaller growing species of plums. The stock most used is the ordinary Myrobalan plum. This is simply because the Myrobalan stock is commoner and cheaper. The St. Julien plum probably furnishes a better dwarfing stock for peaches, but it is more expensive and harder to work. The Americana plum, now somewhat largely grown for stocks in the States of the upper Mississippi valley, furnishes a good dwarfing stock for the peach. According to the writer's experience the Americana stock gives better results with peaches than either Myrobalan or St. Julien. It should be observed that this stock requires budding rather early in the season. The dwarf sand cherry, which is further discussed below under plums, also makes a good stock for peaches. As this stock is very dwarf, it produces the smallest possible peach tree. The peach cion rapidly overgrows the stock and the tree can hardly be expected to be long lived. The growth is very vigorous and satisfactory during early years, however. I have not had an opportunity to determine how long peaches will live and thrive on this stock. Nectarines can be grown in dwarf form in exactly the same manner employed for peaches. THE PLUM In all the old books it is said that dwarf plum trees are secured by working on Myrobalan stocks. This statement is hardly true according to our present standards, and is certainly far from satisfactory. This rule came into vogue at the time when only large growing Domestica plums were propagated in this country and the stocks used were mostly either "horse plums" or Myrobalan. The Myrobalan stock does give a somewhat smaller tree than the old fashioned horse plums; but this Myrobalan stock has been for many years the one principally used for propagating all kinds of plums in America. It has come to be looked upon as a standard rather than a dwarf stock. When we think of dwarf trees, therefore, we expect to see something smaller than what will grow under ordinary circumstances on a Myrobalan root. The Americana plum, already mentioned, is a first-rate stock in nearly all respects except that it can not be bought so cheaply as the Myrobalan. It is now grown to a considerable extent by nurserymen in Minnesota, Iowa and the neighboring States. If grafted, or budded early, all varieties of plums take well upon it. The trees on Americana roots make a good growth in the nursery and are easily transplanted. The tree produced on this stock is only moderately dwarf. Still this dwarfing effect is always well marked, this result being shown by the overgrowing of the cion. The top thus appears to outgrow the root, and such trees are apt to blow over during wind storms. Suitable precautions should be taken to guard against damage of this sort. Prof. A. T. Erwin of Iowa writes on this subject as follows: "Regarding the Americana as a plum stock, I would state that we are using it by the thousands out here; in fact, have about quit using anything else. As a stock for the European and Japanese sorts, it does dwarf them, and the cion tends to outgrow the stock at the point of union, causing an enlargement. The union is also not very congenial, and they frequently break off on account of high winds. However, in my experience and observation, this is not the case when the Americana is used as a stock for Americana varieties. It does not dwarf the trees seriously and the union is splendid. It is by all odds the best stock we have for plums, and since we do not grow anything but Americana varieties, it works first rate. It does tend to sprout some, though there is little trouble in this regard after the trees come into bearing." [Illustration: FIG. 8 THE WESTERN SAND CHERRY _Prunus pumila besseyi_] The sand cherry seems to be the dwarfing stock par excellence for the plum. This sand cherry is a heterogeneous species, or as some botanists think, is three species, ranging throughout the Northern States from Maine to Colorado. The narrow leaf upright form growing about five feet tall, known as _Prunus pumila_, is found along the Atlantic coast. The broad leafed dwarfer form known as _Prunus pumila besseyi_ or _P. besseyi_, is found in the Western States. Another rarer form of more irregular growth known as _Prunus pumila cuneata_, or as _P. cuneata_, is found in the North Central States. [Illustration: FIG. 9--UPRIGHT CORDON PLUM With buds set into the naked trunk] All of these different forms may be used for propagating plums or peaches. The western form (_P. besseyi_) (Fig. 8) is in some respects the best, producing the dwarfest and apparently the best trees. In our experience, however, nearly all varieties of plums and peaches give a better stand of trees when budded on _P. pumila_. _Prunus cuneata_ is inferior to the others. The eastern form, _P. pumila_, has another advantage from the standpoint of the nurseryman in that it is more easily propagated from cuttings. For the most part the western sand cherry is propagated from seed. Both forms can be propagated from layers. NURSERY MANAGEMENT Dwarf trees are managed in the nursery very much the same as standards of the same varieties. There are no special points to be observed except in the formation of the tops. Western New York nurserymen, who now grow the principal supply of dwarf apple and pear trees, have the custom of forming their nursery stock with high heads. That is, the heads are formed at a height of eighteen inches to three feet from the ground. In this matter the pattern is taken after the usual style of standard trees. This is quite wrong. Of course, some planters might like to have dwarf trees with trunks two or three feet tall, but the best form has a much shorter stem. At any rate the buyer of dwarf trees ought to be at liberty to form the head within three or four inches of the ground if he so desires. This becomes very difficult if the tree is once pruned up to a height of two or three feet. In order that the planter may reach his own ideal perfectly in this matter, it is sometimes necessary to buy one year old trees, what the English nurserymen call maidens. This, of course, enables the tree planter to form the head wherever he desires. IV PRUNING DWARF FRUIT TREES The pruning of dwarf fruit trees is a matter of the greatest consequence, for on proper pruning depend both the form and the productivity of the trees. Some of the details of management will be explained in the succeeding chapters, dealing with the particular kinds of fruits, but a few general statements should be set down here. 1. The trees are severely headed in. This applies more particularly to bush and pyramid forms. By the term "heading in" we refer to the shortening of the leaders. Such shortening is usually given at the spring pruning, while the trees are dormant. The leaders may be headed in at times, however, during the latter part of the growing season, in July. Such stopping of growing leaders will be practised more often on young trees just coming into bearing than on old trees. (Fig. 10). Constant heading back of some sort, however, is required in nearly all cases, if the tree is to be retained in its dwarf form. The mistake has often been made of thinking that a tree propagated on a dwarf root would take care of itself. 2. Summer pruning is essential. In most American orchard practise one annual pruning (sometimes one pruning every five years!) is considered sufficient, and systematic summer pruning is seldom or never given. Now summer pruning tends much more to repress the growth of a tree than winter pruning does. In fact, heavy winter pruning leads rather to increased vegetative vigor. Aside from any special system of pruning, therefore, this rule is to be remembered, that summer pruning is desirable, on general principles, for dwarf fruit trees. [Illustration: FIG. 10--BUSH APPLE, THREE YEARS OLD Showing strong leaders formed during the summer] 3. Side shoots usually need pinching during the growing season. Leaders are more frequently allowed to grow unchecked throughout the season, or are stopped only late in their period of development. In the pomaceous fruits, which form distinct fruit spurs, the checking of these side shoots helps toward the production of fruit buds. As long as every bud is allowed to push out into a strong shoot no fruit spurs can become established. Thus the summer pinching of the side shoots on apples and pears has the purpose of encouraging the formation of fruit spurs. On peach and plum trees equally distinct fruit spurs do not form; but if the side shoots are allowed to push forth unrestricted they are apt to choke one another. There will be too many of them, they will not get light enough, their growth will be weak and sappy, and they will not form fruit buds. Good fruit buds on a peach tree, for example, form on strong, clean, healthy shoots of this year's growth for next year's crop of fruit. It is seen, therefore, that in nearly all sorts of dwarf fruit trees the summer pruning is especially directed to the suppression or regulation of the growth of side shoots. This part of the treatment becomes of prime importance in dealing with cordons and espaliers. 4. The control of the fruit spurs or of the side shoots here contemplated requires that the trees be gone over more than once during the growing season. In fact, four successive examinations of the tree are usually required. Old trees can sometimes be managed with two or three, but young ones, on the other hand, will sometimes require six or more. Of course, there are usually only a few shoots that need attention at each succeeding visit, and the work can be very rapidly performed. The first pruning, or pinching, falls about three weeks after the trees have started into growth. The next one comes ten days later, the next one ten days later again, and the fourth pruning two weeks after the third. From this time onward the intervals lengthen. These specifications, of course, are only approximate and suggestive. Some judgment is required to select just the proper moment for pinching back a shoot and even more to select the time for a general summer pruning. Those trees which enjoy the sympathetic presence of the gardener every day are sure to fare best. The bulk of this pruning can be done with the thumb nail and forefinger, but I find a light pair of pruning scissors pleasanter to work with. 5. Root pruning is sometimes advisable. Since the whole program is arranged to check the growth of the dwarf tree, root pruning would naturally fit well with the other practises recommended. Root pruning checks the growth of a tree about as positively as any treatment that can be devised. When dwarf pear or apple trees seem to be making too much wood growth and not enough fruit, they can be taken up, as for transplanting, during the dormant season and set right back into place. This digging up and replanting is always accompanied by some cutting of roots. The whole root system is disturbed and has to re-establish itself before the top vegetates very strongly once more. Such root pruning ought to be done late in the fall. It is a special practice, suited to refractory cases, and the gardener is not recommended to indulge in it too freely. [Illustration: FIG. 11--BUSH APPLE Three years old, before pruning] [Illustration: FIG. 12--BUSH APPLE Same tree after pruning] 6. A certain equilibrium between vegetative growth and fruit bearing should be established at the earliest possible moment, and should be maintained thereafter. Of course, some such equilibrium is sought in the management of a standard tree; but it is secured earlier in the life of the dwarf tree and should be much more accurately maintained. The tree must make a certain amount of growth each year, but this must be only enough to keep it in good health, and to furnish foliage enough to mature the fruit. Beyond this wood growth the tree should bear a certain amount of fruit every year, for annual bearing is not only an ideal but a rule in the management of dwarf trees. This equilibrium once established must be maintained not by haphazard pruning, but by some suitable system. If there is the proper balance between summer pruning and winter pruning, combined with proper control of cultivation and fertilization, then the balance between vegetation and fruitage can be kept up. It is a delicate business, like courting two girls at once, but it can be carried out successfully. 7. The training of trees into mathematical forms is largely a mechanical process. For the most part the trees are shaped while they are growing. The young shoots are twisted and bent to the desired positions, and are tied into place until the stems become hardened. There are many clever little tricks for expediting this sort of work and for making the results more sure, but a rehearsal of them here would be tedious. The most important rule to remember is that constant attention must be given the shoots while they are growing. Mistakes are corrected with difficulty after an undesirable form has been allowed to harden. [Illustration: FIG. 13--CORDON PEARS Before pruning] [Illustration: FIG. 14--CORDON PEARS After pruning] V SPECIAL FORMS FOR TRAINED TREES We have already explained the connection between dwarf trees and the practise of training them in special forms. It is true that this practise looks childish to American eyes. It seems to be only a kind of play, and a rather juvenile sport at that. Nevertheless we should understand that in some parts of the world it is a real and profitable commercial undertaking. We should consider also that in other places, where fruit of very high quality is better appreciated, perhaps, than it is in America, the extra trouble is thought to be worth while for the superior quality which it gives the fruit. As this matter is coming to be of more importance in America also, and as the interest in amateur fruit growing is enormously increasing, we may fairly begin to talk about these methods. The formation of trees into bushes and pyramids, by means of systematic pruning according to a definite plan, as explained in the succeeding chapters, while apparently simpler and more reasonable to our American eyes, it is still a method of training the tree. The fruiting branches are placed at definite points and the fruit spurs are encouraged to grow in regular succession. It is not a very great step from this to a distribution of the branches into a more precise form. The different forms which are used most commonly are named and classified in the following outline: _A._--_Forms of three dimensions_: _a._ Vase or bush _b._ Pyramid _c._ Winged pyramid, etc. _B._--_Forms of two dimensions_: _a._ Various espaliers _b._ Palmette-Verrier _c._ Fans or Fan-espaliers _d._ U-form and double U-form _C._--_Trained to a single stem_: _a._ Upright cordon _b._ Oblique cordon _c._ Horizontal cordon (with one arm) (with two arms) _d._ Serpentine cordon, etc. Among the forms of three dimensions none is of much practical importance besides the pyramid and bush or vase form. These are sufficiently explained in the chapters on pears and apples. Here we need only to define them. The pyramid tree is one which has a straight central stem with branches radiating therefrom. It is especially adapted to upright growing varieties of pears. The bush or vase form has several main arms or branches, all standing out from approximately the same point and growing upward at a more or less acute angle, thus forming roughly a vase. The secondary branches put out from these, bearing fruiting wood, as the gardener may order. [Illustration: FIG. 15--PEARS IN DOUBLE U-FORM From Loebner's "Zwergobstbäume"] The flying pyramid or winged pyramid, described in all European books, is considerably different from the ordinary pyramid and is more precise in its design. Usually six arms are brought out at the base of the tree. These are grown in a direction approximately horizontal until they reach a convenient length,--say two to three feet. They are then suddenly bent upward and inward and are conducted along wires set for this purpose until they meet in a common point with the main stem of the tree some four to eight feet above where the branches put out. There is thus formed a precise mathematical pyramid. Along these main arms fruiting spurs are allowed to grow, but no branches are expected to develop. Sometimes the flying pyramid is made more elaborate by bending the arms into a spiral form. Other more or less complex modifications are practised to some extent. All of them are to be regarded merely as curiosities and as of no practical value. The various forms of espaliers and fan-shaped trees have their special and legitimate uses. It may be said here that the Palmette-Verrier is regarded generally as being the most successful for the largest number of varieties of fruits. It is a safe rule also that the simpler forms are generally the better. With rare exceptions a tree confined to a moderately small space is more satisfactory than one trained over a large space. Great care must be exercised in forming these trees. If the geometrical style of training is undertaken at all, it should be carried out with considerable precision. If one arm happens to be placed a little higher, or at a little more moderate angle, or otherwise more favorably than the corresponding arm, it will very soon divert to its own use the major portion of food supplied by the top. It will outgrow its mate and the form which the gardener designed will eventually be lost. It will be seen at once that this condition makes the same care and precision necessary in all forms of training. [Illustration: Fig. 16--PEARS IN U-FORM Sometimes called two-arm upright cordons] The U-form classifies somewhere between the cordon and the espalier. It consists of two upright branches joined to a single trunk below by an arc of a circle. The fruit is all borne on the two parallel stems which are treated essentially the same as upright cordons. (Fig. 17.) The double U-form is made by growing two U's from the same tree. The stem is first divided near the ground into two branches and each of these is immediately divided into two more. The tree thus provides four parallel and equally spaced upright and fruiting stems equal to four upright cordons, except that they are all supported from a single trunk. The U- and double U-forms are employed mostly for plums, apricots, peaches and nectarines. One occasionally sees much more elaborate schemes of training than any here mentioned. There are complex geometrical designs, even pictorial figures--birds, dogs, and beer-steins--and sometimes the initials of the gardener, or the name of his kingly and imperial majesty. In every case the method of producing these forms is practically the same. A frame is built of wood or wire in the form which it is desired to give the tree. Branches are developed at suitable points on the tree and these are tied out while they are growing to the wooden or metal form. It does not require any special care or ingenuity to produce the most elaborate designs in this method. It is essentially a job of carpentry. [Illustration: FIG. 17--APRICOTS IN U-FORM] We come now to the cordons. If we take the simplest form, namely the upright cordon, we have what we may call a tree of one dimension only. The upright cordon has nothing but height, eschewing both breadth and thickness. A cordon is simply a tree trained to a single stem and this stem may be placed in any position. The position or direction of the stem classifies the cordon. There are, therefore, besides the upright cordon, others which are oblique, that is, which make an angle with the horizontal, those which are horizontal, and those which are bent into various forms. The serpent form is one of the simplest of these. This form of cordon is simply bent back and forth against a trellis forming a series of S's one above another. The horizontal cordons are of two varieties, namely one-arm and two-arm forms. It is altogether a matter of convenience which one of these forms is chosen. [Illustration: FIG. 18--PEAR IN ESPALIER This tree is carrying over 200 fruits] In conclusion it may be pointed out that the slower growing trees, pears and apples, are the better suited to the more elaborate forms of training. The more free and rapid growing species, such as peaches, nectarines, cherries, and Japanese plums, are better managed in somewhat simpler forms, preferably the fan. Such trees do well, however, in the U-form or double U-form. [Illustration: FIG. 19--OLD ESPALIER PEARS ON FARM HOUSE WALL] VI GENERAL MANAGEMENT The general management of dwarf trees is naturally very much like the management of ordinary standard trees. As dwarf trees are grown more often in gardens rather than in orchards they will receive garden treatment. Heavy tools and extensive methods of culture will hardly find application. Good soil culture may be regarded as essential. Whatever some American fruit growers may be saying about the propriety of growing apple orchards in sod, no one has yet undertaken to adapt the sod system into the kitchen garden. The close planting which is customary with dwarf trees makes culture comparatively difficult, yet not unreasonably so. Apple and pear trees planted six feet apart each way can be worked for several years with a single horse and cultivator. In fact if the trees are kept carefully headed in, the time need never come when the cultivator will have to be abandoned. When cordons or espaliers are planted in a garden large enough to warrant horse cultivation under ordinary circumstances then the rows of trained trees should be set six feet apart, which will be enough to permit the continued use of the horse and cultivator between the rows. [Illustration: FIG. 20--HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE AND OTHER DWARF TREES With cover crop of hairy vetch] However, the horse cultivator is certain to be definitely crowded out of some dwarf fruit gardens. Many of the men who have greatest reason for growing dwarf fruit trees are those whose backyard gardens were never large enough to justify the presence of a horse or horse tools. In such cases the spading fork and the hand cultivator are the ready and proper substitutes. Our extensive methods of farming in America have bred a strong prejudice against all sorts of hand labor like this, but experience will show that under some conditions it is quite worth while. A very common mistake in all kinds of agriculture is to allow prejudice to rule experience. [Illustration: FIG. 21--DESIGN FOR A BACK YARD FRUIT GARDEN 50 FT. SQUARE North fence (top of map), peach espalier (4); Row 1, bush apple (7); Row 2, pyramid pear (7); Row 3, currants and gooseberries (11); Row 4 and 5, horizontal cordon apples, with grass walk between; Row 6, raspberry bushes (7); Row 7, strawberries; Row 8, plums in bush form (7); Row 9, apples in horizontal cordons (4); East fence, apples as upright cordons (31); West fence, pears in espalier.] Garden culture means not only good tillage of the soil, but good treatment in other respects. It means good feeding and good spraying. As for spraying we need make only two observations. First, the treatment to be given is almost precisely the same as that which is given to standard trees of the same species; second, the work is much more easily performed because the trees are smaller. If one happens to have a considerable block of dwarf trees closely planted. There may be difficulty, it is true, in driving in with a spray pump. This difficulty is overcome by having long runs of hose on the spray pump, so that the cart may stand on the borders of the garden while the operator carries the nozzle in among the trees. In case of large plantings of dwarf trees alley-ways should be left every one hundred feet, or better, every eighty feet, between the blocks. These alleys will be useful for other purposes besides spraying. [Illustration: FIG. 22--DWARF FRUIT GARDEN 111 BY 144 FEET From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues] In the management of a small garden the gardener is expected to be liberal in his allowance of fertilizers. While it is true that dwarf fruit trees should be liberally fed there is a possibility of overdoing it. It has already been explained that the dwarfing of the tree depends in a certain way on its well-regulated starvation. If the tree top could get all the food which its nature calls for it would not be dwarfed. The rule in feeding dwarf fruit trees therefore should be to give enough fertilizer to keep them in perfect health and in good growing condition, but not enough to force unnecessary growth. Fertilizer rich in nitrogen should be especially avoided, and, as the object in view is to secure an early maturity of the tree and to produce fruit always in preference to wood, a larger proportion of potash would naturally be substituted for the diminished proportion of nitrogen. Of course the amounts and proportions of the different elements (nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid) to be applied will vary greatly with different conditions,--with the nature of the soil, the age of the trees, etc. As a sort of standard we may say that under normal conditions of good soil with dwarf apple and pear trees in bearing there should be given annually for each acre: 400 pounds ground bone 400 pounds muriate of potash 100 pounds Peruvian guano Peaches and plums require more nitrogen during early growth, and more potash when in full bearing. For a new plantation of these trees the following amounts should be given annually for each acre: 300 pounds ground bone 400 pounds muriate of potash 150 pounds nitrate of soda For peach and plum trees in bearing, the following formula may be suggested: 400 pounds ground bone 500 pounds muriate of potash 100 pounds Peruvian guano Inasmuch as many owners of dwarf fruit trees will have so much less than an acre for treatment it will be best to repeat these formulas, reducing them to a smaller unit. Making this reduction somewhat freely, in order to avoid long and useless decimals, we may compute the quantity needed annually for each one hundred square feet of land as follows: FOR APPLES AND PEARS IN BEARING 1 pound ground bone 1 pound muriate of potash 1/4 pound Peruvian guano FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS NEWLY PLANTED 3/4 pound ground bone 1 pound muriate of potash 3/8 pound nitrate of soda FOR PEACHES AND PLUMS IN BEARING 1/4 pound Peruvian guano 1-1/4 pound muriate of potash 1 pound ground bone Cherries should be treated like plums; gooseberries, currants, and most other fruits, like apples. In the home of dwarf tree culture, that is, in Europe, trained trees are extensively grown upon walls. The gardeners utilize for this purpose not only the walls of stables and outbuildings, and of the enclosed gardens, but long ranges of brick are built for the special and exclusive purpose of accommodating fruit trees. In southern Germany, in Switzerland, in Belgium, in France, and especially in the neighborhood of Paris, there are hundreds of miles of these walls. The walls may run north and south or east and west. Both sides of the walls are used, even when one side faces the north. Currants and gooseberries are expected to thrive on north walls. West walls are considered especially favorable for pears and plums. The walls are nearly always built of brick. They should have a height of ten to fourteen feet. Each wall usually has a coping at the top with a projection of ten to eighteen inches, which sheds the rain, protecting both the wall and the fruit trees. Where extreme pains are spent on the culture of fancy table fruits there are curtains hung from rods along the outer edge of these copings, and the curtains are drawn to protect ripening fruit from too hot sunshine, or to protect the blossoms in the spring season from late frosts. Brick walls, with all their appurtenances, are less important in America than in Europe and the advantages to be expected from this particular method of culture are decidedly less. Walls would more probably be useful for peaches and nectarines in northern latitudes than for any other fruits. Cordons and espaliers require some sort of support, however, and where walls are not used trellises are necessary. These may be of wood or wire. There is a belief current that the wooden trellises are better because they reflect less heat, but wire is so much cheaper and more durable that it will usually be chosen. Five or six wires are needed to make a good trellis for upright cordons. These should be placed twelve to fourteen inches apart, with the lowest wire thirty inches from the ground. All wires should be tight, and to this end stout, well-set posts are necessary. The wires should be loosened in the autumn, before freezing weather begins, and should be tightened again in the spring. [Illustration: FIG. 23--FRUIT GARDENING AND LANDSCAPE GARDENING COMBINED From Lucas' Handbuch des Obstbaues The entire planting, exclusive of the borders, is made up of fruit trees and bushes. Dimensions, 752 × 1,362 feet.] For espaliers the woven wire fences are better. In fact, the woven wire fencing is excellent for all sorts of fruit trellises. Poultry netting makes a cheap and convenient trellis, but it is neither so strong nor so durable as the better grades of woven wire fencing. On the whole it is very poor economy to buy a cheap trellis or to put it up on poor posts. These trellises will need to be comparatively high. Nothing less than eight feet will be satisfactory, and for upright cordons a trellis ten to fifteen feet high will be much better. Of course, this entire height is not needed the first year, but upright cordon apples will cover a twelve foot trellis in five years. Peaches or Japanese plums will cover the same trellis in three years. In the selection of varieties for growing in a garden of dwarf fruit trees the horticulturist will naturally be guided by principles altogether different from those which control him in the selection of varieties for a commercial orchard. He must, of course, consider which varieties are best adapted to the special stocks on which they have to be propagated. He must also bear in mind that certain varieties are better adapted than others for the special forms in which he may wish to train his dwarf trees. Beyond all this lies the great consideration that in the very large majority of cases dwarf fruit trees are grown to secure fancy fruit, not to produce a large quantity for a general market. All varieties of inferior quality would therefore be eliminated from consideration at the beginning, no matter how productive they might be, nor how famous for other things. [Illustration: FIG. 24--A FRUIT GARDEN CONTAINING MANY DWARF TREES A is the entrance; B, well or cistern; C, space to turn a horse and cart. From P. Barry's "Fruit Garden"] Varieties of specially good flavor would be given special thought, even though they might lack in hardiness or productivity. The special favorites of the man who owns the garden should be chosen, no matter whether they are popular or not. Then for similar reasons a comparatively long list of varieties will be chosen instead of the very short list always held to by the commercial grower. From first to last one should remember that the growing of dwarf fruit trees is essentially the enterprise of an amateur, not of a man who grows fruit for money. VII DWARF APPLES Dwarf apples are the most interesting and valuable of dwarf fruits. We have become so thoroughly accustomed to the standard apple tree in this country, however, and it so fully meets all the apparent requirements, that there seems to be no call for dwarf apples. Nevertheless dwarf trees have some real advantages under certain circumstances. Some of these have already been pointed out in the general discussion in previous chapters, and some of them will bear reiteration here. Where so much interest is taken in apple culture as in America, the advantage which dwarf trees offer for the rapid testing of new varieties cannot be overlooked. Still more important is the value of the dwarf trees in producing extra fancy specimens. Thus in growing very fine apples for exhibition or for a particularly fastidious market, one would naturally choose the dwarf trees. Inasmuch as dwarf trees are recommended chiefly to the amateur and are grown generally less for cash profit than for other considerations, the great and obvious advantages of standard trees quickly disappear. For men who like to play at fruit growing, nothing can equal a selection of apple trees on Paradise stocks. They are the most engaging of all dwarf trees, in fact of all fruit trees whatsoever. The general matter of selecting stocks has been referred to under the head of propagation, but the statement should be repeated here that the French Paradise stock is preferable for very dwarf garden trees, and is almost necessary for cordons and espaliers, while the Doucin (sometimes called the English or broad-leaved Paradise) may be chosen where only a moderate amount of dwarfing is desired. Some of the most expert apple growers of North America are beginning to think that the Doucin may be required for the commercial orchards in the future, when spraying for the San José scale becomes an established routine and smaller trees are an accepted necessity. Dwarf apple trees may be cultivated in nearly all the artificial forms ever given to fruit trees. Undoubtedly the simplest is the bush or vase form. This requires less care and attention and probably gives as much fruit to the same area as any other. The pyramid form is somewhat difficult to produce. It can be secured successfully only with the varieties which have a tendency to grow strong, straight branches, as for instance Sutton, Gravenstein and Northern Spy. On the whole the pyramid is not to be recommended for dwarf apples. Apples succeed very well as upright cordons and in all the simpler modifications of this form. As these trees can be planted very close together--as close as fifteen inches certainly--thus occupying very little room, a large number of them can be planted in very limited areas of the city lot or backyard. They are especially adapted to stand on the property line where they seem to use no space whatever, and where in fact they do occupy space which otherwise would be lost. The upright cordon can be bent into the form of an arch in order to make delightful arbors along the walks. The illustration, Fig. 2, shows a good example of this sort. [Illustration: FIG. 25--DWARF APPLES ON PROF. L. H. BAILEY'S FARM, NEW YORK] Nearly all varieties of apples--indeed all as far as I know--succeed in this form. The trees are not very long-lived, however. That is they cannot be maintained in good presentable form and prolific bearing indefinitely, because it is difficult to reproduce the fruit spurs on the lower part of the stem. Nevertheless the trees are inexpensive and can be cheaply replaced. As they come into bearing the first or second year after planting, this task of replacing worn-out trees is a small one. Very fine specimens of fruit can be produced on these upright cordons. Indeed this form is superior to the bush form in this respect. The apple is the best of all trees for horizontal cordons. In this form it becomes the most entertaining plaything in the garden, as well as one of the most rewarding trees in its product of fruit. Either the single arm or the double arm cordon can be used with success. These horizontal cordons are naturally used along the borders of walks, flower beds or plots devoted to vegetables. They may sometimes be used along foundations of buildings, where it is not desired to grow upright cordons or espaliers against the walls. The fruit produced by horizontal cordons is probably superior in size, color and finish to that produced on any other form of tree. In climates where the summer's heat and sunshine are apt to be meager, this advantage of the horizontal cordon will be comparatively greater. Conversely it will be less in places where sunshine and heat are very abundant during the summer. It is probably true that on the plains of Arizona and Texas the horizontal cordon will not be a brilliant success. Dwarf apples need practically the same care and cultivation, aside from pruning, as standard apples. The soil should be cultivated during the early part of the summer and allowed to rest during the latter part of the year. Cover crops may be sown during June or July, according to the custom practised in the usual orchard management; but the advantages of a cover crop in a small garden are less material than in a large commercial orchard. [Illustration: FIG. 26--UPRIGHT CORDON APPLES 18 inches apart; in author's garden] The formation of the tree is discussed under another head. It remains to be said only that careful and intelligent pruning are required to keep any dwarf apple tree to its work. The more complicated and the more restricted the form of the tree, the more careful and continuous must be this pruning. The general system may be outlined in comparatively few words, and may be explained in its simplest form as applied to the treatment of a horizontal cordon. Each horizontal cordon, perfectly formed and full grown, should have fruit spurs throughout its horizontal length, which may be from three to fifteen feet. The upright portion of the trunk, from the point where the graft is set to the angle made by the bending down of the stem, should be kept clean and bare. Constant care is required to remove the sprouts from this portion of the tree, especially such as come up from the stock. At the further end of the horizontal portion there should be one, two, or three strong shoots allowed to push forth each year. These may be called leaders. They represent the principal wood growth in each tree. They draw up the sap from the roots, their leaves elaborate this sap, and from them the digested material is sent back for the support of the tree and the ripening of the fruit. They are allowed to take an upright or nearly upright position and their growth is encouraged. On all other portions of the tree growth is sternly restricted, when not altogether repressed. There is a constant tendency for strong shoots to start into growth all along the horizontal part of the stem and especially near the bend. If any of these shoots are allowed to make headway, the form of the tree is spoiled. Even if they are cut out after a year's growth, thus retaining somewhat the form of the tree, the fruit spurs are thereby lost. It is the business of the fruit grower, therefore, to pinch back these shoots which start along the horizontal stem, and this pinching is done at a comparatively early stage of their growth. Usually the first pinching should be given when the stems have grown long enough so as to have seven or eight leaves. These shoots are then cut or pinched back to three leaves. If the tree is in good vigorous condition, these shoots will soon start into growth once more. Again they have to be pinched. This time the pinching comes a little earlier, taking the shoot when it reaches only about five leaves and the pinching is still more severe. The shoots may start into growth a third time or even a fourth time, but each time they are pinched back sooner and more severely than before. In most cases two or three pinchings will suffice. These constant repressions of growth tend to secure the formation of fruit spurs and fruit buds along the horizontal trunk of the tree. Some slight modifications of the plan here outlined will develop themselves in experience. In particular it will be found that different varieties require slightly different handling. Some form fruit spurs more readily than others. With certain varieties it is very difficult to repress the rampant habit of growth and to secure a proper formation of fruit buds. These differences, however, are of minor importance as compared with the general management of the tree. The system just outlined has in view the summer pruning of the horizontal cordon apple. The upright cordon is pruned in almost exactly the same manner. Various forms of espaliers are handled in much the same way. Strong shoots or leaders are allowed to grow at the ends of the main branches to keep up a proper circulation and elaboration of sap, while the growth of fruit spurs is encouraged along the sides of the stems by frequent and regular pruning. In a somewhat less precise manner the same system of pruning can be applied to bush and pyramid forms. Each bush, for instance, is made up of a certain number of fruiting branches. The fruit is borne on spurs on the sides of these branches, while the woody growth is made by the leaders appearing at the ends of these branches. These leaders are annually cut back and the constant formation of fruit spurs is encouraged by pinching whatever shoots are on the sides of the main stems. It will be seen that the whole business of pruning falls into two general categories, viz., winter pruning and summer pruning. The winter or spring pruning is given any time after the stress of winter is over and before the sap starts running in the spring. This is the time when the ordinary fruit trees are customarily pruned. The work at this season consists chiefly in cutting back leaders. These are pruned off short, that is the whole stem is taken off down to within two or three buds of where it started growth the previous year. In some cases it is worth while to cut even further back, going into wood two or three years old. At this spring pruning the defective or diseased branches are of course removed wherever they are found. Cases requiring such treatment always occur even on the best trained cordons and espaliers. Whenever it becomes necessary an entire branch, sometimes composing half the tree, is taken out. Usually such branches can be replaced without great loss of time. [Illustration: FIG. 27--HORIZONTAL CORDON APPLE TREES] After this winter or spring pruning comes the summer pruning which has been outlined above. This usually begins May 15-25, and continues until July 25-31, differing, of course, in different latitudes. Practically all varieties of apples can be grown as dwarfs, though some succeed on Paradise roots better than others. Some varieties also are better adapted for special forms, as for cordons, than are others. Such requirements are not very strict, and a careful gardener can grow practically anything he wants to. Patrick Barry, in his "Fruit Garden," recommends "twenty very large and beautiful sorts for dwarfs," having in mind American conditions, and especially his own experience in Rochester, N. Y. His list is as follows: Red Astrachan Large Sweet Bough Primate Beauty of Kent Alexander Duchess of Oldenburg Fall Pippin Williams' Favorite Gravenstein Hawthornden Maiden's Blush Porter Menagere Red Bietigheimer Bailey Sweet Canada Reinette Northern Spy Mother King of Tompkins County Twenty Ounce Wagener In Europe, where greater attention has been paid to these matters, the opinion has settled down to a comparatively limited number. For example, Mr. George Bunyard in "The Fruit Garden" recommends the following varieties for cordons: Mr. Gladstone Aug. Devonshire Quarrenden Aug. James Grieve Sept. Wealthy Oct. Margil Oct. King of Pippins Oct. Mother Oct. Calville Rouge Precoce Oct. Cox's Orange Pippin Oct., Feb. St. Edmund's Pippin Nov. Ross Nonpareil Nov. Duchess of Oldenburg Aug. Pott's Seedling Sept. Lord Grosvenor Sept. Adams' Pearmain Dec. Hubbard's Pearmain Dec. Allington Pippin Nov., Feb. Scarlet Nonpareil Jan., Feb. Norman's Pippin Jan. Lord Burghley Feb. Duke of Devonshire Feb. Rosemary Russet Feb. Sturmer Pippin Very late Allen's Everlasting Very late Fearn's Pippin. Very late Lord Derby Nov. Bismarck Dec. Lane's Prince Albert Jan., March Lord Suffield Sept. Grenadier Sept., Oct. Golden Spire Sept., Oct. Seaton House Sept., Oct. Sandringham Feb. Alfriston Feb., March Calville Malingre Feb. to Mch. Calville Rouge Feb. to Mch. The same authority recommends the following varieties to be grown on Paradise stocks as bushes: Beauty of Bath July, Aug. Red Quarrenden July, Aug. Lady Sudeley Sept. Worcester Pearmain Sept., Oct. Yellow Angestrie Sept. Duchess' Favorite Sept. to Oct. King of the Pippins Oct. Early White Transparent J'ly. Lord Suffield Aug., Sept. Pott's Seedling Aug., Sept. Lord Grosvenor Aug., Sept. Early Julien Aug., Sept. Ecklinville Seedling Sept., Oct. Grenadier Sept., Oct. Stirling Castle Sept., Oct. Golden Spire Sept., Oct. Cox's Orange Pippin Nov., Feb. Beauty of Barnack Nov. Allington Pippin Dec., Feb. Gascoigne's Scarlet Dec. Christmas Pearmain Dec. Winter Quarrenden Dec. Baumann's Reinette Jan. Lord Derby Oct., Nov. Stone's Apple Oct., Nov. Tower of Glamis Oct., Nov. Warner's King Oct., Nov. Bismarck Oct., Nov. Lane's Prince Albert Dec., Mch. Bramley's Seedling Dec., Mch. Newton Wonder Dec., Mch. Max Loebener in his book on dwarf fruits recommends the following varieties for dwarf apples: Red Astrachan July, Aug. Yellow Transparent Aug., Sept. Charlamowsky Aug., Sept. Transparent de Croncels Sept., Oct. Prince Apple Sept., Jan. Danzig Oct., Dec. Dean's Codlin Oct. to Feb. Landbury Reinette Nov., Feb. Cox's Orange Nov. to Mch. _Requires good soil_ Winter Gold Pearmain Nov., March Ribston Pippin Nov., April _Good warm soil_ Canada Reinette. Nov., April _Hardy_ Belle de Boskoop Nov., May Virginia Rose Aug. Red Peach Summer Apple Aug., Sept. Lord Suffield Aug., Oct. Cellini Sept., Nov. Alexander Oct., Dec. Gravenstein Oct. to Jan. _For moist soils, bears late_ Yellow Richard Nov., Dec. Bismarck Nov., Feb. Yellow Bellflower Nov. to April _Requires good position_ Baumann's Reinette Dec., May Inasmuch as the advantages of the dwarf trees apply especially to the growing of fine fruit, only the better varieties should generally be propagated in this way. On this basis, therefore, rather than on the basis of adaptation learned from experience, the following varieties may be suggested among the well known American sorts for growing in dwarf form: Baldwin Esopus Mother Williams' Favorite Sutton King Northern Spy Grimes Winesap Yellow Transparent McIntosh Red Astrachan Alexander Wolf River Ribston Pippin Wealthy Wagener Of course, one propagating dwarf apples would always select his own favorites. It should be noticed that in the list given above are some varieties which are notable for beauty of appearance rather than for superior quality. They are recommended on the former consideration. Certain varieties in the list, for instance Alexander, are known to succeed especially well as dwarfs. VIII DWARF PEARS Pears are the fruit most largely grown in dwarf form in America. There are a few well established and successful commercial orchards of pears, especially in western New York and Michigan. The pear is the fruit most assiduously cultivated in dwarf and trained forms in Europe. At the same time it is the one with which I confess I have had the least satisfaction. This is perhaps because I have always experimented in a country where pears do not naturally succeed, and because, further, my fancies have run more to other kinds of fruit. [Illustration: FIG. 28--YOUNG ORCHARD OF DWARF PEARS IN WESTERN NEW YORK] It is probably true that the pear is improved more in quality than any other fruit by being grown in dwarf form and trained as cordons and espaliers on a suitable frame or wall. This is emphatically true in cold and inclement climates, where indeed some of the best varieties of pears will not succeed at all unless given this advantage. A west wall is recommended as giving the very finest results. It should be noted, however, that some varieties do better on walls than others. Those which grow vigorously in bush, pyramid, or standard forms receive comparatively less benefit from wall training. [Illustration: FIG. 29--DWARF PEARS IN THE OLD AND PROFITABLE YEOMANS ORCHARD, NEW YORK] The pear is the best of all trees for training in pyramid form. Sometimes very tall slim pyramids are made, becoming almost pillars of foliage and fruit in their old age. These may be in fact upright cordons which are trained with strong stems and allowed to support themselves without a trellis. Some of the less upright growing varieties are difficult to form into pyramids, and such may be pruned in the ordinary bush or vase form. In growing dwarf pears commercially, as is sometimes done, it is probably best to give most varieties the bush form. The pyramid is rather harder to maintain. The pear succeeds well as a cordon tree. Perhaps the best form is the oblique cordon, one placed at an angle of about forty-five degrees with the horizon. The upright and horizontal cordons may also be used, though neither of these forms is specially well adapted to pears. All of the better types of espaliers are suited to pear trees. Probably the Palmette-Verrier is the best, although the old fashioned espaliers are often used. The U-form and the double U-form also succeed if well built. The pruning of the pear tree is substantially the same as that of the apple. Where pear blight is a factor in the problem, due allowance must be made for it. It sometimes happens that entire branches or arms have to be cut away on account of blighting. The system of pruning therefore should furnish a means of renewing such members promptly when necessity requires. [Illustration: FIG. 30--ORCHARD OF DWARF DUCHESS PEARS, LOCKPORT, N. Y.] The quince root prefers a fairly heavy and even moist soil. A heavy clay loam is best, although a strong clay will answer. Light sandy soils or loose gravelly soils will not give such good results. On the other hand any clay soil which holds water to a considerable extent will answer. As these are the requirements for quince roots, they become also the requirements for dwarf pears. Any attempt to grow dwarf pears on a light loose soil is almost certain to prove a failure. [Illustration: FIG. 31--PYRAMID PEARS IN A GERMAN ORCHARD] It is often said that dwarf pears should be planted deep in the ground when they are set out. The rule is to put them deep enough so that the bud union will be buried beneath the surface of the soil. With such treatment the pear itself often throws out roots and eventually establishes a feeding system of its own, becoming independent of the quince stock. It is then no longer a dwarf tree except by the authority of the pruning knife. It is probably true that many varieties of dwarf pears are longer lived when treated in this way. In planting, therefore, it becomes a question whether one desires chiefly a long-lived tree or a strictly dwarf one. The ease with which dwarf trees are replaced makes longevity a less important factor than in commercial orchards of standard trees. Of course, it is understood that if the dwarfest form is to be maintained, the tree must be planted high enough to leave the union out of the ground, thus preventing the pear from throwing out roots of its own. The varieties principally grown in this country as dwarfs are Angouleme, Bartlett, Anjou, and Louise Bonne. In European nurseries the list of pears propagated on quince roots is much larger. The following varieties are recommended for England by Mr. Owen Thomas, and are said to be particularly good for training on walls: Buerré Giffard Clapp's Favorite Jargonelle Williams' (Bartlett) Buerré d'Amanlis Fondante d'Automne Triomphe de Vienne Buerré Bosc Buerré Hardy Buerré Brown Comte de Lamy Louise Bonne de Jersey Pitmaston Duchess La France Buerré d'Anjou Buerré de Jonghe Doyenne d'Alençon Glou Morceau Marie Benoist Winter Nelis Buerré Diel Nouvelle Fulvie Buerré Sterckmans Easter Buerré Le Lectier Olivier de Serres Seckel Conference Doyenne du Comice Marie Louise Thompson's Duchesse d'Angouleme Passe Crassane Ne Plus Meuris Bergamotte Esperen Buerré Rance Josephine de Malines IX DWARF PEACHES The peach as a dwarf tree is almost unknown in America. It is not very often grown as a dwarf even in Europe, except when it is trained on walls or grown in houses. The species, however, is easily dwarfed and makes a good tree in various forms when well propagated. The methods by which dwarf peaches are propagated are fully described in the chapter devoted to that subject. Peach trees growing on plum stocks and formed in vases or bushes make excellent garden trees. Naturally they should be headed low, best within three to six inches of the ground. They then make fine, regular, well balanced tops which are easily kept opened out in the desired vase form. Such trees usually come into bearing one or two years earlier than those propagated and trained in the usual way. In a country like New England where peach growing is largely a system of gambling against cold weather, and where the business largely resolves itself into a race for getting a crop before the trees freeze back, the smaller stature and the earlier bearing of the dwarf tree are obvious advantages. It has not yet been shown that this may be turned to account on a commercial scale, but there seem to be possibilities in it. In case the peach grower undertakes the method of laying down his peach trees and covering them during the winter to save them from freezing, the smaller growth of the dwarf trees would prove a decided advantage. This method of handling peach trees has proved a practical success under certain conditions. [Illustration: FIG. 32--DWARF PEACH IN NURSERY Headed back and formed into bushes] The peach does not succeed as a cordon. The nearest that this form can be successfully approached is the U-form. The double U-form is probably even better. The fan form of training is the best of all methods of training for the peach. The tree makes wood so rapidly that considerable space has to be provided for the annual growth. The fan form being less definite in its makeup can be more readily adapted to the exigencies of rapid growth and severe cutting out. [Illustration: FIG. 33--ESPALIER PEACH, HARTFORD, CONN.] On account of its more vigorous growth the peach demands even more drastic pruning than that already described for apples and pears. The method of managing a peach tree, however, differs in some details. There is not such a distinct establishment of leaders at the end of the shoot; and since the peach never forms fruit spurs like those of the apple, the pruning of the fruit-bearing wood is necessarily different. The best fruit buds are formed on the strong clean shoots of the current season's growth. These must be allowed to grow far enough and vigorously enough to ripen good fruit buds. If they make too much growth, however, the side buds start secondary branches and the fruiting prospects are reduced. The management of the tree must be such as to keep this growth of new wood in just the proper balance. In order to carry out the idea thus outlined, an early spring pruning is given while the trees are dormant, and several successive prunings are administered during the growing season. At the spring pruning a considerable amount of wood is cut out from all portions of the tree, the amount thus removed being much greater than that from the pear or apple trees at the same season. The old decrepit and diseased branches are taken first for removal, and then one year old wood is cut back where necessary, so as to leave two or three buds at the base of each branch. The first summer pruning is given about May 15th to 20th, after the growth has well begun. A vigorous tree will start more shoots than there is room for, and these are thinned out until all have sufficient space. A few of the most vigorous ones are pinched back at this time. One week to ten days later the trees are gone over again, at which time the principal pinching back is done. The shoots which are making too much growth, especially on the interior of the tree or on the main arms, are stopped. A third pruning is given about June first, and consists chiefly in removing weak shoots or those which are crowding one another, and cutting back those which are growing too far. [Illustration: FIG. 34--PEACH IN FAN ESPALIER ON WALL, ENGLAND] The peach usually requires a comparatively light soil and a warm exposure. The plum root upon which a dwarf peach is budded will usually succeed in a considerably heavier soil, and the method of budding on plum is therefore sometimes practised with the specific object of adapting the peach tree to heavier soils. Inasmuch as various kinds of plums succeed in all soils on which any crop can be grown, from light sand to heavy clay, it is not difficult to meet any reasonable requirements in this respect. All varieties of peaches and nectarines seem to succeed equally well as dwarfs. Those varieties which are grown as dwarfs in Europe are naturally the ones which are favorites there. In this country the favorite varieties are almost altogether different and we would expect to choose such sorts as Late Crawford, Foster, Old Mixon, Belle of Georgia, Champion, Waddell, and other choice American varieties for our use. [Illustration: FIG. 35--PEACH TREES TRAINED UNDER GLASS] The nectarine is in large favor in Europe and is much more extensively grown than in America. The merits of this fruit seem to have been strangely overlooked in this country. When nectarines are properly grown under glass, they are one of the most delicious and beautiful fruits known in this world of limitations and disappointments. The nectarine is a fruit which will in general bear more extensive cultivation in America and which is to be especially recommended for dwarf fruit gardens. This is not to say that it should supersede the peach, or even that it should take equal prominence, but simply that it should be well represented in every selection of fruits for an amateur's collection. X DWARF PLUMS Most amateur and professional fruit growers are less interested in plums than in other tree fruits. Perhaps I am prejudiced, but I feel that this is not fair to the plum. Plums yield some profit when rightly cultivated commercially, and no end of satisfaction when cultivated for the gardener's own entertainment. The large assortment of varieties which one may secure is in itself a claim to interest, and a source of much delight to the collector. The fact that different types of plums furnish fruit of very diverse characters makes the collection more valuable from every standpoint. So far as the writer knows dwarf plums have seldom been grown to any extent in America. They certainly have no present claim based on experience for recognition in commercial orchards. Nevertheless they have possibilities even for the growing of market fruit, and for cultivation in the garden, dwarf trees are altogether worth while. In the chapter on propagation, reference has been made to the stocks used for plums and that subject need not be discussed here. [Illustration: FIG. 36--PLUM TREES TRAINED AS UPRIGHT CORDONS] When plum trees have been secured budded on suitable dwarfing stocks, as, for example, Americana or sand cherry, they may be trained in a variety of ways. Probably the ordinary bush form is the best. Most varieties of plums do not form either a satisfactory pyramid or a strictly vase form. Some of the better growing Japanese varieties of plums approach the latter form fairly well. Red June, Satsuma, and Chabot may be mentioned as particular examples. With such varieties a true vase form can be maintained as well as with peaches. In dealing with a majority of varieties, however, a simple bush-like head without a mathematically constructed frame work is about the best that can be secured. In most cases the head should be formed low, preferably not more than six inches from the ground. Still considerable latitude has to be allowed the gardener's fancy in dealing with dwarf trees, and the writer can easily imagine a garden design which would require trees to be high headed. It would be practicable and excusable in some cases to form heads four, five, or even six feet from the ground. This is often done in England and Germany with all sorts of fruit trees, this form being referred to as a "standard." A head can be secured at almost any point on a plum tree of good growth, by heading back at the desired height. Four to six branches should be allowed to grow the first year and in course of time these will be increased to eight, twelve, or even more. That is, there will be this number of what we might call main branches because they are all of approximately equal importance. At the end of the first year after the tree has been headed back the main branches, which have now formed, are to be cut back in turn. With all strong-growing varieties it is best to remove from one-half to two-thirds of the annual growth from these main branches, if the tree is to be restricted to a comparatively narrow spread. A considerable number of strong shoots will put forth the next year. These should be thinned out as soon as they start to a number approximately twice that of the main arms. These new branches should be distributed as symmetrically as possible. The tree top is now formed and subsequent pruning consists essentially of a severe heading in during the latter part of the dormant season, that is, about March, followed by two, three, or four summer prunings somewhat after the manner described for the peach. At the time of these summer prunings the young growing shoots should be thinned out enough to prevent any choking of the tree top and should be headed in wherever it is necessary to retain the symmetrical growth. The manner of forming the fruit buds or spurs is so diverse in the different kinds of plums that no general rule can be given for encouraging them. Close observation of each variety will soon enable the gardener to direct his pruning in such a way as to assist in this important process of fruit bud formation. In a rough general way it may be said that the Domestica and Americana varieties of plums form distinct fruit spurs along the sides of one and two year old branches, and that, for the encouragement of these, considerable light should be admitted and the growth of the interior shoots rather rigidly checked. The Japanese and Hortulana varieties on the other hand fruit best from very short spurs or clusters of buds which form along from the strong one and two year old branches. The main object, therefore, with these latter varieties is to maintain a succession of clean, sound, well matured shoots. This is done by a moderate thinning of the main shoots early in the year, resulting in the forcing of those which are left. These strong growing shoots are checked late in the summer in order that they may ripen up thoroughly, but the pinching which is done to this end is delayed long enough so that the pinched shoots will not start into growth again. Moreover, this pinching is done well out to the ends of the shoots. Certain varieties of plums succeed fairly well as vertical cordons. The varieties least adapted to this purpose are the Hortulana offspring and their hybrids and a few of the rank-growing Japanese, like Hale and October Purple. In the dwarf tree garden at the Massachusetts Agricultural College the writer has a row of plum trees containing a large assortment of varieties and species. These trees were picked out at random from various sources and very few of them were propagated on dwarfing stocks. On this account the trees were set two feet apart, which is more than is usually recommended for upright cordons. They have now been growing three years, and they furnish much interesting testimony regarding the feasibility of growing plums in this form. Contrary to expectation such varieties as Red June, Abundance, and Burbank have done well under this treatment. These varieties all fruited the next year after planting. Some varieties of the Domestica group are bearing the third year after planting, which is unusually early. All of them seem to be fairly well adapted to this method of treatment. Varieties like Wildgoose and Wayland, and such hybrids as Gonzales, Waugh and Red May, can hardly be controlled in the restricted space allowed them in a row of vertical cordons. They give very little promise of success. It is probable that all these varieties would make a better showing if they were propagated on some such stock as sand cherry. [Illustration: FIG. 37--BURBANK PLUMS ON UPRIGHT CORDONS TRAINED TO TRELLIS] Plums are seldom--almost never--propagated as horizontal cordons. I have never yet undertaken it myself, but propose to do so at the first opportunity and with some expectation of moderate success with certain varieties. The slow growing sorts like Green Gage, Italian Prune, and Agen seem to offer special promise. In the form of espaliers plums are often trained against walls. Indeed this is the favorite way of producing fancy plums in England, and the same practise prevails to a considerable extent on the continent of Europe. In this country walls are not required, and in most cases would be of no advantage. Where it is desired to cover back fences or sides of buildings, however, plum trees in espalier form can be confidently recommended. The Domestica varieties of highest quality such as Bavay, Jefferson, Victoria, Pond, Bradshaw, and Coe's Golden Drop would have first choice. The Japanese varieties can also be grown on trellises or walls, but the freer forms, such as the fan espalier used for the peach, are better suited to their habits of growth. The following varieties of plums can be recommended for dwarf bush forms: Green Gage Jefferson Bradshaw Agen Grand Duke Bavay (Reine Claude) McLaughlin Pond Bleeker Italian Prune Cluster Damson (or other Damsons) Such varieties of the Japanese class as Abundance, Chabot, Red June, Satsuma, Burbank may be grown on dwarf stocks in bush forms, but they are not altogether satisfactory. There are two objections against them: (1) It is difficult to keep them in restricted bounds, such a result being dependent on constant and severe heading in. (2) They overgrow the dwarf stocks very strongly and thus do not have a very firm hold on the ground. They are apt to blow over or break off after a few years, unless carefully staked up. The following varieties can be recommended for upright cordons, in which form they will give moderate success if properly managed: Coe's Golden Drop Agen Victoria Grand Duke Abundance Burbank Bradshaw Bavay Lombard Chabot Cheney Aubert (Yellow Egg or Magnum Bonum) Also most of the clean-growing Americana varieties such as Smith, Terry, Stoddard, etc. Mr. Owen Thomas recommends for growing on walls in England the following varieties: Green Gage Brandy Gage Denniston's Superb Gage Comte d'Athem's Gage Transparent Gage Transparent Late Gage Jefferson Reine Claude Violette Brahy's Green Gage Bryanstone Gage Oullin's Golden Gage Golden Transparent Gage Reine Claude de Bavay Coe's Golden Drop Kirke's Blue Washington XI BUSH FRUITS The bush fruits, so far as I know, are never cultivated as dwarfs. To speak more exactly I should say that no dwarf stock is ever used to reduce the size to which the plants grow. On the other hand, bush fruits are often systematically pruned back in order to restrict their size, and are sometimes trained in elaborate forms as dwarf fruit trees are. To this extent they are managed in the same way and might properly be treated in the same general category. What is more to our purpose, they are almost always included in the plan of any private fruit garden on a restricted area, such as we have had chiefly in view in this discussion of dwarf fruit trees. These reasons make it appropriate, if not indeed essential, that something should be said regarding these fruits here. All bush fruits can be grown in such forms as cordons, espaliers, etc. Anything of this sort which the gardener wishes can become a part of his garden of little trees. Gooseberries and currants offer the most entertainment and remuneration when subjected to special pruning and training, and indeed they should not be omitted from any garden scheme of this kind. Raspberries are less amenable to this kind of education and should be introduced with some care. Blackberries are necessarily difficult to handle and no very complicated schemes of pruning and training can be successfully applied to them. Such other fruits as Loganberries, strawberry-raspberries, June berries, etc., may be introduced "at the owner's risk." Any of them will submit to a certain amount of correction with the pruning knife, and may add to the variety of fruits grown in the amateur's garden. Of course, it is distinctly understood that these special methods of treatment are not commercially recommended for any of the bush fruits in America. [Illustration: FIG. 38--CURRANTS AS FAN ESPALIERS ON TRELLIS, HARTFORD, CONN.] Probably the most interesting and practical way for handling gooseberries and currants in dwarf fruit gardens is the form known as standards. This form consists of a small round fruiting top of almost any desired variety grafted high upon a straight clean trunk or stem. This stem may have any convenient height from two to ten feet, the most common and practical height being about four feet. The stock used is the flowering currant, _Ribes aureum_, which forms a sufficiently strong and upright growth for this purpose. Nevertheless it is almost always necessary to support these standards with a convenient stake apiece. For the present these standard gooseberries and currants can be obtained only of the European nurserymen. At least the writer knows of no one who propagates them in America. There are several importers, however, who make a business of supplying European stock and who are always glad to import these on order. The finer varieties are especially chosen for growing as standards. This applies particularly to gooseberries, which are more widely grown and which are more highly prized in Europe than in this country. The varieties grown in Europe are usually finer table fruits than the American varieties. It is generally understood that the finest fruits for eating fresh out of hand are secured from the standard gooseberries. [Illustration: FIG. 39--GOOSEBERRY FAN ESPALIER Variety Industry, trained on wire trellis] Gooseberries and currants are also adapted easily to the espalier form. The most elaborate palmettes and other geometrical designs can be worked out. Nevertheless the simplest and most practical form for trained gooseberries and currants is the fan shape. If a suitable trellis is provided, the vines may be easily tied out upon it in very attractive fan forms and these are found to be quite satisfactory, both as regards their looks and their product of fruit. They are also easily sprayed, which is a consideration worth mentioning when one has to fight the currant worm. In general, it is best in our latitude to run these espaliers north and south, because they receive too much sun when the trellis runs east and west. This rule, however, is not absolute. Probably the most convenient and practical way for growing these fruits in the dwarf tree garden is to plant standards at regular intervals in a row, say six feet apart, and to plant a certain number of fan shaped bushes between each pair of standards in the row. If these standards were six feet apart, two plants for fan training would be enough between each pair. The top of the trellis on which the fan forms are tied, would not be above four feet high, better only three. The heads of the standards then rise well above the top of the trellis. This furnishes some support for the stem of the standard and economizes space. Economy of space is one of the first principles of this style of gardening. [Illustration: FIG. 40--TREE FORM GOOSEBERRY] No list need be given here of the varieties of gooseberries and currants to be recommended for this class of planting. It may be said that any of the favorite varieties of currants grown in this country, as for example, Fay, Victoria, Red Versailles, etc., may be chosen, and that these are indeed the varieties usually preferred in Europe. With respect to gooseberries it may be remarked that the English, French, and German varieties are mostly very different from those grown in America, and that while they have some shortcomings in our climate, they are for the most part to be recommended for the purposes which we here have in view. XII FRUIT TREES IN POTS Those who are used to seeing large fruit trees in orchard plantations where each specimen has 1,000 to 2,000 square feet of space, with unlimited opportunities downward, find a fruit tree in a pot a curiosity. It seems remarkable to see a tree in vigorous health and bearing fruit with less than one cubic foot of soil. Nevertheless this method of handling fruit trees is entirely practicable. In some places it is practised extensively in an amateur way, and occasionally reaches almost commercial proportions. For those who grow fruit trees for recreation there could hardly be a more interesting experiment. The pots mostly used are the nine, ten, eleven and twelve inch standard earthenware pots. With most trees it is best to begin with small sizes and gradually shift forward to the larger ones. A bearing tree may be maintained for several years in a twelve inch pot or even in a ten inch size. Sometimes wooden tubs are substituted for pots. These look better, but are not so good in any other way. Trees may be grown in pots out of doors, although there is no particular advantage in doing this. If such practise is undertaken the pots should be plunged their full depth in good garden soil. Perfect drainage should be secured by having some broken brick or coarse cinders underneath. Usually potted trees are grown under glass. They are kept in a cool greenhouse, that is one with little heat. Sometimes they are without artificial heat. In fact this is probably the best way. The houses which are purposely constructed for fruit trees may have a single line of pipe if this is convenient, so that the chill may be taken off the air in severe cold weather. To reach anything like real success, houses must be devoted exclusively to fruit trees. Occasionally trees may be grown with other plants, as in cold graperies, but the results are not the best and often come very close to failure. In building houses for fruit trees exclusively, the even span construction is nearly always used. Houses eighteen or twenty feet wide, and five feet high at the eaves, will answer the purpose very well. The leading greenhouse designers are prepared to furnish plans for such houses and it is usually best to follow the advice of their experts. All kinds of fruit trees can be grown in pots. This includes apples, pears, peaches, plums, nectarines, and cherries. Those which give the best returns are plums and nectarines. Apples in pots are very interesting and furnish a superior quality of fruit when grown under glass. Apples, plums and nectarines take a finer finish and a higher flavor when grown in this way than when grown in any other. All fruit trees to be grown in pots should be propagated on the dwarfest of dwarfing stocks. This means practically that apples should be on Paradise, pears on quince, peaches and nectarines on sand cherry, plum on sand cherry or St. Julien plum, and cherries on Mahaleb. [Illustration: FIG. 41--A FRUITING PEACH IN POT] The trees should be potted in good rich soil, preferably the best garden loam. This should have enough sand and gravel in it to insure good drainage. A considerable amount of drainage material should be placed in the bottom of each pot. The trees should be repotted in fresh soil annually in October or November. Trees in pots require liberal feeding. Besides being given well enriched earth at the time of repotting, they should be supplied from time to time with small amounts of fertilizer. Good soluble chemical fertilizers can be applied either dry or dissolved. A good formula is one part nitrate of soda, two parts of muriate of potash, two parts of high grade phosphoric acid. A very little sprinkling, say a tablespoonful, of this can be given on each pot once a month during the growing season which lasts roughly from December to May. In place of this, or alternately with this, moderate waterings with liquid manure may also be given. These small doses of food are especially useful at the time when the fruit is forming on the trees. The trees are usually brought into the house at the time of potting, say November 1. If early fruit is desired, they are kept in a house with some heat. It is necessary only that the temperature should be kept constantly and safely above the freezing point. Rapid forcing with a high temperature is not desirable and is hardly possible. If kept simply above the freezing point, these trees will start into growth in January. They can then be kept somewhat warmer during February, the heat being slightly increased in March. Peaches and nectarines will stand fairly high temperatures after the fruit is well set and especially toward ripening time. By this method of mild forcing, plums, peaches, and nectarines can be brought into fruit as early as the latter part of May. [Illustration: FIG. 42--A FIG TREE IN A POT] The main crop of potted fruits, however, need not be expected until June or July; that is not very much in advance of the outdoor crop. The object of growing fruit under glass is not so much to force it ahead of season as it is to improve the quality. Trees which are to be kept in a cool house without heat need no particular attention except to see that they are watered occasionally and that some plant food is given after growth begins. Even if the temperature goes down considerably below freezing during the winter months in this cold house where the potted fruit trees are, no damage need be expected. Of course, special care will be given to prevent damage from attacks of fungi or insects which occasionally become troublesome in the houses. The small size of these trees makes such work comparatively easy. The methods of pruning are the same as those recommended for pyramid and bush form trees. These forms are the most practical for pot culture, though pot trees are occasionally trained in cordon forms. XIII PERSONALIA Many persons have a strong prejudice in favor of the concrete. On general principles they object to generalities. They choose rather the specific case. Personal experience, they say, means more to them than theory, even though the theory be the sublimation of all experience. For the benefit of such people I am going to set down an account of some of my own attempts at growing dwarf fruit trees, and to that I will add brief opinions and experiences of some friends of mine. The first dwarf fruit tree that I ever saw, so far as I remember, was in the grounds of the Kansas State Agricultural College when I was a student there. This tree was an apple, on Paradise stock, and at two years after planting it bore six or eight very fine Yellow Transparent apples. It was one of several dwarf apples planted by Professor E. A. Popenoe, but the other trees did not much attract my attention. This particular specimen had a straight, clean trunk of about thirty inches, after the absurd style of heading dwarf apples practised in most American nurseries. But the crown was full and symmetrical, and the fruit was incomparable. That particular tree has always been a sort of ideal and inspiration to me. Later, when I planted an orchard in Oklahoma, I put in some dwarf trees, particularly pears, but I did not stay there long enough to see what came of them. The next fruit garden in which I became interested was in Vermont. This had in it some dwarf pear trees, dwarf apples and dwarf plums, and my own personal experience had fairly begun. The dwarf apples proved to be an almost complete failure, for reasons which I can not now satisfactorily explain. A few years later I planted a few dwarf apple trees in another Vermont garden, where they did reasonably well. But, at any rate, the whole undertaking was unsatisfactory, for it did not give me a vital understanding of the trees. I never got onto terms of real personal goodfellowship with them; and until a gardener does that his work is some sort of a failure. The dwarf pears did somewhat better. They seemed to understand their business, and they kept about it without much attention from me. I never cared much for pears, anyway. But the plums were the brilliant success, at least with reference to my own interior personal experience. Every plum tree meant something to me. A stub of a root and two scrawny plum branches would at any time arouse my imagination like the circus posters' appeal to a boy. In this Vermont garden which I adopted when it was about four years old, there were various plum trees, mostly of domestica varieties, growing on Americana roots. They had come from the Iowa State College, where they had been educated that way. They had been given those Americana roots, not primarily to dwarf them, but to insure them against damage from the cold winters. The tops had not been cut back, and the whole treatment was just such as would have been applied to standards. Later I saw the bad results of this treatment, for several of the trees blew over in high winds. From subsequent experience I feel sure that if they had been headed low at first, if they had been kept closely headed back and otherwise handled like real dwarfs, they would have lived to a greater age and would have made everybody happier. At this time also I began, on a somewhat comprehensive plan, the propagation of plums on all sorts of stocks, including Americana, Wayland seedlings, Miner root cuttings and sand cherry, all more or less efficient dwarfing stocks. By this time I was into it head over ears, as far as the plums were concerned. This having been the largest chapter in my personal pomological experience, I suppose it ought to form the largest portion of this chapter in the book; but my plum work and my experiments in propagation have been so often and so fully reported elsewhere that it would be a vain repetition to go over them again now. They are all written down in the proper places where they may be consulted by the enthusiastic or ill-advised student. And then I came to Massachusetts; and here the first project, almost, to which my hand was turned was the installation of a garden of dwarf fruit trees. From the following memorandum of the trees growing in this garden any reader may surmise the enjoyment I have found in it. There is one row of dwarf plum trees set six feet apart and trained, rather unsatisfactorily, into bush form. The trees were many of them too large when they came from France, and, though I cut them back severely, they did not form such low bushy heads as my ideal species. They are on St. Julien roots, which serve the purposes in hand fairly well. Though the trees had a hard trip across the water only one out of forty-six has died in three years. Unfortunately these trees have not yet borne fruit,--not one of them. Next year many of them will bear. Earlier fruitage can certainly be secured on sand cherry stocks and under other methods of training. Besides the bush plums, the garden contains a row of upright cordons. Most of these were not propagated on dwarf stocks at all, and were not expected to suffer any such drastic training as I have put upon them. They were taken from the college nursery and from the nurseries of several of my correspondents, just wherever I could find the varieties I wanted, and without reference to the stocks on which they were growing. A few are on Americana stocks, several are on peach roots (of all things), and probably a majority are growing on the usual Myrobalan roots. These trees are planted two feet apart in the row and are tied up to a trellis of chicken wire. There are about thirty varieties in the row, numbering most of the different botanical types more frequently cultivated in North America. Many of the varieties are totally and very obviously unsuited to this method of treatment, and presently I will replace them with more amenable varieties. But many of the varieties have fruited, especially the Japanese kinds, and some of them, like Burbank, have proved most unexpectedly docile. Altogether this row of unsuitably propagated and unsuitably selected varieties of plum trees has been one of the most interesting, instructive and entertaining elements in my dwarf fruit garden. Next there comes a trellis bearing some espaliers, including plums, pears, apples, peaches and cherries; but these have been recently planted, and as yet they have done nothing worth relating. There is one row of twenty-three dwarf pears, mostly trained in pyramid form. These have not done well, but the reason is not far to seek. The soil is light and full of gravel, and quite unsuited to pear or quince. Pears never thrive on it. Several of the trees are bearing a crop this year, but some of the trees are also dead, and the whole row looks like the finish of a bargain sale on the remnant ribbon counter. The row of upright cordon pears is a trifle better, but that is only an accident, I think. The varieties which are growing there seem to be rather better adapted to withstand the unpropitious surroundings. These trees also are bearing. When we come to the two rows of horizontal cordon apples, though, the real fun has begun. Nearly all these trees are in bearing, and a few of them have borne every year since they were planted out. They are set only three feet apart in the row, which is not enough; and they suffered terribly the first year from a midsummer attack of aphides; and the pruning was neglected to allow them to recover from that scourge, so that the form was somewhat injured; but they have never ceased to be a joy to me and a wonderment to visitors. They are mostly of European varieties, but Bismarck is the showiest and most fruitful one in the collection, though far from the best to eat. Then there are standard gooseberries and currants, of which there is little to be said. They haven't been there long, but they are at home and are going to stay. Next year I am going to put in some gooseberries and currants in espalier form. [Illustration: FIG. 43--DWARF PEAR IN PYRAMID FORM Two years planted; author's garden] Very few persons know what a medlar is. For the benefit of the ignorant and to increase the kaleidoscopic effect on my fruit garden, I have some medlar trees,--Holländische Monströse,--which I bought of Louis Späth, Baumschulenweg, Berlin. A wire trellis, built much like a grape trellis, only higher, carries the row of upright cordon apples. Some of these bore fruit the first year they were planted, and there has been a fair sprinkling of fruit every year since then. This has been one of the most satisfactory lots in the make-up. There are two rows containing forty-six bush-form apples on paradise roots set six feet apart. Some of these have borne every year since planting out, many of them showing a good crop this year. Again Bismarck is the most fruitful, but the least pleasing to eat. Alexander has made a good record, and this year Calville d'Automne shows a very pretty crop. It is customary with visitors, especially those already interested in fruit-growing and those of a practical turn of mind, to depart with the judgment that "all those other schemes are curious and interesting, but the bush form apple trees look the most like business." I think so too. In fact my experience with dwarf apples might be summarized by saying, "bush trees for business, cordons for fun." One row of peach trees on St. Julien plum roots set fruit buds in abundance the first year, but they were killed by the freeze of the following winter. The second year the experience was the same, except that the tops froze with the fruit buds. New tops were grown at once, however, and the following year nearly every tree bore a small crop of fruit. Dwarf peach trees are worth while. This garden has also a row of cherry trees, including Morello, Richmond and Montmorency; but these trees were set the second year of the garden making and have borne only a small crop of sample cherries. The last planting in this garden consists of one row of nectarines, twenty-two trees. This little garden, containing considerably less than a quarter of an acre of land, has now growing upon it 548 fruit trees of the kinds named. And I am not yet done planting. There are various other things that I want to put in,--quinces, apricots, and perhaps raspberries, dewberries, and other bush fruits. In fact, I should like to make it a "Paradise" like good old Gerarde's or Dodoens', in which all the fruits "good for food or physic" might be brought together and represented in a little space. It would be quite wrong to close this experience meeting without giving the observations and quoting the opinions of some other and better men. Patrick Barry, in his delightful "Fruit Garden," recorded his belief that dwarf fruit trees were well worth while. "The apple," said he, "worked on the Paradise, makes a beautiful little dwarf bush. We know of nothing more interesting in the fruit garden than a row or little square of these miniature fruit trees. They begin to bear the third year from the bud, and the same variety is always larger and finer on them than on standards." Speaking of pears, he said: "On the quince stock the trees bear much earlier, are more prolific, more manageable, and consequently preferable for small gardens." The late Mr. E. G. Lodeman, who wrote the most comprehensive American monograph on dwarf apples, concluded his essay rather pessimistically in these words: "From all the evidence which I have been able to collect, therefore, I cannot advise the planting of dwarf apple trees for commercial rewards, but it seems to me, nevertheless, that they are worth experimenting with for this purpose." Mr. Lodeman recorded and endorsed the common opinion "that apples grown on dwarf trees are handsomer and of better quality than those grown upon standards"; but he did not seem to consider that fact of much importance. Those who are acquainted at the Lazy Club in Cornell University, and especially those who know Bailiwick, have heard of Professor L. H. Bailey's dwarf apples. (Fig. 44.) These were planted six or eight years ago, and most of them are now in bearing. There are a good many different varieties, nearly all French. My understanding of the scheme is that it was as much as half intended to be a commercial venture; but up to the present time little else but confusion and fun have been gathered with the fruit from those dwarf apple trees. When last I asked the proprietor for his experience with dwarf apples he said that he was having a lot of experience, only he didn't know what it was. Dwarf pears have been planted frequently, especially in Western New York and Michigan. I asked Professor S. A. Beach for his observations of them, to which he replied: "With regard to dwarf pears I will say that the variety which is most generally grown in commercial orchards is Bartlett. Almost without exception this is grown as a standard. Other important commercial varieties are Seckel, Bosc and Winter Nelis. All these are generally grown as standards. The variety commonly grown as dwarf is Angouleme. A few fruit growers of my acquaintance are making some money from orchards of dwarf Angouleme. The other varieties which are often propagated on dwarf stock as Clairgeau, Anjou and so forth, are seldom profitable. In fact I have heard it stated that outside of Ellwanger and Barry's orchard there is not a profitable orchard of Anjou in this State. From these statements I wish you to derive the conclusion that in New York State under present conditions there is little encouragement for planting dwarf pears commercially." [Illustration: FIG. 44--IN PROFESSOR BAILEY'S ORCHARD Chenango apple on Doucin stocks, interplanted between standard trees] Mr. E. W. Wood, for many years chairman of the fruit committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, says that "under the right conditions the dwarf pear tree is a necessity for commercial pear growing. The growers in Revere and Cambridge would feel they could not get along without the dwarf trees. Putting the pear on the quince stock does not change the wants of the roots of the latter, and it is no use setting them on a light, dry soil, as the roots being confined to a small area of unsuitable soil, will make a feeble growth and finally die outright; or, if in an exposed situation, blow over. Most all the varieties may be grown as dwarfs. The Angouleme and Clairgeau, both good market varieties, cannot be successfully grown in any other way." Recently Mr. M. B. Waite has written me the letter quoted below, giving some conclusions from his experience with dwarf pears in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. He says: "I planted out 1,000 dwarf pear trees nine years ago. They were largely Duchess (Angouleme), but there are some Manning, Howell, Anjou, Louise Bonne and Lawrence. I have not been entirely satisfied with the results. We have not had the proper quantity of fruit. There has been some fruit every year since the fourth year, and two years ago there was quite a good crop, but nothing to compare with the yield per acre of Kieffer, LeConte and Garber, for instance. Of course, these are higher-priced fruit and large yields are not required for good returns. Only the Duchess and Manning, however, have produced sufficient to pay at all, and the orchard has not as yet really paid financially. We have a nice crop this year, however, more than the total yield up to this season, and perhaps from now on we may win out. My dwarf pears are on a soil too dry and sandy for the best results, and I think we are at Washington pretty near the southern limit, at least at low altitudes. In the mountains of Virginia and North Carolina they can be grown further southward. They require a moist, preferably clay-loam soil even in their naturally favored districts, such as New England, New York and Michigan, but such a soil is still more desirable when rather too far south for their normal range. They require high culture, manuring and fertilizing, and thorough pruning and spraying in any locality, and these requirements are still more exacting in Maryland. A slight neglect in cultivation, pruning or spraying in one season results in a mass of blooms the next spring, but little or no fruit set. Of course, this extra attention which has to be devoted to dwarf pears as compared with Oriental pears, peaches, apples, etc., to be profitable should result in larger yields, but does not usually do so in this latitude. On the other hand, we may say in favor of the dwarf pear that the quince root is a healthy, reliable root for the pear tree; that the trees attain their seasonal growth early, and therefore are not as susceptible to pear blight as standard pears. Furthermore, they are more easily sprayed, pruned, and otherwise handled than the high standard trees." My friend, Mr. J. W. Kerr, of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, who owns one of the oldest and most picturesque orchards of dwarf pears I ever saw, says that Angouleme (Duchess) is the only variety that pays for growing in that form. Thus the experience of many men in many parts of America sums up as we began. The conclusion of the whole matter seems to be about this: Dwarf fruit trees have not yet played any prominent role in American commercial horticulture; but they have been profitable in a few special cases, and the probability seems strong almost to the point of certainty that, with the development, refinement and specialization of our commercial fruit growing, a wider field of usefulness will be opened for dwarf trees. In the realm of amateur fruit growing, on the other hand,--a realm now daily widening,--dwarf fruit trees are of capital importance. The owners and renters of small grounds, the cultivators of little gardens--the great majority of American home-makers, in fact,--will find in them an unfailing source of pleasure, inspiration, and even of profit. INDEX PAGE Advantages of dwarf trees, 8 Apple, propagation of, 23 Apples, 63 Apples, recommended varieties, 72 Bailey, H., quoted, 120 Barry's "Fruit Garden," 119 Bismarck apple, 7 Boundary fences, 16 Bush fruits, 99 Commercial value, 20 Cordon trees, 46 Currants, 101 Definition of dwarf tree, 1 Designs for fruit gardens, 53, 55, 59, 61 Disadvantages of dwarf trees, 18 Double-working, 27 Doucin apple, 26 Dwarf tree, definition, 1 Early bearing, 8 Erwin, A. T., quoted, 29 Expense of dwarf trees, 18 Fertilizers, 54 Fillers in orchards, 13 Forms for trees, 41 Gooseberries, 101 Heading young trees, 32 Houses for dwarf fruits, 107 J. W. Kerr, quoted, 124 Lodeman, E. G., quoted, 119 Longevity of dwarf trees, 19 Management of dwarf trees, 51 Management of trees in pots, 109 Nectarine, propagation of, 28 Nursery management, 31 Paradise apple, 24 Peach, propagation of, 27 Peaches, 83 Pear, propagation of, 26 Pears, 76 Pears, recommended varieties, 81 Personalia, 112 Pinching, 35 Plum, propagation of, 28 Plums, 90 Plums, recommended varieties, 97 Pots for fruit trees, 106 Propagation, 22 Pruning apple trees, 68 Pruning dwarf trees, 33 Pruning peach trees, 86 Pruning plum trees, 92 Pyramid tree, 42 Quality of fruit, 10 Root pruning, 36 Sand cherry, 30 San José scale, 10 School gardens, 15 Selection of varieties, 60 Suburban places, 12 Tillage, 54 Training in special forms, 38 Trellises for trees, 58 U-form trees, 44 Uses for dwarf trees, 12 Waite, M. B., quoted, 122 Walls and fences, 15 Walls for dwarf trees, 57 Wood, E. W., quoted, 122 ............. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: In the plain-text version of this ebook italics are indicated by _underscores_. Obvious typographical errors in spelling and punctuation have been corrected without comment. One example of an obvious typographical error is on page 124 where the word "an" was changed to "on" in the phrase "... on the other hand...." Other than obvious typographical errors, the author's original spelling, punctuation, hyphenation and use of accents has been left intact with the following three exceptions: 1. On page 92 a hyphen was added to the term "one-half". 2. In the Index (page 125) an accent mark was added in the term: "San José scale". 3. In the Index (page 125) the entry "J. W. Kerr" was changed to "Kerr, J. W." to correspond with other similar entries. 
38051	----	-------------------------------------- Transcriber's Note. Hyphenation has been standardized. -------------------------------------- THE TOMATO THE TOMATO _By_ PAUL WORK _Professor of Vegetable Crops, Cornell University_ _Editor of Market Growers Journal_ _ILLUSTRATED_ [Illustration: Printer's Logo] NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. 1945 COPYRIGHT, 1942, BY ORANGE JUDD PUBLISHING COMPANY, INC. PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA _This book or any part thereof, may not be reproduced without permission of the publishers, except by a reviewer who wishes to quote brief passages in connection with a review written for inclusion in a magazine or newspaper._ Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan American Republics and the United States August 11, 1910 [Illustration: FREDERICK J. PRITCHARD 1874-1931 _Originator of tomato varieties of improved type and resistant to disease_] TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE INTRODUCTION 11 I. THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD AND CROP PLANT 13 II. CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED THE PLANT 25 III. THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE TOO GOOD 38 IV. STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY MATURITY AND HEAVY CROP 53 V. GOOD CULTURE FAVORS GOOD RETURNS 71 VI. TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET THEM SPREAD 79 VII. THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH INSECTS AND DISEASES 85 VIII. SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS THE ENTERPRISE 93 IX. OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN THE BLACK 116 REFERENCES 119 INDEX 133 ILLUSTRATIONS F. J. Pritchard _Frontispiece_ FIGURE 1. The tomato is the leader among greenhouse vegetables 19 2. The tomato flower 22 3. Long section of tomato flower 23 4. How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato growth 27 5. Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete fertilizer 33 6. Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes 36 7. Types of tomato interiors 43 8. The Earliana tomato 45 9. Marglobe plant 48 10. Marglobe fruit 49 11. A good small greenhouse for plant growing 58 12. Plants for the early crop 61 13. Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed 64 14. Plants that have been crowded and overgrown 69 15. Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and twine 80 16. Fine clusters on trained plants 81 17. Resistance to fusarium wilt 87 18. Diseases of the tomato 89 19. Packing tomatoes on a farm 99 20. A California packing house 101 21. Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes 102 22. The lug box 104 23. Lug boxes as loaded in car 105 24. The square braid basket 106 25. The Connecticut half bushel box 107 26. Repacked tomatoes 108 27. Cellulose film is used for repacked tomatoes 109 INTRODUCTION Why should there be a book on tomatoes? The world is full of bulletins of experiment stations, of articles in periodicals and of general books on vegetables which include discussion of tomatoes. An incomplete set of tomato bulletins includes over 350 documents. Many of these are no longer available. Many are of no great value but contribute this or that small item. The task of a book like this is to offer between two covers, a summary of what seem the most significant facts and opinions about the third most important vegetable crop in the United States. The tomato is one of the most rewarding crops for the home garden. A little space yields heavily, from half a peck to a peck per plant without difficulty. It grows well practically everywhere in the States, affording high nutritional values whether used fresh or canned. And people do like tomatoes, whether as salad, cooked vegetable, or condiment. Competition among growers and among districts makes three elements necessary for commercial success:--quality in the goods, economy in production, and effectiveness in marketing. The grower must know his plant, what it is like and how it behaves under various conditions and treatments. Then, he needs an understanding of the economic factors that surround his enterprise. Conditions in various sections and production for various purposes are so diverse that dogmatic statement and general advice are precluded. The aim is rather by means of available information to help the reader to an understanding that will enable him to answer his own questions for his own conditions and this far better than any broad prescription could possibly do. Principles, possible practices and examples of field programs are offered as guides for self-help for home, school, hobby as well as commercial production. A person who studies on this basis will not be thwarted by a sudden shift of weather or market but will have at hand the necessary facts and ideas to adjust his plan to changed conditions. No attempt has been made toward complete citation of reference. Those given will lead to others making possible a full survey of the extensive literature. The Tomato I THE TOMATO IS A GREAT FOOD AND CROP PLANT Vegetable, Fruit or Berry,--what is the tomato? A standard query this is and many an argument has raged about it. The answer is easy. It is all three. By culture and use, it is a vegetable; botanically it is a fruit and among the fruits, it is a berry being indehiscent (non-shedding), pulpy, with one or more seeds that are not stones. And they say the tomato is more truly a berry than the raspberry. But that doesn't make much difference. The thing that matters is that people like the tomato. It is easy to grow and nearly every home garden has it. It is good to look upon--shapely, colorful and of glossy sheen. A trained single stem plant with ripening fruit is a genuine ornament in the garden. It is most gratifying to the palate, fresh or cooked; soft and grainy, smooth and juicy in texture, sweet and tart and with an appealing flavor all of its own that few fail to relish. As juice or cocktail, adding color and flavor to soup, as condiment or as side dish with the entree, as salad freshly sliced or in jell, it is welcome with almost every course and some ingenious chef or, more likely, some clever housewife will, one of these days, fashion from it the dessert supreme. Nor have we exhausted the list of forms in which the tomato may be served. In addition to its simplest cooked form, stewed or turned hot from the can, it may also be baked, stuffed or not, or it may be escalloped and cooked with rice, spaghetti or other foods. Fried, before fully ripe, and served with brown gravy, it is most popular in many a home. Ketchup or catsup is one of our most widely used condiments and chili sauce many like even better. Green tomato pickles, chow chow, piccalilli carry the piquant tang of the tomato to enliven the winter table. And tomato juice, plain or dressed up with spices, vinegar or lemon juice has become a great staple of our groceries, a standard send-off for any meal from breakfast snatched on the morning sprint to work on through to the most elaborate of banquets. The tomato, by reason of its natural acidity, is readily sterilized and so can be preserved easily in glass or tin. It ranks first among the "big three" canned vegetables; the other two being sweet corn and peas. By far the great bulk that goes to the factory is put up with the addition of nothing more than salt. In addition to the condiments, puree and paste are manufactured in commercial quantities. The Italians dry tomatoes extensively in the sun, slicing the fruits, and later flavoring them to taste for various winter uses. Though the tomato was not recognized as a valuable food until about a century ago, its merit is now universally accepted. Bob Adams used to call it "the poor man's orange" for it is rich in vitamins and in malic and citric acid, possessing besides, a fine appetizing flavor which is as truly a value in nutrition as it is a pleasure. Actually, the tomato is mostly water, of rather low protein and carbohydrate content but this does not detract, for other foods are dependable for these staples of nutrition and most of us eat too much of them. The tomato is a youngster among the vegetables. In contrast to the onion of Egyptian lore and the cucumber reputed to have been used in Western Asia many centuries ago, the tomato is not reported until the herbalists of the 16th century recorded its culture in Italy and England--but with little of the esteem now accorded. The name seems to be of Aztec origin and two distinct wild forms--one corresponding to our cherry or currant varieties and the other to our larger, flatter, less regular fruits of many cells,--are to be found wild in Latin America. Its American origin is generally accepted. Commercially, the tomato is a great crop. Among the vegetables, it is outranked only by the potato and the sweet potato. The following table gives a few figures on the tomato crop: ====================================================================== | | _Acres_ | _Value_ | | _Thousands_ | _Million dollars_ |_1929-38_+-------------+---------+------+------ |_Average_| | |_1929-38_| | | |_1939_|_1940_|_Average_|_1939_|_1940_ ----------------------+---------+------+------+---------+------+------ U.S. for canning | 369 | 358 | 386 | 19 | 24 | 24 for fresh market | 177 | 210 | 204 | 24 | 34 | 29 +---------+------+------+---------+------+------ Total | 546 | 568 | 590 | 43 | 58 | 53 ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Average yield for market is about 116 bushels per acre and the average price $1.26 per bushel. The government reckons a bushel at 53 pounds, or about 38 bushels per ton. The average cannery yield for 1929-38 was 4.15 tons; for 1939, 5.58 tons; and 1940, 5.39 tons. This shows a material increase. The average cannery price for 1929-38 was $12.54 per ton. Yields by states varied widely in 1940 from 2.7 tons per acre in Arkansas with Indiana at 5.5 to 7.5 in California. In northeastern states, it is considered that about a seven ton yield is necessary for the farmer to break even. In New York, it costs about $60.00 to grow an acre of tomatoes to first picking. With a good yield, picking and delivery costs about $3.00 a ton. Leading market states are Texas, 40,000 acres; Florida, 31,000 and California, 22,000. Tomatoes are grown in a very large number of states--23 or 24 states showing 1,000 acres or more for market. Leading cannery states are Indiana, 74,000 acres; California, 52,000; Maryland, 51,000; and New Jersey, 33,000. California, also Pennsylvania and Ohio have shown recent large gains. Large quantities grown in town and country home gardens are not included in these figures and probably also many grown on small scale for market. After all, however, the United States Department of Agriculture estimated per capita consumption of fresh tomatoes at 17.7 pounds, about one medium sized fruit per week per person. Consumption of canned tomatoes is less than a third of the fresh consumption. These figures include estimates for rural and urban home gardens. So, we can hardly be said to be gluttons for tomatoes nor even to meet a fair health standard, even considering all vegetables together. After all, it does not have to be tomatoes even though their high nutritional value is recognized. [Illustration: FIGURE 1.--The tomato is the leader among greenhouse vegetables.] In commercial greenhouses, the tomato has replaced lettuce as the principal crop and it is likely to remain an important under-glass crop until such time as the South finds practical means of getting it to market with first-class quality--perhaps, harvesting the fruit when it first shows color. Solution Culture The tomato has been widely used in experiments in solution-culture of plants, sometimes called "hydroponics." The method has been in use for decades for research purposes, but has been widely publicized of recent years as a possible method of commercial culture. A high degree of control of factors governing growth is undertaken and difficulties are proportionately increased. Hence no extensive commercial development has occurred. A good presentation of the method has been offered by Hoagland and Arnon.[1] The Tomato Plant To manage a crop, one must needs know the plant. To know the various characters of the tomato helps one to master its culture. The tomato belongs to the night shade family, the Solanaceae of the botanist, along with the potato, tobacco, petunia, pepper, eggplant, night shade, jimson weed and many other plants useful and noxious. The tomato is a warm-season crop, sensitive to frost but reasonably resistant to heat and drought, thriving under a wide range of climate and soil. A frost free season of seventy-five to ninety days will mature home garden tomatoes in useful quantities if good plants are set but over 120 days are needed for economical commercial production. Plant growing requires six to eight weeks previous to setting out-of-doors. Each fruit requires about six weeks from blossom to ripeness. The fruit ripens best for yield, color and quality when the weather is warm and sunny. Low temperatures without frost are not favorable for growth and prolonged conditions of this sort may "check" the plant and retard the response when higher temperatures come. The tomato is sensitive to extreme day-length, setting fruit at 7 to 19 hours but not at 5 or 24 hours.[2] The tomato responds readily to fertilizers and to moisture, coming quickly into vigorous growth after unfavorable conditions, unless too badly stunted. As long as moisture and nutrients are available and other conditions are favorable, a tomato plant will continue to branch and blossom and make fruit almost indefinitely. A pruned single stem plant in a greenhouse at Cornell once reached a length of over 40 feet during a year and a half of growth. Thus, it is really a herbaceous perennial grown in northern climates as an annual. The plant branches freely at leaf joints but fruit clusters are formed along the bare stem,--a habit not common among plants. Some varieties are "determinate" in habit, sometimes miscalled "self-pruning," as branches only attain limited length. [Illustration: FIGURE 2.--The tomato flower. Varieties differ in protrusion of pistil beyond the stamen column. If style is too short, pollination may fail; also, if too long. A long pistil increases danger of damage from heat and drying out.] Hot, dry winds often damage floral parts and the blossoms drop without setting fruit. Smith[3] has shown that pollen grains germinate best at 85° F., almost as well at 70° F., poorly at 50° F. and very poorly at 100° F. [Illustration: FIGURE 3.--Long section of tomato flower.] The flowers of the tomato are borne in simple racemes or, in some varieties, in compound clusters. The flowers are normally on the plan of 5 but cultivated varieties may have six or eight sepals and petals. Sepals are narrow and may be as much as an inch long. Petals are united at the base. Stamens are united by the anthers surrounding the style and stigma. The ovary or little tomato is above the calyx but, as it grows, it carries corolla and stamens outward until they, with stigma and style, drop off. Length of style is a fairly important character in its bearing on pollination and on susceptibility to heat and wind injury. Seedless Fruits Recent experiments by several workers have demonstrated the possibilities of inducing development of fruits without pollination (parthenocarpy) by means of certain chemical compounds, notably indolebutyric acid, although others are effective.[4] This method yields seedless fruits and promises to be of value in insuring a yield of fruits under conditions unfavorable for natural setting. II CHOOSE THE SOIL AND FEED THE PLANT Almost anywhere that other things will grow, the tomato thrives--so far as soil type is concerned. Florida grows tomatoes on coral soils that appear too poor to produce any useful crop. The fields of South Jersey are very sandy but tomatoes do well despite costly control of moisture and fertility. In some canning sections, clay loams and even clay soils are used. The ideal is a medium sandy loam, well supplied with humus for good water holding capacity. Lighter soils are generally earlier. Tomatoes on drouthy soils are likely to suffer from blossom end rot as well as from poor growth. Good drainage is required. Muck or peat soils will grow tomatoes but they are not commonly used for commercial production. Liming is not important for tomatoes even on fairly acid soils, assuming, of course, that the very small actual calcium requirement of the plant is met. This is generally confirmed by experiments but it does not preclude the merit of lime in favoring green manure crops which, in turn, make the soil more suitable for tomatoes. The dominant element in most sound tomato fertility programs is phosphorus with nitrogen second and potash third. Recommendations of general application are not possible but each need must be met before other beneficial additions can be fully effective. In the home garden, a program that keeps up fertility for other crops will suffice for tomatoes. In commercial production, especially for canning, where prices received are usually low, the program must be neatly cut to fit the soil, the crop system, the value of the tomatoes and the costs of materials. A canning crop in those sections where yields are almost bound to be low, will not justify heavy investment in fertilizer. Where much is spent for irrigation, plant growing, staking and pruning, one cannot afford to curtail the fertilizer investment that will bring maximum return. [Illustration: FIGURE 4.--How nitrate nitrogen affects tomato growth. Plants, grown in quartz sand, with plenty of other nutrients, received definite amounts of nitrate, in one application. A4, None. D5, 8 grams. F2, 32 grams. J4, 256 grams. N4, Soil and manure. (1 ounce = about 28 grams).] The task of this chapter is not to tell the grower how best to provide fertilizer for tomatoes but to help him in making his own plan for his own need. Research results and practical experience both contribute. One may well consult neighbors, county agent and extension specialist, as well as the many books and bulletins that are available. Nitrogen Nitrogen is very important to insure the growth of vine without which a good crop may not be expected. Lands vary more widely in nitrogen content than in phosphorus and potash. Sandy soils are commonly deficient in this element and often difficult to keep supplied. Here liberal applications are needed. Up to a hundred pounds[5] of actual nitrogen may prove profitable where other conditions justify. Heavier soils, well managed and manured during rotation, require less nitrogen and fair results may be obtained with no fertilizer where investment must be kept to a minimum. Form of nitrogen to be used is largely a matter of economy though nitrate for part of it may be desirable early in the season when soil is cold and nitrification slow. Nitrate is desirable for side dressing but even here ammonia and other forms are now considered suitable when the soil is warm. Failure to Set Fruit Why do tomatoes sometimes run to vine with failure to set fruit? This is an old, old query and, since 1918, has been, directly or indirectly, the occasion of more research projects than any other horticultural topic. Kraus and Kraybill[6] set the ball a-rolling with a paper which called attention first to the observations of Klebs in Germany in which he emphasized the fact that external conditions influence conditions within the plant which in turn influence performance--a veritable chain of causation. Kraus and Kraybill then undertook to relate performance (vegetative growth and fruitfulness) to internal conditions, chiefly carbohydrate and nitrogen content of the plant tissues. These, in turn, were traced back to treatments applied to the soil. They suggested four combinations of vegetation and fruitfulness in plants as follows: 1. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. Plants whose carbohydrate supply has been cut off, say by removal of leaves which make carbohydrates. These plants were low in carbohydrate and high in nitrogen. 2. Vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants were well supplied with both carbohydrates and nitrogen. They were of the sort we describe as having "run to vine." 3. Vegetative and fruitful. These plants were well supplied with carbohydrates, but not so liberally supplied with nitrogen, thus, providing a balance between the two that was favorable for a good crop. 4. Non-vegetative and non-fruitful. These plants had ample opportunity for carbohydrate making, but were underfed with nitrogen and so could not perform well in either vegetation or fruit-making. Kraus and Kraybill conclude that there are certain balances between these two groups of compounds--nitrogenous and carbohydrate--which determine the nature of the plant's performance--whether there will be too little vegetative growth to permit a crop, whether the plants will "run to vine" or whether they will show good growth of both foliage and fruit. From experiments in the same field, using definite amounts of nitrate of soda per plant, Work[7] concluded that while adequate carbohydrate supply is necessary for fruiting, excess carbohydrate did not, in itself, occasion unfruitfulness but was more likely to represent an accumulation of material unused by reason of deficiency in some other factor--often nitrogen. It was shown that nitrate of soda does not injure tomatoes until a concentration in the soil is attained which is strong enough to plasmolyze the cells, that is to withdraw water from them by osmosis. Nor were a wide variety of nitrogen and moisture and manure treatments sufficient to induce the Bonny Best variety to "run to vine." Some varieties are subject to this trouble, mostly of the large, late types. Murneek[8] has shown that the fruitfulness of a plant may greatly affect its internal condition, its vegetative performance and its later setting of fruit. A heavy load of developing fruit, with limited soil resources, tends to limit growth and setting. Removal of fruit induces renewal of vegetative growth and of fruit setting. Failure to set fruit favors vigorous vine growth. This failure may be traceable to various causes. (1) To damage to floral parts as the blasting of the pistil by heat and drouth. Flowers of some varieties show tendency toward elongation of pistils with subsequent failure to develop normal fruit. Smith and Howlett have shown that environmental conditions as well as heredity influence this elongation. (2) To injury by insects as thrips. (3) To the character of the variety used, the Bonny group being very slightly susceptible to failure from over feeding with nitrogen while some late sorts readily "run to vine." (4) Shortage of nutrient elements as nitrogen or phosphorus or others. (5) Lack of adequate light or short day. In such cases, there may be excess of nitrogen for current need with resultant over-development of leafage. Thus, excess vegetative growth may be a result as well as a cause of poor setting. Phosphorus Fertilizer experiments fairly generally point to the frequency with which phosphorus is the limiting factor among nutrients in tomato production. MacGillivray[9] has studied the phosphorus content of the various parts of the plant, concluding that this element is important throughout and not alone in seed making or in rapidly growing parts as has been believed. Hepler and Kraybill[10] found some years ago and others more recently have confirmed the influence of liberal phosphorus treatments upon earliness. [Illustration: FIGURE 5.--Effect of omission of phosphorus from complete fertilizer in Western New York.] Potash The potash requirement of the tomato has not been as thoroughly studied as the requirement for the other two major elements. It is thought that potash has a part in building up sugars into more complex carbohydrates. The consensus of fertilizer experiments suggests that potash is less important on most soils than phosphorus and nitrogen but that if these elements are in good supply, increased yields from potash are likely. Lanham in Texas was unable to find a relation between potash fertilization and resistance to shipping hazards. Stable Manure Stable manure has long been recognized as useful for tomatoes. It is generally considered better to apply it to the preceding crop or at least the preceding fall than to use it just before setting of plants. If spring application is necessary, it is better to use well rotted manure. Stable manure is low in phosphorus. An approximate statement would be that 10 tons of manure is roughly equivalent to one ton of a 6-3-6 fertilizer. Thus, 1,000 pounds of 18% superphosphate would bring the analysis to 6-12-6 which would be generally regarded as a good balance. A recent publication[11] from Pennsylvania emphasizes the value of manures and of phosphorus. Placement and Side Dressing Recent experiments have shown the desirability of placing fertilizer close to but not in contact with the roots of the young plants. When newly set and before new roots have developed is the time when nutrient material close at hand is needed to give the plant a vigorous send-off. Transplanters have been devised with attachments to place the fertilizer in bands at each side of the row of tomatoes and about two inches deep. Recent experiments, notably by Sayre[12] of New York, have shown the advantage of dissolving fertilizer materials in the water used for transplanting tomatoes. One combination of materials consists of ammo-phos, 14-48, 2 parts and potassium nitrate, 1 part. Five to eight pounds of this mixture are dissolved in 50 gallons of water and about 1/4 pint or 1/2 cup is applied to each plant, usually by the transplanting machine. There are other suitable mixtures of nutrients for this purpose. A very small investment in starter solutions has shown material increase in total yield. The practice places immediately available nutrients in the soil at the time and place to be of maximum usefulness to plants that have been severely root-pruned and have not yet had opportunity to rebuild the root system. [Illustration: _Courtesy Campbell Soup Co._ FIGURE 6.--Cultivating and side-dressing tomatoes.] Another critical stage in tomato growth comes when much fruit has been set in the clusters and demands upon plant and soil are especially heavy. At this stage, side dressing with nitrogen is helpful in maintaining plant growth and providing resources for growth and maturing of fruit. On sandy or nutrient-deficient soils, more than one side dressing may be advisable. Sodium nitrate is commonly used but other materials are suitable after the soil has warmed up. Side dressing with fertilizer in solution has been recommended recently by Tiedjens of New Jersey. III THE BEST IN SEED IS NONE TOO GOOD A tomato crop may be much poorer than the seed from which it grows but it can be no better. The tomato seed is short-oval and flattened in shape, covered thickly with short silky hairs. The embryo or baby plant is coiled in a spiral and imbedded in the endosperm (reserve food supply). Three or four years is generally given as the life of the seed but it often remains viable much longer--up to 10 or 12 years in extreme cases. Good seed should germinate 85% to 90%. Tomato seed sprouts readily, requiring fairly warm temperature, say, 70° to 75° F. for best results. It germinates very slowly at 40° to 50° F. Breeding Being a major vegetable crop, the tomato has received much attention from plant breeders. Objectives sought include good cannery type, resistance to the fusarium wilt and other diseases, better greenhouse forms, improved general market and home garden sorts, and varieties adapted for arduous conditions such as hot and dry summers or very short growing seasons. The tomato is largely but not wholly self pollinated and pollen is not carried far. Thus, it is not difficult to breed to practically a pure-line condition. Tomatoes for seed are usually ground up and the seed and fine pulp are separated from the skins and coarse material by screening. The juice, fine pulp and seeds are allowed to ferment from 24 to 48 hours, or until the jelly-like pulp is readily washed away. After washing, the seed is dried in thin layers and stored. A bushel of tomatoes may be expected to yield 2-1/2 to 4 ounces of seed and an acre of tomatoes, from 100 to 225 pounds. These vary greatly according to varieties and conditions. Wellington[13] and others have shown that first generation seed from crosses of suitable varieties show a marked increase of vigor (heterosis or hybrid vigor) over either parent or over the later generations. This fact would seem to offer possibilities in practical use, but it has not thus far proved of value. Selection Methods Many growers find it profitable to save their own tomato seed. The plant is an annual, the important characters are quite readily observed and natural crossing is not serious. For these reasons, the enterprise is not as difficult as with most vegetables, although, if done well, it makes heavy demands in labor and care at a time when the grower has much else to do. The first step in selection is to establish clearly the ideal to be sought, recording it in detail on paper for future reference. Selections should be made on the basis of the plant, not of the individual fruit. It is the plant that is reproduced and the seed from "crown clusters" is no earlier than seed from later settings. The field should be searched soon after blooming time and plants that appear promising should be marked. These plants should be examined three or four times as the season advances, and markers pulled from plants that do not measure up to the desired standard. Suppose ten plants remain; all fruits from each of these may be saved, keeping the seed of each plant separate. All or part of the seed may be planted in separate rows the next year for further selection and to note which parents best transmit their excellent points. If only a small amount of seed is required, direct selections may be made for use in planting for the general crop. If a larger amount of seed is required, seed from one or two of the best plants should be planted in multiplication plats. Off-type plants should be removed from such plantings, but otherwise all the seed may be saved for use. Repeated selection results in constant improvement until the stock becomes a "pure line" or practically so. Lindstrom of Iowa has led in research on the genetics of tomatoes, chromosome relations and mode of inheritance. Many scientific papers deal with inheritance methods and results. The Yearbook of Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) for 1937 contains a valuable chapter on tomato breeding. It may also be had as Yearbook Separate 1581. Certification As with certain other kinds of seeds, certification service for tomatoes has now been set up in several states. Certification is a most useful incentive toward care in breeding and handling and affords valuable assurance to the buyer. It is necessary to know just what is guaranteed by the certificate. It is at the same time wise to be informed as to the inclusiveness and methods of the certification. The Ideal Variety In breeding for better varieties of tomatoes, the following are some of the characters to be sought: (1) A vigorous vine which is necessary to produce abundant fruit and to protect from sunscald. (2) Resistance to disease especially to fusarium. (3) High productiveness with moderate number of fruits per cluster--say, 5 to 8. [Illustration: FIGURE 7.--Types of tomato interiors. 1, 5. Small fruited sorts. 2, 6, 9. Bonny Best. 3, 7, 10. Chalk Jewel. 3, 7, 11. Stone. 4, 8. Earliana. 12. Ponderosa.] (4) Evenness of maturity. This is somewhat out of line with the nature of the tomato but much could be accomplished toward the goal of varieties that make their crop and are gone, eliminating long picking periods and the drag of inferior fruit toward the end of the season. The so-called determinate habit of some varieties such as Pritchard is a step in this direction. (5) Size suitable for expected use and for market demand. Greenhouse tomatoes are generally smaller than those for cannery. Uniformity of size is increasingly important with wide-spread use of the lug-box pack and of small consumer cartons. (6) Globular to oblong shape is desirable for market but is less important for cannery. Form should be symmetrical, even and smooth. (7) Color should be deep and rich, fully and evenly developed, inside and out. Red is generally preferred to pink. The difference between red and pink tomatoes does not reside in the flesh but in the presence of yellow pigment in the skin of the former while the skin of the latter is without pigment. Yellow tomatoes are also extant. [Illustration: FIGURE 8.--The Earliana tomato. A picture of a single fruit cannot adequately describe a variety. 1-3. Rough types, common in older strains. 4. Typical interior. 5, 6. Stem end. 7-9. Good type resulting from selection. 10-12. Pointed-round type occurring frequently in improved strains. A. Unusually large cluster. B. Typical Earliana cluster showing compound branching. C. Unbranched cluster of Bonny Best for comparison.] (8) Skin should be thick and tough. This safeguards against damage on the way to market and favors ease of peeling. Those saladists who serve sliced tomatoes with skins unremoved, may call for a thin, tender skin but this practice finds no encouragement from discriminating partakers. (9) Flesh should be abundant in thick walls with a minimum of watery pulp surrounding seeds. In general, a structure of many small cells is desirable. Varieties _Earliana._--The earliness of this old and popular variety outweighs its demerits where this character is required. The past ten years have seen material improvement. Earliana is early, of small vine, with small leaves and leaflets. Clusters are compoundly branched, with many fruits. The fruits are of medium size, deep oblate, cross section often elliptical rather than circular. There are many rough irregular fruits, varying in this respect with breeding and conditions of growth. Color is red, not too deep and tending to be poorly developed at the stem end. Interior consists of many small cells with thin walls. _Bison._--represents a group of varieties bred for rigorous climates of our most northerly states. A. F. Yeager formerly of North Dakota, later of Michigan, now of New Hampshire has led in this development. _Victor._--is a new variety bred originally by Yeager but introduced by K. C. Barrons of Michigan. It affords smoother, deeper and better colored fruits about as early as Earliana. It is determinate in habit and shy in foliage, increasing danger of sunscald. Rich soil and ample moisture are needed for its best development. _Bounty_ and _Home Garden_ are similar. _Penn State._--Penn State, developed by C. E. Myers of Pennsylvania, is not as early as Earliana. It is similar in fruit characters though distinctly better in color and shape. It is marked by short branches (determinate habit) and is designed to give an early crop to be followed by prompt abandonment of the planting. It is not to be confused with Penn State Earliana. _Bonny Group._--This group embraces our leading second early varieties widely used for home garden, greenhouse, market and cannery in the north. It includes _Bonny Best_, _John Baer_ and _Chalk Jewel_ with many additional names and with much confusion of characters among them. Bonny Best is second early and of medium plant growth. Fruits are deep oblate to flattened globe, even and smooth, of good red color, with few large, thick-walled cells. [Illustration: FIGURE 9.--Marglobe plant.] Varieties and strains of this group vary in growth and yield, in size, shape and earliness of fruit and in suitability for greenhouse, market, cannery and juice. _Stokesdale_ and _Scarlet Dawn_ are meritorious newer names in the group. _Marglobe._--This variety was developed by the late Dr. F. J. Pritchard from a cross between Marvel, a French variety lending resistance to fusarium and Globe, an old variety of fine size and shape. It is widely used, north and south, for market--green or ripe, for cannery and to some extent, for forcing. [Illustration: FIGURE 10.--Marglobe fruit.] Marglobe is a midseason variety, with large vine and foliage, resistant to fusarium and nailhead spot. Fruits are nearly globular, shapely and smooth, medium to large, scarlet red, with medium number of thick walled cells. Marglobe is rather subject to deep radial cracks. _Pritchard_ is of the general type of Marglobe but is earlier, with short branching habit and resistance to nailhead rust and to fusarium, and, perhaps, is less subject to cracking. _Greater Baltimore_ is used chiefly for canning in long-season districts. It is late, with large vine, large flat fruits of excellent scarlet red, outside and in, with many thick walled cells. _Indiana Baltimore_ is a variant widely grown in the mid-west for cannery. _Rutgers_ was developed by L. G. Schermerhorn at the New Jersey Experiment Station for fine juice and canning characters--color, flavor and substance. Growth is vigorous and yields are heavy; fruits are large, flattened and well colored. _Gulf State Market_ is a second early shipping tomato, generally harvested green. It is flattened in shape, of well developed pink color and good interior. _Comet Group._--These trace mostly to English or other European origin and are increasingly used for greenhouse and for staking out-of-doors. Comet is small, flattened, slightly corrugated about the stem, of fine even red color, very firm and solid, with few very thick walled cells. Other names are _Sunrise_, and _Lord Roberts_. Several American forcing strains have been developed with at least one parent of this group--_Ideal_, _Grand Rapids Forcing_, _Field Station Comet_, _Trellis_, _Michigan State Forcing_, _Lloyd Forcing_, _Blair Forcing_ and others. _King Humbert_ and _San Marzano_ represent the small Italian oblong tomatoes that are prized for their thick walls, fine color and suitability for puree, paste and soup. _Ponderosa_ is popular for home garden, a "beef-steak" tomato of very large size, irregular shape, flat, pink, with many small cells and of very mild sub-acid flavor. It is best grown to single stem. _Oxheart_ is large, heart shaped, pink and very meaty. Others of this general type may be had in red, yellow and orange flesh. In general, the whole group lacks in prolificacy. _Oddities._--Tomato fanciers often plant seed of Red and Yellow Pear, Cherry, Currant, Peach with its fuzzy skin, Plum and others. They are prized for preserves and for decoration. Ground Cherry or Husk Tomato is not a true tomato but belongs to a different genus (Physalis). It makes excellent preserves. Well do I remember sneaking off from the other kids for solitary plunder of the little row that was usually in Grandma's garden. Comprehensive descriptions of leading varieties of tomatoes have been published by the United States Department of Agriculture in Miscellaneous Publication 160, the result of statistical and verbal notations over several years at five widely scattered stations of the country. IV STRONG PLANTS FOR EARLY MATURITY AND HEAVY CROP One of the ways to make money from tomatoes is to mature them early, selling while the price is still high. There is a big difference between $.10 a pound and $.10 a basket. Shipped and ripened green wrap tomatoes cannot be very cheap on northern markets even though Southern growers may realize little for them. Another way to profit is to grow good plants to sell. Judging by the spindling, crowded, soft or over-hardened plants so common in stores, there should be great opportunity here and, as a matter of fact, many market gardeners do well in this business realizing welcome returns when other income is negligible. To market ten-cent-a-pound tomatoes from out-doors requires good plants--plants that have passed through their youth nearly or fully up to blossoming time with benefit of heat and shelter and that are ready to keep up vigorous growth in face of the demands of fruiting. A few scattering fruits matured early do not suffice. Even for cannery, good plants are required. In most regions, plants are not as good as they should be. All too often, outdoor seed bed plants are set where cold frame or at least cloth cover should be employed. Further north, cold frame plants or second run or other inferior plants are used instead of the best. That is why many canning companies have greenhouses and grow plants for their farmers. And in the home garden, the quality of vine ripened fruit along with the satisfaction of early maturity are goals worth striving for. Plant growing is a game of skill. It calls for keen observation, constant and faithful attention to small details, and a high order of workmanship in the various operations. Furthermore, when a considerable number of plants are to be grown, it calls for good organization and rapid work if costs are not to be unduly increased. A transplanter who makes three motions where two will suffice is likely to turn profit into loss, for the loss of a second when repeated thousands of times makes many hours. The grower who is producing tomatoes for first-early maturity wants a plant that will withstand the rigors of transplanting and of inclement weather which may follow, that will start immediately into growth, and that will mature fruit in good quantity at the earliest possible date. This usually means a plant about ten inches tall, with heavy, firm, dark-colored stem (though not over-hardened), a heavy body of dark, healthy foliage, and a cluster of blossoms, with possibly a fruit or two already set. If the buds in the axils of the leaves have begun growth, no harm will be done. Many growers are doubtful whether it is well to have fruit set on plants when they are transplanted in the field, as they claim that the little tomatoes are often lost and in any case the progress of the plant is retarded. Such plants must be handled with great skill. If they are severely checked when taken to the field, other and less advanced plants may do as well. There is danger in having plants too far advanced, and an unexpected delay in field setting may result in spindling and over-hardening that may prove disastrous. A vigorous and properly hardened plant that is younger will do better under such circumstances. Some growers protect themselves by having plants of more than one sort. Open-bed Plant Growing With favorable conditions and careful methods, good plants can be grown in open beds but they must be grown and used where the season is long or be grown in the south and shipped north. Soil should be free of disease and nematodes, of good physical character, full of humus and nutrients. Seed may be sowed a week or two after "average date of last killing frost" which may be learned from county agent or weather bureau. Further south planting times are gauged by the time tomatoes are to be set and by experience as to safe or reasonably safe sowing dates. Rows are usually a foot apart, more or less. Good plants call for sowing thinly, 6 to 12 seeds per foot, but several seeds per inch are not unusual. One may expect a million plants per acre with close planting or 40,000 plants per pound of seed. Southern Plants Many millions of tomato plants are grown in open fields in the south to be sent to home gardeners in small parcels on seedsmen's orders, to be sold to commercial growers or to be delivered on contract to canners. A suitable climate and soil, good seed, freedom from disease and insects and good handling and packing are all required for satisfactory results. In far too many cases, these requirements have been sadly neglected and a good deal of distrust has been engendered. Here, as in buying seed, one must discriminate among good and poor growers. Canners who order in millions can send men south to investigate and supervise with good results. Georgia now has a certification service for plants that helps greatly to build up and maintain high standards. Growing Early Plants in the North Varied programs of plant growing are in vogue in the temperate and cooler regions. A simple cold frame with or without transplanting may be employed. Seedlings may be started in hotbed or greenhouse and then transplanted to cold frames to finish the job. Some sow seed early, transplant once in the greenhouse at 1-1/2 or 2 inches each way and then again to cold frame with wide spacing say, 4 × 4 inches or using pots or dirt bands. For this method, as much as twelve weeks may be allowed but if space permits, excellent results may be achieved in seven or eight weeks transplanting but once to pots or to 4 × 4 inches in flat or bed. [Illustration: FIGURE 11.--A good small greenhouse for plant growing.] The Place to Grow Plants For northern climates, greenhouses are practically required. Canneries or other large growers, have wide houses similar to those used for winter maturing crops. A market gardener may have a little house of 10´ × 20´ to 20´ × 60´ or larger as needed. If one does not object to some inconvenience and discomfort, a hotbed may be used--heated with hot water or electricity, or as in years past, with fermenting manure. Cold frames may be covered with glass sash as in the case of hotbeds, or cloth may be used. There are also materials consisting of wire cloth filled with cellulose film. Special mats of straw or of quilted burlap may be used for extra cover and large growers often employ coarse manure, straw or marsh hay. Many a tomato gets its start in life in a small flat in a kitchen window--perhaps, in a cigar box. Such seedlings may then be carried forward in hot bed or cold frame. Beds, Flats and Pots Growing plants directly in ground beds in the greenhouse and directly in the soil in the hotbeds or cold frames, is rather common. However, the use of flats or plant boxes in plant growing offers a number of advantages as compared with planting in the bed. Transplanting can be done at benches under conditions of comfort and convenience which make for efficiency. Moisture can be more precisely controlled and flats can be shifted if some plants grow faster than others. Plants can be moved with more dirt on the roots, and this is a great advantage when plants are sold and hauled some distance, though, of course, pulled plants are handled more cheaply. On the other hand, the first cost, and the maintenance and storage of the flats must be considered. Flats may be set on the ground in the greenhouse without use of benches. Flats are of many dimensions, ordinarily six to ten per sash or about 18 × 22 inches or 13 × 18 inches outside measure. They may be made of lumber from used boxes, but they ought to be uniform in size and made to fit beds without loss of space. The more durable kinds of wood, cypress or chestnut are preferred. Some growers make the bottoms of the flats of square-mesh galvanized screen (hardware cloth), about five or six meshes to the inch. This allows roots to penetrate the soil of the beds, permits root pruning by shifting, and there is no wooden bottom to rot. Some growers use clay pots for plants which are receiving special care. Their cost is an obstacle though they are used repeatedly. Such pots also hold less soil for the area occupied than flats or square dirt bands. [Illustration: FIGURE 12.--Plants for the early crop. 1. Shows plants in paper bands of excellent proportion and thrift but not yet in bloom. 2. In blossom but fruit has not yet set. 3. Similar to 2 but a little further advanced and has actually set fruit.] Paper pots are used to some extent. Organisms decomposing the paper may use and so render unavailable some of the nitrogen of the soil thus hindering the growth of the plants. This may be corrected by seeing that abundant nitrogen is present in the soil either when made up or by later application of nitrate sowed upon the soil while plants are dry or applied in solution in watering. Dirt bands of veneer are used and are very satisfactory. Blocking as practiced by many growers is a cheap and effective way of attaining much the same results. The Blocking System When the cold frame is prepared for the last transplanting, two inches of fairly well-rotted manure is laid down and two or three inches of prepared soil is placed on top. Plants are set about four inches apart each way. About a week before field setting, a butcher knife, or a hoe which has been straightened and sharpened, is run between rows both ways. This cuts the roots whereupon the plant at once begins to form new feeders within the block thus reducing, to some extent at least, the damage which might be caused by transplanting. The method is also used with flats. Soil Soil for plant growing should be free of disease and nematodes, friable, not readily forming a crust, receiving and retaining moisture well, but drying off quickly on the surface after watering and well supplied with nutrients. A sandy loam base with good humus content is desirable. It may be prepared, beginning a year or two ahead by growing and plowing under well fertilized green manure crops. Or a compost heap may be prepared with successive layers of soil and manure or other humus making material. In either case, it is usually mixed a time or two by shoveling over or by passing through a shredding machine or a coarse screen. If trouble is likely to be experienced from damping-off fungi, the soil may be heated to 200° F. and held there for an hour, using oven or electric or steam sterilizer. Seed may also be treated with red copper oxid or semesan. Seed and Seed Sowing Tomato seed runs about 125,000 to 150,000 per pound. An ounce of seed is usually depended upon for plants for an acre. For growing seedlings, seed may be sowed up to 100 or more per foot of row. For a maximum number of strong seedlings from a small amount of seed, thinner sowing is desirable. Rows are usually about two inches apart, and a quarter of an inch is sufficient cover. The seedlings break ground in a week or ten days. [Illustration: FIGURE 13.--Tin can prepared for sowing tomato seed.] Uniformity of depth of rows and of covering is important. Otherwise, seedlings will come up unevenly and there will be considerable waste. Care of Seedlings Water and heat should be provided to permit a steady and moderate rate of growth in plants. Over-watering and high temperature yield soft and spindling plants and also plants that are overgrown and that are liable to severe checking before field setting. Under-watering and low temperature give stunted plants. The thermometer at the earlier stages of growth may well stand around 70 to 75 degrees by day and 10 degrees lower at night. A reasonable range of temperature and moisture gives opportunity for the skillful grower to forward or retard his plants as seems best. Great care should be exercised to water evenly. It is necessary to watch the plants constantly to detect the slightest variations in growth. The watering may then be modified and even progress insured. Ventilation finds its chief significance as a means of controlling temperature and humidity, though actual change of air may be a factor. High soil moisture, high humidity, high temperature, and faulty ventilation, all favor the ravages of the various damping-off fungi mentioned above which cause little plants to rot off near the ground. Transplanting The main advantage of transplanting plants before they are set in the field is to give them increased space, or, in other words, to conserve space in greenhouses and frames. Other advantages have been claimed, but in many instances the gains have resulted from more space rather than from the actual shift. Transplanting checks growth through breakage and disturbance of the root system. Loomis[14] finds that "the immediate effect of transplanting is a reduction in the water supply, and the immediate and long-time results are dependent upon the severity and duration of such reduction." Transplanting has little effect upon very young plants and a shift at the age of six or eight weeks checks the plant about as much as two earlier transplantings. The tomato falls in the group of plants that stand transplanting well, roots being rapidly replaced. Transplanting breaks roots and so results in the growth of branches which are shorter than the members of the old system. The new system is accordingly less severely damaged in later transplantings. To insure efficiency, the work of transplanting merits careful attention. Carelessness as to details means loss through unevenness of plants. For example, if soil is not carefully packed at the edges and corners of the flats, irregular water supply and irregular growth result. If much transplanting is to be done, it pays to divide up the work, as is done in a factory. Have a good place for doing the work--a warm, light, and comfortable room. Tired workers are not efficient. Spotting boards are of service if properly made and correctly used. Soil should always contain just the right degree of moisture to allow holes to stand open. Care must be taken that the workers in setting plants do not double the roots or close the holes at the top leaving the roots dangling in an open space below. It is said that a good worker will prick out 10,000 plants per day, though everything must be convenient to accomplish this and many growers regard 6,000 plants as a good day's work. Pruning Young Plants Pruning of tops injures rather than helps the plant, for it destroys leaves which are the machines that make carbohydrates, the principal material for growth. Pruning to cure legginess is bad. Proper management of time, temperature and water will provide adequate control and if plants should become leggy, it is better to plant them by laying them down in a trench with a few inches of top above ground than it is to prune them. Nipping out the growing point with the first cluster of flower buds is sometimes practiced to encourage branching and a heavier yield of early fruit. If this is done, ample space and nutrients must accompany careful management. Otherwise, the plant finds itself with inadequate resources to do a big job. Hardening Tomato plants cannot be made frost proof, but low temperature, reduced moisture supply, partial starvation, and crowding all tend to make plants more resistant to cold, to drying winds, to heat, to mechanical injury such as breakage of leaves and stems, and even to cut-worm attacks. Plants can be hardened appreciably in a short time--say a week. It is now generally accepted that moisture control is more useful than reduced temperature as a means of hardening. Starving and crowding are not desirable methods. Plants can be kept on the dry side if glass or other water-shedding cover is available. Great care must be exercised to avoid over-hardening of tomato plants, for in this way a check in growth is incurred from which they recover slowly, and perhaps never fully. Much study has been given to the changes in plants which underlie the hardening process, and papers by Harvey, Rosa, Loomis, and others should be consulted in this connection. [Illustration: FIGURE 14.--Plants that have been crowded and overgrown, probably undernourished and over-hardened. Plants like this are very often set in the field. They are definitely slow in starting growth.] Watts[15] has shown that adverse conditions, especially low temperature and water deficiency prevailing at the time when fruit clusters are barely beginning to form, commonly occasion the development of misshapen fruits. Faithful spraying or dusting with Bordeaux in the plant bed has proved a useful means of forestalling destructive leaf blights which often devastate whole fields. V GOOD CULTURE FAVORS GOOD RETURNS The tomato is not especially exacting as to care after it has been set out-of-doors. It will do business if given half a chance. At the same time, much can be done to favor earliness, good yield and high quality. Time of Planting In general, tomatoes are set in field or garden as soon as danger of frost is reasonably past. Suppose May 1st is average date of last killing frost. Growers would make general plantings from May 18th to 25th though, in rare instances, frost might occur as late as May 28th or 30th. The last week of May is planting time over a vast area of the North. Venturesome souls will set home garden plants as early as May 10th, standing ready to replant if necessary. There is little gain in rushing the season too much, however, for the tomato is not only sensitive to frost but it does not thrive under what people call "raw, mean, chilly weather." Such conditions may also be responsible for misshapen fruits. A grower for local market not infrequently risks a share of his plants before safe setting time in the hope that warm weather may give the crop a good start toward early ripe fruit to sell at high prices. Delayed planting and use of plants that do not start quickly into vigorous growth is the cause of heavy losses in the north, especially among cannery growers. Better quality and heavier yields are attained if the bulk of the crop matures before cool weather in the fall. In the south, it is necessary to get good plant development and a full set of fruit before hot weather which often destroys the blossoms. Plant Protectors Many forms of plant protectors are on the market--of paper and of other materials. These act as little greenhouses for the individual plant, protecting against frost and promoting growth. Plants may be set out-of-doors a couple of weeks earlier by their use. The most common forms are of translucent paper reinforced by pasted strips of paper or by wire. The trick is to devise one that is cheap, that will admit maximum light and that will withstand the weather. For tomatoes, they need to be tall, which makes the problem of wind resistance more serious. For emergencies, opaque cover, baskets upside down or even newspaper may be used. Many a field has been saved by burying the plants when frost threatened, carefully uncovering when danger is past. Spacing Untrained tomatoes are set at distances from 3-1/2 feet each way to 7 × 7 feet or even more. The extreme width is found on rich irrigated lands in California where plants make tremendous growth. The closer spacings are found on lighter soils where humus, plant food, and moisture are not too abundant. The variety should also be considered. Sixteen square feet per plant is about average. Check row planting is common, though it is not feasible where transplanters are used. Wider spacing between the rows than between plants is desirable as it permits later cultivation one way and leaves a better passage for pickers with less damage to plants and fruits. Thus, 3-1/2 × 4-1/2 feet might be preferred to 4 × 4 feet. Rows for single stem, staked and pruned plants may be as close as three feet and plants may be as close as eighteen or even twelve inches, though some growers contend that two feet is close enough. Methods of Planting The essential point in field setting is to pack the soil firmly about the roots, thus establishing maximum contact for moisture absorption. Whatever the method of planting, the aim should be to get the plants from the old home to the new with as little delay and check in growth as possible. For the first-early crop, they should be moved so that "they never know it." With bands, pots or blocking in flats or beds, it is feasible to avoid practically all disturbance of roots. The tomato will, under ordinary favorable conditions, take hold and grow even if shaken quite free of earth. Plants, however, should be dug loose rather than pulled, to prevent undue breakage of roots. Plants ought to be watered well some hours before transplanting. Transplanting machines and hand planters of the Masters type give a little shot of water at the root, thus helping to establish contact with the soil. Starter solutions are discussed on page 35. These machines are commonly used for cannery setting and, to some extent, for market tomatoes. Blocked plants can be set pretty fast by hand with much less disturbance of roots. Some manage to set potted or blocked plants by machine, keeping a ball of earth about the roots. The rows are usually marked out fairly deeply, plants are dropped in fours between rows and it is a very short job to pack soil about the clod of earth in which the plant is growing. Another method is for one worker to make an opening with a spade. A second places the plant in the wedge-like opening and the first steps on the soil to firm it solidly about the roots. Plants are generally set a little deeper than in the plant bed. Cultivation The old idea about cultivation was "the more, the better." More recent experiments notably those by Thompson have shown that little need be done beyond controlling weeds. He found that stirring the soil gave no significant increase in yield over mere scraping sufficient to destroy weeds. It is pretty hard to convince many old time gardeners of this. The value of dust mulch for conservation of moisture has been pretty well discredited by experimental comparisons. Irrigation Irrigation is not essential for tomato production in humid climates and is seldom provided except under market garden conditions. Water is occasionally an asset in a dry season and, of course, the grower who waters at such times reaps a harvest in higher prices as well as in increased yield. The advantage of irrigation is especially marked if dry weather retards plant growth and delays maturity of the first of the crop, for the high prices of the early market are involved. Judicious irrigation will sometimes continue production for late fall market. Yet gardeners seldom plan permanent overhead equipment for tomatoes. The movable lines that are now used to a considerable extent serve well for the tomato crop. The furrow method of irrigating tomatoes is the most common in the West. This plan allows the water to make its way down the rows, slowly soaking in all along the line. The tomato stands drouth better than many of our crops, especially if the soil holds moisture fairly well, either naturally or through a liberal humus content. Excessive moisture is doubtless a factor in causing the plants to run to vine and drop their blossoms. Hence, in western sections, it is customary to water thoroughly just before or just after setting the plants and then to avoid applications until the setting of fruit is well advanced. Thorough soaking is better than frequent light waterings, as it encourages a better development of root system. An Idaho bulletin suggests three irrigations. Late irrigations tend to delay ripening of fruit, but this object is sought in the late fall shipping districts of California which find their best markets after eastern crops have been nipped by frost. Irrigation must be handled with care to avoid cracking of fruit, which occurs when soil becomes rather dry and then is heavily watered. Watering late in the season is said to make fruit watery and of poor quality. Mulching R. A. Emerson[16] in 1903 reported results of careful comparisons between vegetables that were cultivated and others that were mulched with straw. These results indicate that mulching gives good results with tomatoes, both as to yield and quality. However, frost injury was more severe on mulched plats, and Emerson points out that the mulch should not be applied until the plants are well established. Mulching is recommended by a good many writers and growers and it seems to be practiced to some extent in Missouri. The advantages claimed are conservation of moisture and clean, fine quality fruit. L. W. Purdum and Sons of Virginia use 4-5 tons per acre of wheat straw, staking their plants and irrigating. They report unusually heavy returns per acre under these methods. The Missouri people apply as much as sixteen tons per acre, making the cover five or six inches thick. The practice of mulching, however, is not common, and the cost will likely prevent its general use. VI TO TRAIN THEM UP OR LET THEM SPREAD Growers attending conventions will often stay up half the night to argue about training and pruning tomatoes and to debate the details of their favorite procedures. For home garden, the method is strongly commended. Many market gardeners follow the practice and it has gained materially of recent years in New England. Some market reports quote staked tomatoes separately and at a materially higher level than fruit from unpruned plants. Most of the southern shipping sections follow the practice and it is practically universal in greenhouses. One way is to drive a stake by each plant tying at several points along the stem with cheap twine. The other plan, recently gaining in favor, is to set posts every 25 feet or so, string a heavy wire on top, and another a foot from the ground. Cheap jute twine is strung between wires and the tomato plants are merely twisted around the string. Tying is not required. Some omit the lower wire, tying a non-slipping bowline loop around the plant near the ground. In either case, plants are kept trimmed to a single stem though occasionally an extra branch is allowed to grow. In southern Illinois, plants are tied to a short stake without pruning. [Illustration: FIGURE 15.--Tomatoes pruned and trained with post, wire and twine. This is the trellis system of New England.] [Illustration: FIGURE 16.--Fine clusters on trained plants.] Pro and Con The advantages claimed for pruning and training are: Earliness. High yield per acre. Ease of cultivating and spraying. Ease of picking. No injury from snails and wire worms. Quality of fruit:--size, color, smoothness and cleanliness. Crop finished earlier. Less sunscald. The disadvantages claimed are: Many plants required. Reduced yield. More blossom-end rot. Higher cost of labor. Cost and care of stakes and wire. The validity of each of these points varies greatly with conditions; in fact, the answer to the whole question depends largely upon the location and the ideas of the grower. In trying to reach a conclusion, it is well to realize that training makes certain radical changes in the plant. It loses leaves through pruning, it is supported from the ground, and it is spaced differently. Since the leaves manufacture the basic substance for themselves, and for the rest of the plant, removal of leaves reduces the resources of the plant. H. C. Thompson[17] has found that the root system is reduced about in proportion to leaf reduction. It is fairly clear that single-stem training greatly reduces the yield per plant, and other methods result similarly in proportion to the severity of pruning. When plants are spaced closely enough together the yield may be brought up to that of areas unpruned and unstaked. Idaho experiments indicate that staking alone does not affect the total yield, but that it does favor early maturity under the different pruning systems. The disadvantages of training are largely economic. Will the marketing conditions justify the extra cost of staking and pruning? Experiments have shown pretty clearly that sunscald, blossom-end rot and cracking are worse on trained plants. Using varieties of good foliage will help the first trouble while uniform and adequate water supply achieved by selection of suitable land, by building humus content of the soil and by irrigation will solve the latter two problems. Thompson found increased yield of early fruit. Other evidence is somewhat conflicting but, in general, it supports Thompson. It is generally agreed that pruned plants yield larger, cleaner and more perfectly formed and colored fruits. Ease of spraying or dusting and of picking is important. For pruned plants, 3-1/2 feet between rows and 1-1/2-2 feet between plants is about right. To train or not to train is a question that one must answer for himself as the controlling factors vary too widely--costs of stakes, wire and labor, prices of early tomatoes and possibility of cultivating a more or less fancy trade. VII THE ETERNAL BATTLE WITH INSECTS AND DISEASES The tomato, in most regions, is not one of our most "pestered" crops. Although over thirty diseases of tomatoes are discussed in books and bulletins, most of them are only occasionally serious or are subject to definite control methods. Enemies are generally worse in the warmer climates. Most home garden tomatoes and many commercial crops are grown without benefit of spray or dust. If trouble arises, county agent or college specialist can usually advise, suggesting methods suitable for local conditions. Experience must, of necessity, be the guide in shaping a program and costs must be carefully balanced against results. The principal measures that are widely used are seed treatment against damping off, use of resistant strains against fusarium wilt and application of bordeaux mixture against leaf blights. As with all plants, thoroughness must be the watchword in spraying or dusting. Timeliness, choice of weather conditions so far as possible, and covering all surface lightly rather than throwing on heavy blotches of spray or dust all require careful attention. _Fusarium Wilt_ (Fusarium lycopersici) is perhaps the most serious of all the tomato diseases although it occasions little trouble in the more northerly states. It is troublesome as far north as New Jersey to Iowa. The fungus winters in the soil, enters through the roots and blocks the water passages of the plant causing wilting, yellowing, and finally, death. Water vessels in the stem are discolored,--another means of identifying the disease. Spraying or dusting are of no service since the fungus is within. Long time rotation and use of the many resistant strains are effective means of control. [Illustration: FIGURE 17.--Resistance to fusarium wilt. Row on left center is planted to an ordinary variety, row on right with one of F. J. Pritchard's wilt-resistant selections. Insert shows plant attacked by wilt fungus.] _Leaf Spot_, _Septoria Blight_ (Septoria lycopersici) causes heavy loss by destroying the foliage and so the fruit-making power of the plant. It also opens the fruits to sunscald. The spots appear as small dark water soaked areas which enlarge but little though they increase in number and turn brown. Tiny black dots, the fruiting bodies of the fungus, appear. The spores germinate only on moist leaves and the disease is spread by wind, rain, workers and the like. It winters on refuse of the tomato and related plants. Fall plowing helps to control. Bordeaux spraying beginning in the seed bed and carried faithfully through the season will usually hold the trouble in check. _Late Blight_ (Phytophthora infestans) is the same fungus as the late blight of potatoes, affecting both foliage and fruit. It is often troublesome the first few weeks after plants are set out-of-doors. Clean soil in seed bed and bordeaux spraying are helpful. _Western Blight_, _Yellows_, _Curly Top_,--cause unknown,--is prevalent in California. Leaves roll and become thickened and brittle, later turning a sulfury yellow. Veins become purplish. The trouble prevails in hot weather. The cause is likely a virus, similar to or identical with the curly top of beets. It is apparently spread by leaf hoppers. No satisfactory control has been devised though there is some promise in resistant strains. [Illustration: FIGURE 18.--Diseases of the tomato. 1. Septoria or leaf spot. 2. Mosaic. 3. Mosaic, filiform.] _Mosaic._--No organism has been definitely connected with the mosaic diseases of tomatoes, but they are highly infectious, being spread by means of what is called a "virus," which passes the finest filters. It is spread by insects, notably aphids, which carry plant juice, and in the handling of plants, but it does not persist in seeds or in litter. It is wintered on horse nettles and three species of ground cherries. Control suggestions include roguing affected plants, eliminating weeds, and controlling carrying insects. The symptoms are widely various, the most common being mottling of leaves, stunting and malformation of leaflets, which sometimes become fine ribbons or threads, curling, appearance of small brown dead areas, and spots and cracks on fruits. _Damping off_ is caused by various fungi in the seed bed which attack the stem near the surface of the soil and cause the plant to drop over and die. Clean soil, heating of soil, commonly called sterilization, and care in watering are all helpful. It is now common practice to dust seed with formaldehyde dust, or with red copper oxid or with an organic mercury disinfectant. If trouble is serious, a watering with semesan just before seedlings emerge may be helpful. A government bulletin on "Market Diseases of Tomatoes" (Miscellaneous Publication 121, 1932) is an excellent summary with colored plates to help in recognizing the various troubles. Insects _The Fruit Worm_ (Chloridea obsoleta) is probably the worst of the tomato insects, but is not prevalent in the North. It is the same as the corn ear-worm or the cotton boll-worm, and bores into green or ripening fruits. It winters in the soil and fall plowing is recommended for its control. Planting corn as a trap crop is also suggested. The Virginia Truck Experiment Station finds that the addition of two pounds of calcium arsenate to 50 gallons of the Bordeaux used for disease control helps materially. _Cut-worms_ (various species of the family Noctuidae) cause severe losses at the time of field setting. They winter in the soil and are worse when sod has been plowed under, or following other host plants. Poison bran mash is commonly used to combat them, using a spoonful to each plant. Hand picking and the use of paper collars are resorted to on a small scale. Well-hardened plants seem less subject to injury by these pests than tender plants. _Colorado Potato Beetle_ (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) can cause a world of damage to young plants. Arsenical spray or dust will ordinarily control them. The old-fashioned potato bug (family Meloidae), is reported as troublesome in Missouri. When they appear in droves, the only control is to drive them with brush. Arsenical spray or dust is of some value. _Flea Beetles_ (family Chrysomelidae) are the little black jumping fellows that perforate leaves in plant beds and in the field. They are also accused of injuring blossoms and reducing the set of fruit. Their attacks upon young plants are sometimes ruinous. Bordeaux with arsenical serves as a repellant. Dusting with nicotine sulphate dust is also suggested. _Green Tomato Worms_, or _Horn Worms_ (Phlegethontius sexta) are big, green fellows and have a great capacity for tomato foliage. Hand-picking and arsenical spray or dust are usual means of combat. _The stalk-borer_ (Papaipema nitela) is a slender caterpillar which is reported as serious in Indiana. No satisfactory control is suggested except clean culture around fields and pinching the stems to destroy the pest. VIII SKILLFUL SELLING CROWNS THE ENTERPRISE The most skillful production is in vain if marketing is not done well. At the same time, the quality of the goods is the principal factor in making the price and in moving the goods. Even then, if costs in production and marketing are too high, the enterprise is a failure. The differences between high and low quotations on the same market the same day, are usually fairly wide,--say, $1.75 to $2.50; or $0.75 to $1.25; or $0.20 to $0.25 per basket. These differences are sufficient to make the difference between profit and loss. Small differences in quality of the product, in handling and dress-up of the market pack and skill in finding buyers may easily result in price differences as great or greater than those indicated. Harvesting Picking in the field calls for the closest care and supervision to prevent damage to the fruits and vines. Stems should be removed to avoid punching other fruits, and long finger-nails do great harm by cutting the skin and admitting infection. Containers should not be too large to be handled conveniently. Round half-bushel stave baskets and galvanized pails are excellent. Baskets made of quarter-inch staves rather than veneer are smooth and durable, but the investment is rather heavy unless dumping is resorted to. In practice, all sorts of boxes and crates are used, often the package that is used for marketing. No container as deep as a bushel basket should be used. The stage of ripeness at which tomatoes are picked depends upon the time and distance to market. For home use or local market, fruit may range from the first turn to almost fully colored. A few growers pick at the turn and use ripening rooms to prepare for local selling. In this way cracking, injury by soil, by insects, and by uneven coloring are avoided. Fruits are wiped and handled with less loss and may even be washed if need be. Fully ripened fruit will not stand handling and hauling and will quickly deteriorate, reaching the consumer in bad condition. For cannery, full ripening is desired with even coloring. MacGillivray[18] has shown that success in this is largely a matter of care in picking. Cracking and slight softening are not serious defects for this purpose, but molds and bacteria in broken places are serious as they throw the product out of grade or occasion rejection. Picking Green Most tomatoes for long distance shipment, are picked before color appears,--at the mature-green stage. One of the great difficulties is to judge this stage correctly; to train ordinary labor to pick by maturity and not by size. Immature-green tomatoes ripen slowly and do not achieve good appearance or table quality. It is almost impossible to describe the ear marks of a mature-green tomato. Most of those usually cited are of doubtful value--glossy surface, whitish cast of color and the dark ring at the stem scar. The jelly-like or mucilaginous material in the seed cells has sufficiently developed in a mature green tomato so that the fruit may be sliced without cutting seeds. Of course, the tomato is ruined but the method can be used to check one's judgment based on the exterior. Also, one can learn by laying aside tomatoes judged mature-green and immature-green to ripen. Some efforts have recently been made in Florida to pick tomatoes at the turn, that is, at the first show of color, a practice suggested by Sando[19] some years ago. This should provide fruits of uniform degree of maturity, that would be about ready to sell on arrival and it would eliminate the serious problem of immature-greens. It would require more frequent picking of fields and there could be no delay in packing. There would, doubtless, also be problems of temperature and ventilation in transit. Results of tests thus far have been rather encouraging. Ripening Green wrap tomatoes are received at terminal markets by produce houses that have special ripening rooms where temperature is kept at about 70°, with high humidity to prevent wilting or shriveling. Ethylene gas is used by some to hasten ripening. It does not change the nature of the process, merely speeding it up. Some of these repackers have elaborate equipment for sorting and packing. The tomatoes, on arrival, are shaken out of their paper wraps. Any that have ripened in transit are taken out and packed while the greens go into the ripening rooms. They may have to be sorted over two or three times as ripening progresses. The ripening process in tomatoes has been rather thoroughly studied. Sando found that tomatoes ripen uniformly, regardless of size, at a certain age, dating from the setting of the fruit. This time, which, of course, varies according to weather conditions, was eight weeks when the studies were made. Ripening is accompanied by an increase in moisture, acids and sugars, with decrease of solids, nitrogen, starch, pentisans, crude fibre and ash. Sugars increase from about a quarter to about half of the dry weight. Chemical analysis did not show differences sufficient to account for the difference in quality between vine-ripened fruit and green fruit ripened in the laboratory. Lack of ventilation seems to be detrimental. It is commonly held that tomatoes chilled without freezing will not ripen satisfactorily afterward. This belief is discounted by results of Wright and associates and of Platenius who found little effect of low temperatures upon later ripening. Wright[20] and Platenius[21] have both found that tomatoes should not be stored at low temperatures, 50° to 60° F. being best. Storage is not likely to be satisfactory for more than a month. Waxing Waxing of tomatoes by immersion in a dilute water emulsion of paraffine and carnauba waxes is being tried out with very promising results. Waxes are also dissolved in volatile hydrocarbons and sprayed on. Moisture loss and shriveling are materially retarded, and interference with the ripening process is negligible. The wax coating is very thin, adds an attractive gloss and is entirely harmless. [Illustration: FIGURE 19.--Packing tomatoes on a farm in Connecticut. Boys in the background are wiping and sorting. The others are packing in half-bushel boxes. The top slats are put on before packing and the bottom is nailed on at the finish of the job. A board which is turned over with the box keeps tomatoes from falling out.] Grading It is generally true that at market the poorest products in a given lot tend to fix the price. When the buyer finds a few inferior specimens he assumes there are many more. Imperfect and diseased specimens infect others. Grading enhances the appearance of the pack. [Illustration: _Courtesy Tripak Mach. Service_ FIGURE 20.--A California packing house with elaborate machinery and fully organized.] Of course, the grower who picks marketable tomatoes and leaves unmarketable fruits on the vine is engaged in a form of grading--informal and subconscious. Methods may range from this simple practice to the elaborate schemes adopted in large packing houses. There is no difficulty in adopting methods for the farm that are easily managed and perfectly practical. In general, two grades to sell represent a good plan, leaving culls at home unless prices are high and there is good demand for them. The set-up may involve no more than a worker at a table with three baskets--one with tomatoes from the field; another for #1's and a third for #2's. The worker may well use a cotton flannel glove or cloth to wipe the tomatoes and the fruits should be placed in layers to bring the package to a good face. With some practice, this slows the operation but very little. Shed packing should be more common than it is though the practice seems to be gaining. Shippers scattered from Cuba and California to New York state have packing houses set up to all degrees of elaborateness. Some have machines and conveyors that wash, sort for size, provide for hand sorting for grade and deliver to bins for packing. Experienced packers advance with the season from Florida to Lake Erie. These workers become almost incredibly expert and speedy. It is not uncommon for a worker to pick up, wrap and place in the lug box 60 or 70 tomatoes per minute--not as a show-off but in course of regular work. [Illustration: FIGURE 21.--Puffiness is a common defect in tomatoes, especially when grown in the winter in the South.] The federal government has worked out and published standards for the grades of tomatoes along with most other vegetables. These standards are practical and have found wide acceptance as furnishing common language between seller and buyer, especially for long distance shipment. The one who grades may, however, set up a standard of his own to meet the needs of his conditions and market. U.S. Standards for cannery tomatoes are widely used as a basis of payment to the grower and this practice is to be commended. Packaging The lug box has almost wholly replaced the older 6-basket carrier and 4-basket flat for shipment of tomatoes. It is in almost every respect, a good package for tomatoes. It is built with solid board ends, with veneer or sawed sides, bottom and cover. Cleats on the ends serve to raise the lids so that a bulge pack will not be injured by pressure. Veneer covers and bottoms are held together by stitched veneer cross pieces. The lug box is packed in three layers and holds about 30 pounds net of tomatoes though it is often over-packed to carry considerably more. The bulge pack is desirable only so far as it is necessary to insure a tight pack and to take up the small shrinkage that takes place in transit. Ordinarily, it goes beyond this. It results in delivery of more tomatoes than are paid for, and in bruising because the top center is too high. [Illustration: _Courtesy Southern Arkansas Growers Association_ FIGURE 22.--The lug box is the most widely used of all tomato packages. This is well packed and labeled but shows too much bulge making for difficulty in loading and handling and increasing danger of bruising the upper fruits.] The late M. R. Ensign in Florida, was working with a wire-bound lug to carry 20 pounds of tomatoes in two layers without bulge. The lug box is packed in three layers and the size of fruits is designated by the number of tomatoes each way,--6 x 6, 6 x 7, and 7 x 7 being the commonest sizes. Each tomato is wrapped in a square of tissue paper which may or may not be printed. The principal advantage of the paper is to cushion the pack and protect the tomatoes against rubbing and abrasion. Where tomatoes are small, U.S. Standards provide for "bridge pack" or partial extra layers, for extra rows and for double wraps or two tomatoes in one paper. [Illustration: FIGURE 23.--Lug boxes as loaded in car.] Lug boxes were formerly loaded lengthwise of the car but are now generally loaded crosswise,--that is, the side of the box is crosswise throwing the heavy endwise thrust against the substantial end of the box. Thin strips are nailed between layers, butting against the sides of the car to prevent shifting of the load and closing of ventilation channels. Refrigerated cars are generally used but icing is not usual. [Illustration: FIGURE 24.--The square braid basket is widely used as a local market package for tomatoes. The faced pack looks better and is easily put up. Covers permit stacking six or eight high.] A few shipping sections, notably New Jersey, still use the 12-quart climax basket for tomatoes. Local markets use various containers for tomatoes,--the Boston bushel box; a half bushel of the same depth also used in New England; lug boxes; the Jersey tomato crate; and very commonly, 8 and 12-quart square braid veneer market baskets. Peach baskets and bushel baskets are now used but little, being too deep for good carrying. The diamond market basket of earlier years has about disappeared--being too flexible and not suited for stacking. The square braid with suitable cover may be stacked very satisfactorily in trucks but is hardly substantial enough for rail shipment. [Illustration: FIGURE 25.--The Connecticut half bushel box. Figure 19 shows how this is packed.] Hot house tomatoes travel in square braid, climax or paper fibre baskets, now rather commonly, the latter. The Cleveland section sells some millions of baskets of 8-quart capacity but carrying 8 pounds of tomatoes in two layers, usually with stems on, usually wrapped and sometimes with a paper divider between layers. [Illustration: FIGURE 26.--Repacked tomatoes. Southern tomatoes go to wholesale houses that specialize in ripening and repacking. Many kinds of packages are used. The flat 10-pound box is one of the popular packs especially in the Boston area.] [Illustration: FIGURE 27.--Cellulose film is used for repacked tomatoes.] Cannery tomatoes move in field crates belonging to the canner or, in Jersey, in 5/8 bushel baskets, about as awkward a container as could be readily devised unless it should be the Jersey tomato crate with its two cover strips permanently fastened. Repack tomatoes are sometimes replaced in lugs or in half lugs. Ten pound corrugated cartons are widely used, newer and fancier packs being but one layer deep. Fruits are wrapped with paper or cellulose film. An increasing proportion of repacks are now put up in one-pound cartons with a window of cellulose film, carrying four or five tomatoes. A variation is a paper tray wrapped with cellulose film. Good marketing calls for a good label for whatever package is used. These are usually pasted on the package. Paper containers are often printed directly but the problem of misuse of second hand packages is coming to the fore. Selling Success in selling demands in the producer the qualities which we ordinarily expect in the business man. The good grower is a business man if he succeeds, and this will be more true in the future than in the past, as competition increases. It is necessary to judge the men one deals with, forming estimates as to reliability and character. Mutual confidence is essential to satisfactory dealings. It is worth while to study the produce business and to learn its ins and outs, reading a trade paper, talking with dealers, and making trips to markets. Shipments are made on "f.o.b." or track sale, on consignment, or on joint account. The first plan of outright sale is the most desirable and is possible where there is enough business at a given point to attract buyers or where grades and business standing are well enough established to assure the purchaser of what he is getting. When the quality of the product is uncertain or when markets are glutted, consignment must be resorted to. Under this plan, the shipper owns the goods until the receiver makes a sale and all the risks up to this point are his. There are many consignment houses of high character if the shipper will take the trouble to find them instead of shipping to any one who writes a good letter, and there is vigorous competition in the trade. These factors make it possible to secure fairly good service most of the time. Joint account selling, where shipper and receiver agree on how returns shall be divided, is sometimes undertaken where mutual acquaintance justifies it. Selling on distant markets is more complex and difficult than local selling for many reasons. Shoving crates off the wagon into the car and forgetting them is not selling. Co-operative organization has helped many communities through pooling of resources, standardizing, grading and packing the product, encouraging better field practices, and securing the services of able managers and salesmen. Local Selling A very small amount of produce is sold by producers directly to the consumer at his home, but the roadside market has greatly developed retail activity by growers. Here fine quality, attractive appearance, moderate prices, and fair dealing are effective in building business. Stands that plan to "fleece them as they pass" do not last long. It is the return business that counts. The bulk of local selling is done directly to retailers--grocers or hucksters--either at market or store-door. The costliness of this system is being realized and local commission business is growing, in many cases through the establishment of commission houses co-operatively owned and managed by growers, as in Providence, Cleveland, Chicago and other markets. Some effort has been made to increase the use of tomatoes as has been successfully done with oranges and bananas. These efforts have been sporadic and results have been hardly more consistent than the efforts. Co-operative publicity, especially at times when large quantities are to be moved, would seem to offer fine possibilities. Growers of some crops are finding chain store groups very ready to help in moving out large volumes of produce when the supply is large. Cannery Selling Cannery sales are generally made at a stipulated price on contracts closed in advance of planting. These contracts have usually devoted more words to protecting the interests of the packer than those of the grower, largely because the grower has accepted the canner's initiative with little question. Farseeing companies have been fair in enforcement of terms and liberal in their dealings, realizing that prosperity must be mutual for the highest success. A few canners have contract provisions that enable the grower to share in prices realized for the packed product when they rise beyond a certain figure. Too many canners have lacked vision, however, and have taken all they could get. Farmers have known little about costs and so have frequently been lured by the prospect of cash return even though they see no money until the packed tomatoes are actually sold. During recent years, much has been learned about the business side of growing for cannery purposes and the knowledge has been made available through extension channels. Growers have shown some tendency to organize and some canners welcome this movement as helping them to set their affairs on a plane of definite understanding. Canners have suffered sadly through failure of growers to live up to contracts if it suited them better to evade the terms, and organization helps greatly to develop the producer's sense of responsibility. Indiana has formed a federation of locals, but an organization movement in another state failed, more because the directors and members did not live up to their duties than through opposition of certain hostile canners. Co-operation in this field has the same possibilities, requirements and dangers as in other fields. With time and experience, co-operation will be an increasing and beneficial factor in the business. In some sections, most of the cannery tomatoes are sold on open market, and in others, the early part of the crop is free for local sale or shipment. This arrangement would seem to have possibilities for further development by the use of good plants and good culture. IX OPERATING IN THE RED OR IN THE BLACK Happily, the home gardener does not need to keep books with his tomatoes. If he likes the culture and the product, he need not inquire further. Not so with the commercial grower. After all skill has been exercised in growing and selling, the books must show black and not red. This calls for good management and judgment not only as to what is best for the tomatoes and for the consumer but also how much one can afford to spend to gain a given advantage. Fortunately, quality, yield and economy generally go hand in hand. One of the best ways to achieve low unit cost is to win a high yield per acre. For the cannery crop, conditions are sometimes such that one cannot afford to apply, say, optimum fertilizer because some other factor not readily controlled may limit the returns and so make heavy feeding uneconomical. _Yield._--The average yield per acre of cannery tomatoes for the United States was, in 1940, 5.39 tons per acre and the 10-year average, to 1938, was 4.15 tons per acre. For tomatoes for fresh market, the average yield for 1940 was 148 bushels per acre, 14 bushels above the 10-year average. Of course, these yields would not satisfy a grower who calls himself successful. In the canning sections of New York, it takes about 7 tons per acre to cover costs of production. Some years ago a survey in Arkansas recorded costs as low as $36 per acre. However, the same survey showed cost per ton as $13.64. Cannery contracts that year averaged about $12.75 per ton. That does not yield much money to bank even if ten or twenty acres are grown. Rarely yields run to 25 tons per acre. It is accordingly necessary to keep costs down and to bring yields up. Each item of cost must be scrutinized and adjusted to bring lowest cost per ton or per package. In counting costs, it is necessary to include every element. The following summary from 118 Western New York farms for 1934 for cannery tomatoes illustrates the various items: ----------------------------------------------------------- | | _Per cent_ | | _of total_ Growing costs: | | Land | $ 7.66 | 9.17 Manure | 3.91 | 4.68 Commercial fertilizer | 8.21 | 9.83 Plants | 15.55 | 18.62 Plowing | 3.42 | 4.10 Fitting | 3.83 | 4.59 Applying fertilizer | 1.65 | 1.98 Setting | 5.41 | 6.48 Cultivating | 6.38 | 7.64 All other growing costs | 2.14 | 2.56 |--------------------- Total growing costs per acre | $58.16 | 69.65 Harvesting and delivering (8.2 tons) | 25.34 | 30.35 |--------------------- Total costs | $83.50 |100.00 ----------------------------------------------------------- All too often, growers think they are counting costs when such important items as interest, use of truck and machinery or others are omitted. One sometimes sees such figures in print. One good way to view returns is in terms of cents per hour for labor. Cost accounts in New York have showed that a group of farmers who raised cannery tomatoes the nine years up to 1937 and whose records were studied, realized $0.34 per hour for their time given to tomatoes, $0.51 for potatoes, $0.24 for wheat, and $0.11 for oats. SELECTED REFERENCES This book is not a monograph in the scientific sense and no attempt has been made to cite references for all statements. This list is intended to include the publications that are likely to prove most useful to one who wishes to read further about tomatoes. There are many others of great value, most of them being included in bibliographies in the works cited below. Unless otherwise stated, references are to publications of the state experiment stations, addresses of which may be obtained by writing Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. General Beattie, W. R. Tomatoes as a truck crop. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1338. 1923. Snyder, G. B. and Dempsey, P. W. Tomato production in Massachusetts. Mass. Ext. Leaf. 51. May, 1937. Porter, D. R. and MacGillivray, John H. The production of tomatoes in California. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 104. 1937. Cochran, H. L. Improved methods of tomato production in Georgia. Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 206. 1940. Huelsen, W. A. Growing tomatoes in Illinois. Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 451. 1936. Balch, W. B. Growing tomatoes in Kansas. Kan. Exp. Sta. Cir. 172. 1933. Seaton, H. L. Tomato growing in Michigan. Mich. Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 156. 1936. Allen, E. J. and Talbert, T. J. Tomato culture in Missouri. Mo. Exp. Sta. Cir. 173. 1934. Schermerhorn, L. G., Tiedjens, V. A., et al. Questions and answers relative to tomato production. N.J. Exp. Sta. Ext. Bul. 174. 1936. Raleigh, G. J. Growing tomatoes for market. Cornell Ext. Bul. 377. 1937. Tracy, W. Tomato culture. Orange Judd Co. 1907. Work, Paul. Tomato production. Orange Judd Co. 1926. Pellett, F. C. and M. A. Practical tomato culture. A. T. De La More Co. 1930. Food Value Atwater, W. O., and Woods, C. D. The chemical composition of American food materials. U.S. Dept. of Agr., Office of Expt. Stas. Bul. 28. 1896. Sherman, H. C. Food products. Macmillan. 1924. Miller, Elna. Tomatoes, their value and uses. Utah Exp. Sta. Cir. 47. 1932. Ellis, Eliz. E. Using tomatoes in family meals. N.H. Exp. Sta. Cir. 225. 1940. Cannery Beattie, J. H. Tomatoes for canning and manufacturing. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1233. Rev. 1930. Lancashire, E. R., Parks, T. H. and Pierstorff, A. L. Tomatoes for canning. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 114. 1935. Hester, J. B. Good, fair or poor tomatoes from your soil. Campbell Soup Co., Bul. 2. 1940. Cruess, W. V. Commercial fruit and vegetable products. McGraw-Hill. 1924. Pederson, C. S. Preparation of tomato products. N.Y. Exp. Sta. Cir. 178. 1937. Gaylord, F. C. and Fawcett, K. L. A study of grade, quality and price of canned tomatoes sold at retail in Indiana. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1939. Saywell, L. G. and Cruess, W. V. The composition of canning tomatoes. Calif. Exp. Sta. Bul. 545. 1932. MacGillivray, J. H. and Ford, O. W. Tomato quality as influenced by the relative amount of outer and inner wall region. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 327. 1928. MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in the tomato canning industry. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 350. 1931. Gaylord, F. C. and MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato quality studies. Field and harvest factors affecting grade. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 394. 1934. Hauck, C. W. Marketing cannery tomatoes on grade in Ohio. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 504. 1932. Greenhouse Beattie, J. H. Greenhouse tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers Bul. 1431. Rev. 1939. Hoffman, I. C. Growing of greenhouse tomatoes. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 499. 1932. Burk, E. F. and Roberts, R. H. Growing greenhouse tomatoes. Wisc. Exp. Sta. Bul. 418. 1931. Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. Relative efficiency of various organic supplements in the growth of greenhouse tomatoes. R.I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 236. 1932. Gilbert, B. E. and Pember, F. R. Economical amounts of nitrate of soda to apply in the greenhouse for the growth of tomatoes. R.I. Exp. Sta. Bul. 252. 1935. Bouquet, A. G. P. An analysis of the characters of the inflorescence and fruiting habit of some varieties of greenhouse tomatoes. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 139. 1932. Biblio. Seaton, H. L. and Gray, G. F. Histological study of tissues from greenhouse tomatoes affected by blotchy ripening. Jour. Agr. Research (U.S. Dept. of Agr.), Vol. 52, No. 3, pp. 217-224. 1936. Breeding and Varieties Boswell, V. R. Improvement and genetics of tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Yearbook. 1937. pp. 176-206. Full biblio. Boswell, V. R., et al. Description of American varieties of tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 160. 1933. Muller, C. H. A revision of the genus Lycopersicon. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Publ. 382. 1940. Morrison, Gordon. Tomato varieties. Mich. Exp. Sta. Spec. Bul. 290. 1938. Myers, C. E. and Lewis, M. T. The effect of selection in the tomato. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 248. Rev. May 2, 1930. Yeager, A. F. Tomato breeding. N.D. Exp. Sta. Bul. 276. 1933. Pritchard, F. J. Development of wilt-resistant tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1015. 1922. Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato crosses and their parents. Minn. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 6. Rev. 1923. Groth, B. H. A. The F_{1} hereditary of size, shape, and number in tomato fruits. N.J. Exp. Sta. Bul. 242. 1912. Lindstrom, E. W. Hereditary correlation of size and color characters in tomatoes. Iowa Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 93. 1926. Porte, W. S. and Wellman, F. L. Development of interspecific tomato hybrids. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 584. 1941. Babb, M. F. and Kraus, J. E. Results of tomato variety tests in the great plains region. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 533. 1939. Anon. A haploid marglobe tomato. Jour. of Heredity, Washington, D.C. Vol. 27, No. 11, 1936. Huelsen, W. A. New wilt-resistant tomato varieties for field and greenhouse. Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 448. 1936. Plants for Transplanting Nissley, C. H. Plant growing and plant growing structures. N.J. Ext. Bul. 51. 1926. Tussing, E. B. and Lancashire, E. R. Growing vegetable plants. Ohio Ext. Bul. 103. 1930. Raleigh, G. J. Starting vegetable plants. Cornell Ext. Bul. 448. Oct. 1940. Crist, J. W. Ultimate effect of hardening tomato plants. Mich. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 89. 1928. Harvey, R. B. and Wright, R. C. Frost injury to tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 1099. 1922. Seaton, H. L. and Strong, M. C. Southern-grown vs. locally grown tomato plants. Mich. Quarterly Bul. Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 131-141. 1938. Alexander, L. J., Young, H. C. and Kiger, C. M. The causes and control of damping-off of tomato seedlings. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 496. 1931. Van Haltern, Frank. Control of tomato seedbed diseases of southern plants. Ga. Exp. Sta. Bul. 187. 1935. Fertilizers Work, Paul. Tomato fertilizer experiments in Chautauqua County, New York. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 467. 1928. Hartman, J. D., Work, Paul Wessels, P. H. Tomato fertilizer experiments on Long Island. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 676. 1937. Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J. and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer experiments with tomatoes. Penna. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940. Sayre, C. B. Effects of fertilizers and rotation on earliness and total yields of tomatoes. N.Y. Exp. Sta. Bul. 619. 1933. Sayre, C. B. Starter solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Exp. Sta. Geneva) Vols. 5, 6, and 7, No. 2. April 1939, '40, '41. Parker, M. M. Tomato fertilization. (1) The effect of different fertilizer ratios on the yield to tomatoes. Va. Exp. Sta. Bul. 80. 1933. Carolus, R. L. Tomato fertilization. (2) The effect of different fertilizer ratios on the chemical composition of tomatoes. Va. Exp. Sta. Bul. 81. 1933. Thomas, R. P. Effect of fertilizer treatments of a soil on the quality and yield of tomatoes. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 386. 1935. Friend, W. H. Tomato varieties and fertilizers for the lower Rio Grande valley of Texas. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 438. 1931. Comin, Donald and Bushnell, John. Fertilizers for early cabbage, tomatoes, cucumbers, and sweet corn. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 420. 1928. Hepler, J. R. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon the yield and time of maturity of the tomato. N.H. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 28. Rev. 1926. Hester, J. B. Soil fertility in tomato production. Campbell Soup Co. Bul. 3. 1941. Cultural Practices Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bul. 580. 1934. Watts, V. M. Pruning and training tomatoes in Arkansas. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 292. 1933. Hibbard, R. P. The various effects of frost protectors on tomato plants. Mich. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 124. 1932. Thompson, H. C. Experimental studies of the effects of cultivation of certain vegetable crops. Cornell Expt. Sta. Memoir 107. 1927. Physiology Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction with special reference to the tomato. Ore. Exp. Sta. Bul. 149. 1918. Biblio. Work, Paul. Nitrate of soda in the nutrition of the tomato. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 75. 1924. Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, John M. Some effects of artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition of plants. Amer. Jour. of Botany, 17: 416-482. 1930. Murneek, A. E. Physiology of reproduction in horticultural plants. (1) Reproduction and metabolic efficiency in the tomato. Mo. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 90. 1926. Murneek, A. E. Effects of correlation between vegetative and reproductive functions in the tomato. Plant Physiology, Vol. I, No. 1. 1926. Nightingale, G. T. The chemical composition of plants in relation to photo-periodic changes. Wis. Exp. Sta. Research Bul. 74. 1927. Porter, A. M. Effect of light intensity on the photosynthetic efficiency of tomato plants. Plant Physiology, Vol. 12: pp. 225-252. 1937. Nightingale, G. T. Effects of temperature on metabolism in tomato. Botanical Gazette, Vol. 95, No. 1. 1933. Phillips, T. G., Smith, T. O. and Hepler, J. R. Some effects of potassium and nitrogen on the composition of the tomato plant. N.H. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bul. 73. 1939. MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of the tomato plant. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 34, No. 2. pp. 97-127. 1927. Janssen, G., Bartholomew, R. R. and Watts, V. M. Some effects of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium on the composition and growth of tomato plants. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 310. 1934. Eckerson, Sophia H. Influence of phosphorus deficiency on metabolism of the tomato. Contribs. of Boyce Thompson Institute. Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 197-218. 1931. Fisher, P. L. Responses of the tomato in solution cultures with deficiencies and excesses of certain essential elements. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 375. 1935. Howlett, F. S. Effect of carbohydrate deficiency upon formation of sex cells in tomato. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bul. 532. 1934. Howlett, F. S. The modification of flower structure by environment in varieties of Lycopersicum esculentum. Jour. of Agr. Research, Vol. 58, No. 2, pp. 79-117. 1939. Watts, V. M. Some factors which influence growth and fruiting of the tomato. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 267. 1931. Watts, V. M. Growth and fruiting responses to pruning and defloration of tomato plants. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 347. 1937. Smith, Ora. Pollination and life-history studies of the tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum mill.) Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 184. 1935. Smith, Ora. Relation of temperature to anthesis and blossom drop of the tomato together with a histological study of the pistils. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 44, No. 2, pp. 183-190. 1932. Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 175. 1935. Smith, Ora. Effects of light on carotenoid formation in tomato fruits. Cornell Exp. Sta. Memoir 187. 1936. Reid, Mary E. Growth of tomato cuttings in relation to stored carbohydrate and nitrogenous compounds. Amer. Jour. of Botany, Vol. 13: pp. 548-574. 1926. Foster, A. C. and Tatman, E. C. Influence of certain environment conditions of congestion of starch in tomato plant stems. Jour. of Agr. Research. Vol. 56, No. 12, pp. 869-882. 1938. Diseases and Insects Chupp, Chas. Manual of vegetable-garden diseases. Macmillan. 1925. Kadow, K. J. and Shropshire, L. H. Tomato diseases and insect pests. (Identification and control.) Ill. Exp. Sta. Cir. 428. 1935. Weber, G. F. and Kelbert, D. G. A. Seasonal occurrence of tomato diseases in Florida. Fla. Sta. Bul. 345. 1940. Samson, R. W. and Thomas, H. Rex. Tomato diseases in Indiana. Ind. Exp. Sta. Cir. 257. 1940. Strong, M. C. Tomato diseases in Michigan. Mich. Exp. Sta. Cir. Bul. 139. 1932. Young, P. A., Harrison, A. L. and Altstatt, G. E. Common diseases of tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Cir. 86. 1940. Horsfall, J. G., Magie, R. O. and Suit, R. F. Bordeaux injury to tomatoes and its effect on ripening. N.Y. Exp. Sta. Geneva. Tech. Bul. 251. 1938. Ramsey, G. B. and Link, G. K. K. Market diseases of fruits and vegetables: Tomatoes, peppers, eggplants. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Misc. Pub. 121. 1932. Marketing Parsons, F. E. Preparation of fresh tomatoes for market. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Farmers' Bul. 1291. Rev. 1930. Wright, R. C. and Gorman, E. A., Jr. Ripening and repacking of mature green tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Cir. 566. 1940. Sando, Charles E. The process of ripening in the tomato, considered especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Bul. 859. 1920. Wright, R. C., Pentzer, W. T. et al. Effect of various temperatures on the storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agr. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931. Frazier, W. A. Cracks in tomato fruits. American Soc. for Hort. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 519-523. 1934. Brown, H. D. and Price, C. V. Effect of irrigation, degree of maturity and shading upon yield and degree of cracking of tomatoes. Amer. Soc. for Horti. Sci. Vol. 32, pp. 524-528. 1934. Yarnell, S. H., Friend, W. H. and Wood, J. F. Factors affecting the amount of puffing in tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 541. 1937. LeCrone, Freddie and Haber, E. S. Changes in the pectic constituents of tomatoes in storage. Iowa State College Jour. of Sci. Vol. 12, No. 4. pp. 467-476. 1933. Good biblio. Work, Paul. Ethylene ripening of tomatoes in relation to stage of maturity. Amer. Soc. for Hort. Sci. 1928. pp. 61-64. MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in the tomato canning industry. Ind. Exp. Sta. Bul. 350. 1931. Vogele, A. C. Effect of environmental factors upon the color of the tomato and the watermelon. Plant Physiology, Vol. 12, pp. 929-955. 1937. Lanham, W. B. Effect of potash fertilizer on the carrying quality of tomatoes. Texas Exp. Sta. Bul. 357. 1927. Wardlaw, C. W., and McGuire, L. P. The storage of tropically-grown tomatoes. (Low Temp. Sta., Imperial College of Tropical Agr. Trinidad, B.W.I.) E.M.B. 59. 1932. Rosa, J. T. Ripening and storage of tomatoes. 1926 Proceedings of the American Soc. for Hort. Sci. pp. 1-10. Haber, E. S. Acidity and color changes in tomatoes under various storage temperatures. Iowa State College Jour. of Sci. Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 171-184. 1931. Diehl, H. C. The chilling of tomatoes. U.S. Dept. of Agri. Dept. Cir. 315. 1924. Some problems in marketing tomatoes grown in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Texas. U.S. Dept. of Agri. Marketing Information Series G.C.M.4. 1938. Costs and Economics Campbell, C. E. An economic study of tomato production for canning in Arkansas. Ark. Exp. Sta. Bul. 225. 1928. Walker, W. P. An economic study of the production of tomatoes in Maryland. Md. Exp. Sta. Bul. 304. 1929. Montgomery, T. M. Jr., and Efferson, J. N. A cost of production study of tomatoes in North Louisiana, 1939. La. Exp. Sta. Bul. 329. 1941. Carncross, J. W., Cathcart, C. S. et al. Economic review of New Jersey Agriculture. Ext. Service No. 72. pp. 89-96. 1931. Carncross, J. W. and Nissley, C. H. New Jersey Can-house tomato production. Costs and recommendations for 1932. N.J. Ext. Bul. 96. 1932. Hawthorne, H. W. Cost of production of tomatoes (20 states 1913-1934) Mimeo. Bul. of Agr. Eco., U.S. Dept. of Agr., Nov. 1936. INDEX Ammo-phos, 35 Aphis, 90 Arnon, D. I., 20 Arthur, J. M., 21 Barrons, K. C., 47 Bison, 46 Blight, 86, 88 Blocking plants, 62 Blossom end rot, 83 Bonny Best, 47 Botany, 20 Bounty, 47 Breeding, 38 Cannery, 14, 54, 108, 113, 117 Carbohydrate, 29 Car loading, 105 Certification, plants, 57 Certification, seeds, 41 Chalk Jewel, 47 Chili sauce, 14 Chromosomes, 41 Climate, 20, 71 Cochran, H. L., 23 Cold frames, 57 Comet, 50 Composition, 15 Compost, 63 Condiments, 14 Costs, 17, 117 Cracking, 83 Crown Seed, 40 Cultivation, 75 Curly top, 88 Cut worms, 91 Damping off, 65, 90 Description of tomato, 20 Determinate habit, 22 Dirt bands, 57, 62 Diseases, 85 Earliana, 46 Earliness, 33, 53 Economics, 11, 16, 116 Embryo, 38 Emerson, R. A., 78 Fertilization, 25 Field containers, 94 Flats for plants, 60 Flea beetles, 92 Floral characters, 22 Forcing, 18 Fruitfulness, 29 Fruit worm, 91 Fusarium, 38, 42, 49, 50, 86 Geography, 17 Germination, 38 Grading, 100 Greater Baltimore, 50 Green wraps, 96 Greenhouse culture, 18 Greenhouses for plant growing, 58 Ground cherry, 51 Gulf State Market, 50 Guthrie, J. D., 21 Hardening, 68 Harvesting, 93 Harvey, R. B., 69 Hepler, J. H., 33 Heterosis, 39 History, 15 Hitchcock, A. E., 24 Hoagland, D. R., 20 Home garden, 11, 26, 54, 79 Home Garden, variety, 47 Horn worms, 92 Hot beds, 57 Howlett, F. S., 24 Husk tomato, 51 Hybrid vigor, 39 Ideal variety, 42 Immature green, 95 Insects, 91 Internal nutrition, 29 Irrigation, 76 Jamison, F. S., 98 John Baer, 47 Juice, 14 Ketchup, 14 King Humbert, 51 Klebs, 29 Kraus, E. J., 29 Kraybill, H. R., 29, 33 Lanham, W. B., 34 Leaf blight, 86, 88 Lime, 25 Lindstrom, E. W., 41 Longevity, 38 Loomis, W. E., 66, 69 Lug box, 103 MacGillivray, J. H., 33, 95 Mack, W. B., 35 Manure, animal, 34 Marglobe, 48 Market diseases, 90 Marketing, 93 Mature green, 95 Maturity, 94 Mosaic, 88 Mulch, 76, 78 Murneek, A. E., 31 Myers, C. E., 47 Newell, J. M., 21 Nitrogen, 26, 28, 37 Nutritive value, 11, 15, 18 Packing, 103 Parthenocarpy, 24 Penn State, 47 Per capita consumption, 18 Phosphorus, 26, 32, 35 Physalis, 51 Placement of fertilizer, 35 Plant beds, open, 56 Plants for transplanting, 53 Pollination, 23, 39 Ponderosa, 51 Potash, 26, 34 Potassium nitrate, 35 Potato beetle, 91 Pots, clay, 60 Pots, paper, 60 Price, 16 Pritchard, variety, 50 Pritchard, F. J., Frontispiece, 48, 87 Protectors, 72 Pruning, 67, 79 Puffiness, 102 Purdum, L. W., & Sons, 78 Puree and paste, 14 Rahn, E. M., 35 References, 11, 12, 119 Requirements, 20 Ripening, 96 Roadside selling, 112 Rosa, J. T., 69 Running to vine, 29 Rutgers, 50 Sando, C. E., 96 San Marzano, 51 Saving seed, 39, 40 Sayre, C. B., 35 Scarlet Dawn, 48 Seed, 38 Seed Sowing, 56, 63 Seed treatment, 63 Seedless fruits, 24 Selection, 40 Selling, 93, 110 Septoria, 86 Setting fruit, 29 Side dressing, 35, 37 Smith, Ora, 23 Soil, field, 25 Soil, plant growing, 63 Solution culture, 18 Southern plants, 56 Spacing in field, 73 Staking, 79 Stalk borer, 92 Starter solutions, 35, 75 Statistics, 16 Sterilizing soil, 63, 90 Stokesdale, 48 Stout, G. J., 35 Sunscald, 83 Temperature for plant growing, 65 Thompson, H. C, 82, 83, 98 Tiedjens, V. H., 37 Training, 79 Transplanters, 74 Transplanting, 66, 74 Trellis system, 79 Uses, 14 Varieties, 46 Vegetation and fruitfulness, 29 Victor, 47 Virus, 88 Water culture, 18 Watering, 74 Watering plants, 65 Watts, V. M., 70 Wellington, Richard, 39 Work, Paul, 31 Wright, R. C., 98 Yeager, A. F., 46, 47 Yellows (See also fusarium), 88 Yield, 16, 17, 117 Zimmerman, P. W., 24 FOOTNOTES: [1] Hoagland, D. R. and Arnon, D. I. The water culture method for growing plants without soil. Calif. Exp. Sta. Cir. 347. Dec. 1938. [2] Arthur, J. M., Guthrie, J. D. and Newell, J. M. Some effects of artificial climates on the growth and chemical composition of plants. Amer. Jour. Bot. 17:416-482. 1930. [3] Smith, Ora and Cochran, H. L. Effect of temperature on pollen germination and tube growth in the tomato. Cornell Memoir 175. 1935. [4] Howlett, F. S. Use of chemicals to stimulate fruitfulness in tomatoes. Veg. Growers Asso. of America Rept. 1941, pp. 203-214. 1941. Zimmerman, P. W. and Hitchcock, A. E. Formative effects induced with B-Naphthoxyacetic acid. Contribution from Boyce Thompson Inst. Vol. 12 #1, April-June, 1941. [5] Fertilizer recommendations are best given in form of pounds per acre of nitrogen (N), phosphoric acid (P_{2}O_{5}) and potash (K_{2}O). These figures are then translated into pounds per acre of materials or of mixed fertilizers. [6] Kraus, E. J. and Kraybill, H. R. Vegetation and reproduction with special reference to the tomato. Oreg. Bul. 149. 1918. [7] Work, Paul. Nitrate of Soda in the nutrition of the tomato. Cornell Memoir 75. 1924. [8] Murneek, A. E. The effects of fruit on vegetative growth in plants. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Rpt. 1924, pp. 274-276. [9] MacGillivray, J. H. Effect of phosphorus on the composition of the tomato plant. Jour. Agr. Res. 34: 97-127. 1927. [10] Hepler, J. H. and Kraybill, H. R. Effect of phosphorus upon yield and maturity of the tomato. N. H. Tech. Bul. 28. 1925. [11] Mack, W. B., Stout, G. J., and Rahn, E. M. Fertilizer experiments with tomatoes. Penn. Exp. Sta. Bul. 393. 1940. [12] Sayre, C. B. Starter Solutions. Farm Research (N.Y. Expt. Sta.) Vols. V, VI, and VII, No. 2, April, 1939, 1940, and 1941. [13] Wellington, Richard. Comparison of first generation tomato crosses and their parents. Minn. Tech. Bul. 6. 1922. [14] Loomis, W. E. Studies in the transplanting of vegetable plants. Cornell Memoir 87. 1925. [15] Watts, V. M. Factors affecting production of wrinkled tomato fruits. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 30: 513-517. 1934. [16] Emerson, R. A. Experiments in mulching garden vegetables. Neb. Bul. 80. 1903. [17] Thompson, H. C. Pruning and training tomatoes. Cornell Sta. Bul. 580. 1934. [18] MacGillivray, J. H. Tomato color as related to quality in canning. Ind. Bul. 350. 1931. [19] Sando, C. E. The process of ripening in the tomato, considered especially from the commercial standpoint. U.S.D.A. Bul. 859. 1920. [20] Wright, R. C. et al. Effect of various storage temperatures on storage and ripening of tomatoes. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bul. 268. 1931. [21] Platenius, H., Jamison, F. S., and Thompson, H. C. Studies on cold storage of vegetables. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 602. 1934. 
37968	----	[Illustration: A S Fuller] THE NUT CULTURIST A TREATISE ON THE PROPAGATION, PLANTING AND CULTIVATION OF NUT-BEARING TREES AND SHRUBS ADAPTED TO THE CLIMATE OF THE UNITED STATES, WITH THE SCIENTIFIC AND COMMON NAMES OF THE FRUITS KNOWN IN COMMERCE AS EDIBLE OR OTHERWISE USEFUL NUTS By ANDREW S. FULLER, _Author of the "Grape Culturist," "Small Fruit Culturist," "Practical Forestry," "Propagation of Plants," etc., etc._ _ILLUSTRATED_ NEW YORK ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 1896 COPYRIGHT, 1896, BY ORANGE JUDD COMPANY PREFACE Believing that the time is opportune for making an effort to cultivate all kinds of edible and otherwise useful nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to the soil and climate of the United States, thereby inaugurating a great, permanent and far-reaching industry, the following pages have been penned, and with the hope of encouraging and aiding the farmer to increase his income and enjoyments, without, to any appreciable extent, adding to his expenses or labors. With this idea in mind, I have not advised the general planting of nut orchards on land adapted to the production of grain and other indispensable farm crops, but mainly as roadside trees and where desired for shade, shelter and ornament, being confident that when all such positions are occupied with choice nut-bearing trees, to the exclusion of those yielding nothing of intrinsic value, there will have been added many millions of dollars to the wealth of the country, as well as a vast store of edible and delicious food. This work has not been written for the edification, or the special approbation, of scientific botanists, but for those who, in the opinion of the writer, are most likely to profit by a treatise of this kind. Unfamiliar terms have been omitted wherever simple common words would answer equally as well in conveying the intended information. There being no work of this kind published in this country that would serve as a guide, I have been compelled to formulate a plan of my own, and to describe all the newer varieties from the best specimens obtainable, and these may not, in all cases, have been perfect. Under such circumstances, this work must necessarily be incomplete, and especially where the possessors of claimed-to-be new and valuable varieties have either refused or failed to give any information in regard to them. On the contrary, however, I must acknowledge my indebtedness to many correspondents, who have so generously placed specimens of both trees and nuts of rare new varieties in my hands for testing and describing, as well as assisting me in tracing their history and origin. That this treatise may become the pioneer of many other and better works on nut culture is the sincere wish of THE AUTHOR. RIDGEWOOD, N. J., 1896. CONTENTS. Page. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION, 1 CHAPTER II. THE ALMOND, 12 CHAPTER III. THE BEECHNUT, 44 CHAPTER IV. CASTANOPSIS, 55 CHAPTER V. THE CHESTNUT, 60 CHAPTER VI. FILBERT OR HAZELNUT, 118 CHAPTER VII. HICKORY NUTS, 147 CHAPTER VIII. THE WALNUT, 203 CHAPTER IX. MISCELLANEOUS NUTS--EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE, 254 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. Page. 1. A California almond orchard, 18 2. Budding knife, 24 3. Yankee budding knife, 24 4. Prepared shoot, 26 5. Incision for bud, 27 6. Bud in position, 28 7. Hard-shelled almond, 36 8. Thin-shelled almond, 37 9. Beechnut leaf, bur and nut, 51 10. Leaves and nut of Castanopsis chrysophylla, 56 11. Castanopsis bur, 57 12. Chestnut flowers, 61 13. Splice graft, 75 14. Splice graft inserted, 75 15. Stock, 77 16. Cion, 77 17. Two cions inserted, 77 18. One cion inserted, 77 19. American chestnut leaf, 88 20. Spike of burs of bush chinquapin (_Castanea nana_), 89 21. Spike of chinquapin chestnut bur (_C. pumila_), 90 22. Single bur, nut and leaf of chinquapin chestnut (_C. pumila_), 91 23. Japan chestnut leaf, 92 24. Burs of Fuller's chinquapin (one-half natural size), 97 25. Fuller's chinquapin, five years old from nut, 98 26. Bur of Numbo chestnut, 101 27. Spines of Numbo chestnut, 102 28. Numbo chestnut, 102 29. Paragon chestnut bur (one-half natural size), 103 30. Spines of Paragon chestnut bur, 103 31. Paragon chestnut, 104 32. Four-year-old Paragon chestnut tree, 105 33. Open bur of the Ridgely chestnut, 106 34. Japan Giant chestnut, 110 35. Spines of Japan chestnut, 110 36. Chestnut weevil, 114 37. Large filbert, 119 38. Large seedling hazelnut, 120 39. Constantinople hazel, 129 40. English filbert orchard, five years from seed, 134 41. Varieties of filberts and hazel seedlings, 135 42. Extra large hazel seedling or round English filbert, 136 43. Filbert orchard struck with blight, fifth year from seed,137 44. Hazel fungus, 141 45. Fourteen-years-old pecan tree in Mississippi, 154 46. Leaf and sterile catkins of shellbark hickory, 156 47. Western shellbark, 158 48. Section Western shellbark, 158 49. Leaf of pignut, 161 50. Bitternut branch and leaf, 163 51. Bitternut, 164 52. Large, long pecan nut, 166 53. Oval pecan nut, 166 54. Small oval pecan nut, 167 55. Little Mobile pecan nut, 167 56. Stuart pecan nut, 169 57. Van Deman pecan nut, 169 58. Risien pecan nut, 169 59. Lady Finger pecan nut, 169 60. The original Hales' Paper-shell hickory tree, 171 61. Hales' hickory, 172 62. Section of Hales' hickory, 172 63. Long shellbark hickory, 173 64. Shellbark Missouri, 173 65. Long Western shellbark, 174 66. Fresh Nussbaumer hybrid, 175 67. Nussbaumer's hybrid, 176 68. Crown grafting on roots of the hickory, 189 69. Sprouts from severed hickory roots, 190 70. The hickory-twig girdler, 196 71. Hickory borer, 198 72. Burrows of hickory scolytus, 200 73. Persian walnut, showing position of sexual organs, 204 74. Bearing branch of English walnut, 205 75. Seedling walnut, 216 76. Flute budding, 220 77. Flowering branch of hybrid walnut, 228 78. Hybrid walnut, 230 79. Hybrid walnut, shell removed, 230 80. Juglans Sieboldiana raceme, 231 81. Black walnut in husk, 232 82. Juglans nigra, husk removed, 233 83. Juglans Californica, 235 84. Juglans rupestris, showing small kernel, 235 85. Juglans Sieboldiana, 238 86. Juglans cordiformis, 239 87. Small fruited walnut, 240 88. Barthere walnut, 242 89. Chaberte walnut, 242 90. Chile walnut, 242 91. Cut-leaved walnut, 243 92. Gibbons walnut, 244 93. Mayette walnut, 245 94. Kernel of walnut, 245 95. Juglans regia octogona, 245 96. Cross section, 245 97. Parisienne walnut, 246 98. Serotina or St. John walnut, 247 99. The caterpillar of the regal walnut moth, 252 100. The regal walnut moth--Citheronia regalis, 252 101. Brazil nut, 258 102. The cashew nut, 260 103. Litchi or Leechee nut, 270 104. Branch of nut pine, 277 105. Paradise or sapucaia nut, 279 106. Souari nut, 281 107. Water chestnut, 283 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. No special amount of prophetic acumen is required to foresee that the time will soon come when the people of this country must necessarily place a much higher value upon all kinds of food than they do at present, or have done in the past. In this we are pre-supposing that in the natural course of events, our population will continue to increase in nearly the same ratio it has since we assumed the responsibilities of an independent nation. The very existence of animal life on this planet depends upon the quantity and quality of available food, and while some sentimentalists may assume to ignore and even attempt to deprecate the animal desires of their race, nature compels us to recognize the fact that there can be no fire without fuel, and the great and useful intellectual powers of man are the emanations of the animal tissues of a well-nourished brain. The brawny arm that rends the rock and hurls the fragments aside, gets its power through the same channel and from the same source as those of other members of society, whatever the nature of their calling; for mankind is built upon one universal and general plan, varied though it may be in some of the minor details of construction. We certainly have no cause to fear that the theories of Malthus, in regard to the overpopulation of the earth as a whole, will ever be verified in the experience of the human race, because with necessity comes industry, also the inventions of devices to enable us to avoid just such dangers, and if these fail to keep pace with our wants and needs, wars, earthquakes, drouths, floods, and contagious, epidemic and other diseases, become the weapons which nature employs to prevent overpopulation. But we cannot deny that nature does sometimes encourage or permit a somewhat redundant population in certain favorable countries and localities, and then follows a struggle for existence, and food becomes the paramount object in life. To ward off danger of this kind and keep the supply in excess of the demand, is a problem which should seriously engage the attention of every one who takes the least interest in the general welfare of his countrymen, even though the day of want or scarcity of food may be very far distant. Among the various sources of acceptable and nutritious food products heretofore almost entirely neglected in this country, the edible nuts stand preëminently and conspicuously in the foreground, awaiting the skill and attention of all who seek pleasure and profit--to be derived from the products of the soil. For many centuries these nuts have held a prominent position among the desirable and valuable food products of various European and Oriental countries; not only because they were important and almost indispensable in making up the household supplies of all classes of the people, but often because available for filling a depleted purse, and the thing needful for this purpose has, in the main, been received from far-distant nations, who through indifference and neglect failed to provide themselves with such a simple and valuable article as the edible nuts. Much as we may boast of our immense natural resources and advantages, we have not, as yet, availed ourselves of one-half of those we possess, and the remainder is still awaiting our attention. We also neglect to avail ourselves of the many superior domestic traits and practices of the foreign nations with whom we are in constant communication. It may be that the absence of incentives has made us careless and indifferent in regard to a day of need, which in all probability will come to us sooner or later; but whatever the cause, the fact remains that we have been spending millions annually on worthless articles and sentimental problems and projects, which have brought us neither riches nor honor; in truth, to use a homely phrase, we have been following the bellwether in nearly all of our rural affairs and pursuits. As a natural result we are spending millions for imported articles of everyday use which might easily and with large profit be produced at home, and in many instances the most humiliating part of the transaction is that we send our money to people who do not purchase any of our productions and almost ignore us in commercial matters. I am not referring to those products ill-adapted to our climate, nor to those which, owing to scarcity and high price of labor, we are unable to produce profitably, but to such nuts as the almond, walnut and chestnut, which we can raise as readily as peaches, apples and pears. There certainly can be no excuse for the neglect of such nut trees on the score of cost of labor in propagation and planting, because our streets and highways are lined and shaded with equally as expensive kinds, although they are absolutely worthless for any other purpose than shade or shelter, yielding nothing in the way of food for either man or beast. Can any one invent a reasonable excuse for planting miles and miles of roadside trees of such kinds as elm, maple, ash, willow, cottonwood, and a hundred other similar kinds, where shellbark hickory, chestnut, walnut, pecan and butternut would thrive just as well, cost no more, and yet yield bushels of delicious and highly prized nuts, and this annually or in alternate years, continuing and increasing in productiveness for one, two or more centuries. Aside from the intrinsic value of such trees, they are, in the way of ornament, just as beautiful as, and in many instances much superior to those yielding nothing in the way of food except, perhaps, something for noxious insects. I am not attempting to pose as the one wise man engaged in rural affairs, but am merely recounting my personal observation and experience, having in my younger days taken the advice of my elders, and at a time when a hint of the future value of nut trees would have been worth more than a paid-up life insurance policy. But as the hint was not given, I selected for roadside trees ash, maples, tulip, magnolias, and other popular kinds, all of which thrived, and by the time they were twenty years old began to be admired for their beauty, although their roots were spreading into the adjoining field, robbing the soil of the nutriment required for less vigorous-growing plants. Later, however, the discovery was made that I was paying very dearly for a crop of leaves and sentiment, neither of which was salable or available for filling one's purse. When thirty years of age the very best of my roadside trees were probably worth two dollars each for firewood, or one dollar more than the nurseryman's price at the time of planting. The greater part of these trees, however, have since been cremated, a few being left as reminders of the misdirected labors of youth and inexperience. In this matter of following a leader in tree-planting along the highways, it appears to be a predominant trait of our rural population and as old as the settlement of this country, for nowhere is it more pronounced than in the New England States, where the American elms attracted the attention of the Pilgrims and their contemporaries and descendants, and even continued down to the present day. No one will deny that the American elm is a noble tree in appearance, is easily transplanted and of rapid growth, and yet it is one of the most worthless for any economic purpose. It may be that its worthlessness for other purposes made it all the more acceptable for streets and roadsides, the better kinds being reserved for firewood, fencing, furniture, and the manufacture of agricultural and other implements. But whatever the cause or object, the elm became the one tree generally selected for planting in parks, villages, cities, and along roadsides in the country, not only in the older but in many of the newer States. From present indications, however, the glory of this much over-praised tree is on the wane, for the imported elm-leaf beetle (_Galeruca calmariensis_) is slowly but surely spreading over the country, defoliating the elms of all species and varieties, and it is a question whether we should bless this insect for the work it is doing or look upon it as a pest. Perhaps future generations will sing pæons in its praise, and they certainly will have reasons for rejoicing if better and more useful kinds are planted in the places now occupied by the worthless elms. In other localities some pioneer or leader in roadside ornamentation selected or recommended some species of maple, linden, catalpa, poplar or willow, but it made little or no difference as to kind, because, as a rule, all his neighbors followed without a thought or question in regard to adaptation to soil, climate, or fitness in the local or surrounding scenery, or of its future economic value. The result of this want of taste and forethought may be seen in whatever direction one travels throughout the older and more thickly settled portions of this country. Had the early settlers of the New England States planted shellbark hickories, or even the native chestnut, in place of the American elm, they would not only have had equally as beautiful trees for shade and ornament, but the nutritious nuts would scarcely have failed to bring bright cheer to many a household and money to fill oft-depleted purses, while their descendants would have blessed them for their forethought. Of course there are other valuable kinds of nuts which thrive over the greater part of the New England States, but I refer only to the two, which were so abundant in the forests that one or both could have been obtained for the mere cost of transplanting. But it is not fair to prate about the remissness and follies of our ancestors, unless we can show by our works that wisdom has come down to us through their experience. What is true of the New England is equally true of all the older States, and is rapidly becoming so in many of the newer, little attention being paid to the intrinsic value of the wood or the product of the trees planted along the highways. There are also millions of acres of wild lands not suitable for cultivation, but well adapted to the growth of trees, whether of the nut-bearing or other kinds. But for the present I will omit further reference to the planting of nut trees except on the line of the highways, just where other kinds have long been in vogue and are still being cultivated for shade and ornament,--with no thought, perhaps, on the part of the planter, that both could be obtained in the nut trees, with something of more intrinsic value added. The nut trees which grow to a large size are as well adapted for planting along roadsides, in the open country, as other kinds that yield nothing in the way of food for either man or beast. They are also fully as beautiful in form and foliage, and in many instances far superior, to the kinds often selected for such purposes. The only objection I have heard of as being urged against planting fruit and nut trees along the highway is that they tempt boys and girls--as well as persons of larger growth--to become trespassers; but this only applies to where there is such a scarcity that the quantity taken perceptibly lessens the total crop. But where there is an abundance, either the temptation to trespass disappears, or we fail to recognize our loss. As we cannot very well dispense with the small boy and his sister, I am in favor of providing them bountifully with all the good things that climate and circumstance will afford. It is a truism that conscience is never strengthened by an empty stomach. A mile, in this country, is 5280 feet, and if trees are set 40 feet apart--which is allowing sufficient room for them to grow during an ordinary lifetime--we get 133 per mile in a single row; but where the roads are three to four rods wide, two rows may be planted, one on each side, or 266 per mile. With such kinds as the Persian walnut and American and foreign chestnuts, we can safely estimate the crop, when the trees are twenty years old, at a half bushel per tree, or 66 bushels for a single row, and 133 for a double row per mile. With grafted trees of either kind we may count on double the quantity named, presuming, of course, that the trees are given proper care. But to be on the safe side, let us keep our estimate down to the half-bushel mark per tree, and with this crop, at the moderate price of four dollars per bushel, we would get $264 from the crop on a single row, and double this sum, or $528, for the crop on a double row--with a fair assurance that the yield would increase steadily for the next hundred years or more; while the cost of gathering and marketing the nuts is no greater, and in many instances much less than that of the ordinary grain crops. At the expiration of the first half century, one-half of the trees may be removed, if they begin to crowd, and the timber used for whatever purpose it may best be adapted. The remaining trees would probably improve, on account of having more room for development. There has been a steady increase in the demand, and a corresponding advance in the price of all kinds of edible nuts, during the past three or four decades, and this is likely to continue for many years to come, because consumers are increasing far more rapidly than producers; besides, the forests, which have long been the only source of supply of the native kinds, are rapidly disappearing, while there has not been, as yet, any special effort to make good the loss, by replanting or otherwise. The dealers in such articles in our larger cities assure me that the demand for our best kinds of edible nuts is far in excess of the supply, and yet not one housewife or cook in a thousand in this country has ever attempted to use nuts of any kind in the preparation of meats and other dishes for the table, as is so generally practiced in European and Oriental countries. The question may be asked, if the demand is sufficient to warrant the planting of the hardy nut trees extensively along our highways or elsewhere. In answer to such a question it may be said that we not only consume all of the edible nuts raised in this country, but import millions of pounds annually of the very kinds which thrive here as well as in any other part of the world. I have before me the records of our imports from the year 1790 to 1894, but as I purpose dealing more with the present and future than with the distant past, I will refer here only to the statistics of the four years of the present decade, leaving out all reference to the tropical nuts, which are not supposed to be adapted to our climate. Of almonds, not shelled, and on which there is a protective duty of three cents per pound, we imported from 1890 to the close of 1893, 12,443,895 pounds, valued at $1,100,477.65. Of almonds, shelled, on which the duty is now five cents, we imported 1,326,633 pounds. The total value of both kinds for the four years, amounted to $1,716,277.32. Whether this high protective duty is to remain or not is uncertain, but it is quite evident that it has had very little effect in stimulating the cultivation of this nut except in circumscribed localities on the Pacific coast. Of filberts and walnuts, not shelled, and with a duty of two cents per pound, we imported during the same years from eleven to fifteen million pounds annually, or a total for the four years of 54,526,181 pounds, and in addition about two million pounds of the shelled kernels, on which the duty was six cents (now four) per pound. The total value of these importations amounted to $3,176,085.34. I do not find the European chestnut mentioned in any list of imports, although an immense quantity must be received from France, Italy and Spain every year, and they are probably imported under the head of miscellaneous nuts, not specially provided for, and upon which the duty was two cents per pound in 1890-'91, but was later reduced to one and a half cents. Under the head "miscellaneous nuts," or all other shelled and unshelled "not specially provided for," there was imported during the period named 6,442,908 pounds, valued at $235,976.05. The total for all kinds of edible nuts imported was $7,124,575.82. These figures are sufficient to prove that we are neglecting an opportunity to largely engage in and extend a most important and profitable industry. It is true that in the Southern States considerable attention has been given, of late, to the preservation of the old pecan nut trees and the planting of young stock, but it will be many years before the increase from this source can overtake the ever-increasing demand for this delicious native nut. Californians are also making an effort to raise several foreign varieties of edible nuts on a somewhat extensive scale, but all these widely scattered experiments are mere drops in the ocean of our wants. Under such conditions I ask, in all seriousness, if it is not about time that our farmers and rural population generally began to count their worthless and unproductive possessions, in the form of roadside and other shade trees--which have probably cost fully as much to secure, plant and care for during the few or many years since they were set out, as would have been expended upon the most beautiful and valuable nut-bearing kinds. If our ancestors were at fault in the selection of trees for planting, we need not expect that posterity will excuse us for continuing and repeating their folly, especially when our dear-bought experience should teach us better. At the present time there might be some difficulty in procuring, at the nurseries, a choice selection of nut trees in any considerable quantity, suited to roadside planting, because heretofore there has been little demand for such stock; and nurserymen are only human, and conduct their establishments on business principles, propagating the kind of trees in greatest demand, regardless of their intrinsic or future value to purchasers. They will also continue producing such stock just so long as the demand will warrant it, and further, it is but natural that they should sometimes recommend and advise their customers to purchase worthless, and even pestiferous kinds, such as the ailanthus and white poplar, because the profits in raising these trees are large and there is little danger of loss in transplanting. But if purchasers will insist on having better kinds and refuse to accept any other, they will soon be accommodated; and if not, then let everyone who owns a plot of ground become his own propagator of trees. It is not beyond the ability of any moderately intelligent man (or woman, for that matter) to raise nut trees, and as readily as one could potatoes or corn. Where farmers want a row of trees along the roadside, to be utilized for line fence posts, they cannot possibly find any kinds better adapted for this purpose than chestnut, walnut and hickory; and these will give just as dense a shade, and look as well--besides, in a few years they may yield enough to pay the taxes on the entire farm, the crop increasing in amount and value not only during the lifetime of the planter, but that of many generations of his descendants. This appeal to the good sense of our rural population is made in all sincerity and with the hope that it will be heeded by every man who has a spark of patriotism in his soul, and who dares show it in his labors, and by setting up a few milestones in the form of nut-bearing trees along the roadsides--if for no other purpose than the present pleasure of anticipating the gratification such monuments will afford the many who are certain to pass along these highways years hence. It is surely not good policy to enrich other nations at the expense of our own people, as we are now doing in sending millions of dollars annually to foreign countries in payment for such luxuries as edible nuts that could be readily and profitably produced at home. There need be no fear of an overproduction of such things, no matter how many may engage in their cultivation, because in such industries many will resolve to do, and even make an attempt, but a comparatively small number will reach any marked degree of success. CHAPTER II. THE ALMOND. Amygdalus, _Tournefort_. Name supposed to be derived from _amysso_, to lacerate, because of the prominent sharp, knifelike margin of one edge of the deeply pitted, wrinkled nut. Martius, an Italian botanist, suggests that the name came from the Hebrew word _shakad_, signifying vigilant, or to awake, because after the rigors of winter the almond tree is one of the earliest to hail the coming of spring, with its flowers. The common English name is from the Latin _amandola_, corrupted from _amygdala_. In French it is _amandier_; in German, _mandel_; Portuguese, _amendoa_; Spanish, _almendro_; Italian, _amandola_, _mandalo_, _mandorla_, etc.; Dutch, _amendel_; Chinese, _him-ho-gin_. Under the natural classification of plants the almond belongs to the order _Rosaceæ_, and in the tribe _Drupaceæ_. Linnæus placed the peach and almond in the same genus, and they are now generally considered to be only varieties of one species,--the wild almond tree is probably the parent from which all the cultivated peaches and nectarines have descended. In most of our modern botanical works these fruits are classed as a sub-section of _Prunus_, the plum. They are mainly deciduous shrubs, or small trees. The flowers are variable, both in size and color; but in the almond they are usually somewhat larger than in the peach, almost sessile, and from separate scaly buds on the shoots of the preceding season, appearing in early spring, before or with the unfolding leaves, the latter being folded lengthwise in the bud. Leaves three to four inches long, tapering, finely serrate, with few or no glands at the base of the blade, as seen in many varieties of the common peach. Fruit clothed with a fine dense pubescence in both peach and almond; but in the latter the pulpy envelope becomes dry and fibrous at maturity, cracking open irregularly, allowing the rough and deeply indented nuts to drop out; while in the peach the pulpy part becomes soft, juicy and edible, the reverse of the almond. The nectarine is only a smooth-skinned peach. =History of the Almond.=--As with most of our long-cultivated fruits and nut trees, very little is now known of the early history or origin of the almond, and even its native country has not been positively determined, although it is supposed to be indigenous to parts of Northern Africa and the mountainous region of Asia. Theophrastus, who wrote a history of plants about three centuries before the Christian era, mentions the almond as the only tree in Greece that produces blossoms before the leaves. From Greece it was introduced into Italy, where the nuts were called _nuces græcæ_, or Greek nuts. Columella, about the middle of the first century of our era, was the earliest Roman writer to mention the almond as distinct from the peach. From Italy this nut was slowly disseminated, making its way northward mainly through France, reaching Great Britain as late as 1538 (_Hortus Kewensis_). But its cultivation has never extended in Britain, beyond sheltered gardens and orchard houses, owing to the cool and otherwise uncongenial climate, and the same is true of Northern France and other regions to the eastward in Europe. But in the south of France, also in Italy, Spain, Sicily, and throughout the Mediterranean countries, both in Europe and Africa, the almond thrives, and has long been extensively cultivated. These nuts are an important article of commerce, immense quantities being exported by Spain, mainly from Valencia, while the so-called Jordan almond comes from Malaga, as very few are raised in the valley of the Jordan. Bitter almonds come principally from Mogador in Morocco. As for almond culture in the United States, very little is to be said further than that, while we have few experiments to refer to as having been made east of the Rocky Mountains, not one of our great pomologists, in their published works, has ever given any reason for the almost entire neglect of this nut. Mr. Wm. H. White, author of "Gardening for the South" (1868), throws no light upon the subject, merely describing a few of the well-known varieties of the almond. Downing's "Fruit and Fruit Trees of America," Thomas' "American Fruit Culturist," Barry's "Fruit Garden," and a score of other standard pomological works may be consulted, without obtaining therefrom any information in regard to the culture of this nut further than to be assured that the hard-shelled varieties are hardy in the North wherever the peach tree thrives, and the thin, or paper shelled, succeed only in warm climates. All these authors agree in saying that the propagation and cultivation of the almond is the same as practiced with the peach. Coming down to recent years for information in regard to almond culture, we find H. E. Van Deman, pomologist to the Department of Agriculture, dismissing the subject in his report for 1892, as follows: "I only mention this nut to state to all experimenters that it is useless to try to grow the almond of commerce this side of the Rocky mountains, except, possibly, in New Mexico and southwestern Texas. This is thoroughly established by many reports from those who have tried it in nearly every State and for many years past. It is too tender in the North and does not bear in the South. In California it is an eminent success. "The flavor of the hard-shelled almond, so far as I have tested it, is little or no better than a peach kernel, and is therefore practically worthless. The tree of this variety is about as hardy as the peach, and bears quite freely. The attention paid to the almond in the Atlantic and Central States might well be given to other nuts." This is certainly a very easy way of disposing of the cultivation of a nut which has so long figured among our importations from European countries; besides, no experiments are cited, experimenters named, or reasons given why almond culture is a failure in the Southern States. But fortunately there are men in the South who are able and ready to give reasons for their opinions and statements, in regard to the cultivation of crops or plants with which they have become familiar through personal experience. When I asked Mr. P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Ga., president of the American Pomological Society, for information on this point, he promptly replied as follows: "The reason that almonds are not cultivated in Georgia and other Southern States is because of their early blooming, as spring frosts usually destroy all the blossoms. We have tried many varieties of the soft-shell without success. The hard-shell will occasionally bear a crop of fruit, as it blooms later, and the blooms seem to resist cold better than the other varieties. In middle Florida soft-shell almonds are sometimes successful, but they have been tried so sparingly that I cannot obtain any satisfactory reports." Admitting, as we do, that President Berckmans' long experience in the cultivation of nut and fruit trees in the South enables him to speak with authority on this subject, still, we have some encouragement for continuing experiments with the almond in regions known to be favorable for the cultivation of its near relative, the peach. Furthermore, experiments seem to be wanting with the almond in the more elevated regions of the northern line of Southern States, also in Maryland, Delaware and southern New Jersey, near the seacoast, or other large bodies of water, which, as is well known, have considerable influence in retarding the early blooming of fruit trees, as well as warding off late spring and early autumn frosts. It is scarcely reasonable to suppose that a region of country as extensive as that of one-half of the Middle and all of the Southern States, with a range of climate admitting of the successful cultivation of such hardy fruits as the apple and pear, and from these down to the pineapple and cocoa-nut, should not yield a locality or localities admirably adapted to the cultivation of the half-hardy almond tree. It is no doubt true that there are extensive regions in the South where late spring frosts are exceedingly troublesome, and sometimes disastrously so, to fruit growers; but even these have their limits, as shown in the vast quantity and variety of fruits annually produced in the Southern States. But great local variations in climate are natural to all countries in the temperate zone, and we frequently find the most favorable and the unfavorable for fruit culture within a few miles of each other. If there are not thousands and tens of thousands of acres of land located in favorable positions between Virginia and Florida, adapted to produce the commercial almond in some of its varieties, then we must confess that the study of climatology is of little use to the pomologist. Furthermore, all the varieties of the so-called hard-shelled almonds which thrive in our northern States are not worthless, neither are the kernels of all of them "bitter," and even if they were, they would still be worth cultivating, else we would not import such vast quantities from Morocco to supply the demand. If none of the thin-shelled varieties heretofore tried in the South are successful, it is time that either our experiment stations or individual horticulturists made some attempt to produce those that are adapted to that region of country. But until we have some more definite information than heretofore disseminated, in regard to almond culture in the South, it is safe to conclude that failures in the past have been due mainly to want of judgment, or knowledge of varieties and of positions for the orchard, with, perhaps, some neglect in care and cultivation. In California almond culture has been pushed with vigor for several decades, but at first with rather indifferent results, because growers depended upon noted European varieties, which, as experience proved, were not adapted to the soil and climate of the country. In a paper read before the American Pomological Society at its session held at Sacramento, Cal., Jan. 16-18, 1895, Prof. E. J. Wickson, of the University of California, alluded to this subject of almond culture in the State as follows: "In no branch of this effort for improved varieties has our success been more marked than in the development of seedling almonds. The achievements of A. T. Hatch in this line are too well known to require but a passing allusion. It is not too much to say that this work rescued almond culture to California. When he began, the almond, because of almost universal failure of the old varieties, was a jest and a byword in our horticulture. Nine-tenths of all the almonds planted during the preceding twenty-five years had gone for firewood or were carrying the foliage of the prune to conceal their hated stems. At the present time, through the dissemination of Mr. Hatch's varieties, the almond, in all regions decently adapted to the tree, is productive and profitable and has a future." [Illustration: FIG. 1. A CALIFORNIA ALMOND ORCHARD.] That almond culture in California is rapidly becoming an important and successful industry, we have an ocular demonstration in the tons of these valuable nuts received from there in the past few years, and placed on sale in Eastern markets. If one man, by his individual efforts, can revolutionize or establish a great industry in a region as large as the State of California, it is not too much to expect that something of the kind could be done elsewhere, with the combined efforts of several men. If the varieties heretofore tried in the East are unsuited to the climate, it is certainly within the range of probabilities that others better adapted to surrounding conditions can be produced. The native grape, raspberry and strawberry have had a history similar to the almond, but now all are extensively and successfully cultivated. =Propagation of the Almond.=--The propagation of the almond is identical with that of the peach: that is, from seed to procure new varieties, or by budding the more desirable ones, when obtained, upon seedling almond, peach or plum stocks. The half-wild hard-shelled almond is probably the most congenial and best stock for this purpose, but seedlings of the peach are most generally employed because the most abundant and cheapest. Under certain conditions, such as cold, heavy, moist soils, and where rather dwarfish trees are desired, the plum may be employed with advantage as a stock, but it is not to be recommended for general orchard culture. In mild climates seedlings of the best of the soft-shelled varieties may be raised and planted in orchards without budding, but the nuts from such trees are likely to be somewhat variable in size and quality, although the trees will usually prove to be as healthy and productive as those subjected to artificial modes of propagation. If, however, the grower desires a uniform product, he must resort to the usual means of obtaining it; that is, multiplying superior or distinct varieties by budding, either upon peach, almond or other stocks. It is advisable, as well as exceedingly important, for all who intend or feel inclined to cultivate almonds in regions where the adaptation of this nut has not been fully established by years of practical experience, that seedlings should be raised in large numbers, and from these a selection be made to meet the requirements of the climate and other conditions under which they are to be propagated and grown. If spring frosts have been heretofore inimical to the cultivation of the almond, then the production of late-blooming varieties would be a remedy. There will also be variations in the season of ripening; some may come on too early, others far too late for special localities, but all these faults or variations may be readily overcome by raising seedlings, and then selecting for propagation those coming nearest fulfilling the requirements of local conditions or circumstances. It is by such experiments and means that fruit culture has reached its present position in this and all other countries, where it is practiced as an art or industrial pursuit. Varieties that have become exceedingly popular and profitable in one locality or country, may not have succeeded elsewhere, and this holds good with all cultivated plants. In making experiments with the almond in regions where it has not been cultivated, but under conditions which appear to be favorable, I would certainly advise testing the well-known varieties first, and if these fail, then see what can be done in the way of producing new ones adapted to the locality and climate. =Raising Seedlings for Stocks.=--In warm or moderately mild climates the nuts, whether peach or almond, may be planted soon after they are gathered in the fall, but should the weather continue warm and moist the nuts will sometimes sprout prematurely and the young sprouts get frosted later in the season, and for this reason it is better to store them in a cool room, packed in dry sand or soil, until the approach of steady cold weather, and then plant. Having lost choice kinds of nuts from being in too great haste in getting them into the ground in the fall, I am prompted to give this warning to those who have had no experience in raising nut trees. If not convenient to plant in the fall, nuts of all kinds may be packed in barrels, boxes, or similar vessels, mixed with or stratified with sharp sand or light soil, then stored in a dry, cool place,--a very cool cellar will answer, but in my experience, out of doors is preferable,--and in the shade of some evergreen tree or on the north side of a building, and there banked over with earth just sufficient to keep the nuts at an equably low temperature. It is advisable to have a few small holes in the bottom of the barrels or boxes, to insure proper drainage, should any considerable amount of water get in at the top; but this will not occur if the vessels are properly covered with boards when placed in position for winter. It must also be kept in mind that mice, squirrels and chipmunks are fond of almonds and other kinds of edible nuts, and if placed where these little rodents can find them, they are sure to take a share, or perhaps the entire store, before their visits are discovered. I have known field mice to dig down under boxes of nuts, enlarge the holes left for drainage, and spend the winter among the chestnuts which I had put away for planting in spring. The safest way is to place fine wire netting on the bottom of the box, and then cover it with the same. Owing to the abundance of mice and other little nut-eating animals, I have never dared to plant out nuts in the fall, and so have always stored them in sand, but out of doors during the winter, and well covered with earth. In other localities it may be safe to sow in autumn, and if protection from vermin is required, coat the nuts with gas tar, the same as practiced by farmers in protecting seed corn against the attacks of crows and other corn-pulling birds. One pint of warm tar will be sufficient for a bushel of nuts, and the application is readily made by placing the nuts in a barrel, pouring the tar on them, and stirring with a stick until every nut is coated. To prevent the tar sticking to the hands in planting, dust the nuts with dry wood ashes, land plaster, or fine dry sand. If peach stones are to be planted for stocks they may be put into the ground as soon as ready in autumn, because they are rarely disturbed by vermin; or if more convenient, mix with common soil, and in heaps, in the open ground, and leave in this position until spring, then pick out as they begin to sprout, and plant. The hard-shelled almond may be treated in the same way, only they are not to be handled quite as roughly as peach stones, and for protection it is best to put them in barrels or boxes, as described above. When ready for planting take out the nuts and drop them in shallow drills, one every ten or twelve inches, then cover with about two inches of soil. It is to be supposed, of course, that a seed bed has been prepared, by thorough working over and enriching, if necessary, in advance of planting. The distance between the drills or rows should be sufficient to admit of cultivating the plants with a horse or mule, and cultivator, during the summer, and if this is done and the soil stirred often enough to keep down all weeds, the stocks should become large enough to admit of budding the first season; if not, then this operation must be deferred until the following year. But in case the seedlings are raised from choice varieties and to be left in their natural condition for fruiting, they may be lifted when one or two seasons old and set where they are to remain permanently. =The Season for Budding.=--So much depends upon climate, location, and variation of seasons, that no special date or time can be given for budding trees of any kind, but it is always to be done while the stocks are in active growth, because the bark must part freely from the wood underneath, in order to admit of inserting the bud under it. If the buds are set too early in the season there is danger of a premature growth; that is, of pushing out a shoot in the fall instead of remaining dormant until the following spring. Under certain conditions, however, and for special purposes, it may be advisable to force the buds as soon as they have formed a union with the stock, but as a rule, in the propagation of hardy and half-hardy trees, it is better to keep the buds dormant during the cool or cold winter months. Here in the Northern States we usually begin to look over our stocks during the latter part of July or first week in August, and note their progress and condition. Should they show the least signs of cessation of growth, we begin budding them, and push the work as rapidly as possible. If the season is a wet one the stocks may continue to grow and remain in good condition for budding until the middle of September; but in a dry season they may cease to grow in August, and it is these variable conditions which gives to the close observer and man of experience such an advantage over the novice in the propagation of plants. It is better to begin budding too early than to be a few days too late. The operation called budding consists in taking a bud, with a small portion of the bark adjoining, from one plant, and inserting it in another, or in some other part of the same plant from which it was taken. The physiological principles which govern the operation are, that there must exist an affinity between the plant from which the bud is taken and the one upon which it is to be placed, and the nearer the relationship the more readily will it unite and the more perfect the union. For instance, the cultivated peach and almond are supposed to be of the same origin, and descendants of one original species; consequently there is a close relationship between the varieties of both sections, and their seedlings may be employed indiscriminately for stocks. The next nearest relatives in the family line are the plums (_Prunus_), some of which answer very well as stocks for the almond, although very rarely used for this purpose. The next group in the line of botanical relationship are the cherries (_Prunus cerasus_), but these are too far removed to be employed as stocks for either the peach or almond. [Illustration: FIG. 2. BUDDING KNIFE.] [Illustration: FIG. 3. YANKEE BUDDING KNIFE.] For budding are necessary a small knife for preparing the buds for insertion and making an incision in the bark of the stock to admit them; and a quantity of some material to tie around the stock, so as to hold the bud in place. Budding knives are made after various patterns; one that is commonly used has an ivory or bone handle, made very thin at the end, that is used to peel the bark from the stock where the bud is to be inserted (Fig. 2). Another form of budding knife is made with a horn handle, and a small tapering piece of ivory fastened in the end. These knives, of various shapes and sizes, can be had at the seed stores; but another and quite a different form of budding knife is shown in Fig. 3, and is known as the "Yankee budding knife." It is merely a small one-bladed pocket knife with a thin blade, round at the end. The cutting portion extends about one-third around the end of the blade and two-thirds of its length, leaving the lower part dull. Although this form of budding knife has been in constant use in some of the older nurseries in this country for nearly a century, it does not appear to have been manufactured for the general trade, but only on special orders for nurserymen. It is so simple a knife, however, that with a little grinding almost any small one-bladed pocket knife can be transformed into one of these handy budding knives. The rounded end of the blade is used for lifting the bark, and for rapid work it is far more convenient than any form of knife that must be reversed in the hand every time a bud is inserted. In addition, a polished bit of steel is smoother and far less likely to lacerate the alburnous matter between the bark and wood than the best piece of bone or ivory. It may be said, however, that it is immaterial what form of knife is employed, provided it has a keen edge and is dexterously used. [Illustration: FIG. 4. PREPARED SHOOT.] The material most commonly used in times past for tying in the bud is the inner bark of the linden or basswood tree, usually called bass, and always to be procured in the form of mats, or as prepared from our indigenous basswoods and kept on sale at the seed stores. Recently, however, another excellent tying material has come into use, known in the trade as raffia or roffia. It is the cuticle of the Jupati palms. One species (_Raphia tædigera_) is a native of the lower valley of the Amazon and Orinoco, and another (_R. Ruffia_) of Madagascar and adjacent islands. Raffia is somewhat softer and more pliable than the ordinary bass, although it does not hold its form quite as well; but it is so cheap, soft and strong, that it has become very popular, and is extensively used for budding and many other purposes. But if none of these tying materials are at hand, the inner bark of the persimmon, corn husks, cotton twine, woolen yarn, or even strips of old muslin and calico may be employed with equally as good results, although not as handy and convenient for such purposes. The amateur, with only a few stocks to bud, can readily improvise implements and materials for doing the work, even if they are not of the regulation type. In selecting buds, the young shoots of the present season's growth are preferred, and these should be taken from the most healthy and vigorous branches of bearing trees, if possible. The leaves should be immediately removed, not by breaking or pulling off with the hand, but by severing the leaf-stalks with a knife, as shown in Fig. 4. If the leaves have fallen from the twig, the buds may be too ripe, with some kinds of plants, but with the almond, and where only a few leaves near the base have dropped, all may be used with fair success. If there are any soft and immature buds on the upper part of the shoot, or any undeveloped ones at the base, they should be rejected. Success in budding depends very largely upon the condition of the stocks at the time the operation is performed. Unless the sap is flowing and in sufficient abundance to allow the bark to part or peel readily from the wood underneath, the bud is certain to fail. If the buds used should happen to be a little over-ripe or wholly dormant when placed in direct contact with the living tissues and the juices of the stock, they will absorb moisture and nutriment, and be as likely to unite and live as under opposite conditions. [Illustration: FIG. 5. INCISION FOR BUD.] In performing the operation of budding, the following rules may be observed: Take the twig from which the buds are to be removed, in the left hand, with the small end pointing under the left arm; insert the knife-blade half an inch, or a little more, below the bud, cutting through the bark and a little into the wood; pass the knife under the bud, and bring it out about the same distance above it, taking off the bud with the bark, and a thin slice of wood attached, as at _c_, Fig. 4. Then, if using the Yankee budding knife, or one of similar form, let the forefinger clasp the lower part of the blade, make the horizontal incision in the stock first, and from this an incision downward about an inch long,--or it may be twice this length without doing any harm,--being careful not to cut too deep. Lift up the edge of the bark by passing the back of the end of the blade (without removing it) up to the horizontal incision. Lift the bark on the other side in the same manner, the two incisions making a wound in the stock resembling the letter T, as shown in Fig. 5. If other forms of budding knives are used, the thin end of the ivory handle is thrust under the bark, raising it sufficiently to admit the bud. The budder holds the bud between the thumb and forefinger of his left hand while making the incision in the stock; and as the knife leaves it he places the lower point of the bark attached to the bud under the bark of the stock before this falls back into place, and thrusts it down into position. If the upper end of the bark attached to the bud does not pass completely under the bark of the stock, it must be cut across, so as to allow that which remains with the bud to fall into place and rest firmly on the wood of the stock, as shown in Fig. 6. When the bud is in position and fitted to the stock, as shown, wind the raffia, or other material used, around the stock, both above and below, covering the entire incision, leaving only the bud and part of leafstalk uncovered. Of course experienced propagators have their own individual systems and modes of operation, but the above may be taken as a safe guide for the amateur budder. The ligatures should be loosened or removed as soon as the bud has become firmly united with the stock, which will usually be in ten or fifteen days, if at all. When the buds have failed, others may be inserted, provided, of course, the stocks are in condition to admit of the operation. Exceptions, however, may be made where the budding has been done so late in the season that the stock has ceased to grow by the time the buds have taken, and in such cases the ligatures may be left on later and removed any time before winter. In cold climates the snow, ice and water are likely to get in around the bud if the ligatures are not removed. But where the stocks are vigorous and the buds set early, there will be danger of the ligatures cutting into the bark as the stocks swell or increase in diameter, unless they are loosened or entirely removed. [Illustration: FIG. 6. BUD IN POSITION.] Under ordinary circumstances budded stocks should not be headed back until the following spring, and then should be cut off two or three inches above the inserted bud; and when this pushes into growth, all suckers and sprouts below and above it should be rubbed off as they appear, for the object is to throw the entire strength of the stock into this one bud, and when this has made a growth of two or three feet the short stump of the stock above the base of the shoot may be carefully removed with a sharp knife. This is usually done the last of July or first of August, which gives time for the healing of the wound before the close of the growing season. Sometimes it may be necessary to place small stakes by the side of these shoots for their support and to prevent breaking at the point of union with the stock; but this will rarely be necessary, except in very exposed situations. If the young trees make a fairly good growth they will be ready for planting out in the orchard the following spring, and one-year-old almond trees are usually preferable for transplanting than older. It is not advisable to prune these young trees during the growing season the first summer, but allow all the side shoots or branches to grow unchecked, for by so doing we secure a more stocky plant, if not as tall a one, than we would if trimming up was practiced. But when the trees are taken up for transplanting, in the late fall or early spring, then they may be pruned and the lateral branches cut off close to the main stem, leaving a naked rod, and if low-headed trees are desired (and they usually are), cut back the main stem to about three feet from the ground. If the young trees have made a growth of from four to six feet, then prune away the lateral branches to a hight of three feet or a little more, and cut in all branches above this point to within four to six inches of the main stem, leaving the buds on these stumps to form the head of the tree. Four or five branches at the top of the stem will be sufficient for the foundation for an open, round-headed tree, or in what may be termed a vase form, which is the best for almonds. =Soil and Exposure for Almonds.=--The almond requires a warm, rather light and well-drained soil. Cold, heavy clays, and low, moist soils, whether light or heavy, are always to be avoided for the almond and closely allied trees. That the soil should be moderately rich is, of course, a condition required with all cultivated nut and fruit trees, but over-stimulation may result in excessive and immature growth late in the season, this leaving the twigs in such a state that they will be unable to resist even a few degrees of frost, to which they may be subjected the ensuing winter. In what are generally termed mild climates, or where the temperature seldom goes more than four to six degrees below the freezing point, hardy trees, if they have made a late growth, are often injured more than they would have been in a colder climate, with early matured wood. There are many kinds of what we consider very hardy trees and shrubs here in the North, that are very likely to be winterkilled or severely frosted when grown at the South, simply because the conditions are such that they do not ripen up in time to resist the cold. In touching upon the subject of location for an almond orchard east of the Mississippi, I should be inclined to relegate this valuable nut to semi-tropical Florida, were it not for the fact that almost a score of ornamental species and varieties of the same genus,--to say nothing of the widely cultivated peach,--flourish over a very wide range of country and climate, and nowhere better than near the Atlantic ocean in the Middle and some of the Northern States. It is also generally conceded that several of what are called hard-shelled varieties thrive and bear fruit in nearly all of our best peach-growing regions. From all that I have been able to learn of almond culture, and with my own limited experience with this nut, experiments are wanting to prove that it cannot be successfully cultivated in the peach-growing region of the Eastern States. I will not say "profitably" cultivated, for this is a rather vague term when applied to horticultural operations of any kind. Success is not synonymous with profit; in fact, it is frequently quite the opposite, and an abundant crop may mean glutted markets and a corresponding loss to the producer. But, to return to location, the principal cause of failure in almond culture, where it has been tried in the older States, seems to be the early blooming of the trees and subsequent destruction of the embryo fruit by frosts. To avoid this, high, open, airy situations, and even the north side of hills, would certainly be preferable to southern slopes and protected locations, especially in the South or where the temperature in winter does not go low enough to kill the wood of the previous season's growth. Theoretically, we might suppose that there are many locations favorable to almond culture in the elevated regions of North Carolina and Tennessee, as well as in the northern tier of counties in Alabama and Georgia. But in the absence of carefully conducted experiments in these regions, we have only to wait for their consummation at some future time, to prove the truth or falsity of our theory. In the rich, warm valleys of New Mexico, Arizona and California, congenial locations are plentiful, inasmuch as almost every variety of climate is at hand, with a temperature ranging from that of perpetual summer to the opposite extreme, and all to be found within a few miles, and frequently to be found in the same county. Under such conditions, it rests with the would-be cultivator to decide upon the kinds of fruits desired, then to seek a location best adapted to his purpose. If, as claimed,--but not proven,--there are no limited or extended areas fitted for almond culture east of the Mississippi river, there are certainly plenty of such west of it, awaiting the industrious and intelligent nut culturist. Almond orchards have been planted in California and Arizona, and the quality of the nuts, as well as the quantity, is very satisfactory; but a greater number and more extensive orchards are needed to meet the home demand. =Planting and Pruning.=--In planting and pruning the almond tree the same system should be adopted as with its near relative, the peach. One-year-old budded trees are preferred for planting in an orchard, to older, except in the case of seedlings, then two-year-old may be selected, because these are seldom larger than one-year budded trees. The trees should be set fifteen to eighteen feet apart, varying the distance according to variety, soil, and other local conditions, and it is best to place them in rows and at right angles, in order to admit of cultivating both ways, as it is termed, thereby saving as much hand labor as possible. For the first two or three years after planting, all weeds and grass should be kept away from the stems and over the roots, either by frequent hoeing, or covering with a mulch. The best way, perhaps, to prevent the growth of weeds, is to use the land among the trees for some low-growing crops, such as beans, tomatoes, melons or potatoes, then see that the workmen, when hoeing these crops, hoe up the weeds and grass about the trees at the same time. We might reasonably suppose that the most careless cultivator of trees would think of this, but, unfortunately, extended observation proves quite the contrary, and it is scarcely possible to go through any very extensive fruit-growing region without seeing many such instances of neglect. A square yard or more of tough sward is frequently left for years undisturbed about the stems of all the trees in an orchard, while the little annual plants growing near by, and not worth, at an extreme valuation, five cents each, are cultivated with the greatest care. The first pruning of the trees should be done at the time of transplanting from the nursery rows, as directed on a preceding page, and from the top of the stem only three or four shoots allowed to grow the first season, all others being rubbed off as soon as they appear, or when they have made a growth of two or three inches. These three or four upper branches are to become the foundation of the future head of the tree, and should be allowed to grow unchecked the first season; the next spring cut back one-half to two-thirds of their original length. This pruning will force out strong side or lateral shoots near the base, thus giving a sturdy foundation to build upon later, the pruner keeping in mind that the weaker the growth the more severe should be the pruning. Better leave a few strong buds, from which vigorous shoots will be produced, than a great number succeeded by many feeble twigs. If blossoms and fruit appear on the young two-year-old trees, a limited number may be left to mature, although no considerable crop ought to be gathered before the third year. In after years a somewhat different system of pruning may be adopted, keeping in view the fact that the fruit buds and fruit are always produced on the young shoots of the previous season's growth, and for this reason an annual renewal of such parts of the tree is absolutely required, in order to secure a good crop on trees of any age. In some localities and countries it may be possible that almond trees produce a crop every year; but this is scarcely to be expected anywhere. Consequently a system of pruning should be followed which will conform to the variations of circumstances and conditions; and this brings us to the consideration of-- =The Proper Time to Prune.=--If the growth of the trees and their fruiting were always uniform, then we might readily adopt some invariable system and season for pruning; but as we are dealing with uncertainties, our rules must be equally flexible and variable. If the season is favorable, and the trees bloom freely and fruit sets abundantly, we may proceed to prune as soon as the embryo nuts are as large as peas,--but only cutting back some of the largest bearing shoots, and thinning out others here and there, just enough to equalize and evenly distribute the crop through the head of the tree. But in case the frost or cold of winter has destroyed the crop for the season, then as soon as this is discovered, prune and cut back all the shoots and branches sufficient to insure a vigorous growth of young bearing wood for the ensuing year. Under this system of pruning we fix the time as after blooming in the spring, in order to have our work correspond to circumstances and conditions, and where there is a crop in prospect the pruning is comparatively light; but if there is to be no fruit, or but little, then one should aim to produce an abundance of bearing shoots for the following season. In other words, we prune severely in non-bearing years, whether they occur alternately or otherwise; but this system is only applicable to trees like the almond and peach, which produce their fruit on the shoots of the preceding year's growth. VARIETIES OF THE ALMOND. Almonds are usually divided into three groups, viz.: Bitter, hard-shelled, and soft, or paper-shelled. In each there are many varieties, although they are rarely known in market except by the general name of the group to which they belong. If they are soft, hard or bitter, this is sufficient designation for commercial purposes, with, perhaps, the addition of the name of country in which they were grown, or that of the city or seaport from whence exported. =Bitter Almond=, _Amygdalus communis amara_.--The varieties of this group are not specifically distinct, and some have soft, thin shells, while others are thick and hard; but the kernels are very bitter, hence the name. But in the countries where these almonds are most extensively cultivated, as in the South of France, Austria, Spain and Greece, the trees are generally raised from the nut, and, as might be expected, the crop produced under such conditions is exceedingly variable, the nuts being large or small, and the shells of various degrees of hardness, with an occasional tree producing both bitter and sweet kerneled nuts. These wilding trees are, in the main, more hardy than the improved varieties, hence are largely employed as stocks for the better sorts, as well as for the plum and apricot. It is also claimed that, as a rule, the bitter almond trees bloom later in the spring than those of the other two groups, and for this reason are not so liable to be injured by spring frosts. The trees are hardy in all of our most favorable peach-growing regions of the Middle and Northern States, but some of the varieties ripen rather too late for localities north of the latitude of New York city. All this, however, and other obstacles, will soon disappear, whenever the time arrives for our horticulturists to take up almond culture and pursue it with half the zeal they have the cultivation of the peach and many other kinds of fruits. =Hard-Shelled Almond=, _A. c. dulcis_, or sweet-kerneled almond.--The varieties of this group, as a whole, differ from those of the next only in the firmness of their shells, which are moderately firm, with a slightly rough and deeply pitted surface, as shown in Fig. 7. Varieties of this group are fully as large as, and perhaps a little longer than the thin-shelled, and the kernels are fully as valuable when removed and sold as shelled almonds. It may require a little more labor to crack and remove the kernels for market, but the difference is scarcely worth taking into consideration by the grower. The common sweet, hard-shelled almond thrives in peach-growing regions as far north as Central New York, and I well remember of seeing trees loaded with these nuts, in my boyhood days, in the western part of the State. The late Patrick Barry, in the Fruit Garden, when referring to this nut, says: "This is a hardy and productive tree, succeeding well in the climate of Western New York, and still farther north. Nut very large, with a hard shell and a large sweet kernel; ripe here (Rochester) about the first of October. The tree is very vigorous, has smooth, glaucous leaves, and when in bloom in the spring is more brilliant and showy than any other fruit tree." [Illustration: FIG. 7. HARD-SHELLED ALMOND.] Nearly every one of our noted horticulturists who have said anything about almond culture in the North, agree with Mr. Barry in regard to the beauty of this tree and its productiveness; but it is well to keep in mind that it is no more to be depended upon than the peach, and the barren years will far outnumber the bearing ones. But the almond is probably as certain here as in France, where it is cultivated extensively as an article of commerce, although a full crop once in about five years is about all that is expected. We can probably do much better than this, especially if proper attention is given to the production of new varieties adapted to our climate, as has been done in California with the almond, and here in the East with the peach and many other kinds of fruits; and when such have been secured, proceed to multiply them in the usual mode of budding upon seedling stocks. =Soft, or Brittle-Shelled=, _A. c. fragilis_.--In this group we have many distinct varieties, besides others which are known by local names, but have no permanent and pronounced distinguishing characteristics that would aid in separating them, should this be desired. The most common form, widely known as the sweet-kerneled thin-shelled (Fig. 8), is one of the oldest in cultivation in European countries. The flowers usually appear with the leaves, or before they unfold, and are large and of a pale rose color. The tree is rather tender for latitudes north of Philadelphia, but succeeds southward, and westward to the Pacific, if late frosts do not come to destroy the flowers or embryo nuts. [Illustration: FIG. 8. THIN-SHELLED ALMOND.] =Large Fruited Almond=, _A. c. macrocarpa_.--This is an old French variety, and perhaps most widely known as the Sultana, although the latter name is often applied in market to almost every variety of sweet almond. The leaves of the genuine variety are much broader than those of the preceding groups, and are smooth and deep green. Flowers very large and showy, of a pale rose color, and always appear in spring before the leaves, and for this reason it has long been cultivated in England as an ornamental tree. Fruit large, depressed or flattened at the base, but pointed at the top. Shell rather hard and firm, and will withstand rough handling and transportation long distances. Kernel very sweet and tender, hence highly prized everywhere. There are several sub-varieties; one, known as the Pistache almond, is highly esteemed for the table, on account of its delicate flavor, although it is very small and not popular for commercial purposes. =The Peach Almond=, _A. c. persicoides_.--This is another old variety, described by Du Hamel about the middle of the last century, under the name of _Amandier-Pecher_, or peach-leaved almond. Leaves similar to those of the common peach. Fruit ovate, obtuse; husk slightly succulent; shell of a yellowish color, and the kernel sweet-flavored and excellent. Du Hamel says the fruit varies widely, even upon the same tree or branch, some having a dry, thin husk, while on others it is soft and fleshy, somewhat like that of the peach. As the almond and peach are of the same species, it would not be at all strange if an occasional variety raised from the seed of either class should diverge towards, or even pass completely over to a closely allied group. From the varieties found in the forementioned groups we must seek to find, or produce therefrom, those which will succeed in this country wherever it may be thought desirable to attempt the cultivation of this nut. So far as my knowledge extends, no attempts have, as yet, been made to produce distinct American varieties in the Eastern States, as with its near relative, the peach, but all the almonds thus far cultivated here are of well-known foreign varieties. Perhaps the demand for almond trees has not been sufficient heretofore to encourage very extended experiments in this direction, but I cannot believe that our people will continue for another century to import millions of pounds annually of almonds if it is possible to raise them in this country. That it is possible on the Pacific coast has already been fully demonstrated, but we want to see the field greatly enlarged, and give the people of the Eastern States a share in what is evidently soon to become a large and profitable industry. =Ornamental Varieties of the Almond.=--These are only referred to because some of the many in cultivation belong to the groups producing the most valuable nuts, but the greater part of the purely ornamental varieties are worthless for other purposes. _Amygdalus cochinchinensis_ grows to quite a large tree in its native country, or thirty to forty feet high; flowers small, white, produced in long racemes; tender._ A. orientalis_, a small shrub, with grayish or hoary leaves, and small rose-colored flowers; sometimes cultivated under the name of _argentea_, or Silvery almond. _A. incana_ (hoary) is another dwarf species, from the Caucasus, with solitary red flowers. _A. nana_ and _A. pumila_ are oriental species of very dwarf shrubs, with either red or white flowers. The double-flowering varieties of these have long been inhabitants of our gardens. =Properties and Uses.=--For domestic purposes the almond is highly esteemed wherever it is known, and is employed in hundreds of different ways in the preparation of appetizing dishes and dainties for the table. In countries where this nut is in cultivation, it is brought to the table in the half-opened green husk, for at this time the kernels are just passing from the milky stage, and are considered more readily digested than later, or when fully ripe. But it is only when they are fully mature that they are gathered for market, and after thorough drying they are placed in strong sacks and distributed among dealers in all parts of the world. But only certain varieties are exported in this condition, and principally those with very thin shells, because these are most in demand, for the table and dessert, where the almond is not a home product. Other sweet varieties, whether with very hard or very tender shells, are cracked and only the kernels exported. The importation of shelled almonds into this country is somewhat in excess of the unshelled, and as they are of greater value per pound, the duty levied is proportionally higher. There is also a great saving to the importer and consumer,--not only in freight, but the extraction of the kernels is done in countries where labor is abundant and cheap. Whether the almond shells are used for any purpose in European countries, or are considered as wholly a waste product, I have been unable to learn, but it is asserted, and by men whose word is worthy of credence, that almond shells ground into a fine golden colored flour, is much used in this country for adulterating red pepper, cinnamon and other spices. Almonds are not only used extensively at all times and seasons, by persons of all ages and sexes, at table and elsewhere, but they are employed largely in the making of fancy confectionery with sugar, or in the form of salted almonds, the kernels having been first thoroughly steamed or scalded, to remove the skin, and then rolled or dusted with fine salt. Prepared in this way they are usually considered more readily digestible and healthful than in their natural state. Sweet almonds are also valued in the form of emulsions, as a medicine in pulmonary disorders, and the oil of almonds is a common standard article in the stock of druggists everywhere, as it enters into the composition of cosmetics, syrups, pastes and powders of various kinds. The kernels of the wild bitter almond contain a poisonous principle known as hydrocyanic or Prussic acid, which does not exist in the sweet varieties, although found in their leaves and the bark of their twigs. But as bitter almonds are not palatable, there is little danger of anyone being poisoned from eating them, should these nuts ever be cultivated here for any special purpose, as in other countries. =Insects and Diseases.=--Whenever the almond tree becomes common here in orchards it will doubtless suffer from the attacks of the same kinds of natural enemies as affect the peach. One of the most widely distributed of these pests is the common peach-tree borer. The parents of these borers are small, slender-bodied, bluish, transparent-winged moths, the male somewhat smaller than the female. These moths usually appear in this latitude during the month of June, and the female deposits her eggs on the stems of the trees near the surface of the ground, or a little below it if she can find a convenient opening to suit her purpose. The eggs deposited soon hatch, and the young larvæ bore through the tender bark at this point, and when fairly under it, branch off, cutting galleries through the soft alburnum underneath. When a number of these borers are at work on the same tree they sometimes girdle and kill it the first season, especially if it is young or a small specimen. But if the tree is not killed outright it will show, by the check to its growth, that borers are at work. The borers continue feeding throughout the remainder of the season, and up to the time freezing weather sets in for the winter, and if not full grown at this time they will finish their growth early in spring, then crawl to near the outside, or just under the old bark, and there spin a thin cocoon, in which they are transformed to the pupal stage, remaining in this form for a few weeks, then issuing in the winged or moth stage. In the line of preventives and remedies there is nothing better than clean cultivation about the trees, and annual examination of each tree early in summer and the crushing of every borer found. The next best thing, in the way of a preventive, is to wrap the stems from a little below the surface of the ground to a foot or more above it with heavy paper, cloth, or bark of some kind, to keep the moth from laying her eggs on the bark of the tree. I have used common tar paper for this purpose, not only because it is very cheap and does not decay when exposed to the weather, but the exhalation or odor of tar seems to be offensive to the moths. In the use of this material I have never found that it was in the least injurious to the bark underneath. Painting the stems with soap, cement, clay, or even common mineral paints, will answer very well if a little care is given to keeping down the number of insects by removing the larger part of the borers with knife or gouge. In recent years a pest known as the "shot-hole borer" (_Scolytus rugulosus_) has appeared in many and widely separated localities, in both the Eastern and Western States, attacking the almond, peach and plum tree. It is supposed to have been introduced from Europe with imported nursery stock, and thence rapidly distributed, by similar means, through the country. In its perfect stages it is a minute brown beetle, about one-twelfth of an inch long and one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter. This pest appears about midsummer, boring numerous minute holes through the bark and into the sapwood underneath, and in this the female deposits her eggs, and from these are hatched the little grubs found later feeding on the soft inner bark and alburnous matter beneath it. From every hole made in the bark a small globule of gum will soon appear, drying upon the surface--thence onward until autumn--and glistening in the sun, an immutable sign of the presence of a minute but destructive enemy. When the beetles and their eggs are once in possession there is no practical way known of removing them, and the best thing to be done is to cut down and burn every infested tree, and just as soon as it is known to be in this condition. There are also several indigenous species of bark beetles, which will very likely attack almond trees as soon as they are as abundant as peach trees, but all may be destroyed with the same, or very similar weapons and materials. What are called preventives consist mainly of substances to be applied to the stems in a semi-liquid form, and of such a nature as to be offensive to the beetles because of their odor, taste, or because so hard that the insects cannot cut through them with their mandibles. Common lime whitewash, soft soap, whale-oil soap, or a thin mineral paint made of pure linseed oil, will answer very well for this purpose if applied often enough to keep the bark constantly coated. Of the fungous diseases affecting the almond in this country, very little is as yet known, although we may safely include under this head all those that have been inimical to the peach, for the transition from this tree to the almond would only be a natural sequence. The peach-leaf curl (_Taphrina deformans_) would not be far from home on the almond leaf, neither could we expect that almond orchards would be wholly exempt from that mysteriously distributed and uncontrollable disease known as "peach yellows." In California an almond-leaf blight has already appeared and seriously affected the trees in some of the orchards. It is caused by a fungus known as _Cercospora circumscissa_ Sacc. This fungus attacks the leaves and young twigs, causing the former to fall off early in the season, thereby checking the growth of the tree and preventing the maturing of the fruit. It is thought that remedies may be applied to check this disease, and there will probably be some form of copper solution employed for destroying it, as with various species of fungi on other kinds of fruit trees. CHAPTER III. THE BEECHNUT. Fagus, _Linn._ The Beech. The Latin name of the genus (_Fagus_) supposed to be an equivalent of the Greek phegos, an oak, or it may be derived from _phago_, to eat; the nuts of this tree having been used as food by man in all ages and countries where it is a native. The modern English name, beech, was probably derived from the Anglo-Saxon _bece_ or _boc_; in Dutch it is _beuk_; French, _hetre_; Icelandic, _beyk_; Danish, _bog_; Swedish, _bok_; German, _buche_ or _buoche_; Russian, _buk_; Italian, _faggio_; Armenian, _fao_; and in Welsh _ffawydd_. The beech belongs to the order _Cupuliferæ_, or oak family. The genus contains about fifteen species of handsome deciduous and evergreen trees, or shrubs, very widely distributed throughout the temperate and colder regions of both the northern and southern hemispheres. Male flowers are bell-shaped, in long-stalked drooping heads; calyx five to seven cleft, containing numerous stamens. Female flowers two to four in a cluster on the summit of the scaly-bracted peduncle; the inside scales uniting, forming a four-lobed involucre of imbricated bracts, the whole becoming at maturity a somewhat prickly, scaly bur, within which are found a pair of sharp-edged triangular nuts, containing a tender and sweet-flavored kernel. =History of the Beech.=--The common beeches of both Europe and North America are so closely related that the two species may be considered as one for all practical purposes, such as propagation, cultivation, and value of the wood and nuts. It is true, however, that our native beech is not environed with ancient myths and stories of love and war, neither is it celebrated in poetry and song, yet it has, doubtless, played just as noble a part in human affairs among the pre-historic races of America as those recorded of its European contemporary. As the beech in Europe is found in the forests of Great Britain, Norway, Sweden, France, Germany, and southward to Constantinople, Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia, it was well known and highly appreciated by all the early inhabitants of these countries, and is frequently referred to by the earlier writers of Greece and Rome who touch upon the rural affairs of their times. It is supposed that Theophrastus refers to the beech under the name of _Oxua_, and Dioscorides as _Phegos_, and the latter author places it among the oaks, in which he was not far out of the way, because the beech is a member of the oak family in our modern classification. Virgil and Pliny speak highly of the little triangular nuts, and the people of their times set considerable value upon beech-nuts as an article of food. Pliny also assures us that at the siege of Chios, the besieged inhabitants lived for some time entirely on these nuts. We are inclined to think, however, that both Virgil and Pliny are in error when they tell us that the beech was propagated by being grafted on the chestnut. They were probably led astray in this by some romancing gardener of their time, for we even have some of the same ilk with us at this day. Pliny refers to the beech several times in his writings, and places a much higher value upon this nut than he does upon the chestnut; in fact, speaks rather contemptuously of the latter, and seems to be surprised that nature should have taken such care of the nuts, which he calls "_vilissima_," as to enclose them with a prickly involucre or bur. But my limited space will not allow of tracing the history of the beech from ancient to modern times, although it has always been esteemed as food for man, as well as for wild and domesticated animals. Swine fattened on beech and oak mast have for ages been noted for their excellent flesh, and the value of many an old estate in Great Britain was determined more upon the mast the forest produced, than the area or number of square miles they contained. As a monumental tree the beech has no rival, for its smooth gray bark, perennial and almost unchangeable, has ever been a convenient place to register challenges to enemies, epitaphs, epithets, and probably more frequently than all, the initials of the name of some loved one, who might possibly pass that way and find her name engraved on the beechen tree. I doubt much if there is a beech grove in all Europe or in America, within a convenient distance of a city, country village or schoolhouse, on which the bark of the trees is not scarified by the knives of boys in recording the initials of their own names, and those of their favorites of the opposite sex. These living registers were long ago recognized by the poets, and more than eighteen centuries ago Virgil admits it in these lines: "Or shall I rather the sad verse repeat, Which on the beech's bark I lately writ." In more modern times Tasso hints of the same habit, in _Jerusalem Delivered_, to wit: "On the smooth beechen rind, the pensive dame Carves in a thousand forms her Tancred's name." That the Spanish youths were not oblivious to their opportunities for recording the names of their favorites we must assume to be true, from the lines of Don Luis de Gongora, who tells us that: "Not a beech but bears some cipher, Tender word, or amorous text. If one vale sounds Angelina, Angelina sounds the next." =Propagation of the Beech.=--The beech, in all its species and varieties, may be propagated by the usual modes, viz.: By seed, layers, budding and grafting. The seeds, when gathered, should be mixed with clean, sharp, moist sand, placed in boxes, and then stored in a cool or cold place and carefully protected from mice, until the time arrives for sowing in spring. They may also be sown in the fall and lightly covered with leaf mold or other light soil, but unless coated with tar or some offensive poisonous substance, vermin of some form will be very likely to find them and leave few to grow. Seedlings are used for stocks upon which to work the many varieties in cultivation; but as I am not writing this for the encouragement of propagators of purely ornamental trees, I will omit giving any very extended description of the different modes of propagating the beech, further than to say that should remarkably fine varieties with extra-sized nuts be discovered or produced, they can be perpetuated and multiplied by the same processes adopted for other kinds of nut trees. =Soil and Location.=--The beeches of Northern countries, in their many varieties, thrive best in a cool, moist soil, for their roots rarely penetrate very deeply, but spread out widely and near the surface, forming an intricate network, which will try the patience of the woodman who attempts to clear away a forest of beech and break up the ground. In this country, as well as in Europe, the beech thrives in calcareous soils, or what is usually termed limestone regions; consequently, when transplanted or raised in sandy soils, or on the red sandstone formation, light applications of lime are usually found very beneficial; but more than all, the beech requires moisture, and if not planted in a moist soil the surface over the roots should be kept constantly covered with some kind of mulch. =Species and Varieties of the Beech.=--In the Dictionary of Gardening, edited by George Nicholson, of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, the following species of Fagus are briefly described, viz: _F. antarctica._--Leaves ovate, blunt, glabrous, attenuated at the base, doubly dentate, alternate, petiolate, one and a half inches long. A small deciduous tree or shrub, with rugged, tortuous branches. Native of Tierra del Fuego, S. A. _F. betuloides_ (birch-like). Evergreen beech.--Leaves ovate, elliptic, obtuse crenulate, leathery, shining glabrous, round at the base or short footstalks. An evergreen tree, native of Tierra del Fuego, S. A. _F. ferruginea_ (rusty). American beech.--Leaves ovate, acuminate, thickly toothed, downy beneath, ciliate on the margin. A large deciduous tree, very closely resembling the common European species, from which it is distinguished by its longer, thinner and less shining leaves. _F. obliqua_ (oblique). Chile beech.--Leaves ovate, oblong, oblique, somewhat rhomboid, blunt, doubly serrated, entire at the base, attenuated into the petiole, and somewhat downy. A hardy deciduous tree, native of the cooler elevated regions of Chile, S. A. _F. sylvatica_ (sylvan). European beech.--Leaves oblong, ovate, obscurely toothed; margin ciliate. A well-known large deciduous tree, widely distributed in Europe from Norway southward to Asia Minor. From this species a large number of ornamental varieties have been produced, many of them merely accidental variations of the wild forms of the forests, while others have originated in the seedbeds of nurserymen. But so far as I am aware, no variety has ever been introduced bearing superior or improved forms of nuts. Our American beech (_F. ferruginea_) is a widely distributed tree, extending from Nova Scotia in the north, south to Florida, and westward to Wisconsin and Missouri. Formerly it was exceedingly abundant, but like many other of our most valuable forest trees, it is disappearing before the axe of the woodman, who has always found a ready sale for beech timber. It is used in the manufacture of plane stocks, shoe lasts, handles for paring chisels, and hundreds of similar articles. Beech wood is hard, firm, and takes a good polish, but is not very flexible. It makes excellent fuel, and ranks next in value to hard maple and hickory for this purpose. In the more northern States and where the beech grows to its largest size, the heartwood is usually of a reddish color; but here in New Jersey and farther south, the wood is usually white almost to the center of the tree, no matter how large it may be. The color of the wood, however, does not in any way detract from its value, for fuel and many other purposes, although some European dendrologists have been deceived into supposing that the white beech was almost or quite worthless. Loudon, in _Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum_, Vol. III, in referring to our beech, says: "The wood of the white beech is little valued in America, even for fuel; and the bark is used for tanning, but is little esteemed," etc. But if any one, in these later years, has had occasion to purchase beech timber for any purpose, he has probably learned, from the price charged, that it is esteemed, even for such base purposes as firewood. I am not, however, attempting to extol the American beech as a timber tree, but ask that it be given a place among the select ornamental nut-bearing kinds. And I think every farmer who has a pasture lot could afford a place for at least one beech tree, and if there is a low, moist spot in the field, or a stony corner, this will be a suitable place for such a tree; and the horses, cattle or sheep out in pasture during hot days in summer will be very grateful for the shade which a wide-spreading specimen will give them. It may be that the owner of said pasture may recall the lines of Garcilaso: "But in calm idlesse laid, Supine in the cool shade Of oak or ilex, beech or pendant pine, Sees his flocks feeding stray, Whitening a length of way, Or numbers up his homeward-tending kine." He may be sure of one thing, and that is, the beech-nuts produced by one or many trees will always be acceptable to the children, and of these hungry mortals there is likely to be a few, at least, roaming about in ages to come, as in times past. The beech is not really a desirable tree to plant on a lawn or near one's dwelling, because of its persistent foliage, which clings to the twigs very late in winter, and the rustling of the wind through the dry leaves is not soothing to one's nerves, although not quite as dismal as the moaning pines. In summer, and until late in autumn, the American beech is a noble and graceful tree,--and if I may be allowed the expression, one of the cleanest of trees; its large, thin, bright-green and glossy leaves retain none of the dust and cast-off material of other trees which may be floating through the air, but are ever bright and pure. The tree has naturally wide-spreading and somewhat drooping branches, and should be given plenty of room for development when planted for the nuts or as an ornamental tree. Its leaves and the small slender branchlets (Fig. 9) are eaten with avidity by all kinds of farm animals; consequently, protection may be required until the trees have reached a hight to be safe from such depredators. Beech seedlings do not usually come into bearing in less than twenty to thirty years, but as no one in this country has ever attempted to cultivate this tree for its nuts, or search our forests for precocious and superior varieties, we have to admit that the field remains unexplored, and as barren of results as it was when our ancestors first discovered America. Every hunter, woodman, farmer and botanist who has roamed through forests where the beech trees grow, is well aware of the fact that distinct varieties are not at all rare, some having nuts twice the size of others in the same woods or groves, and it is possible and probable that some nut culturist in the near future will find time to select these choice wild varieties for cultivation and propagation. It would not, in my opinion, be beneath the dignity of our national department of agriculture, or some of its numerous costly annexes, to occasionally take into consideration the natural products of this great country, and determine, by a series of experiments, whether or no they were not worthy of attention. [Illustration: FIG. 9. BEECHNUT LEAF, BUR AND NUT.] =Insects Injurious to the Beech.=--No disease has, as yet, been known to seriously affect the beech, and as for insect enemies, it probably has a less number than any other denizen of our forests. It is true that transplanted trees, and those left exposed by cutting away protecting neighbors, are sometimes attacked by borers in the stem, branches and twigs, but these enemies naturally follow in the train of debility, it being one of the immutable economic laws of nature to hasten the demise and decomposition of the half-starved or otherwise enfeebled members of both the animal and vegetable kingdom. Isolated beech trees growing by the roadsides in parks and fields are occasionally attacked by a large grayish, long-horn beetle, the _Goes pulverulenta_. It is about one inch long, and a rather sturdy beetle of a light grayish color, and usually infests the branches, but may occasionally attack the main stem. It is not abundant, and has seldom been found infesting the beech. There are also two or three borers of the Buprestis family of beetles which occasionally attack beech trees. They are distinguished by the broad heads and flattened bodies of the grubs, and they work just beneath the bark in the sapwood, causing dead patches, mainly on the south side of the stem and larger branches. If the dead bark is removed and the wounds painted they will soon heal over, unless the tree is suffering for moisture and nutrients at the roots. A few twig borers, with an occasional colony of caterpillars on the leaves, embody about all the insect enemies of the beech calling for any special attention, but there are a host of different species and kinds ever ready to pounce upon a sickly or dead tree, whether found in the field or forest. =Properties and Uses.=--The beechnut has been so long and favorably known that very little need be said here in regard to its properties and uses. In the forests it affords food for many kinds of birds, such as the wild turkey, partridge or grouse, and especially the pigeon, and immense flocks of these collect in the beech forests in autumn to feed upon the nuts. Deer are very fond of these nuts, and so are all of the squirrel family, and the little ground squirrel or chipmunk, _Tamias striatus_, of our Northern States, gives us a good practical lesson in the way of preserving the nuts over winter. These little rodents pack away the nuts in small pockets in their burrows and from two to three feet below the surface, where they are protected from excessive moisture and any considerable change of temperature. The chipmunk always stores the nuts in the ground, and not in hollow logs, as is sometimes asserted. The deer-mouse (_Hesperomys leucopus_), however, does select such places for putting away his winter's supply, but more frequently he chooses a hollow in the stem of some old tree, and several feet from the ground. Unlike the chipmunk, this mouse cleans the shells from the kernels, storing only the latter, and I have often found a quart or more when cutting down trees in winter. These kernels are usually so clean, bright, and free from odor, that it is to be feared the finder always confiscates them for his own use. As the beechnut contains considerable oil, many schemes have been set on foot, in European countries, for its extraction and use as a salad oil. Early in the last century (1721) Aaron Hill, an English poet, proposed to pay off the national debt from the profits to be derived from the manufacture of beechnut oil; but his scheme fell through, like many others of its kind. It is also stated that Henry Fielding, so well known by his delightful stories of English society, once speculated rather largely on the manufacture of beechnut oil. In France, however, beechnut oil was formerly made in considerable quantities, and used in cooking fish and as a salad oil. In Silesia it is used by the country people instead of butter, and the cakes which remain from the pressure are given to fatten swine, oxen and poultry. The forests of Eu and of Crécy, in the department of the Oise, it is stated by Duhamel du Monceau, have yielded, in a single season, more than 2,000,000 bushels of mast, but probably this referred to all kinds of nuts, and not beech-nuts alone. Years later, or in 1779, Michaux states that the forests of Compiègne, near the Verberie department of the Somme, afforded oil enough to supply the wants of the district for more than half a century. In some parts of France beech-nuts are roasted and served as a substitute for coffee. Many of these old forests have disappeared, but other kinds of nut trees are still being planted in France, and the product is simply enormous, and a source of wealth to the peasant, as well as the owners of extensive forests and orchards. The beechnut has never been an article of commerce in this country, and it is rarely seen on sale in either country villages or our larger cities, not because of its scarcity or want of demand, but all that the country boys and girls find time to gather are wanted for their own pleasure and use. Picking up beech-nuts among the leaves in a forest, or even after raking off the leaves and then whipping the trees, is, at best, slow and rather tedious work, as I know full well from experience, and only once do I remember of having secured a rounded half bushel as the sum total of many raids on the beech trees in the neighborhood. But as the beechnut is the diamond among the larger and less precious gems of our forests, we should set a higher value upon it because small and rather difficult to obtain. CHAPTER IV. CASTANOPSIS. California chestnut. Western chinquapin. Evergreen chestnut. Castanopsis, Spach. Name derived from _Castanea_, the chestnut. Order, _Cupuliferæ_. A genus of evergreen shrubs and trees, intermediate between the oaks (_Quercus_) and the chestnuts (_Castanea_). There are about a dozen species indigenous to Eastern Asia and the adjacent islands. Blume, in "Flora Javae," Vol. II, 1828-36, describes three species under _Castanea_, which he found in the mountains and more elevated regions of the Javanese islands. Very little, however, is known of these oriental evergreen chestnuts outside of the herbariums of professional botanists, and they are rarely referred to, even in standard botanical dictionaries, or dictionaries of gardening, and when mentioned they are usually placed in the genus _Castanea_. Edouard Spach, a half-century or more ago, gave a synopsis of the genus, for which he proposed the name of _Castanopsis_, and although not recognized by botanists in general for a number of years, it is now accepted by botanical authorities everywhere. We have but one indigenous species, and this on the Pacific coast, viz: [Illustration: FIG. 10. LEAVES AND NUT OF CASTANOPSIS CHRYSOPHYLLA.] _Castanopsis chrysophylla_, A. de Candolle. _Castanea chrysophylla_, Douglas. _Castanea sempervirens_, Kellogg. "Leaves coriaceous, evergreen, lanceolate or oblong, one to four inches long, acuminate or only acutish (Fig. 10), cuneate at base and shortly petioled, entire green and glabrous above or somewhat scurfy, densely scurfy beneath, with none or few yellow scales; male aments one to three inches long, densely pubescent; styles three, stout, glabrous, divergent; fruiting involucre with stout divergent spines (Fig. 11) one-half to one inch long, subverticillately many branched; nut usually solitary, obversely triangular, six lines long."--"Geological Survey of California," Botany, Vol. II, p. 100. "This handsome broad-leaved evergreen tree is indigenous to the elevated regions, from Monterey, California, northward to the Columbia river in Oregon. It is also common in the Sierra Nevadas at elevations of six thousand feet, but in its southern limits rarely below ten thousand feet elevation."--C. S. Sargent ("Woods of the United States"). In the warmer and drier regions of California it is a mere shrub two to six feet high, and these dwarf forms have, in some instances, been described as varieties. As, for instance, _Castanea chrysophylla_, var. _minor_, Bentham; _C. chrysophylla_, var. _minor_, A. de Candolle; and _C. chrysophylla_, var. _pumila_, Vasey. But northward, where the climate is more moist, it becomes a large tree fifty to one hundred and twenty feet high, with a stem two to three feet in diameter. In its wide variation in habit of growth, this western chinquapin is similar to our Eastern dwarf chestnut, which is mainly a low shrub in the more Southern States, but becomes a fair-sized tree in the Middle States, or near its northern limits. [Illustration: FIG. 11. CASTANOPSIS BUR.] I have introduced the Western chinquapin here among the nut-bearing trees, not with the idea that it will ever be extensively cultivated for its edible nuts, but because it is a beautiful broad-leaved evergreen tree, and of which we have far too few kinds in cultivation to give warmth and a cheerful aspect to our gardens and pleasure grounds in winter. It is true that, so far as can be learned at this time, no extended experiments have ever been made to introduce or cultivate the Castanopsis in the Atlantic States, consequently nothing positive is known as to whether it will succeed here or not. In its northernmost range it thrives in forests among many kinds of trees and shrubs that are already common in our gardens, and this leads me to think that specimens or seeds of this tree procured from the mountains of northern Oregon will withstand the rigors of our climate. Mr. S. B. Parsons writes me that he first saw _Castanopsis chrysophylla_ in Kew Gardens (Eng.) thirty-five years ago, and procured specimens, which were planted in his gardens at Flushing, N. Y., but they failed, presumably because not hardy. It may be that his specimens were raised from nuts procured in the warmer part of California, and, as with many other Pacific coast plants, proved to be tender, while later introductions of the same species collected in colder localities have proved hardy here. In my experience I have found a great difference in the hardiness of trees and plants obtained from the higher and lower levels of the mountains from Colorado westward to the Coast range, for in those regions acclimation extending over thousands of years has developed and fixed certain physiological attributes, which enables them to readily adapt themselves to similar conditions elsewhere, especially in the line of temperature. It may make no difference to those who want plants for warm climates, whether they are obtained from mountain or valley, but it certainly does to those who value hardiness above all other merits. In horticultural matters we are supposed to confine ourselves within certain natural lines in making experiments, but if we fail in one, or one hundred, it proves little beyond the bare fact that we have not been successful. I have experimented enough to have become somewhat wary of deciding that a thing cannot be done, or is impossible, because of my own and others' failures. Every practical horticulturist can call to mind many productions which had evaded the pursuit of experimenters for decades and even centuries. For specimens of the nuts, burs and plants of this handsome nut-bearing tree I am indebted to Mr. J. J. Harden, of Stayton, Oregon, who informs me that it grows in the mountains near by to a very large size, and among such well-known kinds of shrubs and trees as _Rhamnus Purshianus_, _Cornus Nuttalli_, _Corylus rostrata_, and various species of conifers which are now more or less common in our Eastern gardens and parks. The twigs and leaves are shown in Fig. 10, and below a nut, and in Fig. 11 a bur, all of natural size. The small conical nut is slightly triangular, with a rather firm, brittle shell, not fibrous as in the acorn and chestnut. The burs are produced singly, but sometimes several on a twig, and when mature, instead of opening by valves, as in the true chestnut, they break up irregularly. The kernels are sweet and excellent flavored, and are sought for by various kinds of birds, as well as by all the squirrel tribe, and for this reason it is very difficult to procure specimens, unless gathered before they are fully ripe. The nuts do not mature the first season, but pass the winter in a partly developed stage, usually ripening the second year about midsummer or, in northern Oregon, in July. It is quite probable that this Castanopsis, when planted in the Atlantic States, will require a little shade or protection, like the American holly and similar broad-leaved evergreens, and while it may not thrive anywhere north of Delaware and Maryland, it is worth trying, as the sole native representative of a genus containing several species of noble evergreen trees. CHAPTER V. THE CHESTNUT. [Illustration: FIG. 12. CHESTNUT FLOWERS.] Castanea, _Tournefort_. The ancient classical name derived either from Castanis, a town in Thessaly, or one in Pontius, as historians disagree in regard to its derivation. The genus belongs to the order _Cupuliferæ_. Male flowers irregularly clustered in long, naked, cylindrical catkins from the axils of the leaves and on the new shoots of the season. Calyx five or six parted; stamens or pollen-bearing organs seven to fifteen; anther two-celled. On old, mature trees, the male catkins are usually crowded near the end of the short new twigs, as shown in Fig. 12, the terminal one productive; but on young thrifty trees, wide apart. Female flowers always on and near the base of a late-developed male catkin, sometimes two or three together,--or even six or eight on the chinquapins,--oval or ovoid, scaly, prickly, two- to four-valved involucre or bur; calyx usually with a four- to six-lobed border crowning the three- to seven-celled ovary; stigmas bristle-shaped, and as many in number as there are cells in the ovary. Shell of the nut leathery, not brittle, ovoid, two or more together in the larger species, in others solitary, or only one in a bur. Kernel very thick, fleshy, and somewhat plaited, sweet and edible. Both male and female flowers appear late in spring, the males usually exceedingly so, exhaling a slightly nauseating odor. The productive male catkins appear the latest, their base becoming the rachis or stalk supporting the burs, this rather anomalous arrangement appearing to be a natural provision to secure fertilization in case the earlier catkins failed. The genus _Castanea_, as now restricted, contains shrubs and large trees, with simple, alternate deciduous leaves, coarsely serrate, with pointed spiny teeth. Indigenous, and widely distributed over northern Africa, southern Europe, Asia and the eastern half of the United States. The common English name of this nut is supposed to be derived from the Anglo-Saxon _cystel_, chestnut, and _cyst-beam_ or _cisten-beam_, chestnut tree; Old English, _chastein_ or _chesten_; Old German, _chestinna_ or _kestinna_; Modern German, _kestene_ or _kastanie_; French, _castaigne_ or _chataigne_; Provencal, _castanha_; Spanish, _castana_; Italian, _castagna_, from the Latin _castanea_. =History of the Chestnut.=--The so-called European chestnut is supposed to be indigenous to Asia Minor, Armenia, Caucasus and northern Africa, and from these countries it was introduced and became naturalized throughout the greater part of temperate Europe, where it has been cultivated from time immemorial. The Romans are supposed to have distributed it northward through France and Great Britain, and in the latter country there were trees centuries ago of such large size that many of the early English authors claimed this tree was indigenous. But in the absence of any natural forests of chestnut, the claim had to be abandoned. In parts of France, Italy and Spain, the chestnut has become thoroughly naturalized and, as we may say, run wild, but as one of the early investigators says, in speaking of the abundance of old chestnut trees on the Apennines, they are generally scattered over the surface like trees on a well-arranged lawn, and not crowded and massed, as they would be in a state of nature or in a forest. On the south side of the Alps the trees grow up to an altitude of twenty-five hundred feet, and on the Pyrenees some two or three hundred feet higher. There are old trees of immense size almost everywhere in the milder regions of Europe, and the celebrated monarchs of Etna have been many times described by travelers. The largest measure one hundred and eighty feet in circumference near the root. All the early Roman writers who have anything to say about rural affairs, mention the chestnut as one of their valuable trees, producing nuts used for various purposes. Pliny enumerates eight varieties, but Columella appears to place more value upon the timber, especially the sprouts, for stakes, than he does on the nuts. But long before the Romans began to cultivate the chestnut, the Greeks held it in high esteem under the name of _Sardianos Balanos_ or Sardis nut, and still later it was called _Dios Balanos Lopimon_. The European chestnut has been so frequently and extensively referred to by ancient and modern authors that it would not be at all difficult to fill a large volume with brief extracts from their works, but my aim is not so much to show what has been done with this nut in other countries as what we may do with it here. All nations who have any experience with it admit its value as food for many wild and domesticated animals, as well as for the human race, and we know, from our long experience with the native species, that it is highly esteemed wherever known, although it must be admitted that our sparse population and the abundance of other kinds of food, have tended to make us careless and neglectful of the indigenous chestnut. It may be well, before dismissing this brief history of the chestnut, to add that while nearly all the ancient authors, in referring to it, employed its present scientific name of _Castanea_, still, when botanists first attempted what has since been recognized as the scientific classification of plants, many of them placed the chestnut in the same genus as the beech, retaining the generic name of _Fagus_ for both. Linnæus, in his _Systema Naturæ_, 1766, Vol. II, p. 630, describes two species of the chestnut and one of beech in the genus _Fagus_, although Tournefort, in his "History of Plants Growing About Paris," published seventy years before that of Linnæus, had recognized the distinctive characteristics of these two groups of nut trees, and he adopted the present name of _Castanea_ for the generic name of the chestnut, and _Fagus_ for that of the beech. But nearly all of the English and earlier American botanists adopted and followed Linnæus in his classification, ignoring the works of the earlier as well as contemporaneous continental botanists. I merely refer to this matter of botanical nomenclature because some of my readers may have occasion to consult the earlier authors who describe American plants, as, for instance, such works as John Clayton's "Flora of Virginia," 1739, Thomas Walter's "Flora Caroliniana," 1787, or Humphrey Marshall's "American Grove," 1785. In all of these, and others, the chestnut is described as a species of beech (_Fagus_). =Propagation of the Chestnut.=--The usual mode of propagating the chestnut is from seed, when trees are wanted for general planting or for stocks upon which to graft improved and rare varieties. Under some conditions and circumstances, it is best to plant the nuts soon after they are ripe in autumn, and this appears to be the most natural method; in fact, it is the way in which forests have been produced and are constantly renewed and perpetuated, when man does not interfere to prevent it. But nature is in no hurry in such matters, while man always is, because his time is limited; consequently, in our attempts at the multiplication and cultivation of plants we aim to save both time and material, therefore cannot afford to adopt nature's slow and wasteful processes. The principal objection to planting chestnuts in the fall is the danger of having them destroyed by vermin, which abound almost everywhere. There is also danger of the nuts sprouting prematurely in the autumn, and of the young growth being killed by cold or by excessive moisture during late fall rains. But these natural enemies and obstacles prevent an excess in number and the overcrowding of trees in our forests. It is, no doubt, possible and practicable to smear the nuts with poisonous substances, or those sufficiently offensive to prevent the depredations of vermin, but taking all things into consideration, I am decidedly in favor of preserving the nuts in bulk and in a dormant state until the season arrives for insuring a rapid and continuous growth, and then planting them. To do this in our cold northern climate, as well as in the South, requires more care and attention with chestnuts than with the harder-shelled kinds, like the walnut and hickory nut. As a rule, it may be said that all the hardy kinds of nuts sprout at a rather low temperature and a few degrees above the freezing point, and for this reason it is well to select as cool a spot in the open ground as possible for their winter quarters, and then examine them as early as can be done conveniently in the spring. In this matter of manipulating and preserving chestnuts for planting, as well as what follows in regard to transplanting, pruning and grafting, I shall give my own practice, with results; and while it may differ from that of other propagators, it is one evolved from long experience, many successes, and a few failures. =Gathering and Assorting Nuts.=--When the nuts begin to ripen and fall, gather as soon as possible, and if the trees are on your own grounds and will admit of such an operation, thrash them and secure the entire crop at once. The object of this early gathering is to collect the false and weevil-infested specimens and destroy them. But in whatever way the nuts are collected, they should be stored in the shade and in shallow boxes, or spread out on a tight floor; but the better way would be on screens over a floor, and then when the grubs worked their way downward through the nuts and screen, they would fall upon the floor, from which they could be taken up and burned or otherwise destroyed. The nuts, while on the screen or other receptacle, should be stirred over daily for two or three weeks, and by that time they will be in good condition for either planting or packing away for the winter. But before finally disposing of the nuts in either way, they should be carefully looked over, and every shrunken specimen, as well as all with punctured shells from which the grubs have escaped, removed from among the sound stock, because these damaged nuts are not only useless, but are very likely to decay and affect all with which they come in contact. It is not to be expected that by such means or handling we can get rid of all the grubs enclosed in the nuts when gathered, for there will always be a few not more than half grown at the time, and these will remain hidden in the nuts until midwinter, or later, but the greater part of the brood will reach maturity within two or three weeks after the nuts are ripe. Of course, what is said here about chestnut weevils is only applicable to chestnuts grown in this country, but all species and varieties, when planted here, are subject to the attacks of this pest--at least, everywhere in the Eastern and Southern States. Having assorted the nuts carefully, the sound ones should be reserved for planting; these should be mixed with or stratified with moist, sharp sand, and stored in boxes of convenient size for handling and examination, whenever this is required. In preparing the boxes, bore a number of small holes through the bottom, and over each of these lay a piece of a broken flower-pot, brick or stone, then cover the bottom one inch deep with the moist sand, and on this place a single layer of nuts, then fill in all interstices with sand, and also use enough more to fairly cover the layer; and proceed in this way until all the nuts are disposed of or the box is full, covering the top layer one or two inches deep, because the sand will settle some after the work seems complete. The boxes may be covered with fine wire netting or with narrow strips of boards, fitting these so that mice cannot get in, but should not be air-tight. They may then be buried in the open ground, selecting some knoll or dry spot for this purpose, for the nuts should not be placed where they will be submerged, or even be watersoaked, at any time during the fall, winter or early spring. If no such spot is conveniently near, then set the boxes on the top of the ground, and on the north side of some building or in the shade of an evergreen tree, and bank over with soil, covering the boxes a foot deep. If the spot selected is under the eaves of a building, place boards over the heap of soil, to carry off the water, for the object is to keep the nuts moderately moist, cool, and where they will not be subjected to frequent changes of temperature. In our Northern States the nuts, under such conditions, usually become frozen during the coldest weather, but this does not injure them if the sand is moist and they remain frozen, as there will be no danger of germination; while if kept too warm, they may start to grow before the seedbed is ready, in spring, for their reception. I have tried keeping the nuts mixed with sand in a cool cellar, also in outbuildings, but have not found any other place so certain as pits in the open ground. =Seedbed and Soil.=--It is well to have the seedbed prepared the previous autumn, but it is not absolutely necessary. The soil for the bed should be light, either sandy or loamy, and if not rich, made so by adding very old and fine stable manure, or leaf mold from the forest--I prefer the latter, as it is the most natural for all kinds of seedling nut trees. Whatever fertilizing materials are used, they should be placed on or near the surface, and never worked in deeply, for our aim should be the production of side or lateral fibers, and not coarse perpendicular roots. Furthermore, seedling nut trees grown on light, sandy soils or in pure leaf mold, produce a far greater number of small fibrous roots than on heavy soils, and this is a decided advantage with those which are to be transplanted. =Planting the Nuts.=--When the time arrives for planting, take the nuts from their winter quarters, and after sifting out the sand, sow or drop them in drills, covering about two inches deep with fine soil. With the small native varieties my practice has been to sow in wide drills; that is, those made with the blade of a common garden hoe, and of the same width, the nuts being scattered along the bottom two to three inches apart. The soil is then drawn in over them and pressed down with the back of the hoe, or by passing a light garden roller over the surface. If the size of the seedbed is not limited, or only a small quantity of nuts are to be sown, then the single row would be preferable, because less hand weeding will be needed to subdue the weeds, and for all the larger varieties I should certainly recommend it, because they are of a more stocky growth. The distance allowed between the drills will depend somewhat upon the implements to be employed in cultivation, as well as how long the seedlings are to remain in the seedbed before transplanting, but from two to three feet will be found convenient for the ordinary modes of cultivation. If the seedlings make a fair average growth the first season they will be from one to three feet high in the autumn, and as soon as the leaves have fallen they may be taken up, or allowed to remain until the following spring and then lifted. But if, from any cause, they have made a feeble growth, it is better to let them remain in the seedbed another year. Where large quantities of seedlings are raised they are usually taken up with a tree-digger drawn by a span of horses or mules, but with only a few hundred or a thousand to dig, a common spade will answer every purpose; and if, when removed from the seedbed, they are found to have produced long perpendicular taproots, these should be shortened to about one-half their original length. For instance, if these taproots are taken up entire and are eighteen to twenty inches long, cut away the lower half, whether it consists of one or more long perpendicular roots, as this pruning will force the plants to produce a greater number of lateral roots, and it is upon these we depend mainly for keeping our trees alive and vigorous if transplanted when larger and older. All side branches should be pruned off close to the main stem, for we aim to favor the latter in its growth upward until it reaches the required hight for either grafting or forming the future head of the tree. In taking up seedlings, it is not safe to leave them for any considerable time exposed to the sun and drying winds, and they should be carried either to a shed or other building while being pruned, and also covered with blankets in the field, except during moist, cloudy days. A very little drying of the small fibers on such plants is always more or less injurious. =Planting in Nursery Rows.=--After the seedlings have been taken from the seedbed and pruned, they should be set out in nursery rows, four feet apart, and the plants about eighteen inches in the row. Trenches should be opened for the reception of the plants, and wide enough to allow all the roots to be spread out in a natural position; and it is well to set a little deeper than the seedlings were in the seedbed, because newly plowed ground will settle some after the planting is finished, although the soil should always be packed firmly about the stems of newly set trees, whether large or small. The more frequent and thorough the cultivation during the ensuing summer, the more rapid will be the growth of the trees. If the transplanted seedlings have produced any considerable number of side branches,--and especially, low down,--these may be pruned off at any time during the summer, for our object is usually to secure straight, upright stems for grafting the following spring, if they are large and tall enough; if not, we may delay this operation for another year. Of course, small chestnut stocks may be grafted close to the ground, but there is nothing really gained by this, for a good strong stock will push a cion forward more in one season than a weak stock in two or three seasons. But when the stocks have reached a diameter of from three-eighths to one-half an inch three or four feet from the ground, they may be grafted, but I would prefer to have them a little over than under these sizes. =Stocks From the Forests.=--It is not necessary for a man who may need a few chestnut stocks for experimental or other purposes, to wait until they can be grown from the nut, because these can always be purchased at the nurseries; but if one does not wish to incur even this small outlay, it may be avoided by obtaining a supply from the forests, provided there are any in the neighborhood where chestnut seedlings are to be found, and the owner will permit their removal. The best wild stocks are usually to be found in recent clearings, or where the larger trees have been cut off for timber, and the underbrush, composed of seedlings and sprouts, is left to grow up again into a forest. There are many thousands of acres in New Jersey, New York, and other Eastern States, from which the timber is cut every twenty or thirty years, and no further attention paid to the land or what it produces. Wherever such clearings are found containing chestnut trees, good stocks can usually be procured by selecting those varying from one to two inches in diameter at the ground, and if the soil in which they are growing is rather poor and stony they will usually have pretty good roots, if carefully taken up. They should be pruned to a single stem, and this cut off at a hight of from five to six feet or less, then planted where they are to remain permanently. Such stocks, if carefully taken up and planted, will throw out numerous sprouts from their stems during the summer, but all should be rubbed off while small and tender, except three or four at the top, and the following spring, if wanted for this purpose, they may be grafted in the same way as the young stocks growing in the nursery, thereby saving three or four years of time in securing bearing trees. Having often employed such wildings for stocks with just as good results as with those raised from the nuts in nursery rows, I am inclined to recommend them, where obtainable, knowing that there are thousands of farmers and owners of small places in the country who can do likewise, but may have never thought it practicable to transplant nut trees from the forest, although well aware of the fact that elms, maples, and similar kinds were obtained there, and in immense numbers, for planting in the streets of villages and alongside country highways. =The Season for Grafting.=--The proper time for grafting the chestnut is in early spring, just as the buds begin to swell, but not until all danger of freezing weather is past, although light frosts will not seriously injure newly set cions. The grafting may be continued while the leaves are unfolding, provided the cions were cut early and stored in a cool place, where they remain in a dormant state until used. I usually cut the shoots wanted for this purpose during the late fall or winter, and then pack them away in a cool cellar between layers of damp moss (_sphagnum_) to be obtained in almost any swamp. Cions may be taken from the tree on the same day that they are used, but there is some risk in this, because we cannot control the weather, and a week of warm rain in spring may delay us in grafting, while it is pushing our stocks into leaf; and then, our dormant cions are available, while those on the trees are not, owing to their expanded and tender buds. The shoots used for cions are those of the previous season's growth, or as usually termed, one-year-old wood; and in selecting these, endeavor to get such as are plump, well ripened and firm. If taken from young and very thrifty chestnut trees, there is likely to be a considerable portion of the upper end of the shoot that is rather soft, spongy and immature, and this should be discarded, as it would be a waste of time to use it. Of course, I am supposing that the grafter is so fortunate as to be able to make his own selection of the wood desired; if not, then he may be compelled to do the best he can with that obtained elsewhere. =Grafting Materials.=--The really essential materials and implements required in grafting nut trees are few in number. Grafting wax must be provided, and while there are many different compositions used for this purpose, I much prefer, for ordinary work in the open air, a wax made after the old formula, and as follows: Take one pound of common rosin, one-half pound of beeswax, and one-quarter of a pound of beef tallow; melt together and stir enough to insure the thorough intermingling of the ingredients, and then set away to cool, or pour into cold water and work up into cakes or rolls and wrap in paper until wanted for use. Larger quantities may be made if required, preserving the same proportions of the materials used. If to be used immediately in grafting chestnuts and similar trees, then procure some sheets of tough Manilla paper of only moderate thickness, and cut this up into sheets about six inches wide and a foot long. While the fresh-made wax is melted, take an old and rather stiff paint brush, dip it into the hot wax and coat the papers thinly with it, and then spread them out on shelves or elsewhere to cool, and let them remain undisturbed until wanted for use. Any thin kind of cloth may be used instead of paper, but I prefer the latter because it will yield to the pressure of the enlarging stock and cion when growth begins, and it will not be necessary to examine the grafted stock so frequently during the summer to prevent girdling, as is usually the case when a tougher material is employed for wrappers. Before these waxed sheets are taken into the field for use, lay each one separately on a piece of board with the waxed side up, and with the point of a sharp knife cut them crossways into narrow strips of from one-half to three-fourths of an inch wide. But for convenience in handling, insert the point of the knife a half-inch from one edge, but cut the other clean through, so that the whole sheet of strips can be lifted together. In early spring there is usually more or less windy weather, and if waxed sheets of paper are taken out into the field unprotected they are very likely to become tangled up and useless. To prevent this, procure a number of large but very shallow paper boxes, such as can usually be had at the stores and groceries of almost any village, and in these place a single layer of the cut waxed sheets, where they will be protected from wind and dust until removed for immediate use. Other kinds of grafting wax can, of course, be used, and are usually procurable at the seed stores or made at home, and I have given their composition and the formulas for their manufacture in my work, "The Propagation of Plants;" but, as I have already said, this old standard kind of wax is just as good as any other, although a little more troublesome to use on account of its sticky consistency. Raffia or bass may be employed as ligatures for holding the cions in place, then covered with Leport's or other kinds of liquid grafting wax; but when these are employed it will be necessary to examine the grafted trees frequently, in order to cut the ligatures to prevent girdling. The best implement for grafting is a common broad-blade pocket knife. One with a blade three to three and a half inches long and three-fourths of an inch wide, is a handy size. It should be of the best material for grafting chestnuts, because the wood of this tree is coarse-grained, and so filled with siliceous matter that it soon dulls the keenest blade, and the grafter will, of necessity, have to use his whetstone frequently. In grinding the knife-blade have the sides a true level, from the back to the edge, especially the underside when to be held in the right hand with the edge towards the body. The importance of having a blade of this form will soon become apparent when the grafter attempts to make a true sloping cut on either stock or cion, and it would be well for the novice to practice for an hour or two in splicing some worthless twigs before commencing upon more valuable material, for even an expert workman is very likely to make some awkward dissections and joints when out of practice. The professional propagator of plants may think such details are unimportant, but I wish to impress upon the amateur that in grafting nut trees we are dealing with kinds that will not respond satisfactorily to such free manipulations as the apple and pear; consequently, better and more careful handling is required to insure success. When ready to begin operations in the field, take out a quantity of the shoots to be used for cions, and keep them wrapped in damp cloth or packed in a box, basket or other receptacle with wet moss, to prevent drying. If any considerable number of stocks are to be grafted, then an assistant or two will be required, for the grafter cannot be alternately handling the knife and cions and wax, and do good work, but if he only inserts the cions and his assistant applies the waxed ligatures, the operation will proceed more rapidly and satisfactorily. [Illustration: FIG. 13. SPLICE GRAFT.] [Illustration: FIG. 14. SPLICE GRAFT INSERTED.] =Modes of Grafting.=--The only two modes of grafting that I shall recommend for the chestnut are the splice or whip graft, and the cleft or wedge graft. In the splice graft, the cion and stock should be of about the same diameter, but if there is any difference let it be in favor of the stock, and this the largest. In this mode of grafting, the stock is cut off with an upward slope, exposing two or three inches of wood; and about midway on this slope a small cleft or incision is made, forming what is called a "tongue." The cion is then cut in the same way from the upper end downward, with a corresponding incision, as seen in Fig. 13. Then the two are neatly fitted together, the tongue on one entering the cleft on the other, making a close joint, as shown in Fig. 14. The bark of the cion and stock should be exactly even on one side at least; and if they are of the same size, so much the better, for then they will be even on both sides; but we cannot expect to secure such perfect joints on every stock, or any considerable number, although we aim to do so as frequently as possible. When the cion is fitted, the waxed paper is applied by placing one end of the strip at or near the base of the splice, then wind it spirally and firmly upward until the entire wound is covered. If one of the waxed strips is not enough use another, for it will do no harm if they are double on a part or all over the joint. The cion should not be much over four inches long, and a less length is preferable, but not so convenient for handling. One good prominent bud on each cion is sufficient, and this left near the upper end, but on short-jointed wood we may use cions with two or more buds without greatly increasing their length. After the cion is in place and every part of the splice is carefully sealed with the waxed paper, place a small piece or a little wax on the upper end of the cion, just enough to cover the exposed wound and prevent evaporation of the natural moisture or sap in the wood. I have found, in practice, that this sealing the end of the cion is time well spent; in fact, to leave any of the wood cells exposed to the air endangers the success of the operation. Young shoots from a quarter of an inch in diameter up to five-eighths may be used for cions, in splice grafting; and with a little care in the selection of stocks, or by cutting them off a few inches higher or lower, we may readily manage to have them nearly of the same diameter to match our cions, whether they are large or small, and such unions will soon heal over, leaving no scar at the point where the two have been joined. If the new growth or shoot to be employed as a cion is slender and feeble, then the base of the cion may be of two-year-old wood, leaving just a bud or two on the upper end of the one-year shoot. But it will seldom be necessary to employ such cions in grafting the chestnut, although it may occur when seeking to secure wood for propagation, from very old trees which have made only a feeble annual growth. [Illustration: FIG. 15. STOCK.] [Illustration: FIG. 16. CION.] [Illustration: FIG. 17.] [Illustration: FIG. 18.] =Cleft Grafting.=--This method is employed principally upon stocks or branches of trees too large for splicing. The stock is first cut off at the point where it is desirable to insert the cion; then split with a knife, being careful to divide it, so that the edges will be kept smooth, and not rough and ragged (Fig. 15). When the knife blade is withdrawn, the cleft may be kept open with a hard wood wedge, if the stock is too large to admit of opening it with the point of the knife when ready to insert the cion. The cion may be three or four inches long, containing two or more buds; the lower end is cut wedge-shape, as shown in Fig. 16, and slightly the thickest on the side to be set against the bark of the stock. In stocks of an inch or more in diameter, two cions, one on each side, may be inserted (Fig. 17), and if both grow one should be cut away, else the tree, in later years, will be very likely to divide or break apart at this point. In stocks of an inch or less in diameter, one cion is sufficient, the top of the stock to be cut off with an upward slope, as shown in Fig. 18. After the cions are inserted, the entire exposed surface of the wood must be covered with grafting wax or waxed paper, and usually both may be employed with benefit. All the various forms of grafting in the open air, as described in my work on the "Propagation of Plants," may be employed on the chestnut, but the two here given will probably answer just as well as others for those who may have occasion to propagate this tree. =Success in Grafting.=--The question has been asked many times, and will, no doubt, be frequently repeated, "What percentage of cions should one accustomed to grafting make grow?" As there are no statistics upon which to base an answer to the question, I can only give my own personal experience, and this leads me to say that seventy-five per cent may be considered an excellent, if not a high average. In some seasons this has been exceeded by at least ten per cent, while in others it has fallen as much or more below, with no apparent reason for the difference. Ninety-five per cent of the cions may push their buds, or even make a growth of several inches, then begin to die off; consequently, the time to count your successfully grafted trees is in the autumn, and not in spring or midsummer, as it is to be feared some are in the habit of doing when making a report upon what they call success in grafting nut trees. =Growth of Cions.=--Cions set in strong stocks usually make a very rapid and vigorous growth, and if left unchecked, there is danger of loss by being broken or blown off by strong winds during the summer and autumn. To prevent this as much as possible, it has been my practice to pinch off the ends of the young shoots when they are about two feet long. Lateral shoots will then push out freely, and in some seasons it may be necessary to check their growth in the same way later. On feeble stocks, or those quite small, and with the less vigorous growing varieties, no summer pinching or pruning will be required. My experimental grounds are well protected upon the north and west, not only by rising ground, but by Norway spruce and American arbor vitæ hedges twice as high as the grafted chestnut trees in the nursery rows, and yet almost every season some of the stronger-growing grafts are blown out or broken off by the wind. After the first season there is little danger of injury, probably because the union between cion and stock has become stronger. =Grafting Chestnut Sprouts.=--In grafting the vigorous sprouts that always spring up from the stumps of old trees that have been recently cut down, we may reasonably expect a prodigious growth of the cion the first season, as well as in succeeding ones, and if all goes well with them we will secure large bearing trees in a very few years, but such stocks are only available where old trees are sacrificed for their timber or other purposes. Having a few such sprouts on my place, they have been utilized from time to time in testing some of the newer varieties. In one instance I allowed the cion, set on a sprout about one inch in diameter, six feet from the base, to grow unchecked throughout the season, as it was in a protected position, and in the fall the entire length of the main stem and lateral branches was sixty-five feet, and all from one bud on a cion set early in the spring. The third year this tree bore about a peck of very large nuts, to which I shall have occasion to refer again under "Injurious Insects." =Grafting Large Trees.=--Grafting large chestnut trees with stems of six inches or more in diameter, and with large spreading heads, is possible, but far from being economical or practicable, especially if the trees stand out where they will get the full sweep of prevailing winds. By cutting off and grafting a few of the branches at a time for several seasons in succession, one may, in a few years, succeed in getting the entire head grafted, but there is constant danger of some of the cions being broken out if they make a vigorous growth, leaving a distorted and ill-shapen tree. Having experimented somewhat in this line with variable success, I am not inclined to recommend it, because ten trees can be raised to a bearing age on moderate-sized stocks with less labor, and the results will be more satisfactory. =Budding Chestnuts.=--I have frequently tried budding chestnut stocks as described for the almond, and extensively employed with other kinds of fruit trees. But the results of my experiments have been unsatisfactory, although buds were set from very early in summer until late in the fall, also on young and old wood; but so few have taken and remained alive over winter that my personal experience in this mode of propagation will not justify its recommendation to others. Perhaps there is some secret connected with the operation that I have not yet discovered, but which is known to other propagators. Of course, budding with semi-dormant wood and buds in spring, as soon as the bark will peel from the wood, is practicable, but there is really nothing to be gained by this mode of propagation over that of grafting. =Transplanting and Pruning.=--There is no tree that will bear or withstand more severe pruning than the chestnut. If trees of one or five hundred years of age are cut down, the stumps are sure to throw up an immense number of sprouts from adventitious buds, as these are readily produced at almost any point on the sapwood or alburnum under the bark; and yet, with this inherent vitality and faculty of recuperation, the chestnut tree does not naturally, like many other deciduous kinds, throw up suckers from the roots. Keeping this peculiarity in mind, the cultivator has only to use his pruning knife freely upon the trees to secure almost any form desired. But after the trees have become well established, very little pruning will be required, except to occasionally thin out or remove a rambling branch, to secure a well-balanced and shapely head to the tree. In transplanting from the nursery rows, after grafting, and especially if the trees are of some considerable size and large enough to set where they are to remain permanently, there is sure to be a loss of roots, and those that are preserved are likely to remain for a short time inactive and incapable of absorbing nutrients from the soil to which they are transferred, or until new rootlets are produced. Under these conditions we aim to favor the roots by removing or cutting back the greater part of the branches. No matter how carefully such trees are lifted and their roots protected during the operation of transplanting, it will check the growth, and the best and most practical restorative is severe pruning of the top, and every young shoot of the previous season's growth should be cut back to within three or four inches of its base. I am presuming that the trees have been grafted only one year, but if older, and the cions were set high enough to begin the formation of the head of the tree, then the entire young growth may be cut away and some of the older wood, but of course not below the graft. All broken roots must be cut off; and the ends of the larger ones, roughly severed with the spade or other implements employed in digging, should have their wounds smoothed with a sharp knife. Frequent transplanting and root-pruning young nursery stock tends to keep up a proper root system, and an abundance of small fibrous roots near the main stem, and trees so treated are worth much more, if to be transplanted later, than those left undisturbed; but while the latter may be twice the size of the former when of the same age, they are not worth half as much to the purchaser, or for transplanting in our own grounds. =Staking Transplanted Trees.=--This is always necessary for recently planted trees, if they are of any considerable size, or from six feet high and upwards. If not supported by stakes they are sure to be swayed about, if not thrown over, by strong winds in summer. A strong stake, two or three inches in diameter, would better be set at the time of planting the tree, thereby avoiding breaking off or crushing the roots, as frequently happens when stakes are driven down among them later in the season. Set the stakes or drive into the subsoil six inches from the stem, then use strips of cloth, sacks, carpet, or some similar material, for tying, because hard cord or twine will be very likely to cut through the tender bark from the constant swaying about of the stems. Wind the strips around the stem, and then cross between it and the stake once or twice, to prevent the tree from pressing against or coming in contact with the stake. Renew the stakes and tying materials, if necessary, until the trees become firmly established, and provided with lateral roots large enough to keep them in an upright position. =Mulching.=--Placing a few forkfuls of coarse stable manure, half-rotted straw, leaves, or any similar material, on the surface about the stems of recently planted trees, will prove very beneficial, in not only keeping down the weeds, but aiding greatly in retaining moisture in the soil about the roots. The application of some such material as a mulch is all the more important with the chestnut, because these trees are always to be planted in a naturally dry and well drained soil. =Distance Between Trees.=--How far apart chestnut trees should be planted will depend very much upon the species and varieties, some growing to immense trees, while others are only fair-sized shrubs at maturity. But for the larger-growing varieties, forty to fifty feet between the trees is none too much space, when planted for their nuts and not for timber. If set in a single row along the public highways, farm lanes or around the outbuildings, to serve as shade or ornament, and for their nuts, then about forty feet will answer very well for the larger-growing species; and I will add that, in my opinion, all the larger kinds of nut trees will give better returns if placed in such positions, than when set in orchards or in compact masses. When set in single rows or widely scattered, they are less liable to be attacked by insects and diseases, while they will still serve the double purpose of being both ornamental and useful. I must admit, however, that in my experimental grounds the trees are planted only twenty feet apart, but with the expectation of soon cutting out every alternate specimen. =Soil and Climate.=--The chestnut thrives best in light, well-drained soils, and those containing a large proportion of sand or decomposed quartz, slate, or volcanic scoria; but it is rarely found, nor does it succeed, in heavy clays, limestone soils, or on the rich western prairies, where we might think it would grow most luxuriantly. That limestone soils are inimical to the chestnut has often been disputed, but my own observations, which have been somewhat extensive in years and range of country, rather confirm the impression that this tree avoids land containing any considerable percentage of lime. It is true that chestnut groves, and sometimes extensive forests, are found on hills and ridges overlying limestone, but a careful examination of the soil among the trees will show that it is a drift deposit containing little or no lime. Such groves can be found in all the southern tier of counties of New York, also among the hills of northern and western parts of New Jersey, and thence west and south along the Blue Ridge and Alleghany mountains to the Carolinas, and westward in Tennessee and Kentucky. The chestnut is sometimes found in New Jersey and other northern Atlantic States growing in considerable abundance near streams only a few feet above sea level, but when found in such situations the subsoil is invariably sand, gravel or porous shale. The range of climate in which the native sweet chestnut thrives is quite extensive, as it is found sparingly in Maine in latitude 44°, extending westward,--but not very abundant on this line,--through New England and New York, crossing the Niagara river, skirting the north shore of Lake Erie in Canada, and thence into southern Michigan, but does not reach Illinois. From this line southward it increases in abundance in Virginia, western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee and Kentucky. But in following this tree southward we meet another indigenous species, widely known as the chinquapin (_Castanea pumila_). This species is indigenous to southern New Jersey, and sparingly in parts of Pennsylvania, becoming more plentiful as we proceed southward, the two species named overlapping and in part occupying the same region; but the chinquapin extends further south, and also to the westward, near its northern limits crossing the Mississippi into southern Missouri, then extends south again, becoming quite abundant in Arkansas. The European chestnut, in its many varieties, extends over about the same number of degrees of latitude in Europe as our species do here, although reaching a higher latitude in countries bordering on the Atlantic, as shown in the old chestnut trees of England. The Oriental chestnut has also a very wide range, but the limits are not so well known as those of the European and American species; but a study of its geographical distribution is of considerable importance, now that we are importing these nuts for cultivation. The same is also true of the European varieties, and the cultivator who neglects to take this matter into consideration will fail to secure whatever advantages may have accrued from acclimation, an agency which, undoubtedly, has been active and continuous in modifying and changing the primary characteristics of these plants during unknown ages. To more fully impress upon the reader the importance of care in the selection of materials to be employed in any pursuit with which he is not perfectly familiar, I am prompted to relate the story of my first personal experience in chestnut culture, as it may serve as a warning to others who may attempt to raise these nuts in a cold climate. At the time of purchasing the farm which has been my home for the past thirty years, nut trees of various kinds were on my list of things wanted, and the chestnut occupied a leading position, probably because there were already many old and large native trees on the place. My first planting consisted of a number of imported seedlings, obtained from a well-known French nursery. The trees were three or four years old, very stocky and vigorous, and they made a good growth the first season; but the following winter the young shoots were all frozen down to old wood, with the exception of one tree, and thinking that this might prove hardy, cions were taken from it and set in thrifty sprouts growing in a grove near by. The cions made rapid growth, and from one of these I soon had a large tree, which remained in good health for twenty years, but during all that time it produced but one bur, containing two half-developed nuts. Why it was unfruitful I do not pretend to know, but it was certainly not for want of company, for it had large native chestnut trees all about it, and these bearing heavy crops. The seedling trees planted in the orchard also failed to be fruitful, and were finally dug up and burned. Thus ended my first experiment in the cultivation of the European chestnut. Had my location been farther south and in a milder climate, the experiment might have ended differently, but I am relating experience, and not attempting to guess what might have been the results under more favorable conditions. In the meantime, however, I had seen a few trees of the Japan chestnut bearing on Long Island, and had received specimens of the Numbo and Paragon, two now well-known and superior varieties of the European species, although raised in this country. These varieties were secured, and succeeded so well that I have continued to add others from time to time, or as soon as trees or cions were obtainable. The success which appears to have attended the propagation and dissemination of these two varieties of European parentage has awakened considerable interest in chestnut culture, besides attracting the attention of those interested in such matters to the fact that there are many old trees of the same or similar origin scattered about the country, awaiting the coming nut culturist to propagate them and make known their merits. It may be well, before leaving this subject, to remind the novice in chestnut culture that seedlings of these hardy and productive descendants of the European species will not come true from the nut or seed, and while it will be admitted that the chances are somewhat better for procuring a hardy variety from such nuts than from those imported, still, there is no certainty of any considerable number being equal in hardiness or other respects to the parent tree. There is an inherent tendency, in tree seedlings of all kinds, to revert to the wild form or type, and the chestnut is no exception to this rule. =Species of Chestnut.=--What is called a "species," among plants, is a particular form or type supposed to have descended from one original stock, whether this was composed of one or more individuals. But variations doubtless occurred at the first inception or multiplication of the original, but so long as the offsprings do not differ so widely as to be untraceable to the proemial types, they are held to be varieties of one species. Whether all the chestnuts found in the various countries of the world are descendants of one original tree or group of trees is now beyond our ability to determine; consequently, what are now termed species rests very much upon the opinions of botanists, as may readily be demonstrated by consulting the works of hundreds of authors who have essayed to describe and classify the plants of any locality or country, and this, too, without reaching an absolute finality acceptable to their contemporaries, or at all likely to share a better fate with posterity. For many years after botany began to be recognized as a science, the common American sweet chestnut was considered a distinct species, but in recent years it has been relegated to the position of a widely distributed variety of the European chestnut, and it is so described and classified in most of the botanical works of the present time, and under such names as _Castanea vesca_, variety _Americana_; _Castanea sativa_, variety _Americana_; _Castanea vulgaris_, variety _Americana_, etc. The Asiatic species or varieties--under whichever cognomen we may find them described in botanical works--have fared little better than our American kinds, for some botanists have described the Japan chestnut as a distinct species, while others only as a widely divergent variety of the common European chestnut. I regret that there should be any need of giving so much space to this matter of species and varieties, yet presuming that far the larger number of my readers will not be professional botanists, nor persons with a botanical library at hand to consult for unfamiliar terms, I have thought this explanation in regard to classification might assist them in making clear the apparent confusion of names which, in the main, are only synonyms. Furthermore, I purpose retaining some of the older specific names of the distinct groups of varieties, whether it be strictly in accord with the ideas of eminent authorities or otherwise, because it will be more convenient to do so, and certain phases will thus be made clearer to the practical cultivators of nut trees, for whom this work is written. My wish is to assist those who do not know, but want to learn how to obtain, plant and make nut trees grow and bear remunerative crops. CASTANEA AMERICANA (_American sweet chestnut_).--Leaves oblong-lanceolate, serrate, with rather coarse teeth, each terminated with a feeble prickle or spine; smooth on both sides (Fig. 19). Burs thickly covered with sharp, branching spines a half inch long or less, from a fleshy green envelope, becoming hard and somewhat woody; opening by four valves or divisions when mature. Usually three nuts in each bur, the center one flattened by compression, the two outer ones plano-convex. Shell tough and leathery, dark brown, smooth, or more or less inverted, with a silvery pubescence from the point downward; variable in size from five-eighths to an inch in diameter. Kernel sweet and fine-grained. A very large and common tree in the Middle and Northern States, living to a great age. [Illustration: FIG. 19. AMERICAN CHESTNUT LEAF.] [Illustration: FIG. 20. SPIKE OF BURS OF BUSH CHINQUAPIN. _C. nana._] CASTANEA NANA (_bush chinquapin_).--Leaves oval-lanceolate, serrate, with feeble prickles on teeth and often wanting; pale green above and white tomentose underneath. Burs in racemes, small; husk thin, opening by two divisions or lobes, instead of four, as in the last species; spines short, somewhat scattering, sessile or very short-stalked; nuts small, pointed, brown, smooth, thin-shelled, solitary or only one in a bur. Kernel fine-grained, sweet and delicious. Common from North Carolina southward to Florida, in dry soils and barrens. A medium-sized shrub or low-spreading bush, rarely reaching a hight of ten feet, the slender twigs usually tomentose. A spike of burs and leaves of this species are seen in Fig. 20. [Illustration: FIG. 21. SPIKE OF CHINQUAPIN CHESTNUT BUR. _C. pumila._] [Illustration: FIG. 22. SINGLE BUR, NUT AND LEAF OF CHINQUAPIN CHESTNUT. _C. pumila._] CASTANEA PUMILA (_chinquapin chestnut_).--Leaves oblong-lanceolate, short or acutely pointed, coarsely serrate, with incurved pointed teeth, green above, tomentose underneath. Burs in racemes (Fig. 21), two-valved. Sometimes the burs are single, as shown in Fig. 22. Spines branching from a short stalk; nuts solitary, ovoid, pointed, with dark-brown polished shell. Kernel fine-grained, sweet and excellent. A medium-sized tree twenty to forty feet high; in rich soils from New Jersey, Southern Pennsylvania and southward, to Georgia, and sparingly westward to Arkansas. [Illustration: FIG. 23. JAPAN CHESTNUT LEAF.] CASTANEA SATIVA OR VESCA (_European chestnut_).--Leaves oblong-lanceolate, pointed, coarsely serrate, with rather long incurved spines on the teeth; smooth on both sides, but glossy and dark green above; thicker and of more substance than in any other species. Burs very large, with thick husk, and long, stout, branching spines, from a woody stem at the base; shell of nut thick, tough and leathery, of a dark mahogany brown; kernel enclosed in a rather tough but thin skin that is usually intensely bitter, a characteristic that readily distinguishes this from any of our species. Trees of large size, rather stocky; young shoots coarse, with smooth bark; buds prominent, glossy, and of a light yellowish-brown color. CASTANEA JAPONICA (_Japan chestnut_).--Leaves lanceolate-oblong (Fig. 23), finely serrate, indentations shallow, and the teeth slender pointed; pale green above and silvery or rusty white underneath. Burs with a very thin husk; spines short, widely branching from a short stem. Nuts large to very large, usually three in a bur; shell thin, and of a light brown color; the inner skin thin, fibrous, but not as bitter as in the European varieties, and the kernel somewhat finer grained and sweeter. Trees of moderate growth and are said to rarely exceed fifty feet high in Japan. The growth is slender in comparison with the European or American chestnut, and the habit is decidedly bushy, the new growth of the season usually producing a number of lateral twigs late in summer. The leaves here seem to be more persistent, probably because the season is not long enough to insure thorough ripening. The reader will please bear in mind that this description of the Japan chestnut is drawn from the introduced varieties or those raised from the imported nuts, and not from the trees growing in their native habitats. All the varieties that I have seen appear to belong to one type or species, and they come from the warmer parts of that country; but Prof. Sargent, in his "Forest Flora of Japan," says that while the largest nuts appear in the markets of Kobe and Osaka, from whence they come to this country, there are varieties offered for sale in the markets of Aomori, which is much further north, and these, he thinks, would produce a more hardy race of varieties than those we have already received from that country. As a race, all the Japan chestnuts are very precocious, the trees coming into bearing early whether raised from the nut or propagated by grafting. =Native Varieties.= (Group One).--While it is well known that our American sweet chestnut varies widely in the size, flavor, form, color and general appearance of the nuts, no special effort has been made to select and perpetuate the most distinct and valuable varieties. This is to be regretted, inasmuch as the opportunities for making such selections, and preserving and propagating those most worthy of it, are rapidly passing away with the destruction of our chestnut forests; but there is still time to do something in this direction, and perhaps save a few varieties as valuable as those already destroyed. It is to be hoped that every man who knows of a large variety, will either propagate it himself, or point it out to some one who is sufficiently interested to do so. If proper attention was given to the raising of seedlings, we might soon secure many improved native varieties, and I would urge this mode of propagation upon all whose circumstances and surroundings will admit of it, and especially upon the young men who possess the talent and inclination to make such experiments; for there is a wide and fertile field open to them, and they can scarcely fail to reap a rich reward for their labors, if applied with earnestness and a moderate amount of intelligence. BURLESS CHESTNUT.--This is a peculiar variety or freak, in which the burs are merely shallow cups upon which the nuts rest, and at no stage of their growth are they enclosed in a husk or bur. The nuts are small and usually perfect, but being unprotected they are preyed upon by birds and squirrels as soon as the kernels are well formed, few escaping to reach maturity. This chestnut is of no economic value, but is worth preserving as an illustration of extremes in variation. The original tree was found in the forest near Freehold, Green Co., N. Y., by Mr. Harry Bagley, to whom I am indebted for cions sent me in the spring of 1885. Another and very similar variety was found about the same time on Staten Island, N. Y., and this also has been propagated, to a limited extent, as a curiosity. HATHAWAY.--A very large and handsome native variety, and one of the very best. A strong and vigorous grower, and productive. Raised by Mr. B. Hathaway, the veteran and widely known pomologist of Little Prairie Ronde, Mich. Some thirty years ago Mr. Hathaway purchased a half bushel of native chestnuts of a dealer in Ohio, and from these raised a large number of trees for sale; but a few were reserved for planting out on his own grounds, and when these came into bearing the one named here was selected for propagation, because of its large size and productiveness. PHILLIPS.--A large and handsome variety of excellent flavor, with a very smooth, dark-brown shell. Grafted trees exceedingly vigorous, upright growth, as well as precocious and productive. The original tree is growing in the grounds of the late Whitman Phillips, at Ridgewood, N. J. Several years ago my attention was called to a number of large varieties of the chestnut growing in and near the village, and from these I obtained cions for propagation; but I name only one at this time, reserving the others until more fully tested. This is rather an insignificant number of varieties to be named among the many hundreds that are to be found in almost every town or neighborhood where the chestnut is a native, and yet I have been able to find only one named in nurserymen's catalogues as being propagated by grafting. It is true that nearly all dealers in trees offer seedling American chestnuts, which may mean good, bad or indifferent varieties when the trees come into bearing. Among all of the many thousands that have been raised and planted in the East and West, beyond the natural range of the chestnut, as, for instance, in Missouri, Kansas and Iowa, there must be some distinct and valuable varieties worthy of names and propagation. There are not only distinct varieties to be found in every forest, but in some instances the entire product of an extended area of country are distinct in their color, size, and general appearance of the nuts produced; as, for instance, in the woolly chestnuts of the Piedmont district of Virginia, these being so nearly covered with a white down that they remind one of popcorn. Hundreds of bushels of these woolly chestnuts come to our markets, and among them I have often found very large specimens, but so far as known, no effort has been made to perpetuate them. So far as can now be determined, the wild or original European chestnut was much inferior in its flavor, and little, if any, larger than our American sweet chestnut; but by continued selections of the largest for planting, and propagation by grafting, it has attained to its present size and excellence; but this system of improving our native varieties has scarcely, as yet, been attempted, a fact which does not, in the least, redound to our credit. BUSH CHINQUAPIN (_C. nana._ Muhlenberg).--Of this I do not know of any named varieties in cultivation. Plants are occasionally seen in cultivated grounds, and I have one in my garden growing in a sheltered position, where it has fruited for several years. It is a pretty, round-headed, silvery-leaved bush, about six feet high; ornamental, if not specially valuable for other purposes, although the little sweet nuts are always acceptable. As a rule, the seedlings of this species are not hardy in the Northern States, but an occasional one will survive if planted in a light, porous soil and a protected situation. COMMON CHINQUAPIN (_C. pumila._ Miller).--This is a small tree, sometimes thirty to forty feet high; found sparingly as far north as central New Jersey, and on Long Island. It is more common in cultivation than the bush chinquapin, probably because more hardy and better known, but I do not know of any improved varieties that have been disseminated under distinct names except the one hereinafter described. Among many seedlings raised, of this species, I have selected one which good judges of such things have thought worthy of propagation, and as I do not raise plants for sale, no one will be likely to accuse me of having any selfish motives, further than a pardonable pride in producing something worthy of perpetuation. Furthermore, as an earnest of my confidence in its merits, I have distributed it under my own name. [Illustration: FIG. 24. BURS OF FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. ONE-HALF NATURAL SIZE.] [Illustration: FIG. 25. FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN. FIVE YEARS OLD FROM NUT.] FULLER'S CHINQUAPIN.--Leaves large, broadly oval, pointed, coarsely serrate, pale green above, clear silvery white below. Bark on main stem; branches and twigs smooth, light gray, with numerous white dots. The young twigs thick and stocky, cylindrical, with moderately prominent, grayish buds. Burs in long racemes (Fig. 24), very large for this species; spines long, strong, branching and sharp. Nuts only one in each bur, rather short, broad, top-shaped, with blunt point; shell very smooth, glossy, almost black; kernel fine-grained and sweet. Ripens early, or with the earliest of the native sweet chestnuts. The original tree is only six years old, twice transplanted, and is now ten feet high, with a head fully as broad, and as shown in Fig. 25. Although growing in a rather exposed position, it has never been injured by low temperature in winter or a high one in summer. It has thus far been the most rapid-growing chestnut tree in my grounds, although given no special care. Whether it will eventually become a large tree, or soon cease to extend, is, of course, a question to be answered at some future time, but from present indications this tree will be well worthy of cultivation as an ornamental shade tree, even if we leave out of the account its rapid growth, productiveness, and delicious little nuts, which will be very acceptable for home use, if not possessing any great commercial value. =European Varieties.=--In the use of this term I wish it understood that the varieties named and described in this group are all of American origin; that is, raised in this country from seed. At the same time they are descendants of the European species. They are, in other words, "Survivals of the fittests," the few that have survived the many being raised from imported nuts (perhaps one out of a thousand) that tests and time have shown were adapted to our climate. There may be many other varieties scattered about the country which are worthy of a name and of propagation, but I can speak only of those I have been able to procure, or that have been brought to my notice. In describing the following varieties, and in seeking to get at the facts relating to their origin, name and history, the reader will please bear in mind that there has been no previous attempt to arrange or classify these semi-American varieties. Furthermore, there is much confusion in regard to the true names of a number of them, and the most I can say is that I have endeavored, under the circumstances, to get as near the truth as possible. Could I defer writing this chapter ten years, some moot points might be cleared up, but as this is out of the question I must follow the light already in my possession. To Mr. John R. Parry, of Parry, N. J., I am greatly indebted, not only for specimens of new and rare varieties, but also notes relating to the history of several of the older ones. COMFORT.--Burs very large, broad, somewhat flattened; spines very strong and long, branching; nuts very broad, with short point, and shell covered from base to point with scattering silky hairs, thicker at upper end. In quality, about the same as in the ordinary varieties of the species, but to some persons' taste it is better, having less astringency in the skin surrounding the kernel. Origin uncertain, but said to have been grown for many years at Germantown, a suburb of Philadelphia, Pa., where the Paragon chestnut was discovered. The Comfort certainly closely resembles the Paragon, but I have not had an opportunity of fruiting trees under the two names side by side, as would be necessary to determine their identity or difference, if they are really distinct. COOPER.--A very large variety; has been in cultivation for several years in Camden Co., N. J., but up to the present time the trees have not been propagated for sale, although I am informed by Mr. John R. Parry that there are a large number under cultivation. The tree is described as of a broad spreading habit, with enormously large leaves, and immensely productive. Nuts very large, smooth and glossy, with little fuzz near the top. In quality they may be considered excellent for a variety of this class. The burs are very large, and this is its greatest or only fault; for when nearly mature they absorb and retain such a quantity of water during heavy rains, in addition to the original weight and the enclosed nuts, that the trees are liable to be broken down by strong winds. CORSON.--Burs of immense size; spines an inch or more in length, from a stout, woody, irregularly branching stem, resting on the moderately thin husk. Nuts extra large, usually three in a bur; shell dark brown, somewhat ridged; the upper end or point of the shell densely covered with a white, almost woolly, pubescence, or fuzz as it is usually termed. This is a remarkably large and fine variety and of good quality. Originated with Mr. Walter H. Corson, Plymouth Meeting, Montgomery Co., Pa. DAGER.--A large variety originated near Wyoming, Delaware, from seed of the Ridgely. My specimen trees are good vigorous growers, and hardy, but have not, as yet, produced fruit. It is said that the nuts are of fair quality, but not as good as the best of its class. MONCUR.--Another seedling of the Ridgely, raised on the farm of Mr. Frank Moncur, near Dover, Del. The original tree is about thirty years old. Described as smaller than its parent, but of better quality. [Illustration: FIG. 26. BUR OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.] [Illustration: FIG. 27. SPINES OF NUMBO CHESTNUT.] [Illustration: FIG. 28. NUMBO CHESTNUT.] NUMBO.--Burs medium, and distinctly long pointed before opening, as shown in Fig. 26, the four divisions of the burs extending an inch or more beyond the nut as they open. This is an exceptional form of the bur, and will enable almost any person to recognize the variety with bearing trees. Spines only medium in length (Fig. 27), and not as strong as in most other varieties of this species. Nuts very large (Fig. 28), smooth, decidedly pointed, light brown when first mature, and of good flavor. Tree hardy and a vigorous, free grower, and is very productive even when young. The original tree is now some forty years old, and is one of a large number raised from imported nuts, by the late Mahlon Moon, of Morrisville, Pa. MILLER'S DUPONT.--Burs large, spines long and strong but not as stout as in some of the closely related varieties. Nut medium, and kernel of fair quality. A promising variety. Origin unknown. Received from Jos. Evans, Delaware Co., Pa. [Illustration: FIG. 29. PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR. (_One-half natural size._)] [Illustration: FIG. 30. SPINES OF PARAGON CHESTNUT BUR.] [Illustration: FIG. 31. PARAGON CHESTNUT.] [Illustration: FIG. 32. FOUR YEAR OLD PARAGON CHESTNUT TREE.] PARAGON.--Burs of immense size, often five inches and more in lateral diameter; distinctly flattened on the top, or cushion shape (Fig. 29); spines an inch in length, widely and irregularly branching from a stout stem springing from a thick, fleshy husk, as shown in Fig. 30, the whole making an involucre or bur out of proportion to the nuts within. Nuts of large size, slightly depressed at the top (Fig. 31), and they are usually broader than long; shell very dark brown, slightly ridged, and covered with a fine but not very conspicuous pubescence. Kernel sweet, fine-grained, and of superior flavor for one of this species. Tree hardy, exceedingly precocious and productive when grafted on strong, healthy stock. A four-year-old tree on my grounds is shown in Fig. 32. It was loaded with nuts in the fall of 1894. This is one of the best of its class. Origin somewhat in doubt, but it is claimed that the late W. L. Shaffer, of Philadelphia, raised it from a foreign nut planted in his garden, and who, some eighteen years or more ago, gave cions to W. H. Engle, of Marietta, Pa. Mr. Engle has since propagated and disseminated this variety quite extensively under its present name, but should further investigation prove it to be distinct and that it was raised by Mr. Shaffer, then it should certainly bear his name, and Paragon become a synonym. No more appropriate monument could possibly be erected in honor of a distinguished horticulturist like the late Mr. Shaffer, than a chestnut tree, nor could his memory be perpetuated under more pleasant and agreeable surroundings than to have his name linked inseparably with such an excellent and valuable variety. [Illustration: FIG. 33. OPEN BUR OF THE RIDGELY CHESTNUT.] RIDGELY.--Burs large, with dense spines, but not as long as those of the Paragon. Nuts large, pointed; shell dark brown, with very little pubescence, and this mainly at the point (Fig. 33). In quality this variety ranks very near, if not the equal of, the best of its class, and it has been highly commended, by those who have been acquainted with it, for many years. The origin of the Ridgely, as recorded, leaves the question of name a debatable one. Some sixty years ago a Mr. Dupont, of Wilmington, Del., gave or sent to Mr. D. M. Ridgely, of Dover, Del., a sprouted chestnut, and this was planted and became the original tree of the variety under consideration. It has been called Dupont, because he raised the nut and kept it over winter and until it sprouted; then it passed into the care of Mr. Ridgely, who thenceforward gave it his attention. The tree is now of immense size, and some seasons has produced more than five bushels of nuts, selling at eleven dollars per bushel. It is quite probable that the Dupont family were the first to raise European chestnut trees to a bearing size in this country, for some of its members were settled in Delaware before the war of the Revolution. Pierre Samuel Dupont de Nemours, during the French ministry of Vergennes, was employed in forming the treaty of 1783, in which the independence of the United States was formally recognized by England. In 1795 (Am. encyclopedia) he came to this country and joined his sons, who had become successful manufacturers of gunpowder at or near Wilmington, Del., where their descendants, or at least some of them, are still engaged in the same business. If any of the old and original chestnut trees have escaped the numerous "powder mill explosions" which have frequently occurred in that neighborhood, they are probably much older than the Ridgely. I am also inclined to believe that a very large majority of all the hardy chestnut trees of the European species scattered about the country are the direct descendants of the old Dupont stock. SCOTT.--Burs large, with long branching spines. Nuts from the original tree, as received the past season, are only of medium size, but said to be much larger on younger trees. Shell dark brown, smooth, with a little fuzz around the point. As my specimen tree has not, as yet, fruited, I am unable to say anything of its productiveness from personal experience, but in a note from Mr. William Parry, under date of Oct. 15, 1894, he says: "I send specimens of the Scott chestnuts, grown by Judge Scott, of Burlington, N. J. The crop is about gone and it was with difficulty I could get these, which are about the average size; earlier in the season many are larger. Judge Scott has grown those nuts for market several years. The original tree was bought by his father many years ago from the nursery of Thomas Hancock. He bought three trees for Spanish chestnuts, planted them in a row about thirty feet apart, and the one from which these nuts were obtained happened to be in the middle. It is now a large tree, the trunk about five feet in diameter. It is a regular and heavy bearer. Judge Scott has propagated and planted an orchard from this variety, and claims among its important features, large size and early bearing,--two-year grafts generally produce nuts; immense productiveness and good quality; beautiful, glossy, mahogany color; freedom from fuzz, and an almost entire exemption from the attacks of the chestnut weevil. While the crop of two trees standing on either side of the Scott is badly damaged by worms, it is the exception to find a wormy nut among the Scott. "The crop sells readily at ten to twelve dollars per bushel. This year (1894) some sold as low as eight dollars, the lowest ever known for this variety." STYER.--Burs large, round; spines long, branching, but not as coarse as those of Comfort. Nuts medium to large, decidedly pointed, and the point fuzzy. Shell dark brown, with a few longitudinal stripes, but not ridged. A handsome nut of good quality. This variety has been distributed under the name of Hannum. The original tree, which is a mammoth in size, is still standing on the farm of a Mr. Hannum, near Concordville, Delaware Co., Penn. But Mr. T. Walter Styer, of the same place, is propagating and introducing it as the Styer. Some of the varieties in this group may not prove to be distinct, and later they will be relegated to their proper place as synonyms, but I have thought it best to record them by the names under which they have been received. In writing these descriptions I have had the nuts and leaves before me, but there may be characters overlooked which will become more conspicuous as the grafted trees become older and more mature. The Dager chestnut, from Delaware, is a promising variety, disseminated through the Department of Agriculture, but as I have not seen the nuts at this writing, a description is necessarily omitted. Among the French varieties of this species which are said to succeed admirably in California, a large proportion would probably do equally well in Delaware and further south. Among those worthy of trial I may name the _Avant Chataigne_, _Comale_, _Exalade_, _Green of Lemousin_, _Grosse Précoce_, _Jaune Rousse_, _Lyons_, _Merle_, _Nouzillard_, _Quercy_, etc. I have tried some of these, but with such indifferent results that they were abandoned. Cultivators of nut trees located in a milder climate, should take advantage of whatever improvements there have been made in Europe, by importing grafted trees or cions. There are a few ornamental varieties of the European chestnut, but none worthy of any special attention. [Illustration: FIG. 34. JAPAN GIANT CHESTNUT.] [Illustration: FIG. 35. SPINES OF JAPAN CHESTNUT.] JAPAN CHESTNUTS.--The first authentic account I have been able to find of the introduction of the Japan chestnut into this country, is of a number of trees received by S. B. Parsons & Co., Flushing, N. Y., 1876, from the late Thos. Hogg, who, as is well known to all horticulturists, spent several years in Japan collecting many rare kinds of trees and shrubs, which were shipped direct to Parsons & Co. The chestnut trees received in 1876 fruited two years later, or in 1878, and soon attracted attention, on account of the large size and excellent quality of the nuts and the precocious habits of the trees. The success of this typical variety of the Japanese species, as I have assumed to designate it, proved that there were oriental chestnuts--heretofore untested in this country--that were certainly worthy of an attempt to obtain. This variety, introduced by the Messrs. Parsons & Co., does not appear to have been disseminated under any distinct varietal name, but merely bears the rather meaningless one of Japan chestnut, and for the purpose of giving it a position where it may be recognized--by name at least--from other varieties more recently introduced, I shall take the liberty of calling it "Parsons' Japan." Soon after it became known that the oriental chestnuts would succeed in this country, the fruit growers and nurserymen of California began to import and plant these nuts, shipping an occasional lot to their customers in the Eastern States, and from these hundreds of seedlings have been raised and distributed, under the general name of Japan chestnut. Among the nuts imported there are some of extraordinary size, even larger than anything of the kind obtained from Europe, as shown in Fig. 34, natural size, and from a specimen received direct from Japan. Some of the nurserymen who have secured these very large nuts for planting, offer the seedlings raised therefrom under such names as Mammoth and Giant Japan, but as there is no certainty, and scarcely a probability, that such seedlings will produce nuts as large as those planted, the names are rather misleading, although proper enough if given to grafted varieties of large size. When an extra-fine variety is produced from the nut, it should, of course, be preserved and propagated in the usual way. The late Wm. Parry, of Parry, N. J., was one of the first nurserymen to attempt to produce new varieties of the Japan chestnut in this country, and his sons have continued his experiments in this direction. Others may have been equally successful, but I have been unable to obtain any satisfactory reports from those to whom I have applied for information; consequently, I can only say that the following, with few exceptions, originated at the Wm. Parry nurseries. ADVANCE (Parry).--Burs medium, slightly flattened on top; spines medium, short, almost sessile, as shown in Fig. 35, and this is a characteristic of all the Japan chestnuts; branching and widely separated on a very thin husk. Nuts very large; shell a light yellowish brown, with a few slight darker streaks from base to apex. Quality excellent for one of this species. Ripens early, and long before touched by frost. ALPHA (Parry).--Very similar to the last, but ripens earlier, which would be an advantage in some localities. Tree vigorous and productive. BETA (Parry).--Bur medium; spines rather long and thin for one of this group, set on a thin husk. Nut large; shell light brown, smooth, with a slight trace of pubescence near the tip. The leaves are shallow and coarsely serrate, and on some the teeth or serratures are entirely wanting. Ripens a little later than the Alpha, or about the first of October in northern New Jersey. EARLY RELIANCE (Parry).--Burs medium, with short, almost deflexed spines, on an exceedingly thin husk. Nuts large, more pointed than in the last, and of a lighter color the past season, but this may not be constant, and may be due to the long and severe drouth of the summer of 1894. Usually three nuts in a bur, and sometimes four or five, but I do not consider this increase in number a merit in any variety, for where there are more than three they are likely to be of small size and very much deformed. The original tree of the Reliance is enormously productive, and a regular bearer. FELTON.--A seedling of the common Japanese chestnut, raised by J. W. Killen, of Felton, Delaware. GIANT JAPAN (Parry).--Burs large to extra large for a variety of this species, with medium low branching spines on a very thin, parchment-like husk. Nuts extra large, usually only two in a bur, often only one, and about two inches broad, much depressed at the top, with a short point set in an irregular depression or basin. Shell dark mahogany color, more or less ribbed; kernel coarse grained, as is usual in the extra large varieties of nearly all species of the chestnut. This is probably the largest variety of the Japanese chestnut raised in this country, of which grafted trees are obtainable at this time. There may be others equally as large, but if so they are unknown to the writer. KILLEN.--Of the Japan species, and described as very large, the nuts over two inches in diameter and of fair quality. Raised by J. W. Killen, of Felton, Del. PARSONS' JAPAN.--Burs medium, with rather thick-set and long spines. Nuts large, one inch and a half broad, curving regularly to a point; shell smooth, almost glossy, brown, with faint stripes of a darker shade extending from base to apex. In quality the kernel is far better than most of the European varieties, being finer grained and sweeter. When grafted on strong stocks the trees come into bearing early, or in two or three years. This is the best known, and probably the most widely distributed variety, of the Japanese species in this country, having been introduced, as I have stated elsewhere, in 1876. PARRY'S SUPERB (Parry).--Burs broad, cushion-shaped, or much flattened on top, with extra long, widely branching spines from single or multiple stems, very much as in the European varieties. But the thin husk, the nuts, and the growth of tree, wood and leaves, stamp it as a pure Japanese variety. Nuts large, broader than long, with a decided sharp woody point; almost entirely destitute of even a sign of pubescence. A very promising and distinct variety. SUCCESS (Parry).--Burs very large, broad, with only a few short, scattering, branching spines on the top, thicker toward the base; on a thin, parchment-like husk, and this is so thin that it sometimes cracks open and exposes the nuts within before they are fully ripe. Nuts extra large, nearly equal to the Giant, but of a more regular and symmetrical form, being nearly as long as broad, tapering to a point. Shell smooth, dark brown, with a slight pubescence about the point. Usually three nuts in a bur; an ideal variety in every respect. There is a variety of the Japan chestnut recently much lauded under the name of Mammoth or Burbank, which is said to be of immense size, and as sweet as the common American chestnut. =Injurious Insects.=--The chestnut tree is rarely attacked by insects. It is true that grubs may occasionally be found boring into the wood or cutting sinuous burrows under the bark, but this is mainly in trees weakened by exposure, in removing protecting companions, as when removing forests, or by plowing up and destroying the roots, in cultivating the land about them; but the attacks of insects upon such specimens is nature's way of getting rid of the feeble and least valuable, making room for the healthy and strong. But my thirty years' residence in a chestnut grove leads me to think that this nut tree is exceedingly free from wood borers of any kind. Entomologists, however, have noted several instances of insect depredations upon individual trees, by a few species of the long-horn beetles, three or four in all, but these occur so rarely that they are scarcely worthy of notice as pests of the chestnut. There are also several species of caterpillars occasionally found feeding on the leaves of this tree, also some sucking bugs or tree hoppers, and two or three kinds of plant lice, but none of these have, as yet, become at all formidable enemies, or likely to become so later. But the chestnut has one enemy which is so abundant and destructive to the nuts as to call for an extended notice. I refer to the common native chestnut weevil (_Balaninus carytripes_, Boheman). The little fat, white, round, legless grubs, nearly or quite a half-inch long, must be familiar to every person who has handled or eaten chestnuts raised in this country, whether of the exotic or native varieties. The parents of this grub are oval-shaped beetles about one-half inch long or less; wing covers, body and legs densely covered with a short yellow down, and from the front or thorax there extends a long, slightly curved, slender snout (Fig. 36), sometimes nearly an inch in length in the females, but usually less in the males. The mouth parts are at the extreme end of this snout or proboscis, and the female, with her mandibles, it is claimed, reaches down among the chestnut spines and gnaws a hole in the husk, into which she drops an egg; and when this hatches, the minute grub cuts its way through the green husk and into the nut, the hole made in its progress closing up behind, leaving no mark or scar. Although I have taken hundreds of these weevils on chestnut trees, I never have been so fortunate as to take one in the act of ovipositing, but have come so near it as to find the ovipositor still extended as the insect crawled out from among the spines. [Illustration: FIG. 36. CHESTNUT WEEVIL.] The chestnut weevil usually appears in great numbers soon after the trees bloom in spring, but they continue to come out all through the summer; I have occasionally found them late in September, which probably accounts for finding small and half-grown grubs in the nuts as they ripen and fall from the trees. These late grubs often remain in the nuts all winter, but the greater part escape earlier, or very soon after the crop is ripe. The grubs crawl out of the nuts and work their way into the ground to a depth of from a few inches to two feet, much depending upon the nature of the soil. Having very powerful jaws, they readily cut through a layer of leaves or soft wood, and I have known them to cut holes in sheets of dry cork. These grubs remain in the ground until the following season, then come forth in their winged or weevil stage, except the belated, broods, or those that have not reached full size in the autumn; these remain in the ground the entire summer, coming out late in the fall, or pass over until the second year, as I have proved by burying the grubs in a barrel sunk in the ground, covering the top with fine wire netting, to prevent the escape of the weevils as they emerged from time to time during the season. As a rule, we find only one grub in a nut, of the American sweet chestnut, but in the larger varieties of the European and Japanese, two or more is not unusual, which rather favors the idea that the female weevil does possess something akin to reason, which guides her in locating stores of food available for her progeny. I have never observed that the weevils had any choice among varieties, all being subject to their attacks alike, provided all were growing in equally favorable positions. But if the trees are of different sizes, some tall and others short, some exposed to the winds and others protected, then the ravages of this pest will, no doubt, be as variable as the surrounding conditions. As the weevils emerge from the ground in spring or early summer, they will naturally seek the nuts most convenient and on the small trees, then those on the lower branches of the larger ones, while those on the upper part of the tree, where they are fully exposed to the winds, may wholly escape the attacks of these pests. This leads me to think that whoever attempts to cut off native chestnut forests, with the expectation of renewal with the larger varieties, by grafting the sprouts, will find the chestnut weevil a rather formidable enemy. I have found it so on a limited number of trees in my own grounds, that are grown from grafted sprouts near large native specimens, the weevils destroying nearly every nut; but out in the field, away from the woods, and where the young trees are scattered and exposed to the full sweep of the winds, the nuts are sound and free from insect enemies. The only remedy is to collect and destroy the weevils, which is not a serious matter where only the larger varieties are cultivated. =Diseases of the Chestnut.=--I have never noticed any special disease among chestnuts, neither do I find any mentioned in European works on forestry. The nearest approach to any such malady being recorded as having appeared in this country, is found in a paragraph in Hough's "Report on Forestry," 1877, p. 470, where the author copies from Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist, North Carolina, as follows: "The chestnut was formerly abundant in the Piedmont region, down to the country between the Catawba and Yadkin rivers, but within the last thirty years they have mostly perished. They are now found east of the Blue Ridge only, on higher ridges and spurs of the mountains. They have suffered injury here, and are dying out both here and beyond the Blue Ridge. They are much less fruitful than they were a generation ago, and the crop is much more uncertain." While there is nothing said about any chestnut disease in the paragraph quoted, we only infer that the author intended to convey the idea that the trees were suffering from some endemic malady, although it may have been due to long drouths, insect depredators, or other causes. A few years later Mr. Hough, in his "Elements of Forestry," refers to the subject again, and admits that "the cause of the malady is unknown." But as chestnuts continue to come to our markets in vast quantities from the Piedmont regions, there must be a goodly number of healthy trees remaining. =Uses.=--The economic value of the chestnut, as food for mankind and the lower animals, has been, and is still, so well known, that no extended dissertation or compilation of historic instances of its usefulness are required here. For almost two thousand years it has been an important article of food throughout southern Europe, and in some of the mountainous districts it is almost the "staff of life" among the poorer people, who not only use these nuts in their raw state, but roasted, boiled, stewed, and even dried and ground into flour, from which a coarse but nutritious kind of cake or bread is made. These nuts are also used in the same way by the poorer classes of China and Japan, and probably in other oriental countries. In France, Italy, Spain and Portugal, the chestnut crop is of immense importance, not only for domestic use, but commercially, because all surplus is wanted by other nations, who are ever ready to take a share, and pay a good round price for the same. In this country chestnuts are mainly used as a luxury or a kind of pocket lunch for the children, as they are rarely brought to the table, and it is very doubtful if the American housewife, or our cooks,--unless foreign born and bred,--know anything about preparing these delicious nuts for comestible purposes. Cereals, meats, fruits and vegetables have always been so abundant and cheap in this country, that the poorest of the poor could indulge in them without stint or limit; but all this will change sooner or later, and when our population has doubled or trebled, the edible nuts must become of much more importance than now, and a roast turkey stuffed with chestnuts may figure as the ideal of gastronomic art. As our native chestnuts are now annually consumed by the thousands of bushels, and the imported varieties by millions of pounds, and all as a mere luxury,--not a necessity nor an article which we could not dispense with without any serious inconvenience,--we may well consider what the future demand must be, and make haste to meet it with an abundant supply. CHAPTER VI. FILBERT OR HAZELNUT. Corylus, _Tournefort_. Name from _korys_, a hood, helmet or bonnet, in reference to the form of the calyx or husk enclosing the nut. Order, _Corylaceæ_. Deciduous trees or low shrubs. Male flowers appearing in the autumn in pendulous cylindrical catkins two inches or more in length, with a two-cleft calyx partly united with the bracts or scales. These catkins remain on the plants all winter, becoming fully developed, and shedding their pollen early the following spring. Female flowers minute, entirely hidden within the buds during the winter, but early in spring their bright red, thread-like stigmas push out from the tips of the lateral or terminal buds. Ovary two-celled, with one ovule in each. Nut globular, ovoid or oblong, often in clusters, but each enclosed in a leafy, two- or three-valved husk, fringed or deeply notched at the upper end. Leaves broadly heart-shaped, serrate, with sturdy, short leaf-stalks. The filbert and hazel always bloom before the leaves appear in spring, and the male catkins usually open and begin to scatter their pollen in this latitude during warm days in March, the females soon following, their bright-red stigmas pushing out from the ends of the buds, but as soon as fertilization has been consummated they shrivel and disappear. The trees may then remain leafless for weeks following, and yet produce a heavy crop of fruit. [Illustration: FIG. 37. LARGE FILBERT.] The common English name, filbert, is from "full-beard." All the varieties with husks extending beyond the nut, and with fringed edges, are filberts (Fig. 37); while those with husks shorter than the nuts (Fig. 38) are hazels, from the old Anglo-Saxon word, _hæsel_, a hood or bonnet. The parentage, size, form or quality of the nut, is not to be considered in this classification, for when the nuts are ripe and fallen from the husks, there is nothing left to distinguish the hazelnuts from filberts, unless a person is sufficiently familiar with a variety to know to which group it belongs. In France these nuts are known under the general name of _Noysette_; while in Germany it is _Haselnuss_; in Holland _Hazelnoot_; and in Italy _Avellana_, from Avellana, a city of Naples, near which there is a valley where these nuts have been extensively cultivated for many centuries. [Illustration: FIG. 38. LARGE SEEDLING HAZELNUT.] =History of the Filbert.=--It is claimed that the filbert was first known to the Romans as _Nux Pontica_, because introduced from Pontus; but it must have become naturalized throughout southern Europe in very early times. But the Italian name of _Avellana_ appears to have been applied to the wild hazel of Britain, long before Linnæus adopted it as the specific name of the indigenous species. John Evelyn, one of the most careful and learned of English arboriculturists of his time, in referring to these nuts, in his "Sylva," 1664, says: "I do not confound the filbert Pontic, distinguished by its beard, with our foresters or bald hazelnuts, which, doubtless, we had from abroad, bearing the names of _Avelan_ or _Avelin_, as I find in some ancient records and deeds in my custody, where my ancestors' names were written Avelan, _alias_ Evelin." The filbert has been celebrated in prose and poetry from ancient times, as we may infer from a remark of Virgil, who says that it has been more honored "than the vine, the myrtle, or even the bay itself" (Eclogue vii). The supposed occult power of a forked twig of the hazel as a divining-rod (_virgula divinatoria_) for finding hidden treasures, veins of metals, subterranean streams of water, and even pointing out criminals, is, of course, purely mythical, although so solemnly attested by many learned men in the past; and I would not consider this myth worthy of a notice here were it not for the fact that it was early imported into this country, and is still firmly believed by many persons among our rural population. It is true that the supposed attributes of the European hazel have been transferred to different plants in this country, mainly to the peach and our indigenous witch-hazel (_Hamamelis Virginiana_), but the myth still lives, a legitimate descendant of an Old World nut tree. There is little to be said in regard to the history of the filbert and hazelnut in this country, but it is quite likely that both of the European species, and many varieties, were brought here and planted by the early settlers in the Eastern States, and bushes of the same could have been seen in many gardens a hundred years ago; but I have been unable to find any account of extensive plantings of these nuts, although nurserymen, all along, have been offering choice varieties to their customers. In the main, our pomologists have either remained silent in regard to these nuts, or, at most, referred to them very briefly in their published works. William Prince, of Flushing, N. Y., in a "Short Treatise on Horticulture," published in 1828, refers to the filbert as follows: "This shrub or, in some cases, tree, accommodates itself to every exposition, and to every variety of soil, but prefers a moist loam on a sandy bottom, with a northern exposure. It is easily multiplied by seeds, layers or inoculation. In fact, these nuts, which are vended in large quantities in our markets, grow as well in our climate as the common hazelnut, and produce very abundantly. Such being the case, it is hoped, ere long, sufficient will be produced from our soil to supersede the necessity of importation, as plantations of this tree would amply remunerate the possessor; or if planted as a hedge, would be found to be very productive. A single bush of the Spanish filbert in my garden has produced a half-bushel annually." Mr. Prince then names a few of the best varieties, which are about the same as those recommended at the present time, and he was, no doubt, honest in recommending filbert culture to his countrymen, for his own limited experience proved that the trees would grow here and fruit abundantly. A. J. Downing, in the first edition of his "Fruits and Fruit Trees of America," 1845, says: "The Spanish filbert, common in many of our gardens, is a worthless, nearly barren variety; but we have found the better English sorts productive and excellent in this climate (Newburg, N. Y.), and at least a few plants of these should have a place in all our gardens." If a few plants will succeed in a garden, then we might reasonably suppose that the number might be safely increased, and this was the idea of Mr. Prince, and many other writers on the subject since his time, but I fail to find any record of extended experiments with these nuts in this country, and as there must be some good reason for this neglect, perhaps my own experience in the cultivation of the filbert and hazel, to be given in succeeding pages, may throw some light on this question. =Propagation.=--Filberts are readily propagated by almost all the modes employed in the multiplication of ordinary fruit trees and shrubs. The nuts are not at all delicate, and may be planted in the fall, or stored in a cool place, mixed with sand or sphagnum, and then put out in spring, always selecting a rather light and rich soil for a seed bed, and in such beds plants from one to three feet high may be obtained the first season. The seedlings produce such a mass of fine roots that they are readily transplanted without danger of loss. Varieties are perpetuated and multiplied by budding, grafting, suckers, layers, and some grow quite readily from cuttings made of the young, vigorous shoots, cut up into proper lengths in the fall, and then buried in the ground until the following spring, then planted out in trenches, as usually practiced with currants, grapes and similar plants. The method of propagation most generally practiced in Europe and this country is by suckers, and as the cultivated varieties of the filbert usually produce these from the base of their stems in profusion, there is no lack of material; besides, they make as strong, healthy and productive plants as can be procured in any other way. To secure an extra number of roots on these suckers, they should be banked up with a few inches in depth of good rich soil, or old manure, about midsummer, and then late in the autumn dig down to the base and remove with knife or chisel, after which they may be headed down to about fifteen or eighteen inches, and heeled-in for the winter, to be planted out in nursery rows early in spring. If a greater number of sprouts are wanted than the plants naturally produce, the main stem may be cut down; but this will seldom be necessary, because the young transplanted suckers will usually produce more or less new ones the first season, all of which can be utilized for multiplying the stock if they are wanted. =Soil, Location and Climate.=--European varieties of the filbert thrive best in what may be termed a rich loam, with a dry subsoil. If the soil is too moist, the trees are inclined to run too much to wood, producing less fruit. In the famous nut orchards of Kent, England, the soil is loam upon a dry, sandy rock. The trees in these orchards are manured at least once in two years, especially after they reach the full bearing age. Almost any good soil that is rich enough to produce a good crop of corn, and is not submerged in winter, will answer for the filbert in this country. In selecting a location for a filbert orchard, an open, airy one would probably be preferable to a spot so sheltered as to cause the flowers to appear so early as to be injured by frosts. Furthermore, I would warn cultivators to keep as far away as possible from any hedgerows or plantation of the wild native hazel bushes, for these are always loaded with disease germs that are fatal to the foreign species. We might reasonably suppose that filberts would succeed better in the Southern than in the Northern States, but if the experience of those who have tried them there count for anything, then these nuts are not adapted to the South, owing to the fact that the flowers almost invariably push out during warm days in winter, and these are destroyed later by frosts. In the more elevated regions of the northern border of the Southern, and in similar locations in the Middle States, these nuts will doubtless thrive, or at least the climate will prove congenial. The more equable the climate and free from extremes in temperature, the better; but the most important element in this country is moisture, especially in summer, when the nuts are filling out; and the best way to supply this, where irrigation cannot be practiced, is to keep the ground around the trees continually covered with a mulch of leaves or other coarse vegetable matter. =Planting and Pruning.=--The space to be allowed between the plants, when set out for bearing, will, of course, depend very much upon the size they are expected to attain. Those varieties which assume and remain in the bush form may be planted very close together, or not more than six to eight feet between the plants; but those which become small trees must be given more room. The larger European sorts, which are at present the only ones worth cultivating for their nuts, should be set ten or twelve feet apart, and the rows fifteen to sixteen feet, then if properly pruned they will shade the ground and be in a convenient form for gathering the crop. The trees may be planted in the orchard when quite small, and some kind of vegetable crop grown among them for the first two or three years, but I would prefer keeping the plants in nursery rows until they were four or five feet high, and then transplant to the orchard, and set a short, stout stake by the side of each, to keep the main stem in an upright position until the tree is well established. The first pruning,--except removing suckers from those in the nursery rows,--will be the heading back of the main or central stem to a hight of two or three feet, for the purpose of laying the foundation, as it were, of the head of the future tree. Three or four of the larger branches, which will push out from near the top of the severed main stem, are to be selected to form the top, and all others removed. Small lateral branches or twigs will spring out from the larger or main ones, and in this way the head of a bearing tree is formed. But before attempting to prune a mature or fruitful tree, we must consider the mode of fructification, for the filbert does not bear nuts on the young growth of the season, as in the chestnut, but on the small branchlets or spur-like twigs of the preceding season, or, as we may say, on the one-year-old twigs. The small fruiting twigs are seldom more than four to six inches long, and sometimes almost every well-developed bud on these contain pistillate flowers and embryo nuts, either singly or in clusters. In pruning the bearing trees, the main point to be observed is to head back the strong leading shoots, to prevent the trees growing too tall, as well as to force out the side or lateral twigs as fruiting wood for the ensuing year. If the heads of the trees become too much crowded to admit light and air to the center, some of the larger branches must be removed entire. The best time to prune is in early spring, when the trees are in bloom, for at this season we can readily determine the injured from the sound male catkins, and preserve enough of these to insure perfect fertilization. It is not necessary, however, that there should be healthy pollen-bearing catkins on every tree in an orchard, for if one in a dozen is well supplied, there will be sufficient to fertilize the flowers of all growing near by. It often happens, in our rather severe climate, that the catkins of some trees or varieties are winterkilled, while the pistillate flowers enclosed in the buds escape injury, and when this occurs it is well to have some hardy variety at hand, from which pollen can be obtained when needed. The inferior varieties are usually the most hardy, and the wild European hazel or our northern beaked hazel, will usually escape injury where all the large improved sorts fail, and it requires but a few minutes' labor to cut branches bearing sound catkins, and scatter these about through the heads of trees requiring such assistance to make them fruitful. SPECIES OF AMERICAN HAZELS. CORYLUS AMERICANA (Walters). Common hazel bush.--Leaves roundish, heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely serrate; husk somewhat downy, with a wide, flattened, fringed border extending beyond the roundish nut. Shell rather thick and brittle; kernel sweet and good, but the nut is too small to be considered of much value. A low shrub, with many stems springing from the roots. Young shoots and twigs downy and glandular-hairy. Common in woods and old fields from Canada to Florida. CORYLUS ROSTRATA (Aiton). Beaked hazel.--Leaves ovate or oblong, somewhat heart-shaped, pointed, doubly serrate; husk extending an inch or more beyond the round or ovoid nut, forming before it opens a long tubular beak, hence the name. The husk is densely covered with nettle-like bristles, which are quite irritating to tender hands. The nuts are small, usually growing in clusters at the ends of the twigs, only a few coming to maturity. A low shrub or small tree, usually growing in a dense clump, not spreading from subterranean stems, as in the last species. Common on rather firm and rich soil along the borders of streams, in the northern border States, and southward on the Alleghanies, but most abundant in the north through Canada, and westward to the Pacific in Washington and Oregon, where, in the mountains, it often assumes the tree form, growing to a hight of twenty-five to thirty feet, with a stem from four to six inches in diameter. The wood is light, soft, and very white to the center. It also extends southward to central California, but here it is only a small bush, this form having been described under the name of _Corylus rostrata_, var. Californica, A. de C. This species probably reaches its highest development in the Cascade range, in northern Oregon. The same or a closely allied species of the hazel extends far into northern Asia. There are no improved varieties of either of our native species of the hazel in cultivation. EUROPEAN SPECIES OF CORYLUS. [Illustration: FIG. 39. CONSTANTINOPLE HAZEL.] CORYLUS AVELLANA (Linn.). Common hazelnut.--Leaves roundish, heart-shaped, pointed, coarsely and unevenly serrate; husk bell-shaped, spreading, with a fringed or deeply cut margin. The original form of this nut is supposed to have been ovate or oval, but with a plant indigenous to such a wide range of climate and country, and one that has been so long under cultivation,--running wild in many localities where it is not a native,--it would be very difficult at this time to determine its primary botanical characters. A common shrub or small tree throughout the greater part of Europe and Asia. CORYLUS COLURNA (Linn.).--Constantinople hazel. Leaves roundish ovate, heart-shaped; husk double, the inner one divided into three deeply cleft divisions, the outer with many long, slender, curved segments, giving to the calyx or husk a fringed appearance, but leaving the end of the nut fully exposed (Fig. 39). Nuts small, and for this reason rarely cultivated. Native of Asia Minor, where the tree attains a hight of from fifty to sixty feet. It is, however, hardy in France and England, and was introduced into the latter country some three hundred years ago, probably by Clusius, who received either nuts or plants from Constantinople, hence its present name. There are several other hazels and filberts, so distinct from the two common European types that botanists have, in a few instances, been inclined to elevate them to the rank of species, and among these I may name _Corylus heterophylla_, or various-leaved filbert, from eastern Asia, also the _Corylus ferox_, or spiny filbert, which has a long and deeply cut or fringed husk. It is a native of the Sheopur mountain in Nepaul. But from the two common European species, _C. Avellana_ and _C. Colurna_, and their hybrids, many hundreds of varieties have been raised, and from among these we may readily select a dozen possessing all the distinct and estimable properties to be found in this genus of nut-bearing plants; to multiply names without securing anything of intrinsic value, is but a waste of time and labor on the part of the cultivator. As we have no popular varieties of American origin, I am compelled to consult European catalogues in making a selection of those most promising for cultivation here, and this is, perhaps, an advantage, inasmuch as our transatlantic cousins have had a long experience and abundant opportunities for determining the merits of the varieties they recommend. If hardiness and adaptation to our soil and climate are to be taken into account, in making a selection, then we may fail for the want of experienced guides, as it is undeniable that very few persons in this country have ever attempted to conduct extended experiments in the cultivation of either the native or European species and varieties of the hazel. Taking this view of the situation, I shall avail myself of the small but select list of varieties given in that standard work, "The Dictionary of Gardening," edited by Mr. George Nicholson, of the Royal Gardens, Kew, England. SELECT LIST OF VARIETIES. ALBA, OR WHITE FILBERT.--Considered in England one of the best varieties in cultivation. From the peculiar structure of the husk, which contracts rather than opens at the outer edge, this filbert can be kept longer in its cover than most others. As fashion demands that fresh filberts must be brought to the table in their husks, this variety deserves special attention. It is also known as Avelinier Blanche, Wrotham Park, etc. COSFORD, OR MISS YOUNG'S THIN-SHELLED.--Nut oblong, of excellent quality; husk hairy, deeply cut, about as long as the nut. Highly valued on account of the thinness of the shell. CRISPA, OR FRIZZLED FILBERT.--Shell thin, somewhat flattened; husk richly and curiously frizzled throughout, open wide at the mouth, and hanging about as long again as the nut. Ripens late, and one of the most productive. DOWNTON LARGE SQUARE.--Nut very large; shell thick and well-filled; husk smooth, shorter than the nut. A peculiarly formed semi-square nut, of the best quality. LAMBERT'S FILBERT (_Corylus tubulosa_).--Nut large, oblong; shell thick and strong, the kernel being covered with a red skin; husk long, rather smooth, serrated at the edges, longer than the nut. A fine, strong-growing, free-fruiting variety. It is quite popular in California, where it has been in cultivation for twenty years or more under the name of Red Aveline. Specimens I have received from there were not as large as those raised in England, but this can be accounted for by the difference in climate. This variety is cultivated in Europe under various local names, as, for instance, Great Cob, Kentish Cob, Filbert Cob, and Large Bond Cob. GRANDIS, OR ROUND COB-NUT.--Nut large, short, slightly compressed, very thick and hard; husk shorter than the fruit, much frizzled and hairy. This is supposed to be the true Barcelona nut of commerce, and is one of the finest grown. This is the large round hazel or filbert so largely imported for the trade in this country. It has many synonyms, and among them we may record Downton, Dwarf Prolific, Great Cob and Round Cob. PURPLE-LEAVED FILBERT.--Usually cultivated as an ornamental shrub in this country, but under proper treatment it is one of the most valuable for its fruit. Leaves very large, and of a deep purple color. Nuts and husk of the same color, which they retain until cut by frosts. Nuts large, an inch in length; husks much longer than the nut, and slightly hairy. The catkins are tender and become winterkilled in our Northern States, but if the pistillate flowers are fertilized by pollen from some more hardy plant, this purple-leaved filbert is exceedingly prolific. I have gathered eighty nuts from a small bush in my garden, the flowers of which had been fertilized from another variety in early spring. RED FILBERT. Red Hazel, Avelinier Rouge.--Nut medium ovate, not long as in the _tubulosa_, or Lambert's filbert; shell thick; husk long and hispid. A very productive variety of good quality. SPANISH FILBERT.--Nut very large, oblong; shell thick; husk smooth, longer than the nut. A very large variety, sometimes confounded with the Round cob-nut and its synonyms. PERSONAL EXPERIENCE WITH FILBERTS. Believing that our failures are often of far more value, in the line of education, than our successes, I shall not hesitate to place my own on record as guideposts to those who may be seeking the most direct road to success in nut culture. Having had a rather extended and expensive experience in the cultivation of filberts, I propose giving a brief account of it here, with the hope that it may save some other enthusiast from losing time and money. My attention was first specially drawn to these nuts in 1858,--while a resident of the city of Brooklyn, N. Y.,--by a neighbor who had a moderately large garden, on three sides of which he had planted a row of English filberts. These trees, at the time, had attained a hight of about fifteen feet, with broad, open heads, and they rarely failed to produce a heavy crop of nuts, which sold readily at very remunerative prices, for as they were always gathered in the husks and sold by the pound, the amount obtained from these few trees seemed to be enormous, considering the small space they occupied in this garden. The owner of these filbert trees, being an Englishman by birth, never tired of showing his English filberts to visitors, and of descanting upon their value, as well as upon the stupid indifference of the Yankees in neglecting the cultivation of these valuable nuts. I imbibed enough of my neighbor's enthusiasm to secure a good stock of his plants, a few years later, for cultivation in my grounds here. The third year after planting, quite a number of the bushes produced a fair crop of nuts, but I noticed that an occasional shoot was affected with blight, and these were immediately cut out and burned. The next season more of the branches were affected, and from these the blight extended downward on the main stems, and when these were cut away the sprouts from below made a very vigorous and apparently healthy growth, some reaching a hight of six feet the first season, but a year or two later these were also attacked and destroyed by blight. Finding that the filberts in my grounds were doomed, I visited my old neighbor in Brooklyn, hoping to learn something of the origin or cause of the disease; but the blight had invaded his garden, and not a tree remained. On my return from this visit I had every filbert and hazel plant on my place dug up and burned, thinking by such means to stamp out the disease. After waiting ten years, I thought it time to try filberts again, and to be certain of securing pure and healthy plants, I concluded to raise them from the nuts, and sent an order for a few pounds of the largest and best variety to be found in the celebrated filbert orchards of Kent, Eng. In due time the nuts arrived, and they were very large, and all of one variety, as ordered. They were mixed with sand and buried in the garden until the following spring, then sown thinly in shallow drills and covered with about two inches of rich soil. [Illustration: FIG. 40. ENGLISH FILBERT ORCHARD, FIVE YEARS FROM SEED.] [Illustration: FIG. 42. EXTRA LARGE HAZEL SEEDLING OR ROUND ENGLISH FILBERT.] [Illustration: FIG. 41. VARIETIES OF FILBERTS AND HAZEL SEEDLINGS.] At the close of the first season the plants were from one to two feet high and quite stocky, with a mass of small fibrous roots. The next spring they were transplanted into nursery rows, and set about one foot apart. The third spring I laid out about one acre for a specimen filbert orchard, and after the ground had been thoroughly prepared, the plants were set ten feet apart in the row, and twelve between the rows. No crop was planted among the trees, but the ground was kept clean and free from weeds during the summer, with cultivator and harrow. All suckers springing from the base of the stems were removed as soon as they appeared, and under such treatment the plants made a vigorous growth. Two years later quite a number of the trees came into bearing, these showing that I was likely to have nearly as many varieties in my orchard as there were trees. Some of the varieties might be better than the parent, but the greater part were certain to be inferior in size. The fourth year after planting in the orchard the trees gave me a heavy crop of nuts, and they made a fine appearance as one looked down between the long rows, as shown in Fig. 40. But this season my old enemy, the filbert blight, appeared again, and branches and main stems began to blacken and the leaves to wither. But I had bushels of nuts and in great variety, and by sending specimen baskets of the long-husk varieties to dealers in New York, learned that there was an almost unlimited demand for such nuts, at prices ranging from thirty to seventy-five cents per pound, if sent to market in their fresh, half-ripened husk; but later on, when the nuts have fallen out and become thoroughly ripened, as when imported, ten cents a pound may be considered an average price for the larger varieties. Several of these are shown in Fig. 41, of natural size and form. Another extra-large hazel is shown in Fig. 42. The fifth year after planting, my specimen filbert orchard had suffered so much from blight that it appeared as shown in Fig. 43; but a few dozen trees have been reserved, the rest being removed and reduced to ashes. [Illustration: FIG. 43. FILBERT ORCHARD STRUCK WITH BLIGHT, FIFTH YEAR FROM SEED.] =Name and Nature of the Filbert Blight.=--The reader must not suppose that one who has spent as much time and money as the writer in experimenting with these nuts, would make no effort to discover the origin and name of such a virulent disease, and means of destroying it if these were known. For many years I had been well aware of its presence in nearly all of the nurseries of the older States, as well as in the public parks and private gardens. In the meantime I had diligently examined the reports of the Division of Vegetable Pathology of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, as well as the hundreds of bulletins of the various State experiment stations, treating of the fungous diseases of plants, all without finding a hint or reference to this widely distributed and destructive blight of the filbert. I also sent many specimens of the diseased twigs and branches to professional mycologists, with no better results. With the nature of the disease, its mode of multiplication and distribution, I had become somewhat familiar, but the information sought was: Had it ever been described and given a scientific name, and if so, where, and by whom? This much of its history had somehow escaped me, and, as it would appear from the following correspondence, the chances were none too good of finding it. In reply to an inquiry directed to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Division of Vegetable Pathology, I received the following: WASHINGTON, D. C., Aug. 4, 1894. DEAR SIR: Your letter of Aug. 2, relating to the disease of the filbert, is at hand. In reply I have to say that we have not investigated this trouble, and are therefore unable to furnish you with any definite information upon it. Specimens of the disease, as you describe it, have never been, so far as I know, referred to the Division, nor am I able to find any record of any such disease in foreign or domestic literature. If you will send us specimens we shall be pleased to examine them and furnish you a report. We should also be pleased to have any information from you in regard to the manner in which the disease works. Very truly, B. T. GALLOWAY, _Chief of Division_. The specimens requested were forwarded promptly by mail, and in the absence of the Chief of Division, they fell into the hands of one of his assistants, who reported as follows: DEAR SIR: Your letter of Aug. 7 is received, together with the specimens. The stems of the _Corylus_ are affected with one of the Pyrenomycetes. _Cryptospora anomala_, Pk. The fungus is described in "North American Pyrenomycetes," by Ellis and Everhart, p. 531. It attacks _Corylus Americana_, but appears to be worst on the European varieties, as you say. The pustules appear first on the young branches, and later on the older ones and on the trunk. The roots are not killed. The only remedy known is to cut out and burn the diseased stems. Whether Bordeaux mixture or any other copper solution will protect the shrub from attack, is not known. So far as I know, it has not been tried. It is probable, however, that if the stems were thoroughly sprayed with the Bordeaux mixture they would be protected from attack. The mycelium of the fungus grows into the cambium and practically girdles the stems. The black pustules contain the spores. Very truly yours, ALBERT F. WOODS, _Acting Chief_. On the receipt of this note of Prof. Woods, I looked up Ellis and Everhart's work, a voluminous one of over 800 octavo pages, published by the authors at Newfield, N. J. This filbert blight is briefly described under the scientific name of _Cryptospora anomala_, Pk., but Prof. Peck writes me that "the description was made from specimens discovered near Albany, N. Y., in May, 1874. In 1882 this description was republished by Saccardo, in his "Syllage Fungorum," Vol. I, p. 470, under the name of _Cryptosporella anomala_. The original name in Report 28, p. 72, was _Diatrype anomala_. In 1892 Ellis and Everhart, in "Pyrenomycetes of North America," p. 531, changed the name again, making it _Cryptospora anomala_." So at present we have the names of this fungus in the following order: _Diatrypes anomal_, Peck, 1876. _Cryptosporella anomala_, Sacc., 1882. _Cryptospora anomala_, E. and E., 1892. Ellis and Everhart, after giving scientific description, add, "On living stems of _Corylus Americana_, Albany, N. Y. (Peck), Iowa (Holoway), on _Corylus Avellana_, Newfield, N. J. The pustules appear first on the smaller branches, and are serrately arranged along one side of the branch; afterwards they appear also on the larger branches and on the trunk itself, and in the course of two or three years the part of tree above ground is entirely killed. The roots, however, still retain their vitality, and continue to send up each year a luxuriant growth of new shoots, destined to be destroyed the succeeding year by the inexorable pest. The imported trees seem to be more injuriously affected than the native species." The observations of Ellis and Everhart and Prof. Woods accord with my own, but I may say that the infested branches often show the presence of the mycelium in the bark and alburnum,--by a slight shrinking,--weeks or months before the pustules appear, for these are merely indications of the last stage in the life of the fungus, and with the throwing off the spores from these pustules the old parasite perishes. The pustules, when fully open, are from one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch in diameter, usually round, but sometimes slightly oval in form, and placed mainly in almost straight rows lengthways of the branch, as shown in Fig. 44. These pustules appear on wood of all ages, from two years upward, and in what may be termed patches, ranging from a few inches to a foot or more in length, and more frequently on the upper side than the underside of the branches. [Illustration: FIG. 44. HAZEL FUNGUS.] This fungus is undoubtedly indigenous, and its host plant is the common American hazel (_C. Americana_). From a very careful search, I have not been able to find any clump of these bushes of any considerable size that was entirely free from pustulous stems. But on these wild plants it seems to do but little harm, for if a stem is killed, another soon springs up from the roots to take its place; but when this fungus invades our orchards and gardens and attacks filbert trees, we recognize it as an implacable enemy. How far the spores of this fungus are likely to be carried by the wind, transported on the clothes of a person, or the hair of domestic animals, I do not know, but it certainly is not safe to plant the susceptible species and varieties within a mile of the wild hazel bushes, unless the planter is prepared to use fungicides freely on his trees. There are certain phases of this filbert blight that are rather obscure and scarcely explainable; as, for instance, its virulence among some species and varieties, and almost if not total absence among others. So far as my observation extends, I have never found it attacking the native beaked hazel (_Corylus rostrata_), and my correspondents in the Northwest and in the Pacific States assure me that no blight on the hazel has, as yet, been found there, and its absence is probably due to the fact that the common hazel (_C. Americana_) is not an inhabitant of these regions. In a neighbor's garden just across the highway from my own, there are, at this time, four old European hazelnut trees, fully twenty feet high and as many years old. They are of two varieties: one a small round nut, the other a long, slender nut, but neither of much value, because of their small size. The trees, however, are perfectly healthy, never having suffered from the blight, although these four are all that remain of a long row of choice European varieties all planted at the same time. Blight destroyed the better varieties, while these inferior ones continue to thrive and are exceedingly productive. This native fungus that causes blight in the hazels is but one of a large number of similar maladies which have appeared and often worsted the horticulturist, in his endeavor to introduce and cultivate foreign species and varieties of plants, and like the tropical fevers, they may pass unnoticed among the natives, but are terribly fatal to immigrants from cooler climates. The disease so well known as the black knot (_Otthia morbosa_, Schu.), and widely destructive to the European varieties of the plum, and Morello cherries, has existed for ages among our native plums and black cherries, doing comparatively little harm; but it seems to protest, by its virulence, against the introduction of some foreign species. The same is true with various blights and rusts which attack the exotic pear, apple, quince, peach, and other of the larger fruits, and we have only to ascend the scale a few degrees from the microscopic fungi to the microscopic insects, to meet on the very threshold of this realm the minute but unconquerable grape louse (_Phylloxera vastatrix_), which for more than two centuries has prevented the successful cultivation of the European varieties of the grape in the open air everywhere east of the Rocky mountains in North America; although this minute insect has ever been present and a constant parasite of the indigenous species of the grape, but scarcely affecting the health of its host. The plum curculio, chestnut and hickory weevils, bean weevil, and many other similar species of insects appear to be ever protesting against the introduction of exotic plants, as well as the improvement of our indigenous kinds. It is this blight, and nothing else, that has prevented the extensive cultivation of the improved varieties of the European filbert and hazelnut in this country, and not the uncongenial soil and climate, as has been so often "officially" proclaimed by men whose theories are far greater than their practical knowledge of such subjects. Men whose experience with these nuts has been limited to a few isolated bushes or trees in gardens or nurseries, where they were protected, or beyond the reach of the spores of the blight fungus, as has already been noted in the experience of Prince, Downing, Barry, and my neighbor Butler, of Brooklyn, could scarcely understand why others should remain so indifferent to such a promising industry, or why the demand for the trees remained so limited, with scarcely an attempt to plant filbert orchards anywhere in this country. Nurserymen have continued to offer the choice varieties at low prices per plant, and to advise their customers to cultivate filberts extensively, even to setting them in hedgerows; and yet home-grown filberts remain as rare in our markets as they were a hundred years ago, and all due to the simple reason that the insidious filbert blight still scatters its spores unrestrained. With the present almost universal employment of various fungicides for the destruction of blights, mildews and rusts on cultivated fruits and vegetables, we may confidently assert that the diseases of the filbert may be readily controlled by the same means. The spraying of the trees with Bordeaux mixture and other copper solutions will certainly destroy the fungus spores, and with these out of the way filbert culture may become of as much importance and as popular here as it is in certain countries of Europe. In my own experience I have found no other nut tree (barring always the blight) that has been more satisfactory. The plants come forward rapidly, fruiting freely and abundantly when young, and if properly trained, the crop can be gathered with little labor, and as it is ready for use a month or more in advance of the arrival of fresh nuts from abroad, the home market during the time is at our command. The number of applications of the fungicides that will be necessary during the season to rid the trees of blight, or the strength of the copper solution used, will depend somewhat upon circumstances and the condition of the subjects operated upon. If the trees are growing near hedges of wild hazels, where there is a constant or annual influx of the fungus spores, then greater care will be required to suppress them than if the trees are some distance from such sources of contagion; and it may be well for those contemplating planting filbert orchards, to examine their surroundings carefully in advance, in order to avoid local blight-breeding plants, and have these destroyed if any are found. I would also warn the cultivator against collecting branches of the wild hazel in the spring, carrying pollen-bearing catkins to be employed in fertilizing the pistillate flowers of the cultivated varieties, for by such means blight spores may be readily introduced into orchard and garden. It will seldom be necessary to practice artificial fertilization, where any considerable number of trees are grown near together, because if ninety per cent. of the male catkins are winterkilled, the few remaining will be sufficient to supply pollen for the pistillate flowers. In my grounds filberts have never failed to produce annual crops after reaching a bearing age, although they have been subjected to great extremes of temperature in winter. One year the trees were in full bloom the last week in February, and although cold weather followed, the protected pistillate flowers were not injured. The winters of 1894 and 1895 were among the severest, in the way of continuous low temperature, I have ever experienced here, and while the filberts did not bloom until the first week in April, the crop proved to be abundant. =Insects Injurious to Filberts.=--My personal observations lead me to believe that the filberts and hazels are, in this country, remarkably free from the depredations of noxious insects. Two species of nut weevils have been reported as breeding in the wild hazelnuts, viz., _Balaninus obtusus_, and _B. nasicus_, but among the many bushels of the European varieties of the filbert produced in my grounds I have never found one infested by a weevil or other insect. In Europe a nut weevil (_B. nucum_) is said to be very destructive to the wild hazel, often invading the filbert orchards, and this we can readily believe, because they are not at all uncommon in the imported nuts, but fortunately have not, as yet, become naturalized in this country. The great hazel-leaf beetle, or as more generally known, elm-leaf beetle (_Monocesta coryli_), has been known in a few instances to attack and defoliate large patches of the wild hazel bushes, but this insect seems to prefer the elm, hence is rarely found on the hazels. But should it ever invade our filbert orchards, it can be readily destroyed by dusting or spraying the trees with Paris green, London purple, or other well-known insecticides. There may be an occasional invasion of caterpillars, like the tent worms, spanworms, leaf rollers of various species, and what are called leaf miners, but as these infest almost all kinds of deciduous trees and shrubs, we cannot consider them specially injurious to the filberts and hazels. CHAPTER VII. HICKORY NUTS. Hicoria, _Rafinesque_. Name probably derived from the aboriginal or Indian word hickery, or hickory, the common name for these nuts among the tribes formerly inhabiting the Middle and Southern Atlantic States. =Order=, _Juglandaceæ_ (Walnut family).--Native deciduous trees of large size, with compound serrate leaves with an odd number of leaflets, varying from five to fifteen in the different species, the three terminal ones usually much the largest, the lower ones on opposite sides of the rather stout leafstalk. Male catkins slender, cylindrical, pendulous, two to six inches long, three in a cluster, on a naked peduncle or stalk (Fig. 46) springing from the base of the terminal buds of the previous season's twigs, and just below the first set of new leaves in spring; calyx unequally three-parted; stamens three to eight. Female flowers two or more in a cluster, from the end of the new growth of the season, which becomes the common peduncle or fruit-stalk of a single nut or cluster of nuts. The flowers are destitute of petals; stigma short, broad, and four-lobed; husk fleshy or leathery, smooth, very thick in some species and thin in others, partly or wholly four-lobed, opening in some, allowing the nut to drop out at maturity, in others adhering, falling off entire when ripe. Nuts with hard, bone-like shell, round or oblong, smooth or deeply four to six angled, somewhat flattened or compressed in most of the species; kernel two-lobed, oily, sweet and delicious, as in the common shellbark hickory, or extremely bitter, as in the bitter nut. =History.=--The early white settlers of the Atlantic States found the hickory nut in common use among the Indians, who gathered and stored them in large quantities in the fall, for food during the winter months, and while our ancestors who sought to make homes in the western wilderness may have appreciated these luxuries, they needed land for cultivation, and to secure it the forests were destroyed, with no thought of preserving trees that would yield food for themselves or succeeding generations. Not only were the forests cleared away, as things to be banished from sight and mind, but as the hickories yielded superior timber for various agricultural and other implements, as well as for fuel, they were often sought for and utilized in advance of the general clearing of wood lands, and the first to feel the woodman's axe. William Bartram, in the account of his travels through the Southern Atlantic States, from 1773 to 1778, and published in Philadelphia in 1791, says, in referring to these nuts, that they are held "in great estimation with the present generation of Indians, particularly _Juglans exaltata_, commonly called shellbarked hickory; the Creeks store up the latter in their towns. I have seen above an hundred bushels of these nuts belonging to one family. They pound them to pieces, and then cast them into boiling water, which, after passing through fine strainers, preserves the most oily part of the liquid; this they call by a name which signifies 'hickory milk;' it is as sweet and rich as fresh cream, and is an ingredient in most of their cookery, especially in hominy and corn cakes." We can readily imagine what a delicious liquid hickory milk must be in which to cook hominy, rice, and similar kinds of grain; and there would be no danger from tuberculosis in this natural product of the vegetable kingdom. Perhaps at some future day, when milch cows are as rare in this country as they have been for ages in China and Japan, hickory milk will come into vogue again and be more highly valued by our people than it ever was by the aborigines. While we have no romantic tales to repeat in which either hickory trees or the nuts have played an important part, yet we can well imagine that such delicious food must, in ages past, as well as in our own times, have been a coveted luxury, enjoyed at many a social gathering of friends and neighbors. Many a country boy and girl has welcomed the early autumn frosts, because they announced the opening of the nutting season, reminding them of the long winter evenings near at hand, and that the industrious and nimble squirrel was a sharp competitor in the nutting field; consequently, no time could be wasted if a store of such luxuries was to be gathered for home use, or to be sent to city or village market for the benefit of less fortunate consumers. It is to be hoped that this source of pleasure and profit may continue long after the original forests of our country have disappeared, and through the preservation and planting of the noble food-bearing hickories by the roadsides, in orchards, also for shelter, shade and ornament. Valuable as hickory timber and hickory nuts have always been to the inhabitants of this country, we might reasonably suppose that there would be many thousands of these trees planted every year, in order to keep up a supply and make good the annual loss sustained in the destruction constantly going on in our forests. But no such plantings appear to have been undertaken in our Northern States, and only quite recently in the Southern, where the pecan nut is attracting considerable attention, on account of the increase in demand, and the advance in price obtained for them in the markets. Furthermore, with the many millions of dollars expended by the general government to encourage the planting, preservation and cultivation of forest trees, no special encouragement has been extended to the nut-bearing kinds, and the man who plants a cottonwood or worthless willow is given as much credit as though he planted and reared a tree a thousand times more valuable to himself and the country at large. This may not be a very creditable phase of nut culture in the United States, but it is history, nevertheless, and to attempt to suppress it would merely be encouraging negligence, which has already become so general that the inferior varieties of hickory nuts command a much higher price in our markets than the very choicest did a few years ago. The nomenclature of the walnut family has been subjected to various revisions by botanists, during the present century, and there are probably others yet to follow in the near or distant future. In all other standard botanical works published prior to 1817-1818, the hickories were classed with the butternut, black walnut and Persian walnut, and under the generic name of _Juglans_. But in the year 1818 Mr. Thomas Nuttall, an eminent English botanist, who had given years to wandering through our forests and studying American plants, separated the hickories from the older genus of _Juglans_, placing them in a new one, to which he gave the name of _Carya_, from an ancient Greek name of the walnut tree. This classification of Nuttall's was immediately adopted by the botanists of his time, and has been observed, scarcely without question, by the authors of all the numerous botanical works published in America and Europe during the past seventy-five years. But now we are informed by some of our noted botanists that, in deference to the law of priority dominant in matters scientific, Nuttall's name for this genus must be abandoned, inasmuch as Mr. C. S. Rafinesque, an erratic Frenchman possessing considerable ability for botanical research, and who came to this country several years before Nuttall,--as some recent investigations appear to prove,--defined the distinct characteristics of the hickories, and not only proposed, but published the name _Hicoria_ for this genus in 1817, while Nuttall's _Carya_ did not appear until one year later, viz.: 1818. For these dates I am mainly indebted to Dr. N. L. Britton, who appears to have been delving among "first editions" of the works of the authors named (Bulletin, Torrey Botanical Club, 1888). It seems strange, however, at this late date, that such eminent botanists as the late Dr. John Torrey and Dr. Asa Gray, who were both intimately acquainted with, in fact associates of, Rafinesque, should have ignored his rights in regard to the name of _Hicoria_, if he was really entitled to the honor of founding this genus and separating the hickories from the _Juglans_. But for some good reason they left the matter in abeyance, for their successors to settle. Dr. Torrey does, in a way, recognize Rafinesque, in his "Catalogue of Plants Within Thirty Miles of the City of New York," published in 1819, but in a manner which shows that he had no confidence in Rafinesque's claim, but did approve of Nuttall's classifications and name of _Carya_, for on page 74 he refers to the hickories as follows: "_Carya_, Nuttall; _Hickoria_, Rafinesque." From this it appears that Dr. Torrey did not adopt _Hicoria_ as the proper mode of spelling this word, but retained the letter k in giving it a Latin form. This is not strange, inasmuch as Rafinesque had no settled form of his own, and varied the spelling at different times; as, for instance, _Scoria_, _Hicoria_, _Hickorius_ and _Hicorius_. It is but reasonable to suppose that Dr. Torrey was familiar with Rafinesque's earlier writings, and also whether his proposed generic name of _Scoria_, in 1808, was legitimate, or a misspelling of _Hicoria_, as suggested by Dr. Britton. But of one thing we may rest assured, and that is, Dr. Torrey would not knowingly detract from, nor fail to give every man full credit for his labors in any branch of natural history or elsewhere, and he certainly must have known Rafinesque in all his eccentricities and moods, for when in New York city he was usually the guest of Dr. Torrey, and these relations continued for many years. A few of our leading botanists, having recently decided that Rafinesque's name of _Hicoria_ must be restored, in deference to the laws of priority, and Nuttall's _Carya_ be relegated to the position of a synonym, I have concluded to adopt it in this work, although I am well aware that a large majority of our botanists have protested against this change, probably because of the confusion it is likely to cause in the botanical literature of our times. My own reason for adopting _Hicoria_ is not so much from any special reverence to the laws of priority, but because it is derived from an old American Indian name, and for all such I have a profound regard, and would retain and adopt them whenever and wherever they are at all appropriate to products indigenous to this country. The hickories being purely American, and unknown to Greece or Greeks, a semi-native name is all the more acceptable. It is not to be expected that botanical quibbles are of any special interest to the practical nut culturist, for a pecan or a shellbark hickory will taste just as sweet and command as high a price in market under one scientific name as another; but the cultivator may have occasion to look up the botanical name of his trees in some school botany, or other botanical work, and fail to find it, in the absence of some guide to the various changes that have been made in the name of the genus, as well as in the name of the synonyms of the different species. Then, again, propagators and dealers in trees are prone to employ unfamiliar names, whether they are old or new, this adding to the confusion, without benefit to either purchaser or cultivator. To assist those who may have occasion to consult these pages for either the common or botanical names of the different species of the hickory, I shall endeavor to give the greater part of those compiled by Prof. C. S. Sargent (Tenth Census), Dr. Britton, and other eminent authorities whose works I have had occasion to consult in writing this treatise. It is not certain, however, that these revisions and readjustments of the scientific names of this genus of trees will remain undisturbed for any considerable number of years, for we have "many men of many minds" at work in the line of botanical research, and it can scarcely be expected that all will reach the same conclusion, either in fact or fancy; besides, it is often difficult, if not wholly impossible, to determine a species from the description given by the earlier botanists, for they are generally very brief and vague, and will often apply equally well to two or more species of the same genus. In some instances not a word is given in the way of description, merely a name, as in "Bartram's Travels" (1791), where he speaks of _Juglans exaltata_, a tall-growing hickory found in the region through which he was traveling, and we now know that it may have been any one of two or three species indigenous to the Southern States. Under such confusing circumstances I shall make no claim of infallibility in applying names to species, but attempt no more than my predecessors have in the same direction, and my contemporaries are now attempting, i. e., make as close a guess as possible as to the species or variety of hickory which the earlier authors intended to name and briefly describe. The date of publication of some of the earlier works consulted are given, as an earnest of my desire to assent to the law of priority in such matters. [Illustration: FIG. 45. FOURTEEN YEARS OLD PECAN TREE IN MISSISSIPPI.] PECAN NUT, ILLINOIS NUT (_Hicoria Pecan._ Marshall).--Leaves with thirteen to fifteen leaflets, oblong-lanceolate, serrate, pointed; nuts mostly oblong, smooth; husk thin, somewhat four-angled and four-valved, these at maturity shrinking, and falling apart when dropping to the ground. Shell of nut generally thin, smooth or slightly corrugated, varying widely in both form and size from less than one inch in length to nearly or quite two inches, abruptly blunt, or long and sharp pointed; the two-lobed cotyledon or kernel oily, sweet and delicious. A large, tall, but usually slender tree, with smooth or slightly furrowed bark, as seen in Fig. 45. Mainly indigenous to river bottoms in the Southern and Southwestern States, extending northward to Indiana, Illinois, Missouri and Southern Iowa. Synonyms and their authors: _Juglans Pecan_, Marshall, Arboretum Americanum, 1785. _Juglans Pecan_, Walter, 1787. _Juglans olivæformis_, Willdenow, 1809. _Carya olivæformis_, Nuttall, 1818. _Juglans Illinoiensis_, Wangenheim, 1787. _Juglans angustifolia_, Aiton, Hortus Kewensis. _Juglans rubra_, Gærtner. _Juglans cylindrica_, Lamarck. SHELLBARK OR SHAGBARK HICKORY (_Hicoria alba_. Clayton).--Leaflets mostly five, occasionally seven, the three upper ones obovate-lanceolate, the lower pair much smaller and oblong-lanceolate, as shown in Fig. 46, all taper-pointed, finely serrate, and slightly downy underneath. Terminal buds large and scaly. Fruit globose, somewhat depressed; husk smooth, very thick, firm, scarcely shrinking at maturity, but opening and falling with the nuts when ripe. Nuts variable in size, mainly thin-shelled, white, compressed or flattened, four-angled, with deep corrugations, blunt, rarely sharp-pointed; kernel large, sweet and excellent. One of the most common and popular of the indigenous edible nuts, collected in large quantities as they ripen in autumn, for home use and for sale, as the demand for this excellent nut is almost unlimited. A large tree, fifty to eighty feet high, and stem one to three feet in diameter, with a shaggy or scaly bark, which on old trees may be readily pulled off in long, shell-like plates. Timber well known as valuable for many purposes. This species has a very wide range, of from Maine to Florida in the Eastern States, and westward to Minnesota, thence southward through eastern Kansas, Missouri, Indian Territory and eastern Texas. Synonyms: _Juglans alba_, Clayton, Flora Virginica, 1739. _Juglans alba ovata_, Miller, Gard. Dict., 1754. _Juglans alba_, Linn., Spec. pl., 1754. _Juglans alba ovata_, Marshall, 1785. _Juglans compressa (?)_, Willdenow, 1809. _Juglans exaltata (?)_, Bartram, 1791. _Juglans alba_, Nuttall, 1818. _Juglans_ var. _microcarpa_, Nuttall. _Juglans squamosa (?)_, Lamarck. _Juglans ovalis (?)_, Wangenheim. Although Clayton, as with most of the earlier botanists, fails to give any description of the foliage of the hickories he mentions, and all have the affix _alba_ (white), yet his reference to the form of the nut and the scaly bark of the tree is sufficient to enable us to identify the species as that of our common shellbark hickory of the Atlantic States, which extends through the regions where he gathered his botanical specimens. [Illustration: FIG. 46. LEAF AND STERILE CATKINS OF SHELLBARK HICKORY.] [Illustration: FIG. 47. WESTERN SHELLBARK.] [Illustration: FIG. 48. SECTION WESTERN SHELLBARK.] BIG SHELLBARK, THICK OR WESTERN SHELLBARK, ETC. (_Hicoria laciniosa._ Michaux).--Leaflets seven to nine, obovate-oblong, finely serrate, roughish-downy or pubescent beneath. Buds large, composed of rather loose grayish scales; the young twigs stout, with a gray bark, most noticeable in winter. Fruit large, oval to oblong, usually four-ribbed above the middle, with depressions between; husk thick, somewhat spongy, shrinking at maturity, and splitting open from top downward. Nut large, with prominent ridges, and strongly pointed, but slightly compressed at the sides, as seen in Fig. 47; shell thick and of a dull yellowish color; kernel moderately large, as shown across section of nut in Fig. 48, but much smaller in proportion to the size of the nut than in the two preceding species, but it is sweet, well flavored, and easily removed from the shell when cracked. The very large size of these nuts makes them a favorite, especially where the pecan and the true shellbarks are not plentiful. These nuts were formerly known as the Springfield or Gloucester nut. A very large tree, sixty to eighty feet high, and two to four feet in diameter, with thick, scaly bark, the scales somewhat thicker than in the common shellbark hickory of the Atlantic States. A rare tree, except in the valleys west of the Alleghanies, although it is reported to have been found in Chester county, Pennsylvania, and thence west to southern Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, eastern Kansas, and the Indian Territory. Plentiful in the bottom lands along the Ohio, Mississippi and lower Missouri. Elliott, in "Botany of South Carolina and Georgia" (1824), says it is rare in the low country of Carolina, but he does not say that it is found plentiful anywhere in the South. That he was sometimes in doubt in regard to the identification of this and other species may be inferred from his remark, namely: "The greater part of our hickories resemble each other so closely in their leaves and vary so much in their fruit that it is very difficult to discriminate the species." It is this difficulty of identification which has led to so much confusion in the application of the specific names, for the earlier botanists rarely had an opportunity of a close and careful examination of the trees or other plants which they attempted to describe. In relation to the species under consideration, we find that the specific name of _sulcata_, so long in use, was adopted by Nuttall, from some earlier or contemporaneous author,--a system he followed with all the different species of the hickory, but without, in some instances, any discrimination or regard to their adaptation or validity. If there was anything to show that Willdenow (1796) had this Western shellbark in mind, or that he or his correspondents in this country had ever seen or collected it, then we might adopt the name of _sulcata_ as the original and true one; but in the absence of such information, with a full and accurate description of the species and its habitats by Michaux, under the name of _laciniosa_, I think, in common justice to one of the most eminent dendrologists who ever visited this country, the name given should stand as the true one for this species. See Michaux, "North American Sylva," Vol. I, p. 128. Synonyms: _Juglans sulcata (?)_, Willdenow, 1796. _Juglans laciniosa_, Michaux, 1810. _Carya sulcata_, Nuttall, 1818. _Carya cordiformis_, Koch, Dendrologie. The three preceding species are probably the only ones worthy of propagation for their fruit, or that have and are likely to yield varieties of any considerable economic value; but as it is important that the nut culturist should know the materials he is using, and whether they be of the best or otherwise, I shall admit all the species, without regard to their merits or value for cultivation. MOCKER NUT, BULL NUT, BIG-BUD HICKORY, KING NUT, WHITE-HEART HICKORY, ETC. (_Hicoria tomentosa._ Michaux).--Leaflets mostly seven, occasionally nine, large, oblong-obovate, rather long pointed, slightly serrate, smooth on both sides while young, becoming roughish downy underneath when fully developed in summer; leaf-stalks and catkins also somewhat downy. Fruit medium to very large, round or ovoid, with a very thick woody husk, which splits nearly or quite down to the base, but usually falling with the enclosed nut entire, or bursting open as they strike the ground. Nut very thick shelled, smooth, or strongly four to six angled, white at first, but becoming a dull brown when exposed to the light. The kernel is sweet, but so small and firmly imbedded in the thick shell that it is only to be removed in minute sections, but this is successfully accomplished by the squirrels, who often throw down the entire crop from large trees before the shells harden, and then pack them away in the ground, in old logs, and under the leaves, where they will not dry for some weeks or months later. An exceedingly variable species, especially in the size and form of the nuts; on some trees they are scarcely an inch in diameter, while on others they are nearly or quite two inches, but always with such a thick, hard shell as to be nearly worthless for their meats. The largest of these nuts I have ever seen grow in central and western New York, where they are called "King" or "Bull" nuts. [Illustration: FIG. 49. LEAF OF PIGNUT.] The trees grow to a very large size, or from sixty to eighty feet high, and two to three feet in diameter, with a thick, deeply furrowed bark, not scaly. The wood is white, heavy, tough, and nearly as valuable as the common shellbark hickory. The terminal buds, and especially those on the young seedlings and suckers springing up in clearings, are very large, round, short, and covered with brownish scales, hence one of the local names of big-bud hickory. A widely distributed species, or from the valley of the St. Lawrence to Florida, and along the great lakes to Nebraska, and thence southward to Texas. Unlike most of the other hickories, this species seems to prefer thin soils, rocky sandstone ridges, and here in New Jersey almost disappearing in the rich bottom lands along our creeks and rivers; at least, this is its habit here in the northern part of the State. Synonyms: _Juglans alba (?)_, Linn., 1754. _Juglans tomentosa_, Michaux, 1810. _Carya tomentosa_, Nuttall, 1818. _Carya tomentosa_ var. _maxima_, Nuttall. _Carya alba_, Koch, Dendrologie. PIGNUT, HOGNUT, BROWN HICKORY, BLACK HICKORY, SWITCH-BUD HICKORY (_Hicoria glabra._ Miller).--Leaflets five to seven, mostly seven (Fig. 49), ovate-lanceolate, serrate, smooth; fruit pear-shaped or roundish-obovate; husk very thin, splitting about half way down into four sections or valves, these usually remaining attached to the nut for some time after falling, in fact, may often be found within the husk all through the winter; shell of nut moderately thin but tough, with a small, bitterish-sweet kernel. A large, rather slender tree in similar and same localities as the last, with a close bark but not so deeply furrowed as in the mocker nut (_H. tomentosa_). Of no special value except as a timber tree, and its slow growth makes it less deserving of attention than those species that bear large and edible nuts. Synonyms: _Juglans glabra_, Miller, 1768. _Juglans alba acuminata_, Marshall, 1785. _Juglans obcordata_, Lamarck. _Juglans porcina_, Michaux. _Juglans pyriformis_, Muhlenberg. _Juglans porcina_, var. _obcordata_, Pursh. _Juglans porcina_, var. _pyriformis_, Pursh. _Carya porcina_, Nuttall. _Carya glabra_, Torrey. _Carya amara_, var. _porcina_, Darby. [Illustration: FIG. 50. BITTERNUT.] [Illustration: FIG. 51. BITTERNUT.] BITTERNUT, SWAMP HICKORY, PIGNUT (_Hicoria minima._ Marshall).--Leaflets seven to eleven, oblong-lanceolate, serrate, smooth and thin; fruit globular, with distinct ridges at the seams (Fig. 50); the husk very thin, and at maturity splitting about halfway to the base, the four divisions becoming reflexed in maturing, but not separating and falling apart as in the thicker-husk species. Nut broadest at the top, sharp-pointed, obcordata (Fig. 51), slightly depressed; shell very thin, smooth, white; kernel intensely bitter when fully ripe, but greedily eaten by squirrels when fresh or in a half milky state. Usually a medium-sized, graceful tree, with smooth bark, slender twigs, and small, oblong buds covered with a dense yellow pubescence in winter. It grows in moist soils, along streams and borders of swamps, and near springs on hill-sides, from Maine to Florida, and westward to Minnesota, Nebraska and Kansas. Humphrey Marshall described this species so accurately in his "American Grove," under the name of _Juglans minima_, p. 68, that there is no good reason to doubt its identity, nor question the validity of this name, which should remain as the true and original one, and all others of later date be placed among the synonyms. Synonyms: _Juglans_ (_alba_) _minima_, Marshall, 1785. _Juglans cordiformis_, Wangenheim, 1787. _Juglans angustifolia_, Lamarck, 1791. _Juglans amara_, Michaux, 1810. _Hickorius amarus_, Rafinesque, 1817. _Carya amara_, Nuttall, 1818. NUTMEG HICKORY (_Hicoria myristicæformis._ Michaux).--Leaflets five to seven, ovate-lanceolate, pointed, quite smooth on both sides, the terminal leaflet sessile, not stalked; fruit oval; husk wrinkled and rough, thick; nut small, oval, short-pointed; the shell furrowed and very hard, and of a brownish color marked with white lines. Michaux says: "The shell is so thick that it constitutes two-thirds of the volume of the nut, which, consequently, is extremely hard, and has a minute kernel. It is inferior to the pignut." A medium-size tree with slender branches, found in a few localities in South Carolina, near swamps and borders of streams, and westward to Arkansas, where it reaches its greatest development. This hickory has been so rarely seen by botanists that Michaux's specific name, given it more than eighty years ago, has fared a better fate than those of our more common and abundant species; consequently, I have only one synonym to record, viz.: _Carya amara_, var. _myristicæformis_, Cooper, in Smithsonian Report, 1858. WATER HICKORY, SWAMP HICKORY, BITTER PECAN (_Hicoria aquatica._ Michaux).--Leaflets nine to thirteen, generally eleven, narrow and obliquely lanceolate-pointed, slightly serrate, thin and smooth; fruit globular or somewhat egg-shaped, four-ribbed; husk thin, dividing at maturity down to the base; nut thin-shelled, four-angled; kernel much wrinkled and very bitter. This is closely allied to if not a more Southern form of our common bitternut. A small tree in swamps and river bottoms from North Carolina south to Florida, and west to Texas. Synonyms: _Juglans aquatica_, Michaux. _Hicorius integrifolia_, Rafinesque. _Carya aquatica_, Nuttall. _Carya integrifolia_, Sprengel. [Illustration: FIG. 52. LARGE, LONG PECAN NUT.] [Illustration: FIG. 53. OVAL PECAN NUT.] =Varieties of the Hickories.=--Every one who has ever had occasion to gather or examine hickory nuts in the forest, or has seen them in market, must be aware of the fact that there is an almost endless variety of each and all the different species. But as it is only the varieties of the pecan and thick- and thin-shelled shagbark hickories that are likely to be of any economic value to the nut culturist, all others will be omitted. Of the first or pecan nut the natural varieties are not only exceedingly numerous, but vary widely in size, form, thickness of shell, and productiveness of the individual trees. In some the nuts are produced singly or in pairs, and from this number up to clusters of seven or eight; these large-clustered and extra-prolific varieties are most worthy of special attention, especially when the nuts are of good size and thin-shelled, as in the large, long pecan (Fig. 52). From this size they vary, as shown in Figs. 53, 54, 55. Some of the wild varieties have received local names, and a very few propagated by grafting, which is probably the most practical means known of multiplying them, and at the same time preserving their varietal characteristics. Choice and extra fine ones are constantly being discovered and brought to notice, and doubtless many more will follow as the old fields and forests of the South and West are explored; besides, there are many thousands of seedling trees now under cultivation, and from these we may expect some marked variations from the original or wild forms. In Bulletin 105, of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station for 1894, and in Report of Assistant Pomologist of U. S. Department of Agriculture for same year, we find the following-named varieties of pecans: [Illustration: FIG. 54. SMALL OVAL.] [Illustration: FIG. 55. LITTLE MOBILE.] ALBA.--Size below medium, cylindrical, with pointed apex; cracking qualities good; shell of medium thickness; corky shell lining thick, adhering to the kernel; kernel plump, light colored; quality good. BILOXI (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).--Medium size, cylindrical, pointed at each end; surface quite regular, light brown; shell thin; cracking qualities medium; kernel plump, with yellowish-brown surface; free from astringency, of good quality, and keeps well without becoming rancid. Introduced several years ago by W. R. Stuart as Mexican Paper Shell, but the name has since been changed to Biloxi. COLUMBIAN (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.).--Large, cylindrical, somewhat compressed at the middle, rounding at the base; pointed and somewhat four-sided at the crown; shell rather heavy; cracking qualities medium; quality good. In size and form this nut closely resembles Mammoth, which was introduced in 1890 by Richard Frotscher, of New Orleans, La. EARLY TEXAN (Louis Biediger, Idlewild, Tex.).--Size above medium, short, cylindrical, with rounded base and blunt conical crown; shell quite thick, shell lining thick, astringent; cracking qualities medium; kernel not very plump, of mild, nutty flavor; quality good. GEORGIA MELON.--Size above medium, short, rather blunt at apex; cracking quality medium; shell rather thick; kernel plump, brown; meat yellow, moderately tender, pleasant, good. GONZALES (T. V. Munson, Denison, Tex.).--Above medium size, with firm, clear shell; quality excellent. Originated in Gonzales county, Tex. HARCOURT.--Size medium, short, slightly acorn-shaped; cracking qualities medium; shell rather thick, but very smooth inside; kernel short, very plump; meat yellow, very tender, rich, very good. LONGFELLOW.--Size medium, oblong, cylindrical, somewhat irregular, enlarging from base to near crown, then sharply conical to the apex; cracking qualities not first-class; shell of medium thickness; kernel plump but rather thin, light-colored; meat white, sweetish, rich, good. PRIMATE (W. R. Stuart, Ocean Springs, Miss.)--Of medium size, slender, rather long; shell thin; quality good; ripens in September, thirty days before other nuts. RIBERA.--Size above medium, oblong ovate; cracking qualities good; shell thin; kernel plump, light brown, free from the bitter, red, corky growth which adheres to the shell; meat yellow, tender, with rich, delicate, pleasant flavor. FAUST.--A South Carolina variety of medium to large size, medium shell and good quality. FROTSCHER.--A Louisiana variety of large size, very thin shell, and plump kernel of good quality. JEWETT.--From Mississippi; a large, long nut, rather irregular; shell medium; quality very good. [Illustration: FIG. 56. STUART.] STUART.--A large, roundish, oblong nut from Mississippi (Fig. 56). TURKEY EGG.--A variety from Florida; large and thin-shelled. [Illustration: FIG. 57. VAN DEMAN.] VAN DEMAN.--A large variety from Mississippi, of oblong form and thin shell (Fig. 57). From other sources we collect other names, namely: IDLEWILD.--An oval shaped nut from Idlewild, Texas. Report of U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1890. RISIEN.--A very broad, thick variety, about one inch in diameter, very blunt at both ends. From San Saba, Texas (Fig. 58). [Illustration: FIG. 58. RISIEN.] A peculiar shaped pecan nut is shown in Fig. 59, from Louisiana, sent under the name of Lady Finger. [Illustration: FIG. 59. LADY FINGER.] From the report of the Georgia State Horticultural Society, 1893, we obtain certain local names without description, as, for instance, Turkey Egg, Mexican, Colorado, Pride of the Coast, etc. Col. W. R. Stuart, of Ocean Springs, Miss., who has been called the "father of pecan culture" in that State, and is the author of "The Pecan and How to Grow it," adds two more varieties to the above list, viz.: Beauty and Columbia; the latter, as figured in the book named, is a very large variety, tapering from a broad base to a sharp point. Judge Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., found some very large and fine varieties of the pecan in his neighborhood several years ago, on the farm of a man named Meyers, and he purchased the nuts from the tree bearing the largest in the grove and planted them, and the seedlings have since been distributed under the name of "Meyers' Pecan." Judge Miller kindly sent me a quantity of these nuts, from which I raised some fifty or more trees, and all have thus far been uninjured by the cold of our severest winters. From my own experience in raising pecan trees, and I may add, that of some of my neighbors, those grown from nuts gathered in the more Southern States are almost invariably tender here in the North; but those raised from thoroughly acclimated trees, along the northern limits of this species, will give us a hardy race, and probably allow of extending their cultivation far north of their natural range. Those who intend to try pecan culture in the Northern States should bear this in mind, and secure nuts and cions from hardy acclimated trees. =Varieties of the Shellbark.=--Of this species (_H. alba_) there are as many distinct natural varieties as of the pecan, and while local or neighborhood names are plentiful enough, they have not, except in a very few instances, been placed on record in agricultural reports or other publications. Three small thin-shelled varieties are named in the Report of the Pomologist of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1891, viz.: Milford, Shimar and Leaming, but neither has been propagated, and they are probably not worthy of it, because there are plenty of larger ones with thin shells which would be far more valuable for cultivation. [Illustration: FIG. 60. THE ORIGINAL HALES' PAPER-SHELL HICKORY TREE.] A careful research extending over a period of a quarter of a century yields only a solitary instance of the propagation and dissemination of a variety of the shellbark hickory, and this one is Hales' Paper-shell, which I named, described and figured in the _Rural New-Yorker_, Nov. 19, 1870, p. 382, Vol. XXII. I am thus particular in regard to time and place, because years hence these facts may be of more importance than at the present day. [Illustration: FIG. 61. HALES' HICKORY.] [Illustration: FIG. 62. SECTION OF HALES' HICKORY.] The original tree of this remarkable variety is growing upon the farm of Mr. Henry Hales, near Ridgewood, N. J., and on bottom land within a few rods of the Saddle river. The tree is probably more than a hundred years old, and is about seventy-five feet high, and nearly two feet in diameter at the base, and of the shape shown in Fig. 60, taken from a sketch made in the fall of 1894. There are a large number of the shellbark hickories growing near by, and while there are several excellent and very large varieties among them, the one I have named is by far the largest and most distinct in form, and with the thinnest shell; in fact, the shell is much thinner than in many of the pecan nuts that reach our Northern markets from the South. The size and form of these nuts is clearly shown in Fig. 61, while the thin shell and thick, plump kernel is seen in the cross-section, Fig. 62. It will be noticed that these nuts differ from the ordinary varieties of this species in the absence of the sharp ridges and depressions running from base to point, the surface of the shell being broken up into irregular, wavy lines, somewhat resembling the shell of the more common varieties of the Persian walnuts. I have occasionally seen very similar varieties,--but of smaller size,--among the mixed lots of hickory nuts on sale in our city markets, also oblong nuts, as shown in Fig. 63, but of course there is no way of tracing these to the trees producing them. [Illustration: FIG. 63. LONG SHELLBARK HICKORY.] [Illustration: FIG. 64. SHELLBARK MISSOURI.] Another merit, in addition to the large size and thin shell of the Hales' Paper-shell, is its keeping qualities, the kernels rarely becoming rancid, even when two or more years old, and from a long acquaintance with this nut and hundreds of other varieties gathered from all parts of the United States, I am inclined to place it at the head of the list, and as the most valuable sort as yet discovered. It is true, however, that I have found in the forests, and also received, many very large and superior nuts of this species, that are well worthy of propagation and cultivation, but they have been, in the main, of the typical form, and not of so distinct a type as this Paper-shell. Judge Miller sent me a few nuts of a shellbark found in Missouri, that were even larger, and with fully as thin shell as that of the Hales' (Fig. 64), but upon making further inquiries in regard to the tree that produced them, I learned that an incoming railroad line had destroyed it, and thus one more tree of inestimable value had been sacrificed in the march of this progressive age. =Varieties of the Western Shellbark.=--The typical form of the thick or Western shellbark (_H. laciniosa_) has already been shown on a preceding page, but some remarkable and valuable varieties have been found in the Western States, and no doubt others will be, when more attention is paid than at present to the natural food products of our forests. The tendency of this species, in its variations, is usually in the direction of an elongation of the nuts, even when there is no decrease in the thickness of the shell, as shown in Fig. 65, taken from one of a number of long varieties collected in the Western States; and while they do not possess any special merit, they attract attention, owing to their unusual form. [Illustration: FIG. 65. LONG WESTERN SHELLBARK.] [Illustration: FIG. 66. FRESH NUSSBAUMER HYBRID.] NUSSBAUMER'S HYBRID.--Several years ago I received a specimen of a very remarkable nut from Judge Samuel Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., under the name of "Nussbaumer's Hybrid Pecan." Judge Miller informed me that he had received it from Mr. J. J. Nussbaumer, Mascoutah, St. Clair Co., Ill., who claimed that it was a hybrid between the pecan and the large western shellbark hickory (_H. laciniosa_). I had an illustration made of this specimen, and it appeared, with a brief description, in the _American Agriculturist_ for Dec., 1884, p. 546. Soon after receiving the specimen nut from Judge Miller I opened correspondence with Mr. Nussbaumer, and learned from him that only one tree bearing such nuts had ever been found, and this was of large size, six and a half feet in circumference, and about fifty feet high, the bark somewhat like that of the hickory but nearer the pecan. Mr. Nussbaumer sent me specimens of the green nuts with leaves and twigs, from the original tree. The nuts, however, of that season (1884), were badly infested with the "hickory-shuck worm" (_Grapholitha caryana_, Fitch), and these had so ruined the shucks, and even eaten into the shells of the nuts, that few of the specimens received were fully developed. But from two nuts I had a sketch made while they were fresh and of natural size, as shown in Fig. 66, the dark, irregular marks on the husks showing where the shuck worm had attacked them. One of these nuts is shown in Fig. 67, also natural size. I planted one of the nuts, from which I now have a tree about ten feet high, but although ten years old it has not fruited, and, so far as I can judge from its appearance, is a pure Western shellbark, with no indication of hybridity; but of course this does not prove that the original or parent tree is not a hybrid, as claimed by Mr. Nussbaumer, Judge Miller, and, if I am rightly informed, Prof. T. J. Burrill, of the University of Illinois. [Illustration: FIG. 67. NUSSBAUMER'S HYBRID.] However widely opinions may differ in regard to the origin of this variety, it is certainly a most remarkable nut, and I regret that the exact location of the original tree has entirely escaped my most careful seeking; and of late years I have been unable to learn anything of Mr. Nussbaumer, further than that he had moved from Mascoutah to Okawville, Ill., the last letter received from him being dated Dec. 13, 1887. In one of his letters he said that he had raised a large number of seedlings from this supposed hybrid, and if these are still alive they would be of much scientific interest, especially if any of them showed the distinct characteristics of either of the supposed parents. It would certainly be a pity to have such a remarkable nut lost to the world, because if propagated by grafting or by any other mode to insure perpetuating its varietal characteristics, its value could scarcely be estimated. The nuts are as thin-shelled as the common pecan, the kernel sweet and good, and in addition, the tree is a native of a northern State, and would, no doubt, prove as hardy as our common shellbark hickories. THE FLOYD PECAN.--This is another supposed-to-be hybrid, and of the same species of hickory as the last; but the one nut which I received differed from the Nussbaumer by being somewhat larger, and the shell with more prominent ridges and a little thicker. It was said to have been found somewhere in southern Indiana by a Mr. Floyd, who, believing it to be of great value, refused to give any information likely to aid any one else to locate the original tree, neither would he part with any of the nuts except the one specimen which eventually came into my hands. Of course all horticulturists know that seedlings raised from such freaks among nut trees are far too uncertain to be of much value, but ignorance in such matters often leads the possessor of an article slightly differing from the ordinary to permit his imagination to warp his good sense. =Cultivation of the Hickories.=--The hickories have been so seldom planted in our Northern States for any purpose, that anything like a systematic cultivation of these trees is a thing almost unknown. Of course there is no good reason why the hickories should not be multiplied and cultivated as well as other kinds of trees, but in some unknown way the idea became prevalent that these trees could not be transplanted with any assurance of success, and this has been kept alive, either through ignorance or by those whose interest led them to encourage the planting of the rapid-growing and easily propagated kinds, instead of those which, though less profitable to the producer, would be of far greater value to the purchaser. It must be admitted, however, that the hickories are not so tenacious of life as the willows, poplars, elms and similar kinds of trees, requiring more care in their cultivation if they are to be transplanted when of a proper size for setting along roadsides or elsewhere, for shade and ornament, but they are certainly no more difficult to make live than the beech, oak, tulip and various species of the magnolia. The slow growth of the hickories while young is another objection often urged as a fault of these trees, but there is nothing lost but time in waiting, and this passes just as swiftly whether we plant trees that may in ten years yield a golden harvest, or nothing but leaves; besides, the hickories respond as readily to stimulants and good care generally as the common fruit trees of our orchards. While the farmers of our Northern States are generally quite indifferent as to what becomes of their old hickory trees, and seldom attempt to preserve the wild seedlings that spring up in the fields and on the borders of forests, their fellow countrymen of the Southern States have, within the past two or three decades, discovered that they possess an inexhaustible source of wealth in their common pecan nut. Formerly these trees were sacrificed whenever a choice piece of tough timber was wanted, and often merely to secure the entire crop of nuts without waiting for nature to drop them within reach; but the advent of many lines of railroads, steamboats, and other means of communication with the great cities and their markets, has changed this inclination to destroy into one of preservation. The old pecan trees are not only appreciated as a source of income, but thousands and tens of thousands of seedlings are now annually raised and planted, to insure larger returns in the near or distant future. In fact, pecan culture has already become an important industry in several of the Southern States, although in point of age it is little more than a fledgling. We have no statistics to show what the annual crop averages in pounds or bushels, but it must be something enormous if we make our estimate from the quantities received and distributed in the Northern States. But with all the efforts put forth to secure a supply of these nuts, and the high prices they command at both wholesale and retail, the demand seems to keep well in advance of the supply, and this will, in all probability, continue as our population increases. In the way of demand, the same is true with our northern species of the shellbark hickories, which were formerly very abundant, but of late years have become rather scarce, for reasons too obvious to call for any explanation at this time. In selecting a location for planting and cultivating the hickories, including the pecan, a moist, deep soil is certainly preferable to any other, especially for the three species and their varieties most promising for this purpose, because we find them growing wild in such situations and soils. But while these naturally deep, rich and moist soils are to be preferred, no one need hesitate to plant hickories on light, dry, and even poor soils, if they are properly enriched, or a few shovelfuls of fine old stable manure is thoroughly mixed with the earth in which the roots are set, and then a mulch applied to the surface to keep the soil moist. Almost any old waste fibrous material, such as leaves, straw, hay, weeds or coarse manure, will answer for mulching newly planted trees, and it should be applied to a depth of three or four inches, and renewed annually, or as often as necessary to prevent the growth of grass or weeds growing within three or four feet of the stem of the tree. In all dry climates and soils mulching should be considered an important operation, not to be omitted until the trees are from six to ten years old, and it may usually be continued a longer time with benefit. =Propagation.=--All the species of the hickory are very readily grown from nuts gathered when ripe and planted within a few weeks; or they may be mixed with or stratified between layers of sand and light soil and buried in the open ground for the winter, and the planting deferred until the following spring. They are not at all delicate and will withstand considerable drying and neglect, and will grow, if stored in a cool cellar, without being packed in either soil, sand or other material. But as I have had no occasion to determine how much neglect these nuts will withstand, nor to what extremes of adverse conditions it is safe to subject them, I shall leave investigation in this direction to others, because in general practice no valuable seed or plant grows any too readily and freely to satisfy the cultivator, and for this reason I recommend either planting hickory nuts in the fall, or burying them between layers of light soil or sand, sifting out and planting early the following spring. If any considerable quantity is to be planted they should be dropped three or four inches apart in shallow trenches and covered about two inches deep. The distance between the rows may be from two to three feet, depending upon the implements to be used in their cultivation. The soil for a seedbed should, of course, be made rich and deep, or the same as recommended for chestnuts, and all the means usually employed to assist the growth of cultivated plants are applicable to nut trees. I may also add that cutworms, white grubs and other noxious insects are enemies of nut-tree seedlings as well as garden vegetables. The seedling hickories should be treated as advised for chestnuts; that is, dug up when one or, at the latest, two years old, and their central or taproot shortened to at least one-half their original length, and then reset in nursery rows, and at a distance of twelve to fifteen inches apart in the row. If grown in ordinary upland, the transplanted seedlings will make a better growth if heavily mulched than under the usual system of clean cultivation, and it is usually less expensive; besides, by keeping the surface of the soil cool and moist, we encourage and assist the production of fibrous lateral roots, which, as a rule, are none too abundant on seedling hickories, no matter under what conditions or system of cultivation they are raised. When the seedlings have grown in the nursery rows two or three years, they will probably be large enough for planting where they are to remain permanently; but if, for any reason, they are not disposed of, then they should be again transplanted,--the larger roots shortened,--and re-set in good rich soil. The object of transplanting is to insure the production of small fibrous roots, and a frequent renewal of the same, close to the main stem or stock, as long as the trees remain in the nursery, whether this be two or twenty years. This is somewhat of an expensive operation, but the value of stock thus handled is enhanced far more than the cost of such transplanting, and purchasers are, or at least should be, willing to pay a fair price for such trees. It is the natural habit of the hickories, as well as many other kinds of deciduous trees, to produce in their earlier stages of growth rather large, deeply penetrating, naked roots, with few small fibers, and in this condition they are not so readily and successfully transplanted as the kinds possessing a more ramified root system. This, perhaps, has misled many persons to believe that certain kinds of trees, like the hickories, could not be moved at all, or at least not with any assurance of being made to live. This idea has become so prevalent among inexperienced cultivators, and, I regret to add, often reiterated by theorists, that it has discouraged many who otherwise would have raised and planted nut trees in preference to other kinds. Admitting that it is the general habit of most kinds of forest trees to produce deeply penetrating taproots, when grown from seed, it proves nothing more than that these parts may be of some importance to the plants while they are young, and under natural conditions, yet they are not absolutely necessary, and, at most, are only temporary organs, like the tails of tadpoles, always disappearing with maturity. Any one at all observing, and having had an opportunity of examining limited or extended areas of forest trees thrown over by hurricanes, must have noticed that no tree of any considerable size and age possessed a taproot, but had been for years kept in its upright position by lateral brace-roots, and through these it had also obtained nutriment from the surface soil. Some of my correspondents in the South have expressed their surprise at not finding any trace of the original central roots on old pecan trees, when blown over by severe wind storms. But it is the same everywhere with forest trees and where the soil is naturally loose and moist: the principal or supporting roots spread out widely and remain near the surface, and the central roots or taproots disappear much earlier than in dry soils. In multiplying trees under artificial conditions, we remove the taproots, not only for convenience in transplanting, but also to hasten and increase the production of surface lateral roots, and more than this, we lessen the years of luxuriant sterility, securing earlier fruiting by such operations as root pruning and frequent transplanting. =Budding and Grafting.=--I have never known of an instance of successful budding of the hickory, at least in the ordinary way during the summer months. What is called "annular budding" in early spring with buds of the previous season, is said to have been successfully practiced with the pecan at the South, but this mode of propagation is more of the nature of grafting than of what is usually understood as budding. But I have been unable to obtain any statistics in regard to the proportion of buds that any propagator or experimenter has made live by this or other modes of propagation. Col. Stuart says, in "The Pecan," p. 45, "There is a method known as 'annular budding,' which proves quite successful." He then proceeds to describe the operation, as given in all works on the propagation of trees and plants during the past hundred years or more, but not a word to indicate what he considers a "success,"--whether it be once or fifty times in a hundred, or if he ever succeeded in making an annular bud unite to the stock; I am more inclined to think that he never did, than otherwise. In Bulletin No. 105, "Nut Culture for North Carolina," issued from the N. C. State Experiment Station, 1894, Mr. W. A. Taylor, Assistant Pomologist U. S. Department of Agriculture, in referring to budding and grafting of these trees, says: "These latter operations are less successful with the pecan than most fruit trees, though they are by no means impossible to accomplish. On seedlings one or two years old annular budding in early summer succeeds best." But here again we are left in doubt in regard to what the writer considers "a success." Then, again, the line between the "possible" and "impossible," in horticultural matters, is a rather difficult one to determine, and Mr. Taylor fails to cite a single instance in which either annular or any other form of either budding or grafting had been successfully practiced. The Bulletins issued from the Division of Pomology of the Department of Agriculture, give us no information whatever on this subject of propagation of the hickories, further than to repeat the old formulas of annular, splice and cleft grafting; but as to results they have always been provokingly silent. Having been repeatedly assured, by men who presumed to know, that the pecan tree was successfully propagated in the South by grafting, and many thousands annually raised in this way, it seems strange that such plants are so rarely offered by nurserymen. Seedlings of choice varieties are, of course, abundant enough, but a man might, with as much propriety, offer seedling Bartlett pears or Baldwin apples, as pecan trees, expecting to perpetuate varieties. In corresponding with Mr. P. J. Berckmans, of the Fruitland Nurseries of Augusta, Ga., whose experience and acquaintance with the fruits of the South are, without doubt, in advance of any other horticulturist of the past or even the present generation, in reply to my request for information on grafting pecans, he writes: "For the past five or six years we have grafted various varieties of the pecan nuts. I do not know of any other nurseryman South who offers grafted trees. I presume the reason of this is, the great difficulty in having the grafts take, as we seldom have more than fifteen to twenty-five per cent. grow. We usually crown graft in February, using one-year-old seedlings grown in nursery rows. Owing to the small percentage of grafts which grow, grafted trees must, necessarily, be quite expensive, and for this reason there are so few attempts made in this method of propagation." Mr. Berckmans makes no reference to annular budding of the pecan, so strongly and frequently recommended by the several writers already quoted, although I am certain that he is as familiar with this mode of propagation as any one else, and would have practiced it had he found it in any way superior to crown grafting. From all that I have been able to learn through a rather extended correspondence, in regard to the propagation of the pecan nut tree in the South, I conclude that they are occasionally and sparingly grafted, but with such indifferent results that they are not at all numerous in either orchards or nurseries. From certain remarks of Col. Stuart, in his essay on "Pecan Culture," I infer that he has sold grafted trees, for he says: "It costs no more to care for the grove of choice trees than of poor ones; then, again, the grafted or budded ones come into profitable bearing three years earlier than seedlings. Here is a case in point: Last November (1892) we paid, in cash, two hundred and forty-eight dollars for the nuts which grew upon one tree, the crop of one year. The tree is twenty inches through at its base, and forty-five feet high; such a size tree would grow in twenty or twenty-five years. Now small nuts from the same size tree will sell for not more than fifteen to twenty dollars. Another tree only ten years old bore thirteen and a half dollars worth. These choice nuts are such as we grow seedlings from; we sell a great many more seedlings than we do grafted or budded trees, simply because they are so much cheaper, and people in general do not realize that such a vast difference exists between the profits of seedling and grafted or budded trees; but such is the case, and such it will always remain for aught we can see." Soon after I published the description of the Hales' Paper-shell hickory in 1870, requests for cions were received from nurserymen and many amateur horticulturists, who were anxious to try their skill in grafting this excellent variety. Mr. Hales generously responded, and sent cions to a large number of correspondents in various parts of the country, because he was desirous of having the variety preserved and propagated. During the following ten years the old original tree was kept pretty well pruned, in filling orders for cions; those sent to nurserymen were to be raised on shares, one-half of all the successfully grafted trees to be returned to Mr. Hales. Being a near neighbor, my opportunities for keeping informed as to the result of this arrangement was all that I could desire. To one nursery firm in central New York Mr. Hales sent about one thousand cions per annum for four successive years, and in return received just four feeble grafted plants as his share of the total product of the four thousand cions. But as the four plants received soon died, he closed that account as one of total loss. Previously, however, he had sent a quantity of cions to Mr. J. R. Trumpy, of the Kissena Nurseries, Flushing, N. Y., whose skill as a propagator of ligneous plants is probably second to that of no man in this country; the result proved that our faith in the man was not misplaced, for Mr. Hales received for his share of the experiment something over two dozen grafted trees, and most of these are now handsome specimens ten to twenty feet high. Just what percentage of the cions set were made to unite and grow I have not been informed, but the experiment was, doubtless, rather unsatisfactory as a commercial transaction. In addition to the plants sent to Mr. Hales, there have been quite a number distributed among the customers of the nurseries named; consequently, we are pretty well assured of the perpetuation of this remarkably fine variety, even when the original tree succumbs to old age, or should it be accidentally destroyed. I am inclined to give Mr. Trumpy credit for being the first man to graft the shellbark hickory in this or any other country, and make the cions unite and grow, for I have failed to find any instance of success in this mode of propagating these trees, prior to his with the Hales' Paper-shell. In reply to a note sent him a few months since, asking: "How did or do you graft the hickories?" he replied as follows: "I put the hickory stocks in pots in the spring, and graft them the following spring, say in April, and in the house. The cions are cut during the winter, so as to keep them in good order until wanted for use. I find it is better to operate in April than earlier in the winter. I also graft them out of doors about the beginning of May, when the stocks are growing. They will succeed very well out of doors, provided the stocks are large enough for the cions. Any kind of grafting will do, but crown grafting is the best. I have not done much of late in the way of grafting hickories in the nursery, not having suitable stocks; besides, when the weather becomes warm enough for outside work, vegetation pushes far too rapidly to give a man a chance to do much of this kind of grafting." Since the above was written and while these pages were being put in type, Mr. Jackson Dawson, of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., has given his method of grafting the hickories, in _Garden and Forest_, Feb. 19, 1896, as follows: "My method," writes Mr. Dawson, "has been to side-graft, using a cion with part of the second year's wood attached, binding it firmly and covering it with damp sphagnum until the union has been made. The best time I have found for the operation under glass has been during February, and the plants have been kept under glass until midsummer, and wintered the first year in a cold frame. In all the genera I find certain species which may be called free stocks,--that is, stocks which take grafts more readily than others. Thus, nearly all the oaks will graft readily on _Quercus Robur_; the birches will graft more easily on _Betula alba_ than on others; so of the hickories, observation has led me to believe that the best stock is the bitternut, _Hicoria minima_. This species grows almost twice as rapidly as the common shagbark hickory, and while young the cambium is quite soft. I should advise anyone who wishes to propagate hickories on a large scale to grow stocks of this species in boxes not more than four inches deep. In this way all the roots can be saved and there will be no extreme taproot, and when shaken out of the boxes the plants are easily established in pots and ready for grafting. If taken up in the ordinary way from the woods, it requires almost two years to get them well rooted, and often the stocks die for want of roots after the grafts have really taken. If grown in rich soil, the stocks will be large enough to use in one or two years. I should then pot them early in the fall, keeping them from heavy frosts, and bringing them into the house about the first of January, and as soon as they begin to make roots. I should side-graft them close to the collar and plunge them in sphagnum moss, leaving the top bud of the graft out to the air. The graft ought to be well united about the last of March, when the plants should be taken from the sphagnum and set in the body of the house to finish their growth." All who have had any experience in the propagation of trees by grafting in spring, are well aware of the flight of time, in the hurry of work that must be done in a few days or not at all. It is true that the season for grafting may be prolonged or extended a little by cutting the cions in winter and storing them in a cool, moist place, where they remain dormant after vegetation has started in the open air; but this does not affect the stocks, and these may come on slowly or rapidly, varying with the seasons, and the grafter must not only watch for opportune moments, but take his chances of striking the right time and conditions, in order to be successful. With such hard wood trees as the hickories it is better to be a little ahead of time than a few days too late, for frosts, and even quite a severe freeze, will not injure a dormant cion, and under the most favorable conditions the union between stock and cion is a rather slow process. For this reason I advise giving as much time as possible, and while I do not claim to having had any personal experience as a grafter, in the South, still I am inclined to think that grafting in the fall, and not later than December, would be preferable to later in winter or spring. By giving the cion and stock two or three months in which to form granulations and cohesion, there would be more certainty of success. Of course, I now refer to what is called crown grafting on the root below the surface of the ground, and when the cion is fixed in place with the usual ligatures of waxed paper or cloth, the soil is drawn back into place and the cion entirely covered with it, but very lightly over the terminal bud. [Illustration: FIG. 68. CROWN GRAFTING ON ROOTS OF THE HICKORY.] Where small stocks are not at hand, the roots of large trees may be severed and the end partly lifted towards the surface, as shown in Fig. 68, and when grafted, allowed to remain in position until the following season, and then taken up entire or with roots enough to insure future growth. The same or a similar process may be practiced to propagate a choice variety of the hickory, and a mere severing of the roots will insure the production of suckers from near the severed end, as shown in Fig. 69. [Illustration: FIG. 69. SPROUTS FROM SEVERED HICKORY ROOTS.] In grafting isolated stocks in this way, a small or large stake should be placed by the side of each, to indicate their position, and also protect them from being trampled upon. I make this suggestion because, in my own experience, it has often proved successful with various kinds of hard-wooded trees and shrubs that failed when grafted in the spring. Here in the North it is rather difficult, as well as expensive, to protect cions set in the open ground in the fall; but in the South it is different, and a handful of almost any coarse litter would be sufficient to prevent severe freezing. But grafting in the fall in the open ground is unnecessary, where small seedling stocks are used in the propagation of any kind of tree; in fact, nurserymen do very little grafting of this kind in spring, for they learned, by long experience, that the most economical and certain method of multiplying such trees is to take up the stocks in the fall, and then graft them indoors during the winter, having stocks and cions stored in cool cellars or pits, where they will be readily accessible when wanted. Apples, pears, quinces, grapes, and many other kinds of hardy trees, shrubs and vines are now extensively propagated by grafting during the winter months, and I do not know of any good reason why the hickories and other closely allied nut trees should not be multiplied in this way. I have tried it, on a limited scale, with the shellbark hickories, and with fair success, and in my opinion it is the only way by which the hickories, including the pecan, can be multiplied cheaply enough to become of commercial importance. The small stocks of one or two years old should be taken up in the fall, and then crown grafted any time from December to March in the Northern States, but the earlier the better; then pack away the grafted stocks in moss or soil, in a cool cellar, or heel-in elsewhere, as, for instance, in pits or frames, where they will not be frozen, and yet cool enough to prevent active growth. In the spring the grafted stocks should be planted out in nursery rows, and deep enough to have the top of the cion just level with the surface after the soil has been settled about it by a shower or heavy rains. The plants must be handled with care, so as not to disturb the cions. Mulching will, of course, be beneficial in dry seasons, and especially if the stocks are set in ordinary well-drained soils. In selecting wood for cions, twigs of the previous season's growth are usually preferred, but it is not necessary, nor is it advisable to discard all except the extreme end of the shoot or that containing a terminal bud, as some writers have advised, to prevent rapid loss of moisture by evaporation, for a drop of wax will seal the end of a cion as thoroughly and effectually as a natural bud; besides, the lower part of the annual twigs is often more firm and really better for grafting than the upper and less sturdy wood, and the lateral buds on it will push just as readily as the terminal one. The cion may be three or four inches long, and contain two or more buds. The sealing of the upper end of a cion that is not protected by a terminal bud is certainly important with all of the hickories, for in this genus of trees the pith is large and continuous, not intersected or cut off by a thin partition of wood at the joints, as seen in many trees, shrubs and vines. This large and continuous pith in the hickories is another reason why the cions succeed best if set below the crown and in or on the fleshy roots having no pith. They may be set on one side, as in splice grafting, or in the center, or in a cleft made for their reception with a sharp knife, then bound with waxed paper, or wrapped with bass, raffia, or other similar material, and afterwards covered with melted wax to exclude air and water from the joints and wounds. In this mode of grafting hickories it is not necessary to employ the entire root or stock, if it is of large size, for a single cion; for pieces of from six to twelve inches long, containing a few lateral fibers, will answer the purpose, and it will be found, in practice, that these sections of the large fleshy roots contain so much vitality that, if the cions set in them fail to grow, they will throw up sprouts from adventitious buds during the ensuing summer. Almost any fair-sized piece of root left in the ground, when digging up hickory trees large or small, is pretty certain to throw up sprouts, this not only showing their great vitality, but that propagation by root cuttings is perfectly practicable and may be utilized whenever and wherever it may be desirable. The man who attempts to raise hickories from root cuttings must have patience, for very frequently the cuttings will remain apparently dormant in the ground one entire season before the sprouts appear above the surface. I will also add that this slow or retarded germination frequently occurs with the nuts, especially if they have become somewhat dry before planting. For commercial purposes root-grafting small stock, as described, during the fall and winter, gives promise of being the best and most practicable system of multiplying varieties; but there is much yet to be learned in regard to details, and hundreds of carefully conducted experiments may be necessary to determine the exact time, condition and mode of operation. It may be that very early grafting is better than late, or that we have not, as yet, found the best species for stocks, and that a half-ripened one will be preferable to one fully matured. Neither has it, as yet, been determined what kind of material is best in which to store the grafted roots: sand, soil or sphagnum (moss) from the swamps; or whether they should be kept very moist, or comparatively dry; very cold, or moderately warm. Here is a wide field for experiments, and a most interesting one; for the successful propagation of the hickories by any mode that will insure the perpetuation and rapid multiplication of varieties, means millions of dollars added to the wealth of the country. =Age of Fruiting.=--We hear much of the precociousness of pecan trees in the South, and many are reported as coming into bearing at the age of six to ten years from the time of planting the nut; but these are probably exceptional instances of early fruiting and not the rule, although in a favorable soil and climate it is to be expected that such trees will push forward more rapidly than under less favorable conditions. Grafted trees will, of course, produce fruit in less time than seedlings, and as this mode of propagation becomes more general, and repeated in a direct ancestral line, the cions for each successive generation of trees being taken from mature or bearing specimens, the precocious and productive habit will eventually become intensified, as it has been in all of our long-cultivated fruit trees propagated by artificial methods. We have so intensified the productiveness of many kinds of cultivated fruits by selection, that it has become more of a fault, than a merit to be encouraged. The nut trees are amenable to the same physiological laws as other kinds, and in their propagation by grafting with cions from bearing specimens we hasten maturity in the offspring. This has been fully demonstrated in many varieties of the Persian walnuts and European chestnuts. Here in the Northern States we have had so little experience with grafted hickories of any species, that really nothing is yet known as to how they will respond to this mode of propagation, further than that they grow rapidly and give promise of being fruitful. Seedling trees are, as a rule, of slow growth, rarely attaining a bearing age and size under twenty years, and with the shellbarks thirty or forty years usually pass before anything like a crop of nuts is gathered. Something may be gained, in the way of time, by frequent transplantings and pruning, but more by grafting seedlings from old and mature trees. Two grafts of the Hales' hickory commenced bearing at the age of sixteen years. =Planting for Profit.=--There are, doubtless, many thousands of acres of half-denuded woodlands in almost every State in the Union, both North and South, that could be readily utilized for growing hickory timber, and much of such lands is almost useless for other purposes; but timber culture and forestry is a subject which I have discussed elsewhere,[1] while the object of this work is to aid my readers in producing something that may be utilized as food. When the hundreds and thousands of miles of our public highways are shaded with hickory and other nut-bearing trees of the best species and varieties, it will be time enough to begin planting such kinds elsewhere. As roadside trees they cannot fail to be profitable, largely enhancing the value of adjoining land; for in addition to being equally as ornamental as other kinds, they yield fruit always in demand at remunerative prices. The three species of the hickory and their varieties recommended for cultivation all thrive best in moist soils, but by occasional watering or thorough mulching they will succeed almost anywhere, especially in naturally dry locations. [Footnote 1: Practical Forestry.] =Insect Enemies.=--The hickories, as with all other nut-bearing trees, have numerous insect enemies, but these are neither so numerous nor destructive as to seriously interfere with their growth in general, or with their productiveness. Insects may occasionally become exceedingly numerous in certain localities for a few years, then suddenly or slowly disappear; but this we must expect, as one of the coexisting phases of all agricultural pursuits. Collectively the hickories have no considerable number of destructive insect enemies, but if we count all the species of the various orders that have been found occasionally, or otherwise, feeding on the leaves, buds, fruit, twigs, bark, or boring in the solid wood, they make a very formidable list of names, or about one hundred and seventy-five in all; but fully ninety per cent. of these depredators are scarcely known, except to a few professional entomologists, and unless they become more destructive in the future than they are at present, or have been in years past, nut culturists have little to fear from their depredations. Among the most common species of insects injurious to the hickory, the following may prove most annoying to the cultivator. [Illustration: FIG. 70.] THE HICKORY-TWIG GIRDLER (_Oncideres cingulatus._ Say).--A small yellowish-gray beetle, a little less than an inch long, usually appearing in this latitude during August, the females depositing their eggs in the twigs of from a quarter to a half-inch in diameter. On old large trees the loss of a few or many of these is scarcely noticed; but on young seedlings or grafted stock it is quite a different affair, for on such plants the females usually select the leader in preference to the lateral twigs in which to deposit their eggs. The female girdles the twigs for the purpose of providing proper and acceptable food for her progeny; that is, first the green, then the slowly drying, then the perfectly hard, seasoned hickory or whatever kind she may have attacked. Selecting a suitable twig, she rests upon it, usually with head downward (Fig. 70), and with her mandibles cuts out a ring of bark about one-twelfth of an inch wide, and deep enough to reach the firm wood underneath. The place selected for this annular incision may be only a few inches from the terminal bud, or a foot below it, and in some instances she will cut two incisions on the same twig some distance apart, but usually there is only one on a twig. While cutting this incision she will sometimes rest long enough from her labors to deposit an egg in the bark above. The number of eggs she deposits in the twig is probably variable, but three full-grown grubs is the most I have ever found, and the larger proportion examined had only one. This girdling of the twig prevents the flow of sap, and the leaves soon wither and drop off, and the bark and wood shrivel and become hard and dry; but in the meantime the eggs have hatched and the minute grubs have bored their way through the soft bark and reached the pith, feeding in this while acquiring size and strength of jaws that will enable them to consume more solid food later and during the succeeding winter, spring and summer. Some do not reach maturity until the second summer; at least, in this latitude, as I have found after very careful observation and while collecting many hundreds of specimens. I will say, however, that this insect is usually referred to by entomologists as rather rare, and in general it is, but some years ago, in an old clearing near by where there was a great number of young hickory seedlings and sprouts, it was for a season or two very abundant; then it suddenly disappeared, and I have not taken a half-dozen specimens since. The grubs bore out the wood in the infested twig, and in most instances so completely as to leave only a thin shell of the wood or bark, by the time they have reached maturity and are ready to pass into their imago or perfect-winged stage. This species of twig girdler also attacks the apple, pear, persimmon, elm, and other kinds of trees, and with those like the apple, with a soft and brittle wood, the girdled twigs are frequently broken off by the winds; but this rarely occurs with the hickories, and we can usually find the stumps remaining on the trees years after the beetles have emerged. The only way to keep this pest in check is to cut off and burn the girdled twigs any time before the larvæ have reached maturity, and as the girdled dead twigs are readily seen, the gathering is not difficult, from medium-sized trees. THE PAINTED HICKORY BORER (_Cyllene pictus._ Drury).--This is, perhaps, one of the most common and widely distributed of all the hickory borers, but, so far as my observations have extended, it rarely attacks young or healthy trees of any age; in fact, I have never found it in or about growing trees, but I have seen it, by the thousands, breeding in decaying specimens and in hickory cordwood cut during the winter months and ranked up in shady places. A hickory tree cut down in fall or winter, and left on the ground or cut up into cordwood, is pretty sure to attract this borer early in spring, the females swarming over the bark, depositing their eggs upon it, and by the ensuing autumn the wood will be fairly honeycombed if this insect is at all abundant. The general color of the beetle is black, and the size as shown in Fig. 71. There are three narrow, whitish bands across the top of the thorax, and one slightly broader band at the extreme point of the wing-covers; but the next band is in the form of an inverted V; the point of the [Inverted V] does not quite touch the broad lateral band, as in the closely allied species known as the locust borer (_C. robiniæ_), with which it is often confounded; besides, in the latter the markings are of a deep yellow, and not white or of a faint yellowish tinge. The hickory borer always appears in spring, and the locust borer in the fall, not later than September in this part of the country. Below or behind the V-shaped band there are three others, but all broken up into mere dots, and not continuous. [Illustration: FIG. 71. HICKORY BORER.] In the South, and especially in Texas, there is a somewhat smaller but closely allied species (_Cyllene crinicornis_) that attacks the pecan tree and its wood in the same way as our common hickory borer, but in the Southern or Southwestern species the bands on the wing-covers are all interrupted or broken up into small white spots or dots. I have no remedy to suggest, further than to cut down old, infested trees, and to haul the wood out into the sun and spread it out where it will quickly dry and become seasoned. If the felled tree and wood is stripped of its bark as soon as cut, the female beetles will not deposit their eggs upon it. There are other long-horned beetles (_Cerambycidæ_) that are occasionally found breeding in the hickories, and among these may be named the Belted Chion (_Chion cinctus_), Tiger Goes (_Goes tigrinus_), Beautiful Goes (_Goes pulchra_), and the Orange Sawyer (_Elaphidion inerme_), but they are usually quite too rare to be considered as very destructive insects. HICKORY-BARK BORER (_Scolytus 4-spinosus._ Say).--Only once within my memory has this minute but destructive beetle appeared in any considerable numbers in my neighborhood, although I have occasionally received a few specimens from correspondents in various parts of the country, even as far west as the Pacific coast in Washington. This borer is a very small, cylindrical, dark brown beetle, about one-fifth of an inch or less in length, and one-sixteenth in diameter. The hind part of the body is quite blunt (truncate), the males having four short but distinct blunt spines, two on each side, projecting from the hind part of the abdomen, hence the name "4-spinosus." In the females these spines are absent, otherwise they closely resemble the males. These bark borers usually appear here in the Northern States the last of June or early in July, and both sexes attack hickory trees of all species, but appear to prefer the old and nearly mature trees to the young and small with thinner bark. After boring through the bark and reaching the soft cambium layer underneath, upon which these insects feed, the female cuts a vertical channel in this substance, of little over an inch in length. [Illustration: FIG. 72. BURROWS OF HICKORY SCOLYTUS.] This burrow is a little larger than the diameter of her body, and along on both sides she deposits her eggs, to the number of ten to thirty, placing about an equal number on each side. When these eggs hatch, the young larvæ begin to feed on the soft material by which they are surrounded, making minute burrows at first, and at nearly right angles with the parent one; but as they increase in size they are forced to diverge, those above the center working upward, and those below downward, as shown in Fig. 72. These burrows enlarge as the grubs increase in size, as shown, most of them reaching their full development by the time cold weather sets in, but some do not cease feeding until spring, then pass to the pupal stage, and later to the perfect or beetle form, and from the extreme end of these burrows they bore a hole straight out to the surface, and are then ready to begin the cycle of life again, either on the tree from which they have emerged, or others near by. Some fifteen years ago I noticed that the leaves of some of the old hickory trees on my place were turning yellow prematurely, and upon examination I found the bark perforated with minute holes not larger than small bird shot, indicating the presence of the bark borer under consideration. Seven of the very largest and, presumably, the oldest, appeared to be affected, and these were immediately cut down and stripped of their bark, exposing the little grubs to the air and attacks of insect-eating birds. These trees appeared to have been infested for several years, as there was scarcely a spot on the surface of the wood that had not been scarified with this pest. Since the destruction of these trees I have not been troubled with bark borers, although there are still a number of very old and large hickories thriving in the same grove. The only remedy I can suggest is to cut down infested trees as soon as they are discovered, and also encourage the insect-eating birds to remain in and near the nut groves. There are several other species of bark borers that occasionally attack hickories, one of these, the _Chramesus icoriæ_, Leconte, infests the small twigs, while another, the _Sinoxylon basilare_, say, after boring through the bark, continues its course far into the heartwood, showing a preference for this kind of food instead of the living tissues. These pests, however, are rarely constant, but very erratic, in their attacks, and while they may be rather abundant on a few or many trees a season or two, they then disappear, and not one may be seen for several decades. THE HICKORY-SHUCK WORM (_Grapholitha caryana._ Fitch).--The parent of this pest is a minute moth of the family _Tortricidæ_, the small caterpillars mining and boring the green husks, and sometimes into the immature shell, causing the nuts to wither and drop off prematurely, although an occasional one may reach maturity, even in its scarified condition. This insect appears to be somewhat rare in the East, but very abundant some years in the West, where it is frequently destructive to the thick shellbark hickory and pecan. The first fresh specimens of the Nussbaumer Hybrid pecan nut (referred to on a preceding page) were so badly bored and scarified by this worm when received, that they would have been nearly or quite worthless for either planting or other purposes. As this insect attacks the nuts on the very largest trees in the forest and elsewhere, I cannot suggest any other remedy than to gather the immature and infested nuts as they fall, and burn them, with their contents. Among the larger Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) there are many species, the caterpillars of which occasionally feed on the leaves of the hickories, but not exclusively; consequently, they cannot be considered as the special enemies of this genus of trees. When they do attack them, it is as much due to accident as design. This is certainly true with the great Luna moth (_Attacus luna_) and the American silk worm (_Telea polyphemus_), and various species of the Catocala, as well as the Tent caterpillar (_Clisiocampa sylvatica_). There is also a hickory-nut weevil, closely allied to the species infesting the chestnut; and while not quite as large, its habits are similar, and its ravages may be checked by the same or similar means. The grubs bore into the green nuts, causing some to fall before half-grown; others may remain in the nuts until they are ripe and gathered in the autumn; consequently, perforated hickory nuts are not at all rare, even on the stands of venders in our cities. Bud worms, leaf miners, leaf rollers and plant lice,--and among the latter several gall-making species,--are to be found on the hickories; but with all these natural enemies to contend with, the hickories thrive, grow, and yield their fruits in greater or less abundance. To enumerate, describe and illustrate all the insects known to be enemies of the hickory would require a large volume, but fortunately there are many special works published on the insects injurious to vegetation, and these are readily obtainable by all who may have occasion to consult their pages. CHAPTER VIII. THE WALNUT. Juglans. The ancient Latin name, first used by Pliny, contracted from _Jovis glans_, the nut of Jove or Jupiter. A genus of about eight species, three or four of these indigenous to the United States. =Order=, _Juglandaceæ_ (Walnut family).--Medium to large deciduous trees with odd-pinnate leaves; leaflets from fifteen to twenty-one, serrate, mainly oblong and pointed. The sexes of flowers separate (mon�cious) on the same tree, the males in pendulous green cylindrical catkins two to three inches long, solitary or in pairs, sessile,--not stalked, as in the hickories,--issuing from the one-year-old twigs, and at the upper edge of the scar left by the falling leaf of the previous season (Fig. 73), showing that the male organs emanate from an aggregation of bud-cells in the axils of the leaves during the preceding summer and autumn. Female flowers terminal on the new growth in spring, also single, in clusters, and occasionally in long pendulous racemes with a four-cleft calyx, four minute petals and two thick curved stigmas. Fruit round or oblong (Fig. 74); husk thin, drying up without opening by seams, as in the hickories. Shell of nut either rough and deeply corrugated, with sharp-pointed ridges, or quite smooth, with an undulating, wavy surface, very thick in some species and thin in others; kernel two- or indistinctly four-lobed, united at the apex, fleshy, rich and oily. [Illustration: FIG. 73. PERSIAN WALNUT, SHOWING POSITION OF SEXUAL ORGANS.] =History.=--The common walnut, so long and widely known in commerce under various names, such as Persian, English, French, Italian and European walnuts, also as Madeira nut, and recently Chile walnut, are now all believed to have descended from trees native of Persia, most plentiful in the province of Ghilan on the Caspian sea, between latitude 35° and 40°, hence the old Grecian name of the fruit, viz.: Persicon and Basilicon, or Persian Royal nut, probably because either introduced by the Greek monarchs, or sent to them by the Persian kings. Later,--according to Pliny,--the Greeks called the trees _Caryon_, on account of the strong scent of the foliage, and from this name Nuttall coined his word, _Carya_, for our indigenous hickories, as explained in the preceding chapter. It should also be noted here that the elder Michaux, in 1782-4, was the first modern botanist to visit the province of Ghilan, and he determined, by personal investigation, that this species of the walnut was really indigenous to that region of country, along with the peach and apricot. [Illustration: FIG. 74. BEARING BRANCH OF ENGLISH WALNUT.] Earlier European authors claim that the walnut was first introduced into Italy by Vitellius (emperor) early in the first century of the Christian Era,--but this is uncertain,--the Romans giving it the name of _Juglandes_, or the nut of Jove or Jupiter, both being the same mythical personage. The nuts, at this early day, were highly prized, and also the wood of the tree, the latter being even more valuable than that of the citron (orange and lemon). Ovid wrote a poem about these nuts, entitled _De Nuce_, from which we learn that boys were employed to, or did of their own accord, knock off these nuts; and that at marriages walnuts were thrown by the bride and bridegroom among the children, a ceremony which was supposed to indicate that the bridegroom had left off his boyish amusements, and that the bride was no longer a votary of Diana, and it is quite probable that the French word for nuptials, _des nôces_, was derived from this ancient custom. The ancients also believed that walnuts possessed powerful medicinal properties, even to the curing of hydrophobia; but in these latter days they have lost most of their curative virtues, in the opinion of the medical fraternity. As with the chestnut, the planting of the walnut extended northward into Gaul (France), hence the earlier name of Gaul nuts, which became corrupted into walnuts by the English-speaking people. The Italian name is _Noci_; in France, _Noyer_; and the Germans, with their usual habit of compounding names, call it _walnuss-baum_ or walnut tree. Joannis De Loureiro, in his work on the plants of China, "Flora Cochinchinensis," published in 1790, claims that this Persian walnut is also a native of the northern provinces of China, with two other species which he describes (p. 573), adding, however, that one of these is cultivated in Cochin China, and the other is found wild in the mountains. The wild form of this world-wide-famous nut is, doubtless, quite different from the varieties with which we are familiar, for two thousand years or more of continuous cultivation and selections have greatly changed the character of these nuts, as well as the habit of the trees. The nuts from the wild trees are said to have a rather thick shell, and to be much smaller than the best of the improved cultivated varieties, or very like those we now obtain in China and Japan. The Persian walnut, in its many varieties, has been planted almost everywhere in Europe as far north as Warsaw, but does not appear to have run wild and become naturalized, as with many other kinds of fruit and forest trees. In Great Britain it has probably been cultivated ever since the invasion of the country by the Romans, although a much later date is named by some of our modern horticultural authorities. Dodoens (1552), Gerarde (1597), Parkinson (1629), and other of our early authors of works on cultivated plants, speak of the Persian walnut as common in various countries of Europe, Great Britain included. John Evelyn, in his "Sylva" (1664), says: "In Burgundy, walnut trees abound where they stand, in the meadows of goodly lands, at sixty and a hundred feet distance, and so far as hurting the crop, they are looked upon as great preservers, keeping the ground warm, nor do the roots hinder the plow." Evelyn, no doubt, had read what Pliny had said on this point, viz.: "Even the oak will not thrive near the walnut tree; which, if it be true, may be owing to the interference of their roots in the subsoil; but it is certain that neither grass nor field nor garden crops thrive well under the walnut." Evelyn was far too good a gardener and close observer to fall into the error of attributing noxious properties to the walnut tree, although Pliny's assertion, which has no foundation beyond his imagination, has been many times repeated in these days of supposed general intelligence. Small plants may fail, under the shade of large trees, or when deprived of moisture by the roots of such trees, but the walnut is no exception to the rule; in fact, such deep-rooted kinds are less injurious than those with roots nearer the surface. Evelyn, in continuing his account of the walnut in Germany, says: "Whenever they fell a tree, which is only the old, decayed, they always plant a young one near him, and, in several places betwixt Hanau and Frankfort, no young farmer whatsoever is permitted to marry a wife till he bring proof that he is a father of such a stated number of walnut trees; and the law is inviolably observed to this day, for the extraordinary benefit which this tree affords the inhabitants." What a pity that some such custom could not have prevailed during the past century in the United States. The author from whom I have just quoted adds that the Bergstrasse, which extends from Heidelberg to Darmstadt, is all planted with walnuts. Cold winters, however, have occasionally played havoc with the walnut trees in Europe, and one of these occurred in 1709, when the greater part of the trees were seriously injured, especially in Switzerland, Germany and France. Many trees were cut down for their timber, which is always in great demand for gun-stocks and furniture. Certain Dutch capitalists, foreseeing the scarcity of walnut timber, bought up all they could procure, and years afterwards sold it at a greatly advanced price. In the year 1720 an act was passed in France to prevent the exportation of walnut timber, and this led to the planting of these trees more extensively than at any previous date; this practice has continued to the present time, hence the immense revenue secured from the exportation of these nuts. The people of the United States are good customers for the surplus stock of Europe, and will probably so continue, until we wake up to a sense of our folly of perpetually buying articles that could be readily produced at home, and at a very large profit. =Persian Walnut in America.=--The date of the first experiment in planting this nut in this country is now probably unknown, but the oldest tree that I have been able to find with anything like a satisfactory history, is still growing vigorously at Washington Heights, on Manhattan Island, near 160th street and St. Nicholas avenue. I gave a brief history of this noble monarch of its race in the _American Garden_ for September, 1888, from which the following account is condensed: "In 1758 Roger Morris, an English gentleman, built a spacious mansion on his estate, at what, in later years, became known as Washington Heights. His grounds were well laid out for that time, and many rare foreign trees and shrubs planted, among them several, as then called, English walnuts. Whether these trees were raised from the nuts, or plants of some size imported, is not now known. Mr. Morris may have procured the seedlings from the Prince Nursery, Flushing, L. I., for this famous garden was established in 1713, or forty-five years previous to the building of the Morris mansion and the planting of the grounds about it. "At that period no one doubted the hardiness of the so-called English walnut in America, and as most of the nuts and trees procured for planting came from acclimated stock in Great Britain or the cooler region of Europe, success usually attended such experiments. Our pioneers and horticulturists fully expected that the trees would thrive and bear nuts in abundance, and time has shown that they were not mistaken, although we frequently see it stated at this late day, that the Persian walnut is not hardy north of the latitude of Washington, Philadelphia, or other cities south of New York. "One hundred and thirty-eight years have rolled by since walnut trees were planted at Washington Heights, and at least one of the originals has escaped destruction and holds its head aloft, defying the tempests which frequently sweep over that elevated and exposed spot on Manhattan Island. This veritable patriarch of its race in America is a monster in size, its stem between four and five feet in diameter at the base and more than seventy-five feet high, with wide-spreading branches. "In the summer of 1776 the Battle of Long Island was fought, and the American forces were compelled to retreat in confusion to New York, thence northward up the island; but when they reached Fort Washington, not far from the eleventh milestone on the old Albany post road, they made a stand and proceeded to entrench themselves at that place. This was in September, 1776, and General Washington took possession of the Morris mansion near by, making it his headquarters, and, as this was at the season when the walnuts had reached an edible stage, we may safely presume, from his well-known predilection for such delicacies, that he tested the quality of the Morris walnuts. One hundred and twenty years later I am writing this, with some fresh specimens of nuts before me from that same old tree. "This old patriarch has cast its shade over many a noted person in its time, for in 1810 the Morris estate passed into the hands of Madame Jumel, a lady long famous for her hospitality and the good cheer she extended to the surviving patriots of the Revolution. From 1810 to the time of her death, 1865, Madame Jumel's household always had an abundance of walnuts from the old tree, and one of the workmen on the place informed me that about two cartloads was considered a fair annual crop." It cannot be many years before this old tree will meet the same fate that has overtaken many of its younger contemporaries which were once growing in the neighborhood, for with the rush for building lots and the opening of new streets and avenues, trees are usually in the way, and in such cases even patriarchs are not sacred, nor do they command much respect from our urban population.[2] [Footnote 2: Since writing the above, and while these pages are being put in type, accidentally I learn with regret that the old Morris walnut tree has been destroyed.] A half-century ago there was quite a large number of walnut trees scattered about on the northern half of Manhattan Island, many of these probably descendants of the old Morris trees, but of this nothing definite is now known. A number of persons whose ages permitted them to scan the early days of the present century, have assured me that in their childhood they had often collected walnuts from goodly sized trees on farms, from Harlem northward on the island. The largest number of Persian walnut trees planted in any one place was on the Tieman farm at Manhattanville, these being set out as roadside trees, some of which are still standing, although in the march of improvements they must soon disappear. These trees have always been noted for their productiveness, bearing a full crop every alternate year, and a lighter one in what is termed the "off season." While the old Morris walnut tree, and the large number growing on the Tieman estate, and scores of others scattered about New York city and its suburbs, have been, and many still are, living witnesses of the fact that varieties of the Persian walnut will thrive in this latitude, certain horticultural authors and essayists have continually asserted the contrary. Mr. F. J. Scott, in his superb and voluminous work, "Suburban Home Grounds," in speaking of this species of the walnut, says, p. 351: "Though greatly valued in England and on the continent for its beauty, as well as for its nuts, its want of hardiness in the Northern States, and lack of any peculiar beauty in the South, has prevented its culture to any great extent in this country. South of Philadelphia it may be grown with safety." This seems strange language to have come from such an eminent authority as the late Mr. Scott, inasmuch as he must have passed a hundred times within sight, if not in the very shadow of the rows of old walnut trees growing at Manhattanville, when going from New York city to Newburgh, where he studied landscape gardening under the lamented A. J. Downing, and to whom the work from which I have quoted is dedicated. It is quite evident, however, that our author, like many others, failed to see things that should have interested him. As an offset to Mr. Scott's idea of the northern limit for the successful cultivation of this nut, I may refer to the work of Mr. George Jacques, "Practical Treatise on Fruit Trees, Adapted to the Interior of New England," published at Worcester, Mass., 1849. In referring to the European walnut, p. 238, he says: "It is perfectly hardy on Long Island, and to the south of New York, and as far north as the city of Charlestown in this State (Mass.), where there may be seen, in the enclosure of a residence on Harvard street, two fine trees of this kind, either of them much taller and larger than our large-sized apple trees. We have eaten nuts from these trees well ripened and fully equal to any of those imported. The trees often bear a crop of some bushels." It is unnecessary to search for further proof to show that certain excellent varieties of the Persian walnut do thrive and bear abundantly in our Northern States; not, perhaps, in the extreme boreal borders of New England, nor in those of the northwest, but the acclimated sorts are pretty safe as far north as 42° of latitude, and in protected locations may crowd up a half degree more. I have found very productive trees of this nut in northern New Jersey, several in Bergen county, others in Passaic, and thence southward, and while they are few in number, they are sufficient to prove that this tree is adapted to the soil and climate of the entire State. We seldom find more than one or two trees in any garden, and these are probably more the result of accident than design, their owners seeming to be satisfied in possessing something in the way of a tree not common in the neighborhood, never thinking that it might be well to plant enough of such trees to have them become a source of revenue. The parentage of quite a number of these bearing trees is readily traced to the Morris and Tieman stock, showing that these old trees are of a hardy and prolific race, which are well worthy of perpetuation for cold climates. Very old and large walnut trees are reported as growing in Pennsylvania and other of the Middle States, but they are far from being numerous. It has long been claimed that this species of nut succeeded best in the Southern States, and it is probably true, especially with the tender varieties; but for some reason, unknown to me, they have not been planted there in sufficient numbers to have, as yet, become of any commercial importance. During the past twenty-five years these nuts have been more extensively planted in California than elsewhere in the United States, and we may expect soon to know something definite in regard to results. Nearly all of the favorite French varieties have been introduced, and are now being tested in different parts of the State, and it is quite likely that the greater part will succeed, although some of the early-blooming sorts may fail in localities subject to late spring frosts. Previous to the introduction of grafted trees of the named varieties, the only trees of this kind planted in California were seedlings raised from the common imported nuts; but I have no statistics at hand to determine the date of the first plantings of this kind. Of late years there has been received, at some of our seaports, and especially at New York, some quite large consignments of walnuts from South America, under the name of "Chile walnuts," but they are only varieties of the Persian raised in Chile. They are generally of good size, moderately thin shelled, with plump kernels of excellent flavor. They are in great demand for confectionery, and are really better for such purposes than the larger and fancy bleached walnuts imported under the somewhat general name of Grenobles, or French walnuts. Owing to the difference of climate, these Chile walnuts arrive here late in winter, or about the time those coming from European countries the previous autumn begin to become somewhat stale. Of our native species of this genus (_Juglans_), the almost everywhere common butternut ranks first in flavor and general estimation, but owing to its hard, rough shell, and the difficulty in extracting the kernel, it has never become of any considerable importance, although usually found in our markets in limited quantities. Of course, it is a general favorite in the country, and wherever found in sufficient quantities the boys and girls lay up a goodly supply for winter use; and cracking butternuts during the long winter evenings is a pastime and pleasure not to be ignored nor forgotten. The flavor of the butternut is far more delicate, and better, than any of the Persian species, but the difficulty in extracting the rather small kernel is a serious objection. The black walnut has a larger kernel, in proportion to its size, than the butternut, and it is not so difficult to extract when the nuts are dry, but the flavor is too rank for most palates, although it has often been referred to as excellent by the earlier botanists who visited this country; but it has never been considered of much value until quite recently, or since the manufacturers of confectionery discovered that heat somewhat subdued the rank flavor, and now many tons of the meats are annually consumed in candies and walnut cakes. I am credibly informed that cracking black walnuts and shipping the meats to our larger cities has become quite an extensive industry in several of the Middle and Western States. We have two other but smaller native species of the walnut that will be described further on, under the head Species and Varieties. =Propagation of Walnuts.=--The propagation of the walnut in the natural way, or by seed, is exceedingly simple, for the nuts grow readily and freely if planted soon after they are ripe, or any time before they become old and the kernels shriveled. It is, of course, best to plant them while fresh, but they are not at all delicate, and may be transported a long distance in a dry condition without seriously affecting their vitality. If walnuts are given the same care as recommended in the preceding pages for other kinds of nuts, so much the better. The seedlings of walnuts, like those of other species, usually produce long taproots, and if grown in a compact soil, these will have few small lateral fibers the first season, as shown in Fig. 75; but when taken up and the vertical main root shortened at _a_, and then replanted, they produce fibrous roots in abundance. The trees of almost any age from one to twenty years old, are not at all difficult to make live when transplanted, provided the branches or tops of the trees are reduced, to correspond with loss of roots in digging up at the time of removal. It may be well to give a word of caution to the novice in nut culture about pruning nut trees in spring, after the sap begins to flow; for if done at this time they will bleed freely and leave unhealthy wounds and black, unsightly spots on the bark. Prune walnuts in summer or early in winter, to give time for the wounds to season before the buds swell in spring. If young trees are to be dug up, prune after they are taken from the ground, then the sap will not flow from the wounds. This is true of all deciduous trees, vines and shrubs. If the trees have few small roots when taken up, prune severely; but if roots are abundant, little pruning will be required. It is seldom, however, in transplanting walnuts, that the pruning need be as severe as recommended for the chestnut; in fact, having transplanted walnuts of various species, and of all ages from one to twenty years, without the loss of a plant, I have come to the conclusion that they are pretty safe trees to handle, in this climate, at least, if not elsewhere. [Illustration: FIG. 75. SEEDLING WALNUT.] In seeking walnuts from a distance, for planting anywhere in the Middle or Northern States, it will be well to learn something in advance about the climate in which the nuts are raised; for it would be folly to send for either trees or nuts to a warm or semi-tropical region, like that of southern France or Spain, for a stock to cultivate in a climate as cold as that of New York, New Jersey, and States on the same line westward. We might, perchance, from such importation, secure one hardy plant in a hundred or thousand, but there would be no certainty of even this small number. This idea of acclimation and adaptation of trees to conditions and climate should not be overlooked by the nut culturist, no matter from what source he procures his stock, whether from abroad, or some distant region of his own country. If it can be obtained from a region where it has been growing under conditions similar to those to which it is to be transferred for cultivation, then the chances of success will certainly be largely augmented. Acclimation is a slow process; in fact, too slow for us to expect to secure any appreciable advantages from it in a lifetime, but in nature we seek final results, leaving time out of the question. In raising seedling trees we cannot expect much more than a reproduction of the species, and not that of the parent tree. Plants that have been subjected to unnatural conditions and surroundings, as usual under cultivation, are far more likely to show a wider range of variation in the seedlings than those growing wild in their native habitats; but even the latter cannot be depended upon to reproduce exact types from seed. In other words, there is nothing certain about seedling nut trees; the large nuts may produce trees bearing very small ones, the early-ripening give late ones, the tall dwarf trees and the precocious fruiting some of the most tardy varieties; and yet, with all this uncertainty, we still think it best to select for planting the best nuts obtainable, _i. e._, best and most promising for the conditions under which the seedlings are to be grown. For the multiplication and perpetuation of choice varieties we must resort to artificial modes of propagation, mainly by budding and grafting. These modes, however, while the best at present known, are so difficult and uncertain in cool climates,--even in the hands of the most skilful propagators,--that grafted walnut trees have never been very plentiful in the nurseries of this or other countries with which we have commercial relations. In the south of France nurserymen appear to have been more successful in the propagation of walnuts by budding and grafting, than elsewhere; but in the northern provinces, as well as in Great Britain, we hear little of this mode of propagation. So difficult has this mode of propagating the walnut been considered in England, that Thomas Andrew Knight, president of the London Horticultural Society, early in the present century discouraged all attempts to propagate this tree by such means; but later, in a paper read before the Society April 7, 1818, he admits to having changed his mind, especially in regard to budding the walnut, and says: "The buds of trees of almost every species succeed with most certainty when inserted on the shoots of the same year's growth; but the walnut tree appears to afford an exception; possibly, in some measure, because its buds contain within themselves, in the spring, all the leaves which the tree bears in the following summer, whence its annual shoots cease to elongate soon after its buds unfold; all its buds of each season are also, consequently, very nearly of the same age, and long before any have acquired the proper degree of maturity for being removed, the annual branches have ceased to grow longer or to produce new foliage.... To obviate the disadvantage arising from the preceding circumstances, I adopted means of retarding the period of the vegetation of the stocks comparatively with that of the bearing tree: and by these means I became partially successful. There are, at the base of the annual shoots of the walnut and other trees, where these join the year-old wood, many minute buds which are almost concealed in the bark, and which rarely or never vegetate but in the event of the destruction of the large prominent buds which occupy the middle and opposite end of the annual wood. By inserting in each stock one of these minute buds and one of the large prominent kind, I had the pleasure to find that the minute buds took freely, while the large all failed without a single exception." From the above and other remarks of Mr. Knight, in the paper read by him, I infer that he kept the stocks in pots stored in a cool place in spring, until he could obtain shoots of the season from bearing trees, and from these minute undeveloped axillary buds for inserting in the stocks. These buds, as he informs us, are inserted in the wood of the preceding season, and near the summit or top. He does not give any directions for holding the buds in place, whether by waxed or plain bass ligatures; the former, however, would probably be preferable, for the purpose of excluding the air and water. Some twenty years later (1838) J. C. Loudon, in "Arboretum Britannicum," etc., refers to the propagation of the walnut as follows: "Much has been written on the subject by French authors, from which it appears that in the north of France, and in cold countries generally, the walnut does not bud or graft easily by any mode; but that in the south of France and north of Italy it may be budded or grafted by different modes, with success. At Metz, the Baron de Tschoudy found the flute method (Fig. 76) almost the only one which he could practice with success. By this mode an entire ring of bark, containing one or more buds, is removed from a twig on a tree to be multiplied, and transferred to the stock, and made to fit as shown. If the ring is too large, a slice may be cut off; and if too small, a piece of the bark of the stock may be left to fill the space." Both stock and parent tree must be in about the same condition or stage of growth when this ring budding is done, in order that the bark containing the bud may peel off freely from the wood, and this is always in the spring, soon after the buds begin to unfold and the sap is in motion. Loudon says that in Dauphine, France, young plants in the nurseries are budded chiefly by this mode, which succeeds best the closer the operation is performed to the collar of the plant; and the same is true in grafting, the nearer the root the better, as has been found by experience with hickories. [Illustration: FIG. 76. FLUTE BUDDING.] Charles Baltet, in his "L'Art de Greffer," recommends grafting in the usual mode of crown grafting, also flute or ring grafting, in April or May, and ordinary cleft grafting close to the root and at the forks of the branches, etc. He says that the cion should be cut, as much as possible, obliquely across the pith, so that it may be exposed on one side only. He also advises using cions whose base consists of wood of two years' growth, and these furnished with a terminal bud. He cautions propagators against grafting early-growing kinds upon those of later vegetation. If walnuts of any of the native or foreign species have been successfully propagated by budding or grafting, at any of the nurseries in our Eastern States, it has not been made known in the nurserymen's catalogues. Michael Floy, who early in the present century had quite extensive grounds devoted to fruit and ornamental trees, near what is now the center of New York city, as we learn from his "Guide to the Orchard," published in 1833, claims, in this work, that the Persian walnuts thrive well in this country, but admits that he had never succeeded in grafting the trees, and with the hickories had no better success, although he had tried them many times; but he adds: "Still I do not say it is impossible either to bud or graft them; but there is something peculiar about it, for both the bud and graft turn black when cut, almost instantaneously. Others may succeed better, but let them try it before they affirm it upon hearsay; they may succeed very well by inarching." Coming down to the present day, in our search for facts and information in regard to the propagation of varieties of the walnut, we may find it interesting to visit California, which, of all the States of the Union, is perhaps the best adapted to nut culture in general; besides, a larger number of nut trees of various kinds have been planted there than elsewhere in this country. It is in California that we find such men as Felix Gillet, of Nevada City, an enthusiastic propagator and cultivator of fruit and nut trees, and especially of the latter, if we may judge by his works and writings on this branch of horticulture,--and so far as I have been able to learn, he is the only nurseryman in the United States who has grafted walnut trees of many different varieties for sale. In regard to modes of propagation, Mr. Gillet says that the common mode of shield budding, as employed on fruit trees, fails entirely with small walnuts from one to three years from the seed, and it does but seldom succeed even on larger stocks. When tried on large, old stocks, he advises removing all the wood from the inner side of the strip of bark on which the bud is situated, and at the same time have this strip not less than two inches long and as broad as possible. He describes his mode of grafting walnuts, which does not differ materially from those already given. That he has never attained any very remarkable results may be inferred from the following: "We will add that the 'grafted walnuts' that we offer were grafted expressly for us, regardless of cost, by the most reliable firm to be found in the walnut district in France, through a process discovered several years ago, and which we will briefly describe for the benefit of people who may be inclined to try this new method of grafting very young walnuts. "One-year-old seedlings of the size of the little finger, or about one-half inch in diameter at the butt, are selected, the root cut back short enough to permit the planting of the trees in pots of three inches in depth; the trees, previously to being potted, are grafted with cions exactly of the same size, whip or cleft grafting being used; the pots are then taken to a hot or propagating house, and a glass bell set over them to prevent the outside air getting to the grafts, the temperature of the house being kept day and night, at least for fifteen days, or till the grafting has taken, to 70° F. When the grafts are well taken and growing, the glass bells are removed, and the grafts allowed to grow three or four inches, before the little grafted trees are set out in nursery rows; it may be preferable, especially in certain parts of the country, to keep the trees in the pots till the ensuing spring. Forty to fifty per cent of the grafts will succeed, and it is the best that can be done. "This mode of grafting the walnut, besides requiring a hothouse, needs the care of a skillful person to make it succeed. So are grafted the little trees that we import from France, and that we plant in nursery rows and offer to the public." For other modes of root grafting, I refer the reader to those recommended for the hickories, in the preceding chapter. Propagating walnuts by layers is practicable, where the small trees have been cut down to force out new shoots near the surface of the ground, then bent down and covered with soil in the usual method of layering woody plants. =Planting and Pruning.=--The plants will produce a greater number of fibrous roots if the nuts are planted in light, loose, but rich soil, than in a heavy, tenacious one; but with all kinds it is best to transplant when one or two years old, and cut off a portion of the taproots, as recommended for the hickories. When removed from the nursery rows for final planting, prune away nearly or quite all side branches, leaving only the terminal bud if the trees are not more than six to eight feet high. After final planting where the trees are to remain permanently, very little pruning will ever be required, further than to cut away branches that may cross each other, or to shorten some to give proper form to the head. No tree in cultivation requires less pruning than walnuts. As a genus of trees the walnuts flourish best in deep, rich loam, rather light than heavy, and in this country require considerable moisture at the roots, and some, like the butternut, succeed best in bottomlands, near creeks and larger streams. If the soil is naturally too dry for such trees, the fault can be readily remedied by the use of some form of mulch applied to the surface of the soil around the stem after planting, renewing this annually, or oftener if necessary, until the trees are large enough to shade the ground. Walnut trees, as well as the closely allied hickories, are well adapted for roadside planting, and when set in such positions are far less likely to be injured by insects than when planted in orchards or large groups, besides serving a double purpose, being ornamental as well as useful. They may also be planted around buildings, and where other and less valuable trees are generally grown. There are also millions of acres of rocky hill-sides and old fields which might be utilized for nut orchards, and if rather widely scattered over such land they would prove beneficial in shading the pasture grasses. First of all, however, let us have rows of these trees along all our country roads, after which it will be time enough to begin planting them elsewhere. SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF WALNUTS. =Native of the United States= (_Juglans cinerea._ Linn.). Butternut. White Walnut.--Leaflets fifteen to nineteen, oblong-lanceolate and sharp-pointed, rounded at the base, downy, especially on the underside, petioles covered with viscid hairs; fruit oblong, two or more inches in length, with a clammy husk, not opening when ripe, but closely adhering to the deeply corrugated and rough, thick shell. Trees with wide-spreading branches, and of medium hight, or from forty to fifty feet, but in deep forests sometimes sixty to seventy, with stems two to three feet in diameter. A common tree in moist soils almost everywhere, from the Canadas southward to the highlands of northern Georgia, Alabama, and sparingly in Mississippi and Arkansas, and all the States bordering the Mississippi river northward to Minnesota. A valuable timber tree, with soft, light wood, much used of late for furniture and inside house finishing. In early times the inner bark was employed for making a yellow dye, also as a medicine, the extract being a mild cathartic, hence one of the specific names, _Cathartica_. Synonyms. _Juglans oblonga alba_, Marshall. _Juglans cathartica_, Michaux. _Carya cathartica_, Barton, 1818. _Wallia cinerea_, Alefeld, 1861. =Varieties of the Butternut.=--There are to be found many varieties of the butternut, varying mainly in the size of the nuts, and only slightly in the thickness of the shell; but I am not aware that any of these have ever been propagated, all the trees in cultivation or elsewhere having been grown from the nuts. This nut is, no doubt, susceptible of great improvement, as well as others of the genus, and it is worthy of being experimented with for that purpose, especially in cold, northern climates, where there are few or no other kinds of edible nuts. Probably the most direct and surest way to secure improved varieties is by hybridizing, taking the butternut for the female parent, and the Persian walnut for the male. Hybrids between these two species are already known, and they will, no doubt, become more plentiful as soon as skillful horticulturists are encouraged to produce them. Several hybrid walnuts of other species are figured and described by European horticulturists, but, so far as known, they are mainly accidental productions, and not the result of any direct effort of man; nature, in this instance, merely giving a hint of the possible, leaving us to avail ourselves of the lesson if we feel so inclined. J. Le Conte, in a list of four hundred and fifty plants, collected by him on the island of New York (Manhattan), and published in the "Medical and Philosophical Register," Vol. II, 1812, mentions a hybrid walnut among the number. Dr. John Torrey, in "Catalogue of Plants," etc., 1819, refers to this tree under the name of _Juglans hybrida_, and says that it is growing near where Eighth avenue intersects the road called Lake Tours, about three miles from the city, and is a large tree. This specimen probably disappeared long ago, and we have no means now of determining its origin or between what two species it was a hybrid. Recently Prof. C. S. Sargent has discovered other hybrid walnuts in the neighborhood of Boston, and figured and described one in _Garden and Forest_ for Oct. 31, 1894. He says: "My attention was first called to the fact by observing that a tree which I had supposed was a so-called English walnut (_Juglans regia_), in the grounds connected with the Episcopal school of Harvard college, at Cambridge, was not injured by the cold of the severest winters, although _Juglans regia_ generally suffers from cold here, and rarely grows to a large size. This individual is really a noble tree; the trunk forks, about five feet above the surface of the ground, into two limbs, and girths, at the point where its diameter is smallest, fifteen feet and two inches. The divisions of the trunk spread slightly and form a wide, round-topped head of pendulous branches of unusual symmetry and beauty, and probably sixty to seventy feet high. A closer examination of this tree showed that it was hardly to be distinguished from _Juglans regia_ in habit, in the character of the bark, or in the form and coloring of the leaves, and that the oblong nut, with its thick shell deeply sculptured into narrow ridges, was the slightly modified nut of our native butternut, _Juglans regia_. Two other trees with the same peculiarities were afterwards found. One is a large, wide-spreading specimen, with a trunk diameter of four feet three inches about two feet above the surface of the ground, and just below the point where it divides into three large limbs. This is on the grounds of Mr. Eben Bacon of Jamaica Plain, and is supposed to have been planted between fifty and sixty years ago. The other has a tall, straight trunk, with a diameter of three feet one inch at three feet above the surface of the ground, and is growing on a farm near Houghton's Pond, in Milton, at the base of the southeastern slope of the Blue Hills." That there should be hybrid walnuts is nothing strange or wonderful, and we often marvel that there should be so few of them in regions where two or more species are growing in close proximity in the same forest, or elsewhere, but from whence came these specimens in Massachusetts is somewhat of a mystery. We may safely conclude, however, that the hybridizing did not occur there, but somewhere else, and either the nuts or small seedling trees were introduced and planted where these hybrid specimens are now growing. It is possible that they are descendants of the old hybrid walnut tree of New York city, mentioned by Le Conte and Dr. Torrey, some one having sent nuts or seedlings to friends in Massachusetts, and the three trees described by Prof. Sargent are merely those which have survived until the present day, these retaining the hybrid characteristics of their parent. These hybrids may or may not possess any special economic value, but they are of considerable scientific interest, and for this reason alone are well worthy of careful preservation and extensive propagation. _Butternut Sugar._--It has often been claimed that sugar can be made from the native butternut tree, and while it is true that the sweetish sap flows readily from wounds made in this tree in early spring, the amount and quality of sugar to be obtained from it is scarcely worthy of serious attention. In my boyhood days butternut syrup and sugar were considered as "sticky jokes" of the sugar camp. [Illustration: FIG. 77. FLOWERING BRANCH OF HYBRID WALNUT. _J. regia_ × _J. Californica_.] =Hybrids in California.=--Mrs. Ninetta Eames, writing, in the _American Agriculturist_, of new varieties of walnuts in California, refers to certain species and varieties growing in that State, as follows: "On one of the avenues in Santa Rosa there are some dozen or so ornamental shade trees, which invariably attract the passers. It is not only that they are uncommonly beautiful, but that there is something unfamiliar about them. One unhesitatingly pronounces them 'walnuts,' from their unmistakable likeness to both the English walnut and the native species found growing along the streams of middle and southern California. They are, in fact, a cross between the _Juglans regia_ and _J. Californica_, the wild black walnut of this State. In its appearance, this magnificent hybrid is nicely balanced between both parents, but it is superior to either of them in beauty and luxuriance of foliage, and in its phenomenal growth. There is, indeed, but one tree, the eucalyptus, that grows more rapidly. In speaking of this quality in the new walnut, Mr. Luther Burbank says: 'It often excels the combined growth of both parents, adding twelve to sixteen feet to its hight in one year. Given like conditions, a budded six-year-old hybrid is twice as large as a black walnut at twenty years of age.' [Illustration: FIG. 78. HYBRID WALNUT. _J. nigra_ × _J. Californica_.] [Illustration: FIG. 79. HYBRID WALNUT, SHELL REMOVED. _J. nigra_ × _J. Californica_.] "The clean cut, bright green leaves make a remarkable showing, being all the way from two feet to a yard in length, and of graceful, drooping habit (Fig. 77). They are sweet-scented, too,--a delightful fragrance, resembling that of June apples. Another admirable feature of this hybrid walnut is its smooth, grayish bark, with white marblings not unlike the Eastern sugar maple. The wood is compact, with lustrous, satiny grain, and takes an elegant polish, which gives it unmistakable commercial value. Like the majority of hybrids, though blossoming freely it yields a scant crop of nuts, one or two annually on a single tree, and this only after twelve years of persistent barrenness. The seed, when planted, goes back to its parent distinctiveness,--one-half turning out to be English walnuts and the other half black walnuts,--the true hybrid being only reproduced by grafting on a thrifty young _Juglans Californica_. "Another handsome novelty in shade trees, is a hybrid from the _Juglans nigra_, or well-known Eastern black walnut, and _J. Californica_ (Figs. 78 and 79). It makes a charming ornamental tree, and bears, in its season, a prolific crop of unusually large nuts, which have little value except in the eyes of school children. Several of these hybrids are growing in Santa Rosa, and present an interesting study to the pomologist. [Illustration: FIG. 80. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA RACEME.] "A still more unique species of the walnut genus is the _Juglans Sieboldiana_, a Japanese walnut which grows abundantly in the mountainous districts of the island of Yesso, and also in the more southern divisions of the empire. Several of these remarkable trees are to be found in the Kew gardens, but only one specimen is said to be growing in America, and this has recently come into profuse bearing on the Burbank experimental farm, eight miles from Santa Rosa, California. According to good authority, this Japanese walnut not only attains its greatest perfection in this favored climate, but it thrives equally well in countries too cold for the common walnut, _J. regia_. In its wild state in Japan, the _Juglans Sieboldiana_ (whose curious raceme of nuts is shown in Fig. 80) makes a wide-spreading tree about fifty feet in hight, with pale, furrowed bark; nuts an inch and a half long, with a diameter one-third less, and a kernel having much the flavor of the common walnut. The tree bearing so thriftily on California soil, suggests its possible value as a marketable nut, while it already furnishes a remarkable addition to horticultural interests." [Illustration: FIG. 81. BLACK WALNUT IN HUSK.] JUGLANS NIGRA, Linn. Black Walnut.--Leaflets eleven to seventeen, rarely more; ovate-lanceolate, smooth above, moderately pubescent beneath, pointed, somewhat heart-shaped at the base; leaf-stalks slightly downy, usually of a pale purplish color early in the season, especially on young trees; fruit large, mostly globose (Fig. 81); husk thin, roughly dotted; shell thick, hard, deeply and unevenly corrugated with rough, sharp ridges and points (Fig. 82); kernel large, sweet, but usually with a strong, rather rank taste, but less oily than the butternut. Trees grow to an immense size, with deeply furrowed bark; wood dark colored, valuable for cabinet work, inside finishing, gun stocks, etc. Common in deep, rich soils, from western Massachusetts west to southern Minnesota, and southward to Florida. Most abundant west of the Alleghany mountains, and especially in the rich valleys of the Western States distant from railroads and water communication; elsewhere the trees have long since been cut for their timber. I have only one synonym to record, and this is scarcely worthy of notice, viz.: _Wallia nigra_. (Alefeld in "Bonplandia," 1861.) [Illustration: FIG. 82. JUGLANS NIGRA, HUSK REMOVED.] =Varieties of the Black Walnut.=--As with the butternut, there are no varieties of the black walnut in cultivation; at least, none propagated by means which will insure the perpetuation of their varietal characteristics. It is true that there are plenty of wild varieties to be found, these varying widely in size and form, and somewhat in thickness of their shell, as well as the ease with which the kernels may be extracted, but none of these have been perpetuated by artificial means. Among the earliest varieties recognized by botanists, one was called Oblong Black Walnut, _Juglans nigra oblonga_, by Miller, 1754, and perhaps in earlier editions of the "Gardener's Dictionary." He says this is from Virginia, and only a variety of the common black walnut. Marshall, in 1785, describes this "black oblong fruited walnut," and adds: "There are, perhaps, some other varieties." These oblong, or, more correctly speaking, oval nuts, often sharp-pointed at both ends, are rather plentiful at this time. There are rarely any considerable number of bushels reaching market from Virginia and adjacent States, among which these oval or oblong nuts cannot be found. I have a number before me measuring from one inch to one and a quarter in diameter, and from one and a half to nearly two inches in length. Other varieties found, perhaps, in the same lot, are broader than long, or one and seven-eighths inches broad, by one and one-half in vertical diameter. These measurements are of the cleaned shell, after the husks have been removed. For several years a "thin-shelled black walnut" has been offered by at least two nurserymen, in whose catalogues they are described as "with unusually thin shells, the kernels coming out whole." I have endeavored to ascertain the origin of this variety, but failed, for both of the nursery firms who advertised the frees for sale admit that they do not know from whom they obtained the nuts planted, or where the original tree is growing. As the trees offered are only seedlings, there is no certainty that they will produce nuts with "thin shells." We can safely drop this supposed variety from the list until something definite is known about it. JUGLANS CALIFORNICA, Watson. California Walnut.--Leaflets in from five to eight pairs, more or less downy, but sometimes smooth, oblong-lanceolate, sharp-pointed, narrowing upward from near the base, two to two and a half inches long. Male catkins much larger than in our Eastern species, or from four to eight inches, often in pairs. Fruit round, slightly compressed, three-fourths to one inch and a quarter in diameter; husk thin, slightly dotted or roughened; shell dark brown, very faintly sculptured (Fig. 83), almost smooth, thick, the kernel filling two broad cavities upon each side; edible and fairly good. A tree or large shrub in the vicinity of San Francisco and along the Sacramento (where it is sometimes cultivated), growing to the hight of forty to sixty feet, and two to four feet in diameter; ranging southward to Santa Barbara, and eastward through southern Arizona to New Mexico and Sonora (Thurber, "Botany of California"). This species has been considered by some botanists as only a variety of the next, or _Juglans rupestris_, var. _Major_, Torrey. Scarcely hardy in the latitude of New York city, except an occasional seedling from nuts gathered along the northern limits of the species, or from the cooler elevated regions of the Pacific slope. It is of no special value, only adding one more edible nut tree to the list. [Illustration: FIG. 83. JUGLANS CALIFORNICA.] [Illustration: FIG. 84. JUGLANS RUPESTRIS, SHOWING SMALL KERNEL.] JUGLANS RUPESTRIS, Engelmann. Texas Walnut. New Mexico Walnut.--Leaflets thirteen to twenty-five, smooth, bright green, small, narrow, and long-pointed; male catkins short, or about two inches long, and quite slender; fruit round or oblate; husk thin, nearly smooth; nut small, one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter; shell very thick, rather deeply furrowed, the narrow grooves on the greater part continuous from base to apex, the broad edges of the ridges smooth, not jagged as in the butternut and black walnut. Kernel sweet and good, but so small (Fig. 84) as not to be worth the trouble of extracting. A small and neat tree twenty to forty feet high, native of the bottom lands of the Colorado in Texas, and throughout the western part of the State, extending through southern and central New Mexico to Arizona. In New Mexico it reaches an elevation of seven or eight thousand feet, though the climate is often severe, the temperature dropping to zero and below during the winter. Seedlings raised from nuts obtained near the northern limits of this species in Texas and New Mexico would probably be hardy in most of the Northern States, but they are scarcely worth cultivating for their nuts, owing to the small size and thick shell; but as the trees are neat and graceful they are worthy of a place among other useful and ornamental kinds. An occasional bearing tree of this Texas walnut may be seen in the gardens and parks of the Eastern States, and probably in some of the Western, but I have no direct information in regard to their locations or age. Synonyms: _Juglans rupestris_, Torrey. _Juglans Californica_, Watson, Bot. California. =Oriental Walnuts.=--How few or many species of the walnut are indigenous to China, Korea, Japan and other Oriental countries it would be very difficult to determine, with our present limited knowledge of the forests of that part of the world. The few botanists who have had opportunities of studying the flora of those regions do not agree as to names or number of species of the genus. Loureiro, in his "Flora Cochinchinensis" (1788), names three species as indigenous to China, viz.: _Juglans regia_ in the northern part, but this is now considered very doubtful; _Juglans Camirium_, Rhumphius, a medium-sized, heart-shaped nut, the trees found in the forests, and also under cultivation; _Juglans Catappa_, a large forest tree in the Cochin China mountains, with oblong, edible nuts, with husk and shell of nuts of a reddish color. Many years later Siebold describes a Japan walnut under the name of _Juglans Japonica_, and still later the Russian botanist, Maxiomowicz, renames this, in honor of Siebold, _Juglans Sieboldiana_, and describes another native of Japan as _Juglans cordiformis_. But prior to any of the authors named, Thunberg had described a Japan walnut under the name of _Juglans nigra_, probably the same as Loureiro's species, with reddish husk, but as this name had already been given to an American species it had to be dropped. Maxiomowicz also describes what he supposed to be a distinct species, found in the forests of Mandshuria under the name of _J. Mandshurica_ (1872), but it is doubtful if it is anything more than one of the many wild forms of the species found widely distributed over eastern Asia. The red or black fruited walnut of Loureiro (_J. Catappa_), and Siebold's black walnut (_J. nigra_), are probably the same as the Ailantus-leaved (_J. ailantifolia_), recently described in Nicholson's "Dictionary of Gardening," London, Eng., 1884, the origin of which is said to be uncertain. It is _Juglans Mandshurica_, Maxim, in Alphonse Lavallée's "Catalogue of Arboretum Segrezianum." As described in this work, the young fruit is violet-red, and produced in long pendulous clusters, the latter being one of the marked characteristics of these Oriental walnuts. But whether we admit that there is but one or a dozen species of these Eastern walnuts, it cannot be of any special interest to the practical nut culturist, for to him their economic and commercial value is of more importance than scientific nomenclature. Up to the present time we have only succeeded in obtaining two species of these walnuts, or perhaps only one species and one variety; but we certainly have two distinct forms, both coming from Japan, and distributed under the names given them by Maxiomowicz, viz.: JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA (Siebold Walnut).--Leaflets sessile, usually fifteen, five to seven inches long, oblong-pointed, thin, soft, downy, serratures very shallow, pale green above and somewhat lighter beneath; footstalks densely clothed with clammy hairs; fruit in long pendulous clusters of a half dozen to a dozen, one and a half inches or more long by a little more than one inch broad in the middle; husk thin, downy or clammy; nut somewhat compressed, the point usually bending to one side; shell smooth, with two shallow grooves from base upward on the sides opposite to the sharp, prominent ridges at the seams of the two lobes, the shell ending in a strong, sharp point (Fig. 85). The shell is very hard and thick; the kernel small, sweet, oily, resembling in taste our common butternut; tree a rapid and stocky grower, the coarse shoots and large leaves resembling those of the Ailantus tree at first, but soon spreading branches appear, forming an open, roundish head. The seedlings, as raised here, are abundantly supplied with small fibrous roots, which insures transplanting with safety. Apparently perfectly hardy in our Northern States, as I have heard no complaints of winter-killing of the young trees, although they are now widely distributed and in considerable numbers, but none, so far as I have been able to learn, have reached a bearing age here in the North. [Illustration: FIG. 85. JUGLANS SIEBOLDIANA.] Mr. P. C. Berckmans, of Augusta, Ga., in writing me under date of Dec. 3, 1894, says: "Last year we fruited _Juglans Sieboldiana_ trees four years from the seed. Fruit was produced in long clusters, and trees exceedingly ornamental, but this year these same trees were killed to the ground on the 26th of March, after they had set a crop of fruit and made a young growth of more than twelve inches. This untimely frost may not happen again in years, but it goes to show that many varieties of trees which are considered hardy further north, are sometimes destroyed here by spring frosts." As these Japanese and Chinese walnuts are natives of cold climates they may be better adapted to the Northern than Southern States, but there is no locality entirely exempt from late spring frosts, as most farmers and fruit growers learned to their cost the past season. There can be little doubt of this species of walnut being the one described by Rhumphius under the name of _J. Camirium_, and more fully later by Loureiro, as already noted; but having come to us from Japan as Siebold's walnut, this name will answer as well as any other, even if it is not the proper one. [Illustration: FIG. 86. JUGLANS CORDIFORMIS.] JUGLANS CORDIFORMIS, Maxim.--In foliage and growth of tree this is almost, if not absolutely, identical with the last; the difference observed is in the nuts, which are also produced in pendulous clusters. The form of the nut is almost round (Fig. 86), rather blunt-pointed, but the shell is deeply and unevenly furrowed, and indented somewhat like our black walnut; the ridges, however, are not as sharp. The specimens I have received from various sources are not as large as the Siebold, and the shell not quite as thick, but the kernel is small. I may note here that there appears to be some confusion in regard to this variety or species, for in several nurserymen's catalogues this form of nut is figured as Siebold's, and the one that I have described under that name is called _Cordiformis_. The specimens received from California, Japan, and also from Mr. Berckmans, correspond with the names here given, but further investigations may show that they should be reversed. The one I have received as _Cordiformis_ is, doubtless, the nut described by Loureiro as _J. Catappa_, as an ovate-oblong nut, with a fibrous, leathery, reddish husk. While I do not suppose that these Oriental walnuts will ever become of any considerable commercial value, they are worth planting for shade and ornamental trees. They are rather precocious, coming into bearing at an early age, and the nuts are not only edible, but will always be an acceptable addition to the unimportant although agreeable household supplies. =Persian Walnuts.= _Juglans regia_, Linn. Royal Walnut, Madeira Nut, English Walnut, French Walnut, Chile Walnut, etc.--Leaflets five to nine, oval, smooth, pointed, slightly serrate; fruit round or slightly oval; husk thin, green, of a leathery texture, becoming brittle and cleaving from the nut when ripe and dry; nut roundish-oval, smallest at the top; shell smooth, with slight indentations, thin, two-valved, readily parting at the seams; kernel large, wrinkled and corrugated, the two lobes separated below with a thin, papery partition, but united at the top; sweet, oily, and generally esteemed. [Illustration: FIG. 87. SMALL FRUITED WALNUT.] This species has been in cultivation many centuries, and in different countries and climates, and under such variable conditions that many of the varieties have departed widely from the normal type. There are now an almost innumerable number of varieties, varying greatly in size and form. Some are not larger than a good-sized pea, as seen in the "Small Fruited Walnut" (Fig. 87), while others are nearly as large as a man's fist, as in the thick-shelled or "Gibbous Walnut" (Fig. 92), while in others the nut is greatly elongated, as in the "Barthere Walnut" (Fig. 88), and hundreds of other intermediate forms. There are also varieties that bloom early in spring, others late. Some are very hardy, others quite tender in cold climates. There are also dwarf and tall-growing, as well as the precocious and tardy fruiting varieties. But very few of these have ever been cultivated in our Eastern States, consequently little is known of their value here; but more may be in the near future, when our horticulturists and farmers begin to plant nut trees as freely as they have other kinds, or are awakened to the fact that such trees can be made a source of pleasure and profit. Here in the Northern States our main dependence for hardy and productive trees of this species will be upon seedlings or cions from those acclimated specimens which have already been thoroughly tested and found to be both hardy and prolific. There are plenty of these, as I have stated elsewhere, and they are well worthy of attention and multiplication until something better is produced or discovered. In the meantime, the most promising European varieties could be imported and tested, although it is not probable that those originating in southern France and Italy would be of much value for planting in the latitude of New York city or north of it, but south of this line the chances of success would be somewhat greater; and to escape injury from late spring frosts, the more elevated regions are preferable to the lower and warmer anywhere in the Southern States. In anticipation of the question being asked, I will say that, at present, I do not know of any nurseryman in the Eastern States who propagates or imports named varieties of walnuts for sale. Of course, seedlings of these are offered, but it is well known that there is but a remote chance of these coming true from seed. Even the little dwarf French walnut _Præparturiens_, or Early Prolific, cannot be depended upon to produce dwarf or early bearing trees beyond the first generation from the nut, and these must be the product of grafted trees, to insure this much. The following list contains the names of only a few of the most noted varieties, the greater part having originated in Europe. AILANTUS-LEAVED WALNUT. See Oriental walnuts. [Illustration: FIG. 88. BARTHERE WALNUT.] [Illustration: FIG. 89. CHABERTE.] [Illustration: FIG. 90. CHILE WALNUT.] BARTHERE WALNUTS. See Fig. 88.--A very long nut, pointed at both ends. Shell thin; kernel large and of excellent flavor. Named after M. Barthere, a horticulturist of Toulouse, France, who discovered it growing among a number of other trees; consequently, its origin is a mystery. M. Barthere says that it is very productive, and even the seedlings of this variety begin to bear very early. CHABERTE.--An old standard French variety, of an oval shape; medium size, with very full and rich flavored kernel (Fig. 89). The tree buds and blooms late, therefore especially valuable in localities where late spring frosts are likely to occur. CHILE WALNUT.--This name is given, in a general way, to all the walnuts received in our markets from South America. The nuts are usually of good size, with a dark grayish shell; thin but firm, with plump kernels of excellent flavor. These nuts arrive in February and March. Many of the Chile walnuts have three valves (Fig. 90), instead of the normal two. Such freaks are occasionally found among the European varieties, also in the native hickories, but these tri-valved nuts appear to be very abundant among the Chile walnuts. CLUSTER WALNUT. RACEMOSA OR SPICATA.--Described by Mr. Gillet as a variety of the Persian walnut, producing medium, thin-shelled nuts in long clusters of from eight to twenty-eight. He also says that he introduced it into this country, but from whence we are not informed. Lavellée (1877) records it as a variety of _J. regia_, under the name of _racemosa_, giving its synonym as _Juglans Californica_ of the horticulturists. I have not found it mentioned elsewhere. [Illustration: FIG. 91. CUT-LEAVED WALNUT.] CUT-LEAVED WALNUT.--A variety with deeply cut leaves; very ornamental, as seen in Fig. 91. Nuts quite small, but of good quality. FRANQUETTE.--Another old standard French variety, with large, elongated-oval nuts with a distinct point. Shell thin; kernel large, and of rich flavor. The tree blooms late; valuable for planting in the South. GANT OR BIJOU WALNUT.--A remarkable variety on account of its extraordinary size. The shell is thin, with rather deep furrows, those of the largest size being made into ladies' companions, where to stow away gloves or handkerchiefs, hence the name "Gant" walnut. The kernel, though, does not correspond to the size of the shell (Gillet). GIBBOUS WALNUT (Fig. 92).--This is a very large variety, supposed to be a hybrid, raised in France many years ago. It is of little value, as the shell is very thick and kernel small. Valuable mainly for its immense size. [Illustration: FIG. 92. GIBBOUS WALNUT.] KAGHAZI.--This is supposed to be a variety of the Persian walnut, of fair size, with a very thin shell. The tree blooms very late in spring, and for this reason is recommended for localities where there is danger from injury by frost. The tree is said to be a very rapid grower, and much more hardy than the general run of varieties of this species. I have been unable to learn its origin, but it has been planted quite extensively in California, and some of our Eastern nurserymen are offering the seedling trees for sale, but whether they will possess the merits of the original or not must be determined by experience. LARGE-FRUITED PRÆPARTURIENS.--A sub-variety of the Præparturiens, originating with Mr. Felix Gillet of California. LATE PRÆPARTURIENS.--Also originated with Mr. Gillet. Valuable because the trees bloom late in spring. Nuts described as of medium size, but with full kernels of excellent quality. MAYETTE.--Very large (Fig. 93), with a light-colored shell of moderate thickness. Kernel plump, readily extracted whole, as shown in Fig. 94, sweet, and a rich, nutty flavor. Tree blooms late and is very productive. An old and standard French variety. [Illustration: FIG. 93. MAYETTE.] [Illustration: FIG. 94. KERNEL OF WALNUT.] [Illustration: FIG. 95. J. REGIA OCTOGONA.] [Illustration: FIG. 96. CROSS SECTION.] MESANGE OR PAPER-SHELL.--This nut has the thinnest shell of any variety known; it derives its name of Mesange from a little lark of that name, that goes to the kernel through the tender shell. Tree very productive, and the kernel quite rich in oil. We do not, however, recommend the growing of this variety for market, on account of the thinness of the shell, which breaks off too easily in handling the nuts, or even when they drop on the ground (Felix Gillet). MEYLAN WALNUT.--A French variety that originated near the little village of Meylan, in the vicinity of which it is quite extensively cultivated for home use and export. OCTOGONA.--Of uncertain origin, but very much resembles one of the Oriental species in the form and sculpture of the shell (Fig. 95). The shell is also very thick, as shown in the cross section (Fig. 96). Of no special value. PARISIENNE WALNUT.--Although this was named for the city of Paris it did not originate there, but in the South of France. It is a large and rather broad variety, with a firm but thin shell (Fig. 97) and excellent flavored kernel. It is reported that this variety succeeds in California, also in the South wherever tried. The trees leaf out late in spring and are rarely injured by frosts, and are remarkably productive. [Illustration: FIG. 97. PARISIENNE.] PRÆPARTURIENS. Precocious Dwarf Prolific.--A French variety of a dwarf habit, and the plants noted for bearing when very young. A correspondent of _The Garden_ (London, Eng.), referring to this variety some years ago, says: "It is precocious on account of the singular and exceptional fact that it is born almost an adult; in fact, it is nothing uncommon to see a tree in its third year bearing excellent fruit." He does not say, however, whether he refers to seedlings or grafted plants, but we may presume the latter or those raised from layers, for cultivators who have experimented with seedlings have found that they possess a strong tendency to revert to the original or tree form. This may not show itself very strongly in the first generation if the nuts are obtained from grafted trees of some age, but in the second and third generation the early-fruiting and dwarf are usually entirely lost. The only certain way of securing the true variety is by grafting or layering, but it is to be feared that very few trees propagated by these modes are in cultivation, at least in the Eastern States, although nurserymen have been offering Præparturiens walnut trees in their catalogues during the past fifty years. In one now before me, published in New York city in 1844, trees of this walnut are offered at one dollar each, or about what is charged for seedlings at the present time. As nothing is said in the catalogues about the mode of propagation, we infer that they are seedlings, as grafted trees would be worth more than one dollar. The nuts of this dwarf walnut are of medium size, thin-shelled and of excellent flavor; valuable for gardens of limited extent. SEROTINA. Late Walnut, St. John Walnut.--A very peculiar sort, inasmuch as it is the latest of all to bud and bloom in spring, and yet it pushes forward so rapidly that the nuts are ripe with others in the fall. They are of medium size (Fig. 98), with a rather hard shell, but the kernel is plump and good flavored. The tree is very productive, and sure to escape late spring frosts. [Illustration: FIG. 98. SEROTINA OR ST. JOHN.] VILMORIN.--This is claimed to be a hybrid between some variety of _J. regia_ and our native black walnut, _J. nigra_. Scarcely known outside of France. VOUREY.--A new and splendid variety raised near Vourey, a small town in southeast France. It has much the same shape and qualities of the Parisienne walnut (Gillet). VARIEGATED WALNUT.--A handsome variety, with young branches covered with dark-green bark spotted with gray, and often striped longitudinally with yellow. The leaves resemble those of the common walnut; the fruit is of a light yellowish-green streaked with darker green, and reminds one closely of certain varieties of pears which, in common with this variety, frequently have their young branches striped in a similar manner. Propagated by grafting or layers. (_The Garden._) WEEPING WALNUT.--A tree with pendulous twigs and branches. Quite ornamental, but not especially valuable for its fruit. Hardy in England. In addition to those described, there are a large number of varieties, which may be worth importing and testing in this country, by those who may feel inclined to make experiments with these nuts. Probably some of those highly extolled by earlier writers are now lost, but this cannot be determined until a careful search through the old European gardens has been made. Among the early-fruiting or precocious varieties we find an account of one raised by Anthony Carlisle, of England, as recorded in a paper read at a meeting of the Horticultural Society of London, March 3, 1812. Mr. Carlisle planted six nuts in March, 1802, these having been received from Mr. Thomas Wedgewood of Blandford. Six years later, or in 1808, one of the seedlings bore and matured ten walnuts, and the next season (1809) upwards of fifty, and in 1810 one hundred and twelve, the tree at that age being nineteen feet seven and one-half inches high. Another variety, under the name of Highflyer walnut, is described in the Transactions of the same society, Vol. IV, 1822, p. 517. The nuts sent to the society were grown in the town of Thetford, and are described as a long oval, with a shell so very thin that the slightest pressure of the fingers crushes it. I find that this Highflyer walnut is mentioned in the recently published "Dictionary of Gardening," but whether obtainable in English nurseries or not we are left in doubt. I refer to these English varieties mainly to show that some of the very best and thinnest-shelled walnuts have been grown in cool climates, and are not confined entirely to the warm or semi-tropical, as many persons seem to suppose and even claim to be the fact. It is principally from these English walnuts, as they are usually termed, that our hardy old-bearing trees, referred to elsewhere, have been produced, and, doubtless, many more will be, when we begin to pay some attention to this very valuable nut. It is also quite likely that when our horticulturists look about for choice acclimated varieties for propagation, they will be found right here in the grounds of next-door neighbors, and there may be no necessity of sending to Europe or elsewhere for either nuts or trees. At present there is much confusion and uncertainty in regard to the identity and nomenclature of both species and varieties of the walnut, and it must remain so until they are collected from all countries and climes, of which they are either native or into which they have been introduced, and when so collected, and fruiting specimens produce, it will not be difficult to classify and determine their synonyms. This will be an undertaking scarcely to be expected of the individual nut culturist, but is within the legitimate line of the arboretum, and of public botanical gardens located in both cold and warm climates, thereby securing a division of labor, and at the same time avoiding the uncertainty of trying to produce practical results under uncongenial conditions and surroundings. =Husking Walnuts.=--The husks of nearly all the varieties of the Persian and Oriental walnuts part from their shells freely when fully ripened and dried, but in a few varieties the husks are rather persistent, requiring force and friction for their removal. This may be accomplished by placing them in bags and shaking, or in barrels and rolling, until the nuts are scraped clean. But the better way, where there is any considerable quantity of nuts to be operated upon, is to take a strong barrel or cask, and so arrange it on standards that it can be rapidly revolved with a crank attached to one end. Of course, the cask must have its two heads left in place, and an opening made in the side to admit the nuts and remove them when cleaned. Almost any man handy with tools can make such a cleaner and polisher in a few hours, and if stored in a dry place it will last for several years. With butternuts and black walnuts the husks are much tougher, and they should be thrown into heaps in the open air, and turned over occasionally until the husks become softened sufficiently to permit of their removal, in case they are to be sent to market. Ordinary threshing machines may be used for cleaning the husks from black walnuts, by removing about one-half the teeth, or enough to allow the nuts to pass through without breaking their shells. Most of the hickories drop from the husk, leaving the nut clean; but in some varieties of the pecan the inner part of the husk adheres rather tenaciously, and they sell better if cleaned; besides, some have rather rough and thick shells, and a little scraping and polishing adds much to their appearance. The revolving cask, either worked by hand or other power, is an excellent implement for preparing these nuts for market, and if the husk is very persistent, a little dry sand thrown in will aid in cleaning and polishing. Sometimes these nuts are subjected to what is called the soapstone polish, leaving the shells very smooth, with a greasy feel. The French walnuts, which are extensively imported under the general name of Grenoble walnuts, are usually bleached with sulphur before they are shipped, and while this adds nothing to the quality of the kernel, the sulphur is an excellent insecticide and fungicide, and may be of some use on that account; but otherwise it is likely to be more injurious than beneficial. As bleaching both walnuts and almonds is often insisted upon by dealers, I give the process suggested by Director Hilgard, of the California Agricultural Experiment Station, which he believes will prove more satisfactory than the one usually employed, and is as follows: "The nuts, placed in small baskets (such as the Chinese use for carrying), are dipped for about five minutes in a solution containing to every fifty gallons of water six pounds of bleaching powder and twelve pounds of sal soda. They are then rinsed with a hose, and after draining, again dipped into another solution containing one per cent of bisulphite of lime; after the nuts have assumed the desired tint, they are again rinsed with water and then dried. Instead of the second dipping, the nuts may be sulphured (fumigated) for ten or fifteen minutes. The cost of fifty gallons of chlorine dip will be about forty cents; the same bulk of the bisulphite dip, probably considerably less. The time occupied in handling one batch (two dips) is from twelve to fifteen minutes." [Illustration: FIG. 99. THE CATERPILLAR.] [Illustration: FIG. 100. THE REGAL WALNUT MOTH--CITHERONIA REGALIS.] =Insect Enemies.=--The walnut is attacked by the same kinds of insects that infest the hickories, with, perhaps, a few exceptions; as, for instance, the bark beetles and the nut weevils. The leaves appear to be more or less acceptable food for the caterpillars that feed on the hickories, and the same insecticides and means employed for destroying these pests on one will answer for the other. The caterpillars of some of the smaller kinds of moths are, as a rule, far more destructive to the leaves than the larger, and their ravages often escape notice until it is too late for the use of preventives, or for their destruction with insecticides. Ever since I became connected with the New York city press, some thirty odd years ago, scarcely a season has passed during which one or more specimens of the Regal walnut caterpillar (_Citheronia regalis_), shown in Fig. 99, have not been received from some correspondent who had found them crawling down the stem or on the ground near a walnut tree. Such a large caterpillar would naturally attract the attention of almost any person, but to the timid its appearance is exceedingly ferocious and repulsive, while to the entomologist it is a beautiful and interesting creature, and far more likely to be handled with care than injured. This caterpillar is of a green color, and transversely banded across each of the rings with pale blue. The head and legs are of an orange color, also the long spine or horns, with the points tipped with black. It is certainly very formidable in appearance, but perfectly harmless, and may be handled with impunity. The parent moth (Fig. 100) has fore wings of an olive color, ornamented with small yellow spots and veined with red lines. The hind wings are orange-red, with two large irregular yellow patches before, and a row of wedge-shaped olive colored spots between the veins behind. Although this insect appears to be widely distributed over the country, and the caterpillars feed on the walnuts and occasionally on the hickory, it has never been known to be sufficiently numerous to attract any special attention. CHAPTER IX. MISCELLANEOUS NUTS--EDIBLE AND OTHERWISE. In the following list of plants there are a few that in no way can be considered as related to the true nut-bearing trees and shrubs; but as the word "nut" has been attached as a prefix or affix in commerce, or elsewhere, they are admitted, even if for no other purpose than to designate their true position in the vegetable kingdom. For convenience, they are recorded in alphabetical order, the most familiar of the common names--where there are more than one--being given precedence, the botanical or scientific following, with a brief description, as my limited space will not permit of anything more extended. It is not claimed that this catalogue of nuts is complete, but it is probably as near it as any heretofore compiled and published, and it may serve as the basis for a better and more extended one at some future time. ACORN, OR OAK NUT.--The fruit of the oak, Quercus (_Cupuliferæ_), mon�cious, evergreen and deciduous trees and shrubs, with alternate and simple straight-veined leaves. A very large genus, of about two hundred and fifty species, mainly in the temperate region of the northern hemisphere. There are some forty species native of the United States. The nuts are, on the whole, rather too harsh and bitter flavored to be esteemed or considered edible by civilized nations at the present day, but in former times some of the oak nuts were often an important article among the garnered food of the household. They were used--and are still, in some countries--boiled, roasted, and even ground and made into bread and cakes. They have also been used as a substitute for coffee, and for malt in making beer. Strabo says that in the mountains of Spain the inhabitants ground their acorns into meal, and Pliny affirms that in his time acorns were brought to the table with the dessert, in Spain. Every student of English history is well aware of the importance of the acorn, not only as food for man, in Great Britain, in the time of the Druids, and later, but also for feeding swine, deer, and other wild and domesticated animals. But with the advance of civilization and the production of better food, the oak nut ceased to be classed among the important culinary supplies. There are, however, a few species of the oak yielding nuts fairly edible in their raw state, and these are much improved by roasting. The best of those among our native species are to be found in the varieties of the white oaks of the North, and in the evergreen (_Quercus virens_) of the Southern States. But with so many far superior species of edible nuts, it is very doubtful if any of the oaks will ever be cultivated for their fruit. AUSTRALIAN CHESTNUT.--The seeds of a large tree, native of Australia, the _Castanospermum australe_, the name of the genus being derived from _Kastanon_, chestnut, and _sperma_, a seed, because the seeds resemble, in size and taste, the common chestnut. But the tree belongs to the bean family (_Leguminosæ_), and the seeds are produced in large, long pods. They are about an inch and a half broad, somewhat flattened, and of the color of a chestnut when ripe. They are roasted and eaten by the natives, but are rather unpalatable to those who have been accustomed to something better in the way of edible nuts. These seeds are also known as "Moreton Bay chestnuts." AUSTRALIAN HAZELNUT.--The fruit of _Macadamia ternifolia_ (_Proteaceæ_). There are two species, both evergreen trees or tall shrubs confined to eastern Australia. The fruit is a kind of drupe with a fleshy exterior, enclosing a hard shelled nut, not unlike a small walnut. The kernel, when mature, has a rich and agreeable flavor, much like but richer than the hazelnut, hence one of its local names, for it is also known as "Queensland nut." This nut tree would probably thrive in southern Florida, and in the warmer parts of California. BEN NUT.--Fruit of _Moringa aptera_ (_Moringeæ_). Small, unarmed trees; only three species in the order, these inhabiting tropical Asia, northern Africa and the West Indies. The one producing the ben nuts grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, and is found in upper Egypt, Syria and Arabia. The seeds,--or nuts, as they are called,--are produced in capsules or seed-pods about a foot long, and while not edible, an oil is expressed from them which is largely used in the manufacture of perfumery, and known in commerce as ben oil. Another species, the _M. pterygosperma_, or winged-seeded Moringa, is known as the horse-radish tree, the bark of the roots being used as a substitute for horse-radish. BETEL NUT OR PINANG.--The fruit of a lofty palm, _Areca Catechu_ (_Palmaceæ_). A native of Cochin China, the Malayan Peninsula, and adjacent islands. A slender-stemmed palm, with regular pinnate leaves and long, narrow leaflets. The fruit is produced on an erect, fleshy spike, each fruit about the size of a hen's egg, with a thick, fibrous rind or husk, enclosing a hard nut somewhat like an ordinary nutmeg. These are used by being cut into small pieces or slices, then rolled up in a leaf of the betel pepper (_Piper betel_), a little lime sprinkled over it, and then chewed or held in the mouth, as practiced by those who use tobacco for chewing. This habit of chewing the betel nut is said to be almost universal among the Malayan races, all carrying a box containing the nut leaf and lime. These nuts are shipped in large quantities to countries where they do not grow, and the habit of chewing them has spread enormously, of late years, and is likely to increase, as it has with tobacco; and the effect upon the users is said to be very similar, although some authorities claim that the betel is the most injurious of the two, having a far more deleterious effect upon the teeth and gums. But this may be due to the use of the lime. Travelers in countries where these nuts are in common use tell wonderful tales about the invigorating effects of the betel, and how their assistants and followers are enabled, by its use, to perform the most exhausting labor for days at a time, which, without it, would be impossible. We have no doubt that the users of tobacco will claim just as much for this narcotic weed, and probably could produce as many trustworthy witnesses in support of it. The betel is, like tobacco, a narcotic stimulant, and causes giddiness in persons unaccustomed to it, excoriates the mouth, and is so burning that Western nations will be slow to adopt this Eastern habit. BLADDER NUT.--A rather inappropriate name for the seed pods and small seeds of one of our common large deciduous shrubs, the _Staphylea trifolia_. It is sometimes planted for ornament. The small white flowers are produced in hanging racemes, succeeded by large bladdery pods, hence its common name. BRAZIL NUT.--The fruit of _Bertholletia excelsa_, a lofty tree of the myrtle family (_Myrtaceæ_). The tree attains a height of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet, with stems three to four feet in diameter. The leaves are broad, smooth, and about two feet long, rather thick, and of the texture of leather. The fruit is produced mainly on the uppermost branches, and is globular, four to six inches in diameter, with a brittle husk on the outside, and within this a hard, tough, woody shell, fully one-half inch thick, containing a large number of the closely packed, three-sided, rough nuts, about an inch and a half to two inches or over in length, as seen in Fig. 101. The kernels are very white, solid and oily. When mature the fruit falls entire, and the natives of the country collect them, splitting the shells to obtain the nuts. An occasional entire fruit is sent to other countries, as a curiosity, or for the cabinet of some botanist. The Brazil nut is not only indigenous to Brazil, but also of Guiana, Venezuela (forming immense forests on the Orinoco, where they are called Juvia), and southward on the Rio Negra and in the valley of the Amazon. In fact, the supply appears to be inexhaustible; the only difficulty is in getting the nuts from the forests to some point where they can be shipped out of the country. The principal export is from Para, but there are many smaller cities and towns where a load of these nuts may be obtained on short notice. A very superior oil may be obtained from the nuts, by pressure, but the principal use for them is for desserts and confectionery. They are always abundant in our city markets. [Illustration: FIG. 101. BRAZIL NUT.] BREAD NUT.--The fruit of a large tree, the _Brosimum Alicastrum_, of the bread fruit family (_Artocarpaceæ_), native of the West Indies, but best known in Jamaica. The botanical authorities disagree in regard to this species, some claiming that it is a large tree, with wood similar to mahogany; others that it is only a small shrub, only five or six feet high. It has lance-shaped leaves, male and female flowers in globular heads, and usually on separate trees. The fruit is about the size of a plum, containing one seed or nut, which is only edible after roasting. BUFFALO NUT.--See Oil nut. BUTTERNUT.--See Souari nut. BYZANTIUM NUT.--See Filberts, Chap. VI. CANDLE NUTS.--A small evergreen tree, the _Aleurites triloba_ of the spurgewort family (_Euphorbiaceæ_). It is a native of most warm countries of the East: India, Malay, southern Japan, and nearly all the islands of the Pacific ocean, and in some of these it is cultivated for the fruit, which is about two inches in diameter. In the center there is a hard nut, very oily, with the flavor of the walnut. The oil obtained from these nuts is in common use among the natives of the Polynesian islands. In the Hawaiian group the kernels are strung on a small, dry stick, which serves the purpose of a wick, and then one end lighted, as with an ordinary tallow or wax candle, hence probably the common name of candle nut. These nuts are said to be used in the same way in India. Large quantities of oil is also expressed from them and used for various purposes, and occasionally small quantities are exported to European countries. CAPE CHESTNUT.--The name of a beautiful evergreen ornamental tree, native of south Africa, and recently introduced into European gardens from the Cape of Good Hope, hence its common, and its specific scientific name, _Calodendron capense_. It belongs to the Rue family (_Rutaceæ_). The flowers are red, produced in long terminal racemes, the tree growing about forty feet high, and said to be one of the finest trees of that part of Africa. It is now under trial in Florida. Why called a chestnut I have been unable to discover. [Illustration: FIG. 102. THE CASHEW NUT.] CASHEW NUT.--A large shrub or small tree, native of the West Indies, and for this reason often referred to as the "Western Cashew," or _Anacardium occidentale_. It belongs to the Terebinth family (_Anacardium_), consequently is closely related to our native poison sumachs (_Rhus_). The tree is an evergreen, with entire feather-veined leaves; flowers of a reddish color, very small, sweet-scented, and produced in terminal panicles. The fruit is kidney-shaped, and borne on a fleshy receptacle, and when ripe of reddish or yellow color. The nut proper is enclosed in a leathery covering, consisting of two layers, between which is deposited a thick, caustic, oily substance, exceedingly acrid; but this is eliminated by heat, so that when the kernels are roasted they have a pleasant flavor and are highly esteemed for dessert. Some care is required in roasting these nuts, as the fumes given off during this operation cause inflammation of the eyes. The nuts also yield an excellent oil, very similar to the best olive oil. Although originally found only in the West Indies, this nut is now widely distributed throughout the tropical countries of the East; in fact, naturalized in all hot climates, and is also under trial in southern Florida. CAUCASIAN WALNUT. WINGED WALNUT.--The winged fruit of _Pterocarya fraxinifolia_, also known as _P. Caucasica_ of nurserymen's catalogues. It belongs to the walnut family (_Juglandaceæ_), and is a tree growing thirty to forty feet high, somewhat resembling the common ash (_Fraxinus_). It is a pretty, hardy, ornamental tree, thriving only in moist soils. Seeds on winged nuts produced in long, drooping racemes, but of no special value. Introduced into England from Caucasus in 1800, and now plentiful here in nurseries. CHESTNUT.--See Chapter V; also Horse-chestnut, and Moreton Bay, Tahiti and Water chestnuts. CHOCOLATE NUT OR BEAN.--The seeds of a small tropical tree, _Theobroma Cacao_, of the chocolate nut family (_Sterculiaceæ_). Indigenous to tropical America, but now cultivated more or less extensively in all hot climates. The tree grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, with long, pointed, smooth leaves. The flowers are small, yellow, and produced from the old wood of both stems and branches, succeeded by a pod-like fruit six to ten or more inches long, containing fifty to a hundred seeds, resembling beans more than they do nuts. When the fruit is ripe it is gathered, at which time the seeds are covered with a gum-like substance, and to remove this they are subjected to a slight fermentation, after which they are dried in the sun, this giving them their usual brown color. Chocolate nut trees are extensively cultivated in Brazil, New Grenada, Trinidad, and, in fact, throughout tropical America, and their cultivation is, upon the whole, very profitable, as the demand is almost unlimited. CLEARING NUT.--This is an East India name for the seeds of _Strychnos potatorum_, a plant belonging to the well-known nux vomica family (_Loganiaceæ_). It is a small tree, native of India, the wood of which is used for various purposes. The fruit is about the size of a cherry, and contains one seed; this is dried, and used for clearing muddy water, this being effected by rubbing one of the little nuts around the sides of the vessel that is to be filled, after which the water is poured in, and then, through some unknown agency, all the foreign matter settles, leaving the liquid perfectly pure, clear and wholesome. COCOANUT.--One of the most widely-known and largest of edible nuts; the product of _Cocos nucifera_, a lofty, tree-like palm (_Palmæ_ or _Palmaceæ_). It is a native of tropical Africa, India, Malay, and of nearly all the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans. It only thrives near the seacoast or where the sea breezes reach it, requiring no special care after the nuts and young plants once become established in a congenial soil. The coco palm grows from fifty to one hundred feet high, with pinnate leaves from ten to twenty feet long. The nuts are produced in clusters of a dozen or more, and when full grown are somewhat triangular and a foot long, the outer coat or husk composed of a tough fiber. The nuts, when cleaned of their husks, are too well known to call for a further description here. In countries where these nuts are plentiful, their contents form nearly the entire food of the natives, the milky fluid serving for drink, and the more solid parts as a substitute for meat and bread. The cocoa-nut utilized in more ways, and for a greater variety of purposes, than any other kind known, and it would require a volume to briefly enumerate them. Of recent years there have been plantations made of this nut on the coast of southern Florida, and one of the most extensive of these is by a man from New Jersey, but I have not heard from him of late, or seen any reports as to the results of his experiments. It is reported that there are about 250,000 cocoa-nut trees now growing in Florida. COCOANUT, DOUBLE.--This is the fruit of another lofty palm, _Lodoicea Sechellarum_, and is usually considered the largest member of the order. It is a native of the Seychelles islands, in the Indian ocean. It is said to reach a hight of a hundred feet, with a stem two feet in diameter. The fruit is a large, oblong nut, with a rather thin rind or husk, and when this is removed the nut appears to be double, or two oblong nuts firmly united, a kind of twin formation, the entire nut weighing from thirty to forty pounds. These immense nuts are produced in bunches of eight to ten, the cluster sometimes weighing from three to four hundred pounds. It is supposed that these nuts require about ten years to grow and mature. They are useless as food, but the shells are manufactured into various useful articles by the natives, and they are also transported to other countries and valued as curiosities. There is a great demand for the leaves of this palm for making hats, baskets, etc., and as the trees have to be cut down to obtain them, they are becoming rather scarce. COLA NUT, KOLA NUT OR GOORA NUT.--The fruit of a small tree, native of the warmer parts of western Africa, and known to botanists as _Cola acuminata_, and of the Sterculiad family (_Sterculiaceæ_). In its native country it grows thirty to forty feet high. The leaves are oblong-elliptical, six to eight inches long, and pointed (acuminate), and from this it probably derived its specific name. The flowers are yellow, and produced in axillary racemes, and succeeded by simple bean-like pods, each containing several nut-like seeds, which the natives call cola or goora nuts. These nuts have long been an article of trade among the native tribes of Africa, they being valued for their supposed efficacy in allaying thirst, promoting digestion, giving strength, and preventing exhaustion during the performance of hard manual labor. This tree was early introduced into the West Indies and Brazil, but its reputation in Africa does not appear to have been sustained it its Western habitat. COQUILLA NUT.--The fruit of the Piassaba palm, _Attalea funifera_, a native of Brazil, where it grows about thirty feet high. The fruit is produced in bunches, and are each about three inches long, covered with a thin rind. The nut is very hard, and is used as a substitute for bone and ivory in the manufacture of articles for the household. COQUITO NUT.--This is the fruit of the wing-leaved palm of Chile, JUBÆA SPECTABILIS. It is a moderately tall species, and closely resembles, in general habit, the date palm. The nuts are edible, but they are of secondary importance, this palm being valued mainly for the sweet sap issuing from the stem when cut down, this continuing to exude from it for weeks after it is severed from the roots. The sap is gathered and boiled, and when reduced to the consistency of molasses becomes an article of commerce, under the name of Meil de Palma or palm honey. CREAM NUT.--A local name of Brazil nut. DAWA NUT.--See Litchi nut. EARTH NUT, OR EARTH CHESTNUT, ETC.--A small, low-growing, herbaceous plant of the carrot family (_Umbelliferæ_), common in waste or uncultivated grounds in Great Britain and other countries of northern Europe. Formerly botanists supposed there were two species, but of late only one, the _Bunium bulbocastanum_. On the roots there are small, nut-like tubers, of a sweetish taste, and they are eaten by children, either in the raw state or after being roasted. These tubers have various local names, and in addition to the above, they are called kipper nuts, and pig nuts in England, but a familiar local name in Scotland is lousy nuts, because it is said that eating them is sure to breed lice. But this story may have been invented by parents to deter their children from digging and eating the roots of wild plants. Willdenow, in naming this species, certainly recognized its edible qualities, and that children were fond of it, else he would not have called it an earth chestnut,--_bulbo_, bulb, and _castanum_ from _castanea_, the chestnut. ELK NUT.--See Oil nut. FISTICKE NUT.--See Pistacia nut. FOX NUT.--The seeds of a floating, annual aquatic plant, the _Euryale ferox_, native of India, and belonging to the water lily family (_Nymphæaceæ_). It is a handsome plant, with leaves about two feet in diameter, of a rich purple on the underside, with thorn-like spines on the veins. Flowers deep violet-red. The seeds of this species are eaten by the natives, the same as the aborigines of this country gathered the seeds of our indigenous _Nelumbium luteum_, under the name of water chinquapin, using them for food in the late fall and winter. GINKGO NUT.--The large, round, white, somewhat flattened, nut-like seeds of the now common maidenhair tree, or _Ginkgo biloba_, also known as _Salisburia adiantifolia_ of some nurserymen's catalogues and many recent botanical works. The former, however, is the older and correct scientific name. This tree is a native of China and Japan, and of a slender, sparsely branched habit, growing from fifty to eighty feet high in its native countries. It is a deciduous, cone-bearing (_Coniferæ_) tree, with two-lobed, fan-shaped leaves two to three inches broad, divided about halfway down from the top. The male and female flowers are on separate trees, and to secure seed or nuts both sexes must be grown near together. The ginkgo was introduced into European gardens in 1754, and there are now many fruiting specimens, especially in France, from whence the nuts have long been secured for planting, by nurserymen and others interested in tree culture. There are very few bearing trees in this country, and one in Washington, D. C., has been fruiting for a number of years. In China and Japan the seeds or nuts are valued for their edible qualities, but they have a kind of disagreeable, balsamic taste in their raw state, although this is dispelled by roasting, after which they are quite sweet and palatable. As the trees do not begin to bear until of considerable age, and the nuts are inferior to many other kinds, I do not think the ginkgo will ever become very popular in this country as a nut tree. GOORA NUT.--See Cola nut. GORGON NUT.--See Fox nut. GROUNDNUT.--The small, globular tubers of the dwarf three-leaved ginseng, _Aralia trifolia_, are called groundnuts in some of our Northern States, and they are frequently sought for, dug up and eaten by children, as I know from personal experience. The plant belongs to the ginseng family (_Araliaceæ_), and is closely related to the true five-leaved ginseng (_Aralia quinquefolia_), but our groundnut has only three leaves, instead of five; besides, it is a somewhat smaller plant, rarely more than six to eight inches high. When the scattered seed sprout in spring, they send down a long, slender, thread-like rootstock, to a depth of from four to six inches, and at the bottom of this the small tuber is produced. It has a somewhat pungent taste, but this only whets the appetite of a boy when on a hunt for ground nuts. GROUNDNUT.--The tubers of one of the most widely distributed climbing plants of the Eastern States, and common in low, wet grounds almost everywhere, from Canada to Florida, and westward to the Mississippi. This plant is described in most of the botanical works of the present day under the name of _Apios tuberosa_, and it belongs to the Pulse family (_Leguminosæ_), and is closely related to the common and well-known wistarias, although much smaller and of a more slender habit. It is a smooth, perennial, twining vine, with pinnate leaves, and dense racemes or clusters of small brownish-purple pea-shaped flowers. The subterranean rootstocks bear long strings of edible tubers, from one to two inches long, and from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, somewhat variable in shape, dark brown on the outside, but white within. When boiled or roasted these tubers have a rich, farinaceous, nutty flavor. This tuber or groundnut is the one described by Mr. Thomas Herriot, the historiographer of Sir Walter Raleigh's expedition to Virginia in 1585, under the Indian name of "Openawk." He says: "These roots are round, some as large as walnuts, others much larger; they grow in damp soil, many hanging together, as fixed on ropes; they are good food, either boiled or roasted." These tubers are to be found in the swamps and damp soils of Virginia at this day, just as they were at the time of Herriot's visit, but many modern historians have tried to make out that Raleigh's colonists found our common potato among the Indians at that time, although I have never been able to find a scrap of trustworthy history to support such a claim, or that Raleigh himself ever planted or cultivated the American potato in Ireland or England, or, in fact, ever tasted one of these tubers. GROUNDNUT.--See Peanut or Goober. HAZELNUT, OR CHILE HAZEL.--This is merely a local English name for the fruit of a small evergreen tree, native of Chile, S. A., where it is known as Guevina, and this has been adopted as the name of the genus, adding the specific name of the European hazel, so we have _Guevina Avellana_, although in some botanical works it may be found under the name of _Qudria heterophylla_. It belongs to the Protea family (_Proteaceæ_). It has white, hermaphrodite flowers, in long axillary racemes; these are succeeded by coral-red fruit about the size of a large cherry; the stone or nut-like seeds being edible are largely used by the Chileans. They are said to taste like the hazel, hence the name. Trees are hardy in the southwest of England, and would probably succeed here in the Southern States. It has been planted and found to thrive in California. Readily propagated from seed or green cuttings under glass. HORSE-CHESTNUT.--The fruit of a genus of deciduous ornamental trees and shrubs, native of Asia and North America. The common horse-chestnut, or _Æsculus Hippocastanum_, is a native of Asia, and was introduced into Europe over three hundred years ago, its large, smooth seeds and prickly husks probably suggesting both its common and scientific names, although these trees do not even belong to the same order as the true edible chestnuts (_Castanea_), but to the soapworts (_Sapindaceæ_). It is supposed that the prefix, "horse," was derived from a custom among the Turks, of giving the nuts to horses as a medicine when these animals were afflicted with a cough or inclined to become wind-broken. In southern Europe they are sometimes fed to cows to increase the flow of milk, and at one time they were employed for making paste for book binders. They are scarcely edible, although containing considerable farinaceous matter, owing to the presence of a bitter narcotic principle. Our native species, better known as Buckeyes, with both smooth and prickly fruit, are equally worthless as food. IVORY NUT.--There are two species of palms producing nuts hard enough to be employed as a substitute for ivory, in the manufacture of small articles of domestic use. But the one best known to commerce under the name of ivory nut is the fruit of _Phytelephas macrocarpa_, native of New Granada and other parts of Central America. This palm is a low-growing and almost decumbent species, the stem seldom more than six to eight inches in diameter; but the leaves are of immense length, or from fifteen to twenty feet, growing in bundles, or clusters. The fruit consists of about forty nuts, enclosed in a rough, spiny husk, of a globular form, produced on a short footstalk growing from the axis of the leaves, the whole bunch weighing from twenty to thirty pounds. They are two inches long, slightly triangular, and covered with a thin, pulpy coat, which becomes dry, papery and brittle when thoroughly dried, but when in its green state it is sometimes utilized by the natives for making a favorite beverage. The ripe nuts are very solid, hard, and when polished resemble ivory. Immense quantities of these nuts are imported into this country, as well as Europe, and used as a substitute for bone and ivory for making buttons, toys, and similar small articles. JESUIT CHESTNUT.--See Water chestnut. JICARA NUT.--A local name, in some of the Central American States for the Calabash (_Crescentia Cujete_). A low-growing, rather rough tree, with simple leaves, usually three growing together on a broad leafstalk. The fruit is extremely variable, both in size and form, but mainly globose, and two to four inches in diameter. The shell is very hard, and largely used for drinking cups, and these are sometimes highly ornamented on the outside. The kernel is scarcely edible, but is used by the natives as a medicine. JUBA NUT.--See Coquito nut. JUVIA NUT.--See Brazil nut. KIPPER NUT.--See Earth chestnut. [Illustration: FIG. 103. LITCHI OR LEECHEE NUT.] LITCHI NUT OR LEECHEE NUT.--I am inclined to think that the affix of "nut" to this Oriental fruit is an Americanism, and not used elsewhere. There are three distinct species of this fruit known among the Chinese, under the name of Litchi, Longan or Long-yen, and Rambutan, all the product of the Nepheliums, a genus of the soapberry family (_Sapindaceæ_). By some of the earlier botanical works the litchi is placed either in the genus _Dimocarpus_ or _Euphoria_. Within the past few years this fruit has appeared in our markets, in consequence of the increased trade with Oriental countries, and facilities for rapid transit across the continent. The litchi is a globular fruit, about one inch in diameter (Fig. 103), with a thin, chocolate-brown colored shell covered with wart-like protuberances. When fresh the shell is filled with a white, jelly-like pulp, in the center of which there is one rather large, smooth brown seed. The pulp is of a most delicious sub-acid flavor, but it is often rather dry and stale in the nuts which reach us from China and Japan. The tree producing this fruit is seldom more than twenty-five feet high, with rather sturdy twigs and branches, the leaves composed of about seven oblong pointed leaflets. This is said to be one of the most popular of Oriental fruits, and the trees would probably succeed in many of the Southern States and in California. It is now on trial in Florida, having been introduced there in 1886. It has been fruited in England many times, but always under glass, where the plants receive protection and artificial heat. A full description of this species, accompanied by a superb colored plate of the _Nephelium_ or _Dimocarpus Longana_, appeared in the "Transactions of the London Horticultural Society," 1818, p. 402. There are not only a large number of species of the Nepheliums bearing edible fruit, but, as might be expected from their long and extensive cultivation, many local varieties, especially in the southern provinces of China and throughout the islands of tropical Asia. The Dawa of the Fiji islands is the fruit of _N. pinnatum_, a tree growing sixty feet high, and forming extensive forests on those islands. At some future time we may be receiving the dawas under the name of Fiji nuts. LOUSY NUT.--See Earth chestnut. MARKING NUT.--The seeds of _Semecarpus Anacardium_, an evergreen tree of the cashew-nut family (_Anacardiaceæ_), native of tropical Asia, and especially Ceylon. It has large, oblong leaves, and grows about fifty feet high, and the fruit is produced on a fleshy receptacle. The natives roast and eat these nuts, and the black juice obtained from the green fruit is used for marking cloth, hence the common name. The juice is also mixed with lime to make an excellent indelible ink, also for a kind of varnish. MIRITI NUT OR ITA PALM NUT.--These are the Indian names of the fruit of a lofty palm tree, the _Mauritia flexuosa_, of the swamps along the Orinoco river, also in wet soils at higher elevations. This giant palm grows to a hight of a hundred and fifty feet, with an immense crown of large, fan-shaped leaves, and just beneath these the fruit appears in a pendulous cluster eight to ten feet long, containing several bushels, weighing, altogether, from one to three hundred pounds. The individual nuts are about the size of an ordinary apple, with a very smooth shell, somewhat veined or streaked. The natives of the country not only use the farinaceous kernels of these nuts as food, but obtain a saccharine material from the pith, out of which they make wine by fermentation. The petioles of the leaves also furnish them with a strong fiber, used as thread-cord, and for various other purposes. MORETON BAY CHESTNUT.--See Australian chestnut. MONKEY-POT NUT.--See Sapucaia nut. MYROBALAN NUT.--This name is applied rather indiscriminately to the fruits of several species of the genus _Terminalia_, which are, in the main, large trees of the Myrobalan family (_Combretaceæ_). They are native of India, Malay, Fiji, and, in fact, almost all the islands of the Pacific in warm latitudes. The fruits are similar to large plums, but slightly angular, containing a hard, nut-like seed. They are used principally for tanning leather, and also for making ink similar to that made from oak galls. The kernels of all the species are edible, and are eaten by the natives. In the Fiji islands the _Terminalia Catappa_ is a favorite tree with the natives, and they plant it near the houses. The kernels of this species have the flavor of the sweet almond. NICKAR NUT.--The seeds of two species of _Guilandina_, a genus of the bean family (_Leguminosæ_). They are climbing plants, with hard-wooded, prickly stems, forming almost impenetrable thickets near the seacoast in the East Indies and other tropical countries. They have become widely distributed, as the pods readily float when they drop into the water. The pods are about three inches long, very prickly, containing seeds or nuts about the size of small marbles, and exceedingly hard; but in time the water softens them, after which they sprout and grow when cast upon the shore by the waves. The two species are distinguished mainly by the color of the nuts, those of _G. Bonduc_ being yellow, and those of _G. Bonducella_ gray, or with a reddish tint. Of no value or use except as botanical curiosities. NITTA OR NUTTA NUT.--The native African name of the seeds of _Parkia Africana_, a tree of the sensitive-tree section of the bean family (_Leguminosæ_). It grows about forty feet high, and has compound winged leaves. It has become naturalized in the West Indies. The pods grow in clusters, the seeds imbedded in a yellowish, sweet pulp, like the carob or St. John's bread, and the negroes are very fond of them. In the Soudan the seeds are roasted, and then allowed to ferment in water until they are soft and putrid, after which they are washed, pounded and dried, then made up into cakes to be used as a sauce for different kinds of food. It is supposed that the African traveler, Mungo Park, first brought these seeds or nuts to the notice of Europeans, and Robert Brown named the genus _Parkia_ in his honor. NUTMEG.--A name applied to the fruits of a large number of trees, and of different orders of plants. The true nutmegs of commerce are the fruits of trees belonging to the genus _Myristica_, and of the family _Myristicaceæ_. The oldest and best known of these is the _M. fragrans_, a small, widely branching tree, growing twenty to twenty-five feet high, and supposed to be indigenous to the Indian Archipelago. The fruit is about the size of an ordinary walnut, with a thick rind, which, upon opening, at maturity, discloses a reddish aril covering the nut within. This aril or husk is the mace of commerce, while the true nutmeg is the center or hard seed (nut). The Brazil nutmeg is longer than the true species, and is sold under the name of long nutmeg, and is the fruit of _M. fatua_. Another species, the _M. otoba_, is cultivated in Madagascar, but is scarcely known in commerce. Another species, the _M. sebifera_, is a common tree in the forests of Guiana, North Brazil, and up into Panama. It is utilized principally for the oil extracted from the nuts, obtained by macerating them in water, the oil rising to the surface, and as it cools skimmed off. The seeds of several species of conifers and laurels are known, either locally or in commerce, as nutmegs, or are used as a substitute for the true nutmeg. There are three different kinds of trees, native of Guiana, in addition to the one already named, the seeds of which are employed as a spice or medicine. One of these is the _Acrodiclidium camara_. These nuts are known in commerce as "Ackawai nutmegs," and are used mainly as a cure for diarrh�a and colic. Another is the seed of the _Aydendron Cujumary_ tree, and they are known in commerce as "Cujumary beans," although they are not, strictly speaking, a bean, and the same is true of the so-called "Puchurim beans," from the same country, for they are the fruit of _Nectandy Puchury_, a small tree of the laurel family. They are used as a tonic, and considered highly stimulating. _Clove Nutmeg_, or Madagascar nutmeg of commerce, is the fruit of _Agathophyllum aromaticum_, a small evergreen tree, indigenous to Madagascar. _Brazilian Nutmegs_ are the highly aromatic seeds of _Cryptocarya moschata_, or _Atherosperma moschata_ of some botanists. It is a lofty tree, native of Brazil. The aromatic nuts are used as a substitute for nutmegs, but are very inferior to the genuine. _Peruvian Nutmeg, or Plum Nutmeg._--The seeds of a large evergreen tree with aromatic foliage, like our common sassafras, and for this reason is sometimes called Chilean or Peruvian sassafras. The seeds are of no more economic value than those of our native sassafras. It is known under various botanical names, but _Laurelia sempervirens_ is, perhaps, the most familiar. _California Nutmeg_, or _Stinking Nutmeg_, is the nut-like seed of _Torreya Californica_, a small tree of the yew family (_Taxaceæ_). The fruit is from an inch to an inch and a half long, with a fleshy rind enclosing a hard, long nut, which is slightly grooved like a nutmeg. The fruit, leaves and wood are strongly scented, hence the name of "stinking nutmeg," or "stinking yew." Another species, the _T. taxifolia_, is a native of Florida. OIL NUT.--The fruit of a low-branching, deciduous native shrub, growing three to ten feet high, with alternate leaves and small greenish flowers in terminal spikes. It is the _Pyrularia oleifera_ of Gray, and _Hamiltonia oleifera_ of Muhlenberg. The fruit is in the form of a pear-shaped drupe, about an inch long, the small seed or nut with an oily kernel of strong acrid taste; of no value. This shrub is found on shady banks in the mountains of Pennsylvania, and southward into Georgia. PARADISE NUT.--See Sapucaia nut. PEANUT, GROUNDNUT, GOOBER.--The well-known fruit of _Arachis hypogæa_, a low-growing annual belonging to the pulse or pea family (_Leguminosæ_), supposed to be a native of South America, but now extensively cultivated in nearly all semi-tropical countries and wherever the summers are long enough to insure the ripening of the seeds. Extensively cultivated in Virginia, south and westward. Too well known to require any further comment or notice here. PECAN NUT.--See Chap. VII. PEKEA NUT.--See Souari nut. PERUVIAN NUT.--See Nutmegs. PHYSIC NUT.--The seeds of _Jatropha Curcas_, a small tree of the spurgewort family (_Euphorbiaceæ_). It is native of some of the West Indies and warmer parts of South America, but now cultivated in other tropical countries for its seeds, which yield an oil used for the same purposes as castor oil, but rather more powerful and drastic. The seeds have a nutty flavor, but are rather dangerous if eaten in any considerable quantities, and death has been known to follow excess in this direction. PHYSIC NUT.--In "Bartram's Travels," he refers to a seed or nut of a plant he found growing in Florida under this name, p. 41, as follows: " ... some very curious new shrubs and plants, particularly the physic nut or Indian olive. The stems arise, many from a root, two or three feet high; the leaves sit opposite, on very short petioles; they are broad, lanceolate, entire and undulated, having a smooth surface, of a deep green color. From the bosom of each leaf is produced a single oval drupe, standing erect on long slender stems; it has a large kernel and thin pulp. The fruit is yellow when ripe, and about the size of an olive. The Indians, when they go in pursuit of deer, carry this fruit with them, supposing that it has the power of charming or drawing that creature to them, from whence, with traders, it has obtained the name of physic nut, which means, with them, charming, conjuring or fascinating." To what kind of fruit Bartram referred under the name of "physic nut," is not certain, but his description of the plant comes very near that of the American olive (_Olea Americana_), but the fruit of this and other closely allied plants of the same family are not "yellow" when ripe, but purple. PIGNUT, OR HOGNUT.--See chapter on Hickory. PINE NUT.--A name applied indiscriminately to the many species of pine trees (_Pinus_) bearing seeds large enough to be conveniently used as food. In southern Europe, and especially in Italy and the south of France, the seeds of the stone pine (_Pinus Pinea_) have been extensively used as food, from the earliest times down to the present day. Nearly all the ancient authors refer to them as among the valuable products of the country. Macrobius, in his story of the _Saturnalia_, speaks of the cones as _Nuces vel Poma Pinea_. These pine nuts are called _Pinocchi_ in Italy and Sicily, and occasionally a few reach this country, where the Italian name has been corrupted into Pinolas. These seeds or nuts are used for desserts, puddings and cakes, also eaten raw at table, as with almonds. They have a slight taste of turpentine, but it is not strong enough to be at all disagreeable. [Illustration: FIG. 104. BRANCH OF NUT PINE.] In this country we have several native species bearing very large edible seeds, and they are known in the West under the general name of _Piñon_, or nut pines. The best of these nuts, to my taste, are the seeds of _Pinus edulis_, so named by the late Dr. Engelmann, because of its large, sweet and edible seeds. It is a small, low-growing tree, more or less common on dry hills and slopes, from Colorado southward through New Mexico, and into western Texas. The seeds of _Pinus Parryana_ and _Pinus cembroides_, of Arizona and Lower California, are also called Piñons, and largely gathered by the Indians. Farther east and north, we find the one-leaved pine (_Pinus monophylla_), and although the seeds are much smaller than those of _P. edulis_, they were formerly gathered in immense quantities by the Indians, to help eke out their often scanty winter store of food. Occasionally a small quantity of these pine nuts is sent to Eastern markets, but rarely, unless ordered early in the season. The trees of _P. edulis_ and _P. monophylla_ are perfectly hardy here, and worth cultivating for ornament, as well as their nuts, although their slow growth is a rather severe test of one's patience. Fig. 104 shows a Piñon branch. PISTACHIO NUT.--Historically, this is a very ancient nut, for Bible commentators claim that it is the one sent by Jacob into Egypt. It is the fruit of a small, deciduous tree of the cashew family (_Anacardiaceæ_), a native of western Asia, but many centuries ago it had become naturalized in Palestine and throughout the Mediterranean regions. It has shining evergreen winged leaves, and the bark on the young twigs is brown, becoming russet-colored with age. There are several different species, but the one producing the nuts of commerce is the _Pistacia vera_, having brownish-green flowers in loose panicles, and these are succeeded by bunches of reddish fruit, about an inch long, with an oblique or bent point. The nuts have a double shell, the outer one usually red, the inner one smooth and brittle; the kernel is pale green, sweet, and of rather pleasant taste. There are a number of varieties, differing only slightly in form and size. This nut has been cultivated sparingly in Great Britain since 1570, but the climate is not quite warm enough to insure its ripening in the open air. It would probably succeed throughout the greater part of California, as well as in the extreme Southern States, but Mr. Berckmans writes me that it is not hardy in his grounds at Augusta, Ga. There is a species of pistacia known as _P. Mexicana_, found in central Mexico, and extending as far north as San Diego, in California, according to the report of Dr. Cooper (Botany of California, Vol. I, p. 109). QUANDANG NUT.--A medium size Australian tree, the _Santalum acuminatum_, of the sandalwood family (_Santalaceæ_). It produces a plum-like fruit, which is best known in its native country as the quandang nut. It is used as a preserve, but is little known, except in or near its native habitats. QUEENSLAND NUT.--See Australian hazelnut. [Illustration: FIG. 105. PARADISE OR SAPUCAIA NUT.] SAPUCAIA NUT.--The Brazilian name of, at least, two species of large forest trees growing in the valley of the Amazon and its tributaries. The best known of these is the _Lecythis Zabucajo_, a lofty tree of the myrtle family (_Myrtaceæ_). It is closely allied to the more common Brazil nut of commerce. The sapucaia nuts are produced in an urn-shaped, woody capsule, which has received the name of Monkey-pot, because when these capsules ripen the lid at the top is suddenly liberated, emitting a sharp sound, which, as heard by the monkeys, gives them notice that the nuts are falling, and that the first on the ground becomes the fortunate possessor of the largest number. The capsules or pots are about six inches in diameter, and the lid opening at the top about two inches. The nuts, which are packed very closely in the shell, are about one inch in diameter, and two to three in length, with a thin, brown, and very much wrinkled and twisted shell (Fig. 105). The kernel is white, sweet, oily, and somewhat more delicate in flavor than that of the common Brazil nut. In New York city these nuts are sold under the name of Paradise nuts. But this is probably only a local name, for I have been unable to find it in any botanical work. These nuts rarely come to this country in any considerable quantities; a few hundred pounds at a time would be considered a large consignment. SASSAFRAS NUT.--See Nutmeg, Chilean. SASSAFRAS NUT.--See Nutmeg, Puchury. SNAKE NUT.--A large, roundish fruit, about the size of the black walnut, the product of the _Ophiocaryon paradoxum_, a large tree of the soapberry family (_Sapindaceæ_), native of British Guiana. This nut takes its name of "Snake nut," from the peculiar form of the embryo of the seed, which is curled up spirally. The Indians, thinking there must be some virtue in form, use these nuts as an antidote for snake bites, although, so far as known to science, they do not possess any medicinal properties. [Illustration: FIG. 106. SOUARI NUT.] SOUARI NUT, OR BUTTERNUT.--This nut, like the last, is a native of British Guiana, and is the fruit of the _Caryocar nuciferum_, a noble tree, growing a hundred feet high, having large, broad, trifoliate leaves, resembling those of our common horse-chestnut, but not quite as broad. The flowers are very large, and, with the tube, fully a foot long, of a deep purple on the outside, and yellow within. They are composed of five thick, fleshy petals, and as showy as some of our best and brightest-colored magnolias. The flowers are produced in terminal clusters or corymbs, succeeded by a large, round, four-celled fleshy fruit five to six inches in diameter; but as some of the embryo nuts usually fail to grow, it changes the form of the fruit as it enlarges towards maturity, and only one or two of the nuts mature and ripen, very much as frequently occurs in both the sweet and horse-chestnuts. The nuts are affixed to a central axis, and are of a rounded, subreniform shape, and even flattened to an almost sharp edge on one side, and broadly truncate at the scar (hilum) where they are attached to the pericarp or central axis. The shell is of a deep brown color, embossed, as it were, with smooth tubercles. They are from two to two and a half inches or more in their broadest diameter, as shown in Fig. 106. The kernel or meat is pure white, soft, rich and oily, with a pleasant flavor. This nut is a rarity in our markets, and Mr. H. R. Davy of New York, to whom I am indebted for a specimen, as well as other rare kinds, assures me that in his forty-five years' experience as a dealer in foreign fruits and nuts, he has never known of but one lot, and that one consisted of about one-half bushel, brought into his store by a sailor, who only knew their common South American name. These nuts are more frequently seen in European seaports than in those of this country. SOUTH SEA CHESTNUT.--See Tahitian chestnut. TAHITIAN CHESTNUT.--The seeds of a tree known in the South Sea islands by the native name of Toi, but to botanists as _Inocarpus edulis_. It belongs to the bean family (_Leguminosæ_). The tree grows sixty to eighty feet high, and when young the stems are fluted like a Grecian column, but as they increase with age the projections extend outward, until they form a kind of buttress all around the lower part, gradually decreasing upward. This so-called chestnut tree has yellow flowers, succeeded by fibrous pods containing one large seed or nut, which, when roasted or boiled, resembles the chestnut in taste. The nuts have a different local name in almost every one of the Pacific islands where it is at all abundant. TAVOLA NUT.--See Myrobalan nut. TALLOW NUT.--A local and nearly obsolete name for the fruit of the Ogeechee lime or sour gum tree (_Nyssa capitata_) of the swamps of Florida, Georgia and westward. The fruit is about an inch long, resembling a small plum, the pulp having an agreeable acid taste. Bartram, p. 94, refers to this fruit under the name of "Tallow nut," but why so called is not explained. TALLOW NUT.--The fruit of the Chinese Tallow tree, _Stillingia sebifera_, of the spurgewort family (_Euphorbiaceæ_), a native of China, where it is, as well as in some of the warmer parts of America, extensively cultivated. It has been planted in a few localities in the Southern States, and appears to thrive. It is a small tree thirty to forty feet high, with rhomboid tapering leaves and a three-celled capsuled fruit, each cell containing only a single seed thickly coated with a yellow, tallow-like substance, hence its common name. This tallow or grease is used for making soap, burning in lamps, and also for dressing cloth. TEMPERANCE NUT.--An English name of cola nut. TORREY NUT.--The hard, nut-like seeds of _Torreya nucifera_, of Siebold, or _Taxus nucifera_, of Kæmpfer, and _Caryotaxus nucifera_, of Zuccarini, a tree native of Japan, where these nuts are eaten by the Japanese, either raw or roasted. An oil is also extracted from the nuts, for use in cooking or for burning in lamps. This Japanese tree belongs to the same genus as the so-called California nutmeg (see Nutmeg) and our Florida stinking cedar (_T. taxifolia_), also the great Chinese cedar (_T. grandis_). [Illustration: FIG. 107. WATER CHESTNUT.] WATER CHESTNUT.--Also known as water caltrops. The seeds of several species of water plants of the genus _Trapa_, of the evening primrose family (_Onagraceæ_). In southern Europe and eastward there is a species found in ponds, the seeds of which are called Jesuit chestnuts (_T. natans_), and in India and Ceylon a closely allied one, the Singhara-nut plant (_T. bispinosa_), while in Lago Maggiore there is another (_T. verbanensis_), but all may be varieties of one and the same species, including the _Trapa bicornis_, a two-horned water chestnut, extensively used in China and Japan as food under various local names. In China they are called Ling, and of late years have been occasionally imported and sold, more as curiosities than for eating. These seeds or nuts are of a dark brown color, and of the form and size shown in Fig. 107, resembling, in miniature, the skull of an ox with abbreviated horns. When fresh, the kernel is of an agreeable nutty flavor. WATER CHESTNUT, OR CHINQUAPIN.--The seeds of the large yellow water lily (_Nelumbium luteum_), a very common plant in small ponds in the West and South, but more rare in the East. The seeds are about the size and shape of small acorns, and produced in a large, top-shaped, fleshy receptacle. They are edible, and are supposed to have been extensively used as food by the aborigines of this country. INDEX. Ackawai nutmeg, 274 Acorn, 254 Acrodiclidium camara, 274 Æsculus hippocastanum, 268 Agathophyllum aromaticum, 274 Aleurites triloba, 259 Almond, 12 bitter, 34 budding, bud in position, 28 incision for bud, 27 budding knife, 24 budding knife, Yankee, 24 prepared shoot of buds, 26 season for budding, 22 culture in California, 17 history of the, 13 insects and diseases, 39 Cercospora circumscissa, 43 Goes pulverulenta, 52 Scolytus rugulosus, 42 Taphrina deformans, 43 orchard in California, 18 planting and pruning, 32 propagation of the, 19 properties and uses of, 39 pruning, 33 raising seedlings for stocks, 20 soil and exposure for the, 30 varieties, 34 hard-shelled, 35, 36 large-fruited, 37 ornamental varieties, 38 peach, 37 soft or brittle-shelled, 36 sweet, 40 thin-shelled, 37 Amygdalus argentea, 39 Cochinchinensis, 38 communis amara, 34 dulcis, 35 fragilis, 36 macrocarpa, 37 persicoides, 37 incana, 39 nana, 39 orientalis, 39 Anacardium occidentale, 260 Apios tuberosa, 267 Arachis hypogæa, 275 Aralia trifolia, 266 Areca catechu, 256 Atherosperma moschata, 274 Attalea funifera, 264 Australian chestnut, 255 Australian hazelnut, 256 Aydendron cujumary, 274 Beech, American, 48 Chile, 48 European, 48 evergreen, 48 history of, 44 injurious insects, 52 properties and uses, 52 propagation of, 47 soil and location for the, 47 species and varieties, 48 Beechnut, 44 leaf, bur and nut, 51 Ben nut, 256 Bertholletia excelsa, 267 Betel nut, 256 Bladder nut, 257 Brazil nut, 257 Brazilian nutmegs, 273, 274 Bread nut, 258 Brosimum alicastrum, 258 Buffalo nut, 259 Bunium bulbocastanum, 265 Butternut, 259, 280 Byzantium nut, 259 California chestnut, 55 California nutmeg, 275 Calodendron Capense, 259 Candle nut, 259 Cape chestnut, 259 Caryocar nuciferum, 280 Caryotaxus nucifera, 283 Cashew nut, 260 Castanea chrysophylla var. minor, 57 Castanea chrysophylla var. pumila, 57 Castanea sempervirens, 55 Castanopsis, 55 bur, 57 chrysophylla, 55 leaves and nuts, 56 Castanospermum Australe, 255 Caucasian walnut, 261 Chestnut, 60 budding, 80 diseases of the, 116 distance between trees, 82 European varieties of, 99 Comfort, 100 Cooper, 100 Corson, 100 Dager, 101 Moncur, 101 Numbo, 102 spines of, 102 Miller's Dupont, 102 Paragon, 102 bur, 103 nut, 104 spines of, 103 tree, four years old, 105 Ridgely, 104 bur, 106 Scott, 107 Styer, 108 flowers, 61 French variety of the, 108 gathering and assorting, 65 grafting, 71 cleft, 77 growth of cion, 78 large trees, 79 materials, 72 modes of, 75 season for, 71 splice, 75 sprouts, 79 success in, 78 wax, 72 history of the, 62 insects injurious to, 113 Balaninus carytripes, 113 weevil, 114 Japan, 109 Advance, 110 Alpha, 111 Beta, 111 Early Reliance, 111 Felton, 111 Giant, 110, 111 Killen, 112 Parsons, 112 Parry's Superb, 112 Success, 112 mulching, 82 native varieties of the, 94 burless, 94 bush chinquapin, 96 common chinquapin, 97 Fuller's chinquapin, 97 chinquapin burs, 97 chinquapin tree, 98 Hathaway, 95 Phillips, 95 planting, 68 in nursery rows, 69 propagation of the, 64 seedbed and soil for, 67 soil and climate for, 83 species of, 86 American, 88 species bush chinquapin, 89 Castanea Americana, 88 Japonica, 93 nana, 89 pumila, 90, 91 sativa, 91 vesca, 91 European, 91 Japan, 93 leaf, 92 staking transplanted trees, 81 stocks from the forests, 70 transplanting and pruning, 80 uses of, 119 Chile hazelnut, 268 Chocolate nut or bean, 261 Clearing nut, 262 Clove nutmeg, 274 Cocoanut, 262 double, 263 Cocos nucifera, 262 Cola acuminata, 264 nut, 264 Coquito nut, 264 Coquilla nut, 264 Cream nut, 265 Crescentia cujete, 269 Cryptocarya moschata, 274 Cujumary beans, 274 Dawa nut, 265 Dimocarpus longana, 271 Earth nut, 265 chestnut, 265 Elk nut, 265 Euryale ferox, 265 Evergreen chestnut, 55 Fagus antarctica, 48 betuloides, 48 ferruginea, 48 obliqua, 48 sylvatica, 48 Fisticke nut, 265 Filbert or hazelnut, 118 Fox nut, 265 Galeruca calmariensis, 5 Ginkgo biloba, 265 nut, 265 Goober, 275 Goora nut, 264 Gorgon nut, 266 Groundnut, 266, 267, 275 Guevina Avellana, 268 Guilandina bouduc, 273 bonducella, 273 Hamiltonia oleifera, 275 Hazelnut or filbert, 118 American species of hazel, 126 beaked hazel, 127 Corylus Americana, 126 Corylus rostrata, 127 Asiatic species of hazel, 128 C. ferox & heterophylla, 128 blight, 138 Cryptospora anomala, 139 fungus, 141 European species of, 127 Constantinople hazel, 129 Corylus Avellana, 127 Colurna, 128 tubulosa, 130 history of the filbert, 120 insects injurious to filberts, 145 personal experience with filberts, 132 planting and pruning filberts, 124 propagation of the filbert, 122 soil, location, etc., for filberts, 123 varieties of filbert and hazel seedlings, 135 varieties extra large hazel seedling, 136 varieties large filbert, 119 large seedling hazelnut, 120 select list of, 130 Alba or white filbert, 130 Cosford, or Miss Young's thin-shelled, 130 Crispa, or frizzled filbert, 130 Downton, large square, 130 Grandis, or round cob-nut, 131 Lambert's filbert, 130 Purple-leaved filbert, 131 red filbert, red hazel, etc., 131 Spanish filbert, 132 Horse-chestnut, 268 Hickory nuts, 147 age of fruiting the, 193 big bud, 160 big shellbark, 157 bitter pecan, 165 bitternut, 163, 164 brown, 162 budding and grafting, 183 crown, on roots, 189 sprouts from roots, 190 Carya amara var. myristicæformis, 165 Carya olivæformis, 155 cultivation of the, 177 Hicoria pecan and synonyms, 155 Hicoria alba, 155 " " synonyms, 157 Hicoria aquatica, 165 " " synonyms, 166 Hicoria glabra, 162 " " synonyms, 164 Hicoria laciniosa, 157 " " synonyms, 159 Hicoria minima, 164 " " synonyms, 165 Hicoria myristicæformis, 165 Hicoria tomentosa, 160 " " synonyms, 162 history of the, 148 hognut, 162 Illinois nut, 155 insect enemies of the, 195 American silk worm, 202 Attacus luna, 202 belted chion, 199 bud worm, 202 burrows of scolytus, 200 Catocala, 202 Chion cinctus, 199 Chramesus icoriæ, 201 Clisiocampa sylvatica, 202 Cyllene crinicornis, 198 pictus, 198 robiniæ, 198 Elaphidion inerme, 199 Goes, beautiful, 199 pulchra, 199 tiger, 199 tigrinus, 199 Grapholitha caryana, 201 bark borer, 199 nut weevil, 202 shuck worm, 201 twig girdler, 196 leaf miners, 202 leaf rollers, 202 locust borer, 198 luna moth, 202 Oncideres cingulatus, 196 orange sawyer, 199 painted borer, 198 plant lice, 202 Scolytus 4-spinosus, 199 Sinoxylon basilare, 201 Telea polyphemus, 202 tent caterpillar, 202 Tortricidæ, 201 king nut, 160 mocker nut, 160 Pecan nut, 155 varieties of, 167 Alba, 167 Biloxi, 167 Colorado, 169 Columbian, 167 Early Texan, 168 Faust, 168 Frotscher, 168 Georgia Melon, 168 Gonzales, 168 Harcourt, 168 Idlewild, 169 Jewett, 169 Lady Finger, 169 large, long, 167 Little Mobile, 167 Longfellow, 168 Pride of the Coast, 169 Primate, 168 Mexican, 169 Meyers, 170 Ribera, 168 Risien, 169 Stuart, 169 Turkey Egg, 169 Van Deman, 169 pignut 162, 164 planting for profit, 194 propagation of the, 180 shellbark or shagbark, 155 varieties of, 170 Hales' paper-shell, 172 long hickory, 173 from Missouri, 173 Western, varieties of, 174 Floyd pecan, 177 long, 174 Nussbaumer's, 174-176 species and varieties, 224 swamp hickoria, 164, 165 switch bud, 162 thick, or western shellbark, 157, 158 white-heart, 160 Inocarpus edulis, 282 Introduction, 1 Importation of nuts, 8 Imported nuts, value of, 9 Ita palm nut, 271 Ivory nut, 269 Jesuit chestnuts, 269, 283 Jicara nut, 269 Juba nut, 270 Jubæa spectabilis, 264 Juvia nut 258, 270 Kipper nut, 270 Kola nut, 264 Laurelia sempervirens, 275 Lecythis Zabucajo, 279 Leechee nut, 270 Litchi nut, 270 Lodoicea Sechellarum, 263 Longan, 270 Longyen, 270 Lousy nut, 271 Macadamia ternifolia, 256 Madagascar nutmeg, 274 Marking nut, 271 Mauritia flexuosa, 271 Miriti nut, 271 Miscellaneous nuts, 254 Monkey-pot nut, 272 Moreton Bay chestnuts, 255 Moringa optera, 256 pterygosperma, 256 Myristica fatua, 273 fragrans, 273 otoba, 274 sebifera, 274 Myrobalan nut, 272 Nectandy puchury, 274 Nelumbium luteum, 284 Nephelium pinnatum, 271 Nepheliums, 271 Nickar nut, 272 Nittar, or Nutta, 273 Nuces vel Poma Pinea, 277 Nutmeg, 273 Nutmeg hickory, 165 Nyssa capitata, 282 Oak nut, 254 Oil nut 265, 275 Olea Americana, 276 Openawk, 267 Ophiocaryon paradoxum, 280 Paradise nut, 275 Parkia Africana, 273 Peanut, 275 Pekea nut, 275 Peruvian nut, 275 nutmeg, 274 Phytelephas macrocarpa, 269 Physic nut, 276 Pinang, 256 Pine nut, 276 Pinocchi, 277 Pinolas, 277 Pinon, 277 Pinus cembroides, 277 edulis, 277 monophylla, 278 Parryana, 277 pinea, 276 Piper betel, 256 Pistacia Mexicana, 278 vera, 278 Pistachio nut, 278 Plum nutmeg, 274 Pterocarya fraxinifolia, 261 Puchurim beans, 274 Pyrularia oleifera, 275 Quandang nut, 279 Qudria heterophylla, 268 Queensland nut, 256 Quercus virens, 255 Raffia, or Roffia, 25 Rambutan, 270 Salisburia adiantifolia, 265 Santalum acuminatum, 279 Sapucaia nut, 279 Sardis nut, 63 Sassafras nut, 280 Semecarpus anacardium, 271 Singhara-nut plant, 283 Snake nut, 280 Sonari nut, 280 South Sea chestnut, 282 Staphylea trifolia, 257 Stillingia sebifera, 282 Stinking nutmeg, 275 Strychnos potatorum, 262 Tahitian chestnut, 282 Tallow nut, 282 Tavola nut, 282 Taxus nucifera, 283 Temperance nut, 283 Terminalia Catappa, 272 Theobroma cacao, 261 Torrey nut, 283 Torreya Californica, 275 nucifera, 283 Trapa bicornis, 283 bispinosa, 283 natans, 283 verbanensis, 283 Walnut, 203 American, 224 black, 232 black, in husk, 232 varieties of, 233 butternut, 224 sugar, 227 varieties of, 225 California, 234 Carya cathartica, 225 Juglans Californica, 234 cathartica, 225 cinerea, 224 hybrida, 225 oblonga alba, 225 nigra, 232 nigra, husk removed, 233 nigra oblonga, 233 rupestris, 235 New Mexico, 235 Texas, 235 Wallia cinerea, 225 white, 224 budding and grafting, 218 flute, 220 history, 203 husking, 250 hybrids in California, 227 flowering branch of, 228 Juglans Californica, 229 Sieboldiana, 231, 237 insect enemies of the, 251 Citheronia regalis, 252 Regal walnut moth, 252 Jovis glans, 203 Juglans, 203 Oriental, 236 Juglans ailantifolia, 237 Camirium, 236 Catappa, 236 cordiformis, 239 Japonica, 236 Mandshurica, 237 Persian, 204 in America, 209 Persian, Barthere, 242 Chaberte, 242 Chile, 240, 242 Cluster, 243 Cut-leaved, 243 English, 240 Franquette, 243 French, 240 Gant, or Bijou, 243 Juglans regia, 240 regia octogona, 245 serotina, 247 Kaghazi, 244 Large-fruited Præparturiens, 244 Late Præparturiens, 244 Late, 247 Madeira nut, 240 Mayette, 245 Mesange, or paper-shell, 245 Meylan, 246 Octogona, 246 Parisienne, 246 Præparturiens, 246 Precocious, 246 Racemosa, or Spicata, 243 Royal, 240 Small fruited, 240 St. John, 247 Variegated, 248 Vilmorin, 247 Vourey, 247 Weeping, 248 planting and pruning, 223 propagation of, 215 seedling, 216 Water chestnut, 269, 283, 284 chinquapin, 284 hickory, 165 Western cashew, 260 chinquapin, 55 Winged-seeded moringa, 256 Winged walnut, 261 SENT FREE ON APPLICATION. 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38829	----	GARDEN-CRAFT OLD AND NEW BY THE LATE JOHN D. SEDDING WITH MEMORIAL NOTICE BY THE REV. E. F. RUSSELL _WITH NINE ILLUSTRATIONS_ NEW EDITION LONDON KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRÜBNER & CO., LTD. PATERNOSTER HOUSE, CHARING CROSS ROAD 1895 [Illustration: A GARDEN ENCLOSED.] PREFACE. "_What am I to say for my book?" asks Mr Stevenson in the Preface to "An Inland Voyage." "Caleb and Joshua brought back from Palestine a formidable bunch of grapes; alas! my book produces naught so nourishing; and, for the matter of that, we live in an age when people prefer a definition to any quantity of fruit._" _As this apology is so uncalled for in the case of this fruitful little volume, I would venture to purloin it, and apply it where it is wholly suitable. Here, the critic will say, is an architect who makes gardens for the houses he builds, writing upon his proper craft, pandering to that popular preference for a definition of which Mr Stevenson speaks, by offering descriptions of what he thinks a fine garden should be, instead of useful figured plans of its beauties!_ _And yet, to tell truth, it is more my subject than myself that is to blame if my book be unpractical. Once upon a time complete in itself, as a brief treatise upon the technics of gardening delivered to my brethren of the Art-worker's Guild a year ago, the essay had no sooner arrived with me at home, than it fell to pieces, lost gravity and compactness, and became a garden-plaything--a sort of gardener's "open letter," to take loose pages as fancies occurred. So have these errant thoughts, jotted down in the broken leisure of a busy life, grown solid unawares and expanded into a would-be-serious contribution to garden-literature._ _Following upon the original lines of the Essay on the For and Against of Modern Gardening, I became the more confirmed as to the general rightness of the old ways of applying Art, and of interpreting Nature the more I studied old gardens and the point of view of their makers; until I now appear as advocate of old types of design, which, I am persuaded, are more consonant with the traditions of English life, and more suitable to an English homestead than some now in vogue._ _The old-fashioned garden, whatever its failings in the eyes of the modern landscape-gardener (great is the poverty of his invention), represents one of the pleasures of England, one of the charms of that quiet beautiful life of bygone times that I, for one, would fain see revived. And judged even as pieces of handicraft, apart from their poetic interest, these gardens are worthy of careful study. They embody ideas of ancient worth; they evidence fine aims and heroic efforts; they exemplify traditions that are the net result of a long probation. Better still, they render into tangible shapes old moods of mind that English landscape has inspired; they testify to old devotion to the scenery of our native land, and illustrate old attempts to idealise its pleasant traits._ _Because the old gardens are what they are--beautiful yesterday, beautiful to-day, and beautiful always--we do well to turn to them, not to copy their exact lines, nor to limit ourselves to the range of their ornament and effects, but to glean hints for our garden-enterprise to-day, to drink of their spirit, to gain impulsion from them. As often as not, the forgotten field proves the richest of pastures._ _J. D. S._ THE CROFT, WEST WICKHAM, KENT, _Oct. 8, 1890_. MEMOIR. The Manuscript of this book was placed complete in the hands of his publishers by John Sedding. He did not live to see its production. At the wish of his family and friends, I have, with help from others, set down some memories and impressions of my friend. My acquaintance with John Sedding dates from the year 1875. He was then 37 years of age, and had been practising as an architect almost exclusively in the South-West of England. The foundations of this practice were laid by his equally talented brother, Edmund Sedding, who, like himself, had received his training in the office of Mr Street. Edmund died in 1868, and John took up the business, but his clients were so few, and the prospect of an increase in their number so little encouraging, that he left Bristol and came to London, and here I first met him. He had just taken a house in Charlotte Street, Bedford Square, and the house served him on starting both for home and office. The first years in London proved no exception to the rule of first years, they were more or less a time of struggle and anxiety. John Sedding's happy, buoyant nature, his joy in his art, and invincible faith in his mission, did much to carry him through all difficulties. But both at this time, and all through his life, he owed much, very much, to the brave hopefulness and wise love of his wife. Rose Sedding, a daughter of Canon Tinling, of Gloucester, lives in the memory of those who knew her as an impersonation of singular spiritual beauty and sweetness. Gentle and refined, sensitive and sympathetic to an unusual degree, there was no lack in her of the sterner stuff of character--force, courage, and endurance. John Sedding leaned upon his wife; indeed, I cannot think of him without her, or guess how much of his success is due to what she was to him. Two days before his death he said to me, "I have to thank God for the happiest of homes, and the sweetest of wives." Many will remember with gratitude the little home in Charlotte Street, as the scene of some of the pleasantest and most refreshing hours they have ever known. John Sedding had the gift of attracting young men, artists and others, to himself, and of entering speedily into the friendliest relations with them. He met them with such taking frankness, such unaffected warmth of welcome, that they surrendered to him at once, and were at once at ease with him and happy. On Sundays, when the religious duties of the day were over, he was wont to gather a certain number of these young fellows to spend the evening at his house. No one of those who were privileged to be of the party can forget the charming hospitality of these evenings. The apparatus was so simple, the result so delightful; an entire absence of display, and yet no element of perfect entertainment wanting. On these occasions, when supper was over, Mrs Sedding usually played for us with great discernment and feeling the difficult music of Beethoven, Grieg, Chopin, and others, and sometimes she sang. More than one friendship among their guests grew out of these happy evenings. In course of time the increase of his family and the concurrent increase of his practice obliged him to remove, first his office to Oxford Street, and later on his home to the larger, purer air of a country house in the little village of West Wickham, Kent. This house he continued to occupy until his death. Work of all kinds now began to flow in upon him, not rapidly, but by steady increase. His rich faculty of invention, his wide knowledge, his skill in the manipulation of natural forms, the fine quality of his taste, were becoming more and more known. He produced in large numbers designs for wall-papers, for decoration, and for embroidery. These designs were never repetitions of old examples, nor were they a réchauffé of his own previous work. Something of his soul he put into all that he undertook, hence his work was never commonplace, and scarcely needed signature to be known as his, so unmistakably did it bear his stamp, the "marque de fabrique," of his individuality. I have known few men so well able as he to press flowers into all manner of decorative service, in metal, wood, stone or panel, and in needlework. He understood them, and could handle them with perfect ease and freedom, each flower in his design seeming to fall naturally into its appointed place. Without transgressing the natural limits of the material employed, he yet never failed to give to each its own essential characteristics, its gesture, and its style. Flowers were indeed passionately loved, and most reverently, patiently studied by him. He would spend many hours out of his summer holiday in making careful studies of a single plant, or spray of foliage, painting them, as Mr Ruskin had taught him, in siena and white, or in violet-carmine and white. Leaves and flowers were, in fact, almost his only school of decorative design. This is not the place to attempt any formal exposition of John Sedding's views on Art and the aims of Art. They can be found distinctly stated and amply, often brilliantly, illustrated in his Lectures and Addresses, of which some have appeared in the architectural papers and some are still in manuscript.[1] But short of this formal statement, it may prove not uninteresting to note some characters of his work which impressed us. [Footnote 1: It is much to be wished that these Lectures and Addresses should be collected and published.] Following no systematic order, we note first his profound sympathy with ancient work, and with ancient work of all periods that might be called periods of living Art. He never lost an opportunity of visiting and intently studying ancient buildings, sketching them, and measuring them with extraordinary care, minuteness, and patience. "On one occasion," writes Mr Lethaby, "when we were hurried he said, 'We cannot go, it is life to us.'" A long array of sketch-books, crowded with studies and memoranda, remains to bear witness to his industry. In spite of this extensive knowledge, and copious record of old work, he never literally reproduced it. The unacknowledged plagiarisms of Art were in his judgment as dishonest as plagiarisms in literature, and as hopelessly dead. "He used old forms," writes Mr Longden, "in a plastic way, and moulded them to his requirements, never exactly reproducing the old work, which he loved to draw and study, but making it his starting-point for new developments. This caused great difference of opinion as to the merit of his work, very able and skilful judges who look at style from the traditional point of view being displeased by his designs, while others who may be said to partake more of the movement of the time, admired his work." His latest and most important work, the Church of the Holy Trinity, Sloane Street, is a case in point. It has drawn out the most completely opposed judgments from by no means incompetent men; denounced by some, it has won the warmest praise from others, as, for instance, from two men who stand in the very front rank of those who excel, William Morris has said of it, "It is on the whole the best modern interior of a town church"; and the eminent painter, E. Burnes-Jones, writing to John Sedding, writes: "I cannot tell you how I admire it, and how I longed to be at it." Speaking further of this sympathy with old work, Mr Longden, who knew him intimately, and worked much with him, writes, "The rather rude character of the Cornish granite work in the churches did not repel him, indeed, he said he loved it, because he understood it. He has made additions to churches in Cornwall, such as it may well be imagined the old Cornishmen would have done, yet with an indescribable touch of modernness about them. He also felt at home with the peculiar character of the Devonshire work, and some of his last work is in village churches where he has made a rather ordinary church quite beautiful and interesting, by repairing and extending old wooden screens, putting in wooden seats, with an endless variety of symbolic designs, marble font and floor, fine metal work, simple but well-designed stained glass, good painting in a reredos, all, as must be with an artist, adding to the general effect, and falling into place in that general effect, while each part is found beautiful and interesting, if examined in detail." "The rich Somersetshire work, where the fine stone lends itself to elaborate carving, was very sympathetic to Sedding, and he has added to and repaired many churches in that county, always taking the fine points in the old work and bringing them out by his own additions, whether in the interior or the exterior, seizing upon any peculiarity of site or position to show the building to the best advantage, and never forgetting the use of a church, but increasing the convenience of the arrangements for worship, and emphasizing the sacred character of the buildings on which he worked." In his lectures to Art students, no plea was more often on his lips than the plea for living Art, as contrasted with "shop" Art, or mere antiquarianism. The artist is the product of his own time and of his own country, his nature comes to him out of the past, and is nourished in part upon the past, but he lives in the present, and of the present, sharing its spirit and its culture. John Sedding had great faith in the existence of this art gift, as living and active in his own time, he recognised it reverently and humbly in himself, and looked for it and hailed it with joy and generous appreciation in others. Hence the value he set upon association among Art workers. "Les gens d'esprit," says M. Taine, speaking of Art in Italy, "n'ont jamais plus d'esprit que lorsqu'ils sont ensemble. Pour avoir des oeuvres d'art il faut d'abord des artistes, mais aussi des ateliers. Alors il y avait des ateliers, et en outre les artistes faisaient des corporations. Tous se tenaient, et dans la grande société, de petites sociétés unissaient étroitement et librement leurs membres. La familiarité les rapprochait; la rivalité les aiguillonnait."[2] [Footnote 2: _Philosophie de l'art en Italie_ (p. 162).--H. TAINE.] He gave practical effect to these views in the conduct of his own office, which was as totally unlike the regulation architect's office, as life is unlike clockwork. Here is a charming "interior" from the pen of his able chief assistant and present successor, Mr H. Wilson:-- "I shall not readily forget my first impressions of Mr Sedding. I was introduced to him at one of those delightful meetings of the Art Workers' Guild, and his kindly reception of me, his outstretched hand, and the unconscious backward impulses of his head, displaying the peculiar whiteness of the skin over the prominent temporal and frontal bones, the playful gleam of his eyes as he welcomed me, are things that will remain with me as long as memory lasts. "Soon after that meeting I entered his office, only to find that he was just as delightful at work as in the world. "The peculiar half shy yet eager way in which he rushed into the front room, with a smile and a nod of recognition for each of us, always struck me. But until he got to work he always seemed preoccupied, as if while apparently engaged in earnest discussion of some matter an under-current of thought was running the while, and as if he were devising something wherewith to beautify his work even when arranging business affairs. "This certainly must have been the case, for frequently he broke off in the midst of his talk to turn to a board and sketch out some design, or to alter a detail he had sketched the day before with a few vigorous pencil-strokes. This done, he would return to business, only to glance off again to some other drawing, and to complete what would not _come_ the day before. In fact he was exactly like a bird hopping from twig to twig, and from flower to flower, as he hovered over the many drawings which were his daily work, settling here a form and there a moulding as the impulse of the moment seized him. "And though at times we were puzzled to account for, or to anticipate his ways, and though the work was often hindered by them, we would not have had it otherwise. "Those 'gentillesses d'oiseaux,' as Hugo says, those little birdy ways, so charming from their unexpectedness, kept us constantly on the alert, for we never quite knew what he would do next. It was not his custom to move in beaten tracks, and his everyday life was as much out of the common as his inner life. His ways with each of us were marked by an almost womanly tenderness. He seemed to regard us as his children, and to have a parent's intuition of our troubles, and of the special needs of each with reference to artistic development. "He would come, and taking possession of our stools would draw with his left arm round us, chatting cheerily, and yet erasing, designing vigorously meanwhile. Then, with his head on one side like a jackdaw earnestly regarding something which did not quite please him, he would look at the drawing a moment, and pounce on the paper, rub all his work out, and begin again. His criticism of his own work was singularly frank and outspoken even to us. I remember once when there had been a slight disagreement between us, I wrote to him to explain. Next morning, when he entered the office, he came straight to the desk where I was working, quietly put his arm round me, took my free hand with his and pressed it and myself to him without a word. It was more than enough. "He was, however, not one of those who treat all alike. He adapted himself with singular facility to each one with whom he came in contact; his insight in this respect was very remarkable, and in consequence he was loved and admired by the most diverse natures. The expression of his face was at all times pleasant but strangely varied, like a lake it revealed every passing breath of emotion in the most wonderful way, easily ruffled and easily calmed. "His eyes were very bright and expressive, with long lashes, the upper lids large, full, and almost translucent, and his whole face at anything which pleased him lit up and became truly radiant. At such times his animation in voice, gesture, and look was quite remarkable, his talk was full of felicitous phrases, happy hits, and piquant sayings. "His was the most childlike nature I have yet seen, taking pleasure in the simplest things, ever ready for fun, trustful, impulsive, and joyous, yet easily cast down. His memory for details and things he had seen and sketched was marvellous, and he could turn to any one of his many sketches and find a tiny scribble made twenty or thirty years ago, as easily as if he had made it yesterday. "His favourite attitude in the office was with his back to the fireplace and with his hands behind him, head thrown back, looking at, or rather through one. He seldom seemed to look at anyone or anything, his glance always had something of divination in it, and in his sketches, however slight, the soul of the thing was always seized, and the accidental or unnecessary details left to others less gifted to concern themselves with. "His love of symbolism was only equalled by his genius for it, old ideas had new meanings for him, old symbols were invested with deeper significance and new ones full of grace and beauty discovered. In this his intense, enthusiastic love of nature and natural things stood him in good stead, and he used Nature as the old men did, to teach new truths. For him as well as for all true artists, the universe was the living visible garment of God, the thin glittering rainbow-coloured veil which hides the actual from our eyes. He was the living embodiment of all that an architect should be, he had the sacred fire of enthusiasm within, and he had the power of communicating that fire to others, so that workmen, masons, carvers could do, and did lovingly for him, what they would not or could not do for others. We all felt and still feel that it was his example and precept that has given us what little true knowledge and right feeling for Art we may possess, and the pity is there will never be his like again. "He was not one of those who needed to pray 'Lord, keep my memory green,' though that phrase was often on his lips, as well as another delightful old epitaph: 'Bonys emonge stonys lys ful steyl Quilst the soules wanderis where that God will.'"[3] [Footnote 3: In Thornhill Church.] This delightful and assuredly entirely faithful picture is in itself evidence of the contagion of John Sedding's enthusiasm. Beyond the inner circle of his own office, he sought and welcomed the unfettered co-operation of other artists in his work; in the words of a young sculptor, "he gave us a chance." He let them say their say instead of binding them to repeat his own. God had His message to deliver by them, and he made way that the world might hear it straight from their lips. The same idea of sympathetic association, "fraternité généreuse--confiance mutuelle--communauté de sympathies et d'aspirations," has found embodiment in the Art Workers' Guild, a society in which artists and craftsmen of all the Arts meet and associate on common ground. John Sedding was one of the original members of this Guild, and its second Master. Of his connection with the Guild the Secretary writes: "No member was ever more respected, none had more influence, no truer artist existed in the Guild." And Mr Walter Crane: "His untiring devotion to the Guild throughout his term of office, and his tact and temper, were beyond praise." It must not be inferred from these facts that John Sedding's sympathies were only for the world of Art, art-workers, and art-ideals. He shared to the full the ardour of his Socialist friends, in their aspirations for that new order of more just distribution of all that makes for the happiness of men, the coming "city which hath foundations whose builder and maker is God." He did not share their confidence in their methods, but he honoured their noble humanity, and followed their movements with interest and respect, giving what help he could. The condition of the poor, especially the London poor, touched him to the quick sometimes with indignation at their wrongs, sometimes with deep compassion and humbled admiration at the pathetic patience with which they bore the burden of their joyless, suffering lives. His own happy constitution and experience never led him to adopt the cheap optimism with which so many of us cheat our conscience, and justify to ourselves our own selfish inertness. The more ample income of his last years made no difference in the simple ordering of his household, it did make difference in his charities. He gave money, and what is better, gave his personal labour to many works for the good of others, some of which he himself had inaugurated. John Sedding was an artist by a necessity of his nature. God made him so, and he could not but exercise his gift, but apart from the satisfaction that comes by doing what we are meant for, it filled him with thankfulness to have been born to a craft with ends so noble as are the ends of Art. To give pleasure and to educate are aims good indeed to be bound by, especially when by education we understand, not mind-stuffing, but mind-training, in this case the training of faculty to discern and be moved by the poetry, the spiritual suggestiveness of common everyday life. This brought his calling into touch with working folk. As a man, John Sedding impressed us all by the singular and beautiful simplicity and childlikeness of his character, a childlikeness which never varied, and nothing, not even the popularity and homage which at last surrounded him, seemed able to spoil it. He never lost his boyish spontaneity and frankness, the unrestrained brightness of his manners and address, his boyish love of fun, and hearty, ringing laugh. Mr Walter Crane speaks of his "indomitable gaiety and spirits which kept all going, especially in our country outings." "He always led the fun," writes Mr Lethaby, "at one time at the head of a side at 'tug of war,' at another, the winner in an 'egg and spoon race.'" His very faults were the faults of childhood, the impulsiveness, the quick and unreflecting resentment against wrong, and the vehement denunciation of it. He trusted his instincts far more than his reason, and on the whole, his instincts served him right well, yet at times they failed him, as in truth they fail us all. There were occasions when a little reflection would have led him to see that his first rapid impressions were at fault, and so have spared himself and others some pain and misunderstanding. Let a thing appear to him false, unfair, or cowardly, he would lower his lance and dash full tilt at it at once, sometimes to our admiration, sometimes to our amusement when the appearance proved but a windmill in the mist, sometimes to our dismay when--a rare case--he mistook friend for foe. No picture of John Sedding could be considered at all to represent him which failed to express the blameless purity of his character and conduct. I do not think the man lives who ever heard a tainted word from his lips. There was in him such depth and strength of moral wholesomeness that he sickened at, and revolted against the unseemly jest, and still more against the scenes, and experiences of the sensuous (to use no stronger word) upon which in the minds of some, the artist must perforce feed his gift. With his whole soul he repudiated the idea that Art grew only as a flower upon the grave of virtue, and that artists could, or desired to, lay claim to larger moral licence than other less imaginative men. I have kept till last the best and deepest that was in him, the hidden root of all he was, the hallowing of all he did. I mean his piety--his deep, unfeigned piety. In his address at the annual meeting of the Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament, a singularly outspoken and vigorous exhortation to laymen to keep their practice abreast of their faith, he used the following words: "In the wild scene of 19th century work, and thought, and passion, when old snares still have their old witchery, and new depths of wickedness yawn at our feet, when the world is so wondrous kind to tired souls, and neuralgic bodies, and itself pleads for concessions to acknowledged weakness; when unfaith is so like faith, and the devil freely suffers easy acquiescence in high gospel truth, and even holds a magnifying-glass that one may better see the sweetness of the life of the 'Son of Man,' it is well in these days of sloth, and sin, and doubt, to have one's energies braced by a 'girdle of God' about one's loins! It is well, I say, for a man to have a circle of religious exercises that can so hedge him about, so get behind his life, and wind themselves by long familiarity into his character that they become part of his everyday existence--bone of his bone." Out of his own real knowledge and practice he spoke these words. The "circle of religious exercise," the girdle of God, had become for him part of his everyday existence. I can think of no better words to express the unwavering consistency of his life. It is no part of my duty to tell in detail what and how much he did, and with what whole-heartedness he did it. Turning to outward things, every associate of John Sedding knew his enthusiasm for the cause of the Catholic revival in the English Church. It supplied him with a religion for his whole nature. No trouble seemed too great on behalf of it, though often his zeal entailed upon him some material disadvantage. Again and again I have known him give up precious hours and even days in unremunerated work, to help some struggling church or mission, or some poor religious community. It was a joy to him to contribute anything to the beauty of the sanctuary or the solemnity of its offices. From the year 1878 to 1881 he was sidesman, from 1882 to 1889 churchwarden of St. Alban's, Holborn, doing his work thoroughly, and with conspicuous kindliness and courtesy. It was one of the thorns to the rose of his new life in the country that it obliged him to discontinue this office. For eleven years he played the organ on Sunday afternoons for a service for young men and maidens, few of whom can forget the extraordinary life and pathos that he was wont by some magic to put into his accompaniment to their singing. This present year, 1891, opened full of promise for John Sedding. In a marvellously short time he had come hand over hand into public notice and public esteem, as a man from whom excellent things were to be expected,--things interesting, original, and beautiful. Mr Burne Jones writes: "My information about Sedding's work is very slight,--my interest in him very great, and my admiration too, from the little I had seen. I know only the church in Sloane Street, but that was enough to fill me with the greatest hope about him ... I saw him in all some half-dozen times--liked him instantly, and felt I knew him intimately, and was looking forward to perhaps years of collaboration with him." Work brought work, as each thing he did revealed, to those who had eyes to see, the gift that was in him. At Art Congresses and all assemblies of Art Workers his co-operation was sought and his presence looked for, especially by the younger men, who hailed him and his words with enthusiasm. To these gatherings he brought something more and better than the sententious wisdom, the chill repression which many feel called upon to administer on the ground of their experience.[4] He put of the fire that was in him into the hearts that heard him, he made them proud of their cause and of their place in it, and hopeful for its triumph and their own success. It was a contribution of sunshine and fresh air, and all that is the complete opposite of routine, red-tape, and the conventional. [Footnote 4: Qu'est-ce l'expérience? Une pauvre petite cabane construite avec les débris de ces palais d'or et de marbre appelés nos illusions.--_Joseph Roux._] We who have watched his progress have noticed of late a considerable development in his literary power, a more marked individuality of style, a swifter and smoother movement, a richer vocabulary, and new skill in the presentation of his ideas. He was exceedingly happy in his illustrations of a principle, and his figures were always interesting, never hackneyed. A certain "bonhomie" in his way of putting things won willing hearers for his words, which seemed to come to meet us with a smile and open, outstretched hands, as the dear speaker himself was wont to do. Something of course of the living qualities of speech are lost when we can receive it only from the cold black and white of print, instead of winged and full of human music from the man's own lips. Yet, in spite of this, unless I am mistaken, readers of this book will not fail to find in it a good deal to justify my judgment. It seems to have taken some of his friends by surprise that John Sedding should write on Gardens. They knew him the master of many crafts, but did not count Garden-craft among them. As a matter of fact, it was a love that appeared late in life, though all along it must have been within the man, for the instant he had a garden of his own the passion appeared full grown. Every evening between five and six, save when his work called him to distant parts, you might have seen him step quickly out of the train at the little station of West Wickham, run across the bridge, and greeting and greeted by everybody, swing along the shady road leading to his house. In his house, first he kissed his wife and children, and then supposing there was light and the weather fine, his coat was off and he fell to work at once with spade or trowel in his garden, absorbed in his plants and flowers, and the pleasant crowding thoughts that plants and flowers bring. After supper he assembled his household to say evening prayers with them. When all had gone to rest he would settle himself in his little study and write, write, write, until past midnight, sometimes past one, dashing now and again at a book upon his shelves to verify some one or other of those quaint and telling bits which are so happily inwoven into his text. One fruit of these labours is this book on Garden-craft. But I have detained the reader long enough. All is by no means told, and many friends will miss, I doubt not, with disappointment this or that feature which they knew and loved in him. It cannot be helped. I have written as I could, not as I would, within the narrow limits which rightly bound a preface. How the end came, how within fourteen days the hand of God took from our midst the much love, genius, beauty which His hand had given us in the person of John and Rose Sedding, a few words only must tell. On Easter Monday, March 30th, John Sedding spent two hours in London, giving the last sitting for the bust which was being modelled at the desire of the Art Workers' Guild. The rest of the day he was busy in his garden. Next morning he left early for Winsford, in Somersetshire, to look after the restoration of this and some other churches in the neighbourhood. Winsford village is ten miles from the nearest railway station Dulverton; the road follows the beautiful valley of the Exe, which rising in the moors, descends noisily and rapidly southwards to the sea. The air is strangely chill in the hollow of this woody valley. Further, it was March, and March of this memorable year of 1891. Lines of snow still lay in the ditches, and in white patches on the northern side of hedgerows. Within a fortnight of this time men and cattle had perished in the snow-drifts on the higher ground. Was this valley the valley of death for our friend, or were the seeds of death already within him? I know not. Next morning, Wednesday, he did not feel well enough to get up. His kind hostess, and host, the Vicar of the parish, did all that kindness--kindness made harder and therefore more kind by ten miles' distance from a railway station--could do. John sent for his wife, who came at once, with her baby in her arms. On Saturday at midnight he received his last Communion. The next day he seemed to brighten and gave us hopes. On Monday there was a change for the worse, and on Tuesday morning he passed away in perfect peace. At the wish of his wife, his grave was prepared at West Wickham. The Solemn Requiem, by her wish also, was at the church he loved and served so well, St. Alban's, Holborn. That church has witnessed many striking scenes, but few more impressive than the great gathering at his funeral. The lovely children's pall that John Sedding had himself designed and Rose Sedding had embroidered, covered the coffin, and on the right of it in a dark mass were gathered his comrades of the Art Workers' Guild. The tragedy does not end here. On that day week, at that very same hour and spot, beneath the same pall, lay the body of his dear and devoted wife. Side by side, near the tall elms of the quiet Kentish churchyard, the bodies of John and Rose Sedding are sleeping. The spot was in a sense chosen by Rose Sedding, if we may use the term 'choice' for her simple wish that it might be where the sun shines and flowers will grow. The western slope of the little hill was fixed upon, and already the flowers they loved so well are blooming over them. Among the papers of Rose Sedding was found, pencilled in her own handwriting, the following lines of a 17th century poet: "'Tis fit one flesh one house should have, One tomb, one epitaph, one grave; And they that lived and loved either Should dye, and lye, and sleep together."[5] [Footnote 5: The words "'Tis fit one flesh one house should have," &c., form part of the epitaph of Richard Bartholomew and his wife in the parish church of Burford. How strange that the words should have found in her own case such exact fulfilment. E. F. RUSSELL. ST ALBAN'S CLERGY HOUSE, BROOKE STREET, HOLBORN. _June 1891._ It stands thus:-- Lo Hudled up, Together lye Gray Age, Greene Youth, White Infancy. If Death doth Nature's law dispence, And reconciles all difference, 'Tis fit One Flesh One House should have, One Tombe, One Epitaph, One Grave; And they that lived and loved either Should dye and Lye and sleep together. Goe Reader, whether goe or stay, Thou must not hence be long away.] CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE I. THE THEORY OF A GARDEN 1 II. ART IN A GARDEN 28 III. HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE SKETCH 41 IV. THE STIFF GARDEN 70 V. THE "LANDSCAPE-GARDEN" 98 VI. THE TECHNICS OF GARDENING 133 VII. THE TECHNICS OF GARDENING (_CONTINUED_) 153 ON THE OTHER SIDE. VIII. A PLEA FOR SAVAGERY 183 IX. IN PRAISE OF BOTH 202 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. A GARDEN ENCLOSED _FRONTISPIECE_ PLAN OF ROSARY WITH SUNDIAL TO FACE P. 156 PLAN OF TENNIS LAWN, TERRACES, AND FLOWER GARDEN 158 GENERAL PLAN OF THE PLEASAUNCE, VILLA ALBANI, ROME 160 PLAN SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF SUNK FLOWER GARDEN, YEW WALK, AND TENNIS COURT 164 PLAN OF SUNK FLOWER GARDEN AND YEW HEDGES 166 PLAN SHOWING ARRANGEMENT OF FOUNTAIN, YEW WALK, AND FLOWER BEDS FOR A LARGE GARDEN 180 PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF GARDEN IN THE PRECEDING PLAN 180 PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A DESIGN FOR A GARDEN, WITH CLIPPED YEW HEDGES AND FLOWER BEDS 182 GARDEN-CRAFT CHAPTER I. ON THE THEORY OF A GARDEN. "Come hither, come hither, come hither; Here shall he see No enemy But winter and rough weather." Some subjects require to be delineated according to their own taste. Whatever the author's notions about it at starting, the subject somehow slips out of his grasp and dictates its own method of treatment and style. The subject of gardening answers to this description: you cannot treat it in a regulation manner. It is a discursive subject that of itself breeds laggard humours, inclines you to reverie, and suggests a discursive style. This much in defence of my desultory essay. The subject, in a manner, drafts itself. Like the garden, it, too, has many aspects, many side-paths, that open out broken vistas to detach one's interest and lure from the straight, broad terrace-platform of orderly discourse. At first sight, perhaps, with the balanced beauty of the thing in front of you, carefully parcelled out and enclosed, as all proper gardens are, the theme may appear so compact, that all meandering after side-issues may seem sheer wantonness. As you proceed, however, it becomes apparent that you may not treat of a garden and disregard the instincts it prompts, the connection it has with Nature, its place in Art, its office in the world as a sweetener of human life. True, the garden itself is hedged in and neatly defined, but behind the garden is the man who made it; behind the man is the house he has built, which the garden adorns; and every man has his humours; every house has its own conditions of plan and site; every garden has its own atmosphere, its own contents, its own story. So now, having in this short preamble discovered something of the rich variety and many-sidedness of the subject, I proceed to write down three questions just to try what the yoke of classification may do to keep one's feet within bounds: (1) What is a garden, and why is it made? (2) What ornamental treatment is fit and right for a garden? (3) What should be the relation of the garden to the house? Forgive me if, in dealing with the first point, I so soon succumb to the allurements of my theme, and drop into flowers of speech! To me, then, a garden is the outward and visible sign of man's innate love of loveliness. It reveals man on his artistic side. Beauty, it would seem, has a magnetic charm for him; and the ornamental display of flowers betokens his bent for, and instinctive homage of beauty. And to say this of man in one grade of life is to say it of all sorts and conditions of men; and to say it of one garden is to say it of all--whether the garden be the child of quality or of lowliness; whether it adorn castle, manor-house, villa, road-side cottage or signalman's box at the railway siding, or Japanese or British tea-garden, or Babylonian terrace or Platonic grove at Athens--in each case it was made for eye-delight at Beauty's bidding. Even the Puritan, for all his gloomy creed and bleak undecorated life, is Romanticist here; the hater of outward show turns rank courtier at a pageant of flowers: he will dare the devil at any moment, but not life without flowers. And so we have him lovingly bending over the plants of his home-garden, packing the seeds to carry with him into exile, as though these could make expatriation tolerable. "There is not a softer trait to be found in the character of these stern men than that they should have been sensible of their flower-roots clinging among the fibres of their rugged hearts, and have felt the necessity of bringing them over sea and making them hereditary in the new land." (Hawthorne, "Our Old Home," p. 77.) But to take a higher point of view. A garden is, in many ways, the "mute gospel" it has been declared to be. It is the memorial of Paradise lost, the pledge of Paradise regained. It is so much of earth's surface redeemed from the scar of the fall: "Who loves a garden still keeps his Eden." Its territories stand, so to speak, betwixt heaven and earth, so that it shares the cross-lights of each. It parades the joys of earth, yet no less hints the joys of heaven. It tells of man's happy tillage of his plot of ground, yet blazes abroad the infinite abundance of God's wide husbandry of the world. It bespeaks the glory of earth's array, yet publishes its passingness.[6] [Footnote 6: Think of "a paradise not like this of ours with so much pains and curiosity made with hands"--says Evelyn, in the middle of a rhapsody on flowers--"eternal in the heavens, where all the trees are trees of life, the flowers all amaranths; all the plants perennial, ever verdant, ever pregnant, and where those who desire knowledge may taste freely of the fruit of that tree which cost the first gardener and posterity so dear." (Sylva, "Of Forest-trees," p. 148.)] Again. The punctual waking of the flowers to new life upon the ruin of the old is unfavourable to the fashionable theory of extinction, for it shows death as the prelude of life. Nevertheless, be it admitted, the garden-allegory points not all one way; it is, so to speak, a paradox that mocks while it comforts. For a garden is ever perplexing us with the "riddle of the painful earth," ever challenging our faith with its counter-proof, ever thrusting before our eyes the abortive effort, the inequality of lot (two roses on a single stem, the one full-blown, a floral paragon, the other dwarfed and withered), the permitted spite of destiny which favours the fittest and drives the weak to the wall--ever preaching, with damnable iteration, the folly of resisting the ills that warp life and blight fair promise. And yet while this is so, the annual spectacle of spring's fresh repair--the awakening from winter's trance--the new life that grows in the womb of the tomb--is happy augury to the soul that passes away, immature and but half-expressed, of lusty days and consummate powers in the everlasting garden of God. It is this very garden's message, "the best is yet to be," that smothers the self-pitying whine in poor David Gray's Elegy[7] and braces his spirit with the tonic of a wholesome pride. To the human flower that is born to blush unseen, or born, perchance, not to bloom at all, but only to feel the quickening thrill of April-passion--the first sweet consciousness of life--the electric touch in the soul like the faint beatings in the calyx of the rose--and then to die, to die "not knowing what it was to live"--to such seemingly cancelled souls the garden's message is "trust, acquiesce, be passive in the Master's hand: the game of life is lost, but not for aye-- ... "There is life with God In other Kingdom of a sweeter air: In Eden every flower is blown." [Footnote 7: "My Epitaph." "Below lies one whose name was traced in sand-- He died, not knowing what it was to live; Died while the first sweet consciousness of manhood And maiden thought electrified his soul: Faint beatings in the calyx of the rose. Bewildered reader, pass without a sigh In a proud sorrow! There is life with God, In other Kingdom of a sweeter air; In Eden every flower is blown. Amen." David Gray ("A Poet's Sketch-book," R. Buchanan, p. 81.)] To come back to lower ground, a garden represents what one may call the first simplicity of external Nature's ways and means, and the first simplicity of man's handling of them, carried to distinction. On one side we have Nature's "unpremeditated art" surpassed upon its own lines--Nature's tardy efforts and common elementary traits pushed to a masterpiece. On the other side is the callow craft of Adam's "'prentice han'," turned into scrupulous nice-fingered Art, with forcing-pits, glass-houses, patent manures, scientific propagation, and the accredited rules and hoarded maxims of a host of horticultural journals at its back. Or, to run still more upon fancy. A garden is a place where these two whilom foes--Nature and man--patch up a peace for the nonce. Outside the garden precincts--in the furrowed field, in the forest, the quarry, the mine, out upon the broad seas--the feud still prevails that began as our first parents found themselves on the wrong side of the gate of Paradise. But "Here contest grows but interchange of love"-- here the old foes have struck a truce and are leagued together in a kind of idyllic intimacy, as is witnessed in their exchange of grace for grace, and the crowning touch that each puts upon the other's efforts. The garden, I have said, is a sort of "betweenity"--part heaven, part earth, in its suggestions; so, too, in its make-up is it part Nature, part man: for neither can strictly say "I made the garden" to disregard the other's share in it. True, that behind all the contents of the place sits primal Nature, but Nature "to advantage dressed," Nature in a rich disguise, Nature delicately humoured, stamped with new qualities, furnished with a new momentum, led to new conclusions, by man's skill in selection and artistic concentration. True, that the contents of the place have their originals somewhere in the wild--in forest or coppice, or meadow, or hedgerow, swamp, jungle, Alp, or plain hillside. We can run each thing to earth any day, only that a change has passed over them; what in its original state was complex or general, is here made a chosen particular; what was monotonous out there, is here mixed and contrasted; what was rank and ragged there, is here taught to be staid and fine; what had a fugitive beauty there, has here its beauty prolonged, and is combined with other items, made "of imagination all compact." Man has taken the several things and transformed them; and in the process, they passed, as it were, through the crucible of his mind to reappear in daintier guise; in the process, the face of Nature became, so to speak, humanised: man's artistry conveyed an added charm. Judged thus, a garden is, at one and the same time, the response which Nature makes to man's overtures, and man's answer to the standing challenge of open-air beauty everywhere. Here they work no longer in a spirit of rivalry, but for the attainment of a common end. We cannot dissociate them in the garden. A garden is man's transcript of the woodland world: it is common vegetation ennobled: outdoor scenery neatly writ in man's small hand. It is a sort of twin-picture, conceived of man in the studio of his brain, painted upon Nature's canvas with the aid of her materials--a twin-essay where Nature's ... "primal mind That flows in streams, that breathes in wind" supplies the matter, man the style. It is Nature's rustic language made fluent and intelligible--Nature's garrulous prose tersely recast--changed into imaginative shapes, touched to finer issues. "What is a garden?" For answer come hither: be Fancy's guest a moment. Turn in from the dusty high-road and noise of practical things--for "Not wholly in the busy world, nor quite Beyond it, blooms the garden that I love"; descend the octagonal steps; cross the green court, bright with great urns of flowers, that fronts the house; pass under the arched doorway in the high enclosing wall, with its gates traceried with rival wreaths of beaten iron and clambering sprays of jasmine and rose, and, from the vantage-ground of the terrace-platform where we stand, behold an art-enchanted world, where the alleys with their giddy cunning, their gentle gloom, their cross-lights and dappled shadows of waving boughs, make paths of fantasy--where the water in the lake quivers to the wind's soft footprints, or sparkles where the swallows dip, or springs in jets out of shapely fountain, or, oozing from bronze dolphin's mouth, slides down among moss-flecked stones into a deep dark pool, and is seen anon threading with still foot the careless-careful curved banks fringed with flowering shrubs and trailing willows and brambles--where the flowers smile out of dainty beds in the sunny ecstasy of "sweet madness"--where the air is flooded with fragrance, and the mixed music of trembling leaves, falling water, singing birds, and the drowsy hum of innumerable insects' wings. "What is a garden?" It is man's report of earth at her best. It is earth emancipated from the commonplace. Earth is man's intimate possession--Earth arrayed for beauty's bridal. It is man's love of loveliness carried to excess--man's craving for the ideal grown to a fine lunacy. It is piquant wonderment; culminated beauty, that for all its combination of telling and select items, can still contrive to look natural, debonair, native to its place. A garden is Nature aglow, illuminated with new significance. It is Nature on parade before men's eyes; Flodden Field in every parish, where on summer days she holds court in "lanes of splendour," beset with pomp and pageantry more glorious than all the kings'. "Why is a garden made?" Primarily, it would seem, to gratify man's craving for beauty. Behind fine gardening is fine desire. It is a plain fact that men do not make beautiful things merely for the sake of something to do, but, rather, because their souls compel them. Any beautiful work of art is a feat, an essay, of human soul. Someone has said that "noble dreams are great realities"--this in praise of unrealised dreams; but here, in the fine garden, is the noble dream and the great reality. Here it may be objected that the ordinary garden is, after all, only a compromise between the common and the ideal: half may be for the lust of the eye, yet half is for domestic drudgery; half is for beauty, half for use. The garden is contrived "a double debt to pay." Yonder mass of foliage that bounds the garden, with its winding intervals of turf and look of expansiveness, it serves to conceal villadom and the hulking paper-factory beyond; that rock-garden with its developed geological formation, dotted over with choice Alpine plants, that the stranger comes to see. It is nothing but the quarry from whence the stone was dug that built the house. Those banks of evergreens, full of choice specimens, what are they but on one side the screen to your kitchen stuff, and on the other side, the former tenant's contrivance to assist him in forgetting his neighbour? Even so, my friend, an it please you! You are of those who, in Sainte-Beuve's phrase, would sever a bee in two, if you could! The garden, you say, is a compromise between the common and the ideal. Yet nobility comes in low disguises. We have seen that the garden is wild Nature elevated and transformed by man's skill in selection and artistic concentration--wild things to which man's art has given dignity. The common flowers of the cottager's garden tell of centuries of collaboration. The flowers and shrubs and trees with which you have adorned your own grounds were won for you by the curiosity, the aspiration, the patient roaming and ceaseless research of a long list of old naturalists; the design of your garden, its picturesque divisions and beds, a result of the social sense, the faculty for refined enjoyment, the constructive genius of the picked minds of the civilised world in all ages. The methods of planting approved of to-day, carrying us back to the admirably-dressed grounds of the ancient castles and abbeys, to the love of woodland scenery, which is said to be a special characteristic of Teutonic people, which is evidenced in the early English ballads; to the slowly acquired traditions of garden-masters like Bacon, Temple, Evelyn, Gilpin, and Repton, as well as to the idealised landscapes of Constable, Gainsborough, Linnell, and Turner; it is, in fact, the issue of the practical insight, the wood-craft, and idealistic skill of untold generations. In this matter of floral beauty and garden-craft man has ever declared himself a prey to the "malady of the ideal"; the Japanese will even combine upon his trees the tints of spring and autumn.[8] But everywhere, and in all ages of the civilised world, man spares no pains to acquire the choicest specimens, the rarest plants, and to give to each thing so acquired the ideally best expression of which it is capable. It is as though Eden-memories still haunted the race with the solicitude of an inward voice that refused to be silenced, and is satisfied with nothing short of the best. [Footnote 8: "This strange combination of autumn and spring tints is a very usual sight in Japan.... It is worth noting that in Japan a tree is considered chiefly for its form and tint, not for use.... I heard the cherry-trees were now budding, so I hurried up to take advantage of them, and found them more beautiful than I had ever imagined. There are at least fifty varieties, from delicately tinted white and pink to the richest rose, almost crimson blossom."--Alfred East's "Trip to Japan," _Universal Review_, March, 1890.] And yet, as some may point out, this homage of beauty that you speak of is not done for nought; there enters into gardening the spirit of calculation. A garden is a kind of investment. The labour and forethought man expends upon it must bring adequate return. For every flower-bed he lays down, for every plant, or shrub, or tree put into the ground, his word is ever the same, "Be its beauty Its sole duty." It was not simply to gratify his curiosity, to serve as a pretext for adventure, that the gardener of old days reconnoitred the globe, culled specimens, and spent laborious days in studying earth's picturesque points; it was with a view to the pleasure the things would ultimately bring. And why not! Had man not served so long an apprenticeship to Nature on her freehold estate, the garden would not so directly appeal to our imaginations and command our spirits. A garden reveals man as master of Nature's lore; he has caught her accents, rifled her motives; he has transferred her bright moods about his own dwelling, has tricked out an ordered mosaic of the gleanings of her woodland carpet; has, as it were, stereotyped the spontaneous in Nature, has entrapped and rendered beautifully objective the natural magic of the outer world to gratify the inner world of his own spirit. The garden is, first and last, made "for delectation's sake." So we arrive at these conclusions. A garden is made to express man's delight in beauty and to gratify his instincts for idealisation. But, lest the explanation savour too much of self-interest in the gardener, it may be well to say that the interest of man's investment of money and toil is not all for himself. What he captures of Nature's revenues he repays with usury, in coin that bears the mint-mark of inspired invention. This artistic handling of natural things has for result "the world's fresh ornament,"[9] and for plant, shrub, or tree subject to it, it is the crowning and completion of those hidden possibilities of perfection that have lain dormant in them since the world began. An artist has been defined as one who reproduces the world in his own image and likeness. The definition is perhaps a little high-flown, and may confer an autobiographical value to an artist's performances that would astonish none more than himself. Yet if the thought can be truthfully applied anywhere, it is where it occurred to Andrew Marvell--in a garden. [Footnote 9: "If you look into our gardens annexed to our houses" (says William Harrison in Holinshed's "Chronicles") "how wonderful is their beauty increased, not only with flowers, which Columella calleth _Terrena Sydera_, saying 'Pingit et in varias terrestria, sydera flores,' and variety of curious and costly workmanship, but also with rare and medicinable herbs.... How Art also helpeth Nature in the daily colouring, doubling and enlarging the proportions of our flowers it is incredible to report, for so curious and cunning are our gardeners now in these days that they presume to do, in a manner, what they list with Nature, and moderate her course in things as if they were her superiors. It is a world also to see how many strange herbs, plants, and annual fruits are daily brought unto us from the Indies, Americans, Taprobane, Canary Isles, and all parts of the world, the which, albeit that his respect of the constitutions of our bodies, they do not grow for us (because God hath bestowed sufficient commodities upon every country for her own necessity) yet for delectation's sake unto the eye, and their odoriferous savours unto the nose, they are to be cherished, and God also glorified in them, because they are His good gifts, and created to do man help and service. There is not almost one nobleman, gentleman, or merchant that hath not great store of these flowers, which now also begin to wax so well acquainted with our evils that we may almost account of them as parcel of our own commodities."--(From "Elizabethan England," pp. 26-7.)] "The mind, that ocean where each kind Does straight its own resemblance find; Yet it creates, transcending these, Far other worlds and other seas, Annihilating all that's made To a green thought in a green shade." And where can we find a more promising sphere for artistic creation than a garden? Do we boast of fine ideas and perceptions of beauty and powers of design! Where can our faculties find a happier medium of expression or a pleasanter field for display than the garden affords? Nay, to have the ideas, the faculties, and the chance of their exercise and still to hold back were a sin! For a garden is, so to speak, the compliment a man of ideas owes to Nature, to his friends, and to himself. Many are the inducements to gardening. Thus, if I make a garden, I need not print a line, nor conjure with the painter's tools, to prove myself an artist. Again, a garden is the only form of artistic creation that is bound by the nature of things to be more lovely in realisation than in the designer's conception. It is no mere hint of beauty--no mere tickling of the fancy--that we get here, such as all other arts (except music) are apt to give you. Here, on the contrary, we are led straight into a world of actual delights patent to all men, which our eyes can see, and our hands handle. More than this; whilst in other spheres of labour the greater part of our life's toil and moil will, of a surety, end as the wise man predicted, in vanity and vexation of spirit, here is instant physical refreshment in the work the garden entails, and, in the end, our labour will be crowned with flowers. Nor have I yet exhausted the scene of a garden's pleasures. A man gets undoubted satisfaction in the very expression of his ideas--"the joy of the deed"--in the sense of Nature's happy response, the delight of creation,[10] the romance of possibility. [Footnote 10: Here is Emerson writing to Carlyle of his "new plaything"--a piece of woodland of forty acres on the border of Walden Pond. "In these May mornings, when maples, poplars, walnut, and pine are in their spring glory, I go thither every afternoon and cut with my hatchet an Indian path thro' the thicket, all along the bold shore, and open the finest pictures." (John Morley's Essays, "Emerson," p. 304.) But, as Mr Morley points out, he finds the work too fascinating, eating up days and weeks; "nay, a brave scholar should shun it like gambling, and take refuge in cities and hotels from these pernicious enchantments."] Some joy shall also come of the identity of the gardener with his creation.[11] He is at home here. He is intimate with the various growths. He carries in his head an infinity of details touching the welfare of the garden's contents. He participates in the life of his plants, and is familiar with all their humours; like a good host, he has his eye on all his company. He has fine schemes for the future of the place. The very success of the garden reflects upon its master, and advertises the perfect understanding that exists between the artist and his materials. The sense of ownership and responsibility brings him satisfaction, of a cheaper sort. His the hand that holds the wand to the garden's magic; his the initiating thought, the stamp of taste, the style that gives it circumstance. Let but his hand be withdrawn a space, and, at this signal, the gipsy horde of weeds and briars--that even now peer over the fence, and cast clandestine seeds abroad with every favouring gust of wind--would at once take leave to pitch their tents within the garden's zone, would strip the place of art-conventions, and hurry it back to its primal state of unkempt wildness. [Footnote 11: "I like your Essays," said Henry the Third to Montaigne. "Then, sire, you will like me. I am my Essays."] Someone has observed that when wonder is excited, and the sense of beauty gratified, there is instant recreation, and a stimulus that lifts one out of life's ordinary routine. This marks the function of a garden in a world where, but for its presence, the commonplace might preponderate; 'tis man's recreation ground, children's fairyland, bird's orchestra, butterfly's banquet. Verse and romance have done well, then, to link it with pretty thoughts and soft musings, with summer reveries and moonlight ecstasies, with love's occasion, and youth's yearning. No fitter place could well be found than this for the softer transactions of life that awaken love, poesy, and passion. Indeed, were its winsomeness not balanced by simple human enjoyments--were its charmed silences not broken by the healthy interests of common daily life--the romps of children, the clink of tea-cups, the clatter of croquet-mallets, the _mêlée_ of the tennis-courts, the fiddler's scrape, and the tune of moving feet, it might well seem too lustreful a place for this work-a-day world. Apart from its other uses, there is no spot like a garden for cultivating the kindly social virtues. Its perfectness puts people upon their best behaviour. Its nice refinement secures the mood for politeness. Its heightened beauty produces the disposition that delights in what is beautiful in form and colour. Its queenly graciousness of mien inspires the reluctant loyalty of even the stoniest mind. Here, if anywhere, will the human hedgehog unroll himself and deign to be companionable. Here friend Smith, caught by its nameless charm, will drop his brassy gabble and dare to be idealistic; and Jones, forgetful of the main chance and "bulls" and "bears," will throw the rein to his sweeter self, and reveal that latent elevation of soul and tendency to romance known only to his wife! "There be delights," says an ancient writer, "that will fetch the day about from sun to sun, and rock the tedious year as in a delightful dream." This tells, in terse English, the pleasures of a garden and the instincts that are gratified in its making. For a garden is Arcady brought home. It is man's bit of gaudy make-believe--his well-disguised fiction of an unvexed Paradise--standing witness of his quest of the ideal--his artifice to escape the materialism of a world that is too actual and too much with him. A well-kept garden makes credible to modern eyes the antique fable of an unspoiled world--a world where gaiety knows no eclipse, and winter and rough weather are held at bay. In this secluded spot the seasons slip by unawares. The year's passing-bell is ignored. Decay is cheated of its prize. The invading loss of cold, or wind, or rain--the litter of battered Nature--the "petals from blown roses on the grass"--the pathos of dead boughs and mouldering leaves, the blighted bloom and broken promise of the spring, autumn's rust or winter's wreckage are, if gardeners be brisk sons of Adam, instantly huddled out of sight, so that, come when you may, the place wears a mask of steady brightness; each month has its new dress, its fresh counterfeit of permanence, its new display of flowers or foliage, as pleasing, if not so lustrous as the last, that serves in turn to prolong the illusion and to conceal the secret irony and fond assumption of the thing. "I think for to touche also The world which neweth everie daie, So far as I can, so as I maie." This snatch of Gower's rhyme expresses in old phrase the gardener's desire, or clothed in modern prose by Mr Robinson ("English Flower-Garden," Murray), it is "to make each place at various seasons, and in every available situation, an epitome of the great flower-garden of the world." We hinted a moment ago of the interest that a garden gathers from the mark of man's regard and tendence; and if this be true of a modern garden, how much more true of an old one! Indeed, this is undeniable in the latter case, for Time is ever friendly to gardens. Ordinarily his attitude towards all that concerns the memories of man is that of a jealous churl. Look at history. What is history but one long record of men who, in this sphere or that, have toiled, striven, sold their souls even, to perpetuate a name and have their deeds written upon the tablets of eternity, not reckoning upon the "all oblivious enmity" of Time, who, with heedless hand, cuts their past into fragments, blots out their name, confuses their story, and frets with gnawing tooth each vestige of their handiwork. How, then, we ask-- "How with this rage shall beauty hold a plea, Whose action is no stronger than a flower?" Yet so it is. He who has no respect for antique glories, who snaps his fingers at earth's heroes, who overturns the statues of the laurelled Cæsars, encrusts the hieroglyphics of the Pharaohs, and commits their storied masonry to the mercies of the modern Philistine, will make exception in a garden. "Time's pencil" helps a garden. In a garden not only are the solemn shapes and passing conceits of grey epochs treasured up, even to their minutest particulars, but the drift of the years, elsewhere so disastrous, serves only to heighten their fascination and power of appeal. Thus it comes to pass, that it were scarcely possible to name a more pathetic symbol of the past than an old garden,[12] nor a spot which, by its tell-tale shapes, sooner lends itself to our historic sense if we would recall the forms and reconstruct the life of our ancestors. For we have here the very setting of old life--the dressed stage of old drama, the scenery of old gallantry. Upon this terrace, in front of these flower-beds with these trees looking on, was fought out the old battle of right and wrong--here was enacted the heroic or the shameful deeds, the stirring or the humdrum passages in the lives of so many generations of masters, mistresses, children, and servants, who in far-off times have lived, loved, and died in the grey homestead hard by. "Now they are dead," as Victor Hugo says--"they are dead, but the flowers last always." [Footnote 12: Time does much for a garden. There is a story of an American plutocrat's visit to Oxford. On his tour of the Colleges nothing struck him so much as the velvety turf of some of the quadrangles. He asked for the gardener, and made minute enquiries as to the method of laying down and maintaining the grass. "That's all, is it?" he exclaimed, when the process had been carefully described. "Yes, sir," replied the gardener with a twinkle in his eye, "That's all, but we generally leave it three or four centuries to settle down!"] Admit, then, that for their secret quality, no less than for their obvious beauty, these old gardens should be treasured. For they are far more than they seem to the casual observer. Like any other piece of historic art, the old garden is only truly intelligible through a clear apprehension of the circumstances which attended its creation. Granted that we possess the ordinary smattering of historical knowledge, and the garden will serve to interpret the past and make it live again before our eyes. For the old place is (to use the journalist's phrase) an "object lesson" of old manners; it is a proof of ancient genius, a clue to old romance, a legacy of vague desire. The many items of the place--the beds and walks with their special trick of "style" the parterre, the promenoir, the maze, the quincunx, the terraces, the extravagances in ever-green sculptures of which Pope spoke--what are they but the mould and figure of old-world thought, down to its most characteristic caprice! The assertive air of these things--their prominence in the garden-scenery--bespeak their importance in the scenery of old life. It was _thus_ that our forefathers made the world about them picturesque, _thus_ that they coloured their life-dreams and fitted an adjunct pleasure to every humour, _thus_ that they climbed by flower-strewn stairs to the realm of the ideal and stimulated their sense of beauty. And if further proof be needed of the large hold the garden and its contents had of the affections of past generations, we have but to turn to the old poets, and to note how the texture of the speech, the groundwork of the thought, of men like Milton, Herrick, Vaughan, Herbert, Donne (not to mention prose-writers) is saturated through and through with garden-imagery. In the case of an old garden, mellowed by time, we have, I say, to note something that goes beyond mere surface-beauty. Here we may expect to find a certain superadded quality of pensive interest, which, so far as it can be reduced to words, tells of the blent influences of past and present, of things seen and unseen, of the joint effects of Nature and Man. The old ground embodies bygone conceptions of ideal beauty; it has absorbed human thought and memories; it registers the bequests of old time. Dead men's traits are exemplified here. The dead hand still holds sway, the pictures it conjured still endure, its cunning is not forgotten, its strokes still make the garden's magic, in shapes and hues that are unchanged save for the slow moulding of the centuries. _Really_, not less than metaphorically, the garden-growths do keep green the memories of the men and women who placed them there, as the flower that is dead still holds its perfume. And few will say that the chronicles of the dead do not "Shine more bright in these contents Than unwept stone besmeared with sluttish time." There is a wealth of quiet interest in an old garden. We feel instinctively that the place has been warmed by the sunshine of humanity; watered from the secret spring of human joy and sorrow. Sleeping echoes float about its glades; its leafy nooks can tell of felicities sweeter than the bee-haunted cups of flowers; of glooms graver than the midnight blackness of the immemorial yews. It is their suggestion of antique experiences that endues the objective elements in an old garden like Haddon, or Berkeley, or Levens, or Rockingham, with a strange eloquence. The recollections of many a child have centred round these objects: the one touch of romance in a narrow, simple life is linked with them. Hearts danced or hearts drooped in this vicinity. Eyes that brimmed over with laughter or that were veiled with tears looked on these things as we look on them now--drank in the shifting lights and shadows on the grass--watched the waving of the cedar's dark layers of shade against an angry sky, "stern as the unlashed eye of God," and all the birds were silent--once took in the sylvan vistas of trees, lawn, fir-ridge, the broad-water where the coots and moor-hens now play (as then) among the green lily-pads and floating weeds, regardless of Regulas in lead standing in their midst; once dwelt upon the lustrous flower-beds, on the sundial on the terrace--noonday rendezvous of fantails--on the "Alley of Sighs," with its clipped beeches, its grey-stone seat half-way down, its rustle of dying leaves, and traditions of intrigue; on the lime avenue full of perfume in the sweet-o'-the-year, on the foot-bridge across the moat, on the streak of blue autumn mist that tracks the stream in yonder meadows where the landrail is croaking, and that brings magically near the beat of hoofs, the jingle of horses' bells, the rumble of homeward wagons on the road, and whiffs of the reapers' songs; on the brief brilliance of the garden-panorama as the wintry-moon gives the black clouds the slip and suddenly discloses a white world of snow-muffled forms, that gleams with the eerie pallor of a ghost, and is as suddenly dissolved into darkness. Simple sights, you will say, and familiar! and yet, when connected with some unique occasion, some epoch of a life, when seen on such a day, at such a supreme, all-absorbing moment from window, open door, terrace, arbour; in the stillness or in the wild rhetoric of the night, the familiar scene, momentarily flashed upon the brain's retina, may have subtly and unconsciously influenced the act, or coloured the thought of some human being, and the brand of that moment's impress may have accompanied that soul to the edge of doom. Because of its hoarded memories we come to look upon an old garden as a sort of repository of old secrets; wrapped within its confines, as within the covers of a sacred book, repose so many pages of the sad and glad legend of humanity. We have before us the scenery of old home idylls, of old household reverences and customs, of old life's give and take--its light comedy or solemn farce, its dark tragedy, its summer masque, its stately dance or midnight frolic, its happy wedlock or its open sorrow, its endured wrong. The place is identified with the fortunes of old families: for so many generations has the old place been found favourable for lovers' tales, for youths' golden dreams, for girls' chime of fancy, for the cut and thrust of friendly wrangles, for the "leisures of the spirit" of student-recluse, for children's gambols and babies' lullabies. Seated upon this mossy bank, children have spelt out fairy tales, while birds, trees, brooks, and flowers listened together. The marvel of its cloistered grace has been God-reminder to the saint; its green recesses have served for Enoch's walk,[13] for poet's retreat; as refuge for the hapless victim of broken endeavour; as enisled shelter for the tobacco-loving sailor-uncle with a wrecked fame; as invalid's Elysium; as haunt of the loafing, jesting, unambitioned man ("Alas, poor Yorick!"); as Death's sweet ante-room for slow-footed age. [Footnote 13: "There is no garden well contrived, but that which hath an Enoch's walk in it."--SIR W. WALLER.] What wonder that Sir William Temple devised that his heart should rest where its memories were so deep-intrenched--in his garden; or that Waterton should ask to be buried between the two great oaks at the end of the lake! (Norman Moore's Introduction to "Wanderings in South America.") And if human affections be, as the poets declare, immortal, we have the reason why an old garden, in the only sense in which it ever is old, by the almanack, has that whisper and waving of secrecy, that air of watchful intentness, that far-reaching, mythological, unearthly look, that effect of being a kind of twilighted space common to the two worlds of past and present. Who will not agree with me in this? It matters not when you go there--at dawn, at noonday, no less than when the sky is murky and night-winds are sighing--and although you shall be the only visible human being present, it is not alone that you feel. A thrill comes over you, a mysterious sense warns you that this is none other than the sanctuary of "the dead," as we call them; the place where, amid the hush of passionless existence, the wide leisure of uncounted time, the shades of once familiar presences keep their "tongueless vigil." They fly not at the "dully sound" of human footsteps; they ask no sympathy for regret which dare not tell the secret of its sorrow; but, with the gentle gait of old-world courtesy, they move aside, and when you depart resume occupation of ground which, for the sake of despairing wishes and memories of an uneffaced past, they may not quit. After life's fitful fever these waifs of a vanished world sleep not well; here are some consumed with covetousness, who are learning not to resent the word "mine" applied by the living owner of hall and garden, field and store; some that prey on withered bliss--the "bitter sweet of days that were"--this, the miser whose buried treasure lies undiscovered here, and who has nothing in God's bank in the other world; this, the author of the evil book; and this loveless, unlovely pair, the ruined and ruiner, yoked for aye; a motley band, forsooth, with "Satan's sergeants" keeping guard! It is ever the indirect that is most eloquent. Someone says: Hence these tokens of a dead past open out vistas for one's imagination and drop hints of romance that would make thrilling reading in many volumes, but which shall never reach Mudie's. Even Nature is not proof against the spell of an old garden. The very trees have an "ancient melody of an inward agony": "The place is silent and aware It has had its scenes, its joys, and crimes, But that is its own affair"-- even Nature forgets to be her cold, impassive self, and puts on a sympathetic-waiting look in a spot so intricately strewn and meshed over with the fibres of human experience. Long and close intimacy with mankind under various aspects--witness of things that happened to squires, dames, priests, courtiers, servitors, page, or country-maid, in the roundabout of that "curious, restless, clamorous being which we call life"--has somehow tinged the place with a sensibility (one had almost said a _wizardry_) not properly its own. And this superadded quality reaches to the several parts of the garden and is not confined to the scene as a whole. Each inanimate item of the place, each spot, seems invested with a gift of attraction--to have a hidden tongue that could syllable forgotten names--to possess a power of fixing your attention, of fastening itself upon your mind, as though it had become, in a sense, humanised, and claimed kindred with you as related to that secret group with whose fortunes it was allied, with whose passions it had held correspondence, and were letting you know it could speak an if it would of "All the ways of men, so vain and melancholy." CHAPTER II. ON ART IN A GARDEN. "O world, as God has made it! All is beauty." ROBERT BROWNING. In dealing with our second point--the ornamental treatment that is fit and right for a garden--we are naturally brought into contact with the good and bad points of both the old and the new systems of gardening. This being so, it may be well at once to notice the claims of the modern "Landscape-gardener" to monopolise to himself all the right principles of garden-craft: all other moods than his are low, all figures other than his are symbols of error, all dealings with Nature other than his are mere distortions. If you have any acquaintance with books upon landscape-gardening written by its professors or their admirers, you will have learnt that in the first half of the eighteenth century, two heaven-directed geniuses--Kent and Brown--all of a sudden stumbled upon the green world of old England, and, perceiving its rural beauties, and the hitherto unexplored opportunities for ornamental display that the country afforded, these two put their heads together, and out of their combined cogitations sprang the English garden. This, in brief, is what the landscape-gardener and his adherents say, and would have you believe; and, to prove their point, they lay stress upon the style of garden in vogue at the time Kent and Brown began their experiments, when, forsooth, traditional garden-craft was in its dotage and had lost its way in the paths of pedantry. Should you, however, chance to have some actual knowledge of old gardens, and some insight into the principles which, consciously or unconsciously governed their making, it may occur to you to ask the precise points wherein the new methods claim to be different from the old, what sources of inspiration were discovered by the new school of gardeners that were not shared by English gardeners from time immemorial. Are there, then, _two_ arts of gardening? or two sorts of Englishmen to please? Is not modern garden-craft identical with the old, so far, indeed, as it hath art enough to stand any comparison with the other at all? Let us here point to the fact, that any garden whatsoever is but Nature idealised, pastoral scenery rendered in a fanciful manner. It matters not what the date, size, or style of the garden, it represents an idealisation of Nature. _Real_ nature exists outside the artist and apart from him. The Ideal is that which the artist conceives to be an interpretation of the outside objects, or that which he adds to the objects. The garden gives imaginative form to emotions the natural objects have awakened in man. The _raison d'être_ of a garden is man's feeling the _ensemble_. One fine day you take your architect for a jaunt along a country-lane, until stopping shyly in front of a five-barred gate, over which is nailed an ominous notice-board, you introduce him to your small property, the site of your new house. It is a field very much like the neighbouring fields--at least, so think the moles, and the rooks, and the rabbits; not you, for here is to be your "seat" for life; and before you have done with it, the whole country far and near will be taught to look as though it radiated round the site and the house you will build upon it--an honour of which, truth compels me to say, the land betrays not the remotest presentiment just now! The field in question may be flat or undulating, it may be the lap of a hillside, the edge of a moor, a treeless stretch of furrowed land with traces of "rude mechanical's" usage, or suggestions of mutton or mangels. The particular character of the place, or its precise agricultural past, matters not, however; suffice it to say that it is a bit of raw, and more or less ungroomed, Nature. Upon this plain, unadorned field, you set your man of imagination to work. He must absorb both it and its whole surroundings into his brain, and seize upon all its capabilities. He must produce symmetry and balance where now are ragged outlines of hillocks and ridges. He must trim and cherish the trees here, abolish the tree there; enlarge this slope, level that; open out a partial peep of blue distance here, or a gleam of silver water there. He must terrace the slope, step by step, towards the stream at the base, select the sunniest spots for the flower-beds, and arrange how best the gardens at their varying levels shall be approached or viewed from the house. In this way and that he must so manoeuvre the perspective and the lights and shades, so compose or continue the sectional lines and general bearings of the ground as to enforce the good points that exist, and draw out the latent possibilities of the place, and this with as easy a hand, and as fine tact as the man can muster. And now to come to our point. A dressed garden, I said, is Nature idealised--pastoral scenery put fancifully, in man's way. A gardener is a master of what the French writer calls "the charming art of touching up the truth." Emerson observes that all the Arts have their origin in some enthusiasm; and the art of gardening has for its root, man's enthusiasm for the woodland world. It indicates a taste for flowers and trees and landscapes. It is admiration that has, so to speak, passed from the stage of emotion to that of form. A garden is the result of the emulation which the vision of beauty in the world at large is ever provoking in man-- "Straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures While the landskip round it measures." What of Nature has affected man on various occasions, what has pleased his eye in different moods, played upon his emotions, pricked his fancy, suggested reverie, stirred vague yearnings, brought a sense of quickened joy--pastoral scenery, the music of leaves and waters, the hues and sweetness of country flowers, the gladness of colour, picturesque form of tree or contour of land, spring's bright laugh, autumn's glow, summer's bravery, winter's grey blanched face--each thing that has gone home to him has, in its way, fostered in man the garden mania. Inspired by their beauty and mystery, he has gathered them to himself about his home, has made a microcosm out of the various detached details which sum up the qualities, features, and aspects of the open country; and the art of this little recreated world is measured by the happy union of naturalness and of calculated effect. What sources of inspiration were discovered by the new school of gardeners, I asked a moment ago, which were not shared by English gardeners from time immemorial? The art of gardening, I said, has its root in man's enthusiasm for the woodland world. See how closely the people of old days must have observed the sylvan sights of Nature, the embroidery of the meadows, the livery of the woods at different seasons, or they would not have been capable of building up that piece of hoarded loveliness, the old-fashioned English garden! The pleasaunce of old days has been mostly stubbed up by the modern "landscape gardener," but if no traces of them were left we have still here and there the well-schemed surroundings of our English homes--park, avenue, wood, and water--the romantic scenery that hems in Tintern, Fountains, Dunster, to testify to the inborn genius of the English for planting. If the tree, shrub, and flower be gone from the grounds outside the old Tudor mansion, there still remains the blue-green world in the tapestries upon the walls, with their airy landscapes of trees and hills, hanging-gardens, flower-beds, terraces, and embowered nooks--a little fantastical it may be, but none the less eloquent of appreciation of natural beauty not confined to the gardener, but shared by the artist-maid, who ... "with her neeld composes Nature's own shape, of bird, branch, or berry, That even Art sisters the natural roses." And should these relics be gone, we still have the books in the library, rich in Nature-allusion. The simple ecstasies of the early ballad in the opening stanzas of "Robin Hood and the Monk"-- "In somer when the shawes be sheyne, And leves be large and longe, Hit is full mery in feyre foreste To here the foulys song; To se the dere draw to the dale, And leve the hilles hee, And shadow hem in the leves grene, Under the grene-wode tre"; or in a "Musical Dreame"-- "Now wend we home, stout Robin Hood, Leave we the woods behind us. Love passions must not be withstood, Love everywhere will find us. I livde in fielde and downe, and so did he; I got me to the woods, love followed me." or shall we hear tell from Chaucer how "When that Aprille, with his showrës swoot The drought of March hath pierced to the root, * * * * * Then longen folk to gone on pilgrimages." Or hear from Stowe how the cockney of olden days "In the month of May, namely, on May-day in the morning, every man, except impediment, would walk in the sweet meddowes and green woods, ther to rejoyce their spirits with the beauty and savour of sweet flowers and with the harmonie of birds praysing God in their kinde." Or shall we turn to Shakespeare's bright incidental touches of nature-description as in Perdita's musical enumeration of the flowers of the old stiff garden-borders "to make you garlands of," or the Queen's bit in "Hamlet," beginning "There is a willow grows aslant a brook, That shows his hoar leaves in the glassy stream." Or to the old Herbals of Wyer, and Turner, and Gerard, whom Richard Jefferies[14] pictures walking about our English lanes in old days? "What wonderful scenes he must have viewed when they were all a tangle of wild flowers, and plants that are now scarce were common, and the old ploughs and the curious customs, and the wild red-deer--it would make a good picture, it really would, Gerard studying English orchids!" [Footnote 14: "Field and Hedgerow," p. 27.] Or shall we take down the classic volumes of Bacon, Temple, Evelyn, Cowley, Isaak Walton, Gilbert White, each in his day testifying to the inborn love of the English for woodland scenery, their study of nature, and their taste in trees, shrubs, and flowers. What a vindication is here of the old-fashioned garden and gardener! What nonsense to set up Kent and Brown as the discoverers of the green world of old England, when, as Mr Hamerton remarks in "The Sylvan Year" (p. 173), Chaucer hardly knows how or when to stop whenever he begins to talk about his enjoyment of Nature. "Chaucer," he says, "in his passion for flowers, and birds, and spring mornings in the woods, and by streams, is hard to quote, for he leads you down to the bottom of the page, and over the leaf, before you have time to pause." The question now before us--"What ornament is fit and right for a garden?"--of itself implies a tendency to err in the direction of ornament. We see that on the face of it the transposition of the simple of Nature into the subtle of Art has its dangers. Something may be put, or something may be left, which were best absent. This may be taken as an established fact. In making a garden you start with the assumption that something must be sacrificed of wild Nature, and something must be superadded, and that which is superadded is not properly of this real, visible world, but of the world of man's brain. The very enclosure of our garden-spaces signifies that Nature is held in duress here. Nature of herself cannot rise above Nature, and man, seeing perfections through her imperfections, capacities through her incapacities, shuts her in for cultivation, binds her feet, as it were, with the silken cord of art-constraint, and puts a gloss of intention upon her every feature. In a garden Nature is not to be her simple self, but is to be subject to man's conditions, his choice, his rejection. Let us briefly see, now, what conditions man may fairly impose upon Nature--what lengths he may legitimately go in the way of mimicry of natural effects or of conventionalism. Both books and our own observation tell us that where the past generations of gardeners have erred it has been through a misconception of the due proportions of realism and of idealism to be admitted into a garden. At this time, in this phase, it was _Art_, in that phase it was _Nature_, that was carried too far; here design was given too much rein, there not rein enough, and people in their silly revolt against Art have gone straight for the "veracities of Nature," copying her features, dead or alive, outright, without discrimination as to their fitness for imitation, or their suitableness to the position assigned to them. To what extent, we ask, may the forms of Nature be copied or recast? What are the limits to which man may carry ideal portraiture of Nature for the purposes of Art? Questions like these would, of course, only occur to a curious, debating age like ours; but put this way or that they keep alive the eternal problems of man's standing to the world of Nature, the laws of idealism and realism, the nice distinctions of "more and less." Now, it is not everything in Nature that can, or that may be, artificially expressed in a garden; nor are the things that it is permissible to use, of equal application everywhere. It were a palpable mistake, an artistic crime, so to speak, to follow the wild flights of Salvator Rosa and Gaspar Poussin, and with them to attempt a little amateur creation in the way of rent rocks, tumbled hillsides, and ruins that suggest a recent geological catastrophe, or antique monsters, or that imply by the scenery that we are living in the days of wattled abodes and savages with flint hatchets. Much, of course, may be done in this line in these days as in the past, if only one have sufficient audacity and a volcanic mind; yet, when it is done, both the value and the rightness of the art of the thing is questionable. "Canst thou catch Leviathan with a hook?" The primæval throes, the grand stupendous imagery of Nature should be held in more reverence. It were almost as fit to harness a polar bear to the gardener's mowing-machine as seek to appropriate the eerie phenomena of Nature in her untamed moods for the ornamental purposes of a garden. And as to the result of such work, the ass draped in the lion's skin, roaring horribly, with peaked snout and awkward shanks visible all the while, is not more ridiculous than the thinly-veiled savagery of an Italian garden of the seventeenth century. Here, then, I think we have some guidance as to the principles which should regulate the choice of the "properties" that are fit for the scenic show of a garden. We should follow the dictates of good taste and of common sense. Of things applied direct from Nature the line should be drawn at the gigantesque, the elemental, the sad, the gruesome, the crude. True, that in art of another kind--in Architecture or in Music--the artistic equivalents of these qualities may find place, but as garden effects they are eminently unsuitable, except, indeed, where it is desired to perpetrate a grim joke. Beyond these limitations, however, all is open ground for the imaginative handling of the true gardener; and what a noble residue remains! Nature in her health and wealth--green, opulent, lusty Nature is at his feet. Of things gay, debonair, subtle, and refined--things that stir poetic feelings or that give joy--he may take to himself and conjure with to the top of his bent. It is for him as for the poet in Sir Philip's Sidney's words--"So as he goeth hand in hand with Nature, not enclosed within the narrow warrant of her gifts, but freely ranging within the zodiac of his own wit. Nature never set forth the earth in so rich tapestry as divers poets have done; neither with so pleasant rivers, fruitful trees, sweet-smelling flowers, nor whatsoever else may make the too-much loved earth more lovely: her world is brazen, _the poets only deliver a golden_." Animated with corresponding desire, the gardener resorts to lovely places in this "too-much loved earth," there to find his stock-in-trade and learn his craft. We watch him as he hies to the bravery of the spring-flowers in sunny forest-glades; to meadow-flats where lie the golden host of daffodils, the lady-smocks, and snake-spotted fritillaries; we see him bend his way to the field of bluebells, the hill of primroses that with "their infinitie Make a terrestrial gallaxie As the smal starres do the skie;" we follow him to the tangled thicket with its meandering walks carpeted with anemones and hung over with sweet-scented climbers; to the sombre boskage of the wood, where the shadows leap from their ambush in unexpected places and the brown bird's song floats upon the wings of silence: to the green dell with its sequestered pool edged round with alders, and willow-herb, and king-fern, and mountain-ash afire with golden fruit: to the corn-field "a-flutter with poppies": to the broad-terraced downs--its short, springy turf dotted over with white sheets of thorn-blossom: to the leaping, shining mountain-tarn that comes foaming out of the wood: to the pine-grove with its columned blackness and dense thatch of boughs that lisp the message of the wind, and "teach light to counterfeit a gloom"; to the widespread landscape with its undulating forest, its clumps of foliage, its gleams of white-beam, silver-birch, or golden yew, amid the dark blue of firs and hollies; its emerald meadows, yellow gorse-covers and purple heather; the many tones of leafage in the spring and fall of the year. And here I give but a few random sketches of Nature, taken almost at random from the portfolio of her painted delights--a dozen or more vignettes, shall we say?--ready-made for garden-distribution in bed, bank, wilderness, and park; things which the old gardener freely employed; features and images which he transferred to his dressed grounds, not copying them minutely but in an ideal manner; mixing his fancy with their fact, his compulsion with their consent; flavouring the simple with a dash of the strange and marvellous, combining dreams and actualities, things seen, with things born "within the zodiac of his own wit"; frankly throwing into the compacted glamour of the place all that will give _éclat_ to Nature and teach men to apprehend new joy. So, then, after separating the brazen from the golden in Nature--after excluding "properties" of the woodland world which are demonstrably unfit for the scenic show of a garden, how ample the scope for artistic creation in the things that remain! And, given an acre or two of land that has some natural capabilities, some charm of environment--given a generous client, a bevy of workmen, horses and carts, and, prime necessity of all, a pleasant homestead in the foreground to prompt its own adornment and be the centre of your efforts, and, upon the basis of these old tracks of Nature and old themes of Art, what may not one hope to achieve of pretty garden-effects that shall please the eye, flatter the taste, and captivate the imagination of such as love Beauty! CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE SKETCH OF THE ENGLISH GARDEN. "The Earth is the garden of Nature, and each fruitful country a Paradise."--Sir Thomas Browne. In the last chapter I observed that in dealing with our second point--the ornamental treatment that is fit for a garden--we should be brought into contact with the good and bad points of both the old and new systems of gardening. Hence the following discursus upon the historic English garden, which will, however, be as short as it can well be made, not only because the writer has no desire to wander on a far errand when his interest lies near home, but also because an essay, such as this, is ever bound to be an inconclusive affair; and 'twere a pity to lay a heavy burden upon a light horse! At the outset of this section of our enquiry it is well to realise that there is little known about the garden of earlier date than the middle of the sixteenth century. Our knowledge of the mediæval garden is only to be acquired piecemeal, out of casual references in old chronicles, and stray pictures in illuminated manuscripts, and in each case allowance must be made for the fluent fancy of the artist. Moreover, early notices of gardens deal mostly with the orchard, or the vegetable or herb garden, where flowers grown for ornament occur in the borders of the ground. It is natural to ascribe the first rudiments of horticultural science in this country to the Romans; and with the classic pastorals, or Pliny the Younger's Letter to Apollinaris before us, in which an elaborate garden is minutely and enthusiastically described, we need no further assurance of the fitness of the Roman to impart skilled knowledge in all branches of the science. Loudon, in his noble "Arboretum et fruticetum Britannicum," enters at large into the question of what trees and shrubs are indigenous to Britain, and gives the probable dates of the introduction of such as are not native to this country. According to Whitaker, whose authority Loudon adopts, it would appear that the Romans brought us the plane, the box, the elm, the poplar, and the chestnut. (The lime, he adds, was not generally planted here till after the time of Le Nôtre: it was used extensively in avenues planted here in the reign of Charles the Second.) Of fruit trees, the Roman gave us the pear, the fig, the damson, cherry, peach, apricot, and quince. The aboriginal trees known to our first ancestors are the birch, alder, oak, wild or Scotch pine, mountain-ash or rowan-tree, the juniper, elder, sweet-gale, dog-rose, heath, St John's wort, and the mistletoe. Authorities agree in ascribing the introduction of many other plants, fruit trees, and trees of ornament or curiosity now common throughout England, to the monks. And the extent of our indebtedness to the monks in this matter may be gathered from the fact that monasteries abounded here in early times; and the religious orders have in all times been enthusiastic gardeners. Further be it remembered, many of the inmates of our monasteries were either foreigners or persons who had been educated in Italy or France, who would be well able to keep this country supplied with specimens and with reminiscences of the styles of foreign gardens up to date. The most valuable authority on the subject of early English gardens is Alexander Necham, Abbot of Cirencester (1157-1217). His references are in the shape of notes from a commonplace-book entitled "Of the Nature of Things," and he writes thus: "Here the gardens should be adorned with roses and lilies, the turnsole (heliotrope), violets and mandrake; there you should have parsley, cost, fennel, southern-wood, coriander, sage, savery, hyssop, mint, rue, dittany, smallage, pellitory, lettuces, garden-cress, and peonies.... A noble garden will give thee also medlars, quinces, warden-trees, peaches, pears of St Riole, pomegranates, lemons, oranges, almonds, dates, which are the fruits of palms, figs, &c."[15] Here, in truth, is a delightful medley of the useful and the beautiful, just like life! Yet the very use of the term "noble," as applied to a garden, implies that even the thirteenth-century Englishman had a standard of excellence to stir ambition. Other garden flowers mentioned in Alexander's observations are the sunflower, the iris and narcissus. [Footnote 15: See "The Praise of Gardens."] The garden described by Necham bespeaks an amount of taste in the arrangement of the herbs, plants, and fruit-trees, but in the main it corresponds with our kitchen-garden. The next English writer upon gardens in point of date is Johannes de Garlandia, an English resident in France; but here is a description of the writer's garden at Paris. The ground here described consists of shrubbery, wood, grove, and garden, and from the account given it is inferred that both in matters of taste and in the horticultural and floral products of the garden, France had advanced farther than England in garden-craft in the fourteenth century, which is the date of the book. In Mr Hudson Turner's "Observations on the State of Horticulture in England"[16] in olden times he gives notices of the early dates in which the rose was under cultivation. In the thirteenth century King John sends a wreath of roses to his lady-love. Chronicles inform us that roses and lilies were among the plants bought for the Royal Garden at Westminster in 1276; and the annual rendering of a rose is one of the commonest species of quit-rent in ancient conveyances, like the "pepper-corn" of later times. The extent to which the culture of the rose was carried is inferred from the number of sorts mentioned in old books, which include the red, the sweet-musk, double and single, the damask, the velvet, the double-double Provence rose, and the double and single white rose. And the demand for roses seems to have been so great in old days that bushels of them frequently served as the payment of vassals to their lords, both in France and England. England has good reason to remember the distinction between the red and the white rose. [Footnote 16: "Archæological Journal," vol. v. p. 295.] Of all the flowers known to our ancestors, the gilly-flower was perhaps the most common. "The fairest flowers o' the season Are our carnations and streak'd gilly flower." _Winter's Tale._ "Their use," says a quaint writer, "is much in ornament, and comforting the spirites by the sence of smelling." The variety of this flower, that was best known in early times, was the wall gilly-flower, or bee-flower. Another flower of common growth in mediæval gardens and orchards is the periwinkle. "There sprang the violet all newe, And fresh periwinkle, rich of hewe, And flowers yellow, white and rede, Such plenty grew there nor in the mede." It is not considered probable that much art was expended in the laying out of gardens before the fifteenth century; but I give a list of illuminated MSS. in the Library of the British Museum, where may be found illustrations of gardens, and which I take from Messrs Birch and Jenner's valuable Dictionary of Principal Subjects in the British Museum[17] under the head of Garden. [Footnote 17: "Early Drawings and Illuminations." Birch and Jenner. (Bagster, 1879, p. 134.) "Gardens. 19 D. i. ff. I. etc. 20 A. xvii. f. 7b. 20 B. ii. f. 57. 14 803 f. 63. 18 851 f. 182. 18 852 f. 3. b. 26667 f. i. Harl. 4425. f. 12. b. Kings 7. f. 57. 6 E. ix. f. 15. b. 14 E. vi. f. 146. 15 E. iii. f. 122. 15 E. vi. f. 146. 16 G. v. f. 5. 17 F. i. f. 149 _b_. 19 A. vi. f. 2. 109. 19 C. vii. f. i. 20 C. v. ff. 7. _etc._ Eg. 2022. f. 36. _b_. Harl. 4425. f. 160 _b_. 19720. 19 A. vi. f. 109."] There is also a typical example of a fourteenth-century garden in the Romaunt d'Alexandre (Bodleian Library). Here the flower garden or lawn is separated by a wooden paling from the orchard, where a man is busy pruning. An old painting at Hampton Court, of the early part of the sixteenth century, gives pretty much the same class of treatment, but here the paling is decorated with a chevron of white and red colour. To judge from old drawings, our forefathers seem to have been always partial to the greensward and trees, which is the landscape garden in the "egg"! A good extent of grass is always provided. Formal flower-beds do not often occur, and, where shown, they are sometimes surrounded by a low wattled fence--a protection against rabbits, probably. Seats and banks of chamomile are not unusual. A bank of earth seems to have been thrown up against the enclosing wall; the front of the bank is then faced with a low partition of brick or stone, and the mould, brought to an even surface, is planted in various ways. Numerous illustrations of the fifteenth century give a bowling-green and butts for archery. About this date it is assumed the style of English gardening was affected by French and Flemish methods, which our connection with Burgundy at that time would bring about. To this period is also ascribed the introduction of the "mount" in England, although one would almost say that it is but a survival of the Celtic "barrow." It is a feature that came, however, into very common use, and is thus recommended by Bacon: "I wish also, in the very middle, a fair Mount, with three Ascents and Alleys, enough for four to walk abreast, which I would have to be perfect circles, without any Bulwarks or Imbossments, and the whole Mount to be thirty foot high, and some fine Banqueting House with some chimneys neatly cast, and without too much Glass." The "mount" is said to have been originally contrived to allow persons in the orchard to look over the enclosing wall, and would serve not only as a place from which to enjoy a pretty view, but as a point of outlook in case of attack. Moreover, when situated in a park where the deer grazed, the unscrupulous sportsman might from thence shoot a buck. In early days the mounts were constructed of wood or of stone, and were curiously adorned within and without. Later on they resumed the old barrow shape, and were made of earth, and utilized for the culture of fruit trees. Lawson, an old writer of the sixteenth century, describes them as placed in divers corners of the orchard, their ascent being made by "stares of precious workmanship." When of wood, the mount was often elaborately painted. An account of works done at Hampton Court in the time of Henry VIII., mentions certain expenses incurred for "anticke" works; and referring to Bailey's Dictionary, published early in the last century, the word "antick," as applied to curiously-shaped trees, still survives, and is explained as "odd figures or shapes of men, birds, beasts, &c., cut out." From the above references, and others of like nature, we know that the topiary art ("opus topiarum"), which dealt in quaintly-shaped trees and shrubs, was in full practice here throughout the latter half of the middle ages. Samuel Hartlib, in a book published in 1659, writes thus: "About fifty years ago Ingenuities first began to flourish in England." Lawson, writing in a jocose vein, tells how the lesser wood might be framed by the gardener "to the shape of men armed in the field ready to give battell; or swift-running greyhounds, or of well-scented and true-running hounds to chase the deere or hunt the hare"; adding as a recommendation that "this kinde of hunting shall not waste your corne, nor much your coyne!" I find that John Leland in his Itinerary, 1540, further confirms the use of highly-decorated mounts: as at Wressel Castle, Yorkshire, he tells of the gardens with the mote, and the orchards as exceeding fair; "and yn the orchardes were mounts writhen about with degrees, like the turnings in cokil shelles, to come to the top without payne." There is still to be seen, or according to Murray's Guide, 1876, was then to be seen, at Wotton, in Surrey, an artificial mount cut into terraces, which is a relic of Evelyn's work. The general shape of an old-fashioned garden is a perfect square, which we take to be reminiscent of the square patch of ground which, in early days, was partitioned off for the use of the family, and walled to exclude cattle, or to define the property. It also repeats the quadrangular court of big Tudor houses. We may also assume that the shape would commend itself to the taste of the Renascence School of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras, as being that of classic times; for the antique garden was fashioned in a square with enclosures of trellis-work, espaliers, and clipt box hedges, regularly ornamented with vases, fountains, and statuary. The square shape was common to the French and Italian gardens also. Old views of Du Cerceau, an architect of the time of Charles IX. and Henry III., show a square in one part of the grounds and a circular labyrinth in another: scarcely a plot but has this arrangement. The point to note, however, is, that while the English garden might take the same general outline as the foreign, it had its own peculiarities; and although each country develops the fantastic ornament common to the stiff garden of the period in its own way, things are not carried to the same pitch of extravagant fancy in England as in France, Holland, or Italy. Upon a general review of the subject of ornamental gardens, English and foreign, we arrive at the conclusion that the type of garden produced by any country is a question of soil and physical features, and a question of race. The character of the scenery of a country, the section of the land generally, no less than the taste of the people who dwell in it, prescribes the style of the type of garden. The hand of Nature directs the hand of Art. Thus, in a hilly country like Italy, Nature herself prompts the division of the garden-spaces into wide terraces, while Art, on her side, provides that the terraces shall be well-proportioned as to width and height, and suitably defined by masonry walls having balustraded fronts, flights of steps, arcades, temples, vases, statues, &c. Lady Mary Montagu's description of the _Giardino Jiusti_ is a case in point: she depicts, as far as words can, how admirably it complies with the conditions of the scenery. The palace lies at the foot of a mountain "near three miles high, covered with a wood of orange, lemon, citron, and pomegranate trees, which is all cut up into walks, and divided into terraces that you may go into a separate garden from every floor of the house, diversified with fountains, cascades, and statues, and joined by easy marble staircases, which lead from one to another." It is a hundred years since this description was written, but the place is little altered to this day: "Who will now take the pains to climb its steep paths, will find the same charm in the aged cypresses, the oddly clipped ilexes and boxes, the stiff terraces and narrow, and now overgrown, beds."[18] [Footnote 18: "The Garden."--WALTHER HOWE.] In France, where estates are larger, and the surface of the country more even and regular, the ornamental grounds, while following the Italian in certain particulars, are of wider range on the flat, and they attain picturesqueness upon lines of their own. The taste of the people, conveniently answering to the conditions of the country, runs upon long avenues and spacious grounds, divided by massive trellises into a series of ornamental sections--_Bocages_, _Cabinets de Verdure_, &c., which by their form and name, flatter the Arcadian sentiment of a race much given to idealisation. "I am making winding alleys all round my park, which will be of great beauty," writes Madame de Sévigné, in 1671. "As to my labyrinth, it is neat, it has green plots, and the palisades are breast-high; it is a lovable spot." The French have parks, says the travelled Heutzner, but nothing is more different, both in compass and direction, than those common to England. In France they invented the parks as fit surroundings to the fine palaces built by Mansard and Le Nôtre, and the owners of these stately chateaux gratified their taste for Nature in an afternoon promenade on a broad stone terrace, gazing over a carved balustrade at a world made truly artificial to suit the period. The style of Le Nôtre is, in fact, based upon the theory that Nature shall contribute a bare space upon which man shall lay out a garden of symmetrical character, and trees, shrubs, and flowers are regarded as so much raw material, out of which Art shall carve her effects. Indeed, the desire for symmetry is carried to such extravagant lengths that the largest parks become only a series of square or oblong enclosures, regularly planted walks, bounded by chestnuts or limes; while the gardens are equally cut up into lines of trellises and palisades. In describing the Paris gardens Horace Walpole says, "they form light corridors and transpicuous arbours, through which the sunbeams play and checker the shade, set off the statues, vases, and flowers, that marry with their gaudy hotels, and suit the gallant and idle society who paint the walks between their parterres, and realise the fantastic scenes of Watteau and Durfé!" In another place he says that "many French groves seem green chests set upon poles. In the garden of Marshall de Biron, at Paris, consisting of fourteen acres, every walk is button-holed on each side by lines of flower-pots, which succeed in their seasons. When I saw it there were nine thousand pots of asters or la Reine Marguerite." In Holland, which Butler sarcastically describes as "A land that rides at anchor, and is moor'd, In which they do not live, but go aboard"-- the conditions are not favourable to gardening. Man is here indebted to Nature, in the first place, for next to nothing: Air, Earth, and Water are, as it were, under his control. The trees grow, the rivers run, as they are directed; and the very air is made to pay toll by means of the windmills. To begin with, Holland has a meagre list of indigenous trees and shrubs, and scarcely an indigenous ligneous flora. There is little wood in the country, for the heavy winds are calculated to destroy high-growing trees, and the roots cannot penetrate into the ground to any depth, without coming to water. The land is flat, and although artificial mountains of granite brought from Norway and Sweden have been erected as barriers against the sea, there is scarcely a stone to be found except in the Island of Urk. The conditions of the country being so unfavourable to artistic handling, it needs a determined effort on man's part to lift things above the dead-level of the mean and commonplace. Yet see how Nature's defects may only prove Art's opportunity! Indeed, it is singular to note how, as it were, in a spirit of noble contrariness, the Dutch garden exhibits the opposite grace of each natural defect of the land. The great plains intersected with sullen watercourses yield up only slight strips of land, _therefore_ these niggardly strips, snatched from "an amphibious world" (as Goldsmith terms it), shall be crammed with beauty. The landscape outside gapes with uniform dulness, _therefore_ the garden within shall be spick and span. The flat treeless expanse outside offers no objects for measuring distance, _therefore_ the perspective of the garden shall be a marvel of adroit planning and conjured proportions. The room is small, _therefore_ its every inch shall seem an ell. The garden is a mere patch, _therefore_ the patch shall be elaborately darned and pattern-stitched all over. The eye may not travel far, or can get no joy in a distant view, _therefore_ it shall rest in pure content, focussed upon a scene where rich and orderly garniture can no farther go. Thus have the ill-conditions of the land proved blessings in disguise. Necessity, the mother of invention, has produced the Dutch garden out of the most untoward geography, and if we find in its qualities and features traces of the conditions which surrounded its birth and development it is no wonder. Who shall blame the prim shapes and economical culture where even gross deception shall pass for a virtue if it be successful! Or the regular strips of ground, the long straight canals, the adroit vistas of grassy terraces long-drawn out, the trees ranged in pots, or planted in the ground at set intervals and carefully shorn to preserve the limit of their shade! Nay, one can be merciful to the garden's usual crowning touch, which you get at its far end--a painted landscape of hills and dales and clumps of trees to beguile the enamoured visitor into the fond belief that Holland is not Holland: and, in the foreground the usual smiling wooden boy, shooting arrows at nothing, happy in the deed, and tin hares squatting in likely nooks, whose shy hare eyes have worn the same startled gaze these sixty years or more, renewed with fresh paint from time to time as rust requires. Yet the Earth is richer and mankind happier for the Dutch garden! And, as though out of compassion for the Dutchman's difficulties, kind Nature has put into his hands the bulb, as a means whereby he may attain the maximum of gaudy colour within the minimum of space. Given a few square yards of rescued earth and sufficient manure, and what cannot the neat-handed, frugal-minded, microscopic-eyed Dutchman do in the way of concentrated design with his bulbs, his clipt shrubs, his trim beds, his trickles of water, and strips of grass and gravel! And should all other resources fail he has still his pounded brick-dust, his yellow sand, his chips of ores and spars and green glass, which, though they may serve only remotely to suggest Nature, will at all events carry your mind off to the gay gardens of precious stones of fairyland literature! Indeed, once embarked upon his style of piquancy-at-any-price, and it is hard to see where the Dutch gardener need stop! In this sophisticated trifling--this lapidary's mosaic--this pastry-cook's decoration--this child's puzzle of coloured earth, substituted for coloured living flowers--he pushes Art farther than the plain Englishman approves. It is, however, only one step farther than ordinary with him. All his dealings with Nature are of this abstract sort: his details are clever, and he is ingenious, if not imaginative, in his wholes. Still, I repeat, the Earth is richer, and mankind happier for the Dutch garden. There is an obvious excuse for its over-fancifulness in George Meredith's remark that "dulness is always an irresistible temptation for brilliance." That the Dutchman should be thus able to compete with unfriendly Nature, and to reverse the brazen of the unkind land of his birth, is an achievement that reflects most creditably upon the artistic capacities of his nation. But England-- "This other Eden, demi-paradise"-- suggests a garden of a less-constrained order than either of these. Not that the English garden is uniformly of the same type, at the same periods. The variety of the type is to be accounted for in two ways: firstly, by the ingrained eclecticism of the British mind; secondly, by the changeful character of the country--this district is flat and open, this is hilly--so that mere conformity to the lie of the land would produce gardens which belong now to the French type, now to the Italian. It is the same with British Art of all kinds, of all times: in days long before the Norman visitation and ever since, the English Designer has leant more or less upon foreign initiative, which goes to prove either how inert is his own gift of origination, or how devious may be the tastes of a mixed race. But if the English garden cannot boast of singular points of interest, if its art reflects foreign countries, it bears the mark of the English taste for landscape, which gives it distinction and is suggestive of very charming effects. The transcendent characteristic of the English garden is derived from and gets its impulse from the prevailing influence of Nature at home. It has the characteristics of the country. It is, I know, commonly held now-a-days that the taste for landscape is wholly of modern growth. So far as England is concerned it came in, they say, with Thomson in poetry, and with Brown in gardens. So far as relates to the _conscious_ relish for Nature, so far as relates to the love of Nature as a mirror of the moods of the mind, or as a refuge from man, this assertion may be true enough. Yet, surely the _conscious_ delight in landscape must have been preceded by an _unconscious_ sympathy this way: it could not have sprung without generation. Artistic sight is based upon instinct, feeling, perceptions that reach one knows not how far back in time, it does not come by magic. See also what a rude, slatternly affair this much-lauded landscape-garden of the "immortal Brown" was! Here are two sorts of gardens--the traditional garden according to Bacon, the garden according to Brown. Both are Nature, but the first is Nature in an ideal dress, the second is Nature with no dress at all. The first is a garden for a civilised man, the second is a garden for a gipsy. The first is a picture painted from a cherished model, the second is a photograph of the same model undressed. Brown's work, in fact, represents the garden's return to its original barbaric self--the reinauguration of the elemental. Let it not be said, then, that Brown discovered the model, for her fairness was an established fact or she would not have been so richly apparelled when he lighted upon her. In other words, the love of the Earth--"that green-tressed goddess," Coleridge calls her--was no new thing in Brown's day: the sympathy for the woodland world, the love of tree, flower, and grass is behind the manipulated stiff garden of the fifteenth and two succeeding centuries, and it is the abiding source of all enthusiasm in garden-craft. How long this taste for landscape had existed in pre-Thomsonian days it does not fall to us to determine. Suffice it to say that so long as there has been an English school of gardening this sympathy for landscape has found expression in the English garden.[19] The high thick garden-walls of the old fighting-days shall have ample outlooks in the shape of "mounts," from whence views may be had of the open country. The ornamental value of forest trees is well-known and appreciated. Even in the thirteenth century the English gardener is on the alert for new specimens and "trees of curiosity," and he is a master of horticulture. In Chaucer's day he revels in the greensward, "Ful thikke of gras, ful softe and swete." And the early ballads as I have already shown are full of allusion to scenery and woodland. In the days of fine gardens the Englishman must still have his four acres "to the green," his adjuncts of shrubbery, wilderness, and park. Nay, Henry VIII.'s garden at Nonsuch, had its wilderness of ten acres. "Chaucer opens his Clerke's Tale with a bit of landscape admirable for its large style," says Mr Lowell, "and as well composed as any Claude" ("My Study Windows," p. 22). "What an airy precision of touch is here, and what a sure eye for the points of character in landscape." So, too, can Milton rejoice in "Nature boon Poured forth profuse on hill and dale and plain," and Herrick: "Sing of brooks, of blossoms, birds, and bowers, Of April, May, of June, and July flowers." [Footnote 19: "English scenery of that special type which we call homely, and of which we are proud as only to be found in England, is, indeed, the production of many centuries of that conservatism which has spared the picturesque timber, and of that affectionate regard for the future which has made men delight to spend their money in imprinting on the face of Nature their own taste in trees and shrubs." ("Vert and Venery," by VISCOUNT LYMINGTON; _Nineteenth Century_, January, 1891.)] Nor is this taste for landscape surprising in a country where the natural scenery is so fair and full of meaning. There are the solemn woods, the noble trees of forest and park: the "fresh green lap" of the land, so vividly green that the American Hawthorne declares he found "a kind of lustre in it." There is the rich vegetation, and "in France, and still less in Italy," Walpole reminds us, "they could with difficulty attain that verdure which the humidity of our climate bestows." There are the leafy forest ways gemmed with flowers; the vast hunting-grounds of old kings, the woodland net of hazel coppice, the hills and dales, sunned or shaded, the plains mapped out with hedgerows and enlivened with the glitter of running water: the heather-clad moors, the golden gorse covers, the rolling downs dotted over with thorns and yews and chalk cliffs, the upland hamlets with their rosy orchards, the farm homesteads nestling in green combes, the grace of standing corn, the girdle of sea with its yellow shore or white, red, or grey rocks, its wolds and tracts of rough uncultivated ground, with bluffs and bushes and wind-harassed trees--Nature's own "antickes"--driven like green flames, and carved into grotesque shapes by the biting gales. There are the "Russet lawns, and fallows grey Where the nibbling flocks do stray, Mountains on whose barren breast The labouring clouds do often rest, Meadows prim with daisies pied, Shallow brooks and rivers wide"-- the land that Richard Jefferies says "wants no gardening, it _cannot_ be gardened; the least interference kills it"--English woodland whose beauty is in its detail. There is nothing empty and unclothed here. Says Jefferies, "If the clods are left a little while undisturbed in the fields, weeds spring up and wild flowers bloom upon them. Is the hedge cut and trimmed, lo! the bluebells flower the more, and a yet fresher green buds forth upon the twigs." "Never was there a garden like the meadow," cries this laureate of the open fields; "there is not an inch of the meadow in early summer without a flower." And if the various parts and details of an English landscape are so beautiful in themselves, what shall we say of the scenery when Nature, turned artist, sweeps across it the translucent tints of dawn or sunset, or wind and cloud-fantasy; or veil of purple mist, or grey or red haze, or drift of rain-shower thrown athwart the hills, for the sunbeams to try their edge upon; or any of the numberless atmospheric changes, pure and tender, stern and imperious, that our humid climate has ever ready to hand! Shut in, as we in England are, with our short breadths of view ("on a scale to embrace," remarks George Meredith), folded, as it were, in a field-sanctuary of Nature-life--girt about with scenery that is at once fair, compact, sweetly familiar and companionable, yet so changefully coloured, so full of surprises as the day jogs along to its evensong as to hold observation on the stretch, to force attention to Nature's last word, to fill the fallow-mind of lonely country folk with gentle wonder, and swell the "harvest of a quiet eye," is it strange that a land like ours should have bred an unrivalled school of Nature-readers among gardeners, painters, and poets? "As regards grandeur," says Hawthorne, "there are loftier scenes in many countries than the best that England can show; but, for the picturesqueness of the smallest object that lies under its gentle gloom and sunshine, there is no scenery like it anywhere." ("Our Old Home," p. 78.) The _real_ world of England, then, is, in the Englishman's opinion, itself so fair "it wants no gardening." Our school of gardeners seem to have found this out; for the task of the gardener has been rather that of translator than of creator; he has not had to labour at an artificial world he himself had made, but only to adorn, to interpret the world as it is, in all its blithe freedom. "The earth is the garden of Nature, and each fruitful country a Paradise;" and in England, "the world's best garden," man has only had to focus the view and frame it. Flowers, odours, dews, glistening waters, soft airs and sounds, noble trees, woodland solitudes, moonlight bowers, have been always with us. It might seem ungenerous to institute a comparison between the French and English styles of gardening, and to put things in a light unfavourable to the foreigner, had not the task been already done for us by a Frenchman in a most outspoken manner. Speaking of the French gardens, Diderot, in his Encyclopædia (_Jardin_) says: "We bring to bear upon the most beautiful situations a ridiculous and paltry taste. The long straight alleys appear to us insipid; the palisades cold and formless. We delight in devising twisted alleys, scroll-work parterres, and shrubs formed into tufts; the largest lots are divided into little lots. It is not so with a neighbouring nation, amongst whom gardens in good taste are as common as magnificent palaces are rare. In England, these kinds of walks, practicable in all weathers, seem made to be the sanctuary of a sweet and placid pleasure; the body is there relaxed, the mind diverted, the eyes are enchanted by the verdure of the turf and the bowling-greens; the variety of flowers offers pleasant flattery to the smell and sight, Nature alone, modestly arrayed, and never made up, there spreads out her ornaments and benefits. How the fountains beget the shrubs and beautify them! How the shadows of the woods put the streams to sleep in beds of herbage." This is poetry! but it is well that one French writer (and he so distinguished) should be found to depict an English garden, when architects like Jussieu and Antoine Richard signally failed to reproduce the thing, to order, upon French soil! And the _Petit Trianon_ was in itself an improvement upon, or rather a protest against, the sumptuous splendour of the _Orangerie_, the basins of Latona and of Neptune, and the superb _tapis vert_, with its bordering groves of clipt trees and shrubs. Yet here is Arthur Young's unflattering description of the Queen's _Jardin Anglois_ at Trianon: "It contains about 100 acres, disposed in the taste of what we read of in books of Chinese gardening, whence it is supposed the English style was taken. There is more of Sir William Chambers here than of Mr Brown,[20] more effort than Nature, and more expense than taste. It is not easy to conceive anything that Art can introduce in a garden that is not here; woods, rocks, lawns, lakes, rivers, islands, cascades, grottoes, walks, temples, and even villages." Truly a _Jardin Anglois_! [Footnote 20: Miss Edwards (and I quote from her edition of Young's "Travels in France," p. 101) has a note to the effect that the Mr Brown here referred to is "Robert Brown, of Markle, contributor to the _Edinburgh Magazine_, 1757-1831." Yet, surely this is none other than Mr "Capability" Brown, discoverer of English scenery, reputed father of the English garden!] We may well prefer Diderot's simile for the English garden as "the sanctuary of a sweet and placid pleasure" to the bustling crowd of miscellaneous elements that took its name in vain in the _Petit Trianon_! For an English garden is at once stately and homely--homely before all things. Like all works of Art it is conventionally treated, and its design conscious and deliberate. But the convention is broad, dignified, quiet, homogeneous, suiting alike the characteristics of the country and of the people for whom it is made. Compared with this, the foreign garden must be allowed to be richer in provocation; there is distinctly more fancy in its conceits, and its style is more absolute and circumspect than the English. And yet, just as Browning says of imperfection, that it may sometimes mean "perfection hid," so, here our deficiencies may not mean defects. In order that we may compare the English and foreign garden we must place them on common ground; and I will liken each to a pastoral romance. Nature is idealised, treated fancifully in each, yet how different the quality of the contents, the method of presentment, the style, the technique of this and that, even when the design is contemporaneous! A garden is, I say, a sort of pastoral romance, woven upon a background of natural scenery. In the exercise of his pictorial genius, both the foreign and English artist shall run upon natural things, and transcribe Nature imaginatively yet realisably; each composition shall have a pastoral air, and be rustic after its fashion. But how different the platform, how different the mental complexion, the technique of the artists! How different the detail and the atmosphere of the garden. The rusticity of the foreign garden is dished up in a more delectable form than is the case in the English, but there is not the same open-air feeling about this as about that; it does not convey the same sense of unexhausted possibilities--not the same tokens of living enjoyment of Nature, of heart-to-heart fellowship with her. The foreign garden is over-wrought, too full: it is a passionless thing--like the gaudy birds of India, finely plumed but songless; like the prize rose, without sweetness. Of the garden of Italy, who shall dare to speak critically. Child of tradition: heir by unbroken descent, inheritor of the garden-craft of the whole civilised world. It stands on a pinnacle high above the others, peerless and alone: fit for the loveliest of lands-- ... "Woman-country, wooed not wed, Loved all the more by Earth's male-lands, Laid to their hearts instead"-- and it may yet be seen upon its splendid scale, splendidly adorned, with straight terraces, marble statues, clipped ilex and box, walks bordered with azalea and camellia, surrounded with groves of pines and cypresses--so frankly artistic, yet so subtly blending itself into the natural surroundings--into the distant plain, the fringe of purple hills, the gorgeous panorama of the Alps with its background of glowing sky. With such a radiant country to conjure with, we may truly say "The richly provided, richly require." If we may speak our mind of the French and Dutch gardens, they in no wise satisfy English taste as regards their relation to Nature. Diderot has said that it is the peculiarity of the French to judge everything with the mind. It is from this standpoint that the Frenchman treats Nature in a garden. He is ever seeking to unite the accessory portions with the _ensemble_. He overdoes design. He gives you the impression that he is far more in love with his own ideas about Nature than with Nature herself; that he uses her resources not to interpret them or perfect them along their own lines, but express his own interesting ideas. He must provide stimulus for his imagination; his nature demands food for reverie, point for ecstasy, for delicious self-abandonment, for bedazzlement with ideal beauty, and the garden shall supply him with these whatever the cost to the materials employed. Hence a certain unscrupulousness towards Nature in the French garden; hence the daring picturesqueness, its legerdemain. Nature edited thus, is to the Englishman but Nature in effigy, Nature used as a peg for fantastical attire, Nature with a false lustre that tells of lead alloy--Nature that has forgotten what she is like. In an English garden, as Diderot notes, Nature is handled with more reverence, her rights are more respected. I am willing to allow that something of the reserve traceable in English art is begotten of the phlegmatic temper of the race that rarely gets beyond a quiescent fervour; and this temper, exhibited in a garden would incline us always to let well alone and not press things too hard. If the qualities of an English garden that I speak of are to be attributed to this temper, then, to judge by results, _laissez faire_ is not a bad motto for the gardener! Certain it is that the dominance of man is more hinted at here than proclaimed. Compared with foreign examples we sooner read through its quaintnesses and braveries their sweet originals in Nature: nay, even when we have idealised things to our hearts' full bent, they shall yet retain the very note and rhythm of the woodland world from whence they sprang--"English in all, of genius blithely free."[21] [Footnote 21: Lowell's "Ode to Fielding."] And this is true even in that extreme case, the Jacobean garden, where we have much the same quips and cranks, the same quaint power of metrical changes and playful fancy of the poetry of Herbert, Vaughan, Herrick, and Donne; even the little clean-cut pedantries of this artfullest of all phases of English garden-craft make for a kind of bland stateliness and high-flown serenity, that bases its appeal upon placid beauty rather than upon mere ingenuity or specious extravagance. The conventionalities of its borders, its terraces and steps and images in lead or marble, its ornamental water, its trim geometrical patterns, its quincunx, clipped hedges, high hedges, and architectural adornments shall be balanced by great sweeps of lawn and noble trees that are not constrained to take hands, as in France, across the road and to look proper, but are left to grow large and thick and wide and free. True that there is about the Jacobean garden an air of scholarliness and courtliness; a flavour of dreamland, Arcadia, and Italy--a touch of the archaic and classical--yet the thing is saved from utter affectation by our English out-of-door life which has bred in us an innate love of the unconstrained, a sympathy that keeps its hold on reality, and these give an undefinable quality of freshness to the composition as a whole.[22] [Footnote 22: "Mr _Evelyn_ has a pleasant villa at _Deptford_," writes Gibson, "a fine garden for walks and hedges (especially his holly one which he writes of in his 'Sylva') ... In his garden he has four large round philareas, smooth-clipped, raised on a single stalk from the ground, a fashion now much used. _Part of his garden is very woody and shady for walking_; but his garden not being walled, has little of the best fruits."] To sum up. The main difference in the character of the English and the foreign schools of gardening lies in this, that the design of the foreign leans ever in the direction of artificiality, that of England towards natural freedom. And a true garden should have an equal regard for Nature and Art; it should represent a marriage of contraries, should combine finesse and audacity, subtilty and simplicity, the regular and the unexpected, the ideal and the real "bound fast in one with golden ease." In a French or Dutch garden the "yes" and "no" of Art and Nature are always unequally yoked. Nature is treated with sparse courtesy by Art, its individuality is ignored, it sweats like a drudge under its load of false sentiment. "Sike fancies weren foolerie." But in England, though we hold Nature in duress, we leave her unbound; if we mew her up for cultivation, we leave her inviolate, with a chance of vagrant liberty and a way of escape. Thus, you will note how the English garden stops, as it were, without ending. Around or near the house will be the ordered garden with terraces and architectural accessories, all trim and fit and nice. Then comes the smooth-shaven lawn, studded and belted round with fine trees, arranged as it seems with a divine carelessness; and beyond the lawn, the ferny heather-turf of the park, where the dappled deer browse and the rabbits run wild, and the sun-chequered glades go out to meet, and lose themselves "by green degrees" in the approaching woodland,--past the river glen, the steep fields of grass and corn, the cottages and stackyards and grey church tower of the village; past the ridge of fir-land and the dark sweep of heath-country into the dim waving lines of blue distance. So that however self-contained, however self-centred the stiff old garden may seem to be, it never loses touch with the picturesque commonplaces of our land; never loses sympathy with the green world at large, but, in a sense, embraces and locks in its arms the whole country-side as far as eye can see. CHAPTER IV. HISTORICAL SKETCH--CONTINUED. THE STIFF GARDEN. "All is fine that is fit." The English garden, as I have just tried to sketch it, was not born yesterday, the bombastic child of a landscape-gardener's recipe. It epitomises a nation's instincts in garden-craft; it is the slow result of old affection for, old wonder at, beauty in forms, colours, tones; old enthusiasm for green turf, wild flower, and forest tree. Take it at its best, it records the matured taste of a people of Nature-readers, Nature-lovers: it is that which experience has proved to be in most accord with the character and climate of the country, and the genius of the race. Landscape has been from the first the central tradition of English art. Life spent amidst pictorial scenery like ours that is striking in itself and rendered more impressive and animated by the rapid atmospheric changes, the shifting lights and shadows, the life and movement in the sky, and the vivid intense colouring of our moist climate, has given our tastes a decided bent this way, and fashioned our Arts of Poetry, Painting, and Gardening. Out-of-door life among such scenery puts our senses on the alert, and the impressions of natural phenomena supply our device with all its images. The English people had not to wait till the eighteenth century to know to what they were inclined, or what would suit their country's adornment. From first to last, we have said, the English garden deals much with trees and shrubs and grass. The thought of them, and the artistic opportunities they offer, is present in the minds of accomplished garden-masters, travelled men, initiated spirits, like Sir Thomas More, Bacon, Shaftesbury, Temple, and Evelyn, whose aim is to give garden-craft all the method and distinctness of which it is capable. However saturated with aristocratic ideas the courtier-gardener may be, however learned in the circumspect style of the Italian, he retains his native relish for the woodland world, and babbles of green fields. A sixteenth-century English gardener (Gerarde) adjured his countrymen to "Go forwarde in the name of God, graffe, set, plant, and nourishe up trees in every corner of your grounde." A seventeenth-century gardener (Evelyn) had ornamental landscape and shady woods in his garden as well as pretty beds of choice flowers. "There are, besides the temper of our climate," writes another seventeenth-century garden-worthy (Temple), "two things particular to us, that contribute to the beauty and elegance of our gardens, which are the gravel of our walks and the fineness and almost perpetual greenness of our turf; the first is not known anywhere else, which leaves all their dry walks in other countries very unpleasant and uneasy; the other cannot be found in France or in Holland as we have it, the soil not admitting that fineness of blade in Holland, nor the sun that greenness in France during most of the summer." And following upon this is a long essay upon the ornamental disposition of the grounds in an English garden and the culture of fruit trees. "I will not enter upon any account of flowers," he says, "having only pleased myself with the care, which is more the ladies' part than the men's,[23] but the success is wholly in the gardener." [Footnote 23: This remark of Temple's as to the small importance the flower-beds had in the mind of the gardener of his day, is significant: as indicating the different methods employed by the ancient and modern gardener. It was not that he was not "pleased with the care" of flowers, but that these were not his chiefest care; his prime idea was to get broad, massive, well-defined effects in his garden generally. Hence the monumental style of the old-fashioned garden, the carefully-disposed ground, the formality, the well-considered poise and counter-poise, the varying levels and well-defined parts. And only inwoven, as it were, into the argument of the piece, are its pretty parts, used much as the jewellery of a fair woman. I should be sorry to be so unjust to the modern landscape gardener as to accuse him of caring over-much for flowers, but of his garden-device generally one may fairly say it has no monumental style, no ordered shape other than its carefully-schemed _disorder_. It is not a masculine affair, but effeminate and niggling; a little park-scenery, curved shrubberies, wriggling paths, emphasised specimen plants, and flower-beds of more or less inane shape tumbled down on the skirts of the lawn or drive, that do more harm than good to the effect of the place, seen near or at a distance. How true it is that to believe in Art one must be an artist!] And Bacon is not so wholly enamoured of Arcadia and with the embodiment of far-brought fancies in his "prince-like" garden as to be callous of Nature's share therein. "The contents ought not well to be under thirty acres of ground, and to be divided into three parts; a green in the entrance, a heath or desert in the going forth, and the main garden in the midst, besides alleys on both sides; and I like well that four acres be assigned to the Green, six to the Heath, four and four to either side, and twelve to the main Garden. The Green hath two pleasures: the one, because nothing is more pleasant to the eye than green grass kept finely shorn; the other, because it will give you a fair alley in the midst, by which you may go in front upon a stately hedge, which is to enclose the garden." "For the heath, which was the third part of our plot, I wished it be framed as much as may be to a natural wildness," &c. Of which more anon.[24] [Footnote 24: Nonsuch had its wilderness of ten acres.] Whether the garden of Bacon's essay is the portrait of an actual thing, whether the writer--to use a phrase of Wordsworth--"had his eye upon the subject," or whether it was built in the man's brain like Tennyson's "Palace of Art," we cannot tell. From the singular air of experience that animates the description, the sure touch of the writer, we may infer that Gorhambury had some such garden, the fruit of its master's "Leisure with honour," or "Leisure without honour," as the case may be. But what seems certain is, that the essay is only a sign of the ordinary English gentleman's mind on the subject at that time; and in giving us this masterpiece, Bacon had no more notion of posing as the founder of the English garden (_pace_ Brown) than of getting himself labelled as the founder of Modern Science for his distinguished labours in that line. "I only sound the clarion," he says, "but I enter not into the battle." Moderns are pleased to smile at what they deem the over-subtilty of Bacon's ideal garden. For my own part, I find nothing recommended there that a "princely garden" should not fitly contain (especially as these things are all of a-piece with the device of the period), even to those imagination-stirring features which one thinks he may have described, not from the life, but from the figures in "The Dream of Poliphilus" (a book of woodcuts published in Venice, 1499), features of the Enchanted Island, to wit the two fountains--the first to spout water, to be adorned with ornaments of images, gilt or of marble; the "other, which we may call a bathing-pool that admits of much curiosity and beauty wherewith we will not trouble ourselves; as that the bottom be finely paved with images, the sides likewise; and withal embellished with coloured glass, and such things of lustre; encompassed also with fine rails of low statues."[25] [Footnote 25: _Nineteenth Century Magazine_, July, 1890.] No artist is disposed to apologise for the presence of subtilty in Art, nor I for the subtle device of Bacon's garden. All Art is cunning. Yet we must not simply note the deep intent of the old master, but must equally recognise the air of gravity that pervades his recommendations--the sweet reasonableness of suggestions for design that have as much regard for the veracities of Nature, and the dictates of common-sense, as for the nice elegancies and well-calculated audacities of consummate Art. "I only sound the clarion, but I enter not into the battle." Even so, Master! we will hold thy hand as far as thou wilt go; and the clarion thou soundest right well, and most serviceably for all future gardeners! I like the ring of stout challenge in the opening words, which command respect for the subject, and, if rightly construed, should make the heretic "landscape gardener,"--who dotes on meagre country-grass and gipsy scenery--pause in his denunciation of Art in a garden. "God almighty first planted a Garden; and indeed it is the purest of humane pleasures. It is the greatest refreshment to the Spirits of man, without which Buildings and Palaces are but gross Handyworks. And a man shall ever see, that when ages grow to Civility and Elegancy, men come to build stately sooner than to garden finely: as if Gardening were the Greater Perfection." This first paragraph has, for me, something of the stately tramp and pregnant meaning of the opening phrase of "At a Solemn Music." The praise of gardening can no further go. To say more were impossible. To say less were to belittle your subject. I think of Ben Jonson's simile, "They jump farthest who fetch their race largest." For Bacon "fetches" his subject back to "In the beginning," and prophesies of all time. Thus does he lift his theme to its full height at starting, and the remainder holds to the same heroic measure. If the ideal garden be fanciful, it is also grand and impressive. Nor could it well be otherwise. For when the essay was written fine gardening was in the air, and the master had special opportunities for studying and enjoying great gardens. More than this, Bacon was an apt craftsman in many fields, a born artist, gifted with an imagination at once rich and curious, whose performances of every sort declare the student's love of form, and the artist's nice discrimination of expression. Then, too, his mind was set upon the conquest of Nature, of which gardening is a province, for the service of man, for physical enjoyment, and for the increase of social comfort. Yet was he an Englishman first, and a fine gardener afterwards. Admit the author's sense of the delights of art-magic in a garden, none esteemed them more, yet own the discreet economy of his imaginative strokes, the homely bluntness of his criticisms upon foreign vagaries, the English sane-mindedness of his points, his feeling for broad effects and dislike of niggling, the mingled shrewdness and benignity of his way of putting things. It is just because Bacon thus treats of idealisms as though they were realisms, because he so skilfully wraps up his fanciful figures in matter-of-fact language that even the ordinary English reader appreciates the art of Bacon's stiff garden, and entertains art-aspirations unawares. Every reader of Bacon will recognise what I wish to point out. Here, however, are a few examples:-- "For the ordering of the Ground within the Great Hedge, I leave it to a Variety of Device. Advising, nevertheless, that whatsoever form you cast it into; first it be not too busie, or full of work; wherein I, for my part, do not like Images cut out in Juniper, or other garden stuffs; _they are for Children_. Little low Hedges, round like Welts, with some pretty Pyramids, I like well; and in some places Fair Columns upon Frames of Carpenters' work. I would also have the Alleys spacious and fair." "As for the making of Knots or Figures, with Divers Coloured earths, that they may lie under the windows of the House, on that side which the Garden stands, _they be but Toys, you may see as good sights many times in Tarts_." "For Fountains, they are a Great Beauty and Refreshment, _but Pools mar all, and make the Garden unwholesome and full of flies and frogs_." "For fine Devices, of arching water without spilling, and making it rise in several forms (of Feathers, Drinking Glasses, Canopies, and the like) (see "The Dream of Poliphilus") _they be pretty things to look on, but nothing to Health and Sweetness_." Thus throughout the Essay, with alternate rise and fall, do fancy and judgment deliver themselves of charge and retort, making a kind of logical see-saw. At the onset Fancy kicks the beam; at the middle, Judgment is in the ascendant, and before the sentence is done the balance rides easy. And this scrupulousness is not to be wholly ascribed to the fastidious bent of a mind that lived in a labyrinth; it speaks equally of the fineness of the man's ideal, which lifts his standard sky-high and keeps him watchful to a fault in attaining desired effects without running upon "trifles and jingles." The master-text of the whole Essay seems to be the writer's own apothegm: "Nature is commanded by obeying her." That a true gardener should love Nature goes without saying. And Bacon loved Nature passionately, and gardens only too well. He tells us these were his favourite sins in the strange document--half prayer, half Apologia--written after he had made his will, at the time of his fall, when he presumably concluded that _anything_ might happen. "Thy creatures have been my books, but Thy Scriptures much more. I have sought Thee in the courts, fields, and gardens, but I have found Thee in Thy temples." Three more points about the essay I would like to comment upon. First, That in spite of its lofty dreaming, it treats of the hard and dry side of gardening as a science in so methodical a manner that but for what it contains besides, and for its mint-mark of a great spirit, the thing might pass as an extract from a more-than-ordinary practical gardener's manual. Bacon does not write upon the subject like a man in another planet, but like a man in a land of living men. Secondly, As to the attitude of Bacon and his school towards external Nature. In them is no trace of the mawkish sentimentality of the modern "landscape-gardener," proud of his discoveries, bustling to show how condescending he can be towards Nature, how susceptible to a pastoral melancholy. There is nothing here of the maundering of Shenstone over his ideal landscape-garden that reads as though it would be a superior sort of pedants' Cremorne, where "the lover's walk may have assignation seats, with proper mottoes, urns to faithful lovers, trophies, garlands, etc., by means of Art"; and where due consideration is to be given to "certain complexions of soul that will prefer an orange tree or a myrtle to an oak or cedar." The older men thought first of the effects that they wished to attain, and proceeded to realise them without more ado. They had no "codes of taste" to appeal to, and no literary law-givers to stand in dread of. They applied Nature's raw materials as their art required. And yet, compared with the methods of the heavy-handed realist of later times such unscrupulousness had a merit of its own. To suit their purposes the old gardeners may have defied Nature's ways and wont; but, even so, they act as fine gentlemen should: they never pet and patronise her: they have no blunt and blundering methods such as mark the Nature-maulers of the Brown or Batty-Langley school: if they cut, they do not mince, nor hack, nor tear, they cut clean. In one's better moments one can almost sympathise with the "landscape-gardener's" feelings as he reads, if he ever does read, Evelyn's classic book "Sylva; or, a Discourse of Forest-trees," how they trimmed the hedges of hornbeam, "than which there is nothing more graceful," and the cradle or close-walk with that perplext canopy which lately covered the seat in his Majesty's garden at Hampton Court, and how the tonsile hedges, fifteen or twenty feet high, are to be cut and kept in order "with a scythe of four feet long, and very little falcated; this is fixed on a long sneed or straight handle, and _does wonderfully expedite the trimming of these and the like hedges_." Thirdly, Bacon's essay tells us all that an English garden _can_ be, or _may_ be. Bacon writes not for his age alone but for all time; nay, his essay covers so much ground that the legion of after-writers have only to pick up the crumbs that fall from this rich man's table, and to amplify the two hundred and sixty lines of condensed wisdom that it contains. Its category of effects reaches even the free-and-easy planting of the skirts of our dressed grounds, with flowers and shrubs set in the turf "framed as much as may be to a natural wildness"--a pretty trick of compromise which the modern book-writers would have us believe they invented themselves. On one point the modern garden has the advantage and is bound to excel the old, namely in its employment of foreign trees and shrubs. The decorative use of "trees of curiosity," as the foreign trees were then called, and the employment of variegated foliage, was not unknown to the gardener of early days, but it was long before foreign plants were introduced to any great extent. Loudon has taken the trouble to reckon up the number of specimens that came to England century by century, and we gather from this that the imports of modern times exceed those of earlier times to an enormous extent. Thus, he computes that only 131 new specimens of foreign trees were introduced into England in the seventeenth century as against 445 in the following century. Yet, to follow up this interesting point, we may observe that Heutzner, writing of English gardens in 1598, specially notes "the great variety of trees and plants at Theobalds." Furthermore, to judge by Worlidge's "Systema Horticulturæ" (1677) it would seem that the practice of variegating, and of combining the variegated foliage of plants and shrubs, was in existence at that time. "Dr Uvedale, of Enfield, is a great lover of plants," says Gibson, writing in 1691, "and is become master of the greatest and choicest collection of exotic greens that is perhaps anywhere in this land.... His flowers are choice, his stock numerous, and his culture of them very methodical and curious; but to speak of the garden in the whole, it does not lie fine to please the eye, his delight and care lying more in the ordering particular plants, than in the pleasing view and form of his garden." "_Darby_, at _Hoxton_, has but a little garden, but is master of several curious greens.... His Fritalaria Crassa (a green) had a flower on it of the breadth of half-a-crown, like an embroidered star of many colours.... He raises many striped hollies by inoculation," &c. ("Gleanings in Old Garden Literature," Hazlitt, p. 240.) And yet one last observation I would like to make, remembering Bacon's subtilty, and how his every utterance is the sum of matured analytical thought. This yearning for wild nature that makes itself felt all through the Essay, this scheme for a "natural wildness" touching the hem of artificiality; this provision for mounts of some pretty height "to look abroad in the fields"; this care for the "Heath or Desart in the going forth, planted not in any order;" the "little Heaps in the Nature of Molehills (such as are in wild Heaths) to be set with pleasant herbs, wild thyme, pinks, periwinkle, and the like Low Flowers being withall sweet and sightly"--what does it imply? Primarily, it declares the artist who knows the value of contrast, the interest of blended contrariness; it is the cultured man's hankering after a many-faced Nature readily accessible to him in his many moods; it tells, too, of the drift of the Englishman towards familiar landscape effects, the garden-mimicry which sets towards pastoral Nature; but above and beyond all else, it is a true Baconian stroke. Is not the man's innermost self here revealed, who in his eagerest moments struggled for detachment of mind, held his will in leash according to his own astute maxim "not to engage oneself too peremptorily in anything, but ever to have either a window open to fly out of, or a secret way to retire by"? In a sense, the garden's technique illustrates its author's personality. To change Montaigne's reply to the king who admired his essays, Bacon might say, "I am my garden." Many references to old garden-craft might be given culled from the writings of Sir Thomas More, John Lyly, Gawen Douglas, John Gerarde, Sir Philip Sidney, and others; all of whom are quoted in Mr Sieveking's charming volume, "The praise of Gardens." But none will serve our purpose so well as the notes of Heutzner, the German traveller, who visited England in the 16th century, and Sir William Temple's description of the garden of Moor Park. According to Heutzner, the gardens at Theobalds, Nonsuch, Whitehall, Hampton Court, and Oxford were laid out with considerable taste and extensively ornamented with architectural and other devices. The Palace at Nonsuch is encompassed with parks full of deer, with delicious gardens, groves ornamented with trellis-work, cabinets of verdure, and walks enclosed with trees. "In the pleasure and artificial gardens are many columns and pyramids of marble, two fountains that spout water one round the other like a pyramid, upon which are perched small birds that stream water out of their bills. In the grove of Diana is a very agreeable fountain, with Actaeon turned into a stag, as he was sprinkled by the goddess and her nymphs, with inscriptions." Theobalds, according to Heutzner's account, has a "great variety of trees and plants," labyrinths, fountains of white marble, a summerhouse, and statuary. The gardens had their terraces, trellis-walks, and bowling-greens, the beds being laid out in geometrical lines, and the hedges formed of yews, hollies, and limes, clipped and shaped into cones, pyramids, and other devices. Among the delights of Nonsuch was a wilderness of ten acres of extent. Of Hampton Court, he says: "We saw rosemary so planted and nailed to the walls as to cover them entirely, which is a method exceeding common in England." No book on English gardens can afford to dispense with Temple's description of the garden of Moor Park, which is given with considerable relish, as though it satisfied the ideal of the writer. "The perfectest figure of a Garden I ever saw, either at Home or Abroad."--"It lies on the side of a Hill (upon which the House stands), but not very steep. The length of the House, where the best Rooms and of most Use or Pleasure are, lies upon the Breadth of the Garden, the Great Parlour opens into the Middle of a Terras Gravel-Walk that lies even with it, and which may be, as I remember, about 300 Paces long, and broad in Proportion, the Border set with Standard Laurels, and at large Distances, which have the beauty of Orange-Trees, out of Flower and Fruit: From this Walk are Three Descents by many Stone Steps, in the Middle and at each End, into a very large Parterre. This is divided into Quarters by Gravel-Walks, and adorned with Two Fountains and Eight Statues in the several Quarters; at the End of the Terras-Walk are Two Summer-Houses, and the Sides of the Parterre are ranged with two large Cloisters, open to the Garden, upon Arches of Stone, and ending with two other Summer-Houses even with the Cloisters, which are paved with Stone, and designed for Walks of Shade, there are none other in the whole Parterre. Over these two Cloisters are two Terrasses covered with Lead and fenced with Balusters; and the Passage into these Airy Walks, is out of the two Summer-Houses, at the End of the first Terras-Walk. The Cloister facing the _South_ is covered with Vines, and would have been proper for an Orange-House, and the other for Myrtles, or other more common Greens; and had, I doubt not, been cast for that Purpose, if this Piece of Gardening had been then in as much Vogue as it is now. "From the middle of this Parterre is a Descent by many Steps flying on each Side of a Grotto, that lies between them (covered with Lead, and flat) into the lower Garden, which is all Fruit-Trees ranged about the several Quarters of a Wilderness, which is very Shady; the Walks here are all Green, the Grotto embellished with Figures of Shell-Rock work, Fountains, and Water-works. If the Hill had not ended with the lower Garden, and the Wall were not bounded by a Common Way that goes through the Park, they might have added a Third Quarter of all Greens; but this Want is supplied by a Garden on the other Side of the House, which is all of that Sort, very Wild, Shady, and adorned with rough Rock-work and Fountains." ("Upon the Garden of Epicurus, or of Gardening.") The "Systema Horticulturæ" of John Worlidge (1677) was, says Mr Hazlitt ("Gleanings in old Garden Literature," p. 40), apparently the earliest manual for the guidance of gardeners. It deals with technical matters, such as the treatment and virtue of different soils, the form of the ground, the structure of walls and fences, the erection of arbours, summer-houses, fountains, grottoes, obelisks, dials, &c. "The Scots Gardener," by John Reid (1683) follows this, and is, says Mr Hazlitt, the parent-production in this class of literature. It is divided into two portions, of which the first is occupied by technical instructions for the choice of a site for a garden, the arrangement of beds and walks, &c. Crispin de Passe's "Book of Beasts, Birds, Flowers, Fruits, &c.," published in London (1630), heralds the changes which set in with the introduction of the Dutch school of design. To speak generally of the subject, it is with the art of Gardening as with Architecture, Literature, and Music--there is the Mediæval, the Elizabethan, the Jacobean, the Georgian types. Each and all are English, but English with a difference--with a declared tendency this way or that, which justifies classification, and illustrates the march of things in this changeful modern world. The various types include the mediæval garden, the square garden, the knots and figures of Elizabethan times, with their occasional use of coloured earths and gravels; the pleach-work and intricate borders of James I.; the painted Dutch statues as at Ham House; the quaint canals, the winding gravel-walks, the formal geometrical figures; the quincunx and _étoile_ of William and Mary; later on, the smooth, bare, and bald grounds of Kent, the photographic copyism of Nature by Brown, the garden-farm of Shenstone, and other phases of the "Landscape style" which served for the green grave of the old-fashioned English garden. In the early years of George III. a reaction against tradition set in with so strong a current, that there remains scarcely any private garden in the United Kingdom which presents in all its parts a sample of the original design. Levens, near Kendal, of which I give two illustrations, is probably the least spoiled of any remaining examples; and this was, it would seem, planned by a Frenchman, but worked out under the restraining influences of English taste. A picture on the staircase of the house, apparently Dutch, bears the inscription, "M. Beaumont, gardener to King James II. and Colonel James Grahme. He laid out the gardens at Hampton Court and at Levens." The gardener's house at the place is still called "Beaumont Hall." (See an admirable monograph upon "Col. James Grahme, of Levens," by Mr Joscelin Bagot, Kendal.) One who is perhaps hardly in sympathy with the quaintness of the gardens, thus writes: "There along a wide extent of terraced walks and walls, eagles of holly and peacocks of yew still find with each returning summer their wings clipt and their talons; there a stately remnant of the old promenoirs such as the Frenchman taught our fathers,[26] rather I would say to _build_ than plant--along which in days of old stalked the gentlemen with periwigs and swords, the ladies in hoops and furbelows--may still to this day be seen." [Footnote 26: With regard to this remark, we have to note a certain amount of French influence throughout the reigns of the Jameses and Charleses. Here is Beaumont, "gardener to James II.;" and we hear also of André Mollet, gardener to James I.; also that Charles II. borrowed Le Nôtre to lay out the gardens of Greenwich and St James' Park.] With the pictures of the gardens at Levens before us, with memories of Arley, of Brympton, of Wilton,[27] of Montacute, Rockingham, Penshurst, Severn End, Berkeley,[28] and Haddon, we may here pause a moment to count up and bewail our losses. Wolsey's garden at Hampton Court is now effaced, for the design of the existing grounds dates from William III. Nonsuch in Surrey, near Epsom race-course, is a mere memory. In old days this was a favourite resort of Queen Elizabeth; the garden was designed by her father, but the greater part carried out by the last of the Fitzalans. Evelyn, writing of Nonsuch, says: "There stand in the garden two handsome stone pyramids and the avenue planted with rows of fair elms, but the rest of these goodly trees, both of this and of Worcester adjoining, were felled by those destructive and avaricious rebels in the late war." [Footnote 27: The gardens at Wilton are exceedingly beautiful, and contain noble trees, among which are a group of fine cedars and an ilex beneath which Sir Philip Sidney is supposed to have reclined when he wrote his "Arcadia" here. The Italian garden is one of the most beautiful in England.] [Footnote 28: Of Berkeley, Evelyn writes: "For the rest the forecourt is noble, so are the stables; and, above all, the gardens, which are incomparable by reason of the inequality of the ground, and a pretty _piscina_. The holly-hedges on the terrace I advised the planting of."] Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, had a noble garden; it was bought in 1564 by Cecil, and became the favourite haunt of the Stuarts, but the house was finally destroyed during the Commonwealth. My Lord _Fauconbergh's_ garden at _Sutton Court_ is gone too. As described by Gibson in 1691, it had many charms. "The maze, or wilderness, there is very pretty, being set all with greens, with a cypress arbour in the middle," &c. Sir _Henry Capell's_ garden at Kew, described by the same writer, "has as curious greens, and is as well kept as any about London.... His orange trees and other choice greens stand out in summer in two walks about fourteen feet wide, enclosed with a timber frame about seven feet high, and set with silver firs hedge-wise.... His terrace walk, bare in the middle and grass on either side, with a hedge of rue on one side next a low wall, and a row of dwarf trees on the other, shews very fine; and so do from thence his yew hedges with trees of the same at equal distance, kept in pretty shapes with tonsure. His flowers and fruits are of the best, for the advantage of which two parallel walls, about fourteen feet high, were now raised and almost finished," &c. Sir _Stephen Fox's_ garden at _Chiswick_, "excels for a fair gravel walk betwixt two yew hedges, with rounds and spires of the same, all under smooth tonsure. At the far end of this garden are two myrtle hedges that cross the garden. The other gardens are full of flowers and salleting, and the walls well clad." Wimbledon House, which was rebuilt by Sir Thomas Cecil in 1588, and surveyed by order of Parliament in 1649, was celebrated for its trees, gardens, and shrubs. In the several gardens, which consisted of mazes, wildernesses, knots, alleys, &c., are mentioned a great variety of fruit trees and shrubs, particularly a "faire bay tree," valued at £1; and "one very faire tree called the Irish arbutis, very lovely to look upon and worth £1, 10s." (Lysons, I., 397.) The gardens at Sherborne Castle were laid out by Sir Walter Raleigh. Coker, in his "Survey of Dorsetshire," written in the time of James I., says that Sir Walter built in the park adjoining the old Castle, "a most fine house which hee beautified with orchardes, gardens, and groves of much varietie and great delight; soe that whether that you consider the pleasantness of the seate, the goodnesse of the soyle, or the other delicacies belonging unto it, it rests unparalleled by anie in those partes" (p. 124). This same park, magnificently embellished with woods and gardens, was "improved" away by the "landscape-gardener" Brown, who altered the grounds. Cobham, near Gravesend, still famous in horticultural annals as Nonsuch is for its apples, was the seat of the Brookes. The extent to which fruit was cultivated in old time is seen by the magnitude of the orangery at Beddington House, Surrey, which was two hundred feet long; the trees mostly measured thirteen feet high, and in 1690 some ten thousand oranges were gathered. Ham is described with much gusto by Evelyn: "After dinner I walked to Ham to see the house and garden of the Duke of Lauderdale, which is indeed inferior to few of the best villas in Italy itself; the house furnished like a great Prince's, the parterres, flower-gardens, orangeries, groves, avenues, courts, statues, perspectives, fountains, aviaries, and all this at the banks of the sweetest river in the world, must needs be admirable." Bowyer House, Surrey, is described also by Evelyn as having a very pretty grove of oaks and hedges of yew in the garden, and a handsome row of tall elms before the court. This garden has, however, made way for rows of mean houses. At Oxford, where you would have expected more respect for antiquity, the walks and alleys, along which Laud had conducted Charles and Henrietta, the bowling-green at Christ Church of Cranmer's time--all are gone. The ruthless clearance of these gardens of renown is sad to relate: "For what sin has the plough passed over your pleasant places?" may be demanded of numberless cases besides Blakesmoor. Southey, writing upon this very point, adds that "feeling is a better thing than taste,"--for "taste" did it at the bidding of critics who had no "feeling," and who veered round with the first sign of change in the public mind about gardening. Not content with watching the heroic gardens swept away, he must goad the Vandals on to their sorry work by flattering them for their good taste. For what Horace Walpole did to expose the poverty-stricken design and all the poor bankrupt whimsies of the garden of his day, we owe him thanks; but not for including in his condemnation the noble work of older days. In touching upon Lord Burleigh's garden, and that at Nonsuch, he says: "We find the _magnificent though false taste_ was known here as early as the reigns of Henry VIII. and his daughter." This is not bad, coming from the man who built a cockney Gothic house adorned with piecrust battlements and lath-and-plaster pinnacles; who spent much of his life in concocting a maze of walks in five acres of ground, and was so far carried away by mock-rustic sentiment as to have rakes and hay-forks painted as leaning against the walls of his paddocks! But then Walpole, in his polished way, sneered at everybody and everything; he "spelt every man backward," as Macaulay observes; with himself he lived in eminent self-content. So too, after quoting Temple's description of the garden at Moor Park with the master's little rhapsody--"the sweetest place I think that I have seen in my life, either before or since, at home or abroad"--Walpole has this icy sneer: "Any man might design and _build_ as sweet a garden who had been born in and never stirred out of Holborn. It was not peculiar in Sir William Temple to think in that manner." It is not wise, however, to lay too much stress upon criticisms of this sort. After all, any phase of Art does but express the mind of its day, and it cannot do duty for the mind of another time. "The old order changeth, yielding place to new," and to take a critical attitude towards the forms of an older day is almost a necessity of the case; they soon become curiosities. Yet we may fairly regret the want of tenderness in dealing with these gardens of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras, for, by all the laws of human expression, they should be masterpieces. The ground-chord of the garden-enterprise of those days was struck by Bacon, who rates buildings and palaces, be they never so princely, as "but gross handiworks" where no garden is: "Men come to build stately sooner than to garden finely, as if gardening were the Greater Perfection"--the truth of which saying is only too glaringly apparent in the relative conditions of the arts of architecture and of gardening in the present day! By all the laws of human expression, I say, these old gardens should be masterpieces. The sixteenth century, which saw the English garden formulated, was a time for grand enterprises; indeed, to this period is ascribed the making of England. These gardens, then, are the handiwork of the makers of England, and should bear the marks of heroes. They are relics of the men and women who made our land both fine and famous in the days of the Tudors; they represent the mellow fruit of the leisure, the poetic reverie, the patient craft of men versed in great affairs--big men, who thought and did big things--men of splendid genius and stately notions--past-masters of the art of life who would drink life to the lees. As gardeners, these old statesmen were no dabblers. They had the good fortune to live in a current of ideas of formal device that touched art at all points and was well calculated to assist the creative faculty in design of all kinds. They lived before the art of bad gardening had been invented; before pretty thoughts had palled the taste, before gardening had learnt routine; while Nature smiled a virgin smile and had a sense of unsolved mystery. More than this, garden-craft was then no mere craze or passing freak of fashion, but a serious item in the round of home-life; --gardening was a thing to be done as well as it could be done. Design was fresh and open to individual treatment--men needed an outlet for their love of, their elation at, the sight of beautiful things, and behind them lay the background of far-reaching traditions to encourage, inspire, protect experiment with the friendly shadow of authority. An accomplished French writer has remarked that even the modest work of Art may contain occasion for long processes of analysis. "Very great laws," he says, "may be illustrated in a very small compass." And so one thinks it is with the ancient garden. Looked at as a piece of design, it is the blossom of English genius at one of its sunniest moments. It is a bit of the history of our land. It embodies the characteristics of the mediæval, the Elizabethan and Jacobean ages just as faithfully as do other phases of contemporary art. It contains the same principle of beauty, the same sense of form, that animated these; it has the same curious turns of expression, the same mixture of pedantry and subtle sweetness; the same wistful daring and humorous sadness; the same embroidery of nice fancy--half jocund, half grave, as--shall we say--Shakespeare's plays and sonnets, Spenser's "Faërie Queene," Milton's "Comus," More's "Utopia," Bacon's Essays, Purcell's Madrigals, John Thorpe's architecture at Longleat. The same spirit, the same wit and fancy resides in each; they differ only in the medium of expression. To condemn old English gardening, root and branch, for its "false taste" (and it was not peculiar to Walpole to think in that manner), was, in truth, to indict our nation on a line of device wherein we excelled, and to condemn device that represents the inspired dreams of some of England's elect sons. To our sorry groundling minds the old pleasaunce may seem too rich and fantastic, too spectacular, too much idealised. And if to be English one must needs be _bourgeois_, the objection must stand. Here is developed garden-craft, and development almost invariably means multiplicity of forms and a marked departure from primæval simplicity. Grant, if you will, that Art is carried too far, and Nature not carried far enough in the old garden, yet did it deserve better treatment. Judged both from its human and its artistic side, the place is as loveable as it is pathetic. It has the pathos of all art that survives its creators, the pathos of all abandoned human idols, of all high human endeavour that is blown upon. What is more, it holds, as it were, the spent passion of men of Utopian dreams, the ideal (in one kind) of the spoiled children of culture, the knight-errantry of the Renascence--whose imagination soared after illimitable satisfaction, who were avowedly bent upon transforming the brazen of this world into the golden, to whom desire was but the first step to attainment, and failure an unknown experience. But even yet some may demur that the interest of the antique garden, as we see it, is due to Nature direct, and not to art-agencies. It is Nature who gives it its artistic qualities of gradation, contrast, play of form and colour, the flicker of sunshine through the foliage, the shadows on the grass--not the master who begot the thing, for has he not been dead, and his vacant orbits choked with clay these two hundred years and more! To him, of course, may be ascribed the primal thought of the place, and, say, some fifty years of active participation in its ordering and culture, but for the rest--for its poetic excitement, for its yearly accesses of beauty--are they not to be credited in full to the lenience of Time and the generous operations of Nature? Grant all that should rightly be granted to the disaffected grumbler, and yet, in Mr Lowell's words for another, yet a parallel case, I plead that "Poets are always entitled to a royalty on whatever we find in their works; for these fine creations as truly build themselves up in the brain as they are built up with deliberate thought." If a garden owed none of its characteristics to its maker, if it had not expressed the mind of its designer, why the essential differences of the garden of this style and of that! Properly speaking, the music of all gardens is framed out of the same simple gamut of Nature's notes--it is but one music poured from myriad lips--yet out of the use of the same raw elements what a variety of tunes can be made, each tune complete in itself! And it is because we may identify the maker in his work; because, like the unfinished air, abruptly brought to a close at the master's death, the place is much as it was first schemed, one is jealous for the honour of the man whose eye prophesied its ultimate magic even as he initiated its plan, and drafted its lines. Many an English house has been hopelessly vulgarised and beggared by the banishment of the old pleasaunces of the days of Elizabeth, or of the Jameses and Charleses, and their wholesale demolition there and then struck a blow at English gardening from which it has not yet recovered. It may be admitted that, in the case of an individual garden here and there, the violation of these relics may be condoned on the heathen principle of tit for tat, because Art had, in the first instance, so to speak, turned her back on some fair landscape that Providence had provided upon the site, preferring to focus man's eye _within_ rather than _without_ the garden's bounds, therefore the vengeance is merited. Yet, where change was desirable, it had been better to modify than to destroy. "Cut is the branch that might have grown full straight, And burned is Apollo's laurel bough." Certain it is that along with the girdle of high hedge or wall has gone that air of inviting mystery and homely reserve that our forefathers loved, and which is to me one of the pleasantest traits of an old English garden, best described as "A haunt of ancient peace." CHAPTER V. THE "LANDSCAPE-GARDEN." "'Pealing from Jove to Nature's bar Bold Alteration pleades Large evidence; but Nature soon Her righteous doom areads."--SPENSER. Why were the old-fashioned gardens destroyed? Firstly, because the traditional garden of the early part of the eighteenth century, when the reaction set in, represented a style which had run to seed, and men were tired of it; secondly, because the taste for foreign trees and shrubs, that had existed for a long time previously, then came to a head, and it was found that the old type of garden was not fitted for the display of the augmented stock of foreign material. Here was a new element in garden-craft, a new chance of decoration in the way of local colours in planting, which required a new adjustment of garden-effects; and as there was some difficulty in accommodating the new and the old, the problem was met by the abolition of the old altogether. As to this matter of the sudden increase of specimen plants, Loudon remarks that in the earlier century the taste for foreign plants was confined to a few, and they not wealthy persons; but in the eighteenth century the taste for planting foreign trees extended itself among rich landed proprietors. A host of amateurs, botanists, and commercial gardeners were busily engaged in enriching the British Arboretum, and the garden-grounds had to be arranged for new effects and a new mode of culture. In Loudon's "Arboretum" (p. 126) is a list of the species of foreign trees and shrubs introduced into England up to the year 1830. He calculates that the total number of specimens up to the time that he wrote was about 1400, but the numbers taken by centuries are: in the sixteenth century, 89; in the seventeenth century, 131; in the eighteenth century, 445; and in the first three decades of the nineteenth century, 699! Men stubbed up the old gardens because they had grown tired of their familiar types, as they tire of other familiar things. The eighteenth century was essentially a critical age, an age of enquiry, and gardening, along with art, morals, and religion, came in for its share of coffee-house discussion, and elaborate essay-writing, and nothing was considered satisfactory. As to gardening, it was not natural enough for the critics. The works of Salvator and Poussin had pictured the grand and terrible in scenery, Thomson was writing naturalistic poetry, Rousseau naturalistic prose. Garden-ornament was too classical and formal for the varnished _littérateur_ of the _Spectator_ and the _Guardian_--too symmetrical for the jingling rhymester of a sing-song generation--too artificial for the essayist "'Pealing from Jove to Nature's bar," albeit he is privately content to go on touching up his groves and grottoes at Twickenham, securing the services of a peer "To form his quincunx, and to rank his vines." Gardens are looked upon as so much "copy" to the essayist. What affected tastes have these critics! What a confession of counterfeit love, of selfish literary interest in gardens is this of Addison's: "I think there are as many kinds of gardening as of poetry. Your makers of parterres and flower-gardens are epigrammatists and sonneteers in this art; contrivers of bowers and grottoes, treillages and cascades, are romance writers." How beside nature, beside garden-craft, are such pen-man's whimsies! "Nothing to the true pleasure of a garden," Bacon would say. Walpole's essay on gardening is entertaining reading, and his book gives us glimpses of the country-seats of all the great ladies and gentlemen who had the good fortune to be his acquaintances. His condemnation of the geometrical style of gardening common in his day, though quieter in tone than Pope's, was none the less effective in promoting a change of style. He tells how in Kip's views of the seats of our nobility we have the same "tiring and returning uniformity." Every house is approached by two or three gardens, consisting perhaps of a gravel-walk and two grass plats or borders of flowers. "Each rises above the other by two or three steps, and as many walks and terrasses; and so many iron gates, that we recollect those ancient romances in which every entrance was guarded by nymphs or dragons. At Lady Orford's, at Piddletown, in Dorsetshire, there was, when my brother married, a double enclosure of thirteen gardens, each, I suppose, not a hundred yards square, with an enfilade of correspondent gates; and before you arrived at these, you passed a narrow gut between two terrasses that rose above your head, and which were crowned by a line of pyramidal yews. A bowling-green was all the lawn admitted in those times, a circular lake the extent of magnificence." Such an air of truth and soberness pervades Walpole's narrative, and to so absurd an extent has formality been manifestly carried under the auspices of Loudon and Wise, who had stocked our gardens with "giants, animals, monsters, coats of arms, mottoes in yew, box, and holly," that we are almost persuaded to be Vandals. "The compass and square, were of more use in plantations than the nursery-man. The measured walk, the quincunx, and the étoile imposed their unsatisfying sameness.... Trees were headed, and their sides pared away; many French groves seem green chests set upon poles. Seats of marble, arbours, and summer-houses, terminated every vista." It is all very well for Temple to recommend the regular form of garden. "I should hardly advise any of these attempts" cited by Walpole, "in the form of gardens among us; _they are adventures of too hard achievement for any common hands_." The truth will out! The "dainter sense" of garden-craft has vanished! According to Walpole, garden-adventure is to be henceforth journeyman's work, and Brown, the immortal kitchen-gardener, leads the way. It were unfair to suspect that the exigencies of sprightly writing had carried Walpole beyond the bounds of accuracy in his description of the stiff-garden as he knew it, for things were in some respects very bad indeed. At the same time he is so engrossed with his abuse of old ways of gardening, and advocacy of the landscape-gardener's new-fangled notions, that his account of garden-craft generally falls short of completeness. He omits, for instance, to notice the progress in floriculture and horticulture of this time, the acquisitions being made in the ornamental foreign plants to be cultivated in the open ground, the green-house, and the stove. He omits to note that Loudon and Wise stocked our gardens with more than giants, animals, monsters, &c., in yew and box and holly. Because the names of these two worthies occur in this gardening text-book of Walpole's, all later essayists signal them out for blame. But Evelyn, who ranks as one of the three of England's great gardeners of old days, has a kindlier word for them. He is dilating upon the advantage to the gardener of the high clipped hedge as a protection for his shrubs and flowers, and goes on to particularise an oblong square, palisadoed with a hornbeam hedge "in that inexhaustible magazine at Brompton Park, cultivated by those two industrious fellow-gardeners, Mr Loudon and Mr Wise." This hedge protects the orange trees, myrtles, and other rare perennials and exotics from the scorching rays of the sun; and it equally well shelters the flowers. "Here the Indian Narcissus, Tuberoses, Japan Lillies, Jasmines, Jonquills, Periclimena, Roses, Carnations, with all the pride of the parterre, intermixt between the tree-cases, flowery vases, busts, and statues, entertain the eye, and breathe their redolent odours and perfumes to the smell." Clearly there is an advantage in being a gardener if we write about gardens (provided you are not a mere "landscape-gardener!"). One cannot deny that Horace Walpole did well to expose the absurd vagaries which were being perpetrated about his time under Dutch influences. Close alliance with Holland through the House of Orange had affected every department of horticulture. True, it had enriched our gardens and conservatories with many rare and beautiful species of flowers and bulbs, and had imbued the English collector with the tulip-mania. So far good. But to the same source we trace the reign of the shears in the English garden, which made Art in a Garden ridiculous, and gave occasion to the enemy to blaspheme. "The gardeners about London," says Mr Lambert, writing to the Linnæan Transactions in 1712, "were remarkable for fine cut greens, and clipt yews in the shapes of birds, dogs, men, ships, &c. Mr. Parkinson in Lambeth was much noticed for these things, and he had besides a few myrtles, oleanders, and evergreens." "The old order changeth ... Lest one good custom should corrupt the world." And now is Art in a Garden become ridiculous. Since the beginning of things English gardeners had clipped and trimmed their shrubs; but had never carried the practice beyond a reasonable extent, and had combined it with woody and shady effects. With the onset of Dutch influence country-aspects vanish. Nature is reduced to a prosaic level. The traditional garden, whose past had been one long series of noble chances in fine company, now found content as the pedant's darling where it could have no opening for living romance, but must be tricked out in stage conventions, and dwindle more and more into a thing of shreds and patches! Having arrived at such a pass, it was time that change should come, and change did come, with a vengeance! But let us not suppose that the change was from wrong to right. For, indeed, the revolution meant only that formality gone mad should be supplanted by informality gone equally mad. And we may note as a significant fact, that the point of departure is the destruction of the garden's boundaries, and the substitution of the ha-ha. It was not for the wild improvers to realise how Art that destroys its own boundaries is certainly doomed to soon have no country to boast of at all! It proved so in this case. From this moment, the very thought of garden-ornament was clean put out of mind, and the grass is carried up to the windows of the great house, as though the place were nothing better than a farm-shanty in the wilds of Westmoreland! But to return to the inauguration of the "landscape-garden." The hour produced its men in Kent, and "the immortal Brown," as Repton calls him. Like many another "discovery," theirs was really due to an accident. Just as it was the closely-corked bottle that popped that gave birth to champagne, so it was only when our heroes casually leaped the ha-ha that they had made that they realised that all England outside was one vast rustic garden, from whence it were a shame to exclude anything! So began the rage for making all the surroundings of a house assume a supposed appearance of rude Nature. Levelling, ploughing, stubbing-up, was the order of the day. The British navvy was in great request--in fact the day that Kent and Brown discovered England was this worthy's natal day. Artificial gardens must be demolished as impostures, and wriggling walks and turf put where they had stood. Avenues must be cut down or disregarded; the groves, the alleys, the formal beds, the terraces, the balustrades, the clipt hedges must be swept away as things intolerable. For the "landscape style" does not countenance a straight line, or terrace or architectural form, or symmetrical beds about the house; for to allow these would not be to photograph Nature. As carried into practice, the style demands that the house shall rise abruptly from the grass, and the general surface of the ground shall be characterised by smoothness and bareness (like Nature)! Hence in the grounds of this period, house and country "Wrapt all o'er in everlasting green Make one dull, vapid, smooth and tranquil scene." There is to my mind no more significant testimony to the attractiveness and loveableness of the _regular_ garden as opposed to the opened-out barbarism of the landscape-gardener's invention, than Horace Walpole's lament over the old gardens at Houghton,[29] which has the force of testimony wrung from unwilling lips:-- "When I had drank tea I strolled into the garden. They told me it was now called the '_pleasure-ground_.' What a dissonant idea of pleasure! Those groves, those _alleys_, where I have passed so many charming moments, are now stripped up, or overgrown; many fond paths I could not unravel, though with a very exact clue in my memory. I met two gamekeepers and a thousand hares! In the days when all my soul was tuned to pleasure and vivacity, I hated Houghton and its solitude; _yet I loved this garden_; as now, with many regrets, I love Houghton;--Houghton, I know not what to call it: a monument of grandeur or ruin!"--(Walpole's Letters.) [Footnote 29: Houghton was built by Sir R. Walpole, between 1722 and 1738. The garden was laid out in the stiff, formal manner by Eyre, "an imitator of Bridgman," and contained 23 acres. The park contains some fine old beeches. More than 1000 cedars were blown down here in February 1860.] "What a dissonant idea of pleasure," this so-called "pleasure-ground of the landscape-gardener!" "Those groves, those alleys where I have passed so many charming moments, stripped up! How I loved this garden!" Here is the biter bit, and it were to be more than human not to smile! With all the proper appliances at hand it did not take long to transform the stiff garden into the barbaric. It did not take long to find out how _not_ to do what civilization had so long been learning how to do! The ancient "Geometric or Regular style" of garden--the garden of the aristocrat, with all its polished classicism--was to make way for the so-called "Naturalesque or Landscape style," and the garden of the _bourgeois_. Hope rose high in the breasts of the new professoriate. "A boon! a boon!" quoth the critic. And there is deep joy in navvydom. "Under the great leader, Brown," writes Repton ("Landscape Gardening," p. 327), "or rather those who patronised his discovery, we were taught that Nature was to be our only model." It was a grand moment. A Daniel had come to judgment! Nay, did not Brown "live to establish a fashion in gardening which might have been expected to endure as long as Nature should exist!" The Landscape School of Gardeners, so-called, has been the theme of a great deal of literature, but with the exception of Walpole's and Addison's essays, and Pope's admirable chaff, very little has survived the interest it had at the moment of publication. The other chief writers of this School, in its early phase, are George Mason, Whately,[30] Mason the poet, and Shenstone, our moon-struck friend quoted above, with his "assignation seats with proper mottoes, urns to faithful lovers," &c. Dr Johnson did not think much of Shenstone's contributions to gardening: "He began from this time to point his prospects, to diversify his surface, to entangle his walks, and to wind his waters, which he did with such judgement and such fancy as made his little domain the envy of the great and the admiration of the skilful--a place to be visited by travellers and _copied by designers_. Whether to plant a walk in undulating curves, and to place a bench at every turn where there is an object to catch the view, to make water run where it will be heard, and to stagnate where it will be seen; to leave intervals where the eye will be pleased, and to thicken the plantation where there is something to be hidden--demand any great powers of the mind, I will not enquire; perhaps a surly and sullen spectator may think such performances rather the sport than the business of human reason."--(Dr Johnson, "Lives of the Poets," Shenstone.) [Footnote 30: Thomas Whately's "Observations on Modern Gardening," was published in 1770, fifteen years before Walpole's "Essay on Modern Gardening." Gilpin's book "On Picturesque Beauty," though published in part in 1782, belongs really to the second phase of the Landscape School. Shenstone's "Unconnected Thoughts on the Garden" was published in 1764, and is written pretty much from the standpoint of Kent. "An Essay on Design in Gardening," by G. Mason, was published in 1795.] Whately's "Observations on Modern Gardening," published in 1770, are well written and distinctly valuable as bearing upon the historical side of the subject. It says little for his idea of the value of Art in a garden, or of the function of a garden as a refining influence in life, to find Whately recommending "a plain field or a sheep-walk" as part of a garden's embellishments--"as an agreeable relief, and even wilder scenes." But what astounds one more is, that a writer of Whately's calibre can describe Kent's gardens at Stowe, considered to be his masterpiece, as a sample of the non-formality of the landscape-gardener's Art, while he takes elaborate pains to show that it is full of would-be artistic subterfuges in Nature, full of architectural shams throughout. These gardens were begun by Bridgman, "Begun," Whately says, "when regularity was in fashion; and the original boundary is still preserved on account of its magnificence, for round the whole circuit, of between three and four miles, is carried a very broad gravel-walk, planted with rows of trees, and open either to the park or the country; a deep sunk-fence attends it all the way, and comprehends a space of near 400 acres. But in the interior spaces of the garden few traces of regularity appear; where it yet remains in the plantations it is generally disguised; every symptom almost of formality is obliterated from the ground; and an octagon basin at the bottom is now converted into an irregular piece of water, which receives on one hand two beautiful streams, and falls on the other down a cascade into a lake." And then follows a list of sham architectural features that are combined with sham views and prospects to match. "The whole space is divided into a number of scenes, each distinguished with taste and fancy; and the changes are so frequent, so sudden and complete, the transitions so artfully conducted, that the ideas are never continued or repeated to satiety." In the front of the house two elegant Doric pavilions. On the brow of some rising grounds a Corinthian arch. On a little knoll an open Ionic rotunda--an Egyptian pyramid stands on its brow; the Queen's Pillar in a recess on the descent, the King's Pillar elsewhere; all the three buildings mentioned are "peculiarly adapted to a garden scene." In front of a wood three pavilions joined by arcades, all of the Ionic order, "characteristically proper for a garden, and so purely ornamental." Then a Temple of Bacchus, the Elysian fields, British remains; misshaped elms and ragged firs are frequent in a scene of solitude and gloom, which the trunks of dead trees assist. Then a large Gothic building, with slated roofs, "in a noble confusion"; then the Elysian fields, seen from the other side, a Palladian bridge, Doric porticoes, &c, the whole thing finished off with the Temple of Concord and Victory, probably meant as a not-undeserved compliment to the successfully chaotic skill of the landscape-gardener, who is nothing if not irregular, natural, non-formal, non-fantastical, non-artificial, and non-geometrical. Two other points about Whately puzzle me. How comes he to strain at the gnat of formality in the old-fashioned garden, yet readily swallow the camel at Stowe? How can he harmonise his appreciation of the elaborately contrived and painfully assorted shams at Stowe, with his recommendation, of a sheep-walk in your garden "as an agreeable relief, and even wilder scenes"? Whether the beauty of the general disposition of the ground at Stowe is to be attributed to Kent or to Bridgman, who began the work, as Whately says, "when regularity was in fashion," I cannot say. It is right to observe, however, that the prevailing characteristic of Kent's and Brown's landscapes was their smooth and bald surface. "Why this art has been called 'landscape-gardening,'" says the plain-spoken Repton, "perhaps he who gave it the title may explain. I can see no reason, unless it be the efficacy which it has shown in destroying landscapes, in which, indeed, it seems infallible." (Repton, p. 355.) "Our virtuosi," said Sir William Chambers, "have scarcely left an acre of shade, or three trees growing in a line from the Land's End to the Tweed." It did not take the wiser spirits long to realise that Nature left alone was more natural. And this same Repton, who began by praising "the great leader Brown," has to confess again and again that, so far as results go, he is mistaken. The ground, he laments, must be everlastingly moved and altered. "One of the greatest difficulties I have experienced in practice proceeds from that fondness for levelling so prevalent in all Brown's workmen; every hillock is by them lowered, and every hollow filled, to produce a level surface." (Repton, p. 342.) Or again (p. 347): "There is something so fascinating in the appearance of water, that Mr Brown thought it carried its own excuse, however unnatural the situation; and therefore, in many places, under his direction, I have found water, on the tops of the hills, which I have been obliged to remove into lower ground _because the deception was not sufficiently complete to satisfy the mind as well as the eye_." Indeed, in this matter of levelling, Brown's system does not, on the face of it, differ from Le Nôtre's, where the natural contour of the landscape was not of much account; or rather, it was thought the better if it had no natural contour at all, but presented a flat plain or plateau with no excrescences to interfere with the designer's schemes. So much, then, for the pastoral simplicity of Nature edited by the "landscape-gardener." And let us note that under the auspices of the new _régime_, not only is Nature to be changed, but changed more than was ever dreamt of before; the transformation shall at once be more determined in its character and more deceptive than had previously been attempted. We were to have an artistically natural world, not a naturally artistic one; the face of the landscape was to be purged of its modern look and made to look primæval. And in this doing, or undoing, of things, the only art that was to be admitted was the art of consummate deceit, which shall "satisfy the mind as well as the eye." Yet call the man pope or presbyter, and beneath his clothes he is the same man! There is not a pin to choose as regards artificiality in the _aims_ of the two schools, only in the _results_. The naked or _undressed_ garden has studied irregularity, while the _dressed_ garden has studied regularity and style. The first has, perhaps, an excessive regard for expression, the other has an emphatic scorn for expression. One garden has its plotted levels, its avenues, its vistas, its sweeping lawns, its terraces, its balustrades, colonnades, geometrical beds, gilded temples, and sometimes its fountains that won't play, and its fine vases full of nothing! The other begins with fetching back the chaos of a former world, and has for its category of effects, sham primævalisms, exaggerated wildness, tortured levellings, cascades, rocks, dead trunks of trees, ruined castles, lakes on the top of hills, and sheep-runs hard by your windows. One school cannot keep the snip of the scissors off tree and shrub, the other mimics Nature's fortuitous wildness in proof of his disdain for the white lies of Art. And all goes to show, does it not? that inasmuch as the art of gardening implies craft, and as man's imitation of Nature is bound to be unlike Nature, it were wise to be frankly inventive in gardening on Art lines. Success may attend one's efforts in the direction of Art, but in the direction of Nature, never. The smooth, bare, and almost bald appearance which characterises Brown and Kent's school fails to satisfy for long, and there springs up another school which deals largely in picturesque elements, and rough intricate effects. The principles of the "Picturesque School," as it was called, are to be found in the writings of the Rev. William Gilpin and Sir Uvedale Price. Their books are full of careful observations upon the general composition of landscape-scenery, and what was then called "Landscape Architecture," as though every English building of older days that was worth a glance had not been "Landscape Architecture" fit for its site! Gilpin's writings contain an admirable discourse upon "Forest Scenery," well illustrated. This work is in eight volumes, in part published in 1782, and it consists mainly in an account of the author's tours in every part of Great Britain, with a running commentary on the beauties of the scenery, and a description of the important country seats he passed on the way. Price helped by his writings to stay the rage for destroying avenues and terraces, and we note that he is fully alive to the necessity of uniting a country-house with the surrounding scenery by architectural adjuncts. The taste for picturesque gardening was doubtless helped by the growing taste for landscape painting, exhibited in the works of the school of Wilson and Gainsborough, and in the pastoral writings of Thomson, Crabbe, Cowper, and Gray. It would farther be accelerated, as we suggested at the outset of this chapter, by the large importation of foreign plants and shrubs now going on. What is known as the Picturesque School soon had for its main exponent Repton. He was a genius in his way--a born gardener,[31] able and thoughtful in his treatments, and distinguished among his fellows by a broad and comprehensive grasp of the whole character and surroundings of a site, in reference to the general section of the land, the style of the house to which his garden was allied, and the objects for which it was to be used. The sterling quality of his writings did much to clear the air of the vapourings of the critics who had gone before him, and his practice, founded as it was upon sound principles, redeemed the absurdities of the earlier phase of his school and preserved others from further development of the silly rusticities upon which their mind seemed bent. Although some of his ideas may now be thought pedantic and antiquated, the books which contain them will not die. Passages like the following mark the man and his aims: "I do not profess to follow Le Nôtre or Brown, but, selecting beauties from the style of each, to adopt so much of the grandeur of the former as may accord with a palace, and so much of the grace of the latter as may call forth the charms of natural landscape. Each has its proper situation; and good taste will make fashion subservient to good sense" (p. 234). "In the rage for picturesque beauty, let us remember that the landscape holds an inferior rank to the historical picture; one represents nature, the other relates to man in a state of society" (p. 236). [Footnote 31: Loudon calls this School "Repton's," the "_Gardenesque_" School, its characteristic feature being "the display of the beauty of trees and other plants _individually_."] Repton sums up the whole of his teaching in the preface to his "Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening" under the form of objections to prevailing errors, and they are so admirable that I cannot serve the purposes of my book better than to insert them here. Objection No. 1. "There is no error more prevalent in modern gardening, or more frequently carried to excess, than taking away hedges to unite many small fields into one extensive and naked lawn before plantations are made to give it the appearance of a park; and where ground is subdivided by sunk fences, imaginary freedom is dearly purchased at the expense of actual confinement." No. 2. "The baldness and nakedness round the house is part of the same mistaken system, of concealing fences to gain extent. A palace, or even an elegant villa, in a grass field, appears to me incongruous; _yet I have seldom had sufficient influence to correct this common error_." No. 3. "An approach which does not evidently lead to the house, or which does not take the shortest course, cannot be right. (This rule must be taken with certain limitations.) The shortest road across a lawn to a house will seldom be found graceful, and often vulgar. A road bordered by trees in the form of an avenue may be straight without being vulgar; and grandeur, not grace or elegance, is the expression expected to be produced." No. 4. "A poor man's cottage, divided into what is called a _pair of lodges_, is a mistaken expedient to mark importance in the entrance to a park." No. 5. "The entrance-gate should not be visible from the mansion, unless it opens into a courtyard." No. 6. "The plantation surrounding a place called a _Belt_ I have never advised; nor have I ever willingly marked a drive, or walk, completely round the verge of a park, except in small villas, where a dry path round a person's own field is always more interesting than any other walk." No 7. "Small plantations of trees, surrounded by a fence, are the best expedients to form groups, because trees planted singly seldom grow well; neglect of thinning and removing the fence has produced that ugly deformity called a _Clump_." No. 8. "Water on a eminence, or on the side of a hill, is among the most common errors of Mr Brown's followers; in numerous instances I have been allowed to remove such pieces of water from the hills to the valleys, but in many my advice has not prevailed." No. 9. "Deception may be allowable in imitating the works of Nature. Thus artificial rivers, lakes, and rock scenery can only be great by deception, and the mind acquiesces in the fraud after it is detected, but in works of Art every trick ought to be avoided. Sham churches, sham ruins, sham bridges, and everything which appears what it is not, disgusts when the trick is discovered." No. 10. "In buildings of every kind the _character_ should be strictly observed. No incongruous mixture can be justified. To add Grecian to Gothic, or Gothic to Grecian, is equally absurd; and a sharp pointed arch to a garden gate or a dairy window, however frequently it occurs, is not less offensive than Grecian architecture, in which the standard rules of relative proportion are neglected or violated." The perfection of landscape-gardening consists in the fullest attention to these principles, _Utility_, _Proportion_, and _Unity_, or harmony of parts to the whole. (Repton, "Landscape Gardening," pp. 128-9.) The best advice one can give to a young gardener is--_know your Repton_. The writings of the new school of gardening, of which Repton is a notable personage in its later phase, are not, however, on a par with the writings of the old traditional school, either as pleasant garden literature, or in regard to broad human interest or artistic quality. They are hard and critical, and never lose the savour of the heated air of controversy in which they were penned. Indeed, I can think of no more sure and certain cure for a bad attack of garden-mania--nothing that will sooner wipe the bloom off your enjoyment of natural beauty--than a course of reading from the Classics of Landscape-garden literature! "I only sound the clarion," said the urbane master-gardener of an earlier day, "but I enter not into the battle." But these are at one another's throats! Who enters here must leave his dreams of fine gardening behind, for he will find himself in a chilly, disenchanted world, with nothing more romantic to feed his imagination upon than "Remarks on the genius of the late Mr. Brown," Critical enquiries, Observations on taste, Difference between landscape gardening and painting, Price upon Repton, Repton upon Price, Repton upon Knight, further answers to Messrs Price and Knight, &c. But all this is desperately dull reading, hurtful to one's imagination, fatal to garden-fervour.[32] And naturally so, for analysis of the processes of garden-craft carried too far begets loss of faith in all. Analysis is a kill-joy, destructive of dreams of beauty. "We murder to dissect." That was a true word of the cynic of that day, who summed up current controversy upon gardening in the opinion that "the works of Nature were well executed, but in a bad taste." The quidnuncs' books about gardening are about as much calculated to give one delight, as the music the child gets out of the strings of an instrument that it broke for the pride of dissection. Even Addison, with the daintiest sense and prettiest pen of them all, shows how thoroughly gardening had lost ... "its happy, country tone, Lost it too soon, and learnt a stormy note Of men contention-tost,"-- as he thrums out his laboured coffee-house conceit. "I think there are as many kinds of gardening as poetry; your makers of parterres and flower-gardens are epigrammatists and sonneteers in this art; contrivers of bowers and grottoes, treillages, and cascades, are Romance writers. Wise and Loudon are our heroic poets." Nor is his elaborate argument meant to prove the gross inferiority of Art in a garden to unadorned Nature more inspiring. Nay, what is one to make of even the logic of such argument as this? "If the products of Nature rise in value according as they more or less resemble those of Art, we may be sure that artificial works receive a greater advantage from their resemblance of such as are natural." (_Spectator._) But who _does_ apply the Art-standard to Nature, or value her products as they resemble those of Art? And has not Sir Walter well said: "Nothing is more the child of Art than a garden"? And Loudon: "All art, to be acknowledged, as art must be avowed." [Footnote 32: A candid friend thus writes to Repton: "You may have perceived that I am rather _too much_ inclined to the Price and Knight _party_, and yet I own to you that I have been often so much disgusted by the affected and technical language of connoisseurship, that I have been sick of pictures for a month, and almost of Nature, when the same jargon was applied to her." (Repton, p. 232.)] One prefers to this cold Pindaric garden-homage the unaffected, direct delight in the sweets of a garden of an earlier day; to realise with old Mountaine how your garden shall produce "a jucunditie of minde;" to think with Bishop Hall, as he gazes at his tulips, "These Flowers are the true Clients of the Sunne;" to be brought to old Lawson's state of simple ravishment, "What more delightsome than an infinite varietie of sweet-smelling flowers? decking with sundry colours the green mantle of the Earth, colouring not onely the earth, but decking the ayre, and sweetning every breath and spirit;" to taste the joys of living as, taking Robert Burton's hand, you "walk amongst orchards, gardens, bowers, mounts and arbours, artificial wildernesses, green thickets, groves, lawns, rivulets, fountains, and such like pleasant places, between wood and water, in a fair meadow, by a river side, to disport in some pleasant plain or park, must needs be a delectable recreation;" to be inoculated with old Gerarde of the garden-mania as he bursts forth, "Go forward in the name of God: graffe, set, plant, nourishe up trees in every corner of your grounde;" to trace with Temple the lines and features that go to make the witchery of the garden at Moor Park, "in all kinds the most beautiful and perfect, at least in the Figure and Disposition, that I have ever seen," and which you may follow if you are not "above the Regards of Common Expence;" to hearken to Bacon expatiate upon the Art which is indeed "the purest of all humane pleasure, the greatest refreshment to the Spirits of man;" to feel in what he says the value of an ideal, the magic of a style backed by passion--to have garden precepts wrapped in pretty metaphors (such as that "because the Breath of Flowers is far Sweeter in the Air--_where it comes and goes like the warbling of Musick_--than in the Hand, therefore nothing is more fit for that Delight than to know what be the Flowers and Plants that do best perfume the Air;")--to be taught how to order a garden to suit all the months of the year, and have things of beauty enumerated according to their seasons--to feel rapture at the sweet-breathing presence of Art in a garden--to learn from one who knows how to garden in a grand manner, and yet be finally assured that beauty does not require a great stage, that the things thrown in "for state and magnificence" are but nothing to the true pleasure of a garden--this is garden-literature worth reading! Compared with the frank raptures of such writings as these, the laboured treatises of the landscape-school are but petty hagglings over the mint and cummin of things. You go to the writings of the masters of the old formality, to come away invigorated as by a whiff of mountain air straight off Helicon; they shall give one fresh enthusiasm for Nature, fresh devotion to Art, fresh love for beautiful things. But from the other-- "The bloom is gone, and with the bloom go I"-- they deal with technicalities in the affected language of connoisseurship; they reveal a disenchanted world, a world of exploded hopes given over to the navvies and the critics; and it is no wonder that writings so prompted should have no charm for posterity; charm they never had. They are dry as summer dust. For the honour of English gardening, and before closing this chapter, I would like to recall that betweenity--the garden of the transition--done at the very beginning of the century of revolution, which unites something of the spirit of the old and of the new schools. Here is Sir Walter Scott's report of the Kelso garden as he _first_ knew it, and _after_ it had been mauled by the landscape-gardener. It was a garden of seven or eight acres adjacent to the house of an ancient maiden lady: "It was full of long straight walks between hedges of yew and hornbeam, which rose tall and close on every side. There were thickets of flowering shrubs, a bower, and an arbour, to which access was obtained through a little maze of contorted walks, calling itself a labyrinth. In the centre of the bower was a splendid Platanus or Oriental plane, a huge hill of leaves, one of the noblest specimens of that regularly beautiful tree which we remember to have seen. In different parts of the garden were fine ornamental trees which had attained great size, and the orchard was filled with fruit-trees of the best description. There were seats and trellis-walks, and a banqueting-house. Even in our time this little scene, intended to present a formal exhibition of vegetable beauty, was going fast to decay. The parterres of flowers were no longer watched by the quiet and simple _friends_ under whose auspices they had been planted, and much of the ornament of the domain had been neglected or destroyed to increase its productive value. We visited it lately, after an absence of many years. Its air of retreat, the seclusion which its alleys afforded was gone; the huge Platanus had died, like most of its kind, in the beginning of this century; the hedges were cut down, the trees stubbed up, and the whole character of the place so much destroyed that I was glad when I could leave it."--("Essay on Landscape Gardening," _Quarterly Review_, 1828.[33]) [Footnote 33: "The Praise of Gardens," pp. 185-6.] Another garden, of later date than this at Kelso, and somewhat less artistic, is that described by Mr Henry A. Bright in "The English Flower Garden."[34] "One of the most beautiful gardens I ever knew depended almost entirely on the arrangement of its lawns and shrubberies. It had certainly been most carefully and adroitly planned, and it had every advantage in the soft climate of the West of England. The various lawns were divided by thick shrubberies, so that you wandered on from one to the other, and always came on something new. In front of these shrubberies was a large margin of flower-border, gay with the most effective plants and annuals. At the corner of the lawn a standard _Magnolia grandiflora_ of great size held up its chaliced blossoms; at another a tulip-tree was laden with hundreds of yellow flowers. Here a magnificent _Salisburia_ mocked the foliage of the maiden-hair; and here an old cedar swept the grass with its large pendent branches. But the main breadth of each lawn was never destroyed, and past them you might see the reaches of a river, now in one aspect, now in another. Each view was different, and each was a fresh enjoyment and surprise. "A few years ago and I revisited the place; the 'improver' had been at work, and had been good enough to _open up_ the view. Shrubberies had disappeared, and lawns had been thrown together. The pretty peeps among the trees were gone, the long vistas had become open spaces, and you saw at a glance all that there was to be seen. Of course the herbaceous borders, which once contained numberless rare and interesting plants, had disappeared, and the lawn in front of the house was cut up into little beds of red pelargoniums, yellow calceolarias, and the rest." [Footnote 34: _Ibid._, p. 296.] In this example we miss the condensed beauty and sweet austerities of the older garden at Kelso: nevertheless, it represents a phase of workmanship which, for its real insight into the secrets of garden-beauty, we may well be proud of, and deplore its destruction at the hands of the landscape-gardener. All arts are necessarily subject to progression of type. "Man cannot escape from his time," says Mr Morley, and with changed times come changed influences. But, then, to _progress_ is not to _change_: "to progress is to live," and one phase of healthy progression will tread the heels of that which precedes it. The restless changeful methods of modern gardening are, however, not to be ascribed to the healthy development of one consistent movement, but to chaos--to the revolution that ensued upon the overthrow of tradition--to the indeterminateness of men who have no guiding principles, who take so many wild leaps in the dark, in the course of which, rival champions jostle one another and only the fittest survives. In treating of Modern English Gardening, it is difficult to make our way along the tortuous path of change, development it is not, that set in with the banishment of Art in a garden. Critical writers have done their best to unravel things, to find the relation of each fractured phase, and to give each phase a descriptive name, but there are still many unexplained points, many contradictions that are unsolved, to which I have already alluded. Loudon's Introduction to Repton's "Landscape Gardening" gives perhaps the most intelligible account of the whole matter. The art of laying out grounds has been displayed in two very distinct styles: the first of which is called the "Ancient Roman, Geometric, Regular, or Architectural Style; and the second the Modern, _English_,[35] Irregular, Natural, or Landscape Style." [Footnote 35: This is a little unpatriotic of Loudon to imply that the _English_ had no garden-style till the 18th century, but one can stand a great deal from Loudon.] We have, he says, the Italian, the French, and the Dutch Schools of the Geometric Style. The Modern, or Landscape Style, when it first displayed itself in English country residences, was distinctly marked by the absence of everything that had the appearance of a terrace, or of architectural forms, or lines, immediately about the house. The house, in short, rose abruptly from the lawn, and the general surface of the ground was characterised by smoothness and bareness. This constituted the first School of the Landscape Style, introduced by Kent and Brown. This manner was followed by the romantic or Picturesque Style, which inaugurates a School which aimed at producing architectural tricks and devices, allied with scenery of picturesque character and sham rusticity. The conglomeration at Stowe, albeit that it is attributed to Kent, shows what man can do in the way of heroically wrong garden-craft. To know truly how to lay out a garden "_After a more Grand and Rural Manner than has been done before_," you cannot do better than get Batty Langley's "New Principles of Gardening," and among other things you have rules whereby you may concoct natural extravagances, how you shall prime prospects, make landscapes that are pictures of nothing and very like; how to copy hills, valleys, dales, purling streams, rocks, ruins, grottoes, precipices, amphitheatres, &c. The writings of Gilpin and Price were effective in undermining Kent's School; they helped to check the rage for destroying avenues and terraces, and insisted upon the propriety of uniting a country-house with the surrounding scenery by architectural appendages. The leakage from the ranks of Kent's School was not all towards the Picturesque School, but to what Loudon terms Repton's School, which may be considered as combining all that was excellent in what had gone before. Following upon these phases is one that is oddly called the "_Gardenesque_" Style, the leading feature of which is that it illustrates the beauty of trees, and other plants _individually_; in short, it is the _specimen_ style. According to the practice of all previous phases of modern gardening, trees, shrubs, and flowers were indiscriminately mixed and crowded together, in shrubberies or other plantations. According to the Gardenesque School, all the trees and shrubs are arranged to suit their kinds and dimensions, and to display them to advantage. The ablest exponents of the school are Loudon in the recent past, and Messrs Marnock and Robinson in the present, and their method is based upon Loudon. To know how to lay out a garden after the most approved modern fashion we have but to turn to the deservedly popular pages of "The English Flower Garden." This book contains not only model designs and commended examples from various existing gardens, but text contributed by some seventy professional and amateur gardeners. Even the gardener who has other ideals and larger ambitions than are here expected, heartily welcomes a book so well stored with modern garden-lore up to date, with suggestions for new aspects of vegetation, new renderings of plant life, and must earnestly desire to see any system of gardening made perfect after its kind-- ... "I wish the sun should shine On all men's fruits and flowers, as well as mine." Gardening is, above all things, a progressive Art which has never had so fine a time to display its possibilities as now, if we were only wise enough to freely employ old experiences and modern opportunities. People are, however, so readily content with their stereotyped models, with barren imitations, with their petty list of specimens, when instead of half-a-dozen kinds of plants, their garden has room for hundreds of different plants of fine form--hardy or half-hardy, annual and bulbous--which would equally well suit the British garden and add to its wealth of beauty by varied colourings in spring, summer, and autumn. At present "the choke-muddle shrubbery, in which the poor flowering shrubs dwindle and kill each other, generally supports a few ill-grown and ill-chosen plants, but it is mainly distinguished for wide patches of bare earth in summer, over which, in better hands, pretty green things might crowd." The specimen plant has no chance of displaying itself under such conditions. * * * * * Into so nice a subject as the practice of Landscape-gardening of the present day it is not my intention to enter in detail, and for two good reasons. In the first place, the doctrines of a sect are best known by the writings of its representatives; and in this case, happily, both writings and representatives are plentiful. Secondly, I do not see that there is much to chronicle. Landscape-gardening is, in a sense, still in its fumbling stage; it has not increased its resources, or done anything heroic, even on wrong lines; it has not advanced towards any permanent, definable system of ornamentation since it began its gyrations in the last century. Its rival champions still beat the air. Even Repton was better off than the men of to-day, for he had, at least, his Protestant formulary of Ten Objections to swear by, which "mark those errors or absurdities in modern gardening and architecture to which I have never willingly subscribed" (p. 127, "Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening," 1803, quoted in full above). But the present race of landscape-gardeners are, it strikes me, as much at sea as ever. True they threw up traditional methods as unworthy, but they had not learnt their own Art according to Nature before they began to practise it; and they are still in the throes of education. Their intentions are admirable beyond telling, but their work exhibits in the grossest forms the very vices they condemn in the contrary school; for the expression of their ideas is self-conscious, strained, and pointless. To know at a glance their position towards Art in a garden, how crippled their resources, how powerless to design, let me give an extract from Mr Robinson. He is speaking of an old-fashioned garden, "One of those classical gardens, the planners of which prided themselves upon being able to give Nature lessons of good behaviour, to teach her geometry and the fine Art of irreproachable lines; but Nature abhors lines;[36] she is for geometers a reluctant pupil, and if she submits to their tyranny she does it with bad grace, and with the firm resolve to take eventually her revenge. Man cannot conquer the wildness of her disposition, and so soon as he is no longer at hand to impose his will, so soon as he relaxes his care, she destroys his work" (p. viii., "English Flower Garden"). This is indeed to concede everything to Nature, to deny altogether the mission of Art in a garden. [Footnote 36: For which reason, I suppose, Mr Robinson, in his model "Non-geometrical Gardens" (p. 5), humbly skirts his ground with a path which as nearly represents a tortured horse-shoe as Nature would permit; and his trees he puts in a happy-go-lucky way, and allows them to nearly obliterate his path at their own sweet will! No wonder he does not fear Nature's revenge, where is so little Art to destroy!] And even the School that is rather kinder to Art, more lenient to tradition, represented by Mr Milner--even he, in his admirable book upon the "Art and Practice of Landscape Gardening" (1890), is the champion of Nature, not of Art, in a garden. "Nature still seems to work in fetters," he says, and he would "form bases for a better practice of the Art" (p. 4). Again, Nature is the great exemplar that I follow" (p. 8). They have not got beyond Brown, so far as theory is concerned. "Under the great leader Brown," writes Repton, with unconscious irony, "or rather those who patronised his discovery, we were taught that Nature was to be our only model"--and Brown had his full chance of manipulating the universe, for "he lived to establish a fashion in gardening, which might have been expected to endure as long as Nature should exist"; and yet Repton's work mostly consisted in repairing Brown's errors and in covering the nakedness of his hungry prospects. So it would seem that Art has her revenges as well as Nature! "The way of transgressors is hard!" The Landscape-gardener, I said, gets no nearer to maturity of purpose as time runs on. He creeps and shuffles after Nature as at the first--much as the benighted traveller after the will-o'-the-wisp. He may not lay hands on her, because you cannot conquer her wildness, nor impose your will upon her, or teach her good behaviour. He may not apply the "dead formalism of Art" to her, for "Nature abhors lines." Hence his mimicry can never rise above Nature. Indeed, if it remains faithful to the negative opinions of its practitioners, landscape-gardening will never construct any system of device. It has no creed, if you except that sole article of its faith, "I believe in the non-geometrical garden." A monumental style is an impossibility while it eschews all features that make for state and magnificence and symmetry; a little park scenery, much grass, curved shrubberies, the "laboured littleness" of emphasised specimen plants--the hardy ones dotted about in various parts--wriggling paths, flower-borders, or beds of shapes that imply that they are the offspring of bad dreams, and its tale of effects is told. But as for "fine gardening," that was given up long ago as a bad job! The spirit of Walpole's objections to the heroic enterprise of the old-fashioned garden still holds the "landscape-gardener" in check. "I should hardly advise any of those attempts," says Walpole; "_they are adventures of too hard achievement for any common hands_." It is not so much at what he finds in the landscape gardener's creations that the architect demurs, but at what he misses. It is not so much at what the landscape-gardener recommends that the architect objects, as at what moving in his own little orbit he wilfully shuts out, basing his opposition to tradition upon such an _ex parte_ view of the matter as this--"There are really two styles, one strait-laced, mechanical, with much wall and stone, or it may be gravel, with much also of such geometry as the designer of wall-papers excels in--often poorer than that, with an immoderate supply of spouting water, and with trees in tubs as an accompaniment, and, perhaps, griffins and endless plaster-work, and sculpture of the poorer sort." Why "poorer"? "The other, with _right desire_, though _often awkwardly_ (!) accepting Nature as a guide, and endeavouring to illustrate in our gardens, _so far as convenience and knowledge will permit_, her many treasures of the world of flowers" ("English Flower Garden"). How sweetly doth bunkum commend itself! It is not that the architect is small-minded enough to cavil at the landscape-gardener's right to display his taste by his own methods, but that he strikes for the same right for himself. It is not that he would rob the landscape-gardener of the pleasure of expressing his own views as persuasively as he can, but that he resents that air of superiority which the other puts on as he bans the comely types and garnered sweetness of old England's garden, that he accents the proscription of the ways of interpreting Nature that have won the sanction of lovers of Art and Nature of all generations of our forefathers, and this from a School whose prerogative dates no farther back than the discovery of the well-meaning, clumsy, now dethroned kitchen-gardener, known a short century since as "the immortal Brown." There is no reviewer so keen as Time! CHAPTER VI. THE TECHNICS OF GARDENING.[37] "Nothing is more the Child of Art than a Garden." SIR WALTER SCOTT. [Footnote 37: These notes make no pretence either at originality or completeness. They represent gleanings from various sources, combined with personal observations on garden-craft from the architect's point of view.--J. D. S.] "For every Garden," says Sir William Temple, "four things are to be provided--Flowers, Fruit, Shade, and Water, and whoever lays out a garden without these, must not pretend it in any perfection. Nature should not be forced; great sums may be thrown away without Effect or Honour, if there want sense in proportion to this." Briefly, the old master's charge is this: "Have common-sense; follow Nature." Following upon these lines, the gardener's first duty in laying out the grounds to a house is, to study the site, and not only that part of it upon which the house immediately stands, but the whole site, its aspect, character, soil, contour, sectional lines, trees, &c. Common-sense, Economy, Nature, Art, alike dictate this. There is an individual character to every plot of land, as to every human face in a crowd; and that man is not wise who, to suit preferences for any given style of garden, or with a view to copying a design from another place, will ignore the characteristics of the site at his disposal. Equally unwise will he be to follow that school of gardening that makes chaos before it sets about to make order. Features that are based upon, or that grow out of the natural formation of the ground, will not only look better than the created features, but be more to the credit of the gardener, if successful, and will save expense. The ground throughout should be so handled that every natural good point, every tree, mound, declivity, stream, or quarry, or other chance feature, shall be turned to good account, and its consequence heightened, avoiding the error of giving the thing mock importance, by planting, digging, lowering declivities, raising prominences, planting dark-foliaged trees to intensify the receding parts, forming terraces on the slope, or adding other architectural features as may be advisable to connect the garden with the house which is its _raison d'être_, and the building with the landscape. What folly to throw down undulations in order to produce a commonplace level, or to throw up hills, or make rocks, lakes, and waterfalls should the site happen to be level! What folly to make a standing piece of water imitate the curves of a winding river that has no existence, to throw a bridge over it near its termination, so as to close the vista and suggest the continuation of the water beyond! Nay, what need of artificial lakes at all if there be a running stream hard by?[38] [Footnote 38: "All rational improvement of grounds is necessarily founded on a due attention to the CHARACTER and SITUATION of the place to be improved; the _former_ teaches what is advisable, the _latter_ what is possible to be done. The _situation_ of a place always depends on Nature, which can only be assisted, but cannot be entirely changed, or greatly controlled by ART; but the _character_ of a place is wholly dependent on ART; thus the house, the buildings, the gardens, the roads, the bridges, and every circumstance which marks the habitation of man must be artificial; and although in the works of art we may imitate the forms and graces of Nature, yet, to make them truly natural, always leads to absurdity" (Repton, p. 341).] It is of the utmost importance that Art and Nature should be linked together, alike in the near neighbourhood of the house, and in its far prospect, so that the scene as it meets the eye, whether at a distance or near, should present a picture of a simple whole, in which each item should take its part without disturbing the individual expression of the ground. To attain this result, it is essential that the ground immediately about the house should be devoted to symmetrical planning, and to distinctly ornamental treatment; and the symmetry should break away by easy stages from the dressed to the undressed parts, and so on to the open country, beginning with wilder effects upon the country-boundaries of the place, and more careful and intricate effects as the house is approached. Upon the attainment of this appearance of graduated formality much depends. One knows houses that are well enough in their way, that yet figure as absolute blots upon God's landscape, and that make a man writhe as at false notes in music, and all because due regard has not been paid to this particular. By exercise of forethought in this matter, the house and garden would have been linked to the site, and the site to the landscape; as it is, you wish the house at Jericho![39] [Footnote 39: Not so thinks the author of "The English Flower Garden":--"Imagine the effect of a well-built and fine old house, seen from the extremity of a wide lawn, with plenty of trees and shrubs on its outer parts, and nothing to impede the view of the house or its windows but a refreshing carpet of grass. If owners of parks were to consider this point fully, and, as they travel about, watch the effect of such lawns as remain to us, and compare them with what has been done by certain landscape-gardeners, there would shortly be, at many a country-seat, a rapid carting away of the terrace and all its adjuncts." Marry, this is sweeping! But Repton has some equally strong words condemning the very plan our Author recommends: "In the execution of my profession I have often experienced great difficulty and opposition in attempting to correct the false and mistaken taste for placing a large house in a naked grass field, without any apparent line of separation between the ground exposed to cattle and the ground annexed to the house, which I consider as peculiarly under the management of art. "This line of separation being admitted, advantage may be easily taken to ornament the lawn with flowers and shrubs, and to attach to the mansion that scene of 'embellished neatness' usually called a pleasure-ground" (Repton, p. 213. See also No. 2 of Repton's "Objections," given on p. 116).] As the point of access to a house from the public road and the route to be taken afterwards not infrequently determines the position of the house upon the site, it may be well to speak of the Approach first. In planning the ground, care will be taken that the approach shall both look well of itself and afford convenient access to the house and its appurtenances, not forgetting the importance of giving to the visitor a pleasing impression of the house as he drives up. In Elizabethan and Jacobean times, the usual form of approach was the straight avenue, instances of which are still to be seen at Montacute, Brympton, and Burleigh.[40] The road points direct to the house, as evidence that in the minds of the old architects the house was, as it were, the pivot round which the attached territory and the garden in all its parts radiated; and the road ends, next the house, in a quadrangle or forecourt, which has either an open balustrade or high hedge, and in the centre of the court is a grass plot enlivened by statue or fountain or sundial. And it is worthy of note that they who prefer a road that winds to the very door of a house on the plea of its naturalness make a great mistake; they forget that the winding road is no whit less artificial than the straight one. [Footnote 40: As an instance of how much dignity a noble house may lose by a meanly-planned drive, I would mention Hatfield.] The choice of avenue or other type of approach will mainly depend upon the character and situation of the house, its style and quality. Repton truly observes that when generally adopted the avenue reduces all houses to the same landscape--"if looking up a straight line, between two green walls, deserves the name of a landscape." He states his objections to avenues thus--"If at the end of a long avenue be placed an obelisk or temple, or any other eye-trap, ignorance or childhood alone will be caught and pleased by it; the eye of taste or experience hates compulsion, and turns away with disgust from every artificial means of attracting its notice; for this reason an avenue is most pleasing which, like that at Langley Park, climbs up a hill, and passing over the summit, leaves the fancy to conceive its termination." The very dignity of an avenue seems to demand that there shall be something worthy of this procession of trees at its end, and if the house to which this feature is applied be unworthy, a sense of disappointment ensues. Provided, however, that the house be worthy of this dignity, and that its introduction does not mar the view, or dismember the ground, an avenue is both an artistic and convenient approach. Should circumstances not admit of the use of an avenue, the drive should be as direct as may well be, and if curved, there should be some clear and obvious justification for the curve or divergence; it should be clear that the road is diverted to obtain a glimpse of open country that would otherwise be missed, or that a steep hill or awkward dip is thus avoided. The irregularity in the line of the road should not, however, be the occasion of any break in the gradient of the road, which should be continuously even throughout. In this matter of planning roads, common sense, as well as artistic sense, should be satisfied; there should be no straining after pompous effects. Except in cases where the house is near to the public road, the drive should not run parallel to the road for the mere sake of gaining a pretentious effect. Nor should the road overlook the garden, a point that touches the comfort both of residents and visitors; and for the same reason the entrance to the garden should not be from the drive, but from the house. The gradient recommended by Mr Milner,[41] to whose skilled experience I am indebted for many practical suggestions, is 1 in 14. The width of a drive is determined by the relative importance of the route. Thus, a drive to the principal entrance of the house should be from 14 to 18 ft., while that to the stables or offices 10 ft. Walks should not be less than 6 ft. wide. The width of a grand avenue should be 50 ft, and "the trees may be preferably Elm, Beech, Oak, Chestnut, and they should not be planted nearer in procession than 40 ft., unless they be planted at intervals of half that distance for the purpose of destroying alternate trees, as their growth makes the removal necessary." [Footnote 41: Milner's "Art and Practice of Landscape-Gardening," pp. 13, 14.] The entrance-gates should not be visible from the mansion, Repton says, unless it opens into a courtyard. As to their position, the gates may be formed at the junction of two roads, or where a cross-road comes on to the main road, or where the gates are sufficiently back from the public road to allow a carriage to stand clear. The gates, as well as the lodge, should be at right angles to the drive, and belong to it, not to the public road. Where the house and estate are of moderate size, architectural, rather than "rustic," simplicity best suits the character of the lodge. It is desirable, remarks Mr Milner, to place the entrance, if it can be managed, at the foot of a hill or rise in the public road, and not part of the way up an ascent, or at the top of it. If possible, the house should stand on a platform or terraced eminence, so as to give the appearance of being well above ground; or it should be on a knoll where a view may be had. The ground-level of the house should be of the right height to command the prospect. Should the architect be so fortunate as to obtain a site for his house where the ground rises steep and abrupt on one side of the house, he will get here a series of terraces, rock-gardens, a fernery, a rose-garden, &c. The ideal site for a house would have fine prospects to the south-east and to the south-west "The principal approach should be on the north-western face, the offices on the north-eastern side, the stables and kitchen-garden beyond. The pleasure-gardens should be on the south-eastern aspect, with a continuation towards the east; the south-western face might be open to the park" (Milner). If it can be avoided, the house should not be placed where the ground slopes towards it--a treatment which suggests water draining into it--but if this position be for some sufficient reason inevitable, or should it be an old house with this defect that we are called to treat, then a good space should be excavated, at least of the level of the house, with a terrace-wall at the far end, on the original level of the site at that particular point. And as to the rest of the ground, Repton's sound advice is to plant up the heights so as to increase the effect of shelter and seclusion that the house naturally has, and introduce water, if available, at the low-level of the site. The air of seclusion that the low-lying situation gives to the house is thus intensified by crowning the heights with wood and setting water at the base of the slope. The hanging-gardens at Clevedon Court afford a good example of what can be done by a judicious formation of ground where the house is situated near the base of a slope, and this example is none the less interesting for its general agreement with Lamb's "Blakesmoor"--its ample pleasure-garden "rising backwards from the house in triple terraces; ... the verdant quarters backwarder still, and stretching still beyond in old formality, the firry wilderness, the haunt of the squirrel and the day-long murmuring wood-pigeon, with that antique image in the centre." Before dealing with the garden and its relation to the house it may be well to say a few words upon Planting. Trees are among the grandest and most ornamental effects of natural scenery; they help the charm of hill, plain, valley, and dale, and the changes in the colour of their foliage at the different seasons of the year give us perpetual delight. One of the most important elements in ornamental gardens is the dividing up and diversifying a given area by plantations, by grouping of trees to form retired glades, open lawns, shaded alleys, and well-selected margins of woods; and, if this be skilfully done, an impression of variety and extent will be produced beyond the belief of the uninitiated who has seen the bare site before it was planted. To speak generally, there should be no need of apology for applying the most subtle art in the disposal of trees and shrubs, and in the formation of the ground to receive them. "_All Art_," as Loudon truly says (speaking upon this very point), "_to be acknowledged as Art, must be avowed._" This is the case in the fine arts--there is no attempt to conceal art in music, poetry, painting, or sculpture, none in architecture, and none in geometrical-gardening. In modern landscape-gardening, practised as a fine art, many of the more important beauties and effects produced by the artist depend on the use he makes of foreign trees and shrubs; and, personally, one is ready to forgive Brown much of his vile vandalism in old-fashioned gardens for the use he makes of cedars, pines, planes, gleditschias, robinias, deciduous cypress, and all the foreign hardy trees and shrubs that were then to his hand. Loudon--every inch a fine gardener, true lineal descendant of Bacon in the art of gardening--recommends in his "Arboretum" (pp. 11, 12) the heading down of large trees of common species, and the grafting upon them foreign species of the same genus, as is done in orchard fruit-trees. Hawthorn hedges, for instance, are common everywhere; why not graft some of the rare and beautiful sorts of tree thorns, and intersperse common thorns between them? There are between twenty and thirty beautiful species and varieties of thorn in our nurseries. Every gardener can graft and bud. Or why should not scarlet oak and scarlet acer be grafted on common species of these genera along the margins of woods and plantations? * * * * * In planting, the gardener has regard for character of foliage and tints, the nature of the soil, the undulations of ground and grouping, the amount of exposure. Small plantations of trees surrounded by a fence are the best expedients to form groups, says Repton, because trees planted singly seldom grow well. Good trees should not be encumbered by peddling bushes, but be treated as specimens, each having its separate mound. The mounds can be formed out of the hollowed pathways in the curves made between the groups. The dotting of trees over the ground or of specimen shrubs on a lawn is destructive of all breadth of effect. This is not to follow Nature, nor Art, for Art demands that each feature shall have relation to other features, and all to the general effect. In planting trees the variety of height in their outline must be considered as much as the variety of their outline on plan; the prominent parts made high, the intervening bays kept low,[42] and this both in connection with the lie of the ground and the plant selected. Uniform curves, such as parts of circles or ovals, are not approved; better effects are obtained by forming long bays or recesses with forked tongues breaking forward irregularly, the turf running into the bays. Trees may serve to frame a particular view and frame a picture; and when well led up to the horizon will enhance the imaginative effect of a place: a _beyond_ in any view implies somewhere to explore. [Footnote 42: "One deep recess, one bold prominence, has more effect than twenty little irregularities." "Every variety in the outline of a wood must be a _prominence_ or a _recess_" (Repton, p. 182).] All trees grow more luxuriantly in valleys than on the hills, and on this account the tendency of tree-growth is to neutralise the difference in the rise and fall of the ground and to bring the tops of the trees level. But the perfection of planting is to get an effect approximating as near as may be to the charming undulations of the Forest of Dean and the New Forest. Care will be taken, then, not to plant the fast-growing, or tall-growing trees in the low-ground, but on the higher points, and even to add to the irregularity by clothing the natural peaks with silver fir, whose tall heads will increase the sense of height. The limes, planes, and elms will be mostly kept to the higher ground, bunches of Scotch fir will be placed here and there, and oaks and beeches grouped together, while the lower ground will be occupied by maples, crabs, thorns, alders, &c. "Fringe the edges of your wood with lines of horse-chestnut," says Viscount Lymington in his delightful and valuable article on "Vert and Venery"--"a mass in spring of blossom, and in autumn of colour; and under these chestnuts, and in nooks and corners, thrust in some laburnum, that it may push its showers of gold out to the light and over the fence." As to the nature of the soil, and degree of exposure suitable to different forest-trees, the writer just quoted holds that, for exposure to the wind inland, the best trees for all soils are the beech, the Austrian pine, and the Scotch fir. For exposure in hedgerows, the best tree to plant ordinarily is the elm. For exposure to frost, the Insignis pine, which will not, however, stand the frosts of the valley, but prefers high ground. For exposure to smoke, undoubtedly the best tree is the Western plane. The sycamore will stand better than most trees the smoke and chemical works of manufacturing towns. For sea-exposure, the best trees to plant are the goat willow and pineaster. Among the low-growing shrubs which stand sea-exposure well are mentioned the sea-buckthorn, the snow-berry, the evergreen barberry, and the German tamarisk; to which should be added the euonymus and the escallonia. With regard to the nature of the soil, Lord Lymington says: "Strong clay produces the best oaks and the best silver fir. A deep loam is the most favourable soil for the growth of the Spanish chestnut and ash. The beech is the glorious weed of the chalk and down countries; the elm of the rich red sandstone valleys. Coniferous trees prefer land of a light sandy texture; ... but as many desire to plant conifers on other soils, I would mention that the following among others will grow on most soils, chalk included: the _Abies excelsa_, _canadensis_, _magnifica_, _nobilis_, and _Pinsapo_; the _Pinus excelsa_, _insignis_, and _Laricio_; the _Cupressus Lawsoniana_, _erecta_, _viridis_, and _macrocarpa_; the _Salisburia adiantifolia_, and the _Wellingtonia_. The most fast-growing in England of conifers is the Douglas fir.... It grows luxuriantly on the slopes of the hills, but will not stand exposure to the wind, and for that reason should always be planted in sheltered combes with other trees behind it. "In moist and boggy land the spruce or the willow tribes succeed best." "In high, poor, and very dry land, no tree thrives so well as the Scotch fir, the beech, and the sycamore." Avoid the selfishness and false economy of planting an inferior class of fast-growing trees such as firs and larches and Lombardy poplars, on the ground that one would not live to get any pleasure out of woods of oaks and beech and chestnut. How frequently one sees tall, scraggy planes, or belts of naked, attenuated firs, where groups of oaks and elms and groves of chestnut might have stood with greater advantage. Avoid the thoughtlessness and false economy of not thoroughly preparing the ground before planting. "Those that plant," says an old writer, "should make their ground fit for the trees before they set them, and not bury them in a hole like a dead dog; let them have good and fresh lodgings suitable to their quality, and good attendance also, to preserve them from their enemies till they are able to encounter them." Avoid trees near a house; they tend to make it damp, and the garden which is near the house untidy. Writers upon planting have their own ideas as to the fitness of certain growths for a certain style of house. As regards the relation of trees to the house, if the building be of Gothic design with the piquant outline usual to the style, then trees of round shape form the best foil; if of Classic or Renascence design, then trees of vertical conic growth suit best. So, if the house be of stone, trees of dark foliage best meet the case; if of brick, trees of lighter foliage should prevail. As a backing to the horizontal line of a roof to an ordinary two-storey building, nothing looks better than the long stems of stone pines or Scotch firs; and pines are health-giving trees. Never mark the outline of ground, nor the shape of groups of trees and shrubs with formal rows of bedding plants or other stiff edging, which is the almost universal practice of gardeners in the present day. This is a poor travesty of Bacon's garden, who only allows low things to grow naturally up to the edges. From the artist's point of view, perhaps the most desirable quality to aim at in the distribution of garden space is that of breadth of effect--in other words, simplicity; and the larger the garden the more need does there seem for getting this quality. One may, in a manner, _toy_ with a small garden. In the case of a large garden, where the owner in his greed for prettiness has carried things further than regulation-taste would allow, much may be done to subdue the assertiveness of a multiplicity of interesting objects by architectural adjuncts--broad terraces, well-defined lines, even a range of sentinel yews or clipt shrubs--things that are precise, grave, calm, and monotonous. Where such things are brought upon the scene, a certain spaciousness and amplitude of effect ensues as a matter of course. One sees that the modern gardener, with his augmented list of specimen-plants of varied foliage, is far more apt to err in the direction of sensationalism than the gardener of old days who was exempt from many of our temptations. Add to this power of attaining sweetness and intricacy the artist's prone aspirations to work up to his lights and opportunities, and we have temptation which is seductiveness itself! The garden at Highnam Court, dear to me for its signs and memories of my late accomplished friend, Mr T. Gambier Parry, is the perfectest modern garden I have ever seen. But here, if there be a fault, it is that Art has been allowed to blossom too profusely. The attention of the visitor is never allowed to drop, but is ever kept on the stretch. You are throughout too much led by the master's cunning hand. Every known bit of garden-artifice, every white lie of Art, every known variety of choice tree or shrub, or trick of garden-arrangement is set forth there. But somehow each thing strikes you as a little vainglorious--too sensible of its own importance. We go about in a sort of pre-Raphaelite frame of mind, where each seemly and beauteous feature has so much to say for itself that, in the delightfulness of the details, we are apt to forget that it is the first business of any work of Art to be a unit. There is nothing of single specimen, or group of intermingled variety, or adroit vista that we may miss and not be a loser; the only drawback is that we see what we are expected to see, what everyone else sees. Here is greenery of every hue; every metallic tint of silver, gold, copper, bronze is there; and old and new favourites take hands, and we feel that it is perfect; but the things blush in their conscious beauty--every prospect is best seen "_there_!" England has few such beautiful gardens as Highnam, and it has all the pathos of the touch of "a vanished hand," and ideals that have wider range now. As to this matter of scenic effects, it is of course only fair to remember that a garden is a place meant not only for broad vision, but for minute scrutiny; and, specially near the house, intricacy is permissible. Yet the counsels of perfection would tell the artist to eschew such prettiness and multiplied beauties as trench upon broad dignity. Sweetness is not good everywhere. Variations in plant-life that are over-enforced, like variations in music, may be inferior to the simple theme. A commonplace house, with well-disposed grounds, flower-beds in the right place, a well-planted lawn, may please longer than a fine pile where is ostentation and unrelieved artifice. Of lawns. Everything in a garden, we have said, has its first original in primal Nature: a garden is made up of wild things that are tamed. The old masters fully realised this. They sucked out the honey of wild things without carrying refinement too far before they sipped it; and in garnering for their _House Beautiful_ the rustic flavour is left so far as was compatible with the requirements of Art--"as much as may be to a natural wildness." And it were well for us to do the same in the treatment of a lawn, which is only the grassy, sun-chequered, woodland glade in, or between woods, in a wild country idealised. A lawn is one of the delights of man. The "Teutonic races"--says Mr Charles Dudley Warner, in his large American way--"The Teutonic races all love turf; they emigrate in the line of its growth." Flower-beds breed cheerfulness, but they may at times be too gay for tired eyes and jaded minds; they may provoke admiration till they are provoking. But a garden-lawn is a vision of peace, and its tranquil grace is a boon of unspeakable value to people doomed to pass their working-hours in the hustle of city-life. The question of planting and of lawn-making runs together, and Nature admonishes us how to set about this work. Every resource she offers should be met by the resources of Art: avoid what she avoids, accept and heighten what she gives. Nature in the wild avoids half-circles and ovals and uniform curves, and they are bad in the planted park, both for trees and greensward. Nature does not of herself dot the landscape over with spies sent out single-handed to show the nakedness of the land, but puts forth detachments that befriend each the other, the boldest and fittest first, in jagged outlines, leading the way, but not out of touch with the rest. And, since the modern landscape-gardener is nothing if not a naturalist, this is why one cannot see the consistency of so fine a master as Mr Marnock, when he dots his lawns over with straggling specimens. (See the model garden, by Mr Marnock in "The English Flower-Garden," p. xxi, described thus--"Here the foreground is a sloping lawn; the flowers are mostly arranged near the kitchen garden, partly shown to right; the hardy ones grouped and scattered in various positions near, or within good view of, the one bold walk which sweeps round the ground.") A garden is ground knit up artistically; ground which has been the field of artistic enterprise; ground which expresses the feeling of beauty and which absorbs qualities which man has discovered in the woodland world. And the qualities in Nature which may well find room in a garden are peace, variety, animation. A good sweep of lawn is a peaceful object, but see that the view is not impeded with the modern's sprawling pell-mell beds. And in the anxiety to make the most of your ground, do not spoil a distant prospect. Remember, too, that a lawn requires a good depth of soil, or it will look parched in the hot weather. And since a lawn is so delightful a thing, beware lest your admiration of it lead you to swamp your whole ground with grass even to carrying it up to the house itself. "Nothing is more a child of Art than a garden," says Sir Walter, and he was competent to judge. If only out of compliment to your architect and to the formal angularities of his building, let the ground immediately about the house be of an ornamental dressed character. Avoid the misplaced rusticity of the fashionable landscape-gardener, who with his Nebuchadnezzar tastes would turn everything into grass, would cart away the terrace and all its adjuncts, do away with all flowers, and "lawn your hundred good acres of wheat," as Repton says, if you will only let him, and if you have them. In his devotion to grass, his eagerness to display the measure of his art in the curves of shrubberies and the arrangement of specimen plants that strut across your lawn or dot it over as the Sunday scholars do the croft when they come for their annual treat, he quite forgets the flowers--forgets the old intent of a garden as the House Beautiful of the civilised world--the place for nature-rapture, colour-pageantry, and sweet odours. "Here the foreground is a sloping lawn; the _flowers are mostly arranged near the kitchen garden_." Anywhere, anywhere out of the way! Or if admitted at all into view of the house, it shall be with little limited privileges, and the stern injunction-- "If you speak you must not show your face, Or if you show your face you must not speak." So much for the garden-craft of the best modern landscape-gardener and its relation to flowers. If this be the garden of the "Gardenesque" style, as it is proudly called, I personally prefer the garden without the style. CHAPTER VII. THE TECHNICS OF GARDENING--(_continued._) "I cannot think Nature is so spent and decayed that she can bring forth nothing worth her former years. She is always the same, like herself; and when she collects her strength is abler still. Men are decayed, and studies; she is not."--BEN JONSON. The old-fashioned country house has, almost invariably, a garden that curtseys to the house, with its formal lines, its terraces, and beds of geometrical patterns. But to the ordinary Landscape-gardener the terrace is as much anathema as the "Kist o' Whistles" to the Scotch Puritan! So able and distinguished a gardener as Mr Robinson, while not absolutely forbidding any architectural accessories or geometrical arrangement, is for ever girding at them. The worst thing that can be done with a true garden, he says ("The English Flower Garden," p. ii), "is to introduce any feature which, unlike the materials of our world-designer, never changes. There are positions, it is true, where the _intrusion of architecture_ and embankment into the garden is justifiable; nay, now and then, even necessary." If one is to promulgate opinions that shall run counter to the wisdom of the whole civilised world, it is, of course, well that they should be pronounced with the air of a Moses freshly come down from the Mount, with the tables of the law in his hands. And there is more of it. "There is no code of taste resting on any solid foundation which proves that garden or park should have any extensive stonework or geometrical arrangement.... Let us, then, use as few oil-cloth or carpet patterns and as little stonework as possible in our gardens. The style is in doubtful taste in climates and positions more suited to it than that of England, but he who would adopt it in the present day is an enemy to every true interest of the garden" (p. vi). So much for the "deadly formalism" of an old-fashioned garden in our author's eyes! But, as Horace Walpole might say, "it is not peculiar to Mr Robinson to think in that manner." It is the way of the landscape-gardener to monopolise to himself all the right principles of gardening; he is the angel of the garden who protects its true interests; all other moods than his are low, all figures other than his are symbols of errors, all dealings with Nature or with "the materials of our world-designer" other than his are spurious. For the colonies I can imagine no fitter doctrines than our author's, but not for an old land like ours, and for methods that have the approval of men like Bacon, Temple, More, Evelyn, Sir Joshua, Sir Walter, Elia, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Morris, and Jefferies. And, even in the colonies, they might demand to see "the code of taste resting on any solid foundation which proves" that you shall have any garden or park at all! "If I am to have a system at all," says the author of "The Flower Garden" (Murray, 1852), whose broad-minded views declare him to be an amateur, "give me the good old system of terraces and angled walks, the clipt yew hedges, against whose dark and rich verdure the bright old-fashioned flowers glittered in the sun." Or again: "Of all the vain assumptions of these coxcombical times, that which arrogates the pre-eminence in the true science of gardening is the vainest.... The real beauty and poetry of a garden are lost in our efforts after rarity. If we review the various styles that have prevailed in England from the knotted gardens of Elizabeth ... to the landscape fashion of the present day, we shall have little reason to pride ourselves on the advance which national taste has made upon the earliest efforts in this department" ("The Praise of Gardens," p. 270). "Large or small," says Mr W. Morris, "the garden should look both orderly and rich. It should be well fenced from the outer world. It should by no means imitate either the wilfulness or the wildness of Nature, but should look like a thing never seen except near a house" ("Hopes and Fears"). The whole point of the matter is, however, perhaps best summed up in Hazlitt's remark, that there is a pleasure in Art which none but artists feel. And why this sudden respect for "the materials of our world-designer," when we may ask in Repton's words "why this art has been called Landscape-gardening, perhaps he who gave the title may explain. I see no reason, unless it be the efficacy which it has shown in destroying landscapes, in which indeed it is infallible!" But, setting aside the transparent shallowness of such a plea against the use of Art in a garden, it argues little for the scheme of effects to leave "nothing to impede the view of the house or its windows but a refreshing carpet of grass." To pitch your house down upon the grass with no architectural accessories about it, to link it to the soil, is to vulgarise it, to rob it of importance, to give it the look of a pastoral farm, green to the door-step. To bring Nature up to the windows of your house, with a scorn of art-sweetness, is not only to betray your own deadness to form, but to cause a sense of unexpected blankness in the visitor's mind on leaving the well-appointed interior of an English home. As the house is an Art-production, so is the garden that surrounds it, and there is no code of taste that I know of which would prove that Art is more reprehensible in the garden than in the house. But to return. The old-fashioned country house had its terraces. These terraces are not mere narrow slopes of turf, such as now-a-days too often answer to the term, but they are of solid masonry with balustrades or open-work that give an agreeable variety of light and shade, and impart an air of importance and of altitude to the house that would be lacking if the terrace were not there. [Illustration: PLAN OF ROSERY, WITH SUNDIAL.] The whole of the ground upon which the house stands, or which forms its base, constitutes the terrace. In such cases the terrace-walls are usually in two or more levels, the upper terrace being mostly parallel with the line of the house, or bowed out at intervals with balconies, while the lower terrace, or terraces, serve as the varying levels of formal gardens, pleasure-grounds, labyrinths, &c. The terraces are approached by wide steps that are treated in a stately and impressive manner. The walls and balustrades, moreover, conform, as they should, to the materials employed in the house; if the house be of stone, as at Haddon, or Brympton, or Claverton, the balustrade is of stone; if the house be of brick, as at Hatfield or Bramshill, the walls and balustrades will be of brick and terra-cotta. The advantage of this agreement of material is obvious, for house and terrace, embraced at one glance, make a consistent whole. There is not, of course, the same necessity for consistency of material in the case of the mere retaining walls. As one must needs have a system in planning grounds, there is none that will more certainly bring honour and effect to them than the regular geometrical treatment. This is what the architect naturally prefers. The house is his child, and he knows what is good for it. Unlike the imported gardener, who comes upon the scene as a foreign agent, the architect works from the house outwards, taking the house as his centre; the other works from the outside inwards, if he thinks of the "inwards" at all. The first thinks of house and grounds as a whole which shall embrace the main buildings, the outbuildings, the flower and kitchen-gardens, terraces, walls, forecourt, winter-garden, conservatory, fountain, steps, &c. The other makes the house common to the commonplace; owing no allegiance to Art, a specialist of one idea, he holds that the worst thing that can be done is to intrude architectural or geometrical arrangement about a garden, and speaks of a refreshing carpet of grass as preferable. As to the extent, number, and situation of terraces, this point is determined by the conditions of the house and site. Terraces come naturally if the house be on an eminence, but even in cases where the ground recedes only to a slight extent, the surface of a second terrace may be lowered by increasing the fall of the slope till sufficient earth is provided for the requisite filling. The surplus earth dug out in forming the foundations and cellars of the house, or rubbish from an old building, will help to make up the terrace levels and save the cost of wheeling and carting the rubbish away. Like all embankments, terrace walls are built with "battered" fronts or outward slope; the back of the wall will be left rough, and well drained. A backing of sods, Mr Milner says, will prevent thrust, and admit of a lessened thickness in the wall. The walls should not be less than three feet in height from the ground-level beneath, exclusive of the balustrade, which is another three feet high. [Illustration: PLAN OF TENNIS LAWN, TERRACES, AND FLOWER GARDEN.] The length of the terrace adds importance to the house, and in small gardens, where the kitchen-garden occupies one side of the flower-garden, the terrace may with advantage be carried to the full extent of the ground, and the kitchen-garden separated by a hedge and shrubs; and at the upper end of the kitchen-garden may be a narrow garden, geometrical, rock, or other garden, set next the terrace wall. The treatment of the upper terrace should be strictly architectural. If the terrace be wide, raised beds with stone edging, set on the inner side of the terrace, say alternately long beds with dwarf flowering shrubs or hydrangeas, and circles with standard hollies, or marble statues on pedestals, that shall alternate with pyramidal golden yews, have a good effect, the terrace terminating with an arbour or stone Pavilion. Modern taste, however, even if it condescend so far as to allow of a terrace, is content with its grass plot and gravel walks, which is not carrying Art very far. Laneham tells of the old pleasaunce at Kenilworth, that it had a terrace 10 ft. high and 12 ft. wide on the garden side, in which were set at intervals obelisks and spheres and white bears, "all of stone, upon their curious bases," and at each end an arbour; the garden-plot was below this, and had its fair alleys, or grass, or gravel. The lower terrace may well be twice the width of the upper one, and may be a geometrical garden laid out on turf, if preferred, but far better upon gravel. Here will be collected the choicest flowers in the garden, giving a mass of rich colouring. Although in old gardens the lower terrace is some 10 ft. below the upper one, this is too deep to suit modern taste; indeed, 5 ft. or 6 ft. will give a better view of the garden if it is to be viewed from the house. At the same time it is undeniable that the more you are able to look _down_ upon the garden--the higher you stand above its plane--the better the effect; the lower you stand, the poorer the perspective. Modern taste, also, will not always tolerate a balustraded wall as a boundary to the terrace, but likes a grass slope. If this poor substitute be preferred, there should be a level space at the bottom of the slope and at the top; the slope should have a continuous line, and not follow any irregularity in the natural lie of the ground, and there should be a simple plinth 12 to 18 in. high at the bottom of the slope. But the mere grass slope does not much help the effect of the house, far or near; a house standing on a grass slope always has the effect of sliding down a hill. To leave the house exposed upon the landscape, unscreened and unterraced, is not to treat site or house fairly. There exists a certain necessity for features in a flat place, and if no raised terrace be possible, it is desirable to get architectural treatment by means of balustrades alone, without much, or any, fall in the ground. The eye always asks for definite boundaries to a piece of ornamental ground as it does for a frame to a picture, and where definite boundaries do not exist, the distant effect is that of a house that has tumbled casually down from the skies, near which the cattle may graze as they list, and the flower-beds are the mere sport of contingencies. [Illustration: GENERAL PLAN OF THE PLEASAUNCE, VILLA ALBANI, ROME.] Good examples of terrace walls are to be found at Haddon, Claverton, Brympton, Montacute, Bramshill, Wilton, and Blickling Hall. If truth be told, however, all our English examples dwindle into nothingness by the side of fine Italian examples like those at Villa Albani,[43] Villa Medici, or Villa Borghese, with their grand scope and array of sculpture. (See illustration from Percier and Fontaine's "_Choix des plus célèbres maisons de plaisance de Rome et de ses environs_." Paris, MDCCCIV.) [Footnote 43: See accompanying plans.] The arrangement of steps is a matter that may call forth a man's utmost ingenuity. The scope and variety of step arrangement is, indeed, a matter that can only be realised by designers who have given it their study. As to practical points. In planning steps make the treads wide, the risers low. Long flights without landings are always objectionable. Some of the best examples, both in England and abroad, have winders; as to the library quadrangle, Trinity Coll., Cambridge; Donibristle Castle, Scotland; Villa d'Este, Tivoli; the gardens at Nîmes. The grandest specimen of all is the Trinità di Monte steps in Rome (see Notes on Gardens in _The British Architect_, by John Belcher and Mervyn Macartney). It is impossible to lay down rules of equal application everywhere as to the distribution of garden area into compartments, borders, terraces, walks, &c. These matters are partly regulated by the character of the house, its situation, the section and outline of the ground. But gardens should, if possible, lie towards the best parts of the house, or towards the rooms most commonly in use by the family, and endeavour should be made to plant them so that to step from the house on to the terrace, or from the terrace to the various parts of the garden, should only seem like going from one room to another. Of the arrangement of the ground into divisions, each section should have its own special attractiveness and should be led up to by some inviting artifice of archway, or screened alley of shrubs, or "rosery" with its trellis-work, or stone colonnade; and if the alley be long it should be high enough to afford shade from the glare of the sun in hot weather; you ought not, as Bacon pertinently says, to "buy the shade by going into the sun." Again, the useful and the beautiful should be happily united, the kitchen and the flower garden, the way to the stables and outbuildings, the orchard, the winter garden, &c., all having a share of consideration and a sense of connectedness; and if there be a chance for a filbert walk, seize it; that at Hatfield is charming. "I cannot understand," says Richard Jefferies ("Wild Life in a Southern Country," p. 70), "why filbert walks are not planted by our modern capitalists, who make nothing of spending a thousand pounds in forcing-houses." A garden should be well fenced, and there should always be facility for getting real seclusion, so much needed now-a-days; indeed, the provision of places of retreat has always been a note of an English garden. The love of retirement, almost as much as a taste for trees and flowers, has dictated its shapes. Hence the cedar-walks,[44] the bower, the avenue, the maze, the alley, the wilderness, that were familiar, and almost the invariable features of an old English pleasaunce, "hidden happily and shielded safe." [Footnote 44: One of the finest and weirdest cedar-walks that I have ever met with is that at Marwell, near Owslebury in Hampshire. Here you realise the wizardry of green gloom and sense of perfect seclusion. It was here that Henry VIII. courted one of his too willing wives.] This seclusion can be got by judicious screening of parts, by shrubberies, or avenues of hazel, or yew, or sweet-scented bay, with perhaps clusters of lilies and hollyhocks, or dwarf Alpine plants and trailers between. And in all this the true gardener will have a thought for the birds. "No modern exotic evergreens," says Jefferies, "ever attract our English birds like the true old English trees and shrubs. In the box and yew they love to build; spindly laurels and rhododendrons, with vacant draughty spaces underneath, they detest, avoiding them as much as possible. The common hawthorn hedge round a country garden shall contain three times as many nests, and be visited by five times as many birds as the foreign evergreens, so costly to rear and so sure to be killed by the first old-fashioned frost." Another chance for getting seclusion is the high walls or lofty yew hedge of the quadrangular courtyard, which may be near the entrance. Such a forecourt is the place for a walk on bleak days; in its borders you are sure of the earliest spring flowers, for the tender flowers can here bloom securely, the myrtle, the pomegranate will flourish, and the most fragrant plants and climbers hang over the door and windows. What is more charming than the effect of hollyhocks, peonies, poppies, tritomas, and tulips seen against a yew hedge? The paths should be wide and excellently made. The English have always had good paths; as Mr Evelyn said to Mr Pepys, "We have the best walks of gravell in the world, France having none, nor Italy." The comfort and the elegance of a garden depend in no slight degree upon good gravel walks, but having secured gravel walks to all parts of the grounds, green alleys should also be provided. Nothing is prettier than a vista through the smooth-shaven green alley, with a statue or sundial or pavilion at the end; or an archway framing a peep of the country beyond. As to the garden's size, it is erroneous to suppose that the enjoyments of a garden are only in proportion to its magnitude; the pleasurableness of a garden depends infinitely more upon the degree of its culture and the loving care that is bestowed upon it. If gardens were smaller than they usually are, there would be a better chance of their orderly keeping. As it is, gardens are mostly too large for the number of attendants, so that the time and care of the gardener are nearly absorbed in the manual labour of repairing and stocking the beds, and maintaining and sweeping the walks. [Illustration: PLAN SHEWING ARRANGEMENT OF SUNK FLOWER GARDEN, YEW WALK, AND TENNIS COURT.] But if not large, the grounds should not have the appearance of being confined within a limited space; and Art is well spent in giving an effect of greater extent to the place than it really possesses by a suitable composition of the walks, bushes, and trees. These lines should lead the eye to the distance, and if bounded by trees, the garden should be connected with the outer world by judicious openings; and this rule applies to gardens large or small. Ground possessing a gentle inclination towards the south is desirable for a garden. On such a slope effectual drainage is easily accomplished, and the greatest possible benefit obtained from the sun's rays. The garden should, if possible, have an open exposure towards the east and west, so that it may enjoy the full benefit of morning and evening sun; but shelter on the north or north-east, or any side in which the particular locality may happen to be exposed, is desirable. The dimensions of the garden will be proportionate to the scale of the house. The general size of the garden to a good-sized house is from four to six acres, but the extent varies in many places from twelve to twenty, or even thirty acres. (See an admirable article on gardening in the "Encyclopædia.") Before commencing to lay out a garden the plan should be prepared in minute detail, and every point carefully considered. Two or three acres of kitchen garden, enclosed by walls and surrounded by slips, will suffice for the supply of a moderate establishment.[45] The form of the kitchen garden advocated by the writer in the "Encyclopædia" is that of a square, or oblong, not curvilinear, since the work of cropping of the ground can thus be more easily carried out. On the whole, the best form is that of a parallelogram, with its longest sides in the proportion of about five to three of the shorter, and running east and west. The whole should be compactly arranged so as to facilitate working, and to afford convenient access for the carting of heavy materials to the store-yards, etc. [Footnote 45: As the walls afford valuable space for the growth of the choicer kinds of hardy fruits, the direction in which they are built is of considerable importance. "In the warmer parts of the country, the wall on the north side of the garden should be so placed as to face the sun at about an hour before noon, or a little to east of south; in less favoured localities it should be made to face direct south, and in the still more unfavourable districts it should face the sun an hour after noon, or a little west of south. The east and west walls should run parallel to each other, and at right angles to that on the north side."] There can, as we have said, be no fixed or uniform arrangement of gardens. Some grounds will have more flower-beds than others, some more park or wilderness; some will have terraces, some not; some a pinetum, or an American garden. In some gardens the terraces will lie immediately below the main front of the house, in others not, because the geometrical garden needs a more sheltered site where the flowers can thrive. [Illustration: PLAN OF SUNK FLOWER GARDEN AND YEW HEDGES.] Of the shapes of the beds it were of little avail to speak, and the diagrams here given are only of use where the conditions of the ground properly admit of their application. The geometrical garden is capable of great variety of handling. A fair size for a geometrical garden is 120 ft. by 60 ft. This size will allow of a main central walk of seven feet that shall divide the panel into two equal parts and lead down to the next level. The space may have a balustrade along its length on the two sides, and on the garden side of the balustrade a flower-bed of mixed flowers and choice low-growing shrubs, backed with hollyhocks, tritoma, lilies, golden-rod, etc. The width of the border will correspond with the space required for the steps that descend from the upper terrace. For obtaining pleasant proportions in the design, the walks in the garden will be of two sizes, gravelled like the rest--the wider walk, say, three feet, the smaller, one foot nine inches. The centre of the garden device on each side may be a raised bed with a stone kerb and an ornamental shrub in the middle, and the space around with, say, periwinkle or stonecrop, mixed with white harebells, or low creepers. Or, should there be no wide main walk, and the garden-plot be treated as one composition, the central bed will have a statue, sundial, fountain, or other architectural feature. Each bed will be edged with box or chamfered stone, or terra-cotta edging. Or the formal garden may be sunk below the level of the paths, and filled either with flowers or with dwarf coniferæ. Both for practical and artistic reasons, the beds should not be too small; they should not be so small that, when filled with plants, they should appear like spots of colour, nor be so large that any part of them cannot be easily reached by a rake. Nor should the shapes of the beds be too angular to accommodate the plants well. In Sir Gardner Wilkinson's book on "Colour" (Murray, 1858, p. 372), he speaks of design and good form as the very _soul_ of a dressed garden; and the very permanence of the forms, which remain though successive series of plants be removed, calls for a good design. The shapes of the beds, as well as the colours of their contents, are taken cognisance of in estimating the general effect of a geometrical garden. This same accomplished author advises that there should always be a less formal garden beyond the geometrical one; the latter is, so to speak, an appurtenance of the house, a feature of the plateau upon which it stands, and no attempt should be made to combine the patterns of the geometrical with the beds or borders of the outer informal garden, such combination being specially ill-judged in the neighbourhood of bushes and winding paths. Of the proper selection of flowers and the determination of the colours for harmonious combination in the geometrical beds, much that is contradictory has been preached, one gardener leaning to more formality than another. There is, however, a general agreement upon the necessity of having beds that will look fairly well at all seasons of the year, and an agreement as to the use of hardy flowers in these beds. Mr Robinson has some good advice to give upon this point ("English Flower Garden," p. 24): "The ugliest and most needless parterre (!) in England may be planted in the most beautiful way with hardy flowers alone." (Why "needless," then?) "Are we not all wrong in adopting one degree, so to say, of plant life as the only fitting one to lay before the house? Is it well to devote the flower-bed to one type of vegetation only--low herbaceous vegetation--be that hardy or tender?... We have been so long accustomed to leave flower-beds raw, and to put a number of plants out every year, forming flat surfaces of colour, that no one even thinks of the higher and better way of filling them. But surely it is worth considering whether it would not be right to fill the beds permanently, rather than to leave them in this naked or flat condition throughout the whole of the year.... If any place asks for permanent planting, it is the spot of ground immediately near the house; for no one can wish to see large, grave-like masses of soil frequently dug and disturbed near the windows, and few care for the result of all this, even when the ground is well covered during a good season." Again our author, on p. 95, states that "he has very decided notions as to arrangement of the various colours for summer bedding, which are that the whole shall be so commingled that one would be puzzled to determine what tint predominates in the entire arrangement." He would have a "glaucous" colour, that is, a light grey or whitish green. Such a colour never tires the eye, and harmonises with the tints of the landscape, "particularly of the lawn." This seems to be neutralising the effects of the flowers, and this primal consideration of the lawn is like scorning your picture for the sake of its frame! Sir Gardner Wilkinson, who writes of gardens from quite another point of view, says: "It is by no means necessary or advisable to select rare flowers for the beds, and some of the most common are the most eligible, being more hardy, and therefore less likely to fail, or to cover the bed with a scanty and imperfect display of colour. Indeed, it is a common mistake to seek rare flowers, when many of the old and most ordinary varieties are far more beautiful. The point to note in this matter of choosing flowers for a geometrical garden is to ascertain first the lines that will best accord with the design, and make for a harmonious and brilliant effect, and to see that the flowers best suited to it blossom at the same periods. A succession of those of the same colour may be made to take the place of each, and continue the design at successive seasons. They should also be, as near as possible, of the same height as their companions, so that the blue flowers be not over tall in one bed, or the red too short in another.... Common flowers, the weeds of the country, are often most beautiful in colour, and are not to be despised because they are common; they have also the advantage of being hardy, and rare flowers are not always those best suited for beds" (Wilkinson on "Colour," p. 375). With regard to the ornamental turf-beds of our modern gardens. To judge of a garden upon high principles, we expect it to be the finest and fittest expression that a given plot of ground will take; it must be the perfect adaptation of means to an end and that end is beauty. Are we to suppose, then, that the turf-beds of strange device that we meet with in modern gardens are the best that can be done by the heir of all the ages in the way of garden-craft? A garden, I am aware, has other things to attend to besides the demands of ideal beauty; it has to embellish life to supply innocent pleasure to the inmates of the house as well as to dignify the house itself; and the devising of these vagrant beds that sprawl about the grounds is a pleasure that can be ill spared from the artistic delights of a modern householder. It is indeed wonderful to what heights the British fancy can rise when put to the push, if only it have a congenial field! So here we have flower-beds shaped as crescents and kidneys--beds like flying bats or bubbling tadpoles, commingled butterflies and leeches, stars and sausages, hearts and commas, monograms and maggots--a motley assortment to be sure--but the modern mind is motley, and the pretty flowers smile a sickly smile out of their comic beds, as though Paradise itself could provide them with no fairer lodgings! And yet if I dare speak my mind "sike fancies weren foolerie;" and it were hard to find a good word to say for them from any point of view whatever. Their wobbly shapes are not elegant; they have not the sanction of precedent, even of epochs the most barbarous. And though they make pretence at being a species of art, their mock-formality has not that geometric precision which shall bind them to the formal lines of the house, or to the general bearings of the site. Not only do they contribute nothing to the artistic effect of the general design, but they even mar the appearance of the grass that accommodates them. Design they have, but not design of that quality which alone justifies its intrusion. No wonder "Nature abhors lines" if this base and spurious imitation of the "old formality," that Charles Lamb gloats over, is all that the landscape-garden can offer in the way of idealisation. One other feature of the old-fashioned garden--the herbaceous border--requires a word. It is worthy of note that, unlike the modern, the ancient gardener was not a man of one idea--his art is not bounded like a barrel-organ that can only play one invariable tune! While the master of the "old formality" can give intricate harmonies of inwoven colours in the geometric beds--"all mosaic, choicely planned," where Nature lends her utmost magic to grace man's fancy--he knows the value of the less as well as the more, and finds equal room for the unconstrained melodies of odd free growths in the border-beds, where you shall enjoy the individual character, the form, the outline, the colour, the tone of each plant. Here let the mind of an earlier generation speak in George Milner's "Country Pleasures": "By this time I have got round to the old English flower-bed, where only perennials with an ancient ancestry are allowed to grow. Here there is always delight; and I should be sorry to exchange its sweet flowers for any number of cartloads of scentless bedding-plants, mechanically arranged and ribbon-bordered. This bed is from fifty to sixty yards long, and three or four yards in width. A thorn hedge divides it from the orchard. In spring the apple-bloom hangs over, and now we see in the background the apples themselves. The plants still in flower are the dark blue monkshood, which is 7ft. high; the spiked veronica; the meadow-sweet or queen-o'-the-meadow; the lady's mantle, and the evening primrose. This last may be regarded as the characteristic plant of the season. The flowers open about seven o'clock, and as the twilight deepens, they gleam like pale lamps, and harmonise wonderfully with the colour of the sky. _On this bed I read the history of the year._ Here were the first snowdrops; here came the crocuses, the daffodils, the blue gentians, the columbines, the great globed peonies; and last, the lilies and the roses." And now to apply what has been said. Since gardening entails so much study and experience--since it is a craft in which one is so apt to err, in small matters as in large--since it exists to represent passages of Nature that have touched man's imagination from time immemorial--since its business is to paint living pictures of living things whose habits, aspects, qualities, and character have ever engaged man's interest--since the modern gardener has not only not found new sources of inspiration unknown of old, but has even lost sensibility to some that were active then--it were surely wise to take the hand of old garden-masters who did large things in a larger past--to whom fine gardening came as second nature--whose success has given English garden-craft repute which not even the journeyman efforts of modern times can quite extinguish. These men--Bacon, Temple, Evelyn, and their school--let us follow for style, elevated form, noble ideals, and artistic interpretation of Nature. For practical knowledge of trees and shrubs, indigenous or exotic--to know _how_ to plant and _what_ to plant--to know what to avoid in the practice of modern blunderers--to know the true theory and practice of Landscape-gardening, reduced to writing, after ample analysis--turn we to those books of solid value of the three great luminaries of modern garden-craft, Gilpin, Repton, Loudon. And it were not only to be ungenerous, but absolutely foolish, to neglect the study of the best that is now written and done in the way of landscape-gardening, in methods of planting, and illustration of botany up to date. One school may see things from a different point of view to another, yet is there but one art of gardening. It is certain that to gain boldness in practice, to have clear views upon that delicate point--the relations of Art and Nature--to have a reliable standard of excellence, we must know and value the good in the garden-craft of all times, we must sympathise with the point of view of each phase, and follow that which is good in each and all without scruple and doubtfulness. That man is a fool who thinks that he can escape the influence of his day, or that he can dispense with tradition. I say, let us follow the old garden-masters for style, form, ideal, and artistic interpretation of Nature, and let us not say what Horace Walpole whimpered forth of Temple's garden-enterprise: "These are adventures of too hard achievement for any common hands." Have we not seen that at the close of Bacon's lessons in grand gardening he adds, that the things thrown in "for state and magnificence" are but nothing to the true pleasure of a garden? The counsels of perfection are not to be slighted because our ground is small. In gardening, as in other matters, the true test of one's work is the measure of one's possibilities. A small, trim garden, like a sonnet, may contain the very soul of beauty. A small garden may be as truly admirable as a perfect song or painting. Let it be our aim, then, to give to gardening all the method and distinctness of which it is capable, and admit no impediments. A garden not fifty yards square, deftly handled, judiciously laid out, its beds and walks suitably directed, will yield thrice the opportunity for craft, thrice the scope for imaginative endeavour that a two-acre "garden" of the pastoral-farm order, such as is recommended of the faculty, will yield. The very division of the ground into proportionate parts, the varied levels obtained, the framed vistas, the fitting architectural adjuncts, will alone contribute an air of size and scale. As to "codes of taste" (which are usually in matters of Art only someone's opinions stated pompously), these should not be allowed to baulk individual enterprise. "Long experience," says that accomplished gardener and charming writer, E. V. B., in "Days and Hours in a Garden" (p. 125), "Long experience has taught me to have nothing to do with principles in the garden. Little else than a feeling of entire sympathy with the diverse characters of your plants and flowers is needed for 'Art in a Garden.' If sympathy be there, all the rest comes naturally enough." Or to put this thought in Temple's words, "The success is wholly in the gardener." If a garden grow flowers in abundance, _there_ is success, and one may proceed to frame a garden after approved "codes of taste" and fail in this, or one may prefer unaccepted methods and find success beyond one's fondest dreams. "All is fine that is fit" is a good garden motto; and what an eclectic principle is this! How many kinds of style it allows, justifies, and guards! the simplest way or the most ornate; the fanciful or the sweet austere; the intricate and complex, or the coy and unconstrained. Take it as true as Gospel that there is danger in the use of ornament--danger of excess--take it as equally true that there is an intrinsic and superior value in moderation, and yet the born gardener shall find more paths, old and new, that lead to Beauty in a plot of garden-ground than the modern stylist dreams of. The art of gardening may now be known of all men. Gardening is no longer a merely princely diversion requiring thirty wide acres for its display. Everyone who can, now lives in the country, where he is bound to have a garden; and I repeat what I said before, let no one suppose that the beauty of a garden depends on its acreage, or on the amount of money spent upon it. Nay, one would almost prefer a small garden plot, so as to ensure that ample justice shall be done to it.[46] In a small garden there is less fear of dissipated effort, more chance of making friends with its inmates, more time to spare to heighten the beauty of its effects. [Footnote 46: "Embower a cottage thickly and completely with nothing but roses, and nobody would desire the interference of another plant."--LEIGH HUNT.] To some extent the success of a garden depends upon favourable conditions of sun, soil, and water, but more upon the choiceness of its contents, the skill of its planting, the lovingness of its tendence. Love for beauty has a way of enticing beauty; the seeing eye wins its own ranges of vision, finds points of vantage in unlikely ground. "I write in a nook," says the poet Cowper, "that I call my boudoir; it is a summerhouse, not bigger than a sedan-chair; the door of it opens into the garden that is now crowded with pinks, roses, and honeysuckles, _and the window into my neighbour's orchard_. It formerly served an apothecary as a smoking-room; at present, however, it is dedicated to sublimer uses." What a mastery of life is here! "As if life's business were a summer mood; As if all needful things would come unsought To genial faith, still rich in genial good; * * * * * By our own spirits are we deified." But I must not finish the stanza in this connection. A garden is pre-eminently a place to indulge individual taste. "Let us not be that fictitious thing," says Madame Roland, "that can only exist by the help of others--_soyons nous_!" So, regardless of the doctors, let me say that the best general rule that I can devise for garden-making is: put all the beauty and delightsomeness you can into your garden, get all the beauty and delight you can out of your garden, never minding a little mad want of balance, and think of proprieties afterwards! Of course, this is to "prove naething," but never mind if but the garden enshrine beauty. To say this is by no means to allow that the garden is the fit place for indulging your love of the out-of-the-way; not so, yet a little sign of fresh motive, a touch of individual technique, a token, however shyly displayed, that you think for yourself is welcome in a garden. Thus I know of a gardener who turned a section of his grounds into a sort of huge bear-pit, not a sunk-pit, but a mound that took the refuse soil from the site of his new house hollowed out, and its slopes set all round with Alpine and American garden-plants, each variety finding the aspect it likes best, and the proportion of light and shade that suits its constitution. This is, of course, to "intrude embankments" into a garden with a vengeance, yet even Mr Robinson, if he saw it, would allow that, as in love and war, your daring in gardening is justified by its results, where, as George Herbert has it-- "Who shuts his hand, hath lost its gold; Who opens it, hath it twice told." A garden is, first and last, a place for flowers; but, treading in the old master's footsteps, I would devote a certain part of even a small garden to Nature's own wild self, and the loveliness of weed-life. Here Art should only give things a good start and help the propagation of some sorts of plants not indigenous to the locality. Good effects do not ensue all at once, but stand aside and wait, or help judiciously, and the result will be a picture of rude and vigorous life, of pretty colour and glorious form, that is gratifying for its own qualities, and more for its opposition to the peacefulness of the garden's ordered surroundings. A garden is the place for flowers, a place where one may foster a passion for loveliness, may learn the magic of colour and the glory of form, and quicken sympathy with Nature in her higher moods. And, because the old-fashioned garden more conduces to these ends than the modern, it has our preference. The spirit of old garden-craft, says: "Do everything that can be done to help Nature, to lift things to perfection, to interpret, to give to your Art method and distinctness." The spirit of the modern garden-craft of the purely landscape school says: "Let be, let well alone, or extemporise at most. Brag of your scorn for Art, yet smuggle her in, as a stalking-horse for your halting method and non-geometrical forms." And, as we have shown, Art has her revenges as well as Nature; and the very negativeness of this school's Art-treatments is the seal to its doom. Mere neutral teaching can father nothing; it can never breed a system of stable device that is capable of development. But old garden-craft is positive, where the other is negative; it has no niggling scruples, but clear aims, that admit of no impediment except the unwritten laws of good taste. Hence its permanent value as a standard of device--for every gardener must needs desire the support of some backbone of experience to stiffen his personal efforts--he must needs have some basis of form on which to rest his own device, his own realisations of natural beauty--and what safer, stabler system of garden-craft can he wish for than that of the old English garden--itself the outcome of a spacious age, well skilled in the pictorial art and bent upon perfection? The qualities to aim at in a flower-garden are beauty, animation, variety, mystery. A garden's beauty, like a woman's beauty, is measured by its capacity for taking fine dress. Given a fine garden, and we need not fear to use embellishment or strong colour, or striking device, according to the adage "The richly provided richly require." [Illustration: (PERSPECTIVE VIEW). PLAN SHEWING ARRANGEMENT OF FOUNTAIN, YEW WALK, AND FLOWER BEDS FOR A LARGE GARDEN.] Because Art stands, so to speak, sponsor for the grace of a garden, because all gardening is Art or nothing, we need not fear to overdo Art in a garden, nor need we fear to make avowal of the secret of its charm. I have no more scruple in using the scissors upon tree or shrub, where trimness is desirable, than I have in mowing the turf of the lawn that once represented a virgin world. There is a quaint charm in the results of the topiary art, in the prim imagery of evergreens, that all ages have felt. And I would even introduce _bizarreries_ on the principle of not leaving all that is wild and odd to Nature outside of the garden-paling; and in the formal part of the garden my yews should take the shape of pyramids or peacocks or cocked hats or ramping lions in Lincoln-green, or any other conceit I had a mind to, which vegetable sculpture can take. [Illustration: PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF GARDEN IN PLAN FOLLOWING.] As to the other desirable qualities--animation, variety, mystery--I would base my garden upon the model of the old masters, without adopting any special style. The place should be a home of fancy, full of intention, full of pains (without showing any); half common-sense, half romance; "neither praise nor poetry, but something better than either," as Burke said of Sheridan's speech; it should have an ethereal touch, yet be not inappropriate for the joyous racket and country cordiality of an English home. It should be "A miniature of loveliness, all grace Summ'd up and closed in little"-- something that would challenge the admiration and suit the moods of various minds; be brimful of colour-gladness, yet be not all pyramids of sweets, but offer some solids for the solid man; combining old processes and new, old idealisms and new realisms; the monumental style of the old here, the happy-go-lucky shamblings of the modern there; the page of Bacon or Temple here, the page of Repton or Marnock there. At every turn the imagination should get a fresh stimulus to surprise; we should be led on from one fair sight, one attractive picture, to another; not suddenly, nor without some preparation of heightened expectancy, but as in a fantasy, and with something of the quick alternations of a dream. [Illustration: PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF A DESIGN FOR A GARDEN, WITH CLIPPED YEW HEDGES AND FLOWER BEDS.] Your garden, gentle reader, is perchance not yet made. It were indeed happiness if, when good things betide you, and the time is ripe for your enterprise, Art ... "Shall say to thee I find you worthy, do this thing for me." CHAPTER VIII. ON THE OTHER SIDE.--A PLEA FOR SAVAGERY. "I am tired of civilised Europe, and I want to see a wild country if I can."--W. R. GREG. "Howsoever these things be, a long farewell to Locksley Hall!"--TENNYSON. We have discussed the theory of a garden; we have analysed the motives which prompt its making, the various treatments of which it is susceptible; we have made a kind of inventory of its effects, its enchantments, its spendthrift joys. Now we will hear the other side, and find out why the morbid, tired man, the modern Hamlet, likes it not, why the son of culture loathes it as a lack-lustre thing, betokening to him the sedentary and respectable world in its most hostile form. Having made our picture now we will turn it round, and note why it is that the garden, with its full complement of approved ornament, its selected vegetation, its pretty turns for Nature, its many-sided beauty-- "Or gay, or grave, or sweet, or stern was there Not less than truth designed" --shall never wholly satisfy. Your garden will serve you in many ways. It will give a sense of household warmth to your home. It will smile, or look grave, or be dreamily fanciful almost at your bidding. If your bent be that way it will minister to your imaginative reverie, and almost surfeit you with its floods of lazy music. If you are hot, or weary, or dispirited, or touched with _ennui_, its calm atmosphere will lay the dust and lessen the fret of your life. Yet--let us not blink the fact--just because _all_ Nature is not represented here; because the girdle of the garden walls narrows our view of the world at large, and excludes more of Nature's physiognomy than it includes; because the garden is, as Sir Walter truly says, entirely "a child of Art"; the place, be it never so fair, falls short of man's imaginative craving, and, when put to the push, fails to supply the stimulus his varying moods require. Art's sounding-line will never fathom human nature's emotional depths. Nay, one need not be that interesting product of civilisation, the over-civilised artist who writes books, and paints pictures, and murmurs rhyme that-- "Beats with light wing against the ivory gate, Telling a tale not too importunate To those who in the sleepy region stay, Lulled by the singer of an empty day." There is the _ennuyé_ of the clubs whom you are proud to meet in Pall Mall, not a hair of his hat turned, not a wrinkle marring the sit of his coat; meeting him thus and there you would not dream of supposing that this exquisite trophy of the times is a prey to reactionary desires! Yet deep down in the hidden roots of his being lies a layer of unscotched savagery--an unextinguished, inextinguishable strain of the wild man of the woods. Scratch him, and beneath his skin is Rousseau-Thoreau. Scratch him again in the same place, and beneath his second skin see the brown hide of the aboriginal Briton, the dweller in wattled abodes, who knew an earlier England than this, that had swamps and forests, roadless wastes and unbridled winter floods, and strange beasts that no man could tame. Even he ("the sweetest lamb that ever loved a bear") will prate to you of the Bohemian delights of an ungardened country, where "the white man's poetry" has not defiled the landscape, and the Britisher shall be free to take his pleasure sadly. Let us not be too hard, then, on that dislike of beauty, that worship of the barbaric which we are apt to condemn as distempered vagaries, for they denote maladies incident to the age, which are neither surprising nor ignoble. This disdain for Art in a garden, this abhorrence of symmetry, this preference for the rude and shaggy, what is it but a new turn given to old instincts, the new Don Quixote sighing for primævalism! This ruthlessness of the followers of the "immortal Brown" who would navvy away the residue of the old-fashioned English gardens; who live to reverse tradition and to scatter the lessons of the past to the winds; what is it but a new quest of the bygone, the knight-errantry of the civilized man, when turned inside out! And for yet another reason is the garden unable to meet the moods of the age. In discussing the things it may rightly contain, we saw that the laws of artistic presentment, no less than the avowed purpose for which a garden is made, require that only such things shall be admitted, or such aspects be portrayed there, as conduce to gladness and poetic charm. And, so far as the garden is concerned, the restriction is necessary and desirable. As with other phases of Art, Sculpture, Painting, or Romance, the things and aspects portrayed must be idealistic, not realistic; its effects must be select, not indiscriminate. The garden is a deliberately contrived thing, a voluntary piece of handicraft, purpose-made; and for this reason it must not stereotype imperfections; it may toy with Nature, but must not wilfully exaggerate what is ordinary; only Nature may exaggerate herself--not Art. It must not imitate those items in Nature that are crude, ugly, abnormal, elementary; it may not reproduce the absolutely repellent; or at most, the artist may only touch them with a light hand, by way of imaginative hint, but not with intent to produce a finished picture out of them. On this point there is a distinct analogy between the guiding principles of Art and Religion. Art and Religion both signify effort to comply with an ideal standard--indeed, the height of the standard is the test of each--and what makes for innocence or for faultiness in the one, makes for innocence or faultiness in the other. Innocence is found in each, but to be without guile in Art or in Religion means that you must be either flawlessly obedient to a perfect standard, or be beyond the pale of law through pure ignorance of wrong. Where no law is, there can be no transgression. Between these two points is no middle-ground, either in the fields of Art or of Religion. To apply this to a garden. Untaught, lawless Nature may present things indiscriminately, as they are, the casual, the accidental, the savage, in their native dress, or undress, in all their rugged reality, and not be ashamed. But the artist-gardener, knowing good and evil, exercising free-will in his garden-craft, must choose only what he may rightly have, and employ only what his trained judgment or the unwritten commandments of good taste will allow. There you have the art of a garden. But because of its necessary exclusiveness, because all Nature is not there, the garden, though of the best, the most far-reaching in its application of art-resources, fails to satisfy all man's imaginative cravings. Your garden, I said, will serve you many a good turn. Here one may come to play the truant from petty worries, to find quiet harbourage in the chopping sea of life's casual ups and downs; but when _real_ trouble comes, on occasions of spiritual tension, or mental conflict, or heavy depression, then the perfect beauty of the garden offends; the garden has no respect for sadness--then it almost mocks and flaunts you; it smiles the same, though your child die, and then instinct sends you away from the lap of Art to the bosom of Nature-- "Knowing that Nature never did betray The heart that loved her." All of man, then, asks for all of Nature, and is not content with less. Just as a stringed instrument, even when lying idle, is awake to sympathetic sound but refuses to vibrate to notes that are not kindred to its compass, so the garden, with all its wakeful magic, will voice only such of your moods as it is in touch with; and there are many chords missing in the cunningly encased music of a garden--many human notes find no answering pulsation there. Let us not blink the fact, then; Art, whether of this sphere or of that, is not all. If you want beauty ready-made, obvious gladness of colour, heightened nobleness of form, suggested romance, Nature idealised--all these things are yours in a garden; and yet the very "dressing" of the place which heightens its appeal to one side of man's being is the bar to its acceptance on another side. To have been baptised of Art is to have received gifts rich and strange, that enable the garden's contents to climb to ideal heights; and yet not all men care for perfectness; the most part prefer creatures not too bright or good for human nature's daily food. So, to tell truth, the wild things of field, forest, and shore have a gamut of life, a range of appeal wider than the gardens; the impunities of lawless Nature reach further than man's finished strokes. Nay, when man has done his best in a garden, some shall even regret, for sentimental reasons, that he brought Art upon the scene at all. "Even after the wild landscape, through which youth had strayed at will, has been laid out into fields and gardens, and enclosed with fences and hedges; after the footsteps, which had bounded over the flower-strewn grass have been circumscribed within firm gravel-walks, the vision of its former happiness will still at times float before the mind in its dreams." ("Guesses at Truth.") Beauty, Romance, and Nature await an audience with you in the garden; but it is Beauty after she has been sent to school to learn the tricks of conscious grace; Beauty that has "the foreign aid of ornament," that walks with the supple gait of one who has been well drilled; but gone are the fine careless raptures, gone the bounding step, the blithe impulses of unschooled freedom and gipsy life out of doors. Romance awaits you, holding in her hand a picture of things bright and jocund, full of tender colour and sweet suggestion; a picture designed to prove this world to be unruffled Arcadia, a sunlit pageant, a dream of delectation, a place for solace, a Herrick-land "Of brooks, of blossoms, birds, and bowers;" and human life a jewelled tale with all the irony left out. Nature awaits you, but only as a fair captive, ready to respond to your behests, to answer to the spring of your imaginings. To man's wooing, "I love you, love me back," she resigned herself, not perceiving the drift of homage that was paid, not so much to the beauty that she had, but to the beauty of a heightened sort that should ensue upon his cultivation, for the sake of which he sought her. So now her wildness is subdued. The yew and the holly from the tangled brake shall feel the ignominy of the shears. The "common" thorn of the hedge shall be grafted with one of the twenty-seven rarer sorts; the oak and maple shall be headed down and converted into scarlet species; the single flowers, obedient to a beautiful disease, shall blow as doubles, and be propagated by scientific processes that defy Nature and accomplish centuries of evolution at a stride. The woodbine from the vernal wood must be nailed to the carpenter's trellis, the brook may no more brawl, nor violate its limits, the leaves of the hollybush and the box shall be variegated, the forest tree and woodland shrub shall have their frayed hedges shorn, and their wildness pressed out of them in Art's dissembling embrace. And as with the green things of the earth, so with the creatures of the animal world that are admitted into the sanctuary of a garden. Here is no place for nonconformity of any kind. True, the spruce little squirrel asks no leave for his dashing raids upon the beech-mast and the sweet chestnuts that have escaped the range of the gardener's broom; true, the white and golden pheasant and the speckled goligny may moon about in their distraught fashion down the green alleys and in and out the shrubberies; the foreign duck may frisk in the lake; the white swan may hoist her sail, and "float double, swan and shadow;" the birds may sing in the trees; the peacock may strut on the lawn, or preen his feathers upon the terrace walls; the fallow deer may browse among the bracken on the other side of the ha-ha--thus much of the animal creation shall be allowed here, and not the most fastidious son of Adam will protest a word. But note the terms of their admission. They are a select company, gathered with nice judgment from all quarters of the globe, that are bound over to respectable behaviour, pledged to the beautiful or picturesque; they are in chains, though the chains be aerial and not seen. It is not that the gardener loves pheasants or peacocks, ducks or swans or guinea-fowls for themselves, or for their contribution to the music of the place. Not this, but because these creatures assist the garden's magic, they support the illusion upon which the whole thing is based; as they flit about, and cross and recross the scene, and scream, and quack, and cackle, you get a touch of actuality that adds finish to the strangeness and piquancy that prevail around; they verify your doubting vision, and make valid the reality of its ideality; they accord with the well-swept lawn, the scented air, the flashing radiance of the fountain, the white statuary backed by dark yews or dim stone alcoves, with the clipt shrubs, the dreaming trees, the blare of bright colours, in the shapely beds, the fragrant odours and select beauties of the place. These living creatures (for they _are_ alive), prowling about the grounds,[47] looking fairly comfortable in artificial surroundings from whence their clipped wings will not allow them to escape, incline you to believe that this world is a smooth, genteel, beneficent world after all, and its pastoral character is here so well sustained that no one would be a bit surprised if Pan with his pipe of reeds, or Corydon with his white-fleeced flock, should turn the corner at any moment. [Footnote 47: Lord Beaconsfield adds macaws to the ornament of his ideal garden. "Sir Ferdinand, when he resided at Armine, was accustomed to fill these pleasure grounds with macaws and other birds of gorgeous plumage." But Lord Beaconsfield is Benjamin Disraeli--a master of the ornate, a bit of a dandy always. In Italy, too, they throw in porcupines and ferrets for picturesqueness. In Holland are our old friends the tin hare and guinea-pigs, and the happy shooting boy, in holiday attire, painted to the life.] It is only upon man's terms, however, and to suit his scheme of scenic effects, that these tame things are allowed on the premises. They are not here because man loves them. Woe to the satin-coated mole that blindly burrows on the lawn! Woe to the rabbit that sneaks through the fence, or to the hare that leaps it! Woe to the red fox that litters in the pinetum, or to the birds that make nests in the shrubberies! Woe to the otter that takes license to fish in the ponds at the bottom of the pleasaunce! Woe to the blackbirds that strip the rowan-tree of its berries just when autumn visitors are expected! Woe to the finches that nip the buds off the fruit-trees in the hard spring frost, presuming upon David's plea for sacrilege! Death, instant or prolonged, or dear life purchased at the price of a torn limb, for the silly things that dare to stray where the woodland liberties are forbidden to either plant or animal! So much for the results of man's manipulation of the universe in the way of making ornamental grounds! And the sketch here given applies equally to the new style or to the old, to the garden after Loudon or to the garden after Bacon; the destiny of things is equally interfered with to meet the requirements of the one or the other; the styles are equally artificial, equally remorseless to primal Nature. But one may go farther, and ask: What wonder at the outcry of the modern Nature-lovers against a world so altered from its original self as that Hawthorne should say of England in general that here "the wildest things are more than half tame? The trees, for instance, whether in hedgerow, park, or what they call forest, have nothing wild about them. They are never ragged; there is a certain decorous restraint in the freest outspread of their branches!" Nay, so far does this mistaken man carry his diseased appetite for English soil, marred as it is, that he shall write: "To us Americans there is a kind of sanctity even in an English turnip-field, when we think how long that small square of ground has been known and recognised as a possession, transmitted from father to son, trodden often by memorable feet, and utterly redeemed from savagery by old acquaintance with civilised eyes" ("Our Old Home," p. 75). What wonder, I say, that a land that is so hopelessly gardened as this--a land so sentimentalised and humanised that its very clods, to the American, are "poesy all ramm'd with life"--shall grate the nerves of the Hamlets of to-day, who live too much in the sun, whom man delights not, nor woman neither! What a land to live in! when its best landscape painters--men like Gainsborough or Constable--are so carried away by the influence of agriculture upon landscape, so lost to the superiority of wild solitude, that they will plainly tell you that they like the fields the farmers work in, and the work they do in them; preferring Nature that was modified by man, painting a well-cultivated country with villages and mills and church-steeples seen over hedges and between trees![48] [Footnote 48: See P. G. Hamerton's "Sylvan Year," p. 112.] What a land to live in! when even Nature's wild children of field and forest hug their chains--preserve their old ways and habits up to the very frontier-line of civilisation. For here is Jefferies (who ought to know) writing thus: "Modern progress, except where it has exterminated them, has scarcely touched the habits of bird or animal; so almost up to the very houses of the metropolis the nightingale yearly returns to her old haunts. If we go a few hours' journey only, and then step just beyond the highway, where the steam ploughing-engine has left the mark of its wide wheels on the dust, and glance into the hedgerow, the copse, or stream, there are Nature's children as unrestrained in their wild, free life as they were in the veritable backwoods of primitive England." What wonder that a land where Nature has thus succumbed wholesale to culture, should exasperate the man who has earned a right to be morbid, or that he should cry aloud in his despair, "I am tired of civilised Europe, and I want to see a _wild_ country if I can." Too many are our spots renowned for beauty, our smiling champaigns of flower and fruit. For "Fair prospects wed happily with fair times; but, alas, if times be not fair!" Hence the comfort of oppressive surroundings over-sadly tinged, to men who suffer from the mockery of a place that is too smiling! Hence the glory of a waste like Egdon to Mr Hardy! ("The Return of the Native," pp. 4, 5). For Egdon Heath, "Haggard Egdon appealed to a subtler and scarcer instinct, to a more recently learnt emotion than that which responds to the sort of beauty called charming and fair. Indeed, it is a question if the exclusive reign of this orthodox beauty is not approaching its last quarter. The new Vale of Tempe may be a gaunt waste in Thule; human souls may find themselves in closer and closer harmony with external things wearing a sombreness distasteful to our race when it was young. The time seems near, if it has not actually arrived, when the chastened sublimity of a moor, a sea, or a mountain will be all of Nature that is absolutely in keeping with the moods of the more thinking of mankind. And ultimately, to the commonest tourist, spots like Iceland may become what the vineyards and myrtle-gardens of South Europe are to him now; and Heidelberg and Baden be passed unheeded as he hastens from the Alps to the sand-dunes of Scheveningen." I admit that it is strange that time should hold in reserve such revenges as this ascetic writing denotes--strange that man should find beauty irksome, and that he should feel blasted with the very ecstasy himself has built up in a garden! strange this sudden recoil of the smooth son of culture from the extreme of Art, to the extreme of Nature! Stranger still that the "Yes" and "No" of the _Ideal_ Hyde and the _Real_ Jekyll should consist in the same bosom, and that a man shall be, as it were, a prey to contrary maladies at one and the same time! Yet we have found this in Bacon--prince of fine gardeners, who with all his seeming content with the heroic pleasaunce that he has made, shall still betray a sneaking fondness for the maiden charms of Bohemia outside. Earthly Paradise is fine and fit, but there must needs be "mounts of some pretty height, leaving the wall of the enclosure breast high to look abroad in the fields"--there must be "a window open, to fly out at, a secret way to retire by." Nay, after all, what are to him the charms that inspire his rhapsody of words--the things that princes add for state and magnificence! They are Delilah's charms, and "but nothing to the true pleasure of a garden!" "Our gardens in Paris," says Joubert, "smell musty; I do not like these ever-green trees. There is something of blackness in their greenery, of coldness in their shade. Besides, since they neither lose anything, nor have anything to fear, they seem to me unfeeling, and hence have little interest for me.... Those irregular gardens, which we call English gardens, require a labyrinth for a dwelling." "I hate those trees that never lose their foliage" (says Landor); "they seem to have no sympathy with Nature; winter and summer are alike to them." Says Thomson, ... "For loveliness Needs not the foreign aid of ornament, But it is when unadorned adorn'd the most." Or Cowley's "My garden painted o'er With Nature's hand, not Art's; and pleasures yield, Horace might envy in his Sabine field." Or Addison: "I have often looked upon it as a piece of happiness that I have never fallen into any of these fantastical tastes, nor esteemed anything the more for its being uncommon and hard to be met with. For this reason I look upon the whole country in spring-time as a spacious garden, and make as many visits to a spot of daisies, or a bank of violets, as a florist does to his borders or parterres. There is not a bush in blossom within a mile of me which I am not acquainted with, nor scarce a daffodil or cowslip that withers away in my neighbourhood without my missing it." Or Rousseau: "I can imagine, said I to them, a rich man from Paris or London, who should be master of this house, bringing with him an expensive architect to spoil Nature. With what disdain would he enter this simple and mean place! With what contempt would he have all these tatters uprooted! What fine avenues he would open out! What beautiful alleys he would have pierced! What fine goose-feet, what fine trees like parasols and fans! What finely fretted trellises! What beautifully-drawn yew hedges, finely squared and rounded! What fine bowling-greens of fine English turf, rounded, squared, sloped, ovaled; what fine yews carved into dragons, pagodas, marmosets, every kind of monster! With what fine bronze vases, what fine stone-founts he would adorn his garden! When all that is carried out, said M. De Wolmar, he will have made a very fine place, which one will scarcely enter, and will always be anxious to leave to seek the country." Or Gautier, upon Nature's wild growths: "You will find in her domain a thousand exquisitely pretty little corners into which man seldom or never penetrates. There, from every constraint, she gives herself up to that delightful extravagance of dishevelled plants, of glowing flowers and wild vegetation--everything that germinates, flowers, and casts its seeds, instinct with an eager vitality, to the wind, whose mission it is to disperse them broadcast with an unsparing hand.... And over the rain-washed gate, bare of paint, and having no trace of that green colour beloved by Rousseau, we should have written this inscription in black letters, stonelike in shape, and threatening in aspect: 'GARDENERS ARE PROHIBITED FROM ENTERING HERE.' "Such a whim--very difficult for one to realise who is so deeply incrusted with civilisation, where the least originality is taxed as folly--is continually indulged in by Nature, who laughs at the judgment of fools." Or Thoreau--hero of the Walden shanty, with his open-air gospel--all Nature for the asking--to whom a garden is but Nature debauched, and all Art a sin: "There is in my nature, methinks, a singular yearning towards wildness.... We are apt enough to be pleased with such books as Evelyn's 'Sylva,' 'Acetarium,' and 'Kalendarium Hortense,' but they imply a relaxed nerve in the reader. Gardening is civil and social, but it wants the vigour and freedom of the forest and the outlaw.... It is true there are the innocent pleasures of country-life, and it is sometimes pleasant to make the earth yield her increase, and gather the fruits in their season, but the heroic spirit will not fail to dream of remoter retirements and more rugged paths. It will have its garden-plots and its _parterres_ elsewhere than on the earth, and gather nuts and berries by the way for its subsistence, or orchard fruits with such heedlessness as berries. We should not be always soothing and training Nature.... The Indian's intercourse with Nature is at least such as admits of the greatest independence of each. If he is somewhat of a stranger in her midst, the gardener is too much of a familiar. There is something vulgar and foul in the latter's closeness to his mistress, something noble and cleanly in the former's distance.... There are other savager, and more primeval aspects of Nature than our poets have sung. It is only white man's poetry." To sum up the whole matter, this unmitigated hostility of the cultured man (with Jacob's smooth hands and Esau's wild blood) to the amenities of civilised life, brings us back to the point from whence we started at the commencement of this chapter. While men are what they are, Art is not all. Man has Viking passions as well as Eden instincts. Man is of mixed blood, whose sympathies are not so much divided as double. And all of man asks for all of Nature, and is not content with less. To the over-civilised man who is under a cloud, the old contentment with orthodox beauty must give place to the subtler, scarcer instinct, to "the more recently learnt emotion, than that which responds to the sort of beauty called charming and fair." Fair effects are only for fair times. The garden represents to such an one a too careful abstract of Nature's traits and features that had better not have been epitomised. The place is to him a kind of fraud--a forgery, so to speak, of Nature's autograph. It is only the result of man's turning spy or detective upon the beauties of the outer world. Its perfection is too monotonous; its grace is too subtle; its geography too bounded; its interest too full of intention--too much sharpened to a point; its growth is too uniformly temperate; its imagery too exacting of notice. These prim and trim things remind him of captive princes of the wood, brightly attired only that they may give romantic interest to the garden--these tame birds with clipped wings, of distraught aspect and dreamy tread--these docile animals with their limp legs and vacant stare, may contribute to the scenic pomp of the place, but it is at the expense of their native instincts and the joyous _abandon_ of woodland life. If this be the outcome of your boasted editing of Nature, give us dead Nature untranslated. If this be what comes of your idealisation of the raw materials of Nature--of the transference of your own emotions to the simple, unsophisticated things of the common earth, let us rather have Nature's unspoilt self--"God's Art," as Plato calls Nature--where "Visions, as prophetic eyes avow, Hang on each leaf, and cling to each bough." * * * * * "But stay, here come the gardeners!" (_Enter a gardener and two servants!_)--_King Richard II._ CHAPTER IX. IN PRAISE OF BOTH. "In small proportions we just beauties see, And in short measures life may perfect be."--BEN JONSON. "The Common all men have."--GEORGE HERBERT. What shall we say, then, to the two conflicting views of garden-craft referred to in my last chapter, wherein I take the modern position, namely, that the love of Art in a garden, and the love of wild things in Nature's large estate, cannot co-exist in the same breast? Is the position true or false? To see the matter in its full bearings I must fetch back a little, and recall what was said in a former chapter (p. 85) upon the differing attitudes towards Nature taken by the earlier and later schools of gardening. There is, I said, no trace in the writings, or in the gardening, of the earlier traditional school, of that mawkish sentiment about Nature, that condescending tenderness for her primal shapes, that has nursed the scruples, and embarrassed the efforts of the "landscape-gardener" from Kent's and Brown's days to now. The older gardener had no half-and-half methods; he made no pretence of Nature-worship, nursed no scruples that could hinder the expression of his own mind about Nature, or check him from fathoming all her possibilities. Yet with all his seeming unscrupulousness the old gardener does not close his eyes or his heart to Nature at large, but whether in the garden sanctuary or out of it, he maintains equally tender relations towards her. But the scruples of the earlier phase of the landscape school, about tampering with Nature by way of attaining Art effects, are as water unto wine compared with what is taught by men of the same school now-a-days. We have now to reckon with an altogether deeper stratum of antipathy to garden-craft than was reached by the followers of Brown. We have not now to haggle with the quidnuncs over the less or more of Art permissible in a garden, but to fight out the question whether civilisation shall have any garden at all. Away with this "white man's poetry!" The wild Indian's "intercourse with Nature is at least such as admits of the greatest independence of each. If he is somewhat of a stranger in her midst, the gardener is too much of a familiar. There is something vulgar and foul in the latter's closeness to his mistress, something noble and cleanly in the former's distance." "Alas!" says Newman, "what are we doing all through life, both as a necessity and a duty, but unlearning the world's poetry, and attaining to its prose?" One does not fear, however, that the English people will part lightly with their land's old poetry, however seductive the emotion which we are told "prefers the oppression of surroundings over-sadly tinged, and solitudes that have a lonely face, suggesting tragical possibilities to the old-fashioned sort of beauty called charming and fair." The lesson we have to learn is the falsehood of extremes. The point we have to master is, that in the prodigality of "God's Plenty" many sorts of beauty are ours, and nothing shall be scorned. God's creation has a broad gamut, a vast range, to meet our many moods. "There are, it may be, so many kinds of music in the world, and none of them is without signification." "O world, as God has made it! All is beauty." There is nothing contradictory in the variety and multiformity of Nature, whether loose and at large in Nature's unmapped geography, or garnered and assorted and heightened by man's artistry in the small proportions of a perfect garden. Man, we said, is of mixed blood, whose sympathies are not so much divided as double, and each sympathy shall have free play. My inborn Eden instincts draw me to the bloom and wonder of the world; my Viking blood drives me to the snap and enthusiasm of anarchic forms, the colossal images, the swarthy monotony, the sombre aspects of Nature in the wild. "Yet all is beauty." Thus much by way of preamble. And now, after repeating that the gardener of the old formality, however sternly he discipline wild Nature for the purposes of beauty, is none the less capable of loving and of holding friendly commerce with the things that grew outside his garden hedge, let me bring upon my page a modern of moderns, who, by the wide range of his sympathies, recalls the giants of a healthier day, and redeems a generation of lopsided folk abnormally developed in one direction. And the poet Wordsworth, self-drawn in his own works, or depicted by his friends, is one of the old stock of sane, sound-hearted Englishmen, who can be equally susceptible to the _inward_ beauties of man's created brain-world, and the _outward_ beauties of unkempt Nature. So the combination we plead for is not impossible! The two tastes are not irreconcilable! Blessed be both! We may trust Wordsworth implicitly as an authority upon Nature. No one questions his knowledge of wild woodland lore. There is no one of ancient or of modern times who in his outward mien, his words, his habits, carries more indisputable proof of the prophet's ordination than the man who spent a long noviciate in his native mountain solitudes. There is no one so fully entitled, or so well able to speak of and for her, as he who knows her language to the faintest whisper, who spent his days at her feet, who pored over her lineaments under every change of expression, who in his writings drew upon the secret honey of the beauty and harmony of the world, telling, to use his own swinging phrases, of "the joy and happiness of loving creatures, of men and children, of birds and beasts, of hills and streams, and trees and flowers; with the changes of night and day, evening and morning, summer and winter; and all their unwearied actions and energies." Of all Nature's consecrated children, he is the prince of the apostolate; he is, so to speak, the beloved disciple of them all, whose exalted personal love admits him to the right to lean upon her breast, to hear her heart-beats, to catch knowledge there that had been kept secret since the world began. None so familiar with pastoral life in its varied time-fulness, sweet or stern, glad or grim, pathetic or sublime, as he who carries in his mind the echoes of the passion of the storm, the moan of the passing wind with its beat upon the bald mountain-crag, the sighing of the dry sedge, the lunge of mighty waters, the tones of waterfalls, the inland sounds of caves and trees, the plaintive spirit of the solitude. There are none who have pondered so deeply over "the blended holiness of earth and sky," the gesture of the wind and cloud, the silence of the hills; none so free to fraternise with things bold or obscure, great or small, as he who told alike of the love and infinite longings of Margaret, of the fresh joy of "The blooming girl whose hair was wet With points of morning dew," of the lonely star, the solitary raven, the pliant hare-bell, swinging in the breeze, the meadows and the lower ground, and all the sweetness of a common dawn. Thus did Wordsworth enter into the soul of things and sing of them "In a music sweeter than their own." Nay, says Arnold, "It might seem that Nature not only gave him the matter of his poem, but wrote his poem for him" ("Essays in Criticism," p. 155). So much for Wordsworth upon Nature out of doors; now let us hear him upon Art in a garden, of which he was fully entitled to speak, and we shall see that the man is no less the poet of idealism upon his own ground, than the poet of actuality in the woodland world. Writing to his friend Sir Geo. Beaumont,[49] with all the outspokenness of friendship and the simplicity of a candid mind, he thus delivers himself upon the Art of Gardening: "Laying out grounds, as it is called, may be considered as a Liberal Art, in some sort like poetry and painting, and its object is, or ought to be, to move the affections under the control of good sense; that is, those of the best and wisest; but, _speaking with more precision, it is to assist Nature in moving the affections of those who have the deepest perception of the beauties of Nature, who have the most valuable feelings, that is, the most permanent, the most independent, the most ennobling with Nature and human life_." [Footnote 49: See Myres' "Wordsworth," English Men of Letters Series, p. 67.] Hearken to Nature's own high priest, turned laureate of the garden! How can this thing be? Here is the man whose days had been spent at Nature's feet, whose life's business seemed to be this only, that he should extol her, interpret her, sing of her, lift her as high in man's esteem as fine utterance can affect the human soul. Yet when he has done all, said all that inspired imagination can say in her praise, in what seems an outburst of disloyalty to his old mistress, he deliberately takes the crown himself had woven from off the head of Nature and places it on the brows of Art in a garden! Not Bacon himself could write with more discernment or with more fervour of garden-craft than this, and the pronouncement gains further significance as being the deliberately expressed opinion of a great poet, and him the leader of the modern School of Naturalists. And that these two men, separated not merely by two centuries of time, but by the revolutionary influences which coloured them, should find common ground and shake hands in a garden, is strange indeed! Both men loved Nature. Bacon, as Dean Church remarks,[50] had a "keen delight in Nature, in the beauty and scents of flowers, in the charm of open-air life;" but his regard for Nature's beauties was not so ardent, his knowledge of her works and ways not so intimate or so scientifically verified, his senses not so sympathetically allured as Wordsworth's; he had not the same prophet's vision that could see into the life of things, and find thoughts there "that do often lie too deep for tears." That special sense Wordsworth himself fathered. [Footnote 50: "Bacon," English Men of Letters Series, R. W. Church.] Points like these add weight to Wordsworth's testimony of the high rank of gardening, and we do well to note that the wreath that the modern man brings for Art in a garden is not only greener and fresher than the garland of the other, but it was gathered on loftier heights; it means more, it implies a more emphatic homage. And Wordsworth had not that superficial knowledge of gardening which no gentleman's head should be without. He knew it as a craftsman knows the niceties of his craft. "More than one seat in the lake-country," says Mr Myres ("Wordsworth," p. 68), "among them one home of pre-eminent beauty, have owed to Wordsworth no small part of their ordered charm." Of Wordsworth's own garden, one writes: "I know that thirty years ago that which struck me most at Rydal Mount, and which appeared to me its greatest charm, was the union of the garden and the wilderness. You passed almost imperceptibly from the trim parterre to the noble wood, and from the narrow, green vista to that wide sweep of lake and mountain which made up one of the finest landscapes in England. Nor could you doubt that this unusual combination was largely the result of the poet's own care and arrangement. _He had the faculty for such work._" Here one may well leave the matter without further labouring, content to have proved by the example of a four-square, sane genius, that those instincts of ours which seem to pull contrary ways--Art-wards or Nature-wards--and to drive our lopsided selves to the falsehood of extremes, are, after all, not incompatible. The field, the waste, the moor, the mountain, the trim garden with its parterres and terraces, are one Nature. These things breathe one breath, they sing one music, they share one heart between them; the difference between the dressed and the undressed is only superficial. The art of gardening is not intended to supersede Nature, but only "to assist Nature in moving the affections of those who have the deepest perceptions of the beauties of Nature, who have the most valuable feelings, ... the most ennobling with Nature and human life." One need not, if Wordsworth's example prove anything, be less the child of the present (but rather the more) because one can both appreciate the realities of rude Nature, and that deliberately-contrived, purpose-made, piece of human handicraft, a well-equipped garden. One need not be less susceptible to the black forebodings of this contention-tost, modern world, nor need one's ear be less alert to Nature's correspondence to "The still, sad music of humanity," because one experiences, with old Mountaine, "a jucunditie of minde" in a fair garden. There is an unerring rightness both in rude Nature and in garden grace, in the chartered liberty of the one, and the unchartered freedom of unadjusted things in the other. Blessed be both! It is worth something to have mastered truth, which, however simple and elementary it seem, is really vital to the proper understanding of the relation of Art to Nature. It helps one to appraise at their proper value the denunciations of the disciples of Kent and Brown against Art in a garden, and to see, on the other hand, why Bacon and the Early School of gardeners loved Nature in the wild state no less than in a garden. It dispels any lingering hesitation we may have as to the amount of Art a garden may receive in defiance of Dryasdust "codes of taste." It explains what your artist-gardener friend meant when he said that he had as much sympathy with, and felt as much interest in, the moving drama of Nature going on on this as on that side of his garden-hedge, and how he could pass from the rough theme outside to the ordered music inside, from the uncertain windings in the coppice-glade to the pleached alley of the garden, without sense of disparagement to the one or the other. It explains why it is that nothing in Nature goes unobserved of him; how you shall call to see him and hunt the garden over, and at last find him idling along the bridle-path in the plantation, his fist full of flowers, his mind set on Nature's affairs, his ear in such unison with local sounds that he shall tell you the dominant tone of the wind in the tree-tops. Or he is in the covert's tangle enjoying "Simple Nature's breathing life," surprising the thorn veiled in blossom, revelling in the wealth of boundless life there, in the variety of plant-form, the palpitating lights, the melody of nesting birds, the common joy and sweet assurance of things. "Society is all but rude To this delicious solitude." Or it may be he is on the breezy waste, lying full length among the heather, watching the rabbits' gambols, or the floating thistle-down with its hint of unseen life in the air, or sauntering by the stream in the lower meadows, learning afresh the glory of weed life in the lush magnificence of the great docks, the red sorrel, the willow-herb, the purple thistles, and the gay battalions of fox-gloves thrown out in skirmishing order, that swarm on each eminence and hedgerow. Or you may meet him hastening home for the evening view from the orchard-terrace, to see the solemn close of day, and the last gleam of sunshine fading over the hill. It is worth something, I say, to win clear hold of the fact that Nature in a garden and Nature in the wild are at unity; that they have each their place in the economy of human life, and that each should have its share in man's affections. The true gardener is in touch with both. He knows where this excels or falls behind the other, and because he knows the range of each, he fears no comparison between them. He can be eloquent upon the charms of a garden, its stimulus for the tired eye and mind, the harmony that resides in the proportions of its lines and masses, the gladness of its colour, the delight of its frankly decorative arrangement, the sense of rest that comes of its symmetry and repeated patterns. He will tell you that for halcyon days, when life's wheels run smooth, and the sun shines, even for life's average days, there is nothing so cheery, nothing so blithely companionable, nothing that can give such a sense of household warmth to your home as a pleasant garden. And yet none will be more ready to warn you of the limits of a garden's charms, of its sheer impotence to yield satisfaction at either end of the scale of human joy or sorrow. And so it is. Let but the mist of melancholy descend upon you, let but the pessimistic distress to which we moderns are all prone penetrate your mind, let you be the prey of undermining sorrow, or lie under the shadow of bereavement, and it is not to the garden that you will go for Nature's comfort. The chalices of its flowers store not the dew that shall cool your brow. Nay, at times like these the garden poses as a kind of lovely foe, to mock you with its polite reticence, its look of unwavering complacency, its gentle ecstasy. Then the ear refuses the soft and intimate garden-melodies, and asks instead for the rough unrehearsed music of Nature in the wild, the jar and jangle of winds and tides, the challenge of discords, "The conflict and the sounds that live in darkness," the wild rhetoric of the night upon some "haggard Egdon," or along the steep wild cliffs when the storm is up, and the deeps are troubled, and the earth throbs and throbs again with the violence of the waves that break and bellow in the caves beneath your feet; and then it perhaps shall cross your mind to set this brief moment of your despair against the unavailing passion of tides that for ten thousand years and more have hurled themselves against this heedless shore. Or you shall find some sequestered corner of the land that keeps its scars of old-world turmoil, the symptoms of the hustle of primeval days, the shock of grim shapes, long ago put to sleep beneath a coverlet of sweet-scented turf; and the unspoiled grandeur of the scene will prick and arouse your dulled senses, while its peaceful face will assure you that, as it was with the troubled masonry of the hills in the morning of the world, even so shall it be with you--time shall tranquillise and at length cancel all your woes. Or again, "Should life be dull, and spirits low 'Twill soothe us in our sorrow That earth has something yet to show, The bonny holms of Yarrow." Better tonic, one thinks, for the over-wrought brain than the soft glamour of the well-swept lawn, the clipt shrubs, the focussed beauty of dotted specimens, the ordered disorder of wriggling paths and sprawling flower-beds of strange device, the ransacked wardrobe of the gardener's stock of gay bedding-plants, or other of the permitted charms of a modern garden; better than these is the stir and enthusiasm of Nature's broad estate, the boulder-tossed moor, where the hare runs races in her mirth, and the lark has a special song for your ear; or the high transport of hours of indolence spent basking in the bed of purple heather, your nostrils filled with gladsome air and the scent of thyme, your eyes following the course of the milk-white clouds that ride with folded sails in the blue heavens overhead and cast flying shadows on the uplands, where nothing breaks the silence of the hills but the song in the air, the tinkle of the sheep-bells, and the murmur of the moorland bee. And the upshot of the matter is this. The master-things for the enjoyment of life are: health, a balanced mind that will not churlishly refuse "God's plenty," an eye quick to discern the marvel of beautiful things, a heart in sympathy with man and beast. Possessing these we may defy Fortune-- "I care not, Fortune, what you me deny: You cannot rob me of free Nature's grace, You cannot shut the windows of the sky Through which Aurora shows her brightening face; You cannot bar my constant feet to trace The woods and lawns, by living stream, at eve: Let health my nerves and finer fibres brace, And I their toys to the great children leave; Of fancy, reason, virtue, nought can me bereave." * * * * * PRINTED BY TURNBULL AND SPEARS EDINBURGH 
39673	----	Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). A YEAR IN A LANCASHIRE GARDEN. [Decoration] A YEAR IN A LANCASHIRE GARDEN. by HENRY A. BRIGHT. SECOND EDITION. London: Macmillan And Co. 1879. The Right of Translation is Reserved. London: R. Clay, Sons, and Taylor, Bread Street Hill. PREFACE. This volume is but a collection of Notes, which, at the request of the editor, I wrote, month by month, in 1874, for the columns of the _Gardeners' Chronicle_. They pretend to little technical knowledge, and are, I fear, of but little horticultural value. They contain only some slight record of a year's work in a garden, and of those associations which a garden is so certain to call up. As, however, I found that this monthly record gave pleasure to readers, to whom both the garden and its owner were quite unknown, I printed off some fifty copies to give to those, whom I have the happiness to number among my friends, and for whom a garden has the same interest that it has for me. Four years have passed since then, and I am still asked for copies which I cannot give. I have at last, rather reluctantly, for there seems to me something private and personal about the whole affair, resolved to reprint these notes, and see if this little book can win for itself new friends on its own account. One difficulty, I feel, is that I am describing what happened five years ago. But this I cannot help. To touch or alter would be to spoil the truthfulness of all. The notes must stand absolutely as they were written. But after all, I believe, the difficulty is only an apparent one. The seasons, indeed, may vary--a spring may be later, a summer may be warmer, an autumn may be more fruitful,--but the seasons themselves remain. The same flowers come up each year, the same associations link themselves on to the returning flowers, and the verses of the great poets are unchanged. The details of a garden will alter, but its general effect and aspect are the same. Nevertheless, something has been learnt, and something remembered, since these notes were written, and this, also communicated from time to time to the _Gardeners' Chronicle_, I have condensed into a supplementary chapter. If, as I have heard from a friendly critic, there is too much _couleur de rose_ in my descriptions, I am tempted to retort that this is a colour not perhaps altogether inappropriate to my subject; but, be this as it may, I have described nothing but as it really appeared to me, and I have only wished that others should receive the same impressions as myself. For my very open egotism I make no apology; it was a necessity of the plan on which I wrote. I have added notes on the Roman Viola, and on the Sunflower of the Classics, and have given some extracts respecting the Solanum and the fly-catching Azalea. I have also reprinted, by the editor's kind permission, part of an article of mine that appeared in the _Athenæum_ on "Flowers and the Poets." CONTENTS. I. PAGE Introductory--The House--The Latest Flowers--The Arbutus --Chrysanthemums--Fallen Leaves--Planting--The Apple-room--The Log-house--Christmas 1 II. Gardening Blunders--The Walled Garden and the Fruit Walls-- Spring Gardening--Christmas Roses--Snowdrops--Pot Plants 10 III. Frost--The Vineries and Vines--Early Forcing--Orange Trees--Spring Work--Aconites--The Crocus 18 IV. The Rookery--Daffodils--Peach Blossoms--Spring Flowers-- Primroses--Violets--The Shrubs of Spring 26 V. The Herbaceous Beds--Pulmonaria--Wallflowers--Polyanthus --Starch Hyacinths--Sweet Brier--Primula Japonica-- Early Annuals and Bulbs--The Old Yellow China Rose 34 VI. Ants and Aphis--Fruit Trees--The Grass Walk--"Lilac-tide" --Narcissus--Snowflakes--Columbines--Kalmias-- Hawthorn Bushes 42 VII. The Summer Garden--The Buddleia--Ghent Azaleas--The Mixed Borders--Roses--The Green Rose 51 VIII. The Fruit Crop--Hautbois Strawberries--Lilium Auratum --Sweet Williams--Carnations--The Bedding-out 59 IX. Weeds--Tomatos--Tritomas--Night-scented Flowers-- Tuberoses--Magnolia--Asters--Indian Corn 67 X. St. Luke's Summer--The Orchard--The Barberry--White Haricot Beans--Transplanting--The Rockery 75 XI. The Wood and the Withered Leaves--Statues--Sun-dials--The Snow--Plans for the Spring--Conclusion 82 SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER. Flowering Shrubs--Yuccas--Memorial Trees--Ranunculus-- Pansies--Canna Indica--Summer Flowers--Bluets--Fruit blossoms and Bees--Strawberry Leaves--Garden Sounds-- Mowing--Birds--The Swallow--Pleasures of a Garden 89 NOTES. I.--On the Viola of the Romans 107 II.--On the Azalea Viscosa 110 III.--On the Solanum Tribe 112 IV.--On the Sunflower of the Classics 115 V.--On Flowers and the Poets 118 A YEAR IN A LANCASHIRE GARDEN. I. Introductory--The House--The Latest Flowers--The Arbutus-- Chrysanthemums--Fallen Leaves--Planting--The Apple-room-- The Log-house--Christmas. _December 3._--These notes are written for those who love gardens as I do, but not for those who have a professional knowledge of the subject; and they are written in the hope that it may not be quite impossible to convey to others some little of the delight, which grows (more certainly than any bud or flower) from the possession and management of a garden. I cannot, of course, by any words of mine, give the hot glow of colour from a bed of scarlet Ranunculus with the sun full upon it, or bring out the delicious scent of those double Tuberoses, which did so well with me this autumn; but I can at least speak of my plans and projects, tell what I am doing, and how each month I succeed or fail,--and thus share with others the uncertainty, the risks and chances, which are in reality the great charm of gardening. And then, again, gardening joins itself, in a thousand ways, with a thousand associations, to books and literature, and here, too, I shall have much to say. * * * * * Lancashire is not the best possible place for a garden, and to be within five miles of a large town is certainly no advantage. We get smoke on one side, and salt breezes on another, and, worst of all, there comes down upon us every now and then a blast, laden with heavy chemical odours, which is more deadly than either smoke or salt. Still we are tolerably open, and in the country. As I sit writing at my library window, I see, beyond the lawn, field after field, until at last the eye rests on the spire of a church three miles away. A long red-gabled house, with stone facings, and various creepers trained round it,--a small wood (in which there is a rookery) screening us from a country road, and from the west,--lawns with some large trees and several groups of evergreens,--and the walled garden, the outer garden, and the orchard;--it is to these that I invite you. Exclusive of meadow-land there are only some four acres, but four acres are enough for many gardening purposes, and for very great enjoyment. These are certainly what the American poet Bryant calls "the melancholy days, the saddest in the year." The late autumn flowers are over;--the early spring ones are still buried under the soil. I could only find this morning a single blighted monthly Rose, a Wallflower or two, an uneasy-looking Polyanthus, and some yellow Jasmine against the house--and that was all. Two days of early frost had killed the rest. Oddly enough, however, a small purple flower caught my eye on the mixed border; it was a Virginian Stock,--but what it was doing at this unwonted season who can say? Then, of course, the Arbutus is still in bloom, as it has been for the last two months, and very beautiful it is. There is a large bush of it just as you enter the walled garden, and, though the pink clusters of blossom are now past their best, they are more welcome than ever in the present dearth of flowers. Can any one tell me why my Arbutus does not fruit? It has only borne one single berry in the last four years; and yet the Arbutus fruits abundantly in other places in Lancashire, and at Lytham, close to the sea, I saw clusters of berries only the other day. Sometimes I fancy there is a better chance of the fruit setting if the pollen is from another tree, and I have lately planted a second Arbutus for the experiment. I am very fond of the Arbutus; it carries me back to the days of Horace, for we remember how his goats, wandering along the lower slopes of Lucretilis, would browse upon the thickets of Arbutus that fringed its side. Lastly, the Chrysanthemums are in flower, though not in the inner garden. Some I have tended and trained, and they are now looking handsome enough in the porch and vestibule of the house. Some I have planted, and allowed to grow as they like, in front of the shrubbery borders; these have failed very generally with me this year--they look brown and withered, and the blooms are small, and the stems long and ragged, while many have entirely disappeared. The best of them all is Bob, with his bright, red, merry face, only surpassed by a trained Julia Lagravière in the porch. Another favourite Chrysanthemum of mine is the Fleur de Marie, with its large white discs, all quilled inside and feathered round the edge. Fastened up against a wall, I have seen it, year after year, a mass of splendid snowy blossom. The Chrysanthemum has three merits above almost every flower. It comes in the shortest and darkest days; it blooms abundantly in the smoke of the largest cities; it lasts longer than any flower when cut and put into water. If flowers have their virtues, the virtue of the Chrysanthemum is its unselfish kindliness. In the outer garden, we have been busy with the fallen leaves, brushing them away from the walks and lawn, leaving them to rot in the wood, digging them into the shrubbery borders. This work is finished now, and we have swept up a great stack for future use at the end of two years. The Beech and the Oak leaves we (in opposition to some authorities) hold to be the most valuable, but of course we cannot keep them distinct from the rest. These fallen leaves--of which we make our loam for potting purposes--what endless moralities they have occasioned! The oldest and the youngest poets speak of them. It is Homer, who compares the generations of men to the generations of the leaves, as they come and go, flourish and decay, one succeeding the other, unresting and unceasingly. It is Swinburne, who says in his poems-- "Let the wind take the green and the grey leaf, Cast forth without fruit upon air; Take Rose-leaf, and Vine-leaf, and Bay-leaf Blown loose from the hair." During this open weather we have been getting on with our planting. Those beds of Rhododendrons just under the drawing-room windows have become too thick. They are all good sorts--John Waterer, Lady Emily Cathcart, and the rest--and must have sufficient room. We move a number of them to the other side of the house, opposite the front door, where till now there has been a bed of the common Rhododendrons, and this in turn we plant as a fresh bed elsewhere. There will be now some space to spare in the hybrid beds, and I shall plant in them a number of roots of the Lilium candidum--the dear old white Lily of cottage gardens. They will come up each year from between the Rhododendrons, and will send their sweet subtle odour through the open windows into the house. And as I write I am told of a recipe showing how, in the Wortlore of old, the firm white petals were esteemed of use. You must gather them while still fresh, place them unbroken in a wide-necked bottle, packed closely and firmly together, and then pour in what brandy there is room for. In case of cut or bruise no remedy, I am told, is more efficacious, and certainly none more simple. _December 23._--The weather is still mild and open. We have had three days' sharp frost, but it soon passed, and, while it lasted, it spared even the Chrysanthemums. "Bob" looks better than ever. During the frost was the time to look over the Apple-room, the Mushroom-bed, and the Log-house. The Pears we are now using are the Winter Nelis, which I believe is known also as the Bonne de Malines. It is a capital Pear at this season of the year, and in these parts, and trained on my south-west walls, bears well, though the trees are young. I only planted them some four years ago, and, as all the world knows,-- "You plant Pears For your heirs." The Mushrooms are late this year; the spawn appeared less good than usual, and I expected a total failure, but, after all, there is promise of a dish for Christmas Day. I do not care to grow Mushrooms when the green vegetables are in full glory but now they are very welcome. As for the Log-house, it is full. We have cut down several trees, and huge Yule logs lie in heaps, ready for the hall fire. We shall want them before the winter is over. If Horace had to say to Thaliarchus in Italy (this is Lord Denman's version)-- "Dissolve the cold, while on the dogs With lavish hand you fling the logs,"-- surely in these northern latitudes, and in this dearth of coal, the advice is doubly seasonable. And then a log fire is so charming. It does more than warm and blaze--it glows and sparkles. But Mr. Warner, the American, has just given us in his _Backlog Studies_ long pages about wood-fires, and I need only refer to that very pleasant little book. One quotation, however, I will give:-- "We burn in it Hickory wood, cut long. We like the smell of this aromatic forest timber and its clear flame. The Birch is also a sweet wood for the hearth, with a sort of spiritual flame, and an even temper--no snappishness. Some prefer the Elm, which holds fire so well; and I have a neighbour who uses nothing but Apple-tree wood--a solid, family sort of wood, fragrant also, and full of delightful associations. But few people can afford to burn up their fruit-trees." But besides the dead wood, we have just cut our fresh Christmas boughs. Up against an outhouse I have an immense Ivy, almost as large as one you see growing up some old castle: it spreads along the wall, covering it all over on both sides; then it climbs up a second wall at right angles to the first, and throws its trailing branches down to the very ground: and now they are one mass of blossom. It is from this ivy that we gather our best Christmas greenery; but there are also cuttings from the Box, Yew, and Holly;--and one variegated Holly has been beautiful, for its mottled leaves have in some sprays become of a perfectly clear and creamy white--the colour of fine old ivory. Mistletoe does not grow with us, and we have to buy it in the market of our town. By the way, how strangely the idea of an English Mistletoe bough now associates itself with that very uncomfortable Italian story of the bride and the oaken chest. How curious, too, that, in this country at least, the memory of poor Ginevra is due not to Rogers's poem, but to Haynes Bayly's ballad. To-morrow will be Christmas Eve, and to-morrow (so the legend says), in the vale of Avalon,--at the old abbey, where King Arthur was buried and St. Dunstan lived--"outbuds the Glastonbury Thorn"--the sacred Thorn, which sprang from the staff St. Joseph planted there. Unhappily no such Thorns grow in my Lancashire garden. II. Gardening Blunders--The Walled Garden and the Fruit Walls-- Spring Gardening--Christmas Roses--Snowdrops--Pot Plants. _January 5._--What wonderful notions some people have about gardens! In a clever novel I have just been reading, there occurs this description:--"The gardens at Wrexmore Hall were in a blaze of beauty, with Geraniums and Chrysanthemums of every hue." In the published letters of Mr. Dallas, who was formerly United States' Minister here, there is something still more marvellous. He had been staying with Lord Palmerston at Broadlands in the end of September, and he speaks of "the glowing beds of Roses, Geraniums, Rhododendrons, Heliotropes, Pinks, Chrysanthemums." I shall have to make a pilgrimage to Broadlands. Meanwhile, why should we not more often bed out Chrysanthemums in masses, as in the Temple Gardens? A "winter garden" is generally nothing more than a garden of small evergreens, which, of course, is an improvement on bare soil, but which is in itself not singularly interesting. Since last I wrote, we have had storms of wind and rain, and some little snow and frost, but the weather has, on the whole, been very genial for the time of year. I have finished my planting, and am now busy re-sodding the grass terrace which runs along the south and east of the house; the grass had become full of weeds, and in places was bare and brown. But my most important work has been within the walled garden. This garden is entered by a door in the south-east wall, and two walls, facing south-west and north-east, run at right angles to it. A thick hedge, guarded by wire netting to keep out the rabbits, is at the further or north-west side, and divides us from the home-croft. Along the south-east wall we have two vineries, and between them a small range of frames and hotbeds. Against the sheltered wall between the vineries we have a Magnolia grandiflora, which flowered with me last year; a Banksian Rose, which has done no good as yet; and a Général Jacqueminot, which is always beautiful. A Camellia (Woodsii), which flowered abundantly last spring, I have moved elsewhere, and have planted a Maréchal Niel in its place. Beyond the vineries on both sides are my best Peaches and Nectarines. On the south-west wall are Peaches and Nectarines, Apricots, Plums and Pears, and on the north-east Cherries and Currants. In front of the Vine border is a broad gravel walk, which reaches along the whole breadth of the garden, and on the other side of it are the flower-beds. There are about forty of them in all, of different shapes and sizes, and divided from each other by little winding walks of red Jersey gravel. As you come upon them all at once, but cannot see the whole at a glance, I have no temptation to sacrifice everything to monotonous regularity and a mere effect of colour. I take bed by bed, and make each as beautiful as I can, so that I have a constant variety, and so that at no season of the year am I entirely bare of flowers. Box hedges three feet high and some two and a half feet thick, and a screen of Rhododendrons, separate the flower garden from the kitchen garden, which is beyond; and right through both flower garden and kitchen garden, from the front of the Vine border to the far hedge by the croft, we have just been extending a grass walk, and planting, along the part that skirts the kitchen garden, Pears, Plums, and (for sake of a very uncertain experiment) a Walnut and a Medlar. My spring gardening is on no great scale. A bed of mixed Hyacinths, another of single Van Thol Tulips, and another of Golden Prince Tulips, two beds of Wallflowers, one of red Daisies edged with white, and one of Polyanthus, are all I have at present planted. There will be more by and by. Meanwhile the spring flowers I really care about are those that come up every year on the mixed borders,--the outside borders of the flower garden. They are old friends that never fail us; they ask only to be left alone, and are the most welcome "harbingers of spring," bringing with them the pleasant memories of former years, and the fresh promise of the year that is to come. I never saw such Christmas Roses as I have just now. Clustering beneath their dark serrated leaves rise masses of bloom,--bud and blossom,--the bud often tinged with a faint pink colour, the blossom a snowy white guarding a centre of yellow stamens. I have counted from thirty to forty blooms upon a single root, and I sometimes think the Eucharis itself is not a finer flower. The Christmas Rose, the Helleborus niger, has been celebrated by Pliny, by Spenser, and by Cowley; but I confess my own favourite association with it is of a later date. I never see it without recalling the description poor Anne Brontë gives in her strange wild story of _The Tenant of Wildfell Hall_. Just at the end, when Helen, after her sad unhappy life, is free at last, and wishes to tell Gilbert that what remains of her life may now be his, she turns to "pluck that beautiful half-blown Christmas Rose that grew upon the little shrub without, just peeping from the snow that had hitherto, no doubt, defended it from the frost, and was now melting away in the sun." And then, "having gently dashed the glittering powder from its leaves," she says, "This Rose is not so fragrant as a summer flower, but it has stood through hardships none of them could bear: the cold rain of winter has sufficed to nourish it, and its faint sun to warm it; the bleak winds have not blanched it, or broken its stem, and the keen frost has not blighted it. Look, Gilbert, it is still fresh and blooming as a flower can be, with the cold snow even now on its petals. Will you have it?" Nowhere in the whole of the Brontë novels (so far as I remember) is a flower described as this one is. It is suggestive enough of dark and drowsy winter, that the two flowers which most enliven it should bear the deadly names of black Hellebore and winter Aconite (though, indeed, the Eranthis is itself allied rather to the Hellebores than to the Aconites); as yet, however, my Aconites are still below the sod. _January 20._--It is St. Agnes's Eve, and never was there a St. Agnes's Eve so unlike that one which witnessed the happy adventure of young Porphyro. _Then_ "St. Agnes' Eve; ah! bitter chill it was; The owl, for all his feathers, was a-cold; The hare limped trembling through the frozen grass, And silent was the flock in woolly fold." _Now_ the weather is soft, and almost warm. I always seem to connect the idea of a Snowdrop with St. Agnes; and Tennyson speaks of "the first Snowdrop of the year" lying upon her bosom. This year our first Snowdrop appeared on the 18th, and now each day brings out fresh tufts on the herbaceous borders, where the sun strikes most warmly. Another week will pass, and, under the Lime trees which shade the orchard, I shall find other tufts of the double variety, planted in bygone years I know not by whom, and now springing up half wild and quite uncared for. And these Snowdrops gave me a hint a year or two ago. I found that my gardener was in the habit of throwing away his old bulbs--Hyacinths and Tulips--which had served their turn and lived their season. There was, of course, no good in keeping them for garden purposes; but this throwing them away seemed sadly wasteful. We now, therefore, plant them in the orchard grass, and each year they come up half wild like the Snowdrops, and each year they will be more numerous and more effective. But the best way of growing Snowdrops is, I believe, on a lawn itself. I have planted several hundreds of them in groups and patches, in a corner, where I can see them from the library window. The green spears are now piercing the grass, and in a few days there will be a broken sheet of snowy white, which will last for at least a fortnight, and which, from a distance, will seem like the lingering relic of some snowdrift still unmelted by the sun.[1] By the way, was it not Mrs. Barbauld who spoke of the Snowdrop as "an icicle changed into a flower?" The conceit is not a particularly happy one, for the soft white petals have nothing in common with the hard sparkle of the icicle. [1] As matter of fact, the Snowdrops were less abundant this year than they usually are.--Has it ever been noticed that the colour of the winter flowers, as that of the Arctic animals, is almost always white? We have not been fortunate this winter with the pot-plants which we require for the house. The Primulas have been singularly shabby. We had got some white sand from an excavation in the road near us, and it seems to have checked the growth of several of our plants. The Roman Hyacinths, too, have done less well than usual with us. There was a gummy look about many of the bulbs, which made us fear at the time that they were not properly ripened, and the result has proved that we were right. For dinner-table decoration can anything be prettier at this season than small Orange-trees--Japanese Oranges, I think they are--laden with their wealth of green and golden fruit? I have only just taken to them, and certainly I have seen nothing of the kind I like so well. III. Frost--The Vineries and Vines--Early Forcing--Orange-trees-- Spring Work--Aconites--The Crocus. _February 6._--We have had no morning so beautiful this winter. A clear, bright frost is in the air, and on the grass, and among the trees. Not a spray but is coated with crystals, white as snow and thick as moss; not a leaf of Holly or of Ivy but is fringed with frosted fretwork. There is not a breath of wind, and the birds, that were singing yesterday, have all vanished out of sight. It is wonderfully beautiful while it lasts, but it will be over before night. Meanwhile, I am thankful for any touch of frost, if it will only come now instead of later. It will help to kill some few of the eggs and larvæ, which, in the different form of noxious insects, will plague us through the summer. It will keep back the fruit-tree buds, which are sadly too forward, and which will run a poor chance unless they are checked betimes. The Apricots especially look almost ready to open, and I can see colour even on the Nectarines. We are beginning to force our first vinery. The year before last we had renewed the Vine border, and last year we did not venture any forcing; this year I hope we may be repaid. Our Black Hamburghs are old Vines of rather a good sort, with fine large berries and very few stones. The Muscats--Canon Hall, Alexandria, and Troveren--are Vines which I planted some three years ago. In the same house there is also an old Syrian Vine, bearing big bunches, but otherwise worth but little. In the second vinery are Black Hamburghs again, Black Princes, Grizzly Frontignan, and a Sweetwater,--all old Vines; and to these I have added a Mrs. Pince's Muscat, a Foster's Seedling, and a Madresfield Court. Both vineries are of old construction, with clumsy flues, and require a thorough re-arranging, which I must give them some day. Quite the best grape, so far as flavour goes, is, I contend, the Grizzly Frontignan, which has now comparatively gone out of fashion. The bunches, it is true, are not handsome, the berries are not large, and the colour is not good; but has any Muscat a finer or more aromatic flavour? It was Sir William Temple who first introduced it, and he speaks of it with pride as "the noblest of all Grapes I ever ate in England." The Sweetwater is of value in another way; it is of all Grapes the most grateful and refreshing to an invalid. Only the autumn before last I was asked by an old friend whether anywhere in our neighbourhood the Sweetwater was still grown. He had been very ill, and was longing for Grapes,--but the rich luscious Muscats, with their highly-flavoured and thickly-sugared juice, had been forbidden. He had searched in vain among the vineries of many great houses, where the Sweetwater has been long discarded, and it was a pleasant surprise to find that in my small vineries this once favourite old Grape could still be found. We are now bringing on our Strawberries; the Duc de Malakoff and Sir Charles Napier are the two we are forcing this year. Last year we had Oscar as well, but we found it a bad hanger, the first fruit damping away if it were not at once gathered. We are forcing also French Beans, Fulmer's Forcing,--and Tomatos, the Orangefield Dwarf. The prettiest thing in our vinery is a large Orange-tree, laden with last year's fruit, and soon to be covered with this spring's flowers. The fruit itself is only good for preserving, but it is wonderfully handsome, and no Orange-tree could be more prolific. Surely the old plan of having a separate Orangery is dying out in England, except of course in the very stately places. Thirty or forty years ago I think these Orangeries were more common in gardens of less pretension. I recall one, half green-house, half summer-house, with its large sashed windows opening to a lawn--windows round which a dozen creepers twined and blossomed;--inside stood the great Orange-trees in their huge tubs, waiting till the full summer, when they would be arranged along the broad terrace walk--in themselves beautiful, and calling up a thousand fragrant memories of Southern France and Italy. Now, I generally see trimmed Bays or Laurels arranged in porcelain pots, looking at once shabby and artificial. Of course I do not suppose Oranges worth growing except (a rather large exception) for their beauty; with Lemons it is different--they are certainly worth growing,--but then they do best trained up against the back of a moderately heated house, and not moved out in summer. _February 22._--Since I wrote we have had the sharpest and keenest frost--sharper than we have had all the winter; and an east wind which at once dried and froze up everything. Now spring has come again, and (as Horace says) has "shivered" through the trees. The Elders are already unfolding their leaves, and a Lonicera is in freshest bud. I remember when, a few years ago, Mr. Longfellow, the American poet, was in England, he told me that he was often reminded by the tender foliage of an English spring of that well-known line of Watts, where the fields of Paradise "Stand dressed in _living green_;" and I thought of this to-day when I looked, as I remember he was looking, at the fresh verdure of this very Lonicera. But all things are now telling of spring. We have finished our pruning of the wall-fruit; we have collected our pea-sticks, and sown our earliest Peas. We have planted our Ranunculus bed and gone through the herbaceous borders, dividing and clearing away where the growth was too thick, and sending off hamperfuls of Pæony, Iris, Oenothera, Snowflake, Japanese Anemone, Day Lily, and many others. On the other hand we have been looking over old volumes of Curtis's _Botanical Magazine_, and have been trying to get, not always successfully, a number of old forgotten plants of beauty, and now of rarity. We have found enough, however, to add a fresh charm to our borders for June, July, and August. On the lawn we have some Aconites in flower. They are planted at the foot of two great Beech trees, and last year they lay there--a soft yellow light upon the grass. This year they are doing badly. I suspect they must have been mown away last spring before their tubers were thoroughly ripe, and they are punishing us now by flowering only here and there. I know no flower so quaint as this--the little yellow head emerging from its deeply-cut Elizabethan ruff of green. Then, too, the Crocuses are bursting up from the soil, like Byron's Assyrian cohorts, "all gleaming in purple and gold." Nothing is more stupid than the ordinary way of planting Crocuses--in a narrow line or border. Of course you get a line of colour, but that is all, and, for all the good it does, you might as well have a line of coloured pottery or variegated gravel. They should be grown in thick masses, and in a place where the sun can shine upon them, and then they open out into wonderful depths of beauty. I am afraid Dr. Forbes Watson's most charming book on _Flowers and Gardens_ is too little known. No modern author, not even excepting Ruskin, has studied the form and the beauty of flowers so closely and lovingly as he has done, and he entirely bears out my view. He says-- "This is one of the many plants which are spoilt by too much meddling. If the gardener too frequently separates the offsets the individual blooms may possibly be finer, but the lover of flowers will miss the most striking charms of the humbler and more neglected plant. The reason is this: the bloom, when first opening, is of a deeper orange than afterwards, and this depth of hue is seemingly increased where the blossoms are small from crowded growth. In these little clusters, therefore, where the flowers are of various sizes, the colour gains in varieties and depth, as well as in extent of surface, and vividness of colour is the most important point in the expression of the yellow Crocus." Besides the clusters along the shrubberies and the mixed borders, I have a number on the lawn beneath a large weeping Ash; the grass was bare there, and, though this is hidden in summer by the heavy curtains of pendent boughs and crowding leaves, it was well to do something to veil its desolation in the spring. Nothing can be more successful than a mass of Crocus, yellow, white, and purple. I sometimes think that the Crocus is less cared for than it deserves. Our modern poets rarely mention it; but in Homer, when he would make a carpet for the gods, it is of Lotus, Hyacinth, and Crocus; and Virgil's bees find their honey among Cassia and Lime blossoms, and "iron-grey Hyacinths and glowing Crocus." Virgil speaks, too, of the scent of the Crocus (whatever that may be), and all Latin authors, when they wish to express a bright deep orange colour, call it the colour of the Crocus. Our cool vinery is now gay with stages of Narcissus, Tulips, and Hyacinths, which have been brought on in heat, and are well rewarding us for what care we have given to them. IV. The Rookery--Daffodils--Peach Blossoms--Spring Flowers-- Primroses--Violets--The Shrubs of Spring. _March 6._--We have a tradition, or, if you will, a superstition, in this part of the world, that rooks always begin to build on the first Sunday in March. Last year my rooks were punctual to a day. This year, although they began a day or two earlier, it was not till the morning of Sunday the 1st that they showed real activity. Then the belt of trees which they frequent, and which for want of any better name we call "our wood," was all alive and clamorous. These rooks are only with us from March to the end of May, and then they are off again for the rest of the year to the woods which cluster thickly round the stately hall of the great nobleman of our county. But they never quite forget their nests among our Elms; and it is pleasant to see them in summer, and oftener still in late autumn, winging their way across the fields, and then wheeling down upon the trees. Who was it, who so happily applied to rooks the lines from the sixth Æneid, where Virgil, speaking of the descent of Æneas and his guide upon the Elysian plains, says "Devenere locos lætos, et amoena vireta Fortunatorum nemorum, sedesque beatas"? "And down they came upon the happy haunts, The pleasant greenery of the favoured groves-- Their blissful resting-place." There are many secrets about the rooks which I can never solve. Why do they build in the Elm rather than the Beech? My best trees are Beeches, but there are only two nests in them, whereas in a single Elm there are no less than ten. Why, again, do the old birds prevent the young ones from building in some particular tree? Sometimes, no doubt, there may be an unhappy association of the past, as in a case mentioned in Hawthorne's _English Note Book_, where in a garden, which I took him to see, not very far from this, some nests were once destroyed in a clump of trees, and never since has nest been built there. Sometimes, I think, because the rooks like to reserve certain trees as storehouses, from whence to gather their sticks. Again, how far is rook-shooting good for a rookery? It is commonly believed that, if a certain number are not shot, the rooks will desert. Is this so, and, if so, what should be the proportion? I have some sixty nests, and I wish to keep about this number. I have planted many wild Daffodils in the wood; they are now coming into flower, but they do not seem to flourish as they should. I am told that Daffodils do not do well under a rookery, but I hardly think this likely. If, as I said last month, the Crocus has been neglected by English poets, the Daffodil has no right to complain. Some of the most charming lyrics in the language are connected with this flower. Who does not remember Herrick's "Fair Daffodils, we weep to see You haste away so soon;" or Wordsworth's "Host of golden Daffodils Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze"? Jean Ingelow, too, in her _Persephone_, makes the Daffodil the flower which tempts the unhappy maiden from her companions as they ramble along the fields of Enna-- "The Daffodils were fair to see, They nodded lightly on the lea, Persephone, Persephone! Lo! one she marked of rarer growth Than Orchis or Anemone; For it the maiden left them both And parted from her company. Drawn nigh she deemed it fairer still, And stooped to gather by the rill The Daffodil, the Daffodil." The end of the story we all know right well, for "Perdita" told us long ago how Persephone let her Daffodils all fall "from Dis's waggon." _March 25._--Again we have had frost and snow, and this time it has done us harm. The early bloom of the Apricot has turned black, and our chance of a crop rests with the later buds. However, there are plenty still; and now, in words familiar to half the children of England, "the crimson blossoms of the Peach and the Nectarine are seen, and the green leaves sprout." Here our promise is not so good, and we have nothing like the bloom of last year; in fact, a crop of Peaches and Nectarines in the open air is very uncertain in this Lancashire climate, and many of my neighbours have given in entirely, and have taken to glass-houses. I still go on; but certainly last year, in spite of the show of blossom, was not encouraging. Whether it is the increase of smoke or of chemical works I cannot say, but formerly wall fruit answered far better in these parts than it does at present. It is remarkable, however, that Sir William Temple, writing just 200 years ago, objects to growing Peaches farther north than Northampton, and praises a Staffordshire friend for not attempting them, and "pretending no higher, though his soil be good enough, than to the perfection of Plums." We have been busy renewing the Box edgings to our flower-beds where it was required. Last year we had carelessly laid down salt on the narrow walks to destroy some weeds, and it has injured a good deal of the Box; some injury, too, has been caused by the growth of several strong plants, which got out of bounds and smothered it. Our garden is not a good spring garden. The soil is cold and heavy, and the delicate spring flowers do not thrive; but, on the other hand, no garden about is a better summer garden. It is a regular sun-trap, and yet even in the hottest weather the plants keep fresh and unburnt. Meanwhile the white Scilla, the double Daffodil, the Arabis, and some others, are doing well enough. A bed of Daisies and another of Polyanthus are far from satisfactory. Hepaticas I have tried over and over again, and they always fail. In front of one of the beds of evergreens on the lawn I planted some double Primroses--yellow, white, red, and lilac; some of them are showing their blossoms, but they are not vigorous. By the way, I found it very difficult to get these Primroses, and had to pay what seemed an excessive price for them. They are, I fear, among the old neglected flowers, which we run a good chance of losing altogether, if gardeners will confine themselves entirely to bedding plants. There is a charmingly fantastic conceit in one of Herrick's poems, "To Primroses filled with Morning Dew." He thinks they may be weeping, because "Ye have not seen as yet The Violet." My Primroses at least have not this excuse, for we have Violets in abundance, and they scent all the air as we pass through the garden door. Even in winter a faint fragrance lingers among their leaves--a shadowy memory of a perfume, which haunts them even when no single flower can be found. Bacon says that "the flower which above all others yields the sweetest smell in the air is the Violet; specially the double white Violet which comes twice a-year: about the middle of April and about Bartholomew-tide." Where is the double white Violet grown now? One of the greatest floral heresies of modern days is as regards the Violet. Both Ruskin and Lord Stanhope have asserted that the Violet of the Greek and Latin poets was an Iris! If so, we are to believe that Athens was crowned with Iris; that the revellers at banquets decked themselves with wreaths of Iris; that wine was flavoured with Iris juice; and that a Violet is nowhere mentioned! Fortunately, however, Pliny makes it clear that there were Violets and Irises both, in old classic times; and the city of the Violet-crown is fragrant as of yore.[2] [2] See note I. on the Viola of the Romans. Some of the flowering shrubs are now coming out and looking gay. There is the Mezereon with its upright shoots, all purpled over with their blossom; there is the Rhododendron dauricum with its beautiful lilac bloom; there, the oldest favourite of all, is the Pyrus japonica, with its bunches of cherry-coloured flowers, breaking out all along the hard-twisted branches. This Pyrus is no doubt most effective when trained up against a wall, and then, of course, it flowers earlier; but one bush of it is quite worth growing in any garden. The last bit of planting we have done this year is an addition to our flowering-trees. We have got two of the best Robinias--the glutinosa and the hispida--and I shall be much disappointed if they do not prove a great success. V. The Herbaceous Beds--Pulmonaria--Wallflowers--Polyanthus-- Starch Hyacinths--Sweet Brier--Primula Japonica--Early Annuals and Bulbs--The Old Yellow China Rose. _April 4._--Is any moment of the year more delightful than the present? What there is wanting in glow of colour is more than made up for in fulness of interest. Each day some well-known, long-remembered plant bursts into blossom on the herbaceous borders, and brings with it pleasant associations of days that are no more, or of books that cannot die. It is, I think, Alphonse Karr who says we should watch closely and rejoice greatly over the slow procession of the flowers, as one by one they appear, bloom, and fade; if we are past middle life, it is a sight which, at best, we can only see some twenty or thirty times again. The common double Daffodils are already past, but we have still the variety which, from its blended hues of dark orange and pale citron, the children call--as they call the wild Linaria--"the butter-and-egg flower." Here is the Saxifraga crassifolia, with its huge broad leaves and its thick spikes of pink bell-blossom. It is almost too coarse growing, however, for the border, and does better on a rude rockery, or rather "loggery," which I have elsewhere. Here is the Pulmonaria or Lungwort, with its varied bloom of red and blue, and with the white markings on its leaves, which were supposed to look like lungs, and from which it takes its name. This Pulmonaria is one of the large class of plants, which, it was believed, had a healing power, and indicated that healing power by the form of leaf, or root, or blossom. These herbs of grace--and it is doubtful whether any plant would be entirely excepted--bore about with them, plain for all to see, outward and visible signs of their secret and subtle virtue. Thus the Liverwort (Hepatica) had the shape of a liver in its leaves, the Eyebright (Euphrasia) looked up to you with an eye like your own--and each had potency of healing for that part of the human body, of which the image was expressed in its own frail form. Farther on are close green tufts of the Corydalis, with its delicate lilac flowers. Then come bushes of Wallflower of the richest red-brown colour--a colour like nothing else, and indeed without a name, that would convey the depth and beauty of the dark tawny hue. What a contrast to the little wild yellow flower, which draws its scanty life from the wall of some grey old castle like that of Conway! Few scents are more delicious than that of Wallflowers. Bacon says of them that they "are very delightful, to be set under a parlour or lower chamber window." It is an old controversy whether the Wallflower and the Gillyflower are the same; but it seems tolerably clear that the latter name was rather loosely used, and meant sometimes the Wallflower, but sometimes also the Stock or the Clove Carnation. The Polyanthus on the borders has done better than those on the separate bed; the pretty _tortoise-shell_ blossoms (to use a good expression of Forbes Watson) are just now in full perfection, and I have also a perfectly white Hose-in-hose Polyanthus, which is really charming. There is a droll passage in one of Sterne's love-letters to his future wife, in which he says--and he means to be sentimental and pathetic-- "The kindest affections will have room to shoot and expand in our retirement.--Let the human tempest and hurricane rage at a distance, the desolation is beyond the horizon of peace. My L. [the lady's name was Lydia] has seen a Polyanthus blow in December! Some friendly wall has sheltered it from the biting wind.--No planetary influence shall reach us but that which presides over and cherishes the sweetest flowers." There is still one other flower of which I must speak. It grows so abundantly, it flowers so luxuriantly with me;--it comes up like a weed on almost every border, and I have given it one entire bed to itself. It is the Starch or Grape Hyacinth, known also, I believe, as the Plum or Cluster Hyacinth. Its lower bells are of the darkest indigo, but towards the top it melts into the softest sky-blue tints, and when in masses it is beautiful. Ruskin says it is "as if a cluster of Grapes and a hive of honey had been distilled and compressed together into one small boss of celled and beaded blue." Upon the wall by the vinery a Corchorus (Kerria) japonica is laden with wreaths of golden blossom. An Almond-tree near the front door is just shedding its pink petals. The double Gorse will be in flower in a week. But after all there is no flowering shrub, which we care for more just now than the still unflowering Sweet Brier. Towards the end of the walled garden I have laid out a miniature herb garden, with its separate little beds for Thyme and Marjoram, and Sage and Borage, and the rest, and inclosed it within a hedge of Sweet Brier. This Sweet Brier is now in leaf, and, after rain especially, it fills all that corner of the garden with whiffs and snatches of sweetest perfume. The Sweet Brier is the true Eglantine of the poets, for though Milton seems to confound "twisted Eglantine" with the Honeysuckle, Shakspeare has it right, and Titania's bower is, as we all know, "Quite over-canopied with luscious Woodbine, With sweet Musk Roses, and with Eglantine." By the way, is the Musk Rose still found in English gardens, and what is it? Two years ago I got, with infinite trouble, a root or two, but they have died down again, and I begin to doubt whether I shall ever know its scent--a scent which Bacon says comes next to the Violet in perfuming the garden's air. _April 25._--The stages in the cool vinery are now gay with Spiræas and Cinerarias. The Lilies of the Valley are over, but they have done exceedingly well this year. I wonder whether the Trillium grandiflorum or Canadian Wood-Lily is generally known. I believe it to be hardy, but it was new to me, and I had grown it in a pot in the vinery, and a very pretty little flower it is, with its three green leaves, its three green sepals, and its three white petals. I have grown in the same way, for the first time, the Primula japonica, and surely nothing can be more beautiful than its five circles of crimson blossoms, one whorl above another. I have been so pleased with it, that I have just given orders for an entire bed of it to be made, which shall remain permanently, and between the plants I am dropping in Gladiolus bulbs, so that the bed will be in beauty for many weeks. As I have before explained, you can hardly see the various beds of my flower-garden at a glance, so that I can go to work independently of the effects of the colour produced by elaborate bedding out. To tell the truth, too, I am heartily weary of the monotony of modern gardens, with their endless Pelargoniums, Calceolarias, and Verbenas. Some few such beds I cannot of course dispense with, but I am always glad when I can _reclaim_ a bed for permanent herbaceous plants, as in this case of the Primula japonica. Another bed, I trust, may be successful in another way--it is a bed of the blue Nemophila insignis. Two years ago I saw in the People's Garden at Dublin, in the beginning of May, two beds, which struck me as being almost the most effective in their colouring of any I had ever seen. One was of Nemophila, the other of Virginian stock; one was a mass of the most brilliant blue, the other a blending of shades of tenderest lilac. The blooms were thick and close as possible, and the size of the flowers much finer than that of the ordinary spring-sown annuals. The manager of these gardens kindly explained to me his secret: the seeds were sown in autumn, pricked out in spring, protected during the early months, and then finally bedded out. Last year we tried with the Nemophila, but we were too soon, and the frost caught us and destroyed our plants. This year we are later, and, by giving some protection against cold and sun for a few days longer, I hope to reproduce what I saw in Dublin. Another year I may make trial of the Virginian Stock as well. The Hyacinth bed has done fairly well, but there were too many pinks among the spikes for it to be quite successful. The Van Thol Tulips are a terrible failure. Some mice got to the bed, and, though we have killed thirteen of them, they had already eaten away so many of the crowns that some dozen Tulips, appearing here and there, are all I have. The bed of Golden Prince Tulips is, however, doing better; this always seems to me a very handsome Tulip, and I sometimes fancy has a sweetness of scent beyond all other kinds--a something, which at times half reminds one of the odour of some Tea Rose. By the bye, I have had a Tea Rose in blossom in the vinery--of a sort I rarely see, and of which I really do not know the proper name. It used to grow over a cottage in Herefordshire, which I knew many years ago, and the Herefordshire nurseryman, from whom I got my standard, calls it "the old yellow China." Is this the right name, and is the Rose more common than I imagine? Its petals are loose and thin, and of a pale primrose colour, and before it is fully out it is at its best. Its leaves are large and handsome, and of glossy green. Its blossom has a certain half-bitter scent of Tea about it, to which the scent of no other Tea Rose can at all compare--it is so strong and aromatic. We gathered our first forced Strawberries on the 16th; our first forced French Beans on the 17th, and our first Asparagus on April 18. This is early for us, but we are having the finest weather. VI. Ants and Aphis--Fruit Trees--The Grass Walk--"Lilac-tide"-- Narcissus--Snowflakes--Columbines--Kalmias--Hawthorn Bushes. _May 4._--May set in this year with (as Horace Walpole somewhere says) "its usual severity." We felt it all the more after the soft warm summer weather we had experienced in April. The Lilac, which is only due with us on the 1st of May, was this year in flower on the 28th of April. Green Gooseberry tarts, which farther south are considered a May-day dish, we hardly hope to see in this colder latitude for ten days later, and now these cold east winds will throw back everything. I have been going over the fruit walls. The Apricots have, after all, done fairly well, and, if they do not fall off at the "stoning," we shall have nothing to complain of. Peaches and Nectarines are even worse than I had feared. There was not much bloom to begin with; then what bloom there was has set but badly; and now my most promising trees are overrun with aphis and with ants. We are doing everything that can be done to check the plague, but with only a partial success. I am told that ants do no harm, and, indeed, are useful as against the aphis. I do not know how this is. They seem to be most excellent friends, and the more ants there are the more the leaves curl up, and the more the aphis seems to thrive.[3] Last year one Peach-tree was completely killed, and this year two of them are looking very miserable. There has been no want of care or attention, but the enemy increases faster than we can destroy it. Is it a disease (so to speak) in a particular tree, which spreads to other trees? Or is it a blight in the air, against which we cannot guard? And what remedy is there when we have used tobacco-powder and Gishurst Compound, and all in vain? [3] I have since learned that the fact of the ant and the aphis being constantly together is well known; and further, that a sweet juice exudes from the aphis, on which the ant feeds. Pierre Huber declares that the aphis is the _milch-cow_ of the ant; and adds, "Who would have supposed that the ants were a _pastoral people_?" Two Fig-trees against the wall, in the sunniest corners, are promising a full crop for this district; another Fig-tree of a smaller variety close by bears nothing. The old Arabic proverb, which Emerson quotes, that "A Fig-tree looking upon a Fig-tree becometh fruitful," has not held good in this case. Lancashire, of course, is not the climate for Figs, but I should doubt whether Fig-trees are anywhere so common in England as they were 150 years ago, when Batty Langley of Twickenham wrote. He recommends them to be grown as dwarfs or standards as well as against a wall, and says they "are either white, black, yellow, grey, green, brown, purple, or violet-coloured, consisting of sixteen different kinds,"--but he adds that the white and the long purple do the best. The Pears against the wall have but little fruit, but the standards are setting well, and the Apples will not, I hope, have suffered from this spell of cold. The new grass walk, of which I wrote on January 5 as passing right through the garden, is shaded by some Apple-trees, and it is pleasant to see their flakes of rosy snow falling softly on the fresh green beneath. Between these old Apple-trees and the young standards I have planted, there was room, which I am making ornamental with cones of Scarlet Runners. We have some five circles on each side of the walk, and shall train up the bean tendrils by strings fastened to a centre pole, so that in summer we shall have a succession of tents of scarlet and green. I tried this method of training Scarlet Runners on a smaller scale last year. The effect was excellent. Then, too, close along the grass on either side I am planting a broad belt of Violets, so that this new walk will one day be the sweetest part of the garden. Lastly, to give colour to the end of the walk, where it is bounded by the hedge of the croft, I am sowing the large Everlasting Pea, and the strongest growing Nasturtium, that they may climb and trail among the Hawthorn and the clipped Beech. The outside borders and the lawn clumps are beautiful with flowering shrubs. No season is like "Lilac-tide," as it has been quaintly called, in this respect. Besides the Lilac itself, there are the long plumes of the white Broom, the brilliant scarlet of the hybrid Rhododendrons, the delicious blossoms, both pink and yellow, of the Azaleas, the golden showers of the Laburnum, and others too numerous to mention. A Judas-tree at an angle of the house is in bud. The Général Jacqueminot between the vineries has given us a Rose already. The cuckoo has been calling for days past among the trees beyond the orchard, and the song birds seem to be awake half through the night. The foliage of the large forest-trees is particularly fine this year. The Horse Chestnuts were the first in leaf, and each branch is now holding up its light of waxen blossom. The Elms came next, the Limes, the Beeches, and then the Oaks. Yet still "the tender Ash delays To clothe herself when all the woods are green," and is all bare as in mid-winter. This, however, if the adage about the Oak and the Ash be true, should be prophetic of a fine hot summer. _May 21._--I wonder if any effect of bedding out is finer than that which my mixed borders have now to show. They are at their very best, for it is the reign of the Pæony and the Iris. Great clumps of each, the one bowed down with the weight of its huge crimson globes, the other springing up erect with its purple-headed shafts, appear at intervals along the borders, and each lends a fresh grace to the form and colour of the other. Among other flowers in rare beauty just now are (as once in the garden of "the Sensitive Plant,") "Narcissi, the fairest among them all, Who gaze on their eyes in the stream's recess Till they die of their own dear loveliness." Was it, I wonder, owing to this story of Narcissus, and as an emblem of self-seeking, that the Greeks twined the white stars of this flower among the tangled locks of the Eumenides? The Snowflakes have been flowering abundantly, but they are now passing. The Greek name for the Snowflake is the Leucoion--literally the white Violet--and I think it possible that in a passage of Ovid, where he speaks of the Violet, the Poppy, and the Lily being broken by a storm, he is really thinking of the Snowflake. I am satisfied, as I have already said, that the _Iris_ is never (as Lord Stanhope asserted) called the Violet. My Auriculas are not as good as they should be in a Lancashire garden, for of all flowers it is the old Lancashire favourite. It is still known as the Basier (a corruption, no doubt, of Bear's Ear), and a pretty Lancashire ballad ends every verse with the refrain, "For the Basiers are sweet in the morning of May." The old-fashioned Columbine is in full bloom, as is also the Aquilegia glandulosa. I have planted the Aquilegia coerulea, but both the plant and some seeds which I have sown have failed me, and I half fear I may never be successful with this finest of the Columbines. Before I leave the Columbine, let me mention a mistake in one of Jean Ingelow's very prettiest poems, which her _literary_ critics seem never to have detected. She says-- "O Columbine, open your folded wrapper, Where two twin turtle-doves dwell." But she is confusing the Columbine with the Monk's Hood. The doves of the Columbine cluster round the centre like the doves of Pliny's vase. The doves of the Monk's Hood are only seen as you remove the "wrapper," and then the old idea was that they are drawing a "Venus' chariot." The accidental grouping of plants on a mixed border is often very happy. A week or two back I found growing out of a tuft of Forget-me-not a plant of the Black Fritillary. The blue eyes of the Forget-me-not seemed to be looking up into the hanging bells of the Fritillary, and were a pleasant contrast to the red-brown of its petals. Gerarde's name for the Fritillary was the "Turkie or Ginnie-hen Flower," and the name of the Fritillary was itself derived from the _fritillus_ or dice-box, which the common Fritillary was supposed to resemble in its markings. In the middle of each group of beds, which the grass walk divides, is a circular bed full of American shrubs. Among these shrubs are several rather fine Kalmias. Very often they do not flower at all, or at best bear a bloom only here and there. This year they are laden with blossom, which is now just ready to burst, and I shall have a show of Kalmia flowers such as I have not seen, since two-and-twenty years ago, I wandered among the Kalmia brakes in the forests of Virginia; and the flower is so beautiful--pink outside, and, as Ruskin says, inside "like the beating out of bosses in hollow silver, beaten out apparently in each petal by the stamens instead of a hammer." Another bed, which will be very effective in a day or two, is a bed of the double Persian Brier, pegged and trained. The festoons of yellow buds are all but out, and will be one mass of sweet and lovely little Roses. The Nemophila bed has done very well, but we did not plant it as thickly as we should have done, and there are bare places here and there. I have still to mention the great bushes, or rather trees, of Hawthorn, of which some stand in front of the dining-room windows, while others fling their perfume across the hedge that divides the garden and the croft. There is another Lancashire May song, from which I cannot but quote a few lines, as it is but little known. The Mayers come to the door and sing (or sang, rather, for the custom no longer holds with us):-- "We have been rambling all this night, And almost all this day; And now, returned back again, We've brought you a branch of May. A branch of May we have brought you, And at your door it stands; It is but a sprout, but it's well budded out, By the work of our Lord's hands." VII. The Summer Garden--The Buddleia--Ghent Azaleas--The Mixed Borders--Roses--The Green Rose. _July 13._--There is a longer interval than usual since my last notes; but I have been away among the Soldanellas and the Gentians of Switzerland, and I have had to leave my garden to the gardener's care. Now that I have returned, I find how much has gone on, and how much I must have missed. The Nemophila bed, I hear, gradually filled up and became a perfect sheet of brilliant blue. The Anemone bed was very good, and that of Ranunculus very fair; but best of all, as I knew it would be, was the bed of Brier Roses, with their trained branches laden with sweet little yellow blossoms. The Kalmias too are over, and the alpine Rhododendrons (Roses des Alpes) are also nearly at an end; but I have just found them wild upon the Wengern Alp, and that must be my consolation. There is nothing I am more sorry to have missed than the great shrub--almost tree--of Buddleia globosa, which grows in the centre of one of the herbaceous borders. It has been, as it always is, covered with its golden balls, smelling of honey, and recalling an old garden in Somersetshire which I knew years ago. It is certainly true that nothing calls up associations of the past as does the sense of smell. A whiff of perfume stealing through the air, or entering into an open window, and one is reminded of some far-off place on some long-past day when the same perfume floated along, and for one single moment the past will seem more real than the present. The Buddleia, the Magnolia, and one or two other flowers always have this power over me. I have still one Azalea, and only one, in blossom; it has a small and very fragrant white flower. I have been lately reading several articles about the fly-catching flowers. Is it generally known that no fly-catcher is more cruel and more greedy than the common Ghent Azalea, especially, I think, the large sweet yellow one? On one single blossom, which I gathered just before leaving home, at the end of May, I found no less than six flies; four of them were quite dead, and of one or two nothing remained but a shred of wing. Two others were still alive, but the Azalea had already nearly drained their life away, and held them so tightly with its viscid hairs that I could hardly release them from its grasp. On the other blossoms in the truss were other flies, three, four, or five; so that the entire Azalea shrub had probably caught some hundreds.[4] [4] See note II. on the Azalea viscosa. The mixed borders are almost past their best,--at least the hairy red Poppy, the day Lily, and the early purple Gladiolus are over, and, of course, the Irises and Pæonies. At present various Canterbury Bells, Valerian (which I saw bedded out the other day at Liége), and the white and orange Lily, are the gayest things we have. There is a Mullein, too, which is well worth a corner in any garden. Not long since I saw, in some book of rambles through our southern counties, the spire of a cathedral with its pinnacles and crockets compared to a spike of Mullein flower. It is certainly the Mullein (the distinctive name of which I do not know) which is now in bloom with me; and, indeed, the resemblance had occurred to me before I had read the book. But I hardly care to linger over other flowers, when the Rose-beds are in their fullest splendour. The summer Roses must have been better a fortnight back, but the perpetuals are as good as can be, and many of the summer Roses yet remain. I sometimes fear that the passion for large, well-formed blossoms, and the desire of novelty, will make some of the dear old Roses of our childhood pass into entire neglect; yet, when we think of a Rose, of which any poet has written, it will not be La France, or Sénateur Vaisse, or Alfred Colomb--beautiful as they are. When Herrick warns us-- "Gather ye Rosebuds while ye may," or when Hood tells us-- "It was the month of Roses, We plucked them as we passed," --their Roses were other than the favourite Roses of to-day. Perhaps they were the old Cabbage Rose, a great bush of which grows next to a bed of Lavender, and pleasantly scents the garden as you enter it. Perhaps they were the Portland Rose, of which I have some three beds, and than which no Rose is better for the making of Pot Pourri, as the young ladies in Mr. Leslie's picture may learn to their advantage. Perhaps they were the Moss Rose, with its mossed buds and fragrant blossoms, of which I have another bed entirely for itself. Perhaps they were the Maiden Blush, or the York and Lancaster, or the sweet old China, with its pink shell petals, which comes so soon and lingers on so late--the last Rose, not of summer but of autumn.[5] Then there are other old Roses which should not be neglected. The Rose Unique, which is a white Cabbage Rose, is one; the Rose Celeste, the thin delicate buds of which are so beautiful, is another. Then there is the little Rose de Meaux, and the old Damask, which indeed seems to have nearly disappeared. [5] It is mentioned in the _Baroness Bunsen's Life_ how Mrs. Delany loved to fill her china bowls with the pink buds of the Monthly Rose, surrounded by sea-green shoots of the young Lavender. It must have been one of these Roses, be sure, and not a Tea or a perpetual, which Lady Corisande finds in her garden for Lothair. Not of course that we are not grateful for the new Roses, with their brilliant colouring and their perfect form, but we are unwilling that the old should be forgotten. The Gloire de Dijon and Général Jaqueminot seem to me the most vigorous and most useful, if not the finest; but I have two old standards which are at the moment more effective than anything I have. One is Boule de Nantes, the other an old summer Rose, the name of which I do not know, but which, when fully out, much resembles the Comtesse de Jaucourt. They are not trained in any way, and I find, measuring round their heads, that one has a circumference of 12 feet, and the other of 12-1/2 feet. In the South of England it is no doubt different, but for us these are large dimensions; and certainly nothing I now get from the nursery gardens seems inclined to attain to half the size. There is one Rose in my garden which flourishes abundantly, but which is the only Rose, of which I should decline to give a cutting. It is so ugly that it is worth nothing, except as a curiosity; and if it ceased to be a curiosity it would be quite valueless. It is a _green_ Rose. I got a small plant from Baltimore, in America, some years ago, and I find it perfectly hardy. It flowers very freely, and all through the summer; the bud is a perfect Rose bud in appearance, but the open flower shows that the Rose is of monstrous and not natural growth; the petals are, it seems to me, no real petals at all, but an expansion of the green heart, which often appears in Roses, and which has here been so cultivated as to take the place of the natural Rose. These petals are coarse and irregular, and have serrated edges, with a very faint scent.[6] [6] Mr. Buist, of the Rosedale Nurseries, Philadelphia, has since written to the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ on the origin of the Green Rose:--"There appears to be some uncertainty in regard to the origin of this Rose. It is a sport from Rosa Indica (the China Rose of England and Daily Rose of America). It was caught in Charleston, S.C., about 1833, and came to Baltimore through Mr. R. Halliday, from whom I obtained it, and presented two plants to my old friend, Thomas Rivers, in 1837." How the Rose twines itself around all history and all literature! There are the Rose gardens of Persia, and the loves of the Rose and nightingale; there are those famous Roses once plucked in the Temple Garden, of which "the pale and bloody petals" (to use a fine expression of Hawthorne's) were strewed over many an English battle-field; there is the golden Rose which the Pope gives as the best of gifts to the foremost among Catholic monarchs--emblem at once of a fading earthly life, and of the unfading life in heaven. Of English poets is there one, who does not celebrate the Rose, and of all is there one, who draws from it a more tender morality than Waller in "Go, lovely Rose"? But no nation ever loved the Rose as did the Greeks, and it was _their_ legend that told us how the Rose sprang to birth. Bion's "Lament for Adonis" has been translated by Mrs. Browning, and I know no translation equal to it in general fidelity and vigour of expression. It appears to me, on the whole, perhaps the very best translation in the language. Here are the lines which tell this part of the story:-- "Ah, ah, Cytherea! Adonis is dead; She wept tear after tear with the blood which was shed, And both turned into flowers for the earth's garden close,-- Her tears to the Windflower, his blood to the Rose." Another still more famous Greek poem about the Rose is one by Sappho, which Mrs. Browning has also most beautifully translated--a fit task, which unites the names of the two great poetesses of Greece and England. The poem begins:-- "If Zeus chose us a king of the flowers in his mirth, He would call to the Rose and would royally crown it: For the Rose, ho! the Rose, is the grace of the earth; Is the light of the plants that are growing upon it." No wonder the Greeks wove their wreaths of the Rose, or that "under the Rose" they passed many a gay and happy hour, to be kept in memory, if untold in words. My bedding-out is of course finished, but of this I must speak on the next occasion. The weather has been hot, and rain will now be welcome. VIII. The Fruit Crop--Hautbois Strawberries--Lilium Auratum--Sweet Williams--Carnations--The Bedding-out. _August 15._--It is, I find, a dangerous thing to leave a garden masterless for even a month. The best of gardens will probably fall short in some respect, and I certainly discover several matters which would have been otherwise had I remained at home. My readers will hardly be interested by the details of my grievances; it is pleasanter to tell where we have been successful. The wall fruit, however, I must mention. The ants and the aphis, and possibly some frost, have destroyed the Peach crop utterly. There is not a single Peach, and the Nectarines, which are certainly a hardier fruit with us, only number thirty in all! The Apricots have done fairly, and were so early that we gathered three or four in the last days of July--a full month before their usual time. The Moorpark Apricot, which we owe to Sir William Temple, is still the best. By the way, he tells us that the Roman name for Apricots is Mala epirotica. Is this the root of the word Apricot, or may we still look upon it as from "apricus," the "sunny fruit,"--the fruit that loves the sun and has caught its own bright colour?[7] [7] I believe, as a matter of fact, that the more received derivation of Apricot is "præcox." Of the smaller fruit Cherries have been a failure, with the exception indeed of the Morellos. Gooseberries have done well, though I fear I cannot compete with the giant Gooseberries of a Lancashire Gooseberry show. The Currants, whether against the wall or on bushes, have been capital, and the black Currants would take a prize at any show. We now net up some Currant bushes for the later autumn. The Raspberries, which we train in arches, have done tolerably, and we should have a second crop of the white ones in October. The Strawberries have been an average crop, and the little Alpines have been capital--so large, so highly flavoured, and so redolent of Switzerland! I am trying, too, for the first time, to grow Hautbois Strawberries, which are almost unknown with us. We are as yet not very successful, and I well know how capricious a fruit it is as regards setting. A year or two ago I was breakfasting with a well-known and most courtly physician in London, who is since dead. A dish of beautiful Hautbois was on the table. We were all admiring. "Yes," said our host, "they are now getting very rare. Sometimes a patient says to me, 'May I not have a little fruit?' 'Certainly not!' is my answer. 'Surely a few Strawberries?' Then, that I may not seem a great curmudgeon, I say, 'Well, a few Strawberries, but be sure they are Hautbois;' _and I know they can't get them!_" To ordinary Strawberries a Hautbois is what a Tea Rose is to ordinary Roses; it has an aroma all its own, and unlike all others. In the flower garden the finest bed is one which I have now had for the last three years. It is a bed of Lilium auratum, with the dark Heliotrope growing in between. I take up the Lily bulbs for the winter, bring them on in heat, and then plant them out. They are really beautiful, and each year they seem more vigorous. Some have four blossoms, some have six or eight, and one has as many as ten. The strong perfume lies heavy on that end of the garden, and I think this Lily should never be brought inside the house. It is curious how the blossoms vary; in some the golden stripes are so much deeper, in some the dark claret spots are so much more numerous. Another bed is of Lilium speciosum, planted to take the place of a bed of Sweet William, which was quite a glow of colour in the earlier part of the summer. This dear old Sweet William, which was the favourite in the old cottage gardens, and which, with the Lad's-love and the Pink, was the chosen flower for the buttonhole of the country boy, is now far too much neglected. Its rich velvet clusters of twenty different shades make a bed of exquisite beauty. It is over too soon, but it can be _supplanted_ (may I say?) by something else. In a second bed of Sweet Williams I placed Gladiolus bulbs, and now they are coming into flower from out the green cushion, from which we have cut the withered blossoms. A bed of the sweet little pink Pinks has of course been over some time, and though the bed is now quite bare of bloom--for I cannot disturb the roots--it is well worth sacrificing some colour in autumn for the three summer weeks of delicious perfume. Clusters of white Pinks have been no less sweet on the herbaceous borders, and now the Clove Carnations take their place. It is curious that so familiar a flower as the Pink should be scarcely mentioned by the great poets. Shakspeare only just names it, and I do not think Marvell does. Milton, in his _Lycidas_, barely alludes to "the white Pink," and Cowley has no separate poem in its praise. Indeed, one may say generally that, with the exception of the Rose, the flowers in which the poets have rejoiced, and which they have immortalised, are the flowers of spring. Cowley, who wrote as a horticulturist, is the almost solitary exception. There is, however, a rather pretty and fanciful little song of Herrick's "To Carnations:"-- "Stay while ye will, or goe; And leave no scent behind ye: Yet trust me, I shall know The place where I may find ye: Within my Lucia's cheek, Whose livery ye weare, Play ye at hide or seek, I'm sure to find ye there." For the ordinary bedding-out of ordinary gardens I have a real contempt. It is at once gaudy and monotonous. A garden is left bare for eight months in the year, that for the four hottest months there shall be a blaze of the hottest colour. The same combinations of the same flowers appear wherever you go. Calceolarias, Verbenas, and Zonal Pelargoniums, with a border of Pyrethrum or Cerastium--and that is about all. There is no thought and no imagination. The "bedding-stuff" is got together and planted out, and each year of planting is a repetition of the year before; and thus, as Forbes Watson says so truly, "Gardeners are teaching us to think too little about the plants individually, and to look at them chiefly as an assemblage of beautiful colours. It is difficult in those blooming masses to separate one from another; all produce so much the same sort of impression. The consequence is, people see the flowers on our beds without caring to know anything about them, or even to ask their names." Any interest in the separate plants is impossible, and then they are, almost without exception, scentless plants, to which no association attaches, and which are cared for merely because they give a line or patch of red or yellow to the garden. "The lust of the eye and the pride of life,"--there is little purer pleasure to be drawn from "bedding stuff" than those words convey. However, there is already a reaction setting in, and the use of Echeverias and the like gives evidence at least of a more refined taste in colour, though in themselves nothing can be less interesting. Meanwhile, as some bedded-out beds will always be necessary, we may try to diversify them as much as possible. The following are among my most successful:--A bed of Agapanthus, with its beautiful foliage and sky-blue umbels, is surrounded with bright yellow Peacock Gazania; a bed of scarlet Lobelia cardinalis (is this the "Cardinal Flower" that American writers speak of?) is edged with the white Ribbon-grass, and that again with the blue Lobelia speciosa; and a second bed of the same Lobelia cardinalis, the bronze foliage of which harmonises so well with the spikes of glowing red, has the Lobelia speciosa next to it, and the Golden Pyrethrum as a border. Another bed is of Humea elegans, edged with the white variegated-leaved Miss Kingsbury Pelargonium, and that again with the blue Lobelia. Into other beds I have introduced the variegated Aloe and the Aralia, as centres for the more dwarf and brightly-coloured Verbenas. Of the variegated Pelargoniums I find the Beauty of Calderdale the most effective and most vigorous, and though I am told "Mrs. Pollock has a most excellent constitution," she does less well with me. One other bed, which is now over, has been too pretty for me not to mention; it was a bed of Antirrhinums of all colours, and I shall certainly repeat it another year. Lastly, I have a large bed of Clematis Jackmanii in full glory. Last year it did fairly well, but the plants were comparatively weak, and the flowers trailed upon the ground. This year the plants have grown vigorously, and I have trained Withies all across the bed, so that the purple blossoms twine and cling around them, and are now a perfect mass of blossom. On the house a Clematis lanuginosa, with its large discs of lilac-grey, is also very handsome, and seems to be doing as well as possible. In the outer garden a great cluster of yellow Broom has made the border near the front door aglow with golden light; and in the vinery a beautiful Clethra arborea--The Lily of the Valley Tree--has been laden with bunches of its delicate and delicately-scented flowers. The weather has broken completely during the last fortnight, and it is now too much, and not too little rain, of which we are complaining. IX. Weeds--Tomatos--Tritomas--Night-scented Flowers--Tuberoses --Magnolia--Asters--Indian Corn. _September 4._--"The rain it raineth every day." It finds its way through the old timbers of my first vinery, and the Grapes have to be cut out by dozens. It drenches the Pelargoniums and Verbenas, till their blossoms are half washed away. It soaks the petals of the great Lilies, and turns them into a sickly brown. The slugs, I suppose, like it, for they crawl out from the thick Box hedges and do all the harm they can. Weeds, too, of every kind flourish luxuriantly, and we find it no easy work to keep ahead of them. The author of _My Summer in a Garden_--the most humorous little book about gardening ever written--never had such trouble with "pusley" (what is "pusley"?) as I have with Groundsel. I have enough to feed all the canary birds in the parish. Then, besides the more ordinary and vulgar weeds, I have two varieties of Willow-herb, which have seeded themselves all over the borders, and are for ever appearing where I had fondly imagined they had been utterly uprooted. A yellow Oxalis, too, has turned into a nuisance, and spreads where it was never wanted. Meanwhile the summer fruits are over. The few Nectarines we had have been gathered, and most of the Figs. The Apple-room begins to fill with Keswick Codlings for cooking purposes, and Franklin's Golden Pippin for dessert. As yet none of our Pears are ripe. The Mulberry tree in the orchard drops its fruit before it is mature, but it is rather too much shaded with the orchard trees, and, were it otherwise, there has been but little sun to get to it. We use the Mulberries, however, for tarts and for Mulberry ice, which I can thoroughly recommend. The Tomatos are reddening in numbers along the garden walls. We grow two sorts, Keye's Prolific and the Orangefield Dwarf, and I hardly know which is best. Formerly the Tomato was known as the Pomum amoris, or Love-apple, and was apparently grown only as a garden ornament, and not for use.[8] Cowley mentions it in his "Flora," with the Foxglove and the Canna. Gerarde says of it, "In Spaine and those hot regions they use to eate the Apples prepared and boiled with pepper, salt, and oil; but they yeelde very little nourishment to the bodie, and the same naught and corrupt." Nor does Batty Langley, writing in 1728, mention Tomatos, though he gives long lists of "raw sallets," which include Nasturtium blossoms, Tarragon, Borage flowers, and Sorrel. [8] See Note III. on the "Solanum" tribe. The handsomest of our beds at present (except always the beds of Jackman's Clematis and scarlet Lobelia) is a permanent bed of Tritomas, which hold up their orange and crimson maces thickly as possible. These Tritomas would, however, show to most advantage if planted with the Arundo conspicua, the white plumes of which form the happiest contrast to their glowing spikes. The Pampas-grass would be better still, but I have not been able to make them blossom together. A patch of Tritomas on the corner of the lawn has been a failure, owing to the carelessness of a gardener, who cut them down with the grass in mowing. One other bed, also a permanent one, I have still to mention. It is a mass of Anemone japonica[9] alba with Statice latifolia round it. This Anemone, with its white blossoms surrounding a yellow centre, and looking just like some very perfect white wild Rose, is a beautiful flower, and the grey branched sprays of the Statice harmonise wonderfully with it. [9] Why is this Anemone called _japonica_? It was first brought from _Simla_ by Lady Amherst (the wife of the Governor-General of India), as her granddaughter assures me. All along the vinery border has been a long row of Stocks, Asters, and Mignonette, and the scent has been delicious, especially towards evening, or after a warm shower of rain. In hot weather the garden is almost too hot when the sun is full upon it, and I have always taken care to grow the night-scented Stock and other flowers of the kind, so that the garden, as evening comes on, may be as sweet as can be; but this year these annuals, with several others, have done no good. On the other hand, the large tall Oenothera opens hundreds of yellow stars each night; and, better still, the beautiful Oenothera taraxacifolia, on the herbaceous borders, unfolds a number of its large white blossoms, which gleam out among the rich green foliage close upon the ground. Next year I think I will have an entire bed of this white Oenothera; it will be worth the space. The Dahlias have been good with me this year, but I have done badly in Hollyhocks. The Tobacco-plants, which I generally grow, and which were last year so handsome, have also failed me; and so have the Ice-Plants, the Egg-plants, and the Amaranthus salicifolius, nor do I see any sufficient reason for it. The Tuberose, the flower which, even in the perfect garden of the "Sensitive Plant," was said to be "The sweetest flower for scent that grows," has been very sweet with us. But we dare not leave it in our garden; we bring the pots, with their tall green wands tipped with delicious tufts of bloom, into the centre hall, and the warm perfume rises up the staircase, and floats along the open gallery above. _September 19._--I have just gathered from the wall between the vineries the finest blossom I ever happen to have seen of what I maintain is the finest flower in the world--the Magnolia grandiflora--so large and round is it, of such a rich cream colour, and with such a rich strong scent. The Tuberose even seems a plebeian flower by the side of the Magnolia. Once only have I seen this Magnolia growing upon a lawn as a standard, and I never saw any flowering tree so grand, as its dark green leaves lifted up the large white chalices to catch the freshest dews from heaven. But what must it be where this beautiful tree grows wild, as on the "Hills with high Magnolia overgrown," where Gertrude of Wyoming was used to wander? And, as I gather this Magnolia, the feeling comes across me that now the year is over as regards the garden. We may have another month of flowers, but they are the flowers that linger on, not the flowers that open out new pleasures for us; the Michaelmas Daisy alone remains,--for "the Michaelmas Daisy blows lonely and late,"--before we reach the Chrysanthemums and winter. We have now had all that summer and autumn had to give us, and it seems as though Nature had exhausted all her energies, and were ready for a long rest. The Fuchsias, that come up year by year, are still in great beauty. The Jasmine, with variegated leaves, that clings round an old brick pedestal in the middle of a Kalmia bed, still opens its white blossoms. The Escallonia, that grows up the house, will hang its red flowers in front of the library windows for a fortnight still to come. But the year is virtually at an end, and we talk only of the bulbs for the spring, or of the moving of shrubs in the early winter. Yet I find two things, of which I have still to speak. The Asters have been good. I had planted them in among the standard Rose beds, and very gay they are. Many years have passed since I found the wild Aster of America growing on the hill-side at Concord behind Hawthorne's house, and was reminded of Emerson's lines-- "Chide me not, laborious band, For the idle flowers I brought; Every Aster in my hand Goes home loaded with a thought." Then, by the side of the vinery, is growing a little row of Indian Corn. The plants stand each from 9 to 11 feet high, and each bears its flowering plume above, and its tasselled ears below. There are two varieties, one yellow and one red. I brought them on in heat, and planted them out when they were about a foot in height. This year, as for three years past, they have ripened with me, and on one plant, strangely enough, a piece of the flower has itself fructified! I am not botanist enough to understand how this has happened.[10] [10] The editor of the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ explains--"It is simply an admixture of the seed-bearing flowers with the pollen-forming flowers--a not very uncommon event, though ordinarily the male and female blossoms are borne in distinct spikes or panicles." The effect is certainly very curious. X. St. Luke's Summer--The Orchard--The Barberry--White Haricot Beans--Transplanting--The Rockery. _October 15._--This is St. Luke's summer, or the "Indian summer" as it is called in America. The air is soft and warm and still. The yellow leaves fall from the Beeches in countless numbers, but slowly and noiselessly, and as if reluctant to let go their hold. The rooks come back to us again across the fields, and clamour among the empty nests, which were their homes in spring. The "remontant" Roses are putting out their latest blooms, and the Antirrhinums, Mulleins, and some few other flowers, show themselves "remontant" also. There is an aromatic fragrance everywhere from the withering leaves and from the lingering flowers. But there is sadness with it all. We cannot deceive ourselves, but we know that all is now over, and that at any moment the frost may come, and leave us nothing but decay and death. There are some lines in Morris's _Earthly Paradise_--the very best lines, I think, in the whole poem--which speak of some old men's last peaceful days, as "--like those days of later autumn-tide, When he who in some town may chance to bide Opens the window for the balmy air, And, seeing the golden hazy sky so fair, And from some city garden hearing still The wheeling rooks the air with music fill-- Sweet, hopeful music--thinketh, Is this spring? Surely the year can scarce be perishing. But then he leaves the clamour of the town, And sees the withered scanty leaves fall down; The half-ploughed field, the flowerless garden plot; The full dark stream, by summer long forgot; The tangled hedges where, relaxed and dead, The twining plants their withered berries shed, And feels therewith the treachery of the sun, And knows the pleasant time is well-nigh done." Was picture ever more truly painted?--and any day it may be true for us. Our Apple harvest has been over for nearly a fortnight; but how pleasant the orchard was while it lasted, and how pleasant the seat in the corner by the Limes, whence we see the distant spire on the green wooded slopes. The grey, gnarled old Apple-trees have, for the most part, done well. The Ribston Pippins are especially fine, and so is an apple, which we believe to be the King of the Pippins. On the other hand, we have some poor and worthless sorts--probably local varieties,--which no pomologist, however able and obliging, would undertake to name. One of the prettiest of Apples--and one of the best, too--is the Delaware. It has an orange-red colour, and reminds one almost of an Orange as it hangs upon the tree. It has a crisp, delicious flavour, but requires to be eaten as soon as it is ripe, for otherwise it soon gets mealy. Indeed all eating apples, with but few exceptions, are best when freshly gathered, or, better still, when, on some clear soft day, they have just fallen on the grass, and lie there, warmed by the rays of the autumn sun. Of my Pears I have not much to say: the new trees I have planted have hardly come into bearing, and the old ones are of inferior quality. In another year or two, however, I shall hope to be supplied through all the winter months up to the middle of the spring. Plums have done but little, and Damsons, which are supposed to succeed so well in Lancashire, are an absolute failure. I must not forget the Red Siberian Crab, which has been laden with fruit, and one tree of which should find its corner in every garden. Last of all, I have to speak of the Barberry. There is a great bush which stands by the grass walk in the walled garden. In the summer it was a mass of scented yellow blossoms, round which bees were always buzzing. Then, as the year grew older, bunches of bright coral hung over it from top to bottom. We consider our Barberries as not the least important of our fruit crop. We preserve them, some in bunches, some picked like Currants. We crystallize them in sugar, and they become delicious _bonbons_. We steep them in salt and water, and they keep as a gay garnish for cold meat or game. Our Barberry-tree is not looking its best at present; a big branch has withered, and I must cut it in. _October 24._--Since I wrote we have had a great gale, which has swept over us, and torn down an Elm in the wood and a fine Chestnut in the croft. I could ill spare either of them, and it is but poor comfort to think that our piled-up logs will outlast the winter. It was the "wild west wind," of which Shelley sings, which has done the mischief; and smaller branches, lying scattered all over the lawn and walks, show us where it passed. We are now preparing our Mushroom bed, for we shall need it as the green vegetables fail us. I have said but little about the kitchen garden, for I do not suppose it differs much from that of other people. Our Peas have, however, served us particularly well, and we had our last dish on October 1--later than I ever before have known them here. One excellent vegetable I have generally grown, and I would thoroughly recommend it to any one who has space to spare: it is the French White Haricot. It is not often seen with us though it is so very common in France. It is a species of French Bean, of which you eat the white bean itself instead of slicing up the pod. I suspect that, taking England through, there are very few gardens where the White Haricot is found. We are now busy with our planting. Some Rhododendrons and Aucubas in the borders near the front gate have been pining away--starved by the Elm-tree roots around them. We are trenching up the ground, cutting away what smaller roots we can, and putting in manure and some new shrubs. We are planting a row of Hollies to screen a wall towards the lane. We are moving a Salisburia adiantifolia, with its strange foliage like a gigantic Maidenhair Fern, from a corner into a more prominent place. We shall then set to work to re-arrange the rockery. This, I think, I have never mentioned. In the middle of the little wood was once a pond, but I found the stagnant water and the soaking leaves, which fell and rotted there, no advantage to the place; I therefore drained away the water and planted beds of Azaleas and Rhododendrons along the slopes, with Primroses, Violets, and Blue Bells, and in the middle of all I have lately placed a tuft of Pampas-grass. On one slope I have managed a rockery with a stone tank in the centre, where for three summers past has flowered an Aponogeton distachyon. I have means of turning on fresh water into the tank, and I am well repaid for any trouble, as the little white boat-blossoms, laden with delicious spicy scent, rise up to the surface of their tiny lake. The rockery is, however, too much under the shade and drip of trees, and I cannot hope that delicate alpine flowers should grow there. Sedums and Saxifragas, Aquilegias, Aubrietias, the white Arabis, and the yellow Moneywort, besides Ferns of various kinds, all do well. In another part of the wood is a loggery, which I have entirely covered with the large white Bindweed, which rambles about at its own will, and opens its blossoms, sometimes a dozen at a time, all through the summer months. Past that, there is a little patch of Bluebells, then more beds of Rhododendrons, and then a short walk, which takes us by a private path to the village church, and then by another branch returns again towards the house. In this part of the grounds there is still room for planting, and I shall probably try some Tree Rhododendrons. A standard Honeysuckle, which I have endeavoured to grow, has done no good as yet; its shoots get nipped by the north-east winds, but I do not yet despair. The most useful undergrowth I find is the Elder; it thrives wonderfully, and is covered with blossom and with berry. One variety, the Parsley-leaved Elder, is here equally hardy with the common Elder, and much more graceful in its growth. We have now to take in our tender and half-hardy plants, for fear of a sudden frost. The large Myrtles, which have stood out in their boxes, must be placed in safety, and the Lobelia cardinalis and other bedding-plants, which we may need next year, must be removed. XI. The Wood and the Withered Leaves--Statues--Sun-dials--The Snow--Plans for the Spring--Conclusion. _November 7._--The soft autumn weather still spares what flowers the rains have left us, and here and there are signs as if of another spring. Violets along the grass walks, Strawberries in flower, and to-day a little yellow Brier Rose blossoming on an almost leafless spray, remind us of the early months of the year that is no more. But here, too, are some of the flowers of November. The Arbutus has again opened its bunches of waxen pink, and the Chrysanthemums are again blooming on the shrubbery beds. The year has all but completed its circle since first I wrote these notes, and I speak to-day of the flowers, the same, yet not the same, as those of which I wrote eleven months ago. The trees have lost nearly every leaf, and our little wood is bare as the wood wherein poor Millevoye, so soon to die, once strolled when "De la dépouille de nos bois L'automne avait jonché la terre; Le bocage était sans mystère Le rossignol était sans voix." "The autumn's leafy spoil lay strewn The forest paths along; The wood had lost its haunted shade, The nightingale his song." Had there been in happier days a "mystère" beyond the charm of waving branches and whispering leaves? Another French poem on a withered leaf is better known, for it was Macaulay who translated Arnault's verses, and rendered the last three lines so perfectly:-- "Je vais où va toute chose, Où va la feuille de Rose, Et la feuille de Laurier." "Thither go I, whither goes Glory's laurel, Beauty's rose." Among my ideas--I cannot call it plan, for my mind is not quite made up about it--I half fancy putting up a statue of some sort in a nook in the little wood, where the Beeches grow the tallest and the Elders are the thickest. Such things were once common, and then they got so common, and often so out of place, that they became absurd. Every villa garden had its statue and its rockery. Batty Langley has an amusing chapter about statues. He says--"Nothing adds so much to the beauty and grandeur of gardens as fine statues, and nothing is more disagreeable than when they are wrongly placed; as Neptune on a terrace walk, mound, &c.; or Pan, the god of sheep, in a large basin, canal, or fountain;" and then, "to prevent such absurdities," he gives the most elaborate directions. Mars and Jupiter, Fame and Venus, Muses and Fates, Atlas, Hercules, and many more, are for open centres or lawns. Sylvanus, Actæon, and Echo, are among those recommended for woods. Neptune, Oceanus, and the Naiades, will do for canals and fish-ponds. Pomona and the Hesperides for orchards, Flora and Runcina ("the goddess of weeding") for flower-gardens, Bacchus for vineyards, Æolus for high terrace walks, and "the goddess Vallonta" for valleys. He gives the right deities for paddocks, for wheat-fields, for "ambuscados," and for beehives. In short there is no place for which he does not think a statue ornamental and appropriate. I hope he would approve of my own very humble idea, which is a statue of Hyacinthus,--for, where I thought of placing it, the wild Hyacinths or Bluebells will come clustering up, and make the grass all blue. The poetry of gardens is so entirely neglected in these days of "bedding stuff," that it is well to do anything that can properly be done, without extravagance of taste or method, to revive it. In the inner garden I think also of placing a sun-dial, which would be in good keeping with the rather formal character of the beds. Mrs. Gatty's beautiful book on sun-dials should help me to a motto. They are of two sorts--the mottoes that warn, and the mottoes that console. "The night cometh,"[11] or "Pereunt et imputantur," are good examples of the one; "Horas non numero nisi serenas," or "Post tenebras lucem spero," are the best instances of the other. But there is a verse by Mrs. Browning, which (if I may so adapt it by a slight alteration in the second line) would make a finer inscription still-- "See, the shadow on the dial, In the lot of every one, Marks the passing of the trial, Proves the presence of the sun." [11] Many years ago Miss Martineau told me of this motto, and I see that in her "Autobiography" she speaks of it as "perfect in its way." She however finally adopted for her own sun-dial the happier "Come, light! visit me!" _Nov. 28._--We wake to find snow all thick upon the ground, over lawn and flower-bed, and the children are out betimes rolling up huge snowballs on the grass. This snow is the best thing possible for the garden, for we have already had a night or two of sharp frost, which killed all it could reach of our herbaceous plants. "Autumn's last delights were nipped by early cold," as in the garden of Lord Houghton's "Old Manorial Hall," and the Dahlias and the Fuchsias were all shrivelled into brown unsightly tufts. We have covered up the Fig-trees on the wall. We have trenched up the shrubbery borders. We have done our last planting--a Catalpa in one place, a Paulownia in another--and some more fruit-trees in the orchard. We have planted our bulbs and sowed our autumn annuals for spring gardening. I was so pleased with the Nemophila bed of last May that I am repeating the experiment on a larger scale. I shall have one bed of Nemophila, and another of Virginian Stock. I shall have a bed of pink Saponaria edged with white. Along the Vine border I shall stretch a ribbon of white Saponaria, blue Myosotis, pink Silene, and many-coloured Sweet Peas. Then again, at the end of the grass walk, where it runs up against the hedge of the croft, I am fixing an arched trelliswork of wire, with a wire seat inside, and over it I shall train and trail the broad leaves of the Aristolochia and the scarlet blossoms of the Tropæolum speciosum. The vineries are of course at rest; but in them are Roman Hyacinths, now ready for the house, and pots of Polyanthus Narcissus will be also ready within a week. The porch of the house is filled on either side with stages of Chrysanthemums, and the fine glossy foliage of an Aralia looks well in the inside vestibule. And now I bring these notes to an end. My aim has been to show how much interest and pleasure may be gathered out of a garden of moderate pretensions, and with no great appliances in the way of glass, nor any advantage in the way of climate. I have endeavoured, too, to reclaim for our English gardens those old flowers, which Shakespeare and Milton and Marvell and Cowley loved. They have been far too long neglected for flowers, whose only charm is charm of colour and a certain evenness of growth. The ordinary bedded garden of to-day is as inferior to the Elizabethan gardens of old, as all gardens anywhere must be to the delights, which fancy conjures up in the enchanted gardens of Armida, or the bowered pleasance of Boccaccio. Meanwhile we can only do what best we can, and when all else fails we can say, like Candide, "Il faut cultiver _notre_ jardin." And so I bid a hearty farewell to those readers, who for months past have followed the fortunes, and shared with me the hopes, of a year in a Lancashire garden. SUPPLEMENTARY CHAPTER. Flowering Shrubs--Yuccas--Memorial Trees--Ranunculus-- Pansies--Canna Indica--Summer Flowers--Bluets-- Fruit-blossoms and Bees--Strawberry Leaves--Garden Sounds-- Mowing--Birds--The Swallow--Pleasures of a Garden. Almost more interesting than herbaceous plants are the flowering shrubs. Most beautiful of all, if, indeed, it may be called a shrub, is the Buddleia Globosa, in the inner garden, which I have already mentioned. When June draws to its close, it is laden with thousands of blossoms like little golden oranges, and fills the air with honied scent. It is the largest Buddleia I ever happen to have seen, for it stands sixteen feet high, and stretches its branches over a round bed of blue Iris to a circumference of seventy feet. And just about the time when the Buddleia is in bloom, masses of the sweet homely English Elder, screening off the little wood, will perfume all the approach to the house. Common enough it is, but delightful in its dark foliage, its rich creamy blossoms, its clusters of purple berries. We do not make the use of it we should, and Elderberry water and Elderberry Wine are known to me by name alone, but the berries are excellent for tarts and puddings. One shrub which I planted a year or two ago has answered far better than I had any right to hope. It is the Desfontainea Spinosa. It is so like a holly that it puzzles everybody who sees, for the first time, the scarlet and yellow tubes of blossom which stand out among the prickly leaves. The year before last it flowered twice with me, but the cruel winter we have just had has cut it sadly, and it will be long before it will recover. I have spoken of trying whether by the planting of a second Arbutus I could make my beautiful old shrub fruit. The result has been quite successful, and I have had for two years past bright red berries hanging down among the pale waxen blossoms and the dark-green leaves. The Magnolia between the vineries has become prodigal of flowers as it has grown older, and last year I had no less than ten blossoms from it, and it is still young. The Magnolia (also a Grandiflora) on the house has also begun to flower, but I had nearly lost it altogether, and the story is rather a curious one. I had noticed that both it and other creepers were looking unhappy, and I could not guess the reason. The Escallonia showed bare branches in many places, the Ceanothus seemed shrunken and brown, and a Gloire de Dijon Rose did no good. At last it occurred to my gardener that the galvanised wire, which I had put up to avoid driving nails into the stone work of the windows, was to blame. I pulled it all down, coated it thickly over with paint, and, when it was again put up, all the creepers seemed to start into fresh life, and grew strong and vigorous. On a patch of green grass near the house stands a Yucca Gloriosa, which I am always hoping will flower, but it has never done so yet. Not long ago I was at a stately place in Shropshire, and at the end of a broad walk, where a circle of Yuccas had been planted, there were no less than five in full flower, throwing up pale jets of blossom, like fountains, towards the sky. I never saw anything more perfect in its way. But it is said that the right time to see a Yucca is by moonlight. There is a very striking passage in one of the letters of the most remarkable of American women, Margaret Fuller (afterwards Countess D'Ossoli), in which she says:-- "This flower" (it was the Yucca Filamentosa) "was made for the moon as the Heliotrope is for the sun, and refuses other influences, or to display her beauty in any other light. Many white flowers are far more beautiful by day. The lily, for instance, with its firm thick leaf, needs the broadest light to manifest its purity, but these transparent leaves of greenish white, which look dull in the day, are melted by the moon to glistening silver...." The second evening I went out into the garden again. In clearest moonlight stood my flower, more beautiful than ever. The stalk pierced the air like a spear; all the little bells had erected themselves around it in most graceful array, with petals more transparent than silver, and of softer light than the diamond. Their edges were clearly but not sharply defined--they seemed to have been made by the moon's rays. The leaves, which had looked ragged by day, now seemed fringed by most delicate gossamer, and the plant might claim, with pride, its distinctive epithet of _filamentosa_. On another grass-plot near I have one of the beautiful Retinosporas of Japan, which was one day planted for me by a friend. He is the poet, who says that-- "Eastward roll the orbs of heaven, Westward tend the thoughts of men: Let the Poet, nature-driven, Wander Eastward now and then:--" and this tree, while it lives, will remind me of the East, and of him who wrote these lines. But there are other pleasant ways of recalling one's friends to memory. I never stay anywhere, where there is a garden, without bringing back with me some one or more shrubs, as a remembrance of a beautiful place or happy hours; and, when I plant them, I fasten to them a label, mentioning their old home, and thus I am reminded--now of a quaint low house covered with creepers and nestling among the hills of Wales--now of a magnificent castle with its pleasance in the north of Ireland,--now of a great hall in Scotland, where a wild glen runs down past the garden to the woods,--now of an old English abbey, where the flowers of to-day spring up among the ruins of a thousand years ago. Among the flowers in the inner garden, which have well repaid me during the last year or two, have been the Anemones--delightful old flowers--"pied wind-flowers," Shelley calls them,--which first sprang to birth when Venus wept Adonis. Then I have had two successful beds of Ranunculus; one was prettily and fancifully mottled; the other was of the finest scarlet,--a scarlet so intense that it seemed to be almost black in the inner shadows of the petals. A gifted American lady once said to me--"Does not black seem to underlie all bright scarlet?" and I have thought of this as I have looked at this bed of Ranunculus, and I think of it often as I see the red coats of our soldiers passing by. I have often noticed, too, that, in an evening, when there is still light enough to see flowers, that are yellow, or blue, or pink, the blossoms of a scarlet Pelargonium give forth no colour, but look as if cut out of some soft black velvet. Another spring bed, from which I had hoped much, has disappointed me. It was a bed of Crown Imperials, but for some reason they flowered irregularly and produced no effect. But the individual flowers of some were magnificent. I had never examined a Crown Imperial properly before, and never knew that its great beauty lay in the little circlet of pearls--nectaries, I suppose they are--which lie at the bottom of each orange bell. They are quite exquisite in their grey and white glittering movement, as the light plays upon them, and are more like pearls than anything else in nature. Among my humbler flowers, of which I have somehow made no mention, is the Pansy, yet few flowers have more associations connected with them. The Pansy--the _Heartsease_ we still sometimes call it--is Shakespeare's "Love in Idleness," and Milton's "Pansy freak'd with jet." The American poet, Edgar Poe, speaks of the "beautiful Puritan Pansies;" and I remember a fine wild passage in one of this same poet's little-known essays, where two angels are talking, and one of them says--"We will swoop outward into the starry meadows beyond Orion, where for Pansies, and Violets, and Heartsease, are the beds of the triplicate and triple-tinted suns." Last year my finest bed was one of the Canna Indica, in which every plant threw up grand broad leaves and spikes of crimson or yellow blossom. Why is not the Canna far more common in all our gardens? At present one sees it in public parks, or where gardening on a great scale is carried on, but in smaller gardens it is very rare, and yet it is easy enough to grow; and once I think it must have been more known than it is at present. Gerarde speaks of it as "the flowering reed," and gives a very fair illustration of it. He adds, however, "Myself have planted it in my garden divers times, but it never came to flowering or seeding, for that it is very impatient to endure the injury of our cold climate." Cowley, too, speaks of the "lustre of the Indian flowering reed;" and Dr. Darwin, in his _Loves of the Plants_, gives it (with its single pistil and stamen), as the best type of the conjugal fidelity of flowers, and tells how-- "The tall Canna lifts his curlèd brow, Erect to heaven;" adding, in prose, that "the seeds are used as shot by the Indians, and are strung for prayer-beads in some Catholic countries." Indeed, the plant is often called the "Indian Shot," and as the seeds, shining, hard and black, ripened with me last year, I can understand how appropriate is the name. A bed of double Potentillas, some red, some yellow, and some with the two colours mingled, has been very fine; and so has a bed of hybrid Bulbous Begonias, which seem quite hardy. I plant the blue Lobelia between them, and it contrasts pleasantly with their crimson and orange bells. A long row of Sweet Peas of every variety of colour extends along the border in front of the vinery, and fills the garden with its scent; and not far off is a wire screen, which I cover with the large Convolvulus, and through the summer months the "Morning Glories," as the blossoms were once called, display all their short-lived beauty. On either side of the grass-walk, which runs down the garden, at a right angle to the vineries, I am making rustic trellises of logs of wood, round which I shall plant Vegetable Marrows and Gourds, and at intervals clumps of the great Sunflower.[12] In another corner I am sowing a bed of the Bluet, or Corn-flower, the favourite flower of the Emperor of Germany. For some reason the Violets of Napoleon, of which I once had abundance, have not been so successful with me during the last few years,--will the Corn-flower do better?--What a glorious blue it is! and how much we have neglected it! because, I suppose, it is too common, and grows wild amid the ripening Corn and the scarlet Poppy. [12] See Note IV. on the Sunflower of the Classics. Turning to the fruit-garden, my great discovery has been that I _must_ have bees--not at all for the honey, but for the proper setting of the fruit. A large May Duke Cherry is always covered with blossom, but scarcely anything has ever come from it. Last year I examined its blossom closely, and found that the pistil is so much longer than the stamens that it cannot fertilise itself, and must be dependent on insects. This is not the case with other varieties of Cherries, so far as I can see, and I am curious to find out whether my remedy of a bee-hive will this year have the desired effect. I believe it will be of service to the other wall-fruit too, and I have already seen the affection the bees have for the blossoms of the Apricot. How beautiful a garden is when all the fruit-trees are in bloom! and how various that bloom is! Each Pear-tree bears a different blossom from its neighbour, and the handsomest of all, in size and shape of flower and form of cluster, is the Jargonelle. But no Pear-blossom can compare with the beauty of blossom on the Apple-trees;--and of all Apple-trees the Pomeroy is most beautiful, when every bough is laden with clusters of deep-red buds, which shade off into the softest rosy white, as, one by one, the blossoms open out. Of other fruit I have nothing new to notice, unless it be to ask whether any one now living can smell the scent of dying Strawberry leaves? We all remember how Mrs. Gaskell in her delightful story gives Lady Ludlow the power, but now we all seem to have lost it. Certainly my dying Strawberry leaves give me no sense of sweetness. Was it a mere fond and foolish fancy? or were the Strawberries of Elizabethan gardens different from those we are now growing? Bacon tells us that, next to the white double Violet and the Musk Rose, the sweetest perfume in the open air is "Strawberry leaves dying, which yield a most excellent cordiale smell;" and I find in an old play by Sir John Suckling-- "Wholesome As dying leaves of Strawberries." But there are sounds that haunt a garden hardly less delightful than its sights and scents. What sound has more poetry in it than when in the early morning one hears the strong sharp sweep of the scythe, as it whistles through the falling grass, or the shrill murmur of the blade upon the whetstone; and, in spite of mowing machines, at times one hears the old sound still. How fond Andrew Marvell was of mowing and the mowers! He has given us "Damon the Mower," "The Mower to the Glow-worm," "The Mower's Song," "The Mower against Gardens," and "Ametas and Thestylis making Hay-ropes;" and again, in his fine poem, on "Appleton House," he describes the "tawny mowers" dividing the "grassy deeps," "With whistling scythe and elbow strong." One of our latest poets too, Mr. Allingham, has a delicious little mower's song, with a quite perfect refrain of-- "A scythe-sweep and a scythe-sweep, We mow the grass together." And again, what does not the garden owe to the voice of birds; the deep cawing of the rook in its "curious flight" around the elm-trees; the clear note of the cuckoo from the limes that bound the orchard; and, best of all, the rich, full melody of the thrush! The nightingale's song may be sweeter and stronger, but the nightingale only sings in certain places (certainly not with us), and the thrush is everywhere. The nightingale sings later in the night, but the thrush will go on till nine, and begin again at four, and surely that is all we need. Can anything be truer, or better said, than these lines of Browning's about a thrush?-- "Hark! where my blossomed Pear-tree in the hedge Leans to the field, and scatters on the clover Blossoms and dewdrops, at the bent spray's edge-- That's the wise thrush--he sings each song twice over, Lest you should think he never could recapture The first fine careless rapture." But there is one bird dearer to us than the thrush, and that is the swallow, which for some years past has built its nest in our porch. It has been pretty to mark her skimming round and round with anxious watching, till we have left the place. Prettier still, when we have kept ourselves concealed, to see her darting upwards to the nest, which was fringed by four little heads all in a row, and, going from one to the other, give each its share. We could hear the sharp little cry of satisfaction as each nestling was attended to. How much the poets have written about swallows! There is the charming passage in Longfellow's "Golden Legend," where the old monk is speaking; he is the librarian, whose duty it is to illuminate the missals for the convent's use and pride:-- "How the swallows twitter under the eaves! There, now there is one in her nest; I can just catch a glimpse of her head and breast, And will sketch her thus in her quiet nook, For the margin of my gospel-book." Then how delightful is the boast, which Mr. Courthope, in his _Paradise of Birds_, puts into the nightingale's mouth, that a bird is better than a man, for-- "He never will mount as the swallows, Who dashed round his steeples to pair, Or hawked the bright flies in the hollows Of delicate air." And, long before this, Banquo had marked their "pendent beds" on Macbeth's castle, and noticed that-- "Where they most breed and haunt, I have observed The air is delicate." And who does not recall Tennyson's-- "Swallow, swallow, flying, flying south," and bearing on swift wing the message that-- "Dark and true and tender is the north"? Or who, that has once read it, can forget _Les Hirondelles_ of Béranger, and how the French captive among the Moors questions the swallows about his country, his home, his friends, which they perhaps have seen? Lastly, what a felicitous line is this of the American poet Lowell, when he describes "The thin-winged swallow _skating_ on the air." I must bring these Notes, such as they are, to a close, and yet I feel I have scarcely even yet described the pleasures of a garden. But my memory at least can do it justice. It recalls summer afternoons, when the lawn tennis went merrily on on the lawn, by the weeping ash-tree, and summer evenings, when the house was too hot, and we sat out after dinner upon the terrace with the claret and the fruit. The air was all perfume, and the light lingered long in the east over the church steeple three miles away, and no sound but of our own voices broke the silence and the peace. Again, there were fine bright autumn days--days when the garden was full of warm scent and warmer colour--days when the children could swing for hours in the hammock, which hangs between two large Sycamores, and have their tea-table beneath the trees,--days when the still air was only stirred by the patter of a falling chestnut, or the note of some solitary bird, or the sound of church bells far away. Beyond the grass-field, which comes nearly up to the house, was a field of wheat, and we could watch the harvesting, and follow with our eyes the loaded waggons as they passed along by the hedge-row trees. But such recollections grow thicker as I write, and words, such as I at least can command, do them little justice. I cannot really share with my readers these pleasures of the past, though I like to fancy that they may feel some kindly sympathy, as they remember happy days in gardens dear to them as mine to me. NOTES. NOTE I. ON THE VIOLA OF THE ROMANS. I contributed the following note on "The Viola of the Romans," to the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ of September 26, 1874, as I found a correspondent had been adopting Lord Stanhope's views. * * * * * Mr. Ruskin in his _Queen of the Air_ wrote, "I suspect that the flower whose name we translate 'Violet' was in truth an Iris" (he is speaking of the Greek _ion_, but the Viola no doubt is whatever the _ion_ was). In Lord Stanhope's _Miscellanies_, second series, which was published in 1872, a paper, which had been previously (in 1830) read before the Society of Antiquaries, treats of the "Viola of the Ancients." Lord Stanhope identifies it with the Iris, and on the following grounds:-- 1. Because when riding through Sicily in the winter of 1825, he saw many Irises and no Violets, and heard that the country people called the Iris Viola. 2. Because Pliny speaks of Violæ luteæ, whereas there are no Violets of that colour. 3. Because Pliny also describes the Violet as growing in sunny and barren places ("apricis et macris locis"), whereas really Violets always grow in the shade. 4. Because he speaks of the Violet as springing from a fleshy root-stock ("ab radice carnoso"), whereas the Violet root is fibrous. 5. Because Ovid couples the Violet with the Poppy and the Lily as flowers which, when broken off, hang their heads to the ground. I need not say much as to Lord Stanhope's not finding Violets in Sicily in winter, for the question is, whether he would not find them in Italy in spring. Nor does the fact of the Sicilian peasants speaking of the Iris as a Violet disturb me any more than when I hear a Scotch peasant speak of the "Harebell" as a "Bluebell." The real authority is Pliny, and Pliny settles the question completely. He says (I quote for convenience from Bohn's translated edition):--"Next after the Roses and the Lilies, the Violet is held in the highest esteem. Of this there are several varieties, the purple, the yellow, and the white, all of them reproduced from plants, like the Cabbage. The Purple Violet, which springs up spontaneously in sunny spots with a thin meagre soil, has larger petals than the others, springing immediately from the root, which is of a fleshy substance. This Violet has a name, too, distinct from the other wild kinds, being called 'ion,' and from it the ianthine cloth takes its name." He goes on to say that of cultivated kinds the Yellow Violet is held in most esteem. He speaks then of the Tusculan and Marine Violet as having broader petals than the others, but being less sweet, while the Calathian Violet is also without scent. A little farther on he describes the Iris itself, and says "the stem of this plant is a cubit in length and erect, the flower being of various colours like the rainbow, to which circumstance it is indebted for its name." It is, he adds, a plant of a caustic nature, and the root is used in perfumery and medicine, but the flower is _never employed for garlands_. After this, perhaps, it is needless to add that of course Lord Stanhope is mistaken in supposing that there are no Yellow Violets (he may find any number half-way up the Rigi), or that Violets do not often grow in sunny and sterile places, or that the Purple Violet has not a fleshy root-stock. That the Sweet Violet, which Pliny says was used for wreath-making, was generally cultivated is certain from Horace's "Tum _violaria_ et Myrtus, et omnis copia narium Spargent olivetis odorem." _Odes_, ii. 15. Then, again, the Sweet Violet was used for the flavouring of wine--the "vinum violatum." There are other passages in which Pliny speaks of the sweetness of the Violet. He says it is sweetest at a distance, and that it has no scent except in the flower itself. There can be no doubt then whatever (I conceive) that the Greeks, when they spoke of the "ion," or the Romans of the "Viola," generally meant our Violet, and that the Violet-wreaths were made from this familiar flower. Still the name was perhaps loosely used, and it is highly probable that the flower to which Ovid refers, in the passage which Lord Stanhope quotes, was the Snowflake or Leucoion (literally, "White Violet"). NOTE II. ON THE AZALEA VISCOSA. I was much pleased to see my observations on the Azalea as a fly-catcher confirmed by a subsequent paragraph (October 3, 1874,) in the _Gardeners' Chronicle_. It is interesting, and I now reprint it. * * * * * AZALEA VISCOSA A FLY-CATCHER. Under this heading Mr. W. W. Bailey gives the following observations in the current number of the _American Naturalist_:-- "The many curious observations published of late in regard to vegetable fly-catchers have opened my eyes to such phenomena as are presented in my forest walks. As is well known to all botanists, our sweet swamp Azalea (Azalea viscosa) has its corolla covered on the outside with innumerable clammy and glandular hairs. Each hair is a prolongation of the cuticle, and is surmounted by a purple and globular band. In the bud these hairs appear to cover the whole surface of the flower, but when the corolla expands they are seen to occupy the midrib of the petals as well as the tube of the corolla. These glandular hairs are efficacious fly-catchers, but what the object is in thus securing insect prey I will not pretend to state. I have been amusing myself, if any such apparently cruel occupation can be considered entertaining, in watching the capture of flies by the Azaleas. When I first brought the flowers home, many small insects, as winged ants, were entrapped amidst the hairs. These have remained alive several days, still vainly struggling for freedom. As the house-flies are abundant in my room, it occurred to me that I might extirpate the pests, and at the same time learn something of the process of insect-catching. I have not noticed that the powerful fragrance of the blossoms attracts the house-fly, although I have no doubt that it does the smaller insects. It seemed to be accidental when the house-flies were captured. I exposed a number of buds and fully-opened blossoms on a sunny window-sill thronged with flies. It was not many minutes before I had several captives. A mere touch of a fly's leg to the glutinous hairs was sufficient for his detention. A struggle only made matters worse, as other legs were by this means brought in contact with the glands. These emit long glairy threads, which fasten to the hairs of the flies' legs. They may be drawn out to a great length and tenuity, still retaining their strength. If two buds are pressed together, and then drawn apart, innumerable threads may be seen to bind them. There is a complete network of them between the various glands. They will confine the strongest fly; he is at once held like Gulliver among the Lilliputians. Under the microscope the legs of the fly are seen to be covered with the secretion, which is perfectly white and transparent. In one attempt to escape, a house-fly lifted a flower bodily from the window-sill, perhaps a quarter of an inch, but at once sank back exhausted amidst the hairs. One, after long efforts, escaped, but seemed incapable of using its legs; it flew away readily. In one instance I have found the dried remains of a small insect embedded amidst the hairs, but cannot say whether its juices were in any way absorbed by the plant. If such assimilation takes place, what is its purpose? Can this phenomenon of fly-catching be accidental, or is some nice purpose concealed in it? I merely state the facts as I have observed them; perhaps others can supply further information." NOTE III. ON THE SOLANUM TRIBE. It is very curious to compare the two following passages of two great masters of style--Ruskin and Michelet--both writing of the tribe to which belongs the Tomato. Ruskin, in _The Queen of the Air_, p. 91, says:-- "Next, in the Potato, we have the scarcely innocent underground stem of one of a tribe set aside for evil, having the deadly nightshade for its queen, and including the henbane, the witch's mandrake, and the worst natural curse of modern civilisation--tobacco. And the strange thing about this tribe is, that though thus set aside for evil, they are not a group distinctly separate from those that are happier in function. There is nothing in other tribes of plants like the form of the bean blossom; but there is another family with forms and structure closely connected with this venomous one. Examine the purple and yellow bloom of the common hedge Nightshade;--you will find it constructed exactly like some of the forms of the Cyclamen; and getting this clue, you will find at last the whole poisonous and terrible group to be--sisters of the Primulas. "The nightshades are, in fact, primroses with a curse upon them, and a sign set in their petals by which the deadly and condemned flower may always be known from the innocent one,--that the stamens of the nightshades are between the lobes, and of the primulas opposite the lobes of the corolla." Now for M. Michelet. In _La Sorcière_, p. 119, he writes of the herbs used by the witches:-- "Ce que nous savons le mieux de leur médecine, c'est qu'elles employaient beaucoup, pour les usages les plus divers, pour calmer, pour stimuler, une grande famille de plantes, équivoques, fort dangereuses, qui rendirent les plus grands services. On les nomme avec raison, les _Consolantes_ (Solanées). "Famille immense et populaire, dont la plupart des espèces sont surabondantes, sous nos pieds, aux haies, partout. Famille, tellement nombreuse, qu'un seul de ses genres a huit cents espèces. Rien de plus facile à trouver, rien de plus vulgaire. Mais ces plantes sont la plupart d'un emploi fort hasardeux. Il a fallu de l'audace pour en préciser les doses, l'audace peut-être du génie. "Prenons par en bas l'échelle ascendante de leurs énergies. Les premières sont tout simplement potagères et bonnes à manger (les aubergines, les tomates, mal appelées pommes d'amour). D'autres de ces innocentes sont le calme et la douceur même, les molènes (bouillon blanc), si utiles aux fomentations. "Vous rencontrez au dessus une plante déjà suspecte, que plusieurs croyaient un poison, la plante miellée d'abord, amère ensuite, qui semble dire le mot de Jonathas: 'J'ai mangé un peu de miel, et voilà pourquoi je meurs.' Mais cette mort est utile, c'est l'amortissement de la douleur. La douce-amère, c'est son nom, dut être le premier essai de l'homoeopathie hardie, qui, peu à peu, s'éleva aux plus dangereux poisons. La légère irritation, les picotements qu'elle donne purent la désigner pour remède des maladies dominantes de ces temps, celles de la peau." Speaking of magical herbs reminds one of the "moly," which Mercury gives to Ulysses, and which enabled him to withstand the enchantments of Circe. This "moly" with its white blossom is particularly well known to me, for, when I first came to my present house, the wood near the lodge was so full of it that it seemed as if a dinner of onions was for ever being cooked: I found it exceedingly hard to eradicate. "Moly" is none other than the Garlic, and Circe had apparently the same objection to it as had the wife of the Merchant of Bagdad in the _Arabian Nights_. By the way, what could Mr. Tennyson have been thinking of when he describes his lotus-eaters as "Propt on beds of amaranth and _moly_"? Another poet too, now a well-known divine, once spoke of "--souls that pure and holy Live and love and prosper well, Leaning aye on myrrh and _moly_, Melilote and asphodel." NOTE IV. ON THE SUNFLOWER OF THE CLASSICS. I have been much puzzled to know what was the Sunflower of classical story,--in other words, what was the flower into which, according to the legend, Clytie was so sadly changed. I had always supposed, as nearly every one supposes, that it was what _we_ call the Sunflower (the Helianthus), with its upright stem and large radiated disc. But, first of all, I found, as a matter of fact, that the Helianthus does _not_ follow the course of the Sun, and that various blossoms of the same plant may at the same time be facing in different directions. And then I found, what of course was fatal, that the Helianthus is not a European plant at all, and first came to us from North America. Having consulted _Notes and Queries_ in vain, I determined to look into the matter more closely, as it seemed to me a rather curious question. If the Sunflower of the Classics was not the Helianthus, and if this, as I imagine, only obtained its name from its flowers, which in some way resemble the old pictures of the Sun, could it be the plant we know as _Heliotrope_? The name of course means "turning Sunward," but again the name is no guide to us; the scented flowers of the Heliotrope do not, so far as I know, turn to the Sun, and in any case the plant is of Peruvian and not of European origin. I then fell back upon the classical authors themselves. I got nothing very distinct from Theophrastus, and moreover it is Ovid, to whom we chiefly owe our knowledge of the story. He tells us that when her lover Phoebus left her, poor Clytie "still gazed on the face of the departing god, and bent her looks on him. It is said that she remained rooted to the ground; of her fresh bloom ('color'), part is turned by livid pallor into bloodless leaves, on part a blush remains, and a flower most like a Violet has covered all her face. Held firmly by the root, she still turns to the Sun she loves, and, changed herself, she keeps her love unchanged." Pliny says the Heliotropium "turns with the Sun, in cloudy weather even, so great is its sympathy with that luminary. At night, as though in regret, it closes its blue flowers." What then can this flower be, a blue flower, which turns towards the Sun? I next examined the magnificent volumes of Sibthorp's _Flora Græca_. There is there indeed a European "Heliotropium," "Heliotropium supinum," but this surely cannot be the flower of Clytie; the blossom is quite insignificant ("flore minimo") and _white_. Then there are two Crotons (Tinctorium and Villosum) which are also locally called Heliotropium, and which grow in Crete and Lemnos ("ex quâ paratur Tournesol"), but their flowers again are hardly more noticeable and are _yellow_. Foiled at every point, I thought I would at least see what in _England_ was the traditionary Sunflower, but I am hardly any wiser. Gerarde says that Valerius Cordius calls the dwarf Cistus Helianthemum, and Solis flos or Sunne-flower. He quotes Pliny as calling it also "Heliocalliden, or the Beautie of the Sunne;" and adds, "which if it be the Sunneflower, yet there is another of the same name, but which may be taken for the right it is hard to tell (but that experience teacheth us), seeing Plinie is so breefe." Gerarde has also a chapter on the "Tornesole," and says, "there be five sorts of Tornesole, differing one from another in many notable points, as in greatnesse and smallnesse, in colour of flowers, in forme and shape," and then he describes the varieties of "Tornesoles" or "Heliotropium." He says, "the Græcians call it Heliotropium;"--"it is named Heliotropium, not because it is turned about at the daily motion of the sunne, but by reason it flowreth in the summer solstice, at which time the sunne being farthest gone from the equinoctiale circle, returneth to the same;" but he adds that the French and Italians call it "Turnesol," and says, "it is also called Herba Clitiæ, whereof the poet hath these verses, "'Herba velut Clitiæ semper petit obvia solem, Sic pia mens Christum, quo prece spectet, habet.'" Cowley's Sunflower is called in a foot-note Chrysanthemum Peruvianum, but is probably a form of Helianthus. The flower is supposed to speak, and claims to be a _child_ of the Sun, for, "My orb-like aspect bound with rays The very picture of his face displays; and again, "I still adore my sire with prostrate face, Turn where he turns, and all his motions trace." So after all I am as much in the dark as ever. Was the mysterious flower, as some suggest, a Calendula (Marygold), or an Aster? I cannot tell, and only know that neither answers the description. On the whole then I am disposed to wonder whether either Ovid or Pliny knew much more about the matter than ourselves, and I may some day come to doubt whether Clytie was ever turned into a Sunflower at all.[13] [13] One of our very best living authorities on such a subject has sent me the suggestion that the common Salsafy, or possibly the Anagallis, may be the flower, but he adds (agreeing with Gerarde), "the word Heliotropium does not mean a flower which turns to the sun, but which flowers at the solstice." NOTE V. FLOWERS AND THE POETS. Both the flowers of the garden and what Campbell calls "wildings of nature" have had their bards, and in the case of certain flowers the association with a poet is so strong that the sight of the flower will recall the verse. Of course this is chiefly so as regards the less familiar flowers. No one, not even Sappho, has an exclusive possession in the Rose; but who would care to dispute Shelley's right to the Sensitive Plant, or Wordsworth's to the lesser Celandine? The poets, however, have sometimes more of a love than a knowledge of plants, and Milton talks of the "twisted Eglantine" in confusion between the Sweetbrier and the Honeysuckle. It is interesting to see the different ways in which flowers are treated by the poets. Shakspeare, no doubt, loved them in his way, but after all, there are but few passages in which flowers are used otherwise than as an illustration or an emblem. There are, indeed, Titania's flowered bank, and Perdita's garden,--redolent of herbs and gay with Violets, Primroses, and Daffodils, but where no Gillyflower was allowed to grow,--and poor Ophelia's melancholy blossoms, and the song in _Love's Labour's Lost_, and that is nearly all. Shakspeare often speaks of Roses, but almost always, excepting in the scene at the Temple Gardens, by way of compliment or comparison. The _musk_-rose, indeed, appears in the _Midsummer Night's Dream_, and this Rose, which is now quite unknown to most of us, was evidently a favourite in Elizabethan gardens, for Bacon says of it that, next the white double Violet (which is also almost lost), the musk-rose "yeelds the sweetest smell in the aire." But Shakspeare's favourite flowers seem to have been the Primrose, the Violet, the Pansy, and, above all, the Cowslip. He must often have recalled his boyish walks in spring along the Avon, and remembered how the low-lying fields of Stratford were all sweet and yellow with the Cowslip. And so it is within a Cowslip's bell that Ariel hides, and Cowslips are Titania's pensioners on whose ears the fairies must hang pearls, and when the fields of France are desolated the "freckled Cowslip" does not grow there any more, and the mole on Imogen's breast is "like the crimson drops i' the bottom of a Cowslip." Before passing from Shakspeare, I should like to call the attention of the directors or managers of New Place to the absurdity of the garden, which they are supposed to keep up in remembrance of Shakspeare. I chanced to visit it a summer or two ago, and, instead of finding an Elizabethan garden with flowers associated with Shakspeare and his times, I saw little but a wretched ribbon border of starveling Calceolarias, scrubby Pelargoniums, and miserable Perillas. Such a garden is a mockery, and would be more suggestive and more pathetic if left wild to the growths of nature. If Milton enjoyed more completely the luxury of gardens, it is safe to say that he knew less of separate flowers than Shakspeare. He not only speaks of the Eglantine as "twisted," but he calls the Cowslip "wan," the Violet "glowing," and the Reed "balmy." He makes Roses and Crocuses bloom together in Paradise, and Hyacinths and Roses in the gardens of Hesperus, while Lycid's "laureate hearse" is to be strewn with Primrose and Woodbine, Daffodil and Jessamine. Paradise and the gardens of Hesperus are, of course, ideal gardens, which may be superior to our times and seasons, but the same excuse cannot hold good for the flowers of the "Lycidas," and it is tolerably clear that Milton's special knowledge was somewhat vague. But, on the other hand, what a sensuous pleasure he has in gardens! He is not thinking of Elizabethan gardens, but such gardens as he may have seen in Italy, or read of in Tasso or Boccaccio. The west winds fling around the cedared alleys sweet smells of Nard and Cassia, or the covert is of inwoven shade of Laurel and Myrtle fenced by Acanthus and odorous shrubs. The rich rhythm of his lines seems to breathe perfume and delight. And the reason why, in later years at least, the scent rather than the sight of flowers was dear to Milton, is known to all of us, for has he not himself told us how, "Not to me returns Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn, Or _sight of vernal bloom or summer's rose_?" He could still drink in the perfumed air of gardens, though only memory could recall the form and colour of those flowers, which he would never see again.[14] [14] I remember how years ago I was struck with a beautiful little poem about a blind man, written by Mr. James Payn, the well-known novelist. The lines are quite worth repeating, and will be new to many:-- "There an old man, far in his wintry time, Sits under his porch, while the roses climb; But the breath of its sweetness is all he knows Of the glory about the fair round rose; The lilies that sway in the brook beneath, So cold and white in the beauty of death, Are to him far less than the rushes tall When the wind is bowing them one and all, Like the voice of nature so soft and kind, That whispers how fair she is to _the blind_." Only one English poet has surpassed Milton in his love of gardens. Like Milton he probably knew little of particular flowers, but he revelled in the scent and colour of Roses and of Lilies. It is Andrew Marvell; who, it is to be feared, is far less remembered than he deserves to be. Marvell's gardens are all of the true English character, and his description of Lord Fairfax's, though somewhat quaint and fanciful, has many touches as natural as they are graceful. That the flowers should stand on parade, like soldiers, through the day, and fold up at night in tents, in which bees remain as sentinels, is a far-fetched conceit enough; but nothing can be better than many of his lines. Was it his own garden at Highgate of which he thought, when he spoke of the garden in which Sylvio's fawn was wont to hide? "I have a garden of my own, But so with roses overgrown And lilies, that you would it guess To be a little wilderness." Cowley's love of a garden was of quite another kind. He cared about it as a horticulturist, and knew the various plants and their qualities; but he never luxuriated in it like Milton or like Marvell. His elaborate poem is interesting, if only to show the flowers that were cultivated in his day, and it is curious to find the Tomato (or love-apple) grown for beauty and not for use, and the _Canna Indica_, which is hardly common with us even now, mentioned as among the ordinary flowers of his time. On the whole, however, there are very few lines of Cowley about flowers (we are not speaking of anything else) which are worth quoting or remembering. Herrick's use of flowers is very different. He loved them, no doubt, and is always talking about them, and making them useful. "He twists his coronals of fancy Out of all blossoms," if I may so misapply a line from Lord Houghton's _Letters of Youth_. He makes moralities out of Daffodils, and compliments from Carnations, and warnings from Rosebuds. Charming as many of his poems about flowers are, it is impossible not to feel that the motive of the poem is not the flower itself, but the Anthea or Sappho or Julia, to whom the flower is to teach a lesson of the power of love or the uncertainty of life. It is, of course, impossible to speak of all the poets who have written about flowers, for probably the list would include them all; but the five I have mentioned are perhaps the most characteristic, though there are memorable lines in Chaucer, Spenser, Burns, and Keats, and more especially in Wordsworth. From Byron there is singularly little to quote; but no English poet has given so perfect a description of a garden as has Shelley in "The Sensitive Plant." How delicately he paints each flower, and how he makes us see them all, as we tread with him "The sinuous paths of lawn and of moss Which led through the garden along and across; Some open at once to the sun and the breeze, Some lost among bowers of blossoming trees." Of living English poets perhaps Mr. Tennyson alone shows any real love for flowers. And this love is scarcely shown so much in the well-known song in "Maud" as by little touches here and there--the "long green box of mignonette" which the miller's daughter has set on her casement edge,--the "wild marsh-marygold" which "shines like fire in swamps" for the happy May Queen,--or the water-lilies which blossom round the island of Shalott. And who can forget the stanza in "In Memoriam"?-- "Bring orchis, bring the foxglove spire, The little speedwell's darling blue, Deep tulips dasht with fiery dew, Laburnums, dropping-wells of fire." Of American poets, Mr. Longfellow has, rather strangely, written nothing very memorable about flowers; but there are some pretty verses of Mr. Bryant's, and an occasional good line of Mr. Emerson's, as where he speaks of the Gentian as "blue-eyed pet of blue-eyed lover." As we once again look round upon the poets that have sung, it is clear that their favourite flowers have been the Rose and the Daisy,--the one recalling all the delights of the summer garden, the other all the freshness of the open field,--the one loved for its beauty, the other cherished for its constancy. "The rose has but a summer reign, The daisy never dies;" says Montgomery, in one of the best known of his poems. Cowslips, Violets, Daffodils, and Pansies are probably the next favourites. Painters have done more for Lilies than the poets have; and Carnations and the later flowers of the year have never made much place for themselves in the poetry of England. The English garden of to-day still awaits its laureate, and, except where, in Mr. Allingham's "Therania," "Vase and plot burn scarlet, gold and azure," I scarcely know of a description of modern "bedding-out," and sincerely hope that the present fashion may disappear before the thankless task is undertaken. LONDON: R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS. * * * * * Transcriber's note: In general every effort has been made to replicate the original text as faithfully as possible, including possible instances of no longer standard spelling and punctuation, and variable spelling (notably, Shakspeare/Shakespeare). Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved. The following changes were made to correct apparently typographical errors: p. x "Mowing--Brds--The Swallow" Brds changed to Birds p. 50 "There is another Lancahire" Lancahire changed to Lancashire p. 66 "bed of Clematis Jackmanni" Jackmanni changed to Jackmanii p. 92 "epithet of _filamentosa_."" quotation mark removed p. 96 "can undertand how appropriate" undertand changed to understand 
32969	----	TREES AND SHRUBS FOR ENGLISH GARDENS [Illustration: _THE CLUSTER PINE (Pinus Pinaster)._] _THE "COUNTRY LIFE" LIBRARY._ TREES & SHRUBS FOR ENGLISH GARDENS BY E. T. COOK. SECOND EDITION. [Illustration] PUBLISHED BY "COUNTRY LIFE" GEORGE NEWNES, LTD. 20, TAVISTOCK STREET, 7-12, SOUTHAMPTON STREET, COVENT GARDEN, W.C. COVENT GARDEN, W.C. 1908. PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION It cannot be urged against this work that it travels along a path already well worn, for the subject of trees and shrubs for English gardens, though almost inexhaustible, has never been so fully treated and illustrated as it deserves. The book may have many defects, but its pages will show that an honest effort has been made to offer helpful and instructive information to the many who wish to know more of the beauty of trees and shrubs. In writing this book, the labour of my spare hours for many months, I have been greatly helped by Mr. Bean, the assistant-curator of the Royal Gardens, Kew, whose deep knowledge of the subject has been willingly imparted; and by Miss Jekyll, to whom I am indebted for many valuable suggestions and notes. Among others to whom grateful thanks are tendered are Mrs. Davidson, Mr. J. Clark, Mr. Dallimore, and Mr. S. W. Fitzherbert. Some of the chapters have already appeared in the _Garden_, with the object of making known as widely as possible the importance of the most beautiful trees and shrubs for English woodland and pleasure-grounds. The illustrations will show how a shrub, so often stunted and mutilated by unwise pruning, becomes beautiful when allowed to develop naturally. The illustrations have their own teaching value, and in this matter also I desire to thank many willing helpers, especially Miss Jekyll, Miss Willmott, and Mr. Crump, of the Madresfield Court Gardens. Many of them are from photographs taken in the Royal Gardens, Kew. Under the present director (Sir William Thiselton-Dyer) much has been done in the judicious grouping of plants. Here is a living place of instruction open to all. Those who desire to know more about trees and shrubs than it is possible to give in this book should consult such famous works as Loudon's "Arboretum Britannicum" (8 vols.), and "Encyclopædia of Trees and Shrubs"; Professor Sargent's "Silva of North America," and "Forest Flora of Japan"; "Manual of Coniferæ," by Messrs. James Veitch & Sons; "The Pinetum," by George Gordon; The "Bamboo Garden," by Lord Redesdale; Sir Joseph Hooker's "Rhododendrons of the Sikkim Himalaya"; and the excellent Kew Hand-list of Trees and Shrubs. Much information can also be gleaned from the volumes of _Garden and Forest_ (American), edited by Professor Sargent, but not now in publication. The nomenclature at Kew--that is, according to the _Index Kewensis_--is that adopted in this book. It is the wish and hope of the author, whose notes, taken during many years, are embodied, that the book may do something to make English gardens more beautiful and interesting, and that it may win many to see the better ways of planting; also that it may be the means of bringing forward the many trees and shrubs of rare charm that are generally unknown or unheeded. E. T. C. _November 1902._ PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION This edition has been thoroughly revised to render it as useful as possible to those who desire a larger acquaintance with the many beautiful trees and shrubs that are hardy in this country. I must tender my heartiest thanks to Mr. William Atkinson (Messrs. Fisher, Son, & Sibray) for his valuable help in preparing this edition. Many of the illustrations represent trees and shrubs in the Royal Gardens, Kew, which are not only beautiful in themselves, but are the centre of scientific research. E. T. C. _March 1908._ CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. WANT OF VARIETY A BLEMISH 1 II. ORNAMENTAL PLANTING IN WOODLAND 6 III. GROUPING OF TREES AND SHRUBS 8 IV. HEATHY PATHS IN OUTER GARDEN SPACES 13 V. TREES AND SHRUBS IN POOR SOILS 17 VI. PRUNING FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS 19 VII. PROPAGATION OF HARDY TREES AND SHRUBS 38 VIII. A WINTER GARDEN OF TREES AND SHRUBS 47 IX. TREES AND SHRUBS WITH BEAUTIFUL CATKINS 65 X. AUTUMN COLOURS 71 XI. TREES AND SHRUBS WITH FINE FRUITS 77 XII. WEEPING TREES AND THEIR USES 88 XIII. THE USE OF VARIEGATED TREES AND SHRUBS 93 XIV. TREES AND SHRUBS FOR SEA-COAST 101 XV. TREES AND SHRUBS FOR WIND-SWEPT GARDENS 106 XVI. CONIFERS (INCLUDING PINES) IN ORNAMENTAL PLANTING 110 XVII. CARE OF OLD TREES 129 XVIII. TREES AND SHRUBS FOR WATERSIDE 134 XIX. TREES AND SHRUBS FOR ROCK GARDEN 138 XX. REMOVAL OF LARGE TREES AND SHRUBS 151 XXI. YOUNG TREES AND SUNSTROKE 159 XXII. SHADE TREES FOR STREETS 163 XXIII. TREES AND SHRUBS IN SCOTLAND 166 XXIV. TENDER SHRUBS AND TREES IN THE SOUTH-WEST 187 XXV. TENDER WALL PLANTS IN THE SOUTH-WEST 208 XXVI. TREES AND SHRUBS IN IRELAND 215 XXVII. HARDY BAMBOOS 218 XXVIII. THE HEATHS 226 XXIX. NATIVE AND OTHER HARDY EVERGREENS 240 XXX. SHRUBS FOR SMALL AND TOWN GARDENS 251 XXXI. SHRUB AND FLOWER BORDERS 257 XXXII. SHRUBS UNDER TREES 260 XXXIII. HARDY SHRUBS IN THE GREENHOUSE 263 XXXIV. SHRUB GROUPS FOR WINTER AND SUMMER EFFECT 283 XXXV. THE USE OF HARDY CLIMBING SHRUBS 303 XXXVI. FLOWERING AND OTHER HEDGES 324 XXXVII. PLEACHED OR GREEN ALLEYS 334 XXXVIII. THE GARDEN ORCHARD 338 XXXIX. THE WORTHY USE OF ROSES 342 XL. PLANTING AND STAKING TREES 353 XLI. HARDY TREES AND SHRUBS, TABLES OF 357 INDEX 489 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS CLUSTER PINE (_Pinus Pinaster_) _Frontispiece_ GUELDER ROSE _To face page_ 2 MAGNOLIA STELLATA " " 3 ÆSCULUS PARVIFLORA (late July) " " 4 SLOE, DOUBLE-FLOWERED (_Prunus spinosa, fl. pl._) " " 5 IN THE WOODLAND AT KEW " " 6 WAYFARING TREE (_Viburnum Lantana_) " " 7 GROUPING OF SHRUB AND DAFFODIL " " 10 NATURAL GROUPING OF SHRUB IN ROUGH GROUND " " 11 SHRUB AND IRIS GROUPS BY WOODLAND " " 14 AZALEA GARDEN AT KEW " " 15 CEANOTHUS AZUREUS AT KEW " " 24 CEANOTHUS AZUREUS, MARIE SIMON " " 25 PEARL BUSH (_Exochorda grandiflora_) " " 26 HYDRANGEA PANICULATA GRANDIFLORA (Unpruned) " " 30 HYDRANGEA PANICULATA GRANDIFLORA " " 31 TULIP TREE AT RANELAGH (Winter) " " 46 LIME (Winter Beauty) " " 47 WITCH HAZEL (_Hamamelis japonica_, var. _zuccariniana_) " " 62 ULMUS ALATA " " 63 WILLOW, BABYLONIAN BY WATERSIDE " " 88 ASH, WEEPING " " 89 WEEPING ASPEN (_Populus tremula_, var. _pendula_) " " 90 WEEPING WYCH ELM " " 91 ELÆAGNUS PUNGENS " " 98 CORNUS MAS (var. _variegata_) " " 99 TAURIAN TAMARISK (_Tamarix tetrandra_) IN FLOWER " " 103 ASHES BY WATER EDGE " " 106 LOMBARDY POPLAR " " 107 CORSICAN PINE WALK " " 110 ARAUCARIA IMBRICATA (Chili Pine) AVENUE " " 111 MAIDENHAIR TREE AT FROGMORE " " 112 MAIDENHAIR TREE AT KEW " " 113 CORSICAN PINE (var. _tenuifolia_) " " 114 AVENUE OF ABIES (_nobilis glauca_) " " 118 CEDRUS ATLANTICA GLAUCA AVENUE " " 119 LIBOCEDRUS DECURRENS (Frogmore) " " 121 AVENUE OF YEW (Murthly) " " 124 ALDERS NEAR WATER " " 134 WHITE WILLOW (_Salix alba_) BY WATERSIDE " " 135 NATURAL TREE GROWTH BY WATER (Burnham Beeches) " " 136 WILLOWS BY WATERSIDE " " 137 CISTUSES AND ROSES IN ROCK GARDEN " " 140 DWARF SHRUBS IN ROCK GARDEN " " 141 ONONIS FRUTICOSA (Shrubby Rest-Harrow) AT EXETER " " 150 TREE IN COURSE OF REMOVAL " " 151 PLANE TREE (_Platanus orientalis_) " " 164 CYTISUS PRÆCOX " " 178 A VARIETY OF MAHALEB CHERRY (_Prunus Mahaleb_, var. _chrysocarpa_) " " 179 GUELDER ROSE OR SNOWBALL TREE " " 184 WYCH ELMS BY HEDGEROW " " 185 EDWARDSIA GRANDIFLORA " " 198 FABIANA IMBRICATA " " 199 PINUS MONTEZUMÆ " " 204 PUERARIA THUNBERGIANA " " 212 YUCCAS, PAMPAS GRASS, AND BAMBOOS (Kew) " " 218 BAMBOO GARDEN AT KEW " " 219 ERICA CARNEA " " 232 A GROUPING OF HEATHS " " 233 WHITE SCOTCH HEATHER (_Erica cinerea alba_) " " 234 WHITE MEDITERRANEAN HEATH (_Erica mediterranea alba_) " " 235 WEEPING HOLLY " " 247 ARBUTUS MENZIESII " " 248 HIBISCUS SYRIACUS (_Althæa frutex_, var. _cæruleus_) " " 252 MOCK ORANGE (_Philadelphus coronarius_) " " 253 TALL EVERGREEN SHRUBS IN FLOWER BORDER " " 258 SPIRÆA CANESCENS " " 294 CLEMATIS MONTANA OVER ROUGH WALL " " 300 CLEMATIS MONTANA OVER ARCHWAY " " 301 CAMELLIA LEAF AND FRUIT (Outdoors) " " 316 DUTCH HONEYSUCKLE ON WALL " " 317 POLYGONUM BALDSCHUANICUM OVER FIR " " 318 PRUNUS TRILOBA ON SUNNY WALL " " 319 OLD WISTARIA AT HAMPTON COURT " " 322 WISTARIA RACEMES " " 323 GREAT BEECH HEDGE " " 330 HEDGE OF MAIDENS' BLUSH ROSE " " 331 NUT WALK " " 334 OLD APPLE WALK " " 335 OLD MULBERRY TREE, SYON " " 338 OLD MEDLAR TREE " " 339 ROSA MULTIFLORA " " 348 HYBRID ROSE UNA " " 349 STAKING TREES " " 354 HORSE CHESTNUT " " 358 CATALPA OR INDIAN BEAN TREE (_C. bignonioides_) " " 366 CISTUS VILLOSUS " " 370 CYTISUS CAPITATUS " " 373 MOONLIGHT BROOM (_Cytisus scoparius_, var. _pallidus_) " " 376 A HYBRID BROOM (_Cytisus kewensis_) " " 377 GARLAND FLOWER (_Daphne Cneorum_) " " 382 ERINACEA PUNGENS " " 383 MAY-FLOWER (_Epigæa repens_) " " 384 ESCALLONIA PHILIPPIANA " " 385 SPANISH FURZE (_Genista (Ulex) hispanica_) " " 388 SPANISH FURZE ON ROUGH SLOPE " " 389 GENISTA MONOSPERMA " " 390 SHOOT OF SNOWDROP TREE (_Halesia tetraptera_) " " 392 HYDRANGEAS " " 393 HYDRANGEA PETIOLARIS " " 394 KALMIA LATIFOLIA " " 395 YULAN (_Magnolia conspicua_) " " 402 YULAN AS A WALL SHRUB " " 403 MAGNOLIA CONSPICUA, var. _soulangeana_ (late Spring) " " 404 OLEARIA MACRODONTA " " 405 PRUNUS PERSICA " " 410 SPIRÆA ARGUTA " " 414 PRUNUS SERRULATA " " 416 PRUNUS PADUS, FL. PL. " " 417 PYRUS SINAICA " " 420 PYRUS SPECTABILIS " " 422 SIBERIAN CRAB (_Pyrus Malus baccata_) " " 423 PYRUS LOBATA " " 427 RHODODENDRON ARBOREUM (Hybrid) " " 428 RHODODENDRON HYBRID (Donegal) " " 429 RHODODENDRON PRÆCOX " " 432 RHODODENDRON SAPHO IN IRISH GARDEN (Donegal) " " 433 CALIFORNIAN POPPY (_Romneya Coulteri_) " " 449 NEILLIA (SPIRÆA) OPULIFOLIA " " 452 SPIRÆA LINDLEYANA " " 453 LILACS " " 456 STANDARD LILAC " " 457 VIBURNUM MACROCEPHALUM " " 464 YUCCA GLORIOSA IN A SURREY GARDEN " " 466 YUCCA FILAMENTOSA " " 467 PTEROCARYA CAUCASICA " " 480 CORK OAK (_Quercus Suber_) " " 481 EVERGREEN OAKS " " 482 DOVASTON YEW ON STEEP BANK " " 486 TREES AND SHRUBS CHAPTER I WANT OF VARIETY A BLEMISH There is a sad want of variety amongst evergreen and deciduous shrubs in the average English garden. Faith is placed in a few shrubs with a reputation for robbing the soil of its goodness and making a monotonous ugly green bank, neither pleasant to look at nor of any protective value. As one who knows shrubs well and the way to group them says, "Even the landscape gardeners, the men who have the making of gardens--with, of course, notable exceptions--do not seem to know the rich storehouse to draw from." Very true is this. We see evidence of it every day. The mixed shrubbery is fondly clung to as a place for all shrubs, whether flowering or otherwise, and the result is a thicket of growths, a case indeed of a survival of the fittest. There are other shrubs than Privet in this fair world of ours, and as for providing shelter, the wind whistles through its bare stems and creates a draught good for neither man, beast, nor plant. Of the cherry laurel again there is far too much in gardens. Few other plants can stand against its greedy, searching roots, and its vigorous branches and big leaves kill other leaf-growth near them. Grown in the proper way, that is, as an isolated shrub, with abundance of space to develop its graceful branches and brilliant green leaves, the Cherry Laurel is a beautiful evergreen; it is quite happy in shady, half-wooded places. But grown, as it is so often, jammed up and smothering other things, or held in bounds by a merciless and beauty-destroying knife, its presence has not been to the advantage of English gardening. When the planting season comes round, think of some of the good shrubs not yet in the garden, and forget pontic Rhododendron, Laurel, Aucuba, and Privet. By this is not meant rare shrubs, such as may only be had from the few nurseries of the very highest rank or from those that make rare shrubs a speciality, but good things that may be grown in any garden and that appear in all good shrub catalogues. [Illustration: _CHINESE GUELDER ROSE._] Perhaps no beautiful and now well-known shrub is more neglected than beautiful _Exochorda grandiflora_ (the Pearl Bush). Its near relatives, the Spiræas, are in every shrubbery, but one may go through twenty and not see Exochorda. Even of the Spiræas one does not half often see enough of _S. Thunbergi_, a perfect milky way of little starry bloom in April and a most shapely little bush, or the double-flowered _S. prunifolia_, with its long wreaths of flower-like double thorn or minute white roses and its autumn bravery of scarlet foliage. The hardy Magnolias are not given the opportunity they deserve of making our gardens lovely in earliest summer. Who that has seen _Magnolia stellata_ in its April dress of profuse white bloom and its summer and autumn dignity of handsome though not large foliage, would endure to be without it? or who would not desire to have the fragrant chalices of _M. soulangeana_, with their outside staining of purple, and _M. conspicua_, of purest white in the early months of March and April? And why does not every garden hold one, at least, of the sweet _Chimonanthus_, offering, as it does in February, an abundance of its little blooms of a fragrance so rich and powerful that it can be scarcely matched throughout the year? [Illustration: _A GROUPING OF MAGNOLIA STELLATA._] _Cassinia fulvida_, still known in nurseries by its older name of Diplopappus, in winter wears its fullest dress of tiny gold-backed leafage in long graceful sprays, that are borne in such profusion that they only beg to be cut to accompany the rare flowers of winter that we bring indoors to sweeten and enliven our rooms. Of small-flowering trees none is lovelier than the Snowy Mespilus (_Amelanchier_), and for a tree of somewhat larger size the good garden form of the native Bird Cherry is beautiful in the early year. The North American _Halesia_ (the Snowdrop Tree) should be in every garden, either as a bush or tree, every branch hung in May with its full array of pendent bloom of the size and general shape of Snowdrops, only of a warm and almost creamy instead of a cold snow-white colour. Few spring-flowering shrubs are more free and graceful than _Forsythia suspensa_, and if it can be planted on a slight eminence and encouraged to throw down its many-feet-long graceful sprays it then exhibits its best garden use. The Chinese _Viburnum plicatum_ is another shrub well known but unfairly neglected, flowering with the earliest Irises. Grouped with the grand _Iris pallida dalmatica_ it is a thing never to be forgotten. [Illustration: _ÆSCULUS PARVIFLORA (late July)._] _Æsculus (Pavia) parviflora_, blooming in July when flowering shrubs are rare, is easily grown and strikingly handsome, and yet how rarely seen! _Calycanthus floridus_, with its spice-scented blooms of low-toned crimson, also a late summer flower, is a fine thing in a cool, well-sheltered corner, where the sun cannot burn the flowers. The Rose Acacia (_Robinia hispida_), trained on a wall or house, is as beautiful as any Wistaria, and the quality of the low-toned rosy bloom of a much rarer colour. It is quite hardy, but so brittle that it needs close and careful wall training or other support. To name a few others in the same kind of category, but rather less hardy, the Sweet Bay is the noblest of evergreen bushes or small trees; the Tamarisk, with its grey plumes of foliage and summer flower-plumes of tenderest pink, is a delightful plant in our southern counties, doing especially well near the sea. _Clethra alnifolia_, against a wall or in the open, is a mass of flower in late summer, and the best of the _Hibiscus syriacus_, or _Althæa frutex_, the shrubbery representatives of Mallows and Hollyhocks, are autumn flowers of the best class. A bushy plant of half-woody character that may well be classed among shrubs, and that was beloved of our grandmothers, is _Leycesteria formosa_, a delightful thing in the later autumn. The large-fruited Euonymus (Spindle Tree) is another good thing too little grown. [Illustration: _DOUBLE-FLOWERED SLOE OR BLACKTHORN._] For a peaty garden there are many delightful plants in the neglected though easy-to-be-had list. One of these is the beautiful and highly fragrant _Azalea occidentalis_, all the better that the flowers and leaves come together and that it is later than the Ghent Azaleas. Then there are the two sweet-scented North American Bog Myrtles, _Myrica cerifera_ and _Comptonia asplenifolia_, the charming little _Leiophyllum buxifolium_, of neatest bushy form, and the _Ledum palustre_, whose bruised leaves are of delightful aromatic fragrance; _Vaccinium pennsylvanicum_, pretty in leaf and flower and blazing scarlet in autumn, and _Gaultheria Shallon_, a most important sub-shrub, revelling in moist peat or any cool sandy soil. These examples by no means exhaust the list of desirable shrubs that may be found for the slightest seeking. This brief recital of their names and qualities is only meant as a reminder that all these good things are close at hand, while many more are only waiting to be asked for. CHAPTER II ORNAMENTAL PLANTING IN WOODLAND Where woodland adjoins garden ground, and the one passes into the other by an almost imperceptible gradation, a desire is often felt to let the garden influence penetrate some way into the wood by the planting within the wood of some shrubs or trees of distinctly ornamental character. Such a desire very naturally arises--it is wild gardening with the things of larger growth; but, like all forms of wild gardening (which of all branches of gardening is the most difficult to do rightly, and needs the greatest amount of knowledge), the wishes of the planter must be tempered with extreme precaution and restraint. It does not do to plant in the wild garden things of well-known garden character. This is merely to spoil the wood, which, in many cases, is already so good that any addition would be a tasteless intrusion of something irrelevant and unsuitable. [Illustration: _IN THE WOODLAND AT KEW, SHOWING TREE AND SHRUB BY GRASSY WAY._] Still, there are certain wooded places where a judicious planting would be a gain, and there are a certain number of trees and shrubs which those who have a fair knowledge of their ways, and a true sympathy with the nature of woodland, recognise as suitable for this kind of planting. They will be found in these classes: Native growths that are absent or unusual in the district, such as the Spindle Tree (_Euonymus_), White Beam, Service Tree, White and Black Thorn, Wild Cherry, Bird Cherry, Wild Guelder Rose (_Viburnum Opulus_), and _V. Lantana_, Honeysuckle, Wild Roses, Juniper, and _Daphne Laureola_. [Illustration: _WAYFARING TREE (Viburnum Lantana); A NATIVE SHRUB ON CHALK._] Then, among cultivated trees and shrubs, those that are nearly related to our wild kinds, including some that are found in foreign woodlands that have about the same latitude and climate as our own. Among these will be Quinces and Medlars, many kinds of ornamental Cratægus, Scarlet Oaks, various Elders and Crabs, and the grand _Pyrus americana_, so like our native Mountain Ash, but on a much larger scale. A very careful planting with trees and shrubs of some of these and, perhaps, other allied kinds, may give additional beauty and interest to woodland. Differences of soil will, of course, be carefully considered, for if a piece of woodland were on chalky soil, a totally different selection should be made from one that would be right for a soil that was poor and sandy. In moist, sandy, or, still better, peaty ground, especially where there is a growth of Birches and Scotch Firs, and not many other kinds of trees, a plantation of Rhododendrons may have a fine effect. But in this case it is better to use the common _R. ponticum_ only, as a mixture of differently coloured kinds is sure to give a misplaced-garden look, or an impression as if a bit of garden ground had missed its way and got lost in the wood. CHAPTER III GROUPING OF TREES AND SHRUBS If this subject were considered with only a reasonable amount of thought, and the practice of it controlled by good taste, there is nothing that would do more for the beauty of our gardens or grounds. Nothing can so effectually destroy good effect as the usual senseless mixture of deciduous and evergreen shrubs that, alas! is so commonly seen in gardens--a mixture of one each of a quantity of perhaps excellent things planted about three feet apart. There would be nothing to be said against this if it were the deliberate intention of any individual, for, as a garden is for the owner's happiness, it is indisputably his right to take his pleasure in it as he will, and if he says, "I have only space for a hundred plants, and I wish them to be all different," that is for him to decide. But when the mixture is made from pure ignorance or helplessness it is then that advice may be of use, and that the assurance may be given that there are better ways that are just as easy at the beginning, and that with every year will be growing on towards some definite scheme of beauty, instead of merely growing up into a foolish tangle of horticultural imbecility. If the intending planter has no knowledge it is well worth his while to take advice at the beginning, not to plant at random and to feel, a few years later, first doubt, and then regret, and then, as knowledge grows, to have to face the fact that it is all wrong and that much precious time has been lost. How to group is a large question, depending on all the conditions of the place under consideration. Whether a group is to be of tall or short growing shrubs or trees, whether it is to be of three or three hundred, and so on. The knowledge that can answer is the knowledge of gardening of the better kind. The whole thing should be done carefully on paper beforehand, or there will again be repented the error of huddled single plants. The groups will have to be well shaped and well sized and well related to each other and all that is near, or they may be merely a series of senseless blocks, not intelligently formed groups at all. Then, in proper relation to the groups, single plants can be used with the best possible effect, as, for instance, a snowy Mespilus or a Cherry or a _Pyrus floribunda_ against a dark massing of Yew or Holly; or a _Forsythia suspensa_ casting out its long flowering branches from among bushes of _Berberis_. Then the fewer individuals will have their full value, while the larger masses will have dignity even when in leaf only, and their own special beauty at the time when they are in flower or fruit. For some flowering and fruiting bushes are best grouped, while a few are best seen standing alone, and it is only knowledge of good gardening that can guide the designer in his decisions on these points. Still it does not follow that a shrub or flowering tree cannot be used both for groups and single use, for such an one as the Forsythia just mentioned is also of charming effect in its own groups, with the red-tinted _Berberis_ or the quiet-coloured Savins, or whatever be the lower growing bushy mass that is chosen to accompany it. Every one can see the great gain of such arrangements when they are made, but to learn to make them, and even to perceive what are the plants to group together, and why, that is the outcome of the education of the garden artist. In the Royal Gardens, Kew, the best of plants may be seen and, to a considerable degree, the best ways of using them in gardens. [Illustration: _GROUPING OF SHRUB AND DAFFODIL._] The one-thing-at-a-time planting is always a safe guide, but as the planter gains a firmer grasp of his subject, so he may exercise more freedom in its application. Nearly every garden, shrubbery, and ornamental tree plantation is spoilt or greatly marred by too great a mixture of incongruous growths. Nothing wants more careful consideration. On the ground in the open air, and sitting at home quietly thinking, the question should be carefully thought out. The very worst thing to do is to take a nursery catalogue and make out from it a list of supposed wants. The right thing is to make a plan of the ground, to scale, if possible, though a rougher one may serve, and mark it all down in good time beforehand, not to wait until the last moment and then mark it; and not to send the list to the nursery till the ground is well forward for planting, so that the moment the plants come they may go to their places. [Illustration: _NATURAL GROUPING OF SHRUB IN ROUGH GROUND._] All this planning and thinking should be done in the summer, so that the list may go to the nursery in September, which will enable the nurseryman to supply the trees in the earliest and best of the planting season. How good it would be to plant a whole hill-side on chalky soil with grand groupings of Yew or Box, or with these intergrouped, and how easy afterwards to run among these groupings of lesser shrubs; or to plant light land with Scotch Fir and Holly, Thorn and Juniper (just these few things grouped and intergrouped); or wastes of sandhills near the sea within our milder shores with Sea Buckthorn and Tamarisk, and Monterey Cypress (_Cupressus macrocarpa_), and long drifts of the handsome Blue Lyme Grass. A mile of sandy littoral might be transformed with these few things, and no others than its own wild growths, into a region of delight, where noble tree form of rapid growth, tender colour of plume-like branch and bloom and brilliant berry, and waving blue grassy ribbons, equalling in value any of the lesser Bamboos, would show a lesson of simple planting such as is most to be desired but is rarely to be seen. The other and commoner way is nothing but a muddle from beginning to end. A van-load of shrubs arrives from the nursery--one of each or perhaps not more than six of any kind. No plan is prepared, and the trees and shrubs are planted in the usual weary mixture, without thought or design. Generally there are three times too many for the space. It is a cruel waste and misuse of good things. CHAPTER IV HEATHY PATHS IN OUTER GARDEN SPACES The subject of heathy paths comes within the scope of this book. We are not thinking of grass or gravel paths, but those in pleasure-grounds that are beyond the province of the trimly-kept garden, and yet have to be somewhat tamed from the mere narrow track such as serves for the gamekeeper on his rounds. Paths of this kind admit of varied treatment. The nature of the place and the requirements of those who use the paths will determine their general nature, and settle whether they are to be of turf or of something that must be dry in all weathers. But grass and gravel are not the only alternatives. One kind of path not often seen, but always pleasant, and at one time of year distinctly beautiful, can be made of the Common Heather (_Calluna vulgaris_). We know of such a path, 12 feet wide and some hundreds of feet long, carpeted with this native Heath, mown once a year, and feeling like a thick pile carpet to the feet; grey-green in summer, bronze-coloured in late autumn, and in the second and third weeks of August thickly set with short sprays of the low-toned pink of the Heather bloom. It is not so dry as a gravel path, but a good deal drier than grass, and has a pleasant feeling of elasticity that is absent in common turf. Many are the pleasure-grounds in the south of England and Scotland where the soil is sandy and, perhaps, peaty. Any such can have these pleasant heathy paths. We have even seen them on a poor sandy clay, scarcely good enough to call loam, in Sussex; for Calluna, unlike the other Heaths, will grow willingly in clay. In the case quoted the plant was wild in the place. In a Fir wood, the bare earth carpeted with needles always makes a suitable path, and one that is always dry; the only thing to correct is to fill up any places where the bare roots rise above the path level. For in these informal paths, where we want to look about and at the trees, there should be no danger of being tripped up. The path, of whatever nature, should be wide enough for two persons--5 feet to 6 feet is ample; but it should have quite a different character from the garden path, in that its edges are not defined or straightened. [Illustration: _SHRUB AND IRIS GROUPS BY WOODLAND._] One may often see in the outskirts of an old garden a dense wood that once was only a growth of shrubbery size. The walk was originally bordered by a Box edging, and there may have been a strip of flowers between it and the shrubs. Here and there one may still see a yard or two of straggling Box nearly 2 feet high. Of course, this edging should have been removed as soon as the place became a wood, for after a certain time its original use as a formal edging to a trim plantation ceased to exist. Nothing is pleasanter in woodland than broad, grassy ways, well enough levelled to insure safety to an unheeding walker. In early spring, before the grass has grown any height, here is the place where Daffodils can best be seen and enjoyed, some in the clear grass and some running back in wide drifts into any side opening of the wood. If the grass is cut in June, when the Daffodil foliage is ripe, and again early in September, these two mowings will suffice for the year. [Illustration: _AZALEA GARDEN AT KEW (early Summer)._] In many woody places where shade is fairly thick, if there is any grass it will probably be full of moss. No path-carpet is more beautiful than a mossy one; indeed, where grass walks from the garden pass into woodland, the mossy character so sympathetic to the wood should be treasured, and the moss should not be scratched out with iron rakes. Often in the lawn proper a mixture of moss and grass is desirable, though one has been taught that all moss is hateful. In such places, though it may be well to check it by raking out every four or five years, it should by no means be destroyed, for in the lawn spaces adjoining trees or woodland the moss is right and harmonious. There are paths for the garden and paths for the wood. A mistaken zeal that would insist on the trimness of the straight-edged garden walk in woodland or wild is just as much misplaced as if by slothful oversight an accumulation of dead leaves or other débris of natural decay were permitted to remain in the region of formal terrace or parterre. Heath paths should be made by either planting or sowing. The common ling (_Calluna vulgaris_) makes the best turf. If the ground is sown it should be of nearly pure sandy peat, or weeds would be troublesome. If the path is to be made by planting, it should be done with two-year-old seedlings--nothing larger--planted about 6 inches apart. The path when grown should be mown with a machine once a year, in autumn after the blooming time of the heath. There must be no grass. CHAPTER V TREES AND SHRUBS IN POOR SOILS As there is vegetation to suit nearly all natural conditions, so those who find they have to undertake planting in poor, dry, hungry sands and gravels will find that there are plenty of trees and shrubs that can be used, though the choice is necessarily a more restricted one than they might make on better land. The very fact of the fewer number of available trees and shrubs may even be a benefit in disguise, as by obliging the planter to be more restricted in his choice the planting scheme will be all the more harmonious. As to trees, Holly, Thorn, Juniper, Birch, Scotch Fir, and Mountain Ash are found wild on the poorest soils, and will even grow in almost pure sand. Oaks, though they never grow to the dimensions of the Oak of loamy woodlands, are abundant on poor soils, where they have a character of their own that is full of pictorial value. The lovely _Amelanchier_, daintiest of small trees, revels in sandy woods, as does also the Bird Cherry, another good native tree, while the Wild Cherry becomes a forest tree of large size and of loveliest bloom. Evergreen or _Holm Oak_ and _Arbutus_ are excellent in the south of England, enjoying the warmth and winter dryness of light soils. Garden shrubs in general can be grown, though not so luxuriantly as on better soils, but some classes are especially successful on poor land such as _Genista virgata_. There are the Cistuses and Heaths, with Lavender and Rosemary, in the drier parts, and in the wetter places _Kalmias_, _Andromedas_, _Rhododendrons_, _Ledums_, _Pernettyas_, and _Vacciniums_, with the Candleberry Gale and the native Bog Myrtle, also Broom and Gorse, especially the Double Gorse. These, which are usually classed as peat shrubs, will succeed in any sandy soil with the addition of leaf-mould, and are among the most interesting and beautiful of our garden shrubs. Those who garden on poor and dry soils should remember that though their ground has drawbacks it has also some compensations. Such soils do not dry in cracks and open fissures in hot weather, and do not present a surface of soapy slides in wet; they can be worked at all times of the year, except in hard frost; they are easy to hoe and keep clean of weeds and are pleasant and easy to work. They correct the tendency of strong soils to the making of a quantity of coarse rank growth, and they encourage the production of a quantity of flowers of good colour. CHAPTER VI PRUNING FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS The art of pruning properly is one that is acquired by considerable practice and observation. The first is necessary that the actual work may be well and cleanly done, and it is only by observing the manner and times of flowering of the different trees and shrubs which go to constitute a well-kept pleasure-ground that the proper time to prune can be thoroughly understood. The manner of pruning varies considerably, some pinning their faith to a slanting cut towards a bud; some preferring a straight cut; while others again are content with simply slashing off the useless wood in the quickest possible manner. The former is the best method, as it does not present a surface for the lodgment of water, an important point with those shrubs that are of a pithy nature in the centre of the wood, as the presence of water will quickly cause the stems to rot and render the plant unsightly, even if it escapes serious injury. All stems that are an inch or more in diameter should be tarred over to keep out the wet, which either rots them directly or injures them indirectly by making a moist, congenial home for the various fungoid diseases to which so many of our exotic trees and shrubs are liable. Many shrubs which have been in one place for some years, and which have become stunted or poorly flowered, are often given a new lease of life by a hard pruning in the winter, cutting away all the old wood entirely, and shortening the remainder. With a good feeding at the same time, they will throw up strong young shoots, full of vigour, which will bear fine and well-coloured flowers. Of course, a season of blooming will be lost by doing this, but it will be amply compensated for in after years by a healthy plant in place of a decrepit and unsightly one. The list appended includes practically every flowering tree and shrub _hardy_ in this country, with the proper time of pruning it. Those not specified flower on the old wood. When shrubs that by nature flower freely and are rightly placed with regard to soil and position refuse to bloom, root pruning will sometimes effect an alteration. [Illustration: _CEANOTHUS AZUREUS AT KEW._] ABELIA.--This genus is barely hardy, and, in most localities, is usually pruned sufficiently or too much by frost. A moderate thinning of the shoots in spring is sufficient. ACANTHOPANAX.--There are three species of this genus hardy in this country, and of these _A. ricinifolium_ requires no pruning beyond the cutting away of side-shoots to a single stem, as it attains the dimensions of a tree in Japan, its native country. _A. sessiliflorum_ and _A. spinosum_ are low-growing shrubs, and require an occasional thinning out, which is best done in late summer to allow the remainder to thoroughly ripen before winter. [Illustration: _CEANOTHUS AZUREUS, VAR. MARIE SIMON._] ACTINIDIA.--A climbing genus, easily grown in warm, sheltered localities. They require very little pruning, but should be watched in spring when growth has commenced, or the twining shoots will get into a tangled and unsightly mass. Any growth not required should be cut away in winter. ÆSCULUS (Horse-Chestnut).--The common representative of this requires little or no pruning, but the other species are benefited by a thinning out of misplaced and useless branches in late summer to allow light and air to the centre of the tree. This is especially important to all the Æsculus in a young state. _Æsculus parviflora_ should have a good thinning if the branches or suckers become at all thick, cutting all growths not required clean away from the base. AKEBIA.--"_Akebia quinata_ has flowered here, on an east wall, profusely for the last seventeen years, under the following pruning treatment: Cover the space allotted with the strongest shoots, and when new growth pushes from the eyes or spurs in the spring, do not regulate it, but summer-prune away all superfluous growth before it gets entangled. It is from 'spurs' that the flowers are produced, and the more these are kept clear, the more matured they become, and flower correspondingly."--E. M. in _The Garden_. AMELANCHIER.--These should be pruned after the flowers are past, the removal of badly-placed and weakly shoots being all that is required. If the plants are becoming too large, they can be shortened back at the same time. AMORPHA.--If flowers are desired of _A. fruticosa_ it should be kept thinned out, and not be cut back; but the flowers are not showy, and it is usually kept cut down every winter for the sake of its foliage. _A. canescens_ should be cut down each spring to within two or three eyes of the old wood, as it flowers best on the young growth. ANDROMEDA.--The only recognised species of this genus is _A. polifolia_, which requires no pruning. ARALIA.--These should be kept to a single stem until they have attained a height of 6 to 8 feet, after which they may be allowed to branch, or be still kept to a single stem, as may be desired. ARBUTUS.--An evergreen genus which requires no pruning. ARISTOLOCHIA.--A genus of climbers which succeed best if the shoots are not allowed to become too thick. The weakest should be cut away in winter. ARTEMISIA.--This genus is best known by its common representative, the Southernwood, but this and the other Artemisias should be cut down annually in a young state. When older, an occasional thinning out of the shoots in winter is sufficient. BACCHARIS.--Of this, _B. halimifolia_ flowers on the young wood and should be cut back annually, while _B. patagonica_ should not be pruned at all. BERBERIS.--Properly the Berberis requires no pruning, but the stronger-growing species, such as _B. aristata_, _B. Lycium_, _B. virescens_, _B. vulgaris_, &c., require an occasional thinning to keep them within bounds. BERCHEMIA.--A climbing genus which requires no pruning. BRUCKENTHALIA.--A dwarf-growing Ericaceous genus, the seed-pods of which should be removed as soon as the flowers are past, or the plants will be seriously weakened. BRYANTHUS.--This should be treated the same as the last, which it somewhat resembles. BUDDLEIA.--Of these, _B. variabilis_, _B. japonica_, and _B. intermedia_ flower on the young wood and require cutting back every winter to within two or three eyes of the old wood; _B. globosa_ need not be pruned at all, except in a young state to keep it bushy; and _B. paniculata_ only requires thinning out if it becomes too thick, which is not a very common occurrence. CALLUNA (the Ling).--This and its numerous varieties should have the old flowers cut off as soon as they are past, and any long or straggling growth cut back at the same time. CALOPHACA.--The solitary representative of this genus is rather inclined to become straggly if growing at all freely. When this is the case, the plant is benefited by the cutting back of the longer shoots in winter. CALYCANTHUS.--These require an occasional thinning of the branches, and any long shoots may be shortened with advantage. CAMELLIA.--These, which should be grown outdoors much more than they are, should be cut down if they get unhealthy or unshapely, which should be done in April. Otherwise no pruning is required. CARAGANA.--Cut away all the straggling or misplaced branches. CARMICHÆLIA.--Requires no pruning. CASSANDRA.--See CALLUNA. CASSINIA.--These are grown more for their foliage than for their flowers, and should be cut down in the winter or early spring. This can be done annually or biennially according to whether the plants are growing strongly or not. CASSIOPE.--See CALLUNA. CATALPA.--This genus contains some of our handsomest flowering trees, all of which require careful pruning after the flowers are past, thinning out the weakly wood, and shortening any long branches. CEANOTHUS.--Of these, _C. americanus_, _C. azureus_, _C. integerrimus_, and the garden hybrids, such as "Gloire de Versailles," "Marie Simon," "Ceres," &c., flower on the young wood, and should be cut back in spring, allowing only sufficient shoots to remain to form a well-balanced plant, and shortening them back to within two or three eyes of the old wood. The remaining species flower on the old wood, and merely require a shortening back of the stronger shoots and a thinning out of the weakly ones after the flowers are past. CELASTRUS.--A climbing genus of strong and vigorous habit with showy fruits. They only require sufficient pruning in winter to keep them within bounds. CERCIS.--Requires no pruning, except such as may be necessary to make well-shaped plants, which should be done after flowering. CHIMONANTHUS.--The shoots of this should be shortened back after flowering, and if on a wall they should be spurred in. CHIONANTHUS.--See CERCIS. CHOISYA TERNATA.--This only needs thinning after the flowers are over and old wood removed. CISTUS.--Those which are hardy of this genus should be cut back each spring while in a young state, but when they have attained a flowering size no pruning is required. The cutting back of young plants induces a bushy habit, and also keeps them from weakening themselves by blooming and seeding. CLEMATIS.--The garden forms of this genus are divided into two sections, of which _C. Jackmani_, _C. lanuginosa_, _C. Viticella_, and _C. aromatica (C. cærulea odorata)_ are the types of those which flower on the young wood, and which require cutting back close to the old wood in the winter; while _C. florida_, _C. patens_, and _C. montana_ are the types of those which flower on the ripened wood of the previous year, and merely require a thinning out of weakly or unnecessary growth. Of species other than those mentioned above, _C. Flammula_, _C. paniculata_, and _C. Vitalba_ flower on the young wood; and the remaining species are either herbaceous or flower on the old wood. CLERODENDRON TRICHOTOMUM.--Thin in spring. CLETHRA.--These practically require no pruning, but long shoots may be shortened and weakly ones cut away with advantage. COLUTEA.--These make better plants and flower later if they are cut back every winter. _C. istria_ (a rare species) should not be cut down if flowers are desired. CORNUS.--The strong-growing shrubby Cornus, such as _C. alba_, _C. Amomum_, _C. Baileyi_, _C. pubescens_, and _C. stolonifera_ require an annual thinning out, and those with brightly-coloured stems should be cut down every spring for their effect during the following winter. The remaining Cornus require little or no pruning. COTONEASTER.--The large-growing species should be pruned in late summer, but only sufficiently to keep them within bounds; _C. Simonsii_ requires cutting down annually while young to make it bushy, and the dwarf-growing kinds are best left alone. CRATÆGUS.--Keep the heads well thinned out to allow light and air to the centre of the tree. This should be done in late summer. CYTISUS.--These require very little pruning, with the exception of _C. nigricans_ and _C. capitatus_, which flower on the young wood, and should be cut back annually. The other species and varieties make better plants if they are cut down each year while in a small state, but they should be left alone when they have attained flowering size. DABOECIA (the Irish Heath).--Cut away all old flower stems in early winter. DAPHNE.--Requires no pruning. DESMODIUM.--These flower on the young wood, and should be cut nearly to the ground-line every spring. DEUTZIA.--The old wood should be kept cut out of these, but no shortening of young shoots should be attempted. ELÆAGNUS.--These require an annual overhauling to keep them in good condition. This should be done in late summer, when the plants should be well thinned out, and all useless growth cut clean away. ERICA.--See CALLUNA. ESCALLONIA.--These are usually cut back by frost; but if they escape, _E. rubra_ and _E. punctata_ should have their long growths shortened back in spring, while the other hardy species need not be touched. _E. macrantha_ simply needs thinning. All the smaller growths in the centre should be removed. _E. philippiana_ does not like hard cutting back, but the old stumps must be cut out to make room for flowering wood. [Illustration: _PEARL BUSH (Exochorda grandiflora) SHOWING ITS NATURAL BEAUTY._] EXOCHORDA.--These usually require no pruning, but if the plants are getting too large or unshapely, they should be cut back immediately after flowering. FATSIA (_Aralia Sieboldii_).--This is usually cut by frost, but it stands a cutting back in spring, when new growth is soon made which will flower late in the following autumn. FOTHERGILLA.--Requires no pruning. GARRYA ELLIPTICA.--This always flowers on the previous year's wood. Need only be thinned to ripen the new growth. GENISTA.--_G. tinctoria_ flowers on the young wood, and should be cut back every spring. The other species of Genista should not be pruned, except to keep them in shape. HALESIA.--These are small trees or large shrubs, and should not be shortened back, but are improved if the growths are kept thinned out, which should be done after the flowers are past. HALIMODENDRON.--Requires no pruning. HAMAMELIS.--Thin out regularly, as they are very apt to get thick and make weakly growths. HEDYSARUM MULTIJUGUM.--This flowers on the young wood, and should be cut back lightly each spring. The growths can also be pegged down to improve the plant, which is apt to get straggling. HELIANTHEMUM.--Cut away all dead flowers and seed-pods after blooming. HIBISCUS.--Thin out in winter, but only shorten the longest shoots. [Illustration: _HYDRANGEA PANICULATA GRANDIFLORA (unpruned plant)._] HYDRANGEA.--These flower best on young wood, and should be cut down in winter. _H. paniculata grandiflora_ should _always_ be cut back to within two inches of the old wood. [Illustration: _HYDRANGEA PANICULATA AND VAR. GRANDIFLORA._] HYPERICUM.--These should be cut back fairly hard in early spring, as they all flower on the young growth. INDIGOFERA.--Cut down every spring, as they flower on the young wood. ITEA.--Keep the growths thinned and cut away all old wood. JAMESIA.--This should be treated as the preceding. JASMINUM.--_J. fruticans_ and _J. humile_ are shrubs which should be thinned regularly; and _J. nudiflorum_ and _J. officinale_ are climbers, which should be spurred in after flowering. KALMIA.--Remove seed-pods as soon as the flowers are past. KERRIA.--Cut away the old wood to encourage the young growths, which yield the best flowers. LABURNUM.--These should be thinned after flowering, cutting away the old or weakly wood, and shortening any long or straggling shoots. LAVANDULA.--Cut away all flower-spikes after they are past. LEDUM.--Remove seed-pods after flowering. LESPEDEZA.--See DESMODIUM, which it much resembles. LEUCOTHOË.--_L. axillaris_ and _L. Catesbæi_ flower much better if the old growths are removed and strong young shoots encouraged. The rest of the genus require no pruning. LEYCESTERIA.--Thin out old growths every spring. LIGUSTRUM.--_L. ovalifolium_ and its golden variety are all the better for being cut down each winter while in a young state. The remainder merely require an occasional thinning. LIRIODENDRON.--Requires no pruning. LONICERA.--The shrubby Loniceras are nearly all inclined to become very thick and full of weakly shoots if not well looked after. A thinning out should take place after flowering is past. The climbing Honeysuckles should only be pruned sufficiently to keep them within bounds. LYCIUM.--These should be served the same as the shrubby Loniceras, but the operation should be performed in autumn or winter, as they flower practically all the summer. LYONIA.--Requires no pruning. MAGNOLIA.--Generally speaking, the Magnolias should not be pruned, but cut away useless or decaying wood. Every wound, however small, on a Magnolia should be tarred over immediately. MICROGLOSSA.--The solitary shrubby representative of this is _M. albescens_, which should be cut down in winter, as it flowers best on the young wood. MYRICA.--An occasional thinning is sufficient for this genus. MYRICARIA.--Flowering on the young wood; this should be cut back every spring. NEILLIA.--Thin out every year after flowering is past, cutting back the old wood to strong young shoots. NEVIUSIA.--This requires the same pruning as Neillia. NOTOSPARTIUM.--Requires no pruning. NUTTALLIA.--The single species of this flowers in February, and is improved by a good thinning out of the old wood when blooming is past. OLEARIA.--Requires no pruning. ONONIS.--_O. rotundifolia_ should be cut down every winter, as it flowers on the young wood. The remaining species flower on the older wood, and need not be touched. OSMANTHUS.--These should not be pruned unless a particular shape is desired, when the plants may be clipped with a pair of shears in spring. OXYCOCCUS.--This is a small creeping genus allied to Vaccinium, and requires no pruning. OXYDENDRON.--Remove seed-pods. PALIURUS.--This attains the dimensions of a small tree, and should be kept trimmed up for that purpose. PARROTIA.--Thin out in spring after the flowers are past. PAULOWNIA.--Keep to a single stem to a height of about 8 feet, and then allow it to branch. If used for sub-tropical bedding, it should be cut down to the ground every winter. PERAPHYLLUM.--The solitary hardy species of this should not be pruned or disturbed in any way if it can be avoided. PERIPLOCA.--A climbing genus which should be thinned out in winter, and only shortened back if necessary. PERNETTYA.--These should not be pruned at any time. PHILADELPHUS.--These should be thinned after flowering, and the old wood cut back to strong young shoots. This is especially important with _P. microphyllus_, _P. coronarius_, and _P. Lemoinei_ and its varieties. PHILLYRÆA DECORA (_Vilmoriniana_).--This well-known shrub needs no pruning. PHOTINIA.--Requires no pruning. PIERIS.--Remove seed-pods. POTENTILLA.--Thin out after flowering, and shorten any old wood back to strong young breaks. PRUNUS.--When young, all the members of this genus that are grafted or budded are improved by being cut back each spring until they have attained a fair size and shape. More especially is this the case with the Almonds, double-flowered Peaches, and the various flowering Cherries. When older, they need only be thinned and the flowering Plums and Cherries kept spurred in, but not too hard. _Prunus japonica_, _P. nana_, and _P. triloba_ should be cut down to strong young breaks after flowering, the resulting wood bearing better flowers than the old wood. If any of these three latter are grown on a wall they should be spurred back hard after blooming. PTELEA.--When young, trim these to form small trees, and do not allow them to develop into ungainly bushes. When older, they require an occasional thinning. _P. trifoliata var. aurea_, a golden form which is not grown so much as it deserves to be, should be cut back annually or biennially, the young wood being better coloured and bearing larger leaves than the old. PYRUS.--The wild Pears should be spurred in the same manner as adopted for fruiting Pears, though not quite so hard. The wild Crab-apples, such as _P. baccata_, _P. floribunda_, _P. spectabilis_, &c., should be cut back every spring until they have formed well-balanced heads. Afterwards an annual thinning and a shortening of the longest shoots after flowering is sufficient. The remaining sections of Pyrus merely require an occasional thinning. _P. japonica_ should be kept spurred in, whether growing on a wall or in the open, and in the latter case should not be allowed to become a mass of weakly shoots. RHAMNUS.--These should be thinned out if becoming too thick, but, as a rule, they require very little pruning. RHODODENDRON (including AZALEA).--Remove all seed-pods immediately the flowers are over, and any plants that are in a sickly condition should be cut down at the same time. By doing this a season or two of flower is lost, but it is practically the only means of bringing a weakly plant back to health again. RHODOTYPUS.--Cut away old wood, and encourage the strongest of the young growths. RHUS.--Keep these well thinned out, and destroy all suckers that appear, unless wanted for stocks. Gloves should always be worn when handling any of the Rhus, as the sap of _all_ is poisonous to a certain extent. _R. Toxicodendron_ is _very poisonous_. This should never be forgotten. If used for sub-tropical gardens cut down to within two eyes of the base. Select the strongest eye and rub the other off. Always use gloves in handling this shrub. It should never be planted where children have access to it. RIBES.--All the Ribes are improved by being cut down annually while in a young state, but when older, a yearly thinning out of the old wood is sufficient. ROBINIA.--This is a genus that requires very little pruning when the members of it have attained a fair size, an occasional thinning being all that is necessary. In a young state they require well staking, and the longest shoots should be shortened back, as many of them are top-heavy when young. ROSA.--Although the various garden Roses come under this heading, yet they are a class apart, and are better dealt with by specialists. The species of Rosa do not require any shortening of their shoots, which should always be left at full length, but all of them should have an annual thinning out of the old wood, either cutting it right away or back to a young shoot. Some of the species are very prone to throw up suckers from underground sometimes to a considerable distance from the plant, and these should always be dug out and got rid of; merely cutting them off only producing two evils in the place of one. RUBUS.--This genus includes the Blackberry and Raspberry, and in a modified form the treatment accorded to them for fruiting is the best to employ with the ornamental Rubi, that is, all old wood that has flowered should be cut away and strong young canes encouraged. But while in the cultivation of the Raspberry only a few young canes are allowed to grow, in the ornamental species practically every young growth should be utilised. The double-flowered Rubi should have some of the old wood left, as they do not make so much young growth as the single ones do. SANTOLINA.--This is a dwarf-growing genus, the old flower-heads of which should be cut away as soon as they are past, and any long or straggling growths cut back at the same time. SAMBUCUS.--The elders require very little pruning as a rule, but the various cut-leaved, golden, or variegated forms are improved by being cut back annually. This will prevent them flowering, but as good foliage is required the loss of the bloom is a matter of little consequence. SKIMMIA.--Requires no pruning. SMILAX.--The hardy species of this genus do not require any pruning if they have room to ramble. If space is restricted, thin out and shorten in autumn. SOPHORA.--These should be kept thinned when they have attained flowering size; in a young state they should be kept to a single stem and induced to form well-shaped trees. SPARTIUM.--This should be cut back in a small state, but when older it requires no pruning whatever. SPIRÆA.--Though all the Spiræas will flower on the old wood, the following are better for being cut back in winter to form young flowering shoots, viz., _S. betulifolia_, _S. Douglasi_, _S. Foxii_, _S. japonica_, _S. Margaritæ_, _S. salicifolia_, _S. semperflorens_, _S. tomentosa_, and many of their varieties and hybrids. The remaining Spiræas should be kept thinned out, and if any are making strong young breaks from the lower part of the plant they can be cut back to them after flowering. STACHYURUS.--This should be thinned out after flowering. STAPHYLEA.--_S. pinnata_ should be kept thinned in late summer; _S. colchica_ and _S. Coulombieri_ require very little pruning, but if too tall or unshapely should be cut back immediately after flowering. STUARTIA } Require no pruning. STYRAX } SUÆDA.--Cut back occasionally to keep it from getting ragged. SYMPHORICARPUS.--Keep these well thinned out, which should be done in late summer. SYRINGA (Lilac).--these should be kept free of suckers, especially the finer-named kinds, which are usually worked on stocks of the Common Lilac. In addition, disbudding may be practised with advantage in the spring, removing the majority of the blind shoots and any flowering or leading shoots that are misplaced or not required. This should be done twice or thrice at intervals of ten days or a fortnight. TAMARIX.--Cut back in a young state, but when older they should not be pruned at all. VACCINIUM.--The removal of any old or rough wood is sufficient for these. VIBURNUM.--All the Viburnums grow thickly, and require an annual thinning. VITIS.--The methods practised in growing Vines for fruit suit the ornamental species as well. If space is restricted they should be grown on the spur system, and if there is plenty of room then the extension system may be employed. WISTARIA.--These should be kept spurred in, with the exception of the leading shoots, which merely require a shortening in early spring according to the strength of the plant. XANTHOCERAS.--Requires no pruning. ZENOBIA.--These require no pruning as a rule, but occasionally a hard cutting back will induce healthy growth in place of a weakly one. THINNING.--It will be gathered from these notes that thinning out only is needful in many cases. If judicious thinning were more practised English gardens would be more beautiful. It promotes internal growth and a wealth of flowers. Pruning is frequently carelessly and ignorantly done, and this applies especially to forest trees. There are certain tools that may be used for the purpose. Under ordinary circumstances only a few are necessary, and these should always be of the best quality, sharp, clean, and always kept ready for use. Take the pruning knife for example. If this is not sharp it is impossible to make the necessary _clean_ cut. The surface will be jagged and rough, and probably promote disease. Some prefer _secateurs_, and while admitting their value for pruning purposes, a good sharp knife is preferable; it is not so heavy, and does not tire the hand. There are several of these implements in the market, but the best that has come under my notice is the "improved double cutting"; it is easy to work and cuts clean. For standard trees use the "Standard Tree Pruner." CHAPTER VII PROPAGATION OF HARDY TREES AND SHRUBS If we were to take many books about trees and shrubs or general gardening as a guide, one might be led to think that only one way of increasing a tree or shrub existed, and that by grafting; but, as we have pointed out elsewhere, it is a mischievous practice when indiscriminately applied. It is _not_ contended by this that grafting and budding are utterly needless, as in many instances these methods may be rightly adopted, but the four natural ways of increase are by layers, seeds, suckers, and cuttings. Many trees and shrubs are much better when grafted upon other stocks. Of these, practise seed-raising whenever possible; but if seeds cannot be procured, then adopt other ways, and the man is wise who tries to keep a plant on its own roots. Neither budding nor grafting should be resorted to, unless other means fail absolutely. When standard trees cannot be got true from seed, budding or grafting must be practised, and the evils of these methods of propagation are not so pronounced in such cases as with dwarf plants. With the former, suckers, or growths from the stock, are easily seen as soon as they appear, but with dwarf plants a perfect forest of suckers may seriously weaken the plant before they are noticed. SEEDS.--These can be sown at almost any time, but the spring is the best, as those which germinate quickly have time to form strong young plants before the following winter. Some take two years to come up, and should be left in the ground. This refers more to seeds sown outdoors, and few hardy trees and shrubs require heat to assist germination. When sown in the open the beds should be made on a fairly rich, moist piece of ground, protected from cold winds, but fully exposed to the sun. After the seeds are sown, cover them with light tiffany shading, fir branches, or heather, but the first is best, as it is easily removed to attend to the bed. Conifers especially should be sown in beds, whether indoors or outdoors, as pot-culture results in the roots taking the shape of the pot, and never afterwards recovering from their cramped condition. It must be remembered, however, that varieties cannot be depended upon to come true from seed, though by careful selection for a few years many varieties will almost reproduce the characteristics of the parents. Hybrids, such as _Berberis stenophylla_, _Hypericum moserianum_, and many others, also do not come true from seed, so that cuttings, layers, or division of the old plants must be the practice chosen. SUCKERS.--Plants which throw up suckers from the base, or below the ground-line, are easily propagated by detaching these suckers in winter with a portion of root. They will grow away readily, and soon form good trees or shrubs as the case may be. CUTTINGS.--Nearly all the hardy shrubs, and a small proportion of hardy trees also, can be propagated by cuttings taken at certain times of the year. Summer cuttings are taken during the last two weeks of May and throughout June, the actual time depending on the season, and consist of the young shoots that have grown to a length of 3 to 6 inches. These should be pulled off with a "heel," and inserted in sandy soil in a close frame, with brisk bottom heat. The cuttings should be taken on a dull day, or early in the morning, and kept cool and moist until they are in the frame. A cutting that has flagged is useless, as it never revives. Deciduous flowering shrubs are usually propagated by summer cuttings, which generally root well in a fortnight or less. Autumn cuttings are taken during August and September, and are made from the partially ripened growths of the current year, inserted in sandy soil, in a close frame, without bottom heat. Winter cuttings are made from thoroughly ripened wood at any time between October and March, and are laid in rather thickly in rows outdoors, and only about an inch or less is left above the soil. The majority of our best flowering shrubs are easily increased in this way. LAYERS.--Excellent trees and shrubs can be got by layers, and they may be laid down at any time of the year; they will be ready for removal in about eighteen months or two years. BUDDING.--This is done about August, and the same rules apply to trees and shrubs as to Roses, &c. GRAFTING.--This takes place outdoors from March to May, at the earlier time for deciduous trees and shrubs, and later on for evergreens. The actual time depends upon the season. Where seed is not expressly mentioned below, it must be understood that this is the natural, and in many cases the best, way to propagate. The following trees can only be raised from seed to do any good afterwards, though a few of them will throw up suckers, which can be taken off and replanted: _Æsculus_ (Chestnut), _Ailantus_, _Alnus_ (Alder), _Arbutus_, _Betula_ (Birch), _Carpinus_ (Hornbeam), _Carya_ (Hickory), _Castanea_ (Sweet Chestnut), _Celtis_ (Nettle tree), _Fagus_ (Beech), _Fraxinus_ (Ash), _Gleditschia_ (Honey Locust), _Juglans_ (Walnut), _Laburnum_, _Liquidambar_, _Morus_ (Mulberry), _Prunus_, _Pyrus_, _Quercus_ (Oak), _Sophora_, _Ulmus_ (Elm), and _Zelkova_. The varieties of any species of the above, and, in fact, of nearly all hardy trees, must be budded or grafted on the species they are forms of, but an exotic species should never be worked on the native representative of the genus--_e.g._ _Æsculus flava_ should not be budded on the Common Horse Chestnut, as the latter is far too strong a stock for the smaller-growing Æsculus. _Acer_ (Maple) and _Tilia_ (Lime or Linden) can be raised from seeds or by layering, the Lime especially being largely propagated from layers, which soon form strong young trees. The varieties of Maple are best worked on stocks of the species they belong to. _Cratægus_ (Thorn), _Catalpa_, and _Robinia_ (Locust tree), can be raised from suckers or root-cuttings, if seeds cannot be got. Any of their varieties are usually budded or grafted on stocks of the parent species. _Ilex_ (Holly), _Magnolia_, _Populus_ (Poplar), _Platanus_ (Plane), and _Salix_ (Willow). The Holly is easily raised from cuttings and layers, the second roots readily when layered, and the latter three are propagated in large quantities by winter cuttings. The White Poplar (_Populus alba_) is an exception, as this can only be increased by root-cuttings. INCREASING HARDY SHRUBS The best of our hardy flowering shrubs are grouped under seven natural orders, and a knowledge of the order to which a plant belongs is in most cases a guide to its propagation, as the majority of the species contained in an order are, as a rule, increased by the same methods. BERBERIDEÆ.--This contains _Akebia_ and _Berberis_, which are propagated by seeds, cuttings, or layers. _Berberis stenophylla_ and _B. Neuberti_ do not come true from seed, so that one or both of the other methods mentioned above must be adopted. LEGUMINOSÆ.--In this order such genera as _Cytisus_ (Broom), _Genista_ (Rock Broom), _Spartium_ (Spanish Broom), _Ononis_, _Indigofera_, _Colutea_ (Bladder Senna), _Caragana_ (Siberian Pea tree), and _Cercis_ (Judas tree) should be raised from seed, which is the quickest and best method of propagation. Cuttings of certain forms of _Cytisus_ and _Genista_ will root readily, but the plants will sometimes die off just as they have attained flowering size. _Ulex_ (Furze, Whin, or Gorse) is propagated by seeds or cuttings, and _Wistarias_ by seeds or by layering. ROSACEÆ.--This includes _Prunus_, the shrubby forms of which can, in the majority of cases, be increased by cuttings or layers; _Spiræa_ and _Kerria_ (Jews' Mallow), cuttings of which root readily at almost any time of the year; _Exochorda_ (Pearl Bush), must be raised from seed to do any good; _Rubus_ (Brambles), some of which can be propagated by suckers, and the remainder by pegging the points of the shoots down to form young plants; _Rosa_ (Rose), the species of which should be increased by seeds, cuttings, or layers, though seeds will not always come true, as Roses become hybridised very readily; and _Cotoneaster_, which are increased by seeds, cuttings, or layers. SAXIFRAGEÆ.--In this order _Hydrangea_, _Deutzia_, _Philadelphus_ (Mock Orange), _Escallonia_, and _Ribes_ (Flowering Currant) are included. All are easily propagated by cuttings taken in almost any season of the year. With the exception of Hydrangea, which should be struck under glass, all the members of this order root readily outdoors in the winter. CAPRIFOLIACEÆ.--This order contains such genera as _Sambucus_ (Elder), _Viburnum_, _Lonicera_ (Honeysuckle), _Symphoricarpus_ (Snowberry tree), _Abelia_, _Leycesteria_, and _Diervilla_ (Weigela). All are easily propagated by cuttings or by layering. The cuttings can be taken at almost any time of the year, and root quickly, the young plants attaining a good size by the end of the second year. ERICACEÆ.--This order includes all the so-called American plants, such as _Pernettya_, _Gaultheria_, _Leucothoë_, _Andromeda_, _Pieris_, _Zenobia_, _Erica_ (Heath), _Calluna_ (Common Heather, Ling), _Kalmia_, _Ledum_, _Clethra_, and _Rhododendron_ (including _Azalea_). These can all be increased by seeds, layering, and, in addition, the first two by division of the old plants. _Erica_ and _Calluna_ can also be increased by cuttings. Seedlings, of course, make the best plants, but layering is a quicker method, and, in the case of some of the smaller Ericaceæ, one of the easiest. All the Rhododendrons will not root from cuttings, though some of the small-flowered ones strike easily, but practically all may be increased from layers. A few of the showy garden forms cannot be raised from layers, and have to be grafted on stocks of the common _R. ponticum_ or _R. catawbiense_. OLEACEÆ.--This includes both deciduous flowering shrubs and ornamental evergreens, such as _Syringa_ (Lilac), _Chionanthus_ (Fringe tree), _Jasminum_ (Jasmine), _Forsythia_, _Ligustrum_ (Privet), _Phillyræa (P. decora (vilmoriniana)_ is so easily raised from seeds or cuttings that it is foolish to graft it on the common privet), and _Osmanthus_ being represented. The first two are best propagated by seeds or layers, though the named garden Lilac is usually grafted on stocks of the common _S. vulgaris_, a silly practice. It is a pitiful business keeping down suckers from grafted plants. Ask for Lilacs on their own roots, and much vexation will be saved. A garden should be a place of rest and pleasure, not a hunting-ground for suckers. The other genera are readily raised by cuttings taken at almost any time of the year, or by layering. Although the above orders include a considerable number of our best shrubs, several plants must be specially mentioned. The Clematis is increased by seeds, cuttings, or layers in the case of the species, but unfortunately the garden forms are usually grafted on _C. Viticella_ or _C. Flammula_, whereas many can be propagated by cuttings, and practically all will root when layered. [Illustration: _TULIP TREE AT RANELAGH (Winter)._] In the absence of seeds the following genera must be propagated by layers, viz., _Aucuba_, _Chimonanthus_ (Winter Sweet), _Halesia_ (Snowdrop tree), _Hamamelis_ (Witch Hazel), _Hippophaë_ (Sea Buckthorn), and _Myrica_ (Candleberry Myrtle). Cuttings of the first will root readily enough, but never seem to succeed afterwards. The female form of _Hippophaë_ is best raised from layers, as seedlings usually give a large percentage of male plants. _Aralia_ and _Rhus_ (Sumach) are increased by seeds or root-cuttings; _Buddleia japonica_ is best raised from seeds, and the other Buddleias from cuttings; and practically all other hardy shrubs that have not been specially mentioned are easily propagated by seeds, cuttings, or layers, and the majority of them by all three methods. If it is impossible to increase a tree or shrub by any other means than by the three methods mentioned, then resort to budding or grafting. [Illustration: _WINTER BEAUTY OF LIME._] CHAPTER VIII A WINTER GARDEN OF TREES AND SHRUBS The budding spring, the ripening summer, the outpoured riches of harvest, appeal to all, physically if not spiritually. But to hundreds of people a winter landscape is dreary beyond expression. They never dream of going into a garden during the dark months; to them its silent lessons are but a dead-letter, nor would they ever wake to the beauty of bare boughs nor pause to note the strange glow of withered Fern fronds in the grey gloom of a foggy day. We are not wholly free from blame in this matter in so far as our gardens are concerned, for spring and summer and autumn all have their share in the garden plan, while winter, too often, stands apart uncared for and unclothed. Yet how much may be done by the right grouping of beautiful trees and shrubs to make the winter garden harmonious and inviting. "You see, it takes a deal of insight to know what's a-going to be," was a remark, half-apologetic, half-regretful, often made by an old gardener of a school now gone by, when matters horticultural went somewhat athwart of his calculations. The words recur to mind as containing a germ of truth beyond the meaning of the speaker. It has been well said with regard to deeper matters that foresight must spring from insight, and it may be taken also as a foundation principle of good gardening. For just in proportion as we use our faculties of insight and foresight will our gardens grow, more or less, into a perfect expression of our sense of the ever-changeful, never-ending beauty of Nature. It must be no cursory glance given to get rid of an unwelcome duty. We must look deep into the meaning of things as they are--a meaning which never lies wholly on the surface--before we can forecast them as they are going to be, and such insight rarely comes by intuition. The seeing eye is given only to a few, though with some it is but sleep-holden and needs no more than to be awakened. The things that are and the things that are to be. Let us take the thought as company and try to glean some of Nature's own lessons of fitness. How instinctively we seek, for a winter ramble, the shelter of the woodland copse, which is not far distant from any English country habitation. The broad grass drive is hoar with frosty rime in the shadow of the bushes and crisp under foot. Under the trees the ground on either side is carpeted with Ivy. The lithe, trailing stems, wreathed with their shining, taper-fingered leaves, so exquisitely pencilled, are cushioned on the soft, feathery moss, or twine in and out amongst the Hazel stocks, or creep at will up the nearest tree trunk. One can scarcely look at Ivy on a winter's day without a thrill of admiration, especially this woodland sort, for, mark it well, Nature never encourages the coarse-leaved Ivy of common cultivation within her domains. How perfect in its grace is this fine-leaved Ivy, how utterly content with its surroundings, how resolutely cheerful, be the circumstances of weather or situation what they may! Clinging lowly to the ground or mounting to the topmost branch of some tall Pine, it is equally at home, and why should we not agree with that good naturalist, Charles Waterton, in his assertion that forest tree was never injured by its clasping stems? An English plant for our English climate, it may be used to make beautiful an unsightly building, to clothe a decaying tree stump, as bush or border or mantle, in a hundred different ways, yet it is never out of character, and never touches a jarring note. Then those tall Hollies, see how dauntlessly they stand up above the undergrowth of Hazel. How living and warm, in their ruddy glow, are the clustering berries in the glint of the fearless leaves. For expedience sake, their lower branches have been trimmed away, and greatly we gain by it, for otherwise that lovely contrast of their ashen-grey stems would be hidden from our eyes; but over yonder a fine old Holly tree stands alone, which axe and knife have left untouched, and how graceful is the curven sweep of its feathering boughs. No foreign evergreen can excel it for symmetry of form or winter garniture of leaf and fruit. Life is astir, too, in the brown twigs of the Hazel bushes. The infant year is not more than a week or two old, yet already the tasselled catkins are swinging in the lightest rustle of the sighing wind, and begin to lift up their tiers of small woolly cowls to set free the yellow pollen-dust. And so we may go on our way, and, at every turn, some rugged Yew, or clump of red-stemmed Scotch Fir, or tapering Spruce with hanging russet cones, will stay our steps, and if we look and listen, they will tell us in their own way the story of their perfect fitness for our homely English landscape. Or, if we chance to be in one of the chalky districts of the South Downs, we may come upon Box, the ever young, as it was called of yore, or Juniper, in its bloom of silver grey, as precious as any, to add to the tale of our best native evergreens. Now it is to a wise choice of evergreens and to their rightful placing that we must look for the basis of our content in the winter garden. The insight of our forefathers foresaw the solid comfort of the rampart of Yew which was fostered of old in many a manor-house garden. It caused them to fence about their dwellings on north and east with a belt of sturdy timber trees, to meet and ward off in their pliant strength the roughest winter gales. It planned the sheltered nut-walk and the pleached alley and the cosy settle, carved out of the thick Box bushes, on the grassy verge of the bowling-green. They took of the materials at hand, and many have since their day blessed the foresight which planted, not only for themselves, but for their children's children. That they were not blind to the rare beauty of foreign trees many a magnificent Cedar of Lebanon and massive Holm Oak or deciduous tree--like the fine Tulip trees at Mackery End, beloved of Charles Lamb--bear noble testimony to this hour. Nothing, perhaps, in the wide range of garden beauty is more pictorial than an ancient Cedar, dusky and glaucous, with cavernous shadows, holding upright the smooth, pale-brown, rounded cones on its flattened branches, or some grand Silver Fir standing alone in its solemn symmetrical beauty, or even, as may now and then be seen, though rarely, some stately Araucaria, wind-sheltered, whose radiating branches sweep down upon the greensward. Others there are, no less pictorial perhaps, nor even less exacting, for none can do without the shelter of a good position, such as the Stone Pines, with corrugated trunk and green spreading head; or again, the graceful fragrant Cypress (_C. lawsoniana_) of more recent date, with its slender pyramidal growth and drooping feathery branches, taking on at the close of winter the ruby-red of the catkins which tell of the coming of the small, bloom-powdered cones. The desperate hurry, the incessant crowding out of the times in which we live, give little encouragement to the sentiment of planting for posterity, yet some such planting is continually being done. This much must be said, that the last fifty years have seen the introduction of numberless fine trees and shrubs, the fitness of which for our climate time alone could test. During that period in England, the Mammoth tree of the Yosemite Valley (_Sequoia gigantea_) has been planted in its thousands, and by irony of fate, the giant not seldom finds itself cramped within the limits of a half-acre plot. But leaving out the question of space, it is a tree utterly unsuited to our northern climate, unless under exceptional circumstances, as its scorched and fretted branches on the windward side sufficiently prove; while in itself it is not nearly so grand or suggestive as its near-of-kin, the beautiful Californian Redwood (_S. sempervirens_). Ah! that burning question of space, how it comes between us and our highest garden aspirations! Have we not all seen the Deodar or the Araucaria trying to exist in a narrow, twelve-foot forecourt, and smiled, if we have not rather been ready to weep, over the crass absurdity of its position? But such mistakes are made every day. Let us think, then, before we plant, of the things that are going to be, and take prudent counsel with ourselves. Our garden resources, nowadays, are beyond all calculation greater than those of our forefathers, and we rejoice and are glad because of it; but we should let nothing oust from our affections the hardy trees and shrubs, native and naturalised, that are at home in our climate, beautiful in themselves and invaluable in their fitness to give shelter to the more fastidious immigrants from other latitudes. Shelter, in fact, is as the keynote to the winter garden. Beauty is killed when leaves that should be green and smiling are bruised and brown, when boughs that should be perfect in grace and curve are twisted and tortured. We may be very sure, too, that such symptoms of discomfort in our gardens will re-act in disquiet on ourselves, whereas the mere sight of tree or bush standing firm in its green bravery through storm and stress tends, it may be unawares, to brace and uplift. Even the familiar Laurel, good as it is when suitably placed, and used not too freely, is constantly scathed and disfigured in damp or low-lying localities. For the same reason, it is doubtful whether Rhododendrons should be planted within range of our windows. Most of them, in severe weather, frightened before they are hurt, put on a melancholy air and droop of leaf which is apt to send a shiver through any shrinking mortal whose vitality is already low enough. The bare boughs of winter, on the contrary, are never depressing. They sleep, but it is not the sleep of death; they rest, but while they are resting, we feel that the mystery of life silently works out the fulfilment of the promise of re-awakening. Meanwhile, before the veil of leafage hides so much else that is beautiful from our eyes, we see the things that are, tree trunks in all their majesty of girth and column and fencing bark, the net-work of budding spray, each after its kind distinct, yet each in its own form perfect. Even in mid-winter, the brown gummy buds of the Horse Chestnuts begin to swell at the ends of the swaying boughs, and the Ash-buds, as they make ready to burst their bonds, put on a deeper hue. The Beeches keep their silken green tight shut within their scale-bound points, and will not let it unfold an hour too soon; but look at the lovely colouring, now silvern, now golden green, of the Lichen-stains on the smooth grey bark. Contrast it with the deeply-chiselled ribs of the Sweet Chestnut, the rugged armour-plates of the Oak, the thin white tissue of the dainty Silver Birch. It is this diversity, these contrasts, which make up the charm of winter, while the sombre green of Fir and Yew intermingling with the leafless trees gives just the touch of warmth and comfort which winter lacks. If any of these bless our gardens with their gracious presence, let us hesitate long before any trivial inconvenience tempts us into doing away with them. A single group of Silver Birches, one spreading Beech, a clump of Scotch Fir, with a stretch of grass beneath them, is more precious to look out upon in the winter garden than all the borders and rockeries that can be devised. Urge as we may, however, for their own sake, the fitness and constant delight of our native trees and evergreen shrubs, we plead for them, no less, because by their well-advised use our sheltered gardens may become congenial abiding-places for the strangers we may invite within our gates. Do we profit as much as we might by the wealth of garden beauty, in the way of trees and shrubs, which for every intent and purpose lies within our reach? Take Magnolias, for example. They are not sub-tropical trees, as we are apt to think, but fairly hardy, and the Laurel Magnolia, so well known as a beautiful covering for a south wall, is seldom enough seen in standard form. Yet it is one of the most stately of evergreen trees, and it would be hard to find one more worthy of a good position, sheltered from north and easterly winds. The whole outline of the tree is noble, with its broad, shining, russet-backed leaves, a delight to look upon in winter--nor is it shy, when full-grown, of bearing in late summer its scented ivory-white lily-cups. It is too much, however, to expect the lovely-sculptured, crimson-flushed cones, which in warmer climates than ours open about November to disclose their hanging scarlet seeds. Some of the deciduous Magnolias, too, such as the fine Chinese Yulan (_M. conspicua_) and the bushy white-flowered Japanese species (_M. stellata_), are full of interest, even while lifeless. All through the winter we may watch the gradual filling out of the hairy, conical flower-bracts, until at length, in very early spring, the impatient buds can contain themselves no longer, and all too soon, sometimes, push them off altogether that they may creep out of their prison bands. Every one has his private calendar, and reckons the seasons by a computation of his own, but we may safely say that four long months, if no more, separate the falling of the leaf from its coming again. Perhaps we ought not to include Magnolias amongst hibernal flowers, though the trees are often white with blossom before the Larch is green; but the list of shrubs which bloom, or are bright with coloured fruit during those four months, would surprise most people who think of winter only as the dead season. The boughs of Sea Buckthorn are loaded with orange berries. Clusters of scarlet peep out of the fresh green of the Skimmia bushes and, so long as the birds do not find them out, _Pernettya_ carries a crop of purple and crimson and pink fruit more showy than the modest white flowers of summer. When November days are growing dark, _Coronilla_, in sheltered spots, puts forth its pale clustering yellow flowers. Winter Jasmine, if the flowering branches are not ruthlessly pruned away in autumn, covers its long green shoots with golden stars. The evergreen Clematis (_C. calycina_) is never happier than when clinging to some terrace balustrade where it may have a little kindly shelter, which it repays by wreathing the stone-work with garlands of finely-cut bronzed foliage, hung with creamy freckled bells. More than one kind of hardy Heath, if grown in spreading masses, will deck the garden with sheets of colour the whole winter through. The Chinese Honeysuckle (_L. Standishii_) arrays itself in its fragile white flowers as early as January. Witch Hazels hang their bare branches with twisted petals of gold or amber or, sometimes (as in _Hamamelis zuccariniana_), borrow the pale-green tint of the under wing of a brimstone butterfly. Soon after Christmas, Mezereon flushes into rosy purple, and bushes of Winter-sweet (_Chimonanthus fragrans_), independent of a wall (as few people know), will breathe out its perfume from leafless branches studded over with waxen-yellow flowers. It is strange how many of these winter-blooming plants keep their leaves well out of harm's way, brave as their flowers may be. But so it is, and so we learn that if we would gain their fullest winter beauty, we must group them with evergreen shrubs as foil or background. And what store there is of these to choose from, not green only, but colour-tinged--_Berberis_ of many kinds, the shining ordered leaf-rows of _Azara_, the purple tints of _Mahonia_ and _Gaultheria_, the bronze of _Andromeda_ buds, the deep dull green of _Osmanthus_, the wine red of _Leucothoë_, the pearl grey of _Atriplex_, and a hundred more will respond to our beck and call. Only we must choose with judgment, for whether our lot is cast in north or south, in the black east or soft caressing west, makes all the difference to our choosing. Only be sure that more important still than climate are the wind-breaks we can plan, and the shelter we may contrive. Yet when we are in doubt we can always come back with satisfaction to the quick-growing hardiest shrubs and find in them some fit setting for our garden picture. The slender angled branches of green Broom, the rigid spiny Furze, scented Rosemary, or hoary Lavender--all will lend their varied tints and attributes as we need them. And if a pool or stream only gives us opportunity, what can surpass the winter colouring of osier twigs--golden and crimson and olive, mirrored in still water or broken into a thousand reflections by the ripple of a running brook? Perhaps, amongst all the wealth of winter evergreen shrubs the rank of those which show variegation is too much exaggerated. Popular as they are, the effect is not always good, unless more than ordinary care is taken in their placing. Some few, like the best golden and silver Hollies, are very beautiful, though not all of these are improvements upon the finest green forms. No variegated shrub, probably, is more universally grown than the Aucuba, and it has excellent points; it is hardy in constitution, handsome in outline, and bold of leaf. By ill-luck, as it happened, more than a hundred years ago, the spotted variety was sent home first from Japan, and became domiciled in English gardens and rooted in English affections before the far more worthy green species made its entry. It is but a private opinion and not given as dogma that it might possibly be a distinct gain to gardens, large and small, if the spotted Aucuba were practically banished and the true green-leaved forms--some of which are generally beautiful when well set with large coral berries--allowed to take its place. The variegated Oleaster (_Elæagnus pungens_), a remarkably fine shrub when taken by itself, sadly disturbs the repose and dignity of the garden outlook in winter, though doubtless positions might be found in which it would harmonise with its surroundings. We need only con over, mentally, all the more familiar examples of shrub variegation to find, probably, that we should do as well without a goodly proportion of them, though we may frankly admit some to be very handsome. The secret of our discontent, possibly, lies in the fact that variegation in plants that are normally green is not, in its essence, a sign of health but of wasting sickness. In any case, whatever our feelings may be on this particular point, it is well worth while to weigh the merits of each shrub, variegated or green, before we plant it, not only individually, but in relation to its neighbourhood to other garden associates, and more especially with regard to its winter aspect. Mr. Bean writes as follows about the winter beauty of trees and shrubs: "Even in November and December there are trees and shrubs that brighten the garden with their coloured bark and fruits. Although not abundant, the members of this class are not used so extensively as they might be. "Among Willows, for instance, there are the golden and red-barked varieties of _Salix vitellina_. These, though scarcely ever seen, are capable, when properly treated, of producing bright warm effects that are especially charming from November to February. When allowed to grow naturally this Willow--known popularly as the Golden Osier--forms a graceful tree of large size. Its twigs have a golden or red tinge, according to the variety, but on fully-grown trees these twigs are not large, and as it is, of course, the bark of the preceding summer's growth only that is coloured no very marked colour effect is produced. To obtain a really bright patch of colour it is necessary to plant these Willows in goodly-sized groups and to prune them hard back every spring. By treating them in this way a great cluster of long, wand-like growths is made every year, the bark over the whole of which becomes a bright yellow or red as winter approaches. An effective group is produced by mixing the red and yellow-barked varieties. "Another striking Willow is _Salix daphnoides_. The young bark of this species is covered with a thick glaucous or vivid blue-white 'bloom.' _S. acutifolia_ is similarly distinguished, though not quite so markedly. Different from any of these Willows, too, is the variety of _S. triandra_, with purplish-brown bark. To bring out fully the ornamental qualities of these Willows they should be treated as advised for _Salix vitellina_. All these Willows are especially charming near the edge of water. Not only are their moisture-loving propensities satisfied, but their beauty is doubled by reflection in the water. "Somewhat similar to the Willows in the character of their bark, but useful in being adapted for drier situations, are the Cornels (_Cornus_). The best of the genus in this connexion are _Cornus alba_ and its variety _sibirica_. They produce bark which for one or two seasons remains a bright red during the time the branches are leafless. A group of _Cornus alba_, with _Chionodoxa Luciliæ_ or Winter Aconite planted thickly beneath, gives a very pleasing bit of colour early in the year. A yellow-barked form of _Cornus stolonifera_, known as _flaviramea_, deserves mention. "Several shrubs are notable for the particularly bright green of their bark. The forms of _Kerria japonica_ and _Neillia_ are very bright during the winter on this account, but still more effective is a near ally, _Stephanandra Tanakæ_, a comparatively new shrub, also from Japan, but of little value in any other respect. Finally, I may mention the Rubuses with white stems. As in _Salix daphnoides_, the bark is covered with the waxy secretion known as 'bloom,' and of a blue-tinted white. Some six or seven species of Rubus have this character. Of those obtainable from nurseries, _R. biflorus_, a Himalayan species often to be had from dealers under the erroneous name of _Rubus leucodermis_, is the best. Dr. A. Henry has introduced a Chinese species, _Rubus lasiostylus_, which is even better than _biflorus_; the bloom is more distinctly blue, and the stems sturdier and more self-supporting. The species is, however, an extremely rare one in cultivation. It is scarcely necessary to repeat how essential it is that these Brambles and Cornels should be planted in bold groups. "Among trees the most noteworthy as regards the colour of their bark are the Birches. The beauty of the Common White Birch has not been overlooked by planters. A single specimen or a few grouped together make a bright winter picture when associated with evergreens. The Canoe Birch of North America (_Betula papyrifera_) has a bark of an even purer white than our native species. The Yellow Birch (_B. lutea_) shows warm orange-brown tints on the more recently exposed surfaces of its bark. The bark of the River Birch (_B. nigra_) is not brightly coloured, being of a dull dark brown, but it gives the tree a notably curious aspect owing to the way it stands out from the trunk and branches in great ragged-looking flakes. [Illustration: _A WITCH HAZEL IN FLOWER: HAMAMELIS JAPONICA VAR. ZUCCARINIANA._] A FLOWER GARDEN IN WINTER "It is possible to make a new feature in gardens by setting apart a piece of ground exclusively for the cultivation of trees, shrubs, and bulbs--in short, any plants that flower or are bright with fruit or bark between, say, the beginning of November and the end of February. One might term it 'an outdoor winter garden.' For the purpose there would be required a well-drained piece of ground, the soil of which was fertile and open. The situation should be fully exposed to the south and west, but guarded well on the north and east sides by a thick belt of evergreen trees and shrubs. The shelter would be still more complete if the site sloped rather steeply to the south-west. Such shelter would be welcome, not only to the plants that grew there, but to those who might visit and tend them. Some of the more noteworthy trees and shrubs with ornamental barks I have already mentioned. Plants that carry their fruit into winter might be included, such as the Hollies, especially the yellow-berried Holly; _Cratægus Crus-Galli_ and _C. cordata_; _Cotoneaster rotundifolia_, which is the best of all the Cotoneasters, and frequently carries its bright-scarlet berries till March; and _Hippophaë rhamnoides_, the Sea Buckthorn, whose orange-coloured fruits are borne in such profusion and retain their colour till past Christmas if the frosts are not too severe. The scarlet-fruited _Skimmia japonica_ and its varieties are very ornamental during the winter months, but of these (as well as the Hippophaë) it is necessary to grow male and female plants together. Groups of variegated evergreens would not only help to give shelter and warmth, but would also add to the brightness of the garden. The best of them are the golden and silver variegated Elæagnuses, the Hollies of a similar character, and the best of the Aucubas, of which there are now some very fine forms; the female plants are also very ornamental as fruit-bearers. _Pinus sylvestris aurea_, a variety of the Scotch Pine that turns golden in winter but is green at other seasons, and _Cupressus macrocarpa lutea_ are the two best Conifers of their class. Many of the variegated Conifers lose most or all of their colour as autumn and winter approach. [Illustration: _ULMUS ALATA._] "With regard to the trees and shrubs that bear flowers between November and February, the number is not, of course, great; still, they constitute a group that is larger, perhaps, than is generally supposed. The following list, which comprises all that I can call to mind, may be useful even to those who would not intend to bring them together in one spot. Some country houses are only occupied during the shooting and hunting seasons, and these winter-flowering plants are of especial value in such places. The tree or bush Ivies are very beautiful, and may be had in great variety, such as yellow berried, _palmata aurea_, _rhomboidea ovata_, and _amurensis_." _November_ Arbutus hybrida. ,, Unedo and vars. Daphne Mezereum grandiflora. Elæagnus glabra, macrophylla, and pungens (all delightfully fragrant). Hamamelis virginica. Jasminum nudiflorum. Lonicera fragrantissima. ,, Standishii. _December and January_ Chimonanthus fragrans. Clematis calycina. Cratægus monogyna præcox (Glastonbury Thorn). Erica mediterranea hybrida. ,, carnea. ,, ,, alba. Garrya elliptica. Viburnum Tinus. _February and early March_ Berberis japonica. ,, nepalensis. Cornus Mas. Corylopsis spicata. Daphne blagayana. ,, Laureola and var. purpurea ,, Mezereum. ,, ,, var. alba. ,, oleoides. Erica mediterranea. Hamamelis arborea. ,, japonica. ,, mollis. ,, zuccariniana. Prunus davidiana (pink and white forms). ,, Amygdalus persicoides. Populus tremuloides pendula. Parrotia persica. Pyrus japonica. Rhododendron altaclarense. ,, dauricum. ,, nobleanum. ,, præcox. CHAPTER IX TREES AND SHRUBS WITH BEAUTIFUL CATKINS When thinking of trees and shrubs in early spring we must remember those with beautiful catkins. Of the earliest flowering hardy trees and shrubs the majority are those with flowers borne in catkins. Their appearance is one of the first evidences of the approach of spring. It is to the catkin-bearing group that the Poplars, Willows, Birches, and Alders belong. These catkins are pendulous, cylindrical, and often slender inflorescences, carrying flowers of one sex only, which spring from the axils of scaly bracts. Being mainly dependent upon the wind for their fertilisation, they have none of the varied or bright colours that are characteristic of flowers fertilised by insect agency. Often, indeed, sepals and petals are entirely absent. Still, many of these catkin-bearers possess a charm and beauty of their own, which, taken with the early, often inclement, season when they appear, make the best of them indispensable in gardens where early spring effects are desired. As a rule it is the male or pollen-bearing catkins that are most ornamental. They are longer and more graceful than the seed-bearing ones. POPLARS First among Poplars to bear its flowers, and almost before winter is past, is the Aspen (_Populus tremula_). This and its weeping variety bear their catkins in February, but closely following it, and perhaps more ornamental, is the American Aspen (_P. tremuloides_). This species flowers early in March near London in mild seasons, but later further north, and when kept back by severe weather. The pendulous variety of _P. tremuloides_--known commonly as Parasol de St. Julien--is, at the flowering time, probably the most beautiful and striking of all catkin-bearing trees. This and also the type produce long, slender catkins that sway gently in the softest winds. The weeping variety, which has branches that weep naturally low, looks well by itself on a lawn. In all these Poplars the male catkins are three inches to four inches long, chiefly grey-brown in colour; the scale-like bracts, however, are suffused with a reddish shade. The weeping varieties of these two Aspens are frequently grafted on the White Poplar, which is not a suitable stock. The species to which the varieties severally belong should be used for the purpose. It would be even better if they could be got on their own roots by means of layers or cuttings, and trained up to the required height before allowing the weeping habit to develop. There are other Poplars that bear their catkins freely, such as _P. alba_, _nigra_, and _balsamifera_, but being of loftier habit they do not show to the same advantage as those of the Aspen group. HAZELS Between the middle and the end of February the flowers on the catkins of the various species of _Corylus_ begin to expand. Early as that date is, the catkins have, nevertheless, been in evidence since the previous autumn; they were, in fact, formed before the nuts fell. Being comparatively low and shrubby the different varieties of the Hazel (_Corylus Avellana_) show their catkins to best advantage, and there are few among the catkin-bearers more charming. It is not often that any but the coloured-leaved varieties find a place in the garden proper, but either in the orchard or in the woodland the soft yellow of the Hazel catkins is one of the most pleasing notes of earliest spring. The Tree Hazel (_Corylus Colurna_), a fine and interesting tree, growing thirty feet or more high, also bears its catkins in February. WILLOWS Of the almost innumerable species and varieties of _Salix_, it is only a few that need be mentioned here for their beauty when in flower. So far as I have been able to judge, the most ornamental of the Willows in catkin time is _Salix smithiana_, known also as _S. mollissima_. This tree flowers about mid-March, producing its shortish, thick male catkins in very great abundance; the numerous exposed anthers give a soft but glowing yellow tone to the tree, and entitle it to rank as one of the most ornamental of early-flowering trees. The pendulous variety of _Salix Capræa_ is known as the Kilmarnock Willow. Although of weeping habit it is somewhat stiff in character; but towards the end of March and later it is exceedingly pretty loaded with its grey catkins. The flowers of the typical _S. Capræa_ (the Goat Willow) are commonly known in many country places as Palm, and are used for decorating churches on Palm Sunday. The slender, coloured twigs of the Purple Willow (_Salix purpurea_) bear red or purplish-tinted catkins in early April. _Salix stipularis_ may also be mentioned for its beauty when in flower. ALDERS With the exception of a few species, such as _Alnus nitida_ and _A. maritima_, which flower in September and October, all the Alders develop their blossoms in February and March. The common Alder (_A. glutinosa_) and its varieties are perhaps as ornamental as any at that time. Like the Willows, they look best and grow best in association with water. In such a position an Alder at that time, leafless, but laden with its slender, greenish-yellow catkins, is a beautiful object, and characteristic, too, of our English landscape. Other species possessing a similar quiet beauty are _Alnus incana_, _A. viridis_, _A. oregona_, and especially _A. cordifolia_ with its green and yellow catkins. JAPANESE WALNUTS _Juglans sieboldiana_ and its close allies, _J. mandschurica_ and _J. cordiformis_, do not flower till May, but bear at that time very remarkable male catkins. I have measured them over one foot long, and hanging as they do in goodly number from the branches, perfectly straight and cylindrical, they have a very striking appearance, although green. All three species are alike in their catkins, but differ in the shape of the nuts. They are noteworthy, too, for the imposing character of their foliage. The leaves are pinnate, and on young trees grown in good soil are frequently three feet long. They certainly deserve the notice of planters. GARRYA ELLIPTICA From all the catkin-bearers hitherto mentioned, this differs in being evergreen. It is also far removed from them in relationship, and is closely allied to the Cornels. At the same time the catkins in external characteristics are very similar. Not only the catkins but the plants themselves are unisexual, and, as is usual with the catkin-bearers, it is the male that is most ornamental. These catkins are from four inches to eight inches long, and I have heard of (but not seen) them as much as one foot in length. The time at which the flowers expand depends, as with all the early catkin-bearers, on the mildness of the season. This year on a wall the catkins have been in beauty ever since the first week of January. They are very attractive in their grace and quiet beauty. Chiefly of soft grey and green colours, the bracts are, however, suffused with a warmer reddish tint. In the neighbourhood of London Garrya elliptica is quite hardy in ordinarily sheltered positions, but does not flower so freely as against a south wall. As it is of Californian origin this is not surprising. This shrub resents disturbance at the root, and in transplanting great care is necessary. There are other species of Garrya in cultivation, but they are more suitable to the south-western counties than to the average climate of Britain. To the catkin-bearing family belong several other well-known trees, such as the Birches, Hornbeams, and Sweet Chestnut; but flowering later in the year their beauty is apt to pass without notice in the great flush of bloom that comes in with April. The beautifully fragrant Sweet Gale must not be passed without mention. Its reddish brown catkins are formed before autumn, and expand on the still leafless twigs in spring. CHAPTER X AUTUMN COLOURS There is a mystery about the autumn colouring of the foliage of our many beautiful hardy trees and shrubs in this country, and we have never yet ascertained with any degree of exactness the conditions that produce the richest and brightest tints. Probably the conditions most favourable generally are provided by a good growing season--that is, a warm, moist summer--followed by a dry, sunny autumn. But it frequently happens after what one would regard as favourable seasons, that species which are usually quite trustworthy in this matter fail to colour well. Probably one set of conditions does not suit all trees and shrubs in this respect. To produce the colouration of the leaf just before it falls certain subtle chemical changes in its composition take place. And to bring about these changes certain conditions in regard to sunlight, temperature, and moisture are necessary. But in a climate such as that of Britain, where the seasons are never alike two years together, we can never hope to obtain the same regularity of autumnal colouring that characterises the vegetation, for instance, of the Eastern United States. Still, when all is said, we possess in our gardens a large number of trees and shrubs and climbers that are delightful in their autumnal livery of crimson, purple, scarlet, or gold. It is curious that every season we may notice species not usually conspicuous for their autumn tints beautifully coloured. An over-vigorous, sappy growth, often the result of a wet, warm autumn or too rich a soil, is certainly detrimental to autumn colouring. _Rhus cotinoides_, an American Sumach, worth growing for the beauty of its colours in autumn, is one of the most unfailing in this matter. This is perhaps one of the loveliest of all autumn-tinted shrubs, and should be more planted. But young plants, put out in well-trenched, heavily-manured soil, will often fail to colour at all till they get older and less vigorous. The most beautifully coloured examples of this Sumach that we have seen grow in rather light sandy soil. We have frequently noticed, too, that various species of Vine (_Vitis_) when starved in pots will colour exquisitely, whilst others, planted out in the ordinary way, completely fail. We believe, therefore, when planting with a view to the production of autumnal colour, any great enrichment of the soil is neither necessary nor advisable, provided it is of moderate quality to start with. In the following notes, brief mention is made of some of the best trees, shrubs, and climbers that colour in autumn:-- TREES First among these are the American Red Oaks. Undoubtedly the best of these is a variety of _Quercus coccinea_ known as _splendens_ and _grayana_. This not only turns to a fine scarlet crimson, but it retains its foliage for some weeks after the colour has been acquired--sometimes almost up to Christmas. Other good Oaks, not so certain, however, as the preceding, are _Quercus marylandica_ (or _nigra_), _Q. heterophylla_, _Q. imbricaria_, and _Q. palustris_, all of which turn red. The Tupelo tree (_Nyssa sylvatica_) turns a fine burnished bronzy red. A tree remarkable for the size of its leaves, and especially for the rich golden yellow they put on in autumn, is _Carya tomentosa_, but, like most of the Hickories, it is scarcely known in gardens. _Carya sulcata_ is somewhat similar. The Common Elm is usually very beautiful in the soft yellow tints of its leaves in autumn, but another Elm of more distinct aspect is _Ulmus pumila_, a low tree whose small leaves are retained till late in the year, and turn golden yellow before they fall. _Liquidambar styraciflua_ has long been valued for its fading foliage of purple red, but not so well known is the lovely yellow of the Fern-like foliage of the Honey Locust (_Gleditschia triacanthos_). The Tulip tree (_Liriodendron_), the Nettle trees (_Celtis_), the _Zelkowas_, and several of the Birches turn yellow, one of the best of the Birches being _Betula corylifolia_, which turns a rich orange yellow. Among commoner trees the yellow of the Horse Chestnut, the lovely crimson of the Wild Cherry, the golden shades of the Black and Lombardy Poplars, add much to the beauty of every autumn. Several of the Maples are noteworthy in this respect, more especially the numerous varieties of Japanese Maples (_Acer palmatum_ and _A. japonicum_), these, as well as the Mandshurian _Acer Ginnala_, turning to various shades of red. The Common Sycamore and Norway Maple change to yellow, but Schwedler's variety of the latter becomes red. Other trees that deserve mention are _Amelanchier canadensis_, whose foliage changes to lovely crimson shades in autumn; _Koelreuteria japonica_, soft yellow; _Pyrus torminalis_, bronzy red; _Ginkgo biloba_, pale gold; _Cladrastis tinctoria_, yellow; _Parrotia persica_ and _Hamamelis_, bronzy red and yellow. The Common Beech is nearly always beautiful, changing first to yellow, then to warm brown tints. _Clerodendron trichotomum_ is a small growing tree that should have a place wherever beautiful autumn foliage is desired. Among Conifers the yellow-leaved variety (_aurea_) of the Scotch Pine is remarkable in retaining its colour during the winter months only, becoming green in spring and summer. _Retinospora squarrosa_ and _Cryptomeria elegans_ turn bronzy red in winter. The warm red-brown tints of the deciduous Cypress are charming. SHRUBS The Sumachs (_Rhus_) furnish some of the most striking of autumn-colouring shrubs; the best of them, _R. cotinoides_, has been already described; other fine species are _R. typhina_, _R. glabra_ (with the cut-leaved variety _laciniata_), and _R. Toxicodendron_, all of which turn red. The Venetian Sumach, _R. Cotinus_, becomes yellow. _Berberis Thunbergi_, which dies off a rich scarlet, is so beautiful in autumn that on some estates it has been planted in great quantity, not only for cover, but so that sportsmen may enjoy its colour during the shooting season. _B. concinna_ is another charming autumn-coloured leaved shrub of dwarf growth. _Gaultheria procumbens_ (Partridge Berry) is too valuable to pass unnoticed. In winter its leaves are stained with crimson. The leaves of _Cotoneaster horizontalis_ turn from green to rich shades of chocolate or crimson. The shrub is of spreading growth. Its evergreen ally, _B. Aquifolium_, turns a glowing red or purple after the first frosts. The Ghent Azaleas almost always colour richly, either deep glowing crimson, bronzy red, or gold; and of other ericaceous plants the warm tints of _Pieris mariana_ and the rich crimson of the _Enkianthus_ should be mentioned. The taller American _Vacciniums_ (_corymbosum_ and its various forms) are always lovely. Our native Guelder Rose (_Viburnum Opulus_) becomes crimson in autumn, whilst the Common Hazel and _Rhamnus Frangula_ often produce fine effects in yellow. The feathery foliage of _Spiræa Thunbergi_ is singularly beautiful when it changes from its natural pale green to crimson; and _S. prunifolia fl. pl._ is perhaps more distinct than the species, and two other Japanese shrubs (both, unfortunately, very rare) are remarkable for their autumnal beauty. These are _Disanthus cercidifolia_, an ally of the Witch Hazels, lovely claret colour, and _Viburnum alnifolium_, crimson. Other noteworthy shrubs are _Fothergilla alnifolia_, rich red; _Euonymus alatus_, crimson; _Deutzia crenata_, yellow; and _Pyrus arbutifolia_, red. The common Brambles of our woods should not be passed over without mention; they turn a rich glowing red, and for their autumnal beauty alone may be used as undergrowth in wilder parts of the garden and woodland. CLIMBERS First among these, of course, is Veitch's Ampelopsis, the finest of all deciduous climbers for walls, being self-supporting and changing to crimson in autumn. _Vitis Coignetiæ_ is one of the noblest of all Vines, and turns crimson also. Other Vines useful in this respect are the Teinturier Vine, purple; _V. Romaneti_, red; and the Virginian Creeper, especially that variety known as _muralis_ or _Engelmannii_, which clings to walls or tree trunks without any artificial support, and acquires beautiful red shades in autumn. Among Honeysuckles, _Lonicera japonica var. flexuosa_ is noteworthy for the fine red purple of its decaying leaves. Those of _Akebia quinata_ change colour in autumn and assume shades of brownish purple, sometimes touched with maroon. Then there is _Actinidia Kolomikta_, an Asiatic species with showy yellow-coloured leaves in autumn. Of the Ivies _Hedera Helix atropurpurea_ is much the best. It has medium-sized leaves which are rich green during the growing season, but change in winter to purple and maroon. CHAPTER XI TREES AND SHRUBS WITH FINE FRUITS The most important of all the groups of trees and shrubs, for their fruit, is the one comprising the hardy species of the Rose order. This includes, of course, besides the Roses, such trees and shrubs as the Thorns, Crabs, and Cotoneasters. Among the Thorns (Cratægus) are many very handsome sorts giving variety in size and colour of the fruits. It is unfortunate that many of them fall early and get spoilt by birds. At the same time birds add so greatly to the delight of the garden that we may well overlook their depredations. By many, indeed, these fruiting trees will be considered worth growing for the encouragement they give to bird-life. It may be well to remind planters that a considerable number of these fruiting trees and shrubs bear male flowers on one plant, female on another. People are often at a loss to understand why their Sea Buckthorns or Aucubas or Skimmias do not fruit, when the simple reason is that the plants are all male (or pollen-bearing), or that the female ones have no males to fertilise them. As a general rule, if these shrubs are grouped, one male to eight or ten females is a proper proportion. As plants raised from seeds come in about equal proportions of both sexes, it is necessary to select the females and keep just sufficient males to pollenise them, in order that the full beauty of the species as a fruit-bearer may be obtained. With Skimmias and Aucubas the proper proportions can be obtained by means of cuttings. The following hardy trees and shrubs are the most conspicuous for the beauty of their fruits:-- ARBUTUS UNEDO.--A native of Western Ireland, has strawberry-like fruits of a bright-scarlet colour. AILANTUS GLANDULOSA, a fine tree over 50 feet high, is very beautiful when covered with its red and yellow-winged fruits; there are male and female plants. AUCUBAS, grown at first for their ornamental foliage merely, have latterly come into prominence as fruit-bearers; the female plants bear clusters of bright-red berries which remain long on the branches and are very attractive in winter. BERBERIS.--The fruits of the Berberries are mostly covered with a plum-coloured bloom as in _B. Aquifolium_ and _B. Darwinii_, but none of them is handsomer than our native _B. vulgaris_ and its varieties. These have pendent racemes of fruits, varying in colour from the typical orange scarlet to white, purple, and black. _B. Thunbergi_ coral-red, very beautiful. CRATÆGUS.--The finest of all the Thorns is _C. Pyracantha_, well named by the French "Buisson ardent." This shrub or small tree is valuable as a graceful evergreen, and when clothed (as it nearly always is in autumn) with its brilliant clusters of orange-red haws, it is one of the most beautiful objects in the garden. It is quite hardy in the open, but bears fruits more abundantly when planted against a wall. In that position also it is more easily protected from birds, which soon destroy the beauty of plants in the open. The variety _Lælandi_ is distinct from the type, but hardier, and bears bright berries in abundance. The Cockspur Thorn (_C. Crus-Galli_) has several varieties, all producing pendent clusters of scarlet haws. The varieties like _pyracanthifolia_, with narrow leaves and flat-topped habit, are the best in this respect; they retain the fruits well into the winter, and are not eaten by birds so freely as many are. The haws of _C. cordata_, the Washington Thorn, are small, but a brilliant orange. _C. punctata_, _C. Azarolus_, and _C. pinnatifida_ have the largest haws of any, and they are of a deep red, but fall early; the two first, however, are variable, and forms with yellow and other coloured haws belong to them. Those of _C. macracantha_ are bright red, and in favourable years are so plentiful as to make the tree wondrously beautiful. _C. coccinea_ and _C. mollis_ have also red haws, larger than those of _C. macracantha_, but they fall soon after they are ripe. The Common Hawthorn is pretty, but more noteworthy is its variety _aurea_, with bright-yellow haws. In _C. oliveriana_ they are black. The Tansy-leaved Thorn (_C. tanacetifolia_) has large yellow fruits, not badly flavoured, and with the fragrance of Apples. _C. orientalis_ has haws of a bright sealing-wax red, but in its variety _sanguinea_ they are of a deeper shade. [Illustration: _BABYLONIAN WILLOW BY WATERSIDE (Kew)._] COTONEASTERS.--Not enough use is made of Cotoneasters in gardens. They grow well in almost any soil, and are all marked by elegant or neat habit. They are very pretty when in flower, but it is in autumn, when laden with fruits, that they attain their greatest beauty. One of the tallest of them is _C. frigida_, and this bears a great abundance of rich scarlet-red berries in flat clusters. In the nearly allied _C. bacillaris_ they are almost black. _C. rotundifolia_ is a dwarfer shrub, but the finest of all the Cotoneasters for its fruit; it grows about 4 feet high, and has small, very dark green, persistent leaves; the fruits are about the size and shape of the haws of the Common Hawthorn, and are brilliant scarlet red; they are ripe in October, and from then till March make one of the most beautiful of winter pictures. In _C. buxifolia_ the fruit is very abundant, but the red colour is not so bright as in the preceding. _C. horizontalis_, now getting to be a well-known shrub, has very pretty, globose, bright-red fruits, small but freely borne. _C. Simonsii_, of medium height, has brilliant red berries, as has _C. acuminata_, a near ally, but taller. The dwarfest section of Cotoneaster, viz., _thymifolia_, _microphylla_ and its variety _glacialis_ (or _congesta_), which are so useful for rockeries, have all scarlet berries. CELASTRUS ARTICULATUS is a vigorous climber from Eastern Asia, remarkable for the great beauty of its fruits, which are golden yellow within, and when ripe split open and reveal the shining scarlet-coated seeds. _C. scandens_ has orange-coloured seeds. CORIARIA JAPONICA is very beautiful in autumn, when it succeeds as well as it does with Canon Ellacombe at Bitton, the fruits being covered then with the persistent petals which are of a lovely coral red. [Illustration: _WEEPING ASH; PALACE GARDENS, DALKEITH._] CORNUS CAPITATA (_Benthamia fragifera_) only succeeds to perfection in the south-western counties; its strawberry-like red fruits are very handsome. COPROSMA ACEROSA is a dwarf New Zealand shrub suitable for the rockery; it has variously-shaded, transparent, blue-green berries. ELÆAGNUS MULTIFLORA (or _E. longipes_) is the most ornamental in the genus with regard to its fruits. They are remarkably abundant, orange-coloured, and specked with reddish scales. EUONYMUS EUROPÆUS, our native "Spindle tree," is most beautiful in autumn, when, after a favourable season, it is covered with its open red fruits revealing the orange-coloured seeds within. FRAXINUS MARIESII is one of Messrs. Veitch's introductions from Japan, and is a dwarf tree, one of the "Manna" Ashes; the thin keys are of a bronzy-red colour and pretty. GLEDITSCHIA TRIACANTHOS is the "Honey Locust." The pods are not brightly coloured, being at first green, then brown, but they are long, thin, and wavy, like crooked scimitars, and hanging in numbers on the tree; have a very curious and (in this country) uncommon aspect. HEDERA (Ivy).--Some of the "tree" forms of Ivy produce berries freely; the most ornamental of them are the red, yellow, and orange-coloured varieties of _H. Helix arborescens_. HYMENANTHERA CRASSIFOLIA, from New Zealand, is a dense-growing, stiff-branched, dwarf shrub, chiefly noteworthy for the white berries it bears. HYPERICUMS.--_H. Androsæmum_ and _H. elatum_ produce rather handsome clusters of black fruits. HIPPOPHAË RHAMNOIDES, the Sea Buckthorn, is one of the most brilliantly coloured of all berry-bearing shrubs. It produces them in marvellous profusion, and they are bright-orange coloured. Birds do not molest the berries, and unless caught by severe frosts (which turn them grey) they lighten the garden wonderfully up to, and sometimes after, the New Year. The necessity of growing both sexes of plants has already been noted, but isolated females may be artificially impregnated by shaking pollen over them when in flower. [Illustration: _WEEPING ASPEN IN FLOWER._] ILEX (Holly).--The berries of the Holly are so well known that we need only mention the yellow-berried one (_fructu-luteo_), which is not common, but very effective in winter. LIGUSTRUM.--The Privets are of little consequence as fruit-bearing shrubs, and only _L. sinense_ need be mentioned; it is frequently very striking in early winter, being covered then with great clusters of purple-black, shot-like berries. LYCIUM CHINENSE.--Nearly all the Box Thorns in this country belong to this species. As for _L. europæum_ and _L. barbarum_, the names are very common, but the plants themselves very rare. _L. chinense_ is very ornamental in the fall of the year, its long graceful branches being well furnished with rich red berries. _L. rhombifolium_ is one of its forms. MAGNOLIA TRIPETALA is occasionally noticeable in autumn because of its large upright fruits of a reddish-purple colour. MACLURA AURANTIACA, the "Osage Orange," bears a remarkable orange-coloured fruit 2 to 3 inches in diameter. The tree is quite hardy, but we have not heard of its bearing fruit in this country. This is perhaps because male and female flowers occur on different plants. PERNETTYA MUCRONATA.--First among ericaceous plants for beauty in fruit is this Magellanic plant and its varieties. It is dwarf and bushy, with small white flowers followed by enormous quantities of berries about the size of peas. These vary in colour from white to deep crimson, and are undoubtedly some of the most valuable of all hardy berry-bearing shrubs. The varieties are very beautiful. [Illustration: _WEEPING ELM ON LAWN._] PALIURUS AUSTRALIS (Christ's Thorn) has flat, disk-like fruits, freely borne in suitable years; they are green, and if not particularly ornamental, are very quaint and interesting. PTELEA TRIFOLIATA.--The same may be said of the abundant clusters of hop-like fruits seen in this tree. PYRUS.--In this genus, which includes the Mountain Ash, the Crabs, and the White Beam trees, there is a great wealth of beautiful fruiting trees. The Mountain Ash or Rowan tree (_P. Aucuparia_), when laden with its hanging corymbs of rich scarlet berries is a delightful picture, and it reaches its full beauty in August. Not so well known is the variety _fructu-luteo_, with yellow fruits. A near relative of the Rowan tree is _P. americana_, its New World representative, but it is not so beautiful. The fruit is almost identical, but the tree is of a stiff and less graceful aspect. The new _P. thianschanica_, which also belongs to the Rowan tree group, has bright-red, globose berries. Perhaps of all the genus Pyrus, none on the whole are so beautiful in autumn as the Crabs. _P. baccata_, the Siberian Crab, with its bright-red, cherry-like fruits, and _P. Ringo_ from Japan, with bright-yellow ones, are the best of the true species. The hybrid "John Downie" Crab is also very beautiful in autumn. The flowering QUINCES are not particularly attractive in regard to the colour of their fruits, but some of them--notably those of the dwarf _Pyrus Maulei_--are very sweetly scented. Some very handsome fruits are borne by the various White Beam trees (_Pyrus Aria_ and its allies). Perhaps the best of them is _P. lanata_ (or _Sorbus majestica_), which has flat clusters of bright-red berries. But many of the varieties of _P. Aria_ itself are very attractive. One of the latest additions to this group is _P. alnifolia_, a neat-habited small tree from Japan and China. It has oblong coral-red fruits. ROSA.--Beauty at fruiting time is an almost proverbial attribute of the Roses. None is more beautiful than our native Dog Rose (_R. canina_). Though in many an English hedgerow, an out-of-the-way corner in many a garden might be given up to the Dog Rose and its varieties for the sake of their wealth of scarlet hips in autumn. _R. tomentosa_ and _R. mollis_ are other red-fruited natives of Britain. All the members of the Scotch Rose group (_pimpinellifolia_) have black fruits. Of exotic species, one of the most valuable is _R. rugosa_; its flat, orange-shaped hips are so abundant and brightly coloured that they make a brilliant picture. _R. microphylla_ has yellow prickly fruits, whilst those of _R. macrophylla_ are pear-shaped and scarlet. The deep-crimson hips of _R. pomifera_, covered with bristly hairs like large gooseberries, are as remarkable as any. Some of the American species, although the fruits are usually small, are handsome, such as _R. nutkana_ and _R. Carolina_. The elongated, pear-shaped fruits of _R. alpina_ and its variety _pyrenaica_ are bright red, and have a pleasant, resinous odour when rubbed. RAPHIOLEPIS JAPONICA, with its clusters of small, round black berries, should be planted at least against a wall; it is a rather slow-growing evergreen shrub with strawberry-like flowers. RHAPHITHAMNUS CYANOCARPUS can only be grown outside against a wall, or in Cornwall or similar localities, but where it will succeed it is well worth growing, not only for its pale-blue flowers, but for the bright-blue fruits that follow them. Some of the RHAMNUS, such as the native _R. catharticus_ and _R. Frangula_, bear abundant crops of purple-black berries. The dense pyramidal fruit-clusters of the Stag's-horn Sumach (_Rhus typhina_) are often attractive, being covered with crimson hairs. Those of _R. glabra_ are similarly coloured. RUBUS PHOENICOLASIUS has spread in cultivation recently, and has beautiful scarlet berries. It is hardy enough, but birds are so attracted by the bright colour, that it requires protection from them when in fruit. SAMBUCUS.--The scarlet-berried Elder, _S. racemosus_, is by far the handsomest of the genus, but although it flowers freely enough, it is very uncertain in producing its fruits. _S. glauca_, from the West United States, produces large, flat clusters of blue-white berries, and there is a striking white-fruited variety of _S. nigra_ called _leucocarpa_. THE SNOWBERRY (_Symphoricarpus racemosus_) should always have a place in the garden for the sake of its clusters of large pure white berries, which remain long on the plants. VIBURNUM.--There are several very handsome fruiting species in this genus, no finer, however, than the native _V. Opulus_, or Guelder Rose, with red fruits, and its variety _fructu-luteo_ with yellow ones. In the other native species, _V. Lantana_, they are at first red, ultimately black. Several of the Viburnums are noteworthy for the blue or blue-black fruits; of these are _dentatum_, _molle_, _cassinoides_, and _nudum_. Those of the evergreen _V. Tinus_ are also dark blue, but, as with the other blue-fruited species, they are not frequently borne in profusion in the average climate of Britain. VITIS HETEROPHYLLA and its variety _humulifolia_, bear singularly beautiful clusters of pale china-blue berries. To induce them to fruit freely, however, the plants require a warm, sunny wall, and rather restricted root-room. CHAPTER XII WEEPING TREES AND THEIR USES It is not at all easy to define special uses for trees of weeping habit, but it is safe to use them nearly singly and not in immediate connection with trees of quite upright form. The point in the weeping tree is a certain grace of drooping line, such as one enjoys in the drooping racemes of many of the papilionaceous flowers such as Wistaria, Laburnum, and Robinia. Nothing is gained by accentuating the peculiarity by a direct association with trees of an opposite way of growth. It is better rather to place the weeping trees near rounded masses of shrub and small tree--for example, a Weeping Birch would group well with a clump of Rhododendrons. Near water weeping trees seem to be specially effective. An instance of this is shown in the familiar Weeping Willow, but one at a time seems as much as is wanted. As a general rule, we strongly advocate planting in groups, whether in the case of trees, shrubs, or flowering plants, but the weeping trees are less suited for grouping than any others. One Weeping Willow is all very well, but a whole grove of them would be monotonous and tiresome. [Illustration: _ELÆAGNUS PUNGENS (Kew)._] The habit of some of the weeping trees can be directly turned to account in the making of arbours and pergolas; for by planting the large-leaved Weeping Elm or the Weeping Ash at the back and on each side in the case of an arbour, or alternately on each side of the walk for a pergola, a living shelter may be made in a very few years. The trees in this case are standards pollarded at about 8 feet from the ground, the form in which they are generally sent out from the nursery. [Illustration: _CORNUS MAS VAR. VARIEGATA (Variegated Cornel)._] Among evergreens the Holly is invaluable. As a rule the weeping or pendulous varieties are budded on tall stems of the type, and trained out in an umbrella-like fashion, thus forming a hollow mound of greenery. In some places, notably at Brookwood in Surrey, pendulous Hollies have been allowed to grow without any attempt at training. Stout stems 10 feet to 12 feet high are surmounted by irregular heads, which droop down 6 feet or 7 feet, leaving several feet at the base of the stem bare. In winter the long pendulous branches, smothered with bright red berries, are very pleasant. Facing page 248 is an illustration of a weeping Holly (_I. Aquifolium var. pendula_) at Kew. Of variegated weeping Hollies there are _Argentea pendula_ (Perry's Weeping), with silver variegated leaves; _aurea pendula_ (Waterer's Weeping), with gold variegated leaves; and _pendula tricolor_. To encourage height rather than width, it is often necessary to tie up a few of the top shoots, otherwise they get out of shape; they increase more quickly in width than height. (i.) NATURALLY PENDULOUS SPECIES AND VARIETIES, _i.e._ COMING TRUE FROM SEED _Asterisk denotes those to choose first._ Tilia (Lime or Linden) petiolaris. Genista æthnensis (shrubby). * Prunus pendula (Weeping Japanese Cherry). Forsythia suspensa (shrubby). * Salix (Willow) alba cærulea pendula. ,, ,, vitellina pendula. * ,, ,, babylonica. ,, ,, ,, annularis. ,, ,, ,, Salamoni. ,, ,, elegantissima. (ii.) PENDULOUS VARIETIES THAT HAVE ORIGINATED AS "SPORTS," PROPAGATED BY GRAFTS, CUTTINGS, OR LAYERS * Ilex (Holly) Aquifolium (green and variegated). Acer (Maple) Negundo pendula. Rhus Cotinus pendula. Laburnum vulgare pendulum (Weeping Laburnum). Cytisus scoparius pendulus. Caragana (Pea tree) arborescens pendula. Sophora japonica pendula. * Prunus Amygdalus pendula (Weeping Almond). * ,, Avium pendula (Weeping Wild Cherry). ,, acida semperflorens. * ,, Mahaleb pendula (Weeping Mahaleb Cherry). ,, Padus pendula (Weeping Bird Cherry). * Cratægus Oxyacantha (Hawthorn), red and white flowered. Sambucus nigra pendula (Weeping Elder). * Fraxinus excelsior pendula (Weeping Ash). ,, ,, aurea (golden-leaved) pendula. ,, ,, pendula wentworthii. ,, parviflora pendula. Ulmus (Elm) americana pendula. ,, ,, campestris pendula. ,, ,, ,, antarctica pendula. ,, ,, ,, suberosa pendula. ,, ,, fulva pendula. * ,, ,, montana pendula. ,, ,, ,, Pitteursii pendula. Morus (Mulberry) alba pendula. * Betula (Birch) alba pendula. * ,, ,, ,, Youngi. ,, ,, ,, purpurea pendula. Alnus (Alder) incana pendula. Carpinus (Hornbeam) Betulus pendula. Corylus Avellana (Common Hazel) pendula. Quercus (Oak) pedunculata pendula. ,, ,, rubra pendula. * Fagus (Beech) sylvatica pendula. ,, ,, ,, miltonensis. ,, ,, ,, remillyensis. * Salix (Willow) Caprea pendula. * ,, ,, purpurea pendula. ,, ,, ,, Scharfenbergensis. ,, ,, repens argentea. * Populus tremula (Aspen) pendula. * ,, tremuloides pendula. * ,, grandidentata (American Cotton Poplar). (iii.) CONIFERS Cupressus lawsoniana glauca pendula. ,, ,, gracilis pendula. ,, ,, pendula vera. ,, ,, gracillima. ,, nootkatensis pendula. Cedrus atlantica pendula. Ginkgo biloba pendula. Juniperus (Juniper) virginiana pendula. Larix europæa (Common Larch) pendula. Thuya orientalis pendula. ,, flagelliformis. Taxodium distichum (Deciduous Cypress) pendulum. Tsuga canadensis pendula. Taxus (Yew) baccata pendula. ,, ,, ,, gracilis pendula. ,, ,, ,, Dovastoni. There is a fine specimen of this in Barron's nursery at Borrowash. CHAPTER XIII THE USE OF VARIEGATED TREES AND SHRUBS The best use of trees and shrubs with coloured or variegated foliage is not very easy to determine, though it may be possible to give a few useful suggestions. The usual way of planting them here and there among mixed masses of evergreen and deciduous growths is perhaps the worst way of all. All good planting must be done with much thought and care, and these plants of coloured foliage, that are necessarily more conspicuous than others, want the most careful placing of any. One excellent use of evergreen trees and shrubs with golden colouring, such as the Gold Hollies, Cypresses, Yews, and Privets is to make them into a cheerful bit of outdoor winter garden. The Gold-leaved Privet is a delightful thing in early winter, and though Wild Privet, untouched by the knife, is a deciduous shrub, the clipped Privets of our gardens usually hold their leaves throughout the winter. With these the variegated Japan Honeysuckle might be freely used, much of its yellow veining turning to a bright red in winter. _Cassinia fulvida_ is another good winter shrub with its tiny gold-backed leaves. The pretty bushes of this neat New Zealander are apt to grow somewhat straggling, but the crowded little branches are the very thing that is wanted through the winter as cut greenery to go with winter flowers, whether hardy or from under glass. If these are cut a foot long the bush is kept in shape, and a valuable supply of stuff for house decoration is provided. A half or even quarter acre of well-arranged planting of these gold-variegated shrubs has a surprisingly cheery effect in winter, making a kind of sunlight of its own when skies are grey, and a comfortable shelter when winds are keen. In summer, too, it will be beautiful if the spaces between the shrubs are cleverly planted, for preference, with plants of white or pale-yellow flowers, such as White Foxglove, _Oenothera lamarckiana_, white and pale-yellow _Hibiscus ficifolius_, _Liliums auratum_, _giganteum_, _speciosum_, and _longifolium_; White Everlasting Pea trained loosely through any near branches; _Nicotiana affinis_ and _N. sylvestris_; and close to the path hardy Ferns of pale-green frondage, such as the Lady Fern; with clumps of plants of golden foliage like the Gold Valerian and Gold Nettle. A shrub of variegated foliage, planted without special attention, and coming suddenly in a grouping of others of an average green colour is made unduly conspicuous. It should be led up to by neighbours whose colouring gradually assimilates with its own. The sudden effect of colouring is all very well in the nurseryman's show borders, where the object is to attract attention to showy individuals, but in our gardens we want the effect of well-arranged pictures rather than that of shop windows. [Illustration: _TAURIAN TAMARISK (Tamarix tetrandra), IN FLOWER._] A variegated plant to be of real value in the garden must have clear, bright, and abundant red and yellow or white markings, not dotted or merely margined with colour. So many worthless shrubs with poor variegation have been named and offered for sale that it is unwise to buy them from a catalogue. We may repeat the advice already given, which is to see them first. Trees and shrubs with coloured foliage are of several kinds. Most common of all are those which have leaves blotched or edged with golden or creamy yellow and white, such as the variegated Hollies and Elæagnuses. Then there are those which are only coloured at a certain season, like _Neillia opulifolia aurea_. This has leaves of a beautiful self yellow colour when they unfold in spring, but become green as the summer advances; or the variegated Plane (_Platanus acerifolia Süttneri_), which is only variegated in late summer and autumn. Finally, there are those, like the Purple Hazel or Purple Beech, which have leaves of one colour and remain almost of the same shade whilst they are on the tree. On the whole the plants that retain their colour till late summer and autumn, or acquire it then, are most valuable, because very few trees and shrubs are then in flower. Variegated trees and shrubs must not be planted too plentifully, and studiously avoid all spotty effects. Many a garden would be improved by bringing the variegated shrubs it contains together so as to produce a few broad masses of colour. Some of these shrubs, like Spath's Cornel, or the Golden Elder, may, in large gardens especially, be planted alone in large beds or groups. The large trees, like the Purple Beech, can stand by themselves. The following list contains about one hundred of the finest of variegated trees and shrubs:-- TREES Acer Negundo variegatum, creamy white. ,, Negundo aureum, golden entirely. ,, platanoides Schwedleri, soft red in spring. ,, Pseudo-platanus flavo-marginatum, the "Corstorphine" Sycamore, one of the largest of variegated trees. Alnus glutinosa aurea, wholly yellow. Betula alba purpurea, wholly purple. Castanea sativa aureo-marginata, the variegated Sweet Chestnut, perhaps the best of all large trees, with parti-coloured leaves. The leaves burn on some soils. Catalpa bignonioides aurea, wholly golden, and most effective in summer and autumn. Fagus sylvatica purpurea. Of the Purple Beeches there are now numerous forms, such as atropurpurea, cuprea, purpurea, pendula (weeping), and "Swat Magret" (the darkest of all). Pyramidalis purpurea is very beautiful. ,, sylvatica variegata, white. ,, sylvatica tricolor, various shades of red and purple; beautifully coloured, but not vigorous. ,, sylvatica var. Zlatia, entirely pale golden green in spring, but for a short time only. ,, sylvatica, Paul's gold-margined, is a pretty variegated tree. Fraxinus americana aucubæfolia, richly mottled with yellow. Ilex Aquifolium. The variegated Hollies, both silver and golden, are now very numerous; among the best are argentea marginata, argentea pendula (Perry's Silver Weeping), Golden Queen, Silver Queen, Handsworth Silver, Golden King, flavescens, latifolia aureo-marginata, Watereriana, aureo-medio picta, aureo-pendula. Laburnum vulgare foliis aureis, all yellow. Platanus acerifolia Süttneri, very pure white with scarcely any green on late growth. Populus deltoidea (canadensis) aurea, yellow. Prunus cerasifera atropurpurea (P. Pissardi), lovely claret red when young, becoming dull purple in summer. Pyrus Malus neidwetzkyanus. In this Apple not only the leaves, but the wood and fruit are purplish red. ,, Aria chrysophylla, yellow. Quercus Cerris variegata, the white variegated Turkey Oak. ,, pedunculata Concordia, a lovely clear yellow, and seldom burns. ,, pedunculata purpurea, wholly red purple. ,, rubra, crimson. Robinia Pseudacacia aurea, yellow. Ulmus campestris, "Louis Van Houtte," the best Golden Elm. ,, campestris viminalis variegata, a charming white-variegated, small-leaved Elm. ,, montana fastigiata aurea (U. Wredei aurea) should not be omitted. A beautiful Elm for small gardens. [Illustration: _ASHES_] CONIFERS Abies concolor violacea, glaucous blue. Cedrus atlantica glauca, glaucous blue. Cupressus lawsoniana; numerous varieties, of which gracilis pendula aurea, lutea (very hardy), Silver Queen, and albo-variegata may be mentioned. ,, nootkatensis lutea, yellow-tipped twigs. ,, obtusa aurea (Thujopsis borealis aurea), yellow. ,, obtusa nana aurea, dwarf yellow. ,, pisifera plumosa aurea, yellow. ,, macrocarpa lutea, the best yellow Conifer in mild districts. Juniperus chinensis aurea, gold-tipped. Picea orientalis argenteo-spica, young shoots pale yellow. ,, pungens glauca, the best "blue" Conifer. Pinus sylvestris aurea, golden in winter, green in spring and summer. Retinospora (_see_ Cupressus). Taxus baccata aurea, "Golden Yew," _elegantissima_ and Golden Irish. I was very pleased with the beautiful colouring of natural golden hybrid forms in Messrs. Fisher, Son, & Sibray's nursery at Handsworth. T. adpressa, Barroni, a. variegata, small-growing, leaves edged with silver, and suffused with yellow as winter approaches. ,, baccata fastigiata aurea, "Golden Irish Yew." ,, baccata semper-aurea, golden more or less throughout the winter. ,, Dovastoni aureo-variegata. Thujopsis (_see_ Cupressus, p. 97). Thuya (Biota) orientalis aurea, yellow in summer. [Illustration: _THE LOMBARDY POPLAR._] SHRUBS OR SMALL TREES Acer palmatum atropurpureum, purple. There are many forms of this Japanese Maple--cut-leaved, purple, and golden--but this is the hardiest. Aralia chinensis albo-variegata. This is one of the most promising new variegated shrubs. It is sold as Dimorphanthus mandschuricus var. variegatus. Atriplex Halimus, silvery grey entirely. Aucuba japonica, many forms, yellow or creamy white. Berberis vulgaris foliis purpureis, one of the best purple shrubs. Buxus sempervirens aurea, "Golden Box." Corylus maxima atropurpurea, a dark-purple, very effective variety of the Cob-nut. Cornus Mas aurea elegantissima, yellow (of slow growth and not very hardy). ,, Mas variegata, white. ,, siberica elegantissima. ,, Spaethii. Elæagnus pungens aurea, one of the most beautiful variegated evergreens. ,, pungens variegata, white. Euonymus japonicus albo-marginatus, very good for the south coast. ,, japonicus ovatus aureus, same as preceding, but yellow. Ligustrum (Privet) ovalifolium foliis aureis, the best variegated shrub for hedges and for rough usage. Neillia opulifolia lutea, yellow in spring only. Philadelphus coronarius foliis aureis, yellow in the spring and early summer and very bright then, gradually gets green afterwards. Ptelea trifoliata aurea, yellow. Rhamnus Alaternus variegatus, white. Rhus Cotinus atropurpureus, purple. Symphoricarpus orbiculatus variegatus, yellow. Sambucus nigra foliis aureis, yellow, retaining its colour well till autumn. ,, racemosa plumosa aurea, a beautiful cut-leaved Golden Elder. [Illustration: _CORSICAN PINE TREE WALK, 35 YEARS OLD._] DWARF SHRUBS AND CLIMBERS Acanthopanax spinosum variegatum, pretty, white-variegated, dwarf, and slow-growing. Arundinaria auricoma, the best yellow-variegated hardy Bamboo. ,, Fortunei, the best white-variegated hardy Bamboo. Cornus alba Spaethii, probably the finest of all yellow-variegated shrubs, never "scorching" in the hottest summers. It is very handsome as pyramids, but by pruning a brighter coloured bark is obtained. Euonymus radicans, the white-variegated form of this plant is useful as a carpet in shady positions where grass will not grow. Ivy (Hedera Helix), numerous varieties, both shrubby and climbing--arborescens variegata, chrysophylla, discolor, maderensis variegata, sulphurea, canariensis argentea. E. radicans Silver gem is a larger leaved form, purer white and altogether better than many variegated Ivies. Jasminum nudiflorum foliis aureis and officinale foliis aureis, variegated climbers with yellow leaves; the latter is the more ornamental, but is delicate in constitution. Kerria japonica foliis variegatis, white. Lonicera japonica aureo-reticulata. The veins of this climber are beautifully "picked out" in gold. Osmanthus Aquifolium ilicifolius variegatus, a holly-like, white-variegated shrub useful in the milder parts of the kingdom. Osmanthus Aquifolium purpureus, the hardiest of the Osmanthus. There are two forms of this, one much darker than the other, and the darkest is the best. Pieris japonica variegata, white. Ribes alpinum pumilum aureum, golden in spring. Rubus ulmifolius variegatus, veins of the later leaves golden. Salix repens argentea, a prostrate silvery-leaved Willow, makes a pretty weeping shrub if trained up at first. Santolina Chamæcyparissus, silvery white entirely. Vitis heterophylla variegata, a pretty, blue-berried climber, but tender; the variegation is rosy white. ,, inconstans purpurea, a purplish form of the popular "Ampelopsis Veitchii." ,, vinifera purpurea, deep purple. Vinca minor, white and yellow-marked forms. [Illustration: _THE FAMOUS ARAUCARIA IMBRICATA AVENUE AT MURTHLY, N.B._] CHAPTER XIV TREES AND SHRUBS FOR SEA-COAST In planting trees and shrubs near the sea, two important matters must be considered--(1) fierce gales; (2) salt spray. As a protection against storms much may be done by planting quick-growing things, such as Poplars and Willows, and in this sheltered area more permanent trees and shrubs may be put. This way of planting for shelter where bleak places are to be clothed with trees and shrubs is universally adopted in some form or other, sometimes in the shape of hedges or belts, and in the other cases the plants are all placed much thicker together than they are to permanently remain, thus forming a compact mass against which the wind makes little or no impression. In this last-named case continual thinning will be necessary as they grow up, for if left too long the plants become weak, and the advantage gained by the thicker planting is then completely lost. A beautiful seaside shrub, and the best, too, for forming shelter hedges of low or medium height is the Tamarisk, which retains its freshness throughout the season till the autumn, however much exposed to the sea. It is difficult to make a list of trees and shrubs suitable for seaside planting around the British Isles, as the coast-line is so varied, and the action of the Gulf Stream has great influence on the vegetation of many parts of our western coasts. As no hard and fast line can be drawn, the first list contains those trees and shrubs that may be regarded as thoroughly hardy, unless otherwise specified, and the second list those that are available for planting in the Isle of Wight, in the south and west of England, and in some parts of Ireland. [Illustration: _MAIDENHAIR TREE (Ginkgo biloba syn. Salisburia adiantifolia); FROGMORE._] TREES Acer platanoides (Norway Maple). ,, Pseudo-platanus (Sycamore). Alnus (Alder) of sorts. Will thrive only in damp places. Ash, Mountain. (See next page.) Betula alba (Birch) and varieties. Carpinus Betulus (Hornbeam). Cerasus _see_ Prunus. Cratægus (Thorn) of sorts. Cupressus macrocarpa (Monterey Cypress). Of rapid growth. Fagus sylvatica (Beech) and varieties. Fraxinus excelsior (Common Ash). F. Ornus (Flowering Ash). Ilex Aquifolium (Holly) and varieties. Laburnum. Pinus austriaca (Austrian Pine). One of the best Firs for bleak seaside places. ,, contorta (Twisted Pine). A small tree. ,, insignis (Grass-green Pine). More tender than the others. ,, Laricio (Corsican Pine). Equal to the Austrian Pine for seaside. ,, muricata (Prickly-coned Pine). A dwarf tree. ,, Pinaster (Cluster Pine). Delights in the neighbourhood of the sea. ,, montana (Mountain Pine). A shrub or small tree. Populus alba (Abele or White Poplar). All the Poplars grow quickly. ,, deltoidea (Canadian Poplar). ,, fastigiata (Lombardy Poplar). ,, nigra (Black Poplar). Prunus Avium, cerasifera (Cherry Plum). ,, Mahaleb. ,, Padus (Bird Cherry). ,, Pissardi (Purple-leaved Plum). Pyrus Aria (White Beam tree). ,, prunifolia (Siberian Crab). ,, Sorbus (Service tree). Quercus Cerris (Turkey Oak). Good loam suits this best. ,, Ilex (Evergreen or Holm Oak). Salix (Willow) of sorts. Prefer a moist soil. Ulmus (Elm) of sorts, particularly Wych Elm and an Elm known as Wheatley Elm. [Illustration: _MAIDENHAIR TREE AT KEW._] SHRUBS Atriplex Halimus (Sea Purslane). Will grow close to the water. Aucuba japonica (Aucuba). Few evergreens equal this. Berberis (Barberry), Aquifolium, Darwinii, buxifolia, and stenophylla. Buxus (Box) and its varieties. Cistus Gum. Does well at Felixstowe, Suffolk. Colutea arborescens (Bladder Senna). Will grow in very sandy soil. Corylus Avellana (Hazel) and varieties. Cotoneaster of sorts. All these are good for the purpose. Cytisus (Broom) of sorts. Daphne Laureola (Spurge Laurel). Will grow in shade. Deutzia crenata, D. crenata flore-pleno, D. gracilis, D. Lemoinei. Elæagnus of sorts. All of these are good. Euonymus europæus and E. latifolius (Spindle trees), and the evergreen E. japonicus and its varieties. This last is one of the most valuable evergreens, but it is rather tender. Ficus Carica (Common Fig). Forsythia suspensa. A charming rambling shrub. Fuchsias, particularly F. Riccartoni. Halimodendron argenteum (Siberian Salt tree). Hippophaë rhamnoides (Sea Buckthorn). The finest seaside shrub or small tree that we have; grows well in damp sands. Leycesteria formosa. Ligustrum (Privet) of sorts. Lycium chinense (Box Thorn). Olearia Haastii (Daisy bush). Osmanthus ilicifolius and varieties. Philadelphus (Mock Orange) of sorts. Phillyræa angustifolia, latifolia, media, and vilmoriniana. Prunus spinosa flore-pleno (Double-flowered Sloe). ,, Laurocerasus (Common Laurel). ,, lusitanica (Portugal Laurel). Pyrus japonica (Japan Quince). Ribes aureum (Golden-flowered Currant). ,, sanguineum (Flowering Currant) and varieties. Rosa. The different wild Roses and Rosa rugosa. Rubus (Bramble). The double-flowered and cut-leaved forms are very ornamental. Salix (Willow) of sorts. All prefer moist soil. Sambucus (Elder) of sorts. Skimmia japonica. Valuable for its bright-red berries. Spartium junceum (Spanish Broom). Will grow almost anywhere. Spiræa of sorts. There is a great variety of these beautiful flowering shrubs. Symphoricarpus racemosus (Snowberry). Syringa (Lilac) of sorts. Tamarix gallica and T. tetrandra. Delightful shrubs for seaside. Ulex europæus (Furze or Gorse), with the double-flowered and dwarf kinds. Viburnum Opulus and V. Opulus sterile (Snowball tree). Weigelas of sorts, particularly Abel Carrière, candida, and Eva Rathke. For the west of England and other very mild districts the following may be added:-- Aralia Sieboldii. Arbutus Unedo (Strawberry tree). Azara microphylla. Benthamia fragifera. Buddleia globosa. Ceanothus of sorts. Choisya ternata. Desfontainea spinosa. Escallonias of sorts. Fabiana imbricata. Fuchsias, hardy kinds. Garrya elliptica. Grevillea rosmarinifolia, G. sulphurea. Griselinia littoralis. Hydrangea Hortensia. Laurus nobilis (Sweet Bay). Myrtus communis (Myrtle). Pittosporum crassifolium. Rhamnus Alaternus and varieties. Veronicas of sorts. Viburnum Tinus (Laurustinus). CHAPTER XV TREES AND SHRUBS FOR WIND-SWEPT GARDENS Few trees and shrubs are happy in bleak and exposed gardens. The hardiest should be used to form a shelter belt, as every leaf and twig helps to break the force of the wind, whereas solid obstacles, such as walls, merely serve to divert its course. In planting spots much exposed to the wind, put the trees much closer than it is intended they should remain permanently, as the young plants serve to shelter one another, and encourage, therefore, a quicker growth. When they get crowded, gradually thin them out. The trees and shrubs should always come from exposed nurseries, as the growth is stout and sturdy. Growth made in warm valleys is more sappy. The following trees and shrubs can be depended upon in most windy places:-- TREES Acer platanoides (Norway Maple) and Acer Pseudo-platanus (Sycamore). While not equal to some of the trees mentioned, these Maples do well in many places and form a distinct feature. Betula alba (Common Birch). An extremely graceful tree and a universal favourite. Cratægus Oxyacantha (Hawthorn). The principal effect of exposure is to make the growth more stunted than would otherwise be the case. Fagus sylvatica (Beech). Long recognised as a good shelter tree, its value in this respect is increased by the fact that many leaves often shrivel on the branches instead of dropping, thus giving additional protection in winter. Fraxinus Excelsior (Ash). The wide-spreading roots of this anchor it securely in position, and the leaves do not weigh down the branches to any great extent. Ilex Aquifolium (Holly). Though of slow growth when young, this, when once established, grows away freely and is indifferent to wind. Larix europæa (Larch). This is well known as a nurse tree for bleak places. Picea (Abies) excelsa (Norway Spruce). One of our commonest Conifers, hence it is often used as a nurse tree for choicer subjects. Pinus austriaca (Austrian Fir). The best of all evergreens for bleak places; Pinus Cembra (Swiss Stone Pine), of slow growth, but very ornamental, and does not mind the wind. Pinus Laricio (Corsican Pine, or Black Pine). As indifferent to exposure as P. austriaca, P. montana (dwarf), and P. sylvestris (Scotch Fir), a well-known native, which often crowns high hill-tops. Populus alba (Abele), P. fastigiata (Lombardy Poplar), P. deltoidea (Canadian Poplar), P. nigra (Black Poplar), and P. tremula (Aspen). In low-lying districts all these Poplars are of rapid growth, but in exposed places they make much slower progress. Even then they grow quicker than most shelter plants, and are valuable for making an effective display more quickly than some of the more permanent subjects. These can all be readily cut back within reasonable limits if desired. Quercus Robur (Oak). Robinia Pseudacacia. The false Acacia is one of the best town trees we have; indeed, it does well almost everywhere. Salix alba (White Willow). This will pass unscathed through fierce storms. In fairly dry spots the rate of progress is much slower than in moister soil, but, as a set-off, the silvery hue of the foliage is more pronounced. Ulmus (Elm). The best of the Elms for this purpose is the Wych Elm, and one known as the Wheatley is also good. [Illustration: _VARIETY TENUIFOLIA OF CORSICAN PINE (Pinus Laricio)._] SHRUBS Atriplex Halimus (Sea Purslane). A silvery-leaved, free-growing shrub, indifferent to soil or situation. Berberis (the Barberry). The best of these are the strong-growing Berberis aristata, and the common Berberis vulgaris, with its several varieties. Colutea arborescens (Bladder Senna). The golden flowers in early summer and the large inflated seed-pods in autumn are both attractive. Cotoneaster buxifolia, Nummularia, and Simonsii. These are all pretty berry-bearing shrubs. Cytisus albus (White Broom), Cytisus scoparius (Yellow Broom), and its varieties. Deutzia crenata flore-pleno. A handsome flowering shrub and the most robust of its class. Euonymus europæus (Spindle tree). The fruits of this are very ornamental in the autumn. Halimodendron argenteum (Siberian Salt Bush). A pretty rambling shrub, with silvery leaves. Juniperus communis and J. Sabina (Savin). The fact that these Junipers are evergreen is a point in their favour. Ligustrum ovalifolium, ovalifolium elegantissimum, and vulgare. These Privets are well known for planting where the conditions are none too favourable. Lycium chinense (Box Thorn). A rambling shrub holding its own almost anywhere. [Illustration: _AVENUE OF ABIES NOBILIS GLAUCA AT MADRESFIELD COURT._ (_The avenue is quarter-mile long, planted in 1868; average height of trees 60 feet and 45 feet apart._)] Osmanthus of sorts. Holly-like evergreen shrubs. Philadelphus coronarius (Mock Orange). Though less showy than some others, this is decidedly the hardiest. Phillyræa decora (vilmoriniana). A valuable evergreen with deep-green, leathery leaves. Pinus (Mountain Pine). This member of the Fir family is but a shrub in stature. It is at home in bleak spots. Potentilla fruticosa (Shrubby Cinquefoil). A low shrub that produces its golden blossoms in July and August. Prunus Laurocerasus rotundifolia. One of the hardiest forms of the Common Laurel. Rosa canina (Dog Rose) and Rosa rubiginosa (Sweetbriar) are general favourites. Rubus (Bramble). The cut-leaved, the double white, and double pink are ornamental. Spartium junceum (Spanish Broom). However bleak, this will produce its comparatively large pea-shaped blossoms throughout the summer. Staphylea pinnata (Bladder Nut). The bladder-like seed-capsules are striking in the autumn. Symphoricarpus racemosus (Snowberry). Grows anywhere, and produces its large white berries in great profusion. Ulex europæa (Common Furze). The double form of this is remarkably showy. Viburnum Opulus (Guelder Rose). A pretty native shrub. [Illustration: _CEDRUS ATLANTICA GLAUCA AVENUE AT MADRESFIELD COURT._ (_Avenue is about quarter-mile long, planted in 1866. All seedling trees, hence some difference in growth and colour._)] CHAPTER XVI CONIFERS (INCLUDING PINES) IN ORNAMENTAL PLANTING Those who take a serious interest in their gardens and other planted grounds are so rapidly acquiring a better comprehension of the art in its wider aspects, and are so willingly receptive of further suggestion, that we emphasise a lesson that we have often tried to teach, namely, the importance of planting in large groups of one thing at a time, and of a right choice. There is no more common mistake made than that of planting just the wrong things in the wrong places. Thus we see plantations of Spruce on dry, sandy hill-tops, from whence the poor trees must look with longing eyes to their true home in the moist, alluvial soil of the valley-bottom below. In mixed plantations we see Conifers from many climes and all altitudes, all expected to do equally well in perhaps one small space of garden ground. If in a projected plantation there is space for only fifty trees, how much better it would be first to ascertain which out of a few kinds would be best suited to the soil and general conditions of the place, and then out of this selection to choose the one that best fits the planter's own liking and will be most in harmony with the further planting scheme that he has in view. In this way he will obtain that unity of effect that alone can make a garden or piece of planted ground pictorial and restful, and enable to serve as a becoming setting to the brightly-coloured flowering plants that will then show their proper value as jewels of the garden. [Illustration: _LIBOCEDRUS DECURRENS AT FROGMORE (about 65 feet high)._] In this restrained and sober use of trees, and especially of Conifers, it is well to plant them of several ages, the youngest to the outer edges of the groups. If there is plenty of space it will be all the better to plant the trees in hundreds rather than in fifties, or in any case in spaces large enough to see one whole picture of one good tree at a time. Where such a planting was wisely made from forty to sixty years ago how fine the effect is to-day, as in the case of the grand growth of Douglas Firs at Murthly. No one seeing so fine an example of the use of one tree at a time could wish that the plantation had been mixed, or could be otherwise than deeply impressed with the desirability of the plan. One such large group can always be made to merge into another by intergrouping at the edges, beginning by an isolated tree of group B in the further portion of group A, then a group of two or three of B, until the process is reversed and the group is all of B, with single ones of A giving place to all B. There is no reason why the same principle should not be used with two or three kinds of combined grouping, but then it should be of trees harmonious among themselves, as of Spruce and Silver Fir, or of such things as represent the natural mixture of indigenous growth. Thus the Yew, Box, Viburnum, Dogwood, Privet, and Thorn of a wild chalky waste might be taken as a guide to planting some of these with nearly allied foreign kinds. But the important thing in all such planting is to have the satisfactory restfulness and beauty of harmony that can only be obtained by the right and limited choice of material. Although a few Conifers are deciduous, such as the Maidenhair tree (_Ginkgo biloba_), _Taxodium distichum_, the Golden Larch (_Pseudolarix Kæmpferi_), and the true Larches, the great bulk of the family consists of evergreens. It is to the Coniferæ, indeed, that belong the only hardy evergreen trees which in stature and size rival the large deciduous trees of cool temperate latitudes. Although our only native Conifers are the Yew, the Scotch Pine, and the Juniper, there is a sufficient variety of soil and climate within the limits of the British Isles to provide suitable conditions for nearly the whole of the family. It is only a few sub-tropical species that cannot be accommodated. This does not imply that the whole of the hardy Conifers can be grown satisfactorily in any one place. In even the best Conifer localities there are some species that will not reach perfection, and in the general run of gardens there is a considerable proportion of species about which the same must be said. This fact, however, has often been overlooked. The extreme popularity of Conifers, which was at its height from forty to fifty years ago, undoubtedly led to the enriching of the parks and gardens of this country with what are now, in many instances, magnificent specimens. To realise how great that enrichment was, one has only to mention such places as Dropmore, Murthly Castle, Ochtertyre. But Conifer planting, from both artistic and merely cultural points of view, was overdone. Conifers began to fill an undue proportion of space in gardens, and displaced to a large extent the beautiful flower-bearing deciduous vegetation whose seasonable variations give such charm and interest. With all their symmetry and richness of hue, the popular species of Abies and Picea often have a heavy, even sombre, aspect. Heavy masses of Pine, Spruce, and Fir can never give that changing aspect in the landscape that comes with deciduous vegetation. The tender tints of spring, the flowers, the gold and purple of autumn, it is to these that the seasons of our northern latitudes owe their greatest delights. Perhaps the worst of all the uses to which Conifers have been put is that of forming long avenues across parks. It is difficult to understand the frame of mind that would prefer rows of _Araucaria_, _Abies nobilis_, or other similar things--however well grown and pyramidal they might be--to a noble vista of Chestnut, Oak, or Lime, with its canopy of branch and foliage overhead. Conifers can, however, be used effectively for forming short avenues within the garden itself, especially in the more trimly-kept parts. The practice that is frequently adopted of forming a pinetum and bringing together the members of this family in one part of the grounds is a very good one. It is far better than sprinkling them indiscriminately over the whole garden. At the same time, where sufficient space is not available for the formation of a pinetum they may be used in their proper proportion with other evergreens in various parts of the garden. Single specimens on lawns of Abies, Picea, and of many other genera are always effective, and nothing in the whole range of native or foreign trees is more stately and picturesque than the Cedar of Lebanon. How much do we of the present day owe to those who a century or more ago planted this tree so abundantly in this country! Before planting Conifers largely in any garden where they are to be grown for their purely ornamental qualities, a study should be made of the species planted in other gardens where the conditions as to soil, moisture, and altitude are similar. On the peaty formations in Surrey and Hampshire where Rhododendrons succeed so well, many Conifers thrive exceedingly well also. The Common Spruce and its allies are nearly all failures on light dry soil, especially where the subsoil is gravel. In places, however, where the Spruces fail, the Common Larch and the Lawson Cypress succeed well. In chalk districts many Conifers refuse to grow, but the following are among those that thrive: _Abies magnifica_, _A. nobilis_, _A. nordmanniana_, and _A. Pinsapo_, the Cedars, _Cupressus lawsoniana_, _C. macrocarpa_, and _C. nootkatensis_, the Maidenhair tree, the Junipers, the Thuyas, the Yews, and the following Pines: _Pinus Laricio_ and _P. austriaca_, the Scotch Pine, _P. excelsa_, and _P. Pinaster_. Most of the Pines, too, are happy on gravelly or stony ground. None of the Silver Firs (_Abies_) or Spruces (_Picea_) are good trees for planting at the seaside, unless there is sufficient shelter to break the force of the wind, and even then there are very few that will succeed. The species most suitable for planting where there is a thick outer belt are _Abies nobilis_, _A. concolor_, _A. nordmanniana_, and _A. pectinata_, the Common Silver Fir. Of the Spruces, _Picea nigra_ and _P. alba_, the North American Spruces, succeed better than the Norway Spruce, _P. excelsa_, but these, like the Silver Firs, must have the shelter of a good wind break; _Picea pungens_, _P. pungens glauca_, and _P. Engelmanni_ will not succeed in exposed places, even in inland localities, and fail entirely by the sea. There is a difference of opinion about _Engelmanni_. In some places it seems to stand winds well. The Conifers that will thrive by the sea are very few, and probably not more than half-a-dozen kinds can be trusted. The finest of all is undoubtedly _Pinus Pinaster_, which is essentially a sea-coast Pine, revelling in storms and sprays. For warmer parts, is the Aleppo Pine (_P. halepensis_), but is only for southern and warm coasts. _P. insignis_ is somewhat tender, but stands the sea gales fairly well, and _P. austriaca_, and its relative, _P. Laricio_, are both excellent, specially for making the first barrier against the winds. The hardy Scotch Pine (_P. sylvestris_), if planted in large masses, grows well, but does not luxuriate close to the sea, and is especially liable to be browned in foliage by the salt spray. Besides the Pines, one of the finest of Conifers is the Monterey Cypress (_Cupressus macrocarpa_), which is hardy everywhere on the coast in these islands; it grows finer than it does in its home on the Pacific coast. It makes a fine front barrier against the wind, especially when mixed with the foregoing Pines. The variety _C. lambertiana_ is also excellent. There are two other Conifers which, though not much planted by the sea-coast, will, we believe, prove reliable; these are _Cedrus atlantica_ and _Thuya gigantea_ (sometimes called _T. Lobbii_). A third Conifer that we have seen doing well by the sea is _Abies Pinsapo_, but it must have a temporary shelter in its small state. This subject of seaside planting--the most difficult in a tree planter's practice--is an important one, and it is only possible to treat the matter generally. The Conifer family is especially noteworthy for the way many of its species vary. Not only is this propensity evidenced in such characters as the colour of the leaf and the differences in habit; it shows itself more remarkably sometimes in the form and texture of the leaf and mode of branching. So great is the difference between some forms of certain species of Conifers that they have been placed in different genera. What are generally known as Retinosporas, for instance, are really nothing more than forms, "states" the botanists term them, assumed by various species of Thuya and Cupressus. Strictly speaking, _Retinospora_ has no separate existence as a genus. This, however, is a botanical phase of the matter. Horticulturally we are more concerned with such variations as adapt the plants to various garden purposes. Many quaint and dainty forms of large trees are very suitable for the rock-garden in association with other alpine plants. The Common Spruce, for instance, has given birth to many pigmy forms. The Yew, the Scotch Pine, and various others have "sported" in a similar way. But no hardy tree varies so much, perhaps, as the Lawson Cypress when raised from seed. The species has assumed almost every shade of colour that Conifers do assume, and every form of growth. Beautiful golden, variegated, pendulous, and erect varieties have been raised, and not only from the Lawson Cypress, but from many other Conifers also. The Golden Yews, the yellow form of the Monterey Cypress, and the golden variety of the Scotch Pine, may be recommended to those who require this colour, although in the Pine it only shows itself in winter. The blue-white or glaucous hue that is more or less present in most Conifers, shows itself most conspicuously in the Blue Spruce (_Picea pungens glauca_), in _Cedrus atlantica glauca_, in the new Cork Fir from Arizona (_Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonica_), and in _Abies concolor violacea_. THE PROPAGATION OF CONIFERS Many mistakes have been made in propagating the Coniferæ, and to make matters still worse, the old erroneous doctrines are still preached and practised. The unpopularity of certain species of Abies, Picea, and Pinus is due to a great extent to the practice of grafting them on unsuitable stocks. For instance, the species of Abies are worked on _A. pectinata_, of Picea on _P. excelsa_, and of Pinus on _P. sylvestris_ or _P. Laricio_. The varieties of _P. excelsa_ are worked on that species. _P. excelsa_ is _not_ used for the other forms of spruce Firs to any great extent. In addition to this, such methods and stocks are still spoken of as the correct ones to use; though, to take one genus alone, what kind of a specimen _Abies bracteata_, _A. nobilis_, or _A. concolor_ would make in twenty years' time if worked on _A. pectinata_ we should not like to say--certainly very poor, even if they lived, which is doubtful. These are nearly always raised from imported seeds. It may be laid down as a law that _species_ of Coniferæ should never be grafted but raised from seed, which can always be obtained through English firms. With varietal forms of Coniferæ that will not come true from seed or that cannot be struck as cuttings, grafting must be resorted to, and if young plants of the type species are used as stocks the results will be fairly satisfactory. In the case of some of the more highly variegated Cupressus, &c., grafting is really the best method of propagation, as these forms are mostly of weak constitution and are not satisfactory from cuttings. In the following list the best methods of propagation are given with each genus, together with special mention of those forms which are of indifferent growth though not difficult to propagate:-- JUNIPERUS.--The Junipers should be raised from seeds, though some of them do fairly well if propagated by cuttings. The green and glaucous varieties of _J. chinensis_, _J. excelsa_, _J. virginiana_, and _J. communis_ root easily from cuttings, or can be layered with success. The variegated forms are best grafted on stocks of the species they belong to, and _J. Sabina_ (the Savin) and its varieties are easily raised from cuttings or layers, the latter being a very easy way of propagating them. CUPRESSUS.--This genus is divided into two sections, viz., the true Cypresses, represented by _C. macrocarpa_, _C. sempervirens_, &c., and Chamæcyparis, of which _Cupressus lawsoniana_ is the best known species. With the former section seeds are the best means of reproducing the species, while the few varieties should be grafted on stocks of the parent species. The handsome _C. macrocarpa var. lutea_ especially should be worked on the type, as it is practically a failure from cuttings, and if grafted on _C. lawsoniana_, as is sometimes done, it makes a short, stumpy bush instead of a typically tall columnar tree. In the Chamæcyparis section _Cupressus lawsoniana_, _C. nootkatensis_, _C. obtusa_, _C. pisifera_, and _C. thyoides_ are the only species, though there are a host of varieties attached to them, the forms of the three latter species, in fact, including all the various plants more commonly known under the generic title of Retinospora. The species should be raised from seed, which is easily obtainable and germinates readily, or in default they will root from cuttings. The varieties, with a few exceptions, are quickly propagated by cuttings, those that require to be grafted being _C. lawsoniana var. lutea_, the variegated forms of _C. nootkatensis_, and _C. obtusa vars. nana_, _nana aurea_, and _filifera aurea_. The forms of _C. thyoides_ also do well when raised from layers. We must not omit also such varieties of _C. lawsoniana_ as _Fraseri_, _Allumi_, and one known in nurseries as Milford Blue Jacket. THUYA.--These are propagated in much the same way as the Cupressus, viz., the species by seeds, and the varieties by cuttings or by grafting in the case of the one or two highly variegated forms. Some of the green or glaucous varieties of both Cupressus and Thuya will come fairly true from seed, from 40 per cent. to 70 per cent. being the usual quantity of seedlings true to name. Variegated forms from seed either come green or a mongrel mixture of green and variegated. LIBOCEDRUS.--This should be raised from seed, as when grafted on _Thuya orientalis_--a too common method of propagation--it makes a miserable specimen. The middle pair of scales in the cone of Libocedrus alone contain fertile seeds. _L. doniana_ is a tender species. SCIADOPITYS and TAXODIUM.--These can only be propagated by seeds, and the young plants should have a fairly moist position with plenty of leaf-mould or peat to grow in afterwards. SEQUOIA.--The two species of Sequoia should be raised from seed, and the three or four varieties be grafted on the type species. CRYPTOMERIA.--This only contains one species, viz., _C. japonica_, which can only be obtained from seed, or by cuttings; and the varieties root readily as cuttings, though one or two of the weaklier ones do better if grafted on _C. japonica_. ARAUCARIA.--Propagate by seeds, which, though sometimes difficult to obtain, germinate freely and quickly. TSUGA.--The Hemlock Spruces are easily and quickly obtained from seeds, and one or two will strike from cuttings; the varieties do best when grafted on the species they belong to, though _T. pattoniana var. glauca_, more commonly known as _Abies hookeriana_, will come fairly true from seed, about 75 per cent. being the usual quantity if the seed is obtained from good plants. PICEA.--This genus has been mentioned before as being commonly grafted on _P. excelsa_ (the Common Spruce), which is an easy way of obtaining young plants, which, however, cannot be recommended to form good specimens in after years. The species of Picea should all be raised from seed, and the many named varieties of _P. excelsa_ should be grafted on the parent species. At least one-half the plants of _P. Engelmanni var. glauca_ and _P. pungens var. glauca_ (the Californian Blue Spruce) will be found true to name when raised from seeds, while their superiority afterwards over grafted plants is evident. CEDRUS, LARIX, AND PSEUDOLARIX.--It should always be remembered that these three are quite distinct genera, and for purposes of propagation should never be used in conjunction with each other, the first being evergreen and the two latter deciduous. The species of all three should be raised from seed; the varieties of Cedrus should be grafted on that genus, the forms of Larix on the Larch, though the geographical forms of the Common Larch, such as _var. rossica_ and _var. sibirica_, usually come true from seed. _Larix leptolepis_ (Japanese Larch) is one of the most beautiful trees ever introduced from Japan; it is charming both in summer and winter. _Pseudolarix Kæmpferi_ (Golden Larch), the only representative of the genus, must be raised from seed; it is generally raised by grafting in February under glass on stocks of the common Larch. ABIES.--In this genus some of the most handsome Conifers are found, and also some of the most difficult to grow. All the Abies should be propagated by seeds, but if seed of the varieties cannot be obtained then they must be grafted on the parent species. PSEUDOTSUGA.--This genus only contains one species, viz., _P. Douglasii_ (the Douglas Fir), which is propagated readily by seed, the seedlings being of rapid growth and soon form good plants. The few varieties are grafted on the type, though the majority will come fairly true from seed, which, however, is not always to be obtained. PINUS.--Perhaps no Conifer adds so much to the beauty of the landscape in winter as the Pine. All the species should be raised from seeds, and any green or glaucous varieties can also be propagated in the same way if seeds can be obtained. The golden, dwarf, and variegated Pines must be grafted on the species they are varieties of. TAXACEÆ.--This group is usually associated with Coniferæ, from which it differs chiefly by the seed being nearly or quite enclosed in a fleshy envelope instead of in a cone, the fruit of some resembling a small Plum, but a typical fruit is seen in that of the Common Yew. The hardy genera are _Ginkgo biloba_ (the Maidenhair tree), which is propagated from seed--the plant is deciduous and slow growing; Cephalotaxus and Torreya are propagated by seeds, cuttings, or layers. TAXUS (the Yew).--There are only three or four species of Taxus, but there are a great many varieties of the Common Yew, many being very handsome. The species are easily raised from seeds, layers, or cuttings. The first two methods are the best, cuttings being very slow in growth, but as seed is very plentiful in most years this is the quickest and best means of propagation. Some of the varieties will come true from seed; the Irish Yew, however, must be struck from cuttings, as seedlings never come true. The more highly variegated Yews grow quickest when grafted on the Common Yew, and as they always keep good in after years this method can for once be recommended. A very good species for a lawn is _T. cuspidata_; it is strong in growth and spreading. Propagate PRUMNOPITYS and SAXEGOTHEA by seeds, cuttings, or layers. CONIFERS AT MURTHLY CASTLE, PERTHSHIRE [Illustration: _AVENUE OF ANCIENT YEWS AT MURTHLY._] The following account of a great Conifer garden in Scotland is important, as showing how certain of the better-known species have behaved during the last fifty years or so. It is taken from the _Garden_ of May 19, 1900:-- The second quarter of the present century saw the introduction of a large number of Conifers hitherto unknown to English gardens. Their cultivation was eagerly taken up, and especially in Scotland, a land whose general conditions seem highly favourable to a considerable number of species, much success has been attained. It may still be premature to state with any degree of assurance what may be the ultimate suitability of many of these Conifers for growth in our islands. The lifetime of a tree is not comprised within its first sixty years, and such a length of time is all too short to prove the ultimate success of any new tree, though within that space it may come to a magnificent size and apparent promise. Such a state is shown by the splendid Douglas Firs in the grounds of Murthly Castle, Perthshire, where also many another exotic Conifer is grown in quantity. These words of Sir William Thiselton-Dyer, that formed part of his opening address on the second day of the Conifer conference of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1891, may here be quoted:-- "Any one who had not travelled in Scotland could form no idea of the extent to which rare Conifers were cultivated in that country, and the splendid development which they attained. The chairman, by way of illustrating these remarks, directed the attention of the audience to some large photographs representing specimens of Coniferæ to be seen at Murthly Castle, Perthshire, where they flourished, and where stately and magnificent examples 70 feet, 80 feet, and 100 feet high were to be met with. Such trees could only be seen in Scotland, and were the result of a peculiar association of physical conditions. In the south-west of England it was impossible to find a parallel, though even on the sunburnt soil of Kew good specimens of the Pines proper were occasionally to be seen. With regard to the Abies, however--that section of Conifers of which the Spruces may be taken as a type--a state of things prevailed in Scotland which could not be rivalled in England. On the other hand, the climate in the south-west of the latter country was fairly suitable for some other Conifers, and many of the fine Mexican Pines could be grown there." Of the remarkable Douglas Fir at Dropmore, Mr. Charles Herrin on the same occasion says: "The monarch Douglas Fir, planted in 1830, has attained a height of 120 feet, girth of trunk 11 feet 9 inches, with beautiful spreading branches sweeping the ground, covering a diameter of 64 feet. The leaves are also of a glaucous hue, equalling in that respect many of the plants now sold from nurseries under the name of _Douglasi glauca_.... Many trees have since been raised from its seeds and planted out on the estate; one, planted in 1843, is now 78 feet high, with a girth of trunk of 8 feet 2 inches, spreading 39 feet in diameter at base; a perfect specimen." By comparing the growth of the latter tree with the Murthly table, it will be seen that the trees make their growth much more rapidly in Scotland. The Murthly Conifers were all planted by Sir William and Sir Douglas Stewart. The present owner, Mr. Steuart Fothringham, who measured the trees in 1891 in anticipation of the visit of the Scottish Arboricultural Society, on learning that we should be glad to know their increase of growth since that date, has been so good as to have the same trees measured again, the increase being shown by the subjoined table on p. 128. Mr. Fothringham also furnishes the following remarks: "The measurements were all carefully taken by sending men or boys up the trees, not by dendrometers, and are, I believe, correct. There are something like eighty or a hundred different varieties growing at Murthly, but some of them are young and only experiments. Those measured and noted are the most striking; they are nearly all growing in large numbers. The remarks appended to the table are made by Mr. James Laurie, the gardener, who knows Conifers well. The only additional notes I have made are the following: _Picea sitchensis_ will never, in my opinion, supplant the Spruce. _Picea orientalis_ is not as free-growing as the Spruce, but quite as hardy. _Araucaria imbricata._--Many of these were damaged by severe frost. _Cedrus Deodara_ will not, in my opinion, live to great age in our climate. _Cupressus thyoides._--This particular tree was so much broken by branches blown off its neighbour that I cut it down. _Pinus monticola_ has been attacked by a parasitic growth that is likely to destroy all the young growth and probably the trees. _Juniperus recurva_ was severely injured by the hard frost. By the hard frost I mean the winter of 1894-5. In February 1895, the thermometer was for several days below 0 Fahr., and on one night went to 11° below 0. This shows that all these trees will stand great cold at the time of year that it is likely to come, but late frosts in spring, when the sap has begun to rise, are detrimental to the young shoots of those that start their growth early in the season. There are at Murthly, besides Coniferæ, fine specimens of Yews, Oaks, Beech, Spanish Chestnut, Horse Chestnut, and Sycamore." Key: A - Height. B - Girth at 5 feet. C - Spread of Branches. ---------------------------------------+-------------------+-------------------- | August 11, 1892. | March 24, 1900. +------+------+-----+-------+------+----- | A | B | C | A | B | C +------+------+-----+-------+------+----- Wellingtonia, planted 1857[a] | 66.6 | 9.3 | 26 | 74.11| 10.7 | 28 Picea sitchensis, planted 1845[b] | 91.9 | 9.7 | 45 | 105.10| 11.3 | ... Pinus monticola, planted 1850[c] | 67 | 5.6 | 18 | 79.2 | 6.2 | 22 Araucaria imbricata, planted 1847[d] | 42.6 | 4 | 9 | 51 | 4.8 | 9.8 Abies Pinsapo, planted 1847 | 34.8 | 6.6 | ...| 42.6 | 7.10| ... ,, magnifica, planted 1867 | 31.9 | 2.7 | 9 | 43.3 | 3.8 | 11 Pseudotsuga Douglasi, planted 1847[e] | 86.6 | 8.10| 24 | 97.4 | 9.10| 27 Abies grandis, planted 1852 | 64.2 | 4.8 | 22.6| 79.10| 6.10| 35.8 Tsuga albertiana, planted 1860 | 56 | 5.5 | 32 | 72.1 | 6.4 | 40 Abies nobilis, planted 1847 | 75.4 | 6.1 | ...| 92.8 | 6.6 | ... ,, nordmanniana, planted 1854 | 58.6 | 4 | ...| 74 | 4.9 | ... Tsuga hookeriana, planted 1862[f] | 30 | 4 | 15 | 39.6 | 4 | 15.4 Cedrus Deodara, planted 1842[g] | 51.3 | 6.8 | 26 | 61.2 | 7.4 | 36 ,, Libani[h] | 65.10| 11.8 | ...| 67 | 12.5 | ... Cryptomeria japonica, planted 1852 | 36.3 | 4.2 | 26 | 41.7 | 4.3 | ... Libocedrus decurrens[i] | 34.8 | 3.6 | 10 | 38 | 4.5 | 14 Thuya gigantea, planted 1862 | 46 | 3.6 | 21 | 57 | 3.7 | ... Cupressus lawsoniana, planted 1859[j] | ... | ... | ...| 48.7 | 4.2 | ... Spanish Chestnut | ... | ... | ...| ... | 17.10| ... ,, ,, [k] | ... | ... | ...| ... | 19.2 | ... Silver Fir[l] | ... | ... | ...| 90 | 11.3 | ... Cupressus lawsoniana erecta viridis | ... | ... | ...| 25 | 2.8 | 7 Picea ajanensis, planted 1885 | ... | ... | ...| 24 | 1.7 | 10.6 Abies brachyphylla, planted 1885[m] | ... | ... | ...| 14 | ... | 9.7 ,, Veitchii, planted 1885[n] | ... | ... | ...| 20.9 | 1.4 | 10.2 ,, amabilis, planted 1885 | ... | ... | ...| 14.11| ... | 9.5 ,, concolor violacea, planted 1885 | ... | ... | ...| 20.1 | 1.5 | 14.9 English Yew[o] | ... | ... | ...| 30 | 14.3 | 80 English Yew | ... | ... | ...| ... | 10.8 | ... Tsuga albertiana (at Roman Bridge)[p] | ... | ... | ...| 75 | 4.3 | ... Picea orientalis, planted 1852 | 30 | 2.7 | ...| 49 | 3 | ... ,, morinda, planted 1857 | 47 | ... | ...| ... | ... | ... Pinus Jeffreyi | ... | ... | ...| 57 | 4.9 | ... ---------------------------------------+------+------+-----+-------+------+----- FOOTNOTES: [a] At the ground this tree measures 16.9; cones freely. [b] There are six others about the same size, and all are growing freely. [c] Most of these have lately got a fungoid disease, viz., peridendrum. [d] Many of these lost branches, and some were killed by frost in 1894-5. They cone freely, and young ones are growing from seed. [e] A great many others about the same size, and all perfectly healthy. [f] A beautiful tree quite distinct from the others; long, drooping branches. [g] About sixty trees growing in the grounds averaging 50 cubic feet. [h] Age unknown, but probably not less than 150 years. [i] Probably thirty-five to forty years of age. [j] Two trees, recently taken out, measured 12 cubic feet and 14 cubic feet. [k] At ground this tree measures 29 feet. [l] Inclined to go back. [m] Will become a handsome tree. Coned last year. Some fertile. [n] Very apt to lose its leader either by birds or wind. Coned last year. [o] Very old; possibly 500 years. Many others of the same age and size. [p] Quite a different form from the others, the lower branches being quite table-form. CHAPTER XVII CARE OF OLD TREES The charm of many an estate is not the garden or the woodland, but the monarchs that for years have weathered the winter storm and stand out as noble specimens of their family. Often there are fine trees of rarer species which their owners naturally wish to preserve from decay as long as possible. Belonging to this class are numerous specimens scattered over the country of American and other foreign trees that were amongst the first of their kind to be introduced to Britain, such, for instance, as the Tulip tree, the Robinia, and various oaks from America, the Sophora from China, and various European trees. The trees may have some historic associations, but whether this is so or not, when they begin to decay efforts are made to save them from absolute death. Decay is harmful and objectionable in park and garden, and we are not sure that this matter of decay in trees has been so well considered as it might be, as bearing upon the health of other trees and of mankind also. A tree may be picturesque in decay, but we prefer it in health and beauty. Experts are frequently asked for remedies to arrest decay in old trees. The two principal causes of decay are starvation at the root and injury by storms and disease. Such trees as the Beech and Horse Chestnut, that root close to the surface of the soil--quite different from the Oak--may often be invigorated by covering the ground with a few inches of good soil or short manure. Artificial watering, during prolonged drought, when thoroughly done, is also very helpful to the tree. Trees with large crowns of branches are frequently seen thinly furnished with foliage, and altogether sickly owing to unhealthy or insufficient roots. The balance between top and bottom has been destroyed. To restore it in some degree the top-growth may be reduced by pruning out and shortening back branches here and there, wherever it can be done without spoiling the appearance of the tree. This demands careful judgment, but some old and sickly trees may certainly be restored in a measure by this help. It is of no value in the case of trees with decayed trunks, nor with those like our Common Oak, which will not break readily from old wood. But Elms, Robinias, and Red Oaks are among those that respond to this treatment. Old trees with insecure branches can often be saved from destruction by fastening the main branches together on to the trunk. The common practice of putting an iron collar round the branch is a mistake. The iron prevents the branch expanding naturally, and ultimately chokes it. A better way is to use a strong iron rod with a plate at the end, and instead of supporting the branch by encircling it, a hole is bored right through the centre of it, through which the rod is pushed from the outer side. The rod should be of tough iron or steel, and should exactly fit the hole bored by the augur; the portions embedded in the wood should be smeared with coal tar before they are pushed through, so as to make the holes as nearly as possible air and water-tight. One end of the rod should be "threaded" sufficiently to allow of the limbs being braced slightly by screwing up the nut, and thus supporting some of their weight. Finally, the bark should be neatly cut away so as to let in each of the iron plates closer to the living wood, for by this means the time required for closing over the plate by new wood is shortened. In this way the weight is borne by the iron plate, which should, by removing sufficient bark, be allowed to fit close in to the wood. New bark will gradually close over and hide the plate, and instead of an ugly collar cutting into the wood, the only evidence of artificial aid is the rod coming from the inner side of the branch. Branches or snags that have to be removed should be sawn off quite close to the trunk or larger branch from which they spring. When a stump, even not more than a few inches long, is left, the new bark and wood are unable to close over it, and the wood ultimately decays and acts as a medium for moisture and fungoid diseases. The saw should travel from point A to B, as in the sketch. When a stump is left (as would be done by sawing off at C D) decay sets in sooner or later. Although the tree often succeeds in healing over the dead part, it more often fails to do so until the decay has reached the trunk itself. With the softer-wooded trees like the Horse-Chestnuts disease frequently reaches the heart of the tree quickly by these means. A coating of liquid tar over the wound, renewed once or twice until the new bark has closed over, is a sure protection against these evils. A good deal may be done in the early training of a tree to so control its building up that it may best withstand the violence of gales. And the most important matter in this connexion is the development of a strong erect trunk, a central axis of such height and strength and bulk as to be capable of supporting its head of branches easily. In other words the leading shoot should always be watched, and, by the repression of any rival leaders that may appear, allowed to retain its predominance. In the best English nurseries only trees with good "leads" are sent out. [Illustration: When a broken stump, such as is here shown, has to be sawn off, the proper place to amputate it is from A to B; the wrong place from C to D.] Trees decayed in the centre, with only an outer layer of healthy wood, are, of course, doomed, but by filling up all holes in the earlier stages of decay, and thus keeping out moisture, their term of life can be lengthened by many years. Holes made by woodpeckers can sometimes be plugged up with a piece of Oak. This, if left on a level with the bark, will often enable the latter to close over the hole. Large holes may be filled with cement, or even built up with bricks, the surface being made water-tight and tarred over. CHAPTER XVIII TREES AND SHRUBS FOR WATERSIDE Many of the brightest garden pictures at the present day are by the well-planted pond or lakeside, where shrubs of large growth are grouped to give colour through summer and winter. The wild plants of the riverside are in themselves for the most part large of stature and important of appearance. When one sees the upright growth and large leaves of the Great Water Dock (Rumex) and the broad round ones (2 feet or more across) of the Butter-Bur (Petasites), and the beds of the Common Reed (Phragmites), 8 to 10 feet high, with its great brown-black plumes, and the curious bright-green Horsetail (Equisetum), and the rosy banks of Willow-herb and Loose-strife, and the calm wide breadths of the white Water Lily in the still backwaters; when we see all these lessons that Nature teaches by the riverside we perceive that for the best of good effect of waterside gardening we need not be afraid of planting things of bold growth largely. [Illustration: _ALDERS NEAR WATER (Catkin time)._] When we come to garden plants there are many families that are never so happy as when close to water, or in soil that always feels the cool, moistening influence of water within a few feet below them. Such are the whole range of the larger herbaceous Spiræas, some of them plants of great size. Then we have the Thalictrums, the autumn-flowering Phloxes, the stately Heracleum; Telekia, Bamboos, _Arundo Donax_, the Swamp and Meadow Lilies of the northern states of America; and coming to smaller though scarcely less important plants, the Scarlet Lobelias, Oriental Poppies, many Irises, the Michaelmas Daisies, and Day Lilies; all these thrive by the waterside. [Illustration: _WHITE WILLOW (Salix alba) BY WATERSIDE._] There are many shrubs that prefer a moist place, such as the Guelder Rose and the beautiful North American Halesia, Quinces, Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and Kalmias, while the lovely Fritillaries, Globe-flowers, and the double Cuckoo-flowers love damp grassy spaces. We think we may safely advise those who are making gardens by river or lake to go forward and plant with confidence, only selecting such things as are mentioned below. As the things named are described elsewhere in this book a list only is given. TREES AND SHRUBS FOR SWAMPY PLACES Willows (Salix) in great variety: _S. alba_ (White Willow), _S. babylonica_ (Babylonian Weeping Willow), _S. purpurea_, _S. p. pendula_ (American Weeping Willow), _S. Caprea_, _S. C. pendula_, the fine Kilmarnock Willow, Cardinal Willow and Golden Willow--both these are very beautiful in winter; the stems of the former are crimson, and of the latter golden yellow, and make a remarkable picture of intense colouring; plant them in large groups--_S. daphnoides_ (the White-stemmed Willow), _S. fragilis_ (Crack Willow), _S. f. basfordiana_ (Red-barked Willow), and _S. hippophaifolia_ (Sea Buckthorn-leaved Willow). _Populus alba_ (White Poplar), _P. deltoidea_ (Canadian Poplar), _P. nigra_ (Black Poplar), Lombardy Poplar, and _P. tremula_ (the Aspen). But the Poplars must not be overdone, and by pond or lakeside are often out of place. In such places the Cardinal and Yellow-barked Willow, Sea Buckthorn, and similar shrubs are more appropriate. Common Alder, with its many varieties--Cut-leaved, the Golden-leaved, and such as _Alnus incana_ and _A. serrulata_. _Taxodium distichum_ (Deciduous Cypress); tender green in spring and brownish red in autumn, when the leaves change colour. _Hippophaë rhamnoides_ (the Sea Buckthorn). [Illustration: _NATURAL TREE GROWTH BY WATER (Burnham Beeches.)_] TREES AND SHRUBS FOR MOIST (BUT NOT SWAMPY) SOIL _Berberis Darwinii_ (Darwin's Barberry), _B. Thunbergi_ (for its beautiful autumn leaf-colouring), Birch, Dogwoods, _Cornus alba_ and varieties; the variety _sibirica_ has brilliant-red stems. _Cotoneaster buxifolia_, _C. frigida_, _C. Nummularia_, _C. Simonsii_; Ash, _Myrica Gale_ (Sweet Gale) and _M. asplenifolia_; _Ledum palustre_, _Nyssa sylvatica_ (Tupelo tree), Mountain Ash, _Quercus aquatica_ (Water Oak), _Q. palustris_ (Swamp Oak); _Rhamnus Frangula_ (Buckthorn). Roses with brightly-coloured hips--_Rubus biflorus_ (White-stemmed Bramble), _R. fruticosus fl. pl._ (Double Pink Bramble). _R. laciniatus_ (Cut-leaved Bramble), _R. spectabilis_ (Salmon Berry). _Sambucus racemosa_ (Red-berried Elder), _Spiræa Douglasii_, _S. hypericifolia_, _S. lindleyana_; Tamarisk. _Viburnum Opulus_ (Guelder Rose); when this native shrub is weighed down with the rich red berry-clusters, it is a remarkable colour picture, and the autumn leaf tints add to its beauty. Of Conifers, mention may be made of _Tsuga canadensis_, _Picea sitchensis_, _Cupressus thyoides_, and _Thuya gigantea_. Bamboos: Select those of robust growth, such as _Arundinaria japonica_ (_Bambusa Metake_), _A. Simoni_, _A. Veitchii_, and _A. palmata_; _Phyllostachys viridi-glaucescens_ and _P. mitis_. [Illustration: _WILLOWS BY WATERSIDE._] CHAPTER XIX TREES AND SHRUBS FOR THE ROCK GARDEN If we think of the changes in gardening terms which have occurred during the last quarter of a century, there is surely significance in the gradual transition from the Rock Garden or Alpine Garden into the more imposing Rock Garden of our present-day language. It points to the bolder grouping--now happily adopted in most good gardens and more in accordance with Nature's pattern--which includes evergreen and flowering shrubs as well as the close-growing alpine plants, gem-like in their brilliant colours, which in earlier days were alone considered suitable for the purpose. The principle is now generally recognised that the "unstudied picturesqueness of Nature may be brought into the rule and line ordering of our gardens," and the better construction and government of the Rock Garden gives greater scope for the carrying out of this worthy effort. In enumerating suitable shrubs for the Rock Garden, more than ordinary care should be exercised in their selection, in view of the greater difficulty of rectifying mistakes in such positions. We must not be led away by the beauty of a shrub, for instance, during its time of flowering alone, without considering its character at other seasons and its adaptability to its special surroundings. A due sense of proportion will also hold us back from planting a spreading, hungry-natured shrub in limited space, or where it would rob and over-run more valuable but weaker plants. Such considerations as these must be left to the planter who, in his turn, must be guided by the incidental circumstances of his particular locality. It is only possible here to set down some of the best shrubs available for the purpose, and to indicate, in a very general way, the positions for which they are suitable. Occasionally, where there is ample space, a deciduous tree of low growth may be planted to great advantage. Not long ago, in a picturesque district bordering on Western Germany, a mental note was made of the excellent effect of Wild Medlar trees, scarcely more than good-sized bushes, growing about the boulders and overhanging the edge of quarried rocks. The white flowers in spring, and the fine form and tint of the russet-brown fruit as it gradually swells during the summer months, give this tree a peculiar claim on our attention where the position is suitable. But in planning the main features of the Rock Garden, we naturally turn our thoughts first to evergreen trees and shrubs, because the plants grown in such positions, being usually either alpine or herbaceous, are mostly in abeyance during the winter, and it is desirable that the rockery, no less than every other part of the garden, should be interesting even if it cannot be gay, during the period of rest. A specimen Holly or, in exceptionally mild climates, a tall bush, from 8 to 10 feet high, of _Pittosporum undulatum_, one of the most beautiful of New Zealand evergreen trees, may be so placed, for example, as to be exceedingly pictorial; but, as a rule, we must keep our shrubs to an average maximum height of not more than from 4 to 5 feet, and, generally speaking, those of still lower stature are better suited to the ordinary Rock Garden. [Illustration: _CISTUSES AND ROSES IN THE ROCK GARDEN._ (_In the left lower corner, Cistus hirsutus; middle, Rosa alba; to right, R. rugosa Mme. Georges Bruant._)] Some of the small-growing Conifers, from their compact habit and distinct character, are especially well fitted to break the outline and to give contrast. We think of Pines and Spruce Firs and Cedars as majestic trees, and it is only when one comes to study them in their manifold varieties that we find how many of these range from a height of only a few inches to 3 feet, or at most to 4 feet. Some species, it is true, do not lend themselves gracefully to the dwarfing process, becoming clumpy and inelegant, but this charge cannot be brought against many of the Cypresses and Junipers. Several of the smaller Conifers, besides, give the advantage of distinct variations of colour with the changing seasons. Reference is not now made to the golden and silver forms, so-called, which occur in most of the genera, and put on their brightest tints in spring, but to the deeper winter colouring assumed, _e.g._ by the interesting _Retinospora ericoides_, which alters its summer tone of dark green to purple brown on the approach of cold weather; or by _Cryptomeria elegans_, a little less hardy, which changes to a fine shade of bronzy crimson. Like other plants, Conifers differ greatly as to constitution, and judgment must be used in their choice. The dwarf alpine form of the Common Juniper (_Juniperus communis nana_) is very hardy and slow-growing, never becoming too rampant for the smallest Rock Garden, and shares the blue-grey tint which is so characteristic of this beautiful species. _J. c. alpina aurea_ is a delightful small-growing Conifer. In summer the foliage is light yellow, and in winter heavily shaded with bronzy yellow. Very distinct from it is the lovely prostrate Savin (_J. Sabina procumbens_), one of the best of evergreen shrubs for the Rock Garden, and one most restful and satisfying to the eye at all times in its deep tones of sea green. A first-rate variety is _J. S. tamariscifolia_, which is of very spreading growth. [Illustration: _DWARF SHRUBS ON ROCK GARDEN._] _Cupressus pisifera_, almost plumose in one of its many variations, and _C. obtusa_, both better known perhaps under the garden name of Retinosporas, are admirable, and may be used either in the normal or the dwarf forms according to the greater or less space at command. Almost the last tree, probably, which one would expect to see draping the vertical face of a rock is the Spruce Fir, yet a weeping variety (_Picea excelsa pendula_) is exceedingly effective in such a position as a foil to hanging masses of richly-coloured Aubrietias or Golden Alyssum, while it looks well at all seasons. Mention may here be made of a remarkable Conifer, _Cunninghamia sinensis_, of great beauty and very distinct character, which takes the shape, in our climate, of a spreading bush, though in its native habitat it grows into a tree of noble dimensions. It is suitable only for a Rock Garden of some boldness of construction, and in gardens favoured with a mild climate and a sheltered position, but under such happy circumstances a place should certainly be found for this handsome and little-known China Fir. Another uncommon coniferous shrub, also very distinct and more generally useful than the last, is _Podocarpus alpina_. Though a native of Tasmania, it grows at high elevations, and is able to resist severe frost. Dark green in foliage, only about 2 feet in height, and of a somewhat spreading nature, it is never out of place in the Rock Garden, whether large or small. From Conifers we may pass to Veronicas, certain of which might almost be mistaken for some minute form of Cypress. Of this character is a small group known in New Zealand, the natural habitat of a large number of shrubby species, by the apposite name of Whipcord Veronicas. Being themselves alpine, they are particularly well suited for grouping with low-growing mountain plants. Six species or varieties of this interesting section grow naturally at elevations ranging from 7000 to 4000 feet, and are much more hardy than is generally supposed. These are: _V. cupressoides_, _V. c. var. variabilis_, _V. lycopodioides_, _V. Armstrongii_, _V. Hectori_, _V. loganioides_. The form of _V. cupressoides_, known as _variabilis_, was mistaken, on its first introduction, for a distinct species, _V. salicornoides_, and may still be met with under that name. The small violet or white flowers of these miniature evergreen shrubs are not perhaps much to be taken into account, but they have a distinct value of their own as rock-work greenery. There are other dwarf New Zealand Veronicas of a leafy character, differing essentially from these mimetic species, such as _V. carnosula_ and _V. pinguifolia_, also inhabiting regions 5000 feet above the sea-level, which are suited for localities with average advantages of climate. Others again, such as _V. Lyallii_, _V. glauco-cærulea_, and _V. hulkeana_, though they grow naturally at lower altitudes, and must be reckoned only half-hardy, may yet be serviceable for Rock Gardens on the southern sea-board, or on the west coast of Scotland. Belonging to the larger-growing and more familiar species of Shrubby Veronica, mention may be made of a good purple-flowered hybrid, of very compact growth, known as Purple Queen, which is exceedingly ornamental from its free-flowering habit. Many of the losses sustained amongst these interesting New Zealand shrubs are owing to drought rather than to frost, and their extreme susceptibility to dryness at the root is a fact not recognised as it should be. Hardy Heaths are of the utmost value in the Rock Garden, and range in height from the 6 feet or more of _Erica arborea_ to the 6 inches of the well-known _E. carnea_, and can be used in rough places, where more delicate plants might not thrive. A sudden emergency once arose in the experience of the writer, when a shelving mass of earth had to be shored-up as quickly as possible with such material as lay ready to hand at the moment. This happened to be found in a heap of ugly, yellowish, water-worn boulders of great size, which abound in that particular locality, at no great distance below the ground-level, and must be dug out when any deep trenching has to be done. There was no time to be wasted in facing the stones, which would have made them more sightly, and they had to be used as they were. Fortunately a large consignment of the best hardy Heaths had lately arrived from the Darley Dale Nurseries, and were immediately seized upon to cover up the ugliness of the hastily-built-up barricade. Boulders and Heaths, however, took to each other kindly, in spite of a soil by no means specially suitable, and with the addition, later, of a few good kinds of Cistus and other shrubs, the bank still remains as happy a bit of rough planting as could be desired. Of the taller Heaths, _E. lusitanica_ is somewhat tender, and is not so generally useful as _E. mediterranea_ or _E. arborea_ (Tree Heath). A hybrid form--_E. mediterranea × E. carnea_--is excellent, and comes into flower about Christmas, in advance of either of its parents, when its pale-purple spikes are very welcome, and are quite distinct from the rosy-red flowers of _E. carnea_: it is known as _E. mediterranea hybrida_. The foliage of hardy Heaths is never unsightly, but the persistent dead flowers are, and these should always be clipped off as soon as their beauty is over, or the new growth will break away above the withered flowers, leaving, in many cases, straggling and unclothed branches. The omission of this needful work every season is a fruitful source of the raggedness which brings some discredit on these otherwise attractive plants. Many flowering shrubs of the same natural order as Heaths, but unlike them in general appearance, such as the Alpine Rhododendrons, _R. ferrugineum_ and _R. hirsutum_, and the less well-known but very beautiful and distinct _R. racemosum_, as well as some of the miniature varieties of _Azalea indica_, notably _R. obtusa_ and its forms, seem peculiarly suitable for the Rock Garden (see p. 428 for lists of the best Rhododendrons). Again, where rock meets more level ground, and the trickle of a stream can be so directed as to give moisture without sogginess, a considerable number of peat-loving evergreen shrubs belonging to the same order, of the type of _Gaultheria_, _Vaccinium_, and _Pieris_, may be used with excellent effect. _Gaultheria Shallon_, indeed, is a singularly fine shrub in any position, and is not very exacting in any of its requirements. Growing about 2 feet high, with purple leaf-tints in winter, and spikes of white waxy flowers, brightly tinged with red, in spring, which are followed by purple fruit, few things can surpass it in its way. For carpeting moist spots, the little _G. procumbens_, which rises scarcely 3 inches from the ground, will fill a useful place with its winter colouring of crimson brown. Shrubs of this class are well worth study by those whose locality admits of their cultivation. For dry, sunny, and stony banks Rock Roses may be chosen, but the position must be wind-screened, a more important factor in the question of their hardiness than cold. The large-growing Gum Cistus is well known and tolerably hardy everywhere, and so also is _C. laurifolius_, but there are several most desirable species of dwarfer growth, such as the white, crimson-spotted _C. lusitanicus_, the pink-flowered _C. villosus_, the bright-red _C. crispus_, and the pure white _C. florentinus_, which are quite happy in sheltered rock walks especially by the sea; they have been also grown with success in many colder situations inland. The Cistineæ, at best, are somewhat short-lived, and lose vigour and power of resistance as they grow older. Keep up, therefore, young, thrifty stock by yearly cuttings to fill up inevitable gaps, which is a matter of no cultural difficulty. Where Rock Roses are out of the question, their place may worthily be filled by the hardier shrubby _Helianthemums_, though they differ greatly from Cistineæ in their trailing habit and smaller flowers. The breadths of brilliant colour given by these Sun Roses while in bloom are invaluable, and may be enjoyed to the full in almost any locality, while the many variations of tint, from deep green to ashen grey, in their leafage should also be taken into consideration, as it increases their usefulness when out of flower. No list of good shrubs for the Rock Garden would be complete without some reference to _Yuccas_, which for all practical purposes must be included under that head. Groups of these magnificent plants, with their sub-tropical effect, cannot be surpassed for nobility of outline and stateliness of flower. To do them full justice, they must have space to develop their grand proportions, but this may often be found on the ridge or upper slope, even in rock-work of limited character. _Y. gloriosa_, with its fine form, _Y. recurva_, and the stemless _Y. flaccida_, of smaller growth, are amongst the best and hardiest kinds, and to these may be added _Y. angustifolia_, another valuable and nearly stemless species. It is only possible, in restricted space, to touch in a very cursory way upon a few of the available groups of dwarf-growing shrubs. Many more than have been mentioned will occur readily to the minds of those who are at all conversant with plants, such as _Abelia rupestris_, _Magnolia stellata_, several beautiful species of _Daphne_, some of the St. John's Worts, of low-growing _Cytisus_, and others which may be classed under the head of miscellaneous. The subjoined list, though it does not pretend to be exhaustive, will be found of use, either for purposes of winter greenery or for summer embellishment, by those who are seeking good and suitable dwarf shrubs for planting, under varied conditions in the Rock Garden. DWARF SHRUBS FOR THE ROCK GARDEN HARDY EVERGREEN Buxus sempervirens vars. Cotoneaster buxifolia. Danæa Laurus (Alexandrian Laurel). Syn. Ruscus racemosus. Gaultheria procumbens. Lavendula vera (Lavender). Mahonia (Berberis) Aquifolium. Osmanthus Aquifolium. Pernettya mucronata. Rosmarinus officinalis (Rosemary). Skimmia Foremani. Veronica (Whipcord). ,, cupressoides. ,, cup. var. variabilis. ,, Armstrongii. ,, Hectori. ,, loganioides. ,, lycopodioides. _Conifers_ Cupressus obtusa nana. ,, ericoides. ,, thyoides. Juniperus communis nana. ,, Sabina prostrata. Picea excelsa clanbrassiliana. ,, ex. pumila glauca. Podocarpus alpina. HARDY FLOWERING SHRUBS Azalea (Rhododendron) amoena. ,, indica and vars. ,, mollis. Cytisus Ardoini. ,, Kewensis. ,, purpureus. ,, Shipkænsis. Daphne blagayana. ,, Cneorum. ,, Mezereum. Dryas octopetala. Erica carnea. ,, ciliaris. ,, lusitanica. ,, mediterranea. ,, m. hybrida. Genista germanica. ,, pilosa. Helianthemum vars. Hypericum moserianum. ,, olympicum. ,, patulum. Kalmia angustifolia. ,, glauca. Magnolia stellata. Olearia Haastii. Ononis rotundifolia. Philadelphus microphyllus. Phlomis fruticosa. Polygala Chamæbuxus and var. purpurea. Prunus nana. Rhododendron ferrugineum. ,, hirsutum. ,, racemosum. Rosa lutea. ,, pimpinellifolia. ,, xanthina (Ecæ). Rubus arcticus. Spiræa arguta. ,, Bumalda. ,, decumbens, &c. ,, Thunbergi. Veronica buxifolia. ,, carnosula. ,, pinguifolia. ,, linifolia. Yucca angustifolia. ,, filamentosa. ,, fil. var. flaccida. ,, gloriosa. ,, recurvifolia. FLOWERING AND OTHER SHRUBS FOR SHELTERED SITUATIONS AND MILD CLIMATE Abelia rupestris. Cistus albidus. ,, crispus. ,, lusitanicus. ,, villosus. Coronilla Emerus. ,, glauca. Daphne Dauphini. ,, Genkwa. Fabiana imbricata. Escallonia macrantha. ,, philippiana and hybrids. ,, rubra. Eugenia Ugni. Fatsia japonica (Arabia Sieboldi). Grevillea rosmarinifolia. Helianthemum formosum. Linum arboreum. Myrtus communis. ,, box leaved. Olearia dentata. Ozothamnus rosmarinifolius. Philesia buxifolia. Pittosporum Tobira. ,, undulata. Rhododendron (see pp. 137 and 424). Rosa simplicifolia. Rubus rosæfolius. Swainsonia alba. Trachycarpus (Chamærops) excelsa (Chinese Fan Palm). Veronica chathamica. ,, epacridea. ,, Fairfieldii. ,, glauco-cærulea. ,, pimeleoides. ,, speciosa. ,, Traversii. ,, Purple Queen (hyb.). _Conifers._ Cryptomeria elegans. Cunninghamia sinensis. [Illustration: _ONONIS FRUTICOSA (Shrubby Rest Harrow) AT EXETER._] FOR MOIST PEATY SOIL AT THE FOOT OF ROCKS Andromeda polifolia. Bryanthus erectus. Cassandra calyculata. Cassiope tetragona. Daboecia polifolia (Irish Heath). Gaultheria procumbens. Ledum palustre. Leucothoë axillaris. ,, Catesbæi. Myrica asplenifolia. ,, Gale. Pieris floribunda. ,, japonica. Rhodothamnus Chamæcistus. Salix reticulata. Vaccinium crassifolium. ,, uliginosum. ,, Vitis-idæa. Zenobia speciosa var. pulverulenta. [Illustration: _TREE IN COURSE OF REMOVAL WITH ONE OF BARRON'S MACHINES._] CHAPTER XX REMOVAL OF LARGE TREES AND SHRUBS Probably no garden operation requires more time and labour than the proper removal of large trees and shrubs from one part of a garden to another. Time, as it will take two, or even three, days to remove a large tree to a distance; and labour, as the services of from eight to twelve men will be required to accomplish the work. It is not, therefore, an operation to be lightly undertaken or got through in a hurry. Before proceeding to describe the various ways of moving large specimen plants, it will be well to consider the trees and shrubs that are generally required to be moved. Three numbered lists are given arranged according to the roots of the shrubs or trees--that is, those that, when they have stood for some time in one place, are most alike as regards the way their roots are placed together; and the lists are also some guide when transplanting, as the chances of life after removal are greatest in No. 1, less in No. 2, and considerably lower in No. 3. _No. 1._ Andromeda. Azalea. Clethra. Kalmia. Rhododendron. Vaccinium. _No. 2._ Ailantus. Alder. Almond. Amelanchier. Ash. Beech. Birch. Box. Celtis. Chestnut. Cratægus. Elm. Flowering Cherries. Hornbeam. Horse-Chestnut. Laburnum. Lime. Malus. Maple. Mulberry. Oak. Peach. Plane. Poplar. Pyrus. Robinia. Willow. _No. 3._ Arbutus. Aucuba. Bay Laurel. Carya. Catalpa. Cotoneaster. Diospyros. Elæagnus. Halesia. Hamamelis. Hippophaë. Holly. Liquidambar. Laurel (Common). ,, (Portugal). Magnolia. Osmanthus. Phillyræa. Rhamnus. Styrax. Tulip Tree. Viburnum. Walnut. Yew. Coniferæ. It will be noticed that Conifers are mentioned in the third list, and even in nurseries where they are regularly moved the mortality amongst them is very high; and the removal of large Conifers should never be attempted except with a transplanting machine, and expert men to handle it. As a rule, it will be found cheaper and better to buy young plants than to attempt the removal of large ones that have stood for some years without root disturbance. Such flowering shrubs as _Spiræa_, _Philadelphus_, _Kerria_, _Ribes_, &c., can be safely moved without much trouble, as they make a mass of roots which will hold a good ball of soil unless it is very dry. All are practically certain to live if carefully planted and well watered afterwards. There are several ways of moving large trees, the simplest and quickest being by a proper transplanting machine, which consists of a framework on wheels fitted with a system of rollers and levers. For moderately-sized trees, say, to about 12 feet high, a two-wheeled machine is sufficient. This is moved by eight or ten men. For trees above 12 feet high a four-wheeled machine is required, with two, or perhaps three, horses to draw it. The first will take a ball of soil weighing from two to three tons, the latter anything to ten tons, or even more. In preparing the tree for the small machine the ball is made round, and slightly smaller than the width of the machine, a trench being cut round the tree to a depth of 3 feet or so, the actual depth depending on the roots, but the soil should be removed a foot lower than the lowest roots. On no account undermine the ball until the proper depth has been reached. A proper machine-pick is the best thing to use under the ball, carefully working out sufficient soil to introduce a board 6 inches wide and about 1½ inches thick on each side of the ball. The soil immediately under the centre of the ball should be left intact. When the boards are in position ropes are passed under them on each side and led up over the rollers on the machine and fastened, and then by levers the ropes are rolled up, swinging the plant up cleanly and with a good ball of soil. Before putting the ropes under, however, a stout piece of canvas or mat should be tied round the ball with a couple of cords, between which and the canvas seven or eight pieces of narrow flat board should be fixed to prevent the cords from cutting the ball. The rear part of the machine is made to be taken out so that it can be pushed right over a plant, and it should be run on planks on soft ground. With the large transplanting machine a ball of soil of almost any size can be taken, but the method of preparing it is somewhat different. It should be made nearly square, being rather longer than it is broad. When the proper depth has been reached make a hole about 2 feet wide under the centre of the ball, and running entirely through the longer way of it. Through this hole one, or even two, broad planks 3 inches thick should be passed. On each end of these, where they project beyond the ball, a stout plank is laid on edge, and two others placed lengthwise to fit above the first two. These planks should all be cut to fit tightly into each other. If necessary, owing to the depth of the ball, another tier of planks should be placed above the first to insure stability. The machine is then placed over the plant, and the whole, by means of chains and levers, is swung up off the ground, and then ready to be taken anywhere. This machine, however, should only be used by those who have had experience with it, as it is difficult and cumbersome to handle, and in the hands of novices is liable to cause serious accidents. Where no transplanting machine exists, other mechanical contrivances must be used to move a large tree. Rollers and planks, a low trolley, or a draw-board, as it is called, are the best. The preparation for removal is the same for these means as it is for a machine, with the exception of getting under it, which varies according to the means employed. For rollers and planks the soil should be worked out directly under the centre of the ball, and planks put through to form a bed to run the shrub or tree on. On these a roller should be placed, working the soil out at the sides so that it is well under the ball, but not going so far under as to undermine it, and cause it to drop over. Above the roller put one wide plank to form the bottom of the ball, and by means of a rope round it the whole can be taken where required. When moving it, however, it is well to raise the rear half by means of a broad lever or a lifting-jack, which, in conjunction with a steady pull on the rope, should start the plant comfortably on its journey. When a low trolley is used the ball of soil must be firm, and not liable to break to pieces when handled with reasonable care. Having cut out the ball to the required depth, work under it all round, merely leaving enough in the centre to support it. If possible, work off some of the upper soil to decrease the weight, but this depends entirely upon the roots, and the way they run. If small roots are plentiful at the top, little or no soil can be removed, but if they are lower down, then the upper soil may be removed with advantage. Having worked under the ball, lay two stout planks under it well packed up to the centre, and then with two strong poles under the ends of the planks lift the whole on the trolley. If the work is carefully thought out, it is possible to make the actual lifting a very small operation by bringing the trolley close and lowering it considerably. The draw-board is a handy contrivance for moderate-sized trees or shrubs which will hold a good ball of soil. It is made in two forms. One consists of a piece of well-seasoned oak 3 inches thick, and about 3 feet long by 2 to 2½ feet wide at the widest part, from which it slopes down to a thick end, where a stout swivel-ring is fixed to take a rope. The other form is a kind of trolley, and consists of a frame 3 feet long by 2 feet wide; it runs on rollers that work on bent irons fastened to the framework, the whole standing about 4 inches high. Either of these can be used for moving plants the ball of soil attached to which is not larger than the board. They will take a heavy plant with comparative ease, and are especially useful for moving large Rhododendrons and other American shrubs. To get them under a plant cut out the ball of soil to the proper depth, and work under it from the front, that is, the direction in which the plant is to go, keeping the ball wedged up during the process, _not_ by having a man to pull the top over, but by using wedges or levers underneath it, until sufficient soil has been worked out to allow the board to be inserted. When the board is in position the rope should be passed through the ring and then around the collar, using a piece of mat to keep it from rubbing the bark off, and then back through the ring again. It is well to run the board over planks on soft ground to reduce the labour of pulling. In putting the tree or shrub into its new position, carefully measure the size of the ball, and make the hole considerably larger and slightly deeper, breaking up the bottom well. When the tree or shrub is in position ram the soil tightly round it until it is about two-thirds covered, when the hole should be completely filled with water, covering in the remainder when the water has drained away. The stem must also be made secure by means of stakes or cords, otherwise wind will cause damage to the roots. When the ground is dry under a tree that is to be moved nothing should be done until it has been thoroughly soaked. To do this a trench 2 feet deep and as narrow as possible should be taken out all round, and gradually filled in with water, pouring it in steadily, away from the ball rather than to it, and persevere with this watering till the ball of soil under the tree is thoroughly saturated. Leave it for at least twenty-four hours to drain. Three points must not be forgotten: (1) Wrap the ball of soil securely round with canvas as soon as possible; (2) never use the stem of a tree as a lever in moving the ball--this should always be moved from below, and the stem never touched on any account; (3) always allow plenty of room for working. Moving large trees is not easy and must not be lightly undertaken. It involves much time, labour, and expense, in most cases far more than the trees are worth. Trees 8 or 10 feet high may be easily moved, but above that height the work should be done by an expert. Trees and shrubs of considerable size can be purchased at a moderate price from good tree nurseries, where they have been regularly transplanted, and if carefully planted will soon make good specimens. It is in the planting of trees that so many failures occur as a rule. A good tree may be obtained, arrive in excellent condition, and yet be planted in such a way that success is out of the question. The fault, as a matter of course, is put on the man who supplied the tree, not on the one who killed it by improper planting. Those who think of moving large trees or shrubs should not do so until the probable cost has been considered, and the advice and help obtained of some one who has handled big trees before. The expert will be able to say if a tree can bear removal, or whether it is better destroyed, and its place filled with a young and vigorous specimen from a nursery. CHAPTER XXI YOUNG TREES AND SUNSTROKE It is most noticeable that the stems of young trees of from 8 to about 14 feet in height are apt in some seasons to get much damaged, so much so that the trees are rarely satisfactory for some years afterwards, even if they do not die outright. The mischief is usually not seen until it is too late to mend matters, and is found more as a rule on young trees with small heads standing out singly than where they are planted amongst undergrowth or in partial shade. If careful notice is taken it will be found that the stems are damaged on the south side, or it may be east or west of south, but never on the north side, and this is directly caused by the rays of the sun being too hot for the young stems to bear. The trees most liable to sunstroke--which it practically amounts to--are the Lime, Willow, Horse Chestnut, Sweet Chestnut, Birch, Mountain Ash, Ash, and Plane, and generally in the order they are given, the softer wooded trees suffering more severely than those of harder growth. The Oak, Elm, and Beech are seldom much damaged by the sun, though in cases of failure it will be well to notice the stems and see how far the direct rays of the sun are responsible for the death of the tree. The first marks of sunstroke are seen in the shape of longitudinal cracks in the bark, which is also slightly browned and flattened, as if there were a hollow beneath. The part affected is from about 1 to 3 feet in length, and from 1 to 3 inches in width. If the bark is cut away the wood beneath will be found perfectly firm, but hard and dry, more like a piece of seasoned wood than part of a growing tree. When such is the case the only thing that can be done is to cut away the bark back to the living tissue, thoroughly coat the wound with gas tar, and shade the stem afterwards with a few branches or something that does not need to be fastened on the stem. Hay or straw bands cannot be altogether recommended, as anything which excludes the light tends to the softening of the young bark. This should be avoided, as the firmer the bark the better will be the ultimate success of the tree. Iron tree-guards, though not beautiful, have the advantage of protecting the stems of young trees from the sun as well as from the attacks of animals. In addition to the slight shade they give, the iron, being a good conductor of heat, takes up a large amount of the heat rays which would otherwise be directed full upon the stem. A hot and dry season is no more likely to cause sunstroke than a wet one, and probably not so much, as we have noticed it in sunless years quite as much as in bright summers. The time when it is most likely to happen is when a few days of hot sunshine follow a spell of wet weather, as the wood is then soft and full of moisture, and is more liable to be scorched than during a period of prolonged sunshine. When trees are planted out singly it is well to choose those with spreading heads and low stems, as then the tree will shade itself to a great extent, the short amount of bare stem being less exposed to the sun's rays than a taller one. After all, this is only Nature's method of protection, as, in a wild state, no young tree is bare-stemmed, except in a wood, where it is shaded by those near it. On the edge of a wood, or in the open, young trees are furnished to the ground with foliage, which is not shed until the stem has become hardened enough to withstand climatic vicissitudes. If trees with tall stems are the only ones available, then the stems should be shaded by some means for a year or two, especially when they have become established and are making strong, sappy growths, as the stem is practically in the same condition and apt to be scorched by a sudden burst of hot sunshine. GOAT AND WOOD-LEOPARD MOTHS Sunstroke must not be confounded with the ravages of the caterpillars of the Goat Moth and Wood-Leopard Moth, the external signs of which are much the same, but on the bark being removed one or two channels almost the size of a man's little finger are to be seen, together with accumulations of wet sawdust-like material deposited by the caterpillar. These are exterminated by thrusting a stout wire into the channels until the grub is killed, and afterwards cutting away the dead bark and tarring the wound thoroughly. The tree should also be securely staked, otherwise it will probably snap off in the first high wind. CHAPTER XXII SHADE TREES FOR STREETS In the middle ages it was accounted an act of piety to make or maintain a road or a bridge, or to do anything in connexion with them that would conduce to the safety or comfort of the wayfarer. The planting of trees for shade, or the placing of a shaded bench for rest came within the same category of pious works. In our days, when rush and hurry and the pressure of business, and the worship of bare utility fill the minds of most men, there are many who have almost forgotten the gracious aspects of the more leisurely life. It is probably from this cause that so many opportunities are lost that might be seized by those in authority for making the lives of our fellow-creatures somewhat easier and pleasanter. In days of extreme heat what a difference in comfort there would be between the bare sun-baked expanses of the streets of many a town, such as we all know, and the same spaces carefully planted with shade-giving trees! In very narrow streets trees are, of course, out of the question, or in any street whose width is not enough to allow of easy traffic and trees as well, but one cannot walk through any town, except the very few in which the question has already been considered and satisfactorily answered, without seeing many a street or waste space or corner where a row or a group or even a single tree would not add immensely to both beauty and comfort. Where there is plenty of width, and especially where houses fall back a little from the road, the trees may well stand just within the edge of the footpath or pavement. Should there be still more width, there may be a row in the middle of the road. In this case the middle row of trees should not be quite evenly continuous, but perhaps five or six trees and then a gap, formed by leaving out one tree, in order to allow the traffic to move from side to side of the road. In many a town where a street runs north-east and south-west, a row of trees on its south-western side only might be an inestimable boon. Even in country villages there is often a bare place, especially where roads meet, where a few trees well planted and a plain strong oak bench would be a comfort and a pleasure to many hardworking folk, and might be the means of converting unsightliness into beauty. [Illustration: _PLANE TREE (Platanus orientalis)._] For towns the Plane has the best character, but other good trees are Wych Elm and Hornbeam, Sycamore, Maple, Lime, Lombardy Poplar, and Horse Chestnut. The spreading growth of the Horse Chestnut commends it rather for a space like the _place_ of a foreign town. Here is also the place for Limes, for though they are good street trees, yet when in bloom the strong, sweet scent, although a passing whiff is delicious, might be an annoyance if poured continuously into the windows of houses during the blooming time. The Wild Cherry, with its quantity of early bloom, would be a beautiful street tree, and in places where trees of rather smaller growth are desired there is the Bird Cherry and the Mountain Ash. The large American Mountain Ash is a good street tree, in autumn loaded with its handsome bunches of scarlet fruit. The larger Willows are also charming trees for streets. Many of the trees named, if their tops spread too near the houses, may, with good effect, be pollarded about 10 feet from the ground. CHAPTER XXIII TREES AND SHRUBS IN SCOTLAND The following list has been kindly sent me by a great lover of trees and shrubs who lives at Forres. My correspondent writes: "I have grown all the plants in my list in my own garden, except _Buddleia globosa_ and _Aralia chinensis_, but the latter is grown in quantity by several of my neighbours, and there are also several fine plants of the Buddleia in many gardens in sheltered spots. My experience is that many plants are quite frost-proof but cannot stand cold winds. This applies more especially to the shrubby Veronicas. I have seen them in the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens as if scorched with fire on the exposed side, while they were untouched where sheltered from the north and east. My own garden is fairly well sheltered." _Amelanchier canadensis._--Hardy, free-flowering, beautiful at all times. _Aralia chinensis (Dimorphanthus) mandschurica._--Useful in some positions for its curious habit of growth and rather handsome foliage; quite hardy. _Aristolochia Sipho._--This has curious and inconspicuous flowers, which give this climbing plant its popular name of "Dutchman's Pipe." It can be grown on a wall, in which position, perhaps, its fine foliage is seen to the best advantage, but it is quite hardy and looks well climbing into a thin tree such as the Common Almond. _Berberis (Mahonia) Aquifolium._--A handsome plant at all times, and will even grow under the shade of trees. _Berberis Darwinii._--Very bright in flower. Young and sappy shoots get killed back in winter. _Berberis Thunbergi._--A most attractive Berberis; it makes a small neat-growing bush to which the adjective "sparkling" might be applied. Its chief glory is its autumnal foliage, and a large clump in September is "a sight to see"; quite hardy. _Berberis vulgaris._--Very beautiful when clustered with fruit. The purple-leaved variety (_B. v. purpurea_) is most useful for its foliage. _Betula alba purpurea._--A good foliage tree. _Buddleia globosa._--This does well in a warm sheltered spot facing south-west, where the morning sun in winter will not touch it too soon. It also objects to exposure to cold winds. _Calycanthus floridus._--Quite hardy, and grows well in half-shady places. _Ceanothus azureus._--This succeeds either trained to a wall or as a bush. In the latter case it should be in a sheltered position. It seems quite frost-proof, and its blue flowers are very beautiful at a time when few shrubs are in bloom (July and August). Its shoots should be well thinned, and those left shortened as soon as the buds begin to show signs of movement in the spring. The best form I have tried is Gloire de Versailles. _Choisya ternata_ (Mexican Orange Flower).--This is well worth growing as a bush in a sheltered angle of a wall, where it can be protected in winter with a hurdle or some such contrivance, lightly thatched with Broom. It is even then, in very severe weather, cut about the points of the shoots, which, of course, spoils the blooming; but it soon grows through again, and it is worth growing for its foliage alone. _Clematis._--These mostly do well, and the newer sorts are very attractive, but for all purposes it is very hard to beat _C. montana_ and _C. Jackmani_, the former in May and the latter for the autumn. _Clethra alnifolia._--A neat and free-flowering shrub, with spikes of white flowers in August; it is very hardy and useful, as few shrubs are in flower at that time. _Cornus alba._--A clump of this Dogwood is very effective in winter, especially when the sun is shining on its bright-red shoots. _C. a. Spaethii_ is a good variegated variety. _Corylus Avellana purpurea._--A good purple-leaved nut. _Cotoneaster microphylla._--Quite hardy either as a bush or on a wall. _Cytisus albus._--No garden should be without this beautiful Broom. _C. præcox_, the Cream Broom, is a dwarfer but no less beautiful variety; it is very pretty grouped with a few plants of _C. purpureus_, which flowers at the same time. Another fine Broom is the red and yellow variety of the Common Broom (_C. scoparius andreanus_). The Brooms will grow anywhere, but prefer an open place in full sun. They should be cut hard back after flowering, and if the young seed-pods can be picked off so much the better. _Daphne Cneorum._--A bright little shrub best grown on the rock garden; quite hardy. _Daphne Laureola._--This has fine foliage and will grow in quite a shady place. _Daphne Mezereum._--A beautiful early-flowering Daphne, too well known for description. _Deutzia crenata._--A most useful hardy shrub, growing to a good size. The variety, Pride of Rochester, is very pretty. _Diervilla (Weigela)._--Indispensable shrubs, very hardy, free-flowering, and easily grown. The flowering shoots should be cut back to strong young wood as soon as the flowers fade. They are most accommodating in this respect, as the strongest of the young shoots start well back and not at the points, as is usual with most plants. Good varieties are Eva Rathke, _Hortensis nivea_, and _rosea_. _Escallonia macrantha._--A good wall shrub. _Escallonia philippiana._--Hardier than _E. macrantha_, and can be grown as a bush in a sheltered spot. _Forsythia suspensa._--Quite hardy, and very beautiful in early spring, as it flowers before the leaf-buds burst. It should be cut back to young growths after the flower is over. _Fuchsia Riccartoni._--This gets cut down every winter, but is never killed, and it flowers abundantly every year treated as a hardy herbaceous plant. _Garrya elliptica._--Quite hardy as a bush. _Genista tinctoria fl. pl._--A low-growing trailing Genista, useful for the rock garden and flowering when many of the alpines are over. _Genista virgata._--A very different plant from the above, and will make a very large bush, covered with pale-yellow flowers in late summer. A good shrub. _Halesia tetraptera._--Quite hardy and attractive both in bloom and foliage. _Hamamelis arborea._--This is quite hardy, but grows very slowly. It flowers in a small state, but not very freely. I have only had this plant for four years, but I think it will do very well, and should flower more freely when a bit larger. _Hedysarum multijugum._--Quite hardy. An attractive shrub, with spikes of reddish pea-like flowers in July and August. It increases freely from the root by suckers. Thin and cut back the shoots in spring. _Helianthemum vulgare_ (Rock Rose).--There are many garden varieties of this, both double and single, the single sorts being the most attractive. They are quite hardy on a warm and sunny rock garden. _Hydrangea paniculata._--Hardy. A splendid low-growing shrub, flowering in autumn. A group of this, with a few plants of _Prunus Pissardi_ cut hard back every spring to keep them small, is very effective, and the group can be carpeted with Lily of the Valley or London Pride to cover the bare soil underneath. The shoots of the Hydrangea should be well thinned, and those left cut hard back in the spring. It well repays a dose or two of liquid manure in the growing season. The variety, _grandiflora_, is better than the type. _Hypericum calycinum_ (Rose of Sharon).--Grows well in half shade. It is a dwarf plant, very pretty, but perhaps too often seen. Useful for carpeting other shrubs. _Jasminum nudiflorum._--Best on a wall. Winter flowering (yellow) and very pretty when in bloom. _Jasminum officinale._--Requires a wall, but does well while young. It is not a very long-lived plant here. _Kalmia latifolia._--Very attractive pink flowers; hardy, and will do wherever Rhododendrons flourish. _Kerria japonica._--A pretty yellow-flowered shrub that increases rapidly from the root. The double-flowered variety is the most commonly grown. _Laburnum._--Too well known for description. _L. Adami_ is curious and worth growing. _Lavendula Spica._--The Lavender needs no description. _Leycesteria formosa._--A good plant for a shady place. It grows well under trees, and is very hardy. _Ligustrum ovalifolium_ (Privet).--The golden form of this is good and bright. _Liriodendron tulipifera._--Grows well here, and is quite hardy, but seldom flowers so far north. _Lonicera periclymenum._--The common native Honeysuckle is an indispensable climber, and will grow almost anywhere; but looks best, perhaps, climbing up trees, or over shrubs or hedges. The variety, _serotina_, flowers later than the type, and is best known under the name of Late Dutch. _L. Sullivantii_ is a shrubby sort, with not unattractive flowers of a brownish-orange colour. _Magnolia._--The only one I have tried is _M. stellata_, which has proved quite hardy, and I have no doubt that several others would do quite as well in sheltered places. _Neillia opulifolia_ (_Spiræa opulifolia_).--Quite hardy. _Pernettya mucronata._--Does well. _Pieris_ (_Andromeda_) _floribunda_.--Is quite hardy and very beautiful early in the year. Will grow in soils that suit Rhododendrons. _Potentilla fruticosa._--A little summer-flowering shrub, with yellow flowers. It does well on the upper parts of the rock garden, and is quite hardy. _Prunus_ (_Cerasus_) _Mahaleb pendula_.--A very attractive little weeping tree, with small white flowers in spring. _Pyrus._--The following do well here: _Pyrus floribunda_, _P. coronaria_, _P. lobata_ (syn. _Mespilus grandiflora_), and, of course, the native Rowan tree (_P. Aucuparia_). The family of Apples enjoy a well-drained place, being impatient of too much wet at the roots; otherwise, their culture is of the simplest. They should be allowed to grow as they will, only cutting out any branches that would be obviously better away, and dead wood if any. _Rhododendrons_ and _Azaleas_ luxuriate here. The common _R. ponticum_ sows itself in the woods. I have not yet tried the Himalayan Rhododendrons, but from what I have seen of them in the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens, which are much exposed to cold winds, I feel fairly certain I could grow them here, where I can give them more protection. _Rhodotypus kerrioides._--A very pretty hardy shrub, flowering on and off all the summer. It has very clean white flowers, and from appearances looks as though a cross with Kerria might be successful. The Rhodotypus seeds freely here. It grows to a good size. _Rhus Cotinus._--Another good shrub, attractive either in flower or foliage, and the latter turns to a good colour in autumn. _Ribes._--No garden should be without a plant of the Common Ribes. I also grow _Aureum_ and a pale pinkish-white sort. _Robinia hispida_ (Rose Acacia).--This is doing well in a corner sheltered from the north, east, and west by evergreens. _Roses._--The best that I grow as shrubs (in the garden sense) are the Penzance Briars, _Rosa rugosa_ (Japanese Rose), Austrian Briars, _R. spinosissima_, _Blairii II._, Charles Lawson, _R. macrantha_, _R. alpina_, &c. These Roses stand up and make a good bush in a sheltered place, without staking or any other trouble. Very little pruning is needful, and that after the flowers are over, cutting out weak wood and shortening some of the old shoots back to where young ones are breaking vigorously. _Rubus deliciosus._--Very pretty white flowers, large for a bramble. It appears to be quite hardy, but is not a very strong grower. _Ruscus aculeatus_ (Butcher's Broom).--An inconspicuous little shrub that grows well under trees. _Spartium junceum_ (Spanish Broom).--A good shrub for a sheltered bank; it has spikes of bright-yellow flowers in July. _Spiræa._--Most of the Spiræas do well here. The following are the best of those I grow: _S. canescens_, very pretty habit of growth and foliage; _S. discolor_ (_ariæfolia_), _S. japonica_ (vars. _alba_, _Bumalda_, and Anthony Waterer), the last-mentioned very good. _S. lindleyana_, a large grower, handsome both in flower and foliage. _S. prunifolia fl. pl._ should be in all gardens; good both for flowers and autumnal foliage. _S. Van Houttei_, very good. _Exochorda grandiflora_, often known as _Spiræa grandiflora_, I have had since 1898, but though it is now a large bush and very healthy, it has not yet made any attempt to flower. _Syringa_ (Lilacs).--These are indispensable. Some of the newer varieties are good, such as Charles X., rosy lilac; Marie Legraye, white; Souv. de L. Späth, reddish; Mme. Lemoine, double white. These should always be procured on their own roots. Grafted plants seldom live long. _Veronica._--Several of the shrubby Veronicas do well. _V. Traversii_ is the hardiest of all. In the Edinburgh Botanic Gardens there is a good collection of these. _Viburnum Opulus sterilis._--This, the well-known Snowball tree, and _V. Tinus_ (_Laurustinus_), are the only two I have grown. Both do well, and I fancy _V. plicatum_ and some others would do also. I shall try them. _Vitis Coignetiæ._--I have this growing up the outer branches of a Spanish Chestnut. It does not grow very fast, but is making steady progress. It appears to be perfectly hardy, and its fine foliage turns to a magnificent colour in autumn. TREES AND SHRUBS IN EDINBURGH Trees and shrubs that will thrive near Edinburgh will do so in almost any exposed city or town similarly situated. Only those that have proved adaptable to this windswept district have been included, an asterisk being placed against the more beautiful and interesting species and varieties that are happy in cold and windy gardens. ACERS.--_A. Pseudo-platanus_ is the "Plane" of Scotland. Old trees form features of great beauty. It reaches a height of 60 to 70 feet, often less when isolated. _A. P. var. flavo-marginatum_*.--The original tree of this variety still remains at Corstorphine, near Edinburgh. It is very effective in spring, but the foliage becomes much duller during summer. _A. P. purpureum._ _A. campestre_ (Common Maple). _A. circinatum_*.--This is the most beautifully-coloured tree we have in autumn. _A. platanoides_* (Norway Maple).--This is to be preferred to either the Sycamore or Common Maple for planting in pleasure-grounds and gardens. _A. dasycarpum._* _A. palmatum_*.--The varieties of this are excellent although slow growing. _A. rubrum._ _A. pictum._ _A. opulifolium obtusatum_*.--A bright tree in early spring with its golden-green foliage and flowers. _A. saccharinum_ (Sugar Maple). _A. japonicum_ and varieties. ACTINIDIA KOLOMIKTA.--Climber; grows quickly on south wall. HORSE CHESTNUT (_Æsculus Hippocastanum_) and others: _carnea_, _Pavia_, _parviflora_, _flava_. AILANTUS GLANDULOSA (Tree of Heaven). AMELANCHIER VULGARIS and _A. canadensis_.*--Very ornamental. Seldom seen, but as free-growing and flowering as the Hawthorn. The popular name for these beautiful trees is Snowy Mespilus. ARALIA SPINOSA and _A. chinensis_.* ARBUTUS ANDRACHNE.--Flowers in February and March. ARCTOSTAPHYLOS ALPINA.--Plenty of this found in north of Scotland, but somewhat difficult to establish in gardens. _A. Uva-ursi._--Freer in growth than the preceding. Both species are low-creeping shrubs suitable for planting with Heaths in peat. ARISTOLOCHIA SIPHO (Dutchman's Pipe).--Large effective climber. ARTEMISIA ABROTANUM, _arborescens_, and _tridentata_.*--Useful shrubs of grey tone. AUCUBA JAPONICA and varieties.* AZARA MICROPHYLLA* and _A. dentata_. BERBERIS AQUIFOLIUM,* _Darwinii_, _vulgaris_, _nepalensis_. Single specimens of _B. Aquifolium_, the Mahonia, become very ornamental with age. BETULA ALBA* (the Silver Birch).--A very hardy tree, beautiful both in summer and winter. The pendulous variety is the best. Its branches are proof against all winds. No tree is so well adapted for planting close up to houses in the city, for it is very graceful, and obscures little light. _B. utilis_, _B. papyrifera_, _B. populifolia_. BOX* and varieties. BRYANTHUS EMPETRIFORMIS.*--Very fine planted in broad masses. _B. erectus_--Very beautiful in small beds. CALYCANTHUS FLORIDUS.--This is excellent on walls. CAMELLIAS only flower here on walls in the open. They form large bushes in the grounds. _Camellia Thea_, the tea-plant, is also perfectly hardy. CARMICHÆLIA FLAGELLIFORMIS.*--Very interesting, and flowering with great freedom. CARPENTERIA CALIFORNICA.*--A splendid plant for south walls, large established specimens having a profusion of large white flowers. CARPINUS BETULUS* (Hornbeam) and varieties. CARYOPTERIS MASTACANTHUS.--A good wall plant. CASSIOPE FASTIGIATA* and _C. tetragona_.*--Both are very choice subjects here and flower well. CASTANEA SATIVA* (Sweet or Spanish Chestnut).--Ornamental, but does not ripen fruit here. CEANOTHUS AMERICANUS and _veitchianus_.*--Splendid. CERCIS SILIQUASTRUM* (Judas tree). CHIMONANTHUS FRAGRANS (Winter-sweet).--Wall. CHOISYA TERNATA (Mexican Orange Flower). CISTUS.*--These are very fine, and flower for months if somewhat sheltered. CLEMATIS.--Of these very charming are _alpina_,* _apiifolia_, _Flammula_,* _heracleæfolia_, _Vitalba_.* COLLETIA CRUCIATA. COLUTEA ARBORESCENS and _melanocalyx_. CONVOLVULUS CNEORUM.*--Very pretty plant for a south wall; silvery foliage and white flowers. CORNUS (Dogwood).--Of these, _alba_ and varieties, _Kousa_, _florida_, _sanguinea_ (very ornamental in winter), _Mas_ and _m. variegata_* (a very choice, variegated shrub), are the best. CORYLOPSIS PAUCIFLORA and _C. spicata_.--Both do well on a south wall. CORYLUS (nut) AVELLANA _purpurea_.*--One of the most effective shrubs if used carefully. COTONEASTERS.--Of these, _buxifolia_, _Simonsii_, _thymifolia_,* _microphylla_,* _horizontalis_* (a species with peculiar spreading flat branches, producing a fine effect if grown on sloping banks), are the most noteworthy. HAWTHORN.--_Cratægus_ are valuable hardy trees, flowering at the end of June to July; the scarlet form is brilliant. [Illustration: _CYTISUS PRÆCOX (Spring)_] CYTISUS (Broom).--Of this beautiful family, _albus_,* _Ardoini_,* _biflorus_,* _decumbens_,* _nigricans_, _præcox_,* _purpureus_,* _scoparius_ and varieties,* are all splendid growers for dry, sunny situations. DABOECIA.--_Polifolia_,* _alba_,* _bicolor_,* the Irish Heaths, are beautiful in small beds and rockeries. DAPHNE.--Of this delightful family, _blagayana_,* _Cneorum_,* _var. majus_,* _Laureola_, _Mezereum_ and varieties.* DEUTZIA GRACILIS* and _D. crenata_. ELÆAGNUS ARGENTEA,* _E. multiflora_,* and _E. pungens_.* EMPETRUM NIGRUM.*--This plant is useful for mixing with Heaths. ENKIANTHUS HIMALAICUS.*--The finest species of the genus. Attractive. [Illustration: _A VARIETY OF MAHALEB CHERRY (Prunus Mahaleb, var. chrysocarpa)._] HEATHS.--Of these, _E. carnea_,* _c. alba_,* _ciliaris_,* _cinerea_,* _Mackaii_,* _mediterranea_,* _multiflora_, _stricta_,* _Tetralix_ and varieties,* _vagans_ and varieties,* _Watsoni_.* ERIOGONUM UMBELLATUM.--A very fine plant for covering banks. ESCALLONIA.--Of these, _E. exoniensis_,* _macrantha_,* _philippiana_,* are very valuable, either for walls or as small bushes. EUCRYPHIA PINNATIFOLIA.*--A very beautiful but slow-growing hardy shrub. EUONYMUS.--Of this family note should be made of _E. americanus_, _E. europæus_, _E. radicans_.* The variegated and other forms of these shrubs are very welcome. EXOCHORDA GRANDIFLORA (Pearl Bush). FABIANA IMBRICATA.*--A striking evergreen shrub for a wall. FAGUS (Beech).--_F. ferruginea_ and _sylvatica_* and varieties. FORSYTHIA SUSPENSA* and _F. viridissima_. FRAXINUS EXCELSIOR* (the Ash), also the Manna Ash (_F. Ornus_).* FUCHSIA RICCARTONI.*--Flowers for a very long time, and is very hardy. GENISTA.--Of these, _G. anglica_, _hispanica_, _pilosa_, _sagittalis_, _tinctoria_. GLEDITSCHIA TRIACANTHOS. HAMAMELIS (Witch or Wych Hazel).--_H. arborea_,* _japonica_,* _virginica_. HYDRANGEA PANICULATA.*--Magnificent when established. HYPERICUM.--Of these, _H. Androsæmum_, _hookerianum_, _moserianum_* (the best of the genus for small beds). ILEX.--Of the Hollies, _I. Aquifolium_ and many varieties, _I. cornuta_,* _I. Dahoon_,* _I. crenata_,* and _I. latifolia_* succeed best. JASMINES.--_J. fruticans_ and _J. nudiflorum_.* The last-named should be grown as a small bush as well as on walls. Also _J. officinale_* and varieties. A golden-leaved form of this species merits attention from its foliage alone. JUGLANS (Walnut) REGIA.--Grows fairly well, but no fruit of value. LABURNUM.--Both _L. alpinum_ and _L. vulgare_.* LAVENDER. LEDUM.--Of this family, _L. latifolium_* and _L. palustre._* LEUCOTHOË RECURVA. LEYCESTERIA FORMOSA. LIQUIDAMBAR STYRACIFLUA.* LIRIODENDRON TULIPIFERA (Tulip tree*).--Grows into a very handsome tree. LONICERA.--Of the Honeysuckles the best are _L. Caprifolium_,* _L. fragrantissima_, _L. Periclymenum_,* _L. japonica_,* _L. Standishi_, _L. Xylosteum_, _L. involucrata_. LUPINUS ARBOREUS* and varieties (Tree Lupine).--Best on walls. MAGNOLIAS.--Of these, _M. acuminata_,* the Cucumber tree, flowers freely. _M. grandiflora_* is only for sheltered walls, and _M. Fraseri_, _M. conspicua_, _M. stellata_, _M. Watsoni_* for sheltered places. MORUS NIGRA (Black Mulberry) and _M. alba_. OLEARIA HAASTII.*--The best August flowering shrub. _O. macrodonta_ and _stellulata_.* OSMANTHUS AQUIFOLIUM.* PERNETTYA MUCRONATA.*--Effective both in flower and berry. PHILADELPHUS (Mock Orange).--_P. coronarius_* and varieties and _microphyllus_. PHLOMIS FRUTICOSA. PIERIS FLORIBUNDA.*--Very free flowering. _P. japonica variegata_*--Effective. PLATANUS ACERIFOLIA (Plane).--This appears hardy, but is not popular. It is slower in growth than most trees. POPULUS (Poplar).--_P. alba_, _P. balsamifera_ (Balsam Poplar), _P. nigra_ (Black Poplar), and _P. tremula_. POTENTILLA FRUTICOSA* (Shrubby Cinquefoil).--Well deserves more attention. PRUNUS.--Of these, the Cherry and Bird Cherry,* Plum,* Bullace,* and the beautiful _P. triloba_ are a success. PTELEA TRIFOLIATA. PYRUS.--_P. Aria_* (the White Beam tree), _P. Aucuparia_* (Mountain Ash), _P. japonica_,* _P. rotundifolia_,* _P. Sorbus_* (Service tree). QUERCUS (Oak).--The most satisfactory species are _Q. sessilifolia_,* and _Q. pedunculata_. These generally thrive well and are amongst the most beautiful of trees for large gardens. In poor soil and windswept places the British Oaks do not grow more than about 40 feet in height, but develop into picturesque features. Their foliage here is of a pleasing green when that of the Beech and Sycamore is past its best. Very few acorns are produced. _Q. Cerris_,* the Turkey Oak, and its variety _laciniata_,* and _Q. lucombeana_,* are also beautiful trees. We must also mention the Evergreen Oak (_Q. Ilex_),* _alba_, _palustris_, _laurifolia_, _coccinea_ (Scarlet Oak), _Suber_ (Cork Oak), _conferta_. RHODODENDRON.--Of the Rhododendrons the following are satisfactory: _R. altaclerense_, _Anthopogon_, _arborescens_, _arboreum Campbelliæ_, _azaleoides_, _blandyanum_, _calendulaceum_, _campanulatum_, _campylocarpum_, _catawbiense_, _caucasicum_,* _ciliatum_, _cinnabarinum_,* _ferrugineum_,* _fulgens_, _glaucum_,* _hirsutum_* and varieties, _indicum balsaminæflorum_, _lancifolium_, _lepidotum_,* _myrtifolium_,* _nobleanum_,* _n. album_,* _ponticum_* (many varieties), _præcox_,* _punctatum_, _racemosum_, _Rhodora_, _sinensis_* (_Azalea mollis_), _Vaseyi_,* _Wilsoni_. These are the principal Rhododendrons that thrive and flower well here. No other shrubs give such a long and varied flower display. RIBES.--_R. alpinum_, _aureum_, and _rubrum_. _R. sanguineum_* and its varieties are the principal ornamental currants. ROBINIA PSEUDACACIA.*--An elegant foliage tree, and usually the last to break into leaf. ROSA.--Practically all the Tea and Hybrid Perpetual Roses can be grown, if sheltered spots are chosen and the plants grown as dwarfs. However, the stronger varieties are the most satisfactory ones, and in bad seasons it is July before they commence to flower, although September has well advanced before they cease. The hybrid Sweet Briars are the freest of all to grow. Groups form thickets of foliage which are almost hidden with blossom. _Rosa wichuraiana_ covers banks, or anything somewhat flat, in a very short time. It flowers through September, and attracts great attention. Such tender Roses as Maréchal Niel, Niphetos, and Banksian are useless. ROSMARINUS OFFICINALIS (Rosemary). RUBUS.--Of these, _R. arcticus_, dwarf; _R. lacinatus_,* _R. nutkanus_.* _R. deliciosus_* is a beautiful shrub, and should be left alone after planting. RUSCUS (Butcher's Broom).--_R. aculeatus_ and _R. Hypoglossum_. SALIX (Willow).--_S. alba_, _babylonica_ (Babylonian Willow), and _pendula_, a lovely tree. _S. Caprea_* (Goat Willow), _fragilis_, _herbacea_ (the Alpine Willow, not much larger than the Wild Thyme), _Lapponum_, _nigra_, _Paulinæ_, _reticulata_, _rubra_, _viminalis_. SAMBUCUS (Elder).--_S. canadensis_, _nigra_, _racemosus_. SKIMMIA FORTUNEI and _S. japonica_.* SPIRÆAS.--Of these, _S. bella_, _bullata_, _canescens_, _decumbens_, _cantoniensis_,* _discolor_,* _japonica_, _var. Bumalda_,* _tomentosa_, _var. alba_. STAPHYLEA COLCHICA. SYMPHORICARPUS RACEMOSUS (Snowberry). SYRINGA (Lilac).--_S. persica_* (Persian Lilac), and _S. vulgaris_* and varieties. TAMARIX.--_T. gallica_, _T. hispida_, and _T. odessana_,* a very fine August flowering shrub. TILIA (Lime).--_T. argentea_, _T. cordata_, _T. platyphyllos_, and _T. vulgaris_,* the best of all. ULEX (Furze).--_U. europæus_ and _var. fl. pl._* ULMUS (Elm).--_U. campestris_* and _U. montana_.* VACCINIUMS.--Of these choose _V. arboreum_, _V. corymbosum_, _V. Myrtillus_, and _V. pennsylvanicum_,* very fine for drooping over rocks in rock garden; _V. Vitis-idæa_ and the variety _variegata_, a pretty variety of this native shrub. VERONICA.--Of these the most satisfactory are _V. amplexicaulis_,* _Armstrongii_,* _buxifolia_,* _chathamica_,* _Colensoi_,* _cupressoides_,* _c. variabilis_*--grown in poor soil and well exposed, this variety of _V. cupressoides_ is very fine both in summer and winter--_decumbens_,* _epacridea_,* _glauco-cærulea_,* _Hectori_,* _Kirkii_,* _ligustrifolia_,* _monticola_,* _pimeleoides_,* _pinguifolia_,* _rakaiensis_,* _salicifolia_,* _Traversii_.* The above are hardy Veronicas. They also happily include many of the best. Other species are good plants out of doors during summer; they are, however, best lifted early in October and housed till May, or they may be covered in severe weather. Cold winds do most mischief. [Illustration: _GUELDER ROSE OR SNOWBALL TREE._] VIBURNUM OPULUS (Guelder Rose) and varieties, _V. O. sterilis_,* and _V. tomentosum plicatum_.* VINCA (Periwinkle).--_V. major_* and _V. minor_* and varieties. VITIS (Vines).--Of these the best are _V. Coignetiæ_,* _V. heterophylla_,* _V. Labrusca_,* and _V. riparia_.* YUCCA.--_Y. acutifolia_, _Y. filamentosa_,* and _Y. gloriosa_.* BAMBOOS.--These require sheltered positions and good deep soil. The following have proved to be the best out of a considerable number: _Arundinaria auricoma_,* _Fortunei_,* _var. variegata_,* _falcata_,* _Hindsii_,* _japonica_,* _nitida_,* _pumila_,* _Veitchii_,* _Simoni variegata_,* _Bambusa palmata_,* _B. tessellata_,* _Phyllostachys aurea_,* _Henonis_,* _boryana_,* _flexuosa_,* _mitis_,* _nigra_,* _Quiloi_,* _viridi-glaucescens_.* [Illustration: _WYCH ELMS BY HEDGEROW._] CONIFERS.--These are only useful when young--at least, the majority of them. It is impossible to keep them symmetrical against strong cold winds, and the deposits of soot upon their foliage are injurious. When Conifers are wished for as large trees, the Cedar of Lebanon, Atlantic Cedar, _Pinus sylvestris_, _Pinus Pinaster_, or _Cupressus lawsoniana_ are suitable. When Abies and Picea lose their symmetry they are usually far from ornamental. All the species and beautiful varieties of Cupressus, Thuya, and Juniperus are very valuable in a young state. They should be replaced as they become thin and shabby, as they soon do in exposed places. The most satisfactory tree of all is the Yew. Even this hardy tree has its foliage badly hurt by severe winds, but the damage is soon made good. CHAPTER XXIV TENDER SHRUBS AND TREES IN THE SOUTH-WEST[1] The possibilities that exist of the successful open-air culture of tender subjects in the south-west are but little dreamt of by the majority of English flower-lovers. They doubtless read with interest the accounts in the horticultural press of Australian, Chilian, and Californian flowering trees and shrubs growing in their native habitats, and possibly feel a desire to visit these climes in order that they may verify with their own eyes the truth of their readings. As a matter of fact, however, a lengthy sea-voyage is by no means indispensable in order to view certain of these exotics flourishing in the open air, for a few hours' journey by rail will bring the passenger to a land where many of these denizens of other climes may be seen enjoying robust health under English skies. The following list of tender shrubs and trees growing in the gardens of the south-west cannot claim to be an exhaustive one, since it contains only such as have been personally noticed in good health during rambles along the southern coast-line of Cornwall and Devon, and, where no lengthened inspection is possible, it is obvious that certain species and varieties must be overlooked. Incomplete, however, as it doubtless is, it should give an idea of the climatic advantages enjoyed by the district in question. Many of the subjects mentioned are growing in Tresco Abbey gardens, Isles of Scilly, but most of these are also found in mainland gardens as well. Where any have been met with at Tresco only, the fact is noted, but these may also be present on the mainland. The soil of the Scillies, which is composed apparently of peat and disintegrated granite, and is almost identical with much of that around Penzance, is admirably adapted for hard-wooded Australian, New Zealand, and Chilian shrubs and trees, and almost all the species and genera enumerated would be best suited by a compost in which peat and leaf-mould and granite sand formed the chief proportion, although it must be allowed that some alluded to have been found to succeed equally well in sandy loam. Porosity in the soil is indispensable, for, in this district, where the winter rains are often exceptionally heavy, unless the water percolates rapidly through the ground, stagnant moisture collects around the roots, a condition which is absolutely fatal to success. The advantages of the Cornish granite sand are gradually being appreciated. Mr. Fitzherbert writes, "I was told the other day by an acquaintance that since he had imported it by the truck-load to his Sussex garden he was able to grow many things successfully that he had before failed with." ABELIA FLORIBUNDA.--Mexico. A beautiful evergreen shrub, bearing clusters of drooping pink flowers about 3 inches in length. Requires a sunny and sheltered site. Finest specimen 6 feet. Several gardens. ABUTILON VEXILLARIUM.--Rio Grande. A handsome evergreen species generally grown against a wall. It throws up long, slender, arching shoots from 6 to 8 feet in length, studded with pendulous ball-shaped flowers with crimson sepals, yellow petals, and dark-brown stamens which are very striking and often remain in bloom for six months. Common. _A. vitifolium_--Chili. A most ornamental evergreen shrub of which there are two forms, one bearing lavender flowers, the other white. In exceptional cases it attains a height of 20 feet, and when covered with its large blossoms, which are about 3 inches in diameter, and feathered to the ground with foliage, it presents a lovely picture. Large specimens form pyramids of bloom, and in some gardens numbers of these are to be found. Wall protection unnecessary. ACACIAS.--Australia. In Cornish and South Devon gardens many species are to be met with in robust health. _A. affinis_, very generally confounded with _A. dealbata_, is the most common. In many cases _A. affinis_ is grown as _A. dealbata_. The leaves of the former are green, while those of the latter are bluish and its flowers are less bright in colour. A group of _A. affinis_ about 35 feet in height was a wonderful sight at Tregothnan at the end of March, being simply covered with golden blossom which was thrown into high relief by a background of Ilexes. _A. verticillata_ is another handsome species flowering later in the spring. It is a very rapid grower, reaching a height of 15 feet in a few years, generally growing in the form of a broad-based cone, with its lower branches but a foot or so from the ground. When in flower it is so covered with its pale-yellow blossoms that no foliage is discernible. _A. armata_ may be seen as a bush 7 feet high and as much in diameter. _A. ovata_ Mr. Fitzherbert has only seen as a bush some 3 feet high; very pretty when bearing its circular, golden flower-bells. _A. longifolia_ is another handsome tree, with leaves something like those of an Oleander and bright-yellow flowers. _A. melanoxylon_ is a fine tree. The specimen at Tresco is about 50 feet in height, and there are good examples on the mainland. Pale-yellow flowers produced in profusion. Other species met with are _A. riceana_, _A. (Albizzia) lophantha_, _A. calamifolia_, _A. linifolia_, _A. latifolia_, and _A. platyptera_, the latter against a wall. ADENANDRA FRAGRANS.--Cape of Good Hope. A small evergreen shrub, bearing fragrant, rose-coloured flowers. Tregothnan. ANOPTERUS GLANDULOSA.--Tasmania. A vigorous evergreen shrub, with dark, shining green leaves, bearing long, erect terminal racemes of white, cup-shaped flowers, resembling the blooms of _Clethra arborea_, but larger. Tregothnan. ACANTHOPANAX SPINOSUM.--Garden seedling. A striking plant with dark-green, large-sized leaves divided into five sections. Height at present 5 feet. Tregothnan. ASTER (OLEARIA) ARGOPHYLLUS.--Australia. The Silver Musk tree, with musk-scented leaves and dull-red flowers in summer. Three gardens. Height 12 feet. ATHROTAXIS LAXIFOLIA.--Tasmania. A tender Conifer. A fine example, 20 feet in height, fruited profusely at Menabilly two years ago. BANKSIA GRANDIS.--Australia. Evergreen shrub, bearing yellow flowers in dense spikes. _B. serrata_, red flowers, and _B. littoralis_. All at Tresco. _B. quercifolia_, handsome leaves, with white reverse. Abbotsbury. Banksias were at one time in request as greenhouse plants. BAUERA RUBIOIDES.--New South Wales. A pretty little evergreen shrub not unlike a Heath, but more branching, bearing solitary, pink, saucer-shaped flowers half an inch across, each petal striped with white down the centre. BENTHAMIA (CORNUS CAPITATA) FRAGIFERA.--Nepaul. A handsome, evergreen tree, first introduced into England in 1825, when seed was sown at Heligan, Cornwall, and where there are now specimens some 60 feet in height. It is largely represented throughout Cornwall, being used in some places as a woodland tree. In June, when the leafage is hidden by the wide-spread, platter-like flowers of pale yellow, its effect is very beautiful, especially when thrown up by a background of green foliage. In the autumn the fruits, from which it takes its name of Strawberry tree, some an inch or more in diameter, become bright crimson. BORONIA.--Australia. These are almost universally treated as greenhouse plants, but succeed in the open air in the south-west. At Tregothnan, at the end of March, two bushes of _B. megastigma_, planted in front of a wall, the larger of which was about 3 feet in height, were coming into profuse bloom, and already scented the air with the first of their brown, yellow-lined, drooping cups. _B. heterophylla_, with its purple-red flowers was also expanding blooms, and _B. Drummondii_, _B. elatior_, and _B. polygalæfolia_ were also growing in the same garden. BRACHYGLOTTIS REPANDA.--New Zealand. A handsome tree, with leaves nearly a foot in length and numerous minute flower-heads. Tresco. BUDDLEIA COLVILLEI.--Sikkim. The finest of the new race, with pendulous racemes, nearly a foot in length, of crimson, pentstemon-like flowers, paler round the centre, an inch across. Leaves large and dark green, 6 inches or more in length. Several gardens. CALLISTEMON SALIGNUS.--Australia. There are two forms of this Bottle-brush, one bearing pale-yellow flowers and the other crimson. Others are _C. lanceolatus_, carmine-flowered, and _C. speciosus_, scarlet-flowered. These grow well as bushes, specimens of the first-named being sometimes 10 feet in height and as much in diameter. There is much confusion between this genus and _Metrosideros floribunda_. Callistemons are to be found in many gardens. CAMELLIA RETICULATA.--This is hardy, but rarely flowers satisfactorily in the open except in the south-west, where it is grown both against walls and as a bush plant. It is by far the finest of the Camellias, bearing lovely, pink, semi-double flowers 6 inches in diameter, with bright-yellow, spreading stamens. CANDOLLEA TETRANDRA.--Australia. An evergreen bush bearing clear-yellow, cup-shaped flowers somewhat resembling Sun Roses, but of finer texture. Tresco. CANTUA BUXIFOLIA.--Peru. An evergreen shrub, bearing in corymbs at the end of the branches pale-red trumpet-flowers something after the style of _Fuchsia corymbiflora_. Tresco. CARPENTERIA CALIFORNICA.--A well-known evergreen shrub in the south-west, bearing fragrant, white, yellow-centred flowers. In some gardens it suffers from browning of the leaves, but this is apparently not the effect of cold winds or frost, as often the most exposed plants are the least affected and the most sheltered are in the worst plight. The finest specimen known to Mr. Fitzherbert is about 8 feet high and as much through; it is growing near Teignmouth. It may be considered fairly hardy since it has been grown in the open in Scotland. CARYOPTERIS MASTACANTHUS.--Chili. A most valuable, much-branched evergreen shrub growing to a height of 4 feet or more, bearing lavender-blue clusters of flowers in October. There is also a white form. The type is common. This is also happy farther north. CASSINIA LEPTOPHYLLA.--New Zealand. A small evergreen shrub, bearing white flower-heads. Tregothnan. CEANOTHUS.--California and Mexico. Many species and varieties are grown both as bushes, in which form they soon make small trees, and trained against walls. Of the early-flowering varieties _C. veitchianus_ is the brightest coloured, and of the autumn-blooming, azureus section, Gloire de Versailles is the favourite. Common in most gardens. CITHAREXYLOM QUADRANGULARE.--West Indies. The Fiddle-wood. Bears white, fragrant flowers. There is a fine specimen at Abbotsbury. Dorset. CITRUS TRIFOLIATA (OEGLE SEPIARIA).--Japan. This fiercely-spined Citrus is hardy, but rarely flowers and fruits in the north. In the south-west it flowers freely, and one specimen fruits almost annually. It is 7 feet in height, and last year carried over thirty fruits. CLERODENDRON TRICHOTOMUM.--Japan. A deciduous shrub, also hardy, but flowering best in the south-west. A fine specimen over 15 feet in height and as much through is at Greenway on the Dart. CLETHRA ARBOREA.--Madeira. The Lily-of-the-Valley tree. Evergreen. It bears panicles of white, bell-shaped flowers in the summer, at which time it is quite a feature at Tresco. There are good bushes, the largest about 7 feet in height, at Trewidden, near Penzance. COROKIA BUDDLEIOIDES.--New Zealand. A tall-growing evergreen shrub, with leaves 2 to 6 inches in length. _C. Cotoneaster_ is a spreading shrub with small leaves. Both species bear yellow, sweet-scented flowers. The first was at Ludgvan Rectory, Cornwall, the second at Bishop's Teignton. South Devon. CORREA.--Australia. Greenhouse evergreen shrubs which do well at Tresco, and also in some gardens on the mainland. _C. cardinalis_ is the most brilliant, but _C. ventricosa_ is almost as highly coloured. The two named, as well as _C. alba_, _C. bicolor_, _C. carnea_, _C. glauca_, _C. magnifica_, and _C. virens_ are sometimes seen in good health and flower on the mainland. CORYNOCARPUS LÆVIGATUS.--New Zealand. An evergreen tree, bearing panicles of white flowers followed by plum-like fruit. A healthy young plant is at Ludgvan Rectory. CRINODENDRON HOOKERI (TRICUSPIDARIA HEXAPETALA).--Chili. A particularly handsome shrub, growing to a height of 5 feet, bearing large, drooping, cherry-red, urn-shaped flowers on long peduncles, the petals being very fine in texture. In many gardens. CYTISUS RACEMOSUS.--Peak of Teneriffe. One of the commonest and most popular greenhouse plants. It grows to 8 or 10 feet in height in the south-west and often flowers until Christmas. DAPHNE INDICA.--India. Both the white and purple-red form of this fragrant plant are common in the open in Devon and Cornwall, and in mild seasons commence to bloom in January. Some old plants have formed large bushes in front of walls. DAPHNIPHYLLUM GLAUCESCENS.--China. Evergreen. This is hardy, but is uncommon. A very large specimen is at Trewidden, and is 12 feet in height and 20 feet in spread. It has long shining leaves, the shoots being red in colour; these, early in April, are surrounded by closely clustered, maroon-red flower-buds. DATURA SANGUINEA.--Peru. This grows to a large size in the south-west, often forming a tree 12 feet or more in height, and, in mild winters, blooming until February. _D. suaveolens_, Mexico, is probably more tender, as such large specimens are rarely seen. DENDROMECON RIGIDUS.--California. A handsome shrub with glaucous leaves, the branchlets terminated by bright-yellow poppy-like flowers. It succeeds best in poor soil that does not induce vigorous growth. Enys. DESFONTAINEA SPINOSA.--Chili. A most distinct evergreen shrub, with leaves resembling those of a Holly. It bears tubular flowers 3 inches in length of a bright vermilion tipped with yellow, and is a very handsome object when in full flower. It commences to bloom in the summer, and often holds many of its flowers until November. The largest specimen met with was about 8 feet in height, and was in the neighbourhood of Teignmouth. The Desfontainea is to be found in most gardens. DIOSMA ERICOIDES.--South Africa. A heath-like evergreen shrub, bearing single white flowers not unlike those of a Myrtle. Its leaves are fragrant when bruised. A healthy plant, about 4 ft. by 4 ft., trained against a wall, was coming into bloom at Tregothnan at the end of March. DIOSPYROS KAKI.--The Persimmon. China. This is hardy, but rarely fruits except in the south-west. A tree at Bishop's Teignton produced fruit, which ripened well, in 1890. In autumn the colouring of its foliage is very attractive. DRIMYS (TASMANNIA) AROMATICA.--Tasmania. An evergreen shrub or small tree, bearing tiny white flowers in spring. Its leaves, if bitten, are very pungent, stinging the palate like pepper. The finest specimen known to the writer is one 15 feet in height at Menabilly. _D. Winteri_--South America. A handsome flowering shrub, bearing ivory-yellow, fragrant flowers, an inch across. At Bishop's Teignton there is a good example over 12 feet in height. Both species are fairly well distributed in gardens. DRYOBALANOPS AROMATICA.--Sumatra. The Camphor tree. There is at Penjerrick a good specimen 20 feet in height. EDWARDSIA GRANDIFLORA SYN. SOPHORA TETRAPTERA.--The New Zealand Laburnum. This and its variety _E. microphylla_ bear racemes of yellow flowers, the individual blooms being 2 inches long in the first case, and about half the length in the second, in the spring. Examples 10 feet or so in height are to be found in some gardens. [Illustration: _EDWARDSIA GRANDIFLORA._] EMBOTHRIUM COCCINEUM.--South America. The Fire Bush. The most brilliant of all flowering trees capable of outdoor culture in this country. In May every twig is laden with clusters of long flowers of glowing scarlet, the trees presenting a most gorgeous spectacle. Every good garden in Cornwall and most in South Devon possesses specimens, some containing a dozen or more. The finest are probably Trewidden and Penjerrick, where they are 30 feet in height and as much in spread. ERIOSTEMON BUXIFOLIUS.--Australia. A small evergreen shrub, bearing pink flowers in the spring. Tresco. ESCALLONIA ILLINITA.--Chili. Bears white flowers in July. There is one 15 feet high at Menabilly. _E. revoluta_--Chili. Bears white flowers three quarters of an inch long in August, 20 feet high. Menabilly. _E. organensis_--Organ Mountains. Bears rose-coloured flowers. Fine specimens in more than one garden. _E. floribunda_--Montevideo. Bears fragrant white flowers in August. Common in the south-west. EUCALYPTI.--Australia. Some thirty or forty specimens are grown, of which perhaps the best known are: _E. globulus_, which has attained a height of 50 feet; _E. citriodora_, 20 feet, against the house at Togerthnan; _E. amygdalina_, &c. Many flower freely and bear fertile seed. _E. Gunnii_ flowers freely at Parkstone, Dorset, in Professor Wallace's garden. It is quite hardy there. EUCRYPHIA PINNATIFOLIA.--Chili. A beautiful deciduous flowering shrub, bearing large white flowers like a St. John's Wort, with bright-yellow anthers. A specimen at Trewidden is 8 feet in height. EUONYMUS FIMBRIATUS.--Japan and India. This shrub is chiefly remarkable for the tint of its young leafage, which is bright crimson, and gives a vivid, flower-like effect at a little distance in April. Met with at Tregothnan and Abbotsbury. EUPATORIUM WEINMANNIANUM.--South America. This soon grows into a rounded bush 10 feet or so in height and as much in diameter. It bears its flat heads of fragrant white flowers in autumn and well into winter, the flowers being succeeded by fluffy seed-vessels. It is quite common. EURYA LATIFOLIA.--Japan. Half-hardy. An evergreen shrub, with leaves somewhat like those of a Camellia, bearing small white flowers. There is a variegated form that at one time was used for greenhouse decoration. Tresco. FABIANA IMBRICATA.--Chili. A charming evergreen heath-like shrub, bearing a profusion of pure-white tubular flowers clustered thickly around every shoot. A fine example 8 feet in height is at Trelissick, but it is a common plant in the south-west. [Illustration: _FABIANA IMBRICATA IN FLOWER IN A DEVONSHIRE GARDEN._] FAGUS CLIFFORTIOIDES.--The New Zealand Beech. A tree with minute leaves, which have given it the name of Birch in its native land. In New Zealand it is evergreen, but in this country is deciduous. A good specimen is at Enys. FREMONTIA CALIFORNICA.--An extremely handsome deciduous flowering shrub, bearing bright-yellow, cupped flowers 3 inches in diameter with orange stamens. It often remains in bloom for months. Large plants have unfortunately a way of dying off when apparently in good health, several fine specimens having succumbed in this manner. The finest we now know of is one growing in bush form about 8 feet in height at Newton Abbot, but the same garden contained at one time a larger example. GREVILLEA.--Australia. _G. rosmarinifolia_, with carmine-red flowers, forms a vigorous shrub, growing to a height of 8 feet with a spread of 7 feet. It is to be found in many gardens. At Tregothnan, _G. Priessii_, with pink and yellow flowers; _G. alpina_, red-tipped yellow; and _G. sulphurea_ are grown; and we have seen _G. robusta_, which had been in the open for three years. All species are evergreen. GUEVINA AVELLANA.--Chili. A very ornamental evergreen tree, with large impari-pinnate leaves of a deep, glossy green, bearing white flowers followed by coral-red fruit the size of a cherry. There is a fine specimen at Greenway, 20 feet in height, which has ripened fruits from which seedlings have been raised. HABROTHAMNUS CORYMBOSUS.--Mexico. This well-known red-flowered greenhouse shrub does admirably as a bush plant in the open, as does _H. elegans_, with purple-red flowers. They often carry bloom as late as November and are frequently met with. HAKEA LAURINA.--Australia. An evergreen shrub, bearing clusters of rosy-lilac flowers. Menabilly. Mr. Fitzherbert says, "I am not aware if it has flowered in this country." HELIOCARPUS CYANEUS.--Tropical America. A small evergreen tree, bearing blue flowers. Tresco. HOHERIA POPULNEA.--New Zealand. The Houhere of the natives. Ribbon-wood. With pure white flowers and a handsome foliage. Enys and other gardens. ILLICIUM ANISATUM.--Japan. A half-hardy evergreen shrub, bearing clusters of ivory-white flowers. Held sacred by the Japanese, who burn the bark before the shrines of their deities. Tresco. _I. floridanum_, Southern States of America, bearing maroon flowers. Not uncommon. INDIGOFERA GERARDIANA.--India. A low-branching evergreen shrub, with finely-divided foliage, bearing racemes 5 inches in length of rose-purple, pea-like flowers. Common. There is a white variety which is rarely seen. JACARANDA MIMOSÆFOLIA.--Brazil. A very graceful evergreen tree with acacia-like leaves a foot in length, bearing panicles of drooping violet-blue flowers. There is a fine young plant at Rosehill, Falmouth. LAGERSTROEMIA INDICA.--A handsome deciduous shrub, bearing large bright-pink flowers. LEPTOSPERMUM.--Australia. _L. baccatum_ and _L. scoparium_ are the most generally met with. Both bear small white flowers and are evergreen. We have seen the former 12 feet and the latter 20 feet in height. Other species are also grown. LIBONIA FLORIBUNDA.--Brazil. The favourite greenhouse flowering shrub, bearing drooping scarlet and yellow blossoms. Tresco and one mainland garden. LITSEA GENICULATA.--Southern United States. A deciduous shrub or tree, bearing white flowers in May. The largest in England is probably one at Menabilly, 25 feet in height. MELALEUCA HYPERICIFOLIA.--Australia. An evergreen shrub, bearing scarlet bottle-brush flowers. Tresco. MELIA AZEDARACH.--Tropical Asia. The Bead tree, so called from the seeds being used for rosaries, bearing much-branched panicles of fragrant lilac flowers. Leaves bipinnate and deeply serrated. Rosehill. Evergreen. MELIANTHUS MAJOR.--Cape of Good Hope. A well-known plant in sub-tropical gardening. At Rosehill it has reached a height of 12 feet. METROSIDEROS ROBUSTA.--New Zealand. An evergreen tree, bearing clusters of brilliant crimson flowers at the extremities of the shoots; in this it differs from Callistemon, whose flowers encircle the branchlets some distance below the extremities. Tresco; 30 feet in height. MITRARIA COCCINEA.--Chili. An evergreen shrub, bearing bright-scarlet flowers. This is to be found 6 feet in some gardens. MYOPORUM LÆTUM.--Australia. Native name, Guaio. An evergreen tree, bearing small white flowers, and having lanceolate leaves dotted with countless transparent spots. Two mainland gardens. NERIUM OLEANDER.--Mediterranean. The Oleander. This is established, and flowers in sheltered nooks on the mainland. OZOTHAMNUS ROSMARINIFOLIUS.--Australia. An evergreen shrub, bearing countless, minute, white flowers. Sprays, if cut when the flowers are fully expanded, will retain their decorative qualities for a year. It is common in the south-west, and at Trewidden there are bushes 8 feet in height. PAULOWNIA IMPERIALIS.--Japan. A hardy deciduous flowering tree, bearing erect panicles of large, lilac, gloxinia-like flowers. Owing to the spring frosts, it rarely perfects these except in sheltered sites in mild springs, but when in good bloom it is marvellously beautiful. PENTSTEMON CORDIFOLIUS.--California. A tall-growing species, bearing bright-scarlet flowers in the summer. With the shelter of a wall it grows to a height of 5 feet or more. Trewidden. PHILESIA BUXIFOLIA.--Chili. A dwarf evergreen shrub, rarely exceeding 2 feet in height, bearing drooping, pink lapageria-like blossoms. To be found in many gardens. PHOTINIA JAPONICA.--Japan. The Loquat. This hardy, ornamental-foliaged tree is practically hardy, and at Enys flowers annually. We believe, however, that it has not fruited. The finest specimen we know of, 15 feet in height with a head 12 feet through, is at Saltram. PIERIS FORMOSA.--Himalayas. This so-called Andromeda is widely met with. The finest example is at Pentillie Castle, and is 20 feet in height with a spread of 30 feet. When this is white with its clustering flower-sprays it is a lovely sight. PIMELEA DECUSSATA.--Australia. An evergreen shrub, bearing rose-red, globular flower-heads at the extremities of the branches. Tresco. PINUS MONTEZUMÆ.--Mexico. A noble and distinct Pine, good specimens of which are at Tregothnan and Menabilly, where it has fruited. [Illustration: _PINUS MONTEZUMÆ AT FOTA._] PIPTANTHUS NEPALENSIS.--Nepaul. An evergreen shrub, bearing numbers of bright-yellow laburnum-like flowers. It seems indifferent to soil, and may be seen flourishing under adverse circumstances. Common. PLAGIANTHUS BETULINUS.--New Zealand. Ribbon tree. Bears small white flowers in clusters. A splendid example 50 feet in height is at Abbotsbury. PITTOSPORUM.--New Zealand. Evergreen shrubs. _P. Mayi_, at Tregothnan, is about 30 feet in height; while we have seen _P. bicolor_ over 20 feet, and many fine examples of _P. undulatum_, _P. tenuifolium_, of which last a hedge has been made at Falmouth, and other species. All bear their little flowers in profusion in the south-west. The Japanese _P. Tobira_ is a hardy shrub, bearing spreading flower-heads of fragrant white blossom. PODOCARPUS ANDINA.--Chili. A handsome evergreen tree to be found in most gardens. At Penjerrick there is a specimen 40 feet in height. POINCIANA (CÆSALPINA) GILLIESI.--South America. An evergreen shrub with acacia-like foliage, bearing clusters of large yellow flowers with bright-red stamens. Mr. Fitzherbert says, "The finest specimen I have seen was in the late Rev. H. Ewbank's garden at Ryde, but I know of smaller ones in the south-west." POLYGALA GRANDIFOLIA (syns. _grandis_, &c.).--Bahia. An evergreen flowering shrub, the finest of its race, bearing large rose and white flowers. Tregothnan. PSEUDOPANAX CRASSIFOLIUM.--New Zealand. An evergreen shrub with dark-green thick leaves 2 feet in length, with orange midribs. Ludgvan Rectory. PUNICA GRANATUM.--The Pomegranate is a neglected shrub in English gardens. Planted at the foot of a south wall, and treated generally like a well-groomed Peach tree, it will flower from June to September. It is not a shrub for cold climates, but Mr. Watson, writing in the _Garden_, October 26, p. 283, says, "At Kew three varieties are grown outdoors, namely, the type, the big double-white flowered variety, with petals margined with white, Picotee-like, and the dwarf variety known as Nana. There are other forms beside these, including a white-flowered one which I have seen in Paris gardens, where old--very old--standard plants are grown and treasured. The dwarf variety is cultivated as a pot plant in some continental countries. I have seen it in the Hamburg florists' shops, pretty little pyramids in 5-inch pots, covered with flowers. Fruits are rarely produced by the Pomegranate in England." RHAPITHAMNUS CYANOCARPUS.--Chili. An evergreen tree, bearing pale-blue flowers, followed by violet-blue berries. A fine specimen 20 feet in height is at Menabilly. RUBUS AUSTRALIS.--A Bramble, the only form of which is worth growing, and that merely as a curiosity, is a practically leafless one. The leaves are indeed there, but they consist merely of three midribs armed with curved spines, and terminated by leaflets less than an inch in length of an inch in breadth. A large plant at Bishop's Teignton has smothered a Euonymus bush, and climbed into an adjacent Fir. SENECIO.--Many of the newer evergreen exotic species, such as _S. Grayii_, _S. Fosterii_, _S. Heretieri_, and others are grown, while in Rosehill garden is a fifty-year-old plant of the Mexican _S. Petasitis_, 8 feet in height. SOLANUM CRISPUM.--Chili. An evergreen flowering shrub, bearing lavender yellow-centred flowers in profusion, often reaching a height of 8 feet. Quite common. SPARMANNIA AFRICANA.--Cape of Good Hope. African Hemp. An evergreen shrub, bearing masses of white flowers with ruby-tipped anthers; a well-known greenhouse plant. At Tresco both the single and double forms are grown, and attain a height of 10 feet. The single form is also met with in mainland gardens, where it is often in flower in February. VERONICA HULKEANA.--New Zealand. An evergreen shrub, bearing branching panicles of pale-lilac flowers, doing best with the support and protection of a wall. To be found in many gardens. WESTRINGIA TRIPHYLLA.--Australia. Evergreen shrub, bearing blue flowers in summer. Tregothnan. FOOTNOTES: [1] Probably all the trees and shrubs mentioned in this and the following chapter will succeed in Ireland. CHAPTER XXV TENDER WALL PLANTS IN THE SOUTH-WEST The notes on tender shrubs and trees grown in the south-west are fittingly supplemented by a passing reference to plants used for covering walls, mostly of climbing habit, but a few of shrubby growth. BIGNONIA.--_B. (Tecoma) radicans_ is a hardy climber, and _B. capreolata_ may also be considered so. Other members of the family grown in the open are _B. capensis_, Cape of Good Hope, orange; _B. Cherere_, Guiana, orange scarlet; and _B. speciosa_, Uruguay, pink. Greenway on the Dart. BERBERIDOPSIS CORALLINA.--Chili. Drooping crimson flowers borne in racemes in the autumn. This evergreen plant does best in peat or leaf-mould in a partially shaded position. Common. BOUGAINVILLEA GLABRA.--Brazil. This climber cannot be considered a success in the open in the south-west, but in two gardens it has been grown and flowers, but in neither case has it exhibited a tithe of the freedom of growth displayed by it under glass. BUCKLANDIA POPULNEA.--Himalayas. A handsome evergreen foliage plant, said to grow to a height of 100 feet in its native habitat. Its large heart-shaped leaves are tinted with bronze and maroon. Tregothnan. CALLICARPA PURPUREA.--India. An evergreen shrub bearing small inconspicuous flowers, followed by violet-coloured berries. Trewidden, Penzance. CASSIA CORYMBOSA.--Buenos Ayres. A rambling shrub, almost invariably grown against a wall, though it has been met with planted against a wire fence, and spreading out on either side. In August it is a mass of golden-yellow bloom, some of which it often retains until Christmas. With wall protection it reaches a height of 12 feet or more, and when in flower is a striking object in the garden. It is fairly common in the south-west. CHORIZEMA.--Australia. Well-known evergreen greenhouse plants, bearing pea-like flowers of orange and red. Masses 7 feet in height and more in breadth grow against the walls at Trewidden, and begin to flower in March. _C. cordatum_ and _C. Lowii_ are the species generally grown. CISSUS DISCOLOR.--Java. A climber, bearing greenish-yellow blossoms. CLEMATIS INDIVISA LOBATA.--New Zealand. This beautiful white-flowered Clematis grows well in many gardens, and commences to bloom in March. CLIANTHUS PUNICEUS.--New Zealand. A brilliant-flowered evergreen climber, bearing large flowers, somewhat resembling lobsters' claws, scarlet crimson in hue. It sometimes comes into flower as early as Christmas, the number of its blossoms increasing until mid-May, when it is a glowing sheet of colour. The finest plant Mr. Fitzherbert knows is at Stoke Fleming, near Dartmouth, where it covers the side of a large house. DIPLACUS (MIMULUS) GLUTINOSUS.--California. Another popular greenhouse plant, bearing buff flowers, which succeeds admirably against walls in many gardens, growing some 5 feet in height. ELÆOCARPUS CYANEUS.--Australia. An evergreen plant of shrubby growth, bearing whitish-blue flowers. Greenway. ERCILLA (BRIDGESIA) VOLUBILIS.--Chili. A self-clinging evergreen climber, bearing inconspicuous flowers. Fairly common, but scarcely attractive. HIBBERTIA DENTATA.--Australia. An evergreen climber, with foliage of deep bronze, bearing single bright-yellow flowers in April. Trewidden. _H. Reidii_, also yellow-flowered. Tregothnan. HYDRANGEA PETIOLARIS.--Japan. A rampant-growing climber, bearing flat flower-heads, composed of blooms the minority of which are sterile. It clings naturally, and is displayed to best advantage when allowed to ascend a bare tree trunk. At Menabilly, Cornwall, a specimen planted twelve years ago has ascended the columnar trunk of a Turkey Oak to a height of almost 40 feet. INGA PULCHERRIMA.--Mexico. An evergreen shrub, bearing bright-scarlet flowers in summer. A fine plant covering a large expanse of wall is at Greenway. KENNEDYA NIGRICANS.--Australia. An evergreen climber, bearing violet-purple racemes of small pea-like blossoms. Greenway. _K. alba_ is also grown. LAPAGERIA.--Chili. This handsome evergreen climber, producing long wax-like blossoms of white and rose, is well known under glass. In the south-west it does well in the open against a north wall, in peaty compost, often bearing its flowers as late as Christmas. LASIANDRA (PLEROMA TIBOUCHINA) MACRANTHA.--Brazil. A beautiful evergreen shrub of climbing habit, bearing large violet flowers. It is usually cut down by frost, but breaks again strongly in the spring. Trewidden and other gardens. MANDEVILLA SUAVEOLENS.--Buenos Ayres. A lovely deciduous climber, bearing large, white, deliciously-fragrant flowers in August. It does well in several gardens in the south-west, in some of which it seeds freely. MICHELIA (MAGNOLIA) FUSCATA.--China. An evergreen or sub-evergreen shrub (according to position), bearing dull-purple sweetly-scented flowers. Tregothnan. PHOENOCOMA PROLIFERA.--Cape of Good Hope.--An evergreen shrub, bearing large, terminal, crimson flower-heads. Trewidden. PHYSIANTHUS ALBENS SYN. ARAUJIA ALBENS.--Brazil. An evergreen climber, bearing a profusion of white flowers, which later assume a reddish tinge. Common in the south-west. The finest specimen Mr. Fitzherbert has seen grew against a cliff-face in the public gardens at Torquay. It spread to a height and breadth of considerably over 20 feet, and one year bore over a dozen huge corrugated seed-pods, about the size of a cricket ball, but oval in shape. This strain killed the plant, but a young one has now taken its place. PLUMBAGO CAPENSIS.--Cape of Good Hope. A climbing evergreen shrub, bearing large heads of pale-blue flowers; a favourite conservatory plant. It is grown in several gardens, and flowers well in the open. A fine example, which has been unprotected for five months, is growing in the same site as the Physianthus alluded to above. PUERARIA THUNBERGIANA.--Khasia. An evergreen climber, with leaves 5 inches in diameter, bearing blue flowers. Fibre is obtained from the stems and starch from the roots. Tregothnan. [Illustration: _PUERARIA THUNBERGIANA._] RHODOCHITON VOLUBILE.--Mexico. A climber, bearing blood-red drooping flowers. This plant, in common with Lothospermum and Maurandya, all three of which are perennials, is almost invariably killed by the winter, but is easily raised from seed. Rosehill, Falmouth. RHYNCHOSPERMUM (TRACHELOSPERMUM) JASMINOIDES.--Shanghai. An evergreen climber, hardy in the south-west, bearing countless starry-white flowers, most delicately perfumed in August. It is to be met with in the majority of gardens, and in one it has covered the house porch. RUSCUS ANDROGYNUS SYN. SEMELE ANDROGYNA.--Canary Islands. An evergreen climber, valuable for its striking foliage. The leaves, or rather cladodes, are over a foot in length, and are furnished with from twelve to twenty pinnate sections of a glossy green. Penjerrick, Falmouth, where it has borne its inconspicuous greenish-white flowers. SOLANUM WENDLANDI.--Costa Rica. An evergreen climber, bearing clusters of large lilac-blue flowers, 2½ inches in diameter. The late Rev. H. Ewbank, in whose garden at Ryde the finest specimen we have seen was growing, considered it the best of all the tender climbers amenable to open-air culture in the south-west. SOLLYA HETEROPHYLLA.--Australia. Bluebell Creeper. An evergreen climber, bearing drooping blue flowers. Tregothnan. STAUNTONIA (HOLBOELLIA) LATIFOLIA.--Himalayas. An evergreen climber, with oval leathery leaves, bearing in April clusters of greenish-white flowers, delightfully odorous. A very common plant in the south-west. STREPTOSOLEN JAMESONI.--Columbia. A handsome evergreen shrub, in great request for clothing conservatory pillars, &c. It bears panicles of orange-red flowers, and when in full bloom has a brilliant effect. A plant about 7 feet in height is growing against the house at Trewidden. SWAINSONIA ALBIFLORA.--Australia. An evergreen leguminous shrub, bearing white pea-like flowers, well known in greenhouses. It is grown in several gardens, and if cut down by sharp frosts breaks strongly again in the spring. TACSONIA EXONENSIS.--A hybrid between _T. Van Volxemii_ and _T. mollissima_. Bearing bright rosy-pink flowers. Trewidden. T. MOLLISSIMA.--Quito. A vigorous species, bearing pink flowers, with tubes from 4 to 5 inches in length. Though Quito is on the equator, its height above sea-level being 9600 feet, the temperature is not unduly high. There is a large plant, which has had to be kept within bounds by periodical pruning, at Rosehill. CHAPTER XXVI TREES AND SHRUBS IN IRELAND It is not possible, without going beyond the limits of a volume of comfortable size, to do anything approaching justice to the trees and shrubs that are the glory of many gardens in the sister Isle. It is a favoured isle for the growth of Conifers, and trees and shrubs that in other parts of Britain, except under exceptional conditions, completely fail. The Sikkim Rhododendrons at Kilmacurragh, Co. Wicklow, the residence of Mr. Thomas Acton, D.L.; the Rhododendrons and Ghent Azaleas at Houth Castle, Co. Dublin; the noble Conifers in the gardens of Viscount Powerscourt at Enniskerry, Wicklow, and of Lord Annesley, Castlewellan, Co. Down, besides other counties, are well known to every one deeply interested in trees and shrubs; while among other notable gardens filled with rare treasures and specimens of individual development may be named, St. Annes', Clontarf, Co. Dublin; Cong, Co. Mayo; and Muckross, Killarney, residences of Lord Ardilaun. The gardens of Mr. W. E. Gumbleton, Belgrove, Queenstown, Cork, contain interesting collections; and the same may be said of Straffan, Co. Kildare, the Duke of Leinster's famous residence; Carton, near Maynooth, in the same county; Woodstock, Kilkenny, the residence of Mrs. Tighe; Hamwood, Dunboyne, Co. Meath (Mr. R. Hamilton, D.L.); Killarney House, Killarney (the Lord Kenmare); Kylemore, Co. Mayo (Mr. Mitchell Henry); and Narrow Water Park, Co. Down (Capt. Roger Hall). And we are not forgetful of the beautiful Fota Island near Cork (Lord Barrymore), where plants accounted tender in more northerly latitudes flourish with almost tropical luxuriance. The gardens of Ireland must be seen to realise their beauty and climatic advantages. Ireland is happy in having many enthusiastic gardeners, and it will be well for those who wish for some information as to the great variety of trees and shrubs that will live unprotected in the sister Isle to read the contribution of the Earl of Annesley to the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, upon "Ornamental Trees and Shrubs in the Gardens at Castlewellan, Co. Down," vol. xxviii. The Earl's garden, to quote his own words, "Is on one of the foot hills of the Mourne Mountains in the county of Down, about three miles from the Irish Channel, thus benefiting by the mild influence of the Gulf Stream: it faces east and south, and is surrounded by old forest trees, so that it is well sheltered. We suffer little from frost; ten degrees is the average; once, in the hard winter of 1895, we had fifteen degrees. The rainfall is about thirty-two inches; the subsoil is gravel, and as it lies on rather a steep hill there is perfect drainage--a great advantage for tender, as indeed it is for all plants." In a future edition of this work, if it be called for, the gardens of Ireland in relation to the trees and shrubs that are grown therein will receive greater justice than it is possible to give at present, owing to the number of rare and tender species and varieties that are at home in the sister Isle. Ireland has two interesting Botanic gardens, one attached to Trinity College, Dublin, of which Mr. F. W. Burbidge, M.A., is the well-known curator, and the other at Glasnevin. This is under the care of Mr. F. W. Moore and is exceptionally beautiful. Both contain rare trees and shrubs, but the terrific storm in the early part of 1903 wrought sad havoc. CHAPTER XXVII HARDY BAMBOOS Thanks to Lord Redesdale (author of "The Bamboo Garden"), and a few other gardening enthusiasts, the Bamboo has been made a beautiful feature of many English gardens. Although a graceful shrubby grass of quite tropical aspect, the majority of species and their varieties are thoroughly hardy, so much so that they have passed safely through the severest winters of the past twenty years. Bamboos and hybrid Water Lilies are responsible for much of the interest taken in good English gardening at the present time. Their introduction has marked a distinct era, and their popularity is wide-spread, while in the near future we shall regard the Bamboo much as we do the most common of shrubs now planted. _Arundinaria japonica_ (_B. Metake_) is, of course, an old favourite, and it is surprising that this stately species did not before remind English gardeners of the great possibilities of the Bamboos in the adornment of the pleasure-ground. As Mr. Bean says: "Fifteen or twenty years ago many of the best of the sorts now largely grown were unknown in this country; but apart from their novelty they have other qualities. No evergreens capable of withstanding our winters exceed these shrubby grasses in beauty and grace, in luxuriance of leafage, or in their bright, fresh, green tints in winter. Very few, indeed, equal them." [Illustration: _GROUPING OF YUCCAS, PAMPAS GRASS, AND BAMBOOS, KEW (Winter)._] Although fifty species and varieties of this lovely family are now grown, only about twenty need be thought of, because many of them from the ornamental point of view are valueless in the English garden. The hardy Bamboos belong to three groups or genera--_Phyllostachys_, _Arundinaria_, and _Bambusa_--and it is well to thoroughly understand these divisions. We hope those trade growers who still group everything as Bambusa will follow the now accepted classification. The following have proved the most hardy and beautiful in the Bamboo garden at Kew: _Phyllostachys Henonis_, _P. fastuosa_, _P. viridi-glaucescens_, _P. flexuosa_, _P. nigra_, _P. boryana_, _P. sulphurea_, _P. Marliacea_, _P. ruscifolia_, _P. Castillonis_, _Arundinaria nitida_, _A. japonica_, _A. auricoma_, _A. Simoni_, _A. Fortunei_, _A. anceps_, _A. Hindsii var. graminea_, _Bambusa palmata_, _B. tessellata_, and _B. marmorea_. [Illustration: _BAMBOO GARDEN AT KEW, WINTER_ (_In centre, Bambusa palmata; left, Phyllostachys Quilioi; right, Bambusa tessellata_).] In selecting a place for the Bamboo colony, think well of position. Shelter from north and east is essential. Luxuriant leafy stems are only possible when the plants are screened from winds in these quarters, indeed from _all_ winds. Cold north and east winds are more harmful than severe frost, and this applies to all the tender evergreens. A moist and rich soil is also important. Without it luxuriant growth is impossible, and a Bamboo that is not leafy, that does not bend its tall, graceful stems to the breeze and make willowy shoots yards high, when it is natural for it so to do, is not beautiful: the garden is more interesting without it. Many of the species spread rapidly by underground stems, and for this reason must never be planted without careful thought. Each plant should tell its own tale, and not suffer partial extinction through a choke-muddle arrangement that makes a bank of leafage perhaps, but in which all individual beauty is hopelessly lost. Some Bamboos, like _Phyllostachys viridi-glaucescens_ and _P. Henonis_, need ample space for full development. Transplant always in _late spring_, never in winter and early spring. When bamboos were first grown in this country on a large scale many deaths occurred through transplanting in winter. With the utmost care Bamboos in the fickle British climate get sadly browned in February and May, the outcome of either a hard winter or keen east winds in spring. The stems are seldom injured, and Mr. Bean says "the underground portion of the plants never is." This scorched look is not beautiful, and is more apparent as the spring meets summer, when the whole plant world is bursting into new life and tinting the landscape with green. Therefore, Bamboos can never be planted so lavishly as Rhododendrons; and we do not desire a Bamboo plague, beautiful though the plants are in foliage and growth, so perhaps the east wind is somewhat of a blessing. Bamboos must have favoured spots. When a single group is desired, then choose some sheltered corner, and the same consideration is necessary when making a Bamboo garden or grove. A beautiful and refreshing feature of many English homes is a ravine of these lovely grasses, and the Bamboo colony at Kew is accounted one of the most delightful spots in the Royal Gardens. In the _Garden_ of February 1, 1902, pp. 73, 74, is an interesting account of the Bamboos at Kew. As this contains much practical information, it is reproduced: "Kew was one of the first gardens in which hardy Bamboos were grown, and it is to a great extent due to this collection, and the collections of Mr. Freeman Mitford, Messrs. Verten, and a few other pioneers, that the planting of hardy Bamboos has assumed its present proportions. The creation of the Kew Bamboo garden dates back to 1892. Previous to that the cultivation of hardy Bamboos had been practised under great difficulties. The collection contained only a few species, planted in poor soil in an exposed position, and were always unsatisfactory. In addition to Bamboos, there were other monocotyledonous plants in the same plight, hence the happy idea was conceived of forming the present Bamboo garden. This garden is situated on the eastern side of the Rhododendron dell, near the north or Sion Vista end. It was originally a shallow gravel pit, and is peculiarly adapted to the requirements of Bamboos. The depression in the ground and the high bank of the Rhododendron dell give considerable shelter, whilst a wide belt of large forest trees, which surrounds the north, east, and south sides, insures almost complete protection from cold winds. The garden is pear-shaped, and can be entered by three paths on the south-east, west, and north sides. The banks round the sides are terraced, and held up by large tree roots placed roots outwards, the roots forming numerous bays and corners, each of which is given over to one species. Separated from these bays by a gravel path 9 feet wide is a central bed of about a quarter of an acre. This is filled with large clumps of various species and fine single specimens, arranged in such a way as to open a vista right through the bed here and there or into the centre. These vistas and openings, together with the paths, add greatly to the general effect, the plants and groups being well separated and showing to advantage, while the beauty of the stately upright stems of some and arching plumes of others, lining or bending over and almost meeting across the openings, is at once seen. Intermixed with the Bamboos are Yuccas, Miscanthus, Pampas Grass, and other things, all of which help to give pleasing variety. Between the back of the garden and the belt of trees a screen is formed of _Rosa multiflora_, Spiræas, Rhododendrons, and other shrubs, interspersed with clumps of Pampas Grass, Yuccas, and some of the strongest and hardiest of the Bamboos. "When first formed, stiff loam to a depth of 3 feet was spread all over the garden, and into this large quantities of decayed leaves were mixed; in this soil the plants have thriven well. A water main runs through the garden, so that copious supplies of water can be given in dry weather with little trouble. "Altogether some forty-one species and varieties of Bamboos are cultivated. These are composed of seventeen _Arundinarias_, nine _Bambusas_, and fifteen _Phyllostachys_. The majority belong to China and Japan, one, however, belonging to North America, and one to India. The Indian species, _Arundinaria (Thamnocalamus) Falconeri_, which does so well in the south-west counties and in Ireland, is the most difficult to manage, and is killed to the ground every winter, while _A. falcata_ and _A. nobilis_, which are two of the most common species in the famous Cornish gardens, refuse to thrive. "The arrangement of the plants has undergone considerable modification since the first planting, owing to natural development and the introduction of more species. This has resulted in the removal of many duplicates which have been used with large Rhododendrons as an undergrowth to the wood adjoining the entrances, thus considerably enhancing the beauty of the place. "The period of the year at which the garden is at its best extends from the early weeks of July until the Cold east winds in February and March, for, although severe frost has little effect on the leaves of many, cold winds from east or north quickly turn them brown. That Bamboos should continue in good condition and practically be at their best through the worst of the winter months is a strong recommendation in their favour, and by leaving, as is done at Kew, the tall dead stems and leaves of _Miscanthus_ and the plumes of the Pampas Grass, touches of colour are given to relieve the greenery, and add greatly to the general effect. "Of groups and single specimens the following are some of the most conspicuous:-- "ARUNDINARIA.--_A. Simoni_, a fine irregular mass, 16 feet high and 50 feet across. _A. nitida_, several fine clumps, 11 feet high and 12 feet across. _A. japonica_, several large clumps, 11 feet high and 20 feet across. _A. Hindsii var. graminea_, 9 feet high by 12 feet in diameter. "BAMBUSA.--_B. palmata_, 7 feet high and 15 feet across; this is very distinct and handsome, and should be in every collection. "PHYLLOSTACHYS.--_P. aurea_, 12 feet high by 16 feet through. _P. Henonis_, 15 feet high by 12 feet. _P. Castillonis_, 12 feet high by 10 feet. _P. nigra_, 15 feet high; several fine masses. _P. viridi-glaucescens_, 15 feet high and 6 feet through at the base, the top spreading to 20 feet. There is also a fine specimen of this in another part of the garden. "Besides these there are many other fine masses. "Among plants other than Bamboos found in the garden the Yuccas are possibly next in importance. One group is on a bank on the north side having a slope to the south. It is thus exposed to full sun and the plants are happy. In both summer and winter the group forms a delightful picture. The groundwork is composed of the elegant glaucous-leaved _Y. angustifolia_, while here and there a plant of _Y. filamentosa_ has crept in. Height is given to the group by dot plants of _Y. gloriosa_ and _Y. recurvifolia_, while a plant of _Cotoneaster thymifolia_ growing between the roots in front adds a little in the way of variety. The whole picture is set in an irregular framing of Bamboos and other plants, some of the most conspicuous of which are _Miscanthus sinensis_ in front, _Arundinaria japonica_, _A. Hindsii var. graminea_, _Phyllostachys aurea_ and _P. Castillonis_, and Pampas Grass at the back and sides. "A collection of hardy species of Smilax is allowed to ramble at will over the tree roots which form the bays, each species having its own particular place. The species cultivated are _S. aspera_ and its varieties, _S. maculata_ and _S. mauritanica_, _S. Bona-nox var. hastata_, _S. hispida_, _S. rotundifolia_, and _S. tamnoides_. "In addition to the plants named, others given places in the garden are Kniphofias, Funkias, _Eremuri_, _Physalis_ (grown for winter effect), _Ruscus_, _Asparagus_, &c., the whole forming an interesting collection, and one which must be seen to be fully appreciated. "The Kew collection is composed of _Arundinaria anceps_, _A. auricoma_, _A. chrysantha_, _A. Falconeri_, _A. Fortunei_, _A. F. compacta_, _A. Hindsii_, _A. H. graminea_, _A. humilis_, _A. japonica_, _A. macrosperma_, _A. m. tecta_, _A. nitida_, _A. pumila_, _A. Simoni_, _A. S. variegata_, and _A. Veitchii_. _Bambusa agrestis_, _B. angustifolia_, _B. disticha_, _B. marmorea_, _B. Nagashima_, _B. palmata_, _B. pygmæa_, _B. quadrangularis_, and _B. tessellata_. _Phyllostachys aurea_, _P. bambusoides_, _P. boryana_, _P. Castillonis_, _P. flexuosa_, _P. fulva_, _P. Henonis_, _P. Marliacea_, _P. mitis_, _P. nigra_, _P. n. punctata_, _P. Quilioi_, _P. ruscifolia_, _P. sulphurea_, and _P. viridi-glaucescens_." CHAPTER XXVIII THE HEATHS Few groups of small flowering shrubs are so charming in the garden as the hardy Heaths. Their usually neat growth, profusion of flowers, and length of time they are in beauty--sometimes three or four months--make them of great garden value. Not more than twelve species can be grown in the open air, but, with one or two exceptions, all are beautiful, as the following complete list suggests: _Erica arborea_, _E. australis_, _E. carnea_, _E. ciliaris_, _E. cinerea_, _E. lusitanica_ (or _codonodes_), _E. Mackaii_, _E. mediterranea_, _E. multiflora_, _E. scoparia_, _E. stricta_, _E. Tetralix_, and _E. vagans_. When the whole group is grown, one or more species may be had in flower every month in the year, except, perhaps, November. A hybrid between _E. mediterranea_ and _E. carnea_ (sold under the name of _mediterranea hybrida_) has been seen much of late, and is a very welcome little shrub, flowers appearing in some years even in November. Every year some expand before Christmas, and during January it is the brightest plant in the outdoor garden. _E. carnea_ and the white variety follow it; then in a cluster come _E. australis_, _E. arborea_, _E. lusitanica_ (_codonodes_), _E. mediterranea_ and its several varieties, which fill up the months from March to May, and from June onwards we have _E. cinerea_, _E. ciliaris_, _E. Mackaii_, _E. scoparia_ (the least worthy of the Heaths), _E. stricta_, and _E. Tetralix_. The two allied species, _E. vagans_ and _E. multiflora_, carry on the Heath season until October. The Heaths are happiest in a peaty soil. The great Heath nurseries are all on soil of that nature, but it is not essential. A loamy medium can, by adding leaf-mould and, if necessary, sand, be made to suit all the Heaths, and some, such as _E. cinerea_ and _E. mediterranea_, are quite at home on a calcareous soil. Choose positions for them well exposed to the sun, with, if possible, a cool, moist bottom. The ways of planting vary, of course, according to the character of the species and varieties selected. The rather free-growing and taller Heaths, like _lusitanica_ and _arborea_, may be planted in informal groups on sloping banks, or more sparsely with a dwarfer species like _E. carnea_ as the groundwork. _E. lusitanica_ and _E. arborea_, being somewhat tender, are only seen at their best in the south and west, but beautiful effects have been got by planting them in irregular and scattered groups on grassy slopes. The natural grouping of Gorse and Broom suggests a way of using the many beautiful Heaths. _E. mediterranea_ and its varieties, a beautiful group, and much hardier than the two species just mentioned, have flowers of shades of purple and white. Delightful effects are possible when they are planted in bold, informal groups, especially on sloping banks or ground, their flowers appearing over a period of ten or twelve weeks. Dwarf Heaths, like _E. carnea_, _c. alba_, _cinerea_, &c., may be used as edgings to beds of heathy plants. I am indebted to Mr. Bean for the following excellent notes about the Heaths, and the reason this group has a chapter to itself is to encourage a greater use of shrubs, strangely neglected in English gardens. The beauty of Heath in bloom appeals to poet and painter. Moorlands surfaced with colour, hill upon hill of softened shades fading away in the distance, are pleasant memories--pictures beautiful enough, we should have thought, to tempt the planter of the English garden to reproduce in a small way in the homelands. I hope this chapter will do something to make the beautiful wild Heaths and their varieties welcome in rough, peaty grounds and banks, and the many other places where they would be as happy as on their native moors and hillsides. THE TALLER OR TREE-LIKE HEATHS _Erica arborea._--This is the most remarkable of all the hardy Heaths; it grows to quite a small tree. In the Isle of Wight, and doubtless elsewhere, it has been known to grow 30 feet high, with a trunk 39 inches in circumference. It is found wild in considerable abundance along the Mediterranean coast region between Genoa and Marseilles, the wood being used in the manufacture of the so-called Briar pipes, Briar being a corruption of the French word Bruyère. All the Heaths flower with great freedom but none more so than _E. arborea_ and its near ally, _E. lusitanica_. The flowers are almost globular and nearly white; they are quite small individually, but produced so abundantly that the plants are smothered with them from March to May. My experience of this species is that it is hardier and thrives altogether better in the London district than _E. lusitanica_, a species for which it is often grown. It ripens seed every year almost, and can thus be readily increased in a natural way. The young wood is densely covered with short dark hairs and the leaves are closely packed in whorls of three. _E. lusitanica_ (syn. _codonodes_).--Many will not recognise the name _lusitanica_ as applied to the well-known _E. codonodes_, but _lusitanica_ is really an older designation. This Heath, as its name implies, comes from Portugal; it is also a native of Spain, and is often confounded with _E. arborea_. Briefly, they differ in the following respects: The flowers of _E. lusitanica_ are longer and more bell-shaped than the globular ones of _E. arborea_; the foliage of _E. lusitanica_ is a rather pale green, and has a rather more plumose look, the individual leaf being longer and more slender; the young wood, although downy, is not so hairy as in _E. arborea_. The remarkable abundance of flowers, a feature of _E. arborea_, is quite as apparent in this species, their colouring is a faintly pink-tinged white. From Messrs. R. Veitch and Sons, of Exeter, who are taking a special interest in these tree Heaths Kew has lately received a form intermediate between _E. arborea_ and _E. lusitanica_--probably it is a hybrid. _E. lusitanica_ does not apparently grow so large as _E. arborea_, but it is recorded to have reached 12 feet in height in Sussex. Farther west, in Dorsetshire, it grows luxuriantly, and is certainly one of the loveliest of evergreens that can be grown even in that favoured county. Seeds afford the best means of propagation. _E. australis._--One of the most beautiful and rare of all the Heaths, but unfortunately it is not so hardy as the majority. In the southern and western counties, however, it will thrive admirably, withstanding 20 degrees of frost without serious injury, provided the winter is not unusually protracted. It is curious that in spite of its beauty it is little known even in Cornwall, Devon, and similar localities, where it would doubtless thrive to perfection. It has been grown at Kew for the last six years, and although the winters during that period have not been very severe, it has stood out all the time, and it flowers regularly and profusely every spring. It can be increased by cuttings put in at the end of July or the beginning of August. _E. australis_ is a native of Spain and Portugal; it flowers in April and May, and lasts eight weeks in beauty. The flowers are rich, bright, rosy red, brighter, indeed, than those of any other Heath; they are fragrant, pitcher-shaped, and about a quarter-inch long. The species has been confounded with _E. mediterranea_, which often does duty for it, but it is distinguished by having the flowers produced generally four or eight together in terminal clusters. (Those of _E. mediterranea_ appear in the leaf axils.) Those who have gardens in well-sheltered or mild localities should grow this beautiful Heath. The difficulty at present is to get hold of the right thing; I am glad to know, however, that some trade firms are taking it up. It is said to grow 6 to 8 feet high, but I have not seen plants half as high. [Illustration: _ONE OF THE BEST OF ALL HEATHS (Erica carnea)._] _E. mediterranea._--Of all the taller Heaths this is the one, I think, that deserves to be most freely planted in districts no warmer than the London one. The three preceding species, so beautiful when seen at their best, are more comfortable in the southern and western counties. Of sturdier constitution, _E. mediterranea_ may be planted in large quantities with a view to producing broad effects. At Kew a group 70 feet across, planted three or four years ago, already makes a striking mass of purple each spring. The habit of remaining for a long time in full beauty, which is so marked a characteristic of the Heaths, is possessed to the full extent by this species. It is beautiful from March to May, and is all the more appreciated because the majority of the trees and shrubs that bloom at this season have yellow, pink, or white flowers. In the typical _E. mediterranea_ the flowers are bright rosy red, but there is a charming white-flowered variety (_alba_), another with bluish foliage (_glauca_), and a dwarf one (_nana_). The flowers appear near the ends of the shoots in the axils of the leaves, and are pitcher-shaped. The name _mediterranea_ is misleading, for according to Moggridge, the Mediterranean botanist, it is not a native of that region at all; it is rather of Biscayan origin, and is found in Western France and Spain. On the boggy heaths of Galway and Mayo a form of this species is found; it is known as _E. mediterranea var. hibernica_, and grows 2 to 5 feet high. The typical _E. mediterranea_ was represented in the Syon gardens seventy years ago by a specimen 10 feet high. Do any such noble examples remain in this country now? _E. mediterranea hybrida_ has been already alluded to. _E. stricta._--Although not so strikingly beautiful as the Heaths previously mentioned, _E. stricta_ is the hardiest of all the taller species. In inclement districts, where a tall Heath is desired, it may be recommended; it grows from 5 to 6 feet high, and is of erect and sturdy growth, with leaves borne in whorls four to six together; they are deep green, and a large mass of plants with their erect plumose branches produces a somewhat unusual effect. _E. stricta_, like so many Heaths, has a long flowering season; it begins to bloom in June, is at its best in July, but three months later flowers may still be gathered. The flowers are pale purple, and produced in terminal clusters. It has been in cultivation since 1765, and is a native of South-Western Europe; it is occasionally labelled _E. ramulosa_. [Illustration: _A GROUPING OF HEATHS (Erica mediterranea and vars. alba and hybrida)._] _E. scoparia._--This species has proved to be the tallest Heath near London, for it has during the last few years grown as high as 9 feet. This gives it a certain distinction, but when regarded as a flower-bearing plant it is, I think, the least worthy of the tribe. The flowers are crowded in the leaf axils in great profusion, but are small and greenish white; the growth of the plant is somewhat straggling and uneven, but it has one merit--viz., it is quite hardy. I have seen its stems split by hard frost on more than one occasion during the last twelve years, but no permanent injury has resulted. It flowers in June, and is a native of the mountainous country to the north of the Mediterranean, especially about Mentone. THE DWARFER HEATHS The dwarf Heaths can be used quite differently from the more tree-like species that have just been described: as a carpeting beneath sparsely-planted shrubs, for furnishing sloping banks, or for growing on the small terraces of the Rock Garden they are equally useful. And of all these dwarf Heaths more can be said in favour of _E. carnea_ than of any other species. It is not only absolutely hardy, but it flowers with astonishing freedom at a time of year when flowers are particularly cherished. Its flowering, of course, somewhat depends upon the weather, but frequently one may see its bright rosy bells almost as soon as January comes in. By the end of February the entire plant is a mass of beautiful colour, and for two or three months longer they retain their freshness no matter what weather may occur. So free-flowering is this Heath that its flowers literally cover it. _E. carnea_ is one of those plants (and there are many of them) which, although perfectly well known and quite common, are still not used in gardens so freely as they ought to be. The majority of our early-flowering plants bear flowers that are either white or yellow, so that the rosy-red colouring of this Erica makes a welcome change. However freely it might be planted it would never become wearisome or out of place, for its tints, though bright and warm, are not harsh. Statements have been recently published to the effect that _E. carnea_ is a British plant. This idea appears to have originated with Bentham, the botanist, who regarded _E. carnea_ and _E. mediterranea_ as the same species. Following out this idea, he included the plant which has already been alluded to as a form of _E. mediterranea_, which is found in Western Ireland, in his Flora of Britain as a form of _E. carnea_. Possibly he was right from the standpoint of the botanist, but the plant grown in gardens and nurseries as _E. carnea_ is quite distinct from _E. mediterranea_. It is usually not more than 6 to 8 inches high, and is a native of the mountains of Central Europe. [Illustration: _WHITE SCOTCH HEATHER (Erica cinerea alba)._] _E. cinerea_ (Scotch Heather).--Over almost the whole of these islands, from the Highlands of Scotland to the moors of Devon and Cornwall, this Heath occurs more or less abundantly. During the late summer and early autumn--it flowers from July onwards--it covers miles of Exmoor with bright-purple colouring, being usually associated with one of the dwarf autumn-flowering Gorses (_Ulex Gallii_). In gardens it has produced several forms, the two most brilliantly coloured being _atrosanguinea_ and _atropurpurea_, but all the forms of this Heath are beautiful in colour, ranging from white to crimson. _E. carnea_ loves the cool pure mountain air, and on hot and sandy soil in the Thames Valley is short-lived. At the same time it thrives admirably in gardens where a moist, cool bottom can be provided and where the air is pure. Altogether it makes an admirable succession to _E. carnea_. _E. ciliaris_ (Dorset Heath).--Although in smoky and foggy places, such as London, this Heath is not always satisfactory, in the purer air of the surrounding counties it is a delightful shrub. In some of the old oak-bearing country, in Sussex, for instance, it succeeds to perfection. It is a native of Britain, but is, I believe, confined to Cornwall and Dorset in England, and to Galway in Ireland. It has long, slender, prostrate stems, from which spring erect flower-bearing branches; the rich rose-purple flowers are borne in a long raceme, and they are the largest individually of those of all the native Heaths. The leaves are nearly always in threes, and, like all the younger parts of the plant, are covered with hairs and pubescence; it flowers from July onwards. [Illustration: _WHITE MEDITERRANEAN HEATH (Erica mediterranea alba)._] _E. maweana._--This appears to be a fine variety of _E. ciliaris_, with larger leaves and flowers, even richer in colour and of sturdier growth. It was discovered in Portugal some thirty years or so ago by Mr. George Maw, but has not become popular notwithstanding its beauty. It was obtained for the Kew collection from Messrs. Cunningham and Fraser, of Edinburgh, three or four years ago, and certainly promises to be a better grower there than _E. ciliaris_. The flowers are rich crimson and in large racemes. _E. Watsoni._--This is a supposed natural hybrid between _E. ciliaris_ and _E. Tetralix_, and was first discovered near Truro by Mr. H. C. Watson. It has rosy-crimson flowers produced in a flatter raceme than that of _E. ciliaris_. In this character and in other ways it is intermediate between the parents. _E. Tetralix_ (the Cross-leaved Heath or Bell Heather).--This beautiful Heath grows on most of the moors and mountain-sides throughout the British Isles, being perhaps the most widely spread of all the true Ericas in this country. It is called the "Cross-leaved Heath" because of the arrangement of the leaves, which are in whorls of four. It is not very distinct in general appearance from _E. ciliaris_, being downy and hairy on its young slender leaves, &c. It differs, however, in the arrangement of the flowers, which are in a terminal umbel. The leaves of _E. ciliaris_ are usually in threes at each node, and, of course, its distribution in Britain is much more restricted than that of _E. Tetralix_. There are other minor points of difference that need not be referred to here. The "Cross-leaved Heath" grows 1 to 1½ feet high, and has bright rose-coloured flowers. There is a white-flowered variety (_alba_), and a very pubescent one named _mollis_. _E. Mackaii._--This is so closely allied to _E. Tetralix_ that it is regarded merely as a variety by some authorities. It was first found in Galway in Ireland, between Roundstone Bay and Clifden. It has since proved to be a native also of Spain. It is a charming garden plant flowering from July to September. The leaves have the same right-angled arrangement as those of _E. Tetralix_, but the flower is shorter, broader, and of a paler rose. _E. vagans_ (Cornish Heath).--This Heath is one of the most useful of dwarf evergreens, growing vigorously, especially when planted in good soil. I think, however, it flowers better and has more of the typical Heath character when in somewhat poor, sandy soil. In England it is almost or quite confined to Cornwall, but occurs also in Ireland and South-West Europe. It is especially valuable in the garden because it flowers late, beginning in July and keeping on until October. Its flowers are crowded in racemes 4 to 6 inches long, and they are pinkish purple in colour. The plants may be kept neater and more compact by removing the flowering portion of the shoots before growth recommences in the following spring. Left to themselves, especially in soil that is at all rich, the plants are apt to get straggling and unkempt. _E. multiflora._--This belongs to the same type of Heath as _E. vagans_, the Cornish Heath, but differs in its more compact growth and shorter racemes of flowers. Although not so vigorous and showy, it may still be preferred for some situations. It is a neater plant, and its lower branches have not the same tendency to get sprawling and ungainly as _E. vagans_. In other respects it is much like that species, the leaves being of similar shape and arrangement, and the flowers of a paler purple; the raceme, however, is only 2 inches or so long. _E. multiflora_ is not found in Britain, but is a native of the country to the north of the Mediterranean Sea from France to Greece. _Calluna vulgaris._--This has been named Erica (Heath), and may be appropriately included in this chapter on Heaths. It is the Common Heath of mountain and moor, is very closely allied to the true Heaths, and has given rise to many varieties. It likes a peaty or sandy soil, and is longer-lived and more profuse flowering under cultivation in poor rather than rich soil. It is very charming when grown in natural masses in the wilder parts of the garden, and its value is all the greater because it flowers when almost all other shrubs are out of bloom, viz., from July to October. Numerous varieties are offered by the trade, amongst which the following are the most noteworthy, either for their beauty or for their distinctness: _Alba_ (white), _Alporti_ (crimson), _aurea_ (golden leaved), _tenuis_ (red), _pygmæa_, and _hypnoides_ (both dwarf). _Daboecia polifolia_ (St. Dabeoc's Heath) is a lovely little shrub, a close relative of the Heaths, and found wild in the west of Ireland. It grows a little over 1 foot high, and bears bell-shaped flowers rather abundantly on erect terminal spikes. They are purple or white, and sometimes have both colours in one flower, and the plants continue to produce them from July or August till the frosts come. It is quite as plentiful as the dwarf Heaths. _Alba_ is a white variety. _Menziesia polifolia_ is its former name, and is still found under that title in books. The three most suitable Heaths for limestone are _Erica carnea_, _vagans_, and _mediterranea_. CHAPTER XXIX NATIVE AND OTHER HARDY EVERGREENS Rambling about the country in winter, one becomes more and more impressed with the beauty of our native evergreen trees and shrubs. Seven names comprise them all--Yew, Holly, Scotch Fir, Spruce, Juniper, Box, and Ivy. Even of these the Scotch and Spruce Firs (commonly so-called, though the Scotch is a Pine) are doubtful natives, though so long acclimatised that they may be classed with our own. Those who are laying out new grounds on a large scale would do well to plant these grand things in plenty; indeed, in the case of any new planting that is taken in hand, unless the owner has a good knowledge of shrubs and some taste in their choice and disposition, a planting of these alone would save him from many a regrettable mistake, and from the prospect of the usual senseless jumble of mixed shrubbery that has hopelessly spoilt thousands of gardens. No foreign shrubs can compare with or take the place of our Yews and Hollies. However large a collection of exotics may be in a well-stocked arboretum, a winter walk among them only shows that there is nothing more cheerfully handsome than our Hollies, or more solemnly dignified than our Yews. On dry, sandy soils no Conifer is better for England than the Scotch Fir; or for moist, loamy regions and valley bottoms none is better than the Spruce. Exception is sometimes taken to the Spruce; and when planted in other than the place it likes it is, indeed, a wretched object, as on dry and hilly grounds. But a mass of Common Spruce in a cool, alluvial bottom is a picture of well-being, and no one can deny their majesty on alpine hillsides. The Douglas Fir is sometimes recommended in its stead, but this beautiful and quick-growing tree must still be regarded as an experiment. There is not as yet a single old Douglas Fir, and there are some among our botanical experts who are yet in doubt whether, for all its young vigour, it will be a lasting tree for our country. For dry uplands in light soil there is the lovely Juniper, best of all its kind (though often in nurseries foreign ones only are offered to its exclusion), and for chalky soils and loams the Box luxuriates, and can be used as a small tree, as well as in its usual bush form. The use of Common Ivy should not be forgotten. Tree or bush ivies are amongst the most beautiful and effective of winter plants, all flowering from October to January. A noble evergreen is the tree form of _Ivy amurensis_. In Ireland we have the Arbutus _Unedo_, and _A. Andrachne_ is a tree once seen will always be remembered; its coloured bark is very beautiful. IMPORTANCE OF A SUITABLE CLIMATE.--Evergreen shrubs luxuriate generally in the climate of the British Isles, especially in the southern and western counties, and constitute one of the great glories of the English garden, delighting in these sea-bound islands, with their cool and moist atmosphere. It has been established, therefore, that the evergreen seeks an equable climate, free from extremes of cold and heat, and with an even supply of moisture to both leaf and root, favouring in a marked degree the sea-coast with its salt-laden winds. As we travel south, so opportunities for growing an increasing variety of evergreen trees and shrubs become more apparent, until, in the south of Cornwall and the south-west of Ireland, things may be planted out with safety which towards the midlands and north would scarcely exist. But latitude is not everything, and easily proved so by the rude vigour of plants from New Zealand and the Himalayas that are happy in the north of Scotland, but failures in the midlands and further south of England, requiring the protection of glass to develop their characteristic beauty. The place for the tender evergreens must be protected from dry north and east winds. Mr. Bean writes me: "One of the most striking examples I have met with of the importance of having a situation such as is described is the Duchess' garden at Belvoir Castle. Belvoir is in the eastern midlands, a district where the average temperature is certainly not high, and where, during my stay there, the thermometer fell on more than one occasion to zero (Fahr.). Yet in this particular spot (known as the Duchess' garden) there were fine specimens of Himalayan Rhododendrons--one of _R. Falconeri_ being especially noteworthy for the way it grew and flowered--an _Azara microphylla_, 16 feet high, and other similar examples. The explanation of these successes, I believe, is entirely in the situation and exposure of the garden. It was formed on the slope of a rather steep hill, and is in the shape of an amphitheatre opening freely to the south. The bitter 'north-easter' loses much of its sting before it reaches the plants in this garden. In most gardens it is, of course, impossible to obtain sites so favourable as this. One has to make the best of what exists. But at the same time it shows the desirability, often the necessity, of choosing positions for the tenderer evergreens in which this need of shelter is satisfactorily met. Bamboos, Camellias, many Rhododendrons, Elæagnus, all afford striking examples of the value of a shelter belt on the north and east sides." A cool, moist soil is generally necessary for evergreen shrubs, and we know this to be true from the distress shown by many kinds during a dry and parching summer. THE TIME TO TRANSPLANT.--Early autumn, but much depends upon the previous weather. It often happens that evergreens cannot be lifted through a dry soil. The same trees after winter rains may be moved with ease and safety in April or May. An evergreen should be disturbed whilst the roots are active, and by doing this in September the shrub can establish itself before winter--hence the object of waiting until late spring, when autumn has been missed, as root growth has again begun. Autumn is a season generally of much atmospheric moisture, grateful dews, and welcome rains. It is the season for planting in general, and seldom is the work seriously disturbed until Christmas is past. We have shifted many evergreens without one failure in April and quite late in May, but our anxieties are great when the life-giving rains refuse to refresh the earth. The spring of 1901 will never be forgotten as a season of dry winds and brilliant sunshine, without rain to temper the unfortunate conditions, and the result was a great loss amongst newly planted evergreens. Mr. Bean says: "Some evergreens can with reasonable care be moved with perfect safety at any time, except perhaps from July to September. Rhododendrons are an example. During the last ten years I have transplanted them in every month of the year, except July and August. Indeed, in the case of Rhododendrons and most evergreen ericaceous plants, the problems of transplanting scarcely arise, simply because the fine fibres hold the soil so completely that the root system can, with due care, be removed practically intact. For the same reasons, very careful transplanting, such as is practised with a transplanting machine, may also be done at almost any season. "When the roots of large evergreen shrubs have been unavoidably damaged, it is often a good plan to remove a portion of the leafy branches. This helps to restore, in some measure, the balance between root and top. The shrub will frequently do this itself. Hollies, for instance, often lose a large proportion of their leaves after transplanting in spring; it is one of the surest signs of success, just as the _shrivelling_ of the leaves on the branches is the worst. Evergreen oaks also furnish other examples." A difference of opinion exists as to removing any of the leafy branches. A great authority writes me: "Keep on all the foliage you can. I have seen this succeed with large deciduous trees." Remember that Evergreen oaks planted in late spring or in summer should receive a thorough soaking of water once, then no more until new growth begins. _Syringe freely three times a day in hot weather._ I once saw a yew hedge that had been planted in mid-winter, the wrong time; it was looking rather brown through exposure to March winds. The time I refer to (April) a man was pouring water into the roots and the result was that nearly all these fine plants died. Had he damped the foliage twice or thrice a day instead they would have all lived. It is important in the case of newly planted yew and holly hedges to protect by screens of spruce boughs secured to a hurdle or any other material suitable at hand to assist the plants until they have started into growth. PRUNING.--This is a great advantage to all Evergreens in moderation; the majority, if left to their own will, become straggling in growth and unsightly. Evergreens differ from deciduous plants in regard to time of pruning. Most deciduous things may be pruned at any time between the fall of the leaf and the recommencement of growth in spring. But evergreens should never be pruned in late autumn or winter. For plants that are grown merely for foliage sake and not for the flowers, pruning should be done just as new growth is commencing. In the case of flowering shrubs like Rhododendron or Berberis it should be done as soon as the flowering season is past. Rhododendrons are improved by pruning, but the pruner must know something of the varieties and their growth. _Berberis stenophylla_ gains in beauty by severe pruning, thinning out and cutting back after flowering is over. It helps the plant to make those long, drooping growths which are so beautiful in spring. CLIMBING EVERGREENS.--One of the peculiarities of the evergreen class of plants is the marked absence of climbing species in cool temperate countries--that is, true climbers, not, the numerous things that are made to do duty as such on walls. If one takes up a tree and shrub catalogue of even the best nurserymen, one is struck by the few evergreen climbers offered. In spite of the fact that the cool, temperate regions of the earth have been so thoroughly ransacked during the last century, no plant has ever been found that equals or even approaches in value the Common Ivy and its varieties for the special purposes for which they are adapted. The best that are available are the Jasmine, _Ercilla volubilis_ (_Bridgesia spicata_), Smilax, _Clematis calycina_, and tenderer things like Lardizabala and _Passiflora cærulea_. [Illustration: _WEEPING HOLLY ON LAWN._] Evergreens as a whole are much neglected in ordinary gardens. Instead of drawing upon the great wealth of shrubs available, so many go on using the same old things over and over again, generally Aucuba, Portugal and Cherry Laurels, _Rhododendron ponticum_, and such like. THE HOLLY is one of the most beautiful of all evergreen shrubs, and many varieties are not known, _Ilex Wilsoni_, for example, and _Laurifolia nova_ (_Camelliæfolia_) which is very distinct from the former. The best of the Hollies, _Hodginsii_ (syn. _Shepherdii_), _Marnockii_, _Hendersonii_, _platyphylla_, _fructu-luteo_ (yellow-berried), _Handsworthensis_, _Laurifolia_, _Maderensis atrovirens_, which are all green-leaved varieties. Of variegated varieties, very beautiful are Golden Queen and Silver Queen, Handsworth Silver, _Argentea marginata_, and Mme. Briot. _Watereriana_ (Waterer's dwarf golden) makes an excellent little bush, with smooth leaves blotched and edged with yellow. THE BEST EVERGREENS.--The following is a representative list of the hardier species of evergreens which are considered most deserving of attention, and I have roughly grouped them according to their size. Conifers are not included. There is, of course, considerable difference in the sizes to which evergreens attain, according to the climate in which they are growing. The grouping here is merely intended to give an approximate idea of their habit. Those marked with an asterisk (*) are the more tender ones, and although valuable in the southern and warmer parts of the country, have not been grown in the colder localities, or if so, against a wall. (i.) TREES Common Box and varieties, especially Handsworthensis, which is exceptionally hardy. The variety pendula is very handsome in the shrubbery and Japonica aurea is one of the finest shrubs ever introduced for giving colour to the garden in winter. This plant should be pruned in spring to get the full rich colouring. Common Holly and varieties, especially such superb varieties as, of the large-leaved varieties, Wilsoni, Mundyi, Shepherdi, Camelliæfolia (syn. latifolia) nova, Marnocki, Madeirensis, and Hendersoni. The best small-leaved sorts are Handsworthensis, tortuosa, ovata, crenata, crenata latifolia and Doningtonensis. Of variegated sorts choose Golden Queen, Compacta aurea, Marginata, Handsworth Silver, Argentea marginata and grandis. *Magnolia grandiflora. Quercus Ilex (Holm Oak), laurifolia and Fordi. The Fulham Oak, not quite evergreen, but a beautiful tree. Yews (Taxus), Dovastoni, Dovastoni variegata, hibernica, hibernica aurea variegata, grandis, ericoides, cuspidata, elegantissima, lævigata, adpressa, and adpressa aurea variegata. (ii.) TALL SHRUBS (say 8 feet or more high) Arbutus hybrida and varieties. ,, Menziesii. ,, Unedo. ,, Andrachne, very fine. *Azara microphylla. Camellia japonica varieties. Cotoneaster buxifolia, horizontalis (Davidii), microphylla, and angustifolia. Cratægus Pyracantha, and the variety Lælandi. *Laurus nobilis (Sweet Bay), L. latifolius. Ligustrum lucidum, japonicum. Prunus lusitanica (Portugal Laurel). Prunus Laurocerasus (Common or Cherry Laurel). Quercus acuta. ,, coccifera (Kermes Oak). ,, phillyræoides. Rhododendrons, garden varieties. ,, catawbiense. ,, Fortunei. [Illustration: _ARBUTUS MENZIESII (Kew)._] (iii.) MEDIUM SIZED SHRUBS (3 feet or more) Aucuba japonica vars, male and female, green-leaved sorts, very fine. Berberis Aquifolium and vars. ,, buxifolia. ,, Darwinii. * ,, japonica. ,, stenophylla. ,, wallichiana. *Choisya ternata (Mexican Orange Flower). Cistus laurifolius. Daphne purpurea. Elæagnus macrophyllus. ,, pungens and vars. *Erica arborea. * ,, australis. * ,, lusitanica. Erica mediterranea, Vulgaris, Alporti, Hammondii, multiflora, and rubrum. Escallonia philippiana, E. rubra. *Eucryphia pinnatifolia. Euonymus japonicus. *Garrya elliptica. Ilex cornuta. Kalmia latifolia. Ligustrum japonicum. Olearia Haastii. Osmanthus ilicifolius. Phillyræa decora. ,, latifolia. Pieris floribunda. ,, japonica. Raphiolepis ovata. Rhamnus Alaternus and vars. Rhododendron azaleoides. ,, ponticum. ,, myrtifolium. Skimmia japonica, oblata and Formani, fine varieties. Ulex europæus flore pleno (Double Gorse, Furze, or Whin). Veronica Traversii. Viburnum Tinus and vars. (Laurustinus). Yucca angustifolia. ,, gloriosa. ,, recurvifolia. (iv.) DWARF SHRUBS (under 3 feet) Andromeda polifolia. ,, floribunda. Azalea amoena. Bruckenthalia spiculifolia. Bryanthus empetriformis. Butcher's Broom. Calluna vulgaris and vars. (Heather, Common Ling). Cotoneaster microphylla. ,, rotundifolia. ,, thymifolia. Daboecia polifolia. Daphne Cneorum (Garland Flower). ,, oleoides. Diplopappus chrysophyllus. Erica carnea. ,, ciliaris (Dorset Heath). ,, cinerea (Scotch Heather). ,, mediterranea hybrida. ,, Tetralix (Bell Heather). ,, vagans (Cornish Heath). Euonymus radicans and vars. Gaultheria procumbens (Partridge Berry). ,, Shallon. Genista hispanica, G. pilosa. Hypericum calycinum. Kalmia angustifolia. ,, glauca. Ledum latifolium, palustre. Leiophyllum buxifolium. Pernettya mucronata and vars. Rhododendron ferrugineum. ,, racemosum. Vaccinium Vitis-idæa. (v.) CLIMBERS AND TRAILERS Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi. Hedera Helix and vars. (Ivy). The bush forms might be included, all of which flower in winter and have berries. Vinca major (Common Periwinkle). Vinca minor (Lesser Periwinkle). It must not be forgotten that our British evergreens flourish in the coldest parts of Yorkshire in a climate that may be considered the most trying for vegetation in the British Isles. Hollies and Rhododendrons, where planting has been done on the hillsides, may be seen as quite large trees. The New Zealand Olearia Haasti may also be seen there--7 feet to 8 feet high and as much through. CHAPTER XXX SHRUBS FOR SMALL GARDENS It is possible in small gardens to grow many beautiful shrubs without constant cutting of the branches to keep them within set bounds. Those mentioned in the following list will grow in ordinary soil. Transplant during late autumn and early winter; and one golden rule to observe in the case of shrubs obtained from nurseries is to plant them in their permanent position as soon as possible after they are received, but should anything occur to prevent this, the roots must be well covered with soil till planting takes place. In winter large numbers of plants are sold at auction rooms, but though they may appear cheap, this is not always so, as there is no guide to the length of time they have been out of the ground, and in a dry atmosphere many of the smaller roots may have perished. Such plants take a long time to recover from the check. If trees or shrubs are bought at a local nursery, there is the great advantage of getting them in the ground again as soon as possible. The shrubs named are fully described elsewhere in this book. _Aucubas_, 3 to 6 feet. Evergreen shrubs, some with variegated, others with plain green leaves. The male and female forms are separate. If the latter are fertilised, bright-red berries result. _Azaleas_, 3 to 6 feet. For moist and peaty soil. _Berberis Aquifolium_, 4 feet; _B. Darwinii_, 6 to 8 feet; _B. stenophylla_, 6 to 8 feet; _B. Thunbergi_, 2 to 3 feet; _B. vulgaris purpurea_, 5 to 6 feet (a purple-leaved variety of the Common Barberry). _Cornus Spaethii_, 4 feet. This has rich golden foliage. _Cotoneaster frigida_, 12 to 15 feet. A sturdy tree, with scarlet berries in autumn. _C. horizontalis_, 2 feet; _C. microphylla_, 3 feet; _C. Simonsii_, 5 to 8 feet. _Cratægus Oxyacantha_ (Common Hawthorn). As a small tree this is delightful in small gardens, especially the double-flowered forms, of which the richest in colour is Paul's double crimson. As a contrast to this there is the double white. _Cytisus albus_ (White Broom), 6 feet; _C. nigricans_, 4 feet; _C. præcox_ (Sulphur Broom), _C. scoparius_ (Common Broom), 6 feet; _C. s. andreanus_. _Daphne Cneorum_ (Garland Flower), 1 foot; _D. Mezereum_ (the Mezereon), and the white variety _alba_. _Deutzia crenata fl. pl._, 6 to 8 feet; _D. gracilis_, _D. hybrida_. _Elæagnus pungens_, 6 feet. This is not so much planted as it should be; it is a rounded evergreen bush of great charm; flowers fragrant, November and December. There is a good variegated variety. _Euonymus japonicus_, 4 to 8 feet; _E. radicans_, 1½ feet. The variegated variety is very popular. _Forsythia suspensa_, 6 to 8 feet. A climbing shrub, but may be kept in bush form if pruned back hard after flowering. A mass of golden-yellow flowers in March or April. _Genista hispanica_ (Spanish Furze), 2 feet; _G. sagittalis_. _Hamamelis arborea_ (Japanese Witch Hazel), 6 to 10 feet; _H. zuccariniana_. _Hedera_ (Ivy). It must not be forgotten that several varieties form bushes. These are known as Tree Ivies, and are invaluable in shady spots. [Illustration: _HIBISCUS SYRIACUS (Althæa frutex), VAR. CÆRULEUS._] _Hibiscus syriacus_, 6 to 7 feet. _Hydrangea Hortensia_ (Common Hydrangea), 4 to 8 feet; _H. paniculata grandiflora_, 4 to 8 feet. Pruned back hard before starting into growth in spring, this can be kept dwarf, and if liquid manure is given the heads of creamy-white flowers in early autumn are very fine. _Hypericum calycinum_ (Rose of Sharon), 1 foot. Grows well under trees. _H. moserianum_, 2 feet. _Ilex Aquifolium_ (Common Holly). A familiar and handsome evergreen tree. The best variegated varieties are Golden Queen, Handsworth Silver, and Silver Queen. _I. crenata_ (Japanese Holly). _Jasminum nudiflorum_ (Winter-flowered Jasmine), Common White Jasmine. Both for walls or to ramble over some support. _Kerria japonica_, 5 feet. This little-known shrub should be more grown; its yellow flowers are small but pretty. _Flore-pleno_ is a popular variety. _Laburnum._ _Ligustrum ovalifolium aureum_ (Golden-leaved Privet), _L. sinense_ (Chinese Privet). _Magnolia conspicua_ (Yulan), 10 to 30 feet; _M. Lennei_, 6 to 12 feet; _M. soulangeana_, 6 to 15 feet; _M. stellata_, 3 to 6 feet. _Osmanthus ilicifolius atropurpeus._ _Philadelphus coronarius_ (Mock Orange), 8 to 12 feet; _P. grandiflorus_, 10 to 15 feet; _P. hybrids_. [Illustration: _MOCK ORANGE (Philadelphus coronarius)._] _Prunus._ This genus includes the Almonds, Apricots, Cherries, Peaches, Plums, and Laurels. The best are the Almond, Double-flowered Gean (_P. Avium fl. pl._), _P. davidiana_, _P. japonica_ (_P. sinensis_), _P. Laurocerasus_ (Common Laurel), _P. lusitanica_ (Portugal Laurel), _P. persica_ (the Peach), _P. pseudo-cerasus_, _P. triloba_, 6 to 12 feet. _Pyrus Aucuparia_ (Mountain Ash or Rowan tree). _P. floribunda_, _P. japonica_ (_Cydonia japonica_), _P. Maulei_, _P. spectabilis fl. pl._ _Rhododendrons._ Excellent where soil and surroundings are suitable. _Rhodotypus kerrioides_, 4 to 6 feet. _Rhus Cotinus_ (Venetian Sumach, Wig Tree, Smoke Bush), 5 to 8 feet; _R. glabra_, 6 to 12 feet; _R. typhina_, 8 to 15 feet. _Ribes aureum_ (Golden-flowered Currant), 4 to 6 feet; _R. sanguineum_, 4 to 6 feet. _Robinia hispida_ (Rose Acacia), 8 to 12 feet. A delightful tree; rosy flower clusters in early summer, but very brittle. Must not be in wind-swept corners. _R. Pseudacacia elegans_ (False Acacia), 20 feet; the Common False Acacia is too large for small gardens. _Rubus deliciosus_, 5 to 6 feet. _Skimmia Fortunei_ and _S. japonica_, 2 to 4 feet. Two neat little evergreen shrubs, with bright-crimson berries in winter. Cool, moist soil. _Spartium junceum_ (Spanish Broom). _Spiræa arguta_, 4 to 5 feet; _S. ariæfolia_, 8 to 10 feet, very beautiful; _S. Douglasi_, 6 feet; _S. japonica_ (_S. callosa_) and varieties (see tables); _S. media_, 4 feet; _S. prunifolia fl. pl._, 6 to 8 feet; _S. Thunbergi_, 4 to 5 feet. _Symphoricarpus racemosus_ (Snowberry), 5 to 6 feet. The variegated variety of the Common Snowberry is pretty. _Syringa vulgaris_ (Lilac), 8 to 12 feet. _Ulex europæus fl. pl._ (Double-flowered Furze or Gorse), 4 to 6 feet. Beautiful in hot and dry soil. _Viburnum Opulus sterile_ (Guelder Rose or Snowball tree), _V. plicatum_, 5 to 6 feet. _Vinca major_ (Periwinkle), 6 inches to 1 foot. A little creeping shrub, delightful for a rough bank, and will thrive under trees better than most shrubby plants. The pretty blue flowers appear for a long time. There is a variety with prettily variegated leaves. _V. minor_, another species, is smaller altogether. There are deep-blue and white varieties. _Weigelas_, 6 to 8 feet. Excellent shrubs for small gardens. SHRUBS FOR TOWN GARDENS From the preceding list of shrubs for small gardens a selection suitable for towns is appended. Many things refuse to live in the smoky and confined air of towns. This is particularly noticeable in the case of evergreens; the pores become choked with sooty deposit, and the plant consequently soon fails, whereas many of those whose leaves are removed annually are not so seriously affected. Conifers are generally a failure. This is a small list, but only small gardens are under consideration. Aucubas. Berberis Aquifolium. Berberis stenophylla. Cotoneasters, especially C. frigida, which is, however, a small tree. Cratægus Oxyacantha (Hawthorn) and varieties. Cratægus Pyracantha (Fire Thorn); C. Lælandi. Daphne Mezereum. Euonymus japonicus. Forsythia. Genista hispanica. Hedera (Ivy). Hibiscus syriacus. Jasminum officinale. Kerria japonica. Laburnum. Ligustrum ovalifolium elegantissimum (Golden-leaved Privet). Magnolia stellata, M. conspicua. Osmanthus ilicifolius. Philadelphus (Mock Orange). Privet. Prunus Amygdalus (Almond). Prunus Avium flore-pleno (Double-flowered Gean). Prunus Laurocerasus (Laurel). Prunus Persica (Peach). Prunus pseudo-cerasus. Pyrus Aucuparia (Mountain Ash). Pyrus floribunda. Pyrus japonica and varieties. Rhus typhina (Sumach). Ribes aureum. Ribes sanguineum and varieties. Robinia Pseudacacia and varieties. Spartium junceum. Spiræa arguta. Spiræa japonica and varieties. Symphoricarpus racemosus (Snowberry). Symphoricarpus vulgaris. Syringa vulgaris (Lilac) and varieties. Viburnum plicatum (Chinese Guelder Rose). Weigela rosea and varieties. CHAPTER XXXI SHRUB AND FLOWER BORDERS Where there are wide lawn spaces and fine trees in garden ground much of the effect is often lost or spoiled by the presence of unworthy trivialities where there should be distinct and bold features. The most frequent offender is a narrow strip of flower border, edging shrubbery and coming between the shrubs and the grass. Nothing is more useless than such a border. The shrubs would look much better coming right down to the grass, while if bright or distinct colour is absolutely required, it is easy to make a place here and there where some patch of Lily or other flower of bold form may be well seen. These narrow borders are undesirable, not only for their poor effect--we think not of one, but of many a fine place where there are furlongs of such futility--but because the plan is destructive to both shrubs and flowers. If the ground is not dug for a year the roots of the shrubs invade it; if it is dug and enriched for the flowers, the feeding roots of the shrubs are mutilated. In the case of a place where lawn comes up to shrub plantation, which, again, is backed by woodland, the better way is to have, in just the right places, a bold planting of something fairly large, whose flower shall endure for a good while, to let the large group of it come right through to the lawn, and also stretch away back into the woodland. In our southern counties, in sheltered places, where the ground is cool and moist, and at the same time well drained, nothing can be better than Hydrangeas. Other softer plants for the same treatment would be the fine _Nicotiana sylvestris_, and for earlier in the year White Foxglove, and even before that _Verbascum olympicum_. _Lilium auratum_ is also superb in such places, and _Polygonum Sieboldi_ and others of this fine race of autumn-blooming plants. If some of the shrubs at the edge of the grass, such as Azaleas, have beautiful colour at more than one time of the year, both at the flowering time and in autumn blaze of foliage, two seasons of beauty are secured. Hardy Ferns are undeservedly neglected as plants to group about the feet of shrubs; some of the bolder kinds, as the Male Fern and the Lady Fern, are charming as a setting to the Lilies that love cool, shady wood edges. [Illustration: _TALL EVERGREEN SHRUBS IN A FLOWER BORDER._] If shrubbery edges were planned with a view to good effect both far and near, what capital companies of plants could be put together. As one such example, let us suppose a cool spot, with peaty or light vegetable soil, planted in the front with _Skimmia_ and hardy Ferns, _Funkia grandiflora_, and _Lilium rubellum_. A little farther back would come _Lilium Brownii_, then a group of _Kalmias_ and _Lilium auratum_. One carefully-planted scheme such as this would lead to others of the same class, so that the quantities of grand shrubs and plants that are only waiting to be well used would be made into lovely pictures, instead of being planted in the usual unthinking fashion, which is without definite aim, and therefore cannot possibly make any good effect. We do not, as a rule, plant upright-growing Conifers of the Juniper and Cypress class in our flower borders, and yet the illustration shows how this may be done with the very happiest effect. Probably in this case the trees were there already, and the flower border was wanted, and therefore was made in circumstances that would not have been specially arranged at the outset. But it has been done with rare intelligence and sympathy, and the result is excellent. Here also is seen the best kind of edge treatment, for the grass is either cut with the scythe or the plants at the edge are lifted with a stick as the machine runs along, so that the usual pitiless machine edge is not seen, and the plants at the side bush out over the grass just as they should do. This is a thing that is rarely seen well done in gardens. CHAPTER XXXII SHRUBS UNDER TREES It is often a vexed question what to plant under trees when the space is bare, and sometimes there is an ugly view seen beneath the branches to shut out. Evergreens are the sheet anchor, relieved with a few deciduous shrubs grouped amongst them. Much depends upon the tree, whether a Beech or an Oak, a Maple or a Chestnut, and so on, as trees vary considerably in their method of rooting, as well as in the shade they give during the summer months. This affects the welfare of the plants underneath. Such trees as Oak, Ash, Plane, Birch, and Horse Chestnut are inclined to root deeply when they have grown to a fair size, and do not interfere directly with anything underneath them, although the roots extract much moisture from the soil. On the other hand, Beech, Elm, Lime, and Sycamore are more surface-rooting, and their roots often get entangled with and gradually kill plants growing near them. Beech and Elm are the greatest offenders, and grass frequently perishes under these trees. A few liberal soakings of water in dry weather are beneficial to shrubs or anything else under trees, but the soakings must be thorough, as mere sprinkles are more harmful than otherwise. The spread of large tree branches should also be noticed in summer, as sometimes one or two of the lower ones may be removed with benefit to the shrubs, judicious cutting away letting in light and air. The best of the larger growing evergreens to use under trees are Laurels, both common and Portugal, Yews, Box, Osmanthus, Aucubas, Phillyræas, common and oval-leaved Privet, _Ligustrum sinense_, and _Rhododendron ponticum_. Of these Yews, Box, and Osmanthus are perhaps as successful as any. The Osmanthus is not usually considered suitable for this purpose, but it succeeds well in the shade, and keeps a good dark-green colour. Hollies are sometimes recommended, but, though they may occasionally thrive under trees, it is not advisable to use many of them, as they are more often a failure, becoming thin and straggling in the course of a year or two. Of dwarf-growing evergreens _Berberis Aquifolium_, Butcher's Broom (_Ruscus aculeatus_ and _R. Hypoglossum_), _Cotoneaster microphylla_, _Euonymus japonicus_, and _E. radicans_, with their respective varieties, Skimmias, _Gaultheria Shallon_, Ivies, especially the common English, Irish Ivy, and Emerald green, _Pernettya mucronata_, St. John's Wort (_Hypericum calycinum_), and Vincas can all be recommended, as they all do well in the shade, and most of them will flower freely. For a very dry spot where nothing else will grow the Butcher's Broom and St. John's Wort should be planted, as both will grow and thrive where other plants die. With deciduous shrubs under trees the difficulty is not so much in getting them to live as in coaxing them to flower, but a few of them will do well in the shade, and, as a rule, bloom freely. Of these the best are the common and White Brooms, _Azalea pontica_, _Genista virgata_, _Philadelphus_, Forsythias, and _Daphne Mezereum_. The shrubby Spiræas may also be used sparingly in a fairly light and open place, though plenty of sun is required as a rule to enable them to flower properly. In addition, though their flowers are insignificant, _Cornus alba_ with its red stems in winter, the Snowberry (_Symphoricarpus racemosus_), which is laden every year with white berries long after the leaves have fallen. The question about shrubs growing under trees is so frequently asked that the names of those most successful are given, but generally the beauty of the tree is lost when smothered up with evergreens and other shrubs beneath its spreading branches. A tree is a picture in itself, and it is pleasant to see the grass creep to the branch edge and then cease, leaving a brown earth patch under the canopy of foliage. Shepherdi Holly, Tree Ivies, and _Berberis stenophylla_, it may be mentioned, are a success under trees. CHAPTER XXXIII HARDY SHRUBS IN THE GREENHOUSE Hardy shrubs have for many years brought colour and fragrance to the greenhouse in the depth of winter, but we think it is only within recent years that they have been used in such beautiful variety as at the present time. The great show of the Royal Horticultural Society in the Temple Gardens, and many of the delightful fortnightly displays, have been responsible for much of their present popularity, and the picture of a group of Plums, Peaches, Almonds, Wistarias, and many other things in flower long before their natural season, is refreshingly pleasant when perhaps winter still lingers. So many shrub families may be used for gently forcing into bloom before their time that it is impossible to lay down hard and fast rules with regard to culture. In some cases the plants may be lifted in the autumn, then potted, and placed out of doors until they are removed under glass, when the flowers will open in profusion; but the shrubs that can be treated in this way make dense, fibrous masses of roots, therefore scarcely feel the check of removal. Some shrubs, however, transplant so badly that it is needful to grow them entirely in pots. Shrubs for flowering under glass are grown in large quantities by the English nurserymen, and very beautiful they are when in flower, bringing the beauty of early summer to the opening days of spring. Many grow their plants in pots, the general method being what may be regarded as a modification of pot culture and planting out, that is to say, although the plants are potted, and that in fairly large pots, they are plunged in the open ground over the rim of the pot, and in a position fully exposed to air and sunshine. Although a few roots may be pushed out over the rim, and also through the hole in the bottom, this treatment has the effect of keeping them far more compact than would otherwise be the case, hence the check of removal is not so great as if they have unlimited room. This partial confinement of the roots checks a too luxuriant growth and promotes flower-bud formation. In the cultivation of shrubs for this purpose, whether they are confined in pots or planted out, choose an open, well-exposed position, carefully guarding against overcrowding, as this tends to leaves instead of flowers. With the same object, they must be kept free from weeds, and not allowed to suffer from drought. With few exceptions, the best time to lift and pot the plants is as soon as possible after the leaves have fallen in the autumn. When done at this time the young roots recover from the check, and get hold of the new soil before the flowering season. The pots must be plunged in leaves, spent hops, or cocoa-nut refuse, to keep them in an even condition of moisture, and after potting never allow the roots to suffer through dryness. Whether intended for very early flowering or later on, the plants should at first only be taken into a comparatively cool structure, and, if necessary, brought to a greater heat by degrees, and the lower the temperature, say about 55 degrees, the more beautiful the flower colouring; while, when they are only required in bloom a little before the natural season, mere protection from sharp frosts and keen winds is alone essential. The advantage of early potting is shown conspicuously in the case of Azaleas. The flowers produced by plants that have been potted soon after the leaves have fallen will remain twice as long in beauty as on those not potted until after Christmas. In a general way, plants that have been forced hard to get them into flower early cannot be depended upon to bloom satisfactorily the following season, no matter how carefully they may have been treated, but those merely brought into bloom a little in advance of those out of doors will undergo the same ordeal next year. Too often, when the flowers are over, the shrubs are put away in some corner and forgotten, and the result is injured leaves and general upset. Shrubs so treated cannot perform their duties in the year following. Shrubs that have finished flowering under glass before the time of frost and cold winds is past should be at first carefully protected and gradually hardened off. Where a cool house is not available, a frame in a sheltered position is suitable, but even then avoid overcrowding. By the middle of May this precaution is not so necessary, although keen frosts and winds are experienced that would injure foliage developed under glass. Where potting is necessary, that is, in the case of plants grown permanently in this way, it should be done before they are placed in their summer quarters. For this the pots should, if possible, be placed on a firm bed of ashes and plunged in some moisture-holding material, such as partially decayed leaves, spent hops, or cocoa-nut fibre refuse. Occasional doses of liquid manure during the growing season are beneficial, particularly in the case of shrubs that have not been re-potted, as the limited amount of nourishment in the soil will have gone by that time. The following is a list of the best shrubs for flowering under glass:-- ANDROMEDA (known also as Pieris and Zenobia).--The Andromedas are beautiful shrubs, with lily-of-the-valley-like flowers, and form such a mass of fibrous roots that they can be lifted from the open ground and potted without receiving any check. When placed in a cool house they flower profusely. The best are _A. floribunda_, which has crowded, somewhat stiff spikes; _A. japonica_, known by its drooping racemes; and _A. speciosa pulverulenta_, which has hoary leaves and waxy-white bells. The first two may be had in flower by the end of March, but the other is later. AZALEA.--One of the useful classes of shrubs that we have for this purpose, quite as valuable for hard forcing as for flowering later in spring. Although the formation of the roots is dense and wig-like, they are, as already stated, all the better for being potted early, while they may be permanently grown in pots in a satisfactory way. The Chinese _A. sinensis_, or _mollis_, as it is more popularly called, is of close and compact growth, with massive clusters of large flowers, varying in colour from pale yellow to deep orange salmon, and innumerable tints and shades. Among the most beautiful are Alphonse Lavallé, bright orange; Anthony Koster, deep yellow; Dr. Pasteur, orange red; General Vetten, orange; Hugo Koster, salmon red; and J. J. de Vink, soft rose. The varieties grouped under the head of Ghent Azaleas are very beautiful, and quite as suitable for forcing as the preceding. The individual flowers are smaller, but they are borne in such profusion that the whole plant is a mound of blossom. The colour varies from white, through all shades of yellow, orange, pink, rose, and scarlet, to bright crimson, so that plenty of variety is available, and some forms have double flowers. These are not so showy as the single Azaleas. Azaleas, when planted out, require a certain amount of peat or other vegetable matter in the soil, and this is even more important when they are grown in pots. A suitable compost consists of equal parts of loam, leaf-mould, and peat, with half a part of sand. Very little pruning is needful, and this to consist only of shortening an occasional shoot that threatens to upset the balance of the plant, and thinning wiry and exhausted growths; but remove seed pods directly the flowers are over, as these are a drain upon the plant's strength. BERBERIS.--Few Berberises are of much account for greenhouse decoration, the best being the orange-flowered _B. Darwinii_ and the rich yellow _B. stenophylla_. They will not flower well if forced hard, but in a cool house, with very little heat, they are very charming. A successful grower of shrubs under glass writes: "I knew of some bushes of _B. stenophylla_ that had been treated in this way for five years, and little trouble was taken with them, yet they were so beautiful as to be much admired every year. After flowering, the weakly growths were cut out and the pots plunged in the open ground. Manure water was occasionally given, and with this treatment they did well." CARPENTERIA CALIFORNICA.--This evergreen shrub, even in the south of England, is all the better for slight protection, and it is delightful in the almost cold house, the white flowers, reminding one of those of the Japanese anemone, appearing about May. It is a very beautiful shrub. CARYOPTERIS MASTACANTHUS.--This Chinese shrub will bloom freely in light and warm soils, bearing lavender blue flowers in profusion during the autumn; indeed, so late that when cold and wet weather occurs they often fail to expand at all. This difficulty is overcome when the plants are grown in pots and taken into the greenhouse for the flowers to open; it is then very pretty and much liked. After flowering, the shoots generally die back almost to the ground, but break up with renewed vigour in spring. CEANOTHUS.--Some of the early-flowering Ceanothuses are very valuable; they may be grown in pots, and their flowers are of pleasing blue colouring, which is unusual and therefore welcome. Among the best for this purpose are _C. dentatus_, _C. papillosus_, and _C. veitchianus_. Ceanothuses do not transplant very well, and if intended for flowering in pots should be lifted in the autumn, potted carefully, and wintered in a cool house. They may be kept altogether in pots, giving them much the same attention during summer as _Berberis stenophylla_. CERCIS SILIQUASTRUM.--This is the Judas tree, and as many know, while the leaves are still absent the stems bear clusters of rosy-purple flowers. It may be lifted and potted in the autumn or kept altogether in pots, but on no account indulge in hard forcing, as it resents this treatment. Well-grown specimens are very pretty when in flower in late March. CHIONANTHUS.--There are two species of Chionanthus, viz. the North American Fringe tree (_C. virginica_) and its Japanese representative _C. retusus_. They resemble each other very much, but the American form is the better of the two. The Fringe trees are very charming when in pots. Prune back hard after flowering and fully expose to the sun to ensure plenty of flower buds. A moist soil is essential. MEXICAN ORANGE FLOWER (_Choisya ternata_). This will bear its white fragrant flower clusters in March in a greenhouse, and a succession is maintained for some time. It is most satisfactory when grown altogether in pots and plunged outside during the summer. CLEMATISES.--Of late years the various forms of Clematis have been grown largely under glass and used for various purposes, not only in the shape of large specimens, but in pots five inches in diameter, the plant being secured to a single stake and carrying several big showy flowers. Two somewhat new continental varieties, Marcel Moser and Nelly Moser, have proved very useful for this treatment. The plants flowered in small pots are those that are propagated in the preceding spring and plunged out of doors during the summer. The Himalayan _C. montana_ that flowers naturally so early in the season readily responds to a little heat, and in the greenhouse in spring it is almost as welcome as the New Zealand _C. indivisa_. CLETHRA.--Although _C. alnifolia_ does not flower until the autumn it may be had in bloom in spring. Of course, it will not be so early as shrubs that are naturally in beauty in the spring, but in May its white, fragrant flowers should be seen. It requires a cool, moist soil and sunshine, while prune moderately immediately after flowering. Lifted in the autumn soon after the leaves drop, it will succeed well. CORYLOPSIS SPICATA.--This reminds one of a small Hazel bush, and in early spring before the leaves appear, the drooping clusters of fragrant yellow flowers appear in profusion; simple protection is all that is needed to get flowers quite early in the year, when it is very pretty in the greenhouse. It thrives well kept permanently in pots, or it may be lifted and potted in the autumn. No pruning is necessary. CYTISUS (Broom).--The various Brooms are much admired, whether in the open ground or under glass, and for the latter purpose they must be established in pots, for their roots are few, descend deeply, and therefore transplanting is difficult. They will not bear hard forcing, but in a greenhouse may be had in flower by the end of March, or soon after. If kept altogether in pots, cut them hard back after flowering to encourage vigorous shoots for another year. Numerous sorts may be grown in pots, particularly the Spanish Broom (_C. albus_), the common Broom (_C. scoparius_), with the hybrid Andreanus and the sulphur-coloured _C. præcox_. DEUTZIA.--The pretty _D. gracilis_ is well known as one of the best of all shrubs for early forcing, and the whole family is of great interest as pot plants and out of doors. Of these smaller Deutzias some beautiful hybrids have been raised, particularly _D. Lemoinei_, _D. hybrida venusta_, and _D. kalmæflora_, all of which may be forced almost, if not quite, as readily as _D. gracilis_. The old and exhausted shoots of these Deutzias should, if the shrubs are kept in pots, be cut away to allow young and vigorous ones to develop. Though they may be had in flower early, they are much appreciated in the greenhouse, even as late as the month of May. The larger growing _D. crenata_, with its numerous varieties, _Candidissima flore-pleno_, _Wellsii_, and _Watererii_ will not bear hard forcing, but can be had in flower with little trouble in April and May. Good, well-ripened bushes may be lifted in the autumn, and if potted and carefully attended to they will flower well the following spring. DIERVILLA (WEIGELA).--Many of the Bush Honeysuckles, as the Weigelas are called, will flower well in a cool house, but they do not last sufficiently long in bloom to make them of great value for this purpose. The best is the dark-coloured _Eva Rathke_, which grows naturally into a neat bush; the flowers are of claret colouring. HEATHS.--_Erica carnea_ is very pretty in a cool house in mid-winter, all that is needed being to lift the clumps from the open ground, pot, and keep watered; while the large-growing Portuguese Heath, _E. lusitanica_, which flowers naturally in February in the open ground, when the weather is not too severe, well repays glass protection at that season. FORSYTHIA.--The Forsythias flower in the open ground by the month of March, and indoors, of course, much earlier. The most effective is _F. suspensa_, which is naturally a climber, or, at all events, of loose and rambling growth. When needed for pots, tie the principal shoots to a stout stake, and let the smaller branches grow at will, the result being a fountain of yellow flowers. After flowering in the greenhouse, cut back the shoots hard, leaving only an eye or two at the base. These eyes will break up and produce flowering shoots for another year. By this method of treatment the same plants may be kept for many years, provided they are carefully attended to and given occasional doses of liquid manure during the summer. HYDRANGEA.--The many varieties of the common Hydrangea are all valuable for the greenhouse, particularly _Cyanoclada_, _Mariesii_, _Rosea_, _Stellata_, and Thomas Hogg. To obtain small flowering plants the cuttings are struck in spring or early summer, grown on freely for a time, and well ripened by full exposure to air and sunshine before autumn. Plants grown in this way readily respond to a little heat in the spring. Larger specimens, too, may be brought on in the same way. The Japanese _H. paniculata grandiflora_ needs quite different treatment, the plants being generally grown in the open ground, from whence they are lifted and potted in the autumn. Before potting prune the long, wand-like shoots back hard, leaving only about two eyes at the base. By so doing the plants are kept dwarfer, and the flower heads are larger than if no pruning were done. By some the Hydrangea is grown as a standard, and is very effective when in beauty. ITEA VIRGINICA.--A neat little bush, about a yard high, with dense spikes of white flowers. It needs a sunny spot in a cool and moist soil, and under these conditions will flower freely if carefully lifted in the autumn and potted. It must not suffer from dryness afterwards. No pruning is necessary. JAMESIA AMERICANA.--A pretty little white-flowered shrub from the Rocky Mountains. It will bloom freely under glass, but must not be forced hard; it may be treated in the same way as the Itea. KALMIA.--All the Kalmias are good pot shrubs. The roots are dense and wig-like, reminding one of those of a Rhododendron, so that well-budded plants can be lifted in the autumn and potted without risk. They must be brought on gradually in a cool house, and never suffer from want of water. The earliest to bloom is _K. glauca_, followed by _K. angustifolia_, while later on there is the largest and best-known species, _K. latifolia_, the Mountain Laurel of the United States, which has pretty pink flower clusters. KERRIA JAPONICA (the Jews' Mallow).--The single Kerria is a twiggy bush, with bright yellow flowers, like those of a single Rose, and expand quickly in spring. The major form of the double Kerria is much better than the ordinary one; they can be potted in autumn or grown permanently in pots. After the flowering season is over the double variety can be spurred back hard to prevent a tall weakly growth. LABURNUM.--This has long been used for the greenhouse, and very effective it is when well flowered. It is as a rule most successful when in large pots, in the shape of a standard. Prune back moderately after flowering. LONICERA (Honeysuckle).--As _L. fragrantissima_ flowers naturally out of doors soon after Christmas when the weather is mild, it is evident that no forcing is needed to obtain it at that season, and in a cool greenhouse the little white flowers are remarkable for their delicious perfume. As spring advances the early Dutch may be flowered under glass, while the scarlet Honeysuckle (_L. sempervirens minor_) is a delightful greenhouse plant, not used so much as it deserves to be for rafters and similar purposes in the greenhouse. LOROPETALUM CHINENSE.--This Chinese shrub, with its long, pure white, strap-shaped petals, bears much resemblance to the Chionanthus, and is quite as desirable for flowering in pots. It may be either lifted in the autumn or grown altogether in pots. MAGNOLIA.--The Magnolias can be grown under glass. If allowed to come gradually into bloom in a greenhouse the large flowers will open freely. As a rule they transplant badly, and for that reason, at least the choicer ones, are kept in pots for convenience in removal. From this it will be understood that as a rule it is more satisfactory to keep them permanently in pots than to lift them in the autumn. _M. purpurea_ can be grown more easily than any of the others in this form. When grown in pots for the greenhouse, if they get too large for that structure they may be planted permanently out of doors and their place taken by smaller plants. Of those particularly valuable for this treatment are the little _M. stellata_, a charming shrub; _M. Lenné_, which has massive chalice-like flowers, rosy-purple outside; _M. conspicua_, _M. soulangeana_, and _M. purpurea_ among the early Magnolias; and of those that flower later the Japanese _M. parviflora_ and _M. Watsoni_ do well in pots. OLEARIA.--The best known of the Daisy trees of New Zealand is _O. Haastii_, which flowers freely in August. One at least of the species blooms naturally much earlier, namely _O. stellulata_ (_O. gunniana_), and very pretty it is under cover and with its daisy-like blossom. To be seen at their best, grow them altogether in pots and give the protection of a cool house in winter. TREE PÆONIES.--The magnificent varieties of the Tree Pæony that have appeared in recent years have led to a great increase in their culture. Though hardy in many places, their young leaves and flowers are frequently injured by late frosts, hence they are often flowered under glass. In this way they make a gorgeous display in the greenhouse, which is sufficiently warm for them in all stages. If forcing is attempted they are quickly spoilt. They must be potted in good loamy soil, and are most satisfactory when grown altogether in pots, as many of the long fleshy roots will be injured in digging up established plants. PERNETTYA MUCRONATA.--Though grown chiefly for its ornamental berries, neat little bushes are very pleasing in the greenhouse when thickly studded with little white lily-of-the-valley-like flowers, so pretty against the dark-green colouring of the leaves. The treatment recommended for Kalmias is suitable for the Pernettyas. The fruits are very charming. PHILADELPHUS (Mock Orange).--This in its several forms may be lifted in the autumn and flowered well the following spring, not early, as the forcing must be very gentle. Even then the perfume of _P. coronarius_ is too powerful to be pleasant in a confined space. This objection cannot, however, be urged against M. Lemoine's hybrids between this species and the pretty little Mexican _P. microphyllus_, which has a fragrance like that of ripe apples. These newer hybrids--_Avalanche_, _Boule d'Argent_, _Gerbe de Neige_, _Manteau d'Hermine_, _Mont Blanc_, and _Lemoinei_--are all worth a place either in the open ground or for flowering in pots. PRUNUS.--Several classes that were at one time considered as separate genera are now included in the genus Prunus, which was formerly limited to the Plum family. Now the Cherries, Almonds, and Peaches are only sections of the genus Prunus, as explained elsewhere in this book, but as they are better known under their respective names it will be wiser to refer to them thus. The Cherries (_Cerasus_) have been added to considerably of recent years, several varieties having come from Japan, mostly of _P. (Cerasus) pseudo-cerasus_. These, which include such varieties as _Sieboldi_, _Watereri_, and J. H. Veitch, all flower freely when quite small, an important point when considering plants needed for flowering under glass. Where larger plants are required the double form of the Wild Cherry (_P. Avium_) is very beautiful. The Almonds flower early naturally, and under glass, of course, earlier still; the variety _purpurea_ is one of the best, while a distinct species, _P. (Amygdalus) davidiana_ and its variety _alba_, are also suitable for growing under glass. The Peaches (_Persica_) form a delightful group, all available for flowering under glass; indeed, they respond readily to gentle forcing, hence may be had in bloom by March. There are several varieties, the flowers ranging in colour from white, through pink, to crimson, and double as well as single. One of the finest forms is _magnifica_, a Japanese variety, semi-double, and brilliant carmine crimson in colour. The purple-leaved Peach is very charming. Of the true Plums, special mention must be made of the dark-leaved variety of the Cherry Plum, known as _Prunus Pissardi_, of the pretty little _P. japonica alba plena_, and _japonica rosea plena_, more generally known in gardens as _P. sinensis_, which has slender shoots, wreathed for the greater part of their length with double rosette-like flowers, and the charming pink semi-double _P. triloba_. All these forms of Prunus will, if they have been regularly transplanted, lift well in the autumn and flower without a check. They are also quite satisfactory if kept altogether in pots when spurred back after flowering and encouraged to make free and well-ripened growth during the summer months, when they should be plunged out of doors in a sunny spot. PYRUS.--The very beautiful _P. floribunda_ is quite happy under this treatment, and _P._ or _Cydonia japonica_ (the Japanese Quince) that flowers early in the year is pretty under glass, especially the distinct _P. Maulei_, which is of dense and compact growth, and bears salmon-red flowers in profusion. Grow the Pyruses in a similar way to the Prunuses. RAPHIOLEPIS JAPONICA (_R. ovata_).--An evergreen of sturdy growth, and about 3 feet high, with terminal spikes of pure white hawthorn-like flowers. It is decidedly uncommon and ornamental when in bloom. Out of doors its season is June, but, of course, is earlier under glass. RHODODENDRON.--These are the most gorgeous of shrubs, and largely used for flowering in pots or tubs. They form a dense mat of fibres, and can therefore be lifted with little check. Owing to this they can, when ordinary care is used, be transferred to new quarters without losing a leaf, not only when potted, but also when planted out in the open ground. Hard forcing must be avoided, but the Rhododendrons may be brought on gradually in gentle heat. Under this treatment they must be well supplied with water, and liberal syringing is also beneficial. The wide range of colouring in the Rhododendron family gives an opportunity for getting almost any shade desired. RHODOTYPUS KERRIOIDES.--A beautiful Japanese shrub, reminding one of a Kerria, but the flowers are white. It will succeed with the same treatment as the Kerria requires. RIBES (Flowering Currant).--Both the yellow-flowered _R. aureum_ and the various forms of _R. sanguineum_ can be brought into flower early under glass, but the flowers do not last long, and for this reason the shrubs are little used for the purpose. SPIRÆAS.--An extensive family, some of which bloom delightfully when lifted and potted in the autumn and brought into flower in gentle heat. They may also be grown permanently in pots, but as a rule autumn potting is preferable. The most popular is _S. confusa_ or _media_, but also very charming are _S. arguta_, one of the most beautiful of all Spiræas, _S. Van Houttei_, _S. Thunbergi_, and _S. prunifolia fl. pl._, which all bear white flowers, those of the last mentioned being double. STAPHYLEA (Bladder Nut).--_S. colchica_ is most used for forcing, and is a charming shrub for the purpose. It quickly responds to heat and moisture. Brought on in a gentle greenhouse temperature, it gives a wealth of drooping clusters of white fragrant flowers. Keep the shrubs in pots, as the buds are produced more freely than when planting out is done, and after the flowers are over prune hard back. There is a hybrid between _S. pinnata_ and _S. colchica_, called _Columbieri_, which is better than _S. colchica_. SYRINGA (Lilac).--The Lilac is one of the most popular of shrubs for forcing, and may be had in bloom by Christmas or soon after, its flowers being welcome from then until they appear out of doors. Thousands of plants for flowering under glass are prepared in the most careful way every year, the neat bushes, about 2 feet high, having been grown in pots 7 or 8 inches across and plunged in the open ground. This treatment results in close and compact balls of soil, which, when turned out of the pots, retain their shape and bear the journey well. These plants are pruned hard back after flowering to keep them dwarf. Lilacs that have been frequently moved may be lifted and flowered without risk. Most of those sent from Holland consist of the white-flowered variety, _Marie Legrange_, but the dark-coloured _Charles X._ is also grown. The many double-flowered Lilacs are not so popular as the singles. It is a pure delight to smell the flowers of the Lilac long before they appear in the open garden; they are most welcome. VIBURNUM.--When the plants are well budded the Laurustinus (_V. Tinus_) will flower throughout the winter in a greenhouse. Of those that are amenable to slight forcing the best are the common Guelder Rose (_V. Opulus sterile_), the Chinese _V. plicatum_, and _V. macrocephalum_. Treat them in the same way as the Lilac. The Guelder Rose is a delightful shrub under glass, with its wealth of ivory-white balls. It is one of the most interesting of all the things that can be brought into bloom in a greenhouse. Treat the Viburnums in the same way as recommended for the Lilacs. WISTARIA.--It is only within the past few years that the Wistaria has been used to any extent for flowering in this way, but now it is universally admired. At the exhibitions early in the year it always attracts more attention than any other shrub grown in a greenhouse; the soft lilac colouring of the flowers is very beautiful against the tender green of the expanding leaves. The best and general way is to grow it as a standard, as the racemes hang down in graceful profusion. _W. sinensis_ is the Wistaria planted so freely against houses and pergolas, and for flowering under glass the variety _alba_ may be mentioned; it is more satisfactory than in the open garden. _W. multijuga_, which has racemes of great length, may also be tried, but _W. sinensis_ is as charming as any, and the most likely to give satisfaction. Wistarias transplant badly, hence in nurseries are usually kept in pots; therefore, for flowering under glass, permanent pot culture is the proper treatment. To obtain standards train up a single shoot till the required height is reached, then stop it, and encourage the formation of branches. When the head has reached flowering size, after the flowers are over, spur the shoots back to good eyes to keep the growth fairly compact. JAPANESE MAPLES (_Acer palmatum_ and varieties).--The handsome foliage of the Japanese Maples forms their chief charm. When grown under glass they are very beautiful, the leaves varying greatly both in colour and shape; some almost plain, others deeply cut and almost fringe-like. CHAPTER XXXIV SHRUB GROUPS FOR WINTER AND SUMMER EFFECT In the gardens of Lord Aldenham at Elstree an interesting feature is the grouping of shrubs for summer and winter effect, and some valuable notes, contributed to the _Garden_ on this subject, may be helpful to those desirous of getting the best results from both tree and shrub:-- The grouping of suitable subjects, either in the pleasure-ground proper, on the margin of wood, lake, and stream, and especially so in the half-wild garden, when carefully carried out, has such a good effect at all seasons that it is difficult to understand why it is not more generally done, for only when massed together is it possible to see the true beauty of many of the commoner hardy shrubs. For some years this way of planting has been practised at Elstree to a considerable extent, and the following experience may be helpful to others. The chief desire here has been to create autumn and winter effect, and Nature has been of slight assistance to the planter, as the land is not undulating but generally flat and uninteresting, consequently much thought and attention have been devoted to attaining the desired object. No two shrubs grown either for the beauty of their leaves or bark should be mixed together; the display is more pleasurable when they are kept apart. Having determined on the sites to be planted, use white stakes for marking the outline, and plant boldly. The ground should be thoroughly trenched, and poor land well enriched with farmyard manure, and the planting proceeded with either in spring or early autumn. This planting will apply to dwarf-growing subjects. The deciduous section is dealt with first. ARONIA FLORIBUNDA.--A delightful plant when grown as a bush, bearing sweetly-scented hawthorn-like flowers in May, very effective, and succeeded by a wealth of deep-purple berries in autumn. This should also receive an annual pruning during winter or early spring. Allow a distance of 2 feet 6 inches between the plants, which are well suited for any purpose. The ground should be kept clean underneath it. BERBERIS THUNBERGI.--Few deciduous shrubs can excel this for its beautiful foliage during autumn, and it deserves to be planted more extensively. In no position is it seen to better advantage than when in large masses over bold pieces of rock. The shrub should not be pruned, but allowed to retain its natural habit, and will succeed in almost any soil. No plant is better adapted for such positions. BERBERIS VULGARIS PURPUREIS.--This has deep-purple foliage of a very pleasing shade, and it bears bright-scarlet berries in autumn, succeeds best on chalky soils, should be cut close to the ground every third winter, and the soil left undisturbed about the roots. _B. v. foliis-purpureis_ is remarkable for its very dark purple leaves throughout the summer. Cut back every spring; it succeeds in poor ground. _B. aristata_ is very distinct in winter; bark brownish-red. _B. virescens_ is another charming winter shrub. COLUTEA ARBORESCENS.--The Bladder Senna may be planted in the half-wild garden, and will succeed in almost any position and in any soil. Its yellow flowers in July are pretty, but the seed-vessels during winter are most effective; it should be pruned back hard annually. There are several varieties, each of which are equally well adapted for this purpose. Plant 3 feet apart. CORNUS SANGUINEA (Dogwood).--Few deciduous shrubs are more easily grown or more effective during winter than the Scarlet Dogwood. It may be grouped in any position either in the gardens or outside when of any extent, and when space is no object the beds or groups can hardly be too large. The foliage attains a beautiful bronze tint during autumn, but unfortunately soon falls. The position should be open, and it is absolutely essential that the growths be cut to the ground annually the first week in April, bearing in mind that it is only the young wood which puts on its brightly-coloured robe in winter, and the more intense the cold the better colour will be the wood. Plant 3 feet apart. _Cornus sanguinea variegata_ is a beautiful silver variegated form of the above, but not so vigorous. It is very fine for summer decorations, and should be much more appreciated. Plant at a distance of 18 inches and prune annually. The scarlet wood, though small, is very pretty in winter, but not showy enough in the distance. _Cornus alba Spathi_ has beautiful golden foliage in the summer, and does not lose its brightness in the hottest years. Requires the same treatment as the above. CORYLUS MAXIMA ATROPURPUREA.--One of our best purple-leaved plants, especially so in early summer. Arrange to plant this near _Acer negundo variegata_, _Sambucus nigra aurea_, or both, and the effect will be good. It will succeed on almost any kind of well-trenched ground. Plant the shrubs 3 feet apart, and they will require little attention, but every fifth year the shoots should be cut clean to the ground, when the growth and foliage will be much more robust and telling. COTONEASTER SIMONSII.--A strong-growing shrub, and suitable for making large groups; it is very effective during autumn and winter when studded with its red berries. It should be planted 3 feet apart and not pruned, but about every fifth year it should be cut close to the ground. CYTISUS ALBUS, the Common White Broom; _Cytisus scoparius_, the Common Yellow Broom; and the effective although newer variety, _C. scoparius_, _andreanus_, are all delightful plants when extensively planted, not only when in flower, but their fresh-looking green wood is pleasing at all seasons. Plant early in April 3½ feet apart, using small plants. None of the Brooms like being cut back to the hard wood, but the young growths may be shortened back after flowering. _C. præcox_ is perhaps the best of the whole family, flowering profusely, and is of good habit. It should be planted 4 feet apart, and the strong growths pegged down in the soil. DAPHNE MEZEREUM and the white variety _album_ are among our earliest and most beautiful flowering shrubs; _Autumnale_ is excellent, it blooms in late autumn. They should be planted 4 feet apart, either immediately after flowering or in very early autumn, both flourishing best on light soils. DIMORPHANTHUS MANDSCHURICUS (syn. _Aralia mandschurica_).--This fine tropical-looking plant, when planted in large beds, forms a magnificent feature during the summer months, and in the winter the stems when bare are both curious and interesting. It enjoys a deep rich soil, and is easily propagated from root suckers. Plant at a distance of 5 feet apart. EUONYMUSES.--The true variety of _Euonymus alatus_ must rank as one of the most valuable plants for autumn effect. Words can hardly describe its beautiful tints. It is a slow grower, but will succeed in almost any kind of soil. Plant 3 feet apart. _E. europæus_ (the Spindle tree) should be planted in large beds or masses at a distance of 4 feet apart, and pruned annually. It deserves a place by any woodland walk or in the half-wild garden. Thus treated it will fruit most freely, and its pretty pink berries hanging in thick bunches are sure to attract attention. The white variety, though as pretty, does not fruit so freely. FORSYTHIA SUSPENSA.--This is most effective when planted in any position in the gardens or grounds. It makes a delightful bed when planted at a distance of 4 feet apart, and should not be pruned. _F. viridissima_, though not such a pretty kind as the above, is equally well suited; it flowers profusely. Both of these flower during March and April. The surface-soil should be pricked over every spring. FUCHSIA RICCARTONI.--This charming old shrub makes magnificent beds in any part of the grounds. It should be cut down close to the ground every spring and receive a mulching of half-decayed manure. This is not planted half so largely as it deserves to be. HYDRANGEA PANICULATA GRANDIFLORA.--This is perfectly hardy, and few flowering shrubs are more admired during autumn when in large beds. They should be planted in a deep rich soil, in a moist position, 3 feet apart, and pruned back hard annually at the end of March. We have some which were planted sixteen years ago and have never once failed to make a splendid display. The surface-soil should be pricked over early in spring. HIPPOPHAË RHAMNOIDES (the Sea Buckthorn).--This will succeed well in any deep moist soil. Its beautiful grey foliage shows up well during summer, and when the male and female plants are mixed together the branches will be wreathed with clusters of beautiful orange-coloured berries during autumn and winter. Plant 5 feet apart and somewhat in the background. Very little pruning will be required, except to regulate the growths. Prick over the surface-soil annually. The Sea Buckthorn also lends itself admirably for planting by the sides of lakes and streams or at the back of rock-work. HYPERICUMS.--_H. Androsæmum_ grows to the height of 2 feet 6 inches, and is sure to be appreciated. Its flowers appear profusely during summer, and are followed by clusters of dark-brown berries. Plant 2 feet apart and prune close to the ground annually early in April. _H. calycinum_ (the Common St. John's Wort) is partly evergreen and admirably suited for clothing banks or making beds where low-growing subjects are required; it will flourish anywhere, and should be cut close to the ground with the shears annually. _H. moserianum_ is one of the best of this class of plants, but needs some protection in cold districts. _H. patulum_ is also an excellent variety, and not so extensively planted as it deserves. KERRIA JAPONICA.--A charming compact-growing shrub, with single bright-yellow flowers. It is suitable for small beds or grouping in the front of shrubberies. There is a variegated variety which is liable to revert back to the green form, but such shoots should be kept cut out. Very little if any other pruning is required; a poor, light, sandy soil suits it best. LEYCESTERIA FORMOSA.--A delightful shrub for massing in the wilderness or wild garden; requires a deep rich soil. Its large purple and white flowers in August and September are very pleasing, and during autumn and winter the wood is very conspicuous, being bright green. It should be pruned back annually, and the ground pricked over in spring. Plant at a distance of 4 feet apart. LONICERA (HONEYSUCKLE), LARGE DUTCH.--To see this beautiful climbing plant at its best, make a mound of tree roots, fill in with soil, and plant at a distance of 4 feet apart. At first the growths will require to be trained and nailed over the roots, and when once covered they will need little other attention. Large beds planted in this way will be sure to be highly appreciated, if for nothing else, for the fragrance of the flowers. LYCIUM CHINENSE.--Commonly called Box Thorn or Tea Tree; should be planted in large groups where it can ramble away near the water or overhang large roots of trees or boulders. Except to regulate the growths once a year, it will give no further trouble. There are several other varieties well suited for the same purpose. PYRUS JAPONICA.--This well-known early-flowering shrub may be grouped in almost any position, but is seen to the best advantage when on raised ground or overhanging masses of rock. It should not be pruned, but allowed to retain its natural habit. Plant at a distance of 4 feet apart. The variety _carnea_ is equally good, but bears more freely; the fruits make excellent preserve, while the flowers are a beautiful flesh colour. _C. Maulei_ is quite distinct from the above, but quite as valuable, and flowers and fruits freely. RHUS COTINUS (Venetian Sumach), the Smoke Plant or Wig Tree, is one of the most effective shrubs for this purpose. A large mass of this, with its delightfully-tinted foliage in autumn, is a pleasing picture, and is well adapted for any position or any part of the garden. It should be planted in deep but poor soil, at a distance of 5 feet apart, and slightly pruned annually early in April; it requires no other attention. _R. typhina_ (the Stag's-Horn Sumach) is one of the commonest plants grown, with not much beauty, except when planted in large beds and cut close to the ground annually. When treated in this way few things are more attractive; it then throws up strong, vigorous shoots, with fine tropical-looking foliage, which is highly attractive during summer, and the colouring of the foliage during autumn is most conspicuous, also of the wood during winter. When stripped of its foliage it is distinct and pleasing; it will flourish in any soil. Plant 3 feet apart, and it is easily propagated by root suckers. ROSA RUGOSA.--This charming Rose, when planted in the wilderness, wild garden, or around the lake, in large beds or masses, is always seen to advantage; it has fragrant flowers in summer, and large, highly-coloured fruit in autumn. Place it in the forefront of flowering plants. Plant in deep, well-enriched soil, at a distance of 4 feet apart, and prune, like other Roses, annually. The white variety is equally well adapted, and may be mixed with the above. ROSA BENGALE HERMOSA, belonging to the monthly or China section, is one of the freest flowering and most charming of all Roses. In mild autumns it flowers freely until Christmas when planted in sheltered positions. It enjoys a rich soil, and should be pegged down annually, merely thinning out the growths in spring. May go in any part of the garden or grounds, and it is perhaps unequalled for covering southern slopes. Fellenberg is exceptionally free also. ROSA RUBIGINOSA (the Sweet Briar).--Every woodland walk, wilderness, or wild garden should have one bed or more of this fragrant plant. The delicious scent emitted from its foliage in spring after showers is very welcome, and the bushes, when heavily laden with the bright-red fruits in autumn and winter, are most effective. This should be planted at a distance of 3 feet apart in well-trenched and heavily-manured ground, and clipped over every spring. RUBUS.--Nearly the whole of these may be freely grouped. Only those most successful at Elstree are mentioned: _R. biflorus_ (the white-washed Bramble) is one of the most distinct and effective of the whole class. During winter it looks as if it had been painted white, and when planted close to the Scarlet Dogwood is exceedingly attractive in the distance. It succeeds best on a good deep loam, and the old growths should be cut out every winter. Plant at a distance of 4 feet apart. _R. canadensis rosea_ (the flowering Raspberry) is invaluable for making large beds. It continues to produce its highly-coloured flowers freely all through the summer and autumn. Plant 3 feet apart and thin out the old growths annually. _R. ulmifolius roseo flore-pleno_, also the white form _alba_ (the double-flowered Blackberry), may be grouped on slopes. The old growths should be cut out annually, and plant 4 feet apart. _R. laciniata_ (American Blackberry) is the best of the fruiting kinds for this purpose; it produces large crops of valuable fruit every year. Treat in the same way as advised for the above. _R. phoenicolasius_ (the Japanese Wineberry). This somewhat new form of Rubus is one of the best plants for this kind of planting. It bears freely, and the fruits are much appreciated by many, and its bright canes during winter produce a most pleasing effect. It is a strong grower when planted in good soil at a distance of 5 feet apart. Remove all the old canes during winter. The ordinary garden forms of Raspberry also make fine groups in the unkept parts of the grounds. The old growths should be pruned out each autumn, when the young canes have a warm and pleasing appearance. SALIX.--Many of the Willows form splendid features during the winter months. Perhaps on a fine winter's day large masses of the highly-coloured barked Willows can hardly be excelled for their beauty and rich colouring, but, of course, are only adapted for waterside planting or low, wet, marshy land. Nothing is more readily propagated from cuttings than these. They should be planted 3 feet apart, and the young growths pruned hard to the ground annually the last week in March, for it must be borne in mind that any wood more than twelve months old has very little, if any, beauty in it. The most important for the beauty of their wood are _Salix vitellina_, the golden-barked Willow, _S. alba britzensis_, warm, orange-coloured bark, very beautiful, _S. cardinalis_ (which has bright-red bark), and _S. purpurea_, purple. Though the last mentioned is not so effective in the distance as the foregoing, it is well worthy of cultivation. Only one other Willow will be mentioned; it should be planted for its summer beauty, that is _S. rosmarinifolia_. Its beautiful grey foliage much resembles that of Rosemary. It is not so robust a grower as many of the family, and there is no beauty in the wood during winter, consequently the growths should only be shortened back to within three eyes of the base annually. SAMBUCUS.--The Elder family, like the preceding, is a large one, and fortunately adapts itself to almost any soil and situation. First and foremost must be mentioned _Sambucus nigra aurea_, a bold and beautiful tall-growing Elder, and its rich golden foliage produces a marvellous effect in the landscape. Large bold masses of this should always be used where practical in a half-open position. Hard pruning in this case must be carried out, cutting the summer's growth close to the ground annually in the last week of March. The effect of the greenish-grey wood in winter when treated in this way is pleasing; the silvery variegated form, though not so showy, is worthy of a place where the grounds are extensive. Should be planted on poor soil in an open position, and pruned hard annually. _S. n. laciniata_ (the Parsley-leaved Elder) is a beautiful and distinct form of the cut-leaved Elder, which attains its true character and makes splendid beds; it requires the same kind of treatment as to pruning as the above. _S. racemosa foliis aurea_ is unquestionably the finest variety in cultivation, and one would like to see it more often in our gardens, but there seems to be an unreasonable prejudice against golden-leaved shrubs, however beautiful. It does best on a deep rich soil in a fully-exposed position, and prune back hard early in April. The cuttings should be propagated in pots in a cold frame. The whole of the Elders should be planted 3 feet apart. SPARTIUM JUNCEUM (the Spanish Broom).--Flowers in early autumn and lasts a considerable time. Its bright-yellow blooms are very telling in the distance. Plant 4 feet apart, and prune after flowering. [Illustration: _SPIRÆA CANESCENS (syn. flagelliformis)._] SPIRÆAS.--Another beautiful and interesting class for effect either in summer or winter, when sufficiently large plantations are made and properly treated. The whole of these should be planted at a distance of 2 feet apart, on deeply-trenched and well-manured ground. The North-West American _Spiræa Douglasi_, though one of the most common, is unsurpassed for its distinct and beautiful wood during autumn and winter, but the only way to see it at its best is to cut it clean to the ground every year during the last week in March. It will then produce young strong growths from 4 to 5 feet in height, each of which will furnish fine heads of deep-pink flowers during summer, and its beautiful, warm-looking, nut-brown wood in winter is among the most richly toned of all the barks which are used to produce effect, and yet when grown in the ordinary way, and partially pruned down, as we in nearly all cases see it, it produces miserable flowers, and the wood is uninteresting. About every third or fourth year after pruning give a surface dressing of half-decayed manure and loam in equal proportions. The prunings should be tied up and saved for staking purposes; they are of the utmost value for all kinds of slender-growing plants. _S. callosa_ also makes a fine bed, and is very effective during late summer; its large heads of deep-pink flowers render it most conspicuous; they are produced when the others are past their best. It should be cut to the ground every third year. _S. prunifolia flore-pleno_ is a very beautiful form, flowers freely in March and April, and its foliage assumes lovely tints in the autumn. It is of very graceful habit, and well suited for banks or overhanging rocks. It should be moderately pruned each year, and when it attains to a leggy appearance cut hard back. _S. canescens_ (syn. _flagelliformis_) makes splendid beds owing to the pretty arrangement of the foliage. This should be pruned to the ground annually. SYMPHORICARPUS RACEMOSUS (the Common Snowberry) is generally regarded as an almost worthless plant, but when in a sunny open position on well-trenched land and cut close to the ground each year, large beds are most attractive in autumn and winter, as by such treatment the growths will become thickly studded with pure white fruits. _S. orbiculatus variegatus_ is a very pretty, somewhat slow-growing golden-leaved shrub, and should be planted in an open position. It has a tendency to revert back to the green form. Shoots of the type should be kept cut away. This should be slightly pruned in spring, and when leggy cut to the ground. EVERGREENS BERBERIS (syn. MAHONIA) AQUIFOLIUM, or Holly-leaved Barberry, is too well known to need much description. It is one of the most useful and accommodating of shrubs, and will succeed in almost any soil, and either in the open or under the shade of trees is quite at home. For clothing banks few things can equal it, and when thus used should be pruned close to the ground after flowering. It should be planted when in a small state 18 inches apart, choosing the beginning of April for the purpose. It should be cut to the ground each year after planting. BOX.--The entire Box family is excellent for grouping when the soil is suitable, but it is waste of time to attempt planting it in large quantities unless the position and soil agree with it. A light surface, with a chalky subsoil, is what it enjoys. LAURELS.--The two best Laurels are _Prunus Laurocerasus caucasica_, the hardiest of the whole family, and _rotundifolia_. The former may be severely pruned and is excellent for clothing large bare places, mounds, or banks; _rotundifolia_ is a splendid variety with larger foliage, but not so hardy. The ground in which these Laurels are to be planted should be trenched or bastard trenched, and small plants be planted 3 feet apart all ways. To keep them in condition, prune hard down during the growing season twice, if not three times, when they will remain in good health for many years. _Prunus lusitanica_ (Portugal Laurel) is happy in heavy soils, and its beautiful dark-green leaves are very telling. This should also be planted in trenched ground at a distance of 5 feet apart, and pruned once only during the year. So treated, splendid beds are formed when suitable positions are chosen. COTONEASTER BUXIFOLIA or WHEELERI, is a fine strong-growing evergreen for almost any soil. It is well adapted for making beds, covering large boulders or the old roots of trees, and for covering ugly iron fencing. _C. buxifolia_ is a graceful and pleasing plant when covered with its bright berries, and allowed to assume its natural habit. Plant 3 feet apart, merely thinning out the growths occasionally. COTONEASTER MICROPHYLLA.--A very charming shrub, and when planted on a raised position, or on overhanging rocks, tree roots, and such like, forms beautiful masses, especially when thickly studded with its crimson berries. It sometimes becomes badly infested with brown scale, but this is easily got rid of by applying a strong solution of soft soap and water with a syringe. ILEX AQUIFOLIUM (the Common Holly).--The Holly is one of the very finest of our evergreens for bold planting. Fortunately, it is one of the few evergreens that will succeed and grow luxuriantly under the drip of trees, where many other things fail. Large breadths of Holly in good health are a pleasure to look at at all seasons of the year, particularly when well laden with bright-scarlet berries. The Holly is seen at its best on light, well-drained soils, that of a stiff clayey nature (especially so when water-logged) being the most unfavourable to its growth. Fortunately, it will adapt itself to any mode of pruning, but unquestionably the best way to treat it is to plant in large bold clumps, allowing it to grow away at its own sweet will. Many of the more uncommon varieties, both green and variegated, make highly attractive groups and beds, and where expense is of little object should most certainly be planted. RHODODENDRONS.--Of course, one must possess a suitable soil to plant the more beautiful varieties in any quantity; nevertheless, the common _R. ponticum_ and hybrid seedlings, of which there are now fortunately a great variety, will succeed in nearly all soils free from lime. The ground should be thoroughly broken up during autumn, and the planting done 4 feet apart in the spring. The seed-vessels should be picked off after flowering, and the plants are much benefited by an occasional top-dressing of road grit and leaf soil. Even here on a cold London clay, where the ground has been well drained and treated as above, they succeed very well. RUSCUS ACULEATUS (Butcher's Broom), a native of this country, is invaluable for planting in shady, sheltered spots. It appears to enjoy the drip from other trees, and is very accommodating as to soil and position, but likes to remain undisturbed. _Ruscus racemosus_, which is a native of Portugal, and commonly called the Alexandrian Laurel, is unquestionably the best of the Ruscus family, and its growth very much resembles that of the Bamboo. It is rarer than the commoner kinds, but it deserves extended cultivation, being worth a good position in any part of the gardens or grounds. It berries freely in some seasons. It lasts remarkably well, and is very handsome in a cut state. It enjoys a deep rich loam, but will not fail to give a good account of itself on any soil. JUNIPERUS SABINA TAMARISCIFOLIA is a beautiful shrub for the fringe of a plantation, it is of robust growth, and the best of the Junipers for this planting. TAXUS BACCATA AUREA _variegata_ and _elegantissima_ (the Golden Yew) are most effective evergreen shrubs. They should be planted in open sunny positions. Without doubt _elegantissima_ has no rival, being the most useful and telling golden evergreen shrub we have. It is of somewhat slow growth, consequently should be planted fairly thick. Like the Common Green Yew, it succeeds in almost any kind of soil, but it colours best on a deep yellow loam in a thoroughly exposed position. ULEX EUROPÆUS (Common Gorse or Whin).--This common British plant needs little description here. When seen in its wild state, where it is thoroughly naturalised, it presents a most charming sight. Half-wild patches of land may easily be made suitable for it at little expense. During winter the land should either be ploughed or dug, and the seed sown during April, either in drills or broadcast, and the seedlings thinned to a fair distance apart during the following spring. When once thoroughly established, little trouble will be experienced in keeping the ground well stocked. Occasionally, when the old plants become leggy, they should be cut close to the ground immediately after flowering, and in a short time these will break away freely from the bottom. _Ulex europæus flore-pleno_ is an invaluable plant for all kinds of ornamental planting, and is struck from cuttings, which are potted up. In this way the plants are distributed; nevertheless, it is a most important plant to have. The flower is a much brighter yellow than the common form, is produced more freely, and lasts a considerable time in beauty. It is very suitable for either making beds or forming large patches of colour behind rocks and among the fissures of the rock garden. It should be planted about 3 feet apart, in fairly good ground, and about every fifth year pruned down close to the ground. VIBURNUM TINUS (_Laurustinus_).--A beautiful evergreen flowering shrub, and generally well known, but unfortunately it is not sufficiently hardy to plant in many parts of the country, especially in exposed positions. It will grow and flower profusely in very shallow and, indeed, in almost any soil. It makes a handsome bed, and should be planted 4 feet apart. The Hon. Vicary Gibbs has taken keen interest in the tree and shrub planting in the gardens of Aldenham House. CHAPTER XXXV THE USE OF HARDY CLIMBING SHRUBS[2] The best and best known of our good hardy climbing shrubs are by no means neglected, but yet they are not nearly as much or as well used as they might be. Such a fine thing as the easily-grown _Clematis montana_ will not only cover house and garden walls with its sheets of lovely bloom, but it is willing to grow in wilder ways among trees and shrubs, where its natural way of making graceful garlands and hanging ropes of bloom shows its truest and best uses much better than when it is trained straight along the joints of walls or tied in more stiffly and closely. Even if there are only a few stiff bushes such as Gorse or low Thorns to support and guide it, it gladly covers them just as does the Traveller's Joy (_Clematis Vitalba_) of our chalkland hedges. This climber, though a native plant and very common in calcareous soils, is worthy of any garden. _C. V. rosea_ is a very fine variety. _Clematis Flammula_ is another of the family that should be more often treated in a free way, and grown partly trained through the branches of a Yew or an Ilex. The less-known _Clematis orientalis_, with yellow flowers and feathery seeds, and the fine October-blooming _C. paniculata_, make up five members of one family, apart from the large-flowered Clematises, that all lend themselves willingly to this class of pictorial treatment. [Illustration: _CLEMATIS MONTANA OVER ROUGH WALL._] One of the most important of our climbing shrubs, the _Wistaria_, makes grand growth in all the south of England. This also can be used to excellent effect trained into some rather thinly-furnished tree such as an old Acacia. Its grey snake-like stems and masses of bloom high up in the supporting tree are shown to excellent effect. This is also a fine plant for a pergola. A few plants growing free and rambling full length would, after the first few years, when they are getting old, cover a pergola from end to end. The piers or posts could also be covered with the same, for though the nature of the plant is to ramble, yet if kept to one stem and closely pruned it readily adapts itself to pillar form, and bears a wonderful quantity of bloom. [Illustration: _CLEMATIS MONTANA OVER ARCHWAY._] Among the Grape Vines there is a great variety of ways of use other than the stiff wall training they generally receive. If they are wanted for fruit they must be pruned, but most outdoor Vines are grown for the beauty of their foliage. Here is another first-class pergola plant, making dense leafy shade, and growing in a way that is delightfully pictorial. Nothing looks better rambling over old buildings. Now that so many once prosperous farms are farms no longer, and that their dwelling-houses are being converted to the use of another class of occupier, the rough out-buildings, turned into stabling, and adapted for garden sheds, often abut upon the new-made pleasure-garden. This is the place where the Vines may be so well planted. If the main stem only is trained or guided it is well to leave the long branches to shift for themselves, for they will ramble and dispose themselves in so pictorial a way that the whole garden is bettered by their rioting grandeur of leaf mass. _Aristolochia Sipho_, with its twining stems and handsome leaves, will, like the Vine and the Virginian Creeper, answer to all these uses of jungle-like growth among trees and shrubs and free climbing in hedge, over pergola or rough building. The employment of the climbing and rambling Roses is also now understood for all such uses, and the illustration shows the value of the Dutch Honeysuckle for this purpose. A rough hedge containing perhaps only a few Thorns and Hollies and stub Oaks, and a filling of Wild Brambles, may be made glorious with the free hardy climbers just guided into the bushes and then left to ramble as they will. In the growth of the rarer and most distinct and beautiful of climbing shrubs one must in the main be guided by the natural surroundings of soil and shelter or by climatic conditions. In the cold midland and northern districts of England we have seen common Laurels and many Roses killed to the ground during severe winters. In Hampshire, Devon, and Cornwall, and in many other isolated and sheltered nooks near the sea in England south of the Thames, many so-called cool greenhouse plants often grow and thrive luxuriantly in the open air. This is also true of many localities in the south and west of Ireland, such as Fota, Cork, Bantry, and Tralee, where New Zealand, Japanese, Californian, and many Chilian shrubs are quite happy in the open air. Nearly all visitors to Glengarriff notice the luxuriance of the Fuchsias, which, not being cut down there every winter by severe frosts, assume more or less of a tree-like aspect, and are literally one mass of brilliant coral-red flowers during summer and autumn. But it is even more wonderful to see there growing up the front of the hotels and elsewhere such plants as _Maurandya_, _Lophospermum_, _Mikania_, and Cape Pelargoniums year after year. But, apart from mild climates, aspect has an enormous effect on many climbing shrubs, and especially on light dry soils. _Lapageria_, for example, prefers a northern exposure, and the same is true of _Berberidopsis corallina_, and the remarkable _Mutisia decurrens_. Many climbers and trailers, again, are hardy on north or north-western walls that are ruined by bright sunshine after frost, which is often experienced on south and especially south-western exposures. Even when climbers like _Wistaria_, _Jasminum nudiflorum_, _Ceanothus_, _Pyrus_ and many others are perfectly hardy on sunny walls it is often a great advantage to train a few branches over the top of the wall to the shady side, as in these cases there is a week or ten days or more difference in the time of blooming, and so an agreeable succession is obtained. In planting both walls and pergolas there is danger in planting too thickly, and in planting too hurriedly or without sufficient preparation. We all must perforce often do the best we can rather than the best we know. Large-growing, permanent shrubs, such as _Pyrus japonica_, _Wistaria_, and _Magnolias_, which may remain in the same spot for twenty years or more, often fail through starvation, and in any case never attain their full luxuriance and beauty if cramped and stunted during the first few years after planting. Again, it must be remembered that both wall and pergola creepers often suffer from dryness during the summer and autumn months, and provision should be made for necessary mulching and watering. There is one important point that must be attended to in the planting of anything of which the general hardiness is not fully assured, and that is, never plant late in autumn. The golden rule with all half-hardy things is to plant well in April or May, after all danger from severe frost, &c., is over, so as to allow the plants a long summer and autumn season of root and top-growth before the stress and strain of winter weather come upon them. In this way many plants will succeed perfectly in establishing themselves that would at once die off if planted out in October or November. ABELIA.--_A. floribunda_ is a Mexican plant. Mr. Burbidge writes in the _Garden_, April 14, 1900, p. 272: "I have seen it very handsome in flower on a low wall at Mount Usher, county Wicklow. Its pendent flowers in axillary clusters are of a rich purple red, and remind one of some Fuchsias." _A. chinensis_, a Chinese plant, is very pretty, as also is _A. triflora_ from North India. ABUTILON.--Several of the Abutilons are sufficiently hardy to thrive on walls or in borders near to heated plant-houses. Mr. Burbidge writes in the _Garden_: "I have seen _A. striatum_, _A. vexillarium_, and _A. vitifolium_ grow and bloom for years outside. The last-named forms a spreading bush 10 to 13 feet high in South, West, and Eastern Ireland. It has leaves somewhat resembling those of the Grape Vine, and clusters of pale-lilac, mauve, or lavender-tinted flowers that remind one of those of _Meconopsis Wallichi_ in shape, size, and colour. _A. vitifolium_ comes from Chili, and enjoys shelter and ample root moisture, being apt to suffer from drought near walls, otherwise it grows well thereon." _Abutilon vexillarium_, when afforded the protection of a south wall, blooms for eight months out of the twelve, bearing on slender, curving shoots its handsome, bell-shaped flowers with their crimson sepals, yellow petals, and protruding dark-brown stamens well into the month of December should no severe frost occur. Florists' varieties of the Abutilon, such as Boule de Neige, also do well on sheltered walls. ADLUMIA CIRRHOSA.--This grows quickly, and the fern-like leaves, covering almost the twining stems, possess much beauty; the flowers are white. A biennial, but sows itself freely. North America. AKEBIA QUINATA.--A most distinct Japanese creeper with five-lobed leaves and twining stems; although generally grown in a greenhouse, where it flowers in January or February, it is quite hardy in mild sea-shore places, and bears its monoecious flowers in April or May. The rich wine-purple flowers are borne in axillary grape-like clusters, and their translucent petals are very beautiful as seen between the eye and the light. It likes a rich, deep, loamy soil, and is increased by suckers or layers. Although introduced to our gardens from Chusan in 1845, it has never become very abundant, but it deserves a place for its distinctive character. ALOYSIA CITRIODORA (Sweet Verbena).--Another popular name for the _Aloysia_ is Lemon plant; it is a fragrant pale-green leaved bush, not very hardy, and therefore best placed when against a sunny wall. Except in quite the south of England and Ireland, it is generally wise to cover over the stems with a straw mat and heap ashes over the roots. It is often seen as a large bush against the sea. We have seen it thus on the Carnarvon coast. Chili. AMPELOPSIS.--Now included with the Vines (_Vitis_). APIOS TUBEROSA.--This has pea-shaped violet-scented flowers. It is sometimes pretty rambling over a shrub. North America. ARISTOLOCHIA SIPHO (Dutchman's Pipe).--Frequently planted against a wall; its leaves are very large and handsome, and the dull-coloured flowers, owing to their shape, have given rise to the popular name. ATRAGENE ALPINA.--A hardy wall climber, and known under the name of _Clematis alpina_. It enjoys a lime soil. A native of Europe. AZARA.--The best known of these is _A. microphylla_; it is not one of the hardiest of shrubs, but in many gardens, especially where sheltered and by the sea, it covers much space with dense glossy leaves; the flowers are white, small, and give place to orange-coloured berries in autumn. It is quite a shrubby wall plant. BENTHAMIA FRAGIFERA.--Now known as _Cornus capitata_, but in gardens its old name will long be retained. In Devon, Cornwall, and in Wicklow, Cork, and Kerry, and elsewhere in Ireland, this fine shrub flowers and fruits luxuriantly as a bush on the border or lawn, but in less favoured places it needs the warmth and shelter of a wall. It is a native of Nepaul, and is readily increased from home-grown seeds, and the plant, like all its allies, is a rapid grower in any deep, rich, loamy soil. Quite small bushes of this plant and the common _Arbutus Unedo_ are often very handsome as seen laden with fruit in South and Western Ireland. BERBERIDOPSIS CORALLINA.--Mr. Burbidge writes in the _Garden_: "The finest specimen of this beautiful and distinct evergreen climber I ever saw was on the stable wall at Lakelands, Cork, when that noble place was in the hands of the late Mr. William Crawford, a great lover of garden vegetation. It is a native of the Chilian Andes, introduced in 1862. It likes a deep peaty soil or loam and leaf-mould on a moist bottom, and, like the _Lapageria_ and its dwarf cousin _Philesia_, it enjoys a northern or shaded aspect, rarely thriving for long together in full sunshine. Its flowers resemble those of the Berberis, but are much larger, have pendent stalks, and are of the brightest coral-red or blood colour. It grows and flowers here in a shaded corner under an ivy-topped wall." BIGNONIA CAPREOLATA.--This is the hardiest of the Bignonias. It needs a warm wall, and there is much beauty in the warm, reddish-orange, trumpet-shaped flowers, which are in clusters from April to August. It grows to a considerable height. North America. BILLARDIERA LONGIFLORA.--This is the Apple Berry of Tasmania, and is of elegant twining habit, its greenish-yellow flowers, which are not very showy, being succeeded by handsome blue berries that are very ornamental, and are similar in shape and size to Fuchsia fruits. The plant is closely related to the _Pittosporums_ of New Zealand, and grows 2 or 3 feet in height. There are two or three other kinds, but none prettier than _B. longiflora_. It grows best in moist peat and sandstone, at the foot of a half-shaded wall. CALYSTEGIA.--Also known as Convolvulus. _C. pubescens fl. pl._, the double Bindweed, is more useful for rough stumps than walls, but may be included; the flowers are double, of rosy colouring, and large, and appear during the summer and into the autumn. It is best in warm, well-drained soil. CAMELLIA.--Mr. Scrase-Dickins writes in the _Garden_, March 30, 1901, p. 227, as follows about these little-understood hardy shrubs: "The best Camellias for planting out of doors in the open air are those which bloom late and start late into growth, such, for instance, as _Chandleri elegans_ or _Anemonæflora_; the varieties with broad roundish leaves appear to grow in more robust fashion than those having narrow pointed ones with a serrated edge, though the latter will make sometimes very compact bushes. It is possible that the sorts with dark-red flowers are hardier than those with pink. The old double white seems to stand the cold well enough, but it hides its flowers rather too much among the foliage to make any effective display of them, though in this way they are often secured from frost or bad weather and made serviceable for cutting. To train against a trellis or wall _Doncklaarii_ is very good, and next to _reticulata_ one of the most beautiful when well grown, blooming so freely. "Camellias appear to grow in almost any aspect, but are naturally sun lovers; and though preferring peat, they will do in most other soils, provided that there is no lime present. The points of the young roots are very sensitive to drought, so should be protected until well established, by light mulching or a surrounding growth, from the risk of being withered up by a fierce sun striking the ground in which they are starting. Unlike many other shrubs, they seem to have the advantage of being exempt from the destructive attention of rabbits; perhaps when snow is on the ground they might be barked, but I do not remember to have noticed it. Apart from the question of varieties, it may be well to draw attention to the fact that only strong healthy plants should be turned out, for sickly specimens from a conservatory or greenhouse are very slow indeed to make a start, and will remain sometimes for an astonishing number of years in almost the same pitiable state." CEANOTHUS.--Beautiful wall shrubs. They cannot be regarded as quite hardy, but _C. azureus_ in a garden near London has mounted almost to the chimney stacks; a surface of foliage, and in the appointed season pale-blue flower clusters. The soil is light and the aspect due south; and in cold, sunless places the Ceanothuses, it is well to remember, utterly fail. A warm soil and sunny place suit the shrubs well. Gloire de Versailles, Lucie Simon, and _pallidus_ are amongst the best of the others. Of other species, _C. veitchianus_, deep blue, is very beautiful; and _C. dentatus_ and _C. papillosus_ are also noteworthy. CHIMONANTHUS FRAGRANS (Winter-sweet).--The variety _grandiflorus_ has larger flowers and of a clearer shade of citron yellow than those of the type, and though the plant is bare of leaf the blossoms make a brave show, and may be descried against a well-toned brick wall from some little distance. It is just as well to bear in mind that this is one of the shrubs which bloom on the young wood, and any pruning or cutting out of useless branches that may be necessary should be done in early spring when the flowers are over, for if it be delayed there will be no flowers next year. It may be raised from seed, but seedlings vary greatly. CHOISYA TERNATA (Mexican Orange Flower).--Very vigorous, shrubby, glossy, green-leaved plant; rather tender, but quite happy in northern gardens if not very exposed. Its clusters of flowers are very sweet and white. CLEMATIS (see p. 303). COTONEASTER (see p. 80). DIERVILLA.--May be grown against fences and even walls, but are better against the former. I saw a fence covered with the crimson-flowered Eva Rathke in a London garden, and flowered abundantly every year. ECCREMOCARPUS SCABER.--Climber for wall, arch, or pergola, with reddish flowers. Protect the roots by coating the soil above them with ashes or some protective material. EDWARDSIA (SOPHORA) TETRAPTERA.--This is called the New Zealand Laburnum. A tree in its own country, but a shrubby wall plant here. _Grandiflora_ is the best variety. ESCALLONIA (see p. 385). FUCHSIA.--The hardy Fuchsias are almost unknown, though amongst the most beautiful of hardy shrubs. My favourite is _F. Riccartoni_, but this often makes a good hedge. Very charming also are _F. coccinea_, _F. corymbiflora_, _F. globosa_, _F. macrostemma_, _F. microphylla_, _F. splendens_, and _F. thymifolia_. HABLITZIA TAMNOIDES.--Better, perhaps, for arch, pergola, or tree stump than a wall, but in some cases it may be placed there. It is a vigorous climber, with misty masses of greenish flowers in summer and autumn. Not often seen. HEDERA (Ivy).--The Common Ivy when growing in an exposed position will often acquire a rich bronzy hue during winter, but in this respect individual plants vary a good deal, the smaller-leaved forms being as a rule the richest in colour. The most marked in this respect, and one that from its neat, prettily-lobed leaves is well suited for use in making up button-holes, sprays, &c., is the variety _atropurpurea_, whose distinctive character is far more marked in winter than in summer. _Hedera Helix minima_ must not be confounded with _H. H. conglomerata_, though at a certain stage of growth there is some similarity. A three-year-old specimen differs from the freer _conglomerata_ form in that it grows more flat both as regards the twigs and the leaves on the twigs. It has more shining foliage of a deeper and more sombre green, with pleasing clouded tints, and further, as the name would suggest, it is a smaller plant in all its parts. It is a beautiful creeper for positions on the rock garden, and is one of the best surface plants, as through it bulbs may spear their growth and flowers without injury. _H. H. pedata_ and _H. H. gracilis_, both charming varieties of the small-leaved Ivies, should be in every collection. The uses to which Ivy may be put are innumerable, and with the many beautiful varieties that are now to be obtained their sphere of usefulness has considerably extended. One of the most picturesque methods of growing Ivy is to allow it to clamber over tree stumps placed here and there in suitable parts of the garden. Ivy banks also are very charming, and for carpeting the bare ground beneath the spreading branches of large trees nothing could be more suitable. For the latter purpose the shoots should be pegged down and kept in position so that they may take root. Suitable varieties for this purpose are _H. dentata_, _H. rægneriana_, _rhombea_, _obovata_, _himalaica_, _pedata_, _palmata_, _lobata_, &c.; but the best of all is an Ivy called Emerald green. [Illustration: _CAMELLIA, LEAF AND FRUIT (outdoors Cheshire)._] INDIGOFERA GERARDIANA.--During the late summer and early autumn this leguminiferous shrub is one of the most attractive of those that are then in flower. Its finely divided pinnate leaves are of a rich deep green, and almost fern-like in grace and luxuriance. It is, indeed, worth growing for their sake alone. About the end of June it commences to flower, produces its flower-spikes in the leaf-axils, and continues to do so until the middle of September. The flowers are pea-shaped, and borne on spikes 4 to 5 inches long. The colour is a bright rosy purple. The species is a native of the Himalaya, and its stems do not survive winters of even moderate severity. The root-stock is, however, perfectly hardy, and it sends up a thicket of young growths every spring 2 to 4 feet long, which flower the same summer. It is not suited for growing in large masses by itself, because it starts rather slowly, and the season is advanced before the space the plants occupy becomes furnished. But it is very suitable for the herbaceous border, or, still better, as an undergrowth beneath groups of taller, thinly-planted shrubs. It is happy also against a wall. Also known as _I. floribunda_. JASMINUM.--The White Jasmine (_J. officinale_) is too well known to describe. It is one of the best of the cheaper wall climbers. _Affine_ is the best variety; it has larger flowers. _J. humile_ (_revolutum_), although an Indian species, will succeed against a wall; it has yellow flowers and is evergreen. _J. fruticans_, another bushy species, may also be grown; its flowers are yellow, and succeeded by an abundance of round black berries which are very distinct and pleasing in winter. Of course, the beautiful, fragrant, yellow-flowered _J. nudiflorum_ will not be omitted. The new _J. primulinum_ has large yellow flowers in spring. Wants a wall. KERRIA JAPONICA.--Sometimes grown against a wall, but an excellent bush for grouping, except in very cold and exposed gardens. The flowers are yellow and produced abundantly. It should be more grown. The double variety, _K. j. flore-pleno_, is frequently seen against cottage walls, and making a cloud of yellow from the double rosette-like flowers in early summer. The major form of this is the best. [Illustration: _DUTCH HONEYSUCKLE ON WALL._] LONICERA (Honeysuckle).--This is too well known to describe. The Honeysuckle of the hedgerow is as familiar as the Poppy of the cornfield. The common native Honeysuckle is _Lonicera Periclymenum_, the best variety of which is _serotina_, or late Dutch; it flowers into the autumn, and is of redder colouring. _Belgica_ is the Dutch Honeysuckle and is of strong growth. _L. Caprifolium_ is not a true native, but has become naturalised. _Major_ is a distinct variety. Then there are the evergreen Trumpet Honeysuckles (_L. sempervirens_ and varieties, _minor_ being the best known; the flowers are scarlet and yellow). _Plantierensis_ is a good hybrid with larger flowers. The Trumpet Honeysuckles are not so robust and free as the late Dutch, for example. The well-known variegated Japan Honeysuckle, _L. japonica aureo-reticulata_, should not be planted much; its small, green, yellow-netted leaves are pretty, but one quickly tires of their colouring. _L. etrusca_, orange yellow, and _L. flava_, which must have a warm place, may also be mentioned. Certain species are quite bushy in growth. _L. tomentella_ has small pink flowers in July. _L. fragrantissima_ blooms in winter and is a delightful wall Honeysuckle; its small white flowers are very fragrant. _L. Standishii_ is also sweet scented. A plant or two of either kind near the windows is very pleasant on sunny winter days. The Honeysuckles are charming, and should be in every garden--at least one or other of them. MAGNOLIA.--_M. grandiflora_ (evergreen) is generally grown against a wall. The large, glossy, green leaves and big, creamy, fragrant flowers are very handsome. _M. conspicua_ (deciduous) I have also seen very beautiful against a wall, a mass of white in late spring. The flowers in this position are less likely to get damaged by frost and rain. Its varieties may be used in the same way, but the type is the best. OLEARIA (see p. 405). PASSIFLORA CÆRULEA.--Few climbing plants are more fascinating than the blue Passion Flower. It is, with its bluish flowers and orange, egg-shaped fruit, most happy against a warm wall, and is not the hardiest of climbers. The white variety, Constance Elliot, should be grown also. PIPTANTHUS NEPALENSIS (Nepaul Laburnum).--This is a shrubby wall plant, and not a very important one. Its yellow flowers remind one of those of the Laburnum, and are borne in clusters. [Illustration: _POLYGONUM BALDSCHUANICUM OVER FIR._] POLYGONUM BALDSCHUANICUM.--A beautiful shrubby climber, with clouds of white, pink-tinted flowers in summer and autumn. An illustration shows it clambering into a Fir tree near the rock garden at Kew. I have seen many poor forms in gardens, seedlings, and therefore to keep the true type, it must be increased by cuttings. If frost cuts the stems down in winter, new growths spring up in the following year. Its graceful flower masses are useful in the house. _P. molle_ is not unlike it. PRUNUS TRILOBA is an excellent wall shrub (see illustration). [Illustration: _PRUNUS TRILOBA AGAINST SUNNY WALL AT KEW._] PUNICA (Pomegranate).--Both single and double. PYRUS.--The Pyruses are described elsewhere in this book. _P. (Cydonia) japonica_ and its many beautiful varieties, and _P. Maulei_ are, however, more frequently grown against walls than any other members of the same family. _Prunus triloba_ is an excellent wall shrub. RAPHIOLEPIS OVATA.--A very handsome plant. ROSA (Rose) (see p. 342). RUBUS (see p. 450). SMILAX.--This group is not common in gardens, but is interesting. They are a change from the repetition of a few common things. _S. rotundifolia_ is a very handsome large-leaved Smilax with shiny foliage, now and then met with as _S. laurifolia_ or _S. latifolia_, from which, however, according to Mr. R. Irwin Lynch, of Cambridge, it is distinct. All the kinds of hardy Smilax form handsome leafy creepers for walls, but in our climate they rarely produce the rich clusters of red berries that often render them so attractive abroad. SOLANUM.--_S. jasminoides_ is the most popular flowering climber of the south-west, producing its white bloom-clusters for many months in succession. It is classed as deciduous in botanical dictionaries, but is rarely bare of leaves, except after severe frosts in the early months of the year. _S. crispum_ and _S. Wendlandi_ will also succeed in mild counties; the latter has very large bluish flowers. STAUNTONIA LATIFOLIA (syn. _Holboellia latifolia_).--This plant bears clusters of small greenish-white, highly-fragrant flowers in March, and often perfects seed-pods in the autumn. It is a rapid grower, and its leathery leaves are rarely affected by frost. STUARTIA PSEUDO-CAMELLIA.--A rare and very beautiful flowering shrub now seldom seen in even the best of gardens. It is a native of Japan, the flowers being ivory white and perfectly cup-shaped, somewhat like a single White Camellia. _S. pentagyna_ comes from North America, as also _S. virginica_, but the first-named is the finest and is worth a good deal of trouble to grow well. Planted in loam and peat and sand at the foot of a sunny and sheltered wall, the flowering shoots may be preserved intact during the winter. Perfect drainage is absolutely essential for the first-named. TRICUSPIDARIA HEXAPETALA.--A very distinct and beautiful evergreen shrub, perhaps better known as _Crinodendron Hookeri_. It is a native of Chili, and grows 5 or 6 feet high, its stiff branches set with dark, shiny ovate leaves. The flowers are nearly globular, very fleshy, and rich crimson-red or cherry colour. In both co. Wicklow, at Mount Usher, and at Salerno, co. Dublin, this rare shrub is very luxuriant and beautiful. It grows well in deep, rich, moist loam or in peaty soils, and propagates readily by layers laid down under stones. VIBURNUM.--Some of the Viburnums are handsome against walls, such as _V. macrocephalum_ and the Chinese _V. plicatum_. VITIS (Vine).--The Vines are the most graceful and beautiful of all climbers, and many of them are of glorious colour in autumn. The Virginian Creepers (_Ampelopsis_) are now grouped with the Vines. Of the American Vines, _Vitis æstivalis_, _V. californica_, beautiful autumn colour; _V. cordifolia_, the Northern Fox Grape (_V. Labrusca_), Southern Fox Grape (_V. vulpina_). The Virginian Creeper (_V. quinquefolia_) is, as is generally known, very showy in autumn. Of the Asiatic Vines, _V. Coignetiæ_ is the most famous. It has very large leaves, which turn to a glowing crimson in autumn. It is a noble climber. _V. heterophylla humulifolia_ has beautiful fruit, each berry about the size of a pea and turquoise blue; it likes a warm, sunny wall. _V. (Ampelopsis) Veitchii_ is too well known to describe. _V. Romaneti_ and _V. vinifera_, the Common Grape Vine, also deserve notice. Of the last-mentioned there are many beautiful varieties, such as _Purpurea_, Miller's Burgundy, Teinturier, with claret-coloured foliage, and the Parsley-leaved Vine. _V. Thunbergi_ has very fine leaves, which turn crimson in autumn. The Vines should be seen in greater variety, and Messrs. Veitch's recent beautiful novelties planted too. [Illustration: _OLD WISTARIA AT HAMPTON COURT._] WISTARIA.--Wistaria time is a pleasant season of the year. A few noble examples may be seen in the suburbs of London, especially at Kew and Hampton Court, where the trees must be a great age, while quite a fine plant is in the Royal Gardens, Kew, also. What may be achieved with this plant if some attention to its needs were forthcoming is not clear, for most of the Wistarias we see from time to time shift for themselves, and by the position they occupy must have large numbers of their roots in dusty, dry soil. In former days it was always the custom to plant this fine climber at the base of the dwelling-house wall, but now, with a fuller knowledge of its robust growth, its widely-extending branches, and equally its wide-rooting capacity, other positions may with advantage be secured for it. One example may be seen at Kew, where a fine plant covers a huge cage-like structure. Another good way would be to plant it to run over pergolas, and with Clematis to succeed the Wistaria, the effect would be distinctly good. _W. sinensis_, the mauve-flowered species, is the one usually planted. The variety _alba_ is less robust, and does not flower so freely; it wants a warm place. The double variety is very beautiful when in perfection, but our experience is that it never flowers freely, and the raceme is often poor. _W. multijuga_ has very long racemes, and is the Wistaria which gives so much beauty to the gardens in Japan. It is always a pleasure in Wistaria time to visit the Royal Gardens, Kew, and see the exquisitely coloured trails of flowers on this species; these trails measure between 2 and 3 feet in length. Rosea is a rose-coloured variety. [Illustration: _WISTARIA RACEME, SHORT, W. SINENSIS; LONG, W. MULTIJUGA._] FOOTNOTES: [2] This also includes plants suitable for walls. CHAPTER XXXVI FLOWERING AND OTHER HEDGES Of the more or less known 3000 species and varieties of trees and shrubs hardy in this country, only a small proportion are suitable for making good hedges. Every garden of any size has a hedge or two of untidy look through inattention at the proper time. A hedge must be kept in proper order, not a difficult business when clipping is done annually, when to do so depending upon the plants used. Hedges may be of two kinds--the neat trimmed hedge, which serves as an outside line to a garden, and also as a screen or wind-break to small or tender plants growing near it; and the straggling rough hedge, varying from 10 to 20 feet in width, more properly a wide bank made up of all sorts of plants, rambling Roses, ornamental Vines, and other things which usually serve to brighten some spot where colour is desirable, or to shut out an undesirable view. The best plants comprise both evergreens and deciduous, but only one thing should be used, as mixed hedges are rarely a success, and of mingled evergreen and deciduous plants are generally quite a failure. It is right to mention, however, that if a mixed hedge is planted the best results are from White Thorn, Holly, and Common Beech. The best evergreen plants in their order of merit are Holly, Yew, Arbor-vitæ (_Thuya occidentalis_), _Thuya gigantea_ or _Lobbi_, Common Box, _Cupressus lawsoniana_, _C. nootkatensis_ (_Thujopsis borealis_), Privet (_Ligustrum_), Common Laurel, Portugal Laurel Pyramid Laurel (_Prunus lusitanica myrtifolia_), _Berberis Darwinii_, and _Osmanthus ilicifolius_. HOLLY.--The Common Holly makes one of the best evergreen hedges. Its growth, though somewhat slow, is regular, and it does not mind the shears, but it is costly to use to any extent. It does not move readily, so that for the first year or two there will probably be a few gaps to fill up, but when the hedge is once established it is there practically for ever, and with proper attention will never become rough or unsightly. Before planting the site should be marked out, and the ground trenched 3 feet wide and deep, breaking the subsoil with a fork, and working some well-decayed manure about half-way down. This will tend to draw the roots down, and keep them from running out on either side to the injury of neighbouring plants. Plants should be obtained in the early autumn, as soon as it is safe to move them, and planted at once before the ground gets cool. If this be done they will make fresh roots and get established before winter. Some prefer to move Hollies in May, but much depends on whether artificial watering can be done. If it can, May is quite as good a time as September or October; if not, then choose the autumn. The size of the plants used depends upon taste and the depth of the pocket, but good plants, 1½ to 2 feet high, with a leading shoot or two on each, placed from 12 to 16 inches apart, can be recommended, as they move readily at that size, and are not so costly as larger plants. Holly hedges should be clipped in late August or early September, when they will make a short growth before winter, and keep in good condition without further attention until the following autumn. The height of the hedge is entirely a matter for the owner to decide, one 30 or 40 feet high, properly feathered to the ground, being quite possible, as we know from some already in existence. When grown to this height, however, the top should be cut to a point to throw off snow. The flatness of the hedge can be broken by allowing a few leading shoots, 20 or 30 feet apart, to run up, budding them in August with some of the variegated varieties. Gold Queen, Waterer's Gold, Silver Queen, and _Argentea variegata_ are good sorts to use for this. When a Holly hedge has been neglected for some years cut it back to the old wood in March or April, and fork in a liberal dressing of manure around it. It may not make much growth the first year, but will practically re-establish itself the second. YEW.--The Common Yew is hard to kill, and easy to prune into various shapes, as topiary work suggests. Yew is generally used for the inside of a garden, such as terraces and hedges near the house. It should be treated in the same way as the Holly, with the important exception of being clipped in May, as the Yew makes most of its growth in the early part of the year. In buying Yews, choose rather stunted-looking plants in preference to those of fresher look and freer growth. The former have been moved within the last year or two, the latter have stood for three or four, and become coarse rooted, suffering, therefore, after removal. ARBOR-VITÆ.--For a hedge this and _Thuya gigantea_ can be placed together. The common Arbor-Vitæ is sometimes not liked because it gets brown in winter, but this colouring is not so pronounced in _Thuya gigantea_. In preparing the ground little or no manure need be trenched in, but a dressing of spent manure may be added with advantage. The soil should be as good as possible, but not too heavy. They may be clipped at any season, and for the first two or three years twice annually will not be too often. It is wise to cut off from six inches to one foot of the leaders every year, otherwise the plants attain a great height without breadth. If a hedge of these conifers is allowed to become rough and ragged, it is almost impossible to restore it, as it will not, except in special cases, break from the older wood. BOX.--The dwarf edging so largely used for borders and paths needs no description, but the Common Box is not so largely used because it gets yellow, the result of sheer starvation, the Box being a gross feeder, requiring plenty of feeding at all times. It should have a dressing of manure annually, or at least biennially, to keep it in good health and colour. It should be clipped in the spring, April or May being the best months, and a top-dressing about the same time will be very beneficial to it. Box is a good shrub for an inside hedge, but should never become overgrown, as, in addition to the hard cutting necessary to bring it into shape, it is a terrible plant to cut, even the small wood being very hard and tough. LAWSON CYPRESS.--_Cupressus lawsoniana_ and _C. nootkatensis_ (_Thujopis borealis_) can be treated together, as, in addition to their natural relationship, both require the same treatment as a hedge. Neither makes a good flat-topped hedge of the ordinary kind, as the growth is distinctly pyramidal, and unless kept to a point is apt to get injured by snow. They should be cut to a point, and a hedge 12 to 20 feet high of this shape is very handsome and effective in a garden, as well as forming a first-rate screen. They can be trimmed at any time preferably in the spring or early summer, care being taken not to cut the base too hard, and the leading shoots top annually. In planting no manure need be used, provided the ground is good, and it is not required later on unless the hedge shows signs of starvation, when a good top dressing may be given with advantage. Plants 2 or 3 feet in height, placed about 18 inches apart, are a good size to use, as they move readily and are not expensive. PRIVET.--The oval-leaved Privet (_Ligustrum ovalifolium_) is a native of Japan, and makes a fairly good hedge about 5 or 6 feet high. It grows readily, and moves without any trouble at almost any time. It can be bought cheaply. The ground should be well treated in the first place; afterwards it will require little attention in the way of feeding. It can be clipped at almost any time, but for the first year or two should be cut hard back before growth begins in the spring. Neglect of this leads to a hedge that is leafy at the top but bare at the bottom. In this note the use of Privet is not wholly condemned, but it must be understood its use is not recommended. There is no doubt whatever that for town gardens the Privet is of the greatest service, enduring smoke and fog with impunity. It is vigorous, and soon becomes established in the most dreary gardens. LAURELS.--Any of the various forms of the Common and Portugal Laurels with the types are suitable for what may be called second-rate hedges, the best being the Pyramid Portugal, which is a smaller-leaved and more upright-growing kind than any of the others. With the exception of the last-named, all the Laurels make hedges rather wide for their height, and all require much attention to keep them in proper shape. All should be clipped in June, after the first growth is made; they will then make another short growth, which will keep the hedge in good condition until the following year. The Pyramid Portugal has leaves about half the size of those of the type and quickly makes a hedge. It is rather more expensive than the commoner Laurels, but it moves well, and does not become bare at the bottom. OSMANTHUS ILICIFOLIUS.--This plant has not been much used for hedges, but it makes a very good one if carefully looked after during the first year or two. It somewhat resembles the Common Holly, and requires much the same treatment. It is not very expensive to buy, and the hedge should be kept to a height of 3 or 4 feet. Deciduous Hedges Many deciduous plants can be used for hedges, but a good selection comprises Beech, Hornbeam, Quick, Myrobalan Plum, and Sweetbriar. The first two require practically the same treatment, the most important part of which is to procure good two or three years old transplanted plants, and to treat them liberally at first. Beyond an annual trimming they will not require any further attention, except to tie or peg down a branch or two where gaps may occur. A well known gardener, writing in the _Garden_, says: "We often find the Holly and the Yew largely used in gardens as hedges, but they are not quite so good under all conditions as the Beech or Hornbeam. The Beech is one of our many hardy trees both for screens and hedges. The Copper Beech is seldom used for this purpose, but this is a mistake. We have a fence of the Copper Beech, dividing the kitchen garden from the pleasure grounds, 138 yards long, 18 feet high, and from 4 feet to 5 feet through. It forms a perfect wall on either side, and in spring is one of the most interesting features of the place. It would be useless planting the Copper Beech on a wet or heavy soil--a light soil suits it best. The hedge is now in perfect health, and all that is necessary is an annual clipping about the end of August, before the wood gets hard." [Illustration: _GREAT BEECH HEDGE AT MICKLEOUR, N.B._] Quick and the Myrobalan Plum should be planted in double rows to form a hedge, and be cut back hard at the time of planting to form a bottom to the hedge, which would otherwise become leggy and bare at the base. If they should happen to get into this state most of the growth should be cut away, and the main branches tied or pegged down in the direction of the hedge. In a year or two it will be practically as good as ever. For a dividing line between the flower and kitchen gardens, or for some spot where too much formality is not required, the Common Sweetbriar makes an excellent hedge, although it requires much attention for the first few years. If planted without support, such as a wooden railing, it should be kept tied or pegged down almost to the ground for the first two or three years, using practically every growth that is made by the plants. By this means a good foundation is laid for the hedge, which will, when made, merely require an annual trimming. We plant Sweetbriars everywhere. Its leaves in the early morning, or after a warm summer rain, saturate the air with their fragrance. Hedges of Flowering Shrubs It often happens that some kind of hedge is wanted in a garden, either as a screen to hide vegetable ground, or as a wind-break, or some kind of partition. When this is the case, it is a good plan to plant hardy flowering shrubs about 4 feet apart, and so to train and trim them that they grow into a compact hedge, and yet have enough lateral play to allow them to flower. Two years ago we privately advised some friends who were planting new gardens where such dividing hedges were wanted, and the hedges are already coming into use and beauty. Such a hedge is not only ornamental, but it yields endless material for cutting. It should be allowed to grow quite 4 feet thick, and is best formed with a backbone of stiff woody shrubs, such as Guelder Roses, _Ribes_, and Lilac, while between the stiffer shrubs might be some that are weaker, such as _Kerria_, _Rhodotypus_, and _Leycesteria_. Plants of rank rambling growth, such as free Roses and double-flowered Brambles, _Aristolochia_, _Wistaria_, Virginia Creeper, and the rambling Honeysuckles, are not in place in such a hedge; they are more suitable for rough hedge banks, walls, or for arbour and pergola; the flower hedge wants true shrubs. The bush Honeysuckles, such as _Lonicera fragrantissima_ and _L. tatarica_, are just right, or any woody, twiggy bushes of moderate growth, or such as are amenable to pruning and thinning, such as _Deutzia_ and Snowberry, shrubs that so often get overgrown in a shrubbery. In the hedge these would do well, as they could easily be watched and thinned; also many true shrubs that flower all the better for reasonable pruning. [Illustration: _HEDGE OF MAIDEN'S BLUSH ROSE (6 feet to 7 feet high)._] Any one would be surprised to see what a quantity of useful flowers such a hedge would yield, while, if there is another of foliage for winter use, it will be invaluable to the indoor decorator. We have just planted a hedge for this use, all of golden variegated or yellow-leaved shrubs, those chosen being the Scotch Gold Holly, Golden Euonymus, Golden Privet, yellow variegated Box, and Golden Tree Ivy, all shrubs of the utmost value for winter cuttings. Though they are barely 2 feet high as yet, the slightly varied golden hedge is already a pleasant, cheering sight in the quickly-shortening November days. Other flower hedges are also delightful possessions. Hedges of China Rose, of Lavender, of Sweetbriar, of old garden Roses, or of climbing or rambling Roses trained down, of Honeysuckles, of Jasmine; some of these are occasionally seen, but of a good selection of true shrubs hedges are rarely if ever made. Any of the shrubs recommended for the mixed flowering hedge could, of course, be used alone; and excellent it would be to have a hedge of Guelder Rose or flowering Currant or Japan Quince, and how much more interesting than the usual hedge of Quick or Privet or Holly. Both sides of the flower hedge should be easily accessible, not necessarily by a hard path, but by a space just wide enough to go along comfortably. An additional advantage well worth considering would be that, supposing the direction of the hedge to be east and west, the south side would flower in advance of the north, and so prolong the supply of bloom. CHAPTER XXXVII PLEACHED OR GREEN ALLEYS In the old days the pleached alley was as familiar in English gardens as the pergola of the present age. Both are interesting, and both provide grateful shadowed walks in the heat of summer. The trees most generally used in the fashioning of pleached alleys were the Hornbeam and Lime, both native of this country, but green alleys have been made of Yew, of _Cotoneaster buxifolia_, of Holly, and other evergreens. There are flowering Cherries of weeping habit that would suit well for such treatment, and several other small trees of pendulous growth, such as Laburnum, Weeping Ash, and the large-leaved Weeping Elm. There is an important green alley at West Dean, near Chichester, of Laburnum only. [Illustration: _A NUT WALK._] The green alley differs from the pergola in that the pergola has solid and permanent supports, its original purpose, in addition to the giving of shade, being to support vines. The green alley, being made of stiffer and more woody growths, only needs a temporary framework to which to train the trees till they have filled the space and formed the shape. Hornbeam was the tree most used in former ages, and for a simple green alley nothing is better. Beech is also good. Several other of the smaller trees of weeping growth should be more used for this and the allied uses of training for arbours and other shelter-places in the garden. The common Plane is much used on the continent for green shelters; the trees are pollarded at about eight feet high, and the vigorous young growths trained down horizontally to a slight framework. It would be interesting to make a green alley with two or perhaps three kinds of plants whose leaf form was of the same structure. For instance, a groundwork of Weeping Ash could soon be trained into shape, and Wistaria would be best to grow all over and through it. The more stiff and woody Ash would supply the eventual solid framework, as by the time the Wistaria was making strong growth (for it is very slow to make a beginning) the whole would be well in shape, and might dispense with the framing of "carpenters' work" that is necessary for its first shaping. It would be best to plant the Ash zigzag across the path so that the main of the head of each tree might be trained across the path and down to the ground on the opposite side, when it would occupy the space between the two opposite trees. It is important to further maintain the distinction between green alley and pergola by using in the green alley only things of a permanent and woody character; no Roses or Clematis, or any other plants of which portions are apt to die or wear out. These are proper to the pergola, whose permanent substructure makes it easier to cut away and renew those of its coverings, whether structural or growing, that are liable to partial decay. A great many delightful things may be done with these green alleys and green shelters. Much interest is already aroused in the pergola, and when thinking of this it is well to consider these other ways of adding to the comfort and charm of our gardens. One thing, however, should be carefully considered. It should be remembered that where a path is made more important by passing under trained green growths it should have some definite reason for being so accentuated, certainly at one and desirably at both ends. It often occurs that in laying out ground the owner wishes to have a pergola, as it were, in the air, and when there is nothing to justify its presence. It should not be put at haphazard over any part of the garden walk. If of any length, it should distinctly lead from somewhere to somewhere of importance in the garden design, and should, at least at one end, finish in some distinct full-stop, such as a well-designed summer-house or tea-house. Another important matter is that a pergola or green alley, in the usual sense, should never wind or go uphill. It is not intended by this that shading coverings cannot be used in such places, but that they would want especial design, and it is altogether a matter of doubt if these could not be much better treated in other ways. The circumstances of different gardens are so infinitely various that it is impossible to lay down hard rules; only general rules can be given and exceptional circumstances dealt with by exceptional treatment. Green alleys require some attention. In winter the oldest of the wood must be cut out to make room for the young growth, and when this is lengthening vigorously it must be carefully laid in. If the alley has an iron framework, which is necessary when such strong growing things as Wistaria are used, this may be clothed during the first few years, until the Wistaria is growing strongly, with annual climbers such as _Cobæa scandens_, _lophospermum_, _Mina lobata_, and even varieties of the large-flowered Clematis, which must be removed when the Wistaria covers the alley. [Illustration: _OLD APPLE WALK (Helmingham Hall)._] Very charming alleys are sometimes formed of fruit trees--Pear, Apple, Cherry, and Plum making delightful spring pictures, and almost as much so when in fruit in autumn. Where fruit and flower are desired every shoot must be exposed to sun and air. When densely shaded by other growths the wood does not ripen, and therefore flowers badly, if at all. CHAPTER XXXVIII THE GARDEN ORCHARD One's enjoyment of the garden would be greatly increased if the orchard, which is so often thrust away into a remote corner, were brought into direct communication with it. How easily the trimmer lawn spaces might lead through groups of flowering shrubs to the rather rougher grassy orchard. How naturally the garden Roses and masses of free-growing Cluster Roses would lead to their near relations, the Pears and Apples and other fruiting trees of the great Rose order. There is no need to make a definite break between the two; it is all the better not to know where the garden ends and the orchard begins. Towards the edge of the mown lawn there may already be trees of the Red Siberian Crab and the handsome Crab John Downie, and the pretty little Fairy Apple; while the nearer orchard trees may well be wreathed with some of the free Cluster Roses, such as Bennett's Seedling or Dundee Rambler. [Illustration: _OLD MULBERRY AT SYON, MIDDLESEX._] If the orchard is of some extent its standard trees of Pear, Apple, Cherry, and Plum may be varied by three or four bush trees, or by some of the beautiful fruit trees of lower growth, such as Medlars and Quinces. There may also be breaks of cut-leaved Blackberry and a thicket of Crabs or Filberts, and on some one side, or perhaps more, a shady Nut alley. There is no need to be always moving the garden orchard. One wide, easy, grassy way might well be kept closely shorn, but much of the middle and side spaces had better not be cut until hay-time, for many would be the bulbs planted under the turf, great drifts of Daffodils and Spanish Scillas, and Fritillaries for the larger effects, and Colchicums and Saffron Crocus for the later months. If the grass were mown again in September, just before the Colchicums appear, it would allow of easy access to the fruit trees in the time of their harvest, and in those interesting weeks immediately before the Apples ripen. [Illustration: _OLD MEDLAR TREE ON EDGE OF GARDEN ORCHARD._] It must not be forgotten that the best use of many fruit-bearing trees is not restricted to the kitchen garden only, for many of them are beautiful things in the most dressed ground. Few small trees are more graceful in habit than the old English Quince that bears the smooth, roundish fruits. It is not only a pleasant object in leaf and flower in early summer, and in autumn glory of golden fruit, but even when bare of leaves in winter a fully matured tree is strikingly beautiful, and in boggy ground where no other tree would thrive it is just at its happiest and is most fruitful. Then many Apples are extremely ornamental, and there is a whole range of Crabs; Siberian, Chinese, and home-raised hybrids that are delightful things both in flower and in fruit. _Pyrus Maulei_, vieing in beauty of bloom with its near neighbours, the Japanese Quinces, quite outdoes them in glory and bounty of fruit, which in October is one of the most brilliant things in the garden. There are no better garden ornaments for foliage than Figs and Vines, and though the needful pruning of a Vine for fruit takes off somewhat of its pictorial value, which depends in some measure on the wide-flung, luscious summer growth and groping tendril, yet in any shape the Grape Vine is a thing of beauty. Some of its garden kinds also show how, in distinct departures in colour and shape of leaf, it is always beautiful; for the Parsley-leaved Vine, with its dainty and deeply-cut foliage, is a suitable accompaniment to the most refined architecture; while the red-purple leaf of the Claret Vine and its close clusters of blue fruit are richly ornamental in the autumn garden. A Medlar tree, with its large white bloom and handsome leaves, is desirable, and several of the Services are ornamental small trees. Every one knows the lovely pink bloom of the Almond in April, but few may have tried something that is not an experiment but a certainty--namely, the successful culture of the hardier Peaches, near relatives to the Almond, as standards in the south of England. A Peach of American origin, the Early Alexander, bears full or fair crops every year. The only danger is from leaf blister from sudden cold in May, but if its position is sheltered, or if it can be afforded the protection of a net, it will suffer but little, and perfectly ripened peaches, red all round, may be had at the end of July. The beauty of Cherry blossom is so well known that it needs no extolling; and any great high wall looks the better at all seasons for a well-trained old Pear. A free planting of the cut-leaved Bramble is pleasant to see on the outskirts of the garden, and is beautiful in leaf, in flower, and in fruit. CHAPTER XXXIX THE WORTHY USE OF ROSES For a full consideration of the Rose as a garden flower, one must look to such a work as "Roses for English Gardens," but as the Rose is a flowering shrub it cannot be omitted from the present volume. In these days of horticultural prosperity and rapid progress, when there would appear to be one or more specialists devoting themselves to every worthy flower, we need scarcely say that the Rose has not been forgotten. Indeed, within the memory of many who have watched its culture for the last forty years, the rapid advance is nothing less than astonishing. Our own veteran growers and some of the foreign firms seem to have vied with each other in producing new forms in the Hybrid Perpetuals and in the Teas, but it has been almost within the last decade that growers have not only deepened the interest in the cultivation of the Rose, but have immensely widened it by striking out in new directions. It is now many years since the late Henry Bennett raised such lovely hybrids as Grace Darling and Mrs. John Laing, but the parents of these were still among the well-known H.P.'s and Teas and Chinas. But of late years hybridists have taken in hand some of the handsomer of the species, and by working them with well-established favourites have produced whole new ranges of fine Roses. Of these the most prominent have been products of _R. multiflora_, _rugosa_, _rubiginosa_, and _wichuraiana_. The striking success of many of these later hybrids is encouraging in the highest degree, and the field for future work is so immense that the imagination can hardly grasp the extent of the prospect that these earlier successes seem to open out. There are so many ways in which Roses may be beautiful. Even in the varied form and habit possessed by the types some special kind of beauty is shown and some special garden utility is foreshadowed. And then we think of the future possibilities of the Rose garden! Already--we say it with deliberation and a feeling of honest conviction--the Rose garden has never been developed to anything like its utmost possible beauty. The material already to hand even twenty years ago has never been worthily used. The Rose garden to be beautiful must be designed and planted and tended, not with money and labour and cultural skill only, but with brains and with love, and with all those best qualities of critical appreciation--the specially-cultured knowledge of what is beautiful, and why it is beautiful--besides the indispensable ability of the practical cultivator. There are in some places acres of Rose gardens, many of them only costly expositions of how a Rose garden had best not be made. The beautiful Rose garden, that shall be the living presentment of the poet's dream, and shall satisfy the artist's eye, and rejoice the gardener's heart, and give the restful happiness and kindle the reverent wonderment of delight, in such ways as should be the fulfilment of its best purpose, has yet to be made. It matters not whether it is in the quite free garden where Roses shall be in natural groups and great flowery masses and arching fountains, and where those of rambling growth on its outskirts shall clamber into half-distant surrounding trees and bushes, or whether it is in the garden of ordered formality that befits a palatial building; there are the Roses for all these places, and for all these and many other uses. Indeed, for reducing the hard lines of the most formal gardens and for showing them at their best, for such enjoyment as they may give by the humanising of their rigid lines and the softening of their original intention as a display of pomp and state and the least sympathetic kind of greatness, the beneficent quality of age and accompanying over-growth may be best shown by the wreathing and clambering cluster Roses, whose graceful growth and tender bloom are displayed all the better for their association with the hard lines and rough textures of masonry surfaces. SOME BEAUTIFUL WILD ROSES No family of hardy shrubs is more bewildering in the multiplicity and intricacy of its nomenclature than Rosa. Although there are many species now accepted by botanists, yet the pseudo-specific names may be counted by hundreds. Fortunately for those interested in their cultivation, a good many of these names refer to plants with very unimportant distinctions (many of them, indeed, are minor forms of our native Dog Rose), and the best of the wild species are mostly grown under the names applied to them in the following notes. Their cultivation is simple. They are like the Hybrid Perpetuals in their love for a rich loamy soil--one inclining to a clayey rather than to a sandy nature. Loving abundant sunlight, they are not happy in shady spots. The commonest mistake in their cultivation is in pruning. The notion that they have to be cut back like Hybrid Perpetuals and such-like Roses has often resulted in the loss of a season's flowers, besides destroying for the time the peculiar beauty of habit that many species possess. The shoots, often long, sucker-like growths that push from the base in summer, supply the flowers of the following year, and until they have flowered should not be touched with a knife. Whatever pruning is necessary--and it is, as a rule, a mere matter of thinning out of old worn-out stems--is to give the young growths more air and freedom. No shortening back is needed. It may always be remembered that some of the most beautiful specimens of Wild Roses in existence, especially those of rambling growth, have never been pruned at all. The chief thing is always to retain the free, unfettered grace natural to the plants. Pruning will help to do this, but it must be pruning of the proper kind. In the wilder parts of the garden the common Dog Rose (_R. canina_) and its numerous varieties are worth a place; they flower well, and are always beautiful in fruit. The same may be said of the Sweet Briar (_R. rubiginosa_), the fragrance of whose young growths is always a delight, whether in garden or hedgerow. _R. hibernica_, a British Rose, thought to be a hybrid between the Scotch Rose and _R. canina_, comes in the same category. It flowers earlier than the Dog Rose. For the wild garden also there are several other Roses that may be mentioned, such as _cinnamomea_, with rosy-red flowers and crimson fruit; _nutkana_, _acicularis_, _pisocarpa_, and _californica_. Only those are mentioned that from their greater beauty and distinctness deserve a more detailed notice. R. ALBA.--Although found wild in several parts of Europe, this, the "Common White Rose" of Linnæus, is supposed to be a hybrid between _R. gallica_ and the Dog Rose. It is always found in places which lead to the belief that it is not truly indigenous, but an escape from cultivated grounds. The typical plant has white flowers that are considerably larger than those of the Dog Rose, and the petals have more substance. There are now numerous double-flowered varieties in gardens, some beautifully tinged with rose. R. ALBERTI.--A native of Turkestan, where it was discovered by M. Albert Regel not many years ago. This is one of the rarest species of Rosa in cultivation. The flowers are bright yellow, the leaves small and much divided. R. ALPINA.--This is the species from which the Boursault Roses have been derived. It is a native of the Alps and Pyrenees. The stems are 4 to 5 feet high, and have few or no spines except when young. The flowers are rosy red; the fruits red, often pear-shaped, and covered with bristles, which, when rubbed, have a turpentine-like odour. R. ARVENSIS (or R. REPENS).--From this species the Ayrshire Roses have been obtained. It is naturally a trailing or climbing plant, having long thin shoots and white flowers. When trained over tree stumps or rough stakes and ultimately allowed to grow at will, it forms tangled masses which are very pretty. But the double forms--even the common variety, _flore-pleno_--are to be preferred, being especially useful in semi-wild spots. The type is wild in England, and frequently to be seen in hedges and thickets. R. CAROLINA.--For certain positions this is a useful Rose. It has erect stems and forms dense thickets, spreading rapidly by means of the numerous underground rhizomes it sends out in all directions. The flowers are purplish-rose. A later-flowering variety known as _nuttalliana_ is a stronger grower and has larger flowers. This will flower up to September. _R. lucida_ and _R. nitida_ are, like _R. carolina_, natives of North America, and are of similar habit, but they are dwarfer and the leaves are more glossy. All these are apt to become crowded with old stems, and, besides an occasional thinning out, are much improved by dividing up every three or four years. R. FERRUGINEA (R. RUBRIFOLIA).--This species, which comes from the Pyrenees and Alps, is remarkable for the reddish-purple colour of its leaves and young shoots. Groups of half-a-dozen or more plants give a striking colour effect. The flowers are similar to the Dog Rose, but red. R. LÆVIGATA (R. SINICA).--Except in the south and south-west or in similarly favoured localities, this is not really hardy, but where it thrives it is a singularly beautiful Rose, perhaps unsurpassed among single Roses in the size of its pure white flowers. It is known as the Cherokee Rose, and is naturalised in some of the Southern United States. A lovely hybrid between it and _R. indica_ has been raised and named Anemone. Its flowers are soft rose. R. LUTEA (Austrian Briar)--Of all the Wild Yellow Roses this is the most beautiful. The yellow-flowered species do not, as a rule, thrive so well as the others in gardens--one has only to mention such species as _berberifolia_, _sulphurea_, _xanthina_ (or _Ecæ_) to recall that. But _R. lutea_, in strong loam with plenty of lime added, generally thrives well. The copper-coloured varieties are more difficult to deal with in suburban districts. The flowers of the typical _R. lutea_ are of the brightest rich yellow. When in good health it produces each year long arching shoots, wreathed from end to end with blossom. This species comes from the Orient. R. MICROPHYLLA--This interesting species is closely allied to _R. rugosa_, and is a native of China. It has a sturdy bushy habit, few spines, and the curious habit of peeling its bark. Its foliage is very handsome, the leaflets being small and numerous. The flowers are rose coloured and very fragrant. The shrub is interesting for its fine fruits, which are of large size, very spiny, and of a yellowish colour when ripe. Although some other species surpass this in showiness, it is one of the most distinct. R. MOSCHATA (Musk Rose).--When seen at its best, few of the rambling species are more beautiful than this. It is not, however, so hardy as some, especially when young, in which state it makes long, succulent shoots during summer and autumn, which are apt to be killed back in winter. Old plants do not suffer in the same way, or not so severely. Its flowers are borne in great clusters, and are notable for their pure whiteness and conspicuous bunches of bright-yellow stamens. The best plants often of this species are in shrubberies, where, no doubt, the other shrubs afford it some protection. It is a native of the Orient and India. The name "Musk Rose" refers to a perfume which may occasionally be detected in its flowers after a shower, but is never very apparent. _Nivea_ is a beautiful form. [Illustration: _ROSA MULTIFLORA_] R. MULTIFLORA.--This, the Polyantha Rose, the wild type of the group so named and the progenitor of many graceful Roses, is a native of Japan and China. It is a shrub 8 feet or more high, forming a dense thicket of arching branches. Its flowers individually are small, but they come in large dense clusters and so abundantly as to transform the shrub into a mass of white. They are very fragrant. This is an admirable plant for putting at the top of a wall or steep bank which it is desirable to drape with vegetation. The Polyantha group of Roses can always be distinguished by the stipules at the base of the leaf-stalk being fringed. R. OCHROLEUCA.--In stature, foliage, and mode of growth this is like the Scotch Rose, but its flowers are of as bright and rich a yellow as those of the Austrian Yellow (_R. lutea_). Where _R. lutea_ does not grow well, this will be an excellent substitute. A native of Siberia. R. POMIFERA (Apple Rose).--This is, perhaps, the most striking of Roses in regard to its fruit. The hips are 1 to 1½ inches long, apple or pear-shaped, of a fine bright red, and covered with bristles. It is a species that requires generous conditions at the root to be seen at its best. _R. mollis_ and _R. tomentosa_ belong to the same group, and have also fine red fruits, but they are much smaller than those of _R. pomifera_. R. RUGOSA (Japanese Rose).--No plant has come to the front more rapidly in recent years than this Rose. It was introduced from Japan in 1845, but appears to have been neglected. It is one of the very hardiest of Roses, as well as one of the sturdiest and most robust. The leaves are very handsome, the leaflets being of a rich green and wrinkled. The flowers in the wild type are rosy crimson, but there is also a white variety, and seedlings give quite a variety of shades. It hybridises freely with other species and garden varieties, and has in this way enriched our gardens with many good hybrids, Mme. Georges Bruant and the Coubert Double White among them. The fruits of _R. rugosa_ are orange-shaped, scarlet red, and of large size--altogether very ornamental. [Illustration: _HYBRID ROSE UNA, A SHRUBBY GROUP ON GRASS._ (_Bed is 70 feet in circumference and contains 15 plants._)] R. SERICEA.--For some reason this Rose has never obtained the recognition it deserves. Perhaps its comparative rarity may account for this. It is the earliest of all Roses to flower out of doors, its first blossoms opening as a rule towards the latter end of May; the flowers are creamy white. In the cooler days of May and early June it lasts longer in bloom than many of the later flowering species do. It has one very distinctive character, in the petals being nearly always four (instead of the usual five) to each flower. Sometimes the bark of the young shoots is a bright red. A native of North India. R. SETIGERA.--Of the North American Roses none has proved more useful in this country than the Prairie Rose. A rambler in habit, it is valuable for its vigorous growth and late flowering. The flowers are large, deep rose, and appear in July and August. R. SPINOSISSIMA (R. PIMPINELLIFOLIA).--The Scotch Rose is one of the earliest species to bloom; it is also one of the prettiest and most distinct. The stems are dwarf and covered with bristles, the leaves small, and the flower white and cup-shaped. There are several wild varieties of it, the two most noteworthy being _altaica_ (or _grandiflora_) and _hispida_. Both these grow 6 feet or more high, and the flowers of both are larger than the typical Scotch Rose. Those of _altaica_ are creamy white; those of _hispida_ a lovely cream yellow. The garden varieties of this Rose are numerous--some double, some single, and varying in colour from yellow to white and from pink to purple. The type is found wild in several parts of Britain. R. WEBBIANA.--Coming from some of the highest elevations on the Himalaya at which shrubby vegetation exists, this species is the hardiest of the Indian Roses. It has a thin, graceful habit, and its spiny stems are blue white when young. This year it has been very pretty in the unusual profusion of its bluish-tinted flowers, each of which are about 2 inches across. The leaves are of a blue green, and are similar in size and division to those of the Scotch Roses. But it is quite distinct from them or any others, for which reason it is worth the notice of lovers of these wild types. R. WICHURAIANA.--It is not many years since this Japanese Rose was first introduced, but it is now fairly well known. It is a perfectly prostrate plant, and is remarkable for the shiny, varnished appearance of the leaves. It is one of the latest species to come into bloom. The flowers are pure white, and appear during July and August in clusters resting on the carpet of glossy foliage. It makes an excellent covering for sunny banks where the soil is good. Old tree stumps are also pretty when covered with this Rose. It has already been hybridised, and among its progeny are Pink Roamer, Manda's Triumph, South Orange Perfection, and Jersey Beauty. There is a very distinct cross between it and _R. rugosa_ at Kew. CHAPTER XL PLANTING AND STAKING TREES A few words of advice upon these important subjects will be helpful. When planting a tree, prepare the ground beforehand, so that when the trees arrive they can be put at once into their proper places without having to be laid in. If the trees are to be planted thickly, trench the ground to a depth of at least 2 feet, keeping the top spit to the top all the while, merely burying the turf if there is any. If the soil is poor, enrich it during the trenching. If possible this trenching should be done the spring previous to the planting of the trees, and the ground cropped with Potatoes or Cabbages to keep down weeds during summer. If the trees are to be planted wide apart or as isolated specimens, make large holes, varying in diameter from 6 to 10 feet, these being trenched 2 or 2½ feet deep and filled in again to within 1 foot of the surface. The shape of the hole is a small matter, round or square being equally good. In some instances, however, especially when a tree is being moved with a large mass of soil, a square hole will be found handier than a round one, on account of the additional room given by the corners. The time to plant is of much importance, for though deciduous trees may be transplanted throughout winter, October, November, February, and March are preferable to December or January. October and November are the two best months, as then the ground is warm and root action begins before winter sets in. If the trees are simply to be transplanted from one position in the garden to another, the work may be begun in the case of deciduous trees as soon as the leaves turn colour and commence to fall. In lifting, take care not to injure the roots. When putting the spade into the ground the edge should be to the tree, not the face. Digging must begin at a reasonable distance from the tree, and if a ball of soil is not required, the soil should be forked from between the roots into a trench which has previously been made round the stem. If, while lifting, any of the main roots have suffered, cut the injured parts away with a sharp knife and tar over the wounds. When planting, the tree should be stood in the hole, and a stick laid across the top of the hole near the tree to ascertain whether the depth is right, sufficient space for an inch of soil over the uppermost root being allowed. The centre of the hole should be filled in slightly higher than the sides, and on the little mound the tree should be stood, laying the roots out carefully all round. When filling the soil in, some fine material should be worked in among the roots with the hand, and before the hole is fully filled in give a good watering; this has the effect of settling the soil well about the roots. The amount of ramming necessary depends on the consistency of the soil. After a tree is planted in early autumn a mulching of rotten manure may be given, but if the planting is done in spring the mulching is better left until early summer when the ground has become warmed. [Illustration: _STAKING TREES._] After planting, staking, where necessary, should be attended to. It is not necessary to stake every tree that is planted. When it is sturdy, with a well-balanced head and set of roots, and the position is not exposed to rough winds, staking is needless. If, however, the stem is weak or the roots are mostly on one side, not spread round the tree, or the position is very exposed, staking for a time will be necessary. In the case of young trees little difficulty will be experienced, as good straight stakes can be easily got. As a rule, one stake is quite enough for a tree, and that should be driven in as close as possible to the trunk without injuring it or the roots. To the stake the tree should be secured with wire or stout tar string, using thin cushions of felt, leather, or old hose-pipe to keep the wire or string from cutting into the bark. Allow a little room between the stem and stake for growth. Two or three ties are usually sufficient, and these should be examined and loosened once or twice a year until the stakes can be dispensed with. The habit of putting in stakes in such a way that they cross the trunk, and that when the wind blows there is sufficient play for the stem and the stake to rub against each other, is a bad one, the chafing often causing serious wounds. In exposed situations, or when there is danger of the tree rocking about and becoming loose at the collar, put in three stakes in the form of a triangle, the stem fitting in the space left between the three stakes at the top, while the bottoms of the stakes extend some 2 or 3 feet from the tree. For this purpose wires fastened to stakes driven in the ground are useful, and neater than stout stakes. When wires are used, however, take care to provide a good soft pad between the tree and the wire. For trees with large heads, or those not well furnished with roots, this way of staking will be found very useful. When inserting stakes they should be properly sharpened for the sake of straight driving. The staking of trees which have the lower parts of their trunks straight and their leaders crooked differs from other staking, as the stakes should not be driven into the ground, but tied firmly to the trunk below the bend, the leader being then drawn to the stake. In all cases, however, where staking is done the stakes should be removed as soon as the trees are able to do without them. A stake is not beautiful. There is always the chance of the tying material being left a little too long without examination, and therefore it cuts into the bark. Ties also harbour insects. CHAPTER XLI SOME HARDY FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS The following are tables of hardy flowering trees and shrubs, and comprise only species and varieties suitable, unless otherwise stated, for almost all parts of the British Isles. An asterisk (*) denotes those of the first importance. This way has been adopted to compress as much information as possible into a small space. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Æsculus (Pavia), |Sapindaceæ | |A well-known group Horse Chestnut, | | |represented most largely by Buck-eye | | |the Horse Chestnut, which | | |is the tallest of the | | |species. The Æsculi | | |generally are of medium | | |size, and not very | | |particular about soil or | | |position. The smaller | | |growers were at one time | | |placed in a distinct genus, | | |Pavia, but now placed with | | |Æsculus. The more shrubby | | |species are welcome in the | | |garden, where the Horse | | |Chestnut would be out of | | |place. | | | *Æ. carnea |Hybrid between |Bright |This is a handsome tree for |Æ. Hippocastanum|red; late |the garden, and is |and Æ. Pavia. |May and |generally about 15 feet |Synonymous with |early June|high in Britain. Its chief |Æ. rubicunda | |charm is in the profusion | | |and brilliant red colouring | | |of the flower-spikes. It is | | |not of quick growth, but | | |flowers when very young. | | |It will be found in many | | |lists under the name of Æ. | | |rubicunda, the red Horse | | |Chestnut. Rosea is a good | | |variety recommended by Mr. | | |Anthony Waterer as a "tree | | |for planting in smoky | | |districts." Another fine | | |variety, peculiarly bright | | |in flower colouring, is Æ. | | |Brioti. | | | Æ. flava |A native of |Pale |Those who want a tree in |Carolina and |yellow |this family of distinct |Virginia, on | |colour will find pleasure |mountain slopes;| |probably in this, but its |introduced in | |colouring is dull, and the |1764. Sanguinea | |flowers are not plentiful. |has red flowers.| | | | | *Æ. Hippocastanum |From the |White; |The common Horse Chestnut (Common Horse |mountains of |late May |is too well known to Chestnut) |Greece. Gerard |or early |describe. It is not a tree |mentions the |June. |for very exposed places, as |Horse Chestnut |There is |its large leaves offer |in his "Herbal" |consider- |considerable resistance to |in 1579 as a |able |the wind, and get torn and |rare foreign |variation,|unsightly. The double |tree |as many of|variety (flore-pleno) is | |the trees |very distinct, having quite | |in parks |double flowers. Foliis | |and |aureis variegatis is a | |gardens |variegated variety, as the | |have been |name suggests, with | |raised |blotches of yellow on the | |from seed |leaves; and laciniata has | | |cut foliage. | | | Æ. indica |Nepaul, and |White, |This distinct and beautiful |other parts of |with |tree is perhaps the rarest |Northern India. |yellow and|of the Horse Chestnuts in |On the Himalaya |red |cultivation, and is not so |the tree reaches|blotches |robust as the common |a height of 70 |at the |species. It flowered in |feet, with a |base of |England as long ago as 1858 |trunk 3 feet |the |at Mildenhall in Suffolk, |through |petals; |but has been little heard | |Summer |of. It is a tree doubtless | | |for the Cornish and | | |Devonshire and southern | | |coast gardens where the | | |Himalayan Rhododendrons | | |thrive well. Sir Joseph | | |Hooker, during his Himalaya | | |travels fifty years ago, | | |saw it loaded with its | | |white racemes, and equal in | | |beauty to the common Horse | | |Chestnut of English parks. | | |Its foliage is quite | | |distinct from that of the | | |other species, the leaflets | | |numbering seven or nine, | | |and being of a dark glossy | | |green. In the other Horse | | |Chestnuts the leaflets are | | |usually only five to each | | |leaf, and never more than | | |seven. The racemes of this | | |Indian species are about 8 | | |inches long, the flowers | | |being white, with blotches | | |of yellow and red at the | | |base of the petals. | | | *Æ. (Pavia) |North America. |White |This is better known as P. parviflora |On river banks |fragrant |macrostachya, and is a low, |in Georgia. |flowers |spreading shrub 8 to 10 |Introduced to |sometimes |feet high; the leaves |England by Mr. |tinged |consist of five to seven |John Fraser in |with pink,|finely serrated leaflets, |1786 |and long |covered underneath with a | |stamens, |whitish tomentum. Although | |and in |introduced so long ago, | |long |this August flowering shrub | |upright |is not common; it is a good | |racemes |shrub for a small garden, | | |and is not fastidious about | | |soil or even situation if | | |not too shady. It is | | |increased by suckers thrown | | |up around the plant. These, | | |when detached with a | | |portion of root, soon form | | |good plants. | | | Æ. californica |California. 40 |Erect |This is not much known, |feet in its |spikes of |but is a handsome shrub or |native country, |white or |tree. |but not much |delicate | |more than a |rose; | |shrub here |sweet- | | |smelling | | |flowers; | | |May | | | | *Æ. Pavia (P. |North America |Red; |This is the Red Buck-eye, rubra) | |early |and will grow 15 feet high, | |summer |but is more often simply a | | |big shrub. The flowers are | | |very bright red in colour, | | |and in loose clusters, | | |unlike the dense spikes of | | |the common Horse Chestnut. | | |The varieties are even | | |dwarfer. Humilis, for | | |instance, is only 4 feet. | | |Atrosanguinea has very dark | | |red flowers, and those of | | |whitleyana are brighter | | |than the type. | | | Æ. turbinata |Japan |Yellowish |As this has not yet |(introduced by |white, not|flowered in this country, |Messrs. Veitch |so large |as far as we are aware, but |& Sons) |as those |will probably become | |of the |popular here, the following | |common |account of it by Professor | |Horse |Sargent in his "Forest | |Chestnut |Flora of Japan" will be | | |interesting:-- | | | | | |"This, however, is a noble | | |tree--one of the largest | | |and stateliest of all the | | |horse chestnuts. In the | | |forests of the interior | | |mountain regions of Central | | |Hondo, at elevations | | |between 2000 and 3000 | | |feet, horse chestnuts 80 to | | |100 feet tall, with trunks | | |3 or 4 feet in diameter, | | |are not uncommon. These | | |were, perhaps, the largest | | |deciduous trees on the main | | |island growing naturally in | | |the forest--that is, which | | |had not been planted by | | |men--and their escape from | | |destruction was probably | | |due to their inaccessible | | |position, and to the fact | | |that the wood of the horse | | |chestnut is not | | |particularly valued by the | | |Japanese. In habit, and in | | |the form, venation, and | | |colouring of the leaves, | | |the Japanese horse chestnut | | |resembles the horse | | |chestnut of our gardens, | | |the Grecian Æsculus | | |Hippocastanum, and at first | | |sight it might easily be | | |mistaken for that tree, but | | |the thyrsus of flowers of | | |the Japanese species, which | | |is 10 or 12 inches long, | | |and only 2½ to 3 inches | | |broad, is more slender; the | | |flowers are smaller, and | | |pale yellow, with short, | | |nearly equal, petals, | | |ciliate on the margins; and | | |the fruit is that of the | | |Pavias, being smooth, and | | |showing no trace of the | | |prickles which distinguish | | |the true horse chestnuts. | | |The Japanese horse chestnut | | |reaches Southern Yezo, | | |finding its most northern | | |home near Mororan, on the | | |shores of Volcano Bay, at | | |the level of the ocean; it | | |is generally distributed | | |through the mountainous | | |parts of the three southern | | |islands, sometimes | | |ascending in the south to | | |an elevation of 4000 or | | |5000 feet. There seems no | | |reason why this tree, which | | |has already produced fruit | | |in France, should not | | |flourish in our northern | | |states, where, as well as | | |in Europe, it is still | | |little known. In Northern | | |Japan the fruits are | | |exposed for sale in the | | |shops, although they are | | |probably used only as | | |playthings for the | | |children." -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _HORSE-CHESTNUT (Æsculus Hippocastanum) IN FLOWER._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Amelanchier |Rosaceæ | |A charming family of | | |spring-flowering trees, | | |graceful in growth, and of | | |moderate stature. There are | | |four species, but dozens of | | |names in catalogues; in | | |fact, the genus is much | | |mixed up in many books and | | |lists. | | | *A. alnifolia |North-West |White; |This is usually about 8 |America |Spring |feet high; it is very | | |beautiful with its wealth | | |of white flowers in compact | | |clusters or racemes, | | |followed by purple berries. | | |In the Kew "Arboretum" | | |Hand-list no less than ten | | |synonyms are given. | | | *A. canadensis |Canada |White; |This flowers about a month | |April |before A. alnifolia, and is | | |one of the first trees to | | |greet us with its wealth of | | |snow-white blossom in | | |spring. It should be | | |planted in a free group. | | |Juneberry and Snowy | | |Mespilus are its popular | | |names. Eighteen synonyms | | |are given in the list | | |referred to, the most usual | | |being A. Botryapium. No | | |small garden should be | | |without this lovely small | | |tree; it is between 6 and | | |8 feet high, spreading, | | |and has purplish fruits, | | |whilst the leaves die off | | |deep golden yellow, so that | | |the Snowy Mespilus has many | | |beautiful phases. There are | | |several varieties, but the | | |species is as beautiful as | | |any. | | | A. oligocarpa |Northern United |White; |This is quite a dwarf |States, |April and |shrub, 3 feet to 4 feet, |and found in |May |and the individual flowers |bogs and swamps | |are ¾ inch across. As it | | |is found in moist places it | | |should be tried in such | | |positions in Britain. | | | A. vulgaris |Europe |White; |This has been in English | |April |gardens about 300 years. | | |It is like the Canadian | | |Juneberry or Snowy | | |Mespilus, but not so | | |beautiful. If only one | | |Amelanchier is required, | | |choose A. canadensis. | | | *Andromeda |Ericaceæ; |Pink; |A small shrub about a foot polifolia |widely |Summer |high, with pretty pink (Moorwort) |distributed. | |wax-like flowers in summer. | | |Moist, peaty soil. See | | |Cassandra, Leucothoë, | | |Cassiope, Lyonia, | | |Oxydendron, Pieris, and | | |Zenobia. | | | *Berberis acuminata|Berberideæ; |Bronzy |Evergreen shrub with red |China |yellow |young wood. Introduced by | | |Messrs. Veitch. | | | *B. Aquifolium (Ash|Introduced 1823.|Yellow; |A common, but handsome Barberry, Syn. |Spread widely |early |evergreen shrub, reaching a Mahonia Aquifolium)|over the |Spring, |clothed height of 3 to 5 |western side of |dark green|feet, and with dark green |North America |leaves of |pinnate and leathery |from Nootka |Summer |leaves. The flowers |Sound |have a |are bright golden; they are |southwards. |purplish |succeeded by berries, | |tinge |purple when ripe, which add | |after |to the ornamental features | |frost |of the plant. It is one of | | |the best shrubs for growing | | |under trees, and in many | | |places is planted for game | | |cover. Distinct varieties | | |are _fascicularis_, which | | |is usually 2 feet to 4 feet | | |high and has narrower | | |leaflets of a duller green | | |than the type. | | | *B. buxifolia |Chili |Yellow; |An upright evergreen bush 5 (Box-leaved | |April and |feet high, clothed with Barberry, Syn. B. | |early May |small box-like leaves, and dulcis) | | |bearing drooping blossoms | | |borne on unusually long | | |stalks. It is not so | | |handsome as B. Darwinii or | | |B. stenophylla, but | | |flowering before them is on | | |that account valuable. A | | |dwarf variety (nana) is a | | |pretty rock-work plant. | | | B. concinna |Himalaya |Pale |A little deciduous shrub | |yellow |not more than 18 inches | | |high, and with silvery | | |undersides to the leaves. | | |It needs a sheltered spot | | |in good soil. | | | B. congestiflora |Chili |Bright |A large interesting bush, var. hakeoides | |yellow |with masses of flowers. | | |Rare. | | | B. aristata |Himalaya |Yellow |A strong-growing deciduous | | |shrub, somewhat after the | | |style of the common | | |Barberry, but chiefly | | |remarkable from the bright | | |red of the young bark, | | |which thus forms a fine | | |winter feature. | | | *B. Darwinii |Chili |Orange |This ranks with B. (Darwin's | |yellow; |stenophylla as the most Barberry) | |May |handsome of all Barberries; | | |and, indeed, it is in the | | |very front rank of | | |flowering shrubs. It is of | | |bold, wide-spreading growth | | |6 to 8 feet high, and the | | |masses of dark evergreen | | |leaves serve admirably as a | | |setting to the clusters of | | |orange-coloured blossoms | | |which are at their best in | | |May. The purple berries are | | |very attractive towards the | | |end of the summer. This | | |Barberry forms a delightful | | |lawn shrub, particularly in | | |a fairly moist soil. | | | B. empetrifolia |Chili |Yellow; |A little evergreen bush | |Spring |less than 2 feet high, and | | |flowering about the same | | |time as B. Darwinii. With | | |this just-named species it | | |shares the parentage of B. | | |stenophylla, which is | | |unsurpassed in the entire | | |genus. | | | B. nepalensis, Syn.|Nepaul |Yellow |The stateliest of the Ash Mahonia nepalensis | | |Barberries, forming a | | |specimen 6 feet high, and | | |regularly furnished with | | |long compound leaves. It | | |is, however, tender, except | | |in the West of England and | | |Ireland, where, in a moist, | | |fairly open soil, it does | | |well. Even there a | | |sheltered spot should be | | |chosen for it. | | | B. repens, Syn. |North America | ,, |Related to B. Aquifolium, Mahonia repens | | |and, like that, will do | | |well in shady spots. It is | | |dwarfer than the other | | |just mentioned. | | | *B. stenophylla |Garden form |Yellow; |This is a hybrid between B. | |Spring |Darwinii and B. | | |empetrifolia, and a shrub | | |of rare beauty. The slender | | |arching shoots are very | | |graceful, and during the | | |flowering period are | | |completely wreathed with | | |golden blossoms. Standing | | |singly on a lawn, or near | | |water, it is delightful. | | |It should be in the | | |smallest collection of | | |flowering shrubs. | | | *B. Thunbergi |China and Japan |Pale |A spreading shrub 3 or 4 | |yellow and|feet high, with flowers not | |red; |particularly showy, and | |Spring |borne on the undersides of | | |the shoots just as the | | |young leaves are expanding. | | |The bright-red berries are | | |very showy, but they are | | |surpassed by the brilliant | | |scarlet of the decaying | | |leaves. | | | *B. vulgaris |Europe |Yellow; |The common Barberry is an (Common Barberry) | |Spring |ornamental deciduous shrub | | |8 to 10 feet high, and is | | |valuable from the fact that | | |it will thrive in dry, | | |stony soils. Apart from the | | |pale-yellow flowers in | | |spring, the scarlet berries | | |are very showy, and by some | | |are used for preserves. | | |There are many varieties, | | |the best being the | | |purple-leaved (purpurea) | | |and white-fruited (fructu | | |albo). | | | B. wallichiana |Himalaya and |Sulphur |A dense evergreen bush, (Syn. B. Jamesoni, |China |Yellow; |with dark green spiny B. Hookerii) | |June |leaves and pale yellow | | |blossoms. It grows 4 or 5 | | |feet high. | | | *B. Wilsonæ |China |Rich |A fine shrub, the leaves | |golden |changing to an intense | |colour |crimson colour in autumn. | | |Spines an inch long. | | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Buddleia Colvillei|Himalaya; |Rosy |A beautiful tree, reaching |Loganiaceæ |crimson; |a height of 30 feet in its | |June |native country, but it is | | |hardy only in the extreme | | |West. | | | *B. globosa (Orange|Chili |Orange |A deciduous shrub, 10 to 12 Ball tree) | |yellow; |feet high, with long, | |Midsummer |willow-like hoary leaves, | | |and flowers borne in | | |globular clusters about | | |midsummer. It is perfectly | | |hardy in warm soils in the | | |South of England, and is | | |much admired. | | | B. japonica, Syn. |Japan |Lilac; |This has several B. curviflora | |August |well-marked features, | | |forming as it does a | | |deciduous shrub about 4 | | |feet high, with curiously | | |winged stems and long | | |curved spikes of blossoms. | | | B. variabilis |China |Rosy |A free-growing shrub, 6 to | |purple, |8 feet high. The variety | |Yellowish |Magnifica was introduced by | |throat; |Messrs. Veitch from Central | |Midsummer |China; rich rose purple. | | |Prune well back each | | |autumn. Veitchiana is | | |lighter in colour and | | |flowers a fortnight sooner. | | | Cæsalpinia japonica|Japan; |Canary |A very interesting shrub, |Leguminosæ |yellow; |rambling and with long | |Summer |flexible shoots with red | | |prickles. The leaves are a | | |foot long, and of a | | |pleasing green; the | | |flowers, which are in | | |partially erect racemes, | | |are about 1 inch across, | | |and bright canary yellow in | | |colour, against which the | | |reddish anthers are | | |conspicuous. It must not | | |be planted where it is | | |likely to get smothered. It | | |has stood out unharmed for | | |many years in the | | |Coombewood Nursery | | |(Kingston). | | | *Calycanthus |North America; |Purplish |A deciduous, much-branched floridus (American |Calycanthaceæ |red; |shrub from 5 to 6 feet Allspice) | |July |high, well worth growing | | |for its highly fragrant | | |flowers, about a couple of | | |inches in diameter. It | | |needs a fairly cool, moist | | |soil. | | | C. occidentalis |California |Crimson |Much like the preceding, (Californian | | |but of more vigorous growth Allspice) | | |with larger flowers. | | | Cassandra |North America |White; |An evergreen under-shrub, calyculata (Syn. | |April and |growing from 1 to 2 feet Andromeda | |May |high. The shoots are calyculata) | | |arching, and the waxy | | |Lily-of-the-Valley-like | | |flowers are suspended from | | |the undersides in | | |considerable numbers. It is | | |a pretty but by no means | | |showy shrub, and needs | | |moist, peaty soil. | | | Cassiope fastigiata|Himalaya; |Pink; |A pretty little erect |Ericaceæ |Summer |growing shrub about a foot | | |high, suggesting a Club | | |Moss or a small Conifer, | | |with tiny bell-shaped | | |blossoms. It is suitable | | |only as a rock-work | | |shrub in moist, peaty | | |soil. | | | C. hypnoides |Siberia |White |Even smaller than the | | |preceding, and needs the | | |same treatment. | | | C. tetragona |North America |White |The tiny scale-like leaves |and | |of this are arranged in |Northern Europe | |four rows, thus giving the | | |branches a curious square | | |appearance. Succeeds under | | |the same conditions as the | | |others. The Cassiopes are | | |difficult to grow. | | | Catalpa |Bignoniaceæ | |This genus of large | | |deciduous trees is | | |represented in both | | |the eastern and western | | |hemispheres, and contains | | |about a dozen species. Only | | |five of these are at | | |present in cultivation in | | |Britain or are known to be | | |hardy, two being natives of | | |North America and three of | | |China. The Catalpas are | | |some of the most striking | | |and beautiful of all hardy | | |trees, both in regard to | | |foliage and to flower. The | | |leaves are large and bold | | |in outline, and the flowers | | |borne in large terminal | | |panicles towards the end of | | |summer. Catalpas love a | | |rich soil and abundant | | |moisture. They are | | |particularly well adapted | | |for planting on the margins | | |of ponds and water-courses. | | |All the species have this | | |peculiarity: they never | | |form a terminal winter bud. | | |In consequence of this, | | |every shoot branches at its | | |apex into two or three | | |every spring, with the | | |result that the trees | | |naturally acquire a broad, | | |spreading habit. This is | | |especially apparent in the | | |case of isolated trees | | |growing on lawns--a | | |position, it may be | | |mentioned, in which | | |Catalpas are seen to | | |exceptional advantage. In | | |the forests of North | | |America, where they are | | |drawn up by other trees, | | |the Catalpas occasionally | | |attain to heights of 50 | | |feet to 100 feet. In | | |gardens it may sometimes be | | |advisable to help them to | | |reach a moderate height, by | | |keeping them to a single | | |lead when young. All the | | |species can be increased by | | |cuttings of the roots, or | | |of the fairly matured leafy | | |growths. | | | *C. bignonioides |Introduced from |Creamy |This species is by far the (Syn. C. |North America in|white |commonest and best known of syringæfolia) |1726 |blotched |the Catalpas in Britain. It | |with |does not often attain a | |yellow, |stature of more than 30 | |and |feet, although in its | |spotted |native woods it is met with | |with |twice as high. The broadly | |purple in |ovate leaves are in healthy | |the |trees of mature age about 6 | |throat; |inches long and 4 inches to | |July and |five inches wide. The | |August |flower panicles are erect, | | |branching, and pyramidal, | | |frequently 1 foot in | | |diameter at the base. The | | |flower is 1½ inches | | |across, with a broad | | |bell-shaped base, the | | |reflexed limb being | | |elaborately frilled. The | | |thin, kidney-bean-like | | |fruits are 9 inches to 12 | | |inches long, but in most | | |parts of the country are | | |only produced after | | |exceptionally sunny | | |seasons. The following | | |varieties are in | | |cultivation: Aurea, with | | |rich yellow foliage; nana, | | |a remarkable low shrub, 2 | | |feet to 3 feet high, which | | |never flowers, and can only | | |be regarded as a curiosity; | | |purpurea, with | | |purple-tinged leaves and | | |shoots. | | | C. Bungei |Northern China |White, |Whether the true C. Bungei | |spotted |is in cultivation at the | |with |present time is very | |purple; |doubtful. Certainly the | |they, as |plants supplied by some | |well as |nurserymen under this name | |the |are only the dwarf variety | |panicles, |(nana) of C. bignonioides. | |are larger|In any case the true C. | |than in |Bungei has not flowered in | |Kæmpfer's |Britain. It is a tree 30 | |Catalpa |feet high, with either | | |entire or lobed leaves; | | |they are 4 inches to 8 | | |inches long, and about | | |three-fourths as wide. | | | C. cordifolia (Syn.|United States. |White, |This is probably the finest species) |It inhabits a |with |species of Catalpa, but is |more western |yellow |not yet well known in |region than C. |blotches |Britain. In the United |bignonioides, |in the |States it is often 50 feet |and is found in |throat; |high, and in exceptional |the States of |but the |cases over 100 feet. Owing |Kentucky, |purple |to its having been for a |Louisiana, |spots are |long time confounded with |Tennessee, |not so |C. bignonioides, this |Missouri, Texas,|abundant |species was probably |&c. |in C. |introduced unknowingly, and | |bignon- |it may exist in some | |ioides, |gardens under the other | |whilst the|name. It is said to be | |panicles |somewhat the hardier of the | |are large,|two. | |and appear| | |about a | | |fortnight | | |before. | | | | C. Fargesii |China. |...... |Little known of this |Introduced to | |species yet. |France by M. | | |Maurice de | | |Vilmorin, and | | |sent by him to | | |Kew in 1899 | | | | | C. hybrida |A hybrid between|White, |In the United States this |C. cordifolia |with |appears likely to prove the |and C. Kæmpferi.|yellow and|finest of all the Catalpas, |Raised nearly |purple |exceeding even C. |thirty years ago|markings |cordifolia in the vigour of |by Mr. John C. |on the |its growth and the size of |Teas in Indiana,|throat |its panicles. Four hundred |U.S.A. | |flowers have been borne on | | |a single panicle. | | |Generally, the plant is | | |intermediate between the | | |two species that share its | | |parentage. | | | C. Kæmpferi |China; |Flowers |Whilst this species--named |introduced by |1 inch |in honour of Engelbert |Siebold in 1849 |across; |Kæmpfer, who visited Japan | |reddish- |in the seventeenth | |brown and |century--bears a strong | |purple |resemblance to the American | |markings |C. bignonioides, it is | | |neither so fine nor so | | |ornamental a tree. It has | | |naturally the same rounded | | |habit, but is never so | | |large. The leaves differ | | |in frequently being more | | |or less lobed. Kæmpfer | | |noted this tree in Japan, | | |and until a recent date it | | |was regarded as indigenous | | |to that country. Recent | | |travellers have, however, | | |concluded it to be (like | | |many other popular trees in | | |Japan) of Chinese origin | | |solely. It is frequent in | | |the grounds surrounding | | |Buddhist temples in Japan. | | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _CATALPA OR INDIAN BEAN TREE (Catalpa bignonioides)._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Ceanothus |Eastern United |Whitish; |A deciduous shrub, 3 to 4 americanus (New |States; |July and |feet high, that dies Jersey Tea) |Rhamneæ |August |partially back during the | | |winter. The flowers, which | | |are borne in good-sized | | |racemes, are at their best | | |in July and August, and on | | |that account are very | | |valuable. It is one of the | | |hardiest of the | | |Ceanothuses, and in the | | |South of England it will | | |flower as a shrub in the | | |open ground. | | | *C. azureus |Mexico |Light |This is not quite so hardy | |blue; July|as the preceding, and it | |and August|cannot be regarded as a | | |shrub for the open ground, | | |except in particularly | | |favoured districts. It is, | | |however, a delightful wall | | |shrub. There are many | | |garden varieties of this, | | |mostly of Continental | | |origin, of which may be | | |especially mentioned Gloire | | |de Versailles, blue; Marie | | |Simon, pink; and Indigo, | | |deep blue, very beautiful. | | | C. divaricatus |California |Pale blue;|Suitable only for a wall. | |May and |With this amount of | |June |protection it will reach a | | |height of 10 feet. | | | C. papillosus |California |Blue; |Like the last, it is, | |May and |except in the extreme west, | |June |essentially a wall plant; | | |it is one of the best. | | | C. rigidus |California |Purplish |The leaves of this are | |blue; |small and neat, and its | |Spring and|charming blossoms are on a | |early |wall borne sometimes as | |Summer |soon as April, and are kept | | |up through May to June. It | | |will reach a height of 6 to | | |8 feet. | | | C. thyrsiflorus |California |Bright |In its native country this | |blue; |attains to the dimensions | |Summer |of a small tree, but here | | |it is essentially a wall | | |plant. The flowers are in | | |large racemes. | | | *C. veitchianus |California |Bright |A species with neat | |blue; May |dark-green leaves. It forms | |and June |a delightful wall plant. | | | *Cercis |South Europe and|Rose |Throughout May and early Siliquastrum |West Asia; |purple, |June the Judas Tree is very (Judas Tree) |Leguminosæ |but |beautiful, being smothered | |varies; |with pretty pear-shaped red | |May and |blossoms. At Kew it flowers | |June |well in numerous places. It | | |grows to a height of 20 | | |feet or more in the | | |Mediterranean region, | | |though in gardens here it | | |is more often represented | | |by bushes of less than half | | |that height. It thrives in | | |sandy loam, and likes | | |plenty of sun and air. The | | |flowers are produced from | | |all parts of the stems, | | |much of the old wood being | | |often smothered with | | |flowering spurs. A variety | | |with white flowers is in | | |cultivation, and this may | | |also be seen in flower at | | |Kew. It is very free, and | | |the flowers are of the | | |purest white. A beautiful | | |variety. In addition to | | |this species, C. | | |canadensis, from North | | |America, and C. chinensis, | | |a native of China and | | |Japan, are also grown, | | |whilst a fourth species, C. | | |reniformis, from Western | | |China, has lately put in an | | |appearance. | | | *Chionanthus |Japan; |Pure |This Chionanthus furnishes retusus |Oleaceæ |white; |one of the many (Fringe Tree) | |Early |illustrations of the close | |Summer |affinity that exists | | |between the flora of the | | |United States and that of | | |Japan, for it is very | | |nearly related to the | | |American Fringe Tree | | |(Chionanthus virginicus), | | |from which, however, it | | |differs in being a smaller | | |and more slender plant, | | |while the clusters of | | |flowers are rather less | | |dense. When in bloom there | | |is no danger of | | |confounding these | | |Chionanthuses with any | | |other tree or shrub, as the | | |pure white drooping | | |fringe-like inflorescence | | |is totally distinct from | | |anything else. They are | | |quite hardy, and not | | |particular as to soil, | | |though a fairly deep loam | | |suits them best. | | | C. virginica |North America |White, |An interesting bush, but (American Fringe | |narrow, |taller in its native Tree) | |fringe- |country. | |like | | |petals; | | |hence the | | |name | | | | *Choisya ternata |Mexico; |White; |This is a shrub for warm (Mexican Orange |Rutaceæ |Summer, |soils and sunny position, Flower) | |but much |when it makes a big, leafy, | |depends |glossy-leaved bush, | |upon |smothered with clusters of | |position |white flowers that, from | | |their appearance and | | |fragrance, have earned the | | |shrub the name of Orange | | |Flower. At Munstead in | | |Surrey it grows so | | |rampantly that it has to be | | |cut away to keep it within | | |reasonable bounds. In "Wood | | |and Garden," p. 63, it is | | |mentioned, the month is | | |May; "The Mexican Orange | | |Flower (Choisya ternata) | | |has been smothered in its | | |white bloom, so closely | | |resembling orange blossom. | | |With a slight winter | | |protection of fir boughs it | | |seems quite at home on hot | | |dry soil, grows fast, and | | |is very easy to propagate | | |by layers. When cut it | | |lasts for more than a week | | |in winter." | | | Cistus albidus |South-West |Bright |A shrub 4 to 5 feet high, |Europe; |rose; |with whitish leaves (hence |Cistineæ |June and |the name of albidus) and a | |July |profusion of blossoms 2 | | |inches across. It needs a | | |dry, warm soil, hence will | | |succeed on sloping banks, | | |but even then, in the South | | |of England, it is apt to be | | |killed by a very severe | | |winter. This last paragraph | | |will apply to the genus | | |Cistus in general. | | | C. crispus |Southern Europe |Reddish |Reaches a height of a | |purple; |couple of feet, and bears | |Summer |its saucer-shaped blossoms | | |in great profusion. The | | |individual flowers are | | |about 2½ inches in | | |diameter. | | | *C. ladaniferus |South-West |White; |A bush 4 to 5 feet high, (Gum Cistus) |Europe |Summer |with large, white, solitary | | |flowers. The variety | | |maculatus has a crimson | | |blotch at the base of each | | |petal. | | | *C. laurifolius |South of Europe |White; |A sub-evergreen shrub 5 to (Laurel-leaved | |July and |6 feet high, and the Cistus) | |August |hardiest of all the Cistus. | | |Of this there is also a | | |variety maculatus blotched | | |at the base with purple | | |crimson, which forms a | | |delightful shrub. | | | C. monspeliensis |South of Europe |White; |A compact bush 4 feet high, | |Summer |with flowers about an inch | | |across. | | | C. populifolius |Levant |White; |The leaves of this are very (Poplar-leaved | |Summer |distinct, being Cistus) | | |heart-shaped and | | |long-stalked, whilst the | | |plant itself will attain a | | |height of 6 feet. | | | C. purpureus |South-East |Reddish |This is only suitable for |Europe |purple |planting in the West of | |with a |England, but where not | |maroon |injured by frost it is a | |blotch |delightful shrub, a little | | |over a yard high. | | | *C. villosus |Mediterranean |Reddish |A compact shrub, whose |region |purple |reddish-purple blossoms are | | |about 2½ inches across. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _CISTUS VILLOSUS._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Cladrastis |Amoorland; |Whitish; |A very distinct shrub or amurensis (Amoor |Leguminosæ |July |small tree, which is Yellow Wood) | | |perfectly hardy, and has | | |peculiarly greyish-green | | |leaves. The dense spikes of | | |small, pea-shaped blossoms | | |are showy when at their | | |best. This has deep | | |descending roots, and holds | | |its own in sandy soils | | |better than most shrubs. | | | *C. tinctoria |North America |White |A tree, 30 feet high, (Virginian Yellow | | |clothed with large Wood. Syn. Virgilia| | |ornamental pinnate leaves, lutea) | | |which die off a rich | | |yellow. The flowers are | | |white, and in dense | | |drooping racemes. A fairly | | |moist soil is necessary for | | |this. | | | Clethra alnifolia |United States of|White; |In the United States of |America; |August and|America the White Alder or |Ericaceæ |early |Pepper Bush, as Clethra | |September |alnifolia is called, occurs | | |as a native over a | | |considerable area; hence | | |several forms exist, but do | | |not possess any strongly | | |marked features, unless it | | |be the variety tomentosa, | | |which is certainly the most | | |widely removed of all from | | |the typical kind. As a rule | | |the flowering period of the | | |common White Alder extends | | |throughout August and a | | |little way into September, | | |at which last-named period | | |the variety tomentosa is | | |just unfolding its earliest | | |blossoms. As the number of | | |flowering shrubs that are | | |at their best during the | | |latter part of September is | | |very limited, the blooming | | |of this variety of the | | |Clethra at that time makes | | |it valuable. The varietal | | |name of tomentosa is | | |derived from the whitish | | |down on the undersides of | | |the leaves, which serves to | | |readily distinguish it from | | |the other forms. The | | |flower-spikes, too, are | | |rather larger, while the | | |blossoms are as in the | | |others--white. The Clethras | | |all form rather | | |loose-growing bushes from 3 | | |feet to 5 feet high, and | | |delight in a moist soil of | | |a peaty nature, such as | | |that in which | | |Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and | | |others of that class | | |flourish. | | | C. canescens (Syn. |Japan |Milky |A very handsome species C. barbinervis) | |white; |with dark-green leaves and | |Summer |panicles of blossom. Well | | |worth attention, but is yet | | |rare. | | | Colutea arborescens|Mediterranean |Yellow; |A perfectly hardy, free (Bladder Senna) |region; |May and |growing, deciduous shrub, |Leguminosæ |June |reaching a height of 8 to | | |12 feet, clothed with | | |pretty divided leaves, and | | |with a profusion of | | |pea-shaped flowers, | | |succeeded by large inflated | | |seed-pods, which form a | | |very noticeable feature. | | |These pods are green, | | |tinged with red. The | | |Coluteas are very useful, | | |as they will thrive in dry | | |sandy soils where many | | |shrubs would perish. | | | *C. cruenta, Syn. |Orient |Reddish |After the manner of the C. orientalis, and | | |last, from which it differs C. sanguinea. | | |in its glaucous leaves, | | |reddish flowers, and | | |deeper-tinted seed-pods. It | | |is also somewhat dwarfer. | | | Coronilla Emerus |Southern Europe;|Yellow- |A free-growing bush 6 feet (the Scorpion Senna|Leguminosæ |tinged |high, with a profusion of Coronilla) | |red; May |pea-shaped blossoms. It | |and June |needs a well-drained, warm | | |soil. | | | C. juncea (the |South of France |Bright |An erect shrub less than a Rush-like | |yellow |yard high, with rush-like Coronilla) | | |shoots, suggesting those | | |of the Spanish Broom, and | | |also almost devoid of | | |leaves. When in full bloom | | |it is decidedly pretty. | | | *Corylopsis |Japan; |Primrose; |This delightful little pauciflora |Hamamelideæ |Spring, |shrub, when fully grown, | |before the|makes a dense bush, with | |leaves |branches 6 feet high. The | | |leaves are small, thin in | | |texture, prettily tinted | | |when young, and again in | | |autumn. The flowers are | | |primrose-yellow in colour | | |and fragrant. They are | | |arranged from two to four | | |together in drooping | | |catkins from every node on | | |the previous season's wood. | | |Though it is quite hardy in | | |other respects the flowers | | |are easily damaged by | | |frost. | | | C. spicata |Japan |Also |A shrub between 3 and 4 | |cowslip- |feet high, and better known | |coloured |than C. pauciflora. It | |and |flowers in spring before | |scented |the leaves appear. | | | *Cratægus (Thorns).| | | See p. 376. | | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _CYTISUS CAPITATUS._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Cytisus albus |Spain and |White; |A beautiful and popular (White Spanish or |Portugal; |May |Broom. It grows with great Portuguese Broom) |introduced in | |rapidity, and flowers |1752; | |bountifully and regularly. |Leguminosæ | |A bush 6 or 7 feet high, in | | |full flower is a delightful | | |picture, and one never | | |seems to tire of it. Group | | |it with the common Broom. | | |It is very cheap and easily | | |raised from seed. Loudon | | |says: "In good soil it is | | |of very rapid growth, | | |attaining the height of 5 | | |feet or 6 feet in three or | | |four years, and in six or | | |eight years growing as high | | |as 15 feet or even 20 feet | | |if in a sheltered | | |situation. Placed by itself | | |on a lawn it forms a | | |singularly ornamental | | |plant, even when not in | | |flower, by the varied | | |disposition and tufting of | | |its twiggy thread-like | | |branches. When in flower it | | |is one of the finest | | |ornaments of the garden." | | |Loudon also says that bees | | |are fond of the flowers. | | | C. albus |Variety |Pinkish |Rare, and not so beautiful incarnatus | | |as the parent. | | | *C. Ardoini |Maritime Alps |Pure |Quite a dwarf Broom, a few | |yellow; |inches high. It is a | |April and |charming Broom for the rock | |May |garden, placing it where it | | |can spread out its shoots | | |on all sides. It is | | |happiest in sun and dry | | |soil as the other Brooms. | | | *C. austriacus |Native of |Yellow; |C. banaticus and C. (Austrian Broom) |Austrian woods, |July and |serotinus are synonyms. |also of Italy |August |The chief value of this |and Siberia. | |Broom is in its late |Introduced in | |flowering, when its yellow |1741 | |flower clusters are very | | |welcome. | | | C. a. leucanthus |Variety |Very pale |Not important. | |yellow, | | |sometimes | | |almost | | |white | | | | C. biflorus |Hungary |Bright |This is not so important as | |yellow; |the Moonlight Broom, | |May |Andreanus, and some others. | | |It grows about 3 feet high, | | |but even in a group it is | | |not imposing. | | | C. capitatus |Found on wood |Yellow; |This is also a dwarf and |edges in Austria|June |not important Broom. |and introduced | | |in 1774 | | | | | C. hirsutus |Asia Minor and |Yellow; |This is another dwarf and |South of Europe.|June |unimportant shrub. |Introduced in | | |1739 | | | | | *C. kewensis |Hybrid between |Creamy |A most interesting and |C. albus and C. |white; |beautiful Broom, which, as |Ardoini |May |it becomes better known, | | |will be popular in gardens. | | |It was raised in the Royal | | |Gardens, Kew; hence the | | |name, C. Ardoini being the | | |seed parent. It is only | | |suitable for the rock | | |garden, where its slender | | |shoots can spread out and | | |form a mantle of soft | | |colouring, or to make a | | |spreading group on the | | |grass. There is little | | |trace in it of C. albus, | | |except in the flower | | |colouring. This is a Broom | | |for all good gardens. | | | *C. nigricans |Austria |Bright |This is also a lovely | |yellow; |Broom, so named because it | |July and |turns black when dried. It | |August |should be in the smallest | | |list of beautiful flowering | | |shrubs, and it is singular | | |that it is so seldom seen. | | |The growth is bushy and | | |smothered with flowers in | | |July and August, sometimes | | |before, and lasts a long | | |while in beauty. Sunshine | | |and poor soil bring out its | | |finest qualities. One can | | |scarcely say too much in | | |its praise, especially as | | |it blooms at a time few | | |trees and shrubs are in | | |flower. | | | *C. præcox |Hybrid between |Sulphur |One of the most fascinating |C. purgans and |yellow; |of all flowering shrubs. |C. albus |April to |It makes clouds of soft | |May |colouring, every shoot | | |hidden with the wealth of | | |bloom; whilst when out of | | |flower there is beauty in | | |the brilliant green | | |colouring of the long | | |slender shoots. It is a | | |shrub to make groups of in | | |the flower garden, grows | | |quickly, does not soon get | | |"leggy," and is very dense. | | |The big groups of it on the | | |grass in the Royal Gardens, | | |Kew, are one of the | | |delights of the spring | | |season there. The ordinary | | |shrubbery is the worst | | |place for it, all its | | |gracefulness is lost, there | | |is no fountain of flowers | | |from the slender shoots. It | | |is best raised from | | |cuttings, as seedlings are | | |apt to reproduce C. albus | | |only. Also well known as | | |Genista præcox. | | | C. purgans |South and |Yellow |Chiefly of note because it |Central Europe | |is one of the parents of C. | | |præcox, but is of little | | |account for the English | | |garden. It is necessary in | | |a collection, but nowhere | | |else. | | | *C. purpureus |Found in Eastern|Purple |A delightful shrub when |Europe in | |properly placed. Loudon's |exposed | |advice to graft it "on the |situations | |laburnum standard high" is | | |bad, and has been followed | | |in many gardens. This way | | |of treating the shrub is | | |utterly foreign to its | | |nature; it is a _trailing_ | | |Broom, and therefore should | | |be planted on the rough | | |garden or some bank where | | |it can spread in its own | | |way. We have seen it | | |falling over a boulder and | | |making a trail of purple | | |colouring in May. Rare | | |varieties are albus, white, | | |and one with flowers of | | |rose tint. The famous | | |Cytisus Adami is the | | |outcome of grafting this | | |species on the Scotch | | |laburnum (L. alpinum). This | | |curious graft-hybrid | | |usually excites much | | |interest when in flower, | | |both yellow and purple | | |racemes appearing on the | | |same tree. | | | C. sessilifolius |A native of the |Yellow; |A Broom for a collection, |south of France |May |but without the |and Piedmont, | |effectiveness of C. præcox, |and was | |Andreanus, and others. |cultivated in | | |Britain by | | |Parkinson in | | |1569. | | | | | C. Schipkænsis |Introduced |White |This is a charming little | | |rock-garden shrub, and very | | |rare as yet, but well worth | | |noting for its | | |distinctiveness and | | |freedom. | | | *C. scoparius |Europe |Yellow |The hardy Cytisuses are (Common Broom) | | |popularly known as Brooms, | | |and the Broom of the waste | | |lands of the British Isles | | |is Cytisus scoparius, which | | |makes clouds of golden | | |yellow in the early summer. | | |Many a dryish bank now | | |flowerless might be made | | |beautiful with this | | |glorious shrub. Where Broom | | |is not plentiful as a wild | | |plant, and therefore | | |generally where the soil is | | |not suitable for it, the | | |soil should be made so; it | | |need only be well drained | | |and open. | | | *C. s. andreanus |Choice variety |Brownish |This varies considerably |found in |crimson |from seed, and often |Normandy by M. |and |reverts to the typical |Ed. André, after|yellow; |yellow Broom. If possible |whom it is named|Spring |get own root-plants from | | |original stock. A beautiful | | |shrub, which we can | | |scarcely have too much of, | | |but in some gardens it is | | |used too freely. When in | | |full bloom, and the variety | | |is rich in colouring, it is | | |superb. | | | C. s. pendulus |Variety |Pale |Quite a pendulous variety, (Drooping Broom) | |yellow |but uncommon. It is | | |apparently little known, | | |though so charming when on | | |a bank or rock garden. A | | |group of it in either of | | |these positions would be a | | |revelation to those who | | |know not the value of this | | |family for the English | | |garden. | | | *C. s. sulphureus |Variety |Pale |Described by Loudon in his (pallidus), | |yellow |"Arboretum" as C. s. albus, (Moonlight Broom) | | |"the flowers white or of a | | |very pale yellow." It is a | | |rare shrub, but should not | | |be so. Mr. Goldring writes | | |of it in "The Garden" as | | |follows: "The Moonlight | | |Brown is a very | | |old variety, as it was | | |described by Loudon sixty | | |years ago, but it is still | | |a rare shrub, not easily | | |obtainable, though it is | | |grown in some of the | | |largest nurseries. | | |Its pale yellow flowers are | | |in beautiful harmony with | | |the rich yellow of the type | | |Andreanus. The only private | | |garden where I have seen it | | |in established mass is that | | |of Mrs. Robb at Liphook, | | |where all kinds of tree and | | |shrub varieties are | | |treasured. I do not know if | | |it comes true from seed, | | |but I fancy not." | | | C. s. flore-pleno |Variety |Yellow |A so-called double variety | | |in which some of the petals | | |are duplicated, but it is | | |not finer than the type, | | |though it is interesting as | | |one of the few double | | |varieties in pea-shaped | | |flowers. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _MOONLIGHT BROOM (Cytisus scoparius var. pallidus)._] [Illustration: _A HYBRID BROOM (Cytisus kewensis) AT KEW._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Cratægus (Thorns) |Rosaceæ | |The Cratægus family | | |comprises nearly 100 | | |species and varieties, | | |contains some of the most | | |beautiful of small garden | | |trees, both with regard to | | |the charm of their white, | | |pink, and scarlet flowers, | | |and the scarlet, black, and | | |yellow fruits. Most of the | | |Thorns are either large | | |shrubs or small trees, and | | |are specially suitable for | | |small gardens, whilst none | | |of them require particular | | |attention, as all will grow | | |in almost any soil and | | |situation. Old trees | | |occasionally require to be | | |relieved of small wood and | | |decaying branches, and a | | |good top-dressing of manure | | |is beneficial sometimes to | | |those which flower and | | |fruit freely; but beyond | | |this Thorns need no | | |attention after they have | | |been planted and | | |become established. The | | |species can be increased by | | |seeds, which are obtained | | |by gathering the fruits | | |when ripe, and mixing them | | |with sand. The mixture of | | |fruits and sand should then | | |be put in a heap in a | | |sheltered place | | |out-of-doors, and covered | | |with a few turfs. By the | | |following spring the fruits | | |will have rotted, and the | | |seeds can be separated and | | |sown. A fair proportion | | |will germinate the first | | |year, and the remainder | | |the second. Many of the | | |Thorns can also be | | |propagated by root | | |cuttings. For this purpose | | |healthy, vigorous shoots, | | |as thick as a man's finger, | | |should be obtained in | | |autumn or winter, and cut | | |into pieces four inches to | | |eight inches in length, | | |cutting the end nearest the | | |stem flat, and the other | | |slanting, so that either | | |end can be readily | | |distinguished. These should | | |be inserted upright in the | | |ground, with the tops | | |nearly or just covered; | | |they soon form roots, and | | |grow into strong plants. | | |The genus is found | | |practically throughout the | | |temperate region, from | | |Europe throughout the East | | |and Central Asia to China | | |and Japan, and in North | | |America. One species is | | |found in Mexico--but this, | | |and in fact all the Thorns | | |are hardy in this country. | | | *C. Azarolus |South-East |Pure |This grows to a height of |Europe and Asia |white; |about 20 feet. It is very |Minor |late |showy, and has pure white | |Spring |flowers followed by large | | |yellow fruits; the leaves | | |are about twice the size of | | |those of the Hawthorn, and | | |rather deeply cut. Cratægus | | |Aronia is a synonym. | | | *C. Carrièrei |A reputed |Pure |A very handsome Thorn, 12 |hybrid, but |white; |feet to 15 feet, shapely, |parentage |late |leaves large, bright glossy |unknown. |Spring |green above, whitish |Supposed to be | |beneath. Flowers appear |C. mexicana and | |freely in large corymbs, |C. tomentosa | |followed by clusters of | | |pear-shaped green fruits, | | |which hang on the tree | | |until the end of the year, | | |changing finally to dull, | | |yellowish red. | | | *C. coccinea (the |North America; |White; |This is one of the most Scarlet Thorn) |introduced in |late |striking of all the thorns; |1683 |Spring |it has large bright-green | | |leaves, and flowers nearly | | |an inch across, and in | | |dense corymbs. These are | | |followed by clusters of | | |brilliant scarlet-coloured | | |fruits. There are several | | |varieties equal to or even | | |finer than the species. One | | |is *Macracantha, which has | | |spines sometimes 5 inches | | |long, and bright scarlet | | |haws, not so large as those | | |of the species, but | | |produced more abundantly. | | |It should be more | | |frequently seen in gardens, | | |and is worthy to rank as a | | |species. Indentata has | | |deeply-cut leaves and | | |bright-red fruits. | | | *C. cordata |North America |White; |This is a small tree with (Washington Thorn) | |June |thin, glossy, heart-shaped | | |leaves and small flowers, | | |orange-red fruits, not | | |unlike those of C. | | |Pyracantha, and carried | | |late in the year. Birds, | | |however, enjoy them. | | | C. Crus-Galli (the |North America |White; |This is a handsome American Cockspur Thorn) | |June |Thorn, and one of the most | | |striking of the whole | | |family. It has stout, | | |glossy leaves and | | |formidable spines, these | | |often being from 3 to 4 | | |inches long, and gave rise | | |to the popular name. The | | |brick-red fruits hang on | | |the tree long after the | | |leaves have fallen, and | | |make a bright winter | | |picture. There are several | | |varieties. Arbutifolia has | | |shorter spines and smaller | | |fruits than the type; the | | |leaves are also narrower | | |and duller in colour; | | |linearis has long linear | | |leaves and bright-red | | |fruits. Ovalifolia has | | |large oval shining leaves | | |and bright scarlet fruits, | | |it is rather more upright | | |than the type. *Splendens | | |makes a handsome, shapely | | |tree about 20 feet high, | | |and flowers and fruits very | | |freely; the leaves are | | |rounded, green, and | | |shining, and the flowers | | |pure white, in small | | |corymbs, and followed by | | |bright-scarlet fruits. | | | C. Douglasii |Western side of |White; |This is a large |North America |late |irregular-shaped tree 20 | |Spring |feet to 30 feet, and has | | |short stout spines about an | | |inch long; the flowers | | |appear in small clusters, | | |and the fruits are small | | |and black. Wood and spines | | |are brown and quite shiny. | | |Rivularis has smaller and | | |thicker leaves, and shorter | | |and stouter wood. | | | C. hiemalis |Probably a |White; |A tree 15 feet to 20 feet |hybrid, but |Spring |high, round shining leaves, |origin unknown | |and rather large black | | |fruits, which are the first | | |to ripen of the Thorns. | | | *C. melanocarpa |Caucasus |White; |A very handsome Thorn. It | |Spring |is a small flat-topped tree | | |of medium height, the | | |leaves somewhat like those | | |of the Hawthorn in shape, | | |and covered with a thick | | |grey tomentum; the fruits | | |are small, black, and | | |shining. | | | C. mollis |United States |White, |Like C. coccinea, but even | |with a |handsomer. It is a small | |small red |tree, 15 feet high, with | |mark at |spreading head, and large | |the base |firm leaves slightly woolly | |of each |on the back; the flowers | |petal |are large, and succeeded by | | |bright-crimson, | | |medium-sized fruit. | | | C. nigra |Eastern Europe |White; |This makes a fair-sized | |May |tree, and has small black | | |fruit. The foliage is very | | |abundant, deeply cut, and | | |woolly on both sides. It | | |almost hides flowers and | | |fruit. | | | *C. orientalis |Europe |White; |A handsome Thorn in fruit. | |May |It is a small flat-topped | | |tree, and has large | | |clusters of flowers, the | | |oval fruits being yellowish | | |red. Sanguinea is a very | | |showy variety, with deep | | |ruby-red fruits, but the | | |scarlet colour of the type | | |is brighter. | | | *C. Oxyacantha |Widely |White; |Too well known to describe. (Hawthorn, White |distributed, |May |It has been divided into Thorn, May) |Europe, Western | |two sub-species, viz. C. |Asia, and North | |monogyna in which there is |Africa | |usually only one style in | | |the flowers and one seed in | | |the fruit, and C. | | |oxyacanthoides, where the | | |number of styles is usually | | |three, and from two to four | | |seeds in the fruit. These | | |differences are generally | | |decided. There are other | | |differences also in growth | | |difficult to explain, but | | |can be detected easily by | | |an experienced eye. | | | C. monogyna |...... |...... |This is the Hawthorn of the (sub-species) | | |hedgerows, and there are | | |many varieties. | | |Twenty-eight are recorded | | |in the Kew Hand-list. The | | |most beautiful are aurea, | | |with golden-yellow haws, | | |crispa pendula, a pretty | | |weeping tree; Gumperi | | |versicolor, very handsome | | |deep-red, shading to pink | | |in the centre; laciniata, a | | |handsome tree with deeply | | |cut leaves, sometimes | | |called C. apiifolia, but | | |must not be confounded with | | |North American species of | | |that name. Macrocarpa has | | |larger fruits than the | | |type, oxyphylla, large | | |white flowers and handsome | | |fruits, a round-headed | | |tree. Præcox is the | | |Glastonbury Thorn, supposed | | |to flower at Christmas, | | |but rarely does so owing to | | |frost. This is the Thorn | | |which is associated with | | |the famous legend. | | |*Semperflorens is a good | | |variety, a low-growing | | |tree, which flowers for a | | |much longer period than the | | |other Thorns. Stricta makes | | |a dense upright-growing | | |tree, 30 feet or more high; | | |it grows rapidly, and when | | |in flower is strikingly | | |distinct in appearance. | | | C. oxyacanthoides |...... |...... |This is distinguished from (sub-species) | | |C. monogyna by the styles | | |and seeds as stated above; | | |and also by the larger | | |leaves, flowers, and fruit. | | |All the double-flowered | | |Thorns belong to this | | |section. Atrofusca, a | | |large, shapely tree, of | | |weeping growth; the flowers | | |large, pure white, and the | | |fruits fair sized and | | |abundantly produced. | | |*Flore-pleno albo, the | | |double white Thorn, with | | |purest white flowers. This, | | |like the other double | | |Thorns, rarely fruits. | | |*Flore-pleno coccineo, the | | |double Scarlet Thorn, one | | |of the most beautiful of | | |trees when covered with its | | |scarlet flowers. Very | | |pleasing when grouped with | | |the double white variety or | | |the Laburnum; *Paul's | | |double Scarlet, a | | |well-known and beautiful | | |Thorn. *Flore puniceo, a | | |rich purplish pink, single, | | |and fructu luteo, bright | | |yellow fruits, effective in | | |autumn. | | | *C. pinnatifida |China and |Pure |The variety *major is the |Central Asia |white; |best to grow. It is | |May |stronger, and has very | | |large leaves, 4 to 6 inches | | |long, thick and shining. It | | |does not show its true | | |beauty until of some age, | | |but it is a hardy tree of | | |great beauty. The flowers | | |are in large corymbs, and | | |the fruits are of an | | |intense shining red, | | |pear-shaped, and make a | | |bright picture in autumn. | | |This variety is often | | |labelled C. Layi. | | | *C. punctata |East and North |Variable |A good garden tree; it is |America | |variable, but the accepted | | |type has white flowers and | | |bright red fruits as large | | |as a small Crab apple. | | |Another form has smaller | | |deep ruby-red fruits. | | |Brevispina, striata, and | | |xanthocarpa are varieties, | | |the last mentioned with | | |bright yellow fruits. | | | *C. Pyracantha |South Europe, |White |An evergreen Thorn. (Fiery Thorn) |in hedges and | |Introduced in 1629, and a |rough ground | |well known shrub. Its | | |charms consist in its dense | | |glossy leaves and brilliant | | |masses of scarlet berries. | | |It can be grown as a bush | | |or trained up a wall or | | |trellis. It is so brilliant | | |when in fruit that the | | |French call it buisson | | |ardent, or Burning Bush. | | |This Thorn should be more | | |grown as a bush, and not | | |confined as it usually is | | |to a south wall. As the | | |fruits are bitter they are | | |not cared for by the birds, | | |and thus make a display | | |through the winter. Lælandi | | |is a variety with larger | | |and deeper coloured fruits. | | | C. sanguinea |Siberia |White; |This is not of great garden | |May |value, but effective in | | |winter owing to the red | | |bark. Songorica is a | | |variety also with reddish | | |bark. | | | *C. tanacetifolia |Levant; |White; |This is rare, and can be (Tansy-leaved |introduced 1789 |May |recognised by bracts at the Thorn) | | |base of the fruits. The | | |fruits are very large, | | |yellow, and of good | | |flavour, and eaten in the | | |native country of the tree. | | |The specimen at Kew flowers | | |regularly and abundantly | | |every year. | | | C. spathulata |United States |White; |A very distinct Thorn, | |May |small, and the leaves are | | |persistent, remaining on | | |until the New Year. The | | |fruits are very small and | | |scarlet. | | | *C. tomentosa |Eastern United |White; |A late flowering and |States |June |handsome Thorn when its | | |orange-yellow fruits are in | | |perfection, but the birds | | |soon consume them. | | | C. uniflora |North America, |Creamy |More curious than |and introduced |white; |beautiful; it is only 2 |by the famous |early June|feet to 3 feet high and has |tree bishop, | |greenish haws. |Bishop Compton, | | |in 1713 | | | | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Cyrilla racemiflora|Florida to North|White |Quite a shrub, 4 feet to 6 |Carolina, &c. | |feet high, very rare, |Cyrillea | |although introduced as long | | |ago as 1765. The flowers | | |are in drooping racemes on | | |previous season's growth. | | | *Daboëcia |Western Europe |Rosy |A pretty little Heath-like polifolia, St. |and Ireland; |purple, |shrub growing about 18 Daboëc's Heath |Ericaceæ |bell- |inches high, and producing (Syn. Andromeda | |shaped; |erect spikes of Daboëcia) | |May, and |comparatively large | |throughout|bell-shaped blossoms. It is | |Summer and|the most continuous | |Autumn |blooming of its class. | | |There is a beautiful pure | | |white variety--alba. | | | Daphne alpina |Alps of Europe; |White; |A spreading deciduous (Alpine Daphne) |Thymelæaceæ |May and |shrub, with white, | |June |sweet-scented flowers. It | | |grows about a couple of | | |feet high, and is | | |essentially a shrub for the | | |rockwork, as it is | | |particularly happy when the | | |roots are wedged between | | |stones. | | | *D. blagayana |Carniola |Ivory |Like the last, this forms a | |white; |spreading bush, and is | |March and |equally at home under | |April |similar positions. It is, | | |however, of an evergreen | | |character; the ivory white | | |are very sweet-scented | | |blossoms. It is worthy of a | | |place among the most select | | |Daphnes, but difficult to | | |grow well. | | | *D. Cneorum |South Europe |Bright |A delightful little (Garland Flower) | |rose; |evergreen, with highly | |May to |fragrant blossoms. A good | |June |proportion of vegetable | | |soil is necessary to its | | |welldoing. | | | D. Genkwa (Japanese|Japan |Lilac |In its flowers this Daphne Lilac) | | |closely resembles the | | |Lilac, so that it is | | |frequently mistaken for | | |that well-known shrub. It | | |needs the protection of a | | |wall in most parts of | | |England. | | | D. Laureola (Spurge|South Europe and|Yellowish |The flowers of this are not Laurel) |North Africa |green |particularly showy, but as | | |an evergreen bush some 3 or | | |4 feet high it is valuable | | |from the fact that it will | | |thrive under the drip of | | |trees, and is one of the | | |few evergreens absolutely | | |rabbit proof. | | | *D. Mezereum (the |Northern Europe |Red; |This is an upright Mezereon) | |early year|deciduous bush that flowers | | |in February or March | | |according to the season. At | | |that time the still | | |leafless branches are | | |packed for some distance | | |with the pretty fragrant | | |blossoms, so that it may | | |be regarded as the most | | |showy shrub at that time in | | |bloom. There is a variety | | |(alba) with white blossoms, | | |and another (autumnalis | | |or grandiflora) that | | |blooms before Christmas. | | |A cool, loamy soil suits | | |this best. | | | *D. oleoides (Syn. |South Europe |Purplish |A neat growing evergreen D. fioniana, Syn. | |rose |bush about a yard high, D. neapolitana) | | |whose flowers are often | | |borne throughout the | | |greater part of the year. | | |It is less attractive than | | |some of the others. | | | D. pontica |Asia Minor |Yellow |A good deal in the way of | | |Daphne Laureola, but the | | |flowers are of a brighter | | |yellow, and are borne in | | |April and May, whereas D. | | |Laureola flowers in | | |February and March. | | | D. sericea (Syn. D.| |Deep pink |A compact evergreen 2 to 3 collina) | | |feet high, clothed with | | |dark-green box-like leaves, | | |while the terminal clusters | | |of flowers are borne in | | |early Spring. It prefers a | | |cool, fairly moist, yet | | |well-drained soil. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _GARLAND FLOWER (Daphne Cneorum) ON SUNNY BANK, EDINBURGH._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Deutzia crenata |Japan; |White; |A bold growing and handsome (Syn. D. scabra) |Saxifrageæ |Midsummer |deciduous shrub, with white | | |blossoms. There is a | | |double-flowered variety, | | |tinged with purple on the | | |outside, known as D. | | |crenata flore-pleno | | |purpurea. Both are | | |beautiful shrubs that will | | |thrive in most soils. | | | *D. discolor |China |White, |This has pretty purpurascens | |tinged |purple-tinged blossoms | |purple; |borne in flattened corymbs, | |late May |and not, when in the bud | | |state, liable to be injured | | |by late spring frosts. | | | *D. gracilis |Japan |White; |The best known of all the | |Spring |Deutzias, forming a compact | | |bush a couple of feet high, | | |and bearing masses of its | | |pretty white blossoms. | | | *D. hybrida |Hybrid |White and |There are now several | |pink |beautiful hybrid Deutzias, | | |viz., hybrida rosea, | | |hybrida venusta, | | |kalmæflora, Lemoinei, | | |Lemoinei compacta, all of | | |which merit a place in | | |gardens. | | | *D. parviflora |China |White; |An upright shrub 5 feet | |end of |high, with flattened | |April and |clusters of white blossoms, | |early May |very suggestive of those of | | |the Hawthorn. | | | *Diervilla florida |Japan; |Rose; |A beautiful free-growing, (Syn. Weigela |Caprifoliaceæ |Summer |free-flowering shrub, that amabilis, W. rosea)| | |will hold its own almost | | |anywhere. Its flowering | | |time is in May or early | | |June, but occasionally | | |there is an Autumn display. | | |Beside the original species | | |there are many garden | | |varieties, all of which are | | |beautiful, but there are so | | |many that a selection is | | |necessary. Three of the | | |best are: *candida, white; | | |*Abel Carrière, bright | | |rose; and *Eva Rathke, | | |claret crimson, which lasts | | |in flower more or less from | | |May till the end of the | | |Summer. Other good | | |varieties are: Dr. Baillon, | | |red; Groenewegenii, rose | | |and white; hortensis nivea, | | |white, spreading habit; | | |Looymansi aurea, golden | | |leaves; præcox, rose, | | |earlier than any of the | | |others; and P. Durchartre, | | |purplish red. In any | | |selection of flowering | | |shrubs some of the Weigelas | | |must certainly have a | | |place. | | | D. middendorfiana |Siberia |Yellowish |Remarkable among Weigelas | | |for its distinct yellow | | |flowers. Though pretty in | | |itself, it is likely to | | |prove of more value in the | | |production of new varieties | | |by crossing it with the | | |older kinds. | | | Enkianthus |Japan; |Dark red |A very charming and campanulatus |Ericaceæ | |interesting shrub | | |resembling one of the | | |Andromeda. A tree in its | | |native country. The | | |flowers are pendent and in | | |clusters. | | | Epigæa repens |Ericaceæ. The |Pale |In Bailey's "Cyclopædia of (Trailing Arbutus, |most popular of |white, |American Horticulture" it Ground Laurel, |wild flowers in |with pink |is mentioned: "The Mayflower) |New England |tint; very|cultivation of the Trailing | |sweetly |Arbutus, especially in | |scented; |districts where it has been | |Spring |exterminated by ruthless | | |'mayflower parties,' always | | |attracts interest.... | | |Occurs in sandy and rocky | | |woods, especially under | | |evergreen trees, in | | |earliest Spring. Thrives | | |only in humid soil and | | |shady situations. | | |Transplanted with | | |difficulty. Best on north | | |side of a hill in bright, | | |sandy soil, mixed with leaf | | |mould. Once established, it | | |spreads rapidly. Propagated | | |by division of old plants, | | |layers, or cuttings. Seeds | | |are rarely found, but when | | |found may be used, though | | |slow to develop." My | | |experience is that it likes | | |a damp, shady ditch side in | | |peaty soil. Mr. G. F. | | |Wilson planted it near to | | |Shortia galacifolia, and | | |the two were quite happy | | |together. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _THE MAY-FLOWER (Epigæa repens). (Shortia galacifolia is the top flower)_] [Illustration: _ERINACEA PUNGENS._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Erinacea pungens |Spain; |Blue; |Somewhat resembling the |Leguminosæ |May and |dwarf-growing Genistas is | |June |this extremely rare and | | |pretty little shrub. It | | |grows very slowly, and | | |seldom attains a height of | | |9 inches, spreading out in | | |a mat-like mass rather than | | |growing in an upward | | |direction. The branches are | | |short, stiff, and spiny, | | |and what few leaves there | | |are are small. The | | |pea-shaped blossoms come | | |from the axils of short, | | |spiny branches, and are | | |blue. This plant has been | | |in cultivation for a great | | |number of years, never, | | |however, having become at | | |all common. This is no | | |doubt due to the great | | |difficulty there is in | | |propagating it. Seeds | | |appear to be the only means | | |of increase, and these are | | |borne very sparingly even | | |when the plant is growing | | |under natural conditions. | | |It has been said to be a | | |tender plant, but it has | | |withstood several winters | | |out of doors at Kew without | | |injury. Plants are to be | | |seen there near the | | |Temperate house, and they | | |flower every year. | | | Escallonia illinita|Chili; |White; |A neat evergreen shrub 4 to |Saxifrageæ |Summer |5 feet high, with pretty | | |white flowers. It is only | | |in mild districts, such as | | |the South and West of | | |England, that the | | |Escallonias are seen at | | |their best. | | | *E. macrantha (Syn.|Chiloe |Crimson |The finest of all the E. Ingrami) | |red; |Escallonias, and one of the | |Summer |hardiest. It is a | | |free-growing shrub over | | |6 feet high, clothed with | | |rich green shiny leaves, | | |and the bright-coloured | | |fuchsia-like flowers are | | |freely borne. It is a good | | |wall-plant, and stands the | | |sea-breeze well. | | | E. langleyensis |Hybrid |Rose |Raised by Messrs. J. Veitch | |carmine |between E. sanguinea and | | |E. philippiana. It has | | |small, dark-green leaves, | | |and an abundance of | | |brightly coloured flowers. | | |A good shrub. | | | E. montevidensis |Montevideo |White |Grows from 8 to 10 feet (Syn. E. | | |high, and bears its floribunda) | | |clusters of white flowers | | |in great profusion. It is | | |too tender for planting | | |except in the extreme West | | |of England and in Ireland. | | | *E. philippiana |Valdivia |White; |Will succeed as a bush in | |Summer |the neighbourhood of | | |London, where its small | | |white flowers are borne in | | |the greatest profusion. | | | E. punctata |Chili |Deep red; |A much-branched evergreen | |July |shrub 5 to 6 feet high. | | | E. rubra |Chili |Red; |Differs from the last in | |Summer |the absence of spots on the | |and early |young leaves, in the | |Autumn |flowers being rather | | |lighter in colour, and | | |borne for a longer period. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _ESCALLONIA PHILIPPIANA (Kew)._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Exochorda |China; |May; |See p. 2. grandiflora |Rosaceæ |White | | | | *Forsythia (Golden |Oleaceæ; hybrid |Yellow; |This is a charming early Bell) intermedia |between F. |Spring |shrub. It may be either |suspensa and F. | |grouped or trained, but one |viridissima. | |has to be careful not to |Represents the | |make it too stiff. It is |two parents | |quite hardy, and a bush. | | | *F. suspensa (Syn. |China |Yellow; |A graceful and beautiful F. Fortunei and F. | |Spring |rambling shrub, now well Sieboldi) | | |known. It succeeds well in | | |London--that is, if given | | |anything like favourable | | |conditions. A fence fully | | |exposed to the sun in a | | |London backyard is clothed | | |with it, and each recurring | | |spring the Forsythia | | |flowers profusely, and | | |forms an object of great | | |beauty. Immediately the | | |season of blooming is past | | |the plant is severely | | |pruned, the old and | | |exhausted wood being cut | | |out and the vigorous shoots | | |spurred back to within | | |three or four eyes of the | | |base. This results in the | | |production of long, | | |wand-like shoots, which are | | |allowed to develop at will, | | |hence they dispose | | |themselves in a loose and | | |informal way, and being | | |from the position of the | | |plant thoroughly ripened, | | |the spring display is in | | |every way satisfactory. | | |When autumn pruning is done | | |the best portion of the | | |flowering wood gets cut | | |away. | | | *F. viridissima |China |Yellow; |Quite a bush, and very | |Spring |handsome when in full | | |bloom. Likes full sun and | | |air. | | | Fraxinus Ornus |Mediterranean |Creamy |This is a very charming (Flowering Ash), |region and |white; |lawn tree with luxuriant (Syn. Ornus |Orient |late May |panicles of flowers, and europæa) | | |foliage like that of the | | |common ash. Angustifolia, | | |latifolia, and variegata | | |are varieties. | | | F. floribunda (Syn.|Himalaya |White; |Rather tender, but very Ornus floribunda) | |Summer |vigorous and handsome. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- FUCHSIA.--Though the genus Fuchsia is an extensive one, most of them are of more value in the greenhouse than outdoors--that is to say, throughout the greater part of the country. Still there are a few quite hardy Fuchsias, for, even if cut to the ground during severe winters they soon recover, while in particularly favoured districts, such as in the West of England and the Isle of Wight, they grow unchecked into large bushes, and sometimes make delightful hedges. Few flowering shrubs are more beautiful than F. corallina and F. Riccartoni when in full bloom. The hardiest are:-- -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Fuchsia corallina |Garden origin; |Red; |A plant of more vigorous (Syn. F. |Onagraceæ |Summer and|growth, and with larger exoniensis) | |Autumn |leaves and flowers than any | | |of the other hardy | | |Fuchsias. It is very | | |popular in the West of | | |England, but is not nearly | | |so effective when cut to | | |the ground each winter as | | |some of the others are. | | | *F. globosa |Chili |Red; |A free-growing Fuchsia | |Summer and|which, if cut to the | |Autumn |ground, pushes up long, | | |wand-like shoots that | | |branch out freely, and | | |towards the latter part of | | |the summer are smothered | | |with bright-coloured | | |flowers. In the bud state | | |these are of a globose | | |shape, hence its specific | | |name. | | | *F. gracilis |Mexico |Red; |The name gracilis well | |Summer and|expresses the prominent | |Autumn |features of this Fuchsia, | | |for, though as vigorous as | | |globosa, it is far more | | |slender and graceful. Where | | |not perfectly hardy the | | |drooping flowers are seen | | |to great advantage when the | | |shrub is trained to a wall, | | |and planted in a permanent | | |bed the old stools will, | | |even in the North of | | |England, pass unscathed | | |through the winter, if | | |protected by a mulch of | | |decayed leaves. Very | | |tender. | | | *F. Riccartoni |Garden Origin |Red; |This has the reputation of | |Summer and|being the hardiest of all | |Autumn |the hardy Fuchsias. It is | | |in appearance about midway | | |between F. gracilis and F. | | |globosa, and is as good as | | |F. gracilis. | | | *Garrya elliptica |California; |Greenish; |A handsome evergreen shrub |Cornaceæ |Winter and|with very dark green, | |very early|leathery, oval leaves, | |Spring |about 3 inches long. Its | | |most notable feature is the | | |long, pendulous male | | |catkins, with which the | | |plant is freely draped | | |during the early months of | | |the year. This Garrya is | | |all the better for the | | |protection of a wall in | | |most parts of the country. | | |The male and female flowers | | |are borne on separate | | |plants, the male being, | | |owing to its catkins, by | | |far the most ornamental. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _GENISTA (Ulex) HISPANICA. SPANISH FURZE._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Genista |Leguminosæ |...... |A popular group of shrubs, | | |allied to the Cytisus, and | | |delighting in dry sandy | | |soils. A group of the finer | | |species is very rich in | | |colour when in flower. | | | *G. æthnensis |Slopes of Mount |Golden |This Broom is perfectly |Etna, in Sicily |yellow; |hardy near London. It is | |July and |one of the rarest of shrubs | |August |in gardens in spite of its | | |beauty, and it flowers in | | |July and August, a season | | |when even inferior | | |flowering shrubs are not | | |plentiful. It has a rather | | |gaunt, yet not inelegant | | |habit, and assumes a | | |somewhat tree-like form | | |when old, being often | | |reduced to a single stem at | | |the base. It carries, | | |however, a wide head of | | |thin cord-like, arching or | | |pendulous branches, with | | |little or no foliage except | | |when the wood is quite | | |young. The flowers are of a | | |rich golden-yellow, and | | |during the series of hot | | |summers we have experienced | | |in recent years have been | | |especially abundant. It | | |would, indeed, be difficult | | |to find a shrub better | | |adapted for hot, light | | |soils than this, a fact | | |that is amply proved by the | | |way it succeeds at Kew. It | | |is a good plant for | | |associating with | | |medium-sized evergreens, | | |which hide its bare stems | | |and render it more | | |effective when in flower. | | |It grows 10 feet to 14 feet | | |high, and is thus one of | | |the tallest--if not the | | |tallest--of the Brooms | | |hardy in Britain. It ripens | | |seed freely, and is best | | |propagated by that means. | | | G. cinerea |South-West |Yellow; |This is a shrubby plant for |Europe |July |the rock-garden in sunny | | |places. | | | *G. hispanica |South-West |Yellow; |A dwarf and charming shrub, |Europe |July |1 foot to 2 feet high, and | | |when in bloom covered with | | |flowers. One of the best of | | |its race. | | | G. monosperma |Sicily |White |Not well known but | | |interesting. Sandy soil. | | |Tender. | | | G. pilosa |Europe, England |Rich |A prostrate plant for the | |Yellow; |rock garden. Ordinary soil. | |May and | | |June | | | | *G. radiata |Central and |Yellow; |Very beautiful when in full |Southern Europe |Summer |flower on the rock garden, | | |and will even succeed in a | | |rough wall. | | | G. sagittalis |Europe |Yellow; |Another dwarf species for | |May and |rock garden. | |June | | | | G. tinctoria |Britain |Yellow; |The double variety | |July and |flore-pleno and elatior are | |September |finer than the species. | | |Elatior makes quite a bush | | |and is very attractive | | |when in full bloom. | | | *G. virgata |Madeira |Yellow; |This must attain a certain | |June and |age and size before it | |July |displays its full beauty, | | |small plants flowering | | |sparsely or not at all, | | |while older specimens are a | | |glorious sight during the | | |period of flowering. | | |Thoroughly hardy in at | | |least the southern half of | | |England, self-sown | | |seedlings of it having been | | |known to spring up in | | |considerable numbers under | | |old plants in sheltered | | |positions. In a shrubbery | | |or wood it makes a | | |brilliant blaze of yellow. | | |It succeeds in almost any | | |soil or situation provided | | |it is not too heavy or wet. | | |Under favourable conditions | | |it reaches a height of 16 | | |feet to 20 feet, with | | |rather straggling branches, | | |every little twig of which | | |is covered with flowers in | | |season. The leaves are | | |about half an inch in | | |length, and covered with | | |white, silky hairs on the | | |under side and a few | | |scattered ones on the upper | | |surface. Easily raised from | | |seed. Excellent for barren | | |land. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _THE SPANISH FURZE ON ROUGH SLOPE._] [Illustration: _GENISTA MONOSPERMA._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Gordonia Lasianthus|Virginia to |White; |A sub-evergreen shrub 6 to (Loblolly Bay) |Florida; |July |8 feet high, bearing |Ternstroemiaceæ | |beautiful white flowers | | |like single Camellias. It | | |needs a sheltered spot and | | |a moist peaty soil. | | | G. pubescens |Georgia and |White |Of rather smaller growth |Florida | |than the preceding, while | | |the leaves are pubescent | | |underneath. The flowers, | | |too, have the tuft of | | |yellow stamens more | | |pronounced than in G. | | |Lasianthus. Both need the | | |same treatment. | | | Halesias (Silver |Styraceæ |...... |This is a beautiful family Bell, or Snowdrop | | |of flowering trees, named trees) | | |after Dr. Stephen Hales. | | |The flowers are like the | | |snowdrop in shape, hence | | |the name, and there are two | | |distinct sections, American | | |and Asiatic. The Halesias | | |like a rich, moist, loamy | | |or peaty soil. Although | | |often trees of considerable | | |size in their native homes, | | |they mostly retain a | | |somewhat shrubby character | | |in this country. All the | | |species, however, except H. | | |parviflora, can, by pruning | | |away the lower branches, be | | |made to form small trees. | | | Halesia corymbosa |Japan, in the |White, |Mr. Bean writes in _The |province of Higo|tinted |Garden_, May 19, 1900, p. |(Syn. |with pink |361, about this species as |Pterostyrax |or yellow;|follows: "I do not know if |corymbosum) |Spring |there is any authenticated | | |instance of its having | | |flourished in Britain or | | |even in Europe, most plants | | |so called being H. hispida. | | |It was first found on the | | |mountains of the most | | |southern of the main | | |islands of Japan, in the | | |province of Higo, and may | | |possibly not be quite so | | |hardy as H. hispida. | | |Judging by pictures and | | |dried specimens, its | | |racemes, whilst having much | | |the same general character | | |as that species, are | | |shorter, broader, and more | | |branched, and the flowers | | |are not so numerous on the | | |branches of the racemes, | | |and the fruits are more | | |downy than bristly. The | | |flowers have the same | | |one-sided arrangement on | | |the racemes." | | | H. diptera |South-eastern |White; |Not a common species, and |United States |late |dwarfer than H. tetraptera. | |Spring |The flowers are white, | | |Snowdrop-like, and are | | |borne on slender pendulous | | |stalks as in H. tetraptera; | | |they differ, however, in | | |having the corolla almost | | |lobed to the base. Very | | |distinctive is the | | |seed-vessel, which has but | | |two prominent wings, the | | |other two being only | | |rudimentary. Whilst not | | |perhaps equal in merit to | | |H. tetraptera this species | | |appears to have been | | |undeservedly neglected. Its | | |dwarf bushy habit will also | | |render it more suitable for | | |some positions; it loves | | |abundant moisture at the | | |root. It blossoms rather | | |later than H. tetraptera. | | | H. hispida |China and Japan.|White |This belongs to the Asiatic |Introduced about| |group of Halesias, and is |1870 | |very distinct from the | | |American species. It is a | | |vigorous shrub, a small | | |tree with large oblong | | |leaves, and small flowers, | | |which are very numerous on | | |the raceme, which is 4 | | |inches to 8 inches long. | | |One striking peculiarity of | | |the raceme is that the | | |flowers are arranged on the | | |upper side only of its | | |branches (a somewhat | | |similar arrangement is seen | | |in Freesia flowers). The | | |seed-vessels are covered | | |with bristly hairs. Mr. | | |Bean says, "Whilst | | |perfectly hardy at Kew in | | |the open, it blossoms more | | |freely on a wall. The | | |finest specimens I have | | |seen of this Halesia are | | |growing near a | | |carriage-road leading to | | |Mr. Gumbleton's house and | | |garden at Belgrove, | | |Queenstown." It flowers in | | |this country in June. | | | H. parviflora |South-eastern |White; end|This is invariably a shrub. |United States. |of May |It is represented in the |Introduced in | |Kew collection by a large |1802 | |bush, which flowers as a | | |rule with great freedom | | |towards the end of May each | | |year. The arrangement of | | |the flowers is more | | |racemose than fasciculate, | | |and whilst they are very | | |abundant they are not so | | |large as in H. tetraptera | | |or H. diptera. They are | | |white and Snowdrop-like. | | |The seed-vessels are only | | |slightly and unequally | | |winged. On the whole, | | |therefore, the species is | | |easily distinguished from | | |its two fellow American | | |species. The grace and | | |abundance of its bloom make | | |it well worthy of | | |cultivation wherever a | | |variety of hardy shrubs is | | |desired. | | | *H. tetraptera |South United |White; |A beautiful tree. Whilst (Common Snowdrop |States. |May |according to Prof. Sargent tree) |Introduced by a | |it occasionally attains a |London merchant | |height of 80 to 90 feet in |named Ellis in | |its native country, it is |1756 | |seldom more than 20 feet | | |high in the British Isles. | | |Its flowers are like pure | | |white Snowdrops, hence the | | |popular name. The | | |seed-vessels are 1½ | | |inches to 2 inches long, | | |and have four prominent | | |wings that transverse them | | |lengthwise. | | | H. t. Meehani |This originated |White |A very handsome and |as a seedling in| |distinct variety, with |Meehan's | |shorter flower-stalks, and |Nursery, | |thicker and more coarsely |Germanstown, | |wrinkled leaves than the |Philadelphia. | |type. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _SHOOT OF SNOWDROP TREE (Halesia tetraptera)._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Hamamelis (Witch |Hamamelideæ |Orange- |A charming tree when in Hazel) | |yellow; |flower. It blooms early in *H. arborea |China |Winter |the year, the precise time | | |depending upon the weather. | | |When the leafless shoots | | |are studded with the | | |golden-yellow, | | |narrow-petalled flowers, | | |with their crimson calyces, | | |it is very pretty. It is | | |also worth using with some | | |shrub like Gaultheria | | |procumbens as a groundwork. | | |It enjoys an open | | |situation, and is not very | | |particular about soil. | | | H. japonica |Japan |Pale |An interesting shrub, of | |yellow; |which *Zuccariniana is a | |Winter |well-known variety. | | | H. mollis |Japan |Bright |This is a rare Witch-Hazel, | |yellow |with very broad and large | | |leaves, and wavy brightly | | |coloured, fragrant flowers. | | | H. virginica |Eastern North |Pale |For many years this species |America |yellow; |was the only Witch-Hazel in | |Autumn |cultivation. Being spread | | |over the eastern side of | | |North America from Canada | | |to the Southern United | | |States, it naturally | | |attracted the notice of the | | |earlier colonists, and it | | |was, in fact, introduced to | | |Britain as long ago as | | |1736. During the last | | |twenty or thirty years, | | |however, new species have | | |been discovered and brought | | |home from China and Japan. | | |They surpass this old | | |American species in garden | | |value, and are, indeed, | | |amongst the most | | |interesting and attractive | | |of the shrubs that flower | | |in the early part of the | | |year. H. virginica, on the | | |other hand, is at its best | | |in autumn. It has the | | |narrow, twisted, bright | | |yellow petals which, with | | |but little variation, are | | |characteristic of all | | |Hamamelis flowers. The | | |flowers cover the younger | | |branches in close, dense | | |clusters. It is a sturdy | | |shrub, almost a small tree, | | |and has leaves very like | | |those of the English Hazel | | |(Corylus). | | | *Hibiscus syriacus |China; |White; |An upright growing (Tree Mallow, Syn. |Malvaceæ |blotched |deciduous shrub 6 feet Althæa frutex) | |red |high, is particularly | | |valuable from the fact that | | |it flowers towards the | | |later part of August, when | | |so few hardy shrubs are in | | |bloom. It needs a | | |well-drained, loamy soil, | | |that is, however, not | | |parched up at any time, and | | |a spot fully exposed to the | | |sun. There are many | | |varieties of this, ranging | | |in colour from white to | | |purple, both single and | | |double flowered forms being | | |represented. Celestes, | | |blue, and Totus albus, | | |white, are the best. | | | *Hippophaë |A British shrub,|Flowers |A beautiful somewhat spiny rhamnoides (Sea |chiefly in the |inconspic-|tree, or rather shrub, to Buckthorn) |south and |uous; |plant by the side of a |south-east |yellowish |lake, pond, stream, moat, |coasts; | |or anywhere a free |Eleagnaceæ | |spreading shrubby growth is | | |desired. But it will | | |succeed as well inland as | | |by water. A splendid group | | |may be seen near the pond | | |at Kew, and for many years | | |has made a beautiful winter | | |picture in the gardens. | | |Every winter the wood made | | |the previous year is | | |thickly cased with the | | |bright orange-coloured | | |berries, which remain on | | |the branches all the | | |winter, but later on, if | | |hard frosts are | | |experienced, they lose most | | |of their brightness. It | | |must not be forgotten that | | |the flowers are unisexual, | | |_i.e._ those of one sex | | |only are borne on a tree. | | |Male trees therefore do not | | |produce berries, and to get | | |fruit a female and male | | |must be near. In each | | |group, say of about | | |half-a-dozen plants, one | | |plant should be male and | | |the rest female. This is of | | |the utmost importance, and | | |see to it before the plants | | |leave the nursery. The Sea | | |Buckthorn is a large shrub | | |or small tree. A very | | |pretty standard tree | | |results from keeping it to | | |a single stem and removing | | |the lower branches. The | | |leaves are very charming in | | |colour, a silvery grey. The | | |male plant is of more | | |upright growth than the | | |female. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _HYDRANGEAS._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Hydrangea |China and Japan;|Deep pink;|Better known throughout the Hortensia (the |Saxifrageæ |Summer and|greater part of England as Hydrangea, Syn. H. | |Autumn |a greenhouse plant than as hortensis) | | |an outdoor shrub, but in | | |the extreme south and west | | |it is very handsome in the | | |open ground. The huge heads | | |of flowers make a great | | |display. There are several | | |varieties, some of them | | |being often regarded as | | |distinct species, the most | | |notable of which are: | | |Lindleyi, with the large | | |sterile flowers limited to | | |a few around the outside of | | |the cluster. They are pink, | | |tinged with blue. Mariesii | | |is a very handsome Japanese | | |variety, with large sterile | | |flowers, pinkish mauve. | | |Nigra or cyanoclada has | | |purplish black stems, and | | |is very notable on that | | |account. Rosea has all the | | |flowers sterile, and of | | |rich rose colour. Stellata | | |has the sterile flowers | | |double and star-like. | | |Thomas Hogg has white | | |blossoms. | | | *H. paniculata |Japan |Creamy |A handsome shrub that may | |white; |be grown as a dwarf bush or | |Autumn |as a standard. | | | H. var. grandiflora| | |This is far more popular | | |than the type, and is grown | | |largely for flowering under | | |glass as well as in the | | |open ground. In this the | | |huge pyramidal-shaped heads | | |are composed entirely of | | |sterile blossoms. If to be | | |kept dwarf it must be | | |pruned back hard when | | |dormant, and only three | | |or four shoots allowed to | | |develop. | | | H. petiolaris |Japan |Creamy |A free-growing climber, (Climbing | |white; |that attaches itself to a Hydrangea) | |June and |wall by means of aerial | |July |roots after the manner of | | |ivy. It has flattened | | |clusters of flowers. | | |Being so distinct from all | | |the rest, it at once | | |attracts attention. | | | H. quercifolia |North America |White |A shrub about a yard high, | | |with large lobed leaves. | | |The flowers are less showy | | |than some of the others. It | | |needs a moist soil and a | | |very sheltered spot. | | | H. radiata |North America |White |The flowers of this are not | | |at all showy, but the | | |leaves are clothed on the | | |under sides with a dense | | |white felt-like substance, | | |which renders it very | | |noticeable when ruffled by | | |the wind. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _HYDRANGEA PETIOLARIS. A GROUP IN WOODLAND._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Hypericum |Europe; |Yellow |A free-growing deciduous Androsæmum (Tutsan,|Hypericineæ | |shrub from 2 to 3 feet Syn. Androsæmum | | |high, with a mass of small officinale) | | |flowers, but not very | | |showy. It will grow in the | | |shade better than many | | |other shrubs. | | | H. aureum |North America |Yellow; |Reaches a height of about 4 | |July and |feet. The orange-yellow | |August |flowers, about 1½ inches | | |across, have a large and | | |conspicuous mass of yellow | | |stamens in the centre. | | | *H. calycinum (Rose|Levant |Yellow; |Forms a dense mass a foot of Sharon, St. | |July to |high, while the John's Wort) | |Autumn |golden-yellow flowers are | | |quite 3 inches across. The | | |long hair-like stamens are | | |very numerous and | | |attractive. It will | | |both grow and flower well | | |in shady spots. | | | H. elatum (Tall St.|North America |Yellow |Grows 4 to 5 feet high, and John's Wort) | | |is very robust. The | | |flowers, however, though | | |freely borne, are only | | |about an inch in diameter. | | | H. hircinum |Europe |Yellow; |When roughly handled the | |Autumn |leaves of this species have | | |an unpleasant goat-like | | |odour, but it is decidedly | | |ornamental, forming as it | | |does a bush a yard high, | | |while the flowers are | | |bright yellow. | | | *H. hookerianum |Himalayas |Yellow; |Rather more tender than (Syn. H. | |Autumn |some of the Hypericums, but oblongifolium) | | |a showy kind. It grows over | | |4 feet high, and has | | |clusters of large golden | | |flowers. | | | *H. moserianum |Garden hybrid |Yellow; |A hybrid between H. | |early |calycinum and H. patulum, | |Autumn |and one of the most | | |desirable of all the St. | | |John's Worts. The slender | | |branches are graceful, and | | |terminated by clusters of | | |rich golden-yellow flowers | | |a couple of inches across. | | | H. patulum |Japan |Yellow |A delightful little shrub, | | |but even in the south of | | |England it is liable to be | | |killed by a severe winter. | | | H. prolificum |North America |Yellow |Grows 3 feet high, and | | |bears its clusters of | | |blossoms very freely. The | | |individual flowers are | | |about an inch across. | | | H. uralum (Syn. H. |Himalayas |Yellow |Somewhat in the way of H. nepalense) | | |patulum, and like that | | |species rather tender. | | | Itea virginica |Virginia; |White; |A freely branched rounded |Saxifrageæ |July |shrub, from 3 to 4 feet in | | |height, and has small | | |spikes arranged in much the | | |same way as the shrubby | | |Veronicas. It is a | | |favourite of the Red | | |Admiral butterfly (Vanessa | | |Atalanta). It is quite | | |hardy, but needs a moist | | |peaty soil. | | | Jamesia americana |Rocky Mountains;|White; |A somewhat upright shrub, 4 |Saxifrageæ |April and |to 5 feet high, with | |May |oval-shaped leaves and a | | |great profusion of terminal | | |clusters of pure white | | |blossoms. It is quite hardy | | |and needs a cool moist | | |soil. | | | Kalmia angustifolia|North America; |Bright |A delightful little (Sheep Laurel) |Ericaceæ |purplish |evergreen shrub about a | |red; |couple of feet high, | |end of May|with bright-coloured, | | |saucer-shaped blossoms. All | | |the Kalmias prefer cool | | |damp soil, especially of a | | |peaty nature--indeed, | | |conditions favourable to | | |Rhododendrons suit them | | |well. | | | K. glauca |North America |Purplish |Flowers two or three weeks | |pink |earlier than the preceding, | | |and is somewhat dwarfer, | | |but is equally desirable. | | | *K. latifolia |North America |Pink; |This forms a large rounded (Mountain Laurel) | |May |bush from 6 to 8 feet high, | |through |clothed with handsome, | |Summer |bright-green foliage, while | | |the flowers are pink and | | |wax-like. It is a desirable | | |subject to associate with | | |Rhododendrons, which, | | |except in flowers, it much | | |resembles. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _KALMIA LATIFOLIA. A GOOD SHRUB FOR PEATY SOILS._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Koelreuteria |China; |Yellow; |A small picturesque tree 10 paniculata |Sapindaceæ |June and |to 15 feet in height, with | |July |ornamental pinnate leaves, | | |and large terminal panicles | | |of bright yellow flowers, | | |very distinct. | | | Laburnum (Cytisus) |Loudon writes: |...... |There is no need to praise vulgare (Golden |"A native of | |the laburnum; it is one of Rain or Chain) |Europe and the | |the most beautiful of all |lower mountains | |trees, and its countless |of the South of | |flowers make a shower of |Germany, and of | |gold in early summer. It |Switzerland, | |seems strange to read that |where it grows | |the laburnum is not a |to the height of| |native, for it is so |20 feet or | |general in gardens, and is |upwards. It was | |even used in hedgerows in |introduced in | |some parts of the country. |1596"; | |We have in mind a hedgerow |Leguminosæ | |in Berkshire with laburnums | | |rising above the thorn, and | | |a pleasant sight this is | | |in late May and early June. | | |Laburnums grow so freely | | |almost everywhere that they | | |are somewhat overdone in | | |gardens, but it is so | | |beautiful a tree that many | | |would say: "I don't mind | | |how many laburnums I have | | |in the garden." Mr. | | |Goldring, writing in the | | |"Gardeners' Magazine" about | | |laburnums, says:-- | | | | | |"Besides the common way of | | |growing the laburnum as a | | |shrubbery or plantation | | |tree, it may be put to | | |various other uses. It is a | | |beautiful covering for a | | |wall on the north, east, or | | |west sides. In some old | | |gardens one meets with huge | | |trees of it covering large | | |areas of wall, and | | |affording a lovely sight at | | |flower time. This is a | | |common way of growing it on | | |the Continent, and in some | | |of our old botanic gardens | | |it may be seen trained | | |against a wall as a host | | |for the wistaria, which | | |flowers about the same | | |time, and produces a lovely | | |contrast of colour. | | | | | |"I have pleasing | | |recollections of seeing it | | |in some old gardens trained | | |over a path as a covered | | |way before pergolas were in | | |vogue in this country. For | | |several weeks such covered | | |pathways are glowing with | | |colour, and for the rest of | | |the summer they afford a | | |pleasant shade. In some of | | |the old Sussex gardens | | |laburnum 'tunnels' are | | |still to be seen, and they | | |are worth imitating in new | | |gardens. | | | | | |"Of the two commonly grown | | |species of laburnum, L. | | |vulgare and L. alpinum, | | |there are numerous | | |varieties, differing more | | |or less from the types, | | |though the differences in | | |some cases are slight, even | | |from a garden point of | | |view. A laburnum is a | | |laburnum to most people, | | |and nothing more, but there | | |is a great difference | | |between a worthless | | |seedling with short flower | | |clusters of a poor yellow, | | |and the varieties such as | | |Watereri and Parksii which | | |bear racemes fully 16 | | |inches in length, and of a | | |rich-toned yellow. There | | |is, unhappily, in gardens, | | |a preponderance of inferior | | |seedling trees, because | | |they can be raised easily | | |and sold cheaply, but it is | | |better to have one grafted | | |tree of a first-rate | | |variety than a dozen | | |inferior kinds. | | | | | |"The number of named | | |varieties of L. vulgare | | |enumerated in Continental | | |and English nursery lists | | |exceed a score, and most of | | |them are mere monstrosities | | |of leaf-form or colour, | | |only appreciated by the | | |collector of curiosities. | | |The finest varieties are | | |those named Alchingerii, | | |giganteum, Carlieri, and | | |grandiflorum. Any of these, | | |if true to name, are the | | |kinds to plant. They all | | |bear very long racemes, | | |produced abundantly." | | | *L. alpinum |Called the |Yellow |This is a well-known tree. (Cytisus alpinus), |Scotch laburnum | |Some of its varieties are Scotch laburnum |because a | |very beautiful. |supposed native | | |of Scotland, but| | |this is not | | |true. Loudon | | |says: "It was | | |introduced into | | |Britain about | | |the same time as| | |the other | | |species, 1596." | | |The other | | |species is | | |Laburnum vulgare| | | | | L. Watereri |Hybrid |Yellow |We have given this special | | |prominence for the reason | | |it is a hybrid. In Bailey's | | |"American Cyclopædia" | | |occurs this note: | | |"Watereri, Dipp. (L. | | |Parksii, Hort, C. alpinus | | |and vulgaris Wittst.) | | |Hybrid of garden origin, | | |but found also wild.... As | | |hardy as L. alpinum and | | |sometimes considered to be | | |a variety of that species." | | | L. Adami (Purple |Graft-hybrid |Purple, |This is a remarkable tree, laburnum) | |yellow, |and is named after M. Adam, | |and buff |who grafted Cytisus | | |purpureus on the common | | |laburnum. Loudon says the | | |purple laburnum "is a | | |hybrid between Cytisus | | |laburnum and C. purpureus, | | |in which the flowers are of | | |a reddish purple, slightly | | |tinged with buff, and are | | |produced in pendent spikes | | |eight inches or more long. | | |It was originated in Paris, | | |in the nursery of M. Adam | | |in 1828; it was introduced | | |into England about 1829, | | |and has been a good deal | | |cultivated." We noticed a | | |tree of it in a hedgerow | | |near Burnham Common, | | |Slough. It is a strange | | |tree. Some branches will | | |perhaps bear entirely | | |yellow flowers, like those | | |of the common laburnum and | | |others varied like Cytisus | | |purpureus, by a flower that | | |shows the characters of | | |both parents. It is more | | |curious than beautiful. | | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Ledum latifolium |Northern portion|White; |A much-branched shrub 2 to (Labrador Tea) |of North |late April|3 feet high, and when in |America; | |bloom covered with its |Ericaceæ | |rounded clusters of white | | |blossoms. It needs a cool | | |moist peaty soil, and given | | |this it is very attractive | | |when in bloom. | | | L. palustre (Marsh |Northern part of|White, |Much like the last, except Ledum) |Eastern |tinged |that it is rather smaller, |Hemisphere |pink |and the blossoms tinged | | |with pink. | | | Leiophyllum |New Jersey and |White; |A compact little evergreen buxifolium (Sand |Virginia; |May |shrub about a foot high. Myrtle), (Syn. L. |Ericaceæ | |Every twig, however small, thymifolium) | | |bears a cluster of pretty | | |blossoms, in colour white | | |tinged with pink. It is a | | |good rockwork shrub in a | | |cool moist position. | | | Lespedeza bicolor |Japan; |Rosy red; |Sends up stiff annual |Leguminosæ |July |shoots to a height of 4 | | |feet. The leaves are | | |trifoliate. It needs a | | |warm soil, and is not | | |particularly attractive. | | | *L. Sieboldi (Syn. |China and Japan |Reddish |A deciduous sub-shrub that Desmodium | |purple; |dies nearly to the ground penduliflorum) | |September |in the winter. From the | | |base are pushed up long | | |wand-like arching shoots to | | |a height of 6 feet, clothed | | |with trifoliate leaves, and | | |bearing large terminal | | |panicles of pea-shaped | | |blossoms. Should it escape | | |the autumn frosts it is | | |delightful. | | | Leycesteria formosa|Temperate |Purplish |A very interesting shrub, 6 |Himalaya; |white, and|feet high in the milder |Caprifoliaceæ |purple |parts of these isles, but | |bracts |hardy almost everywhere. | | |These flowers are succeeded | | |by purple berries which are | | |relished by pheasants, | | |hence it is planted for | | |covert in some places. | | | Ligustrum coriaceum|China; |White |A sturdy evergreen shrub, (Thick-leaved |Oleaceæ | |with very dark-green Privet) | | |leaves, thick, about 1½ | | |inches long and roundish | | |oval in shape. It reaches a | | |height of about a yard, and | | |is of extremely slow | | |growth. | | | L. Ibota (Syn. L. |Japan |White; |A graceful shrub with long, amurense) | |June and |slender, arching branches, | |July |narrow leaves, and white | | |flowers. | | | L. japonicum |Japan |White; |Reaches a height of 6 to 8 (Japanese Privet) | |early July|feet, and forms a freely | | |branched bush clothed with | | |bright shining green leaves | | |from 2 to 3 inches, oval | | |pointed in shape. | | | *L. lucidum (Wax |China |White; |This is the most ornamental Tree) | |July and |of all the Privets in | |August |foliage, the leathery | | |dark-green leaves being | | |sometimes as much as 6 | | |inches long, and over two | | |inches wide. It reaches a | | |height of 9 to 12 feet, and | | |has large panicles of white | | |flowers. There is a | | |variety--tricolor, with | | |leaves beautifully | | |variegated, but being | | |tender it needs wall | | |protection. | | | L. massalongianum |Khasia Hills |White |The long narrow leaves of (Syn. L. | | |this species make it rosmarinifolium) | | |distinct from all other | | |Privets. It is hardy only | | |in the west of England and | | |Ireland. | | | *L. ovalifolium |Japan |White |This sub-evergreen species (Oval-leaved | | |is one of the hardiest of Privet) | | |all Privets, being much | | |used for hedges, and for | | |planting where little else | | |will thrive. Its small | | |dense clusters of flowers | | |are borne in great | | |profusion, but they (in | | |common with most Privets) | | |possess such a heavy and | | |unpleasant odour as to | | |unfit them for planting | | |near dwelling-houses. The | | |golden form of this Privet, | | |known as Aureum or | | |Elegantissimum, is met with | | |nearly everywhere, | | |particularly in the | | |environs of London. | | | *L. Quihoui |China |White; |A somewhat spreading shrub | |late |about 5 feet high, with | |September |small leaves and terminal | | |panicles of flowers. For | | |this reason it is worth | | |growing as a flowering | | |shrub. | | | *L. sinense |China |White |The finest of all Privets (Chinese Privet) | | |as regards its flowers. It | | |forms a sub-evergreen shrub | | |from 12 to 15 feet high, | | |with arching branches, and | | |frond-like arrangements of | | |the smaller branchlets, | | |which are clothed with | | |leaves about the size of | | |those of the Common Privet, | | |and pale green in colour. | | |The white flowers are borne | | |in such profusion towards | | |the end of July that the | | |entire plant is quite a | | |mass of that colour. It | | |needs a well-drained soil. | | | L. vulgare (Common |Europe |White |As a hedge plant this is to Privet) | | |a great extent superseded | | |by L. ovalifolium, but it | | |is still a useful shrub for | | |rough places. It is one of | | |the subjects that can be | | |clipped into all manner of | | |shapes, hence it is very | | |popular for topiary work. | | | *Liriodendron |United States; |Yellow; |The Tulip tree is one of tulipifera (Tulip |Magnoliaceæ |June |the most beautiful and tree) | | |distinct of all our hardy | | |trees, for the peculiarly | | |shaped four-lobed leaves | | |cannot be confounded with | | |those of any other. It | | |occurs over a considerable | | |extent of country in North | | |America, and when suitably | | |situated attains a height | | |of 130 to 140 feet. Though | | |these dimensions are not | | |reached in this country, | | |specimens nearly 100 feet | | |high are known, and its | | |great value as a timber | | |tree has been demonstrated | | |here as well as in the | | |United States, where it is | | |given the name of the White | | |Wood. The yellow Tulip-like | | |flowers, from whence its | | |popular name in this | | |country is derived, are | | |very pretty, but as a rule | | |borne at such a height that | | |their beauty cannot be | | |seen. They, however, add to | | |the interest and charm of | | |the tree, and with the | | |handsome leafage and the | | |rich yellow hue of the | | |foliage in the Autumn, as | | |well as its thorough | | |hardiness and almost | | |complete indifference to | | |soil and situation, make it | | |one of the most desirable | | |of our large growing trees. | | |There are several | | |varieties, notable among | | |them being integrifolia, in | | |which the distinctive lobes | | |of the leaves are | | |suppressed; aurea maculata, | | |whose leaves are blotched | | |with yellow; and | | |fastigiata, which is of | | |upright growth. These are | | |all interesting, but not | | |equal in beauty to the | | |type. | | | Loropetalum |China; |Pure |A very interesting shrub, chinense |Hamamelideæ |white; |with long petals, | |Winter |resembling one of the | | |flowers of Hamamelis; they | | |appear 6 to 8 together in | | |clusters at the bract tips. | | |Tender. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _FLOWER OF YULAN (Magnolia conspicua). ABOUT HALF NATURAL SIZE._] [Illustration: _YULAN (Magnolia conspicua); ITS USE AS A WALL SHRUB, CROWSLEY PARK, HENLEY._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Magnolia acuminata |North America; |Greenish |From a flowering point of (Cucumber tree) |Magnoliaceæ |yellow |view this is one of the | | |least showy of the | | |Magnolias, but the tree has | | |handsome foliage; it | | |reaches a height of many | | |feet. The leaves are nearly | | |a foot long, and half as | | |much in width. There is a | | |tree 60 feet high in Syon | | |Park, Middlesex. | | | *M. conspicua (the |China |Pure |Of all the Magnolias, and Yulan) | |white; |indeed of all our deciduous | |early |trees, this is one of the | |Spring |finest, and also one of the | | |earliest flowering. It | | |blooms in some seasons as | | |early as March, and the | | |pure white flowers, like | | |silver chalices, stand out | | |boldly from the bare | | |dark-coloured branches. | | |Owing to the flowers | | |expanding so early, they | | |are sometimes injured by | | |spring frosts, hence in the | | |northern parts of the | | |country this species is | | |often given wall | | |protection. This Magnolia | | |succeeds best in a good, | | |well-drained, loamy soil of | | |not too heavy a nature, | | |indeed, such will suit all | | |the Magnolias perfectly. | | | M. Fraseri |North America |Creamy |A distinguishing feature of (Fraser's | |white; |this Magnolia is the shape Magnolia), (Syn. | |May |of the large leaves, which auriculata) | | |are broader towards the | | |upper portion than at the | | |base. It reaches a height | | |of 30 feet or more, but | | |needs a spot sheltered from | | |strong winds. The | | |sweet-scented flowers are | | |nearly 6 inches across. | | | M. glauca (the |North America |White |A shrub from 10 to 12 feet Swamp Magnolia) | | |high, with flowers not | | |borne all at once, as in | | |most of the others, but | | |scattered over two or three | | |months, from June onwards. | | |It makes a pretty lawn | | |shrub for a damp spot. | | | *M. grandiflora |Southern United |White; |The evergreen Magnolia is (the Evergreen |States |late |more generally grown as a Magnolia) | |Summer |wall plant than in the open | | |ground, though in the south | | |and west of England it will | | |thrive perfectly without | | |protection. As a wall | | |covering the handsome | | |dark-green leaves render it | | |effective at all seasons, | | |and they also serve as an | | |admirable setting for the | | |large cup-shaped | | |deliciously-scented | | |flowers. | | | M. hypoleuca |Japan |Creamy |In Japan this is a tree 60 | |white |feet high, and is said to | | |be a very desirable kind, | | |but it has not been long | | |introduced, and the plants | | |of it in this country are | | |small. | | | *M. Lennei |Garden origin |Glowing |The flowers of this are | |purple |large, massive in texture, | |outside, |and delightfully coloured. | |pinkish |They are a month or two | |within; |later than those of the | |late |Yulan, hence they escape | |Spring |the frosts which sometimes | | |injure it. | | | M. obovata (Syn. M.|Japan |Purple |A spreading shrub 6 to 8 purpurea) | |outside, |feet high, with flowers | |whitish |much smaller than those of | |within; |M. Lennei, and not of so | |late |pleasing a colour. It is, | |Spring |however, a handsome shrub, | | |less particular in its | | |requirements than most | | |Magnolias. | | | M. parviflora |Japan |White; |A neat bush. The centre of | |May and |the flower is occupied by a | |June |ring of bright-red | | |filaments. It is rather | | |tender. | | | *M. soulangeana |Garden origin |White, |A small tree more spreading | |tinged |in character than M. | |purple |conspicua, and flowering | |outside; |also a little later. Very | |Spring |pretty, early flowering. | | | *M. stellata (Syn. |Japan |Pure |The earliest of all the M. halleana) | |white; |Magnolias. It is a much | |March |branched shrub, seldom more | | |than 4 feet high, and as | | |much through. The flowers, | | |which are borne in great | | |profusion, are about 3 | | |inches in diameter, and | | |composed of a dozen or so | | |of strap-shaped petals; a | | |lovely shrub. There is a | | |variety of this with pink | | |flowers. | | | M. tripetala |North America |Creamy |A tree remarkable for its (Umbrella tree), | |white; |large handsome leaves, (Syn. M. Umbrella) | |early |which are arranged in a | |Summer |regular manner towards the | | |upper parts of the | | |branches. The flowers are | | |creamy white. A sheltered | | |spot suits this best. | | | M. Watsoni |Japan |Ivory |A bush about 5 feet high. | |white |The flowers are remarkable | |inside, |for their central cluster | |flushed |of crimson filaments. It | |with rose |needs a sheltered spot. | |on the | | |exterior; | | |May and | | |June | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _MAGNOLIA CONSPICUA var. SOULANGEANA (late Spring)._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Notospartium |New Zealand; |Rose; June|This grows in New Zealand Carmichæliæ |Leguminosæ | |several feet high, but not | | |here. It has graceful | | |shoots, which are very | | |pretty when smothered with | | |the pink pea-shaped | | |flowers. A correspondent to | | |the _Garden_, writing in | | |July 1900 from Castle | | |Douglas, N.B., says: "I am | | |sure if my plant of | | |Notospartium Carmichæliæ | | |were to be seen by any one | | |who has not got it, there | | |would be countless | | |inquiries for it. It has | | |always done well and | | |flowered freely, but this | | |year it is simply | | |magnificent, with only the | | |points of the twigs visible | | |above the mass of bright | | |pink blossoms." | | | Nuttallia |California; |White; |This is one of the cerasiformis |Rosaceæ |early |prettiest and most | |Spring |interesting of March | | |shrubs. It is of good | | |habit, and produces a large | | |quantity of dull white | | |flowers in drooping | | |racemes. The fruits, too, | | |are pretty, not unlike | | |those of a small plum, of | | |reddish-yellow colour, with | | |a plum-like bloom. It must | | |be noted that the flowers | | |are liable to be dioecious, | | |and so, therefore the sexes | | |must be planted together, | | |though we have obtained | | |fruit by sticking branches | | |of the male flowers among | | |those of the female shrub. | | | *Olearia Haastii |New Zealand; |White; |A valuable evergreen (Daisy Bush) |Compositæ |July and |Box-like shrub, laden with | |August |small white Daisy-like | | |blossoms with a yellow | | |disc. Though a native of | | |New Zealand, it is hardy in | | |most parts of England. | | | O. macrodonta (New |New Zealand |White; |This has large Holly-like Zealand Daisy | |July |leaves, silvery on the tree), (Syn. O. | | |undersides, and heads of dentata) | | |Daisy-like blossoms. Far | | |more tender than O. | | |Haastii, this needs a wall | | |in most parts of the south | | |of England, though it is | | |hardy in the extreme west | | |and in the south of | | |Ireland. | | | O. stellulata (Syn.|New Zealand |White, |An evergreen bush, with O. gunniana, | |yellow |small narrow leaves, the Eurybia gunniana) | |disc; May |undersides covered with | |and June |whitish felt. The | | |Daisy-like flowers appear | | |in profusion. Its | | |requirements are the same | | |as the last. | | | O. Traversii (Syn. |New Zealand |White; |In its native country this Eurybia Traversii) | |June |is a timber tree, but here | | |it needs the same treatment | | |as the last two. The | | |flowers are small and | | |creamy white. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _OLEARIA MACRODONTA. (Redruth.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Oxydendron arboreum|Eastern |Pure |This is a charming shrub, |United States; |white; |but in its native country |Ericaceæ |June and |grows to a height of 40 | |July |feet. The leaves are dark | | |green, but very richly | | |coloured in autumn. The | | |bell-shaped white flowers | | |remind one of those of the | | |Lily of the Valley, and | | |appear in pretty racemes. | | | Ozothamnus |South Australia |White; |A neat shrub, 4 to 5 feet rosmarinifolius |and Tasmania; |July |high, with narrow |Compositæ | |rosemary-like leaves, and | | |during the summer a | | |profusion of white | | |Aster-like blossoms. It is | | |hardy only in the West of | | |England. | | | *Pernettya |Cape Horn, |Berries |Many garden varieties. mucronata |introduced in |the chief |Between 1878 and 1882 the |1828; Ericaceæ |beauty |floral committee of the | | |Royal Horticultural Society | | |awarded no less than seven | | |first-class certificates, | | |selecting the following | | |varieties for the purpose: | | |P. alba, carnea nana, | | |lilacina macrocarpa, nigra | | |major, rosea purpurea. | | |and sanguinea. There are | | |ten or a dozen quite | | |distinct shades of | | |colouring, from white | | |through tenderest pink, | | |white and rosy pink, the | | |colours then reaching to a | | |soft scarlet, and ending | | |with a dark blood-red, | | |reminding one of the seeds | | |of the Pomegranate, and | | |also the differences in the | | |size of the berries and | | |foliage, particulars which | | |impart additional interest | | |to this useful group of | | |plants. Some fifty or so | | |years ago Mr. Davis of | | |Hillsborough began his | | |experiments with such forms | | |of the Pernettya as were | | |then in cultivation, and he | | |selected as his first | | |seed-parent P. | | |angustifolia, a native of | | |China, a densely branched, | | |narrow-leaved evergreen | | |shrub, growing to a height | | |of about 3 feet. The fruit | | |of this species is light | | |pink in colour. It is a | | |very effective subject, | | |thriving well under the | | |shade of trees, but in such | | |a position does not, as | | |might be expected, flower | | |so freely as when grown in | | |the open. P. mucronata, the | | |type, bears reddish-tinted | | |fruits. Regarding P. | | |angustifolia as the | | |hardiest of the two, | | |Mr. Davis made this the | | |first seed-bearing | | |parent, and found the | | |seedlings from it to vary | | |considerably in the | | |character of the foliage | | |and colour of the fruit. | | |This encouraged him to | | |take seed from the best | | |of his seedlings, and | | |from it obtained the | | |fine varieties which are | | |now in our gardens. It | | |is difficult to | | |over-estimate their | | |value as berry-bearing | | |plants in autumn in | | |peaty soil. | | | Philadelphus |Europe and |White; |A well-known shrub, from coronarius |Asia; |early May |6 to 10 feet high, with (Mock Orange |Saxifrageæ | |a profusion of white, or Syringa) | | |strongly scented | | |flowers. There are | | |several varieties, the | | |best being aurea, with | | |golden leaves, and | | |Keteleerii, with | | |double blossoms. | | | P. gordonianus |North America |White; |A free-growing bush with | |early |flowers twice the size | |July |of the preceding, and | | |about six weeks later in | | |expanding. | | | *P. grandiflorus |Southern United |White; |Forms a bush about 12 (Large-flowered |States |Midsummer |high, with large leaves Mock Orange, | | |and blossoms. It lacks Syn. P. inodorus) | | |the fragrance of the | | |other species, which is | | |to many people a point | | |in its favour. | | | P. hirsutus |North America |White |Grows about 5 feet high, (Hairy-leaved Mock | | |and bears its Orange) | | |comparatively small | | |flowers in great | | |profusion. | | | *P. Lemoinei |Garden Hybrid |White; |A hybrid between P. (Lemoine's Hybrid | |June and |coronarius and the Mock Orange) | |July |little New Mexican P. | | |microphyllus. It (P. | | |Lemoinei) forms a | | |slender, freely-branched | | |shrub about 5 feet high, | | |and has a profusion of | | |small pure-white flowers | | |that are most agreeably | | |scented, the fragrance | | |reminding one of ripe | | |apples. The variety | | |erectus is a rather | | |stronger grower, and | | |even a finer plant. | | |Other delightful hybrid | | |forms are, Boule | | |d'Argent, a neat bush | | |with double flowers; | | |Candelabre, with larger | | |blossoms than the other | | |forms of Lemoinei; Gerbe | | |de neige, dwarf form | | |with large single | | |flowers; and Manteau | | |d'Hermine, semi-double. | | |These are among the most | | |charming of all hardy | | |shrubs. | | | *P. Lewisii |Western North |White; |One of the best, with long |America |Mid-June |graceful arching shoots, | | |and large trusses of pure | | |white blossoms. | | | *P. microphyllus |New Mexico |White |A dense rounded bush, 3 (Small-leaved | | |feet high and as much Mock Orange) | | |across, clothed with tiny | | |leaves, and very fragrant | | |flowers one inch across. | | | P. Satsumi |Japan |White |Rather tenderer than the (Japanese Mock | | |American kinds this forms a Orange) | | |distinct spreading bush | | |thinner than most of the | | |others. The flowers are | | |pure white and fragrant, | | |and differ from the others | | |in that the petals are | | |less rounded and full, thus | | |forming a more starry | | |bloom. | | | *Pieris floribunda |North America; |White; |A rounded evergreen shrub, (Syn. Andromeda |Ericaceæ |April to |from 3 to 5 feet high, floribunda) | |May |clothed with very dark | | |green leaves, and with | | |spikes of pure white | | |Lily-of-the-Valley-like | | |blossoms. It needs a fairly | | |sheltered position and a | | |cool moist soil, such as | | |Rhododendrons delight in. | | | *P. formosa |Himalayas |White; |A large bold-growing shrub, | |May and |with handsome dark-green | |June |leathery foliage. It has | | |spikes of wax-like | | |urn-shaped blossoms. It is | | |too tender for general | | |cultivation, except in the | | |West of England and in | | |Ireland. | | | *P. japonica (Syn. |Japan |White |This differs from the last Andromeda japonica)| | |in the white wax-like | | |flowers being borne on | | |long pendulous racemes, so | | |that at their best the | | |entire plant is quite | | |veiled with them. The tips | | |of the growing shoots too | | |are bright red. This blooms | | |naturally earlier than P. | | |floribunda, and on that | | |account the flowers are | | |often injured by spring | | |frosts, to prevent which, | | |as far as possible, it | | |should be planted in a | | |sheltered spot, where the | | |early morning sun does not | | |shine direct on it. | | | P. mariana (Syn. |North America |White; |A deciduous shrub a yard Andromeda mariana) | |Summer |high, with wax-like | | |flowers. A damp peaty soil | | |suits it best. | | | P. ovalifolia |Nepaul |White; |Grows to a height of 10 to | |May |12 feet, and has spikes of | | |white flowers. This species | | |succeeds better in the West | | |of England and in Ireland | | |than elsewhere. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _A GROUP OF PRUNUS PERSICA (Kew.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Prunus (Rosaceæ) |...... |...... |This is a beautiful genus. | | |As at present constituted | | |it contains all those trees | | |which were formerly and in | | |many places still are | | |included under the generic | | |titles of Amygdalus, | | |Persica, Cerasus, Padus, | | |&c. The genus is divided | | |into six sections, viz., | | |Amygdalus, which includes | | |Almonds and Peaches; | | |Armeniaca, the Apricots; | | |Prunus, which contains the | | |true Plums and the | | |Blackthorn; Cerasus, the | | |various Cherries; Padus, | | |the Bird Cherries; and | | |Laurocerasus, under which | | |is placed the Cherry | | |Laurel, Portugal Laurel, | | |&c. Although these genera | | |may differ outwardly, yet | | |they are botanically of the | | |same character. The genus | | |is widely spread, | | |representatives being found | | |in Europe and through Asia | | |southward to Persia and | | |Afghanistan, and eastward | | |to China and Japan; it is | | |also well represented in | | |North America. With the | | |exception of the section | | |Laurocerasus, all the | | |members of the genus are | | |deciduous trees or shrubs | | |of various sizes, and most | | |of them are very beautiful, | | |especially in spring. A | | |fairly light well-drained | | |soil is best. If inclined | | |to be cold and heavy and is | | |not very deep, the plums or | | |any which succeed on the | | |plum stock, are best, as | | |they are more | | |surface-rooting than the | | |remainder. The presence of | | |lime in the soil is highly | | |beneficial to all the | | |Prunuses and, if not | | |naturally present, can | | |easily be given in the form | | |of old mortar-rubbish | | |forked in liberally round | | |them. Propagation is | | |effected by seeds, | | |cuttings, layers, or by | | |budding or grafting. | | |Details of propagation will | | |be found with each section. | | | P. Amygdalus |Native of |Pink; |This is the Almond, the (the Almond) |Southern Europe |Spring |tree which foreshadows the |and the Levant | |coming of spring, its | | |leafless shoots enveloped | | |in pink-tinted flowers. In | | |the southern and central | | |parts of the country it is | | |largely grown, especially | | |in small suburban gardens, | | |but is not quite hardy | | |enough for the north, | | |unless the position is very | | |favourable. The fruit is | | |chiefly composed of the | | |large deeply-pitted stone, | | |which is only covered with | | |a thick, tough, woolly | | |skin. There are five good | | |varieties: Amara, the | | |Bitter Almond, with large | | |white flowers tinged with a | | |soft rose colour in the | | |centre; dulcis, the Sweet | | |Almond, with large red | | |flowers and amongst the | | |first to open; macrocarpa, | | |which has larger flowers | | |and fruits than the type, | | |but the flowers are of | | |paler colour; pendula, a | | |half-weeping variety, deep | | |pink flowers; persicoides, | | |a handsome tree, more | | |upright in growth than the | | |type, and very free. The | | |large pink flowers open | | |somewhat earlier than | | |those of the common Almond. | | | *P. davidiana |China |White or |This is a small tree and (Amygdalus | |pale rose;|one of the earliest to davidiana) | |January |bloom; the flowers opening | |or early |as early as January in mild | |February |weather, though the middle | | |or end of February is its | | |usual flowering time. The | | |buds are not injured by | | |frost, but open when the | | |weather gets milder. The | | |leaves are broader and of | | |duller colour than those of | | |the Almond, but the flowers | | |are of about the same size | | |and substance. There are | | |two forms, alba, white, | | |which is the best, and | | |rubra, rose or red. | | |Beautiful under glass. | | | P. incana |Asia Minor |Pale red; |This species is allied to (Amygdalus incana) | |March and |the pretty P. nana; it is a | |April |spreading shrub 4 to 6 feet | | |high with linear leaves | | |silvery-white underneath. | | |The flowers are about half | | |the size of those of the | | |Almond and freely produced. | | | *P. nana (Amygdalus|Eastern Europe |Rose; |This delightful little nana) |and the southern|March and |shrub is rarely more than 3 |parts of Russia |April |feet high, the thin twiggy | | |growths being covered every | | |Spring with rose-coloured | | |flowers. It makes a | | |charming bed for the | | |Spring, and is very easily | | |increased by layering. | | | P. orientalis |Western Asia |Rose; |This shrub grows to a | |April |height of about 6 feet, but | | |is not very hardy. So | | |many, however, enjoy the | | |beauty of the Almond family | | |that we include it, as in | | |many southern gardens it is | | |happy. The willow-like | | |leaves are silvery white. | | | *P. Persica (the |China, but |Pink; |This beautiful Peach), (Syn. |formerly |April or |spring-flowering tree needs Persica vulgaris |considered a |May |no description. It is not and Amygdalus |native of Persia| |grown, however, so much as Persica) | | |the various double-flowered | | |varieties, such as | | |flore-roseo-pleno and | | |flore-albo-pleno; the | | |former has very double | | |bright rose flowers and the | | |latter white. | | |Flore-rubro-pleno is a | | |double red form. The | | |variety foliis rubris has | | |deep purple-coloured | | |leaves; the flowers are | | |tinged with the same colour | | |and the fruits are dark and | | |freely produced. Magnifica | | |is a double red-flowered | | |variety with larger and | | |finer flowers than the | | |others, and the finest of | | |all. All the Almonds are | | |best propagated by budding | | |or grafting on suitable | | |stocks, which are the | | |common Almond for warm | | |light soils, and the Plum | | |for heavier soils and | | |colder localities. For | | |budding the Mussel plum | | |stock is the best to use, | | |and either the same or the | | |Myrobella plum for | | |grafting. The latter is not | | |usually a good stock for | | |budding, the bark being too | | |thin to hold the bud | | |properly, which objection | | |does not hold good with the | | |Mussel plum stock. The | | |species can also be got | | |from seeds, and P. nana is | | |best raised as stated from | | |layers, or cuttings of | | |half-ripened wood, which | | |will strike, though not | | |very readily. | | | P. Armeniaca (the | | |Many of the species in this Apricots) | | |group are amongst the most | | |precious flowering shrubs | | |of the garden. All can be | | |increased by seed. P. | | |tomentosa and P. triloba | | |flore-pleno can also be got | | |from layers or cuttings. | | |Half-ripened wood of the | | |latter will also root | | |readily, and soon form | | |sturdy young trees. These | | |two in particular should | | |always be on their own | | |roots: a plum stock kills | | |them in a few years. | | | P. Armeniaca |Northern China |Small, |We mention this because (common Apricot) | |white, |it is the parent of the | |opening |various varieties of | |early in |Apricot. | |the year, | | |and | | |frequently| | |blackened | | |by frost | | | | *P. Mume |Japan |Rose; |This is a small and pretty | |early, |tree of upright growth, and | |before the|the leaves large and | |leaves |shining green in colour. | | |There are four varieties, | | |viz., flore-albo-pleno, | | |double white; | | |flore-roseo-pleno, double | | |bright rose; | | |flore-rubro-pleno, double | | |red; and pendula, which | | |makes a pretty, small, | | |weeping tree if worked | | |standard high. | | | P. tomentosa |China and Japan |pinkish |This is a pretty, small | | |branching shrub, with stout | | |leaves covered with a thick | | |tomentum; the flowers are | | |followed by small red | | |fruits. | | | *P. triloba |China |Pink; |The species is not of much | |March or |account, but the double | |early |variety flore-pleno is one | |April |of the most handsome of | | |flowering shrubs. Its | | |large, double, | | |rose-coloured flowers are | | |produced so profusely that | | |hardly a leaf is visible. | | |For a wall it is | | |invaluable, but in this | | |position it should only be | | |pruned immediately after | | |flowering, the summer | | |growths being allowed to | | |develop at will, as this is | | |the wood that will produce | | |flowers the following | | |season. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _PRUNUS JAPONICA. (Syn. P. sinensis.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Prunus (the Plums) | | |There are several species | | |of Prunus, but those | | |mentioned are the most | | |important for gardens. The | | |Plums are best grown from | | |seeds, but if these cannot | | |be got then they must be | | |worked upon the Wild, | | |Mussel, and Myrobella or | | |Myrobalan Plum. Plum stocks | | |should be raised from seed. | | |If got from layers or | | |suckers they are liable to | | |throw up suckers from the | | |base, and ruin the plants | | |worked on them. | | | P. cerasifera |Uncertain, but |Small, |This is the well-known (P. mirobalana) |probably of |pure |Myrobalan Plum, and the |Caucasian origin|white; |seedlings are used as | |Spring |stocks. Its hardiness and | | |vigour in almost all soils | | |and climates make it a good | | |small shrub, and its white | | |flower-clusters are | | |delightful in early spring. | | |The fruits are popular on | | |the Continent, and are red | | |in colour. It is used as a | | |hedge in some places. There | | |are two varieties, viz., | | |angustifolia pendula, which | | |is half pendulous in | | |growth, and the well-known | | |atropurpurea, more often | | |called *P. Pissardi, which | | |is a native of Persia, and | | |has warm purple leaves, | | |which get darker with age. | | |The flowers are | | |rose-tinted. It is a good | | |shrub for colour, but must | | |not be too freely planted. | | | P. communis |The origin of |White; |The wild plum is mentioned (Wild Plum) |this plum is |April and |because a well-known tree, |uncertain; it is|March |but its varieties are more |stated in some | |beautiful. *Pruneauliana is |works to be a | |very handsome; its fruit is |native of | |the prune imported from |Britain, Europe,| |abroad. It is of upright |and a part of | |growth, with downy leaves, |Asia | |and large, pure white | | |flowers. *P. fl. pl. is | | |extremely handsome; it has | | |double flowers. The wild | | |plum is the same as P. | | |domestica. | | | *P. divaricata |Wide |White; |This is one of the most |distribution |April or |beautiful of the Plums, |from Macedonia |late March|but rarely seen. A fine |Caucasus and |in a mild |example of it is now in |Persia. |season |the rock garden at Kew, |Introduced in | |and when the weather is |1822 | |mild before March is out, | | |this spreading tree is | | |enveloped in snowy-white | | |flowers. But unfortunately | | |its flowers are sometimes | | |spoilt by late frosts. The | | |growth is slender, twiggy, | | |and dark in colour. | | | P. spinosa (the |Britain, and |White |The Sloe or Blackthorn of Sloe) |Europe, North | |the English hedgerow is |Asia, &c. | |familiar, but the variety | | |*flore-pleno is a good | | |garden shrub; its spreading | | |Spring shoots are covered | | |in April with double white | | |flowers, each like a little | | |rosette, and longer lasting | | |than the Sloe of the | | |English lane. It is as yet | | |rare in British gardens. | | |This should be worked on | | |the type. | | | The Cherries | | |A beautiful group of (Cerasus group) | | |flowering trees. They are | | |propagated by seeds or by | | |grafting them on stocks of | | |the Gean (P. Avium), but | | |never resort to this | | |practice if possible to | | |avoid it. The small-growing | | |cherries, P. humilis, P. | | |Jacquemontii, P. japonica, | | |P. prostrata, and P. | | |pumila, must be increased | | |by layers; the Gean stock | | |kills them. | | | P. acida |Europe |White; |P. acida would be little | |April |heard of if it were not for | | |its variety, P. a. | | |semperflorens, (the All | | |Saints' Cherry), which | | |blooms twice or thrice in a | | |season, indeed, keeps up a | | |scattered succession from | | |May to September. The first | | |display of flowers takes | | |place in April, and in | | |about two months afterwards | | |it blooms again. The fruits | | |are very abundant, and are | | |scarlet in colour. There | | |are several other | | |varieties, but not of much | | |consequence. | | | P. Avium (the |Europe, and a |Pure |The Wild Cherry is pretty, Gean or Wild |woodland tree |white; |and it is interesting as Cherry) |in many parts |April and |the parent of the fruiting |of these Isles |May |cherries, but neither this | | |species nor its varieties, | | |decumana, white, the | | |cut-leaved laciniata, or | | |the weeping pendula, can | | |approach the beauty of the | | |*double white | | |(flore-pleno), which is one | | |of the loveliest of all | | |flowering trees. In late | | |April the whole tree seems | | |enveloped in blossom as | | |white as driven snow, and | | |it lasts for many days in | | |this condition. No garden | | |should be without this | | |queen of flowering trees. | | | P. Cerasus (Dwarf |Europe and |White; |This is not very or Wild Cherry) |Britain |Spring |interesting, except that it | | |is one of the parents of | | |the fruiting cherry, and in | | |the garden is hardly | | |wanted, as its | | |double-flowered varieties | | |are far more beautiful, | | |especially *Rhexi | | |flore-pleno, which has very | | |double, snow-white, | | |rosette-shaped flowers. It | | |is one of the most | | |beautiful of all the | | |Cherries, and when grown as | | |a standard makes a small | | |and spreading tree of much | | |charm. It is sometimes | | |catalogued as C. caproniana | | |multiplex, C. c. | | |ranunculiflora, and C. | | |serotina flore-pleno. | | |Persicifolia has similar | | |flowers, but tinged with | | |rose. C. Cerasus and C. | | |Avium have much in common, | | |but the former has smaller | | |leaves and an acid fruit. | | | P. Chamæcerasus |Europe, but long|White |This is a small shrub, (Siberian Cherry) |grown in English|flowers, |seldom more than 4 feet |gardens |¾ in. |high; it has slender | |across; |branches, shining | |Spring |dark-green leaves and | | |flowers, followed by small | | |reddish-purple acid fruits. | | |When grown as a standard | | |it makes a round, | | |half-drooping and graceful | | |tree. | | | *P. japonica |China and Japan |Double, |This is one of the | |pure white|prettiest of small shrubs | | |when in flower. It is very | | |charming against a wall, | | |but is a success in the | | |open, flowering freely, and | | |for this reason makes an | | |interesting and beautiful | | |group. It grows between 3 | | |and 4 feet high, and its | | |long slender branches are | | |often weighed down by the | | |wealth of pure-white | | |flowers. The leaves are | | |tinged with red when young. | | |The flowers of the variety | | |flore-roseo-pleno are rich | | |rose; it is a beautiful | | |shrub. Increase only by | | |layers or by cuttings; | | |never graft. | | | *P. prostrata |Mountains of the|Bright |Mr. Goldring in the |Levant |pink; |_Gardener's Magazine_, | |Spring |April 6, 1901, p. 210, | | |writes thus of this Cherry: | | |"I am afraid that this | | |species, which is a low | | |shrub from the mountains of | | |the Levant, is not very | | |easy to obtain, yet it is | | |one of the most delightful | | |of dwarf cherries. It is a | | |spreading plant with | | |slender arching branches, | | |but scarcely prostrate. | | |The leaves are amongst the | | |smallest in this group, | | |being from a half-inch to | | |one and a half inches long, | | |and finely toothed. Nor are | | |the flowers large, being a | | |half-inch or little more in | | |diameter, but in their | | |profusion they almost hide | | |the branches. The colour is | | |a bright, and, among | | |Prunus, unusual shade of | | |rose. This shrub was known | | |to Loudon, and was | | |recommended by him. It has, | | |indeed, been in cultivation | | |for nearly one hundred | | |years, but seems to have | | |shared the fate of many | | |other lovely hardy shrubs | | |in the middle decades of | | |last century, and almost | | |passed out of cultivation. | | |It grows at elevations of | | |5000 to 6000 feet, and is | | |perfectly hardy." | | | P. pseudo-cerasus |China and Japan |...... |This is a glorious cherry, (Japanese Cherry) | | |and very popular in Japan; | | |indeed, it is one of the | | |most beautiful | | |introductions we have had | | |from that land of flowers. | | |The recent double-flowered | | |varieties should be in all | | |gardens, and given a fairly | | |moist soil and sunny | | |situation, will bloom well. | | |P. pseudo-cerasus goes | | |under several names, such | | |as Cerasus Sieboldi rubra, | | |C. Watereri, and others. It | | |is a small tree here, with | | |stout greyish branches, and | | |firm broad serrated leaves. | | |*J. H. Veitch, with | | |intense deep rose flowers, | | |is very charming, and | | |blooms from a fortnight to | | |three weeks later than the | | |type. The brownish-tinted | | |foliage is quite a feature. | | | *P. pendula |Japan |Deep pink;|A beautiful tree of (Cerasus pendula | |April and |distinct weeping habit, and rosea) | |May |raised from seed quite | | |readily, retaining its true | | |character. The flowers are | | |borne profusely, and | | |sometimes open in March. It | | |is a tree that could be | | |raised from layers. Mr. | | |Bean, writing in the | | |_Garden_ of April 13, | | |1901, says: "Prunus pendula | | |is as naturally pendulous | | |in growth as the Babylonian | | |Willow is, and it should, | | |if possible, be obtained on | | |its own roots. It is an | | |early flowering | | |kind--probably the earliest | | |of the Cherries--being in | | |bloom as a rule soon after | | |April comes in. The flowers | | |are of a lovely shade of | | |delicate rose, but are not | | |large. They are, however, | | |freely borne, especially | | |after a hot, ripening | | |Summer and Autumn. In the | | |United States it succeeds | | |even better than here, and | | |by some authorities is | | |regarded as the loveliest | | |of Japanese trees | | |introduced to that country. | | |So much cannot be said of | | |it in Britain, but it is | | |well worth cultivation for | | |its beauty and earliness." | | | *P. serrulata |Introduced from |The |This is one of the most (Cerasus serrulata)|China about 80 |flowers |ornamental of the Cherries. |years ago. Also |are in |It is naturally a small |a native of |large |tree with a rather loose |Japan |loose |habit, and is peculiar by | |heads, and|reason of its short-jointed | |are white,|stunted-looking branches. | |or white |The leaves are fairly large | |suffused |and very evenly serrated. | |more or |For lawns or shrubberies it | |less |is excellent, making a good | |deeply |companion plant to its own | |with rose,|countryman, the | |and 1 inch|large-flowered | |to 1½ inch|pseudo-Cerasus and its | |across. |European cousins, Cerasus | |End of |and Avium. In addition to | |April |being an excellent outdoor | | |tree, it may be cultivated | | |in pots for forcing for the | | |conservatory in Winter and | | |Spring. | | | *P. Mahaleb |Europe |White; |The Mahaleb is well known | |April and |for its remarkable | |May |profusion of pure white | | |blossom and its free | | |graceful habit. In the | | |variety pendula, the | | |pendent character of the | | |branches is not unduly | | |marked, but is sufficient | | |to add greatly to the | | |beauty of the tree. It is | | |not only one of the best of | | |Cherries, but of all | | |flowering trees, and is as | | |well adapted for planting | | |in groups as it is when | | |isolated as a single | | |specimen. The flowers are | | |borne on short racemes, and | | |in such abundance as to | | |envelop the tree in a | | |snow-white mantle. Every | | |garden should have at least | | |one weeping Mahaleb. | | | P. Padus (the Bird |Europe, and a |White; |A well-known tree, and Cherry) |great part of |Spring |frequently seen in |Asia | |woodlands, where its strong | | |scent is quickly detected. | | |It is a shapely tree, | | |growing 20 feet to 30 feet | | |high, and has long erect | | |branches, and in Spring | | |drooping racemes of flowers | | |6 inches or more long. The | | |fruits are small and | | |shining black in colour. | | |There are, however, many | | |poor forms, sometimes with | | |almost greenish flowers. | | |Perhaps the most valuable | | |is the double variety, | | |flore-pleno, which has very | | |long racemes and very pure | | |white. Pendula is a weeping | | |variety which will, no | | |doubt, be an acquisition, | | |but it is of too recent | | |appearance here to say much | | |about it. It is curious to | | |note that there is a | | |variety (stricta) with an | | |exactly opposite tendency, | | |branches and racemes being | | |quite erect. P. virginiana, | | |a nearly allied Bird Cherry | | |from North America, is also | | |represented by a pendulous | | |form. P. serotina and its | | |variety pendula, and the | | |other members of the Padus | | |group, are not important. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _PRUNUS SERRULATA IN FLOWER. (Spring.)_] [Illustration: _THE DOUBLE-FLOWERED BIRD CHERRY. (Prunus Padus fl. pl.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | LAUROCERASUS | | | GROUP. | | | | | | P. ilicifolia |California |White |A tender evergreen with | | |holly-like leaves, but only | | |hardy in warm southern and | | |western countries. It is a | | |small bush, 6 feet to 8 | | |feet high, and has short | | |and erect flower racemes | | |and deep-green leaves. | | | P. Laurocerasus |East Europe |White |A well-known evergreen, too (Cherry Laurel) | | |freely planted in the past, | | |and so vigorous as to | | |over-run the garden in | | |course of years. The | | |varieties are more planted | | |than the type, as they are | | |handsomer. The most | | |distinct are Bertini | | |(latifolia), camelliæfolia, | | |caucasica, rotundifolia, | | |and schipkænsis; the last | | |mentioned is about the | | |hardiest. | | | *P. lusitanica |Spain and |White |A popular evergreen. There (Portugal Laurel) |Portugal | |are four | | |varieties--azorica, which | | |is very tender; coriacea; | | |myrtifolia, small narrow | | |leaves, and bears clipping | | |well. P. ilicifolia is the | | |only plant that need be | | |raised from seed. The | | |Cherry and Portugal | | |Laurels, with their | | |varieties, are usually | | |propagated by cuttings, | | |ripened wood of almost any | | |size being cut into pieces | | |8 inches or so in length, | | |and inserted nearly their | | |full length in the ground. | | |This can be done from the | | |time the wood is ripe | | |enough until the end of the | | |year. Practically every | | |cutting will root and make | | |sturdy plants in a | | |twelvemonth. The Portugal | | |Laurel is also largely | | |raised from seeds, which | | |are gathered when ripe and | | |sown immediately without | | |any preliminary cleaning. | | |If kept in sand until the | | |following spring, they | | |begin to grow before the | | |season is sufficiently | | |advanced to sow them, and | | |if dried, nearly a year is | | |lost before they germinate. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _PYRUS SINAICA._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Pyrus |Rosaceæ | |An important and beautiful | | |genus, as it includes the | | |Pears, Apples, and Quinces | | |of the hardy fruit garden, | | |and such trees as the | | |Flowering Crabs, the White | | |Beam tree, Mountain Ash, | | |and Pyrus japonica. It is | | |divided into seven | | |sections, viz., Pyrophorum, | | |which includes the true | | |pears; Malus, the Wild Crab | | |apples, parents of many | | |garden forms; Aria, of | | |which the White Beam tree | | |is a good type; Sorbus, in | | |which is found the Mountain | | |Ash; Adenorachis, which | | |only contains the North | | |American species, Cydonia, | | |the Quinces, and Mespilus, | | |with which is placed the | | |Medlar. These are found | | |practically throughout the | | |northern temperate zone, | | |under varying conditions, | | |and with one or two | | |unimportant exceptions, are | | |all hardy in this country. | | |The majority of the Pyrus | | |are trees of considerable | | |size. A few are small | | |trees, and about half a | | |dozen are low-growing and | | |dense shrubs. All are | | |deciduous, and will grow in | | |ordinary garden soil, but | | |none of them like a cold | | |and moist soil and | | |position. Ground that will | | |grow Apples and Pears well | | |will suit the Pyruses, | | |though they will thrive in | | |considerably poorer soil | | |than is recommended for | | |fruit culture. In planting, | | |the ground should be deeply | | |trenched, and the bottom | | |well broken up, any clay or | | |gravel that is encountered | | |being thrown out and | | |replaced with good soil. | | |Most of the Pyrus root | | |deeply, and if the soil is | | |not properly prepared in | | |the first place they are | | |apt to fail and get | | |cankered. Propagation is | | |done by seeds, budding, or | | |grafting, and in a few | | |cases by suckers. The best | | |ways are given with each | | |section. | | | PYROPHORUM | | | GROUP (the True | | | Pears). | | | | | | P. betulæfolia |China and Japan |White; |A small and pretty tree, 15 | |early |feet to 20 feet high, with | |Spring |leaves somewhat like those | | |of a Birch in shape, though | | |rather larger. They are on | | |long petioles, and have a | | |pleasing sound when ruffled | | |by the wind. It does not | | |flower or fruit much until | | |well established. The white | | |flowers are in dense | | |clusters and appear before | | |the leaves. | | | *P. communis (the |Europe and Asia |White; |As this is widely Wild Pear) | |Spring |distributed it varies | | |greatly. The type is more | | |interesting for its flowers | | |than for its fruit, which | | |is hard, gritty, and dry. | | |It grows 30 to 40 feet | | |high, and has long | | |spreading branches, half | | |pendulous. When the tree is | | |covered with its white | | |flowers the effect is very | | |beautiful. There are | | |several named varieties, | | |the best being flore-pleno, | | |with semi-double flowers; | | |linearis, with long, narrow | | |leaves, and pendula, | | |described by the name. | | | P. nivalis |Eastern Europe |White; |A small spreading tree | |Spring |which flowers in great | | |abundance; the fruits are | | |plentifully produced, and | | |are nearly globular in | | |shape, and of fairly good | | |flavour, but dry. The habit | | |of the tree and shape and | | |flavour of the fruit | | |suggest some of the garden | | |pears. There is a variety | | |with leaves variegated with | | |white. | | | P. sinaica |Asia Minor |White; |This is one of the few | |April |species worth growing for | | |their leaves alone, for | | |during Spring and Summer it | | |is quite silvery. Although | | |about 20 feet high in its | | |native country, it makes | | |here, as a rule, a small | | |bushy stunted tree. | | | *P. salicifolia |Levant | |A beautiful tree, about 15 (Willow-leaved | | |feet high, and delightful Pear) | | |to make groups of for the | | |sake of its long and narrow | | |silvery-white leaves. There | | |is a creeping variety of | | |it. The flowers are white, | | |and the fruits small and | | |woody, neither of much | | |account. It is the effect | | |of the foliage that we must | | |consider, which is very | | |charming when waving in the | | |wind. A good tree for | | |grouping and for small | | |gardens, and this remark | | |applies also to the weeping | | |form. The Pyrophorum group | | |will come true from seed, | | |which is the best way of | | |propagating them. If not | | |from seeds they can be | | |worked on stocks of the | | |Wild Pear, on which they do | | |fairly well, though much | | |better on their own roots. | | |There are other species in | | |this section, such as P. | | |auricularis, P. Michauxi, | | |P. parviflora, P. Pashia, | | |and P. sinensis, but the | | |above are the most | | |important. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _PYRUS SPECTABILIS ON LAWN. (Spring.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | MALUS GROUP (the | | | Apples). | | | | | | *P. baccata |Himalaya to |Rose pink;|A well-known tree, very (Siberian Crab) |Japan |May |beautiful on the lawn. It | | |grows 20 feet to 30 feet | | |high, and as much or more | | |in diameter, and the | | |flowers smother every | | |branch, followed by a | | |glorious display of | | |brilliant scarlet fruits, | | |which are esteemed by some | | |when preserved. There are | | |several varieties, of which | | |three may be mentioned, | | |Bertini, which is of rather | | |more upright growth than | | |the type, and has large | | |white flowers and scarlet | | |fruits; and Genuina, which | | |differs from the type in | | |its more open growth and | | |larger fruits. Xanthocarpa | | |has bright golden fruits. | | | *P. coronaria |Eastern United |Rose; |A beautiful and neglected (American or |States. |May and |tree, 15 feet to 20 feet Fragrant Crab) |Introduced 1724 |early June|high, with large, | | |deliciously-fragrant | | |flowers. It is worth | | |growing on this account | | |alone. The leaves are | | |dark-green and lobed, and | | |the fruits sweetly scented | | |and grass-green, not very | | |ornamental. It should | | |become more popular in | | |English gardens. The | | |variety flore-pleno has | | |large, almost double, rich | | |rose-coloured flowers. | | | *P. floribunda |Japan |Rose; |A delightful tree and | |late |happily much planted in | |Spring and|gardens. It is quite small, | |early |little more than a graceful | |Summer |bush, rarely exceeding a | | |height of 10 feet, wreathed | | |in flowers in the | | |appropriate season, the | | |buds intense crimson, but | | |opening out a paler shade, | | |and thus there is a | | |gradation from one colour | | |to the other. It should be | | |freely grouped and planted | | |in small and large gardens. | | |The fruits are yellow, and | | |about the size of a pea. | | |There are two good | | |varieties, Atrosanguinea, | | |which has flowers of much | | |deeper colour than those of | | |the type, and flore-pleno | | |or Malus Parkmanni, as it | | |is more often called. This | | |has semi-double red | | |flowers, and reddish wood | | |and leaves. | | | P. Malus (Crab |Britain; |White; |This is the Crab Apple of Apple) |Europe and Asia |late |the hedgerow, and although | |Spring |not very ornamental, three | | |varieties of it deserve | | |notice. These are | | |*coccinea, which has large | | |scarlet fruits in | | |abundance; | | |flore-albo-pleno, with | | |large semi-double, pure | | |white flowers, and | | |Neidzwetzkyanus, a very | | |handsome form with | | |purple-tinted leaves and | | |fruit. But no tree can | | |become popular with such a | | |name. We hope it will be | | |changed. Pendula is welcome | | |for its drooping growth. | | | P. prunifolia |Siberia |Rose; |This much resembles P. | |late |baccata, and has many | |Spring |varieties, one of them | | |named pendula being a | | |beautiful weeping tree. | | | P. Ringo |Japan |Late |A small tree about 20 feet | |Spring |high, with rather long | | |spreading branches, and | | |large flower trusses | | |followed by bright yellow | | |fruits. These are sometimes | | |borne so abundantly that | | |the branches get weighed | | |down. | | | *P. Schiedeckeri |Supposed hybrid |Soft rose;|This hybrid has for its |(P. spectabilis,|May |near allies such popular |*P. Toringo) | |and beautiful plants as | | |Pyrus floribunda, P. | | |spectabilis, P. baccata | | |(Siberian Crab), &c.; yet | | |it is not inferior in | | |beauty to any of them. It | | |is only in recent years | | |that it has been in | | |commerce. It has not, of | | |course, reached its full | | |size yet in this country, | | |but it is evidently going | | |to be a small tree. It is | | |nearly related to P. | | |floribunda, but gives every | | |indication of possessing a | | |more tree-like character, | | |its branches being sturdier | | |and more erect in growth. | | |But it is for its wealth of | | |blossom that it is chiefly | | |remarkable. Even among such | | |profuse-flowering things as | | |those of its allies | | |mentioned above, it is | | |noteworthy for its | | |qualities in that respect. | | |During May, its flowering | | |season, clean branches 3 | | |feet and even 4 feet long | | |can be cut, which are | | |wreathed from end to end | | |with blossom. The flowers | | |are semi-double and come in | | |the usual Apple-like | | |clusters; each flower is | | |about 1½ inches across. | | | *P. spectabilis |China and Japan |Pink; |A beautiful and fairly well (Chinese Crab) | |Spring |known tree, 20 feet to 30 | | |feet high, with large | | |semi-double flowers of much | | |charm; the fruits are | | |bright red. Every garden | | |should possess a group of | | |it, and at least a single | | |specimen standing out by | | |itself, unfettered by trees | | |or shrubs near. There are | | |three varieties of note: | | |flore-pleno-albo, with | | |white flowers; flore-pleno; | | |and Kaido, which is a very | | |charming tree, upright in | | |growth, and with rose-pink | | |flowers and yellowish-red | | |fruits. These trees of the | | |Malus section are usually | | |propagated by being budded | | |or grafted on stocks of the | | |Common Crab. If any of them | | |are growing singly away | | |from other species, then | | |seeds from them will come | | |true to name, but where | | |various species are growing | | |together they become | | |crossed when in flower, and | | |the seedlings result in a | | |variety of hybrids, few or | | |none of which are of any | | |value. But as all of them | | |succeed very well when | | |worked on Stocks of the | | |Common Crab, this is | | |probably the better way to | | |propagate them. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _THE SIBERIAN CRAB (Pyrus Malus baccata) SHOWING ITS BEAUTY ON LAWN._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | ARIA GROUP (White |...... |...... |A very distinct group. Beam trees) | | | | | | P. Aria (Common |North Temperate |White |A well-known tree, White Beam tree) |Zone | |frequently seen in chalky | | |districts. It is a large | | |tree, 40 to 50 feet high, | | |and has oval leaves, which | | |are silvery white on the | | |under surface. The white | | |flowers are borne in large | | |clusters, followed by oval | | |red or scarlet coloured | | |fruits. There are several | | |varieties. Lutescens is | | |very handsome, with its | | |broad and silvery leaves; | | |chrysophylla has leaves of | | |quite a golden hue; græca | | |is a handsome form found in | | |Greece, it is much later in | | |flowering and fruiting than | | |any of the others; | | |salicifolia has striking | | |leaves, quite silvery white | | |underneath. | | | P. decaisneana |Origin unknown; |...... |A handsome vigorous tree, |presumably a | |with oval leaves, 6 inches |hybrid | |long by 2 to 3 inches | | |broad, silvery beneath. The | | |pinkish flowers are on | | |large dense corymbs, | | |followed by bright scarlet | | |fruits. A tree well worth | | |growing. | | | *P. lanata |Himalaya |White |This is better known under | | |its garden name of Sorbus | | |majestica, and is perhaps | | |the most beautiful of this | | |section of Pyrus. It is an | | |upright-growing tree, 30 | | |feet to 40 feet high, with | | |large serrated leaves, | | |covered beneath with a | | |dense silvery tomentum. The | | |flowers are succeeded by | | |corymbs of intense scarlet | | |fruit. P. pinnatifida is | | |also of note for its | | |silvery leaves. | | | P. vestita |Northern India |White |Thoroughly hardy in this | | |country, and a handsome | | |tree, met with commonly | | |under the names of P. | | |Thomsoni and Sorbus | | |magnifica. It has large | | |oval silvery leaves, and is | | |worth growing for this | | |reason alone. The white | | |flowers and scarlet fruit | | |are an additional charm. | | |The above are all best | | |propagated from seeds, | | |which are freely produced, | | |and come true to name, with | | |the exceptions of P. alpina | | |and P. decaisneana, which, | | |being hybrids, cannot be | | |depended on. These two, and | | |the varieties of P. Aria, | | |are best worked on stocks | | |of P. Aria, on which they | | |succeed very well as a | | |rule, care being taken to | | |choose clean, vigorous | | |stocks with straight stems. | | | SORBUS GROUP. | | | | | | P. americana |North America |White |This is the American | | |Mountain Ash, and is not a | | |great success in this | | |country. It is of smaller | | |growth than our Mountain | | |Ash, and has pinnate leaves | | |and clusters of red fruit, | | |which, like those of most | | |of the Pyruses, are much | | |liked by birds. There are | | |several varieties. | | | *P. Aucuparia |Native |White; |This adds a brilliant note (Mountain Ash or | |Spring |of colour to the garden Rowan tree) | | |landscape in Autumn, and is | | |the glory of many a Scotch | | |and Welsh ravine. In the | | |north the berries are very | | |rich. There are many | | |varieties; the best are | | |asplenifolia, a very | | |handsome tree, with finer | | |leaves and more deeply | | |serrated leaflets than | | |those of the type; dulcis, | | |a handsome, vigorous | | |variety, with bold foliage | | |and larger fruits than | | |those of any of the other | | |Mountain Ashes. Fastigiata | | |has somewhat the habit of | | |the Lombardy Poplar; fructu | | |luteo has bright yellow or | | |orange fruits, which are | | |freely borne and very | | |showy; pendula is a weeping | | |form with branches that | | |sweep the ground. | | | P. lanuginosa |Eastern Europe |Dull white|This is a showy tree, 30 | | |feet to 40 feet high, with | | |pinnate leaves, woolly on | | |both surfaces. The fruits | | |are red. | | | *P. sorbus |Native |White |This is more commonly known (Service tree) | | |under the names of P. | | |domestica or Sorbus | | |domestica, and is like the | | |Mountain Ash in leaf, | | |though more spreading in | | |growth. The flowers are | | |succeeded by green fruits | | |about the same size as | | |those of a Crab Apple. | | |There are two forms, viz., | | |maliformis, with | | |apple-shaped fruits, and | | |pyriformis, with fruits | | |shaped like those of a | | |pear. | | | P. thianschanica |Eastern Asia |White |This is a comparatively new | | |introduction, but a | | |valuable tree. It has | | |reddish-coloured shining | | |wood and pinnate glossy | | |leaves, with pointed and | | |serrated leaflets. The | | |fruits are small and | | |scarlet. The above can, and | | |should, be propagated from | | |seeds, which germinate | | |readily, and the seedlings | | |soon form strong plants. | | |The varieties of the | | |Mountain Ash should be | | |worked on that species, | | |and, if absolutely | | |necessary, most of the | | |other species can be | | |increased in the same | | |manner and on the same | | |stock. We have seen P. | | |lanuginosa worked on a | | |Hawthorn stock, on which it | | |succeeded very well, but | | |should not recommend the | | |Hawthorn as a stock for any | | |of the Pyruses. | | | ADENORACHIS | | |Not a very important group, GROUP. | | |containing two species, P. | | |arbutifolia and P. nigra. | | |Both are easily raised from | | |seeds, but the quicker way | | |is to detach suckers. | | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | CYDONIA | | | (the Quinces) | | | | | | P. cathayensis |China |Rosy red; |Best on a wall as at Kew. | |late |Bolder in growth than P. | |Spring, |japonica, but not so hardy. | |early |Very handsome on a wall. | |Summer | | | | *P. Cydonia (Syn. |Unknown |Flesh |The Quince is for the Cydonia vulgaris) | | |garden orchard. "How seldom | | |does one see Quinces | | |planted for ornament, and | | |yet there is hardly any | | |small tree that better | | |deserves such treatment. | | |Some Quinces planted about | | |eight years ago are now | | |perfect pictures; their | | |lissome branches, borne | | |down with the load of great | | |deep-yellow fruit, and | | |their leaves turning to a | | |colour almost as rich and | | |glowing. The old English | | |rather round-fruited kind | | |with the smooth skin is the | | |best both for flavour and | | |beauty--a mature tree | | |without leaves in winter, | | |has a remarkably graceful, | | |arching, almost weeping | | |growth. The other kind is | | |of a rather more rigid | | |form, and though its | | |woolly-coated, pear-shaped | | |fruits are larger and | | |strikingly handsome, the | | |whole tree has a coarse | | |look, and just lacks the | | |attractive grace of the | | |other. They will do fairly | | |well almost anywhere, | | |though they prefer a rich | | |loamy soil, and a cool, | | |damp, or even swampy | | |place."--_Wood and Garden_, | | |p. 128. | | | *P. japonica |China and Japan |Scarlet; |A beautiful shrub, one of | |April, |the most valuable | |earlier in|introductions that we have | |some |ever had from China and | |gardens |Japan. It is the "japonica" | | |of many a cottage and | | |villa wall, and in | | |sheltered warm gardens | | |begins to bloom before | | |winter has gone, a bright, | | |cheery, and welcome shrub | | |indeed in border or on | | |wall. It is so well known | | |that a description is | | |almost needless, but there | | |are several varieties, with | | |considerable range of | | |colour, from white to | | |scarlet. We give the six | | |from the Kew list: | | |candicans, white; | | |luteo-viridis, yellow; | | |Moerloesi, crimson; | | |nivalis, white; sulphurea | | |perfecta and versicolor | | |lutescens, both yellowish. | | |All the varieties are good, | | |especially Knap-Hill | | |scarlet, which is a | | |brilliant scarlet, | | |delightful in a group; it | | |is a most valuable shrub. | | |Sinica has very showy deep | | |red flowers. | | | *P. Maulei |Japan |Orange |A charming shrub, dwarfer | |scarlet; |than P. japonica; the | |May |fruits are yellow, and have | | |a pleasant aromatic odour, | | |and, like those of P. | | |japonica, make an excellent | | |preserve. Superba is a | | |variety or rather reputed | | |hybrid between P. Maulei | | |and P. japonica, and has | | |deep scarlet flowers. | | | | | |The Quince can be | | |propagated by seeds, by | | |cuttings, or by layers. | | |Cuttings of well-ripened | | |wood about 9 inches long | | |should be taken in autumn | | |and inserted 6 inches in | | |the ground, when they soon | | |form roots and make sturdy | | |plants. P. japonica and P. | | |Maulei can be increased by | | |seeds, by suckers, or by | | |root-cuttings. Suckers are | | |freely produced by old | | |plants, and can easily be | | |detached, so that this | | |method is the easiest means | | |of propagating them. | | | MESPILUS GROUP. | | | | | | *P. germanica |Europe and Asia |Pure |A small tree for the (the Medlar) (Syn. | |white; |garden, orchard, or Mespilus vulgaris) | |early |woodland. It is handsome in | |Summer |leaf and growth, a dense | | |spreading tree, with fruits | | |of acceptable flavour when | | |eaten at the right stage. | | | *P. lobata (M. |Unknown; |White |A very handsome but Smithi; M. |probably a | |neglected tree, about 20 grandiflora) |hybrid | |feet high, with dark-green | | |leaves and snow-white | | |flowers, rather smaller | | |than those of the common | | |Medlar; it has small | | |pear-shaped reddish fruits, | | |and is a good lawn tree. | | | | | |These trees are best | | |propagated by grafting or | | |budding on the Pear or | | |Quince stocks, on which | | |they do well. The Medlar | | |can also be increased by | | |seed. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _PYRUS (Mespilus) LOBATA._] [Illustration: _RHODODENDRONS ARBOREUM HYBRID. (Outdoors, Kew.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | RHODODENDRON | | | SPECIES. | | | | | | Rhododendron |Himalaya; |Bell- |This is a famous Himalayan arboreum |Ericaceæ |shaped, |Rhododendron, a tree | |various |attaining a height of 40 | |colours-- |feet in its native country. | |blood-red,|It has bold, thick foliage, | |white, |green above but quite | |rose, and,|silvery beneath, and the | |as a rule,|bell-shaped flowers vary in | |spotted |colour. There are several | | |varieties, such as album, | | |cinnamomeum, kingianum, | | |Nilagiricum, puniceum, and | | |others, but difference in | | |flower colouring is the | | |chief reason for | | |distinctive names. Not | | |hardy except in a few very | | |favoured spots, chiefly | | |Cornwall and south-west | | |generally. Must be grown | | |under glass, and requires | | |a big house. Many beautiful | | |trees in the Temperate | | |House at Kew. | | | R. barbatum |Sikkim |Bell- |This is a tree 40 feet to | |shaped, |60 feet high in its native | |blood-red,|country. It is hardier than | |1½ inches |R. arboreum. | |across | | | | R. californicum |California |Rose- |This is a strong-growing | |purple, |Californian species, the | |upper |leaves dark-green; fairly | |petal |hardy. | |spotted | | |with | | |greenish | | |yellow; | | |broadly | | |campanu- | | |late, | | |almost | | |without a | | |tube. Good| | |sized | | |umbels; | | |June | | | | R. campanulatum |Himalaya |Lilac, |This is a beautiful | |with |species, about 4 feet high. | |purplish |We have seen it in several | |spots; |Surrey gardens, but it | |June. |requires shelter. It is not | |Leaves |one of the hardiest. | |elliptic | | |or | | |elliptic | | |oblong, | | |blunt as | | |a rule at | | |both ends,| | |April | | | | R. campylocarpum |Himalaya |Bell- |The best hardy yellow | |shaped, |Rhododendron at present | |clear, |known is this. It is hardy | |pale |at Kew in sheltered spots, | |yellow, 2 |but succeeds better farther | |inches or |to the south. It is a shrub | |so across,|of neat compact habit, with | |in rather |leaves 2 inches to 3 inches | |loose |long, dark-green and glossy | |clusters; |above, blue-white beneath. | |May or |When full of flower it is a | |late April|singularly pretty and | | |distinct Rhododendron. It | | |varies somewhat in shade, | | |and the flowers are | | |sometimes of a pale lemon | | |tint, becoming almost white | | |with age. The late Mr. | | |Mangles, we believe, raised | | |some hybrids from this | | |species, but we know of | | |none in commerce. | | | R. catawbiense |Mountainous |Good-sized|This is a strong growing |regions of |heads of |species and one of the |Southern United |lilac or |hardiest of all |States |purplish |Rhododendrons, and has | |flowers; |played a large part in the | |late May |production of the present | |and June |race of garden | | |Rhododendrons, and is with | | |R. ponticum the best stock | | |on which to graft the | | |various varieties, and is | | |useful for covert. It is | | |hardier than R. ponticum, | | |and varieties with much of | | |the Catawbiense blood in | | |them are hardier than those | | |closely allied to other | | |species. Fastuosum fl. pl. | | |is a well known form. | | | R. caucasicum |Introduced |Rose or |This is a quite hardy |nearly a century|whitish |Rhododendron. The true |ago from high |green |species is rare in gardens, |rocks close to |spotted |but there are several |the snow-line in|flowers, |forms, and it has been used |Caucasus |in compact|to a great extent by the | |and |hybridist. It is dwarf, | |upright |spreading, little more than | |clusters |a foot high, with ovate | | |leaves with brownish | | |tomentum on the under | | |surface. It flowers late in | | |July or in August, but its | | |progeny is in beauty during | | |May and June. A hybrid, | | |which flowers at a | | |considerable earlier date | | |than the others, is | | |nobleanum; it claims R. | | |arboreum as its other | | |parent, and flowers from | | |December onwards until the | | |end of March. At Kew there | | |are several large groups in | | |the Rhododendron dell. | | | R. ciliatum |Sikkim |Flowers |This is a Rhododendron | |are white,|more adapted, except in the | |suffused |quite southern counties | |with rose;|such as Cornwall, South | |April |Wales, &c., for a cold | |outdoors |house. It is of compact and | | |bushy growth, 2 feet or 3 | | |feet or less high, but | | |varies according, of | | |course, to locality, and is | | |part responsible for a | | |number of hybrids, such as | | |præcox, Rosy Bell, and | | |Queen of Dwarfs. The | | |hybrids mentioned are all | | |hardy, but owing to their | | |early flowering often get | | |injured by frost. | | | R. cinnabarinum |Himalaya |Flowers |This is a very | |are |distinct-looking shrub, | |tubular, |about 3 feet; but only an | |with |approximate height can be | |short, |given, as it is sometimes | |spreading |more than this. The growth | |limb, |is somewhat loose, and the | |pendulous,|branches upright and | |and |slender, the leaves ovate, | |orange- |2 to 2½ inches long, and | |scarlet, |glaucous. Only moderately | |orange, or|hardy. | |red; they | | |vary | | |somewhat | | |in size, | | |but are | | |usually | | |about 2 | | |inches | | |long and | | |¾ of an | | |inch | | |across the| | |mouth, and| | |thick and | | |fleshy | | | | R. dauricum |Alpine regions |Rosy |This is quite hardy, but |of Eastern Asia |purple; |flowers so rarely that it | |January |is only seen in beauty very | | |often in a cold house. It | | |is almost deciduous, as | | |most of the leaves fall off | | |in winter. It is a bush, | | |and has been crossed with | | |R. ciliatum, the | | |well-known præcox and Rosy | | |Gem being two of the | | |hybrids. | | | R. ferrugineum |European Alps. |Flowers |This is frequently seen in (Alpine Rose) |Introduced about|small, |rock gardens, and grows |150 years ago |funnel- |about 1 foot high, forming | |shaped, |a rounded mass thickly | |and in |clothed with small green | |small |leaves, covered with minute | |upright |reddish-brown spots. When | |terminal |young the leaves are | |clusters |slightly hairy, but the | |in June; |mature foliage is almost | |bright |free from hairs. There are | |rose or |varieties, one with white | |scarlet |(albiflorum), another with | | |rosy or scarlet flowers | | |(myrtifolium), but there | | |are others. Its popular | | |name is Alpine Rose. | | | R. Fortunei |China |Fragrant, |This is one of the hardiest | |pale |of the Himalayan species, | |rose- |and, as it does not flower | |coloured |until well into May, it is | |flowers, |generally untouched by late | |with seven|frosts, which so disturb | |petals; |early-flowering species. It | |Mid-May |grows from 10 feet to 12 | | |feet high, and has large, | | |handsome oblong leaves. It | | |is the origin of a distinct | | |race. | | | R. fulgens |Eastern Himalaya|Blood-red;|There are several forms of | |April and |this Himalayan Rhododendron | |May |in gardens, the best | | |producing compact clusters | | |of medium-sized flowers of | | |the colour mentioned. The | | |leaves bear a striking | | |resemblance to those of R. | | |campanulatum in both size | | |and colour. Although hardy, | | |it is seldom seen in true | | |beauty outdoors, because of | | |its naturally | | |early-flowering season. | | | R. glaucum |Himalaya |Rose, |This is a dwarf species, | |waxy, ¾ of|with small oblong leaves, | |an inch |seldom more than 2 feet | |across, |high, and rarely seen in | |and in |cultivation, although very | |small |pretty. | |upright | | |heads; May| | | | R. hirsutum |Alps |Pale red; |In many ways this is the | |May and |counterpart of R. | |July |ferrugineum, the chief | | |difference being in the | | |intensely hairy leaves of | | |this species. The two | | |species grow side by side | | |in the Alps, and the one | | |under notice is one of the | | |few species that will grow | | |in a limy soil. It has also | | |been used by the hybridist. | | | R. Keysii |Bhotan |Flowers |A distinct, | |tubular, |upright-growing, scantily | |red and |branched species, | |yellow, |suggesting affinity to R. | |and 1½ |cinnabarina, but it is | |inches |quite distinct. It grows | |long; May |from 4 feet to 6 feet high, | | |has narrow quite distinct | | |ovate or lanceolate leaves | | |2 inches long. | | | R. lepidotum |Temperate and |Colour |The individual flower does |Alpine Himalayas|varies, |not suggest a Rhododendron, | |usually |so unlike other species | |purple and|is it in this respect. It | |yellowish;|is a low-growing plant with | |curious |small oblong leaves; it | |flattened |succeeds outdoors at Kew. | |form, and | | |about 1 | | |inch | | |across; | | |May and | | |June | | | | R. maximum (Great |North America |Rose, or |This will grow to a height American Laurel) | |whitish |of 35 feet, and has large, | |spotted |thick, elliptical, oblong | |with |leaves. It is not much | |yellow or |grown here. In the | |red |"Cyclopædia of American | | |Horticulture," it is | | |mentioned: "This is one of | | |the hardiest species, being | | |hardy as far north as | | |Quebec and Ontario.... | | |This species and the former | | |(catawbiense) are now often | | |extensively used in | | |park-planting, and taken by | | |the car-load from the | | |woods. If properly handled | | |and taken from a turfy soil | | |with a sufficient ball of | | |earth around the roots, | | |they are usually | | |successfully planted." | | |There are three varieties, | | |album, purpureum, and | | |roseum. | | | R. Metternichii |Japan; known |Rose; |This is not in general |here about 30 |about |cultivation, but is hardy. |years |2 inches |As yet no opportunity has | |across, |arisen of ascertaining to | |and in |what dimensions it will | |small |grow in this country; it | |clusters; |has thick and leathery | |March |oblong leaves, 3 to 4 | | |inches long, green above, | | |and covered underneath with | | |a thick grey or brownish | | |tomentum. | | | R. niveum |Himalaya; |Purplish; |At Kew this species lives |8 to 9 feet |April |outdoors, but is not a | | |success, and even in | | |Cornish gardens gets | | |injured in severe weather. | | |It makes a dense bush, with | | |medium-sized leaves, green | | |above, and covered with a | | |dense greyish tomentum | | |beneath. It has been in | | |cultivation about 40 years. | | | R. ponticum |This has a |Purple; |Of all the hardy |curious |about |Rhododendrons this is the |distribution, |2 inches |most largely grown and most |being found in |across; |popular; it is much used as |Portugal and not|May |an undergrowth in woods and |again until Asia| |other places. In many parts |Minor is reached| |it has become naturalised, | | |reproducing itself from | | |self-sown seeds. It has | | |been much used by the | | |hybridist, and with R. | | |caucasicum and R. | | |catawbiense has produced | | |many beautiful hybrids. It | | |will grow beneath trees, | | |and its evergreen foliage | | |is not the least of its | | |attractions. There are | | |several varieties. | | | R. punctatum |North America, |Flowers |A dwarf and evergreen |Alleghany |rose; 1 |species. R. minus is a |Mountains, from |inch |synonym. |North Carolina |across; in| |to Georgia |clusters | | |in June | | | | R. racemosum |First exhibited |Pink- |The introduction of this |by the |white; |added another type to this |introducers, |April |genus, for both in flower |Messrs. Veitch, | |and general habit it is |in 1892, and is | |distinct from other |a native of | |species. It is dwarf, with |Western China, | |small oval leaves, and |where it is | |flowers borne in axillary |found 6000 to | |and terminal clusters, and |10,000 feet | |so profusely that every |elevation | |branch is a mass of | | |blossom. It is quite hardy | | |and very welcome. There is | | |a form with deep rose | | |flowers. | | | R. Rhodora |North America |Magenta- |Not much grown, but colour (Rhodora | |purple; |probably not popular. It canadensis) | |April |makes an upright deciduous | | |shrub, 3 feet to 4 feet, | | |slender, twiggy wood, and | | |small ovate lanceolate | | |leaves. Should have moist | | |peaty soil. A failure on | | |dry and sandy ground. Does | | |not object to partial | | |shade. Easily increased by | | |seeds and layering. | | | R. Smirnowi |Caucasus |Crimson- |This has large flowers and | |purple; |leaves, and, as recorded | |3 inches |elsewhere, has founded a | |across; |distinct race. It blooms | |April and |freely when about a foot or | |May |so high. The leaves are | | |about 5 inches long, 2 | | |inches wide, and covered on | | |underside with a soft white | | |felt. | | | R. Thomsoni (see | | | page 437) | | | | | | R. yunnanense |Yunnan; first |White, |This is an erect shrub, |flowered at Kew |with |with glossy green leaves 2 |in 1899 |blood-red |to 2½ inches wide. A | |spots on |very useful shrub, and | |upper |should not be forgotten by | |petal; in |the hybridist. | |loose | | |clusters | | |in May | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _HYBRID RHODODENDRON IN DONEGAL. (A wild bit of planting.)_] [Illustration: _RHODODENDRON PRÆCOX. EDINBURGH BOTANIC GARDENS._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | R. HARDY HYBRID |Ericaceæ |...... |Very few of the species of | | |Rhododendron have not some | | |value either for out of | | |doors or under glass. | | |Rhododendrons are widely | | |distributed, species being | | |found in North America, | | |Europe, and through | | |temperate Asia as far south | | |as the Malay Peninsula, the | | |headquarters of the genus | | |being Western Asia and the | | |temperate Himalaya. | | |Rhododendrons also differ | | |greatly in size, some very | | |tall as R. arborea, which | | |is sometimes said to grow | | |to a height of 40 feet in | | |the Sikkim forests, to the | | |little alpine R. | | |Chamæcistus, which rarely | | |exceeds 6 inches high. | | |There is quite as marked | | |variation in the size of | | |the leaf, several species, | | |of which R. Falconeri may | | |be taken as a type, having | | |large and handsome leaves, | | |sometimes a foot high and 6 | | |inches wide, whilst the | | |quaint little Japanese | | |species R. serpyllifolium | | |has tiny leaves not a third | | |of an inch long and of | | |corresponding width. The | | |Rhododendron family may be | | |divided into two great | | |sections, deciduous and | | |evergreen. The evergreen | | |section consists of a large | | |number of species, either | | |quite hardy or tender, the | | |tender ones being | | |represented by such | | |beautiful flowers as R. | | |griffithianum, Edgeworthi, | | |R. Dalhousiæ, R. Nuttalli, | | |the Malayan species, &c. | | |With the exception of R. | | |ponticum true species are | | |seldom met with outdoors, | | |except in gardens where | | |collections are formed, or | | |in the south-west | | |countries. The scarcity of | | |species is doubtless due to | | |many of the hybrids being | | |much hardier, and begin to | | |flower and grow at a later | | |time of the year. Although | | |some of them will stand | | |severe frost in mid-winter | | |without injury, growth | | |beginning early in the | | |year, the young leaves and | | |shoots get considerably | | |injured by the late spring | | |frosts, and flowers when | | |open in March are also | | |destroyed or much spoilt. | | |In Cornwall, South Wales, | | |and parts of Ireland, huge | | |specimens of R. arboreum, | | |barbatum, grande, | | |Falconeri, griffithianum, | ! | |and others may be seen in | | |full vigour, but all have | | |to receive protection from | | |the north. Although these | | |species cannot be grown | | |successfully outdoors in | | |most parts of the country, | | |the hybridist knows their | | |value. Through crossing | | |them with hardier and later | | |growing and flowering | | |species many beautiful | | |hybrids have been raised. | | |Hardy evergreen hybrid | | |Rhododendrons may be | | |divided into several groups | | |according to parentage. Of | | |these groups by far the | | |most familiar is the one | | |that has originated through | | |the crossing and | | |intercrossing of the | | |Himalayan R. arboreum | | |with the American R. | | |catawbiense, the Caucasian | | |species R. caucasicum, or | | |the European and Asiatic | | |ponticum. This hybridising | | |has been progressing for | | |half a century or more, | | |and the parentage is | | |plainly seen in the | | |offspring. Thus where R. | | |arboreum asserts itself | | |most strongly we find rich | | |red flowers and leaves | | |with a silvery | | |under-surface. Where R. | | |catawbiense is most in | | |evidence the leaves are | | |large and handsome, deep | | |green, and softer to the | | |touch than R. arboreum, | | |while the clusters are | | |often of great size, the | | |flowers prettily spotted, | | |and the plants of | | |exceptionally good habit. | | |For very cold districts the | | |catawbiense hybrids are the | | |best, being hardier than | | |the others. The flowers of | | |many of the earliest of the | | |R. catawbiense hybrids are | | |of lilac or purple | | |colouring. The influence of | | |R. caucasicum is most | | |plainly shown in the rose, | | |white, and heavily spotted | | |varieties, whilst it also | | |imparts some of its sturdy | | |habit to its progeny. R. | | |ponticum shares with R. | | |catawbiense the honour of | | |producing many of the best | | |lilacs and purples, but | | |through so much | | |intercrossing it is | | |difficult to trace the | | |influence of any particular | | |species in many of the | | |newer hybrids. In this | | |group raisers are | | |fastidious, regarding the | | |shape of the inflorescence | | |as of first importance, | | |that is, a conical truss | | |of symmetrical outline, the | | |flowers on short stalks and | | |held firmly in the truss. | | |In the Rhododendron dell at | | |Kew many of these hybrids | | |are to be seen, and in a | | |number of the older ones it | | |is not difficult to trace | | |the influence of the | | |various species mentioned. | | |Some of those which show | | |much of the catawbiense | | |character are album | | |elegans, white with yellow | | |spots, delicatissimum, | | |blush, everestianum, lilac | | |with darker spots, | | |fastuosum fl. pl., double | | |lilac, and purpureum | | |elegans and purpureum | | |splendens, with | | |dark-spotted flowers. R. | | |arboreum blood is very | | |noticeable in the early | | |flowering, bright-red | | |nobleanum, the rich red | | |russellianum, and | | |russellianum superbum, the | | |white dark-spotted Baron | | |Osy, the blush or almost | | |white Blanche superb, and | | |many others, whilst R. | | |ponticum is in evidence in | | |a large number of hybrids. | | |In addition to this group | | |there are others which, | | |though not so universally | | |grown, are quite as | | |beautiful. For a number of | | |years other species besides | | |those worked on to produce | | |the last-named group | | |have been taken in hand in | | |several places, notably at | | |Tremough by Mr. Gill, and | | |all who are interested in | | |shrubs know the great work | | |accomplished by Messrs. | | |Anthony Waterer of | | |Knaphill, John Waterer & | | |Sons of Bagshot, Wm. Paul & | | |Son of Waltham Cross, | | |George Paul of Cheshunt, | | |Fisher, Son & Sibray of | | |Sheffield, Messrs. J. | | |Veitch, and in the Royal | | |Gardens, Kew. | | | R. Thomsoni |Sikkim |Blood red;|R. Thomsoni may be taken as | |June |a type of a group in which | | |it has played a great part. | | |This species is hardy even | | |near London, and farther | | |north, but flowers very | | |early, so much so that | | |frost frequently destroys | | |its beauty. It grows from | | |6 feet to 15 feet, has | | |broadly ovate leaves and | | |loose trusses of six or | | |eight waxy flowers. | | | R. Luscombei |Hybrid between |Rich rosy |This was raised by Mr. |R. Thomsoni and |red; |Luscombe about thirty years |R. Fortunei |April |ago. It is finely | | |represented in the | | |Arboretum at Kew, the | | |largest specimen being 8 | | |feet high and as much | | |through. The flowers are in | | |loose trusses, tubular, 3 | | |inches across, and very | | |waxy; a handsome hybrid. | | | R. F. |Hybrid, same |Deep rose,|This is a Kew-raised Thiselton-Dyer |cross as |with |hybrid, and very similar to |Luscombei |darker |Luscombei in growth. | |mark at | | |the base | | |of the | | |tube | | | | *R. Ascot |Raised by |Rich |This is a flower of Brilliant |Mr. Standish |scarlet; |wonderful colour and the | |mid and |whole shrub in growth, size | |late May; |of calyx, texture, and | |a |clusters reminds one | |peculiarly|strongly of R. Thomsoni. It | |brilliant |is of dwarf and bushy | |colour |growth, and flowers with | | |great freedom. | | | *R. Shilsoni |Raised by Mr. |Crimson |This beautiful hybrid |Gill, gardener | |combines the good qualities |to Mr. H. | |of both parents. It |Shilston, | |resembles R. barbatum in |Tremough, | |height and R. Thomsoni in |Penrhyn, | |foliage, and the flower |Cornwall, | |truss is compact as in the |between R. | |former parent, with the |Thomsoni | |larger, more fleshy leaves |and R. barbatum | |of the latter. It is an | | |exceptionally fine | | |Rhododendron for Cornwall, | | |but at Kew is grown in a | | |cold house, although a | | |small plant withstood the | | |winter of 1901-2 outside | | |without injury. | | | R. Harrisii |A hybrid raised |Red; |This is a hybrid of much |by Mr. Harris, |early |interest, and flowers |at one time |Spring |freely when quite small. It |gardener to Lord| |is apparently quite hardy, |Swansea; the | |but would be happier in the |parents are R. | |south than elsewhere. |Thomsoni and R. | | |arboreum | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _RHODODENDRON SAPHO IN IRISH GARDEN. (Donegal.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | GRIFFITHIANUM | | | GROUP. | | | | | | *R. Aucklandi |Himalaya |White; |The group, in which the | |May |Himalayan species | | |griffithianum, better known | | |as R. Aucklandi, is most | | |marked, is composed of a | | |number of large-flowered | | |hybrids which vary | | |considerably in size of | | |flower and colouring. It is | | |probably the finest species | | |of Rhododendron in | | |existence, and named in | | |honour of Lord Auckland, a | | |Governor-General of India, | | |by Sir Joseph Hooker. It | | |appears, however, to have | | |previously been named after | | |Griffith, the Indian | | |botanist, whose name it | | |ought now properly to bear. | | |It carries its flowers in | | |large, loose trusses, and | | |individually they are | | |frequently 6 inches across. | | |This Rhododendron, we | | |believe, ranks first in the | | |genus in regard to the size | | |of its bloom. Six or eight | | |of these are borne in a | | |truss, and they are pure | | |white when once fully | | |expanded, although pink in | | |the bud state. The handsome | | |leaves are smooth, | | |narrow-oblong, 6 inches to | | |12 inches long, and of a | | |deep lustrous green. When | | |fully grown this becomes a | | |small tree, the bark | | |peeling from the trunk in | | |large flakes. It is not, | | |unfortunately, one of the | | |Himalayan species that can | | |be grown out of doors near | | |London. In Cornwall and | | |similar places it is | | |magnificent. It only just | | |escapes being hardy, and | | |can be grown out of doors | | |in tubs for the greater | | |part of the year. Some of | | |the best specimens in the | | |country have, in fact, been | | |grown in this way. Even | | |when placed under glass | | |little or no fire-heat is | | |needed. We know plants that | | |have stood 18° of frost | | |without injury. It is | | |remarkable that this | | |Rhododendron has not been | | |used more for hybridising. | | |Most people seem to have | | |been slow in awakening to | | |its value, and although, at | | |the present time, there are | | |doubtless thousands of | | |young hybrids from it in | | |existence, it will be some | | |years before they flower. | | |There are, however, a few | | |hybrids that are hardy and | | |very beautiful. | | | *R. kewense |A hybrid between|Delicate |This was raised at Kew in |R. griffithianum|rose, |1875, but did not flower |and R. Aucklandi|passing to|until fourteen years later. | |white with|Since then it has flowered | |age; |very freely every year. It | |April and |makes a large bush 6 to 8 | |May |feet high, spreading, and | | |with leaves resembling | | |those of R. griffithianum, | | |and the flowers as regards | | |shape and size being also | | |similar, whilst they are | | |very sweetly scented. In | | |addition to the true | | |Kewense, there is a form in | | |cultivation with red | | |flowers. The bracts are | | |light red. Kewense is a | | |hybrid of charming | | |colouring--so many shades | | |of rose and deeper-tinted | | |buds. | | | *R. Manglesii |Hybrid sent out |White, the|This is a very beautiful |about 1880 by |upper |hybrid, popular, and very |Messrs. Veitch &|petal |free. Although the leaves |Sons, and the |spotted |are smaller, this |outcome of |with red |Rhododendron--named after |crossing R. |or reddish|one whose interest in the |griffithianum |brown; |race was intense--resembles |with the |April and |the Himalayan parent when |catawbiense |May |not in bloom, but the |hybrid album | |influence of the American |elegans | |parent is seen in the | | |flowers, which are about 4 | | |inches across. A | | |peculiarity of the | | |inflorescence is the long | | |truss. There are several | | |forms, that only differ | | |slightly in size or density | | |of the spotting from the | | |type. | | | *R. Pink Pearl |Raised by |Delicate |This beautiful Rhododendron |Messrs. J. |pink; |has rapidly become popular. |Waterer & Sons |May |The leaves and size of |of Bagshot | |flowers point to the | | |griffithianum influence. | | |The flower truss is very | | |large, well formed, and the | | |individual flowers 4 to 5 | | |inches across. | | | | | |No doubt new hybrids with | | |R. griffithianum influence | | |will be constantly | | |occurring, but raisers must | | |remember that hardy growth | | |is of the greatest | | |importance. R. | | |griffithianum has been much | | |used by Mr. Mangles as a | | |parent, in whose garden | | |there are many beautiful | | |hybrids, such as Liza | | |Stillman, Dulcie Daffan, | | |Manglesii var. delicatum, | | |Daphne Daffan, Mrs. | | |Mallard, and others. | | | FORTUNEI GROUP. | | | | | | R. Fortunei |China |White with|This species, when not in | |deep pink |flower, bears a strong | |suffusion,|likeness to R. | |and very |griffithianum, but the | |fragrant; |flowers are very distinct, | |May and |about 3 inches across, and | |early June|very fragrant, whilst each | | |one has seven petals. The | | |hybrids are of good habit, | | |flower with great freedom, | | |are very fragrant, and each | | |bloom frequently has six | | |petals, whilst the stamens | | |are often imperfect. The | | |group displays a wide range | | |of colouring, pink and deep | | |rose predominating, but a | | |few are red, and many are | | |prettily spotted or | | |blotched with red or | | |chocolate. We hope this | | |group will be better known, | | |as many of the hybrids are | | |very charming, a few having | | |names; thus those raised at | | |Kew were named respectively | | |Mrs. Thiselton-Dyer and | | |George Thiselton-Dyer. They | | |bloom profusely, the | | |flowers being very deep | | |rose with dust-brownish | | |blotches at the base; the | | |chief difference is that | | |the flowers of the former | | |are paler than those of the | | |latter. An interesting | | |hybrid raised at Kew by | | |crossing R. Fortunei with | | |the variety Meteor has | | |flowered well for the last | | |four years. The cross was | | |made in 1893, and the | | |plants flowered when only a | | |few inches high. Several | | |plants have now grown to a | | |height of 2½ feet. The | | |flowers are in compact, | | |rounded trusses, and appear | | |in May; they are delicate | | |pink, and fragrant. The | | |great peculiarity of the | | |hybrid is that no plant has | | |perfect stamens, some being | | |full size but barren, | | |others reduced to mere | | |specks, and occasionally | | |they are quite absent. | | | R. Smirnowi |Native of |Bright |This is a handsome species, |Caucasus. |rosy- |of compact growth, and 3 |Flowered for the|lilac; |feet to 6 feet high, with |first time in |April and |large, deep-green leaves, |England at Kew |May |covered on the underside |in 1893 | |with quite a dense, | | |whitish, wool-like | | |substance. The flowers are | | |from 2½ inches to 3 | | |inches across, and in | | |shapely trusses. Both at | | |Kew and in the nursery of | | |Mr. George Paul many | | |hybrids have been raised. | | |The first raised at Kew | | |resulted from crossing the | | |species with the | | |scarlet-flowered garden | | |hybrid Johnsoni in 1893. It | | |flowered when four years | | |old, and was of dwarf | | |growth, with rosy-red | | |flower. Of numerous other | | |hybrids raised since then | | |three resulted from | | |crosses made in May 1896; | | |they flowered in May 1902, | | |and are so far the best. | | |One of these was raised by | | |crossing with the variety | | |purpureum splendens; this | | |has trusses of purplish | | |flowers. Another claims R. | | |Fortunei as its male | | |parent; it has large | | |fragrant flowers with five | | |or six petals, pink, and | | |arranged in shapely | | |trusses. In the third case | | |kewense was selected as the | | |male, and this is the | | |prettiest of the three; the | | |flowers are on long stalks, | | |droop, and have daintily | | |fringed petals; they are | | |fragrant, rose colour, | | |mottled with dark spots in | | |the throat. The somewhat | | |drooping character of the | | |flowers is not an | | |advantage. | | | R. azaleoides |Cross between R.|White, |This grows about 3½ feet |(Azalea) |lilac- |high, and, as the parentage |viscosum and |tinted |shows, is a cross between |R. maximum |flowers; |the evergreen and deciduous | |June |sections. It has been known | | |under the names of | | |hybridum, fragrans, | | |odoratum. Quite hardy. | | | *R. Smithi aureum |This is not new,|Buff |This is a very beautiful |but rare; it is |inclining |Rhododendron, dwarf, not |supposed to have|to |very compact in growth, but |been raised by a|apricot; |when its handsome flower |nurseryman named|June |clusters are out the bush |Smith of | |is almost smothered with |Norbiton, | |bloom. At Saltwood, near |between a | |Hythe, in a Rhododendron |variety of R. | |glen Mr. Leney has several |caucasicum and a| |plants of it. A |yellow form of | |glaucous-leaved form is in |R. sinense, and | |cultivation, but the |is said to have | |flowers are not so rich in |been exhibited | |colour as those of the |at Chiswick in | |plainer leaved one. Quite |1841 | |hardy. | | | R. roseum odoratum |Hybrid between |Reddish; |Quite hardy. |the two |June | |sections. One a | | |white-flowered | | |deciduous | | |variety, and the| | |other a | | |red-flowered | | |evergreen form | | | | | R. altaclarense |Result of |Bright |A very charming, bright |crossing R. |scarlet |flowered hybrid. |catawbiense and | | |R. ponticum. | | |Flowered first | | |in 1835. Raised | | |at Highclere | | | | | *R. præcox |A hybrid between|Rose- |This hybrid is quite hardy, |R. ciliatum and |purple; |but must have a sheltered |R. dauricum |late |spot, if not grown in a | |February |cool house for the sake of | |and early |its colour, as it blooms | |March |early in Spring, and | | |therefore is apt to get | | |spoilt by frost and rain. | | |It makes a bush about 3 | | |feet high, spreading, with | | |a profusion of flowers, | | |very rich in colour, but | | |the variety rubrum is | | |darker than the type. | | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *R. (Azaleas) |...... |...... |For many years the hardy, | | |deciduous Rhododendrons | | |were known only as Azaleas, | | |and in many places the name | | |Azalea is still maintained. | | |When the two | | |sections--deciduous and | | |evergreen--are compared it | | |will be at once seen that | | |there is no real structural | | |difference between them. | | |Although in the making of | | |the two genera the number | | |of stamens was considered | | |one of the principal | | |points, it has since been | | |shown that it is a point | | |unworthy of notice, as the | | |number of stamens varies | | |considerably in both | | |deciduous and evergreen | | |species. It is doubtful | | |whether the name of Azalea | | |will disappear, but we are | | |following here the latest | | |classification, and | | |therefore place the | | |"Azalea" in its proper | | |group. About 20 species | | |have been known under the | | |name of Azalea, 3 or 4 of | | |which are evergreen, and | | |the remainder deciduous. Of | | |these about half-a-dozen | | |are really well known in | | |gardens, either by the type | | |plants, hybrids, or garden | | |forms. The majority of the | | |species belong to China and | | |Japan and North America, | | |one species being found in | | |the Caucasus. Several of | | |the North American species, | | |such as R. arborescens, | | |calendulaceum, nudiflorum, | | |&c., the Chinese and | | |Japanese species R. sinense | | |(better known as Azalea | | |mollis), and the Caucasian | | |flavum (Syn. Azalea | | |pontica), have proved | | |splendid breeders, and in | | |the hands of the hybridist | | |a wonderful assortment of | | |varieties has been | | |obtained, which for | | |delicate shades and rich | | |self-colourings are | | |unsurpassed among hardy | | |shrubs. The colours range | | |from white to pink and from | | |pink to blood-red, from | | |lemon to deep yellow and | | |orange-scarlet, with all | | |descriptions of intervening | | |shades and combinations of | | |colour. From R. | | |calendulaceum most of the | | |orange and orange-scarlet | | |and red forms have | | |originated; flavum has been | | |responsible for many of the | | |yellows and terra-cottas; | | |arborescens, occidentale, | | |and viscosum for the whites | | |and pale rose varieties, | | |also for the late flowering | | |ones; while R. nudiflorum | | |has been responsible for a | | |great number of hybrids of | | |all shades. As a rule it is | | |much easier to trace R. | | |sinense blood among hybrids | | |than that of other species, | | |the flowers in that case | | |being larger and the leaves | | |more closely resembling | | |those of the species, but | | |even in some of these | | |repeated intercrossing has | | |almost obliterated the | | |special sinense characters. | | |Many of these hybrids have | | |been raised in the | | |old-world city of Ghent, a | | |fact which has given rise | | |to the name "Ghent | | |Azaleas." In England Mr. | | |Anthony Waterer has raised | | |beautiful forms at | | |Knaphill, such as the pure | | |white Mrs. Anthony Waterer. | | |Few are named, however, | | |nowadays, this brilliant | | |group being called the | | |"Knaphill," and it is rich | | |in beautiful colours, from | | |white through yellow, | | |orange, buff, crimson, | | |scarlet, and other flaming | | |tones, which create | | |glorious pictures in the | | |garden in late Spring and | | |early Summer. The shrubs | | |should be planted in groups | | |in woodland and elsewhere | | |when the rich colouring of | | |the flowers is most | | |effective, and in Autumn | | |the foliage turns to warm | | |tints, crimson, brown, | | |purple, and other shades | | |intermingling, making the | | |bushes almost as beautiful | | |in their Autumn dress as | | |when covered with flowers | | |in Spring and early Summer. | | |Of late years these | | |Rhododendrons, especially | | |the sinense group, have | | |been much used for forcing, | | |and they are extremely | | |useful for that purpose, as | | |has been so well | | |demonstrated by the | | |brilliant groups exhibited | | |at various meetings of the | | |Royal Horticultural Society | | |by Messrs Cuthbert and | | |other firms. When planting | | |these hardy Azaleas, choose | | |a sheltered position, not | | |because they are tender, | | |but to protect the flowers | | |as much as possible from | | |cold winds and late frosts. | | |The majority of them are in | | |bloom before the time of | | |frosts has passed, and | | |sometimes the flowers get | | |destroyed wholesale. Few | | |shrubs are more suitable | | |for planting in woodland or | | |on the fringe of walks in | | |single groups, as here the | | |colours are fully brought | | |out. A peat soil or a | | |mixture of loam and peat | | |will provide quite suitable | | |material. Mr. Anthony | | |Waterer writes as follows: | | |"In a general way all | | |American plants may be said | | |to delight in and to | | |require what is called a | | |peat soil; it was at one | | |time believed they would | | |not grow in any other. | | |Experience, however, proves | | |the contrary, and it is now | | |found that Rhododendrons | | |and Azaleas, which are the | | |most important of that | | |class, as well as any other | | |of the more vigorous | | |plants, succeed in almost | | |any soil that does not | | |contain lime or chalk. In | | |many sandy loams they grow | | |with as much luxuriance as | | |they do in peat; in fact, | | |almost any loamy soil, free | | |from lime or chalk, may be | | |rendered suitable for them | | |by a liberal admixture of | | |leaf mould or any fibrous | | |material, such as parings | | |of pasture lands. When the | | |soil is poor, thoroughly | | |decayed cow dung is one of | | |the best manures for | | |Azaleas." Seed pods should | | |be picked off immediately | | |the flowers are over. | | | R. arborescens |Found by Pursh, |White, |This has fragrant flowers, (Syn. Azalea, |and described in|tinged |and grows about 9 feet in arborescens) |1816 in his |with rose,|the British Isles. |"Flora of North |the | |America." It is |stamens | |a native of the |scarlet; | |mountainous |occasion- | |regions from |ally the | |Pennsylvania to |colour is | |South Carolina |rose | |and Tennessee, | | |especially about| | |the lower | | |portions of the | | |mountains of | | |North Carolina, | | |where it is said| | |to grow along | | |the borders of | | |streams. It | | |attains a height| | |of from 15 feet | | |to 20 feet | | | | | R. calendulaceum |Alleghany |Great |It forms a large, handsome (A. calendulacea) |Forests. |range of |bush about 8 feet high, and |Introduced about|colour; |is one of the most |100 years ago |yellow, |beautiful of the species. | |red, | | |orange and| | |other | | |shades; | | |May and | | |June | | | | R. flavum (Syn. A. |Native of |Yellow, |Few Rhododendrons are pontica) |Caucasus, and |fragrant; |better known; it grows from |has been grown |early |6 feet to 8 feet, and has |for upwards of a|Summer |fairly large shining |century, viz., | |leaves. Excellent for |introduced in | |forcing. |1793 | | | | | R. indicum (A. |Widely |Various; |This is the plant regarded indica) |distributed in |early |as the "common" Azalea. It |the mountains of|Summer |has been improved |China and Japan | |considerably under | | |cultivation, and there are | | |several beautiful garden | | |forms of it. The majority | | |of these are unfortunately | | |not hardy, and a few only | | |can be planted outside with | | |safety. About ten years ago | | |Professor Sargent, of the | | |Arnold Arboretum, collected | | |seeds of this type in the | | |mountains of Japan. The | | |young plants have proved | | |fairly hardy, but flower, | | |as a rule, too early to be | | |of any great garden value. | | |The well-known Azalea | | |amoena is the hardiest of | | |the varieties; it is easily | | |recognised by its reddish | | |hose-in-hose flowers. | | |Balsaminæflorum is dwarf, | | |and suitable for the rock | | |garden; it has pretty, | | |double, rose-like salmon | | |flowers. In many southern | | |gardens R. indicum is | | |hardy; we have seen borders | | |of it in Mr. Leney's garden | | |near Saltwood, Hythe, and | | |of course in Devonshire and | | |Cornwall. | | | R. ledifolium (A. |China and Japan |Pure |This reminds one of the old ledifolia) | |white; |white A. indica of gardens, | |March |but the leaves are more | | |hairy, and it is hardier. | | |It is like the preceding, | | |and evergreen. It grows | | |well out of doors in the | | |Royal Gardens, Kew. | | | R. nudiflorum (A. |From Canada to |Pinkish as|An extremely useful shrub, nudiflora) |Florida and |a rule; |and has been of |Texas. On side |April and |considerable service to the |of hills. |May |hybridist. It grows about 6 |Introduced in | |feet high, and makes a |1734 | |wide-spreading bush. It | | |bears pinkish-coloured | | |flowers, though many hues | | |are to be found among its | | |many forms. | | | R. occidentale (A. |California |White; |This species flowers later occidentalis) | |late June |than most of the others, | | |and, through using it as a | | |parent, hybrids have been | | |produced between it and the | | |earlier flowering species, | | |thus the flowering period | | |is prolonged. It makes a | | |good-sized bush, and blooms | | |freely; the flowers are | | |fragrant; the leaves are | | |very glossy. | | | R. rhombicum (A. |Japan |Rose- |This is easily rhombica) | |lilac; |distinguished from other | |April |Rhododendrons by its | | |rhomboid leaves and large | | |flowers. In the seedling | | |stage it is somewhat | | |tender, and until several | | |years old its growth is not | | |satisfactory. | | | A. Vaseyi |Mountains of |White |Of the lesser known species |North Carolina |suffused |this is one of the most | |pink; |beautiful, and should be in | |April |every collection. It makes | | |a small bush here, though | | |in its native country it | | |grows more than 15 feet | | |high, and is quite hardy in | | |the Thames Valley. Album is | | |a white variety. | | | R. viscosum (A. |North America. |White and |This does not usually viscosa) |In shady woods |sometimes |flower until most of the |and swamps. |pink; July|others are over. It is |Introduced in | |readily recognised by its |1734 | |viscid leaves. | | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Rhodotypos |China and Japan;|White; |A very pretty shrub, 4 to 6 kerrioides |Rosaceæ |May and |feet high, and bearing some (White-flowered | |June |resemblance to the popular Kerria) | | |Kerria japonica, hence it | | |is often called the | | |white-flowered Kerria, | | |though it is really quite | | |distinct. The white flowers | | |are very much like those of | | |a single Rose. | | | Ribes alpinum |Northern |Greenish |A beautiful group of (Alpine currant) |Hemisphere; | |flowering shrubs. R. |Saxifrageæ | |alpinum is a dwarf bush 3 | | |feet high, and has a | | |golden-leaved form, which | | |in the Spring is one of the | | |prettiest of shrubs with | | |this leaf colouring. | | | R. americanum |North America |Greenish |Has little claim to beauty, | | |except the vivid autumn | | |tints of the decaying | | |foliage. | | | *R. aureum | North America |Yellow; |A shrub 4 to 6 feet high, (Missouri Currant) | |early May |with drooping clusters of | | |golden-yellow blossoms. It | | |forms a good companion to | | |the flowering Currant, | | |Ribes sanguineum. | | | *R. gordonianum |Garden hybrid |Yellow and|A hybrid between the | |red |species immediately | | |preceding and the flowering | | |Currant; it is in all | | |respects about intermediate | | |between the two. | | | R. multiflorum |Carpathian |Yellowish |Grows 5 to 6 feet high, and |Mountains |green |is remarkable for the long, | | |pendulous and graceful | | |racemes of small yellowish | | |blossoms. | | | *R. sanguineum |Western North |Bright |A shrub 5 to 6 feet high, (Flowering Currant)|America |rosy red; |with bright-coloured | |April |flowers. A deservedly | | |popular shrub of easy | | |culture. There are numerous | | |varieties, all beautiful, | | |viz.: album, nearly white; | | |atrosanguineum, very deep | | |coloured; flore-pleno, | | |with double flowers the | | |last of all to bloom; | | |glutinosum, pale rose; | | |malvaceum, dense clusters | | |of rosy-lilac flowers. | | | *R. speciosum |California |Deep |Shrub 6 to 8 feet, stems (Fuchsia-flowered | |scarlet; |spiny, flowers very Gooseberry), (Syn. | |April and |beautiful. A delightful R. fuchsioides) | |May |wall plant, though quite | | |hardy in south of England. | | | *Robinia hispida |South United |Purplish |From a flowering point of (Rose Acacia), |States; |rose; June|view this is the finest of (Syn. Robinia |Leguminosæ | |all the Robinias. Though rosea) | | |usually a small standard | | |grafted on the common False | | |Acacia, this is naturally a | | |rambling shrub some 6 feet | | |in height, with | | |wide-spreading branches | | |clothed with dark-green | | |pinnate leaves, and about | | |June the pendulous racemes | | |of large snowy blossoms are | | |at their best. In this | | |species the stiff hairs | | |that clothe the young | | |shoots and flower stalks | | |are very noticeable, but | | |there is a variety | | |(inermis) in which they are | | |entirely absent. | | | *R. neo-mexicana |Colorado and New|Rose |A small tree related to the |Mexico | |common False Acacia, but it | | |differs from that | | |well-known tree; the chief | | |differences are--the | | |glaucous green of its | | |prettily divided leaves, | | |the bright rose tint of its | | |flowers, and the hairy | | |flower stalks and seed | | |pods. A beautiful | | |autumn-flowering tree. | | | *R. Pseudacacia |North America |White; |One of the handsomest of (Common Locust | |late May |all hardy trees; the or False Acacia) | |and June |elegant pinnate foliage | | |retained in all its | | |freshness throughout the | | |entire Summer, however hot | | |and dry, renders it a | | |delightful object during | | |the whole of that time, and | | |its beauty is considerably | | |increased when the racemes | | |of white flowers are fully | | |open. In Winter, when bare, | | |the deeply fissured bark, | | |and its somewhat rugged | | |aspect, are picturesque. | | |There are many distinct | | |varieties, chief among them | | |being--aurea, in which the | | |leaves are tinged with | | |yellow; bella rosea, a | | |smaller tree with | | |rose-coloured flowers; | | |bessoniana, a round-headed | | |thornless form; | | |decaisneana, with pretty | | |rose-tinted blossoms; | | |fastigiata, as upright as a | | |Lombardy Poplar; inermis | | |(Syn. umbraculifera), a | | |mop-headed small tree; | | |pendula, of weeping growth; | | |and semperflorens, which | | |continues to flower | | |throughout the growing | | |season. | | | R. viscosa (Clammy |North America |Pale rose;|A small tree, easily known Locust Tree), | |June and |by the sticky glands that Syn. R. glutinosa | |July |cover the new wood and | | |leaf stalks. The leaves are | | |larger than those of the | | |others. | | | *Romneya Coulteri |California |White, |Few flowers are more (Californian |(Papaveraceæ) |with |beautiful than those of the Poppy) | |golden |Californian Poppy. The | |stamens; |flowers are so simple in | |Summer |form and delicate in | | |substance. At first sight | | |they remind one of the | | |finest white crêpe, and | | |flutter in the slightest | | |breeze, their purity | | |enhanced by the great | | |golden boss of stamens from | | |which they radiate. Many of | | |the flowers are six inches | | |and more in diameter, and | | |when a dozen or more are | | |open at one time, form a | | |beautiful picture, whilst | | |the fragrance is delicate. | | |The plant, although | | |flourishing in the | | |south-west of England, is | | |not absolutely safe there; | | |several specimens were | | |killed by the severe frost | | |of a few winters ago. A | | |certain amount of | | |protection is desirable, | | |but undue coddling often | | |leads to the plant rotting | | |to the root stock and so | | |perishing. The Romneya is | | |very impatient of root | | |disturbance. When once | | |established in the open | | |ground, however, it grows | | |strongly. The seeds take a | | |long while to germinate. | | |The plants may also be | | |raised from root cuttings | | |and layers. When growing in | | |the rock-garden it often | | |sends out shoots at some | | |distance from the parent | | |stem. Probably the best | | |site for Romneya Coulteri | | |is a sheltered one backed | | |by a wall. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _CALIFORNIA POPPY. (Romneya Coulteri.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Rubus bambusarum |Rosaceæ |The |Henbane. Introduced by | |flowers |Messrs. Veitch from China, | |give place|the trailing branches 10 | |to a black|ft. to 12 ft. | |edible | | |fruit | | | | *R. biflorus |Himalaya; |White |This Bramble forms an (White-stemmed |Rosaceæ | |upright freely-branded Bramble) | | |specimen, 10 ft. high, and | | |has whitened stems, which, | | |especially in winter, are | | |very conspicuous. | | | *R. deliciosus |Rocky Mountains |White |A Currant-like, bushy (Rocky Mountain | | |shrub, with large white Bramble) | | |flowers (like single Roses) | | |in great profusion. It is | | |one of the finest flowering | | |shrubs we have. | | | R. flagelliformis |Central China |White |Introduced by Messrs. | | |Veitch. The flowers are on | | |growths 6 ft. to 8 ft. in | | |length. Partly evergreen. A | | |useful climber. | | | *R. fruticosus |Garden form |Pink; late|A double pink form of our flore-pleno (Double| |Summer |common Bramble, and of a Pink Bramble), | | |loose rambling nature, soon Syn. R. | | |forming a tangled mass. bellidifolius. | | | | | | R. innominatus |Hupeh; |Interest- |Introduced by Messrs. |Central China |ing for |Veitch, and is a great | |its stems |addition to dessert fruits. | |covered | | |with a | | |soft | | |pubescence| | |and large | | |orange | | |scarlet | | |fruits, | | |which are | | |edible | | | | R. laciniatus |Garden origin |White |A strong-growing Bramble (Cut-leaved | | |with elegantly cut leaves. Bramble) | | |It is essentially a plant | | |for the wild garden, while | | |the fruits are particularly | | |good. | | | R. nutkanus |North America |White |A free upright species that (Nootka Sound | | |pushes up annual shoots Raspberry) | | |like the Raspberry, while | | |the lobed leaves are | | |decidedly ornamental. The | | |large white blossoms are | | |borne in May and June. | | | R. odoratus |North America |Rosy |Somewhat like the last, but (Purple-flowered | |purple |with rosy-purple blossoms Raspberry) | | |that are rather later in | | |expanding than those of R. | | |nutkanus. It thrives best | | |in partial shade. | | | *R. phoenicolasius |Japan |Whitish |A strong-growing (Japanese Wine | | |Raspberry-like plant, Berry) | | |densely clothed with hairs. | | |It is principally | | |grown for its fruits, that | | |are, when ripe, of a bright | | |red tint, and appreciated | | |by many. But this is a | | |picturesque spreading shrub | | |worth growing for its | | |colouring and rambling | | |growth alone. It is a good | | |bank shrub, or to spread | | |about over the rougher | | |parts of the rock garden. | | | R. spectabilis |North America |Purple; |A shrub so aggressive that (Salmon Berry) | |early May |it must go into the wild | | |garden. It forms a dense | | |tuft 6 feet high, and when | | |laden with its drooping | | |purple flowers is decidedly | | |ornamental. | | | R. thyrsoideus |Garden form |White |A semi-double flore-pleno | | |white-flowered Bramble, (Double White | | |less effective, however, Bramble) | | |than the double pink. | | | Sophora japonica |China; |Creamy |Excluding the plants |Leguminosæ |white |formerly known as | |panicles, |Edwardsia, now included in | |which |Sophora, this is the only | |show up |well-known member of the | |against |genus, and it is the only | |the |one of our large-growing | |dark-green|hardy trees that flowers | |foliage |in autumn. Regarded only | | |from a foliage point of | | |view, it forms a very | | |handsome specimen, the | | |elegant pinnate leaves | | |retaining their deep green | | |tint long after most trees | | |acquire their autumnal hue. | | |Like many other Leguminosæ, | | |the deep descending nature | | |of its roots enables it | | |to resist a long period of | | |drought during the summer | | |months better than most | | |trees. It is very quick in | | |growth, and is therefore | | |valuable where rapid | | |results are desired. The | | |Sophora has been grown in | | |this country for the last | | |century and a half, and | | |though in its early days | | |considered to be rather | | |tender, it has long proved | | |to be thoroughly hardy. | | |Varieties are not numerous, | | |there being one, variegata, | | |which is but a poor thing, | | |while another, pendula, is | | |one of the most striking of | | |weeping trees. In winter | | |the bright-green bark of | | |this is a very noticeable | | |feature. | | | Spartium junceum |Europe; |Golden |Owing to the (Spanish Broom) |Leguminosæ |yellow |deeply-descending nature of | | |their roots, many of the | | |Leguminosæ resist drought | | |better than the majority of | | |shrubs. A case in point is | | |furnished by the Spanish | | |Broom, which in summer is | | |laden with its large | | |golden-yellow blossoms. | | |Against a dark-tinted | | |background it stands out | | |conspicuously, while seen | | |in a mass or clump it is | | |particularly striking. The | | |Spanish Broom ripens seeds | | |freely, from which young | | |plants can be readily | | |raised, but as they make | | |very few fibres and do not | | |as a rule transplant well, | | |they should be put into | | |their permanent quarters | | |while still young. The | | |leaves are very few in | | |number, their place being | | |filled as in some of its | | |allies by the young shoots, | | |which are dark green and | | |Rush-like. There is a | | |double variety, | | |flore-pleno. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _SPIRÆA CANESCENS._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Spiræa arguta |Garden origin; |White; |One of the best of the |S. multiflora |late April|shrubby Spiræas, forming a |and S. Thunbergi| |dense bush about 4 feet |(Rosaceæ) | |high, which towards the end | | |of April is profusely laden | | |with clusters of pure white | | |blossoms, despite frosts or | | |cold winds, which play | | |havoc with some of the | | |early kinds. | | | S. bella |Nepaul |Deep pink;|A free-growing species, 5 | |May and |feet high, with pretty | |June |flowers. | | | S. betulifolia |Europe |Clear |A dwarf bush, 2 feet high, (Syn. S. splendens)| |cherry- |with pretty cherry-pink | |pink; |flowers. | |midsummer | | | | S. brachybotrys |Garden origin; |Pale pink;|A bold bush, 6 feet or more (Syn. S. luxuriosa)|S. canescens and|June |in height. |S. Douglasi | | | | | S. bracteata |Japan |White; |Grows 5 or 6 feet high. | |May | | | | *S. bullata |Japan |Rosy |A dwarf species suitable (Syn. S. | |carmine; |for rockwork. crispifolia) | |July | | | | *S. canescens (Syn.|Himalaya |White; |The shoots of this are S. flagelliformis, | |June and |slender and arching so that Syn. S. nepalensis,| |July |it forms a graceful Syn. S. | | |freely-branded shrub, some rotundifolia) | | |5 to 8 feet in height. It | | |is one of the best Spiræas. | | | *S. discolor (Syn. |North-West |Creamy |A well-known shrub, far S. ariæfolia) |America |white; |better known, however, | |July |under the name of Spiræa | | |ariæfolia. It reaches a | | |height of 10 to 12 feet or | | |even more, with plume-like | | |clusters of creamy white | | |blossoms. This is a shrub | | |for the smallest garden. | | | *S. Douglasi |North America |Rosy red; |Forms a crowded cluster of | |July and |erect shoots 6 feet or so | |August |in height, with each shoot | | |terminated by a dense spike | | |of flowers. It succeeds | | |best in damp soil. | | | S. hypericifolia |Europe |White |The slender arching shoots | | |are clothed with clusters | | |of pure white flowers in | | |late May. | | | *S. japonica (Syn. |Japan |Rosy |Far better known under the S. callosa) | |carmine; |name of S. callosa than | |June and |that of japonica; it forms | |July |a shrub 5 or 6 feet high | | |with brightly coloured | | |flowers in flattened | | |clusters. There are many | | |distinct varieties, all | | |good, the best being alba, | | |a dwarf form with white | | |flowers; Bumalda, also | | |dwarf with pink blossoms; | | |Anthony Waterer, the | | |richest tinted of all dwarf | | |kinds; superba, a deep | | |tinted form of the type; | | |and glabrata, with | | |curiously broad leaves. | | |Anthony Waterer is | | |especially worth growing. | | | *S. lindleyana |Himalaya |White; |Reaches a height of 10 to | |August |12 feet, and is remarkable | | |for its handsome pinnate | | |leaves, while the large | | |feathery flower panicles | | |are very striking. | | | S. media (Syn S. |Europe |White; |Forms a dense rounded bush confusa) | |May |from 5 to 8 feet high, and | | |has clusters of pure white | | |blossoms in profusion. | | | S. opulifolia (Nine|North America |Whitish |One of the largest of all Bark of the United | | |the Spiræas, being of States), (Syn. | | |almost tree-like habit, but Neillia opulifolia)| | |the flowers are not showy. | | |There is a golden leaved | | |form (aurea) of dwarfer | | |habit than the type, which | | |is in the first half of the | | |season very pretty. | | | *S. prunifolia |Japan |White; |The flowers of this are flore-pleno | |Spring |quite double, like little | | |rosettes, and in clusters | | |along the arching shoots. | | |Early in April as a rule | | |they are very pretty. | | | S. salicifolia |Europe |Pinkish |A variable kind, more or | | |less approaching S. | | |Douglasi, but with | | |light-tinted flowers. | | | S. sorbifolia |Northern Europe |White; |A pinnate-leaved species | |July |somewhat in the way of S. | | |lindleyana, but it does not | | |grow more than half the | | |height and flowers a month | | |earlier. | | | S. Thunbergi |Japan |White; |The first of all the | |very early|Spiræas to bloom, but its | |Spring |beauty is often marred by | | |inclement weather. It forms | | |a dense mass of slender | | |twigs clothed with tiny | | |leaves. | | | S. Van Houttei |Garden form |White |A hybrid kind with pure | | |white blossoms, which are | | |as a rule more satisfactory | | |under glass than in the | | |open ground. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _FLOWERS OF SPIRÆA LINDLEYANA._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Staphylea colchica |Caucasus; |White; |A sturdy upright deciduous |Sapindaceæ |Spring |shrub, 6 to 8 feet high, | | |with drooping clusters of | | |white flowers. Though | | |decidedly ornamental it is | | |as a rule more effective | | |when flowered under glass | | |than in the open ground. | | |Needs a fairly moist loamy | | |soil. | | | *S. pinnata |Europe |Greenish |A shrub from 8 to 10 feet (European | |white; |high, which has Bladder-Nut) | |Spring |bladder-like capsules in | | |which the seeds are | | |contained. The capsules are | | |more attractive than the | | |flowers themselves. | | | S. trifolia |North America |Greenish |In the way of the last, but (American | |white; |a stronger grower, while Bladder-Nut tree) | |Spring |the leaves are pinnate. | | | Stuartia pentagyna |United States; |White; |In its native country this (Syn. |Ternstroemiaceæ |July and |attains the dimensions of a Malachodendron | |August |small tree, but in England ovatum) | | |it is from 5 to 8 feet | | |high. The flowers, somewhat | | |suggestive of those of a | | |single white Camellia, have | | |the edges of the petals | | |wavy, while the reddish | | |stamens are very | | |conspicuous. Though very | | |beautiful, this is not a | | |shrub for every garden, as | | |it needs a cool moist soil | | |with a fair proportion of | | |peat, a remark that applies | | |equally to the other | | |members of the genus. | | | *S. |Japan |White; |The finest of the Pseudo-Camellia | |with |Stuartias, bearing much | |golden |general resemblance in | |stamens; |foliage, flowers, and habit | |July and |of growth to a Camellia, | |August |hence its specific name. | | |The flowers are about 3 | | |inches in diameter. Beside | | |its other ornamental | | |qualities the leaves die | | |off in Autumn brilliantly | | |tinted with crimson and | | |gold, being in this | | |respect much superior to | | |its American relatives. | | | S. virginica (Syn. |Southern |White; |Much in the way of S. Stuartia |United States |July and |pentagyna, but forms a Malachodendron) | |August |smaller and less vigorous | | |bush, while the leaves are | | |more hairy. | | | *Styrax japonicum |China and Japan;|White; |A shrub or small tree with (Japanese Storax) |Styraceæ |Midsummer |flattened spreading | | |branchlets, thickly studded | | |on the undersides with | | |drooping pure white | | |fragrant Snowdrop-like | | |blossoms. It is a | | |delightful shrub, and best | | |in a fairly moist light | | |loam. Height 8 to 12 feet. | | |Messrs. Veitch mention that | | |it is occasionally a low | | |tree, 20 to 25 feet high, | | |and in its wild state on | | |the hillsides in central | | |Japan it flowers in May. It | | |has proved quite hardy. | | | S. Obassia |Japan |White |A very beautiful but rare | | |species, forming a more | | |sturdy bush than the last, | | |while the pure white | | |flowers are borne in | | |drooping racemes. It | | |succeeds under the same | | |conditions as the | | |preceding. | | | S. officinale |Levant |White |From 6 to 8 feet high, but | | |more delicate in | | |constitution than either of | | |those above named. It needs | | |the protection of a wall in | | |many districts. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _GROUPING OF LILACS (several varieties). THE BUSH IN THE CENTRE IS THE PERSIAN LILAC, SYRINGA PERSICA._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | Syringa (lilac) |Eastern Europe |Various |A lovely family. Mr. Bean |and Northern | |in _The Garden_, April 2, |Asia; | |1898, writes: "As now |Oleaceæ | |constituted, the genus | | |consists of two groups: | | |First, the true Lilacs, | | |represented by S. vulgaris; | | |and second, the Privet-like | | |Lilacs, of which some | | |authorities have made a | | |separate genus under the | | |name Ligustrina. The | | |species in this latter | | |group are distinguished | | |from the true Lilacs by | | |flowering later in the | | |summer, and by having large | | |panicles of smaller | | |Privet-like flowers, the | | |corolla of which is white | | |and much shorter than in | | |the other group. There are | | |three of them in | | |cultivation--S. amurensis, | | |S. japonica, S. | | |pekinensis--which, however, | | |some botanists have | | |considered to be merely | | |geographical forms of one | | |species existing in | | |Manchuria, Japan, and | | |China. The following is | | |a complete list of the | | |species in gardens, with | | |some of the commoner | | |synonyms: S. Emodi, var. | | |rosea (S. Bretschneideri), | | |S. Josikæa, S. oblata (S. | | |chinensis), S. persica, | | |var. laciniata (S. | | |filicifolia, S. pinnata), | | |S. villosa (S. pubescens), | | |S. vulgaris, S. chinensis | | |(S. dubia, S. | | |rothomagensis) hybrid. | | |_Ligustrina Group._--S. | | |amurensis (Ligustrina | | |amurensis), S. japonica | | |(Ligustrina amurensis | | |var. japonica), S. | | |pekinensis (Ligustrina | | |pekinensis)." | | | S. amurensis |Manchuria; |Creamy |A sturdy bush with stout, |discovered in |white |erect branches. The small |1857 by a | |creamy white flowers are |Russian botanist| |borne on large branching |named Raffe | |racemes. It is a native of | | |the valleys of the Ussuri | | |and Amur Rivers. One of the | | |earliest of hardy shrubs to | | |break into leaf. | | | *S. chinensis |Probably raised |May |The flowers are in panicles |in Rouen Botanic| |intermediate in size |Garden by M. | |between those of its |Varin over 100 | |parents, and are of the |years ago from | |same colour. Very |seed borne by | |free-flowering and pretty, |S. persica. | |and might be recommended as |Synonyms S. | |a substitute for the common |correlata, S. | |Lilac in positions where |dubia, S. | |the latter would be too |rothomagensis | |large. To add to the | | |confusion respecting its | | |origin, it is still called | | |in some nurserymen's | | |catalogues the Siberian | | |Lilac, Rouen Lilac, and | | |Chinese Lilac. It lasts | | |longer in flower than the | | |common Lilac. | | | *S. Emodi |Dr. Aitchison |Pale |This is altogether of (Himalayan Lilac) |found this on |purple |sturdier growth than the |the Afghan | |ordinary Lilac, with large |Mountains in | |leaves and terminal |1879, 9000 feet | |panicles of flowers. Of |to 10,000 feet | |greater ornamental value is |elevation | |the variety rosea which was | | |introduced a few years ago | | |from the mountains about | | |Pekin by Dr. Bretschneider, | | |and in gardens (French | | |chiefly) it is known as | | |Syringa Bretschneideri. It | | |is more robust than the | | |type, and bears large | | |panicles of rosy-tinted | | |flowers in June or later. | | |There is a | | |variegated-leaved variety | | |of S. Emodi, which is | | |handsome when vigorously | | |grown. Another form with | | |more or less golden is | | |_foliis aureis_. When the | | |soil is rich the leaves | | |measure 6 inches long and 4 | | |inches wide. | | | S. japonica |Japan |White |A large growing shrub, of | | |bushy growth, and larger in | | |foliage than S. vulgaris. | | |It bears large branching | | |panicles of small white | | |flowers, reminding one of | | |those of the Privet, hence | | |the name of the group to | | |which it belongs | | |(Ligustrina). These | | |panicles in Japan and the | | |United States attain as | | |much as 18 inches and even | | |2 feet in length, but | | |whether it will grow in | | |this country in such a way | | |remains to be seen. | | | S. Josikæa |Hungarian |Lilac; |An old shrub of moderate (Hungarian Lilac) |Mountains |May |growth, but is not of great | | |value, as it happens to | | |flower when we have a | | |wealth of bloom from the | | |commoner kinds. It is, | | |however, interesting and | | |worth growing, if only for | | |the sake of the pretty | | |sentiment that attaches to | | |its origin, having been | | |found by Baroness Von | | |Josika in her wanderings | | |about the Hungarian | | |mountains in 1835. It may | | |be best described as a | | |small form of S. Emodi. It | | |was first grown in Britain | | |at Edinburgh, in the year | | |mentioned. Its height is 6 | | |feet to 10 feet, with the | | |young twigs of a purplish | | |colour; the panicles are | | |terminal, erect, and small | | |compared with those of the | | |more showy Lilacs, and | | |usually about 4 inches | | |long, rarely as much as 6 | | |inches to 9 inches. | | | S. pekinensis |Mountains of |White |One of the three |North China | |Privet-like Syringas, | | |and one of the last | | |introduced. It is the | | |Chinese representative of | | |the Ligustrina group. From | | |its two allies (S. | | |amurensis and S. japonica) | | |it is to be distinguished | | |by its long and much more | | |slender branches, which in | | |one form are distinctly | | |pendulous (var. pendula). | | | *S. persica |Found by Dr. |Deep |This old favourite is often (Persian Lilac) |Aitchison in |purplish; |confused with the Rouen |1879. |May |Lilac, but it is quite |Afghanistan. | |different, being smaller in |7000 feet to | |stature, with much smaller |8000 feet | |leaves, and with an elegant |elevation | |spreading habit of growth. | | |In the type the flower | | |clusters are nearly as | | |large as those of S. | | |chinensis, deep purple in | | |colour, varying to almost a | | |pure white in the variety | | |alba. In the variety | | |laciniata, known also as S. | | |ficifolia, pinnata, and | | |other names, the leaves | | |are cut or coarsely | | |toothed. It is a beautiful | | |little shrub, and suits | | |a place where the tall | | |growing kinds would be too | | |large. Like the common and | | |the Rouen Lilacs, it may be | | |forced into flower at | | |Christmas time, and, unlike | | |the others, its small size | | |enables it to be grown in | | |pots for room decoration. | | |The exact length of time | | |the Persian Lilac has been | | |in cultivation is not | | |known. It had long been | | |cultivated in the country | | |to which it owes its | | |name--since the year 1200, | | |say some authorities--but | | |it has never been found | | |truly wild in Persia. It | | |was not until 1879 that its | | |real native habitat was | | |revealed. | | | S. villosa (Syn. |Introduced from |Rose |This interesting species pubescens) |the Chihli |Lilac; May|first flowered in 1888. It |province of | |is very fragrant, and the |China in 1880 | |panicle is from 3 inches to | | |4 inches long. | | | *S. vulgaris |A native of |Lilac; |See below for remarks. (Common Lilac) |Eastern Europe, |May | |and although it | | |appears to have | | |been originally | | |introduced from | | |Persia about, or| | |previous to the | | |year 1597, it | | |was found to be | | |a native of | | |Southern | | |Hungary, in the | | |region of the | | |Danube | | |especially on | | |the chalky | | |precipices of | | |the Cverna | | |Valley and on | | |Mount Domoglet. | | |It is not found | | |truly indigenous| | |further west | | |than these | | |localities, and | | |it is not, as | | |has been stated,| | |a native of | | |Italy, although,| | |no doubt it has | | |become | | |neutralised | | |there and | | |elsewhere | | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- The common Lilac has been the glory of English gardens since the days of Gerard and Parkinson of the sixteenth century. From the time that Parkinson grew it in a pot, with no doubt as much care and anxiety as is bestowed nowadays on a hundred-guinea Orchid, the Lilac has, on account of its extreme hardiness and easy culture, become almost naturalised in these islands, as now we see it in copse and hedgerow, besides gardens large and small, and even in the town forecourt. To every place where the Englishman goes to make a home he likes to have about him Lilacs and Roses. As in the case of several other beautiful shrubs, the improvement of the Lilac by the raising of new varieties is of comparatively recent date. Gerard and Parkinson write of the blue Pipe and the white Pipe (the Lilac being then called the Pipe tree, on account of pipes being made from its wood), besides the ordinary lilac-coloured sort, and Loudon, writing fifty years ago, only enumerates the blue (cærulea), violet (violacea), the white (alba), and alba major, and one double called alba plena, seven in all. He just mentions, however, a fine variety, Caroli (or Charles X., as we know it), which about that time had been raised in France. This still is one of the choicest sorts, and particularly valuable for forcing into early bloom in winter. Since that time there has been great activity in raising new kinds in France, till now the list of named single sorts numbers upwards of fifty, while the doubles are almost as numerous. There are far too many named sorts, in fact, as the differences between many of them are of the slightest, so that the selection of the best from catalogues, from the mere names and brief descriptions (not always accurate) is perplexing to an amateur. To no raiser do we owe more to the improvement of the Lilac of late years than to that famous veteran French hybridist, Victor Lemoine of Nancy, who has made the genus Syringa one of his special studies, and favoured as he is by a climate suitable for the free seeding of the Lilac, he has been highly successful. There are four more or less distinct shades of colour among the sorts, viz. whites, reds, pinks, and so-called blues. A selection of a dozen single sorts would include the following, placed in order of merit: _Whites_--Marie Le Gray, Alba grandiflora. _Blue or Bluish_--Cærulea or Delphine, Duchesse de Namours, Lindleyana or Dr. Lindley. _Reds or Purple-reds_--Souvenir de L. Späth, Philemon, Rubra insignis, Mme. Kreuter, Camille de Rohan, Ville de Troyes. _Pinks_--Lovanensis, Schneelavine. This selection comprises the finest sorts, having the largest flower clusters in their respective colours, and is representative of the whole of the sorts. Of the double flowered sorts there has of recent years been a great number sent from French nurseries, and only a few of the oldest sorts have developed into large specimens, and therefore one cannot judge of their merits, as in the case of the single sorts. The best varieties include the following dozen sorts: _Lavender and Blue_--Leon Simon, Renoncule, Alphonse Lavallée (pale blue). _Pinks_--President Carnot, M. de Dombasle. _Whites_--Mme. Abel Chatenay (the finest), Mme. Lemoine, Cassimir fils. _Reds_--President Grévy, Senateur Volland, Comte H. de Choiseul, Maxime Cornu. In the Lilacs there is material for the tasteful planter of gardens, yet how seldom does one see in ordinary gardens full advantage taken of them for producing beautiful effects! In the common way of planting they are dotted about shrubberies indiscriminately, and jumbled with trees and shrubs of a totally different character, so that the Lilacs cannot be seen to the fullest advantage. An isolated group of the choicest kinds, or even a simple hedge of the white or rich purple kinds is seldom seen, except in some old gardens, and still less seldom does one see any attempt at culture in the way of pruning and the cutting away of suckers. At Kew one may see bold examples of grouping Lilacs, as well as well-developed specimens standing alone on grass, while about London one sees in the market gardens fine hedges of Lilac planted for the twofold purpose of cutting from and providing shelter. Mr. Goldring writes in _The Garden_, "The most beautiful Lilac hedge I have seen was that I enjoyed recently at the White Farm, Crichel (an enclosure devoted to white animals), where there are glorious hedges of the pure white Lilac Marie Le Gray in abundant flower--quite appropriate to the white surroundings. The only culture the Lilacs require is occasional manuring in light, poor soils, occasional pruning so as to induce a bushy growth, as the growth is apt to become 'leggy,' and continuous attention in cutting away suckers, which are so plentiful as to rob the tops. Two or three suckers should be allowed to grow so as to keep up the supply of strong, vigorous flowering stems. Lilacs can be made to form standards by keeping the bush from the outset to one stem, and when seen rising out of a low hedge of Lilac, or a mass of the dwarf kinds, they have a pleasing effect, and is one of the various ways they can be arranged in planting." [Illustration: _STANDARD LILAC, MME. LEMOINE._] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Tamarix gallica |Northern portion|Pink; May |A charming shrub, not half (the Tamarisk) |of the Old | |enough grown, owing, in |World; | |some respects at least, to |Tamariscineæ | |a wide-spread idea that it | | |will not flourish away from | | |the sea-coast. True, it | | |luxuriates there, but it | | |may be depended upon to | | |thrive anywhere unless the | | |soil is a stiff clay, | | |chalky, or too much parched | | |up in the summer. It is | | |deciduous, but during the | | |Summer the foliage is as | | |delicate as any of the | | |Conifers, and in May, when | | |the branches are terminated | | |by the waving plume-like | | |panicles of pink blossoms, | | |it is delightful. | | |As a plant for the | | |waterside it is most | | |useful, and forms a | | |pleasing picture if a score | | |or so of plants are grouped | | |on a lawn or open stretch | | |of grass. In such a | | |situation the long | | |straggling shoots must be | | |shortened back occasionally | | |to keep the plants within | | |bounds, as growing | | |unchecked they will reach a | | |height of 10 to 15 feet. | | |There are several forms of | | |Tamarisk, by some | | |considered distinct | | |species, and by others as | | |forms of T. gallica, but a | | |good deal of confusion | | |prevails concerning them. | | |One of the best (perhaps | | |the very best Tamarisk) is | | |that known as tetrandra or | | |taurica, in which the | | |feathery plumes are of a | | |deeper pink than the type. | | |Other names that occur are | | |parviflora, chinensis, and | | |japonica, but given | | |tetrandra, as a rule no | | |other is wanted. | | | T. germanica |Europe |Pinkish |A smaller shrub than the (German Tamarisk), | | |last, more upright in (Syn. Myricaria | | |growth, and with a glaucous Germanica) | | |tinge. The pinkish flowers | | |are far less effective than | | |those of the preceding. | | | *Ulex europæus (the|Europe; |Yellow |The common Furze is known Furze, Gorse, or |Leguminosæ | |to every one, but its great Whin) | | |beauty as a flowering shrub | | |is apt to be overlooked, | | |for it luxuriates in dry, | | |sandy, and stony soils, | | |where little else will | | |grow, and its golden | | |blossoms are borne usually | | |from February to May, | | |though occasionally | | |throughout the entire | | |winter. The double-flowered | | |variety--flore-pleno--is | | |even more valuable from a | | |flowering point of view | | |than the type. Both | | |transplant badly, hence the | | |common kind is usually sown | | |where it has to remain, and | | |the double-flowered form | | |struck from cuttings in a | | |frame, and kept in pots | | |till permanently planted. | | | *U. nanus (Dwarf |Europe |Yellow |Of dwarfer and denser habit Furze) | | |than the common Furze, but | | |its most prominent feature | | |consists in the fact that | | |it often commences to | | |flower in August, and | | |continues till Christmas, | | |after which the common | | |Furze asserts itself. | | |The cultural items appended | | |to the preceding species | | |apply with equal force to | | |this. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _VIBURNUM MACROCEPHALUM._] VERONICA.--There are a vast number of Veronicas, all natives of New Zealand, and garden forms raised from them, but many can only be regarded as hardy in the extreme west of England and Ireland, whereas some of the hardiest are from their diminutive growth suitable only for rockwork. The best are-- -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Veronica |Garden Origin |Purple; |A neat evergreen shrub with Andersonii |(Scrophularineæ)|Summer |dense spikes of | |and |bluish-purple blossoms in | |Autumn |great profusion for a long | | |period. Near the sea, in | | |especially favoured spots, | | |it is delightful, while in | | |other districts it forms a | | |valuable subject for | | |greenhouse or conservatory. | | |Of the numerous other | | |garden forms belonging to | | |this section the following | | |are all good: Blue Gem, | | |light blue; Bolide, | | |reddish; Celestial, sky | | |blue, light centre; La | | |Seduisante, rich | | |reddish-purple; Marie | | |Antoinette, pink; Purple | | |Queen, rich purple; and | | |Reine des Blanches, white. | | | V. hulkeana |New Zealand |Pale |Very distinct; it has large | |lavender; |terminal panicles of pale | |May and |lavender flowers. | |June | | | | *V. Traversii |New Zealand |Pale |The hardiest of all the | |mauve; |shrubby Veronicas; it is | |June and |a dense box-like bush, with | |July |a profusion of dense spikes | | |of flowers. In the | | |neighbourhood of London | | |this is a thoroughly good | | |shrub of easy culture. | | | Viburnum |Caprifoliaceæ |...... |The Viburnum family | | |includes several beautiful | | |shrubs, and of the thirty | | |or forty species and | | |varieties in cultivation at | | |least six are | | |indispensable, _i.e._ no | | |good shrub garden is | | |without them. Most of them | | |are vigorous in growth and | | |easily propagated; they | | |like a fairly rich soil | | |and moisture at the root. | | |Several of the American | | |species grow naturally in | | |damp, more or less shady | | |woodlands. Taken | | |collectively the Viburnums | | |possess a variety of | | |attractions. Some species | | |are evergreen, and thus | | |useful Winter plants; | | |others are amongst the most | | |beautiful shrubs for their | | |flowers, others again, like | | |our native Guelder Rose (V. | | |Opulus), have showy fruits; | | |finally the foliage of | | |several of the deciduous | | |species dies off rich red | | |or yellow tints. | | | V. dentatum |North America. |White; |The American Viburnums are (Arrow-wood) |Introduced in |June and |not apparently so valuable |1763 |July |in the British Isles as in | | |their native country. Most | | |of them are handsome | | |vigorous bushes, but | | |without the same flower | | |attractions as plicatum, | | |macrocephalum, and the | | |Guelder Rose (V. Opulus | | |var. sterile). Many of | | |them, however, bear very | | |showy fruits in their own | | |country, and the leaves | | |turn to beautiful Autumn | | |tints. V. dentatum is | | |deciduous, free-growing, | | |leaves bright green, deeply | | |toothed and strongly | | |veined. The trusses are 3 | | |inches to 4 inches across, | | |the flowers white, and | | |fertile. It is one of the | | |handsomest as regards | | |flowers of the American | | |Viburnums. The dark-blue | | |fruit ripens neither | | |abundantly nor regularly | | |in England. | | | V. Lantana |Britain, also |White; |A beautiful native shrub. (Wayfaring tree) |Europe North and|May and |Its chief beauty is in the |Western Asia, |June |colour of the flowers and |and N. Africa | |the gorgeous Autumn leaf | | |tints. Groups of this are | | |pictures of colour in | | |Autumn. The fruit, at first | | |black and afterwards red, | | |soon disappears before the | | |birds. The tree grows | | |rapidly and generally | | |attains a height of about | | |12 or 15 feet; the leaves | | |are large and downy. The | | |wayfaring tree should be | | |more planted in English | | |gardens. It will grow | | |almost anywhere. There are | | |two variegated-leaved | | |varieties, but these we | | |know little about, and we | | |care more for the type than | | |any golden variegation. | | | V. macrocephalum |China and Japan.|Pure white|This must be included, but |Introduced from | |it is not very hardy. Mr. |China in 1844 by| |Bean, writing of it in _The |Fortune | |Garden_, November 17, 1900, | | |p. 361, says: "The shrub | | |known under this name is a | | |cultivated form of a | | |Chinese species, in which | | |all the flowers have, under | | |artificial influences, | | |become sterile. The wild | | |plant to which it belongs | | |is also in cultivation, and | | |is known as V. Keteleeri. | | |In this type plant the | | |middle of the truss is | | |filled with perfect | | |flowers, the edges only | | |being occupied with the | | |large and showy sterile | | |ones. V. macrocephalum is | | |by far the most striking | | |plant, its large, rounded | | |or pyramidal trusses of | | |pure white flowers being | | |unequalled among the | | |Viburnums. The plant is, | | |however, better adapted for | | |growing in pots for | | |greenhouse decoration or as | | |a wall plant than it is as | | |a shrub in the open. In my | | |experience it is scarcely | | |hardy enough to assume its | | |best character without some | | |sort of protection. | | |Although hard winters may | | |not kill it outright they | | |seriously cripple it. It is | | |only in recent years that | | |it has attained popularity, | | |but it has long been | | |known." | | | V. Opulus (the |Britain, Europe |White; |Of the two species of Guelder Rose). It |and Northern |May and |Viburnum this is the better is called in |hemisphere |June |known, and is the more America the | | |valuable as a garden shrub. Cranberry bush or | | |It grows to a height of High Cranberry | | |from 10 to 15 feet, and is | | |easily known by the | | |beautiful lobed Maple-like | | |leaves, which die off | | |brilliant crimson shades. | | |Sterile as well as fertile | | |flowers are produced on | | |each truss, the flowers | | |being white and | | |three-quarters of an inch | | |across. But the wild | | |Guelder Rose is in its | | |fullest beauty in Autumn | | |when the fruits change to | | |brilliant red, and the | | |leaves gradually assume | | |their gorgeous colouring. | | |As this species appreciates | | |moisture it is a noble | | |shrub to make groups of in | | |moist places, such as by | | |stream, pond, river, or | | |moist margin. The beauty of | | |the wild Guelder Rose is | | |not realised by many | | |planters of gardens. Its | | |colouring is intense. In | | |the "Cyclopedia of American | | |Horticulture" it is | | |mentioned: "Handsome native | | |shrub, very decorative in | | |fruit, which begins to | | |colour by the end of July, | | |remains on the branches, | | |and keeps its bright | | |scarlet colour until the | | |following Spring. The | | |berries are not eaten by | | |birds." | | | V. O. sterile |Variety. Origin |White; |This is too well known to (Snowball tree) |unknown |early June|need description. It is a | | |graceful shrub, its | | |branches bent with the | | |weight of the rounded | | |flower trusses. As in the | | |case of V. macrocephalum | | |and of V. plicatum the | | |small and insignificant | | |fertile flowers have become | | |transformed by cultivation | | |into large barren ones, and | | |the truss also loses its | | |flattened shape and becomes | | |rounded or conical. It | | |appreciates a moist soil. | | | V. rhytidophyllum |China |Yellow |A handsome evergreen shrub, | |white |introduced by Messrs. | | |Veitch. Ornamental foliage, | | |and in September the | | |berries turn to a rich red | | |colour. | | | V. tomentosum |Japan |Cream |A very graceful shrub but Mariesi | |white |little known. The sterile | | |flowers are on the outer | | |edge of the flat cymes, and | | |line the spreading shoots. | | |We hope it will soon be | | |plentiful. | | | V. tomentosum var. |Japan. |Ivory |We have used the word plicatum |Introduced by |white |tomentosum as plicatum is a |Fortune in 1844 | |variety of that species. V. | | |tomentosum itself is a | | |handsome shrub with big, | | |flattish cymes and | | |creamy-white sterile | | |flowers round the margin of | | |the truss. That known as V. | | |plicatum, a sterile form of | | |V. tomentosum, is a | | |beautiful shrub; the most | | |precious perhaps of the | | |whole family. It makes a | | |glorious group on the lawn, | | |and in early June the | | |spreading shoots are so | | |thickly covered with flower | | |clusters that scarcely a | | |vestige of the dark-green, | | |wrinkled leafage is | | |visible. It is quite hardy, | | |but in the north it will be | | |wise to choose a sheltered | | |position for it. As a wall | | |shrub too it is valuable, | | |and a specimen on a wall in | | |the Royal Horticultural | | |Society's gardens at | | |Chiswick is quite a mass of | | |bloom every year. Passers | | |by who know not the shrub | | |wonder what it is making so | | |thick a mantle of white. It | | |grows 4 to 5 feet high in | | |the British Isles, taller | | |in its native country; the | | |trusses of flowers are | | |erect on short branches, | | |and each measure about 3 | | |inches across. Being in | | |pairs they make a striking | | |double row on every branch. | | |V. plicatum must come into | | |the smallest list of | | |flowering shrubs. | | | V. Tinus |South of Europe |White; |This is a well-known (Laurustinus) |and North of |flowers in|evergreen shrub, and quite |Africa. |Winter |hardy in the south of these |Introduced in |in the |Isles, where its planted as |1596 |south, but|a hedge. Even when out of | |much |flower the bush has a | |depends |certain beauty owing to its | |upon |shining green leaves. Near | |locality |London it succeeds. Many | | |things considered hardier | | |get severely injured when | | |the Laurustinus escapes. | | |North and easterly winds | | |are harmful to it. There | | |are several varieties. | | |Lucidum is the finest; the | | |leaves and corymbs are | | |larger than those of the | | |type, the former being of a | | |very glossy green and | | |smooth. In lucidum the | | |leaves and branches are | | |woolly, whilst there are | | |also purpureum, with | | |purplish leaves, and a | | |variegated variety, but | | |neither is of value. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _YUCCA GLORIOSA IN A SURREY GARDEN. (Height 15 feet.)_] -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | COUNTRY OR | COLOUR | NAME. | ORIGIN AND | AND | GENERAL REMARKS. | NATURAL ORDER. | SEASON. | -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- | | | *Xanthoceras |North China |White; |A beautiful tree, but sorbifolia | |stained |seldom seen in English | |with red |gardens. The following note | |in the |appeared in _The Garden_ | |centre; |about it: "This tree does | |Spring |not appear to be widely | | |grown, and I have heard | | |doubts expressed as to its | | |being hardy enough to stand | | |the winter in some | | |districts. Not long ago I | | |saw a fine specimen in a | | |Kentish rectory garden. The | | |tree is 5 feet or 6 feet | | |high, and under the shelter | | |of a thick hedge of | | |Laurustinus it flowers | | |freely every year, and also | | |produces fruit. The long | | |white and slightly tinted | | |blooms, which change to | | |purple, are very effective, | | |but one rarely gets an | | |opportunity of seeing this | | |interesting tree in flower. | | |Perhaps this is because it | | |does not belong to the | | |common order of things, or | | |else it is not | | |accommodating enough for | | |general culture, but it is | | |very beautiful." The | | |Xanthoceras is sometimes | | |trained against a wall, but | | |its growth is too stiff for | | |the purpose. The flowers | | |are in dense spikes about 6 | | |inches long, reminding one | | |of the Horse-Chestnut, and | | |are an inch across | | |individually. The foliage | | |is very ornamental, and | | |each leaf-stalk has seven | | |pinnate, serrated, | | |bright-green leaves. Apt to | | |get spoilt by frost, | | |however. | | | Yuccas |Liliaceæ | |See pages 149, 250. -------------------+----------------+----------+--------------------------- [Illustration: _YUCCA FILAMENTOSA var. FLACCIDA RIGHTLY PLACED._] HARDY TREES AND SHRUBS FOR BEAUTY OF FOLIAGE AND GROWTH The following is a table of hardy trees and shrubs more interesting for the beauty of their foliage and growth than for their flowers, with their popular names, approximate heights, native country, and other particulars. All are deciduous unless otherwise specified. Those with an asterisk (*) are the most important. -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | CHARACTER | | LATIN NAME. | AND | REMARKS. | NATIVE COUNTRY. | HEIGHT. | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | | | Acanthopanax |Tree 50 ft.|Suitable for South and |Japan ricinifolium | |West of England, needs a | | |good loamy soil | | | | ,, spinosum |Shrub 8 ft.|For sheltered spots in | ,, | |South | | | | Acer argutum |Tree 20 ft.|In ordinary soil and | ,, | |position | | | | ,, campestre |Tree 30 ft.|Will grow in dry spots |Europe and (Field Maple) | | |Western Asia | | | ,, ,, variegatum |Tree 20 ft.|If too much exposed the |Garden form | |variegated leaves suffer | | | | ,, carpinifolium |Tree 30 ft.|In ordinary soil and |Japan | |position | | | | ,, caudatum (Syn. |Tree 20 ft.|Handsome leaves but rather|Himalaya A. acuminatum) | |tender | | | | ,, circinatum |Tree 30 to |Needs a sheltered spot. |California |40 ft. |Beautiful autumn foliage | | | | ,, cissifolium |Small tree |In ordinary soil and |Japan (Syn. Negundo |10 ft. |position | cissifolium) | | | | | | ,, cratægifolium |Tree 15 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, creticum (Syn. |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Asia Minor A. parvifolium), | | | (Cretan Maple) | | | | | | ,, *dasycarpum |Tree 50 ft.|Soil must not be too dry |North America (Syn. A. | | | eriocarpum), | | | (White Maple) | | | | | | ,, dasycarpum |Tree 50 ft.|Forms a very pretty lawn | ,, laciniatum | |tree; soil must not be too| | |dry | | | | ,, diabolicum (Syn.|Tree 25 ft.|In ordinary soil and |Japan A. pulchrum) | |position | | | | ,, distylum |Tree 15 ft.|Very handsome leaves, 5 to|Japan, Nippon | |7 in. long, 4 in. broad; | | |in ordinary soil and | | |position | | | | ,, glabrum (Syn. A.|Tree 30 ft.|In ordinary soil and |Western North tripartitum) | |position |America | | | ,, Heldreichi |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Eastern Europe | | | ,, hyrcanum (Syn. |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Caucasus A. caucasicum and| | | A. lobatum) | | | | | | ,, *japonicum (Syn.|Tree 10 to |Requires protection from |Japan A. palmatum |15 ft. |cold winds in spring. Very| macrophyllum), | |slow in growth | (Japanese Maple) | | | | | | ,, *japonicum | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, aureum | | | (Golden-leaved | | | Japanese Maple) | | | | | | ,, Lobelii (Syn. A.|Tree 50 ft.|In ordinary soil and |Southern Italy platanoides | |position | (Lobelii)) | | | | | | ,, macrophyllum |Tree 70 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North-West (Syn. A. | | |America speciosum) | | | | | | ,, monspessulanum |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |South of Europe | | | ,, Negundo (Syn. |Tree 40 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America Negundo | | | aceroides) | | | | | | ,, ,, californicum|Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |California | | | ,, ,, *variegatum | ,, |A well-known variegated |Garden form (Variegated | |tree that must be | Maple) | |sparingly planted | | | | ,, ,, aureum | ,, |A very distinct tree, |...... | |yellow variegation | | | | ,, opulifolium |Small tree |In ordinary soil and |Corsica (Syn. A. Opalus),|12 ft. |position | (Italian Maple) | | | | | | ,, *palmatum (Syn. |Tree 10 to |Requires protection from |Japan A. polymorphum) |15 ft. |cold winds in spring. Slow| | |in growth, but the | | |coloured-leaved varieties | | |are very showy and often | | |brilliant | | | | ,, ,, and many | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, varieties | | | | | | ,, pennsylvanicum |Tree 30 ft.|A fairly moist spot is |North America (Syn. A. | |best for this; its striped| striatum) | |bark is very striking | | | | ,, pictum |Tree 50 ft.|In ordinary soil and |Japan | |position | | | | ,, platanoides | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Norway and | | |Sweden | | | ,, ,, laciniatum | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form | | | ,, ,, palmatum | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, ,, purpureum | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Purple-leaved | | | Maple) | | | | | | ,, ,, *Schwedleri | ,, |The young leaves of this | ,, | |are red, and when growing | | |freely it is very striking| | | | ,, Pseudo-platanus |Tree 50 to |In ordinary soil and |Europe (Sycamore) |70 ft. |position | | | | ,, ,, ,, |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Garden form *Leopoldi | | | | | | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, purpureum | | | | | | ,, ,, ,, and |Trees 20 to| ,, ,, ,, | ,, other varieties |50 ft. | | | | | ,, rubrum (Syn. A. |Tree 60 ft.|Needs a fairly moist soil |North America coccineum), | |somewhat sheltered | (Scarlet Maple) | | | | | | ,, saccharinum | ,, |In ordinary soil and | ,, (Sugar Maple) | |position | | | | ,, spicatum (Syn. |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, A. rugosum) | | | | | | ,, tataricum |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Tartary | | | ,, ,, *Ginnala |Tree 20 ft.|The brilliant colour of |Japan | |its leaves in autumn | | |attracts attention to | | |this; in ordinary soil and| | |position | | | | *Ailantus |Tree 60 ft.|Good town tree, and for |China glandulosa | |dry soils, and of quick | | |growth | | | | Alnus cordifolia |Tree 20 ft.|Thrives in dryer soil than|South of Europe | |most Alders | | | | ,, firma (Syn. A. |Tree 30 ft.|Needs a moist spot |Japan multinervis) | | | | | | ,, glutinosa |Tree 40 to |Grows well in boggy places|Europe and North (Common Alder) |60 ft. | |Africa | | | ,, ,, *aurea |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (Golden-leaved | | | Alder) | | | | | | ,, ,, *imperialis |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, ,, and other |Trees 30 to| ,, ,, ,, | ,, varieties |60 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, incana |Tree 50 to | ,, ,, ,, |Northern |70 ft. | |temperate | | |regions | | | ,, ,, and | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |...... varieties | | | | | | ,, japonica |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan (Japanese Alder) | | | | | | ,, oregona |Tree 20 ft.|Moist soil |Western North | | |America | | | ,, orientalis |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Orient | | | ,, rhombifolia |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |California | | | ,, serrulata |Shrub 8 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America |10 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, viridis |Shrub 6 ft.|Does well in exposed |Northern Europe | |position |and Asia | | | Aristotelia Macqui |Sub- |Rather tender, will grow |Chili |evergreen |in ordinary soil | |shrub 6 ft.| | | | | ,, ,, variegata | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |...... | | | Artemesia Abrotanum|Shrub 3 to |Very fragrant leaves; will|South of Europe (Southernwood) |4 ft. |grow in dry soils | | | | *Arundinaria |Evergreen 2|Needs good, fairly moist |Japan Veitchii |to 3 ft. |soil, and protection from | | |cutting winds | | | | Arundo Donax |Evergreen |Hardy in South of England,|Mediterranean (Giant Reed) |10 ft. |needs protection in North,|region | |moist soil | | | | ,, ,, variegata | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form | | | Atraphaxis |Shrub 2 ft.|Well drained, sandy peat, |Caucasus buxifolia | |fairly moist | | | | ,, lanceolata | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Temperate Asia | | | ,, Muschketowi | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Central Asia | | | ,, spinosa |Sub- | ,, ,, ,, |Orient |evergreen | | |shrub 2 ft.| | | | | Atriplex canescens |Shrub 3 ft.|Will grow in dry, sandy |Western North | |soils, and also near the |America | |sea | | | | ,, confertifolia |Shrub 1 ft.|Fairly moist peaty soil |Western United | | |States | | | ,, Halimus (Tree |Shrub 6 ft.|Will grow in dry sandy |Europe Parslane) | |soils and also near the | | |sea | | | | ,, Nuttallii |Shrub 3 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Western North | | |America | | | ,, portulacoides |Shrub 2 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe | | | Azara dentata |Evergreen |Ordinary soil, but |Chili |shrub 12 |thoroughly hardy only in | |ft. |South and West of England | | | | ,, Gilliesii |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |shrub 15 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, integrifolia | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, *microphylla |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |shrub 12 | | |ft. | | | | | Baccharis |Shrub 6 to |Useful for dry sandy soils|North America halimifolia |8 ft. | | | | | ,, patagonica |Shrub 4 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Patagonia | | | ,, salicifolia |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Southern United | | |States | | | Berchemia racemosa |Climbing |Deep moist soil and |Japan |shrub 15 |sheltered spot | |ft. | | | | | ,, volubilis (Syn. |Climbing | ,, ,, ,, |Southern United Rhamnus |shrub 20 | |States volubilis) |ft. | | | | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | CHARACTER | | LATIN NAME. | AND | REMARKS. | NATIVE COUNTRY. | HEIGHT. | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | | | *Betula alba (Syn. |Tree 50 to |Will grow in bleak cold |Northern B. verrucosa), |60 ft. |spots, but is beautiful |Hemisphere (Silver Birch) | |everywhere | | | | ,, ,, *fastigiata |Tree 30 ft.|Extremely distinct upright|Garden form | |growth | | | | ,, ,, *laciniata |Tree 50 ft.|A charming lawn tree | ,, (Cut-leaved | | | Birch) | | | | | | ,, ,, *pendula |Drooping |A weeping form | ,, (Weeping Birch) | | | | | | ,, ,, *purpurea |Tree 40 ft.|An effective | ,, (Purple-leaved | |coloured-leaved tree | Birch) | | | | | | ,, corylifolia |Tree 50 ft.|Grows well in ordinary |Japan (Hazel-leaved | |soil and position | Birch) | | | | | | ,, davurica |Tree 30 to | ,, ,, ,, |Northern Asia |40 ft. | |and America | | | ,, fruticosa |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Northern Asia | | | ,, lenta (Syn. B. |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America carpinifolia) |70 ft. | | | | | ,, lutea (Syn. B. |Tree 70 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, excelsa), (Yellow|80 ft. | | Birch) | | | | | | ,, *Maximowiczii |Tree 30 ft.|Much larger leaves than |Japan | |any other Birch; very | | |satisfactory with Messrs. | | |Veitch at Coombe Wood | | | | ,, ,, nana (Dwarf |Shrub 1 to |Grows well in ordinary |Northern Birch) |3 ft. |soil and position |Hemisphere | | | ,, *nigra (Syn. B. |Tree 60 to |Does best in moist soil |North America rubra), (Red |70 ft. | | Birch) | | | | | | ,, occidentalis |Shrub 8 to |Grows well in ordinary |Western North |10 ft. |soil and position |America | | | ,, *papyrifera |Tree 60 to |Prefers moist spots |North America (Syn. B. |70 ft. | | papyracea), | | | (Canoe Birch) | | | | | | ,, populifolia |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, pumila |Shrub 2 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |3 ft. | | | | | ,, utilis (Syn. B. |Tree 50 ft.|Rather tender except in |Himalaya Bhojpattra), | |South and West | (Indian Birch) | | | | | | Bigelovia Douglasii|Shrub 4 ft.|Will grow in poor sandy |North America | |soils | | | | ,, graveolens |Shrub 3 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | Broussonetia |Tree 15 ft.|Sometimes cut by frost, |Japan Kæmpferi | |but quickly recovers | | | | ,, *papyrifera |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |China, Japan, (Syn. Morus | | |and Polynesia papyrifera), | | | (Paper Mulberry) | | | | | | Bumelia lanuginosa |Shrub 10 |Needs good, fairly moist |Southern United (Syn. Sideroxylon|ft. |soil, and a sheltered spot|States lanuginosum) | | | | | | ,, lycioides |Sub- | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Syn. Sideroxylon|evergreen | | lycioides) |shrub 8 ft.| | | | | Callicarpa |Shrub 6 ft.|Rather tender; likes moist|North America americana | |soil | | | | ,, japonica |Shrub 5 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan | | | Carpinus |Tree 50 ft.|Any ordinary soil and |North America caroliniana (Syn.| |position | C. americana), | | | (American | | | Hornbeam) | | | | | | ,, *Betulus |Tree 50 to |Any ordinary soil and |Europe (Common Hornbeam)|60 ft. |position, good for Hedges | | | | ,, cordata |Tree 40 ft.|Any ordinary soil and |Japan | |position | | | | ,, japonica |Tree 15 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Japanese | | | Hornbeam) | | | | | | *Carya alba (Syn. |Tree 50 to |Needs good loamy soil, |North America Hicoria ovata), |70 ft. |very impatient of removal | (Shell Bark | | | Hickory) | | | | | | ,, *olivæformis |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Syn. Hicoria | | | Peccan), (Peccan | | | Nut) | | | | | | Castanea pumila |Tree 12 ft.|Does best on light loamy |United States | |soils | | | | ,, *sativa (Syn. C.|Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North vesca), (Sweet |70 ft. | |Africa Chestnut) | | | | | | ,, ,, and |Trees 20 to| ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties |50 ft. | | | | | *Castanopsis |Evergreen |Needs shelter from cutting|California chrysophylla |shrub 6 ft.|winds. Undersides of | (Syn. Castanea |to 10 ft. |leaves are rich yellow | chrysophylla), | | | (Golden Chestnut)| | | | | | Cedrela chinensis |Tree 30 ft.|Hardy in South of England |China (Syn. Ailantus | | | flavescens) | | | | | | *Celastrus |Climbing |Useful for rambling over |Japan articulatus |shrub 20 |unsightly objects, | |ft. |ordinary soil | | | | ,, scandens | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |North America | | | Celtis australis |Tree 30 to |Ordinary soil and position|Mediterranean (Nettle tree) |40 ft. | |region | | | ,, japonica |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan (Japanese Nettle | | | tree) | | | | | | ,, mississippiensis|Tree 40 to | ,, ,, ,, |Southern United |50 ft. | |States | | | ,, occidentalis | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |North America | | | ,, Tournefortii |Tree 15 | ,, ,, ,, |Orient (Syn. C. |ft. | | orientalis) | | | | | | Cephalanthus |Shrub 6 ft.|Moist peaty soil |North America occidentalis | |with plenty of sand | | | | Cercidophyllum |Tree 20 to |Hardy in the South, rather|Japan japonicum |30 ft. |tender elsewhere | | | | Cleyera ochnacea |Evergreen |Does best treated as a | ,, (Syn. C. |shrub 6 ft.|wall plant in good soil | japonica) | | | | | | Cocculus carolinus |Twining |Will grow in warm dry |North America |shrub 20 |spots | |ft. | | | | | ,, laurifolius |Shrub 5 ft.|Needs protection of a wall|Himalaya to | | |Japan | | | Colletia cruciata |Shrub 6 ft.|Rather tender in North of |Uruguay | |England | | | | ,, ferox (Syn. C. | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, spinosa, C. | | | horrida) | | | | | | Coriaria myrtifolia|Shrub 5 ft.|A deep light soil suits |Mediterranean | |this best |Region | | | Cornus alba |Shrub 6 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|North America | | | ,, ,, *sibirica |Shrub 5 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Siberia (Siberian | | | Dogwood) | | | | | | ,, ,, *Spaethii |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Garden form | | | ,, alternifolia |Shrub 10 | ,, ,, ,, |North America |ft. | | | | | ,, Amomum |Shrub 6 ft.|Does best in damp spots | ,, | | | ,, Baileyi | ,, |Ordinary soil and position| ,, | | | ,, circinata |Shrub 5 ft.|Does best in damp spots | ,, | | | ,, florida |Shrub 10 |Our summers are rarely hot|Eastern North |ft. |enough to flower this |America | |well. Pendula is a | | |beautiful weeping variety.| | |A delightful shrub whose | | |large white blossoms are | | |borne in June | | | | ,, *Kousa (Syn. |Shrub 8 to |Hardy, grows slowly when |Japan Benthamia |10 ft. |young. Flowers | japonica), | |delightfully when | (Japanese | |established. Should be in | Strawberry tree) | |other list. | | | | ,, macrophylla |Tree 40 ft.|Deep fairly moist soil. A |Northern India (Beautiful at | |handsome tree |to Japan Coombe Wood) | | | | | | ,, *Mas (Cornelian |Small tree |Ordinary soil and position|Europe Cherry) |15 ft. | | | | | ,, officinalis |Small tree | ,, ,, ,, |Japan |10 to 15 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, pubescens |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America | | | ,, sanguinea | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North (Common Dogwood) | | |Asia | | | ,, stolonifera |Shrub 6 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America (Red Osier |8 ft. | | Dogwood) | | | | | | Corylus americana |Shrub 5 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (American Hazel) |8 ft. | | | | | ,, *Avellana |Tree or | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and Asia (Common Hazel) |shrub 20 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, ,, and |Trees or | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties |shrubs | | | | | ,, *Colurna |Tree 40 to | ,, ,, ,, |South-Eastern (Constantinople |50 ft. | |Europe to Hazel) | | |Himalaya | | | ,, heterophylla |Tree or | ,, ,, ,, |Japan |shrub 15 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, mandshurica |Small tree | ,, ,, ,, |Amurland and (Japanese Hazel) |20 ft. | |Japan | | | ,, maxima (Cob Nut)|Tree or | ,, ,, ,, |South Europe |shrub 20 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, rostrata (Beaked|Shrub 5 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America Hazel) | | | | | | *Danæ Laurus (Syn. |Evergreen |Grows well in shady spots |Asia Minor Ruscus |shrub 4 ft.| | racemosus), | | | (Alexandrian | | | laurel) | | | | | | Decumaria barbara |Climbing |Needs a warm sheltered |Southern United |shrub 10 |border |States |ft. | | | | | Drimys aromatica |Evergreen |Hardy only in South and |Tasmania (Tasmanian Pepper|shrub 10 |West | plant) |ft. | | | | | ,, Winteri |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |South America (Winter's Bark) |shrub 20 | | |ft. | | | | | *Elæagnus |Tree 20 ft.|Will grow in dry sandy |Mediterranean angustifolia | |soils |region (Syn. E. | | | hortensis), | | | (Wild Olive) | | | | | | ,, argentea (Syn. |Shrub 5 ft.|Needs a fairly moist soil |North America Shepherdia | | | argentea), | | | (Silver Berry) | | | | | | ,, *glabra |Evergreen |Ordinary soil not too dry |China and Japan |shrub 6 ft.| | | | | ,, *macrophylla | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, *multiflora |Deciduous | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Syn. E. edulis, |shrub 8 ft.| | E. longipes) | | | | | | ,, orientalis |Tree 20 ft.|Will grow in dry sandy |Orient | |soils | | | | ,, *pungens |Evergreen |One of our finest |China and Japan (Syn. E. reflexa)|shrub 6 to |evergreens | |8 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, *and | ,, |Will do well in ordinary |Garden forms varieties | |soil | | | | ,, umbellata (Syn. |Sub- | ,, ,, ,, |Japan E. japonica) |evergreen | | |shrub 8 ft.| | | | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | CHARACTER | | LATIN NAME. | AND | REMARKS. | NATIVE COUNTRY. | HEIGHT. | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | | | Empetrum nigrum |Evergreen |Needs moist peaty soil |Britain (Crowberry) |shrub 1 ft.| | | | | Ephedra americana |Evergreen |Does well in dry stony |Chili |shrub 3 ft.|places | | | | ,, distachya |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and Asia |shrub | |Minor |3 to 4 ft. | | | | | ,, gerardiana |Evergreen |Rather tender |Himalaya |shrub 2 ft.| | | | | ,, helvetica |Evergreen |Does well in dry stony |South Europe |shrub 2 ft.|places | | | | ,, trifurca |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Western North |shrub 3 ft.| |America | | | Ercilla volubilis |Evergreen |Needs protection of a wall|Chili (Syn. E. spicata)|twiner 15 |in most districts | |ft. | | | | | Eriobotrya japonica|Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |China and Japan (Syn. Photinia |tree 20 ft.| | japonica), | | | (Loquat), | | | handsome leaves | | | | | | Eurya japonica |Evergreen |Hardy only in south and |India, China, |shrub 6 ft.|west |and Japan | | | Fagus ferruginea |Tree 40 to |Ordinary soil and position|North America (Syn. F. |60 ft. | | americana), | | | (American beech) | | | | | | ,, *sylvatica |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and Asia (Common Beech) |100 ft. | |Minor | | | ,, ,, |Tree 50 ft.|Best dark-leaved form |Garden form *atropurpurea | | | (Purple-leaved | | | Beech) | | | | | | ,, ,, *cuprea | ,, |Ordinary soil and position| ,, (Copper Beech) | | | | | | ,, ,, heterophylla| ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, ,, *pendula |Tree, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Weeping Beech) |height | | |various | | | | | ,, ,, *purpurea | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, pendula | | | | | | ,, ,, and other | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties | | | | | | *Fatsia japonica |Evergreen |Needs sheltered spot, cool|Japan (Syn. Aralia |shrub 3 to |moist soil | japonica) |8 feet | | | | | *Ficus Carica |Tree or |Does best on wall, good |Afghanistan (Common Fig) |shrub 15 |town plant |and Eastern |to 20 ft. | |Persia | | | Fraxinus americana |Tree 30 to |Ordinary soil and position|North America (White Ash) |40 ft. | | | | | ,, augustifolia |Tree 30 to | ,, ,, ,, |Southern Europe |50 ft. | | | | | ,, anomala |Tree 12 ft.|Needs sheltered spot |Utah | | | ,, caroliniana |Tree 30 to |Ordinary soil and position|United States (Water Ash) |50 ft. | | | | | ,, chinensis |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |China (Chinese Ash) | | | | | | ,, *Excelsior |Tree 30 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe (Common Ash) |80 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, aurea |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Garden form | | | ,, ,, aurea |Tree, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, pendula (Weeping |height | | Golden Ash) |various | | | | | ,, ,, crispa |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, ,, heterophylla|Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Syn. monophylla)| | | | | | ,, ,, *pendula |Tree, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Weeping Ash) |height | | |various | | | | | ,, ,, and other |Trees, | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties |height | | |various | | | | | ,, mandshurica |Tree 70 to | ,, ,, ,, |Mandchuria and |80 ft. | |Japan | | | ,, nigra (Syn. F. |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America sambucifolia) | | | | | | ,, numidica |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North Africa | | | ,, oregona (Syn. F.|Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Western United californica), | | |States (Oregon Ash) | | | | | | ,, *parvifolia |Tree 30 to | ,, ,, ,, |South Europe (Syn. F. |50 ft. | | lentiscifolia) | | | | | | ,, ,, pendula |Tree, | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form |height | | |various | | | | | ,, pennsylvanica |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America (Syn. F. | | | pubescens) | | | | | | ,, potamophila | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Turkestan (Swamp Ash) | | | | | | ,, quadrangulata |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |United States (Blue Ash) |70 ft. | | | | | Gleditschia |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Southern China australis | | | | | | ,, japonica |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan (Japanese Locust)| | | | | | ,, monosperma |Tree 60 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Southern United (Water Locust) | | |States | | | ,, sinensis (Syn. |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |China G. ferox, G. | | | horrida) | | | | | | ,, triacanthos |Tree 60 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Eastern United (Honey Locust) | | |States | | | Griselinia |Evergreen |Hardy only in South and |New Zealand littoralis |tree or |West of England | |shrub 20 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, lucida |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |tree 15 ft.| | | | | Gymnocladus |Tree 50 ft.|Needs good deep soil |North America canadensis | | | (Kentucky Coffee | | | Tree) | | | | | | ,, chinensis |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |China | | | Hymenanthera |Shrub 3 ft.|Succeeds in fairly moist |New Zealand crassifolia | |peaty soil | | | | Idesia polycarpa |Tree 20 ft.|Deep open loam, |Japan | |shelter from strong winds | | | | Ilex ambigua (Syn. |Shrub 4 to |Ordinary soil and position|Southern United Prinos ambigua) |5 ft. | |States | | | ,, Amelanchier |Shrub 6 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America (Syn. Prinos |8 ft. | | lanceolata) | | | | | | ,, Aquifolium |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Europe (Common Holly) |tree 10 to | | |40 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form angustifolium |tree or | | (Narrow-leaved |shrub | | Holly) | | | | | | ,, ,, argenteo | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, marginata (Silver| | | Variegated Holly)| | | | | | ,, ,, *argenteo | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, pendula (Weeping | | | Silver Holly) | | | | | | ,, ,, | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, *aureo-marginata | | | (Golden Holly) | | | | | | ,, ,, ferox | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Hedgehog Holly) | | | | | | ,, ,, ,, aurea | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Golden Hedgehog | | | Holly) | | | | | | ,, ,, *fructo | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, luteo | | | (Yellow-berried | | | Holly) | | | | | | ,, ,, | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, *handsworthensis | | | (Handsworth | | | Holly) | | | | | | ,, ,, *hodginsii | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, ,, laurifolia | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, var. nova, large | | | leaves | | | | | | ,, ,, pendula | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, tricolor (Weeping| | | Variegated Holly)| | | | | | ,, ,, watereriana | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Waterer's Holly)| | | | | | ,, cornuta |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |China |shrub 6 ft.| | | | | ,, *crenata |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Japan (Japanese Holly) |shrub 3 ft.| | | | | ,, ,, variegata | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, glabra (Syn. |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Eastern United Prinos glaber), |shrub 2 to | |States (Ink Berry) |3 ft. | | | | | ,, lævigata (Syn. |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, Prinos lævigatus)| | | | | | ,, latifolia |Evergreen |Needs protection of a wall|Japan (Large-leaved |tree 20 ft.|in most parts of England | Holly) | | | | | | ,, opaca |Evergreen |Ordinary soil and position|Eastern United |tree 30 ft.| |States | | | ,, rotunda | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Japan (Round-leaved | | | Holly) | | | | | | ,, *Wilsoni | |A splendid Holly, with | | |large dark-green leaves | | |and big crimson berries | | | | Juglans californica|Tree 30 ft.|Good deep loam, rather dry|California (Californian | | | Walnut) | | | | | | ,, *cinerea |Tree 60 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America (Butter Nut) | | | | | | ,, mandshurica | | | | | | ,, nigra (Black |Tree 60 ft.|Good deep loam, rather dry|North America Walnut) | | | | | | ,, *regia (Common | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Caucasus to Walnut) | | |Himalaya | | | ,, ,, and |Trees | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties | | | | | | ,, rupestris |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Western United | | |States | | | ,, sieboldiana |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan (Syn. J. | | | ailantifolia) | | | | | | Kadsura chinensis |Evergreen |A good wall-plant |China and Japan (Syn. K. |shrub 6 ft.| | japonica) | | | | | | Lardizabala |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Chili biternata |climber 20 | | |ft. | | | | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | CHARACTER | | LATIN NAME. | AND | REMARKS. | NATIVE COUNTRY. | HEIGHT. | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | | | *Laurus nobilis |Evergreen |Needs a sheltered position|Mediterranean (Sweet Bay) |tree 20 to | |region |40 ft. | | | | | Lindera Benzoin |Shrub 10 | ,, ,, ,, |United States (Syn. Laurus |ft. | and moist peaty soil | Benzoin), (Spice | | | Bush) | | | | | | ,, glauca |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, |Japan | | | ,, hypoglauca |Shrub 10 | ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, | ,, |ft. | | | | | ,, obtusiloba |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, sericea (Syn. |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, ,, | ,, Benzoin sericeum)| | | | | | Liquidambar |Tree 15 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|Asia Minor orientalis (Syn. | | | L. imberbe) | | | | | | ,, *styraciflua |Tree 40 to |Beautiful colour in Autumn|United States (Sweet Gum) |50 ft. | | | | | Maclura aurantiaca |Tree 15 to |Perfectly hardy only in |Southern United (Osage Orange) |40 ft. |South of England |States | | | *Morus alba (White |Tree 20 to |Ordinary soil and position|Temperate Asia Mulberry) |30 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, pendula | | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (Weeping | | | Mulberry) | | | | | | ,, ,, and | | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties | | | | | | ,, *nigra (Common |Tree 20 to | ,, ,, ,, |Persia Mulberry) |30 ft. | | | | | ,, rubra (Red |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America Mulberry) | | | | | | *Myrica |Shrub 4 ft.|Moist sandy peat | ,, asplenifolia | | | (Syn. Comptonia | | | asplenifolia), | | | (Sweet Fern) | | | | | | ,, californica |Sub- |Ordinary soil in a |California (Californian Wax |evergreen |sheltered spot | Myrtle) |20 ft. | | | | | ,, cerifera |Evergreen |Needs moist peaty soil. |United States |shrub 8 to |This and M. Gale should be| |10 ft. |planted by lake, pond, or | | |stream margin | | | | ,, *Gale (Sweet |Shrub 3 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Northern Gale) |with | |Hemisphere |scented | | |foliage | | | | | Nandina domestica |Evergreen |Hardy only in south and |China and Japan |shrub 6 ft.|west of England | | | | Nyssa aquatica |Tree 40 ft.|Needs moist peaty soil |Southern United (Syn. N. | | |States biflora), | | | (Tupelo tree) | | | | | | ,, *sylvatica |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America (Syn. N. | | | multiflora) | | | | | | *Osmanthus |Evergreen |Valuable evergreen; |Japan Aquifolium |shrub 5 to |ordinary soil | |10 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, *ilicifolius| ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form | | | ,, ,, *purpureus | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, ,, *variegatus | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | Ostrya carpinifolia|Tree 30 to |Ordinary soil and position|South Europe (Syn. O. |40 ft. | | vulgaris), (Hop | | | Hornbeam) | | | | | | Ostrya virginica |Tree 20 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America |30 ft. | | | | | Paliurus australis |Shrub 8 ft.|Light warm soil and |South Europe (Syn. P. | |position | aculeatus), | | | (Christ Thorn), | | | (P. Spina | | | Christi) | | | | | | *Parrotia persica |Shrub 12 |Light warm soil and |Persia (Iron tree) |ft. |position, brilliant leaf | | |colour in Autumn | | | | Phellodendron |Tree 30 ft.|Light warm soil and |Amurland amurense | |position | | | | Phillyræas | |These grow in various | | |soils, from light and | | |sandy ones to heavy loam. | | |Grow them on their own | | |roots. | | | | ,, angustifolia |Evergreen |Light warm soil and |Mediterranean |shrub 8 to |position. Flowers in April|region |10 ft. |and May. Best known | | |variety is Rosmarinifolia,| | |which has narrower leaves | | |than the type | | | | ,, *decora (Syn. |Evergreen |Light warm soil and |Asia Minor P. vilmoriniana) |shrub 5 ft.|position, a valuable |(Lazistan) | |evergreen shrub. A plant | | |at Kew is 5½ feet high and| | |13 ft. through; its | | |flowers are white, | | |fragrant, and appear in | | |May. | | | | ,, latifolia |Evergreen |Light warm soil and |Mediterranean |will grow |position |region |20 ft. | | |high. | | |Several | | |varieties | | |are known, | | |P. l. var. | | |ilicifolia,| | |with | | |smaller | | |and P. l. | | |var. | | |rotundi- | | |folia, with| | |rounder | | |leaves, are| | |most often | | |seen. | | | | | ,, media |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |shrub 12 | | |ft. | | | | | Photinia |Evergreen |Hardy only in South and |China benthamiana |shrub 10 |West of England | |ft. | | | | | ,, serrulata |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Chinese |shrub 15 | | Hawthorn) |ft. | | | | | ,, variabilis |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |China and Japan (Syn. Pourthioea |shrub 8 ft.| | arguta) | | | | | | *Platanus |Tree 60 to |Good town tree, ordinary |Orient acerifolia |70 ft. |soil | | | | ,, cuneata | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, occidentalis |Tree 70 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America (Western Plane) |80 ft. | | | | | ,, orientalis |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Orient (Eastern Plane) |70 ft. | | | | | *Populus alba |Tree 60 to |Needs fairly moist soil |Europe and Asia (Abele or White |100 ft. | | Poplar) | | | | | | ,, angustifolia |Tree 70 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America (Narrow-leaved | | | Poplar) | | | | | | ,, balsamifera | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Balsam Poplar) | | | | | | ,, canescens (Grey |Tree 80 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe Poplar) | | | | | | ,, *deltoidea | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |North America (Syn. P. | | | canadensis), | | | (Canadian Poplar)| | | | | | ,, *deltoidea |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Garden form aurea | | | (Golden-leaved | | | Canadian Poplar) | | | | | | ,, Fremontei |Tree 70 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |California | | | ,, grandidentata |Tree 60 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America | | | ,, heterophylla |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, laurifolia |Tree 70 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Southern Siberia | | | ,, nigra (Black |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe Poplar) | | | | | | ,, ,, *fastigiata | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Lombardy Poplar)| | | | | | ,, Sieboldii |Tree 20 to | ,, ,, ,, |Japan |30 ft. | | | | | ,, Simonii |Tree 60 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |China | | | ,, suaveolens |Tree 80 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan | | | ,, *tremula (Aspen)|Tree 70 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North | | |Asia | | | ,, pendula |Weeping | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (Weeping Aspen) |Tree | | | | | ,, tremuloides |Weeping | ,, ,, ,, |North America |tree 40 to | | |50 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, *pendula |Weeping | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (Syn. P. juliana |Tree | | pendula) | | | | | | ,, trichocarpa |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Western North | | |America | | | ,, tristis |Tree 60 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North-East Asia | | | Ptelea trifoliata |Small tree |Ordinary soil and position|North America (Hop tree) |8 to 9 ft. | | | | | *Pterocarya |Tree 30 ft.|Good deep loam, rather |Caucasus caucasica (Syn. | |dry; starts early, | P. fraxinifolia) | |so catkins and leaves | | |sometimes get injured by | | |frost | | | | ,, rhoifolia |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan | | | ,, stenoptera |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |China -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- [Illustration: _PTEROCARYA CAUCASICA AT CLAREMONT, ESHER. (Largest specimen in England. Height 45 ft., girth of stem 3 ft., from the ground 17 ft., spread of branches 110 yards)._] [Illustration: _THE CORK OAK (Quercus Suber) AT SWALLOWFIELD PARK._] -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | CHARACTER | | LATIN NAME. | AND | REMARKS. | NATIVE COUNTRY. | HEIGHT. | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | | | Quercus acuta (Syn.|Evergreen |Ordinary soil and position|Japan Q. Buergerii) |tree 10 ft.| | | | | ,, ,, alba (White |Tree 60 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America Oak) | | | | | | ,, bicolor | ,, |Fairly moist soil | ,, | | | ,, *castaneæfolia | ,, |Ordinary soil and position|Caucasus and (Chestnut-leaved | | |Asia Minor Oak) | | | | | | ,, Cerris (Turkey |Tree 50 to | ,, ,, ,, |South and East Oak) |60 ft. | |Europe | | | ,, ,, fulhamensis |Sub- | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (Fulham Oak) |evergreen | | |tree 50 to | | |60 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, *laciniata |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Syn. | | | asplenifolia) | | | | | | ,, ,, lucombeana |Sub- | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Lucombe Oak) |evergreen | | |50 ft. | | | | | ,, cinerea |Tree 30 ft.|Needs fairly moist loamy |Southern United | |soil |States | | | ,, coccifera (Syn. |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Mediterranean Q. kermesina) |tree 15 ft.| |region | | | ,, *coccinea |Tree 50 ft.|Very handsome, leaves in |North America (Scarlet Oak) | |autumn brilliant scarlet | | | | ,, *conferta (Q. |Tree 30 ft.|Handsome; very quick in |Italy and pannonica), | |growth; leaves deeply |Austria (Hungarian Oak) | |lobed | | | | ,, cuneata (Syns. |Tree 80 ft.|Needs fairly moist loamy |North America Q. triloba, Q. | |soil | falcata) | | | | | | ,, *cuspidata |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Japan |tree 30 ft.| | | | | ,, *dentata (Syn. |Tree 30 ft.|Needs good loamy soil, | ,, Q. Daimyo) | |fairly moist | | | | ,, garryana |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North-West | | |America | | | ,, *glabra |Evergreen |Handsome, large leaves, a |Japan (Japanese Oak) |shrub 10 |good evergreen oak | |ft. | | | | | ,, glauca |Evergreen |Needs good loamy soil, | ,, |tree 30 ft.|fairly moist | | | | ,, heterophylla |Tree 40 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|United States | | | ,, *Ilex |Evergreen |Good deep sandy loam; very|Mediterranean (Evergreen or |20 to 40 |handsome |region Holm Oak) |ft. | | | | | ,, ,, and |Evergreen, | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties |various | | |heights | | | | | ,, imbricaria |Tree 40 to |Ordinary soil and position|United States |50 ft. | | | | | ,, Kelloggii |Tree 70 ft.|Fairly moist soil, |Oregon and | |sheltered position |California | | | ,, lanuginosa |Tree 50 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|Europe and West. | | |Asia | | | ,, laurifolia |Tree 80 ft.|Needs moist soil. Very |United States (Syn. Q. obtusa) | |handsome | | | | ,, Libani |Tree 30 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|Asia Minor | | | ,, lobata |Tree 80 ft.|Fairly moist soil, |California | |sheltered position | | | | ,, lusitanica |Tree 40 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |South Europe and | | |Asia Minor | | | ,, *macrocarpa |Tree 30 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|North America (Burr Oak) | | | | | | ,, marilandica |Tree 30 to | ,, ,, ,, |United States |50 ft. | | | | | ,, Michauxii |Tree 80 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Southern United | | |States | | | ,, Mirbeckii |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Spain, Portugal, | | |and North Africa | | | ,, nigra |Tree 25 ft.|Fairly moist soil |Southern United | | |States | | | ,, *palustris (Pin |Tree 60 ft.|Leaves charming in Spring |United States Oak) | |and Autumn | | | | ,, pedunculata |Tree 50 to |Ordinary soil and position|Europe and Asia (Syn. Q. Robur |100 ft. | | pedunculata), | | | (British Oak) | | | | | | ,, *pedunculata |Tree 20 ft.|Ordinary soil and |Garden form Concordia | |position; very handsome | (Golden-leaved | |golden-leaved tree | British Oak) | | | | | | ,, pedunculata |Tree 50 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|Garden form fastigiata | | | | | | ,, ,, heterophylla|Tree 40 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, ,, pendula |Tree | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Weeping Oak) | | | | | | ,, ,, purpurascens|Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, *Phellos | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |United States (Willow Oak) | | | | | | ,, phillyræoides |Evergreen |Fairly moist soil, |Japan |tree 15 ft.|sheltered spot | | | | ,, pontica |Tree or |Ordinary soil and position|Asia Minor |shrub 15 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, prinoides |Tree 20 to | ,, ,, ,, |United States |30 ft. | | | | | ,, Prinos |Tree 70 to | ,, ,, ,, |Eastern North |80 ft. | |America | | | ,, Pseudo-suber |Sub- | ,, ,, ,, sheltered spot|South Europe |evergreen | | |tree 50 ft.| | | | | ,, pumila |Spreading | ,, ,, ,, |Eastern United |shrub 10 | |States |ft. | | | | | ,, reticulata |Evergreen |Hardy only in South and |New Mexico and |shrub 10 |West of England |Arizona |ft. | | | | | ,, *rubra |Tree 60 to |Ordinary soil and |North America (Champion Oak) |80 ft. |position; brilliant Autumn| | |colour; very handsome | | | | ,, serrata |Tree 20 to |Ordinary soil and position|China and Japan |30 ft. | | | | | ,, sessiliflora |Tree 60 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe, West | | |Asia | | | ,, ,, and |Trees | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties |various | | | | | ,, ,, stellata |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |United States | | | ,, Suber (Cork Oak)|Evergreen |Rather more tender than |South Europe, |tree 25 ft.|the Holm Oak (gives the |North Africa | |cork of commerce) | | | | ,, Toza (Syn. Q. |Tree 30 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|South-west Tauzin) | | |Europe | | | ,, Turneri (Syn. |Sub- | ,, ,, ,, |Garden origin Q. austriaca |evergreen | | sempervirens, Q. |tree 40 to | | glandulifera) |50 ft. | | | | | ,, undulata |Tree 20 ft.|Ordinary soil and |Western North | |sheltered spot |America | | | ,, velutina |Tree 70 to | ,, ,, ,, and position |North America |80 ft. | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- [Illustration: _EVERGREEN OAKS. (Frogmore.)_] -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | CHARACTER | | LATIN NAME. | AND | REMARKS. | NATIVE COUNTRY. | HEIGHT. | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | | | *Rhamnus Alaternus |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |South-west |shrub or | |Europe |tree 20 ft.| | | | | ,, alnifolius |Shrub 2 to |Moist peaty soil |United States (Alder-leaved |4 ft. | | Buckthorn) | | | | | | ,, alpinus |Shrub 4 ft.|Ordinary soil and position|Alpine regions (Alpine | | | Buckthorn) | | | | | | ,, californicus |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, and sheltered |California (Californian |shrub 10 |position | Buckthorn) |ft. | | | | | ,, carolinianus |Shrub 6 to |Ordinary soil and position|Southern United |8 ft. | |States | | | ,, catharticus |Shrub 5 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and Asia |10 ft. | | | | | ,, davuricus |Shrub 12 | ,, ,, ,, |Siberia |ft. | | | | | ,, Frangula |Shrub 5 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe |10 ft. | | | | | ,, infectorius |Shrub 2 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |South Europe | | | ,, libanoticus |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Asia Minor and | | |Syria | | | ,, *purshianus |Shrub 10 | ,, ,, ,, |California (Syn. R. rubra) |ft. | | | | | ,, saxatilis |Shrub 2 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe | | | ,, tinctorius |Shrub 8 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe and Asia | | | Rhus aromatica | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Southern United | | |States | | | ,, copallina |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Eastern United | | |States | | | ,, Cotinus |Shrub 6 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe (Venetian, |8 ft. | | Sumach, Wig Tree,| | | Smoke Bush) | | | | | | ,, *cotinoides |Shrub 15 | ,, ,, ,, |North America |ft. | | | | | ,, *glabra (Syn. |Tree 15 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |United States R. coccinea) | | | | | | ,, ,, *laciniata |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Garden form | | | ,, Osbeckei |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, and sheltered |China and Japan | |position | | | | ,, succedanea |Shrub 10 |Hardy only in South and | ,, |ft. |West of England | | | | ,, Toxicodendron |Twining |Ordinary soil and |North America (Syn. Ampelopsis |shrub 20 |position. Very poisonous |and Japan japonica), |ft. | | (Poison Oak, | | | Poison Ivy), | | | (Syn. Ampelopsis | | | Hoggii) | | | | | | ,, *typhina |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Eastern United (Stag's-horn | | |States Sumach) | | | | | | ,, venenata (Syn. |Shrub 12 | ,, ,, ,, Very poisonous| ,, R. vernix), |ft. | | (Poison Sumach) | | | | | | ,, vernicifera |Tree 25 ft.| ,, sheltered position |China and Japan | | | *Ruscus aculeatus |Evergreen |Will grow well under the |Europe (Butcher's Broom)|shrub 2 ft.|shade of trees | | | | ,, *Hypoglossum |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |South Europe and |shrub 2 to | |North Africa |3 ft. | | | | | ,, Hypophyllum | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |South-west | | |Europe | | | Ruta graveolens |Shrub 3 ft.|Sandy loam, sunny spot |South Europe | | | Salix alba (White |Tree 60 ft.|Needs moist soil, indeed |Europe and Asia Willow) | |will grow in boggy places | | | | ,, ,, *britzensis |Tree 25 ft.|Brilliant bark, colour |Garden form (Cardinal Willow)| |very effective | | | | ,, ,, *vitellina | ,, |Needs moist soil, indeed | ,, (Golden-barked | |will grow in boggy places | Willow) | | | | | | ,, ambigua |Shrub 2 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe | | | ,, aurita |Tree 15 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Eastern North | | |America | | | ,, babylonica |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan (Babylonian | | | Weeping Willow) | | | | | | ,, ,, annularis | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form | | | ,, cæsia (Syn. S. |Shrub 3 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Switzerland prostrata), | | | (Grey-leaved | | | Willow) | | | | | | ,, Caprea (Goat |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North Willow) | | |Asia | | | ,, ,, *pendula |Weeping | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (Kilmarnock | | | Willow) | | | | | | ,, cinerea |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North | | |Asia | | | ,, cordata |Tree 15 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America | | | ,, cuspidata |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe | | | ,, daphnoides |Tree 10 to |Very beautiful yellow | ,, (Violet Willow) |20 ft. |catkins, robust | | | | ,, decipiens |Tree 30 ft.|Needs moist soil, indeed | ,, | |will grow in boggy places | | | | ,, doniana |Shrub 5 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, fragilis (Syn. |Tree 60 to |Very beautiful willow |Europe and North S. russelliana), |70 ft. | |Asia (Crack Willow) | | | | | | ,, ,, basfordiana |Tree 25 ft.|Needs moist soil, indeed |Garden form | |will grow in boggy places | | | | ,, hastata |Shrub 6 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North |8 ft. | |Asia | | | ,, herbacea |Shrub 2 to |A good rockwork plant | ,, |3 _in._ | | | | | ,, hexandra |Tree 20 ft.|Needs moist soil, indeed |Europe | |will grow in boggy places | | | | ,, humilis |Shrub 2 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America | | | ,, lanata |Shrub 4 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Arctic Europe | | | ,, Lapponum |Shrub 1 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North (Lapland Willow) | | |Asia | | | ,, lasiandra |Shrub 12 | ,, ,, ,, |Western United |ft. | |States | | | ,, *laurina (Syn. |Shrub 10 | ,, ,, ,, |Europe S. bicolor) |ft. | | | | | ,, lucida |Shrub 10 to| ,, ,, ,, |North America |12 ft. | | | | | ,, Myrsinites |Shrub 6 |A good rockwork plant |North Hemisphere |_in._ to 1 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, myrtilloides |Shrub 2 to |Needs moist soil, indeed | ,, (Syn. S. elegans)|4 ft. |will grow in boggy places | | | | ,, nigra (Black |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North America Willow) | | | | | | ,, nigricans |Tree 10 to | ,, ,, ,, |Tyrol |12 ft. | | | | | ,, *pentandra |Shrub 8 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North |9 ft. | |Asia | | | ,, petiolaris |Shrub 8 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America (Syn. S. fuscata)|10 ft. | | | | | ,, phylicifolia |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Tyrol | | | ,, purpurea (Syn. |Shrub 8 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North S. fissa), |10 ft. | |Asia (Purple Willow) | | | | | | ,, ,, *pendula |Shrub | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (Syn. S. |Weeping | | americana | | | pendula), | | | (American Weeping| | | Willow) | | | | | | ,, repens |Shrub 1 ft.|Will grow in dry sandy |Europe and North | |soils |Asia | | | ,, ,, *argentea |Shrub |Needs moist soil, indeed |Garden form (Syn. S. sericea |Weeping |will grow in boggy places | pendula) | | | | | | ,, reticulata |Shrub 6 |A good rockwork plant |Arctic regions |_in._ | | | | | ,, retusa |Shrub 6 | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North |_in._ to 1 | |Asia |ft. | | | | | ,, *rosmarinifolia |Shrub 2 to |Needs moist soil, indeed |Europe (Rosemary-leaved |4 ft. |will grow in boggy places.| Willow) | |Very charming | | | | ,, rubra |Tree 10 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe |30 ft. | | | | | ,, sieboldiana |Tree 15 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Japan | | | ,, smithiana |Shrub 5 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe (Syn. S. pannosa)| | | | | | ,, stipularis |Tree 15 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe | | | ,, triandra |Tree 20 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North | | |Asia | | | ,, undulata (Syn. |Shrub 12 to| ,, ,, ,, |Europe S. lanceolata) |15 ft. | | | | | ,, viminalis |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |North Europe and (Syn. S. | | |Asia longifolia), | | | (Twiggy Willow) | | | | | | ,, viridis | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Europe | | | *Sambucus nigra |Tree 25 ft.|Ordinary soil and |Garden form aurea | |position, full sun | (Golden-leaved | | | Elder) | | | | | | ,, ,, laciniata | ,, | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Cut-leaved | | | Elder) | | | | | | ,, racemosa |Tree 10 to |Needs a fairly cool moist |North Hemisphere (Scarlet-berried |15 ft. |soil | Elder) | | | | | | ,, ,, *plumosa |Tree 12 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Garden form | | | ,, ,, ,, *aurea |Tree 8 ft. | ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | ,, ,, serratifolia|Tree 10 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |15 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, *tenuifolia |Shrub 6 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, | | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | CHARACTER | | LATIN NAME. | AND | REMARKS. | NATIVE COUNTRY. | HEIGHT. | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- | | | Santolina |Evergreen |Grows well in dry sandy |South Europe Chamæcyparissus |shrub 2 to |soils | (Lavender Cotton)|3 ft. | | | | | ,, rosmarinifolia |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |Spain and |shrub 2 ft.| |Portugal | | | ,, viridis |Evergreen | ,, ,, ,, |South Europe |shrub 3 ft.| | | | | Sarcococca |Evergreen |Hardy only in the South |Himalaya Hookeriana |shrub 4 ft.|and West of England | | | | Sassafras |Tree 15 to |Needs fairly moist soil, |United States officinale (Syn. |25 ft. |sheltered position | Laurus Sassafras)| | | (The Sassafras | | | tree) | | | | | | Schizandra |Twining |Succeeds best as a wall |China and Japan chinensis |shrub 20 |plant | |ft. | | | | | Smilax aspera |Twining |Should be trained to a |Mediterranean |evergreen |wall or trellis. Needs |region |shrub 10 |shelter | |ft. | | | | | ,, ,, maculata |Twining | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |evergreen | | |shrub 10 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, Bona-nox (Syn. |Twining | ,, ,, ,, |Southern United S. hastata) |evergreen | |States |shrub 5 to | | |10 ft. | | | | | ,, China |Twining | ,, ,, ,, |China |evergreen | | |shrub 20 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, excelsa |Twining | ,, ,, ,, |Syria |evergreen | | |shrub 10 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, glauca (Syn. S. |Twining | ,, ,, ,, |North America Sarsaparilla) |evergreen | | |shrub 3 ft.| | | | | ,, rotundifolia |Twining | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Syn. S. caduca) |deciduous | | |shrub 8 ft.| | | | | ,, tamnoides |Twining | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |evergreen | | |shrub 10 | | |ft. | | | | | Stachyurus præcox |Small tree |Moist soil and sheltered |China and Japan |10 to 12 |spot. Early flowering | |ft. | | | | | Stauntonia |Evergreen |Needs the protection of a | ,, hexaphylla |twiner 20 |wall in the London | |ft. |district | | | | Stephanandra |Shrub 5 ft.|Ordinary soil and position| ,, flexuosa (Syn. S.| | | incisa) | | | | | | ,, Tanakæ |Shrub 3 ft.|Reddish-brown stems in |Japan | |winter | | | | Stranvæsia |Evergreen |Hardy only in South and |Himalaya glaucescens |tree 20 ft.|West of England | | | | Symplocos |Small tree |Needs sheltered spot |Himalaya to cratægoides |15 ft. | |Japan | | | ,, japonica (Syn. |Shrub 10 | ,, ,, ,, |China and Japan S. lucida) |ft. | | | | | ,, tinctoria |Shrub 3 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Southern United | | |States | | | Taxus (Yew). See | | | pp. 92, 123, 326 | | | | | | Teucrium fruticans |Evergreen |Needs sheltered spot and |South Europe (Free Germander) |shrub 2 to |light soil | |3 ft. | | | | | Tilia americana |Tree 60 to |Ordinary soil and position|North America (Syn. T. glabra),|70 ft. | | (American Lime) | | | | | | ,, *argentea (Syn. |Tree 30 to | ,, ,, ,, |Eastern Europe T. americana |50 ft. | | pubescens), | | | (Silver Lime) | | | | | | ,, cordata (Syn. | ,, | ,, ,, ,, |Eastern North T. microphylla) | | |America | | | ,, *dasystyla (Syn.| ,, |Distinct upright growth; |South-Eastern T. euchlora) | |leaves curled somewhat. |United States | |Very valuable | | | | ,, heterophylla | ,, |Ordinary soil and position|North America (Syn. T. | | | macrophylla) | | | | | | ,, mandshurica |Tree 40 to | ,, ,, ,, |Manchuria |50 ft. | | | | | ,, miqueliana |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Japan (Japanese Lime) |80 ft. | | | | | ,, *petiolaris |Tree 50 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Eastern Europe (Syn. T. alba | | | pendula), (White | | | Weeping Lime) | | | | | | ,, *platyphyllos |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe (Syn. T. europæa)|80 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, and |Various | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties |heights | | | | | ,, pubescens (Syn. |Tree 50 to | ,, ,, ,, |Eastern United T. leptophylla) |70 ft. | |States | | | ,, vulgaris (Syn. |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe T. hybrida), |80 ft. | | (Common Lime) | | | | | | *Trachycarpus |Evergreen |Good deep loam, shelter |Japan excelsus (Syn. |palm 20 ft.|from rough winds | Chamærops | | | excelsa) | | | | | | Ulmus alata |Tree 30 to |Ordinary soil and position|Southern United (Cork-winged Elm)|40 ft. | |States | | | ,, americana |Tree 80 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America (American Elm) |90 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, pendula |Weeping | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (American Weeping|tree | | Elm) | | | | | | ,, campestris |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and Asia (Common Elm) |80 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, *aurea |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Garden form (Golden-leaved | | | Elm) | | | | | | ,, ,, *microphylla|Weeping | ,, ,, ,, | ,, pendula |tree | | | | | ,, ,, suberosa |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |80 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, viminalis |Tree 25 ft.| ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Twiggy Elm) | | | | | | ,, fulva (Syn. U. |Tree 50 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America rubra) |60 ft. | | | | | ,, montana (Scotch |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Europe and North or Wych Elm) |80 ft. | |Asia | | | ,, ,, aurea |Tree 30 to | ,, ,, ,, |Garden form |40 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, crispa |Tree 30 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |40 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, *Dampieri |Tree 25 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, aurea |30 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, fastigiata |Tree 40 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |50 ft. | | | | | ,, ,, *pendula |Weeping | ,, ,, ,, | ,, |tree | | | | | ,, ,, purpurea |Tree 40 to | ,, ,, ,, | ,, (Purple-leaved |50 ft. | | Elm) | | | | | | ,, ,, and other |Various | ,, ,, ,, |Garden forms varieties |heights | | | | | ,, parviflora (Syn.|Small tree | ,, ,, ,, |China and Japan U. chinensis) |10 to 12 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, pumila |Small tree | ,, ,, ,, |North Asia |10 to 15 | | |ft. | | | | | ,, racemosa |Tree 50 to | ,, ,, ,, |North America |60 ft. | | | | | ,, turkestanica |Tree 40 to | ,, ,, ,, |Turkestan (Turkestan Elm) |50 ft. | | | | | Xanthoxylum |Shrub 10 to| ,, ,, ,, |United States americanum |20 ft. | | (Toothache tree) | | | | | | ,, planispinum |Shrub 10 to| ,, ,, ,, |Japan |15 ft. | | | | | Zelkowa acuminata |Tree 50 to | ,, ,, ,, |Japan |80 ft. | | | | | ,, crenata |Tree 60 to | ,, ,, ,, |Caucasus |80 ft. | | | | | ,, Verschaffelti |Tree 30 ft.| ,, ,, ,, |Eastern Europe (Syn. Ulmus | | |and Asia Minor Verschaffelti) | | | -------------------+-----------+--------------------------+---------------- [Illustration: _DOVASTON YEW ON STEEP BANK._] INDEX Abelia floribunda, 189 Abelias, 20; as climbers, 307; pruning, 20 Abies, 122 Abutilon vexillarium, 189 Abutilons, as climbing shrubs, 308 Acacia, 449; rose, the, 4, 448 Acacias, 189 Acanthopanax ricinifolium, 20, 470; sessiliflorum, 20; spinosum, 20, 470 Acer, 41, 175, 470; ginnala, for colour, 74; palmatum and varieties, 282 Actinidia, 176; pruning, 21; for autumn colouring, 76 Adenandra fragrans, 190 Adlumia cirrhosa, 308 Æsculus, 4, 21, 41, 176, 357, 358, 359 Ailantus, 41, 471; glandulosa, 176; for its fruits, 78 Akebia quinata, 308; pruning, 21; for autumn colouring, 76 Alders 41, 68, 471; with beautiful catkins, 68 Alleys, pleached or green, 334-337 Allspice, American, 364; Californian, 364 Almond, the, 409; in greenhouse, 278 Alnus, 41, 471-472 Aloysia citriodora, 309 Alpine rose, 431 Althæa frutex, 4 Amelanchier, 3, 17, 21, 167, 176, 360-361; canadensis, for colour, 74 Amoor yellow wood, 370 Amorpha canescens, 22; fruticosa, 22 Ampelopsis, 309; Veitch's, for autumn colouring, 76 Amygdalus, 410 Andromeda polifolia, 176, 361 Andromedas, 18, 22, 250, 393; in greenhouse, 266 Anopterus glandulosa, 190 Apios tuberosa, 309 Apricots, the, 411 Aralia, 26; pruning, 22; mandschurica, 166; quinquefolia, 191; spinosa, 176 Araucaria, 121 Arbours, weeping trees as, 89 Arbor-vitæ, as a hedge, 327 Arbutus, 17, 176; hybrida, 64, 249; Unedo, 249; Unedo for its fruits, 78; and varieties, 64, 249 Arctostaphylos alpina, 176; Uva-ursi, 250 Aristolochia, 22, 166, 176; Sipho, as a climber, 305, 309 Aristotelia Macqui, 472; M. variegata, 472 Aronia floribunda, for grouping, 284 Arrow-wood, 462 Artemisia Abrotanum, 176, 472 Artemisia, pruning, 22 Arundinaria Veitchii, 472 Arundo Donax, 472; A. D. variegata, 472 Ash, 41, 476; Barberry, 361; flowering, 387; mountain, 7, 425 Aspen, 481 Aster argophyllus, 191 Athrotaxis laxifolia, 191 Atragene alpina, 309 Atraphaxis buxifolia, 472; lanceolata, 472; Muschketowi, 472; spinosa, 472 Atriplex canescens, 472; confertifolia, 472; Halimus, 472; Nuttallii, 472; portulacoides, 472 Aucuba, 58, 176, 249; the spotted, 58 Aucubas, 251, 256; for their fruits, 78 Autumn colours, 71-76 Azalea amoena, 250; ledifolia, 249; occidentalis, 5 Azaleas, 31, 250, 442; for autumn colouring, 75; in Scotland, 173; in greenhouse, 267 Azara dentata, 472; Gilliesii, 472; integrifolia, 472; microphylla, 176, 249, 310, 472 Baccharis halimifolia, 22, 472; salicifolia, 472; Patagonica, 22, 472 Bamboo garden at Kew, 220 Bamboos, hardy, 185, 218-225; place for, 219 Banksia grandis, 191 Barberries, for their fruit, 78 Bauera rubioides, 191 Bay, sweet, 478 Beam tree, white, 7, 424 Beech, propagating the, 41; autumn colouring of, 74; winter beauty of, 54 Beeches, the, 476 Bennett, Henry, the late, 342 Benthamia fragifera, 191, 310 Berberidopsis corallina, 208, 310 Berberis Aquifolium, 256; for grouping, 297; and vars., 249; for autumn colouring, 75, 249; buxifolia, 249; concinna, for autumn colouring, 75; Darwinii, 249; japonica, 249; stenophylla, 39, 249, 256; Thunbergi, for autumn colouring, 75; for grouping, 284; wallichiana, 249; vulgaris purpureis, for grouping, 284 Berberises, the, 9, 10, 22, 167, 176, 250, 361-363; in greenhouse, 268 Berchemia, 472; pruning, 23 Betula, 41, 59, 167, 176, 473; corylifolia, for colour, 73 Bigelovia Douglasii, 473; graveolens, 473 Bignonia capreolata, 311; in the south-west, 208 Billardiera longiflora, 311 Birches, the, 41, 59, 61, 472-473; silver, 473 Black thorn, 7 Bladder nut, 454 Bladder Senna, 371 Borders, flower and shrub, 257, 259 Boronias, 192 Bougainvillea glabra, in the south-west, 208 Box, 11, 177, 248; for grouping, 297; as a hedge, 327 Box-leaved Barberry, 361-362 Brachyglottis repanda, 192 Brambles, the, 450; for autumn colouring, 76 Broom, Austrian, 373; butcher's, 484; common, 359, 375; drooping, 375; moonlight, 375; Portuguese, 372; Spanish, 250, 372, 452; white Spanish, 356 Brooms, in greenhouse, 286 Broussonetia Kæmpferi, 473; papyrifera, 473 Bruckenthalia, pruning, 23; spiculifolia, 250 Bryanthus, 23, 177; empetriformis, 250 Buck-eyes, the, 357 Bucklandia populnea, 208 Buckthorn, sea, 11, 483; for its fruits, 82 Budding, propagating trees and shrubs by, 41 Buddleia Colvillei, 192, 363; globosa, 23, 167, 363; japonica, 23, 363; intermedia, 23; lindleyana, 23; paniculata, 23; variabilis, 23, 364; Wilsonæ, 363 Bumelia lanuginosa, 473; lycioides, 473 Butter nut, 478 Cæsalpinia Gilliesi, 265; japonica, 364 Callicarpa purpurea, in the south-west, 209 Calluna, 23; vulgaris, 13, 238, 250 Calophaca, 23 Calycanthus, 23; floridus, 4, 167, 364; occidentalis, 364 Calystegia pubescens, fl. pl., 311 Camellia, 23, 177, 311; japonica, 249; reticulata, 193 Candleberry gale, 18 Candollea tetrandra in the south-west, 193 Cantua buxifolia, 193 Caragana, 24 Carmichælia, 24, 177 Carpenteria californica, in the south-west, 193; in greenhouse, 268 Carpinus, 41, 175, 473 Carya, 41, 474; tomentosa, for autumn colouring, 73 Caryopteris Mastacanthus, 193; in greenhouse, 268 Cassandra, 24, 364 Cassia corymbosa, 209 Cassinia, 24; fulvida, 3; leptophylla, 194 Cassiope, 24, 177, 364 Castanea, 41, 177, 474 Catalpa, 24, 42, 365-367 Ceanothus, 166, 167, 194, 313, 367, 368; americanus, 24, 367; azureus, 24, 367; gloire de Versailles, 24, 194, 249; integerrimus, 24; veitchianus, 194 Ceanothuses, in greenhouse, 269 Cedar of Lebanon, 51; beauty of, in winter, 51 Cedrus, 122 Celastrus, 24, 474; for its fruits, 80 Celtis, 41, 474 Cercis, 24, 177, 368; Siliquastrum, in greenhouse, 269 Cherries, the, 414 Cherry, cornelian, 475; bird, 3, 7, 417 Cherry, wild, 7, 17, 414 Chestnut, 41; golden, 474; sweet, 41, 474 Chimonanthus, 3, 25, 177, 313; fragrans, 57, 64 Chionanthus, 25, 368, 369; in greenhouse, 269 Choisya ternata, 168, 178, 249, 270, 314, 369 Chorizemas, in the south-west, 209 Christ's Thorn, 83 Cissus discolor, in the south-west, 209 Cistus, 18, 25, 178, 369-370; gum, 370; laurifolius, 249 Citharexylon quadrangulare, 194 Citrus trifoliata, 194 Cladrastis amurensis, 370; tinctoria, 370; for autumn colouring, 74 Clematis aromatica, 25; calycina, 64; cærulea odorata, 25; Flammula, 25; florida, 25; indivisa lobata, in the south-west, 209; Jackmani, 25, 168; lanuginosa, 25; montana, 25, 168; paniculata, 25; patens, 25; Viticella, 25; Vitalba, 25 Clematises, in greenhouse, 270 Clerodendron trichotomum, 25, 194; for autumn colouring, 74 Clethra, 25, 168, 194; in greenhouse, 270; alnifolia, 4, 370-371 Clianthus puniceus, in the south-west, 209 Climbers, variegated, 99 Coffee tree, 477 Colletia cruciata, 178, 474; ferox, 474 Colouring, autumn, of leaf, 71 Colutea, 26, 371; arborescens, 177, 371; for grouping, 285, 371; cruenta, 371 Comptonia asplenifolia, 5 Conifers, 185; at Murthly Castle, 124; for autumn colouring, 74; for rock garden, 148; in ornamental planting, 110-128; propagation of, 118-124; variegated, 97; weeping, 91 Convolvulus Cneorum, 178 Coprosma acerosa, for its fruits, 81 Coriaria japonica, for its fruits, 81; myrtifolia, 474 Cornels, in winter, 60-61 Cornus, 64, 178, 474-475; alba, 26, 168, 474; Amomum, 26, 474; Baileyi, 26, 474; capitata, for its fruits, 81; fragifera, 191; pubescens, 26, 475; sanguinea, for grouping, 285; Spathii, 252; stolonifera, 26, 475; winter beauty of, 60, 61 Corokia buddleioides, 195 Coronilla Emerus, 371; juncea, 372 Correas, in the south-west, 195 Corylopsis pauciflora, 372; spicata, 64, 177, 270, 372 Corylus, 168, 178, 475; maxima purpurea, for grouping, 286 Corynocarpus lævigatus, 195 Cotoneaster buxifolia, 249; and Wheeleri for grouping, 298; frigida, 252; horizontalis, 259; for autumn colouring, 75; microphylla, 168, 250; for grouping, 298; rotundifolia, 250; Simonsii, 250; for grouping, 286; thymifolia, 250 Cotoneasters, 26, 178, 256; for their fruits, 78 Cotton, 486 Crab, Siberian, the, 421 Crabs, 7, 421-424 Cratægus, 7, 26, 42, 372, 376-382; monogyna præcox, 64; Oxyacantha, 252, 256; Pyracantha, 249, 256 Crinodendron Hookeri, 195 Crowberry, 476 Cryptomeria, 121 Cucumber tree, 403 Cupressus, the, 119; macrocarpa, 11 Currants, the, 279, 448 Cuttings, propagating trees and shrubs by, 40 Cypress, Monterey, 11; Lawson, in winter, 51; Lawson, as a hedge, 328 Cyrilla racemiflora, 382 Cytisus, 26, 252, 286, 372-376; in greenhouse, 271; capitatus, 26, 373; nigricans, 26, 372, 373, 374; racemosus, in the south-west, 195 Cytisuses, the, 168, 178, 372, 373, 374, 375 Daboecia, 16; polifolia, 178, 238, 250, 382 Daffodils, 15 Daisy, bush, 405; tree, 405 Danæ Laurus, 475 Daphne Cneorum, 169, 250, 252; indica, in the south-west, 196; Laureola, 7, 169, 282; Mezereum and var. alba, 252; Mezereum, for grouping, 169, 256, 287; oleoides, 250 Daphnes, the, 26, 64, 179, 382, 383 Daphniphyllum glaucescens, 196 Datura sanguinea, in the south-west, 196 Decumaria barbara, 475 Dendromecon rigidus, in the south-west, 196 Desfontainea spinosa, 196 Desmodium, 27 Deutzia, 27, 179, 271, 383, 384; crenata, 169, 252, 383; for autumn colouring, 76; discolor, 383; gracilis, 252, 383; hybrida, 252, 383; parviflora, 383 Diervilla, 169; in greenhouse, 272; florida, 384; middendorfiana, 384 Dimorphanthus mandschuricus, 166; for grouping, 287 Diosma ericoides, in the south-west, 197 Diospyros Kaki, in the south-west, 197 Diplacus glutinosus, in the south-west, 210 Diplopappus, 3 Disanthus cercidifolia, for autumn colouring, 75 Dogwood, 475; Siberian, 474 Drimys aromatica, 197, 475; Winteri, 475 Dryobalanops aromatica, 197 Eccremocarpus, 314 Edwardsia grandiflora, 197, 314 Elæagnus, 27-64, 179, 249, 475-476; macrophyllus, 249; multiflora, for its fruits, 81; pungens and varieties, 249, 252 Elæocarpus cyaneus, 210 Elder, scarlet-berried, for its fruits, 86 Elders, 7, 485 Elm, autumn beauty of, 73 Elms, 41, 487, 488 Embothrium coccineum, 198 Empetrum nigrum, 179, 476 Enkianthus campanulatus, 384; himalaicus, 179; for autumn colouring, 75 Ephedra americana, 476; distachya, 476; gerardiana, 476; helvetica, 476; trifurca, 476 Epigæa repens, 384, 385 Ercilla spicata, 210; volubilis, 476 Erica, 27; arborea, 238, 249; australis, 230, 249; carnea, 64, 250; c. alba, 64; cinerea, 234, 250; ciliaris, 235; codonodes, 229; lusitanica, 229, 249; maweana, 235; mediterranea, 64, 231, 249; m. hybrida, 64, 250; Mackaii, 237; multiflora, 237; scoparia, 232; stricta, 232; Tetralix, 236, 250; vagans, 237, 250; vulgaris, 288; Watsoni, 236 Erinacea pungens, 385 Eriobotrya japonica, 476 Eriogonum umbellatum, 179 Eriostemon buxifolius, 198 Escallonia, 27; illinita, 198, 385; macrantha, 169; philippiana, 169, 249; punctata, 27; rubra, 27, 249 Escallonias, the, 179, 198, 385 Eucalypti, in the south-west, 198 Eucryphia pinnatifolia, 179, 199, 249 Euonymus, 5, 179, 249; alatus, for autumn colouring, 76; europæus, for its fruits, 81; fimbriatus, 199; japonicus, 252, 256; radicans var., 250, 252 Euonymuses, for grouping, 287 Eupatorium weinmannianum, 199 Eurya japonica, 476; latifolia, 199 Evergreens, climbing, 246; for winter and summer effect, 297; for rock garden, 148; native and other hardy, 240-250; pruning of, 245; suitable climate for, 241; the best, 247; time to transplant, 243 Exochorda grandiflora, 2, 27, 179, 386 Fabiana imbricata, 179, 199 Fagus, 41, 179, 199, 476 Fatsia, 27, 476 Ficus Carica, 476 Fig, 476 Fir, Scotch, the, 11 Flower borders, 257-259 Flower garden in winter, 62 Forsythia, 256, 386; suspensa, 4, 9, 10, 169, 179, 252, 386; viridissima, 179, 387 Forsythias, in greenhouse, 272 Fothergilla, 27; alnifolia, for autumn colouring, 76 Fraxinus, 41, 180, 476; floribunda, 387; Mariesii, for its fruits, 81; Ornus, 387 Fremontia californica, 200 Fringe tree, 368, 369; American, 369 Fuchsia corallina, 387; globosa, 387; gracilis, 387; Riccartoni, 169, 180, 388; for grouping, 288 Fuchsias, hardy, 314, 387 Furze, 461; double, 250 Garden orchard, the, 338-341 Garden, rock, trees and shrubs for, 138-150 Gardens, trees and shrubs for windswept, 106-109 Garland flower, the, 382 Garrya elliptica, 27, 64, 69, 169, 249, 388 Gaultheria procumbens, 250; for autumn colouring, 75; Shallon, 5, 250 Gean, the, 414 Genista, 28, 180, 388; hispanica, 250, 253, 256; tinctoria, 28, 170; virgata, 170 Genistas, the, 388, 389 Gingko biloba, for autumn colouring, 74 Gleditschia triacanthos, 41, 73, 180, 477; for its fruits, 81 Golden bell, the, 386; rain or chain, 397 Gooseberry, 448 Gordonia Lasianthus, 390; pubescens, 390 Gorse, 461; common, for grouping, 301; double, 250 Grafting, abuse and use of, 38, 41 Greenhouse, shrubs, hardy in, 263-282 Grevilleas, in the south-west, 200 Griselinia littoralis, 477; lucida, 477 Grouping, right way of, 10 Guelder rose, the, 464; wild, 7 Guevina avellana, in the south-west, 200 Gymnocladus canadensis, 477; chinensis, 477 Hablitzia tamnoides, 314 Habrothamnus corymbosus, in the south-west, 200 Hakea laurina, 201 Halesia tetraptera, 170 Halesias, 3, 28, 390-392 Halimodendron, 28 Hamamelis, 28, 64, 170, 180, 253, 392, 393; for autumn colouring, 74; arborea, 392; japonica, 392; mollis, 393; virginica, 64, 393 Hawthorn, 178, 252; Chinese, 480 Hazel, common, for autumn colouring, 75 Hazels, 67, 475; with beautiful catkins, 67; Wych, 392 Heath, Dorset, 250; Irish, the, 26; paths, 16 Heather bell, 250; common, 13; Cornish, 250; Scotch, 250 Heaths, 179, 226-239; in greenhouse, 272; the taller or tree-like, 228; the dwarfer, 233 Heathy paths, 13-15 Hedera Helix and its vars., 256, 315; for its fruits, 82 Hedge, arbor-vitae as a, 327; box as a, 327; cypress, Lawson, as a, 328; holly as a, 325; laurel as a, 329; Osmanthus ilicifolius as a, 329; privet as a, 328; yew as a, 326 Hedges, deciduous, 330; flowering and other, 324-333; of flowering shrubs, 331 Hedysarum, 28, 170 Helianthemum, 28, 170 Heliocarpus cyaneus, 201 Hibbertia dentata, 210 Hibiscus syriacus, 4, 27, 253, 256, 393 Hickory, 41, 474 Hippophaë rhamnoides, 393; for grouping, 288; for its fruits, 82 Hoheria populnea, 201 Hollies, for their fruits, 82; weeping, 89 Holly, 11, 42, 248, 253, 477, 478; as a hedge, 325; for grouping, 299 Honey locust, 41; for autumn colouring, 73 Honeysuckles, 7, 317; for autumn colouring, 76 Hop tree, 481 Hornbeams, 41, 473, 479 Horse chestnut, 21, 357, 358, 359 Hydrangea, 28, 180, 394; Hortensia, 249, 253, 394; paniculata, 170, 395; p. grandiflora, 253; for grouping, 288; petiolaris, 395; quercifolia, 395; radiata, 395; scandens, 210 Hydrangeas, in greenhouse, 273 Hymenanthera crassifolia, 477; for its fruits, 82 Hypericum, 28, 180, 395-396; calycinum, 171, 250, 252; moserianum, 39, 252, 396 Hypericums, for their fruits, 82; for grouping, 289 Idesia polycarpa, 477 Ilex, 9, 17, 42, 180, 249, 253, 477, 478; for grouping, 299 Illicium anisatum, 201 Indigofera, 28; gerardiana, 201, 316 Inga pulcherrima, 210 Ireland, trees and shrubs in, 215-217 Iris pallida dalmatica, 4 Iron tree, 479 Itea, 28, 396; virginica, in greenhouses, 273 Ivies, 315; bush, 241, 250, 253 Ivy, atropurpurea, for autumn colouring, 76; beauty of, in winter, 49; bush or tree in winter, 64; for its fruits, 82 Ivy poison, 484 Jacaranda mimosæfolia, 201 Jamesia, 28, 396; americana, in greenhouse, 274 Jasmines, the, 317 Jasminum, 29, 180; nudiflorum, 171, 253; officinale, 171, 256 Judas tree, 368 Juglans, 41, 180, 478 Juniper, 7, 11 Junipers, the, 119 Juniperus Sabina tamariscifolia, 300 Kadsura chinensis, 478 Kalmia angustifolia, 250; glauca, 250; latifolia, 171, 249 Kalmias, 18, 29, 397; in greenhouse, 274 Kennedya nigricans, 210 Kerria, 29, 171, 253, 256; in greenhouse, 274; japonica, 317; for grouping, 289; white-flowered, 447 Kew, bamboo garden at, 219 Koelreuteria paniculata, 397; japonica, for autumn colouring, 74 Labrador tea, 400 Laburnum, 29, 41, 171, 180, 253, 256, 397-400; Nepaul, 319; in greenhouse, 274 Lagerstroemia indica, 201 Lapagerias, in the south-west, 211 Lardizabala biternata, 478 Larix, 122 Lasiandra macrantha, in the south-west, 211 Laurel, Alexandrian, 475; American, 432; cherry, 2, 249, 418; ground, 384; mountain, 397; Portugal, 249, 419; sheep, 397 Laurels as hedges, 329; for grouping, 297 Laurus nobilis, 249, 478 Lavandula, 29, 170 Lavender, 18, 180 Leaf, autumn colouring of the, 71; conditions detrimental to, 72 Ledum, 18, 29, 180, 400; buxifolium, 5; latifolium, 250; palustre, 5 Leiophyllum buxifolium, 250, 400 Leptospermums, in the south-west, 201 Lespedeza, 29, 400 Leucothoë, 29, 180; axillaris, 29; Catesbæi, 29 Leycesteria formosa, 5, 29, 171, 180, 400; for grouping, 289 Libocedrus, 120 Libonia floribunda, in the south-west, 201 Ligustrum, 29, 171, 249, 253, 400-402; japonicum, 249; ovalifolium aureum, 256 Lilac, Japanese and others, 382, 455-460 Lilacs, the, 36, 455-460 Limes, 41, 487 Linden, 41 Lindera Benzoin, 478; glauca, 479; hypoglauca, 479; obtusiloba, 479; sericea, 479 Ling, the, 16, 23 Liquidambar, 41, 73, 180, 457 Liriodendron, 29, 171, 181, 402; for autumn colouring, 73 Litsea geniculata, 201 Loblolly bay, 390 Locust tree, 42, 477, 449 Lonicera periclymenum, 171 Loniceras, 29, 64, 181, 317; in greenhouse, 275; for grouping, 290 Loropetalum chinense, 402; in greenhouse, 275 Lupinus arboreus, 181 Lycium, 30; chinense, for its fruits, 82; for grouping, 290 Lyme grass, blue, 11 Lyonia, 30 Maclura aurantiaca, 479; for its fruits, 83 Magnolia conspicua, 3, 254, 256, 318, 403; fuscata, 211; grandiflora, 248, 318; soulangeana, 3, 254, 404; stellata, 2, 171, 254, 256, 404; tripetala, for its fruits, 83 Magnolias, 30, 42, 55, 181, 403-404; in greenhouse, 275 Mandevilla suaveolens, in the south-west, 211 Maple, 41, 470-471 Maples, for autumn colour, 74; Japanese, in greenhouse, 282 Mayflower, 384, 385 Medlars, 7, 428 Melaleuca hypericifolia, 202 Melia Azedarach, 202 Melianthus major, 202 Mespilus, 3, 9 Metrosideros robusta, 202 Mezereon, the, 383 Michelia fuscata, in the south-west, 211 Microglossa albescens, 30 Mitraria coccinea, 202 Mock orange, 407 Moorwort, 361 Morus, 41, 181, 479 Moths, goat and wood-leopard, injury to trees by, 161, 162 Mulberry, 41, 479 Murthly Castle, Perthshire, conifers and pines at, 124, 128 Myoporum lætum, 203 Myrica, 30, 479; cerifera, 5 Myricaria, 30 Myrtle, bog, 18; North American, 5; sand, 400; wax, 479 Nandina domestica, 479 Neillia, 30, 172 Nerium Oleander, in the south-west, 203 Nettle tree, 41, 474 Neviusia, 30 Notospartium, 30, 404 Nut, cob, 475 Nuttallia, 30, 405 Nyssa aquatica, 479; sylvatica, 479; for autumn colouring, 73 Oaks, the, 41, 481-483; American red, 72; holm, 248; scarlet, 7 Oleanders, in the south-west, 203 Olearia, 39, 181, 319, 405; argophyllus, 191; Haastii, 249 Olearias, in greenhouse, 276 Olive, wild, 475 Ononis, 30; rotundifolia, 30 Orange ball tree, the, 363 Orange flower, Mexican, 369 Orange, Osage, the, 83 Orchard, the, garden, 338-341 Osmanthus, 31, 181, 479; ilicifolius, 249, 254, 256; as a hedge, 329; i. purpureus, 254 Ostrya carpinifolia, 479; virginica, 479 Oxycoccus, 31 Oxydendron, 31, 406 Ozothamnus rosmarinifolius, 203, 406 Pæonies, tree, in greenhouse, 276 Paliurus, 31, 83, 479 Parrotia, 31, 64, 479; for autumn colouring, 74 Partridge berry, for autumn colouring, 75 Passifloras, the, 319 Paths, heathy, 13-16; making, 16 Paulownia, 31, 203 Pavia, 357, 358; macrostachya, 4 Peach, the, 412 Pearl bush, the, 2 Pears, the, 420 Pear, wild, the, 420; willow-leaved, the, 421 Peaty garden, plants for, 5 Peccan nut, 474 Pentstemon cordifolius, in the south-west, 203 Peraphyllum, 31 Pergolas, weeping trees as, 89 Periploca, 31 Periwinkles, 185 Pernettyas, the, 18, 31, 83, 172, 181, 250, 406; in greenhouse, 276 Persimmon, the, in the south-west, 197 Phellodendron amurense, 479 Philadelphus, 31, 181, 256, 407-408; coronarius, 31, 407, 254; grandiflorus, 254; Lemoinei, 31, 407; microphyllus, 31, 408 Philadelphuses, in greenhouse, 277 Philesia buxifolia, in the south-west, 203 Phillyræa, 31, 480; decora, 249; latifolia, 249 Phlomis fruticosa, 181 Phoenocoma prolifera, 211 Photinia, 31, 203, 480 Physianthus albens, 211 Picea, 121 Pieris, 32, 172, 181, 408; floribunda, 249; formosa, 204; japonica, 249; mariana, for autumn colouring, 75 Pimelea decussata, in the south-west, 204 Pines, 110-128; at Murthly Castle, 127-128 Pine, stone, 52 Pinus, 123; Montezumæ, in the south-west, 204 Piptanthus nepalensis, 319; in the south-west, 204 Pittosporums, in the south-west, 204 Plagianthus betulinus, 204 Plane, 42, 480; eastern, 480; western, 480 Planting, ornamental, in woodland, 6-7 Platanus, 42, 181, 480 Pleroma macrantha, in the south-west, 211 Plumbago capensis, in the south-west, 212 Plums, the, 412; in greenhouse, 278 Podocarpus andina, 205 Poinciana Gilliesi, 205 Polygala grandifolia, 205 Polygonum baldschuanicum, 319 Pomegranate, the, in the south-west, 205 Poplars, 42, 480; white, 42, 480; with beautiful catkins, 66 Poppy, Californian, 449 Populus, 42, 181, 480; tremuloides pendula, 64 Potentilla, 32, 172, 181 Privet, 256; abuse of, 1-2; as a hedge, 328; Japanese, 249; golden-leaved, 256 Privets, the, 400-402; for their fruit, 82 Propagation of hardy trees, 38-46; by budding, 40; by cuttings, 40; by layers, 40; by seeds, 39; by suckers, 39 Pruning flowering trees, 19-37; standard trees, 37; tools for, 37; ways of, 37; with secateurs, 37 Prunus, 32, 41, 182, 254, 409-419; Amygdalus, 256; A. persicoides, 64; Avium, 256; davidiana, 64; japonica, 32, 415; Laurocerasus, 249, 256; lusitanica, 249; Mahaleb pendula, 172; nana, 32, 410; Persica, 256; pseudo-cerasus, 256; triloba, 32, 319, 412 Pseudolarix, 122 Pseudopanax crassifolium, 205 Pseudotsuga, 122 Ptelea, 32, 182; trifoliata, 83; var. aurea, 32, 481 Pterocarya, 481 Pueraria thunbergiana, 212 Punica granatum, in the south-west, 205 Pyrus, 32, 41, 83, 84, 172, 182, 254, 319, 419-428; in greenhouse, 278; arbutifolia, for autumn colouring, 76; Aucuparia, 256; baccata, 32, 421; floribunda, 9, 32, 256, 422; Maulei, for its fruits, 84; japonica, 33, 64, 256, 427; for grouping, 290; spectabilis, 32, 424; torminalis, for colour, 74 Quercus, 41, 182, 481-483; acuta, 249; coccifera, 249; coccinea splendens or grayana, 73; heterophylla, 73; Ilex, 248; imbricaria, 73; marylandica, 73; palustris, for autumn colouring, 73; phillyræoides, 249 Quinces, 7, 426 Raphiolepis japonica, for its fruits, 85; in greenhouse, 279 Raspberry, 450 Redesdale, Lord, and hardy bamboos, 218 Reed, giant, the, 472 Rhamnus, 33, 86, 249, 483; Frangula, in autumn, 75 Rhaphithamnus cyanocarpus, 206; for its fruits, 85 Rhodochiton volubile, 212 Rhododendron azaleoides, 249; catawbiense, 249; Fortunei, 249; ferrugineum, 250; myrtifolium, 249; ponticum, 7, 249, 416, 433; racemosus, 250 Rhododendrons, 7, 18, 33, 64, 172, 182, 249, 428-447; in Scotland, 254; in greenhouse, 279; for grouping, 299 Rhodotypos kerrioides, 23, 173, 254, 447; in greenhouse, 279 Rhus, 33, 483-484; Cotinus, 173, 254; for grouping, 291; glabra, 254; for autumn colouring, 74; phoenicolasius, for its fruits, 86; typhina, 254-256 Rhyncospermum jasminoides, in the south-west, 212 Ribes, 33, 173, 183, 254, 256, 447-448; in greenhouse, 279 Robinia, 34, 42, 173, 183, 254, 448-449; hispida, 4, 448; Pseudacacia and varieties, 256 Rock garden, trees and shrubs for, 138, 150 Romneya Coulteri, 449 Rosa, 34, 183, 319; alba, 346; Alberti, 346; alpina, 347; arvensis, 347; Bengale Hermosa, for grouping, 292; carolina, 347; ferruginea, 348; lævigata, 348; lutea, 348; microphylla, 348; moschata, 349; multiflora, 349; ochroleuca, 350; pomifera, 350; rubiginosa, for grouping, 296; rugosa, 350; for grouping, 291; sericea, 351; setigera, 351; spinosissima, 351; webbiana, 352; wichuraiana, 352 Rose apple, 350; Austrian briar, 348; Japanese, 350; musk, 349 Rosemary, 18, 183, 250 Rose of Sharon, 395; Alpine, 250 Roses, for their fruits, 85; the worthy use of, 342-352; wild, the, 7, 344 Rowan tree, 425 Rubus, 34, 183, 292, 293, 450-451; australis, 206; deliciosus, 173, 254 Ruscus, 183, 484; aculeatus, 174; for grouping, 300; androgynus, 212 Ruta graveolens, 484 Salix, 42, 183, 293, 484-485; daphnoides, 60 Salmon berry, 451 Sambucus, 35, 184, 294, 485-486; for its fruits, 86 Santolina, 35, 486 Sarcococca hookeriana, 486 Sassafras officinale, 486 Savins, 10 Sciadopitys, 120 Schizandra chinensis, 486 Sea coast, hedges of tamarisk by, 101; planting in bleak places along, 101; planting in mild places along, 105 Seeds, propagating trees and shrubs by, 39 Senecios, the, in the south-west, 206 Sequoia, 121 Service tree, 7, 425 Shrubbery, mixed, evils of, 1 Shrub borders, 257-259; groups for winter and summer effect, 283-302 Shrubs, a winter garden of, 45-62; for moist soils, 136, 137; for moist, peaty soils at foot of rocks, 150; for sea coast, 101-105; for swampy places, 135-136; for small gardens, 251-256; for sheltered situations and mild climates, 149; for town gardens, 255; for the rock garden, 138-150; for waterside, 134-137; for wind-swept gardens, 106-109; grouping of, 8-12; hardy, climbing, the use of, 303-323; hardy, in greenhouse, 263-282; hardy flowering, for rock garden, 148; in Ireland, 215-217; in poor soil, 17, 18; in Scotland, 166-186; propagation of, 38-46; pruning, 19-37; removal of, 151-158; tender, in the south-west, 187-207; under trees, 260-262; variegated, in winter garden, 93; variety in, want of, 1-5; with beautiful catkins, 65-70; with fine fruits, 77-87 Silver bell, 390 Skimmia, 35, 184, 254; japonica, 250 Sloe, the, 413 Smilax, 35, 320, 486 Smoke bush, 483 Snowball tree, 465 Snowberry, for its fruits, 86 Snowdrop tree, the, 3, 390 Solanum crispum, in the south-west, 206; jasminoides, 320; Wendlandi, 213, 320 Sollya heterophylla, in the south-west, 213 Sophora, 35, 41, 452; tetraptera, 197 Sorbus americana, 7 Southernwood, 472 Sparmannia africana, in the south-west, 206 Spartium, 35, 452; junceum, 174, 255, 256; for grouping, 295 Spice bush, 478 Spindle tree, 5, 7 Spiræa, 35, 174, 452-454; arguta, 256; betulifolia, 35, 452; Douglasi, 35, 453; Foxii, 35; japonica, 35, 256, 453; Margaritæ, 35; prunifolia, 2, 454; p. fl. pl., autumn colouring of, 75; salicifolia, 35, 454; semperflorens, 35; Thunbergi, 2, 454; autumn colouring of, 75; tomentosa, 35 Spiræas, 184, 255; for grouping, 295; in greenhouse, 280 Spruce, common, the, 121 Spurge laurel, 382 Stachyurus, 36, 486 Staphylea colchica, 36, 184, 454; Coulombieri, 36; pinnata, 36, 454; trifolia, 454 Staphyleas, in greenhouse, 280 Stauntonia hexaphylla, 486; latifolia, 213, 320 Stephanandra flexuosa, 486; Tanakæ, 486 St. Daboëc's heath, 382 St. John's Wort, 395 Storax, Japanese, 455 Stranvæsia glaucescens, 486 Strawberry tree, 475 Streets, shade trees for, 163 Streptosolen Jamesoni, in the south-west, 213 Stuartia, 36, 320, 454-455 Styrax, 36, 455 Suæda, 36 Suckers, propagating trees and shrubs by, 39 Sumach, 483 Sumachs, for autumn colouring, 74 Swainsonia albiflora, in the south-west, 213 Sweet bay, the, 4 Sweet gum, 479; gale, 479 Symphoricarpus, 36; racemosus, 184, 255, 296; for its fruits, 86; vulgaris, 256 Symplocos, 486 Syringas, the, 36, 174, 184, 255, 256, 407, 455-459; in greenhouse, 280 Tacsonia exoniensis, in the south-west, 213; mollissima, 214 Tamarisk, the, 4, 11, 184, 459-460; by sea coast, 101 Tasmanian pepper plant, 475 Taxodium, 120 Taxus, 123, 487; baccata aurea, for grouping, 300 Teucrium fruticans, 464 Thorn, Glastonbury, 64; scarlet, the, 377 Thorns, 376-382; for the beauty of their fruits, 78 Thuyas, 120 Tilia, 41, 184, 487 Toothache tree, 488 Trachycarpus excelsus, 487 Trailing arbutus, 384 Tree mallow, 393 Tree, Parslane, 472 Trees, a winter garden of, 46, 64; for moist soil, 136, 137; for sea coast, 101-105; for swampy places, 135-136; for the rock garden, 138-150; for waterside, 134-137; for wind-swept gardens, 106-109; grouping of, 8-12; in Ireland, 215-217; in poor soil, 17-18; in Scotland, 166-186; large, removal of, 151-158; old, care of, 129-133; planting and staking, 353-356; propagation, 46-83; pruning, 19-37; shade for streets, 163-165; shrubs under, 260-262; tender in the south-west, 187-207; variegated, 93-100; weeping, and their uses, 88-92; with beautiful bark, 61; with beautiful catkins, 63-70; with fine fruits, 77-87; woodpeckers and old, 133; young and sunstroke, 159-162 Tricuspidaria hexaphylla, 321 Tsuga, 121 Tulip tree, 402; for its autumn colours, 73 Tupelo tree, 479 Ulex europæus, 461; for grouping, 301; fl. pl., 184, 250, 255, 461; nanus, 461 Ulmus, 41, 487, 488; pumila, 73 Umbrella tree, 404 Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, 5; Vitis-idæa, 250 Vacciniums, 18, 36, 184; for autumn colouring, 75 Variegated trees and shrubs, 93-100; climbers, 99; conifers, 97 Veitch's, Messrs., novelties, 322 Verbena, sweet, upon walls, 309 Veronica, 175, 185; Andersonii, 462; hulkeana, 207, 462; Traversii, 250, 462 Viburnum, 36, 86, 462-466; alnifolium, 75; Lantana, 7, 463; macrocephalum, 321; Opulus, 71, 185, 464; for autumn colouring, 75; O. sterilis, 174, 255; plicatum, 4, 255, 321, 465; Tinus, 64, 250; for grouping, 301 Viburnums, in greenhouse, 281 Vincas, 185, 250, 255 Vines, 321; for autumn colouring, 76 Virginian yellow wood, 370 Vitis, 36, 321; Coignetiæ, 174, 185; for autumn colouring, 76; heterophylla, 87; humulifolia, 87 Wall-plants, in the south-west, 208-214 Walnut, 41, 478; Japanese, 69 Wax tree, 401 Wayfaring tree, 463 Weeping trees, as arbours and pergolas, 89 Weigelas, 255, 256 Westringia triphylla, 207 Whin, 461 Whitethorn, 7 Wig tree, 483 Wild cherry, 7, 17, 414 Willows, 42, 67; for grouping, 293, 484, 485; golden and red-barked, in winter, 59; with beautiful catkins, 67; weeping, near water, 88 Wind-swept gardens, trees and shrubs for, 106, 109 Wine berry, Japanese, 451 Winter's bark, 475 Winter garden, a, 45-62; walk, 45 Wistaria, 37, 322, 323; in greenhouse, 281 Woodland, ornamental planting in, 6-7 Woodpeckers and old trees, 133 Xanthoceras, 37, 466-467 Xanthoxylum americanum, 488; planispinum, 488 Yellow wood, Virginian, 370 Yew, 9, 11, 123, 248; as a hedge, 326, 327 Yuccas, 185, 250, 467 Yulan, the, 403 Zelkova, 41; acuminata, 488; crenata, 488; Verschaffelti, 488 Zenobia, 37 Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. Edinburgh & London TRANSCRIBERS' NOTES Page vi: Handlist standardised to Hand-list Page xiii: Maidens' Blush standardised to Maiden's Blush Page 11: hillside standardised to hill-side Pages 24, 491: Carmichaelia standardised to Carmichælia Pages 33, 112: subtropical standardised to sub-tropical Page 36: suits corrected to suit in Vines for fruit suit the Page 49: undergrowth standardised to under-growth Pages 62, 198: out-door standardised to outdoor Page 66: There are others Poplars corrected to There are other Poplars Page 78: pollenise as in original Page 91: Coryllus standardised to Corylus Pages 116, 325: Variable spelling of Thuya Lobbi(i) as in original Page 137: heps standardised to hips Page 148: amæna standardised to amoena Pages 160, 491: Variable spelling of Citharexylom/Citharexylon as in original Page 191: Acanthoparax standardised to Acanthopanax Page 218: widespread standardised to wide-spread Page 230: or changed to of in "the beginning of August" Page 248: (Arbutus) Menziesi standardised to Menziesii Page 250: hill-sides standardised to hillsides Page 254: Osmanthus ilicifolius atropurpeus as in original Page 272: midwinter standardised to mid-winter Page 284: Hawthorn-like standardised to hawthorn-like Page 293: water-side standardised to waterside Page 297: sub-soil standardised to subsoil Page 314: happpy changed to happy in "but quite happy in northern gardens" Page 317: Kerra japonica changed to Kerria japonica Page 323: Wisteria standardised to Wistaria Page 339: moving as in original in "There is no need to be always moving the garden orchard." Page 344: botantists changed to botanists in "now accepted by botanists" Page 359: Buckeye standardised to Buck-eye in This is the Red Buck-eye Page 361: Nookta Sound corrected to Nootka Sound Page 376: Moonlight Brown as in the original Page 382: Dabeoc's standardised to Daboëc's Page 386: fuschia changed to fuchsia in "fuchsia-like flowers are freely borne"; PHILLIPPIANA standardised to PHILIPPIANA Page 432: cinnabarina as in original (should perhaps be cinnabarinum); purpureun changed to purpureum and roseun changed to roseum in "There are three varieties, album, purpureum, and roseum." Page 436: infloresence corrected to inflorescence Page 453: Spiræa Canescens: freely-branded as in original Page 457: Another form with more or less golden is as in original Page 459: coerulea standardised to cærulea; it has become neutralised there as in original Page 463: way-faring standardised to wayfaring Page 477: aureo marginata standardised to aureo-marginata Page 478: hodginsi standardised to hodginsii Page 487: Chamoerops standardised to Chamærops Page 491: Cassinea merged with Cassinia Page 492: Elæagnus multiflorus standardised to multiflora Page 496: Ononis rotundifolius standardised to rotundifolia; Phillyrea standarised to Phillyræa Page 497: pseudocerasus standardised to pseudo-cerasus Page 499: wort standardised to Wort; Exoniensis standardised to exoniensis; Colombieri standardised to Coulombieri Page 500: yellow-wood standardised to yellow wood (twice) Various: Variable hyphenation of rockwork/rock-work and windswept/ wind-swept as in original Various: Variable spelling of Rhododendron altaclarense/altaclerense, Citharexylom/Citharexylon, Cornus Spathii/Spaethii, Gingko/Ginkgo biloba, Rhyncospermum/Rhynchospermum jasminoides, Zelkova/Zelkowa, Salix Caprea/Capræa, Spiræa Douglasii/Douglasi, Cytisus Shipkænsis/Schipkænsis, Lonicera Standishi/Standishii, Rhyncospermum/Rhynchospermum, Rhapithamnus/Rhaphithamnus as in original 
39011	----	Transcriber's Notes: Variations in spelling and hyphenation have been left as in the original. Words in italics in the original are surrounded by _underscores_. Words in bold in the original are surrounded by =equal signs=. Ellipses match the original. A few typographical errors have been corrected. A complete list as well as other notes follows the text. DISEASE IN PLANTS DISEASE IN PLANTS BY H. MARSHALL WARD, Sc.D., F.R.S. FELLOW OF SIDNEY SUSSEX COLLEGE, HONORARY FELLOW OF CHRIST'S COLLEGE AND PROFESSOR OF BOTANY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE PRESIDENT OF THE BRITISH MYCOLOGICAL SOCIETY, AND FELLOW OF THE LINNEAN AND ROYAL HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES; HONORARY FELLOW OF THE MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY AND OF THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF EDINBURGH London MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1901 _All rights Reserved_ GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. PREFACE. It has often been represented to me that the cultivators of plants, among whom are to be included planters and foresters, as well as agriculturists and gardeners of every kind, are more particularly concerned with, and interested in, the maladies themselves of the plants they grow, than in the life-history of the fungi, insects or other organisms to which they are due, or in the physiological processes which are involved; and although it is impossible to really understand any disease unless we also understand the processes by which it is brought about, there is room for sympathy with the point of view of the cultivator. He says, in effect, "I do not want to know all about the biology of the fungus of wheat-rust, or of the _phylloxera_, nor do I want to learn what experts can tell me about the action of bacteria in soil, or the process of starch-formation in the leaves: I have neither the time nor the means to master these details. What I want is guidance as to what is wrong with my tomatoes, apple trees, chrysanthemums, fir trees, turnips, etc., and what I am to do to set things right." Just so. With the latter part of this cry one must sympathize, much as a doctor does with the wail of the parent who calls him in to cure his sick child--we need not stop to classify or compare the motives of the parent and the cultivator, and perhaps I had done better to select a breeder of sheep with his flock and a veterinary doctor in the illustration, but we will let it pass; and as regards the former part of the cry, I do not know that the plant-doctor can expect the cultivator to be initiated in the aetiology of the disease any more than the physician expects the parent to understand the biology of the typhoid bacillus. That both the cultivator and the parent would be the better for a real knowledge of the disease in either case must be admitted--nay insisted on, provided the knowledge _is_ real--but we have to deal with facts, and it is a fact that the clients of both doctors are impatient of the details of the case. Now, of course, I am aware that no short cut or "royal road" to science exists, and if a man is going to train up trees or other plants, he ought to know all about them in health and in sickness, in youth and in old age, and he ought to learn everything about the soil they grow in, the air that surrounds them, the enemies that beset them, and all the multifarious relations of these one to another; but when I look at my boy and reflect how much his nurse, his schoolmaster, his tutor, his doctor, and his parents _ought_ to know successively and simultaneously about him in sickness and in health, and about his surroundings, etc., I begin to wonder whether there is not after all something to be said for the cultivator's point of view. Moreover, the cultivator knows a good deal about his plants which I do not know, and although I should much like to know it, his plea of want of time rings in my ears and the conviction strikes home that one ought to try and meet his views, and tell him something about disease as manifested in plants without insisting on his becoming a professional mycologist, entomologist, agricultural chemist, and philosopher. Of course, beyond a certain point, it is his lookout how much the information is worth, and its educational value--a very different matter--is sure to suffer from any restrictions imposed on the treatment of the subject; but if the theme of disease in plants, treated from a general point of view--I was about to write "treated in a popular manner," but that is impossible until physiology and mycology are more widely taught--enables him to understand better the questions he puts to himself, and, still more, if it stimulates him to enquire further into the inexhaustible field of science glimpsed at, something may come of it. The purpose of these essays is to treat the subject of disease in plants with special reference to the patient itself, and to describe the symptoms it exhibits and the course of the malady, with only such references to the agents which induce or cause disease as are necessary to an intelligent understanding of the subject, and of the kind of treatment called for. Consequently I have avoided any unnecessary classification or elaborate descriptions of parasitic fungi or insects, histological details of the tissues of plants, chemical and physical details regarding the soil, and even matters purely physiological as far as possible. Several admirable works on these subjects are already available, and must be referred to for further details. It is, however, quite out of the question to avoid technicalities, though I have chosen the simpler course wherever it was found feasible, and have tried to so employ the examples selected that the student who wishes to go further into the matters dealt with may turn to special treatises for further information. For one eminently technical section I ought perhaps to apologise, but the temptation to try and set forth, in concrete form and suitable for the purposes of this book, some account of what is known of the most essential and profound factors concerned in the difficult question of the nature of life and death, health and disease, was great. Probably my apology should go further, and apply to what after all must be failure to explore this mystery to the bottom: my only excuse must be that it may stimulate others to go further. It was an afterthought to add, in Part I., the considerations on the factors which influence the plant regarded as a living machine, so to speak, in order that the student may the better apprehend the point of view taken of the bearings of the matters discussed in Part II. With regard to references, it seemed a better plan to give, in the form of notes after each chapter, the titles of the principal books and papers on which a student may base a further course of reading, than to overweight the pages of what is, after all, merely an introductory sketch to a huge subject, with detailed quotations from the numerous sources of information made use of. I have freely expressed my own opinions, but the sources for others are, I hope, as freely given. It will, however, be understood that I have not aimed at a complete bibliography, and, particularly, I have only given foreign references where it seemed that adequate treatment of the subject could not be found in English. My sincere thanks are due to Mr. F. Darwin, F.R.S., who has kindly looked through many of the proofs, and given me the benefit of several suggestions: and to my wife for the very material aid she has afforded me in the preparation of the index. H. MARSHALL WARD. CAMBRIDGE, _November, 1900_. CONTENTS. _PART I.--SOME FACTORS._ CHAPTER I. PAGE THE PLANT AND ITS SURROUNDINGS, 1 CHAPTER II. THE PLANT AND ITS FOOD, 7 CHAPTER III. THE PLANT A LIVING MACHINE, 15 CHAPTER IV. METABOLISM, 23 CHAPTER V. ROOTS AND ROOT-HAIRS, 35 CHAPTER VI. THE FUNCTIONS OF ROOT-HAIRS, 45 CHAPTER VII. THE BIOLOGY OF SOIL, 56 CHAPTER VIII. HYBRIDISATION AND SELECTION, 69 _PART II.--DISEASE IN PLANTS._ CHAPTER IX. PHYTOPATHOLOGY. DERIVATION AND MEANING, 85 CHAPTER X. HEALTH AND DISEASE, 91 CHAPTER XI. CAUSES OF DISEASE, 99 CHAPTER XII. CAUSES OF DISEASE. THE LIVING ENVIRONMENT, 108 CHAPTER XIII. NATURE OF DISEASE, 119 CHAPTER XIV. NATURE OF DISEASE (_Continued_), 130 CHAPTER XV. SPREADING OF DISEASE AND EPIDEMICS, 142 CHAPTER XVI. THE FACTORS OF AN EPIDEMIC, 149 CHAPTER XVII. REMEDIAL MEASURES, 159 CHAPTER XVIII. VARIATION AND DISEASE, 168 CHAPTER XIX. SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE, 179 CHAPTER XX. SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE (_Continued_), 186 CHAPTER XXI. ARTIFICIAL WOUNDS, 194 CHAPTER XXII. NATURAL WOUNDS, 204 CHAPTER XXIII. EXCRESCENCES, 212 CHAPTER XXIV. EXCRESCENCES (_Continued_), 222 CHAPTER XXV. EXUDATIONS AND ROTTING, 227 CHAPTER XXVI. NECROTIC DISEASES, 240 CHAPTER XXVII. MONSTROSITIES AND MALFORMATIONS, 246 CHAPTER XXVIII. PROLIFERATIONS, 257 CHAPTER XXIX. GRAFTS, 262 CHAPTER XXX. LIFE AND DEATH, 271 INDEX, 293 _PART I._ SOME FACTORS. CHAPTER I. THE PLANT AND ITS SURROUNDINGS. _The plant the central object of study--soil, climate, atmosphere, etc., are factors of its environment. Agricultural chemistry. The plant a machine. Physiology._ If I were asked to sum up the most important result of the numerous advances made during the past decade in agriculture and forestry, I should reply--the clearer and wider recognition of the fact that the plant itself is the centre of the subject, and not the soil, climate, season, or other factors of its environment. Until comparatively recent times it was the habit of farmers, foresters, planters, and gardeners, all the world over, to look upon the plant as a mere item or as a mysterious if important one in their calculations, and to regard the soil as the chief factor in their studies. Now all is changing, and the world is gradually awakening more and more to the recognition of the truth that the soil and the clouds and the atmosphere are merely reservoirs of more or less inert materials, from which the living plant draws its supplies, and works them up, by means of energy focussed from the sun, into new plant substance. In other words, the more far-seeing pioneers of scientific agriculture and forestry, etc., are recognising that agricultural chemistry is not the be-all and end-all of agricultural science; but that, in place of the study of the chemical analyses of dead soil, water, air, and plant-remains, which has so long held sway, largely owing, I think, to the influence of Liebig, the student should have his attention more concentrated on the living plant itself and on the physiological actions which make up its life. He must regard the living plant as a sort of working machine--infinitely more complex than any machine made by man, but a machine nevertheless--the purpose of which is to store up energy from the sun, and so to add to our wealth on this planet, at the expense of the extra-terrestrial universe. It is not, be it noted, that the new study proposes to ignore or abandon the old studies: modern physiology owes too much to the physics and chemistry on which it is partly based, and to the labours of De Saussure, Ingenhousz, Priestley, and others, for that. But it is that the new study recognises that the central point, to which all views must be focussed, is not the one that it was formerly supposed to be. The student is still taught that the chemistry of soils yields valuable information, and that lessons of importance are derived from comparisons of the analyses of the ashes, etc., of plants; but he is no longer able to cherish the hope, however remotely, that such studies solve his most important problems. The scene--or rather the point to which attention is now directed--is the living, working, energy-accumulating plant itself, and not the dead store of materials in the soil. The reason for the change is not far to seek: it is due to the enormous strides made in the study of the physiology of plants during the last quarter of a century, and the subject abounds in examples illustrating the marvellous advances that have been made, and at the same time showing how, in the progress of researches, made for their own sake--_i.e._ in pursuit of satisfaction for the intense curiosity of the scientific man--all kinds of side issues turn up which prove to be of value in practice, and suggestive of further thinking. At the beginning of the nineteenth century--_i.e._ about 1820--the best thinkers were giving up the old ideas that the environment supplied food, as such, to plants, and had recognised that the plant takes up substances from without and rearranges these in its own body. The next twenty years or so form a very dark interval in plant physiology, chiefly owing to the influence of the assumption of a special "vital force," an assumption which was not allowed merely to serve as a hypothesis put forward to stimulate research and suggest better ideas, but which gained a hold over men's powers of reasoning to an extent which now appears monstrous and phenomenal. Many errors crept in during this reign of terror, one of the most fatal of which was De Candolle's revival of the idea of "spongioles"; and another, equally disastrous in many of its effects, was the conception of a sort of vegetable food-extract, humus, existing in the soil in a form peculiarly suitable for direct use by plants. It was during this period that the confusion between the processes of respiration and carbon-dioxide assimilation arose, and exerted its effects for evil into our own day. The now astounding statement that oxygen-respiration in plants did not occur, laid the foundation of many subsequent difficulties, and so did the positive and authoritative views on the uses of minerals to the plant. Liebig, in fact, stood in the invidious position of being a high authority on purely chemical questions, who was impelled to give opinions on matters which can only be solved by physiological experiments: his great service was to clear up mistakes as regards the chemistry of soils and of plants--his great mistakes were due to his pronouncing on physiological matters; and it may be doubted whether his great services to the purely chemical side of subjects connected with agricultural matters are the more to be admired, or the disastrous influence of his statements on subjects which do not belong to the domain of chemistry should be the more deplored. Be that as it may, he handed on to succeeding generations some weighty errors as regards plant-life, and taught the agriculturist to regard chemical analyses of soils and plant ashes with a reverence which obstructed progress for some time. As a set-off to this we must place his contributions to the destruction of the bugbear vitalism, which was simply preventing enquiry, and his services in bringing together and sifting with power and originality all that had been then acquired as regards the chemistry of the plant, the soil, and the atmosphere. That Liebig was indispensable in 1840-1850 is one thing; but that his influence should extend to the present day is quite another, and his inevitable mistakes were almost as powerful for future evil, as his clear exposition of the chemistry of his day was productive of immediate good. Boussingault, working at the same time, 1837-1855, but experimentally with the living plant, taught us more about these matters than any investigator of the time, though it is very probable that the stimulus of Liebig's speculations, good and bad, had its effect in impelling Boussingault to devote his splendid methods to problems of plant-nutrition. Boussingault's contributions to our knowledge of the composition of the dead plant cannot be over-estimated; but he did more than this, because he so clearly apprehended the necessity for asking his questions directly of the living plant, instead of deducing from chemical principles what might be supposed to occur in it; and although future researches showed that even so careful an investigator solved a problem of first importance--viz. the question of the fixation of free nitrogen--the wrong way, it will be found that so far as he did go his conclusions were sound, and well calculated to inspire the confidence with which the world received them. As we are here concerned more especially with the botany of agriculture, however, it is unnecessary to dwell longer on these matters, or on the similar and even more extensive experiments, of world-wide reputation, carried on for so many years, and still being carried on under the liberal auspices of Sir John Lawes, at Rothamsted. Moreover it may be necessary to return to some of these points later on. NOTES TO CHAPTER I. The reader will find a further general account of these matters in Sachs' _Lectures on the Physiology of Plants_, especially Lectures I. and XII., Engl. ed., Oxford, 1887. He may then proceed to Pfeffer's _Physiology of Plants_, Engl. ed., 1899, chapter I., and to the account of the history of the subject in Sachs' _History of Botany_, Oxford, 1890, especially pp. 359-375 and 445-524. References to more special literature will be found in Pfeffer. CHAPTER II. THE PLANT AND ITS FOOD. _The food of plants--"Vital force"--Other errors--Liebig and Boussingault--The botany of agriculture. The synthesis of carbohydrates--The physiology of plant-nutrition. The persistence of misconceptions._ The year 1860 may be regarded as a landmark of importance in the history of plant physiology, for it was in that year that Sachs discovered that the bringing together of water and carbon-dioxide, in the green chlorophyll-corpuscles of the plant exposed to sunlight, results in the formation of the grains of starch found in these corpuscles. Previous to this date Dutrochet (1826-37) had introduced the then crude idea of osmosis into physiology; vegetable anatomy had improved, and the modern conceptions of the living cell, protoplasm, nucleus, etc., were slowly looming; sieve-tubes had been discovered, and the proteids and starch in various parts of the plant examined; and the suggestion was abroad, replacing Liebig's idea that plant acids were the first products of carbon-assimilation, that some substance, of a slimy nature, was manufactured in the cells of the leaves and thence distributed as the formative material from which the plant constructed its parts. Davy and Boussingault had even surmised that a carbohydrate might be the first-formed product in assimilation. There can be little doubt that Sachs' classical proof, by direct physiological observation and experiment, first brought forward the truth of organic synthesis in the plant in a concrete and convincing form. But it did more than that. It laid the foundation of the modern physiology of plant-nutrition on ground already prepared by De Saussure and the earlier workers; for, in addition to emphasising the truth of organic synthesis--a truth which had been gradually impressing itself on the world for some years--Sachs' discovery showed clearly the real meaning of carbon-assimilation as a process for obtaining combustible food, which the plant then proceeds to make use of. Many points were rapidly cleared up at once, or if not explained were at least put into a strong light for further enquiry, and plant-nutrition soon ceased to be the mysterious subject for all kinds of wild conjectures that it had hitherto been. The meaning of thin leaves, with numerous stomata and finely ramified or divided vascular bundles, became more apparent, as also did the significance of the ascending transpiration current; the storage of starch-grains in tubers, medullary rays, roots, seeds, etc., obtained meanings not understood before; the spread of roots in the soil, and the gradually discovered properties of the finer rootlets and of the root-hairs, fitted naturally into their places; and, in short, a thousand facts, otherwise isolated, became collated into an intelligible system, full of suggestions for new work, such as has since gone on and is now being pursued with an activity and success never before realised in the history of science. As time went on, while the general truth of Sachs' views was confirmed, a number of detailed discoveries were made which seemed to contradict them in certain points. It was found that not all leaves form starch, for some contain sugar or oil; but Holle and Godlewski proved experimentally that this oil may be replaced by starch if the conditions of assimilation are slightly modified. More recently Hébert discovered that the stalks and leaves of grasses contain a peculiar form of gum, which was formerly confounded with starch, a substance not abundant in them. Then came Schimper's discovery of starch-forming corpuscles, which, if supplied with sugar, are able to form starch-grains in the dark, as in tubers, etc., underground; and as subsequent researches have proved that the chlorophyll-corpuscles--which are morphologically the same as the starch-forming corpuscles and can be replaced by them--are also able to form starch-grains from sugar, as proved by the experiments of Boehm, Acton, Meyer, Laurent, Bokorny, Saposchnikoff, and others, it soon became evident that nothing essential needed altering in Sachs' view that starch is the first visible product of carbon-dioxide assimilation, only it became clearer that the starch-grains are built up by the protoplasm from glucose or some similar body, and represent so many packets of reserve materials put by for the present because not required for the immediate needs of the cell. Boussingault showed, about thirty years ago, that assimilation soon stops in green leaves if cut off from the plant, not because the leaves die, but owing to some "maximum capacity" being attained. Sachs had shown that the starch passes down to other parts of the plant in solution as glucose. Neither time nor space will permit me to go into the enormous field of research and results opened up by these and similar observations made between 1860-70. It must suffice to say that they led to the discovery and study of the diastatic and other enzymes in the leaves and other green parts of plants, and to a clearer understanding of what was already known of them in seeds, and this knowledge reacted at once on our insight into the processes of transport of reserve materials and constructive materials from one part of the plant to another, matters which will be referred to later on. It remains to explain Boussingault's difficulty as regards the cessation of assimilation. Recent researches confirm the view that at least three causes are at work to bring about the inhibition of the carbon-assimilation: first, the chlorophyll-corpuscles become filled to excess with starch, which cannot get away because all the passages are full and the products are inhibiting the further action of the enzymes which should dissolve the solid granules; secondly, the leaf being detached from the plant explains why the soluble products cannot get away, for this makes a great difference in the rate of exhaustion of the leaf; and, thirdly, the same fact involves that the leaf can obtain no further supply of salts of potassium, etc., without which elements the processes in question cannot go on. These and numerous other deeper insights into the process of assimilation, obviously strengthen the force of Sachs' discovery; though it by no means necessarily follows that starch-grains are always the resting form of the products of assimilation, and we now know that such is often not the case: we now have much deeper glimpses into the initial products of carbon-assimilation than Sachs had in 1860, but this enhances rather than detracts from the importance of his splendidly worked-out discovery. Put more generally, we may now say that the process of carbon-dioxide assimilation in green leaves under the influence of light is a process of synthesis--photo-synthesis--resulting in the building up of a carbohydrate such as sugar, inulin or starch from the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. But it must not be supposed that the importance of Sachs' discovery, and the rapid consequent extensions of our knowledge, did their work forthwith in disabusing men's minds of old and erroneous notions. To say nothing of numerous smaller misconceptions which still held their ground owing to the stupendous ignorance of plant-physiology which prevailed, we find incompetent teachers and text-books were still propagating ideas worthy of ancient times. The confusion between oxygen-respiration and the gas interchanges in carbon-assimilation was by no means eliminated even recently, though it can no longer withstand the deliberate onslaughts now made on it. That the roots take up food as such from the soil, and that that food is directly employed by the plant for its nutrition is even yet implied in daily conversation around us; and although matters have advanced so far that everyone now knows that the substances at the roots must be in solution, ere they can be received into the plant, it sometimes leads to astonishing replies, if we press the question very far as to how the absorption takes place, in an elementary examination of agricultural students. That manures are foods to the plant, that sap circulates, that transpiration is of use to keep the plant cool, and wood is a "porous body," etc., are only a few of the misconceptions still current, in a decade that has found publishers for a work advocating that roots are congealed sap, and that the leaves of plants absorb the moisture and dust of the air, and so provide the plant with food, and for a paper explaining the action of root-hairs as tubes with open pores at their tips. But the gravest misapprehensions current among us are due to the crude ideas as to what a plant really is: this, I take it, is owing to the difficulty of grasping what physiologists mean by organised structure, and leads to regarding the living being either as a mere aggregation of chemical compounds, built up by the ordinary play of chemical forces, as we know them, acting on dead matter, or, as in the days before organic chemistry, as a mysterious entity endowed with "vital force," and with properties not amenable to scientific investigation. The mistaken notions as to the powers of roots to "select" those substances which the plant requires, and to reject useless ones was merely an expression of this belief. The rock on which all are liable to come to grief--the chemist or physicist who requires all his facts in terms of analyses and proportions by weight, and therefore takes too mechanical a view of the subject, or the man who is not scientifically trained at all, and therefore is more liable to go to the other extreme and regard the plant as a mysterious something which grows and has poetical associations and traditions--is the great fact of organised structure, and it is the recognition of this fact and some of its consequences which has altered the whole position of the subject, and brought the study of the plant into the domain of physiology. The living plant, its structure and organisation, the functions of its mechanism, and its relations to the environment, thus forms a subject apart from that which concerns the chemical composition of the plant and its environment, and this distinction designates, in a word, as it were, the change which has been brought about by modern biology. A point to be emphasised to the utmost where agricultural students are concerned is that the essential process of feeding is the same in a green plant, a fungus, and an animal; the greatest confusion still exists with regard to this matter, owing to misconceptions as to the real meaning of the functions of the chlorophyll-corpuscles when supplied with carbon-dioxide and water and the energy of the sun's rays. The plant does not feed on carbon-dioxide, any more than it feeds on oxygen--it feeds on the organic material after it has been constructed, and the chlorophyll-function is merely one mode of obtaining supplies of such organic substance. NOTES TO CHAPTER II. In addition to the references in the last chapter, the student should consult Sachs' _Lectures_, XVII.-XIX., and Pfeffer's _Physiology_, pp. 287-329, for the further development of this subject. An excellent résumé, with new facts and points of view, will be found in Dr. Horace Brown's "Address to the Chemical Section," _British Association Reports_, Dover, 1899; and "Chemistry and Physiology of Foliage Leaves" in _Trans. Chem. Soc._, 1893, p. 604. See also Blackman, "Experimental Researches on Vegetable Assimilation and Respiration," _Phil. Trans._, 1895; and Parkin, "Formation, etc., of Carbohydrates in Monocotyledons," _Phil. Trans._, 1899. CHAPTER III. THE PLANT A LIVING MACHINE. _The plant a machine into which energy and material are taken--Carbon assimilation--Feeding--Accumulation and transformations in the plant. The action of light--The chlorophyll-function._ The relations of the plant to the environment can only be understood by taking into account the results of modern physiological discoveries. These teach us that the living plant is a highly complex machine, the details of its organisation and structure being much more numerous and much more closely correlated at numerous points, than the parts of any other machine known to us. They also teach us that it is supplied with energy from without, as any other machine; and that when so supplied, and properly working, the living structure or machinery does work, also as other machines. But modern physiology goes further, in that it renders some account of the ways by which the external energy is taken into the plant, and there applied to do work, or stored up for a time in order that it may be used to do work at some future time. The accumulation of energy thus ensured is associated with corresponding changes of material substance, and the principal means for bringing this about is recognised in the assimilation of carbon-dioxide--photo-synthesis. In this process energy enters the chlorophyll-corpuscle in the form of the radiant energy of the sun, it is there directed in the mechanism of the protoplasm, so as to do work on the molecules of water and carbon-dioxide which have also been brought into the machinery; this it does, breaking asunder their stable structure into unstable bodies, which then re-combine in different ways to form a carbohydrate, such as starch, and this starch is temporarily stored as grains, while oxygen escapes. Each starch-grain, therefore, is to be regarded as a packet of matter and of potential energy, as it were, capable of yielding up the latter at any future time, when put under such circumstances that it must do so. Such stores of energy-yielding substance, if I may use the much-abused phrase, form the principal food of the plant--or of an animal, if it steps in and takes them--and we now see that the process of carbon-dioxide assimilation, as it has perhaps unfortunately been called, is not the same thing as the process of feeding, for the _feeding_--_i.e._ the nutrition proper--of the plant does not begin until the _food_ has been thus obtained. We now see what the real position of the plant is, to its environment, whether the latter be living or dead. From our point of view, the plant serves as a centre for bringing together the substances obtainable from the soil, and those derived from the atmosphere, and so focussing and directing the radiant energy of the sun upon these substances, that they are broken up, and some of their constituents synthesised, with absorption of energy, into a body, such as starch, containing more energy than did the original substances taken together or separate. It matters little whether the actual carbohydrate thus synthesised is starch, or sugar or inulin: the point is that energy has been gained from outside and bound up with the acquired material for further use. But modern physiology has carried matters much further than this, and especially in the three following directions. In the first place, it has shown that much of the energy thus stored from without in the plant is again liberated in the process of oxygen respiration, and expended partly as appreciable heat and partly as driving force for stimulating the machinery of the living plant to further activities. In the second place, part of it is rearranged with the rearrangement of the molecules with which the energy is bound up, as it were, so that work of various kinds is done _in_ the machinery of the plant: I refer to various metabolic and surface-actions resulting from the peculiar mode of presentment of the resulting substances, for instance the production of osmotic pressures in the cell. And, thirdly, part of the synthesised substance is worked up into higher bodies, by processes which obviously entail the further doing of work on the constituents. The further pursuit of this theme would evidently carry us beyond the more immediate subject of this book; but I want to make clear that recent researches render it more and more certain that the living plant is a complex piece of co-ordinated machinery which brings together matter and energy from the external universe, and then gets work out of these. This proposition is the more important because the whole question of the enrichment of our planet with new food, new building materials, and new fuel, to compensate the daily losses, depends on it, and is of course to be referred fundamentally to the acquirement of new supplies of energy from the sun. Enormous activity has been displayed by physiologists, since 1860, in attempting to solve the question, which of the many different rays known to proceed from the sun are absorbed by the chlorophyll-corpuscle, and directed to the performance of the work above referred to. The names of Draper, Sachs and Pfeffer stand forth prominently as pioneers in this; while those of Lommel, Engelmann, Timiriazeff and Langley have been among the most active in making important contributions to the subject, and in attempting to answer the further questions connected with the mode in which the chlorophyll is concerned in utilising the energy of the solar radiations. The point is one of supreme importance, because it goes on all fours with modern questions as to the rays of light absorbed or dispersed in our atmosphere at different seasons of the year, or in special climatic conditions, to say nothing of its other scientific aspects. Unfortunately, however, we have no satisfactory explanation of the actual rôle played by the chlorophyll substance itself, in spite of much industrious work which has been done in the subject in this country and elsewhere. As regards the rays employed, it was first proved that the most effective belong to the red end of the visible spectrum, and that the effect as measured by the amounts of oxygen given off, and of starch formed in given periods of time, is more or less proportionable to the intensity of the solar light. Then it was established that no monochromatic light is so powerful as the white light from which it was obtained, though the relative numbers expressing the activity in the red and yellow regions may stand to those in the blue as something like 12:1. The latest results place the maximum assimilation in the red-orange, and this coincides with the maximum absorption in the chlorophyll. If we may accept the current views as to the distribution of energy in the spectrum of solar light, which depends on the complete absorption of all the rays by a black body, where they are estimated as heat, we have the interesting result that the agricultural or forest plant is adapted to catch and retain, broadly speaking, just those particular rays which possess most energy. The probability is increasing that the protoplasmic machinery is the really effective mechanism in the process, and we may figure this machinery as so holding or presenting the molecules of carbon-dioxide and water to the impact of the light-vibrations, that the latter are enabled to undo the molecular structure; the atomic combinations thereby liberated may then be supposed to form a body like formic-aldehyde, which by polymerisation becomes a carbohydrate of the nature of a sugar such as glucose, which the protoplasm then builds up into its substance and subsequently deposits as starch, and stores temporarily in the form of grains or as amorphous material. This is partly hypothetical, and is largely due to the careful deductions of the chemists, but there are very many facts now to hand which bear out its probability, especially the recent advances in our knowledge of the sugars, and the experimental feeding of leaves and plants deprived of starch with such substances as dextrose, levulose, maltose, and other sugars, as well as glycerine and other bodies which should be convertible into, or yield them, if the theory is true. In this last connection, the careful and extensive experiments of Acton, A. Meyer, Boehm, and Laurent should be mentioned. It would be interesting to enlarge upon Engelmann's beautiful physiological experiments in connection with this subject of absorption of solar energy, where the maximum accumulation of oxygen-loving bacteria at those parts of a green alga which lie in the red-orange of the spectrum, are used as indicators of the maximum oxygen evolution (and therefore of the maximum carbon-dioxide assimilation), but space will not admit of this. For a similar reason I must also pass over the same observer's experiments with plants which assimilate in protoplasm behind a red instead of a green substance, and which absorb chiefly other rays between the yellow and blue, with the remark that they also seem to imply that it is the protoplasmic machinery which turns the energy on to the carbon-dioxide molecule, the coloured screen being secondary in the matter. Recent experiments which show that green plants will not assimilate carbon-dioxide in a light which has passed through a solution of chlorophyll--and therefore left its red rays behind; nor behind a screen of iodine dissolved in carbon-dioxide--which lets no visible rays between the red and blue pass--should be noticed, as showing the importance of the chlorophyll and the special rays referred to, however; and I ought at least to mention Timiriazeff's beautiful proof, published in 1890, that if, on the leaf of a plant left in the dark long enough to render it free of starch, a bright solar spectrum is steadily projected for 3-6 hours, the chlorophyll then removed by alcohol and the decolorised leaf placed in iodine, the image of the spectrum is reproduced by the different intensities of the starch bands, blue with iodine, in the different parts. Here, again, the maximum coloration coincides with the maximum absorption in and near the red. Microscopic observations and photo-chemical experiments alike convince us that the chlorophyll-corpuscle is itself a complex piece of protoplasmic machinery, working for and with the rest of the plant, and there can be little question as to the greater accuracy of our reasoning on the whole question I am discussing, since Meyer, Schimper, Pringsheim, and others have established the importance of its structural peculiarities. I must now pass on to consider another aspect of the question of carbon-assimilation. NOTES TO CHAPTER III. In addition to the references in the last chapter, the reader may be referred to Sachs' _Lectures_, XXV., and Pfeffer's _Physiology_, pp. 329-356, where the voluminous literature is given. CHAPTER IV. METABOLISM. _Quantities of starch formed, and their significance for the plant. The absorption of energy--the conversion of energy in the plant. The plant is a complex machine for concentrating and storing energy and material from without._ Sachs measured the increase in dry weight (due to the carbohydrates formed in the chlorophyll-corpuscles) per square meter of leaf-surface, exposed for a definite period, by drying rapidly at 100° C. equal areas of the leaves concerned, and comparing the weights. Of course the results are not to be pushed too far, in view of the fact that some of the starch is continually passing away to be utilised, and of the difficulties of comparing the weather, the intensity of light, currents of air, hygroscopic conditions of atmosphere, and other variable factors which influence the matter. For instance, the stomata open and close to different extents according to the conditions of light and moisture, and this affects the whole mechanism of transpiration especially, and therefore the supplies of water and mineral salts. Nevertheless, some interesting and valuable results have been obtained in connection with this important subject. It was found, for instance, that the foliage of a sun-flower or of a vegetable-marrow may be forming starch at a rate of considerably over a gram per hour in every square meter of leaf-surface exposed on a fine day; while in particularly clear and warm sunny weather Sachs obtained as much as 24 to 25 grams per square meter per diem. When one reflects that 200 square meters is not an extravagant estimate for the area of leaf-surface exposed on a tree, for a period which even in our latitudes may be considerably over 100 days of, say, ten hours' light, we need no longer wonder at the rapidity with which wood is produced in the stems, and similar estimates (which I have purposely kept lower than the estimates for continental and tropical climates) may suffice to show how quickly potatoes or the ears of corn, etc., may fill up with the starch or other carbohydrates which render them valuable as crops. We want more measurements in these connections, moreover, for there are several ways in which they are of scientific value and practical importance. It is evident from what has been said that every grain of starch formed represents so much energy, packed away for the moment in the storehouses of the plant; and we know that--quite apart, however, from intermediate transformations of the energy thus stored--this energy reappears in the kinetic state eventually, when the starch is burned off, in presence of oxygen, and transformed into carbon-dioxide and water. It matters not how quickly or how gradually this combustion occurs, or whether it is accomplished by burning in a fire, or by slow and complex stages in respiration or metabolism: the point is that the unit of weight of starch yields so many units of heat when its structure tumbles down to the original components, carbon-dioxide and water. Clearly, if we know how many units of heat are yielded by the combustion of one gram of starch, we can obtain an estimate of the amount of energy, measured in terms of heat, which the foliage gains and stores up--an estimate which will approach the truth in proportion as our estimate of the total assimilative activity is correct. A word of warning is necessary here, however, for those best acquainted with physiology recognise that however useful such calculations as the above may be, and undoubtedly are, to give a general idea of the fact that the energy represented is large, it would be a mistake to suppose that such estimates give even an approximate measure of the energy of potential which may be got from the carbohydrate, and still less of the amount of work that may be got from its employment, according to the way it is employed or presented in the plant. To take a single instance only. If the carbohydrate is rapidly burned off to carbon-dioxide and water, very little is got out of it in the way of work--most, if not all, of the energy set free escapes as heat: whereas if the carbohydrate is slowly and gradually oxydised, passing through various stages and giving rise to powerfully osmotic bodies in the process, or if it is built up into protoplasm, or into the structure of a cell-wall, relatively enormous quantities of work may be got out of its surface-energy, and heat may be absorbed. Whence it follows that we cannot measure the power for physiological work of a body by merely obtaining its heat of combustion, any more than we can infer its significance in metabolism from its chemical properties. The general conclusion that the plant stores large quantities of energy may of course be arrived at by simply estimating the enormous quantities of food-material which we obtain annually from agricultural plants. Modern physiologists have attempted to proceed further than this, however, in their essays to form an estimate of the relations between the available energy in the solar rays and that used and stored in the plant. If we reflect on such phenomena as the cool shade of a tree, and the deep gloom of a forest, and on experiments which show that an ordinary leaf certainly lets very little of the radiant energy of the spectrum pass through it, it becomes evident that many of the rays which fall on the leaf are absorbed in some form, and it becomes very probable that much of the solar energy, other than that we term light, is retained in the leaf for other purposes than assimilation--or, at least, no other conclusion seems possible in view of all the facts. Engelmann's researches with purple bacteria are almost conclusive on this point, and we may regard it as extremely probable that the plant makes other uses of rays, perceived by us as heat-rays, as sources of energy. Researches on the influences of temperature on assimilation and other functions point to the same conclusion; and Pfeffer and Rodemann definitely state that heat is converted into work in the osmotic cells. And the study of the absorption bands in the spectrum of the living leaf becomes more intelligible in the light of these conclusions. Moreover, the fact that a plant still carries on processes of metabolism when active transpiration has lowered its temperature below that of the surrounding air--and the plant therefore receives heat from the environment--points to similar conclusions. The importance of the conclusion is immense, for even if the plant had no other sources of energy than the darker heat rays of the solar spectrum, it is clear that it ought to be able to do work. The above may suffice for the general establishment of the conclusion that the plant absorbs more radiant energy than it employs solely for assimilation, and emphasises our deduction that it is a machine for storing energy. The question now arises, how is this relatively enormous gain in energy employed by the plant? Our answer to the question is not complete, but modern discoveries in various directions have supplied clues here and there which enable us to sketch in some degree the kinds of changes that must go on. Not the least startling result is that, important as carbon-assimilation is as the chief mode of supplying energy, it is not the only means that the plant has of obtaining such from the environment, and it is even possible--not to say probable--that energy from the external universe may be conveyed into the body of the plant in forms quite different from those perceptible to our eyes as light. In the most recent survey of this domain, it is pointed out that we may distinguish between radiant energy, as not necessarily or obviously connected with ponderable matter, and mechanical energy, which is always connected in some way with material substance. All mechanical performances in the plants depend on transformation of some form of these, evident either as actual energy doing mechanical work, or as energy of potential ready to do work. In so far as molecular movements are concerned, we have the special form of chemical energy. The evolution of heat, light and electricity by plants are instances of radiant energy, and so on. Many transformations of energy in the plants are due to non-vital processes--_e.g._ transpiration, warping actions, etc., but we cannot always draw sharp lines between the various cases. Nor can we directly measure the work done in the living machinery; but from the effects of pressures and strains, the lifting of heavy weights, driving of root-tips into soil, osmotic phenomena, etc., it is certain that the values may be very high. The following classes of processes in living protoplasm and cells may be taken as indicators. First we have transformation of chemical energy, without which continued life is impossible: in many cases--_e.g._ the processes connected with oxygen respiration--these result in the development of heat. Secondly, we have those remarkable manifestations of energy known as osmotic processes, which depend on surface actions, and with which may be associated other surface effects, such as imbibition, secretion, etc., and in connection with which heat may be evolved or absorbed. It is true the substances which exhibit the properties here referred to may be produced, or placed in position, by chemical energy, or they may be absorbed by roots, etc.; but the proximate energy exhibited by them is not derived from chemical energy, and may be out of all proportion to the chemical energy of the substance or substances concerned. Moreover it is significant to note that a highly oxydised body may develop much osmotic energy, as well as a highly combustible one. It is of the greatest importance to realise the truth that much work can be, and is done in the living plant, by conversions of energy of potential independent of and out of proportion to the chemical energy available by decomposing the substances concerned; even the heat of respiration may be superfluous here, for the plant may absorb heat from without, and convert it into work. Tensions often arise in the plant, and do work expressed as movements--_e.g._ the springing of elastic Balsam fruits, stamens of _Parietaria_, etc. Osmotic energy not only results in enormous pressures and tensions, but causes movements by diffusion and diosmosis, and any given osmotic substance which carries this energy with it is not necessarily formed always in the same way in the cell--_e.g._ glucose may arise from starch, or from carbon-dioxide, or from oil. Surface-energy is also expressed in the powerful attractions for water exhibited in imbibition, swelling, capillarity, absorption, surface tensions, etc. Transpiration induces relatively enormous disturbances of equilibrium, and does work in moving water quite independent of chemical energy. Again, what may be termed excretion-energy, as expressed in the separation of a solid body--_e.g._ a crystal--from a solution, may be for our purposes regarded separately. Any change in the condition of aggregation of a substance in the plant may result in movements and the overcoming of resistances. It will be evident from this short digression--and this is the point I wish to emphasise--that in the interval between the securing of a grain of starch, representing so much energy won from the external universe, and the reconversion of this grain into its equivalent carbon-dioxide and water, by respiration, resulting in the loss of the above energy as heat, the starch referred to may have undergone numerous transformations in the living machinery of the plant, and have played at various times a rôle in connection with the most various evolutions of energy. If we try to picture a possible case, we may take the following. A given starch-granule, after being built up in the chlorophyll-corpuscle, is decomposed, and yields part of itself as glucose, which passes down into other parts of the plant in solution. Part of it is merely re-converted into starch, and temporarily stored: another part passes into the arena of oxydation-processes, the sum of which constitute respiration, and may serve for a time in the molecules of an organic acid: yet another part may be converted into a constituent of the cellulose cell-walls; while part may be brought into play in the reconstruction of protoplasm. In this last connection a discovery made by Schulze about 1878, and followed up later by Pfeffer, Palladin, and others is of importance. Seedlings growing in the dark, or in an atmosphere devoid of carbon-dioxide in the light, become surcharged with nitrogenous bodies known as amides, formed during the breaking down of the proteids in the destructive process preceding and accompanying respiration: if the seedlings are allowed free access to light and carbon-dioxide, however, the amides disappear. The explanation is that they are combined with some of the materials of the carbohydrates, and again built up into the material of the living protoplasm. Returning to our hypothetical starch-grain--or, rather, its parts--we have some of it retained as starch, in excess, simply because it is not needed at the moment: another portion gives up its energy in respiration, and this does work on the spot, or is lost as heat; or in the body of an organic acid, or its salt, the part in question may do lifting or pressing work by osmosis, or cause diffusion-currents from one cell to another. In the constitution of the cell-wall we may have part of our starch-grain aiding in imbibition or in the establishment of elastic tensions in turgidity: and, finally, parts may be built up into the living protoplasmic machinery of the plant. What is true for the starch-grain is also true for any particle of salt, or water, or gas which enters into the metabolism of the living plant, regard being paid to the particular case, and circumstances in each case. Enough has been said to show that the plant cannot be properly studied merely as the subject of chemical analysis or of physical investigation; you might as well expect to understand a watch by assays of the gold, silver, steel and diamonds of which its parts are made up, or to learn what can be got out of the proper working of a lace machine by analysing the silk put into it, and the fabric which comes out, and by taking the specific gravity of its parts and testing the physical properties of its wheels and levers. This is not the same thing as denying the value of such knowledge, in the case of either the dead machine or the living plant: it is merely emphasising the supreme importance of the study of the structure and working of the active machinery in both cases. Nor is it pertinent to remark on the apparent hopelessness of physiology being at present able to explain the seemingly infinite complexity of the living machinery of protoplasm and its activities. The modern locomotive is also a complex affair in its way, but it is profitable to investigate it and to know all one can of its working and possibilities, for obvious reasons: a little reflection will convince us that it is also worth while to investigate that complex machine, the plant--the working organism which alone can really enrich a country. Moreover, we ought to be encouraged by the satisfactory progress now being made, and the splendid practical results which are accruing, rather than dismayed by the prospect of unflagging labour which will be required in the future. Enough has perhaps been said to establish the general truth that the plant is a complex machine for storing energy and material from outside, and we have seen that modern research has at least gone a long way towards determining how the living machine works. It is hardly necessary to point out that important practical consequences may result from these phenomena of the accumulation of surplus starch or other carbohydrates in the leaves during the day, and of their disappearance during the night into the lower parts of the plant. For instance, foliage cut for fodder in the morning is far poorer in starch than if cut in the evening, and it would be very instructive to have experiments made on a large scale to test the result of feeding caterpillars or rabbits, for instance, with mulberry, vine, or other leaves in the two conditions. Again, we now see what complications may arise if a parasitic organism gains access to the stores of carbohydrates in process of accumulation, or attacks and injures the machinery which is building up such materials, etc. NOTES TO CHAPTER IV. The student who desires to pursue this subject further should read Sachs' _Lectures_, XX. and XXV., and Pfeffer's _Physiology_, pp. 442-566, but he will hardly arrive at the best that has been done without consulting Pfeffer's "Studien zur Energetik der Pflanzen" in the _Abhandl. der Math.-Phys. Classe der Kgl. Sachss. Gesellsch. der Wiss._ (Leipzig, 1892), p. 151; and Kassowitz, _Allgemeine Biologie_ (Vienna, 1899), Bk. I., pp. 1-127. CHAPTER V. ROOTS AND ROOT-HAIRS. _Older views as to root-hairs--Root-hairs and their development--Surface--Variations--Conditions for maximum formation--Minute structure--Adhesion to particles of soil--Functions._ On the roots of most plants are to be found delicate, silky-looking, tubular prolongations of some of the superficial cells, known as root-hairs. Malpighi (1687) seems to have been the first to observe them, and he took them for capillary tubes. Grew (1682) seems to have been responsible for the view that the roots act like sponges in taking up water. Simon (1768) was probably the originator of the idea that these root-hairs were excretory tubules, a view that became very popular at the beginning of this century. Meyer (1838) was perhaps the first to give a comparative account of them, and he supposed them to be delicate prolongations of the root-surface to facilitate the absorption of water. The real importance of these organs, however, has only become apparent since Sachs, in 1859, recognised their relations to the particles of soil between which they extend and to which they cling. In 1883 Schwarz made a very thorough study of their biological character, and in 1887 Molisch gave us new facts as to their physiology. Our knowledge of them has been rendered very much more intimate by the researches of Pfeffer and De Vries on osmotic and plasmolytic phenomena, and they serve as an excellent study of some of the best results of modern physiology. In the normal case, such as is exemplified by a seedling wheat or bean, the root-hairs arise some distance behind the growing tip of the root, an obvious adaptation which prevents their being rubbed off by the soil, as they would be if developed on parts still actively lengthening. As those behind die off, new ones replace them in front, and so we find a wave of succession of functionally active root-hairs some little distance behind the tip of the root: the same order of events holds for each new rootlet as it emerges from the parent root, and so successive borings in the soil, made by the diverging root-tips, are thoroughly explored by these root-hairs. Measurements have shown that in various plants the surface of root on 1 mm. of length is increased by the root-hairs in proportions given in the following table: ------------+---------------------+-----------------+-------------- PLANT. | Area of surface | Area of | No. of times | without root-hairs. | root and hairs. | greater. ------------+---------------------+-----------------+-------------- Maize, | 4.52 sq. mm. | 25.13 sq. mm. | 5.5 Pea, | 4.71 sq. mm. | 58.33 sq. mm. | 12.4 Scindapsus, | 14.02 sq. mm. | 261.9 sq. mm. | 18.7 ------------+---------------------+-----------------+-------------- --which sufficiently establishes the general proposition that the area of the root-surface is enormously increased by these hairs. But this does not give us any definite idea of the length of the cylinders of soil explored by these surfaces, until we find that plants such as an ordinary sunflower, hemp, or vegetable-marrow may have roots penetrating into a cubic meter of soil, in all directions, and so closely that probably no volume so large as a cubic centimeter is left unexplored. Clark found by actual measurement that the roots of a large gourd, if put end to end, extended over 25 kilometers, and Nobbe gives 520 meters for the roots of a wheat. Vetches may go nine feet deep, and oats more than three feet. The Sal, a tree of the forests of India, has roots which penetrate to a depth of 50 to 60 feet. Some rough notion of the lengths, superficies and penetrating capacities of the roots of a large tree may be gathered from the above, but it is doubtful whether we can form any adequate ideas as to the millions of root-hairs which must be developed along the course of these subterranean boring organs. One of the most striking results of modern enquiry into these matters, is the discovery that the number and superficial area of these root-hairs, on one and the same plant, may vary to a large extent according to the structure, as it were, of the soil, and the degree of moisture it is capable of retaining; or, with the same soil, according to the amount of water which it receives and holds. Correlations have also been observed between the development in length and surface of the rootlets themselves. The following illustrations will suffice to show this: Six young wheat-plants in soil kept constantly wet, developed roots the total length of which measured 365 mm. each, on the average, and almost devoid of root-hairs. Six similar plants in soil only moderately moist, averaged 668 mm., and were well furnished (though not densely covered) with root-hairs. Six similar plants in soil which would be termed dry, averaged 371 mm., but were densely covered with rich crops of root-hairs. Further researches have shown that the conditions which rule the development of the root-system and root-hairs in the soil are very complex, and not always easy to trace. The most general statements we can make are the following: There is an optimum degree of moisture in the soil which promotes the maximum development of root-hairs. If the soil is too wet they are not developed. These facts are of importance as correlated with the ease or difficulty experienced by the roots in obtaining water, and plants such as our ordinary agricultural plants show this very distinctly. Although, as shown in the experiments with wheat, the short roots in dry soil were more densely covered with root-hairs than the much longer roots in moderately moist soil, subsequent closer investigation shows that the total quantity and area of root-hairs is less in the former case than in the latter. The greatest number of root-hairs are developed on roots which are growing at their best: too much moisture may prevent the formation of root-hairs: too little may induce dense growths of root-hairs locally, but the total number is reduced. Another set of events which exerts influence on the development of root-hairs is the composition of the dilute solution--water containing dissolved salts--which surrounds them in the soil. Thus, Schwarz found that when similar oat and wheat plants were grown with their roots in solutions of various salts, the results differed as follows: Oats in a 15 per cent. solution of calcium chloride developed no root-hairs, though they formed in a 5 per cent. solution, and were very numerous in a 0.5 per cent. solution, or in water alone. In a 10 per cent. nutritive solution the plants developed no root-hairs, though they were abundant in a 1 per cent. solution. Wheat plants with their roots in a 15 per cent. solution of potassium nitrate bore no root-hairs, but they were numerous in a 2 per cent. solution of the same salt. These are extreme cases, for, although the roots were not killed, they were strongly inhibited in their growth by the more concentrated solutions. However, experiments of this kind at least bring vividly before us what variations are possible, and suggest that similar events on a smaller scale may occur in a soil which yields large quantities of soluble substances, _e.g._ when freshly manured. Obviously these facts have a practical significance as regards kind of soil, drainage, season (_e.g._ drought or wet), etc. But there are other factors which rule the development of root-hairs, and some experiments by Lesage show that the correlations between the development of root-hairs and roots are probably much more complex than had been suspected; for he finds that if the lateral rootlets of a Bean, in a water culture, are suppressed, the main rootlet develops numerous and very long hairs to compensate the loss in surface, a matter of obvious importance in the discussion of cases where roots have been injured in the soil. Before proceeding further it is necessary to look a little more closely into the structure of a single hair. It is a tubular prolongation of a single cell of the external covering of the young root, usually about 1 to 3 mm. in length, and 0.01 to 0.10 mm. in diameter. In special cases the root-hairs of some water plants may reach 5 to 18 mm. in length, but of course I am referring to the ordinary land plants of agriculture and forestry. This tubular prolongation is closed and rounded off at the distal free end, and opens at the proximal end into the cell of which it is a protrusion. The whole structure is bounded by an extremely delicate and elastic wall of cellulose, which Frank says is of special composition, almost too thin to measure in many cases, but often somewhere near 0.005 to 0.001 mm. in thickness. This thin membrane is remarkably permeable by water, or dilute solutions, as is shown by the rapidity with which a root-hair collapses if exposed to evaporation, or with which dense solutions abstract water from it, or with which solutions may be seen to penetrate it under the microscope. Overlying the thin cell-wall proper, on the outside, is a thin gelatinous layer, a product of alteration of the outermost lamellæ of the former. Closely lining the proper cell-wall on the inside, is an extremely thin layer of living protoplasm, and somewhere in this protoplasm is a distinct cell-nucleus. The interior of the tube is filled with cell-sap, and it is the osmotic pressure of this cell-sap which keeps the whole living instrument tense and rigid, and the thin protoplasmic film close pressed against the cellulose cell-wall. Nothing whatever can pass into the cell-sap, or out from it, without traversing both the lining of living protoplasm and the cell-wall. If we gently pull a living root, of wheat, pea, mustard, etc., from a normal soil, we find particles of soil so closely adherent to the root-hairs that they cannot all be washed off without tearing the hairs: the root-hairs establish relations of contact with these particles, so close that they are cemented to the solid surfaces by means of the gelatinous layer already referred to. This peculiarity has the following consequences. In the first place, the enormous holdfast, ensured by the millions of points of adherence, enables the plant to withstand even powerful lever actions from above, and provides fixed points against which the root-tips can work as they drive deeper into the soil. In the second place, the intimate contact of the root-hairs and particles of soil, ensures that the films of water held by surface-action on the soil-particles and root-hairs shall be in continuity with the water saturating the cell-walls of the latter, and therefore with the protoplasm and cell-sap in their interior. The importance of this at periods when the soil is "dry" will be obvious, when we reflect that no soil is ever naturally so dry that surface-films of water are absent from the particles. The fact that the root-hair contains living protoplasm, enables us to understand to a certain extent the results of the following experiments. If we have a leafy and healthy plant, with roots, bearing numerous root-hairs, properly established in suitably moist soil in the pot, the roots cease to absorb water if the temperature of the soil falls below a certain minimum, though they recommence to do so if the temperature is raised again: this has nothing to do with the temperature of the upper parts of the plant, or of the air, and the latter may be so high that the plant rapidly droops from loss of water at the leaves, which is not being compensated owing to the inactivity of the roots. Similarly we may have the air so cold, at a time when the soil is warm enough to keep the root-hairs actively at work, that the plant becomes surcharged with water, which escapes from the leaves like drops of dew. The temperatures necessary to cause these disturbances in the action of the living root-hairs vary for different plants, and even for different varieties of the same species. Similar arrestation of the functions of the roots may be brought about by removing the oxygen from the soil around the root-hairs, and replacing it by carbon-dioxide, or the vapour of chloroform. If not kept too long in such a condition, the plant recovers rapidly on admitting atmospheric oxygen, which is always present in a normal well-drained soil both as gas in the capillary interspaces, and dissolved in the water on the surfaces of the particles. If the access of oxygen is delayed, however, as often happens in rainy seasons and in wet soils, the root-hairs are killed, and rot sets in. A good instance of this has lately been given by Heinricher in the case of potatoes. NOTES ON CHAPTER V. For the further pursuit of this subject the reader should consult Sachs' _Lectures_, II. and XV.; Sorauer, _A Popular Treatise on the Physiology of Plants_, 1895, chapters II. and IV., and Pfeffer's _Physiology_, pp. 149-163. The principal paper on root-hairs referred to in the text is Schwarz, "Die Wurzelhaare der Pflanzen," in _Unters. aus dem bot. Inst. zu Würzburg_, I. Heft 2, 1883, p. 140, where a very exhaustive account of these organs will be found. CHAPTER VI. THE FUNCTIONS OF ROOT-HAIRS. _Excretions from root-hairs--Osmotic phenomena--Turgescence-- Plasmolysis--Control of the protoplasm in absorption, etc. Selective absorption._ We see then that the root-hairs are the active living instruments in absorbing the water (containing small quantities of dissolved substances) of the soil. If the living root-hairs are so numerous and so active, however, a natural inference is that they must exert some influence on the composition or arrangement of their environment. All the teachings of modern physiology go to show that such a living cell as I have sketched cannot carry on its life, brief though it be--the root-hairs are active for about four or five days--without forming substances of the nature of excreta, and we should expect some of these to pass out to the soil. Sachs showed, in 1860, that roots growing in contact with polished marble corrode the surface of the mineral, and Nobbe, in 1876, showed that the roots of seedlings reduce potassium permanganate, a fact which Molisch confirmed in 1887. The latter observer also proved that living root-hairs secrete substances which colour a solution of guaiacum blue, oxidise pyrogallic acid and other organic substances, and rendered it probable that they excrete some substance which inverts cane-sugar, and in some cases even small quantities of a diastatic enzyme. Molisch also confirmed an old observation, that roots excrete carbon-dioxide; and he and Czapek showed that the root-hairs excrete acids more permanent in their nature than carbonic acid, and published a method for showing this by means of a dilute solution, slightly alkaline, of phenolphthalein. Molisch declared that the substances secreted by root-hairs may even be observed, dissolved in drops which ooze from the surfaces of the root-hairs. That these root-excretions, and particularly the acids, may be of service in dissolving and rendering more available various constituents of the soil is an obvious suggestion, and it is borne out by Sachs' discovery of the corrosion of marble, and by Molisch's observation that living roots slowly corrode ivory if continuously kept in contact with it. But a deeper insight into the physiology of these organs was only possible when the meaning of the phenomena of osmosis had been rendered clearer by the researches of Pfeffer and De Vries in 1877. De Vries showed that the turgescence of the living cell can be diminished, and even reduced to nothing, by placing the cell in contact with solutions of substances which attract water from the cell-sap: as the turgescence diminishes, the cell contracts, owing to the elasticity of the cell-wall, which was previously distended; if the abstraction of water continues, the living protoplasmic membrane lining the cell-wall contracts away from the latter. He then proved that no injury need accrue to the cell by this process of plasmolysis, since the turgescence can be restored by washing out the salt with a more dilute solution, or with pure water; and the cell may go on living and even growing as before. These phenomena can only be produced in cells where the protoplasmic lining is intact and alive. Pfeffer showed that the whole matter depends on the properties of the living protoplasmic membrane, which, so long as it is alive, has the power of governing the entrance or exit of dissolved substances, but is as a rule freely permeable for water. If, then, substances with a powerful attraction for water are formed in the cell cavity, and of such a nature that the protoplasm does not permit their free diffusion to the exterior, they attract water, and hold it fast, and so set up the condition of hydrostatic pressure known as turgescence, the limit of which depends on the attainment of a state of equilibrium between the elastic reaction of the cell-wall and the distending power of the absorbed water. When this limit is reached, water begins to filter back again through the cell-wall. Numerous researches during the last fifteen years have shown that the sap of such a living cell as the root-hair is charged with substances of various degrees of osmotic power; bodies like sugars, amides, vegetable acids and their salts, being formed by the metabolic activity of the protoplasm and accumulated there. Moreover, we now know that the salts of the vegetable acids in particular are effective, and the researches of Warburg and Palladin in 1886 have placed it beyond reasonable doubt that these acids are continually being developed and destroyed in the living cell during normal growth and respiration, and that great variations as to quantity may be brought about by alterations in the conditions of the environment--_e.g._ temperature, oxygen, etc. If, now, we bring a solution of some salt, such as potassium nitrate, which has a powerful attraction for water, on the outside of the living root-hair, the question whether the water remains in the cell, or passes out of it, merely depends on whether the substances inside or that outside have the most powerful attraction on the water in the sap, since the protoplasm allows water to pass freely. But the protoplasmic lining may affect the whole matter in another way; for it may allow the dissolved salt, or other substance, in the solution outside or inside the cell to pass through it also, or it may take it up and fix it, or break it up or otherwise alter it. More recent researches, and especially those of Pfeffer, have shown that these diosmotic properties of the living protoplasm are of the utmost importance in the whole matter of absorption of substances from the soil. Let us suppose the following case. A root-hair, in full vigour, is allowed to bathe freely in a dilute solution of various substances, such as sugar, potassium nitrate, phosphates, sulphates and carbonates of iron, soda, lime, magnesium and others known by experiment to be harmless to its life. Now it turns out to be by no means a foregone conclusion that all or any of the substances, even though freely soluble in the water, can pass through the protoplasm into the interior of the cell. Some may be allowed easy access, others may only be permitted to pass in small quantities, and others, again, may be absolutely refused access by the delicate living filter, so long as it is vigorously alive. Nor, as proved by numerous experimental cultures since De Saussure's time, is the entrance of a salt, etc., ruled by its indispensability or otherwise in the economy of the plant. And it is important to notice that only experiment can prove the point and determine which substances are absorbed and which refused by the root-hair. If we now suppose the protoplasm to give rise to powerfully osmotic substances which accumulate in the sap-vacuole, but which are not permitted free egress through the protoplasm (and the formation of such bodies will occur if the protoplasm is actively respiring), the conditions for absorption of water, with or without any dissolved salts, which the protoplasm allows to traverse it, are set up. But the above supposed case is realised, as Pfeffer showed in 1886, when he found by a series of beautiful experiments that certain aniline dyes can accumulate in living root-hairs, and other living cells, whereas others cannot pass the living protoplasm. After accumulating for some time, the dye may either remain stored there, or may eventually diffuse out. Pfeffer made another discovery, of equal importance, namely, that under the influence of dilute organic acids, such as citric acid, the permeability of the living protoplasm may be altered, so that it allows substances to pass which could not otherwise have traversed it. De Vries had also shown that the condition of the protoplasm affects its power of retaining the colouring matter in the sap of the Beet: so long as the protoplasm is alive, the crimson sap is retained, even when the cell is plasmolysed, but immediately it begins to die the colour escapes through it. A similar case exists when the chlorophyll-corpuscles retain their colour in living cells known to be charged with acids: so long as the protoplasm is alive and normally active the green bodies are protected. These, and numerous other experiments of the same kind, prove that the healthy root-hair is a living instrument for taking up dilute solutions out of the soil, and holding them in the sap-cavity for a time. If killed, by frost for instance, it loses these powers. The researches of the last ten years have also shown that a time comes when the turgid cell, if an isolated one, and if sufficient supplies of water are present, is so tightly distended that the surplus water begins to diffuse out again under the pressure proper to the hydrostatic conditions set up. Now we arrive at a very critical point. When the water, or dilute solution of various substances, begins to exude under pressure from the living root-hair, what is to prevent its escape into the soil? And if it thus diffuses out, where is the object of absorption? The questions are obviously pertinent, and they may seem the more so in that the cells adjoining the root-hair on its inner side are also turgid, and possess similar properties to those of the root-hairs. To establish a condition of things which shall bring about the inward flow of the absorbed water, one of the three following cases is conceivable. (1) The cells, as we pass radially into the root, have different properties on the wall of the two sides; or (2) they are more and more greedy of water owing to some process of extraction of their water by tissues in the centre of the root; or (3) these successive series of cells possess osmotically more powerful contents at periods coincident with the escape of the water from the now osmotically weaker root-hairs. A little reflection will show that where we have a group of such cells as the above, all capable of absorbing water and dilute solutions and of becoming turgid, movements of the absorbed water must go on until all the cells are in equilibrium, as regards their osmotic pressures. Now the living rootlet is just such a system, the various cells of which are in different conditions of osmotic pressure at any given time: some of these cells are old, and their protoplasm is allowing sap to filter out under pressure: others are in the height of their vigour, and their protoplasm extremely impervious to the highly osmotic sap-constituents which it itself is forming actively: others are too young to have attained their full turgescence: while others again are in stages intermediate between the above. There is another point of importance, however, to explain some peculiarities in the absorption of these dilute solutions of salts, etc., by the root-hairs from the soil, and by cells lying deeper in the plant from these root-hairs. It is easy to understand that if a root-hair absorbs a given substance--say calcium sulphate, for illustration--and hands it over to other cells unchanged, a time must be supposed to arrive when, the sap of all the cells being equally charged with calcium sulphate, no more could be absorbed: the rate of absorption of this particular substance, and the quantity absorbed, up to the hypothetical point of equilibrium chosen, would then depend simply on the ease with which its molecules traversed the living protoplasmic membrane, and the degree of their solubility in the sap. But now suppose the following new factor to come in. Suppose that calcium sulphate undergoes decomposition in some one of the internal cells of the system of absorbing cells, or that it is even merely crystallised out in such a cell, or in any other way removed from solution (_e.g._ by deposition in cell-walls). This alters the state of affairs considerably. The separation of the molecules from the sap-solution is itself a cause for the flow of more of the solution to the cell concerned, and such causes of diffusion are very common in the plant. The importance of this principle consists in that it lies at the base of the whole question of selective absorption, application of manures, and the rotation of crops; and those who are acquainted with the excellent analytical results of De Saussure, Boussingault, Wolff, Trinchinetti, Gödechen, etc., and the water-culture experiments of Sachs, Nobbe, and others, will understand what an illuminating effect on these points was produced by the above generalisation, which we owe especially to Pfeffer's splendid researches into the nature of osmotic phenomena. It will now be clear, I hope, why we regard the living root-hairs as instruments--as pieces of living machinery--for the active absorption of water, with substances dissolved in it, from the soil; and it will also be evident, I think, that no one can form a proper conception of this matter of absorption, so important in all agricultural questions, unless he pays attention to these biological phenomena. It was hopeless to expect to understand these matters merely in the light of chemical analyses of plants and soils, and one expression of this hopelessness was the belief in the power of roots to select only the substances useful to it. We now know that the expression "selective power of roots" has a totally different meaning from that implied in the minds of the last generation of agriculturalists, and it would be easy to devise experiments, with solutions of different strength, where the plant should be made to take up relatively large quantities of harmless, but useless minerals, etc., and to starve in the midst of plenty of the elements proper to its structure, simply because the former are offered in a form in which they easily traverse the protoplasm of the root-hairs, while the latter are presented in a form unsuitable for absorption. That all these matters are of importance in regard to manuring and choice of soils, etc., needs no emphasising. These remarks, of course, do not detract from the value of good comparative chemical analyses, when viewed in the light of physiological knowledge, as I need hardly say; but they do, and emphatically so, attack the position that such analyses alone can explain the problems of agriculture. On the other hand, we must not rest satisfied with the suggestions so far put forward to account for the processes referred to, since it is impossible to overlook the fact that in their present form they merely afford proximate explanations, and are too crudely mechanical for finality. NOTES ON CHAPTER VI. In addition to the works referred to in the last chapter, the student should consult Pfeffer's _Physiology_, pp. 86-149, and pp. 410-441. With reference to water cultures, Sachs' _Lectures_, XVII., may also be consulted. The standard work on ash constituents of plants is Wolff, _Aschen-analysen_, 1871 and 1880, an indispensable book of reference in this connection, though there are others, quoted in Pfeffer, where further literature may also be found. CHAPTER VII. THE BIOLOGY OF SOIL. _Soil not a dead matrix--Organic materials--The living organisms of the soil--Their activities--Their numbers and importance. Abandonment of the notion that chemical analysis can explain the problem._ It is customary to regard the soil, between the particles of which the root-hairs of plants are distributed, as if it were merely a dead matrix of smaller or larger pieces of rock, such as sand, gravel, stones, etc., and organic remains, such as bits of wood, leaves, bones, etc., with water and air in their interstices. As matter of fact, however, soil is a much more complex body than was suspected until comparatively recent times. It is, of course, beyond the scope of this book to go into the different varieties of soils, their structure or arrangement, and the chemical nature of their constituent rocks and the débris mingled with the latter. For the same reason I must pass over the curious properties of soils in relation to the solutions they yield to water in contact, the manner in which they retain some of these solutions and allow others to pass easily, and the remarkable double decompositions which go on in them. Moreover, I must assume as known the chief physical properties of ordinary soils with respect to the phenomena of capillarity, absorption of heat, action of frost, and so forth. But all ideas as to the nature of soil based merely on the study of its chemistry and physics are misleading, and it is in just the establishment of this truth that modern discoveries in Agricultural and Forest Botany have played so important a part. From the facts that organic débris is found chiefly at the surface of the earth, and that the smallest particles are held in suspension by the water near the surface, it is comprehensible why such organic remains abound in the upper parts of the soil, where the rootlets with their absorbing root-hairs are also found, because they must have oxygen. The rule is, therefore, that an ordinary soil consists of upper strata, rich in organic materials and in oxygen, and a subsoil, poorer in these substances. Among these organic materials are countless myriads of living beings, especially fungi and bacteria, which require oxygen and organic materials for their subsistence, and it depends on the open or close, moderately moist or damp, warm or cold nature of the soil, and on some obviously connected factors, how far down these aërobic organisms can thrive. As we go deeper down they become fewer and fewer, and gradually disappear, and (neglecting certain anaërobic bacteria of putrefaction) they are rarely found in marked abundance more than a few inches below the surface soil. These aërobic fungi and bacteria are the great agents of continued fertility of a soil, and it is they which, living and multiplying in the moist and well-aerated warm interstices of a rich open soil, carry out the useful destruction of organic matter, breaking it up into mineral and gaseous bodies, which are then dissolved in the water bathing the root-hairs or escape into the atmosphere. In this work of destruction they are aided by the oxygen of the air and the solar heat: their own fermentative action is also accompanied by a marked rise of temperature, and the carbon-dioxide and other products of their activity all go to complicate the chemical changes going on in the soil around the roots. Duclaux has calculated that _Aspergillus niger_, a common mould fungus, can break down organic substances, such as carbohydrates, at such a rate that a metre cube of the fungus would decompose more than 3000 kilogr. of starch in a year, and this may serve as an example giving some idea of the possibilities in soil. Analyses of waters containing large quantities of organic matter, as they enter such open soils as those referred to, compared with the drainage water after passing through the upper strata, show that the carbonaceous and nitrogenous materials are broken down to more or less completely oxidised simpler compounds, and that the following chief changes result. The ammonia and some other nitrogenous bodies remain behind in the soil, as also do the phosphoric acid and much of the potash; whereas large quantities of nitric and nitrous acids, together with much sulphuric acid, chlorides, and calcium salts pass away in the drainage. These facts are obviously highly important in agriculture. Experiments on sewage farms have shown also that the upper soil retains most of the bacteria of the sewage. Koch found at Osmont, near Berlin, that whereas the different sewage waters contained numbers so enormous that each cubic centimeter probably held 38,000,000 germs, the different drainage waters held only 87,000 per c.cm.; and the whole process of water-filtration through sandy soils depends on these well-known facts. Recent experiments in connection with soil-filtration, however, bring out the further facts that the oxidations which organic matters undergo in the soil--and without which they are useless to the higher plants--are enormously enfeebled if the upper layers of soil are sterilised, so as to deprive them of the myriads of aërobic bacteria, fungi and yeasts which they normally contain, and there can no longer be any doubt as to the importance of the biology of the soil in connection with the preparation of materials suitable for absorption in solution by the root-hairs of agricultural and other plants. The researches of the last ten years have brought to light a long list of forms, comprising yeasts, such as Hansen's _Saccharomyces apiculatus_, fungi and bacteria which live and grow in the soil, finding their water and food supplies in the interstices, and under conditions which we now know to be very diverse. They are usually more numerous, in species and individuals, in cultivated farm and garden soils than in woods, prairies, and untilled lands; but the geological nature of the strata, the closeness and otherwise of the soil, its damp or dry character and its average temperature (which depends on many things besides latitude or altitude) and other factors co-operate to rule their distribution and numbers. The fact that cultivated land is so well supplied with manures, air, etc., is of great importance in relation to their relative abundance there, and it is extremely probable that the use of artificial manures lessens their numbers considerably as compared with land on which stable and other animal manures are employed. A list of the soil-bacteria which have been isolated and more or less carefully cultivated and examined would comprise about fifty species; but it is certain that, as at present classified and named, many more species are to be discovered in any ordinary soil. The fungi are apparently even more numerous than the bacteria, and we may rest satisfied for the present with the general statement that the life-actions of the myriads of individuals of these organisms in the soil completely alter the question of soil-water as understood by the last generation of agriculturalists. But there is another aspect of this question of soil-organisms which has grown in importance of late to such an extent that we are more than ever justified in regarding the biology of soil as far more vital to the interests of the plant than its physical or chemical properties. With many of the fungi in the soil the roots of plants have to compete--just as plant competes with plant--for water, salts, and other food-materials. The toadstools which are so conspicuous in fields and forests spring from mycelia which ramify in the ground, and are busily breaking down the remains of other organisms, and just such fungi are known to store up relatively large quantities of salts of potassium and phosphorus--the very salts which are so valuable to crops and occur so sparingly in most soils, but which the extensively spread fungus mycelia can gradually accumulate. Some of these fungi, moreover, are more active in their antagonism, and actually attack and pierce the roots as destructive parasites, but I pass these by for the present, as they form the subject for further consideration when we come to the diseases of plants. It is obvious that the competition of fungi with root-hairs for mineral salts, oxygen, etc., may be at times acute, and it is extremely probable that cases of so-called sterility of soil, where a particular soil is found unsuitable for a crop, may sometimes be due to this over-competition. The researches of recent years, however, and especially those of Frank, Winogradsky, Hellriegel, and Stahl, have brought to light a series of relationships between certain of these soil-organisms and the higher plants which place the matter of soil-biology in quite new lights. On the one hand it has been discovered that groups of bacteria are the active agents in bringing about the destruction of organic nitrogenous matter with the formation of ammonia, in oxidising this ammonia to nitrous and to nitric acids, which combine with bases in the soil to form the corresponding salts; while, on the other hand, other forms can decompose the nitrates and reduce them to nitrites, or set free ammonia or even nitrogen from them. Moreover, there are certain species which can fix the free nitrogen of the atmosphere, and start the cycle of up-building of this inert element into the complex higher compounds we term organic. It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of these processes of nitrification and denitrification going on in the soil about the root-hairs of the higher plants. But, in addition to this circulation of nitrogen in the soil, it turns out that the life-actions of bacteria, and not mere chemical decompositions, are largely responsible for the circulation of carbon, of iron, of sulphur and other elements formed from the decomposition--also by bacterial and fungal agency--of animal and vegetable remains in the soil. Even more startling are the biological relations in the soil between the absorbing roots of the higher plants and some of these bacteria and fungi, for it has now been established beyond all doubt that certain fungi enter the living roots and there flourish not as mere destructive parasites, but as messmates not only tolerated by the plant, but even indispensable to its welfare. It is probable that nearly half the plants of our fields, moors, and forests entertain such fungi in their root-tissues. The curious, and long-known nodules on the roots of leguminous plants--peas, beans, clover, etc.--are filled with bacteria which enable these plants to avail themselves of the free nitrogen of the air, and so enrich the soil with nitrogenous substances. The roots of most forest trees, orchids, and plants of the moorlands, meadows and marshes are similarly occupied by fungi, which in some way convey salts--probably especially phosphates and potassium compounds--to the plant in return for the small tax of organic carbon-compounds it exacts from the latter. In some cases at any rate, as Bernard has lately shown, the very existence of the plant depends on its seedling roots obtaining this advantageous attachment and co-operation (symbiosis) of the fungus immediately on germination. These remarks must suffice to illustrate this part of my subject, and to emphasise the statement that the question whether a given plant can be grown in a given soil, is by no means one of simply the physical and chemical constitution of the latter. The plant will have to run the gauntlet of a long series of vicissitudes brought about by the presence or absence, relative proportions and vigour, and specific nature of the organisms in the soil at its roots, and it is easy to see that many cases of disease may be due to the absence of advantageous bacteria or fungi, or to circumstances which disfavour their life, as well as to the predominance of competing organisms. It will now be evident that the old points of view must be abandoned, and with them, especially, the widely prevalent notion that chemical analyses of the plant and soil can explain the real problems of agriculture. It was of course an enormous advance in the science when, thanks to the splendid labours of the chemists, at the end of the last century and the beginning of this, we obtained that preliminary knowledge of the constitution of the air, and of the composition of the water, acids and salts, etc., which plants require for their food-materials and life-processes. Much was gained by De Saussure's establishment of the fact of oxygen respiration, though we now understand by the term something very different from, and much more complex than, what he understood by it, as, also, much had been gained by the previously acquired knowledge of the gas-exchanges in carbon-assimilation: nor must we forget the services of those who proved, by laborious analyses, continued for long periods, what chemical compounds are found in the tissues of plants, and in the soils at their roots and the atmosphere which surrounded them. We must also remember many other contributions which have been furnished, and are still being furnished by the chemist; and I for one hope that his labours will continue to go hand in hand with those of the physiologist. But, when all due honour is paid to the scientific chemist, it must still be allowed that his problems are different from the real problems of agriculture. To take one set of instances alone. The chemist can analyse a given soil or a given manure, and can even go a long way towards making them, but his analyses do not tell us what conditions are necessary in order that their ingredients may be presented to the roots so as to be absorbed and become built up into the plant. Chemistry told us that carbon was fixed from the air, but physiological experiments determined how this meant the synthesis of certain definite carbohydrates--this, too, in the face of the powerful authority of the chemist Liebig, who supposed that the vegetable acids were the results of the assimilation of carbon. Wolff, De Saussure, and other chemists have done yeoman service in showing that different plants, growing in the same soil, contain different proportions of mineral substances; but it was by means of water-cultures, and other physiological researches, such as those of Pfeffer on osmotic phenomena and of Schwarz and Molisch on root-hairs, that the puzzling question of selective absorption, by means of the living root-hairs, came into the arena of our knowledge. In every case--and, as already said, I am not undervaluing the work done--the chemist has left us only on the threshold of the real problem. He has stood outside the factory in which the real work we want to know about is being carried on, and has told us of so many tons of this material being carried in at the gates, and of so many tons of that coming out; he has even burnt down the factory, and all its contents and machinery, and has then told us how many tons of the various materials were there at the time; but this is not what we want, valuable as the information is, and still more will be. What we want, and what we expect to obtain, is more information regarding what is done with the materials in the factory: what machinery they are put into, and how they are put in: what stages they go through, and how the stages follow one another: what wear and tear has to be endured, and how we can step in and stop the working of the machine for our own benefit at the best possible time. The physiologist proceeds empirically, by experimenting with the living machinery. He recognises the parts and their structure, and tries to find out what they are doing: he knows that the laws of physics and chemistry cannot be traversed, but he sees these laws at work under special and very complex and peculiar conditions. He therefore, as the results of his experiments, sets new questions--or old questions under new conditions, if you like--and undoubtedly wants the help of both chemist and physicist; or, if it is preferred, the chemist and physicist may attack the problems, but they must familiarise themselves with the peculiar mechanism of the organism concerned, and cannot hope to attain success without experimenting with it. I confess it seems to me as reasonable to look upon scientific agriculture as a branch chiefly of chemistry as it would be to look upon horse-breeding or pigeon-rearing from the same point of view; and why the professed chemist's advice is regarded as so comforting and final in the one case and not in the other is one of those mysteries which seem inherent in human nature. The central point in agriculture is the plant: get the most out of it--the energy-winning machine which alone can keep the animals and everything else connected with the farm going--and all the rest follows. The old agriculture has taken a gloomy view of things, and especially on account of a large variable which it blames for many ills, namely, the season or climate. Perhaps the old agriculture has not sufficiently recognised that Nature grows plants in accordance with the fact that variation is not peculiar to the weather: if the seasons vary, so do fruit and other produce and the plants which yield them; and since man cannot hope to control the one variable, possibly relief will be found in doing more, within his limits, towards controlling others. In any case he cannot hope to succeed without study of the physiology of the plant. NOTES TO CHAPTER VII. An admirable short account of soil in its relation to root-hairs is given in Sachs' _Lectures_, XV.; but for a more exhaustive treatment of the subject of soil the reader is referred to King, _The Soil_ (Wisconsin, 1895), or Warrington, _Lectures on the Physical Properties of Soil_ (Oxford, 1900); Larbalétrier, _L'Agriculture_ (Paris, 1888), chapters II. and III. There is also a very good account in Bailey, _The Principles of Agriculture_ (London, 1898), chapters I.-III. With reference to the organisms in soils and the decompositions they bring about, the student should consult Kramer, _Die Bakteriologie in ihren Beziehungen zur Landwirthschaft_ (Wien, 1890), and Lafar, _Technical Mycology_ (Engl. edition, 1898), sections V., VIII., and IX. CHAPTER VIII. HYBRIDISATION AND SELECTION. _The crossing of varieties of wheat, etc.--The essentials of fertilisation--Rimpau's experiments--Hybrids and selected varieties._ In the more hopeful view of the case which the new agriculture will have to take, it will recognise the physiological truth that since the living plant is the important and variable machine which constructs the produce looked for, and since that machine will work best in proportion as its needs are properly satisfied; therefore in cases where the needs of a given type of the machine cannot be efficiently provided for, it will be well to select some other type which will take what supplies and conditions can be offered. Of course, this is already recognised to a certain extent, as is implied in the practices of "rotation of crops," selection of "pedigree wheats" and mixtures of "pasture grasses," and in decisions as to the quality of land according to the kinds of weeds found on it, and so forth; but I am convinced that the agriculturist of the future--and the same applies to the horticulturist, planter and forester--will have to concern himself more systematically with the working and the variability of the plant, and particularly with what Darwin termed Variation under Domestication, than has always been the custom in the past. The subject of the plasticity of cultivated plants, and especially of hybrids, is in one sense an old one; but much work is being done which proves, as such work is apt to do, that very much more may be done by well-planned experiments on the selection of new varieties raised by hybridising and cultivation. In illustration of this point, a short summary of some of the results of crossing different species of wheat, barley, oats, peas, beet, etc., may serve to show what has been gained and what may be hoped for in these directions. It should be stated that much has been done and is being done in this country as well as abroad, as witness English varieties of corn, peas, and potatoes, and the recent experiments on crossing various kinds of maize in America. The hybridiser grows his cereals, etc., in pots until ready for crossing, and then takes them into the laboratory, removes the weaker spikelets, and takes out the young stamens from the flowers left on the plant. The female plant is then ready, and the flowers covered with paper caps. The pollen, obtained by a clean wet brush from the plant chosen as the father, is then carefully placed in position on the stigmas, and the caps replaced. The pollination is repeated occasionally, and care taken that no uncrossed flowers develop later. In this way a few seeds or grains are got to start with. This would be the place to introduce an account of the enormous advances made by the botanists of the last decade or two in the study of the microscopic phenomena of fertilisation. Without going into details--which would more than occupy all the space at command--I may recall the discoveries of Strasburger and his pupils, and of Guignard, which have supplemented the earlier discoveries of De Bary, Cohn, and Hofmeister, by establishing the facts that the essential point in fertilisation is the fusion of two nuclei, and the bringing together in the fused mass of two extremely minute thread-like coiled bodies, the so-called chromatosomes or filaments, one of which is derived from the male and the other from the female parent. The particulars as to the marvellous adaptations to secure the union of these two infinitesimally minute threads, their behaviour immediately before and after union, and many other points must be passed over, as I have only space to emphasise the one crowning discovery that these tiny filaments of nuclear substance are the material carriers of all the hereditary properties of the parents to the young plant which their union initiates. It must not be supposed that the above statements are based on any meagre foundation of facts. The attraction of the fusing nucleated masses had been demonstrated over and over again by Tulasne, De Bary, Strasburger and others; but Pfeffer brought the matter to a crisis by discovering the attractive (chemotactic) substance emitted in given cases, and by collecting the fertilising bodies by its means into artificial tubes. The fusion of the nucleated bodies in the sexual act was observed by Strasburger in the living plant a few years ago, and numerous later observers have confirmed it. Meanwhile all the stages of approach and contact of the essential filaments of the nuclear substance have been traced, as also all the stages of the transference of half of each filament, male and female, into each of the first two cells of the very young embryo-plant. Moreover, the essentials are found to be the same in the animal kingdom also, and the bearing of all these discoveries on the phenomena of reproduction, variation, and heredity in living organisms has been and is of the highest importance, for they support, control, explain and correct so many of the splendid results of Knight, Kölreuter, Sprengel, Hildebrand and Hermann Müller, and in every direction throw side-lights into the crevices of that magnificent structure, the theory of Natural Selection, erected for all time by our countryman, Charles Darwin. To return now to experiments on crossing. It is found that the first products of the crossing appear exactly alike; they may have characters intermediate between those of the father and mother, or they may resemble one more than the other, but all the seeds of the same cross do it in the same way. On then sowing the seeds of the plants produced from this first cross, variations begin to appear. Most of the progeny revert to one or other of the parent forms, others show all conceivable combinations of their characters, and a few may give rise to entirely new characters. In succeeding generations the reversions are preponderant, and, supposing no care is taken to prevent it, the whole of the offspring gradually go back to the ancestral type. Some important consequences result, however, if systematic care is brought to bear on the matter. This tendency to variation in the second generation of crossed plants has often been noted, and it bears out very distinctly the conclusions to which Darwin came. The hybridiser takes advantage of this variation, as others have done, to select some forms and rigidly suppress others, in order to obtain well-marked varieties of the plants he experiments with. In illustration, I may take the following from Rimpau's account of his experiments on crossing wheat: By crossing a white English long-eared, dense wheat, and celebrated as a heavy cropper, with a red, looser German wheat, remarkable for its resistance to winter cold, Rimpau hoped to obtain a variety uniting both the above qualities. As regards the property of resistance, he failed, and he eventually gave up the attempts in face of the advantages offered by the so-called _Square-heads_, which then came into the market. His experiments, even with the above varieties, are worth noting, however, for they show how promising the results of carefully conducted crossing and selection may be. The crossing was done in 1875, in both directions. In 1876 the few grains obtained were found to yield plants almost all alike, with the long loose ear of the German parent, but the paler colour of the English wheat. In 1877 the plants, obtained by sowing the finest grains, were found to consist of pure white, pure red, and of forms which appeared to vary and revert in all possible degrees as regards colour, density, and other characters intermediate between these. By carefully separating the closest and densest white wheats from the closest and densest red ones, he got in 1878 a large number of each coming nearer to the type sown than did the mongrel forms intermingled with them: these reversions and intermediate forms were then rigidly eliminated, and only the deepest coloured and densest red and white forms again sown. In 1879 these two chosen varieties were constant, so far as concerned those selected from the crossing of female English white with male German red wheat, and the following year proved the constancy of the red variety in the reciprocal cross. In 1886 all four varieties--_i.e._ the two reds and the two whites of both the crossings--had become constant. Still more instructive are the results of the cross between the same white English non-bearded wheat and a red German bearded wheat. The first results of the crossing in 1875 showed the loose ear of the German mother, but was paler in colour; while the influence of the English father was shown by the absence of beard. From the reversions and mixtures of the mongrels showing reminiscences of the parents in all degrees in 1877, rigid selections and re-sowings were made as before, and Rimpau eventually got four very distinct varieties, two red and two white, a bearded and a beardless form of each, and these were declared fixed and constant in 1879-1882. Passing over many similar results, and merely noting a very successful variety got from a cross between a very early ripening loose red American wheat and the dense heavy cropping English Square-head--the crossed variety which has proved very suitable for certain light soils and dry climates on the Continent, which demand very rapid ripening, and are therefore of great physiological and technical interest--I must pass on to note the curious result of the successful hybridisation of wheat and rye. This cross has been effected several times, and first in this country according to reports from Edinburgh (1875), New York (1886), and elsewhere, and Rimpau's careful experiments seem to leave no doubt on the matter. First I must remind you that wheat (_Triticum_) differs from rye (_Secale_) in several marked characters, such as the breadth and shape of the glumes, the number of flowers in the spikelet, etc.; and that the cultivated rye differs from cultivated wheats in the characters of the straw, in having long ears, and in its flowering glumes remaining widely divaricated for some days when in flower. In 1888 Rimpau removed the young stamens from the German wheat referred to, and pollinated the stigmas with pollen from a long-eared rye. Four sound grains were obtained, looking like wheat-grains. The history of one of these grains was as follows: In 1889 it yielded ears which were peculiarly narrow and long, and its stalks were also much longer than the wheat: the flowers remained exposed, with widely open paleae, for several days, and the grains were very peculiar, though wheat-like. Fifteen of the best grains were selected, and in 1890 three of the resulting plants proved to be a wheat of the Square-head type and one quite sterile. The others retained the elongated, narrow, brownish-red ears, the flowering glumes again opening wide for some days. This last is a characteristic of rye, but not of wheat. A long series of natural hybrids of wheat, barley, and oats are also described and discussed by Rimpau, as well as artificial crosses--some very remarkable--of barleys, but they must be passed over here. Peas rarely become hybridised naturally. According to Darwin, H. Müller, and Focke, the flowers are little visited by insects in our countries, though the mechanism points to their adaptation for pollination by large bees. Rimpau confirms Darwin, H. Müller, and Ogle as to the self-fertilisation of our cultivated peas. Nevertheless, as is well known, marked varieties have been obtained by artificial crossing by Gärtner, Knight, Laxton, and others, especially in this country. At the same time experiments show that while it is very easy to obtain artificial hybrids of such plants, and there is no fear of natural inter-crossing, the forms are remarkably unstable as yet. Similarly unsatisfactory results were obtained with beet. As experiments are still going on, however, we may expect to hear more about these and other results. It is probable, from recent experiments by De Vries, Correns, and others, that a remarkable regularity, expressed by Mendel in the form of a law, obtains in the variations which result from hybridising. In considering these illustrative cases, it is necessary to thoroughly apprehend that two procedures are involved. In the first place we have the cross-pollination leading to the formation of the hybrid plant by cross-fertilisation. But experience shows that this would lead to very uncertain results if the plant-breeder did not supplement them by the second and extremely important process of rigid selection--_i.e._ by choosing the best of the progeny and breeding from them apart from the parent-forms, and gradually intensifying, as it were, the variations in certain directions which have been started by the crossing. It is by selection, careful culture, and repeated selection that so much has been done in obtaining the innumerable new varieties of roses, sweet-peas, orchids, orchard fruits, cereals, grapes, strawberries, melons, tomatoes, early potatoes, etc., brought forward by numerous breeders of plants in all countries, as will readily be understood if reference be made to the work of Hays and Webber in America; Saunders in Canada; Garton, Sutton, Veitch, Bateson, and others in this country. Nor is it necessary that the new materials for selection to work upon should be started by hybridisation. Grafting, change of conditions, and even variations so vaguely understood that we term them "spontaneous," may supply the starting-points for changes in the characters of plants, so remarkable after intensification by breeding that people find it difficult to believe they can have come from one stock. Here, however, I must conclude, merely remarking that the above sketch is a mere outline of the subjects modern agriculture and horticulture concern themselves with. There are hundreds of problems connected with the germination of seeds, on which valuable recent work has been done by Klebs, Green, Horace Brown, and others; with the resistance of seeds and seedlings to high and low temperatures, a subject opened out by Sachs, Kny, De Vries, Krasan, Just, Höhnel, Dewar, Dyer, and others; with the conditions of vegetation which affect the various functions of growth, respiration, assimilation, transpiration, and so forth, on which I cannot even touch in these pages. Meanwhile I hope I have succeeded in impressing upon you the grand fact that the plant is a living and very complex engine, driven by the radiant energy of the sun, and capable of doing work thereby, and this just as truly as any heat-engine is driven by chemical energy gained by means of the sun's rays, or as a water-mill is driven by power which must be referred to the energy of potential in the head of water placed in position by the sun's work in evaporation. Fundamentally the whole of life and work on our planet is to be referred to the one great source of energy which renders possible the establishment of differences of potential. This machine, then, doing work in various ways, adapts itself--or goes to the wall--to the conditions of its work among competing organisms or opposing circumstances. Curiously enough, while in some cases it suffers from the competition, in others it is benefited by its life-actions fitting in between those of other organisms, which in their turn supplement it. In other words new types of this engine, capable of doing the work in various ways, are obtainable; some are good types for the conditions afforded, others are bad ones. Examples of both will occur in the further exposition of the subject. Man's position in regard to the struggle is that of an intelligent being who steps in at certain stages and protects, fosters, and in every way favours the agricultural plant--the living machine--and sees that every opportunity is given it to do its best work in the best way--from his points of view! NOTES TO CHAPTER VIII. The foundation of any course of reading on hybridisation and selection should be Darwin's _Effects of Cross and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom_, which, with his books _On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection_ and _The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication_, will prepare the student for the long course of reading necessary for a full appreciation of what has been done in this department of science. From the numerous works which followed these I should select Bailey's _Survival of the Unlike_, London, 1896, and _Evolution of our Native Fruits_, New York, 1898, as especially useful for the reader of this book, to which may also be added _Plant Breeding_, New York, 1896, by the same author, as giving numerous facts and practical directions of value. Further, the "Hybrid Conference Report," _Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc._, 1900, abounds in facts and information. Rimpau, _Landw. Jahrb._, vol. xx., 1891, p. 239. The student who wishes to get towards the root of the matter will hardly be able to dispense with Strasburger's _Neue Untersuchungen über die Befruchtungsvorgang bei den Phanerogamen_, Jena, 1884. An interesting summary of recent work on _Xenia_ and "double fertilisation" will be found in _Bull. No. 22, U.S. Dept. of Agric._, 1900. See also _Nature_, Mar. 15, 1900, p. 470. If he wishes to explore the vast region of controversial literature that opens up from these points, and which is far beyond the purpose of this book, he may consult the literature collected in Kassowitz' _Allgemeine Biologie_, Wien, 1899, B. II., and the references in the works quoted; also, Strasburger, "The Periodic Reduction of Chromosomes in Living Organisms," _Ann. Bot._, viii., 1894, p. 281. For "Mendel's Law," see Correns in _Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Gesellsch._, vol. xviii., 1900, p. 158. _PART II._ DISEASE IN PLANTS. CHAPTER IX. PHYTOPATHOLOGY. DERIVATION AND MEANING. _History. References in the Bible--Greeks and Romans-- Shakespeare--Rouen law--Superstitions--Malpighi and Grew-- Hales--Unger--Berkeley--De Bary, etc. Physiology and Biology --Diagnosis--Etiology--Therapeutics. Study of causes._ Phytopathology, from Greek words which signify to treat of diseases of plants, comprises what is known of the symptoms, course, and causes of the diseases which threaten the lives of plants, or bring about injuries and abnormalities of structure. As a distinct and systematised branch of botany it is a modern study, the history of which only dates from about 1850, though the subject had been treated more or less disjointedly by several authors during the preceding century, and isolated records of diseased crops, fruit-trees, etc., exist far back in the history of Europe. The existence of mildews and blights on cereals indeed was observed and recorded by the writers of the older books of the Bible, half a dozen references to such blights being found in the Old Testament, as well as others to blasted fig trees, etc., in the New Testament. Aristotle, about 350 B.C., noticed the epidemic nature of wheat-rust. The Greeks and Romans were so well acquainted with such diseases that their philosophers speculated very shrewdly as to causes, while the people dedicated such pests to special gods. As regards the Middle Ages, we know little beyond the fact that blights and mildews existed, but Shakespeare's reference in _King Lear_ (Act III., Sc. 4) leaves no doubt as to his acquaintance with mildew in the 17th century, and other authorities bear out the same. Even the law took cognisance of the danger of wheat-rust in 1660 in Rouen (Loverdo). Prior to the 18th century, however, only meagre notes on the subject occur scattered here and there among other matters, and much superstition existed then and later regarding these as other diseases. Malpighi, in 1679, gave excellent figures of leaves rolled by insects and of numerous galls, the true nature of which he practically discovered by observing the insect piercing the tissues; previous observers--Pliny knew that flies emerge from galls, but thought the latter grew spontaneously--having nothing but superstitions and conjectures to offer. Grew, in 1682, also gave a capital figure and description of a leaf mined by "a small flat insect . . . which neither ranging in breadth nor striking deep into the leaf, eats so much only as lies just before it, and so runs scudding along betwixt the skin and the pulp of the leaf, leaving a whitish streak behind it, where the skin is now loose, as the measure of its voyage"--a by no means inadequate description of the injury and its cause. During the eighteenth century several academic treatises or dissertations dealing with diseases of plants appeared. But as a rule we only find disjointed notes. Hales (1727-33) discusses the rotting of wounds, canker, and a few other matters, but much had to be done with the microscope ere any substantial progress could be made. With the nineteenth century, and the founding of the modern theories of nutrition by Ingenhousz, Priestley, and De Saussure, we find a new era started. As the discoveries of the microscopists continued to build up our knowledge of the anatomy of plants and began to elucidate the biology of the fungi and other cryptogams, while the chemists and physiologists laid the foundations of our modern science of plant life, it gradually became possible to tabulate and classify plant diseases, and discuss their symptoms and causes in a more scientific manner. Even in 1833, however, Turpin, and a far better observer, Unger, regarded parasitic fungi as due to diseased outgrowths of chlorophyll-corpuscles and parenchyma cells, views shared by Meyen (1837) and Schleiden (1846). We may pass over the various treatises of Wiegmann (1839), Meyen (1841), Raspail (1846), Kühn (1859), and a number of other works of the period, merely referring with emphasis to Berkeley's admirable papers in the _Gardener's Chronicle_ (1854) for a summary of what was then known. All these works antedate De Bary's _Morphologie und Physiologie der Pilze, etc._ (1866), in which he brought together the results of his researches during the decade, proving the real nature of parasitic diseases and infection as worked out by experiments between 1853 and 1863. This work put the whole subject of parasitic diseases of plants and animals on a new footing, and paved the way for the modern treatment of plant pathology as elaborated in the treatises of Frank (1880 and 1895), Sorauer (1886), Kirchner (1890), and others, to which the reader is referred for further details. I will merely quote the following passage from Raspail's _Histoire Naturelle de la Santé et de la Maladie_, 1846 (vol. ii., p. 176), in illustration of the views entertained by high authorities just prior to De Bary's work: "L'insecte qui produit les _erineum_, _uredo_, _æcidium_, _xyloma_, _puccinia_, n'est donc plus pour nous un insecte inconnu, mais un _acarus_ (grise), un _aphis_ (puceron) ou un _thrips_, qui produit au printemps une déviation, etc." And this view, that fungi already well known to mycologists were called forth by the punctures of insects, was regarded as not out of harmony with the idea that the fungus itself was an abnormal outgrowth of the tissues of the host. The proper study of plant pathology presupposes and involves a knowledge of the physiology of plants, of the normal relations of the latter to their environment, and of the biology of those animals and plants (principally insects and fungi) which are parasitic on them. It is of the first importance to understand that a disease is a condition of abnormal physiology, and that the boundary lines between health and ill-health are vague and difficult to define. As with the study of the diseases of man and other animals, so with those of plants, the practice resolves itself into the accurate observation and interpretation of symptoms (_Diagnosis_) on the one hand, and of causes (_Aetiology_) on the other, before any conclusions of value can be drawn as to preventive or remedial measures (_Therapeutics_). In plants, however, symptoms of disease are apt to exhibit themselves in a very general manner, or at any rate it may be that our perceptions of them differentiate symptoms due to very different reactions imperfectly, probably because the organisation of the plant is less specialised than that of animals. The turning yellow and premature falling of leaves, for instance, is a frequent symptom of disease; but it may be due to a long series of different causes of ill-health--_e.g._ drought, too high or too low a temperature, light of insufficient or of excessive intensity, a superfluity of water at the roots, the presence in the tissues of parasitic fungi, or that of worms or insects at the roots or elsewhere, poisonous gases in the air, soil, etc., and so forth. Consequently the science of plant pathology is much concerned with the direct action of external causes, which are probably less obscure than in the case of animals, though by no means always obvious. Such considerations at any rate seem to account for the fact that most authorities on plant pathology base their classification on the causes of disease, there being few noteworthy exceptions. NOTES TO CHAPTER IX. The bibliography here quoted will be found in Berkeley, "Vegetable Pathology," _Gardener's Chronicle_, 1854, p. 4; Plowright, _British Uredineæ and Ustilagineæ_, 1889; Eriksson and Henning, _Die Getreideroste_, Stockholm, 1896; De Bary, _Comparative Morphology and Biology of the Fungi_, etc., 1887; Frank, _Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen_, 1895-96, and scattered in the works referred to in them and in the text. CHAPTER X. HEALTH AND DISEASE. _Variation--Disease--Comparison to a top. Health--Extinction of species--Natural demise. Examples of complex interactions in health--Interference, and tendencies to ill-health._ When we come to enquire into the causes of disease, it appears at first an obvious and easy plan to subdivide them into groups of factors which interfere with the normal physiology of the plant. Scientific experience shows, however, that the easy and the obvious are here, as elsewhere in nature, only apparent, for disease, like health, is an extremely complex phenomenon, involving many reactions and interactions between the plant and its environment. If we agree that a living plant in a state of health is not a fixed and unaltering thing, but is ever varying and undergoing adaptive changes as its life works out its labyrinthine course through the vicissitudes of the also ever-varying environment, then we cannot escape the conviction that a diseased plant, so long as it lives, is also varying in response to the environment. The principal difference between the two cases is, that whereas the normal healthy plant varies more or less regularly and rhythmically about a mean, the diseased one is tending to vary too suddenly or too far in some particular directions from the mean; the healthy plant may, for our present purposes, be roughly likened to a properly balanced top spinning regularly and well, whereas the diseased one is lurching here, or wobbling there, to the great danger of its stability. For we must recognise at the outset that disease is but variation in directions dangerous to the life of the plant. Health consists in variation also, but not in such dangerous grooves. That the passage from health to disease is gradual and ill-defined in many cases will readily be seen. In fact we cannot completely define disease. Mere abnormality of form, colour, size, etc., is not necessarily a sign of disease, in the usual sense of the word, otherwise the striking variations of our cultivated plants would suggest gloomy thoughts indeed, whereas we have reason to believe that many cultivated varieties are more healthy--in the sense of resisting dangerous exigencies of the environment--than the stocks they came from. Strictly speaking, no two buds on a fruit-tree are alike, and the shoots they produce vary in position, exposure, number, and vigour of leaves, and so forth. The minute variations here referred to are not seen by the ordinary observer, but those who bud, graft and multiply by cuttings on a large scale know that such bud-variations are important, quite apart from more extensive "sports" which occasionally occur. On the other hand, we have reason to believe that many species have died out gradually as the environment altered. These plants died because they did not vary sufficiently, or did not vary in the right directions; they became diseased with respect to the then prevailing conditions of normal physiology or health. Disease, therefore, may be said to be variation of functions in directions, or to extents, which threaten the life of the plant, the normal in all cases being the state of the plant characteristic of the species. Even now, however, we have not obtained a complete definition, because, since all plants die sooner or later, we have not excluded the natural demise of the individual or its parts, and no one would call the autumnal fall of leaves, or the withering of an annual after flowering, death from disease. Clearly then the idea of disease implies danger of premature death, and probably this is as near as we shall get to a satisfactory definition. Since this matter is of primary importance for our present theme, I will add the following instances for consideration. A plant in perfect health and in the fullest exercise of all its functions, has its roots in a soil which is suitably warmed and aerated, contains the right quantities of water which dissolve just the proper proportions of all the essential mineral salts, but nothing poisonous, while the soil itself has a texture such that the roots and root-hairs can extend and do their utmost in absorbing. The leaves above are exposed to just the right intensity of light, in air which is not too dry, and is of suitable temperature and composition, containing no poisonous exhalations, etc.; and as the foliage is gently moved by the breeze, it manufactures carbohydrates at the optimum rate in the chlorophyll, and the so-called "elaborated sap" containing the dissolved organic food-supplies is prepared in the tissues in maximum quantities and of just the right degrees of concentration and quality for use in the buds, stem, roots, etc., for which it is destined as they draw on the supplies. Between these assimilating organs, the leaves, and the absorbing roots, we have in the stem the wood, with its vessels adapted in quantity and calibre to convey the water containing dissolved salts from the absorbing roots to the leaves (to say nothing of other parts) and, separated from this wood by the cambium, we find the sieve-tubes and cortical tissues in suitable quantity conveying the "elaborated sap"--the solutions of organic food-materials from the leaves down to the roots, up to the buds, and elsewhere. Joining these cortical and wood tissues are adapted series of medullary rays which, apart from other connections, bring about the necessary interchanges of water and "elaborated sap" with the cambium, the formative tissue which has to be fed and served by them, and which by its growth supplies new vessels and sieve-tubes, etc., to carry the continually increasing quantities of water and food substances as the roots and leaves increase in number and area, and thus enables this ideally correlated system to go on working at maximum energy. Now suppose the same plant with its roots in an unsuitable soil--too dry or too poor in mineral supplies, for instance--the transpiring leaves above cannot obtain sufficient water and salts to supply their needs, but we will suppose hypothetically that they still assimilate under the same ideal conditions as before. The supplies now coming to the cambium are diminished, since the want of water and minerals compels the leaves to put aside any excess of carbohydrates (_e.g._ as stored starch-grains), and the plastic materials which do pass to the cambium so deficient in water cannot be directly utilised, and a starvation period sets in. Consequently the cambium forms less wood, and this will contain fewer and smaller vessels, and so reduce the conducting passages: fewer sieve-tubes also are constructed, and the paths of the water current and food supplies narrowed, which of course reacts on the tissues everywhere. The reserve substances may slowly be dissolved and distributed, however, and considerable quantities be passed in course of time into the roots, which, as opportunity offers, gradually employ them in making new roots, and if the disturbance has not gone too far and the conditions do not become unfavourable, an increased root-supply may by its larger absorbing area gradually establish the former state of equilibrium of functions. But this at the expense of the plant, which is smaller, has fewer leaves and narrower water channels, etc., than a plant not thus checked, and it may take a long time to make up for the loss of time and stature thus incurred. Indeed if the plant is an annual no recovery at all may occur, the reserves passing into fruit and seeds instead of slowly supplying the roots as described. If it be asked, can such a condition of affairs as that described really occur, we have only to think of a transplanted specimen with its roots maimed and put into unsuitable soil, or of plants in the open with feeding roots gnawed by an insect, etc., or of a tree hitherto in equilibrium with its fellows in a plantation suddenly set free by thinning and so forth. Now take the case where the roots are maintaining their maximum functional activity, but the leaves--owing to want of light, too much moisture or too low a temperature of the air--are functionally depressed. Here we get a state of over-saturation with water set up, the tissues are turgid to bursting point, what supplies do traverse the sieve-tubes, cortex, etc., do so slowly and are excessively diluted, and the cambium again forms less wood, but the lumina of the vessels are larger and the lignification less complete. Growth in length is excessive, but more leaves are formed, though they are apt to be abnormally thin and may be small. Little or no reserves are stored anywhere, and the watery tissues contain dangerously diffusible substances which may render them an easy prey to parasitic fungi. Here again, however, if the disturbance of equilibrium has not gone too far, and if the season permits, the new leaves may come into full activity and the situation be saved by transpiration and assimilation gradually increasing and restoring the equilibrium. But, as before, the plant has suffered, and shows the effect in its weak shoots, retarded flowering, and other ways. Such plight as is here described may actually be attained in greenhouses where over-watering is the fault, and even in the open it is not uncommon in rainy summers, or in plantations where dominant trees get the upper hand and partially shade more slowly growing species, or in fields where rank grass is allowed to overwhelm crops of lower stature. Now it will be evident that either of these typical cases of temporary disturbance of functional equilibrium may be carried too far: in the first case the plant may wilt and wither, in the second it may rupture and rot, to take these eventualities only. And yet it is difficult to call these indispositions diseases: they are rather examples of extreme departures from the normal standard of health, just on the borderland between health and disease. A step further, as it were, and disease supervenes: certain tissues die from want of water, and a necrotic area is formed, or the cortex bursts and a wound is formed in another way, or some fungus gets a hold, and so on. These abnormal states are particularly apt to predispose the plant to disease--insects revel in such semi-wilted leaves and shoots crammed with reserves, and fungi in the water-logged leaves of the second case, while a cold dry wind is peculiarly fatal to such tissues. NOTES TO CHAPTER X. The reader may consult Hartig, _Diseases of Trees_, Eng. ed., 1894, Introduction; Sorauer, _Pflanzen Krankheiten_, pp. 1-12, and Frank, _Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen_, B. 1, p. 5, for definitions of disease. CHAPTER XI. CAUSES OF DISEASE. _A. External causes--I. Non-living environment: soil, atmosphere, temperature--II. Living environment: plants, animals--Complex interactions--Predisposing causes--No one factor works alone--Tangled problems of natural selection involved. B. So-called internal causes._ It is customary to classify the causes of disease in plants into two principal groups--(1) those due to the action of the non-living environment--soil, atmosphere, physical conditions such as temperature, light, etc.; and (2) those brought about by the activities of living organisms--plants and animals of various species. Before passing to further subdivisions under these two heads, however, it is necessary to observe that no disease can be efficiently caused by an organism alone, since its powers for injury as a parasite, or otherwise, are affected by its non-living environment as well as by the host-plant. For instance, the spores of a parasitic fungus which would infect and rapidly destroy a potato plant in moist warm weather may be showered on to such a plant with impunity if the air remains dry and cool--or on to a cabbage under any circumstances as far as we know. Again, probably no one factor of the non-living environment ever suffices to induce a disease, possibly because no such thing as only one change at a time ever occurs. For instance, it is difficult to say, when a soil becomes sodden with water, whether the excess of water and dissolved matters, the want of air displaced by the water, the lowering of the temperature, or the accumulation of foul products, etc., is the principal factor in causing the damage which results, and we have to determine by the balance of experimental evidence which is the dominant factor in all such cases. The study of aetiology of disease is in fact only a particular case of that of aetiology in general. Plants at high altitudes in the Alps acquire very different characteristics from the same species in the plains. Is this due to the low temperature, the rarer atmosphere, the more intense illumination, the changes in moisture, etc., etc.? The question is more difficult than it appears at first sight, and we must remember that, complex as are the factors working on the host, they are equally complex in their actions on a parasite attacking the host, whence the resulting disease becomes indeed a tangled problem of natural selection. Finally it remains to say a few words about a numerous class of cases where no external cause of disease can be discovered. It was formerly the custom to group such cases of "Internal Causes" by themselves, but apart from the fact that many of these mysterious diseases have subsequently been shown to be due to the action of external agencies, the whole question of internal causes resolves itself into one of relations between the plant and its surroundings, and it becomes evident that no inherited or internal disease can be regarded as explained until we know the external causes which have so modified the structure and working of the living cells as to make them abnormal in their reactions to other parts of the plant. "Internal causes" of disease, therefore, is a phrase expressing our ignorance, but somewhat more emphatically than usual. If this is clearly understood there seems no reason against its employment for the time being in the artificial scheme of classification we require. With regard to external causes due to the non-living environment, excess or deficiency of materials in the soil, water, or atmosphere plays an important part, and--since we may neglect purely aquatic plants--it is customary to speak of diseases due to unsuitable soils or to injurious atmospheric influences. For instance, any deficiency in the supplies of the necessary mineral salts (compounds of calcium, magnesium, potassium with sulphuric, nitric and phosphoric acids, etc.) leads to pathological changes, as also does the lack of the necessary traces of iron. But it is equally true that the presence of such ingredients in excess or in combinations unsuited to the plants also leads to disaster, as also does the presence of minerals or other compounds which poison the root-hairs--_e.g._ products of decomposition, soluble salts of copper and other poisons. That these matters are bound up with the whole question of manuring and of proper soil-analyses will be evident. Another essential factor is the nature and quantity of organic materials in the soil, whether leaf-mould and decomposing vegetable remains, stable manures, or other animal matters, all of which affect different species very differently, and produce very different results in different soils. It is necessary to apprehend in this connection what has been stated above: that soil is not a mere dead structureless medium, and that the root-hairs of ordinary plants cannot deal with large quantities of putrefying organic matter: that a good soil must abound in useful bacteria and fungi to render such substances available--and in very various ways--and that it must be open and aerated, of proper temperature and suitably supplied with water, and so forth, or disaster will result. Here, again, then we are brought into close contact with all that is known of fermentation, nitrification, and the various biological changes going on in soil, and the application of such knowledge to the practice of manuring and tillage in all its forms. In view of the above remarks, the danger of "over-feeding," in this sense, has a real meaning for horticulturists, though it must not be forgotten that no substance is really a food until it is assimilable into the protoplasm: manures, etc., are food-materials, not food. The futility of mere chemical analyses to prove what a plant requires is now well known, and it is only on the basis of long and carefully conducted experiments that we can ever discover what a particular plant in a particular soil, situation, and climate requires for healthy development. Again, the quantity of water in soil may be too great or too small for given species, and this either on the average for the year, or during critical periods only; and it is obviously important whether the excess or deficiency is due to improper supplies of water, the depth or shallowness of the soil, its retentive powers, or the nature of the sub-soil and so on, again bringing the whole matter into connection with our understanding of the physical constitution and structure of soils, and the nature of soil-drainage. For instance, a common way of killing ferns is to keep the roots and soil wet and the air and fronds dry, whereas the natural habitats provide for wet and shaded fronds and well-drained soil. It may be noted here that in most cases where gardeners speak of plants being killed under the "drip" of trees--_e.g._ Beech, the injury is due, not to the effects of water but to the shade: the loss of light is so great that the shaded plants die of inanition because their leaves are not able to provide sufficient carbohydrates. Closely bound up with this is the question of the gases in soils. Apart from the disastrous effects of poisons--_e.g._ coal gas escaping from pipes under pavements in towns, etc., diseased conditions often result from deficiency of oxygen at the root-hairs, due to imperfect aeration of soils, brought about by stagnant water, excess of animal matter, and so forth. Unsuitable constitution of the atmosphere is also a fruitful source of disease, though its effects are commoner in closed stoves and greenhouses than in the open. Nevertheless the continual exhalation of sulphurous fumes, chlorine, and other poisonous gases in the neighbourhood of manufacturing centres or of large smoky towns, volcanoes, etc., play their part in injuring plants; and excessive moisture in the form of mist, rain, etc., is also important. All these matters bring us at once into the region of physiology, and only an intelligent appreciation of what is known about the action of the atmosphere on the soil and the plant will save the peasantry of a country from a hopeless mysticism but little removed from that of the Middle Ages, when blights and other evils were vaguely referred to the river-mists, thunder clouds, and easterly winds. If we summarise the above as the material factors of the environment, we may classify another set of external non-living causes of disease as the non-material factors. Such are principally the following: The space at the disposal of plants greatly affects their welfare. The crowding of roots in the soil and of foliage in the air, resulting in the loss of light to the leaves, involves deficiency of all the materials referred to above--minerals, organic materials, gases, and water--and no better illustration of the intense struggle for existence among these apparently passive and motionless beings, plants, can be given than an over-crowded seedbed or plantation. If left to themselves such over-stocked areas exhibit to the keen eye of the trained observer all the phases of starvation, weakness, wounding, rot, and, so to speak, brutal dominance of the stronger over the weaker which it is the object of cultivation to prevent. Here, then, we are brought face to face with the true significance of thinning and weeding out, pruning, and similar processes. Unsuitable temperature is one of the commonest of all sources of disease, for every plant is adapted to certain ranges of temperature, and best adapted to a given optimum somewhere between the maximum and minimum temperature for each function. Consequently any serious departure from the mean may bring about physiological disturbances of the nature of disease, and this in very various ways, as exemplified by the results of frost, sun-scorching, drought, hail-storms, forest fires, and so forth. As a predisposing factor to disease abnormal temperature effects play a great part. Many wound-fungi gain their entrance through frost-cracks, bruises due to hailstones, or into tissues chilled below the normal. No less remarkable are the diseases primarily due to insufficient or improper exposure to light, which affects the chlorophyll-apparatus and the process of carbon-assimilation and through these the whole well-being of the plant. Every plant is adapted to certain ranges of light intensity, and most cultivators know how impossible it is to grow shade plants in fully exposed situations, and how easily plants which live in open sunny situations are "drawn" and killed by shade. It is equally important to have the right kind of light, as disastrous experiences with greenhouses glazed with glass which cut off certain rays of light have taught. Here, again, it is important to notice that the optimum intensity or quality of light may differ for different functions and organs of the plant, as is shown by many adaptations on the part of species growing in natural situations--_e.g._ bud protection, orientation of leaves, etc.--and it may be taken as a rule that etiolated plants are peculiarly susceptible to other diseases. As regards other factors of the inorganic environment, disasters which come within the scope of our subject may be brought about by many agencies, the mechanical effects of snow and hail, wind, avalanches, etc., the effects of lightning, and so forth, being a few of them. NOTES TO CHAPTER XI. For other detailed classifications of the causes of disease the reader is referred to the works of Sorauer and of Frank referred to in the last chapter. Also Kirchner, _Pflanzen Krankheiten_, Stuttgart, 1890. Of more historical importance are the older classifications of Berkeley, _Gardeners' Chronicle_, 1854, and Re, _Gardeners' Chronicle_, 1849-50. These latter are interesting as showing the very different views held by the earlier workers, and comparison of these with the modern views helps to mark the progress of physiology during the half century which has intervened. CHAPTER XII. CAUSES OF DISEASE. THE LIVING ENVIRONMENT. _Causes due to animals--Vertebrata--Wounds, etc.--Invertebrata --Insects, etc.--Plants as causes of disease--Phanerogams, weeds, etc.--Cryptogams, fungi--Epidemics, etc._ Passing now to those causes of disease which are connected with the living environment, we may obviously divide them into two groups of agents, animals and plants. Among animals, the various vertebrata, including man, are especially responsible for the larger kinds of wounds and wholesale destructive processes due to breakage, stripping of leaves and bark, cutting and biting, and so forth. Cattle, rabbits, rats and mice, squirrels and birds of various kinds stand out prominently as enemies to trees and other plants, to which they do immense injury in various ways by their horns, teeth, claws, and beaks; and the damage which an ignorant gardener or forester can do with his ill-guided footsteps, axe, spade, and knife can only be appreciated by one who knows the habits of plants. It is among the invertebrata, however, especially insects and worms, that the most striking agents of disease in plants are to be found, for, with the exception of certain rodents--and we may logically include also human invasions--vertebrate animals do not often appear in such numbers as to bring about the epidemics and scourges only too commonly caused by insect pests. Insects injure plants in very various ways. Some, such as locusts, simply devour all before them; others, _e.g._ caterpillars, destroy the leaves and bring about all the phenomena of defoliation. Others, again, eat the buds--_e.g._ _Grapholitha_; or the roots--_e.g._ wire-worms, and so maim the plant that its foliage and assimilation suffer, or its roots become too scanty to supply the transpiration current. Many aphides, etc., puncture the leaves, suck out the sap, and produce deformations and arrest of leaf-surface, as well as actual loss of substance, and when numerous such insects induce all the evils of defoliation. Others, such as the leaf-miners, tunnel into the leaves, with similar results on a smaller scale. It must be remembered that a single complete defoliation of a herbaceous annual, or even of a tuberous plant like the potato, so incapacitates the assimilatory machinery of the plant, that no stores can be put aside for the seeds, tubers, etc., of another year, or at most so little that only feeble plants come up. In the case of a tree the case is different, and since most large trees in full foliage have far more assimilatory surface than is actually necessary for immediate needs, a considerable tax can be paid to parasites or predatory insects before the stores suffer perceptibly. Still, it should be recognised that the injury tells in time, especially in seed years. Many larvae of beetles, moths, etc., bore into the bark and as far as the cambium or even into the wood or pith of trees, the local damage inducing general injuries in proportion to the number of insects at work: moreover, the wounds afford points of entrance for fungi and other pests. Galls and similar excrescences result from the hypertrophy of young living tissues pierced by the ovipositors of various insects, and irritated by the injected fluid and the presence of the eggs and larvae left behind. They may occur on the buds, leaves, stems, or roots, as shown by various species of _Cynips_ on oak, _Phylloxera_ on vines, etc., in all cases the local damage being relatively small, but the general injury to assimilatory, absorptive, and other functions is great in proportion to the number of points attacked. Many grubs--larvae of flies, beetles, etc.--bore into the sheaths or internodes of grasses, or the pith of twigs, or into buds, fruits, and other organs of plants, and do harm corresponding to the kind and amount of tissues injured. Various species of so-called eelworms--Nematodes--also cause gall-like swellings on young roots, or they invade the grains of cereals. Finally, various slugs and snails cause much injury by devouring young leaves and buds and diminishing the assimilatory area. Plants as agents of disease or injury fall naturally into the two main categories of flowering plants (Phanerogams) and Cryptogams, among which the fungi are the especially important pests. Beginning with weeds, we find a large class of injurious agents. Weeds damage the plants we value by crowding them out in the struggle for existence, as already stated, and when the weed-action is simply due to superfluous plants of the same species, we speak of overcrowding. But it must not be overlooked that the competition between crowded plants of the same species--where every individual is acting as a weed to the others--may be more dangerous than between plants and weeds belonging to other species and genera, because in the former case they are struggling for the same minerals and other necessary food-materials: a matter of importance in connection with the rotation of crops. The question of allowing grass to grow at the foot of fruit trees, as in orchards, is a good case in point. Such grass may increase the damp and shade, thus favouring fungi at one season, and dry up the moisture of the soil to the injury of the fine superficial roots at another, as well as exhaust the soil, owing to the competition of the roots for salts and other materials. On the other hand, the checking of surface roots by competition with the grass has been claimed as advantageous. In this connection probably the whole question of the composition of the turf arises, as well as that of possible cropping for hay, and manuring. As regards any particular weed, the cultivator should learn all he can respecting its duration, seeding capacity, method of dissemination, the depth and spread of its root-system, and any other particulars which enable him to judge when and how to attack it. It is only necessary to see the victory of such drought-resisting weeds as _Hieracium pilosella_, Plantains, _Hypochaeris_, on lawns to realise how weeds may win in the struggle for existence with the finer grasses. Many so-called weeds are, however, partially parasitic, with their roots on the roots of others--_e.g._ _Rhinanthus_, _Thesium_, etc., and much damage is done to meadow grasses and herbage by the exhaustive tax which these semi-parasites impose. This is carried still further in the case of such root-parasites as _Orobanche_, where the host-plant is burdened with the whole support of the pest, because the latter, having no chlorophyll, is entirely dependent on the former for all its food. Even ordinary climbing plants may injure others by shading them, either by scrambling over their branches--_e.g._ Bramble, or twisting their tendrils round the twigs--_e.g._ Bryony, or twining round them--_e.g._ Woodbine, _Convolvulus_, etc. The principal direct injury is in these cases owing to the loss of light suffered by the shaded foliage, but the weed-action is often increased by the competition of their roots--_e.g._ briars; and in the case of woody climbers the gradually increased pressure of the woody-coils round the thickening stems compresses the cambium and cortex of the support and induces strictures and abnormalities which may be fatal in course of time. Epiphytes, or plants which support themselves wholly on the trunks, branches, or leaves of other plants, also injure the latter more especially by shading their foliage--_e.g._ tropical Figs, Orchids, Aroids, etc.; and similar damage is done by our own Ivy, the main roots of which are in the soil, but the numerous adventitious roots of which cling to the bark. When the climber or epiphyte is also parasitic, as in the case of the Dodder, _Loranthus_, Mistletoe, etc., the direct loss of substance stolen from the host by the parasite comes in to supplement any effect of shading that the latter may bring about if it is a leafy plant. Of Cryptogams, apart from a few epiphytic ferns, and the intense weed-action of certain Equisetums, the rhizomes and roots of which are as troublesome as those of twitch and other phanerogamic weeds, it is especially the fungi which act as agents of disease, and which, as we now know, are _par excellence_ the causes of epidemics. The action of fungi may be local or general; and restricted, slow and insidious, or virulent and rapidly destructive. Examples of local action are furnished by _Schinzia_, which forms gall-like swellings on the roots of rushes; _Gymnosporangium_, which induces excrescences on the stems of junipers, and numerous leaf-fungi (_Puccinia_, _�cidium_, _Septoria_, etc.), which cause yellow, brown, or black spots on leaves, as well as by _Ustilago_, which attacks the anthers or the ovary of various plants, and so forth. In such cases the injury done by a few centres of infection is very slight, but prolonged action may bring into play secondary effects such as the gradual destruction of the cambium round a branch, when, of course, the effect of ringing results; or if the fungus becomes epidemic and myriads of leaf-spots are formed, the destruction of foliar tissue, gradual taxing of the assimilatory cells, etc., may end in rapid defoliation, and renewed attacks soon exhaust the plants and lead to sterility and death, as often occurs with Uredineae--_e.g._ the coffee leaf-disease. It is highly probable that such fungi are particularly exacting owing to their exhausting demands for compounds of potassium, phosphoric acid, and other bodies. Examples of virulent and rampant general action are afforded by finger and toe in turnips, etc., where the roots are invaded by _Plasmodiophora_, which induces hypertrophy and rotting of the roots; and by the damping off of seedlings, where the fungus _Pythium_ rapidly invades all parts of the seedlings and reduces them to a water-logged, putrefying mass; or the potato-disease, which is due to the rapid spread of _Phytophthora_ in the leaves and throughout the plant, which it blackens and rots in a few days. Many fungi not in themselves very virulent or aggressive do enormous harm owing to the secondary effects they induce. Some of the tree-killing hymenomycetes, such as _Agaricus melleus_, for instance, penetrate the wood of a pine at the collar, and the result of the large flow of resin which results is to so block up the water passages that the tree dies off above with all the symptoms of drought. Similarly, the _Peziza_ causing the larch disease, having obtained access to the stem about a foot or so above the ground, will gradually kill the cambium further and further round the stem, and so girdle the tree as effectually as if we had cut out the new wood all round. In all such cases--and the same applies to the leaf-diseases referred to above--the fungus may be compared to an army which is not strong enough to invade the whole territory, but which, by striking at the lines of communication, cuts off the supplies of water, food, etc., and so brings the struggle to an end. Indeed we might compare the cases of fungi which attack the root and collar, and so strike at and cut off the water supply, to a compact army which at once cuts off the enemy from his narrow base; whereas the innumerable units which bring about an epidemic attack on the leaves, and so surround the enemy and cut off his food supplies all round, is rather like a much larger army which cannot get in beyond the natural barriers of the tissues, and so puts a _cordon_ all round the territory and seizes the multitudes of food-stuffs at the frontiers. The end result is similar in both cases, but the methods of warfare differ. Many fungi, however, though they make their presence noticeable by conspicuous signs, cannot be said to do much damage to the individual plant attacked. The extraordinary malformations induced by parasites like _Exoascus_, which live in the ends of twigs of trees and stimulate the buds to put out dense tufts of shoots, again densely branched--Witches' brooms--are a case in point. Also the curious distortions of nettle stems swollen and curved by _�cidium_, of maize stems and leaves attacked by _Ustilago_, and of the inflorescences of _Capsella_ by _Cystopus_, etc., are not individually very destructive; it is the cumulative effects of numerous attacks, or of large epidemics, which tell in the end. Some very curious effects are due to fungi such as _�cidium elatinum_, which, living in the cortex of firs, stimulate buds to put out shoots with erect habit, and with leaves which are radially disposed, annually cast, and differently shaped from the normal--characters quite foreign to the species of fir in its natural condition. Equally strange are the shoots of _Euphorbia_ infested with the æcidia of _Uromyces_, those of bilberries affected with _Calyptospora_, etc. In all these cases we must assume a condition of toleration, so to speak, on the part of the host, which adapts itself to the altered circumstances by marked adaptations in its tissue developments, mode of growth and so forth. This toleration is perhaps most marked in the case of those cereals which, though infected by the minute mycelium of _Ustilago_ while still a seedling, nevertheless go on growing as apparently healthy green plants indistinguishable from the rest, although the fine hyphae of the parasite are in the tissues and keeping pace with the growth of the shoots just behind the growing points. As the grains of the cereal begin to form and swell, however, the hyphae suddenly assume the part of a dominant aggressor, consume the endosperm of the enlarging seed, and replace the contents of the grain with the well-known black spores known as Smut. NOTES TO CHAPTER XII. The reader will find a summary of such fungi as are here concerned in Massee, _A Text-Book of Plant Diseases_, 1899, or Prillieux, _Maladies des Plantes Agricoles_. For further details the student should consult the works of Frank and Sorauer referred to in the notes to Chapter IX., and Tubeuf, _The Diseases of Plants_, Engl. ed. 1897, pp. 104-539. For experiments on the effects of grass on orchard trees, see _Report of the Woburn Experimental Fruit Farm_, 1900, p. 160. For the further study of weeds, the interesting bulletins of the Kansas State Agricultural College, 1895-1898, will show the reader what may be done in the matter of classifying them according to their biological peculiarities. In regard to insects, the reader will find the following list embraces the subject: Somerville, _Farm and Garden Insects_, 1897; Theobald, _Insect Life_, 1896; Ormerod, _Manual of Injurious Insects_, 1890, and _Handbook of Insects Injurious to Orchards, etc._, 1898. The admirable series of publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture under the editorship of Riley and Howard, and entitled _Insect Life_, 1888-1895, also abounds in information. Further, Taschenberg's _Praktische Insektenkunde_, 1879-1880, and Judeich and Nietsche, _Lehrbuch der Mitteleurop. Forst. Insektenkunde_, 1889. For an elementary introduction to the study of fungus diseases, see Marshall Ward, _Diseases of Plants_, Soc. for Promoting Christian Knowledge, London. CHAPTER XIII. NATURE OF DISEASE. _General and local disease--General death owing to cutting-off supplies, etc.--Disease of organs--Tissue-diseases, e.g. timber--Root-diseases--Leaf-diseases, etc.--Diseases of Respiratory, Assimilatory, and other organs--Physiological and Parasitic diseases--Pathology of the cell--Cuts--Cork--Callus --Irritation--Stimulation by protoplasm--Hypertrophy._ On going more deeply into the nature of those changes in plants which we term pathological or diseased, it seems evident that we must at the outset distinguish between various cases. A plant may be diseased as a whole because all or practically all its tissues are in a morbid or pathological condition, such as occurs when some fungus invades all the parts or organs--_e.g._ seedlings when completely infested by _Pythium_, or a unicellular Alga when invaded by a minute parasite; or it may die throughout, because some organ with functions essential to its life is seriously affected--_e.g._ the roots are rotten and cannot absorb water with dissolved minerals and pass it up to the shoot, or all the leaves are infested with a parasite and cannot supply the rest of the plant with organic food materials, in consequence of which parts not directly affected by any malady become starved, dried-up, or poisoned or otherwise injured by the results or products of disease elsewhere. In a large number of cases, however, the disease is purely local, and never extends into the rest of the organs or tissues--_e.g._ when an insect pierces a leaf at some minute point with its proboscis or its ovipositor, killing a few cells and irritating those around so that they grow and divide more rapidly than the rest of the leaf tissues and produce a swollen hump of tissue, or gall; or when a knife-cut wounds the cambium, which forthwith begins to cover up the dead cells with a similarly rapid growth of cells, the callus. Numerous minute spots due to fungi on leaves, cortex, etc., are further cases in point, the mycelium never extending far from the centre of infection. Many attempts have been made to classify diseases on a basis which assumes the essential distinction of the above cases, and we read of diseases of the various organs--root-diseases, stem-diseases, leaf-diseases, and so forth; or of the various tissues--timber-diseases, diseases of the cambium, of the bark, of the parenchyma, and so on. Furthermore, attempts have been made to speak of general functional disease, of diseases of the respiratory organs, of the absorptive organs, and so forth, as opposed to local lesions. Critical examination, however, shows that no such distinctions can be consistently maintained, partly because the organs and functions of plants are not so sharply marked off as they are in animals, the diseases of which have suggested the above classification, and partly because all disease originates in the cells and tissues, and it is a matter of detail only that in some cases--_e.g._ severe freezing or drought of seedlings, or when some ingredient is wanting in the soil--the diseased condition affects practically every cell alike from the first, while in others it spreads more or less rapidly from some one spot. Even the distinction into physiological diseases _versus_ parasitic diseases cannot be maintained from the standpoint of the nature of the disease itself. All disease is physiological in so far as it consists in disturbance of normal physiological function, for pathology is merely abnormal physiology, no matter how it is brought about. This is not saying that no importance is to be attached to the mode in which disease is incurred or induced: it is merely insisting on the truth that the disease itself consists in the living cell-substance--the protoplasm--not working normally as it does in health, and this, whether want of water, minerals, or organic food be the cause, or whether the presence of some poison or mechanical irritant be the disturbing agent, as also whether such want or irritation be due to some defect in soil or air, or to the ravages of a fungus or an insect. This being understood I need not dwell on the common fallacy of confounding the fungus, insect, soil or other agent with the disease itself, or of making the same blunder in confusing symptoms with maladies. In this sense, wheat rust is not a disease: it is a symptom which betrays the presence of a disease-inducing fungus, the Rust fungus. Similarly, chlorosis is not a disease: it is a symptom of imperfect chlorophyll action, and the best proof of the truth of both statements is that in both cases the fundamental disease-action is the starvation of the cell-protoplasm of carbohydrates and other essential food matters--in the one case because the fungus steals the carbohydrates as fast as the leaves can make them, in the second because the leaf is unable to make them. The foundation of a knowledge of disease in plants therefore centres in the understanding of the pathology of living cells. If a suitable mass of living cells is neatly cut with a sharp razor the first perceptible change is one of colour: the white "flesh" of a potato or an apple, for instance, turns brown as the air enters the cut cells, and the microscope shows that this browning affects cell-walls and contents alike. The cut cells also die forthwith; and the oxygen of the air combining with some of their constituents forms the brown colouring matter which soaks into the cell-walls. The uninjured cells below them grow longer, pushing up the dead débris, and divide across by walls parallel to the plane of the wound, and so form series of tabular cells with thin walls, which also soon turn brown and die, the cell-walls meanwhile undergoing changes which convert them into cork. The living cells deeper down are now shut off from the outer world by a skin, of several layers, of cork-cells, which prevent the further free access of air or moisture. During the period of active cell-division which initiates the cork, the temperature of the growing cells rises: a sort of fever (wound-fever) is induced, evidently owing to the active respiration of the growing cells. This healing by cork occurs in any tissue of living cells exposed by a cut--leaf-tissue, young stem or root, fruit, cambium, etc.; and the same applies to any other kind of cutting or tearing injury--such as a prick with a needle or the proboscis of an insect, a stripping, or even a bruise. Such healing is prepared for and carried out very thoroughly in the case of falling leaves and cast branches, the plane of separation being covered by a cicatrix of cork. If the cell-tissue under the wound is actually growing at the time, however, a further process is observed when the wound-cork has been formed. The uninjured cells below go on growing outwards more vigorously than ever, the pressure of the overlying tissues taken off by the cut having been removed, and, lifting up the cork-layer as they do so, they rapidly divide into a juicy mass of thin-walled cells which is of a cushion-like nature and is termed a _Callus_. This callus is at first a homogeneous tissue of cells which are all alike capable of growing and dividing, but in course of time it undergoes changes in different parts which result in the formation of tracheids, vessels, fibres and other tissue-elements, and even organs, just as the embryonic tissues of the growing points, cambium, etc., of the healthy plant give origin to new growths. Such wound-wood, however, is apt to differ considerably in the arrangement, constitution and hardness of its parts as compared with normal wood, and its peculiar density and cross-graining are often conspicuous. If instead of a simple tissue, the cut or other wound lays bare a complex mass such as wood, the resultant changes are essentially the same to start with. The living cells bordering the wound form cork, and then those deeper down grow out and form a callus. The exposure of the wood however, entails alterations in its non-living elements also. The lignified walls of tracheids, fibres, etc., turn brown to a considerable depth, and this browning seems to be--like all such discolorations in wounds--due to oxidation changes in the tannins and other bodies present: the process is probably similar to what occurs in humification and in the conversion of sap-wood into heart-wood in trees. Such wood is not merely dead, but it is also incapable of conveying water in the lumina of its elements, which slowly fill with similarly dark-coloured, impervious masses of materials termed "wound-gum," the nature of which is obscure, but which slowly undergoes further changes into resin-like substances. The exposure of wood by a wound results also in another mode of stopping up the vessels and so hindering the access of air, loss of water, etc., for the living cells of the medullary rays and wood-parenchyma grow into the lumina of the larger vessels through the pits, forming _thyloses_, again a phenomenon met with in heart-wood. In Conifers the stoppage of the lumina is increased by deposition of resin, which also soaks into the cell-walls and the wounded wood becomes semi-translucent owing to the infiltration. Every living cell in an active condition is irritable, and one of the commonest physiological reactions of growing tissues is that of responding to the touch of a resistant body, as is vividly shown by the movements of the Sensitive plant, _Dionaea_, etc., and by those of tendrils, growing root tips, etc., on careful observation. We have reason for stating that if a minute insect, too feeble to pierce the cuticle, cling on to one side of the dome-shaped growing point of any shoot, the irritation of contact of its claws, hairs, etc., would at once cause the protoplasm of the delicate cells to respond by some abnormal behaviour; and, as matter of experiment, Darwin showed long ago that if a minute piece of glass or other hard body is kept in contact with one side of the tip of a root, the growth on the side in contact is interfered with. Moreover we know from experiments on heliotropism, thermotropism, etc., that even intangible stimuli such as rays of light, etc., impinging unsymmetrically on these delicate cells cause alterations in their behaviour--_e.g._ arrest or acceleration of growth. Perhaps the most remarkable class of stimulations, however, is that due to the presence of the entire protoplasmic body of one organism in the cell of another, each living its own life for the time being, but the protoplasm of the host cell showing clearly, by its abnormal behaviour, that the presence of the foreign protoplasm is affecting its physiology. A simple example is afforded by Zopfs' _Pleotrachelus_, the amoeboid protoplasmic body of which lives in the hypha of _Pilobolus_, causing it to swell up like an inflated bladder, in which the parasite then forms its sporangia. The _Pleotrachelus_ does not kill the _Pilobolus_, but that its protoplasm alters the metabolic physiology of the latter is shown by the hypertrophy of the cells, and by the curious fact that it stimulates the _Pilobolus_ to form its sexual conjugating cells, otherwise rare, an indication of very far-reaching interference with the life-actions of the host. An equally remarkable example is that of _Plasmodiophora_, the amoeboid naked protoplasm of which lives and creeps about in the protoplasm of a cell of the root of a turnip, to which it gains access through the root-hairs. It does not kill the cell, but stimulates its protoplasm to increased activity and growth and division, itself dividing also and passing new amoebae into each new daughter-cell of the host. Here the processes of stimulation, hypertrophy and further division are repeated, until hundreds or thousands of the turnip root-cells are infected. The externally visible result is the formation of distorted swellings on the root (Finger and Toe), most of the cells of which are abnormally large and filled with amoeboid _Plasmodiophora_ protoplasm, which finally devours the turnip-protoplasm and itself passes over into spores. Here we have most convincing proof of the stimulation of protoplasm by other protoplasm in direct contact with it; and that the metabolism of the host-cells is profoundly altered is shown not only by the abnormal growth of the cells, but also by the starvation of the rest of the turnip plant as the _Plasmodiophora_ gets the upper hand. We have here, in fact, a local intracellular parasitic disease, gradually invading large tracts of tissue and eventually inducing general disease resulting in death--a state of affairs reminding us of cancer in animals. Irritation and hypertrophy of cells, however, may be induced by parasites which never bring their protoplasm into direct contact with that of the host. Many Chytridiaceae penetrate the cells of plants, and grow inside them as short tubes, vesicles, etc., the protoplasm of which is separated by their own cell-walls from that of the host-cell; nevertheless hypertrophy and abnormal cell-divisions and secretions are induced, and the effect even extends to neighbouring cells--_e.g._ _Synchytrium_--showing that some influence is exerted through cells themselves not directly affected. This latter point need not surprise us now we know that the cells of plant-tissues are connected by fine protoplasmic strands passing through the separating cell-walls. But the invading plant need not actually enter the cells, and may still stimulate them through both its own and their own cell-walls to abnormal growth. This is well shown by the intercellular mycelium of _Exoacus_ and _Exobasidium_, and the latter affords an excellent illustration of the far-reaching effects of hyphae on the cells (of _Vaccinium_) into which they do not penetrate. Not only are the cells stimulated to grow larger and divide oftener than normally, thus producing large gall-like swellings, but the chlorophyll disappears, the cell sap changes colour to red, the numerous compound crystals normally found in the tissues diminish in number and are different in shape, large quantities of starch are stored up, and even the vascular bundles are altered in character. All these changes indicate very profound alterations in the physiological working of the protoplasm of the cells of the host, and yet the fungus has done its work through both its own cell-walls and those of the host. Even harmless endophytic algae in the intercellular spaces of plants may stimulate the cells in their immediate neighbourhood to increased growth, _e.g._ _Anabaena_ in the roots of Cycads. NOTES TO CHAPTER XIII. With reference to cork-healing and wound-fever the student may consult Shattock "On the Reparative processes which occur in Vegetable Tissues," _Journal of the Linnean Society_, 1882, Vol. XIX., p. 1; and Shattock "On the Fall of Branchlets in the Aspen," _Journal of Botany_, 1883, Vol. XXI., p. 306. Also Richards, "The Respiration of Wounded Plants," _Annals of Botany_, Vol. X., 1896, p. 531; and "The Evolution of Heat by Wounded Plants," _Ann. of Bot._, Vol. XI., 1897, p. 29. For details and figures respecting callus, see Sorauer, _Physiol. of Plants_, p. 175. In respect to the irritable movements referred to see Darwin, _The Power of Movements in Plants_, 1880, chapter III. The recent work of Nawaschin, _Beobachtungen ueber den feineren Bau u. Umwandlungen von Plasmodiophora_, Flora, Vol. LXXXVI., 1899, p. 404, should be read for details and literature concerning "Finger and Toe." CHAPTER XIV. NATURE OF DISEASE (_Continued_). _Actions of poisons in small doses--Results of killing a few cells--Malformation--Enzymes--Secretions and excretions-- Acids, poisons, etc.--Chemotactic phenomena--Parasitism-- Epiphytes and endophytes--Symbiosis--Galls._ Physiological research has shown that the respiratory activity of cells may be increased by small doses of poisons, and even that growth may be accelerated by them--_e.g._ chloroform, ether--and, still more remarkable, that fermentative activity may be enhanced by minute doses of such powerful mineral poisons as mercuric chloride, iodine salts, etc., and that the cells may be gradually accustomed to larger doses without injury. Unfertilised eggs of insects have been started into growth by treatment with acids and those of frogs with mercury salts, and the germination of beans quickened by various poisonous alkaloids. In other words, graduated doses of poison may alter the physiological activity of living cells, inducing pathological phenomena, while larger doses kill them. Now we know at least one parasitic fungus which poisons the cells of its host, and kills them, with similar symptoms to those resulting from excessive doses of the above-named toxic agents. _Botrytis_ hyphæ, living in the cell-walls of plants, but not entering the cells, excretes a poison which kills the protoplasm, and the fungus then feeds on the debris. Numerous other fungi form powerful poisons, but we do not know whether or how they employ them--_e.g._ Ergot. It is obvious that if all the young cells of a root-tip or of the apex of a shoot, or those of a young leaf, are growing and dividing regularly, the killing of one or a few cells at one point on the side of the organ must result in irregularities--in malformation--of the adult organ. This has been proved experimentally by destroying a few cells with a needle. It can also be done by planting a minute mycelium of _Botrytis_ laterally on a young organ--_e.g._ a very young lily-bud. The fungus adheres to the surface, kills a few epidermis cells, and forms a foxy-red spot, which becomes concave as the dead cells lose water and dry. Since the rest of the bud goes on growing, however, while this dead point remains stationary, the latter gradually becomes the centre of a concavity, the growing tissues having grown round it: the bud is deformed. Numerous cases of malformed organs are explained in this way; a minute insect has bitten or pierced the young tissue, or a fungus has killed a minute area, or a drop of acid condensed from fumes in the air is the lethal agent, and so forth. And even on a much larger scale we see the same kinds of agents at work. Wherever a patch of cells is killed whilst those around go on growing, there must result some deformation of the resulting organ, since had the injury been withheld the number and sizes of the cells now fixed in death would have increased and covered a larger area: they now serve to pull over to their side the still living and growing cells. The same results follow on any lateral wound: the killed spot of tissue serves as a point round which the continued growth of other parts of the organ turns. Hence the malformation is in these cases a secondary effect, and not, as in simple hypertrophy, a direct effect of the action of the cells involved in the injury. There is another class of bodies secreted by fungi, however, which act directly on cells, viz. enzymes--that is, soluble bodies which are able to dissolve cellulose (_cytases_), starch (_diastases_), proteids (proteolytic enzymes), and other substances, by peculiar alterations in their constitution. It is by means of its _cytase_ that _Botrytis_ hyphae pierce the cellulose walls of plants, and no doubt in all cases where fungi pierce cell-walls it is by the solvent action of such a cytase, and similarly when haustoria penetrate into the cells. It is also by means of these starch-dissolving enzymes (diastases) and proteolytic enzymes, etc., that the hyphae inside the cells are enabled to make use of the starch, proteids, etc., they find there. All living cells form materials, resulting from the activity of the protoplasm, which we may compare with the refuse or by-products formed in any great manufacturing industry: these by-products have to be got rid of if they are injurious or noisome (_excretions_), and if not--_i.e._ if they are capable of further use (_secretions_)--they have to be stored away till required. Some of the most prominent of these bodies excreted by fungi are, as we have seen, poisonous acids, such as oxalic acid, enzymes, and organic poisons, such as those in ergot. But similar enzymes, acids, poisons, etc., to those found in fungi are also found in the cells of other plants and animals; for only by means of their solvent actions can processes like digestion and assimilation of the starchy and other materials into the body-substance be accomplished, and we have seen that it is a general property of living cells to form acids, and other excretions and secretions. Now we know very little about what may happen when an organism--say a fungus--secreting especially one kind of enzyme or poison or other active substance, comes into intimate contact with another--say a leaf-cell--which secretes predominantly others, but what we do know points to the certainty that various complications will occur. For instance, if certain bacteria which prefer an alkaline medium, and yeasts which prefer an acid environment are mixed in a saccharine solution, it depends on the reaction of the liquid which organism gains the upper hand: if the liquid is acid the yeast may dominate the bacteria; if alkaline it may be suppressed by them. That a parasite may be prevented from successfully attacking a particular plant is shown by the failure of _Cuscuta_ to establish its haustoria in poisonous plants such as _Euphorbia_, _Aloe_, etc., and it has been pointed out that poisonous secretions in the cells of the plant protect them against the penetration of fungi. This cannot be taken as meaning that any poison protects against any parasite, however, for _Euphorbia_ is itself subject to attacks of Uredineae, and _Pangium edule_, which contains prussic acid and is extremely poisonous to most animals, is eaten with avidity by several insects, while nematode worms can live in its tissues. This is no more remarkable, however, than the fact that _Fontaria_, a myriapod, secretes prussic acid in its own tissues, or than that certain glands of the stomach secrete free hydrochloric acid, and _Dolium_ forms sulphuric acid in its glands. There is yet a further point to notice here. It has been proved that certain substances formed in plant-cells, not necessarily nutritive, attract the hyphae of parasitic fungi or repel them, according to the kind and degree of concentration. So clear has this proof been made that it was possible in experiments conducted apart from a host plant, to make the hyphae on one side of an artificial membrane--_e.g._ collodion--penetrate it by placing one of these attractive (_chemotropic_) substances in suitable proportions on the other side. The hyphae dissolved holes in the membrane by means of enzymes and plunged into the attractive substance on the other side. The foregoing sketch gives us a glimpse into the causes at work in parasitism. Suppose a fungus on the outside of the epidermis of a young organ--say a leaf. It may be unable to penetrate into the plant, and finding no suitable food outside it dies: or it may be satisfied with the traces of organic matter on the epidermis and then lives the life of a saprophyte. Or it may be able to establish a hold-fast on the tender epidermal surface, but without entering the cells, and irritate the developing organ by contact stimulation, inducing slight abnormalities; if in its further, purely superficial growth such an epiphyte covers large areas of the leaf, and especially if the hyphae are dark coloured--_e.g._ _Dematium_ and other "Sooty Moulds"--injury may be done to the leaf owing to the shading action which deprives the chlorophyll below of its full supply of solar energy. Some epiphytes, however, are able to fix their hyphae to the epidermis by sending minute peg-like projections into the cuticle--_Trichosphaeria_, _Herpotrichia_--while others send haustoria right through the outer epidermal walls--_e.g._ _Erysiphe_--and thus supplement mere contact-irritation and shading by actual absorption from the external cells. Here the fungus is a parasitic epiphyte. A stage further is attained in those fungi which enter the stomata and live in the intercellular spaces--_e.g._ many Uredineae and _Phytophthora_--and many such intercellular endophytes increase their attack on the cells by piercing their walls with minute (_Cystopus_) or large and branched (_Peronospora_) haustoria, or even eventually pierce the cells and traverse them bodily (_Pythium_). In all these cases it is clear that conflicts must occur between poison and antidote, acid and alkali, attractive and repellent substances, enzyme and enzyme, etc., as was hinted at above; and the same must take place when the parasite is endophytic and intracellular from the first, as in Chytridiaceae, etc., the zoospores of which pierce the outer cell-walls and forthwith grow into the cells. There are also fungi which, while able to pierce the outer cell-walls, and grow forward in the thickness of the wall itself, cannot enter the living cells themselves--_e.g._ _Botrytis_. In the example mentioned, the fungus excretes a poison, oxalic acid, which soaks into and kills the cells next its point of attack: into these dead cells it then extends, and, invigorated by feeding on them, extends into other cell-walls and excretes more poison, and so on. On the basis of the foregoing it seems possible to sketch a general view of the nature of parasitism. In order that a fungus may enter the cells it must be able to overcome not only the resistance of the cell-walls, but that of the living protoplasm also: if it cannot do the latter it must remain outside, as a mere epiphyte, or at most an intercellular endophyte. If it can do neither it must either content itself with a saprophytic existence or fail, so far as that particular host-plant is concerned. Its inability to enter may be due to there being no chemotropic attraction, or to its incapacity to dissolve the cell-walls, or to the existence in the cell of some antagonistic substance which neutralises its acid secretions, destroys its enzymes or poisons, or is even directly poisonous to it. Moreover when once inside it does not follow that it can kill the cell. The protoplasm of the latter may have been unable to prevent the fungus enemy from breaking through its first line of defence--the cell-wall, but it may be quite capable of maintaining the fight at close quarters, and we see signs of the progress of the struggle in hypertrophy, accumulation of stores, and other changes in the invaded cells and their contents. Finally, the invested or invaded cell may so adapt itself to the demands of the invader that a sort of arrangement is arrived at by which life in common--_Symbiosis_--is established, each organism doing something for the other and each taking something from the other. In this latter case, which is often realised--_e.g._ lichens, leguminous plants and the organisms in their root-nodules, mycorrhiza, etc.--we leave the domain of disease, which supervenes indeed if the other symbiont is lacking. Some interesting facts bearing on the matters here under discussion, have been obtained from the study of _Galls_, the curious outgrowths found on many plants and due to the action of insects. A typical gall exhibits three distinct and characteristic layers of tissue surrounding the hollow chamber in which the larva of the insect lies, viz., an outer layer of soft cells forming a parenchyma covered with an epidermis, and frequently also with a layer of cork; an inner stratum consisting of very thin-walled delicate cells filled with protoplasmic and reserve food-materials on which the larva feeds; and between the two a more or less definite layer of thick-walled sclerenchyma cells which serve as a protection against accidents to the larva as the outer layer shrivels or rots, or if it is exposed to the attack of marauders. This layer may be absent from galls which have a short life only. Vascular bundles run into the outer layer from the leaf-veins or the stele of the shoot, etc. Such galls abound in tannin, and are frequently of use in the arts on this account: they also contain starch, and proteid substances and crystals of calcium oxalate. When the larva has consumed the stores of food material and reached the adult stage it eats its way out and escapes. The growth of such a gall is preceded by the laying of an egg on or in the embryonic tissue of a leaf, stem, or other young part, and it is interesting to note that only organs in the meristematic stage can form galls, and that it is by no means necessary that the tissues should be wounded. Moreover, the egg as such is incapable of stimulating the plant tissues, but when it hatches, the resulting larva, beginning to feed on the cells, irritates the tissues and rapid growth and cell-division occur, as in the case of other wounds or of fungus attacks. The actual wound made by the ovipositor heals up at once. It is evident from numerous recent researches that these true galls are not due to any poisonous or irritating liquid injected by the parent, but that the stimulus to the tissue formation is similar to that exerted by a wound. The young gall is in fact a callus enclosing the living larva, and it is the continued irritation of the latter which keeps up the stimulation. The final shape and constitution of the gall depend on mutual reactions--not as yet explained in detail--between the species of plant and the species of gall-insect concerned, as may readily be seen from the extraordinary variations in size, shape, colouring, hairiness and other structural peculiarities of the galls on one species of, for instance, the common oak. From what we have learnt about fungus parasites, however, there can be little doubt that reactions between the cells and the larva of the insect occur, resembling those which take place between the cells and the hyphae of the fungus, and this is borne out by the study of other hypertrophies due to animals; _e.g._ Nematode worms in roots, and the remarkable galls--the simplest known--on _Vaucheria_, caused by the entrance into this alga of a species of _Notommata_, which induces a different gall on each of the various species of its host plants. It must be concluded that the formation of the _Vaucheria_ gall is induced by the mechanical irritation which the Rotifer causes in the protoplasm. These galls are comparable to the hypertrophies in _Pilobolus_ caused by the presence of _Pleotrachelus_. Attempts to induce the development of galls artificially by injecting formic, acetic and other vegetable acids, poisons and other substances into the tissues have, however, failed, and even the substances contained in the insect or gall itself only produced negative results. Nothing further was obtained than slight callus formations in some cases. Nor have experimenters succeeded in obtaining more than slight distortions by fixing insects on the growing leaves in such positions that they could scratch the epidermis. We must therefore conclude that very complex interactions between the plant and insect are here concerned, among which may be the infiltration of some liquid from larva to plant--many of these gall larvae are strongly scented, and Kustenmacher says that fluids excreted by the larva are absorbed by the gall-tissue apparently as nutriment. This would point to the symbiotic character of galls and their guests. NOTES TO CHAPTER XIV. With regard to the action of poisons in small doses see further Johannsen, _Das Aether-Verfahren beim Fruhtreiben_, Jena, 1900, and, for _Botrytis_, see Marshall Ward, "A Lily Disease," _Annals of Botany_, Vol. II., 1889, p. 388. The subject of enzymes has been exhaustively treated by Green, _The Soluble Ferments and Fermentations_, Cambridge, 1899, to which the reader is referred for literature. I have taken the statements regarding _Fontaria_ and _Dolium_ from Kassowitz, _Allgemeine Biologie_, p. 182. The two most important works on chemotactic phenomena are Pfeffer, "Uber Chemotaktische Bewegungen," etc., _Unters. aus dem Bot. Inst. zu Tubingen_, B. II., p. 582, and Miyoshi, "Die Durchbohrung von Membranen durch Pilzfaden," _Pringsh. Jahrb. f. Wiss. Bot._, B. XXVIII., 1895, p. 269, and from these the further literature can be traced. As regards the nature of parasitism see Marshall Ward, "On Some Relations between Host and Parasite," etc., being the Croonian Lecture delivered before the Royal Society, _Proc. Roy. Soc._, Vol. 47, p. 393. On Symbiosis, see Marshall Ward, "Symbiosis," _Annals of Botany_, 1899, Vol. XIII., p. 549, where the literature is collected. For a general account of galls the reader may consult Kerner, _The Natural History of Plants_, Eng. ed., 1895, Vol. II., pp. 527-554, and Adler, _Alternating Generations, A Biological Study of Oak Galls_, etc., 1894. CHAPTER XV. SPREADING OF DISEASE AND EPIDEMICS. _Dissemination of fungi by the aid of snails, rabbits, bees, and insects--Man--Distribution in soil, on clothes, through the post, etc.--Worms, wind--Puffing of spores--Creeping of mycelia--Lurking parasites--Spread of insects and other animals--Losses due to epidemics._ The dissemination of plant diseases is a subject which has been far too much neglected, but our knowledge of it is slowly increasing. The spores of fungi such as Rusts and Erysipheae are often carried from plant to plant by snails; those of root-destroying and tree-killing Polyporei by rabbits, rats, and other mammals which rub their fur against the hymenophores. Bees have been shown to carry the spores of _Sclerotinia_ and infect the stigmas of Bilberries, etc., with them; and flies convey the conidia of Ergot from grain to grain. Insects, indeed, of all kinds are great disseminators of disease--as witness also the part played by mosquitoes in transferring the malaria parasite to man--and beetles, bees, flies, etc., of all sorts probably play more active parts in this work than has yet been proved, since they not only carry spores attached like pollen to their hairy bodies, but in many cases in their alimentary canal, to be spread later in the dung. The part played by man in conveying fungi from plant to plant counts for much. Not only do gardeners and farm labourers carry spores on their boots and clothes as they pass from infected to non-infected areas, but carted soil and manure are frequently infested with spores of Smuts, _Fusarium_, _Polyporus_, and the sclerotia or rhizomorphs of _Sclerotinia_, _Agaricus melleus_, _Dematophora_, etc. Man also sends diseases through the post, and by rail and ship, by spores or mycelia attached to seedlings, bulbs, fruits, flowers, etc., as shown in several cases of potato, vine, hollyhock, lily, and hyacinth diseases. Every time a carpenter saws a piece of fresh timber with the saw which has been used previously for cutting wood attacked with dry rot, he risks infecting it with the fungus. Similarly in pruning: every cut with a knife which the gardener has used on infected branches may infect the tree. Cuttings made with a soil-contaminated knife and stuck into ordinary soil in dirty boxes covered with equally dirty glass, present every chance for infection by soil organisms; bacteria and fungi obtain access to the vessels, and derive plenty of food from the juices, and the wonder is not that so many cuttings "damp off," but that any are raised at all under ordinary conditions. That worms bring buried spores to the surface can hardly be doubted after Pasteur's experiments with Anthrax, and the principle of Darwin's discoveries of the important bearing of the habits of earthworms on this subject, and that the soil attached to the feet of ducks and other birds teems with small seeds, applies to fungi also. Wind is also responsible for distributing fungus-spores over wide areas, as may be easily proved by fixing a glass slide smeared with glycerine in the course of a breeze passing over an infected area. But although the fungi are, generally speaking, passive in regard to their distribution, such is by no means always the case. Apart from the fact that some forms attract insects by means of honey dew (Ergot), or by sweet odours (Spermogonia, _Sclerotinia_), the zoospores of _Pythium_, _Phytophthora_, etc., are motile, and although they cannot move far in the films of water in which they travel, nevertheless in a wet potato field, with the wind flapping the leaves one against the other, some dissemination of importance must be actively brought about, and similarly with the amoebae of _Plasmodiophora_ in the soil. The shooting of ascospores into the air by certain species of _Peziza_, from the discs of which the spores may be seen to puff out in clouds, affords further evidence that fungi cannot be regarded as entirely passive in respect to distribution of their spores. But when we come to certain of the soil fungi--_e.g._ _Agaricus melleus_, _Dematophora_, etc.--the active creeping forward by growth in the soil of their rhizomorphs and mycelial strands afford examples of active spreading of considerable importance in the vineyard and forest, since they pass from root to root and from tree to tree and may infect the entire area in course of time. Not the least significant mode of dissemination is that by which what I have termed "lurking parasites" are spread: such are fungi which attach themselves to the seeds, fruits, tubers, etc., of other plants and so obtain all the advantages of being carried and sown with the latter--_e.g._ Ustilagineae and Uredineae which adhere to grain, _Verticillium_, _Nectria_, etc., in potatoes and other plants. The spread of diseases due to animals, especially insects, is of course more active, in consequence of the motility of the distributing agents. This is most marked in the winged species, of which locusts, beetles, moths and butterflies, flies and wasps furnish well-known examples; and is not inconsiderable in the case of wingless and merely creeping species. It is noteworthy that many forms wingless in the parasitic stage are winged at certain periods, _e.g._ the females of _Phylloxera_. That man also spreads insect pests is well known and acted upon, as witness the phylloxera laws--which, however, it is to be feared too often only illustrate once more the adage concerning the shutting of the stable door after the horse has gone. It would be tedious to attempt anything like a complete account of the estimates of loss in different countries, due to the ravages of insects and fungi, but the following examples should surely serve to convince anyone of the magnitude of these losses and of the economic importance of the whole question, and the reader may be referred to the special literature for further details. The coffee leaf-disease of Ceylon, due to the fungus _Hemileia_, is estimated to have cost that Colony considerably over £1,000,000 per annum for several years. One estimate puts the loss in ten years at from £12,000,000 to £15,000,000. The hop-aphis is estimated to have cost Kent £2,700,000 in the year 1882. In 1874 the Agricultural Commissioner of the United States estimated the annual loss, due to the ravages of insects on cotton alone, to amount to £5,000,000; and in 1882 the annual loss to the United States due to insects, calculated for all kinds of agricultural produce, was put at the appalling figure of from £40,000,000 to £60,000,000 sterling. In India, the annual loss due to wheat-rust alone has recently been estimated at 4,000,000 to 20,000,000 rupees, and one insect alone is said to have cost the cotton planters a quarter of the crop--valued at seven crores of rupees--in bad years. Similarly, in Australia the annual loss from wheat-rust has been put at from £2,000,000 to £3,000,000. In 1891 the loss in Prussia alone from grain-rusts was officially estimated at over £20,000,000 sterling. Need more be said? Even allowing for considerable exaggerations in such estimates it is clear that the damage to crops in any country soon amounts to sums which even at low rates of interest would easily yield incomes capable of supporting the best equipped laboratories and staffs for investigations directed to the explanation of the phenomena in detail, the sole basis on which intelligent preventive and therapeutic measures can be based. But it is far from likely that the estimates are exaggerated. The planting and agricultural communities are as a rule opposed to the publication of statistics--or at least have been so in various countries and at different times--and if we knew the damage done to all crops even in our own Empire, the results would probably astonish us far more than the above figures have done. NOTES TO CHAPTER XV. On the dissemination of fungi, the reader will find Fulton, "Dispersal of the Spores of Fungi by the Agency of Insects," _Ann. Bot._, Vol. III., 1889, p. 207, and Sturgis, "On Some Aspects of Vegetable Pathology and the Conditions which Influence the Dissemination of Plant Diseases," _Botanical Gazette_, Vol. XXV., 1898, p. 187, both useful papers. Further information will be found in Zopf, _Die Pilze_, Breslau, 1890, pp. 79-95 and 228, and Wagner, "Ueber die Verbreitung der Pilze durch Schnecken," in _Zeitschr. f. Pflanzen Krankh._, 1896, p. 144. The estimates as to losses due to epidemics are taken from Watt, _Agricultural Ledger_, Calcutta, 1895, p. 71; Balfour, _The Agricultural Pests of India_, London, 1887, pp. 13-15; Eriksson and Henning, _Die Getreideroste_; the publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, _The Kew Bulletin_, and elsewhere. The reader will find further examples in Massee, _Text-Book of Plant Diseases_, 1899, pp. 47-51. Both these subjects are well worth further attention, and I know of no complete account of them. CHAPTER XVI. THE FACTORS OF AN EPIDEMIC. _Illustrations afforded by the potato disease--The larch disease--The phylloxera of the vine._ When we come to enquire into what circumstances bring about those severe and apparently sudden attacks on our crops, orchards, gardens, and forests by hosts of some particular parasite, bringing about all the dreaded features of an epidemic disease, we soon discover the existence of a series of complex problems of intertwined relationships between one organism and another, and between both and the non-living environment, which fully justify the caution already given against concluding that any cause of disease can be a single agent working alone. The statement of prophecy that a particular insect or fungus need not be feared, because it is found to do so little harm in particular cases or districts examined, will thus be seen to be a dangerous one: any pest may become epidemic if the conditions favour it! In 1844 and 1845 the potato disease assumed an epidemic character so appalling in its effects that it is no exaggeration to say that it constituted a national disaster in several countries. It was stated at the time that this disease had been known for some time in Belgium, in Canada and the United States, in Ireland, in the Isle of Thanet, and in other parts of the world. Similar, but less devastating epidemics have occurred in various years since. It was generally noticed during such epidemics that the plants themselves were full of foliage, surcharged with moisture, and of a luxuriant green colour promising abundant crops. The now well-known spots, at first pale and then brown and fringed with a whitish mould-like growth--the conidiophores of the _Phytophthora_--were observed during the dull cloudy and wet weather, cooler than usual, when the atmosphere was saturated for days together, in July and August. The actual amount of rain does not appear to have been excessive, but most observers seem to agree that dull weather with moist air had succeeded a warm forcing period of growth. So rapidly did the disease run its course that in a few days nearly all the plants were a rotting blackened mass in the fields, and the potatoes dug up afterwards were either already rotten or soon became so in the stores. Further experience has confirmed this, and we now know that the epidemic is very apt to appear in any region where potatoes are grown on a large scale, in dull moist weather, especially in fields exposed to mists, heavy dews, etc., about July and August, when the foliage is full and turgid. Similarly on heavy wet soils, unless the season is remarkably open and dry; but also on dry light soils in rainy seasons. So evident was this that many believed that the mists and dew brought the disease--harking back to the superstitions of earlier days. We must remember that prior to 1860 the life-history of _Phytophthora_ was not known. Since De Bary's proof of the germination of the zoospores and of the infection of the leaves, the course of the hyphae in them and in the haulms, the origin of the conidia, etc., and the confirmation by numerous competent observers of the true fungus nature of this disease, we are now in a position to understand the principal factors of the various epidemics of potato disease. It is not merely that the potato-fields afford plenty of food for the fungus, and that the dull weather causes the tissues to be surcharged with moisture, owing to diminished transpiration, but the mists and dew--to say nothing of actual rain and the flapping of wet leaves--favour the germination and spread of the zoospores throughout the field. Whether the dull light also favours the accumulation of sugars in the tissues, and the partial etiolation of the latter implies less resistance to the entering hyphae, may be passed over here, but in any case it is clear that we have several factors of the non-living environment here favouring the parasite and not improving the chances of the host, even if they do not directly disfavour it. As another instance I will take the Larch-disease, which is due to the ravages of a Peziza (_Dasyscypha Willkommii_) the hyphae of which obtain access by wounds to the sieve-tubes and cambium of the stem, and gradually kill them over a larger and larger area and so ring the tree, with the symptoms of canker described below. Now the Larch fungus is also to be found on trees in their Alpine home, but there it does very little damage and never becomes epidemic except in certain sheltered regions near lakes and in other damp situations. How then are we to explain the extensive ravages of the Larch disease over the whole of Europe during the latter half of this century? The extensive planting, providing large supplies for the fungus, does not suffice to explain it, because there are large areas of pure Larch in the Alps which do not suffer. In its mountain home the Larch loses its leaves in September and remains quiescent through the intensely cold winter, until May. Then come the short spring and rapid passage to summer, and the Larch buds open with remarkable celerity when they do begin--_i.e._ when the roots are thoroughly awakened to activity. Hence the tender period of young foliage is reduced to a minimum, and any agencies which can only injure the young leaves and shoots in the tender stage must do their work in a few days, or the opportunity is gone, and the tree passes forthwith into its summer state. In the plains, on the contrary, the Larch begins to open at varying dates from March to May, and during the tardy spring encounters all kinds of vicissitudes in the way of frosts and cold winds following on warm days which have started the root-action--for we must bear in mind that the roots are more easily awakened after our warmer winters than is safe for the tree. It amounts to this, therefore, that in the plains the long continued period of foliation allows insects, frost, winds, etc., some six weeks or two months in which to injure the slowly sprouting tender shoots, whereas in the mountain heights they have only a fortnight or so in which to do such damage. That the lower altitude and longer summer are not in themselves inimical to Larch is proved by the splendid growths made by the trees first planted a century ago. Then came the epidemic of Larch-disease: the fungus, which is merely endemic--_i.e._ obtains a livelihood here and there on odd trees, or groups of trees in warmer or damper nooks--in the Alps, was favoured by the more numerous points of attack afforded to its spores by injuries due to insects--_Coleophora_, _Chermes_, etc.--and frost wounds, as well as by the longer periods of moist dull weather, and the longer season of foliation. Moreover, as time went on almost every consignment of young Larch-trees sent abroad was already infected. Here again, then, we find the factors of an epidemic consisting in events which favour the reproduction and spread of a fungus more than they do the well-being of the host. As a third illustration I will take the case of an insect epidemic. In 1863 a disease was observed on vines in the South of France which frightened the growers as they realised its destructive effects: the roots decayed and the leaves turned yellow and died before the grapes ripened, and such vines threw out fewer and feebler shoots the following year, and often none at all afterwards. In 1865 the disease was evidently becoming epidemic near Bordeaux, and in 1868 it was shown to be due to an insect, _Phylloxera_, the female of which lays its eggs on the roots, where they hatch. The louse-like offspring sticks its proboscis into the tissues as far as the central cylinder. The irritated pericycle and cortex then grow and form nodules of soft juicy root-tissue at which the insect continues to suck. Rapid reproduction results in the majority of the young rootlets being thus attacked, and since they cannot form their normal periderm and harden off properly they rot, and admit fungi and other evils, in consequence of which the vine suffers also in the parts above ground. Evidence that the general damage is due to the diminished root-action is found in the peculiarly dry poor wood formed in the "canes" of diseased plants. By 1877 the epidemic had spread to the northern limits of the French vineyards, and by 1888 half the vines in the country were attacked, and the yield of wine reduced from half a million hectolitres to 50,000 only. Meanwhile the disease had spread to Italy, Germany, Madeira, Portugal, and even to the Cape, though not in epidemic form as in the Bordeaux centre whence it spread. Now it appears that _Phylloxera_ has long been in the habit of doing damage to vines in America, where, however, it attacks the leaves, on which it makes pocket-like galls, rather than the roots. Moreover, there are species and varieties of American vines which, even when planted in Europe, do not suffer at all from this insect at the roots, either because the rootlets do not push out at the same season as those of the European form, or because they form wood more rapidly and completely, or secrete resinous and other matters distasteful to the insect in greater quantity and are thus capable of healing the wounds, or in some other way they do not respond to the attack or suit the insect. In any case the attack on the leaf rather than the root seems to be the exception in European vineyards and the rule in American species, and we appear to be face to face with a problem of specific predisposition to this particular malady. That the resistant properties of the vines of America--not all, only particular species and varieties are thus "immune"--can be utilised has been proved by European growers; and not only so, for Millardet and others have shown that the European vine grafted on to these resistant stocks suffer less than when on their own roots. It has also been shown that hybrids can be obtained which are resistant. But the most curious point of all is that _Phylloxera_ was itself a native of America, and came thence to Europe. It had played its part with certain fungi in ruining all the attempts to introduce the European vine into America many years ago. A recent authority on the evolution of American fruits writes as follows: "All the most amenable types of grapes had long since perished in the struggle for existence, and the types which now persist are necessarily those which are, from their very make-up or constitution, almost immune from injury, or are least liable to attack . . . the _Phylloxera_ finds tough rations on the hard, cord-like roots of any of our eastern species of grapes. But an unnaturalised and unsophisticated foreigner, being unused to the enemy and undefended, falls a ready victim; or if the enemy is transported to a foreign country the same thing occurs." Further proof that it is in the "constitution" of the European vine that the want of resistance to _Phylloxera_ resides, is furnished by the fact that in California and the Pacific states the European vine was introduced with more success, but is now suffering badly because _Phylloxera_ has spread there also. It must not be overlooked, however, that we are as yet very ignorant of all that is implied in the word "constitution" as used above. If we enquire further why the _Phylloxera_ epidemic was so much worse in the Southern vineyards than in the more Northern ones of Germany, the opinion seems to prevail that the warmer climates favour the insect. Further, it appears that, in Italy, the vines in loose open soil, provided it is equally rich in mineral food-materials and offers no disadvantages as regards drainage, suffer less than those in closer soils, the reasons alleged being that the young roots can push out more rapidly and widely, and so obtain holdfasts with greater distances between them. NOTES TO CHAPTER XVI. The student may obtain further information on the history of the Potato disease by consulting the following: Berkeley, "Observations, Botanical and Physiological, on the Potato Murrain," _Journal of the Horticultural Society_, Vol. I., 1846, p. 9; De Bary, _Die Gegenwärtig herrschende Kartoffel Krankheit_, etc., Leipzic, 1861; and the pages of the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ from 1860-1900. For the Larch disease he should consult Hartig, _Unters. aus der Foist. Botanischen Inst. München_, B. I., 1880; and Willkomm, _Microscop. Feinde des Waldes_, B. II., 1868. For _Phylloxera_ the literature is chiefly in the _Comptes Rendus_ and other French publications since 1875, and in the Reports of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. For a summary of the facts concerning the life-histories of the parasites referred to above, see Frank, _Krankheiten der Pflanzen_, and Marshall Ward, _Diseases of Plants_, p. 59, and _Timber and Some of its Diseases_, London, 1889, chapter X. Also Marshall Ward, "On some Relations between Host and Parasite in certain epidemic Diseases of Plants," _Proc. Roy. Soc._, Vol. XLVII., 1890, pp. 393-443; and "Illustrations of the Structure and Life-history of Phytophthora infestans," _Quart. Journ. Microsc. Soc._, Vol. XXVII., 1887, p. 413; also Marshall Ward, "Researches on the Life-history of Hemileia vastratrix," _Journ. Linn. Soc._, Vol. XIX., 1882, p. 299; and "On the Morphology of Hemileia vastatrix," _Quart. Journ. Microsc. Soc._, 1881, Vol. XXI., p. 1. CHAPTER XVII. REMEDIAL MEASURES. _Preventible diseases--The principles of therapeutics--Powders and their application--Spraying with liquids--Nature of chemicals employed--Employment of epidemics and natural checks--The struggle for existence._ It may be said that in no connection is the proverb "Prevention is better than cure" more applicable than with this subject, and undoubtedly the best utilitarian argument that can be used in favour of a thorough study of the causes of disease is that only by understanding these causes is there any hope of avoiding the exposure of crops, garden plants, forest trees, etc., to the attacks of preventible diseases. Moreover, only an intelligent appreciation of the causes of a disease will enable the cultivator to take steps to mitigate their effects when once the damage has begun its course. Every cultivator learns by experience or by precept that there are some things he must avoid in dealing with certain plants, or otherwise they will not succeed; in other words they will succumb to diseased conditions and die. It is partly owing to the want of systematisation of this knowledge, and its extension in other directions, that such extraordinary blunders are made in ignorant practice, and trees for instance are planted in low-lying frost beds which would succeed in slightly higher situations, or seeds subject to damping-off are sown in beds rife with the spores of _Peronospora_ or _Pythium_, and so forth. Many diseases, however, are not preventible in the present state of our knowledge, or prevailing conditions are such that the risk must be run of endemic diseases gradually becoming epidemic, and thus the natural desire for some means of checking the ravages of some pest or another has led to innumerable trials to minimise the effects by prophylactic measures. The procedure almost invariably followed where parasites are concerned, consists in either dusting the plants with some chemical in the form of a powder, or spraying it with a liquid, or occasionally in enveloping the plant in some gas, in each case poisonous to the insect- or fungus-pest. The principal rules to be observed are: (1) the poison employed must be sufficiently strong or concentrated to kill the parasite, but not sufficiently powerful to injure the host; (2) it must be applied at the right period, as suggested by a knowledge of the life-history of the fungus or insect in question. Obviously it is of no use to apply such topical remedies to a parasite while it is spending the greater part of its life inside the tissues of the host. Further, questions of expense of the materials employed and of the labour of applying them help to limit the adoption of such measures. Among the various kinds of powders employed, finely divided sulphur, or a mixture of sulphur and lime, have been used with success in some cases--_e.g._ against Hop mildew and other epiphytic Erysipheae, and against red spider, aphides, etc., the gaseous sulphur dioxide evolved being the efficacious agent. In other cases pyrethrum or tobacco powder, wood ashes, etc., have been employed against insects. Such powders are applied by hand or by means of bellows, and are very easily manipulated in most cases, though, like all such applications, the dangers of concentration at particular spots owing to uneven distribution, or of dilution and washing off by rain, have to be incurred. Far more numerous are the various liquids which have been employed for washing, spraying, or steeping the affected parts of diseased plants. Water alone, or aqueous decoctions or emulsions of various kinds--_e.g._, quassia, tobacco, soap, or aloes, have been widely employed against insects such as green fly, red spider, etc. In greenhouses, where the leaves can be washed by hand or thoroughly syringed, and the concentration and time of action thoroughly controlled, such liquids are often serviceable, but great practical difficulties are apt to interfere with their use in the open field. The principal liquids employed against fungi have been copper sulphate and other metallic compounds (Bordeaux mixture, Eau Céleste, etc.), various compounds of arsenic (_e.g._ "Paris green"), potassium sulphite, permanganate, etc., and emulsions of carbolic acid, petroleum, and such like antiseptics, for the exact composition of which the special treatises must be consulted. Some of these, especially Bordeaux mixture, have been experimented with on a very large scale, especially in America, and various forms of spraying machines have been introduced for dealing with large areas. It is clear that these spraying operations are more particularly adapted to field crops such as Turnips, Hops, Vines, Potatoes, and to garden and greenhouse plants than to woods and plantations; as a rule they cannot be applied to forest trees--though they have been used in orchards--or to roots, seeds, and other parts in the soil, and many special forms of treatment have been devised for particular cases of these kinds. One of the oldest of these is the steeping of grain in solutions of copper, or in hot water, just before sowing, and the practical eradication of Bunt and, partially, of Smut is due to this practice, which has lately been adapted to potatoes, the principle being that the parasitic germs shall be killed while still adhering to the outside of the seeds, tubers, etc., before germination. "Finger and Toe" due to _Plasmodiophora_ has been successfully dealt with by the application of lime, but we do not know whether the effect is owing to indirect actions in the soil, to direct actions on the plasmodia, or to the increased production of root-hairs induced by liming. _Phylloxera_ has been treated by plunging into the soil near the roots small blocks of some slowly-soluble medium, such as gelatine, impregnated with carbon-bisulphide, the volatile fumes of which kill the insect, and even more drastic remedies have been tried along similar lines. In America orchard trees infested with insects or fungi have been covered one by one with light tents, and the vapours of prussic acid, burning sulphur, and other poisons allowed to act inside the tent. In all such cases it must be remembered that uncontrolled ignorance of the properties of poisons on the part of the operator may lead to disaster, and the same applies to the much easier treatment of greenhouses, and cases where poisoned food is laid about for insects or vermin. Attempts, not altogether unsuccessful on the small scale, have also been made to introduce epidemic diseases among rats, mice, and locusts and other insects, by inoculating some of them with parasitic bacteria or fungi (_Empusa_, _Isaria_, etc.), and then allowing them to run loose in the hope that they will communicate the disease to their fellows. The introduction of lady-birds into districts infested with Coccideae and similar pests which they devour, is also recorded as successful, as also the importation of birds into forests plagued with caterpillars. It must not be over-looked, however, that man's interference with the existing balance of events in the natural struggle for existence is occasionally disastrous, as witness the results of importing rabbits into Australia, goats into the Canary Islands, and sparrows in various countries. Darwin's well-known illustration of the inter-relations between clover, bees, field-mice, and cats (_Orig. of Species_, 6th ed., 1876, p. 57), which shows the astounding probability of the dependence of such a plant on the number of cats in the neighbourhood, well illustrates the situation. Mere mention must be made of other special treatments. Caterpillars and larger animals are often picked by hand or their natural enemies--_e.g._ birds, are encouraged in forests. Locusts are caught in nets, trenches, etc., and buried. Woodlice, slugs, etc., are often trapped by laying attractive food such as carrots and overhauling the traps daily: similarly with earwigs. Rings of tar round tree stems have been employed to prevent caterpillars creeping up them. American Blight has been treated by rapidly flaming the stems. Syringing with hot water has also been employed for vines affected with mildew, mealy bug, etc. With regard to the alleged immunity from devouring insects of certain poisonous plants, it has been pointed out that _Pangium edule_, which abounds in prussic acid, is infested with a grub, and ivy is occasionally eaten by caterpillars. Another point as regards insect pests is the well-known destructive effect of a cold, wet spring on the young larvae. The use of cyanide of potassium requires especial care, but has been described as easily carried out with success in greenhouses. It seems probable that lady-birds, the larvae of wasp-flies and lace-wings, and ichneumon-flies as well as wrens can keep down aphides. For an example of the treatment of a complex case of "chlorosis" with mineral manures, the reader may consult the _Gardeners' Chronicle_, 1899 (July), p. 405. Many similar cases have been recorded, but it should not be overlooked that very complex inter-relations are here involved. Charlock has been successfully dealt with by applying 5 lbs. of copper sulphate in 25 gallons of water to each acre of land while the weeds are young. In all these cases the guiding idea is derived from accurate knowledge of the habits of the insect, fungus, or pest concerned, and obviously the procedure must be timed accordingly. It is a particular case of the struggle for existence, where man steps in as a third and (so to speak) unexpected living agent. It is clear from our study of the factors of an epidemic that one of the primary conditions which favour the spread of any disease is provided by growing any crop continuously in "pure culture" over large areas. This is sufficiently exemplified by the disastrous spread of such diseases as Wheat-rust, Larch-disease, Potato-disease, Phylloxera, Hop-disease, Sugar-cane disease, Coffee-leaf disease, and numerous other maladies which have now become historic in agricultural, planting, and forest annals. Providing the favourite food-supply in large quantities is not the only factor of an epidemic, but it is a most important one in that it not only facilitates the growth and reproduction of a pest, but affords it every opportunity of spreading rapidly and widely. Moreover, Nature herself shows us that such pests are kept in check in her domain by the struggle for existence entailed by innumerable barriers and competitors. As matter of experience also it is found that rotation of crops, planting forests of mixed species, and breaking up large areas of cultivation into plantations, fields, etc., of different species afford natural and often efficient checks to the ravages of fungus and insect pests. Over and over again it has been found that a fungus or an insect which is merely endemic so long as it is isolated in the forest, where its host is separated from other plants of the same species by other plants which it cannot attack, becomes epidemic when let loose on the continuous acres so beloved of the planter. And the same reasoning applies to the success of such pests on open areas from which the birds or other enemies of the pest have been driven. True, we cannot always trace the tangled skein of inter-relationships between one organism and another in Nature: the recognition of the principle of natural selection and the struggle for existence is too recent, and our studies of natural history as yet too imperfect to lay all the factors clear, but no observant and thoughtful man can avoid the truth of the general principle here laid down. The history of all great planting enterprises teaches us that he who undertakes to cultivate any plant continuously in open culture over large areas must run the risk of epidemics. NOTES TO CHAPTER XVII. The principal literature, now very voluminous, on this subject is contained in the publications of the U.S. Department of Agriculture from 1890 onwards. See especially _Bulletins_, Nos. 3, 6, and 9; _Farmers' Bulletin_, No. 91, 1899; and _The Journal of Mycology_ during the same period. See also Lodeman, _The Spraying of Plants_, London, 1896. A summary of the principal processes will be found in Massee, _Text-Book of Plant Diseases_, pp. 31-47. With regard to the history of the subject, which still needs writing, the reader should not overlook Roberts, "On the Therapeutical Action of Sulphur," _St. George's Hospital Reports_, date unknown, but subsequent to the following: Berkeley, _Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany_, 1857, p. 277, with references. These are, I believe, with the references to steeping of wheat in De Bary, _Unters. über d. Brandpilze_, Berlin, 1853, among the first attempts to utilise such remedies. Further facts will be found in the pages of the _Gardeners' Chronicle_, especially since 1890, and in _Zeitsch. f. Pflanzen-krankheiten_ since 1891. CHAPTER XVIII. VARIATION AND DISEASE. _Predisposition and immunity--Pathological conditions vary--Hardy varieties--"Disease-proof" varieties--Disease dodging--Thick skins--Indian wheats, etc. Cell-contents vary--Citrus, Cinchona, Almonds, etc. Double ideals in selection--Cultivation of pest and host-plant--Variations of fungi--Bacteria--Specialised races--Difficulties--Experiment only will solve the problems._ The numerous and often expensive failures in the application of any prophylactic treatment, have proved an acute stimulus to the research for other ways of combating the ravages of plant diseases. It is a matter of every-day experience that particular varieties of cultivated plants may suffer less from a given disease than others in the same district; also that one and the same species may suffer badly in one country and not in another--_e.g._ the Larch in the lowlands of Europe as contrasted with the same tree in its Alpine home, and the various species of American Vines in Europe. These matters, in the hands of astute observers, are turning the attention of cultivators and experts to new aspects of the question of plant diseases, namely, the possible existence of immunity, and the breeding of disease-proof varieties; and the existence on the part of the host plant of predispositions to disease which may depend on some factors in the plant or in the environment over which it is possible to exercise control, or which, if known, can be avoided. The matter is complicated by the recent demonstration of the fact that parasites also vary and can adapt themselves to altered conditions, as is shown by the history of the coffee-leaf disease (_Hemileia_) in Ceylon, and by Eriksson's results with Wheat-rusts (_Puccinia_) and various experiments with _Coleosporium_ and other Uredineae; but there are good grounds for concluding that hybridisation, grafting, and selection of varieties may do much towards the establishment of races which will resist particular diseases, as shown by Millardet's experiments with Vines, and the results obtained by Cobb and others with Wheat. The great difficulty with so-called "disease-proof varieties" is to test them under similar conditions in different countries, and for a sufficient period of time. A particular race of Wheat may behave very differently in Norfolk, Devonshire, and Northumberland, and the recent introduction of the purely experimental method in this connection is a marked advance. However rough the experiments may of necessity have to be, it is only by such means that data can be gradually accumulated. Having now obtained some insight into the factors concerned in disease, let us enquire further into the bearing of variation on these. It is evident that pathological conditions may vary; indeed they are themselves symptoms of variation, as we have seen. The history of all our cultivated plants shows abundantly that many of the variations obtained by breeding in our gardens, orchards, fields, etc., involve differences of response on the part of the plant to the very agencies which induce disease. Every year the florists' catalogues offer new "hardy" varieties; but a hardy variety is simply, for our present purpose, one which succumbs less readily to frost, cutting winds, cold damp weather, and so forth. If anyone doubts that hardy varieties have been gradually bred by selection, I refer him to the evidence collected by De Candolle, Darwin, Wallace, Bailey and others. When we come to enquire into the causes of "hardiness," however, difficulties at once beset us. The adaptation may express itself in a difference in the time of flowering or leafing, the exigencies of the season being "dodged," as it were, in a manner which was impossible with the original stock, as appears to have occurred with Peaches in America; or it may be expressed in deeper rooting, as is said to be the case in some Apples, or in the acquirement of a more deciduous habit, or in actually increased resistance to low temperatures. In such cases we cannot trace what alterations have occurred in the cells and tissues concerned, though we may be sure that some changes do occur. No experienced cultivator doubts that some varieties of Potato, Wheat, Vine, Chrysanthemum, etc., suffer more from epidemic diseases than others, and our yearly catalogues furnish us with plenty of promises of "disease-proof" varieties. Here also we may imagine several ways in which a particular variety may resist or escape the epidemic attacks of fungi which in the same neighbourhood decimate other varieties. If we could breed a variety of the Larch which opened its buds later than the ordinary form in our northern plains, the probability of its escaping the Larch-disease would be increased in proportion to the shortness of the period of tender foliation described on p. 153. It has been claimed for certain varieties of Wheat that increased thickness of the cuticle and fewer stomata per square unit of surface have diminished the risk of infection by Rust fungi, and for certain varieties of Potato, that the thicker periderm of the tuber protects them against fungi in the soil. That certain thick-skinned Apples, Tomatoes, and Plums pack and store better than those with a more tender epidermis seems proved--that is to say, they suffer less from fungi which gain access through bruises and other wounds; but it cannot be said that any convincing proof is yet to hand explaining in detail why some races of wheat resist Rust, or why the roots of American Vines suffer less from _Phylloxera_ than others. One of the most extraordinary cases known to me in this connection is the unconscious selection on the part of native Indian cultivators, perfectly ignorant of the principles involved, of spring and autumn forms of Rice, Wheat, Castor Oil, Sugar Cane, Cotton, and other crops. "It has been estimated that Bengal alone possesses as many as 10,000 recognisable forms of rice." Now there is not the slightest ground for doubt that these have been unconsciously bred from the semi-aquatic native species during the many centuries of Indian agriculture, and nevertheless they have, among other peculiar races, some hill-breeds which they cultivate on dry soils and without direct inundation. That is to say, they possess tropical and temperate races differing far more than our spring and summer wheats. Something has been gained, then, if we can show that there is nothing absurd or hopeless in the search for disease-proof or resistant races, and I think this can be done. We must not forget that the ideal usually set before himself by a breeder of plants has hitherto been almost exclusively some standard of size, form, colouring, and so forth, of the flower, or of taste and texture of the fruit, tuber, etc., though experiments with _Cinchona_, with brewery yeasts, and other plants remind us that variations in other directions have been attended to also. Now it is obvious that in breeding sour limes and sweet oranges the cultivator is selecting, and intensifying by selection, very different metabolic processes in the cell: he can test the results of these, and so the selection proceeds. The question is, Could he select at the same time those variations in cell activity which express themselves in properties of the flower, fruit, foliage, etc., he desires, as well as such variations as aid the cells in repelling fungi, insects, or exigencies of the non-living environment? That more or less disease-proof varieties could be selected if that object alone were kept in view can hardly be doubted; plenty of examples exist already which show that the necessary variations to work upon exist in just those secretions of protoplasm, etc., which we have seen are concerned in repelling or attracting parasites. The Sweet Almond has lost the power of producing amygdalin and prussic acid in its cells; Cinchona plants vary immensely in the quantity of quinine formed, and in European hot-houses may even form none at all; some varieties of Maize have sugar and dextrine instead of starch in their endosperms, or coloured instead of clear sap in the aleurone layer, and recent researches prove that they can transmit these peculiarities to hybrid offspring; non-poisonous bacteria have frequently been got from poisonous species simply by cultivation under special conditions, and pigmented forms can be bred into non-pigmented races. But we see that the difficulty of selection is increased in the case postulated above, because two ideals are to be worked up to, and they may conceivably be incompatible. Not necessarily so, however, for breeders have solved such problems before in obtaining early _and_ heavy cropping races of potatoes, wheat, etc., sweet _and_ large grapes, strawberries, etc., hardy _and_ brilliant flowers, and so forth. There is, however, another aspect of this question of variability in organisms in this connection to be considered. Ever since cultivation began man has probably been cultivating not only the crops he desires, but also the pests which infest them, and if variation of his chosen plants occurs--and no one will deny that--surely variation of the fungi and insects which live on them also takes place. That this is so can be demonstrated, though, since it is not part of my theme to go into the question of peculiarities of species and races of parasites, the subject must here be passed over with a few remarks only. Recent researches have shown not only that fungi vary immensely in form and morphological characters according to the amount and kind of food-materials put at their disposal, thus bringing the whole question of polymorphism into the domain of experimental physiology, but that their capacities for infection, spore formation, etc., are also capable of variation and are dependent on the quality and quantity of food supplies, water, as well as on the temperature, illumination, and other factors of the environment. This is true of parasites as well as of saprophytes. _Botrytis_ forms conidia only in darkness and in moist air. Klebahn found that a _Puccinia_ growing on _Digraphis_ infected _Polygonatum_ readily and completely, _Convallaria_ imperfectly, whereas if sown on _Majanthemum_ it only just infected the plant and then remained sterile, while it refused to infect _Paris_ at all. Magnus has shown that _Peronospora parasitica_ can only infect meristematic tissues, and that when it co-exists with _Cystopus_ on _Capsella_, as is usually the case, it enters the latter plant by infecting the gall-like pustules of hypertrophied tissue induced by that parasite. Numerous parasitic fungi can only penetrate particular parts of plants. For instance, the _Ustilago_ of wheat can only infect the young seedling, and grows for weeks as a barren mycelium, only becoming a dominant fungus in the endosperm. Numerous other examples could be given, but these suffice to show some of the ways in which the nature of the food substratum supplied by the host affects the fungus. It is obvious that if the nature of this food changes, the fungus is also affected, and no doubt this is the principal reason why Rust-fungi, for instance, vary so much in their vigour and reproductive power on different wheats and grasses, though the other factors of the environment must also be of influence on them as well as on the hosts. But--and this is the second point--modern research is also showing that the various species of Rust-fungi have split up into different varieties or specialised races, according to the particular host plants they inhabit. For instance there are special varieties or races of the particular species known as _Puccinia graminis_, the wheat rust, each of which grows well on various kinds of grain and grasses but refuses to infect others. Thus, the variety which infects Wheat refuses to infect Barley or Oats, while that variety which grows on Rye will not take on Wheat and so forth. Now it is important to notice that these specialised races are indistinguishable one from another by their visible microscopic characters: they are all botanically of the species _Puccinia graminis_ which forms its æcida on the Barberry. We must therefore conclude that we have here the same phenomenon as that met with in culture-races of bacteria which, having been fed for several generations on media rich in proteids, refuse to grow on media rich in carbohydrates, or when attenuated races are developed by culture under special conditions. Now since such physiological races as I have described are by no means confined to _Puccinia_ but are also known in _Melampsora_, _Gymnosporangium_ and other fungi, we must conclude from this and from what we know of variation in plants and animals generally, that variation and adaptation are common among parasites, insects as well as fungi. These considerations will serve to show moreover that the question of breeding disease-proof varieties of our cultivated plants is complicated by the danger of our breeding at the same time adapted races of their pests. It appears at first sight extremely improbable that we should escape the danger by breeding from those specimens of our plants which have best survived a fungus epidemic. Still, it must not be forgotten that "hardy varieties," and races adapted to other exigencies of the non-living environment, have been bred by selection--and nevertheless this variable non-living environment is always with us. The matter is therefore simply and solely one of experiment, and the retort that a disease-resisting variety of any particular plant has not yet been raised is no more valid than the objection that a true blue primrose has not yet been obtained: whether the same remark can be made with regard to any hope of a _disease-proof_ plant may be another matter, but in any case it must be made more cautiously in the light of our present experience. NOTES TO CHAPTER XVIII. The reader will find more on this subject in Bailey's _Survival of the Unlike_ and the literature quoted in the notes to Chapter VIII. For varieties of Indian Wheats, etc., see Watt, _Agricultural Ledger_, Calcutta, 1895. For a discussion on so-called "Disease-proof Wheats" consult Eriksson & Henning, _Die Getreideroste_. Magnus' paper is in the _Berichte der Deutschen bot. Gesellsch._, 1894, p. 39. Concerning physiological races and adapted varieties of _Puccinia_, etc., see Eriksson, "A General View of the Principal Results of Swedish Research into Grain Rust," _Botanical Gazette_, vol. 25, 1898, p. 26. For an account of Wheat-rust see Marshall Ward, "Illustrations of the Structure and Life-history of _Puccinia graminis_, etc.," _Ann. of Bot._, 1888, Vol. II., p. 215. CHAPTER XIX. SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE. _Discolorations--Pallor--Etiolation--Laying of Wheat-- Chlorosis--Yellowing--Albinism--Variegation--Uprooting, Exposure and Wilting of seedlings._ Everybody knows in a general way when the geraniums in the window pots are drooping from want of water, or when the young Wheat is sickly, or the Pear-trees "blighted," and we have now to see how far we can systematise the knowledge that has been gained in course of time regarding the signs which sick plants exhibit. _Pallor._--Under this heading, which includes all cases where the normal healthy green colour is replaced by a general sickly yellow or pale hue, ultimately resulting in death of the parts if not arrested, we have several totally distinct diseases of the chlorophyll apparatus, each recognised by the co-existence of other subordinate symptoms. The principal varieties of pallor usually met with are the following: _Etiolation_ is due to insufficient intensity of light, the pale sickly yellow organs being unusually watery and deficient in vascular tissue, the internodes abnormally long and thin, and the leaves generally reduced in size, or, in some plants also "drawn." Forced Endive, Rhubarb, Asparagus, and earthed Celery afford examples of etiolation purposely induced. The want of light causes the true chlorophyll colouring matter to remain in abeyance, and consequently the plant as a whole suffers from carbohydrate starvation. _Laying_ of Wheat and other cereals is a particular case of etiolation. The seeds having been sown too thickly, the bases of the haulms, owing to the etiolation and consequent lack of carbohydrates, suffer from want of stiffening tissues, and the top-heavy plants fall over. _False etiolation_ depends on a similar abeyance of the chlorophyll, but in this case due to too low a temperature. It is often seen in Wheat and other monocotyledons when the young leaves unfold in cold weather in spring. The symptoms of "drawing" and tenderness are however absent. Pallor due to too intense illumination must be kept sharply distinct from etiolation, the pale green or yellow hue being here due to the destruction of the chlorophyll by insolation, and the accessory symptoms of "drawing" are wanting. _Chlorosis_ is a form of pallor where the chlorophyll grains themselves are fully developed, but their green pigment remains in abeyance owing to a deficiency of iron in the soil, and can often be cured by adding traces of a ferrous salt. The distinction between _Icterus_, where the organs are only yellow, and _Chlorosis_ proper, where they are nearly white cannot always be maintained. In the typical case only those organs whose cells are still young can become green on adding iron. _Yellowing_ or _False Chlorosis_ may be experimentally induced by too much carbon-dioxide in the atmosphere. It also often ensues when the roots of plants in the open are waterlogged, owing to the stagnant water not only driving air from the root-hairs but accumulating dissolved substances which poison the plant. Trees frequently thus suffer from "wet feet" when their roots have penetrated down to a sodden impervious subsoil. _Yellowing_ accompanied by _Wilting_ is a predominant symptom in most cases where transpiration is more active than root-absorption beyond a certain limit, as is well known in cases of prolonged drought. It may also be caused in evergreens by the foliage transpiring actively in bright January weather, for instance, while the ground is frozen and the chilled root-hairs cannot absorb. In other cases similar appearances are traceable to insects devouring the roots, _e.g._ wireworms, and the malady is sometimes enhanced by their accumulations so fouling the wet soil that the roots die off, owing to want of oxygen and to the excess of carbon-dioxide and poisonous matters. Yellowing may also result from the presence of poisonous or acid gases in the atmosphere or soil, such as chlorine, hydrochloric acid, sulphurous acid, etc., in the neighbourhood of chemical works, or from the escape of coal-gas in streets, etc., points of importance in connection with the use of fungicides and insecticides. Yellowness is the prevailing symptom in many cases of fungus attack of the roots or collar of the plant, the resulting stoppage of transpiration being also sometimes supplemented by rotting of the roots, and the consequent deprival of oxygen and accumulation of foul gases. In other cases Fungi, and even Bacteria, have been found to have made their way into the principal vessels, the lumina of which they stop up, thus reducing the transpiration current. Certain insects may also induce a general yellowing and wilting of plants by entering or destroying the tissues concerned in the transpiration--_e.g._ _Oniscus_, the Frit Fly, and _Cecidomya_, the Hessian Fly, which attack young winter wheat within the sheaths and cause the plants to turn yellow and wilt. _Albinism_ and _Variegation_ are apparently due to causes totally different from any yet mentioned. Church's analyses have shown that albino leaves contain more water and less organic matter than green ones of the same plants, but not necessarily less ash constituents. The composition of the ash points to there being more potash and less lime in the white organs than in the green ones, and, speaking generally, the former are related to the latter much as young leaves are related to mature ones. The whole matter is complicated by the behaviour of certain _variegated_ plants--_e.g._ Ribbon grass, _Calla_, _Abutilon_, which are usually regarded as partial albinos. Meyen showed long ago that such variegated plants, if grafted on green ones, may induce the development of variegated leaves on both scion and stock, and Morren and others have not only confirmed this but have also shown that variegation may be inherited through the seed. Nevertheless some care has to be taken with many of these variegations lest rich soil, bright light, and other favourable treatment favour the restitution of the green colour. These facts may be interpreted in various ways. Some disturbance of physiological functions of the roots, due to unfavourable conditions of soil, may be the cause; but Beijerinck has lately published some results which show that some of these albino diseases can be induced by inoculating normal plants with the juice of spotted ones even though such juice has been filtered through porcelain, and concludes that a "_contagium fluidum vivum_" of the nature of a transmissible enzyme is the agent which disturbs the physiology of the infected cells. Koning, while confirming these results in the main, refers them to a micro-organism so small that it traverses the porcelain filter. _Upheaval of seedlings._--This is a common form of injury, resulting in death by drought and exposure, especially in seedling pines, wheat, etc., in soils exposed to alternate freezing and thawing during spring when there is no snow to protect the plants. The soil freezes during the night, and during the thaw next day water accumulates just below the surface. The freezing is then repeated, and, partly owing to the expansion of the forming ice and partly to the mechanical effect of the ice-crystals in the interstices, the surface of the soil is lifted and draws the roots with it. During the succeeding thaw the soil particles fall away from the lifted root-fibres, and frequent repetition of these processes results in such complete exposure of the roots to the full sun that the plantlet falls over and wilts. _Exposure of roots_ is also sometimes effected by winds displacing sandy soils liable to shifting in dry weather, and the resulting wilting of the plants thus exposed at their roots may be supplemented by damage due to the repeated impact of the wind-driven sharp grains of sand, which act like a sand-blast and erode the tissues. In many of the cases given above the principal result is the weakening or destruction of the chlorophyll action. This means a loss of carbohydrates--sugars, starches, etc.--and in so far a starvation of the plant. The injurious effects are quantitative and cumulative: if large areas of foliage are concerned, or if the effect lasts a long time, the plant suffers from loss of food, and may die. In those cases where the effect is due to the cutting off of supplies at the roots, and where the yellowing is a secondary symptom, the disease is more general in character, and recovery is often impossible, because the loss of water cannot be compensated, and the results may be further complicated by the gradual penetration of poisonous matter into the cells. It is frequently necessary, though sometimes very difficult, to decide which is the primary and which secondary (or tertiary, etc.) symptoms in the order of their importance, and the diagnosis may be complicated by a number of accessory factors which it is impossible to treat generally. NOTES TO CHAPTER XIX. The principal cases here described are dealt with in works on plant physiology, and in the works of Sorauer and Frank already referred to. As regards damage due to uprooting of seedlings by frost, see Fisher, "Forest Protection" (Engl. ed. of Hess' _Forstchutz_), in Schlich's _Manual of Forestry_, Vol. IV., 1895, pp. 439-442. On Albinism, see Church, "A Chemical Study of Vegetable Albinism," _Journ. Chem. Soc._, 1879, 1880, 1886. Beijerinck's results are contained in his paper, "Ueber ein Contagium vivum fluidum," etc. (with English abstract), in _Verhandl. d. Kon. Akad. v. Wetensch, te Amsterdam_, 1898. Koning's paper is in _Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrank._, Vol. IX., 1899, p. 65. See also _Nature_, Oct. 11, 1900, p. 576. CHAPTER XX. SYMPTOMS OF DISEASE (_Continued_). _Spotted leaves--The colours of spots--White, yellow, brown, and black spots on leaves--Parti-coloured spots--The browning, etc., of leaves._ _Discoloured spots_ or patches on the herbaceous parts of plants, especially leaves, furnish the prominent symptoms in a large class of diseases, due to many different causes, and although we cannot maintain this group of symptoms sharply apart from the last, as seen from the considerations on _albinism_, it is often well marked and of great diagnostic value. By far the greater number of spot-diseases are due to fungi, but this is by no means always the case. The most generally useful method of subdividing the classes, though artificial like all such classifications, will be according to the colour of the spots or flecks, which, moreover, are usually found on the leaves. It is necessary to note, however, that various conditions may modify the colour of spots on leaves. Many fungi, for instance, induce different coloured spots according to the age of the leaf or other organ attacked, or according to the species of host, the weather, etc. Moreover the spots due to these parasites are frequently yellow when young and some other colour, especially brown or black, when older. _Scale_ is the name given to the characteristic shield-like insects (_Mytilaspis_, _Aspidiotus_, etc.) which attach themselves to branches of Apples, Pears, Oranges, Camellias, and numerous other plants, and suck the juices. It is the female insect which has the body broadened out into the "scale," under which the young are brought up. Enormous damage has been done by some forms--_e.g._ the San José scale in the United States. The superficial resemblances of the patches of eggs of some Lepidoptera to Aecidia and other fungi may be noted in passing--_e.g._ _Bombyx neustria_ on Apple twigs, _Aporia Crataegi_. _White_ or _greyish spots_ are the common symptom marking the presence of many Peronosporeae and Erysipheae in or on leaves, _e.g._ _Peronospora Trifoliorum_, _P. parasitica_ on Crucifers, etc., and _Sphaerotheca_ on Hops; also _Septoria piricola_, _Cystopus_, _Entyloma Ranunculi_, etc. White spots are also caused by insects such as _Tetranychus_ (red spider) on Clover and other plants. _Yellow_, or _Orange-coloured Spots_. In cases where these occur on leaves, and in the case of grasses, etc., on the leaf sheaths as well, they commonly indicate the presence of Uredineae, and sections under the microscope will show the mycelium in the tissues beneath. Species of _Uromyces_, _Puccinia_, etc., in the Uredo state have the spots powdery with spores; _Aecidia_ show the characteristic "cluster cups," and so forth. These spots are often slightly pustular, and in some cases markedly so. Other fungi also induce yellow spots on leaves--_e.g._ _Phyllosticta_ on Beans, _Exoascus_ on Poplars, _Clasterosporium_ on Apricot leaves, _Synchytrium Succisae_ on _Centaurea_, etc. Yellow spots are also a frequent symptom of the presence of Aphides, of Red Spider, etc. Thus the minute golden yellow spots sometimes crowded on Oak leaves are due to _Phylloxera_ punctures. Yellow patches are formed on the large leaves of _Arisarum_ by a species of parasitic Alga, _Phyllosiphon_, which lives in the mesophyll. Many tropical leaves are spotted yellow by epiphytic Algae--_e.g._ _Cephaleuros_. It must be noticed that many fungi produce yellow spots or flecks in the earlier stages, which turn brown or black as the fructifications appear, _e.g._ _Dilophia graminis_, _Rhytisma acerinum_. The yellow-spotted leaves of _Farfugium grande_ (_Senecio Kaempferi_) are so like those of _Petasites_ attacked with _Aecidium_ in its early stages, that an expert might be deceived until the microscopic analysis was completed. _Red spots_, varying from rusty or foxy red to bright crimson, are the symptomatic accompaniment of several fungi, the former often characterising the teleutospore or aecidium stage of Uredineae--_e.g._ _Aecidium Grossulariae_--the latter sometimes indicating the presence of Chytridiaceae. Red spots are also caused by _Gloeosporium Fragariae_ on Strawberry leaves, _Polystigma rubrum_ on Plums. Crimson spots on Apple and Pear leaves are also due to _Phytoptus_: they turn brown later. _Brown spots_ or flecks, varying in hue from dull slaty brown to deep red browns, are a common symptom of Fungus and Insect diseases, the colour often indicating the death of the tissues, rather than any special peculiarity of the action of the parasite. Good examples are furnished by the Potato-disease, and by _Peronospora viticola_, _Sphaerella vitis_ and other disease-fungi of the Grape Vine. The teleutospore stage of many Uredineae also occurs in deep brown spots. Black spots and flecks are exceedingly common symptoms of the presence of fungi, _e.g._ _Fusicladium_ on Apples and Pears, and the pycnidial and ascus stages of many Ascomycetes--_e.g._ _Phyllachora graminis_. The teleutospore stages of species of _Puccinia_, _Phragmidium_, etc., are also so deep in colour as to appear almost black. _Scab_ on Pears is due to the presence of _Fusicladium_, which indurates the outer skin of the fruit causing it to crack under pressure from within, and to dry up, the deep brown to black patches of fungus persisting on the dead surface. Black spots on grasses and sedges are caused by Ustilagineae, and are commonest in the grain, the soot-like powdery spores (Smut) being very characteristic. _Ustilago longissima_ induces black streaks on the leaves. Many of these fungi cause distortions or pustules on leaves and other organs. Brown and black leaf spots are frequently furnished with concentric contours arranged round a paler or other coloured central point--_e.g._ _Cercospora_ on Beans, _Ascochyta_ on Peas. Brown spots with bright red margins are formed in young Beans by _Gloeosporium_. Species of _Fumago_, _Herpotrichia_, etc., may cover the entire surface of the leaf with sooty patches, or even weave the leaves together as if with black spider-webs. _Mal nero_ of the Vine is a particular case of black spotting and streaking of the leaves for which no satisfactory explanation is as yet to hand. As with Chestnuts, Walnuts, and other plants containing much tannin, the dark spots appear to be due to this substance, but whether the predisposing cause is a lack of some ingredients in the soil, or some temperature reaction, or fungi at the roots, is as yet unknown. The most recent explanation puts the disease down to the action of bacteria, but the results obtained by different workers lead to uncertainty. The "dying back" of leaves, especially of grasses, from the tip, is usually accompanied by a succession of colours--yellow, red, brown, to black--and is a common symptom of parching from summer drought; and spots of similar colours, frequently commencing at the margins of leaves, are characteristic symptoms of the injurious action of acid gases in the air. Brown and blackish spots on Pears are caused by a species of _Thrips_. In many cases the minute spots of Rust-fungi on one and the same leaf are bright orange yellow (_uredo_), deep brown, or almost purple-black (_teleutospores_), foxy-red brown (older uredospores), or dead slaty black where the old teleutospores have died off--_e.g._ _Uromyces Fabae_ on Beans, _U. Pisi_ on Peas, etc. _Parti-coloured leaves._--The leaves sometimes start shrivelling with red edges, while yellow, red, and finally brown and black blotches appear on the lamina, from no known cause--_e.g._ Vines. In other cases similar mimicry of the autumnal colouring of leaves results from the action of acid gases. _Burning_ is a common name for all cases where the leaves turn red or red-brown in hot, dry weather, and many varieties are distinguished in different countries and on different plants, because species react dissimilarly. The primary cause is usually want of water--drought. _Foxy leaves_ are a common sign of drought on hot soils, and the disease may usually be recognised by the gradual extension of the drying and fox-red colour proceeding from the older to the younger leaves, and from base to apex--_e.g._ Hops. _Coppery leaves._--The leaves of the Hop, etc., may show yellow spots and gradually turn red-brown--copper-coloured--as they dry; the damage is due to _Tetranychus_, the so-called Red Spider. These cases must of course be carefully distinguished from the normal copper-brown of certain varieties of Beech, Beet, _Coleus_, etc. _Silver-leaf._--The leaves of Plum, Apple, and other fruit trees often obtain a peculiar silvery appearance in hot summers, the cause of which is unknown. Discolorations in the form of confluent yellow and orange patches, etc., resembling variegations, are not infrequently due to the ravages of Red Spider and mites--_e.g._ on Kidney Beans. _Sun-spots._--Yellow spots, which may turn brown or black according to the species of plant affected and the intensity of the action, are often caused by the focussing of the solar rays by lens-like thickenings due to inequalities in the glass of greenhouses, or by drops of water on them or on other leaves, _e.g._ Palms, _Dracaena_, etc. The action is that of a burning glass, and extends throughout the leaf-tissues. Young grapes, etc., may also be injured in this way. Water-drops on the glass can only act long enough to produce such injuries if the atmosphere is saturated. The old idea that a drop on a leaf can thus focus the sun's rays into the tissues beneath is not tenable. Here again we see that the disease-agencies concerned in producing the symptoms described in this chapter, agree for the most part in so far that the principal effect is generally the disturbance of chlorophyll action in the spots or flecks on the leaves, and the rendering useless of these areas so far as providing further food-supplies is concerned. The effects may be due merely to the shading action of a parasite--_e.g._ epiphytic fungi--or to actual destruction of the tissues invaded--_e.g._ by endophytic fungi--or the tissues may be burnt, poisoned, etc. In so far the results are again quantitative and cumulative, and the amount of damage depends on the number and size of the spots or other areas affected, and the proportion of foliage involved, as well as the length of time the injurious action is at work. But, again, it must be remembered that several symptoms may co-exist, and matters may be complicated by the spread of the destructive agent, or its consequences, to other parts, and in some cases we are quite uninformed as to the true nature of the disease. NOTES TO CHAPTER XX. Further information regarding these "leaf-diseases" will be found in special works dealing with the fungi and insects which cause them. In addition to works already quoted, the reader may also be referred for Fungi to Massee, _A Textbook of Plant-diseases caused by Cryptogamic Parasites_, London, 1899; or Prillieux, _Les Maladies des Plantes Agricoles_, 1895. See also Marshall Ward, Coffee-leaf Disease, _Sessional Papers_, XVII., Ceylon, 1881, and _Journ. Linn. Soc._, Vol. XIX., 1882, p. 299. The question of "Sun-spots" has been dealt with by Jönnson in _Zeitschr. f. Pflanzenkrankh._, 1892, p. 358. CHAPTER XXI. ARTIFICIAL WOUNDS. _The nature of wounds and of healing processes--Knife wounds-- Simple cuts--Stripping--Cuttings--Branch-stumps and pruning-- Stool-stumps--Ringing--Bruises._ _Wounds._--All the parts of plants are exposed to the danger of wounds, from mechanical causes such as wind, falling stones or trees, hail, etc., or from the bites of animals such as rabbits, worms, and insects, and although such injuries are rarely in themselves dangerous, they open the way to other agencies--water, fungi, etc., which may work great havoc; or the loss of the destroyed or removed tissues is felt in diminished nutrition, restriction of the assimilative area, or in some other way. We have seen that living cells die when cut, bruised, or torn; and that the cells next below in a layer of active tissue are stimulated by the exposure to increased growth and division, and at once produce a layer of cork, the impervious walls of which again protect the living cells beneath. This is found to occur in all cell-tissues provided the cells are still living, and it matters not whether the wound occurs in the mesophyll of a leaf, the storage parenchyma of a Potato-tuber, the cortex of a root or stem, or in the fleshy parts of a young fruit, the normal effect of the wound is in all cases to call forth an elongation of the uninjured cells beneath, in a direction at right angles to the plane of the injured surface, which cells then divide by successive walls across their axis of growth: the layers of cells thus cut off are then converted into cork, by the suberisation of their walls. Further changes may then go on beneath the protective layer of wound-cork thus produced, and these changes vary according to the nature of the cells beneath: the cambium forms new wood, the medullary rays similar rays, cortex new cortex, and so on. _Knife-wounds._--Artificial cuts in stems are easily recognised and soon heal up unless disturbed. Several cases, differing in complexity, are to be distinguished. The simplest is that of a longitudinal, oblique, or horizontal short cut in which the point of the knife severs all the tissues of the stem down to the wood. The first effect usually observed is that the wound gapes, especially if longitudinal, because the cortex, tightly stretched on the wood cylinder, contracts elastically. This exposes the living cortex, phloem and cambium to the air, and such tissues at once behave as already described above: the cells actually cut die, those next below grow out under the released pressure, and these give rise to cells which become cork. As the growth and cell-division continue in the cells below this thin elastic cork-layer, they form a soft herbaceous cushion or _callus_ looking like a thickened lip to each margin of the cut. Each lip soon meets its opposite neighbour, and the wound is closed over, a slight projection with a median axial depression alone appearing on the surface. The depression contains the trapped-in callus-cork squeezed more and more in the plane of the cut as the two lips of callus press one against the other, and sections across the stem and perpendicular to the axis of the cut show that this thin cork, like a bit of brown paper, alone intervenes between the cambium, phloem and cortex respectively of each lip, as each layer attempts to bridge over the interval. If the healing proceeds normally, these layers, each pressing against the trapped cork-film, and growing more and more in thickness, shear the cork-layer and tear its cells asunder, and very soon we find odd cells of the cambium of one lip meeting cambium cells of the other, phloem meeting phloem, and cortex cortex, and the normal thickening of the now fused layers previously separated by the knife goes on as if nothing had happened, the only external sign of the wound being a slight ridge-like elevation, and, internally, traces of the dead cells and cork trapped here and there beneath the ridge. When the conjoined cambium resumes the development of a continuous layer of xylem and phloem, no further trace of the injury is observable, unless a speck of dead cells remains buried beneath the new wood, and indicates the line where the knife point killed the former cambium and scored the surface of the wood in making the wound. _Stripping._--Now suppose that, instead of a mere slit with the knife-point, a strip of bark is removed down to the wood. Exactly the same processes of corking and lip-like callus formation at the edges of the wound occur, but of course the occlusion of the bared wood-surface by the meeting of the lips occupies a longer time. Moreover, the living cells of the medullary rays exposed by the wound on the wood-surface also grow out under the released pressure, and form protruding callus pads on their own account. In course of time the wood is again completely covered by the coming together over its face of these various strips of callus, but two important points of difference are found, as contrasted with the simpler healing of the slit-wound. In the first place the exposed wood dries and turns brown, or it may even begin to decay if moisture and putrefactive organisms act on it while exposed to the air; and, in the second place, the normal annual layer of wood--or layers, as the case may be--formed by the cambium only extends over that part of the stem where the cambium is still intact, and is entirely wanting over the exposed area. Thus, if it takes two years for the cambium to extend across the wound, a layer of wood will be formed all round the intact part of the stem, from lip to lip of the cut tissues during the first year; then a second annual layer outside this will be formed during the second year, but extending further over the edges of the wound, and nearly complete, because the cambium has now crept further across the wounded surface to meet the opposite lip of cambium; and during the third year, when the cambium has once more become continuous over the face of the wound, the annual wood layer will be complete. But, of course, this last layer covers in the edges of the two previously developed incomplete wood-layers as well as the exposed and brown, dry, or rotten dead face of the wood. It also covers up the trapped-in brown cork and any débris that accumulated in the wound, and this "blemish," though buried deeper and deeper in the wood during succeeding annual deposits of wood-layers, always remains to remind us of the existence of the wound, the date of which can be fixed at any future time by counting the annual rings developed subsequently to its formation. Obviously, also, the deficiency of wood at this place makes itself visible on the outside by a depression. _Cuttings._--When a cutting of _Pelargonium_, Willow, or other plant is made, we have a typical knife-wound, the behaviour of which is very instructive in illustration of plant-surgery, and may be most easily seen by keeping it in damp air instead of plunging it into sand or soil. All the living cells actually cut or bruised turn brown and die as before; those beneath--_e.g._ the living pith, medullary rays, cambium, phloem, and cortex, grow out under the released pressure and form a callus, the outermost layer of which becomes cork, while those below, abundantly supplied with food-materials, proceed to spread, as if flowing over the surface of the cut wood, and rapidly occlude the wound. Meanwhile new roots are formed adventitiously from the cambium just above the plane of section, and push out through the cortex into the damp air, and if the cutting had been in soil it would now be capable of independent existence. It is important to keep cuttings upright, as the roots only spring from the lower end. Such cuttings can be obtained not only from stems, but also from roots and even leaves. Callus-formation is not confined to the basal end of a cutting; it has nothing to do with position, but is a reaction to the wound stimuli, independent of light, gravitation, etc. As time goes on, however, the internal organisation of the erect cutting usually reacts on the callus at either end, and roots only rise from the lower one, while shoot-buds may form in the upper one, though it is possible to bring about the formation of buds from the lower end also. _Branch stumps._--A more complex example is furnished by a branch cut off short some distance--say a foot--from the base, where it springs from the trunk. As before, the immediate effect of the section is the formation of a callus from the cambium, phloem and cortex, which begins to rise as a circular occluding rim round the wood. The transpiration current in the trunk, however, is not deflected into the 12 inches or so of amputated branch, because there are no leaves to draw the water up it, and so the stump dries up and the cortex and cambium die back to the base, leaving the dead wood covered with shrivelled cortical tissues only. This dead stump gradually rots under the action of wet, fungi, and bacteria, and since the pith and heart-wood afford a ready passage of the rot-organisms and their products into the heart of the trunk, we find in a few years a mere stump of touch-wood and decayed bark, which falls out at the insertion like a decayed tooth, leaving a rotten hole in the side of the trunk. If, however, instead of allowing the basal part of the amputated branch to protrude as a stump, we cut it off close to the stem, and shave the section flush with the normal surface of the latter, the callus formed by the cambium, etc., rapidly grows over the surface, and soon forms a layer of cambium continuous with that of the rest of the stem. The wound heals, in fact, much as if it were a strip-wound, and beyond a slight prominence for a year or two no signs are visible from the outside after the occlusion. Of course these matters depend on the relative thickness of branch and stem, and if much wood is exposed the dangers of rot and a resulting hollow in the stem are increased. It is interesting to note how much thicker the callus lips are at the sides of the wound than above and below, owing to differences in the distribution of the nutrient materials. _Stool-stumps._--When a tree is felled, the stump may, if the section is close to the ground and kept moist, begin to form a thick rim-like callus round the wood, in which adventitious buds soon make their appearance, and grow out into so-called _Stool-shoots_. The products of assimilation of these, and the stores accumulated in the stump, often suffice to feed the callus sufficiently to enable it to grow over and completely occlude the wound, if the wood surface is not too large, or so long exposed that rotting processes have meanwhile set in. _Ringing._--If the strip of cortical tissues and cambium is removed all round the stem, exposing the wood in a form of a ring, complications may ensue owing to the following circumstances. A well-marked callus appears at the upper edge of the wound, because, the transpiration current up the young wood not being stopped, plenty of water and salts from the soil can reach the leaves; but the nutritive materials supplied by the latter are accumulated at the upper lip of the wound owing to the stoppage there of their descent in the phloem, cortex, etc. No such callus-lip appears at the lower margin of the wound owing to want of these supplies. Consequently the occlusion and healing of the ring-wound only takes place from above downwards, and if the ring of cortical tissues removed is a broad one, the healing may be a long process, or may even be indefinitely delayed, a thicker and thicker callus projecting over from above. For similar reasons no annual wood layers are formed below, but only above the wound, and thus the branch or tree may die. The latter contingency is the more likely the further up the tree the ringing takes place, owing to the risk of drying up which threatens the exposed wood, and to the consequent interruption of the transpiration current, and the likelihood that lateral shoots below the wound may divert the water to their own leaves. If the ringing occurs low down on a stem, and the environment remains damp, the upper thick callus may put out new roots; the part above the wound then behaves like a cutting. If the ringing is done on a young and vigorous branch of an old tree, the lower lip may receive supplies from the leaves of branches below the wound, or from shoots which spring from adventitious buds close to it, and the wound may heal over normally. Such healing may be rendered more certain by keeping the wounded surface moist--_e.g._ by means of damp moss, and so encouraging the formation of callus-bridges from the medullary rays. If on ringing a tree or a branch the young wood is removed as well as the cambium and cortical layers, the death of the parts above the wound is almost certain, owing to the stoppage of the transpiration current: the exceptions to this rule depend simply on the existence of other channels of communication, such as internal phloems, very thick sap-wood, and so forth. _Bruises._--If a branch or woody stem is struck sharply, with a hammer, for instance, the bruised cortex, phloem and cambium are killed by the blow, and the general effect is as if these tissues had been removed at that spot by the knife, but with the following complications. The bruised cortical tissues rapidly dry as they perish, and may adhere to the wood below. Consequently the still sound parts bordering on the wound are not released from pressure, but, on the contrary, have to advance towards each other over the surface of the wood under still greater pressures, in part due to the tightening of the whole cortex as the dead parts dry and contract, and in part due to the above-mentioned adherence of the latter to the wood. It results from this that such wounds heal very slowly and badly, and when the killed patch at last ruptures, wound-fungi, insects, and other injurious agencies may get in and do irreparable damage, as has been found to occur in cases where such wounds have been made in striking trees to shake down insects, fruit, etc. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXI. The essential facts regarding wounds and healing by occlusion are given in Marshall Ward, _Timber and some of its Diseases_, 1889, chapters viii. and ix., and in Laslett, _Timber and Timber Trees_, 1894, chapters iv. and v. More detailed treatment will be found in Frank, _Krankh. d. Pflanzen_, B. 1. cap. 2, where the special literature is collected. The reader may also consult Hartig, _Diseases of Trees_, Engl. ed. 1894, pp. 225-269. CHAPTER XXII. NATURAL WOUNDS. _Burrows and excavations. Bark-boring--Wood-boring--Wood fungi--Leaf-miners--Pith flecks--Erosions. Skeleton leaves-- Irregular erosions--Shot holes. Frost cracks--Strangulations-- Spiral grooving._ Natural wounds are produced in a variety of ways during the life of the plant, and, generally speaking, are easily healed over by the normal process if the area destroyed is not too large, and the parts remaining uninjured are sufficiently provided with foliage, or with supplies of food-materials stored up in the roots, rhizomes, medullary rays, etc., to feed a vigorous callus. The nature of such wounds and the mode of healing are explained by what we know of artificial wounds, and it only remains to point out that the principal danger of ordinary wounds is not so much the direct traumatic action, because the simpler organisation of the plant does not involve matters connected with shock, loss of blood, etc., as in animals; the danger consists, rather, in their affording access to other injurious agents, especially fungi, and the treatment of wounds frequently resolves itself into cutting or pruning in order to get clean surfaces which can heal readily. Wounds on leaves imply loss of foliar surface--_i.e._ of chlorophyll action--and the remarks on page 193 apply. _Burrows_ may be taken as comprising all kinds of tunnel-like excavations in the various organs of plants, including those cases where insects burrow into hollow stems of grasses, etc., as indicated by the perforations they make in the outer tissues. _Bark-boring_ is done by many species of beetles, especially _Scolytidae_, which excavate characteristically formed branching passages tangentially in the inner bark of Conifers and other trees. Some of them also bore down to the surface of the sap wood (_e.g._ _Tomicus bidentatus_) or even burrow right into the latter (_e.g._ _T. lineatum_). It commonly happens that the external apertures show up clearly, owing to the brown dust and excrement, sometimes accompanied by turpentine, which exude from them. Many of these Bark beetles only attack trees which are already injured by fire, lightning, etc.; possibly they cannot bore through a cortex which swamps them with sap, as a vigorous one might do. _Wood-boring_ is also done by many of the bark-beetles as well as by Longicorns, _e.g._ _Saperda_ in Poplars and Willows, the young shoots of which often show characteristic swellings with lateral holes indicating the points of exit. From the external apertures comminuted wood, like saw-dust, is frequently ejected in quantity and betrays the presence of the insects. Certain wood-wasps (_Sirex_) and the larvae of moths (_Cossus_) also make large perforations in the wood of Willows and other trees, often destroying it completely. In the case of these larger borers, whose tunnels may be as broad as the little finger, the foul smell as well as abundant "saw-dust" betray the evil. Excavations in wood are by no means caused only by insects: several of the larger Hymenomycetes--_Stereum_, _Thelephora_, _Polyporus_, etc.--tunnel the timber in characteristic ways and often after a fashion very suggestive of insects. They usually obtain access through fractures. _Tunnels_ in leaves are invariably due to the activity of miners belonging to the smaller moths and beetles--_e.g._ _Tinea_, _Orchestes_, etc.--the larvae of which eat out the mesophyll but leave the covering epidermis or cuticle untouched, and since the insect bores forwards only, in an irregular track, and leaves its excrement in the winding passage, the effect is very characteristic. Whitish leaf tunnels in Peas are excavated by _Phytomyza_. Characteristic foxy-red tunnels are mined in the leaves of Apples by _Lyonetia_, _Coleophora_, etc. _Falling of fruit_, of Apples, Plums, Apricots, etc., before they are ripe, is frequently due to insects, of which the various species of _Grapholitha_ or _Carpocapsa_ are conspicuous: the fallen fruits show a small hole leading by a labyrinth of passages to the "core" or "stone," and in which the grub and its excrement are visible. The cutting off of the vascular bundles and disturbance of the water supply only partly explain the premature fall. _Pith-flecks_ are minute brown specks or patches found in the wood-layers of many trees, and consist of dead parenchymatous thick-walled cells, reminding one of the structure of pith. They are explained as due to the borings of minute insects, _Diptera_ or Beetles, the larvae of which pierce the cortex and phloem and bore their way into the cambium. The latter then occludes the tunnels by filling them up with cells, and continuing its wood-forming activity gradually buries them deeper and deeper in the wood. Such pith-flecks are common in Willow, Birch, Alder, _Sorbus_, etc. It is possible that they may be due to other causes also in other trees. _Erosions_ or _irregular wounds_ on leaves are caused by large numbers of grubs and caterpillars and other insects, such as earwigs, as well as slugs, snails, and other animals; but it must by no means be assumed that all marginal leaf wounds, for instance, are caused by animals, since many fungi which rot the tissues, as explained below (p. 208), also cause such erosions, the putrescent parts falling out--_e.g._ the Potato disease. _Skeleton leaves_ frequently result from the ravages of caterpillars, which leave the coarser ribs and veins untouched, but much finer skeletons with the minute veins almost intact may be found on plants infested with certain insects--_e.g._ _Selandria_ on Cherries. Skeletonised patches on Cherry leaves, often pink or brown-pink, are eaten out by this grub. _Shot-holes_ are perforations in leaves presenting the appearance, from their more or less rounded shape, of gunshot wounds. They may be due to insects which bore through the young leaves while still folded in the bud--_e.g._ Willow Beetle--or which gnaw out the tissue--_e.g._ the Beech Miner. Similar but usually more torn and irregular holes are eaten out by many caterpillars--_e.g._ the Cabbage Moth. Shot-holes on Peas may be the work of Thrips. Leaf perforations are commonly caused by severe hail-storms, the hail-stones beating right through the thin mesophyll. Certain chemicals used for spraying have also been known to cause shot-holes by killing the tissue beneath the standing drops. There is, however, a class of shot-holes in thin leaves which are due to the action of minute fungi, the mycelium of which so rots the tissues in a more or less circular area round the point of infection, that, in wet weather, the decomposing mass falls out and leaves a round hole--_e.g._ certain Chytridiaceae, Peronosporeae, _Gloeosporium_, _Exoascus_, etc. If dry weather supervenes these holes frequently dry at the edges, and the leaves appear as if eaten out. Shot-holes in Cherry, Walnut, Tobacco, and Plum leaves are due to _Phyllosticta_, in Cherry leaves also to _Clasterosporium_, and in Potato leaves to _Haltica_. _Frost-cracks._--The trunks of trees exposed to the north-east, and occasionally with other aspects, are apt to show longitudinal ridges which realise on a larger scale the features of healed wounds scored with a knife. These wounds are due to the outer layers of wood losing water from their cell-walls as it congeals to ice in their lumina, more rapidly than do the warmer internal parts of the trunk; as this drying of the wood causes its shrinkage, especially in the tangential direction, the effect of a sudden frost and north-east wind is to rend the wood, which splits longitudinally with a loud report, as may often be heard in severe winters. Since the cortex and bark are ruptured at the same time the total effect resembles that of a deep knife-cut, and the same healing processes result on a larger scale when the wood swells and closes up the wound again in spring. But this recently-closed lesion is evidently a plane of weakness, and if a similarly severe winter follows the wound reopens and again heals, and so on, until after a succession of years a prominent _Frost-ridge_ results, which may finally heal completely if milder winters ensue or the tree be eventually protected. _Strangulations._--We are now in a position to understand the so-called strangulations which result when woody climbers, telegraph wires, etc., kill or injure trees by tightly winding round them. If strong wire is twisted horizontally round a stem, the growth in thickness of the latter causes the trapping of the cortex and cambium, etc., between the wire and the wood, and a ringing process is set up in consequence of the death of the compressed tissues. A callus then forms above the wound, as in the case of true ringing by means of a cut, and eventually bulges over the upper side of the wire: in the course of years this overgrowth may completely cover in the wire, and, pressing on to the lower lip of the wound, may at length fuse with the cambium below. Hereafter the thickening rings of wood are continuous over the buried wire. The process is obstructed by all the impediments referred to in dealing with ringing, and of course the stem thickens more above than below the wire. If the sapwood is thin, and the bark is so thick as to put great obstacles in the way of the junction of the upper and lower cambiums, death may result--the tree is permanently ringed. (See p. 201.) _Spiral grooves_ are frequently met with where Wood-bine or other woody climbers have twined round a young stem or branch, the upper lip of the groove always protruding more than the lower. If a kink or a crossing of two plants or branches of the twiner results in a complete horizontal ring, the results are as in the above cases of ringing and strangulation. Naturally grooved walking sticks are often seen. _Buried letters, etc._--These processes of healing by occlusion enable us to understand how letters of the alphabet, cut into the wood of trees, come to be buried deep in the timber as successive annual rings cover them in more and more. Chains, nails, rope, etc., have frequently been found thus buried in wood. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXII. In addition to the notes to the last chapter, the reader may be referred to Fisher in Vol. IV. of Schlich's _Manual of Forestry_, Chap. VI., for an account of Hess' excellent work on Boring Beetles, etc. The authority on Wood-fungi is Hartig, see especially his _Zersetzungs-erscheinungen des Holzes_, the principal results of which are condensed in his _Diseases of Trees_ already referred to. As regards "Pith-flecks," the reader should consult Frank, _Krankh. der Pflanzen_, B. I., p. 212: the subject needs further investigation. CHAPTER XXIII. EXCRESCENCES. _Herbaceous excrescences, or galls--Erineum--Intumescences-- Corky warts, etc.--Pustules--Frost-blisters--Galls and Cecidia --Root nodules._ _Excrescences_, or out-growths of more or less abnormal character from the general surface of diseased organs, are very common symptoms, and widely recognised. They are due to hypertrophy of the tissues while the cells are young and capable of growth, and may be induced by a variety of causes, among which the stimulus of insect-punctures and of the presence of insect eggs are best known; but that of fungi, though less widely recognised, plays an equally important part, and, as we shall see, galls and other excrescences may be due to widely different agents. _Galls_ or _Cecidia_ are protuberances of the most varied shapes, colours, and sizes found on herbaceous parts attacked by insects, fungi, etc. In the simplest cases the insects only pierce and suck the young cellular tissue--_e.g._ _Phytoptus_, Aphides, etc.--but in others the stimulus to hypertrophy starts by the puncture of the embryonic tissue of a leaf, root, etc., by the ovipositor of the female insect, which then lays an egg--_e.g._ _Cynips_, _Cecidomyia_, etc.--the presence of which appears to intensify the irritating action, or such only occurs when the young larva escapes. Our knowledge of the primary cause of gall-formation amounts to very little. Generally speaking, only embryonic or very young cellular tissue reacts, and galls on adult leaves and branches have usually been initiated long before. The same gall-insect may induce totally different galls on different plants, or even on different parts of the same plant, and different insects call forth different galls on any one plant. These facts point clearly to the co-operation of both plant and insect in the gall-formation, and the best hypothesis yet to hand is to the effect that a gall is a hypertrophy of cells, the normal nutrition, growth, and division of which have been disturbed owing to the action of some poison or other irritant derived from the insect, or fungus, or other organism. Attempts have been made to reproduce galls by injecting the juices of similar galls into the tissue, but as yet without success, and this may point to the co-operation of mechanical irritation during the hypertrophy in normal gall-formation. Galls, in the broad sense, are not always preceded by a wound, however. Insects on the outside of young tissues may cause such irritations that the parts in contact with the animal are arrested in their growth, while those further away grow more rapidly--_e.g._ where Mites, etc., cause puckers and leaf-rolling. In true galls the hypertrophy may consist merely in the enlargement of cells already present, and no new cell-divisions and, still less, changes in the nature of the tissues result--_e.g._ some pocket galls on _Viburnum_, _Pyrus_, etc., and the hairy outgrowths of the epidermis known as _Erineum_. In other cases there is not only hypertrophy of existing cells, but new cell-divisions are instituted: these cell-divisions may be confined to the direction perpendicular to the epidermis, and the tissues grow only in the direction of the surface, producing puckerings--_e.g._ the Aphis galls on _Ribes_, Phytoptus galls of _Salvia_, leaf galls on _Tilia_, _Acer_, _Alnus_, etc., and the curious galls on Plums due to _Cecidomyia Pruni_, and which must not be confounded with the "pocket plums" and similar galls due to Exoasci. In a third series of cases, cell-divisions occur parallel to the surface of the leaf, and galls are formed which grow in thickness, and develop the most extraordinary and complicated new tissues--proteid-cells surrounding the egg or larva deposited inside, followed by a protective layer of sclerenchyma encasing this food layer, and around this again softer tissues which may assume the structures and functions of respiratory tissues, water-storing tissues, starch reservoirs, assimilatory, or protective tissues of various kinds, and over all may be a well-marked epidermis, with stomata, or cork with lenticels. The chief seat of these hypertrophies and--what is more remarkable--development of new tissue elements not found elsewhere in the leaves, or even in the species, is the mesophyll, and various speculations and hypothesis have been founded on these curious phenomena. _Erineum._--The simplest excrescences on plants are certain hair-like developments of epidermal cells due to the irritation of species of _Phytoptus_, and similar insects which rise in clusters on the surfaces of leaves and by their colours, consistence, arrangement in patches, spots, etc., so simulate fungi that Persoon was deceived by them and gave them the genus name _Erineum_. They occur on most of our trees, _e.g._ Poplar, Lime, Oak, and are very common in the Tropics. Usually pale or even white at first, they turn brown as the hair-like outgrowths die and lose their sap, but since the latter may be bright coloured--yellow, red, purple,--the patches are sometimes very conspicuous objects on smooth leaves. In many cases these hairs exactly resemble in shape and other characters the abnormal root-hairs found on roots exposed to the effects of poisonous reagents, or of unsuitable food-materials, or the rhizoids developed from wounded Algae, etc. _Intumescences_ are similar trichomatous outgrowths not associated with insects or fungi, and due to some disturbance of the balance between transpiratory and assimilatory functions of their leaves, as indicated by the less localised occurrence and by their non-appearance when the plant is under favourable cultural conditions. Structures not unlike these have been artificially induced by exposure to particular lights, and also by painting spots with dilute corrosive sublimate, indicating that poisons may impel the epidermis cells to grow out abnormally. _Corky warts._--Several forms of disease are known in which the pathological condition is expressed by the formation of cork in unwonted places and quantities. The _Scab_ or _Scurf_ of Potatoes is a case in point. The tissue of the lenticels absorbs water and the outermost cells are cut off by cork and die: the cells below them burst the dead bark-like masses thus formed, and again cork is formed and cuts off the outer masses, and the rough cork warts--_Scab_ or _Scurf_--are the result. The causes predisposing to scab have been variously assigned to dampness, want of lime, action of bacteria and fungi--_e.g._ _Sorosporium_, _Oospora_, _Spongospora_,--the latter making their way into the ruptured tissue of the lenticels and irritating the cells to further growth. It seems probable that several different kinds of scab exist in Potatoes, as well as in roots--_e.g._ Beets, and the whole subject needs further investigation. The scab-like rough scaly bark of Pear trees in dry districts may also be mentioned here. _Cork-wings_ are well known on the young branches of Elms, Maples, etc., some varieties of which have received specific names on this account. _Corky excrescences_ on leaves occur occasionally in the Gooseberry, Holly and other plants, for which no cause has been discovered. Lenticels are also formed on some leaf-galls, and are remarkable as being structures not normal on leaves. _Pustules._--This term may be employed generally for all slight upheavals of the surfaces of herbaceous organs, which subsequently burst and give egress to the spores, etc., of the organism causing them, or merely fray away at the top if no organism is discoverable. They are often due to fungi--_e.g._ _Synchytrium_, _Protomyces_, _Cystopus_, and Ustilagineae,--and we may extend the use of the general term also to those cases where the _stroma_ of the fungus itself bursts through the cortex of older parts and forms the principal part of the pustule--_e.g._ _Monilia_, forming white or grey pustules on Apples, _Roestelia_ and other �cidia, forming yellow or orange pustules on leaves, etc.; _Cucurbitaria_ and _Nectria_ (red) breaking through the cortex of trees, and _Phoma_ and numerous other Ascomycetes which form black cushions. _Pustules_ on the leaves of _Lysimachia_, _Ajuga_, etc., are due to the parasitic Alga _Phyllobium_. Cylindrical stem swellings are caused by _Calyptospora_: they are due to the hypertrophy of the cortex of Bilberry stems permeated by the hyphae. _Epichloë_, which clothes the sheaths and halms of grasses with its stroma, at first snowy white and later ochre-yellow as the perithecia form, is another example. The cylindrical layer of eggs of a moth such as _Bombyx_ on a twig must not be confounded with these cases. _Frost-blisters_ are pustule-like uprisings of the cortex, where the living tissues below have formed a callus-like cushion into the cavity beneath the dead outer parts of the cortex which were killed by the frost; they occur on the stems of young Apples, Pears, etc. _Galls_ in the narrower sense are tissue outgrowths usually involving deeper cell-layers. They are so varied and numerous that classification is difficult. For symptomatic purposes we may divide them as follows: _Leaf-galls._--A well-marked type is that of the _pocket-galls_ or _bladders_ in which the whole thickness of the leaf is as it were pushed up like a glove-finger at one spot, so that if the upper surface of the leaf forms the outside of the gall the lower surface is its lining. Such galls are common on Limes (_Phytoptus_), _Glechoma_ (_Cecidomyia_), Elms (_Tetraneura_), etc. Similar localised extension of the leaf surface, compelling it to rise up like a pocket, are caused by fungi--_e.g._ _Taphrina_ on Poplars, _Exoascus_ on Birches, etc., _Exobasidium_ on Bilberries, Rhododendrons, etc. Another type is that of the _Gall-apple_, so well known on Oaks, where the spherical swelling is solid--except for the inner cavity containing the eggs--_Neurotus_, _Cynips_, _Hormomyia_, etc. These are comparable in general characters to the nodules on roots. Fungus galls with similar external features when young are found on Maize (_Ustilago Maydis_), and betray their nature by the black powdery spores as they mature. Bud galls on Willows are due to _Cecidomyia_, which causes several internodes to swell out into a greenish barrel-shaped mass, from which leaves may spring. Small irregular excrescences on Willow stems are referred to _Phytoptus_, and another species of the same insect induces similar swellings on Pines which are not surcharged with resin. _American Blight_, or Woolly Aphis, on Apples especially, causes the tumour-like swellings covered with sticky white fluff, which is a waxy excretion of the insect. Galls on _Pilea_, in Java, are due to an Alga--_Phytophysa_. _Root-nodules_ or _nodosities_ are frequently caused by insects--_e.g._ _Centhorhynchus_, a beetle which attacks Crucifers, _Cynips_ and allied "gallflies" of Oaks, and the notorious _Phylloxera_. But similar root-galls are produced by Nematode worms, _Heterodora_, on Beets, Tomatoes, Cucumbers and numerous other plants, and by the Slime fungus _Plasmodiophora_, and it is not always easy to distinguish such cases from the fungus-galls (_Mycocecidia_) on the roots of Alders, _Juncus_, and Leguminoseae where the symbiosis of bacteria or fungi with the roots are of benefit to the plant. _Urocystis Leimbachii_ forms similar nodules at the collar of young plants of _Adonis_. _Heterodora javanica_ passes into the cortex of sugar-cane roots through fissures, and makes its way to the place where a young rootlet is about to emerge; here it sticks its beak into the growing-point and remains fixed. Molliard has shown that in the roots of Melons, _Coleus_, etc., _Heterodora_ causes the cells in immediate contact with its head, and which would normally become vessels of the xylem, to swell up into huge giant-cells, with their walls curiously folded, and containing large supplies of proteids and numerous nuclei, reminding us of the food-layer of insect galls and of the tapetal layer of pollen-sacs. While the stimulus exerted by the Nematode thus induces hypertrophy and storage with food-substances of these cells, those of the next layers undergo reticulate thickenings of their walls. Again instances of the evolution of new tissue elements by the action of the foreign organism. So far as galls on leaves are concerned the amount and kind of damage done are in proportion to the area of chlorophyll action put out of play for the benefit of the plant, and the remarks already made on p. 193 apply here also. Where buds are destroyed the effects may of course extend further, but it rarely happens that leaf-galls are so abundant as to maim a tree permanently. Nevertheless we must remember that cases like _Phylloxera_ are notorious. Far more dangerous, however, are the root-galls due to such insects, because here the damage is not so local: the water-supplies are cut off, and injurious consequences result from the absorption of the products of decomposition in the soil. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXIII. In addition to the literature on galls quoted in the Notes to Chapter XIV., the reader should consult Dale "On certain Outgrowths (Intumescences) on the green parts of Hibiscus," _Proc. Cambr. Phil. Soc._, Vol. X., 1899, p. 192, and _Brit. Ass. Rep._, Bradford, 1900. The detailed study of the anatomy and histology of Galls has been recently undertaken by Küster, "_Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Gallenanatomie_," Flora, B. 87, 1900, p. 117, where the principal references will be found. On the root-galls due to Nematodes see Atkinson in _Science Contributions from the Agric. Expt. Station, Alabama_, Vol. I., p. 1, 1889; Percival, "An Eel-worm disease of Hops" in _Natural Science_, Vol. VI., 1895, p. 187; and Molliard in _Revue générale de Botanique_, Apl., 1900, p. 157, where the histology is dealt with. The nodules of the roots of Leguminoseae are not part of the subject of this work: the literature is collected in _Science Progress_, 1895, Vol. III., p. 252, and Dawson, _Phil. Trans._, 1900. CHAPTER XXIV. EXCRESCENCES (_continued_). _Cankers--Burrs--Sphaeroblasts, and other excrescences of woody tissues--Witches' Brooms._ _Cankers_ are irregular excrescences due to the perennial struggle between tissues attempting to heal up a wound, and some organism or other agent which keeps the lesion open. A canker always originates in a wound affecting the cambium, and usually in a small wound such as an insect puncture or frost nip; if undisturbed the dead parts would heal over by cork and callus, but if recurring frost-cracks break open the coverings, or if insects or fungi penetrate the callus and invade the cambium, irregularities of growth due to the occluding tissue on the one hand, and continued growth of the still unimpaired cambium on the opposite side of the injured shoot on the other, result in the canker. Frost cankers occur on fruit-trees, Vines, Beeches, etc. Cankers due to insects are found on Apples, the cortex of which is punctured by the woolly Aphis (_Schizoneura_) while the twigs are young, and the wound is kept open by the insects nestling in crevices in the occlusion tissues. Species of _Coccus_, _Lachnus_, and _Chermes_ also produce cankers on forest trees. Cankers due to fungi usually originate in a wound primarily due to an insect puncture or bite, or to frost, the invading fungus hyphae making their way into the wounded tissues and gradually extending more and more into the cambium and the occluding callus. Among the best known of these wound fungi which cause cankers are _Dasyscypha Willkommii_ the peziza of Larch disease, _Nectria ditissima_ and _N. cucurbitula_ on Beech and Conifers; less common are _Scleroderris_ on Willows, _Aglaospora_ on Oaks and some others. _Peridermium Pini_ and _Aecidium elatinum_ also cause cankers under certain conditions, as also does _Gymnosporangium_, but in these cases the fungi are more truly parasitic. In some cases--_e.g._ Ash, Pine, Olives--bacteria are concerned as associated organisms in the cankering of trees. _Burrs_ or _Knauers_ are irregular excrescences, principally woody, with gnarled and warted surfaces. They are frequently due to some previous injury, such as the crushing or grazing of cortical tissues by cart-wheels. The excitation of the tissues thus wounded results in the development of shoots from adventitious or dormant buds at the base of old tree trunks, or in the starting of the same process where a branch has been broken off. The new bud begins to develop a shoot, but soon dies at its tip owing to paucity of food-supplies to the weak shoot, while new buds at its base repeat the process next year with the same result, and each of these again in turn, and so on. The consequence is an extremely complex nest of buds, all capable of growing in thickness and putting on wood to some extent, but not of growing out in length. In course of time this mass may attain dimensions measurable by feet, forming huge rounded and extremely hard-knotted burrs, the cross-section of which shows the vascular tissues running irregularly in all directions, and, owing to the very slow growth, extremely dense and hard. The dark spots in such sections--_e.g._ Bird's-eye Maple--are the cut bud-axes all fused together, as it were. On old Elms such burrs are common at heights on the stem which preclude the assumption of any coarse mechanical injury, and similar structures occur on the boles of other forest trees suddenly exposed to light by the felling of their companions, which suggests that these epicormic shoots result from some disturbance due to the action of light. _Witches' Brooms_ are irregular tufts of twigs often found among the branches of trees such as Birches, Hornbeam, etc., where they look like crows' nests, and similar structures are to be found on Silver Firs and other conifers. In the former case they are due to _Exoascus_, in the latter to _Aecidium_, fungi which are perennially parasitic in the shoots, and stimulate the twiggy development of a number of buds which would normally have remained in abeyance, or not have been formed at all, and only do so now in a fashion different from that of normal branches. Rosette-like formations, depending on similar disturbing causes on the part of insects, occur in conifers--_e.g._ _Gastropacha Pini_. Dense tufts of twiggy shoots may be developed on many trees by pruning in such a way as to stimulate the shooting out of basal buds which would otherwise remain dormant, _e.g._ Elm, Ash, and thus it occurs that injuries such as frost, insect bites, etc., may induce the production of such tufts in a tree crown. The dense nests of stool-shoots thrown up from felled tree-stumps are of essentially the same nature--partly adventitious and partly dormant buds being enabled to grow out because they can now be supplied with materials previously carried beyond them while the trunk was still there. Suckers, if repeatedly cut down, may also behave similarly. _Wood-nodules_ or _Sphaeroblasts_ are curious marble-like masses of wood which protrude with a covering of bark from old trunks of Beeches, etc., and can be readily dug out with a knife. The nodule has arisen by the slow growth of the cambium of a dormant bud, the base of which separated at an early date from the wood beneath; the cambium then closed in over the base and laid on thickening rings all round the axis of the bud except at the extreme apex. When the separation occurred the cambium of the wood beneath covered over the previous point of junction, and thus the woody bud was pushed out with the bark, and now protrudes covered with a thin layer of the latter. Similar nodules are occasionally found on Apple trees. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXIV. For further information on Cankers the student should read Marshall Ward, _Timber and some of its Diseases_, Chapter X. Further, the discussion as to the causes of canker in Frank, _Krankheiten der Pflanzen_, B. I., p. 207, and B. III., pp. 167 and 172, and various papers in _Zeitschrift für Pflanzen-krankheiten_. CHAPTER XXV. EXUDATIONS AND ROTTING. _Tumescence--Rankness--Bursting of fruits, etc.--Root rot--Rot of fruits--Bulb diseases--Flux--Honey-dew--Slime flux-- Resinosis--Gummosis--Manna._ I put together in one artificial class a varied group of diseases, the principal symptom of which is the escape of fluids from the tissues, under circumstances which betray an abnormal state of affairs, often obvious, but sometimes only to be inferred. In many of these cases bacteria abound in the putrefying mass, and some evidence exists for connecting these microbes causally with the disease in a few of the more thoroughly investigated cases, but in no case has this been sufficiently demonstrated; and considering the ease with which bacteria gain access _via_ wounds caused by insects and fungi, as well as by other agents, the necessity for rigid proof must be insisted upon before we can accept such alleged examples of _Bacteriosis_. _Tumescence._--It occasionally happens that herbaceous parts of plants pass into a condition of over-turgescence from excess of water in the tissues, an abnormal state which indicates pathological changes resulting from various causes, often not evident and therefore regarded as internal. Such disease was formerly termed _Oedema_ or _Dropsy_. This disease is frequently due to the excessive watering of pot plants with large root systems and deficient foliage, in hot-houses with a saturated atmosphere: it is, therefore, primarily referable to diminished transpiration. It can sometimes be brought about by covering potato plants, for instance, with a bell-jar in moist, hot weather; and this, and the prevalence of the disease in hot-houses as compared with plants grown out of doors, point to the above explanation. Similar phenomena do occasionally occur out of doors in hot, moist situations or during wet seasons, however, and the watery shoots of rank vegetation are merely particular cases of the same class. Moreover, the well-known tendency to succulence of sea-side varieties of plants which have thin herbaceous leaves when growing inland, points to the action of the environment in these matters, excess of salts being no doubt one factor in such cases. _Rankness_ affords another example where superfluity of water is concerned, though it does not involve simply this, because the plant may also contain excessive quantities of nitrogenous and mineral matters taken up by the roots. Rankness is, in fact, in many respects analogous to etiolation in so far as the tissues are soft and surcharged with water, but it differs fundamentally in the deep green of the chlorophyll: this may lead to abundant assimilation if free access of air and drier conditions can be gradually brought about. Any sudden drying, however, may be fatal to the tender tissues. Rankness commonly depends on excess of food materials, especially nitrogenous manures, as may be seen in meadows and cornfields where the manure heaps have remained on the ground and saturated it to excess as compared with the rest of the soil; this may often be observed with weeds, etc., in the neighbourhood of farm-buildings. If the period of rank growth is accompanied and followed by days of suitably bright sunshine and dry air, the increase of vegetative structures usually results in increased flowering, heavy crops, or strong wood; but if the rankness continues too long, or is accompanied by wet and dull weather, the watery tissues are peculiarly susceptible to attacks of fungi and insects, and to damage by sudden frosts or chilly winds. Rankness affords, in fact, a typical illustration of predisposition to disease. _Damping off._--When seedlings are too closely crowded in beds kept too damp, or in moist weather, they are very apt to rot away, with all the symptoms--spreading from a centre, contagious infection, mycelia on and in the tissues, etc.--of a fungus attack. The commonest agent concerned is one of the species of _Pythium_, the propagation of which is favoured by the rank, over-turgid, and etiolated conditions of the plants. Species of _Mucor_, _Botrytis_, and other fungi, may also be met with. _Bursting_ of fleshy fruits, such as Tomatoes, Grapes, etc., is due to over-turgescence in rainy weather or excessively moist air. But the phenomenon is by no means confined to such organs. Hot-house plants when oedematous not infrequently put out watery blisters from the cortex or leaves, which rupture; and the stems of fleshy fasciated (_e.g._ Asparagus) or blanched and forced plants (_e.g._ Celery, Rhubarb) are particularly apt to crack here and there from the pressure of the turgescent tissues on the strained epidermis. Beets, Turnips, and other fleshy roots show the same phenomena in wet seasons. That these ruptures and exposures of watery tissues afford dangerous points of entry for parasites and moulds will be obvious--_e.g._ _Edelfäule_, a rotten condition of the grapes in the Moselle district. _Root-rot_ is a common disease in damp, sour clay soils after a continuance of wet weather--_e.g._ Wheat, especially if root-drawn and exposed to thaw water. In the disease known as Beet-rot, the roots turn black at the tip, where the tissues shrivel and become grooved and wrinkled extensively. Inside the flesh also blackens and finally rots. In earlier stages, only the vascular bundles are brown and blocked with gum-like substances. In advanced stages there is much gummy material in the lumina, and even large cavities filled with this gum may be found. The rot of Cherries, Pears, Apples, Plums, etc., in store may be due to several fungi, of which _Botrytis_, _Monilia_, _Mucor_, _Penicillium_, and _Aspergillus_ are the chief. The fruit may be attacked while still on the tree, but very often fungi and bacteria gain access to the tissues, through bruises, cracks, etc., formed in the fruit lying in the storage baskets or on the shelves. Rot in Onions, Hyacinth bulbs, etc., is frequently due to the access of _Botrytis_ or _Sclerotinia_, followed by moulds, yeasts, and bacteria in the stores. _Sour-rot_ in Grapes, and other fleshy fruits which need much sun to ripen them, is probably a usual result of continued cold, wet weather at the cropping season, setting in when the fruits are beginning to swell. _Flux._--It is a common event to see fluids of various kinds issuing from wounds in trees, or congealing in more or less solid masses about them; and owing to the prevailing tendency to compare plant diseases with those of animals, we find such expressions as _Gangrene_, _Ulcer_, and so forth, applied to these "open sores." In so far as such outflowings frequently indicate diseased states of injured tissues which are incapable of healing up, the analogy is perhaps a true one; but it must be remembered that very different structures and processes in detail are concerned. Moreover, liquid excretions more or less indicative of diseased states are by no means confined to wounds or definitely injured tissues, in which case such terms are wholly misapplied. _Honey-dew._--The leaves, or other organs, of many plants are sticky in hot weather, owing to the excretion of a sweet liquid containing sugar, the consistency and colour of which vary according to circumstances. This honey-dew must not be confounded with the normal viscidity of certain insectivorous plants--_e.g._ Sundew--or with the sticky secretion on the internodes of species of _Lychnis_, etc., where it plays the part of a protection against minute creeping things. Honey-dew is often met with on Lime trees, Roses, Hops, etc. In many of these cases the honey-dew is excreted by Aphides, which suck the juices of the leaves and pour out the saccharine liquid from their bodies. The sweet fluid is in its turn sought after by ants, and also serves as nutritive material for various epiphytic fungi--_e.g._ sooty mould, _Capnodium_, _Fumago_, and _Antennaria_--which give the leaves and honey-dew a brown or black colour. Certain _Coccideae_ also excrete honey-dew, especially in the tropics. At least one case is known where honey-dew is formed as the result of the parasitic action of a fungus, namely _Claviceps purpurea_ in its conidial stage on the stigmas of cereals, and this may be compared with the sweet odorous fluid excreted by the spermogonia of certain _Aecidia_. In both cases the sweet fluid attracts insects which disperse the spores. Honey-dew may also be formed without the agency of fungi or insects, when hot and dry days are followed by cool nights, with a saturated atmosphere, _e.g._ _Caesalpinia_, _Calliandra_ and other trees in the tropics, which are called rain trees owing to the numerous drops of fluid which drip from the leaves under the abnormally turgescent conditions referred to. _Cuckoo-spit._--The leaves of Willows, Meadow grasses and herbs, etc., are often seen with froth on them, in which is a green insect, _Aphrophora_, which sucks the juices from the tissues and excretes the frothy watery cuckoo-spit from its body. _Slime-flux._--The trunks of trees may sometimes be observed to pour out a slimy fluid from cracks in the bark, or from old wounds, or branch scars. In some cases, _e.g._ in Oaks, the slime has a beery odour and white colour, and abounds in yeasts and other fungi to the fermentative activity of which the odour and frothiness are due. In other cases the slime is red _e.g._--Hornbeam; or brown--_e.g._ Apple and Elm; or black--_e.g._ Beech, the colour in such cases being due to the mixture of yeasts, bacteria, and fungi with which these slimes abound. The phenomenon appears to be due to the exudation of large quantities of sap under pressure--root pressure--and is primarily a normal phenomenon comparable to the bleeding of cut trees in spring: the fungi, etc., are doubtless saprophytes, but their activity is concerned with the putrefactive processes going on in the diseased wood, and which may lead to rotting of the timber. The origin of the wounds in the bark and cortex, and which extend into the wood and other tissues as the putrefactive and fermentative processes increase, appears to be in some cases at least due to lightning. _Resin-flux_ or _Resinosis_.--The stems of Pines and other conifers are apt to exude resin from any cut or wound made by insects, or by the gnawing of other animals; but in many cases the flow is due to fungi, _e.g._ _Peridermium_, the hyphae of which invade the medullary rays and resin canals and thus open the way to an outflow through cracks in the bark. _Agaricus melleus_ not only invades the resin passages, but stimulates the tree to produce abnormal quantities of resin, which flows down to the collar and roots, and exudes in great abundance at the surface of the soil. Various other plants also exude resin from wounds, and in some cases the flux seems to be increased by degeneration of the tissues, _e.g._ _Copaifera_. _Gummosis._--Cherries, Apricots, Acacias, and many other trees are apt to produce abnormal quantities of gum, which flows from any wound or exudes through cracks in the bark. Degeneration of the wood-cells, and especially of the cell-walls of a soft wood formed by abnormal activity of the cambium, points to its origin being due, in some cases at any rate, to a conversion of the cellulose, and fungi are sometimes found in the masses of gum; but beyond the fact that _gummosis_ is a pathological phenomenon we know very little of the disease. With regard to such gumming, it is significant how frequently pruned trees--Cherries, Oranges, Lemons, Plums, etc.--suffer. _Manna flux._--Certain trees, such as the Manna Ash, species of Tamarisk, etc., yield manna from wounds, and in some cases the latter are due to insects, _e.g._ _Cicada_. The Potato-disease is best known by the pale whitish fringe, giving an almost mealy appearance to the margins of the brown to black patches in damp weather. In dry weather the brown patches shrivel and dry, and as they are apt to be at the edges and tips of the leaflets, these curl up. The young disease spots are yellowish, and the leaves of badly affected plants are apt to be sickly yellow throughout. This Potato-disease due to _Phytophthora_ must be distinguished from the curling and puckering, with wilting and browning of the leaves and yellow glassy look of the stems, due to the invasion of the vessels by a fungus which lurks in the tubers, and gains access thence to the shoots. In the disease traceable to _Phytophthora_ the stock remains green and the leaves plump and plane, and only the brown patches slough out in wet or shrivel in dry weather, and are bordered by the pale whitish zone of conidiophores. In the leaf-curl the yellow and flaccid appearance of all the leaves of a stalk, or even of the plant, is the striking symptom, and the stem soon droops and blackens just above the soil, a white mould appearing also at the black spots. Subsequently black spots appear higher up, and bacteria gain an entrance. The stolons rot, and eventually the roots and the leaves wither. The tubers appear sound, but are small; they are apt to rot in the store, the vascular zones turning brown. This leaf-curl has been ascribed to _Pleospora_, _Polydesmus_, _Verticillium_, and other parasites, as well as to excessive manuring and other agencies, but it still needs explanation. Rot of Potato tubers in the soil, or in store, may be brought about by very different agents. If _Phytophthora_ has obtained access, the fungus hyphae spread between the cells, starting from the haulm, and cause the flesh to turn yellowish and then brown in patches. On the exterior are discoloured patches, depressed, with the flesh beneath brown and soft. The mycelium spreads mostly in the outer layers, which though they turn deep brown remain firm. Wet rot of potatoes may be due to various fungi, and, in excess of water, to putrefactive bacteria (_e.g._ _Clostridium_), which destroy the cell-walls. The flesh becomes soft, then soup-like, and finally putrefies to a liquid mass with a vile smell of butyric acid, etc., in which the starch grains may be seen floating. Tubers are often found with the cork burst and peeling in shreds, the flesh more or less converted into a putrid and stinking pulp, with a spotted brown boundary of partly destroyed but firmer tissue between the dark utterly rotten and the white and still firm healthy flesh. The principal agent in the destruction of the tissues is _Clostridium_, an anaerobic bacillus which consumes the cell-walls but leaves the starch intact. Hence a thoroughly decomposed tuber consists of a cork bag full of starch and foetid liquid. In the dried condition the flesh shows a brown marbling; this passes into a soft soupy starchy part, and here and there may be violet grey cavities lined with _Spicaria_, _Hypomyces_, etc., the white stromata of the latter often appearing externally. The excavations are filled with loose starch grains, and bounded by cork and cambium formed in the peripheral cells. The cell-walls eventually undergo slimy decomposition. _Spicaria_, _Fusisporium_, various moulds, and bacteria may all be associated with wet-rot. Dry-rot of Potatoes is also due to various fungi and bacteria, but the destructive action goes on slowly, owing to there being no more moisture than the tissues afford. The flesh becomes excavated here and there, owing to the slow destruction of the cell-walls by _Clostridium_: the destroyed tissues are brown, and the uninjured starch grains powder them all over. Finally the whole shrunken mass has a crumbly consistency. When the flesh remains white, but assumes a powdery consistency and dry-rot, with the cork destroyed here and there, Frank refers the damage to _Phellomyces_. Where the dry-rot is due to _Fusarium_ the chalk-white stromata may often be detected breaking through the periderm; but it must be remembered that the soil-contaminated, broken skin of a potato-tuber is a favourable lurking spot for many fungi, and _Periola_, _Acrostalagmus_, and others have been detected therein. Brown spots, depressed into the flesh, sometimes result from the ravages of _Tylenchus_, the minute worms being found in the diseased tissues. In some cases the flesh turns watery and soft, grey, almost glass-like, starting at the haulm end, and this may be owing to the invasion of _Rhizoctonia_. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXV. The rotting of bulbs, roots, etc., has been much discussed during the last few years in the pages of the _Gardeners' Chronicle_, _Zeitschrift für Pflanzenkh._, and elsewhere. The principal references to Bacteriosis--the rot in which bacteria are stated to be the primary agent causing these and similar diseases--may be found in Massee, _Diseases of Plants_, pp. 338-342, and more fully in Russell, _Bacteria in their Relation to Vegetable Tissue_, Baltimore, 1892; and in Migula, _Kritische Uebersicht derjenigen Pflanzen-krankheiten, welche Angeblich durch Bakterien verursacht werden_, Semarang, 1892. The most convincing accounts, however, are since that date; see Smith, "Pseudomonas Campestris," _Cent. f. Bakt._, B. III., 1897, p. 284, and Arthur and Bolley, _Bacteriosis of Carnations_, Perdue University Agr. Expt. Station, 1896, Vol. VII., p. 17. Woods has lately shown that this disease is due to Aphides only, the bacteria having nothing to do with the disease primarily, _Stigmonose_, _Bull. 19_, U.S. Dept. Agr., 1900; but it is necessary to bear in mind that actual penetration of the cell-walls from without must be proved, as De Bary proved it for germ-tubes of fungi, before the evidence that Bacteria are truly parasitic in living plants can be called decisive. This is a difficult matter, but until it is settled we do not know whether these organisms are really parasitic in the sense that _Phytophthora_ is, or merely gain access by other means--I have traced them through dead fungus-hyphae--to the vessels, dead cell-walls, etc. The proof of infection _via_ water pores and vessels is given for one species by Harding, "Die Schwarze Faulnis der Kohls," etc., _Cent. f. Bakt._, Abh. II., B. VI., 1900, p. 305, with literature. Concerning the "Damping off" of seedlings, see Marshall Ward, "Observations on the Genus Pythium," _Quart. Journ. Microsc. Soc._, Vol. XXIII., 1883, p. 485, and Atkinson, _Bull. 94 of Cornell University Agric. Expt. Station_, 1895, p. 233. On Bacteriosis in Turnips, see Potter, _Proc. R. S._ 1901, Vol. LXVII., p. 442. CHAPTER XXVI. NECROTIC DISEASES. _Patches--Frost-patches--Bruising due to hail, shot, etc.-- Fire--Sun-burn or scorching--Sun-cracks. Dying-back--Frost-- Fungi--Wound fungi--Defoliation by insects--Defoliation by hand--Staghead._ _Necrosis._--This is a general term for cases where the tissues gradually turn brown or black in patches which die and dry up, the dead area sometimes spreading slowly and invading the usually sharply demarcated healthy tissues around. It is a common phenomenon on the more slender stems or branches of trees, especially those with a thin cortex, and the terms _Brand_ or _Scorching_ sometimes applied signify the recognised resemblance between burnt patches and these dead areas of necrotic tissue. Necrosis is often due to frost, which kills the cortex of Pears, Beech, etc., in patches of this kind. The dead cortex and cambium stick to the wood beneath and contract as they dry. The living cambium and cortex around them then begin to push in callus towards the centre of the necrotic area; but since this callus is formed under the pressure of the cortical tissues it does not form a thick lip or margin to the healing wound, as it does in a Canker, but insinuates itself with thinned-off edges between the wood and the dead tissue, or at most traps a little of the latter in the final closing up of the wound. It is easy to see how such an area of Necrosis may become a Canker if the dead tissues split or slough off, and fungi or insects obtain access to the callus at the margins of the area, setting up the disturbances described on p. 222. As matter of fact many Cankers--_e.g._ those of the Larch disease, and those due to _Nectria_, or Aphides, etc.--often begin as flattened or depressed areas of Necrosis started by frost, and many small necrotic patches would eventually become Cankers if not healed up by the callus. Necrosis may also be due to the bruising of the tissues by large hailstones, to gun-shot wounds, or to any form of contusion which kills the living cells of cortex and cambium. Necrosis is a natural and common result of fire, and it frequently happens after forest-fires which have run rapidly through the dry underwood, fanned by steady winds, that the lower parts of the boles are scorched on one side only. The killed cambium and cortex then dry up in black necrotic patches, which may eventually heal up by intrusion of callus from the uninjured parts. _Sun-burn_ or _Scorching_.--If thin-barked trees, such as Hornbeam, Beech, Firs, etc., which have been growing in partial shade owing to dense planting, are suddenly isolated by thinning, the impingement of the sun's rays on the south-west side during the hottest part of summer days may kill the cambium, and produce necrosis of the cortical tissues, and such necrotic patches heal very slowly or not at all, because the dead tissues have contracted so tightly on to the wood below that the callus cannot readily creep between. _Sun-cracks_ are due to intense insolation on the south side of trees in clear weather in early spring, causing the drying and contraction of the wood and its coverings down that side of the tree: the contracted tissues consequently split, as in the case of frost-cracks, the healing up of which is very similar. _Dying-back._--All that is true of the necrosis of cortical tissues in small patches also applies to cases where the whole of the outer tissues of thin twigs and branches die of inanition owing to a premature fall of leaves--_e.g._ after a severe attack of some insect or fungus pest. The consequent arrest of the transpiration current and the proper supply of nutriment to the cambium and cortex explain the phenomena. The younger branches of Coffee trees suffering from severe attacks of leaf-disease are often denuded of leaves and die back from the causes mentioned, the whole of the outer tissues becoming necrotic, and drying up tight on to the wood, because other branches with functionally active leaves on them divert the transpiration current, and drought and inanition supervene. Dying-back is frequently also a direct effect of early frosts, which kill the thin twigs before the "wood is ripened," as gardeners say. Dying-back is also a frequent result of direct frost action on thin watery shoots or "unripe wood," and is apt to occur every year in certain varieties of Roses, for instance, in particular situations, such as "frost-beds," or aspects exposed to cutting winds, and so forth. The necrosis which results may affect all the tissues, or only the cortex and cambium, and the frequent accompaniment of all kinds of saprophytic _Ascomycetes_ and moulds or other fungi is in no way causal to the phenomenon. Dying-back may also be caused by fungi, and not necessarily parasites, for cases are often observed where saprophytes only are to be found in the necrotic tissues of the cortex, having made their way in through minute cracks, lenticels, etc. A simple case is often seen in Chrysanthemums, Roses, etc., chilled and wetted to danger point, but not frozen, during the nights of autumn. The lowered resistance of the chilled tissues enables fungi like _Botrytis cinerea_ to gain a hold, and the peduncles die-back with all the symptoms of Necrosis, the fungus gaining power more and more as its mycelium spreads in the dead tissues. Many other cases are known where wound-fungi, such as _Nectria_, _Cucurbitaria_, _Phoma_, etc., in themselves incapable of true parasitism, gain a hold on the necrotic tissue of a wounded twig, and having laboriously accumulated a vigorous mycelium saprophytically, extend into other parts. In many of these cases the dying-back of the twigs is expedited owing to the mycelium invading the medullary rays and wood vessels, and so obstructing the transpiration current. The much more rapid spread of the hyphae up into the parts thus killed sufficiently indicates the fundamentally saprophytic character of such fungi. Dying-back in all its forms is a common result of defoliation by insects, _e.g._ caterpillars, especially if it occurs when the wood is depleted of reserve materials, and thus cannot supply the auxiliary buds and enable the twigs to clothe themselves with a new flush of foliage, a common danger in Conifers. Any form of defoliation--_e.g._ excessive plucking of tea and mulberry leaves, browsing of animals, etc.--exposes the twigs to the dangers of dying-back, the accessory phenomena being similar to those already described. _Stag-head._--Old trees, though vigorous and in full foliage throughout the crown generally, frequently lose the power of bearing leaves on their topmost branches and twigs, which stand out bare and brown, and fancifully resemble the antlers of a stag: hence the forester's name "stag-head." This "top-dry" condition is frequently due to the removal of litter, or to excessive draining, or to the roots having gradually penetrated into unsuitable soil. The consequence is that some dry summer the drought causes the breakage of the water columns above, and the twigs die back. Tropical trees may also become _stag-headed_ owing to the attacks of _Loranthus_ and other parasites, the portions above the point of attachment dying back from inanition. Cases also occur in the tropics where the _stag-head_ condition is due to the persistent roosting of frugiferous bats--"flying foxes"--which tear the bark and foliage with their claws, and befoul the twigs generally. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXVI. The principal literature as regards frost is given in the works of Frank, Sorauer, and Hartig already referred to. An excellent summary will be found in Hartig's _Diseases of Trees_, p. 282, and in Fisher "Forest Protection," Vol. IV. or Schlich's _Manual_, p. 423. CHAPTER XXVII. MONSTROSITIES AND MALFORMATIONS. _Monstrosities--Teratology--Atrophy of organs--Shanking of grapes--Barren fruit trees--Dwarfing--Distortions and malformations--Fasciations--Flattened roots--Torsions--Curling and puckering--Leaf rolling--So-called "spontaneous" teratological changes._ _Monstrosities._--In a wide sense this term is applicable to many cases here treated under other headings, and signifies any departure from the normal standard of size, form, arrangement, or number of parts, and so forth, due to arrest of growth, excessive growth of parts, or of the whole organs, etc. Such _teratological_ conditions are however by no means always _pathological_: that is to say, they may be variations which do not threaten the existence of the plant. In some cases they are clearly due to exuberant nutrition, and although they may occasionally predispose to disease, in others they show no evidence of doing so. The whole practice of horticulture and agriculture abounds in examples of teratological sports or varieties which are transmissible by seeds, budding and grafting, and other means--_e.g._ double flowers, hypertrophied floral organs (cauliflowers), seedless grapes and oranges, crested ferns, etc.; and even when such varieties could not live as such in a state of nature, there is evidence to show that many of them readily revert to the original seed-bearing or single condition, and adapt themselves to the altered environment. Every part of the plant may exhibit teratological changes, and I shall for the most part select cases in illustration which indicate approach to pathological states, and group with them cases known to be pathological in origin. _Atrophy_ is a common phenomenon denoting dwindling or reductions in size of organs due to insufficient nutrition, or arrest of growth from various causes. Atrophy of leaves is a common result of the attacks of parasitic fungi, even when the latter induce local hypertrophy--_i.e._ excessive growth of particular parts, _e.g._ _Synchytrium_ on Dandelions and Anemones. _Puccinia suaveolens_ causes partial atrophy of the leaves of Thistles, _Aecidium Euphorbiae_ of those of _Euphorbia_. The carpels of Anemone are atrophied in plants attacked by _Aecidium_, and the whole flower is suppressed in Cherries infested with _Exoascus Cerasi_, while other fungi--_e.g._ _Cystopus_, _Exoasci_, etc.--cause atrophy of the seeds, and numerous instances of atrophied grain occur in plants infested with Ustilagineae. Atrophy of the grains of cereals is sometimes due to the direct attack of animals, _e.g._ eel-worms (_Tylenchus_) eat out the grains of Corn; weevils and other beetles (_Curculio_, _Bruchus_, etc.) similarly devour the contents of grain and nuts, the flowers of Peas and Apples, and so forth, inducing atrophy of the parts left. Still more striking cases are afforded by small insects which bore into the halms of cereals, and cause atrophy of the whole ear--_e.g._ _Cephus_ in Wheat and Rye. Barley occasionally withers after flowering, the grain atrophying from no known cause, terms like _consumption_ given to the disease conveying no information. Atrophy of young fruits is commonly due to the flowers not setting--_i.e._ some agent has interfered with the normal transference of the pollen to the stigma. This may be due to excessive rain washing out the pollen (_e.g._ Vine), to a lack of the necessary insects which effect pollination, often seen in greenhouse plants; to the stamens being barren--_e.g._ certain varieties of Vine--or to the premature destruction of the stigmas by frost, as in Cherries, Pears, etc., or by insects, as in Apples, or fungi, _e.g._ the infection of bilberries with _Sclerotinia_; or even by poisonous gases, as is sometimes seen in Wheat, etc., growing near alkali works. Drought is also a common cause of atrophy of young Plums. _Shanking of Grapes_ is a particular case of atrophy and drooping of the immature fruits, due to the supplies being cut off by some agency. It may arise from very various causes which bring about disease in the leaves or roots, and should always be looked upon as a sign of weakness in the Vine, the structure of which is affected, _e.g._ poor wood--or the functions interfered with, _e.g._ water supplies deficient owing to paucity of roots. Barren Apple, Pear, Plum, and other flowers are often found to have been bored through the petals while in bud, and the whole "heart" of the flower eaten out by the grubs of _Anthonomus_, leaving the unopened buds brown and dead, as if killed by frost or drought, and often erroneously supposed to be so. The wilting and shrivelling of Clover is sometimes due to _Sclerotinia_, the mycelium of which pervades the roots and stock, on which the sclerotia may be found. Lucerne is similarly killed in Europe by the barren mycelium of _Leptosphaeria_, which may be found as a purple mat on the roots. _Dwarfing_ consists in partial atrophy of all the organs, and is a common result of starvation in poor, dry, shallow soils, as may often be seen in the case of weeds on walls or in stony places. Dwarfs which are thus developed in consequence of perennial drought are not, however, necessarily diseased, in the more specific sense of the word; their organs are reduced in size proportionally throughout in adaptation to the conditions, and simply carry out their functions on a smaller scale. Dwarfing is frequently a consequence of the lack of food materials, or of some particular ingredient in the soil, and in such cases is a diseased condition of some danger; similar results may ensue in soils containing the necessary chemical elements, but in unavailable forms. Dwarfing may also be brought about by repeated maiming, nipping off the buds, pruning, etc., as in the miniature trees of the Japanese; and the case of trees continually browsed down by cattle, or of moor plants perennially dwarfed by cutting winds, are further illustrations in the same category, as are also those of certain alpine and moraine plants, whose only chance of survival depends on their adapting themselves to the repeated prunings suffered by every young shoot which rises into the cutting winds, since there is no question of lack of food-materials in these cases. The practice of the Japanese is to pinch out the growing tips of the shoots wherever they wish to prune back, and it is by the judicious use of this heading in, and suitable pot-culture, that the dwarfs are made, 6-20 inches high at from 30-80 years old. Dwarfing is often brought about by grafting on a slow-growing stock, and this method is employed in practice, as are also heading in, pruning of roots, and confinement in pots. Dwarfing may also be due to poor or shrivelled--partially atrophied--seeds or such as have had their endosperms or embryos injured by insects or fungi, and although it is possible to nurse such dwarfs into normal and vigorous plants with good culture, they do not usually recover under natural conditions in competition with more vigorous plants. _Distortions_ or _Malformations_ may be defined as abnormalities in the form of organs which concern all, or nearly all the parts, and do not refer merely to swellings or excrescences on them or excavations, etc., in them. _Fasciation._--Shoots of Asparagus, Pine, Ash, and many other plants are occasionally expanded into broad ribbon-like structures often studded with more than the normal number of buds or leaves, etc., such as would be found on the usual cylindrical shoots. Such _fasciations_ are due to several buds fusing laterally under compression when young and the whole mass growing up in common, or, in a few cases, to the unilateral overgrowth of one side of the terminal bud. Fasciations appear to depend on excessive nutrition in rich soils. They may spread out above in a fan-like manner, exaggerating the abnormality, or they may revert to the original form. Some cases are more or less fixed by heredity--_e.g._ _Celosia_. Fasciated stems are frequently curved like a crozier, owing to one edge growing more rapidly than the other. Cauliflowers are really cultivated monstrosities. Fasciated Dandelions, _Crepis_, monstrous Chrysanthemums, peloric _Linaria_, five-leaved Clovers, spiral Teazels, etc., may all, if grown with care, be kept more or less constant in the monstrous state. That is to say, the particular kinds of variation here manifested can be maintained in proportion as the external conditions controlling the variation are maintained. Such conditions are chiefly rich supplies of food-stuffs, plenty of water and air, suitable temperature and lighting, etc. Mutilations, favouring the development of abnormal buds may also induce fasciations. _Torsions_ or spiral twistings of stems also frequently arise among plants grown in rich soils, and are often combined with fasciations--_e.g._ Asparagus, _Dipsacus_; and De Vries has shown that the peculiarity is not only transmissible by seed, but may be more or less fixed by appropriate culture. _Contortions_ of stems are often due to the unequal growth on different sides of the stems owing to the presence of fungi--_e.g._ _Caeoma_ on Pines, _Aecidium_ on Nettles, also _Puccinia_ on petioles of Mallow, _Cystopus_ on inflorescences of _Capsella_, etc. _Distortions_ of roots may be brought about in various ways by the hindrances afforded by stones. _Spiral roots_ occur occasionally in pot plants. _Flattened roots_ usually result from compression between rocks, the young root having penetrated into a crevice, and been compelled to adapt itself later. The distortions of stems by constricting climbers, wire, etc., have been described, and fruits--_e.g._ Gourds--are easily distorted by means of string tied round them when young. Distortions of leaves are very common, and are sometimes teratological--_i.e._ due to no known cause--_e.g._ the pitcher-like or hood-like _cucullate_ leaves of the Lime, Cabbage, _Pelargonium_, etc., and of fused pairs in _Crassula_. Also coherent, bifurcate, crested, displaced and twisted leaves occasionally met with, and in some cases fixed by cultivation, may be placed in this category. _Puckers_ must be distinguished from pustules, since they consist in local upraisings of the whole tissue, not swellings--_e.g._ the yellowish green pockets on Walnut leaves, due to _Phyllereum_. Puckered leaves in which the area of mesophyll between the venation is increased by rising up in an arched or dome-like manner are sometimes brought about by excessive moisture in a confined space. _Leaf-curl_ is a similar deformation caused by fungi, such as _Exoascus_ on Peaches. Wrinkling or puckering of leaves is also a common symptom of the work of Aphides--_e.g._ Hops. Characteristic curling and puckering, with yellow and orange tints, of the terminal leaves of Apples, Pears, etc., are due to insects of the genera _Aphis_, _Psylla_, etc. Small red and yellow spots with puckerings and curlings of the young leaves of Pears, the spots turning darker later on, are due to _Phytoptus_. _Leaf-rolling._--The leaves of Beeches, Poplars, Limes, and many other plants, instead of opening out flat, are often rolled in from the margins, or from the apex, by various species of _Phytoptus_, _Cecidomyia_, or other insects, which puncture or irritate the epidermis in the young stages and so arrest its expansion in proportion to the other tissues. According as the lower or upper surface is attacked the rolling is from the morphologically upper surface downwards, or _vice versa_. Very often the mesophyll is somewhat thickened where rolled and _Erineum_-like hairs may be developed--_e.g._ Lime. Many caterpillars also roll leaves, drawing the margins inward to form shelters--_e.g._ _Tortrix viridana_, the Oak leaf-roller. Certain beetles--_Rhynchitis_--also roll up several leaves to form a shelter in which the eggs are laid. Webs are formed among the mutilated leaves of Apples by the caterpillars of _Hyponomeuta_. It must be borne in mind that instances can be found of teratological change of every organ in the plant--_e.g._ stamens transformed into carpels or into petals; anthers partly polliniferous and partly ovuliferous; ovules producing pollen in their interior, and so on, being simply a few startling examples of what may happen. Such abnormalities are frequently regarded as evidence of internal causes of disease, and this may be true in given cases; in a number of cases investigated, however, it has been shown that external agents of very definite nature bring about just such deformations as those sometimes cited as examples of teratology due to internal causes, and the question is at least an open one whether many other cases will not also fall into this category. The study of galls has shown that insects can induce the formation of not only very extraordinary outgrowths of tissues and organs already in existence, but even of new formations and of tissue elements not found elsewhere in the plant or even in its allies; and Solms' investigations on _Ustilago Treubii_ show that fungi can do the same, and even compel new tissues, which the stimulating effects of the hyphae have driven the plant to develop, to take part in raising and distributing the spores of the fungus--_i.e._ to assume functions for the benefit of the parasite. Molliard has given instances of mites whose irritating presence in flowers causes them to undergo teratological deformations, and Peyritsch has shown that the presence of mites in flowers induces transformations of petals into sepals, stamens into petals. Similarly De Bary, Molliard, Magnus, Mangin, and Giard have given numerous cases of the transformation of floral organs one into another under the irritating action of fungi, of which the transformation of normally unisexual (female) flowers into hermaphrodite ones, by the production of stamens not otherwise found there, are among the most remarkable. These and similar examples suffice to awaken doubts as to whether any teratological change really arises "spontaneously," especially when we learn how slight a mechanical irritation of the growing point may induce changes in the flower; _e.g._ Sachs showed that a sunflower head is profoundly altered by pricking the centre of the torus, and Molliard got double flowers by mechanical irritation. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXVII. For the details and classification of the multitude of facts, the student is referred to Masters' _Vegetable Teratology_, Ray Society, 1869, and the pages of the _Gardeners' Chronicle_ since that date. Concerning torsions, etc., the student should read De Vries, "On Biastrepsis in its Relation to Cultivation," _Ann. of Bot._, Vol. XIII., 1899, p. 395, and "Hybridising of Monstrosities," _Hybrid Conference Report_, _Roy. Hort. Soc._, 1900, Vol. XXIV., p. 69. The reader will find an excellent account of the abnormalities in flowers due to the action of parasitic insects and fungi in Molliard, "Cécidies Florales," _Ann. des Sc. Nat._, Ser. VIII., Bot., T. 1, 1895, p. 67. CHAPTER XXVIII. PROLIFERATIONS. _Proliferations--Vivipary--Prolepsis--Lammas shoots--Dormant buds--Epicormic shoots--Adventitious buds--Apospory and apogamy._ _Proliferation_ consists in the unexpected and abnormal on-growing or budding out of parts--stems, tubers, flowers, fruits, etc.--which in the ordinary course of events would have ceased to grow further or to bear buds or leaf-tufts directly. Thus we do not expect a Strawberry--the swollen floral axis--to bear a tuft of leaves terminally above the achenes, but it occasionally does so, and similarly Pears may be found with a terminal tuft of leaves, Roses with the centre growing out as a shoot, Plantains (_Plantago_) with panicles in place of simple spikes, and so on. We regard such cases as _teratological_, because they are exceptional for the particular species, and as _pathological_ because they appear to be connected with over-feeding in soils with excessive supplies of available food-materials; but it should be noted that conditions quite comparable to proliferation are normal in the inflorescences of Pine-apples, some Myrtaceae, Conifers, etc., and that many instances of proliferations come under the head of injurious actions of fungi, insects, and other agents. _Proliferation_ of tubers is sometimes seen in Potatoes still attached to the parent plant in wet weather following a drought. The eyes grow out into thin stolons, or forthwith into new tubers sessile on the old tuber. Similarly in store we sometimes find the eyes transformed directly into new tubers, and cases occur where the growth of the eye is directed backwards into the softening tuber, and a small potato is formed inside the parent one. Threading is also occasionally met with in the "sets" when ripened too rapidly in hot dry soils. _Vivipary_ is a particular case of proliferation, in a certain sense, where the seeds appear to germinate _in situ_, and we have small plants springing from the flowers, reminding us of wheat which has sprouted in the shocks in damp weather. In reality, however, the grains are here replaced by bulbils which sprout before they separate from the inflorescence. In varieties of _Poa_, _Polygonum_, _Allium_, _Gagea_, etc., this phenomenon is constant in plants growing in damp situations. _Prolepsis._--It frequently happens that branches or whole plants are suddenly defoliated in summer,--_e.g._ by caterpillars or other insects--at a time when considerable stores of reserves had already been accumulated during the period of active assimilation. In such cases the axillary buds, which would normally have passed into a dormant condition over the winter had the leaves lived till the autumn-fall, suddenly shoot out into _proleptic_ shoots (also termed Lammas shoots), and reclothe the tree with foliage. The wood of the year in which this occurs may exhibit a double annual ring, and the vigour of the tree is likely to suffer in the following season and no fruit be matured. Proleptic branches may also be due to the shooting out of accessory buds--_i.e._ extra buds found in or near the leaf-axils of many plants, such as Willow, Maples, _Cercis_, _Robinia_, _Syringa_, _Aristolochia_, etc.--which do not normally come to anything, or do so only if a surplus of food materials is provided. _Dormant buds_, or _preventitious buds_, are such as receive no sufficient supply of water and food materials to enable them to open with the other buds in ordinary years, for in most trees only the upper buds on the branches develop into new shoots. The lower buds do not die, however, but merely keep pace with the growth in thickness of the parent branch, and may be elongated sufficiently each year to raise the minute tips level with the bark, their proper cambium only remaining alive but not thickening the bud. When, by the breaking of the branch above the insertion of the dormant bud--or by pruning, defoliation by insects, etc.--the transpiration current and supplies of food materials are in any way deflected to the minute cambium and growing points of the dormant buds, they are stimulated to normal growth, and may grow out as _epicormic shoots_ or "shoots from the old wood." In many cases such epicormic shoots are stimulated to grow out by suddenly exposing an old tree to more favourable conditions of root-action and assimilatory activity, owing to the felling of competing trees which previously hemmed it in from light and air, and restricted the spread and action of its roots in the soil. This is often seen in old Elms, Limes, etc. It is by such means as the above that substitution branches are obtained when a leader is broken or cut away. _Adventitious buds_ are such as are newly formed from callus or other tissues in places not normally provided with buds, as is often seen on occluding wounds--_e.g._ stool shoots. They may also be developed on roots, a fact utilised in propagating _Bouvardias_, Horse-radish, etc., by means of root-cuttings, and the _suckers_ of Plums and other fruit trees are shoots springing from adventitious buds on roots. Adventitious buds are also common on leaves (_e.g._ _Bryophyllum_, Ferns, etc.), and are frequently induced on them by wounds--_e.g._ _Gesneria_, _Gloxinia_, etc. Even cut cotyledons may develop them, and pieces of leafless inflorescence (Hyacinth), hypocotyl (_Anagallis_), and in fact practically any wounded tissue with a store of reserve materials may be made to develop them: thus they have been found arising from the pith of Sea-kale, and are commonly developed from the cut bulb scales of Hyacinths. _Apospory_ and _Apogamy_ are particular cases of the production of vegetative buds on the leaves in place of sporangia in Ferns (Apospory), and on prothallia in place of Archegonia (Apogamy), in the latter case induced by dry conditions and strong illumination. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXVIII. In addition to the literature quoted in the notes to Chapter XXVII., the student should consult the works on Forest Botany for the scattered information regarding adventitious buds. A good account may be found in Büsgen, _Bau und Leben unserer Waldbäume_, Jena, 1897. For Apospory and Apogamy, see Lang "On Apogamy and the Development of Sporangia upon Fern Prothalli," _Phil. Trans._, vol. 190, 1898, p. 187, where the literature is collected. CHAPTER XXIX. GRAFTS. _Grafting--Comparison with cuttings--Effects of environment-- Relations between scion and stock--Variation in grafts-- Grafting and parasitism--Infection--Pollination--Grafts-hybrids --Predisposition of Natural grafts--Root-fusions._ Grafting is a process which consists in bringing the cambium of a shoot of one plant into direct union with that of another, and is practised in various ways, the commonest of which is as follows: One plant--the _stock_--rooted in the ground, is cut off a short distance above the surface of the soil, and a shoot from the second plant--the _scion_--cut off obliquely with a sharp knife, is inserted into a cleft in the stock, so that the two cambiums (and sometimes the cortex and pith of each as well) are in close contact: the scion is then tied in position, the wounds covered with grafting wax, and the whole left until union of the tissues is completed. This union depends on the formation of _callus_ at the cut surfaces, and the intimate union of the ingrowing cells from each callus. The development of the callus follows the course described for wounds, cuttings, etc., and the union is exactly comparable to the union of the two lips of a healing callus over a wound (see p. 197). Grafting was known and practised far back in the ages. Virgil was well acquainted with the process, and Theophrastus compared it with propagation by cuttings. The scion differs from a cutting, however, in having no roots of its own: it is parasitic upon, or rather is in symbiosis with the stock, the root and tissues of which intervene between it and the soil. Consequently the selective absorption, size and number of vessels, and innumerable other physiological and anatomical peculiarities of the stock determine what and how much shall go up into the scion, while the latter supplies the former with organic materials and rules what and how much food, enzymes, and other secretions, etc., it shall receive to build up its substance. Surely, then, if such factors as the nature of the soil, the water and mineral supplies, the illumination, and the various climatic factors of altitude can cause variations on a plant direct, these and other factors are still more likely to be effective on stock and scion, and each must affect the other. Nevertheless opinions have differed much as to whether any important effect is to be seen, and on no point more than on whether the scion can affect the stock, in spite of such examples as _Cytisus Adami_, _Garreya_ on _Aucuba_, Sunflower on Jerusalem Artichoke, etc. Recent results, especially of experiments with herbaceous plants, show that not only can the stock affect the scion (and _vice versa_) directly, but the effect of the changes may be invisible on the grafted plant and only show itself in the progeny raised from the seed of the grafted plant. In other words, variation occurs in grafts either _directly_, as the results of the effects of the environment on the graft, or owing to the interaction of scion and stock, showing as changes in general nutrition in the tissues concerned, etc., owing to special reactions of the protoplasm of the uniting cells one on the other, and of the results of the further protoplasmic secretions, sortings, and so forth, on the cells developed as descendants of these in the further growth of the graft: or _indirectly_, in that some of these changes so alter the nature of the special protoplasm put aside for reproductive purposes, that the resulting embryo in the seed transmits the effects, and they show as variations in the seedling. If these results are confirmed they should meet all objections that have been urged against the transmission of acquired characters. In fact there are analogies between grafting and parasitism which cannot be overlooked, and should not be underestimated, their commonest expression appearing in the alterations in stature, habit, period of ripening, and so forth. These analogies are easily apprehended when we compare parasites like the Mistletoe, _Loranthus_, or even such root-parasites as the Broom-rapes and the Rhinanthoideae with grafts; but they also exist in the case of many fungus-parasites, and we might almost as accurately speak of _grafting_ some fungi on their hosts as of _infecting_ the latter with them, especially when it is borne in mind that the effect of the scion on the stock is by no means always to the benefit of the latter, and that there are reasons for regarding the action of some such unions as that of a sort of slow poisoning of the stock by the scion. Why do we not here say that the stock has been _infected_ by the scion? The resemblances between pollination and the infection by fungus hyphae may also be insisted upon. If we take into account Darwin's remarkable experiments showing that in "illegitimate unions" the pollen exerts a sort of poisonous action on the stigmas or ovules, it is possible to arrange a series of cases starting with perfectly legitimate pollinations where the pollen tube feeds as it descends the style on materials provided by the cells, and proceeding to cases where the pollen is more and more merely just able to penetrate the ovary and reach the ovules, to the extreme cases where no union at all is possible. Side by side with such series could be arranged analogous cases where fungus spores can enter and infect the cells of the host, and live symbiotically with or even in them, or can penetrate only with difficulty, or with poisonous effects, and finally cannot infect the plant at all. Less obviously, but nevertheless existing, are gradations in grafting to be observed, where one and the same stock may be successfully combined with a scion which improves it--or which is improved by it--or the scion may unite but acts injuriously on it, or, finally, cannot be induced to unite. But we may go further than this in these comparisons. Just as the results of pollination frequently induce far-reaching effects on distant tissues--_e.g._ the swelling of Orchid ovaries, and rapid fading of the floral organs--so also the effects of hyphae in the tissues may induce hypertrophies, deflection of nutrient materials, and the atrophy of distant parts--_e.g._ the curious phenomena observed in _Euphorbia_ attacked by _Uromyces_--and some of the distant actions in grafts may be compared similarly. Going still further, we may compare the effects of cross-breeding or of hybridisation, where the _progeny_ show that changes have resulted from the mutual interactions and reactions of the commingled protoplasm, with Daniel's results, in which he obtains proof of such interactions of the commingled protoplasmic cell-contents of grafts in the seedling progeny; although there is no probability--we may even say possibility--in this latter case that the effects are due to nuclear fusions, but only that the germ-plasm of the seed-bearing plant has been affected by the changes in the cell-protoplasm which nourishes it when the reproductive cells are forming. In the case of graft-hybrids the matter appears to be somewhat different, and we may well suppose, with Strasburger, that the commingling of characters observed in flowers, fruits, foliage, etc., on shoots borne after grafting are due to the occurrence of nuclear fusions during the union of the grafted tissues; though it is by no means impossible that what has really happened is profound alterations in the nuclear substance (germ-plasm) owing to its being nourished by cell-protoplasm (somato-plasm) which has been itself affected by the interchanges of substance between scion and stock, and therefore itself furnishes a different nutrient medium from the unaltered cytoplasm of either. But even here we can find parallels among the ordinary phenomena of plant reproduction. Maize plants with white endosperm containing starch, if crossed by pollen from other plants with purple endosperm containing sugar, bear seeds with purple endosperm containing sugar, and such _Xenia_ may be compared to graft-hybrids in many respects. I know of no case among fungus infections which could be compared directly with these examples, and it is not at all likely that we shall meet with any instance of a fungus-hypha handing over nuclear substance to an egg-cell, and so affecting the latter that an embryo results. But the case is not hypothetically impossible, although the distant relationships of the two groups of organisms render it extremely improbable among the higher plants. It is by no means so improbable, however, that further research may show cases where the egg-cell of a lower cryptogam--_e.g._ another fungus--may be affected either directly, or indirectly, by the protoplasm of a parasitic or symbiotic hypha, as suggested by the extraordinary phenomena of symbiosis. Some of the variations in grafted plants are found to predispose the plant to disease, or the reverse, and cases may be cited where the resulting shoots, foliage, or fruits, or seedlings more readily fall a prey to, or resist, parasitic fungi and insects than the ungrafted plants. Daniel gives instances of such--_e.g._ among other examples, Peas grafted on Beans yield seeds which suffer more from Erysipheae than the normal seedlings. But the best known cases are those of Vines in their relations to _Phylloxera_, already referred to (p. 155). Several instances are also known where grafted plants show more or less resistance to such factors of the environment as low temperatures; grafted or budded Roses often suffer much from Erysipheae, and so forth. Much research is still needed to determine how far these matters depend on real alterations in the nature of the graft, or _are only true for the localities in which the experiments have been made_, a point which has, I think, been overlooked by all observers. Grafted plants are apparently very much exposed to injury by slugs, insects, and the invasions of parasites during the healing of the callus and the fusion process. Here again it must not be overlooked that the callus is, so to speak, a tit-bit of luscious, thin-walled, succulent tissue; and, like all wounds, the graft affords entrance to parasites such as _Nectria_ and Ascomycetes of various kinds, under circumstances very favourable to their invasion. _Natural Grafts._--It is by no means an uncommon event to find the branches of Beeches, Limes, and other trees which have been accidentally brought into contact during growth, joined where they cross. As they press one against the other, they become naturally grafted, by that form of the process known as _inarching_: except that in artificial inarching the operator cuts off the cortical tissues of the two branches and brings their cambial surfaces together, whereas in nature the cambiums only come into contact after the destruction by pressure, or slight abrasion, of the entrapped intervening tissues. The fusion occurs, in fact, exactly as in the burying-in of a nail or wire, referred to on p. 211. Natural grafts are very common among the roots of trees, and possibly explain some queer cases of the apparent revivification of stumps of trees not usually given to forming abundant stool shoots. It is regarded as probable in some old forests that the majority of the roots of trees of the same species are linked up together by such natural grafts, a probability not diminished by the fact that such roots cross at many points, and are easily grafted. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXIX. The student should read Bailey, _The Nursery Book_, 1896, for details regarding the practice of grafting, and facts in abundance can be obtained from the pages of the _Gardeners' Chronicle_. Concerning graft-hybrids and the variations of grafted plants see Jouin, _Can Hybrids be obtained by Grafting?_ and especially Daniel, "La Variation dans la Greffe," in _Ann. des Sc. Naturelles_, S. VIII., Vol. 8, 1898, p. 1, and the literature there collected. The whole subject is largely controversial, and much work remains to be done. CHAPTER XXX. LIFE AND DEATH. _Protoplasm--Hypothesis as to its structure and behaviour-- Assimilation--Growth--Respiration--Metabolism--Action of the environment--Nuclear protoplasm--Pollination--Grafting-- Parasitism--Graft-hybrids--Life--Death--Variation--Disease._ We have seen that all the essential phenomena of disease concern only the living substance--the protoplasm--of the plant, and that however complex the symptoms of disease may be, the occurrence of discolorations, lesions, hypertrophies, and so forth are all secondary matters subsidiary to the fundamental alterations of structure and function constituting the disease. It remains to see if we can adopt any hypothesis as to the nature of this physical basis of life--the protoplasm--which shall help us to understand still more clearly in what must reside those processes which, so long as they proceed harmoniously and uninterruptedly, constitute life and health, and which when interfered with result in disease and death. The protoplasm of the living plant-cell looks like a slimy translucent mass which has been superficially compared in appearance to well-boiled sago or clear gum. Fifty years of observations and experiments with it have convinced physiologists that it is not a mere solution or emulsion, however, or even a chemical compound in the ordinary sense of the term, although chemical analysis gets little out of it beyond water, proteids, carbohydrates and fats, and traces of certain mineral salts; for living protoplasm does not respond to the laws of physics and mechanics in obeying them, simply as do ordinary solutions and liquids. On the other hand, the most delicate chemical manipulation fails us, because when killed it is no longer protoplasm. Nor does the microscope advance matters far, beyond convincing us that this marvellous material must have a structure far more intimate than anything visible to the highest magnifying powers at our disposal. Nevertheless, some information is forthcoming from the comparative examination of the protoplasm of numerous different kinds of organisms, for we have learnt that certain ingredients and no others are necessary for its composition--namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium[Note: See note at end of chapter.], magnesium, potassium--and it is as a rule of no use trying to foist on to it any substitute for any one of these. Moreover, these chemical elements must be given in certain definite proportions and forms: for instance it is of no use to offer the carbon and sulphur in such a form as carbon disulphide, or the nitrogen and hydrogen in that of hydrocyanic acid, but the carbon must be given to the protoplasm in the form of a carbohydrate or in some similar form, the nitrogen as an ammonium salt, nitrate or proteid, the sulphur as a sulphate, and so forth, and thus water, air, carbohydrates, and the nitrates, sulphates, and phosphates of potassium, calcium, and magnesium become the chief natural sources of the essential ingredients. Again, we have learnt that while there are different forms of protoplasm in the cell, and that these react on each other, and go through cycles of arrangement and rearrangements, the intimate structure must be of that kind termed molecular--beyond the region of vision, just as is the microscopic structure of a crystal; but, while like the latter affording evidence of order and sequence when properly examined, the structural arrangements and changes must be infinitely more complex. All these, and numerous other results of enquiry, have led to the conclusions that we must regard living protoplasm as a complex made up of very large molecular units, each containing atom-groupings of the elements named; and, partly on account of the large number of atoms they contain, and partly due to the vibrations of absorbed heat, these units must be extremely labile. Moreover, they are linked up into an invisible and intricate meshwork, bathed in a watery liquid held in the interstices somewhat as water is held in a sponge. In this imbibed liquid are dissolved the substances, consisting of the same elements, which are to serve as food, and which are to be taken up into the molecular framework and built up into the structure of new molecular units--or, as they may be shortly termed, molecules of protoplasm: in the bathing liquid are also dispersed the fragments--again containing the elements named--which have resulted from the breaking asunder of some of the complex protoplasm molecules, and which are partly destined to be used up again, partly to be burnt off in respiration, and partly to be put aside as metabolic products such as reserves, secretions, permanent structure, etc. Among the elements carried into this liquid and dissolved in it the free oxygen of the air also plays an important part. As new molecules are formed, by mutual combinations of the food-materials selected by molecular attractions, they are taken up into the protoplasmic framework, and built in between those already in existence, thus distending the whole, and we say that the protoplasm _Assimilates_ food-materials and _Grows_. When distended beyond a given degree, or disturbed in various other ways, the molecular framework breaks, and some of the molecules are shattered, and as they fall to pieces certain of their constituent parts containing carbon and hydrogen forcibly combine at the moment of liberation with the oxygen in the fluid around and are burnt off in the form of carbon-dioxide and water, heat being of course evolved. This is the fundamental process of _Respiration_. It is probably the alternation of these processes of _Assimilation_--the building up into the protoplasmic structure of new complex labile molecules--and _Destruction_--the shattering of such molecules with redistribution, oxidation, etc., of their fragments--which constitute the fundamental process of life. Different authorities attempt to explain the details of these processes in various ways, but there is practical agreement on the one point, that life consists in the alternate building up of new protoplasm from the food-materials--_Assimilation_--and the breaking down of the molecular complexes to simpler ones--_Disintegration_, or _Dis-assimilation_, as we may call it. During the periods when assimilation prevails, and the protoplasm increases in mass, we recognise _Growth_, and since this is usually associated with the vigorous imbibition of water, owing to the powerful osmotic attractions for that liquid exhibited by some of the products, and with consequent further stretching of the invisible molecular plexus, the growth may be so evident in increased size, that we are accustomed to look upon the visible increase in volume alone as growth; but it is essential to understand that growth of the protoplasm is always proceeding during life, even when as many older molecules are being shattered and dispersed as new ones are being formed by assimilation, and when, therefore, no visible permanent enlargement occurs. Similarly, during periods when disintegration of the molecules prevails, we must not assume that the assimilation of new molecules is not occurring and that growth is not proceeding. The two processes are always going on during the active life of the protoplasm: in fact life consists in the play of these processes, as already said. That numerous chemical rearrangements of the atom-complexes take place outside the protoplasmic molecules--both of those left unemployed in assimilation and of those rejected during the destructive processes--will be readily understood: many of the bye-products found in plants, such as vegetable acids, alkaloids, colouring matters, crystalline bodies, etc., etc., are due to these, so to speak, fortuitous combinations and re-combinations. The part played by respiration has often been misunderstood. It consists in the burning off of some of the carbon and hydrogen of the shattered protoplasm molecules, by means of the oxygen of the air, which finds its way into the fluids around the protoplasm, and when it is active every act of combustion--which is here an explosion--leads to the shattering of more protoplasm molecules, and consequently to more respiratory combustion of the products. If the supply of oxygen is limited the breaking down of the molecules of protoplasm does not cease, but the carbon and hydrogen which would otherwise have been oxidised are now in part left to form other compounds in the surrounding liquid, and thus incompletely oxidised bodies, such as vegetable acids, alcohols, etc., accumulate. Even in the complete absence of atmospheric oxygen the protoplasm may go on breaking down and accumulating various compounds containing relatively much carbon and hydrogen--so-called intramolecular respiration; but in ordinary plants this process soon comes to an end, because the blocking up of the molecular plexus leads to obstruction and interferes with the normal assimilation and dis-assimilation, and, if prolonged, leads to pathological conditions, and eventually death. Here, then, we meet with a cause of disease, or of predisposition to disease. The deprivation of oxygen interferes with the normal processes of building up and breaking down of the protoplasmic molecules, and bodies we term poisonous accumulate and may lower the vitality or even bring life to an end. During normal life other products of the disruption of the protoplasm molecules are nitrogenous bodies, such as proteids, and these we have reason to believe are used up again, acting as the nuclei, so to speak, of the new molecules, and so being built up again with fresh food-materials into the plexus, to be again set free, and again used up, and so on. Others are the carbohydrates, such as cellulose, which pass out of the molecule into an insoluble form, and are accumulated outside the protoplasm in the form of cellulose membranes, and so forth. It is these formed products of metabolism (Metabolites), especially cellulose and bodies which result from its subsequent transformation, which constitute the main permanent mass of the ordinary plant. We are now in a position to see how another fundamental cause of disease or predisposition to disease exists in the deprivation of the protoplasm of any of the elements needed to supply--in the food-materials--the place of those which have been permanently put aside in the form of cell-walls, or burnt off in respiration, passed out as excretions, or in other ways lost. It is clear that the indispensability of an element must mean that the protoplasmic molecule cannot be completed without it: the same conclusion is supported by the experimental proof that these elements cannot be replaced by chemically similar elements. It does not follow, however, that the protoplasm molecule must always have the same number of atoms of these elements, and grouped always in the same atom-complexes before being assimilated; nor that the protoplasm molecule, when once built up, always breaks down in exactly the same way. On the contrary, while the protoplasm of corresponding parts of a daisy and of a rose must contain all the elements named, we must believe that the atom groupings are different in the protoplasm molecule in each case; and though the molecules of the cell-protoplasm, of the nucleus, of the chlorophyll-corpuscles, etc., of one and the same plant must have all these elements, the atom groupings and modes of building up and breaking down may be very different in each case. Again, the cell-protoplasm, bathed by the sap taken in by roots from the soil or fed directly by that derived from the leaves, must be exposed to very different stimuli and modes of nourishment, etc., from those incurred by the protoplasm of the nucleus which it encloses: and similar conclusions must apply in turn to the protoplasm of the root in the dark moist soil and of the leaf in the light dry air, or to that of the superficial epidermis cells as contrasted with that of the deeply immersed pith, and so on. It is no doubt in these directions that we must seek for the explanation of many life-phenomena at present quite beyond explanation. Thus, it is tolerably easy to modify the action of the cell-protoplasm of a plant, by exposing it to differences of illumination, temperature, moisture, and so forth, within certain limits; at least, since the changes in stature, tissue differentiation, cell-secretions, flowering capacity, etc., of plants affected by such factors of the environment--_e.g._ alpine plants brought into the plains--_must_ be due to changes in the mode of activity of the protoplasm, we must assume that the above factors affect the latter. But it is extremely difficult to reach the nuclear-protoplasm directly by such stimuli, as proved by the experience that even where we allow the factors to act for a long time, no permanent change can be detected in the behaviour of the nuclear-protoplasm--the essential material in the reproductive organs and reproductive process. At least we must infer that no change has been permanently stamped on this nucleo-plasm from such facts as the characters of the seedlings of the progeny of the plain-raised plants: if they are again sown in an alpine situation they forthwith behave again as alpines. Must we not conclude, then, that this difficulty of reaching the nuclear-protoplasm is owing to the fact that it is nourished and influenced directly only by the cell-protoplasm? That the cell-protoplasm is its environment, and not so directly the outer world? We may influence the cell-protoplasm--we may make it work harder or less actively, respire vigorously or slowly, build up and break down in various different ways, or at different rates, and so forth, _within limits_; but it is nevertheless cell-protoplasm of its specific kind, with its own range of molecular variations and activities within these limits, and it supplies the nuclear-protoplasm with what it wants so long as these limits are not exceeded. Consequently, while it is very easy to make the cell-protoplasm vary within the limits of its range, it is not easy to induce it to vary its effects on the nuclear-protoplasm to such an extent or in such a way that the latter is permanently or materially altered in constitution. Nevertheless it would appear that cases do occur where the nuclear-protoplasm _is_ reached and affected by external stimuli, as evinced by some of the phenomena of hybridisation and of cross-and self-fertilisation, because we find the results expressed in the mingling of the characters of parents, in strengthened or enfeebled progeny, and even in the appearance of unexpected properties, which, from the facts of Reproduction, we know must have taken their origin in some alteration of the nuclear substance of the embryo. Here, however, we know in most cases that the principal agent which has reached the nuclear-protoplasm, is another portion of nuclear-protoplasm. In hybridisation, one which has been fed and influenced by cell-protoplasm of a very different plant; in cross-fertilisation, one fed and influenced by the cell-protoplasm of a different plant of the same species, and in self-fertilisation, one fed and influenced by the same cell-protoplasm. That somewhere, and somehow, such nuclear-protoplasm as induces the changes in the characters of hybrids, etc., has been influenced by its immediate environment--the cell-protoplasm of the plant--appears to be a conclusion from which there is no escape. We may obtain similar evidence from the experience of grafting. It is relatively easy to influence the cell-protoplasm of a scion by a suitable stock, obviously because the latter, while handing on to the former all necessary materials from the soil, presents the indispensable elements and compounds in somewhat different proportions, dilutions, etc., from those which its own roots would have done, and probably mingles with them a certain amount of its own peculiar products, as well as affects the modes of working and interaction of both by the molecular impetus impressed on them. Consequently the cell-protoplasm of the scion, while obtaining from the stock all it needs within the limits of its own variations of structure and activity, nevertheless builds up and breaks down in ways or at rates slightly different from those hitherto normal to it, and perceptible variations result when the sequences and correlations of these material and mechanical changes have affected a sufficiently large mass for the accumulation of visible effects. The limits to grafting suggest not that an inappropriate stock does not offer to the protoplasm of the scion the right materials, but that it presents them in proportions and in forms which are unsuitable for the assimilable powers of the latter, or, possibly, mingled with substances poisonous in themselves or capable of becoming so in conjunction with bodies in the scion. What has been said of the action of stock on scion, will also be true, _mutatis mutandis_, of the reciprocal action of scion on stock. Here again we may have causes for disease, or predisposition to disease. It occasionally happens, however, that the nuclear protoplasm of the stock or scion _is_ affected in grafting, and we infer from the difficulty of modifying it in any other way in ordinary reproduction than by means of other nuclear protoplasm--_e.g._ in hybridisation--that in such cases a fusion of the nuclei of stock and scion has occurred during the grafting, and a graft-hybrid has resulted--_e.g._ _Cytisus Adami_. It is not impossible however that the nuclear protoplasm has in such graft-hybrids been subsequently modified by the differences in nutrition to which it has been subjected, in the modified cell-protoplasm affected by the mingling of the juices, etc., of scion and stock; for it is quite conceivable that such materials may affect the protoplasm far more profoundly than anything derived directly from the environment. If Daniel's researches are confirmed, however, it appears that in some cases, at any rate, the nuclear-protoplasm is so altered by the grafting that when the new embryo is developed, after fusion with nuclear substance from another plant of the same species, the results are apparent only in the progeny, and _the effects of alteration in the cell-protoplasm have been transmitted to the nuclear protoplasm of the germ-cells_--_i.e._ acquired characters have been transmitted and fixed by heredity. Should this prove true the importance of the results can hardly be over-estimated. The matter is too problematical for further discussion here, but we see that any such action may profoundly affect the "constitution" of the resulting plant. Turning now to the case of fungi or other organisms which obtain access to the cell-protoplasm. At the one extreme we have cases where the protoplasm of the diseased plant is rapidly and directly poisoned and destroyed, as in the killing off of seedlings in "Damping Off": near the other extreme we have cases where the foreign protoplasm of the parasite, although it gains complete access to that of the host, merely stimulates the latter to greater activity and itself works for its own ends in conjunction with it--_e.g._ _Plasmodiophora_. In such instances we must figure to ourselves the cells of the root of the Crucifer handing on food-materials to both masses of protoplasm--that of the _Plasmodiophora_ and that of the cell into which it penetrates; and it is immaterial whether both obtain the food-materials directly, or, what seems more likely, the fungus only at second hand and by the medium of the host's protoplasm. In any case, the latter is for a long time at least not poisoned or maimed, or in any perceptible way injured by excreta from the fungus-protoplasm, although it is evident that each must excrete various metabolites which may soak into and be taken up by the other: on the contrary the host-protoplasm grows larger, attracts more food supplies, makes larger cells, and is evidently stimulated to greater activity for the time being, its behaviour reminding us of the stimulation of cells by means of slight doses of poison referred to previously. We must therefore assume that the general course of building up and breaking down of its protoplasm-molecules go on as usual--or nearly so--in both the host cell and the invader; and that the assimilatory, respiratory, excretory and other functions are carried on in the former as in the normal cell, or are but slightly modified to an extent which does no immediate injury to its life. But we must further assume that the same is also true of the invading protoplasm, and that the _Plasmodiophora_ is also supplied with suitable atom-complexes to build up its protoplasm molecules, as fast as they are shattered and the rejecta burnt off in respiration. A step further, and we come to instances of _Symbiosis_, where the commingled masses of protoplasm of host and invader continue this harmonious action during life. Clearly there are resemblances between these latter cases and successful grafts, and between both and successful sexual unions where the resulting embryo-cell gives rises to a vigorous and healthy plant; and the more these resemblances are examined in the light of what we know of symbiosis the more they support our contention. Such considerations as the foregoing suggest, then, that life consists in the regular and progressive building up and breaking down of the complex protoplasm molecules, and is necessarily accompanied by the influx of the indispensable food-elements in certain combinations and atom-complexes for assimilation, and by the combustion of some of the débris of the shattered molecules, which combine with the oxygen in respiration and so afford explosions which raise the temperature and enhance the lability of existing molecules, and act as stimuli to the shattering of further molecules. The results of these rhythmical buildings up (assimilation) and shatterings (dis-assimilation) of the protoplasm molecules are the growth of the protoplasm, with further intercalations of water and new food-supplies, etc., on the one hand, and the formation of metabolic products (proteids, cellulose, sugars, fats, etc.), some of which are again used up, others respired, others deposited as stores, cell-walls, etc., on the other. That the building-up process depends on the action of molecular forces comparable to those by which a growing crystal goes on selecting atom-complexes of its particular kind from the solution around seems highly probable, and this being the case we can understand how under certain circumstances _substitutive_ selections may occur. That is to say, just as a crystal will sometimes build up into its structure atom-complexes of a kind different from its normal molecules, so, given the proper conditions, a protoplasmic molecular unit will build up into its structure atom-complexes somewhat different from those it had hitherto taken up--_i.e._ assimilated--with consequent modifications of its behaviour. If this occurs, the modes of further building up and breaking down will be affected by the subsequent action of these slightly modified protoplasm units, _and it may well be that the whole significance of variation turns on this_. Whether the resulting variation makes for the welfare or otherwise of the organism will then be decided by the struggle for existence, and the natural selection which ensues. Such a view also implies that the energy concerned is primarily what is usually termed chemical energy, and that every compound entering into the protoplasm carries in a supply of this, available in various ways. _Death_, on the contrary, is the cessation of these rhythmical processes of building up and breaking down of the protoplasm molecules. It does not imply the cessation of chemical changes of other kinds, but that these rhythmical constructions of the complex and labile protoplasm molecules breaking down on stimulation to bodies partly re-assimilable, partly combustible in respiration, and partly excretory, etc., have ceased, and that further chemical changes in the material are thenceforth simpler and different in kind and degree, eventually leading to total disintegration so that no units are left capable of restoring the rhythm. If these ideas are correct, we may define _Disease_ as dangerous disturbances in the regularity, or interference with the completeness or range of the molecular activities constituting normal Life--_i.e._ Health--and it is evident that every degree of transition may be realised between the two extremes. Now, if we further assume, as I think we must do, that a considerable range or "play" must exist in the molecular activities of the protoplasm constituting life, we obtain a sort of expression of what we mean by limits of variation. The fact that life can go on in a given plant at temperatures between from 1°-5° and 35°-40° C., or in lights of different intensity, or within considerable ranges of water supply, concentration of salts, partial pressure of oxygen, etc., implies that the molecular activities of the protoplasm are of the normal _kind_ all the time, though they may differ in rapidity, and even in _quantitative_ and _qualitative_ respects within certain limits; and the meaning of the _optimum_ temperature, illumination, oxygen pressure, etc., is, from this point of view, not that the molecular activities differ in kind from those nearer the minima and maxima, so much as that they are running at the best rates for the welfare of the plant--_i.e._ for permanent health. If we transcend the cardinal points limiting the range of this play, however, and we get variations in the _kind_ as well as _rates_ of molecular constructions and disruptions, then we pass by imperceptible gradations into ill-health--_i.e._ _Disease_. And similarly in relation to other protoplasm. That of the right kind of pollen grain from another plant of its own species, stimulates the contents of the ovule to produce a vigorous embryo and healthy seedling: that of a similar pollen grain in its own flower either does no positive harm, but has a feebler effect, or it may act like a poison. That of another pollen grain again may refuse to unite at all; while that of a fungus hypha--_e.g._ of _Sclerotinia_ on _Vaccinium_--may run down the style as does the pollen tube and produce death and destruction throughout the ovule. Or again, in Clover, we may have the hypha of a _Botrytis_ with its protoplasm unable to do more than penetrate into the cellulose walls and diffuse a poison into the adjacent cells, being utterly incapable of directly facing, or mingling with the living protoplasm of such cells, whereas the protoplasm of another organism--_e.g._ _Rhizobium_--will penetrate directly into the cells, live in them for weeks or months without injury--nay even with advantage to their life. And hundreds of similar cases can be selected. We may, therefore, conclude that _Variation_ depends fundamentally on alterations in the structure or mode of building up and disintegration of the protoplasmic molecular unit, brought about either by direct modifying action of the inorganic environment--nutrition, temperature, oxygen supply, light, etc., etc.--or by the mingling with it of other protoplasm, the molecules of which since they have already a slightly different composition, configuration, mode of breaking down and building up, etc., affect its molecules by supplying them with altered nutritive atom-complexes, by competing with them for oxygen, etc., etc. Once these molecules are affected, we must assume that long sequences of other chemical and molecular changes will be also modified; and although we have no conception of _how_ these changes bring about changes in form, that they do so is only a conclusion of the same order as that which we hold regarding the much simpler changes concerned in the formation of crystals. That such variations may be of every degree as regards profundity, permanence, kind, etc., may well be imagined; and there is nothing surprising in our being able to induce them more easily by the action of external factors _in the readily accessible cell-protoplasm_ than in the _less exposed nuclear-protoplasm_; because the latter is only accessible through the former, or through the agency of _other nuclear protoplasm already modified_. On these and similar phenomena depend the relative permanency and transmissibility of the variations. Our measure of the latter only begins when the effects referred to have become manifest in large masses of cells, because only then do they become appreciable to our senses. Further, variations thus induced may be of advantage to the continued life of the plant, or in all degrees disadvantageous or threatening to its existence. These latter variations are _Disease_, and if their interference with the normal rhythmical play of the building up and breaking down of the protoplasm molecules proceeds beyond certain limits, life ceases, and we have death supervening on disease. NOTES TO CHAPTER XXX. It appears probable that calcium is not always needed by living cells, and may not enter into the composition of protoplasm; on the other hand traces of iron are perhaps necessary. The criticisms and summary of facts on which the hypothesis regarding protoplasm here adopted is based are developed at length in Kassowitz, _Allgemeine Biologie_, Wien, 1899, B. I. and II., where the collected literature may be found, and the reader introduced to the huge mass of controversial writings put forward since Darwin and associated with the names of Weismann and others. It will probably be noticed that I have employed the term molecular unit of protoplasm, and have not discussed the question of organised structure in the latter: this is because it seems clear to me that living protoplasm as such does not possess "organised structure" in the true sense of that term--it is, rather, busy preparing and making "organised structure," and a molecular constitution would have to be ascribed to all "physiological units" of the nature of micellæ, pangens, ids, etc., as truly as to the structural units of a starch-grain or cell-wall, or even of a crystal. In this connection, the student will find the necessary points of view put forward in Pfeffer, _Physiology_, pp. 37-83. INDEX. Absorption by roots, 49. Absorption of energy, 23. Absorption of light, 27. Absorption of water, 50. _Abutilon_, 183. _Acarus_, 88. Accessory buds, 259. _Acer_, 214. Acid gases, 181, 191. Acids, 130, 136. Acquired characters, 283. _Acrostalagmus_, 238. Action of the environment, 271. Adaptation, 176. Adapted races, 177. _Adonis_, 220. Adventitious buds, 224, 225, 257, 260. _�cidium_, 88, 114, 116, 187, 188, 189, 217, 223, 225, 232, 247, 252. Aeration, 104. Aerobic organisms, 57. Aetiology, 89, 100. _Agaricus melleus_, 115, 143, 145, 234. Agents of disease, 113. _Aglaospora_, 223. Agriculture, 65. Agricultural Chemistry, 2. _Ajuga_, 217. Albinism, 179, 182, 183, 186. Alder, 207, 219. Aleurone layer, 173. Algae, 215. _Allium_, 258. Almond, 168. _Alnus_, 214. _Aloe_, 134, 161. Alpine plants, 250, 279. American blight, 164, 219. American vines, 155, 169, 172. Amides, 31. Amoeba, 144. Amount of energy stored, 25. Amygdalin, 173. _Anabaena_, 128. Anaerobic bacteria, 58, 237. _Anagallis_, 261. Analyses, 65. Analyses of waters, 58. Anemone, 247. Animals, 99, 108, 142, 207. _Antennaria_, 232. _Anthonomos_, 249. Anthrax, 144. Antiseptics, 162. Ants, 232. _Aphis_, 88, 109, 161, 165, 188, 213, 214, 232, 241, 253. _Aphrophora_, 233. Apogamy, 257, 261. _Aporia Crataegi_, 187. Apospory, 257, 261. Apple, 170, 171, 187, 189, 192, 206, 217, 218, 219, 223, 226, 231, 233, 248, 249, 253, 254. Apricot, 188, 206. Apricots, 234. Area of root-surface, 37, 39. _Arisarum_, 188. _Aristolochia_, 259. Aroids, 113. Arrest of growth, 246. Arsenic, 162. Artificial wounds, 194. Ascomycetes, 189, 217, 269. _Ascochyta_, 190. Ash, 182, 223, 225, 251. _Asparagus_, 180, 230, 251, 252. _Aspergillus_, 231. _Aspergillus niger_, 58. _Aspidiotus_, 187. Assimilation, 8, 21, 133, 271, 275, 277, 285, 286. Assimilates, 274. Atmosphere, 1, 99. Atmospheric influences, 101. Atrophy, 246, 247, 266. Attractive substances, 136. _Aucuba_, 264. Autumnal colouring, 191. Autumnal fall, 93. Avalanches, 106. Bacteria, 102, 133, 143, 168, 173, 176, 182, 190, 200, 216, 219, 223, 227, 231, 236, 237. Bacteriosis, 227. Barberry, 176. Bark boring, 204, 205. Bark-beetles, 205. Barley, 176, 248. Barrenness, 246, 249. Bats, 244. Bean, 188, 190, 191, 268. Beech, 192, 222, 223, 225, 233, 240, 242, 254, 269. Beech Miner, 208. Bees, 142, 143, 164. Beet, 192, 216, 219, 230. Beet-rot, 230. Beetles, 110, 143, 145, 205, 206, 207, 248, 254. Berkeley, 85. Bilberries, 116, 142, 217, 218, 248. Biology of soil, 56, 102. Birch, 207, 218, 224. Birds, 108, 144, 164, 166. Bird's-eye Maple, 224. Black spots on leaves, 186, 189, 191. Bladders, 218. Blemish, 198. Blights, 86, 104, 179. Blisters, 230. Blue rays, 21. _Bombyx_, 187, 218. Bordeaux mixture, 162. Boring, 204. _Botrytis_, 131, 132, 136, 175, 230, 231, 243, 288. Boussingault, 5, 10. Bouvardia, 260. Bramble, 112. Branch stumps, 194, 199. Brand, 240. Breeding, 78. Briars, 113. Broom-rapes, 265. Browning, 122, 186, 235. Brown spots, 186, 189, 190, 191. Browsing, 244. _Bruchus_, 248. Bruises, 194, 203, 240, 241. Bryony, 112. _Bryophyllum_, 260. Bud galls, 219. Bud variations, 92, 93. Bulb diseases, 227. Buried objects, 211, 269. Burning, 191. Burning-glass effect, 192. Burrows, 204, 205. Burrs, 222, 223, 224. Bursting of fruits, 227, 230. Butterflies, 145. Bye-products, 276. Cabbage, 253. Cabbage moth, 208. _Caeoma_, 252. _Caesalpinia_, 233. Calcium, 272. Calcium oxalate, 138. _Calla_, 183. _Calliandra_, 233. Callus, 119, 120, 124, 139, 140, 196, 197, 199, 201, 202, 210, 241, 260, 263, 269. _Calyptospora_, 116, 217. Cambium, 120, 196, 199, 222. Camellia, 187. Cancer, 127. Canker, 87, 222, 223, 241. _Capnodium_, 232. _Capsella_, 116, 175, 252. Carbohydrates, 16, 17, 20, 34, 122, 184, 272, 273, 277. Carbolic acid, 162. Carbon, 272. Carbon assimilation, 8, 10, 28, 106. Carbon-bisulphide, 163. Cardinal points, 288. Carrot, 164. _Carpocapsa_, 207. Cast branches, 123. Castor oil, 172. Caterpillars, 109, 164, 207, 208, 244, 254, 259. Cats, 164. Cattle, 108. Cauliflowers, 247, 250. Causes of disease, 89, 99, 108, 159, 278, 282. _Cecidia_, 212. _Cecidomyia_, 182, 213, 214, 218, 219, 254. Celery, 180, 230. Cell contents, 168. Cell-protoplasm, 279, 280, 290. Cellulose, 132, 277, 286. _Celosia_, 250. _Centaurea_, 188. _Centhorhynchus_, 219. _Cephaleuros_, 188. _Cephus_, 248. _Cercis_, 259. _Cercospora_, 190. Cereals, 248. Change of conditions, 78. Charlock, 165. Checks to disease, 166. Chemical analysis, 32, 64, 103, 272. Chemical antiseptics, 159. Chemical energy, 29, 287. Chemotactic phenomena, 72, 130, 135, 137. _Chermes_, 153, 223. Cherry, 208, 209, 231, 234, 235, 247, 248. Chestnut, 190. Chlorine, 181. Chlorophyll, 19, 106, 122. Chlorophyll action, 184, 192. Chlorophyll corpuscles, 9, 18, 22. Chlorosis, 122, 165, 179, 180, 181. Chrysanthemum, 243, 252. Chytridiaceae, 127, 136, 189, 208. _Cicada_, 235. Cicatrix, 123. _Cinchona_, 168, 172, 173. Circulation of carbon, 62. Circulation of nitrogen, 62. _Citrus_, 168. _Clasterosporium_, 188, 209. Classification of diseases, 99, 101, 120. _Claviceps_, 232. Climate, 1. Climbing plants, 112, 113, 210. _Clostridium_, 236, 237. Clothes, 142. Clover, 164, 187, 249, 252, 288. Cluster-cups, 188. Coal gas, 104, 182. Coccideae, 164, 232. _Coccus_, 223. Coffee leaf-disease, 114, 146, 166, 169, 242. _Coleophora_, 153, 206. _Coleosporium_, 169. _Coleus_, 192, 220. Competition of fungi, 61. Complex interactions, 91, 99. Conifers, 125, 205, 223, 225, 234, 258. Constitution, 156, 283. Consumption, 248. Contact irritability, 125, 135. _Contagium fluidum vivum_, 183. Contortions, 252. _Convallaria_, 175. _Convolvulus_, 112. _Copaifera_, 234. Copper sulphate, 162, 165. Coppery leaves, 191. Cork, 119, 123, 194, 199, 216, 222. Cork wings, 217. Corky warts, 212. Corn, 248. Corrosion of marble, 46. _Cossus_, 206. Cost of epidemics, 146, 147. Cotton, 172. _Crassula_, 253. Creeping of mycelia, 142. _Crepis_, 252. Crimson spots, 189. Cross-breeding, 266. Cross-fertilisation, 69, 74, 77, 281. Cross-graining, 124. Crucifers, 219, 284. Cryptogams, 87, 108, 111, 113. Cuckoo-spit, 233. Cucullate leaves, 253. Cucumber, 219. _Cucurbitaria_, 217, 243. Cultivation of pest and host plant, 168. _Curculio_, 248. Curling, 235, 246. _Cuscuta_, 134. Cuts, 119, 143, 194. Cuttings, 194, 198, 262, 263. Cyanide of potassium, 165. Cycads, 128. _Cynips_, 110, 213, 219. _Cystopus_, 116, 136, 175, 187, 217, 247, 252. Cytases, 132. _Cytisus Adami_, 264, 283. Daisy, 278. Damping off, 114, 144, 160, 229, 284. Dandelion, 247, 252. Daniel's researches, 283. Dark heat rays, 27. Darwin, 72, 125. _Dasyscypha Willkommii_, 152, 223. Death, 271, 272, 287, 290. De Bary, 85, 151. Deficiency of iron, 180. Defoliation, 109, 240, 244. Deformation, 132. _Dematium_, 135. _Dematophora_, 143, 145. Denitrification, 62. Derivation of Phytopathology, 85. Destruction, 275. Development of root-hairs, 40. Dextrine, 173. Diagnosis, 85, 89. Diastases, 132. Diffusion, 53. Digestion, 133. _Digraphis_, 175. _Dilophia_, 188. _Dionaea_, 125. _Dipsacus_, 252. _Diptera_, 207. Dis-assimilation, 275, 277, 286. Discolorations, 179, 186, 192. Disease, 64, 91, 271, 272, 277, 287, 288, 290. Disease dodging, 168. Disease-fungi, 189. Disease of organs, 119. "Disease-proof" varieties, 168, 169, 171, 173, 177. Disease-resisting varieties, 177. Diseases of absorptive organs, 121. Diseases of assimilatory organs, 119. Diseases of bark, 120. Diseases of cambium, 120. Diseases of parenchyma, 120. Diseases of respiratory organs, 119, 121. Disintegration, 275. Distortions, 140, 246, 251, 252, 253. Dissemination of fungi, 142. Division, 127. Dodder, 113. _Dolium_, 134. Dormant buds, 224, 225, 257, 259, 260. Double flowers, 247, 256. Double ideals in selection, 168. _Dracaena_, 192. Drainage, 103. Drawing, 106, 180. Drip, 103. Drooping, 43, 179. Drops of water, 192. Dropsy, 228. Drought, 121, 183, 190, 191, 245, 248, 249. Dry-rot, 143, 237. Ducks, 144. Dutrochet, 7. Dwarfing, 246, 249. "Dying back," 190, 240, 242, 243, 244. Earwigs, 164, 207. _Eau Céleste_, 162. _Edelfäule_, 230. Eelworms, 111, 248. Effects of environment, 262. Eggs of insects, 187. Elaborated sap, 94. Elm, 218, 224, 225, 233, 260. _Empusa_, 163. Endemic diseases, 153, 160, 166. Endive, 180. Endophytes, 130. Endophytic algae, 128. Endophytic fungi, 193. Energy in plants, 15, 25, 287. Engelmann, 20, 27. _Entyloma_, 187. Enzymes, 10, 130, 132, 136. _Epichloë_, 218. Epicormic shoots, 224, 257, 260. Epidemics, 108, 109, 113, 115, 142, 153, 160, 163, 166. Epiphytes, 113, 130, 135, 137. Epiphytic algae, 188. Epiphytic fungi, 161, 193, 232. _Equisetum_, 113. Ergot, 131, 142, 144. _Erineum_, 88, 212, 214, 215. Erosions, 204, 207. _Erysipheae_, 135, 142, 161, 187, 268. Essentials of fertilisation, 69. Estimates of loss, 146. Etiolation, 106, 179, 180, 229. _Euphorbia_, 116, 134, 247, 266. Excavations, 204. Excess of food, 229. Excess of minerals, 102. Excess of water, 100. Excessive growth, 246. Excessive nutrition, 250. Excrescences, 114, 212, 222. Excreta, 45, 130, 133. _Exobasidium_, 128, 218. _Exoascus_, 116, 128, 188, 208, 214, 218, 225, 247, 253. Expense of materials, 161. Experiments necessary, 168. Exposure of roots, 179, 184. External causes of disease, 99. Extinction of species, 91. Exudations, 227. Exudation under pressure, 51. Factors of an epidemic, 149, 165. Falling of fruit, 206. Falling leaves, 123. False chlorosis, 181. False etiolation, 180. _Farfugium_, 188. Fasciations, 230, 246, 251. Fats, 272, 286. Feeding, 14, 16. Fermentation, 58, 102, 130, 233. Ferns, 113, 247, 260, 261. Fertilisation, 71. Field-mice, 164. Figs, 113. Finger and toe, 114, 127, 163. Fire, 240. Flaming, 164. Flattened roots, 246, 252. Fleshiness, 228. Flies, 86, 110, 142, 143, 145. Flux, 227, 231. Flying foxes, 244. Focussing of solar rays, 192. Foliage, 110. _Fontaria_, 134. Food, 18. Forest-fires, 241. Formic-aldehyde, 20. Foul products, 100. Foxy leaves, 191. Freezing, 121, 183. Frit fly, 182. Frost, 153, 160, 225, 229, 248, 249. Frost-beds, 243. Frost-blisters, 212, 218. Frost canker, 222. Frost-cracks, 204, 209, 242. Frost-patches, 240. Frost-ridge, 209. _Fumago_, 190, 232. Fumes, 104. Functions of roots, 43, 45. Functional depression, 96. Fungi, 89, 108, 143, 174, 189, 200, 205, 207, 208, 212, 216, 219, 223, 229, 231, 233, 238, 240, 241, 243, 248, 251, 255, 258, 265, 267, 283, 284, 288. Fungus attacks, 139. Fungus galls, 219. _Fusarium_, 143, 238. _Fusicladium_, 189. _Fusisporium_, 237. _Gagea_, 258. Gall-apple, 218. Gall-flies, 219. Gall-insect, 139. Gall-like swellings, 128. Galls, 86, 110, 120, 130, 138, 212, 214, 218, 255. Gangrene, 231. _Garreya_, 264. Gas, 160. Gases in soil, 104. _Gastropacha_, 225. Gelatine, 163. General death, 116. General disease, 119, 120. Germ-plasm, 267. _Gesneria_, 260. _Glechoma_, 218. _Gloeosporium_, 189, 190, 208. _Gloxinia_, 260. Goats, 164. Gooseberry, 217. Graft-hybrids, 262, 267, 271, 283. Grafting, 78, 155, 169, 183, 250, 262, 271, 281. Grain-rust, 146. Grapes, 192, 230, 231. _Grapholitha_, 109, 207. Grass, 111, 189, 190, 205, 218, 233. Green fly, 161. Grew, 85. Greyish spots, 187. Growth, 271, 274, 275, 286. Grubs, 110, 207. Gumming, 235. Gummosis, 227, 234, 235. _Gymnosporangium_, 114, 176, 223. Hail, 106, 240, 241. Hales, 85. _Haltica_, 209. Hardy varieties, 168, 170, 177. Haustoria, 134, 135, 136. Healing, 194, 196. Healing by cork, 123. Health, 272, 287. Health and disease, 91, 97, 287. Heliotropism, 126. _Hemileia_, 146, 169. Heredity, 72, 283. _Herpotrichia_, 135, 190. Hessian Fly, 182. _Heterodora_, 219, 220. _Hieracium_, 112. History of Phytopathology, 85. Holdfast of roots, 42. Hollyhock disease, 143. Holly, 217. Honey dew, 144, 227, 232, 233. Hops, 162, 187, 191, 232, 253. Hop-aphis, 146. Hop-disease, 166. Hop mildew, 161. _Hormomyia_, 219. Hornbeam, 224, 233, 242. Horse-radish, 260. Host, 284, 285. Hyacinth, 231, 261. Hyacinth disease, 143. Hybrids, 69, 156, 281. Hybridisation, 69, 75, 169, 266, 281. Hydrochloric acid, 181. Hydrogen, 272. Hymenomycetes, 206. Hypertrophy, 119, 127, 139, 213, 215, 247, 266. _Hypochaeris_, 112. _Hypomyces_, 237. _Hyponomeuta_, 254. Ice, 184, 209. Ichneumon-flies, 165. _Icterus_, 181. Illegitimate unions, 265. Immunity, 155, 156, 165, 168, 169. Impervious subsoil, 181. Inarching, 269. Increase in dry weight, 23. Indian agriculture, 172. Indian wheats, 168. Indispensability of elements, 278. Infection, 262, 265, 267. Ingredients of protoplasm, 272. Insect bites, 225. Insect diseases, 145, 146, 154, 189. Insect punctures, 88. Insects, 89, 98, 108, 109, 120, 138, 142, 153, 174, 187, 194, 203, 205, 206, 207, 208, 212, 223, 229, 241, 244, 248, 251, 254, 255, 258, 259, 269. Insolation, 180, 242. Intercellular endophytes, 136, 137. Intercellular mycelium, 128. Interference, 91. Internal causes of disease, 99, 101. Intracellular parasites, 127, 136. Intramolecular respiration, 277. Intumescences, 212, 215. Inulin, 11, 17. Invertebrata, 108. Irritability, 125, 127. Irritation, 119, 139. _Isaria_, 163. Ivy, 113, 165. Japanese trees, 250. Jerusalem Artichoke, 264. _Juncus_, 219. Juniper, 114. Kidney bean, 192. Knauers, 223. Knife wounds, 194, 195. Labour, 161. Lace-wings, 165. _Lachnus_, 223. Lady-birds, 164, 165. Lammas shoots, 257, 259. Larch, 168, 171. Larch disease, 115, 149, 152, 166, 171, 223, 241. Larvae, 110. Lateral wounds, 132. Lawns, 112. Laying of wheat, 179, 180. Leaf-curl, 236, 253. Leaf-diseases, 114, 119, 120, 242. Leaf-galls, 217, 218. Leaf-miner, 86, 109, 204. Leaf perforations, 208. Leaf rolling, 214, 246, 254. Leaf-spots, 114, 190. Leguminoseae, 137, 219. Lemons, 235. Lenticels, 217. Lepidoptera, 187. _Leptosphaeria_, 249. Lichens, 137. Liebig, 4. Life, 271, 285, 287. Life and death, 271. Light, 27, 106. Lily disease, 143. Lime, 163, 215, 218, 232, 253, 254, 260, 269. Limes, 172. Limits of variation, 287. _Linaria_, 252. Liquid antiseptics, 160, 161, 162. Living environment, 99, 108. Local action, 114. Local disease, 119, 121. Locusts, 109, 145, 163, 164. Longicorns, 205. _Loranthus_, 113, 245, 265. Losses due to epidemics, 142. Lowering of temperature, 100. Lucerne, 249. Lurking parasites, 142, 145. Lychnis, 232. _Lyonetra_, 206. _Lysimachia_, 217. Machine, plant compared to a, 79. Magnesium, 272. Maize, 116, 173, 219, 267. _Majanthemum_, 175. Malformations, 116, 130, 131, 246, 251. _Mal nero_, 190. Mallow, 252. Malpighi, 85. Mammals, 142. Man and plants, 108, 142, 143. Manna, 227, 235. Manna Ash, 235. Maple, 259. Maximum, 288. Maximum absorption, 19. Maximum assimilation, 19. Maximum temperature, 105. Mealy bug, 164. _Melampsora_, 176. Melon, 220. Messmates, 63. Metabolic products, 274. Metabolism, 23, 127, 271. Metabolites, 278. Metallic compounds, 162. Mice, 108, 163. Microbes, 227. Micro-organisms, 183. Mildew, 86, 164. Millardet, 169. Mineral salts, 101. Miniature trees, 250. Minimum, 288. Minimum temperature, 105. Misconceptions, 12. Mistletoe, 113, 265. Mites, 192, 214, 255. Mixed species, 166. Molecular structure of protoplasm, 273, 274. Mongrel forms, 74. _Monilia_, 217, 231. Monstrosities, 246. Moraine plants, 250. Moths, 110, 145, 206. Moulds, 230, 231, 237, 243. _Mucor_, 230, 231. Mulberry, 244. Mutilations, 252. Mycelial strands, 145. Mycelium, 188. Mycocecidia, 219. Mycorrhiza, 137. Myrtaceae, 258. _Mytilaspis_, 187. Natural checks, 159. Natural demise, 91, 93. Natural Grafts, 269. Natural Selection, 72, 99, 167, 286. Natural Wounds, 204. Nature of soil, 57. Necrosis, 240, 241, 243. _Nectria_, 145, 217, 223, 241, 243, 269. Nematodes, 111, 134, 139, 219, 220. Nettle, 116, 252. _Neurotus_, 219. New formations, 255. Nitrate, 273. Nitrification, 62, 102. Nitrogen, 272. Nodosities, 219. Nodules on roots, 63, 137. Non-living environment, 99. _Notommata_, 140. Nuclear fusion, 267. Nuclear protoplasm, 271, 279, 280, 290. Nuclear substance, 71. Nucleo-plasm, 280. Nuts, 248. Oak, 110, 188, 215, 218, 219, 223, 233. Oak leaf-roller, 254. Oat, 176. Occlusion, 200, 201, 222, 223. Odours, 144. Oedema, 228. Olive, 223. Onion, 231. _Oniscus_, 182. _Oospora_, 216. Optimum temperature, 105, 288. Orange, 173, 187, 235, 247. Orange-coloured spots, 187. Orchard trees, 163. _Orchestes_, 206. Orchids, 113, 266. Organic acids, 50. Organisation, 89. Organised structure, 13. Organisms in soil, 60. _Orobanche_, 112. Osmosis, 26, 29, 46. Osmotic pressures, 18, 41, 52. Over-crowding, 104, 111. Over-feeding, 102. Over-watering, 97. Oxalic acid, 134, 136. Oxidation, 124. Oxygen, 104, 272. Oxygen-respiration, 12, 64. Pallor, 179, 180. Palms, 192. _Pangium_, 134, 165. Parasites, 61, 113, 119, 130, 139, 174, 187, 230, 265, 269, 284. Parasitic algae, 188, 217, 219. Parasitic bacteria, 163. Parasitic diseases, 88, 119, 121. Parasitic epiphyte, 136. Parasitic fungi, 87, 97. Parasitism, 262, 264, 268, 271. _Paris_, 175. "Paris green," 162. Parti-coloured leaves, 191. Parti-coloured spots, 186. Pasture grasses, 69. Pathology, 121, 257. Pathology of cell, 119. Pathological conditions, 168, 170, 246. Pea, 190, 191, 206, 208, 248, 268. Peach, 170, 253. Pear, 179, 187, 189, 191, 216, 218, 231, 240, 248, 249, 253, 257. Pedigree wheats, 69. _Pelargonium_, 198, 253. Peloria, 252. _Penicillium_, 231. _Peridermium Pini_, 223, 234. _Periola_, 238. Permanganate, 162. _Peronospora_, 136, 160, 175, 187, 189, 208. _Petasites_, 188. Petroleum, 162. _Peziza_, 115, 144, 152. Phanerogams, 108, 111. _Phellomyces_, 238. _Phoma_, 217, 243. Phosphorus, 272. Photo-synthesis, 11, 16. _Phragmidium_, 189. _Phyllachora_, 189. _Phyllereum_, 253. _Phyllobium_, 217. _Phyllosiphon_, 188. _Phyllosticta_, 188, 209. _Phylloxera_, 110, 145, 149, 154, 155, 163, 166, 172, 188, 219, 220, 268. Physiology, 1, 66, 85. Physiological diseases, 119, 121. _Phytomyza_, 206. Phytopathology, 85. _Phytophthora_, 115, 136, 144, 150, 151, 235, 236. _Phytophysa_, 219. _Phytoptus_, 189, 213, 214, 215, 218, 219, 253, 254. _Pilea_, 219. _Pilobolus_, 126, 140. Pines, 183, 223, 234, 251, 252. Pine-apple, 258. Pith flecks, 204, 207. Plant as agent of disease, 99, 108. Plant, agricultural chemistry of, 1. Plant and its food, 7. Plant and its surroundings, 1. Plant, a machine, 1, 15. Plant, central object of study, 1. Plant, physiology, 1. _Plantago_, 257. Plantain, 112, 257. Plants, dying out of, 93. Plasmodia, 163. _Plasmodiophora_, 114, 126, 127, 144, 163, 219, 284, 285. Plasmolysis, 47. _Pleospora_, 236. _Pleotrachelus_, 126, 140. Plum, 171, 189, 192, 209, 214, 206, 231, 235, 248, 249, 260. _Poa_, 258. Pocket-like galls, 155, 214, 218. Pocket-plums, 214. Pockets, 253. Poison, 102, 130, 136, 163, 216. Poisonous gases, 181, 248. Pollen grain, 288. Pollination, 248, 262, 265, 266, 271. _Polydesmus_, 236. _Polygonatum_, 175. _Polygonum_, 258. Polymorphism, 174. Polyporei, 142. _Polyporus_, 143, 206. _Polystigma_, 189. Poplar, 188, 206, 215, 218, 254. Post and epidemics, 142. Potassium, 272. Potassium sulphite, 162. Potato, 162, 171, 194, 209, 216, 236, 237, 258. Potato-disease, 114, 143, 149, 150, 166, 189, 207, 235. Powders, antiseptic, 159, 160, 161. Predisposition to disease, 98, 99, 105, 168, 169, 229, 262, 268, 277, 278, 282. Preventible diseases, 159. Preventitious buds, 259. Prolepsis, 257, 259. Proliferations, 257, 258. Properties of soil, 57. Prophylactic measures, 160. Proteids, 132, 138, 272, 277, 286. Proteolytic enzymes, 132. _Protomyces_, 217. Protoplasmic molecules, 276, 278, 286. Protoplasm, 33, 41, 271, 272, 274, 276. Pruning, 105, 143, 194, 225, 250. Prussic acid, 163, 165, 173. _Psylla_, 253. _Puccinia_, 88, 114, 169, 175, 176, 188, 189, 247, 252. Puckers, 214, 235, 246, 253. Puffing of spores, 142, 144. Punctures, 212. Pure culture, 166. Purple-black spots, 191. Pustules, 188, 190, 212, 217. Putrefaction, 234. _Pyrethrum_, 161. _Pyrus_, 214. _Pythium_, 114, 119, 136, 144, 160, 230. _Quassia_, 161. Quinine, 173. Rabbits, 108, 142, 164, 194. Rain trees, 233. Rankness, 97, 227, 228. Rats, 108, 163. Rays of light, 18. Red light, 21. Red spider, 161, 187, 188, 192. Red spots, 188, 253. References in Bible, 85. Remedial measures, 89. Repellent substances, 136. Reproduction, 72, 281. Reserves, 274. Resin, 125. Resin-flux, 234. Resinosis, 227, 234. Resistance to disease, 155, 268. Resistant races, 172. Respiration, 17, 31, 130, 271, 275, 276, 285, 287. Reversions, 73. Rhinanthoideae, 265. _Rhinanthus_, 112. _Rhizobium_, 289. _Rhizoctonia_, 238. Rhizomorph, 145. Rhododendron, 218. Rhubarb, 180, 230. _Rhynchitis_, 254. _Rhytisma_, 188. Ribbon grass, 183. _Ribes_, 214. Rice, 172. Rimpau's experiments, 69, 73, 77. Ringing, 194, 201, 202, 210. Ripened wood, 243. _Robinia_, 259. Rodents, 109. _Roestelia_, 217. Rolled leaves, 86. Root, 9, 35, 96, 120, 227, 270. Root-absorption, 181. Root-diseases, 119, 120. Root-excretions, 46. Root-fusions, 262. Root-galls, 221. Root-hairs, 34, 102, 163. Root-nodules, 212, 219. Root-parasites, 112, 265. Root-rot, 230. Roses, 232, 243, 257, 268, 278. Rosettes, 225. Rot, 97, 182, 227, 229, 231, 236. Rotation of crops, 69, 166. Rotifer, 140. Rot-organisms, 200. Rotting of wounds, 87. Rouen law, 85. Rushes, 114. Rust, 122, 142, 171, 172, 175, 191. Rye, 176, 248. _Saccharomyces_, 60. Sachs, 7, 36. _Salvia_, 214. San José scale, 187. Sand-blast action, 184. Sandy soils, 184. _Saperda_, 205. Saprophytes, 135, 137, 175, 234, 243, 244. _Scab_, 189, 216. _Scale_, 187. _Schinzia_, 114. _Schizoneura_, 223. Scion, 183, 262, 264, 266, 282. _Scleroderris_, 223. Sclerotia, 143. Schwarz, 39. _Sclerotinia_, 142, 143, 144, 231, 248, 249, 288. Scolytidae, 205. Scorching, 240, 241. Scurf, 216. Sea-kale, 261. _Secale_, 76. Secretions, 130, 133, 173, 274. Sedges, 189. Seedless grapes, 247. _Selandria_, 208. Selection, 69, 74, 78, 169. Selective absorption, 53, 65. Self-fertilisation, 281. Semi-parasites, 112. _Senecio_, 188. Sensitive plant, 125. _Septoria_, 114, 187. Sewage waters, 59. Sexual act, 72. Shaded foliage, 113. Shanking, 246, 249. Shoots from old wood, 260. Shot holes, 204, 208, 209. Silver fir, 224. Silver leaf, 192. _Sirex_, 206. Skeleton leaves, 204, 207. Slime flux, 227, 233. Slime fungus, 219. Slugs, 111, 164, 207, 269. Smut, 117, 143, 162, 190. Snails, 111, 142, 207. Snow, 106. Soap, as insecticide, 161. Soil, 1, 42, 99, 102, 142, 163. Soil-bacteria, 60. Soil-filtration, 59. Soil-organisms, 61, 143. Solar energy, 135. Somato-plasm, 267. Sooty moulds, 135, 190, 232. _Sorbus_, 207. _Sorosporium_, 216. Sour-rot, 231. Sparrows, 164. Specialised races, 168, 176. Specific predisposition, 155. Spectrum, 19, 21, 26. Spermogonia, 144, 232. _Sphaerella_, 189. _Sphaerotheca_, 187. Sphaeroblasts, 222, 225. _Spicaria_, 237. Spiral grooving, 204, 210. Spiral growth, 252. _Spongospora_, 216. Spontaneous variations, 78, 246, 255. Spores, 144. Sports, 93, 247. Spots on leaves, 120, 186. Spraying, 159, 161, 162. Spreading of disease, 142. Squirrels, 108. Stag-head, 240, 244. Starch, 9, 16, 17, 20, 23, 138, 173. Statistics of epidemics, 147. Steeping, 161. Stem diseases, 120. _Stereum_, 206. Sterility of soil, 61. Stimulation, 119. Stimuli, 126, 127, 139. Stock, 262, 264, 266, 282. Stomata, 23. Stool-shoots, 201, 225, 269. Stool stumps, 194, 201. Strangulations, 204, 209. Strawberry, 189, 257. Stripping, 194, 197. Stroma, 217. Structure, 274. Structure of protoplasm, 271. Structure of root-hairs, 40. Struggle for existence, 105, 159, 164, 165, 167, 286. Study of causes, 85. Stumps, 194. Subsoil, 57, 103. Substitutive selections, 286. Suckers, 225, 260. Sugar, 11, 17, 20, 173, 286. Sugar cane, 172. Sugar cane disease, 166. Sulphate, 273. Sulphur, 161, 163, 272. Sulphurous acid, 181. Sun-burn, 240, 241. Sun-cracks, 240, 242. Sundew, 232. Sunflower, 256, 264. Sun-spots, 192. Superstitions, 85. Surface energy, 26. Surface roots, 112. Sweet almond, 173. Symbiosis, 63, 130, 137, 219, 263, 265, 268, 285. Symptoms of disease, 89, 122, 179, 186. _Synchytrium_, 127, 188, 217, 247. Synthesis, 65. _Syringa_, 259. Syringing, 161, 164. Tamarisk, 235. Tannin, 138. _Taphrina_, 218. Tar, 164. Tea, 244. Teazel, 252. Teleutospore, 189, 191. Temperature, 99, 105. Tendencies to ill-health, 91. Tendrils, 125. Teratology, 246, 253, 254, 257. _Tetraneura_, 218. _Tetranychus_, 187, 192. Thawing, 183. _Thelephora_, 206. Therapeutics, 85, 89, 159. Thermotropism, 126. _Thesium_, 112. Thick-skinned organs, 168, 171. Thinning, 96, 105. Thistle, 247. Thrips, 88, 191, 208. Thyloses, 125. _Tilia_, 214. Timber diseases, 119, 120. Timiriazeff, 21. _Tinea_, 206. Tissue diseases, 119. Tobacco, 209. Tobacco powder, 161. Tomato, 171, 219, 230. Top-dry trees, 244. Topical remedies, 161. _Tomicus_, 205. Torsions, 246, 252. _Tortrix_, 254. Toxic agents, 130. Transformation of energy, 25, 28. Transformation of organs, 254, 255. Transmission of acquired characters, 264, 283, 290. Transplanting, 96. Transpiration, 181, 228. Trees, 109. _Trichosphaeria_, 135. _Triticum_, 76. Tumescence, 227, 228. Tunnels, 206. Turgescence, 47, 228, 230. Turnip, 126, 162, 230. Twitch, 113. _Tylenchus_, 238, 248. Ulcer, 231. Unger, 85. Unsuitable soils, 101. Upheaval of seedlings, 179, 183. Uredineae, 114, 134, 136, 145, 169, 188, 189. _Uredo_, 88, 188, 191. Uredospores, 191. _Uromyces_, 116, 188, 191, 266. _Urocystis_, 220. Ustilagineae, 145, 190, 217, 248. _Ustilago_, 116, 117, 175, 190, 219, 255. _Vaccinium_, 128, 288. Variability, 174. Variation, 67, 72, 91, 92, 168, 174, 176, 246, 262, 263, 264, 271, 282, 286, 288, 289. Variegation, 179, 182, 183, 192. Varieties, 78, 247. Varieties of soil, 56. _Vaucheria_, 139, 140. Vegetable acids, 48. Vertebrata, 108. _Verticillium_, 145, 236. _Viburnum_, 214. Vine, 110, 149, 156, 162, 164, 169, 171, 189, 190, 191, 222, 248, 268. Vine disease, 143. Vivipary, 257, 258. Walnut, 190, 209, 253. Want of air, 100. Washing leaves, etc., 161. Wasp-flies, 165. Wasps, 145. Water, 272. Water and insects, 161. Water-culture, 65. Water in soil, 103. Waterlogging, 181. Weaving of fungi, 190. Webs, 190, 254. Weeding, 105. Weeds, 69, 111, 113, 165, 229, 249. Weevils, 248. Wet feet, 181. Wheat, 169, 171, 172, 176, 179, 180, 182, 183, 230, 248. Wheat rust, 86, 122, 146, 166, 169, 176. White spots, 186, 187. Willow, 206, 207, 219, 223, 233, 259. Willow beetle, 208. Wilting, 179, 181, 235, 249. Wind, 106, 142, 144, 153, 184, 209, 229. Wire-worms, 109, 181. Witches' brooms, 116, 222, 224. Wood, 124. Wood-ashes, 161. Woodbine, 112, 210. Wood-boring, 204, 205. Woodlice, 164. Wood-nodules, 225. Wood-wasps, 206. Woolly-aphis, 219, 223. Worms, 109, 142, 144, 194, 238. Wounds, 108, 139, 194, 204, 207, 213, 260, 263, 269. Wound-cork, 195. Wound-fever, 123. Wound-fungi, 203, 204, 240. Wound-gum, 125. Wound-wood, 124. Wrens, 165. Wrinkling, 253. _Xenia_, 267. _Xyloma_, 88. Yeasts, 134, 172, 231, 233. Yellowing, 179, 181, 182, 184. Yellow leaves, 89. Yellow spots, 186, 187, 188, 253. Zoospores, 151. GLASGOW: PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. MACMILLAN AND CO.'S WORKS ON BOTANY. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Crown 8vo. Price 6s. Timber and Some of its Diseases. By H. MARSHALL WARD, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S., Fellow of Sidney Sussex College, and Professor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. Illustrated. _MANCHESTER EXAMINER._--"The subject as a whole is one which is little understood in England, and Professor Marshall Ward's work cannot fail to be useful. The student will be much helped by the numerous illustrations." _GARDENER'S CHRONICLE._--"This is a book whose appearance we hail with great satisfaction. . . . We heartily recommend its perusal to those concerned." =The Study of the Biology of Ferns by the Collodion Method.= For Advanced and Collegiate Students. By GEORGE F. 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Medium 8vo. 18s. net. =The Herb of the Field.= By CHARLOTTE M. YONGE. New edition, revised. Cr. 8vo. 5s. MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON. Transcriber's Notes: The word Oedema uses an OE ligature in the original. The following corrections have been made to the text: Page vi: be the better for a real knowledge[original has knowlege] Page 55: and[original has and and] are too crudely mechanical Page 117: Prillieux[original has Prilleux], _Maladies des Plantes Agricoles_ Page 128: the intercellular mycelium of _Exoascus_[original has Exoacus] Page 134: subject to attacks of Uredineae[original has Uredinae] Page 142: carried[original has carrried] from plant to plant Page 176: its æcidia[original has æcida] on the Barberry Page 182: _e.g._ _Oniscus_[original has Oscinis], the Frit Fly, and _Cecidomyia_[original has Cecidomya] Page 182: not necessarily less ash constituents[original has constitutents] Page 183: nature of a transmissible enzyme[original has enyzme] Page 203: _Krankh. d. Pflanzen_, B. I.[original has 1] cap. 2 Page 206: leaves of Apples by _Lyonetia_[original has Lyonettia] Page 218: _Epichloë_[original has Epichloe], which clothes the sheaths Page 219: beetle which attacks Crucifers[original has Crucificers] Page 221: on the green parts of Hibiscus,[comma missing in original] Page 221: nodules of the roots of Leguminoseae[original has Leguminosae] Page 230: _Edelfäule_[original has Edelfaüle], a rotten condition of the grapes Page 235: giving an almost mealy[original has meally] appearance Page 243: as its mycelium[original has myceliun] spreads Page 258: _Prolepsis._[original has Proplesis]--It frequently Page 293: Aetiology[original has �tiology], 89, 100. Page 293: _Anthonomus_[original has Anthonomos], 249. Page 294: Bird's-eye[original has Birds'-eye] Maple, 224. Page 295: _Cercospora_,[original has Cereospora] 190. Page 298: _Eau Céleste_[original has Celeste], 162. Page 300: _Heterodora_[original has Heterodera], 219, 220. Page 300: Holly, 217.[period missing in original] Page 300: _Hypomyces_, 237.[original has comma] Page 301: _Lyonetia_[original has Lyonetra], 206. Page 303: Permanganate[original has Permangate], 162. Page 304: Prophylactic[original has Phophylactic] measures, 160. Page 304: _Phytomyza_, 206.[period missing in original] Page 304: _Phyllereum_[original has Phyllereus], 253. Page 304: Pine-apple[original has Pine apple], 258. Page 305: _Puccinia_, 88, 114, 169, 175, 176, 188, 189, 247, 252[original has 252, 247]. Page 307: Somato-plasm[original has Somatoplasm], 267. Page 307: Spermogonia[original has Spermagonia], 144, 232. Page 308: _Tomicus_[original has Tornicus], 205. The following index entries were out of alphabetical order and have been moved to the appropriate locations: Phylloxera Plants, dying out of Poisonous gases Preventible diseases Prophylactic measures Spermogonia 
39779	----	AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING An account of the leading forms now in use of Training the American Grapes. _By L. H. BAILEY_ NEW YORK: THE RURAL PUBLISHING COMPANY 1893. _By the same Author._ =Annals of Horticulture= in North America for the year 1889. A witness of passing events and a record of progress. 249 pages, 52 illustrations. =Annals for 1890.= 312 pages, 82 illustrations. =Annals for 1891.= 416 pages, 77 illustrations. =Annals for 1892.= *.* A new volume is issued each year, each complete in itself. Cloth, $1; paper, 60 cents. =The Horticulturist's Rule-Book.= A compendium of useful information for fruit-growers, truck-gardeners, florists and others. Second edition, revised to the opening of 1892. 221 pages. Cloth, $1; paper, 50 cents. =The Nursery Book.= A complete guide to the multiplication and pollination of plants. 304 pages, 106 illustrations. Cloth, $1; paper, 50c. =Cross-Breeding and Hybridizing.= With a brief bibliography of the subject. 44 pages. Paper, 40 cents. (Rural Library Series.) =Field Notes on Apple Culture.= 90 pages, 19 illustrations. Cloth, 75 cents. =Talks Afield=: About plants and the science of plants. 173 pages, 100 illustrations. Cloth, $1. COPYRIGHTED 1893, BY L. H. BAILEY. ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED BY J. HORACE M'FARLAND CO., HARRISBURG, PA. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Pages Introduction 9-11 Pruning 11-24 CHAPTER II. Preliminary Preparations for Training--The Trellis--Tying 25-33 CHAPTER III. The Upright Systems. (Horizontal Arm Spur System. High Renewal. Fan Training) 34-55 CHAPTER IV. The Drooping Systems. (True or Four-Cane Kniffin. Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin. The Two-Cane Kniffin or Umbrella System. The Low or One-Wire Kniffin. The Six-Cane Kniffin. Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin. The Cross-Wire System. Renewal Kniffin. The Munson System) 56-82 CHAPTER V. Miscellaneous Systems. (Horizontal Training. Post Training. Arbors. Remodeling Old Vines) 83-92 [Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)] ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE 1. Grape Shoot 12 2. The Bearing Wood 13 3. Diagram 15 4. Spur 18 5. Renewal Pruning 19 6. A Newly Set Vineyard 21 7. Horizontal Arm Spur Training 35 8. Horizontal Arm (Diagram) 36 9. Short Arm Spur Training 38 10. The Second Season of Upright Training 40 11. Making the T-Head 42 12. The Third Season of High Renewal 43 13. High Renewal, before Pruning 44 14. High Renewal, Pruned 45 15. High Renewal, Pruned and Tied 46 16. High Renewal with Four Canes 47 17. High Renewal Complete 48 18. A Slat Trellis, with Upright Training 51 19. Fan Training, after Pruning 55 20. William Kniffin 57 21. The True Kniffin Training 59 22. No. 21, when Pruned 60 23. A Poor Type of Kniffin 64 24. The Y-Trunk Kniffin 65 25. Umbrella Training 67 26. A Poor Umbrella System 68 27. Eight-Cane Kniffin (Diagram) 70 28. Overhead Kniffin 71 29. Overhead Kniffin 72 30. Overhead Kniffin, before Pruning 73 31. Cross-Wire Training 75 32. Cross-Wire Training, Outside View 76 33. Munson Training. End View 78 34. Munson Training. Side View 79 35. Horizontal Training 83 36. Low Post Training 86 37. A Yearling Graft 91 PREFACE. This little book has grown out of an attempt to teach the principles and methods of grape training to college students. I have found such teaching to be exceedingly difficult and unsatisfactory. It is impossible to firmly impress the lessons by mere lectures. The student must apprehend the principles slowly and by his own effort. He must have time to thoroughly assimilate them before he attempts to apply them. I therefore cast about for books which I could put before my class, but I at once found that there are very few succinct accounts of the subjects of grape pruning and training, and that none of our books portray the methods which are most largely practised in the large grape regions of the east. My only recourse, therefore, was to put my own notes into shape for print, and this I have now done. And inasmuch as all grape-growers are students, I hope that the simple account will find a use beyond the classroom. This lack of adequate accounts of grape training at first astonished me, but is not strange after all. It must be remembered that the cultivation of the native grape is of very recent origin. There are many men who can remember its beginning in a commercial way. It seldom occurs to the younger generation, which is familiar with the great vineyards in many states, that the Concord is yet scarcely forty years old, and that all grape growing in eastern America is yet in an experimental stage. Progress has been so rapid in recent years that the new methods outstrip the books. The old horizontal arm spur system, which is still the chief method in the books, has evolved itself into a high renewal training, which is widely used but which has not found its way into the manuals. The Kniffin type has outgrown its long period of incubation, and is now taking an assured place in vineyard management. So two great types, opposed in method, are now contending for supremacy, and they will probably form the basis of all future developments. This evolution of American grape training is one of the most unique and signal developments of our modern horticulture, and its very recent departure from the early doubts and trials is a fresh illustration of the youth and virility of all horticultural pursuits in North America. This development of our grape training should form the subject of a historical inquiry. I have not attempted such in this little hand-book. I have omitted all reference to the many early methods, which were in most cases transportations or modifications of European practices, for their value is now chiefly historical and their insertion here would only confuse the reader. I have attempted nothing more than a plain account of the methods now in use; in fact, I am aware that I have not accomplished even this much, for there are various methods which I have not mentioned. But these omitted forms are mostly of local use or adaptation, and they are usually only modifications of the main types here explained. It is impossible to describe all the variations in grape training in a book of pocket size; neither is it necessary. Nearly every grower who has given grape raising careful attention has introduced into his own vineyard some modifications which he thinks are of special value to him. There are various curious and instructive old books to which the reader can go if he desires to know the history and evolution of grape training in America. He will find that we have now passed through the long and costly experiment with European systems. And we have also outgrown the gross or long-wood styles, and now prune close with the expectation of obtaining superior and definite results. I have not attempted to rely upon my own resources in the preparation of this book. All the manuscript has been read by three persons--by George C. Snow, Penn Yan, N. Y., William D. Barns, Middle Hope, N. Y., and L. C. Corbett, my assistant in the Cornell Experiment Station. Mr. Snow is a grower in the lake region of western New York, and employs the High Renewal system; Mr. Barns is a grower in the Hudson River valley, and practices the Kniffin system; while Mr. Corbett has been a student of all the systems and has practiced two or three of them in commercial plantations. These persons have made many suggestions of which I have been glad to avail myself, and to them very much of the value of the book is to be attributed. L. H. BAILEY, ITHACA, N. Y., _Feb. 1, 1893_. John Adlum, of the District of Columbia, appears to have been the first person to systematically undertake the cultivation and amelioration of the native grapes. His method of training, as described in 1823, is as follows: One shoot is allowed to grow the first year, and this is cut back to two buds the first fall. The second year two shoots are allowed to grow, and they are tied to "two stakes fixed down to the side of each plant, about five or six feet high;" in the fall each cane is cut back to three or four buds. In the third spring, these two short canes are spread apart "so as to make an angle of about forty-five degrees with the stem," and are tied to stakes; this season about two shoots are allowed to grow from each branch, making four in all, and in the fall the outside ones are cut back to three or four buds and the inner ones to two. These outside shoots are to bear the fruit the fourth year, and the inside ones give rise to renewal canes. These two outer canes or branches are secured to two stakes set about sixteen inches upon either side of the vine, and the shoots are tied up to the stakes, as they grow. The renewal shoots from the inside stubs are tied to a third stake set near the root of the vine. The outside branches are to be cut away entirely at the end of the fourth year. This is an ingenious renewal post system, and it is easy to see how the Horizontal Arm and High Renewal systems may have sprung from it. AMERICAN GRAPE TRAINING. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION--PRUNING. Pruning and training the grape are perplexed questions, even to those who have spent a lifetime in grape growing. The perplexity arises from several diverse sources, as the early effort to transplant European methods, the fact that many systems present almost equally good results for particular purposes and varieties, and the failure to comprehend the fundamental principles of the operations. It is sufficient condemnation of European methods when applied in eastern America, to say that the American grapes are distinct species from the European grapes, and that they are consequently different in habit. This fact does not appear to have been apprehended clearly by the early American grape-growers, even after the native varieties had begun to gain prominence. American viticulture, aside from that upon the Pacific slope which is concerned with the European grape, is an industry of very recent development. It was little more than a century ago that the first American variety gained favor, and so late as 1823 that the first definite attempt was made, in Adlum's "Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in America," to record the merits of native grapes for purposes of cultivation. Even Adlum's book was largely given to a discussion of European varieties and practices. In 1846 "Thomas' Fruit Culturist" mentioned only six "American hardy varieties," and all of these, save the Catawba, are practically not in cultivation at the present time. The Concord appeared in 1853. American grape training is, therefore, a very recent development, and we are only now outgrowing the influence of the practices early imported from Europe. The first decided epoch in the evolution of our grape training was the appearance of Fuller's "Grape Culturist," in 1864; for while the system which he depicted and which yet often bears his name, was but a modification of some European methods and had been outlined by earlier American writers, it was at that time placed clearly and cogently before the public and became an accepted practice. The fundamental principles of pruning are alike for both European and American grapes, but the details of pruning and training must be greatly modified for different species. We must understand at the outset that American species of grapes demand an American system of treatment. The great diversity of opinion which exists amongst the best grape growers concerning the advantages of different systems of training is proof that many systems have merit, and that no one system is better than others for all purposes. The grower must recognize the fact that the most important factor in determining the merits of any system of training is the habit of the vine--as its vigor, rate of growth, normal size, relative size and abundance of leaves, and season and character of fruit. Nearly every variety differs from others in habit in some particular, and it therefore requires different treatment in some important detail. Varieties may thrive equally well upon the same general system of training, but require minor modifications; so it comes that no hard and fast lines can be laid down, either for any system or any variety. One system differs from another in some one main principle or idea, but the modifications of all may meet and blend. If two men practice the Kniffin system, therefore, this fact does not indicate that they prune and train their vines exactly alike. It is impossible to construct rules for grape training; it is, therefore, important that we understand thoroughly the philosophy of pruning and training, both in general and in the different systems which are now most popular. These points we shall now consider. PRUNING. Pruning and training are terms which are often confounded when speaking of the grape, but they represent distinct operations. Pruning refers to such removal of branches as shall insure better and larger fruit upon the remaining portions. Training refers to the disposition of the different parts of the vine. It is true that different methods of training demand different styles of pruning, but the modification in pruning is only such as shall adapt it to the external shape and size of the vine, and does not in any way affect the principle upon which it rests. Pruning is a necessity, and, in essence, there is but one method; training is largely a convenience, and there are as many methods as there are fancies among grape growers. [Illustration: 1. GRAPE SHOOT.] All intelligent pruning of the grape rests upon the fact that _the fruit is borne in a few clusters near the base of the growing shoots of the season, and which spring from wood of last year's growth_. It may be said here that a growing, leafy branch of the grape vine is called a _shoot_; a ripened shoot is called a _cane_; a branch or trunk two or more years old is called an _arm_. Fig. 1 is a shoot as it appears in the northern states in June. The whole shoot has grown within a month, from a bud. As it grew, flower clusters appeared and these are to bear the grapes. Flowering is now over, but the shoot will continue to grow, perhaps to the length of ten or twenty feet. At picking time, therefore, the grapes all hang near the lower end or base of the shoots or new canes, as in fig. 2. Each bud upon the old cane, therefore, produces a new cane, which may bear fruit as well as leaves. At the close of the season, this long ripened shoot or cane has produced a bud every foot or less, from which new fruit-bearing shoots are to spring next year. But if all these buds were allowed to remain, the vine would be overtaxed with fruit the coming year and the crop would be a failure. The cane is, therefore, cut off until it bears only as many buds as experience has taught us the vine should carry. The cane may be cut back to five or ten buds, and perhaps some of these buds will be removed, or "rubbed off," next spring if the young growth seems to be too thick, or if the plant is weak. Each shoot will bear, on an average, two or three clusters. Some shoots will bear no clusters. From one to six of the old canes, each bearing from five to ten buds, are left each spring. The number of clusters which a vine can carry well depends upon the variety, the age and size of the vine, the style of the training, and the soil and cultivation. Experience is the only guide. A strong vine of Concord, which is a prolific variety, trained upon any of the ordinary systems and set nine or ten feet apart each way, will usually carry from thirty to sixty clusters. The clusters will weigh from a fourth to a half pound each. Twelve or fifteen pounds of marketable grapes is a fair or average crop for such a Concord vine, and twenty-five pounds is a very heavy crop. [Illustration: 2. THE BEARING WOOD.] The pruning of the grape vine, therefore, is essentially a thinning process. In the winter pruning, all the canes of the last season's growth are cut away except from two to six, which are left to make the fruit and wood of the next year; and each of these remaining canes is headed back to from three to ten buds. The number and length of the canes which are left after the pruning depend upon the style of training which is practiced. A vine which may completely cover a trellis in the fall, will be cut back so severely that a novice will fear that the plant is ruined. But the operator bears in mind the fact that the grape, unlike the apple, pear and peach, does not bear distinct fruit-buds in the fall, but buds which produce both fruit and wood the following season. [Illustration: 3. DIAGRAM.] Let us now suppose, therefore, that we have pruned our vine in the fall of 1891 to two canes, each bearing ten buds. We will call these canes A and B, respectively. (Fig. 3.) In 1892, therefore, twenty shoots grow from them, and each of these shoots or new canes branches, or produces laterals. We will call these new canes of 1892, A 1, A 2, A 3, B 1, B 2, and so on. Each of the new canes bears at the base about two clusters of grapes, giving a total yield of about forty clusters. These clusters stand opposite the leaves, as seen in fig. 1. In the axil of each leaf a bud is formed which will produce a cane, and perhaps fruit, in 1893. If each of these new canes, A 1, A 2, etc., produce ten buds--which is a moderate number--the vine would go into the winter of 1892-3 with 200 buds for the next year's growth and crop; but these buds should be reduced to about twenty, as they were in the fall of 1891. That is, every year we go back again to the same number of buds, and the top of the vine gets no larger from year to year. We must, therefore, cut back again to two canes. We cut back each of the original canes, A and B, to one new cane. That is, we leave only A 1 and B 1, cutting off A 2, A 3, etc., and B 2, B 3, etc. This brings the vine back to very nearly its condition in the fall of 1891; but the new canes, A 1 and B 1, which are now to become the main canes by being bent down horizontally, were borne at some distance--say three or four inches--from the base of the original canes, A and B, so that the permanent part of the vine is constantly lengthening itself. This annually lengthening portion is called a _spur_. Spurs are rarely or never made in this exact position, however, although this diagrammatic sketch illustrates clearly the method of their formation. The common method of spurring is that connected with the horizontal arm system of training, in which the canes A and B are allowed to become permanent arms, and the upright canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2, B 3, etc., are cut back to within two or three buds of the arms each year. The cane A 1, for instance, is cut back in the fall of 1892 to two or three buds, and in 1893 two or three canes will grow from this stub. In the fall of 1893 only one cane is left after the pruning, and this one is cut back to two or three buds; and so on. So the spur grows higher every year, although every effort is made to keep it short, both by reducing the number of buds to one or two and by endeavoring to bring out a cane lower down on the spur every few years. Fig. 4 shows a short spur of two years' standing. The horizontal portion shows the permanent arm. The first upright portion is the remains of the first-year cane and the upper portion is the second-year cane after it is cut back in the fall. In this instance, the cane is cut back to one fruiting bud, _b_, the small buds, _a a_, being rubbed out. There are serious objections to spurs in any position. They become hard and comparatively lifeless after a time, it is often difficult to replace them by healthy fresh wood, and the bearing portion of the vine is constantly receding from the main trunk. The bearing wood should spring from near the central portions of the vine, or be kept "near the head," as the grape-growers say. In order to do this, it is customary to allow two canes to grow out each year back of the canes A 1 and B 1, or from the head of the vine; these canes may be designated C and D. (Fig. 3.) These canes, C and D, are grown during 1892--when they may bear fruit like other canes--for the sole purpose of forming the basis of the bearing top in 1893, while all the old top, A and B, with the secondary canes, A 1, A 2, B 1, B 2, B 3, etc., is cut entirely away. Here, then, are two distinct methods of forming the bearing top for the succeeding year: either from _spurs_, which are the remains of the previous top; or from _renewals_, which are taken each year from the old wood near the head of the vine, or even from the ground. Renewals from the ground are now little used, however, for they seldom give a sufficient crop unless they are headed in the first fall and are allowed to bear the second year. It should be borne in mind that the spur and renewal methods refer entirely to pruning, not to training, for either one can be used in any system of training. Spur pruning, however, is growing in disfavor amongst commercial grape-growers, and the renewal is more or less used in all systems of training. [Illustration: 4. SPUR.] Fig. 5 illustrates a renewal pruning. This engraving shows the head of a vine seven years old, and upon which two canes are allowed to remain after each annual pruning. The portion extending from _b_ to _f_ and _d_ is the base of the bearing cane of 1892. In the winter of 1892-3, this cane is cut off at _d_, and the new cane, _e_, is left to make the bearing wood of 1893. Another cane sprung from _f_, but it was too weak to leave for fruiting. It was, therefore, cut away. The old stub, _b_, _f_, _d_, will be cut away a year hence, in the winter of 1893-4. In the meantime, a renewal cane will have grown from the stub _c_, which is left for that purpose, and the old cane, _b d_, will be cut off just beyond it, between _c_ and _f_. In this way, the bearing wood is kept close to the head of the vine. The wound _a_ shows where an old stub was cut away this winter, 1892-3, while _b_ shows where one was cut off the previous winter. A scar upon the back of the head, which does not show in the illustration, marks the spot where a stub was cut away two years ago, in the winter of 1890-1. This method of pruning can be kept up almost indefinitely, and if care is exercised in keeping the stubs short, the head will not enlarge out of proportion to the growth of the stock or trunk. [Illustration: 5. RENEWAL PRUNING.] _Pruning Young Vines._--The time required after planting to get the vine onto the wires or trellis varies with the strength of the vine when set, the variety, the soil and cultivation, and the system of training; but, as a rule, the training begins the second or third year, previous to which time the vine is pruned, not trained. Two-year-old vines are most popular for planting, although in the strong varieties, like Concord and Niagara, well-grown yearling vines are probably as good, if not better. The strong-growing kinds are commonly set from eight to ten feet apart in the row, and the rows eight or nine feet apart. Delawares and other small vines may be set closer, although eight feet is preferable. When set, the vine is cut back to two or three buds. During the first year, the young canes are usually allowed to lie upon the ground at will, as seen in fig. 6. In the fall or winter, all the canes but one are cut off, and this one is cut back to two or three buds. The vine is, therefore, no larger at the expiration of a year's growth than it was when planted; but in the meantime the plant has become thoroughly established in the soil, and the second year's growth should be strong enough to form the basis for the permanent trunk or arm. If, however, the second year's growth is weak, it may be cut back as before, and the third season's growth used for the trunk. On the other hand, the growth of the first year is sometimes carried onto the wires to form the permanent trunk and arms, but it is only with extra strong vines in good soil that this practice is admissible. From this point, the treatment of the vine is discussed under training. [Illustration: 6. A NEWLY SET VINEYARD.] _When to Prune._--Grape vines may be pruned at any time during the winter. It is the practice among most grape-growers in the north to prune as time permits from November to late in February, or even early March. The sap flows very freely from cuts made in spring and early summer, causing the phenomenon known as "bleeding," or in Europe as "weeping," and in order to prevent this loss, pruning is stopped six weeks or more before the time at which the buds usually swell. It is yet a moot point if this bleeding injures the vine, but it is a safe practice to prune early. The vine is cut off an inch or two beyond the last bud which it is desired to leave, in order to avoid injury to the bud from the drying out of the end of the cane. The pruning is done with small hand pruning-shears. The canes are often allowed to remain tied to the wires until the pruning is accomplished, although it is the practice with most growers who use the Kniffin system to cut the strings before pruning. The removal of the severed canes is known as "stripping." In large vineyards, the pruner sometimes leaves the stripping to boys or other cheap labor. The stripping may be done at any time after the pruning is performed until spring. It must be done before the growth starts on the remaining portions of the vine, however, to avoid injury to the young buds when tearing the vines off the trellis. _Summer Pruning._--There is much discussion as to the advisability of summer pruning. It is essential to the understanding of the question that the grower bear in mind that this summer pruning is of two kinds--the removal or "breaking out" of the superfluous shoots, and heading-in or "stopping" the main canes to keep them within limits. The superfluous shoots are such as spring from small, weak buds or those which break from the old arms or trunk of the vine. Shoots which start from the very base of the old cane are usually weak and should be removed. Buds in this position are shown at _a a_, in fig. 4. The secondary or axillary branches, which often start from the base of the season's shoots, should be removed or broken out. These superfluous shoots are pulled off from time to time as they appear, or the buds may be rubbed off before the shoots begin to grow. The heading-in of the main canes, while desirable for the purpose of keeping the vine within bounds, is apt to cause a growth of laterals which choke up the vine and which do not mature, and in those styles of training in which very little wood is allowed to grow, the practice may prevent the development of a sufficient amount of leaf surface to properly sustain the vine. Vines are often weakened by summer pruning. These dangers can be overcome by careful attention, however, especially by heading-in very lightly and by doing it as late in the season as possible, when new lateral growth does not start readily. The necessity of much heading-in has been largely obviated in late years by the adoption of high or drooping systems of training, and by setting the vines far apart. The strong varieties, like Concord, Brighton and Niagara, should be set ten feet apart in the row, especially if grown upon the Kniffin system. Catawba, being a very upright grower and especially well adapted to upright training, may be set eight feet apart, and Delawares are often set as close as six or eight feet. It is doubtful, however, if any variety should be set less than eight feet apart for trellis culture. In Virginia and southward, where the growth is large because of the long seasons, vines are often set more than ten feet apart. In the South, the rows should run north and south, that the fruit may be shaded from midday sun. The only summer heading-in now generally recommended is the clipping of the tips when they fall over and begin to touch the ground. This clipping is often done with a sickle or sharp corn-cutter. _Objects of Pruning._--The objects of pruning the grape, as of other fruits, are five: 1. To produce larger and better fruit. 2. To maintain or augment the vigor of the vine. 3. To keep the vine within manageable limits. 4. To facilitate cultivation. 5. To facilitate spraying. CHAPTER II. PRELIMINARY PREPARATIONS FOR TRAINING--THE TRELLIS--TYING. Training the grape vine is practiced for the purpose of keeping the vine in convenient shape and to allow each cluster to receive its full amount of space and light. A well trained vine is easily cultivated and sprayed, and the grapes are readily harvested, and it is only upon such vines that the best and fairest fruit is uniformly produced. Some kind of training is essential, for a vine will not often bear good fruit when it lies upon the ground. In essence, there are three general types or styles of training, which may be designated as the upright, drooping and horizontal, these terms designating the direction of the bearing shoots. The upright systems carry two or more canes or arms along a low horizontal wire, or sometimes obliquely across a trellis from below upwards, and the shoots are tied up as they grow to the wires above. The horizontal systems carry up a perpendicular cane or arm, or sometimes two or more, from which the shoots are carried out horizontally and are tied to perpendicular wires or posts. The drooping systems, represented in the Kniffin and post-training, carry the canes or arms upon a high horizontal wire or trellis and allow the shoots to hang without tying. To one or another of these types all the systems of American grape-training can be referred. There is no system of training which is best for all purposes and all varieties. The strong-growing varieties more readily adapt themselves to the high drooping systems than the weaker varieties, although the Delaware is often trained on a comparatively low Kniffin with good effect. The high or drooping systems are of comparatively recent date, and their particular advantages are the saving of labor in summer tying, cheapness of the trellis, and the facility with which the ground can be cultivated without endangering the branches of the vine. The upright training distributes the bearing wood more evenly upon the vine and is thought, therefore, to insure more uniform fruit, it keeps the top near the root, which is sometimes thought to be an advantage, and it is better suited to the stature of the small-growing varieties. There is, perhaps, a greater temptation to neglect the vines in the drooping systems than in the others, because the shoots need no tying and do not, therefore, demand frequent attention; while in the upright systems the shoots soon become broken or displaced if not watched. For very large areas, or circumstances in which the best of care cannot be given the vineyard, the Kniffin or drooping systems are perhaps always to be recommended. Yet the Kniffin profits as much from diligence and skill as the other systems; but it will give better results than the others under partial neglect. The strong varieties, especially those making long and drooping canes, are well adapted to the Kniffin styles; but the smaller sorts, and those stronger sorts which, like Catawba, make an upright and stocky growth, are usually trained upon the upright systems. But the merits of both systems are so various and even so little understood, that it is impossible to recommend either one unqualifiedly. The advantages in either case are often little more than matters of personal opinion. It should be said, however, that the Kniffin or drooping systems are gaining in favor rapidly, and are evidently destined to overthrow much of the older upright training. This fact does not indicate, however, that the upright system is to be entirety superseded, but rather that it must be confined to those varieties and conditions for which it is best adapted. The two systems will undoubtedly supplement each other. The horizontal systems are occasionally used for choice varieties, but they are little known. _Making the Trellis._--The fall or winter following the planting of the vineyard, the trellis is begun if the upright systems are used; but this operation is usually delayed a year longer in the Kniffin systems, and stakes are commonly used, or at least recommended, during the second season. In the South the trellis is made the first year. The style of trellis will depend upon the style of training, but the main features are the same for all. Strong posts of some durable timber, as cedar, locust or oak, are placed at such distance apart that two vines can be set between each two. If the vines are set nine feet apart, the posts maybe eighteen or twenty feet apart, and a vine will then stand four or five feet from each post. If the posts in the row are eighteen feet apart and the rows eight feet apart, about 330 posts will be required to the acre. Except in very hard and stony lands, the posts are driven with a heavy maul, although many people prefer to set the end posts in holes, thinking that they endure the strain better. In all loose soils, however, posts can be made as firm by driving as by setting with a spade. All posts should be as firm as possible, in order to hold up the heavy loads of vines and fruit. In setting posts on hillsides, it is a common practice to lean them slightly uphill, for there is always a tendency for the posts to tilt down the slope. For the Kniffin systems, especially for the strong-growing grapes, the posts must stand six or six and one-half feet high when set, but a foot less will usually be sufficient for the upright and horizontal systems. The posts should stand higher at first than is necessary for the support of the wires, for they will need to be driven down occasionally as they become loose. The end posts of each row should be well braced, as shown in several of the illustrations in this volume. The wire ordinarily used is No. 12, except for the top wire in the Kniffin training, which is usually No. 10, as the greater part of the weight is then upon the top wire. No. 9 is sometimes used, but it is heavier than necessary. No. 14 is occasionally used for the middle and upper rows in the upright systems, but it is not strong enough. The following figures show the sizes and weights of these and similar iron and steel wires: No. Diameter in inches. Weight of 100 feet. Feet in 2,000 pounds. 9 .148 5.80 pounds. 34,483 10 .135 4.83 " 41,408 11 .120 3.82 " 52,356 12 .105 2.92 " 68,493 13 .092 2.24 " 89,286 14 .080 1.69 " 118,343 15 .072 1.37 " 145,985 16 .063 1.05 " 190,476 The plain annealed iron wire costs about 3 cents per pound, and the galvanized--which is less used for vineyards--3-1/2 cents. Of No. 12 wire, about 160 pounds is required per acre for a single run on rows eight feet apart, and about 500 pounds for three runs. The cost of No. 12 wire per acre, for three runs, therefore, is about $15. The wire is secured to the intermediate posts by staples driven in firmly so that the wire will not pull through readily of its own weight, but still loosely enough to allow of the tightening of the wires. In other words, the head of the staple should not quite touch the wire. Grape staples are of three lengths, about an inch, inch and a quarter, and an inch and a half respectively. The shortest length is little used. The medium length is used for hard-wood posts and the longest for soft posts, like chestnut and cedar. These staples cost five cents per pound usually, and a pound of the medium length contains from 90 to 100 of the No. 10 wire size. An acre, for three wires, will therefore require, for this size, about nine or ten pounds of staples. In windy regions, the wires should be placed upon the windward side of the posts. There are various devices for securing the wire to the end posts, but the commonest method is to wind them about the post once and secure them with a staple, or twist the end of the wire back upon itself, forming a loop. The wires should be drawn taut to prevent sagging with the weight of fruit and leaves. In order to allow for the contraction of the wires in winter, some growers loosen the wires after harvest and others provide some device which will relieve the strain. The Yeoman's Patent Grape-Vine Trellis is a simple and effective lever-contrivance attached to each wire, and which is operated to loosen the wires in fall and to tighten them in spring. The end post is sometimes provided upon the back with a square-headed pin which works tightly in an inch and a half augur hole and about which the end of the wire is wound. A square-headed iron wrench operates the pin, while the tension of the wire around the side of the post keeps the pin from slipping. This device is not durable, however. An ingenious man can easily contrive some device for relieving the tension, if he should think it necessary. As a matter of practice, however, the wires soon stretch and sag enough with the burden of fruit and vines to take up the winter contraction, and most growers do not release the wires in fall. It will be found necessary, in fact, to tighten the wires and to straighten up the posts from year to year, as they become loose. It is always a profitable labor to tamp the ground firmly about all the posts every spring. The wires should always be kept tight during the growing season to prevent the whipping of the vines by wind. This is especially important in white grapes, which are discolored by the rubbing of leaves and twigs. Unless the vines are very strong it will be necessary to stretch only one wire the first winter. Trellises are often made of slats, as shown in Fig. 18, but these are always less durable than the wire trellises and more expensive to keep in repair; and in the older portions of the country, where timber is dear, they are also more expensive at the outset. They catch the wind, and, not being held together by continuous strands, are likely to blow down in sections. Fuller particulars concerning the styles of trellis are given in the discussions of the different systems of training. _Tying._--Probably the best material for tying the canes and shoots to the trellis is raffia. This is a bast-like material which comes in skeins and which can be bought of seedsmen and nurserymen for about 20 cents a pound. A pound will suffice to tie a quarter of an acre of upright training throughout the season. Raffia is obtained from the strippings of an oriental palm (_Raphia Ruffia_). Wool-twine is also still largely used for tying, but it is not so cheap and handy as raffia, and it usually has to be cut when the trellis is stripped at the winter pruning, while the raffia breaks with a quick pull of the vine. Some complain that the raffia is not strong enough to hold the vine during the season, but it can easily be doubled. Osier willows are much used for tying up the canes in the spring, and also for summer tying, especially in the nursery regions where the slender trimmings of the cultivated osier willows are easily procured. Wild willows are often used if they can be obtained handily. These willows are tied up in a small bundle, which is held upon the back above the hips by a cord passed about the body. The butts project under the right hand, if the person is right-handed, and the strands are pulled out as needed. The butt is first used, the tie being made with a twist and tuck, the strand is then cut off with a knife, and the twig is operated in like manner until it is used up. When wool-twine is used, the ball is often held in front of the workman by a cord which is tied about it and then passed about the waist. The ball is unwound from the inside, and it will hold its shape until the end becomes so short that it will easily drag upon the ground. Some workmen carry the ball in a bag, after the manner of carrying seed-corn. Raffia is not so easily carried in the field as the wool-twine or the willow, and this fact interferes with its popularity. Green rye-straw, cut directly from the field, is much used for tying the shoots in summer. Small wire, about two-thirds the size of broom-wire, is used occasionally for tying up the canes in spring, but it must be used with care or it will injure the vine. Corn-husks are also employed for this purpose when they can be secured. Bass-bark is sometimes used for tying, but in most of the grape regions it is difficult to secure, and it has no advantage over raffia. It is very important that the canes be tied up early in spring, for the buds are easily broken after they begin to swell. These canes are tied rather firmly to the wires to hold them steady; but the growing shoots, which are tied during the summer, are fastened more loosely, to allow of the necessary increase in diameter. [Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)] CHAPTER III. THE UPRIGHT SYSTEMS. The upright systems are the oldest and best known of the styles of American grape training. They consist, essentially, in carrying out two horizontal canes, or sometimes arms, upon a low wire and training the shoots from them vertically upwards. These shoots are tied to the upper wires as they grow. This type was first clearly and forcibly described in detail by A. S. Fuller, in his "Grape Culturist," in 1864, and it became known as the Fuller system, although it was practiced many years previous to this time. _Horizontal Arm Spur System._--There are two types or styles of this upright system. The older type and the one described in the books, is known as the Horizontal Arm Spur training. In this method, the two horizontal branches are permanent, or, in other words, they are true arms. The canes are cut back each fall to upright spurs upon these arms, as explained on page 15 (fig. 4.) Two shoots are often allowed to grow from each of these spurs, as shown in fig. 7. These spurs become overgrown and weak after a few years, and they are renewed from new shoots which spring from near their base or from the arm itself. Sometimes the whole arm is renewed from the head of the vine, or even from the ground. [Illustration: 7. HORIZONTAL ARM SPUR TRAINING.] The number of these upright canes and their distance apart upon these permanent arms depend upon the variety, the strength of the vine and soil and the fancy of the grower. From twelve to twenty inches apart upon the arm is the common distance. If a vine is strong enough to carry five canes and the vines are eight feet apart, then the canes are distributed at intervals of about twenty inches. Some very strong vines of vigorous varieties will carry eight canes upon the two arms together, and in this case the canes stand about a foot apart. In the fall or winter, the cane is cut away and the strongest new cane which springs from its base is left for the bearing wood of the following year. This new cane is itself headed in to the height of the trellis; that is, if the uppermost and lowermost wires are 34 inches apart--as they are in the Brocton vineyards of western New York, where this system is largely used--this new cane is shortened in to 34 inches long. Upon this length of cane there will be about seven good buds in the common varieties. [Illustration: 8. HORIZONTAL ARM. (Diagram.)] A modification of this horizontal arm system is shown in fig. 9. It is used about Forestville, in Chautauqua county, New York. The arms in this case are very short, and canes are taken out only at two or three places. The picture shows a vine in which two canes are taken from the end of each arm, making four canes for the bearing top of the vine. These canes are cut back to spurs in the fall, as explained in the above paragraph. Sometimes one or two other canes are taken out of these arms nearer the main trunk. The advantages urged for this style of training are the stronger growth which is insured by so few canes, and the small amount of old or permanent wood which is left to each vine. [Illustration: 9. SHORT ARM SPUR TRAINING.] The horizontal arm training is less popular than it was twenty years ago. It has serious faults, especially in the persistence of the old spurs, and probably will eventually give place to other systems. Aside from the spur pruning, the system is much like the following, which is a modification to allow of a renewal pruning and to which the reader is referred for further details. This modification, which may be called the High Renewal, and which is one of the most serviceable of any of the styles of training, although it has never been fully described, we shall now consider. _The High Renewal_, or upright training which is now very extensively employed in the lake regions of New York and elsewhere, starts the head or branches of the vine from eighteen to thirty inches from the ground. The ideal height for most varieties is probably about two feet to the first wire, although thirty inches is better than eighteen. If the vines are lower than two feet, they are liable to be injured by the plow or cultivator, the earth is dashed against the clusters by heavy rains, and if the shoots become loose they strike the ground and the grapes are soon soiled. A single trunk or arm is carried up to the required height, or if good branches happen to form lower down, two main canes are carried from this point up to the required distance to meet the lower wire, so that the trunk becomes Y-shaped, as seen in figs. 10, 16 and 17. In fact, vineyardists usually prefer to have this head or crotch a few inches below the lowest wire, to facilitate the spreading and placing of the canes. The trellis for the upright systems nearly always comprises three wires, although only two are sometimes used for the smaller growing varieties, and very rarely four are used for the strongest kinds, although this number is unnecessary. The lowest wire is stretched at eighteen, twenty-four or thirty inches from the ground, and the two upper ones are placed at distances of eighteen or twenty inches apart. [Illustration: 10. THE SECOND SEASON OF UPRIGHT TRAINING.] [Illustration: 11. MAKING THE T-HEAD.] The second season after planting should see the vine tied to the first wire. Fig. 10 is a photograph taken in July, 1892, of a Concord vine which was set in the spring of 1891. In the fall of 1891 the vine was cut back to three or four buds, and in the spring of 1892 two of these buds were allowed to make canes. These two canes are now tied to the wire, which was stretched in the spring of 1892. In this case, the branches start near the surface of the ground. Sometimes only a single strong shoot grows, and in order to secure the two branches it is broken over where it passes the wire, and is usually tied to a stake to afford support. Fig. 11 shows this operation. A bud will develop at the bend or break, from which a cane can be trained in the opposite direction from the original portion, and the T-head is secured. [Illustration: 12. THE THIRD SEASON OF HIGH RENEWAL.--CONCORD.] [Illustration: 13. HIGH RENEWAL, BEFORE PRUNING.--CATAWBA.] The close of the second season after planting, therefore, will usually find the vine with two good canes extending in opposite directions and tied to the wire. The pruning at that time will consist in cutting off the ends of these canes back to firm and strong wood, which will leave them bearing from five to eight buds. The third season, shoots will grow upright from these buds and will be tied to the second wire, which has now been supplied. Late in the third season the vine should have much the appearance of that shown in fig. 12. The third wire is usually added to the trellis at the close of the second season, at the same time that the second wire is put on; but occasionally this is delayed until the close of the third season. Some of the upright shoots may bear a few grapes this third season, but unless the vines are very strong the flower clusters should be removed; and a three-year-old vine should never be allowed to bear heavily. It must be remembered, however, that both these horizontal canes, with all their mass of herbage, are to be cut away in the fall or winter of the third year. Some provision must have been made, therefore, for the top for the fourth year. It will be recalled that in discussing the renewal pruning (page 16, fig. 5), it was found that two or more shoots are allowed to grow each year to form the basis of the top the following year. In fig. 12 three or four such shoots can be seen springing from the Y-shaped portion in the center of the vine. These shoots or canes are to be bent down to the lowest wire next spring, and the bearing shoots will arise from them. This process will be seen at a glance from figs. 13, 14 and 15. The first shows a full grown old vine, trained on three wires. Fig. 14 shows the same vine when pruned. Two long canes, with six or eight buds each, are left to form the top of the following year. The two stubs from which the renewal canes are to grow for the second year's top are seen in the center. In the fall of the next year, therefore, these two outside canes will be cut away to the base of these renewal stubs; and the renewal canes, in the meantime, will have made a year's growth. These renewal stubs in this picture are really spurs, as will be seen; that is, they contain two ages of wood. It is the purpose, however, to remove these stubs or spurs every two or three years at most, and to bring new canes directly from the old wood or head. If possible, the renewal cane is brought from a new place on the old wood every year in order to avoid a spur. Such was the case in the vine shown in fig. 5, page 19. Fig. 15 shows the same vine tied down to the lowest wire. Two ties have been made upon each cane. Fig. 16 shows a vine in which four canes have been left to form the top for the following year. The stubs for the renewals can be seen in the Y. It is customary to leave more than two canes, occasionally, in strong-growing varieties like Concord. Sometimes four and occasionally six are left. If four canes are left, two may be tied together in each direction upon the bottom wire. If six are used, the two extra ones should be tied along the second wire, parallel with the lowest ones. These extra canes are sometimes tied obliquely across the trellis, but this practice should be discouraged, for the usual tendency of the vine is to make its greatest growth at the top, and the lower buds may fail to bear. [Illustration: 14. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED.] [Illustration: 15. HIGH RENEWAL, PRUNED AND TIED.] The ideal length of the two canes varies with different varieties and the distance apart at which the vines are set. Very strong kinds, like Concord and Niagara, can carry ten or twelve buds on each cane, especially if the vines are set more than eight feet apart. Fig. 17 shows half of a Concord vine in which about ten buds were left on each cane. These strong sorts can often carry forty or fifty buds to the vine to advantage, but when this number is left the canes should be four, as explained in the last paragraph. In Delaware and other weak-growing varieties, twenty or twenty-five buds to the vine should be the maximum and only two canes should be left. In short-jointed varieties, the canes are usually cut to the desired length--four to six feet--even if too great a number of buds is left, but the shoots which spring from these extra buds are broken out soon after they start. A Delaware vine which has made an unusually short or weak growth will require fewer buds to be left for next year's top than a neighboring vine of the same variety which has made a strong growth. The Catawba, which is a short but very stiff grower, is usually cut back to six or eight buds, as seen in figs. 13, 14 and 15. The grower soon learns to adjust the pruning to the character of the vine without effort. He has in his mind a certain ideal crop of grapes, perhaps about so many bunches, and he leaves enough buds to produce this amount, allowing, perhaps, ten per cent. of the buds for accidents and barren shoots. He knows, too, that the canes should always be cut back to firm, well-ripened wood. It should be said that mere size of cane does not indicate its value as a fruit-bearing branch. Hard, smooth wood of medium size usually gives better results than the very large and softer canes which are sometimes produced on soils rich in nitrogenous manures. This large and overgrown wood is known as a "bull cane." A cane does not attain its full growth the first year, but will increase in diameter during the second season. The tying therefore, should be sufficiently loose or elastic to allow of growth, although it should be firm enough to hold the cane constantly in place. The cane should not be hung from the wire, but tied close to it, provision being made for the swelling of the wood to twice its diameter. [Illustration: 16. HIGH RENEWAL WITH FOUR CANES.] [Illustration: 17. HIGH RENEWAL COMPLETE.--CONCORD.] The shoots are tied to the second wire soon after they pass it, or have attained firmness enough to allow of tying, and the same shoots are tied again to the top wire. All the shoots do not grow with equal rapidity, and the vineyard must be gone over more than twice if the shoots are kept properly tied. Perhaps four times over the vineyard will be all that is necessary for careful summer tying. Many vineyardists tie only once or twice, but this neglect should be discouraged. This tying is mostly done with green rye straw or raffia. A piece of straw about ten inches long is used for each tie, it usually being wrapped but once about the shoot. The knot is made with a twist and tuck. If raffia is used, a common string-knot is made. When the shoots reach the top of the trellis, they are usually allowed to take care of themselves. The Catawba shoots stand nearly erect above the top wire and ordinarily need no attention. The long-growing varieties will be likely to drag the shoots upon the ground before the close of the season. If these tips interfere with the cultivation, they may be clipped off with a sickle or corn-cutter, although this practice should be delayed as long as possible to prevent the growth of laterals (see page 21). It is probably better to avoid cutting entirely. Some growers wind or tie the longest shoots upon the top wire, as seen in fig. 17. It is probably best, as a rule, to allow the shoots to hang over naturally, and to clip them only when they seriously interfere with the work of the hoe and cultivator. The treatment for slat trellises, as shown in fig. 18, is the same as on wire trellises, except that longer strings must be used in tying. [Illustration: 18. A SLAT TRELLIS, WITH UPRIGHT TRAINING.] It is apparent that nearly or quite all the fruit in the High Renewal is borne between the first and second wires, at the bottom of the trellis. If the lower wire is twenty-four or thirty inches high, this fruit will hang at the most convenient height for picking. The fruit trays are set upon the ground, and both hands are free. The fruit is also protected from the hot suns and from frost; and if the shoots are properly tied, the clusters are not shaken roughly by the wind. It is, of course, desirable that all the clusters should be fully exposed to light and air, and all superfluous shoots should, therefore, be pulled off, as already explained (page 21). In rare cases it may also be necessary, for this purpose, to prune the canes which droop over from the top of the trellis. After a few years, the old top or head of the vine becomes more or less weak and it should be renewed from the root. The thrifty vineyardist anticipates this circumstance, and now and then allows a thrifty shoot which may spring from the ground to remain. This shoot is treated very much like a young vine, and the head is formed during the second year (page 16, bottom). If it should make a strong growth during the first year and develop stout laterals, it may be cut back only to the lowest wire the first fall; but in other cases, it should be cut back to two or three buds, from one of which a strong and permanent shoot is taken the second year. When this new top comes into bearing, the old trunk is cut off at the surface of the ground, or below if possible. A top will retain its vigor for six or eight years under ordinary treatment, and sometimes much longer. These tops are renewed from time to time as occasion permits or demands, and any vineyard which has been bearing a number of years will nearly always have a few vines in process of renewal. The reader should not receive the impression, however, that the life or vitality of a vine is necessarily limited. Vines often continue to bear for twenty years or more without renewal; but the head after a time comes to be large and rough and crooked, and often weakened by scars, and better results are likely to be obtained if a new, clean vine takes its place. The High Renewal is extensively used in the lake region of Western New York, for all varieties. It is particularly well adapted to Delaware, Catawba, and other weak or short varieties. When systematically pursued, it gives fruit of the highest excellence. This High Renewal training, like all the low upright systems, allows the vines to be laid down easily in winter, which is an important consideration in many parts of Canada and in the colder northern states. _Fan Training._--A system much used a few years ago and still sometimes seen, is one which renews back nearly to the ground each year, and carries the fruiting canes up in a fan-shaped manner. This system has the advantages of dispensing with much of the old wood, or trunk, and facilitating laying down the vine in winter in cold climates. On the other hand, it has the disadvantages of bearing the fruit too low--unless the lower clusters are removed--and making a vine of inconvenient shape for tying. It is little used at present. Fig. 19 shows a vine pruned for fan-training, although it is by no means an ideal vine. This vine has not been properly renewed, but bears long, crooked spurs, from which the canes spring. One of these spurs will be seen to extend beyond the lower wire. The spurs should be kept very short, and they should be entirely removed every two or three years, as explained in the above discussion of the High Renewal training. The shoots are allowed to take their natural course, being tied to any wire near which they chance to grow, finally lopping over the top wire. Sometimes the canes are bent down and tied horizontally to the wires, and this is probably the better practice. Two canes may be tied in each direction on the lower wire, or the two inner canes may be tied down to the second wire. In either case, the vine is essentially like the High Renewal, except that the trunk is shorter. [Illustration: 19. FAN TRAINING, AFTER PRUNING.] CHAPTER IV. THE DROOPING SYSTEMS. In 1845 William T. Cornell planted a vineyard in the Hudson River Valley. A neighbor, William Kniffin, was a stone mason with a few acres of land to which he devoted his attention during the leisure seasons of his trade. Cornell induced Kniffin to plant a few grapes. He planted the Isabella, and succeeding beyond his expectations, the plantation was increased into a respectable vineyard and Kniffin came to be regarded as a local authority upon grape culture. Those were the pioneer days in commercial grape growing in North America, and there were no undisputed maxims of cultivation and training. If any system of close training and pruning was employed, it was probably the old horizontal arm spur system, or something like it. One day a large limb broke from an apple-tree and fell upon a grape-vine, tearing off some of the canes and crushing the vine into a singular shape. The vine was thought to be ruined, but it was left until the fruit could be gathered. But as the fruit matured, its large size and handsome appearance attracted attention. It was the best fruit in the vineyard! Mr. Kniffin was an observant man, and he inquired into the cause of the excellent fruit. He noticed that the vine had been pruned and that the best canes stood out horizontally. From this suggestion he developed the four-cane system of training which now bears his name. A year or two later, in 1854, the system had attracted the attention of those of his neighbors who cultivated grapes, and thereafter it spread throughout the Hudson valley, where it is to-day, with various modifications, the chief method of grape training. Its merits have become known beyond its original valley, and it is now spreading more rapidly than any other system. The ground upon which the old Isabellas grew is now occupied by Concords, which are as vigorous and productive as those grown upon newer soils. William Kniffin died at his home in Clintondale, Ulster county, New York, June 13, 1876, at fifty-seven years of age. The portrait is from a photograph which was taken two or three years before his death. [Illustration: 20. WILLIAM KNIFFIN.] _The True or Four-Cane Kniffin System._--Figure 21 shows the true Kniffin system, very nearly as practiced by its originator. A single stem or trunk is carried directly to the top wire, and two canes are taken out from side spurs at each wire. Mr. Kniffin believed in short canes, and cut them back to about six buds on both wires. But most growers now prefer to leave the upper canes longer than the lower ones, as seen in illustration. The bearing shoots are allowed to hang at will, so that no summer tying is necessary; this is the distinguishing mark of the various Kniffin systems. The main trunk is tied to each wire, and the canes are tied to the wires in spring. This system possesses the great advantage, therefore, of requiring little labor during the busy days of the growing season; and the vines are easily cultivated, and if the rows are nine or ten feet apart, currants or other bush-fruits can be grown between. The system is especially adapted to the strong varieties of grapes. For further comparisons of the merits of different systems of training, the reader should consult Chapter II. [Illustration: 21. THE TRUE KNIFFIN TRAINING.] [Illustration: 22. NO. 21 WHEN PRUNED.] The pruning of the Kniffin vine consists in cutting off all the wood save a single cane from each spur. Fig. 22 illustrates the process. This is the same vine which is shown with the full amount of wood on in fig. 21. The drooping shoots shown in that illustration bore the grapes of 1892; and now, in the winter of 1892-93, they are all to be cut away, with the horizontal old canes from which they grew, save only the four canes which hang nearest the main trunk. Fig. 22 shows the vine after it had been pruned. It is not obligatory that the canes which are left after the pruning should be those nearest the trunk, for it may happen that these may be weak; but, other things being equal, these canes are preferable because their selection keeps the old spurs short. The careful grower will take pains to remove the weak shoots which start from this point, in order that a strong cane may be obtained. It is desirable that these side spurs be removed entirely every three or four years, a new cane being brought out again from the main body or trunk. There is little expectation, however, that there shall be such a complete renewal pruning as that practiced in the High Renewal, which we discussed in the last chapter. It will be seen that the drooping canes in fig. 22 are shorter than they were originally, as shown in fig. 21. They have been cut back. The length at which these canes shall be left is a moot point. Much depends upon the variety, the distance between the wires, the strength of the soil, and other factors. Nearly all growers now agree that the upper canes should be longer than the lower ones, although equal canes are still used in some places. In strong varieties, like Worden, each of the upper canes may bear ten buds and each of the lower ones five. This gives thirty buds to the vine. Some growers prefer to leave twelve buds above and only four below. These four pruned canes are generally allowed to hang during winter, but are tied onto the wires before the buds swell in spring. They are stretched out horizontally and secured to the wire by one or two ties upon each cane. The shoots which spring from these horizontal canes stand upright or oblique at first but they soon fall over with the weight of foliage and fruit. If they touch the ground, the ends may be clipped off with a sickle, corn-cutter or scythe, although this is not always done, and is not necessary unless the canes interfere with cultivation. There is no summer-pinching nor pruning, although the superfluous shoots should be broken out, as in other systems. (See page 23). Only two wires are used in the true Kniffin trellis. The end posts are usually set in holes, rather than driven, to render them solid, and they should always be well braced. The intermediate posts are driven, and they usually stand between every alternate vine, or twenty feet apart if the vines are ten feet apart--which is a common distance for the most vigorous varieties. For the strong-growing varieties, the top wire is placed from five and one-half to six feet above the ground. Five feet nine inches is a popular height. The posts will heave sufficiently to bring the height to six feet, although it is best to "tap" the posts every spring with a maul in order to drive them back and make them firm. The lower wire is usually placed at three and one-half feet. Delawares, if trained Kniffin, should not stand above five feet four inches, or at most five feet six inches. Strong vines on good soil are often put onto the trellis the second year, although it is a commoner practice, perhaps, to stake them the second season, as already explained (page 27), and put them on the wires the third season. The year following the tying to the trellis, the vine should bear a partial crop. The vine is usually carried directly to the top wire the first season of training, although it is the practice of some growers, especially outside the Hudson valley, to stop the trunk at the lower wire the first year of permanent training, and to carry it to the top wire the following year. Yields from good Kniffin vines will average fully as high and perhaps higher than from other species of training. W. D. Barns, of Orange county, New York, has had an annual average of twenty-six pounds of Concords to the vine for nine years, 1,550 vines being considered in the calculation. While the Delaware is not so well suited to the Kniffin system as stronger varieties, it can nevertheless be trained in this manner with success, as the following average yields obtained by Mr. Barns from 200 vines set in 1881 will show: 1886 8-1/2 pounds to the vine. 1887 11-3/4 " " " " 1888 8 " " " " 1889 9-1/2 " " " " 1890 7 " " " " 1891 16 " " " " 1892 13 " " " " _Modifications of the Four-Cane Kniffin._--Various modifications of this original four-cane Kniffin are in use. The Kniffin idea is often carelessly applied to a rack trellis. In such cases, several canes were allowed to grow where only two should have been left. Fig. 23 is a common but poor style of Kniffin used in some of the large new vineyards of western New York. It differs from the type in the training of the young wood. These shoots, instead of being allowed to hang at will, are carried out horizontally and either tied to the wire or twisted around it. The advantage urged for this modification is the little injury done by wind, but, as a matter of practice, it affords less protection than the true drooping Kniffin, for in the latter the shoots from the upper cane soon cling to the lower wire, and the shoots from both tiers of canes protect each other below the lower wire. There are three serious disadvantages to this holding up of the shoots,--it makes unnecessary labor, the canes are likely to make wood or "bull canes" (see page 50) at the expense of fruit, and the fruit is bunched together on the vines. [Illustration: 23. A POOR TYPE OF KNIFFIN.] Another common modification of the four-cane Kniffin is that shown in fig. 24, in which a crotch or Y is made in the trunk. This crotch is used in the belief that the necessary sap supply is thereby more readily deflected into the lower arms than by the system of side spurring on a straight or continuous trunk. This is probably a fallacy, and may have arisen from the attempt to grow as heavy canes on the lower wire as on the upper one. Nevertheless, this modification is in common use in western New York and elsewhere. [Illustration: 24. THE Y-TRUNK KNIFFIN.] If it is desired to leave an equal number of buds on both wires, the Double Kniffin will probably be found most satisfactory. Two distinct trunks are brought from the root, each supplying a single wire only. The trunks are tied together to hold them in place. This system, under the name of Improved Kniffin, is just coming into notice in restricted portions of the Hudson valley. _The Two-Cane Kniffin, or Umbrella System._--Inasmuch as the greater part of the fruit in the Four-Cane Kniffin is born upon the upper wire, the question arises if it would not be better to dispense with the lower canes and cut the upper ones longer. This is now done to a considerable extent, especially in the Hudson valley. Fig. 25 explains the operation. This shows a pruned vine. The trunk is tied to the lower wire to steady it, and two canes, each bearing from nine to fifteen buds, are left upon the upper wire. These canes are tied to the upper wire and they are then bent down, hoop-like, to the lower wire, where the ends are tied. In some instances, the lower wire is dispensed with, but this is not advisable. This wire holds the vine in place against the winds and prevents the too violent whipping of the hanging shoots. During the growing season, renewal canes are taken from the spurs in exactly the same manner as in the ordinary Kniffin. This species of training reduces the amount of leaf-surface to a minimum, and every precaution must be taken to insure a healthy leaf-growth. This system of training will probably not allow of the successful girdling of the vine for the purpose of hastening the maturity and augmenting the size of the fruit. Yet heavy crops can be obtained from it, if liberal fertilizing and good cultivation are employed, and the fruit is nearly always first-class. A Concord vine trained in this manner produced in 1892 eighty clusters of first quality grapes, weighing forty pounds. [Illustration: 25. UMBRELLA TRAINING.] Another type of Umbrella training is shown in fig. 26, before pruning. Here five main canes were allowed to grow, instead of two. Except in very strong vines, this top is too heavy, and it is probably never so good as the other (fig. 25), if the highest results are desired; but for the grower who does not care to insure high cultivation it is probably a safer system than the other. [Illustration: 26. A POOR UMBRELLA SYSTEM.] _The Low, or One-Wire Kniffin._--A modification of this Umbrella system is sometimes used, in which the trellis is only three or four feet high and comprises but a single wire. A cane of ten or a dozen buds is tied out in each direction, and the shoots are allowed to hang in essentially the same manner as in the True or High Kniffin system. The advantages urged for this system are the protection of the grapes from wind, the large size of the fruit due to the small amount of bearing wood, the ease of laying down the vines, the readiness with which the top can be renewed from the root as occasion demands, and the cheapness of the trellis. _The Six-Cane Kniffin._--There are many old vineyards in eastern New York which are trained upon a six-cane or three-wire system. The general pruning and management of these vines do not differ from that of the common Kniffin. Very strong varieties which can carry an abundance of wood, may be profitable upon this style of training, but it cannot be recommended. A Concord vineyard over thirty years old, comprising 295 vines, trained in this fashion, is still thrifty and productive. Twice it has produced crops of six tons. [Illustration: 27. EIGHT-CANE KNIFFIN. (Diagram.)] _Eight-Cane Kniffin._--Eight and even ten canes are sometimes left upon a single trunk, and are trained out horizontally or somewhat obliquely, as shown in the accompanying diagram (fig. 27). Unless these canes are cut back to four or five buds each, the vine carries too much wood and fruit. This system allows of close planting, but the trellis is too expensive. The trunk soon becomes overgrown with spurs, and it is likely to become prematurely weak. This style is very rarely used. [Illustration: 28. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.] [Illustration: 29. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN.] _Overhead, or Arbor Kniffin._--A curious modification of the Kniffin is employed somewhat on the Hudson, particularly by Sands Haviland at Marlboro'. The vines are carried up on a kind of overhead arbor, as shown in figs. 28, 29 and 30. The trellis is six feet above the ground, and is composed of three horizontal wires lying in the same plane. The central wire runs from post to post, and one upon either side is attached to the end of a three-foot cross-bar, as represented in fig. 28. The rows are nine feet apart, and the vines and posts twelve feet apart in the row. Contiguous rows are braced by a connecting-pole, as in fig. 29. The trunk of the vine ends in a T-shaped head, which is well displayed in the vine at the extreme right in the foreground in fig. 30. From this T-head, five canes are carried out from spurs. It was formerly the practice to carry out six canes, one in each direction upon each wire, but this was found to supply too much wood. Now two canes are carried in one direction and three in the other; and the positions of these sets are alternated each year, if possible. The canes which are left after the winter pruning are tied along the wires in spring, as in the Kniffin, and the shoots hang over the wires. The chief advantage of this training is that it allows of the growing of bush-fruits between the rows, as seen in fig. 29. It is also said that the clusters hang so free that the bloom is not injured by the twigs or leaves, and the fruit is protected from sun and frost. Every post must be large and firmly set, however, adding much to the cost of the trellis. Several styles similar to this are in use, one of the best being the Crittenden system, of Michigan. In this system, the trellis is low, not exceeding four or five feet, and the vines cover a flat-topped platform two or three feet wide. [Illustration: 30. OVERHEAD KNIFFIN, BEFORE PRUNING.] _The Cross-Wire System._--Another high Kniffin training, and which is also confined to the vicinity of Marlboro', New York, is the Cross-Wire, represented in figs. 31 and 32. Small posts are set eight feet apart each way, and a single wire runs from the top of post to post--six and one-half feet from the ground--in each direction, forming a check-row system of overhead wires. The grape-vine is set at the foot of the stake, to which the trunk is tied for support. Four canes are taken from spurs on the head of the trunk, one for each of the radiating wires. These canes are cut to three and one-half or four feet in length, and the bearing shoots droop as they grow. Fig. 31 shows this training as it appears some time after the leaves start in spring. Later in the season the whole vineyard becomes a great arbor, and a person standing at a distance sees an almost impenetrable mass of herbage, as in fig. 32. This system appears to have little merit, and will always remain local in application. It possesses the advantage of economy in construction of the trellis, for very slender posts are used, even at the ends of the rows. The end posts are either braced by a pole or anchored by a wire taken from the top and secured to a stake or stone eight or ten feet beyond, outside the vineyard. [Illustration: 31. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING.] [Illustration: 32. CROSS-WIRE TRAINING. OUTSIDE VIEW.] _Renewal Kniffin._--It is an easy matter to adapt the Kniffin principle of free hanging shoots to a true renewal method of pruning. There are a few modifications in use in which the wood is annually renewed to near the ground. The trellises comprise either two or three wires, and are made in the same manner as for the upright systems, as the High Renewal. At the annual pruning only one cane is left. This comprises twelve or fifteen buds, and is tied up diagonally across the trellis, the point or end of the cane usually being bent downward somewhat, in order to check the strong growth from the uppermost parts. The shoots hang from this cane, and they may be pinched back when they reach the ground. In the meantime a strong shoot is taken out from the opposite side of the head--which usually stands a foot or less from the ground--to make the bearing wood of the next year; and this new cane will be tied in an opposite direction on the trellis from the present bearing cane, and the next renewal shoot will be taken from the other side of the head, or the side from which the present bearing wood sprung; so that the bearing top of the vine is alternated in either direction upon the trellis. This system, and similar ones, allow of laying down the vines easily in winter, and insure excellent fruit because the amount of bearing wood is small; but the crop is not large enough to satisfy most demands. _The Munson System._--An unique system of training, upon the Kniffin principle, has been devised by T. V. Munson, of Denison, Texas, a well-known authority upon grapes. Two posts are set in the same hole, their tops diverging. A wire is stretched along the top of these posts and a third one is hung between them on cross-wires. The trunk of the vine, or its head, is secured to this middle lower wire and the shoots lop over the side wires. The growth, therefore, makes a V-shaped or trough-like mass of herbage. Fig. 33 is an end view of this trellis, showing the short wire connecting the posts and which also holds the middle trellis-wire at the point of the V. Fig. 34 is a side view of the trellis. The bearing canes, two or four, in number, which are left after the annual pruning, are tied along this middle wire. The main trunk forks just under the middle wire, as seen at the left in fig. 34. A head is formed at this place not unlike like that which characterizes the High Renewal, for this system also employs renewal pruning. The trellis stands six feet high. The shoots stand upright at first, but soon fall down and are supported by the side wires. The following account of this system of training is written for this occasion by Mr. Munson: "After the vines have flowered, the bearing laterals have their tips pinched off, and that is all the summer pruning the vine gets, except to rub off all eyes that start on the body below the crotch. Two to four shoots, according to strength of vine, are started from the forks or crotch and allowed to bear no fruit, but are trained along over the lower central wire for renewal canes. When pruning time arrives, the entire bearing cane of the present year, with all its laterals, is cut away at a point near where the young renewal shoots have started, and these shoots are shortened back, according to strength of vine; some, such as Herbemont, being able at four years to fill four shoots six or eight feet long with fine fruit, while Delaware could not well carry over three or four feet each way of one shoot only. The different varieties are set at various distances apart, according as they are strong or weak growers. [Illustration: 33. MUNSON TRAINING. END VIEW.] "Thus the trellis and system of pruning are reduced to the simplest form. A few cuts to each vine cover all the pruning, and a few ties complete the task. A novice can soon learn to do the work well. The trunk or main stem is secured to the middle lower wire, along which all bearing canes are tied after pruning, and from which the young laterals which produce the crop are to spring. These laterals strike the two outer wires, soon clinging to them with their tendrils, and are safe from destruction, while the fruit is thrown in the best possible position for spraying and gathering, and is still shaded with the canopy of leaves. I have now used this trellis five years upon ten acres of mixed vines, and I am more pleased with it every year. [Illustration: 34. MUNSON TRAINING. SIDE VIEW.] "The following advantages are secured by this system: "1. The natural habit of the vine is maintained, which is a canopy to shade the roots and body of vine and the fruit, without smothering. "2. New wood, formed by sap which has never passed through bearing wood, is secured for the next crop--a very important matter. "3. Simplicity and convenience of trellis, allowing free passage in any direction through the vineyard; circulation of air without danger of breaking tender shoots; ease of pruning, spraying, cultivation, harvesting. "4. Perfect control in pruning of amount of crop to suit capacity of vine. "5. Long canes for bearing, which agrees exactly with the nature of nearly all our American species far better than short spurs. "6. Ease of laying down in winter. The vine being pruned and not tied, standing away from posts, can be bent down to one side between the rows, and earth thrown upon it, and can be quickly raised and tied in position. "7. Cheapness of construction and ease of removing trellis material and using it again. "8. Durability of both trellis and vineyard." [Illustration: (Drawing of grapes)] CHAPTER V. MISCELLANEOUS SYSTEMS. _Horizontal Training._--There are very few types of horizontal shoot training now in use. The best is probably that shown in fig. 35. This particular vine is a Delaware, to which this training is well adapted. It will be noticed that this picture represents the end of a trellis, and the diagonal stick seen near the ground is a brace for the end post. Two wires run from post to post, one about two and one-half feet above the ground and the other five and one-half feet high. The posts are set at the ordinary distance of 16 or 18 feet apart. The vines are set six or eight feet apart, if Delawares. A strong stake is driven in the ground behind each vine, standing as high as the top of the trellis when set. The permanent trunk or head of the vine stands about a foot high. The vine is renewed back to the top of this trunk every year. One cane is left at each pruning, which, when tied up to the stake, is as high as the trellis. From this perpendicular cane, the bearing shoots are carried out horizontally. About six of these shoots are allowed to grow upon either side of the cane. As the shoots grow, they are tied to perpendicular slats which are fastened on the wires. These slats do not touch the ground. Two slats are provided upon either side, making four to a vine. They stand a foot or fifteen inches apart. The clusters hang free from the horizontal shoots. If the shoots grow too long, they are pinched in when they have passed the second slat. While these shoots are covering the trellis, another shoot is taken out from the head or trunk of the vine and, without being allowed to fruit, is tied up along the central stake. This shoot is to form the top next year, for all the present vine is to be entirely cut away at the winter's pruning. So the vine starts every spring with but a single cane. [Illustration: 35. HORIZONTAL TRAINING.] Excellent results are obtained from the slender growing varieties by this method of training, but it is too expensive in trellis and in labor of tying to make it generally practicable. Delaware, however, thrives remarkably well when trained in this fashion. _Post Training._--There are various methods of training to posts, all of which possess two advantages--the saving of the expense of trellis and allowing of cultivation both ways. But they also have grave disadvantages, especially in the thickness of the head of foliage which harbors rot and mildew and prevents successful spraying, and hinders the fruit from coloring and ripening well. These faults are so serious that post training is now little used for the American grapes. The saving in cost of trellis is not great, for more posts are required to the acre than in the trellis systems, and they do not endure long when standing alone with the whole weight of the vines thrown upon them. [Illustration: 36. LOW POST TRAINING.] There are various methods of pruning for the stake training, but nearly all of them agree in pruning to side spurs upon a permanent upright arm which stands the full height of the vine. There may be one or two sets of these spurs. We might suppose the Kniffin vine, shown in fig. 22, to be tied to a post instead of stretched on a trellis; in that event, the four canes would hang at will, or they might be wrapped about the post, the shoots hanging out unsupported in all directions. The post systems are essentially Kniffin in principle, for the shoots hang free. In low styles of post training, the permanent head of the vine may be only three or four feet high. This head will have a ring of spurs on it, and at the annual pruning three to five canes with from six to ten buds each are left. Fig. 36 is a view in such a post vineyard. The main trunk is usually tied permanently to the post. The canes left after pruning are variously disposed. Sometimes they are bent upwards and tied to the post above the head of the vine, but they are oftenest either wound loosely about the post, or are allowed to hang loose. Two trunks are frequently used to each post, both coming from the ground from a common root. These are wound about the post in opposite directions, one outside the other, and if the outside one is secured at the top by a small nail driven through it, or by a cord, no other tying will be necessary. Sometimes two or three posts are set at distances of one foot or more apart, and the vines are wrapped about them, but this only augments the size and depth of the mass of foliage. Now and then one sees a careful post training, in which but little wood is left and vigorous breaking out of shoots practiced, which gives excellent results; but on the whole, it cannot be recommended. The European post and stake systems or modifications of them, are yet occasionally recommended for American vines, but under general conditions, especially in commercial grape growing, they rarely succeed long. One of the latest recommendations of any of these types is that of the single pole system of the Upper Rhine Valley, by A. F. Hofer, of Iowa, in a little treatise published in 1878. _Arbors._--Arbors and bowers are usually formed with little reference to pruning and training. The first object is to secure shade and seclusion, and these are conditions which may seriously interfere with the production of fine grapes. As a rule, too much wood must be allowed to grow, and the soil about arbors is rarely ever cultivated. Still, fair results in fruit can be obtained if the operator makes a diligent use of the pruning shears. It is usually best to carry one main or permanent trunk up to the top or center of the arbor. Along this trunk at intervals of two feet or less, spurs may be left to which the wood is renewed each year. If the vines stand six feet apart about the arbor--which is a satisfactory distance--one cane three feet long may be left on each spur when the pruning is done. The shoots which spring from these canes will soon cover up the intermediate spaces. At the close of the season, this entire cane with its laterals is cut away at the spur, and another three-foot cane--which grew during the season--is left in its place. This pruning is essentially that of the Kniffin vine in fig. 22. Imagine this vine, with as many joints or tiers as necessary, laid upon the arbor. The canes are tied out horizontally to the slats instead of being tied on wires. This same system--running up a long trunk and cutting in to side spurs--will apply equally well to tall walls and fences which it is desired to cover. Undoubtedly a better plan, so far as yield and quality of fruit is concerned, is to renew back nearly to the root, bringing up a strong new cane, or perhaps two or three every year, and cutting the old ones off; but as the vines are desired for shade one does not care to wait until midsummer for the vines to reach and cover the top of the arbor. _Remodeling Old Vines._--Old and neglected tops can rarely be remodeled to advantage. If the vine is still vigorous, it will probably pay to grow an entirely new top by taking out a cane from the root. If the old top is cut back severely for a year or two, this new cane will make a vigorous growth, and it can be treated essentially like a new or young vine. If it is very strong and ripens up well, it can be left long enough the first fall to make the permanent trunk; but if it is rather weak and soft, it should be cut back in the fall or winter to two or three buds, from one of which the permanent trunk is to be grown the second season. Thereafter, the instructions which are given in the preceding pages for the various systems, will apply to the new vine. The old trunk should be cut away as soon as the new one is permanently tied to the wires, that is, at the close of either the first or second season of the new trunk. Care must be exercised to rub off all sprouts which spring from the old root or stump. If this stump can be cut back into the ground and covered with earth, better results may be expected. Old vines treated in this manner often make good plants, but if the vines are weak and the soil is poor, the trouble will scarcely pay for itself. These old vines can be remodeled easily by means of grafting. Cut off the trunk five or six inches below the surface of the ground, leaving an inch or two of straight wood above the roots. Into this stub insert two cions exactly as for cleft-grafting the apple. Cions of two or three buds, of firm wood the size of a lead-pencil, should be inserted. The top bud should stand above the ground. The cleft will need no tying nor wax, although it is well to place a bit of waxed cloth or other material over the wound to keep the soil out of it. Fill the earth tightly about it. Fig. 37 shows the first year's growth from two cions of Niagara set in a Red Wyoming root. Great care must be taken in any pruning which is done this first year, or the cions may be loosened. If the young shoots are tied to a stake there will be less danger from wind and careless workmen. In the vine shown in the illustration, no pruning nor rubbing out was done, but the vine would have been in better shape for training if only one or two shoots had been allowed to grow. Such a vine as this can be carried onto the trellis next year; or it may be cut back to three or four buds, one of which is allowed to make the permanent trunk next year, like a two-year set vine. [Illustration: 37. A YEARLING GRAFT.] If it is desired, however, to keep the old top, it will be best to cut back the annual growth heavily at the winter pruning. The amount of wood which shall be left must be determined by the vigor of the plant and the variety, but three or four canes of six to ten buds each may be left at suitable places. During the next season a strong shoot from the base of each cane may be allowed to grow, which shall form the wood of the following season, while all the present cane is cut away at the end of the year. So the bearing wood is renewed each year, as in the regular systems of training. Much skill and experience are often required to properly rejuvenate an old vine; and in very many cases the vine is not worth the trouble. [Illustration: (Drawing of grapes}] INDEX. Page Adlum, quoted, 10 Arbor Kniffin, 72 Arbors, 88 Arm, defined, 13 Barns, W. D., quoted, 63 Bass bark, 33 Bleeding, 22 Breaking-out, 23 Brocton, Training at, 37 Bull cane, 50, 66 Cane, defined, 13 Chautauqua County, Training in, 37 Contraction of wires, 30 Cornell, William T., 56 Cornhusks, for tying, 33 Crittenden training, 74 Cross-wire training, 74 Crotch Kniffin, 66 Double Kniffin, 66 Drooping systems, 56 Eight-cane Kniffin, 70 Fan training, 54 Forestville, Training at, 37 Four-cane Kniffin, 58 Fuller, quoted, 10, 34 Girdling, 69 Grafting, 90 Haviland, Sands, 72 Heading-in, 23 High Renewal training, 39 Hofer, A. F., 88 Horizontal Arm training, 34 Horizontal training, 83 Husks, for tying, 33 Improved Kniffin, 66 Kniffin systems, 58 Kniffin training, Comparison of, 26 Kniffin, William, 56 Low Kniffin, 69 Marlboro', Training at, 72, 74 Modified Kniffin, 63 Munson training, 78 Munson, T. V., 78 Objects of pruning, 24 Old vines, Remodeling of, 89 One-wire Kniffin, 69 Overhead Kniffin, 72 Planting, 20 Posts, 28 Post training, 85 Pruning, 11 Pruning, Objects of, 24 " of young vines, 20 " Summer, 23 " Time for, 22 Raffia, 32 Raphia Ruffia, 32 Reasons for pruning, 24 Remodeling old vines, 89 Renewal, defined, 18 Renewal Kniffin, 77 Rubbing off, 14, 23 Rye straw for tying, 33 Sagging of wires, 30 Setting, 20 Shoot, defined, 13 Six-cane Kniffin, 70 Spur, defined, 17 Spur training, 34 Staples, 29 Stopping, 23 Stripping, 22 Summer pruning, 23 Superfluous shoots, 23 Systems compared, 25 T-head, 41 Thomas' Fruit Culturist, quoted, 10 Tightening wires, 31 Trellis, Making, 27 True Kniffin, 58 Twine for tying, 32 Two-cane Kniffin, 66 Tying, 31 Umbrella training, 66 Upright training, 34 Walls, Training on, 89 Weeping, 22 Willows, for tying, 32 Wire, for trellis, 28 " for tying, 33 " weights and sizes, 29 Wool-twine, 32 Y-trunk Kniffin, 66 Yeoman's patent trellis, 30 Yields of grapes, 14, 63, 69, 70 Young vines, Pruning of, 20 [Illustration: (Drawing of grapes}] [Illustration] =THIS ILLUSTRATION= was made from a photograph of fair samples of the different grades of our grape vines, reduced to one-tenth their natural size. We take great pride and comfort in our ability to furnish _strong_, _fibrous-rooted_ stock, so well appreciated by intelligent and experienced fruit growers. WHOLESALE TRADE ESPECIALLY SOLICITED. CATALOGUE FREE. LEWIS ROESCH, FREDONIA, N. Y., Grape Vine Specialist And General Nurseryman. When writing name this book. Hardy Native Grapes. We desire to call the attention of planters to our large and complete stock of Grape Vines. We propagate and offer for sale upwards of sixty varieties, embracing the popular old sorts as well as the new ones which seem to have merit. Our catalogue contains accurate descriptions, and classifies the different varieties according to color. Besides the above we offer an immense collection of all kinds of Fruit and Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, Roses, Hardy Plants, etc. Our General Catalogue (160 pages), embellished with numerous engravings of the most popular Trees, Shrubs, etc., and enclosed in an illuminated cover, will be mailed free to all who have not received it. Our Supplementary Catalogue (28 pages) of Rare and Choice Trees, Shrubs, etc., including several valuable novelties and many specialties of superior merit, will also be mailed free. ELLWANGER & BARRY, Mount Hope Nurseries, 53rd Year. ROCHESTER, N. Y. Pleasant Valley Nurseries PEAR TREES.--Lincoln, Coreless, Bessemianka, Japan Golden Russet, Kieffer, LeConte, etc., Nut Trees in variety. Fruit Trees of all sorts. Ornamentals, Eleagnus Longipes, Japanese Wineberry Juneberry, Trifoliate Orange and other valued novelties. [Illustration: FRUIT TREES! BERRY PLANTS!] STRAWBERRIES, Van Deman, E. P. 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A complete handbook of Propagation and Pollination of Plants. _Profusely illustrated._ This valuable little manual has been compiled with great pains. The author has had unusual facilities for its preparation, having been aided by many experts. The book is absolutely devoid of theory and speculation. It has nothing to do with plant physiology or abstruse reasoning about plant growth. It simply tells, plainly and briefly, what every one who sows a seed, makes a cutting, sets a graft, or crosses a flower wants to know. It is entirely new and original in method and matter. The cuts number 107, and are made expressly for it, direct from nature. The book treats all kinds of cultivated plants, fruits, vegetables, greenhouse plants, hardy herbs, ornamental trees, shrubs and forest trees. CONTENTS: I.--SEEDAGE. On Propagation by Seed. II.--SEPARATION. III.--LAYERAGE. Propagation by Layering. IV.--CUTTAGE. Propagation by Cuttings. V.--GRAFTAGE.--Including Grafting, Budding, Inarching, etc. VI.--NURSERY LIST.--This is the great feature of the book. It is an alphabetical list of all kinds of plants, with a short statement telling which of the operations described in the first five chapters are employed in propagating them. _Over 2,000 entries_ are made in the list. The following entries will give an idea of the method: =Acer= (MAPLE). _Sapindaceæ._ Stocks are grown from stratified seeds, which should be sown an inch or two deep; or some species, as _A. dasycarpum_, come readily if seeds are sown as soon as ripe. Some cultural varieties are layered, but better plants are obtained by grafting. Varieties of native species are worked upon common or native stocks. The Japanese sorts are winter-worked upon imported _A. polymorphum_ stocks, either by whip or veneer grafting. Maples can also be budded in summer, and they grow readily from cuttings of both ripe and soft wood. =Phyllocactus, Phyllocereus, Disocactus= (LEAF CACTUS). _Cacteæ._ Fresh seeds grow readily. Sow in rather sandy soil which is well drained, and apply water as for common seeds. When the seedlings appear, remove to a light position. Cuttings from mature shoots, three to six inches in length, root readily in sharp sand. Give a temperature of about 60°, and apply only sufficient water to keep from flagging. If the cuttings are very juicy they may be laid on dry sand for several days before planting. VII.--POLLINATION. Price, in Library Style, cloth, wide margins, $1 Pocket Style, paper, narrow margins, 50 cents. THE MODIFICATION OF PLANTS BY CLIMATE.--By A. A. CROZIER. An essay on the influence of climate upon size, form, color, fruitfulness, etc., with a discussion on the question of acclimation. 35 pp. Price, paper, 25 cents. FRUIT CULTURE, and the Laying Out and Management of a Country Home.--By W. C. STRONG, Ex-President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and Vice-President of the American Pomological Society. Illustrated. New revised edition, with many additions, making it the latest and freshest book on the subject. CONTENTS: Rural Homes--Choice of Locality--Treatment--A Good Lawn--The Approach. Fruits--Location of the Fruit Garden--Success in Fruit-Culture--Profit in Fruit-Culture. How to Procure Trees--Quality--How to Plant--Time to Plant--Preparing the Land--Fertilizers--Cutting Back--Distances for Planting. Care of the Fruit-Garden--Irrigation--Application of Fertilizers--Thinning the Fruit--Labels. The Apple--Insects Injurious to the Apple. The Pear--Dwarf Pears--Situation and Soil--Pruning--Ripening the Fruit--Insects Injurious to the Pear--Diseases. The Peach--Injurious Insects and Diseases of the Peach--Nectarines. The Plum--Insects and Diseases of the Plum--Apricots. 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The following topics are discussed in a concise, practical manner: Spraying Against Insects. Feeding Habits of Insects. Spraying Against Fungous Diseases. The Philosophy of Spraying. Spraying Apparatus. Spraying Trees in Blossom. Precautions in Spraying. Insecticides used in Spraying. Fungicides used in Spraying. Combining Insecticides and Fungicides. Cost of Spraying Materials. Prejudice Against Spraying. Spraying the Larger Fruits. Spraying Small Fruits and Nursery Stock. Spraying Shade Trees, Ornamental Plants and Flowers. Spraying Vegetables, Field Crops and Domestic Animals. Price in stiff paper cover, 50 cents; flexible cloth, 75 cents. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: Illustrations have been moved to the nearest appropriate paragraph break. For the benefit of readers of the text version of this e-book, a small description was added to 5 decorative line drawings which have no caption or description in the original text. This addition appears in parentheses as: "(Drawing of grapes)". An asterism in the text is represented as: *.* Inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation are unchanged in this e-text. Obvious typographical and printer errors have been corrected without comment. In addition to obvious errors, the following changes have been made: 1. On page 87: "arguments" was changed to "augments" in the phrase, "... this only augments the size and depth...." 2. On page 90: "side" was changed to "size" in the phrase, "... wood the size of a lead-pencil...." 
39803	----	THE AUGUSTAN REPRINT SOCIETY AN EXPLANATORY DISCOURSE BY TAN CHET-QUA, of QUANG-CHEW-FU, Gent. SIR WILLIAM CHAMBERS (1773) _Introduction by_ RICHARD E. QUAINTANCE, JR. PUBLICATION NUMBER _191_ WILLIAM ANDREWS CLARK MEMORIAL LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES _1978_ GENERAL EDITOR David Stuart Rodes, University of California, Los Angeles EDITORS Charles L. Batten, University of California, Los Angeles William E. Conway, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library George Robert Guffey, University of California, Los Angeles Maximillian E. Novak, University of California, Los Angeles ADVISORY EDITORS James L. Clifford, Columbia University Ralph Cohen, University of Virginia Vinton A. Dearing, University of California, Los Angeles Arthur Friedman, University of Chicago Louis A. Landa, Princeton University Earl Miner, Princeton University Samuel H. Monk, University of Minnesota Everett T. Moore, University of California, Los Angeles Lawrence Clark Powell, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library James Sutherland, University College, London H. T. Swedenberg, Jr., University of California, Los Angeles Robert Vosper, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library CORRESPONDING SECRETARY Beverly J. Onley, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Frances M. Reed, University of California, Los Angeles INTRODUCTION This "Explanatory Discourse" first appeared, in the latter part of March 1773, annexed to the second and last edition of Sir William Chambers' _Dissertation on Oriental Gardening_ of the preceding May. As an effort, curiously hedged, to impersonate a Chinese spokesman it seeks to exploit the satiric vantage points of philosophic naivety and trenchant candor enjoyed by Goldsmith's observer Lien Chi Altangi in London a dozen years earlier. But Chambers' ventriloquism is both more defensive and more aggressive than what we find in _The Citizen of the World_; the Preface here in his own voice admits sensitivity to the "abuse" which the Dissertation had incurred for its scenic fantasy, its brief opening and closing attacks on "Capability" Brown, and its pervasive criticism of the blandness of Brownian landscaping. By assuming the voice of Tan Chet-qua Chambers is able to pretend to more authoritative familiarity with actual Chinese gardens even as he deplores his readers' misapprehension that his interest lay mainly in masquerade, entertainment, or "the mere recital of a traveller's observation" (p. 113). It was probably a strategic error to entrust the substance of his genuine and quite respectable challenging of Brownian style, to what he terms the "vehicle" of alleged first-hand reports of preferable "Chinese" lay-outs. By this date, some two decades after the chinoiserie fad had crested in England, most of his readers might fairly be termed rather jaded. They preferred to overreact to the frivolity and whimsey they had come to think essentially Chinese, rather than to ponder what Chambers seriously urges from behind his silken "screen": his interest in a variegated emotional response to deliberately variegated landscape. An admirer of Burke's Sublime, Chambers saw advantage in complicating the suavity of Brown's gentle contours, shaven lawns, free-form reflecting lakes, and still short tree-clumps, through a program of landscaped stimulation of contrasting associative moods. This is the essence of that argument which Chambers "cloathed ... in the garb of fiction, to secure it a patient hearing" (p. 112) in three publications appearing over sixteen years. There is no evidence that he was better understood through publication of this "Discourse," the last of the three.[1] Of course, it is not as a satirist, an aesthetician of landscape, or even as a masquerading orientalist that Sir William Chambers (1723-96) has been best known in his time and since: with Robert Adam, he led the British architectural profession virtually from the time he undertook his first commissions around 1757. The two buildings for which he is justly best remembered are the Chinese Pagoda at Kew Gardens and Somerset House, between London's Strand and Waterloo Bridge. Yet from that solid Palladian structure now housing the General Register Office it takes more than the dozen miles up Thames to reach the pagoda which in 1762 reared its eighty bright wing-displaying dragons on ten successive roofs, and from the height of fifty meters flashed its glazed tiles across suburbia. Chambers developed simultaneously and maintained through his career two contrasted sensibilities. The dignified town house he designed for his family in 1764 fronted Berners Street with a massive rusticated doorway, yet had interior chimney-pieces and a rear elevation modelled in "fanciful" papier-maché which his biographer John Harris supposes was painted and varnished chinoiserie. He made his way to the top of his profession and earned royal recognition through tectonic skills that absorbed him with Somerset House, for instance, during the last two decades of his life. But as early as 1752 he had ventured the striking practice--standard by the century's end through his pioneering and Adam's--of drawing elevations of a building proposed as it would appear if already conditioned by time, decaying and overgrown by vegetation.[2] Deciding what to make of his three publications on Chinese gardens will not be eased by polarizing his sources of inspiration or consigning his life into stretches during which the dominant interest was product or process, structure or affect. Here is no schizoid or frustrated Pre-Romantic--a Chatterton who somehow survived his suicide attempt to edit copy for the _Gentleman's Magazine_--but a consummate professional.[3] The mythic "Cina" of which this "Discourse" was Chambers' latest account grew and changed with him from his first-hand experience of Canton at the age of twenty, through his architectural training in Paris and Rome, and throughout his practice and success as the Establishment architect of his age in England. The recent thorough Harris biography leaves it appropriate here only to survey the facts most pertinent to his publications on Chinese gardens and to advance a few speculations. The first son of a well-to-do Scottish sutler to the armies of Charles XII of Sweden, Chambers early left his native Gothenburg for schooling supervised by relatives in Yorkshire. Between the ages of 17 and 26 his cosmopolitan rearing proceeded with his apprenticeship to supercargoes or agents aboard three successive vessels of the Swedish East India Company trading in ports along the Indian coast and as far east as Canton. Although his eye and sketchbook were thus early busied with oriental sights, what Chambers later wrote of Peking (or much else Chinese beyond the docks of Canton) was, as he admitted, based upon the observations of others. Yet it must have been rare and significant enough in those days that when this Westerner determined to devote his earnings from the final voyage to an education in architecture, he had seen proportionately so much of non-European building. Even before enrolling in J.-F. Blondel's Ecole des Arts for the 1749-50 winter, Chambers may have met Frederick, Prince of Wales, in London, and been encouraged by Frederick's exotic interests.[4] It was during his second of five springs in Rome, living with his English wife over the shop of Piranesi, that Chambers learned of Frederick's death in March 1751 and designed for him a mausoleum based on the ancient and neo-classical shapes before his eyes; in one of his sections for this project he depicted it decaying like some of them, with cypress trees beginning to grow out of the rubble that was to have been its roof! Though this design was never executed, Chambers did meet with royal patronage upon his return to London and dedicated to the new Prince of Wales--soon his pupil in drawing, and three years later, George III--his first book, _Designs of Chinese Buildings, Furniture, Dresses, Machines and Utensils_ in 1757. The opening sentences which Samuel Johnson contributed to Chambers' _Designs_ scorned the "power" with which "novelty attracts regard"[5]--a ground-note directly contrary to Chambers' sarcastic apology for "the monster Novelty" here in his 1773 Preface. But in 1757 he could expect his crisp text and twenty-one plates to administer a calming dose of authenticity to the chinoiserie fever then raging. In fact, this large and handsome volume appears to have driven from the market the pattern-books of "William Halfpenny" and others, with their ridiculous dragon-finials atop Georgian hip-roofs and Venetian windows bordered by crockets--the carpentry trade trying to sustain a mood for renovations waning by the early fifties. Chambers hoped to put a stop "to the extravagancies that daily appear under the name of Chinese, though most of them are mere inventions, the rest copies from the lame representations found on porcelain and paper-hangings." This sniffy professionalism would broaden by 1772 into mockery of the "kitchen gardeners, well skilled in the culture of sallads, but little acquainted with the principles of Ornamental Gardening"[6]--which everyone took for a swipe at Launcelot "Capability" Brown, "yon stately gentleman in the black perriwig" (p. 157 below). Yet probably a more general and generous motive prompted Chambers to boost in this public way, on the last five pages introducing his _Designs_, a landscape-style in which he could hardly expect to exercise his training or build the career just beginning. The lay-outs of Kent and Brown took inspired advantage of topography, plants and climate peculiar to the south of England, but to anyone coming like Chambers from the gardens in and near Paris and Rome it might appear by 1757 that the English style risked parochial self-exaggeration to the point where all anecdotal human interest would be suppressed in the name of a "Nature" literally isolated. Cosmopolitanism, more enlightened than ever, befitted a Britain engaged in Pitt's "Great War for the Empire" which would extend its holdings from Montreal to Madras. Was there not an earlier empire whose leader had left visible tokens of his eclecticism? "[H]Adrian, who was himself an architect, at a time when the Grecian architecture was in the highest esteem among the Romans, erected in his Villa, at Tivoli, certain buildings after the manner of the Egyptians and of other nations."[7] It was timely to identify a pure "original" example of culture native to quite another organic whole, and then to transplant it intact to a British scene large enough to sustain it. Botanically viewed, this is the principle on which arduous horticultural experiments were being performed at this stage in England's imperial history: the removal to Kew of Lebanese cedars, oriental Ginkgoes, persimmons and Sophoras, or American locusts in the earlier 1750s, and later, the infamous Bounty venture to transplant in Jamaica breadfruit from the South Seas. Architecturally applied, it would seem to be the principle on which Chambers developed his designs for a score of buildings after the manner of the Romans, Chinese, Moors, and of other nations, erected at Kew Gardens by the time the Treaty of Paris was signed in 1763.[8] In this concern he seconded but went beyond the hopes of Horace Walpole and William Mason that "this whole kingdom might soon become one magnificant vast Garden, bounded only by the sea" (below, page 133). The syntax of Lewis Mumford seems apposite: of Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of New York's Central Park just a century later, Mumford has remarked that "By making nature urbane he naturalized the city."[9] At Kew, by making the garden cosmopolitan, Chambers helped to globalize the capital of empire and proposed the world as Enlightened Eden. It was not, of course, such national or global edenic visions which chiefly exercised readers of Chambers' 1757 essay "Of the Art of Laying Out Gardens Among the Chinese" and brought down upon his 1772 _Dissertation_ the ridicule which prompted the "Explanatory Discourse." Rather, it was the lurid details through which both accounts maintained that "The Chinese artists, knowing how powerfully contrast operates on the mind, constantly practise sudden transitions, and a striking opposition of forms, coulours, and shades." Though this principle earned sympathetic response from theorists like Burke and Karnes at home and Delille on the Continent, Chambers pressed his luck too far when he described what he claimed to have observed, or heard from Chinese observers, of "three different species of scenes, to which they give the appellations of pleasing, horrid, and enchanted." Particularly vulnerable were the programmed _frissons_ of "their scenes of horror": "some miserable huts dispersed in the mountains serve, at once to indicate the existence and wretchedness of the inhabitants."[10] By 1772 the _Schadenfreude_ has deepened: "Their scenes of terrour are composed of gloomy woods, &c. gibbets, crosses, wheels, and the whole apparatus of torture are seen from the roads. Here too they conceal in cavities, on the summits of the highest mountains, foundries, lime-kilns, and glass-works, which send forth large volumes of flame, and continued columns of thick smoke, that give to these mountains the appearance of volcanos." This was the sort of opening which William Mason exploited in his _Heroic Epistle to Sir William Chambers_ of March, 1773: Now to our lawns of dalliance and delight, Join we the groves of horrour and affright; This to achieve no foreign aids we try, Thy gibbets, Bagshot! shall our wants supply; Hounslow, whose heath sublimer terrour fills, Shall with her gibbets lend her powder mills.[11] Mason's _Heroic Epistle_ was one of the century's most popular poems and, cheered on by Walpole, a viscously successful effort to tar with Chambers' lavish brush his patron George Bute and other assorted Scots, any critic of Brown, and the Tory establishment at large. Yet behind Chambers' oriental screen the novelty, enduring interest, and even the practicality of some of his ideas can be observed. That concern to naturalize the smoky mills of industrialization may be developing a hint (concerning Middleton Dale, in the Peak District) on page 94 of Thomas Whately's supremely influential _Observations on Modern Gardening_ (1770). If Chambers' generation was neither the first nor last to grapple with what "progress" had done to the land, the English landscaping movement presented a new stage for that encounter. While Chet-qua's proposal to frame the dreary tracts around a metropolis "into scenes of terror" seems less than helpful, how neatly he anticipates Cézanne's transfer of his easel into the abandoned Bibémus Quarry (pp. 130-132). Foreshadowing William Cowper's satire of "Th' omnipotent magician, Brown" in _The Task_, Chambers had warned that estate-"improvement" could lead to irreparable devastation of the nation's woodland. Several of Chambers' means to certain effects sound more like a practical landscape architect at work than a Disneyland impressario parading his promised thrills: when he urges diversification of material relative to seasonal change or human entertainments, for instance, or the use of wire fencing and other substitutes for the ha-ha. His interest in the harmonizing of diverse but massed hues and textures has been recognized as an early glimpse of the "English" effects secured by Gertrude Jekyll a century and a quarter later.[12] Though extravagances of Chambers' language distracted attention from the liberalism of his views, such passages of the _Dissertation_ as pp. 49-50 read like the Picturesque identified by William Gilpin, Uvedale Price, and Richard Payne Knight in the 1780s and '90s. Far from the (Sino-British) imperial privity which Mason tartly mocked are Chet-qua's suggestions that the country-house owner drop his palings and open his grounds to "Holy-day folks," as he opens his Park to his kitchen-garden. More than this, he should offer "meats for every palate," plan not for his family or honored guests alone, but for tastes more susceptible to surprise than theirs. Likewise the circuit plan would be well replaced by another less coercive.[13] Points like these reveal in Chambers a solicitude on behalf of a general public of garden-strollers not at all necessarily landholding, nor self-conscious as "connoisseurs." Perhaps this is why, when the planners grouped around Nikolaus Pevsner and his _Architectural Review_ surveyed their task in postwar England, they would find fresh applications for the term "picturesque" and fresh relevance in this Tory's "Chinese" gardens.[14] Sinologists and landscape-historians have long recognized, to be sure, that Chambers' descriptions (like most of what the West has wrought in the name of Chinese gardening since Sir William Temple enunciated his shadowy _sharawadgi_ principle in 1685), while they may correctly celebrate specific details, or the general principles of surprise and variety, register no sensitivity to the Taoist or Buddhist teleology crucial to oriental planning. What Chet-qua calls "supernatural scenery" is hence "enchanted" by the same spirit of diversion animating the Druid or Dark Walk and subterranean Fairy Music of Vauxhall Gardens, across the Thames from Somerset House.[15] Enlightened secularization of the genuine oriental principles of immanence and affect may, however, be exactly what makes a paragraph on page 52 of the 1773 _Dissertation_ sound so much like a ground-plan for a short story of strollers' interwoven and inconsequential conversations and interior monologues, Virginia Woolf's "Kew Gardens." If allowances are made for the persistent difficulty of transcribing Chinese phonemes, and for Chambers' dependence upon Cantonese rather than Mandarin dialect, the oriental dress of the _Discourse_ is less bogus than might be assumed. Chambers' varying spellings of the then reigning emperor's name would exemplify the first problem, my failure to authenticate the poem on pages 118-119 the second. (Over 42,000 unindexed poems in Mandarin are attributed to this emperor, now known here as Ch'ien-lung.) Proustian though they may seem to Westerners, the synesthetic effects of tea-taking and the evocativeness of the scents and hues of "Mei-hoa" (plum-blossom), "fo-cheou" (chrysanthemum), and pine are indeed celebrated in much Chinese poetry.[16] Whoever wrote the poem, it aptly dramatizes the suggestible ethos which Chambers recommends to English artists and their public. This "Discourse" is appreciably more puckish in tone than the earlier two-thirds of Chambers' published "Chinese" work. The half-title here, page [109] of the second edition, heaps Chambers' own initialed honors[17] upon the Canton "Gent." Chet-qua, and with the ironies of his Preface and elaborate courtesies of the Introduction, the fun has begun. Identification of a Chinese alter ego enables Chambers to claim a kind of diplomatic immunity for both his enthusiasms and his judgments against the English style. By half-heartedly ascribing the preceding 107 pages of _Dissertation_ also to Chet-qua, and receding as mere "Editor" of the lovable old gourmet's remarks (page 148n), he trusts to keep one step ahead of his Whig adversaries. With exemplary tolerance such as had enhanced the European stereotype of the Chinese sage throughout the century, Chet-qua finds more to commend in French and Italian gardens, more to tease disarmingly in the Dutch, than Chambers had earlier. Finally, since an actual Chinese artist-about-town usually known as Chitqua had only recently returned to Canton, Chambers may have hoped his masquerade could stir British hospitality for his ideas. Within weeks of reaching London in August 1769, Chitqua had had a royal audience. The miniature portrait busts he modelled in clay at ten guineas apiece, as well as his delicate manners and physique ("the eyelashes almost always in motion") earned the admiration of Wedgwood's friend Thomas Bentley. One of his busts was shown in the 1770 Royal Academy exhibition, and during that year he visited Oxford, met Chambers and Bishop Percy, and sat down with Horace Walpole among others at the first official Academy dinner. Lashes and all, he figures in Zoffany's "Life School of the Royal Academy," painted in 1771. But what peculiarly recommends Chitqua to Chambers' purposes here is perhaps a mob's intervention at the start of his homeward voyage to Canton that spring, when xenophobia and "the superstitious fears of the mariners" forced him to return to London for another ship. On page 141 Chambers differs from the _Gentleman's Magazine_ reporter who had Chitqua "accidentally ... fall overboard" at Gravesend, but whatever the facts, the parallel to Jonah at Joppa might be as clear to Chet-qua's adversaries as it was to that reporter and win the "Discourse" a more candid hearing than the _Dissertation_ had enjoyed.[18] To an unidentified reader of his first edition Chambers had justified such artfulness, and his entire "Chinese" myth for the promotion of a change in landscaping-style, this way: "I thought it necessary to move in an exalted sphere. Our Gardeners, and I fear our Connoisseurs too, are such _tame_ animals, that much sparring is necessary to keep them properly on their haunches."[19] Such quixotic energy even Mason had to salute, in the last line of his _Heroic Epistle_. Douglass College Rutgers University NOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION [1] The "Explanatory Discourse" is the last of Chambers' works to be reissued in 20th-century facsimile. Chambers' _Designs of Chinese Buildings_ (London, 1757), rpt. in facsim. (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1968), concludes its text with his essay "Of the Art of Laying Out Gardens Among the Chinese," pp. 14-19, rpt. in John Dixon Hunt and Peter Willis, eds., _The Genius of the Place_ (New York: Harper & Row, 1975), pp. 283-288. _A Dissertation on Oriental Gardening_ (London, 1772), of which the illus. title-page reappeared in the 2nd ed. (London, 1773), hence here, was rpt. in facsim. ed. John Harris (Farnborough, Hants.: Gregg International, 1972). I quote from pp. 111-113 of "An Explanatory Discourse"; Chet-qua drops his mask on p. 159 below. Concerning the fad see Hugh Honour, _Chinoiserie: The Vision of Cathay_ (London: John Murray, 1961), esp. ch. vi. [2] John Harris, _Sir William Chambers, Knight of the Polar Star_ (University Park: Pennsylvania State Univ. Press, 1970), p. 24 and pls. 7, 94 (not to be confused with the earlier accepted practice of designing ruins: pls. 31, 81). For the "fanciful" aspects of his town house see pp. 11, 217. [3] For the evidence of correspondence esp. from 1770-74 see Heather Martienssen, "Chambers as a Professional Man," _Architectural Review_, 135, 2 (1964), 277-283. [4] Harris gathers evidence for the meeting with Frederick, pp. 33-35, and on pp. 18-19, surmises that Blondel's teaching "may well have been the foundation of Chambers's eclecticism.... The choice of a Parisian education underlines Chambers' European character." [5] _Boswell's Life of Johnson_, ed. George Birkbeck Hill and L. F. Powell (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1934), IV, 188. [6] _Designs_, first page of unpaginated Preface; _Dissertation_ (1773), p. iii. Cf. "William and John Halfpenny" [Michael Hoare], _Chinese and Gothic Architecture Properly Ornamented_ (London, 1752), e.g. pl. 2. [7] _Designs_, second page of unpaginated Preface. [8] W. J. Bean, _The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew_ (London: Cassell, 1908), pp. 194-195, following Sir John Hill, _Hortus Kewensis_ (London, 1768); Chambers, _Plans, Elevations, Sections and Perspective Views of the Gardens and Buildings at Kew_ (London, 1763). [9] "Frederick Law Olmsted's Contribution," _Roots of Contemporary American Architecture_, ed. Lewis Mumford (New York: Reinhold, 1952), p. 111. _Dissertation_ (1773), p. 103 and cf. his letter of 13 May 1772 in Harris (1970), p. 192; Walpole, _On Modern Gardening_, ed. W. S. Lewis (New York: Young Books, 1931), p. 66; Mason, _The English Garden_, Book I (1772), final line. [10] _Designs_, p. 15 (ed. Hunt and Willis, p. 284). [11] Chambers' prose is cited _Dunciad_-fashion in the _Epistle, Minor English Poets, 1660-1780: A Selection from Alexander Chalmers'_ The English Poets [_1810_], ed. David P. French (New York: Benjamin Blom, 1967), VIII, 108. See Isabel W. Chase, "William Mason and Sir William Chambers' Dissertation on Oriental Gardening," _JEGP_, 35 (1936), 517-530; R. C. Bald, "Sir William Chambers and the Chinese Garden," _JHI_, 11 (1950), 287-320. [12] Cowper, Book III, "The Garden," 1. 766, in _A Collection of English Poems 1660-1800_, ed. Ronald S. Crane (New York: Harper, 1932), p. 998; _Dissertation_ (1773), pp. xi, 23-30, 37-39, 91-99; cf. Derek Clifford, _A History of Garden Design_, rev. ed. (New York: Praeger, 1966), pp. 211-212. [13] "Discourse," pp. 125-128, 133, 137-138, 143, 155-156; _Dissertation_ (1773), pp. vi, 53; Harris, p. 192. [14] Pevsner, "The Other Chambers," _Architectural Review_, 101 (1947), 195-198. [15] Temple, "Upon the Gardens of Epicurus," ed. Hunt and Willis, p. 99; Osvald Sirén, _China and Gardens of Europe of the Eighteenth Century_ (New York: Ronald, 1950), p. iv; "Discourse," pp. 155-156. [16] I owe this information to Prof. Ching-I Tu of Livingston Coll. and Dr. Nelson Chou of the East Asian Lib., both at Rutgers Univ. Likewise helpful but in no way blameworthy in my remarks on matters Chinese were Prof. King-Lui Wu and Mr. Antony Marr of Yale Univ. and Prof. Andrew Plaks of Princeton Univ. Though some of the proper names Chet-qua uses eluded verification, the worst blunder noted was "Ty," which means "emperor," at p. 139_n_. Endowing Chet-qua with "nine whiskers" instead of the traditional five beards sorts with the unusually narrow proportions and numerous stories of the Kew Pagoda. Rhymes and short syntactic groupings in italics, pp. 141, 158, are not Confucian; the 28th year of Ch'ien-lung's reign (p. [115]) would be 1764. Yet the idiom in the final n., p. 163, is authentic. [17] The initials stand for Fellow of the Royal Soc. of Sweden; Member of the Royal Acad. of Arts, Paris; Member of the Italian Acad. of Arts, Florence; Treasurer of the Royal Acad.; Comptroller General of His Majesty's Works; Architectural Tutor to the Queen. Chambers' international reputation was assured by his _Treatise on Civil Architecture_ (1759). [18] "Historical Chronicle," G.M., 41 (1771), 237-238; William T. Whitley, _Artists and their Friends in England, 1700-1799_ (Boston: Medici Society, 1928), I, 269-272; "Johnson, Percy, and Sir William Chambers," _Bodleian Library Record_, 4 (1952-53), 291-292. [19] Harris, p. 193 (Chambers' emphasis). BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE The facsimile of "An Explanatory Discourse" is reproduced from a copy (Shelf Mark: PML 53026) "annexed to" the second and last edition of _A Dissertation on Oriental Gardening_ (1773) in The Pierpont Morgan Library. The total type-page (p. 113) measures 208 × 127 mm. A DISSERTATION ON _ORIENTAL GARDENING_; BY S^r: WILLIAM CHAMBERS, Kn^t _Comptroller General of his Majesty's Works._ [Illustration: Jacket Cover] LONDON: Printed by W. GRIFFIN, Printer to the ROYAL ACADEMY; sold by Him in _Catharine-Street_: and by T. DAVIES, Bookseller to the ROYAL ACADEMY, in _Russel-Street, Covent Garden_: also by J. DODSLEY, _Pall Mall_: WILSON and NICOLL, _Strand_: J. WALTER, _Charing Cross_: and P. ELMSLEY, _Strand_. 1772. A DISSERTATION ON _ORIENTAL GARDENING_; BY S^R WILLIAM CHAMBERS, COMPTROLLER-GENERAL OF HIS MAJESTY'S WORKS, _&c._ THE SECOND EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS. TO WHICH IS ANNEXED, AN EXPLANATORY DISCOURSE, BY TAN CHET-QUA, of QUANG-CHEW-FU, Gent. LONDON: Printed by W. GRIFFIN, Printer to the ROYAL ACADEMY; sold by Him in _Catharine-street_; and by T. DAVIES, Bookseller to the ROYAL ACADEMY, in _Russel-street, Covent-Garden_: also by J. DODSLEY, _Pall-Mall_; WILSON and NICOLL, _Strand_; J. WALTER, _Charing-Cross_; and P. ELMSLEY, _Strand_. 1773. AN EXPLANATORY DISCOURSE, BY TAN CHET-QUA, OF Quang-Chew-fu, Gent. FRSS, MRAAP; ALSO, MIAAF, TRA, CGHMW and ATTQ. WHEREIN The PRINCIPLES laid down in the Foregoing DISSERTATION, are illustrated and applied to PRACTICE. PREFACE. Every new system naturally meets with opposition; when the monster Novelty appears, all parties, alarmed at the danger, unite to raise a clamour: each cavils at what it doth not like, or doth not comprehend, till the whole project is pulled to pieces, and the projector stands plumed of every feather; not only robbed of the praise due to his labour and good intentions, but, like a common enemy, branded with scorn and abuse. In the first hurry of criticism, every deviation is accounted an error; every singularity an extravagance; every difficulty a visionary's dream: warm with resentment, biassed by interests and prejudices, the angry champions of the old, rarely show mercy to the new; which is almost always invidiously considered, and too often unjustly condemned. Sensible of these difficulties, the Author of the foregoing Dissertation, written in direct opposition to the stream of fashion, harboured no sanguine hopes of fame from his Publication: far from expecting at the first, either applause or encouragement, he even judged artifice necessary to screen him from resentment; and cloathed truth in the garb of fiction, to secure it a patient hearing. The success of his little work, however, in one sense, far exceeded expectation: at its first appearance here, it found not only a patient, but a very indulgent reception; and it has since been equally fortunate in France, and other parts of Europe; where Monsieur Delarochette's elegant translation has made it known. Yet flattering as this extensive suffrage may seem, it is in reality rather mortifying to the Author; who finds, from the nature of the encomiums bestowed upon his performance, that it has been more generally liked than understood; and that, whilst a few have honoured it with a deliberate reading, and separated the substance from the vehicle in which it was contained, far the greater number have mistaken the mask for the reality, and considered it simply as a pleasing tale; as the mere recital of a traveller's observation; or, as the luxuriant effusions of a fertile imagination, a splendid picture of visionary excellence. Whether these misapprehensions arose from want of perspicuity in the writer, or want of attention in the readers, admits of no dispute; the former was most probably the case. The Author therefore, who wishes to be perfectly understood, and is more ambitious of being useful than entertaining, humbly begs leave to offer, at the end of this second edition, such reasons and explanations as seem necessary, either to remove doubts, or clear obscurities; he flatters himself they will be found sufficient, and serve to place the work in its true, its most advantageous light. Of these illustrations he saw the necessity some time ago, and framed them into a Discourse supposed to be pronounced by Chet-qua, then in England; judging it, at that time, a sort of propriety to put in the mouth of a Chinese, what farther information was wanted relative to his country. But as there is now no longer any necessity for disguise, both the Dissertation and Explanatory Discourse ought certainly to appear in their natural dress. To new-model them, however, would require more time than the Author can possibly spare; he therefore has republished the Dissertation, in its original form, and the Discourse as it was originally written; hoping the indulgent reader will pardon these defects, and gather the fruit, if there be any to gather, without minding the trees on which it grows. _Introduction._ All the world knew Chet-qua, and how he was born at Quang-chew-fu,[20] in the fourth moon of the year twenty-eight; also how he was bred a face-maker, and had three wives, two of whom he caressed very much; the third but seldom, for she was a virago, and had large feet. He dressed well, often in thick sattin; wore nine whiskers and four long nails, with silk boots, callico breeches, and every other ornament that Mandarins are wont to wear; equalling therein the prime macarones, and sçavoir vivres, not only of Quang-chew, but even of Kyang-ning, or Shun-tien-fu. Of his size; he was a well-spoken portly man, for a Chinese; a pretty general scholar; and, for a heathen, a very compleat gentleman. He composed a tieh-tse, or billet-doux, at pleasure; recited verses, either in Mantchou or Chinese, and sung love-songs in many languages. He likewise danced a fandango, after the newest taste of Macao, played divinely upon the bag-pipe, and made excellent remarks; which, when he lodged at Mr. Marr's, in the Strand, he would repeat to his friends over a pipe, as often as they pleased; for he was fond of smoaking, provided the tobacco was good; and, upon these occasions, was always vastly pleasant, and very communicative. Amongst his favourite topics were painting, music, architecture and gardening; to the last of which he seemed most affected, often disserting thereon till he was tired, and the audience fast asleep; for the tone of his voice was like opium to the hearers; his method was diffuse, and the subject, though a good one, not generally interesting. One day he launched out into a long description of the Eastern Gardens, especially those of his own country, to which he was exceedingly partial; and, in the conclusion, compared them to a splendid feast, at which there were pleasures for every sense, and food for every fancy; whilst our Gardens, he said, were like Spartan broth, which was disgustful to all but Spartan palates; or like the partial niggardly treats of the fable, adapted only to organs of a peculiar construction: he advanced many other odd positions, spoke very freely, as well of our Gardeners, as Gardens, and ended recommending the Chinese taste, in preference to all others. We were diverted with the discourse, from its singularity, and the variety of new ideas in which it abounded; yet as it ran in direct opposition to the general opinion and usage of England, and recommended a system which appeared to us rather visionary than practicable, we animadverted upon all its parts with the utmost freedom; neither sparing the speech nor speaker in any particular. The severity of our criticism at first disconcerted poor Chet-qua, who remained silent, and in apparent confusion; but, after a short pause, he reassumed his usual good humour, his countenance cleared up, he arose, bowed to the company, and stroking his nine whiskers, began the following discourse. DISCOURSE, _&c._ _Tan lou ty tchan yué[21] Ko ou, pou ko choué. Ou yun king tai pan Fou fou teou lo ty_ If, in the hurry and warmth of speaking, Chet-qua has used expressions that seemed disrespectful, or inadvertently started notions that appeared extravagant, as you, Gentlemen, are pleased to assert, it is more than he intended; his sole aim at this meeting, has been to point out a style of Gardening preferable to your's; and to shew how much more may be done in that Art, than has hitherto been thought on, by your or any other European nation: to enumerate impossibilities, or amuse an audience with golden dreams and glittering shadows, would answer no useful purposes; and could, therefore, neither be the business nor intention of Chet-qua, who speaks not for the pleasure of speaking, nor with a desire of tickling the ear, but with the hope of being serviceable; he laments his want of perspicuity, to which alone your misapprehensions must be imputed; and begs leave to trespass on your patience a few moments longer, to explain himself more clearly, and endeavour to remove your prejudices against him. He is sorry to have been under a necessity of censuring, even in a distant manner, what seemed to him imperfect amongst you; but whoever would be instrumental in the advancement of science, must declare his mind freely, and sometimes enforce his precepts by examples that exist: his observations have been as general as the subject would permit; for it is never his inclination to give offence; yet where truth is to be investigated, the truth must necessarily be told; else little or no progress can ever be made: where men play the sycophants, and tacitly suffer, or meanly applaud, what they do not approve; no amendment can ever be expected. It is true, that dissentions in opinion, however well meant, will often bear an invidious aspect, and always must offend some interested individuals; yet, to the community, they are generally advantageous, and should always be favourably received, as they give birth to new discoveries, and ultimately point out the highest perfection: had no man ever ventured to dissent from his neighbour, our age would be as dark as were those of Fo-hii, Shing tong, or Whoang-tii;[22] and I am firmly persuaded, that your English Gardening would now have been much more perfect, had any one ever dared to dispute its excellence: but to dissent, is an unthankful business; a dangerous talk, that few have spirits to undertake, particularly where party-rage is violent, at it now and then seems to be amongst you.--But I come to the point. In China, our large Gardens are obtained at an almost incredible expence, and attended with many inconveniencys: amongst you, whose policy, whose manners are totally different from ours, they might often be had at a moderate charge, and without much trouble; for formidable as they may at first appear, it is certain that most of their scenery is easily executed, when proper opportunities occur, which is frequently the case in Europe, particularly in England; where your illustrious families have large domains; where agriculture is neater and more various than in other countries; and where the face of nature is in general more luxuriant; as well as better contrasted. It is natural enough for a stranger to be dazzled with the splendor of our Oriental plantations; upon a cursory inspection, to conclude them too vast, too magnificent, too expensive for European imitation; and that, in your part of the world, the greatest princes should not be indulged with such articles of luxury, calculated, as they seem, to exhaust their treasures, waste their lands, rob and oppress their subjects: but a more attentive examination will probably give birth to more favourable opinions, and serve to prove, that not only your princes, but even your private gentlemen, may emulate us in this particular very safely; and that our style of Gardening may be adopted amongst you, even in its whole extent, without being attended with any of the inconveniences just now recited. It is not the fence that constitutes the Garden; Cobham, Stourton, Blenheim, would still be what they are, though the pales or walls by which they are enclosed were taken away: neither is privacy necessary to the essence of a Garden; for Richmond and Kew are surely the same, when open to all the world, as when they are only accessible to the Royal Family; nor is useful or profitable culture incompatible with the idea, either of our Chinese, or your English Gardening. Any tract of land, therefore, whose characteristick expressions have been strengthened by art, and in which the spontaneous arrangements of nature have been corrected, improved and adorned by the hand of taste, ought to be considered as a Garden, though only fenced with common hedges, and although the roads or paths passing through it be publick, and the grounds of which it is composed cultivated to the utmost advantage. There remains then no obstacle to your rivalling the Chinese, either in the grandeur or extent of their Gardens: in which, you seem to fix, the insuperable difficulties of the imitation; since you have parks, forests, manors and royalties, some even in private hands, more extensive than is necessary; and since these may be so improved, and converted into gardens upon the plan now mentioned, without waste of land, without invasion of property, without annoyance or seclusion of the public, and certainly with less damage or expence to the owner, than are usually incurred in the article of your common Gardening; as no chargeable keeping or fencing would be necessary, no grounds unprofitably employed, no considerable assistance from art wanted: for the features of real nature, being in themselves generally more perfect, as well as greater than the finest imitations, require very few helps; seldom any that are expensive. Every artist, therefore, who has the fortune to meet with patrons of large possessions, and liberal sentiments, may give full scope to his imagination, and boldly apply whatever he has seen, heard, or his own fancy may have suggested, that is great, extraordinary, or surprising: instead of confining his views to a few acres, to form a trifling composition, scarcely superior to the desert at a festival; and which, insignificant as it would be, none but the healthful and vigorous could ever see; he may convert a whole province into a Garden; where the spectator, instead of toiling on foot, as usual, to see a few nothings, and performing more revolutions than a horse in a mill, may wander over a whole country at his ease, in ships or in barges, in carriages or on horse-back, feasting the sight with scenes of the boldest dimensions, and contemplating the luxuriant varied productions of Nature, improved and nobly enriched by Art. And permit me to say, that Gardens of this sort, would not only be more magnificent, but also much more beautiful and perfect in every respect, than any even amongst the best of your artificial performances. In the great style of Gardening, neatness is not only superfluous, but destructive of the principal intent: the common roads, bridleways and paths, of a country, however wild, are always preferable to the stiff, formal, made walks of a Garden; they are, in themselves, grander, more natural, and may, with a very little assistance; a few accompanyments, be made as commodious, as rich, as varied, and as pleasant. Fields covered with corn, turneps, beans, potatoes, hemp, or productions of a similar nature; meadows, pasture lands, hop grounds, orchards, and other parts of English culture; interwoven with common hedges, or blended with accidental plantations, require little, if any assistance from Art, to be more picturesque than lawns the most curiously dotted with clumps; and villages, country churches, farm-houses or cottages, when placed with judgement, and designed with taste, enrich and adorn a landscape as well as more expensive structures. The rivers of Nature flow in forms that Art can never equal: their natural modifications, particularly in mountainous places, are sufficiently numerous; a little management heightens or diminishes all their expressions, varies their appearances, and adapts them to scenes of any character: their banks are soon adorned, even in the richest manner; for roses, a thousand other shrubs, and most perennial flowers, will grow as easily, and with as little culture, as primroses and briars do. A few of these, a little planting properly employed, and blended with rural buildings, bridges, ruins, monumental urns, and other trifling decorations, spread over the whole an appearance that equals, even surpasses the most elaborate cultivation. In every large tract of land, there generally are some places abundantly supplied with water, which often flows through uncouth marshy bottoms of little use or value to the owner: by raising heads at their extremities, these are easily overflowed; and lakes of very considerable dimensions may thus be obtained, often without much trouble, always with great advantages, as well in point of profit as of pleasure; and wherever it may be necessary to dig, in order to give a proper depth to the water, the earth may be raised into islands of various shapes, which serve to complicate the forms, to enrich and beautify the scenery. Though woods, from various causes, are now more rare than heretofore amongst you, yet are there, in most parts, some still remaining; their natural beauties are many, and little more is left for art to do in them, than to form roads, to thin or thicken them occasionally; where it may be wanting, to intersperse, amongst the plantations, a few proper shrubs and flowers; to open recesses, and to decorate them with objects; this done, they will be infinitely superior, in every respect, to any of the gaudy trifling confused plantations with which all your English-made Gardens are so crouded. England abounds with commons and wilds, dreary, barren, and serving only to give an uncultivated appearance to the country, particularly near the metropolis: to beautify these vast tracts of land, is next to an impossibility; but they may easily be framed into scenes of terror, converted into noble pictures of the sublimest cast, and, by an artful contrast, serve to enforce the effect of gayer and more luxuriant prospects. On some of them are seen gibbets, with wretches hanging in terrorem upon them; on others, forges, collieries, mines, coal tracts, brick or lime kilns, glass-works, and different objects of the horrid kind: what little vegetation they have, is dismal; the animals that feed upon it, are half-famished to the artist's hands; and the cottagers, with the huts in which they dwell, want no additional touches, to indicate their misery: a few uncouth straggling trees, some ruins, caverns, rocks, torrents, abandoned villages, in part consumed by fire, solitary hermitages, and other similar objects, artfully introduced and blended with gloomy plantations, would compleat the aspect of desolation, and serve to fill the mind, where there was no possibility of gratifying the senses. In prosecuting a plan of this extensive nature, many other opportunities would present themselves to the able artist, of dignifying nature, and of heightening his compositions with all the force of novelty and grandeur; stone quarries, chalk pits, mines, might as easily be framed into vast amphitheatres, rustic arcades and perystiles, extensive subterraneous habitations, grottos, vaulted roads, and passages, as into other shapes; hills might, without much difficulty, be transformed into stupendous rocks, by partial incrustations of stone, judiciously mixed with turf, fern, wild shrubs and forest trees; gravel pits, or other similar excavations, might be converted into the most romantic scenery imaginable, by the addition of some planting, intermixed with ruins, fragments of sculpture, inscriptions, or any other little embellishments; and, in short, there would be no deviation, however trifling, from the usual march of nature, but what would suggest, to a fruitful imagination, some extraordinary arrangement, something to disguise her vulgarity, to rouse the attention of the spectator, and to excite in his mind a succession of strong and opposite sensations. It is thus that far the noblest part of our Chinese Gardens, and those which at first sight appear most impracticable, may be obtained even amongst the common dispositions of English nature; and the great might thus have pleasure-grounds, extensive and extraordinary as those of the East, without any very considerable expence: men of less note would naturally imitate their superiors, by embellishing their possessions in the same manner; and instead of spending large sums to fence and to lard a little field with twigs, to give it the name of a Garden, they would beautify their whole estate; which, by a proper attention to the [oe]conomical precepts of our Chinese Gardeners, might be done in such a manner as to encrease its value, as well as improve its appearance. By these means this whole kingdom might soon become one magnificent vast Garden, bounded only by the sea; the many noble seats and villas with which it abounds, would give uncommon consequence to the scenery; and it might still be rendered more splendid, if, instead of disfiguring your churches with monuments, our Chinese manner of erecting mausoleums by the sides of the roads was introduced amongst you; and if all your public bridges were adorned with triumphal arches, rostral pillars, bas-reliefs, statues, and other indications of victory, and glorious atchievements in war: an empire transformed into a splendid Garden, with the imperial mansion towering on an eminence in the center,[23] and the palaces of the nobles scattered like pleasure-pavilions amongst the plantations, infinitely surpasses any thing that even the Chinese ever attempted: yet vast as the design appears, the execution is certainly within your reach. Such, as far as I am able to judge, continued our Orator, is the true application of nature to horticulture; perhaps the only one that can be attempted with success: wherever she is made in little, or introduced upon a confined plan, the effect is always trifling and bad, as will appear to any man of real taste, who inspects the artificial scenery even of your most approved gardens: Nature admits of no reduction in her dimensions; trees will not grow in miniature; nor are her bold movements to be expressed upon the surface of a few acres: and not to mention any of your performances, it is scarcely in the power of the most consummate art, to imitate nature perfectly; nor were it possible, could the most skilful arrangements acquire their true effect, till after the expiration of many years: our children may see the perfection of what we plant; we never can. Our eastern artists, therefore, seldom attempt to create, but rather imitate the tonsor, the habit-maker, the posture-master, and all the other polishers of man; who dispose, decorate, cleanse, clip, and add grace to what is already formed to their hands: to make nature, they say, is tedious and difficult beyond conception; but she may soon be embellished, her redundancys suppressed, her faults corrected, her wants supplied, her beauties improved, and set to view. The truth of these assertions is, I think, apparent in many of your famous plantations; but the beauties of improved natural scenery, the defects of artificial, are no where so strongly marked as at B----m, the most magnificent seat I have yet seen in Europe. On our entrance into the Park, we were astonished at the sight of a stupendous palace, surrounded with one of the noblest scenes of nature that can be imagined; the extent is vast, the parts uncommonly large, the grounds naturally well contrasted, the transitions bold, the plantations in perfect maturity: what assistance was necessary from art, has hitherto been judiciously administered; the removal of some trees, has exposed to view beauties that seem before to have been concealed; the addition of some others, has enriched parts that were bare; and the trifling, though very judicious circumstance of raising a head at the end of a valley, has obtained a very considerable lake of water, which enriches and enlivens all the prospects; and which, by following the natural bent or windings of the valley, has taken, without any assistance from art, the most picturesque forms that could be desired: in short, the whole is now admirable; and, when improved to the utmost, according to the design of the munificent owner, will yet be more so. Ornaments to characterize the Garden more strongly, are yet wanting, and some masterly finishing touches still very necessary: one only little twining path, within ten cubits of the fence, is certainly not in character with the grandeur of the place; but the fence may be removed; and there is room, even now, on the declivity of the banks, and by the sides of the lake, for more considerable walks, with many recesses, which, when made and decorated, will add variety to grandeur, and render the whole as entertaining and splendid, as it is now great. You enjoy the sight of this noble prospect for more than a mile; when the little path is suddenly turned into a little wood, whence, after having advanced a few paces, you behold a piece of scenery, all artificial, which I cannot venture to describe in this presence: some of you, Gentlemen, have seen what it is; and, with all your national partiality, must allow, either that it proves the impossibility of creating nature with any degree of success; or, that the ablest of your countrymen have no talent that way; to create, or to improve, are indeed very different operations; the former of which requires infinitely the most skill: it is ten times more difficult to paint a picture, than to judge, or suggest improvements, in one already painted. Hitherto I have only described of B----m, what strangers usually see; but the whole park, above twelve miles in circumference, and several farms adjoining to it, are uncommonly beautiful, rich in old planting, in water, and in a great variety of picturesque sites and points of view; so that, with a very little dressing, with some assistance from the sister arts of architecture and sculpture, the whole might easily be converted into one large magnificent Garden. And give me leave to observe, that these advantages are by no means peculiar to B----m; England boasts at least a hundred other places, many as extensive, most of them as capable of improvement, in various ways; which, under the management of true artists, might soon be made to rival the Tse-hiu and Chang-lin[24] of ancient days, the Yven ming, the Tchang tchun yven,[25] or any of the present splendid pleasure Gardens of our sublime Emperor, Kieng-long; the torch of the east, and true descendant of Tay-tsoy, the providence of Heaven, whom Joss[26] preserve in flesh and good spirits. It must, however, be confessed, that there is an inconveniency subsisting amongst you, which will always retard, and often prevent the execution of this extensive plan of Gardening; it is the licentiousness of your youth and common people, who delight in destroying every extraordinary thing that comes in their way: if a great man plants trees to shade and beautify a road, the people cut them down; if statues, or other pieces of sculpture, are set to adorn places of public resort, the boys pelt at them with stones, till all their extremities are demolished: wherever there are buildings, or seats, even in your Royal Gardens, we see them constantly disfigured with scurrilous inscriptions, or obscene rhimes; and where there are any uncommon trees, they are divested of every branch within reach; the shrubs are robbed of their blossom; the flowers are trodden under foot; the birds and animals are destroyed: in short, no mischief, that drunken mirth or deliberate malevolence can suggest, is left undone. What pity that such destructive brutality should exist in a country so particularly favoured by Nature, and so capable of improvement in the highest degree; whilst, in every other part of the world, it is unknown, almost unheard of! But there is a strong tincture of the rhubarb in all human competitions; and liberty, which has so many advantages, is, nevertheless, attended with some inconveniencies, of a very serious nature; amongst which, the ferocity of its lowest votaries is none of the least formidable. Since our arrival here last July, I have seen at least twenty of their boisterous pranks; in which, not to enumerate the broken windows, the bloody noses, the kicks, and the bastinadoes of other gentlemen, I have myself been a melancholy sufferer upon various occasions; particularly at Portsmouth, where I was thrown into the sea, and narrowly escaped drowning, for the diversion of the company. Would to Heaven!--as I say to the mistress Chet-quas in a morning--would to Heaven, my ducks, we were well at Quang-chew-fu again, with all our long nails, and all our whiskers about us! The rigours of an Emperor are less frightful to me, than the frolics of a savage mob, elevated to madness with songs of freedom, and tons of strong beer: it is easier to please a man with one good head, than a monster with ten thousand, all bad ones. _Miao kao faan-quai_[27] _Tsat paat quai-tsai_ Pardon this digression, which the terrors of a disturbed imagination have drawn me into; and permit your servant to re-assume the thread of his Discourse. Wherever the extent is considerable, and the lands properly formed for the purpose, the mode of natural Gardening, just recommended, ought certainly to be employed in preference to any other, as it surpasses all others in perfection, and is yet most easily executed: but in or near great cities, where property is much divided, on flats, where nature has no play, in all tame situations; the richer and more artificial manner of our Gardening is preferable: because it may contain much variety in a small compass, and corrects the natural defects of the ground more speedily, more effectually, with less charge than any other. This manner is also properest for grounds that immediately surround elegant structures, where order and symmetry are absolutely necessary; and for many little enclosures, or resting-places of various kinds, that must always be dispersed in different parts of extensive plantations; where nicety of dress, and excessive decoration are in character; and where they may be conveniently secured with stronger fences, to guard them from public intrusion. These choice pieces of cultivation are appropriated to the owner and his select friends; set aside for convivial pleasures, and enjoyments that can only be tasted in private: they may be considered as more spacious apartments, as habitations adapted to the milder seasons of the year, in which Art and Nature unite to furnish a variety of whatever is beautiful, elegant, extraordinary or entertaining; whilst the larger improvements are suited to the more open amusements of the owner, contrived upon a bolder system, for a more distant and cursory inspection: they are a noble indication of his consequence; a benevolent, as well as artful tribute to the community; which, whilst it serves to multiply the conveniencys, or promote the innocent amusements of the public, secures the popularity of the benefactor, and marks, in the strongest colours, his power, wealth and munificence. How these considerations operate in England, I, who am a stranger, cannot determine; but in the kingdoms of the East they have great weight. Your connoisseurs will, I know, object to our artificial scenery; which they consider as unnatural, and represent as too expensive for imitation. On the former of these points you have already heard my sentiments; I need not now repeat them: those who are not yet convinced, may still feed on crabs, and leave ananas to better heads. Till my arrival in England, I never doubted but the appearance of art was admissible, even necessary to the essence of a splendid Garden: and I am more firmly of that opinion, after having seen your English Gardens; though the contrary is so violently maintained by your countrymen, in opposition to the rest of the world, to the practice of all other polished nations, all enlightened ages; and, as far as I am able to judge, in opposition to reason. But your people delight in extremes; and, whenever they get upon a new scent, pursue it with such rage, that they always overshoot the bounds. We admire Nature as much as you do; but being of a more phlegmatick disposition, our affections are somewhat better regulated: we consider how she may be employed, upon every occasion, to most advantage; and do not always introduce her in the same garb; but show her in a variety of forms; sometimes naked, as you attempt to do; sometimes disguised; sometimes decorated, or assisted by art; scrupulously avoiding, in our most artless dispositions, all resemblance to the common face of the country, with which the Garden is immediately surrounded; being convinced, that a removal from one field to another, of the same appearance, can never afford any particular pleasure, nor ever excite powerful sensations of any kind. If I must tell you my mind freely, Gentlemen, both your artists and connoisseurs seem to lay too much stress on nature and simplicity; they are the constant cry of every half-witted dabbler, the burthen of every song, the tune by which you are insensibly lulled into dullness and insipidity. If resemblance to nature were the measure of perfection, the waxen figures in Fleet-street, would be superior to all the works of the divine Buonarotti; the trouts and wood-cocks of Elmer, preferable to the cartoons of Raphael: but, believe me, too much nature is often as bad as too little, as may be deduced from many examples, obvious to every man conversant in polite knowledge. Whatever is familiar, is by no means calculated to excite the strongest feelings; and though a close resemblance to familiar objects may delight the ignorant, yet, to the skilful, it has but few charms, never any of the most elevated sort; and is sometimes even disgusting: without a little assistance from art, nature is seldom tolerable; she may be compared to certain viands, either tasteless, or unpleasant in themselves: which, nevertheless, with some seasoning, become palatable; or, when properly prepared, compose a most exquisite dish. And with respect to simplicity, wherever more is admitted than may be requisite to constitute grandeur, or necessary to facilitate conception, it is always a fault. To the human mind, some exertion is always necessary: it must be occupied to be pleased; and is more satisfied with a treat, than with a frugal repast: for though it doth not delight in intricacies, yet, without a certain, even a considerable degree of complication, no grateful sensations can ever be excited. Excessive simplicity can only please the ignorant or weak, whose comprehensions are slow, and whose powers of combination are confined. Simplicity must therefore be used with discretion, and the dose be adapted to the constitution of the patients, amongst savages and Hottentots; where arts are unknown, refinements unheard of, an abundant portion may be necessary; but wherever civilization has improved the mental faculties, a little, with proper management, will go a very great way: need I prove what the music, poetry, language, arts and manners, of every nation demonstrate, beyond the possibility of a doubt. Another favourite word of your virtuosi, is purity; a word of which, being a stranger, I do not perhaps know the full value; nor exactly in what sense it is applied to the art in question. We are told, that in the purity of Gardening, you were never equalled by any nation; even that this boasted purity never appeared in any country but England: it may be so; your Gardens have certainly been purged to the quick, freed of every encumberance, and cleansed of every extrinsick redundancy; so that nothing now remains but the genuine carcass, in its native purity: yet whether this quality, which I apprehend is the only one that can positively be implied, is a perfection or a blemish, will always be disputed; for though pure wine[28] is, without doubt, a delicious beverage, and preferable to that which is mixed, yet pure water is very insipid, and may be much mended, by the additions of arrack, lemon and sugar, to turn it into punch; and ninety-nine persons in a hundred will maintain, that your pure Gardens might be much improved by the addition of embellishments proper to produce variety, and set off the vegetation to advantage: for vary your trees and shrubs as much as possible, combine them in every imaginable arrangement, they are still but trees and shrubs; they can impress but a very few images upon the mind of the spectator, and only affect his senses with very slight perceptions. That our artificial stile of Gardening is expensive, is doubtless true; yet certainly not ruinously so. In my former voyage, I knew an unfortunate prince, who, on a very moderate allowance from his relations, supported a court in splendour; and, with the surplus, formed one of the most extraordinary, as well as magnificent artificial Gardens I ever saw. It is surprizing what good management will do, where management is necessary; but you are too rich ever to need it in any thing. I have seen more money expended here, in digging an ugly pond, than would have compleated a whole Garden elsewhere; yet, after all, the pond would never hold water. But, to proceed--You have all seen what the French have done at Versailles, Marli, Trianon, Saint Cloud, Liancourt, and Chanilly; the Italians near Rome, at Tivoli, at Frescati, and in many other parts of Italy: I do not here enter into the merit of these works; but they are certainly as costly, perhaps more so, than any of ours; yet these were done by foreigners, of different denominations; all without the least help of magick: you are richer than they; you may, with some trouble, acquire their skill; it is hoped you have already more than their spirit: be not, therefore, afraid to attempt, what they have already long since accomplished. I have formerly told you what sort of art we employ in our Chinese Gardening; I now recommend it to your imitation; and though in general your European artificial manner appears not to me perfect, yet doth it contain many things highly deserving notice, which you have imprudently laid aside, without substituting any equivalent. To instance the Gardens of France; they are, I will allow, sufficiently extravagant: you hear of nothing but islands of love, or halls of festivity; every recess is the retreat of a God, every prospect a scene of enchantment: like their petit maitres, they are all out of nature, all affectation; yet it is an affectation often delightful, and absurdity generally overflowing with taste and fancy: in their best works there is such a mysterious, pleasing intricacy in the disposition, such variety in the objects, so much splendour and animation in the scenery, and so much skill apparent in the execution of every part, that the attention of the spectator never flags; the succession is so rapid, that he is hurried on from one exhibition to another, with his mind constantly upon the stretch: he has only time to be pleased; there is no leisure to reflect, none to be disgusted with the extravagance of what he sees. If their Gardens are less rational than yours, they are certainly much more entertaining; and though, upon the whole, they can by no means be proposed as models for imitation, yet are there many things to be borrowed from them, which might be adopted by you with considerable advantage. I may say the same with regard to the Italian Gardens, of which the style is less affected, less extravagant than in those of France: the heat of the climate obliges the inhabitants to seek for shade; the walks are sheltered, the plantations close, whence their compositions have a gloom, and an air of solitude that are exceedingly awful. There is a grandeur of manner in all their works, seldom to be met with elsewhere; which, about Rome, and in some other parts of Italy, is greatly heightened by the majestick face of Nature, framed upon a larger scale, and broken into nobler forms, than in most other countries. Their vegetation too is uncommonly picturesque; the abundance of water with which they are every where supplied, enables them to form a thousand pleasing combinations; and the venerable vestiges of ancient structures, which rear their decaying heads above the plantations, add surprizingly to the dignity of the scenery. At every step, the admiration of the spectator is excited by statues, therms, bas-reliefs, sarcophagi urns, vases, and other remains of ancient splendour; or he is delighted with the productions of modern artists, ingeniously imagined, well executed, and skilfully disposed. It is not easy to conceive any thing more entertaining, to a man of taste, than an Italian Garden; in which, amidst a profusion of pleasing objects, the same elegance of choice, the same elevation of style so conspicuous in the sculpture and painting of the great Italian schools, is every where prevalent. To branch out into farther descriptions of your continental Gardens, is perhaps superfluous, and may be thought foreign to the present purpose; as some of them differ very little from those just mentioned; and others are too trifling, or imperfect, to deserve any notice: yet permit me, before I finish, to give a slight sketch of the Dutch Gardening; from which I am apt to believe your ideas of the artificial style are chiefly collected, and your extraordinary aversion to it principally owing. In Holland, parterres, embroidered in box, brick-dust, sea-coal, and broken porcelain, are every where admired. No Garden is perfect, that is not surrounded with a wet ditch, and many _lusthouses_ hanging over it, for smoking tobacco; nor is there any elegance, without some tons of lead, transformed into skating Dutchmen, Harlequins, and fluting Shepherdesses, all richly painted, in proper colours: azure flower-pots, with gilt handles, are seen in every corner; and golden mercury are perched, like birds, upon every pinnacle: every pass is guarded by pasteboard Grenadiers; and Fame, straddling over the entrance, displays a Dutch label to the passenger, telling the name and beauties of the place, the virtues and moral opinions of the proprietor. These particularities, with all the formal absurd parts of the French Gardening, make an Eden in Holland; a thing too ridiculous to be out of humour with any where; 'tis a pity it has had so serious an effect upon you. You are a wise people; yet, in the reformation of Gardening, you have followed the beaten road of ignorance: to avoid one fault, you have run headlong into another, its opposite: because, in the Old Gardening, art, order and variety, were carried to an extravagant excess, you have, in the New, almost totally excluded them all three: to mend an exuberant, fantastick dress, you have stripped stark naked: and, to heal a distempered limb, you have, like some famous surgeons of our day, chopped it entirely off. All connoisseurs amongst you, and even amongst us, agree in despising our enchanted, or supernatural scenery; which, they say, is trifling, absurd, extravagant, abounding in conceits and boyish tricks; that operating chiefly by surprize, it has little or no effect, after a first or second inspection, and consequently can afford no pleasure to the owner: yet our best Artists, who have no excessive reverence for the decrees of connoisseurs[29], and who think the owner is not the only person to be entertained, often introduce it; either where the plan is extensive, and admits of many changes; or, where the ground is barren of natural varieties: saying, in their vindication, that it serves as an interlude between more serious expositions; that, at a treat, there should be meats for every palate; in a shop of general resort, goods for every fancy; in a Garden, designed for publick inspection, exhibitions of every kind; that all may find something to their liking, and none go away disappointed or dissatisfied: and, as at a feast, men eat of what they best relish, without mumbling the rest of the dishes, but leave them untainted for others to feed upon, so, in a Garden, if a man be too wise to laugh, or be pleased with trifles, he may pass them over unnoticed: amongst the multitude, there are many fancies to gratify; children, old women, eunuchs, and pleasure-misses, ought to be diverted, as well as sages, mandarines, or connoisseurs. It is not every one, say they, that enjoys the force or fierceness of grand compositions; to some they are even terrifying: weak minds delight in little objects, which are easiest adapted to their confined comprehensions; as children are better pleased with a puppet-show, than with more serious or noble performances. Thus they reason; and say moreover, that, as the principal parts of this supernatural Gardening consists in a display of many surprizing phenomena, and extraordinary effects, produced by air, fire, water, motion, light, and gravitation, they may be considered at a collection of philosophical experiments, exhibited in a better manner, upon a larger scale, and more forcibly than is common: in that light they think, even men of sense may venture to look at them, without impeachment of their understanding; to admire what is ingenious, new or extraordinary; and stare at what they do not comprehend. Whether the connoisseurs or the artists are most in the wrong, I will not decide; you, Gentlemen, must determine for yourselves. Some free expressions, relative to your Gardeners, constitute a heavy part of the charge exhibited against me: it seems therefore necessary, in alleviation of this high offence, to declare, that whatever has been said on that subject, was with an eye to the general character of the fraternity; and by no means levelled at yon stately gentleman in the black perriwig, as he has been pleased to maintain. It could not be my business to mark out individuals, either by excessive praise, which was perhaps expected, or by more poignant censure: such conduct must have been fawning in one in instance, invidious in both; for there is no exalting one ph[oe]nomenon, without proportionably degrading the rest: as in a draw-well, one bucket can never rise, but when the other sinks. If a man far outstrips his brothers, he will of course be distinguished; if only a little, his safest station is in the croud. And really it is odd that any one should officiously have stepped out of the ranks, insisting, like master Dogberry in the play, upon his exclusive title; where nothing partial was even distantly hinted at, no names mentioned, nor any thing said, that was not full as applicable to the brotherhood in general, as to the sagacious claimant in particular: but _Man lup jao kai_ _Tai kup tao baï._ There is reason to believe, from various hints which have been dropped by Gentlemen here present, that the veracity of Chet-qua's description is doubted; nay, that the Gardens described, are supposed to have no existence but in Chet-qua's brain: be it so, my friends; I shall not seek to refute what you seem so strongly disposed to believe; it is not at present material: for the end of all that I have said, was rather as an Artist, to set before you a new style of Gardening; than as a Traveller, to relate what I have really seen: and, notwithstanding your strictures, you all seemed satisfied, even entertained with the description: there is no doubt, but the reality, like all other realities, would affect you still more strongly than the picture. I have endeavoured to shew, how that may be obtained: the rest is left to those it most concerns; the ingenious, the wealthy, and the great; who have power and inclinations to execute what I attempt to plan: my part is done, as far as I am able to do it; theirs may begin when they think fit. And although they may at first be embarrassed in the execution of a system so much more complicated and dependant on genius, on skill, and on nice judgement, than that which has hitherto been pursued; yet there is no doubt, but practice and perseverance will, by degrees, dispel every difficulty: it is at least glorious to hazard arduous attempts; and more honourable even to fail in manly pursuits, than to succeed in trifling, childish enterprizes. Let the timid or the feeble meanly creep upon the earth, with uniform, sluggard pace; but the towering spirit must attempt a nobler flight, and climb the paths that lead to fame: now gayly sporting on the slippery surface, as doth the gentle, graceful lizard; now thundering up the precipice, with the tremendous dragon's stride; now soaring to the top, stately and splendid as the imperial bird;[30] when, with his glittering crest and twelve irradiant wings, he comes upon the morning's light, while myriads of the warbling tribes, at awful distance, crowd the vaulted air, adore their King, and, with loud songs of frantick joy, shake the firm earth, and all yon starry heaven. From the whole tenour of this Discourse, and indeed from the substance of the first Dissertation, it is evident, Gentlemen, that your servant Chet-qua has no aversion to natural Gardening; but is, on the contrary, a zealous advocate in its favour, wherever there is room to expand, and work upon a great scale, or where it can conveniently, and with propriety be introduced. The style which in England has been adopted, preferable to others, is not what appears to him reprehensible; but he laments the little use you have made of your adoption, and apprehends your partiality is too excessive, while you obstinately refuse the assistance of almost every extraneous embellishment, and persist in an indiscriminate application of the same manner, upon all occasions, however opposite, or ill adapted; and often where no probability of success appears. Natural Gardening, when treated upon an extensive plan, when employed with judgement, and conducted with art, is perhaps as superior to all other sorts of culture, as heroick verse is to every other species of writing; but there are many occasions, where neither the one nor the other can, with the least propriety, be employed; where they would only serve to give a ridicule to the whole composition; and where different or less elevated modes of expression are, on all accounts, preferable. Artists of other professions, vary their manners of applying to the human affections; suiting them to the circumstances or nature of the subjects before them; and they are oftenest indebted to these variations for their success; why then should Gardeners always confine themselves to the same tract, and torture all dispositions to adapt them to the same method, like that tyrant of old, who stretched or mutilated every guest, till he fitted a particular bed? Can they hope to succeed by means, which others have found ineffectual; or is it reasonable to suppose, that Nature will change her course to please their fancy? Variety is a powerful agent, without the assistance of which, little can be effected; it captivates even with trifles; and, when united to perfection, has charms which nothing can resist: the most exquisite pictures of nature, receive additional beauties from a judicious opposition of art; and the confined, uniform, tasteless walk of imitation, which you have unfortunately fallen into, must have many helps to make it even tolerable; a thousand enlivening additions, to animate its native dulness. Thus I have considered every part of my first Discourse, and offered in its vindication, what immediately occurs to me: perhaps, with more leisure, I might have contrived a better Speech, and a stronger Defence; but the hurry of Face-making[31] is such, that there is scarcely time to eat rice, or drink brandy,[32] much less to think: I never frequent my wives but by night; I have only heard one of them scold, and seen the others by twilight, these six months: judge then, what can be expected from Chet-qua; the little knowledge he has, or thinks he has, is freely communicated to his neighbours; he wishes it were more and better; yet such as it is, he flatters himself it will be kindly received; and that his neighbours will use what may be useful, without kicking too violently at the rest. FINIS. FOOTNOTES: [20] _Quang-chew-fu_--Canton. _For she was a virago, and had large feet_--Both which are accounted great defects in China. _Nine whiskers, &c._--All beaus wear whiskers in China; and all gentlemen long nails, to shew that they are idle. _Kyang-ning, or_ Nang-king--Capital of Kyang-nang. _Shun-tien-fu_--Peking. [21] _Tan lou ty tchan yué, &c._--The motto which Chet-qua has made choice of, is part of a poem written by Kien-long, reigning emperor of China, in praise of drinking tea: and published, by his imperial edict, bearing date the twelfth day, of the ninth moon, of the thirteenth year of his reign; in thirty-two different types, or characters; under the inspection of Yun-lou, and Houng-yen, princes, by the title of Tsin-ouang; Fouheng, grandee, by the title of Taypao; Count, by the title of Valiant; and first president of almost all the great tribunals of the empire: whose deputies were Akdoun and Tsing-pou, grandees, by the title of Tay-tsee Chaopao; and these were again assisted by Isan, Fouki, Elguingue, Tetchi, Mingté, Tsoungmin, Tchangyu, Tounmin, and about a dozen other mandarines of rank and reputation; so that there is no doubt but the work is perfectly correct. Here follows the exact copy of it, with an English translation, for the entertainment and instruction of the curious in poetry. There is a French translation of the same work, by Father Amiot, published at Paris, in 1770, from which the present Publication is in a great measure taken; the Editor having found it easier to translate from the French copy, than from the Chinese original. Mei-hoa ché pou yao Fo-cheou hiang tsie kié, Soung-che ouei fang ny; San pin tchou tsing kûé; Pong y tché kio tang, Ou tché tcheng koang hiué Houo heou pien yu hié, Ting yen y cheng mié. Yué ngueou po sien jou, Tan lou ty tchan yué, Ou yun king tai pan Ko ou, pou ko choué. Fou fou teou lo ty Ho ho yun kiang tché Ou-tsuen y ko tsan Lin-fou chang ché pié. Lan ku Tchao-tcheou ngan Pó siao Yu-tchouan kiu Han siao ting sing leou Kou yué kan hiuen tsué, Joan pao tchen ki yu Tsiao king sing ou kié, Kien-long ping-yn Siao, tchun yu ty. TRANSLATION The colours of the Mei hoa are never brilliant, yet is the flower always pleasing: in fragrance or neatness the fo-cheou has no equal: the fruit of the pine is aromatick, its odour inviting. In gratifying at once the sight, the smell and the taste, nothing exceeds these three things: and if, at the same time, you put, upon a gentle fire, an old pot, with three legs, grown black and battered with length of service, after having first filled it with the limpid water of melted snow; and if, when the water is heated to a degree that will boil a fish, or redden a lobster, you pour it directly into a cup made of the earth of yué, upon the tender leaves of superfine tea; and if you let it rest there, till the vapours which rises at first in great abundance, forming thick clouds, dissipate by degrees, and at last appear merely as a slight mist upon the surface; and if then you gently sip this delicious beverage, it is labouring effectually to remove the five causes of discontent which usually disturb our quiet: you may feel, you may taste, but it is impossible to describe the sweet tranquillity which a liquor, thus prepared, procures. Retired, for some space of time, from the tumults of business, I sit alone in my tent, at liberty to enjoy myself unmolested: in one hand holding a fo-cheou, which I bring nearer to my nose, or put it farther off, at pleasure; in the other hand holding my dish of tea, upon which some pretty curling vapours still appear: I taste, by intervals the liquor; by intervals, I consider the mei-hoa--I give a fillip to my imagination, and my thoughts are naturally turned towards the sages of antiquity.--I figure to myself the famous Ou-tsuen, whose only nourishment was the fruit of the pine; he enjoyed himself in quiet, amidst this rigid frugality! I envy, and wish to imitate him.--I put a few of the kernels into my mouth; I find them delicious. Sometimes, methinks, I see the virtuous Lin-fou, bending into form, with his own hands, the branches of the mei-hoa-chou. It was thus, say I to myself, that he relieved his mind, after the fatigues of profound meditation, on the most interesting subjects. Then I take a look at my shrub, and it seems as if I were assisting Lin-fou, in bending its branches into a new form.--I skip from Lin-fou to Tchao-tcheon, or to Yu-tchouan; and see the first in the middle of a vast many tea-cups, filled with all kinds of tea, of which he sometimes tastes one, sometimes another; thus varying incessantly his potation: while the second drinks, with the profoundest indifference, the best tea, and scarcely distinguishes it from the vilest stuff.--My taste is not their's; why should I attempt to imitate them?---- But I hear the sound of the evening bell; the freshness of the night is augmented; already the rays of the moon strike through the windows of my tent, and with their lustre brighten the few moveables with which it is adorned. I find myself neither uneasy nor fatigued; my stomach is empty, and I may, without fear, go to rest.----It is thus that, with my poor abilities, I have made these verses, in the little spring of the tenth moon of the year Ping-yn, of my reign Kien-long. [22] _Fo-hii_, _Shing-tong_, or _Whoang-tii_--Some of the first emperors of China; who invented the eight qua's, together with the kay-tse, and created colsus. [23] _An eminence in the center_--Meaning Windsor, probably. [24] _Tse-hiu and Chang-lin_--Two celebrated parks, which belonged to the emperors of the Ty. [25] _Yven-ming-yven, and Tchang-tchun-yven_--Are Gardens near Pe-king, belonging to the present Emperors of China. [26] _Joss_--A corruption of Dios, God. [27] _Miao kao, etc._--Muttering expressions from Hoang-fou-tse, or Confucius. [28] _For though pure wine, etc._--It is remarkable, that our Orator draws most of his similes and allusions either from the kitchen or the cellar; whether this particularity proceeded from any skill of his in the culenary art, from his affection for good living, or from any other hidden motive; or whether it was merely accidental, the Editor never could learn with any degree of certainty. [29] In China they have an innumerable multitude of connoisseurs and criticks; who, with a very superficial knowledge, a few general maxims, and some hard words, boldly decide on subjects they do not understand: hence the whole fraternity is fallen into disrepute. They have, indeed, like us, some real connoisseurs amongst them; but these are very rare in China. [30] _The imperial bird_, or foung hoang, is a fabulous being, of the nature of the ph[oe]nix, by the Chinese poets, accounted the emperor of birds, as the dragon is of all the scaly tribe: he is said never to appear, but in great pomp, attended by a numerous train of all the most brilliant and extraordinary of the volatile race. [31] _Hurry of face-making_--The Chinese call portrait painting, or modelling portraits in coloured clay, which was Chet-qua's particular profession, face-making. [32] _Eat rice or drink brandy_--The Chinese call dining, eating rice; and their common liquors, at meals, are spirits, of various sorts. .... Transcriber's note: In this etext the ^ indicates superscript. .... 
39929	----	THE AUGUSTAN REPRINT SOCIETY [WILLIAM GILPIN] A DIALOGUE UPON THE GARDENS OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE Lord Viscount _COBHAM_ AT STOW IN BUCKINGHAMSHIRE _(1748)_ _Introduction by_ JOHN DIXON HUNT PUBLICATION NUMBER _176_ WILLIAM ANDREWS CLARK MEMORIAL LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES _1976_ GENERAL EDITORS William E. Conway, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library George Robert Guffey, University of California, Los Angeles Maximillian E. Novak, University of California, Los Angeles David S. Rodes, University of California, Los Angeles ADVISORY EDITORS James L. Clifford, Columbia University Ralph Cohen, University of Virginia Vinton A. Dearing, University of California, Los Angeles Arthur Friedman, University of Chicago Louis A. Landa, Princeton University Earl Miner, Princeton University Samuel H. Monk, University of Minnesota Everett T. Moore, University of California, Los Angeles Lawrence Clark Powell, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library James Sutherland, University College, London H. T. Swedenberg, Jr., University of California, Los Angeles Robert Vosper, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library CORRESPONDING SECRETARY Beverly J. Onley, William Andrews Clark Memorial Library INTRODUCTION Stowe is certainly the most documented of all English Augustan gardens,[1] and William Gilpin's _Dialogue_ probably one of the most important accounts of it. He was at Stowe in 1747 and published his record of that visit anonymously the following year.[2] The _Dialogue_ reached a second edition, with some slight alterations in the text, in 1749 and a third in 1751, when the dialogue was transformed into narrative. The _Dialogue_ recommends itself both to the historian of the English landscape movement, in which Stowe was a prime exhibit, and to the student of the later vogue for the picturesque, in which Gilpin was a major participant. His account of Cobham's gardens illuminates some of the connections between the cult of the picturesque that Gilpin fostered with his publications of the 1780s and the earlier eighteenth-century invocation of pictures in gardens. Perhaps in no other art form were the tensions and transformations in the arts more conspicuous than in landscape gardening. Gilpin is especially rewarding in his instinctive attention to these shifting patterns; although the dialogue form is not very skillfully handled, it yet allows some play between the rival attitudes. Thus his characters attend to both the emblematic and the expressive garden;[3] to both its celebration of public worth and its commendation of private virtue. While Gilpin seems sufficiently and indeed sharply aware of set-piece views in the gardens, the three-dimensional pictures contrived among the natural and architectural features, he also reveals himself as sensitive towards the more fluid psychological patterns, what one might term the _kinema_ of landscape response. Above all, his obvious delight in the landscape garden and appreciation of it vie with an equally strong admiration for scenery outside gardens altogether. At the time of Gilpin's visit, Lord Cobham's gardens were substantially as they are represented in the engravings published in 1739 by the widow of Charles Bridgeman, one of Stowe's designers. In the year of Gilpin's visit work had just started in the northeast part of the grounds upon the natural glade that came to be known as the Grecian Valley.[4] Whether it is the work of Lancelot ("Capability") Brown, who was then a gardener at Stowe, or only prophetic of it, the Grecian Valley was a hint of the less architectural, the more carefully "natural" gardens of the next decades. Although Gilpin would presumably have seen little of this most advanced example of gardening style, he would still have observed what were, in the terms customarily invoked, formal and informal ingredients at Stowe. From the Rotunda, for example, he looked over the (now vanished) Queen's Pool, "laid out with all the Decorations of Art" (p. 15), including the oblong canal itself and various statues; the first body of water encountered beside the Lake Pavillions (p. 4) was octagonally shaped and bore an obelisk at its centre. Yet elsewhere there was frequent occasion to praise prospects that obviously seemed much less artificial. If there is any distinction between the two participants in the _Dialogue_, it is certainly between the one's taste for the evidence of art and the other's penchant for natural beauties. If their opposition is not very conspicuously maintained by Gilpin, it is surely because his own loyalties were divided and were to be reconciled only with some subtlety and ingenuity later in his career. Callophilus, who cites Pope's balanced instructions on the mixture of art and nature (p. 26), is more inclined to appreciate these elements in the garden where Nature's defective compositions have been improved; the love of beauty that his name announces is of beauty methodized, though without exceeding "a probable Nature" (p. 6). On the other hand, his enthusiastic companion, Polypthon, directs his eponymous ill-will mostly against the decorations of art: the "hewn Stone" of Dido's Cave particularly offends him (p. 14), and he "cannot very much admire" the canal below the Rotunda (p. 15). Yet he seems to share Callophilus' notions about "mending" nature (p. 23), and it is he who proposes a landscape that, substituting farm-houses for temples (p. 45), approximates most clearly to that prettiest of eighteenth-century landscape ideas, the _ferme ornée_. Polypthon's predilection for scenery outside gardens seems equally compromised by his ready assent to Callophilus' praise of the carefully studied contrasts in Stowe gardens: so that he may turn from the less agreeable vista down the Queen's Pool and look instead over Home Park, earlier noted for its "rural scene" (p. 8), and now admired as a natural field--though the cattle prominent in Rigaud's drawings[5] are not mentioned. But what is artless for Polypthon is studied by his companion in terms of art: "the Field is _formed_ by that Semi-circle of Trees into a very grand Theatre" (p. 15, _my italics_), and his eye registers an architectural feature--Vanbrugh's Pyramid--as the apt centre of that field of vision. This particular exchange at the Rotunda suggests that the usual modern discussion of landscape gardens in terms of their diminishing formality or escalating informality is less Gilpin's concern than the mind's involvement with the various landscapes. Callophilus and Polypthon can apparently both contemplate the same scene from the Rotunda, southwest towards Kent's Temple of Venus and Vanbrugh's Pyramid, yet adjudge its artifice differently. What is evidently at work in Gilpin's record of this garden is the mental experience of it, and in his case the ambiguities of his visual response. The complicated geometry that began on Bridgeman's drawing board[6] and then was transferred to shape the grounds is certainly a survival of the old-fashioned French style in gardens. Its presence is registered by Gilpin, who allows Callophilus to note how the Gibbs building, like many other objects at Stowe designed to be seen along a variety of axes, "has its Use ... in several Prospects" (p. 8). But the psychology of the viewer has at least equal weight in Gilpin with the many-faceted object viewed from different positions.[7] And in those circumstances the presence of formal or informal designs upon the ground or the drawing-board matters less than the variety of objects and scenes within a garden and even, as at the Rotunda, the variety of viewpoint and interpretation within one vista. Variety had, of course, always been essential to the English garden and is a special feature of Stowe, as Pope implies in the _Epistle to Burlington_ and as the writer of the appendix to Defoe's Tour of 1742 explicitly stated.[8] What we have in Gilpin's _Dialogue_ is both valuable evidence of response to garden structures, the visitor's rather than the designer's or client's account, and some hints of how the idea of variety, itself a painterly term, presented itself to Gilpin in the days before his picturesque tours. Gilpin's path through the gardens at Stowe is recorded in the _Dialogue_ as a journal of the mind's responses: the _Advertisement_ (p. iv) prepares the reader for this with its insistence upon the role memory has played in its composition. The varieties of mental experience are sometimes registered by the dialogue form; more often the two visitors share responses which correspond to the changes of Stowe's scenes. This is most amusingly illustrated by the "impertinent Hedge" that suddenly blocks their view (p. 11); Callophilus' ingenious explanation, a curious parallel to Sterne's blank page in _Tristram Shandy_, is that thereby the visitor's "Attention" is kept awake (p. 12). More strenuous is their intellectual involvement with the monuments, statues, and inscriptions in the Elysian Fields (pp. 19ff), emblems that provoke in Callophilus "a Variety of grand Ideas" (p. 29). Yet, as the text of the third edition makes precisely clear (p. 11), in face of the same objects his companion is more fascinated than he with the formal elements of an art--contrasts in landscape textures, style of inscriptions (p. 30), or unadmirable workmanship in bas-reliefs (p. 37). The "Subject[s] for ... Rapsody" (p. 30) that Polypthon mocks were an essential aspect of any Augustan garden, and six pages later they divert even Polypthon himself into moralizing. But his stronger inclination is to ignore the iconographical problems of the Saxon busts (p. 44) and gaze "into the Country" where his companion solicitously directs his attention to the elegant woods (p. 45). The _Dialogue_ allows these and related distinctions to emerge, even though it does not grapple with their implications. As Callophilus explains, there should be a grand terrace for strangers, and the shade of a "close vista" for friends (p. 31). Stowe provided both, just as it catered to the propensity for retirement--the Hermitage, the Temple of Friendship, or the Temple of Sleep--as well as for the obligations of public life--the Temple of British Worthies, the gothic Temple of Liberty. The most emblematic items in the gardens, upon which Callophilus predictably expatiates because they were designed to be easily "read," are in the public places, where they firmly control the visitors' mental reactions and leave less scope for the private and enthusiastic reveries of Polypthon. It is a fair assumption that most visitors to the Temples of Liberty or Ancient and Modern Virtue would have understood their meanings just as Callophilus did (pp. 40 and 19-21). But the aesthetic taste of Polypthon for the forms and shapes rather than the meanings of landscape betrays a potential for less controlled and more private rhapsodies. His quest "after beautiful Objects" (p. 24) takes him as much to the northern parts of Great Britain as to gardens like Stowe, and is obviously prophetic of Gilpin's own picturesque travels. Like Warton's _Enthusiast or the Lover of Nature_ (1740), Polypthon rejects "gardens deck'd with art's vain pomps." This is because he is fascinated with the more radical landscapes of solely formal elements--the serpentine windings of the river at Stirling (p. 44) or what has been called the abstract garden[9] that comes to fruition only in the decades after Gilpin's visit under the management of "Capability" Brown. But the fact that Polypthon finds sufficient abstract patterns to engage his attention at Stowe suggests that the Brownian mode was already latent among the richnesses of the Buckinghamshire gardens. The "rejection" of Stowe by Polypthon as by Warton also signals their desire to indulge the enthusiastic fit. His very first reaction upon arrival at Stowe is an "Exclamation" that expresses _his_ expectations of aesthetic delight (p. 2). Although his companion is equally susceptible and is accused by Polypthon of being an "Enthusiast" (p. 49) and in the third edition of the _Dialogue_ (p. 12) determines himself to "indulge the thrilling Transport," it seems to be Polypthon whom Gilpin intends to characterize by expressive as opposed to explanatory outbursts as they proceed round the gardens. And it is he who concludes their visit (p. 58) with a catalogue of the various human moods for which the gardens cater, rather more extravagant in its expressive fervour than Callophilus' traditional identification of the passions on faces of other visitors (p. 51). Gilpin's attention to his characters' intellectual and emotional reactions illuminates the roles of poetry and painting that have always been associated with the rise of the English landscape garden.[10] If Milton's description of the Garden of Eden, so frequently invoked by eighteenth-century gardenists, implied an informal structure for designers to emulate, it equally encouraged associationist activity in gardens. The visual reminders of literary texts at Stowe--_Il Pastor Fido_ (pp. 2ff) or Spenser (pp. 6-7)--which are sometimes accompanied by inscriptions which articulate the "dumb poetry" of the decorations (e.g., p. 13) serve mainly to provoke the imagination of visitors. Sometimes, as at the Hermitage, Stowe's designers force specific associations upon the mind; elsewhere they are content to manipulate the feelings in such a way as to stimulate merely general fancies to which the visitor himself must put whatever name he wishes. It is consistent with Gilpin's attempt to identify Polypthon with the less public aspects of Stowe that it is he who twice formulates his own responses to a scene: the quotations from Milton (pp. 10 and 52-3) may both describe the formal features of landscape, but they are also expressive of his emotional reactions. Pictures, too, provided associationist focus when recalled in a garden: the most obvious instance being the probable allusion to Claude at Stourhead.[11] Yet the actual influence of pictures on landscape gardens has been generally exaggerated.[12] Where they were perhaps a force seems to have been in articulating the mental and emotional reaction of visitors. When Walpole praises William Kent for realizing in gardens "the compositions of the greatest masters in painting",[13] I suspect that he is in part rationalizing his own associationalist instinct, when at Hagley he was reminded of Sadeler's prints or of the Samaritan woman in a picture by Nicolas Poussin. Allusions to pictures were a means of focusing evanescent mood. Gilpin, too, organizes his characters' responses in pictorial focus. The _Advertisement_ again alerts the reader to these studied painterly aims. Once inside the gardens Callophilus sees pictures everywhere: variously disposed objects "make a most delightful Picture" (p. 14), while on at least three occasions in the first half-dozen pages the ruins, prospects, and "Claro-obscuro" of trees are discussed in terms that suggest how his habits of vision have been educated in front of painted or engraved landscapes which in their turn are recalled to provide a suitable vocabulary for his experiences.[14] Even Polypthon invokes the syntax of painting (pp. 25 and 41) to formulate his reactions to scenery. It is in these painterly preconceptions of the characters and in Polypthon's account of Scottish scenery (pp. 23-4) that hints of Gilpin's later career are announced: the second edition of the _Dialogue_ even talks of his "Observations" on Stowe, a term that became a standard ingredient in the titles of his picturesque tours. The education of sight by the study of paintings and prints was clarified and expounded in the _Essay on Prints_, written at least by 1758 and published ten years later. The picturesque tours themselves were started in the 1770s and published from 1782 onwards. In them Gilpin refines and enlarges upon the methods and ideas of his Stowe _Dialogue_. The adjudication between a taste for natural beauties (what his _Three Essays_ term the "correct knowledge of objects")[15] and the inclination to adjust them according to painterly criteria (in 1792 termed "scenes of fancy") is more sophisticated and consistent. He still delights in the variety of a landscape; but the roughness that Stowe only occasionally allowed becomes one of his guiding rules in appraising scenery. Perhaps the most significant items in the _Dialogue_ for readers of Gilpin's later writings will be his psychological emphasis and his attention to verbal and visual associations. Although his picturesque tours never entirely neglected the topographical obligation to describe actual localities, it is increasingly an imaginative response to landscape that is his concern.[16] In the _Dialogue_ he explained how a good imagination will "improve" upon the sight of a grand object, just as Burke a few years later was to discuss the essential vagueness of the sublime and its appeal to the private sensibility. Polypthon's reactions at Stowe suggest something of this potential in contradistinction to Callophilus' ability to read the message of each temple or vista. What Gilpin displays in 1748 is more intricately adumbrated in the _Three Essays_ of 1792: a scene may strike "us beyond the power of thought ... and every mental operation is suspended. In this pause of intellect, this deliquirium of the soul, an enthusiastic sensation of pleasure over spreads it ...".[17] As the final pages of _Dialogue_ suggest, that experience was also available in the gardens of Stowe. But the more mature imagination in Gilpin is tempted simultaneously in two directions, which perhaps explains why one contemporary was moved to commend the published tours for being "the Ne plus ultra of the pen and pencil united."[18] At Stowe he is attentive to the expressive potential of scenery and its associations ("The Eye naturally loves Liberty" [p. 54]), which are best expounded in the written commentary. But he also delights in the shapes and forms of scenery, the abstract qualities of the Stowe landscape that please the eye rather than the mind's eye. These are best recorded in his watercolours and the illustrations which become a main feature of his later books. Bedford College University of London NOTES TO THE INTRODUCTION [1] Before 1753 there was no guide to any English garden except Stowe; by then the Stowe guidebook had gone through sixteen editions (one in French) plus two pirated editions, the _Dialogue_ itself which mentions the guidebook on p. 17, and two sets of engraved views. For a modern account of Stowe see Christopher Hussey, _English Gardens and Landscapes, 1700-1750_ (London: Country Life, 1967), pp. 89-113. As a companion piece to this facsimile of _Dialogue_, ARS plans to publish in its 1976-77 series a facsimile of the _Beauties of Stowe_ (1750), with an introduction by George Clarke. [2] Gilpin's authorship is argued by William D. Templeman, _The Life and Works of William Gilpin (1724-1804), Illinois Studies in Language and Literature_, XXIV. 3-4 (Urbana, 1939), pp. 34-5. [3] The distinction is made by Thomas Whately, _Observations on Modern Gardening_, 5th ed. (London, 1793), pp. 154-5. [4] The Grecian Valley is seen first on Bickham's engraved plan of 1753. This and other plans of Stowe are reproduced by George Clarke, "The Gardens of Stowe," _Apollo_ (June, 1973), pp. 558-65. [5] See Peter Willis, "Jacques Rigaud's Drawings of Stowe in the Metropolitan Museum of Art," _Eighteenth-Century Studies_, 6 (1972), 85-98. [6] See George Clarke, _op. cit._, p. 560. [7] On this topic see two essays by Ronald Paulson: "Hogarth and the English garden: visual and verbal structures," _Encounters, Essays on Literature and the Visual Arts_, ed. John Dixon Hunt (London: Studio Vista, 1971), and "The Pictorial Circuit and related structures in eighteenth-century England," _The Varied Pattern_, ed. Peter Hughes and David Williams (Toronto: Hakkert, 1971). [8] "There is more Variety in this Garden, than can be found in any other of the same Size in _England_, or perhaps in _Europe_" (p. 290). [9] Derek Clifford, _A History of Garden Design_ (London: Faber, 1962), pp. 138-9. [10] "Poetry, Painting, and Gardening, or the Science of Landscape, will forever by men of taste be deemed Three Sisters, or the _Three New Graces_ who dress and adorn nature": MS. annotation to William Mason's _Satirical Poems_, published in an edition of the relevant poems by Paget Toynbee (Oxford: Clarendon, 1926), p. 43. For an anthology of similar comments see _The Genius of the Place: The English Landscape Garden 1620-1820_, ed. John Dixon Hunt and Peter Willis (London: Elek, 1975). [11] See Kenneth Woodbridge, _Landscape and Antiquity_ (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1970), plates 2a, 2b, and 3. [12] On this see Derek Clifford, _op. cit._, pp. 140 and 158. [13] I. W. U. Chase, _Horace Walpole: Gardenist. An edition of Walpole's 'The History of the Modern Taste in Gardening' with an estimate of Walpole's contribution to landscape architecture_ (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1943), p. 26. [14] This is an apt example of the psychological theory of sight proposed by E. H. Gombrich, _Art and Illusion_ (New York: Pantheon, 1961). [15] _Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty; on Picturesque Travel; and on Sketching Landscape_ (London, 1792), p. 49. [16] Carl Paul Barbier, _William Gilpin, His Drawings, Teaching and Theory of the Picturesque_ (Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1963), pp. 71, 106 and 139. [17] _Op. cit._, p. 49. [18] Cited by Templeman, _op. cit._, p. 228. BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE The facsimile of [William Gilpin's] _A Dialogue Upon The Gardens ... At Stow_ (1748) is reproduced from a copy (Shelf Mark: 577.e.26[3]) in the British Library. The total type-page (p. 7) measures 156 x 94 mm. A DIALOGUE UPON THE GARDENS OF THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE LORD VISCOUNT _COBHAM_, AT STOW in BUCKINGHAMSHIRE. _Here Order in Variety we see, Where all Things differ, yet where all agree._ Mr. POPE. [Illustration] _LONDON_: Printed for B. SEELEY, Bookseller in _Buckingham_, and Sold by J. and J. RIVINGTON, in _St. Paul's Church-Yard_. M DCC XLVIII. [Price One Shilling.] THE ADVERTISEMENT. _We read of a great Prince of Antiquity, who would suffer his Portrait to be taken only by the greatest Artist. And he thought justly without question: A great Object ought ever to be handled by a great Master. But yet I am apt to think that if Apelles had not offered his Service, the Monarch, rather than have had his Form unknown to Posterity, would have been glad to have employed some meaner Hand.----If Stow had been as fortunate in this Particular as Alexander, I need not now have taken up my Pencil: But as this charming Landskip is yet untouched by a Titian, or a Poussin, a mere Bungler has been tempted to venture upon it._ _But in Excuse for the Meaning of the Performance it may be said, that it is not designed to be considered as a finished Piece: This View was not taken upon the Spot, as it ought to have been, but only from my Memory and a few loose Scratches; if the Public therefore will call it only a rough Draught, or at best a coloured Sketch, my Ambition will be fully satisfied. The Curious therefore must purchase it rather from their necessity than its Merit; as they do meaner Engravings of the Cartoons, where Dorigny's are not to be had: "'Tis true, Gentlemen, says the Print-seller, they are far from being good, but take my Word for it, you will meet with no better."_ A DIALOGUE UPON THE GARDENS _of the Right Honourable the_ Lord Viscount COBHAM, _&c._ _Polypthon_ was a Gentleman engaged in a way of Life, that excused him two Months in the Year from Business; which Time he used generally to spend in visiting what was curious in the several Counties around him. As he had long promised his Friend _Callophilus_ to pass away his Vacancy, at some time or other, in _Buckinghamshire_, he determined upon it this Year; and accordingly paid him a Visit at * * *. _Stow_ was one of the first Places where his Curiosity carried him; and indeed he had scarce got his Foot within the Garden-door, before he broke out into the following Exclamation. Why, here is a View that gives me a kind of Earnest of what my Expectation is raised to! It is a very fine one indeed (replied _Callophilus_:) I do not wonder it should catch your Sight: The old Ruin upon the left of the Canal, the Opening to the Pyramid, the View towards the House, the River, the beautiful Disposition of the Trees on the other side of it, and that venerable old Temple, make a fine Variety of Objects. But your Eye is so taken up with Views at a distance, that you neglect something here at hand very well worth your notice. What do you think of these two Pavilions? _Polypth._ Why really they are light, genteel Buildings enough. I like these rough Paintings too; they are done in a very free, masterly Manner. Pray, Sir, do you know the Stories? _Calloph._ They are both taken from _Pastor Fido_; the disconsolate Nymph there, poor _Dorinda_, had long been in love with _Sylvio_, a wild Hunter, of barbarous Manners, in whose Breast she had no reason to believe she had raised an answering Passion. As she was roving in the Woods, she accidentally met his Dog, and saw her beloved Hunter himself at a distance hollowing, and running after it. She immediately calls the Hound to her, and hides it amongst the Bushes. _Sylvio_ comes up to her, and enquires very eagerly after his Dog: The poor Nymph puts him off, and tries all her Art to inspire him with Love, but to no purpose; the cold Youth was quite insensible, and his Thoughts could admit no other Object but his Dog. Almost despairing, she at length hopes to bribe his Affections, and lets him know she has his Dog, which she will return if he will promise to love her, and give her a Kiss; _Sylvio_ is overjoyed at the Proposal, and promises to give her ten thousand Kisses. _Dorinda_ upon this brings the Dog: but alas! see there the Success of all her Pains: the Youth transported at the Sight of his Dog, throws his Arms round its Neck, and lavishes upon it those Kisses and Endearments, in the very Sight of the poor afflicted Lady, which she had been flattering herself would have fallen to her share.--On this other Wall Disdain and Love have taken different Sides; the Youth is warm, and the Nymph is coy: Poor _Myrtillo_ had long loved _Amarillis_; the Lady was engaged to another, and rejected his Passion. Gladly would he only have spoke his Grief, but the cruel fair One absolutely forbid him her Presence. At length a Scheme was laid by _Corisca_, the young Lover's Confidant, which was to gain him Admission into his dear _Amarillis_'s Company. The Lady is enticed into the Fields with some of _Corisca_'s Companions, (who were let into the Plot) to play at Blindman's Buff, where _Myrtillo_ was to surprize her. See there he stands hesitating what use to make of so favourable an Opportunity, which Love has put into his Hands.----If you have satisfied your Curiosity here, let us walk towards the Temple of _Venus_. But hold: we had better first go down towards that Wilderness, and take a View of the Lake. _Polypth._ Upon my Word here is a noble Piece of Water! _Calloph._ Not many Years ago I remember it only a Marsh: it surprized me prodigiously when I first saw it floated in this manner with a Lake. Observe, pray, what a fine Effect that old Ruin has at the Head of it: Its Ornaments too, the Cascade, the Trees and Shrubs, half concealing, and half discovering the ragged View, and the Obelisk rising beyond if, are Objects happily disposed. _Polypth._ Yes, indeed, I think the Ruin a great Addition to the Beauty of the Lake. There is something so vastly picturesque, and pleasing to the Imagination in such Objects, that they are a great Addition to every Landskip. And yet perhaps it would be hard to assign a reason, why we are more taken with Prospects of this ruinous kind, than with Views of Plenty and Prosperity in their greatest Perfection: Benevolence and Good-nature, methinks, are more concerned in the latter kind. _Calloph._ Yes: but cannot you make a distinction between natural and moral Beauties? Our social Affections undoubtedly find their Enjoyment the most compleat when they contemplate, a Country smiling in the midst of Plenty, where Houses are well-built, Plantations regular, and every thing the most commodious and useful. But such Regularity and Exactness excites no manner of Pleasure in the Imagination, unless they are made use of to contrast with something of an opposite kind. The Fancy is struck by _Nature_ alone; and if _Art_ does any thing more than improve her, we think she grows impertinent, and wish she had left off a little sooner. Thus a regular Building perhaps gives us very little pleasure; and yet a fine Rock, beautifully set off in Claro-obscuro, and garnished with flourishing Bushes, Ivy, and dead Branches, may afford us a great deal; and a ragged Ruin, with venerable old Oaks, and Pines nodding over it, may perhaps please the Fancy yet more than either of the other two Objects.--Yon old Hermitage, situated in the midst of this delightful Wilderness, has an exceeding good Effect: it is of the romantick Kind; and Beauties of this sort, where a probable Nature is not exceeded, are generally pleasing.----This Opening will lead us again into the Terrace.----That large Building, the Inscription lets you see, is a Temple dedicated to _Venus_. _Polypth._ Upon my Word a Master has been at work here! I cannot say I have met with any modern Touching, this long time, that has pleased me better. I see very little to be cavilled at, with regard either to the Design, Colouring, or Drawing. These Stories are taken from the _Fairy-Queen_ I dare say; they look like _Spencer_'s Ideas. _Calloph._ Yes: that Lady is the fair _Hellinore_, who having left a disagreeable Husband, and wandering in the Woods, was met by the polite Sett of Gentry she is dancing with: She likes their Manner of Life, and resolves to enjoy it with them. Her old Spouse _Malbecco_ is inconsolable for his Loss: he wanders many Days in search of her, and at length finds her (you see him at a distance peeping from behind a Tree) revelling with a beastly Herd of Satyrs. When the Evening comes on, he follows the Company to their Retirement, takes a commodious stand, and to his great Torment sees every thing that passes among them. After they were all laid asleep, he creeps gently to his Lady, and you see him in the other Painting offering to be reconciled to her again, if she will return back with him. But _Hellinore_ threatens to awake the Satyrs, and get him severely handled if he does not immediately leave her. Upon which the poor Cuckold is obliged to fly, and soon after runs distracted. _Polypth._ This loose Story, these luxurious Couches, and the Embellishments round the Walls, give the Place quite a _Cyprian_ Air, and make it a very proper Retreat for its incontinent Inhabitant upon the Roof.----But let us move forward towards yon cubico-pyramidical Building. It looks like a mighty substantial one: I fancy it is Sir _John_'s; he is generally pretty liberal of his Stone. However, it terminates this Terrace extremely well: the Ascent up to it too has a good Effect.----Pray, do you know what that Field there, upon the right, is to be improved into? _Calloph._ I am surprized the Beauty of it, in its present Form, does not strike you at first sight. It is designed, like a Glass of Bitters before Dinner, to quicken your Appetite for the elegant Entertainment that is to follow. For my part, I assure you, I find it a very great Relief to my Eye, to take it from these grand Objects, and cast it for a few Minutes upon such a rural Scene as this. Do not you think that Haycock contrasts extremely well with this Temple? Such Oppositions, in my Opinion, are highly pleasing.----That Building there is called, _The Belvidere_. Whatever you may think of it, from this Stand, it has its Use, I assure you, in several Prospects in the Gardens.----There is a very good Copy of the _Roman_ Boxers. _Polypth._ I like its Situation extreamly: it terminates these Alleys, and that Opening from the Terrace, very beautifully; much better, I think, than the fighting Gladiator, and _Sampson_ killing the _Philistine_, do that other vast Terrace; the Objects there, in my Opinion, are too small for the Distance: Here both are justly proportioned. _Calloph._ Your Criticism, I think, is rather too refined: I cannot see what occasion there is always for a confined View; a more open one sometimes makes Variety. _Polypth._ You mistake me: I am not against a Prospect's being bounded even by the blue Hills in the Country. All I mean is this, that where Objects are set up to terminate a View, they ought to be of such a Nature as to afford Pleasure at any Distance they are designed to be viewed from. These Statues I have been mentioning, are Objects so small, that at one end of the Terrace it is impossible to make out what is offered you at the other.----I have too much Envy in my Temper, you must know, to bear to see any thing perfect; and I came in here fully determined to cavil, if I saw the least Grounds. But this is a sad Place, I find, for a malicious Spirit to enter: He whose chief _Entertainment_ is finding fault, will here meet with a very slender _Repast_: As the Devil did at Sight of the Creation, in spite of Envy he must cry out, _Terrestrial Heaven!---- With what Delight could I have walk'd thee round, If I could joy in ought: Sweet Interchange Of Hill, and Valley, Rivers, Woods, and Plains! Now Land, now Sea, and Shores with Forest crown'd, Rocks, Dens, and Caves._---- But what have we got here? _Calloph._ This is the Building we took notice of from the Temple of _Venus_. I know you are no Friend to a cloathed Statue; so I question whether you will meet with any thing here to your Taste. _Polypth._ There is something extremely grand and noble, I have always thought, in several of the old cloathed Statues, and particularly in some of the _Roman_ consular ones; yet I must confess I am always better pleased when I find them without their Finery. Marble, tho' admirably fitted to express the Roundness of a Muscle, very often fails when it attempts to give you the Folds of Drapery. The Ancients, it must be owned, even in their Draperies are often successful; but amongst our modern Attempts in this Way, how many horrid Pieces of Rock-work have I beheld! ------------ _atram Desinet in_ rupem _mulier_---- _Michael Angelo_, whenever he found himself obliged to cloath his Statues, used to do it with wet Linnen; which is unquestionably the most advantageous kind of Cloathing for a Statue. _Calloph._ Since you are not to be pleased here, let us pass on to something else. There is no Occasion to turn down to that Pyramid; it is an Object not designed to be viewed at a Yard's Distance; but you will see its Use by and by, in a Variety of beautiful Views: Let us pursue our Walk along this Terrace. _Polypth._ Why here we entirely lose sight of the Garden; our elegant Prospects are all vanished: I cannot conceive what this impertinent Hedge does here. _Calloph._ Did you never experience in a Concert vast Pleasure when the whole Band for a few Moments made a full Pause? The Case is parallel: You have already had a great many fine Views, and that you may not be cloyed, this Hedge steps in to keep your Attention awake. One Extreme recommends another: The Moralists observe, that a little Adversity quickens our Relish for the Enjoyment of Life; and it is the Man of Taste's Care not to distribute his Beauties with too profuse a Hand, for a Reason of the same kind. _Let not each Beauty every where be spy'd, Where half the Skill is decently to hide._ But if you must have something to look at, the Park there upon your left Hand affords you some very fine Views. I like that Equestrian Statue extremely: It is, in my Opinion, a very beautiful Circumstance. What a Number of fine Vistas it terminates thro' the Trees, varying its Appearance in each of them.--There you have a charming View struck out towards the Temple of Ancient Virtue. _Polypth._ Methinks that Statue of the Faun stands a little aukwardly: He might at least, I should think, have fixed himself in the Middle of the Semi-circle. _Calloph._ You do not certainly attend to his Use: He stands there to receive the Eye placed at the other End of that Opening.--That elegant little Building I think they call _Nelson_'s Seat. _Polypth._ The Painting is done masterly enough: The Inscriptions, I see, explain the Designs. Those Boys fixing the Trophies are prettily imagined. From hence that round Building terminates the View extremely well. Let us walk to it. _Calloph._ Hold----turn to the Right a little: We must first pay a Visit here to the Temple of _Bacchus_. _Polypth._ We have had a pretty long Walk, suppose we sit down here a Moment: These Walls seem to promise us some Entertainment. _Calloph._ Here, Sir, you see represented the Triumphs and Happiness of Drunkenness. Those musical Ladies too are not improper Companions to this mirthfully-disposed Deity. _Polypth._ Some of those smaller Figures are really done extremely well: And those two Vases are delightfully touched. I cannot say I am so much pleased with the jolly Inhabitant: Even _Bacchus_ himself certainly never made so enormous a Figure. _Calloph._ I am admiring the fine View from hence: So great a Variety of beautiful Objects, and all so happily disposed, make a most delightful Picture. Don't you think this Building too is a very genteel one, and is extremely well situated? These Trees give it an agreeable, cool Air, and make it, I think, as elegant a Retreat for the Enjoyment of a Summer's Evening, as can well be imagined.----But it is mere trifling to sit here: Let us walk towards the Rotunda.----This little Alley will carry us to _Dido_'s Cave. _Polypth._ _Dido_'s Cave! why 'tis built of hewn Stone! Here she is however, and her _pious_ Companion along with her. _Calloph._ Those two Cupids joining their Torches, I never see but I admire extremely: they are very finely painted. _Polypth._ I think they are indeed. But let us be a little complaisant, and not interrupt these kind Lovers too long. I want to see this Rotunda. _Calloph._ There then you have it: I hope you cannot complain of an heavy Building here. I do not know any Piece of Stone-work in the whole Garden that shews itself to more Advantage than this does, or makes a more beautiful Figure in a Variety of fine Views from several Parts of the Garden: Several Parts of the Garden likewise return the Compliment, by offering a great many very elegant Prospects to it. There you have an Opening laid out with all the Decorations of Art; a spacious Theatre; the Area floated by a Canal, and peopled with Swans and Wild-ducks: Her late Majesty is the principal Figure in the Scene, and around her a merry Company of Nymphs and Swains enjoying themselves in the Shade. _Polypth._ I must confess I cannot very much admire---- _Calloph._ Come; none of your Cavils.--Observe how this View is beautifully contrasted by one on the opposite Side of a different kind; in which we are almost solely obliged to Nature. You must know I look upon this as a very noble Prospect! The Field is formed by that Semi-circle of Trees into a very grand Theatre. The Point of Sight is centred in a beautiful manner by the Pyramid, which appears to great Advantage amongst those venerable Oaks: Two or three other Buildings, half hid amongst the Trees, come in for their Share in the Prospect, and add much to the Beauty of it. _Polypth._ I agree with you entirely; nor do I think this other View inferior to it. That Variety of different Shades amongst the Trees; the Lake spread so elegantly amongst them, and glittering here and there thro' the Bushes, with the Temple of _Venus_ as a Termination to the View, make up a very beautiful Landskip. _Calloph._ Here is a Vista likewise very happily terminated by the Canal, and the Obelisk rising in the Midst of it. There is another close View likewise towards _Nelson_'s Seat. _Polypth._ Upon my Word, we have a Variety of very elegant Prospects centred in this Point. I could sit here very agreeably a little longer. _Calloph._ Nay, if you are inclined to rest, come along with me: I'll carry you to where you may indulge your Humour with great Propriety. Deep in the Retirement of that Wood, the God of Sleep has reared his Habitation, where he will afford you every Convenience to make a Nap agreeable----It comes into my Head that I forgot to carry you to a little Place, which it is hardly worth while to travel back to from this Distance: It is called _St. Austin_'s Cave, and answers its Title very well; it appears quite Cell-like, stands retired, and is made of no other Materials but Roots and Moss. In the Inside a Straw Couch offers you an hard Seat, and the Walls three humorous Inscriptions, in Monkish Verse. You may buy them, bound up with Copies of all the other Inscriptions, in a Six-penny Pamphlet, that will be offered us at the Inn.----There, Sir, is the Temple of Sleep. _Polypth._ Why really I must confess _Ovid_ himself could scarce have buried the senseless God in an happier Retirement. This gloomy Darkness, these easy Couches, and that excellent _Epicurean_ Argument above the Door, would incline me wonderfully to indulge a little, if these beautiful Ornaments did not keep my Attention awake. There is wanting too a purling Stream, to sing a Requiem to the Senses; tho' the Want is in some measure made up by the drowsy Lullibies of that murmuring Swarm, which this Shade has invited to wanton beneath it. You would laugh at me, or I should certainly throw myself down upon one of these Couches; I am persuaded I should need no Opium to close my Eyes. _Calloph._ I own sleeping is a Compliment as much due to this Place, as Admiration and Attention are to _Raphael_ at _Hampton-Court_. But try if your Curiosity cannot keep you awake. Come, leave these drowsy Abodes, they are infectious; like luscious Food they will blunt your Appetite before the Entertainment is half over. Walk down that Alley, and pop your Head into the first Door you come to. _Polypth._ What the D----l have we got here? What wretched Scrawler has been at work upon these Walls? _Calloph._ I assure you, Sir, I look upon this as a very great Master-piece. You must know this House is inhabited by a Necromancer; and that Inscription lets you see the Hand that has been employed to paint it. The Composition, Drawing, and Pencilling, I can allow you, are not the most elegant; yet if the Design and Figures are the Artist's own, I can assure you he has shewn excellent Humour, and an exceeding good Invention. That Consultation is well imagined; and so are these Witches and Wizards; their Employments likewise, their Forms and Attitudes are well varied.---- But I see this is a Scene not suited to your Taste: Our next, I hope, will please you better. _Polypth._ Pray, what Building is that before us? I cannot say I dislike the Taste it is designed in. It seems an Antique. _Calloph._ It is the Temple, Sir, of Ancient Virtue; the Place I am now conducting you to. You will meet within it a very illustrious Assembly of great Men; the wisest Lawgiver, the best Philosopher, the most divine Poet, and the most able Captain, that perhaps ever lived. _Polypth._ You may possibly, Sir, engage yourself in a Dispute, by fixing your Epithets in such an absolute manner; there are so many Competitors in each of these Ways, that altho' Numbers may be called truly eminent, it will be a difficult matter to fix Pre-eminence upon any. _Calloph._ You will hardly, I fancy, dissent from me, when I introduce you to these great Heroes of Antiquity: There stands _Lycurgus_; there _Socrates_; there _Homer_; and there _Epaminondas_. Illustrious Chiefs, who made Virtue their only Pursuit, and the Welfare of Mankind their only Study; in whose Breasts mean Self-interest had no Possession. To establish a well-regulated Constitution; to dictate the soundest Morality, to place Virtue in the most amiable Light; and bravely to defend a People's Liberty, were Ends which neither the Difficulty in overcoming the Prejudices, and taming the savage Manners of a barbarous State; the Corruptions of a licentious Age, and the Ill-usage of an invidious City; neither the vast Pains of searching into Nature, and laying up a Stock of Knowledge sufficient to produce the noblest Work of Art; nor popular Tumults at Home, and the most threatening Dangers Abroad, could ever tempt them to lose Sight of, or in the least abate that Ardency of Temper with which they pursued them. _Polypth._ A noble Panegyric upon my Word! why, Sir, these great Spirits have inspired you with the very Soul of Oratory. However, in earnest, I confess your Encomium is pretty just; and I am apt to believe that if any of those worthy Gentlemen should take it into his Head to walk from his Nitch, it would puzzle the World to find his Equal to fix in his Room.----That old Ruin, I suppose, is intended to contrast with this new Building. _Calloph._ Yes, Sir, it is intended to contrast with it not only in the Landskip, but likewise in its Name and Design. Walk a little nearer, and you will see its Intention. _Polypth._ I can see nothing here to let me into its Design, except this old Gentleman; neither can I find any thing extraordinary in him, except that he has met with a Fate that he is entirely deserving of, which is more than falls to the Share of every worthless Fellow. _Calloph._ Have you observed how the Statue is decorated? _Polypth._ O! I see the whole Design: A very elegant Piece of Satyr, upon my Word! This pompous Edifice is intended, I suppose, to represent the flourishing Condition, in which ancient Virtue still exists; and those poor shattered Remains of what has never been very beautiful (notwithstanding, I see, they are placed within a few Yards of a Parish-church) are designed to let us see the ruinous State of decayed modern Virtue. And the Moral is, that Glory founded upon true Worth and Honour, will exist, when Fame, built upon Conquest and popular Applause, will fade away. This is really the best thing I have seen: I am most prodigiously taken with it. _Calloph._ I intend next to carry you to a Scene of another kind. I am going to shew you the Grotto, a Place generally very taking with Strangers.----I thought that Piece of Satyr would catch your Attention: I hope likewise you will be as well pleased here. This Gate will carry us into the romantic Retirement. What do you think of this Scene? _Polypth._ Why really, Sir, it is quite a Novelty: This Profusion of Mirrors has a very extraordinary Effect: The Place seems divided into a thousand beautiful Apartments, and appears fifty times as large as it is. The Prospects without are likewise transferred to the Walls within: And the Sides of the Room are elegantly adorned with Landskips, beyond the Pencil of _Titian_; with this farther Advantage, that every View, as you change your Situation, varies itself into another Form, and presents you with something new. _Calloph._ Don't you think that serpentine River, as it is called, is a great Addition to the Beauty of the Place? _Polypth._ Undoubtedly it is. Water is of as much Use in a Landskip, as Blood is in a Body; without these two Essentials, it is impossible there should be Life in either one or the other. Yet methinks it is a prodigious Pity that this stagnate Pool should not by some Magic be metamorphosed into a crystal Stream, rolling over a Bed of Pebbles. Such a quick Circulation would give an infinite Spirit to the View. I could wish his Lordship had such a Stream at his Command; he would shew it, I dare say, to the best Advantage, in its Passage thro' the Gardens. But we cannot _make_ Nature, the utmost we can do is to _mend_ her.----I have heard a _Scotch_ Gentleman speak of the River, upon which the Town of _Sterling_ stands, which is as remarkable a Meander as I have ever heard of. From _Sterling_ to a little Village upon the Banks of this River, by Land it is only four Miles, and yet if you should follow the Course of the Water, you will find it above twenty.----There is an House likewise that stands upon a narrow Isthmus of a Peninsula, formed by this same River, which is mighty remarkable: The Water runs close to both Ends of it, and yet if you sail from one to the other, you will be carried a Compass of four Miles.----Such a River winding about this Place, would make it a Paradise indeed! As we are got into the North, I must confess I do not know any Part of the Kingdom that abounds more with elegant natural Views: Our well-cultivated Plains, as you observed before, are certainly not comparable to their rough Nature in point of Prospect. About three Years ago I rode the Northern Circuit: The Weather was extremely fine; and I scarce remember being more agreeably entertained than I was with the several charming Views exhibited to me in the northern Counties. Curiosity indeed, rather than Business, carried me down: And as I had my Time pretty much to myself, I spent it in a great measure in hunting after beautiful Objects. Sometimes I found myself hemmed within an Amphitheatre of Mountains, which were variously ornamented, some with scattered Trees, some with tufted Wood, some with grazing Cattle, and some with smoaking Cottages. Here and there an elegant View likewise was opened into the Country.----A Mile's riding, perhaps, would have carried me to the Foot of a steep Precipice, down which thundered the whole Weight of some vast River, which was dashed into Foam at the Bottom, by the craggy Points of several rising Rocks: A deep Gloom overspread the Prospect, occasioned by the close Wood that hung round it on every Side.--I could describe to you a Variety of other Views I met with there, if we _here_ wanted Entertainment in the Way of Landskip. One, however, I cannot forbear mentioning, and wishing at the same time that his Lordship had such Materials to work with, and it could not be but he would make a most noble Picture.----The Place I have in view is upon the Banks of the River _Eden_ (which is indeed one of the finest Rivers I ever saw). I scarce know a fitter Place for a Genius in this Way to exert itself in. There is the greatest Variety of garnished Rocks, shattered Precipices, rising Hills, ornamented with the finest Woods, thro' which are opened the most elegant Vales that I have ever met with: Not to mention the most enchanting Views up and down the River, which winds itself in such a manner as to shew its Banks to the best Advantage, which, together with very charming Prospects into the Country, terminated by the blue Hills at a Distance, make as fine a Piece of Nature, as perhaps can any where be met with. _Calloph._ I admire your Taste in Landskip extremely; you have marked out just such Circumstances as would take me most in a View. I am I find almost as enthusiastic a Lover of Nature as you are. Yet tho' I can allow her to have an excellent _Fancy_, I do not think she has the best _Judgment_. Tho' Nature is an admirable _Colourist_, her _Composition_ is very often liable to Censure. For which Reason I am for having her placed under the Direction of _Art_: And the Rule I would go by should be Mr. _Pope_'s; --_Treat the Goddess like a modest Fair, Not over-dress, nor leave her wholly bare._ Suppose, therefore, we leave your romantic Nature, and continue our View of her here, where she is treated according to this Prescription of the Poet.----That Building is called the Temple of Contemplation; those Bas-relief Heads it is adorned with, are, I assure you, extremely good ones. _Polypth._ Pray, Sir, what kind of a Building have we yonder, that struck our Sight as we crossed that Alley? _Calloph._ We will walk up to it if you please: It is a _Chinese_ House. _Polypth._ A mighty whimsical Appearance it makes truly. _Calloph._ In my Opinion it is a pretty Object enough, and varies our View in a very becoming manner. Its cool stand upon the Lake, and those canvas Windows, designed as well to keep out the Sun, as let in the Air, give us a good Notion of the Manner of living in an hot Country. It is finely painted in the Inside: Will you look into it? _Polypth._ Finely painted indeed! Our Travellers tell us the _Chinese_ are a very ingenious People; and that Arts and Sciences flourish amongst them in great Beauty. But for my Part, whenever I see any of their Paintings, I am apt, I must confess, in every thing else to call their Taste into question. It is impossible for one _Art_ to be in Perfection, without introducing the rest. They are all _Links_ of the same _Chain_: If you draw up one, you must expect the rest will follow. _Cognoscitur ex socio_, is an old Rule you know in judging of _Men_; and I believe it may be applied with as much Propriety in judging of _Arts_. It is hardly to be imagined that any _Art_, perfect in its Kind, would claim any Kindred, or even bear to keep Company with such a wretched _Art of Painting_ as prevails amongst the _Chinese_: Its whole Mystery consists in dawbing on glaring Colours: Correctness of Drawing, Beauty of Composition, and Harmony of colouring, they seem not to have even the least Notion of. _Calloph._ I like your Reflections extremely. We should certainly have some more elegant Productions from _China_, if they were able to answer the Character I have sometimes heard given of them. They have very little of true, manly Taste, I fancy, among them: Their Ingenuity lies chiefly in the knick-knack Way; and is, I imagine, pretty much of the _Dutch_ Kind.----Hold, Sir: This Way if you please. We will walk again towards the River, and pursue it to the Canal.----It is divided, you see, into three Parts; one takes its Rise from the Grotto; another from the Pebble Bridge (as it is called) which is, I think, a pretty Object; and the third issues from a dark Wood.----There, Sir, let me present you to an illustrious set of your gallant Countrymen. This Place is called the Temple of _British_ Worthies; and is gloriously filled, you see, with the greatest Wits, Patriots, and Heroes, that are to be met with in our Chronicles. _Unspotted Names, and memorable long! If there be Force in Virtue, or in Song._ Does not your Pulse beat high, while you thus stand before such an awful Assembly? Is not your Breast warmed by a Variety of grand Ideas, which this Sight must give Birth to?----There you have a View of the calm Philosophers, who sought Virtue in her Retirement, and benefited Mankind by Thought and Meditation.----Some took the human Mind for their Theme, examined the various Powers it is endowed with, and gave us, _to know ourselves_.----Others took _Nature_ for their Subject, looked thro' all her Works, and enlarged our Notions of a God----While others, warmed with a generous Resentment against Vice and Folly, made Morality their Care: To the cool Reasoner serious Philosophy, without any Ornament but Truth, was recommended: To the gayer Disposition the moral Song was directed, and the Heart was improved, while the Fancy was delighted: To those who were yet harder to work upon, the Force of Example was made use of: Folly is put to the Test of Ridicule, and laughed out of Countenance, while the moral Scene, like a distorting Mirror, shews the Villain his Features in so deformed a Manner, that he darts at his own Image with Horror and Affright.----On the other Side you are presented with a View of those illustrious Worthies, who spent their Lives in Action; who left Retirement to the cool Philosopher, entered into the Bustle of Mankind, and pursued Virtue in the dazzling Light in which she appears to Patriots and Heroes. Inspired by every generous Sentiment, these gallant Spirits founded Constitutions, stemmed the Torrent of Corruption, battled for the State, ventured their Lives in the Defence of their Country, and gloriously bled in the Cause of Liberty. _Polypth._ What an happy Man you are, thus to find an Opportunity of moralizing upon every Occasion! What a noble View you have displayed before me; when perhaps if I had been alone, I should have entertained myself no otherwise than in examining the Busts; or if I read the Inscriptions, they would only have drawn a Remark from me, that they were well wrote.--The Assembly yonder on the opposite Side of the Water, will be, I suppose, the next Subject for your Rapsody. Pray what Titles are those Gentry distinguished by? At this Distance I can hardly find out whether they are Philosophers or Milk-maids. _Calloph._ Why, Sir, you have there a View of the Kingdom of _Parnassus_: That Assembly is composed of _Apollo_, and his Privy-council. But as I believe they will hardly pay us, by any Beauty in their Workmanship, for our Trouble, should we go round and make them a Visit; it is my Advice that we walk directly from hence to the Temple of Friendship, and so return by that Terrace back again to those Parts of the Garden that remain yet unseen. _Polypth._ With all my Heart: But let us turn in here, I beseech you, and walk as much in the Shade as possible, for the Day grows vastly warm. _Calloph._ I am ready to follow you amongst the Trees, not more out of Complaisance than Inclination: I like a cool Retreat as well as you. When I plan a Garden, I believe, I shall deal much in shady Walks; wherever I open a grand Terrace, I intend to lengthen out by its Side a close Vista: through the one I shall lead Strangers, in the other enjoy my Friends. I am a great Admirer of walking in a Shade; it is a kind of Emblem of the most agreeable Situation in Life, the retired one: Every fantastic View is hid from us, and we may if we please, be Poets, or Philosophers, or what we will. I own I admire the Taste of these buzzing Insects, sporting themselves in the Shade; a glaring Sun-shine neither in the World, nor in a Walk, is agreeable to my Way of thinking. _Polypth._ If all the World thought as you do, we should have neither Statesmen to mend our Laws, nor Coblers to mend our Shoes: We should all run and hide ourselves amongst Trees, and what then would become of Society? _Calloph._ If I thought you did not will-fullyy mistake my Meaning, I would take the Trouble of telling you that I am an Advocate for no other _Retirement_ than such as is consistent with the Duties of Life. A Love for which kind of Retirement, _properly qualified_, is _Health_ to the Mind; but when it is _made up_ unskillfully, it throws us into a _fatal Lethargy_, from whence begins the Date of an useless Life. Every virtuous Mind, in a greater or a less Degree, has a turn this Way, and the _best_, I believe, ought to be at the _most_ Pains to guard against carrying this Inclination into the Extreme. _Polypth._ And yet the Annals of most Nations let us see that their greatest Men have often indulged it; and much for the Benefit of Mankind too; witness many of the illustrious Worthies we have just been visiting: You forget the Panegyric you bestowed upon them. _Calloph._ No, Sir: But do you remember that I placed these cool Reasoners on the best Side of a Comparison with those who entred into the World, and spent their Lives in Action? On the contrary, this latter kind of Men have always stood fairest in my Esteem. The Life of a Recluse I would recommend to none but a Valetudinarian. We were intended to assist each other as much as we are able. For my Part, it has always been my Opinion, that _one good Man_ does more Service in the World, than _a thousand good Books_.----But we'll drop our Argument at present, because I see we have finished our Walk. _Polypth._ Is that Building the Temple of Friendship? I cannot say that I extremely admire it: But I hope I shall meet with more Entertainment within, than I am able to do without----Well: This is elegant I must confess. _Calloph._ Ay, look round, and tell me if you are not struck by several very beautiful Objects. Those Busts I assure you are _all_ pretty well done, and _some_ of them extremely well. _Polypth._ So they are indeed: But I am chiefly intent upon the Painting, which I am much taken with: It is by the same Hand, I dare say, with that in the Temple of _Venus_. That Emblem of Friendship above the Door, those of Justice and Liberty, and those other Ornaments upon the Walls, are well touched. What is that Painting upon the Cieling? I do not rightly understand it. _Calloph._ Why, Sir, it is a Piece of Satyr: I am sure you will like it if you will give yourself the Trouble to examine it: It is in your Taste I know exactly.----There you see sits _Britannia_; upon one Side are held the Glory of her Annals, the Reigns of Queen _Elizabeth_ and _Edward_ III. and on the other is offered the Reign of----, which she frowns upon, and puts by with her Hand. _Polypth._ Excellent, upon my Word! Faith, this is good! Never accept it, honest Lady, till Corruption is at an End, and public Spirit revives. _Calloph._ With so little Malevolence as I know you are possessed of, I do not think I ever met with any body in my Life so eager to catch at any thing to blame; or to whom an Opportunity of that kind afforded a more seeming real Pleasure than it does to you.----But I know it proceeds from an honest Nature.----Well: Suppose we continue our Walk.----I look upon that Statue as one of the finest in the World: I would give all the Money in my Pocket for a Sight of the Original. _Polypth._ The Posture always to me appears a little too much strained. I can scarce throw myself into such an Attitude. Yet it is fine I must confess. _Calloph._ You have the best View of it, Sir, from hence. Most of the Engravings I have met with give us the back View, but I think the Statue appears infinitely to the best Advantage when taken in Front. The Air of the Head is delightful, and cannot be hid without depriving the Figure of half its Life.----I am leading you now to that genteel Piece of Building which goes by the Name of the Palladian Bridge. _Polypth._ I have seen, I think, something like it at my Lord _Pembroke_'s. _Calloph._ I believe, Sir, the Model was taken from thence. Tho' if I remember right, the Roof is there supported by Pillars on both Sides. _Polypth._ I think it is.----But what have we got there? You are taking me past something curious. _Calloph._ I beg your Pardon: Indeed I had almost forgot the Imperial Closet: And I wonder I should, for I assure you I have the greatest Veneration for its Inhabitants.--There, Sir, is a noble Triumvirate. _Titus_, _Trajan_, and _Aurelius_, are Names which want not the Pomp of Title to add a Lustre to them. _Polypth._ I wish you could persuade all the Kings in _Europe_ to take them as Patterns. But, God knows, public Spirit is now at a low Ebb amongst us: There is more of it in that single honest Sentiment, _Pro me: si merear, in me_, than I believe is to be found in this degenerate Age in half a Kingdom. _Calloph._ I see, my good Friend, you can moralize upon Occasion too. _Polypth._ Moralize! The D----l take me, if I would not this Moment, in spite of-- _Calloph._ Nay, come, don't grow serious: You know I have long since laid it down as a Rule, to stop my Ears when you get into your political Vein. I am not now to learn that there is no keeping you within the Bounds of Temperance upon that Topic. _Polypth._ Well then, let us have something else to talk about.----Yon Wall at this Distance seems to promise us some Bass-relief. _Calloph._ Yes, Sir; you are there presented with a View of the different Quarters of the World, bringing their various Products to _Britannia_. It is a pretty Ornament enough for a Bridge, which, like the Art of Navigation, joins one Land to another. _Polypth._ I can't say I much admire the Workmanship. There is a great Degree of Awkwardness in several of the Figures. _Calloph._ Why really I am so far of your way of thinking, that I must own I am no great Admirer of this kind of Work, except it be extremely fine.----The best thing in this Way, that ever I met with, is a Piece of Alt-relief which his Lordship keeps within Doors. We shall scarce, I believe have time now, but we must take an Opportunity of seeing it before you leave the Country. You will meet with likewise in those Apartments several very good Pictures: I remember spending an Afternoon about half a Year ago, in a very agreeable Manner amongst them. But this Piece of Alt-relief struck me beyond every thing. The Story is _Darius_'s Tent; and it is so charmingly told, that I have had, I can tell you, a meaner Opinion of _Le Brun_ upon that Subject, ever since I have seen it: The Composition is so just, the Figures so graceful and correct, nay, the very Drapery so free and easy, that I declare I was altogether astonished at the Sight of it. _Polypth._ Well; I shall find some Opportunity of paying it a Visit. There is so much Art required, and so much Difficulty attends doing any thing in this Way as it ought to be, that when we do meet with a good Piece of Workmanship of this kind, it affords us an extreme Pleasure.----So, Sir _William_, have I met you here! I should rather have expected to have seen you among the _British_ Worthies.----This same _Penn_, Sir, I assure you, is a great Favourite of mine. I esteem him one of the most worthy Legislators upon Record. His Laws, I am told, act still with great Force in _Pensylvania_, and keep the honest, inoffensive People there in extreme good Order. _Calloph._ Our Sailors mention his Colony as a very happy Set of People; they live entirely at Peace amongst themselves; and (bred up in a strict Observance of Probity) without any Knowledge of an Art Military amongst them, are able to preserve the most sociable Terms with their Neighbours.----These Busts seem to have escaped your Observation. _Polypth._ No, Sir, I am not so incurious as to suffer any thing that has been in _Italy_ to slip my Notice: Some of those particularly that stand on the Side next _Rawleigh_, I was exceedingly taken with. _Calloph._ Pray what is your Opinion of checquered Marble's being made use of in Busts? _Polypth._ Why, Sir, I never see any of these party-coloured Faces, but I am moved with Indignation at the Sculptor's ridiculous Humour. It is so absurd a Taste, that I cannot conceive how it should ever enter into a Workman's Head, to make every Feature of a Man's Face of a different Colour; and it amazes me, I assure you, that we meet with daily so many Instances of such Absurdity.----In several Parts of the Garden, I have had various Views of that old _Gothic_ Building; we are now at last I hope moving towards it. I am so wonderfully pleased with its outward Appearance, that I shall be disappointed if I don't meet something answerable within. _Calloph._ Why, Sir, as old as it looks, I assure you it is not yet finished. You will meet with nothing ornamental in the Inside; so I would have you persuade yourself it has already done all in its Power to entertain you. And upon my Word I think it has done a great deal: Without it, I am sure this Part of the Garden would be quite naked and lifeless; nor would any other Part appear with so much Beauty. It puts one in Mind of some generous Patriot in his Retirement; his own Neighbourhood feels most the Effects of that Bounty, which in some measure spreads itself over a whole Country. _Polypth._ I like this Disposition within, I assure you, altogether as well as its Form without.----There are two or three Pieces of the best painted Glass that I have any where met with: Those little historical Pieces are exceedingly beautiful; and so are those Landskips likewise.----This Hill I think appears rather too naked. _Calloph._ Throw your Eye over it then, and tell me if you are not ravished with the View before you. Nothing certainly in the kind can be more beautiful or great, than that pompous Pile rising in so magnificent a manner above the Wood. The Building cannot possibly be shewn to greater Advantage: The Appearance it _makes_ presents you with an Idea sufficiently grand; yet your Imagination cannot be persuaded but that it is in fact much grander, and that the Wood hides a great Part of what is to be seen from your Eye. This is a most delightful manner of pleasing: A grand Object left to a good Imagination to improve upon, seldom loses by its Assistance. Our View likewise is greatly added to in point of Beauty, by those several other smaller Buildings which offer themselves, some only half hid amongst the Branches, and others just peeping from amongst tufted Trees, which make very beautiful little garnished Dishes in this most elegant Entertainment. _Polypth._ As you have thus painted the near Objects, let my Pencil, I beg, come in for a few rough Touches in the backgrounds: Without something of an Off-skip, your Man of Art, you know, seldom esteems his View perfect. And in this Landskip there are as many beautiful Objects thrown off to a Distance as can well be imagined: That Variety of fine Wood; that bright Surface of Water, with the pointed Obelisk in the Midst of it; those two Pavilions upon the Banks of the Canal; and the still more distant View into the Country, are Objects which, in my Opinion, make no small Addition to the Beauty of your Landskip; or, to carry on your Allusion, may very well come in as a second Course in your Entertainment.----Our Attention, I think, in the next Place, is demanded by this venerable Assembly. That old Gentleman there sits with great Dignity: I like his Attitude extremely: If I understood the _Runic_ Character, I might have known probably (for this Inscription I fancy would inform me) by what Title he is distinguished. But the Gracefulness of his Posture discovers him to have been nothing less than an Hero of the first Rank. He puts me in Mind of a _Roman_ Senator, sitting in his Curule Chair to receive the _Gauls_. _Calloph._ Why, Sir, you have done him great Honour I must own; but you have not yet honoured him according to his Dignity: He is nothing less, Sir, I assure you, than the Representative of a _Saxon_ Deity. You see here __Thor_ and _Woden_ fabled Gods_---- with the whole System of your Ancestor's Theology. Walk round the Assembly, they will smile upon a true _Briton_, and try if you can acknowledge each by his distinct Symbol. _Polypth._ I must confess they do not to me seem accoutered like Gods: For my Part, I should rather suspect them to be Statues of Heroes and Lawgivers, metamorphised into Divinities by the Courtesy of the Place: I shall not however go about to dispute their Titles; but like my good Ancestors before me, acquiesce piously in what other People tell me.----Tho' I cannot say but that Lady there, bearing the Sun (who represents I suppose _Sunday_) looks whimsical enough; and makes just such an Appearance as I could imagine the misled Conception of an enthusiastic _Saxon_ might mould his Deities into. But in these other Figures I must own I cannot see Superstition at all characterized, which you may observe generally forms its Objects of Worship into the most mis-created things that can possibly enter the Imagination of Man. _Calloph._ Why, Sir, amongst the _Greeks_ and _Romans_, you may observe several very well-shaped Deities: The _Hercules_, the _Apollo_, and the _Venus_, are at this Day Standards of Beauty. _Polypth._ Yes; but I am apt to attribute this rather to the Imagination of their Sculptors, than their Priests. To _shew Art_, rather than to _express Religion_, was the Point aimed at in these enchanting Pieces of Workmanship.----But when Superstition acted without Controul; when the fantastic Notions of Priests were put into the Hands of ordinary Workmen, even amongst the polite _Greeks_ and _Romans_ themselves, Lord! what misshapen Monsters crouded into Temples, and reared themselves aloft above Altars! Search other Countries likewise, _Egypt_ and _Africa_, _China_ and _Japan_, or any Place either ancient or modern, where Superstition prevails, and I dare engage in the whole Catalogue of their Deities you will scarce meet with one that bears any thing like the human Shape. _Calloph._ Why their Demi-Gods, or canonized Heroes, of which all pagan Nations had Abundance, were generally I fancy represented in the human Form. And these _Saxon_ Divinities, I suppose, pretend not to any superior Rank----But however, as no Degree of Veneration is exacted from you, you may I think let them rest quietly upon their Pedestals, without any farther Molestation.----We have a good View into the Country from hence. Those Woods are extremely elegant in their kind; we must certainly contrive to take a Ride thither some Evening. They are laid out in a very fine Manner, and cut into very beautiful Ridings. _Polypth._ Ay, that is the kind of Improvement that takes most with me (let us step in here a Moment, we are caught I see in a Shower). I am altogether of the Poet's Opinion, that _'Tis _Use_ alone that sanctifies Expence._ Were I a Nobleman, I should endeavour to turn my Estate into a Garden, and make my Tenants my Gardiners: Instead of useless Temples, I would build Farm-houses; and instead of cutting out unmeaning Vistas, I would beautify and mend Highways: The Country should smile upon my Labours, and the Public should partake in my Pleasures. What signifies all this ostentatious Work? Is any Man the better for it? Is it not Money most vilely squandered away? _Calloph._ So far from it, that I assure you, considered even in a public Light, I look upon it as an Expence that may very properly be said to be sanctified by _Use_. _Polypth._ I suppose you are going to tell me that it feeds two or three poor Labourers; and when you have said this, I know not what more you can say to defend it. But how is it possible for a Man to throw away his Money without doing some Service in the World? _Calloph._ How? Why by spending it in gaming, to the Encouragement of Cheats and Sharpers: By squandering it away upon Lusts and Appetites, in the Support of Stews and Bawdy-houses: Or by Dealing it out in Bribes, in opposition to Honesty, and to advance Corruption. In Arts like these, what Numbers consume their Wealth! It is not enough for them to prevent Mankind's being benefited by their affluent Circumstances; but they do their utmost, while they diminish their Fortunes, to make all they can influence as worthless as themselves. So that I assure you I should look upon it as a very great Point gained, if all our Men of Fortune would only take care that their Wealth proves of no Disservice to Mankind. Tho' I am far from desiring they should stop there: I would have them endeavour to turn it into some useful Channel. And in my Opinion, it is laid out in a very laudable Manner, when it is spent, as it is here, in circulating thro' a Variety of Trades, in supporting a Number of poor Families, and in the Encouragement of Art and Industry. _Polypth._ Well, Sir, I confess Wealth thus laid out, is beneficial to a Country; but still you keep from the Point: I ask whether all these good Ends would not be answered, and more too, were this Wealth laid out according to my Scheme, in public Works, or something of an _useful_ Nature. _Calloph._ And so you have no Notion of any Use arising from these elegant Productions of Art: You cannot conceive how they should be of any Service to the Public. Why you are a mere _Goth_, an unpolished _Vandal_; were you impowered to reform the Age, I suppose I should see you, like one of those wild misguided People, coursing furiously round the Land, and laying desolate every thing beautiful you met with. But in my Opinion, Sir, these noble Productions of Art, considered merely as such, may be looked upon as Works of a very public Nature. Do you think no _End_ is answered when a Nation's Taste is regulated with regard to the most innocent, the most refined, and elegant of its Pleasures? In all polite Countries the Amusements of the People were thought highly deserving a Legislator's Inspection. To establish a just Taste in these, was esteemed in some measure as advancing the Interest of Virtue: And can it be considered as a Work entirely of a private Nature, for a superior Genius to exert itself in an Endeavour to fix a true Standard of Beauty in any of these allowed and useful kinds of Pleasure? In the Way of Gardening particularly, the Taste of the Nation has long been so depraved, that I should think we might be obliged to any one that would undertake to reform it. While a Taste for Painting, Music, Architecture, and other polite Arts, in some measure prevailed amongst us, our Gardens for the most Part were laid out in so formal, aukward, and wretched a Manner, that they were really a Scandal to the very Genius of the Nation; a Man of Taste was shocked whenever he set his Foot into them. But _Stow_, it is to be hoped, may work some Reformation: I would have our Country Squires flock hither two or three times in a Year, by way of Improvement, and after they have looked about them a little, return Home with new Notions, and begin to see the Absurdity of their clipped Yews, their Box-wood Borders, their flourished Parterres, and their lofty Brick-walls.----You may smile, but I assure you such an Improvement of public Taste, tho' there is no Occasion to consider it as a matter of the first Importance, is certainly a Concern that ought by no means to be neglected. Perhaps indeed I may carry the Matter farther than the generality of People; but to me I must own there appears a very visible Connection between an _improved_ Taste for Pleasure, and a Taste for Virtue: When I sit ravished at an Oratorio, or stand astonished before the Cartoons, or enjoy myself in these happy Walks, I can feel my Mind expand itself, my Notions enlarge, and my Heart better disposed either for a religious Thought, or a benevolent Action: In a Word, I cannot help imagining a Taste for these exalted Pleasures contributes towards making me a better Man. _Polypth._ Good God! what an Enthusiast you are! Polite Arts improve Virtue! an Assertion indeed for a Philosopher to make. Why are they not always considered as having a natural Tendency to Luxury, to Riot, and Licentiousness? _Calloph._ No more, in my Opinion, than a wholesome Meal has to a Surfeit, or reading the Scriptures to Heresy: All things are capable, we know, of Abuse; and perhaps the best things the most capable: And tho' this may indeed argue a Depravity in _us_, yet it by no means, I think, argues a Tendency in _them_ to deprave us. However, (to let what I have yet said stand for nothing) I can tell you one very great Piece of Service arising to the Country from Wealth laid out in this elegant manner, which you seem so much to grumble at; and that is, the Money spent in the Neighbourhood by the Company daily crouding hither to satisfy their Curiosity. We have a kind of a continual Fair; and I have heard several of the Inhabitants of the neighbouring Town assert, that it is one of the best Trades they have: Their Inns, their Shops, their Farms, and Shambles, all find their Account in it: So that, in my Opinion, viewed in this Light only, such Productions of Art may be considered as very great Advantages to every Neighbourhood that enjoys the lucky Situation of being placed near them.----To this Advantage might be added, the great Degree of Pleasure from hence derived daily to such Numbers of People: A Place like this is a kind of keeping open House, there is a Repast at all times ready for the Entertainment of Strangers. And sure if you have any Degree of Benevolence, you must think an _useful End_ answered in thus affording an innocent Gratification to so many of your Fellow-creatures. A _Sunday_ Evening spent here, adds a new Relish to the Day of Rest, and makes the Sabbath appear more chearful to the Labourer after a toilsome Week. For my Part, I assure you I have scarce experienced a greater Pleasure than I have often felt upon meeting a Variety of pleased Faces in these Walks: All Care and Uneasiness seems to be left behind at the Garden-door, and People enter here fully resolved to enjoy themselves, and the several beautiful Objects around them: In one Part a Face presents itself marked with the Passion of gaping Wonder; in another you meet a Countenance bearing the Appearance of a more rational Pleasure; and in a third, a Sett of Features composed into serene Joy; while the Man of Taste is seen examining every Beauty with a curious Eye, and discovering his Approbation in an half-formed Smile.--To this I might still add another Advantage, of a public Nature, derived from these elegant Productions of Art; and that is their Tendency to raise us in the Opinion of Foreigners. If our Nation had nothing of this kind to boast of, all our Neighbours would look upon us a stupid, tasteless Set of People, and not worth visiting. So that for the Credit of the Country, I think, something of this kind ought to be exhibited amongst us. Our public Virtues, if we have any, would not, I dare say, appear to less Advantage when recommended by these Embellishments of Art. _Polypth._ I wonder you should not know me better than to imagine I am always in earnest when I find fault. My Thoughts and yours, I assure you, agree exactly upon this Subject. I only wanted to engage you in some Discourse till the Shower was over; and as the Sky seems now quite clear, if you will, we'll venture out, and visit what we have yet to see. _Calloph._ You are a humorous Fellow: This is not the first time you have made me play my Lungs to no purpose.----As we walk along this Terrace, you may observe the great Advantage of low Walls: By this means the Garden is extended beyond its Limits, and takes in every thing entertaining that is to be met with in the range of half a County. Villages, Works of Husbandry, Groups of Cattle, Herds of Deer, and a Variety of other beautiful Objects, are brought into the Garden, and make a Part of the Plan. Even to the _nicest_ Taste these rural Scenes are highly delightful. _Polypth._ Nay you may add, that whoever has no Relish for them, gives Reason for a Suspicion that he has no Taste at all. _Straight mine Eye hath caught new Pleasures, Whilst the Landskip round it measures; Russet Lawns, and Fallows gray. Where the nibbling flocks do stray; Mountains, on whose barren Breast The labouring Clouds do often rest; Meadows trim with Daisies pide, Shallow Brooks, and Rivers wide: Towers and Battlements it sees Bosom'd high in tufted Trees, Where perhaps some Beauty lies, The Cynosure of neighbouring Eyes. Hard by a Cottage Chimney smokes, From betwixt two aged Oaks._ _Calloph._ Can you repeat no more? I could have listened with great Pleasure if you had gone on with the whole Piece. It is quite Nature: That View of an old Castle, _bosom'd high in tufted Trees_, pleases me exceedingly: And the two following Lines, _Where perhaps some Beauty lies, The Cynosure of neighbouring Eyes,_ give it an elegant, romantic Air; and add greatly to the Idea before conceived.----But to pursue our former Argument: It must be owned indeed that these Walks want such Openings into the Country as little as any Place can well be imagined to do; yet even _Stow_ itself, I assure you, is much improved by them. They contrast beautifully with this more polished Nature, and set it off to greater Advantage. After surfeiting itself with the Feast here provided for it, the Eye, by using a little Exercise in travelling about the Country, grows hungry again, and returns to the Entertainment with fresh Appetite. Besides, there is nothing so distasteful to the Eye as a confined Prospect (where the Reasonableness of it does not appear) especially if a dead Wall, or any other such disagreeable Object steps in between. The Eye naturally loves Liberty, and when it is in quest of Prospects, will not rest content with the most beautiful Dispositions of Art, confined within a narrow Compass, but (as soon as the Novelty of the Sight is over) will begin to grow dissatisfied, till the whole Limits of the Horizon be given it to range through. _Polypth._ The Eye, according to your Account, seems to be something like a Bee: Plant as many Flowers as you will near its Hive, yet still the little Insect will be discontented, unless it be allowed to wander o'er the Country, and be its own Caterer.----I have got a few very severe Exclamations at my Tongue's End, which I will not vent till you have told me the Architect's Name, who has loaded the Ground with that monstrous Piece of Building, tho' I believe I can guess him without your Information. _Calloph._ Suffer me to intercede in his Behalf. You are so unmerciful a Reprover, that I have not Patience to hear you. The Room above is designed, I am told, to be fitted up in a very elegant manner; but as very little is yet done to it, we shall find nothing I fancy to answer the Trouble of going up Stairs.----This Part of the Garden, you see, is yet unfinished. If we have the Pleasure of your Company in this Country next Year, you will see I dare say great Alterations here. That _Base_ is to shoot up into a lofty Monument: And several of those Objects you see before you are to take new Forms upon them. _Polypth._ Yonder likewise seems to be a Monument[19] rising: Pray who is it intended to do Honour to? _Calloph._ Why, Sir, it is intended to do Honour to a Gentleman, who has done Honour to his Country: It is dedicated to the Memory of Captain _Grenville_, and joins with the Nation in applauding a Man, who pushed forwards by Honour, and a Love for his Country, met Danger and Death with the Spirit of a _Roman_.----Well, how do you like the Plan which you see laid out before you? [19] Since this View of the Gardens was taken, the Monument here spoken of has been finished. The following Lines are a Translation of its Inscription, which in the Original is wrote in Latin. As a Monument To testify both his Applause and Grief, RICHARD Lord Viscount COBHAM Erected this Naval Pillar to the Memory of his Nephew CAPTAIN GRENVILLE, Who commanding a Ship of War in the _British_ Fleet Under ADMIRAL ANSON, In an Engagement with the _French_, was Mortally wounded upon the Thigh By a Fragment of his shattered Ship; Yet with his last Breath had the Bravery to cry out, How much more desireable is it thus to meet Death, "Than, convicted of Cowardice, to meet Justice!" May this noble Instance of Virtue Prove instructive to an abandoned Age, And teach _Britons_ how to act In their Country's Cause! _Polypth._ As far as I can judge of the future Landskip from this Sketch, it will be an admirable one. I am extremely taken with it. That Bason has a very fine Effect.--I could return back the same Round with great Pleasure, but my Watch informs me that Mr.----, has been expecting us this half Hour. _Calloph._ Is it so late? The Time has stole off very slily. However you need be under no Apprehensions; that honest Gentleman is seldom very hasty in his Motions. Having thus finished their Round, our two Gentlemen directed their Faces back again towards the Gate. _Polypthon_, notwithstanding the sour Humour he had given so many Evidences of in his Walk, began now to relent, and could talk of nothing but the agreeable Entertainment that had been afforded him. Sometimes he would run out into the highest Encomiums of the many beautiful Terminations of the several Walks and Vistas; and observe how many Uses each Object served, and in how many different Lights it was made to vary itself. "For Instance, says he, the Pavilion you shewed me from the Temple of _Venus_, terminates that Terrace in a very grand Manner; and makes likewise a very magnificent Appearance, where it corresponds with another of the same Form, at the Entrance into the Park: Yet the same Building, like a Person acquainted with the World, who can suit his Behaviour to Time and Place, can vary itself upon occasion into a more humble Shape, and when viewed thro' a retired Vista, can take upon it the lowly Form of a close Retreat."----When he had enlarged pretty copiously upon this Subject, he would next launch out into the highest Praises of the vast Variety of Objects that was every where to be met with: "Men of all Humours, says he, will here find something pleasing and suited to their Taste. The thoughtful may meet with retired Walks calculated in the best Manner for Contemplation: The gay and chearful may see Nature in her loveliest Dress, and meet Objects corresponding with their most lively Flights. The romantic Genius may entertain itself with several very beautiful Objects in its own Taste, and grow wild with Ideas of the inchanted kind. The disconsolate Lover may hide himself in shady Groves, or melancholy wander along the Banks of Lakes and Canals; where he may sigh to the gentle Zephyrs; mingle his Tears with the bubbling Water; or where he may have the best Opportunity, if his Malady be grown to such an Height, of ending his Despair, and finishing his Life with all the Decency and Pomp of a Lover in a Romance. In short, says he, these Gardens are a very good Epitome of the World: They are calculated for Minds of every Stamp, and give free Scope to Inclinations of every kind: And if it be said that in some Parts they too much humour the debauched Taste of the Sensualist, it cannot be denied on the other hand, but that they afford several very noble Incitements to Honour and Virtue."----But what beyond all other things seemed most to please him, was the amicable and beautiful Conjunction of _Art_ and _Nature_ thro' the whole: He observed that the _former_ never appeared stiff, or the _latter_ extravagant. Upon many other Topicks of Praise _Polypthon_ run out with great Warmth. _Callophilus_ seemed surprized, and could not forbear asking him, By what means his Opinions became so suddenly changed? "Why, says he, Sir, I have said nothing now that contradicts any thing I said before. I own I met with two or three Objects that were not entirely to my Taste, which I am far from condemning for that Reason; tho' if I should, it is nothing to the purpose, because I am now taking a Survey of the whole together; in which Light I must confess I am quite astonished with the View before me. Besides, I hate one of your wondering Mortals, who is perpetually breaking out into a Note of Admiration at every thing he sees: I am always apt to suspect his Taste or his Sincerity. It is impossible that all Genius's can alike agree in their Opinions of any Work of Art; and the Man who never _blames_, I can scarce believe is qualified to _commend_. Besides, finding fault now and then, adds Weight to Commendation, and makes us believed to be in earnest. However, notwithstanding what you may think of my frequent Cavils, I assure you, with the greatest Sincerity, I never before saw any thing of the kind at all comparable to what I have here seen: I shall by no means close this Day with a _Diem perdidi_; nor would the _Roman_ Emperor himself, I believe, have made the Reflection if he had spent his condemned Hours in this Place." By this time the Gentlemen were come to the Gate, thro' which _Polypthon_ assured his Friend he passed with the greatest Reluctance, and went growling out of this delightful Garden, as the Devil is said to have done out of Paradise. _FINIS._ WILLIAM ANDREWS CLARK MEMORIAL LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, LOS ANGELES The Augustan Reprint Society PUBLICATIONS IN PRINT The Augustan Reprint Society PUBLICATIONS IN PRINT 1948-1949 16. Henry Nevil Payne, _The Fatal Jealousie_ (1673). 18. "Of Genius," in _The Occasional Paper_, Vol. III, No. 10 (1719), and Aaron Hill, Preface to _The Creation_ (1720). 1949-1950 19. Susanna Centlivre, _The Busie Body_ (1709). 22. Samuel Johnson, _The Vanity of Human Wishes_ (1749), and two _Rambler_ papers (1750). 23. John Dryden, _His Majesties Declaration Defended_ (1681). 1951-1952 26. Charles Macklin, _The Man of the World_ (1792). 31. Thomas Gray, _An Elegy Wrote in a Country Churchyard_ (1751), and _The Eton College Manuscript_. 1952-1953 41. Bernard Mandeville, _A Letter to Dion_ (1732). 1964-1965 110. John Tutchin, _Selected Poems_ (1685-1700). 111. _Political Justice_ (1736). 113. T. R., _An Essay Concerning Critical and Curious Learning_ (1698). 1965-1966 115. Daniel Defoe and others, _Accounts of the Apparition of Mrs. Veal_ (1705, 1706, 1720, 1722). 116. Charles Macklin, _The Convent Garden Theatre_ (1752). 117. Sir Roger L'Estrange, _Citt and Bumpkin_ (1680). 118. Henry More, _Enthusiasmus Triumphatus_ (1662). 120. Bernard Mandeville, _Aesop Dress'd or a Collection of Fables_ (1740). 1966-1967 124. _The Female Wits_ (1704). 1968-1969 133. John Courtenay, _A Poetical Review of the Literary and Moral Character of the Late Samuel Johnson_ (1786). 136. Thomas Sheridan, _A Discourse Being Introductory to His Course of Lectures on Elocution and the English Language_ (1759). 137. Arthur Murphy. _The Englishman from Paris_ (1756). 1969-1970 138. [Catherine Trotter] _Olinda's Adventures_ (1718). 139. John Ogilvie, _An Essay on the Lyric Poetry of the Ancients_ (1762). 140. _A Learned Dissertation on Dumpling_ (1726) and _Pudding and Dumpling Burnt to Pot or a Compleat Key to the Dissertation on Dumpling_ (1727). 141. Sir Roger L'Estrange, Selections from _The Observator_ (1681-1687). 142. Anthony Collins, _A Discourse Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing_ (1729). 143. _A Letter From a Clergyman to His Friend, with an Account of the Travels of Captain Lemuel Gulliver_ (1726). 144. _The Art of Architecture_, A Poem (1742). 1970-1971 145-146. Thomas Shelton,_ A Tutor to Tachygraphy, or Short-writing_ (1642) and _Tachygraphy_ (1647). 147-148. _Deformities of Dr. Samuel Johnson_ (1782). 149. _Poeta de Tristibus: or the Poet's Complaint_ (1682). 150. Gerard Langbaine, _Momus Triumphans: or the Plagiaries of the English Stage_ (1687). 1971-1972 151-152. Evan Lloyd, _The Methodist. A Poem_ (1766). 153. _Are These Things So?_ (1740), and _The Great Man's Answer to Are These Things So?_ (1740). 154. Arbuthnotiana: _The Story of the St. Alb-ns Ghost_ (1712), and _A Catalogue of Dr. Arbuthnot's Library_ (1779). 155-156. A Selection of Emblems from Herman Hugo's _Pia Desideria_ (1624), with English Adaptations by Francis Quarles and Edmund Arwaker. 1972-1973 157. William Mountfort, _The Life and Death of Doctor Faustus_ (1697). 158. Colley Cibber, _A Letter from Mr. Cibber to Mr. Pope_ (1742). 159. [Catherine Clive] _The Case of Mrs. Clive_ (1744). 160. [Thomas Tryon] _A Discourse ... of Phrensie, Madness or Distraction_ from _A Treatise of Dreams and Visions_ [1689]. 161. Robert Blair, _The Grave. A Poem_ (1743). 162. [Bernard Mandeville] _A Modest Defence of Publick Stews_ (1724). 1973-1974 163. [William Rider] _An Historical and Critical Account of the Lives and Writings of the Living Authors of Great Britain_ (1762). 164. Thomas Edwards, _The Sonnets of Thomas Edwards_ (1765, 1780). 165. Hildebrand Jacob, _Of the Sister Arts; An Essay_ (1734). 166. _Poems on the Reign of William III_ [1690, 1696, 1699, 1702] 167. Kane O'Hara, _Midas: An English Burletta_ (1766). 168. [Daniel Defoe] _A Short Narrative History of the Life and Actions of His Grace John, D. of Marlborough_ (1711). 1974-1975 169-170. Samuel Richardson, _The Apprentice's Vade-Mecum_ (1734). 171. James Bramston, _The Man of Taste_ (1733). 172-173. Walter Charleton, _The Ephesian Matron_ (1668). 174. Bernard Mandeville, _The Mischiefs That Ought Justly to be apprehended From a Whig-Government_ (1714). 174X. John Melton, _Astrologaster_ (1620). Publications of the first fifteen years of the society (numbers 1-90) are available in paperbound units of six issues at $16.00 per unit from Kraus Reprint Company, 16 East 46th Street, New York, N. Y. 10017. Publications in print are available at the regular membership rate of $5.00 for individuals and $8.00 for institutions per year. Prices of single issues may be obtained upon request. Subsequent publications may be checked in the annual prospectus. _Make check or money order payable to_ THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA _and send to_ The William Andrews Clark Memorial Library 2520 Cimarron Street, Los Angeles, California 90018 Transcriber's Note. The original punctuation and spelling have been retained. 
39993	----	Transcriber's Note: Bold text is surrounded by =equal signs= and italic text is surrounded by _underscores_. GARDENING FOR LITTLE GIRLS PRACTICAL ARTS FOR LITTLE GIRLS A Series Uniform with this Volume _Each book, illustrated, 75 cents net_ COOKERY FOR LITTLE GIRLS SEWING FOR LITTLE GIRLS WORK AND PLAY FOR LITTLE GIRLS HOUSEKEEPING FOR LITTLE GIRLS GARDENING FOR LITTLE GIRLS [Illustration: PUZZLE PICTURE,--FIND THE LITTLE GIRL] GARDENING FOR LITTLE GIRLS BY OLIVE HYDE FOSTER AUTHOR OF "COOKERY FOR LITTLE GIRLS" "SEWING FOR LITTLE GIRLS" "HOUSEKEEPING FOR LITTLE GIRLS" [Illustration] NEW YORK DUFFIELD & COMPANY 1917 Copyright, 1916 by HOUSE AND GARDEN Copyright, 1916, by HOUSEWIVES MAGAZINE Copyright, 1917, by ST. NICHOLAS The Century Co. Copyright, 1917, by COUNTRYSIDE MAGAZINE The Independent Co. Copyright, 1917, by OLIVE HYDE FOSTER _DEDICATED TO Junior and Allan, Two of the dearest children that ever showed love for the soil._ Preface Children take naturally to gardening, and few occupations count so much for their development,--mental, moral and physical. Where children's garden clubs and community gardens have been tried, the little folks have shown an aptitude surprising to their elders, and under exactly the same natural, climatic conditions, the children have often obtained astonishingly greater results. Moreover, in the poor districts many a family table, previously unattractive and lacking in nourishment, has been made attractive as well as nutritious, with their fresh green vegetables and flowers. Ideas of industry and thrift, too, are at the same time inculcated without words, and habits formed that affect their character for life. A well-known New York City Public School superintendent once said to me that she had a flower bed every year in the children's gardens, where a troublesome boy could always be controlled by giving to him the honor of its care and keeping. The love of nature, whether inborn or acquired, is one of the greatest sources of pleasure, and any scientific knowledge connected with it of inestimable satisfaction. Carlyle's lament was, "Would that some one had taught me in childhood the names of the stars and the grasses." It is with the hope of helping both mothers and children that this little book has been most lovingly prepared. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I FIRST STEPS TOWARD A GARDEN 1 II PLANNING AND PLANTING THE FLOWER BEDS 9 III FLOWERS THAT MUST BE RENEWED EVERY YEAR (ANNUALS) 19 IV FLOWERS THAT LIVE THROUGH TWO YEARS 30 V FLOWERS THAT COME UP EVERY YEAR BY THEMSELVES (PERENNIALS) 37 VI FLOWERS THAT SPRING FROM A STOREHOUSE (BULBS AND TUBERS) 48 VII THAT QUEEN--THE ROSE 58 VIII VINES, TENDER AND HARDY 71 IX SHRUBS WE LOVE TO SEE 78 X VEGETABLE GROWING FOR THE HOME TABLE 82 XI YOUR GARDEN'S FRIENDS AND FOES 94 XII A MORNING-GLORY PLAYHOUSE 102 XIII THE WORK OF A CHILDREN'S GARDEN CLUB 107 XIV THE CARE OF HOUSE PLANTS 115 XV GIFTS THAT WILL PLEASE A FLOWER LOVER 130 XVI THE GENTLEWOMAN'S ART--ARRANGING FLOWERS 137 ILLUSTRATIONS PUZZLE PICTURE,--FIND THE LITTLE GIRL, _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE FIRST WORK IN THE SPRING 14 KIM AND COLUMBINE 40 TAKING CARE OF TABLE FERNS 56 CLEANING UP AROUND THE SHRUBS 78 ALL READY TO HOE 90 AN OUTGROWN PLAYHOUSE 112 SPRING BEAUTIES 126 LINE DRAWINGS IN TEXT PAGE PLAN FOR A SMALL BACK YARD 12 AN ARTISTIC ARRANGEMENT OF A NARROW CITY LOT 14 FLOWERS THAT WILL BLOOM FROM EARLY SUMMER UNTIL FROST 16 BLOSSOMS IN JAPANESE ARRANGEMENT 138 NOTE As the desire is to give the widest possible range of information about the plants and flowers mentioned herein, and space forbids going into details in each case, the writer has endeavored to mention all the colors, extremes of height, and entire season of bloom of each kind. But the grower must find out the particular variety obtained, and NOT expect a shrubby clematis to climb, or a fall rose to blossom in the spring! GARDENING FOR LITTLE GIRLS A garden is a lovesome thing, God wot! Rose plot, Fringed pool, Fern'd grot-- The veriest school Of peace; and yet the fool Contends that God is not-- Not God! in gardens! when the eve is cool? Nay but I have a sign: 'Tis very sure God walks in mine. --_Thomas Edward Brown._ GARDENING FOR LITTLE GIRLS CHAPTER I First Steps Toward a Garden And because the breath of flowers is far sweeter in the air (where it comes and goes, like the warbling of music) than in the hand, therefore nothing is more fit for that delight than to know what be the flowers and plants that do best perfume the air. --_Bacon._ IF you want a flower garden, you can begin work as early as March. Does that sound strange,--with cold winds and occasional snow? Ah, but the plans should all be laid then, and many things started in the house. Four steps must be taken before starting actual work: _First._--Find out what space you can have for your garden. _Second._--Consider the soil, situation, surroundings. _Third._--Make a list of seeds, bulbs, etc., desired. _Fourth._--Decide on planting with view to height and color. As to the first step, find out positively where you can have your garden. It makes considerable difference whether you can have the whole back yard, a plot along the walk, a round bed in the center of the lawn (only worse than none at all!), or a window-box. You can not very well decide on a single plant until this is settled. As to the second step, learn all you can about the soil, situation, surroundings. Is your ground rich or poor? If light and sandy, you can grow such flowers as nasturtiums and mignonette. By adding fertilizer you can have poppies, roses, and dahlias. If the ground is heavy and stiff with clay, you can still have your roses and dahlias if you will add both manure and sand. So find out what kind of earth you are going to work with. Quite poor soil will grow sweet alyssum, California poppies, coreopsis and geraniums, while rich soil is needed for asters, larkspur, zinnias and marigolds. And think about your location (a dry spot being necessary for portulaca, and a cool, moist place for lily-of-the-valley), as well as bear in mind whether your garden is sheltered and warm or exposed to the chilly winds. Any desert can be made to blossom as the rose,--if you only know how. As to the third step, make the list of the seeds, bulbs, etc., that you would like, with the idea of having some flowers in bloom the whole summer long. If you are lucky enough to have a kind friend or neighbor give you of her store, they will probably be good and come up as they should. If you have to buy, though, be sure to go to a first-class, reliable dealer, for you don't want to waste your time and money on old things that won't grow. Then last of all, decide on your planting from this list with a view to height and color, so that you will arrange to the best advantage,--the nasturtiums which climb, for instance, going to the back of the bed against wall or trellis, while the dwarf variety should be at the front. BIG WORDS FOR COMMON THINGS To select your flowers intelligently, though, you must know something about their nature, habits, and tendencies, and certain words always found in seed catalogues and garden books may be puzzling to a beginner. a. _Annuals_, for example, are the plants that live but a year or a single season. b. _Biennials_, however, continue for two years before they perish, making roots and leaves the first year and usually flowering the second. c. _Perennials_ are the kind that continue for more than two years. d. _Deciduous_ refers to the shrubs and trees that lose their leaves in the fall. e. _Evergreens_ are those that keep their verdure the whole year round. f. _Herbaceous_ plants may be annual, biennial or perennial, but they have a stem that does not become woody, and that dies down after flowering. g. _Hybrids_ are plants produced by "crossing," or mixing two distinct varieties. PLANT NEEDS All plant life, you must understand, requires five things,--WARMTH, LIGHT, AIR, WATER and FOOD. But plants differ as much as people, and some need more of one thing than they do of another. Some grow best in sunlight, others in the shade; some in sand, others in rich soil. You will have to find out what each kind requires. The food properties needed in the soil have some big names, too,--_nitrogen_, _potash_, and _phosphoric acid_, all of which are found in farm manures. If you can not conveniently get these, however, florists and seed-men can supply you with other fertilizers more easily handled. THE SEED NURSERY If you are just getting ready to start your garden, the annuals,--the plants that flower from seed the first season though they do not come up again,--will probably interest you most as they give the quickest returns. Many kinds can be started in the house in March, and for this purpose any kind of a shallow box will answer. Bore holes in the bottom and put in a layer of broken pottery or stones, to permit drainage, so the roots will not rot. Fill three or four inches deep with good soil, after pulverizing and taking out all sticks and stones. RULES FOR INDOOR PLANTING Mark grooves in seed boxes (or "flats") with a stick, in parallel lines. Plant seeds only about their own depth. Scatter thinly to avoid crowding. Press soil down firmly after seeds have been covered. Keep the earth moist by means of a fine spray, or sprinkle with a whisk broom. The ordinary sprinkler lets out the water with such force as to wash the seeds clear out of the ground. The very finest seeds should be _sprinkled_ lightly--and thinly--over the pulverized soil and then pressed into the earth with a small board. The different seeds should be sown in separate rows, and the names plainly marked on the edge of the box, so you will not become confused, or forget what you are growing. Cover the boxes with glass or a newspaper for the first week, to keep the earth moist and warm until the seeds sprout. FAMILIAR ANNUALS Even as early as March you can start in the boxes in this way any of the following annuals, which will bloom at the time mentioned or even earlier:-- Ageratum, blue, good for edging; blooms for three months during summer. Asters, white, pink, red, purple; early in the fall. Alyssum, sweet, white; from May to November. Amethyst, blue, violet, white; flowers all summer. Balsam, white, red, yellow; from July to middle of September. Chrysanthemum, tricolor; August to middle of October. Cosmos, white, pink, crimson; August to November. Cypress vine, red, and white starry blossoms; June and July. Godetia, red, white; July to October. Moonflower (Japanese morning-glory), white, a vine; August to September. Pansy, all shades and combinations, of white, yellow, purple; July on. Chinese pink, white, rose, maroon; May to August. Salvia, red; August to frost. Ten Weeks' Stock, white, pink, purple; June and July. Zinnia, red, yellow, magenta; July to November. EASILY GROWN PERENNIALS Both the perennials and the biennials following should all blossom the first year if started in the house in March:-- Gaillardia, red, yellow. Forget-me-not, lovely blue. Larkspur, blue. Snapdragon, white, red, purple, yellow, pink. Sweet William, white, pink, red, maroon, plain, varigated. Coreopsis, yellow. Cupid's Dart, blue. Iceland Poppy, yellow, white, scarlet. Get as many as you can--and your space will permit,--of all the lovely old perennials and the bulbs that come up every season with little or no care. One of the oldest,--now deserted--farmhouses on Long Island, still carries in its dooryard the impress of some gentle flower-lover long since passed away, in its annual spring beauty of daffodils and lilies-of-the-valley. And the few bulbs and pips transplanted from there to my own garden, have thrived and spread so profusely that I, too, can pass them on to others. HARDY FLOWERS ALL SUMMER With carefully chosen bulbs and perennials alone, it is possible to have a succession of lovely blooms. In March your heart will be made happy with snowdrop and crocus; in April with violet, daffodil, narcissus, hyacinth and tulip; in May and June with spirea, peony, iris, forget-me-not, columbine, baby's breath, bleeding heart, mountain pink, candytuft, Chinese pink; in July and August, golden glow, hollyhock, larkspur, hardy phlox, snap-dragon; September and October, sunflower, dahlia, gladiolus and aster, with November closing the season with all kinds of beautiful chrysanthemums. And many of these often come earlier than expected, or stay later. How easily raised are they by the person with little time! CHAPTER II Planning and Planting the Flower Beds God the first garden made.--_Cowley._ WHILE the snow is on the ground, you can be deciding on the best place for your garden, and finding out the kind of flowers and vegetables best suited to your soil and locality. Write to your Representative at Washington, requesting the seeds he may have to give away. Write to two or three prominent seed firms for catalogues, and look over the garden books at your Public Library. Then if you do not quickly find yourself suffering from a violent attack of Garden Fever, you might as well give up, and not attempt to have a garden, for you will be lacking the real love and enthusiasm that count for success. Did you ever realize that gardens differ as much as people? "No two gardens, no two human faces, were ever quite alike," says one writer, and you want to make yours expressive of yourself. So before taking another step, study your grounds, large and small,--for if you can have only part of a tiny plot, you still have many possibilities of expressing your own ideas and taste. The garden is for the personal pleasure of the family, so DON'T put it out in front, for the careless passerby. Choose a more secluded spot where, if you wish, you can train a vine to shade your seat when you want to sit down and enjoy the birds, butterflies and flowers. EASY RULES FOR ARTISTIC PLANTING Right here is the place to stop and draw a map of your proposed garden, and mark off the spaces for your chosen plants. You might draw half a dozen plans, and then choose the most suitable. Only never forget the simple rules of a famous landscape gardener:-- 1. Plant in masses, not isolated. 2. Avoid straight lines. 3. Preserve open lawn centers. When you have decided on the location of your garden, coax some one stronger than yourself to dig up the ground thoroughly, and spade in some fertilizer,--preferably farmyard manure. Plants live on the tonic salts they draw out of the soil through their roots, as much as they do on the carbonic acid gas which they take out of the air through their leaves. So have the ground nourishing, and also nicely pulverized and free from sticks and stone, that the little rootlets can easily work their way through and find their needed nutriment. Never forget that third rule before mentioned,--"Preserve open lawn centers." A beautiful lawn is as satisfying to the eye as flowers, so never spoil one by cutting it up with beds. They can be put along the sides, used for bordering walks, and nestled close to the house. PLAN FOR SMALL BACK YARD One of the loveliest gardens I know is at the back end of a city lot, not more than thirty feet square, with a plot of velvety grass in the center. The irregular border surrounding this bit of lawn is a mass of flowers from earliest spring until black frost,--from March until December,--and delights the whole neighborhood. The secret lies in the fact that the owner knows how to plant for succession of bloom. The ground is laid out this way. [Illustration: PLAN FOR A SMALL BACK YARD] If you can have only a single flower bed, however, try to get it in a sunny, protected spot, preferably facing south, where the cold winds of early spring and late fall will do the least damage. Make a list of the flowers that like such conditions,--and most of them do,--and then pick out those you prefer, writing after each name the time that it blooms. Be sure to select some of each of the early spring, late spring, summer, early fall, and late fall, so that you will have flowers to enjoy the whole season through. SUCCESSION OF BLOOM For example, you can choose first from the crocus, snowdrop, scilla, the hardy candytuft that rivals the snow for whiteness, and the tiny creeping phlox that will carpet your bed with pink; next, from the daffodil, narcissus and jonquil groups, with the tulips,--all of which must be set out in the fall for bloom in April and May: then the iris in May and June. Sweet alyssum, nasturtiums, corn flowers, Shirley poppies and cosmos (all annuals), you can count on blooming around New York from July to black frost; dahlias from August to black frost, and monthly roses the entire summer,--with a tidal wave in June. (I know, for I have seen them all, over and over again.) Many of the annuals can be started indoors, or in a glass-covered box outside. Then when the early flowering bulbs have faded, you can turn their green tops under the ground, first to allow the sap to run back into the bulb (the storehouse for next year), and next to decay and fertilize the soil. The annual seedlings can then be placed right on top! You thus avoid bare, ugly spots, and keep your garden lovely. Dahlias planted out about the first of June will bloom from early fall until cold weather sets in; and certain roses, like the Mrs. John Laing and all of the hybrid teas, will flower nearly as late. In fact, in the famous rose garden of Jackson Park, Chicago, as well as in private grounds around New York, I have seen roses blooming in December. You hardly need be afraid of crowding, either, if you will be particular to keep out the weeds, and occasionally work into the soil some bone-meal for fertilizer. Water in dry weather. This does not mean top sprinkling, for that is decidedly injurious. When the ground is dry, soak it thoroughly. A CITY GARDEN [Illustration: AN ARTISTIC ARRANGEMENT OF A NARROW CITY LOT] [Illustration: FIRST WORK IN THE SPRING] If you live in a city, you may be interested in a garden I have seen, which ran along the side and rear end of a long, narrow lot. The tallest flowers,--dahlias and hollyhocks,--were at the back of the bed, at the extreme end, and although late in flowering, formed a beautiful green background for the rest all summer. The first irregular section was given up to the blues, and--planted with both annual and perennial larkspur, and cornflowers,--kept the dining-table supplied with blossoms to match the old blue china until the frost came. Frost, by the way, you will find of two kinds,--hoar frost, which the Psalmist so vividly described when he said, "He scattereth the hoarfrost like ashes," and which injures only the tenderest flowers; and black frost, which is of intense enough cold to freeze the sap within the plant cells, so that when the sun's heat melts this frozen sap the plant--leaf and stalk--wilts down and turns black. Therefore, both in the early spring and the late fall, you must watch out for Jack, whichever garb he dons, and give your tender plants some nighty covering. A LITTLE BED FOR A LITTLE GIRL If you can have only one small bed, however, you can get a lot of pleasure out of it most of the season if you will carefully choose your plants. Pansies set along the outer edge will blossom until mid-summer if you keep them picked and watered every day; and verbenas, which have the same harmonizing shades, you can count on blooming until late in the fall. They would be attractive in either of the following simple designs: [Illustration: FLOWERS THAT WILL BLOOM FROM EARLY SUMMER UNTIL FROST] Candytuft for a border, with petunias in the center, is another combination that should blossom from June until frost. Poppies and cornflowers would also last all summer if you would keep out part of the seed and sow a couple of times at intervals of several weeks. The combinations of red and blue is very pretty, too. Sweet alyssum, with red or pink geraniums, would be lovely all season. For an all yellow bed, plant California poppies to bloom early in the border, and African marigolds, or Tom Thumb nasturtiums to bloom in the center from July on late into the fall. With any of the combinations suggested you could gather flowers almost any time you pleased, for they are all profuse bloomers. WINDOW BOXES If you are a little city child, and can have only a flower box in a window or along a porch-rail, cheer up! There is still a chance for you to have posies all the long hot days. After having your box filled with good, rich soil on top of a layer of broken crockery or stones,--for drainage, you know,--you can plant running nasturtiums along the edge for a hanging vine. Inside of that plant a row of the blue lobelia, or set in a few pansies already in bloom. Then you would have room for still another row of taller plants,--say pink and white geraniums, with a fern or two. Another pretty box could be made by putting Wandering Jew or "inch plant" along the edge for the drooping vine, then blue ageratum for your edging, with next a row of lovely pink begonias. As it takes a number of weeks for any seeds to grow and come to flower, you might better save your candy pennies and buy a few blooming plants from the spring pedlar. They will gladden your heart while waiting. All kinds of green add to these little boxes, and all the white flowers soften and help to blend the bright colors. China asters, in white, pink, and lavender, are lovely in a window box, and if started in shallow trays or old pots early in the spring, can be transplanted later. Then when your early flowers have seen their best days, you can remove them, put in your asters, and have beauties all fall. CHAPTER III Flowers that Must be Renewed Every Year--(Annuals) And 'tis my faith that every flower enjoys the air it breathes. --_Wordsworth._ IF you want flowers that grow quickly, plant annuals! Some will bloom within six weeks, so if you can help out meantime with some transplanted roots and bulbs, you will have flowers from the first of the season. "Plant thickly," says one writer. "It is easier and more profitable to grow flowers than weeds." The following annuals can be sown outdoors late in April, as far North as New York, in ordinary seasons,--only remember that those marked with a * do not like to be transplanted:-- Alyssum Aster Candytuft Chrysanthemum (Annual) Coreopsis (Annual) Cosmos Godetia Larkspur (Annual) Marigold Nicotiana Pansy Petunia Phlox Drummondi Pink, Chinese Salvia Stock, Ten Weeks' Zinnia * California Poppy * Cornflower * Mignonette * Morning glory * Nasturtium * Portulaca * Sweet Sultan OUTDOOR PLANTING Have the soil in your flower bed made fine and light with sand and fertilizer, and entirely free from sticks and stones. If it should happen to be already too sandy, add black loam or leaf mold. (Either father or brother will probably have time to help you get this right.) Plant your seeds evenly, and rather sparingly if you do not want to pull up a lot later on account of being crowded. And you can plant either in lines or scatter in patches in bed or border, as you prefer, only be sure that the seed is covered about four times its own depth. A few things, like poppies and portulaca, have such tiny seeds that it is best to mix them with half a teaspoonful of fine soil, and scatter it where you wish, afterwards pressing down firmly with a small board. TRANSPLANTING--ANNUALS When your plants have developed a few leaves, and are big enough to handle, prepare to transplant them. This exercise does them good, and while a few resent it, the rest will grow better and be stronger. Choose morning or evening for the work, although it can be done at any time on a cloudy day. (One of my friends loves to do her transplanting in the rain!) Be sure that the ground is thoroughly damp, even if you have to sprinkle it well beforehand. PUDDLING Lift each seedling with a spoon, so as to keep a ball of the moist earth around the roots, set it in a hole made where you want your flower to grow, and then fill up this hole with water before you begin to put in the rest of the soil. This is called puddling, and will enable you to do your transplanting with the least possible disturbance to the roots. Next add all the soil necessary to fill up the hole, and press firmly around the plant. Then cover with an old can or berry box, or even a cone of newspaper held in place with stones, until the seedling has had time to get used to its new surroundings. And remember that this "puddling," followed by protection from the sun, will enable you to transplant almost anything you wish, successfully. SWEET PEAS Sweet peas require peculiar treatment for an annual. As early as the ground can be worked,--about the middle of March around New York,--get some one to dig you a trench (and it is best to have it run north and south), about fifteen inches deep. Have put in this trench a layer of well-rotted manure, then a layer of soil, a sprinkling of wood ashes, and then another layer of soil, filling the trench until it is left only six or eight inches deep. Soak your seeds over night in warm water to make them start more quickly, and then plant them two inches apart, in a double row. Cover with only a few inches of soil until they sprout, and then gradually fill up the trench as the vines grow. Train them on brush or chicken wire, and keep them well watered in order to get the best results. The latest method I have had recommended for growing sweet peas,--but which I have not tried,--is to have the soil just as carefully prepared, but then to rake it smooth, make a straight drill only half an inch deep, and plant 3 seeds every 6 inches in the row. If all three grow, pull up the two weakest, leaving only the best plant every 16 inches apart. This way,--with plenty of water and cultivation, is said to produce the very finest kind of flowers. You might try a few on the side. During the hot weather put grass clippings around the roots to help keep them moist and protected from the hot sun. Cut the flowers every day in order to prolong their blooming. A word about names, though, before we go a step farther. I intended at first to give you only the common names, despite the protests of a very good friend,--an English botanist. To clinch her argument one day, she exclaimed with considerable heat, "Why, what they call 'baby's breath' here on Long Island might be 'infant's sneeze' up in Connecticut! But if you tell the children it's real name is GYPSOPHILA, they'll never be mistaken." And later, when I found that foxglove (originally Folk's glove, alluding to the "little folk," or fairies) has been known also--according to Holland--as Thimbles, Fairy Cap, Fairy Fingers, Fairy Thimbles, Fairy Bells, Dog's Fingers, Finger Flowers, Lady's Glove, Lady Fingers, Lady's Thimble, Pop Dock, Flap Dock, Flop Dock, Lion's Mouth, Rabbit's Flower, Cottages, Throatwort, and Scotch Mercury, I concluded I would better urge you to remember its Latin name, DIGITALIS, by which the plant is known the world over. The botanical terms will easily stick in your mind, too, because they are unusual. Then people who are familiar with flowers will know exactly what you are talking about, and you yourself will always have a certain pride in the scientific knowledge that enables you to call things by their right name. You will see, if you study the lists given, what a simple matter it is to plan for a garden, big or little, and with reasonable care you will be rewarded with flowers throughout the season. The following list will give you more explicit information about the ones people like best:-- FLOWERS THAT MUST BE RENEWED EVERY YEAR A GUIDE TO THE COMMON ANNUALS NOTE.--The time that they will bloom and the quality of your flowers will depend on the time you sow your seed, on your soil, your location, and your care. The dates given apply to the locality around New York, and will be earlier if you are South, and later if North, of this section. Both the height and the flowering time of the same plants vary with the different varieties, so find out the particular kind you get. The richer the soil, the finer the flowers, as a rule, and therefore fertilizer of some kind should be applied at least once a season, about the time the buds are forming. ================+=======+=======+==========+===========+=========+========+======== | | | SOW | SOW | GOOD | |BLOOMING NAME | COLOR |HEIGHT | INDOORS | OUTDOORS | FOR | PLACE | SEASON ----------------+-------+-------+----------+-----------+---------+--------+-------- Ageratum |Blue | 8 in. | March | May | Edging | Sun |June to (_Ageratum |White | | | | | |frost conyzoides_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Alyssum, Sweet |White | 4 to | March | April to | Edging | Sun |June to | | 8 in. | | Sept. | | |frost | | | | | | | Antirrhinum, | | | | | | | see | | | | | | | Snapdragon | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Aster, China |White |18 to | March | April, | Bed | Sun |Aug. to (_Callistephus |Pink |24 in. | | May | | |Sept. hortensis_) |Violet | | | | | | | | | | | | | Baby's Breath |White | 1 to | | April | Border | Sun |May (_Gypsophila_) | | 2 ft. | | | | |(sow | | | | | | |again) | | | | | | | Bachelor's | | | | | | | Buttons, see | | | | | | | Cornflower | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Balsam |White | 1 to | March | May | Border | Sun |July to (_Impatiens |Red | 2 ft. | April | | Bed | |Oct. balsamina_) |Yellow | | | | | | | | | | | | | California |Yellow |12 in. | | April | Edging | Sun |June to Poppy |White | | | (sow in | | |frost (_Eschscholtzia|Orange | | |succession)| | | Californica_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Candytuft | White | 6 to | | April, | Edging | Sun |June to (_Iberis_) | Pink | 8 in. | | and every | | |frost | Red | | | two weeks | | | | | | | after | | | | | | | | | | Castor-oil Bean | | 3 to | | April |Tropical | Sun | Until (_Ricinus_) | | 8 ft. | | | effects | | frost | | | | | | | China Aster, | | | | | | | see Aster | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [A]Coreopsis |Yellow | 1 to | | April | Border | Sun |June to (_Coreopsis | | 3 ft. | | | Bed | |Oct. lanceolata_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cornflower | Blue | 1 to | | April | Border | Sun |June to (_Centaurea | | 2 ft. | | | Bed | |frost cyanus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cosmos | White | 4 to | March | April | Back of | Sun |July to | Pink | 8 ft. | | | border | |frost |Crimson| | | | | | | | | | | | | Cypress Vine | Red |10 to | April | May | Screen | Sun |June, (_Ipom[oe]a | White |20 ft. | | | | |July quamoclit_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Eschscholtzia, | | | | | | | see California| | | | | | | Poppy | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [B]Forget-me-not| Blue | 6 to | | April to | Bed | Half |April to (_Myosotis_) | | 18 in.| | July | | Shade |fall | | | | | | | Floss Flower, | | | | | | | see Ageratum | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Gilliflower, | | | | | | | see Ten Weeks'| | | | | | | Stock | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Godetia |White | 1 to | March | May | Border | Shade |July to | Red | 2 ft. | | | Bed | or |Oct. | | | | | | sun | | | | | | | | Gypsophila, | | | | | | | see | | | | | | | Baby's Breath | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hyacinth Bean |Purple |10 to | | May | Screen | Sun |July to (_Dolichos_) | White |20 ft. | | | | |frost | | | | | | | Lady's Slipper, | | | | | | | see Balsam | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Larkspur, Annual|White | 1 to | | April | Border | Sun |July to (_Delphinium_)| Pink | 3 ft | | | Bed | |frost | Blue | | | | | | | | | | | | | Lobelia | Blue | 6 to | March | May | Edging | Sun |June to (_Lobelia | |12 in. | | | | |Nov. erinus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Lupin |Most | 2 ft. |Successive|From May on| Border |Partial |From (_Lupinus_) | shades| | sowing | | Bed | shade |June on | | | | | | | Marigold, |Yellow | 2 ft. | March | May | Border | Sun | African | | | | | Bed | |Aug. to (_Tagetes | | | | | | |frost erecta_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Mignonette |White | 1 ft. | | April | Border | Sun |June to (_Reseda | Red | | | and July | Bed | |Oct. odorata_) | Yellow| | | | | | | | | | | | | Morning-glory |White | 10 to | | April | Vine | Sun |July to (_Convolvulus_)| Pink | 20 ft.| | | | |frost | Purple| | | | | | | | | | | | | Myosotis, see | | | | | | | Forget-me-not | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Nasturtium |Yellows| 1 to | | April |Climber | Sun |July to (_Tropæolum_) |to reds| 10 ft.| | May | Dwarf | |frost | | | | | | | Nicotiana, see | | | | | | | Tobacco Plant | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [A]Pansy (_Viola|No red | 6 to | Feb. | April | Bed | Half |May to tricolor_) | | 12 in.| | May | | shade |Oct. | | | | | | | Petunia | White | 1 to | |On surface | Border | Sun |June to (_Petunia | to | 2 ft.| | in May | Bed | |frost hybrida_) |Magenta| | | | | | | | | | | | | Phlox, Annual | White | 1 ft.| March | May | Border | Sun |June to (_Phlox | Pink | | | | Bed | |frost Drummondi_) | Red | | | | | | | | | | | | | [B]Pink, Chinese|White | 1 ft. | Feb. | March | Border | Sun |All (_Dianthus | Pink | | | April | Bed | |summer Chinensis_) | Rose | | | | | | | | | | | | | Poppy, Shirley | White | 1 to | | March, | Bed | Sun |June to (_Papaver | Pink | 2 ft. | | April | | |Oct. rhæas_) | Red | | |Later for | | | | | | |succession | | | | | | | | | | Portulaca |No blue| 6 to | | May 1st |Carpeting| In |All (_Portulaca | | 9 in. | | | | dry, |summer grandiflora_) | | | | | | sunny | | | | | | |position| | | | | | | | Rose Moss, | | | | | | | see Portulaca | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sage, Blue or | | | | | | | Scarlet, | | | | | | | see Salvia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [A]Salvia | White | 3 ft. | March | May | Border | Sun |July to | Blue | | | | Bed | |frost |Scarlet| | | | | | | | | | | | | Scarlet Runner | Red |12 ft. | | April |Climber | Sun |July to Bean | | | | | | |frost | | | | | | | [A]Snapdragon |No blue| 1 to | March | May | Border | Sun |July to (_Antirrhinum_)| | 3 ft. | | | Bed | |frost | | | | | | | Stock, |White | 1 to | March | May | Border | Sun |July to Ten Weeks' | Pink | 2 ft. | | | Bed | |frost (_Matthiola | Purple| | | | | | incana_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sunflower |Yellow | 3 to | | April |Back of | Sun |July to (_Helianthus | |12 ft. | | | bed | |frost annus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sun Plant, | | | | | | | see Portulaca | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sweet Pea | All | 3 to | | March | Back of | Sun |July to (_Lathyrus |Colors | 6 ft. | | | border | |Oct. odoratus_) | | | | | vines | | | | | | | | | [B]Sweet William|White |12 to | | April | Border | Sun |July to (_Dianthus | |18 in. | | | Bed | |Oct. barbatus_) | Pink | | | | | | | Red | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tobacco Plant |White | 2 to | | May | Border | Sun |July to (_Nicotiana_) | Pink | 5 ft. | | | | |Oct. | Red | | | | | | |Purple | | | | | | | | | | | | | Verbena |No Blue| 1 ft. | March | May | Border | Sun |June to | | | | | Bed | |Oct. | | | | | | | Zinnia |Yellows| 1 to | March | May | Border | Sun |June to (_Zinnia |to reds| 2 ft. | | | Bed | |Oct. elegans_) | | | | | | | ----------------+-------+-------+----------+-----------+---------+--------+-------- FOOTNOTES: [A] A tender perennial, flowering the first year from seed sown early. [B] A biennial, flowering the first year from seed sown early. CHAPTER IV Flowers that Live Through Two Years In all places then, and in all seasons, Flowers expand their light and soul-like wings, Teaching us by most persuasive reasons, How akin they are to human things. --_Longfellow._ BETWEEN the flowers that we have to plant every year,--the annuals,--and those that after once being started continue to greet us summer after summer,--the perennials,--comes a little group of old favorites that has to be planted one summer (and then generally protected from the cold), in order to bring them to their full beauty the second year. And as few of them self-sow, it is necessary to plant and carry over every season. The biennial seeds are best sown in the seed nursery, where they can be watched and protected. In the late summer the young plants will be big and strong enough to set out in the border, although you must give them a light covering of leaves and litter. The seeds started in July and August, however, better be left protected in the nursery and moved in the early spring. The dainty blue forget-me-not, or myosotis, is one of the best loved of this class. Some varieties are hardy, and often found growing wild. It generally does best in a damp, partly shaded location. It grows from 6 to 18 inches high, according to the different kinds, which blossom most of the summer. The seeds of biennials seldom produce flowers the first summer, but several--and among them the myosotis,--after being grown a few years in the same spot, come up like perennials, on account of sowing themselves. The foxglove is another of the few biennials that are hardy, and it also likes a cool, shady spot. If the plants come up thickly, transplant part of them to any well-prepared, rich ground, and keep moist and well cultivated until the middle of September, when you should move them again to their permanent home. Foxgloves, like forget-me-nots, sow themselves, and the little plants coming up this way should be transplanted and given plenty of room to grow and become strong before their time to bloom. Do not forget to cover during the winter! English daisies (which are tender perennials), and pansies (which generally are grown as annuals), can both be started in the seed nursery in August, thinned out and protected before cold weather sets in, and then moved to where you wish them to bloom, in the early spring. Canterbury bells do best when the seed is sown the middle of April in ground that is rich, well prepared, moist, and partly shady. The middle of July move to a temporary place, and set the plants 6 to 8 inches apart. Then early in October transplant to where you want them to blossom the next season. But before the frost comes, protect these tender little plants with some old berry boxes, then straw or leaves over the top, and in the spring work a small quantity of fertilizer around the roots. Tie the stalks as they begin to get tall, to stout stakes, to prevent their being blown over by storms: and if you will keep cutting off the old flowers so they will not go to seed, you can coax your plants to bloom an extra month or six weeks. Properly treated, they will last from July to the middle of September. But to enjoy these lovely visitors regularly, it is necessary to plant the seed every year. Of the border carnations, the Chabaud and Marguerite types are hardy enough to stand the winter if slightly covered, and will flower profusely the second year, but they make off-shoots, which bring to bloom a few weeks after sowing. Hollyhocks from seed do not blossom until the second year, but they make off-shoots, which bring flowers every season thereafter. And as they sow themselves, people often mistake them for perennials. They come both single and double, and are especially lovely against a wall or a green background. The evening primrose, tall and stately, with large yellow flowers, is easily grown in almost any soil. It thrives in almost any soil, and blooms the entire summer. Of the wallflowers, the biennial variety will blossom most of the summer if grown in a moist, shady place and not allowed to go to seed. These come in yellows, reddish brown and purplish brown. They need winter protection. The horned poppy, though a biennial, will flower the first year if started indoors in March. It likes an open, sunny spot, and if old flowers are kept picked off, will bloom all summer. Sweet William is another old-fashioned garden favorite that is usually considered a perennial, but which does its best the second year from seed. As it self-sows, it goes on forever, like Tennyson's brook, once it gets started. In protecting, however, do not get fertilizer directly over the crown, or it will cause decay. Mullein pink, or Rose Campion as it is often called, is another of our grandmothers' pets, and if started very early, will flower the first season. Now all of the biennials I have described are easily grown, and sure to bring great pleasure. And really it is worth while to curb one's impatience, and wait, when necessary, until the second season, for the sake of these lovely hardy beauties. FLOWERS THAT LIVE THROUGH TWO YEARS A GUIDE TO THE COMMON BIENNIALS NOTE.--English Daisies (a perennial), Forget-me-nots, Hollyhocks and Pansies are often started about the 1st of August. Most of the biennials need slight protection during the winter. Remember that in nearly every case seed must be sown every year in order to secure succession of bloom. -----------------+-------+----------+---------+--------+--------+-----+-------- | | | SOW | SOW | | |BLOOMING NAME | COLOR | HEIGHT | INDOORS |OUTDOORS|GOOD FOR|PLACE|SEASON -----------------+-------+----------+---------+--------+--------+-----+-------- [A]Canterbury |White | 2½ ft. | March | May | Border | Sun |June, Bells |Pink | | 1st | June | | |July (_Campanula |Blue | | | | | | medium_) |Purple | | | | | | | | | | | | | [A]Carnation, |White |1 to 2 ft.| | May | Border | Sun |August Border |Pink | | | | | | (_Dianthus | | | | | | | caryophyllus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [D]English Daisy |White |4 to 6 in.| | July | Border | Sun |April, (_Bellis |Pink | Aug. | | | Bed | |May perennis_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Evening Primrose |Yellow | 5 ft. | Many | May | Border | Sun |June to (_OEnothera | | |varieties| June | | |Sept. biennis_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Forget-me-not |Blue |1 to 2 ft.|Self-sows| May |Border |Half |April to (_Myosotis_) | | | | June | |shade|Sept. | | | | | | | Foxglove |Pinkish|3 to 5 ft.| |April to|Border |Half |June, (_Digitalis_) |purple | | |June |Clumps |shade|July |White | | | | |or | |Yellow | | | | |sun | | | | | | | | Hollyhock |White |4 to 8 ft.|Self-sows| May, |Back of |Sun |July, (_Althæa |Pink | |Also | June or|border | |Aug. rosea_) |Rose | |makes | Aug. |or | | |Yellow | |offsets | |clumps | | |Red | | | | | | | | | | | | | Horned Poppy |Yellow | 6 in. | |May |Border |Sun |July (_Glaucium |Orange | | |June | | |to Sept. luteum_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [C]Mullein Pink |White | 1 to | |May 1st |Border |Sun |June, (_Lychnis | to | 2½ ft. | | |Rockery | |July coronaria_) |Crimson| | | | | | | | | | | | | Rose Campion, see| | | | | | | Mullein Pink | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Wallflower |Yellow | 1 to | |May |Border |Sun | May (_Cheiranthus |to | 2½ ft. | |June |Rockery | or | cheiri_) |browns | | | | |part | |and | | | | |shad | |purples| | | | | | | | | | | | | Pansy, more | | | | | | | easily treated | | | | | | | as an annual | | | | | | | -----------------+-------+----------+---------+--------+--------+-----+------- FOOTNOTES: [C] Will blossom the first year from seed that is sown as early as possible. [D] A perennial often started in August, so it will bloom the next spring. CHAPTER V Flowers that come up Every Year by Themselves (Perennials) No, the heart that has truly lov'd never forgets, But as truly loves on to the close; As the sunflower turns on her god when he sets The same look which she turn'd when he rose. --_Moore._ THAT big word ARISTOCRACY simply means "those who rise above the rest of the community in any important respect,"--and rightly, indeed, are the perennials called "the aristocrats of the garden." They are strong and sturdy (good points in both people and flowers), and can be depended on to appear about a certain time, make us a nice visit with all their loveliest clothes, and show their appreciation of our attention and care by returning every season with increased beauty and grace. A few of the perennials, such as the peony and the iris, grow so slowly that generally people haven't the patience to wait for them to flower from seed, and instead try to get some roots from their more fortunate friends, or buy from a florist. But I will tell you more about this class in connection with the bulb and tuber families. THE SEED BED While a small number of these beauties will bloom the first year if started early in the spring, most of them make their début in garden society the second summer. Before that they have to be watched, or they might meet with accident. A good way, therefore, is to have a little bed (preferably a cold frame) for a seed nursery off to one side, in a safe place, where the baby plants can be cared for, protected from cold, and tended like the infants they are, until grown up and old enough to enter the society of bed or border. In such a place the seeds should be planted in fine, rich soil, preferably from the middle of May to the 1st of July, and all carefully marked. Sow thinly, and then cover the seed by sifting over with fine soil from 1/8 to 1/4 inch deep. Sprinkle very lightly by means of a whisk broom dipped in water, so as not to wash out the seed, and if you possibly can, cover with a piece of glass. Keep in the shade at first, and never let dry out. Some of this seed will germinate in less than a week, while some may take so long that you will think it is not going to grow at all! But don't give up; and maybe some day when you have forgotten all about it, you will discover a lot of new babies in your nursery. TRANSPLANTING PERENNIALS As soon as your seedlings are big and strong enough to be handled, they must be carefully lifted and set in another part of the nursery, not less than 3 inches apart, protected from the hot sun, and left until they become strong, sturdy children. Then early in the fall, before the middle of September, you can take them up very gently, without disturbing their tiny rootlets, and put them with their friends and relatives in the garden, wherever you wish them to bloom the following summer. Of course you couldn't,--and you wouldn't want to grow everything you ever saw or heard about! Just think of the fun, however, of picking out a small number that will be sure to give you flowers, one after another, from earliest spring until cold weather! Yet the following list, suggested by one authority, is easy to get and little trouble to care for: PERENNIALS FOR A WHOLE SEASON'S BLOOM Creeping Phlox (_Phlox subulata_); white, rose, lavender; bloom April and May. Lily-of-the-Valley (_Convallaria majalis_); white; May, June. Bleeding Heart (_Dicentra spectabilis_); rose pink; April through June. Iris (_Fleur-de-lis_); white, purple, yellow; April to July. Peony (_Pæonia officinalis_); white, rose to crimson; May, June. Larkspur (_Delphinium_); blues; June, July, September. Balloon Flower (_Platycodon_); blue, purple, white; July to October. Phlox, Hardy (_Phlox paniculata_); no blue nor real yellow; June through September. Golden Glow (_Rudbeckia laciniata_); yellow; August. Blanket Flower (_Gaillardia aristata_); yellow, red; July to October. Boltonia (_Boltonia latisquama_); lilac; August to October. Sunflower (_Helianthus_); yellow; July to October. [Illustration: KIM AND COLUMBINE] The fault that I would find with the gentleman's list is that he has omitted chrysanthemums, which could be substituted for sunflowers to most people's satisfaction,--and which also would bloom as late as November. Also I should prefer columbine to his bleeding hearts,--and the golden-spurred variety will bloom from early May to early August! Above all, instead of boltonia, I would use the adorable snapdragons, which, although considered a "tender perennial," will survive cold weather if well protected. But then, as I once heard, "A man's garden is like his wife, whom he never would think of comparing with anybody else's." So you don't have to follow any one's choice. Just make a list of the flowers that you like, find out when they bloom, and then choose as few or as many as you have room for, remembering to plan for something lovely every month of the blooming season. One note of warning, however. After you have made your list, consult some friend that is a successful gardener, and make sure that what you have chosen will thrive in your particular locality. If you find it does not, strike it off, and put in something that will. FLOWERS THAT COME UP EVERY YEAR BY THEMSELVES A GUIDE TO THE COMMON PERENNIALS NOTE.--A few of these will blossom the first summer, if started early. Also, some varieties of the same plant will flower in the spring, others in the fall. Make sure which kind you get. ------------------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-----------+------+---------- | | | SOW | SOW | | |BLOOMING NAME | COLOR |HEIGHT |INDOORS|OUTDOORS| GOOD FOR |PLACE | SEASON ------------------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-----------+------+---------- Alyssum (_Alyssum |Rich |1 ft. | | May |Rockery |Half |April, saxatile_) |yellow | | | June |Edging |shade | May | | | | |or sun | | | | | | | | | Anemone, Japanese |Rose |2 to | | May |Border |Half |Sept., (_Anemone |White | 4 ft. | | June |Bed |shade | Oct. Japonica_) | | | | | |or sun| | | | | | | | Aster, Hardy |White |2 to | | May |Anywhere |Shade |Aug. to (_Aster Novæ- |Pink | 5 ft. | | June | |or sun| Oct. Angliæ_) |Lavender| | | | | | |Purple | | | | | | | | | | | | | Baby's Breath |White |2 to | | May |Rockery | Sun |June, (_Gypsophila | | 3 ft. | | June |Border | | July paniculata_) | | | | | | | Balloon Flower |White |1 to | | May |Border | Sun |July to (_Platycodon_) |Blue | 3 ft. | | June | | | Oct. | | | | | | | Begonia, Hardy |White |1 to | | May |Border | Sun |June to (_Begonia |Pink | 2 ft. | | June | | | Aug. Evansiana_) |Rose | | | | | | | | | | | | | Bellflower |White |1 to | | May |Border | Sun |June, (_Campanula_) |Blue | 3 ft. | | June | | | July | | | | | | | [A]Blanket Flower |Red |3 to | | May |Border | Sun |July to (_Gaillardia | Yellow |5 ft. | | June |Bed | |Oct. aristata_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Bleeding Heart |Pink | 2 ft. | | May |Border |Likes |May, (_Dicentra | | | | June |Bed | half |June spectabilis_) | | | | | | shade| | | | | | | | Boltonia |Lilac |2 to | | May |Border | Sun |Aug. to (_Boltonia | | 6 ft. | | June |Bed | | Oct. latisquama_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Candytuft, Hardy |White |6 to | | May |Border | Sun |April, (_Iberis | | 12 in.| | June |Edging | |May sempervirens_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Chrystmas Rose |White |12 to | | May |Border |Half |Dec. to (_Helleborus | | 15 in.| | June | | Shade|March, niger_) | | | | | | |_outdoors_ | | | | | | | Chrysanthemum, |No |2 to | | May |Border | Sun |Sept. to Hardy |blue | 3 ft. | | June | Bed | | Nov. | | | | | | | Columbine |All |2 to | | May |Rockery | Sun |May to (_Aguilegia_) |shades | 4 ft. | | June |Bed | | Aug. | | | | | | | Coreopsis |Yellow |1 to | | May |Border | Sun |June to (_Coreopsis | | 2 ft. | | June |Bed | | Oct. lanceolata_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Daisy, English |Pink |3 to | | May |Bed | Sun |April to (_Bellis |White | 6 in. | | June | | | June perennis_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Delphinium |Blue |2 to |March | May |Border | Sun |June, (_Delphinium |to | 6 ft. | | June |Bed | |July, Sep. formosum_, |white | | | | | |Oct. Cut _D. Belladonna_,| | | | | | |down after _D. Chinense_) | | | | | | |each | | | | | | |flowering | | | | | | | Flag, see Iris | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [B]Forget-me-not, |Blue |6 to | | May |Border |Shade |May to Perennial | | 18 in.| | June | |or sun| fall (_Myosotis | | | | | | | palustris_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [C]Foxglove |White |3 to | | May |Border | Half |June, (usually |Purple | 5 ft. | | June |Bed | shade|July biennial) |Rose | | | | | | (_Digitalis_) |Yellow | | | | | | | | | | | | | Fraxinella, | | | | | | | see Gas Plant | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Gaillardia, see | | | | | | | Blanket Flower | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Gas Plant |Rose | 2½ ft |Long | May |Border | Sun |June, (_Dictamnus |White | | lived | June |Bed | |July albus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Golden Glow |Yellow | 6 to | | May |Back of | Sun |July to (_Rudbeckia | | 8 ft. | | June | border | | Sept. laciniata_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [B]Hollyhock |All | 4 to | | May |Back of | Sun |July, (_Althæa rosea_)|shades | 6 ft. | | June | border | |August | | | | | or bed | | | | | | | | | Iris |White | 1 to | | May |Border | Sun |May to |Purple | 3 ft. | | June |Bed | | July |Yellow | | | |Clump | | |Maroon | | | | | | | | | | | | | Larkspur, | | | | | | | see Delphinium | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Lupin |White | 2 to | | May |Border |Sun or|May, (_Lupinus_) |Blue | 5 ft. | | June |Bed | half |June |Pink | | | |Clump | shade| |Yellow | | | | | | | | | | | | | Madwort, | | | | | | | see Alyssum | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [A]Mallow, Musk |White | 1 to | | May |Border |Sun or|July to (_Malva|Rose | | 2 ft. | | June | | shade| Sept. moschata_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Michaelmas Daisy, | | | | | | | see Aster | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Monk's-hood |Blue to |3 to |Slow to| May |_Poisonous_|Sun or|July to (_Aconitum |white | 5 ft. | start | June | |shade |Sept. napellus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Moss Pink, see | | | | | | | _Phlox subulata_| | | | | | | | | | | | | | Mullein Pink |White |1 to | | May |Border |Sun |June, (_Lychnis |Red | 3 ft. | | June |Bed | |July coronaria_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Myosotis, see | | | | | | | Forget-me-not | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Myrtle, see | | | | | | | Periwinkle | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Pansy |White |6 to |March | April |Border |Sun or|All (_Viola |Blue | 8 in. | | May |Bed |half |summer, tricolor_) |Yellow | | | | |shade |with |Purple | | | | | |care | | | | | | | Peony |White |3 ft. |Slow | May |Border |Sun or|May, (_Pæonia |Rose | |grower | June |Clumps |half |June officinalis_) |Crimson | | | | |shade | | | | | | | | Periwinkle |Blue |6 to |March | May |Trailing |Shaded|All (_Vinca minor_) |White | 10 in.| | June | vine |bare |summer | | | | | |spots | Phlox, Perennial |No blue |2 to |Slow | May |Border | Sun |Aug., (_Phlox | or | 3 ft. | | June | Bed | |Sept. paniculata_) | yellow | | | | | | (_Phlox |White |2 in. | | May |Carpeting | Sun |April, subulata_) |Pink | | | June |Border | |May |Lavender| | | | | | | | | | | | | Pink, Grass |White |1 ft. | | May |Rockery | Sun |May, (_Dianthus |Vari- | | | June |Border | |June plumaris_) |colored | | | | | | | | | | | | | Platycodon, | | | | | | | see Bellflower | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [A]Poppy, Iceland |White |1 ft. | | April |Border | Sun |June to (_Papaver |Red | | | May |Bed | | Oct. nudicaule_ |Yellow | | | | | | | | | | | | | Poppy, Oriental |Scarlet |3 ft. | | March |Border | Sun |June, (_Papaver |Orange | | | April |Bed | |July orientale_) |to pink | | | | | | | | | | | | | Pyrethrum |White |3 ft. | | May |Border | Sun |June, (_Chrysanthemum |Rose | | | June |Bed | |July coccineum_) |Crimson | | | | | | | | | | | | | [A]Rocket, Sweet |White |2 to | | May |Border | Sun |June to (_Hesperis_) |to | 3 ft. | | June |Clump | | Aug. |purple | | | | | | | | | | | | | Rockmadwort, | | | | | | | see Alyssum | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Rose Campion, | | | | | | | see Mullein Pink| | | | | | | | | | | | | | Rudbeckia, | | | | | | | see Golden Glow | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sage, see Salvia | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Salvia |White |2 to | | May |Border | Sun |May to (perennial) |Blue | 4 ft. | | June |Bed | | Sept. | | | | | | | [F]Snapdragon |No |1 to |March |May 1st |Border | Sun |June to (_Antirrhinum_) |blues | 3 ft. | | |Bed | | Oct. | | | | | | | Sunflower |Yellow |2 to | | May |Back of | Sun |Sept. to (_Helianthus_) | | 8 ft. | | June |border | |Nov. | | | | | | | [E]Sweet William |White |1 ft. | | May |Border | Sun |June to (_Dianthus |Pink | | | June |Bed | | Aug. barbatus_) |Maroon | | | | | | | | | | | | | Tickseed, see | | | | | | | Coreopsis | | | | | | | | | | | | | | [G]Wallflower |Yellows | 1 to | | May |Rock |Part |May (_Cheiranthus | to | 2½ ft.| | June |garden | shade| cheiri_) |browns | | | | or | | | and | | | |border | | |purples | | | | | | | | | | | | | Windflower, |White | 1 to | | May |Clump |Part |April Snowdrop | | 1½ ft.| | June |Border |shade |to (_Anemone | | | | | |or sun|July sylvestris_) | | | | | | | ------------------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-----------+------+---------- FOOTNOTES: [E] Will bloom the first year from seed sown in March. [F] Perennial in the South, but should be grown annually in the North. [G] Really a biennial. CHAPTER VI Flowers that Spring from a Storehouse (Bulbs and Tubers) Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow: they toil not, neither do they spin: and yet I say unto you that even Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these. --_Matthew_ vi, 28, 29. IF you are going to be a really-truly gardener, you will want to know something about the plants and flowers that you try to grow, so let's have a few words right here about the difference between the bulb and tuber families. They can be classed together because they both spring from what is in fact a storehouse filled one season with food to help them through the next season's bloom! Hyacinths and daffodils, for example, come from BULBS, which are built up, layer on layer, exactly like an onion. Dahlias and Cannas, however, grow from a TUBER, which is an underground knob on the stem, quite a little like a sweet potato, and which sends out the shoots that make new plants. The crocus and the gladiolus both spring from a CORM, which differs from the bulb in that it is solid (not in layers), and from the tuber in that it is not like a potato in shape but oval. The iris, though, grows from a RHIZOME, a thickened root running along the ground (often half exposed), which throws up the new plants as it spreads. The bulb and tuber families are treated very much alike. Some of each are left in the ground year after year, like the daffodils and the lilies, while others, like the cannas and dahlias, have to be dug up, allowed to dry a little in the open air, and then stored in a cool, dark place for the winter. The rhizomes do not have to be "lifted," but are increased generally by root division,--cutting off a piece of the root soon after flowering, and planting where it will get a good start before next season's time to bloom. Some people today would follow Mohammed's advice: "He that hath two cakes of bread, let him sell one of them--for bread is only food for the body, but the narcissus is food for the soul;" but few individuals--let alone a nation--would grow so wildly enthusiastic as once did the Dutch, as to spend every last possession to buy tulips! But we dearly love all of these groups, and are using them in increasing numbers every season. The fascinating work of growing certain kinds indoors during the winter I tell you about in the chapter on "The Care of House Plants," so here we will consider the outdoor culture. The delicate snowdrop is the very earliest of these visitors, and planted in groups in half-shady places,--like under trees,--where they will not be disturbed, will thereafter take care of themselves. Then quickly follow the lovely crocuses, white, yellow, lavender, purple, and the varigated, which often are planted right where they fall after being scattered broadcast over the lawn,--though if the head of the house cuts the grass before the middle of April they should be set in a bed where they will not be touched. Hyacinths are beautiful, but personally I do not care much about them in the garden, as they generally have to be planted in masses to get any effect, and need, therefore, to be used in large numbers, are more expensive than the other bulbs, and should be taken out of the ground soon after blooming and stored in a cool place until fall. However, one enthusiast that I know plants in rings of 6, and leaves them in the ground! The daffodil, jonquil and narcissus are three types of the narcissus family, the daffodils usually being distinguished by their long trumpets, while the jonquils and narcissi have the little cup-like centers, and, moreover, are fragrant. They should be planted in the late fall, 4 in. below the surface, in soil that has been enriched 8 in. below the bulb. They increase rapidly, and do not have to be taken up, or even divided for years. If set in a border where their room is needed after they bloom, simply turn the tops down under the soil, and sow over them any low-growing annual, such as candytuft or poppies. My friend of the tiny "handkerchief" garden described in Chapter II, has--think of it!--over 1500 of these various spring-flowering bulbs in her border that are treated this way, and never taken up! Yet a few weeks after they have bloomed, the space they occupied is filled with new beauties. Tulips--but as I told you, they once drove a whole country mad! Today we have probably far more beautiful ones,--and many can be bought in the fall at planting time, for $1.00 per hundred! Some bloom early, some late; some are short, some tall; some are cheap, some expensive. They will grow in partial shade or sun, and can be planted in groups in the border, or in marginal rows for edging. By carefully choosing from both the early and late varieties, you can enjoy your tulips for nearly two months; and by as carefully choosing your colors, have all sorts of artistic combinations. They should be planted 3 or 4 in. deep if the soil is heavy, and an inch deeper in soil that is light, and set 6 in. apart. They will prove a joy to your heart. Tuberous-rooted begonias supply a much-felt want for lovely flowers in half-shady or shady places. If the bulbs are started in the house in sand in February, they will be in full leaf when ready to set out in May, and will bloom from June until frost. Don't, please don't, plant them upside down, but be sure that the rounded part rests on the soil. They require light, rich earth, with plenty of water, given after sundown. Cannas only too often are planted in big, showy beds where they break our rule of "open lawn centers." In fact, they are a little hard to place, but look well in a corner, in beds along a drive, or outlining a boundary. The ground should be spaded 2 ft. deep, well fertilized, and then kept watered. Set plants 2 ft. apart. The iris is one of the most beautiful and most satisfactory of all the hardy plants. It grows in almost any soil, and any situation, but does best in rich ground, with plenty of water. It may be planted either in early spring or after August. The dwarf varieties, from 6 to 18 in. high, bloom during March, April and May; the German iris, standing often 3 ft. high, in May; and the marvelous Japanese kinds, sometimes 4 ft., with blossoms 8 to 10 in. across, closing the season in July! (In heavy soil they are not so tall.) When used alone in beds, one prominent grower suggests that the German iris be combined with hardy asters (set in between), and the Japanese with gladioli, to keep a succession of bloom until late fall. Lilies for the garden are of many varieties, requiring different kinds of treatment. As a general rule, however, when the soil is heavy, set your bulb in a nice little nest of sand, and give a blanket of the same before filling in with the ordinary earth. Lilies-of-the-valley will grow almost anywhere, but do well in a half-shady position. They should be planted in masses, and fertilized in September. When too thick, they can be transplanted in the early spring. They increase rapidly. The gladiolus (accent on the i, please,) can get along in almost any kind of soil,--though it does best in rich,--if only it is planted in the sunshine. The ground should be well dug up and fertilized beforehand and around New York the corms set as early as April. Then, for succession of bloom, plant at least every 10 days up to July 1st. After they are well started, fertilize with (preferably) sheep manure, dug in around the roots, every two weeks. Cultivate often, and keep well watered. Plant gladioli at least 4 in. apart, and 4 in. deep, and tie up for protection to 4-ft. stakes. Lift your bulbs,--corms, I should have said,--late in the fall, let them dry in the air a few days, and then store in a cool, dark place, free from frost. Narcissi are described with the daffodils. Peonies are classed with the Perennials, in Chapter III. Their tuberous roots are best divided and set out in September. They can be left undisturbed for five or six years. Tuberoses can now be procured which will bloom from May until frost. They are easily grown, with no particular care, and take up very little room. Stake for safety from storms. The dahlia next,--saved until the last for all the space I could possibly give it! And so popular is this flower today, that some growers raise nothing else!! One man offers us over 700 _named_ varieties!!! Moreover, a great big club, known as The American Dahlia Society, has been formed by people who are interested in--and wish to help along--the growing of dahlias. And it's no wonder that they are popular, for no other flower can be grown in the garden that will give as many, as large, as vari-colored and as beautiful flowers as the dahlias. Coming in every shade but true blue, and ranging from the tiny button pom-pon to the largest prim show or the formal decorative,--from the unique collarette to the ragged pæony-flowered, the amateur gardener can hardly believe that they really all belong to one family! Of such easy culture, too. Anybody can grow them! Any good, well-drained garden soil will do, but must have manure spaded in 10 in. deep and the tubers must be planted in the sun. The poorer the ground, though, the more fertilizer will you have to use. Heavy soil should be dug up and mixed with ashes to make it light. Plant the tubers _lengthwise_--not up and down!--in a drill at least 6 in. deep, and not less than 2½ ft. apart. For early flowering, put in your bulbs as soon as all danger of frost is past, but do not set near trees or shrubs that would take their nourishment. When they sprout, pull up all shoots but one or two, in order to produce the finest flowers. Keep the ground well cultivated, but do not water until after the buds have formed, otherwise you will have principally stalks and leaves. But once the buds do show, water frequently in order to enrich the color, and dig in fertilizer around the roots several times during the flowering season, to produce fine, big blossoms. [Illustration: TAKING CARE OF TABLE FERNS] Tie each plant to a 5-ft. stake, to protect from the wind, but in driving be careful not to pierce--and ruin--your tuber. Nip off all the buds that are imperfect or weak, and cut your flowers with their attendant buds and foliage. They will look better, and no further disbudding of the plants will be necessary. And the more you cut, the better your dahlias will bloom! Soon after frost has killed the leaves, carefully dig up the tubers with a spading fork. You will be surprised to find often half-a-dozen where you set but one! Allow them to dry in the air for a day or two, then put away in a cool, dark cellar, with a bag or paper thrown over them, and leave for the winter. In the spring when ready to plant again, cut each tuber so it will have a little bit of the heart of the clump on its end, as it is close to this that the new shoots start. Growing dahlias from seed is a most fascinating pastime, for there is no telling what you may get! The child is rarely, if ever, like its mother,--and this is the only way that we get the new varieties. YOU might happen to grow one of the finest yet! The seed is started early indoors, and very easily grown. Certainly it is worth trying. CHAPTER VII That Queen--The Rose Gather ye rosebuds while ye may, Old Time is still a-flying, And this same flower that smiles today Tomorrow will be dying. --_Herrick._ EVERY one longs for roses, the most highly prized of all the flowers; and roses today can be grown almost anywhere. Rose growers have finally succeeded in budding the tender tea rose on to the hardy briar and also on to the more recent Manetti stock, and in crossing the teas with the hybrid perpetuals,--developed from the old June favorites. The result is ideal roses, that are hardy and bloom all season, with the desired lovely coloring and fragrance. Many of the so-called June roses also have been coaxed to bloom all season, while all those that I draw to your attention are among the loveliest and most easily grown. With even three or four, well taken care of, you should be able,--as far north as New York,--to cut a bud any time you wish from May to November. These hybrid teas and hybrid perpetuals are the most satisfactory for growing in this climate. Field-grown stock, in dormant condition, is brought here from Holland every spring early in March, and good plants can be bought as low as fifteen or twenty cents apiece. The weather is usually fit for them to be set out by the 25th of March, and they will produce more and better roses than the costlier potted plants procurable later. The American grown roses, however, are really the best, as they are adapted to our soil and climatic conditions, and produce both more and better flowers. Of these potted plants, though, just a word. The Richmond, a deep, rich red, and the single white Killarney, I have found exceptionally good, free bloomers; and with little winter covering they should, on account of a season's rest, be better the second year. The 6-inch or "bench plants," as they are termed, sell for only 25 cents each. These can be set out from April on all summer. As soon as a rose bush comes into your hand, whether from a dealer or a friend, get it into the ground as quickly as possible. If its permanent home is not ready, dig a little trench and cover it entirely with the moist earth for a few days. But never, oh, never! allow the roots to dry out. While a few specimen roses may be set out anywhere (as long as they do not cut up the lawn and so violate the landscape rule, "Preserve open lawn centers"), a number of rose bushes are usually preferred set together in a bed, from 3 to 4 ft. wide. MAKING A ROSE BED Have your rose bed with a south or east exposure if possible, as many roses so planted will not "winter kill," and others need but little protection. Dig a trench about 2½ ft. deep, and put in the bottom a layer of cow manure, as this will be lasting. Over this put a layer of good top soil for the plants to rest on, so that they do not directly touch the fertilizer. Then hold your rose with your left hand while you straighten out the roots, and sprinkle enough fine soil to hold it in position while you set the next bush. Be sure that your budding point is 3 inches below the level of the ground,--and Baily says even 4! When all are in place, fill the trench half full of soil, and then nearly to the top with water. After this has sunk in, add the rest of your rich top soil, and pack down hard with your foot, so as to shut out the air from the roots, leaving the packed earth at least an inch below the surrounding surface to catch and hold the moisture. Potted roses, however, should be sunk with as little disturbance to the roots as possible. Then over the smoothly raked surface of the bed spread leaves, litter or grass clippings, to keep the sun from drying out the earth. Some gardeners for this purpose cover the bed with pansies, English daisies, and similar low flowers, though many like better to see nicely cultivated soil. To have splendid roses, however, you must supply plenty of food and drink! When the buds start, dig in around the roots every two weeks, two tablespoonfuls of bonemeal, and wet thoroughly. Manure from the chicken house is especially good as the chickens are meat eaters, and it is, therefore, better adapted to the needs of the roses and easily absorbed by the rootlets. But use carefully--not more than a small trowelful at a time, and that well mixed with the soil. One of the very best foods is cheaply made as follows: ROSE FERTILIZER 10 lbs. sheep manure, 5 lbs. bonemeal, 1 lb. Scotch soot. Mix well. Give a level trowelful to roots of each rosebush every two weeks, after buds start, and wet down thoroughly. Being hearty feeders, roses need a rich, light soil, and they do best in an open, sunny spot, away from the roots of trees and shrubs that would steal their food. And while they do not thrive in low, damp ground, neither do they stand being set "high and dry." Too damp beds should be drained with a first layer of small stones or gravel. Cultivate your roses every week or ten days, and keep the ground covered with grass clippings unless it is protected from the sun by the shade of other plants. Cut off close to the parent stem any wild shoots or "suckers,"--generally recognizable by their briary stems,--as they will cause the budded part to die. FALL PROTECTION Late in the fall mound up the earth well around the roots of all your roses, and give them a good covering of coarse manure or leaves. The more tender kinds can be laid over and protected with litter or boughs. SPRING PRUNING Then early in the spring, before the first of April, cut back the hardy roses, keeping only the strong canes, which, however, should be shortened to about 10 inches. The middle of April prune the more tender varieties. But remove from both all shoots growing in toward the center, and cut all weak plants back to the third or fourth eye, to promote stronger growth and larger flowers. Climbing roses need only the weak branches and tips removed. Date new climbing canes with wired wooden tags each spring, and cut out all over three years old. This renews the stock, restrains ambitious climbing, and produces better flowers. SPRAYING About this time a spraying first of Bordeaux mixture to prevent disease, and a little later a spraying of whale-oil soapsuds as warning to the great army of bugs, slugs, etc., will give your roses a good start toward a successful season of bloom. Watch for that robber, the rose bug! Talk about salt on a bird's tail! The surest way to end His Majesty is to take a stick and knock him into a cup of kerosene. Slow process? Yes, but sure. The leaf-roller, too, is most effectively disposed of by physical force,--pressure of thumb and forefinger. Clear, cold water, twice a day through a hose, comes with force enough to wash off many of the rose's foes; but if they get a start, fall back on strong soapsuds, pulverized tobacco, or some other popular remedy. The Garden Club of Philadelphia is said to recommend the following: EFFECTIVE SPRAY FOR ROSE BUGS 3 pts. sweet milk. 3 pts. kerosene. 1 qt. water. Shake well in a jug, then put one-half pint of the fluid to one gallon of water. Stir well and both spray the bushes thoroughly and wet the ground around the roots. Repeat every ten days from May 1st to June 15th, by which time the pests seem to get discouraged and give up the fight! And the reward for all this care and attention? "A devoted cottager," says Neltje Blanchan, "may easily have more beautiful roses than the indifferent millionaire." The following lists comprise a few of the best of the different classes mentioned. I wish you success in your choice. ROSES A FEW OF THE BEST OF EACH KIND =Teas.= (Tenderest of roses, needing winter protection. Noted for delicate shades and fragrance.) Maman Cochet, free bloomer, hardiest of the teas; rose-pink. Marie Van Houtte, also a free bloomer and quite hardy; canary yellow. Souvenir de Catherine Guillot, a rose of excellence; copper-carmine. White Maman Cochet, a strong grower, like the pink; white. =Hybrid Teas.= (Best for the garden, as they combine the best qualities of the teas and the hybrid perpetuals,--color, hardiness, and steady bloom.) Caroline Testout, one of the most popular, slightly fragrant; rose pink. Etoile de France, continuous bloomer and fragrant; crimson. Gruss an Teplitz, the best dark rose, and fragrant; velvety crimson. Kaiserin Augusta Victoria, blooms of lovely shape, on long stems; pearly white. Killarney, very popular and one of the best of its color; lovely pink. Killarney, a "sport," same as the pink; white. La France, especially good form, fragrant; bluish-pink. Mrs. Aaron Ward, a vigorous plant, of compact growth, very popular; pinkish-yellow. Richmond, a steady bloomer all summer, with a beautiful bud; rich deep red. =Hybrid Perpetuals.= (Commonly known as June roses, and hardy. The following will bloom most of the summer.) Anna de Diesbach (_Gloire de Paris_), splendid in the garden and fragrant; rich carmine. American Beauty, successful in most localities; rose-carmine. Frau Karl Druschki, very large and fragrant; snowy white. General Jacqueminot, a favorite that does well everywhere; crimson. Louis van Houtte, very desirable and fragrant; deep red. Mrs. John Laing, late blooming and hardy, fragrant; lovely pink. Mrs. R. G. Sharman-Crawford, a splendid bloomer; rose-pink. Ulrich Brunner, large, fragrant, with well-formed flowers; cherry red. =Moss.= (Loved for the beautiful fragrant buds with their mossy covering.) Blanche Moreau, flowers in clusters; white. Countess de Murinais, one of the best; white. Crested Moss, finely crested; rose pink. Henry Martin, very vigorous; crimson. Luxembourg, exceptionally good; crimson. =Climbing and Rambler.= (Used over walls, fences, pillars, arbors and trellises.) Baby ramblers, 18 in. to 24 in. high, are good for hedges, beds, or carpeting, and can be bought in white, pink, salmon pink, red and yellow. Climbing American Beauty, well worth growing; rose-pink. Dorothy Perkins, a profuse bloomer and rapid grower; shell-pink. Crimson Rambler, first of the ramblers, but disliked by many gardeners today; crimson. Dr. Van Fleet, one of the best, resisting mildew and insects,--a gem; flesh-pink. Excelsa, an improvement on the formerly popular crimson rambler; crimson. Hiawatha, most brilliant of all, between 40 and 50 roses to the spray; carmine. Tausendschoen, roses 3 in. across, graceful in form, and 10 or 15 to the truss; pink. White Dorothy, like satisfactory Dorothy Perkins, except for color; white. Yellow Rambler, new variety called "Aviator Bleriot," the first hardy yellow; yellow. =Briar, Austrian and Hybrids.= (Loved by our grandmothers, and some known here in this country as far back as 1596. They must not be crowded.) Austrian Copper, beautiful single reddish-copper and one of the oldest; copper. Austrian Yellow, lovely single flowers (introduced late in 1500); deep yellow. English Sweet Briar, or Eglantine, loved for its fragrance, also single; pink. Anne of Gerstein, very graceful; dark crimson. Brenda, very dainty; peach. Refulgence, fragrant foliage,--deepens in color on developing; scarlet to crimson. AMERICAN GROWN ROSES The American grown rose, however, I find is considered by many people to be by far the best. While its slender brown stems are not as attractive to the ignorant gardener as the thick, green of the imported, it is much more adapted to our soil and climatic conditions. It is cheaper, too, and splendid varieties, in 2½-in. and 3-in. pots, can be bought as low as $5.00 or $6.00 a hundred from expert growers, by the person willing to start a rose garden and then wait a year for really fine results. In lots of fifteen, however, many of these fine varieties of one-year-old plants can be bought for $1.00, with the growers' guarantee that "they will bloom the first and each succeeding year, from early spring until severe frost." The plants are small, of course, but who could ask for more at that price! The (probably) best informed man in the Eastern United States recommends the following list of Teas and Hybrid Teas,--and it has been adopted by a number of firms as suggestions for planting. Don't go looking for these plants at the 5- and 10-cent stores, for they never carry such specialties. They are cheap, though, and well known throughout this section, but they should be procured from people WHO MAKE A BUSINESS OF GROWING ROSES! A SPECIALIST'S LIST OF TEAS AND HYBRID TEAS White Grossherzogin Alexandra Kaiserin Augusta Victoria Marie Guillot White Bougere Yellow Blumenschmidt Etoile de Lyon Lady Hillingdon Sunburst Light Pink Col. R. S. Williamson Helen Good Mrs. Foley Hobbs Souvenir du President Carnot Wm. R. Smith Yvonne Vacherot Dark Pink Aurora F. R. Patger Jonkheer J. L. Mock Lady Alice Stanley Maman Cochet Mme. Jules Grolez Mrs. George Shawyer Radiance Red Crimson Queen Etoile de France Mme. Eugene Marlitt General McArthur Helen Gould Laurent Carle Rhea Reid CHAPTER VIII Vines, Tender and Hardy They shall sit every man under his vine and under his figtree. --_Micah_ iv, 4. EVERYBODY likes a pretty vine, and there is sure to be some place where you will want to plant at least one. Where? Why, at one corner of the porch where you like to play; round the pillar at the front door, where you read, or by the window where you sit to sew; in the backyard to cover the clothespoles, hide the chicken fence, or screen some old, ugly building. The common annual vines you probably know pretty well,--the climbing nasturtium, morning glory, moonflower, cypress vine, scarlet runner, hyacinth bean, wild cucumber, gourds and hops. They are treated very much alike, grow with little care if they only have something to climb on, and spread rapidly. The hardy vines are not so easily disposed of. For instance, the clematis (with accent on the _clem_,) numbers throughout the world about one hundred and fifty species,--generally climbers,--in white, blue, purple, red and yellow, and ranges from the 2-ft. shrubby kind to the 25-ft. vine. While our common mountain clematis (Montana grandiflora) flowers as early as April, the Jackmani in mid-summer, and the Paniculata often as late as September, the Henryi is seen even in November. And while some can be grown from seed, the rest have to be propagated by cutting or grafting. WARNING Right here let me again urge you to make sure of the particular kind of flower, plant or vine that you get, so that you will know how to treat it, and not count on flowers in June from a variety that blossoms in September, or expect purple posies from the white sort. The gentleman printing this book will not let me take space enough to go into details about every thing I mention (he says paper is too dear!) so the only way out of the difficulty is for me to make the lists include all the colors, all the heights, all the months of bloom, and then impress on YOU the necessity of ascertaining the particular kind you want to grow. BOOKS THAT WILL HELP As the people you would ask might make a mistake about these things, get in the habit of looking them up for yourself. Go to the Public Library and just see the fascinating books that have been written about plants and flowers,--many for children and in the form of stories. For real facts, though, given in few words and easily found from a complete index in the back, ask for "The American Flower Garden," by Neltje Blanchan, or "The Garden Month by Month," by Mabel Cabot Sedgwick. This latter gives a little description of all the _hardy_ plants and flowers, and is filled with beautiful pictures. And some of the big seed dealers and nurserymen get out fine catalogues that are really garden books in themselves, chock full of information accompanied by colored illustrations, which can be had for the asking! VINES THAT MUST BE RENEWED EVERY YEAR THE ANNUAL CLIMBERS =============================================================================== NAME | COLOR |HEIGHT| SOW | SOW | GOOD FOR |PLACE|BLOOMING | | |INDOORS|OUTDOORS| | | SEASON -----------------+--------+------+-------+--------+-------------+-----+-------- Balloon Vine |White |10 to | |May 1st | Rapid | Sun | (_Cardiospermum|Seeds in|15 ft.| |6 in. | growing | | halicacabum_) |tiny | | |apart | | | |balloons| | | | | | | | | | | | | Balsam Apple |Has |10 ft.| |May | Trellis or | Sun | (_Momordica_) |curious | | |6 in. | rock-work | | |fruit | | |apart | | | | | | | | | | Cardinal Climber |Cardinal|15 to | March |May | Rapid | Sun |June (new) (_Ipomoea| |20 ft.| | | growing | | quamoclit | | | | | | | hybrid_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Cypress Vine | Red |10 to | March |May | Dense mass | Sun |June (_Ipomoea | White |20 ft.| April | | | | quamoclit_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Fire Bean, | | | | | | | see Scarlet | | | | | | | Runner | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Gourds, | Odd |15 to | |May |Over arbor or| Sun | Ornamental | shapes |30 ft.| | |summer-house | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Hop, Japanese | Green |20 to | |May |Rapid growing| Sun | (annual) | |30 ft.| | | Arbors and | | (_Humulus_) | | | | | screens | | | | | | | | | Hyacinth Bean | Purple |10 to | |May | Arbors and | Sun |July (_Dolichos_) | White |20 ft.| | | trellises | | | | | | | | | Moon Flower | White |15 to |Feb. or|May | Rapid | Sun |July (_Ipomoea | |30 ft.|March | | growing | |to frost bona-nox_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Morning Glory | White |10 to | |May | Rapid | Sun |July, (_Ipomoea | Pink |20 ft.| | | growing | |Aug. purpurea_) | Purple | | | | | | | Blue | | | | | | | | | | | | | Nasturtium, Tall | Yellows|6 to | |May | Screens and | Sun |July (_Tropæolum | to reds|12 ft.| | | trellises | |to Oct. majus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Scarlet Runner |Scarlet |10 to | |April | Screens | Sun |July (_Phaseolus | |12 ft.| |May | | |to frost multiflorus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Sweet Pea |All |3 to | |March | Train on | Sun |July (_Lathyrus | colors |6 ft. | | | brush o | |to Sept. odoratus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Wild Cucumber | White |12 to | |May 1st | Screens or | Sun |July, (_Echinocystis_)| |15 ft.| | | coverings | |Aug. -----------------+--------+------+-------+--------+-------------+-----+-------- VINES THAT LIVE ON FROM YEAR TO YEAR THE HARDY CLIMBERS NOTE.--Different varieties of same kind will bloom at different times. ==================+=========+=======+========+========+============+========== | | | START | | | BLOOMING NAME | COLOR |HEIGHT |OUTDOORS|GOOD FOR| PLACE | SEASON ------------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+------------+---------- Akabia | Violet- | | |Light | | May, June (_Akabia | brown | | | screen | | quinata_) | | | | | | | | | | | | Bittersweet | Yellow |20 ft. |In the |Sun or | |Bright (_Celastrus | | | fall |shade | |seeds scandens_) | | | | | |for winter | | | | | | Cinnamon Vine | White |15 to |Plant |Rapid | Sun |July, Aug. (_Dioscorea_) | |30 ft. |roots in|growth | | | | |early | | | | | |spring | | | | | | | | | Clematis | White |5 to |Start in|Rapid |Stands part |Different (numerous | Red |25 ft. |early |growth | shade |kinds at varieties) | Purple | |spring | | |different | | | | | |times. | | | | | |June | | | | | |to frost | | | | | | Creeping Spindle |Evergreen|Varies |Procure |Wall | | (_Euonymus | trailer |in |roots |covering| | radicans_) | |height | |like Ivy| | | | | | | | Dutchman's Pipe |Brownish-|Grows | May |Dense | Anywhere | (_Aristolochia_)| yellow |to 30 | |shade | | | | ft. | | | | | | | | | | Honeysuckle, | Yellow- |15 ft. |Procure |Trellis | |June to Japanese | white | | plants |Fence | |Aug. (_Lonicera | | | |Walls | | Halliana_) | | | | | | | | | | | | Hop, Perennial | Green |15 to |Procure |Trellis | Sun | (_Humulus | |20 ft. | roots | | | lupulus_) | | | | | | | | | | | | Ivy, Boston or | |Spreads|Procure |Covers | Sun or | Japan | |rapidly|plants |walls | shade | (_Ampelopsis or | | | |or trees| | Veitchii_) | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Ivy, English |Evergreen| |Procure |Wall |Shade-loving| (_Hedera | | |plants |covering| | helix_) | | | | | | | | | | | | Kudzu Vine, |Rosy- |10 ft. |Early |Thick | Sun |August Japanese |purple |First |spring |screen | | (_Pueraria | |year | | | | Thunbergiana_) | |from | | | | | |seed | | | | | | | | | | Matrimony Vine |Purplish |Shrubby|Procure |Ornament| Sun |Late (_Lycium | | | roots |and use | |summer barbaum_) | | | | | | | | | | | | Pea, Everlasting | Red |6 to 8 |Plant |Trellis | Sun |August (_Lathyrus | White | ft. |tuber or|or rough| | latifolius_) | | |seed |places | | ------------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+------------+--------- CHAPTER IX Shrubs We Love to See "Every yard should be a picture. The observer should catch the entire effect and purpose, without analyzing its parts." --_Bailey._ OF course you want to know something about shrubs. For what? Possibly just to make a tiny hedge around your garden, or a taller one to shut out the view of some neighbor's untidy backyard. More likely for a lovely specimen plant for your own grounds. In that case, don't, oh, don't! set it out in the middle of the lawn! And two or three thus dotted around (in "spotty planting," so called) are the acme of bad taste, and violate the fundamental principles of landscape gardening. [Illustration: CLEANING UP AROUND THE SHRUBS] Our grandmothers all loved the tall syringa, honeysuckle, snowball, strawberry shrub, weigela, rose of Sharon and lilac, while they hedged both their yards and gardens with box, privet and evergreens. Today we use a good deal of the Japanese barberry, while Uncle Sam's recent free distribution has widely introduced that pretty little annual bush-like plant--the kochia, or summer cypress, good for low hedges. But there is that publisher cutting off my space again! So I can just add a word about the lovely new summer lilac or buddleia. A tiny plant of this, costing only 25 cents, grows into a nice four-foot bush the first summer, and blooms until late in the season. Most of these shrubs can be easily grown from cuttings, however, so just ask your friends to remember you when they do their pruning. SHRUBS ================+==========+===========+===============+================ NAME | COLOR | HEIGHT | GROWN FROM |BLOOMING SEASON ----------------+----------+-----------+---------------+---------------- Althea, see | | | | Rose of Sharon| | | | | | | | Azalea |No blues |1 to 6 ft. | |Spring, early | | | |summer | | | | Barberry, Japan | Red | 4 ft. | Seed |Red berries all (_Berberis | berries | | |winter Thunbergii_) | | | | | | | | Boxwood | Green |4 to 20 ft.| | (_Buxus | | | | sempervirens_)| | | | | | | | Bridal Wreath, | | | | see Spirea | | | | (_Thunbergii_)| | | | | | | | Buddleia | Lavender |3 to 6 ft. | Cuttings |July to frost | | | | Currant, | Yellow | 4 ft. | |May Flowering | | | | (_Ribes | | | | aureum_) | | | | | | | | Deutzia | White, |3 to 12 ft.| Cuttings |May, June | Pink | | | | | | | Forsythia |Yellow |6 to 10 ft.|Cuttings or |Earliest spring | | |seed | | | | | Golden Bell, | | | | see Forsythia | | | | | | | | Honeysuckle |White, |6 to 12 ft.|Cuttings or | March to June (numerous |Yellow | |seed | varieties) |Pink, Red | | | (_Lonicera_) | | | | | | | | Hydrangea | White |8 to 12 ft.| Cuttings |July to November (_Paniculata | | generally | | grandiflora_) | | | | | | | | Japanese Quince | Scarlet | 8 ft. | | May (_Cydonia | | | | japonica_) | | | | | | | | Kochia (small | | 3 ft. | Seed |Bush reddens in annual bush) | | | |fall | | | | Lilac (_Syringa |Lavender, | 5 to | |May, June vulgaris_) | White | 20 ft. | | | | | | Mock Orange | White | 10 ft. | |May, June (_Philadelphus| | | | coronarius_) | | | | | | | | Privet | Green | 15 ft. | Cuttings | (_Ligustrum | | unless | | ovalifolium_) | |sheared | | | | | | Rose of Sharon | White, | Up to | |August to (_Hibiscus | Pink to | 18 ft. | |October Syriacus_) | Purple | | | | | | | Snowball, | White | 8 to | Cuttings |May, June Japanese | | 10 ft. | | (_Viburnum | | | | tomentosum_) | | | | | | | | Spirea | White | 2 to | |May (_Thunbergii_)| | 4 ft. | | | | | | Spirea (numerous| White, | 4 to | |Different months other |Pink, Rose| 6 ft. | |from May to varieties) | | | |September | | | | Strawberry Shrub|Chocolate-| 6 to | By division |May | colored | 10 ft. | | Syringa, | | | | see Mock | | | | Orange | | | | | | | | Viburnum, | | | | see Snowball | | | | | | | | Weigela |White, | 6 ft. | |June (_Diervilla |Pink, Red | | | florida_) | | | | ----------------+----------+-----------+---------------+---------------- CHAPTER X Vegetable Growing for the Home Table The life of the husbandman,--a life fed by the bounty of earth, and sweetened by the airs of heaven. --_Jerrold._ IT is predicted that this year,--1917,--will be the greatest year for gardening that the country ever has known! The high cost of living first stimulated interest. Then after war was declared, the slogan, "Food as important as men or munitions," stirred young and old. Garden clubs sprang up everywhere, and in free lectures people were instructed how to prepare, plant and cultivate whatever ground they could get, from small backyards to vacant lots. In our neighborhood last year a man with a plot of ground less than half the size of a tennis court, grew $50.00 worth of vegetables,--enough to supply his whole family! He got his planting down to a science, however,--what he called "intensive gardening," so that every foot of the soil was kept busy the whole summer. He fertilized but once, too, at the beginning of the season, when he had a quantity of manure thoroughly worked in. Then between slow growing crops, planted in rows as closely as possible, he planted the quick-growing things, which would be out of the way before their space was needed. Incidentally he worked out a chart (which he afterwards put on the market), ruled one way for the months, and the other for the number of feet, with name cards for the vegetables that could be fitted in so as to visualize--and make a record of the entire garden the entire season. Such a plan means a great saving of both time and space. Garden soil must be warm, light and rich. It must be well spaded to begin with, well fertilized, well raked over, and kept well cultivated. Vegetables require plenty of moisture, and during dry weather especially must be thoroughly watered. As I have said before, simply wetting the surface of the ground is almost useless, and often, by causing the ground then to cake over the top as it dries, worse than none at all, if the soil were cultivated instead. Pests must be watched for on all the crops, and treated according to the special needs of each variety when whale-oil, soapsuds, tobacco dust or insect powder seem ineffective. Then with weeding, and reasonable care, you can safely expect to keep your table supplied with that greatest of all luxuries,--your own green vegetables, fresh from the soil. VEGETABLE GUIDE _Beans. Bush_ Plant from early May on, every two weeks, for succession of crops. Drop beans 3 in. apart, in 2-in. deep drills, allowing 2 ft. between rows. Hoe often, drawing the earth up towards the roots. Be sure that the ground is warm and dry before planting, however, or the beans will rot. _Beans. Pole_ Set stakes 5 to 8 feet high, in rows 3 ft. apart each way; or plant in drills to grow on a trellis. Put four or five beans around each stake, and when well started, thin out the poorest, leaving but three at each pole. A cheap trellis is made by stretching two wires (one near the ground and the other six feet above), and connecting them with stout twine for the vines to run on. _Beans. Lima_ As these are more tender, they should be planted a couple of weeks later than other beans. They need especially good, rich soil, with plenty of humus or the fine soft earth that is full of decayed vegetable matter. Allow each plant 6 in. in the row, and make rows 2 ft. apart. Give a good dose of fertilizer about the time they start, and keep well cultivated. Beans are among the easiest of all vegetables to grow, and as they can be dried for winter use, are especially valuable. _Beets._ Any well-tilled, good garden soil will produce nice beets. Make drills or rows 18 in. apart, and plant the seed about 1 in. deep if earth is light and sandy, but only half an inch if heavy and sticky, as early as the ground can be put in condition. Cultivate often, and thin out the plants to about 3 in. apart. Sow at intervals of two or three weeks for successive crops up to the middle of July. An extra early lot can be had by starting seed in the house in boxes in February or March, and then setting the young plants out at time of first outdoor planting. _Cabbage._ For early crop, start seed indoors in February or March and transplant, when four leaves appear, to another seed box until you can plant in open ground in May. For later crop sow seeds in rows in open ground during April and May, and transplant during July and August, to 20 in. apart, in rows 3 ft. apart. Cultivate often, to keep moisture in the soil. Prepare to fight pests, early and late. After the seventy or more remedies suggested by one authority, for maggots alone, the amateur might feel like abandoning cabbage, but at the price this moment of $160.00 a ton, wholesale, in New York City, a person with even a handkerchief bed feels like attempting this luxury. _Carrots._ Hardy and easily grown, they can be sown in rows that are 12 in. apart, and thinned out to 3 in. apart in the row. They can be started as early as April, and sown for succession up to the middle of July. Cultivate often. _Cauliflower._ Treat like cabbage, except that you must start as early as possible, to get ahead of the hot weather, and give the plants plenty of water. When the heads are well-formed and firm, bring the outside leaves up and tie together, to shut out the sun and keep the heads white and tender. And don't forget,--plenty of water! _Celery._ Seed for an early crop can be started in February, in a shallow box in a sunny window, then transplanted to another box, pinching off the tall leaves. In May or June dig a shallow trench in good rich soil, and set plants, 6 in. apart at bottom. Fill up the trench as the plants grow, to within a few inches of the tip leaves, in order to bleach out white. Set up boards against the rows to exclude light, or cover in the easiest way. For winter keeping, take up plants with roots and place on damp soil in boxes in a cool, dark cellar. _Chicory Witloof--or French Endive._ Often seventy-five cents a pound in the market, but easily grown by the amateur. Seed is sold under name of Witloof chicory, and should be sown in open ground, during May or June, in rows a foot apart. Allow to grow until November, cultivating and keeping moist. Then dig up roots,--long, thick tubers,--trim down tops to within 1½ in., and cut off bottom of root so that whole plant will be less than a foot long. Place upright in separate pots or a long box in a cool cellar, fill up to within a couple of inches from tops of roots, and cover each top with an inverted pot or box, to exclude the light. Make thoroughly damp and never allow to dry out. In about four weeks the new tops can be cut for the table, and by covering and keeping wet, often three or four successive crops can be secured. A friend of mine keeps two families supplied most of the winter, at little cost or trouble. A delicious salad. _Corn. Sweet_ Plant early and then every two weeks for succession, in good rich soil, dropping the seed 10 in. apart in rows 3 ft. apart (for hand cultivation). Start early in May, and hoe often. Golden Bantam, Evergreen and Country Gentleman are especial favorites. _Cucumbers._ Plant as soon as weather is settled, and warm, (early in May around New York,) in hills at least 4 ft. each way. Give good rich soil, and keep moist. Leave only two or three plants to a hill, and do not allow cucumbers to ripen on vines. Plant for succession. The Japanese climbing variety runs up a pole or trellis, is free from blight, and produces especially fine, big cucumbers. _Endive._ See Chicory _Lettuce._ Can be started in boxes indoors, in March. Make sowing in the open ground from April to November, if you protect the first and last. Put in nice, rich soil, in warm spot, and transplant when big enough to handle, into rows, setting 5 in. apart. Don't forget to weed! _Melons._ Muskmelons are most easily grown, but both the weather and the ground must be warm. Give them a light, rich soil,--which, if you haven't, you must make by mixing the heavy soil with old manure. Make hills 6 ft. apart, putting a few shovelfuls of fertilizer in each, and planting about a dozen seeds to a hill. After well started, and when most of the pests have had their fill and disappeared, thin out so as to leave only four or five of the strongest vines to each hill. Spray repeatedly with some good mixture. _Watermelons._ These take up so much room that not many people try to grow them. The culture, however, is about the same as for muskmelons, only make hills 8 to 10 ft. apart. [Illustration: ALL READY TO HOE] _Onions._ Plant seed in fine, rich, well-prepared soil, as early as possible, in shallow drills, 12 in. apart. Firm down with the back of your spade, and when well started, thin out to 3 in. apart in the rows. Hoe often without covering the bulbs, and water freely. _Parsley._ This requires a rich, mellow soil. Sow early in April, in rows 1 ft. apart, after soaking the seed a few hours in warm water to make it come up more quickly. Plant seed ½ in. deep, and thin out the little plants to 5 in. apart in the drills. _Parsnips._ Sow as early as you can in well-prepared ground, ½ in. deep, in rows 1 ft. apart. When well started, thin out to 6 in. apart in the row. Parsnips are improved by being left in the ground over winter, for spring use. _Peas._ The early smooth varieties are the first seeds to put into the garden, though the wrinkled are a better quality. Dig furrows 2 in. deep in earliest spring, but when weather is warm, 4 in. deep; and 3 ft. apart. Select the kind of peas desired, scatter in the rows, and cover with a hoe. They need good soil, plenty of cultivation, and the tall sorts should be given brush for support. Sow several times for succession. Early crop may be hurried by first soaking the seed. _Potatoes._ Selling as they are today (February, 1917), for 10 cents a pound, one is strongly tempted to turn the flower garden into a potato patch! The early varieties need especially rich soil. Drop a couple of pieces about every foot, in 3 to 4 in. deep drills that are 3 ft. apart. Cultivate often, and fight the vast army of potato bugs with Paris green, or Bordeaux mixture. _Radishes._ A light, rich, sandy soil will grow the early kinds in from four to six weeks. Sow in drills a foot apart (scatteringly, so as not to require thinning,) every two weeks, keep free from weeds, and water in dry weather. Start outdoors in early April. _Spinach._ Sow in early spring in drills made 3/4 in. deep, and 1 ft. apart, as early as the ground can be worked. Thereafter, every two weeks for succession. Good rich soil is necessary. _Squash._ Be sure of rich, warm soil. Plant in well-fertilized hills, like melons or cucumbers, at least 4 or 5 ft. apart. Sow eight to ten seeds to a hill, and after the insects have had their feast, keep only three or four of the vines that are strongest. To repress the ardor of the squash vine borer, scatter a handful of tobacco dust around each plant. _Tomatoes._ Most easily started by getting the young plants grown under glass, and setting out in the open ground in May. Put 4 ft. apart, in rich, mellow soil, and water freely. Seed can be started, however, in the house, in March, then the seedlings transplanted into old berry-boxes or flowerpots, and allowed to grow slowly until about May 15th (around New York), when they can be set in the open ground. Plants are attractive when tied to stakes or a trellis, and produce earlier, better and higher grade tomatoes, without the musty taste of those that are allowed to sprawl over the ground. _Turnips._ Sow early in the open ground, in drills 15 in. apart, and thin out to 6 in. apart in the row. Up to June, sow every two weeks for succession. CHAPTER XI Your Garden's Friends and Foes A cow is a very good animal in the field; but we turn her out of a garden. --_Johnson._ YOUR garden's friends and foes,--have you ever thought about them as such? You go to a lot of trouble to raise fine flowers and vegetables, and then, if you are not on the lookout, before you know it something has happened! Your rose leaves are discovered full of holes, and your potato vines almost destroyed; your tomato plants are being eaten up by the big, ugly "tomato worm," while your choicest flowers are dying from the inroads of green or brown insects so tiny that at first you do not notice them; and strong plants of all kinds are found cut off close to the ground. What further proof do you need that your beloved garden has its enemies? Here indeed "Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty." If you would be free and escape such ravages, you can not wait until your foes are full-fledged and hard at work, because usually considerable damage has then been done. Instead, you should learn at the time you begin gardening all about the many difficulties you have to contend with, including the various things that prey upon your plants. When you plant seed, for instance, and it fails to come up, you are apt to blame either the dealer or the weather man. Just as likely as not, though, some insect had attacked the seed before it was planted, or else the grubs got busy and enjoyed a full meal. These pests, with their various relations, are the most difficult of all to control, but poisoned bait (freshly cut clover that has been sprayed with Paris green,) scattered on the ground where cut worms come out at night to feed, will destroy many of them. When your plants have begun to grow, however, and you find them being nipped off close to the ground, dig close to the stem and you will probably bring to light a cut worm curled up in his favorite position, and you can end him then and there from doing further damage. The wire worm, on the contrary, works entirely below the surface, and when you spade up a long, slender, jointed, brownish, wriggling worm, quite hard, you will know that he is one of the kind to be immediately destroyed. These grubs and worms are the different kind of caterpillars,--the children,--of several varieties of moths that fly by night, the shining brown beetle that bumps against the ceiling on a summer evening, and the funny "snap-bug." Crawling or flying, young or old, parent or child, they generally do their worst after dark. Equal parts of soot and lime, well mixed, scattered in a four-inch ring around each stem on the top of the soil, will keep away the things that crawl, while white hellebore (a poison that must not get on little fingers,) dusted on the plants will keep off most of the things that fly. Rose bugs, however, seem to come in a class by themselves! Apparently, they don't mind any of the well-known deterrents and about the only way to really get rid of them is to "go bugging," which means knocking them off into a cup of kerosene or a box where they can be killed. Caterpillars, naked or hairy, eat vegetation, and are consequently most unwelcome visitors. The sowbug or pill-bug, while disagreeable to look at, is not quite so injurious as often thought, but the mite called the red spider can do a lot of damage. Most of the beetles seriously injure the vegetables. The saw-flies with their offspring, and certain kinds of ants (especially the "soldier ants") are as troublesome as the caterpillars, while the next family group, the grasshoppers, locusts, katydids and crickets are all great feeders,--the grasshoppers and locusts often becoming an actual plague and destroying whole crops. To get rid of the caterpillars and beetles various means are employed, such as spraying with Paris green, Bordeaux mixture, kerosene emulsion, or even strong suds made with whale-oil soap; and Paris green is also applied dry. A pretty good poison is bran-and-arsenic mixture, but the different liquids and powders make a story by themselves, and require great care in using; so you better consult some successful gardener-friend about the best one (and the way to use it,) for your particular foe. Of the sucking insects,--those that draw out the juice or sap of the plant,--the aphides or "plant lice" do inestimable damage to all kinds of plants and flowers, while the chinch bug and garden tree-hopper seem to prefer to attack vegetables. The most familiar aphides are green, and they have tiny, soft, pear-shaped bodies, with long legs and "feelers." They usually live on the under side of the leaves and along the stems, and one good way to get rid of them is to spray with kerosene emulsion or tobacco water, or else sprinkle with clear water and then dust with tobacco dust. Not all of the live things that you find about your plants and flowers are injurious, however, and you must learn to recognize those which are beneficial. The ladybug, although a beetle, lives on aphides, and so is your helper in destroying them. Several beetles, like the fiery ground beetle, subsist on cutworms, and the soldier bug dines on the destructive offspring of beetles and moths. The daddy-long-legs and the spider are also friends to your garden, together with many wasps. As for the bees, many, many plants are dependent on them for fertilization, as the insects in their search for honey go clear down into the flowers and carry with them the necessary pollen from one blossom to another. Two stories I have heard illustrate this point. In Australia many years ago people tried to introduce clover, but they could not make it grow until some one thought of importing the bees also. The native insects did not have a proboscis long enough to reach to the bottom of the flower, so that the pollen had never been properly placed. Then, not very long ago, a farmer living near a railroad had his crop of tomatoes ruined because the railroad used soft coal, the soot of which--settling on the tomato blossoms--kept away the bees so that the flowers were not fertilized! He sued the company and recovered damages. So you see the bee is really necessary for the success of your garden. Toads eat many of your small enemies, and should be encouraged by providing an upturned box or some cool, shady place in your garden where they can rest during the day,--for much of this "dog-eat-dog" business, sometimes termed "the law of the jungle," goes on at night. Birds, however, wage open warfare, in broad daylight, and wherever the soil has been cultivated, in the fields or among the plants and flowers, the feathered tribe seek the very things you want destroyed. A well-known nurseryman, when the English sparrow was first introduced in this country, noticed many of the birds among his choice roses, and to satisfy himself that they were not injuring the plants, killed one of the fattest. An investigation of his little stomach showed it to be chock-full of rose slugs and aphides,--the rose's worst enemies! The robins, of the thrush family, live almost entirely on worms and insects, and the bluebirds, orioles, tanagers and starlings, with the various songsters, should all be given a most cordial invitation to pay you a long visit. And this invitation? A place to live, if only a box nailed up on a tree, with an opening small enough to keep out intruders. A bird house more attractive in your own eyes is easily made by any boy or girl handy with a knife or a jig-saw, and really artistic houses, suited to particular birds, are described in various books and magazines, made from pieces of bark, sections of limb, or fir cones. A little study of the kind of nest each bird makes for itself may enable you to select your guests. The swallow, the cat-bird, the blackbird, the finch,--all should be welcomed: and suet tied on the branches, bread crumbs scattered around your door, grain sprinkled where you especially want them to come, will encourage the winter birds to pay you a daily visit. A bird bath is sure to prove an irresistible attraction. I have seen my back yard full of starlings and sparrows, pushing and crowding each other to get into a little pool where the snow has melted around a clothes-pole! A shallow pan, with an inch or two of water, will often draw so many birds that it has to be filled again and again during the day. Birds suffer, too, in winter from thirst, and greatly appreciate a drinking place. A bird fountain, with its running water, is a delight for the rich; but a pretty enamelled tray, white or gray, and round, square or oval, can be bought in a department store for less than a dollar, and it can be sunk in the top of a vine-covered rockery or securely placed on a mossy stump, where it will bring both joy and birds to the smallest gardener. So cheer up. Though your foes, as described, seem a formidable army, remember all the friends that will rally to your aid, and with reasonable watchfulness and care, you and your garden will come out victorious. CHAPTER XII A Morning Glory Playhouse Small service is true service while it lasts. Of humblest friends, bright creature! scorn not one; The daisy, by the shadow that it casts, Protects the lingering dewdrop from the sun. --_Wordsworth._ YOU children love a playhouse, don't you? Yet it isn't always easy to get one. A morning glory bower, however, is a perfect delight, and very easy to make. Persuade some big brother to drive a few long stakes in the ground so as to mark out either a square or a circle, as you prefer. Then ask him to fasten some heavy cord from the bottom of one stake to the top of the next nearest, and then across the top, leaving only a place at one side for an entrance. Soak your morning glory seeds over night, so that they will germinate more quickly, and then plant them along the line of the circle or square marked on the ground. As soon as they begin to grow, train the vines on the cords, and if necessary tie in a few more strings near the bottom, to help the baby climbers get started. The morning glory grows very rapidly, and is justly popular because of its lovely blossoms which come in the most beautiful shades. And as the flowers always turn away from the sun, you will find them soon completely lining the inside of your playhouse. The most common kind (Convolvulus major,) grows from 15 to 20 ft., and will do well in almost any location. It costs only five cents per packet, and will flower all summer. Who could ask more! The rarer kinds are known as the Japanese Morning Glory, which grows from 30 to 50 ft., and has blossoms measuring from 3 to 4 inches across. These range from snowy white to darkest purple through the pinks, both plain and with all kinds of variations. They grow and spread very fast, and love a sunny location. If you prefer, you can use the trunk of some tree for the center pole of your playhouse. (Possibly some of you at the opera may have seen Siegmund draw the magic sword from the big tree-trunk in the center of his sweetheart's home.) Well, you could attach cords from pegs driven in a circle around the base, to the tree at any height desired, and here plant either the scarlet runner or the hyacinth bean. Still another way is to plant two poles 8 or 10 ft. apart, and have a stick nailed across the top, like the ridge pole of a tent. Drive pegs into the ground along each side, in parallel lines 6 or 8 ft. apart, and tie heavy cords from the pegs on one side to the pegs on the other,--carried, of course, over the ridgepole. Plant your seeds close to the pegs, and in a few weeks your vines will form a flower tent. For this purpose, you might use the climbing nasturtiums or the wild cucumber vine. Or, if you can save up the fifteen cents necessary, buy the new cardinal climber, which has clusters of five to seven blossoms each, of a beautiful cardinal red, from July until late fall. The vine grows rapidly, and often more than 20 ft. long, so that when it reaches the ridge-pole, you can let it run over the other side, and make a good thick roof. The seeds are very hard, however, and so should either be soaked over night, or slightly nicked with a file. If you get a firm, strong framework for your playhouse, you might like to plant a hardy vine that would live through the winter and be ready for use early next summer without further trouble. In that case, you could use the Dutchman's pipe, which is a fast growing climber having peculiar yellow-brown flowers the shape of a pipe. Though these seeds are only ten cents per packet, the young plants are sold by the nurserymen for fifty cents apiece: so if you grow them yourself you can figure out what a valuable little house you will have! The everlasting pea is a sprawling, quick grower, having many flowers in a cluster, and blooming in August. It thrives in even the most common soil, and gets better every year. It comes in white, pink and red, and a package of the mixed colors can be bought for five cents. Other things besides vines are good for flower playhouses. Hollyhocks, planted in a square or a circle, will soon be high enough to screen you from the curious butcher-boy or the neighbor's maid. While most kinds are biennials, and so do not bloom until the second summer, you can either coax a few plants from some grown-up friend that has a lot already established, or you can buy seed of the new annual variety, which, if sown in May, will flower in July! Sunflowers, too, are to be found in several varieties, ranging from 6 to 8 ft. in height, which you could use for a sort of a stockade, a là Robinson Crusoe. Those having the small blossoms are nice for cutting, while the old-fashioned kind furnishes good feed for the chickens,--in which case your plants would be well worth growing for the seed. It will never do, however, for you simply to get your flower playhouse started, and then leave it to take care of itself! You must watch the baby plants as soon as they peep out of the ground, help the vines to grow in the right direction and water thoroughly whenever there is a dry spell. Cultivate around the roots every few days, as this breaking up of the hard crust which forms on top will prevent the moisture from escaping through the air channels in the soil, and keep the roots moist. Several times during the season dig in a trowelful of bonemeal around each plant, and then give a good wetting. While the hardy vines, after once getting started, bloom every year without much more attention, the annuals have one advantage,--you can have a different kind every time. In other words, you would then be able to give your house a fresh coat of paint,--I should say, flowers--every summer. CHAPTER XIII The Work of a Children's Garden Club I am ever being taught new lessons in my garden: patience and industry by my friends the birds, humility by the great trees that will long outlive me, and vigilance by the little flowers that need my constant care. --_Rosaline Neish._ DID you ever see the boy or girl that did not want to get up a club? I never did; and the reason is that people, young and old, like to both work and play together. Now a garden club is really worth while, and although I might simply TELL you how to proceed after getting your friends to meet and agree on the purpose, you probably will get a much clearer idea if I relate what a certain group of little folks actually did accomplish. Fifteen boys and girls living in old Greenwich Village,--today one of the poor, crowded sections of New York City, where even the streets are darkened by a tall, unsightly elevated railroad,--were invited to form a club that would be taken once a week out on Long Island to garden. A vacant lot, one hundred by one hundred and ten feet, in Flushing, about twelve miles away, had been offered for their use, and some of the older people saw that the ground was first properly ploughed up, for, of course, the children couldn't be expected to do that kind of hard work. But they could, and they eagerly did see that the soil was then properly prepared by breaking up the clods, removing all the sticks and stones, and getting the earth raked beautifully smooth. Several Flushing ladies agreed to help, making out lists of the flowers and vegetables most easily grown there, getting the seeds free by asking for them from their Congressman at Washington, and then showing the children how to plant. First a five-foot border was measured off clear around the lot, for a flower bed, and each child had its own section. After finding out what each one wanted to grow, one bed was planted to show how the work should be done,--the depth to put in the seeds, the distance the rows should be apart, the way to cover, besides the placing of the tallest flowers at the back or outer edge, and the lowest or edging plants along the foot path. This 18-in. path ran clear around the lot, leaving a large plot in the center. This plot was then marked off by string or wire to divide it into the vegetable gardens, with little walks between. The vegetable beds measured about 6 by 9 ft., but as 6 ft. proved wide for small arms to reach over and cultivate, this year the beds are to be made 5 by 10 ft. At first, too, each child grew its own few stalks of corn on its own bed, but it was difficult to manage, so now all the corn will be grown in one patch, where it can be more easily hoed. The radishes and lettuce, of course, grew most quickly, and within five or six weeks were ready for the table. On that memorable first day, from the fifteen beds, over one thousand radishes alone were picked, and that original planting continued to produce for nearly a month. Successive plantings brought on plenty for the rest of the season. The lettuce, too, grew abundantly, while the cucumbers were especially fine. String beans were ready very early, and three plantings during the season produced sometimes two to three quarts a week for each child. Tomatoes grew in such profusion that once during the hot weather when they ripened faster than usual, a neighboring hospital was given two bushels! And flowers! The children actually could not carry them away. They took home all they wanted, and made up the rest into thousands of little bunches which the city Plant, Flower and Fruit Guild gladly called for and distributed to the New York City hospitals, jails and missions. Freshly cut, they would last a week, until the children's next visit to their gardens. With hollyhocks, dahlias, cannas and cosmos at the back of the border, and in front stocks, poppies, sweet alyssum, Japanese pinks, nicotiana, and the loveliest blue cornflowers imaginable, they offered a choice variety. How the children loved the work! One poor little lame boy took some of his morning glory seed back to the slums and planted--where? In a box on the window ledge of a dark court that never saw a ray of sunshine. (The woman in the tenement below objected to having it on the fire escape in front and he had no other place.) And there it actually bloomed, dwarfed like its little owner, fragile beyond words, with a delicate flower no bigger than a dime, but answering the call of love. The gardens thrived in spite of the only once-a-week care. A pipe line, with a faucet, ran to the center of the lot, and plenty of watering cans were provided for the weekly use, but during any extra hot weather a friendly neighbor would turn on her hose in between times to save the crops. And a children's outgrown playhouse, donated for the purpose, served as a convenient place to keep the garden tools. The garden work created general interest in all nature study, and the children would go on trips to gather all kinds of grasses, wild flowers, and swamp treasures. These were dried, then classified, and later presented to the Public Library for the use of teachers and students of botany. And the little lame boy mentioned made a really beautiful collection of butterflies. If the club you organize wants a community garden, almost any owner of a vacant lot will give you its use,--especially if you offer in return to give him some fresh flowers and vegetables. If you prefer, however, you can have your gardens on your own grounds. Then a committee of your elders could be invited to give you suggestions as to the flowers and vegetables best adapted to your location and soil, and also to act as judges at your show. For, of course, when everything is at its best you will want to have an exhibition. Perhaps some father or mother will offer a prize,--a book on gardening, a vase or a plant for winter blooming. [Illustration: AN OUTGROWN PLAYHOUSE HELD THE TOOLS USED BY THE CHILDREN IN THESE GARDENS] Remember that both the Department of Agriculture at Washington, and your State College of Agriculture are anxious to help this kind of work. The former gives you all the seeds you need, free of charge. Write to some well-known seed houses for catalogues, and you will get particulars about all the different varieties. Go to your Public Libraries, and you will find the most fascinating books, many written especially for children, telling you just what to do. "When Mother Lets Us Garden," by Frances Duncan, is one of the best and simplest, while "Little Gardens for Boys and Girls," by Higgins, "Mary's Garden and How It Grew," by Duncan, "Children's Library of Work and Play Gardening," by Shaw, and "The School Garden Book," by Weed-Emerson, are all intensely interesting. If you find yourself so successful in your work that you have more flowers and vegetables than you can use, remember that there are always plenty of poor people in your own town who would gladly accept your gifts, and any church organization would tell you how to reach them. If, however, you are trying to earn some money for yourself, you can always find regular customers glad to buy things fresh from the garden. For a meeting place during the summer, why not plan a flower club-house? Perhaps some of the dear old grandmothers will give you a few hollyhock roots, which you can plant in a circle big enough to hold your little club. Leave an opening in the ring just big enough to enter through, and before the season is very far along, the hollyhocks will be tall enough to screen you from the passerby. The hollyhocks sow themselves, and come up every year, and hybridized by the bees, show different colors every season. Better still, go to the woods for a lot of brush, stick it in the ground to form a square room, and cover with a brush roof. Over this you can train wild honeysuckle, which you can find in lengths of ten and twelve feet. Or you can buy a package or two of the Varigated Japanese Hop, which will grow ten feet in a month or six weeks,--and sowing itself, come up and cover your house every year. A garden club proves a source of pleasure through the winter, too. You can go on with the care and cultivation of house plants, and the growing of all kinds of bulbs. You can meet regularly at the different homes, and have the members prepare and read little papers such as "How to Grow Roman Hyacinths in Water," "The Best Flowers for a Window-Box," "Raising Plants from Cuttings," "Starting Seeds Indoors," "How to Make a Table Water-Garden," etc. In case you wish to know exactly how to organize and conduct a club, just like big folks do,--get from your Public Library a book called "Boys' Clubs," by C. S. Bernheimer and J. M. Cohen. This has also a chapter on girls' clubs, and it tells you all about club management, so that you can have a lot of fun at your meetings, besides learning a great many important things in a way that you will never forget. CHAPTER XIV The Care of House Plants Who loves a garden loves a greenhouse too. --_Cowper._ "IF you are one of those people who love flowers and can make them grow," said a Fifth Avenue florist to me recently, "you can do almost anything you please with them, and they will thrive." "So, then," I laughed, "you think love has a great deal to do with the matter?" And he replied, "I most certainly do!" Therefore, if you love to see "the green things growing," enough to give them the least bit of intelligent care, you can reasonably hope to raise all you have room for. The main points to bear in mind are light, heat and moisture. Flowering plants need sunlight at least part of the day, and generally do best in a south window. Most of the decorative or foliage plants, on the other hand, will keep looking well with only a reasonable amount of light, as when near a north or east window, if they have the proper amount of heat and moisture. But don't, please, set any plant back in the room, away from the light, and expect it to succeed very long,--for it never will! Select, then, growing things suited to your living quarters, and learn their needs. The heat of many living-rooms is too great,--and too dry,--for some plants to do their best in, and they should be kept near the windows, although out of draughts. They usually will stand as much cold at night as they are likely to get in an ordinary house, so it is best not to overheat them during the day, but instead, keep them in a cool part of the room. Moreover, they thrive better if, when suitably placed, they are allowed to remain undisturbed. The atmosphere should be kept moist by means of water kept on stove, register or radiator, but water to the roots should be applied to most plants only when the soil is dry. This during the winter generally means two or three times a week. With few exceptions, plants should not be watered while still showing dampness. "I often wonder," said another florist, "that women with gardens do not try to save some of their flowering plants that might easily be moved into the house. Perhaps they think it isn't worth while." If they can afford to buy all they want to, that may be the reason, but the real flower lover will delight in coaxing some favorite to go on blooming indoors. Heliotropes cut back, petunias and salvias, by being carefully lifted with a ball of earth so as not to disturb the roots, and then kept in the shade for a couple of days, ought to continue to bloom for some time. Begonias I have moved this way without affecting them for a single day. A small canna, thus potted, will last a long time and help out among the more expensive foliage plants. Geraniums, however, are the old stand-by of window gardeners. If "slipped" during the summer, by cutting off a tender shoot just below a joint, and putting it in a pot of light, rather sandy soil, and kept moist, it should bloom during the winter. It does best in sunshine. The kind of soil best adapted to houseplants generally, is given by one authority as two parts loam, one part leaf mould, one part sharp sand. The variation of different growers simply proves what I have seen contended, that it is the proper temperature and moisture that really count. The city girl, with little space to spare, will find the begonias, in their many varieties, most satisfactory. They respond quickly to house treatment, and a small plant from the florist's will grow so rapidly as to soon need repotting. These favorites are of a large family, and some will stand considerable shade. A large, lovely specimen now about three years old, in my own home has developed from a little thing costing fifteen cents. Get cultural directions for the kind you buy, as they differ. A couple of stalks broken from an old plant early in the season, and stuck in a small pot, if kept thoroughly damp, will soon root, and blossom in a very little while. Fuchsias are another old favorite easily grown from cuttings, and thriving well in a window. Primroses are easily grown from seed, and when started in February or March, should begin blooming in November and under careful treatment, last through the winter. The crab cactus or "Christmas cactus," as I have heard it called, is one of the most easily grown houseplants, and sends out bright red flowers at the ends of the joints, making an attractive plant for the holidays. Of the ferns, I have found several varieties exceptionally satisfactory. A little Boston, costing only twenty-five cents when bought for a small table decoration four or five years ago, and changed from one pot to another as growth demanded, today is five feet in diameter,--and the despair of the family on account of the room it requires. It has always stood near either an east or a west window during the winter, in a furnace-heated, gas-lighted house, and been moved to a north porch during the summer. This type needs considerable moisture, and does best when watered every day. I have even seen it growing in a large basket placed in a pan of water. The leaves of this group must be kept clean, and I wash mine occasionally with a small cloth and warm water, using a little soap and then rinsing, if I discover any trace of scale,--that little hard-shelled, brown pest often found on both stems and leaves. Both of the asparagus ferns,--the plumosus and the Sprengeri, I have grown from tiny pots until they became positively unwieldy, by giving about the same kind of treatment. None of these should be allowed to dry out, as they then turn brown and wither. The asparagus plumosus can be either pinched back to keep as a pot plant, or encouraged to grow as a vine. The asparagus Sprengeri is especially valuable for boxes and baskets, on account of its long, drooping sprays, and if allowed to develop naturally during the summer, should be well covered with its lovely berries at Christmas time. The holly fern is especially beautiful, while also quite hardy and--to its advantage--not so common as the varieties already mentioned. Several small specimens found planted at the base of a Christmas poinsettia were afterwards set out in small pots, and grew with surprising rapidity. They stood the dry heat of a steam-heated house, and kept a lovely glossy green when other plants were seriously affected. Fern dishes are frequently filled with the spider ferns, though often combined with the others mentioned. On a certain occasion, when a neglected fern dish had to be discarded, I discovered in the center a tiny plant still growing that looked so hardy I decided to repot it. It grew and, to my surprise, soon developed into an attractive little kentia palm, now three or four years old and eighteen inches high. I think that one reason the ordinary fern dish does not last long is that it is kept on table or sideboard all the time, too far away from the light. Often, too, it is not properly watered. If every morning after breakfast it were sprinkled in the sink, and then set near a window, though not in the sun, it would soon be getting too big for its quarters, and need dividing. It is well to remember that the container is shallow and holds very little earth, hence its roots are in danger of drying out. All these ferns mentioned I have seen grown repeatedly, under varying conditions, in a furnace-heated house as well as a steam-heated apartment; and with a reasonable amount of light, and water enough to keep them thoroughly moist, I have had them green and beautiful the year around. Palms and the popular foliage plants can be grown satisfactorily with little or no sunlight. The kentia palm before mentioned is one of the very hardiest, and will thrive where few others will grow. Both the cocoanut and date varieties can be easily grown from seed,--an interesting experiment. None of them require any particular treatment. A place by a north or east window will suit them perfectly; they will stand a temperature of forty-five degrees at night; but they do require plenty of water, and cleanliness of leaf. Water them as the earth becomes dry, but do not leave standing in half-filled jardinieres, (as people often do,) as much soaking spoils the soil. A good plan for plants of this class is to set them in a pail of warm water and leave for a few hours or over night, about once a week, and then when they become dry in between times, pour water enough around the roots to wet thoroughly. The rubber plant grows quickly compared with the palm, and requires very little attention. It does best in good soil, and thrives on being set in a half shady place outdoors during the summer. One that I have watched for four years has stood during the winter near a west window, only a few feet from a steam radiator. It would get quite dry at times, but never seemed to be affected at all. When a plant gets too tall for a room, and looks ungainly, make a slanting cut in the stem at the height desired, slip in a small wedge, and wrap the place with wet sphagnum moss, which must be then kept wet for several weeks. When you find a lot of new roots coming through this wrapping, cut off just below the mass and plant the whole ball in a pot with good soil. Keep in a shady place for a few days, and in a short time you will have two nice, well-shaped plants instead of the single straggly one. A group of three long, slender-leaved plants are the next of those easily grown for their foliage. The hardiest is the aspidistra, with its drooping dark green leaves, each coming directly from the root stalk, and it will stand almost any kind of treatment. From one plant costing a dollar and a half five years ago, I now have two that are larger than the original and have given away enough for five more. It has an interesting flower, too,--a wine-colored, yellow-centered, star-shaped blossom that pushes up through the earth just enough to open, and which often is hidden by the mud of excessive watering. The pandanus produces long, narrow leaves from one center stem, and can be bought in plain green, green and white or green and yellow. It needs good drainage, but takes a rich soil and plenty of water. It stands exceedingly well the dust, dryness and shade of an ordinary living-room, so is a valuable addition to any collection of houseplants. It is easily multiplied by using the suckers as cuttings. The dracænas are quite similar to the pandanus, only they are usually marked with a beautiful red. They are equally suitable for living quarters, and will thrive under the same conditions. The umbrella plant requires an unusual amount of water, and will grow nicely in a water garden. Its tall, graceful umbrellas make it an especially attractive plant. The Norfolk Island pine is another popular houseplant that asks only to be kept cool and moist. Beautifully symmetrical, it fits especially well in certain places, and will respond gratefully to even a reasonable amount of attention. For a small plant, the saxifraga I like very much, with its beautifully marked leaves and the runners which make it so effective for a bracket or basket. The "inch plant," or "Wandering Jew," as some people call it, in both the green and the variegated, looks and does well in wall pockets or when grown on a window sill in a fine, thin glass. Smilax is also recommended for the window garden, and will grow in quite shady places, though it needs to be trained up. All the ferns and green plants mentioned are likely to prove more satisfactory than the flowering ones to the amateur doomed to live in sunless rooms,--which, however, can be made most attractive with what is suitable. SIMPLE INDOOR NOVELTIES The prettiest kind of a little hanging basket is made by cutting off the top of a big carrot, carefully scraping out the inside, running a cord through holes made near the rim, and keeping it full of water. It will soon resemble a mass of ferns. A lovely little water garden for the dining-room table is made by slicing a 3/4-in. thick piece from the top of a beet and a carrot, and laying them in a shallow dish or bowl, with half an inch of water,--to not quite cover the slices. Set in the light for a few days and you will have soon a beautiful mass of feathery green and sword-like dark red foliage that will last for months. Grape fruit pips will sprout in a bit of soil very quickly, and make a mass of attractive green often where ferns have failed to grow. WINTER BLOOMING BULBS Of all the bulbs for winter blooming, the Chinese lily is one of the most satisfactory, as it flowers in a few weeks, and is grown in a shallow bowl in water, with pebbles to hold it in position. It is best to set it in a dark place for a week or two until the roots start, when it can be brought to a light window. The paper white narcissus and the Roman hyacinth can also be grown in water, or placed in soil if preferred. They will blossom in about eight weeks. The other "Dutch" bulbs will take longer, although the hyacinths are easily grown in water by setting each bulb in a hyacinth glass or an open-mouth pickle bottle, with water enough to just touch the bottom of the bulb, and then putting away in a cold, dark place (like a cellar), until the roots nearly touch the bottom of the glass. A few pieces of charcoal help to keep the water sweet. Bring gradually to a light window, and when flower buds are well started, put in the sun. By bringing out this way in the order of their best development, flowers can be had for a long season. The hyacinth bulbs can be bought from five cents to twenty-five cents apiece, according to their fine breeding. [Illustration: SPRING BEAUTIES,--TULIPS, DAFFODILS, CROCUSES, PUSSY WILLOWS AND FORSYTHIA,--BLOOMING INDOORS AGAINST A SNOWY BACKGROUND] Tulips, daffodils and hyacinths when grown in good soil in the shallow "pans," should be set deeply enough to be just covered, quite closely together if wanted in a group, thoroughly watered, and then put in a cold, dark place (frost free, however). Keep moist for from two to four mos.--when you can begin bringing them into the warm living-room as desired, and place in the sunlight after buds form. With this method is secured a succession of bloom from January until the spring flowers come out-of-doors. The freesia and the oxalis are of the "Cape" group of bulbs, and when started in the fall should blossom in four or five months. Plant in good, rich soil (half a dozen to a 5-in. pot), set away in a cool but light place, and leave until some leaf growth has started. Then bring into a light, warm room as desired for different periods of bloom. The amaryllis is another foreign bulb that comes into market in the late fall. Pot it in rich soil, rather sandy, do not cover the top of the bulb, and keep rather dry until it gets a good start. When buds are noticed, put the plant where it will get the sunlight, and water regularly. SPRING BEAUTIES As I look up from my work, my eyes rest on the different spring bulbs blooming this 28th day of February, in my south window, against their snowy background,--purple crocus, both red and white tulips, and that loveliest of daffodils, the white-tipped Queen Victoria. They were potted last October, covered up in an ash-lined trench outdoors until after the holidays, then carried into a cold but light attic for a week, before finally being brought into a warm room. The daffodils cost but three cents apiece, yet each fills an ordinary pot, and produces three lovely blossoms, four inches across. A new fibre is now on the market at a very low price that can be used exactly like earth, only it does not sour, and consequently can be put in any fine bowl or jar, as it does not need drainage. Once thoroughly wet, it has only to be kept moist and the plants do as well as in soil. I, personally, prefer to plant in soil. The family living in an apartment with no cold place to start the bulbs that take so long, could easily fix a box or egg-crate under the coldest window and darken it with a small rug, hiding there for a few weeks the Roman hyacinths and narcissi. BOOKS FOR THE INDOOR GARDENER However successful you are with your window gardening, you are sure to enjoy knowing what other people have learned and written on the subject, and a number of simple, interesting books are available. Your librarian will be glad to point out the best she has to offer, and there are several you may want to own. "Manual of Gardening," by L. H. Bailey, formerly Dean of the Agricultural College at Cornell University, is one of the most comprehensive, covering every phase of gardening, summer and winter, indoors and out; "The Flower Garden," by Ida D. Bennett, devotes considerable space to house plants, window gardens, hot beds, etc.; "Green House and Window Plants," by Chas. Collins, is a little book by an English authority, and goes quite fully into soils, methods of propagating, management of green houses, and also the growing of house plants; "Practical Horticulture," by our own Peter Henderson, while especially valuable to the large commercial grower, contains much interesting information for the amateur; "House Plants and How to Grow Them," by P. T. Barnes, however, is one of the simplest and best, and sure to suit the busy school-girl, in a hurry to find out the proper way to make her particular pet plant do its very best. And just as surely as she would not attempt to make a new kind of cake without a reliable recipe, just so surely ought she not to expect to grow flowers successfully without finding out first how it should be done. Flowers, like friends, have to be cultivated, and consideration of their needs produces similar delightful results. CHAPTER XV Gifts that will Please a Flower Lover You may break, you may shatter the vase if you will, But the scent of the roses will hang round it still. --_Moore._ CHRISTMAS giving to the flower lover is a matter of delight, for if you stop to think you will know what the recipient will be sure to appreciate. Cut flowers always afford joy, from an inexpensive bunch of carnations to the choicest American Beauties. The Christmas blooming plants, however, last much longer, and the rich scarlet berries of the ardesia will survive the holiday season by several months. Poinsettia has been steadily increasing in popularity, and can be surrounded by ferns that will live on indefinitely. All the decorative foliage plants are sure to be welcomed, for with care they will last for years, and improve in size and beauty. The growing fad for winter-blooming bulbs affords another opportunity for pleasing. If you did not start in time to grow to flower yourself, give your friend one of the new flat lily bowls, procurable from fifty cents up, and with it a collection of bulbs for succession of bloom. These may be started in any kind of dishes with pebbles and water, set in a cool, dark place until the roots start, and then brought out to the light as desired. With narcissi at three cents each, Chinese lilies at ten cents, and fine hyacinths up to twenty cents, for named varieties, a dollar's worth will keep her in flowers for the rest of the winter. Pretty little stem holders, made in pottery leaves, mushrooms, frogs, etc., cost only from forty cents to fifty cents, and will be nice to use in the bowl afterward, for holding any kind of cut flowers. We are adopting more and more the Japanese method of displaying a few choice specimens artistically, and assuredly this way they do show up to better advantage. Many new vases are displayed for the purpose. A charming Japanese yellow glaze, ten in. high, with a brown wicker cover, I saw for only a dollar and a quarter, while the graceful Japanese yellow plum blossom shown with it at thirty-five cents a spray, was a delight to the eye. A slender ground glass vase in a plated cut silver holder was only twenty-five cents, while the Sheffield plate bud vase was but fifty cents. These could be duplicated in cut glass and sterling silver at almost any price one wished to pay. Venetian glass is quite fashionable, and can be had in all colors--red, blue, green, yellow and black, and while expensive, has been imitated in domestic ware at reasonable prices. Some of the new pottery bowls come in unusual shapes, in white, gray, green, blue, and many are small enough for a single bulb. A lover of the narcissus myself, I am delighted with the idea of bringing out my paper whites one at a time, so as to keep a lovely gray-green piece in use all winter. One of my friends, on the other hand, is growing hers in groups of half-a-dozen, the warm brown of the bulbs harmonizing most artistically with her delicately colored stones in a brown wicker-covered Japanese glazed dish. This brown Japanese wicker, by the way, is most decorative, and can be found in various kinds of baskets, metal-lined, for cut flowers or plants of that grow in water,--some as low as ten cents apiece. A tall-handled basket of this kind is now standing on my buffet, beautiful with the varigated trailing sprays of the Wandering Jew. One could not ask for a more satisfying arrangement. Enamelled tinware, hand-painted, is new, too, and comes in many pottery shapes, though strange to say, often at higher prices. Hand-painted china butterflies, bees and birds, at from twenty-five cents to fifty cents, are among this year's novelties, and look very realistic when applied invisibly with a bit of putty to the edge of bowl or vase. Some of the birds are painted on wood, life-sized, and mounted on long sticks, to be stuck in among growing plants or on the tiny trellises used for indoor climbers. Many novelties in growing things can be found at the florist's--from the cheapest up to all you feel like paying. A dainty new silver fern, big enough for a small table, comes in a thumb pot at only ten cents. Haworthia is cheap, too, and has the advantage of being uncommon. More and more do we see of the dwarf Japanese plants, many quite inexpensive. The Japanese cut leaf maple, for example, can be bought for seventy-five cents. All are hardy, and suitable for small table decorations. The new "air plant," or "Wonder of the Orient" (really an autumn crocus), surprises every one not acquainted with it, as it flowers during the late fall and early winter, without either soil or water, as soon as put in the sunlight for a few days. Better still, when through blooming, it will live through the year if put in soil, and store up enough energy to repeat the performance when taken out next season. Costing a dollar each when first introduced here, it can now be bought as low as ten cents a bulb. Japanese fern balls, black and unpromising as they look when purchased, respond to plenty of light, heat and water by sending out the daintiest kind of feathery ferns in a few weeks, and will last for several years. They cost only thirty-five cents, too. Quaint, square pottery jars, suspended in pairs by a cord over a little wheel, like buckets on a well rope, make unusual hanging baskets and can be filled with your favorite vines and flowers. Garden tools are always acceptable as the old ones wear out or get lost, and you can choose from the three-prong pot claw at a nickel up to the fully equipped basket at several dollars. Handwoven cutting baskets, mounted on sharp sticks for sticking in the ground when you are cutting your posies, cost two dollars and a half, but will last for years. Small hand-painted, long-spouted watering cans, for window sprinkling, cost less than a dollar and look pretty when not in use. And for the person with only a window garden, the self-watering, metal-lined window boxes, that preclude dripping on the floor, will be a boon indeed. Goldfish are pretty sure to please, for your flower lover is also the nature lover. Even the tiniest bowl is attractive, and one I saw recently had been in the house over two winters. The globe, however, does not meet our modern ideas for the reason that the curved glass reduces the area of water exposed to the air, so is bad for the fish. The new all-glass aquariums can be bought in either the square or cylindrical shapes, from a dollar and a quarter up, according to size and quality, while the golden inmates can be found from five cents, for the child's pet up to the fancier's Japanese prize-winner at one thousand dollars. Your aquarium will require no change of water, either, if properly balanced. Put in for the fishes' needs such oxygen-producing plants as milfoil, (Millefolium,) fish grass, (Cabomba,) common arrow head, (Sagittaria natans,) and mud plant, plantain, (Heteranthera Reniformis,) the first and third being especially good together. These in turn will thrive on the carbonic acid gas the fish exhale, so that one supports the other. A snail or two (the Japanese red, at twenty-five cents, preferred for looks,) and a newt will act as scavengers, and keep the water clear as crystal. For food, put in a small quantity of meat once a week, as the commercial "fish food" eventually causes tuberculosis. Birds, too, are generally popular with flower lovers. Canaries probably are the stand-bys, though in the cities the uncommon little beauties often are preferred. Polly, however, holds her own, and with many people is the favorite. Books,--always a safe and inexpensive gift,--are obtainable for the flower lover, in the most fascinating editions. They cover all phases of the subject, indoors and out, from the window garden to the vast estate, the amateur to the professional grower. And no true gardener could sit down by a blazing log on a blizzardy night, with Helena Rutherford Ely's "The Practical Flower Garden," or L. B. Holland's "The Garden Blue Book," filled with wonderful photographs and colored plates, without quickly becoming lost to the storm outside, and conscious only of sun-kissed lawns with blossoms nodding in the breeze. Heaven? Your friend will already be in imagination's Paradise, with an increasing sense of gratitude over your thoughtful selection. CHAPTER XVI The Gentlewoman's Art--Arranging Flowers In Eastern lands they talk in flowers, And they tell in a garland their loves and cares; Each blossom that blooms in their garden bowers, On its leaves a mystic language bears. --_Percival._ THE above is almost literally true! You may be surprised to know that the arranging of flowers has not only long been considered an art, but that for centuries it has been closely connected with the whole life of a nation. Away back in 1400, a certain ruler of Japan became so interested in this fascinating subject that he resigned his throne in order to study that and the other fine arts! One of his friends,--a great painter,--worked out the scientific rules which are still generally accepted, and the study became the pastime of cultured people. Moreover, Japan's greatest military men have always practised the art, claiming that it calmed their minds so that they could make clearer decisions on going into battle! [Illustration: BLOSSOMS IN JAPANESE ARRANGEMENT] Briefly put, the Japanese ideas are as follows: First, to use very few flowers (preferably three, five, or seven, with their foliage), and but one kind together. Then to arrange these so that the three main blossoms form a triangle,--the highest point of which they usually call Heaven, the middle point Man, and the lowest point Earth. If five or seven flowers are used, the others are the unimportant ones, and used as "attributes," placed near the important points. And as many of their favorite flowers, like the iris and the chrysanthemum, have quite straight stems, people have to learn how to bend them without breaking. Each flower is studied, selected for its place in this triangle, and then, oh! so very delicately, shaped to the desired line. And then as so few flowers would be apt to slip around, they skilfully hold them in place by means of slender sticks, cut the exact size, split at one end, and then sprung into place across the vase or bowl. If the stems curve to one side, it is called the male style, if to the other, the female style; the arrangement must look not like cut flowers, but like the living plant, and suggest the growth by the use of buds, open flowers and withered leaves. Good and evil luck are connected with the placing, as well as with the colors and the numbers chosen,--even numbers and red being ill-omened. Certain arrangements also suggest the seasons, one style, for instance, representing spring and another autumn. While we today are not interested in Japanese symbolism, we, many of us, are quite interested in Japanese methods on account of their artistic effects. Many books have been written by the Japanese on their favorite subject,--some as far back as the Thirteenth Century! Of course you never could read them even if you could find them here; but a Western woman spent a long time over there, studying under the guidance of their priests, and recently wrote a book ("Japanese Flower Arrangement," by Mary Averill,) which explains everything and is full of illustrations, so that you can see for yourself the results of following the Japanese way. Her most interesting message for you may be one method they have of making their flowers last. During moderate weather it can be done in this country by simply holding the stems of the flowers in a gas or candle flame until black and charred, and then putting the flowers in very cold water for seven or eight hours. Another book, with a lot of beautiful pictures showing us how to arrange flowers to please better, perhaps, our American taste, is "The Flower Beautiful," by Clarence Moores Weed. It illustrates most of our own familiar flowers, in all kinds of artistic holders, and is sure to give us new ideas about arranging them so as to enable us to bring out their full loveliness. Both of these books should be found in any good Public Library, and in looking them over, you will have a treat. A prominent New York florist, in showing our Garden Club his methods of arranging flowers, advised (for one thing) filling a low bowl with broken twigs or branches, to hold the stems and keep the flowers in position without crowding. Breaking up a few ferns to illustrate; he dropped them in a cut glass dish, and then stuck in a dozen stalks of pale pink primroses. The result was an inexpensive table decoration as beautiful as any costly display of roses. Personally, I did not approve of his ferns, as they would very quickly decay in the water: but as a child I had learned from my grandmother his better idea of half-filling the dish with clean sand. It holds the stems exactly as placed, and can be entirely hidden by the foliage. Roses, the gentleman also told us, draw up water above the surface only one-half the length of the stem in the water, and consequently should not extend more than that height above the water,--else the "forcing power" (as it is called) will not carry it far enough to sustain the flowers at the end of the stems. (This may account for my own success in keeping roses often for a week, for I usually take them out of the water, lay them in a wet box or paper, and place them flat in the ice-box over night so the water in the stems can flow to the extreme end.) He also said they should never be crowded together, but rather be separated as the primroses were. Both the leaves and the thorns under water should be removed, as the leaves quickly foul the water, and the breaking off of the thorns opens new channels for nourishment to reach the flowers. The flat Japanese bowls so popular the past few years, are not only artistic, but good for the flowers, which in them are not crowded, and so can get their needed oxygen. They can be held in place by the transparent glass holders if one objects (as the florist did,) to the perforated frogs, turtles, mushrooms, etc., now to be bought wherever vases and other flower holders are sold. Any one who has tried to arrange even half a dozen blooms in this simple way will never go back to the crude, old-fashioned mixed bouquet! On the tables of the fine restaurants in New York City one most often sees only a simple, clear glass vase, with perhaps only two or three flowers; but they can be enjoyed for their full beauty. The secret of the whole subject is _simplicity_!--and you never know what you can do until you try. At our last Garden Show I had expected to make a well-studied arrangement of wild flowers for that class of table decorations, but did not have the time. At the last moment I took an odd little glass basket, filled it with damp sand, and stuck it full of cornflowers, (what you might call ragged robins or bachelor buttons, and which I grow to go with my blue china,) so that the holder was nearly hidden. On seeing it in place, on the show table, I frankly confess I was quite ashamed of my effort, it looked so very modest: and you can imagine my great surprise when I discovered later that it was decorated with a coveted ribbon! There is one way, however, in which the mixed bouquet can be put together so as to look its best, and our florist-guest demonstrated it. On coming to the close of his remarks he began picking up the flowers he had been using in his various arrangements with his right hand and placing in his left,--paying no attention whatever to what he took, nor even looking at what he was already holding. Rose, daisy, jonquil, primrose, everything, just as he chanced to find it at hand, went together. _But_,--and here was the secret of the successful result--he grasped them all at the extreme lower end of their stems, whether long or short, so that the bouquet on being completed had that beautiful irregular outline as well as the mixed color that Mother Nature herself offers us in the garden! So if you ever have to put a quantity of mixed flowers together, remember to do it this way. And now a last word about flower growing. Don't you know that old adage, ending "try, try again?" When you think of the great Burbank, growing thousands upon thousands of a single kind of plant or flower in order to develop one to perfection, you can have patience in spite of pests and weather. I hope you will have quantities of the loveliest blossoms, and for the happiest occasions of life. May you realize all your fondest expectations. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes: Obvious punctuation errors repaired. This text prefers "varigated" (three times) to "variegated" (once). This was retained. Preface, "nutritous" changed to "nutritious" (well as nutritious) Table of Contents, "Flower-beds" changed to "Flower Beds" to match usage in text (the Flower Beds) Page 19, smallcaps added to first word of chapter to match rest of text. Page 35, in the "Good for" column for "Hollyhock" the word "or" was repeated. The original read Back of border or or clumps Page 40, "Paeonia" changed to "Pæonia" (Pæonia officinalis) 
40183	----	[Illustration: The Hollyhock Bed] A GARDEN WITH HOUSE ATTACHED BY SARAH WARNER BROOKS AUTHOR OF "MY FIRE OPAL," "POVERTY KNOB," ETC "I never had any desire so strong, and so like to covetousness, as that one which I have had always, that I might be master at least of a small house, and a large garden."--Abraham Cowley. BOSTON: RICHARD G. BADGER The Gorham Press 1904 Copyright 1904 by Sarah Warner Brooks _All rights reserved_ PRINTED AT THE GORHAM PRESS BOSTON, U. S. A. TO MY SUMMER CHILD CONTENTS Page _CHAPTER ONE_ _A Garden with House Attached_ 5 _CHAPTER TWO_ _The Man with the Hoe_ 10 _CHAPTER THREE_ _The "Lady's" Conservatory_ 14 _CHAPTER FOUR_ _The House Garden, The Selection, Arrangement, and Culture of House Plants_ 20 _CHAPTER FIVE_ _At Easter-time_ 35 _CHAPTER SIX_ _Burglar-proof_ 37 _CHAPTER SEVEN_ _Perennials_ 40 _CHAPTER EIGHT_ _Hollyhocks and Violets_ 68 _CHAPTER NINE_ _The Rose_ 74 _CHAPTER TEN_ _Border Bulbs_ 84 _CHAPTER ELEVEN_ _Annuals_ 88 _CHAPTER TWELVE_ _Climbers_ 94 _CHAPTER THIRTEEN_ _Gardens "in Spain"_ 99 _CHAPTER FOURTEEN_ _The Cerebral Processes of Plants_ 108 _CHAPTER FIFTEEN_ _"Auf Wiedersehen"_ 115 A GARDEN WITH HOUSE ATTACHED CHAPTER I "_A Garden with House Attached_" When, by an unlooked-for sequence of events, I became manager of "The Garden with House Attached" (as an important preliminary) along with "The Third Son"[1] I went over from Cambridge to take account of its possibilities. And here be it stated that from the time of his first trousers "The Third Son" had been my assistant gardener; and in all my horticultural enterprises, might still be counted in as "aider and abettor." "Mother," said this astute young person--on our return from this inspection--"It is a big job; but there is yet another week of my vacation. Let us make a beginning." In shaping the ground plan of this quaint old garden, its long-dead projectors had shown a capability which came within an ace of genius itself! Hence, so far as laying out went, there was absolutely no call for improvement. All had been so well and effectively outlined, that the landscape gardener himself must have approved. The long South walk--leading past the front door of the "Mansion House"--passing orchard and kitchen garden on its way up the long, gradual ascent towards the western boundary of the estate, and then turning a corner, followed the low stone wall hedged with sturdy purple lilacs (free to all the country round) and making a second turn, skirted the low northern ledge, where in June the locust hangs its tassels of perfumed snow, and, in autumn time, the wild barberry perfects its coral clusters. There, all summer long, the wind blows cool and sweet, and, resting on low, mossy boulders, you may sight, on the left, Middlesex Fells, and, across the blue distance, glimpse Tufts College on its broad, grassy hill, with the Mystic River (if the tide be in) creeping leisurely between you and that ancient seat of learning. Following the walk down the lazy declivity, you take a turn with it beneath two aged pines, with the big lily-of-the-valley patch nestling in their shade; and (hard by) the well-appointed triangular flower plot, from time immemorial "bedded out" with "The Lady's" house plants. Turning on your track, you take a stroll through "The Lover's Walk"--a little, lilac-embowered pathway--and turning, follow, past the back of the house, the long, rocky ledge, with its glorious crown of white lilac trees--their tall tops touching the very ridge-pole of the roof. There orange toadstools, like fairy parasols, push up through the damp mosses. There a giant Norway spruce drops its cones and spreads its brown carpet of needles; and in summer-time you may dream away the hours upon the cool stone steps and, harkening to an ancient pine singing its slow song, may "Eat of the lotus, and dream, and forget." The rough wagon road on the East takes you from the high road to the big old-fashioned barn, beneath whose eaves, year after year, the punctual swallow nests; while, high among the rafters within, immemorial pigeons rear their toothsome squabs. The flower-borders of this garden--anciently edged with box (which, of late, gave up, piece by piece, the long struggles of existence)--had, no doubt, in their prime, been well worth seeing. Lovely blue-eyed Periwinkle yet wandered among the tangled shrubs. A persistent Day-lily and a stunted Flowering Almond still held their own; and in May-time a single root of double English Violet made shift to perfect a scented flower or two,--"dim, but sweeter than the lids of Juno's eyes." Thrifty old-time shrubs still flourished in the wide borders. Alicanthus sent far and wide its fruity odor. Yellow Globe flowers straggled here and there. Waxberry bushes stoutly thrived, and, in early springtime, an aged Pyrrhus Japonica put on its blaze of scarlet bloom. Big domes of Tartarean Honeysuckle--all rosy pink with bloom--yet held their own. Creamy Syringas made sweet the summer air, and as for Lilacs (white and purple) they were like "the rats of Bingen," _everywhere_--dominating the entire grounds! It was a blessed day for us all when, in the sixteenth century, this darling Persian shrub was introduced into English gardens. In Persia they called it the "lilag" (which means simply a flower) and from this we have our word _Lilac_. Surely, "by no other name"--save by the dear country one of _laylock_--would it "smell as sweet." The native West Indian has a pretty superstition in regard to this familiar flower. He holds that lilac branches, when in blossom, if hung up around the room, protect from malignant influences. He believes that the "jumbies," or evil spirits, will not enter a house where there are lilac blooms. I like to borrow from the pagan this harmless belief; and, each morning throughout their flowering time, I cut big "bowpots" of blown lilacs, and setting them about the house, idly fancy that--thus kept at bay--no evil thing "with spell or charm" may enter the dear home. And, further to guard it, I have named our place "The Lilacs." A garden is hardly complete without the restful shade of trees--the loveliness of interchanging sunshine and shadow. Therefore was it good to find trees, many and thrifty, hobnobbing together in our new holding. A big sturdy hornbeam, with song-birds nesting high among its branches, shaded the eastern lawn, while close beside the kitchen porch a graceful rose-acacia reared its slender trunk, and every May-time wove its garlands of rosy bloom. All about us grew maple and ash trees. Tall pines to hold the song of the wind among their boughs. Spruces and Arbor Vitæs (these absolutely upon their last legs, but still persistent), and, fairest of them all, two glorious tulip-trees towering upward, like sturdy masts, towards the blue heaven, flinging to the winds their high leafy boughs, like pale green pennants, picked out (in blooming time) with shapely miracles of color. Here and there an apple or a pear tree had strayed from orchard to lawn; and in the very midst of things a huge cherry tree rendered its yearly tale of juicy blackhearts--enough and to spare for neighbors and robins, and for our own preserve jars. On a bleak northern rise behind the house, an ancient juniper (like another "Cleopatra's needle") stood slenderly against the sky--as perfect a pyramid as if shaped by the gardener's shears, instead of the keen-edged winter wind. CHAPTER II "_The Man with the Hoe_" As before our advent at the "Mansion House" the man-of-all-work--after a long administration of its out-door affairs in the soft service of an easily-gratified mistress (the dear "Lady of the Wheeled Chair") had been abstracted from the family circle, the first step in our gardening was to call in the local "Man with the Hoe." This useful personage (let it here be said) was not--like Mr. Markham's terrible hero--"Brother to the ox." His "jaw" and "forehead" were all right, and, owing to the use of a hoe with proper length of handle, "The Weight of the Centuries" had not disturbed the contour of his back. One could not swear that he knew his "Plato" (alas, how few of us _do_!) and as to "The Swing of the Pleiades," it was not his immediate concern. His it was, rather, to interest himself with the hoeing and edging of graveled walks, the weeding of kitchen and flower-gardens, the pruning of shrubs and vines, and the "making of two" lilies "grow where but one grew before." And so far from being (like Markham's man) "fraught with menace to the universe" _our_ "Man with the Hoe"--in that small section of it within his immediate radius--was considered a positive _blessing_! Was it not on _his_ good right arm that we--"the deserving poor"--to whom Providence had apportioned vegetable patches, flower-borders, and bits of lawn with intersecting graveled paths, and denied the luxury of a resident "hired man"--depended for the presentability of our "outdoors"? Poor Millet! one fancies his astonishment at Markham's terrible presentation of his peasant model! Himself of their guild, he painted his brother peasants in all honesty; and being neither pessimist nor anarchist, but working simply from the standpoint of the artist, has so made them immortal. But to return to our own undertaking--our first task was the dislodgment of the stubborn tangle of persistent thimbleberry vines, sturdy saplings of ash and chestnut, and long-established waxberries. This done, we made, on the south, facing the "king's highway" and near enough to give delight and perfume to the foot-passenger, a brand new flower bed. In the middle of each square of lawn a raised circle, edged with stone, was made for the spring hyacinths and tulips (these to be succeeded later with cannas and bright summer flowers). Relegating the kitchen garden to a less conspicuous place, we prepared the cabbage-patch for our little rose-garden. All this heavy work done--"The Man with the Hoe" was, for the time, discharged. Our Cambridge home had, for nearly two decades, been the property of one who in the Harvard Botanical Garden had "a friend at court" and had thus found it possible to secure for his grounds many choice shrubs and hardy herbaceous plants. Himself a skilled and enthusiastic horticulturist--after twenty years of painstaking cultivation, his garden close, with its mellow low-lying site and unobstructed southern exposure, had become a miracle of productiveness. It had not, like the Medford garden, been "laid out." Flowers, fruit, and vegetables, were all in a riotous jumble; yet each the perfection of its kind. The marvel was that one small garden could carry such a load of growth! Pears, early and late, of the juiciest and sweetest; big yellow quinces, currants, white and red, raspberries, thimbleberries, and blackberries by the bushel! And (crowning glory of all) a huge gravenstein with fruit fair as the famous golden apples tended by the "Daughters of the Evening Star." To this garden, for many years, my good husband had devoted his leisure hours. Two years before our removal to "The Garden with House Attached" he had left us for the far-off Unknown Land; and it was therefore with tender touch that we uprooted the shrubs and plants of his care--together with the flowers that _I_ had tended. The cold frame was full of thrifty seedlings--Primroses, Iceland poppies, and other beauties. In the open, there were Lilies, Peonies--rose-pink and creamy white--big Drummond Phloxes, and Roses _ad infinitum_--two heaped cartloads in all--carried over by "The Third Son," and before the earliest frost, so well bestowed by his able hands, as to have rooted themselves in the mellow soil of the new garden. Not one of these succumbed to the perils of transplantation--not even the five-year-old peach tree, whose certain dissolution all had prophesied, but which bravely withstood the risk of removal, and now, each spring, puts on its crown of pink splendor, which duly turns to juicy fruit beneath the sun that shines upon the grave of him whose hand, long years ago, planted its tiny stone. Later on, we put in the tulip and hyacinth bulbs, and, when at last the entire garden, beneath its warm coverlet of dressing and leaves, composed itself for a long winter nap--like the poet's "goose-woman"--we "Blessed ourselves, and cursed ourselves, And rested from our labors." CHAPTER III _The "Lady's" Conservatory_ Meantime, the dear "Lady" (who had anticipated our coming to the Mansion House, by a sudden resolve to commit her burden of housekeeping to younger and abler hands--and retain of her old establishment but a single personal attendant--as faithful friend, companion, and amanuensis) wheeled into the very thick of action--had watched with anxious eyes this removal of ancient landmarks--this general upheaval of things. An almost helpless invalid--wheeled daily through eight patient summers into her beloved garden--she had sat with her beautiful silver hair arranged in careful curls, a big white sun-bonnet shading her kind old face, to receive her friends (both gentle and simple) with a cordial hospitality, and an old-time courtesy in fine keeping with herself and her surroundings. Innately conservative, the Lady was scarce in touch with innovation of any sort. A passionate lover of flowers, but scantily endowed with horticultural talent, and without a spark of creative genius, she smiled with dubious complacency on this awful devastation--comforting herself with the sweet anticipation of spring tulips and summer roses, in her very own garden! Dear Lady--her absolute trust in my gardening ability was indeed touching! One must "live up to the blue china" of one's reputation; so I did my very best; and when all was done, and the out-door darlings nestled safely beneath their winter coverlet, came the pleasure of looking after the house-plants--(by this time well-recovered from the vicissitudes of repotting and removal) and the bestowal of each in its winter quarters; and this leads me to a description of "The Conservatory." In a warm southwestern angle of "The Mansion House" there nestled a narrow piazza-like structure--opening, by long French windows, from both drawing and sitting room, and leading by a short flight of steps into the old garden. This erection--having been enclosed by sash-work of glass--and furnished with rugs, a big easy chair, a round table, and a penitential hair-cloth sofa, and supplied with rocking chairs, was, when the temperature permitted, the favorite lounging place of family and guest. Though warmed only by the sun, it had always been known as "The Conservatory" (probably because herein every autumn, the Lady's geraniums and fuchsias, taken in from the early frost, stood on the corner table, recovering from the fall potting on their way to winter quarters on the broad ledge of a sunny south window of her own bed chamber). Through the winter this unwarmed place was neither available for plant or man. Long before the possibility of ever moving to the Mansion House had entered my head, I had looked upon this conservatory with loving eyes, and, in fancy, pictured it, warmed and filled all winter long with lovely flowering plants. A Conservatory had been the dream of my life! And when _this_ fell to my lot, and, abolishing the stuffy cylinder stoves that had, heretofore, warmed the Mansion House, we put in a big furnace, I had directed the leading of a roomy pipe to this glass-enclosed quarter, and the out-door work well over, I pleased myself with arranging this new winter home for my darlings. The light sashes--warped by Time--had become "ram-shackly." I wedged them securely, and stuffing gaps with cotton batting carefully listed the outer door against "The west wind Mudjekeewis," and when all was done delightedly watched the vigorous growth of my well-housed darlings. Alas! short and sweet was my day of content. One fatal January night the mercury dropped suddenly to zero, and (as luck would have it) the furnace fire followed suit, and, in the morning, I awoke to find my precious plants stark and stiff against the panes. We promptly showered them with ice-cold water ("a hair of the dog that bit you" advises the old proverb). In vain! The blighted foliage stood black and shriveled in the morning sunshine! "All the King's horses and all the King's men Couldn't bring Humpty Dumpty up again!" All that could be done was to clip away the frost-bitten members, mellow the soil, and await a fresh supply of sap from the uninjured roots. As a matter of course the slowly recuperating plants could no longer be left to the random winter gambols of tricky "Mudjekeewis," but must be relegated to the old-time safety of window-seat and flower-stand. Thus ended my day-dream of a conservatory! Under this dispensation I consoled myself by nursing the invalids back to health and comparative prosperity, and, in late February, they amply repaid my care by abundant leafage and wealth of bloom. Meantime, the Freesias, and Narcissi, the Hyacinths and Tritelias, came one after another from the dark cellar, to sit in the sun, and cheer our wintry days with odor and bloom, and give delight to the dear invalid Lady. And here let me say that of all winter gardening I have found the house cultivation of bulbs most interesting and repaying. First there is the eager looking over the autumn catalogues and the well-considered selection of your bulbs. If your purse is long enough to warrant it, you may put on your list the costly _named_ varieties of your favorite colors among the hyacinths; if otherwise, you may still have the satisfaction of making a dollar or two go a long way; since after putting on your list a few choice bulbs, you get, at the department store, oceans of five-cent hyacinth bulbs, and, taking your chance as to color, have the added pleasure of the surprises thus secured. As the other desirable bulbs are comparatively inexpensive, you can finish your list from the catalogue, and thus have as many as you desire. The Oxalis has, presumably, been saved over from last winter's stock, and so, too, have the best of the Freesias. These are, no doubt, well-started about the first of September. Early in October some of the newly bought Freesias and some of all the other bulbs may be planted. The remainder may be potted in instalments, two or three weeks apart, the _last_ as late as December. You may use for hyacinths, at a pinch, quite small pots--say four-inch ones; but success is more certain in the five or six-inch sizes. The smaller bulbs may be planted in clumps in such sized pots as you like, about two inches apart. You may use prepared soil furnished very reasonably by the florist, or, if preferred, prepare it yourself after this formula: one-half mellow garden loam, one-quarter well-rotted cow manure, and for the remainder use leaf-mold, well-pulverized peat, and a good trowel-full of fine beach sand. Bulbs, though needing rich food, should never come directly in contact with their manure supply. In potting the larger bulbs leave about quarter of an inch above ground, but entirely bury the smaller ones. The big bulbs should be pressed firmly down, as they have a way of working up from the covering soil. Water well, and set in a cool, dark cellar. The oxalis and freesia sprout more quickly, and must not be left to send long pale shoots up in the dark, but the hyacinths and narcissi, though promised in six weeks, are often two months, and even longer, getting ready to come into the light. This should be done with caution, as they must first be greened in a shaded window, and not until later exposed to the direct beams of the sun. They may be given water in moderate supplies, and I have sometimes found a weekly allowance of "Bowker's Flower Food" desirable. My own selection of house bulbs usually comprises oxalis, freesia, the narcissi, hyacinth, and tritelia; many other desirable ones are to be had, but with a good supply of the above-named varieties, including a generous number of such inexpensive bulbs as the Paper-white Narcissus, and the Yellow "Daffies," one may count on a sweet succession of bloom from Christmas to May-time. In this connection I add a reprint of a paper long ago published in the "American Garden." It was originally prepared by me for the "Cambridge Plant Club," whose members were so kind as to assure me that they found it helpful and entertaining. It was copied from the "Garden" by the _Cambridge Tribune_, but may, nevertheless, be new to the present reader: CHAPTER IV _The House Garden. The Selection, Arrangement, and Culture of House Plants_ Apart from that æsthetic satisfaction which house plants afford, the principle of growth, which they exemplify, has its own strong and almost universal attraction. Thus it is that we behold in dust-blurred windows of squalid tenements rows of dented tomato cans, desolately holding their stunted geraniums, fuchsias, and other feeble bits of greenery. Such half-pathetic attempts at floriculture are, indeed, "touches of nature" that "make us kin" to the forlorn inmates of these shabby, ill-conditioned dwellings who, amid poverty and its possible degradation, have still courage for, at least, _one fine endeavor_. The sole purpose of this paper is to impart some simple knowledge gained through a long and earnestly-loving experience in the beautiful art of plant-culture. Our first step is the choice of our plants; and we shall do wisely to select such as will best accommodate themselves to the somewhat adverse conditions of furnace-heated and gas-lighted rooms such as most of us occupy. First and foremost in our collection should stand sweet-scented plants; not only because these impart to our rooms a delicious air of summer, and etherealize the atmosphere of our homes, but also because of their sanitary value, medical authority having distinctly declared that the perfume of growing flowers, exhaling on the in-door air, tends to neutralize fever and other disease-germs. For delicacy of perfume and continuity of bloom the heliotrope may take the first rank among odorous house plants. Its very name--derived from two Greek words, Helio, the sun, and trope, to turn--is charmingly suggestive of summer-time. The plant does not belie its name. It cannot have too many sun-kisses. As a cut-flower it is perishable and unsatisfactory, but its growing bloom lasts long, and holds its odor even in decay; it is delightful up to its very last breath. To secure good winter bloom from the heliotrope, begin in early summer with the plant while in the ground, and by repeated pinching-back make it sturdy and robust. This done, choose some cloudy afternoon, about the middle of August, for potting. Your soil should be thus prepared: one-third good loam, one-third leaf-mold, and one-third well-rotted manure; a few pinches of soot may be added, and enough white sand mixed through the whole to keep it light and dainty. Pot carefully, and with as little root disturbance as may be. Water thoroughly, and keep the plant in shade until its leaves recover their tone. After this it may stand in the sun, if given plenty of water, for a week or two, while the buds get under way. Be sure to house before the faintest suspicion of frost, as this sun-lover is extremely tender, and the slightest nipping harms it. Give it a southern exposure in your room, and place close to the glass; and if you have not a double window, leave the fly-screen in to save the leaves and blossoms from immediate contact with frosty panes. A heliotrope should never once become wholly dry, and should have a weekly drink of manure-water, which must be about the color of moderately strong coffee. For insect pests, dust the leaves with a light feather-brush, and then wash thoroughly. This process must be repeated as often as the insects appear. The odorous sacred lily of China we all, no doubt, grow yearly in water, with a bottom layer or two of pebbles. It is well to make incisions lengthwise of the bulb with a sharp knife before planting, and there should be lumps of charcoal among the pebbles to keep the water sweet. A single bulb, thus treated, will give one seven flower-stalks. The old-fashioned plant, the calla, though less common than it was twenty years ago, if grown in an artistic vase and given an entire window, is beautiful. It has been said of the calla that "it needs water like a mill, heat like a furnace, food like an army, and absolute rest during the summer." "Keep its feet in water," says the florist. In its native habitat it is in water to the depth of a foot or more, in broad open sunlight, and in soil as rich as decayed vegetation can make it. Soon after flowering season the water subsides, and the soil becomes as dry as it is possible to get in the tropics. Here, nature teaches us how to cultivate the calla. The canna thrives admirably as a house plant, and has a happy way of accommodating itself to circumstances, which makes it especially desirable for decorative effect. In a sunny window it will flower all winter if given abundant heat. In a north window of the same room it will give one beautiful foliage, and it will, "at a pinch," take a back seat and hold its own in the shade, grouped with the statuary and screens, where, with its large, handsome leaves, it will impart to the drawing-room a certain air of oriental languor and magnificence. The canna should be lifted early in September and placed in rich loam, in a large, well-shaped pot or vase, and kept for a week or two in the open, in partial shade, and well watered. It must be carefully housed before the lightest frost appears. Its vigor and beauty are increased by the addition of wood soot to the soil. All the begonias thrive well as house plants. My experience with the new and choice varieties has not been sufficient to enable me to give valuable advice in regard to their culture. I had formerly supposed that a north window might suit a begonia. It was a mistaken impression. The plant, I find, needs sunlight and a warm atmosphere. It must be regularly and carefully watered, and I have found it best to give the small-leaved begonia its water from the saucer. The smooth-leaved begonias are said to affect a Sunday morning cup of coffee by way of gloss to their foliage. I have seen a superb one thus treated, but have never tried the experiment. The plant likes an occasional watering with soot tea while making its summer growth in the garden. The coleus, as a window plant, affords fine color effects, but the plant is too tender to be agreeable for house-culture. It requires an invariably high temperature, a fair amount of sunlight, regular moisture, and very rich soil. This given it will grow superbly, but if overtaken, in some unguarded hour, with the slightest chill, it loses its beauty and vigor. The house coleus is almost sure to become infested with mealy-bugs. These may be picked off, and thereafter the plant should be given a careful wash of kerosene water, which must be repeated as often as the pests appear. The formula for this spray, which is used for roses at Mount Auburn, was thus given me by an expert. It is simply one wine-glass of kerosene oil to a gallon of water. Ferns, as decorative plants, are beautiful and easily grown, though all do not succeed with the maidenhair. All ferns should have an abundance of light, but not too much sun. I have found an eastern exposure the very best possible. Ferns should be placed in the full light of a window, given a high temperature and watered evenly, but not too much. The soil should be partially renewed annually, and care should be taken with the roots, which do not like disturbance; especially is this to be observed with the maidenhair, which, if possible, should _never_ be transplanted, and should have its stated period of entire rest, during which it should be kept almost dry. The fuchsia is, properly, an out-door bloomer, but with care can be brought to flower in winter. To this end, pinch back in summer, and in September house, and place in a north or east window. Give much light, water freely with warm water, and give liquid manure and soot tea about twice a week. If given an entire window both flower and foliage will be superb, with this treatment. Time would fail me to enumerate all the desirable plants for house-culture; there is the orange tree, the costly palm, the delicate asparagus, the achyranthes, anthericum, and curculigo, the aspidistra, cyclamen, and many more equally beautiful and practicable, and last, but not least, the inevitable rubber plant, a little stiff and heavy perhaps, but as a single plant decidedly effective. In arranging a table or stand of mixed plants, care should be taken to give each its proper growing place without marring the general effect. Heliotrope, that ardent sun-lover, should have the front row, close to the window-glass. Beside it should sit a begonia or two, and some flowering geraniums. A petunia and a bridal-rose might come next--the petunia twined among the others to hide its scraggy limbs. A nicotiana, well in the light, might make the evenings sweet with its perfume, and if the room be not over-warm, a pot of mignonette might sweeten the air by day, and at night be removed to cooler quarters. In the "middle aisle" an achyranthes or two may stand with sunlight sifting through its fiery leaves, which have thus all the color-effect of blossoms without their perishability. Further back, anthericum may flourish, with curculigo spreading queenly its fluted palm-like leaves, and always craving moisture. And in the "pauper's pew" Wandering Jew will contentedly sit, like charity, kindly covering the entire defects of staring pots that needs must hold its betters; and on the floor, at the foot of all, aspidistra may seem to "choose darkness rather than light." If you need a growing amaryllis or two to eke out your foliage display, they will take a shady place, though to bring them into flower you need a strong, steady sunlight. Nicotiana, or tobacco plant, is another fragrant and desirable plant. It thrives in about the same soil as the heliotrope, but needs an entirely different exposure, being one of the few plants that flower perfectly in a sunless window. Experimenting with the nicotiana as a house plant, I found that in a south window the plant was not robust, was scant of bloom, and the flowers quite perishable in comparison with the blossoms in a north window, where the plants grew to a height of more than five feet, and, together, produced one hundred and fifty-six flowers. Through the entire winter no ray of sunlight reached them. They were trained on stout strings quite close to the glass of a double window, kept moist, and given an even temperature of from sixty-five to seventy degrees, and were watered well with liquid manure. [Illustration: The Circle on the Lawn] At evening the blossoms expand, and all through the night it is as if the room were "Perfumed from an unseen censer, swung by angels." Among the sweet-scented tribe mignonette ranks high as an out-door plant, and as a window bloomer it is exquisite. It rarely outlives transplanting, but may be sown in pots about mid-summer, and pinched back for the house. Another method is to obtain the plant from the florist when in bud. The cost is trifling, and if kept cool and in a sunny window, it will continue in bloom for weeks. Mignonette needs much sunlight, but not too high a temperature, and the plant is much weakened by a single day's omission in watering. Another--now almost obsolete--fragrant house plant is the night-blooming jasmine. Its odor is peculiar and intense, and--as its name implies--is only emitted by night. Its foliage is not especially delicate, but nothing can be more dainty than its slender spikes of pale, greenish-white bloom. It is a thrifty plant, making in a single summer a growth of five or six feet. It is a shrub, but one could fancy that, ages ago, it must have been a "sport" of a climber, so slender and rapid is its habit of growth. After flowering-time, which begins late in July and continues until late in October, it drops most of its foliage, which is soon replaced by young, delicate shoots and fresh leaves and buds. The Daphne odora, which combines in its small clusters of bloom the exquisite perfume of many sweet flowers, may not be lightly passed by. It is not an easy plant to manage, and often drops its buds just as they seem ready to open. By placing it in the sunny window of a cool room, and watering evenly and not too copiously, it may be brought into flower; and then nothing can be finer than its fragrance. The more homely and familiar hyacinth is not only delightful in form, color, and odor, but may be recommended as a "safe investment," as it seldom fails to flower and needs comparatively little care. The mahernia is another desirable fragrant plant. It is very effective in a hanging-basket. It comes in flower about the first of February, and its tiny yellow cups are brimful of delicious odor. A home-bred mahernia makes fine foliage, but seldom blooms abundantly; it is, therefore, best to procure the plant from the florist when fully budded. It will then flower well in a sunny window, and for three or four weeks one's room will be as sweet as summer. The wax-plant, though properly a summer blooming plant, sometimes flowers in winter. Its blossoms are very odorous, especially by night, and in structure and color they are exquisite. It is a long-lived plant, easily raised and tended, and, being a climber, may be tastefully trained on a trellis, where, with its glossy, rubber-like leaves, it is very effective. The petunia, as a window plant, blooms freely, and the white variety is fragrant--especially by night. The plant is rather ungainly in its habit of growth. To conceal its scragginess of structure twine its stems among other foliage on your stand, and place it close to the glass, and you will find it pretty and effective. And now that sweet-smelling plants are under consideration, may I not give you the details of an experiment with the common lilac as a house plant? It was made some fifteen years ago, and before I had the slightest knowledge of lilac-forcing, which is now quite common among our florists. Early in December a stout, low bush of the hardy purple variety was, with the aid of a pickaxe, dislodged from the frost-bound earth, and with its frozen ball of sod still adhering, thus treated: a large nail-keg, having an auger-hole in its bottom on which some bits of crock were strewn, was filled to about half its depth with warm stable manure; on this the dry leafless bush, with its frozen soil, was set, and the keg filled in with mellow loam. After a good watering, the keg was placed in a deep pan, which was then filled with boiling water, and the whole set near a huge hall stove. The hot water was daily renewed at the bottom, and before many days leaf and flower-buds began to swell on the hard, bare stems of the bush. When these were well formed and the tiny buds quite distinguishable among the pale green foliage, the lilac was removed from its dim corner beside the stove, and given an entire east window in the long hall, where the temperature ranged from forty to sixty, and sometimes as high as seventy degrees. In about two months from the time of housing fourteen large and perfect clusters of pearl-white lilacs rejoiced our eyes. These blossoms were far more delicate in odor than out-door lilacs, and made a delightful atmosphere of spring-time in the homely old farm-house which was then our dwelling-place. We had, too, the novel pleasure of surprising our friends with clusters of fresh lilac in February. French florists, who give much attention to lilac-forcing, lay great stress upon the necessity of keeping the bush in the dark in order to bleach the flowers--white lilacs being most marketable, and the common purple lilac most available for forcing on account of its superior vitality. Fortunately I stumbled upon the right treatment, and mine seemed to come white of their own sweet will. For a hanging-basket use the oxalis, of which there are many beautiful varieties. It flowers abundantly, but as the season advances, must be stimulated with repeated applications of liquid manure and soot tea, that its foliage may not lose its vigor and become straggly. Wandering Jew, though structurally coarse, is a good hanging plant, and will accommodate itself to any exposure, really doing its very best in a north window. Ivy geranium is another hanging plant, beautiful in structure, and with its double rose-pink blossoms, as in the improved varieties, most fair to see. It demands strong food, much moisture, and oceans of sunlight. Madeira vine and German ivy both make effective hanging-baskets. The latter is too alluring to the green fly to make its house-culture easy or satisfactory. Smilax, if trained on strings, in a sunny window, is exquisitely delicate, and its blossom is odorous. The English ivy, as in-door greenery, is delightful. I have attempted its culture, but my experience being but a series of ignoble defeats, is not commendable. I wish it were! The odious scale has at last compelled me to abandon the field. I must also confess to repeated failure with in-door geraniums. Mine have not bloomed well, and a geranium without its blossoms is a poor affair (not including the scented varieties). Last autumn, after having tried many methods with many kinds, I turned over a new leaf in geranium culture. All my best geraniums were consigned to an upper room, where no furnace heat could reach them, and where, in cold nights, the temperature falls perilously near to freezing point. The plants have a southern window, and through the day the room is moderately warmed from the ascending heat of the kitchen. Geraniums (and fuchsias and nasturtiums as well) have taken kindly to this low temperature, the geraniums blooming as finely as in the open during summer. Many of us have, no doubt, seen floating about in print, the little story of that pot of geranium which was the sole bequest of a dying man to his family, who carefully tended this precious, though not pecuniarily valuable legacy. When spring came the pot was reverently committed to the cemetery lot to summer close beside the grave of the buried husband and father. On removing it in autumn, the plant was found to have outgrown its quarters, and was tenderly dislodged for repotting. To the great surprise of these good people a hollow false bottom was found in the original pot, and on its removal a little fortune in bank notes was disclosed, which, as the story ran, had obligingly kept themselves intact for the heirs in this odd storing-place. This tale has been cited of late by a scientific floriculturist, as evidence of the deplorable ignorance of the common mind in regard to absolutely necessary conditions for growth demanded by a plant. "A geranium," he authoritatively tells us, "cannot exist without drainage, hence an account which asserts that one has for months survived the ordeal of a tight-bottom pot can have no foundation in fact." So we have been taught, but, alas for the infallibility of time-honored theories! In the material world new discoveries are continually upsetting old conclusions; and we are now told that our geraniums and fuchsias have a natural affinity for tight-bottomed tomato cans! The finest geranium in my present collection has the proud distinction of growing in a water-tight lard kettle. Though a young and blooming plant, it was held in light esteem by its owner because of a vicious tendency to magenta, and in the autumn, no pot being at hand, was given this apparently thin chance of survival. Not only has it carried its buds and blossoms straight on through the entire winter, but it has graciously overcome its perversity in the matter of color, changing from a glaring magenta to a deep and lovely rose. In the same group is a large white geranium three years old, which, after blooming all summer in the garden, has never once, throughout the winter, been out of bud and blossom. This well-behaved plant grows in an old butter tub which stands squarely on its "own" sound "bottom," unmutilated by gimlet or auger. The plant had, in late winter, ten clusters of bud and bloom, while its small neighbor of the lard kettle had six. A nasturtium, in the same window, flowers abundantly, and a fuchsia beside it is a paragon among plants. All these have had weekly applications of manure water and soot tea, and have not been kept over-wet. Especially is this true of the geraniums--which may, perhaps, partly explain their dispensing with drainage. The finest hyacinth I have ever grown in the house perfected in a handleless fancy pitcher which had no outlet at the bottom. Having no pot of the right size, some lumps of charcoal were thrown into this make-shift affair, the soil tossed in, and the bulb, not without serious misgivings, carefully planted. It flowered late, but its foliage was abundant and its bloom exquisite. It gave me five perfect rose-colored spikes. These all, in common with my other plants (excepting ferns and aspidistras) were well fed with liquid manure and soot tea, and, in potting, a little wood ashes was added to the soil. That very old-fashioned plant, the bridal-rose, is a free winter bloomer, and has a kindly way of sending up a perpetual supply of shoots for one's neighbors and friends. But, taking roses altogether, they are not profitable house plants. The constant battle with insect pests is fatiguing, and one cannot spray and fumigate and spray and fumigate incessantly, as the florist does. Now and then, after hard labor, virtue has its reward in the shape of an exquisite rose or two, but even then, "the play is scarce worth the candle." The same may be said of carnations, which not only teem with insects, but require a much lower temperature than we have in our living rooms, as also do winter violets. As to the finer uses of house plants, I have but time to suggest, in conclusion, that whoever cultivates them from sheer material satisfaction in their growth, from mere pleasure in their structural perfection, or with an eye single to their market value (as a florist naturally must), overlooking their poetical--I had almost said their religious side--has grasped but a small portion of the delight to be derived from floriculture, and has wholly missed that divine inspiration, that mental help, which emanates from "a thing of beauty" and makes it "a joy forever." CHAPTER V _At Easter-time_ April was two weeks old. Already Passion-week had come. Easter-time would soon begin. Crocuses dotted the short new grass on the lawn. Mated robins chose nesting places in the old orchard, and the big cherry tree had put on its crown of snow-tipped buds. On that cheery spring morning--wheeled out for her daily airing--"The Lady" looked expectantly at the bulbs' circles, where the newly uncovered hyacinths and tulips--pushing vigorously up for the sun's warm kisses--already showed bud and leaf of pale tender green. Dear patient Lady! Would that God had spared her to see another "Spring put on its bloom," but ere the day had done He called her to the "Immortal gardens where angels are the wardens." With scarce a pang, her tired old heart ceased beating. It had been the fancy of this dear cousin of my husband to select me among her relatives as the superintendent of her funeral--to "lay her away," as she quaintly expressed it--and it had long been impressed upon me that I must "save myself" for that responsible trust. Often when I came over from Cambridge to share her mid-day meal, she looked compassionately at my tired face, as I arranged the big basket of flowers brought for her vases (among which she especially doted on the pansies, with their charming variety of color), and holding up a warning finger, said discouragedly: "Cousin, you over-work. Take more rest, or you will pass on before me, and _then_, who will lay me away?" And so it was, that on Easter Sunday--not altogether without that "pomp and circumstance" which, from time immemorial, had attended the Mansion House funerals--I arranged her burial. With the sweet spring air coming in at the open sunny window--flowers perfuming and brightening the house and clasped loosely in her folded hands, and with so sweet a smile upon her lips that it half seemed a welcome to the neighbors and friends who looked their last upon her benignant face, still untouched by "the finger of decay"--I gave her grudgingly to the cold dark grave, where among her dear kindred (in a self-chosen site) we laid her--"ashes to ashes, dust to dust." The simple head-stone appointed by herself marks the spot; it holds this tender legend, prepared by one who knew her: "Her life was sweet with charity and patience." I like to fancy her "homing shade" still, in the long summer afternoons, haunting the old garden of her love; watching, as of old, the flitting of butterflies, listening to the glad singing of birds, and marking upon the lawn the lovely shadows lengthen in the west'ring sun. "Only the forgotten are dead." CHAPTER VI _Burglar-proof_ That strain in the New England make-up which manifests itself in "taking care of things" ran in the blood of the dear Lady. Her provident forbears--intent upon "getting the best" of any burglar bent upon the acquisition of the family silver--had protected many of the first floor windows with prison-like bars of iron. Later on, when the "Conservatory," with its long southern exposure of glass, had been added to the Mansion, there arose the necessity of some invincible protection of _that_ quarter from midnight prowlers. To this end, Jacobs--the family carpenter--was called in. This good man having constructed six stout wooden trellises--all precisely alike--they were set along the southern flower border, giving upon the exposed glass stretch of conservatory. In front of these trellises were planted six thrifty young _"Akebia Quinata" vines_--funereal of flower, and dense and clover-like in foliage. These greedy feeders, gradually crowding out the more dainty flowering perennials, were ultimately joined by a tangled growth of coarse encroaching shrubs and vigorous self-sown saplings, the whole interlaced by a strong poison-ivy vine. Meantime, the outer door of the conservatory had but the protection of a common lock, at which, as we all know, any enterprising burglar would derisively snap his capable fingers. Be that as it may, the dear Lady found in this leafy barricade her chief defense against midnight robbery. Now that the conservatory was to be widened and made into a piazza--early one May morning, during the "Third Son's" week of vacation, he put his capable shoulder to the wheel, along with that of the "Man with the Hoe"--who, like the Sexton in Cock Robin, equipped with "his little spade and shovel," fell upon this tangled border. Although in most respects a very lion of valor, the "Man" would run like a frighted girl from a troop of Yellow Jackets--and before Poison Ivy he "shook in his shoes." So work was delayed while he went for his pruning gloves, and thus armed and equipped, came stoutly to the onset. And now carefully removing the few bulbs of Japan Lily that year after year found strength to hold their own on the outskirts of this jungle, the two fell mightily on the trellised vines, the shrubs, the young trees, and the insidious ivy, and when the town clock that day told the hour of noon, the "burglar barricade" was among the things that _had been_, and were _not_; and the unharmful ashes of poison ivy lay blackened on its funeral pyre. Since the dear Lady had gone where the burglar ceases from troubling, we held it no disrespect to her honored memory to demolish the "barricade" preparatory to the widening of the old conservatory, and the turning of the whole into a roomy piazza--where, all summer long, one may take after-dinner coffee and naps, may read, write, and sew, have afternoon tea with friend or neighbor--breathing, meantime, invigorating out-door air. And now began the earnest work of "putting to rights" the entire garden; and if in this little account of that undertaking (without adding one iota to the reader's botanical knowledge) I may furnish some useful hints to the amateur, and may, incidentally, entertain with such various bits of information in regard to the works and ways of flowering plants, the origin and fitness of their names, and their relations to human life, as come of the "reading of many books," and so encourage in my fellow-woman that habit of spending much time "with body and with spirit," in "God's out-of-doors," which is one of Van Dyke's beautiful steps "in the footpath of peace," my end in making this book will be well attained. CHAPTER VII _Perennials_ To begin with the hardy perennials--which, to be effective, should be in a border of their own. At the outset, this should be made free of stones, then mellow the earth as far down as two feet. At the bottom put in about one foot of well-seasoned manure. Now add leaf-mold, a little peat, a sprinkling of wood ashes, and a top layer of sifted garden loam. If the soil be clayey, add some fine pure sand, to keep it friable. Seeds of perennials are naturally slow in germinating--their time of coming up being a period varying from one week to two months. It may here be stated that all perennial plants undergo a period of rest. It is not certain that this "_rest_" is in any sense a recuperation. It is supposed to be a hereditary trait induced by natural environment--a means by which the plant resists untoward circumstances of climate. In the tropics, plants rest during dry seasons, in much the same manner as during our Northern winters. Investigations--so far--show that this hereditary trait has not been entirely overcome by culture. Any attempt of the cultivator to ignore this resting period is apt to injure the plant, from the fact that any energy used in abnormal development may be subtracted from subsequent growth or development. Before I had taken this "old-time garden" in hand--fashioning new borders, and freeing the old from encumbering jungles--many plants, both annual and perennial, had, no doubt, found place in it as before stated. Groups of blue-eyed periwinkle still held their own among usurping forces. A discouraged day-lily looked forlornly out of the tangle, where year by year a courageous double English violet shyly perfected a blossom or two. Here and there a straggling bush of blush roses reached out for the June sunshine, and, to my delight, I found--half strangled among the over-growth--my old acquaintance, a pink flowering almond. The dear old thing was "on its last legs." We carefully removed it to kindlier quarters. Straightway it took heart, and sending up new green shoots, gave us, that very year, upon "the parent stem" a tuft or two of rosy bloom. Now, after ten years of high living, it has become an illustrious shrub; and to sit in the old garden in the May-time while the shadows and sunshine dance together on the lawn and vernal odors sweeten all the air, watching the long pink wreaths of flowering almond sway in the south wind, is to lend one's self to the divine gladness of spring, and know that simple joy in living, that is the birthright of all God's creatures in this--His beautiful and perfect--world. The flowering almond has been often divided, and all about the garden its rosy wreaths may now be seen. * * * * * Here, too, was another old friend, the Yellow Globe flower--a shrub too large and straggling of habit to find a home in the perennial beds. It has taken a front seat among the tall shrubs and repeated itself many times. It has a long period of blooming, and is a most satisfactory inhabitant of the garden. And now, as a possible help in the selection and arrangement of the perennial border, let me tell you what I have learned in regard to those under my care, in respect to their habit of growth, their treatment, and characteristics. * * * * * The Rose is, as we know, crowned queen of the flowers, and has her own separate place in the garden; but as the Lily kindly fraternizes with all her sister-flowers, and is easily Queen among the _social perennials_, I give her the first place in this catalogue of my border favorites. The Lily--we are told--derives its name from the Celtic word _li_--signifying whiteness and purity. Quick to seize upon symbolic accessories to their art, the old painters put in the hand of the angelic messenger who brought to the Virgin Mary tidings of her divine motherhood, this chaste and exquisite flower. Hence the _Lilium Candidum_ was known as the "Lily of Annunciation" and as the Madonna Lily, which last is, I think, the more poetic and beautiful of the two names. As the genus _lilium_ embraces about fifty distinct species one may not aspire to a large show of lilies in a moderate-sized garden. "It does not seem necessary," says Mr. C. L. Allen (an expert in lily cultivation) "to improve, or rather, to attempt an improvement on that which is already perfect, as the lily is, wherever found in its natural habitat. It seems to us that nature has exhausted her resources in the perfection of the species, and regards as an interference all efforts of man to improve her work." "L. Candidum," says the same authority, "is older than history, as the first notice made of plants speaks of it as a 'well-known plant.' It is the loveliest, as well as the oldest, and if we were to have but one lily Candidum would be the one." I quite agree with this decision. The Madonna has ever been the lily dearest to my heart. Although its native habitat is the Levant, the Candidum has adapted itself to our colder temperature, and is easily perfected in our temperate climate, and in the hardy garden. Some twenty years ago this lily was extensively forced for the Easter market. In the present decade the Bermuda Lily (L. longiflorum) is almost exclusively forced for the Easter trade, and popularly known as the "Easter Lily." Its cultivation for that April festival has now become one of the established industries of that lovely clime. The bulbs--there grown in wide flowery fields--are, early in autumn, received by our florists and directly potted for the Easter harvest. A lady passing the winter in Bermuda brought from that island some bulbs of L. longiflorum, which finally coming into the possession of Mr. H. K. Harris of Philadelphia, he honored the flower by bestowing upon it his own name, and as L. Harrisii, brought it into prominent notice among our florists, who now force it for Easter-time. The Bermuda-grown bulbs are preferred by them to the Dutch-grown ones, as they are earlier ripened and come into bloom quicker. For myself I prefer the Madonna, with its more open flower, to the trumpet-like Bermuda. It is, too, an old acquaintance, has a more delicate odor, and hangs its sprays more gracefully. The Bermuda needs much coaxing to live through our bleak Northern winters, but the Candidum is absolutely hardy. The Madonna holds to her corner with the tenacity of a family cat--she is a long time settling herself in a "strange garret." Mine had undergone the vicissitude of three moving days before settling in their present quarters. I distributed them well through my sunniest border. Their next neighbors were some elderly Bee Larkspurs. The first and second year the lovely blue Delphiniums did most of the blooming. After that the Lilies and Larkspurs punctually celebrated together the "great and glorious Fourth"--the tall Madonnas (some years in throngs of two hundred) leading the fair procession--the Larkspurs like swarms of blue butterflies flitting about among the snow of the lilies. Then, for a time, every friend in the neighborhood had a dainty spray of summer lilies for decorative uses. Finally, it befell that the coarser perennials elbowed the lilies too closely. They grew chary of bloom, and sometimes the bulbs quite gave up the struggle for existence. Then it was that, calling in the aid of "The Man with the Hoe," I made for my "Queen Lilies" a new home, with better drainage. The Madonna after her July flowering takes a rest. Her favorite moving day is about the last of July. I have not an extensive knowledge of lily-culture, having but few varieties of this lovely plant in my garden. All, excepting the Japanese (Lilium auratum) take kindly to my borders, and "increase an hundred fold." My list includes a few plants of the Japanese found here in the purlieus of the old "burglar barricade." I am indebted to Mrs. Ely for this information in regard to L. auratum: "As soon as planted in this country a microbe disease attacks the bulb and they gradually disappear under its ravages." This, no doubt, accounts for the unhealthy appearance of my few L. auratums, their scant tale of blossoms, and their sad tendency, year by year, to "grow beautifully less." America, after all, is but the step-mother of this charming flower, and Nature somewhat repudiates this much calumniated tie. In English gardens they are said to thrive well, which may, in part, be due to better climatic conditions. In my borders the _Candidum_ takes the front seat. Here and there I make place for L. Tigrinum (the well-known tiger-lily). In shady places sits the Day Lily. I have a single plant of the tall Nankin-colored Lily, variously named (Lilium Excelsum, Testacum, Isabellinum). The stalk is sometimes nearly five feet high, and produces from three to twelve reflex flowers of a dainty Nankin hue--delicately shaded and fragrant. In flowering it immediately follows the Madonna. The Excelsum is not of Japanese origin. How, when, or where it was born is yet unknown. It is said to be easy of culture, and this season I intend to remove mine to a less crowded situation, as I should long ago have done, but for dread of taking chances with the one plant. There may be a garden where Nankin Lilies are "thick as blackberries," but it has been my fortune to see but one plant, and I have found that the flower is a stranger to all who have met it in my border. The Nankin Lily came from our Cambridge garden, and presumably was originally grown in the Harvard Botanic Garden. I have, too, the old-fashioned, sweet-scented, early-blooming Yellow Lily. I have never known it by its Latin name, but believe it to be Hansoni--a Japanese lily, as it answers in every particular to the description of that plant. Were the flower more lasting it would be more desirable. Its bloom, which comes in clusters, has, singly, but the short life of a day. With delight I found this dear lily of my far-away childhood in one of these old-time borders. It is perfectly hardy, and wonderfully prolific in bulbs. My garden has now scant room for all its Yellow Lilies, and _this_ after friends and neighbors have kindly relieved me of some of this "embarrassment of riches." The Lilies-of-the-valley must be kept to their own beds, where they double and treble themselves incontinently. Last, but not of least place in my heart, comes that flower thus charmingly vended by "Perdita"--in "Winter's Tale"-- "Lilies of all kinds--the Flower de Luce being one." The familiar old-time Flower de Luce, a vigorous clump of which I found in the "Attached Garden" (growing along with the Yellow Lily and the "live-forever" plants), is with us a native product, and absolutely hardy. The smaller varieties grow wild in swamp and meadow, and are, I think, invariably, blue as the noon-day heaven. These are sometimes known as "Flags." The cultivated hardy Irises are of several colors. Mine is a lively blue, shading off to bluish white. In these days we grow in our gardens many lovely foreign Irises--some of them so beautiful that they have been called "the connecting link between the Lilies and the Orchids." The flower of the Spanish Iris is very lovely and of various colors, quite fragrant, and appears in June. It is classed by Dutch bulb growers as perfectly hardy, but in our trying climate needs to be protected by a slight winter covering. The (so named) English Iris is a native of the Pyrenees, but, as we are told, has been common in English gardens since 1571. The flowers are of varied color--blue, white, lavender, crimson, and yellow. _L. Germanica_, or German Iris, is one of the most valuable of the early-flowering sorts for the herbaceous border. This Iris is bulbous-rooted, easily propagated, and (though classed as hardy) is greatly benefited by a light winter covering of leaves. In color the flowers are blue, bright yellow, purple, of all shades, and white. Japanese Iris (I. Kæmpferi) is with us fully acclimated, a gross feeder, and a strong grower, and an abundant bloomer. Its flowers are from six to ten inches in diameter, in various shades of color--pure white, dark purple, porcelain blue, maroon, violet, plum, and so on--all with very distinct pencilings and marblings, and exquisitely beautiful. I have no Japanese Irises in my garden, but a kind neighbor sends me superb cut-blooms from his perfect Iris border. Mr. Allen says that the well-cultivated seedling of Japan Iris "has no superior in the floral world." Iris is named from Iris, the goddess of the rainbow--in classic mythology the swift-footed Olympian messenger. The root of the Florentine Iris is fragrant. It has a charming violet-like odor, and is the well-known sweet Orris root (the name corrupted from Iris) of commerce. In Shakespeare's day the Iris and the Daffodil were both included among the lilies. Some species of Iris have from early times been called _Fleur de lis_, or in English, Flower de luce. The Fleur de lis adopted by Louis the VIIth of France as the emblem for his shield during the Crusades was, probably, the White Iris. Older monarchies in Eastern countries, considering the Iris an emblem of power, used it--in a conventionalized form--as an emblem, on their scepters, and in this form the manufacturer still patterns it on table-linen. In the mysterious representations of antique Egypt the Iris was placed on the brow of the Sphinx. Altogether considered it is a most desirable ornament of the garden, and a flower "of mark and likelihood." It is recorded in the Greek legends that the physician Pæon cured Pluto of a wound with the common Peony; hence it is called after him in almost every country in Europe. The ancient Greeks are said to have held the plant in high repute, believing it to be of divine origin, and an emanation from the moon. Pagan superstitions die hard, and in our Christian civilization still hold their own among the ignorant masses. Mrs. Pratt tells us that in England "the lower classes turn beads of the Peony root, which form necklaces for their children, and are supposed to aid dentition, and prevent convulsions." We learn from her that at the end of the 16th century the double red Peony--at that time introduced into Antwerp from Switzerland--was too expensive a flower for any but the rich man's garden, a single plant selling for twelve pounds! "The Mongols," she tells us, "use the seed of the wild Peony in tea, and flavor their broth with its roots." Among ourselves no garden is complete without this lovely hardy perennial. From my childhood the big red Peony--coming in late May-time--has been, to my mind, the very embodiment of Spring! Of all the Peonies this flower of my early love is most precious--beloved less for its dear blowsy self than for its sweet associations--memories of by-gone springs when life and joy went hand in hand, and grass was not greening on the graves of my dead. I have in my borders but four colors of this fine flower--red, white, pink, and pink with white center--this last a single variety, and an indefatigable bloomer. The red, white, and rose pink are all the doublest of their kind, and the two latter are deliriously odorous. Of late, Peonies of many colors are to be had from the seedsman--pink, purple, and salmon-colored varieties of exquisite form and color. The Peony is greatly disquieted by removal, and, though sturdily tenacious of life, refuses for a year or two after transplanting, to "do its level best." It is increased by division of tubers, or may be propagated by seed. The division and replanting should be done in October, and one should see that there is, at least, one eye on each tuber. The Peony may be commended to the perennial grower, not only as a lovely flower, but as a plant to "tie to." It never gets winter-killed, blossoms punctually, and has no pernickity notions in regard to situation. It will grow in any soil, but to do its best requires to be well fed and to have the loam about it kept loose and friable, the same as for the rose. * * * * * The Foxglove (Digitalis) beautifully repays one's care. Unhappily it has a tendency to succumb to the harshness of our climate, and often gets winter-killed; surviving this ordeal, it is--with its charming spikes of white, purple, and pinkish lilac bloom--the pride of the garden. Four years ago I had, in the western end of a southward-facing border, a superb clump of this lovely biennial. Many times a day I went to look at these exquisite flowers. As I stood before them in admiration a friend often joined me, and while we stood admiring them, I thought of the Persian flower-worship--an account of which I had come across in my reading and stored in my collection of "Useful Clippings." Here it is. I cannot now recall the name of its author: "A Persian saunters into a garden and stands and meditates on each flower before him, as in a half vision. "When the vision is fulfilled, and the ideal flower sought for found, he spreads his mat and sits before it until the setting of the sun, then folding his mat he goes home. "The next night he returns with friends--in ever-increasing troops, and they sit before it playing the lute, or guitar, and then all together join in prayer. "After prayer they still sit before it sipping sherbet and chatting late in the moonlight, and so again every evening until the flower dies." This oriental vein of plant and flower-worship seems to have been found in all Persians--even in royalty itself! It is related of Xerxes the Great that he lost a battle by delaying a whole day with his army under the shade of a gigantic plane tree, which so charmed him that he caused it to be adorned with a golden circlet. But, to return to the Foxgloves--five or six years ago one in my border made a new departure. It "sported"! It should perhaps be explained that to _sport_ is to produce a flower, or a shoot, of abnormal growth. Long ago I read a most interesting paper "On Sports." I do not remember the name of its writer, nor of the English magazine in which I found it, and after an exhaustive search in our town library have not been able to find a second paper on the subject, or to obtain further information in regard to this curious tendency from any botanist. I remember that the English article stated that this tendency in plant or shrub to ignore Nature and take things into its own hands, was sometimes utilized by the horticulturist as an opportunity to propagate from the "Sport" a new variety of the normal plant, or shrub. Here then was my chance! From the seed of this enterprising _digitalis_ (which bore at its apex a flower almost as flat as a daisy) I would develop a new variety--a radiate Foxglove. I confided my ambition to a friend who, although himself a teacher of botany, had never included in his research the subject of "Sports." This botanical expert took great interest in my "Sport"--watching it with me from day to day. Alas, vain were my hopes of giving to the world a new flower! The radiate Foxglove declined the honor of reproduction; dropping its mottled petals, and slowly shrinking away without forming a seed pod! A queer characteristic of the "Sport" was thus asserted in the English article before mentioned: "When a plant _sports_, all plants of its kind, wherever growing, also _sport_." Now one may admit the fact of a single plant having (as it were) flown in the face of Mother Nature, but when it comes to the whole family--"all the aunts and cousins," from Dan to Beersheba, joining in the frolic, one can but wonder and doubt the Munchausen-like statement. Calling that summer on a Cambridge friend (a member of our Plant Club, whose flower-garden is a miracle of beauty): "One of my Foxgloves has sported," I proudly boasted. "So has one of _mine_," she said, "and it is the first _sport_ I have ever seen." So the magazine statement was, after all, believable! Yes, away across the Atlantic, in English gardens, the Foxglove--obedient to this marvelous natural impulse of its being--was trying its hand at a radiate flower! I find it well that my _sport_ did not germinate, since the regularly formed Foxglove suits the tall spike "to a T," and is far lovelier than any freak of a flower could be. Since making a record of my Foxglove _sport_ I have learned that this flower often produces at the tip of its blossom stalk an abortive radiate flower. I wonder if the Foxglove did not originally start out as a radiate, and if this freak is not a wild tendency of the plant to escape that evoluted form (which is its civilization) and lapse into its primitive barbarism? The Foxglove comes in bloom late in June and continues flowering about four weeks. Though classed as a biennial, it sometimes lingers on through a third summer, and continues flowering. It is named from its finger-shaped corolla. The dried leaf of _Digitalis Purpurea_ is a specific for disturbance of circulation, and is used in heart disease. Its colors are pure white, white mottled with pencil-color, purple, lavender, from the palest to the deepest shades--some almost pink--all curiously mottled on the inside of the flower, which grows in tall spikes. Sow Foxgloves in seed bed about last of April, and, late in September, transplant to their permanent place. They will bloom the following year. Both Foxgloves and Canterbury Bells sow themselves profusely if stalk is left to perfect its seeds. The self-sown plants are said to be stronger than the hand-sown ones, and may be transplanted for the next year's blooming. CANTERBURY BELLS, _Campanula medium_ It has been suggested that "the name of Canterbury Bells may have been given to the giant species of Campanula from its resemblance to the hand-bells which were placed on poles, and rung by pilgrims while proceeding to the shrine of Thomas à Becket." Chaucer, in his "Canterbury Tales," has described in detail these processions to the tomb of the "blisful martir." The Canterbury Bell is, like the Foxglove, a biennial, and may be sown in the seed bed at the same time, or the self-sown plants may be used. It needs winter protection (not too heavy), for it is easily winter-killed. I have, at times, had in my garden most lovely Campanulas--both double, single, and "cup and saucers." The most beautiful variety is the single. In color mine were white, purple, and lavender, of many shades, but the pride of my heart was a rose-pink Canterbury Bell. "Beautiful as a dream!" said the garden visitor, moved to admiration at the sight of these pink beauties. Lovely as they are, Canterbury Bells have not the grace to die nicely. Their dead blossoms cling, withered and unsightly, to the parent stem, and unless one has time and patience to go among the plants daily and remove the dead bells it is, for this reason, well to cultivate them in inconspicuous beds apart by themselves. Another most desirable plant for the perennial border is Phlox (from the Greek _flame_). Time was when we had but the white and purple, the latter tending to that odious color magenta, which some one has happily said is "a color that has no right to be." The above varieties I found in the old border, growing amicably together. It is not without touches of remorse that I deliberately uproot anything that bears the name of flower, but, since I could remember, there has been a deadly feud between purple Phlox and myself. I keep a single root for old-time sake, which it gives me a megrim to look at. The white has been transplanted and has grown apace, until there are oceans of it in my borders. I have, too, some of the fine varieties of "Phlox Drummondi." One of them, a deep salmon red, with a dark eye, is literally a bit of "_flame_." There are pinks with maroon-colored eyes, whites with pinkish eyes, pure white, lilac shaded with carmine, and light salmon with wine-colored eyes. I love best the pure white and dark salmon pink, but scarce could spare any of these from my color-scheme. The Phlox is the hardiest of herbaceous perennials, easily propagated by division, or from seed. With me, the seed-grown Phloxes have not come true in color. It is, I think, wisest to select plants in flowering time among varieties in a florist's collection, and order them at once. They are so tough that any moving day suits them, and one can scarce have too many, as they begin blooming in early August, when the border is somewhat forlorn, and last until frost. * * * * * Day-lily is the common name of a species of the Asphodelus. The ancients planted Asphodels near graves to supply the manes of their dead with nourishment. The poets, probably taking their cue from this, have celebrated the Asphodel in song as the flower of the immortals. I have thought that the bloom of the Day-lily, exquisite in form and odor, needs but the added charm of immortality to fit it for "Angel gardens," but alas, its only defect is its evanescence--a single day bounds its life on this planet. Its foliage is very ornamental, and for grouping with perennials it is a plant greatly to be desired. It is easily propagated. From one sickly root found in the old garden I have grown for my own garden Day-lilies ad infinitum, and easily spared many for those of my neighbors. It needs to be well fed, and will accept any respectable situation, and, though doing well in the sun, is most eligible for shady spots where other plants refuse to grow. * * * * * The Sweet-William--Dianthus--is hardy enough and perennial enough, profuse of bloom, and gay in color, yet nevertheless from the show places of my garden I have banished it "for good and all," because of its tendency to sprawl about the borders after flowering time, wan and withered, and making faces at the freshly-gowned Foxgloves and Canterbury Bells, then thronging the borders. The Sweet-William has quietly taken a back seat, and, owing me no grudge, contentedly blooms on, as if to "blush unseen" were its special province. [Illustration: The Man with the Hoe] With those tough little members of the Dianthus family, China Pinks, I have been most successful. It is a perennial, but too low-growing to make any marked show among the taller flowers. It is prettily varied in color, but lacks the odor of the Clove Pink. It is a profuse bloomer, and makes a desirable pot-plant for the window garden. "The flower of the family" is the old Clove Pink, to which the parentage of our Carnation is by some accorded. The Elizabethan poet Drayton calls these sweet-smelling flowers "Cloves of Paradise," and Lawson--at the close of the sixteenth century--thus extols it: "Of all the flowers save the damask rose they are the most pleasant to sight and smell." "Their use," continues he, "is much in ornament, and comforting the spirits by the sense of smelling." A syrup made of Clove Pinks (with the probable addition of some stimulant) and called by our English forbears "Sops-in-wine," because of its use in giving flavor to the festive cup, gave to this flower its rather material appellation of Sops-in-wine. Thus sings Spenser: "Bring Carnations and Sops-in-wine Worn of paramours" (lovers--wooers). Bacon informs us that "Sops-in-wine, quantity for quantity, inebriate more than wine itself." A precious Clove Pink of Botanic Garden origin, for a time bloomed in my border. It has, long since, died of old age. * * * * * Shakespeare says in Othello: "Not poppy, nor mandragora, Nor all the drowsy syrups of the world Shall ever medicine thee to that sweet sleep Which thou had'st yesterday." Keats and many others have immortalized it in their verse. Burns thus points a moral with the flower: "Pleasures are like poppies spread, You seize the flower, its bloom is shed." The Papaver family has wrought much ill in its day. It is from P. _somniferum_, one of its members, that the opium of commerce is collected. It is the milky juice of the capsule, or of any other part of the plant which exudes from incisions in the cortical part. This juice, scraped off, is worked in the sun's heat till it is of a consistency to form cakes. The Oriental and Iceland Poppy are both perennial. Although like the Irishman, "not born in their own native country," they take kindly to our soil. Ten years ago I carefully sowed some seed of Oriental Poppy. Two of them consented to germinate, and now, from this small beginning, I have in my garden Orientals galore. Last spring these beauties kept my borders all aflame with their splendor. I counted, in a single border, eighty-five buds and blooms, and felt well-repaid for their careful nurture. Nevertheless, Oriental Poppies raised from seed mean much patient care, and many failures, but once thoroughly established they are "real estate," and have a kindly way of sowing themselves. As the Poppy, with its long "_tap_ root," is most impatient of removal, this habit especially commends them to the grower. The Iceland Poppy, though far less considerable in size, is very hardy, and with its dainty bloom of lemon, orange, red, and white, makes a pretty show in a bed by itself; and the Iceland is one of the few poppies available for one's vases. Mrs. Thaxter, in the beautiful account of her Isle of Shoals gardening, tells us that by cutting poppies in the dew of the morning, with the right hand, and plumping them straight into water with the left, she had great success with them as cut flowers. Following her method--unsuccessfully--I am forced to believe that the long and beautiful survival of her cut poppies depended largely on the crisp cool air of her Island home. Here the summer is many degrees hotter, and has far less moisture in its air, and, though morning after morning, tempted by their exquisite shades of color, I gather Shirley Poppies for the house, and like the Persian, fall down and worship them; in their slender vases they scarce outlive the day. A friend making a pilgrimage to Stratford-on-Avon brought me some seed supposedly from Anne Hathaway's garden. I sowed Madame Shakespeare's poppies with reverent care, but these English-born seeds patriotically refused to quicken in alien soil. No matter! they may have been but half-wild wind-sown things, and with my Shirleys, Icelands, and glorious Orientals, I can spare them. With the ancient Greeks, the poppy with its crowded capsules was an emblem of fertility. Cybele, the mother of the gods, wears a crown of poppies. In Roman gardens Somnus, the god of slumber, was anciently figured as reclining on a mass of snowy poppies, with a posy of these emblems of oblivion in his motionless hand. Mexican Indians are pictured as returning home after a day of toil, dancing and singing to the music of a guitar, and crowned with wreaths of this "forgetful flower." In the shops of Constantinople poppy juice mixed with rich fruit syrups is sold as a sweetmeat, or in the form of small lozenges on which are stamped "_Mash Allah_" (the work of God). Tartar couriers, traveling immense distances, and with marvelous speed and endurance, often, it is said, take no other nourishment than the famous "Mash Allah" of the Turks, in which the juice of hemp is mingled with that of the poppy. * * * * * The Columbine (Aquilegia) is a desirable plant for the border. Mine came from choice seed sent the Plant Club from Mr. Childs, a Philadelphia florist. They soon germinated, but were two years coming to bloom. There are now many beautiful colors to be had. I have but the yellow and white, the purple and white, and pure yellows. Once well-established, Columbines come to stay, and are most lovely! the garden plants flowering from the middle of May until late in June, and having the same graceful carriage of the wild variety, with flowers double their size, and with elegant long "spurs." Its name is from the Latin Columbinas (dove-like) so called from the beak-like spurs of its flowers. * * * * * In my mention of early-blooming perennials I had forgotten the Crown Imperial. It is a resident of most old gardens, and has the distinction of remote antiquity. Mention is made of it in an Herbal of 1596 for its "stately beautifulness," and the herbalist accords it a "first place in the _Garden_ of _Delight_." I have but a single plant of this early flower, which punctually leads off in the spring procession along with its neighbor, the red peony. The Eupatorium is not, I think, extensively cultivated in the garden. It is one of the hardiest of the later perennials. Mine was raised from seed. Having but one clump of it, I am always meaning to sow and to raise more plants of this dainty white flower, which comes with the Phloxes at the most flowerless time of the borders, but (to borrow an excuse from my slack old colored woman-of-all-work) "I haint jus' fetch roun' to it." I find the Eupatorium's name in my seed catalogue. It is not, there, classed with the hardy perennials. It grows high enough to make a fair show among the border plants. As will be seen, I have not in my borders a large assortment of perennials. My purse forbids a costly collection, and I think it well to undertake no more plants than can be well cared for in my hands, when much extra help cannot be afforded. To my list let me add a few low-growing beauties. The Italian peasant twines wreaths of the Periwinkle around the head of the departed infant or young maiden, and calls it _Fler di morte_ (Death's Flower). Because of the laurel-like tint and texture of its glossy leaves the Greek has termed it _Daphnoides_. In olden times it was highly valued for its medicinal virtues. Lord Bacon tells us that, in _his_ day, bands of green Periwinkle were bound about the limbs to prevent cramps. By Americans it is often miscalled _Myrtle_. It carpets finely the bare spaces in borders, especially the shady ones, where other perennials will not thrive. The Periwinkle is not an "up-to-date" plant. The seedsman of today gives it no place in his catalogue. I have several thrifty clumps of this pretty blue-eyed darling, and delight greatly in its bloom and its glossy trailing foliage. Periwinkle is one of the oldest flowers of the English garden. Chaucer in describing a garden of the olden time speaks of it as "Fresh Periwinkle, rich of hue," and places it on the same plane with the rose and violet. * * * * * The Forget-me-not is another low-growing perennial which may prettily carpet the bare spots between the taller occupants of the border. We have all associated the name of this charming little flower with the story of the chivalrous knight who wandered beside a stream with the lady of his love. In the attempt to procure for her some of its much-desired flowers growing on the opposite shore he was borne away by the current while returning to her side with the gathered blossoms, and, making a last effort, threw them on the margin of the engulfing flood, and crying "Forget-me-not," sank beneath the waters. Miss Strickland gives a less romantic but more probable narrative of the origin of the name. The exiled Henry of Lancaster, whose fortunes are related by Shakespeare in "King John," according to this writer, first gave to the Forget-me-not its emblematic meaning by writing it on his collar with the initial letter of his _mot_, or watchword, and on his restoration from banishment continued this heraldic use of the flower, adopted in his homesickness, even when raised to the fatal eminence of a king. * * * * * Some of the showiest of the annuals may be, in June, transplanted from the seed beds to brighten the borders through August and September, as the Yellow Marigolds, the Zinnias, the Nicotianas, the Cosmos, and the seedling Single Dahlias, which will bloom the first year, and if that dictum of Linnæus ("a double flower is a vegetable monster") may be accepted, are the beauties of the family. They are certainly more lovely for one's vases than the double Dahlias, and the white ones are, as a table decoration, scarce less charming than the white Cosmos. The Dahlia is named after Andrew Dahl, a Swedish botanist, and is a native of Mexico and Central America. It shows a natural disposition to _sport_ from its original form (single). Florists directed their attention to raising new forms of this flower. First attempts finally resulted in semi-double varieties, and early in the 18th century M. Doukelan, botanic gardener at Louvain, produced from seed three perfectly double plants. These are said to be the very first double Dahlia plants ever produced. The Dahlia is decidedly progressive. Its up-to-date achievement is the elegant Cactus variety. I sowed, this year, some seeds of double Dahlia. It is now October and a few of them (some very beautiful and quite Cactus-like) are in bloom. * * * * * Once upon a time there were in this garden thrifty borders of Box. These the dear Lady tried hard to keep intact. Every spring the failing rows were reset with small plants from the ancient stock, and were, first and last, the plague and despair of "the man's" busy life. At first I made the same futile attempt to restore the Box bordering. Now I have given up this idea of repairing the withered sections, but some six or eight large plants still in their beautiful perfection delight my heart. Some there are who object to the odor of Box, to others it is very pleasant and grateful. I am very fond of it, partly, I suppose, from its association with some much-admired gardens that I knew in childhood. Common Box has but two varieties, one of which is the Dwarf Box, used as an edging for flower-beds--the other (Tree Box) is described as of surprising thickness, and as tall as the beech tree. This tree is of great antiquity. It is mentioned in the Bible, with the fir tree and the pine, as affording wood for the temple of King Solomon. The wood of the Box tree is very valuable and durable. Virgil has thus sung its virtues: "Smooth-grained and proper for the turner's trade, Which curious hands may carve, and steel invade." Mrs. Pratt tells us that "in the North of England the old custom of each mourner carrying a sprig of Box at a funeral and throwing it in the grave still lingers." Wordsworth thus baldly refers to this practice, in his verse-- "Fresh sprigs of boxwood, not six months before, Filled the funeral basin at Timothy's door." In Turkey, the widow, who goes weekly to pray at the tomb of her husband, plants a sprig of Box at the head of the grave. CHAPTER VIII _Hollyhocks and Violets_ Hard by the Lover's walk, in an old-time bed, a blue Flower-de-luce, some roots of white and purple Phlox, a bunch or two of "Leaf-for-ever," and another of scented yellow Lilies, had long stoutly held their own. Here, every spring-time, the Lady caused to be planted her Dahlia bulbs--by no means the choicest of their kind, but taking amicably to the situation, and every autumn generously contributing their scarlet, lavender, and purple bloom to the color scheme of the big bowpots that adorned the side table in the "Mansion House" hall. Four years ago, late in July, to deaden the pain of a new bereavement, I prepared this bed for the reception of a few dozen Hollyhock plants. It was the place suggested for this use by him who had left me, and with many tender thoughts of the beloved one I undertook the carrying out of his wishes. Removing to other quarters the old inhabitants of the bed "The Man with the Hoe" dug deep and spared not for manure. This done, on a cloudy day we set the young plants. It seemed a risky undertaking to transplant at midsummer, but, covered for a time from the sun and faithfully watered, they all adjusted themselves to their new home, and have, ever since, thriven to my heart's content. The bed is long and of moderate width. The plants were set in two rows, about one foot apart, and in the space between the outer rows we put, here and there, smaller plants. In late autumn they all had a covering of litter and boughs, and were made snug for their winter nap. As the situation is high and exposed to "all the airts the wind may blow," it was not without misgivings that I waited for the spring uncovering and the after development. In due time the hardy darlings showed their pretty green shoots, and before midsummer they stood up in budded rows, ready to be staked, and about the thirteenth of July the bed burst into splendid bloom. My color scheme called for but two colors, pink and white, and wonderful it was to see the shading of the roseate flowers, varying, as it did, from wine color to such faint pink as lives between the dainty lips of a sea shell. On some stalks (more than eight feet high) the flowers came double as a cabbage rose; on others they were half double, and the out-and-out single ones had the sheen of satin and the transparency of gauze, and all were more or less creamy or lemon-hued at the center. I think it must be from the old association of Hollyhocks with village Fourth of July celebrations that the flower has to my mind a distinctly festal appearance. Standing at the end of my bed and looking down the rows of pink and white is to me like watching a holiday procession. Not a commonplace ordinary one, keeping step to the music of a brass band, with doughty policemen hustling the hoodlums in its rear, but one of chaste and joyous maidens gowned gayly in pink and white, such as may of old have been led by "Jephthah's daughter," what time she "went forth with timbrel and dances" to meet her rash, exultant father fresh from his victory over Israel's uncircumcised foes. Yes, the Hollyhock, though lacking the delicacy of the Lily and the fragrance of the Rose, is a flower "most fair to see." The yellows and purples are both beautiful, but for massing give me the reds, pinks, and whites. Sow in the seed bed each spring and thus have new plants to supply places made vacant in the show bed, and to bestow on neighbors who are starting rows of this fine hardy perennial. Hollyhock--O E holihoc--"holy mallow"--"blessed mallow"--is probably so named because brought from the Holy Land. * * * * * No garden is complete without its Violet bed. Ours was started eight years ago. We selected for it a spot "half in shade and half in shine," with a southern frontage, sheltered from the north by tall shrubs. Two packets of choice Russian Violet seed were then sown in friable soil, well sifted, and made rich with a bottom layer of old cow manure. The bed had been laid out, prepared, and sown by the dear hands of one whose gardening is now "all done." After all his care the seed never germinated, and early in the following autumn the bed was set with well-grown double Russian Violet plants bought of the florist. For a year or two these plants throve finely, blossomed abundantly, and increased fourfold. The third year the flowers degenerated in size and beauty, and though still, at May-time, the bloom punctually puts in an appearance, the Russians are, on the whole, far less satisfactory than the single English Violets brought from the Cambridge garden and growing in the end of the same bed. These flower most generously and come into bloom about ten days earlier than the Russians. The Violet has an obliging way of sowing its own seed, projecting them from its capsule with dynamic force. My English darlings have a lavish habit of scattering themselves about the lawn, in that fashion, and filling in the bare places in the bed. The Russians choose rather to be propagated from runners. Friends I have who grow year after year big velvety Russian Violets. Would that I had the skill to do likewise, but to me heaven denies the power of bringing these beauties to perfection. Yet (such as they are) I hold my Violets dear, and without them spring would scarce be spring. In all the old floral usages of the English the Violet holds a place next to the Rose. It was used at weddings, and had its place in other and sadder religious ceremonials. With the Troubadours it was an emblem of constancy. Their prize of a golden Violet to the best versifier of the flower's graces and beauties proves in how much esteem they held this April blossom. * * * * * The Pansy, one of the _Violas_, was much celebrated by the elder English poets, who gave it the charming name of "Heartsease." Pansies may be easily grown from seed. As they are less troubled by cold than most flowers--being half hardy--the seedlings may be treated as biennials. Transplant them from seed bed in September, and in November cover well with old manure, then add piled leaves and evergreen boughs, and the minute spring opens uncover. The young plants should not be allowed to flower in the autumn. Pick off the buds as they appear and they will be likely to give you bloom all summer long. I confess to an impatience that prompts to the buying of many baskets of Pansies in May, and thus securing flowers on the spot, besides selecting my favorite colors. These plants will not achieve much after their first season, but will grow "beautifully less" in size, and finally become like Lady's Delights, those pretty plebeian Violas that accept any soil, or situation, and show their cheery little faces among the cabbages, and even in the skimpy soil of the gravel walks. "There's Pansy, that's for thought," says Perdita, in "Winter's Tale." Pansy--French _pensee_, fancy or thought, from _penser_, to think. Heartsease--ease of heart--tranquillity of mind--is the poet's name of the flower. Of the common names one may choose between "Johnny Jump-up" and the more elegant Lady's Delight. The Violet, though but a tiny unassuming flower, is (both in verse and prose) often classed with the regal Rose. Both are delightful in perfume, and in that respect equally popular. Having small knowledge of rose-growing I do not presume to hold forth on "Rose Culture." Books on that subject are many and excellent, and I should but say with "Denis," the "Minister's double," when his turn came to make a speech at the committee meeting: "So much has been said, and so well said, that I will not further pursue the subject." Nevertheless, my next chapter shall be devoted to this "Queen-flower." CHAPTER IX _The Rose_ The Rose is no mushroom Queen. Her ancestry dates away back to the Garden of Eden, and if Eve did not there gather a rosebud _boutonniere_ for Adam, it was because that primitive young man had not a buttonhole "to his name." The Rose of all flowers has been most praised by poets. From Isaiah's day to our own they have celebrated its charms. In English history it figured as the badge in the feuds between the houses of York and Lancaster. Among the ancients the Rose was the symbol of secrecy, and was hung up at entertainments as a token that nothing there said was to be divulged--hence the well-known phrase "under the rose" (sub rosa). The Romans at their voluptuous entertainments suspended roses in golden network from the ceiling, which, throughout the feast, fell slowly upon the reclining guest. All day, while the skillful Roman _chef_ busied himself with his _ragouts_ of flamingo tongues, his _patés_ of locusts and honey, and his roasts garnished with "chilled mushrooms," slaves, in garden or forcing-house (as the season might be), wove fresh wreaths of roses for the invited guests, which beautiful youths, with hair in golden nets, waiting at the door of the _triclinium_, put upon their heads, warning them, as the custom was, to pass the threshold "right foot foremost." One sees, in fancy, the couches of these recumbent feasting voluptuaries, with the roses dropping, dropping, all night long, while the wine cup brimmed and "the hours went by on velvet feet." The flower-loving Persians held annually a "Feast of Roses," which, we are told, continued the whole time of their remaining in bloom, and still another known as "The Scattering of the Roses." Groups of beautiful children then went through the streets strewing these delicious flowers. Tom Moore tells us that "every part of the city was then as fragrant as if a caravan of musk from Khoten had passed through it." My own rose garden is not much to brag of, having been made up of such miscellaneous rose bushes as were (without outlay) attainable. The greater part of these had come over with us from the Cambridge garden. Most plentiful of all are the Blush Roses. (Bushels of their scented petals are yearly cured by me for Potpourri.) One or two bushes of it still straggled on in the old-time border, and brought up to their possibilities by transplantation and sufficient food, soon became good to see, as also did the lone rose bush from the edge of the grass-plot, dear to the Lady's heart as the gift of a dead friend, and, summer after summer feeding the delusive hope of bloom, nursed in her optimistic soul. Now there is a second bush of its kind, both bravely blooming. I have never learned the name of the Lone Rose. It is so very double that I have fancied it might be a descendant of the Persian "Gul sad buk," the Rose of a hundred leaves, a particular species much prized in the Vale of Cashmere. Be that as it may, it is a lovely flower. Its petals are legion, and its buds so rounded and compact as to have the appearance of big pink "alleys." More exquisite still is a single rose rescued from choking in a snarl of waxberry bushes. It has since taken to itself a big slice of the rose garden, and, enlarged by good living to twice its ancient size, its daintily shaded flowers, for decorative use, are simply perfection. Unhappily their bloom is evanescent. They seldom outlast in water a day and a night. Among the Cambridge roses was a little half-wild pink darling "unknown to fame." I found it at Farm Hill (Weymouth Town), where it ran riot among the vegetables in a carelessly ordered garden patch, and straggling through the picket fence, held its own among the seldom-trodden wayside weeds and grasses. Its color is bright pink, and it has the size and habit of the Scotch Rose, and is in full bloom when other roses are but buds. Another early pink rose which we found in the Cambridge garden is the next earliest. It flowers about the 9th of June. I have no clue to its name. It must have been one of the Botanic Garden roses. Its blossom is exquisite in form, but not over fragrant. In habit it is straggling, almost a climber, and does not take kindly to pruning. Then there are the well-known Damask Roses, which must have come long, long ago from the Harvard collection. In their own habitat the Damasks are cultivated for their mercantile value, being, as we are told, the special roses from which the costly foreign Attar is obtained. I had thought that the Damask Rose had in the family three colors, but Bacon sets me right. He says: "It is large, _pink_, hardy, and has not been known in England (at the time of his writing) above one hundred years." It is by no means a distinguished-looking rose, but seems to have conserved within its sweet heart the perfume of a thousand summers. A Yellow Scotch Rose takes kindly to my garden. A rose bought of a Cambridge florist for the beloved daughter, gone home to God (whose latest care it was), and now known as "Mary's Rose," bore well its second uprooting. It has come to be a tall bush, bearing abundant clusters of deep pink bloom, and all summer putting forth crisp shoots, with leaves red as a sunset cloud, and lovely as flowers for decorative uses. A Sweetbriar--rifled years ago from the wildwood--after a fourth transplanting knew three summers of thrifty growth in its latest home, and then gave up, without notice, the experiment of being cultivated. Not so a sturdy wilding brought all the way from Maine, as a dear souvenir of happy seaside "days that are no more." It still accommodates itself to Massachusetts soil and bears with fortitude the exigencies of Massachusetts "culchure." Last and best is my heart's joy--the white rose of my childhood. It has never revealed to me the secret of its botanic name; I simply know it as the "White Rose." Fifty years ago its sister roses might have been found in many dooryards--side by side with ragged pink cinnamon roses--thriving untended, loaded with bloom, and covering the low fronts of roadside farm-houses. Its flowers are lovely in form, with creamy petals, and just the faint suspicion of a blush at their heart. Its odor is all its own--a strong, chaste, wholesome scent, yet sweet withal as the "honey of Hymettus." All my life long it had been the desire of my heart to have a bush of this old-time white rose in my _very own_ garden. Time after time I had bought and planted it, but to watch it die; at last, when half a century of my life had gone, it surprised me in the Cambridge garden! The bush had evidently seen its best days, and when we moved to The Lilacs opinions varied as to the wisdom of transplanting so old a settler. We could but try, and so we tried and succeeded. The big scraggly bush is (ten years after) bravely holding its own, and summer after summer scantily bearing the same dear old roses. A second bush, propagated from the parent root, has been put in our Mt. Auburn burying lot. It is one of my idle fancies to have a white rose tree near my grave. Surely when "petals of its blown roses" fall upon the grass above my head "My heart will hear them and beat Tho' lain for a century dead." And now it is on my conscience that, in this authentic history, I have not yet confessed my disgraceful failure with Perpetual Roses. In the little bed, started ten years ago, but six decadent specimens now "hold the fort." I cannot state whether this shameful fact is the result of unfitness of soil, mistaken pruning, insufficient winter protection, or simply the malice of opposing Fate. Innumerable "Rose-grower's Guides" have been consulted in regard to loam, manure, and phosphates since I made this venture. Naturally, then, the soil cannot be greatly at fault, and as to "winter protection" I have, as directed, stacked the bushes in straw, covered the ground with good manure, topped by a covering of leaves held in place by strips of board. This failing, I have tried omitting the stacking, and using manure, leaves, and boards, and finally have fallen back on manure and leaves as a permanent "winter arrangement." In regard to pruning I have consulted many authorities, but "who shall decide when doctors disagree?" My Perpetuals have been pruned in early spring, at mid-summer, and in autumn--have been pruned a little and pruned a good deal, and with the same dreary result, and my ultimatum is--_prune not at all_. This final decision is in direct opposition to the convictions of "The Man with the Hoe," who, once the pruning shears are in his hand, is prone to emulate the insatiate old fellow of the New England Primer, commended to our childish attention by this awesome couplet: "Time cuts down all, Both great and small." This propensity to "trim things up" is the one flaw in the character of this useful person. On such days as he takes up his shears I follow anxiously in his wake, and with mild remonstrance stay his ruthless hand. So many Perpetuals have, first and last, lived out their little day in my garden that my poor brain refuses the task of recalling their names. Of the six bushes that still survive, two are Jacques, one an unreliable pink rose (name forgotten), which blooms when "so dispoged," usually drops its shrunken buds right and left, and, if quite convenient, perfects annually two or three lovely flowers of delicate pink and of marvelous size. Next in order are the two cherished white roses, the gift of a kind neighbor, that, regardless of early frosts, bear their pretty clusters up to the very last days of October. Lastly comes the tall thrifty bush procured years ago along with five sister bushes in the prize collection of a florist; the latter all died young. I cannot recall the name of the survivor, nor tell its color, for never once has it put forth bud or bloom. Hope, however, dies hard in the plant-lover's breast. Like the scriptural proprietor of the barren fig tree I still "dig about and dung" this incorrigible rose. Last year I sowed Single Dahlias in the bare spaces in this untoward rose bed, and when these and the two obliging white roses blossomed together I looked with complacency upon the effect and thanked Heaven that matters were no worse. Meantime my flower-loving neighbor, summer after summer, is bringing Perpetual Roses into perfect bloom--red roses, pink roses, and roses of waxy whiteness--large, fragrant, and altogether exquisite! To walk among his Tea Roses and sniff the scented air is like going out to "afternoon tea." The fine foliage of his bushes (in itself only less beautiful than their bloom) is the result of neither hellebore, insect powder, nor emulsion, but is simply kept immaculate with pure cold water. At early morning the bushes are vigorously showered. At nightfall the ever-ready hose is again in play. Under this heroic treatment the red spider gives up the fight and hostile insects of every variety hide their diminished heads. For the rest I think this marvelous success (which extends to every plant, shrub, and tree in his garden) is mainly due to a wise understanding of their individual needs, a fond love of them all, and a never-tiring patience. I have never cared for the Standard Roses. Like boys walking on stilts their performance is odd, but unbecoming. From Isaiah's day to our own the Rose has been well praised by poets. Here are some of the many stanzas, lines, and couplets that celebrate this beautiful Queen: "The desert shall blossom as the rose." --_Isaiah._ Before the Hebrew poet sung Eve was thus pictured in paradise: "Veiled in a cloud of fragrance where she stood Half-spied, so thick the roses blushing round About her glowed." --_Milton._ "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may; Old Time is still a-flying, And that same flower that smiles today Tomorrow may be dying." --_Herrick._ "What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet." "But earthlier happy is the rose distilled Than that which, withering on the virgin stem, Grows, lives, and dies, in single blessedness." --_Shakespeare._ "Die of a rose in aromatic pain." --_Pope._ "The budding rose above the rose full blown." --_Wordsworth._ "The rose is sweetest washed with morning dew." --_Scott._ "As though a rose should shut and be a bud again." --_Keats._ "You may place a hundred handfuls of fragrant herbs and flowers before the nightingale, yet he wishes not in his constant heart for more than the sweet breath of his beloved rose." --_Janie._ There is an Eastern legend telling that when Paradise was fading from earth an angel plucked and saved a single rose, which from that day has transmitted to its kind an immortal fragrance. No other flower has so many intimate relations to our humanity. It goes to the altar with the bride--to the tomb with the dead. Young happy hearts rejoice at its coming, and aged pulses ("slowed down" by Time's relentless hand) quicken anew with memories of long-past Junes. In the primal garden Eve herself must have given it its lovely, fitting name, and Juliet was wrong--by no "other" would it "smell as sweet." CHAPTER X _Border Bulbs_ The Salvias, grouped in the perennial border, make a fine color show. Coming when the earlier brightness of the season has passed, their scarlet clumps last from late August to the time of frost. Raised from seed their flowering season is briefer, and, as the plants are comparatively inexpensive, it is well to get their full worth by setting out well-grown Salvia plants in early June. The Gladiolus is another effective flower, and should find place in the perennial borders. Plant bulbs about the middle of May, and again in July, and thus secure a long flowering time, as a light frost does no harm to the plant. Gladiolus prefers a light loam, or a _moist_ sandy soil. Fresh manure will prove injurious. Mr. Allen tells us, in his book on "Bulbs, etc.," that "flowering bulbs of this plant may be produced from seed with a certainty of a greater variety and a chance for some remarkable forms. There is," declares he, "no other pleasure in gardening equal to that which comes from the growing of Gladiolus from seed." It is claimed for the Gladiolus that if cut for decorative use when the first flower on the stalk opens the spike will develop better in water than if left out in the open sun. I have no experimental knowledge of this assertion. Take up early in October, and store bulbs in cellar. "The Gladiolus belongs to the genera Iridaceæ. The genus contains about ninety species, nearly all of which are natives of the Cape of Good Hope." The Tuberose may be used in the garden with the same effect as the Gladiolus. Mexico is the land of its nativity, and two species make up the genus. In a quaint old book published in 1629 and entitled "The Garden of Pleasant Flowers" it is classed with the "Greater Indian Knobbed Hyacinth." "I have," says Parkinson (an old-time author), "thought it best to begin with this Jacinth (Hyacinth) because it is the greatest and highest, and also because the flowers hereof are in some likeness neare unto a Daffodille, although his root be tuberous, and not bulbous, as the rest are. The Indian Jacinth hath a thicke knobbed roote, yet formed into several heades, somewhat like unto bulbous rootes, with many thick fibres at the bottom of them. The toppes of the stalkes," he goes on to inform us, "are garnished with many faire, large, white flowers, each whereof are composed of six leaves, lying spread open as the flowers of the white Daffodille, with some short threads in the middle, and of a very sweet scent, or rather strong and headey." As may be seen in the above statement the Tuberose was first known as a "Jacinth" (Hyacinth) and was at that time a single flower. The double variety was raised as a seedling by M. Le Cour of Leyden, in Holland, who for many years would not under any circumstances part with a root of it. Even if after propagating a desired quantity, there was a surplus, he would cause every tuber to be cut in pieces and destroyed, in order to be the only possessor of so valuable a plant, and one which he considered the finest in the world. The Tuberose is a gross feeder, and succeeds best in light loam, but will grow in any moist rich soil. Its complete requisites are heat, water, and manure. If these are proportionate, no matter how much there may be, the plant will consume it. And here is an incident in Tuberose culture (backed by good authority) where Nature, scorning slower methods of evolution, "got on a hustle" and produced a new variety on the spot. I copy it verbatim from Mr. Allen's book: "In 1870 John Henderson of Flushing, N. Y. (a Tuberose cultivator), discovered growing in his field a number of plants of strong habit of growth, and with dark broad foliage. These he determined to keep apart from his main stock in order to see what the result would be. "Cultivating them in the same manner as his other Tuberose bulbs he discovered a distinct type of dwarf habit and much larger flowers. This he at once named the 'Pearl,' and from the then small stock the trade in what is known as 'Excelsior Pearl' is now wholly supplied. The Pearl is the favorite of the buyer, and takes the first place in the seedsman's catalogue." The Single Dahlia, flowering as it does after the early summer beauties have had their day, is an inexpensive "stop-gap" for the perennial border. One may plant, in late April, kept-over bulbs or propagate from seed sown first of May, and sure to flower the same year. The Nicotiana, though an annual, may be used freely in the perennial border. It is an evening bloomer and opens an hour or two before sunset, and looks and smells its divinest by the light of the full round moon. The young plants take kindly to removal, and may, with care, be changed from seed bed to border while flowering. CHAPTER XI _Annuals_ A well-ordered garden is, in a measure, dependent upon the annuals, coming in bloom (as they do) after most of the perennials have had their short summer hour. As February days lengthen the seedsman's catalogues come pouring in. Turning a resolute back on the allurements and temptations of "Prize Collections" I find it safer to pin my hopes to some well-tried seedsman, and selecting in accordance with experience and the length of my purse, send in an early order. Time was when I anticipated the season by starting, in early March, window boxes of asters, petunias, cosmos, and nasturtiums; experience has since taught me to await the slower seed time appointed for me by wise Mother Nature and sow in the open about the first week in May. The nasturtiums and sweet peas may be soaked over night and put in earlier, the _latter_ the moment frost is out of the ground, the _former_ about mid-April. If one can command a cold frame still earlier sowing of transplantable annuals is desirable. Seedlings thus raised are hardier than window growths and may be set in the open bed before May is over; with the house-sown annual one loses more of vigor than is gained by "forehandedness." Most annuals may be sown in the seed bed, which is the necessary appendage to the show beds--indeed, all excepting the cosmos and poppy, which cannot well bear removal. The transplanting may be done late in June, and, indeed, if a cloudy day be chosen for the work, on any afternoon throughout the summer. I have found that not only annuals but herbaceous plants, vines, and even shrubs may be moved at one's convenience without regard to the popular idea which restricts one to spring and fall transplanting. My own method is--first, have a coolish cloudy day, then dig holes and put oceans of water in them. Having made the soil of the seedling quite wet one may keep a little ball of it about the plant. Cover quickly with moist loam, then screen from sun with newspaper, a big basket, or a box in which airholes have been made, and keep well-watered until apparently rooted. A few high-growing annuals, as marigolds, coxcombs, zinnias, and four-o'clocks, may be used with effect in the empty spaces in perennial beds, where Oriental poppies and candidums have died down and have had their stalks cut. For this purpose let not the stiff-necked zinnia be despised. Easy of culture, ready to move at any date, and without a moment's notice and (if one save seed) in such cheap abundance that the undesirable colors and shades may be pulled up as soon as the blossom shows its face and cast aside with the weeds. The dreadful magentas are never once permitted a foothold in my garden; the whites, yellows, true pinks, salmon-pinks, and bright scarlets are all effective. That out-of-date annual, dear to our grandmothers, the Four-O'Clock should find a place in the perennial border. As will be inferred from its name, it is an afternoon bloomer. "Motley is its wear," and its color surprises more than repays one for the pains of raising. It has a faint delicate odor all its own, recalling the enchanted gardens of one's childhood, and that time of day when "school was out," and one went skipping home to pull nosegays. I lack space to give here the long list of desirable annuals. Most of these are low-growing and look best in their own beds, as Mignonette, Lady Slipper, Escholzia, Poppies, and so on. Centaurea (Bachelor's Button) should especially have an entire bed to itself. Mrs. Pratt tells us that in Germany it has been brought from the field to the garden bed, and by the gardener's skill has increased the number of its flowerets, and sometimes varied their hue. "It is the pet of the German ladies, who have given it the pretty name of _Bluet_. With us it is sometimes known as the 'Corn Flower.'" The Centaurea, according to Pliny, "is that famous hearbe wherewith Charon, the Centaure, as the report goeth, was cured; at what time having entertained Hercules in his cabin he would needs be handling and tampering with the weapons of his said guest so long, untille one of the arrows light upon his foote and wounded him dangerously." To this legend the plant may probably refer its name. [Illustration: Winter Corner at The Lilacs] Some of the low-growing annuals may effectively border the show beds where late in May the geraniums are set on the removal of spring bulbs, which I find it best to lift and dry off for fall planting. Clumps of Narcissi and Daffodils may remain permanently in the borders to make their summer growth, and the half-grown bulbs may be put in beds made in some out-of-the-way place for their especial propagation. In central positions on the lawn build raised circles for show bulbs; border with stone. Avoid turf borders, which imply a continual fight with tough grass roots. Have good loam, sifted fine, and well enriched with old cow manure. Make holes four inches deep, and put in each a sprinkling of fine sand to prevent the bulb coming in direct contact with manure in the soil. Plant bulbs in October, but do not cover with the final dry leaves and pine boughs until the very last of November, and be sure to uncover in spring as soon as the young sprouts push up for the sun. In summer, with two or three choice cannas in the center, some bright geraniums, and coleuses next, and a filling out of asters, petunias, and low Drummond Phlox from the seed bed, the circles will make a lovely show of color up to the very last day of summer and all through the month of September, and, on their groundwork of green lawn, be indeed fair to see. In back places of the garden sow seed for flower-cutting; among the best of these is the "White Branching Aster," the single Dahlia, and (if one can bring enough of these beauties into bloom) the white Cosmos. The yellow Daffodil, although in our climate it does not, as in Shakespeare's England, "Come before the swallow dares And take the winds of March with beauty," is among the earliest of our spring flowers and laughs our raw east winds to scorn. "Yellow," says Mrs. Jameson, "symbolizes the goodness of God." We cannot be better reminded of this divine attribute than by the Daffodil's smiling face looking up to us from the edge of perennial beds. The single white variety of Narcissi, known as Poet's Narcissus, must, I think, be the identical flower into which the vain beautiful youth of mythological notoriety (enamored of his own image reflected in a fountain) was changed. The gods did well by him. To this day it makes our May-time sweet, and as a cut flower it is perfection itself. Later, as the plants die down, one can remove its dead tops and sow Shirley Poppies above the bulbs, while they increase beneath and get ready for the next "spring opening." The Asphodel of the Greek poets, by some declared to be the Day Lily, is by others supposed to be the _Narcissus Poeticus_. The Tulip, as a bulb, is historically famous. It was brought to Europe from Persia in 1559 and was cultivated at Constantinople. From this city it found its way over Europe under the name of the Turkish Tulip. About a century after its first introduction it became, as we know, the object of commercial speculation. It is said that enormous prices were paid for a single bulb, and that as much as $3,000 was offered and refused in one instance. Speculators were even more excited and reckless than the growers, and many of the Dutch florists were ruined by their ventures. This mania happily wore itself out and the industry finally assumed a healthy tone. At the present time, according to the statement of Mr. C. L. Allen, to whom I am indebted for the above facts, more than seven hundred acres of Dutch soil are devoted to Tulip culture. Tulips have been grown from the seed by the millions. The named varieties are so great that it would be impossible to enumerate. One dealer alone boasts of more than eighteen hundred varieties. The seed bed's important part it is to furnish fresh plants to take the place of such perennials and biennials as are winter-killed or have outlived their flowering time. It should have light rich soil and, if possible, should have half the day in shade. CHAPTER XII _Climbers_ The originator of the "Mansion House" was compelled to obey literally the scripture injunction and "build upon a rock." A substratum of that safe "foundation" lay directly beneath the site chosen for his home and must have been hewn or exploded out previous to the placing of its corner stone. Consequently within a good foot or more of the house there is found but a thin layer of soil, where climbers may not obtain a foothold. I had formerly great success with perennial vines and creepers, among them may be counted Bignonia Radicans (Trumpet Creeper), "Baltimore Belle" (rose), Matrimony (now nearly obsolete), which I once trained with yellow Flowering Currant over the entire length and breadth of a veranda. This method of growing the Currant I claim as entirely my own. We latticed the piazza with copper wire, and its combination with the Matrimony (or "Tea Vine") was most effective and made a very dense screen. My Prairie Rose was also a marked success. So was my Hop Vine, my Scarlet Honeysuckle, and a pink climbing rose given me by a neighbor. I cannot recall its name, but well remember how it ran riot over an entire lattice, arched over the long French window in my first parlor, and how the June west wind blew its petals in from the raised window, in scented showers, about the parlor floor. Among the annual vines I have had fine Coboea Scandens--climbing like "Jack's bean" to the very top of things. With Moonflower I have failed, although I soaked the big seed over night and sowed with great care. It is an exquisite flower, and I have seen it brought into beautiful bloom. The common native Morning Glory, which "grows and takes no care," as a matter of course does well with all. Not so the Japanese (Ipomoea Imperialis). Lured by the seedsman's pictures of this wonder, year after year I waste good money on seed packets of that disappointing flower. My seed germinates after a fashion and sometimes I get a flower or two a trifle larger than those on the native vines, but about the same in color. Three summers ago I potted a seedling and gave it a small trellis. To my great delight it bore a few precious flowers of cerulean hue daintily striped with white. Thus encouraged I still include Japanese Morning Glories in my list of annuals, ordering them from one seedsman after another, if, peradventure, I might hit the man who furnishes the marvels which I have read about--the fluted, fringed, and rainbow-hued, the _bona fide Ipomoea Imperialis_. When, fifteen years ago, after a long absence, I went for a summer outing to my native town it was the time of Honeysuckles--the evening air was loaded with their perfume, for _there_ not to have a Honeysuckle is to be poor indeed. Glad was I to walk in the June moonlight and again revel in the dear familiar odor. When I again left my old home I bore with me three thrifty roots of this lovely vine given me by kind friends. These were carefully planted in a sheltered corner of our Cambridge garden. From that hour I have had Honeysuckles to spare. Grown to big precious vines the three came with us to this garden, where they now cover four wooden trellises, a bit of the garden wall, and an irregular arch at the end of our piazza. Their runners have supplied the entire neighborhood with young vines, twelve of which have already come into bloom, not counting one in Malden and another in Chelsea. Last winter in common with many others I suffered a partial loss of my Honeysuckles from winter-killing. The roots were, however, still intact, and, though we missed their full bloom, their foliage is now (middle of August) as fine as ever. It is but lately that I have learned that the Honeysuckle and the Woodbine of England are one and the same. The English Honeysuckle blooms monthly; the Japanese Honeysuckle is _not_ a monthly bloomer. It blossoms with the June roses, and sometimes bears a spray or two of bloom in late autumn. It differs in other ways from the English--has not its pink shading nor its dainty scent. Milton, in Lycidas, calls it "the well-attired Woodbine"--perhaps this is because of its continuous flowering. The oriental variety has in this day superseded the English. More rapid in growth and easier of culture it falls in with the hurrying sentiment of the time. It has been my good fortune to possess in my day three English Honeysuckles--_now_, mine are _all_ Japanese. The poets, from Chaucer down to Wordsworth, have sung the praises of the Woodbine. The elder poet drew his image of constant affection from the clinging nature of the Woodbine (or "bind") and its enduring hold on the wedded tree. Contrary to the habit of most other vines the Honeysuckle follows, in its windings, the sun. The Weigelia, a shrub belonging to the Honeysuckle family, was introduced from China, and is named after Weigel, a German naturalist. Here end my hints in regard to the selection and culture of such everyday herbaceous plants, shrubs, annuals, and vines as are attainable to the garden-lover of moderate means. Many rarer specimens are (as a matter of course) within reach of one with a longer purse, who holds (with me) that Victor Hugo "hit the nail on the head" when he paradoxically asserted that "the beautiful is as useful as the useful, perhaps more so." To me one of the beautiful uses of flowers is to cut them for interior decoration. Our grandmothers had no vocation for out-of-door life. A garden was to them a place to "grow things" in, to work and walk in, but to sit in? never! All the same the big "bowpots" were duly filled, and although less artistically arranged than the vases of today, were a part of the housewife's plan of living, and bore witness to the divine truth that "man cannot live by bread alone." Lafcadio Hearn tells us that "to the Japanese the arranging of a bough of blossoms is a serious act of life. That the placing of flowers is indeed an exact science, to the study of which a man may devote seven years, even fourteen years, before he will be acknowledged a master." As a rule avoid painted china vases in arranging cut flowers. Let the vase be artistic in shape and well adapted to the flowers it holds, but never so gay in color as to rival them. Single flowers arrange best, and, as a general rule, put each variety in a glass by itself. Roses, Nasturtiums, and Sweet Peas seem especially well-suited to table decoration. They are all "good enough to eat." CHAPTER XIII _Gardens "in Spain"_ The poorest of us have our "castles in Spain." Why not have our _gardens_? Such a garden I have "in my mind's eye," but before I make bold to describe this airy creation (which, for lack of leisure and "hard cash," is doomed never to materialize) let me explain that my garden in Spain is not purely ornamental; that its beds and walks, although tastefully laid out, are strictly devoted to "the useful," to culinary and medicinal ends. In earlier times our _Materia Medica_ (including though it did the unsavory pills and potions now become somewhat out of date) pinned its faith largely to Nature's ready-to-hand specifics. "Simples," as these herbs were then called (probably in contradistinction to the complex preparations of the doctor), were even in our own generation zealously gathered by our grandmothers; and I well remember the time when to be without dried herbs--Boneset, Hoarhound, Wormwood, Motherwort, Catnip, and Gentian--was to be shiftless indeed. In laying out this imaginary garden plot I have covered a good half acre of rich soil, which I have, in fancy, divided into pretty beds of various size and shape, with neat intersecting gravel walks. There I have sown or planted such herbs as once hung in generous bunches, drying leisurely, in all respectable garrets, when such minor ailments as "flesh is heir to" were cured on the spot and only on alarming occasions the doctor, with his pill boxes, his blisters, and lancet, called in. Various are the uses and virtues of these medicinal herbs. "Gentian," says an old herbalist, "will worke admirable cures for the stomache and lungs. It is also a special counter-poison against any poison, as against the violence of a mad dog's tooth." Modern physicians find one species of Gentian soporific and use it to procure sleep for the weary sufferer. G. Latea is the Gentian of commerce, and is used as a tonic. The old herbalists commend the Common Centaury as a cure for jaundice and ague, and tell us that an infusion of the plant removes freckles. Of Jacob's Ladder (a plant of the genus Smilax) Pliny tells us that the name by which it is known to us is derived from Polimis (war), because two kings having each claimed the merit of discovering the great uses of the herb had recourse to arms to settle the disputed question. The old "Simplers" (herbalists) commend Penny Royal tea as a remedy for coughs and colds--"goode and wholesome for the lungs"--and add that "a garlande of the plant worn about the heade will cure giddeness." Foxglove (Digitalis) was praised by old herbalists for its various medicinal uses, "divers having been cured thereby of falling sickness." Later, skillful practitioners have discovered its power over the action of the heart, and Digitalis has come to be a highly-valued medicine. Common Vervain rivals the Mistletoe in its occult usages. "Many old wives' fables tending to witchcraft and sorcerie," says Gerarde, "are written of Vervayne." "The Druids," according to Pliny, often used Vervain in "casting lots, telling fortunes, and foreshadowing future national events." Its gathering was attended with peculiar ceremonies. "It was to be sought for at the rising of the great Dog-star, and when plucken an offering of honeycomb was to be made to the Earth as a recompense for depriving her of so goodly an herb." The ancients believed that "if the hall or dining chamber be sprinkled with the water wherein Vervain lay steeped all that sate at the table should be very pleasant, and make merry more jocundly." The Romans considered it a sacred plant, placing it in the hands of ambassadors who were about to enter on important embassies; and the floors of their houses were rubbed with Vervain to drive away evil spirits. In England, at a later time, the plant was called "_Holy herb_," and had its superstitious usages intimating a belief in its magical properties. Of late years it is there tied round the neck as a charm to cure ague. Vervain is still believed to possess great medicinal virtues, and is described as a remedy for thirty different maladies. It had of old the expressive name of "Simpler's Joy." The Verbena tribe of this plant is cultivated in our gardens for its showy clusters of pink, purple, white, and dazzling scarlet blossoms, and the Lemon variety for its delicately fragrant leaves. According to the old "Simplers" "the roote of the Caraway may be eaten like the parsnip, and helpeth digestion and strengtheneth the stomaches of ancient (aged) people exceedingly, and they need not make a whole meal of them neither." In some countries Angelica is (we are told) called by a name signifying the "Holy Ghost." In ancient times its leaf stalks were blanched like those of celery and eaten as a salad, or they were dried and preserved as a sweet-meat, "Candied Angelica." The Laplander believes that the use of Angelica prolongs life, and chews it as he would do tobacco. The Highlanders have the same opinion of the virtues of Lovage. The simplers have advised "gentlewomen" "to nourse it up in their kitchen gardens to helpe their own family and their poore neighbors that are faire remote from phisitions and Chirurgeons." They also affirm that "if a man carry about him Angelica root the witches doe have no power over him." The nourishment in the roots of wild herbs has often kept the Indian tribes from starvation in times of scarcity of game, when they had to depend on these and on crows, eagles, and devil fish to sustain life while awaiting the "coming of the salmon," that in fishing time leaped in prodigious numbers in their rivers. I remember reading of an especially providential instance where in a region desolated by grasshoppers the people were, for the time, sustained on the _roots_ of herbs which these greedy cormorants had, necessarily, left intact. For an interesting and exhaustive treatment of this branch of botanical information the reader is referred to Anna Pratt's "British Flowering Plants," a work from which much of my own knowledge has been obtained. "If," says an old writer, "I shoulde set down all the sortes of herbes that are usually gathered for sallets I should not only speake of garden herbes, but of many herbes which grow wilde in the fieldes, or else be but weedes in a garden." George Herbert, in his "Priest to the Temple," while enumerating the duties of the parson and his family, thus writes: "For salves his wife seeks not the city, but prefers her gardens and fields before all outlandish gums; and surely hyssop, valerian, adder's tongue, melilot, and St. John's-wort, made into a salve, and elder, comfrey, and smallage made into poultice, have done great and rare cures." And he piously adds: "In curing of any, the Parson and his family, use to premise with prayer; for this is to cure like a parson, and this raiseth the action from the Shop to the Church." Catmint or Catnip is the "New Wine" of the Grimalkin family. It is said that it is not intoxicating to them until its odor is perceptible to their smell by breaking or bruising the plant. Catnip is fabled to make the most gentle human beings fierce and wrathful, and it is related of a certain pusillanimous hangman that he only gained courage to perform the duties of his wretched vocation by chewing catnip root. One who experimented with Catnip as an incitement to ferocity assures us that "for 24 hours after a dose of this root she retained a perfect equanimity of temper and feeling." But enough space has already been given to the healing herbs that plant themselves in my Garden in Spain, and now let me tell you of the dear little imaginary beds devoted to my sweet-scented "pot-herbs." In these I please myself with tending Coriander, Mint, Anise, and Cumin, Dill, Lovage, Thyme, Lavender, Angelica, Sweet Sicily, Rosemary, Comfrey, Fennel, Sweet Basil, Penny Royal, and Balm. Here, too, may be found less poetical herbs of solid worth in the cuisine--as Sage, Parsley, Summer Savory, Sweet Marjoram, and so on. Many fragrant pot-herbs are dear to my heart simply from long association, others are widely distinguished by historical eminence. Coriander has the especial claim of "long descent." Its pedigree dates back to the time of the Egyptian Pharaohs, and it is possibly coeval with the Sphinx and the pyramids. It would seem to have been in common use among the Hebrews at the time of their exodus from Egypt, as Moses, in the Book of Numbers, tells us that Manna was in appearance like Coriander seed. It is said to have been in use by the ancients both as a condiment and a medicine. In our day it forms an ingredient in Curry powder, and is used in confectionery. Mint, Rue, and Cumin have each a delightful flavor of antiquity. The tithe or tax upon these ancient herbs paid so scrupulously by the Pharisees bears testimony to their commercial value full nineteen centuries ago. To think of these miserable hypocrites having mint-sauce to their "spring lamb" and, possibly, "peppermint creams" to their dessert! It is, however, good to know that the dear little babies of the time were privileged with anise seed tea in the stress of colic. How bitter-flavored cumin served them I cannot say, but it is to be hoped that these "Scribes and Pharisees" (whom even their imitators frankly anathematize) what time they had "spring feelin's" were not let off with homemade decoctions of innocent "Simples," but were mercilessly dosed, by the "Holy Land" doctors, with nasty potions of Senna and Salts. Lavender, Rosemary, Basil, and Sweet Marjoram have all been celebrated in verse. Keats has sent cold shivers down our backs with his gruesome story of "Isabella" and her flower-pot of Sweet Basil, with its ghastly hiding: "And she forgot the stars, the moon, and sun, And she forgot the blue above the trees, And she forgot the dells where waters run, And she forgot the chilly autumn breeze; She had no knowledge when the day was done, And the new moon she saw not: but in peace Hung over her sweet Basil evermore, And moisten'd it with tears unto the core." Sweet Marjoram in England produces its fragrant blossom at such elevations as to have gained the pretty name "Joy of the Mountains." Shakespeare has added interest to it by making it the password in the tragedy of "King Lear." In fancy one can see the faithful Edgar with his mutilated father, the duke, climbing to the "dread summit of that chalky bourn," and hear Edgar saying to his father: "Hark! do you hear the sea?" "The swete marjoroms," says an old writer, "are not only much used to please the outward senses in nosegaies, and in the windows of houses, as also in swete powders, swete bags, and swete washing waters, but are also of much use in physick, to comfort the inward members." Caraway calls up the cookies dear to childhood, and a spray of green Fennel brings back, as if by touch of the enchanter's wand--"Minister Garner" in the old meetin'-house under the big "sounding board" (relentless as fate) pursuing his theme to the bitter end, while seated, in the pen-like box pew, beside our devout grandmother, we tone ourselves down to the solemn occasion, with no higher aspiration than the wish to be butterflies sailing gayly in the outside sunshine. Virtue has, at last, its reward. At about the minister's soporific "fifthly" our grandmother catches herself nodding. Opening her roomy black silk workbag she gives herself a saving nibble of fennel and passes a delicious spray of this spicy herb to each of her three grandchildren. Dear old grandma! a full half century ago her soul went home to God, yet still I recall my childish picture of her angel sweeping with wide wings the blue eternal spaces, with never-withering sprays of fennel in her hand. One lingers lovingly over these pretty "Herbs O' Grace," of which the half has not here been told. But, already it is time to write _finis_ at the end of this vagary--"My Garden in Spain." CHAPTER XIV _The Cerebral Processes of Plants_ I find it good to think of plants as mysterious fellow-existences, about which the half is not yet known--to speculate on their psychological properties--on what has been called "The cerebral processes of plants." Darwin has thus expressed himself on this interesting question: "It has," he says, "always pleased me to exalt plants in the scale of organized beings, and I therefore felt especial pleasure in showing how many and what admirably well-adapted movements the tip of a root possesses.... It was impossible in accordance with the principle of evolution," he goes on to say, "to account for climbing plants having been developed in so many widely different groups, unless all plants possess some slight power of movement of an analogous kind. This I proved to be the case." In his "Power of Movement in Plants" he still farther expresses this conviction: "The tips of all young growing parts of the higher plants continually revolve, bowing successively towards every point of the compass." And he declares that "it is hardly an exaggeration to say that the tip of the radicle endowed with such diverse kinds of sensitiveness and having the power to direct the movements of the adjoining parts, acts like the brain of one of the lower animals, the brain being seated within the anterior end of the body, receiving impressions from the sense-organs and directing the several movements." Great truths gain ground by inches. This assumption of the great scientist is not yet generally admitted, although, as I think, well established by experimental proof. An interesting paper in "Forest and Garden," prepared by T. D. Ingersoll of Erie, Pennsylvania, and entitled "Signs of Intelligence in a Madeira Vine." I here copy verbatim: "Two or three years ago I began, without any great seriousness, an experiment on some Madeira Vines, which presently began to prove more interesting than was anticipated. Before this my attention had been attracted to peculiar movements made by this plant in the course of its spiral ascent of a stick. If allowed to grow a few inches above the support the extremity of the plant will sway backward and forward a few hours and then will enter upon a regular revolving movement, always from right to left, or contrary to the direction in which the hands of a watch move. One revolution consumes about three hours. One of my plants began to grow on April first, and at the end of fourteen days was twelve inches tall and showing signs of uneasiness--now bending away from a vertical position and again standing nearly upright. On the 16th it was eighteen inches high, and, being too top-heavy to stand erect, it began to fall away from the pot, which stood upon a table, towards the floor. This was done gradually and apparently with conscious care. It seemed to feel at times that it was letting itself down too fast, when it would stop with a jerk, like a nodding child half asleep. When near the floor it began describing ellipses, about three inches in diameter, with its upturned extremity. On the 19th it was twenty-six inches in length, and would describe a crescent-shaped loop, seventeen inches in length by six inches in breadth, in about two hours. On the 23d it was three feet four inches long, revolving with less regularity, and at times drooped as if weary or discouraged in trying to find something upon which it might entwine itself. Thus far no opportunity had been given the plant to climb, since it was desirable to see what it would do to meet the absence of some support. On the 26th a new route of traverse was undertaken at 6 a.m., and at nine o'clock the extremity, which was near the floor at the left side of the pot, had described a circle six inches in diameter. It then slowly swept around to the right side and made another irregular circle, and then returned to the left side of the pot; these movements occupied just twelve hours. The track of the tip of the vine was carefully traced with a pencil upon a sheet of paper laid beneath it, and the entire line of traverse measured no less than six feet nine inches. During the evening the plant became quiet, and probably remained so all night. At 10 a.m. the next day, however, it began pointing its tip in various directions, and at noon assumed the form of a corkscrew, about four inches long, which posture it retained until night and then straightened out. On May first the vine was lifted and tied to a vertical support--a large thread--where it remained entirely quiescent for two days. Then it began growing again as if it had recovered from what had been for six days a condition near the point of death. "Another vine was observed carefully during several days of cloudy weather. It uncoiled itself from the stick and reached away toward the light at an angle with the horizon of forty-five degrees. It was carefully recoiled about its stick, but after it had grown some three inches more it unwound itself and stood away toward the window as before. Time after time during the continuance of the cloudy weather it was brought back to its support but invariably left it. Then followed a fortnight of bright sunny weather, during which the vine showed no disposition to escape from its stick or stop its twining growth. Attempts were made to induce another plant to twine in the direction opposite to its normal one, but no ingenuity could deceive the plant as to its proper course. All the experiments seemed to show how much like an animal was the plant in its sensitiveness, not only to changes of light and temperature, but to harsh treatment. Whenever restrained or forced, no matter how tenderly, out of its natural method of growth, all progress was retarded and the health of the vine disturbed in a marked degree. Plants seem to be creatures of feeling and the similarity of movement and apparent purpose between them and the lower orders of animals are used to strengthen their theory by those who hold to the doctrine of the identity of life in the two kingdoms." Dr. Dwight, in his paper in "Scribner's" entitled "Right-handedness" still further develops the theory of brain power in plants. "The spiral growth," says this writer, "of a graceful climbing plant, at first sight, suggests nothing like right or left-handedness, but the analogy when once seen is very striking. As the young plant begins its upward course it is clear that to make the coils which it is its nature to describe, it must either turn to the right or left. It might be supposed that its deviation to either side is the result of an accident, but this is impossible, for, though the individual plants of some kinds do twine indiscriminately to either side, some only curl to the right and others to the left. More remarkable still, some species twist in the opposite direction to that of the larger families to which they belong, and finally, sometimes a particular plant grows the wrong way. This is analogous to being left-handed." From Mrs. Pratt's "Flowering Plants of England" I take this account of the curious movements of the seed-vessel of the "Musk Stork's Bill." It is a relation of Mr. Mallet of Dublin of his personal observation of the capsule movements of this remarkable flower. "Each seed," says the writer, "of which there are five to each flower, is enclosed in a carpel, attached by its upper extremity to a tail or awn, which possesses the most wonderful hygrometric sensibility, as, indeed, does every other part of the plant. These five awns lie in grooves in the receptacle of the flowers, and this receptacle is central to and is the axis of all parts of the flower and the fruit. "When the whole system has arrived at a certain point of aridity the awns, which are provided with an exquisite power of torsion, hoist themselves out from their grooves and at the same moment a number of downy filaments, hidden in the back or inward face of the awns, bristle forth; they all now become detached and fall to the ground. But here they still continue to twist, and from the position in which they always lie keep tumbling over and over, and thus receding from the parent plant until at length they become perfect balloons, ready to be wafted away by every zephyr." The theory that "plants can see," or, at any rate, manage to find food and support by some special sense, which the unscientific mind cannot better name than to call it sight, has been corroborated in the "Rural Press" by Mrs. King, who thus describes her husband's observation of this interesting habit on the part of a creeping plant in India: "He was sitting on the veranda, with one foot up against a large pillar near to which grows a kind of convolvulus. Its tendrils were leaning over into the veranda, and, to Robert's surprise, he presently noticed that they were visibly turning toward his leg. He remained in the same position and in less than an hour the tendrils had laid themselves over his leg. "This was in the early morning, and when at breakfast he told me of this discovery we determined to make further experiments. When we went out into the veranda the tendrils had turned their heads back to the railing in disgust. We got a pole and leaned it up against the pillar quite twelve inches from the nearest sprays of convolvulus. "In ten minutes they had begun to curve themselves in that direction and acted exactly as you might fancy a very slow snake would do if he wished to reach anything. The upper tendrils bent down, and the side ones curved themselves until they touched the pole, and in a few hours were twisted quite round it. "It was on the side away from the light, and, excepting the faculty of sight, we can think of no other means by which the tendrils could be aware that the pole had been placed there. They had to turn away from the light to reach it, and they set themselves in motion visibly within a few minutes of the pole's being there." My own experience with climbing plants has long since convinced me that they have "a will of their own," and that if their will differs from my own no amount of coaxing will induce them to take the path which is laid out for them. Well, if plants had but tongues they could, no doubt, tell us things well worth hearing in regard to their special mode of existence. CHAPTER XV "_Auf Wiedersehen_" It seems but yesterday that the punctual year brought back her Daffodils--that Hyacinth and Tulip pushed up green shoots for the spring sunshine--and now the Syringa bushes are white with bloom. In one short week midsummer will have come, that beautiful holiday of the summer solstice, whose festal observance is, in England, of great antiquity. The old practice of lighting bonfires in London and in other towns (and even in villages) is probably a remnant of the pagan rites once observed on that day. Later, the Christian monks dedicated this festival to one of their saints, and, accordingly, the people on that day made their houses gay with St. John's-wort and other flowers and at evening kept the "vigil of St. John the Baptist," lighting bonfires in honor of this saint. Every man's door was then hung with birch boughs and lamps of glass, whose oil burnt on through the night. An old parish entry--dating so far back as the reign of Edward IVth--thus stands: "For birch at Midsummer VIII d"; and again, "Various payments for birch bowes at Midsummer." Old English poets commemorate in verse the hanging at this season of birch branches over the sign boards of shop doors. Perhaps in our increasing demand for holidays we may yet adopt this charming festival of our English forbears, as we have that of their Yule-tide. It would fall at the same season as did that pretty Persian festival, "The Feast of Roses." Today, in after-dinner "idlesse," with the unread morning paper in my hand, I sit beneath the blossomed Tulip trees, taking in so much of the beauty and perfection of the hour as my limited being will hold. Shadow and sunshine interchange upon the lush green lawn, where today the Syringa sprinkles its first light snow. The breath of blown Peonies scents the summer air along with the languorous odor of the mock-orange flowers. Yonder, in the old pear tree hard by the Lover's bowery walk, a happy thrush sings out his little heart while his silent mate broods patiently the family nest. A distant robin pipes cheerily among the apple boughs, and somewhere among the treetops a gurgling oriole sings--sings as if in this whole wide world of ours there were neither pain nor death, but only life, and joy, and never-ending summer. Last night a Damask Rose opened in the garden-- "God's in his Heaven; all's right with the world!" For myself--attuned to the blessed influences of the hour--I am at peace with all mankind. My enemies, one and all, are forgiven on the spot, and I meekly consider the advisability of "turning the other cheek" for a second "smite." For what saith the old herbalist--combining in his ancient book floriculture and ethical instruction? "Flowers, through their beautie, variety of color, and exquisite forme, doe bring to a liberal and gentlemanly minde the remembrance of honestie, comeliness, and all kinds of virtues. For it woulde be an unseemly thing for him that dothe looke upon and handle faire and beautiful things to have his minde not faire, but filthy and depraved." The Japanese, in their days of heathendom, celebrated with great care their ancient "Festival of Departed Spirits." A fire was then built in front of every house in the empire as a signal or invitation for all the departed members of the house to revisit their old homes. So tonight, with pulses slowed down to peace, musing in the quiet of this sleepy garden, I keep the "Festival of Departed Spirits," and, signaling to the unseen, hear in the tender silence faint footfalls of the departed along the familiar garden ways. Said the dear Lady (who at one time in her life was much fascinated by Spiritualism, and wont to map out with great accuracy the "Undiscovered Country" with its pursuits and privileges), referring to that time when this house and garden should no longer know her in the flesh: "I shall not forget my home on earth, I shall still be around." And thou, "my summer child"[2] (best loved and last to go), born with the roses and gifted with the sunny sweetness of a thousand Junes, but yesterday we trod together these garden paths, whose improvement was thy latest care. The echo of thy parting footfall yet lingers in this garden, making it "holy ground." "They sin who tell us Love can die." "Auf wiedersehen," my "summer child." FOOTNOTES: [1] A nickname suggested by this item in a bill of our German cobbler--which ran thus--"To souling shues for _Tird sun_ 50 sense." [2] Miss Bremer in "The Home." * * * * * TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES The following variant spellings are used in this text: 1) midsummer (3 times) and mid-summer (twice) 2) springtime (once) and spring-time (twice) 3) sweetmeat and sweet-meat (once each). The two occasions on which the [oe] ligature is used have been rendered as "oe": "Coboea" and "Ipomoea", both on p. 95. The following amendments to the text have been made: 1) "remaider" changed to "remainder" on p. 18. 2) "Eastern" changed to "Easter" on p. 43. 3) A double quotation mark (") has been added after "shrine of Thomas à Becket" on p. 55. 4) "Stratford-on Avon" changed to "Stratford-on-Avon" on p. 61. 5) A double quotation mark (") has been deleted before "O E holihoc" on p. 70. 
39049	----	Old Time Gardens [Illustration] OLD-TIME GARDENS _Newly set forth_ _by_ ALICE MORSE EARLE _A BOOK OF_ THE SWEET O' THE YEAR "_Life is sweet, brother! There's day and night, brother! both sweet things: sun, moon and stars, brother! all sweet things: There is likewise a wind on the heath._" [Illustration] NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY LONDON MACMILLAN & CO LTD MCMII _All rights reserved_ COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped November, 1901. Reprinted December, 1901; January, 1902. _Norwood Press_ _J. S. Cushing & Co.--Berwick & Smith_ _Norwood, Mass., U.S.A._ [Illustration: TO MY DAUGHTER ALICE CLARY EARLE TO WHOSE KNOWLEDGE OF FLOWERS AND LOVE OF FLOWER LORE I OWE MANY PAGES OF THIS BOOK....] Contents CHAPTER PAGE I. COLONIAL GARDEN-MAKING 1 II. FRONT DOORYARDS 38 III. VARIED GARDENS FAIR 54 IV. BOX EDGINGS 91 V. THE HERB GARDEN 107 VI. IN LILAC TIDE 132 VII. OLD FLOWER FAVORITES 161 VIII. COMFORT ME WITH APPLES 192 IX. GARDENS OF THE POETS 215 X. THE CHARM OF COLOR 233 XI. THE BLUE FLOWER BORDER 252 XII. PLANT NAMES 280 XIII. TUSSY-MUSSIES 296 XIV. JOAN SILVER-PIN 309 XV. CHILDHOOD IN A GARDEN 326 XVI. MEETIN' SEED AND SABBATH DAY POSIES 341 XVII. SUN-DIALS 353 XVIII. GARDEN FURNISHINGS 383 XIX. GARDEN BOUNDARIES 399 XX. A MOONLIGHT GARDEN 415 XXI. FLOWERS OF MYSTERY 433 XXII. ROSES OF YESTERDAY 459 INDEX 479 List of Illustrations The end papers of this book bear a design of the flower Ambrosia. The vignette on the title-page is re-drawn from one in _The Compleat Body of Husbandry_, Thomas Hale, 1756. It represents "Love laying out the surface of the earth in a garden." The device of the dedication is an ancient garden-knot for flowers, from _A New Orchard and Garden_, William Lawson, 1608. The chapter initials are from old wood-cut initials in the English Herbals of Gerarde, Parkinson, and Cole. PAGE _Garden of Johnson Mansion, Germantown. Photographed by Henry Troth_ facing 4 _Garden at Grumblethorp, Home of Charles J. Wister, Esq., Germantown, Pennsylvania_ 7 _Garden of Bartram House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania_ 9 _Garden of Abigail Adams, Quincy, Massachusetts_ 10 _Garden at Mount Vernon-on-the-Potomac, Virginia. Home of George Washington_ facing 12 _Gate and Hedge of Preston Garden, Columbia, South Carolina_ 15 _Fountain Path in Preston Garden, Columbia, South Carolina_ 18 _Door in Wall of Kitchen Garden at Van Cortlandt Manor. Croton-on-Hudson, New York. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 20 _Garden of Van Cortlandt Manor. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 24 _Garden at Prince Homestead, Flushing, Long Island_ 28 _Old Dutch Garden of Bergen Homestead, Bay Ridge, Long Island_ facing 32 _Garden at Duck Cove, Narragansett, Rhode Island_ 35 _The Flowering Almond under the Window. Photographed by Eva E. Newell_ 39 _Peter's Wreath. Photographed by Eva E. Newell_ 41 _Peonies in Garden of John Robinson, Esq., Salem, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ facing 42 _White Peonies. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 42 _Yellow Day Lilies. Photographed by Clifton Johnson_ facing 48 _Orange Lilies. Photographed by Eva E. Newell_ 50 _Preston Garden, Columbia, South Carolina_ facing 54 _Box-edged Parterre at Hampton, County Baltimore, Maryland. Home of Mrs. John Ridgely. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 57 _Parterre and Clipped Box at Hampton, County Baltimore, Maryland. Home of Mrs. John Ridgely. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 60 _Garden of Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright, Waldstein, Fairfield, Connecticut. Photographed by Mabel Osgood Wright_ 63 _A Shaded Walk. In the Garden of Miss Harriet P. F. Burnside, Worcester, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ facing 64 _Roses and Larkspur in the Garden of Miss Harriet P. F. Burnside, Worcester, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ 65 _The Homely Back Yard. Photographed by Henry Troth_ facing 66 _Covered Well at Home of Bishop Berkeley, Whitehall, Newport, Rhode Island_ 68 _Kitchen Doorway and Porch at The Hedges, New Hope, County Bucks, Pennsylvania_ 70 _Greenwood, Thomasville, Georgia_ 73 _Roses and Violets in Garden of Greenwood, Thomasville, Georgia_ facing 74 _Water Garden at Sylvester Manor, Shelter Island, New York. Home of Miss Cornelia Horsford_ 75 _Garden at Avonwood Court, Haverford, Pennsylvania. Country-seat of Charles E. Mather, Esq. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 76 _Terrace Wall at Drumthwacket, Princeton, New Jersey. Country-seat of M. Taylor Pyne, Esq._ 76 _Garden at Drumthwacket, Princeton, New Jersey. Country-seat of M. Taylor Pyne, Esq._ 77 _Sun-dial at Avonwood Court, Haverford, Pennsylvania. Country-seat of Charles E. Mather, Esq. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 80 _Entrance Porch and Gate to the Rose Garden at Yaddo, Saratoga, New York. Country-seat of Spencer Trask, Esq. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ 82 _Pergola and Terrace Walk in Rose Garden at Yaddo, Saratoga, New York. Country-seat of Spencer Trask, Esq. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ 83 _Statue of Christalan in Rose Garden at Yaddo, Saratoga, New York. Country-seat of Spencer Trask, Esq. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ 84 _Sun-dial in Rose Garden at Yaddo, Saratoga, New York. Country-seat of Spencer Trask, Esq. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ 86 _Bronze Dial-face in Rose Garden at Yaddo, Saratoga, New York. Country-seat of Spencer Trask, Esq. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ 87 _Ancient Pine in Garden at Yaddo, Saratoga, New York. Country-seat of Spencer Trask, Esq. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ 89 _House and Garden at Napanock, County Ulster, New York. Photographed by Edward Lamson Henry, N. A._ facing 92 _Box Parterre at Hampton, County Baltimore, Maryland. Home of Mrs. John Ridgely. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 95 _Sun-dial in Box at Broughton Castle, Banbury, England. Garden of Lady Lennox_ 98 _Sun-dial in Box at Ascott, near Leighton Buzzard, England. Country-seat of Mr. Leopold Rothschild_ facing 100 _Garden at Tudor Place, Georgetown, District of Columbia. Home of Mrs. Beverly Kennon. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 103 _Anchor-shaped Flower Beds, Kingston, Rhode Island. Photographed by Sarah P. Marchant_ 104 _Ancient Box at Tuckahoe, Virginia_ 105 _Herb Garden at White Birches, Elmhurst, Illinois_ 108 _Garden at White Birches, Elmhurst, Illinois_ 111 _Garden of Manning Homestead, Salem, Massachusetts_ facing 112 _Under the Garret Eaves of Ward Homestead, Shrewsbury, Massachusetts_ 116 _A Gatherer of Simples. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ facing 120 _Sage. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 126 _Tansy. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 129 _Garden of Mrs. Abraham Lansing, Albany, New York. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ facing 130 _Ladies' Delights. Photographed by Eva E. Newell_ 133 _Garden House and Long Walk in Garden of Hon. William H. Seward, Auburn, New York_ facing 134 _Sun-dial in Garden of Hon. William H. Seward, Auburn, New York_ 136 _Lilacs in Midsummer. In Garden of Mrs. Abraham Lansing, Albany, New York. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ facing 138 _Lilacs at Craigie House, Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Home of Longfellow. Photographed by Arthur N. Wilmarth_ 141 _Box-edged Garden at Home of Longfellow, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Photographed by Arthur N. Wilmarth_ 142 _Joepye-weed and Queen Anne's Laces. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 145 _Boneset. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 146 _Magnolias in Garden of William Brown, Esq., Flatbush, Long Island_ facing 148 _Lilacs at Hopewell_ 149 _Persian Lilacs and Peonies in Garden of Kimball Homestead, Portsmouth, New Hampshire_ 151 _Opyn-tide, the Thought of Spring. Garden of Mrs. Abraham Lansing, Albany, New York. Photographed by Pirie MacDonald_ facing 154 _A Thought of Winter's Snows. Garden of Frederick J. Kingsbury, Esq., Waterbury, Connecticut_ 157 _Larkspur and Phlox. Garden of Miss Frances Clary Morse, Worcester, Massachusetts_ 162 _Sweet William and Foxglove_ 163 _Plume Poppy_ 164 _Meadow Rue_ 167 _Money-in-both-Pockets_ 171 _Box Walk in Garden of Frederick J. Kingsbury, Esq., Waterbury, Connecticut_ 173 _Lunaria in Garden of Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright, Fairfield, Connecticut. Photographed by Mabel Osgood Wright_ facing 174 _Dahlia Walk at Ravensworth, County Fairfax, Virginia. Home of Mrs. W. R. Fitzhugh Lee. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 177 _Petunias_ 180 _Virgin's Bower, in Garden of Miss Frances Clary Morse, Worcester, Massachusetts_ 184 _Matrimony Vine at Van Cortlandt Manor. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ 186 _White Chinese Wistaria, in Garden of Mortimer Howell, Esq., West Hampton Beach, Long Island_ 188 _Spiræa Van Houtteii. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 190 _Old Apple Tree at Whitehall. Home of Bishop Berkeley, near Newport, Rhode Island_ 194 "_The valley stretching below Is white with blossoming Apple trees, As if touched with lightest snow._" _Photographed by T. E. M. and G. F. White_ 197 _Old Hand-power Cider Mill. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 198 _Pressing out the Cider in Old Hand Mill_ 200 _Old Cider Mill with Horse Power. Photographed by T. E. M. and G. F. White_ 203 _Straining off the Cider into Barrels_ 204 _Drying Apples. Photographed by T. E. M. and G. F. White_ facing 208 _Ancient Apple Picker, Apple Racks, Apple Parers, Apple Butter Kettle, Apple Butter Paddle, Apple Butter Stirrer, Apple Butter Crocks. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 211 _Making Apple Butter. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ facing 214 _Shakespeare Border in Garden at Hillside, Menand's, near Albany, New York. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ 216 _Long Border at Hillside, Menand's, near Albany, New York. Photographed by Gustave Lorey_ facing 218 _The Beauty of Winter Lilacs. In Garden of Mrs. Abraham Lansing, Albany, New York. Photographed by Pirie MacDonald_ 220 _Garden of Mrs. Frank Robinson, Wakefield, Rhode Island_ 222 _The Parson's Walk_ 225 _Garden of Mary Washington_ 228 _Box and Phlox. Garden of Sylvester Manor, Shelter Island, New York_ 230 _Within the Weeping Beech. Photographed by E. C. Nichols_ facing 232 _Spring Snowflake, Garden of Miss Frances Clary Morse, Worcester, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ 234 _Star of Bethlehem, in Garden of Miss Frances Clary Morse, Worcester, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ 237 _"The Pearl" Achillæa_ 238 _Pyrethrum. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 242 _Terraced Garden of the Misses Nichols, Salem, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ 246 _Arbor in a Salem Garden_ 250 _Scilla in Garden of Miss Frances Clary Morse, Worcester, Massachusetts_ 254 _Sweet Alyssum Edging of White Border at Indian Hill, Newburyport, Massachusetts_ 256 _Bachelor's Buttons in a Salem Garden. Home of Mrs. Edward B. Peirson_ 258 _A "Sweet Garden-side" in Salem, Massachusetts, Home of John Robinson, Esq._ facing 260 _Salpiglossis in Garden at Indian Hill, Newburyport, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ 261 _The Old Campanula, Garden of Miss Frances Clary Morse, Worcester, Massachusetts_ 263 _Chinese Bellflower. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ 264 _Garden at Tudor Place, Georgetown, District of Columbia. Home of Mrs. Beverly Kennon. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ facing 266 _Light as a Loop of Larkspur, in Garden of Judge Oliver Wendell Holmes, Beverly, Massachusetts_ 269 _Viper's Bugloss. Photographed by Henry Troth_ 274 _The Prim Precision of Leaf and Flower of Lupine. Photographed by Henry Troth_ 276 _The Garden's Friend. Photographed by Clifton Johnson_ 281 _Edging of Striped Lilies in a Salem Garden. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ 283 _Garden Seat at Avonwood Court. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 286 _Terraced Garden of the Misses Nichols, Salem, Massachusetts_ 288 _"A Running Ribbon of Perfumed Snow which the Sun is melting rapidly." At Marchant Farm, Kingston, Rhode Island. Photographed by Sarah F. Marchant_ 292 _Fountain Garden at Sylvester Manor, Shelter Island, New York_ facing 294 _Hawthorn Arch at Holly House, Peace Dale, Rhode Island. Home of Rowland G. Hazard, Esq._ 298 _Thyme-covered Graves. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 301 "_White Umbrellas of Elder_" 305 _Lower Garden at Sylvester Manor, Shelter Island, New York_ facing 308 "_Black-heart Amorous Poppies_" 310 _Valerian. Photographed by E. C. Nichols_ 314 _Old War Office in Garden at Salem, New Jersey_ 319 _Crown Imperial. Page from Gerarde's Herball_ facing 324 _The Children's Garden_ facing 330 _Foxgloves in a Narragansett Garden_ 333 _Hollyhocks in Garden of Kimball Homestead, Portsmouth, New Hampshire_ facing 334 _Autumn View of an Old Worcester Garden_ facing 338 _Hollyhocks at Tudor Place, Georgetown, District of Columbia. Home of Mrs. Beverly Kennon_ 339 _An Old Worcester Garden. Home of Edwin A. Fawcett, Esq._ facing 340 _Caraway_ 342 _Sun-dial of Jonathan Fairbanks, Esq., Dedham, Massachusetts_ 344 _Bronze Sun-dial on Dutch Reformed Church, West End Avenue, New York_ 346 _Sun-dial mounted on Boulder, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania_ 347 _Buckthorn Arch in Garden of Mrs. Edward B. Peirson, Salem, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ facing 348 _Sun-dial at Emery Place, Brightwood, District of Columbia. Photographed by William Van Zandt Cox_ 349 _Sun-dial at Travellers' Rest, Virginia. Home of Mrs. Bowie Gray. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 350 _Two Old Cronies; the Sun-dial and Bee skepe. Photographed by Eva E. Newell_ 354 _Portable Sun-dial from Collection of the Author_ 356 _Sun-dial in Garden of Frederick J. Kingsbury, Esq., Waterbury, Connecticut_ 358 _Sun-dial at Morristown, New Jersey. Designed by W. Gedney Beatty, Esq._ 359 "_Yes, Toby, it's Three o'clock._" _Judge Daly and his Sun-dial at Sag Harbor, Long Island. Drawn by Edward Lamson Henry, N.A._ 361 _Face of Dial at Sag Harbor, Long Island_ 362 _Sun-dial in Garden of Grace Church Rectory, New York. Photographed by J. W. Dow_ 364 _Fugio Bank-note_ 365 _Sun-dial at "Washington House," Little Brington, England_ 367 _Dial-face from Mount Vernon. Owned by William F. Havemeyer, Jr._ 368 _Sun-dial from Home of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, Virginia. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 369 _Kenmore, the Home of Betty Washington Lewis, Fredericksburg, Virginia. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 371 _Sun-dial in Garden of Charles T. Jenkins, Esq., Germantown, Pennsylvania_ 373 _Sun-dial at Ophir Farm, White Plains, New York. Country-seat of Hon. Whitelaw Reid_ 375 _Sun-dial at Hillside, Menand's, near Albany, New York_ 378 _Old Brass and Pewter Dial-faces from Collection of Author_ 379 _Beata Beatrix_ facing 380 _The Faithful Gardener_ 381 _A Garden Lyre at Waterford, Virginia_ facing 384 _A Virginia Lyre with Vines_ 386 _Old Iron Gates at Westover-on-James, Virginia. Photographed by George S. Cook_ 388 _Ironwork in Court of Colt Mansion, Bristol, Rhode Island. Photographed by J. W. Dow_ 390 _Sharpening the Old Dutch Scythe. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ facing 392 _Summer-house at Ravensworth, County Fairfax, Virginia. Home of Mrs. W. H. Fitzhugh Lee. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 392 _Beehives at Waterford, Virginia. Photographed by Henry Troth_ facing 394 _Beehives under the Trees. Photographed by Henry Troth_ 395 _Spring House at Johnson Homestead, Germantown, Pennsylvania. Photographed by Henry Troth_ facing 396 _Dovecote at Shirley-on-James, Virginia. From_ Some Colonial Mansions and Those who lived in Them. _Published by Henry T. Coates & Co., Philadelphia_ 397 _The Peacock in his Pride_ 398 _The Guardian of the Garden_ 400 _Brick Terrace Wall at Van Cortlandt Manor. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 402 _Rail Fence Corner_ 403 _Topiary Work at Levens Hall_ 404 _Oval Pergola at Arlington, Virginia. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ facing 406 _French Homestead, Kingston, Rhode Island, with Old Stone Terrace Wall. Photographed by Sarah F. Marchant_ 407 _Italian Garden at Wellesley, Massachusetts. Country-seat of Hollis H. Hunnewell, Esq._ facing 408 _Marble Steps in Italian Garden at Wellesley, Massachusetts_ 410 _Topiary Work in California_ 412 _Serpentine Brick Wall at University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia. Photographed by Elizabeth W. Trescot_ 413 _Chestnut Path in Garden at Indian Hill, Newburyport, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ facing 418 _Foxgloves in Lower Garden at Indian Hill, Newburyport, Massachusetts. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ 421 _Dame's Rocket. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ 424 _Snakeroot. Photographed by Mary F. C Paschall_ 426 _Title-page of Parkinson's_ Paradisi in Solis, _etc._ facing 428 _Yuccas, like White Marble against the Evergreens_ 430 _Fraxinella in Garden of Miss Frances Clary Morse, Worcester, Massachusetts_ facing 432 _Love-in-a-Mist. Photographed by Henry Troth_ 436 _Spiderwort in an Old Worcester Garden. Photographed by Herschel F. Davis_ facing 438 _Gardener's Garters at Van Cortlandt Manor. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ 440 _Garden Walk at The Manse, Deerfield, Massachusetts. Photographed by Clifton Johnson_ facing 442 _London Pride. Photographed by Eva E. Newell_ 445 _White Fritillaria in Garden of Miss Frances Clary Morse, Worcester, Massachusetts_ 448 _Bouncing Bet_ 451 _Overgrown Garden at Llanerck, Pennsylvania. Photographed by Henry Troth_ facing 454 _Fountain at Yaddo, Saratoga, New York. Country-seat of Spencer Trask, Esq._ 455 _Avenue of White Pines at Wellesley, Massachusetts. Country-seat of Hollis H. Hunnewell, Esq._ 456 _Violets in Silver Double Coaster_ 461 _York and Lancaster Rose at Van Cortlandt Manor. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 462 _Cinnamon Roses. Photographed by Mabel Osgood Wright_ 465 _Cottage Garden with Roses. Photographed by Mary F. C. Paschall_ facing 468 _Madame Plantier Rose. Photographed by Mabel Osgood Wright_ 474 _Sun-dial and Roses at Van Cortlandt Manor. Photographed by J. Horace McFarland_ facing 476 Old Time Gardens CHAPTER I COLONIAL GARDEN-MAKING "There is not a softer trait to be found in the character of those stern men than that they should have been sensible of these flower-roots clinging among the fibres of their rugged hearts, and felt the necessity of bringing them over sea, and making them hereditary in the new land." --_American Note-book_, NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE. After ten wearisome weeks of travel across an unknown sea, to an equally unknown world, the group of Puritan men and women who were the founders of Boston neared their Land of Promise; and their noble leader, John Winthrop, wrote in his Journal that "we had now fair Sunshine Weather and so pleasant a sweet Aire as did much refresh us, and there came a smell off the Shore like the Smell of a Garden." A _Smell of a Garden_ was the first welcome to our ancestors from their new home; and a pleasant and perfect emblem it was of the life that awaited them. They were not to become hunters and rovers, not to be eager to explore quickly the vast wilds beyond; they were to settle down in the most domestic of lives, as tillers of the soil, as makers of gardens. What must that sweet air from the land have been to the sea-weary Puritan women on shipboard, laden to them with its promise of a garden! for I doubt not every woman bore with her across seas some little package of seeds and bulbs from her English home garden, and perhaps a tiny slip or plant of some endeared flower; watered each day, I fear, with many tears, as well as from the surprisingly scant water supply which we know was on board that ship. And there also came flying to the _Arbella_ as to the Ark, a Dove--a bird of promise--and soon the ship came to anchor. "With hearts revived in conceit new Lands and Trees they spy, Scenting the Cædars and Sweet Fern from heat's reflection dry," wrote one colonist of that arrival, in his _Good Newes from New England_. I like to think that Sweet Fern, the characteristic wild perfume of New England, was wafted out to greet them. And then all went on shore in the sunshine of that ineffable time and season,--a New England day in June,--and they "gathered store of fine strawberries," just as their Salem friends had on a June day on the preceding year gathered strawberries and "sweet Single Roses" so resembling the English Eglantine that the hearts of the women must have ached within them with fresh homesickness. And ere long all had dwelling-places, were they but humble log cabins; and pasture lands and commons were portioned out; and in a short time all had garden-plots, and thus, with sheltering roof-trees, and warm firesides, and with gardens, even in this lonely new world, they had _homes_. The first entry in the Plymouth Records is a significant one; it is the assignment of "Meresteads and Garden-Plotes," not meresteads alone, which were farm lands, but home gardens: the outlines of these can still be seen in Plymouth town. And soon all sojourners who bore news back to England of the New-Englishmen and New-Englishwomen, told of ample store of gardens. Ere a year had passed hopeful John Winthrop wrote, "My Deare Wife, wee are here in a Paradise." In four years the chronicler Wood said in his _New England's Prospect_, "There is growing here all manner of herbs for meat and medicine, and that not only in planted gardens, but in the woods, without the act and help of man." Governor Endicott had by that time a very creditable garden. And by every humble dwelling the homesick goodwife or dame, trying to create a semblance of her fair English home so far away, planted in her "garden plot" seeds and roots of homely English flowers and herbs, that quickly grew and blossomed and smiled on bleak New England's rocky shores as sturdily and happily as they had bloomed in the old gardens and by the ancient door sides in England. What good cheer they must have brought! how they must have been beloved! for these old English garden flowers are such gracious things; marvels of scent, lavish of bloom, bearing such genial faces, growing so readily and hardily, spreading so quickly, responding so gratefully to such little care: what pure refreshment they bore in their blossoms, what comfort in their seeds; they must have seemed an emblem of hope, a promise of a new and happy home. I rejoice over every one that I know was in those little colonial gardens, for each one added just so much measure of solace to what seems to me, as I think upon it, one of the loneliest, most fearsome things that gentlewomen ever had to do, all the harder because neither by poverty nor by unavoidable stress were they forced to it; they came across-seas willingly, for conscience' sake. These women were not accustomed to the thought of emigration, as are European folk to-day; they had no friends to greet them in the new land; they were to encounter wild animals and wild men; sea and country were unknown--they could scarce expect ever to return: they left everything, and took nothing of comfort but their Bibles and their flower seeds. So when I see one of the old English flowers, grown of those days, blooming now in my garden, from the unbroken chain of blossom to seed of nearly three centuries, I thank the flower for all that its forbears did to comfort my forbears, and I cherish it with added tenderness. [Illustration: Garden of the Johnson Mansion, Germantown, Pennsylvania.] We should have scant notion of the gardens of these New England colonists in the seventeenth century were it not for a cheerful traveller named John Josselyn, a man of everyday tastes and much inquisitiveness, and the pleasing literary style which comes from directness, and an absence of self-consciousness. He published in 1672 a book entitled _New England's Rarities discovered_, etc., and in 1674 another volume giving an account of his two voyages hither in 1638 and 1663. He made a very careful list of vegetables which he found thriving in the new land; and since his flower list is the earliest known, I will transcribe it in full; it isn't long, but there is enough in it to make it a suggestive outline which we can fill in from what we know of the plants to-day, and form a very fair picture of those gardens. "Spearmint, Rew, will hardly grow Fetherfew prospereth exceedingly; Southernwood, is no Plant for this Country, Nor Rosemary. Nor Bayes. White-Satten groweth pretty well, so doth Lavender-Cotton. But Lavender is not for the Climate. Penny Royal Smalledge. Ground Ivey, or Ale Hoof. Gilly Flowers will continue two Years. Fennel must be taken up, and kept in a Warm Cellar all Winter Horseleek prospereth notably Holly hocks Enula Canpana, in two years time the Roots rot. Comferie, with White Flowers. Coriander, and Dill, and Annis thrive exceedingly, but Annis Seed, as also the seed of Fennel seldom come to maturity; the Seed of Annis is commonly eaten with a Fly. Clary never lasts but one Summer, the Roots rot with the Frost. Sparagus thrives exceedingly, so does Garden Sorrel, and Sweet Bryer or Eglantine Bloodwort but sorrily, but Patience and English Roses very pleasantly. Celandine, by the West Country now called Kenning Wort grows but slowly. Muschater, as well as in England Dittander or Pepperwort flourisheth notably and so doth Tansie." These lists were published fifty years after the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth; from them we find that the country was just as well stocked with vegetables as it was a hundred years later when other travellers made lists, but the flowers seem few; still, such as they were, they formed a goodly sight. With rows of Hollyhocks glowing against the rude stone walls and rail fences of their little yards; with clumps of Lavender Cotton and Honesty and Gillyflowers blossoming freely; with Feverfew "prospering" to sow and slip and pot and give to neighbors just as New England women have done with Feverfew every year of the centuries that have followed; with "a Rose looking in at the window"--a Sweetbrier, Eglantine, or English Rose--these colonial dames might well find "Patience growing very pleasantly" in their hearts as in their gardens. [Illustration: Garden at Grumblethorp, Germantown, Pennsylvania.] They had plenty of pot herbs for their accustomed savoring; and plenty of medicinal herbs for their wonted dosing. Shakespeare's "nose-herbs" were not lacking. Doubtless they soon added to these garden flowers many of our beautiful native blooms, rejoicing if they resembled any beloved English flowers, and quickly giving them, as we know, familiar old English plant-names. And there were other garden inhabitants, as truly English as were the cherished flowers, the old garden weeds, which quickly found a home and thrived in triumph in the new soil. Perhaps the weed seeds came over in the flower-pot that held a sheltered plant or cutting; perhaps a few were mixed with garden seeds; perhaps they were in the straw or other packing of household goods: no one knew the manner of their coming, but there they were, Motherwort, Groundsel, Chickweed, and Wild Mustard, Mullein and Nettle, Henbane and Wormwood. Many a goodwife must have gazed in despair at the persistent Plantain, "the Englishman's foot," which seems to have landed in Plymouth from the Mayflower. Josselyn made other lists of plants which he found in America, under these headings:-- "Such plants as are common with us in England. Such plants as are proper to the Country. Such plants as are proper to the Country and have no name. Such plants as have sprung up since the English planted, and kept cattle in New England." In these lists he gives a surprising number of English weeds which had thriven and rejoiced in their new home. [Illustration: Garden of the Bartram House, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.] Mr. Tuckerman calls Josselyn's list of the fishes of the new world a poor makeshift; his various lists of plants are better, but they are the lists of an herbalist, not of a botanist. He had some acquaintance with the practice of physic, of which he narrates some examples; and an interest in kitchen recipes, and included a few in his books. He said that Parkinson or another botanist might have "found in New England a thousand, at least, of plants never heard of nor seen by any Englishman before," and adds that he was himself an indifferent observer. He certainly lost an extraordinary opportunity of distinguishing himself, indeed of immortalizing himself; and it is surprising that he was so heedless, for Englishmen of that day were in general eager botanists. The study of plants was new, and was deemed of such absorbing interest and fascination that some rigid Puritans feared they might lose their immortal souls through making their new plants their idols. [Illustration: Garden of Abigail Adams.] When Josselyn wrote, but few of our American flowers were known to European botanists; Indian Corn, Pitcher Plant, Columbine, Milkweed, Everlasting, and Arbor-vitæ had been described in printed books, and the Evening Primrose. A history of Canadian and other new plants, by Dr. Cornuti, had been printed in Europe, giving thirty-seven of our plants; and all English naturalists were longing to add to the list; the ships which brought over homely seeds and plants for the gardens of the colonists carried back rare American seeds and plants for English physic gardens. In Pennsylvania, from the first years of the settlement, William Penn encouraged his Quaker followers to plant English flowers and fruit in abundance, and to try the fruits of the new world. Father Pastorius, in his Germantown settlement, assigned to each family a garden-plot of three acres, as befitted a man who left behind him at his death a manuscript poem of many thousand words on the pleasures of gardening, the description of flowers, and keeping of bees. George Fox, the founder of the Friends, or Quakers, died in 1690. He had travelled in the colonies; and in his will he left sixteen acres of land to the Quaker meeting in the city of Philadelphia. Of these sixteen acres, ten were for "a close to put Friends' horses in when they came afar to the Meeting, that they may not be Lost in the Woods," while the other six were for a site for a meeting-house and school-house, and "for a Playground for the Children of the town to Play on, and for a Garden to plant with Physical Plants, for Lads and Lasses to know Simples, and to learn to make Oils and Ointments." Few as are these words, they convey a positive picture of Fox's intent, and a pleasing picture it is. He had seen what interest had been awakened and what instruction conveyed through the "Physick-Garden" at Chelsea, England; and he promised to himself similar interest and information from the study of plants and flowers by the Quaker "lads and lasses" of the new world. Though nothing came from this bequest, there was a later fulfilment of Fox's hopes in the establishment of a successful botanic garden in Philadelphia, and, in the planting, growth, and flourishing in the province of Pennsylvania of the loveliest gardens in the new world; there floriculture reached by the time of the Revolution a very high point; and many exquisite gardens bore ample testimony to the "pride of life," as well as to the good taste and love of flowers of Philadelphia Friends. The garden at Grumblethorp, the home of Charles J. Wister, Esq., of Germantown, Pennsylvania, shown on page 7, dates to colonial days and is still flourishing and beautiful. In 1728 was established, by John Bartram, in Philadelphia, the first botanic garden in America. The ground on which it was planted, and the stone dwelling-house he built thereon in 1731, are now part of the park system of Philadelphia. A view of the garden as now in cultivation is given on page 9. Bartram travelled much in America, and through his constant correspondence and flower exchanges with distinguished botanists and plant growers in Europe, many native American plants became well known in foreign gardens, among them the Lady's Slipper and Rhododendron. He was a Quaker,--a quaint and picturesque figure,--and his example helped to establish the many fine gardens in the vicinity of Philadelphia. The example and precept of Washington also had important influence; for he was constant in his desire and his effort to secure every good and new plant, grain, shrub, and tree for his home at Mount Vernon. A beautiful tribute to his good taste and that of his wife still exists in the Mount Vernon flower garden, which in shape, Box edgings, and many details is precisely as it was in their day. A view of its well-ordered charms is shown opposite page 12. Whenever I walk in this garden I am deeply grateful to the devoted women who keep it in such perfection, as an object-lesson to us of the dignity, comeliness, and beauty of a garden of the olden times. [Illustration: Garden at Mount Vernon-on-the-Potomac. Home of George Washington.] There is little evidence that a general love and cultivation of flowers was as common in humble homes in the Southern colonies as in New England and the Middle provinces. The teeming abundance near the tropics rendered any special gardening unnecessary for poor folk; flowers grew and blossomed lavishly everywhere without any coaxing or care. On splendid estates there were splendid gardens, which have nearly all suffered by the devastations of war--in some towns they were thrice thus scourged. So great was the beauty of these Southern gardens and so vast the love they provoked in their owners, that in more than one case the life of the garden's master was merged in that of the garden. The British soldiers during the War of the Revolution wantonly destroyed the exquisite flowers at "The Grove," just outside the city of Charleston, and their owner, Mr. Gibbes, dropped dead in grief at the sight of the waste. The great wealth of the Southern planters, their constant and extravagant following of English customs and fashions, their fertile soil and favorable climate, and their many slaves, all contributed to the successful making of elaborate gardens. Even as early as 1682 South Carolina gardens were declared to be "adorned with such Flowers as to the Smell or Eye are pleasing or agreeable, as the Rose, Tulip, Lily, Carnation, &c." William Byrd wrote of the terraced gardens of Virginia homes. Charleston dames vied with each other in the beauty of their gardens, and Mrs. Logan, when seventy years old, in 1779, wrote a treatise called _The Gardener's Kalendar_. Eliza Lucas Pinckney of Charleston was devoted to practical floriculture and horticulture. Her introduction of indigo raising into South Carolina revolutionized the trade products of the state and brought to it vast wealth. Like many other women and many men of wealth and culture at that time, she kept up a constant exchange of letters, seeds, plants, and bulbs with English people of like tastes. She received from them valuable English seeds and shrubs; and in turn she sent to England what were so eagerly sought by English flower raisers, our native plants. The good will and national pride of ship captains were enlisted; even young trees of considerable size were set in hogsheads, and transported, and cared for during the long voyage. [Illustration: Gate and Hedge of Preston Garden.] The garden at Mount Vernon is probably the oldest in Virginia still in original shape. In Maryland are several fine, formal gardens which do not date, however, to colonial days; the beautiful one at Hampton, the home of the Ridgelys, in Baltimore County, is shown on pages 57, 60 and 95. In both North and South Carolina the gardens were exquisite. Many were laid out by competent landscape gardeners, and were kept in order by skilled workmen, negro slaves, who were carefully trained from childhood to special labor, such as topiary work. In Camden and Charleston the gardens vied with the finest English manor-house gardens. Remains of their beauty exist, despite devastating wars and earthquakes. Views of the Preston Garden, Columbia, South Carolina, are shown on pages 15 and 18 and facing page 54. They are now the grounds of the Presbyterian College for Women. The hedges have been much reduced within a few years; but the garden still bears a surprising resemblance to the Garden of the Generalife, Granada. The Spanish garden has fewer flowers and more fountains, yet I think it must have been the model for the Preston Garden. The climax of magnificence in Southern gardens has been for years, at Magnolia-on-the-Ashley, the ancestral home of the Draytons since 1671. It is impossible to describe the affluence of color in this garden in springtime; masses of unbroken bloom on giant Magnolias; vast Camellia Japonicas, looking, leaf and flower, thoroughly artificial, as if made of solid wax; splendid Crape Myrtles, those strange flower-trees; mammoth Rhododendrons; Azaleas of every Azalea color,--all surrounded by walls of the golden Banksia Roses, and hedges covered with Jasmine and Honeysuckle. The Azaleas are the special glory of the garden; the bushes are fifteen to twenty feet in height, and fifty or sixty feet in circumference, with rich blossoms running over and crowding down on the ground as if color had been poured over the bushes; they extend in vistas of vivid hues as far as the eye can reach. All this gay and brilliant color is overhung by a startling contrast, the most sombre and gloomy thing in nature, great Live-oaks heavily draped with gray Moss; the avenue of largest Oaks was planted two centuries ago. I give no picture of this Drayton Garden, for a photograph of these many acres of solid bloom is a meaningless thing. Even an oil painting of it is confused and disappointing. In the garden itself the excess of color is as cloying as its surfeit of scent pouring from the thousands of open flower cups; we long for green hedges, even for scanter bloom and for fainter fragrance. It is not a garden to live in, as are our box-bordered gardens of the North, our cheerful cottage borders, and our well-balanced Italian gardens, so restful to the eye; it is a garden to look at and wonder at. The Dutch settlers brought their love of flowering bulbs, and the bulbs also, to the new world. Adrian Van der Donck, a gossiping visitor to New Netherland when the little town of New Amsterdam had about a thousand inhabitants, described the fine kitchen gardens, the vegetables and fruits, and gave an interesting list of garden flowers which he found under cultivation by the Dutch vrouws. He says: "OF THE FLOWERS. The flowers in general which the Netherlanders have introduced there are the white and red roses of different kinds, the cornelian roses, and stock roses; and those of which there were none before in the country, such as eglantine, several kinds of gillyflowers, jenoffelins, different varieties of fine tulips, crown imperials, white lilies, the lily frutularia, anemones, baredames, violets, marigolds, summer sots, etc. The clove tree has also been introduced, and there are various indigenous trees that bear handsome flowers, which are unknown in the Netherlands. We also find there some flowers of native growth, as, for instance, sunflowers, red and yellow lilies, mountain lilies, morning stars, red, white, and yellow maritoffles (a very sweet flower), several species of bell flowers, etc., to which I have not given particular attention, but _amateurs_ would hold them in high estimation and make them widely known." [Illustration: Fountain Path in Preston Garden, Columbia, South Carolina.] I wish I knew what a Cornelian Rose was, and Jenoffelins, Baredames, and Summer Sots; and what the Lilies were and the Maritoffles and Bell Flowers. They all sound so cheerful and homelike--just as if they bloomed well. Perhaps the Cornelian Rose may have been striped red and white like cornelian stone, and like our York and Lancaster Rose. Tulips are on all seed and plant lists of colonial days, and they were doubtless in every home dooryard in New Netherland. Governor Peter Stuyvesant had a fine farm on the Bouwerie, and is said to have had a flower garden there and at his home, White Hall, at the Battery, for he had forty or fifty negro slaves who were kept at work on his estate. In the city of New York many fine formal gardens lingered, on what are now our most crowded streets, till within the memory of persons now living. One is described as full of "Paus bloemen of all hues, Laylocks, and tall May Roses and Snowballs intermixed with choice vegetables and herbs all bounded and hemmed in by huge rows of neatly-clipped Box-edgings." An evidence of increase in garden luxury in New York is found in the advertisement of one Theophilus Hardenbrook, in 1750, a practical surveyor and architect, who had an evening school for teaching architecture. He designed pavilions, summer-houses, and garden seats, and "Green-houses for the preservation of Herbs with winding Funnels through the walls so as to keep them warm." A picture of the green-house of James Beekman, of New York, 1764, still exists, a primitive little affair. The first glass-house in North America is believed to be one built in Boston for Andrew Faneuil, who died in 1737. Mrs. Anne Grant, writing of her life near Albany in the middle of the eighteenth century, gives a very good description of the Schuyler garden. Skulls of domestic animals on fence posts, would seem astounding had I not read of similar decorations in old Continental gardens. Vines grew over these grisly fence-capitals and birds built their nests in them, so in time the Dutch housewife's peaceful kitchen garden ceased to resemble the kraal of an African chieftain; to this day, in South Africa, natives and Dutch Boers thus set up on gate posts the skulls of cattle. Mrs. Grant writes of the Dutch in Albany:-- "The care of plants, such as needed peculiar care or skill to rear them, was the female province. Every one in town or country had a garden. Into this garden no foot of man intruded after it was dug in the Spring. I think I see yet what I have so often beheld--a respectable mistress of a family going out to her garden, on an April morning, with her great calash, her little painted basket of seeds, and her rake over her shoulder to her garden of labours. A woman in very easy circumstances and abundantly gentle in form and manners would sow and plant and rake incessantly." We have happily a beautiful example of the old Dutch manor garden, at Van Cortlandt Manor, at Croton-on-Hudson, New York, still in the possession of the Van Cortlandt family. It is one of the few gardens in America that date really to colonial days. The manor house was built in 1681; it is one of those fine old Dutch homesteads of which we still have many existing throughout New York, in which dignity, comfort, and fitness are so happily combined. These homes are, in the words of a traveller of colonial days, "so pleasant in their building, and contrived so delightful." Above all, they are so suited to their surroundings that they seem an intrinsic part of the landscape, as they do of the old life of this Hudson River Valley. [Illustration: Door in Wall of Kitchen Garden at Van Cortlandt Manor.] I do not doubt that this Van Cortlandt garden was laid out when the house was built; much of it must be two centuries old. It has been extended, not altered; and the grass-covered bank supporting the upper garden was replaced by a brick terrace wall about sixty years ago. Its present form dates to the days when New York was a province. The upper garden is laid out in formal flower beds; the lower border is rich in old vines and shrubs, and all the beloved old-time hardy plants. There is in the manor-house an ancient portrait of the child Pierre Van Cortlandt, painted about the year 1732. He stands by a table bearing a vase filled with old garden flowers--Tulip, Convolvulus, Harebell, Rose, Peony, Narcissus, and Flowering Almond; and it is the pleasure of the present mistress of the manor, to see that the garden still holds all the great-grandfather's flowers. There is a vine-embowered old door in the wall under the piazza (see opposite page 20) which opens into the kitchen and fruit garden; a wall-door so quaint and old-timey that I always remind me of Shakespeare's lines in _Measure for Measure_:-- "He hath a garden circummured with brick, Whose western side is with a Vineyard back'd; And to that Vineyard is a planchéd gate That makes his opening with this bigger key: The other doth command a little door Which from the Vineyard to the garden leads." The long path is a beautiful feature of this garden (it is shown in the picture of the garden opposite page 24); it dates certainly to the middle of the eighteenth century. Pierre Van Cortlandt, the son of the child with the vase of flowers, and grandfather of the present generation bearing his surname, was born in 1762. He well recalled playing along this garden path when he was a child; and that one day he and his little sister Ann (Mrs. Philip Van Rensselaer) ran a race along this path and through the garden to see who could first "see the baby" and greet their sister, Mrs. Beekman, who came riding to the manor-house up the hill from Tarrytown, and through the avenue, which shows on the right-hand side of the garden-picture. This beautiful young woman was famed everywhere for her grace and loveliness, and later equally so for her intelligence and goodness, and the prominent part she bore in the War of the Revolution. She was seated on a pillion behind her husband, and she carried proudly in her arms her first baby (afterward Dr. Beekman) wrapped in a scarlet cloak. This is one of the home-pictures that the old garden holds. Would we could paint it! In this garden, near the house, is a never failing spring and well. The house was purposely built near it, in those days of sudden attacks by Indians; it has proved a fountain of perpetual youth for the old Locust tree, which shades it; a tree more ancient than house or garden, serene and beautiful in its hearty old age. Glimpses of this manor-house garden and its flowers are shown on many pages of this book, but they cannot reveal its beauty as a whole--its fine proportions, its noble background, its splendid trees, its turf, its beds of bloom. Oh! How beautiful a garden can be, when for two hundred years it has been loved and cherished, ever nurtured, ever guarded; how plainly it shows such care! Another Dutch garden is pictured opposite page 32, the garden of the Bergen Homestead, at Bay Ridge, Long Island. Let me quote part of its description, written by Mrs. Tunis Bergen:-- "Over the half-open Dutch door you look through the vines that climb about the stoop, as into a vista of the past. Beyond the garden is the great Quince orchard of hundreds of trees in pink and white glory. This orchard has a story which you must pause in the garden to hear. In the Library at Washington is preserved, in quaint manuscript, 'The Battle of Brooklyn,' a farce written and said to have been performed during the British occupation. The scene is partly laid in 'the orchard of one Bergen,' where the British hid their horses after the battle of Long Island--this is the orchard; but the blossoming Quince trees tell no tale of past carnage. At one side of the garden is a quaint little building with moss-grown roof and climbing hop-vine--the last slave kitchen left standing in New York--on the other side are rows of homely beehives. The old Locust tree overshadowing is an ancient landmark--it was standing in 1690. For some years it has worn a chain to bind its aged limbs together. All this beauty of tree and flower lived till 1890, when it was swept away by the growing city. Though now but a memory, it has the perfume of its past flowers about it." The Locust was so often a "home tree" and so fitting a one, that I have grown to associate ever with these Dutch homesteads a light-leaved Locust tree, shedding its beautiful flickering shadows on the long roof. I wonder whether there was any association or tradition that made the Locust the house-friend in old New York! The first nurseryman in the new world was stern old Governor Endicott of Salem. In 1644 he wrote to Governor Winthrop, "My children burnt mee at least 500 trees by setting the ground on fire neere them"--which was a very pretty piece of mischief for sober Puritan children. We find all thoughtful men of influence and prominence in all the colonies raising various fruits, and selling trees and plants, but they had no independent business nurseries. [Illustration: Garden at Van Cortlandt Manor.] If tradition be true, it is to Governor Endicott we owe an indelible dye on the landscape of eastern Massachusetts in midsummer. The Dyer's-weed or Woad-waxen (_Genista tinctoria_), which, in July, covers hundreds of acres in Lynn, Salem, Swampscott, and Beverly with its solid growth and brilliant yellow bloom, is said to have been brought to this country as the packing of some of the governor's household belongings. It is far more probable that he brought it here to raise it in his garden for dyeing purposes, with intent to benefit the colony, as he did other useful seeds and plants. Woadwaxen, or Broom, is a persistent thing; it needs scythe, plough, hoe, and bitter labor to eradicate it. I cannot call it a weed, for it has seized only poor rock-filled land, good for naught else; and the radiant beauty of the Salem landscape for many weeks makes us forgive its persistence, and thank Endicott for bringing it here. "The Broom, Full-flowered and visible on every steep, Along the copses runs in veins of gold." The Broom flower is the emblem of mid-summer, the hottest yellow flower I know--it seems to throw out heat. I recall the first time I saw it growing; I was told that it was "Salem Wood-wax." I had heard of "Roxbury Waxwork," the Bitter-sweet, but this was a new name, as it was a new tint of yellow, and soon I had its history, for I find Salem people rather proud both of the flower and its story. Oxeye Daisies (Whiteweed) are also by vague tradition the children of Governor Endicott's planting. I think it far more probable that they were planted and cherished by the wives of the colonists, when their beloved English Daisies were found unsuited to New England's climate and soil. We note the Woad-waxen and Whiteweed as crowding usurpers, not only because they are persistent, but because their great expanses of striking bloom will not let us forget them. Many other English plants are just as determined intruders, but their modest dress permits them to slip in comparatively unobserved. It has ever been characteristic of the British colonist to carry with him to any new home the flowers of old England and Scotland, and characteristic of these British flowers to monopolize the earth. Sweetbrier is called "the missionary-plant," by the Maoris in New Zealand, and is there regarded as a tiresome weed, spreading and holding the ground. Some homesick missionary or his more homesick wife bore it there; and her love of the home plant impressed even the savage native. We all know the story of the Scotch settlers who carried their beloved Thistles to Tasmania "to make it seem like home," and how they lived to regret it. Vancouver's Island is completely overrun with Broom and wild Roses from England. The first commercial nursery in America, in the sense of the term as we now employ it, was established about 1730 by Robert Prince, in Flushing, Long Island, a community chiefly of French Huguenot settlers, who brought to the new world many French fruits by seed and cuttings, and also a love of horticulture. For over a century and a quarter these Prince Nurseries were the leading ones in America. The sale of fruit trees was increased in 1774 (as we learn from advertisements in the _New York Mercury_ of that year), by the sale of "Carolina Magnolia flower trees, the most beautiful trees that grow in America, and 50 large Catalpa flower trees; they are nine feet high to the under part of the top and thick as one's leg," also other flowering trees and shrubs. The fine house built on the nursery grounds by William Prince suffered little during the Revolution. It was occupied by Washington and afterwards house and nursery were preserved from depredations by a guard placed by General Howe when the British took possession of Flushing. Of course, domestic nursery business waned in time of war; but an excellent demand for American shrubs and trees sprung up among the officers of the British army, to send home to gardens in England and Germany. Many an English garden still has ancient plants and trees from the Prince Nurseries. The "Linnæan Botanic Garden and Nurseries" and the "Old American Nursery" thrived once more at the close of the war, and William Prince the second entered in charge; one of his earliest ventures of importance was the introduction of Lombardy Poplars. In 1798 he advertises ten thousand trees, ten to seventeen feet in height. These became the most popular tree in America, the emblem of democracy--and a warmly hated tree as well. The eighty acres of nursery grounds were a centre of botanic and horticultural interest for the entire country; every tree, shrub, vine, and plant known to England and America was eagerly sought for; here the important botanical treasures of Lewis and Clark found a home. William Prince wrote several notable horticultural treatises; and even his trade catalogues were prized. He established the first steamboats between Flushing and New York, built roads and bridges on Long Island, and was a public-spirited, generous citizen as well as a man of science. His son, William Robert Prince, who died in 1869, was the last to keep up the nurseries, which he did as a scientific rather than a commercial establishment. He botanized the entire length of the Atlantic States with Dr. Torrey, and sought for collections of trees and wild flowers in California with the same eagerness that others there sought gold. He was a devoted promoter of the native silk industry, having vast plantations of Mulberries in many cities; for one at Norfolk, Virginia, he was offered $100,000. It is a curious fact that the interest in Mulberry culture and the practice of its cultivation was so universal in his neighborhood (about the year 1830), that cuttings of the Chinese Mulberry (_Morus multicaulis_) were used as currency in all the stores in the vicinity of Flushing, at the rate of 12-1/2 cents each. [Illustration: Garden at Prince Homestead, Flushing, Long Island.] The Prince homestead, a fine old mansion, is here shown; it is still standing, surrounded by that forlorn sight, a forgotten garden. This is of considerable extent, and evidences of its past dignity appear in the hedges and edgings of Box; one symmetrical great Box tree is fifty feet in circumference. Flowering shrubs, unkempt of shape, bloom and beautify the waste borders each spring, as do the oldest Chinese Magnolias in the United States. Gingkos, Paulownias, and weeping trees, which need no gardener's care, also flourish and are of unusual size. There are some splendid evergreens, such as Mt. Atlas Cedars; and the oldest and finest Cedar of Lebanon in the United States. It seemed sad, as I looked at the evidences of so much past beauty and present decay, that this historic house and garden should not be preserved for New York, as the house and garden of John Bartram, the Philadelphia botanist, have been for his native city. While there are few direct records of American gardens in the eighteenth century, we have many instructing side glimpses through old business letter-books. We find Sir Harry Frankland ordering Daffodils and Tulips for the garden he made for Agnes Surriage; and it is said that the first Lilacs ever seen in Hopkinton were planted by him for her. The gay young nobleman and the lovely woman are in the dust, and of all the beautiful things belonging to them there remain a splendid Portuguese fan, which stands as a memorial of that tragic crisis in their life--the great Lisbon earthquake; and the Lilacs, which still mark the site of her house and blossom each spring as a memorial of the shadowed romance of her life in New England. Let me give two pages from old letters to illustrate what I mean by side glimpses at the contents of colonial gardens. The fine Hancock mansion in Boston had a carefully-filled garden long previous to the Revolution. Such letters as the following were sent by Mr. Hancock to England to secure flowers for it:-- "My Trees and Seeds for Capt. Bennett Came Safe to Hand and I like them very well. I Return you my hearty Thanks for the Plumb Tree and Tulip Roots you were pleased to make me a Present off, which are very Acceptable to me. I have Sent my friend Mr. Wilks a mmo. to procure for me 2 or 3 Doz. Yew Trees, Some Hollys and Jessamine Vines, and if you have Any Particular Curious Things not of a high Price, will Beautifye a flower Garden Send a Sample with the Price or a Catalogue of 'em, I do not intend to spare Any Cost or Pains in making my Gardens Beautifull or Profitable. "P.S. The Tulip Roots you were Pleased to make a present off to me are all Dead as well." We find Richard Stockton writing in 1766 from England to his wife at their beautiful home "Morven," in Princeton, New Jersey:-- "I am making you a charming collection of bulbous roots, which shall be sent over as soon as the prospect of freezing on your coast is over. The first of April, I believe, will be time enough for you to put them in your sweet little flower garden, which you so fondly cultivate. Suppose I inform you that I design a ride to Twickenham the latter end of next month principally to view Mr. Pope's gardens and grotto, which I am told remain nearly as he left them; and that I shall take with me a gentleman who draws well, to lay down an exact plan of the whole." The fine line of Catalpa trees set out by Richard Stockton, along the front of his lawn, were in full flower when he rode up to his house on a memorable July day to tell his wife that he had signed the Declaration of American Independence. Since then Catalpa trees bear everywhere in that vicinity the name of Independence trees, and are believed to be ever in bloom on July 4th. [Illustration: Old Box at Prince Homestead.] In the delightful diary and letters of Eliza Southgate Bowne (_A Girl's Life Eighty Years Ago_), are other side glimpses of the beautiful gardens of old Salem, among them those of the wealthy merchants of the Derby family. Terraces and arches show a formality of arrangement, for they were laid out by a Dutch gardener whose descendants still live in Salem. All had summer-houses, which were larger and more important buildings than what are to-day termed summer-houses; these latter were known in Salem and throughout Virginia as bowers. One summer-house had an arch through it with three doors on each side which opened into little apartments; one of them had a staircase by which you could ascend into a large upper room, which was the whole size of the building. This was constructed to command a fine view, and was ornamented with Chinese articles of varied interest and value; it was used for tea-drinkings. At the end of the garden, concealed by a dense Weeping Willow, was a thatched hermitage, containing the life-size figure of a man reading a prayer-book; a bed of straw and some broken furniture completed the picture. This was an English fashion, seen at one time in many old English gardens, and held to be most romantic. Apparently summer evenings were spent by the Derby household and their visitors wholly in the garden and summer-house. The diary keeper writes naïvely, "The moon shines brighter in this garden than anywhere else." [Illustration: Old Dutch Garden of Bergen Homestead.] The shrewd and capable women of the colonies who entered so freely and successfully into business ventures found the selling of flower seeds a congenial occupation, and often added it to the pursuit of other callings. I think it must have been very pleasant to buy packages of flower seed at the same time and place where you bought your best bonnet, and have all sent home in a bandbox together; each would prove a memorial of the other; and long after the glory of the bonnet had departed, and the bonnet itself was ashes, the thriving Sweet Peas and Larkspur would recall its becoming charms. I have often seen the advertisements of these seedswomen in old newspapers; unfortunately they seldom gave printed lists of their store of seeds. Here is one list printed in a Boston newspaper on March 30, 1760:-- Lavender. Palma Christi. Cerinthe or Honeywort, loved of bees. Tricolor. Indian Pink. Scarlet Cacalia. Yellow Sultans. Lemon African Marigold. Sensitive Plants. White Lupine. Love Lies Bleeding. Patagonian Cucumber. Lobelia. Catchfly. Wing-peas. Convolvulus. Strawberry Spinage. Branching Larkspur. White Chrysanthemum. Nigaella Romano. Rose Campion. Snap Dragon. Nolana prostrata. Summer Savory. Hyssop. Red Hawkweed. Red and White Lavater. Scarlet Lupine. Large blue Lupine. Snuff flower. Caterpillars. Cape Marigold. Rose Lupine. Sweet Peas. Venus' Navelwort. Yellow Chrysanthemum. Cyanus minor. Tall Holyhock. French Marigold. Carnation Poppy. Globe Amaranthus. Yellow Lupine. Indian Branching Coxcombs. Iceplants. Thyme. Sweet Marjoram. Tree Mallows. Everlasting. Greek Valerian. Tree Primrose. Canterbury Bells. Purple Stock. Sweet Scabiouse. Columbine. Pleasant-eyed Pink. Dwarf Mountain Pink. Sweet Rocket. Horn Poppy. French Honeysuckle. Bloody Wallflower. Sweet William. Honesty (to be sold in small parcels that every one may have a little). Persicaria. Polyanthos. 50 Different Sorts of mixed Tulip Roots. Ranunculus. Gladiolus. Starry Scabiouse. Curled Mallows. Painted Lady topknot peas. Colchicum. Persian Iris. Star Bethlehem. This list is certainly a pleasing one. It gives opportunity for flower borders of varied growth and rich color. There is a quality of some minds which may be termed historical imagination. It is the power of shaping from a few simple words or details of the faraway past, an ample picture, full of light and life, of which these meagre details are but a framework. Having this list of the names of these sturdy old annuals and perennials, what do you perceive besides the printed words? I see that the old mid-century garden where these seeds found a home was a cheerful place from earliest spring to autumn; that it had many bulbs, and thereafter a constant succession of warm blooms till the Coxcombs, Marigolds, Colchicums and Chrysanthemums yielded to New England's frosts. I know that the garden had beehives and that the bees were loved; for when they sallied out of their straw bee-skepes, these happy bees found their favorite blossoms planted to welcome them: Cerinthe, dropping with honey; Cacalia, a sister flower; Lupine, Larkspur, Sweet Marjoram, and Thyme--I can taste the Thyme-scented classic honey from that garden! There was variety of foliage as well as bloom, the dovelike Lavender, the glaucous Horned Poppy, the glistening Iceplants, the dusty Rose Campion. [Illustration: Old Garden at Duck Cove Farm in Narragansett.] Stately plants grew from the little seed-packets; Hollyhocks, Valerian, Canterbury Bells, Tree Primroses looked down on the low-growing herbs of the border; and there were vines of Convolvulus and Honeysuckle. It was a garden overhung by clouds of perfume from Thyme, Lavender, Sweet Peas, Pleasant-eyed Pink, and Stock. The garden's mistress looked well after her household; ample store of savory pot herbs grow among the finer blossoms. It was a garden for children to play in. I can see them; little boys with their hair tied in queues, in knee breeches and flapped coats like their stately fathers, running races down the garden path, as did the Van Cortlandt children; and demure little girls in caps and sacques and aprons, sitting in cubby houses under the Lilac bushes. I know what flowers they played with and how they played, for they were my great-grandmothers and grandfathers, and they played exactly what I did, and sang what I did when I was a child in a garden. And suddenly my picture expands, as a glow of patriotic interest thrills me in the thought that in this garden were sheltered and amused the boys of one hundred and forty years ago, who became the heroes of our American Revolution; and the girls who were Daughters of Liberty, who spun and wove and knit for their soldiers, and drank heroically their miserable Liberty tea. I fear the garden faded when bitter war scourged the land, when the women turned from their flower beds to the plough and the field, since their brothers and husbands were on the frontier. But when that winter of gloom to our country and darkness to the garden was ended, the flowers bloomed still more brightly, and to the cheerful seedlings of the old garden is now given perpetual youth and beauty; they are fated never to grow faded or neglected or sad, but to live and blossom and smile forever in the sunshine of our hearts through the magic power of a few printed words in a time-worn old news-sheet. CHAPTER II FRONT DOORYARDS "There are few of us who cannot remember a front yard garden which seemed to us a very paradise in childhood. Whether the house was a fine one and the enclosure spacious, or whether it was a small house with only a narrow bit of ground in front, the yard was kept with care, and was different from the rest of the land altogether.... People do not know what they lose when they make way with the reserve, the separateness, the sanctity, of the front yard of their grandmothers. It is like writing down family secrets for any one to read; it is like having everybody call you by your first name, or sitting in any pew in church." --_Country Byways_, SARAH ORNE JEWETT, 1881. Old New England villages and small towns and well-kept New England farms had universally a simple and pleasing form of garden called the front yard or front dooryard. A few still may be seen in conservative communities in the New England states and in New York or Pennsylvania. I saw flourishing ones this summer in Gloucester, Marblehead, and Ipswich. Even where the front yard was but a narrow strip of land before a tiny cottage, it was carefully fenced in, with a gate that was kept rigidly closed and latched. There seemed to be a law which shaped and bounded the front yard; the side fences extended from the corners of the house to the front fence on the edge of the road, and thus formed naturally the guarded parallelogram. Often the fence around the front yard was the only one on the farm; everywhere else were boundaries of great stone walls; or if there were rail fences, the front yard fence was the only painted one. I cannot doubt that the first gardens that our foremothers had, which were wholly of flowering plants, were front yards, little enclosures hard won from the forest. [Illustration: The Flowering Almond under the Window.] The word yard, not generally applied now to any enclosure of elegant cultivation, comes from the same root as the word garden. Garth is another derivative, and the word exists much disguised in orchard. In the sixteenth century yard was used in formal literature instead of garden; and later Burns writes of "Eden's bonnie yard, Where yeuthful lovers first were pair'd." This front yard was an English fashion derived from the forecourt so strongly advised by Gervayse Markham (an interesting old English writer on floriculture and husbandry), and found in front of many a yeoman's house, and many a more pretentious house as well in Markham's day. Forecourts were common in England until the middle of the eighteenth century, and may still be seen. The forecourt gave privacy to the house even when in the centre of a town. Its readoption is advised with handsome dwellings in England, where ground-space is limited,--and why not in America, too? [Illustration: Peter's Wreath.] The front yard was sacred to the best beloved, or at any rate the most honored, garden flowers of the house mistress, and was preserved by its fences from inroads of cattle, which then wandered at their will and were not housed, or even enclosed at night. The flowers were often of scant variety, but were those deemed the gentlefolk of the flower world. There was a clump of Daffodils and of the Poet's Narcissus in early spring, and stately Crown Imperial; usually, too, a few scarlet and yellow single Tulips, and Grape Hyacinths. Later came Phlox in abundance--the only native American plant,--Canterbury Bells, and ample and glowing London Pride. Of course there were great plants of white and blue Day Lilies, with their beautiful and decorative leaves, and purple and yellow Flower de Luce. A few old-fashioned shrubs always were seen. By inflexible law there must be a Lilac, which might be the aristocratic Persian Lilac. A Syringa, a flowering Currant, or Strawberry bush made sweet the front yard in spring, and sent wafts of fragrance into the house-windows. Spindling, rusty Snowberry bushes were by the gate, and Snowballs also, or our native Viburnums. Old as they seem, the Spiræas and Deutzias came to us in the nineteenth century from Japan; as did the flowering Quinces and Cherries. The pink Flowering Almond dates back to the oldest front yards (see page 39), and Peter's Wreath certainly seems an old settler and is found now in many front yards that remain. The lovely full-flowered shrub of Peter's Wreath, on page 41, which was photographed for this book, was all that remained of a once-loved front yard. The glory of the front yard was the old-fashioned early red "Piny," cultivated since the days of Pliny. I hear people speaking of it with contempt as a vulgar flower,--flaunting is the conventional derogatory adjective,--but I glory in its flaunting. The modern varieties, of every tint from white through flesh color, coral, pink, ruby color, salmon, and even yellow, to deep red, are as beautiful as Roses. Some are sweet-scented; and they have no thorns, and their foliage is ever perfect, so I am sure the Rose is jealous. I am as fond of the Peony as are the Chinese, among whom it is flower queen. It is by them regarded as an aristocratic flower; and in old New England towns fine Peony plants in an old garden are a pretty good indication of the residence of what Dr. Holmes called New England Brahmins. In Salem and Portsmouth are old "Pinys" that have a hundred blossoms at a time--a glorious sight. A Japanese name is "Flower-of-prosperity"; another name, "Plant-of-twenty-days," because its glories last during that period of time. [Illustration: Peonies in a Salem Garden.] Rhododendrons are to the modern garden what the Peony was in the old-fashioned flower border; and I am glad the modern flower cannot drive the old one out. They are equally varied in coloring, but the Peony is a much hardier plant, and I like it far better. It has no blights, no bugs, no diseases, no running out, no funguses; it doesn't have to be covered in winter, and it will bloom in the shade. No old-time or modern garden is to me fully furnished without Peonies; see how fair they are in this Salem garden. I would grow them in some corner of the garden for their splendid healthy foliage if they hadn't a blossom. The _Pæonia tenuifolia_ in particular has exquisite feathery foliage. The great Tree Peony, which came from China, grows eight feet or more in height, and is a triumph of the flower world; but it was not known to the oldest front yards. Some of the Tree Peonies have finely displayed leafage of a curious and very gratifying tint of green. Miss Jekyll, with her usual felicity, compares its blue cast with pinkish shading to the vari-colored metal alloys of the Japanese bronze workers--a striking comparison. The single Peonies of recent years are of great beauty, and will soon be esteemed here as in China. Not the least of the Peony's charms is its exceeding trimness and cleanliness. The plants always look like a well-dressed, well-shod, well-gloved girl of birth, breeding, and of equal good taste and good health; a girl who can swim, and skate, and ride, and play golf. Every inch has a well-set, neat, cared-for look which the shape and growth of the plant keeps from seeming artificial or finicky. See the white Peony on page 44; is it not a seemly, comely thing, as well as a beautiful one? No flower can be set in our garden of more distinct antiquity than the Peony; the Greeks believed it to be of divine origin. A green arbor of the fourteenth century in England is described as set around with Gillyflower, Tansy, Gromwell, and "Pyonys powdered ay betwene"--just as I like to see Peonies set to this day, "powdered" everywhere between all the other flowers of the border. [Illustration: White Peonies.] I am pleased to note of the common flowers of the New England front yard, that they are no new things; they are nearly all Elizabethan of date--many are older still. Lord Bacon in his essay on gardens names many of them, Crocus, Tulip, Hyacinth, Daffodil, Flower de Luce, double Peony, Lilac, Lily of the Valley. A favorite flower was the yellow garden Lily, the Lemon Lily, _Hemerocallis_, when it could be kept from spreading. Often its unbounded luxuriance exiled it from the front yard to the kitchen dooryard as befell the clump shown facing page 48. Its pretty old-fashioned name was Liricon-fancy, given, I am told, in England to the Lily of the Valley. I know no more satisfying sight than a good bank of these Lemon Lilies in full flower. Below Flatbush there used to be a driveway leading to an old Dutch house, set at regular intervals with great clumps of Lemon Lilies, and their full bloom made them glorious. Their power of satisfactory adaptation in our modern formal garden is happily shown facing page 76, in the lovely garden of Charles E. Mather, Esq., in Haverford, Pennsylvania. The time of fullest inflorescence of the nineteenth century front yard was when Phlox and Tiger Lilies bloomed; but the pinkish-orange colors of the latter (the oddest reds of any flower tints) blended most vilely and rampantly with the crimson-purple of the Phlox; and when London Pride joined with its glowing scarlet, the front yard fairly ached. Nevertheless, an adaptation of that front yard bloom can be most effective in a garden border, when white Phlox only is planted, and the Tiger Lily or cultivated stalks of our wild nodding Lily rise above the white trusses of bloom. These wild Lilies grow very luxuriantly in the garden, often towering above our heads and forming great candelabra bearing two score or more blooms. It is no easy task to secure their deep-rooted rhizomes in the meadow. I know a young man who won his sweetheart by the patience and assiduity with which he dug for her all one broiling morning to secure for her the coveted Lily roots, and collapsed with mild sunstroke at the finish. Her gratitude and remorse were equal factors in his favor. The Tiger Lily is usually thought upon as a truly old-fashioned flower, a veritable antique; it is a favorite of artists to place as an accessory in their colonial gardens, and of authors for their flower-beds of Revolutionary days, but it was not known either in formal garden or front yard, until after "the days when we lived under the King." The bulbs were first brought to England from Eastern Asia in 1804 by Captain Kirkpatrick of the East India Company's Service, and shared with the Japan Lily the honor of being the first Eastern Lilies introduced into European gardens. A few years ago an old gentleman, Mr. Isaac Pitman, who was then about eighty-five years of age, told me that he recalled distinctly when Tiger Lilies first appeared in our gardens, and where he first saw them growing in Boston. So instead of being an old-time flower, or even an old-comer from the Orient, it is one of the novelties of this century. How readily has it made itself at home, and even wandered wild down our roadsides! The two simple colors of Phlox of the old-time front yard, white and crimson-purple, are now augmented by tints of salmon, vermilion, and rose. I recall with special pleasure the profuse garden decoration at East Hampton, Long Island, of a pure cherry-colored Phlox, generally a doubtful color to me, but there so associated with the white blooms of various other plants, and backed by a high hedge covered solidly with blossoming Honeysuckle, that it was wonderfully successful. To other members of the Phlox family, all natives of our own continent, the old front yard owed much; the Moss Pink sometimes crowded out both Grass and its companion the Periwinkle; it is still found in our gardens, and bountifully also in our fields; either in white or pink, it is one of the satisfactions of spring, and its cheerful little blossom is of wonderful use in many waste places. An old-fashioned bloom, the low-growing _Phlox amoena_, with its queerly fuzzy leaves and bright crimson blossoms, was among the most distinctly old-fashioned flowers of the front yard. It was tolerated rather than cultivated, as was its companion, the Arabis or Rock Cress--both crowding, monopolizing creatures. I remember well how they spread over the beds and up the grass banks in my mother's garden, how sternly they were uprooted, in spite of the pretty name of the Arabis--"Snow in Summer." Sometimes the front yard path had edgings of sweet single or lightly double white or tinted Pinks, which were not deemed as choice as Box edgings. Frequently large Box plants clipped into simple and natural shapes stood at the side of the doorstep, usually in the home of the well-to-do. A great shell might be on either side of the door-sill, if there chanced to be seafaring men-folk who lived or visited under the roof-tree. Annuals were few in number; sturdy old perennial plants of many years' growth were the most honored dwellers in the front yard, true representatives of old families. The Roses were few and poor, for there was usually some great tree just without the gate, an Elm or Larch, whose shadow fell far too near and heavily for the health of Roses. Sometimes there was a prickly semidouble yellow Rose, called by us a Scotch Rose, a Sweet Brier, or a rusty-flowered white Rose, similar, though inferior, to the Madame Plantier. A new fashion of trellises appeared in the front yard about sixty years ago, and crimson Boursault Roses climbed up them as if by magic. One marked characteristic of the front yard was its lack of weeds; few sprung up, none came to seed-time; the enclosure was small, and it was a mark of good breeding to care for it well. Sometimes, however, the earth was covered closely under shrubs and plants with the cheerful little Ladies' Delights, and they blossomed in the chinks of the bricked path and under the Box edges. Ambrosia, too, grew everywhere, but these were welcome--they were not weeds. Our old New England houses were suited in color and outline to their front yards as to our landscape. Lowell has given in verse a good description of the kind of New England house that always had a front dooryard of flowers. [Illustration: Yellow Day Lilies.] "On a grass-green swell That towards the south with sweet concessions fell, It dwelt retired, and half had grown to be As aboriginal as rock or tree. It nestled close to earth, and seemed to brood O'er homely thoughts in a half-conscious mood. If paint it e'er had known, it knew no more Than yellow lichens spattered thickly o'er That soft lead gray, less dark beneath the eaves, Which the slow brush of wind and weather leaves. The ample roof sloped backward to the ground And vassal lean-tos gathered thickly round, Patched on, as sire or son had felt the need. But the great chimney was the central thought. * * * * * It rose broad-shouldered, kindly, debonair, Its warm breath whitening in the autumn air." Sarah Orne Jewett, in the plaint of _A Mournful Villager_, has drawn a beautiful and sympathetic picture of these front yards, and she deplores their passing. I mourn them as I do every fenced-in or hedged-in garden enclosure. The sanctity and reserve of these front yards of our grandmothers was somewhat emblematic of woman's life of that day: it was restricted, and narrowed to a small outlook and monotonous likeness to her neighbor's; but it was a life easily satisfied with small pleasures, and it was comely and sheltered and carefully kept, and pleasant to the home household; and these were no mean things. The front yard was never a garden of pleasure; children could not play in these precious little enclosed plots, and never could pick the flowers--front yard and flowers were both too much respected. Only formal visitors entered therein, visitors who opened the gate and closed it carefully behind them, and knocked slowly with the brass knocker, and were ushered in through the ceremonious front door and the little ill-contrived entry, to the stiff fore-room or parlor. The parson and his wife entered that portal, and sometimes a solemn would-be sweetheart, or the guests at a tea party. It can be seen that every one who had enough social dignity to have a front door and a parlor, and visitors thereto, also desired a front yard with flowers as the external token of that honored standing. It was like owning a pew in church; you could be a Christian without having a pew, but not a respected one. Sometimes when there was a "vendue" in the house, reckless folk opened the front gate, and even tied it back. I attended one where the auctioneer boldly set the articles out through the windows under the Lilac bushes and even on the precious front yard plants. A vendue and a funeral were the only gatherings in country communities when the entire neighborhood came freely to an old homestead, when all were at liberty to enter the front dooryard. At the sad time when a funeral took place in the house, the front gate was fastened widely open, and solemn men-neighbors, in Sunday garments, stood rather uncomfortably and awkwardly around the front yard as the women passed into the house of mourning and were seated within. When the sad services began, the men too entered and stood stiffly by the door. Then through the front door, down the mossy path of the front yard, and through the open front gate was borne the master, the mistress, and then their children, and children's children. All are gone from our sight, many from our memory, and often too from our ken, while the Lilacs and Peonies and Flowers de Luce still blossom and flourish with perennial youth, and still claim us as friends. At the side of the house or by the kitchen door would be seen many thrifty blooms: poles of Scarlet Runners, beds of Portulacas and Petunias, rows of Pinks, bunches of Marigolds, level expanses of Sweet Williams, banks of cheerful Nasturtiums, tangles of Morning-glories and long rows of stately Hollyhocks, which were much admired, but were seldom seen in the front yard, which was too shaded for them. Weeds grew here at the kitchen door in a rank profusion which was hard to conquer; but here the winter's Fuchsias or Geraniums stood in flower pots in the sunlight, and the tubs of Oleanders and Agapanthus Lilies. The flowers of the front yard seemed to bear a more formal, a "company" aspect; conventionality rigidly bound them. Bachelor's Buttons might grow there by accident, but Marigolds never were tolerated,--they were pot herbs. Sunflowers were not even permitted in the flower beds at the side of the house unless these stretched down to the vegetable beds. Outside the front yard would be a rioting and cheerful growth of pink Bouncing Bet, or of purple Honesty, and tall straggling plants of a certain small flowered, ragged Campanula, and a white Mallow with flannelly leaves which, doubtless, aspired to inhabit the sacred bounds of the front yard (and probably dwelt there originally), and often were gladly permitted to grow in side gardens or kitchen dooryards, but which were regarded as interloping weeds by the guardians of the front yard, and sternly exiled. Sometimes a bed of these orange-tawny Day Lilies which had once been warmly welcomed from the Orient, and now were not wanted anywhere by any one, kept company with the Bouncing Bet, and stretched cheerfully down the roadside. [Illustration: Orange Day Lilies.] When the fences disappeared with the night rambles of the cows, the front yards gradually changed character; the tender blooms vanished, but the tall shrubs and the Peonies and Flower de Luce sturdily grew and blossomed, save where that dreary destroyer of a garden crept in--the desire for a lawn. The result was then a meagre expanse of poorly kept grass, with no variety, color, or change,--neither lawn nor front yard. It is ever a pleasure to me when driving in a village street or a country road to find one of these front yards still enclosed, or even to note in front of many houses the traces of a past front yard still plainly visible in the flourishing old-fashioned plants of many years' growth. CHAPTER III VARIED GARDENS FAIR "And all without were walkes and alleys dight With divers trees enrang'd in even rankes; And here and there were pleasant arbors pight And shadie seats, and sundry flowering bankes To sit and rest the walkers wearie shankes." --_Faerie Queene_, EDMUND SPENSER. Many simple forms of gardens were common besides the enclosed front yard; and as wealth poured in on the colonies, the beautiful gardens so much thought of in England were copied here, especially by wealthy merchants, as is noted in the first chapter of this book, and by the provincial governors and their little courts; the garden of Governor Hutchinson, in Milford, Massachusetts, is stately still and little changed. [Illustration: Preston Garden.] English gardens, at the time of the settlement of America, had passed beyond the time when, as old Gervayse Markham said, "Of all the best Ornaments used in our English gardens, Knots and Mazes are the most ancient." A maze was a placing of low garden hedges of Privet, Box, or Hyssop, usually set in concentric circles which enclosed paths, that opened into each other by such artful contrivance that it was difficult to find one's way in and out through these bewildering paths. "When well formed, of a man's height, your friend may perhaps wander in gathering berries as he cannot recover himself without your help." The maze was not a thing of beauty, it was "nothing for sweetness and health," to use Lord Bacon's words; it was only a whimsical notion of gardening amusement, pleasing to a generation who liked to have hidden fountains in their gardens to sprinkle suddenly the unwary. I doubt if any mazes were ever laid out in America, though I have heard vague references to one in Virginia. Knots had been the choice adornment of the Tudor garden. They were not wholly a thing of the past when we had here our first gardens, and they have had a distinct influence on garden laying-out till our own day. An Elizabethan poet wrote:-- "My Garden sweet, enclosed with walles strong, Embanked with benches to sitt and take my rest; The knots so enknotted it cannot be expressed The arbores and alyes so pleasant and so dulce." These garden knots were not flower beds edged with Box or Rosemary, with narrow walks between the edgings, as were the parterres of our later formal gardens. They were square, ornamental beds, each of which had a design set in some close-growing, trim plant, clipped flatly across the top, and the design filled in with colored earth or sand; and with no dividing paths. Elaborate models in complicated geometrical pattern were given in gardeners' books, for setting out these knots, which were first drawn on paper and subdivided into squares; then the square of earth was similarly divided, and set out by precise rules. William Lawson, the Izaak Walton of gardeners, gave, as a result of forty-eight years of experience, some very attractive directions for large "knottys" with different "thrids" of flowers, each of one color, which made the design appear as if "made of diverse colored ribands." One of his knots, from _A New Orchard and Garden_ 1618, being a garden fashion in vogue when my forbears came to America, I have chosen as a device for the dedication of this book, thinking it, in Lawson's words, "so comely, and orderly placed, and so intermingled, that one looking thereon cannot but wonder." His knots had significant names, such as "Cinkfoyle; Flower de Luce; Trefoyle; Frette; Lozenge; Groseboowe; Diamond; Ovall; Maze." Gervayse Markham gives various knot patterns to be bordered with Box cut eighteen inches broad at the bottom and kept flat at the top--with the ever present thought for the fine English linen. He has a varied list of circular, diamond-shaped, mixed, and "single impleated knots." [Illustration: Box-edged Parterre at Hampton.] These garden knots were mildly sneered at by Lord Bacon; he said, "they be but toys, you see as good sights many times in tarts;" still I think they must have been quaint, and I should like to see a garden laid out to-day in these pretty Elizabethan knots, set in the old patterns, and with the old flowers. Nor did Parkinson and other practical gardeners look with favor on "curiously knotted gardens," though all gave designs to "satisfy the desires" of their readers. "Open knots" were preferred; these were made with borders of lead, tiles, boards, or even the shankbones of sheep, "which will become white and prettily grace out the garden,"--a fashion I saw a few years ago around flower beds in Charlton, Massachusetts. "Round whitish pebble stones" for edgings were Parkinson's own invention, and proud he was of it, simple as it seems to us. These open knots were then filled in, but "thin and sparingly," with "English Flowers"; or with "Out-Landish Flowers," which were flowers fetched from foreign parts. The parterre succeeded the knot, and has been used in gardens till the present day. Parterres were of different combinations, "well-contriv'd and ingenious." The "parterre of cut-work" was a Box-bordered formal flower garden, of which the garden at Hampton, Maryland (pages 57, 60, and 95), is a striking and perfect example; also the present garden at Mount Vernon (opposite page 12), wherein carefully designed flower beds, edged with Box, are planted with variety of flowers, and separated by paths. Sometimes, of old, fine white sand was carefully strewn on the earth under the flowers. The "parterre à l'Anglaise" had an elaborate design of vari-shaped beds edged with Box, but enclosing grass instead of flowers. In the "parterre de broderie" the Box-edged beds were filled with vari-colored earths and sands. Black earth could be made of iron filings; red earth of pounded tiles. This last-named parterre differed from a knot solely in having the paths among the beds. The _Retir'd Gard'ner_ gives patterns for ten parterres. The main walks which formed the basis of the garden design had in ancient days a singular name--forthrights; these were ever to be "spacious and fair," and neatly spread with colored sands or gravel. Parkinson says, "The fairer and larger your allies and walks be the more grace your garden should have, the lesse harm the herbes and flowers shall receive, and the better shall your weeders cleanse both the bed and the allies." "Covert-walks," or "shade-alleys," had trees meeting in an arch over them. A curious term, found in references to old American flower beds and garden designs, as well as English ones, is the "goose-foot." A "goose-foot" consisted of three flower beds or three avenues radiating rather closely together from a small semicircle; and in some places and under some conditions it is still a charming and striking design, as you stand at the heel of the design and glance down the three avenues. [Illustration: Parterre and Clipped Box at Hampton.] In all these flower beds Box was the favorite edging, but many other trim edgings have been used in parterres and borders by those who love not Box. Bricks were used, and boards; an edging of boards was not as pretty as one of flowers, but it kept the beds trimly in place; a garden thus edged is shown on page 63 which realizes this description of the pleasure-garden in the _Scots Gard'ner_: "The Bordures box'd and planted with variety of fine Flowers orderly Intermixt, Weeded, Mow'd, Rolled and Kept all Clean and Handsome." Germander and Rosemary were old favorites for edging. I have seen snowy edgings of Candy-tuft and Sweet Alyssum, setting off well the vari-colored blooms of the border. One of Sweet Alyssum is shown on page 256. Ageratum is a satisfactory edging. Thyme is of ancient use, but rather unmanageable; one garden owner has set his edgings of Moneywort, otherwise Creeping-jenny. I should be loth to use Moneywort as an edging; I would not care for its yellow flowers in that place, though I find them very kindly and cheerful on dull banks or in damp spots, under the drip of trees and eaves, or better still, growing gladly in the flower pot of the poor. I fear if Moneywort thrived enough to make a close, suitable edging, that it would thrive too well, and would swamp the borders with its underground runners. The name Moneywort is akin to its older title Herb-twopence, or Twopenny Grass. Turner (1548) says the latter name was given from the leaves all "standying together of ech syde of the stalke lyke pence." The striped leaves of one variety of Day Lily make pretty edgings. Those from a Salem garden are here shown. We often see in neglected gardens in New England, or by the roadside where no gardens now exist, a dense gray-green growth of Lavender Cotton, "the female plant of Southernwood," which was brought here by the colonists and here will ever remain. It was used as an edging, and is very pretty when it can be controlled. I know two or three old gardens where it is thus employed. Sometimes in driving along a country road you are startled by a concentration of foliage and bloom, a glimpse of a tiny farm-house, over which are clustered and heaped, and round which are gathered, close enough to be within touch from door or window, flowers in a crowded profusion ample to fill a large flower bed. Such is the mass of June bloom at Wilbur Farm in old Narragansett (page 290)--a home of flowers and bees. Often by the side of the farm-house is a little garden or flower bed containing some splendid examples of old-time flowers. The splendid "running ribbons" of Snow Pinks, on page 292, are in another Narragansett garden that is a bower of blossoms. Thrift has been a common edging since the days of the old herbalist Gerarde. "We have a bright little garden, down on a sunny slope, Bordered with sea-pinks and sweet with the songs and blossoms of hope." The garden of Secretary William H. Seward (in Auburn, New York), so beloved by him in his lifetime, is shown on page 146 and facing page 134. In this garden some beds are edged with Periwinkle, others with Polyanthus, and some with Ivy which Mr. Seward brought from Abbotsford in 1836. This garden was laid out in its present form in 1816, and the sun-dial was then set in its place. The garden has been enlarged, but not changed, the old "George II. Roses" and York and Lancaster Roses still grow and blossom, and the lovely arches of single Michigan Roses still flourish. In it are many flowers and fruits unusual in America, among them a bed of Alpine strawberries. King James I. of Scotland thus wrote of the garden which he saw from his prison window in Windsor Castle:-- "A Garden fair, and in the Corners set An Herbere greene, with Wandis long and small Railit about." These wandis were railings which were much used before Box edgings became universal. Sometimes they were painted the family colors, as at Hampton Court they were green and white, the Tudor colors. These "wandis" still are occasionally seen. In the Berkshire Hills I drove past an old garden thus trimly enclosed in little beds. The rails were painted a dull light brown, almost the color of some tree trunks; and Larkspur, Foxglove, and other tall flowers crowded up to them and hung their heads over the top rails as children hang over a fence or a gate. I thought it a neat, trim fashion, not one I would care for in my own garden, yet not to be despised in the garden of another. [Illustration: Garden of Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright, Waldstein, Fairfield, Conn.] A garden enclosed! so full of suggestion are these simple words to me, so constant is my thought that an ideal flower garden must be an enclosed garden, that I look with regret upon all beautiful flower beds that are not enclosed, not shut in a frame of green hedges, or high walls, or vine-covered fences and dividing trees. It may be selfish to hide so much beauty from general view; but until our dwelling-houses are made with uncurtained glass walls, that all the world may see everything, let those who have ample grounds enclose at least a portion for the sight of friends only. In the heart of Worcester there is a fine old mansion with ample lawns, great trees, and flowering shrubs that all may see over the garden fence as they pass by. Flowers bloom lavishly at one side of the house; and the thoughtless stroller never knows that behind the house, stretching down between the rear gardens and walls of neighboring homes, is a long enclosure of loveliness--sequestered, quiet, full of refreshment to the spirits. We think of the "Old Garden" of Margaret Deland:-- "The Garden glows And 'gainst its walls the city's heart still beats. And out from it each summer wind that blows Carries some sweetness to the tired streets!" [Illustration: Shaded Walk in Garden of Miss Harriet P. F. Burnside, Worcester, Massachusetts.] There is a shaded walk in this garden which is a thing of solace and content to all who tread its pathway; a bit is shown opposite this page, overhung with shrubs of Lilac, Syringa, Strawberry Bush, Flowering Currant, all the old treelike things, so fair-flowered and sweet-scented in spring, so heavy-leaved and cool-shadowing in midsummer: what pleasure would there be in this shaded walk if this garden were separated from the street only by stone curbing or a low rail? And there is an old sun-dial too in this enclosed garden! I fear the street imps of a crowded city would quickly destroy the old monitor were it in an open garden; and they would make sad havoc, too, of the Roses and Larkspurs (page 65) so tenderly reared by the two sisters who together loved and cared for this "garden enclosed." Great trees are at the edges of this garden, and the line of tall shrubs is carried out by the lavish vines and Roses on fences and walls. Within all this border of greenery glow the clustered gems of rare and beautiful flowers, till the whole garden seems like some rich jewel set purposely to be worn in honor over the city's heart--a clustered jewel, not one to be displayed carelessly and heedlessly. [Illustration: Roses and Larkspur in the Garden of Miss Harriet P. F. Burnside, Worcester, Massachusetts.] Salem houses and gardens are like Salem people. Salem houses present to you a serene and dignified front, gracious yet reserved, not thrusting forward their choicest treasures to the eyes of passing strangers; but behind the walls of the houses, enclosed from public view, lie cherished gardens, full of the beauty of life. Such, in their kind, are Salem folk. I know no more speaking, though silent, criticism than those old Salem gardens afford upon the modern fashion in American towns of pulling down walls and fences, removing the boundaries of lawns, and living in full view of every passer-by, in a public grassy park. It is pleasant, I suppose, for the passer-by; but homes are not made for passers-by. Old Salem gardens lie behind the house, out of sight--you have to hunt for them. They are terraced down if they stretch to the water-side; they are enclosed with hedges, and set behind high vine-covered fences, and low out-buildings; and planted around with great trees: thus they give to each family that secluded centring of family life which is the very essence and being of a home. I sat through a June afternoon in a Salem garden whose gate is within a stone's throw of a great theatre, but a few hundred feet from lines of electric cars and a busy street of trade, scarce farther from lines of active steam cars, and with a great power house for a close neighbor. Yet we were as secluded, as embowered in vines and trees, with beehives and rabbit hutches and chicken coops for happy children at the garden's end, as truly in beautiful privacy, as if in the midst of a hundred acres. Could the sense of sound be as sheltered by the enclosing walls as the sense of sight, such a garden were a city paradise. [Illustration: The Homely Back Yard.] There is scant regularity in shape in Salem gardens; there is no search for exact dimensions. Little narrow strips of flower beds run down from the main garden in any direction or at any angle where the fortunate owner can buy a few feet of land. Salem gardens do not change with the whims of fancy, either in the shape or the planting. A few new flowers find place there, such as the _Anemone Japonica_ and the Japanese shrubs; for they are akin in flower sentiment, and consort well with the old inhabitants. There are many choice flowers and fruits in these gardens. In the garden of the Manning homestead (opposite page 112) grows a flourishing Fig tree, and other rare fruits; for fifty years ago this garden was known as the Pomological Garden. It is fitting it should be the home of two Robert Mannings--both well-known names in the history of horticulture in Massachusetts. [Illustration: Covered Well at Home of Bishop Berkeley, Whitehall, Rhode Island.] The homely back yard of an old house will often possess a trim and blooming flower border cutting off the close approach of the vegetable beds (see opposite page 66). These back yards, with the covered Grape arbors, the old pumps, and bricked paths, are cheerful, wholesome places, generally of spotless cleanliness and weedless flower beds. I know one such back yard where the pump was the first one set in the town, and children were taken there from a distance to see the wondrous sight. Why are all the old appliances for raising water so pleasing? A well-sweep is of course picturesque, with its long swinging pole, and you seem to feel the refreshment and purity of the water when you see it brought up from such a distance; and an old roofed well with bucket, such as this one still in use at Bishop Berkeley's Rhode Island home is ever a homelike and companionable object. But a pump is really an awkward-looking piece of mechanism, and hasn't a vestige of beauty in its lines; yet it has something satisfying about it; it may be its domesticity, its homeliness, its simplicity. We have gained infinitely in comfort in our perfect water systems and lavish water of to-day, but we have lost the gratification of the senses which came from the sight and sound of freshly drawn or running water. Much of the delight in a fountain comes, not only from the beauty of its setting and the graceful shape of its jets, but simply from the sight of the water. Sometimes a graceful and picturesque growth of vines will beautify gate posts, a fence, or a kitchen doorway in a wonderfully artistic and pleasing fashion. On page 70 is shown the sheltered doorway of the kitchen of a fine old stone farm-house called, from its hedges of Osage Orange, "The Hedges." It stands in the village of New Hope, County Bucks, Pennsylvania. In 1718 the tract of which this farm of over two hundred acres is but a portion was deeded by the Penns to their kinsman, the direct ancestor of the present owner, John Schofield Williams, Esq. This is but one of the scores of examples I know where the same estate has been owned in one family for nearly two centuries, sometimes even for two hundred and fifty years; and in several cases where the deed from the Indian sachem to the first colonist is the only deed there has ever been, the estate having never changed ownership save by direct bequest. I have three such cases among my own kinsfolk. [Illustration: Kitchen Doorway and Porch at the Hedges.] Another form of garden and mode of planting which was in vogue in the "early thirties" is shown facing page 92. This pillared house and the stiff garden are excellent types; they are at Napanock, County Ulster, New York. Such a house and grounds indicated the possession of considerable wealth when they were built and laid out, for both were costly. The semicircular driveway swept up to the front door, dividing off Box-edged parterres like those of the day of Queen Anne. These parterres were sparsely filled, the sunnier beds being set with Spring bulbs; and there were always the yellow Day Lilies somewhere in the flower beds, and the white and blue Day Lilies, the common Funkias. Formal urns were usually found in the parterres and sometimes a great cone or ball of clipped Box. These gardens had some universal details, they always had great Snowball bushes, and Syringas, and usually white Roses, chiefly Madame Plantiers; the piazza trellises had old climbing Roses, the Queen of the Prairie or Boursault Roses. These gardens are often densely overshadowed with great evergreen trees grown from the crowded planting of seventy years ago; none are cut down, and if one dies its trunk still stands, entwined with Woodbine. I don't know that we would lay out and plant just such a garden to-day, any more than we would build exactly such a house; but I love to see both, types of the refinement of their day, and I deplore any changes. An old Southern house of allied form is shown on page 72, and its garden facing page 70,--Greenwood, in Thomasville, Georgia; but of course this garden has far more lavish and rich bloom. The decoration of this house is most interesting--a conventionalized Magnolia, and the garden is surrounded with splendid Magnolias and Crape Myrtles. The border edgings in this garden are lines of bricks set overlapping in a curious manner. They serve to keep the beds firmly in place, and the bricks are covered over with an inner edging of thrifty Violets. Curious tubs and boxes for plants are made of bricks set solidly in mortar. The garden is glorious with Roses, which seem to consort so well with Magnolias and Violets. [Illustration: Greenwood, Thomasville, Georgia.] I love a Dutch garden, "circummured" with brick. By a Dutch garden, I mean a small garden, oblong or square, sunk about three or four feet in a lawn--so that when surrounded by brick walls they seem about two feet high when viewed outside, but are five feet or more high from within the garden. There are brick or stone steps in the middle of each of the four walls by which to descend to the garden, which may be all planted with flowers, but preferably should have set borders of flowers with a grass-plot in the centre. On either side of the steps should be brick posts surmounted by Dutch pots with plants, or by balls of stone. Planted with bulbs, these gardens in their flowering time are, as old Parkinson said, a "perfect fielde of delite." We have very pretty Dutch gardens, so called, in America, but their chief claim to being Dutch is that they are set with bulbs, and have Delft or other earthen pots or boxes for formal plants or shrubs. Sunken gardens should be laid out under the supervision of an intelligent landscape architect; and even then should have a reason for being sunken other than a whim or increase in costliness. I visited last summer a beautiful estate which had a deep sunken Dutch garden with a very low wall. It lay at the right side of the house at a little distance; and beyond it, in full view of the peristyle, extended the only squalid objects in the horizon. A garden on the level, well planted, with distant edging of shrubbery, would have hidden every ugly blemish and been a thing of beauty. As it is now, there can be seen from the house nothing of the Dutch garden but a foot or two of the tops of several clipped trees, looking like very poor, stunted shrubs. I must add that this garden, with its low wall, has been a perfect man-trap. It has been evident that often, on dark nights, workmen who have sought a "short cut" across the grounds have fallen over the shallow wall, to the gardener's sorrow, and the bulbs' destruction. Once, at dawn, the unhappy gardener found an ancient horse peacefully feeding among the Hyacinths and Tulips. He said he didn't like the grass in his new pasture nor the sudden approach to it; that he was too old for such new-fangled ways. I know another estate near Philadelphia, where the sinking of a garden revealed an exquisite view of distant hills; such a garden has reason for its form. [Illustration: Roses and Violets in Garden at Greenwood, Thomasville, Georgia.] We have had few water-gardens in America till recent years; and there are some drawbacks to their presence near our homes, as I was vividly aware when I visited one in a friend's garden early in May this year. Water-hyacinths were even then in bloom, and two or three exquisite Lilies; and the Lotus leaves rose up charmingly from the surface of the tank. Less charmingly rose up also a cloud of vicious mosquitoes, who greeted the newcomer with a warm chorus of welcome. As our newspapers at that time were filled with plans for the application of kerosene to every inch of water-surface, such as I saw in these Lily tanks, accompanied by magnified drawings of dreadful malaria-bearing insects, I fled from them, preferring to resign both _Nymphæa_ and _Anopheles_. [Illustration: Water Garden at Sylvester Manor, Shelter Island, New York.] After the introduction to English folk of that wonder of the world, the Victoria Regia, it was cultivated by enthusiastic flower lovers in America, and was for a time the height of the floral fashion. Never has the glorious Victoria Regia and scarce any other flower been described as by Colonel Higginson, a wonderful, a triumphant word picture. I was a very little child when I saw that same lovely Lily in leaf and flower that he called his neighbor; but I have never forgotten it, nor how afraid I was of it; for some one wished to lift me upon the great leaf to see whether it would hold me above the water. We had heard that the native children in South America floated on the leaves. I objected to this experiment with vehemence; but my mother noted that I was no more frightened than was the faithful gardener at the thought of the possible strain on his precious plant of the weight of a sturdy child of six or seven years. I have seen the Victoria Regia leaves of late years, but I seldom hear of its blossoming; but alas! we take less heed of the blooming of unusual plants than we used to thirty or forty years ago. Then people thronged a greenhouse to see a new Rose or Camellia Japonica; even a Night-blooming Cereus attracted scores of visitors to any house where it blossomed. And a fine Cactus of one of our neighbors always held a crowded reception when in rich bloom. It was a part of the "Flower Exchange," an interest all had for the beautiful flowers of others, a part of the old neighborly life. [Illustration: Terrace Wall at Drumthwacket, Princeton, New Jersey.] Within the past five or six years there have been laid out in America, at the country seats of men of wealth and culture, a great number of formal gardens,--Italian gardens, some of them are worthily named, as they have been shaped and planted in conformity with the best laws and rules of Italian garden-making--that special art. On this page is shown the finely proportioned terrace wall, and opposite the upper terrace and formal garden of Drumthwacket, Princeton, New Jersey, the country seat of M. Taylor Pyne, Esq. This garden affords a good example of the accord which should ever exist between the garden and its surroundings. The name, Drumthwacket--a wooded hill--is a most felicitous one; the place is part of the original grant to William Penn, and has remained in the possession of one family until late in the nineteenth century. From this beautifully wooded hill the terrace-garden overlooks the farm buildings, the linked ponds, the fertile fields and meadows; a serene pastoral view, typical of the peaceful landscape of that vicinity--yet it was once the scene of fiercest battle. For the Drumthwacket farm is the battle-ground of that important encounter of 1777 between the British and the Continental troops, known as the Battle of Princeton, the turning point of the Revolution, in which Washington was victorious. To this day, cannon ball and grape shot are dug up in the Drumthwacket fields. The Lodge built in 1696 was, at Washington's request, the shelter for the wounded British officers; and the Washington Spring in front of the Lodge furnished water to Washington. The group of trees on the left of the upper pond marks the sheltered and honored graves of the British soldiers, where have slept for one hundred and twenty-four years those killed at this memorable encounter. If anything could cement still more closely the affections of the English and American peoples, it would be the sight of the tenderly sheltered graves of British soldiers in America, such as these at Drumthwacket and other historic fields on our Eastern coast. At Concord how faithfully stand the sentinel pines over the British dead of the Battle of Concord, who thus repose, shut out from the tread of heedless feet yet ever present for the care and thought of Concord people. [Illustration: Garden at Avonwood Court, Haverford, Pennsylvania, Country-seat of Charles E. Mather, Esq.] We have older Italian gardens. Some of them are of great loveliness, among them the unique and dignified garden of Hollis H. Hunnewell, Esq., but many of the newer ones, even in their few summers, have become of surprising grace and beauty, and their exquisite promise causes a glow of delight to every garden lover. I have often tried to analyze and account for the great charm of a formal garden, to one who loves so well the unrestrained and lavished blossoming of a flower border crowded with nature-arranged and disarranged blooms. A chance sentence in the letter of a flower-loving friend, one whose refined taste is an inherent portion of her nature, runs thus:-- "I have the same love, the same sense of perfect satisfaction, in the old formal garden that I have in the sonnet in poetry, in the Greek drama as contrasted with the modern drama; something within me is ever drawn toward that which is restrained and classic." In these few words, then, is defined the charm of the formal garden--a well-ordered, a classic restraint. [Illustration: Garden at Drumthwacket, Princeton, New Jersey.] Some of the new formal gardens seem imperfect in design and inadequate in execution; worse still, they are unsuited to their surroundings; but gracious nature will give even to these many charms of color, fragrance, and shape through lavish plant growth. I have had given to me sets of beautiful photographs of these new Italian gardens, which I long to include with my pictures of older flower beds; but I cannot do so in full in a book on Old-time Gardens, though they are copied from far older gardens than our American ones. I give throughout my book occasional glimpses of detail in modern formal gardens; and two examples may be fitly illustrated and described in comparative fulness in this book, because they are not only unusual in their beauty and promise, but because they have in plan and execution some bearing on my special presentation of gardens. These two are the gardens of Avonwood Court in Haverford, Pennsylvania, the country-seat of Charles E. Mather, Esq., of Philadelphia; and of Yaddo, in Saratoga, New York, the country-seat of Spencer Trask, Esq., of New York. [Illustration: Sun-dial at Avonwood Court, Haverford, Pennsylvania.] The garden at Avonwood Court was designed and laid out in 1896 by Mr. Percy Ash. The flower planting was done by Mr. John Cope; and the garden is delightsome in proportions, contour, and aspect. Its claim to illustrative description in this book lies in the fact that it is planted chiefly with old-fashioned flowers, and its beds are laid out and bordered with thriving Box in a truly old-time mode. It affords a striking example of the beauty and satisfaction that can come from the use of Box as an edging, and old-time flowers as a filling of these beds. Among the two hundred different plants are great rows of yellow Day Lilies shown in the view facing page 76; regular plantings of Peonies; borders of Flower de Luce; banks of Lilies of the Valley; rows of white Fraxinella and Lupine, beds of fringed Poppies, sentinels of Yucca--scores of old favorites have grown and thriven in the cheery manner they ever display when they are welcome and beloved. The sun-dial in this garden is shown facing page 82; it was designed by Mr. Percy Ash, and can be regarded as a model of simple outlines, good proportions, careful placing, and symmetrical setting. By placing I mean that it is in the right site in relation to the surrounding flower beds, and to the general outlines of the garden; it is a dignified and significant garden centre. By setting I mean its being raised to proper prominence in the garden scheme, by being placed at the top of a platform formed of three circular steps of ample proportion and suitable height, that its pedestal is also of the right size and not so high but one can, when standing on the top step, read with ease the dial's response to our question, "What's the time o' the day?" The hedges and walls of Honeysuckle, Roses, and other flowering vines that surround this garden have thriven wonderfully in the five years of the garden's life, and look like settings of many years. The simple but graceful wall seat gives some idea of the symmetrical and simple garden furnishings, as well as the profusion of climbing vines that form the garden's boundaries. [Illustration: Entrance Porch and Gate to the Rose Garden at Yaddo.] This book bears on the title-page a redrawing of a charming old woodcut of the eighteenth century, a very good example of the art thought and art execution of that day, being the work of a skilful designer. It is from an old stilted treatise on orchards and gardens, and it depicts a cheerful little Love, with anxious face and painstaking care, measuring and laying out the surface of the earth in a garden. On his either side are old clipped Yews; and at his feet a spade and pots of garden flowers, among them the Fritillary so beloved of all flower lovers and herbalists of that day, a significant flower--a flower of meaning and mystery. This drawing may be taken as an old-time emblem, and a happy one, to symbolize the making of the beautiful modern Rose Garden at Yaddo; where Love, with tenderest thought, has laid out the face of the earth in an exquisite garden of Roses, for the happiness and recreation of a dearly loved wife. The noble entrance gate and porch of this Rose Garden formed a happy surprise to the garden's mistress when unveiled at the dedication of the garden. They are depicted on page 81, and there may be read the inscription which tells in a few well-chosen words the story of the inspiration of the garden; but "between the lines," to those who know the Rose Garden and its makers, the inscription speaks with even deeper meaning the story of a home whose beauty is only equalled by the garden's spirit. To all such readers the Rose Garden becomes a fitting expression of the life of those who own it and care for it. This quality of expression, of significance, may be seen in many a smaller and simpler garden, even in a tiny cottage plot; you can perceive, through the care bestowed upon it, and its responsive blossoming, a _something_ which shows the life of the garden owners; you know that they are thoughtful, kindly, beauty-loving, home-loving. [Illustration: Pergola and Terrace Walk in Rose Garden at Yaddo.] Behind the beautiful pergola of the Yaddo garden, set thickly with Crimson Rambler, a screenlike row of poplars divides the Rose Garden from a luxuriant Rock Garden, and an Old-fashioned Garden of large extent, extraordinary profusion, and many years' growth. Perhaps the latter-named garden might seem more suited to my pages, since it is more advanced in growth and apparently more akin to my subject; but I wish to write specially of the Rose Garden, because it is an unusual example of what can be accomplished without aid of architect or landscape gardener, when good taste, careful thought, attention to detail, a love of flowers, and _intent to attain perfection_ guide the garden's makers. It is happily placed in a country of most charming topography, but it must not be thought that the garden shaped itself; its beautiful proportions, contour, and shape were carefully studied out and brought to the present perfection by the same force that is felt in the garden's smallest detail, the power of Love. The Rose Garden is unusually large for a formal garden; with its vistas and walks, the connected Daffodil Dell, and the Rock Garden, it fills about ten acres. But the estate is over eight hundred acres, and the house very large in ground extent, so the garden seems well-proportioned. This Rose Garden has an unusual attraction in the personal interest of every detail, such as is found in few American gardens of great size, and indeed in few English gardens. The gardens of the Countess Warwick, at Easton Lodge, in Essex, possess the same charm, a personal meaning and significance in the statues and fountains, and even in the planting of flower borders. The illustration on page 83 depicts the general shape of the Yaddo Rose Garden, as seen from the upper terrace; but it does not show how the garden stretches down the fine marble steps, past the marble figures of Diana and Paris, and along the paths of standard Roses, past the shallow fountain which is not so large as to obscure what speaks the garden's story, the statue of Christalan, that grand creation in one of Mrs. Trask's idyls, _Under King Constantine_. This heroic figure, showing to full extent the genius of the sculptor, William Ordway Partridge, also figures the genius of the poet-creator, and is of an inexpressible and impressive nobility. With hand and arm held to heaven, Christalan shows against the background of rich evergreens as the true knight of this garden of sentiment and chivalry. [Illustration: Statue of Christalan in Rose Garden at Yaddo.] "The sunlight slanting westward through the trees Fell first upon his lifted, golden head, Making a shining helmet of his curls, And then upon the Lilies in his hand. His eyes had a defiant, fearless glow; Against the sombre background of the wood He looked scarce human." The larger and more impressive fountain at Yaddo is shown on these pages. It is one hundred feet long and seventy feet wide, and is in front of the house, to the east. Its marble figures signify the Dawn; it will be noted that on this site its beauties show against a suited and ample background, and its grand proportions are not permitted to obscure the fine statue of Christalan from the view of those seated on the terrace or walking under the shade of the pergola. [Illustration: Sun-dial in Rose Garden at Yaddo.] Especially beautiful is the sun-dial on the upper terrace, shown on page 86. The metal dial face is supported by a marble slab resting on two carved standards of classic design representing conventionalized lions, these being copies of those two splendid standards unearthed at Pompeii, which still may be seen by the side of the impluvium in the atrium or main hall of the finest Græco-Roman dwelling-place which has been restored in that wonderful city. These sun-dial standards at Yaddo were made by the permission and under the supervision of the Italian government. I can conceive nothing more fitting or more inspiring to the imagination than that, telling as they do the story of the splendor of ancient Pompeii and of the passing centuries, they should now uphold to our sight a sun-dial as if to bid us note the flight of time and the vastness of the past. [Illustration: Bronze Face of Dial in Rose Garden at Yaddo.] The entire sun-dial, with its beautiful adjuncts of carefully shaped marble seats, stands on a semicircular plaza of marble at the head of the noble flight of marble steps. The engraved metal dial face bears two exquisite verses--the gift of one poet to another--of Dr. Henry Van Dyke to the garden's mistress, Katrina Trask. These dial mottoes are unusual, and perfect examples of that genius which with a few words can shape a lasting gem of our English tongue. At the edge of the dial face is this motto: "Hours fly, Flowers die, New Days, New Ways, Pass by; Love stays." At the base of the gnomon is the second motto:-- Time is Too Slow for those who Wait, Too Swift for those who Fear, Too Long for those who Grieve, Too Short for those who Rejoice; But for those who Love, Time is Eternity. I have for years been a student of sun-dial lore, a collector of sun-dial mottoes and inscriptions, of which I have many hundreds. I know nowhere, either in English, on English or Scotch sun-dials, or in the Continental tongues, any such exquisite dial legends as these two--so slight of form, so simple in wording, so pure in diction, yet of sentiment, of thought, how full! how impressive! They stamp themselves forever on the memory as beautiful examples of what James Russell Lowell called verbal magic; that wonderful quality which comes, neither from chosen words, nor from their careful combination into sentences, but from something which is as inexplicable in its nature as it is in its charm. [Illustration: Ancient Pine in Garden at Yaddo.] To tree lovers the gardens and grounds at Yaddo have glorious charms in their splendid trees; but one can be depicted here--the grand native Pine, over eight feet in diameter, which, with other stately sentinels of its race, stands a sombrely beautiful guard over all this loveliness. CHAPTER IV BOX EDGINGS "They walked over the crackling leaves in the garden, between the lines of Box, breathing its fragrance of eternity; for this is one of the odors which carry us out of time into the abysses of the unbeginning past; if we ever lived on another ball of stone than this, it must be that there was Box growing on it." --_Elsie Venner_, OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES, 1861. To many of us, besides Dr. Holmes, the unique aroma of the Box, cleanly bitter in scent as in taste, is redolent of the eternal past; it is almost hypnotic in its effect. This strange power is not felt by all, nor is it a present sensitory influence; it is an hereditary memory, half-known by many, but fixed in its intensity in those of New England birth and descent, true children of the Puritans; to such ones the Box breathes out the very atmosphere of New England's past. I cannot see in clear outline those prim gardens of centuries ago, nor the faces of those who walked and worked therein; but I know, as I stroll to-day between our old Box-edged borders, and inhale the beloved bitterness of fragrance, and gather a stiff sprig of the beautiful glossy leaves, that in truth the garden lovers and garden workers of other days walk beside me, though unseen and unheard. About thirty years ago a bright young Yankee girl went to the island of Cuba as a governess to the family of a sugar planter. It was regarded as a somewhat perilous adventure by her home-staying folk, and their apprehensions of ill were realized in her death there five years later. This was not, however, all that happened to her. The planter's wife had died in this interval of time, and she had been married to the widower. A daughter had been born, who, after her mother's death, was reared in the Southern island, in Cuban ways, having scant and formal communication with her New England kin. When this girl was twenty years old, she came to the little Massachusetts town where her mother had been reared, and met there a group of widowed and maiden aunts, and great-aunts. After sitting for a time in her mother's room in the old home, the reserve which often exists between those of the same race who should be friends but whose lives have been widely apart, and who can never have more than a passing sight of each other, made them in semi-embarrassment and lack of resources of mutual interest walk out into the garden. As they passed down the path between high lines of Box, the girl suddenly stopped, looked in terror at the gate, and screamed out in fright, "The dog, the dog, save me, he will kill me!" _No dog was there_, but on that very spot, between those Box hedges, thirty years before, her mother had been attacked and bitten by an enraged dog, to the distress and apprehension of the aunts, who all recalled the occurrence, as they reassured the fainting and bewildered girl. She, of course, had never known aught of this till she was told it by the old Box. [Illustration: House and Garden at Napanock. County Ulster, New York.] Many other instances of the hypnotic effect of Box are known, and also of its strong influence on the mind through memory. I know of a man who travelled a thousand miles to renew acquaintance and propose marriage to an old sweetheart, whom he had not seen and scarcely thought of for years, having been induced to this act wholly through memories of her, awakened by a chance stroll in an old Box-edged garden such as those of his youth; at the gate of one of which he had often lingered, after walking home with her from singing-school. I ought to be able to add that the twain were married as a result of this sentimental memory-awakening through the old Box; but, in truth, they never came very close to matrimony. For when he saw her he remained absolutely silent on the subject of marriage; the fickle creature forgot the Box scent and the singing-school, while she openly expressed to her friends her surprise at his aged appearance, and her pity for his dulness. For the sense of sight is more powerful than that of smell, and the Box might prove a master hand at hinting, but it failed utterly in permanent influence. Those who have not loved the Box for centuries in the persons and with the partial noses of their Puritan forbears, complain of its curious scent, say, like Polly Peacham, that "they can't abear it," and declare that it brings ever the thought of old graveyards. I have never seen Box in ancient burying-grounds, they were usually too neglected to be thus planted; but it was given a limited space in the cemeteries of the middle of this century. Even those borders have now generally been dug up to give place to granite copings. The scent of Box has been aptly worded by Gabriel d'Annunzio, in his _Virgin of the Rocks_, in his description of a neglected garden. He calls it a "bitter sweet odor," and he notes its influence in making his wanderers in this garden "reconstruct some memory of their far-off childhood." The old Jesuit poet Rapin writing in the seventeenth century tells a fanciful tale that-- "Gardens of old, nor Art, nor Rules obey'd, But unadorn'd, or wild Neglect betray'd;" that Flora's hair hung undressed, neglected "in artless tresses," until in pity another nymph "around her head wreath'd a Boxen Bough" from the fields; which so improved her beauty that trim edgings were placed ever after--"where flowers disordered once at random grew." He then describes the various figures of Box, the way to plant it, its disadvantages, and the associate flowers that should be set with it, all in stilted verse. Queen Anne was a royal enemy of Box. By her order many of the famous Box hedges at Hampton Court were destroyed; by her example, many old Box-edged gardens throughout England were rooted up. There are manifold objections raised to Box besides the dislike of its distinctive odor: heavy edgings and hedges of Box "take away the heart of the ground" and flowers pine within Box-edged borders; the roots of Box on the inside of the flower knot or bed, therefore, have to be cut and pulled out in order to leave the earth free for flower roots. It is also alleged that Box harbors slugs--and I fear it does. [Illustration: Box Parterre at Hampton.] We are told that it is not well to plant Box edgings in our gardens, because Box is so frail, is so easily winter-killed, that it dies down in ugly fashion. Yet see what great trees it forms, even when untrimmed, as in the Prince Garden (page 31). It is true that Box does not always flourish in the precise shape you wish, but it has nevertheless a wonderfully tenacious hold on life. I know nothing more suggestive of persistence and of sad sentiment than the view often seen in forlorn city enclosures, as you drive past, or rush by in an electric car, of an aged bush of Box, or a few feet of old Box hedge growing in the beaten earth of a squalid back yard, surrounded by dirty tenement houses. Once a fair garden there grew; the turf and flowers and trees are vanished; but spared through accident, or because deemed so valueless, the Box still lives. Even in Washington and other Southern cities, where the negro population eagerly gather Box at Christmas-tide, you will see these forlorn relics of the garden still growing, and their bitter fragrance rises above the vile odors of the crowded slums. Box formed an important feature of the garden of Pliny's favorite villa in Tuscany, which he described in his letter to Apollinaris. How I should have loved its formal beauty! On the southern front a terrace was bordered with a Box hedge and "embellished with various figures in Box, the representation of divers animals." Beyond was a circus formed around by ranges of Box rising in walls of varied heights. The middle of this circus was ornamented with figures of Box. On one side was a hippodrome set with a plantation of Box trees backed with Plane trees; thence ran a straight walk divided by Box hedges into alleys. Thus expanses were enclosed, one of which held a beautiful meadow, another had "knots of Plane tree," another was "set with Box a thousand different forms." Some of these were letters expressing the name of the owner of all this extravagance; or the initials of various fair Roman dames, a very gallant pleasantry of young Pliny. Both Plane tree and Box tree of such ancient gardens were by tradition nourished with wine instead of water. Initials of Box may be seen to-day in English gardens, and heraldic devices. French gardens vied with English gardens in curious patterns in Box. The garden of Versailles during the reign of Louis XIV. had a stag chase, in clipped Box, with greyhounds in chase. Globes, pyramids, tubes, cylinders, cones, arches, and other shapes were cut in Box as they were in Yew. A very pretty conceit in Box was-- "Horizontal dials on the ground In living Box by cunning artists traced." Reference is frequent enough to these dials of Box to show that they were not uncommon in fine old English gardens. There were sun-dials either of Box or Thrift, in the gardens of colleges both at Oxford and Cambridge, as may be seen in Loggan's _Views_. Two modern ones are shown; one, on page 98, is in the garden of Lady Lennox, at Broughton Castle, Banbury, England. Another of exceptionally fine growth and trim perfection in the garden at Ascott, the seat of Mr. Leopold de Rothschild (opposite page 100.) These are curious rather than beautiful, but display well that quality given in the poet's term "the tonsile Box." [Illustration: Sun-dial in Box at Broughton Castle.] Writing of a similar sun-dial, Lady Warwick says:-- "Never was such a perfect timekeeper as my sun-dial, and the figures which record the hours are all cut out and trimmed in Box, and there again on its outer ring is a legend which read in whatever way you please: Les heures heureuses ne se comptent pas. They were outlined for me, those words, in baby sprigs of Box by a friend who is no more, who loved my garden and was good to it." Box hedges were much esteemed in England--so says Parkinson, to dry linen on, affording the raised expanse and even surface so much desired. It can always be noted in all domestic records of early days that the vast washing of linen and clothing was one of the great events of the year. Sometimes, in households of plentiful supply, these washings were done but once a year; in other homes, semi-annually. The drying and bleaching linen was an unceasing attraction to rascals like Autolycus, who had a "pugging tooth"--that is, a prigging tooth. These linen thieves had a special name, they were called "prygmen"; they wandered through the country on various pretexts, men and their doxies, and were the bane of English housewives. The Box hedges were also in constant use to hold the bleaching webs of homespun and woven flaxen and hempen stuff, which were often exposed for weeks in the dew and sunlight. In 1710 a reason given for the disuse and destruction of "quicksetted arbors and hedges" was that they "agreed very ill with the ladies' muslins." Box was of little value in the apothecary shop, was seldom used in medicine. Parkinson said that the leaves and dust of boxwood "boyld in lye" would make hair to be "of an Aborne or Abraham color"--that is, auburn. This was a very primitive hair dye, but it must have been a powerful one. Boxwood was a firm, beautiful wood, used to make tablets for inscriptions of note. The mottled wood near the root was called dudgeon. Holland's translation of Pliny says, "The Box tree seldome hath any grain crisped damaske-wise, and never but about the root, the which is dudgin." From its esteemed use for dagger hilts came the word dudgeon-dagger, and the terms "drawn-dudgeon" and "high-dudgeon," meaning offence or discord. I plead for the Box, not for its fragrance, for you may not be so fortunate as to have a Puritan sense of smell, nor for its weird influence, for that is intangible; but because it is the most becoming of all edgings to our garden borders of old-time flowers. The clear compact green of its shining leaves, the trim distinctness of its clipped lines, the attributes that made Pope term it the "shapely Box," make it the best of all foils for the varied tints of foliage, the many colors of bloom, and the careless grace in growth of the flowers within the border. Box edgings are pleasant, too, in winter, showing in grateful relief against the tiresome monotony of the snow expanse. And they bear sometimes a crown of lightest snow wreaths, which seem like a white blossoming in promise of the beauties of the border in the coming summer. Pick a bit of this winter Box, even with the mercury below zero. Lo! you have a breath of the hot dryness of the midsummer garden. Box grows to great size, even twenty feet in height. In Southern gardens, where it is seldom winter-killed, it is often of noble proportions. In the lovely garden of Martha Washington at Mount Vernon the Box is still preserved in the beauty and interest of its original form. [Illustration: Sun-dial in Box at Ascott.] The Box edgings and hedges of many other Southern gardens still are in good condition; those of the old Preston homestead at Columbia, South Carolina (shown on pages 15 and 18, and facing page 54), owe their preservation during the Civil War to the fact that the house was then the refuge of a sisterhood of nuns. The Ridgely estate, Hampton, in County Baltimore, Maryland, has a formal garden in which the perfection of the Box is a delight. The will of Captain Charles Ridgely, in 1787, made an appropriation of money and land for this garden. The high terrace which overlooks the garden and the shallow ones which break the southern slope and mark the boundaries of each parterre are fine examples of landscape art, and are said to be the work of Major Chase Barney, a famous military engineer. By 1829 the garden was an object of beauty and much renown. A part only of the original parterre remains, but the more modern flower borders, through the unusual perspective and contour of the garden, do not clash with the old Box-edged beds. These edgings were reset in 1870, and are always kept very closely cut. The circular domes of clipped box arise from stems at least a hundred years old. The design of the parterre is so satisfactory that I give three views of it in order to show it fully. (See pages 57, 60, and 95.) A Box-edged garden of much beauty and large extent existed for some years in the grounds connected with the County Jail in Fitchburg, Massachusetts. It was laid out by the wife of the warden, aided by the manual labor of convicted prisoners, with her earnest hope that working among flowers would have a benefiting and softening influence on these criminals. She writes rather dubiously: "They all enjoyed being out of doors with their pipes, whether among the flowers or the vegetables; and no attempt at escape was ever made by any of them while in the comparative freedom of the flower-garden." She planted and marked distinctly in this garden over seven hundred groups of annuals and hardy perennials, hoping the men would care to learn the names of the flowers, and through that knowledge, and their practise in the care of Box edgings and hedges, be able to obtain positions as under-gardeners when their terms of imprisonment expired. The garden at Tudor Place, the home of Mrs. Beverley Kennon (page 103), displays fine Box; and the garden of the poet Longfellow which is said to have been laid out after the Box-edged parterres at Versailles. Throughout this book are scattered several good examples of Box from Salem and other towns; in a sweet, old garden on Kingston Hill, Rhode Island (page 104) the flower-beds are anchor-shaped. In favorable climates Box edgings may grow in such vigor as to entirely fill the garden beds. An example of this is given on page 105, showing the garden at Tuckahoe. The beds were laid out over a large space of ground in a beautiful design, which still may be faintly seen by examining the dark expanse beside the house, which is now almost solid Box. The great hedges by the avenue are also Box; between similar ones at Upton Court in Camden, South Carolina, riders on horseback cannot be seen nor see over it. New England towns seldom show such growth of Box; but in Hingham, Massachusetts, at the home of Mrs. Robbins, author of that charming book, _The Rescue of an Old Place_, there is a Box bower, with walls of Box fifteen feet in height. These walls were originally the edgings of a flower bed on the "Old Place." Read Dr. John Brown's charming account of the Box bower of the "Queen's Maries." [Illustration: Garden at Tudor Place.] Box grows on Long Island with great vigor. At Brecknock Hall, the family residence of Mrs. Albert Delafield at Greenport, Long Island, the hedges of plain and variegated Box are unusually fine, and the paths are well laid out. Some of them are entirely covered by the closing together of the two hedges which are often six or seven feet in height. [Illustration: Anchor-shaped Flower-beds. Kingston, Rhode Island.] In spite of the constant assertion of the winter-killing of Box in the North, the oldest Box in the country is that at Sylvester Manor, Shelter Island, New York. The estate is now owned by the tenth mistress of the manor, Miss Cornelia Horsford; the first mistress of the manor, Grissel Sylvester, who had been Grissel Gardiner, came there in 1652. It is told, and is doubtless true, that she brought there the first Box plants, to make, in what was then a far-away island, a semblance of her home garden. It is said that this Box was thriving in Madam Sylvester's garden when George Fox preached there to the Indians. The oldest Box is fifteen or eighteen feet high; not so tall, I think, as the neglected Box at Vaucluse, the old Hazard place near Newport, but far more massive and thrifty and shapely. Box needs unusual care and judgment, an instinct almost, for the removal of certain portions. It sends out tiny rootlets at the joints of the sprays, and these grow readily. The largest and oldest Box bushes at Sylvester Manor garden are a study in their strong, hearty stems, their perfect foliage, their symmetry; they show their care of centuries. [Illustration: Ancient Box at Tuckahoe.] The delightful Box-edged flower beds were laid out in their present form about seventy years ago by the grandfather of the present owner. There is a Lower Garden, a Terrace Garden, which are shown on succeeding pages, a Fountain Garden, a Rose Garden, a Water Garden; a bit of the latter is on page 75. In some portions of these gardens, especially on the upper terrace, the Box is so high, and set in such quaint and rambling figures, that it closely approaches an old English maze; and it was a pretty sight to behold a group of happy little children running in and out among these Box hedges that extended high over their heads, searching long and eagerly for the central bower where their little tea party was set. Over these old garden borders hangs literally an atmosphere of the past; the bitter perfume stimulates the imagination as we walk by the side of these splendid Box bushes, and think, as every one must, of what they have seen, of what they know; on this garden is written the history of over two centuries of beautiful domestic home life. It is well that we still have such memorials to teach us the nobility and beauty of such a life. CHAPTER V THE HERB GARDEN "To have nothing here but Sweet Herbs, and those only choice ones too, and every kind its bed by itself." --DESIDERIUS ERASMUS, 1500. In Montaigne's time it was the custom to dedicate special chapters of books to special persons. Were it so to-day, I should dedicate this chapter to the memory of a friend who has been constantly in my mind while writing it; for she formed in her beautiful garden, near our modern city, Chicago, the only perfect herb garden I know,--a garden that is the counterpart of the garden of Erasmus, made four centuries ago; for in it are "nothing but Sweet Herbs, and choice ones too, and every kind its bed by itself." A corner of it is shown on page 108. This herb garden is so well laid out that I will give directions therefrom for a bed of similar planting. It may be placed at the base of a grass bank or at the edge of a garden. Let two garden walks be laid out, one at the lower edge, perhaps, of the bank, the other parallel, ten, fifteen, twenty feet away. Let narrow paths be left at regular intervals running parallel from walk to walk, as do the rounds of a ladder from the two side bars. In the narrow oblong beds formed by these paths plant solid rows of herbs, each variety by itself, with no attempt at diversity of design. You can thus walk among them, and into them, and smell them in their concentrated strength, and you can gather them at ease. On the bank can be placed the creeping Thyme, and other low-running herbs. Medicinal shrubs should be the companions of the herbs; plant these as you will, according to their growth and habit, making them give variety of outline to the herb garden. [Illustration: Herb Garden at White Birches, Elmhurst, Illinois.] There are few persons who have a strong enough love of leaf scents, or interest in herbs, to make them willing to spend much time in working in an herb garden. The beauty and color of flowers would compensate them, but not the growth or scent of leafage. It is impossible to describe to one who does not feel by instinct "the lure of green things growing," the curious stimulation, the sense of intoxication, of delight, brought by working among such green-growing, sweet-scented things. The maker of this interesting garden felt this stimulation and delight; and at her city home on a bleak day in December we both revelled in holding and breathing in the scent of tiny sprays of Rue, Rosemary, and Balm which, still green, had been gathered from beneath fallen leaves and stalks in her country garden, as a tender and grateful attention of one herb lover to another. Thus did she prove Shakespeare's words true even on the shores of Lake Michigan:-- "Rosemary and Rue: these keep Seeming and savor all the winter long." There is ample sentiment in the homely inhabitants of the herb garden. The herb garden of the Countess of Warwick is called by her a Garden of Sentiment. Each plant is labelled with a pottery marker, swallow-shaped, bearing in ineradicable colors the flower name and its significance. Thus there is Balm for sympathy, Bay for glory, Foxglove for sincerity, Basil for hatred. A recent number of _The Garden_ deplored the dying out of herbs in old English gardens; so I think it may prove of interest to give the list of herbs and medicinal shrubs and trees which grew in this friend's herb garden in the new world across the sea. Arnica, Anise, Ambrosia, Agrimony, Aconite. Belladonna, Black Alder, Betony, Boneset or Thorough-wort, Sweet Basil, Bryony, Borage, Burnet, Butternut, Balm, _Melissa officinalis_, Balm (variegated), Bee-balm, or Oswego tea, mild, false, and true Bergamot, Burdock, Bloodroot, Black Cohosh, Barberry, Bittersweet, Butterfly-weed, Birch, Blackberry, Button-Snakeroot, Buttercup. Costmary, or Sweet Mary, Calamint, Choke-cherry, Comfrey, Coriander, Cumin, Catnip, Caraway, Chives, Castor-oil Bean, Colchicum, Cedronella, Camomile, Chicory, Cardinal-flower, Celandine, Cotton, Cranesbill, Cow-parsnip, High-bush Cranberry. Dogwood, Dutchman's-pipe, Dill, Dandelion, Dock, Dogbane. Elder, Elecampane, Slippery Elm. Sweet Fern, Fraxinella, Fennel, Flax, Fumitory, Fig, Sweet Flag, Blue Flag, Foxglove. Goldthread, Gentian, Goldenrod. Hellebore, Henbane, Hops, Horehound, Hyssop, Horseradish, Horse-chestnut, Hemlock, Small Hemlock or Fool's Parsley. American Ipecac, Indian Hemp, Poison Ivy, wild, false, and blue Indigo, wild yellow Indigo, wild white Indigo. Juniper, Joepye-weed. Lobelia, Lovage, Lavender Lemon Verbena, Lemon, Mountain Laurel, Yellow Lady's-slippers, Lily of the Valley, Liverwort, Wild Lettuce, Field Larkspur, Lungwort. Mosquito plant, Wild Mint, Motherwort, Mullein, Sweet Marjoram, Meadowsweet, Marshmallow, Mandrake, Mulberry, black and white Mustard, Mayweed, Mugwort, Marigold. Nigella. Opium Poppy, Orange, Oak. Pulsatilla, Pellitory or Pyrethrum, Red Pepper, Peppermint, Pennyroyal, False Pennyroyal, Pope-weed, Pine, Pigweed, Pumpkin, Parsley, Prince's-pine, Peony, Plantain. Rhubarb, Rue, Rosemary, Rosa gallica, Dog Rose. Sassafras, Saxifrage, Sweet Cicely, Sage (common blue), Sage (red), Summer Savory, Winter Savory, Santonin, Sweet Woodruff, Saffron, Spearmint, wild Sarsaparilla, Black Snakeroot, Squills, Senna, St.-John's-Wort, Sorrel, Spruce Fir, Self-heal, Southernwood. Thorn Apple, Tansy, Thyme, Tobacco, Tarragon. Valerian, Dogtooth Violet, Blue Violet. Witchhazel, Wormwood, Wintergreen, Willow, Walnut. Yarrow. [Illustration: Garden at White Birches. Elmhurst, Illinois.] It will be noted that some common herbs and medicinal plants are missing; there is, for instance, no Box; it will not live in that climate; and there are many other herbs which this garden held for a short time, but which succumbed under the fierce winter winds from Lake Michigan. It is interesting to compare this list with one made in rhyme three centuries ago, the garland of herbs of the nymph Lelipa in Drayton's _Muse's Elyzium_. "A chaplet then of Herbs I'll make Than which though yours be braver, Yet this of mine I'll undertake Shall not be short in savour. With Basil then I will begin, Whose scent is wondrous pleasing: This Eglantine I'll next put in The sense with sweetness seizing. Then in my Lavender I lay Muscado put among it, With here and there a leaf of Bay, Which still shall run along it. Germander, Marjoram and Thyme, Which uséd are for strewing; With Hyssop as an herb most prime Here in my wreath bestowing. Then Balm and Mint help to make up My chaplet, and for trial Costmary that so likes the Cup, And next it Pennyroyal. Then Burnet shall bear up with this, Whose leaf I greatly fancy; Some Camomile doth not amiss With Savory and some Tansy. Then here and there I'll put a sprig Of Rosemary into it, Thus not too Little nor too Big, 'Tis done if I can do it." [Illustration: Garden of Manning Homestead, Salem, Massachusetts.] Another name for the herb garden was the olitory; and the word herber, or herbar, would at first sight appear to be an herbarium, an herb garden; it was really an arbor. I have such satisfaction in herb gardens, and in the herbs themselves, and in all their uses, all their lore, that I am confirmed in my belief that I really care far less for Botany than for that old-time regard and study of plants covered by the significant name, Wort-cunning. Wort was a good old common English word, lost now in our use, save as the terminal syllable of certain plant-names; it is a pity we have given it up since its equivalent, herb, seems so variable in application, especially in that very trying expression of which we weary so of late--herbaceous border. This seems an architect's phrase rather than a florist's; you always find it on the plans of fine houses with gardens. To me it annihilates every possibility of sentiment, and it usually isn't correct, since many of the plants in these borders are woody perennials instead of annuals; any garden planting that is not "bedding-out" is wildly named "an herbaceous border." Herb gardens were no vanity and no luxury in our grandmothers' day; they were a necessity. To them every good housewife turned for nearly all that gave variety to her cooking, and to fill her domestic pharmacopoeia. The physician placed his chief reliance for supplies on herb gardens and the simples of the fields. An old author says, "Many an old wife or country woman doth often more good with a few known and common garden herbs, than our bombast physicians, with all their prodigious, sumptuous, far-fetched, rare, conjectural medicines." Doctor and goodwife both had a rival in the parson. The picture of the country parson and his wife given by old George Herbert was equally true of the New England minister and his wife:-- "In the knowledge of simples one thing would be carefully observed, which is to know what herbs may be used instead of drugs of the same nature, and to make the garden the shop; for home-bred medicines are both more easy for the parson's purse, and more familiar for all men's bodies. So when the apothecary useth either for loosing Rhubarb, or for binding Bolearmana, the parson useth damask or white Rose for the one, and Plantain, Shepherd's Purse, and Knot-grass for the other; and that with better success. As for spices, he doth not only prefer home-bred things before them, but condemns them for vanities, and so shuts them out of his family, esteeming that there is no spice comparable for herbs to Rosemary, Thyme, savory Mints, and for seeds to Fennel and Caraway. Accordingly, for salves, his wife seeks not the city, but prefers her gardens and fields before all outlandish gums." Simples were medicinal plants, so called because each of these vegetable growths was held to possess an individual virtue, to be an element, a simple substance constituting a single remedy. The noun was generally used in the plural. You must not think that sowing, gathering, drying, and saving these herbs and simples in any convenient or unstudied way was all that was necessary. Not at all; many and manifold were the rules just when to plant them, when to pick them, how to pick them, how to dry them, and even how to keep them. Gervayse Markham was very wise in herb lore, in the suited seasons of the moon, and hour of the day or night, for herb culling. In the garret of every old house, such as that of the Ward Homestead, shown on page 116, with the wreckage of house furniture, were hung bunches of herbs and simples, waiting for winter use. The still-room was wholly devoted to storing these herbs and manufacturing their products. This was the careful work of the house mistress and her daughters. It was not intrusted to servants. One book of instruction was entitled, _The Vertuouse Boke of Distyllacyon of the Waters of all Manner of Herbs_. Thomas Tusser wrote:-- "Good huswives provide, ere an sickness do come, Of sundrie good things in house to have some, Good aqua composita, vinegar tart, Rose water and treacle to comfort the heart, Good herbes in the garden for agues that burn, That over strong heat to good temper turn." [Illustration: Under the Garret Eaves of the Ward Homestead. Shrewsbury, Massachusetts.] Both still-room and simple-closet of a dame of the time of Queen Elizabeth or Queen Anne had crowded shelves. Many an herb and root, unused to-day, was deemed then of sovereign worth. From a manuscript receipt book I have taken names of ingredients, many of which are seldom, perhaps never, used now in medicine. Unripe Blackberries, Ivy berries, Eglantine berries, "Ashen Keys," Acorns, stones of Sloes, Parsley seed, Houseleeks, unripe Hazelnuts, Daisy roots, Strawberry "strings," Woodbine tops, the inner bark of Oak and of red Filberts, green "Broom Cod," White Thorn berries, Turnips, Barberry bark, Dates, Goldenrod, Gourd seed, Blue Lily roots, Parsnip seed, Asparagus roots, Peony roots. From herbs and simples were made, for internal use, liquid medicines such as wines and waters, syrups, juleps; and solids, such as conserves, confections, treacles, eclegms, tinctures. There were for external use, amulets, oils, ointments, liniments, plasters, cataplasms, salves, poultices; also sacculi, little bags of flowers, seeds, herbs, etc., and pomanders and posies. That a certain stimulus could be given to the brain by inhaling the scent of these herbs will not be doubted, I think, by the herb lover even of this century. In the _Haven of Health_, 1636, cures were promised by sleeping on herbs, smelling of them, binding the leaves on the forehead, and inhaling the vapors of their boiling or roasting. Mint was "a good Posie for Students to oft smell." Pennyroyal "quickened the brain by smelling oft." Basil cleared the wits, and so on. The use of herbs in medicine is far from being obsolete; and when we give them more stately names we swallow the same dose. Dandelion bitters is still used for diseases caused by an ill-working liver. Wintergreen, which was universally made into tea or oil for rheumatism, appears now in prescriptions for the same disease under the name of Gaultheria. Peppermint, once a sovereign cure for heartburn and "nuralogy," serves us decked with the title of Menthol. "Saffern-tea" never has lost its good standing as a cure for the "jarnders." In country communities scores of old herbs and simples are used in vast amounts; and in every village is some aged man or woman wise in gathering, distilling, and compounding these "potent and parable medicines," to use Cotton Mather's words. One of these gatherers of simples is shown opposite page 120, a quaint old figure, seen afar as we drive through country by-roads, as she bends over some dense clump of weeds in distant meadow or pasture. In our large city markets bunches of sweet herbs are still sold; and within a year I have seen men passing my city home selling great bunches of Catnip and Mint, in the spring, and dried Sage, Marjoram, and other herbs in the autumn. In one case I noted that it was the same man, unmistakably a real countryman, whom I had noted selling quail on the street, when he had about forty as fine quail as I ever saw. I never saw him sell quail, nor herbs. I think his customers are probably all foreigners--emigrants from continental Europe, chiefly Poles and Italians. The use of herbs as component parts of love philters and charms is a most ancient custom, and lingered into the nineteenth century in country communities. I knew but one case of the manufacture and administering of a love philter, and it was by a person to whom such an action would seem utterly incongruous. A very gentle, retiring girl in a New England town eighty years ago was deeply in love with the minister whose church she attended, and of which her father was the deacon. The parson was a widower, nearly of middle age, and exceedingly sombre and reserved in character--saddened, doubtless, by the loss of his two young children and his wife through that scourge of New England, consumption; but he was very handsome, and even his sadness had its charm. His house, had burned down as an additional misfortune, and he lived in lodgings with two elderly women of his congregation. Therefore church meetings and various gatherings of committees were held at the deacon's house, and the deacon's daughter saw him day after day, and grew more desperately in love. Desperate certainly she was when she dared even to think of giving a love philter to a minister. The recipe was clearly printed on the last page of an old dream book; and she carried it out in every detail. It was easy to introduce it into the mug of flip which was always brewed for the meeting, and the parson drank it down abstractedly, thinking that it seemed more bitter than usual, but showing no sign of this thought. The philter was promised to have effect in making the drinker love profoundly the first person of opposite sex whom he or she saw after drinking it; and of course the minister saw Hannah as she stood waiting for his empty tankard. The dull details of parish work were talked over in the usual dragging way for half an hour, when the minister became conscious of an intense coldness which seemed to benumb him in every limb; and he tried to walk to the fireplace. Suddenly all in the room became aware that he was very ill, and one called out, "He's got a stroke." Luckily the town doctor was also a deacon, and was therefore present; and he promptly said, "He's poisoned," and hot water from the teakettle, whites of eggs, mustard, and other domestic antidotes were administered with promptitude and effect. It is useless to detail the days of agony to the wretched girl, during which the sick man wavered between life and death, nor her devoted care of him. Soon after his recovery he solemnly proposed marriage to her, and was refused. But he never wavered in his love for her; and every year he renewed his offer and told his wishes, to be met ever with a cold refusal, until ten years had passed; when into his brain there entered a perception that her refusal had some extraordinary element in it. Then, with a warmth of determination worthy a younger man, he demanded an explanation, and received a confession of the poisonous love philter. I suppose time had softened the memory of his suffering, at any rate they were married--so the promise of the love charm came true, after all. [Illustration: A Gatherer of Simples.] Amos Bronson Alcott was another author of Concord, a sweet philosopher whom I shall ever remember with deepest gratitude as the only person who in my early youth ever imagined any literary capacity in me (and in that he was sadly mistaken, for he fancied I would be a poet). I have read very faithfully all his printed writings, trying to believe him a great man, a seer; but I cannot, in spite of my gratitude for his flattering though unfulfilled prophecy, discover in his books any profound signs of depth or novelty of thought. In his _Tablets_ are some very pleasant, if not surprisingly wise, essays on domestic subjects; one, on "Sweet Herbs," tells cheerfully of the womanly care of the herb garden, but shows that, when written--about 1850--borders of herbs were growing infrequent. One great delight of old English gardens is never afforded us in New England; we do not grow Lavender beds. I have of course seen single plants of Lavender, so easily winter-killed, but I never have seen a Lavender bed, nor do I know of one. It is a great loss. A bed or hedge of Lavender is pleasing in the same way that the dress of a Quaker lady is pleasing; it is reposeful, refined. It has a soft effect at the edge of a garden, like a blue-gray haze, and always reminds me of doves. The power of association or some inherent quality of the plant, makes Lavender always suggest freshness and cleanliness. We may linger a little with a few of these old herb favorites. One of the most balmy and beautiful of all the sweet breaths borne by leaves or blossoms is that of Basil, which, alas! I see so seldom. I have always loved it, and can never pass it without pressing its leaves in my hand; and I cannot express the satisfaction, the triumph, with which I read these light-giving lines of old Thomas Tusser, which showed me why I loved it:-- "Faire Basil desireth it may be hir lot To growe as the gilly flower trim in a pot That Ladies and Gentils whom she doth serve May help hir as needeth life to preserve." An explanation of this rhyme is given by _Tusser Redivivus_: "Most people stroak Garden Basil which leaves a grateful smell on the hand and he will have it that Stroaking from a fair lady preserves the life of the Basil." This is a striking example of floral telepathy; you know what the Basil wishes, and the Basil knows and craves your affection, and repays your caress with her perfume and growth. It is a case of mutual attraction; and I beg the "Gentle Reader" never to pass a pot or plant of Basil without "stroaking" it; that it may grow and multiply and forever retain its relations with fair women, as a type of the purest, the most clinging, and grateful love. One amusing use of Basil (as given in one of my daughter's old Herbals) was intended to check obesity:-- "TO MAKE THAT A WOMAN SHALL EAT OF NOTHING THAT IS SET UPON THE TABLE:--Take a little green Basil, and when Men bring the Dishes to the Table put it underneath them that the Woman perceive it not; so Men say that she will eat of none of that which is in the Dish whereunder the Basil lieth." I cannot understand why so sinister an association was given to a pot of Basil by Boccaccio, who makes the unhappy Isabella conceal the head of her murdered lover in a flower pot under a plant of Basil; for in Italy Basil is ever a plant of love, not of jealousy or crime. One of its common names is _Bacia, Nicola_--Kiss me, Nicholas. Peasant girls always place Basil in their hair when they go to meet their sweethearts, and an offered sprig of Basil is a love declaration. It is believed that Boccaccio obtained this tale from some tradition of ancient Greece, where Basil is a symbol of hatred and despair. The figure of poverty was there associated with a Basil plant as with rags. It had to be sown with abuse, with cursing and railing, else it would not flourish. In India its sanctity is above all other herbs. A pious Indian has at death a leaf of Basil placed in his bosom as his reward. The house surrounded by Basil is blessed, and all who cherish the plant are sure of heaven. Mithridate was a favorite medicine of our Puritan ancestors; there were various elaborate compound rules for its manufacture, in which Rue always took a part. It was simple enough in the beginning, when King Mithridates invented it as an antidote against poison: twenty leaves of Rue pounded with two Figs, two dried Walnuts and a grain of salt; which receipt may be taken _cum grano salis_. Rue also entered into the composition of the famous "Vinegar of the Four Thieves." These four rascals, at the time of the Plague in Marseilles, invented this vinegar, and, protected by its power, entered infected houses and carried away property without taking the disease. Rue had innumerable virtues. Pliny says eighty-four remedies were made of it. It was of special use in case of venomous bites, and to counteract "Head-Ach" from over indulgence in wine, especially if a little Sage were added. It promoted love in man and diminished it in woman; it was good for the ear-ache, eye-ache, stomach-ache, leg-ache, back-ache; good for an ague, good for a surfeit; indeed, it would seem wise to make Rue a daily article of food and thus insure perpetual good health. The scent of Rue seems never dying. A sprig of it was given me by a friend, and it chanced to lie for a single night on the sheets of paper upon which this chapter is written. The scent has never left them, and indeed the odor of Rue hangs literally around this whole book. Summer Savory and Sweet Marjoram are rarely employed now in American cooking. They are still found in my kitchen, and are used in scant amount as a flavoring for stuffing of fowl. Many who taste and like the result know not the old-fashioned materials used to produce that flavor, and "of the younger sort" the names even are wholly unrecognized. Sage is almost the only plant of the English kitchen garden which is ordinarily grown in America. I like its fresh grayness in the garden. In the days of our friend John Gerarde, the beloved old herbalist, there was no fixed botanical nomenclature; but he scarcely needed botanical terms, for he had a most felicitous and dextrous use of words. "Sage hath broad leaves, long, wrinkled, rough, and whitish, like in roughness to woollen cloth threadbare." What a description! it is far more vivid than the picture here shown. Sage has never lost its established place as a flavoring for the stuffing for ducks, geese, and for sausages; but its universal employment as a flavoring for Sage cheese is nearly obsolete. In my childhood home, we always had Sage cheese with other cheeses; it was believed to be an aid in digestion. I had forgotten its taste; and I must say I didn't like it when I ate it last summer, in New Hampshire. [Illustration: Our Friend, John Gerarde.] Tansy was highly esteemed in England as a medicine, a cosmetic, and a flavoring and ingredient in cooking. It was rubbed over raw meat to keep the flies away and prevent decay, for in those days of no refrigerators there had to be strong measures taken for the preservation of all perishable food. Its strong scent and taste would be deemed intolerable to us, who can scarce endure even the milder Sage in any large quantity. A good folk name for it is "Bitter Buttons." Gerarde wrote of Tansy, "In the spring time, are made with the leaves hereof newly sprung up, and with Eggs, cakes or Tansies, which be pleasant in Taste and goode for the Stomach." [Illustration: Sage.] "To Make a Tansie the Best Way," I learn from _The Accomplisht Cook_, was thus:-- "Take twenty Eggs, and take away five whites, strain them with a quart of good sweet thick Cream, and put to it a grated nutmeg, a race of ginger grated, as much cinnamon beaten fine, and a penny white loaf grated also, mix them all together with a little salt, then stamp some green wheat with some tansie herbs, strain it into the cream and eggs and stir all together; then take a clean frying-pan, and a quarter of a pound of butter, melt it, and put in the tansie, and stir it continually over the fire with a slice, ladle, or saucer, chop it, and break it as it thickens, and being well incorporated put it out of the pan into a dish, and chop it very fine; then make the frying-pan very clean, and put in some more butter, melt it, and fry it whole or in spoonfuls; being finely fried on both sides, dish it up and sprinkle it with rose-vinegar, grape-verjuyce, elder-vinegar, cowslip-vinegar, or the juyce of three or four oranges, and strow on a good store of fine sugar." To all of this we can say that it would certainly be a very good dish--without the Tansy. Another mediæval recipe was of Tansy, Feverfew, Parsley, and Violets mixed with eggs, fried in butter, and sprinkled with sugar. The Minnow-Tansie of old Izaak Walton, a "Tanzie for Lent," was made thus:-- "Being well washed with salt and cleaned, and their heads and tails cut off, and not washed after, they prove excellent for that use; that is being fried with the yolks of eggs, the flowers of cowslips and of primroses, and a little tansy, thus used they make a dainty dish." The name Tansy was given afterward to a rich fruit cake which had no Tansy in it. It was apparently a favorite dish of Pepys. A certain derivative custom obtained in some New England towns--certainly in Hartford and vicinity. Tansy was used to flavor the Fast Day pudding. One old lady recalls that it was truly a bitter food to the younger members of the family; Miss Shelton, in her entertaining book, _The Salt Box House_, tells of Tansy cakes, and says children did not dislike them. Tansy bitters were made of Tansy leaves placed in a bottle with New England rum. They were a favorite spring tonic, where all physicians and housewives prescribed "the bitter principle" in the spring time. No doubt Tansy was among the earliest plants brought over by the settlers; it was carefully cherished in the herb garden, then spread to the dooryard and then to farm lanes. As early as 1746 the traveller Kalm noted Tansy growing wild in hedges and along roads in Pennsylvania. Now it extends its sturdy growth for miles along the country road, one of the rankest of weeds. It still is used in the manufacture of proprietary medicines, and for this purpose is cut with a sickle in great armfuls and gathered in cartloads. I have always liked its scent; and its leaves, as Gerarde said, "infinitely jagged and nicked and curled"; and its cheerful little "bitter buttons" of gold. Some old flowers adapt themselves to modern conditions and look up-to-date; but to me the Tansy, wherever found, is as openly old-fashioned as a betty-lamp or a foot-stove. [Illustration: Tansy.] On July 1, 1846, an old grave was opened in the ancient "God's Acre" near the halls of Harvard University in Cambridge, Massachusetts. This grave was a brick vault covered with irregularly shaped flagstones about three inches thick. Over it was an ancient slab of peculiar stone, unlike any others in the cemetery save those over the graves of two presidents of the College, Rev. Dr. Chauncy and Dr. Oakes. As there were headstones near this slab inscribed with the names of the great-grandchildren of President Dunster, it was believed that this was the grave of a third President, Dr. Dunster. He died in the year 1659; but his death took place in midwinter; and when this coffin was opened, the skeleton was found entirely surrounded with common Tansy, in seed, a portion of which had been pulled up by the roots, and it was therefore believed by many who thought upon the matter that it was the coffin and grave of President Mitchell, who died in July, 1668, of "an extream fever." The skeleton was found still wrapped in a cerecloth, and in the record of the church is a memorandum of payment "for a terpauling to wrap Mr. Mitchell." The Tansy found in this coffin, placed there more than two centuries ago, still retained its shape and scent. This use of Tansy at funerals lingered long in country neighborhoods in New England, in some vicinities till fifty years ago. To many older persons the Tansy is therefore so associated with grewsome sights and sad scenes, that they turn from it wherever seen, and its scent to them is unbearable. One elderly friend writes me: "I never see the leaves of Tansy without recalling also the pale dead faces I have so often seen encircled by the dank, ugly leaves. Often as a child have I been sent to gather all the Tansy I could find, to be carried by my mother to the house of mourning; and I gathered it, loathing to touch it, but not daring to refuse, and I loathe it still." Tansy not only retains its scent for a long period, but the "golden buttons" retain their color; I have seen them in New England parlors forming part of a winter posy; this, I suppose, in neighborhoods where Tansy was little used at funerals. [Illustration: Garden of Mrs. Abraham Lansing, Albany, New York.] If an herb garden had no other reason for existence, let me commend it to the attention of those of ample grounds and kindly hearts, for a special purpose--as a garden for the blind. Our many flower-charities furnish flowers throughout the summer to our hospitals, but what sweet-scented flowers are there for those debarred from any sight of beauty? Through the past summer my daughters sent several times a week, by the generous carriage of the Long Island Express Company, boxes of wild flowers to any hospital of their choice. What could we send to the blind? The midsummer flowers of field and meadow gratified the sight, but scent was lacking. A sprig of Sweet Fern or Bayberry was the only resource. Think of the pleasure which could be given to the sightless by a posy of sweet-scented leaves, by Southernwood, Mint, Balm, or Basil, and when memory was thereby awakened in those who once had seen, what tender thoughts! If this book could influence the planting of an herb garden for the solace of those who cannot see the flowers of field and garden, then it will not have been written in vain. CHAPTER VI IN LILAC TIDE "Ere Man is aware That the Spring is here The Flowers have found it out." --_Ancient Chinese Saying._ "A flower opens, and lo! another Year," is the beautiful and suggestive legend on an old vessel found in the Catacombs. Since these words were written, how many years have begun! how many flowers have opened! and yet nature has never let us weary of spring and spring flowers. My garden knows well the time o' the year. It needs no almanac to count the months. "The untaught Spring is wise In Cowslips and Anemonies." While I sit shivering, idling, wondering when I can "start the garden"--lo, there are Snowdrops and spring starting up to greet me. Ever in earliest spring are there days when there is no green in grass, tree, or shrub; but when the garden lover is conscious that winter is gone and spring is waiting. There is in every garden, in every dooryard, as in the field and by the roadside, in some indefinable way a look of spring. One hint of spring comes even before its flowers--you can smell its coming. The snow is gone from the garden walks and some of the open beds; you walk warily down the softened path at midday, and you smell the earth as it basks in the sun, and a faint scent comes from some twigs and leaves. Box speaks of summer, not of spring; and the fragrance from that Cedar tree is equally suggestive of summer. But break off that slender branch of Calycanthus--how fresh and welcome its delightful spring scent. Carry it into the house with branches of Forsythia, and how quickly one fills its leaf buds and the other blossoms. [Illustration: Ladies' Delights.] For several years the first blossom of the new year in our garden was neither the Snowdrop nor Crocus, but the Ladies' Delight, that laughing, speaking little garden face, which is not really a spring flower, it is a stray from summer; but it is such a shrewd, intelligent little creature that it readily found out that spring was here ere man or other flowers knew it. This dear little primitive of the Pansy tribe has become wonderfully scarce save in cherished old gardens like those of Salem, where I saw this year a space thirty feet long and several feet wide, under flowering shrubs and bushes, wholly covered with the everyday, homely little blooms of Ladies' Delights. They have the party-colored petal of the existing strain of English Pansies, distinct from the French and German Pansies, and I doubt not are the descendants of the cherished garden children of the English settlers. Gerarde describes this little English Pansy or Heartsease in 1587 under the name of _Viola tricolor_:-- "The flouers in form and figure like the Violet, and for the most part of the same Bignesse, of three sundry colours, purple, yellow and white or blew, by reason of the beauty and braverie of which colours they are very pleasing to the eye, for smel they have little or none." In Breck's _Book of Flowers_, 1851, is the first printed reference I find to the flower under the name Ladies' Delight. In my childhood I never heard it called aught else; but it has a score of folk names, all testifying to an affectionate intimacy: Bird's-eye; Garden-gate; Johnny-jump-up; None-so-pretty; Kitty-come; Kit-run-about; Three-faces under-a-hood; Come-and-cuddle-me; Pink-of-my-Joan; Kiss-me; Tickle-my-fancy; Kiss-me-ere-I rise; Jump-up-and-kiss-me. To our little flower has also been given this folk name, Meet-her-in-the-entry-kiss-her-in-the-buttery, the longest plant name in the English language, rivalled only by Miss Jekyll's triumph of nomenclature for the Stonecrop, namely: Welcome-home-husband-be-he-ever-so-drunk. [Illustration: Garden House in Garden of Hon. William H. Seward, Auburn, New York.] These little Ladies' Delights have infinite variety of expression; some are laughing and roguish, some sharp and shrewd, some surprised, others worried, all are animated and vivacious, and a few saucy to a degree. They are as companionable as people--nay, more; they are as companionable as children. No wonder children love them; they recognize kindred spirits. I know a child who picked unbidden a choice Rose, and hid it under her apron. But as she passed a bed of Ladies' Delights blowing in the wind, peering, winking, mocking, she suddenly threw the Rose at them, crying out pettishly, "Here! take your old flower!" The Dandelion is to many the golden seal of spring, but it blooms the whole circle of the year in sly garden corners and in the grass. Of it might have been written the lines:-- "It smiles upon the lap of May, To sultry August spreads its charms, Lights pale October on its way, And twines December's arms." I have picked both Ladies' Delights and Dandelions every month in the year. [Illustration: Sun-dial in Garden of Hon. William H. Seward, Auburn, New York.] I suppose the common Crocus would not be deemed a very great garden ornament in midsummer, in its lowly growth; but in its spring blossoming it is--to use another's words--"most gladsome of the early flowers." A bed of Crocuses is certainly a keen pleasure, glowing in the sun, almost as grateful to the human eye as to the honey-gathering bees that come unerringly, from somewhere, to hover over the golden cups. How welcome after winter is the sound of that humming. In the garden's story, there are ever a few pictures which stand out with startling distinctness. When the year is gone you do not recall many days nor many flowers with precision; often a single flower seems of more importance than a whole garden. In the day book of 1900 I have but few pictures; the most vivid was the very first of the season. It could have been no later than April, for one or two Snowdrops still showed white in the grass, when a splendid ribbon of Chionodoxa--Glory of the Snow--opened like blue fire burning from plant to plant, the bluest thing I ever saw in any garden. It was backed with solid masses of equally vivid yellow Alyssum and chalk-white Candy-tuft, both of which had had a good start under glass in a temporary forcing bed. These three solid masses of color surrounded by bare earth and showing little green leafage made my eyes ache, but a picture was burnt in which will never leave my brain. I always have a sense of importance, of actual ownership of a plant, when I can recall its introduction--as I do of the Chionodoxa, about 1871. It is said to come up and bloom in the snow, but I have never seen it in blossom earlier than March, and never then unless the snow has vanished. It has much of the charm of its relative, the Scilla. We all have flower favorites, and some of us have flower antipathies, or at least we are indifferent to certain flowers; but I never knew any one but loved the Daffodil. Not only have poets and dramatists sung it, but it is a common favorite, as shown by its homely names in our everyday speech. I am always touched in _Endymion_ that the only flowers named as "a thing of beauty that is a joy forever" are Daffodils "with the green world they live in." In Daffodils I like the "old fat-headed sort with nutmeg and cinnamon smell and old common English names--Butter-and-eggs, Codlins-and-cream, Bacon and eggs." The newer ones are more slender in bud and bloom, more trumpet-shaped, and are commonplace of name instead of common. In Virginia the name of a variety has become applied to a family, and all Daffodils are called Butter-and-eggs by the people. On spring mornings the Tulips fairly burn with a warmth, which makes them doubly welcome after winter. Emerson--ever able to draw a picture in two lines--to show the heart of everything in a single sentence--thus paints them:-- "The gardens fire with a joyful blaze Of Tulips in the morning's rays." "Tulipase do carry so stately and delightful a form, and do abide so long in their bravery, that there is no Lady or Gentleman of any worth that is not caught with this delight,"--wrote the old herbalist Parkinson. Bravery is an ideal expression for Tulips. [Illustration: Lilacs in Midsummer in Garden of Mrs. Abraham Lansing, Albany, New York.] It is with something of a shock that we read the words of Philip Hamerton in _The Sylvan Year_, that nature is not harmonious in the spring, but is only in the way of becoming so. He calls it the time of crudities, like the adolescence of the mind. He says, "The green is good for us, and we welcome it with uncritical gladness; but when we think of painting, it may be doubted whether any season of the year is less propitious to the broad and noble harmonies which are the secrets of all grand effects in art." And he compares the season to the uncomfortable hour in a household when the early risers are walking about, not knowing what to do with themselves, while others have not yet come down to breakfast. I must confess that an undiversified country landscape in spring has upon me the effect asserted by Hamerton. I recall one early spring week in the Catskills, when I fairly complained, "Everything is so green here." I longed for rocks, water, burnt fields, bare trees, anything to break that glimmering green of new grass and new Birches. But in the spring garden there is variety of shape and color; the Peony leaf buds are red, some sprouting leaves are pink, and there are vast varieties of brown and gray and gold in leaf. Let me give the procession of spring in the garden in the words of a lover of old New England flowers, Dr. Holmes. It is a vivid word picture of the distinctive forms and colors of budding flowers and leaves. "At first the snowdrop's bells are seen, Then close against the sheltering wall The tulip's horn of dusky green, The peony's dark unfolding ball. "The golden-chaliced crocus burns; The long narcissus blades appear; The cone-beaked hyacinth returns To light her blue-flamed chandelier. "The willow's whistling lashes, wrung By the wild winds of gusty March, With sallow leaflets lightly strung, Are swaying by the tufted larch. "See the proud tulip's flaunting cup, That flames in glory for an hour,-- Behold it withering, then look up-- How meek the forest-monarchs flower! "When wake the violets, Winter dies; When sprout the elm buds, Spring is near; When lilacs blossom, Summer cries, 'Bud, little roses, Spring is here.'" The universal flower in the old-time garden was the Lilac; it was the most beloved bloom of spring, and gave a name to Spring--Lilac tide. The Lilac does not promise "spring is coming"; it is the emblem of the _presence_ of spring. Dr. Holmes says, "When Lilacs blossom, Summer cries, '_Spring is here_'" in every cheerful and lavish bloom. Lilacs shade the front yard; Lilacs grow by the kitchen doorstep; Lilacs spring up beside the barn; Lilacs shade the well; Lilacs hang over the spring house; Lilacs crowd by the fence side and down the country road. In many colonial dooryards it was the only shrub--known both to lettered and unlettered folk as Laylock, and spelt Laylock too. Walter Savage Landor, when Laylock had become antiquated, still clung to the word, and used it with a stubborn persistence such as he alone could compass, and which seems strange in the most finished classical scholar of his day. [Illustration: Lilacs at Craigie House, the Home of Longfellow.] "I shall not go to town while the Lilacs bloom," wrote Longfellow; and what Lilac lover could have left a home so Lilac-embowered as Craigie House! A view of its charms in Lilac tide is given in outline on this page; the great Lilac trees seem wondrously suited to the fine old Revolutionary mansion. [Illustration: Box-edged Garden at the Home of Longfellow.] There is in Albany, New York, a lovely garden endeared to those who know it through the memory of a presence that lighted all places associated with it with the beauty of a noble life. It is the garden of the home of Mrs. Abraham Lansing, and was planted by her father and mother, General and Mrs. Peter Gansevoort, in 1846, having been laid out with taste and an art that has borne the test of over half a century's growth. In the garden are scores of old-time favorites: Flower de Luce, Peonies, Daffodils, and snowy Phlox; but instead of bending over the flower borders, let us linger awhile in the wonderful old Lilac walk. It is a glory of tender green and shaded amethyst and grateful hum of bees, the very voice of Spring. Every sense is gratified, even that of touch, when the delicate plumes of the fragrant Lilac blossoms brush your cheek as you walk through its path; there is no spot of fairer loveliness than this Lilac walk in May. It is a wonderful study of flickering light and grateful shade in midsummer. Look at its full-leaf charms opposite page 138; was there ever anything lovelier in any garden, at any time, than the green vista of this Lilac walk in July? But for the thoughtful garden-lover it has another beauty still, the delicacy and refinement of outline when the Lilac walk is bare of foliage, as is shown on page 220 and facing page 154. The very spirit of the Lilacs seems visible, etched with a purity of touch that makes them sentient, speaking beings, instead of silent plants. See the outlines of stem and branch against the tender sky of this April noon. Do you care for color when you have such beauty of outline? Surely this Lilac walk is loveliest in April, with a sensitive etherealization beyond compare. How wonderfully these pictures have caught the look of tentative spring--spring waiting for a single day to burst into living green. There is an ancient Saxon name for springtime--Opyn-tide--thus defined by an old writer, "Whenne that flowres think on blowen"--when the flowers begin to think of budding and blowing; and so I name this picture Opyn-tide, the Thought of Spring. For many years Lilacs were planted for hedges; they were seldom satisfactory if clipped, for the broad-spreading leaves were always gray with dust, and they often had a "rust" which wholly destroyed their beauty. The finest clipped Lilac hedge I ever saw is at Indian Hill, Newburyport. It was set out about 1850, and is compact and green as Privet; the leaves are healthy, and the growth perfect down to the ground; it is an unusual example of Lilac growth--a perfect hedge. An unclipped Lilac hedge is lovely in its blooming; a beautiful one grows by the side of the old family home of Mr. Mortimer Howell at West Hampton Beach, Long Island. To this hedge in May come a-begging dusky city flower venders, who break off and carry away wagon loads of blooms. As the fare from and to New York is four dollars, and a wagon has to be hired to convey the flowers from the hedge two miles to the railroad station, there must be a high price charged for these Lilacs to afford any profit; but the Italian flower sellers appear year after year. [Illustration: Joepye-weed and Queen Anne's Lace.] Lilacs bloom not in our ancient literature; they are not named by Shakespeare, nor do I recall any earlier mention of them than in the essay of Lord Bacon on "Gardens," published about 1610, where he spelled it Lelacke. Blue-pipe tree was the ancient name of the Lilac, a reminder of the time when pipes were made of its wood; I heard it used in modern speech once. An old Narragansett coach driver called out to me, "Ye set such store on flowers, don't ye want to pick that Blue-pipe in Pender Zeke's garden?"--a deserted garden and home at Pender Zeke's Corner. This man had some of the traits of Mrs. Wright's delightful "Time-o'-Day," and he knew well my love of flowers; for he had been my charioteer to the woods where Rhododendron and Rhodora bloom, and he had revealed to me the pond where grew the pink Water Lilies. And from a chance remark of mine he had conveyed to me a wagon load of Joepye-weed and Boneset, to the dismay of my younger children, who had apprehensions of unlimited gallons of herb tea therefrom. Let me steal a few lines from my spring Lilacs to write of these two "Sisters of Healing," which were often planted in the household herb garden. From July to September in the low lying meadows of every state from the Bay of Fundy to the Gulf of Mexico, can be found Joepye-weed and Boneset. The dull pink clusters of soft fringy blooms of Joepye-weed stand up three to eight feet in height above the moist earth, catching our eye and the visit of every passing butterfly, and commanding attention for their fragrance, and a certain dignity of carriage notable even among the more striking hues of the brilliant Goldenrod and vivid Sunflowers. Joe Pye was an Indian medicine-man of old New England, famed among his white neighbors for his skill in curing the devastating typhoid fevers which, in those days of no drainage and ignorance of sanitation, vied with so-called "hereditary" consumption in exterminating New England families. His cure-all was a bitter tea decocted from leaves and stalks of this _Eupatorium purpureum_, and in token of his success the plant bears everywhere his name, but it is now wholly neglected by the simpler and herb-doctor. The sister plant, the _Eupatorium perfoliatum_, known as Thoroughwort, Boneset, Ague-weed, or Indian Sage, grows everywhere by its side, and is also used in fevers. It was as efficacious in "break bone fever" in the South a century ago as it is now for the grippe, for it still is used, North and South, in many a country home. Neltje Blanchan and Mrs. Dana Parsons call Thoroughwort or Boneset tea a "nauseous draught," and I thereby suspect that neither has tasted it. I have many a time, and it has a clear, clean bitter taste, no stronger than any bitter beer or ale. Every year is Boneset gathered in old Narragansett; but swamp edges and meadows that are easy of access have been depleted of the stately growth of saw-edged wrinkled leaves, and the Boneset gatherer must turn to remote brooksides and inaccessible meadows for his harvest. The flat-topped terminal cymes of leaden white blooms are not distinctive as seen from afar, and many flowers of similar appearance lure the weary simpler here and there, until at last the welcome sight of the connate perfoliate leaves, surrounding the strong stalk, distinctive of the Boneset, show that his search is rewarded. [Illustration: Boneset.] After these bitter draughts of herb tea, we will turn, as do children, to sweets, to our beloved Lilac blooms. The Lilac has ever been a flower welcomed by English-speaking folk since it first came to England by the hand of some mariner. It is said that a German traveller named Busbeck brought it from the Orient to the continent in the sixteenth century. I know not when it journeyed to the new world, but long enough ago so that it now grows cheerfully and plentifully in all our states of temperate clime and indeed far south. It even grows wild in some localities, though it never looks wild, but plainly shows its escape or exile from some garden. It is specially beloved in New England, and it seems so much more suited in spirit to New England than to Persia that it ought really to be a native plant. Its very color seems typical of New England; some parts of celestial blue, with more of warm pink, blended and softened by that shading of sombre gray ever present in New England life into a distinctive color known everywhere as lilac--a color grateful, quiet, pleasing, what Thoreau called a "tender, civil, cheerful color." Its blossoming at the time of Election Day, that all-important New England holiday, gave it another New England significance. There is no more emblematic flower to me than the Lilac; it has an association of old homes, of home-making and home interests. On the country farm, in the village garden, and in the city yard, the lilac was planted wherever the home was made, and it attached itself with deepest roots, lingering sometimes most sadly but sturdily, to show where the home once stood. [Illustration: Magnolias.] Let me tell of two Lilacs of sentiment. One of them is shown on page 149; a glorious Lilac tree which is one of a group of many full-flowered, pale-tinted ones still growing and blossoming each spring on a deserted homestead in old Narragansett. They bloom over the grave of a fine old house, and the great chimney stands sadly in their midst as a gravestone. "Hopewell," ill-suited of name, was the home of a Narragansett Robinson famed for good cheer, for refinement and luxury, and for a lovely garden, laid out with cost and care and filled with rare shrubs and flowers. Perhaps these Lilacs were a rare variety in their day, being pale of tint; now they are as wild as their companions, the Cedar hedges. [Illustration: Lilacs at Hopewell.] Gathering in the front dooryard of a fallen farm-house some splendid branches of flowering Lilac, I found a few feet of cellar wall and wooden house side standing, and the sills of two windows. These window sills, exposed for years to the bleaching and fading of rain and sun and frost, still bore the circular marks of the flower pots which, filled with houseplants, had graced the kitchen windows for many a winter under the care of a flower-loving house mistress. A few days later I learned from a woman over ninety years of age--an inmate of the "Poor House"--the story of the home thus touchingly indicated by the Lilac bushes and the stains of the flower pots. Over eighty years ago she had brought the tiny Lilac-slip to her childhood's home, then standing in a clearing in the forest. She carried it carefully in her hands as she rode behind her father on a pillion after a visit to her grandmother. She and her little brothers and sisters planted the tiny thing "of two eyes only," as she said, in the shadow of the house, in the little front yard. And these children watered it and watched it, as it rooted and grew, till the house was surrounded each spring with its vivacious blooms, its sweet fragrance. The puny slip has outlived the house and all its inmates save herself, outlived the brothers and sisters, their children and grandchildren, outlived orchard and garden and field. And it will live to tell a story to every thoughtful passer-by till a second growth of forest has arisen in pasture and garden and even in the cellar-hole, when even then the cheerful Lilac will not be wholly obliterated. A bunch of early Lilacs was ever a favorite gift to "teacher," to be placed in a broken-nosed pitcher on her desk. And Lilac petals made such lovely necklaces, thrust within each other or strung with needle and thread. And there was a love divination by Lilacs which we children solemnly observed. There will occasionally appear a tiny Lilac flower, usually a white Lilac, with five divisions of the petal instead of four--this is a Luck Lilac. This must be solemnly swallowed. If it goes down smoothly, the dabbler in magic cries out, "He loves me;" if she chokes at her floral food, she must say sadly, "He loves me not." I remember once calling out, with gratification and pride, "He loves me!" "Who is he?" said my older companions. "Oh, I didn't know he had to be somebody," I answered in surprise, to be met by derisive laughter at my satisfaction with a lover in general and not in particular. It was a matter of Lilac-luck-etiquette that the lover's name should be pronounced mentally before the petal was swallowed. [Illustration: Persian Lilacs and Peonies in Garden of the Kimball Homestead, Portsmouth, New Hampshire.] In the West Indies the Lilac is a flower of mysterious power; its perfume keeps away evil spirits, ghosts, banshees. If it grows not in the dooryard, its protecting branches are hung over the doorway. I think of this when I see it shading the door of happy homes in New England. In our old front yards we had only the common Lilacs, and occasionally a white one; and as a rarity the graceful, but sometimes rather spindling, Persian Lilacs, known since 1650 in gardens, and shown on page 151. How the old gardens would have stared at the new double Lilacs, which have luxuriant plumes of bloom twenty inches long. The "pensile Lilac" has been sung by many poets; but the spirit of the flower has been best portrayed in verse by Elizabeth Akers. I can quote but a single stanza from so many beautiful ones. "How fair it stood, with purple tassels hung, Their hue more tender than the tint of Tyre; How musical amid their fragrance rung The bee's bassoon, keynote of spring's glad choir! O languorous Lilac! still in time's despite I see thy plumy branches all alight With new-born butterflies which loved to stay And bask and banquet in the temperate ray Of springtime, ere the torrid heats should be: For these dear memories, though the world grow gray, I sing thy sweetness, lovely Lilac tree!" Another poet of the Lilac is Walt Whitman. He tells his delight in "the Lilac tall and its blossoms of mastering odor." He sings: "with the birds a warble of joy for Lilac-time." That noble, heroic dirge, the _Burial Hymn of Lincoln_, begins:-- "When Lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd." The poet stood under the blossoming Lilacs when he learned of the death of Lincoln, and the scent and sight of the flowers ever bore the sad association. In this poem is a vivid description of-- "The Lilac bush, tall growing, with heart-shaped leaves of rich green, With many a pointed blossom, rising delicate with the perfume strong I love. With every leaf a miracle." Thomas William Parsons could turn from his profound researches and loving translations of Dante to write with deep sympathy of the Lilac. His verses have to me an additional interest, since I believe they were written in the house built by my ancestor in 1740, and occupied still by his descendants. In its front dooryard are Lilacs still standing under the windows of Dr. Parsons' room, in which he loved so to write. Hawthorne felt a sort of "ludicrous unfitness in the idea of a time-stricken and grandfatherly Lilac bush." He was dissatisfied with aged Lilacs, though he knew not whether his heart, judgment, or rural sense put him in that condition. He felt the flower should either flourish in immortal youth or die. Apple trees could grow old and feeble without his reproach, but an aged Lilac was improper. I fancy no one ever took any care of Lilacs in an old garden. As soon water or enrich the Sumach and Elder growing by the roadside! But care for your Lilacs nowadays, and see how they respond. Make them a _garden_ flower, and you will never regret it. There be those who prefer grafted Lilacs--the stock being usually a Syringa; they prefer the single trunk, and thus get rid of the Lilac suckers. But compare a row of grafted Lilacs to a row of natural fastigate growth, as shown on page 220, and I think nature must be preferred. "Methinks I see my contemplative girl now in the garden watching the gradual approach of Spring," wrote Sterne. My contemplative girl lives in the city, how can she know that spring is here? Even on those few square feet of mother earth, dedicated to clotheslines and posts, spring sets her mark. Our Lilacs seldom bloom, but they put forth lovely fresh green leaves; and even the unrolling of the leaves of our Japanese ivies are a pleasure. Our poor little strips of back yard in city homes are apt to be too densely shaded for flower blooms, but some things will grow, even there. Some wild flowers will live, and what a delight they are in spring. We have a Jack-in-the-pulpit who comes up just as jauntily there as in the wild woods; Dog-tooth Violet and our common wild Violet also bloom. A city neighbor has Trillium which blossoms each year; our Trillium shows leaves, but no blossoms, and does not increase in spread of roots. Bloodroot, a flower so shy when gathered in the woods, and ever loving damp sites, flourishes in the dryest flower bed, grows coarser in leaf and bloom, and blossoms earlier, and holds faster its snowy petals. Corydalis in the garden seems so garden-bred that you almost forget the flower was ever wild. [Illustration: Opyn-tide, the Thought of Spring.] The approach of spring in our city parks is marked by the appearance of the Dandelion gatherers. It is always interesting to see, in May, on the closely guarded lawns and field expanses of our city parks, the hundreds of bareheaded, gayly-dressed Italian and Portuguese women and children eagerly gathering the young Dandelion plants to add to their meagre fare as a greatly-loved delicacy. They collect these "greens" in highly-colored kerchiefs, in baskets, in squares of sheeting; I have seen the women bearing off a half-bushel of plants; even their stumpy little children are impressed to increase the welcome harvest, and with a broken knife dig eagerly in the greensward. The thrifty park commissioners, in Dandelion-time, relax their rigid rules, "Keep Off the Grass," and turn the salad-loving Italians loose to improve the public lawns by freeing them from weeds. The earliest sign of spring in the fields and woods in my childhood was the appearance of the Willow catkins, and was heralded by the cry of one child to another,--"Pussy-willows are out." How eagerly did those who loved the woods and fields turn, after the storm, whiteness, and chill of a New England winter, to Pussy-willows as a promise of summer and sunshine. Some of their charm ever lingers to us as we see them in the baskets of swarthy street venders in New York. Magnolia blossoms are sold in our city streets to remind city dwellers of spring. "Every flower its own bow-kwet," is the call of the vender. Bunches of Locust blossoms follow, awkwardly tied together. Though the Magnolia is earlier, I do not find it much more splendid as a flowering tree for the garden than our northern Dogwood; and the Dogwood when in bloom seems just as tropical. It is then the glory of the landscape; and its radiant starry blossoms turn into ideal beauty even our sombre cemeteries. The Magnolia has been planted in northern gardens for over a century. Gardens on Long Island have many beautiful old specimens, doubtless furnished by the Prince Nurseries. These seem thoroughly at home; just as does the Locust brought from Virginia, a century ago, by one Captain Sands of Sands Point, to please his Virginia bride with the presence of the trees of her girlhood's home. These Locusts have spread over every rood of Long Island earth, and seem as much at home as Birch or Willow. The three Magnolia trees on Mr. Brown's lawn in Flatbush are as large as any I know in the North, and were exceptionally full of bloom this year, this photograph (shown facing page 148) being taken when they were past their prime. I saw children eagerly gathering the waxy petals which had fallen, and which show so plainly in the picture. But the flower is not common enough here for northern children to learn the varied attractions of the Magnolia. The flower lore of American children is nearly all of English derivation; but children invent as well as copy. In the South the lavish growth of the Magnolia affords multiform playthings. The beautiful broad white petals give a snowy surface for the inditing of messages or valentines, which are written with a pin, when the letters turn dark brown. The stamens of the flower--waxlike with red tips--make mock illuminating matches. The leaves shape into wonderful drinking cups, and the scarlet seeds give a glowing necklace. [Illustration: A Thought of Winter's Snows.] The glories of a spring garden are not in the rows of flowering bulbs, beautiful as they are; but in the flowering shrubs and trees. The old garden had few shrubs, but it had unsurpassed beauty in its rows of fruit trees which in their blossoming give the spring garden, as here shown, that lovely whiteness which seems a blending of the seasons--a thought of winter's snows. The perfection of Apple blossoms I have told in another chapter. Earlier to appear was the pure white, rather chilly, blooms of the Plum tree, to the Japanese "the eldest brother of an hundred flowers." They are faintly sweet-scented with the delicacy found in many spring blossoms. A good example of the short verses of the Japanese poets tells of the Plum blossom and its perfume. "In springtime, on a cloudless night, When moonbeams throw their silver pall O'er wooded landscapes, veiling all In one soft cloud of misty white, 'Twere vain almost to hope to trace The Plum trees in their lovely bloom Of argent; 'tis their sweet perfume Alone which leads me to their place." The lovely family of double white Plum blossoms which now graces our gardens is varied by tinted ones; there are sixty in all which the nineteenth century owes to Japan. The Peach tree has a flower which has given name to one of the loveliest colors in the world. The Peach has varieties with wonderful double flowers of glorious color. Cherry trees bear a more cheerful white flower than Plum trees. "The Cherry boughs above us spread The whitest shade was ever seen; And flicker, flicker came and fled Sun-spots between." I do not recall the Judas tree in my childhood. I am told there were many in Worcester; but there were none in our garden, nor in our neighborhood, and that was my world. Orchids might have hung from the trees a mile from my home, and would have been no nearer me than the tropics. I had a small world, but it was large enough, since it was bounded by garden walls. Almond trees are seldom seen in northern gardens; but the Flowering Almond flourishes as one of the purest and loveliest familiar shrubs. Silvery pink in bloom when it opens, the pink darkens till when in full flower it is deeply rosy. It was, next to the Lilac, the favorite shrub of my childhood. I used to call the exquisite little blooms "fairy roses," and there were many fairy tales relating to the Almond bush. This made the flower enhaloed with sentiment and mystery, which charmed as much as its beauty. The Flowering Almond seemed to have a special place under a window in country yards and gardens, as it is shown on page 39. A fitting spot it was, since it never grew tall enough to shade the little window panes. With Pussy-willows and Almond blossoms and Ladies' Delights, with blossoming playhouse Apple trees and sweet-scented Lilac walks, spring was certainly Paradise in our childhood. Would it were an equally happy season in mature years; but who, garden-bred, can walk in the springtime through the garden of her childhood without thought of those who cared for the garden in its youth, and shared the care of their children with the care of their flowers, but now are seen no more. "Oh, far away in some serener air, The eyes that loved them see a heavenly dawn: How can they bloom without her tender care? Why should they live when her sweet life is gone?" I have written of the gladness of spring, but I know nothing more overwhelming than the heartache of spring, the sadness of a fresh-growing spring garden. Where is the dear one who planted it and loved it, and he who helped her in the care, and the loving child who played in it and left it in the springtime? All that is good and beautiful has come again to us with the sunlight and warmth, save those whom we still love but can see no more. By that very measure of happiness poured for us in childhood in Lilac tide, is our cup of sadness now filled. CHAPTER VII OLD FLOWER FAVORITES "God does not send us strange flowers every year. When the spring winds blow o'er the pleasant places The same dear things lift up the same fair faces; The Violet is here. "It all comes back; the odor, grace, and hue Each sweet relation of its life repeated; No blank is left, no looking-for is cheated; It is the thing we knew." --ADELINE D. T. WHITNEY, 1861. Not only do I love to see the same dear things year after year, and to welcome the same odor, grace, and hue; but I love to find them in the same places. I like a garden in which plants have been growing in one spot for a long time, where they have a fixed home and surroundings. In our garden the same flowers shoulder each other comfortably and crowd each other a little, year after year. They look, my sister says, like long-established neighbors, like old family friends, not as if they had just "moved in," and didn't know each other's names and faces. Plants grow better when they are among flower friends. I suppose we have to transplant some plants, sometimes; but I would try to keep old friends together even in those removals. They would be lonely when they opened their eyes after the winter's sleep, and saw strange flower forms and unknown faces around them. [Illustration: Larkspur and Phlox.] For flowers have friendships, and antipathies as well. How Canterbury Bells and Foxgloves love to grow side by side! And Sweet Williams, with Foxgloves, as here shown. And in my sister's garden Larkspur always starts up by white Phlox--see a bit of the border on this page. Whatever may influence these docile alliances, it isn't a proper sense of fitness of color; for Tiger Lilies dearly love to grow by crimson-purple Phlox, a most inharmonious association, and you can hardly separate them. If a flower dislikes her neighbor in the garden, she moves quietly away, I don't know where or how. Sometimes she dies, but at any rate she is gone. It is so queer; I have tried every year to make Feverfew grow in this bed, and it won't do it, though it grows across the path. There is some flower here that the pompous Feverfew doesn't care to associate with. Not the Larkspur, for they are famous friends--perhaps it is the Sweet William, who is rather a plain fellow. In general flowers are very sociable with each other, but they have some preferences, and these are powerful ones. [Illustration: Sweet William and Foxglove.] It is amusing to read in no less than five recent English "garden-books," by flower-loving souls, the solemn advice that if you wish a beautiful garden effect you "must plant the great Oriental Poppy by the side of the White Lupine." "Thou say'st an undisputed thing In such a solemn way." The truth is, you have very little to do with it. That Poppy chooses to keep company with the White Lupine, and to that impulse you owe your fine garden effect. The Poppy is the slyest magician of the whole garden. He comes and goes at will. This year a few blooms, nearly all in one corner; next year a blaze of color banded across the middle of the garden like the broad sash of a court chamberlain. Then a single grand blossom quite alone in the pansy bed, while another pushes up between the tight close leaves of the box edging:--the Poppy is _queer_. [Illustration: Plume Poppy.] Some flowers have such a hatred of man they cannot breathe and live in his presence, others have an equal love of human companionship. The white Clover clings here to our pathway as does the English Daisy across seas. And in our garden Ladies' Delights and Ambrosia tell us, without words, of their love for us and longing to be by our side; just as plainly as a child silently tells us his love and dependence on us by taking our hand as we walk side by side. There is not another gesture of childhood, not an affectionate word which ever touched my heart as did that trustful holding of the hand. One of my children throughout his brief life never walked by my side without clinging closely--I think without conscious intent--with his little hand to mine. I can never forget the affection, the trust of that vanished hand. I find that my dearest flower loves are the old flowers,--not only old to me because I knew them in childhood, but old in cultivation. "Give me the good old weekday blossoms I used to see so long ago, With hearty sweetness in their bosoms, Ready and glad to bud and blow." Even were they newcomers, we should speedily care for them, they are so lovable, so winning, so endearing. If I had seen to-day for the first time a Fritillaria, a Violet, a Lilac, a Bluebell, or a Rose, I know it would be a case of love at first sight. But with intimacy they have grown dearer still. The sense of long-continued acquaintance and friendship which we feel for many garden flowers extends to a few blossoms of field and forest. It is felt to an inexplicable degree by all New Englanders for the Trailing Arbutus, our Mayflower; and it is this unformulated sentiment which makes us like to go to the same spot year after year to gather these beloved flowers. I am sensible of this friendship for Buttercups, they seem the same flowers I knew last year; and I have a distinct sympathy with Owen Meredith's poem:-- "I pluck the flowers I plucked of old About my feet--yet fresh and cold The Buttercups do bend; The selfsame Buttercups they seem, Thick in the bright-eyed green, and such As when to me their blissful gleam Was all earth's gold--how much!" We have little of the intense sentiment, the inspiration which filled flower-lovers of olden times. We admire flowers certainly as beautiful works of nature, as objects of wonder in mechanism and in the profusion of growth, and we are occasionally roused to feelings of gratitude to the Maker and Giver of such beauty; but it is not precisely the same regard that the old gardeners and "flowerists" had, which is expressed in this quotation from Gerarde of "the gallant grace of violets":-- "They admonish and stir up a man to that which is comelie and honest; for flowers through their beautie, varietie of colour and exquisite forme doe bring to a liberall and gentlemanly mind, the remembrance of honestie, comelinesse and all kinds of virtues." It was a virtue to be comely in those days; as it is indeed a virtue now; and to the pious old herbalists it seemed an impossible thing that any creation which was beautiful should not also be good. [Illustration: Meadow Rue.] All flowers cannot be loved with equal warmth; it is possible to have a wholesome liking for a flower, a wish to see it around you, which would make you plant it in your borders and treat it well, but which would not be at all akin to love. For others you have a placid tolerance; others you esteem--good, virtuous, worthy creatures, but you cannot warm toward them. Sometimes they have been sung with passion by poets (Swinburne is always glowing over very unresponsive flower souls) and they have been painted with fervor by artists--and still you do not love them. I do not love Tulips, but I welcome them very cordially in my garden. Others have loved them; the Tulip has had her head turned by attention. Some flowers we like at first sight, but they do not wear well. This is a hard truth; and I shall not shame the garden-creatures who have done their best to please by betraying them to the world, save in a single case to furnish an example. In late August the Bergamot blossoms in luxuriant heads of white and purplish pink bloom, similar in tint to the abundant Phlox. Both grow freely in the garden of Sylvester Manor. When the Bergamot has romped in your borders for two or three years, you may wish to exile it to a vegetable garden, near the blackberry vines. Is this because it is an herb instead of a purely decorative flower? You never thus thrust out Phlox. A friend confesses to me that she exiled even the splendid scarlet Bergamot after she had grown it for three years in her flower-beds; such subtle influences control our flower-loves. Beautiful and noble as are the grand contributions of the nineteenth century to us from the garden and fields of Japan and China, we seldom speak of loving them. Thus the Chinese White Wistaria is similar in shape of blossom to the Scotch Laburnum, though a far more elegant, more lavish flower; but the Laburnum is the loved one. I used to read longingly of the Laburnum in volumes of English poetry, especially in Hood's verses, beginning:-- "I remember, I remember, The house where I was born," Ella Partridge had a tall Laburnum tree at her front door; it peeped in the second-story windows. It was so cherished, that I doubt whether its blooms were ever gathered. She told us with conscious pride and rectitude that it was a "yellow Wistaria tree which came from China"; I saw no reason to doubt her words, and as I never chanced to speak to my parents about it, I ever thought of it as a yellow Wistaria tree until I went out into the world and found it was a Scotch Laburnum. Few garden owners plant now the Snowberry, _Symphoricarpus racemosus_, once seen in every front yard, and even used for hedges. It wasn't a very satisfactory shrub in its habit; the oval leaves were not a cheerful green, and were usually pallid with mildew. The flowers were insignificant, but the clusters of berries were as pure as pearls. In country homes, before the days of cheap winter flowers and omnipresent greenhouses, these snowy clusters were cherished to gather in winter to place on coffins and in hands as white and cold as the berries. Its special offence in our garden was partly on account of this funereal association, but chiefly because we were never permitted to gather its berries to string into necklaces. They were rigidly preserved on the stem as a garden decoration in winter; though they were too closely akin in color to the encircling snowdrifts to be of any value. In country homes in olden times were found several universal winter posies. On the narrow mantel shelves of farm and village parlors, both in England and America, still is seen a winter posy made of dried stalks of the seed valves of a certain flower; they are shown on the opposite page. Let us see how our old friend, Gerarde, describes this plant:-- "The stalkes are loden with many flowers like the stocke-gilliflower, of a purple colour, which, being fallen, the seede cometh foorthe conteined in a flat thinne cod, with a sharp point or pricke at one end, in fashion of the moone, and somewhat blackish. This cod is composed of three filmes or skins whereof the two outermost are of an overworne ashe colour, and the innermost, or that in the middle whereon the seed doth hang or cleave, is thin and cleere shining, like a piece of white satten newly cut from the peece." In the latter clause of this striking description is given the reason for the popular name of the flower, Satin-flower or White Satin, for the inner septum is a shining membrane resembling white satin. Another interesting name is Pricksong-flower. All who have seen sheets of music of Elizabethan days, when the notes of music were called pricks, and the whole sheet a pricksong, will readily trace the resemblance to the seeds of this plant. Gerarde says it was named "Penny-floure, Money-floure, Silver-plate, Sattin, and among our women called Honestie." The last name was commonly applied at the close of the eighteenth century. It is thus named in writings of Rev. William Hanbury, 1771, and a Boston seedsman then advertised seeds of Honestie "in small quantities, that all might have some." In 1665, Josselyn found White Satin planted and growing plentifully in New England gardens, where I am sure it formed, in garden and house, a happy reminder of their English homes to the wives of the colonists. Since that time it has spread so freely in some localities, especially in southern Connecticut, that it grows wild by the wayside. It is seldom seen now in well-kept gardens, though it should be, for it is really a lovely flower, showing from white to varied and rich light purples. I was charmed with its fresh beauty this spring in the garden of Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright; a photograph of one of her borders containing Honesty is shown opposite page 174. [Illustration: Money-in-both-pockets.] At Belvoir Castle in England, in the "Duchess's Garden," the Satin-flower can be seen in full variety of tint, and fills an important place. It is carefully cultivated by seed and division, all inferior plants being promptly destroyed, while the superior blossoms are cherished. The flower was much used in charms and spells, as was everything connected with the moon. Drayton's Clarinax sings of Lunaria:-- "Enchanting lunarie here lies In sorceries excelling." As a child this Lunaria was a favorite flower, for it afforded to us juvenile money. Indeed, it was generally known among us as Money-flower or Money-seed, or sometimes as Money-in-both-pockets. The seed valves formed our medium of exchange and trade, passing as silver dollars. Through the streets of a New England village there strolled, harmless and happy, one who was known in village parlance as a "softy," one of "God's fools," a poor addle-pated, simple-minded creature, witless--but neither homeless nor friendless; for children cared for him, and feeble-minded though he was, he managed to earn, by rush-seating chairs and weaving coarse baskets, and gathering berries, scant pennies enough to keep him alive; and he slept in a deserted barn, in a field full of rocks and Daisies and Blueberry bushes,--a barn which had been built by one but little more gifted with wits than himself. Poor Elmer never was able to understand that the money which he and the children saved so carefully each autumn from the money plants was not equal in value to the great copper cents of the village store; and when he asked gleefully for a loaf of bread or a quart of molasses, was just as apt to offer the shining seed valves in payment as he was to give the coin of the land; and it must be added that his belief received apparent confirmation in the fact that he usually got the bread whether he gave seeds or cents. [Illustration: Box Walk in Garden of Frederick J. Kingsbury, Esq. Waterbury, Connecticut.] He lost his life through his poor simple notion. In the village he was kindly treated by all, clothed, fed, and warmed; but one day there came skulking along the edge of the village what were then rare visitors, two tramps, who by ill-chance met poor Elmer as he was gathering chestnuts. And as the children lingered on their way home from school to take toll of Elmer's store of nuts, they heard him boasting gleefully of his wealth, "hundreds and hundreds of dollars all safe for winter." The children knew what his dollars were, but the tramps did not. Three days of heavy rain passed by, and Elmer did not appear at the store or any house. Then kindly neighbors went to his barn in the distant field, and found him cruelly beaten, with broken ribs and in a high fever, while scattered around him were hundreds of the seeds of his autumnal store of the money plant; these were all the silver dollars his assailants found. He was carried to the almshouse and died in a few weeks, partly from the beating, partly from exposure, but chiefly, I ever believed, from homesickness in his enforced home. His old house has fallen down, but his well still is open, and around it grows a vast expanse of Lunaria, which has spread and grown from the seeds poor Elmer saved, and every year shoots of the tender lilac blooms mingle so charmingly with the white Daisies that the sterile field is one of the show-places of the village, and people drive from afar to see it. [Illustration: Lunaria in Garden at Waldstein.] There grow in profusion in our home garden what I always called the Mullein Pink, the Rose Campion (_Lychnis coronaria_). I never heard any one speak of this plant with special affection or admiration; but as a child I loved its crimson flower more than any other flower in the garden. Perhaps I should say I loved the royal color rather than the flower. I gathered tight bunches without foliage into a glowing mass of color unequalled in richness of tint by anything in nature. I have seen only in a stained glass window flooded with high sunlight a crimson approaching that of the Mullein Pink. Gerarde calls the flower the "Gardener's Delight or Gardner's Eie." It was known in French as the Eye of God; and the Rose of Heaven. We used to rub our cheeks with the woolly leaves to give a beautiful rosy blush, and thereby I once skinned one cheek. Snapdragons were a beloved flower--companions of my childhood in our home garden, but they have been neglected a bit by nearly every one of late years. Plant a clump of the clear yellow and one of pure white Snapdragons, and see how beautiful they are in the garden, and how fresh they keep when cut. We had such a satisfying bunch of them on the dinner table to-day, in a milk-white glazed Chinese jar; yellow Snapdragons, with "borrowed leaves" of Virgin's-bower (_Adlumia_) and a haze of Gypsophila over all. A flower much admired in gardens during the early years of the nineteenth century was the Plume Poppy (_Bocconia_). It has a pretty pinkish bloom in general shape somewhat like Meadow Rue (see page 164 and page 167). A friend fancied a light feathery look over certain of her garden borders, and she planted plentifully Plume Poppy and Meadow Rue; this was in 1895. In 1896 the effect was exquisite; in 1897 the garden feathered out with far too much fulness; in 1901 all the combined forces of all the weeds of the garden could not equal these two flowers in utter usurpment and close occupation of every inch of that garden. The Plume Poppy has a strong tap-root which would be a good symbol of the root of the tree Ygdrassyl--the Tree of Life, that never dies. You can go over the borders with scythe and spade and hoe, and even with manicure-scissors, but roots of the Plume Poppy will still hide and send up vigorous growth the succeeding year. We have grown so familiar with some old doubled blossoms that we think little of their being double. One such, symmetrical of growth, beautiful of foliage, and gratifying of bloom, is the Double Buttercup. It is to me distinctly one of our most old-fashioned flowers in aspect. A hardy great clump of many years' growth is one of the ancient treasures of our garden; its golden globes are known in England as Bachelor's Buttons, and are believed by many to be the Bachelor's Buttons of Shakespeare's day. [Illustration: Dahlia Walk at Ravensworth.] Dahlias afford a striking example of the beauty of single flowers when compared to their doubled descendants. Single Dahlias are fine flowers, the yellow and scarlet ones especially so. I never thought double Dahlias really worth the trouble spent on them in our Northern gardens; so much staking and tying, and fussing, and usually an autumn storm wrenches them round and breaks the stem or a frost nips them just as they are in bloom. A Dahlia hedge or a walk such as this one at Ravensworth, Virginia, is most stately and satisfying. I like, in moderation, many of the smaller single and double Sunflowers. Under the reign of _Patience_, the Sunflower had a fleeting day of popularity, and flaunted in garden and parlor. Its place was false. It was never a garden flower in olden times, in the sense of being a flower of ornament or beauty; its place was in the kitchen garden, where it belongs. Peas have ever been favorites in English gardens since they were brought to England. We have all seen the print, if not the portrait, of Queen Elizabeth garbed in a white satin robe magnificently embroidered with open pea-pods and butterflies. A "City of London Madam" had a delightful head ornament of open pea-pods filled with peas of pearls; this was worn over a hood of gold-embroidered muslin, and with dyed red hair, must have been a most modish affair. Sweet Peas have had a unique history. They have been for a century a much-loved flower of the people both in England and America, and they were at home in cottage borders and fine gardens; were placed in vases, and carried in nosegays and posies; were loved of poets--Keats wrote an exquisite characterization of them. They had beauty of color, and a universally loved perfume--but florists have been blind to them till within a few years. A bicentenary exhibition of Sweet Peas was given in London in July, 1900; now there is formed a Sweet Pea Society. But no societies and no exhibitions ever will make them a "florist's flower"; they are of value only for cutting; their habit of growth renders them useless as a garden decoration. We all take notions in regard to flowers, just as we do in regard to people. I hear one friend say, "I love every flower that grows," but I answer with emphasis, "I don't!" I have ever disliked the Portulaca,--I hate its stems. It is my fate never to escape it. I planted it once to grow under Sweet Alyssum in the little enclosure of earth behind my city home; when I returned in the autumn, everything was covered, blanketed, overwhelmed with Portulaca. Since then it comes up even in the grass, and seems to thrive by being trampled upon. The Portulaca was not a flower of colonial days; I am glad to learn our great-grandmothers were not pestered with it; it was not described in the _Botanical Magazine_ till 1829. I do not care for the Petunia close at hand on account of its sickish odor. But in the dusky border the flowers shine like white stars (page 180), and make you almost forgive their poor colors in the daylight. I never liked the Calceolaria. Every child in our town used to have a Calceolaria in her own small garden plot, but I never wanted one. I care little for Chrysanthemums; they fill in the border in autumn, and they look pretty well growing, but I like few of the flowers close at hand. By some curious twist of a brain which, alas! is apt not to deal as it is expected and ought to, with sensations furnished to it, I have felt this distaste for Chrysanthemums since I attended a Chrysanthemum Show. Of course, I ought to love them far more, and have more eager interest in them--but I do not. Their sister, the China Aster, I care little for. The Germans call Asters "death-flowers." The Empress of Austria at the Swiss hotel where she lodged just before she was murdered, found the rooms decorated with China Asters. She said to her attendant that the flowers were in Austria termed death-flowers--and so they proved. The Aster is among the flowers prohibited in Japan for felicitous occasions, as are the Balsam, Rhododendron, and Azalea. [Illustration: Petunias.] Those who read these pages may note perhaps that I say little of Lilies. I do not care as much for them as most garden lovers do. I like all our wild Lilies, especially the yellow Nodding Lily of our fields; and the Lemon Lily of our gardens is ever a delight; but the stately Lilies which are such general favorites, Madonna Lilies, Japan Lilies, the Gold-banded Lilies, are not especially dear to me. I love climbing vines, whether of delicate leaf or beautiful flower. In a room I place all the decoration that I can on the walls, out of the way, leaving thus space to move around without fear of displacement or injury of fragile things; so in a limited garden space, grass room under our feet, with flowering vines on the surrounding walls are better than many crowded flower borders. A tiny space can quickly be made delightful with climbing plants. The common Morning-glory, called in England the Bell-bind, is frequently advertised by florists of more encouragement than judgment, as suitable to plant freely in order to cover fences and poor sandy patches of ground with speedy and abundant leafage and bloom. There is no doubt that the Morning-glory will do all this and far more than is promised. It will also spread above and below ground from the poor strip of earth to every other corner of garden and farm. This it has done till, in our Eastern states, it is now classed as a wild flower. It will never look wild, however, meet it where you will. It is as domestic and tame as a barnyard fowl, which, wandering in the wildest woodland, could never be mistaken as game. The garden at Claymont, the Virginia home of Mr. Frank R. Stockton, afforded a striking example of the spreading and strangling properties of the Morning-glory, not under encouragement, but simply under toleration. Mr. Stockton tells me that the entire expanse of his yards and garden, when he first saw them, was a solid mass of Morning-glory blooms. Every stick, every stem, every stalk, every shrub and blade of grass, every vegetable growth, whether dead or alive, had its encircling and overwhelming Morning-glory companion, set full of tiny undersized blossoms of varied tints. It was a beautiful sight at break of day,--a vast expanse of acres jewelled with Morning-glories--but it wasn't the new owner's notion of a flower garden. In my childhood flower agents used to canvass country towns from house to house. Sometimes they had a general catalogue, and sold many plants, trees, and shrubs. Oftener they had but a single plant which they were "booming." I suspect that their trade came through the sudden introduction of so many and varied flowers and shrubs from China and Japan. I am told that the first Chinese Wistarias and a certain Fringe tree were sold in this manner; and I know the white Hydrangea was, for I recall it, though I do not know that this was its first sale. I remember too that suddenly half the houses in town, on piazza or trellis, had the rich purple blooms of the _Clematis Jackmanni_; for a very persuasive agent had gone through the town the previous year. Of course people of means bought then, as now, at nurseries; but at many humble homes, whose owners would never have thought of buying from a greenhouse, he sold his plants. It gave an agreeable rivalry, when all started plants together, to see whose flourished best and had the amplest bloom. Thoreau recalled the pleasant emulation of many owners in Concord of a certain Rhododendron, sold thus sweepingly by an agent. The purple Clematis displaced an old climbing favorite, the Trumpet Honeysuckle, once seen by every door. It was so beloved of humming-birds and so beautiful, I wonder we could ever destroy it. Its downfall was hastened by its being infested by a myriad of tiny green aphides, which proceeded from it to our Roses. I recall well these little plant insects, for I was very fond of picking the tubes of the Honeysuckle for the drop of pure honey within, and I had to abandon reluctantly the sweet morsels. We have in our garden, and it is shown on the succeeding page, a vine which we carefully cherished in seedlings from year to year, and took much pride in. It came to us with the Ambrosia from the Walpole garden. It was not common in gardens in our neighborhood, and I always looked upon it as something very choice, and even rare, as it certainly was something very dainty and pretty. We called it Virgin's-bower. When I went out into the world I found that it was not rare, that it grew wild from Connecticut to the far West; that it was Climbing Fumitory, or Mountain Fringe, _Adlumia_. When Mrs. Margaret Deland asked if we had Alleghany Vine in our garden, I told her I had never seen it, when all the while it was our own dear Virgin's-bower. It doesn't seem hardy enough to be a wild thing; how could it make its way against the fierce vines and thorns of the forest when it hasn't a bit of woodiness in its stems and its leaves and flowers are so tender! I cannot think any garden perfect without it, no matter what else is there, for its delicate green Rue-like leaves lie so gracefully on stone or brick walls, or on fences, and it trails its slender tendrils so lightly over dull shrubs that are out of flower, beautifying them afresh with an alien bloom of delicate little pinkish blossoms like tiny Bleeding-hearts. [Illustration: Virgin's-bower.] Another old favorite was the Balloon-vine, sometimes called Heartseed or Heart-pea, with its seeds like fat black hearts, with three lobes which made them globose instead of flat. This, too, had pretty compound leaves, and the whole vine, like our Virgin's-bower, lay lightly on what it covered; but the Dutchman's-pipe had a leafage too heavy save to make a thick screen or arch quickly and solidly. It did well enough in gardens which had not had a long cultivated past, or made little preparation for a cherished future; but it certainly was not suited to our garden, where things were not planted for a day. These three are native vines of rich woods in our Central and Western states. The Matrimony-vine was an old favorite; one from the porch of the Van Cortlandt manor-house, over a hundred years old, is shown on the next page. Often you see a straggling, sprawling growth; but this one is as fine as any vine could be. Patient folk--as were certainly those of the old-time gardens, tried to keep the Rose Acacia as a favorite. It was hardy enough, but so hopelessly brittle in wood that it was constantly broken by the wind and snow of our Northern winters, even though it was sheltered under some stronger shrub. At the end of a lovely Salem garden, I beheld this June a long row of Rose Acacias in full bloom. I am glad I possess in my memory the exquisite harmony of their shimmering green foliage and rosy flower clusters. Miss Jekyll, ever resourceful, trains the Rose Acacia on a wall; and fastens it down by planting sturdy Crimson Ramblers by its side; her skilful example may well be followed in America and thus restore to our gardens this beautiful flower. [Illustration: Matrimony-vine at Van Cortlandt Manor.] One flower, termed old-fashioned by nearly every one, is really a recent settler of our gardens. A popular historical novel of American life at the time of the Revolution makes the hero and heroine play a very pretty love scene over a spray of the Bleeding-heart, the Dielytra, or Dicentra. Unfortunately for the truth of the novelist's picture, the Dielytra was not introduced to the gardens of English-speaking folk till 1846, when the London Horticultural Society received a single plant from the north of China. How quickly it became cheap and abundant; soon it bloomed in every cottage garden; how quickly it became beloved! The graceful racemes of pendant rosy flowers were eagerly welcomed by children; they have some inexplicable, witching charm; even young children in arms will stretch out their little hands and attempt to grasp the Dielytra, when showier blossoms are passed unheeded. Many tiny playthings can be formed of the blossoms: only deft fingers can shape the delicate lyre in the "frame." One of its folk names is "Lyre flower"; the two wings can be bent back to form a gondola. We speak of modern flowers, meaning those which have recently found their way to our gardens. Some of these clash with the older occupants, but one has promptly been given an honored place, and appears so allied to the older flowers in form and spirit that it seems to belong by their side--the _Anemone Japonica_. Its purity and beauty make it one of the delights of the autumn garden; our grandmothers would have rejoiced in it, and have divided the plants with each other till all had a row of it in the garden borders. In its red form it was first pictured in the _Botanical Magazine_, in 1847, but it has been commonly seen in our gardens for only twenty or thirty years. [Illustration: White Wistaria.] These two flowers, the _Dielytra spectabilis_ and _Anemone Japonica_, are among the valuable gifts which our gardens received through the visits to China of that adventurous collector, Robert Fortune. He went there first in 1842, and for some years constantly sent home fresh treasures. Among the best-known garden flowers of his introducing are the two named above, and _Kerria Japonica_, _Forsythia viridissima_, _Weigela rosea_, _Gardenia Fortuniana_, _Daphne Fortunei_, _Berberis Fortunei_, _Jasminum nudiflorum_, and many varieties of Prunus, Viburnum, Spiræa, Azalea, and Chrysanthemum. The fine yellow Rose known as Fortune's Yellow was acquired by him during a venturesome trip which he took, disguised as a Chinaman. The white Chinese Wistaria is regarded as the most important of his collections. It is deemed by some flower-lovers the most exquisite flower in the entire world. The Chinese variety is distinguished by the length of its racemes, sometimes three feet long. The lower part of a vine of unusual luxuriance and beauty is shown above. This special vine flowers in full richness of bloom every alternate year, and this photograph was taken during its "poor year"; for in its finest inflorescence its photograph would show simply a mass of indistinguishable whiteness. Mr. Howell has named it The Fountain, and above the pouring of white blossoms shown in this picture is an upper cascade of bloom. This Wistaria is not growing in an over-favorable locality, for winter winds are bleak on the southern shores of Long Island; but I know no rival of its beauty in far warmer and more sheltered sites. Many of the Deutzias and Spiræas which beautify our spring gardens were introduced from Japan before Fortune's day by Thunberg, the great exploiter of Japanese shrubs, who died in 1828. The Spiræa Van Houtteii (facing page 190) is perhaps the most beautiful of all. Dean Hole names the Spiræas, Deutzias, Weigelas, and Forsythias as having been brought into his ken in English gardens within his own lifetime, that is within fourscore years. In New England gardens the Forsythia is called 'Sunshine Bush'--and never was folk name better bestowed, or rather evolved. For in the eager longing for spring which comes in the bitterness of March, when we cry out with the poet, "O God, for one clear day, a Snowdrop and sweet air," in our welcome to fresh life, whether shown in starting leaf or frail blossom, the Forsythia shines out a grateful delight to the eyes and heart, concentrating for a week all the golden radiance of sunlight, which later will be shared by sister shrubs and flowers. _Forsythia suspensa_, falling in long sweeps of yellow bells, is in some favorable places a cascade of liquid light. No shrub in our gardens is more frequently ruined by gardeners than these Forsythias. It takes an artist to prune the _Forsythia suspensa_. You can steal the sunshine for your homes ere winter is gone by breaking long sprays of the Sunshine Bush and placing them in tall deep jars of water. Split up the ends of the stems that they may absorb plentiful water, and the golden plumes will soon open to fullest glory within doors. There is another yellow flowered shrub, the Corchorus, which seems as old as the Lilac, for it is ever found in old gardens; but it proves to be a Japanese shrub which we have had only a hundred years. The little, deep yellow, globular blossoms appear in early spring and sparsely throughout the whole summer. The plant isn't very adorning in its usual ragged growth, but it was universally planted. It may be seen from the shrubs of popular growth which I have named that the present glory of our shrubberies is from the Japanese and Chinese shrubs, which came to us in the nineteenth century through Thunberg, Fortune, and other bold collectors. We had no shrub-sellers of importance in the eighteenth century; the garden lover turned wholly to the seedsman and bulb-grower for garden supplies, just as we do to-day to fill our old-fashioned gardens. The new shrubs and plants from China and Japan did not clash with the old garden flowers, they seemed like kinsfolk who had long been separated and rejoiced in being reunited; they were indeed fellow-countrymen. We owed scores of our older flowers to the Orient, among them such important ones as the Lilac, Rose, Lily, Tulip, Crown Imperial. [Illustration: Spiræa Van Houtteii.] We can fancy how delighted all these Oriental shrubs and flowers were to meet after so many years of separation. What pleasant greetings all the cousins must have given each other; I am sure the Wistaria was glad to see the Lilac, and the Fortune's Yellow Rose was duly respectful to his old cousin, the thorny yellow Scotch Rose. And I seem to hear a bit of scandal passing from plant to plant! Listen! it is the Bleeding-heart gossiping with the Japanese Anemone: "Well! I never thought that Lilac girl would grow to be such a beauty. So much color! Do you suppose it can be natural? Mrs. Tulip hinted to me yesterday that the girl used fertilizers, and it certainly looks so. But she can't say much herself--I never saw such a change in any creatures as in those Tulips. You remember how commonplace their clothes were? Now such extravagance! Scores of gowns, and all made abroad, and at _her_ age! Here are you and I, my dear, both young, and we really ought to have more clothes. I haven't a thing but this pink gown to put on. It's lucky you had a white gown, for no one liked your pink one. Here comes Mrs. Rose! How those Rose children have grown! I never should have known them." CHAPTER VIII COMFORT ME WITH APPLES "What can your eye desire to see, your eares to heare, your mouth to taste, or your nose to smell, that is not to be had in an Orchard? with Abundance and Variety? What shall I say? 1000 of Delights are in an Orchard; and sooner shall I be weary than I can reckon the least part of that pleasure which one, that hath and loves an Orchard, may find therein." --_A New Orchard_, WILLIAM LAWSON, 1618. In every old-time garden, save the revered front yard, the borders stretched into the domain of the Currant and Gooseberry bushes, and into the orchard. Often a row of Crabapple trees pressed up into the garden's precincts and shaded the Sweet Peas. Orchard and garden could scarcely be separated, so closely did they grow up together. Every old garden book had long chapters on orchards, written _con amore_, with a zest sometimes lacking on other pages. How they loved in the days of Queen Elizabeth and of Queen Anne to sit in an orchard, planted, as Sir Philip Sidney said, "cunningly with trees of taste-pleasing fruits." How charming were their orchard seats, "fachoned for meditacon!" Sometimes these orchard seats were banks of the strongly scented Camomile, a favorite plant of Lord Bacon's day. Wordsworth wrote in jingling rhyme:-- "Beneath these fruit-tree boughs that shed Their snow-white blossoms on my head, With brightest sunshine round me spread Of spring's unclouded weather, In this sequester'd nook how sweet To sit upon my orchard seat; And flowers and birds once more to greet, My last year's friends together." The incomparable beauty of the Apple tree in full bloom has ever been sung by the poets, but even their words cannot fitly nor fully tell the delight to the senses of the close view of those exquisite pink and white domes, with their lovely opalescent tints, their ethereal fragrance; their beauty infinitely surpasses that of the vaunted Cherry plantations of Japan. In the hand the flowers show a distinct ruddiness, a promise of future red cheeks; but a long vista of trees in bloom displays no tint of pink, the flowers seem purest white. Looking last May across the orchard at Hillside, adown the valley of the Hudson with its succession of blossoming orchards, we could paraphrase the words of Longfellow's _Golden Legend_:-- "The valley stretching below Is white with blossoming Apple trees, as if touched with lightest snow." In the darkest night flowering Apple trees shine with clear radiance, and an orchard of eight hundred acres, such as may be seen in Niagara County, New York, shows a white expanse like a lake of quicksilver. This county, and its neighbor, Orleans County, form an Apple paradise--with their orchards of fifty and even a hundred thousand trees. [Illustration: Apple Trees at White Hall, the Home of Bishop Berkeley.] The largest Apple tree in New England is in Cheshire, Connecticut. Its trunk measures, one foot above all root enlargements, thirteen feet eight inches in circumference. Its age is traced back a hundred and fifty years. At White Hall, the old home of Bishop Berkeley in the island of Rhode Island, still stand the Apple trees of his day. A picture of them is shown on page 194. The sedate and comfortable motherliness of old Apple trees is felt by all Apple lovers. John Burroughs speaks of "maternal old Apple trees, regular old grandmothers, who have seen trouble." James Lane Allen, amid his apostrophes to the Hemp plant, has given us some beautiful glimpses of Apple trees and his love for them. He tells of "provident old tree mothers on the orchard slope, whose red-cheeked children are autumn Apples." It is this motherliness, this domesticity, this homeliness that makes the Apple tree so cherished, so beloved. No scene of life in the country ever seems to me homelike if it lacks an Apple orchard--this doubtless, because in my birthplace in New England they form a part of every farm scene, of every country home. Apple trees soften and humanize the wildest country scene. Even in a remote pasture, or on a mountain side, they convey a sentiment of home; and after being lost in the mazes of close-grown wood-roads Apple trees are inexpressibly welcome as giving promise of a sheltering roof-tree. Thoreau wrote of wild Apples, but to me no Apples ever look wild. They may be the veriest Crabs, growing in wild spots, unbidden, and savage and bitter in their tang, but even these seedling Pippins are domestic in aspect. On the southern shores of Long Island, where meadow, pasture, and farm are in soil and crops like New England, the frequent absence of Apple orchards makes these farm scenes unsatisfying, not homelike. No other fruit trees can take their place. An Orange tree, with its rich glossy foliage, its perfumed ivory flowers and buds, and abundant golden fruit, is an exquisite creation of nature; but an Orange grove has no ideality. All fruit trees have a beautiful inflorescence--few have sentiment. The tint of a blossoming Peach tree is perfect; but I care not for a Peach orchard. Plantations of healthy Cherry trees are lovely in flower and fruit time, whether in Japan or Massachusetts, and a Cherry tree is full of happy child memories; but their tree forms in America are often disfigured with that ugly fungous blight which is all the more disagreeable to us since we hear now of its close kinship to disease germs in the animal world. I cannot see how they avoid having Apple trees on these Long Island farms, for the Apple is fully determined to stand beside every home and in every garden in the land. It does not have to be invited; it will plant and maintain itself. Nearly all fruits and vegetables which we prize, depend on our planting and care, but the Apple is as independent as the New England farmer. In truth Apple trees would grow on these farms if they were loved or even tolerated, for I find them forced into Long Island hedge-rows as relentlessly as are forest trees. The Indians called the Plantain the "white man's foot," for it sprung up wherever he trod; the Apple tree might be called the white man's shadow. It is the Vine and Fig tree of the temperate zone, and might be chosen as the totem of the white settlers. Our love for the Apple is natural, for it was the characteristic fruit of Britain; the clergy were its chief cultivators; they grew Apples in their monastery gardens, prayed for them in special religious ceremonies, sheltered the fruit by laws, and even named the Apple when pronouncing the blessings of God upon their princes and rulers. [Illustration: "The valley stretching below Is white with blossoming Apple trees, as if touched with lightest snow."] Thoreau described an era of luxury as one in which men cultivate the Apple and the amenities of the garden. He thought it indicated relaxed nerves to read gardening books, and he regarded gardening as a civil and social function, not a love of nature. He tells of his own love for freedom and savagery--and he found what he so deemed at Walden Pond. I am told his haunts are little changed since the years when he lived there; and I had expected to find Walden Pond a scene of much wild beauty, but it was the mildest of wild woods; it seemed to me as thoroughly civilized and social as an Apple orchard. [Illustration: Old Hand-power Cider Mill.] Thoreau christened the Apple trees of his acquaintance with appropriate names in the _lingua vernacula_: the Truant's Apple, the Saunterer's Apple, December Eating, Wine of New England, the Apple of the Dell in the Wood, the Apple of the Hollow in the Pasture, the Railroad Apple, the Cellar-hole Apple, the Frozen-thawed, and many more; these he loved for their fruit; to them let me add the Playhouse Apple trees, loved solely for their ingeniously twisted branches, an Apple tree of the garden, often overhanging the flower borders. I recall their glorious whiteness in the spring, but I cannot remember that they bore any fruit save a group of serious little girls. I know there were no Apples on the Playhouse Apple trees in my garden, nor on the one in Nelly Gilbert's or Ella Partridge's garden. There is no play place for girls like an old Apple tree. The main limbs leave the trunk at exactly the right height for children to reach, and every branch and twig seems to grow and turn only to form delightful perches for children to climb among and cling to. Some Apple trees in our town had a copy of an Elizabethan garden furnishing; their branches enclosed tree platforms about twelve feet from the ground, reached by a narrow ladder or flight of steps. These were built by generous parents for their children's playhouses, but their approach of ladder was too unhazardous, their railings too safety-assuring, to prove anything but conventional and uninteresting. The natural Apple tree offered infinite variety, and a slight sense of daring to the climber. Its possibility of accident was fulfilled; untold number of broken arms and ribs--juvenile--were resultant from falls from Apple trees. [Illustration: Pressing out Cider in Old Hand Mill.] One of Thoreau's Apples was the Green Apple (_Malus viridis_, or _Cholera morbifera puerelis delectissima_). I know not for how many centuries boys (and girls too) have eaten and suffered from green apples. A description was written in 1684 which might have happened any summer since; I quote it with reminiscent delight, for I have the same love for the spirited relation that I had in my early youth when I never, for a moment, in spite of the significant names, deemed the entire book anything but a real story; the notion that _Pilgrim's Progress_ was an allegory never entered my mind. "Now there was on the other side of the wall a _Garden_. And some of the Fruit-Trees that grew in the Garden shot their Branches over the Wall, and being mellow, they that found them did gather them up and oft eat of them to their hurt. So _Christiana's_ Boys, _as Boys are apt to do_, being _pleas'd_ with the Trees did _Plash_ them and began to eat. Their Mother did also chide them for so doing, but still the Boys went on. Now _Matthew_ the Eldest Son of _Christiana_ fell sick.... There dwelt not far from thence one Mr. _Skill_ an Ancient and well approved Physician. So Christiana desired it and they sent for him and he came. And when he was entered the Room and a little observed the Boy he concluded that he was sick of the Gripes. Then he said to his Mother, _What Diet has Matthew of late fed upon_? _Diet_, said Christiana, _nothing but which is wholesome_. The Physician answered, _This Boy has been tampering with something that lies in his Maw undigested_.... Then said Samuel, _Mother, Mother, what was that which my brother did gather up and eat. You know there was an Orchard and my Brother did plash and eat. True, my child_, said Christiana, _naughty boy as he was. I did chide him and yet he would eat thereof._" The realistic treatment of Mr. Skill and Matthew's recovery thereby need not be quoted. An historic Apple much esteemed in Connecticut and Rhode Island, and often planted at the edge of the flower garden, is called the Sapson, or Early Sapson, Sapson Sweet, Sapsyvine, and in Pennsylvania, Wine-sap. The name is a corruption of the old English Apple name, Sops-o'-wine. It is a charming little red-cheeked Apple of early autumn, slightly larger than a healthy Crab-apple. The clear red of its skin perfuses in coral-colored veins and beautiful shadings to its very core. It has a condensed, spicy, aromatic flavor, not sharp like a Crab-apple, but it makes a better jelly even than the Crab-apple--jelly of a ruby color with an almost wine-like flavor, a true Sops-of-wine. This fruit is deemed so choice that I have known the sale of a farm to halt for some weeks until it could be proved that certain Apple trees in the orchard bore the esteemed Sapsyvines. Under New England and New York farm-houses was a cellar filled with bins for vegetables and apples. As the winter passed on there rose from these cellars a curious, earthy, appley smell, which always seemed most powerful in the best parlor, the room least used. How Schiller, who loved the scent of rotten apples, would have rejoiced! The cellar also contained many barrels of cider; for the beauty of the Apple trees, and the use of their fruit as food, were not the only factors which influenced the planting of the many Apple orchards of the new world; they afforded a universal drink--cider. I have written at length, in my books, _Home Life in Colonial Days_ and _Stage-Coach and Tavern Days_, the history of the vogue and manufacture of cider in the new world. The cherished Apple orchards of Endicott, Blackstone, Wolcott, and Winthrop were so speedily multiplied that by 1670 cider was plentiful and cheap everywhere. By the opening of the eighteenth century it had wholly crowded out beer and metheglin; and was the drink of old and young on all occasions. [Illustration: Old Horse-lever Cider Mill.] At first, cider was made by pounding the Apples by hand in wooden mortars; then simple mills were formed of a hollowed log and a spring board. Rude hand presses, such as are shown on pages 198 and 200, were known in 1660, and lingered to our own day. Kalm, the Swedish naturalist, saw ancient horse presses (like the one depicted on this page) in use in the Hudson River Valley in 1749. In autumn the whole country-side was scented with the sour, fruity smell from these cider mills; and the gift of a draught of sweet cider to any passer-by was as ample and free as of water from the brookside. The cider when barrelled and stored for winter was equally free to all comers, as well it might be, when many families stored a hundred barrels for winter use. [Illustration: "Straining off" the Cider.] The Washingtonian or Temperance reform which swept over this country like a purifying wind in the first quarter of the nineteenth century, found many temporizers who tried to exclude cider from the list of intoxicating drinks which converts pledged themselves to abandon. Some farmers who adopted this much-needed movement against the all-prevailing vice of drunkenness received it with fanatic zeal. It makes the heart of the Apple lover ache to read that in this spirit they cut down whole orchards of flourishing Apple trees, since they could conceive no adequate use for their apples save for cider. That any should have tried to exclude cider from the list of intoxicating beverages seems barefaced indeed to those who have tasted that most potent of all spirits--frozen cider. I once drank a small modicum of Jericho cider, as smooth as Benedictine and more persuasive, which made a raw day in April seem like sunny midsummer. I afterward learned from the ingenuous Long Island farmer whose hospitality gave me this liqueur that it had been frozen seven times. Each time he had thrust a red-hot poker into the bung-hole of the barrel, melted all the watery ice and poured it out; therefore the very essence of the cider was all that remained. It is interesting to note the folk customs of Old England which have lingered here, such as domestic love divinations. The poet Gay wrote:-- "I pare this Pippin round and round again, My shepherd's name to flourish on the plain. I fling th' unbroken paring o'er my head, Upon the grass a perfect L. is read." I have seen New England schoolgirls, scores of times, thus toss an "unbroken paring." An ancient trial of my youth was done with Apple seeds; these were named for various swains, then slightly wetted and stuck on the cheek or forehead, while we chanted:-- "Pippin! Pippin! Paradise! Tell me where my true love lies!" The seed that remained longest in place indicated the favored and favoring lover. With the neglect in this country of Saints' Days and the Puritanical frowning down of all folk customs connected with them, we lost the delightful wassailing of the Apple trees. This, like many another religious observance, was a relic of heathen sacrifice, in this case to Pomona. It was celebrated with slight variations in various parts of England; and was called an Apple howling, a wassailing, a youling, and other terms. The farmer and his workmen carried to the orchard great jugs of cider or milk pans filled with cider and roasted apples. Encircling in turn the best bearing trees, they drank from "clayen-cups," and poured part of the contents on the ground under the trees. And while they wassailed the trees they sang:-- "Here's to thee, old Apple tree! Whence thou mayst bud, and whence thou mayst blow, And whence thou mayst bear Apples enow! Hats full! caps full, Bushel--Bushel--sacks full, And my pockets full too." Another Devonshire rhyme ran:-- "Health to thee, good Apple tree! Well to bear pocket-fulls, hat-fulls, Peck-fulls, bushel bag-fulls." The wassailing of the trees gave place in America to a jovial autumnal gathering known as an Apple cut, an Apple paring, or an Apple bee. The cheerful kitchen of the farm-house was set out with its entire array of empty pans, pails, tubs, and baskets. Heaped-up barrels of apples stood in the centre of the room. The many skilful hands of willing neighbors emptied the barrels, and with sharp knives or an occasional Apple parer, filled the empty vessels with cleanly pared and quartered apples. When the work was finished, divinations with Apple parings and Apple seeds were tried, simple country games were played; occasionally there was a fiddler and a dance. An autumnal supper was served from the three zones of the farm-house: nuts from the attic, Apples from the pantry, and cider from the cellar. The apple-quarters intended for drying were strung on homespun linen thread and hung out of doors on clear drying days. A humble hillside home in New Hampshire thus quaintly festooned is shown in the illustration opposite page 208--a characteristic New Hampshire landscape. When thoroughly dried in sun and wind, these sliced apples were stored for the winter by being hung from rafter to rafter of various living rooms, and remained thus for months (gathering vast accumulations of dust and germs for our blissfully ignorant and unsqueamish grandparents) until the early days of spring, when Apple sauce, Apple butter, and the stores of Apple bin and Apple pit were exhausted, and they then afforded, after proper baths and soakings, the wherewithal for that domestic comestible--dried Apple pie. The Swedish parson, Dr. Acrelius, writing home to Sweden in 1758 an account of the settlement of Delaware, said:-- "Apple pie is used throughout the whole year, and when fresh Apples are no longer to be had, dried ones are used. It is the evening meal of children. House pie, in country places, is made of Apples neither peeled nor freed from their cores, and its crust is not broken if a wagon wheel goes over it." I always had an undue estimation of Apple pie in my childhood, from an accidental cause: we were requested by the conscientious teacher in our Sunday-school to "take out" each week without fail from the "Select Library" of the school a "Sabbath-school Library Book." The colorless, albeit pious, contents of the books classed under that title are well known to those of my generation; even such a child of the Puritans as I was could not read them. There were two anchors in that sea of despair,--but feeble holds would they seem to-day,--the first volumes of _Queechy_ and _The Wide, Wide World_. With the disingenuousness of childhood I satisfied the rules of the school and my own conscience by carrying home these two books, and no others, on alternate Sundays for certainly two years. The only wonder in the matter was that the transaction escaped my Mother's eye for so long a time. I read only isolated scenes; of these the favorite was the one wherein Fleda carries to the woods for the hungry visitor, who was of the English nobility, several large and toothsome sections of green Apple pie and cheese. The prominence given to that Apple pie in that book and in my two years of reading idealized it. On a glorious day last October I drove to New Canaan, the town which was the prototype of Queechy. Hungry as ever in childhood from the clear autumnal air and the long drive from Lenox, we asked for luncheon at what was reported to be a village hostelry. The exact counterpart of Miss Cynthia Gall responded rather sourly that she wasn't "boarding or baiting" that year. Humble entreaties for provender of any kind elicited from her for each of us a slice of cheese and a large and truly noble section of Apple pie, the very pie of Fleda's tale, which we ate with a bewildered sense as of a previous existence. This was intensified as we strolled to the brook under the Queechy Sugar Maples, and gathered there the great-grandchildren of Fleda's Watercresses, and heard the sound of Hugh's sawmills. [Illustration: Drying Apples.] Six hundred years ago English gentlewomen and goodwives were cooking Apples just as we cook them now--they even had Apple pie. A delightful recipe of the fourteenth century was for "Appeluns for a Lorde, in opyntide." Opyntide was springtime; this was, therefore, a spring dish fit for a lord. Apple-moy and Apple-mos, Apple Tansy, and Pommys-morle were delightful dishes and very rich food as well. The word pomatum has now no association with _pomum_, but originally pomatum was made partly of Apples. In an old "Dialog between Soarness and Chirurgi," written by one Dr. Bulleyne in the days of Queen Elizabeth, is found this question and its answer:-- "_Soarness._ How make you pomatum? "_Chirurgi._ Take the fat of a yearly kyd one pound, temper it with the water of musk-roses by the space of foure dayes, then take five apples, and dresse them, and cut them in pieces, and lard them with cloves, then boyl them altogeather in the same water of roses in one vessel of glasse set within another vessel, let it boyl on the fyre so long tyll it all be white, then wash them with the same water of muske-roses, this done kepe it in a glasse and if you will have it to smell better, then you must put in a little civet or musk, or both, or ambergrice. Gentil women doe use this to make theyr faces fayr and smooth, for it healeth cliftes in the lippes, or in any places of the hands and face." With the omission of the civet or musk I am sure this would make to-day a delightful cream; but there is one condition which the "gentil woman" of to-day could scarcely furnish--the infinite patience and leisure which accompanied and perfected all such domestic work three centuries ago. A pomander was made of "the maste of a sweet Apple tree being gathered betwixt two Lady days," mixed with various sweet-scented drugs and gums and Rose leaves, and shaped into a ball or bracelet. The successor of the pomander was the Clove Apple, or "Comfort Apple," an Apple stuck solidly with cloves. In country communities, one was given as an expression of sympathy in trouble or sorrow. Visiting a country "poorhouse" recently, we were shown a "Comfort-apple" which had been sent to one of the inmates by a friend; for even paupers have friends. "Taffaty tarts" were of paste filled with Apples sweetened and seasoned with Lemon, Rose-water, and Fennel seed. Apple-sticklin', Apple-stucklin, Apple-twelin, Apple-hoglin, are old English provincial names of Apple pie; Apple-betty is a New England term. The Apple Slump of New England homes was not the "slump-pye" of old England, which was a rich mutton pie flavored with wine and jelly, and covered with a rich confection of nuts and fruit. [Illustration: Ancient Apple Picker, Apple Racks, Apple Parers, Apple-butter Kettle, Apple-butter Paddle, Apple-butter Stirrer, Apple-butter Crocks.] In Pennsylvania, among the people known as the Pennsylvania Dutch, the Apple frolic was universal. Each neighbor brought his or her own Apple parer. This people make great use of Apples and cider in their food, and have many curious modes of cooking them. Dr. Heilman in his paper on "The Old Cider Mill" tells of their delicacy of "cider time" called cider soup, made of equal parts of cider and water, boiled and thickened with sweet cream and flour; when ready to serve, bits of bread or toast are placed in it. "Mole cider" is made of boiling cider thickened to a syrup with beaten eggs and milk. But of greatest importance, both for home consumption and for the market, is the staple known as Apple butter. This is made from sweet cider boiled down to about one-third its original quantity. To this is added an equal weight of sliced Apples, about a third as much of molasses, and various spices, such as cloves, ginger, mace, cinnamon or even pepper, all boiled together for twelve or fifteen hours. Often the great kettle is filled with cider in the morning, and boiled and stirred constantly all day, then the sliced Apples are added at night, and the monotonous stirring continues till morning, when the butter can be packed in jars and kegs for winter use. This Apple butter is not at all like Apple sauce; it has no granulated appearance, but is smooth and solid like cheese and dark red in color. Apple butter is stirred by a pole having upon one end a perforated blade or paddle set at right angles. Sometimes a bar was laid from rim to rim of the caldron, and worked by a crank that turned a similar paddle. A collection of ancient utensils used in making Apple butter is shown on page 211; these are from the collections of the Bucks County Historical Society. Opposite page 214 is shown an ancient open-air fireplace and an old couple making Apple butter just as they have done for over half a century. In New England what the "hired man" on the farm called "biled cider Apple sass," took the place of Apple butter. Preferably this was made in the "summer kitchen," where three kettles, usually of graduated sizes, could be set over the fire; the three kettles could be hung from a crane, or trammels. All were filled with cider, and as the liquid boiled away in the largest kettle it was filled from the second and that from the third. The fresh cider was always poured into the third kettle, thus the large kettle was never checked in its boiling. This continued till the cider was as thick as molasses. Apples (preferably Pound Sweets or Pumpkin Sweets) had been chosen with care, pared, cored, and quartered, and heated in a small kettle. These were slowly added to the thickened cider, in small quantities, in order not to check the boiling. The rule was to cook them till so softened that a rye straw could be run into them, and yet they must retain their shape. This was truly a critical time; the slightest scorched flavor would ruin the whole kettleful. A great wooden, long-handled, shovel-like ladle was used to stir the sauce fiercely until it was finished in triumph. Often a barrel of this was made by our grandmothers, and frozen solid for winter use. The farmer and "hired men" ate it clear as a relish with meats; and it was suited to appetites and digestions which had been formed by a diet of salted meats, fried breads, many pickles, and the drinking of hot cider sprinkled with pepper. Emerson well named the Apple the social fruit of New England. It ever has been and is still the grateful promoter and unfailing aid to informal social intercourse in the country-side; but the Apple tree is something far nobler even than being the sign of cheerful and cordial acquaintance; it is the beautiful rural emblem of industrious and temperate home life. Hence, let us wassail with a will:-- "Here's to thee, old Apple tree! Whence thou mayst bud, and whence thou mayst blow, And whence thou mayst bear Apples enow!" [Illustration: Making Apple Butter.] CHAPTER IX GARDENS OF THE POETS "The chief use of flowers is to illustrate quotations from the poets." All English poets have ever been ready to sing English flowers until jesters have laughed, and to sing garden flowers as well as wild flowers. Few have really described a garden, though the orderly distribution of flowers might be held to be akin to the restraint of rhyme and rhythm in poetry. [Illustration: Shakespeare Border at Hillside.] It has been the affectionate tribute and happy diversion of those who love both poetry and flowers to note the flowers beloved of various poets, and gather them together, either in a book or a garden. The pages of Milton cannot be forced, even by his most ardent admirers, to indicate any intimate knowledge of flowers. He certainly makes some very elegant classical allusions to flowers and fruits, and some amusingly vague ones as well. "The Flowers of Spenser," and "A Posy from Chaucer," are the titles of most readable chapters in _A Garden of Simples_, but the allusions and quotations from both authors are pleasing and interesting, rather than informing as to the real variety and description of the flowers of their day. Nearly all the older English poets, though writing glibly of woods and vales, of shepherds and swains, of buds and blossoms, scarcely allude to a flower in a natural way. Herrick was truly a flower lover, and, as the critic said, "many flowers grow to illustrate quotations from his works." The flowers named of Shakespeare have been written about in varied books, _Shakespeare's Garden_, _Shakespeare's Bouquet_, _Flowers from Stratford-on-Avon_, etc. These are easily led in fulness of detail, exactness of information, and delightful literary quality by that truly perfect book, beloved of all garden lovers, _The Plant Lore and Garden Craft of Shakespeare_, by Canon Ellacombe. Of it I never weary, and for it I am ever grateful. Shakespeare Gardens, or Shakespeare Borders, too, are laid out and set with every tree, shrub, and flower named in Shakespeare, and these are over two hundred in number. A distinguishing mark of the Shakespeare Border of Lady Warwick is the peculiar label set alongside each plant. This label is of pottery, greenish-brown in tint, shaped like a butterfly, bearing on its wings a quotation of a few words and the play reference relating to each special plant. Of course these words have been fired in and are thus permanent. Pretty as they are in themselves they must be disfiguring to the borders--as all labels are in a garden. In the garden at Hillside, near Albany, New York, grows a green and flourishing Shakespeare Border, gathered ten years ago by the mistress of the garden. I use the terms green and flourishing with exactness in this connection, for a great impression made by this border is of its thriving health, and also of the predominance of green leafage of every variety, shape, manner of growth, and oddness of tint. In this latter respect it is infinitely more beautiful than the ordinary border, varying from silvery glaucous green through greens of yellow or brownish shade to the blue-black greens of some herbs; and among these green leaves are many of sweet or pungent scent, and of medicinal qualities, such as are seldom grown to-day save in some such choice and chosen spot. There is less bloom in this Shakespeare Border than in our modern flower beds, and the flowers are not so large or brilliant as our modern favorites; but, quiet as they are, they are said to excel the blossoms of the same plants of Shakespeare's own day, which we learn from the old herbalists were smaller and less varied in color and of simpler tints than those of their descendants. At the first glance this Shakespeare Border shines chiefly in the light of the imagination, as stirred by the poet's noble words; but do not dwell on this border as a whole, as something only to be looked at; read the pages of this garden, dwell on each leafy sentence, and you are entranced with its beautiful significance. It was not gathered with so much thought, and each plant and seed set out and watched and reared like a delicate child, to become a show place; it appeals for a more intimate regard; and we find that its detail makes its charm. Such a garden as this appeals warmly to anyone who is sensitive to the imaginative element of flower beauty. Many garden makers forget that a flower bed is a group of living beings--perhaps of sentient beings--as well as a mass of beautiful color. Modern gardens tend far too much toward the display of the united effect of growing plants, to a striving for universal brilliancy, rather than attention to and love for separate flowers. There was refreshment of spirit as well as of the senses in the old-time garden of flowers, such as these planted in this Shakespeare Border, and it stirred the heart of the poet as could no modern flower gardens. [Illustration: Long Border at Hillside.] The scattering inflorescence and the tiny size of the blossoms give to this Shakespeare Border an unusual aspect of demureness and delicacy, and the plants seem to cling with affection and trust to the path of their human protector; they look simple and confiding, and seem close both to nature and to man. This homelike and modest quality is shown, I think, even in the presentation in black and white given on page 216 and opposite page 218, though it shows still more in the garden when the wide range of tint of foliage is added. A most appropriate companion of the old flowers in this Shakespeare Border is the sun-dial, which is an exact copy of the one at Abbotsford, Scotland. It bears the motto [Greek: ERCHETAI GAR NYX] meaning, "For the night cometh." It was chosen by Sir Walter Scott, for his sun-dial, as a solemn monitor to himself of the hour "when no man can work." It was copied from a motto on the dial-plate of the watch of the great Dr. Samuel Johnson; and it is curious that in both cases the word [Greek: GAR] should be introduced, for it is not in the clause in the New Testament from which the motto was taken. It is a beautiful motto and one of singular appropriateness for a sun-dial. The pedestal of this sun-dial is of simple lines, but it is dignified and pleasing, aside from the great interest of association which surrounds it. [Illustration: The Beauty of Winter Lilacs.] I had a happy sense, when walking through this garden, that, besides my congenial living companionship, I had the company of some noble Elizabethan ghosts; and I know that if Shakespeare and Jonson and Herrick were to come to Hillside, they would find the garden so familiar to them; they would greet the plants like old friends, they would note how fine grew the Rosemary this year, how sweet were the Lady's-smocks, how fair the Gillyflowers. And Gerarde and Parkinson would ponder, too, over all the herbs and simples of their own Physick Gardens, and compare notes. Above all I seemed to see, walking soberly by my side, breathing in with delight the varied scents of leaf and blossom, that lover and writer of flowers and gardens, Lord Bacon--and not in the disguise of Shakespeare either. For no stronger proofs can be found of the existence of two individualities than are in the works of each of these men, in their sentences and pages which relate to gardens and flowers. This fair garden and Shakespeare Border are loveliest in the cool of the day, in the dawn or at early eve; and those who muse may then remember another Presence in a garden in the cool of the day. And then I recall that gem of English poesy which always makes me pitiful of its author; that he could write this, and yet, in his hundreds of pages of English verse, make not another memorable line:-- "A Garden is a lovesome thing, God wot; Rose plot, Fringed pool, Ferned grot, The veriest school of Peace; And yet the fool Contends that God is not in gardens. Not in gardens! When the eve is cool! Nay, but I have a sign. 'Tis very sure God walks in mine." Shakespeare Borders grow very readily and freely in England, save in the case of the few tropical flowers and trees named in the pages of the great dramatist; but this Shakespeare Border at Hillside needs much cherishing. The plants of Heather and Broom and Gorse have to be specially coddled by transplanting under cold frames during the long winter months in frozen Albany; and thus they find vast contrast to their free, unsheltered life in Great Britain. [Illustration: Garden of Mrs. Frank Robinson, Wakefield, Rhode Island.] Persistent efforts have been made to acclimate both Heather and Gorse in America. We have seen how Broom came uninvited and spread unasked on the Massachusetts coast; but Gorse and Heather have proved shy creatures. On the beautiful island of Naushon the carefully planted Gorse may be found spread in widely scattered spots and also on the near-by mainland, but it cannot be said to have thrived markedly. The Scotch Heather, too, has been frequently planted, and watched and pushed, but it is slow to become acclimated. It is not because the winters are too cold, for it is found in considerable amount in bitter Newfoundland; perhaps it prefers to live under a crown. Modern authors have seldom given their names to gardens, not even Tennyson with his intimate and extended knowledge of garden flowers. A Mary Howitt Garden was planned, full of homely old blooms, such as she loves to name in her verse; but it would have slight significance save to its maker, since no one cares to read Mary Howitt nowadays. In that charming book, _Sylvana's Letters to an Unknown Friend_ (which I know were written to me), the author, E. V. B., says, "The very ideal of a garden, and the only one I know, is found in Shelley's _Sensitive Plant_." With quick championing of a beloved poet, I at once thought of the radiant garden of flowers in Keats's heart and poems. Then I reread the _Sensitive Plant_ in a spirit of utmost fairness and critical friendliness, and I am willing to yield the Shelley Garden to Sylvana, while I keep, for my own delight, my Keats garden of sunshine, color, and warmth. That Keats had a profound knowledge and love of flowers is shown in his letters as well as his poems. Only a few months before his death, when stricken with and fighting a fatal disease, he wrote:-- "How astonishingly does the chance of leaving the world impress a sense of its natural beauties upon me! Like poor Falstaff, though I do not babble, I think of green fields. I muse with greatest affection on every flower I have known from my infancy--their shapes and colors are as new to me as if I had just created them with a superhuman fancy. It is because they are connected with the most thoughtless and the happiest moments of my life." Near the close of his _Endymion_ he wrote:-- "Nor much it grieves To die, when summer dies on the cold sward. Why, I have been a butterfly, a lord Of flowers, garlands, love-knots, silly posies, Groves, meadows, melodies, and arbor roses; My kingdom's at its death, and just it is That I should die with it." In the summer of 1816, under the influence of a happy day at Hampstead, he wrote that lovely poem, "I stood tiptoe upon a little hill." After a description of the general scene, a special corner of beauty is thus told:-- "A bush of May flowers with the bees about them-- Ah, sure no bashful nook could be without them-- And let a lush Laburnum oversweep them, And let long grass grow round the roots to keep them Moist, cool, and green; and shade the Violets That they may bind the moss in leafy nets. A Filbert hedge with Wild-brier over trim'd, And clumps of Woodbine taking the soft wind, Upon their summer thrones...." Then come these wonderful lines, which belittle all other descriptions of Sweet Peas:-- "Here are Sweet Peas, on tiptoe for a flight, With wings of gentle flush o'er delicate white, And taper fingers catching at all things To bind them all about with tiny wings." Keats states in his letters that his love of flowers was wholly for those of the "common garden sort," not for flowers of the greenhouse or difficult cultivation, nor do I find in his lines any evidence of extended familiarity with English wild flowers. He certainly does not know the flowers of woods and fields as does Matthew Arnold. [Illustration: The Parson's Walk.] The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table says: "Did you ever hear a poet who did not talk flowers? Don't you think a poem which for the sake of being original should leave them out, would be like those verses where the letter _a_ or _e_, or some other, is omitted? No; they will bloom over and over again in poems as in the summer fields, to the end of time, always old and always new." The Autocrat himself knew well a poet who never talked flowers in his poems, a poet beloved of all other poets,--Arthur Hugh Clough,--though he loved and knew all flowers. From Matthew Arnold's beautiful tribute to him, are a few of his wonderful flower lines, cut out from their fellows:-- "Through the thick Corn the scarlet Poppies peep, And round green roots and yellowing stalks I see Pale blue Convolvulus in tendrils creep, And air-swept Lindens yield Their scent, and rustle down their perfumed showers Of bloom..., * * * * * "Soon will the high midsummer pomps come on, Soon will the Musk Carnations break and swell. Soon shall we have gold-dusted Snapdragon, Sweet-william with his homely cottage smell, And Stocks in fragrant blow." Oh, what a master hand! Where in all English verse are fairer flower hues? And where is a more beautiful description of a midsummer evening, than Arnold's exquisite lines beginning:-- "The evening comes; the fields are still; The tinkle of the thirsty rill." Dr. Holmes was also a master in the description of garden flowers. I should know, had I never been told save from his verses, just the kind of a Cambridge garden he was reared in, and what flowers grew in it. Lowell, too, gives ample evidence of a New England childhood in a garden. The gardens of Shenstone's _Schoolmistress_ and of Thomson's poems come to our minds without great warmth of welcome from us; while Clare's lines are full of charm:-- "And where the Marjoram once, and Sage and Rue, And Balm, and Mint, with curl'd leaf Parsley grew, And double Marigolds, and silver Thyme, And Pumpkins 'neath the window climb. And where I often, when a child, for hours Tried through the pales to get the tempting flowers, As Lady's Laces, everlasting Peas, True-love-lies-bleeding, with the Hearts-at-ease And Goldenrods, and Tansy running high, That o'er the pale tops smiled on passers by." A curious old seventeenth-century poet was the Jesuit, René Rapin. The copy of his poem entitled _Gardens_ which I have seen, is the one in my daughter's collection of garden books; it was "English'd by the Ingenious Mr. Gardiner," and published in 1728. Hallam in his _Introduction to the Literature of Europe_ gives a capital estimate of this long poem of over three thousand lines. I find them pretty dull reading, with much monotony of adjectives, and very affected notions for plant names. I fancy he manufactured all his tedious plant traditions himself. [Illustration: Garden of Mary Washington.] A pleasing little book entitled _Dante's Garden_ has collected evidence, from his writings, of Dante's love of green, growing things. The title is rather strained, since he rarely names individual flowers, and only refers vaguely to their emblematic significance. I would have entitled the book _Dante's Forest_, since he chiefly refers to trees; and the Italian gardens of his days were of trees rather than flowers. There are passages in his writings which have led some of his worshippers to believe that his childhood was passed in a garden; but these references are very indeterminate. The picture of a deserted garden, with its sad sentiment has charmed the fancy of many a poet. Hood, a true flower-lover, wrote this jingle in his _Haunted House_:-- "The Marigold amidst the nettles blew, The Gourd embrac'd the Rose bush in its ramble. The Thistle and the Stock together grew, The Hollyhock and Bramble. "The Bearbine with the Lilac interlaced, The sturdy Burdock choked its tender neighbor, The spicy Pink. All tokens were effaced Of human care and labor." These lines are a great contrast to the dignified versification of The Old Garden, by Margaret Deland, a garden around which a great city has grown. "Around it is the street, a restless arm That clasps the country to the city's heart." No one could read this poem without knowing that the author is a true garden lover, and knowing as well that she spent her childhood in a garden. Another American poet, Edith Thomas, writes exquisitely of old gardens and garden flowers. "The pensile Lilacs still their favors throw. The Star of Lilies, plenteous long ago, Waits on the summer dusk, and faileth not. The legions of the grass in vain would blot The spicy Box that marks the garden row. Let but the ground some human tendance know, It long remaineth an engentled spot." Let me for a moment, through the suggestion of her last two lines, write of the impress left on nature through flower planting. "The garden long remaineth an engentled spot." You cannot for years stamp out the mark of a garden; intentional destruction may obliterate the garden borders, but neglect never. The delicate flowers die, but some sturdy things spring up happily and seem gifted with everlasting life. Fifteen years ago a friend bought an old country seat on Long Island; near the site of the new house, an old garden was ploughed deep and levelled to a lawn. Every year since then the patient gardeners pull up, on this lawn, in considerable numbers, Mallows, Campanulas, Star of Bethlehem, Bouncing-bets and innumerable Asparagus shoots, and occasionally the seedlings of other flowers which have bided their time in the dark earth. Traces of the residence of Sir Walter Raleigh in Ireland may still be seen in the growth of richly perfumed wall-flowers which he brought from the Azores. The Affane Cherry is found where he planted it, and some of his Cedars are living. The summer-house of Yew trees sheltered him when he smoked in the garden, and in this garden he planted Tobacco. Near by is the famous spot where he planted what were then called Virginian Potatoes. By that planting they acquired the name of Irish Potatoes. I have spoken of the Prince Nurseries in Flushing; the old nurserymen left a more lasting mark than their Nurseries, in the rare trees and plants now found on the roads, and in the fields and gardens for many miles around Flushing. With the Parsons family, who have been, since 1838, distributors of unusual plants, especially the splendid garden treasures from China and Japan, they have made Flushing a delightful nature-study. In the humblest dooryard, and by the wayside in outlying parts of the town, may be seen rare and beautiful old trees: a giant purple Beech is in a laborer's yard; fine Cedars, Salisburias, red-flowered Horse-chestnuts, Japanese flowering Quinces and Cherries, and even rare Japanese Maples are to be found; a few survivors of the Chinese Mulberry have a romantic interest as mementoes of a giant bubble of ruin. The largest Scotch Laburnum I ever saw, glorious in golden bloom, is behind an unkempt house. On the Parsons estate is a weeping Beech of unusual size. Its branches trail on the ground in a vast circumference of 222 feet, forming a great natural arbor. The beautiful vernal light in this tree bower may be described in Andrew Marvell's words:-- "Annihilating all that's made To a green thought in a green shade." [Illustration: Box and Phlox.] The photograph of it, shown opposite page 232, gives some scant idea of its leafy walls; it has been for years the fit trysting-place of lovers, as is shown by the initials carved on the great trunk. Great Judas trees, sadly broken yet bravely blooming; decayed hedges of several kinds of Lilacs, Syringas, Snowballs, and Yuccas of princely size and bearing still linger. Everywhere are remnants of Box hedges. One unkempt dooryard of an old Dutch farm-house was glorified with a broad double row of yellow Lily at least sixty feet in length. Everywhere is Wistaria, on porches, fences, houses, and trees; the abundant Dogwood trees are often overgrown with Wistaria. The most exquisite sight of the floral year was the largest Dogwood tree I have ever seen, radiant with starry white bloom, and hung to the tip of every white-flowered branch with the drooping amethystine racemes of Wistaria of equal luxuriance. Golden-yellow Laburnum blooms were in one case mingled with both purple and white Wistaria. These yellow, purple, and white blooms of similar shape were a curious sight, as if a single plant had been grafted. As I rode past so many glimpses of loveliness mingled with so much present squalor, I could but think of words of the old hymn:-- "Where every prospect pleases And only man is vile." Could the hedges, trees, and vines which came from the Prince and Parsons Nurseries have been cared for, northeastern Long Island, which is part of the city of Greater New York, would still be what it was named by the early explorers, "The Pearl of New Netherland." [Illustration: Within the Weeping Beech.] CHAPTER X THE CHARM OF COLOR "How strange are the freaks of memory, The lessons of life we forget. While a trifle, a trick of color, In the wonderful web is set." --JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL. The quality of charm in color is most subtle; it is like the human attribute known as fascination, "whereof," says old Cotton Mather, "men have more Experience than Comprehension." Certainly some alliance of color with a form suited or wonted to it is necessary to produce a gratification of the senses. Thus in the leaves of plants every shade of green is pleasing; then why is there no charm in a green flower? The green of Mignonette bloom would scarcely be deemed beautiful were it not for our association of it with the delicious fragrance. White is the absence of color. In flowers a pure chalk-white, and a snow-white (which is bluish) is often found; but more frequently the white flower blushes a little, or is warmed with yellow, or has green veins. Where green runs into the petals of a white flower, its beauty hangs by a slender thread. If the green lines have any significance, as have the faint green checkerings of the Fritillary, which I have described elsewhere in this book, they add to its interest; but ordinarily they make the petals seem undeveloped. The Snowdrop bears the mark of one of the few tints of green which we like in white flowers; its "heart-shaped seal of green," sung by Rossetti, has been noted by many other poets. Tennyson wrote:-- "Pure as lines of green that streak the white Of the first Snowdrop's inner leaves." [Illustration: Spring Snowflake.] A cousin of the Snowdrop, is the "Spring Snowflake" or Leucojum, called also by New England country folk "High Snowdrop." It bears at the end of each snowy petal a tiny exact spot of green; and I think it must have been the flower sung by Leigh Hunt:-- "The nice-leaved lesser Lilies, Shading like detected light Their little green-tipt lamps of white." The illustration on page 234 shows the graceful growth of the flower and its exquisitely precise little green-dotted petals, but it has not caught its luminous whiteness, which seems almost of phosphorescent brightness in each little flower. The Star of Bethlehem is a plant in which the white and green of the leaf is curiously repeated in the flower. Gardeners seldom admit this flower now to their gardens, it so quickly crowds out everything else; it has become on Long Island nothing but a weed. The high-growing Star of Bethlehem is a pretty thing. A bed of it in my sister's garden is shown on page 237. It is curious that when all agree that green flowers have no beauty and scant charm, that a green flower should have been one of the best-loved flowers of my home garden. But this love does not come from any thought of the color or beauty of the flower, but from association. It was my mother's favorite, hence it is mine. It was her favorite because she loved its clear, pure, spicy fragrance. This ever present and ever welcome scent which pervades the entire garden if leaf or flower of the loved Ambrosia be crushed, is curious and characteristic, a true "ambrosiack odor," to use Ben Jonson's words. A vivid description of Ambrosia is that of Gerarde in his delightful _Herball_. "Oke of Jerusalem, or Botrys, hath sundry small stems a foote and a halfe high dividing themselves into many small branches. The leafe very much resembling the leafe of an Oke, which hath caused our English women to call it Oke of Jerusalem. The upper side of the leafe is a deepe greene and somewhat rough and hairy, but underneath it is of a darke reddish or purple colour. The seedie floures grow clustering about the branches like the yong clusters or blowings of the Vine. The roote is small and thriddy. The whole herbe is of a pleasant smell and savour, and the whole plant dieth when the seed is ripe. Oke of Jerusalem is of divers called Ambrosia." Ambrosia has been loved for many centuries by Englishwomen; it is in the first English list of names of plants, which was made in 1548 by one Dr. Turner; and in this list it is called "Ambrose." He says of it:-- "Botrys is called in englishe, Oke of Hierusalem, in duche, trauben kraute, in french pijmen. It groweth in gardines muche in England." Ambrosia has now died out "in gardines muche in England." I have had many letters from English flower lovers telling me they know it not; and I have had the pleasure of sending the seeds to several old English and Scotch gardens, where I hope it will once more grow and flourish, for I am sure it must feel at home. [Illustration: Star of Bethlehem.] The seeds of this beloved Ambrosia, which filled my mother's garden in every spot in which it could spring, and which overflowed with cheerful welcome into the gardens of our neighbors, was given her from the garden of a great-aunt in Walpole, New Hampshire. This Walpole garden was a famous gathering of old-time favorites, and it had the delightful companionship of a wild garden. On a series of terraces with shelving banks, which reached down to a stream, the boys of the family planted, seventy years ago, a myriad of wild flowers, shrubs, and trees, from the neighboring woods. By the side of the garden great Elm trees sheltered scores of beautiful gray squirrels; and behind the house and garden an orchard led to the wheat fields, which stretched down to the broad Connecticut River. All flowers thrived there, both in the Box-bordered beds and in the wild garden, perhaps because the morning mists from the river helped out the heavy buckets of water from the well during the hot summer weeks. Even in winter the wild garden was beautiful from the brilliant Bittersweet which hung from every tree. [Illustration: "The Pearl."] Here Ambrosia was plentiful, but is plentiful no longer; and Walpole garden lovers seek seeds of it from the Worcester garden. I think it dies out generally when all the weeding and garden care is done by gardeners; they assume that the little plants of such modest bearing are weeds, and pull them up, with many other precious seedlings of the old garden, in their desire to have ample expanse of naked dirt. One of the charms which was permitted to the old garden was its fulness. Nature there certainly abhorred a vacant space. The garden soil was full of resources; it had a seed for every square inch; it seemed to have a reserve store ready to crowd into any space offered by the removal or dying down of a plant at any time. Let me tell of a curious thing I found in an old book, anent our subject--green flowers. It shows that we must not accuse our modern sensation lovers, either in botany or any other science, of being the only ones to add artifice to nature. The green Carnation has been chosen to typify the decadence and monstrosity of the end of the nineteenth century; but nearly two hundred years ago a London fruit and flower grower, named Richard Bradley, wrote a treatise upon field husbandry and garden culture, and in it he tells of a green Carnation which "a certayn fryar" produced by grafting a Carnation upon a Fennel stalk. The flowers were green for several years, then nature overcame decadent art. There be those who are so enamoured of the color green and of foliage, that they care little for flowers of varied tint; even in a garden, like the old poet Marvell, they deem,-- "No white nor red was ever seen So amorous as this lovely green." Such folk could scarce find content in an American garden; for our American gardeners must confess, with Shakespeare's clown: "I am no great Nebuchadnezzar, sir, I have not much skill in grass." Our lawns are not old enough. A charming greenery of old English gardens was the bowling-green. We once had them in our colonies, as the name of a street in our greatest city now proves; and I deem them a garden fashion well-to-be-revived. The laws of color preference differ with the size of expanses. Our broad fields often have pleasing expanses of leafage other than green, and flowers that are as all-pervading as foliage. Many flowers of the field have their day, when each seems to be queen, a short day, but its rights none dispute. Snow of Daisies, yellow of Dandelions, gold of Buttercups, purple pinkness of Clover, Innocence, Blue-eyed Grass, Milkweed, none reign more absolutely in every inch of the fields than that poverty stricken creature, the Sorrel. William Morris warns us that "flowers in masses are mighty strong color," and must be used with much caution in a garden. But there need be no fear of massed color in a field, as being ever gaudy or cloying. An approach to the beauty and satisfaction of nature's plentiful field may be artificially obtained as an adjunct to the garden in a flower-close sown or set with a solid expanse of bloom of some native or widely adopted plant. I have seen a flower-close of Daisies, another of Buttercups, one of Larkspur, one of Coreopsis. A new field tint, and a splendid one, has been given to us within a few years, by the introduction of the vivid red of Italian clover. It is eagerly welcomed to our fields, so scant of scarlet. This clover was brought to America in the years 1824 _et seq._, and is described in contemporary publications in alluring sentences. I have noted the introduction of several vegetables, grains, fruits, berries, shrubs, and flowers in those years, and attribute this to the influence of the visit of Lafayette in 1824. Adored by all, his lightest word was heeded; and he was a devoted agriculturist and horticulturist, ever exchanging ideas, seeds, and plants with his American fellow-patriots and fellow-farmers. I doubt if Italian clover then became widely known; but our modern farmers now think well of it, and the flower lover revels in it. The exigencies of rhyme and rhythm force us to endure some very curious notions of color in the poets. I think no saying of poet ever gave greater check to her lovers than these lines of Emily Dickinson:-- "Nature rarer uses yellow Than another hue; Saves she all of that for sunsets, Prodigal of blue. Spending scarlet like a woman, Yellow she affords Only scantly and selectly, Like a lover's words." I read them first with a sense of misapprehension that I had not seen aright; but there the words stood out, "Nature rarer uses yellow than another hue." The writer was such a jester, such a tricky elf that I fancy she wrote them in pure "contrariness," just to see what folks would say, how they would dispute over her words. For I never can doubt that, with all her recluse life, she knew intuitively that some time her lines would be read by folks who would love them. [Illustration: Pyrethrum.] The scarcity of red wild flowers is either a cause or an effect; at any rate it is said to be connected with the small number of humming-birds, who play an important part in the fertilization of many of the red flowers. There are no humming-birds in Europe; and the Aquilegia, red and yellow here, is blue there, and is then fertilized by the assistance of the bumblebee. Without humming-birds the English successfully accomplish one glorious sweep of red in the Poppies of the field; Parkinson called them "a beautiful and gallant red"--a very happy phrase. Ruskin, that master of color and of its description, and above all master of the description of Poppies, says:-- "The Poppy is the most transparent and delicate of all the blossoms of the field. The rest, nearly all of them, depend on the texture of their surface for color. But the Poppy is painted glass; it never glows so brightly as when the sun shines through it. Whenever it is seen, against the light or with the light, it is a flame, and warms the wind like a blown ruby." There is one quality of the Oriental Poppies which is very palpable to me. They have often been called insolent--Browning writes of the "Poppy's red affrontery"; to me the Poppy has an angry look. It is wonderfully haughty too, and its seed-pod seems like an emblem of its rank. This great green seed-pod stands one inch high in the centre of the silken scarlet robe, and has an antique crown of purple bands with filling of lilac, just like the crown in some ancient kingly portraits, when the bands of gold and gems radiating from a great jewel in the centre are filled with crimson or purple velvet. Around this splendid crowned seed-vessel are rows of stamens and purple anthers of richest hue. We must not let any scarlet flower be dropped from the garden, certainly not the Geranium, which just at present does not shine so bravely as a few years ago. The general revulsion of feeling against "bedding out" has extended to the poor plants thus misused, which is unjust. I find I have spoken somewhat despitefully of the Coleus, Lobelia, and Calceolaria, so I hasten to say that I do not include the Geranium with them. I love its clean color, in leaf and blossom; its clean fragrance; its clean beauty, its healthy growth; it is a plant I like to have near me. It has been the custom of late to sneer at crimson in the garden, especially if its vivid color gets a dash of purple and becomes what Miss Jekyll calls "malignant magenta." It is really more vulgar than malignant, and has come to be in textile products a stamp and symbol of vulgarity, through the forceful brilliancy of our modern aniline dyes. But this purple crimson, this amarant, this magenta, especially in the lighter shades, is a favorite color in nature. The garden is never weary of wearing it. See how it stands out in midsummer! It is rank in Ragged Robin, tall Phlox, and Petunias; you find it in the bed of Drummond Phlox, among the Zinnias; the Portulacas, Balsams, and China Asters prolong it. Earlier in the summer the Rhododendrons fill the garden with color that on some of the bushes is termed sultana and crimson, but it is in fact plain magenta. One of the good points of the Peony is that you never saw a magenta one. This color shows that time as well as place affects our color notions, for magenta is believed to be the honored royal purple of the ancients. Fifty years ago no one complained of magenta. It was deemed a cheerful color, and was set out boldly and complacently by the side of pink or scarlet, or wall flower colors. Now I dislike it so that really the printed word, seen often as I glance back through this page, makes the black and white look cheap. If I could turn all magenta flowers pink or purple, I should never think further about garden harmony, all other colors would adjust themselves. It has been the fortune of some communities to be the home of men in nature like Thoreau of Concord and Gilbert White of Selborne, men who live solely in love of out-door things, birds, flowers, rocks, and trees. To all these nature lovers is not given the power of writing down readily what they see and know, usually the gift of composition is denied them; but often they are just as close and accurate observers as the men whose names are known to the world by their writings. Sometimes these naturalists boldly turn to nature, their loved mother, and earn their living in the woods and fields. Sometimes they have a touch of the hermit in them, they prefer nature to man; others are genial, kindly men, albeit possessed of a certain reserve. I deem the community blest that has such a citizen, for his influence in promoting a love and study of nature is ever great. I have known one such ardent naturalist, Arba Peirce, ever since my childhood. He lives the greater part of his waking hours in the woods and fields, and these waking hours are from sunrise. From the earliest bloom of spring to the gay berry of autumn, he knows all beautiful things that grow, and where they grow, for hundreds of miles around his home. [Illustration: Terraced Garden of Misses Nichols, Salem, Massachusetts.] I speak of him in this connection because he has acquired through his woodland life a wonderful power of distinguishing flowers at great distance with absolute accuracy. Especially do his eyes have the power of detecting those rose-lilac tints which are characteristic of our rarest, our most delicate wild flowers, and which I always designate to myself as Arethusa color. He brought me this June a royal gift--a great bunch of wild fringed Orchids, another of Calopogon, and one of Arethusa. What a color study these three made! At the time their lilac-rose tints seemed to me far lovelier than any pure rose colors. In those wild princesses were found every tone of that lilac-rose from the faint blush like the clouds of a warm sunset, to a glow on the lip of the Arethusa, like the crimson glow of Mullein Pink. My friend of the meadow and wildwood had gathered that morning a glorious harvest, over two thousand stems of Pogonia, from his own hidden spot, which he has known for forty years and from whence no other hand ever gathers. For a little handful of these flower heads he easily obtains a dollar. He has acquired gradually a regular round of customers, for whom he gathers a successive harvest of wild flowers from Pussy Willows and Hepatica to winter berries. It is not easily earned money to stand in heavy rubber boots in marsh mud and water reaching nearly to the waist, but after all it is happy work. Jeered at in his early life by fools for his wood-roving tastes, he has now the pleasure and honor of supplying wild flowers to our public schools, and being the authority to whom scholars and teachers refer in vexed questions of botany. I think the various tints allied to purple are the most difficult to define and describe of any in the garden. To begin with, all these pinky-purple, these arethusa tints are nameless; perhaps orchid color is as good a name as any. Many deem purple and violet precisely the same. Lavender has much gray in its tint. Miss Jekyll deems mauve and lilac the same; to me lilac is much pinker, much more delicate. Is heliotrope a pale bluish purple? Some call it a blue faintly tinged with red. Then there are the orchid tints, which have more pink than blue. It is a curious fact that, with all these allied tints which come from the union of blue with red, the color name comes from a flower name. Violet, lavender, lilac, heliotrope, orchid, are examples; each is an exact tint. Rose and pink are color names from flowers, and flowers of much variety of colors, but the tint name is unvarying. Edward de Goncourt, of all writers on flowers and gardens, seems to have been most frankly pleased with the artificial side of the gardener's art. He viewed the garden with the eye of a colorist, setting a palette of varied greens from the deep tones of the evergreens, the Junipers and Cryptomerias through the variegated Hollies, Privets and Spindle trees; and he said that an "elegantly branched coquettishly variegated bush" seemed to him like a piece of bric-a-brac which should be hunted out and praised like some curio hidden on the shelf of a collector. A lack of color perception seems to have been prevalent of ancient days, as it is now in some Oriental countries. The Bible offers evidence of this, and it has also been observed that the fragrance of flowers is nowhere noted until we reach the Song of Solomon. It is believed that in earliest time archaic men had no sense of color; that they knew only light and darkness. Mr. Gladstone wrote a most interesting paper on the lack of color sense in Homer, whose perception of brilliant light was good, especially in the glowing reflections of metals, but who never names blue or green even in speaking of the sky, or trees, while his reds and purples are hopelessly mixed. Some German scientists have maintained that as recently as Homer's day, our ancestors were (to use Sir John Lubbock's word) blue-blind, which fills me, as it must all blue lovers, with profound pity. [Illustration: Arbor in a Salem Garden.] The influence of color has ever been felt by other senses than that of sight. In the _Cotton Manuscripts_, written six hundred years ago, the relations and effects of color on music and coat-armor were laboriously explained: and many later writers have striven to show the effect of color on the health, imagination, or fortune. I see no reason for sneering at these notions of sense-relation; I am grateful for borrowed terms of definition for these beautiful things which are so hard to define. When an artist says to me, "There is a color that sings," I know what he means; as I do when my friend says of the funeral music in _Tristan_ that "it always hurts her eyes." Musicians compose symphonies in color, and artists paint pictures in symphonies. Musicians and authors acknowledge the domination of color and color terms; a glance at a modern book catalogue will prove it. Stephen Crane and other modern extremists depend upon color to define and describe sounds, smells, tastes, feelings, ideas, vices, virtues, traits, as well as sights. Sulphur-yellow is deemed an inspiring color, and light green a clean color; every one knows the influence of bright red upon many animals and birds; it is said all barnyard fowl are affected by it. If any one can see a sunny bed of blue Larkspur in full bloom without being moved thereby, he must be color blind and sound deaf as well, for that indeed is a sight full of music and noble inspiration, a realization of Keats' beautiful thought:-- "Delicious symphonies, like airy flowers Budded, and swell'd, and full-blown, shed full showers Of light, soft unseen leaves of sound divine." CHAPTER XI THE BLUE FLOWER BORDER "Blue thou art, intensely blue! Flower! whence came thy dazzling hue? When I opened first mine eye, Upward glancing to the sky, Straightway from the firmament Was the sapphire brilliance sent." --JAMES MONTGOMERY. Questions of color relations in a garden are most opinion-making and controversy-provoking. Shall we plant by chance, or by a flower-loving instinct for sheltered and suited locations, as was done in all old-time gardens, and with most happy and most unaffected results? or shall we plant severely by colors--all yellow flowers in a border together? all red flowers side by side? all pink flowers near each other? This might be satisfactory in small gardens, but I am uncertain whether any profound gratification or full flower succession would come from such rigid planting in long flower borders. William Morris warns us that flowers in masses are "mighty strong color," and must be used with caution. A still greater cause for hesitation would be the ugly jarring of juxtaposing tints of the same color. Yellows do little injury to each other; but I cannot believe that a mixed border of red flowers would ever be satisfactory or scarcely endurable; and few persons would care for beds of all white flowers. But when I reach the Blue Border, then I can speak with decision; I know whereof I write, I know the variety and beauty of a garden bed of blue flowers. In blue you may have much difference in tint and quality without losing color effect. The Persian art workers have accomplished the combining of varying blues most wonderfully and successfully: purplish blues next to green-blues, and sapphire-blues alongside; and blues seldom clash in the flower beds. Blue is my best beloved color; I love it as the bees love it. Every blue flower is mine; and I am as pleased as with a tribute of praise to a friend to learn that scientists have proved that blue flowers represent the most highly developed lines of descent. These learned men believe that all flowers were at first yellow, being perhaps only developed stamens; then some became white, others red; while the purple and blue were the latest and highest forms. The simplest shaped flowers, open to be visited by every insect, are still yellow or white, running into red or pink. Thus the Rose family have simple open symmetrical flowers; and there are no blue Roses--the flower has never risen to the blue stage. In the Pea family the simpler flowers are yellow or red; while the highly evolved members, such as Lupines, Wistaria, Everlasting Pea, are purple or blue, varying to white. Bees are among the highest forms of insect life, and the labiate flowers are adapted to their visits; these nearly all have purple or blue petals--Thyme, Sage, Mint, Marjoram, Basil, Prunella, etc. Of course the Blue Border runs into tints of pale lilac and purple and is thereby the gainer; but I would remove from it the purple Clematis, Wistaria, and Passion-flower, all of which a friend has planted to cover the wall behind her blue flower bed. Sometimes the line between blue and purple is hard to define. Keats invented a word, _purplue_, which he used for this indeterminate color. I would not, in my Blue Border, exclude an occasional group of flowers of other colors; I love a border of all colors far too well to do that. Here, as everywhere in my garden, should be white flowers, especially tall white flowers: white Foxgloves, white Delphinium, white Lupine, white Hollyhock, white Bell-flower, nor should I object to a few spires at one end of the bed of sulphur-yellow Lupines, or yellow Hollyhocks, or a group of Paris Daisies. I have seen a great Oriental Poppy growing in wonderful beauty near a mass of pale blue Larkspur, and Shirley Poppies are a delight with blues; and any one could arrange the pompadour tints of pink and blue in a garden who could in a gown. [Illustration: Scilla.] Let me name some of the favorites of the Blue Border. The earliest but not the eldest is the pretty spicy Scilla in several varieties, and most satisfactory it is in perfection of tint, length of bloom, and great hardiness. It would be welcomed as we eagerly greet all the early spring blooms, even if it were not the perfect little blossom that is pictured on page 254, the very little Scilla that grew in my mother's garden. The early spring blooming of the beloved Grape Hyacinth gives us an overflowing bowl of "blue principle"; the whole plant is imbued and fairly exudes blue. Ruskin gave the beautiful and appropriate term "blue-flushing" to this plant and others, which at the time of their blossoming send out through their veins their blue color into the surrounding leaves and the stem; he says they "breathe out" their color, and tells of a "saturated purple" tint. [Illustration: Sweet Alyssum Edging.] Not content with the confines of the garden border, the Grape Hyacinth has "escaped the garden," and become a field flower. The "seeing eye," ever quick to feel a difference in shade or color, which often proves very slight upon close examination, viewed on Long Island a splendid sea of blue; and it seemed neither the time nor tint for the expected Violet. We found it a field of Grape Hyacinth, blue of leaf, of stem, of flower. While all flowers are in a sense perfect, some certainly do not appear so in shape, among the latter those of irregular sepals. Some flowers seem imperfect without any cause save the fancy of the one who is regarding them; thus to me the Balsam is an imperfect flower. Other flowers impress me delightfully with a sense of perfection. Such is the Grape Hyacinth, doubly grateful in this perfection in the time it comes in early spring. The Grape Hyacinth is the favorite spring flower of my garden--but no! I thought a minute ago the Scilla was! and what place has the Violet? the Flower de Luce? I cannot decide, but this I know--it is some blue flower. Ruskin says of the Grape Hyacinth, as he saw it growing in southern France, its native home, "It was as if a cluster of grapes and a hive of honey had been distilled and pressed together into one small boss of celled and beaded blue." I always think of his term "beaded blue" when I look at it. There are several varieties, from a deep blue or purple to sky-blue, and one is fringed with the most delicate feathery petals. Some varieties have a faint perfume, and country folk call the flower "Baby's Breath" therefrom. [Illustration: Bachelor's Buttons in a Salem Garden.] Purely blue, too, are some of our garden Hyacinths, especially a rather meagre single Hyacinth which looks a little chilly; and Gavin Douglas wrote in the springtime of 1500, "The Flower de Luce forth spread his heavenly blue." It always jars upon my sense of appropriateness to hear this old garden favorite called Fleur de Lis. The accepted derivation of the word is that given by Grandmaison in his _Heraldic Dictionary_. Louis VII. of France, whose name was then written Loys, first gave the name to the flower, "Fleur de Loys"; then it became Fleur de Louis, and finally, Fleur de Lis. Our flower caught its name from Louis. Tusser in his list of flowers for windows and pots gave plainly Flower de Luce; and finally Gerarde called the plant Flower de Luce, and he advised its use as a domestic remedy in a manner which is in vogue in country homes in New England to-day. He said that the root "stamped plaister-wise, doth take away the blewnesse or blacknesse of any stroke" that is, a black and blue bruise. Another use advised of him is as obsolete as the form in which it was rendered. He said it was "good in a loch or licking medicine for shortness of breath." Our apothecaries no longer make, nor do our physicians prescribe, "licking medicines." The powdered root was urged as a complexion beautifier, especially to remove morphew, and as orris-root may be found in many of our modern skin lotions. Ruskin most beautifully describes the Flower de Luce as the flower of chivalry--"with a sword for its leaf, and a Lily for its heart." These grand clumps of erect old soldiers, with leafy swords of green and splendid cuirasses and plumes of gold and bronze and blue, were planted a century ago in our grandmothers' garden, and were then Flower de Luce. A hundred years those sturdy sentinels have stood guard on either side of the garden gates--still Flower de Luce. There are the same clean-cut leaf swords, the same exquisite blossoms, far more beautiful than our tropical Orchids, though similar in shape; let us not change now their historic name, they still are Flower de Luce--the Flower de Louis. The Violet family, with its Pansies and Ladies' Delights, has honored place in our Blue Border, though the rigid color list of a prosaic practical dyer finds these Violet allies a debased purple instead of blue. Our wild Violets, the blue ones, have for me a sad lack for a Violet, that of perfume. They are not as lovely in the woodlands as their earlier coming neighbor, the shy, pure Hepatica. Bryant, calling the Hepatica Squirrelcups (a name I never heard given them elsewhere), says they form "a graceful company hiding in their bells a soft aerial blue." Of course, they vary through blue and pinky purple, but the blue is well hidden, and I never think of them save as an almost white flower. Nor are the Violets as lovely on the meadow and field slopes, as the mild Innocence, the Houstonia, called also Bluets, which is scarcely a distinctly blue expanse, but rather "a milky way of minute stars." An English botanist denies that it is blue at all. A field covered with Innocence always looks to me as if little clouds and puffs of blue-white smoke had descended and rested on the grass. [Illustration: A "Sweet Garden-side" in Salem, Massachusetts.] I well recall when the Aquilegia, under the name of California Columbine, entered my mother's garden, to which its sister, the red and yellow Columbine, had been brought from a rocky New England pasture when the garden was new. This Aquilegia came to us about the year 1870. I presume old catalogues of American florists would give details and dates of the journey of the plant from the Pacific to the Atlantic. It chanced that this first Aquilegia of my acquaintance was of a distinct light blue tint; and it grew apace and thrived and was vastly admired, and filled the border with blueness of that singular tint seen of late years in its fullest extent and most prominent position in the great masses of bloom of the blue Hydrangea, the show plant of such splendid summer homes as may be found at Newport. These blue Hydrangeas are ever to me a color blot. They accord with no other flower and no foliage. I am ever reminded of blue mould, of stale damp. I looked with inexpressible aversion on a photograph of Cecil Rhodes' garden at Cape Town--several solid acres set with this blue Hydrangea and nothing else, unbroken by tree or shrub, and scarce a path, growing as thick as a field sown with ensilage corn, and then I thought what would be the color of that mass! that crop of Hydrangeas! Yet I am told that Rhodes is a flower-lover and flower-thinker. Now this Aquilegia was of similar tint; it was blue, but it was not a pleasing blue, and additional plants of pink, lilac, and purple tints had to be added before the Aquilegia was really included in our list of well-beloveds. [Illustration: Salpiglossis.] There are other flowers for the blue border. It is pleasant to plant common Flax, if you have ample room; it is a superb blue; to many persons the blossom is unfamiliar, and is always of interest. Its lovely flowers have been much sung in English verse. The Salpiglossis, shown on the opposite page, is in its azure tint a lovely flower, though it is a kinsman of the despised Petunia. How the Campanulaceæ enriched the beauty and the blueness of the garden. We had our splendid clusters of Canterbury Bells, both blue and white. I have told elsewhere of our love for them in childhood. Equally dear to us was a hardy old Campanula whose full name I know not, perhaps it is the Pyramidalis; it is shown on page 263, the very plant my mother set out, still growing and blooming; nothing in the garden is more gladly welcomed from year to year. It partakes of the charm shared by every bell-shaped flower, a simple form, but an ever pleasing one. We had also the _Campanula persicifolia_ and _trachelium_, and one we called Bluebells of Scotland, which was not the correct name. It now has died out, and no one recalls enough of its exact detail to learn its real name. The showiest bell-flower was the _Platycodon grandiflorum_, the Chinese or Japanese Bell-flower, shown on page 264. Another name is the Balloon-flower, this on account of the characteristic buds shaped like an inflated balloon. It is a lovely blue in tint, though this photograph was taken from a white-flowered plant in the white border at Indian Hill. The Giant Bell-flower is a _fin de siècle_ blossom named _Ostrowskia_, with flowers four inches deep and six inches in diameter; it has not yet become common in our gardens, where the _Platycodon_ rules in size among its bell-shaped fellows. [Illustration: The Old Campanula.] There are several pretty low-growing blue flowers suitable for edgings, among them the tiny stars of the Swan River Daisy (_Brachycome iberidifolia_) sold as purple, but as brightly blue as Scilla. The dwarf Ageratum is also a long-blossoming soft-tinted blue flower; it made a charming edging in my sister's garden last summer; but I should never put either of them on the edge of the blue border. [Illustration: Chinese Bell-flower.] The dull blue, sparsely set flowers of the various members of the Mint family have no beauty in color, nor any noticeable elegance; the Blue Sage is the only vivid-hued one, and it is a true ornament to the border. Prunella was ever found in old gardens, now it is a wayside weed. Thoreau loved the Prunella for its blueness, its various lights, and noted that its color deepened toward night. This flower, regarded with indifference by nearly every one, and distaste by many, always to him suggested coolness and freshness by its presence. The Prunella was beloved also by Ruskin, who called it the soft warm-scented Brunelle, and told of the fine purple gleam of its hooded blossom: "the two uppermost petals joined like an old-fashioned enormous hood or bonnet; the lower petal torn deep at the edges into a kind of fringe,"--and he said it was a "Brownie flower," a little eerie and elusive in its meaning. I do not like it because it has such a disorderly, unkempt look, it always seems bedraggled. The pretty ladder-like leaf of Jacob's Ladder is most delicate and pleasing in the garden, and its blue bell-flowers are equally refined. This is truly an old-fashioned plant, but well worth universal cultivation. In answer to the question, What is the bluest flower in the garden or field? one answered Fringed Gentian; another the Forget-me-not, which has much pink in its buds and yellow in its blossoms; another Bee Larkspur; and the others _Centaurea cyanus_ or Bachelor's Buttons, a local American name for them, which is not even a standard folk name, since there are twenty-one English plants called Bachelor's Buttons. Ragged Sailor is another American name. Corn-flower, Blue-tops, Blue Bonnets, Bluebottles, Loggerheads are old English names. Queerer still is the title Break-your-spectacles. Hawdods is the oldest name of all. Fitzherbert, in his _Boke of Husbandry_, 1586, thus describes briefly the plant:-- "Hawdod hath a blewe floure, and a few lytle leaves, and hath fyve or syxe branches floured at the top." In varied shades of blue, purple, lilac, pink, and white, Bachelor's Buttons are found in every old garden, growing in a confused tangle of "lytle leaves" and vari-colored flowers, very happily and with very good effect. The illustration on page 258 shows their growth and value in the garden. In _The Promise of May_ Dora's eyes are said to be as blue as the Bluebell, Harebell, Speedwell, Bluebottle, Succory, Forget-me-not, and Violets; so we know what flowers Tennyson deemed blue. Another poet named as the bluest flower, the Monk's-hood, so wonderful of color, one of the very rarest of garden tints; graceful of growth, blooming till frost, and one of the garden's delights. In a list of garden flowers published in Boston, in 1828, it is called Cupid's Car. Southey says in _The Doctor_, of Miss Allison's garden: "The Monk's-hood of stately growth Betsey called 'Dumbledores Delight,' and was not aware that the plant, in whose helmet--rather than cowl-shaped flowers, that busy and best-natured of all insects appears to revel more than any other, is the deadly Aconite of which she read in poetry." The dumbledore was the bumblebee, and this folk name was given, as many others have been, from a close observance of plant habits; for the fertilization of the Monk's-hood is accomplished only by the aid of the bumblebee. [Illustration: Garden at Tudor Place.] Many call Chicory or Succory our bluest flower. Thoreau happily termed it "a cool blue." It is not often the fortune of a flower to be brought to notice and affection because of a poem; we expect the poem to celebrate the virtues of flowers already loved. The Succory is an example of a plant, known certainly to flower students, yet little thought of by careless observers until the beautiful poem of Margaret Deland touched all who read it. I think this a gem of modern poesy, having in full that great element of a true poem, the most essential element indeed of a short poem--the power of suggestion. Who can read it without being stirred by its tenderness and sentiment, yet how few are the words. "Oh, not in ladies' gardens, My peasant posy, Shine thy dear blue eyes; Nor only--nearer to the skies In upland pastures, dim and sweet, But by the dusty road, Where tired feet Toil to and fro, Where flaunting Sin May see thy heavenly hue, Or weary Sorrow look from thee Toward a tenderer blue." I recall perfectly every flower I saw in pasture, swamp, forest, or lane when I was a child; and I know I never saw Chicory save in old gardens. It has increased and spread wonderfully along the roadside within twenty years. By tradition it was first brought to us from England by Governor Bowdoin more than a century ago, to plant as forage. In our common Larkspur, the old-fashioned garden found its most constant and reliable blue banner, its most valuable color giver. Self-sown, this Larkspur sprung up freely every year; needing no special cherishing or nourishing, it grew apace, and bloomed with a luxuriance and length of flowering that cheerfully blued the garden for the whole summer. It was a favorite of children in their floral games, and pretty in the housewife's vases, but its chief hold on favor was in its democracy and endurance. Other flowers drew admirers and lost them; some grew very ugly in their decay; certain choice seedlings often had stunted development, garden scourges attacked tender beauties; fierce July suns dried up the whole border, all save the Larkspur, which neither withered nor decayed; and often, unaided, saved the midsummer garden from scanty unkemptness and dire disrepute. The graceful line of Dr. Holmes, "light as a loop of Larkspur," always comes to my mind as I look at a bed of Larkspur; and I am glad to show here a "loop of Larkspur," growing by the great boulder which he loved in the grounds of his country home at Beverly Farms. I liked to fancy that Dr. Holmes's expression was written by him from his memory of the little wreaths and garlands of pressed Larkspur that have been made so universally for over a century by New England children. But that careful flower observer, Mrs. Wright, notes that in a profuse growth of the Bee Larkspur, the strong flower spikes often are in complete loops before full expansion into a straight spire; some are looped thrice. Dr. Holmes was a minute observer of floral characteristics, as is shown in his poem on the _Coming of Spring_, and doubtless saw this curious growth of the Larkspur. [Illustration: "Light as a Loop of Larkspur."] Common annual Larkspurs now are planted in every one's garden, and deservedly grow in favor yearly. The season of their flowering can be prolonged, renewed in fact, by cutting away the withered flower stems. They respond well to all caretaking, to liberal fertilizing and watering, just as they dwindle miserably with neglect. There are a hundred varieties in all; among them the "Rocket-flowered" and "Ranunculus flowered" Larkspurs or Delphiniums are ever favorites. A friend burst forth in railing at being asked to admire a bed of Delphinium. "Why can't she call them the good old-time name of Larkspur, and not a stiff name cooked up by the botanists." I answered naught, but I remembered that Parkinson in his _Garden of Pleasant Flowers_ gives a chapter to Delphinium, with Lark's-heel as a second thought. "Their most usual name with us," he states, "is Delphinium." There is meaning in the name: the flower is dolphin-like in shape. Of the perennial varieties the _Delphinium brunonianum_ has lovely clear blue, musk-scented flowers; the Chinese or Branching Larkspur is of varied blue tints and tall growth, and blooms from midsummer until frost. And loveliest of all, an old garden favorite, the purely blue Bee Larkspur, with a bee in the heart of each blossom. In an ancient garden in Deerfield I saw this year a splendid group of plants of the old _Delphinium Belladonna_: it is a weak-kneed, weak-backed thing; but give it unobtrusive crutches and busks and backboards (in their garden equivalents), and its incomparable blue will reward your care. There is something singular in the blue of Larkspur. Even on a dark night you can see it showing a distinct blue in the garden like a blue lambent flame. "Larkspur lifting turquoise spires Bluer than the sorcerer's fires." Mrs. Milne-Home says her old Scotch gardener called the white Delphinium Elijah's Chariot--a resounding, stately title. Helmet-flower is another name. I think the Larkspur Border, and the Blue Border both gain if a few plants of the pure white Delphinium, especially the variety called the Emperor, bloom by the blue flowers. In our garden the common blue Larkspur loves to blossom by the side of the white Phlox. A bit of the border is shown on page 162. In another corner of the garden the pink and lilac Larkspur should be grown; for their tints, running into blue, are as varied as those of an opal. I have never seen the wild Larkspur which grows so plentifully in our middle Southern states; but I have seen expanses of our common garden Larkspur which has run wild. Nor have I seen the glorious fields of Wyoming Larkspur, so poisonous to cattle; nor the magnificent Larkspur, eight feet high, described so radiantly to us by John Muir, which blues those wonders of nature, the hanging meadow gardens of California. I am inclined to believe that Lobelia is the least pleasing blue flower that blossoms. I never see it in any place or juxtaposition that it satisfies me. When you take a single flower of it in your hand, its single little delicate bloom is really just as pretty as Blue-eyed Grass, or Innocence, or Scilla, and the whole plant regarded closely by itself isn't at all bad; but whenever and wherever you find it growing in a garden, you never want it in _that_ place, and you shift it here and there. I am convinced that the Lobelia is simply impossible; it is an alien, wrong in some subtle way in tint, in habit of growth, in time of blooming. The last time I noted it in any large garden planting, it was set around the roots of some standard Rose bushes; and the gardener had displayed some thought about it; it was only at the base of white or cream-yellow Roses; but it still was objectionable. I think I would exterminate Lobelia if I could, banish it and forget it. In the minds of many would linger a memory of certain ornate garden vases, each crowded with a Pandanus-y plant, a pink Begonia, a scarlet double Geranium, a purple Verbena or a crimson Petunia, all gracefully entwined with Nasturtiums and Lobelia--while these folks lived, the Lobelia would not be forgotten. You will have some curious experiences with your Blue Border; kindly friends, pleased with its beauty or novelty, will send to you plants and seeds to add to its variety of form "another bright blue flower." You will usually find you have added variety of tint as well, ranging into crimson and deep purple, for color blindness is far more general than is thought. The loveliest blue flowers are the wild ones of fields and meadows; therefore the poor, says Alphonse Karr, with these and the blue of the sky have the best and the most of all blueness. Yet we are constantly hearing folks speak of the lack of the color blue among wild flowers, which always surprises me; I suppose I see blue because I love blue. In pure cobalt tint it is rare; in compensation, when it does abound, it makes a permanent imprint on our vision, which never vanishes. Recalling in midwinter the expanses of color in summer waysides, I do not see them white with Daisies, or yellow with Goldenrod, but they are in my mind's vision brightly, beautifully blue. One special scene is the blue of Fringed Gentians, on a sunny October day, on a rocky hill road in Royalston, Massachusetts, where they sprung up, wide open, a solid mass of blue, from stone wall to stone wall, with scarcely a wheel rut showing among them. Even thus, growing in as lavish abundance as any weed, the Fringed Gentian still preserved in collective expanse, its delicate, its distinctly aristocratic bearing. Bryant asserts of this flower:-- "Thou waitest late, and com'st alone When woods are bare, and birds are flown." But by this roadside the woods were far from bare. Many Asters, especially the variety I call Michaelmas Daisies, Goldenrod, Butter-and-eggs, Turtle Head, and other flowers, were in ample bloom. And the same conditions of varied flower companionship existed when I saw the Fringed Gentian blooming near Bryant's own home at Cummington. [Illustration: Viper's Bugloss.] Another vast field of blue, ever living in my memory, was that of the Viper's Bugloss, which I viewed with surprise and delight from the platform of a train, returning from the Columbian Exposition; when I asked a friendly brakeman what the flower was called, he answered "Vilets," as nearly all workingmen confidently name every blue flower; and he sprang from the train while the locomotive was swallowing water, and brought to me a great armful of blueness. I am not wont to like new flowers as well as my childhood's friends, but I found this new friend, the Viper's Bugloss, a very welcome and pleasing acquaintance. Curious, too, it is, with the red anthers exserted beyond the bright blue corolla, giving the field, when the wind blew across it, a new aspect and tint, something like a red and blue changeable silk. The Viper's Bugloss seems to have the pervasive power of many another blue and purple flower, Lupine, Iris, Innocence, Grape Hyacinth, Vervain, Aster, Spiked Loosestrife; it has become in many states a tiresome weed. On the Esopus Creek (which runs into the Hudson River) and adown the Hudson, acre after acre of meadow and field by the waterside are vivid with its changeable hues, and the New York farmers' fields are overrun by the newcomer. I have seen the Viper's Bugloss often since that day on the railroad train, now that I know it, and think of it. Thoreau noted the fact that in a large sense we find only what we look for. And he defined well our powers of perception when he said that many an object will not be seen, even when it comes within the range of our visual ray, because it does not come within the range of our intellectual ray. Last spring, having to spend a tiresome day riding the length of Long Island, I beguiled the hours by taking with me Thoreau's _Summer_ to compare his notes of blossomings with those we passed. It was June 5, and I read:-- "The Lupine is now in its glory. It is the more important because it occurs in such extensive patches, even an acre or more together.... It paints a whole hillside with its blue, making such a field, if not a meadow, as Proserpine might have wandered in. Its leaf was made to be covered with dewdrops. I am quite excited by this prospect of blue flowers in clumps, with narrow intervals; such a profusion of the heavenly, the Elysian color, as if these were the Elysian Fields. That is the value of the Lupine. The earth is blued with it.... You may have passed here a fortnight ago and the field was comparatively barren. Now you come, and these glorious redeemers appear to have flashed out here all at once. Who plants the seeds of Lupines in the barren soil? Who watereth the Lupines in the field?" [Illustration: The Precision of Leaf and Flower of Lupine.] I looked from a car window, and lo! the Long Island Railroad ran also through an Elysian Field of Lupines, nay, we sailed a swift course through a summer sea of blueness, and I seem to see it still, with its prim precision of outline and growth of both leaf and flower. The Lupine is beautiful in the garden border as it is in the landscape, whether the blossom be blue, yellow, or white. Thoreau was the slave of color, but he was the master of its description. He was as sensitive as Keats to the charm of blue, and left many records of his love, such as the paragraphs above quoted. He noted with delight the abundance of "that principle which gives the air its azure color, which makes the distant hills and meadows appear blue," the "great blue presence" of Monadnock and Wachusett with its "far blue eye." He loved Lowell's "Sweet atmosphere of hazy blue, So leisurely, so soothing, so forgiving, That sometimes makes New England fit for living." He revelled in the blue tints of water, of snow, of ice; in "the blueness and softness of a mild winter day." The constant blueness of the sky at night thrilled him with "an everlasting surprise," as did the blue shadows within the woods and the blueness of distant woods. How he would have rejoiced in Monet's paintings, how true he would have found their tones. He even idealized blueberries, "a very innocent ambrosial taste, as if made of ether itself, as they are colored with it." Thoreau was ever ready in thought of Proserpina gathering flowers. He offers to her the Lupine, the Blue-eyed Grass, and the Tufted Vetch, "blue, inclining in spots to purple"; it affected him deeply to see such an abundance of blueness in the grass. "Celestial color, I see it afar in masses on the hillside near the meadow--so much blue." I usually join with Thoreau in his flower loves; but I cannot understand his feeling toward the blue Flag; that, after noting the rich fringed recurved parasols over its anthers, and its exquisite petals, that he could say it is "a little too showy and gaudy, like some women's bonnets." I note that whenever he compares flowers to women it is in no flattering humor to either; which is, perhaps, what we expect from a man who chose to be a bachelor and a hermit. His love of obscure and small flowers might explain his sentiment toward the radiant and dominant blue Flag. The most valued flower of my childhood, outside the garden, was a little sister of the Iris--the Blue-eyed Grass. To find it blooming was a triumph, for it was not very profuse of growth near my home; to gather it a delight; why, I know not, since the tiny blooms promptly closed and withered as soon as we held them in our warm little hands. Colonel Higginson writes wittily of the Blue-eyed Grass, "It has such an annoying way of shutting up its azure orbs the moment you gather it; and you reach home with a bare stiff blade which deserves no better name than _Sisyrinchium anceps_." The only time I ever played truant was to run off one June morning to find "the starlike gleam amid the grass and dew"; to pick Blue-eyed Grass in a field to which I was conducted by another naughty girl. I was simple enough to come home at mid-day with my hands full of the stiff blades and tightly closed blooms; and at my mother's inquiry as to my acquisition of these treasures, I promptly burst into tears. I was then told, in impressive phraseology adapted to my youthful comprehension, and with the flowers as eloquent proof, that all stolen pleasures were ever like my coveted flowers, withered and unsightly as soon as gathered--which my mother believed was true. The blossoms of this little Iris seem to lie on the surface of the grass like a froth of blueness; they gaze up at the sky with a sort of intimacy as if they were a part of it. Thoreau called it an "air of easy sympathy." The slightest clouding or grayness of atmosphere makes them turn away and close. The naming of Proserpina leads me to say this: that to grow in love and knowledge of flowers, and above all of blue flowers, you must read Ruskin's _Proserpina_. It is a book of botany, of studies of plants, but begemmed with beautiful sentences and thoughts and expressions, with lessons of pleasantness which you can never forget, of pictures which you never cease to see, such sentences and pictures as this:-- "Rome. My father's Birthday. I found the loveliest blue Asphodel I ever saw in my life in the fields beyond Monte Mario--a spire two feet high, of more than two hundred stars, the stalks of them all deep blue as well as the flowers. Heaven send all honest people the gathering of the like, in the Elysian Fields, some day!" Oh, the power of written words! when by these few lines I can carry forever in my inner vision this spire of starry blueness. To that writer, now in the Elysian Fields, an honest teacher if ever one lived, I send my thanks for this beautiful vision of blueness. CHAPTER XII PLANT NAMES "The fascination of plant names is founded on two instincts,--love of Nature and curiosity about Language." --_English Plant Names_, REV. JOHN EARLE, 1880. Verbal magic is the subtle mysterious power of certain words. This power may come from association with the senses; thus I have distinct sense of stimulation in the word scarlet, and pleasure in the words lucid and liquid. The word garden is a never ceasing delight; it seems to me Oriental; perhaps I have a transmitted sense from my grandmother Eve of the Garden of Eden. I like the words, a Garden of Olives, a Garden of Herbs, the Garden of the Gods, a Garden enclosed, Philosophers of the Garden, the Garden of the Lord. As I have written on gardens, and thought on gardens, and walked in gardens, "the very music of the name has gone into my being." How beautiful are Cardinal Newman's words:-- "By a garden is meant mystically a place of spiritual repose, stillness, peace, refreshment, delight." There was, in Gerarde's day, no fixed botanical nomenclature of any of the parts or attributes of a plant. Without using botanical terms, try to describe a plant so as to give an exact notion of it to a person who has never seen it, then try to find common words to describe hundreds of plants; you will then admire the vocabulary of the old herbalist, his "fresh English words," for you will find that it needs the most dextrous use of words to convey accurately the figure of a flower. That felicity and facility Gerarde had; "a bleak white color"--how clearly you see it! The Water Lily had "great round leaves like a buckler." The Cat-tail Flags "flower and bear their mace or torch in July and August." One plant had "deeply gashed leaves." The Marigold had "fat thick crumpled leaves set upon a gross and spongious stalke." Here is the Wake-robin, "a long hood in proportion like the ear of a hare, in middle of which hood cometh forth a pestle or clapper of a dark murry or pale purple color." The leaves of the Corn-marigold are "much hackt and cut into divers sections and placed confusedly." Another plant had leaves of "an overworne green," and Pansy leaves were "a bleak green." The leaves of Tansy are also vividly described as "infinitely jagged and nicked and curled with all like unto a plume of feathers." [Illustration: The Garden's Friend.] The classification and naming of flowers was much thought and written upon from Gerarde's day, until the great work of Linnæus was finished. Some very original schemes were devised. _The Curious and Profitable Gardner_, printed in 1730, suggested this plan: That all plants should be named to indicate their color, and that the initials of their names should be the initials of their respective colors; thus if a plant were named William the Conqueror it would indicate that the name was of a white flower with crimson lines or shades. "Virtuous Oreada would indicate a violet and orange flower; Charming Phyllis or Curious Plotinus a crimson and purple blossom." S. was to indicate Black or Sable, and what letter was Scarlet to have? The "curious ingenious Gentleman" who published this plan urged also the giving of "pompous names" as more dignified; and he made the assertion that French and Flemish "Flowerists" had adopted his system. [Illustration: Edging of Striped Lilies in a Salem Garden.] These were all forerunners of Ruskin, with his poetical notions of plant nomenclature, such as this; that feminine forms of names ending in _a_ (as Prunella, Campanula, Salvia, Kalmia) and _is_ (Iris, Amarylis) should be given only to plants "that are pretty and good"; and that real names, Lucia, Clarissa, etc., be also given. Masculine names in _us_ should be given to plants of masculine qualities,--strength, force, stubbornness; neuter endings in _um_, given to plants indicative of evil or death. I have a fancy anent many old-time flower names that they are also the names of persons. I think of them as persons bearing various traits and characteristics. On the other hand, many old English Christian names seem so suited for flowers, that they might as well stand for flowers as for persons. Here are a few of these quaint old names, Collet, Colin, Emmot, Issot, Doucet, Dobinet, Cicely, Audrey, Amice, Hilary, Bryde, Morrice, Tyffany, Amery, Nowell, Ellice, Digory, Avery, Audley, Jacomin, Gillian, Petronille, Gresel, Joyce, Lettice, Cibell, Avice, Cesselot, Parnell, Renelsha. Do they not "smell sweet to the ear"? The names of flowers are often given as Christian names. Children have been christened by the names Dahlia, Clover, Hyacinth, Asphodel, Verbena, Mignonette, Pansy, Heartsease, Daisy, Zinnia, Fraxinella, Poppy, Daffodil, Hawthorn. What power have the old English names of garden flowers, to unlock old memories, as have the flowers themselves! Dr. Earle writes, "The fascination of plant names is founded on two instincts; love of Nature, and curiosity about Language." To these I should add an equally strong instinct in many persons--their sensitiveness to associations. I am never more filled with a sense of the delight of old English plant-names than when I read the liquid verse of Spenser:-- "Bring hether the pincke and purple Cullembine ... with Gellifloures, Bring hether Coronations and Sops-in-wine Worne of paramours. Sow me the ground with Daffadowndillies And Cowslips and Kingcups and loved Lilies, The pretty Pawnce The Chevisaunce Shall match with the fayre Flour Delice." Why, the names are a pleasure, though you know not what the Sops-in-wine or the Chevisaunce were. Gilliflowers were in the verses of every poet. One of scant fame, named Plat, thus sings:-- "Here spring the goodly Gelofors, Some white, some red in showe; Here pretie Pinks with jagged leaves On rugged rootes do growe; The Johns so sweete in showe and smell, Distinct by colours twaine, About the borders of their beds In seemlie sight remaine." If there ever existed any difference between Sweet-johns and Sweet-williams, it is forgotten now. They have not shared a revival of popularity with other old-time favorites. They were one of the "garland flowers" of Gerarde's day, and were "esteemed for beauty, to deck up the bosoms of the beautiful, and for garlands and crowns of pleasure." In the gardens of Hampton Court in the days of King Henry VIII., were Sweet-williams, for the plants had been bought by the bushel. Sweet-williams are little sung by the poets, and I never knew any one to call the Sweet-william her favorite flower, save one person. Old residents of Worcester will recall the tiny cottage that stood on the corner of Chestnut and Pleasant streets, since the remote years when the latter-named street was a post-road. It was occupied during my childhood by friends of my mother--a century-old mother, and her ancient unmarried daughter. Behind the house stretched one of the most cheerful gardens I have ever seen; ever, in my memory, bathed in glowing sunlight and color. Of its glories I recall specially the long spires of vivid Bee Larkspur, the varied Poppies of wonderful growth, and the rioting Sweet-williams. The latter flowers had some sentimental association to the older lady, who always asserted with emphasis to all visitors that they were her favorite flower. They overran the entire garden, crowding the grass plot where the washed garments were hung out to dry, even growing in the chinks of the stone steps and between the flat stone flagging of the little back yard, where stood the old well with its moss-covered bucket. They spread under the high board fence and appeared outside on Chestnut Street; and they extended under the dense Lilac bushes and Cedars and down the steep grass bank and narrow steps to Pleasant Street. The seed was carefully gathered, especially of one glowing crimson beauty, the color of the Mullein Pink, and a gift of it was highly esteemed by other garden owners. Old herbals say the Sweet-williams are "worthy the Respect of the Greatest Ladies who are Lovers of Flowers." They certainly had the respect and love of these two old ladies, who were truly Lovers of Flowers. [Illustration: Garden Seat at Avonwood Court.] I recall an objection made to Sweet-williams, by some one years ago, that they were of no use or value save in the garden; that they could never be combined in bouquets, nor did they arrange well in vases. It is a place of honor, some of us believe, to be a garden flower as well as a vase flower. This garden was the only one I knew when a child which contained plants of Love-lies-bleeding--it had even then been deemed old-fashioned and out of date. And it also held a few Sunflowers, which had not then had a revival of attention, and seemed as obsolete as the Love-lies-bleeding. The last-named flower I always disliked, a shapeless, gawky creature, described in florists' catalogues and like publications as "an effective plant easily attaining to a splendid form bearing many plume-tufts of rich lustrous crimson." It is the "immortal amarant" chosen by Milton to crown the celestial beings in _Paradise Lost_. Poor angels! they have had many trying vagaries of attire assigned to them. I can contribute to plant lore one fantastic notion in regard to Love-lies-bleeding--though I can find no one who can confirm this memory of my childhood. I recall distinctly expressions of surprise and regret that these two old people in Worcester should retain the Love-lies-bleeding in their garden, because "the house would surely be struck with lightning." Perhaps this fancy contributed to the exile of the flower from gardens. [Illustration: Terraced Garden of the Misses Nichols, Salem, Massachusetts.] There be those who write, and I suppose they believe, that a love of Nature and perception of her beauties and a knowledge of flowers, are the dower of those who are country born and bred; by which is meant reared upon a farm. I have not found this true. Farm children have little love for Nature and are surprisingly ignorant about wild flowers, save a very few varieties. The child who is garden bred has a happier start in life, a greater love and knowledge of Nature. It is a principle of Froebel that one must limit a child's view in order to coördinate his perceptions. That is precisely what is done in a child's regard of Nature by his life in a garden; his view is limited and he learns to know garden flowers and birds and insects thoroughly, when the vast and bewildering variety of field and forest would have remained unappreciated by him. It is a distressing condition of the education of farmers, that they know so little about the country. The man knows about his crops and his wife about the flowers, herbs, and vegetables of her garden; but no countrymen know the names of wild flowers--and few countrywomen, save of medicinal herbs. I asked one farmer the name of a brilliant autumnal flower whose intense purple was then unfamiliar to me--the Devil's-bit. He answered, "Them's Woilets." Violet is the only word in which the initial V is ever changed to W by native New Englanders. Every pink or crimson flower is a Pink. Spring blossoms are "Mayflowers." A frequent answer is, "Those ain't flowers, they're weeds." They are more knowing as to trees, though shaky about the evergreen trees, having little idea of varieties and inclined to call many Spruce. They know little about the reasons for names of localities, or of any historical traditions save those of the Revolution. One exclaims in despair, "No one in the country knows anything about the country." This is no recent indifference and ignorance; Susan Cooper wrote in her _Rural Hours_ in 1848:-- "When we first made acquaintance with the flowers of the neighborhood we asked grown persons--learned perhaps in many matters--the common names of plants they must have seen all their lives, and we found they were no wiser than the children or ourselves. It is really surprising how little country people know on such subjects. Farmers and their wives can tell you nothing on these matters. The men are at fault even among the trees on their own farms, if they are at all out of the common way; and as for smaller native plants, they know less about them than Buck or Brindle, their own oxen." [Illustration: Kitchen Dooryard at Wilbour Farm, Kingston, Rhode Island.] In that delightful book, _The Rescue of an Old Place_, the author has a chapter on the love of flowers in America. It was written anent the everpresent statements seen in metropolitan print that Americans do not love flowers because they are used among the rich and fashionable in large cities for extravagant display rather than for enjoyment; and that we accept botanical names for our indigenous plants instead of calling them by homely ones such as familiar flowers are known by in older lands. Two more foolish claims could scarcely be made. In the first place, the doings of fashionable folk in large cities are fortunately far from being a national index or habit. Secondly, in ancient lands the people named the flowers long before there were botanists, here the botanists found the flowers and named them for the people. Moreover, country folk in New England and even in the far West call flowers by pretty folk-names, if they call them at all, just as in Old England. The fussing over the use of the scientific Latin names for plants apparently will never cease; many of these Latin names are very pleasant, have become so from constant usage, and scarcely seem Latin; thus Clematis, Tiarella, Rhodora, Arethusa, Campanula, Potentilla, Hepatica. When I know the folk-names of flowers I always speak thus of them--and _to them_; but I am grateful too for the scientific classification and naming, as a means of accurate distinction. For any flower student quickly learns that the same English folk-name is given in different localities to very different plants. For instance, the name Whiteweed is applied to ten different plants; there are in England ten or twelve Cuckoo-flowers, and twenty-one Bachelor's Buttons. Such names as Mayflower, Wild Pink, Wild Lily, Eyebright, Toad-flax, Ragged Robin, None-so-pretty, Lady's-fingers, Four-o'clocks, Redweed, Buttercups, Butterflower, Cat's-tail, Rocket, Blue-Caps, Creeping-jenny, Bird's-eye, Bluebells, apply to half a dozen plants. The old folk-names are not definite, but they are delightful; they tell of mythology and medicine, of superstitions and traditions; they show trains of relationship, and associations; in fact, they appeal more to the philologist and antiquarian than to the botanist. Among all the languages which contribute to the variety and picturesqueness of English plant names, Dr. Prior deems Maple the only one surviving from the Celtic language. Gromwell and Wormwood may possibly be added. [Illustration: "A running ribbon of perfumed snow which the sun is melting rapidly."] There are some Anglo-Saxon words; among them Hawthorn and Groundsel. French, Dutch, and Danish names are many, Arabic and Persian are more. Many plant names are dedicatory; they embody the names of the saints and a few the names of the Deity. Our Lady's Flowers are many and interesting; my daughter wrote a series of articles for the _New York Evening Post_ on Our Lady's Flowers, and the list swelled to a surprising number. The devil and witches have their shares of flowers, as have the fairies. I have always regretted deeply that our botanists neglected an opportunity of great enrichment in plant nomenclature when they ignored the Indian names of our native plants, shrubs, and trees. The first names given these plants were not always planned by botanists; they were more often invented in loving memory of English plants, or sometimes from a fancied resemblance to those plants. They did give the wonderfully descriptive name of Moccasin-flower to that creature of the wild-woods; and a far more appropriate title it is than Lady's-slipper, but it is not as well known. I have never found the Lady's-slipper as beautiful a flower as do nearly all my friends, as did my father and mother, and I was pleased at Ruskin's sharp comment that such a slipper was only fit for very gouty old toes. Pappoose-root utilizes another Indian word. Very few Indian plant names were adopted by the white men, fewer still have been adopted by the scientists. The _Catalpa speciosa_ (Catalpa); the _Zea mays_ (Maize); and _Yucca filamentosa_ (Yucca), are the only ones I know. Chinkapin, Cohosh, Hackmatack, Kinnikinnik, Tamarack, Persimmon, Tupelo, Squash, Puccoon, Pipsissewa, Musquash, Pecan, the Scuppernong and Catawba grapes, are our only well-known Indian plant names that survive. Of these Maize, the distinctive product of the United States, will ever link us with the vanishing Indian. It will be noticed that only Puccoon, Cohosh, Pipsissewa, Hackmatack, and Yucca are names of flowering plants; of these Yucca is the only one generally known. I am glad our stately native trees, Tupelo, Hickory, Catalpa, bear Indian names. A curious example of persistence, when so much else has perished, is found in the word "Kiskatomas," the shellbark nut. This Algonquin word was heard everywhere in the state of New York sixty years ago, and is not yet obsolete in families of Dutch descent who still care for the nut itself. We could very well have preserved many Indian names, among them Hiawatha's "Beauty of the springtime, The Miskodeed in blossom," I think Miskodeed a better name than Claytonia or Spring Beauty. The Onondaga Indians had a suggestive name for the Marsh Marigold, "It-opens-the-swamps," which seems to show you the yellow stars "shining in swamps and hollows gray." The name Cowslip has been transferred to it in some localities in New England, which is not strange when we find that the flower has fifty-six English folk-names; among them are Drunkards, Crazy Bet, Meadow-bright, Publicans and Sinners, Soldiers' Buttons, Gowans, Kingcups, and Buttercups. Our Italian street venders call them Buttercups. In erudite Boston, in sight of Boston Common, the beautiful Fringed Gentian is not only called, but labelled, French Gentian. To hear a lovely bunch of the Arethusa called Swamp Pink is not so strange. The Sabbatia grows in its greatest profusion in the vicinity of Plymouth, Massachusetts, and is called locally, "The Rose of Plymouth." It is sold during its season of bloom in the streets of that town and is used to dress the churches. Its name was given to honor an early botanist, Tiberatus Sabbatia, but in Plymouth there is an almost universal belief that it was named because the Pilgrims of 1620 first saw the flower on the Sabbath day. It thus is regarded as a religious emblem, and strong objection is made to mingling other flowers with it in church decoration. This legend was invented about thirty years ago by a man whose name is still remembered as well as his work. [Illustration: Fountain Garden at Sylvester Manor.] CHAPTER XIII TUSSY-MUSSIES "There be some flowers make a delicious Tussie-Mussie or Nosegay both for Sight and Smell." --JOHN PARKINSON, _A Garden of all Sorts of Pleasant Flowers_, 1629. No following can be more productive of a study and love of word derivations and allied word meanings than gardening. An interest in flowers and in our English tongue go hand in hand. The old mediæval word at the head of this chapter has a full explanation by Nares as "A nosegay, a tuzzie-muzzie, a sweet posie." The old English form, _tussy-mose_ was allied with _tosty_, a bouquet, _tuss_ and _tusk_, a wisp, as of hay, _tussock_, and _tutty_, a nosegay. Thomas Campion wrote:-- "Joan can call by name her cows, And deck her windows with green boughs; She can wreathes and tuttyes make, And trim with plums a bridal cake." Tussy-mussy was not a colloquial word; it was found in serious, even in religious, text. A tussy-mussy was the most beloved of nosegays, and was often made of flowers mingled with sweet-scented leaves. My favorite tussy-mussy, if made of flowers, would be of Wood Violet, Cabbage Rose, and Clove Pink. These are all beautiful flowers, but many of our most delightful fragrances do not come from flowers of gay dress; even these three are not showy flowers; flowers of bold color and growth are not apt to be sweet-scented; and all flower perfumes of great distinction, all that are unique, are from blossoms of modest color and bearing. The Calycanthus, called Virginia Allspice, Sweet Shrub, or Strawberry bush, has what I term a perfume of distinction, and its flowers are neither fine in shape, color, nor quality. I have often tried to define to myself the scent of the Calycanthus blooms; they have an aromatic fragrance somewhat like the ripest Pineapples of the tropics, but still richer; how I love to carry them in my hand, crushed and warm, occasionally holding them tight over my mouth and nose to fill myself with their perfume. The leaves have a similar, but somewhat varied and sharper, scent, and the woody stems another; the latter I like to nibble. This flower has an element of mystery in it--that indescribable quality felt by children, and remembered by prosaic grown folk. Perhaps its curious dark reddish brown tint may have added part of the queerness, since the "Mourning Bride," similar in color, has a like mysterious association. I cannot explain these qualities to any one not a garden-bred child; and as given in the chapter entitled The Mystery of Flowers, they will appear to many, fanciful and unreal--but I have a fraternity who will understand, and who will know that it was this same undefinable quality that made a branch of Strawberry bush, or a handful of its stemless blooms, a gift significant of interest and intimacy; we would not willingly give Calycanthus blossoms to a child we did not like, or to a stranger. [Illustration: Hawthorn Arch at Holly House, Peace Dale, Rhode Island. Home of Rowland G. Hazard, Esq.] A rare perfume floats from the modest yellow Flowering Currant. I do not see this sweet and sightly shrub in many modern gardens, and it is our loss. The crowding bees are goodly and cheerful, and the flowers are pleasant, but the perfume is of the sort you can truly say you love it; its aroma is like some of the liqueurs of the old monks. The greatest pleasure in flower perfumes comes to us through the first flowers of spring. How we breathe in their sweetness! Our native wild flowers give us the most delicate odors. The Mayflower is, I believe, the only wild flower for which all country folk of New England have a sincere affection; it is not only a beautiful, an enchanting flower, but it is so fresh, so balmy of bloom. It has the delicacy of texture and form characteristic of many of our native spring blooms, Hepatica, Anemone, Spring Beauty, Polygala. The Arethusa was one of the special favorites of my father and mother, who delighted in its exquisite fragrance. Hawthorne said of it: "One of the delicatest, gracefullest, and in every manner sweetest of the whole race of flowers. For a fortnight past I have found it in the swampy meadows, growing up to its chin in heaps of wet moss. Its hue is a delicate pink, of various depths of shade, and somewhat in the form of a Grecian helmet." It pleases me to fancy that Hawthorne was like the Arethusa, that it was a fit symbol of the nature of our greatest New England genius. Perfect in grace and beauty, full of sentiment, classic and elegant of shape, it has a shrinking heart; the sepals and petals rise over it and shield it, and the whole flower is shy and retiring, hiding in marshes and quaking bogs. It is one of our flowers which we ever regard singly, as an individual, a rare and fine spirit; we never think of it as growing in an expanse or even in groups. This lovely flower has, as Landor said of the flower of the vine, "a scent so delicate that it requires a sigh to inhale it." The faintest flower scents are the best. You find yourself longing for just a little more, and you bury your face in the flowers and try to draw out a stronger breath of balm. Apple blossoms, certain Violets, and Pansies have this pale perfume. In the front yard of my childhood's home grew a Larch, an exquisitely graceful tree, one now little planted in Northern climates. I recall with special delight the faint fragrance of its early shoots. The next tree was a splendid pink Hawthorn. What a day of mourning it was when it had to be cut down, for trees had been planted so closely that many must be sacrificed as years went on and all grew in stature. There are some smells that are strangely pleasing to the country lover which are neither from fragrant flower nor leaf; one is the scent of the upturned earth, most heartily appreciated in early spring. The smell of a ploughed field is perhaps the best of all earthy scents, though what Bliss Carman calls "the racy smell of the forest loam" is always good. Another is the burning of weeds of garden rakings, "The spicy smoke Of withered weeds that burn where gardens be." A garden "weed-smother" always makes me think of my home garden, and my father, who used to stand by this burning weed-heap, raking in the withered leaves. Many such scents are pleasing chiefly through the power of association. [Illustration: Thyme-covered Graves.] The sense of smell in its psychological relations is most subtle:-- "The subtle power in perfume found, Nor priest nor sibyl vainly learned; On Grecian shrine or Aztec mound No censer idly burned. "And Nature holds in wood and field Her thousand sunlit censers still; To spells of flower and shrub we yield Against or with our will." Dr. Holmes notes that memory, imagination, sentiment, are most readily touched through the sense of smell. He tells of the associations borne to him by the scent of Marigold, of Life-everlasting, of an herb closet. Notwithstanding all these tributes to sweet scents and to the sense of smell, it is not deemed, save in poetry, wholly meet to dwell much on smells, even pleasant ones. To all who here sniff a little disdainfully at a whole chapter given to flower scents, let me repeat the Oriental proverb:-- "To raise Flowers is a Common Thing, God alone gives them Fragrance." Balmier far, and more stimulating and satisfying than the perfumes of most blossoms, is the scent of aromatic or balsamic leaves, of herbs, of green growing things. Sweetbrier, says Thoreau, is thus "thrice crowned: in fragrant leaf, tinted flower, and glossy fruit." Every spring we long, as Whittier wrote-- "To come to Bayberry scented slopes, And fragrant Fern and Groundmat vine, Breathe airs blown o'er holt and copse, Sweet with black Birch and Pine." All these scents of holt and copse are dear to New Englanders. I have tried to explain the reason for the charm to me of growing Thyme. It is not its beautiful perfume, its clear vivid green, its tiny fresh flowers, or the element of historic interest. Alphonse Karr gives another reason, a sentiment of gratitude. He says:-- "Thyme takes upon itself to embellish the parts of the earth which other plants disdain. If there is an arid, stony, dry soil, burnt up by the sun, it is there Thyme spreads its charming green beds, perfumed, close, thick, elastic, scattered over with little balls of blossom, pink in color, and of a delightful freshness." Thyme was, in older days, spelt Thime and Time. This made the poet call it "pun-provoking Thyme." I have an ancient recipe from an old herbal for "Water of Time to ease the Passions of the Heart." This remedy is efficacious to-day, whether you spell it time or thyme. There are shown on page 301 some lonely graves in the old Moravian burying-ground in Bethlehem, overgrown with the pleasant perfumed Thyme. And as we stand by their side we think with a half smile--a tender one--of the never-failing pun of the old herbalists. Spenser called Thyme "bee-alluring," "honey-laden." It was the symbol of sweetness; and the Thyme that grew on the sunny slopes of Mt. Hymettus gave to the bees the sweetest and most famed of all honey. The plant furnished physic as well as perfume and puns and honey. Pliny named eighteen sovereign remedies made from Thyme. These cured everything from the "bite of poysonful spidars" to "the Apoplex." There were so many recipes in the English _Compleat Chirurgeon_, and similar medical books, that you would fancy venomous spiders were as thick as gnats in England. These spider cure-alls are however simply a proof that the recipes were taken from dose-books of Pliny and various Roman physicians, with whom spider bites were more common and more painful than in England. _The Haven of Health_, written in 1366, with a special view to the curing of "Students," says that Wild Thyme has a great power to drive away heaviness of mind, "to purge melancholly and splenetick humours." And the author recommends to "sup the leaves with eggs." The leaves were used everywhere "to be put in puddings and such like meates, so that in divers places Thime was called Pudding-grass." Pudding in early days was the stuffing of meat and poultry, while concoctions of eggs, milk, flour, sugar, etc., like our modern puddings, were called whitpot. Many traditions hang around Thyme. It was used widely in incantations and charms. It was even one of the herbs through whose magic power you could see fairies. Here is a "Choice Proven Secret made Known" from the Ashmolean Mss. How to see Fayries "Rx. A pint of Sallet-Oyle and put it into a vial-glasse but first wash it with Rose-water and Marygolde-water the Flowers to be gathered toward the East. Wash it until teh Oyle come white. Then put it in the glasse, _ut supra_: Then put thereto the budds of Holyhocke, the flowers of Marygolde, the flowers or toppers of Wild Thyme, the budds of young Hazle: and the time must be gathered neare the side of a Hill where Fayries used to be: and take the grasse off a Fayrie throne. Then all these put into the Oyle into the Glasse, and sette it to dissolve three dayes in the Sunne and then keep for thy use _ut supra_." [Illustration: "White Umbrellas of Elder."] "I know a bank whereon the Wild Thyme blows"--it is not in old England, but on Long Island; the dense clusters of tiny aromatic flowers form a thick cushioned carpet under our feet. Lord Bacon says in his essay on Gardens:-- "Those which perfume the air most delightfully, not passed by as the rest, but being trodden upon and crushed are three: that is, Burnet, Wild Thyme, and Water-Mints. Therefore you are to set whole alleys of them, to have the pleasure when you walk or tread." Here we have an alley of Thyme, set by nature, for us to tread upon and enjoy, though Thyme always seems to me so classic a plant, that it is far too fine to walk upon; one ought rather to sleep and dream upon it. Great bushes of Elder, another flower of witchcraft, grow and blossom near my Thyme bank. Old Thomas Browne, as long ago as 1685 called the Elder bloom "white umbrellas"--which has puzzled me much, since we are told to assign the use and knowledge of umbrellas in England to a much later date; perhaps he really wrote umbellas. Now it is a well-known fact--sworn to in scores of old herbals, that any one who stands on Wild Thyme, by the side of an Elder bush, on Midsummer Eve, will "see great experiences"; his eyes will be opened, his wits quickened, his vision clarified; and some have even seen fairies, pixies--Shakespeare's elves--sporting over the Thyme at their feet. I shall not tell whom I saw walking on my Wild Thyme bank last Midsummer Eve. I did not need the Elder bush to open my eyes. I watched the twain strolling back and forth in the half-light, and I heard snatches of talk as they walked toward me, and I lost the responses as they turned from me. At last, in a louder voice:-- HE. "What is this jolly smell all around here? Just like a mint-julep! Some kind of a flower?" SHE. "It's Thyme, Wild Thyme; it has run into the edge of the lawn from the field, and is just ruining the grass." HE (_stooping to pick it_). "Why, so it is. I thought it came from that big white flower over there by the hedge." SHE. "No, that is Elder." HE (_after a pause_). "I had to learn a lot of old Arnold's poetry at school once, or in college, and there was some just like to-night:-- "'The evening comes--the fields are still, The tinkle of the thirsty rill, Unheard all day, ascends again. Deserted is the half-mown plain, And from the Thyme upon the height, And from the Elder-blossom white, And pale Dog Roses in the hedge, And from the Mint-plant in the sedge, In puffs of balm the night air blows The perfume which the day foregoes-- And on the pure horizon far See pulsing with the first-born star The liquid light above the hill. The evening comes--the fields are still.'" Then came the silence and half-stiffness which is ever apt to follow any long quotation, especially any rare recitation of verse by those who are notoriously indifferent to the charms of rhyme and rhythm, and are of another sex than the listener. It seems to indicate an unusual condition of emotion, to be a sort of barometer of sentiment, and the warning of threatening weather was not unheeded by her; hence her response was somewhat nervous in utterance, and instinctively perverse and contradictory. SHE. "That line, 'The liquid light above the hill,' is very lovely, but I can't see that it's any of it at all like to-night." HE (_stoutly and resentfully_). "Oh, no! not at all! There's the field, all still, and here's Thyme, and Elder, and there are wild Roses!--and see! the moon is coming up--so there's your liquid light." SHE. "Well! Yes, perhaps it is; at any rate it is a lovely night. You've read _Lavengro_? No? Certainly you must have heard of it. The gipsy in it says: 'Life is sweet, brother. There's day and night, brother, both sweet things; sun, moon, and stars, brother, all sweet things; there is likewise a wind on the heath.'" HE (_dubiously_). "That's rather queer poetry, if it is poetry--and you must know I do not like to hear you call me brother." Whereupon I discreetly betrayed my near presence on the piazza, to prove that the field, though still, was not deserted. And soon the twain said they would walk to the club house to view the golf prizes; and they left the Wild Thyme and Elder blossoms white, and turned their backs on the moon, and fell to golf and other eminently unromantic topics, far safer for Midsummer Eve than poesy and other sweet things. [Illustration: Lower Garden at Sylvester Manor.] CHAPTER XIV JOAN SILVER-PIN "Being of many variable colours, and of great beautie, although of evill smell, our gentlewomen doe call them Jone Silver-pin." --JOHN GERARDE, _Herball_, 1596. Garden Poppies were the Joan Silver-pin of Gerarde, stigmatized also by Parkinson as "Jone Silver-pinne, _subauditur_; faire without and foule within." In Elizabeth's day Poppies met universal distrust and aversion, as being the source of the dreaded opium. Spenser called the flower "dead-sleeping" Poppy; Morris "the black heart, amorous Poppy"--which might refer to the black spots in the flower's heart. Clare, in his _Shepherd's Calendar_ also asperses them:-- "Corn-poppies, that in crimson dwell, Called Head-aches from their sickly smell." Forby adds this testimony: "Any one by smelling of it for a very short time may convince himself of the propriety of the name." Some fancied that the dazzle of color caused headaches--that vivid scarlet, so fine a word as well as color that it is annoying to hear the poets change it to crimson. [Illustration: "Black Heart, Amorous Poppies."] This regard of and aversion to the Poppy lingered among elderly folks till our own day; and I well recall the horror of a visitor of antique years in our mother's garden during our childhood, when we were found cheerfully eating Poppy seeds. She viewed us with openly expressed apprehension that we would fall into a stupor; and quite terrified us and our relatives, in spite of our assertions that we "always ate them," which indeed we always did and do to this day; and very pleasant of taste they are, and of absolutely no effect, and not at all of evil smell to our present fancy, either in blossom or seed, though distinctly medicinal in odor. Returned missionaries were frequent and honored visitors in our town and our house in those days; and one of these good men reassured us and reinstated in favor our uncanny feast by telling us that in the East, Poppy seeds were eaten everywhere, and were frequently baked with wheaten flour into cakes. A dislike of the scent of Field Poppies is often found among English folk. The author of _A World in a Garden_ speaks in disgust of "the pungent and sickly odor of the flaring Poppies--they positively nauseate me"; but then he disliked their color too. There is something very fine about a Poppy, in the extraordinary combination of boldness of color and great size with its slender delicacy of stem, the grace of the set of the beautiful buds, the fine turn of the flower as it opens, and the wonderful airiness of poise of so heavy a flower. The silkiness of tissue of the petals, and their semi-transparency in some colors, and the delicate fringes of some varieties, are great charms. "Each crumpled crêpe-like leaf is soft as silk; Long, long ago the children saw them there, Scarlet and rose, with fringes white as milk, And called them 'shawls for fairies' dainty wear'; They were not finer, those laid safe away In that low attic, neath the brown, warm eaves." And when the flowers have shed, oh, so lightly! their silken petals, there is still another beauty, a seed vessel of such classic shape that it wears a crown. I have always rejoiced in the tributes paid to the Poppy by Ruskin and Mrs. Thaxter. She deemed them the most satisfactory flower among the annuals "for wondrous variety, certain picturesque qualities, for color and form, and a subtle air of mystery." There is a line of Poppy colors which is most entrancing; the gray, smoke color, lavender, mauve, and lilac Poppies, edged often and freaked with tints of red, are rarely beautiful things. There are fine white Poppies, some fringed, some single, some double--the Bride is the appropriate name of the fairest. And the pinks of Poppies, that wonderful red-pink, and a shell-pink that is almost salmon, and the sunset pinks of our modern Shirley Poppies, with quality like finest silken gauze! The story of the Shirley Poppies is one of magic, that a flower-loving clergyman who in 1882 sowed the seed of one specially beautiful Poppy which had no black in it, and then sowed those of its fine successors, produced thus a variety which has supplied the world with beauty. Rev. Mr. Wilks, their raiser, gives these simply worded rules anent his Shirley Poppies:-- "1, They are single; 2, always have a white base; 3, with yellow or white stamens, anthers, or pollen; 4, and never have the smallest particle of black about them." The thought of these successful and beautiful Poppies is very stimulating to flower raisers of moderate means, with no profound knowledge of flowers; it shows what can be done by enthusiasm and application and patience. It gives something of the same comfort found in Keats's fine lines to the singing thrush:-- "Oh! fret not after knowledge. I have none, _and yet the evening listens_." Notwithstanding all this distinction and beauty, these fine things of the garden were dubbed Joan Silver-pin. I wonder who Joan Silver-pin was! I have searched faithfully for her, but have not been able to get on the right scent. Was she of real life, or fiction? I have looked through the lists of characters of contemporary plays, and read a few old jest books and some short tales of that desperately colorless sort, wherein you read page after page of the printed words with as little absorption of signification as if they were Choctaw. But never have I seen Joan Silver-pin's name; it was a bit of Elizabethan slang, I suspect,--a cant term once well known by every one, now existing solely through this chance reference of the old herbalists. [Illustration: Valerian.] No garden can aspire to be named An Old-fashioned Garden unless it contains that beautiful plant the Garden Valerian, known throughout New England to-day as Garden Heliotrope; as Setwall it grew in every old garden, as it was in every pharmacopoeia. It was termed "drink-quickening Setuale" by Spenser, from the universal use of its flowers to flavor various enticing drinks. Its lovely blossoms are pinkish in bud and open to pure white; its curiously penetrating vanilla-like fragrance is disliked by many who are not cats. I find it rather pleasing of scent when growing in the garden, and not at all like the extremely nasty-smelling medicine which is made from it, and which has been used for centuries for "histerrick fits," and is still constantly prescribed to-day for that unsympathized-with malady. Dr. Holmes calls it, "Valerian, calmer of hysteric squirms." It is a stately plant when in tall flower in June; my sister had great clumps of bloom like the ones shown above, but alas! the cats caught them before the photographer did. The cats did not have to watch the wind and sun and rain, to pick out plates and pack plate-holders, and gather ray-fillers and cloth and lens, and adjust the tripod, and fix the camera and focus, and think, and focus, and think, and then wait--till the wind ceased blowing. So when they found it, they broke down every slender stalk and rolled in it till the ground was tamped down as hard as if one of our lazy road-menders had been at it. Valerian has in England as an appropriate folk name, "Cats'-fancy." The pretty little annual, Nemophila, makes also a favorite rolling-place for our cat; while all who love cats have given them Catnip and seen the singular intoxication it brings. The sight of a cat in this strange ecstasy over a bunch of Catnip always gives me a half-sense of fear; she becomes such a truly wild creature, such a miniature tiger. In _The Art of Gardening_, by J. W., Gent., 1683, the author says of Marigolds: "There are divers sorts besides the common as the African Marigold, a Fair bigge Yellow Flower, but of a very Naughty Smell." I cannot refrain, ere I tell more of the Marigold's naughtiness, to copy a note written in this book by a Massachusetts bride whose new husband owned and studied the book two hundred years ago; for it gives a little glimpse of old-time life. In her exact little handwriting are these words:-- "Planted in Potts, 1720: An Almond Stone, an English Wallnut, Cittron Seeds, Pistachica nutts, Red Damsons, Leamon seeds, Oring seeds and Daits." Poor Anne! she died before she had time to become any one's grandmother. I hope her successor in matrimony, our forbear, cherished her little seedlings and rejoiced in the Lemon and Almond trees, though Anne herself was so speedily forgotten. She is, however, avenged by Time; for she is remembered better than the wife who took her place, through her simple flower-loving words. I am surprised at this aspersion on the Marigold as to its smell, for all the traditions of this flower show it to have been a great favorite in kitchen gardens; and I have found that elderly folk are very apt to like its scent. My father loved the flower and the fragrance, and liked to have a bowl of Marigolds stand beside him on his library table. It was constantly carried to church as a "Sabbath-day posy," and its petals used as flavoring in soups and stews. Charles Lamb said it poisoned them. Canon Ellacombe writes that it has been banished in England to the gardens of cottages and old farm-houses; it had a waning popularity in America, but was never wholly despised. How Edward Fitzgerald loved the African Marigold! "Its grand color is so comfortable to us Spanish-like Paddies," he writes to Fanny Kemble in letters punctuated with little references to his garden flowers: letters so cheerful, too, with capitals; "I love the old way of Capitals for Names," he says--and so do I; letters bearing two surprises, namely, the infrequent references to Omar Khayyam; and the fact that Nasturtiums, not Roses, were his favorite flower. The question of the agreeableness of a flower scent is a matter of public opinion as well as personal choice. Environment and education influence us. In olden times every one liked certain scents deemed odious to-day. Parkinson's praise of Sweet Sultans was, "They are of so exceeding sweet a scent as it surpasses the best civet that is." Have you ever smelt civet? You will need no words to tell you that the civet is a little cousin of the skunk. Cowper could not talk with civet in the room; most of us could not even breathe. The old herbalists call Privet sweet-scented. I don't know that it is strange to find a generation who loved civet and musk thinking Privet pleasant-scented. Nearly all our modern botanists have copied the words of their predecessors; but I scarcely know what to say or to think when I find so exact an observer as John Burroughs calling Privet "faintly sweet-scented." I find it rankly ill-scented. The men of Elizabethan days were much more learned in perfumes and fonder of them than are most folk to-day. Authors and poets dwelt frankly upon them without seeming at all vulgar. Of course herbalists, from their choice of subject, were free to write of them at length, and they did so with evident delight. Nowadays the French realists are the only writers who boldly reckon with the sense of smell. It isn't deemed exactly respectable to dwell too much on smells, even pleasant ones; so this chapter certainly must be brief. I suppose nine-tenths of all who love flower scents would give Violets as their favorite fragrance; yet how quickly, in the hothouse Violets, can the scent become nauseous. I recall one formal luncheon whereat the many tables were mightily massed with violets; and though all looked as fresh as daybreak to the sight, some must have been gathered for a day or more, and the stale odor throughout the room was unbearable. But it is scarcely fair to decry a flower because of its scent in decay. Shakespeare wrote:-- "Lilies festered smell far worse than weeds." Many of our Compositæ are vile after standing in water in vases; Ox-eye Daisies, Rudbeckia, Zinnia, Sunflower, and even the wholesome Marigold. Delicate as is the scent of the Pansy, the smell of a bed of ancient Pansy plants is bad beyond words. The scent of the flowers of fruit-bearing trees is usually delightful; but I cannot like the scent of Pear blossoms. I dislike much the rank smell of common yellow Daffodils and of many of that family. I can scarcely tolerate them even when freshly picked, upon a dinner table. Some of the Jonquils are as sickening within doors as the Tuberose, though in both cases it is only because the scent is confined that it is cloying. In the open air, at a slight distance, they smell as well as many Lilies, and the Poet's Narcissus is deemed by many delightful. [Illustration: Old "War Office."] I have ever found the scent of Lilacs somewhat imperfect, not well rounded, not wholly satisfying; but one of my friends can never find in a bunch of our spring Lilacs any odor save that of illuminating gas. I do wish he had not told me this! Now when I stand beside my Lilac bush I feel like looking around anxiously to see where the gas is escaping. Linnæus thought the perfume of Mignonette the purest ambrosia. Another thinks that Mignonette has a doggy smell, as have several flowers; this is not wholly to their disparagement. Our cocker spaniel is sweeter than some flowers, but he is not a Mignonette. There be those who love most of all the scent of Heliotrope, which is to me a close, almost musty scent. I have even known of one or two who disliked the scent of Roses, and the Rose itself has been abhorred. Marie de' Medici would not even look at a painting or carving of a Rose. The Chevalier de Guise had a loathing for Roses. Lady Heneage, one of the maids of honor to Queen Elizabeth, was made very ill by the presence or scent of Roses. This illness was not akin to "Rose cold," which is the baneful companion of so many Americans, and which can conquer its victims in the most sudden and complete manner. Even my affection for Roses, and my intense love of their fragrance, shown in its most ineffable sweetness in the old pink Cabbage Rose, will not cause me to be silent as to the scent of some of the Rose sisters. Some of the Tea Roses, so lovely of texture, so delicate of hue, are sickening; one has a suggestion of ether which is most offensive. "A Rose by any other name would smell as sweet," but not if its name (and its being) was the Persian Yellow. This beautiful double Rose of rich yellow was introduced to our gardens about 1830. It is infrequent now, though I find it in florists' lists; and I suspect I know why. Of late years I have not seen it, but I have a remembrance of its uprootal from our garden. Mrs. Wright confirms my memory by calling it "a horrible thing--the Skunk Cabbage of the garden." It smells as if foul insects were hidden within it, a disgusting smell. I wonder whether poor Marie de' Medici hadn't had a whiff of it. A Persian Rose! it cannot be possible that Omar Khayyam ever smelt it, or any of the Rose singers of Persia, else their praises would have turned to loathing as they fled from its presence. There are two or three yellow Roses which are not pleasing, but are not abhorrent as is the Persian Yellow. One evening last May I walked down the garden path, then by the shadowy fence-side toward the barn. I was not wandering in the garden for sweet moonlight, for there was none; nor for love of flowers, nor in admiration of any of nature's works, for it was very cold; we even spoke of frost, as we ever do apprehensively on a chilly night in spring. The kitten was lost. She was in the shrubbery at the garden end, for I could hear her plaintive yowling; and I thus traced her. I gathered her up, purring and clawing, when I heard by my side a cross rustling of leaves and another complaining voice. It was the Crown-imperial, unmindful or unwitting of my presence, and muttering peevishly: "Here I am, out of fashion, and therefore out of the world! torn away from the honored border by the front door path, and even set away from the broad garden beds, and thrust with sunflowers and other plants of no social position whatever down here behind the barn, where, she dares to say, we 'can all smell to heaven together.' "What airs, forsooth! these twentieth century children put on! Smell to heaven, indeed! I wish her grandfather could have heard her! He didn't make such a fuss about smells when I was young, nor did any one else; no one's nose was so over-nice. Every spring when I came up, glorious in my dress of scarlet and green, and hung with my jewels of pearls, they were all glad to see me and to smell me, too; and well they might be, for there was a rotten-appley, old-potatoey smell in the cellar which pervaded the whole house when doors were closed. And when the frost came up from the ground the old sink drain at the kitchen door rendered up to the spring sunshine all the combined vapors of all the dish-water of all the winter. The barn and hen-house and cow-house reeked in the sunlight, but the pigpen easily conquered them all. There was an ancient cesspool far too near the kitchen door, underground and not to be seen, but present, nevertheless. A hogshead of rain-water stood at the cellar door, and one at the end of the barn--to water the flowers with--they fancied rotten rain-water made flowers grow! A foul dye-tub was ever reeking in every kitchen chimney corner, a culminating horror in stenches; and vessels of ancient soap grease festered in the outer shed, the grease collected through the winter and waiting for the spring soap-making. The vapor of sour milk, ever present, was of little moment--when there was so much else so much worse. There wasn't a bath-tub in the grandfather's house, nor in any other house in town, nor any too much bathing in winter, either, I am sure, in icy well-water in icier sleeping rooms. The windows were carefully closed all winter long, but the open fireplaces managed to save the life of the inmates, though the walls and rafters were hung with millions of germs which every one knows are all the wickeder when they don't smell, because you take no care, fancying they are not there. But the grandfather knew naught of germs--and was happy. The trees shaded the house so that the roof was always damp. Oh, how those germs grew and multiplied in the grateful shade of those lovely trees, and how mould and rust rejoiced. Well might people turn from all these sights and scents to me. The grandfather and his wife, when they were young, as when they were in middle age, and when they were old, walked every early spring day at set of sun, slowly down the front path, looking at every flower, every bud; pulling a tiny weed, gathering a choice flower, breaking a withered sprig; and they ever lingered long and happily by my side. And he always said, 'Wife! isn't this Crown-imperial a glorious plant? so stately, so perfect in form, such an expression of life, and such a personification of spring!' 'Yes, father,' she would answer quickly, 'but don't pick it.' Why, I should have resented even that word had she referred to my perfume. She meant that the garden border could not spare me. The children never could pick me, even the naughtiest ones did not dare to; but they could pull all the little upstart Ladies' Delights and Violets they wished. And yet, with all this family homage which should make me a family totem, here I am, stuck down by the barn--I, who sprung from the blood of a king, the great Gustavus Adolphus--and was sung by a poet two centuries ago in the famous _Garland of Julia_. The old Jesuit poet Rapin said of me, 'No flower aspires in pomp and state so high.' "Read this page from that master-herbalist, John Gerarde, telling of the rare beauties within my golden cup. "A very intelligent and respectable old gentleman named Parkinson, who knew far more about flowers than flighty folk do nowadays, loved me well and wrote of me, 'The Crown-imperial, for its stately beautifulnesse deserveth the first place in this our garden of delight to be here entreated of before all other Lilies.' He had good sense. It was not I who was stigmatized by him as Joan Silver-pin. He spoke very plainly and very sensibly of my perfume; there was no nonsense in his notions, he told the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth: 'The whole plant and every part thereof, as well as rootes as leaves and floures doe smell somewhat strong, as it were the savour of a foxe, so that if any doe but near it, he can but smell it, yet is not unwholesome.' "How different all is to-day in literature, as well as in flower culture. Now there are low, coarse attempts at wit that fairly wilt a sensitive nature like mine. There is one miserable Man who comes to this garden, and who _thinks_ he is a Poet; I will not repeat his wretched rhymes. But only yesterday, when he stood looking superciliously down upon us, he said sneeringly, 'Yes, spring is here, balmy spring; we know her presence without seeing her face or hearing her voice; for the Skunk Cabbage is unfurled in the swamps, and the Crown-imperial is blooming in the garden.' Think of his presuming to set me alongside that low Skunk Cabbage--me with my 'stately beautifulness.' [Illustration: Crown Imperial. A Page from Gerarde's _Herball_.] "Little do people nowadays know about scents anyway, when their botanists and naturalists write that the Privet bloom is 'pleasingly fragrant,' and one dame set last summer a dish of Privet on her dining table before many guests. Privet! with its ancient and fishlike smell! And another tells of the fragrant delight of flowering Buckwheat--may the breezes blow such fragrance far from me! But why dwell on perfumes; flowers were made to look at, not to smell; sprays of Sweet Balm or Basil leaves outsweeten every flower, and make no pretence or thought of beauty; render to each its own virtues, and try not to engross the charm of another. "I was indeed the queen of the garden, and here I am exiled behind the barn. Life is not worth living. I won't come up again. She will walk through the garden next May and say, 'How dull and shabby the garden looks this year! the spring is backward, everything has run to leaves, nothing is in bloom, we must buy more fertilizer, we must get a new gardener, we must get more plants and slips and seeds and bulbs, it is fearfully discouraging, I never saw anything so gone off!' then perhaps she will remember, and regret the friend of her grandparents, the Crown-imperial--whom she thrust from her Garden of Delight." CHAPTER XV CHILDHOOD IN A GARDEN "I see the garden thicket's shade Where all the summer long we played, And gardens set and houses made, Our early work and late." --MARY HOWITT. How we thank God for the noble traits of our ancestors; and our hearts fill with gratitude for the tenderness, the patience, the loving kindness of our parents; I have an infinite deal for which to be sincerely grateful; but for nothing am I now more happy than that there were given to me a flower-loving father and mother. To that flower-loving father and mother I offer in tenderest memory equal gratitude for a childhood spent in a garden. Winter as well as summer gave us many happy garden hours. Sometimes a sudden thaw of heavy snow and an equally quick frost formed a miniature pond for sheltered skating at the lower end of the garden. A frozen crust of snow (which our winters nowadays so seldom afford) gave other joys. And the delights of making a snow man, or a snow fort, even of rolling great globes of snow, were infinite and varied. More subtle was the charm of shaping certain _things_ from dried twigs and evergreen sprigs, and pouring water over them to freeze into a beautiful resemblance of the original form. These might be the ornate initials or name of a dear girl friend, or a tiny tower or pagoda. I once had a real winter garden in miniature set in twigs of cedar and spruce, and frozen into a fairy garden. In summertime the old-fashioned garden was a paradise for a child; the long warm days saw the fresh telling of child to child, by that curiously subtle system of transmission which exists everywhere among happy children, of quaint flower customs known to centuries of English-speaking children, and also some newer customs developed by the fitness of local flowers for such games and plays. The Countess Potocka says the intense enjoyment of nature is a sixth sense. We are not born with this good gift, nor do we often acquire it in later life; it comes through our rearing. The fulness of delight in a garden is the bequest of a childhood spent in a garden. No study or possession of flowers in mature years can afford gratification equal to that conferred by childish associations with them; by the sudden recollection of flower lore, the memory of child friendships, the recalling of games or toys made of flowers: you cannot explain it; it seems a concentration, an extract of all the sunshine and all the beauty of those happy summers of our lives when the whole day and every day was spent among flowers. The sober teachings of science in later years can never make up the loss to children debarred of this inheritance, who have grown up knowing not when "the summer comes with bee and flower." [Illustration: Milkweed Seed.] A garden childhood gives more sources of delight to the senses in after life than come from beautiful color and fine fragrance. Have you pleasure in the contact of a flower? Do you like its touch as well as its perfume? Do you love to feel a Lilac spray brush your cheek in the cool of the evening? Do you like to bury your face in a bunch of Roses? How frail and papery is the Larkspur! And how silky is the Poppy! A Locust bloom is a fringe of sweetness; and how very doubtful is the touch of the Lily--an unpleasant thick sleekness. The Clove Carnation is the best of all. It feels just as it smells. These and scores more give me pleasure through their touch, the result of constant handling of flowers when I was a child. There were harmful flowers in the old garden--among them the Monk's-hood; we never touched it, except warily. Doubtless we were warned, but we knew it by instinct and did not need to be told. I always used to see in modest homes great tubs each with a flourishing Oleander tree. I have set out scores of little slips of Oleander, just as I planted Orange seeds. I seldom see Oleanders now; I wonder whether the plant has been banished on account of its poisonous properties. I heard of but one fatal case of Oleander poisoning--and that was doubtful. A little child, the sister of one of my playmates, died suddenly in great distress. Several months after her death the mother was told that the leaves of the Oleander were poisonous, when she recalled that the child had eaten them on the day of her death. Oleander blossoms were lovely in shape and color. Edward Fitzgerald writes to Fanny Kemble: "Don't you love the Oleander? So clean in its Leaves and Stem, as so beautiful in its Flower; loving to stand in water which it drinks up fast. I have written all my best Mss. with a Pen that has been held with its nib in water for more than a fortnight--Charles Keene's recipe for keeping Pens in condition--Oleander-like." This, written in 1882, must, even at that recent date, refer to quill pens. The lines of Mary Howitt's, quoted at the beginning of this chapter, ring to me so true; there is in them no mock sentiment, it is the real thing,--"the garden thicket's shade," little "cubby houses" under the close-growing stems of Lilac and Syringa, with an old thick shawl outspread on the damp earth for a carpet. Oh, how hot and scant the air was in the green light of those close "garden-thickets," those "Lilac ambushes," which were really not half so pleasant as the cooler seats on the grass under the trees, but which we clung to with a warmth equal to their temperature. [Illustration: The Children's Garden.] Let us peer into these garden thickets at these happy little girls, fantastic in their garden dress. Their hair is hung thick with Dandelion curls, made from pale green opal-tinted stems that have grown long under the shrubbery and Box borders. Around their necks are childish wampum, strings of Dandelion beads or Daisy chains. More delicate wreaths for the neck or hair were made from the blossoms of the Four-o'clock or the petals of Phlox or Lilacs, threaded with pretty alternation of color. Fuchsias were hung at the ears for eardrops, green leaves were pinned with leaf stems into little caps and bonnets and aprons, Foxgloves made dainty children's gloves. Truly the garden-bred child went in gay attire. That exquisite thing, the seed of Milkweed (shown on page 328), furnished abundant playthings. The plant was sternly exterminated in our garden, but sallies into a neighboring field provided supplies for fairy cradles with tiny pillows of silvery silk. One of the early impulses of infancy is to put everything in the mouth; this impulse makes the creeping days of some children a period of constant watchfulness and terror to their apprehensive guardians. When the children are older and can walk in the garden or edge of the woods, a fresh anxiety arises; for a certain savagery in their make-up makes them regard every growing thing, not as an object to look at or even to play with, but to eat. It is a relief to the mother when the child grows beyond the savage, and falls under the dominion of tradition and folk-lore, communicated to him by other children by that subtle power of enlightenment common to children, which seems more like instinct than instruction. The child still eats, but he makes distinctions, and seldom touches harmful leaves or seeds or berries. He has an astonishing range: roots, twigs, leaves, bark, tendrils, fruit, berries, flowers, buds, seeds, all alike serve for food. Young shoots of Sweetbrier and Blackberry are nibbled as well as the branches of young Birch. Grape tendrils, too, have an acid zest, as do Sorrel leaves. Wild Rose hips and the drupes of dwarf Cornel are chewed. The leaf buds of Spruce and Linden are also tasted. I hear that some children in some places eat the young fronds of Cinnamon Fern, but I never saw it done. Seeds of Pumpkins and Sunflowers were edible, as well as Hollyhock cheeses. There was one Slippery Elm tree which we know in our town, and we took ample toll of it. Cherry gum and Plum gum are chewed, as well as the gum of Spruce trees. There was a boy who used sometimes to intrude on our girl's paradise, since he was the son of a neighbor, and he said he ate raw Turnips, and something he called Pig-nuts--I wonder what they were. Those childish customs linger long in our minds, or rather in our subconsciousness. I never walk through an old garden without wishing to nibble and browse on the leaves and stems which I ate as a child, without sucking a drop of honey from certain flowers. I do it not with intent, but I waken to realization with the petal of Trumpet Honeysuckle in my hand and its drop of ambrosia on my lips. [Illustration: Foxgloves in a Narragansett Garden.] Children care far less for scent and perfection in a flower than they do for color, and, above all, for desirability and adaptability of form, this desirability being afforded by the fitness of the flower for the traditional games and plays. The favorite flowers of my childhood were three noble creatures, Hollyhocks, Canterbury Bells, and Foxgloves, all three were scentless. I cannot think of a child's summer in a garden without these three old favorites of history and folk-lore. Of course we enjoyed the earlier flower blooms and played happily with them ere our dearest treasures came to us; but never had we full variety, zest, and satisfaction till this trio were in midsummer bloom. There was a little gawky, crudely-shaped wooden doll of German manufacture sold in Worcester which I never saw elsewhere; they were kept for sale by old Waxler, the German basket maker, a most respected citizen, whose name I now learn was not Waxler but Weichsler. These dolls came in three sizes, the five-cent size was a midsummer favorite, because on its featureless head the blossoms of the Canterbury Bells fitted like a high azure cap. I can see rows of these wooden creatures sitting, thus crowned, stiffly around the trunk of the old Seckel Pear tree at a doll's tea-party. By the constant trampling of our childish feet the earth at the end of the garden path was hard and smooth under the shadow of the Lilac trees near our garden fence; and this hard path, remote from wanderers in the garden, made a splendid plateau to use for flower balls. Once we fitted it up as a palace; circular walls of Balsam flowers set closely together shaped the ball-room. The dancers were blue and white Canterbury Bells. Quadrilles were placed of little twigs, or strong flower stalks set firmly upright in the hard trodden earth, and on each of these a flower bell was hung so that the pretty reflexion of the scalloped edges of the corolla just touched the ground as the hooped petticoats swayed lightly in the wind. [Illustration: Hollyhocks in Garden of Kimball Homestead, Portsmouth, New Hampshire.] We used to catch bumblebees in the Canterbury Bells, and hear them buzz and bump and tear their way out to liberty. We held the edges of the flower tightly pinched together, and were never stung. Besides its adaptability as a toy for children, the Canterbury Bell was beloved for its beauty in the garden. An appropriate folk name for it is Fair-in-sight. Healthy clumps grow tall and stately, towering up as high as childish heads; and the firm stalks are hung so closely in bloom. Nowadays people plant expanses of Canterbury Bells; one at the beautiful garden at White Birches, Elmhurst, Illinois, is shown on page 111. I do not like this as well as the planting in our home garden when they are set in a mixed border, as shown opposite page 416. Our tastes in the flower world are largely influenced by what we were wonted to in childhood, not only in the selection of flowers, but in their placing in our gardens. The Canterbury Bell has historical interest through its being named for the bells borne by pilgrims to the shrine at Canterbury. I have been delighted to see plants of these sturdy garden favorites offered for sale of late years in New York streets in springtime, by street venders, who now show a tendency to throw aside Callas, Lilies, Tuberoses, and flowers of such ilk, and substitute shrubs and seedlings of hardy growth and satisfactory flowering. But it filled me with regret, to hear the pretty historic name--Canterbury Bells--changed in so short a residence in the city, by these Italian and German tongues to Gingerbread Bells--a sad debasement. Native New Englanders have seldom forgotten or altered an old flower name, and very rarely transferred it to another plant, even in two centuries of everyday usage. But I am glad to know that the flower will bloom in the flower pot or soap box in the dingy window of the city poor, or in the square foot of earth of the city squatter, even if it be called Gingerbread Bells. I think we may safely affirm that the Hollyhock is the most popular, and most widely known, of all old-fashioned flowers. It is loved for its beauty, its associations, its adaptiveness. It is such a decorative flower, and looks of so much distinction in so many places. It is invaluable to the landscape gardener and to the architect; and might be named the wallflower, since it looks so well growing by every wall. I like it there, or by a fence-side, or in a corner, better than in the middle of flower beds. How many garden pictures have Hollyhocks? Sir Joshua Reynolds even used them as accessories of his portraits. They usually grow so well and bloom so freely. I have seen them in Connecticut growing wild--garden strays, standing up by ruined stone walls in a pasture with as much grace of grouping, as good form, as if they had been planted by our most skilful gardeners or architects. Many illustrations of them are given in this book; I need scarcely refer to them; opposite page 334 is shown a part of the four hundred stalks of rich bloom in a Portsmouth garden. There is a pretty semidouble Hollyhock with a single row of broad outer petals and a smaller double rosette for the centre; but the single flowers are far more effective. I like well the old single crimson flower, but the yellow ones are, I believe, the loveliest; a row of the yellow and white ones against an old brick wall is perfection. I can never repay to the Hollyhock the debt of gratitude I owe for the happy hours it furnished to me in my childhood. Its reflexed petals could be tied into such lovely silken-garbed dolls; its "cheeses" were one of the staple food supplies of our dolls' larder. I am sure in my childhood I would have warmly chosen the Hollyhock as my favorite flower. The sixty-two folk names of the Foxglove give ample proof of its closeness to humanity; it is a familiar flower, a home flower. Of these many names I never heard but two in New England, and those but once; an old Irish gardener called the flowers Fairy Thimbles, and an English servant, Pops--this from the well-known habit of popping the petals on the palm of the hand. We used to build little columns of these Foxgloves by thrusting one within another, alternating purple and white; and we wore them for gloves, and placed them as foolscaps on the heads of tiny dolls. The beauty of the Foxglove in the garden is unquestioned; the spires of white bloom are, as Cotton Mather said of a pious and painful Puritan preacher, "a shining and white light in a golden candlestick improved for the sweet felicity of Mankind and to the honour of our Maker." Opposite page 340 is a glimpse of a Box-edged garden in Worcester, whose blossoming has been a delight to me every summer of my entire life. In my childhood this home was that of flower-loving neighbors who had an established and constant system of exchange with my mother and other neighbors of flowers, plants, seeds, slips, and bulbs. The garden was serene with an atmosphere of worthy old age; you wondered how any man so old could so constantly plant, weed, prune, and hoe until you saw how he loved his flowers, and how his wife loved them. The Roses, Peonies, and Flower de Luce in this garden are sixty years old, and the Box also; the shrubs are almost trees. Nothing seems to be transplanted, yet all flourish; I suppose some plants must be pulled up, sometimes, else the garden would be a thicket. The varying grading of city streets has left this garden in a little valley sheltered from winds and open to the sun's rays. Here bloom Crocuses, Snowdrops, Grape Hyacinths, and sometimes Tulips, before any neighbor has a blossom and scarce a leaf. On a Sunday noon in April there are always flower lovers hanging over the low fences, and gazing at the welcome early blooms. Here if ever, "Winter, slumbering in the open air, Wears on his smiling face a dream of spring." A close cloud of Box-scent hangs over this garden, even in midwinter; sometimes the Box edgings grow until no one can walk between; then drastic measures have to be taken, and the rows look ragged for a time. [Illustration: An Autumn Path in a Worcester Garden.] I think much of my love of Box comes from happy associations with this garden. I used to like to go there with my mother when she went on what the Japanese would call "garden-viewing" visits, for at the lower end of the garden was a small orchard of the finest playhouse Apple trees I ever climbed (and I have had much experience), and some large trees bearing little globular early Pears; and there were rows of bushes of golden "Honeyblob" Gooseberries. The Apple trees are there still, but the Gooseberry bushes are gone. I looked for them this summer eagerly, but in vain; I presume the berries would have been sour had I found them. [Illustration: Hollyhocks at Tudor Place.] In many old New England gardens the close juxtaposition and even intermingling of vegetables and fruits with the flowers gave a sense of homely simplicity and usefulness which did not detract from the garden's interest, and added much to the child's pleasure. At the lower end of the long flower border in our garden, grew "Mourning Brides," white, pale lavender, and purple brown in tint. They opened under the shadow of a row of Gooseberry bushes. I seldom see Gooseberry bushes nowadays in any gardens, whether on farms or in nurseries; they seem to be an antiquated fruit. I have in my memory many other customs of childhood in the garden; some of them I have told in my book _Child Life in Colonial Days_, and there are scores more which I have not recounted, but most of them were peculiar to my own fanciful childhood, and I will not recount them here. One of the most exquisite of Mrs. Browning's poems is _The Lost Bower_; it is endeared to me because it expresses so fully a childish bereavement of my own, for I have a lost garden. Somewhere, in my childhood, I saw this beautiful garden, filled with radiant blossoms, rich with fruit and berries, set with beehives, rabbit hutches, and a dove cote, and enclosed about with hedges; and through it ran a purling brook--a thing I ever longed for in my home garden. All one happy summer afternoon I played in it, and gathered from its beds and borders at will--and I have never seen it since. When I was still a child I used to ask to return to it, but no one seemed to understand; and when I was grown I asked where it was, describing it in every detail, and the only answer was that it was a dream, I had never seen and played in such a garden. This lost garden has become to me an emblem, as was the lost bower to Mrs. Browning, of the losses of life; but I did not lose all; while memory lasts I shall ever possess the happiness of my childhood passed in our home garden. [Illustration: An Old Worcester Garden.] CHAPTER XVI MEETIN' SEED AND SABBATH DAY POSIES "I touched a thought, I know Has tantalized me many times. Help me to hold it! First it left The yellowing Fennel run to seed." --ROBERT BROWNING. My "thought" is the association of certain flowers with Sunday; the fact that special flowers and leaves and seeds, Fennel, Dill, and Southernwood, were held to be fitting and meet to carry to the Sunday service. "Help me to hold it"--to record those simple customs of the country-side ere they are forgotten. In the herb garden grew three free-growing plants, all three called indifferently in country tongue, "meetin' seed." They were Fennel, Dill, and Caraway, and similar in growth and seed. Caraway is shown on page 342. Their name was given because, in summer days of years gone by, nearly every woman and child carried to "meeting" on Sundays, bunches of the ripe seeds of one or all of these three plants, to nibble throughout the long prayers and sermon. It is fancied that these herbs were anti-soporific, but I find no record of such power. On the contrary, Galen says Dill "procureth sleep, wherefore garlands of Dill are worn at feasts." A far more probable reason for its presence at church was the quality assigned to it by Pliny and other herbalists down to Gerarde, that of staying the "yeox or hicket or hicquet," otherwise the hiccough. If we can judge by the manifold remedies offered to allay this affliction, it was certainly very prevalent in ancient times. Cotton Mather wrote a bulky medical treatise entitled _The Angel of Bethesda_. It was never printed; the manuscript is owned by the American Antiquarian Society. The character of this medico-religious book may be judged by this opening sentence of his chapter on the hiccough:-- "The Hiccough or the Hicox rather, for it's a Teutonic word that signifies to sob, appears a Lively Emblem of the battle between the Flesh and the Spirit in the Life of Piety. The Conflict in the Pious Mind gives all the Trouble and same uneasiness as Hickox. Death puts an end to the Conflict." [Illustration: Caraway.] Parson Mather gives Tansy and Caraway as remedies for the hiccough, but far better still--spiders, prepared in various odious ways; I prefer Dill. Peter Parley said that "a sprig of Fennel was the theological smelling-bottle of the tender sex, and not unfrequently of the men, who from long sitting in the sanctuary, after a week of labor in the field, found themselves tempted to sleep, would sometimes borrow a sprig of Fennel, to exorcise the fiend that threatened their spiritual welfare." Old-fashioned folk kept up a constant nibbling in church, not only of these three seeds, but of bits of Cinnamon or Lovage root, or, more commonly still, the roots of Sweet Flag. Many children went to brooksides and the banks of ponds to gather these roots. This pleasure was denied to us, but we had a Flag root purveyor, our milkman's daughter. This milkman, who lived on a lonely farm, used often to take with him on his daily rounds his little daughter. She sat with him on the front seat of his queer cart in summer and his queerer pung in winter, an odd little figure, with a face of gypsylike beauty which could scarcely be seen in the depths of the Shaker sunbonnet or pumpkin hood. If my mother chanced to see her, she gave the child an orange, or a few figs, or some little cakes, or almonds and raisins; in return the child would throw out to us violently roots of Sweet Flag, Wild Ginger, Snakeroot, Sassafras, and Apples or Pears, which she carried in a deep detached pocket at her side. She never spoke, and the milkman confided to my mother that he "took her around because she was so wild," by which he meant timid. We were firmly convinced that the child could not walk nor speak, and had no ears; and we were much surprised when she walked down the aisle of our church one Sunday as actively as any child could, displaying very natural ears. Her father had bought a home in the town that she might go to school. He was rewarded by her development into one of those scholars of phenomenal brilliancy, such as are occasionally produced from New England farmers' families. She also became a beauty of most unusual type. At her father's death she "went West." I have always expected to read of her as of marked life in some way, but I never have. Of course her family name may have been changed by marriage; but her Christian name, Appoline, was so unusual I could certainly trace her. If my wild and beautiful little milk girl reads these lines, I hope she will forgive me, for she certainly was queer. [Illustration: Sun-dial of Jonathan Fairbanks.] When her residence was in town, Appoline did not cease her gifts of country treasures. She brought on spring Sundays a very delightful addition to our Sabbath day nibblings and browsings, the most delicious mouthful of all the treasures of New England woods, what we called Pippins, the first tender leaves of the aromatic Checkerberry. In the autumn the spicy berries of the same plant filled many a paper cornucopia which was secretly conveyed to us. It was also a universal custom among the elder folk to carry a Sunday posy; the stems were discreetly enwrapped with the folded handkerchief which also concealed the sprig of Fennel. Dean Hole tells us that a sprig of Southernwood was always seen in the Sunday smocks of English farm folk. Mary Howitt, in her poem, _The Poor Man's Garden_, has this verse:-- "And here on Sabbath mornings The goodman comes to get His Sunday nosegay--Moss Rose bud, White Pink, and Mignonette." This shows to me that the church posy was just as common in England as in America; in domestic and social customs we can never disassociate ourselves from England; our ways, our deeds, are all English. Thoreau noted with pleasure when, at the last of June, the young men of Concord "walked slowly and soberly to church, in their best clothes, each with a Pond Lily in his hand or bosom, with as long a stem as he could get." And he adds thereto almost the only decorous and conventional picture he gives of himself, that he used in early life to go thus to church, smelling a Pond Lily, "its odor contrasting with and atoning for that of the sermon." He associated this universal bearing of the Lily with a very natural act, that of the first spring swim and bath, and pictured with delight the quiet Sabbath stillness and the pure opening flowers. He said the flower had become typical to him equally of a Sunday morning swim and of church-going. He adds that the young women carried on this floral Sunday, as a companion flower, their first Rose. [Illustration: Bronze Sun-dial on Dutch Reformed Church. West End Avenue, New York.] This Sabbath bearing of the early Water Lilies may have been a local custom; a few miles from Walden Pond and Concord an old kinsman of mine throughout his long life (which closed twenty years ago) carried Water Lilies on summer Sundays to church; and starting with neighborly intent a short time before the usual hour of church service, he placed a single beautiful Lily in the pew of each of his old friends. All knew who was the flower bearer, and gentle smiles and nods of thanks would radiate across the old church to him. These lilies were gathered for him freshly each Sabbath morning by the young men of his family, who, as Thoreau tells, all took their morning bath in the pond throughout the summer. [Illustration: Sun-dial on Boulder, Swiftwater, Pennsylvania.] There were conventions in these Sunday posies. I never heard of carrying sprays of Lemon Verbena or Rose Geranium, or any of the strong-scented herbs of the Mint family; but throughout eastern Massachusetts, especially in Concord and Wayland, a favorite posy was a spray of the refreshing, soft-textured leaves from what country folk called the Tongue plant--which was none other than Costmary, also called Beaver tongue, and Patagonian mint. As there has been recently much interest and discussion anent this Tongue plant, I here give its botanical name _Chrysanthemum balsamita_, var. _tanacetoides_. A far more popular Sunday posy than any blossom was a sprig of Southernwood, known also everywhere as Lad's-love, and occasionally as Old Man and Kiss-me-quick-and-go. It was also termed Meeting plant from this universal Sunday use. A restless little child was once handed during the church services in summer a bunch of Caraway seeds, and a goodly sprig of Southernwood. The little girl's mother listened earnestly to the long sermon, and was horrified at its close to find that her child had eaten the entire bunch of Caraway, stems and seeds, and all the bitter Southernwood. She was hurried out of church to the village doctor's, and spent a very unhappy hour or two as the result of her Nebuchadnezzar-like gorging. Like many New Englanders, I dearly love the scent of Southernwood:-- "I'll give to him Who gathers me, more sweetness than he knows Without me--more than any Lily could, I, that am flowerless, being Southernwood." Southernwood bears a balmier breath than is ever borne by many blossoms, for it is sweet with the fragrance of memory. The scent that has been loved for centuries, the leaves that have been pressed to the hearts of fair maids, as they questioned of love, are indeed endeared. [Illustration: Buckthorn Arch in an Old Salem Garden.] Southernwood was a plant of vast powers. It was named in the fourteenth century as potent to cure talking in sleep, and other "vanityes of the heade." An old Salem sea captain had this recipe for baldness: "Take a quantitye of Suthernwoode and put it upon kindled coale to burn and being made into a powder mix it with oyl of radiches, and anoynt a bald head and you shall see great experiences." The lying old _Dispensatory_ of Culpepper gave a rule to mix the ashes of Southernwood with "Old Sallet Oyl" which "helpeth those that are hair-fallen and bald." [Illustration: Sun-dial at Emery Place, Brightwood, District of Columbia.] Far pleasanter were the uses of the plant as a love charm. Pliny did not disdain to counsel putting Southernwood under the pillow to make one dream of a lover. A sprig of Southernwood in an unmarried girl's shoe would bring to her the sight of her husband-to-be before night. Sixty years ago two young country folk of New England were married. The twain built them a house and established their home. Since a sprig of Southernwood had played a romantic part in their courtship, each planted a bush at the side of the broad doorstone; and the husband, William, often thrust a bit of this Lad's-love from the flourishing bushes in the buttonhole of his woollen shirt, for he fancied the fresh scent of the leaves. [Illustration: Sun-dial at Traveller's Rest.] The twain had no children, and perhaps therefrom grew and increased in Hetty a fairly passionate love of exact order and neatness in her home--a trait which is not so common in New England housewives as many fancy, and which does not always find equal growth and encouragement in New England husbands. William chafed under the frequent and bitter reproofs for the muddy shoes, dusty garments, hanging straws and seeds which he brought into his wife's orderly paradise, and the jarring culminated one night over such a trifle, a green sprig of Lad's-love which he had dropped and trodden into the freshly washed floor of the kitchen, where it left a green stain on the spotless boards. The quarrel flamed high, and was followed by an ominous calm which was not broken at breakfast. It would be impossible to express in words Hetty's emotions when she crossed her threshold to set her shining milk tins in the morning sunlight, and saw on one side of the doorstone a yawning hole where had grown for ten years William's bunch of Lad's-love. He had driven to the next village to sell some grain, so she could search unseen for the vanished emblem of domestic felicity, and soon she found it, in the ditch by the public road, already withered in the hot sun. When her husband went at nightfall to feed and water his cattle, he found the other bush of Lad's-love, which had been planted with such affectionate sentiment, trodden in the mire of the pigpen, under the feet of the swine. They lived together for thirty years after this crowning indignity. The grass grew green over the empty holes by the doorside, but he never forgave her, and they never spoke to each other save in direst necessity, and then in fewest words. Yet they were not wicked folk. She cared for his father and mother in the last years of their life with a devotion that was fairly pathetic when it was seen that the old man was untidy to a degree, and absolutely oblivious of all her orderly ways and wishes. At their death he sent for and "homed," as the expression ran, a brother of hers who was almost blind, and paid the expenses of her nephew through college--but he died unforgiving; the sight of that beloved Southernwood--in the pigpen--forever killed his affection. CHAPTER XVII SUN-DIALS "'Tis an old dial, dark with many a stain, In summer crowned with drifting orchard bloom, Tricked in the autumn with the yellow rain, And white in winter like a marble tomb. "And round about its gray, time-eaten brow Lean letters speak--a worn and shattered row:-- 'I am a Shade; A Shadowe too arte thou; I mark the Time; saye, Gossip, dost thou soe?'" --AUSTIN DOBSON. A century or more ago, in the heart of nearly all English gardens, and in the gardens of our American colonies as well, there might be seen a pedestal of varying material, shape, and pretension, surmounted by the most interesting furnishing in "dead-works" of the garden, a sun-dial. In public squares, on the walls of public buildings, on bridges, and by the side of the way, other and simpler dials were found. On the walls of country houses and churches vertical sun-dials were displayed; every English town held them by scores. In Scotland, and to some extent in England, these sun-dials still are found; in fine old gardens the most richly carved dials are standing; but in America they have become so rare that many people have never seen one. In many of the formal gardens planned by our skilled architects, sun-dials are now springing afresh like mushroom growth of a single night, and some are objects of the greatest beauty and interest. [Illustration: Two Old Cronies, the Sun-dial and Bee Skepe.] If the claims of antiquity and historical association have aught to charm us, every sun-dial must be assured of our interest. The most primitive mode of knowing of the midday hour was by a "noon mark," a groove cut or line drawn on door or window sill which indicated the meridian hour through a shadow thrown on this noon mark. A good guess as to the hours near noon could be made by noting the distance of the shadow from the noon mark. I chanced to be near an old noon mark this summer as the sun warned that noon approached; I noted that the marking shadow crossed the line at twenty minutes before noon by our watches--which, I suppose, was near enough to satisfy our "early to rise" ancestors. Meridian lines were often traced with exactness on the floors of churches in Continental Europe. An advance step in accuracy and elegance was made when a simple metal sun-dial was affixed to the window sill instead of cutting the rude noon mark. Soon the sun-dial was set on a simple pedestal near the kitchen window, so that the active worker within might glance at the dial face without ceasing in her task. Such a sun-dial is shown on page 354, as it stands under the "buttery" window cosily hobnobbing with its old crony of many years, the bee skepe. One could wish to be a bee, and live in that snug home under the Syringa bush. Portable sun-dials succeeded fixed dials; they have been known as long as the Christian era; shepherds' dials were the "Kalendars" or "Cylindres" about which treatises were written as early as the thirteenth century. They were small cylinders of wood or ivory, having at the top a kind of stopper with a hinged gnomon; they are still used in the Pyrenees. Pretty little "ring-dials" of brass, gold, or silver, are constructed on the same principle. The exquisitely wrought portable dial shown on this page is a very fine piece of workmanship, and must have been costly. It is dated 1764, and is eleven inches in diameter. It is a perfect example of the advanced type of dial made in Italy, which had a simpler form as early certainly as A.D. 300. The compass was added in the thirteenth century. The compass-needle is missing on this dial, its only blemish. The Italians excelled in dial-making; among their interesting forms were the cross-shaped dials evidently a reliquary. [Illustration: Portable Sun-dial.] Portable dials were used instead of watches. There is at the Washington headquarters at Morristown a delicately wrought oval silver case, with compass and sun-dial, which was carried by one of the French officers who came here with Lafayette; George Washington owned and carried one. The colonists came here from a land set with dials, whether they sailed from Holland or England. Charles I had a vast fancy for dials, and had them placed everywhere; the finest and most curious was the splendid master dial placed in his private gardens at Whitehall; this had five dials set in the upper part, four in the four corners, and a great horizontal concave dial; among these were scattered equinoctial dials, vertical dials, declining dials, polar dials, plane dials, cylindrical dials, triangular dials; each was inscribed with explanatory verses in Latin. Equally beautiful and intricate were the dials of Charles II, the most marvellous being the vast pyramid dial bearing 271 different dial faces. Those who wish to learn of English sun-dials should read Mrs. Gatty's _Book of Sun-dials_, a massive and fascinating volume. No such extended record could be made of American sun-dials; but it pleases me that I know of over two hundred sun-dials in America, chiefly old ones; that I have photographs of many of them; that I have copies of many hundred dial mottoes, and also a very fair collection of the old dial faces, of various metals and sizes. I know of no public collection of sun-dials in America save that in the Smithsonian Institution, and that is not a large one. Several of our Historical Societies own single sun-dials. In the Essex Institute is the sun-dial of Governor Endicott; another, shown on page 344, was once the property of my far-away grandfather, Jonathan Fairbanks; it is in the Dedham Historical Society. [Illustration: Sun-dial in Garden of Frederick J. Kingsbury, Esq.] All forms of sun-dials are interesting. A simple but accurate one was set on Robins Island by the late Samuel Bowne Duryea, Esq., of Brooklyn. Taking the flagpole of the club house as a stylus, he laid the lines and figures of the dial-face with small dark stones on a ground of light-hued stones, all set firmly in the earth at the base of the pole. Thus was formed, with the simplest materials, by one who ever strove to give pleasure and stimulate knowledge in all around him, an object which not only told the time o' the day, but afforded gratification, elicited investigation, and awakened sentiment in all who beheld it. A similar use of a vertical pole as a primitive gnomon for a sun-dial seems to have been common to many uncivilized peoples. In upper Egypt the natives set up a palm rod in open ground, and arrange a circle of stones or pegs around it, calling it an _alka_, and thus mark the hours. The ploughman leaves his buffalo standing in the furrow while he learns the progress of time from this simple dial--and we recall the words of Job, "As a servant earnestly desireth a shadow." [Illustration: Sun-dial at Morristown, New Jersey.] The Labrador Indians, when on the hunt or the march, set an upright stick or spear in the snow, and draw the line of the shadow thus cast. They then stalk on their way; and the women, heavily laden with provisions, shelter, and fuel, come slowly along two or three hours later, note the distance between the present shadow and the line drawn by their lords, and know at once whether they must gather up the stick or spear and hurry along, or can rest for a short time on their weary march. This is a primitive but exact chronometer. There are serious objections to quoting from Charles Lamb: you are never willing to end the transcription--you long to add just one phrase, one clause more. Then, too, the purity of the pearl which you choose seems to render duller than their wont the leaden sentences with which you enclose it as a setting. Still, who could write of sun-dials without choosing to transcribe these words of Lamb's? "What a dead thing is a clock, with its ponderous embowelments of lead or brass, its pert or solemn dulness of communication, compared with the simple altar-like structure and silent heart-language of the old dial! It stood as the garden god of Christian gardens. Why is it almost everywhere banished? If its business use be suspended by more elaborate inventions, its moral uses, its beauty, might have pleaded for its continuance. It spoke of moderate labors, of pleasures not protracted after sunset, of temperance and good hours. It was the primitive clock, the horologe of the first world. Adam could scarce have missed it in Paradise. The 'shepherd carved it out quaintly in the sun,' and turning philosopher by the very occupation, provided it with mottoes more touching than tombstones." [Illustration: Yes, Toby! It's Three O'clock.] Sun-dial mottoes still can be gathered by hundreds; and they are one record of a force in the development of our literate people. For it was long after we had printing ere we had any general class of folk, who, if they could read, read anything save the Bible. To many the knowledge of reading came from the deciphering of what has been happily termed the Literature of the Bookless. This literature was placed that he who ran might read; and its opening chapters were in the form of inscriptions and legends and mottoes which were placed, not only on buildings and walls, and pillars and bridges, but on household furniture and table utensils. The inscribing of mottoes on sun-dials appears to have sprung up with dial-making; and where could a strict moral lesson, a suggestive or inspiring thought, be better placed? Even the most heedless or indifferent passer-by, or the unwilling reader could not fail to see the instructive words when he cast his glance to learn the time. The mottoes were frequently in Latin, a few in Greek or Hebrew; but the old English mottoes seem the most appealing. ABUSE ME NOT I DO NO ILL I STAND TO SERVE THEE WITH GOOD WILL AS CAREFUL THEN BE SURE THOU BE TO SERVE THY GOD AS I SERVE THEE. A CLOCK THE TIME MAY WRONGLY TELL I NEVER IF THE SUN SHINE WELL. AS A SHADOW SUCH IS LIFE. I COUNT NONE BUT SUNNY HOURS. BE THE DAY WEARY, BE THE DAY LONG SOON IT SHALL RING TO EVEN SONG. Scriptural verses have ever been favorites, especially passages from the Psalms: "Man is like a thing of nought, his time passeth away like a shadow." "My time is in Thy hand." "Put not off from day to day." "Oh, remember how short my time is." Some of the Latin mottoes are very beautiful. [Illustration: Face of Dial at Sag Harbor, Long Island.] Poets have written special verses for sun-dials. These noble lines are by Walter Savage Landor:-- IN HIS OWN IMAGE THE CREATOR MADE, HIS OWN PURE SUNBEAM QUICKENED THEE, O MAN! THOU BREATHING DIAL! SINCE THE DAY BEGAN THE PRESENT HOUR WAS EVER MARKED WITH SHADE. The motto, _Horas non numero nisi serenas_, in various forms and languages, has ever been a favorite. From an old album I have received this poem written by Professor S. F. B. Morse; there is a note with it in Professor Morse's handwriting, saying he saw the motto on a sun-dial at Worms:-- TO A. G. E. _Horas non numero nisi serenas._ The sun when it shines in a clear cloudless sky Marks the time on my disk in figures of light; If clouds gather o'er me, unheeded they fly, I note not the hours except they be bright. So when I review all the scenes that have past Between me and thee, be they dark, be they light, I forget what was dark, the light I hold fast; I note not the hours except they be bright. SAMUEL F. B. MORSE, Washington, March, 1845. The sun-dial seems too classic an object, and too serious a teacher, to bear a jesting motto. This sober pun was often seen:-- LIFE'S BUT A SHADOWE MAN'S BUT DUST THIS DYALL SAYES DY ALL WE MUST. [Illustration: Sun-dial in Garden of Grace Church Rectory, New York.] The sun-dial does not lure to "idle dalliance." Nine-tenths of the sun-dial mottoes tersely warn you not to linger, to haste away, that time is fleeting, and your hours are numbered, and therefore to "be about your business." In a single moment and at a single glance the sun-dial has said its lesson, has told its absolute message, and there is no reason for you to gaze at it longer. Its very position, too, in the unshaded rays of the sun, does not invite you to long companionship, as do the shady lengths of a pergola, or a green orchard seat. Still, I would ever have a garden seat near a sun-dial, especially when it is a work of art to be studied, and with mottoes to be remembered. For even in hurrying America the sun-dial seems--like a guide-post--a half-human thing, for which we can feel an almost personal interest. [Illustration: Fugio Bank-note.] The figure of a sun-dial played an interesting part in the early history of the United States. In the first set of notes issued for currency by the American Congress was one for the value of one third of a dollar. One side has the chain of links bearing the names of the thirteen states, enclosing a sunburst bearing the words, _American Congress, We are One_. The reverse side is shown on this page. It bears a print of a sun-dial, with the motto, _Fugio, Mind Your Business_. The so-called "Franklin cent" has a similar design of a sun-dial with the same motto, and there was a beautiful "Fugio dollar" cast in silver, bronze, and pewter. Though this design and motto were evidently Franklin's taste, the motto in its use on a sun-dial was not original with Franklin, nor with any one else in the Congress, for it had been seen on dials on many English churches and houses. In the form, "Begone about Your Business," it was on a house in the Inner Temple; this is the tradition of the origin of this motto. The dialler sent for a motto to place under the dial, as he had been instructed by the Benchers; when the man arrived at the Library, he found but one surly old gentleman poring over a musty book. To him he said, "Please, sir, the gentlemen told me to call this hour for a motto for the sun-dial." "Begone about your business," was the testy answer. So the man painted the words under the dial; and the chance words seemed so appropriate to the Benchers that they were never removed. It is told of Dean Cotton of Bangor that he had a cross old gardener who always warded off unwelcome visitors to the deanery by saying to every one who approached, "Go about your business!" After the gardener's death the dean had this motto engraved around the sun-dial in the garden, "Goa bou tyo urb us in ess, 1838." Thus the gardener's growl became his epitaph. Another form was, "Be about Your Business," and it is a suggestive fact that it was on a dial on the General Post-office in London in 1756. Franklin's interest in and knowledge of postal matters, his long residence in London, and service under the crown as American postmaster general, must have familiarized him with this dial, and I am convinced it furnished to him the notion for the design on the first bank-note and coins of the new nation. An interesting bit of history allied to America is given to us in the finding of a sun-dial which gives to American students of heraldic antiquities another dated shield of the Washington "stars and stripes." [Illustration: Sun-dial at "Washington House," Little Brington, England.] In Little Brington, Northamptonshire, stands a house known as "The Washington House," which gave shelter to the Washingtons of Sulgrave after the fall of their fortunes. Within a stone's throw of the house has recently been found a sun-dial having the Washington arms (argent) two bars, and in chief three mullets (gules) carved upon it, with the date 1617. The existence of this stone has been known for forty years; but it has never been closely examined and noted till recently. It is a circular slab of sandstone three inches thick and sixteen inches in diameter. The gnomon is lacking. The lines, figures, and shield are incised, and the letters R. W. can be dimly seen. These were probably the initials of Robert Washington, great uncle of the two emigrants to Virginia. [Illustration: Dial-face from Mount Vernon.] Through the kindness of Mr. A. L. Y. Morley, a faithful antiquary of Great Barrington, I have the pleasure of giving, on page 367, a representation of this interesting dial. It is shown leaning against the "pump-stand" in the yard of the "Washington House"; and the pump seems as ancient as the dial. [Illustration: Sun-dial of Mary Washington, Fredericksburg, Virginia.] In this book are three other sun-dials associated with George Washington. At Mount Vernon there stands at the front of the entrance door a modern sun-dial. The fine old metal dial-face, about ten inches in diameter, which in Washington's day was placed on the same site, is now the property of Mr. William F. Havemeyer, Jr., of New York. It was given to him by Mr. Custis; a picture of it is shown on page 368. This dial-face is a splendid relic; one closely associated with Washington's everyday life, and full of suggestion and sentiment to every thoughtful beholder. The sun-dial which stood in the old Fredericksburg garden of Mary Washington, the mother of George Washington, still stands in Fredericksburg, in the grounds of Mr. Doswell. A photograph of it is reproduced on page 369. The fourth historic dial is on page 371. It is the one at Kenmore, the home built by Fielding Lewis for his bride, Betty Washington, the sister of George Washington, on ground adjoining her mother's home. A part of the garden which connected these two Washington homes is shown on page 228. These three American sun-dials afford an interesting proof of the universal presence of sun-dials in Virginian homes of wealth, and they also show the kind of dial-face which was generally used. Another ancient dial (page 350) at Travellers' Rest, a near-by Virginian country seat, is similar in shape to these three, and differs but little in mounting. In Pennsylvania and Virginia sun-dials have lingered in use in front of court-houses, on churches, and in a few old garden dials. In New England I scarcely know an old garden dial still standing in its original place on its original pedestal. Four old ones of brass or pewter are shown in the illustration on page 379. These once stood in New England gardens or on the window sills of old houses; one was taken from a sunny window ledge to give to me. Perhaps the attention paid the doings of the American Philosophical Society, and the number of scientists living near Philadelphia, may account for the many sun-dials set up in the vicinity of the town. Godfrey, the maker of Godfrey's Quadrant, was one of those scientific investigators, and must have been a famous "dialler." [Illustration: Kenmore, the Home of Betty Washington Lewis.] On page 373 is shown an ancient sun-dial in the garden of Charles F. Jenkins, Esq., in Germantown, Pennsylvania. This sun-dial originally belonged to Nathan Spencer, who lived in Germantown prior to and during the Revolutionary War. Hepzibah Spencer, his daughter, married, and took the sun-dial to Byberry. Her daughter carried the sun-dial to Gwynedd when her name was changed to Jenkins; and their grandson, the present owner, rescued it from the chicken house with the gnomon missing, which was afterward found. Its inscription, "Time waits for No Man," is an old punning device on the word gnomon. At one time dialling was taught by many a country schoolmaster, and excellent and accurate sun-dials were made and set up by country workmen, usually masons of slight education. In Scotland the making of sun-dials has never died out. In America many pewter sun-dials were cast in moulds of steatite or other material. A few dial-makers still remain; one in lower New York makes very interesting-looking sun-dials of brass, which, properly discolored and stained, find a ready sale in uptown shops. I doubt if these are ever made for any special geographical point, but there is in a small Pennsylvania town an old Quaker who makes carefully calculated and accurate sun-dials, computed by logarithms for special places. I should like to see him "sit like a shepherd carving out dials, quaintly point by point." I have a very pretty circular brass dial of his making, about eight inches in diameter. He writes me that "the dial sent thee is a good students' dial, fit to set outside the window for a young man to use and study by in college," which would indicate to me that my Quaker dialler knows another type of collegian from those of my acquaintance, who would find the time set by a sun-dial rather slow. [Illustration: Sun-dial in Garden of Charles F. Jenkins, Esq., Germantown, Pennsylvania.] There have been those who truly loved sun-dials. Sir William Temple ordered that after his death his heart should be buried under the sun-dial in his garden--where his heart had been in life. 'Tis not unusual to see a sun-dial over the gate to a burial ground, and a noble emblem it is in that place; one at Mount Auburn Cemetery, near Boston, bears a pleasing motto written originally by John G. Whittier for his friend, Dr. Henry Ingersoll Bowditch, and inscribed on a beautiful silver sun-dial now owned by Dr. Vincent Y. Bowditch of Boston, Massachusetts. A facsimile of this dial was also placed before the Manor House on the island of Naushon by Mr. John M. Forbes in memory of Dr. Bowditch. The lines run thus:-- WITH WARNING HAND I MARK TIME'S RAPID FLIGHT FROM LIFE'S GLAD MORNING TO ITS SOLEMN NIGHT. YET, THROUGH THE DEAR GOD'S LOVE I ALSO SHOW THERE'S LIGHT ABOVE ME, BY THE SHADE BELOW. A sun-dial is to me, in many places, a far more inspiring memorial than a monument or tablet. Let me give as an example the fine sun-dial, designed by W. Gedney Beatty, Esq., and shown on page 359, which was erected on the grounds of the Memorial Hospital at Morristown, New Jersey, by the Society of the Daughters of the American Revolution, to mark the spot where Washington partook of the Communion. What dignified and appropriate church appointments sun-dials are. A simple and impressive bronze vertical dial on the wall of the Dutch Reformed Church on West End Avenue, New York, is shown on page 346. The sun-dial standing before the rectory of Grace Church on Broadway, New York, is on page 364. [Illustration: Sun-dial at Ophir Farm, White Plains, New York, Country-seat of Hon. Whitelaw Reid.] There is ever much question as to a suitable pedestal for garden sun-dials: it must not stand so high that the dial-face cannot be looked down upon by grown persons; it must not be so light as to seem rickety, nor so heavy as to be clumsy. A very good rule is to err on the side of simplicity in sun-dials for ordinary gardens. What I regard as a very satisfactory pedestal and mounting in every particular may be seen in the illustration facing page 80, showing the sun-dial in the garden of Charles E. Mather, Esq., at Avonwood Court, Haverford, Pennsylvania. Sometimes the pillars of old balustrades, old fence posts, and even parts of old tombs and monuments, have been used as pedestals for sun-dials. How pleasantly Sylvana in her _Letters to an Unknown Friend_, tells us and shows to us her cheerful sun-dial mounted on the four corners of an old tombstone with this fine motto cut into the upper step, _Lux et umbra vicissim sed semper amor_. I mean to search the stone-cutters' waste heap this summer and see whether I cannot rob the grave to mark the hours of my life. Charles Dickens had at Gadshill a sun-dial set on one of the pillars of the balustrade of Old Rochester Bridge. From Italy and Greece marble pillars have been sent from ancient ruins to be set up as dial pedestals. If possible, the pedestal as well as the dial-face of a handsome sun-dial should have some significance through association, suggestion, or history. At Ophir Farm, White Plains, New York, the country-seat of Hon. Whitelaw Reid, may be seen a sun-dial full of exquisite significance. It is shown on page 375. The signs of the Zodiac in finely designed bronze are set on the symmetrical marble pedestal, and seem wonderfully harmonious and appropriate. This sun-dial is a literal exemplification of the words of Emerson:-- "A calendar Exact to days, exact to hours, Counted on the spacious dial Yon broidered Zodiac girds." The dial-face is upheld by a carefully modelled tortoise in bronze, which is an equally suggestive emblem, connected with the tradition, folk-lore, and religious beliefs of both primitive and cultured peoples; it is specially full of meaning in this place. The whole sun-dial shows much thought and æsthetic perception in the designer and owner, and cannot fail to prove gratifying to all observers having either sensibility or judgment. Occasionally a very unusual and beautiful sun-dial standard may be seen, like the one in the Rose garden at Yaddo, Saratoga, New York, a copy of rarely beautiful Pompeian carvings. A representation of this is shown on page 86. Copies of simpler antique carvings make excellent sun-dial pedestals; a safe rule to follow is to have a reproduction made of some well-proportioned English or Scotch pedestal. The latter are well suited to small gardens. I have drawings of several Scotch sun-dials and pedestals which would be charming in American gardens. In the gardens at Hillside, by the side of the Shakespeare Border is a sun-dial (page 378) which is an exact reproduction of the one in the garden at Abbotsford, the home of Sir Walter Scott. This pedestal is suited to its surroundings, is well proportioned; and has historic interest. It forms an excellent example of Charles Lamb's "garden-altar." [Illustration: Sun-dial at Hillside, Menand's, near Albany, New York.] On a lawn or in any suitable spot the dial-face can be mounted on a boulder; one is here shown. I prefer a pedestal. For gardens of limited size, much simplicity of design is more pleasing and more fitting than any elaborate carving. In an Italian garden, or in any formal garden whose work in stone or marble is costly and artistic, the sun-dial pedestal should be the climax in richness of carving of all the garden furnishing. I like the pedestal set on a little platform, so two or three steps may be taken up to it from the garden level; but after all, no rules can be given for the dial's setting. It may be planted with vines, or stand unornamented; it may be set low, and be looked down upon, or it may be raised high up on a side wall; but wherever it is, it must not be for a single minute in shadow; no trees or overhanging shrubs should be near it; it is a child of the sun, and lives only in the sun's full rays. [Illustration: Old Brass and Pewter Dial-faces.] In the lovely old garden at the home of Frederick J. Kingsbury, Esq., at Waterbury, Conn., is a sun-dial bearing the motto, "_Horas non numero nisi serenas_," and the dates 1739-1751,--the dates of the building of the old and new houses on land that has been in the immediate family since 1739. Around this dial is a crescent-shaped bed of Zinnias, and very satisfactory do they prove. This garden has fine Box edgings; one is shown on page 173, a Box walk, set in 1851 with ancient Box brought from the garden of Mr. Kingsbury's great-great-grandfather. The gnomon of a sun-dial is usually a simple plate of metal in the general shape of a right-angled triangle, cut often in some pierced design, and occasionally inscribed with a motto, name, or date. Sometimes the dial-maker placed on the gnomon various Masonic symbols--the compass, square, and triangle, or the coat of arms of the dial owner. One old English dial fitting we have never copied in America. It was the taste of the days of the Stuart kings, days of constant jesting and amusement and practical jokes. Concealed water jets were placed which wet the clothing of the unwary one who lingered to consult the dial-face. The significance of the sun-dial, as well as its classicism, was sure to be felt by artists. In the paintings of Holbein, of Albert Dürer, dials may be seen, not idly painted, but with symbolic meaning. The mystic import of a sun-dial is shown in full effect in that perfect picture, _Beata Beatrix_, by Dante Gabriel Rossetti. I have chosen to show here (facing page 380) the _Beata Beatrix_ owned by Charles L. Hutchinson, Esq., of Chicago, as being less photographed and known than the one of the British Gallery, from which it varies slightly and also because it has the beautiful predella. In this picture, in the words of its poet-painter:-- "Love's Hour stands. Its eyes invisible Watch till the dial's thin brown shade Be born--yea, till the journeying line be laid Upon the point." [Illustration: Beata Beatrix.] Andrew Marvell wrote two centuries ago of the floral sun-dials which were the height of the gardening mode of his day:-- "How well the skilful gardener drew Of flowers and herbs this dial new. When from above the milder sun Does through a fragrant zodiac run; And as it works the industrious bee Computes its time as well as we! How could such sweet and wholesome hours Be reckoned but with herbs and flowers!" These were sometimes set of diverse flowers, sometimes of Mallows. Two of growing Box are described and displayed in the chapter on Box edgings. [Illustration: The Faithful Gardener.] Linnæus made a list of forty-six flowers which constituted what he termed the Horologe or Watch of Flora, and he gave what he called their exact hours of rising and setting. He divided them into three classes: Meteoric, Tropical, and Equinoctial flowers. Among those which he named are:-- =========================================================== | OPENING HOUR. | CLOSING HOUR. ----------------------------------------------------------- Dandelion | 5-6 A.M. | 8-9 P.M. Mouse-ear Hawkweed | 8 A.M. | 2 P.M. Sow Thistle | 5 A.M. | 11-12 P.M. Yellow Goat-beard | 3-5 A.M. | 9-10 (?) White Water Lily | 7 A.M. | 7 P.M. Day Lily | 5 A.M. | 7-8 P.M. Convolvulus | 5-6 A.M. | Mallow | 9-10 A.M. | Pimpernel | 7-8 A.M. | Portulaca | 9-10 A.M. | Pink (_Dianthus prolifer_) | 8 A.M. | 1 P.M. Succory | 4-5 A.M. | Calendula | 7 A.M. | 3-4 P.M. =========================================================== Of course these hours would vary in this country. And I must say very frankly that I think we should always be behind time if we trusted to Flora's Horologe. This floral clock of Linnæus was calculated for Upsala, Sweden; De Candolle gave another for Paris, and one has been arranged for our Eastern states. CHAPTER XVIII GARDEN FURNISHINGS "Furnished with whatever may make the place agreeable, melancholy, and country-like." --_Forest Trees_, JOHN EVELYN, 1670. Quaint old books of garden designers show us that much more was contained in a garden two centuries ago, than now; it had many more adjuncts, more furnishings; a very full list of them has been given by Batty Langley in his _New Principles of Gardening_, etc., 1728. Some seem amusing--as haystacks and woodpiles, which he terms "rural enrichments." Of water adornments there were to be purling streams, basins, canals, fountains, cascades, cold baths. There were to be aviaries, hare warrens, pheasant grounds, partridge grounds, dove-cotes, beehives, deer paddocks, sheep walks, cow pastures, and "manazeries" (menageries?); physic gardens, orchards, bowling-greens, hop gardens, orangeries, melon grounds, vineyards, parterres, fruit yards, nurseries, sun-dials, obelisks, statues, cabinets, etc., decorated the garden walks. There were to be land gradings of mounts, winding valleys, dales, terraces, slopes, borders, open plains, labyrinths, wildernesses, "serpentine meanders," "rude-coppices," precipices, amphitheatres. His "serpentine meanders" had large opening spaces at proper distances, in one of which might be placed a small fruit garden, a "cone of evergreens," or a "Paradice-Stocks,"--about which latter mysterious garden adornment I think we must be content to remain in ignorance, since he certainly has given us ample variety to choose from without it. Other "landscapists" placed in their gardens old ruins, misshapen rocks, and even dead trees, in order to look "natural." In 1608 Henry Ballard brought out _The Gardener's Labyrinth_--a pretty good book, shut away from the most of us by being printed in black letter. He says:-- "The framing of sundry herbs delectable, with waies and allies artfully devised is an upright herbar." Herbars, or arbors, were of two kinds: an upright arbor, which was merely a covered lean-to attached to a fence or wall; and a winding or "arch-arbor" standing alone. He names "archherbs," which are simply climbing vines to set "winding in arch-manner on withie poles." "Walker and sitters there-under" are thereby comfortably protected from the heat of the sun. These upright arbors were in high favor; Ballard says they offered "fragrant savours, delectable sights, and sharpening of the memory." [Illustration: A Garden Lyre at Waterford, Virginia.] Tree arbors were in use in Elizabethan times, platforms built in the branches of large trees. Parkinson called one that would hold fifty men, "the goodliest spectacle that ever his eyes beheld." A distinction was made between arbors and bowers. The arbor might be round or square, and was domed over the top; while the long arched way was a bower. In our Southern states that special use of the word bower is still universal, especially in the term Rose bowers. A quaint and universal furnishing of old Southern gardens were the trellises known as garden lyres. Two are shown in this chapter, from Waterford, Virginia; one bearing little foliage and another embowered in vines, in order to show what a really good vine support they were. Garden lyres and Rose bowers are rotting on the ground in old Virginia gardens, and I fear they will never be replaced. The word pergola was seldom heard here a century ago, save as used by the few who had travelled in Italy; but pergolas were to be found in many an old American garden. An ancient oval pergola still stands at Arlington, that beautiful spot which was once the home of the Virginia Lees, and is now the home of the honored dead of our Civil War. This old pergola has remained unharmed through fierce conflict, and is wreathed each spring with the verdure of vines of many kinds. It is twenty feet wide between the pillars, and forms an oval one hundred feet long and seventy wide, and when in full greenery is a lovely thing. It was called--indeed it is still termed in the South--a "green gallery," a word and thing of mediæval days. [Illustration: A Virginia Lyre with Vines.] There are many pretty trellises and vine supports and arbors which can be made of light poles and rails, but I do not like to hear the pretentious name, pergola, applied to them. A pergola must not be a mean, light-built affair. It should be of good proportions and substantial materials. It need not be made with brick or marble pillars; natural tree trunks of good size serve as well. It should look as if it had been built with care and stability, and that the vines had been planted and trained by skilled gardeners. A pergola may have a dilapidated Present and be endurable; but it should show evidences of a substantial Past. Little sisters of the pergola are the _charmilles_, or bosquets, arches of growing trees, whose interlaced boughs have no supports of wood as have the pergolas. When these arches are carefully trained and pruned, and the ground underneath is laid with turf or gravel, they form a delightful shady walk. Charming covered ways can be easily made by polling and training Plum or Willow trees. Arches are far too rare in American gardens. The few we have are generally old ones. In Mrs. Pierson's garden in Salem the splendid arch of Buckthorn is a hundred and twenty five years old. Similar ones are at Indian Hill. Cedar was an old choice for hedges and arches. It easily winter-kills at the base, and that is ample reason for its rejection and disuse. The many garden seats of the old English garden were perhaps its chief feature in distinction from American garden furnishings to-day. In a letter written from Kenilworth in 1575 the writer told of garden seats where he sat in the heat of summer, "feeling the pleasant whisking wynde." I have walked through many a large modern garden in the summer heat, and longed in vain for a shaded seat from which to regard for a few moments the garden treasures and feel the whisking wind, and would gladly have made use of the temporary presence of a wheelbarrow. [Illustration: Old Iron Gate at Westover-on-James.] Seats of marble and stone are in many of our modern formal gardens; a pretty one is in the garden at Avonwood Court. Grottoes, arbors, and summer-houses were all of importance in those days, when in our latitude and climate men had not thought to build piazzas surrounding the house and shadowing all the ground floor rooms. We are beginning to think anew of the value of sunlight in the parlors and dining rooms of our summer homes, which for the past thirty or forty years have been so darkened by our wide piazzas. Now we have fewer piazzas and more peristyles, and soon we shall have summer-houses and garden houses also. There are preserved in the South, in spite of war and earthquake, a number of fine examples of old wrought-iron garden gates. King William of England introduced these artistic gates into England, and they were the height of garden fashion. Among them were the beautiful gates still at Hampton Court, and those of Bulwich, Northamptonshire. They were called _clair-voyees_ on account of the uninterrupted view they permitted to those without and within the walls. These were often painted blue; but in America they were more sober of tint, though portions were gilded. One of the old gates at Westover-on-James is here shown, and on page 390 the rich wrought-iron work in the courtyard at the home of Colonel Colt in Bristol, Rhode Island. This is as fine as the house, and that is a splendid example of the best work of the first years of the nineteenth century. Fountains were seen usually in handsome gardens in the South; simple water jets falling in a handsome basin of marble or stone. Statuary of marble or lead was never common in old American gardens, though pretentious gardens had examples. To-day, in our carefully thought-out gardens, the garden statuary is a thing of beauty and often of meaning, as the figure shown on page 84. Usually our statues are of marble, sometimes a Japanese bronze is seen. [Illustration: Iron-work in Court of Colt Mansion, Bristol, Rhode Island.] In the old black letter _Gardener's Labyrinth_, a very full description is given of old modes of watering a garden. There was a primitive and very limited system of irrigation, the water being raised by "well-swipes"; there were very handy puncheons, or tubs on wheels, which could be trundled down the garden walk. There was also a formidable "Great Squirt of Tin," which was said to take "mighty strength" to handle, and which looked like a small cannon; with it was an ingenious bent tube of tin by which the water could be thrown in "great droppes" like a fountain. The author says of ordinary means of garden watering:-- "The common Watring Pot with us hath a narrow Neck, a Big Belly, Somewhat large Bottome, and full of little holes with a proper hole forced in the head to take in the water; which filled full and the Thumbe laid on the hole to keep in the aire may in such wise be carried in handsome Manner." Garden tools have changed but little since Tudor days; spade and rake were like ours to-day, so were dibble and mattock. Even grafting and pruning tools, shown in books of husbandry, were surprisingly like our own. Scythes were much heavier and clumsier. An old fellow is here shown sharpening in the ancient manner a scythe about three hundred years old. The art of grafting, known since early days, formed an important part of the gardener's craft. Large share of ancient garden treatises is devoted to minute instructions therein. To this day in New England towns a good grafter is a local autocrat. [Illustration: Summer-house at Ravensworth.] Beehives were once found in every garden; bee-skepes they were called when made of straw. Picturesque and homely were the old straw beehives, and still are they used in England; the old one shown in the chapter on sun-dials can scarcely be mated in America. They served as a conventional emblem of industry. They were made of welts or ropes of twisted straw, as were the heavy winnowing skepes once used for winnowing grain. In Maine, in a few out-of-the-way communities, ancient men still winnow grain with these skepes. I saw a man last autumn, a giant in stature, standing in a dull light on the crown of a hill winnowing wheat in one of these great skepes with an indescribably free and noble gesture. He was a classic, a relic of Homer's age, no longer a farmer, but a husbandman. Bees and honey were of much value in ancient days. Honey was the chief ingredient in many wholesome and pleasing drinks--mead, metheglin, bragget (or braket), morat, erboule--all very delightful in their ingredients, redolent of meadows and hedge-rows; thus Cowslip mead was made of Cowslip "pips," honey, Lemon juice, and "a handful of Sweetbrier." "Athol porridge," demure of name, was as potent as pleasing--potent as good honey, good cream, and good whiskey could make it. [Illustration: Sharpening the Old Dutch Scythe.] Rows of typical Southern beehives are shown in the two succeeding illustrations. From their home by the side of a White Rose and under an old Sweet Apple tree these Waterford bees did not wish to swarm out in a hurry to find a new home. These beehives are not very ancient in shape, but when I see a row of them set thus under the trees, or in a hive-shelter, they seem to tell of olden days. The very bees flying in and out seem steady-going, respectable old fellows. Such hives have a cosy look, with rows of Hollyhocks behind them, and hundreds of spires of Larkspur for these old bees to bury their heads in. [Illustration: Beehives at Waterford, Virginia.] The sadly picturesque old superstition of "telling the bees" of a death in a family and hanging a bit of black cloth on the hives as a mourning-weed still is observed in some country communities. Whittier's poem on the subject is wonderfully "countrified" in atmosphere, using the word chore-girl, so seldom heard even in familiar speech to-day and never found in verse elsewhere than in this rustic poem. I saw one summer in Narragansett, on Stony Lane, not far from the old Six-Principle Church, a row of beehives hung with strips of black cloth; the house mistress was dead--the friend of bird and beast and bee--who had reared the guardian of the garden told of on page 396 _et seq._ [Illustration: Beehives under the Trees.] A pretty and appropriate garden furnishing was the dove-cote. The possession of a dove-cote in England, and the rearing of pigeons, was free only to lords of the manor and noblemen. When the colonists came to America, many of them had never been permitted to keep pigeons. In Scotland persistent attempts at pigeon-raising by folks of humble station might be punished with death. The settlers must have revelled in the freedom of the new land, as well as in the plenty of pigeons, both wild and domestic. In old England the dove-cote was often built close to the kitchen door, that squab and pigeon might be near the hand of the cook. Dove-cotes in America were often simple boxes or houses raised on stout posts. Occasionally might be seen a fine brick dove-cote like the one still standing at Shirley-on-the-James, in Virginia, which is shaped without and within like several famous old dove-cotes in England, among them the one at Athelhampton Hall, Dorchester, England. The English dove-cote has within a revolving ladder hung from a central post while the Virginian squab catcher uses an ordinary ladder. The shelves for the birds to rest upon and the square recesses for the nests made by the ingenious placing of the bricks are alike in both cotes. [Illustration: Spring House at Johnson Homestead, Germantown, Pennsylvania.] A beautiful and fitting tenant of old formal gardens was the peacock, "with his aungelis federys bryghte." On large English estates peacocks were universally kept. A fine peacock, with full-spread tail, makes many a gay flower bed pale before his panoply of iridescence and color. The peahen is a demurely pretty creature. Peacocks are not altogether grateful to garden owners; on the old Narragansett farm whose garden is shown on page 35, they were always kept, and it was one of the prides and pleasures of formal hospitality to offer a roasted peacock to visitors. But, save when roasted, the vain creatures would not keep silence, and when they squawked the glory of their plumage was forgotten. They had an odious habit, too, of wandering off to distant groves on the farm, usually selecting the nights of bitterest cold, and roosting in some very high tree, in some very inaccessible spot. They could not be left in this ill-considered sleeping-place, else they would all freeze to death; and words fail to tell the labor in lowering twilight and temperature of discovering their retreat, the dislodging, capturing, and imprisoning them. [Illustration: Dove-cote at Shirley-on-James.] In Narragansett there is a charming old farm garden, which I often visit to note and admire its old-time blossoms. This garden has a guardian, who haunts the garden walks as did the terrace peacock of old England; no watch-dog ever was so faithful, and none half so acute. When I visit the garden I always ask "Where is Job?" I am answered that he is in the field with the cattle. Sometimes this is true, but at other times Job has left the field and is attending to his assumed duties. As he is not encouraged, he has learned great slyness and dissimulation. Immovable, and in silence, Job is concealed behind a Syringa hedge or in a Lilac ambush, and as you stroll peacefully and unwittingly down the paths, sniffing the honeyed sweetness of the dense edging of Sweet Alyssum, all is as balmy as the blossoms. But stoop for an instant, to gather some leaves of Sweet Basil or Sweet Brier, or to collect a dozen seed-pods of that specially delicate Sweet Pea, and lo! the enemy is upon you, like a fierce whirlwind. He looks mild and demure enough in his kitchen yard retreat, whereto, upon piercing outcry for help, the farmer and his two sons have haled him, and where the camera has caught him. But far from meek is his aspect when you are dodging him around the great Tree Peony, or flying frantically before him down the side path to the garden gate. This fierce wild beast was once that mildest of creatures--a pet lamb; the constant companion of the farm-wife, as she weeded and watered her loved garden. Her husband says, "He seems to think folks are stealing her flowers, if they stop to look." The wife and mother of these three great men has gone from her garden forever; but a tenderness for all that she loved makes them not only care for her flowers, but keeps this rampant guardian of the garden at the kitchen door, just as she kept him when he was a little lamb. I knew this New England farmer's wife, a noble woman, of infinite tenderness, strength, and endurance; a lover of trees and flowers and all living things, and I marvel not that they keep her memory green. [Illustration: The Peacock in His Pride.] CHAPTER XIX GARDEN BOUNDARIES "A garden fair ... with Wandis long and small Railèd about, and so with treès set Was all the place; and Hawthorne hedges knet, That lyf was none walking there forbye That might within scarce any wight espy." --_Kings Qubair_, KING JAMES I OF SCOTLAND. One who reads what I have written in these pages of a garden enclosed, will scarcely doubt that to me every garden must have boundaries, definite and high. Three old farm boundaries were of necessity garden boundaries in early days--our stone walls, rail fences, and hedge-rows. The first two seem typically American; the third is an English hedge fashion. Throughout New England the great boulders were blasted to clear the rocky fields; and these, with the smaller loose stones, were gathered into vast stone walls. We still see these walls around fields and as the boundaries of kitchen gardens and farm flower gardens, and delightful walls they are, resourceful of beauty to the inventive gardener. I know one lovely garden in old Narragansett, on a farm which is now the country-seat of folk of great wealth, where the old stone walls are the pride of the place; and the carefully kept garden seems set in a beautiful frame of soft gray stones and flowering vines. These walls would be more beautiful still if our climate would let us have the wall gardens of old England, but everything here becomes too dry in summer for wall gardens to flourish. [Illustration: The Guardian of the Garden.] Rhode Island farmers for two centuries have cleared and sheltered the scanty soil of their state by blasting the ledges, and gathering the great stones of ledge and field into splendid stone walls. Their beauty is a gift to the farmer's descendants in reward for his hours of bitter and wearying toil. One of these fine stone walls, six feet in height, has stood secure and unbroken through a century of upheavals of winter frosts--which it was too broad and firmly built to heed. It stretches from the Post Road in old Narragansett, through field and meadow, and by the side of the oak grove, to the very edge of the bay. To the waterside one afternoon in June there strolled, a few years ago, a beautiful young girl and a somewhat conscious but determined young man. They seated themselves on the stone wall under the flickering shadow of a great Locust tree, then in full bloom. The air was sweet with the honeyed fragrance of the lovely pendent clusters of bloom, and bird and bee and butterfly hovered around,--it was paradise. The beauty and fitness of the scene so stimulated the young man's fancy to thoughts and words of love that he soon burst forth to his companion in an impassioned avowal of his desire to make her his wife. He had often pictured to himself that some time he would say to her these words, and he had seen also in his hopes the looks of tender affection with which she would reply. What was his amazement to behold that, instead of blushes and tender glances, his words of love were met by an apparently frenzied stare of horror and disgust, that seemed to pierce through him, as his beloved one sprung at one bound from her seat by his side on the high stone wall, and ran away at full speed, screaming out, "Oh, kill him! kill him!" Now that was certainly more than disconcerting to the warmest of lovers, and with a half-formed dread that the suddenness of his proposal of love had turned her brain, he ran after her, albeit somewhat coolly, and soon learned the reason for her extraordinary behavior. Emulous of the tempting serpent of old, a great black snake, Mr. _Bascanion constrictor_, had said complaisantly to himself: "Now here are a fair young Adam and Eve who have entered uninvited my Garden of Eden, and the man fancies it is not good for him to be alone, but I will have a word to say about that. I will come to her with honied words." So he thrust himself up between the stones of the wall, and advanced persuasively upon them, behind the man's back. But a Yankee Eve of the year 1890 A.D. is not that simple creature, the Eve of the year ---- B.C.; and even the Father of Evil would have to be great of guile to succeed in his wiles with her. A farm servant was promptly despatched to watch for the ill-mannered and intrusive snake who--as is the fashion of a snake--had grown to be as big as a boa-constrictor after he vanished; and at the end of the week once more the heel of man had bruised the serpent's head, and the third party in this love episode lay dead in his six feet of ugliness, a silent witness to the truth of the story. Throughout Narragansett, Locust trees have a fashion of fringing the stone walls with close young growth, and shading them with occasional taller trees. [Illustration: Terrace Wall at Van Cortlandt Manor.] These form an ideal garden boundary. The stone walls also gather a beautiful growth of Clematis, Brier, wild Peas, and Grapes; but they form a clinging-place for that devil's brood, Poison Ivy, which is so persistent in growth and so difficult to exterminate. The old worm fence was distinctly American; it had a zigzag series of chestnut rails, with stakes of twisted cedar saplings which were sometimes "chunked" by moss-covered boulders just peeping from the earth. This worm fence secured to the nature lover and to wild life a strip of land eight or ten feet wide, whereon plant, bird, beast, reptile, and insect flourished and reproduced. It has been, within a few years, a gardening fashion to preserve these old "Virginia" fences on country places of considerable elegance. Planted with Clematis, Honeysuckle, Trumpet vine, Wistaria, and the free-growing new Japanese Roses, they are wonderfully effective. [Illustration: Rail Fence Corner.] On Long Island, east of Riverhead, where there are few stones to form stone walls, are curious and picturesque hedge-rows, which are a most interesting and characteristic feature of the landscape, and they are beautiful also, as I have seen them once or twice, at the end of an old garden. These hedge-rows were thus formed: when a field was cleared, a row of young saplings of varied growth, chiefly Oak, Elder, and Ash, was left to form the hedge. These young trees were cut and bent over parallel to the ground, and sometimes interlaced together with dry branches and vines. Each year these trees were lopped, and new sprouts and branches permitted to grow only in the line of the hedge. Soon a tangle of briers and wild vines overgrew and netted them all into a close, impenetrable, luxuriant mass. They were, to use Wordsworth's phrase, "scarcely hedge-rows, but lines of sportive woods run wild." In this close green wall birds build their nests, and in their shelter burrow wild hares, and there open Violets and other firstlings of the spring. The twisted tree trunks in these old hedges are sometimes three or four feet in diameter one way, and but a foot or more the other; they were a shiftless field-border, as they took up so much land, but they were sheep-proof. The custom of making a dividing line by a row of bent and polled trees still remains, even where the close, tangled hedge-row has disappeared with the flocks of sheep. [Illustration: Topiary Work at Levens Hall.] These hedge-rows were an English fashion seen in Hertfordshire and Suffolk. On commons and reclaimed land they took the place of the quickset hedges seen around richer farm lands. The bending and interlacing was called plashing; the polling, shrouding. English farmers and gardeners paid infinite attention to their hedges, both as a protection to their fields and as a means of firewood. There is something very pleasant in the thought that these English gentlemen who settled eastern Long Island, the Gardiners, Sylvesters, Coxes, and others, retained on their farm lands in the new world the customs of their English homes, pleasanter still to know that their descendants for centuries kept up these homely farm fashions. The old hedge-rows on Long Island are an historical record, a landmark--long may they linger. On some of the finest estates on the island they have been carefully preserved, to form the lower boundary of a garden, where, laid out with a shaded, grassy walk dividing it from the flower beds, they form the loveliest of garden limits. Planted skilfully with great Art to look like great Nature, with edging of Elder and Wild Rose, with native vines and an occasional congenial garden ally, they are truly unique. [Illustration: Oval Pergola at Arlington.] Yew was used for the most famous English hedges; and as neither Yew nor Holly thrive here--though both will grow--I fancy that is why we have ever had in comparison so few hedges, and have really no very ancient ones, though in old letters and account books we read of the planting of hedges on fine estates. George Washington tried it, so did Adams, and Jefferson, and Quincy. Osage Orange, Barberry, and Privet were in nurserymen's lists, but it has not been till within twenty or thirty years that Privet has become so popular. In Southern gardens, Cypress made close, good garden hedges; and Cedar hedges fifty or sixty years old are seen. Lilac hedges were unsatisfactory, save in isolated cases, as the one at Indian Hill. The Japan Quinces, and other of the Japanese shrubs, were tried in hedges in the mid-century, with doubtful success as hedges, though they form lovely rows of flowering shrubs. Snowballs and Snowberries, Flowering Currant, Altheas, and Locust, all have been used for hedge-planting, so we certainly have tried faithfully enough to have hedges in America. Locust hedges are most graceful, they cannot be clipped closely. I saw one lovely creation of Locust, set with an occasional Rose Acacia--and the Locust thus supported the brittle Acacia. If it were successful, it would be, when in bloom, a dream of beauty. Hemlock hedges are ever fine, as are hemlock trees everywhere, but will not bear too close clipping. Other evergreens, among them the varied Spruces, have been set in hedges, but have not proved satisfactory enough to be much used. [Illustration: French Homestead with old Stone Terrace, Kingston, Rhode Island.] Buckthorn was a century ago much used for hedges and arches. When Josiah Quincy, President of Harvard College, was in Congress in 1809, he obtained from an English gardener, in Georgetown, Buckthorn plants for hedges in his Massachusetts home, which hedges were an object of great beauty for many years. The traveller Kalm found Privet hedges in Pennsylvania in 1760. In Scotland Privet is called Primprint. Primet and Primprivet were other old names. Box was called Primpe. These were all derivative of prim, meaning precise. Our Privet hedges, new as they are, are of great beauty and satisfaction, and soon will rival the English Yew hedges. I have never yet seen the garden in which there was not some boundary or line which could be filled to advantage by a hedge. In garden great or garden small, the hedge should ever have a place. Often a featureless garden, blooming well, yet somehow unattractive, has been completely transformed by the planting of hedges. They seem, too, to give such an orderly aspect to the garden. In level countries hedges are specially valuable. I cannot understand why some denounce clipped hedges and trees as against nature. A clipped hedge is just as natural as the cut grass of a lawn, and is closely akin to it. Others think hedges "too set"; to me their finality is their charm. Hedges need to be well kept to be pleasing. Chaucer in his day in praising a "hegge" said that:-- "Every branche and leaf must grow by mesure Pleine as a bord, of an height by and by." In England, hedge-clipping has ever been a gardening art. [Illustration: Italian Garden at Wellesley, Massachusetts.] In the old English garden the topiarist was an important functionary. Besides his clipping shears he had to have what old-time cooks called _judgment_ or _faculty_. In English gardens many specimens of topiary work still exist, maintained usually as relics of the past rather than as a modern notion of the beautiful. The old gardens at Levens Hall, page 404, contain some of the most remarkable examples. In a few old gardens in America, especially in Southern towns, traces of the topiary work of early years can be seen; these overgrown, uncertain shapes have a curious influence, and the sentiment awakened is beautifully described by Gabriele d' Annunzio:-- "We walked among evergreens, among ancient Box trees, Laurels, Myrtles, whose wild old age had forgotten its early discipline. In a few places here and there was some trace of the symmetrical shapes carved once upon a time by the gardener's shears, and with a melancholy not unlike his who searches on old tombstones for the effigies of the forgotten dead, I noted carefully among the silent plants those traces of humanity not altogether obliterated." The height of topiary art in America is reached in the lovely garden, often called the Italian garden, of Hollis H. Hunnewell, Esq., at Wellesley, Massachusetts. Vernon Lee tells in her charming essay on "Italian Gardens" of the beauty of gardens without flowers, and this garden of Mr. Hunnewell is an admirable example. Though the effect of the black and white of the pictured representations shown on these pages is perhaps somewhat sombre, there is nothing sad or sombre in the garden itself. The clear gleam of marble pavilions and balustrades, the formal rows of flower jars with their hundreds of Century plants, and the lovely light on the lovely lake, serve as a delightful contrast to the clear, clean lusty green of the clipped trees. This garden is a beautiful example of the art of the topiarist, not in its grotesque forms, but in the shapes liked by Lord Bacon, pyramids, columns, and "hedges in welts," carefully studied to be both stately and graceful. I first saw this garden thirty years ago; it was interesting then in its well thought-out plan, and in the perfection of every inch of its slow growth; but how much more beautiful now, when the garden's promise is fulfilled. [Illustration: Steps in Italian Garden at Wellesley, Massachusetts.] The editor of _Country Life_ says that the most notable attempt at modern topiary work in England is at Ascott, the seat of Mr. Leopold de Rothschild, but the examples there have not attained a growth at all approaching those at Wellesley. Mr. Hunnewell writes thus of his garden:-- "It was after a visit to Elvaston nearly fifty years ago that I conceived the idea of making a collection of trees for topiary work in imitation of what I had witnessed at that celebrated estate. As suitable trees for that purpose could not be obtained at the nurseries in this country, and as the English Yew is not reliable in our New England climate, I was obliged to make the best selection possible from such trees as had proved hardy here--the Pines, Spruces, Hemlocks, Junipers, Arbor-vitæ, Cedars, and Japanese Retinosporas. The trees were all very small, and for the first twenty years their growth was shortened twice annually, causing them to take a close and compact habit, comparing favorably in that respect with the Yew. Many of them are now more than forty feet in height and sixty feet in circumference, the Hemlocks especially proving highly successful." This beautiful example of art in nature is ever open to visitors, and the number of such visitors is very large. It is, however, but one of the many beauties of the great estate, with its fine garden of Roses, its pavilion of splendid Rhododendrons and Azaleas, its uncommon and very successful rock garden, and its magnificent plantation of rare trees. There are also many rows of fine hedges and arches in various portions of the grounds, hedges of clipped Cedar and Hemlock, many of them twenty feet high, which compare well in condition, symmetry, and extent with the finest English hedges on the finest English estates. [Illustration: Topiary Work in California.] Through the great number of formal gardens laid out within a few years in America, the topiary art has had a certain revival. In California, with the lavish foliage, it may be seen in considerable perfection, though of scant beauty, as here shown. [Illustration: Serpentine Brick Wall at University of Virginia, Charlottesville.] Happy is the garden surrounded by a brick wall or with terrace wall of brick. How well every color looks by the side of old brick; even scarlet, bright pink, and rose-pink flowers, which seem impossible, do very well when held to the wall by clear green leaves. Flowering vines are perfect when trained on old soft-red brick enclosing walls; white-flowered vines are specially lovely thereon, Clematis, white Roses, and the rarely beautiful white Wistaria. How lovely is my Virgin's-bower when growing on brick; how Hollyhocks stand up beside it. Brick posts, too, are good in a fence, and, better still, in a pergola. A portion of the fine terrace wall at Van Cortlandt Manor is shown facing page 286. This wall was put in about fifty years ago; ere that there had been a grass bank, which is ever a trial in a garden; for it is hard to mow the grass on such a bank, and it never looks neat; it should be planted with some vine. A very curious garden wall is the serpentine brick wall still standing at the University of Virginia, at Charlottesville. It is about seven feet high, and closes in the garden and green of the row of houses occupied by members of the faculty; originally it may have extended around the entire college grounds. I present a view from the street in order to show its contour distinctly; within the garden its outlines are obscured by vines and flowers. The first thought in the mind of the observer is that its reason for curving is that it could be built much more lightly, and hence more cheaply, than a straight wall; then it seems a possible idealization in brick of the old Virginia rail fence. But I do not look to domestic patterns and influences for its production; it is to me a good example of the old-time domination of French ideas which was so marked and so disquieting in America. In France, after the peace of 1762, the Marquis de Geradin was revolutionizing gardening. His own garden at Ermenonville and his description of it exercised important influence in England and America, as in France. Jefferson was the planner and architect of the University of Virginia; and it is stated that he built this serpentine wall. Whether he did or not, it is another example of French influences in architecture in the United States. This French school, above everything else, replaced straight lines with carefully curving and winding lines. CHAPTER XX A MOONLIGHT GARDEN "How sweetly smells the Honeysuckle In the hush'd night, as if the world were one Of utter peace and love and gentleness." --WALTER SAVAGE LANDOR Gardens fanciful of name, a Saint's Garden, a Friendship Garden, have been planted and cherished. I plant a garden like none other; not an everyday garden, nor indeed a garden of any day, but a garden for "brave moonshine," a garden of twilight opening and midnight bloom, a garden of nocturnal blossoms, a garden of white blossoms, and the sweetest garden in the world. It is a garden of my dreams, but I know where it lies, and it now is smiling back at this very harvest moon. The old house of Hon. Ben. Perley Poore--Indian Hill--at Newburyport, Massachusetts, has been for many years one of the loveliest of New England's homes. During his lifetime it had extraordinary charms, for on the noble hillside, where grew scattered in sunny fields and pastures every variety of native tree that would winter New England's snow and ice, there were vast herds of snow-white cows, and flocks of white sheep, and the splendid oxen were white. White pigeons circled in the air around ample dove-cotes, and the farmyard poultry were all white; an enthusiastic chronicler recounts also white peacocks on the wall, but these are also denied. On every side were old terraced walls covered with Roses and flowering vines, banked with shrubs, and standing in beds of old-time flowers running over with bloom; but behind the house, stretching up the lovely hillside, was The Garden, and when we entered it, lo! it was a White Garden with edgings of pure and seemly white Candytuft from the forcing beds, and flowers of Spring Snowflake and Star of Bethlehem and Jonquils; and there were white-flowered shrubs of spring, the earliest Spiræas and Deutzias; the doubled-flowered Cherries and Almonds and old favorites, such as Peter's Wreath, all white and wonderfully expressive of a simplicity, a purity, a closeness to nature. I saw this lovely farmstead and radiant White Garden first in glowing sunlight, but far rarer must have been its charm in moonlight; though the white beasts (as English hinds call cattle) were sleeping in careful shelter; and the white dog, assured of their safety, was silent; and the white fowl were in coop and cote; and "Only the white sheep were sometimes seen To cross the strips of moon-blanch'd green." But the White Garden, ah! then the garden truly lived; it was like lightest snow wreaths bathed in silvery moonshine, with every radiant flower adoring the moon with wide-open eyes, and pouring forth incense at her altar. And it was peopled with shadowy forms shaped of pearly mists and dews; and white night moths bore messages for them from flower to flower--this garden then was the garden of my dreams. Thoreau complained to himself that he had not put duskiness enough into his words in his description of his evening walks. He longed to have the peculiar and classic severity of his sentences, the color of his style, tell his readers that his scene was laid at night without saying so in exact words. I, too, have not written as I wished, by moonlight; I can tell of moonlight in the garden, but I desire more; I want you to see and feel this moonlight garden, as did Emily Dickinson her garden by moonlight:-- "And still within the summer's night A something so transporting bright I clap my hands to see." But perhaps I can no more gather it into words than I can bottle up the moonlight itself. This lovely garden, varied in shape, and extending in many and diverse directions and corners, bears as its crown a magnificent double flower border over seven hundred feet long; with a broad straight path trimly edged with Box adown through its centre, and with a flower border twelve feet wide on either side. This was laid out and planted in 1833 by the parents of Major Poore, after extended travel in England, and doubtless under the influences of the beautiful English flower gardens they had seen. Its length was originally broken halfway up the hill and crowned at the top of the hill by some formal parterres of careful design, but these now are removed. There are graceful arches across the path, one of Honeysuckle on the crown of the hill, from which you look out perhaps into Paradise--for Indian Hill in June is a very close neighbor to Paradise; it is difficult to define the boundaries between the two, and to me it would be hard to choose between them. Standing in this arch on this fair hill, you can look down the long flower borders of color and perfume to the old house, lying in the heart of the trees and vines and flowers. To your left is the hill-sweep, bearing the splendid grove, an arboretum of great native trees, planted by Major Poore, and for which he received the prize awarded by his native state to the finest plantation of trees within its bounds. Turn from the house and garden, and look through this frame of vines formed by the arch upon this scene,--the loveliest to me of any on earth,--a fair New England summer landscape. Fields of rich corn and grain, broken at times with the gray granite boulders which show what centuries of grand and sturdy toil were given to make these fertile fields; ample orchards full of promise of fruit; placid lakes and mill-dams and narrow silvery rivers, with low-lying red brick mills embowered in trees; dark forests of sombre Pine and Cedar and Oak; narrow lanes and broad highways shaded with the livelier green of Elm and Maple and Birch; gray farm-houses with vast barns; little towns of thrifty white houses clustered around slender church-spires which, set thickly over this sunny land, point everywhere to heaven, and tell, as if speaking, the story of New England's past, of her foundation on love of God, just as the fields and orchards and highways speak of thrift and honesty and hard labor; and the houses, such as this of Indian Hill, of kindly neighborliness and substantial comfort; and as this old garden speaks of a love of the beautiful, a refinement, an æsthetic and tender side of New England character which _we_ know, but into which--as Mr. Underwood says in _Quabbin_, that fine study of New England life--"strangers and Kiplings cannot enter." Seven hundred feet of double flower border, fourteen hundred feet of flower bed, twelve feet wide! "It do swallow no end of plants," says the gardener. [Illustration: Chestnut Path in Garden at Indian Hill.] In spite of the banishing dictum of many artists in regard to white flowers in a garden, the presence of ample variety of white flowers is to me the greatest factor in producing harmony and beauty both by night and day. White seems to be as important a foil in some cases as green. It may sometimes be given to the garden in other ways than through flower blossoms, by white marble statues, vases, pedestals, seats. We all like the approval of our own thoughts by men of genius; with my love of white flowers I had infinite gratification in these words of Walter Savage Landor's, written from Florence in regard to a friend's garden:-- "I like white flowers better than any others; they resemble fair women. Lily, Tuberose, Orange, and the truly English Syringa are my heart's delight. I do not mean to say that they supplant the Rose and Violet in my affections, for these are our first loves, before we grew _too fond of considering_; and too fond of displaying our acquaintance with others of sounding titles." In Japan, where flowers have rank, white flowers are the aristocrats. I deem them the aristocrats in the gardens of the Occident also. Having been informed of Tennyson's dislike of white flowers, I have amused myself by trying to discover in his poems evidence of such aversion. I think one possibly might note an indifference to white blossoms; but strong color sense, his love of ample and rich color, would naturally make him name white infrequently. A pretty line in _Walking to the Mail_ tells of a girl with "a skin as clean and white as Privet when it flowers"; and there were White Lilies and Roses and milk-white Acacias in Maud's garden. In _The Last Tournament_ the street-ways are depicted as hung with white samite, and "children sat in white," and the dames and damsels were all "white-robed in honor of the stainless child." A "swarthy one" cried out at last:-- "The snowdrop only, flowering thro' the year, Would make the world as blank as wintertide. Come!--let us gladden their sad eyes With all the kindlier colors of the field. So dame and damsel glitter'd at the feast Variously gay.... So dame and damsel cast the simple white, And glowing in all colors, the live grass, Rose-campion, King-cup, Bluebell, Poppy, glanced About the revels." [Illustration: Foxgloves in Lower Garden at Indian Hill.] In the garden borders is a commonplace little plant, gray of foliage, with small, drooping, closed flowers of an indifferently dull tint, you would almost wonder at its presence among its gay garden fellows. Let us glance at it in the twilight, for it seems like the twilight, a soft, shaded gray; but the flowers have already lifted their heads and opened their petals, and they now seem like the twilight clouds of palest pink and lilac. It is the Night-scented Stock, and lavishly through the still night it pours forth its ineffable fragrance. A single plant, thirty feet from an open window, will waft its perfume into the room. This white Stock was a favorite flower of Marie Antoinette, under its French name the Julienne. "Night Violets," is its appropriate German name. Hesperis! the name shows its habit. Dame's Rocket is our title for this cheerful old favorite of May, which shines in such snowy beauty at night, and throws forth such a compelling fragrance. It is rarely found in our gardens, but I have seen it growing wild by the roadside in secluded spots; not in ample sheets of growth like Bouncing Bet, which we at first glance thought it was; it is a shyer stray, blossoming earlier than comely Betsey. The old-fashioned single, or slightly double, country Pink, known as Snow Pink or Star Pink, was often used as an edging for small borders, and its bluish green, almost gray, foliage was quaint in effect and beautiful in the moonlight. When seen at night, the reason for the folk-name is evident. Last summer, on a heavily clouded night in June, in a cottage garden at West Hampton, borders of this Snow Pink shone out of the darkness with a phosphorescent light, like hoar-frost, on every grassy leaf; while the hundreds of pale pink blossoms seemed softly shining stars. It was a curious effect, almost wintry, even in midsummer. The scent was wafted down the garden path, and along the country road, like a concentrated essence, rather than a fleeting breath of flowers. One of these cottage borders is shown on page 292, and I have named it from these lines from _The Garden that I Love_:-- "A running ribbon of perfumed snow Which the sun is melting rapidly." At sundown the beautiful white Day Lily opens and gives forth all night an overwhelming sweetness; I have never seen night moths visiting it, though I know they must, since a few seed capsules always form. In the border stand-- "Clumps of sunny Phlox That shine at dusk, and grow more deeply sweet." These, with white Petunias, are almost unbearably cloying in their heavy odor. It is a curious fact that some of these night-scented flowers are positively offensive in the daytime; try your _Nicotiana affinis_ next midday--it outpours honeyed sweetness at night, but you will be glad it withholds its perfume by day. The plants of Nicotiana were first introduced to England for their beauty, sweet scent, and medicinal qualities, not to furnish smoke. Parkinson in 1629 writes of Tobacco, "With us it is cherished for medicinal qualities as for the beauty of its flowers," and Gerarde, in 1633, after telling of the beauty, etc., says that the dried leaves are "taken in a pipe, set on fire, the smoke suckt into the stomach, and thrust forth at the noshtrils." Snake-root, sometimes called Black Cohosh (_Cimicifuga racemosa_), is one of the most stately wild flowers, and a noble addition to the garden. A picture of a single plant gives little impression of its dignity of habit, its wonderfully decorative growth; but the succession of pure white spires, standing up several feet high at the edge of a swampy field, or in a garden, partake of that compelling charm which comes from tall trees of slender growth, from repetition and association, such as pine trees, rows of bayonets, the gathered masts of a harbor, from stalks of corn in a field, from rows of Foxglove--from all "serried ranks." I must not conceal the fact of its horrible odor, which might exile it from a small garden. [Illustration: Dame's Rocket.] Among my beloved white flowers, a favorite among those who are all favorites, is the white Columbine. Some are double, but the common single white Columbines picture far better the derivation of their name; they are like white doves, they seem almost an emblematic flower. William Morris says:-- "Be very shy of double flowers; choose the old Columbine where the clustering doves are unmistakable and distinct, not the double one, where they run into mere tatters. Don't be swindled out of that wonder of beauty, a single Snowdrop; there is no gain and plenty of loss in the double one." There are some extremists, such as Dr. Forbes Watson, who condemn all double flowers. One thing in the favor of double blooms is that their perfume is increased with their petals. Double Violets, Roses, and Pinks seem as natural now as single flowers of their kinds. I confess a distinct aversion to the thought of a double Lilac. I have never seen one, though the Ranoncule, said to be very fine, costs but forty cents a plant, and hence must be much grown. [Illustration: Snake-root.] There is a curious influence of flower-color which I can only explain by giving an example. We think of Iris, Gladiolus, Lupine, and even Foxglove and Poppy as flowers of a warm and vivid color; so where we see them a pure white, they have a distinct and compelling effect on us, pleasing, but a little eerie; not a surprise, for we have always known the white varieties, yet not exactly what we are wonted to. This has nothing of the grotesque, as is produced by the albino element in the animal world; it is simply a trifle mysterious. White Pansies and White Violets possess this quality to a marked degree. I always look and look again at growing White Violets. A friend says: "Do you think they will speak to you?" for I turn to them with such an expectancy of something. The "everlasting" white Pea is a most satisfactory plant by day or night. Hedges covered with it are a pure delight. Do not fear to plant it with liberal hand. Be very liberal, too, in your garden of white Foxgloves. Even if the garden be small, there is room for many graceful spires of the lovely bells to shine out everywhere, piercing up through green foliage and colored blooms of other plants. They are not only beautiful, but they are flowers of sentiment and association, endeared to childhood, visited of bees, among the best beloved of old-time favorites. They consort well with nearly every other flower, and certainly with every other color, and they seem to clarify many a crudely or dingily tinted flower; they are as admirable foils as they are principals in the garden scheme. In England, where they readily grow wild, they are often planted at the edge of a wood, or to form vistas in a copse. I doubt whether they would thrive here thus planted, but they are admirable when set in occasional groups to show in pure whiteness against a hedge. I say in occasional groups, for the Foxglove should never be planted in exact rows. The White Iris, the Iris of the Florentine Orris-root, is one of the noblest plants of the whole world; its pure petals are truly hyaline like snow-ice, like translucent white glass; and the indescribably beautiful drooping lines of the flowers are such a contrast with the defiant erectness of the fresh green leaves. Small wonder that it was a sacred flower of the Greeks. It was called by the French _la flambe blanche_, a beautiful poetic title--the White Torch of the Garden. A flower of mystery, of wonderment to children, was the Evening Primrose; I knew the garden variety only with intimacy. Possibly the wild flower had similar charms and was equally weird in the gloaming, but it grew by country roadsides, and I was never outside our garden limits after nightfall, so I know not its evening habits. We had in our garden a variety known as the California Evening Primrose--a giant flower as tall as our heads. My mother saw its pale yellow stars shining in the early evening in a cottage garden on Cape Ann, and was there given, out of the darkness, by a fellow flower lover, the seeds which have afforded to us every year since so much sentiment and pleasure. The most exquisite description of the Evening Primrose is given by Margaret Deland in her _Old Garden_:-- "There the primrose stands, that as the night Begins to gather, and the dews to fall, Flings wide to circling moths her twisted buds, That shine like yellow moons with pale cold glow, And all the air her heavy fragrance floods, And gives largess to any winds that blow. Here in warm darkness of a night in June, ... children came To watch the primrose blow. Silently they stood Hand clasped in hand, in breathless hush around, And saw her slyly doff her soft green hood And blossom--with a silken burst of sound." [Illustration: The Title-page of Parkinson's _Paradisi in Solis_, etc.] The wild Primrose opens slowly, hesitatingly, it trembles open, but the garden Primrose flares open. The Evening Primrose is usually classed with sweet-scented flowers, but that exact observer, E. V. B., tells of its "repulsive smell. At night if the stem be shaken, or if the flower-cup trembles at the touch of a moth as it alights, out pours the dreadful odor." I do not know that any other garden flower opens with a distinct sound. Owen Meredith's poem, _The Aloe_, tells that the Aloe opened with such a loud explosive report that the rooks shrieked and folks ran out of the house to learn whence came the sound. The tall columns of the Yucca or Adam's Needle stood like shafts of marble against the hedge trees of the Indian Hill garden. Their beautiful blooms are a miniature of those of the great Century Plant. In the daytime the Yucca's blossoms hang in scentless, greenish white bells, but at night these bells lift up their heads and expand with great stars of light and odor--a glorious plant. Around their spire of luminous bells circle pale night moths, lured by the rich fragrance. Even by moonlight we can see the little white detached fibres at the edge of the leaves, which we are told the Mexican women used as thread to sew with. And we children used to pull off the strong fibres and put them in a needle and sew with them too. When I see those Yuccas in bloom I fully believe that they are the grandest flowers of our gardens; but happily, I have a short garden memory, so I mourn not the Yucca when I see the _Anemone japonica_ or any other noble white garden child. [Illustration: Yucca, like White Marble against the Evergreens.] Here at the end of the garden walk is an arbor dark with the shadow of great leaves, such as Gerarde calls "leaves round and big like to a buckler." But out of that shadowed background of leaf on leaf shine hundreds of pure, pale stars of sweetness and light,--a true flower of the night in fragrance, beauty, and name,--the Moon-vine. It is a flower of sentiment, full of suggestion. Did you ever see a ghost in a garden? I do so wish I could. If I had the placing of ghosts, I would not make them mope round in stuffy old bedrooms and garrets; but would place one here in this arbor in my Moonlight Garden. But if I did, I have no doubt she would take up a hoe or a watering-pot, and proceed to do some very unghostlike deed--perhaps, grub up weeds. Longfellow had a ghost in his garden (page 142). He must have mourned when he found it was only a clothes-line and a long night-gown. It was the favorite tale of a Swedish old lady who lived to be ninety-six years old, of a discovery of her youth, in the year 1762, of strange flashes of light which sparkled out of the flowers of the Nasturtium one sultry night. I suppose the average young woman of the average education of the day and her country might not have heeded or told of this, but she was the daughter of Linnæus, the great botanist, and had not the everyday education. Then great Goethe saw and wrote of similar flashes of light around Oriental Poppies; and soon other folk saw them also--naturalists and everyday folk. Usually yellow flowers were found to display this light--Marigolds, orange Lilies, and Sunflowers. Then the daughter of Linnæus reported another curious discovery; she certainly turned her nocturnal rambles in her garden to good account. She averred she had set fire to a certain gas which formed and hung around the Fraxinella, and that the ignition did not injure the plant. This assertion was met with open scoffing and disbelief, which has never wholly ceased; yet the popular name of Gas Plant indicates a widespread confidence in this quality of the Fraxinella and it is easily proved true. Another New England name for the Fraxinella, given me from the owner of the herb-garden at Elmhurst, is "Spitfire Plant," because the seed-pods sizzle so when a lighted match is applied to them. The Fraxinella is a sturdy, hardy flower. There are some aged plants in old New England gardens; I know one which has outlived the man who planted it, his son, grandson, and great-grandson. The Fraxinella bears a tall stem with Larkspur-like flowers of white or a curious dark pink, and shining Ash-like leaves, whence its name, the little Ash. It is one of the finest plants of the old-fashioned garden; fine in bloom, fine in habit of growth, and it even has decorative seed vessels. It is as ready of scent as anything in the garden; if you but brush against leaf, stem, flower, or seed, as you walk down the garden path, it gives forth a penetrating perfume, that you think at first is like Lemon, then like Anise, then like Lavender; until you finally decide it is like nothing save Fraxinella. As with the blossoms of the Calycanthus shrub, you can never mistake the perfume, when once you know it, for anything else. It is a scent of distinction. Through this individuality it is, therefore, full of associations, and correspondingly beloved. [Illustration: Fraxinella.] CHAPTER XXI FLOWERS OF MYSTERY "Let thy upsoaring vision range at large This garden through: for so by ray divine Kindled, thy ken a magic flight shall mount." --CARY'S Translation of Dante. Bogies and fairies, a sense of eeriness, came to every garden-bred child of any imagination in connection with certain flowers. These flowers seemed to be regarded thus through no special rule or reason. With some there may have been slight associations with fairy lore, or medicinal usage, or a hint of meretriciousness. Sometimes the child hardly formulated his thought of the flower, yet the dread or dislike or curiosity existed. My own notions were absolutely baseless, and usually absurd. I doubt if we communicated these fancies to each other save in a few cases, as of the Monk's-hood, when we had been warned that the flower was poisonous. I have read with much interest Dr. Forbes Watson's account of plants that filled his childish mind with mysterious awe and wonder; among them were the Spurge, Henbane, Rue, Dogtooth Violet, Nigella, and pink Marsh Mallow. The latter has ever been to me one of the most cheerful of blossoms. I did not know it in my earliest childhood, and never saw it in gardens till recent years. It is too close a cousin of the Hollyhock ever to seem to me aught but a happy flower. Henbane and Rue I did not know, but I share his feeling toward the others, though I could not carry it to the extent of fancying these the plants which a young man gathered, distilled, and gave to his betrothed as a poison. There has ever been much uncanny suggestion in the Cypress Spurge. I never should have picked it had I found it in trim gardens; but I saw it only in forlorn and neglected spots. Perhaps its sombre tinge may come now from association, since it is often seen in country graveyards; and I heard a country woman once call it "Graveyard Ground Pine." But this association was not what influenced my childhood, for I never went then to graveyards. In driving along our New England roads I am ever reminded of Parkinson's dictum that "Spurge once planted will hardly be got rid out again." For by every decaying old house, in every deserted garden, and by the roadside where houses may have been, grows and spreads this Cypress Spurge. I know a large orchard in Narragansett from which grass has wholly vanished; it has been crowded out by the ugly little plant, which has even invaded the adjoining woods. I wonder why every one in colonial days planted it, for it is said to be poisonous in its contact to some folks, and virulently poisonous to eat--though I am sure no one ever wanted to eat it. The colonists even brought it over from England, when we had here such lovely native plants. It seldom flowers. Old New England names for it are Love-in-a-huddle and Seven Sisters; not over significant, but of interest, as folk-names always are. I join with Dr. Forbes Watson in finding the Nigella uncanny. It has a half-spidery look, that seems ungracious in a flower. Its names are curious: Love-in-a-mist, Love-in-a-puzzle, Love-in-a-tangle, Puzzle-love, Devil-in-a-bush, Katherine-flowers--another of the many allusions to St. Katherine and her wheel; and the persistent styles do resemble the spokes of a wheel. A name given it in a cottage garden in Wayland was Blue Spider-flower, which seems more suited than that of Spiderwort for the Tradescantia. Spiderwort, like all "three-cornered" flowers, is a flower of mystery; and so little cared for to-day that it is almost extinct in our gardens, save where it persists in out-of-the-way spots. A splendid clump of it is here shown, which grows still in the Worcester garden I so loved in my childhood. In this plant the old imagined tracings of spider's legs in the leaves can scarce be seen. With the fanciful notion of "like curing like" ever found in old medical recipes, Gerarde says, vaguely, the leaves are good for "the Bite of that Great Spider," a creature also of mystery. Perhaps if the clear blue flowers kept open throughout the day, the Spiderwort would be more tolerated, for this picture certainly has a Japanesque appearance, and what we must acknowledge was far more characteristic of old-time flowers than of many new ones, a wonderful individuality; there was no sameness of outline. I could draw the outline of a dozen blossoms of our modern gardens, and you could not in a careless glance distinguish one from the other: Cosmos, _Anemone japonica_, single Dahlias, and Sunflowers, Gaillardia, Gazanias, all such simple Rose forms. [Illustration: Love-in-a-mist.] There was a quaint and mysterious annual in ancient gardens, called Shell flower, or Molucca Balm, which is not found now even on seedsmen's special lists of old-fashioned plants. The flower was white, pink-tipped, and set in a cup-shaped calyx an inch long, which was bigger than the flower itself. The plant stood two or three feet high, and the sweet-scented flowers were in whorls of five or six on a stem. It is a good example of my assertion that the old flowers had queerer shapes than modern ones, and were made of queer materials; the calyx of this Shell flower is of such singular quality and fibre. The Dog-tooth Violet always had to me a sickly look, but its leaves give it its special offensiveness; all spotted leaves, or flower petals which showed the slightest resemblance to the markings of a snake or lizard, always filled me with dislike. Among them I included Lungwort (Pulmonaria), a flower which seems suddenly to have disappeared from many gardens, even old-fashioned ones, just as it has disappeared from medicine. Not a gardener could be found in our public parks in New York who had ever seen it, or knew it, though there is in Prospect Park a well-filled and noteworthy "Old-fashioned Garden." Let me add, in passing, that nothing in the entire park system--greenhouses, water gardens, Italian gardens--affords such delight to the public as this old-fashioned garden. The changing blue and pink flowers of the Lungwort, somewhat characteristic of its family, are curious also. This plant was also known by the singular name of Joseph-and-Mary; the pink flowers being the emblem of Joseph; the blue of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Lady's-tears was an allied name, from a legend that the Virgin Mary's tears fell on the leaves, causing the white spots to grow in them, and that one of her blue eyes became red from excessive weeping. It was held to be unlucky even to destroy the plant. Soldier-and-his-wife also had reference to the red and blue tints of the flower. A cousin of the Lungwort, our native _Mertensia virginica_, has in the young plant an equally singular leafage; every ordinary process of leaf progress is reversed: the young shoots are not a tender green, but are almost black, and change gradually in leaf, stem, and flower calyx to an odd light green in which the dark color lingers in veins and spots until the plant is in its full flower of tender blue, lilac, and pink. "Blue and pink ladies" we used to call the blossoms when we hung them on pins for a fairy dance. The Alstroemeria is another spotted flower of the old borders, curious in its funnel-shaped blooms, edged and lined with tiny brown and green spots. It is more grotesque than beautiful, but was beloved in a day that deemed the Tiger Lily the most beautiful of all lilies. [Illustration: Spiderwort.] The aversion I feel for spotted leaves does not extend to striped ones, though I care little for variegated or striped foliage in a garden. I like the striped white and green leaves of one variety of our garden Iris, and of our common Sweet Flag (Calamus), which are decorative to a most satisfactory degree. The firm ribbon leaves of the striped Sweet Flag never turn brown in the driest summer, and grow very tall; a tub of it kept well watered is a thing of surprising beauty, and the plants are very handsome in the rock garden. I wonder what the bees seek in the leaves! they throng its green and white blades in May, finding something, I am sure, besides the delightful scent; though I do not note that they pierce the veins of the plant for the sap, as I have known them to do along the large veins of certain palm leaves. I have seen bees often act as though they were sniffing a flower with appreciation, not gathering honey. The only endeared striped leaf was that of the Striped Grass--Gardener's Garters we called it. Clumps of it growing at Van Cortlandt Manor are here shown. We children used to run to the great plants of Striped Grass at the end of the garden as to a toy ribbon shop. The long blades of Grass looked like some antique gauze ribbons. They were very modish for dolls' wear, very useful to shape pin-a-sights, those very useful things, and very pretty to tie up posies. Under favorable circumstances this garden child might become a garden pest, a spreading weed. I never saw a more curious garden stray than an entire dooryard and farm garden--certainly two acres in extent, covered with Striped Grass, save where a few persistent Tiger Lilies pierced through the striped leaves. Even among the deserted hearthstones and tumble-down chimneys the striped leaves ran up among the roofless walls. Let me state here that the suggestion of mystery in a flower did not always make me dislike it; sometimes it added a charm. The Periwinkle--Ground Myrtle we used to call it--was one of the most mysterious and elusive flowers I knew, and other children thus regarded it; but I had a deep affection for its lovely blue stars and clean, glossy leaves, a special love, since it was the first flower I saw blooming out of doors after a severe illness, and it seemed to welcome me back to life. [Illustration: Gardener's Garters, at Van Cortlandt Manor.] The name is from the French Pervenche, which suffers sadly by being changed into the clumsy Periwinkle. Everywhere it is a flower of mystery; it is the "Violette des Sorciers" of the French. Sadder is its Tuscan name, "Flower of death," for it is used there as garlands at the burial of children; and is often planted on graves, just as it is here. A far happier folk-name was Joy-of-the-ground, and to my mind better suited to the cheerful, healthy little plant. An ancient medical manuscript gives this description of the Periwinkle, which for directness and lucidity can scarcely be excelled:-- "Parwyke is an erbe grene of colour, In tyme of May he bereth blue flour. Ye lef is thicke, schinede and styf, As is ye grene jwy lefe. Vnder brod and uerhand round, Men call it ye joy of grownde." On the list of the Boston seedsman (given on page 33 _et seq._) is Venus'-navelwort. I lingered this summer by an ancient front yard in Marblehead, and in the shade of the low-lying gray-shingled house I saw a refined plant with which I was wholly unacquainted, lying like a little dun cloud on the border, a pleasing plant with cinereous foliage, in color like the silvery gray of the house, shaded with a bluer tint and bearing a dainty milk-white bloom. This modest flower had that power of catching the attention in spite of the high and striking colors of its neighbors, such as a simple gown of gray and white, if of graceful cut and shape, will have among gay-colored silk attire--the charm of Quaker garb, even though its shape be ugly. You know how ready is the owner of such a garden to talk of her favorites, and soon I was told that this plant was "Navy-work." I accepted this name in this old maritime town as possibly a local folk-name, yet I was puzzled by a haunting memory of having heard some similar title. A later search in a botany revealed the original, Venus'-navelwort. I deem it right to state in this connection that any such corruption of the old name of a flower is very unusual in Massachusetts, where the English tongue is spoken by all of Massachusetts descent in much purity of pronunciation. There is no doubt that all the flowers of the old garden were far more suggestive, more full of meaning, than those given to us by modern florists. This does not come wholly from association, as many fancy, but from an inherent quality of the flower itself. I never saw Honeywort (Cerinthe) till five years ago, and then it was not in an old-fashioned garden; but the moment I beheld the graceful, drooping flowers in the flower bed, the yellow and purple-toothed corolla caught my eye, as it caught my fancy; it seemed to mean something. I was not surprised to learn that it was an ancient favorite of colonial days. The leaves of Honeywort are often lightly spotted, which may be one of its elements of mystery. Honeywort is seldom seen even in our oldest gardens; but it is a beautiful flower and a most hardy annual, and deserves to be reintroduced. [Illustration: Garden Walk at The Manse, Deerfield, Massachusetts.] A great favorite in the old garden was the splendid scarlet Lychnis, to which in New England is given the name of London Pride. There are two old varieties: one has four petals with squared ends, and is called, from the shape of the expanded flower, the Maltese Cross; the other, called Scarlet Lightning, is shown on a succeeding page; it has five deeply-nicked petals. It is a flower of midsummer eve and magic power, and I think it must have some connection with the Crusaders, being called by Gerarde Floure of Jerusalem, and Flower of Candy. The five-petalled form is rarely seen; in one old family I know it is so cherished, and deemed so magic a home-maker, that every bride who has gone from that home for over a hundred years has borne away a plant of that London Pride; it has really become a Family Pride. Another plant of mysterious suggestion was the common Plantain. This was not an unaided instinct of my childhood, but came to me through an explanation of the lines in the chapter, "The White Man's Foot," in _Hiawatha_:-- "Whereso'er they tread, beneath them Springs a flower unknown among us; Springs the White Man's Foot in blossom." After my father showed me the Plantain as the "White Man's Foot," I ever regarded it with a sense of its unusual power; and I used often to wonder, when I found it growing in the grass, who had stepped there. I have permanently associated with the Plantain or Waybred a curious and distasteful trick of my memory. We recall our American humorist's lament over the haunting lines from the car-conductor's orders, which filled his brain and ears from the moment he read them, wholly by chance, and which he tried vainly to forget. A similar obsession filled me when I read the spirited apostrophe to the Plantain or Waybred, in Cockayne's translation of Ælfric's _Lacunga_, a book of leech-craft of the eleventh century:-- "And thou Waybroad, Mother of worts, Over thee carts creaked, Over thee Queens rode, Over thee brides bridalled, Over thee bulls breathed, All these thou withstoodst, Venom and vile things, And all the loathly things, That through the land rove." I could not thrust them out of my mind; worse still, I kept manufacturing for the poem scores of lines of similar metre. I never shall forget the Plantain, it won't let me forget it. [Illustration: London Pride.] The Orpine was a flower linked with tradition and mystery in England, there were scores of fanciful notions connected with it. It has grown to be a spreading weed in some parts of New England, but it has lost both its mystery and its flowers. The only bed of flowering Orpine I ever saw in America was in the millyard of Miller Rose at Kettle Hole--and a really lovely expanse of bloom it was, broken only by old worn millstones which formed the doorsteps. He told with pride that his grandmother planted it, and "it was the flowering variety that no one else had in Rhode Island, not even in greenhouses in Newport." Miller Rose ground corn meal and flour with ancient millstones, and infinitely better were his grindings than "store meal." He could tell you, with prolonged detail, of the new-fangled roller he bought and used one week, and not a decent Johnny-cake could be made from the meal, and it shamed him. So he threw away all the meal he hadn't sold; and then the new machinery was pulled out and the millstones replaced, "to await the Lord's coming," he added, being a Second Adventist--or by his own title a "Christadelphian and an Old Bachelor." He was a famous preacher, having a pulpit built of heavy stones, in the woods near his mill. A little trying it was to hear the outpourings of his long sermons on summer afternoons, while you waited for him to come down from his pulpit and his prophesyings to give you your bag of meal. A tithing of time he gave each day to the Lord, two hours and a half of preaching--and doubtless far more than a tithe of his income to the poor. In sentimental association with his name, he had a few straggling Roses around his millyard--all old-time varieties; and, with Orpine and Sweetbrier, he could gather a very pretty posy for all who came to Kettle Hole. We constantly read of Fritillaries in the river fields sung of Matthew Arnold. In a charming book of English country life, _Idlehurst_, I read how closely the flower is still associated with Oxford life, recalling ever the Iffley and Kensington meadows to all Oxford men. The author tells that "quite unlikely sorts of men used to pick bunches of the flowers, and we would come up the towpath with our spoils." Fritillaries grew in my mother's garden; I cannot now recall another garden in America where I have ever seen them in bloom. They certainly are not common. On a succeeding page are shown the blossoms of the white Fritillary my mother planted and loved. Can you not believe that we love them still? They have spread but little, neither have they dwindled nor died. Each year they seem to us the very same blossoms she loved. Our cyclopædias of gardening tell us that the Fritillaries spread freely; but E. V. B. writes of them in her exquisite English: "Slow in growth as the Fritillaries are, they are ever sure. When they once take root, there they stay forever, with a constancy unknown in our human world. They may be trusted, however late their coming. In the fresh vigor of its youth was there ever seen any other flower planned so exquisitely, fashioned so slenderly! The pink symmetry of Kalmia perhaps comes nearest this perfection, with the delicately curved and rounded angles of its bloom." In no garden, no matter how modern, could the Fritillaries ever look to me aught but antique and classic. They are as essentially of the past, even to the careless eye, as an antique lamp or brazier. Quaint, too, is the fabric of their coats, like some old silken stuff of paduasoy or sarsenet. All are checkered, as their name indicates. Even the white flowers bear little birthmarks of checkered lines. They were among the famous dancers in my mother's garden, and I can tell you that a country dance of Fritillaries in plaided kirtles and green caps is a lively sight. Another name for this queer little flower is Guinea-hen Flower. Gerarde, with his felicity of description, says:-- "One square is of a greenish-yellow colour, the other purple, keeping the same order as well on the back side of the flower as on the inside; although they are blackish in one square, and of a violet colour in another: in so much that every leafe (of the flower) seemeth to be the feather of a Ginnie hen, whereof it took its name." A strong personal trait of the Fritillaries (for I may so speak of flowers I love) is their air of mystery. They mean something I cannot fathom; they look it, but cannot tell it. Fritillaries were a flower of significance even in Elizabethan days. They were made into little buttonhole posies, and, as Parkinson says, "worn abroad by curious lovers of these delights." In California grow wild a dozen varieties; the best known of these is recurved, but it does not droop, and is to all outward glance an Anemone, and has lost in that new world much the mystery of the old herbalist's "Checker Lily," save the checkers; these always are visible. [Illustration: White Fritillaria.] The Cyclamen and Dodecatheon lay their ears back like a vicious horse. Both have an eerie aspect, as if turned upside down, as has also the Nightshade. I knew a little child, a flower lover from babyhood, who feared to touch the Cyclamen, and even cried if any attempt was made to have her touch the flower. When older, she said that she had feared the flower would sting her. I have often a sense of mysterious meaning in a vine, it seems so plainly to reach out to attract your attention. I recall once being seated on the doorstep of a deserted farm-house, musing a little over the sad thought of this lost home, when suddenly some one tapped me on the cheek--I suppose I ought to say some thing, though it seemed a human touch. It was a spray of Matrimony vine, twenty feet long or more, that had reached around a corner, and helped by a breeze, had appealed to me for sympathy and companionship. I answered by following it around the corner. It had been trained up to a little shelf-like ledge or roof, over what had been a pantry window, and hung in long lines of heavy shade. It said to me: "Here once lived a flower-loving woman and a man who cared for her comfort and pleasure. She planted me when she, and the man, and the house were young, and he made the window shelter, and trained me over it, to make cool and green the window where she worked. I was the symbol of their happy married love. See! there they lie, under the gray stone beneath those cedars. Their children all are far away, but every year I grow fresh and green, though I find it lonely here now." To me, the Matrimony vine is ever a plant of interest, and it may be very beautiful, if cared for. On page 186 is shown the lovely growth on the porch at Van Cortlandt Manor. With a sentiment of wonder and inquiry, not unmixed with mystery, do we regard many flowers, which are described in our botanies as Garden Escapes. This Matrimony vine is one of the many creeping, climbing things that have wandered away from houses. Honeysuckles and Trumpet-vines are far travellers. I saw once in a remote and wild spot a great boulder surrounded with bushes and all were covered with the old Coral or Trumpet Honeysuckle; it had such a familiar air, and yet seemed to have gained a certain knowingness by its travels. This element of mystery does not extend to the flowers which I am told once were in trim gardens, but which I have never seen there, such as Ox-eye Daisies, Scotch Thistles, Chamomile, Tansy, Bergamot, Yarrow, and all of the Mint family; they are to me truly wild. But when I find flowers still cherished in our gardens, growing also in some wild spot, I regard them with wonder. A great expanse of Coreopsis, a field of Grape Hyacinth or Star of Bethlehem, roadsides of Coronilla or Moneywort, rows of red Day Lily and Tiger Lily, patches of Sunflowers or Jerusalem Artichokes, all are matters of thought; we long to trace their wanderings, to have them tell whence and how they came. Bouncing Bet is too cheerful and rollicking a wanderer to awaken sentiment. How gladly has she been welcomed to our fields and roadsides. I could not willingly spare her in our country drives, even to become again a cherished garden dweller. She rivals the Succory in beautifying arid dust heaps and barren railroad cuts, with her tender opalescent pink tints. How wholesome and hearty her growth, how pleasant her fragrance. We can never see her too often, nor ever stigmatize her, as have been so many of our garden escapes, as "Now a dreaded weed." [Illustration: Bouncing Bet.] One of the weirdest of all flowers to me is the Butter-and-eggs, the Toad-flax, which was once a garden child, but has run away from gardens to wander in every field in the land. I haven't the slightest reason for this regard of Butter-and-eggs, and I believe it is peculiar to myself, just as is Dr. Forbes Watson's regard of the Marshmallow to him. I have no uncanny or sad associations with it, and I never heard anything "queer" about it. Thirty years ago, in a locality I knew well in central Massachusetts, Butter-and-eggs was far from common; I even remember the first time I saw it and was told its quaint name; now it grows there and everywhere; it is a persistent weed. John Burroughs calls it "the hateful Toad-flax," and old Manasseh Cutler, in a curious mixture of compliment and slur, "a common, handsome, tedious weed." It travels above ground and below ground, and in some soils will run out the grass. It knows how to allure the bumblebee, however, and has honey in its heart. I think it a lovely flower, though it is queer; and it is a delight to the scientific botanist, in the delicate perfection of its methods and means of fertilization. The greatest beauty of this flower is in late autumn, when it springs up densely in shaven fields. I have seen, during the last week in October, fields entirely filled with its exquisite sulphur-yellow tint, one of the most delicate colors in nature; a yellow that is luminous at night, and is rivalled only by the pale yellow translucent leaves of the Moosewood in late autumn, which make such a strange pallid light in old forests in the North--a light which dominates over every other autumn tint, though the trees which bear them are so spindling and low, and little noted save in early spring in their rare pinkness, and in this their autumn etherealization. And the Moosewood shares the mystery of the Butter-and-eggs as well as its color. I should be afraid to drive or walk alone in a wood road, when the Moosewood leaves were turning yellow in autumn. I shall never forget them in Dublin, New Hampshire, driving through what our delightful Yankee charioteer and guide called "only a cat-road." This was to me a new use of the word cat as a prænomen, though I knew, as did Dr. Holmes and Hosea Biglow, and every good New Englander, that "cat-sticks" were poor spindling sticks, either growing or in a load of cut wood. I heard a country parson say as he regarded ruefully a gift of a sled load of firewood, "The deacon's load is all cat-sticks." Of course a cat-stick was also the stick used in the game of ball called tip-cat. Myself when young did much practise another loved ball game, "one old cat," a local favorite, perhaps a local name. "Cat-ice," too, is a good old New England word and thing; it is the thin layer of brittle ice formed over puddles, from under which the water has afterward receded. If there lives a New Englander too old or too hurried to rejoice in stepping upon and crackling the first "cat-ice" on a late autumn morning, then he is a man; for no New England girl, a century old, could be thus indifferent. It is akin to rustling through the deep-lying autumn leaves, which affords a pleasure so absurdly disproportioned and inexplicable that it is almost mysterious. Some of us gouty ones, alas! have had to give up the "cat-slides" which were also such a delight; the little stretches of glare ice to which we ran a few steps and slid rapidly over with the impetus. But I must not let my New England folk-words lure me away from my subject, even on a tempting "cat-slide." [Illustration: Overgrown Garden at Llanerck, Pennsylvania.] Though garden flowers run everywhere that they will, they are not easily forced to become wild flowers. We hear much of the pleasure of sowing garden seeds along the roadside, and children are urged to make beautiful wild gardens to be the delight of passers-by. Alphonse Karr wrote most charmingly of such sowings, and he pictured the delight and surprise of country folk in the future when they found the choice blooms, and the confusion of learned botanists in years to come. The delight and surprise and confusion would have been if any of his seeds sprouted and lived! A few years ago a kindly member of our United States Congress sent to me from the vast seed stores of our national Agricultural Department, thousands of packages of seeds of common garden flowers to be given to the poor children in public kindergartens and primary schools in our great city. The seeds were given to hundreds of eager flower lovers, but starch boxes and old tubs and flower pots formed the limited gardens of those Irish and Italian children, and the Government had sent to me such "hats full, sacks full, bushel-bags full," that I was left with an embarrassment of riches. I sent them to Narragansett and amused myself thereafter by sowing several pecks of garden seeds along the country roadsides; never, to my knowledge, did one seed live and produce a plant. I watched eagerly for certain plantings of Poppies, Candytuft, Morning-glories, and even the indomitable Portulaca; not one appeared. I don't know why I should think I could improve on nature; for I drove through that road yesterday and it was radiant with Wild Rose bloom, white Elder, and Meadow Beauty; a combination that Thoreau thought and that I think could not be excelled in a cultivated garden. Above all, these are the right things in the right place, which my garden plants would not have been. I am sure that if they had lived and crowded out these exquisite wild flowers I should have been sorry enough. [Illustration: Fountain at Yaddo.] The hardy Colchicum or Autumnal Crocus is seldom seen in our gardens; nor do I care for its increase, even when planted in the grass. It bears to me none of the delight which accompanies the spring Crocus, but seems to be out of keeping with the autumnal season. Rising bare of leaves, it has but a seminatural aspect, as if it had been stuck rootless in the ground like the leafless, stemless blooms of a child's posy bed. Its English name--Naked Boys--seems suited to it. The Colchicum is associated in my mind with the Indian Pipe and similar growths; it is curious, but it isn't pleasing. As the Indian Pipe could not be lured within garden walls, I will not write of it here, save to say that no one could ever see it growing in its shadowy home in the woods without yielding to its air of mystery. It is the weirdest flower that grows, so palpably ghastly that we feel almost a cheerful satisfaction in the perfection of its performance and our own responsive thrill, just as we do in a good ghost story. [Illustration: Avenue of White Pines at Wellesley, Mass., the Country-seat of Hollis H. Hunnewell, Esq.] Many wild flowers which we have transplanted to our gardens are full of magic and charm. In some, such as Thyme and Elder, these elements come from English tradition. In other flowers the quality of mystery is inherent. In childhood I absolutely abhorred Bloodroot; it seemed to me a fearsome thing when first I picked it. I remember well my dismay, it was so pure, so sleek, so innocent of face, yet bleeding at a touch, like a murdered man in the Blood Ordeal. The Trillium, Wake-robin, is a wonderful flower. I have seen it growing in a luxuriance almost beyond belief in lonely Canadian forests on the Laurentian Mountains. At this mining settlement, so remote that it was unvisited even by the omnipresent and faithful Canadian priest, was a wealth of plant growth which seemed fairly tropical. The starry flowers of the Trillium hung on long peduncles, and the two-inch diameter of the ordinary blossom was doubled. The Painted Trillium bore rich flowers of pink and wine color, and stood four or five feet from the ground. I think no one had ever gathered their blooms, for there were no women in this mining camp save a few French-Indian servants and one Irish cook, and no educated white woman had ever been within fifty, perhaps a hundred, miles of the place. Every variety of bloom seemed of exaggerated growth, but the Trillium exceeded all. An element of mystery surrounds this plant, a quality which appertains to all "three-cornered" flowers; perhaps there may be some significance in the three-sided form. I felt this influence in the extreme when in the presence of this Canadian Trillium, so much so that I was depressed by it when wandering alone even in the edge of the forest; and when by light o' the moon I peered in on this forest garden, it was like the vision of a troop of trembling white ghosts, stimulating to the fancy. It was but a part of the whole influence of that place, which was full of eerie mystery. For after the countless eons of time during which "the earth was without form and void, and darkness was upon the face of the earth," the waters at last were gathered together and dry land appeared. And that dry land which came up slowly out of the face of the waters was this Laurentian range. And when at God's command "on the third day" the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielded seed--lo, among the things which were good and beautiful there shone forth upon the earth the first starry flowers of the white Trillium. CHAPTER XXII ROSES OF YESTERDAY "Each morn a thousand Roses brings, you say; Yes, but where leaves the Rose of Yesterday?" --_Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam_, translated by EDWARD FITZGERALD, 1858. The answer can be given the Persian poet that the Rose of Yesterday leaves again in the heart. The subtle fragrance of a Rose can readily conjure in our minds a dream of summers past, and happy summers to come. Many a flower lover since Chaucer has felt as did the poet:-- "The savour of the Roses swote Me smote right to the herte rote." The old-time Roses possess most fully this hidden power. Sweetest of all was the old Cabbage Rose--called by some the Provence Rose--for its perfume "to be chronicled and chronicled, and cut and chronicled, and all-to-be-praised." Its odor is perfection; it is the standard by which I compare all other fragrances. It is not too strong nor too cloying, as are some Rose scents; it is the idealization of that distinctive sweetness of the Rose family which other Roses have to some degree. The color of the Cabbage Rose is very warm and pleasing, a clear, happy pink, and the flower has a wholesome, open look; but it is not a beautiful Rose by florists' standards,--few of the old Roses are,--and it is rather awkward in growth. The Cabbage Rose is said to have been a favorite in ancient Rome. I wish it had a prettier name; it is certainly worthy one. The Hundred-leaved Rose was akin to the Cabbage Rose, and shared its delicious fragrance. In its rather irregular shape it resembled the present Duke of Sussex Rose. One of the rarest of old-time Roses in our gardens to-day is the red and white mottled York and Lancaster. It is as old as the sixteenth century. Shakespeare writes in the _Sonnets_:-- "The Roses fearfully in thorns did stand One blushing shame, another white despair. A third, nor red, nor white, had stol'n of both." They are what Chaucer loved, "sweitie roses red, brode, and open also." Roses of a broad, flat expanse when in full bloom; they have a cheerier, heartier, more gracious look than many of the new Roses that never open far from bud, that seem so pinched and narrow. What ineffable fragrance do they pour out from every wide-open flower, a fragrance that is the very spirit of the Oriental Attar of Roses; all the sensuous sweetness of the attar is gone, and only that which is purest and best remains. I believe, in thinking of it, that it equals the perfume of the Cabbage Rose, which, ere now, I have always placed first. This York and Lancaster Rose is the _Rosa mundi_,--the rose of the world. A fine plant is growing in Hawthorne's old home in Salem. [Illustration: Violets in Silver Double Coaster.] Opposite page 462 is an unusual depiction of the century-old York and Lancaster Rose still growing and flourishing in the old garden at Van Cortlandt Manor. It is from one of the few photographs which I have ever seen which make you forgive their lack of color. The vigor, the grace, the richness of this wonderful Rose certainly are fully shown, though but in black and white. I have called this Rose bush a century old; it is doubtless much older, but it does not seem old; it is gifted with everlasting youth. We know how the Persians gather before a single plant in flower; they spread their rugs, and pray before it; and sit and meditate before it; sip sherbet, play the lute and guitar in the moonlight; bring their friends and stand as in a vision, then talk in praises of it, and then all serenade it with an ode from Hafiz and depart. So would I gather my friends around this lovely old Rose, and share its beauty just as my friends at the manor-house share it with me; and as the Persians, we would praise it in sunlight and by moonlight, and sing its beauty in verses. This York and Lancaster Rose was known to Parkinson in his day; it is his _Rosa versicolor_. I wonder why so few modern gardens contain this treasure. I know it does not rise to all the standards of the modern Rose growers; but it possesses something better--it has a living spirit; it speaks of history, romance, sentiment; it awakens inspiration and thought, it has an ever living interest, a significance. I wonder whether a hundred years from now any one will stand before some Crimson Rambler, which will then be ancient, and feel as I do before this York and Lancaster goddess. [Illustration: York and Lancaster Rose.] The fragrance of the sweetest Roses--the Damask, the Cabbage, the York and Lancaster--is beyond any other flower-scent, it is irresistible, enthralling; you cannot leave it. You can push aside a Syringa, a Honeysuckle, even a Mignonette, but there is a magic something which binds you irrevocably to the Rose. I have never doubted that the Rose has some compelling quality shared not by other flowers. I know not whether it comes from centuries of establishment as a race-symbol, or from some inherent witchery of the plant, but it certainly exists. The variety of Roses known to old American gardens, as to English gardens, was few. The English Eglantine was quickly established here in gardens and spread to roadsides. The small, ragged, cheerful little Cinnamon Rose, now chiefly seen as a garden stray, is undoubtedly old. This Rose diffuses its faint "sinamon smelle" when the petals are dried. Nearly all of the Roses vaguely thought to be one or two hundred years old date only, within our ken, to the earlier years of the nineteenth century. The Seven Sisters Rose, imagined by the owner of many a Southern garden to belong to colonial days, is one of the family _Rosa multiflora_, introduced from Japan to England by Thunberg. Its catalogue name is Greville. I think the Seven Sisters dates back to 1822. The clusters of little double blooms of the Seven Sisters are not among our beautiful Roses, but are planted by the house mistress of every Southern home from power of association, because they were loved by her grandmothers, if not by more distant forbears. The crimson Boursaults are no older. They came from the Swiss Alps and therefore are hardy, but they are fussy things, needing much pruning and pulling out. I recall that they had much longer prickles than the other roses in our garden. The beloved little Banksia Rose came from China in 1807. The Madame Plantier is a hybrid China Rose of much popularity. We have had it about seventy or eighty years. In the lovely garden of Mrs. Mabel Osgood Wright, author of _Flowers and Trees in their Haunts_, I saw, this spring, a giant Madame Plantier which had over five thousand buds, and which could scarcely be equalled in beauty by any modern Roses. Its photograph gives scant idea of its size. What gratitude we have in spring to the Sweetbrier! How early in the year, from sprouting branch and curling leaf, it begins to give forth its pure odor! Gracious and lavish plant, beloved in scent by every one, you have no rival in the spring garden with its pale perfumes. The Sweetbrier and Shakespeare's Musk Rose (_Rosa moschata_) are said to be the only Roses that at evening pour forth their perfume; the others are what Bacon called "fast of their odor." The June Rose, called by many the Hedgehog Rose, was, I think, the first Rose of summer. A sturdy plant, about three feet in height; set thick with briers, it well deserved its folk name. The flowers opened into a saucer of richest carmine, as fragrant as an American Beauty, and the little circles of crimson resembling the _Rosa rugosa_ were seen in every front dooryard. [Illustration: Cinnamon Roses.] In the Walpole garden from whence came to us our beloved Ambrosia, was an ample Box-edged flower bed which my mother and the great-aunt called The Rosery. One cousin, now living, recalls with distinctness its charms in 1830; for it was beautiful, though the vast riches of the Rose-world of China and Japan had not reached it. There grew in it, he remembers, Yellow Scotch Roses, Sweetbrier (or Eglantine), Cinnamon Roses, White Scotch Roses, Damask Roses, Blush Roses, Dog Roses (the Canker-bloom of Shakespeare), Black Roses, Burgundy Roses, and Moss Roses. The last-named sensitive creatures, so difficult to rear with satisfaction in such a climate, found in this Rosery by the river-side some exact fitness of soil or surroundings, or perhaps of fostering care, which in spite of the dampness and the constant tendency of all Moss Roses to mildew, made them blossom in unrivalled perfection. I remember their successors, deplored as much inferior to the Roses of 1830, and they were the finest Moss Roses I ever saw blooming in a garden. An amusing saying of some of the village passers-by (with smaller gardens and education) showed the universal acknowledgment of the perfection of these Roses. These people thought the name was Morse Roses and always thus termed them, fancying they were named for the family for whom the flowers bloomed in such beauty and number. Among the other Roses named by my cousin I recall the White Scotch Rose, sometimes called also the Burnet-leaved Rose. It was very fragrant, and was often chosen for a Sunday posy. There were both single and double varieties. The Blush Rose (_Rosa alba_), known also as Maiden's blush, was much esteemed for its exquisite color; it could be distinguished readily by the glaucous hue of the foliage, which always looked like the leaves of artificial roses. It was easily blighted; and indeed we must acknowledge that few of the old Roses were as certain as their sturdy descendants. The Damask Rose was the only one ever used in careful families and by careful housekeepers for making rose-water. There was a Velvet Rose, darker than the Damask and low-growing, evidently the same Rose. Both showed plentiful yellow stamens in the centres, and had exquisite rich dark leaves. The old Black Rose of The Rosery was so suffused with color-principle, so "color-flushing," that even the wood had black and dark red streaks. Its petals were purple-black. The Burgundy Rose was of the Cabbage Rose family; its flowers were very small, scarce an inch in diameter. There were two varieties: the one my cousin called Little Burgundy had clear dark red blossoms; the other, white with pink centres. Both were low-growing, small bushes with small leaves. They are practically vanished Roses--wholly out of cultivation. We had other tiny roses; one was a lovely little Rose creature called a Fairy Rose. I haven't seen one for years. As I recall them, the Rose plants were never a foot in height, and had dainty little flower rosettes from a quarter to half an inch in diameter set in thick clusters. But the recalled dimensions of youth vary so when seen actually in the cold light of to-day that perhaps I am wrong in my description. This was also called a Pony Rose. This Fairy Rose was not the Polyantha which also has forty or fifty little roses in a cluster. The single Polyantha Rose looks much like its cousin, the Blackberry blossom. Another small Rose was the Garland Rose. This was deemed extremely elegant, and rightfully so. It has great corymbs of tiny white blossoms with tight little buff buds squeezing out among the open Roses. Another old favorite was the Rose of Four Seasons--known also by its French name, _Rose de Quartre Saisons_--which had occasional blooms throughout the summer. It may have been the foundation of our Hybrid Perpetual Roses. The Bourbon Roses were vastly modish; their round smooth petals and oval leaves easily distinguish them from other varieties. Among the several hundred things I have fully planned out to do, to solace my old age after I have become a "centurion," is a series of water-color drawings of all these old-time Roses, for so many of them are already scarce. The Michigan Rose which covered the arches in Mr. Seward's garden, has clusters of deep pink, single, odorless flowers, that fade out nearly white after they open. It is our only native Rose that has passed into cultivation. From it come many fine double-flowered Roses, among them the beautiful Baltimore Belle and Queen of the Prairies, which were named about 1836 by a Baltimore florist called Feast. All its vigorous and hardy descendants are scentless save the Gem of the Prairies. It is one of the ironies of plant-nomenclature when we have so few plant names saved to us from the picturesque and often musical speech of the American Indians, that the lovely Cherokee Rose, Indian of name, is a Chinese Rose. It ought to be a native, for everywhere throughout our Southern states its pure white flowers and glossy evergreen leaves love to grow till they form dense thickets. People who own fine gardens are nowadays unwilling to plant the old "Summer Roses" which bloom cheerfully in their own Rose-month and then have no more blossoming till the next year; they want a Remontant Rose, which will bloom a second time in the autumn, or a Perpetual Rose, which will give flowers from June till cut off by the frost. But these latter-named Roses are not only of fine gardens but of fine gardeners; and folk who wish the old simple flower garden which needs no highly-skilled care, still are happy in the old Summer Roses I have named. [Illustration: Cottage Garden with Roses.] A Rose hedge is the most beautiful of all garden walls and the most ancient. Professor Koch says that long before men customarily surrounded their gardens with walls, that they had Rose hedges. He tells us that each of the four great peoples of Asia owned its own beloved Rose, carried in all wanderings, until at last the four became common to all races of men. Indo-Germanic stock chose the hundred-leaved red Rose, _Rosa gallica_ (the best Rose for conserves). _Rosa damascena_, which blooms twice a year, and the Musk Rose were cherished by the Semitic people; these were preferred for attar of Roses and Rose water. The yellow Rose, _Rosa lutea_, or Persian Rose, was the flower of the Turkish Mongolian people. Eastern Asia is the fatherland of the Indian and Tea Roses. The Rose has now become as universal as sunlight. Even in Iceland and Lapland grows the lovely _Rosa nitida_. We say these Roses are common to all peoples, but we have never in America been able to grow yellow Roses in ample bloom in our gardens. Many that thrive in English gardens are unknown here. The only yellow garden Rose common in old gardens was known simply as the "old yellow Rose," or Scotch Rose, but it came from the far East. In a few localities the yellow Eglantine was seen. The picturesque old custom of paying a Rose for rent was known here. In Manheim, Pennsylvania, stands the Zion Lutheran Church, which was gathered together by Baron William Stiegel, who was the first glass and iron manufacturer of note in this country. He came to America in 1750, with a fortune which would be equal to-day to a million dollars, and founded and built and named Manheim. He was a man of deep spiritual and religious belief, and of profound sentiment, and when in 1771 he gave the land to the church, this clause was in the indenture:-- "Yielding and paying therefor unto the said Henry William Stiegel, his heirs or assigns, at the said town of Manheim, in the Month of June Yearly, forever hereafter, the rent of _One Red Rose_, if the same shall be lawfully demanded." Nothing more touching can be imagined than the fulfilment each year of this beautiful and symbolic ceremony of payment. The little town is rich in Roses, and these are gathered freely for the church service, when One Red Rose is still paid to the heirs of the sainted old baron, who died in 1778, broken in health and fortunes, even having languished in jail some time for debt. A new church was erected on the site of the old one in 1892, and in a beautiful memorial window the decoration of the Red Rose commemorates the sentiment of its benefactor. The Rose Tavern, in the neighboring town of Bethlehem, stands on land granted for the site of a tavern by William Penn, for the yearly rental of One Red Rose. In England the payment of a Rose as rent was often known. The Bishop of Ely leased Ely house in 1576 to Sir Christopher Hatton, Queen Elizabeth's handsome Lord Chancellor, for a Red Rose to be paid on Midsummer Day, ten loads of hay and ten pounds per annum, and he and his Episcopal successors reserved the right of walking in the gardens and gathering twenty bushels of Roses yearly. In France there was a feudal right to demand a payment of Roses for the making of Rose water. Two of our great historians, George Bancroft and Francis Parkman, were great rose-growers and rose-lovers. I never saw Mr. Parkman's Rose Garden, but I remember Mr. Bancroft's well; the Tea Roses were especially beautiful. Mr. Bancroft's Rose Garden in its earliest days had no rivals in America. The making of potpourri was common in my childhood. While the petals of the Cabbage Rose were preferred, all were used. Recipes for making potpourri exist in great number; I have seen several in manuscript in old recipe books, one dated 1690. The old ones are much simpler than the modern ones, and have no strong spices such as cinnamon and clove, and no bergamot or mints or strongly scented essences or leaves. The best rules gave ambergris as one of the ingredients; this is not really a perfume, but gives the potpourri its staying power. There is something very pleasant in opening an old China jar to find it filled with potpourri, even if the scent has wholly faded. It tells a story of a day when people had time for such things. I read in a letter a century and a half old of a happy group of people riding out to the house of the provincial governor of New York; all gathered Rose leaves in the governor's garden, and the governor's wife started the distilling of these Rose leaves, in her new still, into Rose water, while all drank syllabubs and junkets--a pretty Watteau-ish scene. The hips of wild Roses are a harvest--one unused in America in modern days, but in olden times they were stewed with sugar and spices, as were other fruits. Sauce Saracen, or Sarzyn, was made of Rose hips and Almonds pounded together, cooked in wine and sweetened. I believe they are still cooked by some folks in England, but I never heard of their use in America save by one person, an elderly Irish woman on a farm in Narragansett. Plentiful are the references and rules in old cookbooks for cooking Rose hips. Parkinson says: "Hippes are made into a conserve, also a paste like licoris. Cooks and their Mistresses know how to prepare from them many fine dishes for the Table." Gerarde writes characteristically of the Sweetbrier, "The fruit when it is ripe maketh most pleasant meats and banqueting dishes, as tarts and such-like; the making whereof I commit to the cunning cooke, and teeth to eat them in the rich man's mouth." Children have ever nibbled Rose hips:-- "I fed on scarlet hips and stony haws-- Hard fare, but such as boyish appetite Disdains not." The Rose bush furnished another comestible for the children's larder, the red succulent shoots of common garden and wild Roses. These were known by the dainty name of "brier candy," a name appropriate and characteristic, as the folk-names devised by children frequently are. [Illustration: Madame Plantier Rose.] On the post-road in southern New Hampshire stands an old house, which according to its license was once "improved" as a tavern, and was famous for its ghost and its Roses. The tavern was owned by a family of two brothers and two sisters, all unmarried, as was rather a habit in the Mason family; though when any of the tribe did marry, a vast throng of children quickly sprung up to propagate the name and sturdy qualities of the race. The men were giants, and both men and women were hard-working folk of vast endurance and great thrift, and, like all of that ilk in New England, they prospered and grew well-to-do; great barns and out-buildings, all well filled, stretched down along the roadside below the house. Joseph Mason could lay more feet of stone wall in a day, could plough more land, chop down more trees, pull more stumps, than any other man in New Hampshire. His sisters could bake and brew, make soap, weed the garden, spin and weave, unceasingly and untiringly. Their garden was a source of purest pleasure to them, as well as of hard work; its borders were so stocked with medicinal herbs that it could supply a township; and its old-time flowers furnished seeds and slips and bulbs to every other garden within a day's driving distance; but its glory was a garden side to gladden the heart of Omar Khayyam, where two or three acres of ground were grown over heavily with old-fashioned Roses. These were only the common Cinnamon Rose, the beloved Cabbage Rose, and a pale pink, spicily scented, large-petalled, scarcely double Rose, known to them as the Apothecaries' Rose. Farmer-neighbors wondered at this waste of the Masons' good land in this unprofitable Rose crop, but it had a certain use. There came every June to this Rose garden all the children of the vicinity, bearing milk-pails, homespun bags, birch baskets, to gather Rose petals. They nearly all had Roses at their homes, but not the Mason Roses. These Rose leaves were carried carefully to each home, and were packed in stone jars with alternate layers of brown or scant maple sugar. Soon all conglomerated into a gummy, brown, close-grained, not over alluring substance to the vision, which was known among the children by the unromantic name of "Rose tobacco." This cloying confection was in high repute. It was chipped off and eaten in tiny bits, and much treasured--as a love token, or reward of good behavior. The Mason house was a tavern. It was not one of the regular stopping-places on the turnpike road, being rather too near the town to gather any travel of teamsters or coaches; but passers-by who knew the house and the Masons loved to stop there. Everything in the well-kept, well-filled house and barns contributed to the comfort of guests, and it was known that the Masons cared more for the company of the traveller than for his pay. There was a shadow on this house. The youngest of the family, Hannah, had been jilted in her youth, "shabbed" as said the country folks. After several years of "constant company-keeping" with the son of a neighbor, during which time many a linen sheet and tablecloth, many a fine blanket, had been spun and woven, and laid aside with the tacit understanding that it was part of her wedding outfit, the man had fallen suddenly and violently in love with a girl who came from a neighboring town to sing a single Sunday in the church choir. He had driven to her home the following week, carried her off to a parson in a third town, married her, and brought her to his home in a triumph of enthusiasm and romance, which quickly fled before the open dislike and reprehension of his upright neighbors, who abhorred his fickleness, and before the years of ill health and ill temper of the hard-worked, faded wife. Many children were born to them; two lived, sickly little souls, who, unconscious of the blemish on their parents' past, came with the other children every June, and gathered Rose leaves under Hannah Mason's window. Hannah Mason was called crazy. After her desertion she never entered any door save that of her own home, never went to a neighbor's house either in time of joy or sorrow; queerer still, never went to church. All her life, her thoughts, her vast strength, went into hard work. No labor was too heavy or too formidable for her. She would hetchel flax for weeks, spin unceasingly, and weave on a hand loom, most wearing of women's work, without thought of rest. No single household could supply work for such an untiring machine, especially when all labored industriously--so work was brought to her from the neighbors. Not a wedding outfit for miles around was complete without one of Hannah Mason's fine tablecloths. Every corpse was buried in one of her linen shrouds. Sailmakers and boat-owners in Portsmouth sent up to her for strong duck for their sails. Lads went up to Dartmouth College in suits of her homespun. Many a teamster on the road slept under Hannah Mason's heavy gray woollen blankets, and his wagon tilts were covered with her canvas. Her bank account grew rapidly--she became rich as fast as her old lover became poor. But all this cast a shadow on the house. Sojourners would waken and hear throughout the night some steady sound, a scratching of the cards, a whirring of the spinning-wheel, the thump-thump of the loom. Some said she never slept, and could well grow rich when she worked all night. [Illustration: Sun-dial and Roses at Van Cortlandt Manor.] At last the woman who had stolen her lover--the poor, sickly wife--died. The widower, burdened hopelessly with debts, of course put up in her memory a fine headstone extolling her virtues. One wakeful night, with a sentiment often found in such natures, he went to the graveyard to view his proud but unpaid-for possession. The grass deadened his footsteps, and not till he reached the grave did there rise up from the ground a tall, ghostly figure dressed all in undyed gray wool of her own weaving. It was Hannah Mason. "Hannah," whimpered the widower, trying to take her hand,--with equal thought of her long bank account and his unpaid-for headstone,--"I never really loved any one but you." She broke away from him with an indescribable gesture of contempt and dignity, and went home. She died suddenly four days later of pneumonia, either from the shock or the damp midnight chill of the graveyard. As months passed on travellers still came to the tavern, and the story began to be whispered from one to another that the house was haunted by the ghost of Hannah Mason. Strange sounds were heard at night from the garret where she had always worked; most plainly of all could be heard the whirring of her great wool wheel. When this rumor reached the brothers' ears, they determined to investigate the story and end it forever. That night their vigil began, and soon the sound of the wheel was heard. They entered the garret, and to their surprise found the wheel spinning round. Then Joseph Mason went to the garret and seated himself for closer and more determined watch. He sat in the dark till the wheel began to revolve, then struck a sudden light and found the ghost. A great rat had run out on the spoke of the wheel and when he reached the broad rim had started a treadmill of his own--which made the ghostly sound as it whirred around. Soon this rat grew so tame that he would come out on the spinning-wheel in the daytime, and several others were seen to run around in the wheel as if it were a pleasant recreation. The old brick house still stands with its great grove of Sugar Maples, but it is silent, for the Masons all sleep in the graveyard behind the church high up on the hillside; no travellers stop within the doors, the ghost rats are dead, the spinning-wheel is gone, but the garden still blossoms with eternal youth. Though children no longer gather rose leaves for Rose tobacco, the "Roses of Yesterday" bloom every year; and each June morn, "a thousand blossoms with the day awake," and fling their spicy fragrance on the air. Index Abbotsford, Ivy from, 62; sun-dial from, 219, 377. Achillæa, 238. Aconite, 266. Acrelius, Dr., quoted, 208. Adam's Needle. _See_ Yucca. Adlumia, 183. Agapanthus, 52. Ageratum, as edging, 60, 264. Ague-weed, 146. Akers, Elizabeth, quoted, 152. Alcott, A. B., cited, 120. Alka, 359. Alleghany Vine. _See_ Adlumia. Allen, James Lane, quoted, 195. Almond, flowering, 39, 41, 159. Aloe, 429. Alpine Strawberries, 62. Alstroemeria, 438. Alyssum, sweet, 59-60, 179; yellow, 137. Ambrosia, 48, 235 _et seq._ _Anemone japonica_, 67, 187. Annunzio, G. d', quoted, 94. Apple betty, 211. Apple butter, 212-213. Apple frolic, 211 _et seq._ Apple hoglin, 211. Apple-luns, 209. Apple mose, 209. Apple moy, 209. Apple paring, 207. Apple pie, 208. Apple sauce, 213. Apple slump, 211. Apple stucklin, 211. Apple tansy, 209. Aquilegia, 260. Arabis, 47. Arbors, 384. Arbutus, trailing, 166, 291, 299. Arches, 384, 387, 418. Arch-herbs, 384. Arethusa, 247 _et seq._, 295, 299 _et seq._ Arlington, pergola at, 385. Arnold, Matthew, quoted, 225, 226. Ascott, sun-dial at, 98. Asters, 179, 180. Athol porridge, 393. Azalea, 16. Baby's Breath, 257. Bachelor's Buttons, 52, 176, 265, 291. Back-yard, flowers in, 154. Bacon-and-eggs, 138. Bacon, Lord, cited, 44-45, 55, 56, 144. Balloon Flower. _See_ _Platycodon grandiflorum_. Balloon Vine, 183-184. Balsams, 257. Baltimore Belle Rose, 468. Bancroft, George, Rose Garden of, 471. Banksia Rose, 463. Bare-dames, 17. Barney, Major, landscape art of, 101. Bartram, John, 12. Basil, sweet, 121 _et seq._ Battle of Princeton, 78. Batty Langley, cited, 383. Bayberry, 302. Beata Beatrix, 380. Beaver-tongue, 347-348. Beech, weeping, 231. Bee-hives, 354, 391 _et seq._ Beekman, James, greenhouse of, 19. Bee Larkspur, 265, 268. Bell-bind, 181, 182. Bell Flower, Chinese or Japanese. _See_ _Platycodon grandiflorum_. Belvoir Castle, Lunaria at, 171-172. Bergamot, 166. Bergen Homestead, garden of, 23. Berkeley, Bishop, Apple trees of, 194-195. Bitter Buttons. _See_ Tansy. Bitter-sweet, 25, 238. Black Cohosh, 423-424. Black Roses, 466. Bleeding-heart. _See_ Dielytra. Blind, herb-garden for, 131. Bloodroot, 154, 457. Bluebottles, 265. Blue-eyed Grass, 278-279. Blue-pipe tree, 144. Blue Roses, 253. Blue Sage, 264. Blue Spider-flower, 435. Bluetops, 265. Bluets, 260. Blue-weed. _See_ Viper's Bugloss. Blush Roses, 466. Bocconia. _See_ Plume Poppy. Boneset, 145 _et seq._ Bosquets, 387. Botrys. _See_ Ambrosia. Boulder, sun-dial mounted on, 377. Bouncing Bet, 52, 450. Bourbon Roses, 467. Boursault Roses, 48, 463. Bowers, 385. Bowling greens, 240. Bowne, Eliza Southgate, diary of, 31. Box. _See_ Chapter IV.; also 29, 47, 48, 54, 59, 71, 80, 112, 338. Break-your-spectacles, 265. Brecknock Hall, Box at, 103-104. Bricks for edging, 59, 71; for walls, 71-72, 412 _et seq._ Brier candy, 473. British soldiers, graves of, 77 _et seq._ Broom. _See_ Woad-waxen. Broughton Castle, Box sun-dial at, 97, 98. Brown, Dr. John, cited, 103. Browne, Sir Thomas, quoted, 306. Brunelle. _See_ Prunella. Buck-thorn, 387, 407. Bulbs, 157. Burgundy Roses, 465, 466, 467. Burnet, 305. Burnet-leaved Rose, 466. Burroughs, J., quoted, 195, 451-452. Burying-grounds, Box in, 94; Dogwood in, 155; Thyme in, 303; Spurge in, 434. Butter-and-eggs. _See_ Toad-flax. Buttercups, 166, 291, 294. Cabbage Rose, 297, 320, 459, 460, 471. Calceolarias, 179. Calopogon, 247. Calycanthus, 297. Cambridge University, sun-dial at, 97. Camden, South Carolina, gardens at, 15. Camellia Japonica, 16. Camomile, 192. Campanula, 52, 262. Candy-tuft, as edging, 59. Canker-bloom, 465. Canterbury Bells, 34, 162, 262, 333 _et seq._ Caraway, 341, 342. Carnation, green, 239. Catalpas, 26, 31, 293. Cat-ice, 453. Catnip, 315. Cat road, 452. Cat's-fancy, 315. Cat-slides, 453. Cat-sticks, 453. Cedar hedges, 387. Cedar of Lebanon, 29. Centaurea Cyanus. _See_ Bachelor's Buttons. Cerinthe. _See_ Honeywort. Charles I. sun-dials of, 357. Charles II. sun-dials of, 357. Charlottesville, Virginia, wall at, 414. Charmilles, 387. Chaucer, Geoffrey, quoted, flowers of, 215. Checkerberry, 345. Checker lily. _See_ Fritillaria. Chenopodium Botrys. _See_ Ambrosia. Cherokee Rose, 468. Cherry blossoms, 158, 193, 197. Cheshire, Connecticut, Apple tree in, 194. Chicory, 266 _et seq._ Chinese Bell Flower. _See_ _Platycodon grandiflorum_. Chionodoxa, 137. Chore-girl, 393. Christalan, statue of, 84, 85. Chrysanthemums, 179. Cider, manufacture of, 202 _et seq._ Cider soup, 212. Cinnamon Fern, 332. Cinnamon Roses, 463, 465. Civet, 317. Clair-voyées, 389. Clare, John, quoted, 227, 309. Claymont, Virginia, garden at, 181, 182. Claytonia, 294. Clematis, Jackmanni, 182. Clove apple, 210. Clover, 165. Clover, Italian, 241. Codlins and Cream, 138. Cohosh. _See_ Snakeroot. Colchicum, 455. Columbia, South Carolina, gardens at, 15. Columbine, 260, 424-425. Comfort Apple, 210. Concord, Massachusetts, British dead at, 78; Sunday observance in, 345 _et seq._ Cooper, Susan, quoted, 289. Corchorus, 190. Cornel, 332. Cornelian Rose, 17. Cornuti, Dr., list of plants, 10. Corydalis, 154. Costmary, 347-348. Covert walks, 59. Cowslips, 294. Cowslip mead, 393. Crab Apple trees, 192. Craigie House, 141. Crape Myrtle, 16, 71. Creeping Jenny, 60. Crocus, 136. Crown Imperial, 40; _loquitur_, 322 _et seq._ Culpepper, N., cited, 349. Cupid's Car, 266. Currant, flowering, 298. Cyanus, 33. Cyclamens, 448. Cylindres, 355. Cypress, 406. Daffodil Dell, 84. Daffodils, 137 _et seq._; 318. Dahlias, 176 _et seq._ Daisies, 165. Damask Roses, 462, 465, 466. Dames' Rocket, 422. Dandelion, 117, 135, 154-155, 330. Dante's Garden, 228. Deland, Margaret, quoted, 64, 229, 267, 429. Delphinum. _See_ Larkspur. Derby family, gardens of, 30-31. Deutzias, 189. Devil-in-a-bush, 435. Devil's-bit, 289. Dialling, taught, 372. Dicentra. _See_ Dielytra. Dickens, Charles, sun-dial of, 376. Dickinson, Emily, quoted, 341, 417. Dielytra, 185 _et seq._ Dill, 5, 341-343. Dodocatheon, 448. Dog Roses, 465. Dogtooth Violet, 434, 437. Dogwood, 155. Double Buttercups, 176. Double flowers, 425. Douglas, Gavin, quoted, 257. Dovecotes in England, 394; at Shirley-on-James, 394 _et seq._ Draytons, garden of, 16. Drumthwacket, garden at, 76 _et seq._ Drying Apples, 207. Dudgeon, 99-100. Dutch gardens, 19, 20 _et seq._, 71 _et seq._ Dutchman's Pipe, 184. Dumbledore's Delight, 266. Dyer's Weed. _See_ Woad-waxen. Egyptians, sun-dials of, 359. Elder, 304. Election Day, lilacs bloom on, 148. Elijah's Chariot, 271. Ely Place, rental of, 471. Emerson, R. W., quoted, 138, 376. Endicott, Governor, garden of, 3; nursery of, 24; bequest of Woad-waxen, 24, 25; sun-dial of, 358. Erasmus quoted, 109. Evening Primrose, 10, 428, 429. Everlasting Pea, 427. Fairbanks, Jonathan, sun-dial of, 344, 358. Fairies, charm to see, 304. Fair-in-sight, 334. Fairy Roses, 467. Fairy Thimbles, 337. Faneuil, Andrew, glass house of, 19. Fennel, 5, 341 _et seq._ Fitchburg, Massachusetts, garden at jail, 101, 102. Fitzgerald, Edward, quoted, 316, 330. Flag, sweet, striped, 438; blue, 278. Flagroot, 343 _et seq._ Flax, 262. Flower closes, 240. Flower de Luce, 257 _et seq._ Flowering Currant, 64. Flower-of-death, 441. Flower-of-prosperity, 42. Flower toys, 156. Flushing, Long Island, nurseries at, 26; _et seq._, 156, 230 _et seq._ Fore court, 40. Forget-me-not, 265. Formal garden, 78 _et seq._ Forsythia, 133, 189, 190. Forth rights, 58. Fortune, Robert, 187 _et seq._ Fountains, 69, 85-86, 380, 389. Fox, George, bequest of, 11; at Sylvester Manor, 105. Foxgloves, 162, 427. Frankland, Sir Henry, 29. Franklin cent, 365. Fraxinella, 432. Fringed Gentian, 265, 273, 294. Fritillaria, 81, 165, 446 _et seq._ Fuchsias, 52, 331. Fugio bank note, 364, 365. Fumitory, Climbing, 183. Funerals, in front yard, 51; Tansy at, 128 _et seq._ Funkias, 70. Gardener's Garters, 438. Garden Heliotrope, 313. Garden of Sentiment, 110. Garden Pink. _See_ Pinks. Garden, Significance of name, 280. Garden-viewing, 338. Gardiner, Grissel, 104. Garland of Julia, 323. Garland Roses, 467. Garrets with herbs, 115. Garth, 39. Gas-plant. _See_ Fraxinella. Gate of Yaddo, 81, 82; at Westover-on-James, 388, 389; at Bristol, Rhode Island, 389. Gatherer of simples, 118. Gaultheria, 118. Gem of the Prairies Rose, 468. Genista tinctoria. _See_ Woad-waxen. Geraniums, 244. Germander, 59. Germantown, Pennsylvania, gardens at, 11, 12; sun-dial at, 371 _et seq._ Ghosts in gardens, 431. Gilly flowers, 5. Ginger, Wild, 343. _Girls' Life Eighty Years Ago_, 31. Glory-of-the-snow, 137. Gnomon of sun-dial, 379 _et seq._ Goethe, cited, 431. Goncourt, Edmond de, quoted, 248, 249. Gooseberries, 338, 339 _et seq._ Goosefoot, 59. Gorse, 221, 222. Grace Church Rectory, sun-dial of, 364, 374. Grafting, 391. Grape Hyacinth, 255 _et seq._ Graveyard Ground-pine, 434. Green apples, 200 _et seq._ Green, color, 138, 233 _et seq._ Green galleries, 385. Greenhouse, of James Beekman, 19; of T. Hardenbrook, 19. Ground Myrtle, 439. Groundsel, 292. Guinea-hen flower, 447. Gypsophila, 175. Hair-dye, of Box, 99. Hampton Court, Box at, 94. Hampton, garden at, 14, 58, 60, 95, 101. Hancock garden, 30. Hawdods, 265. Hawthorn, 292, 300. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, quoted, 153, 299. Headaches, 309. Heart pea, 184. Heather, 221, 222. Hedgehog Roses, 464. Hedgerows, 399 _et seq._, 403 _et seq._ Hedges, of Box, 99; of Lilac, 143-144, 406; of Privet, 406, 408; of Locust, 406. Heliotrope, scent of, 319. Hermerocallis. _See_ Lemon Lily. Hemlock hedges, 406. Henbane, 434. Hepatica, 259. Herbaceous border, 113 _et seq._ Herber, 113, 384. Herbert, George, quoted, 114. Herb twopence, 61. Hermits, 245. Herrick, flowers of, 216. Hesperis, 421-422. Hiccough, 342. Higginson, T. W., quoted, 74. Hips of Roses, 472. Holly, 406. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, quoted, 91, 139-140, 226, 268, 301, 313. Hollyhocks, 5, 6, 33, 52, 332 _et seq._, 336. Honesty. _See_ Lunaria. Honeyblob gooseberries, 338. Honey, from Thyme, 303; in drinks, 393. Honeysuckle, 182, 332, 450. Honeywort, 33, 442. Hood, quoted, 228-229. Hopewell, Lilacs at, 148. Houstonia, 260. Howitt Garden, 223. Howitt, Mary, quoted, 326, 330, 345. Humming-birds, 243. Hundred-leaved Rose, 460, 469. Hutchinson, Governor, garden of, 54. Hyacinths, 257. Hydrangea, 182; blue, 260; at Capetown, 261. Hyssop, 54. Iberis. _See_ Candy-tuft. Independence Trees. _See_ Catalpa. Indian Hill, 144, 415 _et seq._ Indian Pipe, 455. Indian plant names, 293 _et seq._ Innocence. _See_ Houstonia. Iris, 427. _See_ also Flower de Luce. Italian gardens, 75 _et seq._ Jack-in-the-pulpit, 154. Jacob's Ladder, 265. James I., quoted, 62. Japan, flowers from, 40, 67, 157, 158, 406. Jenoffelins, 17. Jewett, S. O., quoted, 38, 49. Joepye-weed, 145 _et seq._ Johnson, Dr. Samuel, dial motto of, 219. Jonquils, 318. Joseph and Mary, 437, 438. Josselyn, John, quoted, 4 _et seq._, 8. Joy-of-the-ground, 441. Judas tree, 158. June Roses, 464. Kalendars, 355. Kalm, cited, 128, 203, 408. Karr, Alphonse, quoted, 272, 302, 453, 454. Katherine flowers, 435. Keats, cited, 223 _et seq._ Kiskatomas nut, 294. Kiss-me-at-the-garden-gate, 135. Kitchen door, 69. Knots, described, 54 _et seq._ Labels, 217. Labrador Indians, sun-dials of, 359. Laburnum, 168, 169, 231. Ladies' Delights, 48, 133 _et seq._ Lad's Love. _See_ Southernwood. Lady's Slipper, 293. Lafayette, influence of, 241; dial of, 357. Lamb, Charles quoted, 360. Landor, Walter Savage, quoted, 140, 362-363, 415, 420. Larch, 300. Larkspur, 33, 162, 267 _et seq._ Latin names, 291. Lavender, 5, 33, 121. Lavender Cotton, 5, 61. Lawns, 53, 240. Lawson, William, quoted, 56. Lebanon, Cedar of, 29. Lemon Lily, 45, 80. Lennox, Lady, Box sun-dial of, 97-98. Leucojum, 234-235. Lilacs, at Hopkinton, 29, also 140-153, 318 _et seq._, 406. Lilies, 180. Linen, drying of, 99; bleaching of, 99. Linnæus, classification of, 282; horologe of, 381-382; discovery of daughter of, 431 _et seq._ Liricon-fancy, 45. Little Burgundy Rose, 467. Live-forever. _See_ Orpine. Live Oaks, 16. Lobelia, 33, 271-272. Loch, 259. Locust, as house friend, 22-23; blossoms sold, 155; on Long Island, 156; in Narragansett, 401 _et seq._; in a hedge, 406-407. Loggerheads, 265. Lombardy Poplars, 27. London Pride, 45, 443. Longfellow, quoted, 141; garden of, 102, 431. Lotus, 74. Lovage-root, 343. Love divination, with Lilacs, 150; with Apples, 205 _et seq._; with Southernwood, 349. Love-in-a-huddle, 435. Love-in-a-mist, 435. Love lies bleeding, 287. Love philtres, 118 _et seq._ Lowell, J. R., quoted, 48-49, 89, 227, 277. Luck-lilac, 150. Lunaria, 5, 33, 170 _et seq._ Lungwort, 437-438. Lupines, 33, 163, 253, 275 _et seq._ Lychnis. _See_ Mullein Pink; also London Pride. Lyre flower. _See_ Dielytra. Lyres, 385, 386. Madame Plantier Rose, 71, 463, 464. Magnolia-on-the-Ashley, gardens at, 16. Magnolias, 26, 71, 155-156. Maiden's Blush Roses, 466. Maize, 293-294. Maltese Cross, 443. Manheim, Rose for rent in, 470. Maple, only Celtic plant name, 292. Marigolds, 33, 52, 315 _et seq._ Maritoffles, 17. Markham, Gervayse, cited, 40, 54, 115. Marsh Mallow, 434. Marsh Marigold, 294. Marvell, Andrew, quoted, 231, 239, 381. Mather, Cotton, quoted, 337, 342. Matrimony Vine, 185, 449-450. Mayflower, 166, 291, 299. Maze, described, 54-55; in America, 55; at Sylvester Manor, 106. Meadow Rue, 175-176. Meet-her-in-the-entry, Kiss-her-in-the-buttery, 135. Meeting-plant, 348. Meet-me-at-the-garden-gate, 135. Meredith, Owen, quoted, 166. Meresteads, 3. Meridian lines, 355. Mertensia, 438. Michigan Roses, 62, 468. Mignonette, scent of, 319. Milkweed silk, 328, 331. Mills, for cider-making, 203. Minnow-tansy, 127. Mint family, 117-264. Miskodeed, 294. Missionary plant, 25. Mitchell, Dr., disinterment of, 129 _et seq._ Mithridate, 123. Moccasin flower, 293. Mole cider, 212. Molucca Balm, 436-437. Money-in-both-pockets, 170 _et seq._ Moneywort, 60-61. Monkshood, 266, 329, 433. Moon vine, 430-431. Moosewood, 452 _et seq._ Morning-glory, 181-182. Morristown, sun-dial at, 359, 374. Morris, William, quoted, 240, 425. Morse, S. B. F., lines on sun-dial motto, 363. Mosquitoes, 74. Moss Roses, 345, 465, 466. Mottoes on sun-dials, 88, 360, _et seq._ Mountain Fringe. _See_ Adlumia. Mount Atlas Cedar, 29. Mount Auburn Cemetery, sun-dial at, 373. Mount Vernon, garden at, 11-12; sun-dial at, 369. Mourning Bride, 297, 339 _et seq._ Mulberries, 27. Mullein Pink, 174. Musk Roses, 464, 469. Names, old English, 284 _et seq._ Naked Boys, 455. Napanock, garden at, 69-70. Naushon, Gorse on, 222; sun-dial at, 374. Nemophila, 315. New Amsterdam, flowers of, 17-18. _New England's Prospect_, 3. New England's Rarities, 5. Nicotiana, 423. Nigella, 33, 434, 435. Night-scented Stock, 421-422. Nightshade, 448. Night Violets, 422. Noon-marks, 355. None-so-pretty, 135. Oak of Jerusalem. _See_ Ambrosia. Obesity, cure for, 122. Old Man. _See_ Southernwood. Oleanders, 52, 329-330. Olitory, 113. Open knots, 57-58. Ophir Farm, sun-dial at, 376 _et seq._ Opyn-tide, meaning of, 143. Orange Lily, 50. Orchard seats, 192. Orpine, 444-445. Orris-root, 259. Osage Orange, 69, 406. Ostrowskia, 262. "Out-Landish Flowers," 58. Oxeye Daisies, introduction to America, 25. Oxford, sun-dial at, 97. Pansies, 134, 318. Pappoose-root, 293. Parkman, Francis, Rose Garden of, 471. Parley, Peter, quoted, 343. Parsons, T. W., on Lilacs, 153. Parterre, 58 _et seq._ Pastorius, Father, 11. Patagonian Mint, 347-348. Patience, 6. Paulownias, 29. Peach blossoms, 158. Peacocks, 395 _et seq._ Pear blossoms, scent of, 318. Pedestals for sun-dials, 374 _et seq._ Pennsylvania, sun-dials in, 370 _et seq._ Penn, William, encouraged gardens, 11. Peony, 42 _et seq._ Peppermint, as medicine, 118. Pergolas, 82-83, 385 _et seq._ Peristyle, 389. Periwinkle, 62, 439 _et seq._ Perpetual Roses, 468. Persians, colors of, 253; plant names of, 292; flower love of, 462. Persian Lilac, 152. Persian Yellow Rose, 320, 469. Peter's Wreath, 41-42. Petunias, 179, 423. Phlox, 40, 45, 162, 423. Piazzas, 388-389. Pig-nuts, 332. _Pilgrim's Progress_, quotations from, 201. Pinckney, E. L., floriculture by, 14. Pine at Yaddo, 90. Pink-of-my-Joan, 135. Pinks, as edgings, 34, 47, 61, 292, 422-423. Pippins, 345. Plane trees in Pliny's garden, 97. Plantain, 197, 443-444. Plant-of-twenty-days, 42. _Platycodon grandiflorum_, 262. Playhouse Apple tree, 199. Pliny, quoted, 342, 349; gardens of, 96-97. Plum blossoms, 157-158. Plume Poppy, 175 _et seq._ Plymouth, Massachusetts, early gardens at, 3. Poet's Narcissus, 318. Pogonia, 247. Poison Ivy, 403. Polling, of trees, 387. Polyantha Rose, 467. Polyanthus, as edging, 62. Pomander, 212. Pomatum, 209-210. Pompeii, standards at, 87 _et seq._ Pond Lily, 345. Pony Roses, 467. Poppies, 163-164, 243-244, 309 _et seq._, 431. Pops, 337. Portable dials, 356-357. Portulaca, 178-179. Potatoes, planted by Raleigh, 230. Potocka, Countess, quoted, 327. Pot-pourri, 471. Preston Garden, 15-16, 18, 24, 101. Prick-song plant. _See_ Lunaria. Primprint. _See_ Privet. Prince Nurseries, 26 _et seq._, 230. Privet, 54, 317, 406, 408. Provence Roses, 459. Prunella, 264-265. Prygmen, 99. Pudding, 304. Pulmonaria, 437-438. Pumps, old, 67-68. Pussy Willows, 155, 247. Puzzle-love, 435. Pyrethrum, 242. _Quabbin_, 419. Queen Anne, hatred of Box, 94. Queen's Maries, bower of, 103. Queen of the Prairies Rose, 468. Quincy, Josiah, 407. Ragged Robin, 291. Ragged Sailors, 265. Rail fences, 399 _et seq._ Railings, 62. Raleigh, Sir Walter, garden of, 230. Rapin, René, quoted, 94, 323; on gardens, 227. Red, influence of, 251. Remontant Roses, 468. Rent, of a Rose, 469 _et seq._ _Rescue of an Old Place_, cited, 103, 290. Rhodes, Cecil, garden of, 261. Rhododendrons, 42, 182, 244, 245. Ridgely Garden, 57, 60, 95, 101. Ring dials, 356. Rock Cress. _See_ Arabis. Rocket. _See_ Dames' Rocket. Rose Acacia, 185, 406. Rose Campion, 33, 174, 175. Rose Garden, at Yaddo, 81 _et seq._ Rosemary, 5, 55, 59, 110. Rose of Four Seasons, 467. Rose of Plymouth, 295. Rose Tavern, 470. Rose tobacco, 475. Rose-water, 472. Rossetti, D. G., picture by, 380; quoted, 380. Roxbury Waxwork. _See_ Bittersweet. Rue, 5, 110, 123 _et seq_, 434. Ruskin, John, quoted, 243, 283, 255, 279, 309. Sabbatia, 295. Saffron-tea, 118. Sage, 125 _et seq._ Sag Harbor, sun-dial at, 362. Salpiglossis, 262. Salt Box House, 128. Sand, in parterres, 56, 58. Santolina. _See_ Lavender Cotton. Sapson Apples, 201-202. Sassafras, 343. Satin-flower, 170 _et seq._ Sauce Saracen, 472. Scarlet Lightning, 443. Scilla, 255. Scotch Roses, 48, 464, 469. Scott, Sir Walter, sun-dial of, 219, 377. Scythes, 391. Seeds, sale of, 32 _et seq._ Serpentine Walls, 414. Setwall. _See_ Valerian. Seven Sisters, 435. Seven Sisters Rose, 463. Shade alleys, 59. Shaded Walks, 64. Shakespeare Border, 217 _et seq._ Sheep bones, as edgings, 57-58. Shelley, Garden, 223. Shell flower, 436-437. Shirley Poppies, 255, 312. Simples, 115. Skepes, 354, 391 _et seq._ Slugs, in Box, 95. Smithsonian Institution, sun-dials in, 357-358. Snakeroot, 423-424. Snapdragons, 33, 175. Snowballs, 71. Snowberry, 169. Snowdrops, 234. Snow in Summer, 47. Snow Pink. _See_ Pinks. Soldier and his Wife, 438. Sops-o'-wine. _See_ Sapson. Sorrel, 6, 240, 332. South Carolina, gardens of, 14. Southernwood, 5, 341, 348 _et seq._ Southey, Robert, quoted, 266. Spenser, Edmund, quoted, 54; flowers of, 215, 284. Spider-flower. _See_ Love-in-a-mist. Spiders in medicine, 303, 343. Spiderwort, 435-436. Spiræas, 189. Spitfire Plant. _See_ Fraxinella. Spring Beauty, 294. Spring Snowflake, 234, 235. Spruce gum, 332. Spurge, Cypress, 434 _et seq._ Squirrel Cups, 260. Squirt, for water, 390. Star of Bethlehem, 34, 235. Star Pink. _See_ Pink. Statues in garden, 85, 389. Stockton, Richard, letter of, 30-31. Stones, for edging, 58. Stonecrop, 135. Stone walls, 399 _et seq._ Strawberry Bush. _See_ Calycanthus. Striped Grass, 438-439. Striped Lily, 61. Stuyvesant, Peter, garden of, 18-19. Succory. _See_ Chicory. Summer-houses, 392. Summer Roses, 468. Summer savory, 124. Summer-sots, 17. Sun-dials of Box, 62, 80, 87, 88, 97 _et seq._ Sun-flowers, 178, 287. Sunken gardens, 72-73. Sunshine Bush, 189. Swan River Daisy, 263, 264. Sweet Alyssum. _See_ Alyssum. Sweet Brier, 6, 25, 48, 302, 464, 465. Sweet Fern, 2. Sweet Flag, 343. Sweet Johns, 285. Sweet Marjoram, 124. Sweet Peas, 33, 178, 224. Sweet Rocket, 34. Sweet Shrub. _See_ Calycanthus. Sweet Williams, 34, 162, 285 _et seq._ Sylvester Manor, gardens at, 104 _et seq._ Syringas, 71. Tansy, 6, 126 _et seq._ Tansy bitters, 128. Tansy cakes, 128. Tasmania, Thistles in, 26. Tea Roses, 320, 469. Telling the bees, 393. Temperance Reform, 204. Tennyson, on blue, 266; on white, 420-421. Thaxter, Celia, cited, 311. Thistles, in Tasmania, 26. Thomas, Edith, quoted, 229. Thoreau, H. D., quoted, 148, 197, 198, 199, 275, 276, 345, 346, 417. Thoroughwort, 145 _et seq._ Thrift, sun-dials in, 97; as edging, 61-62. Thyme, 34, 60, 302 _et seq._ Tiger Lilies, 45, 162. Toad-flax, 450 _et seq._ Tobacco. _See_ Nicotiana. Tongue-plant, 347-348. Topiary work in England, 408; at Wellesley, 409 _et seq._; in California, 412. Tradescantia. _See_ Spiderwort. Trailing Arbutus, 299. Traveller's Rest, sun-dial at, 350, 370. Tree arbors, 199, 384-385. Tree Peony. _See_ Peony. Trillium, 154, 457, 458. Trumpet vine, 449-450. Tuckahoe, Box at, 102, 105. Tudor gardens, 55. Tudor Place, garden at, 103. Tulips, 18, 138, 168. Turner, cited, 61, 236. Tusser, Thomas, quoted, 115. Twopenny Grass, 61. Valerian, 34, 313 _et seq._ Van Cortlandt Manor, garden at, 20 _et seq._ Van Cortlandt, Pierre, 21. Vancouver's Island, 26. Van der Donck, Adrian, quoted, 17-18. Velvet Roses, 466. Vendue, 50-51. Venus' Navelwort, 33, 441-442. Versailles, Box at, 97. Victoria Regia, 74-75. Vinca. _See_ Periwinkle. Viola tricolor, 134. Violets, edgings of, 71; in backyard, 154; gallant grace of, 166; scent of, 259, 317-318. Viper's Bugloss, 273-274. Virginia Allspice. _See_ Calycanthus. Virginia, sun-dials in, 369-370; Rose-bowers in, 385; lyres in, 385. Virgin's Bower. _See_ Adlumia. Wake Robin. _See_ Trillium. Walden Pond, 198, 345. Walpole, New Hampshire, garden in, 237 _et seq._, 464 _et seq._ Walton, Izaak, 127. Wandis, 62. Warwick, Lady, sun-dial of, 98; gardens of, 84, 85, 110; Shakespeare Border of, 217. Washings, semi-annual, 99. Washington, Betty, sun-dial of, 370. Washington Family, in England, 367; sun-dial of, 367 _et seq._ Washington, George, sun-dials of, 357, 368. Washington, Martha, garden of, 12-13. Washington, Mary, sun-dial of, 369; garden of, 370. Wassailing, 206. Waterbury, Connecticut, sun-dial at, 379. Waterford, Virginia, bee-hives at, 393. Water gardens, 73-74. Watering-pot, 391. Watson, Forbes, cited, 425, 433. Waybred, 443-444. Weed-smother, 300. Weeds of old garden, 8, 48, 52. Wellesley, gardens at, 409 _et seq._ Well-sweeps, 68, 390. White animals on farm; 416 _et seq._ White Garden, 415 _et seq._ Whitehall, home of Bishop Berkeley, 194, 195. White Man's Foot, 443-444. White Satin, 170 _et seq._ White, value in garden, 157, 255, 419. Whiteweed, 291. _See_ Oxeye Daisy. Whitman, Walt, quoted, 152-153. Whittier, J. G., sun-dial motto by, 373-374. Wild gardens, 237 _et seq._, 453-454. Wine-sap. _See_ Sapson. Winter, in a garden, 327 _et seq._ Winter posy, 131. Winthrop, John, quoted, 1, 3. Wistaria, 166, 182, 188 _et seq._, 232. Woad-waxen, 24, 25. Wordsworth, W., quoted, 193. Wort, 113. Wort-cunning, 113. Yaddo, garden at, 81 _et seq._ Yew, 406. York and Lancaster Rose, 62, 460 _et seq._ Yucca, 293, 429-430. Zodiac, signs of, on sun-dial, 376. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: A prescription symbol on page 304 is represented in this text as "Rx". Obvious errors in spelling and punctuation have been corrected without comment. One example of an obvious error is on page 126 where the word "perservation" was changed to "preservation" in the phrase: "... preservation of all perishable food...." With the exception of obvious errors, inconsistencies in the author's spelling and use of punctuation and hyphenation are left unchanged, as in the original text. One error which has been retained in this version is on Page 415, where the attribution line for the poem reads "Walter Savage Landor" while the correct author of the poem is Alfred Lord Tennyson. Illustrations have been moved to the nearest, most appropriate paragraph break. 
40534	----	Transcriber's Note: _Italic text_ is represented by underscores and =bold text= by equals signs. [Illustration] TALKS ABOUT FLOWERS. BY MRS. M. D. WELLCOME. Thank God for the beautiful flowers That blossom so sweetly and fair; They garnish this strange life of ours, And brighten our paths everywhere. DEXTER SMITH. PUBLISHED FOR THE AUTHOR, BY I. C. WELLCOME, YARMOUTH, ME. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, BY I. C. WELLCOME, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. PRINTED BY B. THURSTON & CO., PORTLAND, MAINE. PREFACE. To all Flower Lovers who may read these pages, we come with kindly greetings. To you we dedicate our Work. Encouraged by the many testimonials of favor with which our Flower Sketches have been received, which have appeared in the _Boston Journal_, _Portland Transcript_, and the leading Floricultural journals, we were induced to prepare this volume, intending it to be made up chiefly of those articles revised and enlarged for this purpose; but after entering upon this work, we found so little that was adapted for use, nearly every page has been written while the sheets were passing through the press. Before we were aware, the printed matter had exceeded our proposed limits, and we were obliged to enlarge the work by additional pages, and even then omit our chapter of "Floricultural Notes," for we wished to put the book at a low price, that it might reach the masses. As it is, we are sure that we have given you a great amount of valuable information, and just such as amateurs need, respecting the habits and requirements of those flowers which are best adapted for general cultivation, and in a form specially new and attractive, combining the _history_ and _literature_ of flowers, with description and mode of culture. It may be deemed strange that we should omit from a work of this character a "Talk" about the Queen of Flowers, but the subject was so full that we thought best to devote the space to other varieties and refer our readers to our recently published "Essay on Roses,"--advertised in another part of this work--in which they will find the subject fully treated. We would here acknowledge our obligation to Mr. James Vick for the beautiful Bouquet of Flowers which constitutes our Frontispiece. MRS. M. D. WELLCOME. _Yarmouth, Me._, June 9, 1881. CONTENTS. PAGE Introduction 9 A Talk to Farmers' Wives 12 A Talk About "The Wild Garden" 15 A Talk About Stocking the Garden 19 Phlox Drummondii 24 Verbenas 25 Petunias 29 A Talk About Pansies 33 Asters 35 Balsams 37 A Talk About Geraniums 39 A Talk About Begonias 46 Gloxinia, Tuberose 50 A Talk About Gladiolus 54 A Talk About Pelargoniums 60 A Talk About Fuchsias 69 A Talk About Coleuses 75 Ornamental Foliage Plants 83 A Talk About Primroses 98 Carnations and Picotees 101 A Talk About Climbers 107 Thoughts in My Garden--A Poem 117 A Talk About Several Things 118 The Love of Flowers 122 A Talk About Abutilons 125 A Talk About Dahlias 130 Amaryllis 135 Hoya Carnosa or Wax Plant 137 Among My Flowers 138 A Talk About Cyclamens and Oxalis 143 A Talk About Lilies 147 Double Bouvardia 152 Camellia Japonica 154 Azalea 155 The Ingathering of the Flowers 156 My Window Box 157 Hyacinths 158 Insects 160 Introduction. "Thank God for the beautiful flowers, That blossom so sweetly and fair; They garnish this strange life of ours, And brighten our paths everywhere." _Dexter Smith._ I have been thinking for some time of writing a few articles about flowers, not for the entertainment nor instruction of those who have extensive gardens artistically laid out, and fine conservatories with skilled gardeners to care for the rare and costly plants, but for those, who, like myself, have only a few beds filled with flowers, cared for by one's own self. Every year there is a marked advance in the floricultural kingdom. Books and periodicals devoted to flower culture are on the increase; florists are enlarging their domain; catalogues are scattered broadcast, and as free as autumn leaves, some of them beautiful with their colored plates, handsome enough to frame. Very many of the literary, religious, and political journals of the day have their floral department, in which the ladies gossip of their experience and exchange opinions, and we doubt if any column is read with greater interest. What recreation for the mind and body more pure, refining, healthful, than that of the cultivation of flowers? How they reveal the Father's love, and wisdom, and power! How perfect his work! Very fully have I realized this, as I have examined bud, blossom, and leaf under the microscope. Its magnifying power when applied to man's work, reveals coarseness and imperfection, but in God's work only reveals new beauties, and greater perfectness. The tiny flower, the details of which cannot be perceived by the eye unaided, when magnified, surprises us with its loveliness. We wonder and adore that Being whose hand created its perfect form and arranged its tints with so much harmony. The study of flowers with the microscope is one of never failing delight, and one needs not the costly instrument to enjoy this study. The round open glass, the size of a half dollar, and costing the same, serves every needful purpose. Not only have I enjoyed the examination of flowers, but also of insect life, specially of those terrible pests to our rosebushes and some other plants--the _aphides_. I have closely watched their development, from the tiny egg to the portly insect, so filled with the juice of the leaf, that like it, he is green all over. First I observe a little speck of red in the egg--then it has slight motion--next it runs about, and the spot is a little larger, sometimes it is black. Sometimes the baby aphis is all red. Now and then I find a different sort mixed up with them; the body is much larger and transparent white. Some have wings. Skeletons, or more properly, cast-off skins, are often seen, but with the closest observation I have never been able to trace these to their source. Once, I was sure that a fellow was divesting himself of his overcoat, and I watched him till my eyes ached too badly for further investigation. These insects are the cows of a certain species of ant, and I am sure they are quite welcome to all I have, provided they will have their yard on other premises, though I would like to detain them long enough to see the milking process. Some have seen it and written about it, so, strange as it seems, it is no fiction. In this series of articles which I have entitled "Talks About Flowers," I shall, in a very informal manner, talk to you about just those matters pertaining to the flower garden, in which beginners and amateurs are interested; to this class I belong; I am not a skilled florist, my experience is limited; I am only a student in the lower classes of floriculture, but I dearly love my lessons. I am acquiring knowledge both from books and personal observation, and I shall enjoy imparting to those not so favored with time and resources the results of this study, believing it will be duly appreciated by my readers, and their interest in the cultivation of flowers be thereby increased. I shall talk to you about the sowing of seeds, the arrangement of your garden, the plants with which to stock it, treating of them historically and descriptively, with mode of culture. I shall talk to you about the most desirable bulbs, about climbing plants, hanging pots, and the window garden, and shall seek to meet in all these the wishes of many inquirers. A Talk to Farmers' Wives. "Not useless are ye flowers, though made for pleasure, Blooming in field and wood by day and night; From every source your presence bids me treasure Harmless delight." "Once more I take my pen in hand," as the old time epistle was wont to begin. While a "Young Farmer" discourseth of matters pertaining to the farm, I propose to talk to farmers' wives and daughters of matters relating to the flower garden. This article is specially dedicated to them, and not to them as a whole, but to that class among them who take no periodical devoted to flower culture, and find no time even to study the various catalogues scattered broadcast, as sure precursors of spring as are the falling leaves of autumn. Therefore you who have your floral papers, your bay windows filled with plants, or your fine conservatories, whether a farmer's wife or not, this is not written for you, and you need not read any further. There are many farmers' wives who give little attention to the cultivation of flowers. Busy lives the most of them lead, and their indoor work shuts them off largely from the enjoyment of those beauties nature has so lavishly spread around them. It is a pity that any of them should say, "I have no time to waste over flowers; they bring neither food nor clothing." Call that wasted time when tired, nervous, fretful perhaps, you leave the heated rooms and run out to see if the seeds you sowed last week have come up, or how the seedlings you set out are thriving? To look at that opening rosebud, pick off the withered leaves from the geranium, stir the earth a bit around that heliotrope, and linger over the dear little pansies as their bright faces are up-turned to greet you and cheer you with their diversified beauty? Gather a few; they will bloom all the more because of it. There, now, don't you feel nicely rested? The feeling of fretfulness is all gone. Refreshed in body and mind, you resume your housework, and accomplish it much more effectively than if you had kept right on, so tired and all out of sorts. Better far these moments of out-door recreation than blue pill or bitters. All this is anticipatory of the "good time coming" to you this summer. That kind husband of yours when he goes to the store to buy his garden seeds, or order them from abroad, is going to include an equal number of flower seeds. He would have done it long ago but he did not think anything about it. But you are going to give him a hint this spring. You can tell him that in the general seed box there is one corner where are certain dainty little packages labeled Candytuft--purple, carmine, white or mixed; Mignonnette, Aster, Balsam, Pink, Petunia, Sweet Peas, etc., etc., and you tell him that those Sweet Peas bloom the most fragrant blossoms for five months, while his "Extra Early," whether "Blue Peter" or "Blue Tom Thumb," last only a little while. So as he goes on his way he will think to himself, "Wife works hard; she makes capital butter and keeps the house real tidy, and I guess I must indulge her." When he returns home he gives you those little packages, in each tiny brown seed of which there lies hidden a beautiful life--a life that shall, by loving care, develop "the red, white and blue" in settings of emerald, the influence of which shall be felt by the entire household, and bring forth a fruitage of brightness, gladness and love. It may be that you live remote from the village store, or perhaps there may not be kept there a good, reliable assortment of flower seeds, so I will tell you what to do in that case, for I wish to be helpful every step of the way. You must send to some good florist for what you want, enclosing stamps, if for an amount less than one dollar. You have your seeds now, and some of them need to be started in the house in order to secure early flowers, Asters, Petunias, Pinks, Pansies, Snapdragon and Sweet Peas. Sift your earth through a coarse sieve. A little sharp sand is good to mix with it. Shallow boxes are best, except for the peas. I use cigar boxes. Dampen the earth, then sow thickly in rows, cover lightly with more soil, dampen again, label, cover with paper so that the moisture may not evaporate rapidly, and place in a sunny window. Daily sprinkle through a fine rose pot, or with your fingers lightly if you have none. However good your seeds may be, they will not grow if kept dry, and will rot if kept too wet. The seedlings must be nursed with care, not too much sun while tender. I do not thin out mine till I transplant to the border, but many do, potting them singly. Peas can be set out earliest of any. Sunny days in May often tempt one to bed out their tender plants, and sow seed in open ground; then come cold nights, when the fragile seedlings need a hot soapstone to their feet. It is best to wait till warm weather is fully established, and then choose a cloudy day for the work. Protect from the sun's rays till the plants are established in their new quarters. Now, all this looks like much work and care, I know, but it is only a little work, a little care each day, and it is a work that will be a restful change, and bring you better health and better feelings, and when you gather the lovely flowers from the seeds you have sown and cultured, you will not say: "My time was all misspent." A Talk About "The Wild Garden." The lengthened days have come, The busiest of the year-- When the annual house cleaning treads heavily on the toes of spring gardening, and one feels tempted to crowd the work of two days into one, though sufficient for the present is the work thereof. The bright warm days draw one forth to spend "an hour or two" they say, and they mean it too--with shovel or spade in hand to prepare the flower beds, but the air is so refreshing, and there is so much to be done, that they keep on "a little while longer," "just a few minutes more," till Sol pours his burning rays down upon them with the unmistakable assurance that it is near the hour of noon. These are the days that try men's souls, and women's, too; days when one wishes with Dudley Warner for a "cast iron back," but would fain add the improvement of rubber hinges; days when the inquiry is often provoked, "Will it pay?" As we change the numerous boxes of seedlings from one position to another, that they may catch the sunbeams, "Will it pay?" As we take them out of doors these warm days, and bring them all back again at night, lest the air prove too harsh for the tender things, "Will it pay?" Yes, we know from past experience that it will pay even a hundred fold for all our care when the restful days shall come, and we watch with hopeful hearts each bud of promise as it grows, and gather our hands full of lovely flowers, the fruitage of our seed sowing and unceasing care. Have been bedding out to-day my old stocky geraniums, after cutting off all the dead and unsightly branches. These were just packed into large boxes in the autumn--as closely as possible--dirt then thrown in to fill up the spaces, and they were put into the cellar and severely let alone till the weather admitted of their being taken out of doors. Many throw away their geraniums, if the stalks decay by being frost-bitten or for some other cause, when often the roots are alive, and with proper care will sprout again. I had a few in my window box that were touched by frost one intense cold night in December, and died down to the roots. To my surprise, they sprouted in March, for I did not suppose they would be seemingly lifeless so long in a sunny window. Some of my neighbors hang up their large geraniums by the roots in the cellar, and thus keep them throughout the winter nicely, but I have never been successful with this method. My house plants are nearly all re-potted, ready to be plunged into the ground the first of June. I put in a bit of potsherd to keep the roots from going astray, then small pieces of coal for drainage, then fill with mellow sifted soil, enriched with well-rotted manure. I found it so much better last year to bed out in pots that I shall practice it more fully this summer. When the time comes in the autumn for taking them in doors, the work can be done in half the time. My seedlings will be six weeks or more in advance than those sown in the open border. My sweet peas must go out very soon or I shall have to give them a support, they are so tall. Now I am going to tell you about another sort of a garden--"a spick-span new" sort--and I know you will be pleased to hear about it, and I think you will want to have one of your own. THE WILD GARDEN. Mr. B. K. Bliss, of New York, in a note, said: "We have put into your box a packet of flower seeds for the wild garden, which we think will interest you. We also send you the initial number of our new paper, "_The American Garden_." In this journal I find a very interesting article on "The Wild Garden," how to make it, and a description of one at the country residence of Mr. M. S. Beach, near Peekskill, from his own pen. We will quote a part of it. He says: "We plowed a strip about six feet wide all around a five-acre field, close to the fence. On this plowed ground, the seed, previously well mixed, was thrown just as it happened to come. The surface having afterwards been well smoothed over, we waited the result. This proved satisfactory. We had a wild garden indeed. The plants came up as thickly as they could grow, and flourished and blossomed as freely as though they had enjoyed all the care usually given to hot-house exotics. "Sweet Alyssum, Mignonnette, the pretty blue Nemophila and bright colored Phlox Drummondii seemed to cover the ground. Morning Glories of every shade and delicate Cypress vines tried to cover the fences and run up every tree. Quaint little yellow and green Gourds appeared in the most unexpected places, and the whole bed seemed to be ablaze with the orange and yellow of the Eschscholtzia, Marigolds, Calendula Officinalis and Zinnias. One of the chief charms of this wild flower bed was the variety and change--not from season to season, but from day to day. Every morning would find some new, unexpected, and previously forgotten flower in bloom." The packet of Flower Seeds for the "Wild Garden" consists of more than a hundred varieties, sufficient for a square rod of ground. There must needs be a peculiar charm in the "Wild Garden." When one wearies of the monotonous ribbon beds and geometrical designs so long in fashion, they can turn to the spot where flowers run riot at their own sweet will, and give daily surprises because sown broadcast without any regard to their names and location. Multitudes there are, who, with abundance of land at their command, can have one on a large scale, others can have, but a small spot. There are many who have ground specially adapted by its wildness for the blending of the cultivated flowers with those which grow in their native dells or woods. Wild shrubs, wild flowers, wild climbers, can be transplanted to situations quite like their own. There can be ferneries and rockeries, beds of violets and wild evergreens, and combined with careless grace, such tropical plants and brilliant annuals as would give the most pleasing effect and afford a beauty wholly unique. Make Home Beautiful. Make your home beautiful--bring to it flowers; Plant them around you to bud and to bloom; Let them give light to your loneliest hours-- Let them bring light to enliven your gloom; If you can do so, O make it an Eden Of beauty and gladness almost divine; 'Twill teach you to long for that home you are needing, The earth robed in beauty beyond this dark clime. A Talk About Stocking the Garden. "The flowers we love?--They are those we gathered Years ago, when we played at home! Flowers by the door stone, dropped and scattered Here and there as a child would roam." "How shall I stock my garden?" is a question often asked by amateurs. That depends very much on the size, location and soil of the ground to be furnished. If the site is elaborate, and the beds to be geometrically laid out, much skill, artistic taste and generous expenditure is needful to produce a fine effect. If the flower beds are cut in the lawn a different classification and arrangement of plants will be needful. If they consist of long beds bordering a walk, or one bed only, beneath the front window, there needs to be a grouping of flowers adapted to the situation. None but the "wild garden" ought to be stocked hap-hazard style. Arrange always so that there shall be a succession of flowers during the entire season, for if you devote a space for those of brief duration, you will by and by have a barren spot by no means pleasing. The most exposed situations ought, of course, to be arranged with special reference to the best possible effects or continuity of bloom and harmony of colors. Don't mix in all sorts of colors and sizes of plants in any bed. Masses of distinctive colors always have a fine effect. Where there are varieties that have more show of flowers than of leaves, it is well to intersperse plants whose beauty lies more in their foliage than in blossoms. The beautiful Coleuses, Achyranthes and Alternanthera, with their richly colored leaves, and Pyrethrums with their vivid green lancelated foliage, are very effective for this purpose. Cannas are very fine among tall, free blooming plants, particularly for centers. Care ought always to be had in selections, so that a tall and coarse plant shall never have for its surroundings the low and delicate growers. Imagine the effect of a gorgeous California Sunflower or a towering Hollyhock in the midst of a bed of Pansies, or Tea Roses, or a Dahlia in a bed of Verbenas! Have your large stocky plants in a bed by themselves, unless it be as a background border for the more delicate flowers. A long bed running beside a fence, or one beneath the windows of a dwelling-house, can have, with good effect, a dense background of shrubs or Pompone Dahlias, or even the taller Dahlias, if relieved by a fence. Where there is a large bed directly beneath the front windows, a good arrangement is to have, first, trailing vines that shall cover far up the sides of the dwelling. For this, the Ipomoeas are very appropriate; of these there are numerous varieties. _I. Bona Nox_, with its large fragrant blossoms, which however, expand in the evening; Mexicana _Grandiflora Alba_, immense flowers of white, long tube, a native of Mexico; grows to the height of ten feet. _I. Hederacea Superba_ is bright blue, with white margin, Ivy-like foliage, and _I. Fol Mormoratis_, a new Japanese variety, with foliage beautifully mottled and marbled with white; _Coccinea_, or "Star" Ipomea, bears a great profusion of small flowers, scarlet striped with white. With any of these, vines of the Canary Bird Flower intermingled, would have a superb effect; the light green, deeply lacinated leaves and bright, yellow fringed flowers, proving a marked contrast to the foliage and blossoms of the Ipomea. It is a very rapid grower, and will climb and branch out ten feet or more. In front of these climbers, or whatever others may be preferred, a row of Sweet Peas, quite thickly set, can be trained so as to fully cover the vines below the flowering branches, and to conceal the unsightliness of these low down, a row of Pyrethrums or some dwarf compact plants would be attractive. Then a walk, if the bed is sufficiently wide. The plants on the opposite side can be arranged so as to have those of medium height next to the path, and low bedding ones for the foreground. Verbenas are very fine for this, and so is the Double Portulaca. For an edging, many things are appropriate; whether one desires merely a low green, or a border of dwarf blooming plants. For the latter, we know of nothing prettier than the new dwarf Candytuft, Tom Thumb. Its habit is low and bushy, and its clusters of white blossoms continue a very long time. Mr. Vick has for several years recommended Thrift as the best edging plant for northern climates. It is easily propagated from cuttings; every piece will make a plant, if taken in the fall or spring, and is perfectly hardy. It bears tiny clusters of pink flowers, and the foliage is fine for floral work. In arranging your garden stock study the adaptions of your plants to certain positions. Some require for their best development, a great deal of sunshine, others require somewhat sheltered positions. Portulacas revel in dry and sunny spots, laughing at drought, while Pansies love a cool and moist situation, therefore to bed them in a sandy soil, and a position where they would be exposed to the intense sunshine of mid-day, and the Portulaca in the sheltered, moist situation would be a great mistake. Coleuses ought not to be set in a very open sunny place, but with plants that will serve as a protection somewhat, or they will lose their vivid markings. We observed this first with C. Shah; when exposed to a strong light, the rich, velvety maroon changed to a dull color hue, but when partially shaded it was of a very deep, rich color. The next summer we had the beautiful Pictus, and its leaves looked as though they were indeed painted with yellow, brown and green, but exposed for a time to the direct sunshine nearly all day, it changed to a dark green, with brown markings, and, robbed of its gold, it possessed no special beauty. We speak only of our own experience, which has not been limited by any means to these two varieties. We have had a few that would retain their distinctive markings well, even in quite an exposed situation. In the arrangement of your garden, have it adapted to its surroundings. The broad leaved Palms, the Tropical Caladiums, the stately Cannas, the Cape Jessamine and Crape Myrtle are in perfect harmony with the well kept lawn and stately mansion, but quite out of place in the simple border of a vegetable garden, or rough grass-plot belonging to a low, plain cottage. I will tell you of a bit of a garden furnished in harmony with its surroundings. It was rudely dug and roughly finished by two very small hands. It was a very wee bed, indeed. It was fenced on the west side by a rough board shed; on the north by an old stump; the other side and end had no protection. Without any method of arrangement, or reference to artistic effects, here was massed the following assortment: Monks Hood, Bachelors Buttons, Butter and Eggs, Star of Bethlehem, Poppies and Marigolds; these last more odorous than fragrant. Old fashioned flowers truly. But they harmonized with their surroundings, and the little pale faced child thought them very beautiful. It is not essential to harmony however, that the flower bed be rudely prepared, though the cot be lowly and its surroundings rough; the garden, however small, can be neatly prepared, provided there are stronger and older hands than those of the little maid referred to, and there may be a display of taste in the arrangement of the most common flowers, in our day at least, where beautiful varieties are within reach of all. But it was not so fifty years ago; boxes of flower seeds were not to be found in the shops; catalogues were not scattered broadcast like autumn leaves and as free; "a greenhouse at your door," was not then, as now, a verity. School girls exchanged their limited floral treasures, and now and then a slip could be begged from the fortunate possessor of a few house plants. But if greenhouse flowers were rare, there were thousands in the meadows, on the hills, in the woods; the sweet May flowers, unknown then to the little maiden as the Trailing Arbutus, the Anemone, Hepatica, Columbine, Violets of different hues, Wild Roses, Gay Lilies, and late in autumn, the lovely fringed Gentian: "Each chalice molded in divinest grace, Each brimmed with pure, intense and perfect blue." What could be more lovely among the garnered treasures of the greenhouse? But our talk is a long one, and we will defer to another what we have further to say on this subject. The Phlox Drummondii. "Flowers for gladness and flowers for sorrow, Shadowing forth what we fail to tell; Mystic symbols of tender meanings, Such as the heart interprets well." This is one of the most desirable of our annuals, coming into bloom early in the season and continuing in flower till frost. They are very effective in massed colors, and make fine ribbon beds. Contrasting shades should be selected. A writer in the _Garden_ says that the following are very desirable for this purpose: "Phlox Lothair, salmon shaded with violet; Mons Henrique, brilliant reddish crimson; Venus, pure white; Mons Goldenschugh, rosy violet; Spenceri, dark rosy lilac. An excellent front edging for this ribbon bed is the variegated Periwinkle. In order to grow them thoroughly well, and so to insure a lengthened period of blooming, the ground should be deeply trenched and well enriched with good manure from the farm yard, and not more than six heads of bloom should be allowed to each plant. Thus treated, when planted in long lines, it is difficult to convey an impression of these and similar varieties." There are many beautiful varieties of color; deep blood purple, brilliant scarlet, large blue with white eye, not truly a blue, but the nearest approach to it of any; Leopoldii, splendid deep pink, with white eye; Carmine Queen and Violet with a large white eye; Vick's _New Double White_, the only one that is reliable, from seed, to produce double flowers. Then there are the buffs and the stripes, crimson striped with white, and rose and purple. Mr. Vick, who makes a specialty of the Drummondii Phlox, they being a favorite with him, devotes acres to their cultivation, and who has been experimenting with them for several years, has produced several new sorts that are very fine; one of them is deep red with a fringed edge. There have been very marked improvements since this plant was first discovered in Texas by Mr. Drummond, a botanical collector sent out by the Glasgow Botanical Society, and it was one of the last, if not the very last, sent to Europe by him. He soon after went to Cuba, where he died of a fever in the prime of life. Sir N. J. Hooker named the plant after its discoverer as a memento. When first discovered it was very inferior to the flowers seen in our gardens, as is very apparent from an engraving of it taken from a drawing in Mr. Vick's possession, which was made in 1838, three years after its discovery. It is given in _Vick's Magazine_ for September, 1880, with the items we have cited. The word Phlox signifies flame, and is supposed to have been applied in allusion to the flame-like form of the bud. A lady who had excellent success with her seedlings, started early in a box, and bedded out one cloudy day in May, says: "I was surprised to find flowers on the plants when so young and small. I don't believe they had been transplanted five days before half of them had flowers, and soon the rest followed, and for more than two months my bed has been glorious--a mass of bright colors more beautiful than any carpet or dress pattern ever made. It is near the middle of September, and if the frost will only keep away, it looks as though they would keep on flowering for years. Tell everybody to have a Phlox bed and how to do it. It is the cheapest pleasure possible." CARRIE, in _Vick's Magazine_. VERBENAS. This we must have, for it is one of the most beautiful annuals cultivated. So varied its hues! So abundant its blooms! Not a brief season of flowering, and then naught but leaves, which are, not of themselves attractive, but an increase of blossoms from June till October, and it requires quite a severe frost to mar their beauty. They have the best effect massing each color by itself, and beds of a circular form cut in the lawn and filled with Verbenas, have a superb effect. Seedlings are much the best for bedding out, they are so much stronger and more bushy. Those plants offered for sale in pots, having one tall slender stem, crowned with a cluster of flowers, are almost worthless for the garden. True, if you get a healthy one, by layering and pegging down, you can sometimes get good plants, but you had better purchase seedlings by the dozen as they are offered in boxes and baskets, or order them of the florist by mail or express, and you will have plants that will grow compact, bloom early and profusely, with far better foliage than the puny straggling ones rooted from cuttings. One objection to purchasing seedlings by the clump is, I am well aware, the fact that they are not labeled as to color, and everybody wants to know that they will have at least one scarlet, one white, purple, and so on, and unless the color is peeping through the bud, one must buy with the risk of not knowing the desired color. This is the true state of the case so far as my own observation extends. But it need not be so, and we presume it is not so everywhere. Seedlings can be raised of course with each of the leading colors separate, and those in greatest demand in large quantities to meet the wants of the general public, while the fancy sorts can be of mixed varieties. Those who raise their own seedlings, usually buy a paper of mixed sorts, so in that case they are no better off than those who purchase seedlings of the florist, and as their facilities are far greater for raising early plants, it seems preferable as a general thing, to buy of them, for these reasons. In order to have good sizable plants for bedding out in May and June that will bloom in August, seed must be sown the first of March, at the latest, for it takes weeks for the little dry sticks to germinate, and then they are such slow growers, unless under the most favorable circumstances, they do not become strong vigorous plants by the time you want to bed them out. Few can care for them properly while their sunny windows are full of choice house plants, so that as a rule, we should deem it preferable to wait until May, and then purchase the large budded seedlings, which so quickly unfold their beautiful flowers to brighten the garden, when it is almost barren of bloom. They do not cost usually more than sixty cents per dozen, and one is saved from so much care. However, for the benefit of those who prefer to sow their own seed, we will give directions for the best method. First, be sure that the seed is new. Don't sow old seed for it will not germinate. If you have no hot bed, make one in a box or pan by putting in a layer of quite fresh horse manure for bottom heat; over this a layer of coarse sand; then fill the box with finely sifted soil, mixed with at least one-third fine sand. Make it smooth; then in little rows drop the seeds, not very sparsely, for all may not germinate, and if too thick when they come up they can be thinned out. Press the seed down with a bit of flat board, sift a little soil over them and then dampen by light spraying with tepid water; a brush dipped in water makes a gentle sprayer. Cover with paper, glass, or what is better, a bit of soft flannel wrung out of water laid on the surface, as it keeps the soil damp without sprinkling, by being wet as it dries. The soil must be kept moist, not soaking wet, for however helpful to germination a previous soaking may be, when sown the seed must not be drenched, and the same rules are equally applicable to the seedlings, for in either case rot would surely follow. It is just here where the special care is requisite to insure success. After the plants have come up, the flannel or paper must be removed and the seedlings given sunshine and air, though it is well to have a glass over the top of the box for a week or more, as more moisture is thereby secured; but there ought to be an aperture for the admission of air. When two or more leaves are developed, it is well to prick them out into other boxes or pots, if they are too thick for free growth; not all, a part can remain undisturbed. They should be gradually hardened as a preparation for out-door life, by being placed in cool situations. While heat is essential to start the seed into growth, it is not beneficial to the plants, and those who have a cold frame had better remove the plants to it as soon as the temperature will admit. In bedding out, an open situation is preferable. The ground should be well dug and enriched, with well-decomposed manure, and if the soil is heavy a liberal mixture of sand. A situation where the morning sun will not strike them before the dew is off in the morning is best, as this is one cause of the mildew or rust which so frequently saps the vitality of the leaves. In order to promote their spreading, it is a good plan to fasten down some of the branches when sufficiently flexible to the ground, and for this, nothing is more convenient than hair-pins. All the seed vessels should be pricked off in order to secure the best results, as much of the strength of the plant goes to them if allowed to remain. One can afford to be very liberal in gathering the flowers, for the more liberally they are picked off, the more rapidly buds form and develop. As it was with one of Bunyan's characters: "There was a man (though some did count him mad), The more he cast away, the more he had." The wise man says: "There is that scattereth and yet increaseth." A florist says that "to grow Verbenas successfully, plant them in beds cut in the turf. Chop the turf well and thoroughly mix with it a good share of well-decomposed stable manure; never, on any account plant them in old and worn-out garden soil as they will most assuredly fail. Give them a change of soil each season, as they do not thrive well two years in the same bed." As a house plant the Verbena is not a success. It is most always sickly, and infested with red spiders. They cannot be kept over winter in a cellar; it is growth or death. Verbenas were first introduced into Europe about fifty years ago from South America, and a few years later into this country. They have been greatly improved, and the varieties are very numerous. Many are fragrant. The only hardy sort is Montana, a native of Colorado. It is a profuse bloomer, color, a bright rose. There are the German Hybrids, the Italian stripes, and the Drummondii from Texas. Every year brings its novelties, as with other flowers. Mr. C. E. Allen, who makes a specialty of seedling Verbenas, is sending out several fine ones this season; Silver Queen, Florence, Emma, Carroll, Ralph and Variegata are very attractive according to the descriptions. PETUNIAS. [Illustration] Few things in the garden will make more show throughout the entire season, even after quite severe frosts, than a bed of Petunias from a paper of seed marked "Choicest Mixed from Show Flowers." They will produce such a profusion of flowers, charming one from day to day with their variations of markings, and of color. Some retain their distinctive characteristics, while with others they are changeful as the Kaleidoscope. Stripes, blotches, sprays, white throats, green edges, they are just lovely. Then there are the double sorts; purple with white spots, white with purple; rose color, white, purplish-crimson margined with white; lilac veined with purple; white with stripes of purple in the center of each petal, some exquisitely fringed; large and full as a rose, and some almost as sweet. In nothing, perhaps, has there been such a wonderful improvement by culture and hybridising as the Petunia. Mr. Vick tells us how that half a century ago, he saw for the first time, a Petunia. It was a novelty--a strange flower from a flowery land, South America, and it was carefully treated in green-houses. The flower was white and small, and looked somewhat as if made of paper--such a flower as would now be destroyed if by chance seen growing accidentally in our gardens. The novelty soon subsided, and although it was ascertained that it could be grown in gardens, it did not possess sufficient merit to gain popular favor. A little later, however, about 1831, to the astonishment of the floral world, it was announced that a new Petunia, of a purple color, had been discovered in Buenos Ayres. It was first flowered and seeded in the Botanic Gardens of Glasgow, and thence seed was sent all over Europe and to America, where it soon became a great favorite. About thirty years ago a double Petunia was grown and propagated by cuttings. It was only semi-double and white, but it was the commencement of a new era in Petunia culture. Truly wonderful have been the advances in development of this beautiful flower. The Petunia is divided into three distinct classes, the Grandiflora, Small Flowered and Double. The Grandiflora varieties have a strong succulent growth, the flowers are not so numerous as some others, but are very large and double, frequently measuring three inches in diameter, and some kinds are exquisitely marked with various shades of violet, purple, maroon and scarlet upon white ground; some striped, others bordered, some marbled, some deeply fringed. The double Petunia gives no seed, and it is only by fertilizing single flowers with the pollen of the double that seed can be obtained. But Petunias of all kinds are easily multiplied by cuttings. The Small Flowered class are those that make our gardens so attractive with their varied hues and markings. Some of the new hybrids are of wonderful beauty. Last year gave two of the Double and Fringed sort that have been frequently noted as gems of the first water. Mrs. Edward Roby, color, a glowing crimson-maroon, edged with pure white, very double and deeply fringed. Model of Perfection, deep maroon, heavily edged with white, and deeply fringed. These were priced last year in a Western catalogue at $1.50 each; this year they are priced at 30 cents. So one gains by waiting a year for high-priced novelties. New Double Fringed Petunia for 1881, is President Garfield, which originated with Mr. C. E. Allen, and is thus described in his catalogue: "Color, light purple veined with deep purple magenta, edged with a broad band of an exquisite shade of green. Very novel in its appearance and a new color in double petunias; flower very large and deeply fringed. Plants strong and vigorous; one of the finest sorts ever offered." For a Petunia so unique as this, with its broad band of green, and now offered for the first time; its price, 75 cents, is low. Pansies. "Open your eyes, my Pansies sweet, Open your eyes for me, Driving away with face so true, The chilling wind and wintry hue, That lingers so drearily. "Open your eyes, my Pansies sweet, Open your eyes for me. Where did you get that purple hue? Did a cloudlet smile as you came through? Did a little sunbeam bold Kiss on your lips that tint of gold? Tell me the mystery. "In your eyes a story I read-- A story of constancy. After the storms and winter's wind, Softly you come with influence kind; Then as I bend with listening ear, Your cheerful voice I plainly hear, Preaching a sermon to me. "So, whisper to me, my Pansies sweet-- Tell me in rustlings low, Of that beautiful land where fadeless flowers Brightly bloom in immortal bowers, And no blighting wind doth blow. "Tell of the care that is over all-- That gives you your garments gay; Whose loving hand clothes the floweret small That grows in the field, or by the garden wall, Whose life is only a day. "Yes, tell of the love, my Pansies sweet, Of the love that knows no end; That through earth's winter safely keeps Watch over his children, and never sleeps; The love that paints the violet blue, And quenches your thirst with drops of dew, The weary heart's faithful friend." A Talk About Pansies. "Pray you love, remember, There's Pansies--that's for thought." _Shakespeare._ I find my Pansies are coming up finely. My bed of Pansies last year from "choicest mixed seed" sown in April, began to bloom in June, and afforded me so much pleasure with their varied beauty, that I resolved this year to have a great many of them. I see, now that the snow has melted from the bed, that the plants have wintered well. I had all of the colors shown in the chromo plate of my catalogue, excepting _Emperor William_, dark blue. I think that somebody else must have got him, for my packet of seed was divided and sub-divided. _King of the Blacks_ was rightly named, a mere dot of yellow in the center, and _Pure White_ was in striking contrast, while _Pure Yellow_ was golden, and _Odier_ was splendid with its dark center banded with yellow and scarlet. Then there was copper-colored and striped, and such rich purples with a dot of yellow. How lovely they were! They were not very large at first, but in August after a rain, I had superb specimens. They were bedded beneath a fruit tree, where they were sheltered from the noonday glare. They thrive best in a moist, partially shaded situation. The blossoms ought to be picked as they fade, for if left to seed the strength is taken from the plants and the blossoms are smaller. This season I have sown musical Pansies. "Musical Pansies! what are they? What sort of music do they make? Will it be of the Brass Band order, or that of the hand-organ style?" No, no! Not that coarse, harsh, loud sort at all. If you could hear their low, sweet notes, you would be enraptured. But this cannot be. I call them musical, because named for the great composers, Mozart, Handel, Schiller, Goethe, Beethoven, Haydn, Mendelssohn, and Schumann. They are the "New German Pansies," of which types are given in oil colors, in the catalogue of B. F. Bliss & Sons, and represent the most beautiful strains I have ever seen. They are no fancy sketch, but drawn as true to life in color and size as it was possible to make them, if we will accept the testimony of Dr. Thurber in the _American Agriculturist_. He says, that "no doubt many who have seen the colored plate published by Messrs. B. F. Bliss & Sons, have supposed that the artist had exercised his imagination both as to size and the strange combinations of colors. So far from this being the case, the flowers are, if anything, rather below the real size, and as to colors, it would be impossible to conceive of any artificial colors more brilliant, or more strongly contrasted, than they are in flowers, produced by this remarkable strain of seeds." In my childhood I knew nothing of the Pansy. The little Heartsease or Ladies' Delight, as it was then called, was alone cultivated. Mr. Vick tells us how it grew to be the fine flower now so highly prized. About sixty years ago, a very young English lady living on the banks of the Thames, had a little flower garden of her own, and one bed she filled with Pansies, selecting from her father's grounds the finest she could obtain. The gardener, seeing her interest and success, became ambitious to try his hand, and grew plants from the finest specimens. These attracted the attention of professional florists, and speedily the Pansy became a popular flower. Every country gives it a pet name--Heartsease, Fringed Violet, Trinity Flower, Butterfly flower, and Johnny-jump-up, while the French call it _Pensée_, from which our name of Pansy is probably derived. It means to remember or keep in mind. A floral work published in 1732, illustrates it with a colored plate, which shows it to have been then small like the Ladies' Delight. MODE OF CULTURE. For summer blooming plants sow seed in the house, in March or April. Cigar boxes are very suitable for seed sowing. Put in a layer of coarse sand for drainage, then one of horse manure for bottom heat. Fill with rich, mellow earth sifted and mixed with one-third silver sand, or finely pulverized leaf mold. Have it moist but not drenched. With a narrow strip of board, make tiny furrows about one and a half inches apart, and in these carefully drop the seed one by one an inch distant. Cover slightly, and press the soil firmly, then lay a piece of old soft flannel folded once or twice, and wrung lightly out of warm water, carefully over the soil, which will keep it damp. Cover with glass, and keep in a warm place. In a few days see if the covering is dry, if so damp it again, and watch for the seedlings. When they appear, remove the flannel, but still keep on the glass, not, however, so close as to exclude all air. Gradually inure them to the sunlight, and as soon as they have made four or five leaves, it is best to transplant every other one, so that they may have room to grow. Great care is needful with tender seedlings to keep them from damping off. If too wet, they will do this, or if kept too shady. Good judgment is essential for success. As the weather becomes warm, expose them at first an hour or two, to the outdoor air, and thus prepare them for early bedding out. Being hardy plants, living out of doors during the winter, with slight protection at the North, they will bear transplanting sooner than many other seedlings. A rich moist soil, and somewhat cool and shaded situation, are best adapted for their growth. For winter flowers, sow seed the last of August, or first of September, in a frame or boxes kept in a shady place. ASTERS. These must be included among the essential annuals for the garden. They are one of the chief attractions of the border in the autumn, when many flowers have passed their prime. This plant, like the Petunia, has in skillful hands and by hybridization, developed from a very inferior flower to one of great beauty and numerous classes, which embrace a great many varieties. They are represented by _Dwarfs_ and by _Giants_, ranging intermediately from five or six inches in height to two feet. _Dwarf Bouquet_ presents a mass of flowers with scarcely a leaf, while _Tall Chrysanthemum_ grows to the height of two feet, and the _New Victoria_, _Giant Emperor_, _Truffant's Perfection_ and the _New Washington_ bear immense flowers of great beauty. The last named bears the largest flowers of any variety; sometimes they measure more than five inches across. The _New Rose_ is of a strong habit, and the petals of its large blossoms are finely imbricated. _Truffant's Fiery Scarlet_ and _Dwarf Fiery Scarlet_, are a novelty in color among Asters. _Goliath_ is of a bushy form, and its flowers are very large. Fine colors. _Victoria_ is a dwarf; snow-white, very double. The _Crown Asters_ have white centers surrounded with various bright colors, and are very pretty. The _Quilled Asters_ are quite distinct in character, the petals consisting of tubes or quills with outer blossom petals slightly reflexed. _Newest Shakespeare_ and _Diamond_ and _Meteor_ are novelties of recent introduction, and come in numerous colors. We grew them last year and deem them admirable. The native country of this plant is China, hence it has been called frequently China Aster. It had originally only a few rows of petals and a large disk. It was first discovered about a century and a half ago, by a missionary, and sent to Europe. It was first cultivated in France, and the French florists have done the most toward perfecting the flat-petaled Aster, and this style of flower is known as the French Aster. On the other hand the Germans have sought to produce fine flowers with tubular petals, and the quilled are therefore called German Asters. Within a few years, however, the Germans have rivaled the French in originating superior varieties of the flat-petaled style. When first cultivated in France it was called _Reine Marguerite_, meaning Queen Daisy; afterward in England it was called _China Aster_, which means China Star. Asters require a rich, deep soil. Twelve inches apart is a very good distance for the large varieties, the dwarf can be set about six inches, or even less will do. The tall kinds need to be staked, or they are liable to be blown down, or prostrated by heavy rains. Do not tie one string around the entire plant, but use several, and confine a few branches with each, so that, while having sufficient support, they may retain their natural position. BALSAMS. [Illustration] Have been sowing my Balsams to-day in a box, so as to have nice seedlings to bed out in six weeks from now. My Balsams last year were superior to any I had seen, but Mr. J. L. Childs, who rather prides himself on his plants, has sent me several packages for trial. He says: "My stock of Balsams is undoubtedly the finest in the world; all who saw them flowering the past season were astonished at their size and magnificence. The new variety (Child's Camellia Flowered Perfection), is indeed a great acquisition; its flowers are of gigantic size, and so double and perfect that they resemble small Camellias; it is also a very free bloomer. I have counted five and six hundred perfect flowers upon a plant at the same time." That is a wonderful yield, truly; I cannot expect so many, but half that number would satisfy me. The Camellia Flowered Perfection comes in nine colors; pink, scarlet, striped white and purple, mottled, white and delicate pink, magenta spotted with white, crimson spotted with white, purple spotted with white, pure white, and rose-flowered perfection, lavender color, buds when half open, resemble a rosebud. I shall sow some of the seeds in June, for autumn blooming, and shall try more fully than last year the pruning method. This is done by removing all of the branches, and then the main stock will grow two or three feet in height, and be a perfect wreath of blossoms. Another method is to remove the leader and let two or three branches remain. The flowers are larger, and the plant handsomer than when allowed to grow at its own sweet will. They do best in a light, rich soil, and a liberal supply of liquid manure will greatly advance their growth. A writer in the _Gardener's Chronicle_ says: "Considering the very effective display that these plants make when associated with stately foliage plants in sub-tropical beds, I think they are worthy of more extended cultivation. There are few plants better adapted for the above purpose than the Balsam, being easily raised from seed, and as is well known, they are rapid growers if they are planted in a rich soil. Several samples of these plants with us are now three feet through and over two feet high, and they work admirably with such things as Castor Oils, Cannas, and the beautifully striped Japonica. The plants referred to were planted out early in June, and I am so pleased with their behaviour in the sub-tropical garden, that I intend to grow them largely another year." I know of no reason why the Balsam might not with good cultivation thrive as well here as in England. Let us try our "level best," and see what we can do. A Talk About Geraniums. My interest in this class of plants was specially awakened four years ago by the successful cultivation of a dozen or more new varieties which I was induced to send for by the reception of the catalogue of the "Innisfallen Green houses," containing a more attractive list of geraniums, and at lower prices than I had ever seen. I secured a Club by a little effort, and thus obtained so many fine extras, that it was a very agreeable surprise. I have since learned that very many others have had a similar surprise. The next spring I had a much larger assortment, and last year the greatest variety I ever saw. I am sure that I had sixty kinds in bloom at once. Although very small plants, as they always are when many are ordered by mail, they throve wonderfully, and with one exception, were all in flower in a few weeks, and kept on blooming till after removal in the autumn. My method of treatment is the following: On opening the boxes I find them packed in damp moss, many closely tied together. I take off the oiled paper, loosen the moss packed around them, and put them in a shallow pan, in which is sufficient tepid water to cover the roots. After an hour or two I set them in three and four inch pots, first putting a bit of crock over the hole in the bottom of the pot, so as to keep the roots from going astray, then some of the coarse siftings of soil, or small bits of coal for drainage. As geraniums are not at all fastidious about soil, I take whatever is available, mix a small quantity of sand with it to make it friable, enriching with old manure. I nearly fill the pot, and then make a hole in the center, set in the plant, press the earth firmly around it, fill to the top and press down again, water, and set the pot in a cool and shady place for several days, then bring to the light for a few hours, gradually accustoming them to the sunshine, until they become fully established in their new quarters. When the weather is sufficiently warm, I plunge the pots in the border for the summer, covering the pots entirely. I choose a cloudy day if possible; if otherwise, I do the work late in the afternoon, so that the intense sunshine may not at the first beat upon them. I prefer massing these new plants by themselves, as the effect is more pleasing than when intermixed with other kinds. The geranium bed is the most attractive one of my garden. It is always full of bloom, and the varied hues commingled are very attractive. I remove all decayed leaves, and the trusses as soon as the flowers have faded. Frequently there will be a few decayed pips marring the beauty of a fine truss, and these I carefully remove. All of my large stock geraniums which have been wintered two years, I set by themselves, and they furnish an abundance of flowers for bouquets, and cuttings for new plants. Where one has a plenty of garden room, they need not mind having several choice geraniums of a kind. Slips will root well during the summer months, if set in the earth near the parent stock, where they are shaded from the direct rays of the sun. Care must be had to set the cuttings well down in the soil, and firm the earth compactly around them. In this way one can obtain with little care nice plants for the winter window garden, which will be more shapely than those which have become very branchy. Geraniums are ill growing plants unless pruned and trained with skill. But they are so easily cultured, adapting themselves to most any situation whether of shade or sunshine, are so hardy, and bloom so freely, that we can but admire them though they yield no fragrant flowers. There are many varieties of scented leaved geraniums, and these mixed with the odorless blossoms are almost an equivalent. Then the beautiful "Golden Bronzed Zoned" geraniums, and the "Silver Margined" and "Tricolored," are so beautiful in foliage, while _Happy Thought_, with its creamy yellow leaf margined with green; _Distinction_, with deep green leaves zoned with black; Mrs. Pollock with bronze red zone belted with bright crimson margined with golden yellow, are exceedingly ornamental. Beside these there are many perhaps equally attractive, not often named in the general collection. _Freak of Nature_, first sent out last year, is an improvement on Happy Thought the center of pure white narrowly margined with light green; flowers light scarlet; habit very dwarf and spreading. It originated with Mr. Gray of England, and was awarded three first class certificates. [Illustration: BISHOP WOOD GERANIUM.] Of the numerous classes into which geraniums are divided, few only are given usually by florists. There are the Ornamental Foliage of which we have cited a few examples, and the Golden Tricolors, Silver Tricolors, Golden Bronze, Nosegay and Lilliputian Zonale; Double and single Geraniums. We will specify a few varieties worthy of special note, as we can testify by personal observation. Bishop Wood, Madam Baltet, C. H. Wagner, Madam Thibaut, Victor Hugo, Jean Dolfus, Cassimer Perier, John Fennely, Naomi and Rose d'Amour, all double sorts. Of the single, Dr. John Denny possesses a rare beauty, and is thus described by an English writer: "Dr. John Denny, raised by J. Sisley, has quite set at rest the probability of a blue or a purple, which is a positive fact, and great honor is due to its distinguished raiser. It also possesses another novel and distinct feature. The base of the two top petals is of a bright crimson tinted with orange, which gives it a most striking appearance; this, together with its immense sized trusses, free growth and shape of blooms, renders it one of the best for pot or house decoration, and is of great acquisition." Jean Dolfus belongs to this purple magenta class, a double geranium, very beautiful. Also Zuleika, which has larger pips and trusses. It is a little more striking in color than John Denny, but both are just as lovely as a geranium can possibly be. When Jealousy was sent out, there was much ado over it because it was the nearest approach toward a yellow Zonal, but it was eclipsed pretty soon by Guinea, which was an advance by a shade or two. We had the two in proximity last summer, and though but little difference, it was sufficiently marked to enable us to decide that Guinea for color, size and form, was preferable. We just get settled down on that, when we are startled by the announcement of another novelty, "New Guinea" by name, "a great improvement on Guinea, being two shades brighter." Well, well! we must have that, too, and see if in other respects as well as color, it is worthy to eclipse our favorite. Henry Cannell--this is a new geranium, originating with Mr. John Thorp of Queens, New York, who makes a specialty of seedling geraniums, and has sent out from his grounds many of great value, one of them Happy Thought, so widely known. We have not tested H. Cannell, ours was sent from Innisfallen during the winter, and has not yet bloomed, but we are sure that it would never have received the name of the most distinguished florist in England, if it were not a superior variety. New Life originated with Mr. H. Cannell of Swanley England, in our Centennial year, and he sent out the first thousand by subscription only, at £1 each--not one sold till the thousand were engaged! When introduced the following year to this country, stock plants were sold for $5.00 each. Now you can purchase it at prices ranging from ten cents to thirty. It is unique in color, being splashed, striped, and flecked with salmon and white on an intense scarlet ground. It is sometimes freakish, having pips with some petals salmon, others partly white and partly scarlet, others pure scarlet. But this very freak is charming, for with beautifully striped trusses there will be others thus sportive. Its habit is dwarf, compact, and its dark leaves zoned with black are very handsome. It cannot be surpassed as a free bloomer. Mr. Cannell, when sending it out, expressed the wish that the day might come when there would not be a cottage in the land where New Life was not found. John Fennely, salmon striped with white, and Fairy, flaked and striped with crimson on a bluish white ground, are very pretty. Dazzle, Harry King, Richard Dean, and Jean Sisley are scarlet with white eye. Of several single white geraniums in my garden, I gave decided preference to Madame Quinet. There is a great difference in the duration of the flowers. Victor Hugo, a splendid geranium, retains its beautiful trusses full five weeks. Bishop Wood is also admirable in this respect, and Jenny Dolfus and Naomi we believe cannot be surpassed. [Illustration] Of the Sweet Scented Geraniums, we have none equal to the hybrid, Mrs. Taylor, for beauty of foliage and of flower. It is a fine grower, and for green to mix with flowers it is admirable. Dr. Livingstone, a more recent novelty, is very handsome and fragrant. Rose and Lemon scented are delicious. Lady Plymouth is a variegated rose; leaves bronzy green, fringed with creamy white, sometimes assuming a pink tinge; very ornamental. London Blue is a very rare variety of scented geranium, of heavy creeping growth, with large crimped or curled leaves covered thickly with fine spines or hairs. Seldom blooms. We have specified a goodly number, yet but a few from the many, and we can assure you that if you have a large bed of geraniums you will greatly admire them, and feel satisfied that you have the most effective bedding plants, requiring the least care, and for the smallest outlay, that you could possibly obtain. In California they grow without culture to an enormous size. From an editor's notes we cite the following: "A little slip of geranium planted out in the spring, had grown in the summer to 150 branches, its stalk at its base four inches thick, and bearing over a thousand blooms! I saw a fence fifteen feet high, sixty-five feet long, covered with geranium vines that had clambered up one side, and then dropped down the other, filling both sides with a blanket of scarlet blossoms. It grows like weeds, and needs no care." Geraniums are so hardy that one can leave them to the last in removing from the border in autumn. Frosts that kill Dahlia tops, and many other plants, do not harm geraniums. Some of mine, for lack of time to remove, are exposed till late without harm. The roots have great vitality, and when the stalk has frozen and rotted to the ground, a new growth will start forth, sometimes in a few weeks, and sometimes not for three months. I have had this proved by plants in my window boxes. So one need not be in a hurry to pull up the frozen geraniums. My large stocky plants I pack in dry goods boxes, filling in earth around the roots, and put them in the cellar where they have little light. The pot plants, also, are mostly put away so as to give all the available room to the cuttings rooted in the summer, and the rare and tender plants that will not live in a cellar. These cuttings make fine plants for bedding out in May or June. In the spring the large geraniums are brought up to the open air and trimmed of their dead leaves, pruned of dead branches, and put in a large bed with the Hybrid Perpetual Roses. A Talk About Begonias. My first Begonia was a Rex. It thrived for several years, and then to my regret died, for it was quite a favorite with me. Its large leaves with broad silvery belt and red dots, were very handsome. This species thrive best in a Wardian case and are of rare beauty and size, grown under such circumstances. A cool, moist atmosphere is the best for them; they burn and shrivel exposed to the intense sunlight. They are easily multiplied from the leaves. Cut the leaf so that a small portion of the stem will remain, insert this in a pan of damp sand, laying the leaf out flat upon the sand, upper side uppermost. It can be retained in place by bits of stone or small pegs. Cuts must then be made in a number of places so as to sever the veins, thus checking the flow of sap. A callus then forms at the base of each piece of vein where severed, and just above it, a bud starts out, and thus a new plant is formed. It is essential for success, that there should be bottom heat, and that the air should be moist. A bell glass is the best to put over the leaf, and if there is danger that the air become too moist, the glass can be tilted up to allow of an escape. The leaves best adapted for propagation are those neither very young nor very old, but healthy and vigorous; yet that this is not absolutely essential is shown by the experience of a lady who had excellent success with a leaf that was some what decayed around the edges, and for that reason was cut off and thrown away. Remembering afterward that the plant was sometimes grown from pieces of a leaf, she hunted it up, trimmed off the decayed portion, and planted it at the foot of a tree, about half under ground, and pressed the soil firmly around it. A few months afterward she had a nice little plant from it, with its beautiful leaves unfolding finely. [Illustration] There are many varieties of the Rex family; some have brilliant colors in their leaves, others are thickly covered with short hairs. These are more difficult to manage, and require great care to preserve from dust, as like all rough leaved plants, they do not enjoy spraying, as do smooth leaved ones. It is well to set them out in a mild shower occasionally. Tepid water is the best for watering. BEGONIAS, NOT REX. This class are the most generally cultivated, and they embrace a great many varieties, which are specially distinguishable by the diversity of their leaves. Most of them are one-sided, that is, they are larger on one side of the mid-rib than on the other. Some have fern-like foliage, others lobated. Some have large palmate leaves, others are spotted and laced with white. As a class they are very beautiful for their foliage, but when to this attraction is added beauty of flowers, it will be seen at once that they are eminently deserving of the prominent position now given them both in the open border and the window garden. We will name for the benefit of amateurs some of the most desirable as given by Mr. Vick: _Fuchsioides_, with its drooping scarlet flowers, is one of the most desirable of the whole class; the leaves are small, and of a dark green color, and the small, delicate brilliant flowers are produced in great profusion. As a winter blooming sort it is indispensable. _F. Alba_ bears white flowers. _Richardsonii_, a variety with white flowers and deeply cleft palmate leaves, requires more heat than the former, therefore well adapted to our warm rooms. _Subpeltata nigricans_ has large, dark purple leaves, and bears clusters of large rosy flowers, very ornamental. _Grandiflora rosea_, with light pink flowers, and _Sandersonii_, scarlet flowers; _Weltoniensis_, of dwarf habit and small dark green foliage, rich pink flowers, are all fine winter bloomers. _Argyrostigma picta_ has long, thick leaves, with white spots. _Metallica_, an elegant plant with bronzy green foliage, and producing an abundance of pale peach-colored flowers, is of very recent introduction. _Louis Schwatzer_ has a beautiful marked foliage in the style of Rex, dwarf habit. _Mons. Victor Lamoine_, leaves marbled like lace. _Glaucophylla Scandens_ is of quite recent introduction, and the very best of all for a hanging basket. It is of a drooping habit, and its bright glossy leaves are very handsome. It bears large panicles of orange salmon flowers. TUBEROUS ROOTED BEGONIA. This is a class of quite recent origin, and differs from the more general varieties, in that it has bulbous roots which can be taken up and stored during the winter like Gladioli and Gloxinia bulbs. It has larger flowers than the other species; red, orange, yellow, with intermediate tints. A writer in the London _Garden_ says of them: "The bulbous Begonias, mostly of the Boliviniensis and Veitchi sections or families, may have also a brilliant future in the flower garden. Meanwhile, their proper place seems to be in the conservatory, greenhouse and window garden. For such positions it is well-nigh impossible to match the bulbous-rooted Begonias for brilliancy, grandeur and grace, three qualities seldom combined in the same plant. The plants are also characterized by great distinctness and freshness of style and character." They are both double and single. Of the single flowered, the most important sent out last year was _Davisii_. It is a native of the Andes of Peru. Dwarf in habit, the leaves and flowers all springing from the root stalk. "The scapes which rise erect above an elegant bluish green foliage, are light red; each scape bears three dazzling scarlet flowers. The plant is of very free growth, and a profuse bloomer." _Frobelii_, a new species from Ecuador, said to be very attractive, producing, well above the foliage, erect branches of large brilliant scarlet flowers; the foliage is of bright green, furnished on the under side with a thick covering of white hairs. _White Queen_, a very elegant variety with numerous racemes of ivory white blossoms. Of the new double flowered, _Glorie de Nancy_ is represented as a magnificent variety, with large very double carmine flowers, and very floriferous. _Louis Van Houtte_, flowers large, of a crimson scarlet color; of fine habit, and a free bloomer. "_Comtesse Horace Choeteau_, is an inch or more in diameter, very double, and of a delicate, soft shade of rose; the young plant in a three-inch pot presented a number of flowers and buds, indicating a good blooming habit. As a double flower it is remarkably fine, the petals being well formed, pretty smoothly laid and imbricated."--_James Vick._ The soil best adapted for Begonias is turfy loam, leaf-mold, sand, and old well-rotted manure in equal parts. When growing, they require a liberal supply of water, applied directly to the soil. The Begonias are natives of the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, and America, and most of them inhabit the mountainous regions at a considerable elevation. They were first brought to notice and introduced into cultivation about two hundred years ago by a French naval officer, Michel Begon, from whom they derived their name. GLOXINIA. This bulbous plant is a native of the tropical region of South America, and deserves a more general culture, for all the varieties of this genus are very handsome, _magnificent_ is not too strong a term to apply to many of them. They may be raised from seed by sowing early in spring in a finely sifted soil of leaf mold and garden loam. But great care is needful, and then one has to wait the following year for the flowers. It is better to obtain the bulbs in the spring all started, then they will bloom during the summer. Mine had several leaves, and I removed them from the thumb pots to five-inch size, which I judged would be sufficiently large for them. They need plenty of light and heat and plenty of air. To prolong the flowering an occasional watering with manure water should be given. In the autumn they must be gradually dried off and the bulbs kept in a warm, dry place, secure from frost. They can be potted any time from February to May. The bulb must be planted so that its top will be level with the surface of the soil, and watered sparingly until the leaves appear. I will describe a few "superlatively beautiful." _Cinderella_, pure white with pink band. _Brilliant_, bright crimson, margined with rose, rich violet throat. _Rose d'Amour_, rose carmine, cream colored throat, zone of cerise. _Nero_, dark purple, white throat. _Princess Royal_, tube and edges white, throat mottled with dark blue. _Lamartine_, very beautifully undulated, magnificent shape; white bordered rose limb, veering to cochineal, marbled with white and elegantly veined with rose. _Boule de Neige_, pure snowy white, an abundant bloomer. These are only a few selections from the many, but sufficient to give you an idea of the variety of colors. TUBEROSE. What flower can be whiter, sweeter, and more lovely than the Tuberose? As the flowering bulbs can be bought for ten and fifteen cents, according to size, no one need be without this charming flower. It is a native of the East Indies, and was introduced into Europe more than two hundred years ago. Until recently Italy grew the tubers for Europe and America, but it has now been discovered that American grown tuberoses are superior in quality to the imported, and many florists of Europe now advertise them. Here is a description of the tuberose, which appeared originally in a volume entitled "_The Flower Garden Displayed_," published in England in 1732: "This is a bulbous root, brought to us from Italy every year. It brings a spike of white flowers on the top of a stalk about three feet high, and is very sweet scented. The flower buds are a little tinted with a lake or carmine color. We raise this by planting the roots in pots of fine earth, and plunging them in hot beds in February or March; but give them no water till they sprout, then we have this flower in July. Or else set the roots in a warm border under a south wall, and they will some of them flower in August and some in September, or this month or the next. When these blossom you may pot them and set them into the green-house, and some will even bloom in December." Mr. Vick, from whose magazine we quote the foregoing, gives an engraving copied from the work, showing the character of the tuberose as it was nearly a century and a half ago. It represents a small single flower, that would be lightly esteemed by us. The flower stalk is from three to five feet in height, and bears from twenty-five to eighty blossoms. The _Pearl_ is much the finest sort. When the bulbs are obtained from the florist they have usually several little tubers round the large one. These ought to be taken off and placed in rich, mellow soil to the depth of four or five inches. They must be cared for by keeping the earth loose and watering occasionally. Before frost they should be lifted, their tops cut away, and then kept in a dry, warm place during the winter. The strongest ones will usually blossom in the autumn. But summer flowering bulbs are so cheap it seems scarcely worth the trouble. Will Tuberoses flower the second year, is a question frequently asked, and usually answered in the negative, even by popular florists. A writer in an English periodical, _Gardeners' Chronicle_, gives the following facts: "Last year, instead of throwing away all our plants when they had done flowering, as is, I believe, customary, I saved back twelve plants, not picked ones, which were placed under a stage in a late vinery, where they remained until the end of April without receiving any water to the roots, other than what they derived from the moisture of the house, by which time most of them had thrown up their flower-spikes, which proceeded from young tubers, formed immediately upon the top or crown of the old ones, and from the union of which--when the plants had received a thorough watering, and otherwise were subject to a growing temperature--a profusion of roots emanated, after which the plants received a suitable shift to a small 24. The spikes of these plants, although not so strong or fine as those produced by tubers imported last autumn, are nevertheless good, both in spike and each individual flower, which, moreover, expanded in the most satisfactory manner possible, so much so, that this and other seasons I intend to save all my tuberoses for flowering the second year, and perhaps the third. I may here remark for the information of the uninitiated in tuberose culture, that in potting the tubers all little bulbets or offsets should be rubbed off, and subsequently any suckers which may appear should be removed forthwith, otherwise failure to flower these most beautifully scented flowers will, in all probability be the result. The plant is of comparatively easy and simple culture, and considering the value of the tuberose while in flower, and its great suitability for bouquet-making, etc., the wonder is that it is not more extensively cultivated in private establishments as well as by market gardeners." A gentleman writes me of a new method with Tuberoses; new to him, and he says that in a large range of horticultural reading he has never seen it mentioned nor heard of its being used except in the instance he cites. He says: "I have grown Tuberoses for the past ten years with varying success, but the main difficulty has been that so long a time has been required in rooting and stocking them that the first frost finds a large proportion of them just budding, or not commenced to spindle. Had tried various places, hot-bed, furnace-room and hot-house, and all the early spring months and December, but that made no difference; they would not start until they got ready, and I lost many bulbs from rotting. Two years ago, a friend who had had a similar experience surprised me by showing me plants about the first of May with fine tops that had been planted but three weeks, and the first of June had stalks a foot high, while my bulbs which had been planted the first of February, did not commence to sprout until June, although they had been in a hot-house under favorable conditions. "Now the reason simply was this: He had taken his bulbs and not only pulled off all the small ones attached, but had dug out with a sharp knife all the small eyes, and had cut off the whole of the tuberous part, leaving only the bulb proper. This I tried on one-half my bulbs, with the result that they were nearly two months earlier than those planted the same time, that I did not cut. Although this seems to be rather severe treatment of the bulb, it has given such good results that I propose to continue the practice." My own experience is that of late blooming. Of the dozen I planted in the border in June, five were finely budded when taken up in September, and have since bloomed. Two others had just begun to spindle, the others with one exception look as though they would not stalk. Next year I purpose to try this new method. A Talk About Gladiolus. "Posthumous glories, angel-like collection, Upraised from seed or bulb interred in earth, Ye are to me a type of resurrection And second birth." It was my intention to devote this entire article to "Ornamental Foliage Plants," but I think I will have a prelude, and my prelude may have no more connection with my "talk" proper than Mr. Cook's preludes do with his lecture proper, and I think that frequently the first is the most interesting and important; and from the fact that in the published reports much more space is afforded to the prelude than the lecture, I opine that others are of the same opinion. "The Topic of the Hour," whatever may be the question just then stirring the public mind, is usually chosen as the preface. The topic of the hour to-day has been a bit of a sermon from the text, "And to every seed its own body," and the lesson embodied was that of Faith. The preaching came from a package of gladiolus bulbs, just received, and it run on this wise: [Illustration] Here are these dry bulbs, separately wrapped and labeled. They look alike in color, and very nearly alike in form; some are rather more cone shaped than others. One is larger and more flat. But there is nothing in form nor size to show that they will not develop precisely the same form and color of flower. I know that they will all reveal the leaf, habit of growth, bud and bloom that distinguishes this species of plant from all others, because I know that these are gladiolus bulbs, and every seed hath its own body. A gladiolus bulb never yet produced a dahlia. A tigridia or shell-flower bulb, though greatly resembling some gladiolus bulbs, and its form of leaf is very similar, yet it never produces a bud nor blossom like the gladiolus. The tigridia hath "its own body," peculiarly and exclusively its own. I have spoken thus far of demonstrated facts--facts that have become to me a matter of personal knowledge. But now comes the lesson of _Faith_. I find each bulb bears a different name. I take my catalogue and read the description against the name on each label. Thus I am told what colors pertain to each bulb, inclosed, shut up beyond my ken. Do I have any doubts respecting these descriptions--that the distinguishing characteristics of each sort before me will fail to correspond? Here is _Lord Byron_ and _Lord Raglan_. How do I know that the former will be a brilliant scarlet, stained and ribboned with pure white, while the latter will have salmon colored blossoms, spotted with scarlet and blotched with dark garnet? I do not _know_ this, for I have never seen it demonstrated, but I have an _assured faith_ that in due time I shall behold those flowers true to their assigned colors, and if there should be a failure I should attribute it to the mistake of the labeler. But why should these brown bulbs, so alike to outward view, bear flowers so widely differing in hues? Why should _Cleopatra_ have a large flower of soft lilac tinged with violet, and a purple feathered blotch, while _Meteor_ is dark red with pure white stain? Why should _Nestor_ be yellow striped with red, and _Addison_ dark amaranth, with white stripes? Vainly would I seek by dissection to fathom the mystery of these hidden diversified markings, but He who created this plant of wondrous beauty gave to each "seed its own body," and thus we can plant in faith--yea in full assurance of faith--that in due time our eyes will behold all those varied tints now secreted in these bulbs before us. Our seed sowing is all the work of Faith, and Hope looks beyond with bright anticipations of the summer and autumn harvest. The gladiolus is very easily cultured, and I have far better success in keeping the bulbs through the winter than I have with the dahlia. The tubers of the dahlia easily rot, on account of the dampness of the cellar, though carefully dried and packed in sand. But the gladiolus bulbs, without any special care, come out in fine condition. I like to add a few new ones to my old standard stock, so as to have a variety of colors, for few flowers make such a grand display in the flower garden, and the spikes of bloom are admirable for bouquets, as the buds will unfold day after day for a long time. The lower flowers on the stalk can be removed as they fade. The flowers are very fine also for saucer or shoal dish bouquets. I have a special liking for these. Fill the shallow dish with water or sand--I prefer the latter kept constantly wet--then arrange tastefully short stemmed flowers till they are a mass of bloom. I first make a green border of geranium leaves, or some trailing vine. Different shades of gladiolus flowers picked from the stalk are very effective to set off the flowers not so striking. Where the season for out-door culture is short, as it is here in Maine, it is best to get the bulbs started in the house. Some do this by simply placing them in a sunny window without covering. I always plant mine in a box. The gladiolus can be raised from seed, but they are of slow growth, and one has to wait till the third summer usually for their flowering. It is far better to purchase the bulbs, then they bloom the first season, and, except some of the rare sorts, multiply rapidly. Although novelties, and some rare sorts are very expensive, $1.50, $2 and $3 for a single bulb, yet very fine bulbs of choice colors can be obtained for that price _per dozen_. In reply to the question, "What are the names of six of your finest gladiolus not very expensive?" the reply is, "Calypso, Cleopatra, Agatha, Eldorado, James Carter and Lord Byron." These six cost but little more than $1. Of those more expensive the following are very desirable: Addison, Eugene Scribe, Etenard, La France, Meyerbeer and Rossini. These cost a little less than $3. Unnamed bulbs, a good variety, can be bought for $1 per dozen of reliable florists. Of the new varieties sent out the present season for the first time, are the following raised during the past year by M. Souchet, M. Leomine and other French growers, who have for years made the improvement of the gladiolus a special study. They are said to be superior to any gladiolus hitherto introduced. Aurore, Bremontier, Chameleon, Corinne, Dalila, Eclair, Gulliver, Hermione, Lesseps, Tolma, Victor Jacquemont. The descriptions represent them as superb, and they ought to be at the price named, $4 per bulb! Some of us will have to wait till their novelty is worn off. NEW HYBRID GLADIOLUS. _Lemoinei_ and _Marie Lemoine_. "These two varieties are Hybrids of gladiolus purpureo-auratus, and are of the old garden varieties of Gandavensis, and are now offered for the first time. In form they approach the old Gladiolus Biperatus, the colors being creamy ground with distinct markings of crimson-maroon, with lemon and salmon colored cloudings. They have proved quite hardy and may be left out of doors from year to year." Mr. Henry Cannell of Swanley, England, a florist of world-wide reputation, says of those hardy Hybrids: "It is considered both by professionals and the trade, that M. Leomine's greatest victory was in crossing Gladiolus purpureo-auratus and gandavensis, two distinct species, and at the time they were awarded first-class certificates, it was thought by many that some higher and substantial recognition ought to have been made for introducing a perfectly hardy constitution into our glorious garden gladiolus, and saving the trouble of housing them from frost every season." GLADIOLUS PURPUREO-AURATUS. This is a new species from Natal, quite distinct from the common species of gladiolus and very attractive. On a slender, bending stem, which rises to the height of three or four feet, are borne from eight to twelve nodding flowers, somewhat bell-shaped in form, and yellow in color, with broad purple stripes on the lower divisions within. Its bulbs are small, and at the end of long runners numerous offsets are produced which are more certain to flower the succeeding season than are the old bulbs. GLADIOLUS GANDAVENSIS. This ancient type is a very ordinary flower, and it seems almost incredible that such superb varieties should have been produced therefrom by cross-fertilization. In the hands of the French florists it has attained to the superior position it occupies to-day. More than forty years ago Mons. Souchet, head gardener at the Château of Fontainebleau, first called attention to this flower, and began its improvement, and although some few other French florists, such as Messrs. Courant, Berger, Lamoine, Verdier and others followed his example, yet nearly all of the varieties now in commerce in France, are of the raising of that now venerable and respected private citizen. His successors, Messrs. Soulliard and Brunelet supply the great French houses of Paris, by whom the bulbs are forwarded to all parts of the world. About thirty years ago Mr. Kelway of Longport, in Somersetshire, began his culture and hybridizing of the flower, and has built up an immense business. He devotes fifteen acres to Gladiolus exclusively, and the number of seedlings annually raised is 200,000. In 1879-80, Mr. Kelway exhibited eighteen named seedlings which were severally awarded first-class certificates as possessing striking original characteristics. Of our own eminently successful growers, Messrs. Hallock and Thorp of Queens, N. Y., take the lead. They devote over seven acres to Gladiolus, and raise thousands of seedlings. MODE OF CULTURE. For diversity of color and general effect, either in masses, or in beds of three or four rows, placing the bulbs one foot apart and three inches deep. Mix a liberal supply of well-rotted manure with the soil, and if clayey, use sand. As soon as the plants are sufficiently tall stake them, and mulch with dressing. The Use of Flowers. God might have made the earth bring forth Enough for great and small, The oak-tree and the cedar-tree, Without a flower at all. We might have had enough, enough, For every want of ours, For luxury, medicine, and toil, And yet have had no flowers. Then wherefore, wherefore, were they made, All dyed with rainbow light, All fashioned with supremest grace, Upspringing day and night;-- Springing in valleys green and low, And on the mountains high, And in the silent wilderness, Where no man passes by? Our outward life requires them not,-- Then wherefore had they birth?-- To minister delight to man, To beautify the earth; To comfort man,--to whisper hope, Whene'er his faith is dim, For Who so careth for the flowers, Will care much more for him. MARY HOWITT. A Talk About Pelargoniums. "And so I hold the smallest flower Some gracious thought may be; Some message of the Father's love Mayhap to you or me." Here we step on disputed ground. Are Geraniums Pelargoniums? Who shall decide when florists disagree? There are eminent names on both sides of the question. Mr. Henry Cannell of Swanley, England, a florist who stands in the front rank, and whose name has become so widely known in connection with _New Life_ Geranium, of which he was the originator, jumbles up together under the head of Pelargoniums everything we on this side of the water class under the head of Geraniums. A veritable muddle he makes of the matter--that is our private opinion--we whisper it to you confidentially. Here is our yellow Zonal _Guinea_; our best scarlet bedder, _Gen. Grant_, and _Wellington_, and _Mrs. Pollock_, and _Happy Thought_, all called Pelargoniums, and yet are quite unlike in leaf and flower what we Americans denominate a Pelargonium; and, to avoid confusion, it is certainly advisable for us to adhere to our established distinctiveness. We quote from the _Gardener's Chronicle_ of January 3d, 1880, a sensible talk on this subject, to which Mr. Cannell takes exceptions: "Pelargoniums and Geraniums--I think it would be as well to settle by authority the exact names of those flowers that seem to be indiscriminately called Pelargoniums and Geraniums. Botany has been described as the 'science of giving polysyllabic barbarian Greek names to foreign weeds;' but while some plants, Abies Mariesii for instance, are most carefully described, others, as Geraniums, seem to be called by names that do not belong to them, but to quite a different flower. I notice, both in your letter-press and advertisement, mention made of Zonal Pelargoniums; now I should certainly decline to receive Geraniums if I ordered Pelargoniums. I am old enough to remember that we had a parti-colored green-house flower of a violet shape that was called a Geranium, then came a lot of hardy-bedding-out stuff with a truss of red flowers, all of one color, followed by _Tom Thumbs_ and _Horseshoes_ which grow nicely out of door. Then we were told that we must no longer call those green-house plants _Geraniums_, that their right and proper name was Pelargoniums, and that those bedding-out plants were, strictly speaking, Geraniums. Now, however, the old name Geranium seems to be dropped for both, and the new name Pelargonium given to both, surely erroneously! Let us, however, have it fairly settled which is which, so that we may clearly and distinctly know what we are talking about, and not make mistakes either in writing or talking, in sending to shows, or in ordering plants."--_James Richard Haig, Blair Hill, Sterling._ We will now give a part of a lecture delivered last spring before a Pelargonium Society in London, by Shirley Hibberd, a delightful writer on Horticulture, says Mr. Vick, from whose magazine we quote the following: "A Pelargonium is not a Geranium, although often so called. The true Geraniums are for the most part herbaceous plants inhabiting the northern hemisphere, and the Pelargoniums are for the most part shrubby or sub-shrubby plants of the southern hemisphere. Let us for a moment wander among the pleasant slopes of Darley dale in Derbyshire, or by the banks of the Clyde or the Calder. We shall in either case be rewarded by seeing vast sheets of the lovely meadow Crane's Bill, Geranium pratense, a true Geranium, and one of the sweetest flowers in the world. In the rocky recesses of Ashwood Dale, or on the banks of the 'bonny Doon,' we may chance to see in high summer a profusion of the Herb Robert, Geranium Robertianum, with pink flowers and purple leaves, a piece of true vegetable jewelry. And, once more, I invite you to an imaginary journey, and we will ride by rail from Furness to Whitehaven, in order to behold on the railway bank, more especially near St. Bees, a wonderful display of the crimson Crane's Bill, Geranium sanguineum, which from July to September, forms solid sheets, often of a furlong in length, of the most resplendent color. No garden coloring can even so much as suggest the power of this plant as it appears at a few places on the Cumberland coast; even the sheets of scarlet poppies we see on badly cultivated corn lands are as nothing compared with these masses of one of the most common and hardiest of our wild flowers. "Now let us fly to the other side of the globe and alight in the vicinity of the Cape of Good Hope, say on the vast desert of Karroo, where there is much sand, much sunshine, and little rain. Here, in the midst of desolation, the world is rich with flowers, for the healthy shrub that occurs in patches, glowing with many bright hues, consists in part of wild Pelargoniums, which often take the form of miniature deciduous trees, although in the valleys, nearer the coast, where more rain falls, they are evergreen bushes. "Very different in their character are these two tribes of plants, and they are not less different in their constitution and aspects. We may regard the Geraniums as herbs of Europe, and the Pelargoniums as miniature trees of Africa. When we examine the flowers, we find the fine petals of a true Geranium of precisely the same shape and size; but the fine petals of a Pelargonium are not so, for sometimes the topmost are the largest, and stand apart from the rest with great dignity, like mother and father looking down on their dutiful daughters, and in other cases they are the smallest, suggesting that the daughters have grown too fast and become unmanageable. The florists are doing their utmost to obliterate the irregularity of the petals of the Pelargonium, and in this respect to convert Pelargoniums into Geraniums, but the conversion will not be complete until much more wonderful things are accomplished. A Geranium has ten stamens, and a Pelargonium has only seven (perfect ones). These numbers are not constant, but the exceptions are of no consequence in a general statement of the case. "When all is said that can be said about the differences and resemblances of the several genera of Geraniaceæ, there remains only one constant and unfailing test of a true Pelargonium, and that is the nectariferous tube immediately below the flower, and running down one side of the flower-stalk. If you hold the pedicel up to the light, it may be discerned as giving an indication of a double flower-stalk, but when dissected with a pin or the point of a knife, it is found to proceed from the base of the largest of the green sepals, and it often appears to form a sort of digit or point in the line of the pedicel. When you have mastered this part of the story, you may cherish the idea that you know something about Pelargoniums. "The large flowered show varieties and the large-flowered single Zonals take the lead, and they are pleasantly followed by a crowd of ivy-leaved, double-flowered and variegated sorts that are useful and beautiful. The Pelargonium Society has set up a severe standard of judging, and a variety must be distinct and good to pass through the sieve. Moreover the raising of varieties has been to a great extent reduced to scientific principles, and we obtain as a result new characters suggestive of the great extent of the field that still lies open to the adventurous spirit in cross-breeding. No one in recent years has contributed more directly toward the scientific treatment of the subject than our own painstaking Treasurer, Dr. DENNY, of whose labors I propose to present a hasty sketch. "Dr. DENNY commenced the raising of Pelargoniums in the year 1866, having in view to ascertain the influence of parentage, and thus to establish a rule for the selection of varieties for seed-bearing purposes. In raising varieties with variegated leaves, as also with distinct and handsome flowers, he found the pollen parent exercised the greatest influence on the offspring. The foundation of his strain of circular-flowered Zonals was obtained by fertilizing the large starry flowers of Leonidas with pollen taken from the finely formed flowers of Lord Derby. From 1871 to the present time Dr. DENNY has sent out sixty varieties, and he has in the same period raised and flowered, and destroyed about 30,000. These figures show that when the selection is severe, and nothing is allowed to pass that is not of the highest quality, there must be 500 seedlings grown for the chance of obtaining one worth naming." We have devoted a good deal of space to this citation because of its interest and value on the question at issue. Mr. Hibberd has, we think, made the matter very clear, and conclusive it must be to the most of minds. Pelargoniums are divided into classes, though we rarely see any classifications of them in the catalogues. REGAL PELARGONIUMS Are comparatively a new type, and from the fact of their having more scalloped petals, somewhat approaching a double; they retain their petals instead of shedding them as do the single show flowers. The Beauty of Oxton and Queen Victoria, novelties of very recent introduction, belong to this class. We had them in bloom last year and thought them very fine. The Beauty of Oxton has the upper petals of a very rich maroon color, darkly blotched; under petals very dark crimson, shaded with maroon; light center tinted with rose. All the petals are attractively and regularly margined with white and beautifully fringed. The flowers are large and the extra number of petals gives them the appearance of being semi-double. Queen Victoria is of a very novel type and marvelously beautiful. The flowers have crispy petals, all of which are a rich vermilion in color, broadly margined with white, and the upper ones blotched with maroon. The "Show and Fancy Pelargoniums" have what the florists term "blotches," i.e. large spots on the two upper petals, and "spots" which mean the darker marks upon the center of the lower ones. The Lady of the Lake belongs to this class. Lower petals orange-rose painted with crimson, very dark maroon top petals with a narrow, even crimson edge, white center. Prince Charlie is very unique in its markings. Color white elegantly tipped, with rose-violet blotches. FRINGED AND STRIPED PELARGONIUMS. This is a very handsome class of which there are many new varieties. Princess of Wales we had last summer. It has elegant frilled petal margins; flower trusses large size and borne in profusion well above the foliage; ground color pure blush, each petal alike marked with a rich dark velvet crimson-scarlet margined blotch. Star of the East resembles the Princess of Wales in growth and profusion of bloom, but with larger flowers, of pure white ground. The petals are elegantly fringed, the upper ones marked with a rich crimson spot, and the under ones elegantly penciled with violet-colored lines. These are among the novelties of recent introduction. HYBRID PERPETUAL PELARGONIUMS. A class of distinct habit, free bloomers, mostly fragrant foliage, good for bedding out. Of these we have only had Madame Glevitsky of Bavarian origin. Color, upper petals a fine vermilion, veined and spotted with purple, under petals vermilion. We were much pleased with Pelargonium Filicifolia Odorata for its finely cut leaves of a Fern-like appearance and pleasing fragrance. Our specimens of the various classes were from the extensive and superb collection of Mr. John Saul, of Washington, D. C. Among them was one which originated in his establishment and was named for his wife. It belongs to the "Regal" class. The habit is compact and very free flowering, producing large trusses of flowers the color of which is a rich glowing vermilion, with light center and light margin to the petals. We are indebted to Mr. John G. Heinl for specimen plants of two "New Monthly Pelargoniums," now offered for the first time to the general public. Of the origin of one, _Fred Dorner_, we have this account given in a letter to Mr. Heinl, from Fred Dorner, Esq., of Lafayette. Mr. Dorner says: "Six years ago I undertook to grow some Pelargoniums from seed. I procured some very choice seed of Ernest Benary of Erfust. The seedlings grew finely. About midwinter one commenced to bloom, and to my astonishment kept on blooming for ten months, during which period it was never without flowers. The plants grew to a good size and at one time I counted forty-seven good-sized trusses on it. The winter and everblooming quality, with the large and beautifully colored flowers, makes this Pelargonium a great acquisition to the amateur as well as the florist. I have seen here in Lafayette plants in windows blooming all winter, and it is acknowledged here to be the best and easiest kept house and window plant, blooming from nine to ten months in the year." _Freddie Heinl_ originated with Mr. John G. Heinl, who says it is a sport from _Fred Dorner_; it is lighter-colored and the flowers are somewhat larger. That these are both a rare acquisition is evident from the testimony of such florists as Mr. John Thorp of Queens, and Mr. Henry A. Dreer of Philadelphia. Mr. Thorp says, "There are no Pelargoniums equal to them and they have a decided right to be called perpetual." Three months later he writes: "I am more than ever impressed with their superiority over any perpetual blooming varieties, and they must take foremost rank." Mr. Dreer says: "The Pelargoniums have proven very satisfactory. They flowered during the greater part of the summer, and are now full of buds." The colored lithograph, which Mr. Heinl says is a good representation, shows them to be very beautiful. We should think that to call a plant so dissimilar in foliage and flower a Geranium, would be a misnomer, why not equally such to call a Geranium a Pelargonium? MODE OF CULTURE. As we have seen by Mr. Hibberd's address, the Pelargonium's native home is on arid plains where there is much sand, much sunshine and little rain, so that they are chiefly dependent on heavy dews for moisture. To plant them in heavy soil, give them a sheltered situation and liberal and frequent watering, would be a mode of treatment directly the reverse of what they require. In the cultivation of all plants we should as far as possible adapt them to their native conditions. One skilled amateur says his rule is to let the earth in the pots become thoroughly dry before watering, and always to give a period of rest after blooming. Another, a lady, said she never had any success with Pelargoniums until she gave them a heavy period of rest after blooming. In the spring, when putting her plants out of doors, she laid the pots containing Pelargoniums on their sides, and let them remain perfectly dry until fall. She then took the plants out of the pots, shook the soil from the roots, and scrubbed them well with a hard brush and water. The old-looking roots were cut off and the top trimmed down to six or eight inches in height. They were then repotted in rich earth and watered very moderately till they started into full growth, and after that more freely. With this treatment they never fail to bloom. A young physician who raised many extraordinarily fine varieties of Pelargoniums from seed, in stating his mode of culture, said that _his_ practice was to re-pot large plants whenever they seemed in danger of being pot-bound. The mold he used was made up of black earth from under a manure heap, and a little stiff clay to retain the water. After the plants were done flowering, they were trimmed rather close, and with regard to probable places of sprouting. They were then placed in partial shade, and all shoots found straying out of symmetry were pinched off. His large plants were kept moist till after bloom, and then rather dry.--_Floral Cabinet._ We have given these methods so that if not successful with one, another can be adopted. The Rhodora. LINES ON BEING ASKED, WHENCE IS THE FLOWER? In May, when sea-winds pierced our solitudes, I found the fresh Rhodora in the woods, Spreading its leafless blooms in a damp nook, To please the desert and the sluggish brook; The purple petals fallen in the pool, Made the black waters with their beauty gay,-- Here might the red-bird come his plumes to cool, And court the flower that cheapens his array. Rhodora! if the sages ask thee why This charm is wasted on the marsh and sky, Dear, tell them, that if eyes were made for seeing, Then beauty is its own cause for being. Why thou wert there, O rival of the Rose! I never thought to ask; I never knew, But in my simple ignorance suppose The selfsame Power that brought me there, brought you. RALPH WALDO EMERSON. A Talk About Fuchsias. A LEGEND OF THE FUCHSIA, FROM VICK'S MAGAZINE. A legend of this little flower, I heard not long ago; 'Tis this, that when upon the cross The sinless Saviour died, And soldier with his cruel spear Had pierced his precious side, The holy drops flowed to his feet, Then fell upon the sod, When Mary knelt and wept for Him, Her son, and yet her God; An angel who was hovering near, Thus breathed a prayer to heaven: "Oh, Father, let them not be lost, These drops so freely given, But in some form of beauty still, Let them remain on earth, And here upon this rugged hill, Give some sweet floweret birth." Then, forth from the ensanguined sod, A Fuchsia sprang that morn, Rich crimson, dyed with Christian blood, Wrapped in his "robe of scorn," Drooping in sorrow, still it bows Ever its graceful head; Shivering in the slightest breeze-- Trembling in fear and dread; For the dark shadow of the cross Can ne'er forgotten be, Where all the perfume of its breath Was spent on Calvary. Yes, offering its rich fragrance there, As incense at His feet, The Fuchsia, though so beautiful, Can never be more sweet. ITS HISTORY AND CULTURE. The Fuchsia was introduced into England in the latter half of the last century by a sailor, at whose home it was discovered by Mr. James Lee, a florist of Hammersmith, who secured the original plant by paying quite a sum of money for it, and in addition promising to give to the sailor's wife one of the first young plants he would succeed in raising. In a short time he succeeded in producing several hundred nice plants, nearly all of which were sold at a guinea each. Shortly after this a captain Firth presented one that he had brought from Chili to the Royal Garden at Kew. The plant was named in honor of Leonard Fuch, an eminent German Botanist, who lived in the 16th century. The varieties in cultivation to-day are vast improvements. One of the early varieties was called _Fulgens_. We recollect seeing this variety some four or five years ago, and could not refrain from comparing it with a number of varieties lately introduced. The flower may be described as follows: A slender crimson tube two inches in length; sepals narrow, one-half inch; in color a shade lighter than the tube; the corolla purple; in size very small compared with the varieties of the present time. This variety is a strong grower, large foliage which has a silvery appearance. Thus we can have a slight idea of that from which have been produced the beauties of our time; thus can we see what a skillful florist can do when he has something to begin with. Some of the varieties of the Fuchsia are hardy in England as well as in some parts of our own country. A traveler informs us that he has seen them in California trained over arbors and to the houses just as we train grape vines here, and growing most luxuriantly. They grow in favor very rapidly wherever introduced, and it was but a short time after they became known we find the Poet eulogizing them in these lines-- "Graceful flowers on graceful stem, Of Flora's gift a favorite gem; From tropic fields it came to cheer, The natives of a climate drear; And grateful for our fostering care, Has learnt the wintry blast to bear." While some flowers have been extremely popular for a season, and then have sunk into comparative obscurity, the popularity of the Fuchsia has never waned, but on the contrary has continually been on the increase until now it occupies a prominent place in every collection of plants, be that collection large or small. There is a cause for this popularity, and that cause is, it is of easy culture and produces its flowers freely, often under adverse circumstances. The Fuchsia is readily propagated by cuttings of the young wood. These will root in from two to three weeks, when they should be potted in rich soil, say one-half garden soil or loam enriched with well-rotted manure, and one-half leaf soil, with a little sand added to make the compost very porous. From the time the plant is first potted it should never be allowed to become so dry as that the growth will be checked. The great secret of growing Fuchsias successfully is to _keep them growing_. In order to do this we must provide for them a rich soil, an abundance of pot-room and a moist atmosphere. If you wish to grow large specimen plants the cuttings should be struck (that is rooted), early in the season. This will allow a longer period for them in which to make their growth before the season for blooming arrives; by keeping the plants supplied with plenty of pot-room the time of blooming will be somewhat retarded, and if on the other hand we desire to have the plants in bloom as early as possible we allow plenty of pot-room during the early part of the growing season, after which we allow the pots to become pretty well filled with roots, and abundance of beautiful pendulous flowers will be the result. As house or window plants the Fuchsias are very popular. The variety _Speciosa_ will bloom very freely during the winter. During the summer months they should be protected from the direct rays of the sun, and kept well syringed. As bedding plants their utility is limited, as they must be planted in a shaded position. A bed of them in such a position makes a pleasant appearance, and in this way they are easily kept through the hottest part of the year. They may be bedded out, or may be allowed to remain in the pots and the pots plunged in the garden. In this latter way they will need additional care, as they must not be allowed to suffer for want of water. If it is desirable to keep the old plants another year they may be removed to the house or cellar, and kept cool and dry until toward spring, when they can be repotted in fresh soil, watered scantily, and started into growth and pruned or trained to any desired shape or form.--_The Floral World._ The foregoing article so fully and clearly stated all that was essential respecting the culture of the Fuchsia, that we have transferred it entire instead of writing something original. We need now only add a few things respecting some choice varieties and recent novelties. "_Champion of the World_ has the largest blooms of any Fuchsia; the tubes are short; sepals very broad and of great substance, well reflexed, and of a most beautiful coral red; the foot-stalk of each bloom is of unusual length and strength, so that each flower stands out bold and graceful. Corolla of immense size, and as it expands forms two-thirds of a perfect ball. Color is of the most intense bright dark purple. Free tall grower, and for conservatory decoration is one of the most remarkable Fuchsias for size ever yet sent out."--_H. Cannell._ The illustration of this Fuchsia in Mr. Cannell's _Floral Guide_ measures two and one-third inches in diameter, and yet we are told that when well grown, the _Champion_ produces much larger bloom than the engraving. It has four rows of petals, and looks round and full like a pink. _Bland's New Striped_ is of the single class, but the corolla is very large, of a rich plum-colored purple, regular and distinctly striped red and rose, pyramidal shape, habit strong. Of the Hybrid variegated Fuchsias, _Sunray_ is by far the best with red variegated leaves ever sent out; it is very ornamental. _Pillar of Gold_ is a very showy variety with yellow leaves. Among the novelties in color, we find mention of _Aurora Superba_; tube and sepals rich salmon, corolla large and spreading of a distinct orange scarlet highly suffused with yellow, fine habit and free bloomer. _Polyhymnia_ is a dwarf yellow. Of _Lord Beaconsfield_, Mr. Cannell says: "One of the strongest and most conspicuous blooming varieties ever sent out, and one of the very best for sale and decoration; flowers neither good shape nor color, but produced in very large clusters and blooms nearly all the year if allowed plenty of root room." This Fuchsia originated with Mr. John Laing, Stanstead Park Nursery, Forest Hill, near London, and is a cross between Fuchsia Fulgens and one of the modern varieties known as "Perfection." It was exhibited at some of the meetings of the Royal Horticultural Society first, as Laing's Hybrid, in 1875 or 1876. It much resembles the old Speciosa, but is more free blooming even than that, and its flowers are twice as large. Kingsburyana, figured in Mr. Cannell's _Floral Guide_--which comes to us from Swanley, England--is very large and double. "It is another addition to the double white corolla class, and is remarkable for its fine vigorous growth and large showy flowers; its corolla is particularly novel and beautiful." Mrs. H. Cannell, named for the florist's wife by Swaffield, its originator, "was one of the greatest lifts in bringing the double white corolla to perfection," and has given great satisfaction in this country. We have never seen one so beautiful, but Mr. C. E. Allen who has a large collection, including those rare gems from across the water, we have named, says: "_Snow White_ is the very best double white Fuchsia ever sent out. A fine, erect grower, and a remarkably free and early bloomer. Sepals coral red. Superior to Miss Lucy Finnis in that it is of a stronger habit. Have none now in bloom." Among the fine specimen blooms of the dark purple type sent us by Mr. Allen, we think _Elm City_ the gem for size, richness of color--a double dark purple striped with scarlet, sepals scarlet-crimson--and compact form. The _Swanley Gem_ is of a peculiar shape, single, very open bell-shape corolla, "frilled" Mr. Cannell calls it, rose color with tube and sepals coral scarlet, the latter are very prettily reflexed. We began our list with the _Champion_--the largest known--we will end it with the tiniest, _Microphylla_, the whole plant, flowers and leaves are Liliputian among the Fuchsias. FUCHSIAS IN THE ISLE OF MAN. Here these are truly wonderful; they grow up the house fronts, and grow into large trees, so large that you can have a tea-party around the bole of the trees. They are also grown for hedges and kept nicely clipped, and with their bright green leaves and scarlet flowers look cheerful and refreshing. The winds and the spray from the sea do not in the least affect them.--_The Garden._ Mr. Vick, in his Magazine says: "Once when in Europe, we saw at Ventnor, in the Isle of Wight, a Fuchsia tree, perhaps twenty feet or more in height, with a trunk full fifteen inches in diameter. The editor of the _Flore des Serres_ of Belgium, in writing of this tree, says it is doubtless the largest specimen in Europe, but is only a baby compared with specimens the editor has seen in South America. Seeing our notice of this tree, Mr. NICHOLLS of Sharon Springs, N. Y., wrote us that he had "seen Fuchsias in the Isle of Jersey, in the English Channel, thirty feet in height, and there are hundreds there from twenty to twenty-five feet." PROPAGATING FUCHSIAS. We have found the most effective method to be by placing the cuttings in a bottle of water, and keeping them in a sunny window, but the following method is said to be practiced by cottagers in the west of England: "In the autumn, after the frost has destroyed the foliage, the wood of the present season is cut off close to the ground and laid like a sheaf of corn in a trench a foot deep. The bundle is covered with a few inches of soil, and here it remains until spring, when a multitude of young shoots may be seen pushing their way through. The soil is then carefully moved, and with a sharp knife a cut is made each side of a joint, and the result is rooted plants enough for the parish. The old stool throws up more vigorously than before, to be served in the same way the following autumn." A Talk About Coleuses. BY ONE OF THEMSELVES. Only a few years ago, not one of the Coleus family had a place in the gardens of Europe and America, and I have been told that in our absence gardeners depended chiefly upon plants with showy flowers for ornamenting their gardens and grounds. When some of my remote relatives were introduced, numerous were the surmisings as to what place they should occupy amongst cultivated plants. This was especially so in the case of Perilla Nankinensis, a plant of most sombre hue, but so striking withal as to attract general attention. Some looked upon it as the forerunner of a class of plants destined to play an important part in the future, whilst others regarded it as a vile weed. Nevertheless, considerable attention was bestowed upon its cultivation for a time; but ultimately became so neglected as to be met with chiefly as a garden weed. This may have been owing in some measure to the introduction of Coleus Blumei, which species was regarded with greater favor, and at once took a place which it held fairly well for a time, or until he whose name I bear obtained from it varieties so novel and brilliant in color, as to entitle them to rank high amongst the time-honored favorites of the garden. From the most reliable information, I infer that this species at least is one of my immediate ancestors, and whether I owe as much of kinship to any other, has not been made known. But this I do know, from the day I was first introduced to the public, in my chocolate and violet colored suit until the present time, I have been praised as few plants have been. But being neither envious nor vain, I have desired the company of those whose colors are brighter than my own, as variety in harmony gives greater satisfaction than any one can singly bestow. Some of the older varieties are well fitted to produce this effect, and none more so, perhaps, than my old friends Aurea Marginata, and Golden Circle; but the majority of their class either lack expression, or are so delicately constituted as to become perfect "frights" when planted out of doors. [Illustration: DREER'S NEW HYBRID COLEUSES.] During my time, many varieties with excellent characters when in my company, have performed their parts but poorly, whilst others have had enough to do to keep up a doubtful reputation. It was with pleasure, therefore, I hailed the arrival of a fresh set from England a short time ago, headed by George Bunyard, who, with his companions were so highly spoken of, that I hoped one or more of them would prove of service to me. But this hope has not been realized, and to-day, for all of them, I am as destitute of support as I was before their arrival. Poor George, after being much in his company for a season, it is only fair to say, he performed his part so poorly that I hope, for the credit of both, we shall never meet again under similar circumstances. What the incoming season may bring forth, yet remains to be seen, but at present the prospects are good for a grand display, as a new order of aspirants are being marshaled for duty, whose merits, some say, are such as to eclipse the old members of our family, and even take from me the honors I have enjoyed so long. Should their claim be well founded, I shall surrender my right to the first place without regret, and be even glad to take any subordinate place I may be deemed competent to fill. But should they fail to meet the expectations thus produced, it will be my duty to remain at my post until such time as new varieties are found, regarding whose merits there can be no doubt. Be it understood that what has been said about my associates has reference only to them as bedders; for it is well known, many varieties when grown under glass, and partially shaded from the glare of sunshine, possess greater brilliancy and beauty than I lay claim to. For this reason, I think those so constituted as to require the protection of a green-house, should be sparingly, if at all, planted out of doors, and the outside department exclusively occupied by such as attain their greatest perfection in free air and the full tide of sunlight. Before closing this monologue, I am forced to say a word in behalf of a plant seemingly possessed of extraordinary capacity for the work in which I excel. I refer to Acalypha Macaffeana, the leaves of which are large and finely formed; color, reddish-brown, and irregularly blotched with bright shades of crimson. When fully exposed to sunlight, it looks as if "on fire through all its length," and being much more stately than myself, might form the central figure in a group of Coleus or other plants with the greatest acceptance.--VERSCHAFFELTII, in _Gardeners Monthly_. We do not know who is the author of this very interesting autobiography of an old and popular Coleus. The florist for whom it was named, M. Nuytans Verschaffelt, was the adopted son of the late Jean Verschaffelt, of whose nursery near Ghent, he was the manager, and to which he succeeded on the death of the proprietor. M. Nuytans was a very distinguished and highly esteemed horticulturist; he was an active member of the Royal Agricultural and Botanical Society of Ghent and Chevalier of the Order of Philip the Magnanimous. He died June, 1880, in the forty-fourth year of his age. There has been a remarkable progress in the development of the Coleus since the introduction of Blumei, but the two past years have been more distinguished than any previous ones by the originating of many new and beautiful hybrids. Pre-eminent among these are "Dreer's Set of Tri-colored Coleus," fifteen varieties; "Queensland Set," fifteen varieties, and "Queensland Set of Dwarfs," ten varieties. Mr. Henry A. Dreer says of them: "These varieties which it is a pleasure to offer, have originated in our nursery grounds during the past summer, were selected from perhaps six thousand seedlings excelling in point of color, variety, habit and novelty, and we feel safe in predicting for them a future that leaves nothing wanting in this class of plants." Mr. Dreer is sustained in his statement by the verdict of many of the leading florists who visited them, and the committees of the Cincinnati, Philadelphia and New York Horticultural Societies, the summer and autumn before they were offered to the public. In the February number of the _Gardeners Monthly_, a lady asks some of the correspondents who have tried the new Coleuses, to report thereon, whether as brilliant as their illustrated types, and if they retain their colors in bedding out. We will give the replies from the March number. J. R. H., Richmond, Va., says: "In response to the query of Mrs. R. B. Edson about Dreer's New Hybrid Coleus, I take pleasure in giving my experience with regard to their hardiness in the summer sun. As the summers in our city are extremely dry and hot, I think it a very fair trial of them. "When I received my box of Coleus from Mr. Dreer and opened it, the first thought was that I was swindled nicely, while I at once perceived that they were of an entirely new type of Coleus, but considered their colors very ugly indeed, and quite different from the colored sheet in his catalogue. However, I determined to give them a trial before expressing my opinion. I put them in the hottest place I could find, determined to get out of them all the 'come out,' should there be any, and to my utter surprise, their colors changed so rapidly and beautifully, that after a lapse of two weeks, I could scarcely believe they were the same plants. I so much liked them I determined they should have a prominent place in my garden, and accordingly planted them in my border where they did not miss the sun at all while it shone. They grew off at once with the old colors (as when received), which discouraged me again, when to my surprise, about the middle of June, they began to show their bright colors again, and in three weeks they were the brightest and prettiest Coleuses I have ever seen, and remained so with a continual growth until they were killed by the frost. "I must confess I never saw plants resemble as much the colored plates of their likeness, as did my Coleus; just like the plate with the exception of the fine gloss, which of course I did not expect. It seemed that the hotter the atmosphere was the brighter they looked, and have stood the sun about twenty per cent better than the older varieties. They have given me more pleasure than any set of new plants I have ever received. I consider them the greatest acquisition I have known in the soft-wooded class of plants. While there is quite a similarity in the tri-colored set, it is not at all an objection. The only objections to any of them are that Amabilis and Mrs. E. B. Cooper, while very rank growers, are exceedingly ugly, and Superbissima entirely worthless. It will not grow, I don't care what I do with it. Some seedlings that I have raised from them are very richly colored, and I think them much prettier than their parents, though I have not had a chance to test their qualities in the summer." We regret that the writer did not give the names of those Coleus he so much admired as well as those which are "exceedingly ugly" and "entirely worthless." We can report the same lack of success with Superbissima. It would not grow one bit, but remained stationary several months, and then died. Mr. E. L. Koethens reports from a large collection: "For bedding these are the chosen ones, Gracilliana, Miss R. Kirkpatrick, Superbissima, and above all, Speciosa. But for inside culture, many of the new ones are unsurpassed for beauty in any class of decorative plants. Here again Speciosa and Miss R. Kirkpatrick of Dreer's set, lay claims to attention, and his Amabilis is attractive for its free blooming properties. Fairy is also conspicuous, and Beacon takes the place of Superbissima indoors, but Zephyr, in my opinion crowns them all as a foliage plant for indoor culture; a single head often measuring ten inches across, with a rich bronzy-brown color. The above are all valuable acquisitions and should be in every collection." Mrs. M. D. Wellcome thus writes: "Mrs. R. B. Edson in her charming 'Garden Notes and Gossip,' asks that some of the correspondents who have tried the new Coleus, Dreer's and Henderson's new sets, report thereon. I have not tried Henderson's, and only six of Dreer's, so I am not prepared to report very fully. But I wish to make special mention of Miss Ritta Kirkpatrick, which looks like the picture only it is handsomer. It is the one represented by a large leaf, creamy white center, broad, green lobed margin. It was a wee plant when it came to me in early spring, but it very rapidly outgrew the other five, branching out finely, so that I began in June to take slips from it, and have continued to do this each month to the present time. I should think I had rooted full thirty cuttings, and the original plant, which has been beheaded on three of its branches, has now twenty-eight that would I think all make very nice plants, if treated as were the others. I rooted them all in sand, kept constantly wet, and exposed nearly all day to the rays of the sun. I never saw anything so quickly take root and so rapidly grow as did those cuttings. At one time I kept half a dozen about two months in the pure sand, till they were fine large plants, with a great mass of roots. They can be removed from the sand to pots of earth without retarding their growth. I always allow the particles which adhere to remain in transplanting. This Coleus is a special favorite with me. Fairy, foliage yellow and green, blotched with crimson-scarlet, and Charm, yellow, tinged with bronzy scarlet, stained with dark brown; green deeply serrated margin, were very beautiful in the open ground, and from these I rooted also in sand several very fine cuttings. But the original plants did not grow rapidly. I think the Coleus adds much to the attraction of the border, but it is for the winter window-garden they are specially valuable." These new Hybrids have stood the test of a year's trial, and three varieties exhibited at the June meeting of the Royal Horticultural Society, London, carried off the highest prize for this class of plants, and received very flattering newspaper notices. In Mr. Dreer's catalogue for 1881, he has selected twenty-four which he calls the cream of those New Hybrids. Superbissima is included, while Zephyr is omitted. Kirkpatrick is among them, we are happy to say. So superb are some of the recent Coleuses, Verschaffeltii, we fear, will have to retire still further into private life. Being quite advanced in years, we presume he will not regret this. We are sure that he will always be treated with that respect which is due to honorable old age. Ornamental Foliage Plants. How much one who gives attention may learn in the vast field of Nature! How varied are its attractions, how wonderful its work, how indescribable its beauties! There is a fascination in these studies, whatever may be the department to which they are directed, and the more one learns the more sensible they become of the limitations of their knowledge. I have already told you I had within a year or two been awaking to a realization of the value of ornamental foliage plants in giving an abiding brightness and beauty to the window-garden and open border. As humanity is ever prone to extremes I may become too enthusiastic in this direction. I thought there was some danger of it as I surveyed my array of pots filled with fine specimens of various sorts. I will take them for my subject to-day, giving whatever facts of interest I have been enabled to gather from various sources. CROTONS. Everybody has heard of croton oil, but only a few of that same everybody know anything about Crotons. The number of species known is enormous, and they are found in many parts of the world, but chiefly at the South Sea Islands. Some kinds are native to our own country, mainly in the South and Southwest, but these are not characterized by the brilliant markings of the foreign varieties. Their leaves are often thick and large, but usually they are very long and narrow and ribbed, veined, spotted and blotched with crimson, scarlet and gold. They are a very interesting class of ornamental plants, and their low price, twenty-five to fifty cents, except for novelties, places them within reach of the common people. They do best in a rich soil, with a little peat and sand; also an abundance of water. The specimens I have are these: _Aucubæ Folium_--leaves large, dark green, blotched with golden yellow. _Interruptum_, very long leaves, mid-rib bright scarlet, shading to gold--very graceful. _Irregulare_, so named because of the irregularity of its leaves in shape and color--two precisely alike being rare. The handsomest however of my collection, is Croton _Weismanni_. The ground color is a shining bright green, striped and mottled with golden yellow. The leaves grow to a foot in length and three-fourths of an inch wide. Among the more recent and high priced novelties are Croton _Evansianus_ and _Princess of Wales_. The former is "distinguished by the peculiar form of its trilobate leaves and the depth of coloring pervading the whole plant. The newest formed leaves are light olive green with mid-ribs and veins of golden yellow, and the interspaces spotted with the same color. As the leaves become older, the green deepens and changes to a bright bronzy crimson, and the golden yellow of the mid-ribs, veins and spots becomes a rich orange scarlet." _Princess of Wales_ is one of the long-leaved drooping forms of Croton, and is very distinct in character. The leaves are from one and one-half to two feet in length. The ground color is green, and the variegations creamy-yellow, very variable in color. The markings are of the maculate style, with here and there large blotches of clear cream-yellow, and and in other parts clouded markings of smaller confluent blotches and spots. Occasionally these conditions are reversed. The Croton _Fenzii_, recently offered in commerce by M. SOLVIATI, of Florence, is described as a jewel among the Crotons. It is the result of a cross effected in the green-houses of Sesto, between _C. Veitchii_ and _C. Weismanni_, and has moderate sized oval acuminate leaves, richly veined with golden yellow, the principal nerves being purplish-red, which color extends to the stem and the petiole. The habit is so dwarf and compact that plants only a foot high are often seen with all their splendor, the yellow streaking then extending to almost the whole surface of the leaf, and the red nerves shining on the yellow ground. It is a variety especially fitted for the decoration of small green-houses, as it requires very little room to be able to develop all its charms. This variety has been dedicated to the Chevalier E. O. FENZI, President of the Royal Horticultural Society of Tuscany.--_London Florist._ FANCY CALADIUMS. Of these the varieties are numerous, and the foliage very ornamental. Those I have are _Dr. Hondley_; green ground, blotched with rose, crimson center; _Madame Houllette_,--blush clusters and white spots on green ground; _Sagittæfolium pictum_,--arrow-shaped leaves prettily spotted with white; _Madame Alfred Bleu_,--the ground color of the leaves is silvery white, which is blotched with green, in some leaves very sparingly, in others, nearly half the surface; the veins are prominent and of rich rosy crimson, bordered by narrow bands of a lighter shade. _Alfred Mame_,--beautiful deep carmine, richly marked with rosy spots and white leaf margin. _La Perle de Brazil_,--ground color, green, reticulated all over with pure white, like fine lace. These last three are from the collection of Mr. John Saul of Washington, and are new. Fancy Caladiums do best in somewhat shaded positions, in well enriched soil, composed of finely decomposed manure, leaf mold and sand, and a moist, warm temperature. Great care must be had in their earliest stage of growth, to prevent decay of the tubers by over-watering. They can be preserved in sand during the winter, in a room sufficiently warm to prevent danger from frost. CALADIUM ESCULENTUM, Is the most striking and grand of the Ornamental Foliage Plants for the lawn or flower garden. It will grow in any good soil, and is very easy of cultivation. When of full size it stands about five feet high, and its immense leaves often measure four feet in length by two and a half in breadth; very smooth, of a light green color, beautifully veined and variegated with dark green. When killed down by frost in the autumn, the bulbs must be taken up and stored in the cellar. The Caladium belongs to the family of "Jack in the Pulpit," or Indian Turnip, and the Ethiopian or Egyptian Calla. They rarely bloom in our Northern States. The flowers resemble in shape the Calla Lily, only are much larger and narrower, are of a rich cream color, very fragrant at first, but soon lose their odor, which resembles the Magnolia. ERANTHEMUMS. These comprise a large genus valuable for their foliage and also winter flowers, yet not very generally cultivated. Mine are labeled _Andersonii_, "a handsome orchid-like flower, white, spotted with red." _Pictum_, foliage prettily streaked with white, a strong, vigorous grower; _Tricolor_, leaves prettily marked with pink and green; _Cooperi_, has flowers white, prettily streaked with purple; _El Dorado_, light green foliage, with golden veinings. MARANTAS. These are considered by florists as among the most elegant of tropical plants, but like the Eranthemums, are not generally known. They are all natives of tropical America, and require strong heat with plenty of moisture. They are low-priced, and ought to be more extensively cultivated. I think mine are very beautiful. _Eximia_, upper surface of leaves striped with grayish-white; under, purplish-violet. _Leopordina_, pale green with oblong blotches of deep green. _Mikans_, shining green with a white feathery stripe. _Van den Heckii_, dark glossy leaves, mid-rib silvery white. _Makayana_, a very ornamental dwarf species; leaf-stalks slender reddish-purple, blade of the leaf ovate, ground color, olive green, beautifully and regularly blotched with creamy yellow of a transparent character; on each side the mid-rib are oblong dark green blotches, while the under side is rosy red. _Tubispatha_ is an elegant and very attractive species of erect habit of growth; leaves some nine or ten inches long, light green, ornamented on each side the mid-rib with oblong blotches of cinnamon brown. _Veitchii_, "The leaves of this grand plant are upward of twelve inches in length; the under surface of a rich purplish-wine color, the upper of a deep shining green, blotched with conspicuous patches along each side, of a yellowish-green, almost verging on gray. The contrast is very marked, and the whole plant very beautiful." ACHYRANTHES, a genus of richly colored tropical plants, are better known, and to a limited extent are found in many gardens, _Verschaffelti_, with its dark crimson leaf, being the most common. _Brilliantissima_, ruby red, is a new English variety; _Wallisii_ is a new dwarf, with small purple leaves; _Lindeni Aurea Reticulata_, foliage netted with golden yellow, on a light green ground. These plants are of the easiest cultivation, and endure strong sunshine without injury. ALTERNANTHERAS are also very effective for bedding plants; habit dwarf. Foliage is in some of a magenta-rose color, others, yellow and red; _Purpurea_ has a purplish tint, and _Versicolor_, crimson and pink shadings. They are unsurpassed for ribbon or carpet bedding. DIEFFENBACHIA, a genus of stove plants with very showy foliage. _Brasiliensis_, a handsome variety, the leaves averaging eighteen inches in length by eight or nine inches in width; the ground color of the leaf is deep green, and the whole surface is mottled with small blotches of greenish-yellow and white; _Bausei_ is a stocky-growing, broad-leaved variety, with yellowish-green leaves, which are irregularly edged and blotched with dark green, and also spotted with white, the markings being peculiarly effective; _Weirie_ is of dwarf habit, the foliage of a bright green color, thickly blotched and spotted with pale yellow. One of the finest of the species. They grow best in loam and peat equal quantities, with a little sand. Require strong heat and frequent watering. A few ornamental foliage plants of rare beauty received from Mr. John Saul merit special notice: _Cyanaphyllum Spectandum_ is a grand plant with large, oblong, lustrous leaves which have a rich, velvety appearance; they are beautifully ribbed with whitish color. _Alocacia Macrorhiza Variegata_, its large caladium-shaped leaves are marbled and broadly splashed with white. Some leaves are nearly all white; _Zebrina_, fine yellow leaf-stalk with distinct black marks; _Illustris_, the leaf-stalks are erect, and have a brownish-purple tint, color a rich green, marked between the principal veins by broad patches of a blackish olive, and forming a striking contrast with the brighter green portions of the leaf surface; _Sedini_, "A very beautiful hybrid between _A. Metallica_ and _A. Lowii_. The form of the leaf is perfectly intermediate between the two parents, whilst the coloring is a very striking and pleasing combination of the metallic hue of one parent, with the dark green and prominent white veins of the other." Alocasias require a moist heat during their growing season. Soil, peat, with a small portion of loam, sand and manure. _Acalypha Macafeeana_ is another of the rare and beautiful foliage plants alluded to. It is considered the best Acalypha ever offered. It is certainly very handsome with its "sub-cordate and serrate leaves, eight inches long and six broad, frequently cut into many forms, and very highly colored bright red, blotched with deep bronzy crimson." It proves to be an admirable plant for bedding out. Quite as attractive every way is _Panax Laciniatum_, "An elegant and very distinct habited stove plant from the South Sea islands. The leaves are tinted and indistinctly marked with pale olive brown, and form a rather complicated mass of narrow segments; they are bipinnate, nearly as broad as long, and have a drooping contour; and the pinnules or segments are very variable in size and form, presenting the appearance of a complex head of foliage in which the lanceolate lobes or pinnules have the preponderancy." _Panax Fruiticosm_ has a very graceful fern-like foliage. These plants belong to the Aralia family, a genus very ornamental, natives of the South Sea Islands. Another of my Washington collection, very graceful and beautiful, is _Paulinia Thalictrifolia_. Its delicate cut leaves resemble the fronds of a finely divided Maiden-hair Fern. The leaves are of a rich shade of green. The young shoots and foliage are of a pinkish-brown color. It is of slender growth and climbing habit, very similar to Capsidium Filicifolium, which has long been a special favorite of mine. Both of these are elegant, trained on a pot trellis. Paulinia Thalictrifolia is a native of the southern Brazils, from whence it was introduced to the nurseries of Messrs. Veitch & Sons of Chelsea. If only required for decorative purposes there should be no inclination to make the plants produce flowers which are inconspicuous; therefore the main object should be to have plenty of healthy foliage. To secure this, the plant should be grown in a temperature of from 65° to 70°, and if one part of the greenhouse is more adapted to its growth than another, it is the dampest part. After this plant came into the possession of Messrs. Veitch, and before its true value became known, some plants of it were placed in a corner of an old, very damp, warm pit, in which position they grew wonderfully strong, and quite surpassed in vigor and beauty those that were, as was then supposed, placed under more advantageous circumstances, i.e., in dryer and lighter parts of other houses. Care is therefore now taken to keep them where abundant atmospheric moisture can be supplied. A compost consisting of two parts good substantial peat and one of loam, together with some silver sand, suits it admirably.--_Gardening Illustrated._ CANNAS. These form a very important part of the class of which we are treating. They give a very beautiful and tropical appearance to the lawn and the garden by their stately growth and broad massive foliage, relieved by rich crimson, scarlet and orange-red flowers. Their foliage comprises various shades of green, glaucous, chocolate and purple tints, ribbed and striped, fitting them admirably for grouping with other plants. They are also very effective for large pot plants in the pleasure-ground, or conservatory. Under rich cultivation they will attain the height of five feet. They need water often. Among the newer roots _Creole_, very dark foliage, grows to the height of about six feet. _Ornement du Grand Rond_, very tall, with large bronzy-green foliage, large scarlet flowers. _Oriflamme_ has large lanceolate-green leaves, with violet veins, a vigorous showy plant with salmon-orange flowers. The roots of Cannas must be taken up in the autumn. If wanted singly, divide them, if a thick clump is desirable let them be planted out as they are. They must be kept perfectly dry through the winter; if the cellar is very damp they will do better packed in sand. DRAC�NA. This is a valuable genus of ornamental plants, specially fine for the center of vases, and for pot culture. Although their culture is on the increase, they are not so frequently grown as they deserve. The species are very numerous, and are found in tropical countries, especially in the islands of the tropics. Many of them assume the proportions of trees. The largest specimen ever known was one of Dracæna Draco, or the Dragon tree of Oratava in Teneriffe, one of the Canary Islands. This tree was remarkable for its monstrous dimensions and prodigious longevity. About ten years since, or in the autumn of 1867, this magnificent specimen was destroyed by a gale of wind. It was a special object of interest in the Canary Islands, and received the attention and veneration of visitors, as do the great Seguvia trees of California. Its trunk below the lowest branches was eighty feet in height, and ten men holding hands could scarcely encircle it; by one measurement this span around it was seventy-nine feet. The trunk was hollow, and in the interior was a winding stair-case, by which one might ascend as far as the part from which the branches sprang. It is affirmed by tradition that, when the island of Teneriffe was discovered in 1402, this tree was as large, and the cavity in the trunk as great, as at the time of its destruction. We are even assured that in the fifteenth century, at the time of the conquest of the Canaries by the Normans and Spaniards, they celebrated mass on a little altar erected in this cavity. From the slow growth of the young Dragon trees in the Canaries, it has been estimated that this monster tree before it was destroyed, was the oldest plant upon the globe. A writer in describing it says: "Long leaves pointed like swords, crowned the extremities of the branches, and white panicles, which developed in autumn, threw a mantle of flowers upon this dome of verdure." The popular name of this species is Dragon's-blood Tree, because of a resinous juice of a red color which exudes from the cracks in its trunk. At one time this resin formed a considerable branch of commerce, as it was used medicinally as an astringent, but it has fallen into disuse. The Dracænas belong to the Lily family, and they afford a remarkable contrast to the palms and other arborescent endogens, by their branching heads. The young trees of Dracæna Draco do not, however, send out any branches, even in their native localities, until they are thirty years old or more. The small plants of this species, cultivated for ornament, have always a single, straight stem; but are much more robust, and quickly assume more stately proportions than those of the other kinds that will be mentioned. The Dracæna is admired for its peculiar grace of form--it would be in vain in common house culture to expect flowers. To admire a plant for its well developed and graceful form, marks an advancement in refined taste beyond that which would induce one to exclaim, "Oh!" at the sight of a brilliantly colored flower. Even in rearing a plant for flowers, the first object should be to develop it to the fullest extent in size and shape and strength--to make a beautiful object of the plant itself; just as the first and main attention given to a child, for years, should be to develop and build up its physical system. The Dracæna is a good house plant, a good balcony and veranda plant, good for the vase in the open air, and in a handsome pot is a fine ornament for table decoration. Its culture is of the simplest kind, adapting itself to any ordinarily good soil, it only requires to be supplied moderately with moisture and to have a temperature ranging upward from sixty-five degrees. It delights in a moist air, and whenever possible, water should be kept where it will rapidly evaporate, and thus ameliorate the atmosphere in this respect for the plant. This condition, moreover, is conducive to the well-being of most plants, and no good plant-grower can disregard it with impunity. Washing the leaves and stem of the plant frequently with a wet sponge, is favorable to its health and vigor, and one of the best preventives of the attack of insects. With dust on the leaves the plants look dingy, while frequent washing keeps them bright and lustrous. Dracæna indivisa has long, slender, dark green leaves, about three-quarters of an inch or an inch in width, and from two and a half feet to three feet in length, and the lower ones especially are very much recurved or gracefully drooping. This species is among the hardiest of the Dracænas, and is frequently wintered in the open ground, with some protection in climates where the temperature frequently descends several degrees below the freezing point. Dracæna terminalis is the most popular of the whole family in this country, and is worthy of all the admiration bestowed upon it. The leaves are broader and more erect than those of the preceding species, and of a dark green suffused with red, or having streaks of a reddish color; the young leaves nearly pink, but assuming a dark bronzy copper color afterward. It is a very distinct and showy plant, and adapted to a great variety of ornamental purposes. The propagation and sale of it is rapidly increasing every year, and it is already widely disseminated. At the Sandwich Islands it is cultivated to a considerable extent for its roots, which are baked and eaten. A fermented beverage is also made from the juice, and its leaves are employed as fodder for cattle, and for clothing and other domestic purposes. Dracæna Shepherdii is of a most noble form, and is one of the finest yet in cultivation. It has long, spreading leaves, of a metallic green, with stripes and border of bronzy-orange, and is a very free grower. Unlike most of the forms already known, which color most on the free young growth of vigorous plants, this plant takes on its distinctive coloring gradually on the older leaves. Dracæna cannæfolia is an interesting species. Its peculiarity consists in the length of petiole, which is as long as the rest of the leaf. The blade of the leaf is elliptical in form, from fifteen to twenty inches in length, firm, and of a glaucous green. Within a few years past much attention has been given by cultivators in Great Britain and Europe to hybridizing the Dracæna, and producing new varieties. The most remarkable success has attended the efforts in this direction, of MR. BAUSE, in the establishment of MR. WILLS, of Anerly, England. The variety is wonderful--"broad-leaved, medium-leaved and narrow-leaved; bronzy and green, crimson, rose, pink, violet and white variegations; drooping, spreading, and erect habits, are blended in all sorts of combinations." One of the sorts produced is described as "a most important acquisition, having quite the habit and character of the well-known favorite terminalis, but with white variegation. The ground color is a bright green, with bold, white variegation, the upper leaves being white, with here and there a bar of green."--_Vick's Magazine._ DRAC�NA GOLDIANA. Sent out in this country for the first time in 1880, is said to be "one of the most magnificent ornamental foliage plants ever introduced, and altogether unique in character and aspect. It is a native of Western Tropical Africa. The plant is of erect habit, and the stems are closely set with stalked spreading leaves, the petioles of which are of a grayish color, terete with a narrow furrow along the upper side, the base being dilated and sheathing the stem. The blade of leaf is marbled and irregularly banded with dark green and silver gray in alternate straight bands, the colors being about equally distributed. The back of the unfolded leaves is a pale reddish-purple or wine color, and the stem, where visible. It is, without doubt, one of the most superb of ornamental stove plants." When first sent out in London in 1878, its price was from five to ten guineas per plant. We do not know the price in this country. Mr. H. A. Dreer who has an illustration of it in his catalogue, furnishes the price only on application, which is evidence that it is costly. From the type given, it must be exceedingly handsome, and wholly unlike any Dracæna before offered in America. Dracænas, as we have noticed before, are particularly desirable house plants, keeping in good condition for a long time, even in rooms where gas is burned--places so unsuited to most plants. They are liable to attacks of the Mealy Bug and the Red Spider if neglected, but the syringing and sponging advised for them will effectually prevent their gaining a foothold if frequently and thoroughly performed. After a year or two the plants begin to lose their lower leaves, and to get leggy, a state of things quite undesirable, as the beauty and effectiveness of the plants depend upon their being furnished with leaves down to the base of the stem. When the plants have become unsightly from the loss of their leaves, they can be renewed very quickly by a simple process. Cut a notch in the stem, on one side, just below the lowest good leaves, and take out a piece of the wood, then do the same on the other side of the stem, but not exactly opposite the first notch. The object is to check the flow of sap at this point and yet allow enough of it to pass to maintain the head. Having cut the notches, take some moss or sphagnum and bind about the stem, covering the incisions and fastening it on securely with twine or fine wire; the moss is to be kept gently moist, and in the course of two weeks will have thrown out young roots above the notches. The head can now be severed from the stem and potted in a medium-sized pot. After keeping it a few days in the shade, it can be gradually brought out into the full light, and will be found to be established. Dracænas may also be multiplied by removing the thick, fleshy root that may usually be found in the base of the plant. Those tuberous roots can be potted, and if kept in a warm place will soon start and make new plants. When plants are re-potted a favorable opportunity is offered for taking off these roots, for the roots of the old plants are actively at work and, with the fresh soil they receive, will soon recover from any slight check they may have received. The most rapid method of propagating this plant is by cuttings of the stem; the stem may be cut into pieces an inch in length, and those pieces split in two, and all of those bits will root and become plants. They should be placed in a light, sandy soil, and given a brisk bottom heat of 70° or 80° degrees. They will break and start into growth in a few days.--_Vick's Magazine._ So fully does the foregoing express all that is needful regarding the Dracæna, we have thought best to give it entire. We might greatly enlarge on the subject of Ornamental Foliage Plants, and speak of the beautiful Palms, so fine for decorative purposes, the pretty Ferns and elegant Aralias, of which latter "_Sieboldi_ is a capital house plant, so enduring that it will live and keep its beautiful dark green color for weeks almost in the dark." Then there is the Euonymus, so bright with its glossy green leaves, long a favorite whether for the border or window garden. _Argentea_ has striped foliage, and _Japonicas aurea_ has its dark green foliage diversified with golden variegations. _Bicolor_, foliage almost white, and _Tricolor_, a rarer form, is marked with pink and white. With the numerous varieties we have named, it will be apparent how ornamental our gardens, whether within doors or without, may be made by plants, the beauty of which is wholly independent of flowers, and they do wonderfully enhance the effect of the bloomers. The Centaureas and Cinerarias with their deeply lobed leaves of white, are too well known to need any special mention. We do not intend however to pass so lightly over another stately and highly ornamental genus that comes within the reach of everyone. Ricinus, the seed of which can be purchased for a dime, are magnificent in foliage, and when combined with the brilliant colored fruit of the giant varieties, the effect is very oriental. Ricinus _Africanus albidus_ is of recent introduction. It is white fruited, and the stems and leaves are silvery; height eight feet. _Borbaniensis arboreus_ has very large and showy foliage; height fifteen feet. _Communis_ is the Castor Oil Plant. _Sanguineus_ (Obermanii) bears splendid red fruit in clusters, and is very ornamental. A species from Phillippines has gigantic foliage; height ten feet. These can be purchased in separate or mixed packets, and we advise everyone who has a bit of ground to try them. We will close with A BIG BEAN STORY. I have just harvested my Ricinus or Castor Bean, which I raised from the seed you sent me last spring. It was of mammoth growth, attaining a height of fourteen and a half feet, and sixteen feet across the branches of which there were seventeen after cutting off five during the summer. Each of the branches contained a cluster of burs, the center one having one hundred and thirty-four burs, the other branches not so many. Many of the leaves measured from thirty to thirty-two inches across from tip to tip or point of leaves. When sawed off at the ground, the body measured five inches and a half of wood in diameter, inside of the bark, which was one-fourth of an inch thick. This is a big bean story but nevertheless a true one.--T. G. T. in _Vick's Magazine_. A Talk About Primroses. It is an old adage that one must take Time by the forelock. In the culture of flowers, we must certainly do so, planning and preparing in spring for the coming winter, if we would secure for ourselves plants that can be relied on for blooming. We know of none equal to THE CHINESE PRIMROSE, for common house culture, commencing to flower usually in November, and continuing through the spring months. The seed for this ought to be sown in April--if later the plants will not come into bloom so early. The soil for Primroses in all stages should be fine, light and rich, with a good mixture of sand. For seed sowing it can be put in pans, boxes or six inch pots. First, put in drainage--I use for this coarse sand--then the coarse siftings of the soil. On this to the depth of one and a half or two inches, put the fine mixed soil, press down smoothly and spray lightly with tepid water. Sow the seed on the surface, and sift on enough of the fine earth to partially but not fully cover them. Cover with a glass, or with a bit of soft nice flannel, and place in the shade where a mild moist temperature can be attained. Where flannel is used, it can be kept damp and thus impart moisture to the seeds without their being saturated, washed bare, or displaced by spraying. When the seed has germinated, then glass can be substituted. The tender seedlings must be gradually brought to the sunlight; too long exposure at first would kill them, and if kept in the shade too much they will become drawn and dwarfed. This is the critical period, and many fail at this point. Great care is essential till the plants put forth the third leaf, which is rough and the true primula leaf. Then the plants must be carefully transplanted into other pots prepared as before. In about a month the glass can be removed and the plants potted separately, setting them low, as it is a peculiarity of the Primula to stretch itself up out of the soil, and become shaky. It is necessary sometimes to give them support. In watering, care must be had to prevent the water lodging in the axils of the leaves, which cause them to decay. They will not bear showering like smooth surfaced plants, and only occasionally should they be sprayed through a fine hose. They must be kept during the summer months in a shady place, and have a cool bottom to stand on; a cold frame is the best. They must be housed by the end of September, and the best situation for them is a light, airy shelf near the glass, yet not exposed to intense sunshine. They do not like frequent changes of position and temperature, nor to be grown with other plants. Give them a cool place where they will have the morning or afternoon sun for a time. During the blossoming season stimulate the soil once a week with liquid manure, or water with a few drops of ammonia added. Pick off all flowers as fast as they fade. Plants are stronger and better the second year, and unless they get too shaky, are good for three years. They must, after blossoming, be taken out of the pot, the ball of earth reduced from the roots, and then re-potted in fresh soil. It is not needful to keep them dormant and shaded through the summer, but in a cool and partially secluded position, they will after a brief rest begin to grow, putting forth frequently little crowns all around about the old one, and be full of blossoms during the autumn and winter months. The double varieties are not so easily grown, and cannot be recommended for general culture to be raised from seed. Fine plants can be procured from the florists, but the large single sorts, we think give the most satisfaction. Ellis Brothers, Keene, N. H., have sent us for trial, packets of very fine strains; some are rare, and, judging from the description, must be very beautiful. It is not often that we find more than four varieties named in the catalogues. They send out a dozen sorts, some of which we will name: _Primula Fimbriata Kermesina Splendens_; Large flowers, brilliant velvet like crimson, yellow eye. _Primula Frimbriata Punctata Elegantissima_; a new variety; flower velvety crimson, edge spotted with white; very distinct. _Primula Fimbriata Striata_; beautifully striped. _Primula Fringed_, _Fern Leaf_; pure white, with large citron eye; very fine. _Primula Globosa_, new; a large flowering, fringed sort; petals large and many of them crimped, each overlapping the other, so that they appear almost semi-double; colors white, light pink, crimson and lilac pink. All of these can be bought in mixed or separate packets. We cannot find room for all of these, but hope from the rarest to obtain some fine plants to brighten our room the coming winter. Great advances have been made since the Primrose was introduced into this country little more than half a century ago. [Illustration] Of the novelties we find in the London _Garden_ special mention made of Primula Sinensis Fimbriata Alba Magnifica. The writer says: "The Primulas from Mr. B. S. Williams' Victoria Nurseries, Holloway, were remarkably fine. The newest sort shown, Alba Magnifica, promises to be an excellent kind; the flowers are large, produced in dense and many flowered trusses, borne well above the foliage, which is also remarkable being elegantly crisped at the margins. The color is white, the purity of which, however, is more strongly marked when the plants are more mature than those shown; the habit of growth is very robust." Of this novelty Mr. H. Cannell says: "The new white Primula is of exquisite form and substance; the plants are exceedingly compact, with deeply indented leaves of a light green color; the flowers measure two and one-quarter inches in diameter, pure white, with large, bright yellow eye, each petal being deeply and beautifully fringed, and are borne in large trusses well above the foliage." We give an illustration of this Primula, kindly furnished by Ellis Bros., who are of the first to offer it in this country. CARNATIONS AND PICOTEES. "What is the difference between them? I am told differently by nearly every florist I ask. An old Englishman told me the other day that he used to grow great quantities of them in England, and that the difference between the two is, that the Picotee has fringed edged leaves, while in the Carnation proper the edge of the leaf is smooth like a rose." The question is asked of Mr. Vick, and he thus replies: "The Carnation and Picotee differ only in the arrangement of the color, or markings. The distinction is made by florists, and is of course arbitrary. Seeds saved from one plant, may produce both Carnations and Picotee, or even from the same seed-pod. In an old work in our possession, the distinction is as stated, but for long years any flower with an irregular edge has been considered unworthy of propagation. The Carnation should have broad stripes of color running through from the center to the edge of the petals. The Picotee has only a band of color on the edge of each petal."--_Vick's Magazine._ Although Mr. Vick here states that the Carnation should have broad stripes of color, neither he, nor any other florist makes this distinction, but call pure white, and pure red Carnations, just as freely as those that are striped. There are two classes of Carnations, and thousands of varieties. The class of Perpetual Bloomers are called Monthly and Tree Carnations. The Garden Carnations are hardy, and can be left in the garden during winter by giving them a covering of leaves, straw, or evergreen boughs. They are easily raised from seed. Sown in June or July, will make good robust plants before frost, which will bloom the following summer. Some of them will be single, perhaps, and these can be removed. Those of superior merit may be multiplied by _layering_. This method is to select good healthy shoots that have not bloomed, and make a cut midway between two joints. First cut half way through the shoot, then make a slit lengthwise to a joint. Remove the earth a few inches in depth, and press the branch down so that this slit will open, and then cover with the soil. Roots will form where the cut was made, and thus a new plant will be formed, which can be removed in the autumn or spring. Midsummer is the best time to do this, and by adopting this method good, healthy plants are secured. The plants should be well watered a day or two before layering is commenced, and immediately afterward--then only occasionally. They are frequently propagated by cuttings, which can be rooted in wet sand, or in light sandy soil. PERPETUAL BLOOMERS, Or Monthly Carnations, can be easily obtained of the florists for summer or winter blooming; the former purchased in the spring, and the latter in the autumn. If one raises their own stock, it is not best to allow those to bloom much during the summer that are wanted for winter flowering. It is well to sink the pots in a good sunny place in the garden, and when they run up and show signs of bedding, cut back the stalk so that it may become more compact and branchy, then the buds in the late autumn or winter, will be much more numerous. The best for winter blooming are _La Purite_ (carmine), _President de Graw_ (white), _Peerless_ (white, striped with pink) and _Peter Henderson_, of the well-known varieties. Of those of recent introduction, _Lady Emma_ is said to be excellent. One florist says that "it is destined to be one of the leading winter-blooming Carnations. From my bed of one thousand plants in the green-house throughout December and January last, I plucked more blooms than from any other variety occupying the same space." It has proved excellent also for a bedding pink. Its color is a rare shade of crimson scarlet; the flower is of medium size, full and double, and never bursting down the side. _Lord Clyde_ has for three years proved to be an excellent winter bloomer. It is of a very robust growth, like its parent the _Edwardsii_, but of a more dwarf, low-flowering habit. The ground-work is white, thickly striped with carmine, and a frequent blotch of maroon; very floriferous, each stem bearing from six to eight flowerets. _Lydia_ is another of the recent novelties, and is very handsome. Flowers very large and intensely double, of a rich rosy, orange color blotched and flecked with carmine. _Crimson King_ is one of the largest Carnations, very full, bushy habit, and robust, color crimson-scarlet. A pure bright scarlet is rare; when therefore, _Firebrand_, a novelty of 1880, was announced as a bright scarlet, it produced quite a sensation. It is very highly commended by those who have seen it. _Grace Wilder_, _Princess Louise_ and _Fred Johnson_, are new hybrid seedlings now offered for the first time to the public. There was quite a discussion in the _Gardener's Monthly_ of last year as to the best pure White Carnation. In the August number, Mr. E. Fryer of Delaware writes: "The varieties called _Peter Henderson_, sent out by Nanz and Neuner I have found to be the best white I have yet grown for winter bloom. It is a stronger and better bloomer than de Graw, its only drawback being that it runs up high like _La Purite_. _Snowdon_ is a true dwarf, pure white, and if it proves a good winter bloomer, will probably supersede all other whites, the flower being of fair size and very fragrant. Bock's Seedling, _Charles Sumner_, I have grown the past winter. The flower is of an enormous size, but it invariably bursts before opening, and is a dull unattractive color. _Waverly_ I have also grown last winter--a splendid variety, rich crimson scarlet; the color was no way exaggerated as represented in the _Monthly_ a year ago; produces a fair average of flowers to the plant, flowers selling readily at ten cents each. I think this the most useful color to the commercial florist. "I still cling to the old carmine _La Purite_, which for quantity of bloom, size of flower and general good qualities, I think has not been beat by any of the newer varieties for winter bloom." Mr. Peter Henderson, one of the leading florists, places _Snowdon_ above all other white Carnations, its dwarf habit making it specially desirable. Florist's Pinks are more dwarf than the Carnations, flowers very double, clove scented, and are of various shades of maroon, carmine, crimson and rose interlaced with white. THE ORIGIN OF THE FLORIST'S PINK. The _Gardener's Chronicle_ gives the following interesting account of the origin of this class: "It may be interesting to record the fact, published in an old number of the _Floricultural Cabinet_, that the first Pink worthy of notice was raised in the year 1772, by Mr. JAMES MAJOR who was then gardener to the duchess of Lancaster; previous to that there were but four sorts, and those of very little note, being cultivated as only common border flowers. Mr. MAJOR having saved some seed in 1771, he reared several plants, which, blooming the next season, one of the number proved to be a double flower with laced petals, at which he was agreeably surprised, although he considered it as being only in embryo, and the prelude to still further advance to be developed at some future period, which is now verified by the rapid strides this beautiful flower made in size and quality during the years which followed. Mr. MAJOR informed the writer of the foregoing remarks that he made his discovery known to a nurseryman or florist and was offered the sum of ten guineas for the stock of his new Pink; but, acting on the advice of his friends, he declined to sell, and set to work instead and increased the stock with a view of offering it in sale to the public. It was sent out to the public at half a guinea a pair (for it has long been a custom of offering Pinks in pairs, a custom which is continued to this day), under the name of MAJOR'S Duchess of Lancaster, the orders for which amounted to £80. It is recorded that one individual ordered as many as twenty pairs, which was considered in those days an unusually large number. It would be interesting to have a bloom of Duchess of Lancaster to compare with the fine double varieties of the present day. We appear to have come to something like a pause in the matter of Pink production as the flowers are now very large and full, and the lacing is as perfect as can well be conceived." DIANTHUS. The word is derived from the Greek words _Dios_, divine, and _Anthos_, a flower; God's flower, or the flower of Jove. There are several species, and many varieties of Dianthus; _Dianthus Caryophyllus_ is what is commonly known as the Clove Pink, and from it have been produced the double varieties called Carnations and Picotees. The plant in its wild state is found growing on the south side of the Swiss Alps, at a low altitude, where the winters are not severe. The common perennial garden Pink is _Dianthus Plumarias_. The old and well-known Chinese Pink, _Dianthus Chinensis_, is a biennial, flowering the first season from seed sown in spring, lives during the winter, blooms the second year, and then dies. New and superb varieties have been introduced of late years from Japan, and _Dianthus Laciniatus_, and _Dianthus Heddewigii_, both single and double, make a splendid display, and are among the most desirable of our garden flowers. _Dianthus Diadematus_ is of dwarf habit, very profuse in blooming, and the flowers are of various hues, from white to dark maroon, and also beautifully marbled and spotted. Of the recent novelties _Eastern Queen_ and _Crimson Belle_ are superb; we speak from personal knowledge. "Eastern Queen" is beautifully marbled; the broad bands of rich mauve upon the paler surface of the petals are very striking. "Crimson Belle," as its name implies, is of a rich crimson hue, with dark markings; very large and finely fringed. For early blooming it is well to sow seed as early as April. June sowing will secure good hardy plants for the following season. When there is a profusion of bloom, it is well to remove a portion of the flowers, so that the plants may not become exhausted, and the seed pods beyond what are desired for ripening, ought also to be cut off. A Talk About Climbers. Oh, a dainty plant is the Ivy green, That creepeth o'er ruins old! Of right choice food are his meals I ween, In his cell so lone and cold, The wall must be crumbled, the stone decayed, To pleasure his dainty whim; And the moldering dust that years have made, Is a merry meal for him. Creeping where no life is seen, A rare old plant is the Ivy green. CHARLES DICKENS. Have been off on a vacation, peering into other folks' gardens and admiring other people's flowers. Visited the Public Garden of Boston and saw that there had been a marked improvement within ten years. The massed beds of several sorts, with their contrasting borders, were very attractive, specially the maroon Coleuses with border of Centaurea. There were few varieties of Geraniums, and these were mostly massed in beds, some all scarlet, others wholly pink. At Forest Hills Cemetery there was the finest display of flowers and tropical plants I ever saw, and they are very artistically and tastefully displayed. I saw several beds with artistic designs on a ground work of Sempervivum, evidencing great skill in the arrangement and culture. The entrance gateway to Forest Hills Cemetery is very beautiful in design, and here we saw that graceful climber Ampeclopsis Veitchii, in the perfection of its beauty, covering the front almost entirely. I had noted it in various stages of growth, clinging to the dwellings in all parts of the city, requiring no aid but its own little rootlets. It is a native of Japan and was introduced in this country twelve years ago. It was slow at first in being duly appreciated, but now is widely known and extensively propagated. Probably the finest plant is owned by Mr. George L. Conover of Geneva, N. Y. It covers the entire front of his two-story square house, and has become so famous that horticulturists from all parts of the country have been attracted by it, and a great many people have visited Geneva for the special purpose of seeing this fine plant. It has proved to be perfectly hardy, only the first year the young and tender plant needs some protection during the winter. Florists are growing them in great quantities to meet the increasing demand. It can be obtained for twenty cents. I received a small plant last year and kept it in my window box during the winter. It died down, however, and I quite forgot about it, till it sprang forth anew in April. Since putting it in the ground it has grown rapidly, and I shall value it now more than ever. HONEYSUCKLE. _The Golden-Leaved Honeysuckle_ is a special favorite of mine. Its leaves are so netted and veined with yellow as to give this hue the predominance. The foliage is small; the flowers are yellow and fragrant. The family of _Lonicerus_, or Honeysuckle, embraces a large variety. The botanical name was given in honor of _Lonicer_, a German botanist, who died about three hundred years ago. _Lonicerus Holliana_ was introduced into this country from Japan by Dr. Hall. The flowers are pure white when they first open, but assume a creamy tinge in a few days. This variety blooms almost continuously from June till frost. It attains sometimes to the height of twenty, and even thirty feet. The flowers are very fragrant. _Belgian_, or Monthly Fragrant, bears its blossoms in clusters. They are pure white in the interior at first, but afterward change to creamy yellow, deepening into orange. _Sempervirens_ (Scarlet Trumpet) is a native of this country, and perfectly hardy. This is the most common, though not fragrant. It is a strong grower, and blooms from June to November. Its scarlet flowers tinged with orange afford a pleasing contrast with its dark, glossy foliage. CANARY BIRD FLOWER. For an out-door annual climber, what can be prettier than the dainty, graceful Canary Flower? Mine have scorned the limitations of the twine I had fastened to the lower limbs of a small pear tree and ascending far above them, have run out a full yard on a large branch. The light green, finely lacinated foliage is very handsome of itself, but when the Canary bird flower is added, how lovely it is! It is so easily grown from seed that I wonder so few have it. A paper costing only ten cents would give you a score of plants, and they are much prettier for the bay window than Madeira vines. A writer from England says: "While in the north of England, last fall, we paid a visit to Alnwick Castle, the seat of the Duke of Northumberland, and the ancient home of the Percy family.... The first thing that struck me on entering the town was a bay window most charmingly draped with light green climbers, and literally covered with bright lemon yellow flowers. Now this appeared so strange to me (for the chilly night air had already affected the geraniums and other tender out-door plants), that I had to cross the street, take the Yankee liberty to open the gate, go inside and examine this thrifty beauty. I confess I was not only surprised but greatly interested to find it was _only_ the Canary flower, _Tropaeolum peregrinum_, a member of the Nasturtium family, and I concluded at once that there should be one cottage in America next summer worth coming miles to see on account of its climbing plants of light green foliage and rich yellow masses of Canary bird flower."--WALTON, in _Vick's Magazine_. Do not forget to include this pretty vine in your seed order next year. COBOEA SCANDENS. This is one of the best of our climbing annuals, on account of its rapid and luxuriant growth, attractive foliage and large bell-shaped flowers. Under favorable circumstances they will grow to the height of twenty and even thirty feet in a summer. They commence to bloom when quite young, and continue in bloom until destroyed by frost. Some people remove them from the border to the house for winter blooming, but the change from out-door to indoor life, often retards their growth and mars their beauty. They are too cumbersome for window plants after having grown during the season, and it is better to sow seed in August, and get in this way plants for the house. They are hard to germinate, and need to be started in pots or in a hot bed. Place them in moist earth _edge down_, and do not water until the young plants appear above the surface, unless the earth becomes very dry. For out-door blooming sow in March or April. As soon as the plants are strong enough, transplant to three-inch pots; keep them shaded from the sun for a few days, gradually expose to the open air, and plant out when all danger from frost is over. The soil should be well stirred to the depth of nearly two feet, and well rotted manure worked in. In dry weather they need liberal watering as often as once a week, and liquid manure water occasionally is of great benefit to them. The Coboea can be propagated by layers at almost any season of the year. It is done in this way: Cut a notch near a joint, place in a pot and fill with soil, and keep the soil moist. It takes from two weeks to a month for them to root. A writer says of this plant: "The Coboea is an old favorite and it is worthy of remark that but few of the novelties introduced of late years can equal some of the old favorites that we have been accustomed to grow. The Coboea is a native of Mexico, from which country it was introduced in 1792. It was named in honor of Bernandez Cobo, a Spanish priest and botanist. The growth of the vine is very luxuriant, and it is equally easy of cultivation, the only essentials to success being warmth, a rich, light soil, and sufficient water. If allowed to become very dry, it will soon wither away. It requires sun and a warm room to grow it to perfection; yet it is not a tender plant, that is, it will live anywhere, provided the frost does not touch it, and is one of the few plants which will flourish luxuriantly in parlors lighted with gas and kept almost at fever heat. If grown in a hanging basket or pot, it must be large and the roots allowed plenty of room to spread out in. In the summer the pots can be removed from the interior room to a balcony or piazza, or plunged until they are again wanted. Then clip off the growth of branches and leaves, place the pot back again in a sunny window, where it will soon start afresh, with new arms and leaves to cover the window. It is one of the best vines for parlor decoration, as it will drape and festoon the window, and stretch forth its tendrils, running up even to the ceiling. The tendrils are so clinging in their nature that they will attach themselves to anything which comes within their reach--curtain cords, branches of other plants, brackets, etc.,--throwing out new branches everywhere. "I advise all who adopt the plan of plunging the plant in the pot in the open air during the summer, either to shift into a pot two sizes larger, or else to take it out of the pot and reduce the ball of earth nearly one-half, and repot it in fresh compost before removing it to the house. This should be done not later than September 10th. The plants will amply repay this little attention by an increased luxuriance of both foliage and flowers during the winter months, while plants not so treated will become sickly and unhealthy before spring, and beside, when pot-bound, they soon become the prey of numerous insects." There are several varieties of the Coboea, though _scandens_ is the most generally known. The large bell-shaped flowers are greenish at first, but rapidly change to a dull purple. Coboea Scandens _Alba_ has greenish white flowers. Coboea _variegata_ is one of the most magnificent ornamental climbers, the leaves being broadly margined with yellowish white, the variegated foliage forming a beautiful contrast with its large purple flowers. It is of strong habit, a rapid grower, attaining frequently the height of fifty feet in a short time. It is, however, difficult of propagation, rooting with difficulty. The seeds vegetate as readily as the common sort, but the plants are apt to die off soon after attaining their seed leaves. Layering in the manner already specified, is the best method of increase. Coboea scandens _argentea_ is another variegated leaved variety, differing from _variegata_ in that its leaves are of a purer white. It is described by some as being identical with Coboea scandens, Schuerens Seedling, but by Messrs. Leeds & Co., of Richmond, Indiana, as being "a great improvement on the old variegated variety. Leaves large, green, bordered with creamy white; calyx of the flowers variegated like the leaves." CLEMATIS. Clematis (_Virgin's Bower_), derives its name from _klema_, a vine-branch. The popular name, Virgin's Bower, was given to _Clematis Viticella_ upon its introduction into England during the reign of Elizabeth, 1569, and was intended as a compliment to that sovereign, who liked to be called the Virgin Queen. There are, it is said, two hundred and thirty described species, the majority of them free-growing, hardy climbers. They are among the most gorgeous perpetual-blooming of the class under consideration. Great improvements have been made during the past twenty-five years by hybridization, but the finest varieties have originated within ten years. Of the new English hybrids _Jackmanii_ stands in the front rank. The flowers are from five to six inches in diameter, and consist of from four to six sepals which have a ribbed bar down the center; the color is of an intense violet-purple, remarkable for its velvety richness, and a shading of reddish-purple toward the base, and they are furnished with a broad central tuft of pale green stamens. It originated with Jackman & Son, England, and was first exhibited at Kensington, 1872. It is a cross between _Clematis Viticella_ and _Clematis Lanuginasa_. From this cross many excellent seedlings have been raised, closely resembling the parent stock in color and general character. Of Jackman's Clematises the English _Gardener_ has the following: "They are magnificent; and more than this, they do give us some of the grandest things in the way of creepers the horticultural world has ever seen, making glorious ornaments either for walls, verandas, or rustic poles or pillars, varying in color from deep rich violet hue to dark velvety maroon, and in the newer seedlings, forms beautiful shades of pale bright blue." Mr. Vick says of the Clematis: "Having a rather unsightly pile of stones in the back part of our grounds, we had them thrown together more in the form of a stone-heap, perhaps, than of anything worthy of the name of rockery, and planted _Jackmanii_ and other fine sorts in the crevices, and for three summers this stone-heap has been covered most gorgeously. Thousands of flowers, in fact a mound of flowers, every day for months, has been the delight of visitors, causing one to exclaim, 'Nothing since Paradise has been more beautiful.'" These fine hybrids will endure our Northern winters if somewhat protected. A gentleman in Rochester, N. Y., had a Jackmanii which bore full exposure without protection and came out in the spring uninjured to the height of nine feet. The extremities of the shoots for about two feet were winter-killed. _Clematis Sieboldii_ is a native of Japan, whence it was introduced by Mr. Low in 1837. It is of a slender free-growing habit. "The flowers which are produced from July to September are composed of six ovate sepals of a creamy white color, which form a fine background for the large rosette of purple stamens which occupy the center and render the flowers particularly attractive." _Clematis graveolins_ is a native of the mountains of Thibet. It is of comparative recent introduction. The flowers are produced on long stalks at the axils of the leaves, and are of a light yellow--an unusual color in this genus. It grows to the height of from ten to fifteen feet, and blooms freely during the entire season. A lady writes to Vick's Magazine that she has a Clematis graveolins which is a wonderful sight. It grew from a feeble plant planted out in spring, two inches in height, into a column twelve feet high and three feet broad by August, and was a mass of yellow blossoms, and then, of the most exquisite, long-haired, silvery seed pods until hard frost. It lived through the winter, to its extreme tips, and then grew so rapidly, shading such an important part of her garden, that she had to remove it in the autumn, cutting it back severely. The seedlings from it grow, she adds, to eight or ten feet in a season. _Clematis crispa_ is of Southern origin; the flowers are one and a half inches long, produced singly on long stalks, and delightfully fragrant, a rapid grower, and perfectly hardy. _Clematis coccinea_ is of recent introduction from Texas, the flowers are bell-shaped, of a most brilliant scarlet, and are produced in great abundance. This rare variety is offered only by Woolson & Co., Passaic Falls, N. J., who make a specialty of hardy herbaceous plants. _Vesta_, a Jackman, is large and of fine form; dead white, with a creamy tinge over the center bar, delicate primrose fragrance, an early bloomer. _Mrs. James Bateman_, pale lavender, and _Thomas Moore_, violet, superb, are Jackman seedlings, which flower in the summer and autumn, successionally, in masses, on summer shoots. These are all high priced. Many fine sorts can be purchased at prices ranging from thirty cents to one dollar. The Clematis requires only ordinary garden soil. Where there are severe winters it is best to give the young plants at least some protection. They can be propagated by layering, which is rather a slow method, or rapidly by seed. WISTARIA. Very beautiful among the hard-wooded Climbers, is the Chinese Wistaria when in bloom. Its long, pendulous racemes of blue flowers are exceedingly graceful. They are frequently twelve inches in length and highly fragrant. The flowers appear about the last of May and first of June. It is not a continuous bloomer like the Clematis, but often gives a few flowers in August. It is rather slow at first, but after getting a good start the second or third year grows very rapidly. It is hardy after it gets strong, but young plants need some protection. The Chinese White Wistaria was introduced by Mr. Fortune, and is regarded as a great acquisition. The _Double Purple_ is illustrated in Ellwanger & Barry's Catalogue, by a full page engraving, which gives one an idea of its beauty better than the description which is as follows: "A rare and charming variety, with perfectly double flowers, deeper in color than the single, and with racemes of remarkable length. The plant is perfectly hardy, resembling Wistaria _Sinensis_, so well known as one of our best climbing plants. The stock which we offer was purchased of Mr. Parkman, who received this variety from Japan in 1863, and was the first to bloom and exhibit it in this country." _White American Wistaria_ is a seedling originating with Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, N. Y. Flowers clear white; bushes short. Free bloomer. CHINESE WISTARIA AS A STANDARD. A novelty has been offered to the horticultural public of London this spring (1880), in the shape of standard trees of Wistaria Sinensis, raised in tubs, having heads five or six feet in diameter and covered with clusters of bloom. The plants were raised in Rouen, France, and sent to London for sale. It requires several years to attain plants of good size in this style, and as a matter of profit, a strict account would no doubt show a balance on the wrong side. In this country where the Wistaria is "at home," it may be raised in tree-shape in the open ground without expense, save the necessary care in pinching in and shaping. "So completely did the plants offered in London strike the popular taste, that there was quite a competition to become purchasers of them, and large sums were offered by those anxious to possess them. The general public, unaccustomed to this fine Chinese climber, looked on with wonder at "Lilacs" of such unwanted size and beauty of color."--_Vick's Magazine._ Mr. Vick evidently does not deem this method an improvement on the natural graceful climber, for it reminds him of an anecdote which he thus relates in reply to an inquirer respecting the Wistaria as a standard. "Once upon a time some kind of a steam cannon was invented, and a day of trial was arranged at Portsmouth, England, to which the Lords of the Admiralty and the Duke of Wellington were invited. After the exhibition, which we believe was somewhat successful, opinions of its merits were freely expressed, but the Iron Duke said nothing. When urged to give his opinion, he replied that he was thinking--'thinking if the steam gun had been first invented, what a grand improvement gunpowder would have been.' If the Chinese Wistaria had been a tree, and some one could have induced it to climb and cover our porches and arbors and old trees and buildings, what a grand improvement it would have been." Thoughts in My Garden. My faultless friends, the plants and flowers, Have only smiles for me. When drought withholds refreshing showers, Through hot and dreary summer hours, They then droop silently. When tired and worn with worldly care, Their fragrance seems like praise, A benediction in the air; Pure as an unfallen angel's prayer, Sweet'ning the saddest days. No frowns, no pouting, no complaints, In my bright garden fair, A colony of sinless saints, Whose beauty Nature's pencil paints, Are my fair darlings there. No inattention can awake Envy or jealousy; Their alabaster boxes break, As Mary's did, and I partake Of their rich fragrancy. Sometimes with weary soul and sad, I taste their sweet perfume; And then my soul is very glad, I feel ashamed I ever had A hateful sense of gloom. Flowers are the sylvan syllables, In colors like the bow, And wise is he who wisely spells The blossomed words where beauty dwells, In purple, gold and snow. O! sacred is the use of these Sweet gifts to mortals given. Their colors charm, their beauties please, And every better sense they seize, And bear our thoughts to Heaven. GEORGE W. BUNGAY. A Talk About Several Things. "Spake full well in language quaint and olden, One who dwelleth by the castled Rhine, When he called the flowers, so blue and golden, Stars, that in earth's firmament do shine. Wondrous truths, and manifold as wondrous, God hath written in those stars above; But not less in these bright flowerets under us, Stands the revelation of His love." What changes have been manifested--how unceasingly and with what deftness Nature has silently wrought in tapestry and embroidery, sculpture and painting, till beauty is all around us, in the green carpet of earth, brightened with flowers and leafage of every hue! No wonder the birds sing praises to Him who gave them life with its fullness of blessings. Sad to think that man, high over all, and under the greatest obligation, too often is silent in thanksgiving for the gifts of a Father's love. No month to me has such charms as June, when nature's robes are so fresh and clean, and the balmy air is redolent with fragrance. How delightful to be abroad with the early worm and early bird, working in the garden, while the songsters give free concerts, and the hum of the honey bird, and buzz of the bee, set forth a good example of cheerful industry! The house plants have become established in the open border, and are so glad to get away from artificial heat and confined atmosphere into the broad sunlight of heaven, and breathe in full draughts of pure air and sweet dew, that they put on their best attire, and most attractive ornaments. Before the roses bloom, the bed of geraniums looks bright with flowers, each ambitious to excel his or her neighbor, either in beauty of color, or form, or duration of bloom, thus leaving me in perplexity as to choice. When _Pliny_ bloomed everybody admired who saw his beauty; then _Romeo_ with quite another style looked charming, but when _Naomi_ unfolded her large trusses of double pips, of a rare, peculiar shade, nobody ever saw a geranium quite so lovely, and then its duration of bloom--full six weeks! _Jennie Dolfus_, however, became a dangerous rival--a deeper, richer shade, and not a pip would she allow to fade so long as _Naomi_ looked so pert. Some said, "I like _Naomi_ the best;" others said, "I think _Jennie_ is the prettiest." But _Beauty_, close by, hearing the praises lavished on her sisters, and perchance trusting in her good name, came forth one day in dress of white with deep pink ornamentation. Never had such unique beauty as this ever been seen in Geranium before, and, "Isn't it lovely!" "Just splendid!" "What a beauty!" were uttered with exclamation points, till she blushed with becoming modesty--the flush spread and deepened until her face was completely suffused with the delicate tint, making her yet more attractive. _Wellington_ donned his crimson suit, and _De Gasx_ an orange yellow; _Pauline Lucca_, prima donna though she be, appeared in dress of pure white, and _Richard Dean_ in scarlet with a white star that was very becoming. _New Life_ thought to draw special attention by odd freaks, and came out in a parti-colored dress of the most singular combinations; part of it was scarlet dotted with white--part of it half scarlet, half salmon, part of it widely striped, and part white with just a flush of pink! I must call him the clown of the family! I have only named a few of the rare Geraniums that adorn one of the beds of my garden. For beauty, free flowering, and duration of bloom they cannot be surpassed. Interspersed with them are ornamental leaved Geraniums, _Crystal Palace Gem_, an improvement on _Cloth of Gold_; _Marshal McMahon_, the best of all the bronzes; _Cherub_, deep green, white and orange, flowers carmine; _Glen Eyre Beauty_, _Dr. Livingstone_, a new, sweet-scented, fine cut-leaved Geranium; _Happy Thought_, one of the most attractive, with its dark green leaves and creamy white center. Here and there are commingled Anchryanthus of divers hues, and Coleosus, giving a fine effect to the whole. This is now the most attractive bed of all, but when the Lilies are in bloom, and the dear little Tea Roses, the bed parallel with it will be the sweetest, if not so brilliant. This year I have a tropical bed of oblong form. A Castor Bean rises majestically in the center, two beautiful Cannas each side, while a Dracæna, a splendid Croton, two fancy Caladiums, and a few other choice plants fill the space, the whole bordered with Coxcombs. In a few weeks this bed will look gorgeous, and those filled with annuals will have changed from their present inattractiveness to delightful bloom. August is really the month of fullness of blossom, and of restful enjoyment of beauty and fragrance. The weary days of preparation, of bedding out and of weeding, are over, and one may now give themselves up to the enjoyment of the fruit of their labor, till the chill nights of autumn bring a renewal of the toil. "Does the brief period of restful enjoyment repay for the many weary days antecedent and subsequent?" Yes, richly, fully, for there is pleasure with the toil, and to me health-giving influences that energize the physical system for indoor work, and stimulate the brain for literary pursuits. To me my garden is a God-send, fraught with blessings. "Gardening is a pleasant pastime." I am prepared to adopt that sentiment to-day, if I did demur somewhat last month. It is a delightful pastime, in the early morning, to spend an hour among the flowers, trowel in hand, rooting out the weeds, loosening the soil around your plants, and tying up here and there the tall and fragile, while the birds are singing in the trees around you their morning song of gladness. How the dew-laden grass and shrubs impart sweetness to the air, and your lungs inhaling its purity, are expanded and invigorated, your whole system feels the better for the tonic, and prepares for breakfast, and the work that shall follow. It is a pleasant pastime, when wearied with toil you go forth for a time among your flowers and search for the buds, or examine the newly-opened flower. How it rests you! It is a pleasant pastime, when the labors of the day are over, and the sun is throwing long shadows from the west, you take watering-pot in hand, and shower the refreshing spray upon your plants, cleansing them from the dust, and cooling them after the heat. How they thrive, and bud and bloom! The Love of Flowers. "We should love flowers, for when we are gone From this forgetful world a few short years-- Nay, months, perhaps--those whom we hold most dear, Cease to bedew our memories with tears, And no more footsteps mark the paths that lead To where we dreamless lie; but God's dear flowers Give to our very graves the loveliness That won our tender praise when life was ours." LAST WORDS OF THE POET HEINE. Of the many touching tributes paid to flowers, there is a beautiful one associated with the closing hours of Henry Heine, the poet. He was dying in Paris. The doctor was paying his usual visit, when Heine pressed his hand and said: "Doctor, you are my friend, I ask a last favor. Tell me the truth--the end is approaching, is it not?" The doctor was silent. "Thank you," said Heine calmly. "Have you any request to make?" asked the doctor, moved to tears. "Yes," replied the poet; "my wife sleeps--do not disturb her. Take from the table the fragrant flowers she brought me this morning. I love flowers so dearly. Thanks--place them upon my breast." He paused, as he inhaled their perfume. His eyes closed, and he murmured: "Flowers, flowers, how beautiful is Nature!" These were his last words. THE OLD MAN AND THE FLOWERS. A few years since the Belfast (Me.) _Journal_ gave this touching incident: "One day last week an elderly man, known to our people as an honest and hard-working citizen, was walking slowly up Main street. There was sorrow in his countenance, and the shadow of grief upon his face. Opposite the Savings Bank his eye caught sight of the flowering Oleander, that with other plants fill the bay-window of the banking-room. He looked at it long and wistfully. At length he pushed open the door, and approaching Mr. Q., said: "'Will you give me a few of those flowers?' "The cashier, leaving the counting of money and the computing of interest, came around the counter, bent down the plant, cut off a cluster of blossoms, and placed it in the man's toil-hardened hand. His curiosity led him to ask: "'What do you want them for?' "'My little granddaughter died of scarlet fever last night,' the man replied with faltering voice, 'and I want to put them in her coffin.' "Blessed be flowers, that can thus solace the bereavement of death and lend their brightness as a bloom, to the last resting-place of the loved one." CONVERTED BY A FLOWER. There is a beautiful incident told of a Texas gentleman who was an unbeliever in the Christian religion. One day he was walking in the woods, reading the writings of Plato. He came to where the great writer uses the phrase, "God geometrizes." He thought to himself, "If I could only see plan and order in God's works, I could be a believer." Just then he saw a little Texas Star at his feet. He picked it up and then thoughtlessly began to count its petals. He found there were five. He counted the stamens, and there were five of them. He counted the divisions at the base of the flower, there were five of them. He then set about multiplying these three fives to see how many chances there were of a flower being brought into existence without the aid of mind, and having in it these three fives. The chances against it were one hundred and twenty-five to one. He thought that was very strange. He examined another flower, and found it the same. He multiplied one hundred and twenty-five by itself, to see how many chances there were against there being two flowers, each having these exact relations of numbers. He found the chances against it were thirteen thousand six hundred and twenty-five to one. But all around him were multitudes of these little flowers, and they had been growing and blooming there for years. He thought this showed the order of intelligence, and that the mind that ordained it was God. And so he shut up his book, picked up the little flower, kissed it, and exclaimed: "_Bloom on little flowers; sing on little birds; you have a God, and I have a God; the God that made these little flowers made me_." A Talk About Abutilons. This species is one of the most desirable of hardy-wooded plants we possess. They are admirable for the house, for the balcony, the piazza, or the border, being handsome in foliage, and very graceful and beautiful in flowers. Some are stately, others dwarf, some are flexible and drooping. We have had for several years three that we have greatly admired for their variegated leaves, especially for the winter window-garden, where they compensate for the scarcity of flowers, by the brilliancy of their foliage, yellow and green, finely mottled and marbled. _Duc de Malakoff_ is stately, and by cutting off the top of the main stalk, it is made to branch out very largely, forming a miniature tree. It grows very rapidly, and its leaves are like the Maple in form, which has led many to call the plant Flowering Maple, but this is not correct, as it is not a Maple at all, but an Abutilon. Some of the leaves on one only a year old, measure seven inches across, and eight and a half in length. In the older plant they are not so large. _Thomsonii_ much resembles _Malakoff_, but its markings are not so handsome; the green is darker, and predominates over the yellow, so far as my observation extends, but it is a more abundant bloomer. Flowers are orange color. I have vainly searched through many catalogues to find the color of the _Duc de Malakoff_ blossom, but all are silent; it is not even said that they flower at all, but my four-year-old had one bud last year, which unfortunately blighted. The yearling has one bud, and I hope it will live and afford me the knowledge I have failed to find in books. _Malakoff_ not variegated, has large orange bells, striped with brown. My other variegated Abutilons are of trailing habit; _Mesopotamicum_ is very graceful, one droops over the side, and climbs and twines around the cords of a large hanging-pot, for which it is admirably adapted. Its small pendant blossoms, crimson and yellow, growing profusely along the slender branches, drooping among the elegantly marbled foliage, give this variety a very attractive charm. Another is trained to a pot trellis, and is very beautiful in this form. We advise every one to add this variety to their collection. _Pictum_ is very similar in every respect; the leaves are darker, and not so variegated. They require a strong light to bring out their markings, and hence are more perfect in beauty when bedded out in the garden, where they can have plenty of sunshine. _Boule de Neige_ (Fairy Bell) has long been a favorite for its pure white bells and constancy of bloom. A splendid winter bloomer. _John Hopkins_, with its rich, dark, glossy leaves and golden flowers has superseded the old _Pearl d'Or_, which was for a time the only real yellow. _Darwinii_ is one of my favorites. The flowers are more spreading than any other variety, opening like a parasol; color orange-scarlet veined with pink. It blossoms very profusely, and when only a few inches in height. The flowers are large and well formed, and borne in clusters rather than singly, like many older sorts. This variety was cross-fertilized with _Santana_, crimson flower, and as a result we have _Darwinii tessellatum_, combining the variegated foliage of Thomsonii with the free-blooming qualities of _Darwinii_. The improvements by hybridizing have been very great within a few years, and many new varieties have been sent out. One of these is _Roseum Superbum_, the flowers of which are of a rich rose color, veined with a delicate pink. Very free bloomer. _Venosum_, we find only named in an English catalogue. "The magnificent blooms of this variety place it at the top of all the Abutilons. Although it is of tall growth its beautiful palm-shaped leaves and gorgeous flowers make it invaluable for crossing and for conservatories."--_H. Cannell._ Among the new and valuable novelties of American origin are _Arthur Belsham_, _Robert George_, _J. H. Skinner_, and _Joseph Hill_. These have been three years before the public, and Mr. John Thorp, a well-known popular florist of Queens, N. Y., says of them, "We have not, amongst all the flowering Abutilons, such fine varieties as these. I have had plants between five and six feet high, pyramidal shape and literally covered with flowers." They originated with Messrs. Leeds & Co., of Richmond, Indiana, who make quite a specialty of new seedling Abutilons, and this year offer four "of new shades and colors." _A. G. Porter._ "Flowers of a beautiful lavender color, delicately suffused with a light shade of rosy pink, and handsomely veined with magenta, forming a flower of magnificent color and shape, a very free bloomer. A cross between _Boule de Neige_ and _Rosaflora_, with the habit and growth of _Boule de Neige_." _Little Beauty_, "A very dwarf grower, having a short, compact, symmetrical bush, which is completely covered with its medium-sized but well-shaped flowers, of a very light salmon color, beautifully veined with rosy carmine. It blooms in clusters and when in full bloom makes a remarkably fine appearance. A cross between _Rosaflora_ and _Darwinii_." _N. B. Stover_, "A low, compact grower. Flowers large and well-formed, almost covering the bush; color, rich ponceau, finely veined with carmine. A decided novelty, being a new color among Abutilons." _Dr. Rapples._ "Light orange salmon, veined with crimson. One of the most attractive in the set." A new Abutilon, a decided novelty in color, comes to us from "The Home for Flowers," Swanley, England, sent with other choice plants by Henry Cannell & Son. It is thus described in his _Floral Guide_: FIREFLY (Swanley Red). By far the highest and brightest color of all the family; habit dwarf, and one of the freest bloomers, throwing flowers out on strong foot stalks of the finest shape; certainly one of the noblest, and when grown in a pot it flowers all the winter, and all the summer when planted out, and forms one of the best flowering shrubs that we possess. PARENTAGE OF THIS FLOWER.--Mr. George states that he sometime since flowered a small red variety, which had a very lively shade of color, and determining to make this a seed parent, it occurred to him to use on it the pollen of the single deep color Hibiscas, which, like the Abutilon, is included in the natural order _Malvaceæ_. Mr. George thinks the fine color seen in his new variety, _Firefly_, is due to this happy inspiration of color. The _Gardener's Chronicle_ has this paragraph respecting Firefly: A red Abutilon, one of a batch of recent seedlings raised by Mr. J. George of Putney Heath, well deserves the foregoing appellation. The flowers are of large size and of a much greater depth and vividness of color than that possessed by any variety in the Chiswick collection. It has been provisionally named Firefly, and we believe the stock has passed into the hands of H. Cannell & Son, of Swanley, for distribution. A writer in _Vick's Magazine_ describes a method of training the Abutilon that must, we think, be a very attractive one. "A pretty plant may be obtained by inarching Abutilon Mesopotamicum upon _Abutilon Darwinii_, or some other strong-growing variety, and training it so as form an umbrella head, which can easily be done. The stock for this purpose should be about five or six feet high. Grown in this way it produces an abundance of bloom, and the flowers being elevated are seen in all their beauty. If _Abutilon Mesopotamicum_ is inarched upon _Abutilon Thompsonii_, the result will be _Abutilon Mesopotamicum Variegatum_. A well-formed plant of this on a stock about five feet high is one of the finest of plants; whether in blossom or not it is always adapted for decorative or exhibition purposes. Care must be taken at all times to keep them tied to stakes, as they are liable to be broken off by the wind." Abutilons are apt to be infested by the red spider, if kept in too dry an atmosphere, and not frequently sprayed. Moisture is death to this pest, but as it makes its home on the under side of the leaf, it is too often overlooked until it has destroyed the vitality of the foliage. Recently I found that my large _Duc de Malakoff_ looked sickly, and I concluded it had become root-bound. A few days later, I noticed brown spots thickly covering the bark. I removed one, and on examining the under side through a microscope, I saw several tiny insects moving about. I decided that my plant was troubled with the scale of which I had often read, but never seen. I made a pretty strong solution of soap-suds, and with a sponge quite easily removed all of the pests. In bedding out Abutilons, it is better to have them in pots, plugging the hole, or setting the pot on a stone or piece of brick, so that the roots may not go astray, for if plunged directly in the ground they throw out many roots and the plant becomes too large for re-potting to advantage. If, however, they are planted in the earth, in August they should be cut around the stock so as to bring the roots within due bounds, and the plant can be pruned in the autumn. This method is applicable to all strong plants that run largely to roots. They should be cut off sufficiently to leave only a ball of earth of convenient size to set in the pot when the plant is transplanted. A Talk About Dahlias. The genus Dahlia comprises but few species, all natives of the mountains of Mexico, whose range is from 5000 to 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. About one hundred years ago a Spanish botanist introduced seeds of the Dahlia into his native country, and named the genus in honor of a Swedish botanist, DAHL. The first seed imported seemed to be variable and not very promising. About seventy years since, HUMBOLDT sent fresh seed to Germany. Soon after this, both seeds and bulbs were introduced into England and France, and began to attract considerable attention, some enthusiast being rash enough to hazard the assertion that "there are considerable reasons for thinking that the Dahlia will hereafter be raised with double flowers." About 1812 probably the first double Dahlia was grown, but for several years after this both double and single varieties were figured in colored plates, and exhibited at horticultural shows. That the single varieties were prized is not strange, for the double were not very good, and even as late as 1818, published figures showed very imperfect flowers. The improvement of the Dahlia after this was rapid, and its popularity quite kept pace with its improvement. Dahlia exhibitions were held in England and on the continent, which were crowded by enthusiastic admirers of this wonderful Mexican flower. For many years the Dahlia maintained its popularity, but there is a fashion in flowers, as in almost everything, and for a time the Dahlia became, to a certain extent, unfashionable, and this was well; for it placed the flower upon merit alone, and growers were compelled to introduce new and superior varieties to command either attention or sale for their favorite flower. A taste for old styles is now the "correct thing," and so we have imitations of ancient earthenware, furniture, etc., and import _original_ Chinese Aster seed, and also obtain roots of the single Dahlia from Mexico. There are three pretty distinct classes, the _Show_ Dahlias, the Dwarf or Bedding, and the _Pompon_ or Bouquet, and to this we may add the _Fancy_ Dahlia. The _Show Dahlia_ grows from three to four feet in height, and embraces all our finest sorts, fit for exhibition at horticultural shows, from which the name is derived; the flowers range in size from two and a half to five inches in diameter. The striped and mottled and spotted varieties belonging to the Show section are called _Fancy_, and though not as rich, nor usually as highly prized as the selfs, or those of one color, are very attractive. The _Dwarf_ or _Bedding Dahlia_ grows about eighteen inches in height, and makes a thick, compact bush, and covers a good deal of surface; flowers of the size of Show Dahlias. They are therefore very desirable for bedding and massing. The _Pompon_ or _Bouquet Dahlia_ makes a pretty, compact plant, about three feet in height. The leaves are small, and the flowers from one to two inches in diameter. Many expect to find small flowers on their Dwarf Dahlias, and feel disappointed because they are of the ordinary size, not knowing that it is the plant, and not the flower, that is dwarfed, and that only the Pompon gives the small flowers. The word _Pompon_ is French for topknot or trinket, meaning about the same as the English word cockade. The English term _Bouquet_ is very appropriate, as the flowers are so small they are very suitable for bouquets. Being of a spreading habit, they cover a good deal of ground. Unlike most of our bedding out plants, they do best in a poor soil; if rich, they grow to branches and leaves so much, they bloom sparingly and late. Generally those who plant Dahlias purchase the tuberous roots, because they give good strong plants, that flower freely without trouble or risk. They are smaller and better than the large, coarse roots usually grown, because they are raised from cuttings, and generally form their roots in pots. When a tuber is planted, a number of buds that cluster around its top will push and form shoots, and if too numerous, a portion should be removed; indeed, one good, strong plant will suffice, and then the plant will become a tree instead of a bush. Even then, if the top become too thick, a little thinning of the branches will be of advantage. If the young shoots that start from the neck of the bulb, are cut off near a joint and placed in a hot-bed in sandy soil, they will root, form good plants, and flower quite as well as plants grown from the tuber; this, however, requires some care and experience, and amateurs generally will succeed best with bulbs. New varieties of Dahlias, of course, are from seed. Some of them prove good, others fair, and a portion utterly worthless. As a general rule, we would not advise amateurs to trouble with seeds, although there is pleasure in watching the birth and development of a new and beautiful variety. The seed of Dahlias may be sown in pots in early spring or end of winter, in a light, loamy soil; they will germinate quickly, and as soon as they begin to show their second leaves they should be pricked out into other pots or boxes, so that they may have plenty of room and air--they are very liable to damp off if at all crowded. After pricking out they should be kept in a thrifty, growing condition, by proper attention to watering and temperature; the temperature should be maintained as near 70° as possible, and the watering be sufficient to preserve a moderate moisture. If the green fly attack them, it will be best to treat them to a very weak dilution of tobacco water; the young succulent plants are very sensitive to smoke, and it is best not to fumigate them. In about two months the young plants should be large enough to pot off singly, or to be transplanted into a frame or bed, where protection can be given them from the cold of night-time, or from late frosts. As soon as all danger is past they can be transplanted into their summer quarters, and should stand at least three feet apart. The soil where they are to grow, should be rich and mellow. In August they will come into flower, and those having blooms worthy of cultivation can be retained, and the others destroyed. Only a small proportion of the plants grown from common seed produce flowers equal to those now in cultivation, but when seed is saved from a choice collection of named varieties, the chances are that a large proportion of the plants will produce very good flowers.--_Vick's Magazine._ "The Dahlia is called a _gross feeder_, but it is not. It loves moisture rather than rich elemental food. In clay it finds the best constituents of its development--moisture, silex, lime and alumnia. So we say to those who love this queenly flower, if you would see the queen in all her glory, plant in a comparatively heavy soil, no manure, and reduce the stalks to one for each tuber, set the stakes firmly, to keep the stalks from swaying, and if the season is dry, give the bulbs a _soaking_ with water every evening during the drought. My word for it you will then be proud of your success." The Pompon, or Bouquet Dahlia is a favorite variety of this genus. The little round balls of bloom are so pretty and trim. _Beatrice_, blush tinted with violet; _Dr. Stein_, deep maroon, striped and mottled; _Goldfinder_, golden yellow; _Little Philip_, creamy-buff edged with lilac; _Little Valentine_, crimson; _Mein Streifling_, salmon, striped with crimson; _Pearl_, white; _Prima Donna_, white, fimbriated; _Perfection_, deep maroon. SINGLE DAHLIAS. Anything for a change from the common order of things, seems to be the fashion now-a-days, in flowers as well as in house building and house furnishing. The antique, the antique, is the rage! So after years of labor and hybridization to bring the Dahlia up from its native state of single blessedness, to its enormous cauliflower blooms, there comes a reaction, and now single Dahlias are praised as "the most beautiful of all flowers," the "_par excellence_ the Londoner's flower!" Well, let the English florists thus praise its beauty if they want to, but we opine that on this side of the great ocean it will never be considered "the most beautiful of all flowers," however attractive some of them may be, and well adapted for bouquets. There is no danger of their superseding the doubles, but it is well to have both when one can afford it; their present high price puts them beyond the reach of those whose purses are not well filled, but in a year or two, when the novelty is worn off, they can be purchased at half or even less, perhaps, than their present price. We find in the London _Garden_ the following: "Dahlia perfecta, originally introduced by Messrs. Henderson, is perhaps the finest flower which we possess, unless Paragon, brought into notice by H. Cannell, may be considered to bear away the palm. Lutea, a quilled yellow, is also a grand bouquet flower." The single Dahlias, Paragon and Lutea, are now offered for the first time in this country, by Messrs. Hallock & Thorp of Queens, N. Y., and the former is finely illustrated in their catalogue. Color very dark velvety maroon with shadings of bright scarlet around each petal; small yellow disk. Lutea is pure yellow, with dark orange center. The same firm offer Dahlia Juarezii, of which Mr. Cannell says: "The grandest novelty of the year, and not only a novelty, but a most valuable and useful decorative plant for all purposes through the late summer and autumn months. Its blossoms are of a rich crimson, and very much resemble in shape and color the well-known Cactus, Cereus _speciosissimus_. Height about three feet, very bushy flowers of very striking appearance and quite unlike those of an ordinary double Dahlia, the flowerets being flat and not cupped. Figured in _Gardener's Chronicle_ October 4th, 1879, and awarded a Botanical Certificate Royal Horticultural Society." The following statement was made in the _Gardener's Chronicle_ respecting this new type: "A remarkable box of Dahlias was shown by Messrs. Cannell with three or four of the single forms, which, if it were not heresy to say so, we should so much prefer to the formal lumps so dear to the florist proper; and then there was a new type of Dahlia altogether, a Sea Anemone among Dahlias, with long crimson scarlet pointed petals, like the tentacles of an Antinia--a striking novelty, christened temporarily the Cactus Dahlia, and which will be the parent of a new strain. It received a Botanical Certificate; some said this ought to have a higher award, but what higher or more appropriate form of a certificate could be given to such a flower. If we were a Dahlia, we should greatly prefer the honor of a 'Botanical,' to that of a 'First Class Certificate.'" This new type is illustrated in Hallock & Thorp's Catalogue. Two new Dahlias not yet introduced in this country are included among the novelties of 1881. _Cannell's Scarlet_, a Show Dahlia, several shades higher and brighter in color than any scarlet before introduced. "Its shape is most model-like, and not excelled by any other, and is without doubt the best Dahlia of the year." _Miss Cannell_, (Eckford)--"Mr. Eckford's Dahlia, Memorial, was the king of best shapes for many years, but the one now offered is of greater excellence, and by far the best of its class; color white, tipped with rose-pink, and the depth and build of flower is most model-like." AMARYLLIS. These are the finest of all summer flowering bulbs, throwing up strong flower stems in June and July, bearing from two to six magnificent lily-like blossoms. The varieties are numerous, but only a few sorts are found catalogued. Amaryllis Johnsonii is the finest of the commonly grown varieties. Its leaves are a dark rich green, two inches broad, and two feet long. The flowers which are five or six inches long, are crimson with a white stripe through the center of each petal, and are borne upon a stalk two feet high. They usually bloom twice a year, the flowers appearing just as the leaves begin to grow. Amaryllis formosissima is of a very peculiar form. The flowers are scarlet-crimson, very velvety in appearance; there are six petals, three of them nearly erect, and three drooping very long. After being bedded out, it quickly throws up a flower stalk and blooms before the leaves appear. It is a superb flower, known sometimes by the name of Jacobean Lily. Amaryllis vittata is a splendid hybrid, red ground striped with white. Amaryllis Valotta purpurea is an evergreen variety, and should be kept growing the year round. In August it throws up a flower-stem from one foot to eighteen inches high, bearing a cluster of light scarlet flowers two or three inches in diameter. A light soil and small pot suits it best. Mr. John Lewis Child of Queens, N. Y., has a finer collection and more numerous varieties than are usually found named in the catalogues. Some of them we will specify. Johnsonii Grandiflora, an improvement on the well-known Johnsonii Harrisoni, large, pure white, with double crimson streaks running through each petal. It has a delicious, orange-blossom fragrance. Reticulata, a bright rose color, the foliage is very attractive--dark green with a white stripe running through the center of each leaf. Aulica Stenopelalon, a magnificent species, having large orange crimson flowers, beautifully veined with scarlet. "Equestre fl. pl. This grand novelty was discovered in 1877, in one of the West India Islands. The flowers are perfectly double, resembling those of a large Camellia. Its color is rich, fiery orange red. We believe we have the only stock of this beautiful flower in America." JOHN L. CHILD. This and Harrisoni, are priced at $4.50, so they must be very rare and beautiful. Aspasie, white, tinted with yellow and red; large and perfect. Crinum Amænum, new and very beautiful, white-striped crimson. Lutea, a hardy variety, which blooms in the autumn; pure yellow. Calafornica, pure white. The bulbs are of easy culture. After blooming, and the foliage fully grown, they should be allowed to rest for several months, then start into growth by watering sparingly until the flower stalks appear, when a more liberal supply should be given. Usually two successions of bloom can thus be obtained. The bulb should be planted so as to leave the upper portion uncovered. HOYA CARNOSA, OR WAX PLANT. This plant is a native of tropical Asia, where it is partially parasitical, its roots penetrating the bark of the trees which support it. It was introduced into England in 1802. There are several species, but only one is generally cultivated. Hoya Carnosa has thick waxy leaves, and bears umbels of beautiful flesh-colored flowers which are very wax-like in appearance. It is an excellent plant for house culture as it stands the extremes of heat and cold better than most plants, and is not easily injured by neglect. It can be trained to climb on trellis-work to almost any height, and when in bloom, which continues for half the year, it is a very interesting plant. There are several varieties of Hoya, but one only is generally cultivated. _Silver Variegated Foliage_ is said to be very handsome but is of slow growth and difficult to propagate. _Imperialis_ is a new variety with beautiful foliage and scarlet flowers. _Cunningham_ has light green leaves, deeper colored flowers than the Carnosa and is a rapid grower. They succeed best in peat, with some fibrous soil and sand. They must have perfect drainage, and require a period of rest. Hoya Carnosa is easily propagated from cuttings. A very good method is to wrap a cutting in moss, keeping it moist until the roots are well started. Among My Flowers. August is the month when we rest from our labor in gardening, and abandon ourselves to the full enjoyment of the varied blossoms which so abundantly meet our eye. Now we can best determine what changes may be required in the arrangement of our plants next year, in order to give the most pleasing effect. A tall plant may have been inadvertently set out in the midst of those of low growth, and we see now how awkward it looks. Short-lived annuals may have occupied a conspicuous place, and on their departure left an unseemly vacancy. A bed may have been filled with a class of plants that are not free bloomers, and so there has been little beside leaves, while another bed has been brilliant during all the summer months with flowers. Annuals of a new kind, high-priced novelties, have been tested; are they any better than our old favorites? If we cannot indulge in many sorts, what do we find the most satisfactory? Twenty-five cents per packet seemed very expensive for Heddewigii Pinks, but Crimson Belle and Eastern Queen are of such superior size and rare beauty that the investment is not regretted, and then we know that they will bloom in greater perfection next year, and that the seed saved this autumn and sown in early spring, will increase the stock. Twenty-five cents for a paper of Candytuft seed looks extravagant, but no one who invests in Tom Thumb would regret it. It is so dwarf, so compact and bushy, such a long continued bloomer, so admirable for edging a bed, that it is really almost an essential. Then it will sow itself, and the seedlings will be up as soon as the frost is out of the ground, and plants from self-sown seed are so much more thrifty and early than those one sows in the spring, that this is a great gain. Candytuft--white, pink, light purple, dark purple and crimson, I find it well worth while to culture for early and profuse flowers, and admirably adapted for bouquets. I always have large quantities of the white, to set off the brighter flowers, and by sowing seed in June and July, have a succession of blooming plants. Foxglove, both white and purple, with their thimble-shaped spotted blossoms profusely borne on tall spikes, with side branches loaded with bloom, has been one of the greatly admired flowers of my garden. Plumbago, with its clusters of tube flowers, of the palest of blue, is very beautiful. Godetia, "Lady Albemarle," I have found to be all that it is represented. For two months it has been in constant bloom, and it will continue to flower till frost. It is of a bushy, compact habit, about twelve inches high, the flowers are from three to four inches in diameter, and of a rosy-carmine color. Everybody who has seen it, has a word of praise for this most beautiful of all the Godetias. _Alba_ is a new variety, having pure white flowers; _Insignis_ is pure white with a crimson blotch on each petal; _Whitney's_ is of dwarf habit, and has large flowers, blush-colored, marked about the center with a handsome crimson stain. The new French Marigolds "Cloth of Gold," and "Meteor" are just splendid with their large and beautifully striped imbricated leaves. One has gold bars evenly marked on the rich dark velvety petals, and the other has deep orange stripes on a pale straw-colored, almost white ground. "Meteor" is a perfect gem among the Calendulas. Convolvulus minor--new crimson-violet with yellow eye encircled with a band of pure white; dark blue and light blue with yellow eye margined with white; pure white with yellow eye, and blue and white striped, are very pretty free-blooming dwarfs of this species. My Stocks are very fine, from mixed seed of the German, new large flowering. They are mostly very double. The creamy white are especially beautiful. The bright crimson and canary yellow are handsome. There are many varieties of this species, but what are generally termed Ten-weeks Stock are best known. They are classed under five heads: Dwarf, Miniature, Large-flowered, Pyramidal and Wall-flower-leaved. Then there are the Intermediate Stocks, prized for their late autumn blooming, of which there are twelve or more varieties. The German Brompton Stocks are divided into two sections; Brompton and Hybrid, or Cocordean. The latter bloom with a single stem which forms a splendid pyramid of flowers, and is cultivated largely in pots. Seeds sown in early spring will bloom in autumn, and if carefully potted will flower during winter; if sown in July and August, and cultivated in pots will flower the following spring and summer. The Imperial or Emperor stocks, sometimes called Perpetual, are large flowering, and white, rose, crimson and blood-red in color. "Hardy's All-the-Year-Round," is a perpetual bloomer. The plants grow about twelve inches high, and produce hundreds of bunches of double white flowers. Let us linger a little while at this rose bed. Are not those Teas lovely? Look at Madame Lambard, one of the finest French roses imported recently from Paris. Is not the color exquisite--a beautiful shade of silver bronze, changing to salmon and fawn, delicately shaded with carmine rose. And so deliciously fragrant! That rose so large and full, with a rare shade of violet red, brightened with crimson maroon, is Aline Sisley. It is surprising how such a tiny plant could have produced such an immense flower! And this is Letty Coles, a new French rose, very handsome and sweet; color rosy-pink, deeply shaded with intense crimson. Perle des Jardins is magnificent with its rich golden yellow, and Bon Silene has long been a special favorite. Its buds are large and beautiful. That charming white so deliciously scented is Mademoiselle Rachel, and this one with pure deep green flowers is Verdiflora, or Green Rose, scentless, and of no value except as a curiosity. This grand rose is Abel Carriere, a hybrid perpetual more beautiful I think than the popular Jacqueminot in the perfectness of its form, and richness of its color. The outer petals are bright glowing crimson-scarlet, while the center is a deep fiery red. But it will never do to linger longer among the sweet roses, for there are many other flowers to show you. I think that Hydrangea, with its immense trusses of bloom, is just one of the most desirable shrubs we can have in the garden. I have had mine six or seven years, and it bore three clusters of flowers the first year, though a wee plant. It blooms from August till hard frost, and needs no protection in the winter, though I do sometimes put a mulching of straw or a bit of brush around the roots. A lady writing to _Vick's Magazine_ says of this Hydrangea: "The first year I planted _Hydrangea Grandiflora_ it produced three heads of flowers, the second, fifty-six, and the third year ninety-two. Thorough cultivation and a pail of liquid manure once a week, helped the plant to bear this enormous load of flowers." Hydrangea _Alaska_ is a more recent acquisition. Its flowers frequently measure twelve inches across, and are of a bright pink color, not hardy at the North. _Hydrangea Thomas Hogg_ would be a very unpoetical name did it not remind one of "The Ettrick Shepherd." This variety was sent to the United States from Japan, by that eminent botanist for whom it is named, and has become deservedly popular. It belongs to the Hortensia section of the family, but is a far more abundant bloomer than any other. The flowers are of the purest white, of very firm texture, and retain their beauty for a long time. A more recent novelty sent from Japan by Mr. Hogg, is the "New Climbing Hydrangea," which he describes as clinging to trees to the height of fifty feet, producing corymbs of white flowers of the size of ordinary Hydrangeas. It clings exactly like the Ivy, and must produce a striking effect when in full bloom. It is entirely hardy. Mr. Peter Henderson was the first to offer this novelty here and in Europe. _Elegantissima_ is a novelty truly with its leaves flaked, bordered and striped with golden yellow. I do not know whether it blossoms or not, it is handsome enough without flowers. HELIOTROPE. The new Heliotrope _Le Negre_ is the darkest of this genus, and _Snow Wreath_ the nearest approach to white we have yet had; truss very large, growth compact, and fragrance exquisite. _Garibaldi_ is almost white; _Mrs. Burgess_ is dark violet, and _Duc de Lavendury_ is a rich blue, dark eye. [Illustration] Sweet Alyssum is another of the essential flowers for the border, admirable for edgings, for its dwarf habit and continuity of bloom. The great novelty of last year was the new double variegated Sweet Alyssum--"The Gem." The flowers are very full, and the foliage broad with a mid-rib of light green, bordered on each side with pure white. It is a fine, compact grower, and far superior to anything of this species yet offered. Lantanas, I think, add greatly to the attractions of the garden, so rich in color and profuse in blooming. _Clotilda_, pink with yellow center, and _Comtesse de Diencourt_, flower bright rose and yellow center sulphur, are very desirable. _Alba perfecta_, pure white, is fine, so also is _Alba lutea grandiflora_, white with yellow center. _Mine d'Or_ is a new variety, with bright orange and crimson flowers, and golden variegated foliage. _M. Schmidt_ is a beautiful novelty. Flowers of a brilliant yellow, passing into purple vermilion; grows in the style of a Petunia. A Talk About Cyclamens and Oxalis. Next to Primroses, and by no means below them in value, we place the Cyclamen. The leaves, a deep green with white embroidery, are very ornamental, but when surmounted with a wealth of bloom, what can be more charming? Two of mine have begun to blossom--a white and a pink--and the buds are numerous. Others will bloom later. They continue in bloom for a long period, and are easy of culture, though where there is over-dryness of atmosphere, they are apt to be infested with the red spider. They need to be frequently sprayed and it is well to immerse occasionally the entire plant in water so as to wet the under surface of the leaves. The water ought to be tepid, and indeed for all plants in cold weather. To keep the dirt from falling out when the plant is plunged top downward, something can be wrapped around the pot. A mixture of turfy loam and sandy peat is best, but when not available, leaf mold or a rich mellow soil mixed with silver sand will do. There are several varieties of Cyclamen, but the most common is _persicum_, and many catalogues name no other. One of mine is _gigantium_, an improvement on _persicum_, the flowers being much larger and finer in every respect. Among many catalogues I find this named in only one. _Persicum_, white and pink, is a sweet scented variety from Cyprus; _Africanum_, white and rose, from Africa; _hederæfolium_, from Britain. Other rare and expensive sorts are _Atkinsii_, white, crimson and rose colored; _Europeum_, red, and _Coum_, which in the early spring months bears above its very ornamental leaves "a profusion of small bright, rosy, crimson and snow-white turbinate blossoms of a roundish recurved outline, blotched with violet-crimson at the base, very beautiful." The bulbs of all Cyclamens, except _Coum_, should be placed on the surface of the soil, covered half an inch, and water given moderately till the leaves are fully developed, and the flowers appear, when it may be applied more liberally. Do not make a mistake and plant your bulb upside down as did a lady I know of. "I have an idea that it is put in wrong, as the leaves seem to come from the under side," she writes. It is difficult to tell sometimes which is the right side to put down. _Persicum_, with its dappled green and silvery gray, rounded, heart-shaped leaves, embroidered margins, is a fine ornament, but when these are surmounted with a profusion of pure silvery white oblong lanceolate petals, blotched with violet-crimson at their base, borne on slender flower-scopes, the plant is very beautiful. It varies in color from snow-white delicate peach and rosy crimson. Some are delightfully fragrant. During the growing and flowering season the plant should have a full exposure to the light, but not to the intense sunshine. After blooming, the bulbs may be allowed a time of rest, removing them to a cool and shady place in the border, if desired, watering rarely. In early autumn repot, and after a few weeks of growth, water more freely. It does not, however, injure the plant to keep it constantly growing, and the best florists have very generally abandoned their former method of letting them rest during the summer. _Cyclamen autumnale flore alba_, white, and _rubra_, red, blossom in the autumn. OXALIS. The winter blooming varieties are admirably adapted for hanging-pots, and being cheap and very easy of cultivation, they ought to be in every dwelling. There are one hundred and fifty known varieties, though our catalogues rarely name half-a-dozen. Some are strictly winter bloomers, others flower only in summer, and some blossom the year round. The _floribunda_ varieties belong to this class of perpetuals. _Ortgiesi_ also, which is a wonderful bloomer, and on account of its erect growth, is admirably adapted for pot culture. It is a new and somewhat rare species from Brazil. It often grows eighteen inches high, and in good form. The upper side of the leaf is rich olive green, and the under side bright violet purple. The flowers are quite small, yellow, and borne in clusters. The special beauty is in the foliage. _Floribunda alba_ and _rosea_ have tuberous roots. The foliage is very strong, and the clusters of bloom are borne on long foot-stalks starting directly from the tuber. A single small tuber will often have a hundred open flowers at a time. They are from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. This variety can be obtained and planted at any time of the year. It is admirably adapted for baskets or a hanging-pot. _Oxalis acetocella_ is the true shamrock of Ireland. Flowers are white, borne on stalks two to four inches high. _Versicolor_ is a winter bloomer; color white, with bright pink margins to the petals; requires sunshine; the flowers will not expand in cloudy weather. _Floribunda_ has no such freaks, but smiles in the storm, as well as the sunshine. A lady writing to Mr. Vick becomes enthusiastic over her Oxalis. She says: "The sixth of last October I planted a bulb of _Oxalis versicolor_, and it is just beginning to bloom. And oh! what lovely flowers; delicate and perfect in form, pure white, with just the faintest tinge of yellow in the center, and beautiful crimson stripes on the outside. The plant also is of a very graceful habit, bearing its tuft of small leaves, and clusters of flowers on the top of a short, slender stem. It seems strange that so small a bulb can produce such beautiful flowers." Of _Bowii_ she thus writes: "A year ago last October I planted a bulb of _Oxalis Bowii_ in a small bed. The bulb was so very small that I did not believe the flowers could amount to much, but was soon most agreeably disappointed. Such a mass of flowers on one small plant I had never seen before, and such large, bright-colored flowers! Many stopped to admire it, and ask its name. It continued to produce a mass of flowers the entire winter and part of the spring, until the sun became very hot. From this one bulb I obtained eight, which I wrapped in paper and kept in a dry place. About the first of August they commenced growing, and so I planted them, and the first of September they were in full bloom, though the flower grew large as the days became less hot, until they were nearly as large as Petunias. The soil in which they grew was mostly sand and rich surface earth from the woods, and I sometimes watered them with weak soap-suds." Mr. Vick, to whom we are indebted for the most of our information on this subject, says that this variety has large, thick, fleshy leaves, and large, bright, rose-colored flowers, the largest, indeed, of any of the cultivated kinds. In his illustrated article he gives an engraving of one named _Cernuus plena_, the flowers of which resemble double Portulacas; erect, borne in clusters. We regret that he gives no reference to this variety whatever. It must be a rare sort, probably not in the market here. A Talk About Lilies. "CONSIDER THE LILIES." Thus spake one wiser than Solomon, even He whose hand created and beautified the Lilies with a glory surpassing that of the greatest of Israel's kings. This department of the Floral kingdom is too vast for us to explore; we can only make a selection of a few of the numerous varieties for consideration, gathering our information from the various sources at hand, and adapting it to our present use. The Lily is the rival of the Rose, and by many is considered far superior. They certainly are far more easily cultivated. They are hardy, elegant, gorgeous sometimes, and sometimes of snowy purity. Many of them are of exquisite fragrance. There are early and late bloomers, and one can have these desirable flowers in succession for several months, by a right selection. The earliest bloomers are the _Pomponiums_, natives of Siberia, and are perfectly hardy. The _Lancifolium_ or _Speciosum_ is the autumn blooming Lily, native of Japan. _Lancifolium Album_, a fine sort, with pure white petals and a pea-green stripe, very fragrant. _Lancifolium Rubrum_, and _Roseum_, though catalogued separately, are the same with different shadings. Some purplish crimson, others a faint blush of rose. Some have a red stripe, others a dark dull green, but all are specially recommended. _Lancifolium Punctatum verum_ is a late bloomer; color, clear white with soft rose spots and green stripes. Finest of the species, _Lancifolium Praecox_; flowers white with a purplish-blush at the tips. _Lancifolium Monstrosum_ or _Corymbiflorum rubrum_, bears its crimson flowers in large clusters. Grows to a great size. The Lancifolium Lilies are of special value for their hardiness and varied beauty, and their cheapness places them within general reach. They are classed under the head of MARTAGONS, or TURKS CAP. [Illustration] _Auratum Imperial_ is the Golden-banded-Lily of Japan which has become so extensively known and popular since its introduction from Japan by Mr. Gordon Dexter. It was first exhibited in July 1862, at the Massachusetts Horticultural Exhibition. It first bloomed in England same year. It was for sometime considered too tender for the Canadas and New England states, but it proved to be hardy. We have had ours twelve years, and give it only a slight protection. The petals of the Auratum are snowy white with a golden band running down the center of each, and freely spotted on the sides with deep carmine red. They are very fragrant. Being of somewhat slender growth, they need support. It does best in a warm sandy soil that has been well manured and dug deeply. It is easily propagated from the scales of the bulbs, each scale producing a small bulbet. They should be planted in a box about a foot deep, in good friable soil about three inches deep, and one inch apart. Sink the box in some out of the way place in the garden, and water frequently. In a short time small bulbs will be found forming on the base, which rapidly grow, and must be transplanted out the second year in the bed; the third or fourth year it will bloom. The little bulbets which form on the mother bulb blossom a year earlier. They should be renewed in the fall, after the foliage is dead. Plant in a bed about four inches deep, and let them remain undisturbed for two years; then they are large enough to bloom and should be transplanted into a permanent bed, if required. LONGIFLORUM LILIES. [Illustration] These trumpet-shaped Lilies are charming in appearance, quite hardy and fragrant. They bloom in July or August, and continue in beauty for a long time. Longiflorum _Japonicum_ blooms in July, and is a fine dwarf bedder; color pure white, with occasionally a greenish tinge outside. Increases rapidly. _Eximium_ bears a longer flower, from six to nine inches in length, and is more open at the mouth than the common Longiflorum. Pure white and very fragrant. _Brownii_ is a native of Japan, and is a grand Lily of rare beauty. It resembles Longiflorum in shape, but is larger and more expanding; color white inside, exterior brownish-purple; stamens rich chocolate, which forms a distinctive feature in this species. It has been frequently confounded with _Japonicum_, but the difference is very marked in the illustrations of the two, and are thus noted in Messrs. Hallock & Thorp's "Catalogue of Lilies." "JAPONICUM (_Odorum, Japonicum Colchesterii_). One of the most beautiful and rarest Lilies in cultivation. It differs from Brownii and all the forms of Longiflorum in many respects. Note the following marked differences: Its broader, fewer and more spreading leaves, the shape of the entire flower and broader claw of its divisions, its shorter anthers with pollen tinged with red. The flower is solitary and large, interior pure white, exterior of a pinkish-brown color, tubular, bell-shaped, with spreading revolute tips; the bud shows a rich golden tint. Bulb white, or whitish-yellow, never red or brown, broad at the base, the scales which are somewhat narrow and acute at the tip, the outer ones terminate at about two-thirds of the height of the inner scales, whereas in Brownii the scales are broad, and all pass up, overlapping, and terminate together at the apex of the bulb, thus making the base much narrower than the apex." It is a native of Japan, and is so exceedingly rare that it is priced at $7.00, more than double the cost of any other in the list. Brownii was priced, when a novelty at $4.00, but is now offered for $1.75. [Illustration] _Candidum_, sometimes called Easter Lily, is one of the best known and commonly grown of all the Lilies. It has been in cultivation for about three hundred years. Bears a profusion of pure white fragrant flowers in a compact head. The double _Tiger Lily_ is a very great improvement on the old single variety. It is very double, and very showy. _Wallacei_ is a new Japanese variety, said to be magnificent; color, buff, spotted with black. _Chalcedonicum_ or _Scarlet Martagon_ is supposed to be the "Lily of the field" mentioned in the Gospel. "It is magnificent, and its intense scarlet is one of the finest shades in the whole vegetable kingdom. A full bed is a most magnificent sight, and if suddenly looked at on a bright day, has nearly the same effect for a moment as if looking at the sun. It is much scarcer than it should be, and requires careful culture, to be planted about six or eight inches deep, and watered in the summer time. It pleases every one who is capable of being pleased." Lilies, as well as many other bloomers, are greatly improved by thinning out the overplus, thus concentrating the sap to fewer blossoms, which being thus liberally nourished, greatly increase in size, and amply repay, by their superiority, for the loss in numbers. Although this is a demonstrated fact, yet few have the courage to prune where flowers are not very abundant, and many will not when they are. Those who have limited space are loth to devote much room to Lilies, preferring plants that bloom continually throughout the season, or that make more show. But it is not essential that the bed should be devoted exclusively to lilies. For early spring blooming there can be the Crocuses, Snowdrops, Hyacinths, Tulips, all of which will bloom before the lilies, and after flowering can be taken up, i.e., the Tulips and Hyacinths, and low bedding plants take their places. Portulaca, Pansy, Ageratum, Mignonnette, Nemophila, Sweet Alyssum, are all suitable for this purpose, and will not only make the bed beautiful all the season with their blossoms, but will also be of real benefit to the Lilies by shading their roots somewhat, and keeping the soil more cool and moist. Lilies must never be crowded; a foot or twenty inches is about right. The soil should be dug deep and mixed with old rotted manure and sand liberally, unless the soil is naturally sandy; if heavy, clayey soil, it ought to have in addition to sharp sand, leaf mold and bog muck. Plant the bulbs from six to eight inches deep, according to the size. Last autumn, in planting my Lily, Tulip, Hyacinth, and other bulbs, I made a little bed for each of pure sand, and then covered well with soil, over which was put a blanket of old dressing, then, before snow, a covering of boughs. The bulbs never came up so grandly, nor grew so rapidly before. October is the best month for bedding out, later will do, and many do not plant their Lilies till the frost is out in the spring. The two leading Lily growers of this country are John L. Child and V. H. Hallock & Thorp, of Queens, N. Y. [Illustration] DOUBLE WHITE BOUVARDIA, "ALFRED NEUNER." This is indeed a novelty among this class of valuable plants, being the first double ever known. It is said to be equal if not superior, in profuse blooming quality, and vigorous, healthy growth, to the single white variety, _Davidsonii_, of which it is a sport. The flowers are rather larger than those of the single flowering, and composed of three perfect rows of petals, of the purest waxy white color, each floweret resembling a miniature Tuberose. The trusses are large and perfect, and are freely and without interruption produced, even on the small side shoots, which generally make no flowers on the single one. It is highly praised by Mr. Thomas Meehan, florist and editor of the _Gardeners' Monthly_, and by Mr. Henry A. Dreer, florist, of Philadelphia. "A grand thing," says Mr. Meehan. "Gives great satisfaction. It has excelled our expectation," says Mr. Dreer. My own specimen, about four inches in height, has twelve buds; two small clusters are on side-shoots. The very fine illustration of this Bouvardia we give our readers, has been kindly loaned by the Ellis Brothers, Keene, N. H., who have a fine stock which they are offering to the public. Mr. Henry Cannell says, "Of all plants the Bouvardia, in our opinion, excels for cut flowers, no matter either for button-hole bouquets or table decoration; a spray of it is sure to be most prominent and pleasing, and the odor of several kinds is deliciously refreshing, and if well-grown they will more or less continue flowering nine months out of the year. Strange to say, they need only the ordinary course of cultivation of the winter-flowering Zonal Pelargonium; hitherto they have been treated as a stove plant, whereas they only need a temperature not higher than 50° to 60°, and in the summer to have every attention, like a specimen Chrysanthemum, and on the first appearance of frost to be taken into the house, and when growing and flowering, to be supplied with liquid manure occasionally." Our only experience with this genus has been with _Bouvardia Humboldtii Corymbiflora_, and it has proved to be a very valuable plant. Its pure white flowers are produced in large trusses; their tubes are three inches in length, and very fragrant. It blooms very freely and for a long period. This variety and _Vreelandii_ are the best single white. _Liantha_ is a dazzling scarlet, and a very profuse bloomer. _Elegans_, salmon-scarlet; large and fine. _Lady Hyslop_, a light rose. _Canspicua_ is of a blood-red color, with whitish tube. _Bicolor_, a summer-flowering variety. Flower tube purple, with tint of blue and delicately mottled flesh, tipped with white. These last we find, only in Cannell's _Floral Guide_. I have no difficulty in keeping my Bouvardia in the cellar, the leaves drop off, but they come out anew in the spring. CAMELLIA JAPONICA. This is a very popular genus on account of their rich dark-green leaves, and beautiful rose-like flowers. They are hardy greenhouse plants, and thrive best in light loam mixed with sand and peat, but will do well in light soil without the peat. It will not flourish in a limestone soil. Mr. Vick gives the following in his Magazine: "The Camellia Japonica was sent to England in 1739 by Father Kamel, a missionary, for whom it was named. As a house-plant the Camellia requires considerable care, on account of the tendency of the flower buds to drop off. A northern exposure is best, and a temperature of from forty to fifty degrees. When the buds are swelling, water plentifully with warm water, but allow none to stand in the saucer. Sponge the leaves once a week. In the spring put the plant out in a shady place on the north side of a house or fence, not under the drip of trees, and water it every day. Set the pots on a hard bottom, so that no worms can get into them. They form their flower beds during the summer, and at this time a good growth of wood must be encouraged. "In the Southern States the Camellia can be raised with not more than ordinary care; at the North it must be considered entirely a green-house plant, and as such will always be highly prized. We are often asked how it should be cared for as a house-plant, and to all such, in the northern part of the country, where it is necessary to maintain good fires in warm houses for several months of the year, we have no hesitation in saying, let it alone, do not expend care and labor where there is so little prospect of reward." Camellias are of many hues, and some are beautifully striped. _Gen. Lafayette_, bright rose, striped with white, imbricated. _Bell Romann_, imbricated, large flower and petals, rose striated with bright crimson. _Matteo Molfino_, petals cerise, with pure white band down center. _Mrs. Lurmann_, crimson, spotted, very beautiful. Pure colors of white, red, crimson, rose and carmine, can be obtained. AZALEA.--Shrubby green-house plants of easy cultivation. Very showy and hardy. Like the Camellia, they are found in all the leading colors, and also striped, blotched and spotted. They are both single and double. _Alexander II_, is white, striped with vermilion; edges of petals fringed. _Aurelia_, white, striped with rosy orange, amaranth spots. _Flag of Truce_, is a pure double white, very fine. _Her Majesty_, is rosy-lilac, edged with white. _Alice_, rose, blotched with vermilion; double. Mr. Vick gives the following directions: "Azaleas need a light soil of sandy loam, to which should be added one-half leaf mold. Repotting should be done in May, trimming the tops to bring them into shape. Then plunge in some sheltered spot in the garden. In September the plants should be brought in under cover, or into a cool room. They do best when the temperature ranges from forty degrees at night to sixty-five or seventy by day. The foliage should be showered once a week, but care must be taken that the roots are not over-watered, as they rot easily. Small plants bloom well, but their beauty increases as they get age and size. The flowers appear on the terminal shoots, and are from one inch to two and a half inches in diameter. "Azaleas if left to themselves will develop long shoots, that after a time become naked below and are furnished with leaves only at their extremities. Flower stems are formed on the new wood of each summer's growth, consequently the amount of bloom, other things being equal, depends upon the amount of new wood annually produced. In order to have plants of good shape when they become large, it is necessary to give attention to pinching and training them from the first. The pyramid form, or more properly that of a cone, and rounded at the top, is considered the best for the plant, as it allows the greatest exposure of leaf-surface. Two principal methods are adopted to regulate the growth and bring plants into shape: one is by successive pinchings as the growth proceeds, the other by allowing long shoots to grow and then bending and training them down, thus causing many of the dormant buds along their whole length to break and develop into shoots. A skillful combination of the two methods is probably better than either exclusively." Mr. John Dick, Philadelphia, has the largest stock of Camellias and Azaleas, it is stated, in the United States. Their catalogue list of these plants embraces more than a hundred varieties, to which we refer our readers. The Ingathering of the Flowers. We have come to see your garden, said a gentleman with a lady in company. They were from a neighboring town. This two weeks after the heavy frost! I told them my garden was in the stable, and thither I piloted them. It was not a very small garden if it was in a stable. A hundred or more plants had been hurriedly removed from the beds the day before that freezing night! There they were, in the soiled pots just as taken from the ground, or packed closely in boxes. Not very attractive looking, in one sense, yet in another they were, for they were bright, healthy appearing plants--leaves as fresh as when in the open air, pretty Geraniums in bloom, a mass of Lobelia, attractive with their tiny blue flowers, Coleus of varied hues, and even a few Roses struggling into bloom. Then we strolled among the despoiled beds, and the Pansies, so large and pert, elicited admiration, and the Sweet Peas, just as fragrant as though blight were not all around them, while dear little Mignonnette seemed to have taken a new lease of life. Yesterday I arranged in a shallow glass dish as handsome a bouquet as I have had for the season. Sweet Clover sprays, Mignonnette and fragrant Geranium leaves for the foundation all around the dish, a few bunches of the little white wax balls, with their glossy leaves, Geranium blossoms, and lots of Sweet Peas, from the most delicate shades to the deepest, and bunches of splendid Pansies, Sweet Alyssum, a bit of purple Verbena here and there, and white-eyed Phlox. It was just lovely. When the evidence was sure that frost was surely coming, and a great many plants must be taken up in a few hours' time, I was so glad that full half of them were in pots. I could never have potted a third of them in the time. The great object was to get them sheltered, and the repotting could be done at my leisure. But I almost changed my mind the other day after toiling several hours at the business. So many pots to wash! then fill with fresh earth, and set the plant. O dear, wasn't I tired! But then the wide door was open, the day was lovely, and I rather think potting plants in a stable is better than potting out of doors on a cold day, and when one is in a great hurry. Plants that are in pots plunged in the ground do not grow so many roots, and that is another advantage. MY WINDOW BOX. Perhaps I may as well tell you about my most important window box. I had it made last autumn, and I was greatly pleased with it. It is made of zinc, size one yard long, fourteen inches broad, seven inches in depth. To give it strength it is framed at the top with wood. You can have this of black walnut, or stained in imitation. You can have the box painted any color you wish, or leave it unpainted. In the center is Croton "Weismanni," on one side of it a fine Eranthemum pictum; its green leaves look as though they were painted with white streaks; on the other side, Acalypha "Macafeeana." These are the largest plants in my box, and they do not exceed ten inches in height. There are sixty plants in all, mostly averaging six inches in height, but a few are quite small. They consist of very choice Geraniums--some of them handsome-leaved--variegated Abutilons, Lemon Verbena, two bright Achyranthes, six very beautiful Coleuses, and four fine Begonias. There are others I cannot stop to specify. You will see that I have filled my box with what are, in themselves, beautiful without the aid of flowers, though I expect to have a few of these by-and-by. I am perfectly satisfied with it, however, just as it is. I had a large German Ivy growing out of doors, which consisted of several long vines. This I planted in one corner of the box, and then drooped and twined it on the outside. The change to indoor life caused the large green leaves to fall off, but already new ones have put forth, and the vines are rapidly growing. Everything else had been previously prepared so that there was no change in their leafage after being put in the box. It is a great addition to the beauty of the box to have vines of pretty foliage drape the sides. This autumn I have had it placed on a small, low table with castors, so I can change the plants every week, and thus avoid that turning toward the window which they always assume if kept in one position. I first put in drainage, and then filled the box with rich, mellow earth in which was a mixture of one-third sand. I have been thus particular in my description, for many, no doubt, who, like myself, have to make the most of limited space, will be glad to know just how to keep the greatest number of plants to the best advantage. Not only is there a saving of room, but of labor, and it is more cleanly. HYACINTHS. Among the essentials for winter flowers are the bulbs. Of these the hyacinth takes the lead. They are so easily grown; so lovely and so fragrant that they are worthy of a place in every collection. They should be planted so that the upper surface of the bulb is visible. Water liberally and then put away in a cool dark place for several weeks, six weeks is none too long, and some I allow to remain a longer time, bringing them to the light at intervals so as to have a succession of flowers. They are very effective planted in a group. They are very pretty in hyacinth glasses, but this method ruins the bulbs for future use. Planted out they will sometimes flower. The best time to plant them in the border is in October, but the first of November will do. It is a good plan to make a little bed of sand for the bulb, and then cover with light porous soil. Hyacinths are classed as tall and dwarf, single and double. The Roman Hyacinth is the earliest bloomer, coming into flower about the holidays if started in season. The spikes are small and flowers rather scattering. As soon as the blooms fade, the stalk should be removed, and when the leaves turn yellow, they can be cut off, and the bulb dried and packed in paper bags and kept till time for autumn planting. Hyacinth bulbs come from Holland. About Haarlem the rubbish heaps are hyacinths, and the air is oppressive with their perfume. In California there grows what is called the Twining Hyacinth. It grows in the mountains, and twines about the bushes, sometimes going up eight and ten feet. After it gets to the top of the bush and rests awhile, it lets go of the earth and goes on blooming for months, regardless of the burning sun. The flower stem breaks off near the ground, and the flowers are kept swinging in the air supported only by the bush about which it twines. The color is deep rose, and it is said to be very pretty. The picture of it certainly looks attractive. It is a large cluster composed of dozens of blossoms. For flowering in the house the Polyanthus Narcissus are very desirable. They can be put into glasses as well as the Hyacinth, but the most natural method is in a pot of earth, and the bulb is in a better condition for after use. The Jonquils are also pretty. Snowdrops, Scillas and the Crocus are cheap bulbs, and planted in the autumn will show their bright, sweet faces soon after the snow is gone. They are also very fine for house culture. Should be planted in groups. Tulips ought to have a place in every garden. They make a brilliant show in the Spring, when the beds are bare of other flowers, and afford bloom for a long time, if a good assortment is selected. The pretty little dwarf Duc Van Thols are early bloomers and very gay. They are admirable also for the house, and by planting in September, will come into flower in December. There are early single and double Tulips, and also late bloomers, so that by having a variety, the border may look gay for a long time. The Parrot Tulips are large and very brilliant in color, and picturesque in appearance. All of these varieties succeed in ordinary garden soil. They ought to be planted in October or November, about four to six inches apart, and about four inches under the surface. Before severe frost they need to be protected by branches of evergreen, straw or leaves. After blooming, and the leaves have died down, they can be taken up, dried and stored till autumn, if the bed is needed for other flowers. The Bulb catalogues issued by leading florists in the autumn, and sent free to all applicants, will enable you to select just what you want. INSECTS. In a work of this character it seems needful to treat more fully of those pests which prove so destructive to plant life, than we have in our brief references. The APHIS or green louse is the one that most frequently infests our plants, and the rapidity with which it multiplies, is astonishing. REAUMER has proved that in five generations one aphis may be the progenitor of six thousand millions, and there may be ten generations in a year! The method most generally adopted for their destruction is fumigation with tobacco. As this is attended with considerable difficulty, a weak solution may be used quite as effectively. We have had no experience with either method, having used another with good success for several years. This is white hellebore which we usually apply in the powder when the Rose-bushes are wet with dew or rain, bending the branches over, so that the application can be made chiefly on the under side of the leaves, where the pests are found. Two or three times proves sufficient. For our house plants we usually make a solution, by putting half an ounce of the hellebore into pretty warm water, and letting it stand for several hours, stirring it up however, before spraying the leaves. Afterward, the plants need to be washed. For the SCALE a strong solution of soap-suds applied with a sponge or a small stiff brush. A tooth brush is very suitable for this purpose. For MEALY BUG, a mixture of one part alcohol and three parts water, applying with a feather, or what is better, a camel hair brush. Another method is to use kerosene in the same way. A florist who has practiced this for eight years, says it is sure death to the insect. The feather should be brushed all over the mealy-looking substances found usually in the axils of the leaves. WORMS IN POTS. Lime water is a safe and effectual remedy for the little white worms often found in the soil. Slake the lime in water and after it has settled, pour off the clear water and drench the earth. ANTS. Various remedies have proved effective. One is to take a vial or a cup nearly filled with sweet oil, and sink it in the ground where the ants resort, so that the rim is on a level with the surface. The ants are very fond of it, but it is sure death to them. A German writer says that carbolic acid and water will drive ants away from any grounds--one hundred parts of water to one of the acid. Mix in a tub and stir repeatedly for twenty-four hours, taking off the scum that rises to the top. Kerosene or coal-oil mixed with water has proved very successful in the destruction of noxious insects and grubs. A tablespoonful of the oil to two gallons of water is the rule for tender plants; for hardy ones it will be necessary probably to have it of greater strength. As the compound does not mix readily, it needs to be thoroughly stirred, and then quickly applied. The best way is to draw it back and forth a few times in a syringe, and then apply. Water tainted with coal-oil, poured into little holes made in mole tracks, will, it is said, drive them effectually away. INDEX OF FLORISTS. For the convenience of our readers who may wish to procure varieties of plants of which we have treated in this work, we give the address of reliable florists who make a specialty of those connected with their address. All of them will furnish their catalogues free when requested. PANSIES. SEEDS FOR THE WILD GARDEN. B. K. Bliss & Sons, New York City. VERBENAS, PETUNIAS, FUCHSIAS. C. E. Allen, Brattleboro, Vt. GERANIUMS. Innisfallen Greenhouses, Springfield, Ohio. PELARGONIUMS, ORNAMENTAL FOLIAGE PLANTS, GLOXINIAS. John Saul, Washington, D. C. GLADIOLUS, SINGLE DAHLIAS, NOVELTY DAHLIA. V. H. Hallock & Thorp, Queens, N. Y. COLEUSES--NEW HYBRIDS, DRAC�NAS. H. A. Dreer, Philadelphia, Pa. CHINESE PRIMROSES, NEW PRIMULA, DOUBLE WHITE BOUVARDIA. Ellis Brothers, Keene, N. H. NEW MONTHLY PELARGONIUMS. John G. Heinl, Terre Haute, Ind. WISTARIA. E. H. Ellwanger, Rochester, N. Y. AMARYLLIS, RARE VARIETIES. John L. Child, Queens, N. Y. LILIES A SPECIALTY. John L. Child; V. H. Hallock & Thorp, Queens, N. Y. CAMELLIAS AND AZALEAS. John Dick jr., 53d st., and Darby Road, Philadelphia, Pa. AUTHOR'S NOTES. _Vick's Illustrated Magazine_ is the best Floricultural Monthly we know of for amateurs. We are indebted to it for much of the information we have obtained respecting the culture of flowers, and have drawn largely from its pages in this work. There is a finely colored frontispiece in each number, and it is otherwise fully illustrated. Its entire arrangement evidences the fine æsthetic taste of its editor and publisher. It is very low at $1.25 per year. Beautifully bound vols., $1.75. Mr. James Vick, Rochester, N. Y. _The Gardener's Monthly and Horticulturist_ takes a wider range, treating not only of Flowers, but also of Fruit and Vegetable Gardening, Natural History and Science, Forestry, etc. The ample Notes pertaining to the several departments, by its editor, Mr. Thomas Meehan, are of special value. Published by Chas. H. Marot, Philadelphia, Pa., at $2.10 per annum. "AN ESSAY ON ROSES." NOTICES OF THE PRESS. Mrs. M. D. Wellcome of Yarmouth, Me., whose pleasant and helpful "Talks About Flowers" are familiar to the readers of _The Journal_, has published in a neat pamphlet, _An Essay on Roses_, which was read before the Maine Pomological Convention last March, and has since been revised and enlarged for publication. This essay treats the subject historically and descriptively. It considers the classification of Roses, tells what Roses to plant, gives suggestions as to the best mode of culture, and furnishes a list of the best hybrids and of the best ever-blooming varieties. Mrs. Wellcome writes with enthusiasm, and from a thorough knowledge and a considerable experience. All lovers of roses, and all amateur horticulturists will find the little monograph interesting and suggestive. _Boston Journal._ The valuable and instructive _Essay on Roses_ read before the Maine Pomological Convention by Mrs. M. D. Wellcome, has been issued in a neat pamphlet.... Our readers who are familiar with Mrs. Wellcome's writings, will know how to value this production of her busy pen. _Portland Transcript._ Our well-appreciated correspondent, Mrs. M. D. Wellcome, has published in a neat pamphlet, an essay upon "Roses."... It is an interesting and practical little manual, and will prove a valuable aid to young horticulturists. _Zion's Herald._ The _Waterville Mail_ says: "Of this essay it is sufficient to say that it was prepared by a graceful writer,--a well-known contributor to the literary department of several prominent Journals, and a skillful florist--and that it secured the approbation of the Convention before whom it was read, and the representatives of the agricultural press." Rev. J. M. Orrock, editor of _Messiah's Herald_, after describing the work, adds: "The author says in her introduction, 'I have brought you a bouquet of Roses, and there is little of my own but the string that binds them.' It is indeed, a pretty bouquet, and we hope many of her friends will want to see and enjoy it." Mr. Samuel L. Boardman Esq., editor of the _Home Farm_, says: "This little booklet about Roses is just the plain, sensible guide all amateur growers will be profited by reading. There is just enough of history and sentiment in its opening pages, ample directions for culture, treatment, etc., closing with descriptions of the most desirable Roses, and lists from which to make selections for larger cultivators. Mechanically, the little book is as delicate as a rosebud; and every lover of this queenly flower should procure a copy." The "Essay" is issued in a neatly illustrated pamphlet of 24 pages, with ornamental cover. Price 15 cents. For sale by the author, Yarmouth, Me. GERANIUMS! We offer a fine assortment of Geraniums at =10 CENTS EACH=, for your selection; or we will send =16 FINE SORTS= of our own selection, all labeled, prepaid, by mail, for a remittance of $1.25. We have by far the largest stock of Geraniums in this country. Roses, Ever Blooming. We have a fine collection of Roses that we offer, strong flowering plants, labeled, at =10 CENTS EACH=, your choice; or we will send =16 FINE PLANTS= of our own selection, prepaid, by mail, for a remittance of $1.25. We also offer a fine assortment of all kinds of flowering plants at the above low price. Send for a catalogue. Address, INNISFALLEN GREENHOUSES, SPRINGFIELD, O. The Latest Novelty in Roses. NEW HYBRID TEAS. This new class of ROSES combine =HARDINESS=, =CONSTANT BLOOM=, and =DELICATE COLORING=. They originated in England, and are now offered for the first time in this country. For full description of these Roses, and price, send for catalogue. E. C. ALLEN, Brattleboro, Vermont. FREE! We wish to obtain 25,000 New Subscribers to THE FLORAL MONTHLY during the next few months, and we propose to give to every reader of this paper _Fifty Cents Worth of Choice Flower Seeds_. Our offer is to send, Free of Cost, 50 cents worth of Choice Flower Seeds to each and every one who will send us 25 two cent postage stamps for the FLORAL MONTHLY one year. Seeds sent free by return mail. Specimen copies free. Address =W. E. MORTON & CO., FLORISTS=, 615 Congress Street, =Portland, Me.= (NATURAL FLOWERS PRESERVED TO LAST FOR YEARS.) * * * * * Transcriber's Note: Punctuation has been standardised, and typographical errors such as missing or reversed letters have been silently corrected. Variations in hyphenation (such as greenhouse and green-house), and obsolete or variant spelling have been preserved. In particular, variations in the spelling of some botanical names have been left as printed in the original book. In the Table of Contents, the entry "A Talk About Pansies" was printed as "Pansies"; this has been changed to match the chapter title as printed on page 33. The following changes were also made: Pg 82, Verschaffellii changed to Verschaffeltii: (Verschaffeltii, we fear). Pg 109, Ainwick changed to Alnwick: (a visit to Alnwick Castle). 
4066	----	Proofreading Team. HTML version by Al Haines. Wild Apples. By Henry David Thoreau CONTENTS THE HISTORY OF THE APPLE-TREE. THE WILD APPLE. THE CRAB. HOW THE WILD APPLE GROWS. THE FRUIT, AND ITS FLAVOR. THEIR BEAUTY. THE NAMING OF THEM. THE LAST GLEANING. THE "FROZEN-THAWED" APPLE. THE HISTORY OF THE APPLE-TREE. It is remarkable how closely the history of the Apple-tree is connected with that of man. The geologist tells us that the order of the Rosaceae, which includes the Apple, also the true Grasses, and the Labiatae, or Mints, were introduced only a short time previous to the appearance of man on the globe. It appears that apples made a part of the food of that unknown primitive people whose traces have lately been found at the bottom of the Swiss lakes, supposed to be older than the foundation of Rome, so old that they had no metallic implements. An entire black and shrivelled Crab-Apple has been recovered from their stores. Tacitus says of the ancient Germans that they satisfied their hunger with wild apples, among other things. Niebuhr[1] observes that "the words for a house, a field, a plough, ploughing, wine, oil, milk, sheep, apples, and others relating to agriculture and the gentler ways of life, agree in Latin and Greek, while the Latin words for all objects pertaining to war or the chase are utterly alien from the Greek." Thus the apple-tree may be considered a symbol of peace no less than the olive. [1] A German historical critic of ancient life. The apple was early so important, and so generally distributed, that its name traced to its root in many languages signifies fruit in general. Maelon (Melon), in Greek, means an apple, also the fruit of other trees, also a sheep and any cattle, and finally riches in general. The apple-tree has been celebrated by the Hebrews, Greeks, Romans, and Scandinavians. Some have thought that the first human pair were tempted by its fruit. Goddesses are fabled to have contended for it, dragons were set to watch it, and heroes were employed to pluck it.[2] [2] The Greek myths especially referred to are The Choice of Paris and The Apples of the Hesperides. The tree is mentioned in at least three places in the Old Testament, and its fruit in two or three more. Solomon sings, "As the apple-tree among the trees of the wood, so is my beloved among the sons." And again, "Stay me with flagons, comfort me with apples." The noblest part of man's noblest feature is named from this fruit, "the apple of the eye." The apple-tree is also mentioned by Homer and Herodotus. Ulysses saw in the glorious garden of Alcinous "pears and pomegranates and apple-trees bearing beautiful fruit." And according to Homer, apples were among the fruits which Tantalus could not pluck, the wind ever blowing their boughs away from him. Theophrastus knew and described the apple-tree as a botanist. According to the prose Edda,[3] "Iduna keeps in a box the apples which the gods, when they feel old age approaching, have only to taste of to become young again. It is in this manner that they will be kept in renovated youth until Ragnarok" (or the destruction of the Gods). [3] The stories of the early Scandinavians. I learn from Loudon[4] that "the ancient Welsh bards were rewarded for excelling in song by the token of the apple-spray;" and "in the Highlands of Scotland the apple-tree is the badge of the clan Lamont." [4] An English authority on the culture of orchards and gardens. The apple-tree belongs chiefly to the northern temperate zone. Loudon says, that "it grows spontaneously in every part of Europe except the frigid zone, and throughout Western Asia, China and Japan." We have also two or three varieties of the apple indigenous in North America. The cultivated apple-tree was first introduced into this country by the earliest settlers, and is thought to do as well or better here than anywhere else. Probably some of the varieties which are now cultivated were first introduced into Britain by the Romans. Pliny, adopting the distinction of Theophrastus, says, "Of trees there are some which are altogether wild, some more civilized." Theophrastus includes the apple among the last; and, indeed, it is in this sense the most civilized of all trees. It is as harmless as a dove, as beautiful as a rose, and as valuable as flocks and herds. It has been longer cultivated than any other, and so is more humanized; and who knows but, like the dog, it will at length be no longer traceable to its wild original? It migrates with man, like the dog and horse and cow; first, perchance, from Greece to Italy, thence to England, thence to America; and our Western emigrant is still marching steadily toward the setting sun with the seeds of the apple in his pocket, or perhaps a few young trees strapped to his load. At least a million apple-trees are thus set farther westward this year than any cultivated ones grew last year. Consider how the Blossom-Week, like the Sabbath, is thus annually spreading over the prairies; for when man migrates he carries with him not only his birds, quadrupeds, insects, vegetables, and his very sward, but his orchard also. The leaves and tender twigs are an agreeable food to many domestic animals, as the cow, horse, sheep, and goat; and the fruit is sought after by the first, as well as by the hog. Thus there appears to have existed a natural alliance between these animals and this tree from the first. "The fruit of the Crab in the forests of France" is said to be "a great resource for the wild boar." Not only the Indian, but many indigenous insects, birds, and quadrupeds, welcomed the apple-tree to these shores. The tent-caterpillar saddled her eggs on the very first twig that was formed, and it has since shared her affections with the wild cherry; and the canker-worm also in a measure abandoned the elm to feed on it. As it grew apace, the bluebird, robin, cherry-bird, king-bird, and many more, came with haste and built their nests and warbled in its boughs, and so became orchard-birds, and multiplied more than ever. It was an era in the history of their race. The downy woodpecker found such a savory morsel under its bark, that he perforated it in a ring quite round the tree before he left it,--a thing which he had never done before, to my knowledge. It did not take the partridge long to find out how sweet its buds were, and every winter eve she flew, and still flies, from the wood, to pluck them, much to the farmer's sorrow. The rabbit, too, was not slow to learn the taste of its twigs and bark; and when the fruit was ripe, the squirrel half-rolled, half-carried it to his hole; and even the musquash crept up the bank from the brook at evening, and greedily devoured it, until he had worn a path in the grass there; and when it was frozen and thawed, the crow and the jay were glad to taste it occasionally. The owl crept into the first apple-tree that became hollow, and fairly hooted with delight, finding it just the place for him; so, settling down into it, he has remained there ever since. My theme being the Wild Apple, I will merely glance at some of the seasons in the annual growth of the cultivated apple, and pass on to my special province. The flowers of the apple are perhaps the most beautiful of any tree, so copious and so delicious to both sight and scent. The walker is frequently tempted to turn and linger near some more than usually handsome one, whose blossoms are two thirds expanded. How superior it is in these respects to the pear, whose blossoms are neither colored nor fragrant! By the middle of July, green apples are so large as to remind us of coddling, and of the autumn. The sward is commonly strewed with little ones which fall still-born, as it were,--Nature thus thinning them for us. The Roman writer Palladius said: "If apples are inclined to fall before their time, a stone placed in a split root will retain them." Some such notion, still surviving, may account for some of the stones which we see placed to be overgrown in the forks of trees. They have a saying in Suffolk, England,-- "At Michaelmas time, or a little before, Half an apple goes to the core." Early apples begin to be ripe about the first of August; but I think that none of them are so good to eat as some to smell. One is worth more to scent your handkerchief with than any perfume which they sell in the shops. The fragrance of some fruits is not to be forgotten, along with that of flowers. Some gnarly apple which I pick up in the road reminds me by its fragrance of all the wealth of Pomona,[5]--carrying me forward to those days when they will be collected in golden and ruddy heaps in the orchards and about the cider-mills. [5] The Roman goddess of fruit and fruit-trees. A week or two later, as you are going by orchards or gardens, especially in the evenings, you pass through a little region possessed by the fragrance of ripe apples, and thus enjoy them without price, and without robbing anybody. There is thus about all natural products a certain volatile and ethereal quality which represents their highest value, and which cannot be vulgarized, or bought and sold. No mortal has ever enjoyed the perfect flavor of any fruit, and only the godlike among men begin to taste its ambrosial qualities. For nectar and ambrosia are only those fine flavors of every earthly fruit which our coarse palates fail to perceive,--just as we occupy the heaven of the gods without knowing it. When I see a particularly mean man carrying a load of fair and fragrant early apples to market, I seem to see a contest going on between him and his horse, on the one side, and the apples on the other, and, to my mind, the apples always gain it. Pliny says that apples are the heaviest of all things, and that the oxen begin to sweat at the mere sight of a load of them. Our driver begins to lose his load the moment he tries to transport them to where they do not belong, that is, to any but the most beautiful. Though he gets out from time to time, and feels of them, and thinks they are all there, I see the stream of their evanescent and celestial qualities going to heaven from his cart, while the pulp and skin and core only are going to market. They are not apples, but pomace. Are not these still Iduna's apples, the taste of which keeps the gods forever young? and think you that they will let Loki or Thjassi carry them off to Jotunheim,[6] while they grow wrinkled and gray? No, for Ragnarok, or the destruction of the gods, is not yet. [6] Jotunheim (Ye(r)t'-un-hime) in Scandinavian mythology was the home of the Jotun or Giants. Loki was a descendant of the gods, and a companion of the Giants. Thjassi (Tee-assy) was a giant. There is another thinning of the fruit, commonly near the end of August or in September, when the ground is strewn with windfalls; and this happens especially when high winds occur after rain. In some orchards you may see fully three quarters of the whole crop on the ground, lying in a circular form beneath the trees, yet hard and green,--or, if it is a hillside, rolled far down the hill. However, it is an ill wind that blows nobody any good. All the country over, people are busy picking up the windfalls, and this will make them cheap for early apple-pies. In October, the leaves falling, the apples are more distinct on the trees. I saw one year in a neighboring town some trees fuller of fruit than I remember to have ever seen before, small yellow apples hanging over the road. The branches were gracefully drooping with their weight, like a barberry-bush, so that the whole tree acquired a new character. Even the topmost branches, instead of standing erect, spread and drooped in all directions; and there were so many poles supporting the lower ones, that they looked like pictures of banian-trees. As an old English manuscript says, "The mo appelen the tree bereth the more sche boweth to the folk." Surely the apple is the noblest of fruits. Let the most beautiful or the swiftest have it. That should be the "going" price of apples. Between the fifth and twentieth of October I see the barrels lie under the trees. And perhaps I talk with one who is selecting some choice barrels to fulfil an order. He turns a specked one over many times before he leaves it out. If I were to tell what is passing in my mind, I should say that every one was specked which he had handled; for he rubs off all the bloom, and those fugacious ethereal qualities leave it. Cool evenings prompt the farmers to make haste, and at length I see only the ladders here and there left leaning against the trees. It would be well if we accepted these gifts with more joy and gratitude, and did not think it enough simply to put a fresh load of compost about the tree. Some old English customs are suggestive at least. I find them described chiefly in Brand's "Popular Antiquities." It appears that "on Christmas eve the farmers and their men in Devonshire take a large bowl of cider, with a toast in it, and carrying it in state to the orchard, they salute the apple-trees with much ceremony, in order to make them bear well the next season." This salutation consists in "throwing some of the cider about the roots of the tree, placing bits of the toast on the branches," and then, "encircling one of the best bearing trees in the orchard, they drink the following toast three several times:-- "'Here's to thee, old apple-tree, Whence thou mayst bud, and whence thou mayst blow, And whence thou mayst bear apples enow! Hats-full! caps-full! Bushel, bushel, sacks-full! And my pockets full, too! Hurra!'" Also what was called "apple-howling" used to be practised in various counties of England on New-Year's eve. A troop of boys visited the different orchards, and, encircling the apple-trees, repeated the following words:-- "Stand fast, root! bear well, top! Pray God send us a good howling crop: Every twig, apples big; Every bow, apples enow!" "They then shout in chorus, one of the boys accompanying them on a cow's horn. During this ceremony they rap the trees with their sticks." This is called "wassailing" the trees, and is thought by some to be "a relic of the heathen sacrifice to Pomona." Herrick sings,-- "Wassaile the trees that they may beare You many a plum and many a peare; For more or less fruits they will bring As you so give them wassailing." Our poets have as yet a better right to sing of cider than of wine; but it behooves them to sing better than English Phillips did, else they will do no credit to their Muse. THE WILD APPLE. So much for the more civilized apple-trees (urbaniores, as Pliny calls them). I love better to go through the old orchards of ungrafted apple-trees, at whatever season of the year,--so irregularly planted: sometimes two trees standing close together; and the rows so devious that you would think that they not only had grown while the owner was sleeping, but had been set out by him in a somnambulic state. The rows of grafted fruit will never tempt me to wander amid them like these. But I now, alas, speak rather from memory than from any recent experience, such ravages have been made! Some soils, like a rocky tract called the Easterbrooks Country in my neighborhood, are so suited to the apple, that it will grow faster in them without any care, or if only the ground is broken up once a year, than it will in many places with any amount of care. The owners of this tract allow that the soil is excellent for fruit, but they say that it is so rocky that they have not patience to plough it, and that, together with the distance, is the reason why it is not cultivated. There are, or were recently, extensive orchards there standing without order. Nay, they spring up wild and bear well there in the midst of pines, birches, maples, and oaks. I am often surprised to see rising amid these trees the rounded tops of apple-trees glowing with red or yellow fruit, in harmony with the autumnal tints of the forest. Going up the side of a cliff about the first of November, I saw a vigorous young apple-tree, which, planted by birds or cows, had shot up amid the rocks and open woods there, and had now much fruit on it, uninjured by the frosts, when all cultivated apples were gathered. It was a rank wild growth, with many green leaves on it still, and made an impression of thorniness. The fruit was hard and green, but looked as if it would be palatable in the winter. Some was dangling on the twigs, but more half-buried in the wet leaves under the tree, or rolled far down the hill amid the rocks. The owner knows nothing of it. The day was not observed when it first blossomed, nor when it first bore fruit, unless by the chickadee. There was no dancing on the green beneath it in its honor, and now there is no hand to pluck its fruit,--which is only gnawed by squirrels, as I perceive. It has done double duty,--not only borne this crop, but each twig has grown a foot into the air. And this is such fruit! bigger than many berries, we must admit, and carried home will be sound and palatable next spring. What care I for Iduna's apples so long as I can get these? When I go by this shrub thus late and hardy, and see its dangling fruit, I respect the tree, and I am grateful for Nature's bounty, even though I cannot eat it. Here on this rugged and woody hillside has grown an apple-tree, not planted by man, no relic of a former orchard, but a natural growth, like the pines and oaks. Most fruits which we prize and use depend entirely on our care. Corn and grain, potatoes, peaches, melons, etc., depend altogether on our planting; but the apple emulates man's independence and enterprise. It is not simply carried, as I have said, but, like him, to some extent, it has migrated to this New World, and is even, here and there, making its way amid the aboriginal trees; just as the ox and dog and horse sometimes run wild and maintain themselves. Even the sourest and crabbedest apple, growing in the most unfavorable position, suggests such thoughts as these, it is so noble a fruit. THE CRAB. Nevertheless, our wild apple is wild only like myself, perchance, who belong not to the aboriginal race here, but have strayed into the woods from the cultivated stock. Wilder still, as I have said, there grows elsewhere in this country a native and aboriginal Crab-Apple, "whose nature has not yet been modified by cultivation." It is found from Western New York to Minnesota and southward. Michaux[7] says that its ordinary height "is fifteen or eighteen feet, but it is sometimes found twenty-five or thirty feet high," and that the large ones "exactly resemble the common apple-tree." "The flowers are white mingled with rose-color, and are collected in corymbs." They are remarkable for their delicious odor. The fruit, according to him, is about an inch and a half in diameter, and is intensely acid. Yet they make fine sweet-meats, and also cider of them. He concludes, that "if, on being cultivated, it does not yield new and palatable varieties, it will at least be celebrated for the beauty of its flowers, and for the sweetness of its perfume." [7] Pronounced mee-sho; a French botanist and traveller. I never saw the Crab-Apple till May, 1861. I had heard of it through Michaux, but more modern botanists, so far as I know, have not treated it as of any peculiar importance. Thus it was a half-fabulous tree to me. I contemplated a pilgrimage to the "Glades," a portion of Pennsylvania, where it was said to grow to perfection. I thought of sending to a nursery for it, but doubted if they had it, or would distinguish it from European varieties. At last I had occasion to go to Minnesota, and on entering Michigan I began to notice from the cars a tree with handsome rose-colored flowers. At first I thought it some variety of thorn; but it was not long before the truth flashed on me, that this was my long-sought Crab-Apple. It was the prevailing flowering shrub or tree to be seen from the cars at that season of the year,--about the middle of May. But the cars never stopped before one, and so I was launched on the bosom of the Mississippi without having touched one, experiencing the fate of Tantalus. On arriving at St. Anthony's Falls, I was sorry to be told that I was too far north for the Crab-Apple. Nevertheless I succeeded in finding it about eight miles west of the Falls; touched it and smelled it, and secured a lingering corymb of flowers for my herbarium. This must have been near its northern limit. HOW THE WILD APPLE GROWS. But though these are indigenous, like the Indians, I doubt whether they are any hardier than those back-woodsmen among the apple-trees, which, though descended from cultivated stocks, plant themselves in distant fields and forests, where the soil is favorable to them. I know of no trees which have more difficulties to contend with, and which more sturdily resist their foes. These are the ones whose story we have to tell. It oftentimes reads thus:-- Near the beginning of May, we notice little thickets of apple-trees just springing up in the pastures where cattle have been,--as the rocky ones of our Easter-brooks Country, or the top of Nobscot Hill in Sudbury. One or two of these perhaps survive the drought and other accidents,--their very birthplace defending them against the encroaching grass and some other dangers, at first. In two years' time 't had thus Reached the level of the rocks, Admired the stretching world, Nor feared the wandering flocks. But at this tender age Its sufferings began: There came a browsing ox And cut it down a span. This time, perhaps, the ox does not notice it amid the grass; but the next year, when it has grown more stout, he recognizes it for a fellow-emigrant from the old country, the flavor of whose leaves and twigs he well knows; and though at first he pauses to welcome it, and express his surprise, and gets for answer, "The same cause that brought you here brought me," he nevertheless browses it again, reflecting, it may be, that he has some title to it. Thus cut down annually, it does not despair; but, putting forth two short twigs for every one cut off, it spreads out low along the ground in the hollows or between the rocks, growing more stout and scrubby, until it forms, not a tree as yet, but a little pyramidal, stiff, twiggy mass, almost as solid and impenetrable as a rock. Some of the densest and most impenetrable clumps of bushes that I have ever seen, as well, on account of the closeness and stubbornness of their branches as of their thorns, have been these wild-apple scrubs. They are more like the scrubby fir and black spruce on which you stand, and sometimes walk, on the tops of mountains, where cold is the demon they contend with, than anything else. No wonder they are prompted to grow thorns at last, to defend themselves against such foes. In their thorniness, however, there is no malice, only some malic acid. The rocky pastures of the tract I have referred to--for they maintain their ground best in a rocky field--are thickly sprinkled with these little tufts, reminding you often of some rigid gray mosses or lichens, and you see thousands of little trees just springing up between them, with the seed still attached to them. Being regularly clipped all around each year by the cows, as a hedge with shears, they are often of a perfect conical or pyramidal form, from one to four feet high, and more or less sharp, as if trimmed by the gardener's art. In the pastures on Nobscot Hill and its spurs they make fine dark shadows when the sun is low. They are also an excellent covert from hawks for many small birds that roost and build in them. Whole flocks perch in them at night, and I have seen three robins' nests in one which was six feet in diameter. No doubt many of these are already old trees, if you reckon from the day they were planted, but infants still when you consider their development and the long life before them. I counted the annual rings of some which were just one foot high, and as wide as high, and found that they were about twelve years old, but quite sound and thrifty! They were so low that they were unnoticed by the walker, while many of their contemporaries from the nurseries were already bearing considerable crops. But what you gain in time is perhaps in this case, too, lost in power,--that is, in the vigor of the tree. This is their pyramidal state. The cows continue to browse them thus for twenty years or more, keeping them down and compelling them to spread, until at last they are so broad that they become their own fence, when some interior shoot, which their foes cannot reach, darts upward with joy: for it has not forgotten its high calling, and bears its own peculiar fruit in triumph. Such are the tactics by which it finally defeats its bovine foes. Now, if you have watched the progress of a particular shrub, you will see that it is no longer a simple pyramid or cone, but out of its apex there rises a sprig or two, growing more lustily perchance than an orchard-tree, since the plant now devotes the whole of its repressed energy to these upright parts. In a short time these become a small tree, an inverted pyramid resting on the apex of the other, so that the whole has now the form of a vast hour-glass. The spreading bottom, having served its purpose, finally disappears, and the generous tree permits the now harmless cows to come in and stand in its shade, and rub against and redden its trunk, which has grown in spite of them, and even to taste a part of its fruit, and so disperse the seed. Thus the cows create their own shade and food; and the tree, its hour-glass being inverted, lives a second life, as it were. It is an important question with some nowadays, whether you should trim young apple-trees as high as your nose or as high as your eyes. The ox trims them up as high as he can reach, and that is about the right height, I think. In spite of wandering kine and other adverse circumstance, that despised shrub, valued only by small birds as a covert and shelter from hawks, has its blossom-week at last, and in course of time its harvest, sincere, though small. By the end of some October, when its leaves have fallen, I frequently see such a central sprig, whose progress I have watched, when I thought it had forgotten its destiny, as I had, bearing its first crop of small green or yellow or rosy fruit, which the cows cannot get at over the bushy and thorny hedge which surrounds it; and I make haste to taste the new and undescribed variety. We have all heard of the numerous varieties of fruit invented by Van Mons[9] and Knight.[10] This is the system of Van Cow, and she has invented far more and more memorable varieties than both of them. [9] A Belgian chemist and horticulturist. [10] An English vegetable physiologist. Through what hardships it may attain to bear a sweet fruit! Though somewhat small, it may prove equal, if not superior, in flavor to that which has grown in a garden,--will perchance be all the sweeter and more palatable for the very difficulties it has had to contend with. Who knows but this chance wild fruit, planted by a cow or a bird on some remote and rocky hillside, where it is as yet unobserved by man, may be the choicest of all its kind, and foreign potentates shall hear of it, and royal societies seek to propagate it, though the virtues of the perhaps truly crabbed owner of the soil may never be heard of,--at least, beyond the limits of his village? It was thus the Porter and the Baldwin grew. Every wild-apple shrub excites our expectation thus, somewhat as every wild child. It is, perhaps, a prince in disguise. What a lesson to man! So are human beings, referred to the highest standard, the celestial fruit which they suggest and aspire to bear, browsed on by fate; and only the most persistent and strongest genius defends itself and prevails, sends a tender scion upward at last, and drops its perfect fruit on the ungrateful earth. Poets and philosophers and statesmen thus spring up in the country pastures, and outlast the hosts of unoriginal men. Such is always the pursuit of knowledge. The celestial fruits, the golden apples of the Hesperides, are ever guarded by a hundred-headed dragon which never sleeps, so that it is an herculean labor to pluck them. This is one and the most remarkable way in which the wild apple is propagated; but commonly it springs up at wide intervals in woods and swamps, and by the sides of roads, as the soil may suit it, and grows with comparative rapidity. Those which grow in dense woods are very tall and slender. I frequently pluck from these trees a perfectly mild and tamed fruit. As Palladius says, "And the ground is strewn with the fruit of an unbidden apple-tree." It is an old notion, that, if these wild trees do not bear a valuable fruit of their own, they are the best stocks by which to transmit to posterity the most highly prized qualities of others. However, I am not in search of stocks, but the wild fruit itself, whose fierce gust has suffered no "inteneration." It is not my "highest plot To plant the Bergamot." THE FRUIT, AND ITS FLAVOR. The time for wild apples is the last of October and the first of November. They then get to be palatable, for they ripen late, and they are still, perhaps, as beautiful as ever. I make a great account of these fruits, which the farmers do not think it worth the while to gather,--wild flavors of the Muse, vivacious and inspiriting. The farmer thinks that he has better in his barrels; but he is mistaken, unless he has a walker's appetite and imagination, neither of which can he have. Such as grow quite wild, and are left out till the first of November, I presume that the owner does not mean to gather. They belong to children as wild as themselves,--to certain active boys that I know,--to the wild-eyed woman of the fields, to whom nothing comes amiss, who gleans after all the world,--and, moreover, to us walkers. We have met with them, and they are ours. These rights, long enough insisted upon, have come to be an institution in some old countries, where they have learned how to live. I hear that "the custom of grippling, which may be called apple-gleaning, is, or was formerly, practised in Herefordshire. It consists in leaving a few apples, which are called the gripples, on every tree, after the general gathering, for the boys, who go with climbing-poles and bags to collect them." As for those I speak of, I pluck them as a wild fruit, native to this quarter of the earth,--fruit of old trees that have been dying ever since I was a boy and are not yet dead, frequented only by the wood-pecker and the squirrel, deserted now by the owner, who has not faith enough to look under their boughs. From the appearance of the tree-top, at a little distance, you would expect nothing but lichens to drop from it, but your faith is rewarded by finding the ground strewn with spirited fruit,--some of it, perhaps, collected at squirrel-holes, with the marks of their teeth by which they carried them,--some containing a cricket or two silently feeding within, and some, especially in damp days, a shelless snail. The very sticks and stones lodged in the tree-top might have convinced you of the savoriness of the fruit which has been so eagerly sought after in past years. I have seen no account of these among the "Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America," though they are more memorable to my taste than the grafted kinds; more racy and wild American flavors do they possess, when October and November, when December and January, and perhaps February and March even, have assuaged them somewhat. An old farmer in my neighborhood, who always selects the right word, says that "they have a kind of bow-arrow tang." Apples for grafting appear to have been selected commonly, not so much for their spirited flavor, as for their mildness, their size, and bearing qualities,--not so much for their beauty, as for their fairness and soundness. Indeed, I have no faith in the selected lists of pomological gentlemen. Their "Favorites" and "Non-suches" and "Seek-no-farthers," when I have fruited them, commonly turn out very tame and forgetable. They are eaten with comparatively little zest, and have no real tang nor smack to them. What if some of these wildings are acrid and puckery, genuine verjuice, do they not still belong to the Pomaceae, which are uniformly innocent and kind to our race? I still begrudge them to the cider-mill. Perhaps they are not fairly ripe yet. No wonder that these small and high-colored apples are thought to make the best cider. Loudon quotes from the Herefordshire Report that "apples of a small size are always, if equal in quality, to be preferred to those of a larger size, in order that the rind and kernel may bear the greatest proportion to the pulp, which affords the weakest and most watery juice." And he says, that, "to prove this, Dr. Symonds of Hereford, about the year 1800, made one hogshead of cider entirely from the rinds and cores of apples, and another from the pulp only, when the first was found of extraordinary strength and flavor, while the latter was sweet and insipid." Evelyn[11] says that the "Red-strake" was the favorite cider-apple in his day; and he quotes one Dr. Newburg as saying, "In Jersey 't is a general observation, as I hear, that the more of red any apple has in its rind, the more proper it is for this use. Pale-faced apples they exclude as much as may be from their cider-vat." This opinion still prevails. [11] An English writer of the seventeenth century. All apples are good in November. Those which the farmer leaves out as unsalable, and unpalatable to those who frequent the markets, are choicest fruit to the walker. But it is remarkable that the wild apple, which I praise as so spirited and racy when eaten in the fields or woods, being brought into the house, has frequently a harsh and crabbed taste. The Saunter-er's Apple not even the saunterer can eat in the house. The palate rejects it there, as it does haws and acorns, and demands a tamed one; for there you miss the November air, which is the sauce it is to be eaten with. Accordingly, when Tityrus, seeing the lengthening shadows, invites Meliboeus to go home and pass the night with him, he promises him mild apples and soft chestnuts. I frequently pluck wild apples of so rich and spicy a flavor that I wonder all orchardists do not get a scion from that tree, and I fail not to bring home my pockets full. But perchance, when I take one out of my desk and taste it in my chamber I find it unexpectedly crude,--sour enough to set a squirrel's teeth on edge and make a jay scream. These apples have hung in the wind and frost and rain till they have absorbed the qualities of the weather or season, and thus are highly seasoned, and they pierce and sting and permeate us with their spirit. They must be eaten in season, accordingly,--that is, out-of-doors. To appreciate the wild and sharp flavors of these October fruits, it is necessary that you be breathing the sharp October or November air. The out-door air and exercise which the walker gets give a different tone to his palate, and he craves a fruit which the sedentary would call harsh and crabbed. They must be eaten in the fields, when your system is all aglow with exercise, when the frosty weather nips your fingers, the wind rattles the bare boughs or rustles the few remaining leaves, and the jay is heard screaming around. What is sour in the house a bracing walk makes sweet. Some of these apples might be labelled, "To be eaten in the wind." Of course no flavors are thrown away; they are intended for the taste that is up to them. Some apples have two distinct flavors, and perhaps one-half of them must be eaten in the house, the other out-doors. One Peter Whitney wrote from Northborough in 1782, for the Proceedings of the Boston Academy, describing an apple-tree in that town "producing fruit of opposite qualities, part of the same apple being frequently sour and the other sweet;" also some all sour, and others all sweet, and this diversity on all parts of the tree. There is a wild apple on Nawshawtuck Hill in my town which has to me a peculiarly pleasant bitter tang, not perceived till it is three-quarters tasted. It remains on the tongue. As you eat it, it smells exactly like a squash-bug. It is a sort of triumph to eat and relish it. I hear that the fruit of a kind of plum-tree in Provence is "called Prunes sibarelles, because it is impossible to whistle after having eaten them, from their sourness." But perhaps they were only eaten in the house and in summer, and if tried out-of-doors in a stinging atmosphere, who knows but you could whistle an octave higher and clearer? In the fields only are the sours and bitters of Nature appreciated; just as the wood-chopper eats his meal in a sunny glade, in the middle of a winter day, with content, basks in a sunny ray there, and dreams of summer in a degree of cold which, experienced in a chamber, would make a student miserable. They who are at work abroad are not cold, but rather it is they who sit shivering in houses. As with temperatures, so with flavors; as with cold and heat, so with sour and sweet. This natural raciness, the sours and bitters which the diseased palate refuses, are the true condiments. Let your condiments be in the condition of your senses. To appreciate the flavor of these wild apples requires vigorous and healthy senses, papillae[12] firm and erect on the tongue and palate, not easily flattened and tamed. [12] A Latin word, accent on the second syllable, meaning here the rough surface of the tongue and palate. From my experience with wild apples, I can understand that there may be reason for a savage's preferring many kinds of food which the civilized man rejects. The former has the palate of an outdoor man. It takes a savage or wild taste to appreciate a wild fruit. What a healthy out-of-door appetite it takes to relish the apple of life, the apple of the world, then! "Nor is it every apple I desire, Nor that which pleases every palate best; 'T is not the lasting Deuxan I require, Nor yet the red-cheeked Greening I request, Nor that which first beshrewed the name of wife, Nor that whose beauty caused the golden strife: No, no! bring me an apple from the tree of life." So there is one thought for the field, another for the house. I would have my thoughts, like wild apples, to be food for walkers, and will not warrant them to be palatable, if tasted in the house. THEIR BEAUTY. Almost all wild apples are handsome. They cannot be too gnarly and crabbed and rusty to look at. The gnarliest will have some redeeming traits even to the eye. You will discover some evening redness dashed or sprinkled on some protuberance or in some cavity. It is rare that the summer lets an apple go without streaking or spotting it on some part of its sphere. It will have some red stains, commemorating the mornings and evenings it has witnessed; some dark and rusty blotches, in memory of the clouds and foggy, mildewy days that have passed over it; and a spacious field of green reflecting the general face of Nature,--green even as the fields; or a yellow ground, which implies a milder flavor,--yellow as the harvest, or russet as the hills. Apples, these I mean, unspeakably fair,--apples not of Discord, but Concord! Yet not so rare but that the homeliest may have a share. Painted by the frosts, some a uniform clear bright yellow, or red, or crimson, as if their spheres had regularly revolved, and enjoyed the influence of the sun on all sides alike,--some with the faintest pink blush imaginable,--some brindled with deep red streaks like a cow, or with hundreds of fine blood-red rays running regularly from the stem-dimple to the blossom-end, like meridional lines, on a straw-colored ground,--some touched with a greenish rust, like a fine lichen, here and there, with crimson blotches or eyes more or less confluent and fiery when wet,--and others gnarly, and freckled or peppered all over on the stem side with fine crimson spots on a white ground, as if accidentally sprinkled from the brush of Him who paints the autumn leaves. Others, again, are sometimes red inside, perfused with a beautiful blush, fairy food, too beautiful to eat,--apple of the Hesperides, apple of the evening sky! But like shells and pebbles on the sea-shore, they must be seen as they sparkle amid the withering leaves in some dell in the woods, in the autumnal air, or as they lie in the wet grass, and not when they have wilted and faded in the house. THE NAMING OF THEM. It would be a pleasant pastime to find suitable names for the hundred varieties which go to a single heap at the cider-mill. Would it not tax a man's invention,--no one to be named after a man, and all in the lingua vernacula?[13] Who shall stand god-father at the christening of the wild apples? It would exhaust the Latin and Greek languages, if they were used, and make the lingua vernacula flag. We should have to call in the sunrise and the sunset, the rainbow and the autumn woods and the wild flowers, and the woodpecker and the purple finch, and the squirrel and the jay and the butterfly, the November traveller and the truant boy, to our aid. [13] Lingua vernacula, common speech. In 1836 there were in the garden of the London Horticultural Society more than fourteen hundred distinct sorts. But here are species which they have not in their catalogue, not to mention the varieties which our Crab might yield to cultivation. Let us enumerate a few of these. I find myself compelled, after all, to give the Latin names of some for the benefit of those who live where English is not spoken,--for they are likely to have a world-wide reputation. There is, first of all, the Wood-Apple (Malus sylvatica); the Blue-Jay Apple; the Apple which grows in Dells in the Woods (sylvestrivallis), also in Hollows in Pastures (campestrivallis); the Apple that grows in an old Cellar-Hole (Malus cellaris); the Meadow-Apple; the Partridge-Apple; the Truant's Apple (Cessatoris), which no boy will ever go by without knocking off some, however late it may be; the Saunterer's Apple,--you must lose yourself before you can find the way to that; the Beauty of the Air (Decks Aeris); December-Eating; the Frozen-Thawed (gelato-soluta), good only in that state; the Concord Apple, possibly the same with the Musketa-quidensis; the Assabet Apple; the Brindled Apple; Wine of New England; the Chickaree Apple; the Green Apple (Malus viridis);--this has many synonyms; in an imperfect state, it is the Cholera morbifera aut dysenterifera, puerulis dilectissima;[14]--the Apple which Atalanta stopped to pick up; the Hedge-Apple (Malus Sepium); the Slug-Apple (limacea); the Railroad-Apple, which perhaps came from a core thrown out of the cars; the Apple whose Fruit we tasted in our Youth; our Particular Apple, not to be found in any catalogue,--Pedestrium Solatium;[15] also the Apple where hangs the Forgotten Scythe; Iduna's Apples, and the Apples which Loki found in the Wood;[16] and a great many more I have on my list, too numerous to mention,--all of them good. As Bodaeus exclaims, referring to the culti-vated kinds, and adapting Virgil to his case, so I, adapting Bodaeus,-- "Not if I had a hundred tongues, a hundred mouths, An iron voice, could I describe all the forms And reckon up all the names of these wild apples." [14] The apple that brings the disease of cholera and of dysentery, the fruit that small boys like best. [15] The tramp's comfort. [16] See p. 172 (Proof readers note: paragraph 25) THE LAST GLEANING. By the middle of November the wild apples have lost some of their brilliancy, and have chiefly fallen. A great part are decayed on the ground, and the sound ones are more palatable than before. The note of the chickadee sounds now more distinct, as you wander amid the old trees, and the autumnal dandelion is half-closed and tearful. But still, if you are a skilful gleaner, you may get many a pocket-full even of grafted fruit, long after apples are supposed to be gone out-of-doors. I know a Blue-Pearmain tree, growing within the edge of a swamp, almost as good as wild. You would not suppose that there was any fruit left there, on the first survey, but you must look according to system. Those which lie exposed are quite brown and rotten now, or perchance a few still show one blooming cheek here and there amid the wet leaves. Nevertheless, with experienced eyes, I explore amid the bare alders and the huckleberry-bushes and the withered sedge, and in the crevices of the rocks, which are full of leaves, and pry under the fallen and decaying ferns, which, with apple and alder leaves, thickly strew the ground. For I know that they lie concealed, fallen into hollows long since and covered up by the leaves of the tree itself,--a proper kind of packing. From these lurking-places, anywhere within the circumference of the tree, I draw forth the fruit, all wet and glossy, maybe nibbled by rabbits and hollowed out by crickets and perhaps with a leaf or two cemented to it (as Curzon[17] an old manuscript from a monastery's mouldy cellar), but still with a rich bloom on it, and at least as ripe and well kept, if not better than those in barrels, more crisp and lively than they. If these resources fail to yield anything, I have learned to look between the bases of the suckers which spring thickly from some horizontal limb, for now and then one lodges there, or in the very midst of an alder-clump, where they are covered by leaves, safe from cows which may have smelled them out. If I am sharp-set, for I do not refuse the Blue-Pearmain, I fill my pockets on each side; and as I retrace my steps in the frosty eve, being perhaps four or five miles from home, I eat one first from this side, and then from that, to keep my balance. [17] Robert Curzon was a traveller who searched for old manuscripts in the monasteries of the Levant. See his book, Ancient Monasteries of the East. I learn from Topsell's Gesner, whose authority appears to be Albertus, that the following is the way in which the hedgehog collects and carries home his apples. He says: "His meat is apples, worms, or grapes: when he findeth apples or grapes on the earth, he rolleth himself upon them, until he have filled all his prickles, and then carrieth them home to his den, never bearing above one in his mouth; and if it fortune that one of them fall off by the way, he likewise shaketh off all the residue, and walloweth upon them afresh, until they be all settled upon his back again. So, forth he goeth, making a noise like a cart-wheel; and if he have any young ones in his nest, they pull off his load wherewithal he is loaded, eating thereof what they please, and laying up the residue for the time to come." THE "FROZEN-THAWED" APPLE. Toward the end of November, though some of the sound ones are yet more mellow and perhaps more edible, they have generally, like the leaves, lost their beauty, and are beginning to freeze. It is finger-cold, and prudent farmers get in their barrelled apples, and bring you the apples and cider which they have engaged; for it is time to put them into the cellar. Perhaps a few on the ground show their red cheeks above the early snow, and occasionally some even preserve their color and soundness under the snow throughout the winter. But generally at the beginning of the winter they freeze hard, and soon, though undecayed, acquire the color of a baked apple. Before the end of December, generally, they experience their first thawing. Those which a month ago were sour, crabbed, and quite unpalatable to the civilized taste, such at least as were frozen while sound, let a warmer sun come to thaw them, for they are extremely sensitive to its rays, are found to be filled with a rich, sweet cider, better than any bottled cider that I know of, and with which I am better acquainted than with wine. All apples are good in this state, and your jaws are the cider-press. Others, which have more substance, are a sweet and luscious food,--in my opinion of more worth than the pine-apples which are imported from the West Indies. Those which lately even I tasted only to repent of it,--for I am semi-civilized,--which the farmer willingly left on the tree, I am now glad to find have the property of hanging on like the leaves of the young oaks. It is a way to keep cider sweet without boiling. Let the frost come to freeze them first, solid as stones, and then the rain or a warm winter day to thaw them, and they will seem to have borrowed a flavor from heaven through the medium of the air in which they hang. Or perchance you find, when you get home, that those which rattled in your pocket have thawed, and the ice is turned to cider. But after the third or fourth freezing and thawing they will not be found so good. What are the imported half-ripe fruits of the torrid South to this fruit matured by the cold of the frigid North? These are those crabbed apples with which I cheated my companion, and kept a smooth face that I might tempt him to eat. Now we both greedily fill our pockets with them,--bending to drink the cup and save our lappets from the overflowing juice,--and grow more social with their wine. Was there one that hung so high and sheltered by the tangled branches that our sticks could not dislodge it? It is a fruit never carried to market, that I am aware of,--quite distinct from the apple of the markets, as from dried apple and cider,--and it is not every winter that produces it in perfection. "Hear this, ye old men, and give ear, all ye in-habitants of the land! Hath this been in your days, or even in the days of your fathers?... "That which the palmer-worm hath left hath the locust eaten; and that which the locust hath left hath the canker-worm eaten; and that which the canker-worm hath left hath the caterpillar eaten. "Awake, ye drunkards, and weep! and howl, all ye drinkers of wine, because of the new wine! for it is cut off from your mouth. "For a nation is come up upon my land, strong, and without number, whose teeth are the teeth of a lion, and he hath the cheek-teeth of a great lion. "He hath laid my vine waste, and barked my fig-tree; he hath made it clean bare, and cast it away; the branches thereof are made white.... "Be ye ashamed, O ye husbandmen! howl, O ye vine-dressers!... "The vine is dried up, and the fig-tree languisheth; the pomegranate-tree, the palm tree also, and the apple-tree, even all the trees of the field, are withered: because joy is withered away from the sons of men."[18] [18] Joel, chapter i., verses 1-12. 
41133	----	Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including some inconsistencies of hyphenation. Italic text has been marked with _underscores_. STUDIES IN THE ART OF RAT-CATCHING. BY H. C. BARKLEY, AUTHOR OF "MY BOYHOOD," "BETWEEN THE DANUBE AND THE BLACK SEA," ETC. POPULAR EDITION. LONDON: JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1896. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. PREFACE. My publisher writes to say that he, and he thinks others too, would like to know how I ever came to write such a book as this! It came about in this way. Some two years ago, I was about to leave England for a considerable time, and a few days before starting, I went to stay in a country house, full of lads and lassies, to say good-bye. One evening, while sitting over the study fire, the subject of rat-catching came up and, as the aged are somewhat wont to do, I babbled on about past days and various rat-catching experiences, till one of the boys exclaimed, "I say, what sport it would be if they would only teach rat-catching at school! Wouldn't I just work hard then, that's all!" The stories came to an end at bed-time, and I was then pressed by my hearers to write from foreign lands some more of my old reminiscences, and I readily gave a promise to do so. In this way most of the following stories were written; and in writing them, I endeavoured to carry out the idea that they were exercises to be used in schools. I don't anticipate that head-masters will very generally adopt the book in their schools; but I hope it may, in some few instances, give boys a taste for a wholesome country pastime. The characters and incidents are rough, very rough, pen and ink sketches of real people and scenes, and the dogs are all dear friends of past days. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. _Page_ The Ferret Family--Crossed with the Polecat--Choosing Ferrets--Hutches--Feeding Ferrets--"Bar the Tail"--Handling Ferrets 8 CHAPTER II. Bag _versus_ Box--Ferrets Fighting--The Ratting Spade-- Ratting Tools--Hints to Schoolmasters--Learning Dog-Language--With a Scold in the Voice--Dogs' Kennel--Treating Dogs Kindly--Dogs in their Proper Place 23 CHAPTER III. Aristocratic _versus_ Plutocratic--Come-by-Chance--Chance's Friend--Nondescript Tinker--Grindum--How I got Grindum-- Grindum's Friends--Jack and his Sister--"Jack Took Me"-- End of an Ugly Story--Grindum's First Rat--Pepper and Wasp 42 CHAPTER IV. A Day's Ratting--An Autumn Walk--"Steady, Dogs, Steady"--A Ferret Disabled--Rats up a Pollard--A Rat-catcher's Picnic--Rats in a Drain--A Weary Walk Home--"Kennel, Dogs, Kennel" 67 CHAPTER V. A Poor Day's Ratting--A Rat in a Queer Place--Rats in my Lady's Chamber--Rats in a House--Slaughter in a Cellar--Dead Rats in a House 85 CHAPTER VI. A November Day--A Laid-up Ferret--A Tramp Home in the Wet--A Snug Evening--Things Students should Know--Muzzling Ferrets--Sucking Blood--A Strange Use for a Dog's Tail 96 CHAPTER VII. Rabbit Catching--Tools for Rabbit Catching--An Easy Day's Rabbiting--Ferreting a Bank--A Deep Dig in the Sand--A Day with the Purse Nets--Necessity of Silence--Ferrets without Muzzles--How to Kill Rabbits 113 CHAPTER VIII. Trip to the Seaside--Surveying the Hunting Ground--A View from the Cliffs--A Sea View--The Rector's Daughter--Doctoring the Burrows--Running out Nets--"Hie in, Good Dogs" 130 CHAPTER IX. The Beginning of a Storm--A Ship in Distress--The Village Harbour--A Fisherman's Home--Little Jack, the Cripple-- Waiting for the Boats--A Rough Old Fish-Wife--The Return of the Fishermen 147 CHAPTER X. The Rector's Story--A Ship in Danger Running Straight on the Rocks--To the Rescue--Watching the Boat--Breaking up of the Ship--Beyond the Storms of Life--Life in the Little One-- Nature's Gifts--What a Hodge-Podge 165 INTRODUCTION. ADDRESSED TO ALL SCHOOLBOYS. Ever since I was a boy, and ah! long, long before that, I fancy, the one great anxiety of parents of the upper and middle classes blessed with large families has been, "What are we to do with our boys?" and the cry goes on increasing, being intensified by the depreciation in the value of land, and by our distant colonies getting a little overstocked with young gentlemen, who have been banished to them by thousands, to struggle and strive, sink or swim, as fate wills it. At home, all professions are full and everything has been tried; and, go where you will, even the children of the noble may be found wrestling with those of the middle and working classes for every piece of bread that falls in the gutter. Nothing is _infra dig._ that brings in a shilling, and all has been and is being tried. The sons of the great are to be found shoulder to shoulder with "Tommy Atkins," up behind a hansom cab, keeping shops, selling wines, horses, cigars, coals, and generally endeavouring feebly to shoulder the son of the working man out of the race over the ropes. Fortunately Heaven tempers the wind to the shorn lamb, and I believe it has done so now. I believe kind Dame Nature during the last summer has stepped in and opened out an honourable path for many gentlemen's sons, that I think will be their salvation, and at all events, if it does not make them all rich, will, if they only follow it, make them most useful members of society and keep them out of mischief and out of their mammas' snug drawing-rooms. I have followed the path myself, and, after fifty years' tramp down it, have been forced to abandon it owing to gout and rheumatism. I have not picked up a big fortune at it, or become celebrated, except quite locally; but I have had a good time and helped the world in general, and am content with my past life. I was the son of a worthy country parson, who in my youth proposed to me in turn to become a judge, a bishop, a general, a Gladstone, a Nelson, a Sir James Paget, and a ritualistic curate; but when talking to me on the subject the good old man always said, "Mind, my boy, though I propose these various positions for you, yet, if you have any decided preference yourself, I will not thwart you, I will not fly in the face of nature." For some time I thought I should rather like to be a bishop, and to this day I think I should have made a good one; but _the_ voice spoke at last, and my destiny was settled. With the modest capital of five shillings given me by my father, and a mongrel terrier, given me by a poacher who had to go into retirement for killing a pheasant and half killing a keeper, I began my career as a--but I had better give you one of my professional cards. Here it is-- BOB JOY, RAT-CATCHER _To H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, The Nobility and Gentry._ I had a struggle at first. Rats, full-grown ones, only fetched twopence each, and the system adopted by farmers of letting their rat-killing, for, say, three pounds a year for a farm of 400 acres, almost broke me; but I stuck to my profession, and do not regret having done so. In those days, and during all my active life, I have had to work to live, owing to the constant scarcity of rats; but if I managed to make a living then, what might not be done now, when Nature has sent the rat to our homesteads by thousands, and farmers and others are being eaten off the face of the earth by them? Why, my dear young friends, your fortune stares you in the face, and you have only to stretch out your hand and grasp it--no! I have made a mistake: you have a little more to do--you have, first, to learn your profession, which is no easy matter; and to enable you to do this, I intend writing the following book for the use of schools (which I herewith dedicate to the Head Masters of Eton, Harrow, Westminster, Rugby, and all other schools); but in placing this book on your school-desk, allow me to say that it is no good having it there through the long school hours unless you open it, read it, and deeply ponder over it; and more, my dear boys, let me pray that you will take it home with you, and, casting aside your usual holiday task, study it well, and, as far as possible, actively put in practice what I am going to try and teach you. Some fathers may wish their sons to enter on a more humble course of life, but this I rather doubt. However, should they do so, it will be only so much the better for those who take it up: there will be more room for them. Most mothers, I fear, will object to it on the ground that rats and ferrets don't smell nice; but this objection is not reasonable. They might as well say that the whiff of a fox on a soft December morning as you ride to covert is not delicious! Respect your parents, respect even their prejudices; gently point out to your father that you are ambitious and wish for a career in which you can distinguish yourself. Above all, respect your mother, and show your respect by not taking ferrets or dead rats in your pockets into her drawing-room, and by washing your hands a little between fondling them and cuddling her. But to finish this sermon, let me point out that though in this great profession you will be everlastingly mixed up with dogs of all sorts, always make _them_ come to _you_, and _never go to them_. One last word. If in the following pages you come across a bit of grammar or spelling calculated to make a Head Master sit up, excuse it, and remember that I have been a rat-catcher all my life, and as a class we are not quite A1 at book learning. [Illustration] STUDIES IN RAT CATCHING FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. CHAPTER I. In the following elementary treatise for the use of public schools, I propose following exactly the same plan as my parson (a good fellow not afraid of a ferret or a rat) does with his sermons--that is, divide it into different heads, and then jumble up all the heads with the body, till it becomes as difficult to follow as a rat's hole in a soft bank; and, to begin with, I am going to talk about ferrets, for without them rat-catching won't pay. Where ferrets first came from I am not sure, but somewhere I have read that they were imported from Morocco, and that they are not natives of Great Britain any more than the ordinary rat is. If they were imported, then that importer ranks in my mind with, but before, Christopher Columbus and all such travellers. Anyhow it is quite clear that nowhere in Great Britain are there wild ferrets, for they are as distinct from the stoat, the mouse-hunter, the pole-cat, etc., as I am from a Red Indian; and yet all belong to the same family, so much so that I have known of a marriage taking place between the ferret and pole-cat, the offspring of which have again married ferrets and in their turn have multiplied and increased, which is a proof that they are not mules, for the children of mules, either in birds or beasts, do not have young ones. There are two distinct colours in ferrets--one is a rich dark brown and tan, and the other white with pink eyes; and in my opinion one is just as good as the other for work, though by preference I always keep the white ferret, as it is sooner seen if it comes out of a hole and works away down a fence or ditch bottom. I have never known a dark-coloured ferret coming among a litter of white ones or a white among the dark; but there is a cross between the two which produces a grizzly beast, generally bigger than its mother, which I have for many years avoided, though it is much thought of in some parts of the Midlands. I fancy (though I may be wrong) that the cross is a dull slow ferret, wanting in dash and courage, and not so friendly and affectionate as the others, and therefore apt to stick with just its nose out of a hole so that you can't pick it up, or else it will "lay up" and give a lot of trouble digging it out. For rat-catching the female ferret should always be used, as it is not half the size of the male, and can therefore follow a rat faster and better in narrow holes; in fact, an ordinary female ferret should be able to follow a full-grown rat anywhere. The male ferret should be kept entirely for rabbiting, as he has not to follow down small holes, and being stronger than the female can stand the rough knocking about he often gets from a rabbit better than his wife can. In buying a ferret for work, get one from nine to fifteen months old, as young ferrets I find usually have more courage and dash than an old one. They have not been so often punished and therefore do not think discretion the better part of valour. However this will not be found to be an invariable rule. I have known old ferrets that would have faced a lion and seemed to care nothing about being badly bitten; whereas I have known a young ferret turn out good-for-nothing from having one sharp nip from a rat. Such beasts had better be parted with, for a bad, slow, or cowardly ferret is vexation of spirit and not profitable. If I am buying brown ferrets I always pick the darkest, as I fancy they have most dash. This may be only fancy, or it may be the original ferret was white and that the brown is the cross between it and the polecat, and that therefore the darker the ferret, the more like it is in temper as well as colour to its big, strong, wild ancestor. Anyhow I buy the dark ones. If I am buying female ferrets, I like big _long_ ones, as a small ferret has not weight enough to tackle a big rat, and therefore often gets desperately punished. I like to see the ferrets in a tub, end up, looking well nourished and strong; and directly I touch the tub I like to see them dash out of their hidden beds in the straw and rush to spring up the sides like a lot of furies. When I put my hand in to take one, I prefer not to be bitten; but yet I have often known a ferret turn out very well that has begun by making its teeth meet through my finger. When I have the ferret in hand, I first look at its tail and then at its feet, and if these are clean it will do. If, on the other hand, I find a thin appearance about the hairs of its tail and a black-looking dust at the roots, the ferret goes back into the tub; or if the underside of the feet are black and the claws encrusted with dirt, I will have nothing to say to it, as it has the mange and will be troublesome to cure. All this done, I put the ferret on the ground and keep picking it up and letting it go; if when I do this it sets up the hairs of its tail, arches its back and hisses at me, I may buy it; but I know, if I do, I shall have to handle it much to get it tame. If, on the other hand, when I play with it the ferret begins to dance sideways and play, I pay down my money and take it at once, for I have never known a playful ferret to prove a bad one. If when you get the ferret it is wild and savage, it should be constantly handled till it is quite tamed before it is used. Little brothers and sisters will be found useful at this. Give them the ferret to play with in an empty or nearly empty barn or shed where it cannot escape. Put into the shed with them some long drain pipes, and tell them to ferret rats out of them. The chances are they will put the ferret through them and pick it up so often, that it will learn there is nothing to fear when it comes out of a real rat's hole, and will ever after "come to hand" readily. You had better not be in the way when the children return to their mother or nurse. I have had disagreeable moments on such occasions. Having got all your ferrets, the next question is how to keep them. I have tried scores of different houses for them. I have kept them in a big roomy shed, in tubs, in boxes, and in pits in the ground; but now I always use a box with three compartments. The left-hand compartment should be the smallest and filled with wheat-straw well packed in, with a small round hole a little way up the division, for the ferrets to use as a door. The middle compartment should be empty and have the floor and front made of wire netting, to allow light, ventilation and drainage. The third compartment should be entered from the middle one by a hole in the division, but should have a strong tin tray fitting over the floor of it covered with sand, which can be drawn out and cleaned; the front of this compartment, too, should be wire netting. The sand tray should be removed and cleaned every day, even Sundays. The house should stand on legs about a foot high. Each compartment should have a separate lid, and the little entrance holes through the divisions should have a slide to shut them, so that any one division can be opened without all the ferrets rushing out. The bed should be changed once a week. Such a box as I have shown is large enough for ten ferrets. For a mother with a family a much smaller box will suffice, but it should be made on the same plan. For bedding use only wheat-straw. Either barley-straw or hay will give ferrets mange in a few days. After housing the ferrets, they will require feeding. I have always given my ferrets bread and milk once or twice a week, which was placed in flat tins in the middle compartment; but care should be taken to clean out the tins each time, as any old sour milk in them will turn the fresh milk and make the ferrets ill. The natural food of ferrets is flesh--the flesh of small animals--and therefore it should be the chief food given. Small birds, rats and mice are to them dainty morsels, but the ferrets will be sure to drag these into their beds to eat and will leave the skins untouched; these should be removed each day. When my ferrets are not in regular work they are fed just before sunset; if they are fed in the morning they are no good for work all day, and one can never tell (except on Sundays) that one of the dogs may not find a rat that _wants_ killing. The day before real work, I give the ferrets bread and milk in the morning, and nothing on the day they go out until their work is over. This makes them keen. Remember ferrets work hard in a big day's ratting, and therefore should be well nourished and strong; a ferret that is not will not have the courage to face a rat. I have listened to all sorts of theories from old hands about feeding ferrets, but have followed the advice of few. For instance, I have been told that if you give flesh, such as rats and birds, to a ferret that has young ones, it will drag it into the straw among the little ones, who will get the blood on them, and then the mother will eat them by mistake. All I can say is, I have reared hundreds of young ferrets and have always given the mothers flesh. It is true that ferrets will eat their young, and the way to bring this about is to disturb the babies in the nest. If you leave them quite alone till they begin to creep about I believe there is no danger. Then many old rat-catchers never give a ferret a rat with its tail on, as they believe there is poison in it. I remember one old fellow saying to me as he cut off the tail before putting the rat into the ferrets' box, "Bar the tail--I allus bars the tail--there's wenom in the tail." There may be "wenom" in it; but, if there is, it won't hurt the ferrets, for they never eat it or the skin. If ferrets are properly cared for they are rarely ill, and the only trouble I have ever had is with mange, which, as I have said before, attacks the tail and feet. Most rat-catchers keep a bottle of spirits of tar, with which they dress the affected parts. It cures the mange, but, by the way the poor little beasts hop about after being dressed, I fear it stings dreadfully. I have always used sulphur and lard, and after rubbing it well in a few times I have always found it worked a cure. The _objection_ to sulphur and lard is that it does not hurt, for I have noticed that sort of man generally prefers using a remedy that hurts a lot--that is, where the patient is not himself, but an animal. No big day's ratting ever takes place without a ferret getting badly bitten. When this is so, the ferret should never be used again until it is quite well. It should be sent home and put in a quiet box, apart from the others, and the bites gently touched with a little sweet oil from time to time; or, if it festers much, it should be sponged with warm water. I have often had ferrets die of their wounds, and these have usually been the best I had. Again, with wounds the old rat-catcher uses the tar-bottle, chiefly, I think, because it hurts the ferret, and therefore must have "a power of wirtue." Before going further I should point out to all students of this ennobling profession that the very first thing they have to learn is to pick up a ferret. Don't grab it by its tail, or hold it by its head as you would a mad bull-dog; but take hold of it lightly round the shoulders, with its front legs falling gracefully out below from between your fingers. Then when you go to the box for your ferrets, and they come clambering up the side like a pack of hungry wolves, put your hand straight in among them without a glove, and pick up which one you require. Don't hesitate a moment. Don't dangle your hand over their heads till you can make a dash and catch one. The ferrets will only think your hand is their supper coming and will grab it, with no ill intent; but if you put it down steadily and slowly, they will soon learn you only do so to take them out, and your hand will become as welcome to them as flowers in spring. True, at first, with strange ferrets you may be bitten; but it is not a very serious thing if you are, as ferrets' bites are never venomous, as the bites of rats often are. I have in my time been bitten by ferrets many dozens of times and have never suffered any ill effects. There, I think that is enough for your first lesson, so I will send it off at once and get it printed for you. CHAPTER II. The first chapter of this lesson-book has gone to the printer, so I don't quite know what I said in it, but I think we had finished the home-life of the ferret and were just taking it out of its box. Different professors have different opinions as to what is next to be done with it. Many (and they are good men too) think you should put it into a box about eighteen inches long, ten inches high, and ten wide; the box to be divided into two compartments, with a lid to each, and with leather loops to these lids through which to thrust a pointed spade so as to carry it on your shoulder. I have tried this plan, but I have never quite liked it. I have found that after a heavy day's work the box was apt to get heavy and feel as if it were a grandfather's clock hanging on your back. Then the ratting spade was engaged instead of being free to mump a rat on the head in a hurry, or point out a likely hole to the dogs. When a ferret was wanted, all the others would dash out and have to be hunted about to be re-caught. Now and then the lids came open and let all out; and now and then I let the box slip off the spade and fall to the ground, and then I felt sorry for the ferrets inside it! No, I have always carried my ferrets in a good strong canvas bag, with a little clean straw at the bottom, and a leather strap and buckle stitched on to it with which to close it. Don't tie the bag with a piece of string--it is sure to get lost; and don't have a stiff buckle on your strap that takes ten minutes to undo. Remember the life of a rat may depend upon your getting your ferret out quickly. Never throw the bag of ferrets down; lay them down gently. Don't leave the bag on the ground in a broiling sun with some of the ferrets in it while you are using the others, or in a cold draughty place on a cold day; find a snug corner for them, if you can, and cover them up with a little straw or grass to keep them warm. If, when carrying your ferrets, they chatter in the bag, let them; it is only singing, not fighting. I have never known a ferret hurt another in a bag. Always bag your ferret as soon as you have done with it; don't drag it about in your hand for half an hour, and don't put it in your pocket, as it will make your coat smell. When I have done work and turned towards home, I have made it a rule always to put a dead rat into the bag, as I think it amuses the ferrets and breaks the monotony of a long journey; just as when I run down home I like taking a snack at Swindon Station, just to divert my mind from the racketing of the train and the thought of the hard seat. When you get home, give the ferrets a rat for every two of them, if you can afford it, for then they need only eat the best joints. If you have not many dead rats and want to save some for the morrow, one rat for three ferrets is enough for twenty-four hours; but don't forget to give them water or milk. I think I have said enough as to the management of ferrets, and will go on to speak of the necessary tools. The chief thing is a good ratting spade. What the musket is to the soldier, the spade is to the rat-catcher. You may get on without it, but you won't do much killing. I have tried many shapes, but the one I like best is on the pattern of the above drawing. It should not be too heavy, but yet strong; and, therefore, the handle should be made of a good piece of ash, and the other parts of the best tempered steel, and the edge should be sharp enough to cut quickly through a thick root. The spike should be sharp, so as easily to enter the ground and feel for a lost hole. This will constantly save a long dig and much time; besides, one can often bolt a rat by a few well-directed prods in a soft bank--not that I approve of this, as there may be more than one rat in the hole, and by prodding out one you are contented to leave others behind. No, I think the ferret should go down every hole challenged by the dogs, as then you are pretty sure of making a clean job of it. Besides the spade, I have always kept a few trap boxes. These are to catch a ferret should one lay up and have to be left behind. I bait them with a piece of rat and place them at the mouth of the hole, and it is rare I don't find the ferret in it in the morning. I also take one of these traps with me if I am going where rats are very numerous; then, if a ferret stops too long in a hole, I stick the mouth of the trap over the hole and pack it round with earth and stop up all the bolt holes, and then go on working with the other ferrets. When the sluggard is at last tired of the hole, it walks into the trap, shoving up the wire swing door, which falls down behind it, and there it has to stop till you fetch it. If I am going to ferret wheat stacks where rats have worked strong, I take with me half a dozen pieces of thin board about a foot long. I do so for this reason. The first thing rats do when they take possession of a stack is to make a good path, or run, all round it just under the eaves; and when disturbed by ferrets, they get into this run and keep running away round and round the stack without coming to the ground. Therefore, before putting in the ferrets, I take a ladder, and going round the eaves of the stack I stick the boards in so as to cut off these runs, and when a rat goes off for a gallop he comes to "no thoroughfare," and feeling sure the ferret is after him, he in desperation comes to the ground, and then the dogs can have a chance. I once killed twenty-eight rats out of a big stack in twenty minutes after the ferrets were put in, all thanks to these stop-boards; and though I ran the ferrets through and through the stack afterwards, I did not start another, and so I believe I had got the lot. I think I have enumerated all the tools required for rat-catching. I need not mention a knife and a piece of string, as all honest men have them in their pocket always, even on Sundays. Some rat-catchers take with them thick leather gloves to save their getting bitten by a rat or a ferret; but I despise such effeminate ways, and I consider he does not know his profession if he cannot catch either ferret or rat with his naked hands. I must now turn to the subject of dogs--one far more important than either ferrets or tools, and one so large that if I went on writing and writing to the end of my days I should not get to the end of it, and so shall only make a few notes upon it as a slight guide to the student, leaving him to follow it up and work it out for himself; but in so doing I beg to say that his future success as a rat-catcher will depend on his mastering the subject. But, before proceeding further, I am anxious to say a few words in parenthesis for the benefit of the Head Masters of our schools. Admirable as their academies are for turning out Greek and Latin scholars, I cannot help thinking a proper provision is seldom made in their establishments for acquiring a real working knowledge of the profession of a rat-catcher; and I wish to suggest that it would be as well to insist on all those students who wish to take up this subject keeping at school at least one good dog and a ferret, and that two afternoons a week should be set apart entirely for field practice, and that the cost of this should be jotted down at the end of each term in the little school account that is sent home to the students' parents. I know most high-spirited boys will object to this and call it a fresh tyranny, and ever after hate me for proposing it; but I do it under a deep sense of duty, being convinced that it is far better they should perfectly master the rudimentary knowledge of such an honest profession as that of rat-catcher, than that they should drift on through their school life with no definite future marked out, finally to become perhaps such scourges of society as M.P.s who make speeches when Parliament is not sitting. Judging from the columns of the newspapers, there must be many thousands who come to this most deplorable end; and if I can only turn one from such a vicious course, I shall feel I have benefitted mankind even more than by killing rats and other vermin. Now I must return to the subject of dogs, and in doing so I will first begin on their masters, for to make a good dog, a good master is also absolutely necessary. Anybody that has thought about it knows that as is the master, so is the dog. A quiet man has a quiet dog, a quarrelsome man a quarrelsome dog, a bright quick man a bright quick dog, and a loafing idle ruffian a slinking slothful cur. First of all, then, the dog's master must understand dog talk; for they do talk, and eloquently too, with their tongues, their ears, their eyes, their legs, their tail, and even with the hairs on their backs; and therefore don't be astonished if you find me saying in the following pages, "Pepper told me this," or "Wasp said so-and-so." Why, I was once told by a bull terrier that a country policeman was a thief, and, "acting on information received," I got the man locked up in prison for three months, and it just served him right. Having learnt dog language, use it to your dog in a reasonable way: talk to him as a friend, tell him the news of the day, of your hopes and fears, your likes and dislikes, but above all use talk always in the place of a whip. For instance, when breaking in a young dog not to kill a ferret, take hold of the dog with a short line, put the ferret on the ground in front of him, and when he makes a dash at it say, "What _are_ you up to? War ferret! Why, I gave four and sixpence for that, you fool, and now you want to kill it! Look here (picking the ferret up and fondling it), this is one of my friends. Smell it (putting it near his nose). Different from a rat, eh? Rather sweet, ain't it? War ferret, war ferret! Would you, you rascal? Ain't you ashamed of yourself? War ferret, war ferret!" Repeat this a few times for two or three days, and when you first begin working the dog and he is excitedly watching for a rat to bolt, just say "War ferret" to him, and he will be sure to understand. Should he, however, in his excitement make a dash at a ferret, shout at him to stop, and then, picking up the ferret, rub it over his face, all the time scolding him well for what he has done; but don't hit him, and probably he will never look at a ferret again. In my opinion there is nothing like a thrashing to spoil a dog or a boy; reason with them and talk to them, and if they are worth keeping they will understand and obey. Mind, a dog must always obey, and obey at the first order. Always give an order in a decided voice as if you meant it, and never overlook the slightest disobedience. One short whistle should always be enough. If the dog does not obey, call him up and, repeating the whistle, scold him _with a scold in your voice_. Don't shout or bawl at him for all the country to hear and the rats too, but just make your _words sting_. If he repeats his offence, put a line and collar on him and lead him for half an hour, telling him all the time why you do so, and he will be so ashamed of himself that the chances are he will obey you ever after. Put yourself in the dog's place. Fancy if, when you have "kicked a bit over the traces" at school, the head-master, instead of thrashing you, made you walk up and down the playground or cricket-field with him for half an hour; but no, that would be too awful; it would border on brutality! But you would not forget it in a hurry. We humans often behave well and do good, not because it is our duty so to do, but for what the world will say and for the praise we may get. Dogs are not in all things superior to humans, and in this matter of praise I fear they are even inferior to us. They most dearly love praise, and a good dog should always get it for any and every little service he renders to man. Remember, he is the only living thing that takes a _pleasure_ in working for man, and his sole reward is man's approbation. Give it him, then, and give it him hot and warm when he deserves it, and he will be willing to do anything for you and will spend his life worshipping you and working for you; for better, for worse, for richer, for poorer, he is yours, with no sneaking thoughts of a divorce court in the background. There is another thing a master should always do for his dog himself and do it with reason. See to his comfort; see that he has good food and water and is comfortably lodged. Don't let him be tied up to a hateful kennel in a back yard, baked by the sun in summer and nearly frozen in winter; often without water, and with food thrown into a dish that is already half full of sour and dirty remains of yesterday's dinner. This is not reasonable and is cruel. When he is not with you, shut him up in a kennel, big or little, made as nearly as you can have it on the model of a kennel for hounds. Let it be cool and airy in summer and snug and warm in winter; keep all clean--kennel, food, dishes, water and beds. Don't forget that different dogs have different requirements; for instance, that a long thick coated dog will sleep with comfort out in the snow, while a short-coated one will shiver in a thick bed of straw. Picture to yourself, as you tuck the warm blankets round you on a cold winters night, what your thin-coated pointer is undergoing in a draughty kennel on a bare plank bed, chained up to a "misery trap" in the back yard, which is half full of drifted snow. Think of it, and get up and put the dog in a spare loose box in the stable for the night, and have a proper kennel made for him in the morning. I once had a favourite dog named "Rough" that died of distemper. A small child asked me a few days afterwards if dogs when they died went to heaven, and I, not knowing better, answered, "Yes"; and the child said, "Won't Rough wag his old tail when he sees me come in?" When you "come in" I hope there will be all your departed dogs wagging their tails to meet you. It will depend upon how you have treated them here; but take my word for it, my friend, you will never be allowed to pass that door if the dogs bark and growl at you. Don't suppose I am a sentimental "fat pug on a string" sort of man. Next to humans I like dogs best of all creatures. Why, I have made my living by their killing rats for me at twopence per rat and three pound a farm, and I am grateful: but I like dogs in their proper place. For instance, as a rule, I dislike a dog in the house. The house was meant for man and should be kept for him. I think when a man goes indoors his dog should be shut up in the kennel and not be allowed to wander about doing mischief, eating trash, learning to loaf, and under no discipline. Now and then I do allow an old dog that has done a life's hard work to roam about as he likes, and even walk into my study (I mean kitchen) and sit before the fire and chat with me; but, then, such dogs have established characters, and nothing can spoil them; besides, they are wise beasts with a vast experience, and I can learn a lot from them. It was from one of these I learnt all about the prigging policeman. A young dog is never good for much who is allowed to run wild; every one is his master and he obeys no one, and when he is taken out he is dull and stupid, thinking more of the kitchen scraps than of business. No, when I go to work, I like to let the dogs out myself, to see them dash about, dance around, jump up at me and bark with joy. I like to see the young ones topple each other over in sport, and the old ones gallop on ahead to the four crossways, and stand there watching to see which way I am going, and then, when I give them the direction with a wave of the hand, bolt off down the road with a wriggle of content. You might trust your life to dogs in such a joyful temper, for they would be sure to stand by you. Thank you, young gentlemen; that is enough for this morning's lesson. You may now amuse yourselves with your Ovid or Euclid. CHAPTER III. I am a working man, or rather have been till I got the rheumatics, and as such I naturally stick to my own class and prefer associating with those of my own sort, and therefore I always keep working dogs. I have often bred aristocratic dogs, dogs descended from great prize-winners and with long pedigrees, and among them I have had some good ones, honest and true; but as a rule I must say my experience proves that the shorter the pedigree the better the dog, and now if I could get them I should like to keep dogs that never had a father. Some people I know call me a cad, a clod, a chaw-bacon, etc., and they call my dogs curs and mongrels. Such men talk nonsense and should be kept specially to make speeches during the recess. I don't care to defend _myself_ but I must stand up for my dogs against all comers; and I assert boldly that, nine times out of ten, a dog with no pedigree is worth two with a long one. When I get a new dog I never ask who he is, or who his father was, but I go by his looks and his performances. There are dogs like men in all classes, who have either a mean, spiteful, vicious look, or a dull, heavy, dead one; such I avoid both in dog and man, for I find they are not worth knowing. Any other dog will do for me, and even now, though I don't often go ratting, I have as good a lot as ever stood at a hole, and I don't think I can do better than describe them as a guide to students when they come to getting a kennel together. First of all, I never give a lot of money for a dog--how can I with rats at twopence each?--but, if I can, I drop on a likely-looking young one about a year old who was going to be "put away" on account of the tax. I got the oldest I have now in the kennel in this way. It followed George Adams, the carrier, home one night, and to this day has never been claimed; and when the tax-collector spoke to him about it, he offered it to me, and I took it and gave it the name of "Come-by-chance," but in the family and among friends she is now called "Chance." If Chance is of any family I should think her mother was a setter and her father a bob-tail sheep-dog; but, then, I can't make out where she got her legs! She is red and white, with a perfect setter's head. She has the hind parts of a sheep-dog and evidently never had a tail; and her legs, which are very thick, would be short for a big terrier. Such are her looks, which certainly are not much to speak of; but if I had the pen of a Sir Walter Scott I could not do credit to the perfection of her character. For seven years she has been the support of my business, and I can safely say she has caused the death of more rats than all my other dogs put together. I say _caused_, for she is slow at killing and leaves this matter of detail to younger hands. If another dog is not near she will _catch_ a rat and even kill it; but she has a soft mouth, and all the other dogs, except quite the youngest, know this, and, against the rule, will always dash in when she has a rat in her mouth and take it from her, and she gives it up without a struggle. No, her forte is to _find_ a rat. She is always in and out, up the bank, through the hedge, down the bank; not a tuft of grass escapes her, and she would hunt down each side of Regent Street and in and out of the carriages if she found herself there. She lives hunting. Nothing ever escapes her; one sniff at the deepest and most turn-about hole is enough. If the rat is not in, on she goes in a minute; but should it be ensconced deep down in the furthest corner, she stops at once and just turns her head round and says quietly to me, "Here's one." Then, whilst I am getting out a ferret, over the bank she goes, in and out the hedge in all directions, and never fails to find and mark every bolt-hole for the other dogs to stand at that belongs to the one where the rat is. As soon as I begin to put in the ferret, she will come over the hedge, give herself a shake, and sit down and watch the proceedings, not offering to take a part herself, as she feels there are more able dogs ready, and that this is not her strong point. Suppose a rat bolts and is killed and the ferret comes out, Chance will never leave the hole till she has taken a sniff at it to make sure all the rats have been cleared out. I have never known her make a mistake. If _she_ says there is a rat in, there is one without any doubt; if she says there is not, it is no good running a ferret through the hole. Should I be alone, with no one to look out for the ferret when it comes out on the other side of a bank, Chance without a word being said to her will get over and look out, and directly the ferret appears will come back to me and give a wriggle, looking in the direction of the ferret, and then I know I must get over and pick it up. She has one peculiarity. When she followed George Adams home, seven years ago, she was shy and scared; but, as it was a cold night, George, being a kind-hearted fellow, invited her to step indoors, an invitation she accepted in a frightened sort of way. On the hearth sat a little girl of three years old, eating her supper, and Chance, doubtless feeling very hungry, came and sat down in front of her and watched her with a wistful look. The child was not afraid and soon began feeding the dog, who took the pieces of food most gently from her fingers. When the child was taken up to bed, Chance secretly followed, and getting under the crib slept there all night. Only once since then has Chance failed to sleep in that same place, and that was the first night I had her. She was shut up in the kennel and never stopped barking all night. Since then she has always followed me home, eaten her supper at the kitchen door, and then gone off to her bed under the crib. Early in the morning she is again at my door and never goes near George's house till bed-time. If Chance has no tail, the next dog on the list, "Tinker," makes up the average. He is a little black, hard-coated dog, with the head of a greyhound and tail of a foxhound. His head is nearly as long as his body, and his tail is just a little longer. In all ways he is a proficient at rat-catching, except that he has been known to mark a hole where there was no rat; but his strong point is killing. He will stand well back from a hole, and it does not matter how many rats bolt, or how fast, each gets one snap and is dead and dropped without Tinker having moved a foot. I named him Tinker, for a tinker gave him to me "cos he warn't no sort of waller." Then on my list next comes "Grindum," a mongrel bull-terrier, just the tenderest hearted, mildest dispositioned dog that ever killed a rat. He has but a poor nose and is not clever, but he has one strong point, which he developed for himself without being taught. It is this: when I am ferreting a thick hairy bank with a big ditch, Grindum always goes some ten yards off and places himself in the ditch, and, let the excitement be what it will, he never moves; and should a rat in the thick grass escape the other dogs and bolt down the ditch, it is a miracle if it does not die when it reaches him. I have better and cleverer dogs, I know; but I think Grindum brings in as many twopences as any of them, and we are not going to part! The way I got Grindum is quite a little history, and I will tell it, though if you boys like, you can skip it and go on with a more serious part of your lesson. Not far from where I lived there was, in a most out-of-the-way corner on a common, an old sand-pit, and in this a miserable dilapidated cottage, consisting of two rooms. This for some years had been empty, but one fine morning was discovered to be inhabited by a man, his wife and two children--a boy of twelve and a girl of seven--and a bull-terrier. No one knew anything about them or where they had come from, and when the landlord of the hut went to eject them, he found them in such a miserable half-starved condition that he left them alone. Our parson called on them three times--the first time the wife told him they did not like strangers and parsons in particular; the second time the husband told him to clear out sharp, or he would do him a mischief; and the third time the man took up a knife and began sharpening it, preparatory, he said, to cutting the parson's throat! Two months after this the man, after sitting drinking in the village pot-house all the morning, stepped round to an old mid-wife and asked her "to come and lay his wife out." The woman went and did her work and said nothing at the time, but later on it was whispered about that she had told some of her pals that "the poor crittur was black and blue, and that it was on her mind that the husband had murdered her!" After this, as I passed the cottage, I often saw the two children sitting on a log of wood outside, with the bull-dog sitting between them. None of the three ever moved out; all blinked their eyes at me as I passed, as if they were unaccustomed to the sight of a fellow-creature. Two or three months passed, during which the man was constantly drinking at the village public-house; but he always left at sundown--"to look after the kids," he said. Then there was a poaching fray on a nobleman's estate near. Six keepers came on five poachers one moonlight night. There was a hard fight, and at last the keepers took two of the men and the other three bolted, but one was recognized as the man from the sand-pit and was "wanted" by the police. A few nights after this I was walking down a lane in the dark near my house, when the sand-pit man stepped out of the hedge, leading his dog by a cord, and turning to me said, "Here, master, if you want a good dog, here is one for you; I am off to give myself up to the police, and I am going to turn queen's evidence against my pals." I replied that I did not want such a dog, so he said, "All right, then I'll cut his throat," and then and there prepared to do so. This was more than I could stand, so I took the cord and led the dog away, but before doing so, I asked, "How about your children?" He gave a short laugh, and said, "They would be properly provided for." It afterwards turned out that soon after leaving me he walked straight into the arms of two policemen, who saved him the trouble of giving himself up by taking him into custody. I led my new dog home and tied him up in the corner of an open wood-shed, giving him a bundle of straw and a dish of bones, and by the starved look of him I should say this was the biggest meal he had ever had in his life. I sat up late that night reading, and all the time in a remote corner of my mind the sand-pit man, the two children and the dog kept turning about, till at last, about midnight or later, I thought I would go to bed; but before doing so I made up my mind that I would see if my new dog was all right. I lit a lantern and stepped out of the door and found it was blowing and snowing and biting cold. Mercifully I persevered and reached the wood-shed, and what I saw there by the light of my lantern did startle me. There was the bull-dog sure enough lying curled up in the straw blinking hard at me, but--could I believe my eyes?--there lying with him, with their arms entwined round each other and round the dog, were the two children from the sand-pit fast asleep, but looking so pale and pinched I thought they must be dead. I will give place to no man living at rat-catching and minding dogs, but here was a pretty mess, for I am no good with little children; so putting down my lantern, I hurried back to the house and got two rugs and with them wrapped the children and dog up snugly. Then I went in and woke up my wife, who had already gone to bed, and called some other women who were in the house, and after telling them what I had found, I made up a big fire in the kitchen and put on some water to boil. In a very few minutes my wife was downstairs and battling her way with me off to the wood-shed. I untied the dog and moved him away from the children. This woke them both, and they sat up and rubbed their eyes, and the poor boy appeared almost scared to death, but the little girl was quite quiet, and only watched his face with a sad careworn old look which I pray I may never see on a child's face again. My wife is really smart with little children, and in half no time she was on her knees crooning over them, and soon she had the girl in her arms; but when I attempted to pick up the boy he only screamed and struggled, and kept calling out, "Grindum, Grindum! I won't leave Grindum. I shall be killed if I leave Grindum. Let me stay with Grindum." I assured him he should not be separated from Grindum "never no more," and at last I partially quieted him, and he allowed me to carry him into the kitchen and place him on a stool in front of the fire with his sister, while his beloved Grindum sat by his side blinking as if nothing unusual had taken place, and as if he had done the same each night for the last three months and felt a little bored by it. The first thing to be done, my wife said, was to feed the children, and while she and the other women busied about getting it ready, I sat and watched them. Both were remarkably pretty; both dark, with finely cut features, big eyes and thick soft black hair; but yet in different ways both had something sad about them. The boy never sat still for a moment, but kept glancing fearfully at me, then at the women, and then at the door, as if he expected something dreadful to happen, and all the time kept grasping the arm of his little sister with one hand as if for protection, and clinging to the soft skin of Grindum's neck with the other. If he caught my eye, or if I spoke to him, he flinched as if I had struck him, and turned livid and tugged so hard at Grindum's skin that the poor dog's eyes were pulled into mere slits, through which I could see he yet went on blinking at the fire. The girl sat half turned round to the boy and never took her eyes off his face, looking the very essence of womanly pity and love. Now and then when he suffered from a paroxysm of fear, she would softly stroke his face, which appeared to soothe him instantly; but nothing she could do could ever stop the wild restless look in his eyes or prevent his glancing about as if watching for some dreadful apparition. It was a sad, sad picture, made doubly striking by the utter stolidity and indifference of that awful dog, Grindum. Soon hot basins of bread and milk were prepared, which both children eat ravenously, and then they were put into steaming hot baths, washed, dried, combed, and wrapped in blankets; but when we attempted to take them up to the nice warm beds that had been prepared for them, there was the same wild terrified cry from the boy for Grindum; and to pacify him the dog had to be taken upstairs with them, and half an hour later, when my wife and I peeped into the room, we saw the two children locked in each other's arms fast asleep, with Grindum curled up on the bed next to the boy, yet blinking horribly, but perfectly composed and making himself at home. How those two children found their way that night through a blinding snow-storm to their only living friend, the dear blinking Grindum, I never could find out. All I could ever get from the boy was, "Oh, I always go where Grindum goes!" and the little girl could only say, "Jack took me." My wife says angels guided them. Maybe she's right, but I hardly think angels would be likely to go about on such a night; still my wife went out in the snow and wind to the shed and got out of her snug bed to do it, but then she put on a pea jacket and clogs, and that makes a difference. This is a tiring long story to write, and I have not quite done it yet, for I must finish with the sand-pit man. He was tried, convicted and got three years. A year after he had been in prison he tried to escape by getting over a high wall, but in doing so he fell from the top and broke his back. He lingered some days and seemed to find a pleasure in telling the prison parson of all his misdeeds and in boasting of them. There was a long list, but only the last part of his story will serve for "the use of schools." It appears from what he said that, after he had given me the dog, he had intended to steal back to his house and take the two children to a deep pond and there drown them. Then, free from family ties, he hoped to get away and ship himself off to America. He also said that in a fit of rage he had thrashed his wife to death with his fists, and that his boy from having seen him do it had gone mad with fear, and was so bad, especially at night, that if he had not got a bull-dog sleeping with him as a sort of friend, he would go into a fit with fear and was often unconscious for hours. It was an ugly story, and I am glad to say with the death of the sand-pit man the miserable part of the children's life ended. The girl is now twelve years old and has never left us. She is as sharp as a needle and as honest as old Chance and as good. She is having a good education, thanks to our Rector's wife, and could if need be earn her own livelihood, but we are not going ever to part with her. The boy Jack was a great trouble to us at first. For months he would not be parted for a moment, day or night, from Grindum, and the dog actually had to go to school with him; but the master utterly failed to teach the boy even as far as A B C in his alphabet, and the dog not to blink; and so, one fine day, I had both returned on my hands as hopeless ignoramuses. I could not keep a blinking dog at home in idleness, so I took him with me ratting, and as Jack would not be parted from the dog, he had to come too. Everyone says the boy is "cracked." He is queer, I will allow, but if you will find me a better hand at rat-catching in all its branches, I should like to look at him; and besides, if Jack is cracked, then I like cracked boys, for I never came across one more obedient, more truthful, or more steady, and I find him a perfect treasure on the other side of the bank at the bolt holes. Jack never mentions the past, and I should be inclined to think he had forgotten it, only if he is parted from Grindum for a short time he becomes wild looking about the eyes again and restless. At such times his sister, who mothers him much, will sit by him and stroke his face softly, when he will quickly recover himself. I don't know what will happen when Grindum "blinks his last," but the boy begins to follow me about and seems to cling to me, and by that time I hope I shall be so well liked by him that I may take Grindum's place. Just two words more about Grindum and I have done. One is that the first time Grindum caught a rat, he picked it up by its hind leg, and the rat made its teeth meet through his nose. He softly put the rat down and it escaped, and I made my sides ache and greatly astonished all the other dogs by laughing at this great soft beast as he sat on his haunches licking the blood as it trickled from his nose, and staring up into the sky with a far-off vacant look, blinking worse than ever. The other word is this. Though Grindum is a bull-dog with an awful "Crush your bones, tear your flesh" look, he is just the gentlest-hearted beast out, and there is not a puppy in the kennel, nor a child in the village, who does not know this and impose on him shamefully. Only last Sunday I had to stop a small child of five from driving off in a four-wheeled cart, using Grindum as a horse. Once, and once only, Grindum showed his temper. A big lout in the village threw a stone at him. Grindum only blinked, but Jack saw it and hit the lout, who being twice Jack's size turned upon him and knocked him down. In half a minute Grindum's teeth had met three times in the lout's calves and his trousers required reseating, and in three-quarters of a minute Grindum was sitting down with a bland expression of countenance, blinking with both eyes at the sky. Now to continue my lesson on ratting dogs. I have two others, Pepper and Wasp--one a badly bred spaniel, and the other a terrier of doubtful parentage. They are both nice cheerful young dogs that it is a pleasure to see either at play or work, but they are yet young and too apt to get excited and wild. They _will_, when a rat is out of his hole, in a hedge, dash up and down the entire length of the field, making enormous jumps in the air, during which time they listen keenly for the rustle of the rat in the grass; and once, but only once, Pepper gave a yap when so rushing about, but I spoke to him so severely about this disgustingly low habit that he has never done it again. Wasp is specially good at water, and I have taught him to come to me directly a rat is bolted with a plunge into a pond, and I carry her high up in my arms round the pond, and when the rat approaches the side, Wasp from her high vantage ground will dive down upon it and have it in an instant. Both dogs are quick killers and will, I am sure, in time be perfect; but as yet I do not think myself justified in putting them into a higher class with such dogs as Chance and Tinker. There! that is all for to-day, young gentlemen. Resume your Cicero, and, while you are preparing it, I will go to my room and look over the impositions I set you yesterday. It is understood that for "look over impositions" we may read, "Smoke cavendish in a short black pipe." CHAPTER IV. What do you say, boys? Shall we drop this and have a day's outdoor practice? To tell the truth, I don't think much of book-learning, especially if the book is written by myself; but I do believe in practice. Come along! It is the middle of October--just the nicest time of the year and the very best for ratting, for the vermin are yet out in the hedges, fine and strong from feeding in the corn, and with few young ones about. Come, Jack, we'll get the ferrets first; and off I go with the boy to the hutch, while the dogs in the kennel, having heard our steps and perfectly understanding what is up, bark and yap at the door, jump over each other, tumble and topple about like mad fiends. Before I get to the box I hear the ferrets jumping up at the sides, and when I open the lid half a dozen are out in a moment, and these I bag as a reward for their activity. I throw the others a rat to console them for being left at home, and, giving the ferrets to Jack, I strap on a big game bag, take up my spade, return and let the dogs out, and off we start. Step out quick, Jack; there are three miles to go before we get to work, and it is 8 a.m. and I expect a big day. Yes, Chance, old lady, a fine day--a perfect day--a day to make both the feet and the heart light and every human sense rejoice. There has been just a little frost in the night: you can see that by the way the elms have spread a golden carpet under their branches in the lane and by their leaves that yet keep falling slowly one by one in the fresh, but dead still, air, and by the smell of the turnips, the fresh stubble and the newly turned earth behind yonder plough. The sun shines, cobwebs are floating through the air and get twisted round one's head, and far and near sounds such as a cart on the high road, a sheep dog barking, a boy singing, birds chirping, insects humming, the patter of our own feet, and the whispering of the brook under the bridge, all form part of a chorus heaven-sent to gladden the heart of man. I have heard tell, Chance, or I have seen it in a book, or I have felt it myself, I don't quite know which, that those who in youth have had such a walk as this, and have heard the music, smelt the perfumes and seen the sights (that is if they were blessed with eyes to see, ears to hear, and hearts to take in), have never forgotten it. The memory appears for a time to pass away amidst the struggles of life, but it is never dead; to the soldier in battle, to the statesman in council, or the priest in prayers, to those in sorrow or in joy or in sickness, there may come, no one knows from where, no one knows why, a golden memory of such days, of such a walk. Perhaps it is only a gleam resting but a second upon the mind, and perhaps leaving it saddened with a longing for days that are past, but yet I think making one feel a better man, giving one courage and hope, reminding one that, hard as the battle of life may be to fight, dark and gloomy as the days may be just now, another morning may arise for us, far, far more bright and glorious and joyful, one that will not be shadowed over by a returning night; but then that is only for the brave, the honest, the truthful--for those who are up early and strive late, never beaten, never doubting, always pressing forward. But, come out of that, Wasp! Don't you know that cows kick if you sniff at their heels? Tinker, old man, keep your spirits up; Pepper, come back from that wood, for it is preserved. Yes, Jack, I think I'll fill my pipe again. Baccy does taste good on a day like this; but what doesn't? I feel like a ten-year-old and as fit as a fiddler. Grindum, give over blinking and don't look so benevolent. No, Chance, no, old lady, I can't pull your tail, for you haven't got one. What, Jack, you say I haven't spoken for the past mile? Well, I suppose I have been thinking, and my thoughts have not been wholly sad ones. Open the gate; here we are; and you get over on the other side of the hedge and don't talk or make a noise, for I can see by the work the rats s-w-a-r-m. Steady, dogs, steady! And so we start. The hedge is just what it should be, and if it had been made for ratting it could not be better. A round bank of soft earth, a shallow ditch with grass, little bush or bramble, and a gap every few yards. There is a gateway in the middle, which will make a hot corner later on when Grindum has taken his stand there; and there is a pipe under the gateway, the far end of which I shall close. The rats have never been disturbed, for the runs are as fresh as Oxford Street, and I have already seen one or two rats run into the hedge lower down from out the wheat stubble, and, there! that whistle has sent a lot more in. Steady, Wasp! Well done, Chance; you have marked one in that hole near you, or more than one, is there? Well, the more the merrier! Stand, dogs, stand! Are you ready, Jack? And in goes a ferret as lively as quicksilver and as fierce as a tiger. For a minute all is quiet; then a slight stir on the other side and two snaps of Tinker's lantern-jaws, and two rats dead; three others out of a side hole are killed by Wasp, and three others accounted for by Grindum, and that fool Pepper is racing and jumping down the hedge a mile off. Whistle! whistle! and back he comes, and at that moment Jack picks up a ferret on the other side, it having gone through the hole. Chance sniffs at it and says it is swept clear, and I block it up with my heel, and Jack does the same to the bolt-hole, so that if a rat does come back later on the dogs will have a chance; and then on we go a few yards to the next hole which Chance marks. This time the ferret went in like a lion and came out like a lamb, with the blood running out of the side of its face; and whilst I am examining the bite, a real patriarch rat bolted at a side hole near Pepper, who strikes at it, misses taking a proper hold and gets it too far back, and the next moment the blood is pouring from a bite above his eye; but the rat is dead, and Pepper but little the worse. I thought it was too late in the year for young ones, but it was not, for at the next hole we came to the ferret got into a nest, killed a lot of young ones and "laid up," and, as I had not a box-trap with me, I had to dig it out. This took some time, as I lost the hole, and Jack, whilst down grubbing with his hands, broke into a wrong one in which the old rat was ready for him, and at once bit him through the end of his finger. Jack sucked it well and did not mind, but I did not much like the appearance of things, for in half-an-hour I had had a ferret laid up, and a dog and a boy bitten badly by rats, and these bites are often very poisonous. Fortunately this time Jack took no harm and was soon well. As soon as Jack pulled his hand out of the rat's hole, Pincher put his long nose in, and all was over in a minute. Soon after I came on the ferret curled up in a nest of young rats, all minus their heads; and so that ferret, from being gorged with food, was no more good for work, and had to be put away with the bitten one. After this we got on much faster; the holes were close together, and even with the greatest care lots of rats bolted and went forward, but I would not allow the dogs to disturb fresh ground by following them. Some went back, and Pepper and Wasp had a good time, for I let them follow and work them alone, having stopped all back holes after ferreting them. Now and then, Jack and I had to go back, as there was an old pollard tree covered with ivy, and many of the rats got up that, and Pincher had to be lifted up into the crown to displace them, and then when they jumped down, three or four at a time, there was a grand scrimmage. When we had got twenty yards or so from the gateway, Grindum went forward and stood there and killed a dozen rats that tried to pass, and a lot more went into the pipe under the roadway. These we left alone, only after we had passed we stopped up the open end and opened the shut one, so that in future rats going back might wait quietly in the arch till we were ready for them. By the time we had got as far as the gate it was just noon, so we called the dogs back to a tree we had passed, and then Jack and I sat down and paid attention to the game bag, which was well provided with cold meat and bread and cheese and a bottle of beer. I am not a good hand at picnics and never was. I mean those big gatherings with ladies, lobster salad, hot dishes, plates, knives, spoons, champagne, etc. I find the round world was created a little too low down to sit upon with comfort; my knees don't make a good table; flies get into my beer and hopping things into my plate. I have to get up and hand eatables about; things bite me, and more creep about me, and it does not look well to scratch. The hostess looks anxious about her glass and plate; someone has forgotten the salt, and some one else the corkscrew. The host, be he ever so sad, _makes_ fun, and made fun is magnified misery to me. No, I don't like picnics; I would rather be at home and feed upon a table; and yet a snack at noon-day, after hard work, sitting under a tree, with your hands as plates, with a good "shut-knife," a silent companion and the dogs all round you, _is_ pleasant. Double Gloucester then equals Stilton, and bottled beer nectar; and then the pipe in quiet, while Jack takes the dogs, after they have finished the scraps, to the pond to drink. Talk of Havanas! Well, talk of them, but give me that pipe as I loll, half asleep, resting against the tree, my legs spread out, and my hat tipped over my nose. I half close my eyes and go nearly to sleep, but keep pulling at the pipe, and half unconsciously hear the leaves whispering above, the insects humming, the stubble rustling, the trembling of a thrashing machine, and the rush of a train in the far distance. Jack returns from the pond, throws himself on the ground on his face, kicks his legs in the air and whistles softly, with the gentle Grindum blinking beside him. Chance and Tinker lie out full length on their sides and go to sleep. Wasp stretches on the ground, with her legs out behind her, and drags herself about with her front feet. Pepper sits down, scratches his ear, and then dashes at a passing bumble bee, and all becomes a pleasant jumble of sights and sounds; but, with a start, I recover myself, drop my pipe, topple my hat off and lose my temper, for that everlastingly restless, volatile, good-for-nothing, ramshackly beast, Pepper, has been and licked me all up the side of the face! The dream, the quiet, the rest is all broken, so, jumping up, I tip my pipe out on the heel of my boot, give a stretch, grasp the spade, and off we go to finish our job. For three hours we work our way on, and a line of dead rats on the headland marks our progress, till at last we reach the bottom of the field and our bank is done. Pepper has got three more bites, another ferret is done for by a nip on the nose, and Jack has torn his trousers and is very dirty; but there is yet the drain pipe under the gate to attend to, and it is getting on in the day. I cut three or four long sticks and tie them tightly together, and then to the end of this fasten a good hard bunch of grass, and back we go to the drain. I go to one end with Grindum and Pincher, whilst Jack takes the sticks, Pepper and Wasp to the other end, and gently and slowly shoves the sticks through. Two venturesome rats bolt at my end and are killed. When the sticks appear I grasp them and gradually draw the whisp of grass into the drain. It fits tight and takes some pulling, but it comes steadily along, wiping all before it. Faster and faster the rats bolt and are killed, and even old Chance, who began by watching us, gets excited and joins the sport. Pepper and Wasp dash in for a last worry, which is over in a few minutes, when twenty-four rats are cast by Jack up on to the bank. Well done, dogs! well done, good dogs! Woo-hoop, woo-hoop! Good dogs! That's the way, my boys! Woo-hoop! woo-hoop! And the dogs roll on the ground, stretch, wipe the dirt out of their eyes with their paws, and rub their faces in the grass. Jack goes backwards and forwards and collects the spoil, and we count up seventy-three real beauties, a few of which I really think should be fourpenny beasts, they are so big. Never mind, seventy-three rats at twopence each comes to twelve and twopence--not such a bad day's work; and, Jack, you shall have a hot supper to-night; and oh, you dogs, you dogs, think of the supper I will give you! Bones with lots of meat on, oatmeal and such soup! Think of it, dogs! think of it! And so the work ends, and all are happy and contented. Three miles down turning twisting lanes to reach home, Grindum and I first, then Jack, and the rear brought up by the long and now a little drooping tail of Tinker. All have had enough; even the volatile young Pepper trots slowly, and therefore looks ever so much more business-like. Before we start the shades are falling, and as we trudge along nature's evening vespers speak of the closing day. Workmen sitting sideways on quiet harnessed cart-horses stump past with a friendly "Good night, neighbour, good night!" Women with children in "go-carts" bustle past in a hurry to get home and fetch up the supper. Farm horses are drinking in the pond or browsing on the rank grass at the side; sparrows are chattering in the old alder bush before going to bed in the ivy on the church; pigs in the homestead are calling for their supper; the cows pass us coming home to be milked; rooks fly steadily to the old elm trees near the Manor; and a robin pipes clear and shrill on the roof of the shed in the cottage garden. There are partridges calling out "cheap wheat" in the stubble, and pewits crying on the meadows. Cock pheasants noisily flutter up to roost in the firs, and the old doctor standing at his door makes soft music with his violin. The parson joins us and has a cheery word for all, especially the dogs, who are all his personal friends; and so we jog on and reach the village, where the wood smoke rises straight in a blue cloud from the cottage chimneys, and the fire light sends a ruddy gleam across the roads. Groups of men and boys stand about resting, little children race and play, and oh, such a delicious whiff of something stewing, with a little bit of onion in it, comes from the open door of the village ale-house! And this reminds us all that our suppers are near, and we finish the evening's walk quite briskly. No need to say, "Kennel, dogs, kennel!" All go in of their own accord, and in five minutes are busy at their savoury-smelling _hot_ supper. The ferrets are fed and locked up, and then, unlacing our boots at the back door and kicking them off, the day is done. Supper, rest and quiet, a pipe, a book, bed and happy dreams are all before us. "Now, Croker, minor, you will go to the Doctor's study before school to-morrow. You have been most inattentive, and it is not the first time I have had occasion to speak to you. You can go now, but don't forget that this is tub night, as you all have done on the last four occasions. If I have further complaints on this head from the matron, I shall take you all out for a long day's rat-catching, so I advise you all to be very careful." Five minutes later this master is smoking in his room and says to another master who is doing the same, "I say, Potts, do you know I think these new lessons on rat-catching are all very well, but I think they are beyond the capacity of schoolboys. Why, they strain _my_ mind, and I think they should only be taken up at the universities and during the last term; and then the boys do so hate them," etc. CHAPTER V. "Croker, minor, have you been up to the head-master? Yes? Then sit still and don't fidget. Boys, pick up your books on rat-catching, and we will resume yesterday's task." The last chapter treats of a prime day's rat-catching, where rats were numerous and known to be numerous; but don't suppose all days are like this, for if you do you will be sadly disappointed, and you will have a lot to learn, for there are days, and very pleasant days too, when you will have to walk mile after mile to find a rat, and even then not be successful; but you will be out of doors in the fresh air, with devoted companions and something fresh to see at every step, if you keep your eyes open. Don't get disheartened, and above all things never say, "Oh, it is no good looking here or looking there for a rat; there is sure not to be one. Come on and don't waste time." You often find them in the most unexpected places. I once went three times to the house of an old lady, being sent for because there was a rat that came each night and took her hen's eggs and carried off young ducks and chickens. I spent hours looking for it in hedges, ditches, sheds, out-houses and stable, and even put Tinker up on the roof of all the buildings, thinking the assassin might be under the tiles; but it was no go. Night after night the plunderer came, and I began to see that the old lady did not think much of me. At last, one afternoon, I called again and began operations by asking to have a dog that was tied up to a kennel in a back yard led away, as his barking disturbed my dogs. This was done, and a minute afterwards Chance was sidling round the kennel, staking her reputation upon the rat being under it. I got out a ferret and looked round the kennel, and was utterly disgusted to find it was placed firmly on hard ground without a vestige of a hole. I am sorry to say I went so far as to sneer at Chance and tell her she did not know the difference between a dog and a rat. She herself for a moment seemed in doubt, but the next she went _inside_ the kennel and stood at a hole in the plank floor. I put the ferret back in the bag and, taking hold of the kennel, tilted it up, and in an instant the dogs had a vicious-looking old monster dead. Now the only possible way that rat could have got in and out of his house was by passing the dog as he slept, and yet the old lady and her gardener assured me that the dog was as keen as mustard after rats. I once killed a rat inside a church. I found it during a long sermon, but for the life of me I can't remember what that sermon was about. I was sitting in a seat opposite about a score of village school children, and suddenly I was struck by their appearance, and the thought passed through my mind, "How like humans are to dogs! Why, those children look just like my dogs when they find a rat, especially that flaxen-haired girl with a front tooth out." Then I noticed that they were all looking in one direction, and so I looked there too and saw a rat sitting with just its nose out of a hole which ran under the brick floor, apparently listening to the sermon. The next morning the parson and I went to the church. I took one ferret and only Tinker. I chose Tinker because he was black and rather clerical looking. The rat was at home, and we had it in five minutes. This was one of the few times I ever did rat-catching with my hat off, and it felt very queer. Again, I once killed a mother rat and a lot of young ones which I found in the stuffing of a spring sofa in a spare bedroom at an old manor-house. There were rats in the walls, and "Mary Ann" had often seen a rat in the room when she went in to dust, and it had given her "such a turn." This time I took all the dogs with me, and we were followed by the lady of the house, four dreadfully pretty daughters and "Mary Ann." Madam and Mary Ann got on the sofa, standing, and the four daughters stood on four chairs round the room. All six clasped their clothes tight round their ankles--why, I never could think. This was the only time in her life that I ever found Chance a fool. Directly she got into the room, she wriggled and twisted, turned her head this way and that, threw herself on her back and fairly grovelled. Wasp, Pepper, and the long-tailed Tinker were nearly as bad, and it was plain to see they were shy and bashful in such a gorgeous room and surrounded by such a galaxy of beauty. It was the soft-hearted Grindum who saved us; he blinked much, but directly I said, "Hie round, dogs! Hunt him up! Search him out!" he went to work--up on the bed, round the room, behind the furniture, and at last began sniffing round the sofa. I got hot all over, for I thought he was mistaking an aristocratic lady and her hand-maid for rats; but no, at last he went under the sofa, and turning over on his back began to scratch at the underside of it up above him. Madam and Mary Ann jumped off, and the latter felt another "turn"; then both took refuge on chairs and again clasped their clothes tight round them. I turned the sofa up on its back, and there through the sacking near a leg I found a nice round hole into the interior among the springs. I put a ferret in, and in a minute there was a rush and scuffle, the sofa seemed alive, and then three or four small rats bolted out and were accounted for; another squeak and rush, and out came the mother and was quickly dispatched; then, as the ferret did not come out, I ripped the sacking and found it eating a deliciously tender young rat. I bagged the ferret, and while I did so, Grindum killed three or four small ones. I afterwards found that the rats had eaten through the wainscot and so got into the room. The rest of the afternoon was spent in turning over all sorts of furniture, including beds, and hunting through each room with the dogs; but we found no more rats as inside lodgers. Three or four months after this episode, rats swarmed in the walls of this same house and behind the wainscoting, and my professional services were called in to get rid of them. How they got into the house I never discovered, for there were no holes from the outside, and no creepers on the walls for them to mount by and get on to the roof; the drains did not appear to communicate with the inside of the house, and all the doors fitted tight. Equally puzzling was it, now that they were inside, to get them out, for I dare not put ferrets in, for fear they should kill a rat and leave it to decay and smell for months. I tried various plans. I got a live rat, tied a ferret's bell on it, and turned it loose, and for days after it was constantly heard tinkling inside the walls; but it did not drive the rats away. I singed the coat of a rat, put tar on the feet of another and turned them loose; but it was no good. At last I took possession of a wood-house in a cellar down in the basement, from which a short passage led to other cellars, and in the walls of these there were many open holes. First of all I went carefully over the wood cellar and made sure there were no holes in it; and then, putting in a few faggots to give shelter to any nervous young rat, I started each night to feed them with delicious balls of barley-meal, which were made up with scraps. In this way I gave a rats' supper-party each night for three weeks, and each morning I found clean-swept dishes. At last the fatal day arrived. A string was tied to the handle of the door leading up into the kitchen, the food was placed in the dishes as usual about ten p.m., and all the household, except myself, went to bed. I sat over the kitchen fire reading my paper till a distant clock struck midnight, and then I gave a sharp pull to the string and heard the door bang to and the fastening fall, and I knew I had them. I lit a big glass lantern, went round to the stables and let out all the dogs, took them to the cellar window and slipt them through quickly, squeezing myself through after them and shutting the window again. In half no time fifty rats were killed, and all the dogs, except Tinker, pretty badly bitten; but they were used to that and did not care. Then I locked the back door behind me, taking the key home to bring back in the morning when I called to be paid eight and fourpence for my night's work. Three times in the next three months I went through a similar performance, and the first time I killed twenty-eight rats, the second seven, and the third time only two, and these were old bachelors. Then every hole in the walls was filled up with a cement made up with broken glass, and I have never heard of a rat in that house since. Before I forget it, let me tell you that if a rat dies in the wall, or under the floor of a house where it can't be got at, its whereabouts can be discovered in this way, provided the weather is warm. Take a butterfly net over to the butchers shop, and there catch a dozen bluebottle flies, and, taking care not to hurt them, slip them into a glass jar and tie a rag over it. Return to the room where the smell is, and, shutting the door after you, let your pack of flies loose and sit down to watch them, and in half-an-hour you will find they are all buzzing round one spot. Have this spot opened out, be it wall or floor, and there the dead rat will be found. Has the bell rung? Yes, half a minute! Put your books away, form two and two outside, and I will take you for our usual walk. We will resume this task in the morning. Croker, minor, the top part of Jones' leg was not made to stick pins into. If I see you do it again, I shall give you a rat to catch, so be careful! CHAPTER VI. I trust that, in the five chapters I have written, I have said enough to give some of my scholars a slight taste and liking for the profession I am advocating, and in some small degree have weaned their young affections from such pernicious pastimes as studying classical authors, doing sums, and cutting their names on their desks. If I have not done this I have written to little purpose, and I fear the next chapter will damp off a few who have only followed me and my dogs on fine days in pleasant paths; but I may as well tell you at once that life is no more all beer and skittles in rat-catching than it is in such minor professions as the Army, the Church, the Bar, school-keeping, etc.; and just to see if you are "real grit," boys, I will show you another picture. Jack, get the ferrets while I let the dogs out. We _must_ go and see if we can find a few rats, for it is a week since the ferrets had flesh, and we shall have them getting ill; and, Jack, bring four in the little bag, and put that inside your game-bag, for it looks like rain, and I don't like to see them half-drowned. Yes, it does look like rain, though as yet it is only a dull, misty, chilly day in mid-November down here in the country, but in London it is a thick black fog, and all work is being done by gaslight. It is bad and depressing here, but ever so much worse there; so cheer up, dogs, and step out, Jack. We will go down by the beck and home by the clay-pits, for I know of no other place near where we are so likely to find a few rats, and I don't want to make a long day of it. Go over the bridge, Jack. You take that side with Chance and a young one, and I will do this side with the other dogs. Hie in, dogs! Search him out, lads! And on we go, but in two miles we only kill a water-hen that Pepper catches as it rises out of some sedges, and which goes into my bag to replenish the ferrets' larder. The mist hangs low, the bushes are wet, the ground soft, and there is a dreary sigh in the wind. The cattle are eating fast, as they always do before rain; and the sheep, startled by the sight of the dogs, caper and jump as they gallop all down the meadow; and again their playfulness warns me of a wet tramp home. Some young colts stand at the door of an open shed, dull and depressed looking, and the horses ploughing on the sides of the hill send up a thick steam. No birds twitter or sing, no insects hum, distant sounds are muffled and indistinct. The teams in the waggons on the road hard by creep along and take little notice beyond a toss of the head at the carter's whip as he walks beside them with a heavy step cracking it. The only brisk thing to be seen is the doctor's gig as it whisks past. "Hie up, dogs! shake yourselves and don't go to sleep! Come over, Jack; I have had enough of this brook; and if we don't find at the clay-pits, home we go." And we trudge off to some ponds half a mile further away. They are well-known to both men and dogs, and the latter bolt on ahead and arrive first; and when we come up we find them all clustered round a hole in a high bank 'midst thick dripping bushes. In goes a ferret, but not in the way I like to see. There is no hurry, no ecstatic wriggle of the tail as it slowly draws itself into the hole. Then all stand round expecting to see a rat take a header into the pond; but no, five minutes pass, and Pepper begins to move, and is told to "stand." Ten minutes pass, and Jack gets restless. Fifteen minutes, and I begin to shift my feet, which are planted deep in sticky mud by the side of the pond, and just then the first drops of rain appear. Ah, there is the ferret! Jump up and get it, Jack. But before he can do so, it has drawn itself into the hole backwards, which means that it has killed a rat inside and that it only came out to tell us so, and that it was going back to have a good long sound sleep curled up by the rat's warm body. There is nothing for it but to dig it out; and oh, what a dig, all among roots and thorns on the sloping sides of the pond, in thick sticky clay, with the rain coming down in a steady pour! Jack hunches his back and leans against a tree, Pepper and Wasp wander away down a ditch and scratch for an hour at a drain that has a rabbit in it, and the old dogs sit and watch me and drip and shiver. I dig here, I dig there; I slip and fall on the bank; the water mixed with yellow clay runs up my arm from the spade, and yet that beastly ferret sleeps peacefully in its warm bed. I lose the hole, come down on roots as thick as my leg and stones that strike fire as the spade strikes them; and so two hours of discomfort to all drift by, and I am just feeling about for the last time with the spike end of the spade, when I again hit off the hole and, opening it out, come upon a nice warm rat's nest made of leaves, with the ferret curled up snugly with a dead rat. "Home, dogs, home! Cheer up, Jack! Cold are you, and wet? Well, never mind; only two miles, and we will walk fast. Pepper, Pepper, Wasp, Wasp, where on earth have you got to? Ah, there you are, and a nice mess you have made of yourselves trying to scratch out a hole five hundred yards long. Come along all!" And off we tramp, Jack and I in the middle of the road, splish splash at every step, the water squirting high up our gaitered legs, and the dogs, with drooping tails, dripping coats and woe-begone looks, coming along behind us in Indian file close under the shelter, such as it is, of the hedge. We pass the postman, who only nods, and meet a flock of sheep all draggled and dirty. An empty cart with a sack over the seat stands at the pot-house, and pigs wander listlessly about the yard with their backs arched up. Under the waggon-shed some cocks and hens stand each on one leg, with their tails drooping, apparently too disgusted to prune their feathers and fly up to roost in the rafters. The smoke beats down from the chimneys and gets lost in the wind and rain which buffets and pelts at our back. Cold spots begin to be felt at the bend of our arms and knees; then a shiver runs down the back, which developes into a trickle of water that at last gets into our boots and goes squish, squish, at every step, and at last oozes over the tops; and our teeth chatter with cold, for now here and there among the rain-drops appear a few flakes of snow, which rest on the mud of the road for a second, and then melting, add to the deep slush that trickles down the hill by our side. At every open shed the dogs shelter a minute, shake themselves like dripping mops, and with arched backs stand on three legs and shiver; but we whistle them on and at last reach home. After throwing a good bundle of dry straw on the kennel benches and feeding dogs and ferrets, Jack and I get under shelter and soon find ourselves in dry clothes before a good fire, feeling a little swollen and stiff about our faces and hands, and much inclined for forty winks. The wind howls in the chimney, lashes the bare branches of the trees, rattles the window frames, and appears angry that it cannot get at us, and the rain drives in fitful gusts against the windows, and hisses in the big wood fire on the hearth; and as I sit in my snug arm-chair, I dimly feel that the external storm adds greatly to the internal comfort, and then I fancy I nod off to sleep, for I think no more till supper is announced, and hunger and my wife stir me up to consciousness again. Having finished a good supper and got my pipe drawing beautifully, I remember one or two things that I think the student should be told. The first is, never put a line on a ferret when _ratting_. It hampers a ferret in a narrow, twisting, turning rat's hole, and cutting into the soft earth at the turns soon brings the ferret to a dead stop. Then rats' holes are chiefly in hedge-banks, which are full of roots, and the line is pretty sure to get twisted round some of these, and then it will be a long dig to free it. Remember, too, a ferret has to go down the hole and face a beast nearly as big as itself, with teeth like lancets and with courage to use them, and so should be as free as possible; and lining a ferret is about equal to setting a student with the gloves on to fight against another without them. Then some way back I mentioned ferrets' bells. They are little hollow brass balls with an iron shot in them that make a pretty tinkling sound, and are supposed to be tied round the ferret's neck. In my opinion, if you put a bell on it, you may as well put the ferret in the bag and keep it there. The theory about bells is, that a ferret running down a hole jingling its bell will fill a rat with fear and make it bolt, but this is all nonsense; rats are not so easily frightened. Again, it is said that if a ferret comes out of a hole in a thick hedge unseen, the bell will let you know where it is; but I must say I never lost a ferret in a hedge or felt the want of a belled one. I consider a bell a useless dead weight on a ferret, and the cord that goes round its neck to fasten it is apt to get hitched on to a root and hold the ferret a prisoner. A bell is only good for a sharp shopman to sell to a flat. I need hardly say, never muzzle a ferret when rat-catching. It would be brutal not to let the ferret have the use of its teeth to protect itself with. Muzzling ferrets appertains solely to rabbiting, but it is useful to know how to do it. Take a piece of twine a foot long, double it, and tie a loop at the double. Tie the string round the ferret's neck, with the loop on the top; bring the two ends down under the chin and tie them together there; pass them over the nose and tie them there, shutting the mouth tight; pass _one_ string along the nose, between the eyes, through the loop on the top of the neck, and bending it back, tie it to the other loose string from the knot on the top of the nose. Cut the ends off, and, provided you have not made a lot of "granny" knots, your muzzle will keep on all day. There are other ways of doing the trick, such as passing the string behind the ferret's dogteeth, bring it under the jaw, then over the nose, on the top of the neck; tie it there and again under the neck. I hate this plan, and have seen a ferret's mouth badly cut by the string. I have heard of another plan which is too brutal to mention. Cut the muzzle off directly you have done with it, for I don't suppose a ferret likes having its mouth tied up any more than you or I should. Never wantonly hurt any animal, especially those that work for you and suffer in your service. Just think of the amount of pluck a ferret shows each time you put it into a rat's hole. Fancy yourself in its place, going down a lot of dark crooked passages that you don't know, only just wide enough to allow you to pass, and have to face a beast somewhat like yourself and as big, that you know will attack you. Why, if ferrets got V.C.'s, they would, on high days and holidays when they wished to display them all, have to employ a string of sandwich-men walking behind them with the boards covered with V.C. Three or four times in my life I have had ferrets die of the wounds they have received from rats. I have had them in hospital for weeks, and I have had them blinded. Speaking of blind ferrets, I am not much of an oculist, but I don't believe a ferret can see in the dark. I never could find any difference between the way my blind ferret worked in a hole and that of one with good eyes; in fact, my blind ferret was as good a little beast as ever killed a rat, and she did kill many a score after she lost both eyes. I believe a ferret when in a hole uses a sense we don't possess--I mean the sense of touch with the long nose whiskers. Some years ago the _Field_ opened its pages to a long discussion on the subject of ferrets sucking the blood of their victims after they have killed them. Writers pretending to know all about it said they did do so. These men are to be pitied, not laughed at, for you see in the days of their youth "Rat-catching for the Use of Schools" was not written, and therefore they had not learnt better. A ferret no more sucks the blood of the things it kills than a dog does. If you doubt this, give a fresh-killed rat to a ferret, let it fasten on it, and then peep at the corners of its mouth, and you will find an opening there into the mouth, out of which blood would flow if the ferret had it in its mouth; and look down its throat, you will not find blood in it, nor will there be blood on the portion of the rat that has been held in its mouth. No, people are misled by a ferret sending its teeth deep home in the flesh and making a sucking sound as it with difficulty breathes through its nose and the corners of its mouth. If you watch a ferret after it has killed a rat, it will, as soon as it is sure the rat is dead, begin chewing at the skin of the head or throat till it has made an entrance, and will then eat the flesh. To finish this chapter, I will tell you a story which you are never to put into practice. Some long time ago I found myself far from home in a country village, and having nothing to do, I went for a walk, and soon came upon a brother professional rat-catcher; and thinking I might learn a wrinkle from him that would come in useful, I joined him and carefully watched him and his dogs. I saw at once that three of the latter were very good and up to their work; but there was a fourth, a nondescript sort of beast with a long tail, that appeared quite useless; and I observed with amusement that directly the man put a ferret into a hole, the dog tucked its tail tight between its legs and went and stood well out in the field. I asked the man why he kept such a useless beast, and with a chuckle he answered, "Well, mate, I'll own up he ain't much to boast on for rat-killing, nor yet for looks, but he has his use like some other of we h-ugly ones. You see, sir, I've got one or two ferrets as won't come out of a 'ole, but stand a peeping at the h-entrance and waste a lot of time. Then that 'ere dawg comes in useful. I catches him, lifts him up, and sticks his bushy tail down to the ferret, who catches tight hold, and I draws it out. Nothing ain't made for nothing, and I expect that dawg was made for drawing ferrets." The man may have been right, but I was quite sure the unfortunate dog did not take an active pleasure in his vocation. There, young gentlemen, if you have well digested that chapter and forgotten the story at the end, you can put up your books and form up for your usual walk to the second milestone and back again; but before leaving, let me point out to you, Croker, minor, that if that caricature I have observed you drawing behind your book is meant for _me_, it is, like most things you do, incorrect; my nose is not so long, and I part my hair on the left side, not the right. CHAPTER VII. Rat-catching and rabbit-catching are two distinct professions, but the greater part of the stock-in-trade that serves for one will answer for the other, and it is as well for the professional to be master of what I think I may call both branches of his business. A rat-catcher who did nothing but kill rats and refused a day's work with the rabbits would be like a medical man who would cut off limbs but would not give a pill, or a captain of a sailing-vessel who would not go to sea in a steamer; besides in these days it is the fashion to jumble up half a dozen businesses under one head and name. Just look at what the engineer does. Why, he is nowhere if he is not (besides being ready, as the engineer of the old school, to make railways, etc.) a chemist, an electrician, a diplomat, a lawyer, a financier and a contractor, and even sometimes an honest man. If you are not in the fashion you are left behind as an old fogey, and so in this chapter we will discuss the art of rabbit-catching; and I trust all schoolmasters will furnish you, their students, with the opportunity of putting in practice in the field what you learn from this book at your desks. Well, now for the requirements. We have got the dogs, we have got the ferrets, spade, bag, etc.; but for rabbiting we must have a much more costly stock-in-trade if we are to do a big business. We shall require an ordinary gardener's spade for digging in soft sandy ground, where the rabbit burrows sometimes go in for yards, and as much as ten feet deep down; also another spade, longer in the blade than our ratting one, the sides more turned in, and with a handle ten feet long, with a steel hook at the end instead of a spike. With this spade we can sink down many feet after the hole is too deep for the ordinary spade, and the turned in sides will hold the soft earth and allow you to bring it to the surface. If you dig down on the top of a rabbit--as you will do when you know your work--the hook at the end will enable you to draw first it and then the ferret up by the string. We must have a piece of strong light supple cord, marked by a piece of red cloth drawn through the strands at every yard, so that one can tell exactly how far in the ferret is; and it is as well to have a second shorter cord for work in stiff heavy ground, where the holes are never deep. Next, we must have two or three dozen purse-nets, which are circular, about two feet in diameter, with a string rove round the outside mesh fastened to a peg. These are for covering over bolt holes to bag a rabbit when driven out by the ferrets. The nets should be made of the very best string, so as to be as light and fine as possible. The mesh should be just large enough to allow a rabbit's head to pass through. Like the postscript to a lady's letter, the chief item I have saved till the last, and I fear it will be some time before the ordinary rabbit-catcher will be able to afford it. I refer to long nets, which are used for running round or across a piece of covert to catch the rabbits as they are bustled about by the dogs. A rabbit-catcher in full swing should have from eight hundred to a thousand yards of this, for with a good long net he will often kill as many rabbits in a few hours as he could do with the ferrets in a week. I myself keep no special dog for rabbit-catching, chiefly because I have a neighbour who will always let me have a cunning old lurcher that he keeps, which is as good as gold, and as clever as a lawyer, and desperately fond of a day with me and my dogs. I have three male ferrets, real monsters, strong enough to trot down a burrow and drag five or six yards of line after them with ease. Having described all the tools, etc., necessary for work, I will now jot down, as an exercise for you students, a nice easy day's rabbiting that actually took place a few weeks ago--a sort of day that quite a young beginner might work with success. There had been a sharp rime frost in the night, which still hung about in shady spots at eight o'clock in the morning, as Jack and I marched off with my dogs and ferrets, accompanied by old Fly, the lurcher. By nine a.m. we began working field hedge-rows and banks, where rabbits were pretty plentiful and had been established for years in every description of burrow. There had been a lot of partridge and other shooting going on over this farm for the last month, and most of the rabbits had got a dislike to sitting out in the open, and were under ground, so we began at the burrows at once, the dogs driving every rabbit that was sitting out in the hedge back to their burrows as we walked along. We began work in a stiff clay bank far too hard for the rabbits to make deep holes in, and here we got on fast. I took the ditch side--in fact, I took the ditch itself--with a big ferret with a short line on, and I ran it into each hole I came to. Jack on the other side looked out for the bolt holes, and always laid down a little to one side, as much as possible out of sight, but with a hand just on the bank over the hole ready to catch a bolting rabbit. Fly and the other dogs took charge of the other holes, and all kept as quiet as possible. In went the ferret, slowly dragging the line after him till I count two yards gone by the red marks on the line; then there is a halt for half a minute, then a loud rumbling and the line is pulled fast through my fingers. Jack moves quickly, and the next instant a rabbit is thrown a little way out into the field with its neck broken. Jack says, "Ferret out," then picks it up, draws the line through the hole, passes the ferret over to me, and we go on to the next, having filled up the entrance of the hole we have just worked. Hole after hole was ferreted much in the same way. Sometimes Jack bagged the bolting rabbit, sometimes the dogs, and now and then one bolted and got into the hedge before it could be caught and went back, but it was little use, for the dogs with Fly at their head were soon after it, and in a few minutes Fly was sure to have it, and would retrieve it back to Jack. As we worked round a big field, we got into softer ground, a red sand and soil mixed; and here the holes were much deeper and often ran through the bank and out for yards under ground into the next field. Here Jack and I changed places, Jack doing the ferreting, and I going to his side with the garden spade. One, two, three, four, five yards the ferret went and stopped, and all was quiet. I listen, but not a sound. Jack pulls gently on the line and finds it tight, and for a minute we wait, hoping a rabbit may bolt from the hole the ferret went in at. But no such luck. I take the small ratting-spade, and with the spike end feel into the ground at the foot of the bank, and at once come upon the hole; this I open out and clear of earth, and Jack, who has crept through the hedge, kneels down and finds the line passing this hole in the direction of the field and going downwards. At that moment there is a sound like very distant thunder, and the line is pulled quickly four yards further into the hole, and the marks show six yards are in. I go about this distance out into the field, lie down and place my ear close to the ground. I shift about in all directions listening intently, and at last hear a faint thudding sound. I shift again a few inches in this direction, and lose it; in that, and recover it; again a few inches, and the sound is directly under my head, but pretty deep down. I take the big spade and open out a hole a yard square, and dig down as far as I can reach. I get into the hole and sink deeper. I have to enlarge it a foot all round to get room, and then I dig down again till only my head appears above ground when I stand up. Then I take the long spade, and with that sink two more feet, and plump I come on the top of the hole, and the ferret shoves a sand-covered head up and looks at me. I reverse the long spade and catch the line with the hook and pull the ferret up, and then calling Jack, I send him head first into the well-like pit, holding on to one of his feet myself as I lie flat on the ground to allow him to go deep enough. In a minute a dead rabbit is taken out and two live ones, whose necks Jack breaks as he hangs suspended, and then I pull him up with his plunder, and he rights himself on the surface, very red in the face, very sandy, spluttering and rubbing his eyes. Then the ferret is swung down again by the line, it goes a little way into the hole and returns, and so we know we have made a clean sweep. The big hole is filled up and stamped down, and after filling a pipe and resting a few minutes, on we go with our work. On the high sandy part of the field we have several deep digs like the above, with varying success, and we rejoice when we reach the last side of the field and get into clay again, where holes are short and most of the rabbits bolt at once. During all the day we only stopped once for half-an-hour to get a snack of bread and cheese, and by the time the cock partridges began to call their families together for roost, and the teams in the next field to knock off ploughing, we are all, man, boy, dogs and ferrets, fairly tired, and are glad to tumble seventeen couple of rabbits into the keeper's cart that has been sent out for them, and trudge off home ourselves. Now for another day's sport that was quite different. No dogs with us, only a bag of ready-muzzled ferrets, a bundle of purse nets and a spade. Success will depend on perfect quiet, and even the patter of the dogs' feet would spoil our sport, so they are at home for once, and Jack and I are alone. It is one of those soft mild dull days that now and then appear in mid-winter, a sort of day to gladden the heart of foxhunters and doctors, and to make wiseacres shake their heads and say "most unseasonable." It is a good day for Jack and me, and we feel confident as we steal into a plantation of tall spruce firs, placed so thick on the ground that beneath them is perpetual twilight, and not a blade of grass or bramble to hide the thick carpet of needle points. Softly we creep forward to a lot of burrows we know of in the corner of the wood, and then I go forward alone and spread a net loosely over every hole, firmly pegging it down by the cord. This done I stand quietly down-wind of the holes, and Jack comes and slips the six ferrets all into different holes, and then crouches down on his knees. All is quiet; only the whisperings of the tree-tops, the occasional chirp of a bird, or the rustle of a mouse in the dead leaves. Five minutes pass, and then out dashes a rabbit into a net, which draws up round it. Jack moves forward on tip-toe, kills the rabbit and takes it out of the net, and covers the hole again. While he is doing this, three more rabbits have bolted and got netted, one has escaped, and a ferret has come out. The captured ones are killed, the ferret sent into another hole, and for an hour this work goes on, and during all the time neither of us have spoken, for we know there is nothing that scares wild animals more than the human voice, unless it is the jingle of metals, such as a bunch of keys rattling. They dread the human voice because they have had too much experience of it, and the rattle of metal because they have not had experience enough of it, for it is a sound they have never heard, and nothing like, in the quiet woods and fields. On the other hand, animals pay but little attention to a whistle, for in one shape or another they are constantly hearing it from their feathered companions. But to go back to our netting. An hour over, we pick up the ferrets as they come out and bag them, and then I go off to some fresh holes and spread the nets again, and we repeat the same performance; and during the day we kill, without any digging or hard work, about twenty-two couple of rabbits. In the above account I have written of a day's sport that took place in a fir plantation in a little village in Norfolk, where it would have been madness to work the ferrets without muzzling them, for they would have been sure to kill some rabbits in the holes and then have laid up; but I should mention that I have killed many rabbits in the same way on the Cotswold Hills in Gloucestershire, and I was much astonished when I first got there to find men who thoroughly understood their business working their ferrets under nets without muzzling them. I adopted the plan myself, and have rarely had a ferret kill a rabbit underground. For some reason that I could never find out, a Cotswold rabbit will always bolt from a hole with a ferret in if it can. It is well known in Norfolk that if a rabbit is run into a hole by dogs, you may ferret it if you like, but it will never bolt, and it must be dug out. But in Gloucestershire I have seen the same rabbit bolt out of a hole, get shot at, be run by dogs, go to ground, and again bolt at once from a ferret. Few professionals ever use a line on a ferret on the Cotswold, one reason being that the burrows are nearly all in rocky ground, and there would be danger of the line being caught in the numerous cracks; besides it is not required, for a rabbit there is sure to bolt, and for this reason it is twice as easy to kill rabbits in Gloucestershire as it is in Norfolk, especially in the sandy or soft soil of the latter county. Let me here beg of all my readers, especially students, never to keep a poor rabbit alive in their hands a second. I don't suppose any who read this book could be so unsportsmanlike and brutal as to keep a rabbit alive to course and torture over again with dogs, or for the fun of shooting at the poor little beast. Such ruffians should never be allowed a day's sport on a _gentleman's_ property. They are only fit to go out mole-catching. No, directly you have a live rabbit in your hand, take it by its hind legs with your right hand, and the head with your left, with two fingers under its face; with these fingers turn the head back, and give the rabbit a smart quick stretch, and in an instant all its sufferings are over. Never hit it with your hand or a stick behind the ears: first, because you are not quite sure to kill it with the first blow; and secondly, if you do, half the blood in the rabbit will settle in a great bruise at the spot where it was struck, and make that portion unfit for table. That is sufficient for this morning, and you may now turn to a little lighter work with some algebra. CHAPTER VIII. Fortunately I don't live by the sea. I say fortunately, because I look upon the sea as a swindler, for it robs one of just half one's little world and upsets all calculations by forcing one to live in a mean semicircle. I actually know a rat-catcher who is stupid enough to live in a village on the east coast, and half his time he and his dogs are at home in idleness and are half starved, because the ever-restless tiresome sea rolls about and disports itself over all that is east of the village, so the poor man can only go rat-catching in one direction. Now and then I go to the sea-side, but when I go there it is on business--not in my Sunday clothes and with a "tripper's" return ticket, but with my dogs, ferrets, nets (the long ones) and the boy Jack; he and I dressed in our well-worn corduroys, gaiters, and navvy boots; and instead of choosing a town to visit with Marine Parade, Esplanades, Lodgings to let, Brass Bands, Nigger Minstrels and spouting M.P.'s, we go to a little village unknown to "trippers," and put up at a small inn for a week or ten days. We sleep in a room not unlike a hay-loft, and take our meals and rest in the common kitchen, with its rattling latticed windows and sanded floor. We go there twice each winter to kill rabbits on what are called the "Denes," which are great, wide, down-like lands on the top of the steep earth cliff, partially covered with the ever-flowering gorse, a cover dear to rabbits and all sorts of game. We reach the inn in time for an early dinner; and after we have housed the ferrets in a big tub and the dogs in a warm dry shed with heaps of straw to sleep on, Jack and I despatch our food and then start off to inspect the field of our future operations. We have not far to go. First down the street, past two or three dozen flint-pebble cottages; past the church, with its square tower so high that it makes the really big church look small in proportion; past the rectory; past the schools, where some forty or fifty future fishermen and sailors have just finished their tasks for the day and come rolling out, dressed all alike in dark, sea-stained, canvas trousers and thick sailor jerseys; past the low one-storied cottage where the old retired naval captain has lived for many years, and then up a sandy lane between high crumbling banks and out on to the open Denes. We take a path that runs close along on the top of the cliff, mounting a steep hill as we go till we reach a spot half a mile further on, where the sea cliff is four hundred feet high and nearly perpendicular; and here among the ruins of an old church, part of which has fallen with the slipping cliff into the sea many years ago, Jack and I halt and take a look round. We are on the highest spot within miles, and spread out in front of us, as we face inland, are, first, the down-like hills, dotted over with patches of gorse and with turf between as fine and soft as a Persian carpet; then cultivated fields intersected by thick hedges; and in the distance we could distinguish a clustering village here, a homestead there, an old manor-house in its well-kept garden and park-like grounds, and in all directions the square, solid, picturesque towers of village churches peeping from among the trees, that became thicker and thicker the further the eye travelled from the sea. Close to our left, just under the shoulder of a hill which protects it from the keen east wind off the sea, is a tiny village of some ten cottages, all different, all neat and snug-looking, each in its own garden. There is a stand of bee-hives in one, a honeysuckle-covered porch to another, and, though it is mid-winter, there is a warm home-like look about all. Then there is the one farm-house, well kept and well cared for, but old and belonging to other days, as its gables and low windows denote; and from our high hill we look over the house into a garden and orchard beyond, both enclosed by grey lichen-covered walls. On either side in front of the house are the farm buildings, all, from the big barn to the row of pigsties, thatched with long reeds, which give the whole a pleasant English home appearance. There are big yards filled with red and white cattle up to their middle in straw, others full of horses or young calves; cocks and hens are everywhere, ducks and geese swim in the big pond by the side of the road, and turkeys, so big and plump they make one long for Christmas, mob together in the yard, and the turkey-cocks "gobble-gobble" at a boy who is infuriating them by whistling. A man crosses the yard with two pails on a yoke, evidently going a-milking; and another passes with a perfect hay-stack on his back, and a dozen great heavy horses come out of the stable in Indian file and stump off to the pond to drink. Beyond the farmstead, in a field on the right of the road, is a double row of heaped up mangels and swedes; and a little further on are a number of stacks, so neatly built and thatched that it seems quite a pity they should soon be pulled down and thrashed, but all showing signs of prosperity and plenty. Beyond this stands a tiny church, with reed-thatch roof. It is all, church and tower, built of round flint stones as big as oranges, cleverly split in two and the flat side facing outwards; and from the dog-tooth Saxon arch over the door one knows it has seen many generations pass away and find rest from the buffets and storms of the world in the peaceful, carefully-tended "God's acre" that surrounds it. If one passed down the red gravel churchyard path, and on in front of the south door to the far corner, under the big cedar, a small door would be found, which would lead through a well-kept, old-fashioned garden to the Rectory: a good old Elizabethan house, covered with thick creepers up to the very eaves, the model of one of England's snug homes--homes that have turned out the very best men the dear old land has produced, to fight, struggle, conquer or die in all professions, in all parts of the world; men who in such shelters learned to be honest and true, brave and persevering, lions in courage, women in gentleness; who could face hardships and poverty without a moan, and prosperity and riches without swagger; and through all the difficulties of life thought of the old home, and when success arrived, be they ever so far away, packed up and came back to finish their days in just such another home and such surroundings. Turn round now, Jack; turn round and take a look at the restless sea rolling its big waters on the smooth strip of sand there below _on this side_; and on the other, Jack, far, far away over there in the south, on the other side of the world, laving the roots of the palm and the mangrove, beneath the burning rays of tropical suns; and away round here, Jack, far in the north, dashing its storm-driven waves against the face of frost-bound rocks and treacherous icebergs. There on the dancing waters, with all sails set, chasing the lights and shadows as they flit before it, sails a boat bound south to sunny climes. There on the horizon, against wind and wave, steams a collier, taking fuel to lands where the snow lies deep on the ground for four months in the year; and right and left, outward bound or coming home, are various white sails dotting the waters. But, Jack, how about supper? I ordered eggs and bacon for supper, and those chimney corners at the inn looked as if they might be snug and warm to smoke a pipe in afterwards before turning in. Step on, Jack, and have supper ready in half an hour, while I go round by the Rectory and see if the two young gentlemen are at home. They are the right sort, and as keen as Pepper after the rabbits, and they always have half a dozen good terriers as fond of the sport as they are. At the Rectory I received a kindly welcome from Miss Madge Ashfield, the rector's only daughter and the sister of the two lads I came to enquire for; and I was told that they were not yet back from school, but were expected in three days, and that only that morning a letter came from them asking when I was likely to come and work the Denes. I comforted Miss Madge, who at first feared the pick of the sport might be over before her brothers arrived, by telling her that for the next four days Jack and I should be busy "doctoring" holes, and that during that time we could not "away with" boys or dogs, as both were too noisy for the work. Miss Madge took me round to the kennels to see some rough wire-haired terriers, old friends; also three new ones, all supposed to be wonders; and she told me she would arrange for her brothers to bring one day five small beagles belonging to a friend. Jack and I did our duty by the ham and eggs that night at the inn, and the pipe in the old-fashioned chimney corner was very sweet; and if the beds were a bit hard and knubbly, we did not keep awake to think of them, for we had both been up since day-break. By eight o'clock the next morning we had finished breakfast, given the dogs a few minutes' run to stretch their legs, fed the ferrets that were not wanted, and were on our way to the Denes, each with two strong male ferrets, a spade, and game-bag with cold meat and bread in it. We were on our way to "doctor" the burrows, and this is done by running a muzzled ferret that has first been smeared with a little spirits of tar down every hole, with a line on it. It is necessary to keep very quiet, so as to get the rabbits to bolt. We don't want to kill a single rabbit, but only to disturb hole after hole, bolt what rabbits we can, and leave a nice sweet smell of tarred ferret behind us. No time is lost. Jack goes one way and I another, and every hole is visited till evening shades stop us; then back home to supper and bed, and at it again in the morning; but on the second day we begin by visiting each hole we ferreted the day before, stopping them tight down with sods, and sticking a piece of white paper on the top of such stopped holes. No fear of shutting in a rabbit, as the smell of the tarred ferret will keep them out for days; and no fear of their opening the stopping, as the paper will drive them away. For four days this work goes on, and we are ready to wager there is not a hole in the cliffs or Denes that is not doctored, and not a rabbit that is not above ground. It was Wednesday night when we had finished, and that evening the two boys from the Rectory came down to the inn to see us and get instructions for the morrow; but I was glad they did not stay long, for we wanted to go to bed early, so as to get a good night and yet be up betimes. By eight o'clock next morning, Jack and I were already back from the Denes, after having run out one thousand yards of long nets. The nets are in lengths of about one hundred yards, and two feet six inches high, made of fine string, and each of the top and bottom meshes knotted on to a cord that runs the entire length. To set these nets, they are threaded on to a smooth stick, four feet long, and the stick with the nets on is thrown over a man's shoulder. The man walks off with the nets along the border of the piece of ground to be enclosed, while another, after fixing the end of the first net fast to a starting stick, follows behind. As the man with the net proceeds, he lets the net slip slowly off the stick on his shoulder, piece by piece; and, as it comes down, the man behind picks up the top line, gives the net a shake, and twists the line round the top of stakes previously placed in the ground about fifty yards apart, taking care as he goes that the bottom of the net lies for a few inches on the ground. In this way squares of gorse of about two hundred yards can be entirely enclosed, and every rabbit inside them surrounded like sheep inside a fold. Our breakfast over, we were soon out again with all our dogs (except old Chance, who had been left at home on account of her age, and also on account of her trick of always liking to go up to the carrier's each night to sleep), and we had also two real good lurchers. At the foot of the Denes we met the boys from the Rectory, with a friend about their own age, and the curate of the next parish with a business-like ash stick under his arm; and among them they had mustered a pack of ten terriers, some of which wanted to begin work by a fight with my dogs; but it takes two to make a quarrel, and my dogs knew better than to waste their strength in fighting when there was a day's work in front of them. In a few minutes we were at the first piece of netted gorse--a real tearer, close, compact and a mass of thorns; but what dogs or boys care for gorse thorns when rabbits are on foot? So it is, "Over you go, boys!" "Hie in, dogs! Roust them out there!" and the old dogs spring the nets and are at work in a minute, while the young ones blunder and struggle in the nets, and have to be lifted over. The curate, Jack and I, and the man who drove the cart with the nets, and who will carry off the dead rabbits, stand at the nets and take out and kill the rabbits that get caught; and for the first hour we have as much as we can do, and work our hardest. Many rabbits do get through the nets, and others go back, and these latter it is difficult to get into the nets a second time, and they are killed by the dogs in the thick gorse. Yap! yap! yap! "Hie in, good dogs! hie in, young ones! Ah! back there! back! no going over the nets! Would you? Look here! hie there! in you go!" Yap! yap! yap! all scurry, rush and bustle; and the Rectory boys and their friend are all over the square at once, and in ten minutes so tingle from innumerable pricks from the gorse that they are benumbed and feel them no more. "Go, Fly, go!" and a big hare dashes out, with Fly after it, and both jump the net and make for another clump of gorse; but Fly has never been beaten since she was a puppy, and soon returns with the hare in her mouth. "Hie in, dogs! hie in!" There are more yet, and we are bound to make a clean sweep; and so the work goes on. First one patch, and then another, till lunch-time, which said lunch, according to a long-standing custom, comes up in a cart from the Rectory; but after snatching a hurried bit, the man and I have to bustle away to shift the nets, a work that keeps us hard at it for an hour and more; but long before we have done, the boys, parson and dogs are at it again in one of the first patches we have surrounded, and it is night and the moon is up before we have finished and picked up the nets. We find on counting the bag that we have two hundred and seventy rabbits, and feel content with our day's work. On Friday and Saturday the same work, and when we turned homewards on this last night, it was as much as man, boys or dogs could do to drag themselves along; but we had killed six hundred and fifty rabbits in the three days and were well content. CHAPTER IX. Sunday was to us all a real day of rest, and we enjoyed every minute of it, and for once listened to a very long sermon without the fidgets. The Rectory boys came up for a chat in the afternoon, so we let the dogs out and went down to the beach and strolled quietly about, neither dogs nor humans indulging in anything like play--all were too stiff and sore to think of it. We were all out again early on Monday morning, but without nets and taking only sticks; and we spent a short day, with a long lunch, looking up outlying rabbits in the hedges of the farm at the foot of the Denes; and here the two lurchers, who during the days at the nets had taken it easy and refused to face the gorse, had the chief of the work, for directly a rabbit was started by the other dogs, it made straight off across the open for the gorse on the Denes, and the lurchers were the only dogs fast enough to catch them. We finally had to give up work because the dogs of all sorts were too tired to move, and also because the weather, that had been fine and calm all the previous week, began to break, and before we reached shelter there was half a gale sending big green waves thundering on to the beach and carrying the salt spray far inland. That night, after Jack was in bed and asleep, I put on my hat and went out, called by the noise of the waters. I joined a group of weather-beaten hard-featured men dressed in thick blue jerseys and "sou-wester" hats, who stood with their hands tucked deep into their trouser pockets, watching the sea from behind the shelter of a boat stranded high up on the beach. I got a civil word of greeting as I came up, and then we all watched in silence, for by this time the "half gale" had become a storm, and it was only by shouting we could have made each other hear. It was a wild weird scene, awe-inspiring, but intensely attractive--at least _I_ found it so; but then such scenes did not often come before me, and I daresay my companions, who were well used to being out on such a night, only felt thankful they were safe on shore, and thought with anxiety of those of their friends and neighbours who were out battling with the storm. The moon when I reached the beach was nearly at the full and high up in the heavens, but it shed a fitful light, as each few seconds dark clouds and veils of mist flew across its face. One moment the sea lay before us a dark black mass, only marked along the beach by a broad strip of breaking, foam-crested waves; and the next it was a dancing, tossing, roaring sheet of ever-changing liquid silver; or far away we would see the spray like pearls rising high in the air before the storm, and at our feet the waves curled up like huge furious monsters, dashing at the sands and shingle as if bent on destruction, and then with a swirl sliding back, a mass of foam, to meet and join the next wave, and with its help again come on to the attack. Over and over again I fancied I could hear the shrieks and groans of people in distress, and I turned for confirmation of my fancies to the faces of my companions; but all remained unmoved, but bore the quiet determined look that assured me that, had any unfortunate beings called for help from the midst of those wild waters, at the risk of those men's lives it would unhesitatingly have been given. Once for a moment, when a thin mist swept before the moon and made the light on the waters appear more like day than night, I clearly saw on the horizon the upper part of a ship's masts, with some sails bent to their yards, and all heeled over as if the ship were then about to founder, and I gave a loud exclamation; but an old sailor put his hand on my shoulder and called in my ear, "All right, master, all right! We have watched her for a quarter of an hour trying to make the point of the sands yonder, and she is now past them and has an open sea. She is as safe as you are now, thank God; but it was a near shave, and we thought she and all in her were gone." Often since then in my dreams I have seen that wind-tossed sea, and heard the roar of the waters and the screams of the storm, and seen those masts and sails heeling over, and have awoke with a start and dread fear in my heart. I had been tired when I came in from work, and I had a snug warm bed waiting for me, and moreover I reasoned that watching a storm in the dead of night was no part of a rat-catcher's duty; but I was so fascinated I could not tear myself away, and I stood with my companions behind the boat till long after midnight. Then two other figures dressed like my companions joined us, and it was only when they spoke that I recognised one as the parson of the parish, and the other as the young curate who had helped us with the rabbits. Both asked a few questions of the sailors, who seemed eager to give them information; and then the rector, turning to me, said: "You will be perished by the cold if you stand here longer. Come with me, and I will show you a picture of a different sort, but yet one that I think will interest you." I readily accepted and followed my friend, who, though far from a young man, bore the buffeting of the storm manfully; and he led me up through the village street, and then turning down a short steep lane brought me to a little cove that was partly sheltered by a spit of rock that jutted out into the sea. There, such as it was, was the harbour of the village, and by the fitful light I could see some dozen fishing boats drawn up high on the beach above the force of the waves; and beyond, a cluster of low, one-storied cottages and sheds, with small boats, spars, timbers, windlasses, etc., all denoting the home of fishermen. From this cove, early that morning, two boats had sailed with their nets for the fishing grounds out beyond the sands, and it was for these my friends behind the boat were patiently watching, and it was to say a few words to cheer and comfort the wives and families of these men that the old rector had now come. From a latticed window just in front of us a bright lamp shed its rays over the cove, and the rector took me straight to the door of this house, and having knocked and been told to come in, he lifted the latch and ushered me inside. The room was like hundreds of others along that coast, the homes of the toilers of the deep, and bore evident signs of being made by men more used to ships than stone or brick buildings. It was a good large room, very low, with heavy rafters overhead, which, with the planks of which the walls were constructed, had doubtless been taken from boats and ships that had served their time on the sea. The open fireplace at the end, with its wide chimney, was the only part of the building not made of old ship timbers and planks, and there was a strong smell of tar from these and from sundry coils of dark rope that were stowed away in a far corner. The long table down the middle of the room was of mahogany and had seen better days in a captain's cabin. The benches round the walls had served as seats on some big ship's deck; and there were swinging lamps and racks hung overhead from the rafters, with rudders, boat-hook, snatch-block, belaying pins, and various things I did not know the use of; but all were neatly arranged. There was a large arm-chair made out of a barrel set ready by the side of the hearth, on which were spread clean flannel clothes to warm and air, in readiness for the home-coming of the wet and tired husband. In front of the fire, attending to it and to three or four pots and kettles that simmered on the hearth, stood a woman about thirty years of age--just an ordinary fisherman's wife, strong and well shaped, without beauty of feature, but bright and intelligent looking; and when a smile lit up her face, it shed such a kindly ray that one felt that the husband in the little fishing boat on the storm-tossed deep might have his eyes fixed on the lantern burning in the window, but it would be the light of the wife's smile that kept his hand steady on the helm and guided the boat, and made him long to round the point and come to anchor. On the other side of the hearth was another arm-chair, also made out of a barrel, but much smaller; and in this, packed tightly and snugly round with cushions, half-sat, half-reclined a boy about ten years of age; but, alas! a pair of crutches leaning in the corner beside him at once told a sad tale. I know the points and beauties of all sorts of dogs, and always admire them, but I am not much of a hand at the good points and beauties of men and women, and as for boys, it is rare I see anything but mischief written in their faces; but somehow I could not take my eyes off the boy in the chair. I suppose because it was so different to an other young face I had ever seen, and so different to what one might expect to find amid the surroundings of a fisherman's cottage. It was a dark, delicate, oval face, like a girl's, with finely cut features, and a complexion as fair as the petals of an apple blossom; but it was his great brown eyes and long eyelashes, black as night, that held the attention, together with a look of deep patient suffering, mingled with gentleness and love that lit all up, and filled even the heart of a rough old rat-catcher like me with a feeling of deep pity and an intense desire to protect and befriend a small creature who looked too fragile, too beautiful, and too good for this old work-a-day world of ours, and as if he were only tarrying for a short while before going to his eternal home, where his features will be beautified by perfect love, and will lose the look of suffering and pain. The rector, taking off his "sou'-wester" as he entered, turned to the woman with a cheery voice, and said, "Well, Mary, how are you and the boy?--how are you, my man? I happened to be passing" (just as if it were quite a common thing for a parson to be out on the loose at one a.m. on a winter's night), "and I thought I would just call in to say that the men at the boats tell me that the bark of this gale is far worse than its bite, and that it is a fair, honest, rattling gale that such good sailors as your husband care nothing for, and that we may expect the boats in with the daylight, so you may keep the pots boiling. But why isn't that youngster snug in bed and asleep? Oh! he can't sleep when the wind howls, and Jack is away! Why, my boy, Jack will laugh at you when he comes home, and say he don't want such big, tired-looking eyes watching for him! Well, it will be morning soon, and, please God, Jack will be here, and will have popped you into bed himself before most of the world are up and about." At this Mary smiled; and the little boy, with a low laugh, said: "Jack knows Mary and I are waiting for him. Jack says he can often see us, and all we are doing, when he is out at sea in a raging storm, and the night is ever so dark; and he'd feel bad, Jack would, if I was not up to see him eat his supper; and besides, Mary could not sit here alone and listen to the wind and sea, and I am never tired and sleepy when waiting for Jack. Besides, Jack says he must tell someone all he has done and seen while he gets his supper, and Mary is too busy after the nets and things, so I sit here, and Jack tells me of such wonderful things: it is just lovely to hear him." The rector would not sit down, and soon hurried me off to another cottage, much such another as the first; but instead of Mary and the boy, we found a great, tall, gaunt old woman, sitting up before the fire, waiting for her two grandsons, who were away in the same boat with Jack; but to the rector's cheery, hopeful words, the woman answered with a bitter, sharp, complaining tongue: "I don't want no stop-at-home idle chaps to tell me what a storm is. Danger! who says there's danger? Danger with a little puff of wind like this? Not but what both of those boys will be washed ashore one day as their grandfather and father were. It's in the blood, and trying for a lone woman. Drat the boys! I told them not to go off with Jack. I could see plain for days that it was coming on to blow; but oh, no! they know better than me, who have lived to lose their father in such a storm as this, and to see his boat with my own eyes go to pieces on the Point as she came in, and not a man saved, and me left with them boys to keep. God only knows how I did it, and now they are that masterful they won't pay no attention to me." And then, as a hurricane of wind dashed at the door and windows and sent the smoke from the wood fire far out into the room, the poor old thing started and turned to the night outside with a look of terror; and, as the storm rushed on, and then there was a lull, she threw her apron over her head and sobbed for fear and deep anxiety for her grandsons. The rector comforted her with gentle words and praise of her pluck and nerves; and as he and I returned to the beach, he told me that the old woman had once been the prettiest girl for many miles round, that when her boys were far too young to help her the father had been drowned by the upsetting of his boat on the Point, and from that day she had worked and toiled, mending nets and selling fish in fair weather and foul, often weary and half-starved, but succeeding in the end to keep her old cottage over her head, and to bring her boys up respectably and turn them out two of the smartest fishermen along the coast. As we left the cottage the first tender light of the morning was paling the eastern sky far out to sea, and hastening on to the Point, we could just make out a distant sail appearing now and then out of the departing darkness of the night, and before half an hour was over the rector declared it to be Jack's boat coming in fast before the wind. All the village was astir in a minute, old men and young women and children hurrying to the cove and making ready for the home-coming; and in a few minutes the boat, with Jack holding the helm and the old woman's boys sitting crouched low down, dashed past the Point, turned sharp into the cove, and down in a moment fell the sail and the anchor-chain rattled out of the bows. There was no cheering or noisy welcome or rejoicing, for such scenes were the daily incidents in the life of the village; but everyone lent a helping hand, and in a few minutes Jack and his men were on shore. The old grandmother was there, but took no notice of her grandsons, who marched off to the cottage laden with oars, etc., where the old woman had just preceded them to put out the breakfast. The rector and I turned to go home, and as I passed the cottage where Jack lived I glanced in and saw him standing on the hearth, tall, massive, weather-beaten and rugged, with the lame boy high up in his arms looking hard in his face, and both man and child had such a happy contented smile on their faces that it did me good to see, and I think may have rejoiced even the angels above. When parting from me at the inn door, the rector said that if I liked to step up to the rectory that evening after my supper he would find me a pipe of tobacco, and tell me all that was known of the history of the little boy who had awakened such an interest in me, for, he added, "it is a very curious story." CHAPTER X. At eight o'clock, having fed my dogs and ferrets and left my boy Jack chatting in the harness-room with the rector's old coachman, I found myself in a snug arm-chair, pipe in mouth, my feet on the fender, and the rector sitting opposite me in his study, he also enjoying an after-dinner pipe; and after a chat over the events of the day and of the storm of the previous night, the rector began the history of the poor lame boy at the cottage thus-- "I dare say you remember that about eight years ago the Irish question was giving the authorities much trouble and anxiety owing to the active turn it had then taken. Hideous murders were of daily occurrence in that unfortunate country. Dynamite was being used in London to destroy our public buildings, and many of our statesmen were being tracked by paid assassins. Strict orders had been issued by the authorities to watch all our ports to prevent the landing from America of arms and infernal machines, and both the police and Customs officers were on the alert; and yet, in spite of all, bloodthirsty, cowardly dynamiters and assassins succeeded in sneaking into the country, and every now and then perpetrated some hateful outrage. Well, it was during this time that one November morning a queer-looking yacht-like vessel appeared in the offing, and for two days kept standing about. During the day-time it was well out in the offing, but once or twice at night it was noticed by the coastguard and sailors to have come close in to land, and altogether its movements were so mysterious that our suspicions were fully aroused, and the officer of the coastguard telegraphed to the captain of the gunboat stationed at Brockmouth to put him on the alert. "For some days after this nothing was seen of the yacht, and our suspicions were lulled, and life in our quiet little village had settled down to its usual routine, when early one stormy morning the strange vessel was again seen close off the land, and a boat manned by six men put off for the little harbour; and just as it rounded the Point and got into smooth water, a dog-cart, that we all recognised as one let out for hire in a town ten miles inland, drove down to the beach. Beside the driver sat a tall, thin, dark man, but the few people on the beach had only time to observe this and that he had the dress and appearance of a gentleman, when he sprang from the cart and hurried to where the boat lay, and without hesitating a moment or speaking to anyone he waded out through the low surf to the boat, which at once left the harbour and made the best of its way to the yacht, which as soon as all were on board hoisted all sail and was soon out of sight, driven along by a storm that became in the course of the day as fierce a one as that of last night. There was much talk on the beach among the fishermen and in the village among us all as to what the yacht could be and who the stranger was; and we gathered from the driver of the dog-cart, who had put up his horse at the inn to rest, that he had been called by the porter at the railway station to drive the gentleman over; but that he had not heard his name, or what business brought him here. The driver, who was a sharp old fellow, said the gentleman had chatted with him as he came along, but kept pressing him to drive faster and faster, and gave him five shillings above his fare to use his best speed, and he added: 'I don't know who he is, or what his business may be, but I know one thing--he is an Irishman. I can tell it by his tongue, and by his queer-looking blue eyes and dark hair.' "Four and twenty hours passed, and during that time many people, I among the number, did not go to bed, for the storm which had sprung up with the departing yacht had blown itself into half a hurricane, and there were fishing boats out, which made us all anxious. As we did last night, or rather this morning, I went round to a few of the fishermen's houses where there were anxious wives and mothers waiting for the absent, and chatted with and cheered them, and I was leaving the two cottages that I daresay you noticed close under the rock towards the Point when the first streaks of morning began to appear in the east. I love to see the day break at any time, but I especially like to watch it over a stormy angry sea; and therefore sheltering myself a little behind a boulder, I stood gazing for a while, when presently, like a thing of life, came plunging and driving from the very gates of the morning the same yacht that had so puzzled us. On and on it came, close-hauled to the wind, straight for the narrow rock-bound jaws of the cove; and I saw at a glance that, if it kept its course, it must strike on a group of rocks some half-mile out at sea; and, parson as I am, I knew, should she strike them, no human aid could save the lives of those on board. "I hardly know what I did, except that I took off my coat and waved it frantically, and mounted the highest pinnacle on the rocky point to make myself seen by the fated crew; but though at last I could actually distinguish two men at the wheel holding the vessel close to the wind, yet they took no notice, and came on and on, leaping waves mountains high one minute, and lost to sight the next in the trough of the seas. Scores of fishermen soon joined me, and even their wives followed and crouched near, behind the rocks; and so fully was the ship's danger realized, that from time to time a deep groan, half of despair, half prayer, went up from all. There was but one hope--could the yacht be kept close enough to the wind to lead those steering her to believe they could make the entrance of the harbour? or would she be carried far enough to windward to make this impossible, and so force those in charge to alter her course to avoid the stiff cliffs beyond? Ah, no! We saw as we watched that she was too good a vessel to fall off to leeward, and those handling her too good sailors to allow her to do so, for she flew over the waves like a beautiful bird for the entrance of the harbour, and the sunken rocks were in her direct line! "Suddenly as we watched, with every sense strained to the utmost, and our eyes rivetted on the doomed ship, we heard away out to sea the boom of a big gun, and then another, and presently we saw emerging from the fast diminishing darkness a low, long steamer. At first we thought it was a ship also in deep distress, making signals; but the old sailors soon saw this was not so, and declared it was a gunboat firing at the yacht in the hope of driving her on to the rock-bound coast, and also to attract the attention of the coastguard, so that, should she reach the harbour, those on board might be prevented from escaping the hands of justice. It was a cruel service for British sailors to be employed on, however necessary, and hard to witness. Man hunting man to his death, when the wind and waves already held open the portals of eternity before him, and little short of a miracle could avert his doom! "A few minutes, a few hundred yards, and the yacht is on the rocks! Gallantly she glides along the side of that green wave and dashes the foam from her crest ere she plunges deep into the sea. A monster wave rolls fast upon her as if to swallow her quivering form. High, high she rises, till half her length is in the air over the crest of the wave, and then down she sinks; then the crash comes. Waves dash over her, her masts fall, her boats are wrenched from her sides, and the next minute we see her, a tangled mass of wreck and cordage, firmly embedded on the pitiless rocks. Don't suppose our fishermen had been quietly watching this and doing nothing to help. From the first, preparations had been made. Our friend Jack, and a score of other active young men, had shoved off the only boat on the beach that had the faintest hope of living in a storm like this, and had been waiting in it close to the harbour mouth some minutes before the yacht struck. But so small was the chance of that frail boat living in such a sea, that many of the most experienced of the sailors made signals to prevent the men starting off to meet what they thought was certain death. Others thought it might be done, and waved contrary signals; and it was then that one saw what sort of women our sailors' wives are, for though many standing there with us had near and dear ones in that boat, and were suffering tortures of anxiety, not a word was spoken, but all was left for the men to do as they thought right. "As the yacht struck, a deep, wailing shout went up from all on land, and those in the boat knew what had happened, and the next moment we saw the boat plunge into the green waves at the harbour mouth. For a moment it seemed to stagger and quail, and then, impelled by those hands and muscles of iron, it was driven forward through the blinding spray into the angry sea beyond. Shall I ever forget how we watched that boat, now mounted high on the top of a wave, now for moments lost to sight, the men all straining at their oars to the utmost, and always creeping forward yard by yard? All this time, we on the Point could see, with increasing fears, that the hope of the yacht holding together till reached by the rescuers was but a faint one. Each monster wave that rolled in lifted it from the rocks and left it to fall back with an irresistible force midst spray and foam, that constantly wholly hid it from our sight; and even before the boat started, portions of the wreck were being tossed about on the sea, making its passage even more precarious. At one time a group of human beings was seen on the deck clinging to some cordage; but when the next wave passed, most of them had disappeared, and we knew they had perished before our eyes. It was difficult to distinguish objects midst the turmoil, but it soon was whispered among us that some one or more persons were crouching behind the bulwarks, probably lashed there for safety, and from an occasional flutter of a red scarf or garment, we feared there was an unfortunate woman among them; and once, as the waves receded from the deck, we distinctly saw a man rise up from the group and look for a moment towards the approaching boat, and then sink again beside his companions, just as the incoming wave swept high over the poor shelter the stout bulwark afforded. "If the yacht could only hold together a few minutes longer! But no! once more it rises from its bed like some agonised, dying monster, and then as it falls back it parts in two, and half of it is a drifting mass of planks and timber, washing forward as if to meet the boat and destroy it. A portion yet remained fixed on the rock, and now and then we could still see the group crouching behind the bulwark. On and on fought the boat, now a little out of the direct line to avoid the wreckage, till it was close behind the wreck and partially sheltered by the rampart it formed against the sea; but at that moment all that remained of it was again lifted high in the air and dashed forward; and when the wave had passed by, there was only the frail boat with its brave crew to be seen on the surface. We see it pause for a moment, and then the oars all dip together, and the boat dashes forward. Someone leans over the bows, and there is a moment's struggle; but the mist and foam prevent our distinguishing clearly what is going on. After a while they evidently find there is nothing further that can be done; the boat is put before the waves and comes dashing back towards land. "All on the Point hurried down to the entrance of the harbour; and many of the men, with coils of rope in their hands, stood ready to give assistance. As each wave rolled under the boat, it flew through the water, and then sank back again hidden from our sight; but nearer and nearer it came on, till at last on the crest of a wave it darted sharp round the Point, and lay tossing in comparatively calm water. Steadily its crew rowed it up the little harbour, and as it approached the beach scores of ready hands seized it and ran it high up on to dry land, and a cheer rang out above the roar of the wind to welcome those snatched from the jaws of death. But this was not responded to by the men in the boat. They all looked stern and anxious; and then we saw that Jack, who was crouched in the bows, was supporting in his arms the slight form of a fair young girl, with long, soft, tangled hair falling around her and forming a frame to the most beautiful saint-like face my eyes had ever seen. Her lips were parted in a smile, and her eyes looked down on a small boy about two years old, who was bound in her arms by a red scarf. At first I thought she was fainting or falling asleep, but the next moment--merciful Heavens!--I saw that the back of her sweet young head was battered in and bleeding, and that she was already beyond the storms of life and the cruel raging of the destroying elements. "Hard horny hands of rough women tenderly and deftly unwound the scarf from off the child; and Jack's wife, Mary, pressing him to her bosom, hastened with him to her cottage, while the fair dead form was carried to a fisherman's house close by, and a few days later was laid in its quiet grave in the old churchyard, within sound of the ruthless sea that had so cruelly beaten the young life out of it. "You may easily find the grave, for the fishermen out of their deep pity had a plain cross put over it, with just the words 'Jack's mother' and the date of her death carved upon it. To this day, and I fancy for ever, the only name she will be known by is 'Jack's mother,' for all connected with that ill-fated yacht remains a mystery. Not a living creature escaped, except that frail little child. Many bodies were recovered during the next few days, and among them the remains of the man who had arrived the previous day in the dog-cart; but neither on any of the bodies, nor among the wreckage that came ashore, was anything found to lead to the identification of the yacht or its owners; and though the account of the disaster appeared in all the papers and was the talk of the county, yet no living soul has ever come forward to claim connection with the child or with any of those drowned. "It was thought at the time that the owner of the yacht was one of those desperate ruffians of Irish extraction that have from time to time arrived here from America, and that when he so hastily joined the vessel he was in fear of detection and was about to sail for America. Anyhow the yacht was sighted by the gunboat sent to look after it, and chased and driven through the storm back to our little harbour, it being doubtless the intention of the fugitive to attempt his escape by land if he could once reach the shore. How miserably it ended you now know; but you don't know quite all, for I have not told you that, on reaching their cottage, Jack's wife found that the little one breathed. I have told you of the storm, and I have told you of the wreck; but words would fail to tell of all the love and care and attention that was bestowed for weeks--aye! for years, up to this day--on the little one. Only the recording angel can note such things, and only the God of love can reward them. Not that either Jack or his wife think of rewards either from earth or in heaven, for their love is wholly unselfish and all-satisfying; and were only the boy well and strong, I am sure that in all these realms there could not be found a more perfectly happy trio than Jack the fisherman, little Jack, and his adopted mother. Unfortunately it was discovered that in some way the child's back had been injured in the storm. For months he lay between life and death, at last to recover partially only in health, and without the use of his poor legs. "Many friends have come forward with help, and great London doctors have seen and attended the boy. Till lately they gave little hope, but, thank God, there has been during the past year a slow but steady improvement, and they now think in time the boy may grow strong in health, but there is no hope of his ever walking without his crutches. "Fortunately nature has bestowed many gifts on the poor child that compensate him somewhat for his loss--first, an intensely loving, unselfish nature; and secondly, a perfect voice and passionate love of music. Already he is carried each Sunday to church by his father, and his voice in the choir is celebrated for many miles round, and has so impressed the organist at the cathedral at Marshford that he either comes himself, or sends one of his pupils, to give the boy a lesson once a week, and there is not a better violinist within the bounds of the county than our little Jack is. His father is so proud of the boy's gifts that I have known him, when wind-bound in a harbour down the coast twenty miles away, walk over the whole distance on a Sunday morning and back at night rather than miss carrying the little fellow to church and hearing him sing there. But it is eleven o'clock, and we were up all last night. What, no grog? Well, good night! Come and see me when you can, and come and watch the sea with me in another storm, and we will see if I can't rake up another story of the doings of the rough heroes of our neighbourhood who go down to the sea in ships. Good night, good night!" And so one of the pleasantest evenings I had spent for a long while was over. Oh, dear! oh, dear! What a muddle, what a hodge-podge I have made of this pen work! I sat down thinking it would be quite easy to write a book on "Rat-catching for the Use of Schools," and I have drifted off the line here, toppled into a story there, and been as wild and erratic in my goings on as even Pepper would be with a dozen rats loose together in a thick hedge. Well, I can't help it. I am not much good at books, and it ain't of much consequence, for during the last few days I have heard from half a dozen head-masters of schools that they find the art of rat-catching is so distasteful to their scholars, and so much above their intellect, and so fatiguing an exercise to the youthful mind, that they feel obliged to abandon the study of it and replace it once more by those easier and pleasanter subjects, _Latin_ and _Greek_. Well, I am sorry for it, very sorry. I had hoped to have opened up a great career to many young gentlemen, but have failed; and I can only console myself with thinking that one can't make silk purses out of--you know what. Mind, in this quotation I am not thinking of myself and my failure. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, LIMITED, STAMFORD STREET AND CHARING CROSS. 
42305	----	available by Internet Archive (https://archive.org) Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 42305-h.htm or 42305-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42305/42305-h/42305-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/42305/42305-h.zip) Images of the original pages are available through Internet Archive. See https://archive.org/details/allaboutferretsr01isaa Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). Text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). ALL ABOUT FERRETS AND RATS A Complete History of Ferrets, Rats, and Rat Extermination from Personal Experiences and Study. Also A Practical Hand-Book on the Ferret. by "SURE POP." (ADOLPH ISAACSEN.) Second Edition. PRICE, TWENTY-FIVE CENTS. New York: Adolph Isaacsen, Publisher, No. 92 Fulton Street. Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1890, By Adolph Isaacsen, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. CONTENTS. PAGE. INTRODUCTORY 5 THE FERRET. I. What a Ferret Is 7 II. Character and Appearance 9 III. Rat Hunting 11 IV. Food 14 V. Ferret Houses 15 VI. Diseases 16 VII. Hardiness 17 VIII. Breeding and Training 19 IX. Strength and Bite 20 X. Handling 21 XI. With Cats and Dogs 21 XII. Advantages as a Rat Exterminator 22 XIII. Miscellaneous 23 THE RAT. I. The Rat Family and its Varieties 27 II. Rat History 27 III. The King's Own Rat-Catcher 29 IV. Rat Society, Cannibalism, and Friendship 30 V. Multiplying Powers 33 VI. Unabridged Bill of Fare 34 VII. Ferocity 35 VIII. Rats in Breweries, Slaughter Houses, Markets, Stables, and Barn-yards 36 IX. Rats as Wine Drinkers 38 X. Destructiveness 39 XI. Rats as Food 40 XII. Rat Nests 43 XIII. The Rat's Musical Talents and Eyesight 45 XVI. Rats as Moralists 46 XV. Rats in the Good Old Days, and the Modern Rat Superstitions 47 XVI. Review of the Rat, and Conclusion 49 RAT EXTERMINATION. I. Traps 51 II. Poisons 54 III. Dogs, Cats, and Ferrets 56 IV. Human Rat Catchers 56 THE ORIGIN OF THE FERRET, with hints to Darwin. 57 INTRODUCTORY. In the following pages we have given a complete review of the ever-important rat exterminating subject, from a practical man's point of view. The essay on the Ferret has been exhaustively treated, is a special feature of the work, and will be found of great value to the rat-ridden part of the community, as well as to the fancier and naturalist. "The Rat" has been handled from a universal point of view, and the book has been prepared from the writer's practical notes during his thirty years' study of Rats and Rat Extermination. THE FERRET. [Illustration] I.--WHAT A FERRET IS. Our dictionaries say that "ferret" as a verb active means to search out carefully. This is certainly an important function of the animal, but, as it belongs to the Musteline or flesh-eating weasel family, it has also inherited these animals' boldness and savageness, though tempered and exercised in a very useful direction, i. e., of killing off the most bothersome and numerous of our vermin for us. It is rather a well-known family, the one to which the ferret belongs, including such animals as the sable, which furnishes the highly-prized fur, the skunk, with its not as greatly valued perfume, the ermine, the color of which is likened to the driven snow and whose dress forms the badge of royalty, the weasel, from which artists obtain their finest brushes, the marten, the badger, and the otter. The shape of these animals, the characteristics being strongly marked in the ferret, is long, slender, and serpentine (snake-like and winding), their teeth are very sharp, the muzzle and legs short. Their average food is rats, rabbits, and birds. Members of this class are found in all climates and parts of the earth. It is necessary to state, primarily, that there is no such thing as a wild ferret; it is domesticated in the same degree as a cat or a dog. The wild animal from which the ferret is bred is the weasel, just as the dog is originally of wolf extraction, and the cat of the same class as the tiger or lion. The ferret is also interbred with the different species of the musteline tribe, such as the mink, marten, polecat, and fitch. These are nevertheless all weasels in the same way that terriers, black and tans, Newfoundlands, and poodles all belong to the family of dogs. The ferret's origin has been traced by some to Spain, by others again to the northwestern part of Africa, and by still different writers as far away from us as Egypt, but it was first used authentically for ratting and rabbiting in Great Britain, where it is most highly prized, its merits understood, and where almost every one is as familiar with it as he is with the nature of his house cat. The public here in America is yet but indifferently acquainted with the ferret. At an exhibition of ferrets made by the writer at Madison Square Garden there was about one out of every fifteen persons that knew the name of the animal at all, and the ferrets were alternately designated as skunks, weasels, guinea-pigs, raccoons, monkeys, woodchucks, kittens, puppies, squirrels, rabbits, chipmunks, rats (an animal for which they are commonly mistaken), hares, martens, otters, small kangaroos, muskrats, beavers, seals, and, ridiculous as it may seem, small bears. The American race of ferrets has been bred to a high degree of intelligence, as the proper medium of wildness in the hunt and docility to its keeper has been obtained principally through the efforts of the present writer. This, however, has only been brought about after a great deal of close study and experiment in cross breeding, until now the American animal is greatly preferable to its more sluggish and vicious English brother. II.--CHARACTER AND APPEARANCE. Every individual ferret has a character and distinct look of its own, although there are some ugly, scarred, and bony specimens with game legs and glass eyes, still the ferret, when in good condition, is a pretty little animal, with soft fur and kittenish ways, and can be handled and fondled after you have become mutually acquainted, the same as a cat. It can never be made as trustworthy as a dog, because it does not possess as much intelligence. The general colors are white, yellow, and a mixture of black, brown, gray, and tan, varied with gray and white patches over and under the neck and body. _The tint runs according to the predominance of either mink, marten, fitch, or polecat blood._ The ferret is essentially a _useful_ animal, and is not valued for its good looks, but the purely colored, pink-eyed, white ferret, with its plump form and beautiful, glossy coat of a creamy shade, does certainly not present an ungainly appearance. The dark ones are a sprightly company, too, with their friendly, sparkling black eyes and social nature. There is no standard size--there are large and small breeds, the age having nothing to do with its inches. Some ferrets never get to be bigger than a size beyond a dock rat, while I have had others as large as a full grown cat. There are ferrets more valuable as hunters than others on account of their wiry forms, their age, experience, and intelligence. I have small, homely ferrets, which persons not understanding ferret peculiarities would pick out as the most miserable and stupid of a lot, but which in reality are choice hunting stock. There is no preference for small or large ferrets, as they are both good for different purposes. Ferrets are cleanly animals both in appearance and in their habits. Their jumping and climbing powers are limited. There is a curious thing about the ferret that reminds us of its kinsmanship with the gentle-tempered skunk, for _when it is teased or aggravated_ (showing this also by bristling up the hair of its tail) it emits a pungent odor from a gland it has underneath the tail. This only happens in extreme cases, otherwise it is peaceful enough except toward its natural prey. _Different lots of ferrets, strangers to each other, will not agree, and should not be put together, as there is a risk of a deadly battle._ It is a pleasant enough thing to watch a number of healthy ferrets at their antics. On the writer's breeding grounds, where the pens are always kept neatly painted and the sawdust carefully leveled on the floor, making it look like a lawn in yellow, they generally huddle up in a snug heap, presenting a confused jumble of heads, tails, blinking eyes, and indistinguishable masses of fur. This is during the daytime, after they have been fed. Toward dusk, or when they are hungry again, they disentangle themselves from the bunch, one by one, and after they have properly yawned and stretched themselves they are very lively. They frisk and gambol about like lambs in a pasture, without the odd, long-legged appearance of the lamb, but they make up for this by humping up their backs like small dromedaries. They get to tumbling over one another in a comic, clown-like way, they run, galop, trot, and hop, and sit erect on their haunches. This latter action they perform in expectation of a mouse, a special delicacy with them, though but a mouthful, from the keepers leaning over the pens above. Upon the whole they seem to be enjoying life immensely, presenting quite a study of animal contentment and happiness. III.--RAT HUNTING. When the word rat is mentioned in connection with the ferret, our pacific scene is changed to one of war and bloodshed. The savage instincts of the animal are then aroused, and the rat itself knows, when it has caught the ferret's scent, that its time has come. There are no two animals more deadly enemies than these, the ferret being constructed in such a way that it is best adapted to hunt the rat in the rat's own haunts. Wherever a rat can go a ferret can go, because the latter's body is as flexible as rubber, and it can squeeze itself up, draw itself out, and flatten its limbs into a likeness of a New England buckwheat cake, as if there wasn't a bone in its body. The weasels, and nearly all wild animals of this division, after killing the prey suck the blood, eat the brain, leave the rest of the body untouched, and then proceed to annihilate the next victim, repeating the operation. Here is where the difference between the ferret and the other animals of its tribe comes in, for it does not content itself with brain food and such ethereal substances, but devours the whole carcass with a fine relish, not even leaving the tail or the skin. It bolts the bones and everything else thereto appertaining. It is rather an appalling experience for the first time to hear the hungry ferret's teeth go crunch, crunch, as they meet in the neck of some fat rodent. This sound bears a resemblance to a cowboy chewing radishes. A very hungry ferret would commence to devour the rat before it had thoroughly made its exit into the sweet subsequently. In using ferrets to clear a house of rats, they should be allowed to nose through the building during the night with the same freedom accorded a domestic animal. During the day they are kept in the pen. The reason a ferret should be hunted with in the night is that it sees better then, and that it is instinctively better fitted for hunting. The rats also become more venturesome at this time. When the ferrets are to be hunted with, feed them slightly, as feeding blunts their hunting capabilities and makes them worthless. After a good feed a ferret will sleep harder than any other domestic animal. Sometimes you will find a ferret so hard asleep that you can take him up, shake him, and then put him down again without waking him. If you are inexperienced in the ways of the ferret, you will imagine you have a corpse on your hands. But the corpse will in a short time open its eyes, shake itself, wag its tail, and then trot around with the others. When a ferret sleeps he will let his companions tramp all over his head and body without allowing himself to be disturbed in the least. When they have been fed too well they will sleep and be of no further use. If these over-fed ferrets are in a pen and you put rats in for them to kill, they will not wake up even if the rats crawl all over them, although the rodents are scared into fits and are trying to get away with all their might and main. A hungry ferret around a house will go scenting around as hunting dogs do, to discover any trace or hiding-place of his natural prey. This in itself is enough to drive all the rats to Jericho and make them stay there as long as the ferrets are kept around, for the rodents have an acute bodily fear of these prowling detectives. A ferret's being bitten by a rat happens only in extreme cases, but sometimes in cellars and other places that are swarming with rats, ferrets that have first been put in have to contend with great odds, and come out with some bruises. _Therefore if even a good, old hunting ferret should be bitten by a rat, he should not be used until the wound is perfectly healed again, even if it should take two or three weeks._ The ferret is very peculiar in this respect, and if this rule is not observed he may be spoiled as a hunter forever afterwards. The ferrets hunt downward, and if put on the upper or top floors in the evening they will turn up in the morning down in the cellar driving the rats before them. They should be kept in a dry place, and they rapidly get to know their pens, returning to them and waiting to be put in when through hunting. With a moderate amount of attention they will thrive and prosper in their work of extermination. IV.--FOOD. Ferrets should always be anxious for their meals. Rats are good ferret food; but never feed dead rats, as you run the risk of the rats having been previously poisoned, this also transmitting itself to the ferrets. If there are plenty of rats in the place the ferrets will be able to do their own choice marketing; otherwise, when not hunting, feed them either crackers and milk or bread and milk, with a pan of water always at hand in warm weather. Raw meat can be given them two or three times a week, but never feed liver or salt meat. When milk is not handy use water instead. For a pair of ferrets use a shallow pan for their food, the pan to be as large as an ordinary saucer. Once a day is enough to feed them. When you wish to hunt your ferrets at night feed them in the morning, and they will be in the proper hunting condition when night comes. Particular relishes are chicken heads, duck heads, rabbit heads, and sparrows. Dilute the milk occasionally, and change off with the bread or crackers soaked in water instead of milk. Besides this you can feed your ferrets the same as you do your cat, with the exception above mentioned. Ferrets enjoy their meals heartily--they grunt and smack their lips with much satisfaction when fed; particularly so when feasting off a rat, as there is nothing they enjoy more than a good, big, healthy one--turning the rodent inside out and ploughing out the interior with great exactness. V.--FERRET HOUSES. Ferrets must have plenty of good air, as they cannot stand being boxed up closely for a great length of time without getting diseased. I have, since the first edition of this book was printed, invented a model ferret-cage, in which I keep my stock in perfect health and in prime condition. I now make a specialty of manufacturing this contrivance, and have dubbed it "The Sure Pop Ferret Cage." It is of a solid build, but of a convenient size for expressage to any point. It is divided into two sections: (A) for sleeping and (B) for exercise and feeding; connected by an aperture just big enough for a ferret to get through. A (sleeping-room) is one-fourth the size of B and is kept dark, except that it has two small wire windows at each side which furnish perfect ventilation. B (for exercise and feeding) is constructed of wire on the top and the sides around a solid frame; the same flooring serving the two apartments. There is a wide door on the end of the larger section and also one on the roof of the smaller, so that the ferrets can be conveniently taken out or handled and the cage cleaned at any time. In winter it is best to keep the smaller division full of hay; it keeps the ferrets warm and clean. In the larger part you can use sawdust or earth; and another big advantage I wish to call attention to is the peculiar manner in which the connecting aperture is placed, so that the ferrets cannot carry out the hay, but can conveniently get from one apartment to the other. The price at which I am now disposing of these cages ($5.00) is merely nominal, but I prefer to have my stock housed in a comfortable and correct manner, as the ferrets will then do better work and get attached to their new master a great deal quicker than if their quarters were neglected. The above cage is, as I have said, of a very convenient size, and can be stored in the cellar of a house--if the cellar is dry--or can be placed in a barn or stable, or, if needs be, can be put into service as an independent out-of-door house. For the latter use the larger apartment should be boarded up, so that the ferrets are not completely exposed to the rough weather; it should also be kept three or four inches above the ground. If sawdust is used, it should be cleaned out at least every other day and replaced with a fresh supply. The hay need not be changed for one week. VI.--DISEASES. On the topic of ferret diseases, all the advice I can give is of a preventive, rather than of a curative, nature. My experience has been that, when a ferret is sick, it is the wisest policy to kill it immediately, as in all my practice I have never cured a sick ferret yet. Of course there are numerous remedies advocated by persons who claim to "know it all"; but experiment with these is simply a waste of time and material. The common diseases of ferrets are foot-rot, distemper, diphtheria, and influenza. Foot-rot is caused by dirt and neglect, and is the most common, dangerous, and devastating. It makes the feet swell out to twice their natural size, and become spongy; the nose and snout get dirty; the eyes commence to run, become perceptibly weaker, and then close. The tail also changes to a sandy and gravelly texture. Distemper is only a case of foot-rot aggravated. In influenza the nose runs violently, and there is the same affection of the eyes, accompanied by incessant sneezing. Diphtheria is a throat trouble, indicated by swelling of the neck, much heavy coughing, and nearly the same other accompaniments as the above diseases. To prevent disease, cleanliness and moderation are the simple antidotes: this is not such a hard thing to accomplish, as the ferret is a strong animal for its size, and very cleanly itself. Ferrets are sometimes run down by overwork in hunting, and get to be dull and sluggish; but they will soon regain their vigor, by letting them rest for awhile, and giving them plenty of food. Pure air, fresh, raw, bloody meat, and good milk, will soon bring the ferrets back to their natural state inside of a week. Ferrets are sometimes troubled with fleas of a large size, that use the animals up greatly if they are not checked immediately. A little Sure Pop Insect Powder rubbed in dry with the hand will settle the insects effectively in a very short time. VII.--HARDINESS. There are numerous remarkable examples of ferret toughness on record. Not long since, the following came under my notice: A couple of ferrets were used in a warehouse, and one of them, a handsome, dark-coated, mink-bred animal, accidently fell through a hatchway from the fourth story. He was brought to me in a horrible condition, the hinder part of the body being entirely smashed out of shape, and completely paralyzed. The poor brute was forced to drag along its useless trunk with the help of its forefeet only. I thought myself the animal was assuredly done for; but in a fortnight it had quite recovered the use of its limbs, which also assumed their natural form and function. It was again enabled to hop about as well as the rest; in fact, no trace of its former complete demolition remained. Another noteworthy example was this: A friend of mine, M---- was out rabbit-hunting with a companion carrying his ferret, which had been muzzled, in his pocket, a common way of transporting it. After he had bagged half a dozen rabbits in one place, he secured his ferret again, and went on walking some distance through a snowed-over part of the woods, chatting with his friend. He suddenly felt in his pocket, and found his ferret had got away. They retraced their steps, carefully searching for two or three hours high and low, but without success. M---- went home, satisfied his ferret was lost. Eight days afterwards, coming over the same ground, he saw a shadowy, thin spot of dirty fur under a ridge, which, after he had more closely examined, turned out to be the long-lost animal. It was completely exhausted and reduced to a skeleton, but still showed some signs of life. It had probably crawled in under some small opening in a ridge at the time of its being dropped, and so had escaped M----'s attention. As he found his ferret with the muzzle still on, it could not have procured either food or drink. The poor brute must have suffered agonies, showing _what horrible cruelty the practice of muzzling is_. M---- took his ferret home, fed it well, and inside of a month it was entirely restored, and just as good a ferret, in every respect, as ever. If ferrets are together, and are kept strictly without food for a length of time, they will devour one another quite readily, in lieu of better fodder. VIII.--BREEDING AND TRAINING. Ferrets are rather difficult animals to raise in numbers--it requires a large amount of patience, great care, and scrupulous neatness, although when full grown they are very hardy. The writer's ferret breeding grounds consist of special farms, on which are erected numbers of small barn-like structures, each furnished inside with a dozen pens, and an aisle running through the middle. Every pen is as large as a horse's stall, the boarding and other accessories are kept clean by vigorous scrubbing, the sawdust on the floor is changed once a day, and the pens and the ferrets are otherwise attended by experienced ferret men. Here the ferrets are taught to do their work of killing and hunting by practical experiment on live rats. Although it is in the nature of ferrets to hunt and kill rats, the same as it is for a bird to fly, yet we find a little extra course of training is necessary in both cases. It will not do to hunt with ferrets until they are at least seven months old. Ferrets breed but once a year, and have from four to nine at a litter on the average--it is very rarely they have two litters a year. They are trained to the whistle by feeding them every time this instrument is used, so that after awhile they promptly respond. The ferret is ruled through his stomach. The time of the ferret's getting in heat is in March, nine weeks after which they breed. The male invariably takes hold of the female as if he were going to strangle her. The young are born without hair, and must, therefore, be kept warm. They have their eyes open in thirty days, and should be fed on as much milk as they want.[A] The male should be removed from the female before the littering, the symptoms of which are exactly like a cat or a dog, or else he will destroy the entire brood. Care should be taken to have the female well supplied with food during the period of copulation, or else she may casually munch up the young herself, and the writer has lost many a pretty litter by this little habit of the unnatural mother. As in crops, there are years for raising ferrets which are more fortunate than others, some seasons having a fatal effect on the young ones. [A] They ought not to be handled before they are one month old. IX.--STRENGTH AND BITE. The great strength of the ferret is in the teeth, neck, and forefeet. One ferret can hold up eight times its own weight with its teeth. Twenty or thirty ferrets when hungry will fasten their teeth in a piece of meat and can be picked up in this way and swung around without ever causing them to think of letting go. They will hang to an object which they have been provoked against with a persistence which would make a Bill Sykes bull-dog blush with shame. The only way to loosen their hold is to grasp them firmly around the neck with the pressure on the skull, and to shove them _towards_ the object, not _from_ it, for if you try the latter way you can pull for a day and a night without any perceptible result on the ferret. The bite of a ferret is not dangerous; they will only bite a human being out of mistake, because they don't see well in the daytime. They imagine you are kindly holding down some bit of meat for them to chew at, and they don't bite because they are at all viciously inclined towards you. Of course you don't want to tease, annoy, or step on them, or you may find them loaded. If a ferret bites you, he will let go immediately, and you and the ferret both will quickly realize the mistake. X.--HANDLING. Ferrets should at first be handled by the back of the neck. The tail is the natural handle for lifting up a ferret, in the same degree that the ears are of a rabbit. The ferret should only be _lifted_ by the tail and should be handled by the back of the neck. After a wild ferret has been handled this way for some time he will get to be very tame and you can handle him in any way. He will get so that he will hop up in his pen at your approach and want you to play with and caress him, although it is never advisable to give him your perfect confidence, such as putting him to your face, etc. XI.--WITH CATS AND DOGS. Ferrets are easily kept with cats and dogs, and after a little training and discipline they will hunt together, the ferret being generally used to drive out the rats from the holes in a barn, etc., and the dog doing the killing. When they are first introduced to each other there will be a little sparring, _and the dog's master must strictly forbid his dog to touch the ferret or else the dog may kill it at the first wrestle_, but after the novelty of each other's appearance has worn off they will lie down together in one corner and be the best of friends, as I have witnessed scores of times. The writer has cats and ferrets on his farm that regularly feed and play together. Ferrets should not be kept in a place with sick dogs or cats, as the disease will surely be transmitted to them. XII.--THE FERRET'S ADVANTAGES AS A RAT EXTERMINATOR. Ferrets have been brought forward, chiefly by the labors of the present writer, to be regarded within the last few years as domestic animals. There is certainly, yet, a great degree of prejudice against the ferret--a natural result of ignorance of its ways; but we firmly believe that the more it comes in contact with man, and is bred in captivity, the more readily it will be put by him in the division of common domestic animals, and he will, furthermore, find it his best remedy in rat extermination, making the latter worthies as scarce as the ordinary rat has made its black-complexioned cousin. For this latter purpose the ferret's most apparent advantages are as follows: _First._ There is nothing a rat is more afraid of, by nature, than a ferret, so that the rats are driven off by acute bodily fear. _Second._ The body of the ferret, and its small head also, is remarkably flexible, thus enabling it to get into and drive out the vermin from their holes and breeding-places. _Third._ When through hunting they do not stray off, but return to their pens, and wait there till they are put in. _Fourth._ They devour the entire carcass of the rat, after killing it, and do not leave the slightest trace of it around. _Fifth._ The ferrets can be trained to obey the whistle somewhat like a dog, and, by attaching a bell to their necks, they can always be traced to whatever part of the building they may stray. _Sixth._ After they get acquainted, and have been handled for some time, they become affectionate pets, and can be fondled and caressed freely. _Seventh._ They are very cleanly, peaceful, and nondestructive in other ways. XIII.--MISCELLANEOUS. Ferrets are extensively used to drive out rabbits from their holes, although the laws are very stringent against this sport. For this purpose they are generally muzzled, which is a cruel and unnecessary practice. All that is required of the ferret is to drive and scare out--the rabbit being then caught or shot. A bell around the ferret's neck will scare off the rabbit immediately, because the ferret is slow, and the rabbit will hear him coming from a distance. A properly trained and handled ferret needs no harness of any kind. Never muzzle a ferret for rats, as he may be savagely attacked where the rats are thick, and then be unable to defend himself. Ferrets are muzzled by tying their jaws, so that they can not bite, with waxed cords, etc. There are also muzzles like those made for dogs, only fitted to the ferret's size. A writer in a certain New York paper has put the ferrets to a peculiar use, on account of their flexible bodies. The following is quoted from a supposititious interview with the present writer: "A gentleman purchased a ferret, and became greatly attached to it. To show me how well he had trained him since the purchase, he called Pet (as he had dubbed him) to his side, and, dropping his pencil behind a large immovable desk, where it would be almost impossible to get it again, he merely said, "Get it!" In an instant the ferret was off, and soon back again with the pencil in his mouth. The gentleman said that he had been of great service to him in that way, and he recommended them to all old ladies who are in the habit of losing thimbles and spectacles in out-of-the-way nooks and holes." We can not help remarking, that this certainly imputes a trifle too much intelligence to the animal. There seems to be a curious superstition regarding the ferret amongst the lower classes of people from England, Ireland, and Scotland, to the effect that the ferret possesses healing properties. I have numbers of people come to me with pans of milk, part of which they want the ferrets to lap up, reserving the other half for medicine. They firmly believe this an infallible cure for whooping-cough in children. On some days so many people come for this purpose, with milk in all sorts of vessels, that the ferrets would certainly have burst their buttons, if they had any, in trying to do justice to all of it. The people wait their turn patiently, and come any day I appoint to have the ferrets drink some of the milk. I have heard many miraculous accounts from them of Mrs. So-and-so's baby who was down "that sick" with the whooping-cough, and the "doctors givin' her up, and she comin' to directly by a drop o' the milk the blessed little craythurs had been lappin' at; and it's the only rale rimedy yer can put intire faith in." The following is an extract from a Kansas newspaper: "An old Englishman is now traveling through the country with two pair of ferrets, with which he is making money by killing prairie-dogs. He has his pets in a wire cage, and, going to a ranch where there are indications of prairie-dogs, he offers to clean out the dog-town for 1 cent per dog. The price appears so very small, that the ranchman does not hesitate to accept the offer. One ferret will clean out from twenty to fifty dogs before he tires out, or, rather, before he gets so full of blood of his victims that he can't work well. When one is tired out, a fresh one is put into service; and so on until the town is rid of dogs." [Illustration] THE RAT. I.--THE RAT FAMILY AND ITS VARIETIES. The cynical, and, as he is generally acknowledged, villainous old rat, is a near kinsman of as innocent and peaceful a community as the squirrels, rabbits, and hares are, at least the natural histories unite in telling us that they all belong to the Rodentia or gnawing animal family. The three great subdivisions of rat are the Black, Brown and Water varieties. With the latter we have nothing to do, as it is an innocent field animal that never goes near man or his works, and is not properly one of the "whiskered vermin race" or rat breed. The dock rats belong to the Brown brigade. II.--RAT HISTORY. Regarding the rat's history and antecedents we are informed in some books on this subject, very positively, that the common or Brown rat was brought from Norway, while other naturalists insist with a pertinacity peculiar to the tribe that the animal originally comes from Persia and India. We feel justified in believing with the majority that this kind of vermin has its origin in Asia, that venerable continent of cholera, Heathen-Chinee, and Old Testament. But again, whatsoever the different opinions may be, it is certainly found that this species of rodent is distributed over every country on the face of the earth in a very near equal way, because every ship that leaves port takes in its cargo of rats just as regularly as it does its cargo of provisions and merchandise, and thus it can be readily seen how this delicate tender blossom is carefully though unwittingly transplanted. In this way the Brown rat, which is now the strongly predominant rat party, was brought to New York and America in 1775 from England, which would doubtless give great pleasure to that part of the population with an Anglo-maniac tendency and would probably reconcile them much more to this sect of vermin. In Europe the latter made their appearance in 1730, and then spread out to every inhabitable country. "For men may come and men may go, but I go on forever" would at the first glance seem to be the case with the rat tribe as well as with the musical brooklet of Tennyson, yet the history of the rat nations is like unto the history of man--one clan waging a long and bitter war of conquest and extermination against the other until hardly any trace of the conquered but once mighty and ambitious race remains. The Black or Indigenous rat had things all its own way in North America as well as through the rest of the civilized earth, before the Brown species' sweeping invasion, the former having been entirely subdued and are now very scarce. It was easy enough for the brown rats to do this, because they were bigger, bolder, and more ferocious. Their multiplying powers, too, were sixteen times greater than the vanquished nation whose origin is shrouded in the darkest and most complete mystery. The writer has on several occasions observed a dark colored rat on vessels coming from Brazil and other States of South and Central America that was unlike any specimen of this animal he had remembered ever seeing before. It was of a deep bluish tint, had an abnormally long tail, very large ears, and sharp, fiery, bead-like eyes, that looked in the dark like small electric lamps. Its agility and desperate nervousness was something marvelous, and its bump of destructiveness was largely developed also. This is probably a stray representative from some struggling colony of the dethroned black rat nation. Small numbers of them are occasionally brought to our own shores by these vessels. The rats generally escape from the ships, whereupon, as soon as the vessel is about to sail away again, their places are promptly filled by their brown brethren. Then the desolate black rats stray to the sewers of the city, where they are speedily overwhelmed and dispatched by members of the other faction, their inveterate foes and conquerors. III.--THE KING'S OWN RAT CATCHER. Although this black rat is inferior to the brown tribe in strength, size, and breeding powers, yet it must have been formidable also, for it was formerly thought necessary in England to institute the queer court position of rat catcher to the King. This was probably the case in other countries, too, but no records of it have been kept. According to an old historian this English rat catcher was a very dignified and mysterious individual, generally with gypsy blood in his veins, as it was thought necessary for him to know something of the Dark Science to properly perform his duties. He was attired in a rich manner, wearing a scarlet coat embroidered with yellow worsted on which were designed figures of rats and mice destroying wheatsheaves. He was looked at with much awe by the populace, as he turned out with a stately tread and great pomp, carrying a heavy staff with the insignia of his exalted office, whenever he took part in the royal pageants. This he did regularly, and it is also stated that he had an attendant, who never took part in the processions but who did the main part of the work, always with as much mystery as possible, upon the munificent stipend of tuppence a month, while the gentleman in the red coat superintended the job and received the glory--differing radically in this respect from the rat catchers of the present day. IV.--RAT SOCIETY, CANNIBALISM, AND FRIENDSHIP. Animals of nearly all kinds are fond of each other's society, and in their natural wild state are always found in herds. The city rats live in tribes or colonies of from twenty-five to sixty individuals, in the winter more and in the summer less. In the cold weather, when they are idle or at rest, they lie in one heap for the purpose of mutually heating each other. They change from the bottom to the top and alternate their positions very frequently, so as to give each one an opportunity to enjoy the warmer place at the bottom. The warmer the locality the less individuals there are in a heap. These rats live peacefully enough amongst themselves when they have enough to eat, but the minute they are apprised of a slightly vacant feeling in the region of the stomach they become the most savage of animals. The mother rat is very careful and fussy about her young until they get to a certain age. When they have passed this period, however, and the mother should, on some bright day, feel a trifle hungry, she would as readily devour her offspring as the children would make a meal of her, thus returning the compliment neatly. Individual cases of this kind occur also amongst the canine family, where dog-bitches have dined royally on a majority of their newly born pups. This tends to show that man is not the only intelligent animal who occasionally uses his fellow's carcass for fodder. Cannibalism, in the rat's case, takes place generally when they are unable to get any other diet, but then they will devour one another with gusto, skin, tail, bones, feathers, and all; the stronger killing the weaker and sucking the blood first. Hot blood is one of their greatest delicacies. The rats are born blind and naked, and their bodies are at this time of their life in a wobbly and unformed state. In this condition they would probably not be looked on by outsiders as things of beauty or delicate morsels, yet they are eagerly sought after by the old male rat to furnish him with his Sunday dinner dessert. The male pigs, cats, ferrets, and rabbits also indulge in the same pastime. This is made still more of a highly prized food for the old man rat by its rarity, as the mother will fight to protect her young with the boldness and savageness of a lioness defending her cubs. She will even go to the pathetic extent of chewing up her young ones herself rather than let them fall into the hands of her oppressor. The rats have an arrangement amongst them similar to the old Greek health law of killing off all sickly infants, that is, they eat their dead and infirm. This accounts for the fact that rats are never found at large sick, diseased, or disabled. Although, as a rule, it isn't considered the correct thing with us to dine or breakfast from our departed fathers-in-law or uncles, yet in the present case, peculiar as it may seem, it is the only admirable trait about the rat. It forms a safeguard to man against their increase, yet we must add, in a hurry, that the check put upon their growth by their cannibalism is lamentably small when compared to their enormous multiplying powers, which surpass those of any other animal. The writer had a curious experience in regard to the rat's sociability and companionship. He had once confined in a cage a company of twelve big slaughter-house rats and happened to neglect feeding them one evening. The next morning he was rather astonished to find a well polished backbone, a stubby remnant of tail, and only eleven other rats, all huddled up together compactly, in the congregation. He then gave them some food to stop them from further feeding on each other, but they rudely refused this, and he was again surprised to see ten of the number make a combined attack, that looked as if agreed upon, upon one unfortunate but especially large sized rat. The latter tried desperately enough to hold his own against such fearful odds, with much horrible squealing and screaming among them and a great deal of severe scratching, dashing, and tumbling against the tin-lined sides and the wire roofing of the cage. In a few seconds they were ranged all around in a circle feeding ravenously on the remains of the brave but ill-fated warrior. The writer has noticed, in numerous instances where numbers of rats were kept together in a cage, that they would on some occasions, just as the humor seemed to strike them, prefer their relatives and brethren as food to anything else. It did not matter, either, what other form of diet or delicacy had been set before them. V.--MULTIPLYING POWERS. Great quantities of rats are trapped and poisoned and hunted down by all animals larger than themselves; they are driven out of their homes, and systematically destroyed by paid vermin-destroyers; still all this seems to make but very slight impression on their numbers as they constantly pop up serenely from below just as if "Sure Pop" and rat-traps had only a mythic existence in fairy tales. They multiply prodigiously, the female breeding on the average about eight times a year, and having as many as fourteen at a litter, though in some instances this record has been badly beaten. A writer on this subject calculates that from a single pair of New York rats, living in moderately good circumstances, there will spring in three years' time a snug, happy little family of 650,000 rodents, including mother, father, children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren, etc., and making due allowance for emergencies, accidents, and for a few hundred of them having been overpowered and used for food by the rest of this most worshipful company. He allows an average of eight young at a litter, half male and half female, the young ones having a litter at six months old. One cause of their being so prolific is that they flourish and breed as well on an abundance of swill, refuse, and garbage, as if they were carefully and tenderly fed three times a day. VI.--THE RAT'S UNABRIDGED BILL OF FARE. Next to the ostrich, the rat possesses the most capacious and accommodating kind of stomach. He will swallow anything, digestible or otherwise, although he can appreciate good things with much intelligence, when he comes across them. His bill of fare ranges all the way up from tallow-candles and shingles to roast-partridge and old boots. Rats are broadly omnivorous, and their food varies widely with their situation. They will eat soap, from the harsh and strong smelling washerwoman's kind to the richly perfumed and tinted toilet variety. With a vast and admirable toleration, they will feed upon bacon, sponges, ham, roots, flour, pork, roast-fowl, from boarding-house chicken to the microscopic quail; they will consume confectionery, potatoes, tomatoes, turnips, other vegetables, fruit of every description, from huckleberries to watermelons, raw, boiled, broiled, or fried fish, suet, eggs, bread, mutton, cheese, and butter. Also raw, cooked, boiled, broiled, fried, smoked, or roast-beef, and they swallow with keen relish wines of all brands and vintages, beer, whisky, gin, and brandy, and evince a loving fondness for all grades of oil, from the dirtiest, coarsest whale's blubber to the finest olive. The rat is verily a most cosmopolitan glutton, and enjoys the favorite dishes of the various nations with much the same hearty appreciation throughout, hugely delighting himself with frog's hind-legs in France, pickled herrings in Holland, potatoes roasted on the hearth in Ireland, pumpernickel and sourkrout in Germany, anise-seed, garlic, and olla podrida in Spain, birds'-nest, sharks' fins, and meat furnished by the rat's own brethren in China, caviare and candles with the Russians, roast-beef and ale in England, and pork-and-beans and peanuts with the people of a certain division of North America. Drawing the line at a particular point in the rats' endeavors to obtain "belly timber," as Sancho puts it, is an obsolete custom with them, for they devour putrid carrion, and human flesh, too, comes within this category, a further account of which will be found in the course of the next chapter. VII.--FEROCITY. The rat is dangerously ferocious when aroused, and is capable of being wrought up to a pitch of white heat fury. If he should be caught, his tail cut, his hair burnt, or if he should be wounded in any other way, but not sufficiently to weaken his system or momentary capacity, and he is then let loose, he will, through sheer madness and pure "cussedness," hunt up, fight, and overpower his brethren individually, or else put them to flight in a body, without much ado. In fact, when he is worked up to this state, he wouldn't hesitate for a moment to attack an entire army of rats, or of other far bigger and more terrible objects. In many cases like this, rats have often obligingly rid premises of their own kind. If the tortured or maimed rat is in a weak condition afterwards, he will be promptly overpowered by the other members of the rat community upon general principles. We are often regaled in the newspapers with "brutally frank" accounts of people leaving their babies alone at home, and, upon returning, finding them frightfully lacerated by rats, slowly and reluctantly escaping from the scene. In like manner, they have become bold enough to attack solitary invalids in houses, who had work enough to defend themselves from, and to drive off, these ferocious little beasts, driven on by hunger like the true wolves of the wilderness. Living or dead, man is bound to furnish food for the rat; and in church-yards, where, ghoul-like, they choose the night as their time of appearing, they demolish the skeletons, littering the ground with remnants of the white, shining bones. VIII.--RATS IN BREWERIES, SLAUGHTER-HOUSES, MARKETS, STABLES, AND BARN-YARDS. The writer, in the course of his many rat-hunting expeditions, has had occasion to observe the rats in the lower cellars of many large New York breweries, where beer was about all they could get to live on. The sage old rodents, I observed, that had become accustomed to this diet--and had noted scientifically its queer effects in large doses on the rat system--indulged in a moderate way, and became aged, good-natured, and fat, like some jovial, bald-headed old merchant of the human type. The young rats, however, that had been recruited from the neighboring houses, would proceed immediately to paint a limited part of the town quite crimson with much hilariousness and quantities of beer, after which they could be killed or caught without much bother, lying around through the passage-ways in a beastly intoxicated state. Here they lay, squealing faintly, and without concern, on their backs. We may find in this, if we care to look for it, a really valuable temperance lesson; for, when the rodents imbibed with moderation, they were of a strong and healthy race, and greatly looked up to in the gnawing community; but, when they quaffed too heavily, they became poets, and cared not for the affairs of this small earth, whereupon they were ignobly killed with a club by some base son of man. In slaughter-houses, they become so unconscious after having gorged themselves with a hearty dinner of hot blood and other warm offal, that hundreds of them could be picked up and massacred with but very faint resistance on the otherwise cautious rat's part. In old markets, rats yet do valuable service as sanitary inspectors, by demolishing the amount of refuse and garbage; but in other channels they are the very demons of destruction. They are especially fond of cheese; and in the cheese-dealers' stalls they go at their work of procuring this in a highly artistic way. They drill holes through the flooring beneath the largest cheeses, and then work their way up and eat into them, consuming pounds upon pounds in a single night. The men sometimes find a large cheese with the interior scooped entirely out, leaving the rind, in hollow mockery, simply an empty, worthless shell. In the butchers' shops, the rats are connoisseurs in the quality of meat, always seeking out the primest portions of the beef in preference to any others. Around barn-yards they destroy the grain, oats, and every species of fowl, from the smallest to the largest specimen. In going at their work of destruction, they spring upon the neck of the victims, and pierce and bite it through with their teeth. They then suck the blood first, or else eat into the flesh as they would into a cheese, often contenting themselves with the blood and leaving the carcass. In stables the harness and the axle grease, even, suffice to make a square meal for them in default of better fodder; they also make the horses frantic by fiendishly gnawing at their hoofs. IX.--RATS AS WINE DRINKERS. In a neat and cleverly written little book on Spain, it is observed that "in the wine cellars the bungs in the heads of the butts containing sweet wines had little square pieces of tin nailed over them. This was to protect them from the rats who otherwise get upon the edge of the butt, and lick the sweet wine which oozes through, then begin to nibble the bung, and go on, if they are let alone, till out rushes the wine in a stream." The effects of the rats' ingenuity seems to bear rather a kind intention toward his two-legged brother, described in the following: "This happened not long ago to a large _tonel_ of the finest Pedro Jimenez, which, was stored with others in the ground-floor of a house, the owner of which was away in Seville, with the key, which he would trust to no one, in his pocket. One morning out came the bung, long nibbled by rats, and, about three hundred gallons of the wine ran out into the gutter. It was a queer sight, people rushing to dip it up with any vessel that came to hand, some of them presently using mops, and the small boys, who had found it was sweet, and lapped up as much as they could get at, lying around the street in various stages of intoxication," after the manner of our frisky friends, the joyous rats of the brewery cellars. X.--DESTRUCTIVENESS. The rat's bite, and especially that of old rats, is very poisonous, and its teeth are finely adapted for severe, quick, sharp, and deep cutting. It forms an urgent natural necessity for them, owing to the peculiar structure and growth of their teeth, to keep them incessantly working. The idea never comes to the rats of a possible breaking off of their tusks in attacking such flexible objects as bricks or lead, and the writer has seen cases in which the rats cheerfully went to work gnawing off corners of bricks and granite, in a persistent manner, so that they could make an opening large enough for their admission into a house. Nothing is exempt from their merciless teeth. They mutilate the woodwork on the valuable drawing-room chair just as readily as they would the dingiest, most plebeian sort of washtub, and they make sad havoc of upholstery of all kinds. They seem to have an especially lasting grudge against the transmission of knowledge, for books are gnawed and mutilated by them in immense quantities. They gnaw paper, from legal documents of the highest value (and many an important writing has been hopelessly destroyed by their agency), to the most worthless treatise on "Four-Fingered Mike; or, The Terror of Hoboken." Our clothing, shoes, hat-gear, etc., is turned out by the rats in a pitifully dilapidated condition. They also eat into lead pipes for the purpose of obtaining water, which it is hard for them to do without, although we have found that they can be without food for a much greater length of time. When the rats are pressed for drink on board ship, they lay low in the day-time, but in the evening they stealthily come out on the deck from the hold, in a long row, single file, in order to sip the moisture from the rigging. By examining the Fire Marshal's Report of New York City from 1868 to 1882, we learn that rats have been the cause of 79 fires during 12 years, making an average of five fires a year. This is on account of the rats' strong propensity for nibbling matches. In the same report is a warning against the loose and careless manner in which matches are left in pantries and closets infested by rats and mice with a fondness for this kind of diet. The great attraction for the rodents in the matches is the phosphorus, which these useful articles contain in abundance, and which the rats are able to scent out from a great distance. XI.--RATS AS FOOD. If you were lunching on something similar in taste to roast partridge, and some one told you, after you had finished, that it was only domestic house rat, your interior machinery would probably be disarranged--to such an extent is the bare mention of the word rat repugnant to our senses and stomachs. In the course of an experiment, the writer has cooked and boiled rats, and has found that their meat is of a very tender quality, and of a white, inviting appearance, withal, although he never went the length of partaking of it. Our objection to the rat's serving as food is too deeply rooted and profound to be removed, although there are a great many animals whose flesh forms our staple food that have habits much dirtier, and who do not nearly live upon as cleanly a diet (and this is a broad statement) as our despised house rat. From this eulogium we gently but firmly exclude the rat gentry of the sewers. We must give the Chinese credit for having overcome the effete European prejudice against the rat as food. Seemingly, it is the most highly prized dish that the sons of leprosy have in their bill of fare. The crews of the American and English vessels lying in Canton harbor used to amuse themselves greatly in catching a rat, and then holding the kicking animal by the tail so that the Celestials in the junks alongside could get a good view of it. The Mongolians would then get very much excited, utter exclamations of a gobbling, clucking sound, and as soon as the spluttering, frightened rat was flung from the ship an uproarious scramble followed, that made them look like so many monkeys quarreling over a cocoanut. A writer tell us, in a well-written magazine article, that he has lived fifteen years in China, and has had "experience at public banquets, social dinners, and ordinary meals, in company with all classes of people, but was exceedingly surprised at never having seen cat, dog, or rat served up in any form whatsoever." We are sorry the gentleman neglects to state _whether he'd know the difference_. The odds are twenty to one that he wouldn't; because, as he knows himself, the Chinese are excellent cooks, and can prepare a good meal from what in other countries would be thought offal. He makes the admission, however, that "there are some peculiar people in China, as well as elsewhere--credulous and superstitious--some of whom believe that the flesh of dogs, cats, and rats, possesses medicinal properties. For instance, some silly women believe that the flesh of rats restores the hair; some believe that dog meat and cat meat renews the blood, and quacks often prescribe it. What the Chinese really do eat does not vary much from that found on American tables; but there are certain dishes not on our programmes that are considered delicacies by everybody--such as edible bird's-nests and sharks' fins." To this we can add conscientiously, and upon weighty private authority--fried split rat, stewed dog, and curried cat with rice. In this place it would be appropriate of us to say something of the peculiarities of Chinese food--of the way the dogs and cats are carefully bred for the palates of the Chinese epicures; how these former animals are invitingly exposed for sale in the marketplaces; and we would willingly describe the methods of the dog and cat breeders, and the manner of curing and cooking the rats--but want of space forbids. We will merely state that there are many cases in which rats were eaten much nearer home than China; but, as the persons undertaking the experiment were slowly starving to death, and would have quickly eaten each other rather than accept the jolly alternative of dying by hunger, these instances are not of a remarkable nature, and are consequently unworthy of note in the present annals. XII.--RAT NESTS. Rats are impartial in their building sites--they have contentedly built their nests in the wretched and filthy peasant's hovel and in the most palatial and luxurious residences of kings, and a human habitation must indeed be in the extreme of squalor, dirt and decay where they are not found sprawling. Shakespeare pithily expresses this in the "Tempest:" "In few they hurried us aboard a bark, Bore us some leagues to sea, where they prepar'd A rotten carcass of a boat, not rigg'd, Nor tackle, sail nor mast--_the very rats_ Instinctively had quit it." The rat living in a house prefers warm, soft quarters, and invariably gets within comfortable distances of stoves, ranges, heaters, steam-pipes, etc. This is a very dangerous habit, because his nest is always constructed of inflammable materials. At times he also lugs matches into it, and then if the steam-pipes should become overheated, the matches blaze up and spread the flames. We have read in the newspapers of a great many fires afterwards found to have been caused in this way. The rat's nest is made of black and colored silk, of linen, woolen and cotton materials, bits of canvas, dirty rags, fur, silk stockings, and antique lace of much value jumbled together with string and crumpled paper. In one instance we knew of a rat to make use of a building material more out of the ordinary run than these, as it consisted simply of fifteen hundred dollars in greenbacks that had been put under the carpet of a room for safe keeping, and which was afterwards found in mutilated fragments, thatched together, forming this queer old mercenary rat's abode. The rat uses his nest too as a storehouse, and here he lays by quantities of edibles for a rainy day. The writer came across a nest, once upon a time, the sole building materials of which were those undergarments, both masculine and feminine, fashioned so slenderly, but which we dare not mention. This nest contained a peck or so of beans, though in the house where it was built beans had not been stored nor used, the writer found out, for at least three months. Out of doors or in fields the rats' nests are built of hay, leaves, shavings, and wool. The rat is, besides his other praiseworthy qualities, an inveterate old thief, and in decorating his dwelling picturesquely he becomes quite lavish, as gold rings, diamonds, jewels of every value, and gold and silver watches, that had been missed, were found in rat nests. Here they were generally discovered set off with much taste by a piece of salt bag. In one rat's nest I found a set of false teeth in perfect condition. The rat could not have wanted to use them himself, because they were several sizes too big for him. He probably wanted them for a tool-box or jewel-case or some other equally useful object. The writer remembers reading in some odd book of a good-natured person who had discovered a family of young rats in a piano that stood in a room for some time unfrequented. They had made themselves so much at home in the interior of the instrument that the owner was unwilling to disturb them by playing upon it. The female rat probably wanted to get her young to some safe place away from her liege lord, and had succeeded in gnawing up through the leg of the piano. She had brought with her, in which to build a nest, a dirty striped stocking big enough to have belonged to some distinguished Dime Museum fat lady. XIII.--THE RAT'S MUSICAL TALENTS AND EYESIGHT. Rats love sweet, soft, melodious tones, and a great many experiments have been made in taming rats thereby, but only with indifferent success upon the sharp-witted rodents, in spite of all the pretty stories to the contrary in the reading-books. So high is the rat's musical understanding rated, that there is a proverb among the people that rats immediately disappear from the house as soon as a young lady begins taking lessons on the piano. A mouth-harmonica seems to be the rat's favorite musical instrument, and its gentle strains exert the most power over him, far more than the tones of any other instrument. If the music be soft, mild, and pathetic, the rat will listen and come very near, for he is a very susceptible sort of beast, and, if closely observed, tears of sorrow, or of sad and tender reminiscence, will be seen coursing slowly down his cheeks. But if, on the contrary, the music be harsh, shrill, and discordant, such as would most likely be ground out by beginners, or if it proceed from a brass instrument, or drum, or if it be occasioned by a shotgun report, or explosion, it may drive the impressionable animals from places where they had been used to frequent. If, however, one is unsuccessful in trying to scare off the rats by noise at the first inning, a repetition will be of no avail. The rat will take up his nest in all and any out-of-the way places, as he shuns the light and lives wholly in the dark and gloom. This is the cause of his poor sight; he can hardly see at all in the daytime, and in the night a little better. If you should meet with a rat by day, looking square in your face, depend upon it he isn't able to see you at all, in spite of the pretty gleam in his black eyes. His minutely acute ears, however, do him good service instead of eyes, so that he has very little occasion to miss the latter at all. The rat is generally very timid, and extremely nervous, the slightest disturbance repelling him and making him shrink into obscurity and shadow. Yet it is his great peculiarity that he can adapt himself to any extremity of climate or description of place; he is found making himself at home in hotels, factories, public gardens, and other haunts of loud and constant noise, bustle, and confusion. XIV.--RATS AS MORALISTS. The Lord in making the rats is imputed to have done so to have them serve as scavengers for his wandering, wasteful tribes of children. But in our own day, as the majority of us do not wander, nor have wandered continually for the last two or three thousand years or so, and have slapped up many supposedly permanent villages like London, New York, or Paris, the restless, ambitious rat took into his head not to limit himself to such dirty kind of work exclusively. He then formed the resolution, and further carried out the purposes of his creator by taking upon himself the philosophic office of keeping man's pride in check. This he did by literally chipping a large proportion of the gilt off man's earthy grandeur, and by destroying his works and belongings at every possible opportunity, with right hearty good-will and much perseverance. "Therefore," says a writer, "whatever man does, rat always takes a share in the proceedings. Whether it be building a ship, erecting a church, digging a grave, plowing a field, storing a pantry, taking a journey, or planting a distant colony, rat is sure to have something to do in the matter; man and his gear can no more get transplanted from place to place without him, than without the ghost in the wagon that 'flitted too'." XV.--RATS IN THE GOOD OLD DAYS, AND THE MODERN RAT SUPERSTITIONS. In the merry days of old, rats were regarded as undisputed signs of witchcraft, and even scholars acknowledged this--at least they were compelled to, by the help of a blazing pile of faggots, or similar mild means known only to the good old times. What caused this belief among the people was, that an animal appearing to them so small should be the cause of such intense and continual annoyance to them. There was no barrier through which the rat could not effect its way to get at a certain object, thanks to its wonderful powers of gnawing. It was so omnivorous, ferocious, and destructive, that the people endowed the rat with superhuman qualities, and regarded it as a true child of the Devil, put upon this earth to be always pestering them. In regard to the rat's superhuman qualities, it appears to have certainly displayed more reason and acuteness, fighting in the daily battle of life, than any one of these thick-skulled humans could lay claim to. It was looked on with a great and most unreasonable aversion and loathing, born of superstition and fear, and which we find vehemently expressed in all the ancient books on the subject. This feeling, we cannot help believing, is not dead yet, according to the astounding anecdotes brought forth and widely copied in a great many of our American newspapers. The facts and data given in these learned articles about the rat's size, weight, and habits, in general, would make his hair stand on end with horror if he were to read them. As a matter of fact, the ordinary brown rat, which we find everywhere near man, is a pretty black-eyed, softly robed, and delicately constructed little animal; and although his fur may be plainly colored, like the plumage of the sparrow amongst birds, yet it is of the finest texture, and, when possible, is always kept scrupulously clean. In solitary captivity he is continually sitting on his haunches, cleaning his fur like a cat; and the writer has found, by actual experiment, the weight of twelve full-grown, well-fed New York city rats to amount to exactly twelve and a half pounds. Formerly, in European countries, there was a general belief in the existence of strange and mysterious relations between this great slimy monster and the high-priests of witchcraft and sorcery. It was thought that this was the animal best adapted to carry out the diabolical plots of his Satanic majesty. In one part of Norway, the peasants used devoutly to hold a fast day once a year, trusting thereby to get rid of the pests of rats and mice. They had a Latin exorcism which they used on these occasions, beginning with the words, "Exerciso nos pestiferos, vermes mures," etc. Anything a rat left its trace upon was an omen of ill to the owner; and when by any chance a rat was ever seen on a cow's back the poor animal was doomed to pine slowly to death in consequence. In Ireland it was believed that premises could be rid of rats by reciting a rhyme over their holes, which was commonly called "rhyming rats to death." XVI.--REVIEW OF THE RAT, AND CONCLUSION. But since these times the people have succeeded in getting rid of a great quantity of superstition attached to the subject. It has also been learned gradually that the actions of the rat are prompted much more by natural than by diabolical instinct. However timorous and innocent looking we have found the rat to be upon impartial observation, yet his is a case of wolf in sheep's clothing, for he is the one of the whole brute creation that does the most undermining damage in every way to the homes, workshops, counting-rooms, store-houses and cultivated fields and acres of man. The rat is also at times his very ferocious personal enemy. The rat's code of morals will be found rather deficient, as we have tried to explain in the preceding rambling remarks. In fact, there are condensed in this small animal all the vices of the animal world. We have shown him in the pleasant light of a cannibal briefly making an end of all family ties by transferring his relatives down his stomach. We have traced a faint outline of his great food greediness and his intemperance in strong drink, which is pretty near up to the human standard. We have pictured his strong liking for the hot blood of man and his utterly lacking an organ of veneration, digging up man's bones from their final resting-place to have them serve as food. The strongest weapon the rats have against man, ranking even above their wonderfully constructed teeth, are their prodigious multiplying powers, "and," says Richardson, "if the rats were suffered to increase in numbers, unchecked, the time would not be far distant when the entire globe would but suffice to furnish food for their rapacious appetites to the exclusion of the human race." The only way man can hold his own against their mighty ravages and prevent his whole social organization from being undermined by them, is to wage a steady and unrelenting war, by the help of his own arts and the animals specially assigned by nature to do service for him as police, against the most bloodthirsty, cruel, and acute of enemies. RAT EXTERMINATION. There are four distinct methods of rat extermination, viz.: 1. Traps. 2. Poisons. 3. Cats, Dogs, and Ferrets. 4. Human Rat-catchers. We will first give some practical hints on I.--TRAPS. The rat is by no means one of the least intelligent of quadrupeds, and there is one thing we feel solid about--when he knows you really want to trap him he'll do his level best to avoid your kind intentions. There are shoals of ingenious rat-traps with plenty of mechanism in them which are certainly good as long as you don't plainly advertise them to the rats, which is about equal to saying "Look out, rats, this is a trap for you, with a bait!" After you have put out this charitable notice nary a rodent will you catch. We will now show how most simple people, after catching a lone specimen, give themselves "dead away," to speak classically, to all the rats there are in the neighborhood. Get a trap, no matter of what shape, material or brand--but by all means get one that doesn't let the rat out again after he has been once caught. Bait it with anything nice and tempting, and put it near the rat-hole, just where they come out, any time before you go to bed. In the morning you probably find you have caught a rat--maybe a big, grizzled old fellow with a scabby tail, or else a young one, half frightened to death--anyway it _is_ a rat, and a real live one at that, and you can forthwith proceed to kill him. Now clean your trap and smoke it out. Bait it again with the same care and, hundred to one, you find--_no rat_. The mystery of it is this: The first rat that came out of the hole on the first night saw you had put down something for him, so he sniffed the dainty bait and remarked under his breath that he was a devilish lucky dog and that he had struck a superior sort of a free lunch all to himself. With that he entered--the trap snapped harshly and cruelly, and the nervous little animal became frightened and sought to escape from his seeming abode of luxury. He couldn't get out, squealed long and plaintively, and worked hard against the sides of his prison. Bye and bye all the other rats came out to see the cause of all the racket. After investigating they find their young friend has been dolefully sold, and together make and keep a vow to steer clear of your traps ever afterwards. This is why you catch but one rat and no more; for a much more stupid and less nervous animal than a rat is would keep away from a similar arrangement in the future. We shall now try the experiment over again, but in a different fashion. Suppose we select a big round trap with falling doors at the sides and a hole on top. First be sure that the doors lift up and fall down very easily. If the bottom of the trap is of wire place it on sawdust, so that the rats are comfortable in it. Put the trap _away_ from the hole, near the wall of the cellar, if in winter near the warmest place, always in a dark spot. As our friend likes comfort so much, put a bag over the trap, so that he can find the falling doors easily. Get some rags scented with about fifteen drops of either oil of rhodium, oil of carraway, oil of aniseed, or a mixture of these oils. First tie a string around them and swab them around the rat-holes, then drag them on the ground near the wall, to the place where the rat-trap is and rub the rags well over it, then put them in. Have some nice tempting bait in the trap, either carrots, meat, broiled bacon, or cheese--anything fresh will do--but be careful to put in enough of it. If the trap is placed as we have above directed the rat will get in and not try to escape. _Make the trap as much unlike a trap and as much like a natural hiding-place as possible._ If this is done, it is highly probable you will have your cage chock-full of rats the next morning. It is very seldom this fails, but if it should not succeed the first night proceed as follows: Put the trap exactly as I have told you, with the exception to tie up the sliding doors. Let it stand there until the rats have eaten it out several times, replacing the bait. After the rats get used to frequent the place and think they have a "soft snap" on you, let down your falling doors again and you have them all! After all is said and done, the most practical of all rat-traps is my little "Special Steel Trap," which catches one rat at a time, but its cost is so reasonable that you can have a dozen of them for the price of one of the big wire ones. It is an utter impossibility for the rats to avoid being caught if the traps are properly placed, and it can, with ease, be so nicely adjusted that the gentlest touch of a rat's paw will insure his immediate capture. And when Mister Rat has put down that little paw of his he is as securely held as if he were nailed to the floor. I have over ten thousand of these traps in use in my professional rat-exterminating operations and sell barrels of them. The larger the space to be covered the more traps are required, and, where it is possible, remove your rat as soon as caught. Place the traps in the natural run of the rats; around swill-barrels, along the walls, etc. Its chief practical beauty is its innocent appearance, as there is nothing about its placid surface which tells the rats of its unerring aim. With every trap we furnish a chain-attachment and fastener; the latter is for the purpose of securing it to the flooring and prevents the rats from dragging the trap. As this Special Steel Trap is a boon to large institutions, ships, shops, factories, stores, hotels, office-buildings, flat-houses, warehouses, private dwellings, slaughter-houses, etc., etc., I quote the following prices on it, which are net: Per dozen $3.00 Per hundred 20.00 II.--POISONS. The common rat poisons are Arsenic, Strychnine and Paris-green. These are put up by enterprising people under a multitude of suggestive names, without specifying the kind of poisons used, however, or even a warning of their being poisonous, as the law implicitly directs. There is, indeed, a great deal of criminal negligence in the way these poisons are put upon the market, as in some the proportion of poison is so great that it would kill an elephant--whereas it should be exactly graded to the rat's capacity. The proportion of arsenic in one very-much-advertised rat-poison now in use, as analyzed by Dr. Otto Grothe, a Brooklyn chemist, consists of 98.19 per cent. pure arsenic and 1.81 per cent. admixtures (coal, etc.). Would-be suicides and murderers have made use of these poisons extensively. Poisons in powdery form--such as arsenic and strychnine--are liable, very easily, indeed, to get mixed up with food, and have in that way been a powerful death-dealing agency. Their peculiar effect on the rats is to allow them to get over-doses, causing violent vomiting, followed by complete failure to kill or drive out. The Phosphoric Paste, the "Sure Pop" brand of which is very carefully manufactured by the present writer, is free from all of these objections, as it is in salve form and very hard to be accidentally mixed up with edibles of any kind. It is impossible for the rats to receive overdoses of it; and the phosphorus has the effect of burning and irritating them internally and forcing them to run for fresh air. Arsenic and strychnine rat-poisons are usually prepared in such heavy quantities that the rats prematurely die in the holes. On the other hand, the amount of actual poisonous matter in this "Sure Pop" Phosphoric Paste has been exactly proportioned to the rat's system, making the amount of poison very slight. There is no secret at all in the compounding of this preparation, but it requires much experience and study of the rat's nature, preferences and habits to make it so that it will work with proper effect. The utmost daintiness is also required in the handling of all its ingredients. We have practically shown on page 40 how the smell of phosphorus is the most powerful of attractions known to the rat, and how it will operate when everything else fails. III.--DOGS, CATS AND FERRETS. The claims of cats as one of the rat remedies we shall have to dismiss in very short order, as the exceptional cases in which they do good work are altogether too few and far between. The only domestic animal which really possesses value in _hunting_ rats is the ferret, as, by reason of its india-rubber joints, it can pursue its prey home. Any terrier--no matter what variety--having a fair amount of intelligence can be broken in with ferrets, so that your ferret can do the hunting out and the dog--at the proper moment--can do the killing. The fox-terrier is by far the best ratting-terrier. He is quick, understands and remembers what is taught him, is full of ambition, and readily learns to regard the ferrets as his partners in the rat-hunt. IV.--HUMAN RAT-CATCHERS. The directions given with each of the remedies advocated by me are so plain that anyone can successfully put them into use. Where the rats have got altogether too thick, or where they hold possession of a place in such a way that there appears no clue to dislodging them, it is quite advisable to call in an expert. To this effect I have perfected a regular system of rat-exterminating in which the remedies I mention in this book are systematically applied--under my own superintendence--by a corps of experts. Through this improved system I am enabled to take contracts to exterminate rats (and also other vermin) from any kind of building in any city or town in the United States, providing the job is large enough. Correspondence on the subject given prompt attention. THE ORIGIN OF THE FERRET. WITH HINTS TO DARWIN. We have stated, in the first chapter of this book, that the verb "ferret" is derived from the animal of the same name, but many _savants_, and even "plain people," as Lincoln said, have cudgeled their brains trying to trace from whence the _animal_ has derived its name. After long and tedious delving into histories and musty tomes having even the slightest bearing on the subject, we are able herewith to enlighten these gentlemen. For this illumination they have long been waiting, we have no doubt, with the utmost anxiety and impatience. This requires us to go at length into the matter, and entails upon us the writing of the ferret's development from prehistoric times until merged into the animal of to-day, with its present shape, instincts, and habits. In the course of the essay we also prove conclusively that the animal originally comes from America. Many scientists will no doubt deem it peculiar to find us using many modern and untechnical terms in the following history, but let them rest assured that if we were to make use of our extensive scientific knowledge of the subject it would compel them to hunt up all the lexicons that had ever been compiled! In the very good and very old days before our present reckoning, when mankind sported tails and was protected against the wind and weather by a long, hairy covering, and when both animals and man had a language of their own--in those times it was that two fair-sized buck Martens, one of the Beech and the other of the Stone species, stood on the southern point of what is now called Cape Farewell, in Greenland, longitude 30° 30´ east, latitude 60° 2´ north. They trembled violently from excitement, because they had just finished a friendly set-to of 64 rounds, lasting 3 hours 10 minutes, New York time, and which both had so far survived. The referee, an old good-natured fox, saw with his keen off-eye that there was no more fight in either of them, and pronounced the battle a _draw_, telling them to try it again on some future day, whereupon he speedily took his departure, as he was very busy just at that time umpiring base-ball games. The contestants then shook forepaws, a custom which has survived the centuries, and after a little cold water and rest had restored them they mended their broken friendship and made solemn pledges not to try harming each other any more. They further made a bargain to set up a business firm, which meant in those days, as it does now, division of spoils. In the language of that time the Beech Marten was called _Ver_, and his partner, the Stone Marten, _Rect_, therefore the firm was called "The Ver and Rect Bill-of-Fare Improving Co." This title explains part of their object in making the trip described in the following pages. The other agreements were to do it in perfect harmony, and at the end of their pilgrimage to stick forever by that particular diet that had suited them best. They were both very glad of their compact, because each one had formed a high opinion of the other's powers evidenced in the pummeling of one another's ribs. Talking things over leisurely, they found themselves getting hungry, and as their stomach was and is yet the Mainspring of their actions, they resolved to start immediately on the expedition. After they had traveled 48 hours due south-east (a direction which they instinctively followed all through their wanderings) they had the good luck to stumble upon a small but very fat pig, snoring comfortably on the banks of a river, known then as the Atlantic river, but since developed into the ocean of the same name, a further account of which is given further on. Ver and Rect found the stream about the size of our present Hudson as it flows by Weehawken. The partners accordingly killed the pig without much bother, ate it, and took a short nap (for those times) of three days, and after waking they stretched themselves, hopped around, and took a drink from the river, but no sooner had they swallowed a little of the water than they commenced spitting, spluttering, and twisting their faces into all shapes, as the water was very salt and brackish. Eating the very fat pig and drinking the salt water had not agreed with Ver and Rect, and they put down the following on the tablets of their minds for future reference: "Fat pig bad feed--salt water ditto." Hence all their descendants, right up to this day, never indulge in pork or use salt at all. [Illustration] Ver, who wore spectacles, then took the reckoning, and found they had just traveled 1910 prehistoric miles, quite a distance for those days. The firm resolved lazily to start again, and after yawning a good deal, and lying in the sun a little while longer, they still felt unpleasant fat-pig and salt-water sensations. They paddled across the Atlantic river, and by the time they had arrived on _the other side_ they had no objection to lunching again, and as fortune seemed to favor them, they spied in the distance a very big woodchuck. After an exciting chase, Ver and Rect captured him, and at first devoured him with vim. The poor Martens, however, were doomed to disappointment, for when they had bolted their prize and had taken their usual nap of three days, they woke up with great pains in their much-abused interior departments. They thought the woodchuck business over carefully and made this inward memorandum: "Woodchuck may be very good, but we prefer lead-pipe." Four days after the feast of the woodchuck, wandering on rather discontentedly, they were suddenly delighted by a wonderful change in the climate, that had previously been harsh and cold, but was now mild and radiant. Birds were singing from beautiful trees, Nanny and Billy goats, and sheep were gamboling about cheerfully. Lions and wolves were doing a thriving business, and, just like the bulls and bears of to-day, were all living on the poor lambs. The Martens wandered about a mile through this happy land, and in course of time, bethinking themselves of their sacred mission, they fell to work on a Billy goat, who was slain, after a hard fight, as an offering to their great god, The Stomach. It is evidenced by our records that this goat must have been a huge animal, for Ver and Rect lived three days on his carcass, although at the end of this time they felt rather sick. The entry in their inward journal was as follows: "Disgusted with Billy goat; hopes of finding our steady feed very gloomy." Rect began to feel discouraged, but Ver cheered him up, saying unto him: "Rec', I have a feeling within my bones which tells me our promised land of Good Feed draws near. Brace up thy suspenders, and let us be of good mien and travail onward, for there is no philosopher on earth of a cheerful temper with his belly unhinged." Verily, after a two days' journey, they observed, to their joy, right on their road, a great mountain overgrown with timber and underbrush. Upon reaching it, they found it full of game of all kinds, some of which they began to attack immediately. Among others they caught a little, delicate gray rabbit, and after critically tasting its flesh, were delighted with its flavor. They thought now they had found a solid bill-of-fare material, and made arrangements for staying in the place by digging themselves comfortable beds under the roots of a big tree. There was such an abundance of these delicious rabbits that Ver and Rect concluded they had enough of a wandering life, and that the mission of the "Bill-of-Fare Improving Co." was fulfilled. They called the land, on account of the great number of these little animals, _Engelland_, meaning the land of the Engels, or angels, at present England. Having kept bachelor's hall for awhile under the big tree, they formed the acquaintance of some of their rich neighbors, who were very kind to them, and whom the Martens found to be relatives of theirs. To Ver and Rect's former pastimes of hunting, eating, drinking (cold water), and sleeping, they now added courting. Ver acquainted himself with a pretty young Miss Weasel, a blonde, and paid her attention, and Rect took fancy to a handsome and stately Miss Mink, a brunette. In two hours after their first courtship--the thing was done quicker in those days--Ver and Rect were married men. They begot children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren, who in their turn intermarried into the families of the Sables, the Fitches, and the Ermines, but all the descendants of Ver and Rect went under the name of Ver-Rects, afterwards verrects, until it has been gradually mellowed into our present _ferrets_. The ferrets now lived in the woods of old Engelland, hunting and eating rabbits and enjoying themselves with all their families on this only ingredient of their bill-of-fare, which Ver and Rect thought of making the permanent ferret food by law. Of course the ferrets grew into the most expert of rabbit-hunters, and they have retained this ability to the present day. Never after they had been in Engelland did Ver or Rect or their descendants subsist on pigs, woodchucks, or billy-goats. One morning a great accident happened, which brought them a different kind of food, consisting of a large army of black rats. The way it happened was this: The earth on which we now live, and which swings around at a pretty good gait on its own axle, broke it right near the north pole and all the waters spilled out there. They overflowed the Atlantic river 1500 miles on each side, and thus formed our present Atlantic Ocean. The high mountain of England was just saved from the water, making it an island, and just then 750,000 live rats swam on shore to save themselves from drowning. The ferrets killed a few of these rats to experiment upon, and were more than delighted with the tender meat, Ver and Rect making the ferret's bill-of-fare for all ages chiefly consist of rabbits and rats. Sometimes the ferrets went rabbit and sometimes rat-hunting, and were as expert in the one as in the other, and so it is that the ferret of to-day occupies itself, by the mandates of its forefathers, Ver and Rect, in the vigorous hunting throughout all lands of the rat and the rabbit. From whence the rats came before they arrived in England will be found in the next chapter. THE CONTINUATION OF THE FORMER CHAPTER. Our rats are from China. The proof of this will be found in more particularly observing the rat's looks, vices and nature, the manner in which he carries his (pig)tail, and further, the great love of the Chinaman for him. We contend also that the Chinaman and the rat are relatives, for it can be said of both, as it has been said of one, "That for ways that are dark, And for tricks that are vain, The heathen Chinee is peculiar." So we say positively that the rat is Chinese, and there is no record that can prove the contrary. The rats were kept locked up in that great empire of solid fences before they showed themselves to the other countries of the earth. Forty years before the great Ver and Rect battle, 750,000 big rats, with their tails out straight, like real Chinese pig-tails, concluded to make an exodus out of the heavenly territory, under the leadership of 75 big chiefs. They didn't want to leave particularly, but they were afraid of being starved out altogether, or else murdered for food by the Chinese army. After the rats had put themselves in battle array, and were duly formed in procession, the 75 big chiefs, who were distinguished from the others by their big red noses and muscular forms, held a council. At the end of a three days' session, during which a great many speeches had been made and a good deal of fighting had been going on, a very old political rat-boss arose and made a proposition. His speech was about as follows: "Honored Rats, and fellow-citizens: I have been a rat for a good many years, and don't want to change my business. I must say I like being a rat. But if we are hacked up in soup, or starved out completely, I have my doubts of our staying powers. Countrymen and lovers, this is what we are threatened with, and we must move. Where to? is the question that arises, and I have thought it over. The climate is hot to suffocation and very unhealthy here; let us trust to luck and go west, as a friend of mine said on a similar occasion. 'Go West, young man, go West,' I say unto you now, and I advise you to do so as speedily as possible." This speech was received with "tremendous applause" for the old rat waxed very eloquent, and the "go west" resolution was passed unanimously. An amendment was put in, changing the course to north-west, for the meeting was held during such hot weather, that some of the radicals wanted to start out immediately and settle on the North Pole. They were promptly overruled, of course, and the 750,000 rats, including males and females, wandered on slowly in their chosen direction, increasing on the road to a wonderful extent. The council concluded to hold a thorough count or census of rats, and each male rat, it was provided, should not be bashful about coming forward and giving the true number of his whole family--no doctoring of the returns allowed. After the count was completed, all the rats over and above the original amount, 750,000, agreed to stay in the country they had arrived at. The originals kept on moving towards the north-west, but the others filled up every section of the earth they passed through. The rats made friends with neither man nor animal on their journey. First they made a stop in a state where all the owls--although they were countrymen of the rats, having emigrated from China--fell upon them, and there was a pitched battle, the rats afterwards hiding themselves in their holes under ground after losing a great many in dead and wounded. One day they agreed to make an excursion out of the line of their route and so take in Egypt. In a few weeks they here ate up all the corn from the fields, stealing and hiding away anything edible, and quite creating a panic, but always fighting shy of the daylight. We read in the histories of a great locust plague in Egypt, about this time, but on this point we have a revelation to make. The locust was just as innocent of this crime as it is of building the Brooklyn Bridge--_it was the rats that did it_. When the rats arrived in Greece they scored a signal victory, because it was there that they extirminated a whole nation--the mice--and the former have strongly held this country ever since. We are authentically informed, by reference to our own private rat historian's notes of this trip, that the first place the rats met their great enemy, the Dog, was in Ancient Rome, where the dogs were put on them by man with much success, and here the rats could get no firm foothold. This caused them a roundabout journey north, and when they thought they had pretty well established themselves in ancient Gaul, now France, they were raided by a strange tigerish kind of animal which proved afterwards a lasting antagonist of theirs--the Cat. The poor rodents found here the other enemies they had encountered on the road, the owl and the dog, who were always urged on fiercely by man. While the rats were struggling along in France, the land was convulsed by an earthquake, causing the Atlantic river's banks to be overflowed. This submerged the land on which the rats were, and as they all could swim they headed their course for England, the nearest dry land. It was here the ferrets joined man, dogs, cats and owls, but the more the rats were hunted, the more acute and crafty they got to be, until they found out innumerable hiding-places and ways of preservation, so we have them still with us to-day. We thus close our story of research, through which we have shown America as the birthplace of the ferret, China of the rat, and England as the first country employing ferrets for rat-hunting. FERRETS: SURE POP BREED. RAISED AND TRAINED BY THE AUTHOR OF THIS BOOK. EVERY FERRET SOLD IS WARRANTED AS REPRESENTED. DEPOT--92 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK CITY. HOUSES CLEARED --OF-- RATS WITH FERRETS, --BY-- CONTRACT. DEPOT--92 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK CITY. SURE POP PHOSPHORIC PASTE, FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF Rats, Mice, and Roaches, MANUFACTURED BY "SURE POP" ISAACSEN. =PRINCIPAL DEPOT:= 92 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK CITY. SURE POP INSECT POWDER FOR THE DESTRUCTION OF Roaches, Bed Bugs, Ants, Fleas, Flies, Mosquitoes Moths, Spiders, Scorpions, Centipedes, Plant and Animal Lice, Croton Bugs, etc., etc., etc. _OWN IMPORTATION AND WARRANTED THE BEST IN THE WORLD._ =PRINCIPAL DEPOT:= 92 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK CITY. SURE POP INSECT POWDER KILLERS. This valuable little instrument was patented by me years ago. It is a handly little machine for dusting the Insect Powder around. It is made of vulcanized rubber, having a metallic top. =PRINCIPAL DEPOT:= 92 FULTON STREET, NEW YORK CITY. SURE POP Patent Insect Powder Bellows. PATENTED APRIL 29, 1884. NUMBER OF PATENT, 297,693. THE ADVANTAGES OF THIS MACHINE OVER ALL OTHERS ARE: 1. It is easily loaded. 2. There is no waste of powder. 3. The Powder can not get back into the Bellows. 4. The top can not get worked off. 5. The Bellows are made under my own supervision, and every one is guaranteed. * * * * * Transcriber's note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible, including unusual spelling and inconsistent hyphenation. "skarks' fins" has been changed to "sharks' fins". 
42718	----	Transcriber's Note: Every effort has been made to replicate this text as faithfully as possible. Italic text has been marked with _underscores_. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FARMERS' BULLETIN WASHINGTON, D. C. 670 JUNE 3, 1915. Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw, Chief. FIELD MICE AS FARM AND ORCHARD PESTS. By D. E. LANTZ, _Assistant Biologist_. NOTE.--This bulletin describes the habits, geographic distribution, and methods of destroying meadow mice and pine mice, and discusses the value of protecting their natural enemies among mammals, birds, and reptiles. It is for general distribution. INTRODUCTION. The ravages of short-tailed field mice in many parts of the United States result in serious losses to farmers, orchardists, and those concerned with the conservation of our forests, and the problem of controlling the animals is one of considerable importance. Short-tailed field mice are commonly known as meadow mice, pine mice, and voles; locally as bear mice, buck-tailed mice, or black mice. The term includes a large number of closely related species widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere. Over 50 species and races occur within the United States and nearly 40 other forms have been described from North America. Old World forms are fully as numerous. For the purposes of this paper no attempt at classification is required, but two general groups will be considered under the names meadow mice and pine mice. These two groups have well-marked differences in habits, and both are serious pests wherever they inhabit regions of cultivated crops. Under the term "meadow mice"[1] are included the many species of voles that live chiefly in surface runways and build both subterranean and surface nests. Under the term "pine mice"[2] are included a few forms that, like moles, live almost wholly in underground burrows. Pine mice may readily be distinguished from meadow mice by their shorter and smoother fur, their red-brown color, and their molelike habits. (See fig. 1.) [1] Genus _Microtus_. [2] Genus _Pitymys_. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Field mice: _a_, Meadow mouse; _b_, pine mouse.] MEADOW MICE. Meadow mice inhabit practically the whole of the Northern Hemisphere-- America, north of the Tropics; all of Europe, except Ireland; and Asia, except the southern part. In North America there are few wide areas except arid deserts free from meadow mice, and in most of the United States they have at times been numerous and harmful. The animals are very prolific, breeding several times a season and producing litters of from 6 to 10. Under favoring circumstances, not well understood, they sometimes produce abnormally and become a menace to all growing crops. Plagues of meadow mice have often been mentioned in the history of the Old World, and even within the United States many instances are recorded of their extraordinary abundance with accompanying destruction of vegetation. The runs of meadow mice are mainly on the surface of the ground under grass, leaves, weeds, brush, boards, snow, or other sheltering litter. They are hollowed out by the animals' claws, and worn hard and smooth by being frequently traversed. They are extensive, much branched, and may readily be found by parting the grass or removing the litter. The runs lead to shallow burrows where large nests of dead grass furnish winter retreats for the mice. Summer nests are large balls of the same material hidden in the grass and often elevated on small hummocks in the meadows and marshes where the animals abound. The young are brought forth in either underground or surface nests. Meadow mice are injurious to most crops. They destroy grass in meadows and pastures; cut down grain, clover, and alfalfa; eat grain left standing in shocks; injure seeds, bulbs, flowers, and garden vegetables; and are especially harmful to trees and shrubbery. The extent of their depredations is usually in proportion to their numbers. Thus, in the lower Humboldt Valley, Nevada, during two winters (1906-8) these mice were abnormally abundant, and totally ruined the alfalfa, destroying both stems and roots on about 18,000 acres and entailing a loss estimated at fully $250,000. When present even in ordinary numbers meadow mice cause serious injury to orchards and nurseries. Their attacks on trees are often made in winter under cover of snow, but they may occur at any season under shelter of growing vegetation or dry litter. The animals have been known almost totally to destroy large nurseries of young apple trees. It was stated that during the winter of 1901-2 nurserymen near Rochester, N. Y., sustained losses from these mice amounting to fully $100,000. Older orchard trees sometimes are killed by meadow mice. In Kansas in 1903 the writer saw hundreds of apple trees, 8 to 10 years planted, and 4 to 6 inches in diameter, completely girdled by these pests. (Fig. 2.) The list of cultivated trees and shrubs injured by these animals includes nearly all those grown by the horticulturist. The Biological Survey has received complaints of the destruction of apple, pear, peach, plum, quince, cherry, and crab-apple trees, of blackberry, raspberry, rose, currant, and barberry bushes, and of grape vines; also of the injury of sugar maple, black locust, Osage orange, sassafras, pine, alder, white ash, mountain ash, oak, cottonwood, willow, wild cherry, and other forest trees. [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Apple tree killed by meadow mice.] In the Arnold Arboretum, near Boston, Mass., during the winter of 1903-4, meadow mice destroyed thousands of trees and shrubs, including apple, juniper, blueberry, sumac, maple, barberry, buckthorn, dwarf cherry, snowball, bush honeysuckle, dogwood, beech, and larch. Plants in nursery beds and acorns and cuttings in boxes were especial objects of attack. The injury to trees and shrubs consists in the destruction of the bark just at the surface of the ground and in some instances for several inches above or below. When the girdling is complete and the cambium entirely eaten through, the action of sun and wind soon completes the destruction of the tree. If the injury is not too extensive prompt covering of the wounds will usually save the tree. In any case of girdling heaping up fresh soil about the trunk so as to cover the wounds and prevent evaporation is recommended as the simplest remedy. To save large and valuable trees bridge grafting may be employed. PINE MICE. Pine mice occur over the greater part of eastern United States from the Hudson River Valley to eastern Kansas and Nebraska and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. Inhabitants chiefly of forested regions, they are unknown on the open plains. Ordinarily they live in the woods, but are partial also to old pastures or lands not frequently cultivated. From woods, hedges, and fence rows they spread into gardens, lawns, and cultivated fields through their own underground tunnels or those of the garden mole. The tunnels made by pine mice can be distinguished from those made by moles only by their smaller diameter and the frequent holes that open to the surface. While the mole feeds almost wholly upon insects and earthworms, and seldom eats vegetable substances, pine mice are true rodents and live upon seeds, roots, and leaves. Their harmful activities include the destruction of potatoes, sweet potatoes, ginseng roots, bulbs in lawns, shrubbery, and trees. They destroy many fruit trees in upland orchards and nurseries (fig. 3). The mischief they do is not usually discovered until later, when harvest reveals the rifled potato hills or when leaves of plants or trees suddenly wither. In many instances the injury is wrongly attributed to moles whose tunnels invade the place or extend from hill to hill of potatoes. The mole is seeking earthworms or white grubs that feed upon the tubers, but mice that follow in the runs eat the potatoes themselves. [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Root and trunk of apple tree from Laurel, Md., gnawed by pine mice.] Pine mice feed to some extent outside their burrows, reaching the surface through the small openings made at frequent intervals in the roofs of the tunnels. In their forays they rarely go more than a few feet from these holes. Most of their food is carried under ground, where much is stored for future consumption. While they differ little from meadow mice in general food habits, their surroundings afford them a larger proportion of mast. They are less prolific than meadow mice, but this is more than made up for in the fact that in their underground life they are less exposed to their enemies among birds and mammals. Like meadow mice, they sometimes become abnormally abundant. In the eastern part of the United States pine mice do more damage to orchards than do meadow mice, partly because their work is undiscovered until trees begin to die. The runs of meadow mice under grass or leaves are easily found and the injury they do to trees is always visible. On the other hand, depredations by pine mice can be found only after digging about the tree and exposing the trunk below the surface. The roots of small trees are often entirely eaten off by pine mice, and pine trees as well as deciduous forest trees, when young, are frequently killed by these animals (fig. 4). [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Pine tree killed by pine mice.] DESTROYING FIELD MICE. Methods of destroying field mice or holding them in check by trapping and poisoning are equally applicable to meadow mice and pine mice. TRAPPING. If mice are present in small numbers, as is often the case in lawns, gardens, or seed beds, they may readily be caught in strong mouse traps of the guillotine type (figs. 5 and 6). These should be baited with oatmeal or other grain, or may be set in the mouse runs without bait. [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Field mouse caught in baited guillotine trap.] [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Field mouse caught in unbaited guillotine trap.] Trapping has special advantages for small areas where a limited number of mice are present, but it is also adapted to large areas whenever it is undesirable to lay out poison. It is then necessary to use many traps and continue their use for several weeks. If mice are moderately abundant, from 12 to 20 traps per acre maybe used to advantage. These should soon make decided inroads on the numbers of mice in an orchard if not practically to exterminate them. For pine mice the tunnels should be excavated sufficiently to admit the trap on a level with the bottom. A light garden trowel may be used for the necessary digging. POISONING. On large areas where mice are abundant, poisoning is the quickest means of destroying them, and even on small areas it has decided advantages over trapping. The following formula is recommended: _Dry grain formula._--Mix thoroughly 1 ounce powdered strychnine (alkaloid), 1 ounce powdered bicarbonate of soda, and 1/8 ounce (or less) of saccharine. Put the mixture in a tin pepper box and sift it gradually over 50 pounds of crushed wheat or 40 pounds of crushed oats in a metal tub, mixing the grain constantly so that the poison will be evenly distributed. Dry mixing, as above described, has the advantage that the grain may be kept any length of time without fermentation. If it is desired to moisten the grain to facilitate thorough mixing, it would be well to use a thin starch paste (as described below, but without strychnine) before applying the poison. The starch soon hardens and fermentation is not likely to follow. If crushed oats or wheat can not be obtained, whole oats may be used, but they should be of good quality. As mice hull the oats before eating them, it is desirable to have the poison penetrate the kernels. A very thin starch paste is recommended as a medium for applying poison to the grain. Prepare as follows: _Wet grain formula._--Dissolve 1 ounce of strychnia sulphate in 2 quarts of boiling water. Dissolve 2 tablespoonfuls of laundry starch in 1/2 pint of cold water. Add the starch to the strychnine solution and boil for a few minutes until the starch is clear. A little saccharine may be added if desired, but it is not essential. Pour the hot starch over 1 bushel of oats in a metal tub and stir thoroughly. Let the grain stand overnight to absorb the poison. The poisoned grain prepared by either of the above formulas is to be distributed over the infested area, not more than a teaspoonful at a place, care being taken to put it in mouse runs and at the entrances of burrows. To avoid destroying birds it should whenever possible be placed under such shelters as piles of weeds, straw, brush, or other litter, or under boards. Small drain tiles, 1 1/2 inches in diameter, have sometimes been used to advantage to hold poisoned grain, but old tin cans with the edges bent nearly together will serve the same purpose. Chopped alfalfa hay poisoned with strychnine was successfully used to destroy meadow mice in Nevada during the serious outbreak of the animals in 1907-8. One ounce of strychnia sulphate dissolved in 2 gallons of hot water was found sufficient to poison 30 pounds of chopped alfalfa previously moistened with water. This bait, distributed in small quantities at a place, was very effective against the mice, and birds were not endangered in its distribution. For poisoning mice in small areas, as lawns, gardens, seed beds, vegetable pits, and the like, a convenient bait is ordinary rolled oats. This may be prepared as follows: Dissolve 1/16 ounce of strychnine in 1 pint of boiling water and pour it over as much oatmeal (about 2 pounds) as it will wet. Mix until all the grain is moistened. Put it out, a teaspoonful at a place, under shelter of weed and brush piles or wide boards. The above poisons are adapted to killing pine mice, but sweet potatoes cut into small pieces have proved even more effective. They keep well in contact with soil except when there is danger of freezing, and are readily eaten by the mice. The baits should be prepared as follows: _Potato formula._--Cut sweet potatoes into pieces about as large as good-sized grapes. Place them in a metal pan or tub and wet them with water. Drain off the water and with a tin pepper box slowly sift over them powdered strychnine (alkaloid preferred), stirring constantly so that the poison is evenly distributed. An ounce of strychnine should poison a bushel of the cut bait. The bait, whether of grain or pieces of potato, may be dropped into the pine-mouse tunnels through the natural openings or through holes made with a piece of broom handle or other stick. Bird life will not be endangered by these baits. CULTIVATING THE LAND. Thorough cultivation of fields and the elimination of fence rows between them is the most effective protection against field mice. Cultivation destroys weeds and all the annual growths that serve as shelter for the animals. This applies equally well to orchards and nurseries. Clean tillage and the removal from adjoining areas of the weeds and grass that provide hiding places for mice will always secure immunity to trees from attacks of the animals. PROTECTING NATURAL ENEMIES OF MICE. Field mice are the prey of many species of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Unfortunately, the relation that exists between the numbers of rodents and the numbers of their enemies is not generally appreciated; otherwise the public would exercise more discrimination in its warfare against carnivorous animals. It is the persistent destruction of these, the beneficial and harmful alike, that has brought about the present condition of growing scarcity of predacious mammals and birds and corresponding increase of rodent pests of the farm, especially rats and mice. The relation between effect and cause is obvious. Among the mammalian enemies of meadow and pine mice are coyotes, wildcats, foxes, badgers, raccoons, opossums, skunks, weasels, shrews, and the domestic cat and dog. Among birds, their enemies include nearly all the hawks and owls, storks, ibises, herons, cranes, gulls, shrikes, cuckoos, and crows. Among their reptilian foes are black snakes and bull snakes. Not all these destroyers of mice are more beneficial than harmful, but the majority are, and warfare against them should be limited to the minority that are more noxious than useful. OWLS AND FIELD MICE. Owls as destroyers of mice are deserving of special mention. Not one of our American owls, unless it be the great horned owl, is to be classed as noxious. Especially beneficial are the short-eared, long-eared, screech, and barn owls. All these prey largely upon field mice, and seldom harm birds. Unfortunately, the short-eared and barn owls, which are the more useful species, are not plentiful in the sections most seriously infested by field mice. The short-eared owl, while widely distributed, is not abundant, except locally, within the United States, but wherever field mice become excessively numerous these owls usually assemble in considerable numbers to prey upon them. Examinations of stomachs of these owls show that fully three-fourths of their food consists of short-tailed field mice. The barn owl is rather common in the southern half of the United States and breeds as far north as the forty-first parallel of latitude. That mice form the chief diet of this bird has been demonstrated by Dr. A. K. Fisher, of the Biological Survey, through examination of stomachs of many barn owls and also of large numbers of pellets (castings from their stomachs) found under their roosts. In 1,247 barn-owl pellets collected in the towers of the Smithsonian Building in Washington, D. C., he found 1,991 skulls of short-tailed field mice, 656 of the house mouse, 210 of the common rat, and 147 of other small rodents and shrews. Very few remains of birds were found. Figure 7 illustrates the contents of some of these pellets. [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Field-mouse skulls taken from pellets found under owl roost in Smithsonian tower, Washington, D. C.] In 360 pellets of the long-eared owl Dr. Fisher found skulls of 374 small mammals, of which 349 were meadow mice. Stomach examinations give similar testimony to the usefulness of this bird. The common screech owl, in addition to feeding mainly upon mice, destroys also a good many English sparrows. Its habit of staying in orchards and close to farm buildings makes it especially useful to the farmer in keeping his premises free from both house and field mice. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1915 
4342	----	None 
43581	----	produced from scanned images of public domain material from the Google Print project.) Transcriber's Note: Words which were in italics in the original book are surrounded by underlines (_italic_). Words which were originally printed in small caps are in all caps. Obvious misprints have been fixed. Archaic and unusual words, spellings and styling have been maintained. Details of the changes are in the Detailed Transcriber's Notes at the end of the book. FRUITS OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS BY GERRIT PARMILE WILDER (REVISED EDITION, INCLUDING VOL. 1, 1906.) ILLUSTRATED BY ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY-ONE HALF-TONE PLATES WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF SAME Copyright December 1906, December 1911 GERRIT PARMILE WILDER HONOLULU, T. H. PUBLISHED BY THE HAWAIIAN GAZETTE CO., LTD. 1911 INDEX Preface 5 Persea gratissima, Avocado, Palta or Alligator Pear, Plate I 7 Persea gratissima, Avocado, Plate II 9 Persea gratissima, Guatamala Avocado, Plate III 11 Punica Granatum, Pomegranate, Plate IV 13 Ficus Carica (common var.), Fig, Plate V 15 Ficus Carica, Fig, Plate VI 17 Ficus Carica (white or lemon var.), Fig, Plate VII 19 Jambosa malaccensis, Mountain Apple or "Ohia Ai," Plate VIII 21 Jambosa sp., Water Apple, Plate IX 23 Jambosa sp. (white var.), Water Apple, Plate X 25 Jambosa sp. (red var.), Water Apple, Plate XI 27 Eugenia Jambos, Rose Apple, Plate XII 29 Eugenia brasiliensis, Brazilian Plum or Spanish Cherry, Plate XIII 31 Eugenia uniflora, French Cherry, Plate XIV 33 Eugenia sp., Plate XV 35 Syzygium Jambolana, Java Plum, Plate XVI 37 Syzygium Jambolana (small variety), Java Plum, Plate XVII 39 Averrhoa Carambola, Plate XVIII 41 Achras Sapota, Sapodilla or Naseberry, Plate XIX 43 Casimiroa edulis, White Sapodilla, Plate XX 45 Prunus Persica, Peach, Plate XXI 47 Chrysophyllum Cainito (purple var.), Star Apple, Plate XXII 49 Chrysophyllum Cainito (white var.), Star Apple, Plate XXIII 51 Chrysophyllum monopyrenum, Plate XXIV 53 Mimusops Elengi, Plate XXV 55 Spondias dulcis, "Wi," Plate XXVI 57 Spondias lutea, Hog Plum, Plate XXVII 59 Mammea Americana, Mammee Apple, Plate XXVIII 61 Tamarindus indica, Tamarind, Plate XXIX 63 Durio zibethinus, Durion, Plate XXX 65 Coffea arabica, Arabian Coffee, Plate XXXI 67 Coffea liberica, Liberian Coffee, Plate XXXII 69 Clausena Wampi, Wampi, Plate XXXIII 71 Physalis peruviana, Cape Gooseberry or "Poha," Plate XXXIV 73 Carica Papaya, Papaya (fruit, female tree), Plate XXXV 75 Carica Papaya, Papaya (fruit, male tree), Plate XXXVI 77 Carica quercifolia, Plate XXXVII 79 Citrus Japonica (var. "Hazara"), Chinese Orange, Plate XXXVIII 81 Citrus Japonica, Kumquat, Plate XXXIX 83 Citrus Nobilis, Mandarin Orange, Plate XL 85 Citrus medica limetta, Lime, Plate XLI 87 Citrus medica limonum, Lemon, Plate XLII 89 Citrus medica (var. limonum), Rough-skin Lemon, Plate XLIII 91 Citrus Aurantium Sinense, Waialua Orange, Plate XLIV 93 Citrus Aurantium, Bahia or Washington Navel Orange, Plate XLV 95 Citrus Decumana, Pomelo or Shaddock (pear-shaped var.), Plate XLVI 97 Citrus Decumana, Pomelo or Shaddock (round var.), Plate XLVII 99 Artocarpus incisa, Breadfruit (Hawaiian var.) or "Ulu," Plate XLVIII 101 Artocarpus incisa, Breadfruit (Samoan var.), Plate XLIX 103 Artocarpus incisa, Breadfruit (Tahitian var.), Plate L 105 Artocarpus incisa, Fertile Breadfruit, Plate LI 107 Artocarpus integrifolia, Jack Fruit, Plate LII 109 Anona muricata, Sour Sop, Plate LIII 111 Anona Cherimolia, Cherimoyer, Plate LIV 113 Anona reticulata, Custard Apple, Plate LV 115 Anona squamosa, Sugar Apple or Sweet Sop, Plate LVI 117 Psidium Guayava pomiferum, Common Guava, Plate LVII 119 Psidium Guayava, Sweet Red Guava, Plate LVIII 121 Psidium Guayava, White Lemon Guava, Plate LIX 123 Psidium Guayava pyriferum, "Waiawi," Plate LX 125 Psidium Cattleyanum, Strawberry Guava, Plate LXI 127 Psidium Cattleyanum (var. lucidum), Plate LXII 129 Psidium molle, Plate LXIII 131 Mangifera indica, Mango, Plate LXIV 133 Mangifera indica, Manini Mango, Plate LXV 135 Mangifera indica, No. 9 Mango, Plate LXVI 137 Musa (var.), Banana or "Maia," Plate LXVII 139 Morinda citrifolia, "Noni," Plate LXVIII 141 Vaccinium reticulatum, "Ohelo," Plate LXIX 143 Solanum pimpinellifolium, Currant Tomato, Plate LXX 145 Solanum Lycopersicum, Grape Tomato, Plate LXX 145 Solanum nodiflorum, "Popolo," Plate LXXI 147 Aleurites moluccana, Candlenut Tree or "Kukui Nut," Plate LXXII 149 Terminalia Catappa, Tropical Almond or "Kamani," Plate LXXIII 151 Calophyllum inophyllum "Kamani," Plate LXXIV 153 Noronhia emarginata, Plate LXXV 155 Castanea sativa, Japanese Chestnut, Plate LXXVI 157 Inocarpus edulis, Tahitian Chestnut, Plate LXXVII 159 Canarium commune, Canary Nut, Plate LXXVIII 161 Canarium commune, Canary Nut (round var.), Plate LXXIX 163 Macadamia ternifolia, Queensland Nut, Plate LXXX 165 Macadamia sp., Plate LXXXI 167 Aegle Marmelos, Bhel or Bael Fruit, Plate LXXXII 169 Diospyros decandra, Brown Persimmon, Plate LXXXIII 171 Lucuma Rivicoa, Plate LXXXIV 173 Eriobotrya Japonica, Loquat, Plate LXXXV 175 Litchi Chinensis, "Lichee," Plate LXXXVI 177 Euphoria Longana, Longan, Plate LXXXVII 179 Morus nigra, Mulberry, Plate LXXXVIII 181 Garcinia mangostana, Mangosteen, Plate LXXXIX 183 Garcinia Xanthochymus, Plate XC 185 Bunchosia sp., Plate XCI 187 Malpighia glabra, Barbados Cherry, Plate XCII 189 Theobroma Cacao, Cocoa or Chocolate Tree, Plate XCIII 191 Hibiscus Sabdariffa, Roselle, Plate XCIV 193 Monstera deliciosa, Plate XCV 195 Anacardium occidentale, Cashew Nut, Plate XCVI 197 Ziziphus Jujuba, "Jujube," Plate XCVII 199 Phyllanthus emblica, Plate XCVIII 201 Phyllanthus distichus, Otaheiti Gooseberry, Plate XCIX 203 Olea Europea, Olive, Plate C 205 Vitis Labrusca, "Isabella Grape," Plate CI 207 Pyrus Sinensis, Sand pear, Plate CII 209 Passiflora quadrangularis, Granadilla Vine, Plate CIII 211 Passiflora edulis, Purple Water Lemon or "Lilikoi," Plate CIV 213 Passiflora laurifolia, Yellow Water Lemon, Plate CV 215 Passiflora alata, Plate CVI 217 Passiflora var. foetida, Plate CVII 219 Cereus triangularis, Night-blooming Cereus, Plate CVIII 221 Kigelia pinnata, Sausage Tree, Plate CIX 223 Phoenix dactylifera, The Date Palm, Plate CX 225 Phoenix dactylifera, Date (red and yellow var.), Plate CXI 227 Acrocomia sp., Plate CXII 229 Cocos nucifera, Cocoanut Palm or "Niu," Plate CXIII 231 Cordia collococca, Clammy Cherry, Plate CXIV 233 Flacourtia cataphracta, Plate CXV 235 Atalantia buxifolia, Plate CXVI 237 Bumelia sp., Plate CXVII 239 Ochrosia elliptica, Plate CXVIII 241 Ananas sativus, Pineapple, Plate CXIX 243 Opuntia Tuna, Prickly Pear or "Panini," Plate CXX 245 Prosopis juliflora, Algaroba or "Kiawe," Plate CXXI 247 PREFACE My original intention with regard to this work, was to publish it in a series of three volumes; and to that end, the first volume was presented to the public in 1906. Since that time, however, I have deemed it advisable, for various reasons, to incorporate all my data in one volume. I desire to acknowledge my indebtedness for help in my researches, to various works on Horticulture, and to many of my personal friends who have given me valuable assistance. I trust that this work will prove of some interest, as I believe that it contains a fairly comprehensive list of both the indigenous and naturalized Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands. GERRIT PARMILE WILDER. _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE I _Persea gratissima._ AVOCADO, PALTA OR ALLIGATOR PEAR. Grown in the garden of Gerrit Wilder. [Illustration: PLATE I.--_Avocado._] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE II _Persea gratissima._ AVOCADO. This spreading evergreen tree is a native of Tropical America. In the Hawaiian Islands, the first trees of its kind were said to have been planted in Pauoa Valley, Oahu, by Don Marin. It attains a height of from 10 to 40 feet, and is adverse to drought. Its leaves are elliptico-oblong, from 4 to 7 inches in length. The flowers are greenish-yellow and downy. The fruit, which ripens from June until November, is a round or pear-shaped drupe, covered with a thin, rather tough skin, which is either green or purple in color. The flesh is yellow, firm and marrow-like, and has a delicious nutty flavor. The seed-cavity is generally large, containing one round or oblong seed, covered by a thin, brown, parchment-like skin. The quality of the pear is judged, not only by its flavor, but by the presence or absence of strings or fibre in the meat, and also by the quantity of flesh as compared to the size of the seed. Innumerable variations as to size, shape, and quality have been produced from seedlings--some of which may be seen in the accompanying illustration. The Avocado is easily reproduced by budding and grafting, and the best varieties may be obtained in this manner. [Illustration: PLATE II.--_Avocado._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE III _Persea gratissima._ GUATAMALA AVOCADO. This variety is a native of Mexico, and although known as the Guatamala Avocado, it is more commonly to be found in the markets of the City of Mexico. Its leaves are purplish-green. The flowers, which appear in May and June, are like those of the preceding variety; and the drupe, which matures in the early part of the year, has a long stem. This fruit is round, from 3 to 5 inches in diameter, has a thick, tough, rough rind, which when ripe is a deep claret color, and the meat, which is a golden-yellow, is tinged with purple next to the rind, and is free from strings or fibres. There are but two trees of this variety bearing fruit in Honolulu. They were propagated from seeds brought here in 1890 by Admiral Beardsley. These two trees are growing in private gardens. [Illustration: PLATE III.--_Guatamala Avocado._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE IV _Punica Granatum._ POMEGRANATE. The name was derived from the word punicus, of Carthage, near which city it is said to have been discovered; hence malumpunicum, Apple of Carthage, which was the early name of the Pomegranate. It is a native of Northern Africa, and of Southwestern Asia, and is grown in the Himalayas up to an elevation of 6000 feet. It is a deciduous shrub, which by careful training can be made to grow into a tree from 10 to 15 feet high. Many shoots spring from the base of the tree, and should be cut away, as they draw the sap which should go to the fruit-bearing stems. The branches are slender, twiggy, nearly cylindrical, and somewhat thorny. The bark contains about 32 per cent. tannin, and is used for dying the yellow Morocco leather. The peel of the fruit serves also as a dye. There are several varieties of Pomegranate growing in Hawaii: the double-flowering variety is popular as an ornamental plant. All of the varieties are of easy culture, and are readily propagated by means of cuttings of the ripe wood. The leaves are lanceolate, glabrous, and a glossy-green with red veins. The flowers are axillary, solitary or in small clusters, and in color are a very showy rich orange-red. The fruit is about the size of an ordinary orange, has a persistent calyx, and is made up of many small compartments arranged in two series, one above the other. The crisp, sweet, watery pink pulp enveloping each seed is the edible portion of the Pomegranate. [Illustration: PLATE IV.--_Pomegranate._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE V _Ficus Carica_ (common variety). FIG. The Fig is the most ancient, as well as one of the most valuable of all fruit trees. Its name is nearly the same in all European languages. The tree is supposed to be a native of Caria in Asia Minor. The intelligent cultivators of Anatolia, by whom the Smyrna Figs are produced, adhere to the caprification process, used from time immemorial. In California, efforts have been made to test this process. In the Hawaiian Islands, the Portuguese seem to be the most successful cultivators of the Fig, and several varieties are to be found throughout the group. This common variety grows to a height of from 10 to 20 feet, is hardy, and can easily be propagated from cuttings. Its leaves are alternate, 3 to 5 deeply lobed, and are shed during the fall months, at which season careful pruning will increase the following year's yield. The fruit is single, appearing from the axils of the leaves, on the new wood. It is a hollow, pear-shaped receptacle, containing many minute seeds, scattered throughout a soft, pinkish-white pulp. [Illustration: PLATE V.--_Fig._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE VI _Ficus Carica._ FIG. Some years ago, this variety of Fig was to be found growing in large numbers at Makawao, and in the Kula district of Maui. Now, however, there are few, if any, trees remaining, as a destructive blight, together with the lack of proper attention, has caused their extermination. This variety is very prolific. The fruit is small, pear-shaped, and has a particularly sweet and delicious flavor. [Illustration: PLATE VI.--_Fig._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE VII _Ficus Carica_ (white or lemon variety). FIG. This is a low-growing tree with compact foliage. The leaves are small, and the fruit is round-turbinate, about 1 to 1½ inches in diameter. The skin is very thin, is light-green in color, turning to a greenish-yellow when thoroughly ripe. The pulp is pink, very sweet, and when quite ripe is free from milky juice. This variety is also prolific, is easily dried, and on this account would find a ready sale in our markets. [Illustration: PLATE VII.--_Fig._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE VIII _Jambosa malaccensis._ MOUNTAIN APPLE, "OHIA AI." This tree is found on all the large islands of the Polynesian groups, and in the Malaysian Archipelago. In the Hawaiian Islands it confines itself almost entirely to the moist, shady valleys, and thrives well, up to an elevation of 1800 feet. It is generally gregarious, and on the north side of East Maui it forms a forest belt. It attains a height of from 25 to 50 feet. Its dark, shiny, glabrous leaves are opposite, elliptico-oblong, and from 6 to 7 inches long, and from 2½ to 3 inches broad. The flowers are crimson, fluffy balls, appearing in March and April, on the naked branches and upper trunk of the tree. The fruit, which ripens from July until December, generally contains one seed, is obovate, about 3 inches in diameter. The skin is so thin as to be barely perceptible, and the fruit is very easily bruised. In color, it is a deep, rich crimson, shading into pink and white; the pulp is firm, white, and juicy, with a very agreeable flavor. [Illustration: PLATE VIII.--_Mountain Apple._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE IX _Jambosa sp._ (Solomon Island variety). WATER APPLE. This low-growing tree is very rare in the Hawaiian Islands. It was introduced here, from the Solomon Islands, by Mr. A. Jaeger. The foliage and crimson flowers resemble those of the _Jambosa malaccensis_, but the drupe is not so highly colored, and is, in shape, much more elongated. Specimens of this sweet, edible fruit have measured 5 inches in length. [Illustration: PLATE IX.--_Water Apple._ One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE X _Jambosa sp._ (white variety). WATER APPLE. This tree is a native of the Malay Islands. The foliage is symmetrical, and its opposite, shiny leaves are broad, lanceolate, and obtusely-acuminate. The pure white flowers, which bloom from March until June, are about ½-inch in diameter, and are produced in bunches on the naked branches. The fruit, which is also produced in bunches, ripens in October. It is transversely oval in shape, about 1 to 1½ inches in diameter at its largest end. It contains from 1 to 3 seeds. Even when quite ripe, the fruit remains pure white in color, and has a tart, insipid flavor. [Illustration: PLATE X.--_Water Apple._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XI _Jambosa sp._ (red variety). WATER APPLE. This low-growing tree with its bright evergreen foliage, is not common in Hawaii. The flowers are small, deep crimson, and appear on the branches either singly or in bunches. The contrast between these brilliant flowers and the fresh green leaves makes a very beautiful sight when the tree is in full bloom. The fruit, which ripens in July, appears in clusters; it is the same shape as that of the preceding variety, but in color it is a bright scarlet. It contains from 1 to 3 seeds, which are somewhat difficult to germinate. The fruit is crisp, watery, and has a sub-acid flavor. [Illustration: PLATE XI.--_Water Apple._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XII _Eugenia Jambos._ ROSE APPLE. This evergreen tree, which is a native of the West Indies, is of medium size, reaching a height of from 20 to 30 feet. It grows well in Hawaii, and is found at an elevation of 2000 feet. It is propagated from seed, as well as from cuttings of the ripe wood. The leaves are lanceolate, acuminate, thick and shiny. The large, fluffy flowers which appear from January until April, are produced freely, and are a beautiful creamy-white. The fruit is a somewhat compressed, globular shell, varying in size from 1 to 2 inches in diameter, and with a large cavity, containing generally one seed. This shell, which is the edible portion of the fruit, is a light creamy-yellow, with a tinge of pale-pink on one side; it requires from 2 to 2½ months to mature. It is firm, crisp, and has a delicious flavor, somewhat resembling an apricot, and with a rose odor. The season for the fruit varies according to the elevation, but generally ends about August or September. [Illustration: PLATE XII.--_Rose Apple._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XIII _Eugenia brasiliensis._ BRAZILIAN PLUM, OR SPANISH CHERRY. This evergreen shrub, or low-growing tree, which in many countries is said to reach a height of but 6 feet, in Hawaii attains a height of 20 feet; and although it thrives in comparatively high altitudes, it bears best below the 200-foot elevation, and requires considerable moisture. The bluntish, dark, shiny leaves, which are scale-like along the branches, are obovate, oblong, and about 3 inches in length. The blossoming season varies according to the location; however, the tree generally has flowers and fruit from July until December. The fruit is the size of a cherry, is deep purple in color, and the persistent calyx is very prominent. The sweet pulp has a very agreeable flavor. Probably the first plants of this variety were brought here by Don Marin, about a century ago. Some fine trees may be found in Pauoa and Makiki valleys, and also in Nuuanu, in the garden which formerly belonged to Dr. Hillebrand. [Illustration: PLATE XIII.--_Brazilian Plum, or Spanish Cherry._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XIV _Eugenia uniflora._ FRENCH CHERRY. This shrub is said to be a native of Brazil. In Hawaii, it is a common garden plant, sometimes reaching a height of 10 feet. Its glossy leaves are ovate-lanceolate, and its peduncles short. It has small, single, white fragrant flowers. The mature fruit, which resembles a cherry, is about 1 inch in diameter, and is ribbed longitudinally. It has a delicious, spicy, acid flavor. There is generally one large, round, smooth seed. [Illustration: PLATE XIV.--_French Cherry._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XV _Eugenia sp._ This is a small Malayan tree which is rare in Hawaii. It has regular, opposite, large, broad leaves; with the stems and branches four-sided. The purplish-white flowers are produced in clusters. The waxy light-green fruits, with a persistent calyx, resemble a small guava. These fruits have a very tough, pithy skin and pulp combined, which is edible, but too dry to be agreeable. The seed is large in proportion to the size of the fruit. [Illustration: PLATE XV.--_Eugenia sp._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XVI _Syzygium Jambolana._ JAVA PLUM. This tall, hardy tree is a native of Southern Asia. In Polynesia it grows well, up to an elevation of 5000 feet. It is a very common tree in the Hawaiian Islands. Its leaves, which are from 4 to 6 inches long, and from 2 to 3 inches broad, are opposite, obtuse or shortly-acuminate. The flowers, which bloom in June, July and August, are white and quite fragrant, and are especially attractive to the honey-bee. The oblong fruit grows in large clusters, ripens from September until November, and varies in size from a cherry to a pigeon's egg. It is purplish-black in color, and is edible only when thoroughly ripe. It contains one large, oblong seed. [Illustration: PLATE XVI.--_Java Plum._ One half size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XVII _Syzygium Jambolana_ (small variety). JAVA PLUM. This tree, which is also very common in the Hawaiian Islands, is said to have been introduced by Dr. Hillebrand. It bears but one crop a year, will grow in any soil, and withstands dry weather. The foliage is smaller than that of the preceding variety; its leaves are narrower, and a lighter green in color. It blooms at about the same time of year, but its flowers are not as large, and appear in thick bunches. The purplish fruit ripens from September until December. [Illustration: PLATE XVII.--_Java Plum._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XVIII _Averrhoa Carambola._ This tree, which is said to have been named after Averrhoes, an Arabian physician, is a native of Insular India, and is much cultivated in India and China. It is evergreen, with dense foliage, and grows to a height of from 15 to 20 feet. It is easily propagated from seeds, and fruits in about three years. In Hawaii it bears one crop annually, the flowers appearing in July and the fruit in November and December. The leaves are alternate, odd-pinnate. The flowers, which are borne in clusters on the naked stems and branches, are minute, fragrant, and in color shading from a pale pink to a deep purplish-red. The fruit, varying in size from a hen's egg to an orange, is ovate, and has five acutely-angled longitudinal ribs. The fragrant, light-yellow skin is very thin, and the pulp is watery; it contains a number of flat, brown seeds. This fruit is of two varieties: the sweet, which may be eaten raw, and the acid which is delicious when preserved. A very appetizing pickle may be made from the half-ripe fruit of the acid variety. [Illustration: PLATE XVIII.--_Averrhoa Carambola._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XIX _Achras Sapota._ SAPODILLA, OR NASEBERRY. This tree, which grows on almost all of the Islands of the Hawaiian group, is a fine evergreen, growing to a height of from 10 to 20 feet, and producing a fruit which is much prized in warm countries. The bark possesses tonic properties, and from the juice chewing-gum is made. Its foliage is dense, and the shiny leaves are thick, lance-oblong, entire, and clustered at the ends of the branches. The flowers, which are small, whitish, and perfect, are borne on the rusty pubescent growths of the season. The fruit, of which there are two varieties, the round and the oblong, is about the size of a hen's egg. It has a rough skin, the color of a russet apple, beneath which is a firm, somewhat stringy, sweet pulp, having the flavor of an apricot. This pulp is divided into 10 to 12 compartments, and contains from 4 to 6 large, flat, smooth, black seeds. [Illustration: PLATE XIX.--_Sapodilla, or Naseberry._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XX _Casimiroa edulis._ WHITE SAPOTA. This tree, which is a native of Mexico, is said to have been named after Cardinal Casimiro Gomez. The first tree of its kind in Hawaii was planted in 1884, at the Government Nursery, Honolulu. The seed came from Santa Barbara, California, where there grows today, a tree more than eighty years old, and which still bears its fruit. It is a tall evergreen with irregular branches; its digitate leaves are dark and glossy. The trunk is ashen-grey, with warty excrescences. The fruit, which matures in April and May, is large, 1 to 4 inches in diameter; it is depressed-globular and somewhat ribbed, like a tomato; in color it is a light-green, turning to a dull yellow when ripe, and it has a very thin skin. The pulp is yellow, resembling that of an over-ripe, and has a melting, peach-like flavor. It contains from 1 to 3 large, oblong seeds, which are said to be deleterious. [Illustration: PLATE XX.--_White Sapota._ One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXI _Prunus Persica._ PEACH. The Peach-tree is said by some authorities to be indigenous to Persia, while by others it is claimed to be a native of China. It is a hardy tree, and has been known to bear fruit precociously even in the second year after planting. If allowed to do so, the Peach will grow to a height of about 15 feet; but it should be pruned annually, in order to secure a good crop. Its leaves are lanceolate and coarsely serrate. The flowers are solitary, pink in color, and appear before the leaves. The fruit is soft and pubescent at maturity. The stone is deeply pitted and very hard. There are two well-marked varieties, the cling-stone and the free-stone. Ulupalakua and Makawao, Maui, once had the reputation of growing finely-flavored seedling peaches; however, many of these trees have been injured by cattle, and others have been destroyed by root-fungus and insect pests. In several localities in Hawaii good peaches have been grown from imported varieties. [Illustration: PLATE XXI.--_Peach._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXII _Chrysophyllum Cainito_ (purple variety). STAR APPLE. This tree is a native of the West Indies, and although not common in Hawaii, there are good specimens to be found in many gardens. It has large irregular spreading branches, grows to a height of from 10 to 25 feet, and has rather thick foliage. Propagation is ordinarily effected by seeds, which germinate readily, when fresh. It can also be grown from cuttings of the ripe wood. The tree derives its name from the words "chrysos," gold, and "phyllon," a leaf; referring to the golden-russet color of the underside of the beautiful, glossy green leaves. The small flowers, which appear from June until October, are solitary at the nodes or in fascicles. The fruit, which ripens in April, is round, about 3 inches in diameter, has a smooth, tough rind, about 1-16th inch thick, which is a deep purple in color. A cross-section of the fruit shows the edible pulp with its numerous black seeds, and the star-shaped core, from which the fruit derives its common name of Star Apple. Unless the fruit is thoroughly ripe, its milky juice is remarkably astringent. [Illustration: PLATE XXII.--_Star Apple._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXIII _Chrysophyllum Cainito_ (white variety). STAR APPLE. This tree, which bears its fruit in from four to five years, has about the same characteristics as that of the preceding variety. The fruit is somewhat larger, and is not quite so sweet. In color it is pale green, shaded with purple. [Illustration: PLATE XXIII.--_Star Apple._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXIV _Chrysophyllum monopyrenum._ This small tree, which is indigenous to the West Indies, is also a native of Southern Florida, and is to be found as an ornamental plant in many localities of tropical America. In Jamaica it is called the "Damson Plum." Its small, single, white flowers are highly perfumed. The fruit, which matures from August until December, is small, ovoid-oblong, and when ripe is purplish-black; when bruised it emits a white, sticky juice. It contains one large seed. Specimens of this tree are to be found growing in the grounds of the Queen's Hospital and at the Government Nursery, Honolulu. [Illustration: PLATE XXIV.--_Chrysophyllum monopyrenum._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXV _Mimusops Elengi._ This handsome evergreen tree, with its bright, glossy leaves, is very suitable for hedges and for windbreaks. It has alternate, elliptic leaves 3 to 3½ inches long. The small, solitary flowers, have many creamy-white petals, and are very fragrant; from them perfume is obtained by distillation. The yellow fruit is about the shape and size of a small olive, and contains a dry, mealy pulp which is edible, and the large, flat, brown seed yield an oil. [Illustration: PLATE XXV.--_Mimusops Elengi._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ Plate XXVI _Spondias dulcis._ "WI." This deciduous tree is said to be a native of the Society Islands, and is common to the tropics of both hemispheres. It is a large, spreading and graceful tree, reaching a height of from 30 to 50 feet. Its pinnate leaves are green and glossy; the leaflets are oval-oblong and opposite. The foliage is shed from December until April. The flowers are paniculate, small, and greenish-white. The fruit, which ripens from November until April, is a fleshy drupe, oval in shape, from 1 to 3 inches in diameter; it has a thin, smooth, golden-yellow skin, which has a rather sour disagreeable odor. The fleshy pulp is light yellow, is mellow when quite ripe, and has a sub-acid delicious flavor, compared by some to the pineapple. Within this pulp is embedded a 1 to 5 loculed, bony endocarp, which contains generally one seed. This endocarp is covered with fibres which penetrate the pulp. The first Wi tree in Hawaii was planted at the residence of Mr. John S. Walker, Nuuanu Valley. [Illustration: PLATE XXVI.--_Spondias dulcis._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXVII _Spondias lutea._ HOG PLUM. This tree is distributed over Tropical America, West Africa and Java, where it is commonly called the Hog Plum, and is used for fattening swine. In Jamaica it grows well, up to an elevation of 4000 feet. It is a large, graceful tree, about 50 feet high, with spreading branches, and it is particularly beautiful when in fruit. The pinnate leaves are a clear green, the leaflets are ovate-lanceolate, and the golden-yellow fruit hangs in clusters. It ripens in September and October. The fruit is ovoid, about 1 inch long; it has a smooth skin, having a disagreeable odor. There is one large seed, which resembles the husk of a ground-nut. This fruit is cooling and aromatic. To my knowledge there are but two trees of this kind in bearing in the Hawaiian Islands, and these are growing in private grounds in Honolulu. [Illustration: PLATE XXVII.--_Hog Plum._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXVIII _Mammea Americana._ MAMMEE APPLE. The Mammee Apple, which grows well in Hawaii, is a native of the West Indies, and is a fruit much esteemed in tropical countries. In Jamaica it thrives well, up to an elevation of 3000 feet. The tree attains a height of from 30 to 40 feet, and the wood, which is beautifully grained, is durable and well adapted to building purposes. Its leaves are rigid and leathery. The round seeds, varying in number from 1 to 4, germinate freely, and the young plants are easily raised. The fruit is from 3 to 6 inches in diameter, is brown or russet color, and has a yellow pulp, which is sweet and aromatic. The outer rind, as well as the pulp immediately surrounding the seeds, is very bitter. The fruit may be eaten raw, and is very delicious when preserved. [Illustration: PLATE XXVIII.--_Mammee Apple._ One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXIX _Tamarindus indica._ TAMARIND. The name is derived from Tamar, Arabic for Date, and Indus, Indian; thus literally meaning Indian Date. It is a native of the Indies, Egypt and Arabia. The tree is never leafless, and the foliage is graceful, pinnated and acacia like. It bears one crop a year, the season varying somewhat according to the location and elevation. It yields a handsome, hard and close-grained furniture wood, which is yellowish-white, with occasional red streaks in it; the heart-wood is dark brownish-purple. The pods are thick, linear, dark brown in color, and from 3 to 6 inches long. The seeds vary in number. The pulp surrounding the seeds has a pleasant acid flavor, and when made into syrup, forms the basis of a delicious, cooling beverage. This pulp is called the fruit, while the pod is spoken of as the shell. The Tamarind is propagated from both seeds and cuttings, and is undoubtedly one of the noblest of our tropical trees. [Illustration: PLATE XXIX.--_Tamarind._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXX _Durio zibethinus._ DURION. This fine tree attains a height of from 60 to 80 feet; it derives its name from the Malay word "dury," a thorn, in reference to the prickly covering of the fruit. The leaves, which are a light, glossy green on the upper surface, are alternate, entire, elliptical and acute. The yellowish-white flowers are large. The fruit, which is either globular or oval, sometimes measures 10 inches in length. It has a hard rind, covered with thorny warts or spines, and externally looks not unlike a breadfruit. When ripe, it is brownish-yellow, and, when opened at its lower end, shows five longitudinal sections or cells, each containing from 1 to 4 seeds about the size of a pigeon's egg. The edible pulp surrounding the seeds is firm and cream-colored. The Durion is remarkable for its combination of an absolutely delicious flavor and an abominably offensive odor. To my knowledge there is but one tree in bearing in the Hawaiian Islands, and that is growing in private grounds at Lihue, Kauai. [Illustration: PLATE XXX.--_Durion._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXI _Coffea arabica._ ARABIAN COFFEE. The Coffee-tree is said to be a native of Abyssinia. Two species, the Arabian and the Liberian, are now cultivated throughout the tropics. The use of coffee was known in Arabia long before it was introduced to Europeans in the sixteenth century. The Dutch were the first to introduce the plant to Europe. The Arabian Coffee-tree is low-growing, and bears one crop annually; its leaves are elliptico-oblong, acuminate, generally from 3 to 6 inches long, and are thin and shiny. The white flowers appear in clusters, and are very fragrant. The berries are ovoid, fleshy, and bright red. In this berry are found the two seeds, which constitute the coffee of commerce. The Coffee-tree was introduced into Hawaii about 1823, by a Frenchman, who established a small plantation in Manoa Valley, Oahu. The tree is now well naturalized in the woods of Kona, Hawaii, and elsewhere in the Islands, and flourishes up to an elevation of from 1000 to 2000 feet. [Illustration: PLATE XXXI.--_Arabian Coffee._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXII _Coffea liberica._ LIBERIAN COFFEE. This species is a tall grower, is highly ornamental in foliage, and is a rich bearer. Its leaves are from 6 to 12 inches long. The white flowers come in dense clusters, and are more robust and productive than are those of the Arabica. The berries are nearly spherical, and in color are a dull crimson. The pulp is large in proportion to the size of the seeds. Although this variety has not become popular in Hawaii, it is claimed that it will grow at a much lower elevation than will the Arabica, and the flavor is said to be very fine. [Illustration: PLATE XXXII.--_Liberian Coffee._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXIII _Clausena Wampi._ WAMPI. This odorous tree is a native of China. It is a symmetrical evergreen with dense foliage. The light, mossy-green leaves are imparipinnate, the leaflets ovate-repand, and they are rough on the under surface. The flowers, which are borne in clusters, on the new wood, are small, yellow, and very fragrant. The fruit ripens from June until October; it is about the size of a gooseberry; the skin is yellowish-brown, shaded with green. The pulp is sub-acid with a balsamic fragrance. It contains one large seed about the size of a kernel of corn. There are two varieties, the sweet and the sour; both may be eaten raw, and are very highly prized by the Chinese. I know of but two trees of this kind in the Hawaiian Islands; they are of the sour variety, and are growing in private gardens in Honolulu. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIII.--_Wampi._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXIV _Physalis peruviana._ CAPE GOOSEBERRY--"POHA." This shrub, or bush, is a native of Brazil, but is naturalized in many warm countries. It stands partially erect, reaching a height of from 1½ to 3 feet. Its pointed leaves, heart-shaped at the base, are very fuzzy. The open, bell-shaped flowers are yellow in color. The fruit, which is about the size of a cherry, is enclosed in a thin, yellow, paper-like husk, which is quite hairy. When ripe, the fruit is yellow, and has a delicious sub-acid pulp, filled with minute seeds. The Poha may be eaten raw, but is much more acceptable when made into jam or jelly. The dried fruit is said to be a substitute for yeast. In Hawaii, the Poha thrives best in the cool elevations. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIV.--_Cape Gooseberry._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXV _Carica Papaya._ PAPAYA (fruit, female tree). The Papaya is a native of South America; it is found in Florida, and in many parts of tropical America; it was early introduced into Hawaii, grows and bears well in almost any locality. It is a small tree, with a hollow, branchless trunk; it is short-lived, and is suitable only to regions free from frost, and requires perfect drainage. There are two forms, the tall and the dwarf, but there are numerous variations as to shape and quality of the fruit. The soft green leaves, often measuring two feet across, are variously palmated, and have simple, long, hollow stems. The Papaya is usually dioceous; the fruit-bearing tree is called the female; it is claimed that trees of both sexes should be planted near each other, in order to ensure a good yield. The female flowers, which appear from the axils of the leaves, are yellowish-white, single, or two or three together. The fruit of the Papaya ripens successively. It is either round or oblong, and sometimes weighs eight pounds. The skin is thin, and is bright yellow when ripe. The firm, yellow pulp has a delicious flavor, and the milky juice contains a digestive principle similar to pepsin. The seed cavity is large, and is filled with many small seeds which are enveloped in a loose, mucous coat, with a brittle, pitted testa. When fresh these seeds germinate readily. [Illustration: PLATE XXXV.--_Papaya_ (_fruit, female tree_). One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXVI _Carica Papaya._ PAPAYA (fruit, male tree). The size, shape, foliage and general appearance of this tree is the same as that of the preceding variety. Its flowers appear on long stems, are funnel-shape, and have five lobes. The male tree sometimes produces fruit, and it is of large size and fine quality. A good example may be seen in the accompanying illustration. I know of no method whereby one can, by any selection of seeds, produce with any degree of certainty, plants of either male or female variety. [Illustration: PLATE XXXVI.--_Papaya_ (_fruit, male tree_). One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXVII _Carica quercifolia._ This species of dwarf Papaya is of recent introduction to Hawaii. It has a soft, hollow trunk, and low, spreading branches. The leaves are deeply lobed, of a light green color on the upper side, and whitish-green underneath. Flowers dioecious, yellowish-green, having five petals. Fruit the size of a large olive, green, and ribbed with five white stripes, changing to yellow when ripe. The yellow pulp, containing numerous seeds, has a strong pesin flavor that is quite agreeable. [Illustration: PLATE XXXVII.--_Carica quercifolia._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXVIII _Citrus Japonica._ Var. "Hazara." CHINESE ORANGE. This familiar and highly ornamental tree, commonly known as the Chinese orange, was very early introduced to these Islands. It is well named Hazara (meaning thousand of fruit), as it is one of the most prolific of the citrus family, and both green and ripe fruit in great quantities may be found on the same tree at almost any season of the year. The tree is of medium size, and the small, shiny leaves have short petioles. It is generally thornless. The flowers are white and fragrant. The round fruit is a deep yellow, and its smooth skin is very loosely attached. The pulp is also a deep yellow and contains many seeds, and the sour juice is very plentiful. The tree is hardy and free from disease and scale. Propagation is by seed. [Illustration: PLATE XXXVIII.--_Chinese Orange._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XXXIX _Citrus Japonica._ KUMQUAT. The Kumquat is a native of Cochin-China, and is also cultivated in Japan, Florida, and California. It is a low-growing bush or shrub, having smooth, angular branches, and in both the round and oval varieties the dark foliage is dense and beautiful. It is a very prolific bearer. Its leaves are small, lanceolate, slightly serrate, pointed or blunt and wedge-shaped at the base. The small, white flowers come solitary or in clusters, the fruit varies in size from a large gooseberry to that of a pigeon's egg, and is either ovate, oblong, or spherical. It is 5 to 6 celled, has very little pulp, and contains many seeds. The pulp is somewhat sour, especially in the round varieties; and the smooth, thick, yellow rind is aromatic and sweet; the Kumquat is generally preserved whole, and those prepared by the Chinese are very delicious. This ornamental citrus tree is not often seen in our gardens, for it is subject to scale, and to the mealy bug, which destroy the flowers and stunt the fruit. The Kumquat comes true to seed, and may also be propagated by grafting and budding. [Illustration: PLATE XXXIX.--_Kumquat._ Two thirds natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XL _Citrus Nobilis._ MANDARIN ORANGE. This small tree or thornless shrub with its dense foliage is a native of Cochin-China, and fine specimens of this tree, with its golden fruit in season, can be found in many gardens about Honolulu, especially those of the Chinese. Its leaves are lanceolate, its petioles short. Flowers are white and fragrant. The fruit is compressed-spherical, apex depressed, a ridge about the stem. The thin peel is greenish-yellow, baggy, and separates readily from the sections. Pulp generally dry, sweet, juice scant, fruit containing many seeds. The characteristic odor of the leaves, twigs and fruit of all varieties of the Mandarin orange is easily recognizable. [Illustration: PLATE XL.--_Mandarin Orange._ Two thirds natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLI _Citrus medica limetta._ LIME. This small tree or bush thrives in Hawaii, and yields good crops. It requires a sandy, rocky soil, and does well in the shaded valleys. However, it is attacked by scale pests and root fungus, and many valuable trees are destroyed in this way. The dark green, shiny leaves are oval or elliptical, and emit an agreeable odor when bruised. The fragrant flowers are small, white, with an occasional tinge of pink. The fruit is small, varying in shape from round to elliptical. The light yellow skin is oily and very bitter, and the pulp is juicy and sour. The picture representing this fruit shows several varieties, forms and shapes: those on the left being the Mexican type, those on the upper right the Kusai lime, the latter much resembling a mandarin orange in shape, and has a loose skin, but the pulp is very juicy and exceedingly sour. This lime has become very popular in Hawaii, grows readily from seed, and produces true. To Mr. Henry Swinton is due the credit of introducing this variety in 1885 from Kusai, or Strong's Island, Micronesia. [Illustration: PLATE XLI.--_Lime._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLII _Citrus medica limonum._ LEMON. This is a spreading tree, having ovate-oblong, fragrant leaves with short petioles. The flowers are small and white. The medium-sized fruit is egg-shaped, ending in a nipple-like point. The thin, smooth skin is aromatic. The juicy pulp is rich in citric acid. Many choice varieties of lemons have been introduced to Hawaii, but they have not thrived particularly well, because of the scale and insect pests which so greedily attack them; eternal vigilance is necessary in order to get the fruit matured; some very fine specimens, however, have been grown in Kona, at an elevation of 1500 feet. [Illustration: PLATE XLII.--_Lemon._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLIII _Citrus medica var. limonum._ ROUGH-SKIN LEMON. This variety is very hardy, bears profusely, and requires much more water than does the orange. Being a strong, vigorous grower, it forms an excellent stock upon which to graft the citrus varieties. The flower is white, with a reddish tint outside. The fruit is generally oval, and contains many seeds. The pale yellow skin is rough and warty. The pulp is coarse-grained and very juicy. It comes true to seed. [Illustration: PLATE XLIII.--_Rough-skin Lemon._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLIV _Citrus Aurantium Sinense._ WAIALUA ORANGE. This tree, which grows to a height of from 20 to 35 feet, is cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical countries. Its young branches are pale green, angular and glabrous. The leaves are oblong, ovate and pointed, and the petioles are narrowly winged. Its flowers are white and very fragrant. This variety of orange, locally known as the Waialua orange, has a bright yellow fruit, generally round, with a coarse, thick skin, very juicy pulp, and numerous seeds; and was introduced by Vancouver and planted in Hanalei valley, Kauai. It is now widely disseminated throughout the group, and in Kona, Hawaii, grows exceptionally well. This orange is said to produce true to seed. [Illustration: PLATE XLIV.--_Waialua Orange._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLV _Citrus Aurantium._ BAHIA, OR WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. This variety was first introduced into the United States from Brazil, and is now the most popular of all the oranges. It is cultivated extensively in California, in which State the first trees of its kind were planted; for this reason it is often called the Riverside Navel. The fruit is large, solid, and heavy. It is seedless, and has a prominent navel mark at the apex. The brilliant orange color of the skin is one of its characteristics. Grafted and budded trees of this variety of orange may be found growing in many localities in the Hawaiian Islands, but the fruit is not as fine as it should be, as, with few exceptions, it has a tendency to become very dry and woody. [Illustration: PLATE XLV.--_Bahia, or Washington Navel Orange._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLVI _Citrus Decumana._ POMELO OR SHADDOCK (pear-shaped var.). This hardy tree, with its spreading branches, grows to a height of from 15 to 20 feet. It is extensively cultivated in India, and widely distributed over the Malayan and Polynesian Islands. It was early introduced to the Hawaiian Islands, presumably by the Chinese, who seem to be especially fond of the fruit, as it is always an important feature of their New Year's decorations. The leaves are large, oval or ovate-oblong, obtuse, and frequently emarginate, and the petiole is broadly winged. The flowers are large and white. This pyriform variety, which is from 6 to 8 inches in diameter, often weighs 4 to 8 pounds. The pale-yellow rind is smooth, thick and very bitter, but can be made into a preserve. The pulp varies in color from pale yellow to red, and has a sub-acid, slightly bitter, flavor. [Illustration: PLATE XLVI.--_Pomelo or Shaddock_ (_pear-shaped var._) One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLVII _Citrus Decumana._ POMELO OR SHADDOCK (round var.) The fruit of this round variety is smaller than that of the preceding variety. The light-yellow rind is coarse, spongy, thick, and leathery. The cells of the pulp are coarse, dry, and have a bitter, sub-acid flavor. There are many large, wedge-shaped seeds. [Illustration: PLATE XLVII.--_Pomelo or Shaddock_ (_round var._) One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLVIII _Artocarpus incisa._ BREADFRUIT (Hawaiian var.) "ULU." The first breadfruit trees were brought from Tahiti by the Hawaiians who, landing at Ewa, carried them across the mountain, and presented them to one of the Chiefs of Oahu, who lived at Kualoa. There they were planted and thrived. At the present day this variety of the breadfruit, now called the Hawaiian variety, is to be found growing wild throughout the Islands. There are many varieties of this handsome tree, which grows to a height of from 15 to 40 feet. It thrives best in hot, moist places, and requires a great deal of water. Its large ovate leaves are rough and deeply lobed. The male flower is a large yellow catkin. The fruit is formed from the female flowers, and is attached to the branches by large stems. In shape it is either round or oblong, varying in size from 5 to 8 inches in diameter. The thick, tough rind is, in some varieties muricated, and in others it is reticulated. In color it is green, changing to brownish when the fruit is ripe. The pulp is firm, mealy, and somewhat fibrous, and as an article of diet is much esteemed. Propagation is by suckers, or by layers from the branches. [Illustration: PLATE XLVIII.--_Breadfruit_ (_Hawaiian var._)--"_Ulu._" One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XLIX _Artocarpus incisa._ BREADFRUIT (Samoan var.) This variety was introduced to these Islands by Mr. James Bicknell. Its large, oval leaves are leathery and rough, and less deeply lobed than are those of the Hawaiian variety. The round fruit has a characteristic raised ring where it is attached to the long stem. The yellowish-green rind is reticulated, and the orange-colored pulp is somewhat sticky when cooked, and is very sweet. This variety occasionally produces seed. [Illustration: PLATE XLIX.--_Breadfruit_ (_Samoan var._) One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE L _Artocarpus incisa._ BREADFRUIT (Tahitian var.) This variety of Tahitian breadfruit is found only in a few gardens in Hawaii. Its glossy green leaves are nearly entire. The oblong fruit has a deep yellow pulp, with very little fibre. [Illustration: PLATE L.--_Breadfruit_ (_Tahitian var._) One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LI _Artocarpus incisa._ FERTILE BREADFRUIT. This seeding variety is rarely cultivated on account of its inferior fruit. The leaves are slightly lobed. The fruit is oblong with a short, thick stem, and is covered with short, hard projections. The fibrous pulp contains numerous large seeds, which are edible when cooked. [Illustration: PLATE LI.--_Fertile Breadfruit._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LII _Artocarpus integrifolia._ JACK FRUIT. This tree is a native of India and Malay. And was introduced to Hawaii by Mr. David Forbes of Kukuihaele, Hawaii. The Jack fruit is a large, handsome tree, with leaves from 4 to 6 inches in length, which on the old growth are obovate-oblong and on the young branches are narrow. The oblong, irregular fruit, which varies in weight from 20 to 60 pounds, is borne on the trunk, as well as on the old branches. The green rind is covered with small hexagonal knobs. The pulp when ripe has all overpowering odor and is seldom eaten; but the oily seeds when roasted are edible, and are said to resemble chestnuts. On Tantalus, Oahu, the Jack fruit thrives well, and has produced fair sized fruits. It is a tree that needs a great deal of moisture, and consequently is seldom grown on the low lands. [Illustration: PLATE LII.--_Jack Fruit._ One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LIII _Anona muricata._ SOUR SOP. This small, hardy evergreen tree is very common in Hawaii. Its dark green, glabrous leaves are pointed, elliptical, and are shiny on the upper surface, but rusty beneath. The greenish-yellow flowers are usually solitary, and have a peculiar odor. The fruit is large, varying in weight from 1 to 15 pounds. In shape, it is either oblong or conical and blunt. The rough, dark green, shiny skin, which is irregular in thickness, is studded with fleshy spines. The soft, white, cotton-like pulp is divided into sections, each containing a shiny, black seed, about half an inch long. These are very readily propagated. [Illustration: PLATE LIII.--_Sour Sop._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LIV _Anona Cherimolia._ CHERIMOYER. The Cherimoyer, a well-known fruit of the tropics, is said to be a native of Peru. It is naturalized in Central America, is hardy in the mildest coast regions of Spain, and in Jamaica is cultivated up to an elevation of nearly 5000 feet. It thrives on the Florida Keys, and is also grown to a limited extent in Southern California. The tree grows to a height of from 10 to 20 feet; its branches are spreading, and the dark, shiny leaves are either ovate or oblong, and are sparsely hairy above and velvety beneath. The single petaled, velvety-green flowers are very fragrant. The fruit, which is about the size of a large orange, is heart-shaped and slightly flattened at the stem end. When ripe, the skin is a greyish-green, and is covered with slightly-raised semicircular markings. The white pulp, which is soft and rich, is divided into cells, each containing a black seed about the size of an ordinary bean. The Cherimoyer comes true to seed and bears in about three years. It is one of the most delicious fruits, and its delicate, slightly-acid flavor is very characteristic. The Cherimoyer was one of the earliest fruits introduced to these Islands, and the best specimens of its kind are grown in Kona and Kau, Hawaii, where it continues to propagate itself naturally from seed. [Illustration: PLATE LIV.--_Cherimoyer._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LV _Anona reticulata._ CUSTARD APPLE. This tree, which is not common in Hawaii, is rather delicate, and grows to a height of from 10 to 15 feet. It is a native of the Antilles, and is a very popular tree in the West Indies. It thrives in Southern California. Its leaves, which are either lanceolate or oblong and pointed, are glabrous above and rough beneath. In color they are light green and rather brittle, when bruised they emit a very unpleasant odor. The flowers are three-petaled and are greenish or yellowish, with purple spots at the base. Artificial pollination will induce the flowers to set and produce better crops. The heart-shaped fruit is from 3 to 5 inches in diameter. The skin is smooth, with small depressions; when ripe, it is a pinkish-yellow and shading to a russet. Next to the skin the pulp is soft and creamy-yellow, while toward the center it is quite white. The flavor is sweet and delicious. There are numerous smooth, black seeds. This fruit, like its cousin the Cherimoyer grows true to seed. [Illustration: PLATE LV.--_Custard Apple._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LVI _Anona squamosa._ SUGAR APPLE--SWEET SOP. This small tree is native of the West Indies, from which country the plants found growing in many of our gardens in these Islands were imported. The thin leaves are ovate-oblong, and are very slightly hairy on both sides. The greenish flowers are about an inch long. The fruit which is from 3 to 4 inches in diameter, is the shape of a pine cone; it is greenish-yellow when ripe, and each carpel forms a slight protuberance. The sweet, creamy-white pulp is very delicious. There are numerous small smooth, brownish-black seeds, which germinate readily, and the plants bear fruit in from two to four years. This variety of anona is sensitive to drought, and thrives well at the high elevations. [Illustration: PLATE LVI.--_Sugar Apple_--_Sweet Sop._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LVII _Psidium Guayava pomiferum._ (Common guava.) The Guava is an extensive genus of low-growing evergreen trees, found chiefly in the West Indies, South America, and China. They have become naturalized in Hawaii, and may be found growing wild on waste lands and by the roadside. In some localities growing so rank as to become troublesome. The leaves are oval to oblong, usually acuminate, glabrous above and pubescent beneath, and have prominent veins. The fragrant, white, solitary flowers are axillary. The somewhat rough skin of the globose fruit is a brownish-yellow, and the firm, dark-pink pulp, in which is embedded numerous seeds, is generally acid and aromatic. This guava is the source of the famous guava jelly of commerce. [Illustration: PLATE LVII.--_Psidium Guayava pomiferum_ (_common guava_). One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LVIII _Psidium Guayava._ (Sweet red guava.) This guava has the same general characteristics as the preceding variety. It is more frequently found in valleys and gulches than in the open. Its red pulp is firm and sweet. [Illustration: PLATE LVIII.--_Psidium Guayava_ (_sweet red guava_).] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LIX _Psidium Guayava._ (White lemon guava.) The lemon guava tree grows taller and somewhat more erect than the others. The pear-shaped fruit is large, often 3 inches in length. It has a rough, greenish-white skin, and the white pulp is sweet. This is a cultivated variety, and is found growing in a few gardens in these Islands. [Illustration: PLATE LIX.--_Psidium Guayava_ (_white lemon guava_). One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LX _Psidium Guayava pyriferum._ "WAIAWI." This handsome evergreen tree was an early introduced species, and now is very common about the islands. Grows very symmetrically, and attains the height of 20 to 25 feet. Leaves, small, lanceolate, shiny, the trunk and branches smooth. Flowers white and very fragrant; fruit small, pear-shaped, pulp yellow and containing many seeds; this species is very prolific, but the fruit is inferior. [Illustration: PLATE LX.--"_Waiawi._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXI _Psidium Cattleyanum._ STRAWBERRY GUAVA. One of the hardiest of the guavas, and said to be a native of Brazil. The date of its introduction to Hawaii is not recorded, and as Hillebrand makes no mention of it, it is probably of recent importation. A shrubby tree 15 to 20 feet high. Leaves opposite, obovate, small, leathery, dark-green, shiny. Flowers white, fragrant. Fruit spherical, about one inch in diameter, purple-reddish when ripe, soft, juicy pulp, which has an agreeable flavor, and containing many small seeds. This fruit is used for making jams and jellies, and bears a crop more or less during all the months of the year. [Illustration: PLATE LXI.--_Strawberry Guava._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXII _Psidium Cattleyanum._ (var. _lucidum_.) This low-growing shrub is occasionally cultivated in these Islands. It has opposite obovate leaves, and fragrant white flowers. The round fruit, which has a sweet, yellow pulp, is larger than the strawberry guava, and has a more delicate flavor. [Illustration: PLATE LXII.--_Psidium Cattleyanum._ (var. _lucidum_.) One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXIII _Psidium molle._ This species was introduced to Hawaii by Mr. A. Jaeger; and a single specimen of its kind is now growing at the Old Plantation, Honolulu. It is a low-growing, slender, willow-like tree of straggling growth. The opposite leaves are small, stiff and rough. The white flowers are fragrant. The small, round fruit is brownish-green, turning to a pale yellow when ripe. The white pulp is slightly acid, and contains many seeds. This guava is rather an inferior fruit. [Illustration: PLATE LXIII.--_Psidium molle._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXIV _Mangifera indica._ MANGO. The mango, which is a native of South Asia, is extensively cultivated throughout India, the Islands of the West Indies, and somewhat in Florida. In Hawaii it has become thoroughly naturalized, and is one of the most common trees; growing from the sea level up to about 1,000 feet. A hot, rather dry, climate, with well-drained soil suits it best. It is an evergreen, shady tree of quick growing habit, sometimes reaching a height of 70 feet, and having a round, dense top. All parts of the mango tree have a resinous fragrance, that suggests turpentine. Its thick, shiny leaves are from 6 to 10 inches in length. The greenish, scented flowers are borne in large terminal panicles; and these are followed three or four months later by the fruit, which is large and kidney-shaped, having a smooth, rather soft, pale-green skin, with tints of yellow and red. The large seed is nearly as long as the fruit, its shell is rough and fibrous, and the kernel is shaped like a bean. In the inferior varieties of mangoes the pulp is full of fibre and tastes strongly of turpentine. There are numerous varieties of the mango cultivated in Hawaii; the fruit of which varies much in point of flavor, juiciness, as well as in the size and shape of the seed. Within the past ten years improved varieties have been imported; notably the Alphonse, Cambodiana, Pirie, and many others. These have thrived well and have borne delicious fruit; from them many grafts have been made and the finer grades of mangoes have been disseminated. Propagation is effected by seed, by grafting or inarching, and by budding. The mango as a rule does not come true to seed; also seedlings take much longer to fruit than do the grafted trees. The illustration on the opposite page is that of the so-called common mango, which was brought to Hawaii from Mexico. [Illustration: PLATE LXIV.--_Mango._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXV _Mangifera indica._ MANINI MANGO. This tree is supposed to be the first mango tree brought to the Hawaiian Islands. It was planted in the early part of the nineteenth century by Don Marin, whom the Hawaiians familiarly called "Manini." He brought to Hawaii many useful trees and plants; among the number was this mango, which he planted in his vineyard, then known as "Ka Pa Waina," and there it may be found today; a venerable tree standing about 80 feet high, having a spread of over 100 feet, and its trunk measuring 15 feet in circumference. Although a prolific bearer, its fruits, which are borne in large clusters, are small, and of an inferior quality, having a thick skin and a large, hairy seed. [Illustration: PLATE LXV.--_Manini Mango._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXVI _Mangifera indica._ NO. 9 MANGO. This mango, with its distinctive shape, is one of the few types that comes true to seed. The first and original tree, which was planted at the Government Nursery, Honolulu, was brought from Jamaica by Joseph Marsden, Esq. This tree is a prolific bearer, and its seeds have been widely distributed throughout these Islands. The fruit is large and regular in size, having a thick skin which is of a light-green color. The pulp is pale yellow, very juicy, and slightly acid. There is a very large, hairy seed. [Illustration: PLATE LXVI.--_No. 9 Mango._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXVII _Musa varieties._ BANANA--"MAIA." The banana, which has been cultivated from the most remote times, is a plant of great importance in tropical and sub-tropical climates, where its highly nutritious fruit is used as food. It is a large herbaceous, slightly shrubby, plant of very easy growth, having immense, gracefully-arching, undivided leaves. There are numerous varieties, the fruit of which differs in shape, color and flavor. As decorative plants in landscape gardening, few subjects equal the choice species of the banana; and on account of its utility, combined with its beauty, it is considered one of the most valuable of tropical products. Propagation is by off-shoots or suckers. When a stalk is cut, the fruit of which has ripened, sprouts are put forth which in time bear fruit. The enormous flower stalk issues from the center of the crown of leaves, and curves over with its own weight. The flowers are arranged in a dense terminal panicle; they alternate with large, reddish scales, which drop off as the fruit stalk develops, and the finger-like fruits are in clusters. The Hawaiians seem to have possessed the banana from the earliest times, and about fifty varieties were known to the older natives. However, since the year 1855, the so-called Chinese banana (_Musa Cavendishii_), which was at that time introduced from Tahiti, has crowded out the native varieties, many of which are now extinct. The accompanying cut shows a few of the different forms and sizes of the banana grown in Hawaii. [Illustration: PLATE LXVII.--_Banana_--"_Maia._" One half natural size. Moa Largo Popoulu Red Cuban Lele Chinese] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXVIII _Morinda citrifolia._ "NONI." This species is found in nearly all the Pacific Islands. The date of its introduction to Hawaii, however, is not recorded. It is a small tree which grows in the low lands. Its shiny, oval leaves have short petioles. The white flowers are about 1 inch in length. The fruit is whitish-yellow when mature, and when decaying it emits a very offensive odor. The seeds are interesting because they will float a great length of time in salt water, their buoyancy is caused by a distinct air cell. [Illustration: PLATE LXVIII.--"_Noni._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXIX _Vaccinium reticulatum._ "OHELO." This is an erect dwarf shrub growing to a height of from one to two feet, having stiff, crowded branches with leaves varying in form, from oblong to obovate, and in color from green to green tinged with yellow and red. The white flowers are solitary, and come mostly in the axils of the true leaves. The globose fruit is a fleshy, shiny berry, much resembling the cranberry; in color it is yellow or pale rose, and is covered with a waxy bloom. The Ohelo thrives best in the higher elevations, from 4000 to 8000 feet. It grows particularly well on the mountain slopes of Hawaii and Maui. It is an edible berry, and is the principal food of the rare Hawaiian goose, now to be found in only a few localities. The Ohelo has always been a favorite subject of Hawaiian songs and legends, and was used as one of the offerings to the Goddess Pele. [Illustration: PLATE LXIX.--"_Ohelo._" Natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXX _Solanum pimpinellifolium._ CURRANT TOMATO. The first illustration on the opposite page is that of the currant tomato; an annual found growing wild in great profusion in the low lands of our valleys. It is of weak growth, very diffuse and twiggy, and scarcely pubescent. Its obovate leaves are small with nearly entire leaflets, and very small secondary leaflets; the elongated racemes bear from 100 to 40 small, currant-like red berries, which are very sweet. _Solanum Lycopersicum._ GRAPE TOMATO. The second illustration is that of the grape tomato, which has grayish-green leaves and slender, ascending stems. The leaves are pinnate with small, nearly entire leaflets; the main leaflets are notched or even lobed toward the base. The fruit is a bright red berry about half an inch in diameter, and is fresh and aromatic. [Illustration: PLATE LXX.--_Currant Tomato._ _Grape Tomato._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXI _Solanum nodiflorum._ "POPOLO." This glabrous, annual, growing from 1 to 2 feet in height, is Common to most tropical countries, and in Hawaii was probably of aboriginal introduction; as the Hawaiians have many ways of using the fruits and the leaves, for medicinal purposes. This plant is found on waste land, in old pastures, and by the roadside. Its ovate leaves are dark green. The whitish flowers are small, and the fruit is a small, shiny, black berry. [Illustration: PLATE LXXI.--"_Popolo._" Natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXII _Aleurites moluccana._ CANDLENUT TREE--"KUKUI NUT." The Kukui tree is easily recognizable from afar off by the pale hue of its foliage, which appears to be dusted over with flour. It is a handsome, soft wood, evergreen tree, growing to a height of from 40 to 60 feet, and is widely spread over tropical Polynesia, and a great part of Malaysia; and by all branches of the Polynesian race it is called by the same name: Kukui or Tutui. The Hawaiians tattooed their skins with a black dye which they prepared from the juice which is found in the fleshy covering of the green fruit. The leaves are alternate, 3 to 5 lobed, pubescent, and have long petioles. The yellowish-green flowers are in terminal clusters. The fruit is spherical, from 1 to 2 inches in diameter, and light-green in color, changing to a dull-brown when ripe. It contains one or more nuts, or seeds, which have a very hard, boney shell, the surface of which is uneven like the shell of a walnut. The kernels of this nut, when dried, were strung together, or bound on sticks, and served the natives for torches or candles: thus the English name of Candlenut Tree. The oil obtained from the nut was used by the Hawaiians for burning in stone lamps. The kernel, when baked, pounded, and mixed with salt and Chili peppers, makes a brown paste which is very appetizing. This is much esteemed by the Hawaiians, who call it "Inamona." [Illustration: PLATE LXXII.--_Candlenut Tree_--"_Kukui Nut._" One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXIII _Terminalia Cattapa._ TROPICAL ALMOND. "KAMANI." This deciduous tree, generally called Kamani by the Hawaiians, with its spreading branches in horizontal whorls or layers, is one of the familiar and useful shade trees of these Islands. Leaves large, opposite, broadly obovate-obtuse, very short petioled, and turning brilliant shades of red and yellow during the autumn. Flowers greenish-white on long spikes, upper ones staminate, the lower ones perfect. The almond-shaped fruit is a compressed hard, nut-like body 1 to 1½, inches long, with a thin outer covering which is sweet, and spongy. There is generally one, sometimes two, small, edible kernels found embedded in the hard body. These may be eaten raw, or roasted. [Illustration: PLATE LXXIII.--_Tropical Almond_--"_Kamani._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXIV _Calophyllum inophyllum._ "KAMANI." This Kamani is a large tropical tree, having shiny, leathery, evergreen foliage. Its leaves are obovate, usually marginate, and its white flowers are very fragrant. The fruit, which generally comes in clusters, is round, about the size of a large walnut, and has a thin, leathery skin which covers a boney shell, inside of which is a corky substance surrounding the seed or kernel. This tree was an early introduction to these Islands, and is commonly seen on our seacoasts. [Illustration: PLATE LXXIV.--"_Kamani._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXV _Noronhia emarginata._ This tree is a native of Madagascar and also of Mauritius. A fine specimen may be seen at the Government Nursery, Honolulu. It is a handsome evergreen with entire, cuneate, coriacious leaves, having short petioles. The yellowish flowers come in clusters, and are quite fragrant. The fruit is a one-celled drupe, almost round, and about an inch in diameter. It is purple when ripe, and has a tough skin. The sweet, edible pulp surrounds a very large seed. [Illustration: PLATE LXXV.--_Noronhia emarginata._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXVI _Castanea sativa._ JAPANESE CHESTNUT. This is a close-headed tree of slender growth, attaining a height of from 30 to 50 feet. Its leaves are smaller than those of other chestnuts, generally from 3 to 7 inches long, and are either rounded at the base or reduced to a long, bristle-like point. The monoecious flowers are arranged in long catkins. The small burs have a thin, papery lining, and short, widely-branching spines. The nuts are large and glossy, usually three in a bur. They are somewhat inferior in quality, but are palatable when cooked. To my knowledge there is but one tree of this variety growing in these Islands, and it is to be found on the slopes of Tantalus, where it was planted by the Department of Agriculture. [Illustration: PLATE LXXVI.--_Japanese Chestnut._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXVII _Inocarpus edulis._ TAHITIAN CHESTNUT. This tree, which is said to be a native of the Moluccas, is an evergreen of very rapid growth. Its straight trunk, with smooth, ashen-grey bark, its spreading branches, with their dense green foliage, make a very ornamental as well as useful tree. Its leaves are alternate and simple. The small, fragrant, pale yellow flowers are very numerous. The drupe is obliquely oval, and about the size of a goose egg, containing a large kernel which is edible when roasted, but is not especially palatable. The only trees of this variety growing in Hawaii are to be found at Ahuimanu Ranch, Oahu, where they fruit regularly, and the seeds germinate after being in the ground some months. [Illustration: PLATE LXXVII.--_Tahitian Chestnut._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXVIII _Canarium commune._ CANARY NUT. This medium-sized nut-bearing tree is found growing in Java, Guam and the Philippines, and from any one of those countries may have been introduced to Hawaii. A fine specimen may be seen at the Government Nursery, Honolulu. Its leaves are alternate, odd pinnate. The small flowers come in terminal panicles. The fruit or nut is ellipsoidal. The thick skin, which is purple-colored when ripe, covers a hard, three-lobed stone, which differs from a pecan nut only in that it is sharp at each end. The kernel is small, sweet and edible. Trees propagated from the mature nuts. [Illustration: PLATE LXXVIII.--_Canary Nut._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXIX _Canarium commune._ CANARY NUT (round variety). Few trees of this round variety are to be found in Hawaii. Its leaves are smaller than those of the preceding variety, and it is a very poor bearer. [Illustration: PLATE LXXIX.--_Canary Nut_ (_round var._) One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXX _Macadamia ternifolia._ QUEENSLAND NUT. This sub-tropical Australian tree sometimes grows to a height of 60 feet, but in Hawaii is of medium size. It is symmetrical and handsome, having dark green, shiny foliage, and long tassel-like white flowers. Its glabrous leaves are sessile, oblong, lanceolate, serrate, with fine prickly teeth, and come in whorls of 3 to 4, varying in length from a few inches to a foot. Flowers small; fruit has a thick, very hard shell, which when ripe is a smooth, shiny brown. The kernel is white, crisp and sweet, and has the flavor of hazel nuts. It may be eaten either raw or roasted. The tree matures its fruit in the Fall months, and is easily propagated from the fresh nuts. [Illustration: PLATE LXXX.--_Queensland Nut._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXI _Macadamia sp._ This variety of the Queensland nut has leaves and fruit larger than those of _Macadamia ternifolia_. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXI.--_Macadamia sp._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXII _Aegle Marmelos._ BHEL OR BAEL FRUIT. This small spinose tree is a native of tropical Asia, and although not commonly grown in Hawaii, specimens may be found in several gardens. It has alternate trifoliolate leaves, and flowers, which grow in clusters, are small and fragrant. The gourd-like fruit, with its hard shell, is from 2 to 4 inches in diameter, and is either round or pear-shaped, and although heavy and solid, it will float in water. The rind, when ripe, is a yellowish-brown color, and is studded with oil cells. The interior surface of the skin is lined with open-mouthed cells, which pour their gummy secretions into the interior of the carpel, filling it and bathing the seed. The pulp is sweet and aromatic, and is esteemed for making conserves, and also as a cooling drink. In India, the roots and leaves are used medicinally. Bael gum is a sticky, astringent substance soluble in water. The fruit contains several large, flat, woolly seeds, which germinate readily, and the plant is also very easily propagated from root cuttings. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXII.--_Bhel or Bael Fruit._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXIII _Diospyros decandra._ BROWN PERSIMMON. This is an evergreen tree rarely found in Hawaii. It has alternate, irregular, long, narrow leaves, shiny dark-green on the upper side, a velvety light-green on the underside, and has a long petiole. The branches are brittle, light-green, smooth and shiny when young, and after the leaves shed become woody and inclined to dry back. The trunk and bark of the tree is covered with warty excresences. The solitary flowers are four-petaled. The edible fruit ripens in December, is round, depressed, about 2½ inches in diameter, in color light-green dotted with numerous white spots. When quite ripe the thin skin turns to a shiny-brown. The soft chocolate colored pulp is sweet and contains from 1 to 8 large flat seeds. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXIII.--_Brown Persimmon._ Natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXIV _Lucuma Rivicoa._ EGG FRUIT. This small evergreen tree, which is a native of Brazil, is found only in one or two gardens in Honolulu. Its leaves are elliptic-obovate, resembling those of the mango. The yellow flowers are single, the fruit is the size and shape of a hen's egg, and has the flavor of the yolk of an egg sweetened with sugar. It has from one to three large seeds, which are easily germinated. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXIV.--_Egg Fruit._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXV _Eriobotrya Japonica._ LOQUAT. The Loquat has been for many years a familiar fruit in our gardens, and is a native of China and Japan. It is a low evergreen tree with thick foliage, and in congenial climates is a profuse bearer. Its leaves are thick, oblong, and remotely toothed and grow near the ends of the branches. The white flowers grow in clusters, are very fragrant, and the fruit, which also ripens in clusters, about Christmas time, is pear-shaped, and has an agreeable acid flavor. The seeds are large, and germinate readily. Fine grafted and budded varieties have been introduced by local horticulturalists. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXV.--_Loquat._ One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXVI _Litchi Chinensis._ "LICHEE." This tree, with its dense foliage, is a native of Southern China. The first tree of this variety was brought to Hawaii by Mr. Afong, and planted at his residence in Nuuanu avenue, Honolulu, in the year 1870. The leaves are alternate, and abruptly pinnate; the oblong leaflets are not quite opposite. Flowers pale green, small and regular, producing bunches of reddish-colored fruits, each about the size of a small walnut. They are covered with a parchment-like skin having many soft spines. The interior consists of a large seed covered with a whitish pulp of a sweetish acid flavor; this pulp when dried in the shell becomes somewhat shriveled, brownish in color, and very sweet. The fruiting season is in July, and as there are but few trees here that bear, high prices are obtained for this rare fruit, which is much prized by the Chinese. Fresh seeds will germinate, but it requires so many years for these seedlings to bear that grafted and budded plants are imported from China. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXVI.--"_Lichee._" One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXVII _Euphoria Longana._ LONGAN. This tree is a native of India and Southern China. It produces its flowers and fruits at about the same time of year as does the Litchi, which it somewhat resembles, although its fruits are somewhat smaller and less palatable. The tree grows to a height of about 20 feet. It has large, alternate, pinnate leaves, and the oblong leaflets are not quite opposite; they are glossy on the upper surface, and a dusty-brown on the underside. The small flowers come in terminal panicles; and the fruit, which is borne in clusters, has a thin, brittle, somewhat rough shell. There is one large, smooth, hard seed; around which is a thin layer of sweetish, aromatic pulp. The best fruits raised here are those grown by the Chinese. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXVII.--_Longan._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXVIII _Morus nigra._ MULBERRY. This low-growing tree is a native of southwestern Russia and Persia. It has rough, dark-green leaves, usually not lobed. The thick, fleshy fruit is variable in size. The mulberry grows readily from cuttings. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXVIII.--_Mulberry._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE LXXXIX _Garcinia mangostana._ MANGOSTEEN. This tree is a native of Sumatra and of the Islands of the Eastern Archipelago. It is of medium size, the stem rising to a height of about 20 feet; and its branches coming out in regular order give the head of the tree the form of a parabola. The leaves are about 8 inches long and 4 inches broad at the middle; they are a beautiful green on the upper side and a delicate olive on the under side. The flowers resemble a single rose with dark-red petals. The fruit is round, about the size of a small orange, and has a characteristic persistent calyx. The shell is at first green, and when ripe changes to purplish-brown marked with yellow spots. The Mangosteen is called the queen of fruits, and the tree upon which it is produced is most graceful and beautiful. Those who have tasted this fruit in its perfection declare it to be indescribably delicious. The Mangosteen must have a hot, moist, and fairly equable climate throughout the year. Many Mangosteen trees have been brought to Hawaii, and have received intelligent care, but they have not thrived well; and have eventually died. Only two have ever produced fruit; one in the garden of Mr. Francis Gay of Kauai, which bears its fruit annually, and the other tree at Lahaina, Maui, in the garden formerly the property of Mr. Harry Turton. [Illustration: PLATE LXXXIX.--_Mangosteen._ Two thirds natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XC _Garcinia Xanthochymus._ This handsome tree is a native of India, and was first introduced to Hawaii by Mr. Albert Jaeger. It has long, narrow, leathery leaves of a bright, glossy green. The flowers, which have four petals, appear at the axil of the leaves, and the fruit, which is about the size of a small quince, has a smooth, thin skin, which is yellow when ripe. The firm pulp is golden yellow, very juicy, and sour, and the seeds are large. This variety is common in the Islands, and has often been mistaken for the Mangosteen. It ripens its fruit in October and November. This variety has been used to inarch the garcina mangostana upon. [Illustration: PLATE XC.--_Garcinia Xanthochymus._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCI _Bunchosia sp._ This tree was doubtless introduced to Hawaii from South America. There are only two specimens of its kind growing in Honolulu. Its fruits are edible, but not especially palatable. It is a small tree having terete branches, and its opposite leaves are oblong-elliptical, dark-green above and a lighter, somewhat glossy-green beneath. The petioles are short. The axillary inflorescence comes in long, slender cymes, and the five-petaled flowers are yellow. When ripe, the obovate fruit is a purplish-yellow, having usually two seeds, and but one seed when abortive. [Illustration: PLATE XCI.--_Bunchosia sp._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCII _Malpighia glabra._ BARBADOS CHERRY. This small shrub is a native of the West Indies. Its dull-green leaves are opposite, ovate and glabrous, either entire or spiny-toothed. The rose-colored flowers are axillary and five-petaled. The bright red fruit is about the size of a cherry, and has a thin skin, and its acid pulp is used for jam and preserves. The seeds or stones are large, four-angled, and germinate readily; plants are also produced by cuttings. Though not common in these Islands, there are, however, a few specimens of this plant to be found in several of the private gardens of Honolulu. [Illustration: PLATE XCII.--_Barbados Cherry._ Natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCIII _Theobroma Cacao._ CHOCOLATE, COCOA. In Hawaii this tropical tree grows to a height of from 10 to 30 feet. It has large, pointed leaves, and the new growth is wine-colored. The flowers appear on the trunk and mature branches, and the fruit which follows is about 8 to 12 inches long, and is called the pod; inside of this pod are beans or seeds, from which the commercial product called cocoa is made, through a process of drying and curing. Chocolate is the term used for the sweetened preparations of the roasted and ground beans, with a large proportion of the original fat retained. Cocoa preparations are the same material in fine powder, sweetened and unsweetened, with a greater part of the fat extracted. Cacao cultivation has never been successfully attempted in Hawaii. However, a few isolated trees can be found at Ahuimanu Ranch, Oahu, where they were planted by the Catholic brothers as an experiment some years ago. [Illustration: PLATE XCIII.--_Chocolate, Cocoa._ One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCIV _Hibiscus Sabdariffa._ ROSELLE. This bush or shrub is a showy annual growing to a height of from 5 to 7 feet. The stems are reddish, and the pale yellow flowers solitary. The leaves are palmate and of a light-green color. It is widely cultivated in the tropics, in Florida, and in Southern California; and also thrives in Hawaii. The dark crimson calyces are very fleshy and make excellent jelly, which has somewhat the flavor of the cranberry. [Illustration: PLATE XCIV.--_Roselle._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCV _Monstera deliciosa._ The Monstera deliciosa, one of the grandest of arid plants, is a native of the mountainous regions of Guatamala and Brazil. It climbs to a height of 12 or more feet, and its leaf stalks are often 3 feet long. It obtains nourishment from the tree upon which it attaches itself. Its leaves are huge and perforated. As the plant climbs, the stems emit aerial roots, many of which never reach the ground. The fruit which has the appearance of an elongated pine-cone, grows to a length of from 6 to 12 inches, and is about 2½ inches in diameter. The rind is composed of plates which may be detached when the fruit is quite ripe. It is green in color until it ripens, when there appears a slight tinge of yellow. The creamy-white pulp has a most delicious flavor, somewhat resembling the banana, and also like the pineapple. It requires 18 months to mature the fruit. Propagation is by cuttings. [Illustration: PLATE XCV.--_Monstera deliciosa._ One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCVI _Anacardium occidentale._ CASHEW NUT. This spreading tree is a native of the West Indies; and although it is seen in several gardens of our Islands, it is not common. The first tree of its kind was planted by Mr. Henry Davis in his grounds at Punahou. The tree grows to a height of from 15 to 20 feet. The light-green, leathery leaves are oval and rough, its pink flowers have a peculiar, strong fragrance. The fruit consists of two distinct parts; the heart-shaped nut or seed and the fleshy, pear-shaped receptacle to which it is attached. This receptacle is from 2 to 4 inches long, is either red or yellow, and is very juicy and astringent. The nut or seed is edible when roasted. It is much appreciated in the West Indies. While being roasted the fumes are said to be poisonous. [Illustration: PLATE XCVI.--_Cashew Nut._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCVII _Ziziphus Jujuba._ "JUJUBE." This tree, which grows to a height of from 15 to 20 feet, is a native of China, from which country it was probably introduced to these Islands. Its branches are usually prickly; the leaves, which are from 1 to 3 inches in length, are alternate, ovate to oblong, obtuse, and are dark green and glabrous above, and tawny and nearly white beneath. The flowers are axillary. The yellow fruit, which ripens in March, is about the size of a cherry. When eaten raw, it has a bitter flavor, but it makes an excellent preserve. [Illustration: PLATE XCVII.--"_Jujube._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCVIII _Phyllanthus emblica._ There is but one tree of this species that has ever fruited in Honolulu. It is to be found growing in the grounds of the Royal Mausoleum, Nuuanu Valley. It is of medium height, having a crooked trunk, and its thin, scattered branches grow irregularly. The numerous alternate leaves are pinnate, the obtuse leaflets growing close together, and are from one-half to three-fourths of an inch in length. Its minute flowers are greenish-yellow. The round, six-striated fruit is smooth and fleshy, and three-fourths to one inch in diameter. The seeds are enclosed in three or more obovate cells, each cell containing two seeds. The pulp is hard and bitter, but when cooked makes an excellent preserve. [Illustration: PLATE XCVIII. _Phyllanthus emblica._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE XCIX _Phyllanthus distichus._ OTAHEITI GOOSEBERRY. This is a low-growing tree having large pinnate leaves with acute, alternate leaflets, which are about one to two inches in length. Its flowers grow on separate branches below the foliage. The fleshy, green fruit, which is borne in long clusters, is acid and astringent, but when made into preserves or pickles is palatable. The root and seeds have medicinal qualities. There is but one tree of this species in Honolulu. It is growing in the garden of Mr. Wm. Wolters. [Illustration: PLATE XCIX.--_Otaheiti Gooseberry._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE C _Olea Europea._ OLIVE. The Olive, which is a native of Southwestern Asia, is not a tree of any great height, but is very longlived, and yields prolifically. Although not cultivated to any extent, the Olive has been growing in Hawaii for many years. However, it has fruited only in a few favorable localities, and nothing has ever been done to test its value commercially. The tree thrives best in a warm, dry atmosphere, where the soil is rich and well drained. Long-continued droughts so detrimental to most plants will affect the Olive but slightly. The tree requires judicious pruning immediately after the fruit is gathered, when the sap is comparatively at rest. The small, thick leaves are lanceolate, opposite, and usually entire; they are dull green above and silvery beneath. The small white flowers, which come in panicles, are usually imperfect. The fruit is a small, ellipsoid drupe, which is bluish-black when ripe. Its oil is an important product. The Olive may be propagated from seeds, cuttings, layers, suckers and pieces of the old stumps. The seeds require some time to germinate, and the growth of the young plant is slow. [Illustration: PLATE C.--_Olive._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CI _Vitis Labrusca._ "ISABELLA GRAPE." This variety of grape was early introduced to these Islands, and has become very popular. It is a hardy vine, variable in productiveness, and is practically the only grape grown in any quantity in Hawaii. The leaves are of medium size, often roundish and thick; their upper surface is dark-green, the under surface is whitish-green. The Isabella is an attractive blue-black grape, bearing in large, well-formed clusters, having a thick bloom. The muskiness of the thick skin is somewhat objectionable. [Illustration: PLATE CI.--"_Isabella Grape._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CII _Pyrus Sinensis._ SAND PEAR. This tree is a vigorous and clean grower, having strong, thick shoots, beautiful foliage, and very ornamental fruit. The dark-green leaves are broadly ovate, and long-pointed, with their margins thickly furnished with very sharp, almost bristle-like teeth. The large white flowers appear rather in advance of the leaves. The fruit is hard and rough, about 2½ inches in diameter, with generally a depression about the stem. The flesh is tough and gritty, but is very delicious when baked. Propagation is by cuttings. [Illustration: PLATE CII.--_Sand Pear._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CIII _Passiflora quadrangularis._ GRANADILLA VINE. This tall, strong climber is a native of tropical America. Its leaves are broadly ovate, and the strong stems are purplish in color. The large, interesting flowers are from 3 to 5 inches across. The sepals are linear and violet shaded, the petals are very narrow and lilac. The many rows of filaments in the crown are violet with bars of white below the middle, the inner and shorter set being deep violet. The oblong fruit attains a size from 5 to 9 inches in length, and in color is a pale, yellowish green. The succulent, edible pulp of its hollow center has an agreeable sub-acid flavor, and contains many flat seeds. This vine bears well where there are bees; artificial fertilization also increases the number of its fruits. [Illustration: PLATE CIII.--_Granadilla Vine._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CIV _Passiflora edulis._ PURPLE WATER LEMON. "LILIKOI." This strong, woody vine is native of Brazil, and is naturalized in most tropical countries. Its first introduction to these islands was at Lilikoi, district of Makawao, Maui, whence its native name. Its serrate leaves are large and deeply three-lobed; the white flowers are tinted with purple. The fruit is oblong, globular, and when ripe is purple in color; its shell-like skin is thick and crisp. The orange-colored edible pulp is very fragrant, and is filled with small seeds, which germinate readily. [Illustration: PLATE CIV.--_Purple Water Lemon_--"_Lilikoi._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CV _Passiflora laurifolia._ YELLOW WATER LEMON. This strong-growing, glabrous vine, climbing by tendrils, is a native of tropical America. The date when it was introduced to Hawaii, and by whom, is not known; but in the Hilo and Hamakua districts of Hawaii this variety grows wild. Its thick leaves are oval, oblong and entire, and have a short, sharp point. The flowers are about 2½, inches across, are white, with red spots on them. The fruit is slightly oblong, 2 inches in diameter, and very regular in size and shape. When ripe, it is yellow spotted with white. It has a medium-hard shell or skin, and the edible pulp is whitish-yellow, and contains many flat, black seeds. [Illustration: PLATE CV.--_Yellow Water Lemon._ One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CVI _Passiflora alata._ This is a strong, vigorous vine, very suitable for arbors and trellises. It is not commonly found in Hawaii; however, a very fine specimen of its kind is growing in Dr. St. D. G. Walter's garden in Honolulu. The leaves are oval to ovate, the petioles having two glands. The fragrant purple flowers are about two inches in diameter. The ovoid-pointed fruit has a tough, leathery shell which, when green, is six-striated, with white stripes; when quite ripe the fruit is a dull orange-yellow. The numerous seeds are imbedded in the juicy, scented pulp, which is aromatic and delicious. Propagation is by seed and by cuttings. [Illustration: PLATE CVI.--_Passiflora alata._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CVII _Passiflora, var. foetida._ This strong and hardy vine grows well on arbors and trellises. Its leaves are three-cleft, and have long petioles; and spiral tendrils spring from the axils. The single, pale-green flowers are surrounded by a green, lace-like covering. The fruit is nearly globular, and slightly pointed; it is about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and when ripe is a bright scarlet. [Illustration: PLATE CVII. _Passiflora, var. foetida._ Two thirds natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CVIII _Cereus triangularis._ NIGHT-BLOOMING CEREUS. Although this plant with its wonderful nocturnal blossoms may be found growing almost everywhere in the Islands, the best specimens of its kind may be seen on the stone walls of Oahu College. The beautiful creamy flowers with their yellow centers are large, about a foot long, and when in full bloom about the same in diameter. The tube is covered with large, leaf-like green scales. The fruit, which is about 3½ inches long and 2 inches in diameter, is covered with persistent, large, fleshy scales which are scarlet colored when ripe, and the interior pulp is edible and refreshing. Fruit, however, upon the night-blooming cereus in Hawaii is rather rare, although a few fine specimens have matured. [Illustration: PLATE CVIII.--_Night-blooming Cereus._ Two thirds natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CIX _Kigelia pinnata._ SAUSAGE TREE. This medium-sized and very handsome shade tree is a native of tropical Africa. It was probably introduced to Hawaii by Dr. Hillebrand. A fine tree of this species is growing in Mrs. Foster's garden, Nuuanu avenue. It has large pinnate leaves, and panicles of purple flowers. The peculiar rough, grey, oblong fruits hang from a long stem, and present an odd appearance. This tree and also one other of the same variety growing in the grounds of the Queen's Hospital, very rarely set their fruit. Because of the difficulty of obtaining seeds, the sausage tree has not been widely distributed. [Illustration: PLATE CIX.--_Sausage Tree._ One fourth natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CX _Phoenix dactylifera._ THE DATE PALM. The date, which is a native of North Africa, Arabia, and Persia, is a noble palm, often growing to a height of from 80 to 100 feet. It is of remarkable longevity, and will continue to produce fruit even at the age of a hundred years. The neighborhood of the sea is considered unfavorable to their production, although they will luxuriate in saltish soil and bear well when brackish water is used. Many varieties of dates exist, the fruit differing in shape, size and color. They will grow from seeds, although the superior varieties can be continued only from off-shoots of the root. These will commence to bear in five years. In Asia, the growers of the commercial date find it necessary to pollinate artificially by hanging sprays of the male flowers in the branches of the fruit-bearing trees. There are no imported trees bearing in Hawaii, and although there are many date trees in Honolulu, artificial pollination would doubtless greatly increase the yield and the quality of the fruit. [Illustration: PLATE CX.--_The Date Palm._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXI _Phoenix dactylifera._ DATE (red and yellow variety). The accompanying cut shows fruit from two of the best date trees in Honolulu, and it is curious to note that both of them were grown from seeds taken from packages of dried dates purchased from a local grocer. [Illustration: PLATE CXI.--_Date_ (_red and yellow var._) One third natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXII _Acrocomia sp._ This interesting palm is seldom seen in Hawaii; there being but two specimens of its kind that have produced fruit in Honolulu. Its stem is capitately thickened at the persistent bases of the armed petioles. The glaucous leaves are pari-pinnate with narrow, lanceolate, accuminate segments, having a prominent mid-rib. The inflorescence is simple and branching. The fruit is arranged similar to that of Cocos, each about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, sub-globose with a pointed apex. When ripe, it is a bright yellow, and its juicy, edible pulp has the flavor of apricots. [Illustration: PLATE CXII.--_Acrocomia sp._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXIII _Cocos nucifera._ COCOANUT PALM. "NIU." The original home of this widely-diffused tree is not positively known. Some writers say it is indigenous to the islands of the Indian Ocean; others show that in all probability it is of American origin. On account of its buoyant husk and impervious shell, it was enabled to drift across the oceans without losing its germinating power, and in this manner was widely dispersed. It is strictly a tropical plant, and grows naturally on the seashore, or in its immediate vicinity. It has pinnate leaves about 12 to 18 feet long, and the inflorescence first appears in a cylindrical sheath, which splits length-wise, exposing long sprays of male flowers, and near the base generally one female flower, which is much larger, and eventually develops into a fruit. The picture shows both forms of flowers, as well as a young nut, and also a mature cocoanut. Propagation is by means of the nut alone, which must be thoroughly ripe before planting. The outer husk must be left on, germination taking place at the largest eye; sometimes two eyes may sprout, and twin trees grow from these. Many varieties have been imported from islands of the Pacific, Ceylon, West Indies, and Central America. The cocoanut is not raised in Hawaii for commercial purposes. [Illustration: PLATE CXIII.--_Cocoanut Palm_--"_Niu._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXIV _Cordia collococca._ CLAMMY CHERRY. This low tree, with its spreading branches, is a native of the West Indies, and is rarely met with in these Islands; there being but two trees of its kind known to me, one growing at the Old Plantation, Honolulu, the other at Honouliuli Ranch, Oahu. The whitish branches are very brittle. The leaves are obovate, oblong, glabrous above and shiny beneath. The subsessile flowers are whiteish-purple. The fruit, which is half inch in diameter, is bluntly pointed and smooth. The fleshy pulp is sticky, and adheres to the single seed. This plant may be grown from seeds and from cuttings. [Illustration: PLATE CXIV.--_Clammy Cherry._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXV _Flacourtia cataphracta._ This tree, which is a native of the Malay Islands and China, was introduced to Hawaii by Mr. Albert Jaeger. There is but one tree which has borne fruit; this is growing at the Old Plantation, Honolulu, Oahu. The tree, which is about 25 feet high, has dense foliage; the leaves are small, oblong, lanceolate, glabrous, having short petioles. Flowers very small, dioceous; the fruit about the size of a common grape, is purple when ripe, and has a pleasant sub-acid flavor. It contains a few flatish seeds. [Illustration: PLATE CXV.--_Flacourtia cataphracta._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXVI _Atalantia buxifolia._ This small tree of dwarfish habit is from tropical Asia. It is closely related to the orange, and has large thorns. Its simple leaves are alternate, coriaceous, emarginate, and from 1 to 1½ inches in length. The petioles are short. The small, solitary flowers have five petals. The berry is globose and three-quarters of an inch in diameter. When ripe, it is a shiny black, and has a thick skin. The pulp has somewhat the flavor of a lime, and the seeds are generally 1 to 5 in number. The only specimens of this tree in Hawaii are growing in the garden of Mrs. Foster; they, presumably, were introduced by Dr. Hillebrand, as these gardens formerly belonged to him. [Illustration: PLATE CXVI.--_Atalantia buxifolia._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXVII _Bumelia sp._ This large shrub is a native of India. Its alternate, entire, obovate leaves have short petioles; they are glabrous and are about 4 to 8 inches in length. The small flowers are light pink. The small, globose fruits grow in bunches; these are purple when ripe, but are not edible. The only tree of its kind in Honolulu is growing in the grounds of the Queen's Hospital. [Illustration: PLATE CXVII.--_Bumelia sp._ Natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXVIII _Ochrosia elliptica._ This plant grows in the Pacific Islands, Malay Peninsula, Ceylon, and Australia; and on account of its handsome scarlet fruit is cultivated as an ornament, as the fruit is not edible. The tree is a small evergreen, having alternate, glabrous, coriaceous leaves which are crowded at the ends of the stout branches. The small, white flowers have five petals. The fruit consists usually of two, rarely one, spreading scarlet drupes, each containing a large seed. The first specimen of its kind in Hawaii was planted at the Government Nursery, Honolulu, where it is still growing. [Illustration: PLATE CXVIII.--_Ochrosia elliptica._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXIX _Ananas sativus._ PINEAPPLE. This variety of the pineapple plant was grown at an early date in these Islands, and until the new and spineless forms were introduced was the only quality offered in the fruit markets. It is now cultivated but little, and is often found growing wild. The rosette at the head of the fleshy fruit has numerous thorny leaves. The fruit is much smaller than those of the thornless varieties, but it has a very sweet flavor. [Illustration: PLATE CXIX.--_Pineapple._ One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXX _Opuntia Tuna._ PRICKLY PEAR--"PANINI." This erect, wide-spreading plant was early introduced to these Islands from Mexico. It thrives well in arid lands, and in times of drought its succulent, fleshy leaves and juicy fruit are eaten by cattle. The plants, when old, become hard and woody, having many stout spines. The large flowers are reddish-yellow, and the obovate, truncate fruit is a purplish-red, having a thick fibrous skin, which is covered with fine bristles. The edible pulp is reddish-purple and contains numerous seeds. [Illustration: PLATE CXX.--_Prickly Pear_--"_Panini._" One half natural size.] _G. P. W. Collection._ PLATE CXXI _Prosopis juliflora._ ALGAROBA--"KIAWE." The Kiawe deserves a special mention in this book, as it is, in my opinion, one of the most valuable and beautiful trees that grows in the Hawaiian Islands. Perhaps on account of its very general dissemination, and because of the ease with which it spreads spontaneously, even in the driest districts, it has received less consideration than has been accorded to other plants more difficult of propagation. The Kiawe is the foundation of all the beauty of our lowlands, and provides a delicate background for other plants. Under favorable circumstances, it reaches to a height of 50 feet. It has wide-spreading branches and delicate-green foliage. The flowers yield a delicious honey, and the seed-pods furnish a valuable fodder, and, finally, when the tree is cut down, its wood makes the very best of fuel. The Algaroba is a native of Central and South America. Ordinarily it is a moderate-sized tree of quick and easy growth. Its branches in most cases are covered with stout, cylindrical, axillary spines, and in other cases they are unarmed. The abruptly bi-pinnate leaves have from 6 to 30 pairs of linear leaflets about one-fourth to one inch in length. The small, pale-yellow flowers come in cylindrical spikes. The straight or sickle-shaped seed-pod is sweet, and is eaten by stock. Propagation is by seed. The first Algaroba tree of Hawaii was brought to Honolulu in 1828 by Father Bachelot, founder of the Roman Catholic Mission in the Islands. It was planted in the Mission garden, where the venerable tree is standing today. [Illustration: PLATE CXXI.--_Algaroba_--"_Kiawe._"] Detailed Transcriber's Notes. General Notes. The relative size of items noted in the captions of the Plates relates to the original book, not to this document. Scaling of the images in preparation of this e-book and the size and resolution of the media on which the e-book is read make general statements about the relative size of the pictured items impossible. The "Index" was completely reworked so that it reflects the titles and captions within the body of the book. The original style was maintained. Details of changes to the "Index" are omitted. The page number indicates the Plate, not the text preceding it. The text of the book varies from the original in that obvious misprints have been fixed. Where the intent of the misprint was not obvious, it has been left in place and noted below. Use of archaic and unusual words, spelling and styling has been maintained. Inconsistent hyphenation has been retained. Capitalization of botanical names is maintained as in the original. Details of the changes follow. Details of the Changes. Frequently used archaic spelling and styling which have been maintained: anona (annona), cocoanut (coconut), Guatamala (Guatemala) and Nuuanu avenue (Nuuanu Avenue). Others occur less frequently. Both the spellings preceding and preceeding were used throughout the book. They have been standardized to preceding, as noted below. In the caption of Plate III, to match the text title--changed to: Guatamala Avocado (in original book: Avocado). In the text with Plate IV, changed to: elevation (in original book: elevtaion); and inserted period after the fruit-bearing stems. In the text with Plate V, changed to: successful (in original book: ssuccessful). In the text with Plate XI, changed to: preceding (in original book: preceeding). In the text with Plate XVII, changed to: soil (in original book: sosil); and to: preceding (in original book: preceeding). In the text title with Plate XX, changed to: edulis (in original book: eduiis). In the text with Plate XXII, for clarity, changed to: 1-16th (in original book: 1-16); and changed to: underside (in original book: under-side) for consistency with elsewhere in the book. In the text with Plate XXIV, changed to: small (in original book: samll). In the text with Plate XXXI, changed to: leaves (in original book: laves) and changed to: who (in original book: whos). In the text and captions associated with Plates XXXV through XXXVII, the spellings papaya and papaia were both used. They have been standardized to papaya. In the caption of Plate XXXVI, moved the period (".") outside the parentheses, to match chapter heading. In the text with Plate XXXVII, the word pesin is probably a printing error, however it is unclear whether the intended word was resin or pepsin. The error has been left as in the original. In the text with Plate XXXVIII, changed to: generally (in original book: generaly). In the caption of Plate XXXVIII, italicized Chinese Orange for consistency with other caption formatting. In the text title and caption of Plate XLI, changed to: lime (in original book: limes) for consistency with rest of the book. In the title of the text with Plate XLV, changed to: WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE (in original book: WASHINGTON NAVEL). In the text with Plate LVI, changed to: protuberance (in original book: portuberance). In the text title and caption of Plate LVIII, changed to: Sweet Red Guava (in original book: Sweet red). In the text with Plate LVIII, changed to: preceding (in original book: preceeding). In the title of the text with Plate LXIV, changed to: LXIV (in original book: LXVI). In the text with Plate LXIV, changed to: followed (in original book: folowed); and changed to: so-called (in original book: socalled) for consistency with elsewhere in the book. In the title of the text with Plate LXVII, changed to: varieties (in original book: varities); and in the text, changed to: center (in original book: centre) for consistency with the elsewhere in the book. In the text with Plate LXX, I suspect that 100 to 40 should have been 10 to 40. In the text and caption of Plate LXXII, changed to: candlenut (in original book: candle nut, candle-nut and candlenut) for consistency within this page. In the text with Plate LXXIX, changed to: preceding (in original book: preceeding). In the text with Plate LXXXVI, changed to: consists (in original book: consistss). In the text with Plate LXXXIX, changed to: parabola (in original book: parobola). In the text with Plate XCI, changed to: yellow (in original book: yelow). In the text with Plate XCV, changed to: delicious (in original book: declicious). In the title of the text with Plate XCIX, changed to: Phyllanthus (in original book: Phllanthus). In the title of the text with Plate CII, changed to: Sinensis (in original book: Sinense). In the title of the text with Plate CIII and in the caption: Granadilla Vine (in original book: Grenadilla). In the text with Plate CIII, changed to: climber (in original book: climer); and changed to: succulent (in original book: suculent). In the caption of Plate CVIII, changed to: Night-blooming (in original book: Night-Blooming) for consistency in caption formatting. In the text with Plate CX, changed to: considered (in original book: considereed); and changed to the archaic word: saltish (in original book: satlish). In the text with Plate CXIII, changed to: American (in original book: Ameriican). In the title of the text with Plate CXIV, changed to: collococca (in original book: colloccoca). In the text with Plate CXVII, changed to: Honolulu (in original book: Honolulue). In the text with Plate CXVIII, changed to: where it is (in original book: where is is). In the caption of Plate CXIX, for consistency changed to: Pineapple (in original book: Pine apple). 
44843	----	Transcriber's Note: Minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. Irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed. Words printed in italics are noted with underscores: _italics_. HANDBOOKS OF PRACTICAL GARDENING--V EDITED BY HARRY ROBERTS THE BOOK OF BULBS [Illustration: EARLY TULIPS] THE BOOK OF BULBS BY S. ARNOTT, F.R.H.S. TOGETHER WITH AN INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER ON THE BOTANY OF BULBS BY THE EDITOR JOHN LANE: THE BODLEY HEAD LONDON AND NEW YORK. MCMI _Printed by Turnbull & Spears, Edinburgh._ CONTENTS PAGE Editor's Note x Concerning Bulbs xi Introductory 1 Value of Bulbs--Bulbs in Grass--Arrangement in Borders--Bulbs for Cutting--Propagating Bulbs--Diseases of Bulbs. Hardy Bulbs 7 Aconitums--Alliums--Alstr� merias--Anemones. Hardy Bulbs 15 Amaryllises--Anthericums--Antholyzas--Apios--Arisæ--Arums-- Asphodelines--Asphodeluses--Belamcanda--Bloomerias--Brodiæas --Bulbocodiums. Hardy Bulbs 21 Calochorti and Cyclobothras--Camassias--Colchicums-- Convallarias--Forcing Lily of the Valley--Corydalises-- Crinums--Crocosmias and Montbretias--Crocuses. Hardy Bulbs 29 Cyclamens--Dicentras--Dieramas--Eranthis--Eremuruses-- Erythroniums--Eucomises. Hardy Bulbs 35 Fritillarias--Funkias--Galanthuses--Galtonias--Gladioli-- Hemerocallises. Hardy Bulbs 42 Hyacinths--Hyacinths in Pots--Scillas--Puschkinias-- Chionodoxas--Chionoscillas--Muscaris. Hardy Bulbs 48 Irises--Kniphofias--Lapeyrousias--Leucojums. Hardy Bulbs 54 Liliums--Liliums in Pots--Malvastrum--Merenderas--Millas-- Narcissi--Narcissi in Pots. Hardy Bulbs 60 Ornithogalums--Oxalises--Pæonias--Ranunculuses--Romuleas-- Sanguinarias--Sternbergias--Schizostylis--Tecophilæas-- Trilliums. Hardy Bulbs 65 Tulips--Zephyranthes. Half-hardy Bulbs 72 Acidantheras--Albucas--Alstroemerias--Androstephiums-- Besseras--Boussingaultias--Bravoas--Cypellas--Dahlias-- Galaxias--Geissorhizas and Hesperanthas. Half-hardy Bulbs 77 Gladioli--Ixias--Sparaxises--Babianas--Morphixias--Tritonias. Half-hardy Bulbs 83 Ixiolirions--Moræas--Ornithogalums--Oxalises--Phædranassas --Pancratiums--Tigridias--Zephyranthes--Cooperias. Greenhouse and Stove Bulbs 90 Achimenes--Alocasias--Amorphophalluses--Arisæmas--Arums-- Begonias--Bomareas--Caladiums. Greenhouse and Stove Bulbs 97 Clivias--Colocasias--Crinums--Cyclamens--Cyrtanthuses-- Eucharises and Urceocharis--Eurycles. Greenhouse and Stove Bulbs 102 Freesias--Gloxinias--Hæmanthuses--Hippeastrums. Greenhouse and Stove Bulbs 109 Lachenalias--Nerines and Lycorises--Pancratiums and Hymenocallises--Richardias--Sprekelias--Tuberoses--Vallotas --Watsonias--Zephyranthes. ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE EARLY TULIPS (from a drawing by Ethel Roskruge) _Frontispiece_ SNOWDROPS IN GRASS 3 ALLIUM TRIQUETRUM 9 WHITE CROCUSES IN GRASS 25 EREMURUS ROBUSTUS 31 GLADIOLUS, "THE BRIDE" 39 SNOWFLAKES 51 TULIPS CARPETED BY ARABIS 67 LILIUM AURATUM 85 LILIUM CANDIDUM 93 WHITE SCILLAS 103 EDITOR'S NOTE Like many another distinguished gardener, Mr Arnott is a Scotsman, being a native of Dumfries, and now living in the adjoining county of Kirkcudbright. For the last fourteen years his name has been a familiar one to readers of the leading journals devoted to gardening, for he has been a very frequent contributor to _The Gardener's Chronicle_, _The Gardener's Magazine_, _The Garden_, _The Journal of Horticulture_, and other papers. Although not a professional gardener, Mr Arnott is a practical one, for he manages at least the flower department of his beautiful garden almost without assistance; and having spent most of his life amongst flowers--his mother being a great gardener--he is a successful plant grower, as well as an interested one. Mr Arnott takes an active part in the work of encouraging the gardening spirit among his countrymen, and is a member of the Scientific Committee of the Royal Caledonian Horticultural Society, as well as a member of other leading associations with similar aims. CONCERNING BULBS BY THE EDITOR Anyone who has observed ever so casually the order of flowering of the plants in garden or hedgerow, must have noticed that bulbous plants figure prominently amongst those which flower in the early months of the year. Winter Aconite, Snowdrop, Crocus, Scilla, Chionodoxa, Daffodil, Fritillary, Anemone, and Tulip are among the greatest treasures of the spring garden, and though these are not all strictly bulbous plants, they all have either bulbous, tuberous, or other enlarged form of root or underground stem which serves a like purpose. Even those early flowers, the primroses, are borne on plants whose thick, fleshy, underground parts are almost tuberous in appearance; and it will be found that all the earliest blooming plants of spring are furnished with large stores of nutriment in root or stem. Only by virtue of these granaries of materialised solar energy, accumulated during the spring and summer of the previous year, are plants able to manufacture leaves and beautiful flowers in those early months during which the sun yields little heat and light, so essential to healthy plant life. In a sense, we may consider bulbs and tubers as functionally equivalent to seeds, for they contain within sundry wrappings a dormant plant and stores of food material, wherewith the young plant may be nourished from the time when growth commences until the plant can fend for itself. It is easy to understand how great an advantage it may be to a plant, in which cross-fertilisation is essential to racial vigour, to open its flowers before the great armies of floral rivals expose their baits to the gaze of flying insects whose visits are desired. For a like reason, it is advantageous to certain flowers to appear late in autumn after the summer flowers have withered and the competition for insect visitors has abated. These also have usually woody stems, or bulbous or tuberous rhizomes or roots, in which are stored reserves of starch, sugar, and other foods formed in the season of sunlight. Fibrous-rooted plants, on the other hand, for the most part flower between the months of April and September, when the daily hours of sunlight are many. We commonly speak of the bulbs of crocuses as of tulips or of onions, but morphologically there is a distinction, although functionally there is little or none. If we examine a tulip bulb, we find that it is mainly composed of thick succulent scales which closely overlap one another, in the centre being a flattish axis continuous with the roots below, and with the leaf and flower-bearing stalk above. This axis is part of the tulip's stem, the fleshy scales being morphologically but modified leaves whose basal portions have become swollen with stores of nutriment. After the tulip has flowered, it sets to work to manufacture fresh supplies of food material which is sent down the stem and there accumulated in a new bulb, formed by the development of a bud contained among the scales of the old and now withered bulb of the previous year. These stores will, in the following season, enable the tulip to cut a pretty figure before it or other plant has had time or opportunity for preparing fresh supplies by the aid of the spring-time sun alone. The so-called bulb of the crocus has a somewhat different structure. The crocus "bulb" does not, like that of the tulip, consist of overlapping scales, but of a more or less homogeneous mass enclosed in a stiff membrane, within which may sometimes be seen two or three smaller membranes of similar structure. From the lower part of the "bulb" issue roots, and from its summit proceed the leaf-bearing and flower-bearing shoots. The crocus "bulb" is not strictly what botanists call a bulb, but is a corm ([Greek: Kormos] = a stem), the expansion being composed of the swollen base of the stem and not, as with true bulbs, of the leaves--the latter having degenerated into mere membranous sheaths, which have no function beyond serving as protective envelopes for the food store and living nucleus within. As in the case of the tulip, so the crocus, having flowered in the early days of the year, proceeds to make and store up fresh supplies of starch and other food in readiness for the following year. The base of the stem enlarges above the old and withering corm, from which it sucks the remaining nutriment. Fresh roots are formed, some of which, having penetrated the soil to a varying depth, contract in length, and so draw down the new corm to the level of the old. This contractile power of roots has another office of great interest in connection with bulbs and corms. I have said that new bulbs form around the old exhausted ones by the development of buds in the axils of the leaf scales. It is obvious that in this way overcrowding must result, and that the young bulbs must often fare badly through being obliged to seek nourishment from soil already half exhausted of the elements necessary for the plants' health. But by the development of lateral roots which subsequently contract, such bulbs are often pulled to an appreciable distance from their parent, and thus gradually by yearly steps spread over a considerable area. Kerner quotes an interesting illustration of this process. Some soil containing bulbs of Tulipa sylvestris was once put in a garden in Vienna in the middle of a grass plot shaded by maple trees. As the grass was mowed every year before the flowers opened there was no formation of seeds, and the tulips could only multiply by offshoots. After about twenty years, the lawn was covered with tulip leaves, which arose from subterranean bulbs occupying an area ten paces in diameter. Thus, in the time mentioned, the bulbs had spread for about five paces in all directions in consequence of the pull of the contracting roots. Indeed, the underground life of bulbous plants, both during their more active stages of growth, and in those times mistakenly spoken of as the periods of rest, is full of interest to the careful observer. That curious process of ripening which is essential to the health of nearly all bulbs is itself no merely mechanical change. Each plant has its peculiar time for bursting through the surface of earth, for expanding its first leaves, and for displaying the glory of its first blooms; and any material hastening of these processes by the artificial application of heat means, except in a few species, subsequent debility to the plant, and, as a rule (though not invariably), diminished character in the flowers thus forced. There are, however, plants, such as Lilies of the Valley, to which the so-called resting stage seems of less duration and importance, and it is such flowers which may be forced under carefully arranged conditions with little ill result. Among our English wild flowering plants, the principal ones furnished with bulbs or corms are to be found in the orders Iridaceæ, Amaryllidaceæ, and Liliaceæ. Included in the former are the very rare purplish flower known as Columna's trichonema, and the doubtfully native Crocus sativus, the autumnal saffron crocus, referred to by Hakluyt at the close of the sixteenth century: "This commodity of Saffron groweth fifty miles from Tripoli, in Syria, on an high hyll, called in those parts Gasian, so as there you may learn at that part of Tripoli the value of the pound, the goodnesse of it, and the places of the vent. But it is said that from that hyll there passeth yerely of that commodity fifteen moiles laden, and that those regions notwithstanding lacke sufficiency of that commodity. But if a vent might be found, men would in Essex (about Saffron Walden), and in Cambridgeshire, revive the trade for the benefit of the setting of the poore on worke. So would they do in Herefordshire, by Wales, where the best of all England is, in which place the soil yields the wilde Saffron commonly, which showeth the natural inclination of the same soile to the bearing of the right Saffron, if the soile be manured and that way employed." The Amaryllis order contains the Daffodil and the Snowdrop, as well as Leucojum æstivum, which is thought by some to be a native species. It is, however, the order of the Liliaceæ to which belong the majority of English bulbous flowering plants. Bluebells, like "heavens upbreaking through the earth," purple Fritillaries, yellow Tulips, Stars of Bethlehem with curious greenish flowers, Vernal Scillas, the not-so-pretty S. autumnalis, and the Broad-leaved Garlic, whose white flowers are among the most beautiful of all, though the scent of the whole plant is very "grosse and very unpleasant for fayre ladies and tender lily rose colloured damsels which often time profereth sweet breathes before gentle wordes." There are a few other British bulbous and cormous plants scattered among the various orders, such as the Meadow-saffron which is still used in pharmacy, but the greater number are contained in the three orders named. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTORY Value of Bulbs--Bulbs in Grass--Arrangement in Borders--Bulbs for Cutting--Propagating Bulbs--Diseases of Bulbs BULBOUS AND TUBEROUS PLANTS Our gardens owe so much of their charm to the free use of plants with bulbous or tuberous roots, that it is unnecessary to impress their value upon the reader. We have only to cast our thoughts upon the many flowers of this character which bloom from the dawn of the year to its close, to recognise their almost transcendent claims upon our notice. In the following pages an attempt has been made to assist those who wish to know something more than they have done about these plants. Much more could have been said, but the scope of the work would not permit of exhaustive details. In addition, however, to the information given in the chapters dealing with the various plants, it is desirable that a few general hints should be given regarding the uses of these plants, and how they may be turned to most account. BULBS IN THE GRASS One of the most delightful phases of bulb-growing is that of the cultivation of hardy species in the grass. Nowhere do they look so well as against the grass, whose leafage seems to harmonise so well with the general character of the bulbous plants. In addition to this, many of these bulbous plants will thrive much better in grass than in a cultivated border, where there is often too much bare soil, and where other flowers of encroaching nature can injure them. Nearly all hardy bulbs do well in grass if the place is properly prepared for them by removing a portion of the turf, forking up the earth beneath, and adding fresh soil when it is too poor, and then replacing the turf. One thing must be remembered as a _sine-qua-non_, and this is, that on no account must the grass be cut until the plants have ripened their leaves. This will be shown by the foliage becoming yellow. Neglect of this has been the cause of much disappointment, and it is thus advisable that the bulbs should not be planted where a neatly kept grass plot is wanted early in the year. In planting the bulbs, they ought not to be arranged in regular lines, but in masses or informal groups. As good a plan as any to follow in planting in masses in the wilder parts of the grounds, is to throw the bulbs down from the hand, and to plant them where they fall. A good lesson will be given by a glance at a long-established plantation of Snowdrops or of the wild Scilla nutans, where these will be seen to have formed charming groups and masses of greater beauty than any formal arrangement would give. ARRANGEMENT IN BORDERS It is more difficult to arrange bulbs in borders in pleasing ways, and in such a manner as to harmonise or contrast in colouring with other flowers in bloom at the same time. One desirable way is not to keep all the early flowering bulbs near the front of the border, as one would naturally do, because of their dwarf habit, but to plant them so as to give balance in the border at the different seasons. Bulbous plants, like most others, look better in groups than scattered singly in lines, and it is wiser, as a rule, to plant a clump of one kind than a mixed mass. One exception, at least, is in the Montbretias, which, when mixed, look even prettier than in separate groups of one shade. Colour arrangement is always a troublesome question in planting these flowers, and there is more satisfaction, if harmony instead of sharp contrast is aimed at, by arranging, say, different shades of yellow together, than in working to secure strong contrasting effects. Such a contrast as the white Galtonia candicans and Gladiolus brenchleyensis is striking at the time, but it is not one on which the eye would love to dwell from day to day and from hour to hour. [Illustration: SNOWDROPS IN GRASS] BULBS FOR CUTTING These plants afford an almost endless choice for cutting purposes, although some cannot be cut of great length of stem without destroying the strength of the bulb for another year. The flowers are generally best when cut before quite open, and such flowers will usually open perfectly in water, and will last much longer than if pulled when fully expanded. Where many flowers are used, it is better to grow a stock in the reserve garden or in an out-of-the-way border, to avoid destroying the beauty of the more conspicuous parts of the garden. PROPAGATING BULBS The greater number of bulbs are propagated by offsets, produced from the old bulbs, and which are best removed when the foliage has died down. Named Hyacinths are increased by cutting across the base of the bulbs, or scooping out the interior, afterwards allowing the wounds to callous partially. Young bulbs are produced at the wounded parts. Raising bulbs from seeds, although slow, is very interesting work, and ought to be more largely followed for the purpose of obtaining new varieties. Seeds are sown in the ordinary way in pans, and the young bulbs grown on until they attain flowering size, generally from two to five years, according to the genus and the treatment they receive. Liliums are also propagated by scales of the bulbs, inserted in pots or pans, with a portion of the base attached. These will eventually form little bulbs, to be grown on as in the case of seedlings. Tuberous-rooted plants, like the Anemone, are propagated by division of the tubers. DISEASES OF BULBS These plants are subject to a variety of diseases, such as always appear among plants grown in large numbers together. The leading genera, such as the Lilium, the Iris, the Gladiolus, or the Hyacinth, are all affected, and although many remedies have been tried it is difficult to find a cure. I find Veltha gives good results, but where the disease cannot be exterminated by such means it is better to destroy all affected plants, and to give the others fresh soil. A surface dressing of new soil with a little kainit added is beneficial. CHAPTER II HARDY BULBS Aconitums--Alliums--Alstroemerias--Anemones ACONITUMS Although the effective Aconitums or Monkshoods of our gardens are usually classed with ordinary herbaceous plants, the best of those with tuberous roots can hardly be omitted from this work. They are of much service in the mixed border or the wild garden, and it is only the poisonous properties of these plants which make one view them with suspicion. They should not be planted where any danger can result to children or to animals. Their nomenclature is very confused but the names below are authoritative. The following are some of the best:--Cammarum, four feet, purple; flaccidum, six feet, violet; heterophyllum, two feet, yellow and blue; japonicum, six feet, flesh; Lycoctonum, a pretty yellow species, four to six feet high; Napellus, very poisonous, in several varieties, four to six feet; paniculatum, three feet; and variegatum, three to six feet, blue, white, or blue and white. All of these grow in any soil and can be planted in spring or autumn. ALLIUMS The Alliums can hardly be classed as among the choicest of bulbous plants; but although not among the _élite_ of our garden flowers, there are, however, among them some pleasing and useful flowers, and a few remarks upon some of those most easily obtainable may be of service. It may be premised that the Alliums are most suitable for naturalising in grass or in wild gardens, as many of them are so prolific that they are apt to become troublesome in the border. They usually seed very freely and some produce offsets in great numbers, while others, again, form little bulbils on their heads which eventually form separate individuals. Almost all are of easy cultivation, although some of the Central Asian and Californian species need a little protection in winter. A. acuminatum is a pretty dwarf species with deep rose flowers, and other pretty dwarf forms or species of similar or deeper colour are Bidwilliæ, Breweri, falcifolium, Fetisowii, macnabianum, narcissiflorum, ostrowskianum, and pedemontanum. A few blue species exist and are generally very pretty, though sometimes tender; of these, cæruleum, cyaneum, kansuense, and violaceum may be mentioned. A great many have white flowers and it is among these that we find the most valued of the species. The greatest favourite is neapolitanum, so much used for forcing, and which is grown in pots under the same treatment as other bulbous plants. Other pretty white species are triquetrum, subvillosum, Erdelii, and falciforme. None of the yellow species are equal to the old A. Moly, a bright June flower, but others of worth in their own way are flavum, and the straw-coloured stramineum. Good tall species, some having ornamental foliage, are karataviense, giganteum, sphærocephalum, nigrum, Suworowi, and nobile. The great drawback of the Alliums is their odour, which is, however, not always perceptible except when the flowers are cut. [Illustration: ALLIUM TRIQUETRUM] ALSTROEMERIAS There are few finer or more useful garden flowers than the Alstroemerias, whose brilliant colours and uncommon forms are great attractions. As cut flowers they are highly prized. They like a free root run, and a rather light, rich soil. The tubers should be planted in spring, nearly a foot deep, but they are easily raised from seeds sown in gentle heat in spring. Several of the species are too tender for outdoor cultivation everywhere, the hardiest being A. aurantiaca, which has yellow flowers of varying shades. Chilensis and peruviana, or versicolor, and psittacina of gardens (syn. pulchella), are all fairly hardy, psittacina possessing a singular combination of crimson and green colouring. A. pelegrina and its variety alba are exceedingly beautiful, but require frame treatment except in the south. Diazii, Ligtu, and hæmantha (syn. Simsii) are very beautiful and more or less hardy according to the climate and soil. Some lime rubbish is often useful mixed with the soil, together with a little peat or leaf-mould. ANEMONES The tuberous-rooted Anemones, which alone come under the scope of this work, form a section which embraces flowers of surpassing beauty. Generally dwarf in stature, these Windflowers give us much variety of colouring, from the pure white of A. nemorosa to the deep scarlet of A. fulgens, with the blues, purples, and other tints of A. coronaria, and the bright yellow of A. ranunculoides. Usually of easy cultivation, they are among the choicest ornaments of our gardens. A. apennina, the Apennine Windflower, is a delightful little plant, growing about six inches high and having pretty blue flowers. There are white and rose-coloured varieties. It likes a peaty soil, and prefers shade. It is a charming plant to naturalise in the woods, where it flowers in March and April. A. baldensis, the Mount Baldo Windflower, is of erect but dwarf habit, and grows about six inches high. It has little white flowers tinged with blue or red, and does well on a rockery in half-shade in sand and peat. A. blanda, the Fair, or Greek Windflower, is one of the earliest of our flowers in sunny gardens, and frequently opens soon after New Year's Day. It needs a well-drained, warm position, but flowers better on a stiffish soil. There are several forms of this very beautiful Windflower. That called cypriana has flowers which vary from white to lilac and pale blue, and the variety taurica has blooms which embrace an even deeper blue among its shades. The variety scythinica is one of the choicest. The exterior of the flower is blue, while the inside is pure white. The seeds of A. blanda should be sown as soon as ripe. A. caroliniana, a North American Anemone, now referred to heterophylla, grows about nine inches high, and has finely cut leaves and white or purplish flowers in May. It likes a shady place and peaty soil. A. coronaria is the well-known Poppy or Crown Anemone, which is so wonderfully varied in its form and colouring. We have no more effective flower than this in beds or lines in May. For cutting, its blooms are most useful. This Anemone is best propagated from seed annually. It likes a rich, light soil, and cow manure is the best to apply to it. The "St Brigid" strain is a charming one, and the flowers it produces are of great beauty. Tubers of A. coronaria of excellent quality can be purchased at a very low price, and should be planted in a sunny position about three inches deep in October or November. Seeds should be sown in March or April, and should be mixed with dry soil or sand to separate them. The double Crown Anemones are very beautiful, although not so much grown as when they were favourite florists' flowers. They are of almost every colour but yellow. A good white is named "The Bride." A. fischeriana, a Siberian plant, grows about six inches high, and has white flowers. A. intermedia is a new Anemone with yellowish flowers, and seems allied to nemorosa. A. nemorosa, our native Windflower, gives us several lovely forms. The double form, A. n. flore-pleno, is very beautiful, and there are a few large-flowered forms, besides the pretty bracteata, which has ruff-like green bracts round the flower. The variety rosea and its double form have rosy flowers, and cærulea has pretty blue blooms, but is surpassed by the charming robinsoniana of a brighter blue. Alleni is even larger and better coloured than the last-named. All these like shade and peaty soil. A. palmata is a lovely little plant, which grows from six to nine inches high, and has yellow flowers. There is a white variety, and a very rare double one. It likes a moist, peaty soil. A. ranunculoides is a pretty little native species of the nemorosa type, but with smaller yellow flowers. The variety pallida, with pale yellow blooms, is very pretty. A. stellata, or hortensis, is a pretty southern Anemone which is not so good in cold districts as A. coronaria, although pretty and varied in its colouring. It likes a warm soil and sunny position. There are pretty "Chrysanthemum-flowered" double varieties, and a double red, different from fulgens fl. pl., which blooms pretty well, even where the other forms do not succeed. All of these may be grown from seed or by division of the tuber before planting. A. fulgens is a popular Anemone, because of the beauty of its brilliant scarlet flowers. It is, however, difficult to induce to flower after the first year, and it ought to have a warm place, where the tubers will get well ripened after they flower. There is a double form, and a recent re-introduction, bicolor, has its blooms scarlet and white in stripes. Aldboroensis and græca are good forms. CHAPTER III HARDY BULBS Amaryllises--Anthericums--Antholyzas--Apios--Arisæmas--Arums-- Asphodelines--Asphodeluses--Belamcanda--Bloomerias--Brodiæas-- Bulbocodiums AMARYLLISES The only really hardy Amaryllis is A. Belladonna, the Belladonna Lily, which is a very effective plant with silvery rose flowers in late summer or early autumn. The leaves appear in spring, and as the flowers come after these have withered, the Belladonna Lily should have some carpeting plant above the bulbs. It is quite hardy if planted in a warm, sunny position, near a wall, and the tops of the bulbs at least six inches below the surface. It is safer to put some dry leaves or other light material over the bulbs in severe winters, removing this when the leaves come through. It also makes a good pot plant. The form major is even finer. ANTHERICUMS Some of the hardy plants cultivated in gardens as Anthericums are now included by botanists in other genera, but they will be more conveniently dealt with together under their popular names in gardens. Several of these are very ornamental plants, with handsome spikes of beautiful flowers. They grow well in common soil, not too dry, and are best planted in autumn or spring, at which times they may be divided when desired. Liliago, St Bernard's Lily, grows about one and a half foot high, and has pretty white flowers from May. There is a larger form, called major. A. Liliastrum, St Bruno's Lily, now Paradisea Liliastrum, and also named Czackia Liliastrum, is a still prettier plant, with larger fragrant flowers in the beginning of summer. It is taller than the foregoing. There is a fine variety called major. Ramosum (syn. graminifolium), is pretty also, though the flowers are smaller than those of A. Liliago. It flowers in June, and has white blooms on stems about two feet high, and narrow leaves. Hookeri, whose proper name is Bulbinella Hookeri, is a good plant for a moist border, and has nice yellow flowers in summer. ANTHOLYZAS Antholyzas are effective plants allied to the Gladiolus and Crocosma, and look very striking in the border. Several are hardy in the greater portion of the United Kingdom if planted about three inches deep and covered the first winter with about two inches of cocoa-nut fibre. One of the best is Antholyza paniculata, which has scarlet and yellow flowers and blooms in autumn. It has handsome leaves, and grows about three feet high, Æthiopica, Cunonia, and spicata are all effective, but paniculata seems the hardiest of all. There is a variety known as major. They can also be grown in pots for the conservatory. APIOS The only plant of the genus in cultivation is A. tuberosa, the Ground Nut, a hardy North American plant of climbing habit, with sweet-scented purple flowers in August. It is hardy in a sunny, sheltered position, and should be planted three inches deep in rich soil in late autumn or spring. ARISÆMAS These singular, Arum-like plants grow in rather sandy soil, and prefer partial shade. The hardy species are ringens (syns. præcox and Sieboldi), which has green, white, and purple flowers in spring; and triphylla, which has green and brown spathes in June and July. They are increased by seeds or division, and are best planted either early in autumn or in spring. ARUMS The favourite flower which bears the name of Lily of the Nile, or Arum Lily, is not an Arum, and will be found spoken of as Richardia africana, but there are a few true Arums which may be grown for their singularity, if not for the beauties they reveal to those who examine them carefully. The hardy species like a rich, rather sandy soil, with plenty of moisture in it. They should not be planted out the first season until spring, but may afterwards be left in the open ground. Dracontium, the "Green Dragon"; Dracunculus, the "Common Dragon"; italicum; maculatum, our native "Lords and Ladies"; orientale; palæstinum, or sanctum (only hardy in mild places); proboscideum, whose true name is Arisarum proboscideum; and tenuifolium are all hardy. ASPHODELINES These fine hardy plants are closely allied to the Asphodeluses, and may be grown in deep sandy soil with plenty of water during the growing season. The leading species are:--brevicaulis, yellow and green, about one foot high; damascena, two feet high, yellow; liburnica, wo feet high, yellow; and lutea (syn. Asphodelus luteus), about four feet high, yellow; its double form is desirable. Taurica (syn. Asphodelus tauricus) has white flowers on stems about two feet high; and tenuior, now cretica (syn. Asphodelus tenuior), has yellow blooms on a stem about a foot high. The most imposing of all is imperialis, eight feet, with reddish white flowers. ASPHODELUSES Asphodels are useful and ornamental in borders and in wild gardens. When well-grown, plants of A. ramosus, the King's Spear, are truly handsome. They like a rich, sandy loam with some manure added, and should always have plenty of water when growing. The principal species are the following:--acaulis, pink, flowering in May, an Algerian species and a little tender; fistulosus, white, in summer, and one a half foot high; and ramosus, five feet high, in summer, with white blooms striped with brown. Albus is a form of the last. BELAMCANDA PUNCTATA This distinct, Iris-like plant is usually known as Pardanthus sinensis, and is too seldom met with in gardens. It is a little tender, but may be cultivated in a sheltered position in light soil. It grows about two feet high, and has orange flowers spotted with brown, and Iris-like leaves. I prefer to plant it in spring. BLOOMERIAS Bloomerias are pretty, hardy, golden-yellow flowered plants, which are but little grown, but deserve a place in our gardens. The easiest to obtain is aurea, which grows about one foot high and has an umbel of pretty flowers, in July. The only other species, Clevelandii, closely resembles it, but has smaller flowers and more slender stems. They like a warm position in rich, sandy soil, and may be planted in early autumn about two inches deep. BRODIÆAS The Brodiæas have of late been deservedly coming to the front, and their use adds much to the charms of the garden in June and July, although growers must make up their minds to lose a few the first winter should the season be a damp one. Many are very beautiful, and well repay the little trouble they give. They vary much in height, some sending up tall scapes with many-flowered umbels, while others are quite dwarf. They like a light soil and a sunny position, and ought to be planted about two or three inches deep. Bridgesii and laxa bear some resemblance to each other, and grow from one to two feet high. They have flowers of a purple-blue. Candida resembles these, but has paler bluish flowers. Capitata is another tall grower with blue flowers, the white variety, alba, making a good companion. Coccinea, whose proper name is Brevoortia Ida-Mai, is a fine plant with tall stems and scarlet, green-tipped flowers. Congesta is a tall grower with purple-blue flowers; and other tall species with dark flowers are multiflora and californica. A pretty section with yellow flowers is made up of Hendersoni, with its yellow flowers striped with purple, crocea, and ixioides and its varieties erecta and splendens. The latter species is sometimes known as Calliprora flava or lutea. Howelli is a fine species, with a tall stem and porcelain flowers; the variety lilacina is pleasing. Lactea and pedunculata are both good white species, and the late-blooming Orcutti has light blue flowers. A charming set of dwarf forms will be found among grandiflora, Purdyi, rosea, and stellaris, with blue or purple flowers; volubilis is a curious twining species, which needs support when it makes growth. It grows about five feet high. BULBOCODIUMS The only Bulbocodium to be met with, except in a few collections, is ruthenicum, almost universally known as vernum, a pretty early spring flowering plant with rosy purple flowers, and much resembling a Crocus in bloom. It thrives in any soil, but should be protected from slugs. There is a variegated-leaved form. These should be planted about two inches deep. CHAPTER IV HARDY BULBS Calochorti and Cyclobothras--Camassias--Colchicums--Convallarias--Forcing Lily of the Valley--Corydalises--Crinums--Crocosmias and Montbretias--Crocuses CALOCHORTI AND CYCLOBOTHRAS The Calochortus, with which is now included the Cyclobothra, is one of our most beautiful bulbous plants, its appearance well justifying the names of Butterfly Tulip or Star Tulip applied to it. With a little protection in the way of rough litter, it will thrive outside in mild districts, but those who have any fear for the safety of their bulbs can grow these flowers in frames. They like a raised bed of light, dry soil in which they may be planted in September or October three inches deep, and protected with dry straw or spruce branches. When danger from severe frost is over, this may be removed and plenty of water given. If grown in frames, the lights may be removed at that time. There are now many species and varieties in cultivation, but the following form a good selection for those who wish to begin their cultivation:--albus, pulchellus, cæruleus major (these like a soil largely of leaf-mould, in half-shade), Purdyi, luteus, splendens, and any of the venustus varieties, especially those of the "Eldorado" strain. After the leaves die down, the bulbs should either be lifted and dried, or covered with a frame. CAMASSIAS The Camassias, or Quamashes, are handsome plants with long leaves and tall spikes of flowers of much beauty, although rather fugacious. The blooms are generally blue, but there is a white variety of the pretty C. esculenta and a creamy-white one called Leichtlinii. Fraseri is very pretty, and Cusickii and Engelmanni are also worth growing. They like a rather moist, peaty soil and a little shade when they bloom in May or June. COLCHICUMS Colchicums or Meadow Saffrons are of much value in the garden in autumn, and in large clumps or masses produce a splendid effect. The few spring species are of less merit and are only desirable for those who like collections of uncommon flowers. They like a rather rich soil, and a sunny position. As the leaves appear in spring, the Colchicums should be grown through grass or other herbage where the flowers can have some support. The best time for planting is immediately after the leaves become yellow. The tops of the corms or bulbs should be about three inches below the surface. Colchicums are very poisonous and must not be planted where there can be any danger of their being eaten for edible tubers. The finest in cultivation are Bornmulleri, Sibthorpii, and speciosum, in several forms, including maximum, rubrum, and the new white album. Byzantinum is a good species, and some of the double forms, ascribed to autumnale, are possibly varieties of this. These double varieties are very useful, the best being album fl. pl., roseum fl. pl., and striatum fl. pl. The ordinary autumnale, of which there are several colours from white to purple, is rather weak in the flower-tubes and is much injured by bad weather. Other good Meadow Saffrons are cilicicum, Bertoloni, Decaisnei, alpinum, variegatum, Bivoniæ, and montanum. The spring-blooming crociflorum, with white flowers lined with violet, is small and much affected by slugs. The new hydrophyllum, which likes a damp spot, is a neat little spring species; luteum, also blooming in spring, does not appear to be so hardy as any of the others. CONVALLARIAS The cultivation of the Lily of the Valley out of doors calls for no special remarks beyond saying that it likes shade and some moisture. It is also desirable to mention that there are varieties with pink flowers; with double white flowers; and with gold-striped leaves. The first of these shows its colouring much better outside than when grown under glass. Fortin's variety and prolificans are specially good forms. FORCING LILY OF THE VALLEY Lily of the Valley is easily forced, and this can be done either by lifting large clumps or purchasing crowns, and growing them in a hot-bed or by planting them in pans or pots. The crowns should be kept above the soil, and they ought to be kept moist and dark until they have made some growth, when light should be given. For early bloom at Christmas, the crowns ought to be potted in the beginning or middle of November. A temperature of from 65 to 70 degrees is suitable for forcing this favourite flower. Retarded crowns are coming into favour, and give good results with careful treatment. It is inadvisable to put these in heat at first. CORYDALISES The tuberous-rooted Corydalises are pretty plants resembling in bloom those of the genus which have a herbaceous habit. The best known are bulbosa, known also as solida and tuberosa, also called cava, of both of which there are purple or lilac and white forms. Halleri is a pretty variety of bulbosa. C. nobilis, with yellow flowers, is a handsome May-blooming plant. Semenowii and Sewerzowii are both good yellow species and Scouleri has pale purple flowers and graceful leaves. They like peaty soil and a little shade. CRINUMS The Crinums are remarkably effective flowers, and some are perfectly hardy if given a warm position, preferably one in front of a greenhouse or a wall. The best known is longifolium, also called capense, which has fine fragrant pale rose flowers. The white variety alba is also pretty. Moorei is hardy if planted as recommended, and Powelli and Powelli album are equally as hardy as longifolium. Yemense is a fine white Crinum. Some patience is often necessary until the plants are strong enough to flower. They need copious supplies of water, and should have little litter about them in the first few winters. Their fine leaves are handsome but require a place sheltered from the wind. CROCOSMIAS AND MONTBRETIAS These two flowers go naturally together, not only because Crocosmia aurea is understood to be one of the parents of the hybrid Montbretias, but also because of the resemblance of their long spikes of bright flowers. The only species of Crocosmia, that named above, is a pretty and showy plant, though it is scarcely so hardy as some of the Montbretias and requires protection with dry litter or ashes in some districts when grown in the open. Plant about six inches deep in spring. The form C. a. imperialis is very fine and C. a. maculata is also worth growing. They all make good pot plants for a cool house. [Illustration: WHITE CROCUSES IN GRASS] The hybrid Montbretias are now so well known as to need no commendation, and the constant production of new varieties renders it inexpedient to give a list of varieties. While they are perfectly hardy in some gardens, in others they must be protected in a similar manner to the Crocosmias. It is also desirable to lift them and replant a few inches apart when they show signs of flowering unsatisfactorily. Otherwise they may be treated like the Crocosmias. They like a sunny, but not too dry, place in the garden. CROCUSES Crocuses are such brilliant and beautiful flowers that one need not occupy space with their praises. Their use in beds, borders, pots, or in grass is necessary if we are to enjoy our gardens to the full. While the popular Dutch varieties, whose names will be found in any bulb catalogue, will retain their place in the garden, they will be largely supplemented by the different species by whose aid the interest in these flowers will be much increased. By their help we can not only extend the Crocus season, so as to have flowers in autumn and winter as well as in spring, but they will also give us new colours and markings of much beauty. The autumn Crocuses are of much value. The earliest is C. vallicola, with creamy flowers, but it is not very hardy and wants a frame. Speciosus and its larger form Aitchisoni are of great service with their blue-purple blooms. Zonatus, pulchellus, iridiflorus, and iridiflorus major are all good, as also are lævigatus, cancellatus, with its variety asturicus, hadriaticus, medius, nudiflorus, ochroleucus, Salzmanni, and Tournefortii. Sativus, the old Saffron Crocus, is showy, but is a shy bloomer in most gardens. Its forms, cartwrightianus, elwesianus, and Pallasii are better flowerers. Scharojani should have a frame. White varieties of some of these Croci are highly prized. The winter-flowering Croci are also very beautiful, and with the protection of a little glass over them in bad weather will give much pleasure, especially in December or January, when other out-door flowers are scarce. Chrysanthus, which varies much in colour; Imperati, a valuable species; the charming Sieberi, dalmaticus, etruscus, Gaillardotti, the yellow Korolkowii, nevadensis, the orange suterianus, and the pretty suaveolens, might be included and protected by glass covers from the storms. Following these come the spring Croci: aureus, said to be the parent of the Dutch yellow, giving us shades of some variety; while biflorus yields some very beautiful forms, such as argenteus, estriatus, Pestalozzoe, pusillus, and Weldeni. Then, apart from the Dutch varieties, vernus gives a number of forms, George Maw, Leedsi, leucorhynchus, leucostigma, and Petro Polowsky being among the most distinct of these. Alatavicus, ancyrensis, banaticus, Balansæ, corsicus, Fleischeri, gargaricus, Malyi, Olivieri, reticulatus, stellaris, susianus, the varied versicolor, and the charming tommasinianus will give many exquisite pictures. These will give little trouble if planted, in early autumn, about three inches deep in rather light, peaty soil. Growing Crocuses from seed is very interesting work, and may be productive of excellent results. Crocuses in pots should be planted close together, and the pots plunged outside until growth begins. CHAPTER V HARDY BULBS Cyclamens--Dicentras--Dieramas--Eranthis--Eremuruses--Erythroniums --Eucomises CYCLAMENS The hardy Cyclamens or Sowbreads are charming little flowers which grow well under the shade of trees or in the rock-garden. They like a rich, but light soil, with a few stones mixed with it, and to be planted an inch or two beneath the surface. The earliest and one of the best is C. Coum, which has pretty crimson flowers about January. There are a pleasing white variety and a few other colours such as rose and lilac. Libanoticum is later and has large flowers and leaves. Ibericum succeeds these, and the Atkinsi varieties are very beautiful, in various shades from white to purple. Cilicicum and alpinum are tiny little species with red or white flowers and small leaves, and are best suited for the rock-garden. Europæum, red or lilac, in August, is more difficult to grow, but likes shade and partial covering with a low carpeting plant. The best of the late species is neapolitanum, or hederæfolium, which has prettily marked leaves succeeding the red or white flowers which come in autumn. These plants can be raised from seeds sown as soon as ripe, or in spring. DICENTRAS A few of the tuberous-rooted Dicentras or Dielytras deserve mention here. Among them are Cucullaria, white and yellow, and about three inches high; and spectabilis, a well-known and handsome plant, which needs shelter from cold spring winds. They like a light, peaty soil and some shade. DIERAMAS The known species of Dierama, known in gardens as Sparaxis, are pendula and pulcherrimum. Both are graceful hardy flowers with long stems, arching over and bearing many loosely hanging bells of various shades of purple, and even white. The one mostly seen in British gardens is pulcherrimum, which has stems from four to six feet long; pendula being a little less robust. They are rather difficult to establish, and like to be planted under stones. Plant in spring about four inches deep. ERANTHIS, WINTER ACONITE The Eranthis or Winter Aconite would receive more attention were it not so cheap, but it should be largely planted in moist and shady places, which it brightens up early in the season. Either in the border, rock-garden, or grass, it is very effective when in a mass. It may be grown from seed. The species generally grown is Eranthis hyemalis, but recently a species, named E. cilicicus, which blooms later, and has deeper coloured flowers, with a less ornamental "ruff," has been introduced. It is scarcely so hardy as E. hyemalis. The Winter Aconite will grow in almost any soil which does not become too dry. It should be as short a time out of the soil as possible. EREMURUSES The Eremuri are among the noblest of our hardy flowers with tuberous roots, and are exceedingly ornamental with their magnificent spikes of flower. They may be planted in autumn or in spring, though the first is the better time, unless the plants are in pots. There is much difference of opinion among growers regarding their requirements in the way of sun or shade. Much depends upon the gardens, and the writer has seen plants equally good with a north or north-west aspect, and in other places with a due south exposure. In the latter case, however, there is more danger from spring frosts. The crown should be about two inches beneath the surface, and the soil should be light and rich, although it may have a hard bottom. Protect with dry litter, and keep a good lookout for slugs when growth begins. Cover if there is danger of frost in spring, and give plenty of water during the growing period. [Illustration: EREMURUS ROBUSTUS] The best blooming species, and among the most beautiful, is E. himalaicus, with white flowers, and sometimes eight feet high, but generally less. Robustus, with its variety elwesianus, grow taller, and have charming flesh-coloured flowers. Olgæ, with whitish flowers, is very beautiful, and Bungei is among the best of the yellow species, though caucasicus and spectabilis are also good yellow Eremuri. ERYTHRONIUMS The Erythroniums or Dog's Tooth Violets are delightful little spring flowers, which are becoming increasingly appreciated. All are very beautiful, their marbled or mottled foliage adding to their other attractions. Some of the Dutch named sorts, such as Blanca, Von Humboldt, Rubens, Rouge Trappeuse, &c., are of a large size, and are very pleasing. The colours of the common Dens-canis vary from white to rose and purple or violet, and all the plants do well in the border, but better still in grass. In warm gardens they do best in shade, but in others they require sun. The American Erythroniums are very beautiful, but should generally have a sunnier place than the others. They like a rather light soil, but americanum, which has yellow flowers, prefers one of a heavier nature, and, to induce flowering, should have its roots in a confined space. Albidum has whitish flowers; giganteum has from one to six whitish flowers with a yellow base and mottled leaves; grandiflorum has from three to ten yellow flowers on a stem, and unmottled leaves; and nuttallianum has a shorter stem with smaller flowers than the last, of which it is a variety. Hartwegi, Bolanderi, montanum, citrinum, purpurascens, and Howelli have all yellow or whitish flowers. Of these, Hartwegi is the earliest, and Howelli among the most beautiful. Revolutum, Johnsoni, and Hendersoni have all exquisite rose or purple flowers. Propullans has small rose-coloured blooms. Bolanderi is sometimes sold as Smithii or grandiflorum var. Smithii. Japonicum and sibiricum are fine Asiatic forms of Dens-canis, with handsome purple or rosy purple flowers. EUCOMISES The curious looking Eucomises are hardier than is generally believed, and may be grown in the border or in front of a greenhouse or stove, with a little covering of litter in winter. Although not showy, they are worth growing for their long spikes of whitish flowers, spotted with rose, and their long mottled foliage. They like a light, but not poor soil. Punctata is probably the hardiest, but regia and bicolor are also hardy if planted about six inches deep. CHAPTER VI HARDY BULBS Fritillarias--Funkias--Galanthuses--Galtonias--Gladioli--Hemerocallises FRITILLARIAS Although many of the Fritillarias are more distinguished for their singularity than for the brilliance of their colouring, there are few more interesting garden plants. The native species, F. meleagris, is varied in colour and in depth of markings, and the Dutch have raised some pretty named varieties. The white form, F. m. alba, is very beautiful. The varieties of the broad-leaved form of Meleagris are but little grown in Great Britain. There are now many pretty species which are quite as easy to grow, but which do not need such a damp position as suits F. meleagris best, although it grows in dry soil as well. Recurva has beautiful scarlet and yellow flowers, but is difficult to establish. Aurea, with yellow flowers and of dwarf habit, is more easily grown, and is the brightest of the yellow Snake's Head Lilies. Pallidiflora, with pale yellow flowers, is distinct; and the pretty armena gives several varieties with flowers varying from greenish to bright yellow and red. Walujewi is very fine; and Moggridgei is well worth trying also. Acmopetala is a fine, tall species; and such species as Burnati, citrina, lanceolata, lusitanica, lutea, oranensis, pudica, pyrenaica, ruthenica, and Thunbergii are all of interest to those who care for such flowers. The Crown Imperial, F. imperialis, is so well known that its noble appearance and its value for the garden need no praise. There are several varieties, which range in colour from pale yellow to deep red. In addition, we have a form, called "Crown upon Crown," which has two tiers of flowers; one with a fasciated stem; and two with variegated leaves, one having white and the other yellow margins, and bands on the leaves. These make fine plants. The smaller Fritillarias should be planted about two inches, and the Crown Imperials about four inches deep. The latter like a good rich soil, and all should be as short a time out of the ground as possible. All can be grown in pots. FUNKIAS Funkias, or Plantain Lilies, are among the most ornamental of our hardy flowers, and look exceedingly ornamental in borders or by the margin of water, where their fine leaves are in keeping with their surroundings. They all like some shade, but to induce F. subcordata (syn. grandiflora) to flower well it should have a warm, sunny place. They are best planted in spring. F. lancifolia has pretty leaves and purple flowers. There are several varieties, such as undulata, alba, variegata, and albo-marginata. Ovata has handsome large leaves and purple flowers, and the variety aurea-variegata is particularly fine. Sieboldiana has ornamental foliage and pale lilac flowers. It and the variety marmorata, with marbled foliage, are fine for groups. Fortunei and its variety variegata are both splendid plants, and glauca is another good species. GALANTHUSES The Galanthus, or Snowdrop, is one of our chastest and most beautiful flowers, and its pure blossoms are universally appreciated. It is more varied in character and in its time of blooming than many are aware of. The earliest Snowdrops come into bloom in autumn or early winter, and lovers of the flower who wish to grow these interesting varieties, which are forms of G. nivalis, the common Snowdrop, will find that G. corcyrensis and G. octobrensis are those most easily procured. They require a rather light and sandy soil. In their general appearance they closely resemble the common form of G. nivalis, but are generally recognisable by the light colour of the line which runs up the centre of the leaf. Others blooming about the same season are G. Rachelæ and G. Elsæ. These flowers show a tendency to draw nearer to the spring Snowdrops as they become established. There are too many varieties of the common Snowdrop in existence to detail, but one may name Melvillei, a splendid flower of great beauty; poculiformis, which has the inner and outer segments of almost equal length; Scharloki, which has separated spathes and a green spot at the base of each outer segment; and æstivalis and Gusmusi, two late forms, as representative, if we exclude a number of named varieties which have been raised by Mr James Allen and others. The so-called "Yellow Snowdrops" have yellow instead of green markings and ovaries. The best are G. lutescens and G. flavescens. The Italian sub-species Imperati gives us some handsome flowers, larger than those of our native Snowdrop; the finest is the variety Atkinsi, a noble Galanthus. The sub-species caucasicus is principally noteworthy as giving us the form virescens, which has its flowers all flushed with green outside. One of the finest Snowdrops is G. Elwesii, from Asia Minor, of which there are many local and seedling forms. That sold as ochrospeilus, and the large variety named Whittalli, are equal to any other of the wild forms. G. Elwesii is not long-lived in many gardens. It seems to prefer a rather moist, peaty soil. G. latifolius is a very distinct Snowdrop with broad, bright green leaves. Unfortunately, it is rather too delicate for our climate, and the newer G. Ikariæ is preferable. It has handsome bright green leaves, with arching habit, and pretty flowers. G. plicatus, the Crimean Snowdrop, is troublesome because of the unaccountable way in which it often disappears. It is, however, so fine and distinct, with its revolute leaves, that it should be tried. Hybrids between it and G. Elwesii are often hardier than either of the parents. G. byzantinus may be a hybrid of this parentage. It is needless to refer to the cultivation of the Snowdrop further than to say that it seems to do best planted in the grass, and that it is much finer in a rather moist, peaty soil. When grown in pots it should not have much heat. GALTONIAS Galtonia, or Hyacinthus, candicans is the best of the three species which constitute the genus. It is a noble plant, whose white, drooping bells look remarkably handsome, especially when associated with such plants as the scarlet Gladiolus brenchleyensis. It should be planted in spring, about six inches deep. Although hardy in most gardens, in some it must be lifted and stored in winter, or well protected with dry ashes or litter. GLADIOLI While the magnificent hybrid Gladioli are not hardy in the greater number of gardens, and are therefore referred to along with half-hardy bulbs, it will be found desirable to attempt their cultivation in warm localities as hardy flowers, planting deeply and giving them a little protection in the way of a mulch of dry litter in autumn, and removing it in spring. We have, however, a few species which are quite hardy, although some are the better of a little protection for the first winter. The hardiest of these is Gladiolus byzantinus, a species with small, rosy-purple flowers, but the following others may also be grown as ordinary border flowers: communis, segetum, serotinus, illyricus, and neglectus. Then the varieties of the early-flowering Gladioli named in catalogues may be accounted almost hardy on light dry soils, especially if protected for a winter after being planted. Such forms as Colvillei, The Bride, and almost all the other early bloomers are amenable to this treatment. Plant them about six inches deep in a sunny position. [Illustration: GLADIOLUS "THE BRIDE"] HEMEROCALLISES The Day Lilies are very ornamental plants, although their usefulness in the garden is reduced by the individual blooms only lasting for the one day. The number available for gardens has been increased by varieties raised by hybridisation and cross-breeding, and some of these are of much value. Auriantiaca major, a fine plant introduced within the last few years, is shy in flowering and wants a good soil and a warm, sunny position. It has rich orange flowers. The others grow in a sunny position in ordinary soil. Dumortieri, orange, brown outside, grows about one foot high; flava has pretty yellow blooms, on stems about two feet high, in June; fulva is taller, and has more coppery flowers. There are double-flowered and variegated-leaved varieties of fulva, the form fl.-pl. variegata being very fine. Middendorfii has orange flowers, and is about one foot high; Thunbergi resembles flava, but blooms a month later. Minor, or graminea, is of dwarf habit, and has yellow flowers. Hybrid, or seedling forms of merit are Apricot, Dr Regel, Flamid, Frances, luteola, and Sovereign. CHAPTER VII HARDY BULBS Hyacinths--Hyacinths in Pots--Scillas--Puschkinias--Chionodoxas--Chionoscillas--Muscaris This group of bulbs is one of the most valuable, their bright colours and beautiful forms giving the garden much of its attraction in their season. HYACINTHS The garden Hyacinths, the offspring of H. orientalis, are fine for beds or for groups or lines in borders, although too stiff for planting in grass. They like a good, but light, soil, well enriched with thoroughly rotted cow-manure, and may be planted three inches deep in a sunny position in October. There are so many good varieties that intending growers would do well to consult the catalogues of dealers and select from them. Mixed Hyacinths are sold at a cheap rate. HYACINTHS IN POTS AND GLASSES There need be little difficulty experienced in growing Hyacinths in pots, glasses, or jardinets, if proper care is exercised and the bulbs have been properly grown and well-matured the previous season. The pretty early varieties, popularly known as Roman Hyacinths, are very useful, and may be had in bloom at various times by potting at intervals from August onwards, about six bulbs being required for a forty-eight size pot. They like a light rich compost, such as may be made of good fibrous loam, with the addition of well-decayed cow-manure, leaf-soil, and sharp sand; three parts of the first to one each of the second and third being a good proportion. The bulbs should be barely covered, and the pots plunged in ashes and covered with these until the roots have made free growth, when the pots may go into a frame or greenhouse. When the buds show, the pots may be put in bottom heat in a temperature of sixty-five to seventy degrees. The white Roman is the one generally grown for early work, but blush, blue, and straw-coloured forms are also to be had, and form a pleasing change. The large Hyacinths may be grown in a similar compost, although one lighter and richer gives good results. They are potted with the crown just above the surface, and plunged in ashes or fibre in a pit, frame, or open ground. When the spikes show above the ashes they may be taken in and forced if desired. A temperature of about seventy degrees is the highest which should be allowed. When Hyacinths are grown in water in glasses good sound bulbs must be selected. The water should almost touch the base of the bulb, and a little piece of charcoal should be placed in the glass. After putting in the bulbs the glasses ought to be placed in a cool, dark place, until the roots make their appearance, when they may be brought into the light. Hyacinths may also be grown in moss, Jadoo, and cocoa-fibre and charcoal, and even in sand. Bulbs which have been grown in pots and glasses can afterwards be planted outside. OTHER HYACINTHS For early flowering in a sunny place in the rock-garden, the lovely H. azureus, or Muscari azureum, should be grown. It flowers in January or February, and has spikes of small blue flowers. The form freynianum is hardier, but is a little later. The charming little H. amethystinus, with blue flowers, and its white variety albus, only a few inches high, are bright May-flowering bulbs for the border or rock-garden. They like a light soil. The Scillas, or Squills, are numerous and important garden flowers. Our native Scilla nutans is pretty in the wild-garden, but it is surpassed by the larger flowers and spikes of S. campanulata or hispanica, the Spanish Squill, which is very beautiful in the garden or the grass. Like our native Scilla, it has sported into several colours, and these show some diversity of quality. The pink and the white varieties of this called rosea grandiflora, Rose Queen, and alba compacta, are all pleasing; as also are grandiflora, deep blue; Emperor, porcelain, striped blue; and aperta, blue, striped white. Less showy, but very delightful, are the early Squills, such as S. bifolia and S. sibirica. These bloom about March, and give some variety of colour. Bifolia is the more variable, and gives us the white variety, alba; a flesh-coloured one, called carnea; and a pink, named rubra. Some new forms, such as Pink Beauty and White Queen, are not in commerce. The typical bifolia and the variety taurica, both blue, are very pretty. S. sibirica is of different habit, though equally dwarf, and has larger, drooping flowers of a fine blue. The variety taurica blooms earlier. S. sibirica alba is one of the greatest acquisitions of recent years, and has charming pure-white flowers. It is a gem for the borders or for pots. Slugs are very fond of S. sibirica. S. verna is a beautiful native Squill, seldom seen in gardens, but its lilac-blue flowers are most attractive. Its white and rose forms are hardly to be met with. S. italica is a somewhat neglected April and May blooming species, with pretty conical heads of light blue flowers. The white variety alba, though scarce, is obtainable, and is a charming plant. Scilla autumnalis likes a light soil, and a warm, dry place on the rockery. It flowers in autumn, and is worth some trouble to establish for the sake of its blue flowers. The pink form, japonica, is desirable. Ciliaris, hyacinthoides, and peruviana are highly ornamental in the border, with their large heads of flowers in summer, and their broad foliage; they are, however, shy bloomers in some soils after the first year, and want thorough ripening off after blooming. A Scilla little seen in gardens is Lilio-hyacinthus, which has broad leaves, large bulbs with scales, like those of a Lily, and pretty bluish flowers. There is a rare white variety, but the pink form seems to have been lost. Puschkinias are pretty bulbous plants allied to the Scillas, and producing neat spikes of porcelain-blue or whitish flowers lined with blue. They are easily grown on light soil, but require protection from slugs when they first appear. They bloom in March, and there is only one species in cultivation--scilloides--the variety compacta having a denser spike. Chionodoxas deserve all the praise they have received, although in our climate they do not come, as a rule, when we have snow, so that the popular name of "Glory of the Snow" is not so appropriate as in their native country. The best known is C. Luciliæ, which has blue flowers with a large white eye. The greater number of the others are distinct enough for garden purposes, although classed by botanists as varieties of this species. Sardensis is a favourite, with its smaller, deeper coloured flowers, with hardly any white in the centre. Gigantea and Alleni are nearly alike, but the latter has more flowers on the stem, and is deeper in colour. Tmolusii is the latest to bloom of these varieties; it resembles Luciliæ, but is of a deeper, more purplish-blue. There are pink, and also white varieties of all these. Cretica is the least effective of the genus, with the exception of the scarce nana, which is a charming, if not showy little flower, almost white and lined with blue. The Chionoscillas are hybrids between the Chionodoxas and Scillas, S. bifolia being one of the parents of nearly all the forms in existence. These are interesting and pretty in their varied shades of blue or pink. Seedlings from Chionodoxas do not always come true to the parent, but may revert to one or other of its ancestors. Muscaris are so numerous, and many resemble each other so closely, that it is needless to attempt to grow more than a selection. Few are prettier than the common M. botryoides, the Grape Hyacinth, which drew from Ruskin words of praise familiar to many. It is very beautiful, and its only fault is its rapid increase. Some of its varieties are prized by those who grow them. The larger of the two white varieties, known as album grandiflorum, and pallidum grandiflorum, with pale blue flowers, are both pretty. M. racemosum, the Starch Grape Hyacinth, is also pretty, with its large spikes of deep-coloured flowers; there is a pink form, and a scarce white one is also met with. A fine Grape Hyacinth is M. conicum, with brilliant blue flowers in large racemes. M. Heldreichi is one of the earliest and best, with its long spike of blue flowers, each broadly margined with white. M. szovitzianum is a small, rather light-blue species of considerable beauty. M. armeniacum is a good little Grape Hyacinth. M. latifolium is very distinct, with its broad leaves. M. comosum, the Tufted Hyacinth, is an interesting plant, but it is surpassed for the garden by the form monstrosum, which has curiously pretty frizzed blooms. It ought to be more grown. The Musk Hyacinths are worth growing, if for nothing but their odour, although they are pretty as well. They are, however, not satisfactory everywhere, and often fail to bloom after the first season. They should have a warm, dry border, where the bulbs will ripen off well. Moschatum and macrocarpum are worthy of a trial at least. CHAPTER VIII HARDY BULBS Irises--Kniphofias--Lapeyrousias--Leucojums IRISES As a separate volume of this series to treat fully of the Iris is contemplated, only a brief _résumé_ of the genus, with a few general cultural hints, are required at the present time. Irises, which supply plants suitable for almost any position in the garden, are naturally divided into two great groups, the first having a short rhizomatous root-stock, and the other one of a bulbous character. Each of these is divided into separate sections, about which it may be said that no common treatment can be dictated. The sub-genus Apogon, which comprises the beardless Flag Irises, embraces plants which require totally different treatment. Thus, unguicularis, or stylosa, likes a dry, stony soil, while sibirica and others prefer a moist one. The plants of the sub-genus Pardanthopsis have flowers like the Apogon Irises, but are without the crest. They generally prefer a moist, well-drained soil. The Oncocyclus, or "Cushion" Irises, are much prized for their singular beauty, but are not easily grown in gardens, unless in frames, where they can have a long period of rest before they start into growth in winter, or lifted and dried. This rest should begin immediately after they flower. They like lime in the soil. The Regelia Irises form the link between the last and the Pogon Irises, and should have similar treatment to the Cushion Irises. The Evansea section contains some pretty plants, which often do well in dry places. They have a pretty crest on the flower. The plant grown by the Japanese on the roofs of their houses (I. tectorum) belongs to this group. Pseudevansea Irises have a beard which springs from a rudimentary crest, and otherwise much resemble the Evansea section, but few are in cultivation. The Pogon Irises form the most important section of non-bulbous Irises in gardens, and are distinguished by the beard down the claw and lower part of the blade. They will thrive almost anywhere, but should, as a rule, have sun. They do well on walls and roofs. The familiar "German" Irises will give a good idea of the appearance of all the plants of this sub-genus. The bulbous Irises are very beautiful, but details as to their treatment cannot be given now. For cutting, the Spanish Iris (I. Xiphium) is very useful and it makes a fine bedding or border plant. It prefers a rather dry soil, but should be lifted and replanted every two years or so. The English Iris (I. Xiphioides) prefers a stronger and moister soil, and is a beautiful plant in the garden. I. reticulata and its forms belong to this section and are charming in the garden or in pots, though liable to a troublesome disease, which is best checked by lifting the bulbs and destroying those which are much affected. The sub-genus Gynandiris contains only one species, I. Sisyrinchium, which is not absolutely hardy and should be grown in a frame. Several of the Juno section, such as persica, alata, and palæstina, are best in frames, but I. orchioides is quite hardy and makes a fine border or rockery plant. The Hermodactylus section consists of I. tuberosus, which is native to some parts of the South of England, and is a curious and interesting species worth a place in gardens. KNIPHOFIAS The Kniphofias or Tritomas are among the most brilliant of our garden flowers and are of gorgeous effect in lines or masses in the garden. The greater number are hardy in most gardens, particularly if the crowns of the tuberous roots are planted about three inches below the surface of the soil, and the old leaves fastened together at the top to throw off winter rains. One of the most dependable species is Aloides (syn. Uvaria) of which there are many varieties varying in colour from pale yellow to deep red. Grandis, nobilis, and Saundersii are all good forms. Burchelli, a dwarf species with red and yellow flowers is pretty; caulescens, corallina, foliosa, Nelsoni, and modesta are also worth growing. Macowani and pumila are pleasing dwarf species. There are many hybrid forms, such as Autumn Glory, Chloris, Clotho, Diana, Lachesis, Obelisque, Osiris, Pfitzeri, Robert Cannell, and Star of Baden Baden. Rooperi is an almost continuous bloomer; Tuckii is a free flowerer; and Leichtlini and the variety distachya are distinct Kniphofias. These noble flowers should be planted in spring. They are easily raised from seeds. They like plenty of moisture in summer. LAPEYROUSIAS The Lapeyrousias or Anomathecas are brilliant little bulbous plants with blood-red flowers which look remarkably effective in shady places. They are hardy in warm places in light soil, but in cold localities should be grown in a frame. They ought to be planted two or three inches deep and covered with litter for a winter or two. They produce seeds freely and these should be scattered in suitable places and covered over with a little soil. The one usually seen is L. cruenta, but there is also one, called grandiflora, with larger flowers. [Illustration: SNOWFLAKES] LEUCOJUM The Leucojum, or Snowflake, ought to be more largely grown in the flower garden or in grass, where its white, drooping bells look charming. The Spring Snowflake, L. vernum, is among the most beautiful with its large, handsome white flowers, each tipped with a green spot on each outer segment. There are several forms, that sold as carpaticum being early and pretty. There are also yellow-spotted forms which are of much beauty, and one of these seems to be the true carpaticum. Miss Hope's variety is the latest Spring Snowflake. The Summer Snowflake is less pleasing because of its habit, but it is a pretty and useful flower. There are two or three varieties of L. æstivum, one known as L. pulchellum being a little earlier than the other L. æstivum and having smaller flowers. The autumn Snowflake, L. autumnale or Acis autumnalis, is an exquisite little bulb with white blossoms, tinged with rose. It flowers in July or August and likes a sandy soil; the others will grow in any good compost. Plant about two inches deep, and as soon as they can be procured. CHAPTER IX HARDY BULBS Liliums--Liliums in Pots--Malvastrum--Merenderas--Millas--Narcissi--Narcissi in Pots LILIUMS The Lily is the noblest of bulbous plants, and it is to be regretted that its cultivation often presents insuperable difficulties in many gardens. There are a few species which can be grown almost anywhere, it is true, but the greater number require special conditions of soil or climate. As this noble plant may form the subject of a separate work in this series, I shall only give a brief summary of the leading species and their requirements for the benefit of the general reader. The easiest to grow in the garden are those which are satisfied with ordinary, well-dug soil, with the addition of some leaf-soil, if it is heavy, or some loam, if light. This class comprises the favourite candidum, the Madonna Lily, of which there are several varieties, such as one with a golden margin to the leaves; spicatum, also known as flore pleno, which has partly double flowers; and striatum, with flowers streaked purple outside. There are also chalcedonicum, with scarlet "Turk's-cap" flowers and its variety Heldreichii; the dark-hued hybrid dalhansoni; bulbiferum; the pretty concolor, with its forms Coridion and pulchellum; the brilliant croceum; dauricum, known as umbellatum in some gardens; the pretty elegans (syn. thunbergianum); the good yellow Hansoni; and that comparatively new Lily, Henryi. In this soil, also, can be grown the exquisite longiflorum, with its trumpet-shaped blooms, and its varieties giganteum, eximium (Wilsoni of some), foliis albo-marginatus, Takesima, Harrisii, and præcox. The hybrid Marhan thrives in the same soil, as also do the typical Martagon; the pretty pomponium; the strongly-scented pyrenaicum; and the ever popular speciosum (syn. lancifolium), of which there are so many good varieties, such as album Krætzeri, album novum, Melpomene, roseum superbum, cruentum and punctatum. To these may be added the pretty tenuifolium; the well-known tigrinum, with its forms splendens, Fortunei, and fl. A selection of varieties of L. elegans would include such as Alice Wilson, alutaceum, atrosanguineum, aurantiacum, Batemani, often called L. Batemanniæ, Horsmanni, Flore-pleno, Prince of Orange, Van Houttei, and Wilsoni. There are also a number of varieties of umbellatum. The following Lilies require a deep and well-dug friable loam, lightened with sand and leaf-soil if of a clayey nature:-- Alexandræ, a fine new Lily; the splendid auratum with its many forms, of which platyphyllum, rubrovittatum, virginale and Wittei may be named; Bolanderi; Brownii; callosum; columbianum, giganteum and the allied cordifolium; the fine Humboldtii; the rather unsatisfactory japonicum, better known as Krameri; japonicum Colchesteri; Leichtlinii; Lowii, neilgherrense. Martagon album; M. dalmaticum; M. cataniæ; nepalense; pulchellum; the pretty new rubellum; rubescens; sulphureum; monadelphum or szovitzianum--a well proved species--Wallacei, and washingtonianum. Although these all do with the compost named, unfortunately some are almost impossible to grow in ordinary gardens. The following like a moist peaty soil, although some can be grown without this, but it is safer to study their likings:--canadense with its varieties; carniolicum; Grayii; maritimum; pardalinum, with its varieties californicum, Bourgæi, Johnsoni, minor, and Michauxii; Parryi; parvum; philadelphicum; Roezlii; and superbum. In planting Lilies, they should have the crowns from four to six inches below the surface, and should be surrounded with some sharp sand. In heavy soil it is desirable to plant the bulbs on their sides. LILIES IN POTS Lilies make beautiful pot plants, and in pots their cultivation is very simple. Fibrous loam, peat, and a little decayed manure and sand will grow them well. It is a good practice not to cover the bulbs too deeply at first, and to add soil afterwards as growth is made and roots formed at the base of the stems. Watering must be carefully applied, so as to give enough without souring the soil. Plunge the pots in frames, and bring them in when growth is so far completed, or place outside in sheltered positions until they show flower. Repotting is best done as soon as the stems are quite withered. MALVASTRUM GILLIESII This is a very pretty little trailing rock garden plant, with tuberous roots, and only a few inches high. It likes a sunny place, but must not suffer from drought in summer. The flowers are of a bright crimson-purple. It is hardy in a sheltered rockery. MERENDERAS The Merenderas are closely related to the Colchicums, and are amenable to similar treatment. The species grown in gardens are M. Bulbocodium, four inches, lilac, blooming in autumn; caucasica, blooming in May, and having rosy flowers; and persica, which flowers in late autumn and has pale lilac blooms. MILLA The Millas are pretty bulbous plants, but the only one worth growing as a hardy bulb is M. uniflora, often called Triteleia uniflora, which has white flowers, shaded with blue, in spring. The form violacea has porcelain-blue flowers striped with a deeper blue. The Milla can be grown in the border or rock-garden, but it likes the edge of a gravel path, where it will soon establish itself. Plant in early autumn with the crown about two inches deep. NARCISSI It is impossible to treat properly of the Narcissus in the space available in a work of this character, but as it is proposed to publish a volume devoted entirely to this charming flower, it will be sufficient to give a chapter dealing generally with the flower and its ways. Generally speaking, the cultivation of the Narcissus out of doors is without difficulty, if we can give it a free, loamy soil, and a pure air. The exceptions are few, except that there are some species which are troublesome, and apparently resent being grown in cultivated ground, and die off there. Some of these will thrive on grass or on rockwork, while they die in the border. The white trumpet Narcissi are among the most troublesome in this respect, and some find it necessary to plant them on grassy banks facing the north. This is not desirable in the north, and it will be well to try various positions before finally giving up the cultivation of the fascinatingly beautiful white trumpet Narcissi. The Hoop-petticoat Narcissi, as the forms of N. Corbularia are called, are difficult to establish. Those who wish to attempt them may begin first with citrina, the sulphur one. Many find them thrive best planted where the roots can reach water, such as in light, peaty soil, above a milk pan sunk in the soil. The writer has, however, frequently seen plants established in the border or rock-garden. Triandrus albus, the exquisite "Angel's Tears," is troublesome to establish also. It ought to be planted in a crevice of the rockery in gravel, sand, and peat. The form Triandrus pulchellus, although scarce, is a much better grower. The beautiful little N. moschatus, of Haworth, is difficult to grow except on grass; and others which thrive better thus planted than in the ordinary border are named by Messrs Barr. Their list may be safely followed, although one's experience of several is that they grow quite well in a border; much, however, depending upon the character of the soil and how it is drained. The varieties are:--Achilles, Countess of Annesley, Spurius, Thomas Moore, Pseudo-narcissus, the English Lent Lily, variiformis, and pallidus præcox. Few of the Tazetta Narcissi are suitable for outdoor culture, although in the milder districts of England and Ireland they may be grown in the open. As the Narcissus prefers a soil without animal manure within reach of its roots, it is better to cultivate it in land manured for a previous crop, or to add artificial fertilisers, than cow or horse manure. Experienced growers prefer a small quantity of basic slag or bone meal. In light soils a sprinkling of sulphate of potash is applied annually in autumn. Planting is best done early in autumn, September being a good month, but the varieties of N. poeticus should be in earlier if possible. Occasional lifting and replanting is advisable. NARCISSI IN POTS In cultivating the Narcissus in pots or boxes a somewhat similar method may be adopted as in the case of Hyacinths in pots, but they will generally stand more forcing. The Tazetta, or Bunch-flowered Narcissi, such as Paper White, are largely used, and can be had very early in bloom. CHAPTER X HARDY BULBS Ornithogalums--Oxalises--Pæonias--Ranunculuses--Romuleas--Sanguinarias --Sternbergias--Schizostylis--Tecophilæas--Trilliums ORNITHOGALUMS The Ornithogalums, or Stars of Bethlehem, are not general favourites in gardens, because of their seeding propensities, which make them difficult to keep within bounds. Several are very pleasing and deserve some attention, because of their white and green flowers. Umbellatum, the common species, is only suitable for the wild-garden, but the little tenuifolium is pretty, as also are fimbriatum and montanum. Nutans is pretty also, but increases too rapidly. Pyramidale is a fine plant about two feet high. They like a sandy soil and to be planted about two inches deep. None of the yellow Ornithogalums are hardy. OXALISES The Oxalises, or Wood Sorrels, are bright little plants, although their value is reduced by their flowers only opening in sun. There is a pretty lilac variety of O. Acetosella, our common Wood Sorrel, and Bowiei and floribunda, with rose flowers, are quite hardy in light soil. Lobata, a beautiful little yellow species, flowering in October, is also hardy, as well as the exquisite white enneaphylla. Tetraphylla, lasiandra, l. alba, and violacea may also be tried with every prospect of success. Give a sunny position in light soil, and if planted in autumn cover slightly the first winter. PÆONIAS The herbaceous Pæonias, which are such brilliant ornaments of our gardens in May and June, would require more space to do them justice than we can command. They like a rich, well-manured soil, inclining to heaviness and thoroughly trenched before planting in early autumn. After the plants are in position mulch the ground with rotten manure, and when growth is being made in summer give liberal applications of manure water to induce free growth. The crowns should be a little below the surface, and plant if possible where the sun does not reach them until a little before noon. The list of superior varieties is extremely extensive, and those thinking of purchasing Pæonias should either select the plants while they are in bloom, or from the catalogues of dealers who grow these flowers largely. The single forms are very beautiful also, though they hardly keep so long in bloom. Many of the species are also attractive plants, and where there is sufficient space a selection of these should be made and grown. The common Peony of old gardens is P. officinalis. RANUNCULUSES At one time a favourite florist's flower, the Ranunculus has fallen greatly out of favour, and there are now few named sorts grown. It is, however, well worth growing for its beauty as a garden flower and also for cutting. A bowl of pure white Ranunculi with the foliage of Heuchera Richardsoni, or some other dark-leaved plant, is a charming thing, and many equal beautiful effects can easily be produced. The florist's Ranunculus was derived from R. asiaticus, and there are flowers of almost all colours among the double varieties which have been raised. A good strain of mixed Ranunculuses will produce many good flowers at a small expense. The principal forms now grown are the Turban or Turkish and the Persian, which are varied in their colours. Those named R. asiaticus superbus are large and showy, if a little coarse to those accustomed to the more refined flowers of the others. They can be grown in an ordinary border well manured, and can be planted from October to February. In planting choose a dry day, and keep the crowns two inches below the surface. Care must be taken to keep the crown up, and to cover this with a little sand after planting. Cover with some litter in winter, and water freely when coming into bloom. Lift when the foliage becomes yellow, and dry off in a cool and airy place, storing the tubers in dry sand. There are a few other tuberous-rooted species of Ranunculus worth growing in the garden. Of these the best are the double form of the native R. bulbosa which has yellow flowers; R. chærophyllus, yellow; R. monspeliacus, yellow; and R. millefoliatus grandiflorus, the same colour. These are easily grown in the border in ordinary soil. ROMULEAS Romuleas are remarkably pretty little bulbs with Crocus-like flowers, from March to July, and grassy leaves. They require warm, sunny spots on rockwork, and in cold localities should be grown in a frame. They like sandy soil. Among the best and hardiest are R. Bulbocodium, with blue and yellow flowers. The variety pylium is even prettier. Columnæ is pretty with its white flowers. Clusii, lavender, and speciosa, rosy violet, are both pretty. Plant in autumn two inches deep, and protect in winter. SANGUINARIAS S. canadensis, the only species, is a pretty little plant, known as the Bloodroot, Red Puccoon, or Red Indian Paint, and perfectly hardy. It has white flowers with a yellow centre in April, and the leaves are not fully developed until after the flowers. It likes a rich moist soil, but can be grown in the border. The best form is grandiflora, and the one called multipetala has many narrow petals. There is said to be a pinkish form. STERNBERGIAS The Sternbergias are handsome autumn flowers with blooms like a glorified yellow Crocus, which appear before the leaves. The best for the open air is S. lutea angustifolia, a narrow-leaved variety of the common lutea. Others of much beauty are fischeriana and macrantha, the latter having very large flowers. In order to make them flower they need a dry, sunny position in soil with limestone or lime rubbish. They should be planted in summer about two inches deep. SCHIZOSTYLIS COCCINEA The Kaffir Lily is a valuable late blooming plant in a warm, sunny border, where it blooms in autumn, when its bright scarlet flowers in long spikes are much appreciated. Although it likes a warm position, it must not suffer from drought in its growing period. Plant in spring about three inches deep. It makes a good pot plant for a cool house. TECOPHILÆAS The beautiful little Tecophilæas are quite hardy in light soils, but are, because of their scarcity, usually grown in frames or in pots in greenhouses. They have pretty Crocus-like flowers of blue and white, and should be planted in rich, light soil in a sunny position, well-sheltered from wind, or in a frame. Slugs are very partial to them, and must be carefully guarded against. The leading species are cyano-crocus and violæflora. TRILLIUMS The Trilliums, or Trinity Flowers, are very ornamental plants, and are so distinct in form that they please everyone. They like shade and a moist peaty soil. Grandiflorum is a general favourite, with its large flowers of pure white. There is also a rose-coloured form named grandiflorum roseum. Even finer than grandiflorum is sessile var. californicum, which is considerably taller, and has fine white flowers, those of the typical sessile being purple. Cernuum, erectum, erectum album, nivale, petiolatum, recurvatum, and stylosum are all pretty, the last being the latest to bloom, and well worth growing. Plant in autumn or spring, with the crown one or two inches below the surface of the soil. CHAPTER XI HARDY BULBS Tulips--Zephyranthes TULIPS It is a matter for regret that the true beauty of the Tulip has been so long obscured by the manner of its planting in stiff lines or beds, where the flowers stood in almost regimental array, with little but their own foliage to tone down the superfluous brilliancy of the mass of colour. It is emphatically a flower which requires association with other plants to show its true value. Grown in bold clumps in the mixed border, or in irregular groups among the rougher grass, it gives a much better effect. Individually, the Tulips are very beautiful, and their value in pots is of a high degree. Of course those who grow the English florist's Tulip ought to continue to grow them in beds and in lines, so that they can be protected from frost and shaded readily from strong sunshine. For ordinary gardens, however, an informal grouping will be the most satisfactory and pleasing. The species are very varied in their character, and many of the dwarfer are delightful rock-garden plants. A good, loamy soil is suitable for all classes of Tulips, but where it is heavy a little coarse sand may be placed about the bulb. It is well to plant comparatively early, from the beginning of October to the end of November being the most suitable time. In gardens subject to late frosts, it is better to plant in November than in the earlier month. Three or four inches is the depth generally recommended, but on light soil an additional inch may be given. Six inches apart is a good distance at which to plant the bulbs for ordinary effect. The English florist's Tulip ought to have a good loamy soil, the bulbs being planted three inches deep and four apart in lines. The end of October to the middle of November is the best time, but the bulbs should never be planted unless the soil is in a good working condition. Some litter should be put over the beds in severe frosts, and an awning erected over them at the blooming-time to preserve the flowers from rain and strong sun. There are a number of details connected with the florist's Tulip and its cultivation which cannot be given in the space of this work, but Mr Bentley's little pamphlet, entitled "The English Tulip," will give all necessary information not to be found here. The florist's Tulip can be grown in a border, but its effect there is not so good as that of some of the self-coloured flowers. The early Tulips are the most prized for pot-culture, but the others may be used also, although not generally so amenable to forcing. They should be planted at the rate of from three to five bulbs in a five-inch pot, according to the size of the bulbs. After planting, the pots should be plunged in ashes or cocoa-fibre until they have made root-growth, when they may be brought in as required and subjected to gentle forcing. Watering must be carefully attended to at this time. When a number of flowers are required for jardinettes, etc., the Tulips may be grown closely together in boxes. When they show colour, they may be lifted with roots intact, and planted in moss in the receptacles in which they are required. [Illustration: TULIPS CARPETED BY ARABIS] The most valuable Tulips for early work are the early Dutch varieties, many of which are very beautiful and embrace much variety of colour. The varieties of Duc Van Thol and Pottebakker are largely used for early bloom, but other good varieties are Bacchus, Canary Bird, Keizerskroon, Mon Tresor, and Proserpine. Following these are the popular Artus, Cottage Maid, Crimson King, and many others. As, however, almost all the bulb-dealers give the blooming periods in their lists, it would only take up space unnecessarily to detail them. A special selection of the best for pot work or for forcing would include such varieties as the Duc Van Thols, Couleur de Cardinal, Globe de Rigaut, Keizerskroon, the Pottebakkers, Royal Standard, and Samson, all reliable bloomers where they are properly cultivated. Double Tulips last a little longer in bloom, but they do not lend themselves so well to the decoration of the garden, and many people do not care for their rather heavy-looking blooms. Good varieties for pots and forcing are Artus, Brutus, Duchess of Parma, Proserpine, Rose tendre, Thomas Moore, and Van der Neer. For bedding there are Cramoisie superbe, La Candeur, Murillo, Rex Rubrorum, and Titian, besides a number more. Variegated leaved Tulips are pretty in beds, even before the blooming time, but they are not much grown in this country. The "Cottage Garden" Tulips grow yearly in favour, and they deserve it because of their beauty and their general hardiness, which enables the greater number to be permanent border flowers. There are a great many of much beauty, and a brief selection is necessarily incomplete. It includes the curious acuminata, Didieri, elegans, Faerie Queen, flava, Gala Beauty, gesneriana, Golden Beauty, Golden Crown, ixioides, macrospila, maculata, Picotee, retroflexa, sylvestris major, vitellina, and York and Lancaster. The beautiful species of wild Tulips give much variety, and among the desirable plants may be named Batalini, biflora, clusiana, Greigi, kolpakowskiana, Korolkowi bicolor, Leichtlini, linifolia, ostrowskyana, persica, præcox, Sprengeri, and violacea. Many of these are capital for the rock-garden. The Parrot Tulips are also showy in the rock-garden or for hanging baskets, where the large, fantastic flowers droop over and look very curious with their strange colouring and laciniated petals. They are rather unreliable bloomers. The Darwin Tulips are very effective and beautiful flowers. They belong to the breeder class of the florist's Tulips, but are of a strain with more brilliant self-colours than the ordinary breeders. They are good growers, and promise to do well as border flowers. The English florist's Tulip, while very fascinating in its way, is not of so much value for the garden as the self-coloured forms, and there are a good many details to be followed by those who wish to cultivate it as it deserves. These will be found in Mr Bentley's work, already mentioned. These English Tulips are divided into three classes with rectified or variegated blooms, as well as another, which consists of what are known as "Breeders," which, like the others, have a stainless base, but have not developed the markings of the other classes. Bizarres have a yellow ground and yellow base, of various shades, with orange, scarlet, crimson, black, or brown markings on the ground; Bybloemens have a white base and ground, the latter being marked with black, violet, purple, and lilac to lavender; while the Roses, which have a white base and ground, have the markings of pink, rose, scarlet or crimson. ZEPHYRANTHES Zephyranthes, or Amaryllis Candida is the only really hardy member of this genus in British gardens which are not specially favoured with a mild climate, and it will seldom prove a permanent success unless planted in dry soil in front of a greenhouse or stove and exposed to the sun. It has beautiful white flowers in autumn, and should be planted about three inches deep in spring. CHAPTER XII HALF-HARDY BULBS Acidantheras--Albucas--Alstroemerias--Androstephiums--Besseras-- Boussingaultias--Bravoas--Cypellas--Dahlias--Galaxias--Geissorhizas and Hesperanthas ACIDANTHERAS The only species of Acidanthera which has been introduced hardy enough to be classed with half-hardy bulbs is A. bicolor, a pretty plant with spikes of whitish flowers with the lower segments spotted purple. It may be grown outside in a warm border if treated like a half-hardy Gladiolus, or better, under glass as recommended for the Ixia. ALBUCAS Only a few of the Albucas, which come near to the Ornithogalums, deserve cultivation; these can be grown outside in warm districts alone, on a raised bed of rather light soil, in a sunny position, protected in winter by a layer of litter. They are, however, better in the greenhouse or frame. Aurea, yellow; fastigiata, white; and Nelsoni, white, are the best in cultivation. They bloom in summer, and may be planted three inches deep in autumn. ALSTROEMERIAS Apart from the hardier Alstroemerias, which may also advantageously be grown in frames or in cold greenhouses, there are several others which are pleasing occupants of frames and cool greenhouses, from which severe frosts are excluded. The least hardy of all is A. caryophyllæa, which should always have a little heat, and does best in a warm greenhouse or stove. Eminently suitable for the frame or the greenhouse without heat are the charming pelegrina, white or yellow, striped with rose, and with a yellow spot on its segments; and its white variety, alba, a lovely thing. Then there are Errembaultii, a pretty hybrid, white, spotted purple; pulchra, purple, white, and yellow, with red spots, and brasiliensis, with its reddish yellow flowers spotted with brown. At one time these were more grown, and a renewed demand would bring many other species into cultivation. A light rich soil is suitable for all, with plenty of water while growing but very little afterwards. ANDROSTEPHIUMS These are pretty bulbous plants resembling the Brodiæas, and hardy if planted six or seven inches deep, but better grown in a frame. They like a sunny position and a light soil. The species are breviflorum and violaceum. BESSERAS Few people know the Bessera, which is a pretty little bulbous plant from Mexico, bearing some resemblance to the Scillas, but having bright scarlet or scarlet and white flowers. It grows from one and a half to two feet high, and may be treated similarly to the Babianas. It is one of the many half-hardy bulbs which might be more widely cultivated with advantage. BOUSSINGAULTIAS B. baselloides is a rather pretty trailing plant which gives clusters of white flowers in late autumn. In a few districts it is hardy, but it ought usually to have the protection of a frame in winter, or to have its tuberous roots stored in sand until spring, when it may be planted about three inches deep. It likes a rich, but light soil. BRAVOAS Bravoa geminiflora, the only one of the three species in cultivation, is hardy in warm places in the south, but for most gardens its proper treatment is that of a frame bulb. It has beautiful orange-red, drooping flowers in July, on stems from one and a half to two feet high. It likes a light, sandy soil, and may be planted about three inches deep in autumn. CYPELLAS These are pretty plants allied to the Iris, and well suited for growing in pots in the greenhouse as well as for frame cultivation. They may also be planted out in spring, and lifted in autumn and potted. They like a light, sandy soil, and may be planted two inches deep in pots, or three inches if in a frame. In the latter it is well to give them a little covering in frosty weather. They may be raised from seeds or increased by offsets. Cypellas grow from one to three feet high. The most desirable are Herberti, yellow; peruviana, yellow, spotted red-brown; and plumbea (syn. Pohlia platensis), lead-coloured, with a tinge of yellow in the centre. DAHLIAS The Dahlia is too extensive a subject to permit of its being fully considered in the limits of this work, but, without entering upon particulars regarding the various sections and varieties of the flower, it may be helpful to give a few broad cultural details for the benefit of those who grow the flower to a limited extent. It is a plant which must have generous treatment, and to give this it is essential that the ground should be deeply prepared by digging, and thoroughly manured with well-decayed manure. The plants may be put out as soon as danger from severe frost is past, and they should be allowed plenty of room. For exhibition purposes from five to six feet apart will be found a suitable distance. The plants should be staked immediately, and covered at nights when there is a prospect of a cold night occurring. Pots filled with moss or hay may be placed on the top of the stakes and examined regularly for earwigs. When the plants begin to make growth, the soil ought to be well mulched with half-rotted manure. Watering should never be neglected, and as the plants grow they must be properly tied to the stakes. Thinning and disbudding are necessary to secure the largest possible blooms for exhibition flowers. These may also require to be shaded and protected from bad weather. When the plants are destroyed by frost in autumn, they may be cut down to within six inches of the surface of the soil, and, after leaving them in the ground for a few days, lifted and stored out of the reach of frost. Dahlias are propagated by seeds, division of the tubers, and by cuttings, the two last being the only way of propagating named varieties. Seeds are sown in pans or pots in March under glass. When the young plants can be handled, prick them out into small pots and grow under glass until large enough to plant out in the beds. Old tubers may be divided if a portion of the crown with an eye or bud is attached to each piece. These must be put into small pots and grown on for a short time. Cuttings are easily struck from February to August. In spring the old tubers are placed in heat with the crowns above the soil, and the shoots taken off when about three inches long, and struck in heat in single pots of light soil. Cuttings taken off in summer and rooted in small pots, form good "pot roots" for planting out in spring. GALAXIAS Few people grow these pretty little bulbous plants, which do well in a frame with some protection in winter, although, perhaps, even better in pots in a cool greenhouse. They bloom in May, the clusters of flowers being almost stemless. Graminea has yellow flowers, and the other species, ovata, has purple-violet blooms. They belong to the Irids. A sandy peat is the soil they prefer. GEISSORHIZAS AND HESPERANTHAS These are closely related to each other, and require practically the same cultural treatment. The Geissorhiza is a pretty little plant, but both it and the Hesperantha seem a little more tender than the Ixia and do best with greenhouse treatment. They may be potted and grown in the way recommended for Ixias under glass. Both have loose spikes of flowers. They bloom in May or June. Practically the only Geissorhiza grown in Britain is G. rochensis, a charming thing, with Tyrian blue flowers with crimson blotches, but alba, white; and violacea, light blue, are also procurable; while a demand for them would probably bring out humilis, yellow; purpureolutea, purple-black and yellow; secunda, red, rose, and white, with a number of others from South Africa. The Hesperanthas are even less grown, but one may meet with graminea and pumila, white, and pilosa, rose, out of the twenty-six or so species known. Their drawback is that they flower in the evening. CHAPTER XIII HALF-HARDY BULBS Gladioli--Ixias--Sparaxises--Babianas--Morphixias--Tritonias GLADIOLI Although there are some districts in which the greater number of the Gladioli may be grown as hardy bulbs and left in the same position for years without removal, in the vast majority of British gardens they are more satisfactorily treated as half-hardy, and are lifted and replanted annually. They are less liable to disease, and less apt to be injured by frost in severe winters. Those, however, who wish to establish them permanently, will do well to plant rather deeper than is usually recommended--say, eight inches from the crowns to the surface of the soil. The general cultivation of Gladioli is very simple. They may be grown well in any good loam, enriched in autumn by a supply of properly rotted animal manure being dug in deeply. In the case of the pretty early-flowering Gladioli, which are often satisfactory when permanently planted, they are put into the ground in late autumn, and protected with a layer of two inches of dry litter or cocoa-nut fibre. The greater number of the species, like the exquisite hybrid Gladioli, may be planted in April or early May. The corms should be about six inches deep, and are best planted by means of a trowel to form the holes, unless the soil has become too solid, in which case it ought to be forked over before planting the corms. For exhibition they may be planted about six inches apart, but for border decoration they look well in groups of three or five at a closer distance. Many charming effects may also be produced by planting Gladioli in beds, with a groundwork formed by a low plant of contrasting or harmonising colours. Other good effects may also be made by arranging them with other tall flowers. Gladioli should be staked early, and it is desirable to put in sticks when the corms are planted, unless they are in a position where the long stakes will look unsightly. In this case short sticks may be placed where the proper stakes are afterwards to go, so as to avoid injuring the corms when inserting these. They should be timeously secured with roffia or other soft material. Spikes of bloom intended for exhibition ought to be shaded and protected from the weather by a glass fronted box, with the lower portion of the glass shaded by whitening or canvas as the lower blooms open. When the leaves become yellow the corms may be lifted and, after drying slightly in a cool airy place, be stored free from frost until planting time. The leading section of Gladioli is that formed by the gandavensis varieties, charming hybrids, which through a long period have been constantly improved until their almost perfect flowers have been produced. Even the best of the present day are being gradually superseded by novelties, and a selection of a few would only mislead. Named varieties procured from reliable firms will all give satisfaction, and seedlings of great beauty can be bought at a moderate price, and will often give flowers suitable even for exhibition. The scarlet G. brenchleyensis is indispensable for garden decoration. The Lemoinei section, from G. purpureo-auratus and gandavensis varieties, is also very important, though it is not so perfect in form as the gandavensis flower. These Lemoinei varieties are characterised by fine blotches on some of the segments. They are slightly hardier than the preceding. These are still being much improved. The nanceianus section comprises a number of very showy flowers, particularly suited for garden decoration or for cutting for large vases. The plants are tall, and the blooms are of great size. The Childsii varieties are also very effective plants in the garden, and are of fine colours. Several new hybrids are at present in course of improvement and will, in time, add much to the beauty of our gardens. The species are not much grown, but there will be found among them a number of very pretty plants, which only await a demand to be readily obtainable. I have only space to refer to such as alatus, cardinalis, galeatus, hirsutus, dracocephalus, præcox, ringens, Saundersii, psittacinus, purpureo-auratus, and tristis, as all being interesting and not devoid of beauty of their own. The hybrid Gladioli, as well as the species, make good pot plants which may be treated in a similar way to such bulbs as Hyacinths. Named varieties are propagated by offsets, by division of the corms, each portion having an eye attached, and by "spawn," the cormlets at the base of the corms which are grown on until they reach flowering size. Gladioli are also raised from seeds, sown in pans, or in the open ground in spring. IXIAS, SPARAXISES, BABIANAS, MORPHIXIAS, AND TRITONIAS For convenience of treatment, these pretty and useful bulbs may well be grouped together. They are possessed of brilliant colouring, and few things are prettier or attract more attention than beds of these flowers. They are also lovely pot plants, and can be well grown in the cool greenhouse or conservatory. In some places they are hardy and may be left without much attention, but, as a general rule, they need the little care now recommended to bring them to perfection. For their cultivation, a bed with a south aspect, of rich, light loam, raised six inches above the level of the garden, is to be preferred, special care being taken that the drainage is perfect. The bulbs should be planted from October to January, at a depth of from three to four inches, and about three inches apart. If the foliage does not appear until spring, a little dry litter is all the protection required, but should it pierce through the soil earlier, a mat or two may be placed over the bed in frosty weather. When the foliage dies down after flowering, the bulbs may be lifted and dried off. For pot work, from five to six bulbs are enough for a five-inch pot, and loam, leaf-mould, and silver sand form a good compost. The best time to plant in pots is from September to December, and the soil should be slightly moist, but not so wet as to be adhesive. After making the compost firm about the bulbs, place the pots, plunged in cocoa-fibre or ashes, in a cold frame until the plants appear, when water may be given very moderately, and the lights kept off in all favourable weather. When the plants have made some growth, remove the pots to the greenhouse or conservatory, keeping them near the glass and giving a sufficiency of water. The Ixia, or African Corn Lily, is a charming plant, with long racemes of brilliantly coloured flowers, whose dark centres add much to their beauty. Mixed varieties can be bought very cheaply, and will give many beautiful flowers. Bulb dealers also offer named collections at moderate prices. Azurea, blue; Beauty of Norfolk, yellow; Conqueror, yellow; crateroides, bright scarlet, and a capital thing; Donnatello, scarlet; erubescens major, rose-carmine; Excelsior, crimson-scarlet; magnificum, yellow; nitens, magenta; Queen of Roses, rose; viridiflora, a charming thing, with sea-green black-centred flowers; and White Queen, pure white, with crimson centre, are all desirable. Morphixias are now included by botanists with the Ixia. They bloom rather later. The varieties of paniculata should be grown. Sparaxises are equally beautiful, but are of dwarfer habit. Among the most useful is S. tricolor, which has scarlet flowers with a yellow centre. The others are not so much grown under name as formerly, as mixed varieties are cheaper, and give good flowers. Fire King is bright with its scarlet and black flowers, with a yellow centre, and Angelique, white; Garibaldi, crimson; Lady Carey, white, blotched purple; maculata, white, purple, and primrose; Queen Victoria, white, yellow, and black, are all good. Babianas are also very beautiful with their dwarf habit, plaited hirsute leaves, and their self-coloured or strongly contrasted flowers. Apart from the species, of which there are upwards of twenty, there are a number of named varieties. Atro-cyanea, purple-blue and white; and rubro-cyanea, blue and crimson, are both varieties of B. stricta. Others worth growing are:--Attraction, blue; General Scott, lavender; Hellas, yellow; Julia, white and blue; speciosa, mauve; and villosa, blue. The plant called S. pulcherrima is Dierama pulcherrimum, which is named among hardy bulbs. The Tritonias now include Montbretia Pottsii, but the plants, forms of T. crocata, generally known in gardens by the former name, more resemble the Sparaxis in their habit than the popular Montbretia of modern times. They are grown like the Ixia, but are rather more tender, and do best if kept indoors in winter. They bloom later than the Sparaxis, and differ in their leading colours, these being buff, rose, salmon, and orange. Good forms and varieties are amoena, yellow; Bella, blush; crocata, bright orange; elegans, orange-cerise; Eleonore, buff; and speciosa, orange-scarlet. Mixed varieties can be bought cheaply. CHAPTER XIV HALF-HARDY BULBS Ixiolirions--Moræas--Ornithogalums--Oxalises--Phædranassas--Pancratiums --Tigridias--Zephyranthes--Cooperias IXIOLIRIONS Few people seem to grow the Ixiolirions, which are pretty summer blooming bulbs with umbels of lilac or blue flowers on stems about a foot high. This is unfortunate, as they are of pleasing appearance, though it is to be regretted that they are among those troublesome bulbs which are almost hardy, yet not absolutely to be depended upon in our climate. If planted in the open, this ought to be done in spring, and the bulbs lifted in autumn, and stored in dry sand, but it is more satisfactory to grow them in a frame or cool greenhouse in pots of loam, leaf-soil, and sand. There are two species--montanum and kolpakowskianum, the latter having a smaller bulb and shorter segments. The variety tataricum is considered a separate species by some botanists. MORÆAS Moræas are charming plants resembling the Irises, and are of bright colours, and generally very fragrant. They should either be grown in a frame with some winter protection, or in a cool greenhouse or conservatory planted out in rather sandy soil or in pots. Out of some sixty species, there are few not worth growing, but corms of only a limited number are purchasable in the ordinary course, and the best of these are named as a guide. They are often found about six inches high, but frequently grow much taller. Edulis has bluish-white flowers; iridioides, white, spotted yellow; papilionacea, pale-blue, spotted dark-blue; spathacea (syn. Dietes Huttoni), yellow; and tricuspis, greyish yellow and brown. Robinsoniana, also called Iris robinsoniana, needs a greenhouse, and has white flowers and handsome leaves with the habit of Phormium tenax. The genus now includes the Vieusseuxias and Dietes, which are sub-genera. ORNITHOGALUMS It is singular that the half-hardy Ornithogalums are so little grown, as they are very easily managed in a frame or unheated greenhouse, and will even do in a warm border in the south. They like a light soil and a sunny position, and to be well ripened after flowering. The prettiest of the half-hardy species are O. aureum, yellow; O. arabicum, white with almost black centres, a very effective plant; and the pure white O. revolutum They may be planted about three inches deep. OXALISES The tender Oxalises or Wood-Sorrels, are deserving of more attention from those who have sunny frames or unheated greenhouses, or even a sunny window, where these flowers can open, for all are sun-lovers. They like a light, rather sandy soil and may be planted in autumn or early spring about two inches deep. They are too numerous to detail, but I may name the following as all worth growing, although the list might be considerably extended. Arenaria, violet-purple; articulata, mauve; Barrelieri, yellow; elegans, purple; hirta, red; valdiviensis, yellow; variabilis, white or red; and versicolor, white and red. Those named among the hardy bulbs can also be grown under glass. [Illustration: LILIUM AURATUM] PHÆDRANASSAS Although generally grown as greenhouse bulbs, the Phædranassas, or Queen Lilies, may be grown in mild districts as frame bulbs, by cultivating them in rather heavy soil, keeping them as dry as possible in winter, and covering the glass of the frame with some canvas or a mat. Some succeed with them in the open, but they there need a position below a south wall and to have some protection in times of severe frost. They are also suitable plants for the greenhouse, where they can be grown in pots and rested in winter. They have umbels of pretty, reflexed flowers, and grow about one and a half feet high. The most suitable for frame cultivation are chloracea, yellow, and sweet-scented; schizantha, vermilion, yellow, and green; and ventricosa, yellow. They may be planted in spring about five inches deep in a frame, or six inches if in the open. PANCRATIUMS Although the two Pancratiums named below are hardy in the milder parts of these islands, it is more prudent to treat them as plants which need frame cultivation throughout the greater portion of Britain. A warm, sunny border under a south wall is the place for them in the open garden, and in frames it is desirable to give them a similar position. They should be planted with the neck about a foot deep in the open and two or three inches less when in a frame. They belong to the Amaryllis family and have charming white flowers. The hardiest and most easily grown is P. illyricum, but P. maritimun has finer flowers. They like a light soil, and plenty of water while in growth. TIGRIDIAS Tigridias are among the most brilliant of summer bulbous plants, but though they have been established in some southern gardens, they are not generally hardy in Britain. The greater number in cultivation are varieties of T. Pavonia (syn. grandiflora) and these are very beautiful, their only fault being the short time the flowers last. The type has scarlet petals and a yellow, crimson-spotted cup, but there are a number of varieties ranging from white, through almost rose to lilac, pale yellow and orange yellow. Immaculata alba, Immaculata lutea, and the new "Nankin" are among the latest introduced. Van Houttei (Hydrotænia Van Houttei) has brown and yellow flowers and is rather more delicate, and should have a frame or greenhouse. Violacea and Pringlei should have similar treatment. All may be potted and grown in a greenhouse if desired. Plant in April or May. ZEPHYRANTHES Reference has already been made to Z. Candida among hardy bulbs. A few others may now be mentioned for frame or cold greenhouse cultivation. These are strangely neglected by amateurs, as their pretty crocus-like flowers are exquisitely beautiful when open. Generally speaking, I should recommend their being grown in pots in the greenhouse, where they can have a sunny position near the glass. The best of those known for the frame or cold greenhouse are Andersoni, which grows about four inches high, and has yellow or coppery flowers about May; Atamasco, white, tinted pink, grows about nine inches high, and blooms about the same time; carinata, rose, about one foot high, and flowering in May; gracilifolia, about a foot and a half high and blooming about January; rosea, six inches high and flowering in May; and versicolor, rose and white, about six inches high. These Zephyranthes like a turfy loam with a little sand and well decayed manure or peat. They are propagated by offsets and should be repotted occasionally. The night-blooming Cooperias require similar cultivation. CHAPTER XV GREENHOUSE AND STOVE BULBS Achimenes--Alocasias--Amorphophalluses--Arisæmas--Arums--Begonias-- Bomareas--Caladiums ACHIMENES The charming Achimenes is not so much grown as formerly, but it might well become more popular among those who have a warm greenhouse or stove in which to start the tubers, as before coming into bloom they may be taken into the conservatory, where their bright flowers will be much admired in pots, pans, or baskets. They may be planted in equal parts of peat and fibrous loam, with a small proportion of manure, from about the beginning of February until the end of April. They can either be started in the receptacle in which they are to flower or transplanted when an inch or two high, the latter being preferable. A night temperature of about sixty degrees is required, and they should have plenty of water and be regularly syringed to keep off red spider. The points may be taken out to make the plants more bushy. When they come into bloom they should be removed to the greenhouse or conservatory; while in bloom syringing should be suspended. Partial shade is also advisable. Withhold water gradually after flowering, and when the leaves are yellow place the pots in a dry place in a moderate temperature, leaving the tubers undisturbed until they are wanted for starting. There are many varieties, and mixed sorts can be purchased at a low rate. ALOCASIAS These magnificent stove plants are much admired for their handsome, often variegated, leaves, and for their striking appearance. They like a compost of sandy loam and fibrous peat in lumps, with some sphagnum and small pieces of charcoal, keeping the soil and bulbs a little above the top of the pots, with a surfacing of cocoa-fibre or sphagnum. The pots can hardly be over-drained, and from a half to two-thirds full of broken crocks is a good proportion of drainage. They require a moist atmosphere and plenty of water while growing; a summer temperature of seventy-five to eighty-five degrees and a winter one of sixty to sixty-five degrees are suitable. A little liquid manure may be given at intervals. They are increased by division of the stem or rhizome, or by seeds. The following selection comprises some of the finest grown:--Chelsonii, cuprea, metallica, hybrida, Jenningsii, Johnstoni, macrorhiza variegata, scabriuscula, Sedenii, thibautiana, and zebrina. AMORPHOPHALLUSES These are singular stove plants, allied to the Arums, but of most value for sub-tropical bedding. They must be kept dry and in a warm place in winter, and started in a moist atmosphere and a temperature of from fifty-five to seventy degrees. They are never likely to become popular for ordinary gardens, so that details would be unnecessary here. Campanulatus, Lacouri, Rivieri, and Titanum are the best known species. ARISÆMAS These singular, but not showy plants, require somewhat similar cultivation to the Arums, and may be grown in any heated greenhouse in rather light but rich soil. They should have plenty of water while growing. The best species are concinnum, about two feet high; curvatum, about four feet high, and both flowering in June; also galeatum, Griffithi, nepenthoides, and speciosa. ARUMS The greenhouse and stove Arums thrive in a warm, moist temperature, and are curiously interesting as well as worthy of being admired for the beauty of their foliage. Rich loam, a little sand, and some thoroughly rotted manure will grow them well. After flowering they may have the supply of water restricted so as to keep them at rest until spring, when they start into growth again. Among the most useful of the greenhouse species are sanctum or palæstinum, spectabile (half-hardy), and spirale. BEGONIAS The great genus Begonia would, as regards even the tuberous or rhizotamous-rooted species alone, take up too much space, so that this brief reference must principally deal with the cultivation of the hybrid Begonias, which are for most gardens the most valuable of all. They are standing witnesses to the powers of the skilful hybridiser, and the perfection to which they have been brought makes any words of praise superfluous. Their value in the garden or under glass is self-evident. [Illustration: LILIUM CANDIDUM] The Begonia may be readily raised from seeds sown in January or February in a house with a temperature of about seventy degrees, and in pots or pans of fine, light soil. Some sow the seeds before watering, and then water with a fine rose; while others water before sowing and cover the seeds slightly with fine soil, covering the pans with a sheet of glass. After germination watering must be carefully attended to, and many have the best results from plunging the pans in water until it begins to rise through the surface. As soon as possible the young plants must be pricked off in a little heavier, but still free soil, and grown on until fit to put into small pots before transferring to larger ones. If properly grown they will bloom well the first year. Begonias are also propagated by division of the tubers, like potatoes; by cuttings stuck in pots in a bottom heat of about seventy degrees; and by leaf-cuttings on cocoa-fibre or sand. They like a rich, but not heavy soil, either when in pots or when bedded out, and in the latter position, they should not have too dry a border or bed, and should be freely supplied with water in dry weather. The tubers must be lifted when frost cuts down the foliage and stored away in dry sand, although larger tubers may be stored without the sand if kept free from frost also. They ought to be started in a little heat before planting out, which may be done when the days and nights are warm, according to the district in which the garden lies. The growing of named tuberous Begonias is on the decrease, as so many excellent single or double flowered plants can be raised from seed of a good strain. BOMAREAS The Bomareas are among the most ornamental of our greenhouse climbers, but are less grown than their beauty deserves. They are allied to the Alstroemerias, but are of climbing habit. They do best when planted out in the warm greenhouse or stove, but may also be grown in pots. They should have a compost of peat, sand, loam, and leaf-mould, and when in growth ought to have plenty of water, occasionally giving them some liquid manure. They can be grown from seeds or by division of the stems. Perhaps the following are as good as any in cultivation:-- B. Carderi, which has handsome rose-coloured flowers spotted with brown; oligantha, red and yellow; Shuttleworthi, vermilion, yellow, red, and green. Edulis has been longest grown, and has rose flowers tipped with green; the hardiest species is probably B. salsilla, with purple and green flowers. This is hardy in a few districts when other conditions are favourable. CALADIUMS Caladiums are among the most useful of stove perennial plants, and their adaptability to growing for table and room decoration adds much to their general value. The beauty of form and the fine colouring of their foliage place them high in the ranks of stove plants. A capital compost is made of turfy loam, turfy peat, and leaf-soil in equal parts, with a little well-rotted manure and some sharp sand. In March or earlier, if they have been long at rest, the tubers are started into growth in a temperature of not less than 60 degrees; when they have made growth, they may be placed in five or six inch pots, and the supply of water gradually increased until it is given freely, with alternate waterings of some liquid manure. They should be kept growing in a high temperature, and then hardened-off in a cooler part of the building preparatory to their removal to the conservatory. When the leaves begin to grow yellow, gradually decrease the water supply, and store for the winter in a temperature of not less than sixty degrees. Do not allow them to become entirely dry. A large number of hybrid Caladiums have been raised, and these, which will be found in the catalogues of leading nurserymen, have almost driven the original species out of cultivation. CHAPTER XVI GREENHOUSE AND STOVE BULBS Clivias--Colocasias--Crinums--Cyclamens--Cyrtanthuses--Eucharises and Urceocharis--Eurycles CLIVIAS (_syn._ IMANTOPHYLLUM) The Clivias and Imantophyllums were formerly kept distinct, but are now combined by botanists, the name Imantophyllum being retained as that of a sub-genus. Both have long leaves in opposite rows and umbels of flowers, which are of various shades of yellow, orange, or scarlet. C. nobilis grows about a foot high, and has bright red-yellow flowers. Gardneri has fewer flowers (twelve to twenty in the umbel). Miniata is the only species belonging to the sub-genus Imantophyllum, and seedlings, or hybrids between it and the other species, have been obtained in considerable numbers. The catalogues of leading bulb dealers may be consulted for the varieties now in commerce. All are ornamental in pots or planted out in beds or borders in airy houses, with a temperature of from fifty to sixty degrees. In spring and summer they should have plenty of water, both at the roots and applied by means of the syringe. A rather lower temperature and less water are desirable in spring. They should have a soil composed of good fibry loam and peat in the proportion of about three of the former to one of the latter, with a little charcoal, bone-meal, and silver sand. C. miniata flowers in spring and summer, and the other species in winter and spring. COLOCASIAS The Colocasias are very ornamental plants with large handsome leaves, and are related to and require the same culture as the Caladiums. There is considerable confusion in the nomenclature of these plants in gardens, and Caladiums are sometimes found named Alocasias or Colocasias, and _vice versa_. The principal species are antiquorum; its variety, esculentum (syn. Caladium esculentem), sometimes used in the south for sub-tropical effect, being planted out in June, and freely supplied with water; and odorata. CRINUMS We have already referred to the hardy Crinums, but this work would be imperfect without a few details about the stove species, among which are some plants of the highest types of floral beauty. These should have a good soil of fibrous loam, peat, a little sand, and charcoal to keep the compost sweet, as the plants require plenty of water while growing, C. campanulatum and C. purpurascens especially requiring this, as they do best standing in a pan of water. They are also greatly benefited by syringing overhead. After the flowering period is over water may be reduced. They need large pots or tubs, as they form fleshy roots which should be as little disturbed as possible. There are so many Crinums, that a short selection of well-proved, good species suitable for the stove is necessary. These are--amabile, three feet, red; asiaticum, two feet, white; campanulatum, one foot, red-purple; giganteum, three feet, white; Kirkii, one and a half feet, white, striped red; Macowani, two feet, pink; purpurascens, one foot, claret-red; and zeylanicum, three feet, white, striped red. CYCLAMENS The varieties of Cyclamen latifolium, or persicum, a plant which has yielded under cultivation so many beautiful flowers, are general favourites, and are so easy to cultivate that they are largely grown for the decoration of glass structures and rooms. There are several methods adopted for raising the fine plants so often seen nowadays, which are generally young specimens grown from seeds. The following plan is followed by many successful growers. The seeds are sown from the beginning of August to the end of November, in pans of fibrous loam, some silver sand, and a fifth of leaf-soil. They are placed in an intermediate house, or a temperature of about fifty-five degrees, and in a little shade until the seedlings have begun to appear, when they may be placed near the glass and pricked off when they can be handled. They may be grown on in a similar temperature during the winter, but a little increase may be given immediately after potting off in February or March into three-inch pots. They should be placed in frames turned towards the north for the summer, receiving a potting into five-inch pots in July, and being kept close for a few days afterwards. After taking indoors they must be near the glass, and syringed frequently to keep off red spider. Corms which have flowered may be kept, and with careful treatment will flower again, although scarcely so freely as young plants. They may either be planted out in frames for the summer or plunged in their pots, repotting when they show sign of making fresh growth. The large-flowered varieties are very handsome, and the Papilio, or Butterfly-formed flowers, and those with crested blooms are also considerably appreciated by those who like new flowers. CYRTANTHUSES The Cyrtanthi are among the neglected bulbs in ordinary gardens, but when bulbous plants once more take their proper place they will be more largely grown. The genus now includes Monella of Salisbury and Gastronema of Herbert, and the plants have either pendulous or erect tubular flowers, those having the latter being formerly called Gastronema. Like many other Cape Amaryllideæ, the Cyrtanthus requires to be kept dry in winter, but to be well supplied with water after starting into growth. Carneus and obliquus must not be dried off. Loam, peat, and sand form a suitable compost. They will grow in a greenhouse in summer, but should be kept in a stove during the winter months. The fragrant C. Mackenii, with white flowers, is pretty. Macowani, orange-scarlet, and sanguineus, bright red, are both fine species, and those desiring a larger number may grow albiflorus, white; carneus, bright red; obliquus, yellow; and odorus, red. Others are angustifolius, Huttoni, lutescens, smithianus, Tuckii, and ventricosus. EUCHARISES AND URCEOCHARIS The Eucharis is such a favourite with everyone that it is a matter of much regret that it has suffered in so many gardens from the ravages of what is known as the Eucharis mite (_Rhizoglyphus Robini_), which also affects other bulbs of allied character. There seems little doubt that this is brought about by errors in watering, as the Eucharis dislikes suffering from either too little or too much water. It should not have a season of rest from water, as many suppose, but should not be forced into flower more than twice in a year. Clibran's Eucharis Mite Killer, used as directed on the package, or a weak preparation of Kerosene Emulsion, are equally effectual, but the Emulsion should not touch the actual roots. So beautiful a plant is worth every attention, as we have nothing among other stove bulbs which can approach its pure white, elegantly formed flowers and dark-green foliage. The Eucharis likes a compost of two or three parts of good loam to one of leaf-mould or turfy peat, and a little charcoal to keep the compost sweet. It requires a temperature of from sixty to seventy degrees in winter, rising to seventy-five and eighty degrees in summer. Syringing overhead on bright days is necessary, and a little reduction in the temperature is desirable when the leaves are of full size. Six or eight bulbs may be placed in a ten-inch pot. The most popular Eucharis is E. grandiflora (syn. amazonica); there is a fragrant variety of this named E. grandiflora fragrans, and others are E. g. Lowii and E. g. Moorei. Candida and Sanderi are also good species, and hybrid forms, named burfordensis and Stevensii, are also meritorious. The other species are bakeriana, elmetana (hybrid), Lehmanni, Mastersii, and subedentata. The hybrid Urceocharis, from the Eucharis and Urceolina, is cultivated in the same way. EURYCLES The Eurycles is little known in private gardens, but the two species form interesting occupants of the stove or greenhouse, with their umbels of white flowers, and broad, heart-shaped or ovate leaves. E. amboinensis is a stove species about two feet high, flowering in March. The other, E. Cunninghami, likes a warm greenhouse. It grows about a foot high. One part leaf-soil to three of good loam, with a little sand, will grow them satisfactorily. After they have completed their growth water may be diminished, and finally withheld to allow them to ripen. CHAPTER XVII GREENHOUSE AND STOVE BULBS Freesias--Gloxinias--Hæmanthuses--Hippeastrums FREESIAS Freesias, whose fragrant flowers are so acceptable, are so nearly hardy, that it might, perhaps, have been more consistent to include them among the half-hardy bulbs. They are, however, of so much more value when grown and flowered under glass that we may be pardoned for including them among greenhouse bulbs. They are very cheap, and increase so freely that they might be grown in far larger quantities. A five-inch pot will hold about a dozen of good-sized bulbs, and they may be potted at intervals from the beginning of August for a month or two. They like a light, but rich soil, with the addition of some leaf-mould and silver sand. A depth of an inch is generally recommended, but they are none the worse for being a little deeper. After planting, the pots may be watered and placed in a cold frame, plunged in cocoa fibre or ashes. [Illustration: WHITE SCILLAS] When some growth is made, they may either be removed to a frame with a moderate bottom heat, or taken into the place where they are to bloom. In a sunny window they may be brought nicely into flower as well as in a greenhouse. They like air, however, when possible. It is essential that they should have plenty of water while in growth. A temperature of about fifty-five degrees is suitable for blooming them in. After flowering, water should be gradually withheld; and when the foliage becomes yellow, the pots with their contents should be thoroughly roasted in the sun. Before repotting, it is desirable to sort them according to size. Some grow Freesias from seed, but they are so cheap, and make offsets so freely, that it is hardly worth the trouble to do so. The seeds are sown when ripe, and gradually grown on until they attain to flowering size. The best of the Freesias is F. refracta alba, but F. refracta, white and yellow, and F. refracta Leichtlini, with creamy-yellow flowers, are also grown. GLOXINIAS Gloxinias are so beautiful in their colourings, and are so ornamental, that it is no matter for surprise to find them in most gardens of importance. Nowadays, however, they are principally grown from seed instead of cultivating the old bulbs for successive seasons as was formerly practised. They are easily raised in this way, and the plants produced are more vigorous and floriferous than those produced by old bulbs, or by cuttings or leaves. They can be flowered in about six months from the time of sowing. Fibrous loam or leaf-soil, mixed with sand and peat, will answer for the seed pans and for the after compost. Seed sown in January or February will give a succession of flower, and later sowings may be made for winter bloom. The seed should be thinly sown and covered with a sprinkling of fine soil. The pans ought then to be placed in a temperature of about 70 degrees, and shaded from strong sun. The young seedlings are very liable to damp off, and must be pricked out into other pans or pots as soon as possible. They will grow quickly in a moist warm house, and, when a fair size, may be repotted, giving a forty-eight size pot for the final shift. They can have then a temperature of sixty to sixty-five degrees. A little manure water is beneficial at intervals, but this, and a moist atmosphere, are prejudicial when the plants are in bloom. Cuttings of the young shoots taken off when the old bulbs are started are easily struck in a propagating frame, and are afterwards potted and treated like young seedlings. When the leaves are firm, they may either be inserted in fine soil like cuttings with a portion of the petiole or footstalk, or by cutting through the midribs at several places and pegging down the leaves on cocoa fibre or sand in a close frame. Old tubers of Gloxinias should be carefully stored in winter beyond the reach of frost, and started into growth in February in small pots in a temperature of about sixty-five degrees. Until they have fairly begun to grow they should have little water. Similar treatment is suitable for some of the other Gesneraceous plants, such as the Gesnerias. HÆMANTHUSES The Hæmanthus is a handsome and distinct-looking plant, but it is seldom that one meets with it in private gardens. Its usefulness is lessened by its handsome leaves appearing at a different time from the flowers, but this fault may be partly concealed by an arrangement of other plants about the pots containing the Hæmanthi. A few of the species can be grown in a cool greenhouse, but the greater number ought to be cultivated in a higher temperature. H. sanguineus is one of the easiest to grow and the writer has grown and flowered it yearly in a house from which frost was only excluded and where the temperature fell to near freezing point. For the greater number, however, a temperature of from fifty to sixty degrees in the growing season is best. After flowering they should have a short period of rest. There are a number of very handsome species, among the best being abyssinicus, scarlet; cinnabarinus, red; incarnatus, flesh; insignis, orange-scarlet; Kalbreyeri, crimson; Katherinæ, deep red; natalensis, green, bracts, purple; puniceus, scarlet; and sanguineus, scarlet. Albo-maculatus, hirsutus, and virescens albiflos are the best whites. HIPPEASTRUMS Under their popular name of "Amaryllises," the Hippeastrums have for years been increasingly grown by those who desire to make their glass structures gay with bulbous plants which are distinct from the ordinary forcing bulbs of winter and spring. Their deserved popularity has been increased by the wonderful improvements which have been in progress for years among these plants which are naturally beautiful and have such brilliant colouring. Some of the original species are very handsome, but the seedling varieties and hybrids are superior to these. It is generally accepted that these improved Hippeastrums are largely due to the hybridisation of some of these species, but there is considerable doubt regarding the parentage of some of these reputed hybrids. However this may be, there can be no two opinions regarding the value and beauty of the plants themselves, with which greenhouses and stoves may be made gay for months at a time. The greater number of the Hippeastrums are easily grown in a temperature of at least sixty degrees, although some even suggest five degrees less. They can, however, take more heat with advantage. This heat is required during the growing season, from February to September, after which they should be kept cooler, and only moist enough to keep the roots alive. During the growing period full supplies of water are required. They like a rather heavy loam, with some charcoal and crushed bones. They should be disturbed as little as possible, so as to avoid injury to their fleshy roots, and to prevent the necessity of re-potting, established bulbs may be top-dressed when being started into growth. Some manure water is beneficial, but not when the blooms show colour. Hippeastrums are increased by offsets taken off carefully when the plants are at rest, and also by seeds, which are sown in pots or pans in a temperature of about sixty-five degrees, the seeds having only a slight covering of the sandy soil which should form the compost. When old enough to handle, the seedlings can be placed singly in small pots and grown on in the heat suitable for the larger bulbs. As the newer Hippeastrums are very high priced where of good quality, this method of raising from seed is recommended. Plants have been flowered in about two years from seed. There are a good many species and it is only worth while to name such as Ackermanni, crimson; Equestre, orange; and vittata, all of which have given some fine varieties. With regard to the named varieties, we would recommend intending purchasers to consult the catalogues of the leading bulb-dealers, where there may be found varieties at all prices. Unnamed varieties may be obtained at a lower price, but it must be remembered that the newest and best named sorts are necessarily very expensive. Habranthuses are now included with the Hippeastrums and Zephyranthes. CHAPTER XVIII GREENHOUSE AND STOVE BULBS Lachenalias--Nerines and Lycorises--Pancratiums and Hymenocallises --Richardias--Sprekelias--Tuberoses--Vallotas--Watsonias--Zephyranthes LACHENALIAS Were the beauty and usefulness of the Lachenalias better known, they would soon become very popular plants for the amateur's greenhouse and window. They may be said to lie on the border-line between greenhouse and frame plants, as only sufficient heat is needed to keep out frost. The popular name of "Cape Cowslips" gives some indication of the appearance of the spikes of drooping flowers, but hardly expresses the singularly pretty colouring, which lies in the yellow or white grounds and the shadings of green, red, or purple, which make such pretty combinations. The Lachenalia, which can be had in bloom from February to May, requires a period of rest, and after flowering the pots should either be placed on a sunny shelf or other dry place, and water gradually withheld as the leaves become yellow. Pot in August in loam, leaf-soil, or peat, and a little manure and sand. Some grow Lachenalias in hanging baskets lined with moss and filled with soil. A good selection may be made from the following, but the newer varieties are well worth having also, although a little more expensive. A selection:--fragrans, lilacina, Nelsoni (hybrid), pendula, tricolor, tricolor lutea (syn. L. aurea). New varieties are Aldborough Beauty, Cawston Gem, and Rector of Cawston. NERINES AND LYCORISES The best known of the Nerines is N. sarniensis, the Guernsey Lily, which is imported in great numbers in autumn with the flower buds set, and is potted at once to bloom almost immediately. It has been grown by some as a hardy or half-hardy bulb, but its true place in most gardens is in a greenhouse in pots. This is advisable so that it may perfect its foliage. It likes a rich, yet light, soil and careful watering. It is unfortunate that some of the other Nerines are not more grown, as their brilliant flowers possess all the beauty of the better known sarniensis. The handsome scarlet curvifolia, with its even finer form, known as Fothergilli major, are worth more than the room and care they need. Then the rose-coloured flexuosa; the rosy carmine humilis splendens; the white and red pudica; the rosy-purple undulata; and the hybrid or seedling forms, amabilis, carmine rose; the charming roseo-crispa, pink; and excellens, bright rose, are all of much beauty. These should have little water from May to August. The Lycorises should be cultivated in a similar manner. PANCRATIUMS AND HYMENOCALLISES These closely allied plants require similar treatment, and may be suitably mentioned together. The connection is so close indeed that several of the species of either bear in gardens the generic name of the other. The stove species should always be kept moist, while the plants which do with greenhouse temperature need to be kept dry while at rest in winter. The pots must be large and filled with good loam and leaf-mould, with a dash of silver sand. The bulbs should be just below the surface. A few, which have been also known as Ismenes, are understood to be hardy in favoured places. Ordinary stove heat will suit the following:--Hymenocallises:--andreana, Choretis, expansa, lacera, ovata, macrostephana, maculata, speciosa; and Pancratiums verecundum and zeylanicum. For the greenhouse there are:--H. Amancaes, calathina, harrisiana, littoralis (syn. adnata), macleana (the hardiest), tenuifolia. In looking over catalogues to order these, Pancratium, Hymenocallis, and Ismene should all be referred to on account of the uncertainty about the nursery names. RICHARDIAS These are best known because of the popular R. africana, often called Calla æthiopica, the Arum Lily, or Lily of the Nile. All the species like a very rich soil, and a plentiful supply of water while growing. R. africana can be grown as a hardy aquatic in some warm districts in these islands if the crowns are well below the depth to which the water is frozen. It is, however, most grown as a greenhouse or window plant, especially when white flowers are wanted early. After flowering, it may either be planted out in trenches in the garden, or dried off and started in the same pots. Potting may be done about September, and the plants grown in ordinary greenhouse temperature. Albo-maculata, hastata, and melanoleuca are less beautiful. Adlami, elliotiana, Pentlandi, and Rehmanni are all newer and of much beauty, the second and third having yellowish flowers. SPREKELIAS Although Sprekelia formosissima, known also as Amaryllis formosissima, the "Jacobea Lily," is sometimes recommended as a half-hardy bulb, this is of doubtful expediency, and it is better to treat it as a cool greenhouse bulb and to grow it in pots. It is sometimes planted out on a sunny border below a wall in April and lifted in September, but we recommend planting it in turfy loam, well-decayed manure and a little sand, in pots, and treating it like the Hippeastrum, but in a rather lower temperature. It grows about two feet high, and has crimson or white flowers about June. There is another named S. Cybister, which has red flowers about April. TUBEROSES The botanical name of the Tuberose--Polianthes Tuberosa--is so little used by those who grow it that it will be more convenient to speak of this most fragrant flower under its popular title. It is everywhere prized, especially when its pure white flowers are produced in winter, when few of similar character for buttonholes and bouquets are readily procurable. Although a plant which can be flowered in the open border if the bulbs are started and grown on for some time under glass, it requires a considerable amount of heat to flower it properly at other seasons. The bulbs should be potted three together in a five or six inch pot in a soil composed of loam and manure or some leaf-soil. The soil should be slightly moist, so as to obviate the necessity of watering before the bulbs begin to make growth. Some plunge in a cold frame until growth begins, but a preferable plan is to plunge in a bottom heat of from sixty to seventy degrees if early bloom is required. Plenty of water should be given when growth has fairly begun, and it can hardly be too strongly emphasised that this and a temperature such as that named for the bottom heat should be maintained for winter-blooming. Potting may begin in November, and may be continued at intervals for two or three months. Old bulbs are not worth keeping. The double form is the more appreciated, and the double African, American, and Italian grown bulbs are all good. The Pearl is dwarf in habit. VALLOTAS The Vallota, or Scarborough Lily (V. purpurea), is a general favourite for its brightly coloured flowers in autumn, and because of the ease with which it can be grown in a greenhouse or window. It is hardy in a few favoured places, and in some is grown as a frame bulb, but for the greater number of British gardens it is best when grown in a house from which frost is excluded in winter. It should be repotted as seldom as possible, and then the roots should be little disturbed and the plants transferred to a larger pot with the ball attached, only removing some of the soil on the surface to allow of top dressing. The offsets may be removed with a stick. It likes a rich, light soil, and may be potted towards the end of spring. The roots should never become dry. Some give a little liquid manure during summer, and when well grown few plants look more ornamental, with its heads of deep scarlet flowers. There is a larger-flowered variety named major. WATSONIAS Although the Watsonias will do if planted out on a warm south border in favoured places in this country, and treated as half-hardy bulbs, intending growers are advised to grow them in pots as greenhouse plants. They have fine branching stems of a height of from two to three feet, and pretty blooms somewhat resembling those of the Freesia in form. The corms should be planted in spring, and treated like Gladioli in pots. After flowering, water should be gradually reduced when the leaves begin to turn yellow, and the corms either kept dry in the pots or taken out and stored like those of the Gladiolus. The most appreciated of the Watsonias are the varieties of W. Meriana, the type form having rose-red flowers. The white varieties of this, such as alba, Ardernei, and O'Brieni are all much admired, that called Ardernei, which some consider the same as O'Brieni, being a special favourite. W. M. iridifolia and W. M. roseo-alba are also good varieties. Other desirable species procurable are:--aletroides, scarlet or pink; angusta, scarlet; coccinea, crimson; humilis, rose-red; and rosea, rose-red. ZEPHYRANTHES All the Zephyranthes mentioned in the chapters regarding hardy and half-hardy bulbs can be grown in the greenhouse, and there are also a few which ought to have a little additional heat, such as that of a stove. Citrina, yellow, about six inches high, and blooming in August, is one. Others are concolor, sulphur-yellow and blooming in April on stems a foot high; pumila, also known as Habranthus pumilus, blooming about September, and having rose coloured flowers; robusta (syn. Habranthus robustus), about ten inches high and blooming in June; sessilis, white and red, with its flowers in April; striata is a striped variety of this; tubispatha likes stove heat. They grow best in turfy loam, with the addition of some decayed manure or peat and sand. TURNBULL AND SPEARS, PRINTERS, EDINBURGH. BOOKS FOR COUNTRY HOUSES The Natural History of Selborne. By GILBERT WHITE. Edited, with Introduction, by GRANT ALLEN. With upwards of 200 Illustrations by EDMUND H. NEW. Crown 8vo. Price 5s. net. _New Edition._ "The attraction lies chiefly in finding the masterpiece so admirably illustrated by Mr Edmund H. New. In black and white line work of this class he has no equal." (_Country Life._) "Mr Edmund New's drawings are not merely artistic, but full of the poetry of association." (_Speaker._) The Compleat Angler. By IZAAK WALTON and CHARLES COTTON. Edited, with an Introduction, by RICHARD LE GALLIENNE. 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(_St James's Gazette._) ORDER FROM YOUR BOOKSELLER Flowers of Parnassus _A Series of Famous Poems Illustrated_ Under the General Editorship of F. B. MONEY-COUTTS Demy 16mo (5-3/4 × 4-1/2 inches). Gilt top Bound in Cloth Price 1s. net Bound in Leather Price 1s. 6d. net Vol. I.--GRAY'S ELEGY AND ODE ON A DISTANT PROSPECT OF ETON COLLEGE. With Twelve Illustrations by J. T. FRIEDENSON. Vol. II.--THE STATUE AND THE BUST. By ROBERT BROWNING. With Nine Illustrations by PHILIP CONNARD. Vol. III.--MARPESSA. By STEPHEN PHILLIPS. With Seven Illustrations by PHILIP CONNARD. Vol. IV.--THE BLESSED DAMOZEL. By DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. With Eight Illustrations by PERCY BULCOCK. Vol. V.--THE NUT-BROWN MAID. A New Version by F. B. MONEY-COUTTS. With Nine Illustrations by HERBERT COLE. Vol. VI.--A DREAM OF FAIR WOMEN. By ALFRED TENNYSON. With Nine Illustrations by PERCY BULCOCK. Vol. VII.--THE DAY DREAM. By ALFRED TENNYSON. With Eight Illustrations by AMELIA BAUERLE. Vol. VIII.--A BALLADE UPON A WEDDING. By Sir JOHN SUCKLING. With Nine Illustrations by HERBERT COLE. Vol. IX.--RUBÁIYÁT OF OMAR KHAYYÁM. Rendered into English Verse by EDWARD FITZGERALD. With Nine Illustrations by HERBERT COLE. Vol. X.--THE RAPE OF THE LOCK. By ALEXANDER POPE. With Nine Illustrations by AUBREY BEARDSLEY. Vol. XI.--CHRISTMAS AT THE MERMAID. By THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON. With Nine Illustrations by HERBERT COLE. Vol. XII.--SONGS OF INNOCENCE. By WILLIAM BLAKE. With Eight Illustrations by GERALDINE MORRIS. _Other Volumes in Preparation_ JOHN LANE: LONDON: VIGO STREET, W. NEW YORK: 67 FIFTH AVENUE. 
43531	----	NOTE TO THE PPVER AND WWER The tables have been left as a replica of the original because there is no way to ensure a clear reading if the size is reduced. THE VEGETABLE GARDEN [Illustration: A GOOD COLLECTION OF HOME-GROWN VEGETABLES] [Illustration: LETTUCE MATURING IN HOME-MADE COLD FRAME] The Vegetable Garden WHAT, WHEN, AND HOW TO PLANT _Reprinted from "The Farmer's Cyclopedia"_ GARDEN CITY NEW YORK DOUBLEDAY, PAGE & COMPANY 1917 _Copyright, 1912, by_ AGRICULTURAL SERVICE COMPANY WASHINGTON, D. C. _All rights reserved_ TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Its Importance 3 Location 5 Plan and Arrangement 5 Fertilizers 7 Preparation of the Soil 9 Time of Planting 10 Selection of Seed 10 Sowing and Planting 11 Tools 15 Mulching 15 Irrigation 18 Thinning 19 Transplanting 19 Setting in the Open Ground 20 Protection of Plants 21 Harvesting, Packing and Shipping 22 Canning Vegetables on the Farm 23 Storing 27 Early Plants in Hotbeds 29 Handling Plants 30 Frames Used in Truck Growing 31 Ventilation 33 Soils and Fertilizers 34 Watering Crops 34 Garden Products: Anise 35 Artichoke 35 Asparagus 35 Beans 40 Beans, Lima 46 Beets 47 Borage 48 Broccoli 48 Brussels Sprouts 49 Cabbage 49 Calabash 51 Cantaloupe 52 Cardoon 53 Carrot 54 Cauliflower 54 Celeriac 57 Celery 57 Cetewayo 64 Chayote 64 Chervil 64 Chicory 64 Chile 65 Chive 66 Citron 66 Collards 67 Corn Salad 67 Cress 67 Cucumbers 67 Dandelion 71 Dill 72 Egg Plant 72 Endive 72 Fennel 73 Garlic 73 Ginger 73 Herbs 73 Horse Radish 74 Ice Plant 73 Kale 74 Kohl-Rabi 74 Leek 75 Lettuce 75 Lleren 75 Martynia 76 Melon--Muskmelon 76 Melon--Watermelon 81 Mustard 82 Nasturtium 82 New Zealand Spinach 83 Okra 83 Onions 85 Parsley 95 Parsnip 95 Peas 95 Peppers 96 Physalis 96 Potato 97 Pumpkin 116 Radish 116 Rhubarb 116 Ruta-Baga 117 Salsify 117 Scolymus 117 Skirret 117 Sorrel 118 Spinach 118 Squash 118 Stachys 118 Sweet Basil 119 Sweet Corn 119 Sweet Marjoram 119 Sweet Potato 119 Swiss Chard 128 Thyme 128 Tomatoes 128 Turnips 137 Vegetable Marrow 137 Quantity of Seed to Plant 138 Composition of Roots 140 Authorities Consulted 140 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS A Good Collection of Home-Grown Vegetables. Lettuce Maturing in Home-Made COLD FRAME _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE Liquid Manure is One of the Best Acting Fertilizers 8 The Wheel Hoe is the Handiest Garden Tool 16 The Easiest Running Wheel Hoe Valuable for Maintaining a Dust Mulch 16 Temporary Hotbeds in a City Back Yard 30 Showing Vegetables Growing in Hotbed 32 Celery Banked With Earth to Blanch It 62 Japanese Climbing Cucumbers, Nearly Six Feet From the Ground 68 Well-Grown Cucumbers 68 Thorough Cultivation of the Growing Crop is an Essential of Successful Potato Raising 110 THE VEGETABLE GARDEN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN Perhaps the most characteristic feature of Northern and Eastern farms is the home vegetable garden. Even where no orchard has been planted, and where the ornamental surroundings of the home have been neglected, a fairly well-kept garden in which are grown a number of the staple kinds of vegetables is generally to be found. In many cases the principal interest in the garden is manifested by the women of the household and much of the necessary care is given by them. A small portion of the garden inclosure is generally devoted to the cultivation of flowers, and a number of medicinal plants is invariably present. Throughout the newer parts of the country it is seen that the conditions governing the maintenance and use of the vegetable garden are somewhat different, and, while a number of vegetable crops may be grown somewhere on the farm, there is wanting that distinction so characteristic of the typical New England kitchen garden. It would be impossible to make an accurate estimate of the value of crops grown in the kitchen gardens of the United States, but from careful observation the statement can safely be made that a well-kept garden will yield a return ten to fifteen times greater than would the same area and location if devoted to general farm crops. A half acre devoted to the various kinds of garden crops will easily supply a family with $100 worth of vegetables during the year, while the average return for farm crops is considerably less than one-tenth of this amount. A bountiful supply of vegetables close at hand where they may be secured at a few moments' notice is of even more importance than the mere money value. Fresh vegetables from the home garden are not subjected to exposure on the markets or in transportation and are not liable to become infected in any way. Many of the products of the garden lose their characteristic flavor when not used within a few hours after gathering. By means of the home garden the production of the vegetable supply for the family is directly under control, and in many cases is the only way whereby clean, fresh produce may be secured. The home vegetable garden is worthy of increased attention, and a greater number and variety of crops should be included in the garden.--(F. B. 255.) The development and extension of truck farming in the Atlantic coast States have been coincident with the development of transportation facilities throughout that section. In the beginning the points affording water connection with the great consuming centers of the North were those at which truck farming first became established. The phenomenal growth of the great consuming centers of the country has stimulated a corresponding growth and extension of the food-producing territory, especially that capable of producing perishable truck crops. The demands for vegetables out of season, followed later by the continuous demand for fresh vegetables throughout the year by the great cities, led first to the market gardeners located near the cities supplementing their field operations by extensive forcing-house enterprises. Naturally, the products from the greenhouses were expensive and available only to the few who were able to pay fancy prices for green products out of season. The improvement and extension of the transportation facilities which came with the great railway-building era of the United States made it possible to take advantage of the wide diversity of climate offered along the Atlantic coast of the United States to furnish these perishable products to the great cities of the North and East. Transportation facilities, together with cheap labor and cheap lands at the South, have made it possible to produce in extreme southern locations products out of season at the North in competition with greenhouse products. The greater land area and the smaller amount of capital involved in the production of crops at the South, even though transportation charges were high, have enabled southern growers to produce much larger quantities of the desired crops than could be grown profitably under glass. It was therefore not many years before lettuce, celery, tomatoes, radishes, beets, and bunch beans came to be regular winter and early spring products of gardens located at great distances from the centers of consumption.--(Y. B. 1907.) It is only necessary to look around the village and town gardens in the South to become convinced of the great need that exists for information in regard to the proper care of the garden, and particularly that part which is intended to give supplies to the table. There town gardeners are very active in the early spring, and their enthusiasm often leads them to go ahead and plant a great many things at a season too early for their safety, so that a return of cold often compels the almost entire replanting of the garden. But with the production of the early crops in the garden, the enthusiasm of the gardeners oozes out under the influence of the summer's heat, and the garden that at first looked so neat in its spring dress becomes merely a weed patch. Few people realize the advantage that long summers and sunny autumns give for the production of a constant succession of crops in the garden, and still fewer realize that in this climate the garden need at no season of the year be abandoned to the weeds. One of the greatest troubles that results from the common practice of allowing the garden to grow up in weeds after the first peas, corn, cabbage, and tomatoes are secured, is that these weeds are the places where the larvæ of the cut-worm hide, and are ready to begin their destructive work as soon as the garden plants are set in the spring. If the garden is kept clean and cropped continuously all the year round, as it may and should be here, there will be no cut-worms to bother the early plants. From January to January there is no need in the South for any space in the garden unoccupied by crops. From the time the earliest peas go into the ground in January up to the time it is necessary to prepare for them the following year there can be a constant succession of fresh vegetables from the garden, by the exercise of a little forethought. And this succession can be made still more perfect if there be added a frame with some hotbed sashes for the production of lettuce, cauliflower, radishes, carrots, etc., during the colder months; while all through the winter there can be celery, kale, spinach and turnips.--(N. C. Bul. 132.) LOCATION. The question of the proximity to the house or other buildings is of great importance when locating the garden. Caring for a garden is usually done at spare times, and for this reason alone the location should be near the dwelling. In case the site chosen for the garden should become unsuitable for any cause, it is not a difficult matter to change the location. Many persons prefer to plant the garden in a different location every five or six years. The lay of the land has considerable influence upon the time that the soil can be worked, and a gentle slope toward the south or southeast is most desirable for the production of early crops. It is an advantage to have protection on the north and northwest, by either a hill, a group of trees, evergreens, a hedge, buildings, a tight board fence, or a stone wall to break the force of the wind. Good natural drainage of the garden area is of prime importance. The land should have sufficient fall to drain off surplus water during heavy rains, but the fall should not be so great that the soil will be washed. The surface of the garden should not contain depressions in which water will accumulate or stand. Waste water from surrounding land should not flow toward the garden, and the fall below should be such that there will be no danger of flood water backing up. The garden should not be located along the banks of a creek or stream that will be liable to overflow during the growing season. A good fence around the garden plot is almost indispensable, and it should be a safeguard against all farm animals, including poultry, and should be close enough to keep out rabbits. A tight board fence will accomplish, this result and also serve as a wind-break.--(F. B. 255.) PLAN AND ARRANGEMENT. The garden should be planned with a view to furnishing a large assortment and continuous supply of vegetables through the entire season. Its size will depend primarily upon the amount of land available. On the farm, where any amount of land the owner desires can be reserved, for a garden, vegetables to be stored for winter as well as the summer supply, should be grown. On the village lot, space may be insufficient to grow more than the summer's supply, and it may also be necessary to leave out certain vegetables that require a large amount of space. On a city lot, the space available for growing vegetables is necessarily small, and plantings must usually be confined to those vegetables which produce a large amount of edible product for the space occupied. Whether the garden is on the farm, in the village, or on the city lot, the principles governing its planting and care are the same although the distances of planting, methods of tillage, and intensity of cropping may differ widely. On the farm, the saving of labor is more important than the saving of space; even the small vegetables are planted in long rows rather than in beds; and horse power is substituted for hand power wherever possible. In the village and the city, the vegetables must usually be planted as closely as the nature of their growth will permit, and hand tillage employed almost exclusively. Much loss of time in planting a garden can be avoided by making a definite plan of the garden several weeks or even months before the planting is to begin. After measuring the area to be used for the garden, the next step is to decide what vegetables are to be grown. If space is ample, this will be determined primarily by the personal tastes of the gardener and his family. However, if only a limited amount of time and attention can be given the garden, it may be wise not to undertake the growing of some of the more exacting crops. Whatever the space to be devoted to gardening, the crops to be grown should be decided upon long before the time of planting. In planning the garden, it is well to arrange the vegetables in the order in which they are to be planted. This facilitates the preparation of the land for planting, and makes it possible to maintain the unplanted portion in a good friable condition with the least expenditure of labor. In order that the vegetables may be so arranged, it is necessary to know the proper time for planting each crop. This depends primarily upon the temperature and moisture requirements of the particular crop in question. If any of the small fruits, such as raspberries, currants, and gooseberries, are to be planted within the garden enclosure, they should be included with the permanent crops. The area devoted to the hotbed, cold frame, and seed bed should be decided upon, but these may be shifted more or less from year to year or located in some convenient place outside of the garden. Where there is any great variation in the composition of the soil in different parts of the garden it will be advisable to take this into consideration when arranging for the location of the various crops. If a part of the land is low and moist, such crops as celery, onions, and late cucumbers should be placed there. If part of the soil is high, warm, and dry, that is the proper location for early crops and those that need quick, warm soil. In planning the location of the various crops in the garden, due consideration should be given to the matter of succession in order that the land may be occupied at all times. As a rule it would not be best to have a second planting of the same crop follow the first, but some such arrangement as early peas followed by celery, or early cabbage or potatoes followed by late beans or corn, and similar combinations, are more satisfactory. In the South as many as three crops may be grown one after the other on the same land, but at the extreme north, where the season is short, but one crop can be grown, or possibly two by some such combination as early peas followed by turnips.--(F. B. 255.) FERTILIZERS. The kind of fertilizer employed has a marked influence upon the character and quality of the vegetables produced. For the garden only those fertilizers that have been carefully prepared should be used. Fertilizers of organic composition, such as barnyard manure, should have passed through the fermenting stage before being used. The use of night soil generally is not to be recommended, as its application, unless properly treated for the destruction of disease germs, may prove dangerous to health. BARNYARD MANURE. For garden crops there is no fertilizer that will compare with good, well-rotted barnyard manure. In localities where a supply of such manure can not be secured it will be necessary to depend upon commercial fertilizers, but the results are rarely so satisfactory. In selecting manure for the garden, care should be taken that it does not contain any element that will be injurious to the soil. An excess of sawdust or shavings used as bedding will have a tendency to produce sourness in the soil. Chicken, pigeon, and sheep manures rank high as fertilizers, their value being somewhat greater than ordinary barnyard manures, and almost as great as some of the lower grades of commercial fertilizers. The manure from fowls is especially adapted for dropping in the hills or rows of plants. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. Commercial fertilizers are sold under a guaranteed analysis, and generally at a price consistent with their fertilizing value. No definite rule can be given for the kind or quantity of fertilizer to be applied, as this varies with the crop and the land. At first the only safe procedure is to use a good high-grade fertilizer at the rate of from 1,000 to 2,000 pounds to the acre and note the results. Market gardeners frequently apply as much as 2,500 pounds of high-grade fertilizer per acre each year. Farmers who do not have sufficient barnyard manure for their crops should begin gradually to use the commercial fertilizers.--(F. B. 255.) PROFITS FROM THE USE OF FERTILIZERS. The aim usually in the use of artificial fertilizers is to so supplement soil supplies of plant-food as to obtain a profit, and, as already intimated, the profits for the different crops will be in proportion to their economical use of the desired constituent. Still, one should not be deterred from the use of fertilizing materials, even if the conditions should render the application apparently wasteful--that is, the farmer should estimate the increase that it is necessary for him to obtain, in order to be regarded as profitable, and if only this is obtained, he should not be discouraged. Many persons seem to have gotten the impression that the use of fertilizers is a gamble at best, and are not satisfied unless the returns from the investment in fertilizers are disproportionately large. We very often hear the statement that by the use of certain fertilizers the crop is doubled or tripled, as if this were a remarkable occurrence, and partook of the nature of a mystery. Such results are not mysterious; they can be readily explained. In an experiment on celery it is shown that the weight of celery from an application of 400 pounds per acre of nitrate of soda is two and one-half times greater than on the land upon which no nitrate was used, and that very great profit followed its use. This result is not mysterious--the nitrogen applied, if all had been used by the crop, would have given a still greater increase; it simply shows that where no extra nitrogen had been applied the plant was not able to obtain enough to make the crop what the conditions of the season and soil, in other respects, permitted. These favorable conditions, however, are not uniform, and variations in return from definite application must be expected. It is quite possible to have a return of $50 per acre from the use of $5 worth of nitrate of soda on crops of high value, as, for example, early tomatoes, beets, cabbage, etc. This is an extraordinary return for the money invested and labor involved; still, if the value of the increased crop from its use was but $10, it should be regarded as a profitable investment, since no more land is required, and but little more capital with this return. The waste of nitrogen does not result in loss. DANGER OF LOSS OF NITRATES BY LEACHING. The chief difficulties in the use of nitrate of soda are due to promptness in its solubility and availability. The fact that it is so soluble carries with it the very grave danger that losses by leaching may occur if the conditions of soil and crop at the time of its application are not favorable for a rapid absorption of the nitrate by the plant. This danger is greater if it is applied to the soil before rapid growth, when there is a limited number of plants that have not made much growth, or whose roots have not taken possession of the soil, as in the case of the vegetable crops. In meadows, on the other hand, or in grain crops, where there are a large number of plants per unit of area, and in orchards or berry patches, where there are fewer plants, but a wider distribution of the feeding roots, losses are not so liable to occur. There may be, therefore, great disappointment in the returns from the use of nitrate of soda, if opinions as to its usefulness are based entirely upon its availability. Nevertheless, because no unknown conditions enter in, in reference to its availability, it is possible to avoid, in a great degree, the losses liable to occur, and thus to secure a maximum return from the application of this form of nitrogen. THE INFLUENCE OF QUANTITY APPLIED AND METHOD OF APPLICATION. If the quantity applied is too small to meet the demands of the crop, unless all seasonal conditions are favorable, the chances are that the results will not be completely satisfactory, as weather conditions are not likely to be perfect; it may be too wet or too dry, too cold or too hot, and hence, during certain periods, the plants would not be able to obtain their food--that is, it would be impossible for the plant to absorb always its food uniformly, or in such amounts and at such times as would result in the best development of the plant. In all cases an amount should be applied that would exceed the needed requirement under perfect conditions. [Illustration: LIQUID MANURE IS ONE OF THE BEST ACTING FERTILISERS] In the second place, if the quantity found to be necessary for a definite increase of crop, under average conditions, were all applied at once, say in the early spring, a greater opportunity would be offered for losses from leaching than would be the case if the material were given in successive dressings, so that the losses due to the escape of the nitrogen would be minimized; on the other hand, if no losses occurred, the plant might take up more than could be utilized in a normal development, thus defeating the purpose, because resulting in a product of less commercial value. This would apply, of course, only in the case of those crops that are injured by abnormal development in certain directions, as, for example, too large a proportion of straw in cereal grains, too large a root in sugar beets, etc. All these difficulties may be obviated by a fractional application, or, in other words, by supplying the nitrogen at the time and in the quantity best adapted for the plant and for the purpose in view in its growth. The results from the use of nitrogen may be also unsatisfactory if nitrogen only of the elements essential is used. The best results from the use of nitrate can come only when there exist in the soil, or are applied with it, sufficient amounts of the mineral elements to enable the plant to obtain a food suited to its needs--nitrogen is but one element of plant food.--(N. J. A. E. Sta., 157.) PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. Where there is considerable choice in the location of the garden plot, it is often possible to select land that will require very little special preparation. On the other hand, it may be necessary to take an undesirable soil and bring it into suitable condition, and it is generally surprising to note the change that can be wrought in a single season. _Plowing._--Autumn is the time for plowing hard or stiff clay soils, especially if in a part of the country where freezing takes place, as the action of the frost during the winter will break the soil into fine particles and render it suitable for planting. Sandy loams and soils that contain a large amount of humus may be plowed in the spring, but the work should be done early in order that the soil may settle before planting. In the Southern States, where there is not sufficient frost to mellow the soil, this process must be accomplished by means of frequent cultivations, in order that the air may act upon the soil particles. It is desirable to plow the garden early, at least a few days sooner than for general field crops. Sandy soils will bear plowing much earlier than heavy clay soils. The usual test is to squeeze together a handful, and if the soil adheres in a ball it is too wet for working. In the garden greater depth of plowing should be practiced than for ordinary farm crops, as the roots of many of the vegetables go deeply into the soil. Subsoiling will be found advantageous in most cases, as the drainage and general movement of the soil moisture will be improved thereby. Hand spading should be resorted to only in very small gardens or where it is desirable to prepare a small area very thoroughly. _Smoothing and Pulverizing the Soil._--After plowing, the next important step is to smooth and pulverize the soil. If the soil be well prepared before planting, the work of caring for the crops will be very materially lessened. It is not sufficient that the land be smooth and fine on top, but the pulverizing process should extend as deep as the plowing. Some gardeners prefer to thoroughly cut the land with a disk harrow before plowing, so that when it is turned by the plow the bottom soil will be fine and mellow. After the plow the disk or cutting harrow is again brought into play and the pulverizing process completed. If the soil is a trifle too dry and contains lumps, it may be necessary to use some form of roller or clod crusher to bring it down. For smoothing the surface and filling up depressions a float or drag made from planks or scantlings will be found serviceable. TIME OF PLANTING. No definite rule can be given regarding the time for planting seeds and plants in the garden, for the date varies with the locality and the time that it is desired to have the crop mature. A little practice will soon determine when and how often sowings should be made in order to escape frost and mature the crop at a time when it will be most useful. Certain crops will not thrive during the heated part of the summer, and their time of planting must be planned accordingly. THE SELECTION AND PURCHASE OF GARDEN SEEDS. In order to have a good garden it is necessary to plant good seeds. It is not alone essential that the seeds be capable of growing; they must be capable of producing a crop of the desired quality, under the conditions existing where the gardening is to be done. Some varieties of vegetables are restricted in their adaptations, while others thrive over a wide range of territory and under widely different conditions of soil and climate. If the behavior of different varieties in a given locality is not known, the safe plan to follow in selecting varieties for planting is to choose mainly those that have proved themselves adapted to a wide range of conditions and have thereby become recognized as standard sorts. The newer varieties may be tested in small quantities until their suitableness for a given place and purpose has been determined. Particular care should be taken to select varieties that are capable of yielding a product of high quality. Such varieties are numerous, and some are better for one region than another. It is always a safe plan to have a little more seed on hand than is actually needed to plant the area desired. Sometimes the first planting of a given crop is destroyed by frost or insects, making replanting necessary. In such a case, delay in replanting could be avoided by having the seeds on hand. The additional expense is slight compared with the value of the crop. In the case of many seeds, an ounce costs but little more than a packet; and in such cases, it is the part of wisdom to purchase an ounce, even though a packet might contain sufficient seed to barely plant the desired area. The more expensive seeds may be purchased in smaller quantities, with less margin between the actual amount required and the quantity purchased.--(U. Ill. B. 154.) SEED SOWING. Garden seeds should always be sown in straight rows regardless of where the planting is made. If a window box is employed for starting early plants in a dwelling, the soil should be well firmed and then laid off in straight rows about 2 inches apart. The same method holds good for planting seeds in a hotbed, cold frame, or bed in the garden, except that the rows should be farther apart than in the window box. By planting in straight rows the seedlings will be more uniform in size and shape, and thinning and cultivating will be more easily accomplished. In all cases where the soil of the seed bed is not too wet it should be well firmed or pressed down before laying off and marking for sowing the seeds. After the seeds are sown and covered, the surface should again be firmed by means of a smooth board. No definite rule can be given for the depth to which seeds should be planted, for the depth should vary with the kind of seed and with the character and condition of the soil. In heavy clay and moist soils the covering should be lighter than in sandy or dry soils. In all cases the depth should be uniform, and when planting seeds in boxes or a bed the grooves in which the seeds are planted should be made with the edge of a thin lath.--(F. B. 255.) _Planting._--The most distinctive feature of the garden on the farm should be the reduction of hand labor to a minimum. In planting the garden, therefore, it should be laid out in long rows, sufficiently far apart to permit the use of a horse and cultivator in tending the crops. Time and confusion will also be saved if the vegetables are grouped according to their cultural requirements, and the number of plantings made as small as is consistent with the demands of the various crops. Each group of crops may then be planted and tended as one crop, and the garden operations thus greatly simplified. When more than one planting of a given crop is desired for the sake of securing a succession, the second planting may be put in at the same time that other crops are being planted, so that even in this case, the number of plantings need not be multiplied. The use of two or more varieties of the same vegetable, differing in their time of maturity, will also aid in keeping down the number of different plantings. The arrangement of the garden as to length of rows and time of planting, is not the only labor saving feature that should characterize the typical farmer's garden. Field methods should be practiced in preparing the land for planting, and as much preliminary work done in the fall as is possible, for the sake of both securing an early garden and reducing the amount of labor in spring. After the land is cleared of refuse from preceding crops, it should be heavily manured, and plowed in the fall. The amount of manure to be applied will depend somewhat upon the fertility of the land, but more largely upon the trueness of the farmer's conception of the plant food requirements of garden crops. The best gardens are possible only where plant is supplied much more liberally than is considered ample for field crops. Forty tons of manure per acre is a very moderate application for garden crops, and this amount should be applied annually, even on soils already rich, if maximum crops of vegetables are to be grown. The plowing under of manure in the fall hastens the drying out of the soil in the spring, so that planting may begin earlier than if the manuring and plowing were deferred until spring. This is both because the soil actually dries out earlier, and also because no time is lost in manuring or plowing after the soil has reached workable condition. It often happens that early in the spring when the cool season crops should be planted, the soil remains in ideal condition for working only a brief period, and then becomes so thoroughly wet by copious rains that further garden work is precluded for two or three weeks. If the manuring and plowing have been done in the fall, it is often possible to plant the early vegetables in the brief period during which the soil is fit to work, while otherwise this entire period might be expended in making preparations, and the actual planting necessarily deferred until the next time the soil was dry. Since the success of many of the early crops depends upon early planting, the wisdom of fall preparation is apparent. If the land has been manured and plowed in the fall, and is worked at the proper time in spring, very little labor is necessary in the preparation of a seed-bed for the early planting. Soil containing sufficient humus to grow vegetable crops advantageously, can be fitted for planting without the use of hand tools, if the precaution is taken to work it at the exact time it reaches the right degree of dryness. It will then crumble readily, and a seed-bed can be prepared by the use of a disk, harrow, and planker. The use of these tools saves an enormous amount of labor, and is a vast improvement over the old method of using a hoe and rake. The actual planting of the garden is a simple matter, provided a definite plan has previously been made, so that no time is lost in deciding which vegetable to plant first, where to plant it, or how much to plant. In the home garden, only a small amount of seed of each kind is planted, so that a seed drill cannot be used to advantage, and the planting is therefore almost invariably done by hand. For the small vegetables, sown in drills, the planting involves four distinct operations: (1) making the drills, (2) dropping the seed, (3) covering, and (4) firming. The most rapid way of making the drills in a garden to be planted in long rows is to use a marker that makes three or four drills each time it is drawn across the area to be planted. With a medium weight marker, and the soil in proper condition for planting, the marks will be of the proper depth for planting seeds of any of the smaller vegetables usually sown in drills. For peas or beans a deeper drill may be made with the plow attachment of a wheel hoe. After the seed is dropped, it is covered with a rake, or in the case of deep planting, with a hoe, or a wheel hoe. The soil is firmed over the seed by the use of the feet, the back of a hoe, or a garden roller. Whatever the means employed, the firming must be thorough, especially in light soil or dry weather; for unless the soil is brought in close contact with the seeds, they will not germinate.--(U. Ill. B. 154.) _Cultivation._--By the proper cultivation of the garden there is accomplished three things: (1) The weeds are kept out so that they do not shade or take away valuable plant food and moisture from the plants which one desires to perfect. (2) The surface soil is brought into the best condition to resist drouth; that is, into the best condition for availing itself to the utmost of the stores of water in the subsoil and to prevent the evaporation of this water from the surface soil. (3) The stores of insoluble plant food are made soluble by the chemical action and fermentation, which are increased by loosening the soil, thereby letting in the air. _Keeping Out the Weeds._--The methods best adapted for keeping the weeds out of the garden are many and varied, and depend much upon the condition and kind of soil in which the weeds grow; upon the kind of crop and upon the habits of the weeds themselves. The most important step in making easy the prevention of weeds in the garden is the harrowing or other thorough cultivation of the land just before the planting of the seed, to kill the young weeds. If this is done thoroughly, the weeds do not have a better chance than the crop. If this is not done, the weeds will be ahead of the crop in growth, and if started even ever so little when the crop is planted, the result generally is that the crop is seriously overgrown by them before it is large enough to be cultivated. _This is a common mistake, and is, perhaps, responsible for more failures in the garden than any other factor which enters into the consideration of this subject_; and it is a very simple matter to prevent any trouble from this source if a little foresight is exercised. _Early Cultivation to Kill Weeds._--The next most important factor in the prevention of weeds in the garden is early cultivation. In the case of seeds that require a long time to germinate, it is an excellent plan to lightly rake over the land with an ordinary fine-toothed rake, even before the crop appears above the ground, providing the work is so carefully done as not to disturb the seeds. When the seed is sown with a drill, the line of the row may be plainly seen even before the plants come up, thus making it easy to commence cultivating it in advance of the weeds. In case of such crops as carrots, onions, parsnips and beets, which are quite delicate when young, cultivation should begin with some hand garden cultivator, even if it is intended later on to cultivate with a horse, and the crop is planted with this purpose in view. Such close and careful work cannot be done with any horse implement now in use as with the best hand implements. With proper tools, the work may be done nearly as quickly by hand as by horse power, and far more perfectly when the plants are small. Careful early cultivation is of the utmost importance, since, if the weeds are removed when they are young, the work of weeding is very small. If allowed to remain until well rooted, their removal is often a very serious matter, and frequently, if neglected at this early stage, the weeds become so firmly established as to make it a question whether to remove them or plow under the whole crop; and often it is the part of wisdom to adopt the latter alternative. Aside from its effect in the prevention of weeds, early cultivation is of great value in breaking up the crust that packs firmly around the tender growing stems of plants, and that seriously interferes with their growth. It is also, like all surface cultivation, of aid in the conservation of moisture in the soil. _Importance of Not Allowing Weeds to Go to Seed._--A common source of weed infection is often found in the few weeds that are allowed to go to seed toward the end of the growing season in the maturing crop or after the crop has been gathered. To some farmers it often seems a small matter to allow a few plants of pig-weed, purslane, tumble weed and weeds of other kinds to go to seed in the garden, but absolute cleanliness should be the only rule in this particular, and it is by far the most economical in practice in the long run. It requires but little labor and saves much useless expense to destroy weeds that are going to seed. If the preventives for weeds suggested are closely followed hand weeding will be reduced to a minimum and will often be unnecessary with any crop. _Weed Seeds in Manure for the Garden._--The manure applied to the garden is often coarse and contains many weed seeds, and is a fruitful source of weed infection. The manure intended for the garden that contains the seeds of weeds should be piled up and allowed to ferment until the whole mass is thoroughly rotted. By this means the seeds in it will be killed. But in order to rot manure to best advantage, it should be forked over occasionally when well warmed up by fermentation, and the whole turned over, with the outside of the pile thrown into the center. If dry, it should be watered enough to enable fermentation to continue, and to prevent "fire-fanging." It is seldom advisable to use fresh manure in the garden, and manure should only be applied in this condition when free from weeds, and then only for some late-maturing crops, in which case there will be time for it to rot before the crops need it. All early crops need well rotted manure, and require it in much larger quantities than do the late-maturing crops.--(U. Minn. A. E. S. 38.) _General Cultivation._--The methods to be pursued in the general cultivation of garden crops will vary somewhat, according to the soil, season and crop. However, it is very important to remember that the destruction of weeds is but a small part of the work of cultivation. The most important part is to so fit the soil that it may best withstand drouth. This is accomplished by frequent shallow cultivation during the period of growth. The first implements to use in the care of such crops as are generally cultivated by hand are those that work the soil to only a very slight depth, close to the plants. Such implements may be used just as the seedlings are breaking ground. As soon as the plants have gained some little strength, implements should be used that will go deeper, until a depth of two or three inches can be easily worked without endangering the safety of the crop by covering the plants with dirt. It is doubtful if any of our garden crops should ever be cultivated more than three inches deep, and it is very certain that many crops are injured by cultivating deeply very close to the plants, in which case the roots are cut off near their upper ends and thus wholly destroyed. Cultivation in a period of drouth results in forming a mulch or blanket of dry earth on the surface of the land, which prevents the moisture from passing into the atmosphere, and a rather shallow blanket, say two inches deep, accomplishes this purpose. A compact subsoil readily transmits the water upwards to the surface soil, in the same manner that a lamp wick carries the oil to the flame. At the surface the soil water is prevented from evaporating by a blanket of loose earth, and is thus saved in the upper subsoil and lower and middle parts of the furrow slice for the roots of the crop; loose surface soil is a good non-conductor of water. During the growth of a crop, the surface of the ground should never be left long with a crust on it, but should be stirred after each rain or after artificially watering. TOOLS. There are a number of one-horse cultivators that are especially adapted for work in the garden. These may be provided with several sizes of teeth and shovels, and are easily transformed for various kinds of work. In working the crops while they are small the harrow or smaller teeth may be used, and later when the plants become larger the size of the shovels may be increased. Many gardeners, however, prefer to use the harrow teeth at all times. When it is desirable to ridge up the soil around a crop, the wings, or hillers, may be put on either side of the cultivator. A one-horse turning plow is useful for running off rows or throwing up ridges. Aside from the horse tools in general use on the farm, there are only one or two cultivators that will be required for the garden, and these are not expensive. The outfit of hand tools for the garden should include a spade, a spading fork, a cut-steel rake, a 10-foot measuring pole, a line for laying off rows, a standard hoe, a narrow hoe, dibbles, a trowel, an assortment of hand weeders, a watering can, a wheelbarrow, and if the work is to be done largely by hand the outfit should also include some form of wheel hoe, of which there are a number on the market. MULCHING. The term mulch as generally used means a layer of litter applied to the surface of the ground primarily for the purpose of retarding evaporation from the soil. Mulches are thus used as a substitute for cultivation to conserve the moisture in the soil in summer and to keep down weeds. They are also used as winter and spring coverings for low-growing small fruits to retard flowering and fruiting and thus to protect them from injury by late frosts. What is termed a "soil mulch" or "dust mulch" is maintained by frequent cultivation of the surface soil, and, like the ordinary mulch, is an effective means of retarding evaporation. Among the common materials used for mulching crops are straw, marsh hay, and leaves. These materials are usually applied to the whole surface of the soil in layers 4 to 6 inches deep. Mulching crops with straw or other litter is not very common. On a large scale it is too expensive. It frequently happens on a farm, however, that spring finds an old straw stack in the barnyard that will be practically valueless for feed the following winter. Can it be used profitably as a mulch? This question was investigated quite thoroughly by the Nebraska Station. Experiments were made to determine how mulching vegetables compares with the most thorough cultivation as a general farm practice. Old straw was the material used. After settling, the layer applied was about 4 inches deep. A large number of different vegetables were grown. In general it was found that mulching in Nebraska gave much better results in normal or dry seasons than in wet seasons. The value of the mulch in conserving the soil moisture was found to be quite marked. Soil samples taken one season in July and August showed the moisture content to a depth of 6 inches to be 18.2 per cent, as compared with 17.1 per cent in cultivated soil. When the mulch was applied early in the season before the ground became thoroughly wet, it often had a retarding effect on the growth of the vegetables. With early spring vegetables, like lettuce, which require only a few cultivations, it was found cheaper and better to cultivate than to mulch; but with longer-growing crops that require frequent cultivation throughout the season, such as cabbage, tomatoes, etc., mulching usually proved more effective and cheaper than cultivation. The fact that most vegetables, especially the more tender kinds, can not be mulched, until they have become well established and the weather has become warm, thus requiring some preliminary cultivation, certainly increases the labor required in growing mulched vegetables over what would be necessary if the mulch could be applied earlier. But, if the impracticability of early mulching is a serious drawback to the use of mulches, so is the impracticability of midsummer cultivation under farm conditions a serious objection to dependence upon cultivation alone. For most vegetables mulching should be used to supplement cultivation rather than to displace it. Such cultivation as is commonly given farm gardens is better for most vegetables in early spring than mulching; but mulching is just as surely better in midsummer than the neglect which is the common thing in farm gardens at that time of year. The experiment station tests have indeed shown mulching to be better in many cases than the most thorough cultivation throughout the summer. The station tests indicate that it is unwise to mulch drilled onions, lettuce, or sweet corn. The stand of the onions and lettuce is injured by mulching, while so few cultivations are required for sweet corn that mulching is hardly profitable, and in wet seasons the yield was decidedly decreased by mulching. With transplanted onions, beets, salsify, parsley, peas, and melons the labor required and yield obtained were found to be about the same by either method of culture. With cabbage, tomatoes, beans, cucumbers, potatoes, and sweet potatoes, very favorable results were secured by mulching. The yields of each of these crops were considerably increased by mulching and the labor required was considerably less than in case of cultivation alone. Mulched cabbage produced larger heads than cultivated cabbage, and there was less injury from rot. The vigor of tomato plants was decreased by mulching, but the yield of fruit increased. The fruit was also cleaner and less subject to rot. Mulched cucumbers produced perfect fruits during dry periods when the fruit from the cultivated plants was small and imperfect. The quality of potatoes was not hurt by mulching except in wet places. [Illustration: THE WHEEL HOE IS THE HANDIEST GARDEN TOOL] [Illustration: THE EASIEST RUNNING WHEEL HOE VALUABLE FOR MAINTAINING A DUST MULCH] In a special test of a 4-inch and 8-inch straw mulch and early and late mulching for potatoes a 4-inch mulch applied late in summer after several cultivations gave the best results. In the case of sweet potatoes the vines did not take root through the straw mulch as they do on cultivated ground, which was considered a decided advantage for mulching. On the whole this work seems to indicate that on the farm where cultivation of the garden is likely to be neglected in midsummer, a mulch of straw can be used profitably as a substitute. For the best results the mulch should not be applied until the ground has become thoroughly warmed up and after two or three cultivations have been given. The mulch may then be safely applied to such vegetables as cabbage, tomatoes, potatoes, and beans, and the garden left to take care of itself the rest of the season. The same plans were worked at the New Jersey stations. One season it was found that mulching increased the yield of sound fruits of eggplants 66.5 per cent and of tomatoes and peppers about 13 per cent each. The keeping quality of cucumbers also appeared to be slightly benefited by the use of a mulch. The season following, which was considerably more rainy, no advantage resulted from mulching. In this experiment there was no noticeable difference in the effectiveness of new salt hay, old hay, or excelsior as a mulch. Several of the experiment stations have carried out experiments in mulching potatoes. The favorable results obtained in such experiments in dry seasons at the Nebraska Station have already been referred to. At the Michigan Station the following yields were obtained: Mulched, 167 bushels of potatoes per acre; cultivated, 199 bushels per acre. With another variety the yield of mulched potatoes was 252 bushels, and of cultivated, 385 bushels. The cost of cultivation was less than the cost of mulching, and the profit in both instances was in favor of cultivation. It should be stated, however, that there was a large amount of rain during this season, and that the straw used as a mulch contained a considerable amount of grain, which came up on the mulched plats, both of which conditions were unfavorable to mulching. At the Oklahoma Station the total potato crop was increased about 50 per cent by mulching, the marketable crop nearly 100 per cent, and the size of the tubers about 70 per cent. Mulching potatoes with old shavings at the New Jersey stations increased the total number of tubers on a small plat about 16 per cent and the weight of the crop about 35 per cent. At the Georgia Station mulching potatoes with pine straw was not found to be of sufficient value to recommend the practice. These conflicting results secured with potatoes would seem to confirm the conclusion reached at the Nebraska Station that mulching is of greatest value in a dry season. There is, however, a drawback to mulching that may not at first occur to the reader, viz., the danger it involves from fire. In dry weather a lighted match or cigar dropped upon the mulch may easily start a conflagration that it may be impossible to stop until the orchard is destroyed. It gives disaffected trespassers in the orchard an excellent opportunity to take vengeance upon the owner. The cost of the mulch will of course depend much upon the price at which the material may be obtained. Clean wheat, rye, or oats straw would answer the purpose well, and in many localities would be cheaper than marsh hay. In some seasons oats sown as a second crop would grow fast enough to make mulching material by the time of frost. In the vicinity of marshes the coarser marsh grasses that have no value as hay may be cut after the ground freezes in autumn and would make excellent material for mulching. Cornstalks have been suggested, but they are probably too coarse to keep down weeds. It has been suggested that by sowing rye in September, and harvesting the crop the following June, and then sowing the same ground to millet, the rye straw with the millet would mulch an area of plums equal to that on which the two crops were grown, and would leave the thrashed rye to compensate for the labor. This is certainly worth trying by those who have no better source from which to obtain mulching.--(Nebr. Sta. Bul., 79, 80.) IRRIGATION. Throughout the portions of the country where rains occur during the growing season it should not be necessary to irrigate except occasionally in order to produce the ordinary garden crops. In arid regions, where irrigation must be depended upon for the production of crops, the system best adapted for use in that particular locality should be employed in the garden. Wherever irrigation is practiced the water should not be applied until needed, and then the soil should be thoroughly soaked. After irrigation, the land should be cultivated as soon as the surface becomes sufficiently dry, and no more water should be applied until the plants begin to show the need of additional moisture. Constant or excessive watering is very detrimental in every case. Apply the water at any time of the day that is most convenient and when the plants require it. By the subirrigation method of watering, lines of farm drain tiles or perforated pipes are laid on a level a few inches below the surface of the soil. This system is especially adapted for use in backyard gardens where city water is available and where the area under cultivation is small. Subirrigation is expensive to install, as the lines of tiles should be about 3 feet apart, or one line for each standard row. By connecting the tiles at one end by means of a tile across the rows the water may be discharged into the tiles at one point from a hose, and will find its way to all parts of the system, entering the soil through the openings. THINNING. Where plants are not to be transplanted twice, but remain in the plant bed until required for setting in the garden, it may be necessary to thin them somewhat. This part of the work should be done as soon as the plants are large enough to pull, and before they begin to "draw" or become spindling from crowding. When thinning plants in the plant bed it should be the aim to remove the centers of the thick bunches, leaving the spaces as uniform as possible. When thinning the rows of seedlings in the garden the best plants should be allowed to remain, but due consideration should be given to the matter of proper spacing. Failure to thin plants properly will invariably result in the production of an inferior crop. There is a tendency for some gardeners to leave the plants of carrots, onions, and similar vegetables too thick, or to defer the thinning too long, with the intention of making use of the thinnings. Usually this is a serious error, except in the case of beets, which can be used quite young for greens. The crowded seedlings do not reach edible size as soon as they would if not crowded; and the removal of part of the crowded plants when they are wanted for the table is likely to seriously disturb and impair the growth of those which remain. A better plan is to make at least a preliminary thinning as early as possible, leaving the plants perhaps twice as thick as they are eventually to stand; and then to pull out every other plant after they reach edible size. This method of thinning is especially adapted to beets, carrots, lettuce and onions. The other root crops, like parsnips and salsify, should be thinned to the full distance at the first thinning.--(U. Wis. Cir. 16; F. B. 255.) TRANSPLANTING. At the North, where the growing season is short, it is necessary to transplant several of the garden crops in order to secure strong plants that will mature within the limits of the growing season. In the Southern States the season is longer, and transplanting, while desirable, may not be necessary, as many crops that must be started indoors at the North can be planted in the garden where they are to remain. Transplanting should be done as soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle, and again when the plants begin to crowd one another. Aside from producing more uniform and hardy plants, the transplanting process has several other very marked influences. Certain crops which are grown for their straight roots are often injured by having their roots bent or broken in transplanting. On the other hand, such plants as celery, which at first have a straight root and are grown for their tops, are greatly benefited by transplanting. In all cases transplanting has a tendency to increase the number of small roots, and these are the main dependence of the plant at the time it is set in the open ground. A large number of garden crops, including melons, cucumbers, and beans, do not transplant readily from the seed bed to the open ground, and some special means for handling the plants must be employed where extra early planting is desired. A common practice among gardeners is to fill pint or quart berry boxes with good soil and plant a single hill in each box. Another method is to cut sods into pieces about 2 inches thick and 6 inches square and place them, root side upward, on the greenhouse bench or in the hotbed, the hills being planted in the loamy soil held in place by the roots of the grass. When the weather becomes sufficiently warm, and it is desired to set the plants in the garden, the berry boxes or pieces of sod are placed on a flat tray and carried to the place where the planting is to be done. Holes of sufficient size and depth are dug and the boxes or sods are simply buried at the points where it is desired to have the hills of plants. The boxes should be placed a little below the surface and fine earth worked in around the plants. If it is thought desirable, the bottoms of the boxes may be cut away when set in the garden. SETTING IN THE OPEN GROUND. A few hours before removing plants from the seed bed or plant bed they should be well watered and the water allowed to soak into the soil. This will insure a portion of the soil adhering to the roots and prevent the plants from wilting. If the plants have been properly thinned or transplanted it is often possible to run a knife or trowel between them, thus cutting the soil into cubes that are transferred with them to the garden. Where the soil does not adhere to the roots of the plants it is well to puddle them. In the process of puddling, a hole is dug in the earth near the plant bed, or a large pail may be used for the purpose, and a thin slime, consisting of clay, cow manure, and water, is prepared. The plants are taken in small bunches and their roots thoroughly coated with this mixture by dipping them up and down in the puddle a few times. Puddling insures a coating of moist earth over the entire root system of the plant, prevents the air from reaching the rootlets while on the way to the garden, and aids in securing direct contact between the roots and the soil. Previous to setting out plants, the land should be worked over and put in good condition, and everything should be ready for quick operations when a suitable time arrives. The rows should be measured off, but it is well to defer making the furrows or digging the holes until ready to plant, in order to have the soil fresh. The time best suited for transferring plants from the plant bed to the open ground is when there is considerable moisture in the air and clouds obscure the sun, and if the plants can be set before a shower there will be no difficulty in getting them to grow. During seasons when there is very little rain at planting time, or in irrigated regions, evening is the best time to set the plants. It is possible to set plants in quite dry soil, provided the roots are puddled and the earth well packed about them. When water is used in setting plants it should be applied after the hole has been partially filled, and the moist earth should then be covered with dry soil to prevent baking. Where water is available for irrigation it will be sufficient to puddle the roots and then irrigate after the plants are all in place. Plants should be set a trifle deeper in the garden than they were in the plant bed. The majority of plants require to be set upright, and where the dibble is used for planting care should be taken that the soil is well pressed around the roots and no air spaces left. PRECAUTIONS TO AVOID ATTACKS OF INSECTS AND DISEASES. In the control of insects and diseases that infest garden crops it is often possible to accomplish a great amount of good by careful sanitary management. In the autumn, after the crops have been harvested, or as fast as any crop is disposed of, any refuse that remains should be gathered and placed in the compost heap, or burned if diseased or infested with insects. Several of the garden insects find protection during the winter under boards and any loose material that may remain in the garden. Dead vines or leaves of plants are frequently covered with spores of diseases that affect those crops during the growing season, and these should be burned, as they possess very little fertilizing value. PROTECTION OF PLANTS. Some plants require protection from the direct rays of the sun in summer or from cold in winter, and there are many that need special protection while they are quite small. Seedlings of many of the garden crops are unable to force their way through the crust formed on the soil after heavy rains, and it is necessary either to break the crust with a steel rake or soften it by watering. In parts of the country where the sunshine is extremely hot during a part of the summer, some plants, especially those that are grown for salad purposes, are benefited by shading. Shading is often used in the care of small plants when they are first transplanted. Where boards are available they can be used for protecting plants that have been set in rows in the garden by placing them on the south side of the row at an angle that will cast a shadow over the plants, and holding them in place by short stakes driven in the ground. Laths, wooden slats, cotton cloth, or shaded sash are frequently used to protect plant beds from the heat of summer. For protecting plants from cold in winter several kinds of materials are used, such as boards, cloth, pine boughs, straw, manure, or leaves. There are a number of crops of a tropical nature that may be grown far north, provided they are properly protected during the winter. Several of the annual crops can be matured much earlier in the spring if they are planted in the autumn and protected during the winter. Plants of this kind can often be protected by means of boards set at an angle on the north side of the row instead of on the south. A mulch of manure, straw, or leaves forms a good protection, but care should be taken that the mulch does not contain seeds of any kind or serious trouble will attend the further cultivation of the crop. Plants are like animals in that they require air, and care should be exercised in putting on the winter covering not to smother them. Coarse, loose materials are better for a winter covering than fine, easily compacted substances.--(F. B. 255.) HARVESTING, PACKING AND SHIPPING. As a rule the crop should be harvested just before it reaches maturity. The time for this depends somewhat upon the distance from the market and the method of shipment. Remember that it costs just as much freight for a package of poor goods as for the best, and while there is a market for good produce, poor stuff not only does not bring good prices, but reacts upon the superior article, reducing its price. It is, therefore, poor policy to ship inferior goods. Inspect and assort rigorously, retaining all doubtful product for canning, or to be otherwise disposed of. Better lose it entirely than send it to market to undermine the good. Learn what kind of package the market you are selling in prefers. Provide that package, and pack the goods securely and honestly. Be sure the package is full. Not only is this more honest, but your produce will arrive upon the market in better condition if this is done. Have the goods in each package as near the same size as possible, and as near the same degree of ripeness. Do not make the error of placing the best on top. Remember that every package is examined by the buyer until he learns whether you are honest or not, and this practice fools no one, and only serves to make the buyer wary of your goods. Pack neatly in a neat clean package. Nail it up securely, stencil your name and post office, and the name of the consignee upon it, and ship as promptly, and by the most direct route possible. Notify the consignee promptly of the shipment in order that he may know it is on the way, and have a chance to provide for its reception and disposal. The shipment of perishable goods by freight in refrigerator cars is preferable. Very early in the season ventilated cars may give satisfaction. Except with a few packages of very early vegetables or fruits, express shipments will not, as a rule, be found profitable. Not only will the charges be four or five fold, but the packages are handled so often, and so roughly, that they invariably reach their destination in poor condition. Besides this, there is no assurance as to the temperature being kept low, and a low temperature, while in transit, is essential to the arrival of your produce upon the market in good condition. Careful selection, packing and shipping cannot be too strongly urged. Upon the intelligence and care with which this is done, depends, largely, the success of the shipper. Remember that after leaving your hands, and before reaching the consumer, these perishable goods are subjected to their greatest ordeal, and too much care cannot be given to make this test as light as possible. A proper understanding of this by the shipper would save many a disappointment, and many a hard word for the consignee. Of course, all else being equal, it is much safer and more satisfactory to sell on the track. However, this is not always possible, nor is it always advisable when possible. It would be unjust to demand or to expect the buyer to pay you the net price of the big city market for your goods at your home town. In buying from you there, he takes the risk of transportation, of the fluctuations of the market, and pays all selling charges, and it is but just and right that he should be allowed a fair margin for these risks. On the other hand, human nature is the same the world over, and unless you watch Mr. Buyer closely, you will find he shows a decided tendency to make this margin unnecessarily large. To sell on track, intelligently and advantageously, therefore, you must make a close study of the market conditions. It is not enough to know what stuff sold for last week. You should know what it sold for the day before, and what the conditions of supply and demand are. Is the crop a large one? Is the movement to your market large or light? Is the demand brisk or dull? Is your railroad service efficient? All these questions should be considered, and unless the farmer recognizes that the disposal of his crop is a business, and adopts business methods, he is sure to come to grief. In order to do this, it is necessary to have some reliable source of information. For this purpose, select some reliable commission house, and if necessary, pay them to furnish you daily market reports by wire during the shipping season. Do not begrudge the little money these telegrams will cost, for they will frequently save you many a dollar, even on one carload.--(La. St. U. & A. & M. Col. 81.) CANNING VEGETABLES IN THE HOME. One of the many problems that confront the American housewife is the supply of vegetables for her table during the winter months. "What can I have for dinner today?" is a question often heard. Since the advent of the modern greenhouse and the forcing of vegetables under glass, fresh vegetables can usually be found at any time in the markets of the large cities. But the cost of forcing vegetables or growing them out of season is and will continue to be very great. This makes the price so high as almost to prohibit their use by people of moderate means, except as a luxury. A healthful diet, however, must include vegetables, and therefore the housewife turns to canned goods as the only alternative. These are sometimes poor substitutes for the fresh article, especially the cheaper commercial grades, which necessarily lack the delicate flavor of the fresh vegetable. There is practically no danger, however, from contamination with tin or other metals providing the containers are made of proper materials and handled carefully. In some cases the proper care is not taken in packing vegetables for market. The decayed and refuse portions are not so carefully removed as they should be and the requisite degree of cleanliness is not observed in their packing. Happily, however, such carelessness is not general. Every housewife may run a miniature canning factory in her own kitchen, and on the farm this is especially economical and desirable, the economy being less pronounced in the case of city dwellers, who must buy their fruits and vegetables. Enough vegetables annually go to waste from the average farm garden to supply the table during the entire winter. But usually the farmer's wife cans her tomatoes, preserves her fruits, and leaves her most wholesome and nutritious vegetables to decay in the field, under the impression that it is impossible to keep them. This is a great mistake. It is just as easy to keep corn or string beans as it is to keep tomatoes, if you know how. _Sterilization._--The great secret of canning or preserving lies in complete sterilization. The air we breathe, the water we drink, all fruits and vegetables, are teeming with minute forms of life which we call bacteria, or molds, or germs. These germs are practically the sole cause of decomposition or rotting. The exclusion of air from canned articles, which was formerly supposed to be so important, is unnecessary provided the air is sterile or free from germs. The exclusion of air is necessary only because in excluding it we exclude the germ. In other words, air which has been sterilized or freed from germs by heat or mechanical means can be passed continuously over canned articles without affecting them in the least. If a glass bottle is filled with some vegetable which ordinarily spoils very rapidly--for instance, string beans--and, instead of a cork, it is stoppered with a thick plug of raw cotton and heated until all germ life is destroyed, the beans will keep indefinitely. The air can readily pass in and out of the bottle through the plug of cotton, while the germs from the outside air cannot pass through, but are caught and held in its meshes. This shows that the germs and their spores or seeds are the only causes of spoilage that we have to deal with in canning. Germs which cause decay may be divided into three classes--yeasts, molds and bacteria. All three of these are themselves plants of a very low order, and all attack other plants of a higher order in somewhat the same way. Every housewife is familiar with the yeast plant and its habits. It thrives in substances containing sugar, which it decomposes or breaks up into carbonic acid and alcohol. This fact is made use of in bread making, as well as in the manufacture of distilled spirits. Yeasts are easily killed, so they can be left out of consideration in canning vegetables. Molds, like yeasts, thrive in mixtures containing sugar, as well as in acid vegetables, such as the tomato, where neither yeasts nor bacteria readily grow. Although more resistant to heat than yeasts, they are usually killed at the temperature of boiling water. As a general rule, molds are likely to attack jellies and preserves and are not concerned with the spoiling of canned vegetables. The spoiling of vegetables is due primarily to bacteria. The reproduction of bacteria is brought about by one of two processes. The germ either divides itself into two parts, making two bacteria where one existed before, or else reproduces itself by means of spores. These spores may be compared with seeds of an ordinary plant, and they present the chief difficulty in canning vegetables. While the parent bacteria may be readily killed at the temperature of boiling water, the seeds retain their vitality for a long time even at that temperature, and upon cooling will germinate, and the newly formed bacteria will begin their destructive work. Therefore it is necessary, in order to completely sterilize a vegetable, to heat it to the boiling point of water and keep it at that temperature for about one hour, upon two or three successive days, or else keep it at the temperature of boiling water for a long period of time--about five hours. The process of boiling upon successive days is the one that is always employed in scientific work and is much to be preferred. The boiling on the first day kills all the molds and practically all of the bacteria, but does not kill the spores or seeds. As soon as the jar cools these seeds germinate and a fresh crop of bacteria begin work upon the vegetables. The boiling upon the second day kills this crop of bacteria before they have had time to develop spores. The boiling upon the third day is not always necessary, but is advisable in order to be sure that the sterilization is complete. Among scientists this is called fractional sterilization, and this principle constitutes the whole secret of canning. If the housewife will only bear this in mind she will be able with a little ingenuity to can any meat, fruit, or vegetable. _Exclusion of the Air._--Even after sterilization is complete the work is not yet done. The spores of bacteria are so light that they float about in the air and settle upon almost everything. The air is alive with them. A bubble of air no larger than a pea may contain hundreds of them. Therefore it is necessary after sterilizing a jar of vegetables to exclude carefully all outside air. If one bacterium or one of its spores should get in and find a resting place, in the course of a few days the contents of the jar would spoil. This is why the exclusion of air is an important factor, not because the air itself does any damage but because of the ever-present bacteria. All of this may seem new fashioned and unnecessary to some housekeepers. Persons have quite often heard it said: "My grandmother never did this, and she was the most successful woman at canning that I ever knew." Possibly so, but it must be remembered that grandmother made her preserves--delicious they were, too--and canned her tomatoes, but did not attempt to keep the most nutritious and most delicately flavored vegetables, such as lima beans, string beans, okra, asparagus, or even corn. _So-Called "Preserving Powders."_--There are a great many brands of so-called "preserving powders" on the market. These are sold not only under advertised trade names but by druggists and peddlers everywhere. In the directions for use the housewife is told to fill the jar with the fruit or vegetable to be canned, to cover with water, and to add a teaspoonful of the powder. It is true that these powders may prevent the decay of the fruit or vegetable, but they also encourage uncleanly, careless work, and in the hands of inexperienced persons may be dangerous. While with small doses the influence may not be apparent in an adult in normal health, with a child or an invalid the effect may be of a serious nature. The proper way to sterilize is by means of heat, and as this can be done very easily and cheaply the use of chemical preservatives in canning is not to be recommended. _Kinds of Jars._--The first requisite for successful canning is a good jar. Glass is the most satisfactory. Tin is more or less soluble in the juices of fruits and vegetables. Even the most improved styles of tin cans which are lacquered on the inside to prevent the juice from coming in contact with the tin are open to this objection. While the amount of tin dissolved under these conditions is very small, enough does come through the lacquer and into the contents of the can to be detected in an ordinary analysis. While the small amount of tin may not be injurious, it gives an undesirable color to many canned articles. Tin cans can not readily be used a second time, while glass with proper care will last indefinitely. There are a great many kinds of glass jars on the market, many of them possessing certain distinct points of advantage. The ordinary screw-top jar is the one in most common use. Although cheap in price, these jars are the most expensive in the long run. The tops last only a few years and, being cheaply made, the breakage is usually greater than that of a better grade of jar. The tops also furnish an excellent hiding place for germs, which makes sterilization very difficult. The most satisfactory jar is the one which has a rubber ring and glass top, held in place by a simple wire spring. There are several brands of these jars on the market, so no difficulty should be experienced in obtaining them. Vegetables often spoil after being sterilized because of defective rubbers. It is poor economy to buy cheap rubbers or to use them a second time. As a general rule black rubbers are more durable than white ones. Buy a good grade of jar. The best quality usually retails at from a dollar to a dollar and twenty-five cents a dozen. The initial expense may be, therefore, somewhat high, but with proper care they should last many years. The annual breakage should be less than 3 per cent on the average. In selecting a jar always give preference to those having wide mouths. In canning whole fruit or vegetables and in cleaning the jars the wide mouth will be found to be decidedly preferable. _Containers for Sterilizing._--A tin clothes boiler with a false bottom made of wire netting cut to fit may be used as a container for sterilizing. The netting is made of medium-sized galvanized wire (No. 16) with one-half inch mesh. A false bottom is absolutely necessary, as the jars will break if set flat upon the bottom of the boiler. Narrow strips of wood, straw, or almost anything of this nature may be used for the purpose, but the wire gauze is clean and convenient. There are several varieties of patent steamers or steam cookers in common use. These have either one or two doors and hold a dozen or more quart jars. They are ideal for canning, but they are somewhat expensive and can be easily dispensed with. A common ham boiler or clothes boiler with a tight-fitting cover will answer every purpose.--(F. B. 359.) _Selection and Preparation of Vegetables._--The first step in successful canning is the selection and preparation of the vegetables. Never attempt to can any vegetable that has matured and commenced to harden or one that has begun to decay. As a general rule, young vegetables are superior in flavor and texture to the more mature ones. This is especially true of string beans, okra, and asparagus. Vegetables are better if gathered in the early morning while the dew is still on them. If it is impossible to can them immediately, do not allow them to wither, but put them in cold water, or in a cold, damp place and keep them crisp until you are ready for them. Do your canning in a well-swept and well-dusted room. This will tend to reduce the number of spores floating about and lessen the chances of inoculation. STORING. The assortment of vegetables which can be made available for winter use is much larger than is ordinarily supposed. No less than thirty distinct kinds of vegetables can be preserved for winter use by proper methods of storing, canning, and pickling. Of these, at least twenty may be kept in the fresh state, without canning or pickling. Besides the staple crop, potatoes, the list includes the root crops (beets, carrots, horse-radish, parsnips, winter radish, ruta-baga, salsify, turnips), kohl-rabi, cabbage, celery, leeks, chicory, parsley, onions, dry beans, pumpkins, squashes and sweet potatoes. The vegetables most commonly canned are rhubarb, tomatoes, corn, peas and string beans; those commonly preserved by pickling are cauliflower, cucumbers (both green and ripe), citron, green peppers and green tomatoes. When vegetables are to be canned or pickled, it is not usually necessary to grow them especially for that purpose, except to make sure that a suitable variety is planted in sufficient quantity. When the vegetables have reached the right stage of maturity and the supply is abundant, part of the crop is simply canned or pickled without special regard to the particular time in the season it may be done. However, with vegetables to be preserved in the fresh state for winter use it is essential that they be planted at such a time that they will reach the right stage of development at the proper season for storing. This means that in the case of some of the crops they will be planted considerably later than if designed for summer use, since the product is of better quality if not allowed to continue growth after reaching the desired stage of development, and this stage should not be reached before the arrival of the storage season. Since most vegetables usually keep best if put into storage comparatively late, it should be the aim of the gardener to mature the vegetables for winter use as late in the season as he can, and yet have them harvested before they are injured by cold. Of the vegetables stored for winter, some require entirely different conditions in storage than do others, so that attempts to store all vegetables under the same conditions would result only in failure. In order that the root crops may be stored without wilting, rotting or starting into growth, they must be kept cool, fairly moist, and away from contact with circulating air. Cabbage may be successfully stored under the same conditions. Onions must be kept at a low temperature, but differ from the root crops in that they must be in a dry atmosphere and have free circulation of air. In a moist atmosphere, under high temperature, they would either rot or sprout. Vegetables that are expected to continue growth while in storage, such as celery, leeks, Brussels sprouts, chicory and parsley, must be planted in dirt and the roots kept moist. Air should circulate freely about the tops, and the temperature must be low. On the other hand, sweet potatoes, pumpkins and squashes demand a high temperature and dry atmosphere, with free circulation of air. The conditions of storage favorable to the different crops are secured in various ways. Market gardeners use outdoor pits or specially constructed cellars for their root crops, cabbage and celery. Onions are commercially stored in slatted crates piled in tiers in frost-proof houses provided with means for ventilation so that the temperature can be maintained at slightly above freezing. Sweet potatoes and squashes are also stored in specially constructed houses, in which the temperature can be controlled; but since a high temperature is demanded for these crops, artificial heat is usually employed. Circulation of air about these products in storage is facilitated by the use of slatted bins, and allowing ample space between the bins and the side walls of the building. For home use the root crops and cabbage can best be stored in outdoor pits for late winter use, and in the cellar for use early in the season. The chief objection usually urged against storing root crops in the cellar is that they are likely to wilt. This difficulty can be obviated by packing the roots in boxes with alternate layers of earth or sand, and placing the boxes in the coolest part of the cellar. The earth will absorb any odors in case the vegetables should start to decay, and thus avoid endangering the health of the family. Cabbage can be stored in the same way if the roots and outer leaves are removed and merely the heads are packed in boxes or barrels of earth. Cabbage intended for late winter use, however, will keep better in an outdoor pit than in a cellar. The same is true of parsnips, salsify, horse-radish and some of the other root crops. Except where the ground is especially well drained, the pits are usually made entirely above ground. For storing cabbage in this manner, the plants are pulled with the roots and leaves on, and placed upside-down in regular order on a level piece of ground. Usually three plants are placed side by side, with two above, and this arrangement repeated so that the final result is a long, low pile of cabbage showing five plants in a cross section. Earth is piled against and over this array of cabbage until the plants, including the roots, are entirely covered. In a severe climate, a layer of manure may be added when cold weather arrives. For storing parsnips, salsify and horse-radish, which are uninjured by freezing, the roots may be placed in a pile on the ground and covered with about six inches of earth. The advantage of storing in this manner, instead of allowing the roots to remain where they grew, is the saving in time of digging, when a few roots are wanted during the winter. It is much easier to open the pit when the ground is frozen than to dig roots from the garden with a pick. In fact, the difficulty of digging almost precludes the use of these crops in midwinter unless they are more accessible than in the place where they grew. Beets, carrots, turnips, ruta-bagas, kohl-rabi and Irish potatoes can also be stored in outdoor pits, but they must be covered sufficiently to prevent freezing. One of the best ways of handling these crops is to place them in a conical pile and cover first with six or eight inches of hay or straw, then with earth to a similar depth. If extremely cold weather is expected, a layer of manure should be placed outside of the earth. In getting vegetables from pits of this kind in midwinter, the manure is removed slightly from one side of the pit near the bottom and a hole about a foot square chopped through the frozen earth with an old ax. Sufficient hay is then pulled out by means of an iron hook, to enable a person to thrust his arm into the opening and reach the vegetables.--(U. Ill. 154.) EARLY PLANTS IN HOTBEDS. The most common method of starting early plants in the North is by means of a hotbed. The hotbed consists of an inclosure covered with sash and supplied with some form of heat, usually fermenting stable manure, to keep the plants warm and in a growing condition. As a rule, the hotbed should not be placed within the garden inclosure, but near some frequently used path or building where it can receive attention without interfering with other work. The hotbed should always face to the south, and the south side of either a dwelling, barn, tight board fence, hedge, or anything affording a similar protection, will furnish a good location. The hotbed should be started in February or early in March, in order that such plants as the tomato and early cabbage may be well grown in time to plant in the open ground. There are two or three forms of hotbeds that are worthy of use. A temporary hotbed, such as would ordinarily be employed on the farm, is easily constructed by the use of manure from the horse stable as a means of furnishing the heat. Select a well-drained location, where the bed will be sheltered, shake out the manure into a broad, flat heap, and thoroughly compact it by tramping. The manure heap should be 8 or 9 feet wide, 18 to 24 inches deep when compacted, and of any desired length, according to the number of sash to be employed. The manure for hotbed purposes should contain sufficient litter, such as leaves or straw, to prevent its packing soggy, and should spring slightly when trodden upon. After the manure has been properly tramped and leveled, the frames to support the sash are placed in position facing toward the south. These frames are generally made to carry 4 standard hotbed sash, and the front board should be 4 to 6 inches lower than the back, in order that water will drain from the glass. Three to five inches of good garden loam or specially prepared soil is spread evenly over the area inclosed by the frame, the sash put on, and the bed allowed to heat. At first the temperature of the bed will run quite high, but no seeds should be planted until the soil temperature falls to 80° F., which will be in about three days. In most farmhouses enough heat is wasted throughout the winter to sustain a small hothouse to say nothing of a hotbed. Hotbeds having more or less permanence may be so constructed as to be heated either with fermenting manure, a stove, a brick flue, or by means of radiating pipes supplied with steam or hot water from a dwelling or other heating plant. For a permanent bed in which fermenting manure is to supply the heat, a pit 24 to 30 inches in depth should be provided. The sides and ends of the pit may be supported by brick walls or by a lining of 2-inch plank held in place by stakes. Standard hotbed sash are 3 by 6 feet in size, and are usually constructed of white pine or cypress. As a rule, hotbed sash can be purchased cheaper than they can be made locally, and are on sale by seedsmen and dealers in garden supplies. In the colder parts of the country, in addition to glazed sash either board shutters, straw mats, burlap, or old carpet will be required as a covering during cold nights. It is also desirable to have a supply of straw or loose manure on hand to throw over the bed in case of extremely cold weather. During bright days the hotbed will heat very quickly from the sunshine on the glass and it will be necessary to ventilate during the early morning by slightly raising the sash on the opposite side from the wind. Care should be taken in ventilating to protect the plants from a draft of cold air. Toward evening the sash should be closed in order that the bed may become sufficiently warm before nightfall. Hotbeds should be watered on bright days and in the morning only. Watering in the evening or on cloudy days will have a tendency to chill the bed and increase the danger from freezing. After watering, the bed should be well ventilated to dry the foliage of the plants and the surface of the soil and prevent the plants being lost by damping-off fungus or mildew. HANDLING OF PLANTS. Successful transplanting of indoor-grown plants to the garden or field depends largely upon their proper treatment during the two weeks preceding the time of their removal. Spindling and tender plants will not withstand the exposure of the open ground so well as sturdy, well-grown plants, such as may be secured by proper handling. Plants grown in a house, hotbed, or cold frame will require to be hardened off before planting in the garden. By the process of hardening off, the plants are gradually acclimated to the effects of the sun and wind so that they will stand transplanting to the open ground. Hardening off is usually accomplished by ventilating freely and by reducing the amount of water applied to the plant bed. The plant bed should not become so dry that the plants will wilt or be seriously checked in their growth. After a few days it will be possible to leave the plants uncovered during the entire day and on mild nights. By the time the plants are required for setting in the garden they should be thoroughly acclimated to outdoor conditions and can be transplanted with but few losses.--(F. B. 255; U. Mo. Col. Ag. & Mech. Arts 33; N. La. 81; Kan. St. Ag. Col. 70; S. Dak. 47; U. Idaho 17.) [Illustration: TEMPORARY HOTBEDS IN A CITY BACK YARD] FRAMES USED IN TRUCK GROWING. Intensive gardening under sash or cloth covers has become one of the most popular and, in certain localities where the conditions are suitable, one of the most profitable lines of outdoor work. The trucker and the market gardener of the present day have been compelled by keen competition and a constantly increasing demand for high-grade products out of season to provide special facilities for increasing and improving the product, as well as to take advantage of every favorable natural condition. Many localities are especially favored with an abundance of sunshine at all seasons of the year, and at the same time their climate, due to the influence of large streams or near-by bodies of water, is mild and free from extremes of temperature. In such localities it would be possible to grow lettuce, radishes, and similar crops during the entire winter without protection were it not for a few cold days and nights. A very slight covering or the application of a small amount of heat will, as a rule, carry the plants through in good condition. This industry may readily be combined with regular truck farming, as it furnishes remunerative employment during the winter months. A comparatively small area is necessary for the frames, but several times that acreage of land should be available, so that the site of the frames may be changed every few years to safeguard against diseases and insect injuries. _Cloth-Covered Frames._--The type of frame or bed varies with the different localities and is ordinarily no more elaborate or expensive than is necessary to protect the crops. In North Carolina and South Carolina the type of frame generally used is that having for the sides two lines of 12-inch boards set on edge and held in place by means of stakes driven into the ground. The covering of cheap unbleached muslin is supported on strips of wood 1 inch thick and 2-1/2 or 3 inches wide, which are raised in the center by being carried over the top of a stake; the ends are held down by nailing to the sides of the bed. Most of these frames are temporary and are taken apart and stored during the summer months. Before placing the frames in position in the autumn the soil is plowed, thoroughly fitted, and given a liberal dressing of well-rotted stable manure and commercial fertilizers. The placing of the boards will cause some trampling of the bed, and before putting in the ends and nailing on the rafters or strips to support the cloth it is desirable to loosen the soil again by means of a harrow or cultivator. The stakes for supporting the cross strips or rafters are then driven through the center and the strips nailed in place at intervals of 4 feet. The ends are inclosed by means of 12-inch boards, and the bed is then ready for the cloth cover. The cloth is first stitched, with the strips running lengthwise of the bed, into one great sheet large enough to cover the entire bed. This sheet is fastened on the north side of the frame by nailing over it plastering laths or similar strips of wood. The cloth should not be fastened to the top edge of the board but on the side, 1 or 2 inches below the top. For fastening the sheet on the south side of the frame short loops of string or cloth are attached to its edge and these are looped over nails driven into the side of the bed. _Sash-Covered Frames._--In the tidewater region of Virginia the frames are covered with hotbed sash. The climate of Norfolk is a little too severe for the use of cloth except for early autumn and spring crops. A number of growers in the vicinity of Norfolk handle sash-covered frames occupying as much as 3, 4, or 5 acres each season. For the sides and ends of these frames the same class of cheap lumber as for the cloth-covered frames is used. _Heated Frames._--Farther north, near Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Detroit, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, New York, and Boston, sash-covered frames are extensively used for growing early vegetables. This work is practically the same as that found at Norfolk, except that the frames are constructed over an excavation which is filled with fermenting manure to provide heat. Where manure-heated beds are extensively used for growing early vegetables a long, shallow pit is opened, the manure is trodden in, and 12-inch boards are fastened to stakes to form the sides. The board on the north side is raised a little higher than the one on the south side in order to form a slope for the glass. A few strips are nailed across the bed to prevent the sides from coming in by the pressure of the manure or soil that is banked on the outside, and the sash simply rest on the sides without any guide or supporting strips between them. Straw mats and board shutters are employed as a protection for the sash during cold weather. _Temperature of Frames._--The temperature at which the air of the beds should be carried will depend entirely upon the crop being grown. Thermometers should be placed at intervals in the beds, as it is not safe to judge the temperature by personal sensation. If lettuce, parsley, or radishes are growing in the beds, the temperature should not go above 70° F. before ventilation is given; on the other hand, if the frames are filled with cucumbers, eggplant, or peppers, the temperature may run 8 or 10 degrees higher. It should be borne in mind that any covering, whether cloth or sash, will exclude a part of the light, and every precaution is necessary to prevent the plants becoming "drawn." The safest plan is to keep the temperature a trifle low and thus retain the plants in a strong, thrifty condition. Where tender plants are being grown under cloth there is greater danger of injury from keeping them covered too tightly than from exposure to moderate cold. [Illustration: SHOWING VEGETABLES GROWING IN HOTBED] VENTILATION. _Open-Air._--In the care of cloth-covered frames the covers are left off during bright weather and the plants subjected to open-air conditions. When there is danger of cold the covers are put on at night, and during unfavorable weather they are frequently left on during the day. While the cloth covers conserve the heat, they at the same time exclude the sunlight, and if they are kept on too great a portion of the time the crops will become drawn and spindling. With sash-covered frames the matter of ventilation is of prime importance. The glass admits and holds the heat of the sun's rays, and during bright weather it is necessary to open the frames quite early in the morning. Ventilation is accomplished by propping up one end or one side of the sash on a notched stick. The rule to be followed is to ventilate on the side away from the wind, so that the wind will blow over the opening and not into the bed. _Protection of Frames._--The area occupied by the frames is often surrounded by a high board fence or a hedge of evergreens to break the force of the wind. If a large area is devoted to frames it is sometimes subdivided by numerous cross fences to break up air currents and lessen the force of storms. Where no heat is applied to the frames the control over temperature will not be great except in the prevention of too high temperature by means of ventilation during bright weather. In many instances straw and burlap mats are kept ready at hand for throwing over sash-covered frames to prevent loss from freezing, but this would not be practicable on a large scale. Sometimes the glass is covered by shoveling one-half or three-fourths of an inch of soil over it, but this involves considerable labor and frequently results in the breakage of a great deal of glass. It is possible to ward off frost by the use of a number of orchard heaters in the frame yard. These heaters burn kerosene or crude oil and give off both heat and a smudge which will prevent injury from a reasonable degree of cold. _Crops Grown in Frames._--The crops most commonly grown in frames are lettuce, radishes, cucumbers, garden beets, parsley, eggplant, peppers, and snap beans. The crops grown in the sash-covered frames do not differ materially from those grown under cloth. In the spring, however, many growers devote their beds almost entirely to cucumbers and eggplant instead of to lettuce and radishes. To the southward the cloth covers are sufficient to protect the more hardy crops throughout the winter. To the northward the hardy crops may be grown under sash in midwinter, and those requiring more heat are grown in the spring. _Marketing Crops Grown in Frames._--Crops grown in frames are usually superior in quality and appearance to those grown in the open and should be given more care in handling and marketing. The cost of production is somewhat higher than for outdoor crops, and it is essential that they be put up in neat packages in order to bring the highest market price. The more successful growers give the work of gathering, grading, and packing the crop their closest personal attention and use only clean, attractive packages for handling and shipping. The packages employed for handling the frame products are generally the same as those used for marketing outdoor vegetables, of the same kinds. In a few instances a distinctive package has been employed. The use of special shipping packages that would give the frame-grown produce special recognition on the markets would be a decided advantage to the grower.--(F. B. 460.) SOIL AND FERTILIZERS. The greater portion of the work with frames is conducted on light or sandy loam soils which are naturally well drained and adapted to intensive trucking. The original soil is usually employed, but when necessary rich soil is hauled and placed in the beds. The first essential is good drainage, and if the land is not naturally well drained it should be tiled or provided with numerous open ditches to carry off the water. The surface of the soil should be graded and all depressions filled in and leveled. For best results the land should be subjected to two or three years of preparation by manuring and planting to leguminous crops. The presence of plenty of organic matter in the soil is very important, especially where large quantities of commercial fertilizers are to be used. This organic matter may be added in the form of stable manure, but more satisfactory results will be obtained where leguminous crops are included in the preparatory treatment. For green manure nothing is better than cowpeas as a summer crop and crimson clover as a winter crop. The crimson clover should be turned under about the time it comes into full bloom in the spring, the land planted to cowpeas, and the resulting crop plowed under or mowed for hay during the month of August in ample time to prepare the land for frame work during the autumn. When heavy crops of green manure are turned under it is essential that lime be used to improve the mechanical condition and to sweeten the soil; a dressing of 1,000 pounds to the acre should be sufficient. Large quantities of stable manure are used in growing crops in frames, sometimes as much as 30 to 60 cartloads to the acre. The manure is generally spread in a broad, flat pile to compost before it is applied to the soil on which frames are to be located. Where manure is employed for heating the beds it may afterwards be mixed with the soil for the growing of subsequent crops. Poultry and sheep manure is excellent fertilizer for frame work, but the quantity obtainable is very small. In the application of natural manures of all kinds it is essential that the manure should be fine; that it be what is termed "short" manure. WATERING CROPS. To insure success in the cultivation of plants in frames it is necessary to provide some means of applying water to the soil. Occasionally the supply of water can be obtained from the system of some city, but more often it must be pumped from a well or stream and stored for use in an elevated tank. Watering is generally done during the late afternoon, but should be completed early enough to permit the foliage to become reasonably dry before closing the frames for the night. If the plants are young and very tender it will be important to avoid too great a degree of moisture. Serious losses from "damping-off" often result from excessive moisture, especially at night, when evaporation is not so rapid as during the day. Many gardeners make the mistake of watering too often and not doing the work thoroughly. Under ordinary conditions twice a week will be often enough to apply water, and in winter, when evaporation is at its lowest point, once a week will be sufficient. In watering the sash-covered frames it is necessary either to remove the sash or to prop them up high enough to permit working under them. As a rule the sash are taken off early in the morning of a bright day, the soil is stirred, sometimes a little fertilizer is added, later in the day the bed is watered, and toward night the sash are replaced. ANISE. This is an annual. Leaves used as a garnish. The seeds are the source of Anise oil. This plant grows well and gives a good yield of seed. Seeds should be soaked over night in warm water and sown thickly.--(U. Idaho 10.) ARTICHOKE, GLOBE. This plant requires a deep, rich sandy loam, with a liberal supply of well-rotted manure, is best suited for growing artichokes. Plant the seeds as soon as the soil is warm in the spring, and when the plants have formed three or four leaves they may be transplanted to rows 3 feet apart and 2 feet apart in the row. The plants do not produce until the second season, and in cold localities some form of covering will be necessary during the winter. This crop is not suited for cultivation north of the line of zero temperature. After the bed is once established the plants may be reset each year by using the side shoots from the base of the old plants. If not reset the bed will continue to produce for several years, but the burs will not be so large as from new plants. The bur, or flower bud, is the part used, and the burs should be gathered before the blossom part appears. If they are removed and no seed is allowed to form, the plants will continue to produce until the end of the season. ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM. This useful and productive plant will grow in any good garden soil, and should be planted three to four feet apart each way, with three or four small tubers in a hill. If large tubers are used for planting they should be cut the same as Irish potatoes. Plant as soon as the ground becomes warm in the spring and cultivate as for corn. A pint of tubers cut to eyes will plant about thirty hills. The tubers will be ready for use in October, but may remain in the ground and be dug at any time during the winter.--(F. B. 255; U. Idaho 10.) ASPARAGUS. This valuable plant was formerly a luxury on the tables of the rich, but is now during the season a vegetable seen daily upon the tables of people of moderate or even small incomes. It is also frequently recommended as an article of diet for the sick and convalescent. To the asparagus grower there are two methods by which plants can be secured, (1) by purchasing or saving the seed from which to raise them, and (2) by purchasing the plants from either a seedsman or some grower. Taking the second method, as being the quickest way to start a bed as well as the most easily disposed of, it is suggested that roots over two years old be rejected, and only one-year-old roots selected if a sufficient number can be secured, as the latter are much better and will in the course of a few years produce more and larger spears to the plant and yield profitable crops for a longer period. It is best to deal with reliable firms; they will be more likely to supply plants of both the kind and age desired. _Seed._--Only reliable seedsmen should be trusted, or the seed should be procured from some neighbor who has the desired variety and has taken proper care in producing and saving the seed, if the first plan is to be followed. If one already has an asparagus bed of the desired sort, producing fine spears, and of the proper age (8 to 12 years old) for seed production, it is always best to save seed from it for new plantings. The growing of one's own plants is preferable, both because of the extra year intervening between the determination to plant and the actual setting out of the bed, thereby permitting the soil of the proposed bed to be put in a better and more friable condition, and because, good seed having been secured and proper care given to the young plants, a more satisfactory supply of the young roots is obtained. That there are objections to growing one's own seed is undoubtedly true, but there are also compensating advantages, and if proper care is exercised it will pay the grower to raise his own seed (from beds which are satisfactory) even if seed can be bought in the open market for much less than the trouble of attending to the home grown may cost. If, however, a grower is unwilling or unable to exercise the necessary care in the production of seed, he would do much better not to attempt it, but depend upon some reliable dealer, studiously avoiding those whose claims to patronage are based upon cheapness of stock. Good seed are worth good money; poor seed should not be accepted under any conditions. _Soil._--Asparagus will grow on most soils, and will yield large crops upon stiff soils; but for the purpose of the grower for market, a light sandy soil of fair fertility is much to be preferred, both because of the earliness with which it produces marketable spears and the ease with which it is cultivated. A soil on which water stands after rain, or under which the standing subsurface water is near the surface, into which the roots are liable to penetrate, is to be avoided. Of course, such a soil, if otherwise suitable, can be made fit by a thorough system of under drainage, since an occasional overflow, or even a submergence of the beds for several days, is not necessarily injurious if the drainage, either natural or artificial, is good. The soil should be free of roots, stones, or any trash that will not readily disintegrate or that will interfere with the growth of the spears. A rather stiff but naturally well-drained soil which produces early and fine asparagus, notwithstanding the fact that it is full of large gravel, some of the stones being twice the size of a man's fist. _Shade._--Fruit or other trees or high shrubs must not be allowed in the asparagus bed, because of the shade they throw over the beds and because their roots make heavy drafts upon the soil. Nor should high trees, hedges, hills, or buildings be so near as to throw a shadow upon the beds, because all the sunshine obtainable is needed to bring the spears quickly to the surface. The land should be protected from the north or east (or from the direction of the prevalent winds) and so slope that the full benefit of the sunshine will be obtained during the whole day. Freedom from weeds is very desirable, even more so than great fertility, for the latter can be produced by the heavy manuring which the future cultivation will require; and to the end that weeds may be few, it is well that for a year or two previous to planting the land should have been occupied by some hoed crop, such as potatoes, beets, cabbages, etc. _Cultivation._--In the late fall or early winter the selected area, should be a light sandy loam as described above, needs to be deeply plowed, and if the subsoil is not already of an open and porous nature, through which surface water will readily drain and the roots easily penetrate, a subsoil plow should follow, breaking the soil to the depth of at least 15 inches. After harrowing the field, a good compost of well-rotted horse, cow, sheep, or other manure should be spread broadcast and left to the action of the weather until as early in the spring as the ground is in condition to be worked, when the manure should be plowed in, the surface carefully harrowed, and the soil put in a light and friable condition. As early in the spring as the condition of the ground will permit work to be done--when it is dry enough to bear plowing and the soil will break up fine--rows should be marked off 4 to 6 feet apart and opened up with a large plow, going a sufficient number of times to make a furrow from 8 to 12 inches deep. Loose soil that the plow does not throw up should be taken up with a shovel or wide-bladed hoe. It is in these furrows that the crowns are to be set, the distance to be left between plants varying, according to the opinion of the grower, from 18 inches to 5 feet. _Planting._--Rows should be run north and south, so that the full benefit of the sunshine will be secured. If the rows run east and west, they will be shaded by the ridges in early spring, when the sun is low in the south, and later in the season they will be completely shaded on one side by the tall foliage. This delays sprouting in the spring, and prevents the best development of the plants at all times. Of course, any conditions, such as the slope of the land, etc., which make it inadvisable to run the rows north and south must be considered, but southeast to northwest or northeast to southwest is better than due east or west, or, in short, the natural conditions permitting, the course should be as far from east and west as possible. This is especially important to those who ridge the rows to produce white asparagus. Early in the spring of each year, after the plants are old enough to cut, there must be a ridge made over the rows to blanch the shoots, if white asparagus is to be cut; and once ridging is not sufficient, but after the spears begin to appear the ridges will need renewing every week or ten days during the cutting season, as the rains beat them down and the sun bakes a crust upon the top. The grower of green asparagus has about the same work, less the ridging and plowing down. As it is necessary to keep down all weeds, some hoeing may be necessary as supplementary to a free use of the 1-horse cultivator. After the cutting season, a cutaway harrow run twice diagonally across the rows loosens up the soil and destroys a vast number of weeds without injury to the crowns, although some spears may be broken off. _Brush._--The bushes should be cut as soon as the berries are fully colored, as the growth will be sufficiently matured so that no injury will be done the roots by removing the tops, thus avoiding a further drain upon the roots to mature the seed, and preventing the dropping of seed, followed by the springing up of innumerable young asparagus plants. All brush should be promptly collected and burned, that there may be no lodging places for insects and diseases. In case the fields were not leveled, harrowed, and manured at the close of the cutting season, now is a convenient time to perform this work, although if the soil is rather too moist it is well to leave the surface firm, that the winter rains may run off rather than penetrate to the already too damp subsoil around the roots. _Manuring._--In nothing relating to asparagus has there been a greater change than in the practice of manuring. Formerly it was thought necessary to place large quantities of manure in the bottom of the deep trenches in which the young plants were set out in order that sufficient fertility might be present for several years for the roots, as after the plants were once planted there would be no further opportunity to apply the manure in such an advantageous place; it was also considered necessary to use much manure every autumn to bank the beds in order that the crowns should not be injured by the winter's frost. These applications, especially that given prior to planting the young crowns, made the outlay so great, and that for so many years before any return would be received from the bed, that only small plantings were possible to those who were without considerable capital. Although asparagus is still heavily manured, the amount now used is much less than was formerly supposed to be necessary, only about double the quantity ordinarily used upon root crops, such as potatoes, beets, etc. It is not a good practice to put manure in the bottom of the trenches or furrows when setting out the crowns, because it is demonstrated to be rather a waste of manure than otherwise, and besides the roots of asparagus thrive better when resting upon a more compact soil; nor is it necessary that the soil should contain great amounts of humus or be in an extremely fertile condition when the plants are first put out, since by the present system of top dressing a moderately fertile soil soon becomes exceedingly rich and equal to the demands which the plants make upon it. Considerable improvement is produced in the mechanical condition of the soil by the use of stable manure upon beds. By the addition of humus, porous sandy soil is made somewhat more binding and its ability to take up and retain moisture thereby increased; while, on the other hand, cold, heavy soils are made warmer and more porous. All organic manures are suitable for use on the beds; but care must be exercised in the use of any of these lest they be too hot and injure the plants, especially if applied directly to the roots and immediately over the crowns. Where the young shoots come up through it, fresh, hot manure is likely to produce rust or to render the shoots unsightly and thus injure their sale. Especially is this true in light, sandy soils. The time of applying manure on beds, and the position where it should be placed, are of some importance. In the use of stable manure, both writers upon the subject and growers actually engaged in producing asparagus for the market almost unanimously state that "in the autumn, after the stalks have matured and have been cut, manure should be applied on top of the rows." Some give the caution not to put it just over the crowns, lest the shoots next spring be injured by contact with it. This plan of top dressing beds during the autumn or early winter is gradually giving way to the more rational mode of top dressing in the spring and summer. It was believed that autumn dressing strengthened the roots and enabled them to throw up stronger shoots during the following spring. This is a mistake. It is during the growth of the stalks after the cutting season is over that the crowns form the buds from which the spears of next season spring, and it is probable that it is principally during this period that the roots assimilate and store up the material which produce these spears. This being true, the plant food added to the soil and becoming available after the cessation of vegetation in the autumn can have little, if any, effect upon the spears which are cut for market the following spring; it first becomes of use to the plant after the crop has been cut and the stalks are allowed to grow. In the use of hot, or fresh, manure it may be that the winter season is none too long to permit the fertilizing elements to become available and well distributed throughout the soil, but if well-rotted manure is used there is danger of the fertility being leached out of the soils by the rains and melted snows of winter. Those growers who apply a liberal dressing of stable manure or fertilizer immediately after the cutting season supply the required nourishment to the plants at the time they most need it and can most profitably utilize it in the production of spears. Manure thus applied will also act as a mulch, preventing the growth of weeds, keeping the soil light and cool, and preserving the moisture intact. It should not be made on top of the row. This suggestion the writer wishes to emphasize. Manuring in November in many cases does more harm than good, as the mass of manure causes many roots to decay, and those which do survive are weak and only produce small spears. It would be much better to rely upon liberal supplies of food through the growing season than to give manure when the bushes are cut, as at the former period the roots can more readily absorb the food given. By feeding in spring and summer the crowns are built up for the next season's supply of grass. The roots of the asparagus are perhaps always active, but much less so in winter than at any other season, and they will obtain as much nutriment from the soil as they can then use. If heavily covered with manure sunshine is excluded, growth is checked, and the roots have to fight hard for existence at a time when they are none too strong. In the culture of green spears the manure is best utilized by broadcasting, this application to be followed by a thorough harrowing of the field. When white asparagus has been cut, either manuring in the trench between the ridges before disturbing them or harrowing down the ridges and then manuring broadcast is perhaps the most rational way. As between manuring in the row and between the rows, the latter should be selected as the evidently advisable one by which the feeding roots of the plants are most easily reached. Placing the manure in the row only reaches those feeding roots which are to be found about midway between the crowns, as just around the crowns are nothing but storage roots, besides it is not desirable to place manure too close to the crowns, but manuring between the rows puts the manure right where the summer rains can carry the fertility directly down into the (as it were) open mouths of the feeding roots. _Green Crop._--If green asparagus is desired, the stalks need be cut only so far beneath the surface as to furnish a 9 or 10 inch spear, the major part of which, say 6 inches or more, will be green, and of course above ground. If white asparagus is sought for, the rows will have been ridged from 10 to 15 inches above the crowns, and the spears must be cut as soon as they show at, and before they peep above, the surface. This means cutting 9 or 10 inches below the surface. To accomplish this, long chisel-like knives of various shapes are used. Cutting should be done at least every day, and when vegetation is rapid twice each day will be necessary for white asparagus, and is often desirable when the green sort is being cut. _Harvesting and Marketing._--Asparagus is one of the earliest vegetables, especially if the roots are near to the surface or the soil above them has been temporarily removed so that the rays of the sun can easily penetrate to them. Some varieties are earlier than others, and this difference in time of appearance varies from a day or two to several weeks. For instance, the Early Argenteuil is about ten days earlier than the ordinary asparagus grown in the same locality, and the Late Argenteuil at least ten days later; so that there would be nearly three weeks between the Early and Late Argenteuil. Among the ordinary varieties, however, there is only a short period between the earliest and the latest.--(F. B. 61, 255; U. Cal. 165; U. Mo. 43; U. Kans. 70; U. Miss. 1905.) BEANS. _Kinds._--For convenience in reference and for discussion, beans may be divided into two general groups--"field" and "garden" beans--which are by no means distinctly separate either in appearance or in characteristics. Each of these groups can again be divided into bush and pole beans. Bush beans of the field type are recognized, for commercial purposes, under three well-marked types, known as Kidney, Marrow, and Pea beans, each of which may be subdivided into two groups, colored and white. The garden beans, like the field beans, may be divided into bush and pole types; these again into Kidneys and Limas, the term "Kidney" in this case including all of the common garden beans whether of one type or another, and this group may again be divided into wax and green pod. The same subdivision may also be recorded under pole beans, as is suggested in the following classification: {Kidney...........{Colored. { {White. {Bush.....{Marrow...........{Colored. { { {White. Field beans.........{ {Pea..............{Colored. { {White. {Pole or corn hill. White or colored. {Kidney..........{Wax. {Bush......{Lima {Green pod. Garden beans........{ {Kidney..........{Wax. {Pole......{Lima {Green Pod. {Runner (Scarlet Runner). _Soil._--While clay loams or soils overlying limestone are most desirable, sandy and even gravelly loams may be used, but these latter soils should contain more or less humus and the gravelly soil should not be too coarse. Beans may be grown on heavy clay soils but the surface or underground drainage, or both, must be good and special attention must also be given cultural methods to produce a fine, mellow seed bed. Muck soils or those with a superabundance of humus are not suitable as they tend to produce vines at the expense of the seed. It is also true that this crop will not thrive on low, wet, poorly drained soils. Beans seem to produce good crops on soils somewhat deficient in nitrogen when well supplied with potash and phosphorus. Contrary to a somewhat prevalent notion, beans will not produce well on very poor soils, but require a fair degree of fertility. _Seed._--Care should be exercised in the selection of beans for seed. None but the best hand-picked beans should be used for planting, as the success of the crop is quite largely dependent on the vitality of the seed. _Tilth._--Since the bean is a warm-season crop and can not safely be planted until after danger from killing frost has passed, the preparation of the soil for field beans should be deferred until the vegetation covering the area has made considerable growth, so that it may be as completely destroyed as possible during the operations of plowing, harrowing, and fitting the land for the reception of the seed. The short-season character of the bean crop enables the land to be occupied during the winter months by some cover crop, such as wheat or rye, and if the same land is used year after year for the production of beans, the turning under of winter cover crops furnishes an important means by which the store of organic matter in the soil can be maintained, a consideration of great moment in sections chiefly dependent upon commercial fertilizers as a source for available plant food. After the land has attained proper dryness in the spring it should be plowed from 6 to 8 inches in depth, and immediately compacted and harrowed, so as to prevent the loss of moisture. The surface of the seed bed should be made smooth and fine, so that the drill or planter can be economically used upon it. If dry weather follows at this season of the year, a good practice is, immediately preceding the planting of the crop, to run a heavy land roller over the area, particularly if the planting is done with an ordinary grain drill. If the planting is done with a planter similar to the ordinary corn planter and the land has been rolled previously, it is advisable to go over it with a spike-tooth harrow or some other type of smoothing harrow after the crop has been planted, in order that the land may not possess a compacted condition from the substratum to the surface. _Planting._--Growers have found that it is better to postpone planting the crop until as late in the season as is practicable and yet be able to safely harvest the crop before the vines are injured by fall frost. The late planted crop has the advantage of escaping the most serious attacks of the bean rust. While there are undoubtedly varieties which are more or less resistant to this trouble, yet the general practice of late planting has been found to be of decided advantage. In planting the field crop the distance between the rows varies from 28 to 36 inches, according to the implements used in harvesting the crop, 30 inches being a very satisfactory and not an unusual distance for placing the rows. The seeds are so scattered as to fall from 2 to 4 inches apart in the row. The ideal distance would be undoubtedly 6 inches, if it were possible to obtain a perfect stand of plants at this distance. For distributing the seed in the row at these distances a bean planter or a check row corn planter may be set to drop the seeds in drills. A common practice is to use an ordinary grain drill and stop a sufficient number of tubes to enable two or three rows of beans to be planted at the proper distance apart without the necessity of purchasing a special implement. _Quantity of Seed._--The quantity required to plant an acre of beans varies with the size of the beans; that is, a half-bushel of small Pea beans is sufficient to plant an acre of ground, while a bushel of Red Kidney beans is hardly sufficient to plant an acre when the seed is distributed in the ordinary fashion in drills rather than in hills. In planting beans of the Pea and Marrow types the quantity of seed varies from one-half to a bushel per acre, depending upon the quality of the beans and upon the preferences of the planter. For Kidney beans the quantity varies from a bushel to as much as six pecks per acre. Ordinarily, with rows 30 inches apart, a bushel is a sufficient quantity for seeding an acre. _Depth of Planting._--The depth at which beans should be planted is determined by the character of the soil and the season of the year at which they are planted. In heavy, retentive soils planting should be made comparatively shallow, as the peculiar habit of growth of the bean is such that it can not readily reach the surface if planted deep in such soils. Upon light soils and early in the season, planting can be made quite deep. Three inches is not too deep upon such soils, but an inch and a half or 2 inches is the maximum depth for planting upon retentive soils. All things considered, a satisfactory depth for planting beans is about 1-1/2 inches. _Cultivation._--Like all other hoe crops field beans require frequent, shallow cultivation. The stirring of the soil for the purpose of holding the weeds in check and preserving a soil mulch over the area occupied by the growing crop, is the important factor to be considered in culture. At the last cultivation the plants may be slightly hilled; that is, the soil may be thrown toward the plants with small wings. This has the advantage of leaving the plants on a slight ridge, which facilitates the work of harvesting when such work is done by mechanical means. In the cultivation of beans it is traditional that they should not be cultivated when the dew is on the vines. This undoubtedly has a slight foundation for the reason that moisture is a conveyor of spores of disease and might have a tendency to distribute them more widely than would be the case if moisture were allowed to dry off the leaves without being disturbed. _Harvesting._--For many years the handling of hoe crops, such as field beans, upon an extensive scale was impossible because of the great amount of hand labor necessary to gather the crop. Within recent years, however, labor-saving devices have been invented so that now the once laborious practice of hand-pulling individual plants can be done away with by the use of a bean harvester. After the plants are thrown together by the harvester it is customary for men with ordinary pitchforks, either 2 or 3 tined, to follow the harvester and place the beans in small heaps to cure for several days before storing them in barns or sheds for thrashing. In some instances, where the work is done upon a very extensive scale and where the loss from shelling is not considered sufficient to justify the employment of hand labor for bunching the beans with forks, an ordinary horserake is employed for the purpose. Where the beans are to remain for a longer period and to become more thoroughly cured in the field and where the work of harvesting is done entirely by hand, the crop is frequently placed in shocks which are built about a pole 4 or 5 feet in height, both ends of which have been sharpened and one end firmly placed in the ground. A small quantity of straw, grass, or other material is placed around the base of the stake, and the beans as they are pulled are piled around the pole until a compact miniature stack about 4 or 5 feet high is formed. The curing process in any case is carried far enough to prevent the vines molding after storing them in the barn prior to thrashing. If the vines are thoroughly ripened in the field before harvesting, they can be stored in from two to three days if the weather is satisfactory. If, however, the vines have some green leaves upon them and the pods are not thoroughly dry, the period for curing in the field is of necessity much longer than with thoroughly ripened plants. _Storage._--After the crop has been properly cured in the field it is customary to store the beans in barn lofts or in sheds until the weather has become quite cool before the work of thrashing is done. In some instances, however, if the beans are thoroughly field cured they may be thrashed in the field; but ordinarily, in those regions where beans are extensively grown, weather conditions will not permit of their being cured and left in the field a sufficient period to enable the entire work of harvesting and thrashing to be carried on in the open. _Care Necessary._--All operations connected with the harvesting and field management of beans should be done as carefully as possible, in order to avoid injury to the plants while in the growing condition and to prevent shelling the beans after they have ripened. Most varieties of beans shell more or less easily after the pods have become thoroughly matured. Most extensive growers of beans consider the loss by shelling resulting from the use of labor-saving machinery of less money value than the added cost of carrying on all operations by hand in the most careful way. In other words, the loss from the use of labor-saving machinery is not sufficient to justify the return to hand labor in the care and management of the crop. _Threshing._--Beans are now threshed by a special machine or beaner which has been instrumental in materially increasing the acreage of beans grown. These machines are usually introduced into localities where beans are grown commercially and offered for hire on a plan similar to that used by grain threshers. _Cleaning and Grading._--While the farm operations in connection with the preparation of field beans for market usually cease with the thrashing of the crop, the cleaning and grading of the product is a very important item and requires much hand work. Besides the removal of sticks and straws from the grain by the use of the fan, the beans are passed through a machine which is provided with a broad, slow-moving belt placed at such an angle that split beans and peas, dirt, and stones which are not removed by the fan adhere to the belt and are thrown out, while the smooth, perfect seeds fall back into another receptacle and are thus separated from the dirt and broken seeds. After this the beans are usually subjected to a third operation, which consists in removing by hand all broken and discolored seeds, as well as foreign matter, which were not removed in the other operations. _Garden Beans._--The type as well as the variety of garden bean to be grown is determined by the purpose for which it is to be used. If it is to be used as a snap or string bean for early market, quick-maturing green or wax-podded varieties are selected. If for canning purposes, a different variety is selected, which may have either green or wax pods, while as a rule green beans which are required late in the season for table use belong to the pole type. For early beans, however, the bush type is the one most commonly used. _Fertilizers._--While beans are quick-growing and early-maturing plants requiring an abundance of available plant food in the soil, yet, because of their family relations, being legumes, they make the soil better for having been grown upon it. They are nitrogen-gathering plants, and for this reason require only a small percentage of this element in any fertilizer used upon them. While heavy applications of fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash are used by truck growers in the production of beans, as a rule such fertilizers should be relatively richer in phosphoric acid and potash than in nitrogen. The production of garden beans for snap or string beans, however, demands a larger percentage of immediately available nitrogen than does the production of field beans for the dry grain, as in the former case the crop occupies the land a shorter time and therefore gives it less opportunity to provide itself with a supply of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The fertilizer, if used in the form of commercial fertilizer, may be distributed broadcast over the area occupied by the crop with a grain drill or a fertilizer distributer, or it may be scattered along the row at the time the seeds are sown by one of the many types of seed drill having a fertilizer attachment. _Planting._--Garden beans, like field beans, may be planted either in hills or in drills. The customary practice, however, is to plant the seeds in drills so that they shall fall 2 or 4 inches apart in rows far enough apart to admit of cultivation with either one or two horse implements. Because of their peculiar habit of germination--the elongation of the part between the root and the seed leaves, called the hypocotyl--the seed leaves or cotyledons are lifted out of the soil. A large expenditure of energy on the part of the plant is necessary to accomplish this, and the more compacted the soil and the deeper the seed is planted the more time and energy are required in accomplishing this result. It is evident, therefore, that the shallower the beans can be planted without retarding satisfactory germination, the better. Upon thoroughly fine and compacted soils the seeds are planted from 1-1/2 to 2 inches deep. Shallower planting does not as a rule give as satisfactory germination as planting within the range above mentioned. While garden beans are planted in extensive areas, they are, nevertheless, frequently used as a catch crop between other plants, such as squashes and cucumbers. The bean, being a quick-growing plant, matures its crop and is out of the way before the entire area is demanded by the companion crop. _Harvesting._--From the nature of the product the harvesting of garden beans for use as string or snap beans must necessarily be done by hand. Their extensive culture is therefore restricted to areas in which an abundant labor supply which can be commanded at short notice is available. After the beans are picked they are carried to a convenient sorting table, either in the open or under shelter, where they are looked over, all diseased and broken beans rejected, and the baskets uniformly filled and shaken down preparatory to covering them for shipment. LIMA BEANS. Under the name of Lima beans two distinct types are now recognized: Pole Limas and dwarf, or bush, Limas. Lima beans are of very great commercial value, but are not sufficiently appreciated as a table food because it is not generally known that in a dry state they can be used in practically the same manner as are the common beans. In reality they are richer and more delicate in flavor than the common beans, and can be used in as many different ways. The virtues of these types as green beans need only a passing mention, and their value as an accompaniment of corn in succotash is well known to every consumer of canned goods. _Planting._--The common method of handling the Lima bean in the climate of the northern tier of States, outside of the irrigated belt, is to plant from three to five beans in hills 18 to 36 inches apart, with the rows 3-1/2 to 4 feet apart, and after all danger from cold and from insect enemies is past the beans are thinned to about three plants to the hill. As the beans are exceedingly tender, it is necessary to delay planting in the open until about a week or ten days after the time for planting the common garden beans. After the second cultivation, when the tendency to climb has manifested itself, the plantation is supplied with poles from 5 to 6 feet high, or with a trellis running from end to end of the row, which may be made by stretching two or three wires lengthwise of the row and weaving between them strands of ordinary wool twine. If the trellis is employed the beans can be planted in practically continuous rows, so that they stand about a foot apart. Toward the northern limit for cultivating this crop, one is fortunate if one-half to two-thirds of the pods which set upon the plants mature the seed. Farther south the crop is proportionally heavier. In California and in other irrigated regions where there are well-marked wet and dry seasons, the dry season, accompanied by heavy fogs, occurring during the summer months, it is possible to cultivate Lima beans somewhat as follows: Upon moderately rich, somewhat sandy valley land, cultivation can be carried out by planting the beans as soon as all danger from rains has ceased and the plantation will remain dry except for irrigation. If there has not been sufficient winter rain to thoroughly moisten the land it should be well watered and allowed to dry to a good cultural condition before planting. Seed can then be planted in hills about 3-1/2 or 4 feet apart each way, or in drills, the beans scattered about a foot apart in rows 4 feet apart. After the beans have germinated it may be necessary to cultivate them once or twice with a sweep of some type, to destroy any weeds which may have sprung up from the moist ground. All moisture should be withheld and a dust mulch over the surface preserved by running a sweep over the plantation once or twice more, and then the vines should be allowed to take possession of the territory. This obviates the necessity of using poles, and the crop can grow to maturity under these conditions without irrigation, without cultivation, and without poles. At harvest time a root cutter is passed under the lines of the rows, severing the roots of the plants, and after the plants have dried and become somewhat cured they are thrown into convenient heaps for loading on wagons and are allowed to remain in these heaps until near the approach of the rainy season. Then they are carried to the thrashing floors, where they are beaten out by the tramping of animals or by driving over the heap a device somewhat similar to the ordinary cutaway harrow. The dwarf Lima beans, because of their habit of growth, are planted and cultivated practically the same as are field beans. They are slightly hardier than pole Limas, and for that reason toward the northern limit of the range of this crop can be planted somewhat earlier in the season than the pole Limas.--(F. B. 289; U. Mich. 259; S. C. E. S. 10; S. Dak. E. S. 47, 91; Iowa E. S. 47; Miss. E. S. 131.) BEETS. The red garden beet may be grown in any good soil, but rich, sandy loam will give the best results. Sow the seeds in the spring as soon as danger of frost has passed. Beets should be planted in drills 12 to 18 inches apart, and when the plants are well up they should be thinned to 4 or 5 inches in the row. If desirable to plant in rows 3 feet apart for horse cultivation, the seeds may be sown in a double drill with 6 inches between, leaving 30 inches for cultivation. Two ounces of beet seed are required to plant 100 feet of row, or 5 pounds to the acre. As a rule each seed ball contains more than one seed, and this accounts for beets coming up very thickly. The seed should be covered to a depth of about 1 inch. For a succession of young beets during the summer, plantings should be made every four or five weeks during the spring months. Beets intended for winter storage should not be sown until late in the summer, the crop being harvested and stored in the same manner as turnips. Sugar beets are often substituted for the ordinary garden beet, especially for winter use. A soil that is well adapted to growing the usual vegetables will be found good for this one. It may be slightly heavier than that for the crops that are grown for their foliage, as lettuce. A good cabbage soil will be found of about the right consistency. Wet or soggy land will not raise a crop. Plow deep and prepare the ground well; the seedlings are quite small and need considerable coaxing before they will make a good start. Use plenty of fertilizer of some well prepared kind. Rough or undecomposed material should not be used. A sprinkling of powdered nitrate soda as a top dressing when the plants are one-third grown will produce a rapid growth. In applying, be careful not to apply so as to touch the foliage, unless during a rain. It is not profitable to transplant beets; it may be done on a small scale, but it is too expensive to practice on a large scale. _Varieties._--According to shape of the root one may divide beets into two classes, viz., Long Rooted and Globular. If color is made the basis of classification you have red, white and yellow kinds. Extra Early Blood Turnip, Eclipse and Extra Early Egyptian are good varieties to grow for market. The first named is probably the best; the last named has the disadvantage of becoming stringy if it matures during a long, dry spell, or if allowed to stand too long. The deep red varieties are preferred in the markets, and those that are turnip shaped sell better than the long. _Marketing._--The usual method is to use barrels or large boxes; this is a clumsy way, and one not calculated to bring the best price. The usual vegetable crate will be found handy and desirable. In districts where there are pickling factories, and near large cities, small beets, with greens, are raised with profit, but these can not be shipped to a distant market. For a distant market gather tops and all; carry to the packing-house; remove the tops with a sharp knife, leaving about an inch of the leaf-stalk on the beet. Remove the dirt, and pack in vegetable crates. The leaves put in a compost heap will pay for the trouble of hauling, or they can be fed to domestic animals with profit. The beet itself makes one of the best feeds for milch cows, and is excellent for other domestic animals.--(F. B. 225; N. C. A. E. S. 132; Fla. E. S. 31; U. Idaho 10; N. H. Col. 99, 125; N. J. A. Col. Rpt. 1900.) BORAGE. The leaves are used for flavoring. BROCCOLI. Broccoli is simply a variety of cauliflower that is more commonly grown for fall use, as it is rather more hardy than the true cauliflower. Lee's Sprouting Broccoli is a branching sort that is esteemed in some places. There is a great deal of misunderstanding regarding the Cauliflower and Broccoli. Both are the same in their general make up and growth, both producing heads in the same manner and to the casual observer are taken one for the other. The difference is that Cauliflower is a more tender variety and therefore will not stand a very low temperature. The seed is sown in early spring and will produce heads during the summer. The Broccoli will stand a temperature as low as 25 without much injury to the plant. The seed is sown in the spring, the plants set out in June or early part of July and continue to grow until the spring following, some varieties producing heads at intervals during winter and up to as late as May. Attention needs to be directed during the winter to such plants as are about to produce heads. These should have the outer leaves turned over the head to protect it from frost to which it is very susceptible. The seed may be sown and the plants treated in every way as for the cabbage. They thrive well in a deep, rich soil. Much better results would be had if more attention were given to the matter of deep cultivation, that is, in deep spading or plowing of the ground. Manure that has been well composted should be used plentifully and plowed in deep. By so doing the roots of the plants are encouraged to penetrate deep into the soil where they can find moisture as well as food. The shallow plowing in of manure has the tendency to keep the feeding roots of plants near the surface and will therefore soon dry out and turn blue, and when once the plants are stricken with the blues no further growth will be made and they might as well be discarded.--(Oreg. E. S. 74; N. C. E. S. 132.) BRUSSELS SPROUTS. This crop is closely related to cabbage and cauliflower. Instead of a single head, Brussels sprouts form a large number of small heads in the axils of the leaves. As the heads begin to crowd, the leaves should be broken from the stem of the plant to give them more room. A few leaves should be left at the top of the stem where the new heads are being formed. Brussels sprouts are more hardy than cabbage, and in mild climates may remain in the open ground all winter, the heads being removed as desired. For winter use in cold localities, take up plants that are well laden with heads and set them close together in a pit, cold frame, or cellar, with a little soil around the roots. The uses of Brussels sprouts are similar to those of cabbage, but they are considered to be of a superior flavor. They require the same treatment as cabbage. The soil must be rich and requires considerable moisture. The small sprouts must grow rapidly or they will be tough. Sow the seed in hotbed and transplant, or scatter seed in hills and thin. The plants must have plenty of room. Rows should be thirty inches apart and the plants not closer than two feet.--(F. B. 255; U. Idaho E. S. 10; Cornell U. E. S. 292.) CABBAGE. Cabbage is one of the most universally cultivated of the garden plants. Although it is one of the coarser vegetables it finds a place in the home garden as well as in the market garden and truck farm. In some sections of the United States it is extensively grown as a farm crop. Early cabbage is practically all consumed as a green vegetable. The late crop, on the other hand, is handled as a fresh vegetable, as a storage crop, and for the manufacture of sauerkraut. It is always in demand, and under present conditions is always available, either as the product of a southern truck farm or a northern farm, garden, or storage house. The group of cultivated plants which has been derived from the wild cabbage presents a greater diversity of form than that derived from any other single ancestral type. Wild cabbage is a robust-growing broad-leaved plant enjoying the low, moist areas near the seacoast of southern Europe. The most closely allied form now in cultivation is the collard. The wide variation in the group is illustrated by the diversity of form shown in collards, kale, tree cabbage, marrow kale, cauliflower, and Brussels sprouts. It is almost beyond the bounds of reason to believe that all these forms have been derived from a common parentage, yet such is the fact. _Seed._--In no truck crop does the character of the seed count for more than in cabbage. It is very essential that the crop come to marketable maturity early, that the heads be uniform in size and character, and that they mature so that the whole crop can be harvested at two cuttings. The small saving made by the purchase of cheap or inferior seed is usually paid for a hundred times over in the lessened value of the crop. A grower can not afford to risk his crop for so small a saving. The best seed that can be obtained is none too good, and anything short of this is not good business. Without highly viable seed of a good strain, true to type, the best results can not be expected. For early spring cabbage in the South, sow the seeds in an outdoor bed and transplant to the garden before January 1. In the North, plant the seeds in a hotbed during February and set the plants in the open ground as early as the soil can be worked. For a late crop in the North, plant the seeds in a bed in the open ground in May or June and transplant to the garden in July. Early cabbages require a rich, warm soil in order that they may mature early. For late cabbages the soil should be heavier and more retentive of moisture and not so rich as for the early crop, as the heads are liable to burst. Cabbages should be set in rows 30 to 36 inches apart and 14 to 18 inches apart in the row. Where the plants are set out in the autumn and allowed to remain in the ground over winter, they are usually placed on top of ridges. _Soil._--The soil for cabbage must necessarily vary in different localities. In one area it may be of an alluvial character, while in another it may be sedentary, and in still another it may be characteristic glacial drift. The fact that cabbage grows well in all these soils indicates its adaptation to a wide range of conditions. The main thing with cabbage is an abundant supply of immediately available plant food. Market gardeners rely chiefly upon stable manure for their supply of plant food. _Cultivation._--Among market gardeners it is a common expression that "cabbage should be hoed every day." Perhaps no other crop responds more quickly to good cultivation and an ample food supply. This is undoubtedly the explanation of the above quoted expression. In cultivating cabbage the work should be frequent and thorough, but the cultivation should not be deep. The aim should be to destroy all competing weeds and to maintain a loose, friable layer of soil about 2 inches deep over the surface of the area devoted to cabbage. _Storage._--Early cabbage must be used soon after it has formed solid heads, as it will not keep during hot weather. Late cabbage may be buried in pits or stored in cellars or specially constructed houses. The usual method of storing cabbage is to dig a trench about 18 inches deep and 3 feet wide and set the cabbage upright, with the heads close together and the roots bedded in soil. As cold weather comes on, the heads are covered slightly with straw and then 3 or 4 inches of earth put on. Slight freezing does not injure cabbage, but it should not be subjected to repeated freezing and thawing. If stored in a cellar or building, the heads are generally cut from the stems and stored on slatted shelves or in shallow bins. While in storage, cabbage should be well ventilated and kept as cool as possible without freezing. _Varieties._--The varieties of cabbage used in the trucking section are practically limited to the Wakefield type. There are two strains of this type of cabbage now extensively employed: The true Jersey Wakefield, with its small, acutely pointed tip and very firm, tender flesh of high quality, and the Charleston Wakefield, which is broader, somewhat flatter, more obtusely pointed, and slightly more angular in cross section than the Jersey type. The varieties which may be used for field cultivation depend upon the purpose for which the cabbage is intended. If for sauerkraut or for immediate consumption, the Flat Dutch type from American-grown seed is extensively employed in the eastern part of the United States. In the irrigated section of Colorado, in the vicinity of Greeley, where cabbage is grown for sauerkraut, a variety known as Scotch Cross is almost universally grown. If the cabbage is intended for storage the Danish Ball Head from imported seed is almost exclusively used.--(F. B. 255, 433; Colo. E. S. 143; Md. Ag. Col. E. S. 133; Tex. E. S. 52, 69; Ga. E. S. 91; Kans. E. S. 70; S. Dak. E. S. 91.) CALABASH.[1] The increasing popularity of calabash pipes made from the fruits of a South African calabash, or gourd, has aroused a widespread interest in the growing of this vine. [1] See page 321, for illustration. Calabash pipes made from imported South African gourds have been the fashion in England for some time and are now coming into vogue in America. These pipes are formed from the crooked necks of a large gourd (_Lagenaria vulgaris_) belonging to the well-known group of plants which includes the cucumber, the melons, and the squashes. Pipes made from the imported gourds are expensive, American dealers usually charging $3 to $12 apiece for them. They are the lightest pipes made for their size, are graceful in shape, color like meerschaums, and are delightful smokers. Unlike the cheap pipes which are turned out by machinery, no two of these calabash pipes are alike. In this lies much of their charm. In this, likewise, lies their cost, for, unlike the great mass of pipes turned out by machinery, the crook of the calabash varies so that each mouthpiece must be made to fit it and each lining of meerschaum or plaster of Paris must be specially adapted. In our land of labor-saving machinery and expensive hand labor this is what makes the pipes costly. The vine forms a very satisfactory cover for unsightly brush heaps or fences, though its rather rank odor might prove objectionable if used for an arbor too near the dwelling. To grow the vine for the sake of its gourds is where the chief interest lies, however, and to do this well it should not be trained on a trellis, but allowed to trail over the ground. If the fruits are allowed to lie on the ground they form their crooked necks quite naturally without assistance, and while not all of them by any means make suitable necks for pipes a good proportion do. It seems to induce a more perfect neck to stand the gourds up when half grown so that they rest on their big ends. Unless care is exercised in doing this the necks snap off, for they are extremely brittle even when fully grown. It is only when almost mature that they become hard and then they are indeed almost unbreakable. Much could doubtless be done to perfect the methods of culture, insuring perhaps a greater percentage of properly crooked necks and more perfect surfaces. It could not be seen that inheritance plays any material part in this matter of percentage of crooks. If left to themselves the majority will crook their necks, but some few will remain quite straight, and this on the same vine with perfectly formed crooks. The gourds should be left as long as possible on the vines to thoroughly thicken their shells. If picked green the shell will be no thicker than stiff cardboard and in drying it is very liable to crack. Frost will injure the gourds if they are left on the vines too long.--(B. P. I. Cir. 41.) CANTALOUPE. Cantaloupe growing, as developed since its origin near Rockyford, Colorado, in 1885, requires unusual judgment and cultural skill on the part of the farmer. Co-operative organization and good business management are also essential, for only by these means can the crop be properly timed and prepared for shipment, and necessary arrangements made with transportation and selling agencies. _Seed._--Seed should be most carefully selected with reference to flavor and appearance of the fruit; to good shipping characters, including small cavities and heavy netting; and to a tendency to produce melons of standard size. Early strains are desired for some situations; but in Arizona rust resistance is not a necessary character as this class of diseases is little to be feared under the arid conditions. Seed should be purchased only from most reliable sources. Rockyford growers are at present the principal means of supply. _Soil._--Experience has proven that a sandy loam is the soil best suited for cantaloupes, and that its condition of tilth and the available fertility are the prime essentials in bringing cantaloupes to quick maturity. The secret of getting soil in that ashy, mellow condition so desirable for cantaloupes is largely one of experience, for hardly two farms can be handled the same. In general, there must be moisture in the soil over winter to get the disintegrating effect of frost, and plowing should not be done until the ground is dry enough to pulverize mellow. Barnyard manure has long been the means of supplying fertility to force cantaloupes to early maturity. Old alfalfa ground is most excellent for cantaloupe culture. Bermuda sod plowed up and exposed to the sun without irrigation the preceding summer makes excellent cantaloupe ground, the intensive cultivation necessary serving both to benefit the crop and to restrain this formidable weed. _Planting._--The first requisite aside from moisture for a good start is warm weather, as cantaloupe seed cannot germinate when the ground is cold and freezing; and if perchance the days are warm enough to germinate the seed that is planted in March or April, the cold nights that are sure to follow will offset the advantage of early planting. If there is a secret in getting early cantaloupes it is in growing the crop from start to finish with a uniform unchecked growth; the cantaloupe does not seem to have the power to rally from a check in growth or an injury from an insect and still makes its normal development. The back-set not only cuts off the production of early cantaloupes but seriously affects the size and quality of the melon. There are numerous instances where unfavorable conditions of growth have produced a large quantity of pony melons, while under more favorably growing conditions the same seed and soil have yielded standard sized cantaloupes. One of the first signs of promise for early cantaloupes is a quick germination and rapid development of large cotyledons. Seed that germinates slowly with small, yellow appearing seed leaves has never made early cantaloupes. _Irrigation._--Moisture for the cantaloupe hill is generally supplied by the irrigation furrow. It should always reach the seed or plant by soaking through the soil. Irrigation should never be allowed to over-soak or flood the ground, as the soil will then become hard and not permit a good growth. The relation of irrigation to an early set of cantaloupes is a somewhat mooted question. There are growers who argue the use of frequent irrigations during the setting period to secure a good set, and there are others who prefer to keep the vines rather dry and even letting them show the need of water before they will irrigate during the setting stage. There have been results that seemed to support both theories, yet close observation would not warrant following either plan to an extreme, but rather a medium course of supplying enough moisture for an even, healthy growth, which seems to be the essential condition all the way through. An excess of irrigation during the hot weather in July will doubtless tend to grow vines at the expense of early fruit; but the most disastrous result of too much water--having the ground so soaked that the surface is nearly all wet, and affording the moist, dewy condition which is favorable to its development--is in the development of rust. The rust problem is a serious one in cantaloupe culture in Colorado. Controlling it by proper application of irrigation is only a palliative measure, yet a marked contrast is often seen in two portions of a field; one over-irrigated, and the other comparatively dry, aside from the moisture necessary to the growth of the vines. Rainy weather and dewy nights afford the proper conditions for the growth of the rust spore, and while the farmer cannot change climatic conditions, yet by careful attention in the application of water, having the rows well ditched, and with adequate waste laterals to prevent over-soaking and flooding, the surface of the ground will dry rapidly after a rain or an irrigation. Thus the dews at night will be less, and in a measure alleviate the effects of rust.--(U. Ariz. Cir. 77; Ag. Col. Colo. 62, 85, 95 and 108.) CARDOON. The cardoon is a thistle-like plant, very similar in appearance to the Globe artichoke, but is grown as an annual. The seeds are sown in early spring in a hotbed or cold frame and the plants transplanted later to the open ground. The cardoon should be planted in rows 3 feet apart and 18 inches apart in the row on rich soil, where it can secure plenty of moisture and make rapid growth. Toward autumn the leaves are drawn together and the center blanched in the same manner as endive. If intended for winter use, the leaves are not blanched in the garden, but the plants are lifted with considerable earth adhering to the roots and stored closely in a dark pit or cellar to blanch. The blanched leaf stems are used for making salads, soups, and stews.--(F. B. 255.) CARROT. The culture of the carrot is practically the same as the parsnip, except that carrots are not thinned so much and are allowed to grow almost as thickly as planted. Carrots should be dug in the autumn and stored the same as parsnips or turnips. Any surplus can be fed sparingly to horses, mules or cattle. The roots of the carrot are used at all times of the year, mostly in soups, but they may be boiled and served with butter or creamed. Carrots are planted in rows 16 inches apart and the plants thinned out to 4 inches in the row. Chantenay is an excellent table carrot of medium size and dark orange color, slightly tapering and abruptly terminating with a short, fine taproot. The flesh is orange colored, brittle, juicy and mild flavored. What it lacks in size it makes up in quality and good shape. Scarlet Intermediate, somewhat larger than Chantenay, is of good size for table use. In shape more tapering and with a longer taproot. It is dark orange colored; flavor and quality good. Flesh is quite brittle and orange colored with a white center. To these two are added two varieties principally grown for stock feed, similar varieties being grown for table use in many parts of Europe, and more especially those of the White Belgian variety. Both varieties are of slender shape, 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, holding their size well, although averaging 12 inches in length, 3 to 4 inches of which grows above ground and which as a consequence is colored light green on the outside. White Belgian is the sweeter of the two, and while the flesh is somewhat coarse, the flavor of it, when well stewed and mashed, is sweeter and not unlike that of the parsnip. Victoria, the other variety, is of the same texture, fairly sweet and with a more pronounced carrot flavor, the flesh instead of white, being light orange colored. This vegetable can be grown to perfection in Porto Rico almost any time of the year. It prefers a rich loam and grows very well on a heavy clay which is not too wet, but a light sandy soil is not well adapted to it. For fertilizer, stable manure will do when nothing else is available, but a commercial fertilizer, rich in potash and phosphoric acid, is much to be preferred for this crop.--F. B. 255, 295; Mich. E. S. 20; N. C. E. S. 132; U. Idaho E. S. 10; P. R. A. E. S. 7. CAULIFLOWER. This plant requires a very rich, moist soil. Land that will produce only a fair crop of cabbage is unfit for cauliflower. If the land is very rich and well fertilized it may be reasonably expected that the returns from the crop of cauliflower will more than repay the cost of putting the land in good condition. _Seed._--No more important element enters into the success of the cauliflower crop than the quality of the seed and to the seed alone is often due the difference between success and failure, profit and loss. The best seed that can be secured is the cheapest at any reasonable price, and it should always be obtained from a well-known, reputable seedsman. _Seed-bed._--This should be carefully prepared. The soil should be enriched with a liberal application of commercial fertilizer, or thoroughly decomposed stable manure. After the fertilizer is applied it should be thoroughly worked in to a depth of three or four inches. From a few days to two weeks should elapse before the seed is sown for there is great danger in planting seed too soon after applying commercial fertilizer as the seed is likely to be destroyed by the action of the mineral substance unless it has been dissolved and thoroughly incorporated with the soil. The time between the application of the fertilizer and the sowing of the seed will depend upon the amount of rainfall and it is often better to wet down the seed-bed each day for four or five days before planting and not to depend upon the uncertain rainfall. The rows should be about three inches apart. In six or seven days the young plants should begin to appear and the ground between the drills should be cultivated. Do not allow the soil to dry out as the cauliflower plant from seed to head should never be checked. Neither should the bed be kept too wet, else there is danger of "damping off." The bed should be carefully watched and if the disease does break out it may be checked by removing the diseased plants, working the soil, scattering dry sand and sulphur along the rows and withholding water until the surface soil becomes dry. It might be pointed out here that about six months must be allowed from the sowing of the seed until the crop matures. _Transplanting._--The plants should not be allowed to remain long in the seed rows. If left too long they will soon crowd and become weak and spindling. When they have reached the height of one inch, they should be pricked off and set in another portion of the bed. They may be set in rows four inches apart with the plants one and a half to two inches apart in the rows. Here they should remain until ready for the field. If care has been exercised all the way through, the plants will be short, stocky and vigorous. By the time they are four or five inches high or when the leaves have lapped they are ready for the field. It is not best to let them get too large, because there is often a delay of a few days in order to obtain good climatic conditions for setting out. If left too long in the seed bed, greater care must be exercised in transplanting, else the plants may suffer a severe check and will button or break irregularly instead of forming smooth well shaped heads. _Soils and Preparation._--Work should be started on the ground at least a month before the plants are set out. The cauliflower is a deep rooted plant, consequently the soil should be prepared deeply. It is not advisable to turn under the good surface soil and to obviate this ground may be plowed shallow and then stirred and opened with a bull-tongue to a depth of seven or eight inches. After this the surface should be cultivated to a depth of two or three inches. Give thorough preparation by frequent cultivation before the fertilizer is applied, preparatory to setting out the plants. _Setting Out._--It is best that the plants be set out either just before or immediately after a rain, but if this can not be done they should be set out late in the evening and watered, giving each plant about a quart of water. A cloudy day is much preferable to a clear one and if the day on which the plants are set out is followed by cloudy weather, so much the better. The ground should be leveled or smoothed over, for which purpose a roller or float may be used. After this the ground may be marked off. Two markers should be constructed, one with the teeth three feet apart, the other with the teeth two feet apart. These may be made of wood after the pattern of an ordinary garden rake. In place of a marker a line may be used or the ground may be checked off with a light hand plow. Only a limited number of plants should be removed from the seed-bed at one time. The leaves should be cut back about one-half or one-third, using for the purpose a large pair of shears. Sprinkle the plants with water as soon as removed from the bed, place in a shallow box or basket and keep them shaded from the sun. _Cultivation and Care._--The field should be frequently cultivated and the ground should be scarified at least every week and after every rainfall. The best tool for cultivating is an ordinary cultivator and the ground should not be worked to a greater depth than two and one-half or three inches. This will preserve a surface mulch of dry earth and prevent loss of moisture by evaporation. As soon as the heads commence to form the leaves should be drawn together at the top and loosely tied near their tips with a piece of cord or twine. Rafia makes a good substitute for twine and is preferable because there is less danger of cutting the leaves. The practice of breaking down the leaves over the head has been tried, but found not quite so satisfactory. If the heads are left uncovered they become yellow through the action of the sun and rain but when the leaves are drawn together and tied, they bleach out pure white, and curd-like. _Gathering._--Cauliflower may be cut before it is mature, but the flavor is not so well developed as it is when the heads are full grown. For winter shipment heads from four to six inches in diameter are of a desirable size and the market will take them fully as well or better than large ones. The field should be picked over at least every two or three days during the season, though heads will remain in good condition for nearly a week if the weather be cold. Examine the head by separating the leaves on the side. As soon as the head is well rounded up in the center and developed so as to force the leaves outward, and assumes a grained appearance, it will be found to be fully matured. The heads should be cut, preferably, when dry. If moist they are likely to decay in transit. The best time of day is the afternoon if they are intended for long distance shipment. About an inch of stem should be left on the head and three rows of leaves. After cutting, the heads should be carefully placed in a wagon and carried to the packing house or on dry pleasant days packing may be done in the field. _Packing._--The package recommended for general use is the ordinary lettuce basket. Before packing, the leaves should be cut back to stubs. Each head should be carefully wrapped in a large sheet of white glazed paper. The baskets should be packed snug and tight without bruising the heads, and only those of uniform size should be placed in each basket. Never place different sizes in the same package and always discard inferior or injured heads; the compost heap is the place for them.--(F. B. 255; Fla. E. S. 59; Tex. E. S. 57; Cornell U. E. S. 292.) CELERIAC. This vegetable, which is also known as turnip-rooted celery, or knot celery, is closely related to our ordinary celery, being indeed a cultural variety of the same original plant grown under conditions which have developed the root rather than the stalk. In Europe it is by far the most common form of celery, but has never been extensively cultivated in the United States, though it is found in the larger markets. The roots are white and more or less globular in shape, closely resembling turnips in appearance. This vegetable deserves to be more widely known, being extremely hardy and of easy cultivation. It is mostly used for flavoring soups, except by the Germans who use it in the same manner as potatoes for potato salad. Planted 7 or 8 inches apart and 3 feet between the rows it will yield abundantly, and succeed best where celery will. The edible portion develops into a bulbous root weighing 4 to 6 ounces when trimmed, and these bulbs when properly packed away in the cellar will keep almost until spring. Where the ground but slightly freezes, the plants may be safely left unharvested for spring use.--(F. B. 255, 295; Mich. E. S. 20.) CELERY. The ideal climatic conditions for the production of celery are bright sunshine, pure air, cool nights, and a well-distributed rainfall of about 8 inches during the growing period in the field or garden. _Soils._--In the production of celery for domestic use, a rich, mellow, sandy loam will give the best results. The soil of the seed bed should contain plenty of leaf mold and should be passed through a sieve having not less than six meshes to the inch. The soil of the transplanting bed need not be sifted so fine, and some well-rotted barnyard manure should replace a part of the leaf mold; in other respects it should be the same as that of the seed bed. Any fertile, well-drained soil will grow celery, but a loose, sandy loam is preferable. If nothing but clay soil is available, it may be made to produce good celery by the liberal application of well-rotted barnyard manure. On clay soils there is likely to be injury caused by the soil becoming washed into the hearts of the plants while they are yet small. _Fertilizers._--For the production of the home supply of celery there is no fertilizer that is so satisfactory as well-rotted barnyard manure. In many localities the supply of manure is limited, and it may be necessary to depend almost entirely upon commercial fertilizers. If fresh stable manure is used, it should be plowed under in the autumn. If the manure is well rotted, it may be plowed under early in the spring or used as a top-dressing a short time before planting in order to bring the manure to the surface. From 10 to 20 tons of manure to the acre should be applied each year that the land is planted to celery. The application of lime will improve most soils. Following the use of stable manure an application of 1,000 pounds of ground quicklime as a top dressing will be beneficial. Soils that are liable to leach during the winter can be held by planting to rye and the crop turned under quite early in the spring. When applied to clay soils the lime has a tendency to lighten them, and sandy soils are rendered more retentive of moisture by the addition of lime. An application of 500 to 800 pounds of common salt to the acre is considered desirable by some growers. Celery will take up a limited quantity of salt, and its flavor is improved thereby. One to 2 tons of high-grade fertilizer to the acre may be profitably applied on most soils in addition to the stable manure and lime. As a rule, the quick-acting fertilizers are used, and a mixture suitable for growing celery should contain about 6 per cent of nitrogen, 5 per cent of available phosphoric acid, and 10 per cent of potash. _Time and Method of Plowing._--As a rule the land should be plowed several weeks before planting. At the North it is desirable to plow the celery land in the autumn and allow the soil to lie exposed to the action of frost during the winter. At the South it will be necessary to plow but a short time before planting. The plowing should be very thorough, and in most cases with a somewhat heavier plow than that generally used for other crops. _Smoothing and Pulverizing._--A few days before the land is required for planting, the surface should be cut with a disk or cutting harrow, followed by such tools as are necessary to pulverize the soil to a depth of 5 or 6 inches. Just before planting, the land should either be rolled or gone over with a float, or drag, made by nailing together planks or scantlings, in order to secure an even surface for planting. _Marking Rows._--The rows in which the celery plants are to be set should not be marked until a short time before planting, in order that the soil may remain fresh. A marking device similar to the ordinary corn marker may be used, but some form of roller with a number of projecting pegs to form holes in which to set the plants is desirable. A device of this character can be constructed by replacing the wheel of an ordinary wheelbarrow with a roller having a series of pegs. _Selection of Seed._--The first and most important consideration when preparing to grow a crop of celery is the securing of good seed, not merely seed of which a large percentage will germinate, but that having strength and vigor sufficient to give the seedling a good start. As the seeds of celery are very small, it is necessary that only a small percentage of the number usually sown should actually grow in order to secure an abundance of plants; but as low germination and the necessary vigor are seldom both to be found in the same packet of seed that seed which has a high percentage of germination is preferable. _Sowing for an Early Crop._--For sowing seed during the early part of the season, the plan best suited to the requirements of the farmer or amateur grower of celery is to secure a wooden flat or tray about 16 by 24 inches in size and 3 inches deep, with several small holes in the bottom for drainage. After filling with sifted soil level it off even with the top, and either shake down the soil or press it down by means of a board before the seeds are sown. Either sow in drills 2 inches apart or scatter broadcast, and cover the seed by sprinkling through a fine sieve a very small quantity of leaf mold or sand. This tray can be placed in the window of a moderately warm room in the dwelling, and the soil should be watered by sprinkling very lightly as often as necessary to keep the surface from showing dryness, but the soil should not become waterlogged. _Sowing for a Late Crop._--The method now in use by most large growers is to prepare a tract of land by pulverizing with horse tools and then raking by hand, after which the seed is sown broadcast by means of a wheelbarrow grass-seed drill. The soil is sometimes pressed down with a plank after the seeds are scattered, but some growers maintain that there is a decided advantage in leaving the soil slightly uneven, as the seeds fall into the shaded places and are protected from the direct rays of the sun. The seed will become sufficiently covered by rains or by watering. Should more than 20 per cent of the seed usually sown germinate, it is necessary to thin out to prevent overcrowding, with its attendant injury. To prevent the surface of the soil becoming too dry, it may be necessary to partially shade the young plants during the warm days of early summer, but the shading should never be so dense as to cause them to become "drawn." _Transplanting._--In case the grower adopts the plan of transplanting twice, the seedlings will be ready for the first handling in from four to six weeks from the time the seed is sown. The seedlings may be transplanted to trays or to beds in the open ground. This transplanting answers two purposes: (1) The seedling plant of celery has a straight root, or taproot, which is broken in transplanting, causing a large mass of fibrous roots to be formed. In the case of a plant allowed to remain in the seed bed until planting-out time this taproot has gone far down into the soil and the plant has formed very few side roots; consequently it suffers a great shock in the process of planting in the field, and a large number of plants will need to be replaced. (2) When transplanting twice is practiced there is no necessity for thinning, and a more uniform lot of plants is obtained. Two handlings can not be recommended when celery is grown on a large scale, as the cost of labor is too great. It is better to have a surplus of plants and to renew those that fail. _Watering._--When the seed bed is prepared, the soil of which it is composed should contain as much moisture as possible and yet be in good condition to handle. After sowing and covering the seeds the bed should be sprinkled lightly. During the period between seeding and the appearance of the plants the bed should be watered only as often as it shows indications of dryness; however, the surface should never become dry. During the first few days a moist cloth may be spread over the surface of the seed bed in order to conserve the moisture, but this covering should be removed before the seedlings begin to appear. After the plants are up, care should be taken not to water too heavily, as the seedlings are liable to "damp off"; but the ground should never become so dry as to check their growth. Celery requires the most water while making its greatest growth, which occurs late in the summer. As the crop approaches maturity the water should be applied sparingly, and it should be withheld altogether for some time before blanching. Among the methods of applying the water, the most simple and usually the most desirable practice, especially where the surface of the soil is even, is to run the water along the rows by means of small furrows, 8 or 10 inches distant on either side of the row. This method is well adapted to use on a gentle slope with the rows running up and down the incline. When the water is sprinkled over the entire surface it should be done late in the day, so that the soil may, during the night, absorb the moisture and prevent a crust being formed, as would be the case were the water applied under the direct heat of the sun. _Growing Without Irrigation._--For a home supply of celery it is often possible to select a rather moist but well-drained piece of land whereon it may be grown without artificial watering. In this case the plants should be set while the atmosphere is filled with moisture, preferably between gentle showers, and the moisture afterwards retained in the soil by frequent shallow cultivation or by the application of a mulch around the plants. This method can not be followed in climates where irrigation is necessary for the production of crops, but is applicable in regions that have an ordinary rainfall during the growing season. _Planting._--For domestic use, where plenty of land is available, it will be found most economical to plant in single or double rows 4, 5 or 6 feet apart, with the plants 5 or 6 inches apart in the row. If the space is limited, solid beds about 5 feet wide will be found suitable, with the plants set 7 or 8 inches apart each way. By planting in rows the crop may be worked with a horse cultivator or a wheel hoe and the banking more easily done, and thus the cost of production is lessened. With the solid-bed system the work must all be done by hand. If possible, the planting should be done when the soil is rather moist and the atmospheric conditions suitable to the subsistence of the plants until the roots can again furnish sufficient moisture to supply them. The bed should be thoroughly watered a few hours before the plants are removed, and a knife or trowel should be run between the plants so that they may be lifted with a clump of earth and with most of their roots attached. _Mulching._--In muck soils it will not be found necessary to mulch the ground around the plants after setting, but some kind of a covering is desirable on sandy and clay soils. As soon as the plants are in position and before any water is applied, cover the ground for a distance of 8 or 10 inches on either side with any finely divided material that will shade the top of the soil and prevent a crust being formed after watering; half-rotted manure is preferable for this, as it aids the growth by its fertilizing qualities. Good celery can be grown on clay upland with but one watering--at the time of planting--provided that plenty of mulch is applied as soon as the plants are set. The roots of celery, after it is once transplanted, run close to the surface, and the mulch will protect them from the heat of the sun. Among materials that may be used for a mulch may be mentioned pine needles, leaves of any kind, straw, cornstalks run through the cutter, clippings from the lawn, etc., none of which, however, are as good as barnyard manure. Have the material to be used as a mulch near at hand, and as the plants are set cover the soil around them to a depth of 2 inches, bringing the mulching material up close to the plant, but being careful to allow none to get into the heart. Apply the mulch before watering, if possible. Where celery is planted in single rows and mulched it will only be necessary to maintain shallow cultivation between the rows, not allowing the cultivator teeth to come nearer the plants than the edge of the mulch. Where no mulch is used the cultivation may be carried a little closer to the plants, but should be very shallow, and at no time should deep cultivation be practiced, as the roots are to be found very near the surface of the soil. If a mulch is used no hand cultivation will be required, either along the side or between the plants in the row, except to pull any weeds that may spring up. Where no mulch is used it will be necessary lightly to stir the surface with a wheel hoe or iron rake, to prevent a crust being formed after each rain or watering. Keep the surface of the soil smooth and in no case allow lumps of earth to remain near the plants. _Blanching._--In its original wild state the stems of celery are tough, full of woody strands, of a rank flavor, and green in color, being similar to the outside stems or trimmings of our present varieties. The object of blanching is to secure leafstalks free from woody strands, crisp and tender, and without the rank flavor found in those that are green. Of the cultivated plant there are two classes of varieties, the large-growing, or giant, and the dwarf sorts. These are again divided into those which must be blanched by excluding all the light and those which are in a measure self-blanching. Of the former the Giant Pascal variety is a type, and of the latter the Golden Self-Blanching variety is a good illustration. Blanching is accomplished by the same general method that is employed for destroying the coloring matter in any plant tissue, that is, by excluding the light and allowing the growth to proceed in the dark. The particular method to be adopted must be determined largely by the time when the crop is to be used. If for early use or marketing, the blanching must be completed where the plants are grown; but if the celery be for winter use the blanching may take place after the crop has been removed from the field and placed in storage. In fact, it is best to blanch as little as possible before storing when the product is to be kept until late, as the keeping qualities are better while it is unblanched. When planting for early use it is necessary to choose one of the self-blanching varieties, such as may be conveniently blanched by the use of boards or other similar means. For early blanching on a small scale, such as would be employed on the farm or in the garden of the amateur horticulturist, there are several methods. One of the most common is by means of boards placed on edge along each side of the row. After the boards are in position it is a good plan to run a celery hiller between the rows and to throw a little soil against the lower edges of the boards to close any openings that may result from the uneven surface of the soil. Two or three weeks' time will be required to complete the blanching of the early varieties, and the boards must be kept in position until the crop is removed from the ground, after which they may be used again two or three times during the season. If the celery is allowed to remain in the boards too long after it has reached a marketable stage, it loses in weight and flavor and is liable to be injured or even destroyed by the attacks of blight. This is especially true during the earlier part of the season, when the weather is warm. At the end of the season the boards should be piled flat, with strips inserted at every fourth or fifth course, and the whole pile roofed over to shed off rain; treated in this manner they will last from ten to twelve years. Perhaps the most satisfactory way of blanching early celery on a small scale is by means of ordinary farm drain tiles of about 4 inches inside diameter, placed over the plants after they have become almost fully grown. To facilitate the work of placing the tiles over the plants, some of the outside leaves should be pulled away and the main part of the plant loosely tied together by means of a soft string, or, better, with what is known as paper twine, being a string made by twisting a strip of soft paper. This string will lose its strength as soon as it becomes wet, and will offer no resistance to the further growth of the plant. If the common, unglazed tiles are used the evaporation from their surface has a tendency to keep the plant cool during the heat of the day, and a very crisp and tender product is the result. This method of blanching is desirable also on account of its cleanliness, as celery treated in this way will need very little washing before marketing. The most common method for blanching celery on a small scale is that of banking with soil, and it is by this means that the finest flavor can be obtained. Where the plants are set in single rows the soil can often be partially thrown up by means of a plow, or, better, by a celery hiller. Before the plow or banking machine is used a small quantity of dirt must be placed around the plants by hand to hold them in position while the earth is being thrown around them. This may also be accomplished by tying up the plants with paper twine, as previously recommended for use in connection with tiles. _Storing._--The plan usually adopted where but a small quantity of celery is to be stored for winter use is to bank up with earth and cover the plants where grown. Place enough earth around the base of the plants to hold them in good form, and then allow them to remain without any further banking as long as there is not danger of a hard frost. Celery may be safely stored in cellars provided the temperature is kept low and plenty of ventilation maintained. The warmth and dampness of the ordinary cellar have a tendency to cause the celery to decay, but these conditions can frequently be overcome. Celery will readily absorb any odor that may be present in the atmosphere of the storage place, and care should be taken to provide sanitary conditions. When storing in a cellar, the plants should have most of their roots attached, and a bed of moist sand in which to set them should be provided. [Illustration: CELERY BANKED WITH EARTH TO BLANCH IT] _Preparing Celery for Market._--In preparing it from the rows where grown, it is not necessary to remove the entire root from the earth, but it may be cut off just below the surface of the soil by means of a stiff knife. Remove the outside leaves and trim the root evenly, pack in boxes, and load on the wagon for removal to the washing house. The blanching boards should not be removed till necessary, and the trimmed celery must not be allowed to lie exposed to the sun or wind for any length of time. It is well also to have a piece of canvas to protect the celery while it is on the wagon on the way to the washing house. In marketing from the trenches the process is practically the same as from the rows, except that the celery is already loosened from the soil and the roots can be removed more easily. Upon reaching the washing room the celery is placed upon a rack consisting of wooden slats over a large trough and subjected to a spray of cold water to cool it and to remove the adhering soil. After washing, it is allowed to drain; then it is tied in bunches of 12 or more plants each, according to the size. The bunches are packed 6 in a box for first-grade celery and 8 or 9 for second or third grades. These boxes should be practically air-tight, and a lining of paper should be placed in them before packing the celery, or each bunch should be wrapped separately. The celery should be nearly dry before it is placed in the boxes, and throughout the entire handling must be kept as cool as possible. _Sanitary Conditions._--It is essential that the celery should be washed in pure water to prevent the transmission of disease germs. Any germ, such as that producing typhoid fever, which is found in contaminated water, is readily carried to the digestive system of the consumer, and may or may not produce an attack of the disease, according to the strength of the person to resist it. The washhouse and its surroundings should be kept clean and free from any decomposing materials. Shippers and dealers alike lose sight of the fact that the edible portion of celery is constantly being exposed to the contaminating effects of dirty wagons, unclean cars, and dusty markets. Many persons have discontinued the use of celery on account of the unclean condition in which it is served. This statement holds good for all vegetables that are served in the raw state, but it is especially applicable to celery. _Estimates of Returns._--Anyone contemplating making a start in celery growing will do well to first investigate the market prospects, and unless satisfactory shipping arrangements can be made beforehand the crop should be planted only on a small scale for one or two years, until a local trade can be established. It is fair to estimate a return of 1,500 dozen from 1 acre; and this should bring 25 cents per dozen, at the lowest average estimate; this will yield a gross income of $375 to the acre, leaving a net balance of $125 to cover the interest on the investment and the profit. As a matter of fact, the growers who are making a success of celery raising--and many are doing so--receive a net profit of $100 an acre over and above the interest on the investment. On the other hand, hundreds of acres are grown annually which do not much more than pay expenses, but this is due to the fact that the soil has become exhausted and the product is consequently undersized and inferior.--(F. B. 255, 282; Cornell E. S. 132; Colo. E. S. 144.) CETEWAYO, OR ZULU, POTATOES. The Cetewayo, or Zulu, potato, a wild variety of _Solanum tuberosum_ found in Africa, is sometimes grown as a garden vegetable for its flavor and novelty. It has practically the same percentage composition as the ordinary potato. When cooked, the flesh is purple in color, but when brought in contact with vinegar, as in salads, it turns red.--(F. B. 295.) THE CHAYOTE. The chayote suggests the cucumber rather than any other of the cultivated plants of the same family, but is a larger and more vigorous plant, climbing widely by means of numerous branched tendrils. When grown under ordinary garden conditions the cultural requirements of the chayote may be said to be two in number: (1) A somewhat sheltered situation and (2) something to climb upon. While the vine will not refuse to grow without these advantages, the results will not be satisfactory. Like many climbing plants, the chayote is very susceptible to injury from the wind, while, unlike many Cucurbitaceae, it does not seem to take kindly to creeping upon the ground, at least in the Tropics. In the different parts of the world the chayote has been found to grow upon a great variety of soils, though it is generally considered to thrive best in a loose sandy or loamy substratum, providing sufficient humus or other fertilizing material be at hand. Although it has been found possible to secure plants from the seed when planted alone, or even from the embryo when carefully extracted from its seed coats, it is the universal practice to plant the entire fruit. The fruit should be gathered before fully matured, because of the tendency to germinate. It is like the cucumber, edible at any stage of growth, and may be picked when large enough. The chayote is a good shipper and may be shipped in bulk in vegetable crates, wrapped and well packed; cold storage will not be necessary.--(Dept. Ag., Div. of Botany 28; P. Rico A. E. S. 7). CHERVIL. Under the name of chervil two distinct plants, known as salad chervil and the turnip-rooted chervil, are cultivated. The seeds of the salad chervil are sown in spring and the crop will thrive on any good garden soil. The seeds of the turnip-rooted chervil should be sown in the early autumn, but they will not germinate until the following spring. The edible part of this plant is the root, which somewhat resembles the carrot and is used in the same manner. The leaves are used the same as parsley for garnishing and in flavoring soups.--(F. B. 255.) CHICORY. Chicory is grown for two or three purposes. The root of this plant is the common adulterant of coffee, and large quantities are used for this purpose. The commercial growing of chicory is confined to a few sections, as the crop will not thrive on every kind of soil. A deep, rich loam, without excessive amounts of clay or sand, is desirable, and soil that is not too rich in nitrogenous matter is best suited to the production of roots. The roots are frequently placed in soil under a greenhouse bench or in a warm cellar and covered with a foot or more of straw, or with a light covering of straw and then several inches of warm manure. Under this covering the leaves will be formed in a solid head, which is known on the market as witloof. Chicory has run wild in some parts of the country and is considered a bad weed. The handsome blue flowers, which are borne the second season, are very attractive. As a pot herb chicory is used like spinach, but the leaves should be boiled in two waters to remove the bitter taste. As a salad the roots are dug in the autumn and planted in cellars or under a greenhouse bench, where they produce an abundance of blanched leaves, which are eaten raw. The blanched leaves are also boiled and used as greens.--(F. B. 255; U. Idaho E. S. 10.) CHILE. The chile is used in many different ways and it is quite an important article of food among the Spanish speaking population in the Southwest and in Mexico. It is eaten both in the green and ripe state. It may be grown on ridges or in level plats. The former method is the more common in New Mexico. In the spring after the ground has been plowed and leveled (the plowing of the land can be done in the fall or winter) and just a little before planting the ridges are made. These ridges may vary in height from 8 to 12 inches. It is better to irrigate the ridges before planting, though this is not always done. The object of irrigating before planting is to get the water mark on the side of the ridges and to settle the newly plowed soil somewhat. As soon as the soil is dry enough so it can be worked, which is generally from four to seven days, the seed is planted usually on one side of the ridge and just above the water mark. The seed is planted by hand in hills about every two feet in the row. The chile does not stand freezing weather, though it will stand a little more cold than tomatoes. For the convenience of intending chile growers the following table which gives the number of hills per acre at different distances has been prepared: Number of Distance. Hills per Acre. 3-1/2 feet between rows × 2 feet in the row 6222 3-1/2 feet between rows × 2-1/2 feet in the row 4978 4 feet between rows × 2 feet in the row 5445 4 feet between rows × 2-1/2 feet in the row 4356 _Planting._--The seed is planted on the side of the ridge, when the ridge method is practiced. The southern exposure of the ridge is always preferable since this is usually warmer and the germination, other factors being uniform, is quicker. If level culture is practiced there is no choice of exposure. Whatever method of planting is followed care should be taken not to bury the seed too deeply. As a general thing the seed should not be deeper than three-fourths of an inch to an inch and a half. Shallower planting, if the moisture is kept normal, will give quicker and better germination. More seed is required per acre when the planting is done by hand on the ridges than when it is drilled with a garden drill in plats. _Thinning._--Chile started from seed planted in the field must be thinned to one or three plants to the hill. When the chile has been thinned out properly the plant or plants in the hill branch out considerably and produce a heavier and better crop. If too many plants are left to the hill there is a marked tendency for the plants to grow too tall and more or less top heavy. The chile is thinned out when about 3 to 5 inches high. If a good germination takes place it is more difficult to thin the chile, because there are more small plants to the hill to be pulled out. Care should be had in selecting the strongest plants in the hill and in injuring as little as possible the roots of those which remain. While the common way of growing chile is to plant the seed out in the field in the spring, it can also be grown by starting the plants in cold frames early in the season and transplanting to the field as soon as danger of frost is over. _Irrigation._--After the irrigations to get the crop started have been given, the frequency of the subsequent irrigations depends upon the weather and soil conditions, and for that reason no specific statement can be made just when and how often the chile should be irrigated. One thing, however, is important to keep in mind, and that is that the chile plant keeps bearing as long as it is growing. If the growth should be checked by the lack of irrigation the plant stops bearing and the blossoms and the very small pods are likely to drop off. The grower himself should study his local conditions and decide for himself when and how much to irrigate. While the chile plant resists considerable drought, at the same time, it should not be allowed to suffer from the lack of irrigation. When the chile is grown on ridges the space between the ridges should be allowed to fill with water almost up to the plant. If the water is simply turned in and allowed to rush down the furrow to the other end the ridges will remain practically dry, necessitating frequent irrigations to keep the plants from suffering. In irrigating the chile on ridges always aim to hold the water long enough in the furrow for the ridges to get fairly well soaked through. In the level plat the irrigation is more simple and the soil around each hill gets wet sufficiently while the water is running down to the end of the plat. When the plats are quite long and are made up of a series of squares as soon as each square is filled with water the border, dividing that square from the next one, is cut and the water rushes into the next square which is treated the same as the one before.--(N. Mex. Col. Ag. and Mech. Arts 67.) CHIVE. This is a small onion-like plant having flat, hollow leaves which are used for flavoring soups. The chive rarely forms seeds, and it is propagated by the bulbs, which grow in clusters. The leaves may be cut freely and are soon replaced by others.--(F. B. 255; S. Dak. E. S. 68.) CITRON. The citron is a type of watermelon with solid flesh which is used for preserves and sweet pickles. The rind of the watermelon is frequently substituted for citron. The cultivation of the citron is the same as for the watermelon.--(F. B. 255; U. Idaho E. S. 10.) COLLARDS. The culture and uses of collards are the same as for cabbage and kale. Collards withstand the heat better than either cabbage or kale, and a type known as Georgia collards is highly esteemed in the Southern States. Collards do not form a true head, but instead a loose rosette of leaves, which, when blanched, are very tender and of delicate flavor.--(F. B. 255; U. Idaho E. S. 10; P. Rico A. E. S. 7.) CORN SALAD. Corn salad is also known as lamb's-lettuce and fetticus. Sow the seed during the early spring in drills 14 to 18 inches apart and cultivate the same as for lettuce or mustard. For an extra early crop the seed may be planted during the autumn and the plants covered lightly during the winter. In the Southern States the covering will not be necessary and the plants will be ready for use during February and March. The leaves are frequently used in their natural green state, but they may be blanched by covering the rows with anything that will exclude the light. Corn salad is used as a salad in place of lettuce, or mixed with lettuce or water cress. The flavor of corn salad is very mild, and it is improved by mixing with some other salad plant for use. It is also boiled with mustard for greens.--(F. B. 255.) CRESS. Under the name of cress there are two forms, the water cress and the upland cress. The upland cress, sometimes called peppergrass, is easily grown from seed sown in drills a foot apart. As the plants last but a short time, it will be necessary to make a sowing every few days if a continuous supply is desired. Water cress can be grown all the year in small open ditches containing running spring water. It is best and most easily produced in water from rather warm springs in limestone regions. A sufficient supply for family use can be grown in a small spring-fed brook, and the plants may be started either from small pieces of plants or from seed. Cress is used in salads, to which it imparts a pleasant pungency.--(F. B. 255; U. Idaho E. S. 10; P. Rico A. E. S. 7.) CUCUMBERS. _Soil._--The soil best adapted to the cultivation of cucumbers in the open is a light sandy loam, one which responds quickly to temperature and fertilizer. Such soils are prepared early in the season and thrown into gentle undulations, so as to produce slight ridges upon which to plant the seed to insure good surface drainage. _Fertilizers._--The soil for cucumbers should be made very rich by the annual application of heavy dressings of stable manure to be incorporated with the soil. During the time it is not occupied by cucumbers or lettuce, cowpeas are frequently grown upon the area and turned under prior to planting a fall crop of lettuce. In addition to this, liberal applications of a fertilizer carrying a considerable percentage of nitrogen are employed. _Planting._--There are almost as many methods of planting cucumbers as there are growers. Some plant in hills the standard distance of 6 feet apart each way; others plant in hills 6 feet apart in one direction and 2 or 3 feet apart in the row, while others plant in drills or broad belts 6 feet apart and chop out the plants to stand about a foot apart in the row after all danger from insect depredation has ceased. The methods which seem most economical under the conditions at hand will of course be adopted by the grower. In outdoor culture the cucumber is frequently used as a companion crop to other crops, like beans. Beans being of rapid growth come on quickly and form a partial protection or wind-break for the young cucumber plants. When arranged in this way, cucumbers are planted in drills or in hills 6 feet apart and a row of beans is placed between two rows of cucumbers, a method which insures a very complete and satisfactory use of the ground. The quick maturity of the beans allows them to be harvested and entirely removed from the area before it is required for the cucumbers. _Harvesting._--Cucumbers intended for pickling purposes are harvested when they have attained a length of from 2-1/2 to 5 inches. Because such cucumbers are bought by weight it will readily be seen that the small-sized pickles are less profitable to the grower than the larger ones, and in order to secure them before they have attained an unsalable size it is necessary that the picking be repeated at frequent intervals, as cucumbers grow rapidly and a delay of twenty-four to forty-eight hours in harvesting would render many of them unsalable. It is therefore necessary to have regular intervals to harvest certain areas of the patch and to continue this routine throughout the bearing season. Another point which is of prime importance in the management of the cucumber patch is that none of the fruits be allowed to come to maturity. The ripening process, which means the development and maturing of the seeds, produces a heavy strain upon the growing plant, the life and yield of the plant being in proportion to the number of fruits which are allowed to ripen. If no fruits are allowed to come to maturity the plants will remain green and in an active vegetative condition longer and will produce a much larger aggregate number of fruits. _Dill Pickles._--Dill pickles, which are much prized and command the highest price among pickles, can be made from fresh cucumbers as they come from the vines, or from vat stock which has been carried for some time at the salting station. _Cucumbers Grown in Cold Frames for Market._--Soil for use in cold frames should be a well-enriched sandy loam of the type of the usual sandy loam. If it can be dark in color, this is an advantage. If normally light, the color can be changed by the addition of muck or by incorporating well-decomposed stable manure with the surface soil. A dark color is of some advantage in helping to raise the temperature in the frames under the glass. _Watering._--Since the glazed sash prevent the soil beneath them being moistened by natural means--that is, by rain or dew--it is necessary that means be provided for watering or irrigating the plants. This can be done by arranging pipes upon the surface of the ground or at a convenient height overhead, so as not to interfere with cultivation, from which water can be drawn to sprinkle the surface of the beds at desired intervals and as the plants may require. The work of watering should, however, be very carefully done. The same general precautions necessary for the care of plants in cold frames should be observed--that is, to do the watering in the morning on bright days only, when air can be admitted and when the sun will soon dry the moisture from the leaves of the plants. In this way much can be done to protect the plants from injury from such diseases as the damping-off fungus and mildew. [Illustration: JAPANESE CLIMBING CUCUMBER NEARLY SIX FEET FROM THE GROUND] [Illustration: WELL-GROWN CUCUMBERS] _Ventilation._--Besides the precautions to be observed in watering plants in cold frames, extreme care is necessary to give the plants sufficient air to keep them in a healthy condition. If the atmosphere is allowed to become close and very hot, the plants will be weakened and thus rendered more susceptible to the attacks of plant diseases. _Forcing Cucumbers Under Glass._--Forcing is a technical term used by gardeners to designate the growing of plants out of their normal season under an artificial environment. The cucumber is one of the few garden plants which lend themselves to this manner of cultivation in addition to their more extensive cultivation in the open ground. Under the stimulus of forcing work, two distinct types of cucumbers have been developed. These are recognized in the trade as the English type and the American type. The English type is purely a product of forcing-house conditions, as the climate of England is not congenial to the growth and development of the cucumber in the open. The American type of cucumber is primarily a product of field conditions, and the few varieties which have been developed to meet the requirements of the forcing house are simply modifications of the existing field or outdoor forms. The English type of cucumber is a long, cylindrical, uniformly green fruit, with few seeds and a very fleshy seed cavity; in fact, the normal seed cavity of the forced cucumber is almost entirely wanting. The triangular shape characteristic of the normal outdoor cucumber has been lost, and the cylindrical outline almost perfected. There is considerable difference in the size and length of the various English varieties of cucumbers. The American type of cucumber is primarily grown in the field, the product to be used either for pickling or for slicing. Forcing cucumbers in America is confined to those varieties which produce large fruits suitable for slicing. Only three or four of the better and larger field varieties are adapted to this purpose. Notable among these is the White Spine, the Arlington White Spine being the variety which has been especially developed for forcing. The Long Green, or a modification of it, is also sometimes used, but aside from these two varieties there are few that ever find their way into the forcing house. Such varieties as the Boston Pickling, Chicago Pickling, and the cluster varieties in general are not adapted to forcing purposes. The forcing of cucumbers presupposes that an adequate forcing house or greenhouse is at hand for such work. The chief desideratum in a forcing house for cucumbers is a maximum amount of light, sufficient headroom, and adequate radiation to maintain a temperature varying from 65° to 85° F. The amount of radiation will, of course, depend upon the style of heating employed, whether steam or hot water, and upon the location of the greenhouse, whether at the north or the south; the outside temperature determining to a considerable extent the amount of radiation required in the house to maintain a given degree of heat. _Propagation._--There are a number of methods of propagation followed by successful cucumber growers, all of which have some advantages. Three of the more common practices are as follows: (1) To plant the seeds of cucumbers in the soil of the bench where the plants are to grow and mature; (2) to plant the seeds of the cucumbers in 3-inch or 4-inch pots filled about half full of soil and after the seeds have germinated and the hypocotyl or stem of the seedling has elongated to fill the pots well up to the seed leaves with soil; and (3) to plant the seeds in cups similar to those used for harvesting strawberries, except that the cups for this purpose are usually made of Georgia pine. In the first case, where the seeds are planted directly in the soil on the benches, cucumbers are usually employed as a crop to follow lettuce, seeds being planted in the lettuce benches before the crop is entirely removed, heads of lettuce being taken out at proper distances to allow for the correct spacing of the cucumber plants, and the seeds of cucumbers planted in the areas so left. In the other two cases the rearing of the plants for forcing purposes can be carried on in a small house especially designed for this purpose or in a general propagating house, thus obviating the necessity of heating and maintaining normal conditions in the growing house during the period previous to which the plants begin to run. _Planting on the Benches._--As soon as the plants show well-developed runners and are 10 to 12 inches long they should be placed in their permanent position upon the greenhouse benches. Plants grown in pots must be carefully removed from these receptacles to the bench, but those grown in the wooden cups above referred to can be planted, cup and all, in the soil of the bench. The utmost care should be exercised to keep the plants of the cucumber growing rapidly at all times. If cucumbers receive a severe check or are placed under conditions which are not entirely congenial to them, they are liable to become dwarfed and stunted, and as soon as vigorous growth ceases they become the prey of the melon aphis, mildew, and other pests and diseases which are so annoying to growers of cucumbers under artificial conditions. _Distance to Plant._--After the plants have attained a height of 10 or 12 inches and are in a vigorous growing condition they should be placed about 15 or 18 inches apart in single rows upon the side benches of the greenhouse, which are normally 3-1/2 feet wide, or if planted on 8-foot benches they should be planted about 10 or 12 inches from the edge of the bench and 15 to 18 inches apart and parallel with the edge of the bench. In the broad benches, where more than a double row can be carried, plants can be set about 18 inches apart and in rows about 2 feet apart. A satisfactory plan for an 8-foot bench will be a row parallel with and 10 inches from each edge of the bench and a double row 18 inches apart through the middle of the bench. It is well, however, to allow as much space as possible. The cucumber is a rank-growing plant and many side branches will develop if sufficient space is allowed. _Training the Plants._--As soon as the plants show a tendency to run they should be trained so as to keep them from becoming unduly tangled and in order to fill all the space upon the trellis. Galvanized wires No. 16 can be run lengthwise of the house and stapled to the supports, which should be placed about 6 feet apart. Upon side benches which are elevated it will be necessary to train the cucumbers to the framework of the greenhouse. For this purpose screw eyes about 8 inches in length can be placed in the sash bars at intervals of 4 or 5 feet and the parallel wires to which the vines are to be tied stretched 12 inches apart lengthwise of the house through these screw eyes and firmly fastened at the ends. The vines should then be loosely tied to the supporting wires with raffia or soft cotton yarn. When the fruits become heavy, as in the case of the English varieties, it will become necessary to truss them to prevent their weight breaking the vines. Heavy fruits will cause the supporting wires or bands of raffia to break or girdle the vines unless they are supported independently. The American varieties seldom attain sufficient size to require this precaution. Fruits of these varieties as soon as they are 8 to 10 inches in length and 2 inches in diameter are harvested for market. The vines are usually sufficiently strong to withstand the weight of fruit of this size. _Pollination._--The cucumber, like the other members of the gourd family to which it belongs, bears two kinds of blossoms on widely separated parts of the plant. The staminate or nonfruit-bearing flower is the first to appear and is in general borne near the base of the plant. The pistillate blossom with the embryo cucumbers at its base appears later and is borne near the extremity of the newly forming and rapidly growing shoots. Since these flowers are normally produced in this way, it is necessary that a transfer of pollen be made from the staminate to the pistillate flowers throughout the agency of insects or by other artificial means. Under greenhouse conditions and at the time of year that the cucumber is forced it is necessary to provide for pollination. In small establishments this work can be done by hand. The staminate blossoms are removed, the petals turned back so as to allow the anthers to project, and the pencil thus produced is then thrust into the cup of the pistillate flower in such a way as to distribute pollen upon the stigma of the pistillate flower. In large establishments where hand pollination is out of the question a colony of honey bees is placed in each house to accomplish the work.--(F. B. 254, 255; Mass. Ag. Col. E. S. 87; Iowa Ag. Col. E. S. 47.) DANDELION. Sow the seed of dandelion in spring in drills 18 inches apart, covering it one-half inch deep. Thin the plants to about 12 inches apart and give good clean cultivation throughout the summer. In the colder parts of the country it may be desirable to mulch slightly during the winter to prevent the plants heaving out of the soil. Early the following spring the plants will be ready for use as greens, but they are greatly improved if blanched by setting two boards in the forms of an inverted letter V over the row. The blanching not only makes the leaves more tender but destroys a part of the bitter taste. Dandelion greens should be boiled in two waters to remove the bitterness.--(F. B. 255-68; S. Dak. 68; U. Id. E. S. 10.) DILL. Grown as fennel which it greatly resembles, both being well known herbs used for flavoring pickles, and both being of unsurpassed hardiness.--(Mich. E. S. 20.) EGG PLANT. This delicious vegetable is not so much cultivated in our gardens as it should be. This has arisen largely from the difficulty of getting the plants from seed in the open ground. If you have no greenhouse, hotbed, nor frame, it will be best to buy the plants at setting-time from some one who grows them early in pots. Plants pulled from a bed are seldom worth planting, as the egg plant is slow to recover from a serious check. _Kind of Soil._--A sandy loam will be found excellent soil; this should be well drained and have a moist subsoil. Land that has been drained, if all other conditions are proper, will make an excellent field. This plant is a deep feeder, so that the land should be plowed as deeply as possible. A new field should not be taken, while one might succeed, the chances are not so good as on an old and well-tried piece of land. Be sure that all rubbish and matter that could interfere with cultivation has been removed. Fertilize the field broadcast; there is little or no danger of the plants failing to get the food if it is in the soil. The best way is to apply the fertilizer just before plowing the field, and then apply a smaller amount where the plants are to stand; work the fertilizer in well a week or two before setting out. Lay the land off into rows four feet apart, and set the plants three or four feet apart in the row. At convenient distances a row may be skipped to make a road to gather the crop. After the crop has been planted there is little or no use for a hoe; the plow can and ought to do the work. No weeds should be allowed to show more than the seed leaves, and the ground should be kept mellow enough to let a person sink nearly to the ankles in dry times. When the fertilizer has been applied properly the roots will seek the deeper soil, and the ordinary horse cultivator will not reach them at all. Eggplant raising pays best under high cultivation. By replenishing the fertilizer, plants may be kept in bearing until frost kills them in the fall, but it will be found more profitable to renew the field, if a summer or fall crop is desired.--(U. Id. E. S. 10; N. C. E. S. 132; Fla. E. S. 31; F. B. 255; Iowa E. S. 47.) ENDIVE. The endive is a form of chicory. Sow the seeds thinly in drills, and when the plants are well established thin to 8 inches. Water and cultivate thoroughly in order that a good growth of leaves may be made. When the leaves are 6 to 8 inches in length draw them together and tie them so the heart will blanch. The leaves should not be tied up while wet or decay will follow. The heads should be used as soon as blanched. For winter use sow the seeds rather late and remove the plants, with a ball of earth adhering to the roots, to a cellar or cold frame, and blanch during the winter as required for use. Endive is used as a salad at times of the year when lettuce and similar crops are out of season.--(F. B. 255; U. Id. E. S. 10; S. Dak. E. S. 68.) FENNEL. Cultivated for the sweet aromatic foliage and fruit is an herb used for flavoring pickles.--(Mich. E. S. 20.) GARLIC. Garlic is closely allied to the onion, but will remain in the ground from one year to another if undisturbed. Garlic is planted by setting the small bulbs, or cloves, either in the autumn or early spring. The culture is practically the same as for the onion. The bulbs are used for flavoring purposes.--(F. B. 255.) GINGER. Ginger, the underground root stock of _Zingiber officinale_, is perhaps most commonly used dry as a spice, though the fresh root or green ginger is common in autumn, being used in pickle making, preserving, and in other ways. The young and tender ends of the branching root or rhizome, called ginger buds, are the most delicate portion as regards both texture and flavor. Large quantities of ginger root are preserved in rich sugar syrup, the round stone jars of "Canton ginger" being an old-fashioned confection which is still much prized. The crystallized or candied ginger is even more common and is frequently served as a sweetmeat, and is also used in making deserts of various sorts.--(F. B. 295.) HERBS. To this group belong a number of plants hardly recognized as vegetables in the common use of the term, yet of sufficient importance to entitle them to a corner in the family garden. The herb garden or "patch" is too often considered a worthless gift or fashion handed down from grandmother's day. In every well ordered garden there should be a few of the common herbs. The same conditions concerning care, cultivation, etc., will answer for all. The site selected should be out of the way so that it may not be disturbed. As the bed is to be permanent it should be made fertile and cultivated deeply. In sowing classify according to whether they are annuals or perennials. The plants may be grown from seed but whenever possible, propagation by root division is much more easy and certain. In autumn before frost the leaves and stems of those desired for winter use should be gathered, tied in small bunches and hung up to dry in an airy room. Where the seed is desired, it should be allowed to ripen and harvested.--(U. Id. E. S. 10; S. Dak. E. S. 68; N. C. E. S. 132.) ICE PLANT. This plant (_Mesembryanthemum cristallinum_) gets its name from the crystalline ice-like covering of the leaves. In hot countries the leaves are used as a salad or boiled the same as spinach.--(S. Dak. E. S. 68.) HORSE-RADISH. This plant will thrive best in a deep, rich soil, where there is plenty of moisture. The rows should be 3 feet apart and the plants 12 to 18 inches apart in the row. Tops cut from large roots or pieces of small roots are used for planting. A comparatively few hills of horse-radish will be sufficient for family use, and the roots required for starting can be secured of seedsmen for 25 or 30 cents a dozen. This crop will require no particular cultivation except to keep down the weeds, and is inclined to become a weed itself if not controlled. The large fleshy roots are prepared for use by peeling and grating. The grated root is treated with a little salt and vinegar and served as a relish with meats, oysters, etc. The roots should be dug during the winter or early spring before the leaves start. After being treated with salt and vinegar the grated root may be bottled for summer use. As this has always been considered strictly a cold-weather plant, is would seem useless to try to grow it in Porto Rico, but, as it gave very favorable results at this station, it can no doubt be produced for local consumption. It is practically unknown in Porto Rico, but most people acquire a taste for it, and foreigners, who are used to it in their native country, will find it very gratifying that they can grow it here. In the North it thrives in any soil from a light sand to a heavy clay, but prefers a medium heavy loam. Here it grows luxuriantly in heavy clay but may not do so well in sand. It is planted from cuttings of the lateral roots, which should be from 4 to 6 inches long and planted at a distance of 12 to 15 inches in rows 24 to 30 inches apart. Root cuttings can be obtained either in spring or fall from any seed firm, and these should be planted when received. The roots can be dug when large enough for use or can be left in the ground until wanted.--(F. B. 255: U. Id. E. S. 10; P. Rico E. S. 7.) KALE, OR BORECOLE. There are a large number of forms of kale, and these are thought by some to be the original type of the cabbage. Kale does not form a head and has convoluted leaves and thick leaf stems. It is cultivated the same as cabbage, but may be set somewhat closer. This crop is very hardy and will live through the winter in the open ground in localities where freezing it not too severe. The flavor of kale is improved by frost. Kale is used for greens during the winter, and as a substitute for cabbage.--(F. B. 255; N. Car. E. S. 132; U. Id. E. S. 10.) KOHL-RABI. Kohl-rabi belongs to the same class as cabbage and cauliflower, but presents a marked variation from either. It is, perhaps, half-way between the cabbage and turnip, in that its edible part consists of the swollen stem of the plant. For an early crop, plant and cultivate the same as for early cabbage. For a late crop or for all seasons in the South the seed may be sown in drills where the crop is to be grown and thinned to about 8 inches apart in the row. The rows should be from 18 to 36 inches apart, according to the kind of cultivation employed. The fleshy stems should be used while they are young and quite tender. Prepare kohl-rabi for the table in the same manner as turnips, which it very much resembles when cooked.--(F. B. 255; U. Id. E. S. 10; Mich. E. S. 20; N. C. E. S. 132; La. E. S. 90.) LEEK. This plant belongs to the same class as does the onion, but requires somewhat different treatment. Leeks can be grown on any good garden soil and are usually sown in a shallow trench. The plants should be thinned to stand about 4 inches apart in the row and the cultivation should be similar to that for onions. After the plants have attained almost full size the earth is drawn around them to the height of 6 or 8 inches to blanch the fleshy stem. The leek does not form a true bulb like the onion, but the stem is uniformly thick throughout. Leeks are marketed in bunches like young onions, and they may be stored the same as celery for winter. Leeks are used for flavoring purposes and are boiled and served with a cream dressing the same as young onions.--(N. Car. E. S. 132; La. E. S. 90; F. B. 255.) LETTUCE. This crop attains its best development in a rich sandy loam in which there is plenty of organic matter. Lettuce thrives best during the early spring or late autumn and will not withstand the heat of summer. In order that the leaves may be crisp and tender, it is necessary to force the growth. The usual method of growing lettuce for home use is to sow the seeds broadcast in a bed and remove the leaves from the plants as rapidly as they become large enough for use. A much better method is either to thin or transplant the seedlings and allow the plants to form rather compact heads and then cut the entire plant for use. In the Southern States the seeds may be sown during the autumn and the plants allowed to remain in the ground over winter. At the North the seeds may be sown in a hotbed or cold frame and the seedlings transplanted to the open ground, or the seeding may be in rows in the garden and the plants thinned to 5 or 6 inches in the row. Lettuce may be grown in rows about 12 inches apart. In order to produce crisp and tender lettuce during the summer months, it may be necessary to provide some form of partial shading.--(F. B. 255; N. Y. E. S. 208; N. Car. E. S. 147; Tenn. E. S. 2; Purdue Ind. E. S. 66 and 84; Kas. E. S. 70.) LLEREN (_Calathea allouya_). This vegetable, although cultivated in Porto Rico for a long time, is not extensively known. The plant at a cursory glance resembles a canna. The edible tubers, which are formed in great profusion, can be eaten boiled like potatoes; but, unlike potatoes, they do not become soft, but appear hard and crisp after prolonged boiling. Lleren somewhat resembles boiled sweet corn in taste, and most people pronounce it delicious without needing to acquire a taste for it. The best soil for lleren is a rich, moist, well-drained loam, which is usually benefited by an application of wood ashes or sulphate of potash; an excess of nitrogen causes the production of large tops and few tubers. The stools or roots immediately adhering to stalks are the parts used for propagating; the tubers will not germinate. Lleren should be planted at intervals of 2 feet in rows 4 feet apart, and cultivated like any other vegetable. It requires ten to fifteen months to mature tubers, which are 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter, and may be harvested at any time when large enough, but can be left in the ground for a long time without spoiling. It is a good shipper and if introduced into the northern market it would soon create a demand.--(P. Rico E. S. 7.) MARTYNIA (_Unicorn Plant_). The curious, long beaked fruit is used for pickles. The plants are quite hardy and ornamental, the fruit being no less conspicuous for its odd shape than the large wax-like flowers of whitish color with purple and yellow spots.--(Mich. E. S. 20.) MELON--MUSK. _Soil and Location._--The soil for muskmelons must be well drained and contain an abundance of humus and readily available plant food. If these conditions are met, it matters little what the particular type of soil may be. A knoll or ridge sloping gently to the south and protected by timber on the north and west furnishes an ideal site for melons. Such a location will usually produce earlier melons than a north or west slope and is better than a level area because the soil dries out more quickly after a rain, thus permitting more timely tillage in a wet season, and resulting in the production of melons of better flavor. It is only in dry seasons that low, flat land, unless thoroughly tile-drained, produces good melons. The condition of the soil in reference to its supply of humus has a marked influence upon the welfare of the melon crop. Because of its abundance of humus, newly cleared timber land is well adapted to melon culture, but is difficult to work on account of the stumps and roots. Land slightly deficient in humus can be put in condition for growing melons by plowing under a clover sod, or a crop of cowpeas or rye, or a coat of manure applied broadcast. If melons are to be grown as one of the crops in a regular rotation, they should constitute the crop immediately following the leguminous crop designed to add humus and nitrogen to the soil. In regions where winter wheat and clover are grown, a rotation of wheat, clover and melons is highly satisfactory. Another good rotation would be: oats, clover, melons, corn. In regions where clover does not thrive and wheat and oats are not grown, a rotation of corn, cowpeas, and melons may be employed, or the rotation extended by seeding to grass after the melons are harvested. Even with careful attention to rotation and the incorporation of humus by plowing under catch crops or manure, ordinary farm land--including good corn land--is not sufficiently rich to produce a satisfactory crop of melons without the use of fertilizing material in the hills. It is only on garden soil that has been made exceedingly rich by repeated applications of manure, that it is wise to attempt to grow melons without special treatment of the hills. _Manure for the Hills._--The manure for use in the melon hills is ricked up in the fall in long low piles, about eight feet wide and two or three feet deep. The sides of the pile are made as nearly perpendicular as possible and the top is flattened so that rains will soak in instead of running off. Sometimes a layer of dirt about three inches deep is placed on top of the manure to help retain the moisture. Early in the spring, work is commenced on the manure to put it in condition for use. The pile must be cut down and the manure turned and mixed until it is thoroughly decomposed and of fine texture. Formerly this work was done by hand with a fork, and entailed a large amount of labor. Now some of the large growers do all this turning of the manure with a disk and plow. The pile is worked three or four times at intervals of one or two weeks. _Time of Planting._--The melon is a warm season crop, and unless the soil is warm and the weather favorable the seeds will not germinate nor the plants grow. It is therefore usually unwise to plant in advance of the normal season in the hope of securing an early crop. Occasionally, such plantings do well, but usually the stand is poor, necessitating much replanting, and the early plants which do survive are likely to be so badly stunted by reason of the cool weather that they do not mature their crop much in advance of the later plantings which have had the benefit of warm weather from the start. _Preparations for Planting._--Melon ground should be plowed early in the spring, or replowed if it was broken in the fall. After plowing, it should be thoroughly pulverized by the use of a disk or harrow, or both, and then kept in good, friable condition by occasional working until planting time arrives. Shortly before planting is to begin, the field should be furrowed out both ways with a single-shovel plow or a one-horse turning plow. The furrows should be about six inches deep, and as far apart as the hills are to be placed. On some soils melon vines make only a moderate growth and the hills may be planted as close as four feet apart each way; but on rich soil, where they make a stronger growth, they should be at least five by five, and in some cases six by six. After the land is furrowed out the rotted manure is applied at the intersections of the furrows. From a quart to a half-peck of manure is used for each hill, depending upon the quality of the manure and also the quantity available. The manure is dropped into the bottom of the furrow, and either mixed thoroughly with the soil there, and covered with a layer of pure soil in which to plant the seed, or is merely covered with the soil without any mixing. The latter method seems to give fully as good results as the former, especially when a small quantity of manure is used, and is a great saving of labor. In either case, especial care should be taken to compact the soil over the manure so that when the seed is planted it will not suffer from lack of moisture by reason of any vacant air space in or about the mass of manure. Sometimes the manure is covered with soil by merely plowing a furrow on each side of the furrow containing the manure, but unless the soil is in exceedingly fine condition, this method is not as satisfactory as using a hoe and giving each hill individual attention. In making the hill, some planters compact the soil with the hoe, while others use the feet. When ready for planting, the hill should be practically level with the general surface of the field. If too low, the hill will become water-soaked in case of rain and the seeds or plants injured; if too high, there is likely to be insufficient moisture to insure proper germination and growth. _Planting the Seed._--If the hills have been made more than a few minutes before the seed is dropped, the top layer of dry soil should be scraped aside with a hoe so that the seed may be placed in immediate contact with moist soil. The area thus prepared for planting the seed should be at least six inches across, and should be smooth and level. From ten to fifteen seeds should be scattered uniformly over this area, and covered with about half an inch of fine, moist soil. This should be firmed with the back of the hoe and then covered with a sprinkle of loose dirt to serve as a mulch. If a heavy rain packs the top of soil and a crust is formed before the plant appears, it is wise to go over the field and carefully break the crust over each hill by means of a garden rake. The method of preparing the hills and planting the seed described above applies to field rather than garden conditions and to soils of medium rather than excessive fertility. In a market garden where the soil is exceedingly rich as a result of repeated manuring for onions or cabbage, and is in fine tilth, it is a common practice to sow the melon seed in drills six to eight feet apart, by means of a garden seed drill. This is done without any special preparation of the soil where the plants are to stand, or application of fertilizing material other than manure applied broadcast before plowing. _Thinning._--While ten to fifteen seeds are planted per hill for the sake of insuring a full stand, only two, or at most three, plants are left to make the crop. Thinning is usually deferred until the plants have become fully established, and the struggle against the striped beetle is nearly over. However, the plants must be thinned before they begin to crowd badly, or those which are to remain will be stunted in growth. Usually the thinning is completed by the time the plants have four rough leaves. If the seed has been well scattered in planting, so that each plant stands apart by itself, the superfluous plants may be pulled with the fingers, but extreme care must be taken to avoid disturbing the roots of the remaining plants. Sometimes the plants are cut off with a knife or shears, instead of being pulled, and thus all danger of disturbing the roots is avoided. If the seeds have been sown with a drill as in market gardening practice, the plants are usually thinned to one in a place at distances of two to two and one-half feet in the row. _Transplanting._--Since it is impossible to increase the earliness of the crop to any great extent by early planting in the field, growers have adopted the transplanting method. This makes it possible to plant the seed three or four weeks earlier than would otherwise be feasible, and to grow the plants under controlled conditions of temperature and moisture during their most critical period. It also simplifies the matter of protection from striped beetles. The main objections to this method are the expense for sash, and the difficulties attending the transplanting. A melon plant will not survive transplanting if the root system is disturbed. For this reason the seed is sown on inverted sod, in pots or in dirt bands. The dirt bands are used almost exclusively by commercial growers. These are thin strips of wood veneer, three inches wide and eighteen inches long, scored at intervals of four inches so that they can be bent without breaking. When folded ready for use, each band resembles a small strawberry box without the bottom. These bands are placed close together in a hotbed and filled level full with fine, rich soil. With a block of wood shaped for the purpose, the soil within the bands is pressed until it is 1/2 to 3/4 inch below the top of the band. If only part of the dirt is put in at first, and is pressed down firmly, then the rest of the dirt put on and pressed, the soil in the band will be more compact throughout and will hold together better in the transplanting than if the dirt were pressed only once. Unless the soil used was very moist, the bed is then thoroughly watered. Next, three seeds are placed in each band. These are covered with fine, loose soil deep enough to fill the band. This soil is not firmed. The hotbed for melon plants should have full exposure to light and be maintained at a high temperature--about 85 degrees F. during the day and 65 to 70 degrees at night. As much ventilation should be given as the weather will permit, and care exercised to avoid overwatering. As soon as the plants are well started, they are thinned to two in a band by cutting off the extra plant with a sharp knife. When the plants are about four weeks old from the planting of seed they will be in the right condition for transplanting to the field. They are then compact, stocky plants with about four rough leaves. If allowed to remain longer in the bed they begin to stretch for light and are of little value for planting, for the long naked stems, unable to support themselves and unaccustomed to direct sunlight, would easily be sun-burned, and the plants seriously checked if not killed outright. _Cultivation._--Whether the melons are transplanted from a hotbed or grown from seed planted in the field, the tillage of the crop should begin as soon as the plants can be seen. In the case of transplanted plants, this will be the same day that they are set in the field. The early tillage should be deep, and as close to the plant as it is feasible to run the cultivator. The object of this deep tillage is to establish a deep root system so that the plants will not suffer so severely from dry weather later in the season. In the case of a field planted crop it is not feasible to cultivate so close to the plants early in the season because of the danger of tearing out the little plants. For this deep tillage a one-horse five-shovel cultivator, often weighted with a rock, is the tool most commonly used. It is customary to follow this with a "boat" or a 14-tooth cultivator to more fully pulverize the soil. Tillage is usually given after each rain or at least once each week so that the soil is maintained in a loose friable condition. In addition to the cultivation with a horse, much hand hoeing is required close about the plants. Any crust forming after a rain, is broken, and fresh, moist soil drawn up about the plant. Crab grass and weeds appearing in the hill are removed by hand. Most growers cease tillage and lay-by the crop as soon as the vines have run enough to interfere with the cultivator. The experience of a few growers who have turned the vines and kept them in windows so that tillage could be continued until the picking season opened, indicates that a departure from the old method is likely to insure better development of the melons and a longer picking season, though the first fruits may not ripen so early. There is another distinct advantage in this turning of the vines, in that the gathering of the crop is greatly facilitated and there is no injury to the vines from tramping. _Seed._--No matter what variety of melon is grown, it is extremely important that pure seed be planted if good melons are to be produced. The melon deteriorates very rapidly under careless methods of seed selection. None but the very choicest specimens of the desired type, from productive vines, should be selected for seed. It is unsafe to cut seed from a field in which more than one variety of melon is grown; for seed from such a field would likely be very badly mixed, and the product undesirable for market. If a grower has sale for all his good melons, it may be cheaper for him to purchase his seed than to save it. But here again there is danger of procuring inferior seed, for much of the melon seed on the market is cut without careful selection, in order to meet the demand for cheap seed. Even cull melons are used to supply this demand. Such seed is expensive at any price. The difference in the cost of good seed and poor seed is insignificant when compared with the advantages to be derived from the use of seed which can be depended upon to produce melons of a given type. _Picking._--There is considerable difference of opinion as to the exact stage of maturity at which melons should be picked for shipment. If allowed to become too ripe before picking, they become soft by the time they reach the market, and often must be sacrificed in order to effect an immediate sale. If picked too green, the melons reach market in firm condition, but are lacking in flavor, and are not desired by the best trade. It is a nice point to pick melons at such a degree of ripeness that they will reach the market in firm condition, and yet possess the requisite flavor. The farther from market the melons are produced, the less mature they must be when picked. Furthermore, the rapidity of softening after picking varies with the temperature to which the melons are subjected. The cooler they can be kept after picking, the longer they can be allowed to remain on the vines and the better flavor they will have. It is, therefore, essential that the melons be placed in the shade as soon as possible after picking, and be kept shaded until they are loaded into the car. For the same reason, riper melons can be shipped under the refrigeration than in ventilated cars. It is also true that melons shipped during excessively hot weather, unless under refrigeration, will soften more rapidly than those shipped during cooler weather. The condition of the vines and the rapidity of ripening of the melons in the field will also have a bearing upon the stage of maturity at which they should be picked. Early in the shipping season, when the vines are in full vigor and the melons ripening slowly, the fruits may safely be left upon the vines until more mature than would be safe later in the season when the plants have become somewhat weakened, or, by reason of excessive heat, the melons are ripening very rapidly. Melons should not be picked at the same degree of maturity under different conditions of ripening, methods of transportation, and distances from market. While it is true that no rule can be given for picking melons that will apply under all conditions, and that the grower must exercise judgment in reference to each day's picking, the ideal will be attained when the conditions are such that the melons will reach the market in the best condition if picked as soon as the fruit will part readily from the stem when the latter is pressed with the thumb or finger. There is a tendency among some growers to pick considerably before this point has been reached, in order to run no risk of the melons becoming soft in transit. In fact, some growers make a practice of picking the melons before a crack appears about the stem or any change of color takes place, even on the under side of the fruit. _Market Demands._--While various types of muskmelon may be disposed of upon a local market, there are certain types which are recognized as standards in the large city markets; and it is seldom wise to attempt to force upon a general market a variety not recognized as a standard in that particular market. In the Chicago market the sorts most in demand are the Netted Gem, or Rocky Ford type, and the Osage.--(Ill. E. S. 124, 139; F. B. 255; S. Dak. E. S. 67; N. Hamp. E. S. 70, 96; N. Y. E. S. 200; N. Mex. E. S. 63.) MELON--WATERMELON. The cultivation of the watermelon is practically the same as for the muskmelon, except that the plants grow larger and require more room for development than those of the muskmelon. Watermelons require that the soil should contain a larger percentage of sand than muskmelons, and that the land should be quite rich. Watermelons should be planted 10 feet each way between the hills, or in drills 10 feet apart and thinned to 3 feet apart in the drills. The watermelon seedlings must be protected from the cucumber beetle until the foliage becomes toughened. Watermelons readily group themselves into six classes based upon the color or characteristics of the skin or external appearance. It does not necessarily follow that in the proposed classification the fruit of each variety will all be of the same form to which it is referred; for, as every melon grower knows, the fruits in each hill vary more or less; but if everything is normal and favorable for their development the characteristic form or that typifying the variety will predominate. The larger the experience of the grower, the easier it is for him to understand these various types. In order to get the true type of each variety, it is important that the seeds be secured directly from the seedsman who first introduced them thus avoiding complications or errors.--(F. B. 255; N. H. E. S. 86; Ind. E. S. 123; N. Mex. E. S. 63; S. Dak. E. S. 67.) I. Light Green { Sweet Heart Type Class { (oval shape) { ---- ---- { (medium shape) { Monarch Type, { (Long shape) II. Medium Green { Icing Type, Class { (oval shape) { ---- ---- { (medium shape) { Jackson Type, { (long shape) III. Dark Green { Black Spanish Type Class { (oval shape) { ---- ---- { (medium shape) { Boss Type, { (long shape) IV. Light Striped { Kolb's Gem Type, Class { (oval shape) { Cuban Queen Type, { (medium shape) { Rattlesnake Type, { (long shape) V. Dull Striped { Pride of Georgia Type, Class { (oval shape) { Christmas Type, { (medium shape) { Favorite Type, { (long shape) VI. Mottled Green { Nabob Type, Class { (oval shape) { Phinney Type, { (medium long shape) MUSTARD. Almost any good soil will produce a crop of mustard. The basal leaves of mustard are used for greens, and as the plants require but a short time to reach the proper stage for use frequent sowings should be made. Sow the seeds thickly in drills as early as possible in the spring, or for late use sow the seeds in September or October. The forms of white mustard, of which the leaves are often curled and frilled, are generally used. Mustard greens are cooked like spinach.--(F. B. 255; Mich. E. S. 20; La. E. S. 90.) NASTURTIUM. The hardiness and unsurpassed beauty of this plant should make it a favorite near every home. The seed pods just before beginning to ripen make a delicious flavoring for pickles.--(Mich. E. S. 20; S. Dak. E. S. 68.) NEW ZEALAND SPINACH. The plant known as New Zealand spinach is not a true spinach, but grows much larger and should be planted in rows 3 feet apart, with the plants 12 to 18 inches apart in the row. Some difficulty may be experienced in getting the seeds to germinate, and they should be soaked one or two hours in hot water before planting. New Zealand spinach is satisfactory for growing in warm climates, as it withstands heat better than the ordinary spinach. The fleshy leaves and tender stems are cooked the same as spinach. OKRA (_Gumbo_). This plant may be grown throughout the greater portion of the United States, but only one crop can be produced during a season in the northern part of the country. In the region around New Orleans successive plantings are made and a constant supply is maintained. The plant is of a tropical nature and will not endure frost, but the pods begin to be produced very soon after the plants start into rapid growth and continue to form for several weeks, especially if all pods are removed while young and no seeds allowed to ripen upon the plants. _Soil and Its Preparation._--The soil upon which okra can be most successfully grown is a rich mellow loam, plowed rather deeply and well worked over with pulverizing tools. After the seedlings become established and the roots get a firm hold of the soil, the growth is very rapid and a large amount of available plant food, especially of a nitrogenous nature, is required. Quick-acting commercial fertilizers may be applied in moderate quantities, but these should be well mixed with the soil. The same conditions that will produce good cotton or corn will be found suitable for the production of okra. _Planting the Seed._--Throughout the Northern States planting should be done as early as possible in spring, or as soon as the soil is warm enough for the planting of general garden seeds. In the Southern States, where a continuous supply is desired, successive seedings of four or five weeks apart should be made. Plant in rows 3-1/2 feet apart for the dwarf types, and 4-1/2 feet for the larger-growing varieties. Scatter the seeds in drills, or plant loosely in hills, as with corn, and cover to a depth of 1 or 2 inches, according to the compactness and moisture content of the soil. The seeds may be planted with any good seed drill, but when placed in hills they should be separated 3 or 4 inches to allow space for the development of the stems. If the soil is reasonably warm, germination will take place within a few days, but should there be a heavy rainfall in the mean time the soil should be lightly cultivated between the rows and the crust broken over the seed by means of an iron rake. _Cultivation._--As soon as the plants are well established they may be thinned to three or four in a hill, or, if grown in drills, to 12 or 14 inches for the dwarf and 18 to 24 inches for the larger growing varieties. Where vacant places occur from failure in germination they may be filled in by transplanting. Cultivate as in the case of corn or cotton, keeping the ground well stirred and the surface soil loose, especially while the plants are small. After the leaves begin to shade the ground, very little cultivation is necessary except to keep the land free from weeds. A poor soil and insufficient moisture will yield pods of inferior size and quality, and irrigation may often be desirable in order to produce a marketable crop. Okra is sometimes grown as a mixed crop with cotton, the okra being removed before the cotton begins to mature; but this practice is not to be recommended, as both crops draw heavily upon the nitrogenous matter of the soil. The okra plants will usually continue to grow until late in the season, but after a time the pods are not so large or tender as those produced earlier in the season. As the pod is the only part of the plant ordinarily used for food, it is desirable to secure a rapid and continuous growth in order to produce the greatest quantity of marketable pods. _Gathering and Marketing._--As soon as the plants begin to set fruit the pods should be gathered each day, preferably in the evening. The flower opens during the night or early morning and fades after a few hours. The pollen must be transferred during the early morning, and the pod thus formed will usually be ready for gathering during the latter part of the following day, although the time required to produce a marketable pod varies according to the age of the plant and the conditions under which it is grown. The pods should always be gathered, irrespective of size, while they are still soft and before the seeds are half grown.--(F. B. 232.) _Cultivation for Seed._--If okra is to be grown for seed alone, only one variety should be planted, or if more than one variety is grown each should be separated from the other by at least one-fourth mile to prevent mixing. When several varieties of okra are grown near each other no seed should be saved except that produced by the method of bagging and hand pollination. To secure seed in this way is a rather simple matter when only a small quantity is required, as the pods formed on a single day when the plants are at their best will produce enough seed. The bags should be tied over the flower buds in the evening and the pollen transferred early the following day. Replace the bags immediately, as an insect or the wind may at any moment bring to the flower the pollen of another variety. After going over all the flowers of a variety it is well to return to the first three or four and repollinate them in order that they may receive pollen from different individual flowers of the same variety and to insure perfect fertilization. Before beginning upon another variety the brush used for transferring the pollen should be thoroughly cleaned. If a brush is not available, use a portion of a young leaf, folded together between the thumb and finger, to convey the pollen. This improvised brush should be discarded and a new one adopted for each variety. The bags need remain only during the day on which the pollen is transferred and may be replaced by a tag to mark the pod. The seed should remain on the plant until fully ripe. The common bumblebee is a frequent visitor to the flowers of the okra, and a single bee was on one morning observed to pollinate over 500 flowers, comprising more than 50 separate samples. In this instance practically every flower in the field was visited and pollinated, although no pollen had previously been transferred. This observation demonstrated the necessity of great care to prevent cross-pollination. Our variety tests with okra have shown that seed growers have not always succeeded in keeping the varieties separate, and as a result there has been a gradual blending together of all the sorts. In many of the samples all the sorts usually grown are represented. _Uses._--The principal use of okra is in soups and various culinary preparations in which meats form an important factor, as in the so-called gumbo soups, to which the young pods impart an excellent flavor, besides giving a pleasant mucilaginous consistency. The young seeds are occasionally cooked in the same way as green peas, and the very young and tender pods are boiled and served as a salad with French dressing. Both the stem and the mature pod contain a fibre which is employed in the manufacture of paper. No copper, brass, or iron cooking vessels should be employed in preparing okra, as the metal will be absorbed and the pods discolored or even rendered poisonous. The cooking should be done in agate, porcelain, or earthen ware.--(F. B. 232.) _Varieties._--There are three general types of okra, viz., tall green, dwarf green, and lady finger. Each of these is again divided according to the length and color of the pods, making in all six classes or varieties, namely, tall green, long pod; tall green, short pod; dwarf green, long pod; dwarf green, short pod; lady finger, white pod; and lady finger, green pod. All variations from these are merely the results of mixtures, no true crosses or hybrids being formed. These mixtures are easily separated and referred to the parent type, and a little attention to roguing and selection is necessary in order to keep the varieties pure. It is essential that the parietal strain should be pure in order that a uniform and marketable lot of pods may be produced.--(F. B. 232, 255; U. Id. E. S. 10.) ONIONS. The onion is exceptional in that it will thrive under a very wide range of climatic and soil conditions. There is perhaps no extended area in the United States, except the mountainous regions, where the onion can not be successfully grown. For best results a temperate climate without great extremes of heat and cold should be selected. Onion culture is rarely profitable in regions where the climate does not change or has no definite seasons of heat and cold or wet and dry. Naturally the onion does best under rather cool conditions, with plenty of moisture during its early stages, but requires a reasonable degree of heat, together with dryness of both soil and atmosphere, for its proper ripening. _Soils._--The essential requirements of a soil upon which to grow onions profitably are a high state of fertility, good mechanical condition in order that the crop may be easily worked, sufficient drainage, and freedom from weeds. If a soil has the proper mechanical properties--that is, if it contains sufficient sand and humus to be easily worked, is retentive of moisture and fertilizers, and is capable of drainage--all other requirements can be met. As a general rule new land is not adapted to onion growing until it has been worked one or two years with other crops. Onions should follow some crop that has been kept under the hoe and free from weeds the previous season. Corn, beans, and potatoes are suitable crops with which to precede onions. Muck and sandy soils may in some cases be brought to a suitable condition for onions the first season, but the fitting will have to be very thoroughly performed. The land should be plowed in the autumn, then replowed in the spring, after which numerous harrowings and doubtless some hand work will be required to get the soil in suitable shape. If necessary to manure the land heavily before planting to onions, it will be desirable to plant to some farm crop one season, then apply the manure during the autumn in order to give it time to become incorporated with the soil. Owing to the value of good onion land it would not be advisable to devote it to general farm crops for any extended period, although corn is frequently planted and oats or rye are sometimes used in the North. Cowpeas may be of great service in bringing new land into shape for planting to onions. _Preparation of the Soil._--Assuming that the land intended for planting to onions is capable of being brought to a good mechanical condition, fertile, well drained, and reasonably free from weed seeds, the first step in the production of the crop will be to plow moderately deep, then harrow, disk, roll, and drag until the soil is smooth and mellow to a depth of 4 or 5 inches. On soils that are naturally well drained and where surface water can not accumulate, the plowing may be done in large blocks, but where the opposite conditions are found or irrigation is practiced it may be necessary to plow the land in narrow beds. In the case of insufficient drainage it will be desirable to throw the soil together into beds, leaving a double furrow between each bed to carry off surplus water. Where the flooding system of irrigation is practiced the beds must be leveled and a system of ditches and ridges provided for distributing and controlling the water. _Crop Rotation._--Onions should not be planted on the same piece of land year after year, and some system of crop rotation should be maintained. Care should be taken, however, to use crops in the rotation that will not be exhaustive of the high fertility necessary in the onion land. During the years when the land is not devoted to onions it can be planted to some truck crop that will give a return that will justify the application of large quantities of fertilizers, or, better to a leguminous crop to be turned under as green manure. Continuous cropping with onions will cause the land to become infested with both disease and insect enemies that will sooner or later injure the crop to such an extent as to render it unprofitable. _Fertilizers._--As the onion is an intensive crop and yields great quantities of marketable bulbs for the area planted, the grower is justified in manuring heavily. It would be difficult indeed to make the soil too rich for onions, provided the manures are thoroughly incorporated with the soil. A heavy application of fresh raw manure just before planting would have an injurious effect, but where the manure is well rotted and uniformly applied there is nothing to be feared. _Animal Manures._--There is perhaps no fertilizer so well adapted to the production of onions as plenty of clean, well-composted stable manure, and the quantity and frequency of application will depend upon the nature of the land under cultivation. All stable manure used on onion land should be well composted before use and then spread upon the land several months before planting to onions. In the Northern States the manure may be applied during the autumn and well disked into the soil. The land can then be allowed to lie in the rough state and exposed to the action of frost during the winter, or it can be smoothed and seeded to rye, in which case it will be necessary to replow during the early springtime. Large quantities of fresh manure applied to onion land just before planting will have a tendency to produce an overgrowth of tops at the expense of the bulbs. This is especially true on irrigated lands and soils that are naturally moist. _Commercial Fertilizers._--Where there is an abundance of humus matter in the soil the onion crop will be greatly benefited by moderate applications of high-grade commercial fertilizers. Many growers follow the practice of applying only a part of the fertilizer at planting time, reserving the balance to be put on as a top-dressing at some time during the period of cultivation. This plan is especially desirable where onions are grown during the winter, as the application of highly nitrogenous fertilizers in the autumn is liable to promote a soft growth that will be injured by cold. If the fertilizer is not put on until cold weather is over, the crop may be forced without danger of injury. For this purpose only those fertilizers of a very available form will answer. _Planting and Thinning._--Experienced growers are frequently able by using extreme care in regulating the drills to distribute onion seed in rows where the crop is to mature so that little thinning will be necessary. Thinning is generally left until the time of the first hand weeding, when all thick bunches along the rows are thinned to a uniform stand of eight or ten plants to the foot. It is always well, however, to allow for considerable loss of plants, and unless the plants are so thick as to actually crowd, thinning will not be necessary. _Transplanting._--The transplanting process, often spoken of as the "new onion culture," is merely a modification of the regular seeding method. The objects gained by transplanting are an earlier crop, a uniform stand, and bulbs of more regular size. Where a small area is to be grown, the transplanting process is the ideal method, but for large acreages and where labor is difficult to obtain, this would not be practical. After transplanting, the seedlings will require rain or watering in order that they may start, and for this reason the transplanting process is practically limited to areas where some form of irrigation is available. In growing onions by the transplanting method the seed is sown in greenhouses, hotbeds, cold frames, or specially prepared beds at the rate of 3-1/2 or 4 pounds for each acre to be planted. When the seedlings are grown under cover, they are given the necessary attention regarding watering and ventilation and kept growing quite rapidly until near the time for setting them in the open ground. As planting time approaches, the seedlings are "hardened" or prepared for transplanting by increased ventilation and exposure and by withholding water. When ready to transplant, the seedlings should be somewhat smaller than a lead pencil and rather stocky. The plants are lifted from the seed bed and the roots and tops both trimmed somewhat. _Methods of Tillage._--The cultural requirements of the onion are frequent shallow stirring of the soil and freedom from weeds. The feeding roots of the onion run close to the surface of the soil and should not be disturbed by deep cultivation. Sometimes a heavy rain immediately after seeding will so pack the surface that the seedlings can not break through. Under such circumstances it will be necessary to slightly break the surface by means of a steel rake or a rake-like attachment on a cultivator. As soon as the plants are up and the rows can be followed the cultivator should be started to loosen the soil, which is always more or less compacted during seeding. It is well-nigh impossible to produce a crop of onions without some hand weeding. During favorable seasons the strictly hand work may be reduced to but one or two weedings, but a greater number will be necessary during rainy seasons. The work of hand weeding may be facilitated by the use of some of the small hand tools designed for the purpose. Among these tools might be mentioned the onion hoe, the hand weeder, and the thinning or weeding hook. _Irrigation._--Outside of the areas where irrigation methods are depended upon for the production of general crops it is not customary to use artificial watering in the growing of onions. _Harvesting._--In the North the bulbs are allowed to become as ripe as possible before removing them from the soil. Growers prefer that the tops ripen down and shrivel and that the outer skin of the bulbs be dry before they are pulled. To the southward, where the onions are not cured so thoroughly, they are often pulled about the time that the tops begin to break and fall. The ripening process may often be hastened by rolling a very light roller or a barrel over the tops to break them down. This process is frequently spoken of as "barreling." Where the bulbs are practically upon the surface they may be pulled by hand and thrown in windrows consisting of eight or ten onion rows. If the onion bulbs are considerably covered with soil it will be necessary to employ a one-horse plow or a cultivator with a sweep attached for lifting them. In any case it will be necessary to gather them from the soil by hand. After lying in the windrows for several days and being stirred occasionally with wooden rakes they are gone over and the tops removed either by twisting or cutting with ordinary sheep shears. In cases where very bright color is important as with fancy White Globe onions, and this would be injured by exposure to the sun and rain, the bulbs are cured in long, narrow, low ricks formed by two rows of onions laid with the bulbs regularly to the center, tops to the outside, the rows a few inches apart at the bottom of the rick but coming together at the top, and the top of the rick covered by straw or boards to shed the rain. As the tops are removed the bulbs are generally placed in crates for drying. In some sections onion-topping machines are employed, the bulbs being hauled from the field to a central location and run through the topper. These machines remove the tops, grade the bulbs, and deliver them into the crates or bags. If crates are not employed for curing, the bulbs are allowed to lie in the windrows for some time, and are then either put into sacks or hauled to slat cribs, where they complete the curing process. Too long exposure to hot sunshine will injure the bulbs. Where the bulbs are extremely dry at the time of their removal from the soil, they may be allowed to lie in the windrows for a few days only, and then sorted and cleaned in the field ready for packing and marketing. _Storage._--In order that onions should keep well when stored they must be well ripened and thoroughly cured. Those that are immature, soft, or "thick necks" should never be placed in storage but sold as soon as gathered for whatever price they will bring. Good storage onions will rattle almost like blocks of wood when poured from one crate to another. In order that the bulbs may remain bright and of attractive appearance they should not be allowed to lie exposed to the weather, but should be hauled and stored in open sheds just as soon as they may safely be placed in one-bushel crates. After the bulbs have remained in drying sheds or cribs for several weeks they will be ready for screening and removal to the storehouse. In handling onions it is the rule to pass them over a screen each time they are moved, as in this way the loose skins are removed and any soft or decaying bulbs may be sorted out. The essentials for the successful storage of onions are plenty of ventilation, storing in small quantities, a comparatively low temperature, dryness, and safety from actual freezing. Any building wherein the above conditions may be secured will answer. _Marketing._--Large quantities of onions are sold and shipped direct from the fields where they are grown. A part of the crop is held in temporary storage until late autumn or early winter. During recent years the winter storage of onions has become of great importance and the finest stock is held for late winter deliveries. The Bermuda crop from the southwestern part of the country comes upon the market during April and May, so that most of the storage onions are disposed of before that time. In marketing onions the first essential is to properly grade and clean the bulbs, in order that they may present an attractive appearance when offered for sale. Ordinarily the bulbs are separated into three grades--primes, seconds, and picklers. The primes include all those of 1-1/4 inches, in diameter and larger, and the seconds consist of those from 3/4 inch to 1-1/4 inches in diameter, while all those that will pass through a 3/4-inch screen are sold for pickling purposes. The grading is generally done in the field during the cleaning process, but as onions shrink considerably while in storage it is necessary to regrade before placing upon the market. _Weight of Onions._--The legal weight of onions per bushel varies somewhat in different States, but 56 pounds of dry onions are generally considered a standard bushel. _Important Commercial Varieties._--The varieties of onions that have distinctively yellow, white, and red skins and are of the globular type are of greatest commercial importance. Among the varieties that belong to the yellow globe class are the Prizetaker, Yellow Danvers, Yellow Globe, Danvers, Southport Yellow Globe, and Ohio Yellow Globe. The principal white varieties are Southport White Globe, New Queen, Italian Tripoli, Silver Skin, and White Silver King. Among the more important red sorts are Red Globe, Red Wethersfield, and Australian Brown. The principal Bermuda varieties are Red Bermuda, White Bermuda and Crystal Wax. The Bermuda onions are all of the more or less flat type. The red coloration of the Bermuda onion is not distinctive like that of the Red Wethersfield or Red Globe varieties, but is lighter in color. The famous Denia onion is somewhat of the Prizetaker type, is light yellow in color, grows to a large size, and is mild in flavor. In the selection of varieties for any particular locality the soil conditions and market requirements should both be considered. Those adapted to the muck soils are the yellow and red sorts. For alluvial and prairie soils the red and brown varieties are to be preferred, while all kinds do well on the sandy loams and light soils. A cleaner, better grade of white onions can generally be produced on light or sandy soils than on muck or clay loams. Those of the Bermuda, Spanish, and Egyptian types flourish on the deep, rich alluvial soils of the river bottoms and delta regions. Certain of our markets show a decided preference for onions belonging to a particular type. The red and brown varieties find ready sale on the markets of the Middle West, while onions of the yellow and white varieties are preferred in the eastern cities. Onions will withstand long-distance shipment, those of the Red Globe type being generally more subject to injury than the yellow and brown sorts. Some of the white varieties also have a thin skin and are easily injured. It should be the aim of every grower to employ varieties that will withstand handling and at the same time find ready sale on the market. Other types of onions are top onions, multipliers, garlic, and leeks, which are planted to some extent for marketing purposes. _Bermuda Onions._--The production of Bermuda onions in the United States is a comparatively new industry and has thus far been undertaken mainly in Texas and California. Soils of a silty or alluvial nature are suited to the production of Bermuda onions, and those containing considerable sand are most desirable. The Bermuda requires a very rich soil for the best results, and this can only be obtained by first selecting a good soil and then manuring heavily. The Bermuda onion as grown in this country is a winter crop; therefore, mild climatic conditions are required. While the plants would withstand considerable freezing, their growth is seriously checked by cold weather, and the crop will not mature in time for the early market if grown to the northward. The cultural methods employed in the growing of Bermuda onions are essentially the same as those for ordinary onions. As the greater portion of the crop is grown in a region which has no regular rainfall, irrigation methods are employed almost universally. The greater part of the crop is grown by the transplanting process and a great amount of hand labor is required. Bermuda onions are harvested as early as possible, generally before the tops have become fully ripened. Phenomenal yields of 34,000 and 35,000 pounds of Bermuda onions are frequently made on an acre of land, but this is far above the general average, which is in the neighborhood of 10,000 or 12,000 pounds to the acre. Many fields, especially when planted for the first time, do not yield as much as 10,000 pounds to the acre. On land that has been heavily manured and planted to onions for several years the yield averages about 16,000 pounds. The best Bermuda-onion farms are valued at $300 to $500 an acre. In order to prove profitable, the growing of Bermuda onions should be conducted on a comparatively large scale. The necessary land and irrigation facilities will require the initial outlay of from $10,000 to $30,000, and the running expenses are quite heavy. Labor can be secured at a low price, but is correspondingly inefficient and often not to be had in sufficient quantities. Furthermore, the markets are now pretty well supplied with Bermuda onions, and persons who desire to engage in their production are advised to investigate every phase of the industry before embarking too heavily in it. The expansion of the Bermuda-onion industry is limited by the facts that a large supply of bulbs can be grown on a comparatively small area, that the distance to market is great, that the product is perishable, and that the markets will consume only a limited quantity at the prices at which the crop can be sold with profit. _Green Onions for Bunching._--Another phase of onion culture that is of considerable importance in certain localities is the production of young bunching onions for the early spring trade. In several sections along the South Atlantic coast the growing of this class of onions is quite an enterprise. Many persons who are engaged in other lines of work follow the practice of growing a small area of bunching onions as a side issue. The varieties known as multipliers and top onions are generally employed for this purpose; however, bunching onions are sometimes grown from ordinary sets, from inferior and damaged large onions, and from seed. The multipliers and top onions are the only kinds adapted for this work on a large scale. For growing bunching onions the bulbs or sets are planted during the autumn either in beds or in rows 12 or 14 inches apart with the bulbs quite close in the rows. The bulbs will start growing within a short time and make more or less growth during the winter. As soon as the weather becomes warm during the first months of spring the onions make a rapid growth and are ready for marketing about the time peach trees begin to bloom. In marketing this class of onions the young shoots are pulled, the roots trimmed, and the outside peeled off, leaving the stem white and clean. The onions are then tied in small bunches by means of a soft white string, the tops trimmed slightly, and the bunches packed in crates or baskets for shipment or sale on the local market. This phase of the onion industry is limited to small plantings and is well suited to the needs of the general market garden. During the springtime and early summer large quantities of ordinary young onions are pulled when the bulb is about the size of a fifty-cent piece, the roots and tops are trimmed, and they are then bunched and sold for stewing purposes. So far as known, this class of onions is not shipped to any great extent, but is sold mainly on local markets. _Home Production of Onion Seed._--The bulbs, or "mother bulbs," as they are commonly called, for the production of onion seed should be grown in the same manner as those intended for marketing, except that more care should be taken throughout. Some seed growers prefer to use 6 pounds of seed to an acre for the production of seed bulbs instead of 4 pounds, as ordinarily used in growing for market, in order that the bulbs may crowd and not become too large. The planting, culture, and harvesting of the bulbs are practically the same as for first-class marketable stock. Onion-seed growing is a two-year process and two crops are constantly to be cared for. After growing the bulbs the first summer they must be stored over winter and replanted the following spring for the production of seed. Meantime the crop for the next year's planting must be coming on in order to have a crop of seed every year. The first requisite for the growing of the best seed is a clear-cut ideal of the exact shape, form, color, and general characteristics sought in the variety being grown. The second requisite is the growing of seed from bulbs of that exact type for the greatest possible number of generations. Two selections should be made, the first to include but a small number of the very finest and most ideal bulbs from which to produce the stock seed to be used the following year for the growing of the seed bulbs, and the second to include the bulbs from which to grow the supply of seed for the market. By keeping the very best stock separate and using the product for propagation the entire strain will be gradually improved. Bulbs a trifle below the ideal market size, or about 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, are the most profitable for seed production. Bulbs that are to be used for seed productions should be allowed to become thoroughly ripe in the field. After pulling they should be stored in crates under a roof where they will have plenty of ventilation and be protected from sun and rain. Before freezing weather begins the onions should be graded and removed to a house where both ventilation and temperature can be controlled. The temperature of the storage house should at no time be so low as to cause the bulbs to become frosted. A temperature of 32° F. for a short period will do no harm, but should not be allowed to continue. If the bulbs become frosted, heated, or sweated in storage they will sprout before planting time and be greatly injured for seed purposes. In general, the storage conditions should be the same as for marketable onions. The proper time to gather the seed is when the inside of the grain has reached the dough stage. Onion seed assumes its black color very early; in fact, before it has passed the watery stage and formed milk in the grain. This change of color is no indication of ripeness and very often deceives the inexperienced grower. The heads should be harvested just before the first-formed seed begins to shatter in handling. _Curing the Seed Heads._--Any building having a tight floor and in which a free circulation of air can be maintained will serve as a curing place for onion seed. In localities where rains do not occur during the curing period the seed heads are frequently dried on sheets of canvas stretched over frames or spread upon the ground. For curing the seed in houses, wire-bottomed racks or trays placed one above the other are generally employed. As the seed is stirred from time to time during the curing process considerable of it will be shattered and fall upon the tray below or finally upon the floor. The main essentials in the curing of onion seed are to spread the heads very thinly, not over two heads in depth, and to give free ventilation. Even at a depth of 3 inches in the trays it will be necessary to stir them very often, especially during damp weather. _Thrashing and Cleaning the Seed._--The date for gathering the seed depends upon the locality and climate, but as a rule this will be about midsummer. The thrashing and cleaning of the seed are often deferred until quite late in the autumn, except where the curing is done in the open air. Where large quantities of seed are produced the thrashing is done with machines similar to regular grain thrashers, but when grown on a small scale the seed is removed by beating with a flail. After the seed has been thrashed, there is still considerable danger of its heating or molding if left in too great bulk. The usual practice is to run it through a fanning mill to remove the dust and small particles of the heads or chaff that are broken up in thrashing. In former years the method of cleaning was to place the seed in a tank of water the heavy seed settling to the bottom of the tank while the chaff and lighter portions could be floated off. This process is no longer used to any great extent, owing to the improvement in cleaning machinery, and the danger of injuring the seed by the water. After the seed is fanned and most of the foreign matter removed, it should be spread thinly on the floor or canvas and stirred from time to time. About the only test that can be applied in order to detect moisture in the seed is that of feeling it with the hand, and anyone experienced in the handling of seed will soon become expert at determining when it is safe to bag it ready for storage or shipment. _Production of Seed for Onion-Set Growing._--Frequently the seed for onion-set growing is produced from bulbs selected from the sets themselves; in other words, the bulbs or mother bulbs are the overgrown sets. Owing to the great quantity of seed employed in set growing it is desirable to secure it cheaply, and the bulbs selected from the sets, being small, will produce a larger quantity of seed per bushel from mother bulbs than when grown in the usual manner. The stock seed bulbs should, however, be well matured, small necked, uniform in size, and selected according to an ideal shape. Onion seed from undersized bulbs is not so desirable, even for set growing, as that from standard bulbs. The length of time that onion seed will retain its vitality depends largely upon maturity and climatic conditions. Well-matured seed will always keep better than poorly ripened and inferior seed. Under ordinary conditions onion seed loses its vitality very rapidly after the second year, especially if stored in a damp climate. It will often pay to ship the seed to a dry climate for storage. _Production of Onion Sets._--The term "set," as applied to the onion, indicates a small, undersized bulb which, when replanted in the ground, will produce a large onion. This method of producing onions is perhaps the oldest and now the most universally employed for the growing of small areas of onions in the garden where an early crop is desired. The common method of producing sets is to plant a large quantity of seed on a small area of rather rich land and thus procure a great number of bulbs that are undersized, owing to crowding and lack of plant food. The greater number of these bulbs do not attain sufficient size or maturity to produce seed the following season and are really plants in which the process of growth has been arrested. The climatic conditions governing the production of onion sets are practically the same as those for standard onions, although it is not necessary to plant quite so early in the spring. As the essential feature of growing onion sets is the crowding together of the plants in the rows, a large quantity of seed is required to plant an acre. The quantity of seed required varies with the different localities. The ideal onion set is almost globular in shape and a trifle less than half an inch in diameter. The color should be bright and the surface free from smut or spots. The term "pickler" is applied to the onion just above sets in size, or, in other words, one-half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. The term "boiler," or "stewer," is applied to the size next larger than picklers, which are too small for sale as standard onions, or from three-fourths of an inch to 1-1/4 inches in diameter. _Varieties Used for Sets._--Seed of almost any variety of onion may be used for the production of sets, but a greater demand exists for the distinctly yellow, white, and red colors. In the trade the sets are recognized by their color rather than by actual varietal names. The demand for the yellow and the white sets is greater than for the red, and those of the globular type are generally preferred. Onion sets are sometimes grown from left-over seed, in which case a large number of varieties may be included. In the principal set-growing districts, where the seed has been locally grown for many years, the varieties are more or less distinct from those of seedsmen's catalogues.--(F. B. 255, 354, 434; Ariz. E. S. Cir. 75; Colo. E. S. 81, Cir. 5; N. Mex. E. S. 52, 74; Oreg. E. S. 74; N. Y. E. S. 206; U. Id. E. S. 22; N. Dak. E. S. 12; S. Dak. 47; Mich. E. S. 6; Kans. E. S. 70.) PARSLEY. After soaking the seeds of parsley for a few hours in warm water, they may be sown in the same manner as celery seed and the plants transplanted to the open ground. At the North, parsley will live over winter in a cold frame or pit, and in the South it will thrive in the open ground during the winter, but it can not withstand the heat of summer. The plants should be set in rows 12 inches apart and every 4 inches in the row. The leaves of parsley are used for garnishings around meats and for flavoring soups.--(F. B. 255, 295; N. Car. E. S. 132; U. Id. E. S. 10.) PARSNIP. Sow the seeds of parsnip as early as convenient in the spring in drills 18 inches to 3 feet apart. Thin the plants to stand 3 inches apart in the rows. The parsnip requires a rich soil and frequent cultivation. The roots can be dug late in the fall and stored in cellars or pits, or allowed to remain where grown and dug as required for use. It is considered best to allow the roots to become frozen in the ground, as the freezing improves their flavor. As soon as the roots begin to grow the following spring they will no longer be fit for use. All roots not used during the winter should be dug and removed from the garden, as they will produce seed the second season and become of a weedy nature. When the parsnip has been allowed to run wild the root is considered to be poisonous.--(F. B. 255, 295; Mich. E. S. 20; U. Id. E. S. 10; N. Car. E. S. 132.) PEAS. Garden peas require a rather rich and friable soil with good drainage in order that the first plantings may be made early in the spring. Fertilizers that are high in nitrogenous matter should not be applied to the land immediately before planting, as they will have a tendency to produce too great growth of vines at the expense of pods. Land that has been well manured the previous year will be found satisfactory without additional fertilizer. A sandy loam is to be preferred for growing peas, but a good crop may be produced on clay soils; however, the pods will be a few days later in forming. Peas are easily grown and form one of the most palatable of garden products. For the best results peas should be planted in the bottom of a furrow 6 inches in depth and the seeds covered with not more than 2 or 3 inches of soil. If the soil is heavy the covering should be less than 2 inches. After the plants attain a height of 4 or 5 inches the soil should be worked in around them until the trench is filled. The rows for peas should be 3 feet apart for the dwarf sorts and 4 feet apart for the tall kinds. A pint of seed will plant about 100 feet of single row. Many growers follow the practice of planting in a double row with a 6-inch space between. The double-row method is especially adapted for the varieties that require some form of support, as a trellis can be placed between the two rows. Brush stuck in the ground will answer for a support for the peas to climb upon. Three-foot poultry netting makes a desirable trellis. If peas are planted for autumn use, the earliest varieties should be employed. The first plantings should be of such varieties as Alaska or Gradus, which make a small but quick growth, and may or may not be provided with supports. The dwarf sorts like American Wonder come on later, require very little care, and produce peas of fine quality. The tall-growing sorts of the Telephone type are desirable for still later use on account of their large production and excellent quality. Sugar peas have tender pods and if gathered very young the pods may be eaten in the same manner as snap beans. In order to maintain a continuous supply of fresh peas, plantings should be made every ten days or two weeks during the spring months, beginning as soon as the ground can be worked. In the extreme South peas may be grown during the entire winter.--(F. B. 255; N. C. E. S. 132; Mich. E. S. 20, 190; S. Dak. E. S. 85, 91; Del. E. S. 41; Colo. E. S. 172.) PEPPERS. Plant the seed of peppers in a hotbed, and transplant to the open ground as soon as it is warm, or sow the seeds in the garden after all danger of frost is past. When grown in the garden the plants should be in rows 3 feet apart and 15 to 18 inches apart in the row. The plants require about the same treatment as the tomato. Peppers are divided into two classes--the sweet varieties, which are eaten as vegetables, and the pickling varieties, which are used for pickles or dried and powdered, in which form they are much used in Mexico. Of the sweet peppers the varieties Sweet Mountain, Ruby King, and Large Bell are good standard varieties; and of the pickling peppers, the Cayennes and Chilies are largely used. The pickling varieties are all more or less pungent and should never be prepared with bare hands, because the burning sensation is very difficult to eliminate.--(F. B. 255; B. P. I. 6; P. Rico 7; Iowa, E. S. 47; N. C. E. S. 132.) PHYSALIS. The physalis is also known as the ground-cherry or husk-tomato. Sow the seed in a hotbed or cold frame and transplant to the garden after danger of frost is past, or the seeds may be sown in the row where the plants are to remain and thinned to 12 or 18 inches. No particular care is required except to keep them free from weeds. There are a large number of varieties of the physalis, and the fruits vary in size and color. The variety commonly used in gardens produces a bright-yellow fruit, which is about the size of an ordinary cherry. Toward fall the fruits will drop to the ground and will be protected for some time by their husks. If gathered and placed in a cool place the fruits will keep for a long time. The physalis will self-sow and may become a weed, but it is easily controlled. A few of the volunteer plants may be lifted in the spring and placed in rows instead of making a special sowing of seed. Ten plants will produce all the husk-tomatoes desired by the average family. The fruits are excellent for making preserves and marmalade.--(F. B. 255; S. Dak. E. S. 68.) POTATO. The term "potato," when not modified by an adjective, suggests to the mind of an American the so-called potato (_Solanum tuberosum_). When the name is modified by the word "sweet," reference is made to a different plant, belonging to the morning-glory family and known botanically as _Ipomoea batatas_. Attention is here directed entirely to the Irish potato. _Soil and Rotation._--The potato is grown in every State and Territory, and naturally on a great variety of soils. Indeed, it has been grown on nearly every class of soils, but this fact does not minimize the importance of selecting for the potato the kind of soil best adapted to it. The ideal soil for this crop should be one so light as to offer no great resistance to the enlargement of the tubers, so supplied with organic matter as to be rather moist without being wet, and so rich as to furnish an unfailing supply of fertilizing ingredients. A rich, sandy loam abundantly supplied with organic matter and naturally well drained is preferable. Stiffer soils may be rendered suitable for the potato by drainage and by the incorporation of farm manures; or better, by plowing under green crops. Very heavy clay should be avoided if the farm contains any lighter soil. Recently cleared ground suits the potato. Sandy soils, if not too subject to drought, may be fitted for this plant by the addition of organic matter. It is claimed that potatoes grown on sandy land are of better quality than those grown on stiffer soil. The potato requires a rich soil, but even more important than natural fertility is a proper mechanical condition of the soil. Artificial fertilizers may be substituted in part for natural fertility, but they are effective only when the soil is in such a condition as to furnish a constant supply of water. The potato should have the best soil on the farm, since it is more exacting in this respect than the other staple crops and since the product of an acre is generally of greater value. The success of the potato is largely dependent on the crops preceding it in the rotation. If clover, cowpeas, or other leguminous plant is grown just preceding potatoes, its stubble furnishes organic matter and adds to the store of available nitrogen in the soil. Corn after sod frequently precedes potatoes, and this is generally regarded as the best rotation. Rye is sometimes sown in late summer or fall and plowed under so as to lighten a heavy soil. Buckwheat and other plants have also been used for the same purpose. On light soils and in rather mild climates, crimson clover for green manuring may advantageously take the place of rye where early planting of potatoes is not specially desirable. One year, or at most two years, is as long as a field should be devoted to continuous potato culture, although this crop is sometimes grown for more than two years in succession on the same land. This latter course taxes heavily the fertility of the soil and necessitates liberal manuring; moreover it involves considerable risk of injury from fungous diseases, especially from potato scab. A clean crop of potatoes can not, as a rule, be grown on land which in the preceding year produced scabby tubers. The germs of the disease once in the soil must be starved out by growing on the infected field other crops, such as grass or grain, for several years. In certain localities in the central part of the United States and elsewhere the following three years' rotation has given highly satisfactory results on farms where potatoes are extensively grown; Fall wheat, in which clover is seeded in the spring; second year, clover, plowed under in fall or winter; and third year, potatoes. In some localities the uncertainty in obtaining a catch of clover renders this rotation inexpedient. Detailed directions for the preparation of one class of soils would not apply to others, hence it can only be said that preparation should be deep and thorough, and that unnecessary compacting of the soil should be avoided. Plowing can scarcely be too deep, provided that much of the subsoil is not brought to the surface; when practicable, the depth should be gradually increased from year to year. Though the tubers are usually formed within 6 inches of the surface of the ground, the roots feed deeper. Practical experience, as well as the extent of the distribution of potato roots in the soil, emphasize the importance of deep and thorough preparation of the soil for this crop. Whether fall plowing is advisable depends on a variety of local considerations. In general in a mild climate fall plowing of light land exposes it to leaching; on the other hand, fall plowing is sometimes necessary, as, for example, when a field is badly infested with injurious insects. _Fertilizing._--The potato requires liberal manuring. Barnyard manure usually affords a large increase in the crop, for not only does it supply nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash, but it improves the mechanical conditions of the soil. However, its direct application to the potato affords conditions favorable to potato diseases, and thus injures the quality of the crop. For this reason the best practice is to apply barnyard manure to corn or grass the year before the potatoes are grown. If it is considered necessary to apply it directly to the potato crop it should first be well rotted. If for several years before potatoes are planted the land has been properly manured with farm manures, or with green crops plowed under, commercial fertilizers can be advantageously used on most soils. Generally, a complete fertilizer should be used--i. e., one which contains nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. The farmer is justified in supplying all three of these fertilizing ingredients, unless by previous tests he has learned that on his soil a certain one of them can be safely omitted. Of nitrogenous fertilizers, one of the best for potatoes is the quick-acting nitrate of soda. Of phosphatic fertilizers, superphosphate is preferred. Among potash fertilizers the sulphate of potash has been found to afford a better quality of potato than kainit and muriate of potash. Ashes, are extensively and effectively used to supply potash to potatoes. As little farmyard manure is available in the Southern States where the early crop of potatoes is chiefly produced, this seldom enters as a factor in the production of the crop. Commercial fertilizers of a nature especially adapted to the potato crop form the chief reliance of the growers. A fertilizer carrying 3 to 4 per cent of nitrogen, 6 to 8 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 8 to 10 per cent of potash is used at the rate of 500 to 1,500 pounds to the acre, depending upon the crop which is to follow the potato crop and the liberality of the grower. The fertilizer may be applied broadcast if put on at the rate of 1,000 pounds or more to the acre. When less than 1,000 pounds to the acre are used it is almost universally applied along the line of the row, a furrow being opened for the reception of the fertilizer; which is scattered by hand or by a distributor which can be used to fertilize several rows at a time. After the fertilizer has been distributed, a cultivator is run along the line of the rows to incorporate the fertilizer with the soil in order to prevent its coming in contact with the seed when planted. Sometimes the furrow is refilled and reopened prior to the planting of the seed, so as to incorporate the fertilizer more completely with the soil. Still another plan is to open the furrow, distribute about one-half the quantity of fertilizer to be used in the bottom, incorporate it with the soil, plant the potatoes, partially cover them, and scatter the remainder of the application on the seed bed above the seed. _Planting._--The rows should be laid off as close together as practicable without interfering with horse cultivation. Generally the seed pieces should be dropped in furrows made in the level field and not on ridges. However, low ridges are advantageous for an early crop and on poorly drained land. In covering the seed pieces, whether they are planted flat or on ridges, it is well to leave a small, sharp ridge marking the line of the row. In some localities, however, where excessive moisture is not feared, the opening furrows are only partially filled after planting, leaving a depression along the row to be filled by the use of the smoothing harrow or other implement. In planting late in the season this course is sometimes advisable. The pieces may be dropped by hand in the open furrow, or a potato planter may be used, dropping and covering the seed pieces at one operation. There are several potato planters that do very satisfactory work, but their cost restricts their use to those who plant a large acreage in potatoes or to cases where several farmers can use one together. Their more extended use is perhaps desirable, since they save a considerable amount of labor and enable the potato grower to take full advantage of even a brief period of favorable weather at planting time regardless of scarcity of labor. In the preparation of the ground and in planting, the earth along the line of the row should be compacted as little as possible consistent with thorough work, and hence the team should be made to walk between the rows whenever possible instead of along the drill. There is a simple potato coverer constructed somewhat like a triangular snowplow, with the wide end forward and a portion of the point or apex cut away so as to leave a narrow opening at the rear. No special implement, however, is required for this purpose. _Planting Machines._--Planting potatoes by hand on any large scale is out of the question on account of the expense. The large potato grower can of course afford the most modern machinery. In a community of small potato growers it is possible for them to own machinery jointly, and thus avoid any large expense to the individual farmer. The two most expensive machines connected with potato growing are the planter and the digger. A word of caution about the type of planter is perhaps desirable. There are some planters which pick up the seed potatoes by means of a prong or fork which breaks the skin of the tuber. This exposes the potato to any germs of potato diseases which may be present in the soil. Furthermore, it carries any germ disease that may be on some of the seed potatoes to others. There are planters which pick up the potatoes in such a way as not to break the skin. This point is especially important in planting whole seed. In planting cut seed there is still the danger of transferring the disease from one piece of potato to another. Whatever planter may be used, some one should ride on the machine in order to see that it works regularly, so as to give as nearly a perfect stand as possible. The improved planters of today open the furrow, drop the seed, cover it, firm the dirt over the seed, and mark the next furrow. Such a planter is drawn by two horses. Experiments with potatoes planted in rows all the way from 36 to 42 inches apart indicate that the best distance depends upon the seasonal conditions and type of soil; it is a problem for each grower to solve for himself. The distance apart the potatoes should be planted in the row also depends so much upon the variety, the fertility of the soil, the availability of water, etc., that each farmer must determine this from his own experience. _Time of Planting._--Each community is the best judge of the proper date for planting. Where potatoes are grown for the early market the aim is to plant as early as possible, without subjecting the young plants to severe cold. The crop should be planted at such a date as to bring the stage of growth during which the tubers are rapidly developing at a time when there is ordinarily an adequate supply of moisture. The month when dry weather is most certain varies with the locality, and each potato grower should so time his planting as to be least affected by drought. Where the growing season is long the crop that is to be stored over winter should be planted very late, so that it may remain in the ground until cool weather. On the other hand, where the season is short, late varieties should be planted in time to ripen before frost. _Depth of Planting._--The Toots of a young potato plant grow, not directly from the seed piece, but from the underground joints or nodes of the stem. From these underground nodes also grow the short stems which bear the tubers at their extremities. Hence the seed pieces should be placed deep enough in the soil to permit several of these joints to form below the surface, so as to afford room for an ample supply of roots and tuber-bearing stems to grow. Many experiments have been made to ascertain the best depth for planting. The results, with some exceptions, favor planting not less than 4 inches deep. The favorable effects of deep planting were especially marked on well-prepared, friable soil and in dry seasons. Very deep planting is open to objection because of the increased labor of harvesting and the danger of a deficient stand when weather conditions are unfavorable. Very shallow planting reduces the yield and injures the quality of the crop. _Growing Seed Potatoes Under Mulch._--The Nebraska Experiment Station reported an interesting comparison of the value for seed purposes of potatoes grown under mulch with those grown with ordinary cultivation under like conditions, which indicates that the mulch method offers a convenient and practical means of producing good home-grown seeds under Nebraska conditions. The theory of the method and the results obtained in the comparative tests are thus stated: Potatoes are a cool-weather crop. It is because of this that they succeed so well in the far north. Moreover, potatoes require for their best development fairly uniform conditions, especially as regards soil moisture and soil temperature. This being the case, why should not potatoes grown under a litter mulch be especially well developed and therefore make strong seed? The soil beneath a mulch not only has a moderately low temperature during summer, but its temperature is also exceptionally uniform, varying not more than a degree or two between day and night and only a few degrees from day to day. The soil moisture beneath a good mulch is also more abundant and much more nearly uniform in amount than in case of bare ground, even though the latter is given good tillage. The value for seed purposes of tubers grown under a litter mulch has been tested during two seasons at the experiment station. In 1904 a plat of potatoes was mulched with straw and an adjoining plat was given careful cultivation. The soil of the two plats was practically uniform and the seed planted on the two plats was taken from the same lot of tubers. Seed was saved from the mulched and cultivated plats separately, kept under the same conditions during winter, planted on adjoining plats in the spring of 1905, and given identical cultivation during the summer. In 1906 the experiment was repeated with seed grown in mulched and in cultivated ground the year before. The same precautions were observed as in the first test. Uniform seed was used to start with in 1905. The seed saved from the mulched and from the cultivated plats was taken as it came, without selection, and was kept over winter under the same conditions. Both kinds of seed were cut in the same way, planted in the same way, on adjoining plats, and treated alike as regards tillage, spraying, etc. Under these conditions any constant differences in yield between the two plats must be ascribed to the effect of the methods of culture employed the previous season. The yields obtained from the mulched and from the cultivated seed were as follows: Cultivated seed, 384 pounds in 1905; mulched seed, 563 pounds in 1905; cultivated seed, 123 pounds in 1906; mulched seed, 174 pounds in 1906. The use of seed that had been grown under a mulch the preceding year increased the yield of potatoes 47 per cent in 1905 and 41 per cent in 1906. If further tests confirm the results reported here, it would seem that mulching might be used for the production of high-grade seed potatoes at home. Moreover, mulching usually results in increased yields if properly handled. Mulching potatoes on a large scale is of course impracticable, but most farmers could easily mulch enough of their potato field to produce the seed that they would require the following year, and in doing so they would not necessarily increase the cost of production per bushel. _Time to Cut Seed Potatoes._--At least three American experiment stations have conducted tests to learn the effect of cutting seed potatoes several days or weeks in advance of planting. The results varied somewhat according to the length of time that the cut sets remained unplanted, but on the whole indicated no marked difference in productiveness between planting freshly cut pieces and those that had been cut for a week or less. The investigations of Kraus and of Wollny in Germany led to the conclusion that a slight wilting of the seed pieces increased the yield on moist soils and in wet seasons, but reduced it on soils not retentive of water and in dry seasons. On the whole it appears that the storing of cut pieces for several days, which sometimes becomes necessary, is attended with no great disadvantages. Of course due care should be taken in such instances to prevent heating, and it may be well to dust the cuttings with gypsum (land plaster) to prevent excessive wilting. _Seed End v. Stem End._--When potatoes are cut in half through their smaller diameter there is a seed or bud end more or less crowded with eyes and a stem or butt end on which there are few eyes. Experiments to determine the relative values of cuttings from the stem end and from the seed end of the tuber have been numerous. The majority of these showed that the yield was greater when the seed end was used. The superior productiveness of the seed end as compared with the stem end was maintained, whether the halves of the potatoes, the thirds, or smaller cuttings were employed. _Effect of sprouting._--The growth of sprouts before planting is made at the expense of the tubers from which they draw their support. Hence if these shoots are rubbed off before planting there is a total loss of the nutriment contained in them. Moreover, numerous weak shoots grow from the injured eye. To prevent these evil consequences of premature sprouting, seed potatoes are stored in a dark, dry, cool place. In spite of all precautions the tubers sometimes sprout; but when practicable only potatoes that have not sprouted should be selected for planting. If the eyes appear dormant in spring, seed potatoes may be exposed to the light and warmth for a few days before planting so as to promote germination and prompt growth. If long exposed, sprouts will form and careful cutting and planting by hand become necessary, so as to avoid breaking of these sprouts. _Quantity of Seed Potatoes per Acre._--A bushel of potatoes (60 pounds) may contain 240 quarter-pound tubers. When the seed pieces are planted a foot apart in 3-foot rows an acre requires 14,520 sets. When tubers averaging 4 ounces are employed an acre requires at these distances 60 bushels for planting whole potatoes, 30 bushels when halves are used, and 15 bushels when quarters are planted. In a number of tests the amount of seed cut to 2 eyes, spaced 1 by 3 feet, averaged 13 bushels per acre, the usual range being from 10 to 14 bushels. In 18 experiments with many varieties the average amount of seed cut to single eyes was at these distances 6.3 bushels per acre, the usual range being from 5 to 7 bushels, though the varieties with large tubers bearing few eyes required considerably more seed. _Size of Seed Pieces._--In the size of the seed piece planted the practice of different farmers varies widely, some advocating a liberal use of seed and others claiming equally good results from small cuttings. To aid in settling this question the State agricultural experiment stations have made numerous tests of seed pieces of different sizes. Taken separately these experiments show certain amount of divergence in results, as might naturally be expected of tests conducted under widely different conditions. However, the majority of these tests, and especially the figures expressing the average results of all available American experiments, may be safely taken as indications of what the farmer, under ordinary conditions, will generally, but not always obtain. The effect of size of seed pieces on yield of crop will be treated here under three distinct heads: (1) On the total yield; (2) on the gross yield of salable potatoes, and (3) on the net yield of salable potatoes, i. e., after deducting the amount of seed planted. _Effect on Total Yield._--In making up the averages below it was found practicable to use the results of 19 tests of single eyes _v._ 2-eye pieces, 4 tests of 2-eye cuttings _v._ quarters, 17 comparisons of quarters and halves, and 44 tests of halves _v._ whole potatoes. The results of other experiments less completely reported were used for the purpose of corroboration. The following table shows the _average_ results of these tests, including potatoes of all sizes: Bushels. Per cent. Excess from use of-- 2-eye pieces over 1-eye pieces 26 21 Quarters over 2-eye pieces 15 16 Halves over quarters 24 18 Whole tubers over halves 31 18 If there are compared all the total yields with the total yield produced by single eyes there appears an increase of 21 per cent for 2-eye pieces, 41 per cent for quarters, 67 per cent for halves, and 96 per cent for entire tubers. The total yield resulting from planting whole potatoes is practically double that obtained by planting single eyes. Thus far there is considered only the total yield, i. e., large and small potatoes, and it is found that the total yield increases somewhat uniformly as the size of the seed piece is increased. The farmer and gardener, however, have to consider other factors than the total yield, for a heavy crop may consist very largely of tubers too small for the market, or the great expenditures for seed when large pieces are planted may more than counterbalance the increased yield. Before noting the gross and net yields of large or salable tubers, resulting from seed pieces of different sizes, it is well to consider the causes inducing a somewhat regular increase in total yield accompanying the use of larger seed pieces. Several causes operate to increase the yield when large seed pieces are planted. The larger the cutting the greater generally the number of eyes and the number of stalks. The young shoot, before it develops a strong system of feeding roots, is dependent for nutriment on the material stored up in the seed piece; hence the more abundant this supply the more vigorous the growth of the plant and this increased luxuriance is not confined to the early stages of growth, but is marked throughout the growing season. Investigation has shown that severing the connection between the seed piece and the growing vine, even after the latter is thoroughly rooted, reduces the yield of potatoes. The danger of partial or entire failure resulting from an imperfect stand is much greater with small cuttings than with large seed pieces. The small pieces with extensive cut surfaces are liable to perish should the season be unfavorable, either through excessive moisture or drought. The sprouts from small cuttings being weaker reach the surface with difficulty, or fail entirely on soil not properly prepared. _Effect on Gross Salable Yield._--By averaging the results of the experiments referred to above, it is found that the actual increase in the potatoes of salable size due to using larger seed pieces was as follows, every increase in the size of the seed pieces being followed by an increased gross salable yield: Bushels. Per cent. Excess from use of-- 2-eye pieces over 1-eye pieces 23 21 Quarters over 2-eye pieces 10 15 Halves over quarters 15 15 Whole tubers over halves 14 10 _Effect on Net Salable Crop._--Before concluding that the largest seed pieces are the most profitable it becomes necessary to deduct from the crop the amount of seed planted. It is plain that the increased amount of seed potatoes required when larger pieces are used may more than counterbalance the increase in yield obtained. The true test of profit is the market value of the crop produced, less the cost of seed planted. Should the quantity of seed potatoes used be subtracted from the total yield of large and small potatoes or from the salable crop? If small or unsalable seed potatoes are planted, then the former course is the proper one, but since large or medium tubers (either entire or cut) are generally selected for seed purposes, it seems best to subtract the seed from the salable crop, thus ascertaining the net salable yield. The following table shows the actual average results for the net salable yield; that is, the crop after deducting the small potatoes and the seed used: Bushels. Per cent. Excess from use of-- 2-eye pieces over 1-eye pieces 15.0 14 Quarters over 2-eye pieces 7.0 15 Halves over quarters 5.0 6 Halves over whole tubers 8.5 8 The amount of the net salable crop rose with the increase in the size of the cutting employed, but when the whole potato was planted the figures declined on account of the large amount of seed potatoes which had to be deducted. The above figures indicate a very slight advantage in planting halves rather than quarters when the price of seed and crop produced are the same. As a matter of fact, spring prices are usually somewhat higher than fall prices. A high price for seed potatoes may make it profitable to plant smaller pieces (as, for example, quarters) than would be economical where seed and crop command the same price per bushel. _Amount of Seed Potatoes._--In the following diagram 100 represents the total yield from planting single eyes. The figures may be read as bushels per acre, if it is constantly borne in mind that there are being considered soils of such character as to average 100 bushels of large and small potatoes per acre when planted with 1-eye pieces. The first group answers the question, "What size of seed piece generally affords the largest yield of large and small potatoes?" The second group answers the query: "What size of seed piece generally gives the greatest yield exclusive of small potatoes?" The third group offers an answer to a still more important question: "What size of seed piece generally produces the largest yield after deducting both the small potatoes and the amount of seed planted?" _Yield from planting different seed pieces, assuming 100 as the total yield from single eyes._ RELATIVE TOTAL YIELD. 1 eye...........| 100 |______________ 2 eyes..........| 121 |____________________ Quarters........| 141 |____________________________ Halves..........| 167 |____________________________________ Wholes..........| 196 |___________________________________________ RELATIVE GROSS SALABLE YIELD. 1 eye...........| 87 |_____________ 2 eyes..........| 105 |___________________ Quarters........| 123 |___________________________ Halves..........| 142 |_____________________________________ Wholes..........| 157 |_____________________________________________ RELATIVE NET SALABLE YIELD. 1 eye...........| 83 |______________ 2 eyes..........| 95 |___________________ Quarters........| 109 |______________________ Halves..........| 115 |___________________________ Wholes..........| 107 |_____________________ Taking as the correct measure of profit the yield of salable potatoes less the amount of seed used, there is seen by the third section of the diagram that with seed and crop at the same price per bushel it was more profitable in these tests to plant halves than smaller cuttings and whole potatoes. If there be taken account of the yield of small potatoes the advantage of large seed pieces is even greater than the figures in the last section of the diagram would indicate, for the yield of small potatoes is greater with large than with small seed pieces. Where large quantities of small potatoes can be profitably utilized, as, for example, as seed for the second crop, the potato planter may therefore use quite large seed pieces with advantage. On the other hand, the higher price of potatoes in spring rather than in fall is an argument in favor of planting quarters rather than halves or whole tubers. A number of investigators have noted that large seed pieces (either large cuttings or entire potatoes) afford an earlier crop than very small cuttings, a matter of much interest to growers of early potatoes. However, some growers have reported that uncut potatoes germinate more slowly than large cuttings. Most of those who raise potatoes for the early market use large cuttings rather than whole potatoes. In this connection it may be said that the seed-end half gives an earlier crop than the other half. This suggests the expediency of cutting a potato lengthwise when halves or quarters are to be planted, thus securing on each piece one or more of the eyes which germinate first. Another advantage of cutting lengthwise is that it insures a more even distribution of the eyes on the several pieces. Of course this system is not practicable when very small cuttings are to be made from long, slender potatoes, since the large amount of exposed surface would render the long pieces susceptible to injury both from moisture and dryness. If it is desired to cut the potato into small pieces the operator should begin at the stem end, and the pieces should be cut in a compact shape, and of as nearly equal size as is practicable without leaving any piece entirely devoid of eyes. There are special implements for cutting potatoes, and their use is reported as enabling a man to cut four or five times as many bushels of seed per day as by hand. The character of the work is said to be satisfactory. No definite rule can be given as to the best size of seed piece, for this depends somewhat on the distance between the hills and on the character of the soil and season. Another important factor in determining the proper amount of seed is variety. Some varieties are able to produce a crop almost as large from small cuttings as from large pieces. _Size of Seed Tubers._--A study of more than a hundred experiments testing the relative values of large, medium, and small uncut tubers confirms the general law that an increase in the weight of seed planted affords an increase in the total crop. The yield of salable potatoes increases less rapidly than the total yield. With whole potatoes as seed the salable yield reached its extreme upward limit in one test when tubers weighing about half a pound were planted; in another when those weighing 4-1/2 ounces were employed. The limit of profitable increase was reached with tubers weighing 4-1/2 and 3 ounces respectively. The size of seed tubers selected becomes a matter of importance when they are to be cut, for we have seen that the heavier the cutting the larger the total yield, and seed tubers for cutting should be of such size that their halves, quarters, or other divisions shall not be extremely small. _Small Potatoes for Planting._--Whether or not to use uncut small potatoes for seed is an important question on which farmers are divided. Some present the plausible argument that the use of undersized potatoes results in degeneration. If this claim is based on the results of experience it should determine practice, but if the conclusion is simply a generalization based on the fact that large seed usually give best results the reasoning is defective, and the question remains open. The potato tuber is not a seed, but an underground stem, and the relations existing between seeds and their progeny do not necessarily exist between a tuber and its descendants. Others hold that potatoes just below marketable size, if shapely and sufficiently mature, may be used without serious deterioration, and that for economic reasons their use is especially desirable, because if not planted or used at home they must be lost or fed to stock, for which purpose their value is usually smaller than the market price. The result of tests at a number of experiment stations have uniformly indicated that small tubers uncut can be used for seed purposes without detriment to the succeeding crop. It may still be urged, however, that the choice of small seed year after year will result in degeneration. On this question the information is meager, but two experiments, extending over four and eight years, respectively, have been reported in which no degeneration resulting from the continued use of small potatoes from the preceding crop was apparent. Although the evidence seems fairly conclusive that small uncut seed potatoes may sometimes be used with profit, it cannot be advised that small seed tubers be selected year after year from a crop which has been grown from small potatoes. Potatoes of irregular shape and injured tubers should be rejected as unfit for planting. _Number of Eyes and Weight per Set._--Many potato growers cut tubers into pieces containing one, two, or more eyes, laying greater stress on the number of eyes than on the size of the cutting. Extensive experiments at the Indiana station and elsewhere prove that of the two factors, number of eyes and weight of piece, the latter is the more important. Of course it is desirable that each piece, whether large or small, should contain at least one eye, and it has been generally profitable for it to be of such size as to contain at least several eyes; but whether it has one or many eyes it is important that the seed piece be heavy enough to furnish abundant nutriment to the shoots which spring from it. A single eye may give rise to several stalks, for each eye is a compound bud or cluster of buds. An eye can be bisected, and each half may then grow successfully if it is not a victim to dryness or decay, to which its exposed condition subjects it. In one series of experiments it was found that the number of stalks growing in a hill was less dependent on the number of eyes than on the size of the seed piece, whether cut or entire. In general, as the number of eyes per piece increased each eye became less prolific in sending up stalks, so that there was less crowding of stalks where large seed pieces with many eyes were used than would be expected from the large number of eyes planted. After numerous experiments touching on almost every aspect of this subject the investigator advised that tubers be cut so as to make each piece of a constant size or weight, whatever the number of eyes that might fall to its share. _Cuttings per Hill._--A custom not uncommon among those who plant small cuttings is to drop two pieces in each hill. They usually get a larger yield by so doing than by planting single pieces, the increase generally, though not always, being sufficient to pay for the excess of seed. This does not prove the practice profitable, for better results may be secured by planting a single piece weighing as much as the combined weight of the two pieces which would have been dropped in one hill. Thus the labor of cutting is considerably reduced and, what is more important, larger pieces improve the chances of getting a good stand in an unfavorable season, because they have less exposed surface than two small pieces of equivalent weight, hence are less liable to dry out excessively when drought follows planting. They are also better able to resist rotting if wet weather prevails. _Stalks per Hill._--The most common objection urged against planting large seed pieces is, next to the expense, the danger of having the hills so crowded with stalks, and consequently with tubers, that a large proportion of the potatoes never develop to marketable size. This objection is probably valid for entire tubers, and also for halves planted very close in the row. The evidence available does not permit us to conclude that in the case of quarters used as seed there results any injurious crowding, and it may be questioned whether halves give rise to this trouble when planted under favorable conditions and at considerable distance apart. The number of stalks that can be advantageously grown in each hill varies greatly with variety, season, soil, and distance apart. _Distance Between Plants._--In deciding on the proper distance at which to plant potatoes it is necessary to take into consideration the size of the seed piece that is to be employed. In general, small seed pieces should be planted close and the distance allotted to each hill should be greater as the weight of the piece is increased. Close planting for small cuttings is best attained, not by narrowing the row to less than about 2-1/2 or 3 feet (for if the distance is much less horse cultivation becomes difficult), but by planting the seed pieces close together in the row. To frame a general rule giving best distances for seed pieces of different sizes is plainly impossible, for the distance at which the largest yields is obtained depends also on the variety, the season, the soil, and the fertilizers. However, the results of some of the investigations covering this matter afford help in deciding on the proper distance under varying conditions. It has been shown that if very small cuttings are used, and if the soil is fertile, the distance can be reduced to 6 or 9 inches without sacrificing the yield, provided the season happens to be favorable, but this is not generally advisable. On rich soil cuttings of considerable size can be advantageously planted as close as 12 inches. Checking effects a saving of labor in cultivation, and also in planting and harvesting, when these latter operations are performed by hand; hence expensive labor and the absence of machines for planting and harvesting the crop are conditions in favor of checking. For planting in checks a variety can be chosen which makes a large growth of vines and which forms many tubers in each hill, thus more completely utilizing the space at its disposal than could a variety with small vines and few tubers. In checking there is danger on rich soil that some of the tubers may grow to an objectionable size. Potato growers in attempting to obtain a phenomenal yield, as in contests for prizes, almost universally plant in drills rather than in hills, and place the seed pieces from 8 to 15 inches apart. The advocates of planting in drills claim that by this method a larger yield can be obtained, and experience seems to confirm the correctness of this view. The few experiments that have been made on this question are not entirely conclusive, though the majority of them favor drills. Although no fixed rule regarding distance of planting can be given, the following general considerations are widely applicable: (1) For maximum yield of salable potatoes plant in rows as narrow as can be conveniently cultivated. (2) Crowd small seed pieces close together in the row, increasing the distance with every increase in the size of the seed piece; avoid on the one hand such close planting as to greatly reduce the average weight of the tubers, and on the other such wide spacing as to leave any considerable portion of the soil unshaded by the full-grown vines. (3) As a rule, the richer the land the less the required distance between sets. (4) Varieties with strong growth of vines or which set many tubers in a hill should have greater distance between plants than is necessary with less vigorous varieties. _Cultivation._--Soon after planting, and again just as the young plants are beginning to appear above ground, the field should be harrowed, inclining the teeth of the harrow backward. This is a cheap method of cultivation, since a wide space is covered. It is also effective in destroying small weeds, in leveling the ridges left in planting, in preventing the formation of a surface crust, and in keeping the land covered with a mulch of dry earth, thus conserving moisture within the soil below. Subsequent cultivation should be frequent so as to accomplish these same ends. Almost any pattern of cultivator may be used, provided it is made to do shallow work. However, if the ground has become packed the first cultivation may be deeper. Experience and exact experiments generally favor flat or nearly flat cultivation. Excessive hilling during cultivation intensifies the injurious effects of dry weather. It also results in breaking many of the feeding roots between the rows. The frequent use of the cultivator should be substituted as far as possible for hoeing. If a severe frost is apprehended soon after the plants come up, the tops should be covered by throwing a furrow to each row. _Mulching._--While mulching with hay, straw, leaves, or other litter frequently increases the yield and is specially valuable in tiding over a season of drought, it is not generally practicable on farms where potatoes are grown on a large scale. Its place is in the garden rather than in the field. It is a substitute for cultivation, and it is generally cheaper to maintain a soil mulch by frequent cultivation than to apply litter. If a mulch is employed, it can be applied over the entire surface or in the furrow above the seed pieces, or between the rows. Mulching in the furrow is not commended by the results of tests in Colorado, Louisiana, and Michigan. In striving for a large yield, with little regard to cost, or to insure against drought, mulching is useful. Material intended to serve as a mulch should first be exposed to the weather, so as to cause the sprouting of any seed it may contain. It is better to apply a mulch after potato plants have made some growth, as an earlier application may result in smothering some plants and in injury from late frosts. _Harvesting and Storing._--The death of the vines is the signal for digging the main crop. For the early market potato growers do not wait for this, but are governed by the size of the tubers. As long as any portion of the vine is green the tubers can continue to grow. In gardens very early potatoes are sometimes obtained by carefully removing a few of the larger tubers from the growing plant, replacing the soil and allowing the smaller potatoes to continue growing ("grabbing"). The large amount of labor required prohibits "grabbing" except when early potatoes are selling at a price very much higher than can be expected from the later crop. In harvesting a large area a high-priced potato digger is frequently used; hand digging with a four-tined fork is probably the best method on small areas, though many make use of a potato hoe or of a plow. Careful handling always pays, and extreme carefulness is necessary, especially with the early crop, to prevent injury to the tender skin of the immature potatoes. In harvesting, as well as in storage, potatoes should be exposed to light as little as possible. In storing potatoes a low temperature is required. The potato tuber is uninjured by a temperature of 33° F., and one authority gives the freezing temperature of potatoes 30.2° F. Warmth favors sprouting, which injures potatoes both for planting and eating. Most of the farmers have potato houses or cellars constructed for storing their stock and holding the unsold portion of the crop through even the coldest weather until they can market it. Some growers, especially those near town, depend on the warehouses of the dealers alongside the railroad tracks. The common type of storehouse on the farm is a cellar walled up with concrete or stonework, about 8 or 9 feet deep, with a low wooden roof above it, giving a considerable space for the storage of tools, barrels, etc., on the floor above the cellar portion. These cellars are usually built on the side of a hill, so that the potatoes are unloaded down through the floor in the fall and taken out at a lower doorway during the winter. [Illustration: _Photo by Verne Morton, Groton, N. Y._ THOROUGH CULTIVATION OF THE GROWING CROP IS AN ESSENTIAL OF SUCCESSFUL POTATO RAISING] _Grading._--The grading of early potatoes is quite as important as the grading of fruits. Large and small tubers should not be mixed in the same barrel. The pickers should be taught to gather the large and merchantable tubers in one basket and the small or seed potatoes in another, and these if placed upon the market should go in separate receptacles and be clearly marked so as to represent the grade. If a mechanical sorter is used this work will be more effectively accomplished than if left to the pickers. The type of grader usually used is similar to that employed in some sections for grading apples and peaches, although the common type of potato grader is a rotary screen which separates the earth from the tubers and allows the small tubers to fall through the large meshes of the screen before reaching the general outlet which carries away those of merchantable size. The objection to a mechanical grader of this type is that it bruises the immature tubers and renders them somewhat less attractive than when not so handled and probably also shortens the length of time they can be safely held on the market. _Marketing._--The perishable nature of the immature potato renders it necessary to place it upon the market in such quantities only as will admit of immediate consumption. Producers in regions where the growing of early potatoes has been extensively developed appreciate this and have provided for this condition by organizing shippers' associations through which the crop is graded, often trade-marked, and distributed chiefly in carload lots. The officers of the association being in constant telegraphic communication with the various markets are thus informed regarding the most satisfactory destination for every consignment which may be necessary. It is the purpose of these associations, however, to conduct their business in such a way that the product can be sold f. o. b. shipping point instead of by consignment, and the best organized associations are usually able to do this. The great advantage of such a system of selling is that it enables the brokers in a small city or town to buy direct from the producer instead of through another city broker. It enables the consumer to obtain fresh products, as they are shipped direct from the point of production to the place of consumption. The plan carries other benefits which are of great moment to the producer. He is enabled to sell in carload lots at shipping point, thus saving to himself the cost of transportation, which ranges from 7 to 15 per cent of the gross selling price. The exchange secures a much wider distribution of the crop, with the result that overstocked markets are much less likely than under the consignment system. Transportation companies provide better service, and claims are more promptly settled through the exchange than in the case of individuals. This plan enables the producer to be his own salesman. It transfers the distributing point from the city to the field, where it should be. It brings the market to the fields instead of the product to the market. The exchange becomes the farmer's commission house, and it is much easier to keep informed regarding the transactions of a home association than of a foreign concern. _Varieties._--The following are among the most widely known varieties: _Early_, Early Ohio, Early Rose, Beauty of Hebron, and Triumph. _Medium and late_, Burbank, Rural New Yorker No. 2, Empire State, Mammoth Pearl, White Star, and Dakota Red. These are standard varieties, and though not necessarily the best, they seem to have given general satisfaction. _Second-Crop Potatoes for Seed at the South._--Within recent years there has been a marked increase in the use of second crop potatoes for seed throughout the southern potato-growing sections. This crop is frequently grown on the same land from which the first crop of potatoes was harvested. In most instances, however, it follows beans or cucumbers, as the seed for this second potato crop is not usually planted until July or August. The seed for this crop is, as a rule, saved from the early crop, the small tubers being stored in a well-ventilated shed, where they are protected from the direct action of the sun and from storms until about ten days or two weeks before the time of planting, when they are spread thinly upon the ground and lightly covered with straw or litter to partially protect them from the sun. Under these conditions the tubers quickly "green" and all those suitable for seed will develop sprouts. As soon as the sprouts are visible, and before they are large enough to be rubbed off in handling, the potatoes are ready to plant. The product of this planting gives a crop of partially matured tubers which are held over winter for spring planting. This practice gives excellent results in many localities and is found to be more economical than the purchase of northern-grown seed. To what extent it is safe to follow this practice without renewing the seed from the North by the use of fully matured tubers has not been determined. Those following the method should carefully observe the quality and yield of the crop for the purpose of determining whether or not it is deteriorating under this treatment. In general, it is believed that it will be within the limits of good practice to secure every second or third year enough northern-grown seed to supply seed for the second crop; in fact, some of the most successful growers of potatoes who use second-crop seed get enough northern-grown seed each year to supply planting material for the second crop. In this practice it will be economy to err on the side of safety and obtain fresh seed frequently from reliable northern sources. In a majority of instances it is found that second-crop home-grown seed is slower to germinate and later in maturity than northern-grown seed, and as quick development is an important element in the crop at the South, growers are urged to consider this point carefully. _Held-over Seed._--The consensus of opinion is that in southern localities it is impracticable to keep early potatoes from harvest time to the next season's planting period. The conclusions of those who have given this problem careful study are that the exposure of the tubers to the sun at harvest time is the chief factor in determining their keeping qualities. In other words, it is possible to keep potatoes in the extreme South from season to season provided the tubers are not exposed to the sun after being dug. They should be immediately carried to a protected place where there is ample ventilation and where they will receive only diffused light, such as a cyclone or other cellar, or the basement of a house, or even where brush protection will prevent the sun shining directly upon them. It is, of course, necessary that the tubers be well matured before being dug and that they be the product of disease-free plants. Plants killed by blight yield tubers which seldom keep well even under the most favorable conditions. _Methods of Securing Extra-Early Potatoes._--One of the most important factors having an influence on the profitableness of market garden crops is that of earliness. A difference of two or three days or a week in placing a crop on the market often makes the difference between profit and loss, and the prices obtained for extra-early crops have stimulated cultural experiments with every kind of fruit and vegetables. Some interesting results along this line with potatoes have recently been reported by the Kansas and Rhode Island stations. At the Kansas Station seed tubers of four different varieties of medium-sized potatoes were placed in shallow boxes with the seed ends up in February. They were packed in sand, leaving the upper fourth of the tubers exposed, and the boxes were placed in a room with rather subdued light, having a temperature of 50° to 60° F. Vigorous sprouts soon pushed from the exposed eyes. The whole potatoes were planted in furrows in March in the same position they occupied in the boxes. The same varieties of potatoes taken from a storage cellar were planted in parallel rows. The sand-sprouted potatoes took the lead from the start in vigor and strength of top and produced potatoes the first of June, a week earlier than the storage-cellar potatoes. At the final digging they showed better potatoes and gave a 10 per cent larger total yield. In other experiments part of the potatoes was treated the same as in the first test, except that the sand was kept moistened, and the other part was placed in open boxes and kept in a light room having a temperature of 50° F. The tubers placed in sand developed strong sprouts and nearly all rooted. When planted in the field they outstripped both the tubers sprouted in open boxes and the storage-cellar tubers in vigor of growth. The tubers started in the open boxes gave earlier yields than were obtained from the storage-cellar tubers, but not as early as the tubers sprouted in moist sand. The tubers sprouted in moist sand produced table potatoes from 7 to 10 days earlier than the storage-cellar seed. At the Rhode Island Station medium-sized whole potatoes sprouted on racks, in a fairly warm and light room, gave a 27 per cent better yield at the first digging than potatoes kept in a cold cellar until planting time; and this was increased to 40 per cent at the final digging. The percentage of large tubers was also greater at each digging with the sprouted tubers. The results of these experiments are suggestive. The handling of seed potatoes in such manner as to secure strong, stocky sprouts before the tubers are planted out is shown to be an important factor in increasing both the earliness and the total yield of the crop. By planting only well-sprouted seed, a full stand is assured. One of the objections to this method of growing potatoes is the large amount of space required for exposing the tubers to the light for sprouting. This objection has been overcome in part by the use of trays and racks. At the Rhode Island Station the rack used held 9 trays. Each tray was 3-3/4 feet long and 1-1/2 feet wide, and would hold about 1 bushel of potatoes when spread out in a single layer for sprouting. The bottoms of the trays were made of pieces of lath placed about 1 inch apart. Nine trays were placed in a rack over each other, leaving about 9 inches of space between each tray. This method of arrangement has the advantage of securing a very uniform distribution of light, heat, and air for all the trays. It greatly facilitates the handling of the potatoes and lessens the danger of breaking off the sprouts and transferring to the field for planting. Another method of securing early potatoes in Rhode Island on a commercial scale is that of sprouting tubers in a cold frame and planting out as soon as danger of frost is past. The tubers are cut into pieces, not smaller than an English walnut, after rejecting the two or three eyes nearest the stem end, which have been found to start late. The pieces are placed side by side in the bed, skin side upward, and covered about 4 inches deep with fine, rich earth. Their growth can be controlled by proper regulation of the cold-frame sash. At planting time the tubers, the sprouts of which should be just breaking the surface of the soil, are carefully lifted with manure forks, separated by hand, and placed in well-fertilized rows, and entirely covered with soil; or, if danger of frost is past, they are placed with the apex of the sprout just at the surface of the soil. About 216 square feet of cold frame is required to sprout sufficient potatoes to plant an acre in 30 to 32 inch rows, 12 inches apart. Eight men can transplant an acre in a day. On the Island of Jersey, where early potatoes are raised in large quantities for the London market, the potatoes destined for seed are placed side by side in shallow boxes and stored, as soon as cold weather sets in, in a light and well-sheltered loft or shed, out of danger of frost. The position of the boxes is changed from time to time so that the sprouts will be of equal length and strength at the planting season. Medium-sized tubers selected from the best of the crop and allowed to lie in the field in the fall until they become greenish are used. _Potatoes on Western Irrigated Farms._--With thorough cultivation, for potatoes planted the first of May, irrigation is seldom necessary until July. Generally speaking irrigation water is cold and it is highly important not to irrigate too frequently, since the water not only causes the soil to run together but lowers the temperature to a point that is not favorable to the growth of potatoes. Irrigation water is applied only when the condition of the plants indicates that they are in need of water, as by darkening of the foliage. Or one may dig down in the hill and press a handful of soil in the hand; if it fails to retain its form, irrigation is needed. Care should be taken not to wait until the ground is too dry, because one can not cover the whole field of potatoes in one day's irrigation, and some are likely to suffer for water before being reached. Experience shows that if potatoes are grown as rapidly as possible, so as to become strong and well established early in the season, they withstand the maximum of unfavorable weather conditions later on, when the hot dry winds becomes a menace to the crop. When the time for irrigation arrives, a V-shaped trench half-way between the rows should be opened in alternate middles with an 8 or 10 inch lister plow; that is, a narrow plow with a double mold-board which throws the dirt each way. In these furrows the irrigation water is run so that the soil will not become solidified by flooding, and the necessary amount of water may be properly distributed. For the second irrigation furrows are opened in the middles that were not opened at the first irrigation, and this alternation is continued for succeeding irrigations. At the head of each field is a feeder ditch from which the water is admitted to these irrigation furrows between the rows. It is essential that the right quantity of water be used, and that it be uniformly distributed. Cultivation should commence as soon after irrigation as the soil will permit so as to insure rapid and uniform growth without check. This will not only result in the production of smooth, uniform tubers of attractive appearance, which are always in demand at high prices, but will also result in large, profitable yields and at the same time keep the soil in good mechanical condition for future crops. Do not irrigate after August 10, so as to give fifty or sixty days for ripening in dry earth. There is no line of farming in the irrigated districts that gives such marvelous profits as that of scientific potato production. With scientific knowledge which can certainly be acquired by experiments in supplying perfectly balanced plant food and maintaining soil fertility, the scientific principles of which are similar to those used by every successful breeder in feeding and fitting prize-winning stock; and with the proper proportions of plant foods--phosphates, nitrogen, and potash--in the soil as found in many parts of the West; and by the use of clover and alfalfa, there is no reason for those who contemplate engaging in the potato industry to fear the outcome. Too much stress can not be put upon the value and importance of livestock in keeping up favorable soil conditions, as no country now known has been continuously successful in crop production without the use of manures from the feeding of forage and grain crops. _Varieties._--Years of experience have demonstrated that comparatively few varieties of potatoes are really adapted to western or mountain conditions. Among the early varieties none has been so universally successful as the Early Ohio. This potato is of fine quality and uniform in size and shape, though not a heavy yielder. Another good potato, though not so early, is the Rose Seedling. For a medium to late variety, the Dalmeny Challenge, a Scotch variety, is being used quite extensively on the western slope of Colorado. For later varieties, the White Pearl and Rural New York No. 2 are more extensively used at Greeley, in the San Luis Valley, and in the Uncompahgre Valley; and the Perfect Peachblow is the favorite in the upper Grand Valley. PUMPKIN. The true pumpkin is hardly to be considered as a garden crop, and, as a rule, should be planted among the field corn. Plant where the hills of corn are missing and cultivate with the corn. However, some of the better sorts of pie pumpkins should be grown in the garden for cooking purposes, because they are productive and much superior in quality to the common field pumpkins.--(F. B. 255; Mich E. S. 20, 190.) RADISH. The radish is quite hardy and may be grown throughout the winter in hotbeds at the North, in cold frames in the latitudes of Washington, and in the open ground in the South. For the home garden the seed should be sown in the open ground as soon as the soil is moderately warm. Plant in drills 12 to 18 inches apart, and as soon as the plants are up thin them slightly to prevent crowding. Radishes require to be grown on a quick, rich soil, and some of the earlier sorts can be matured in two to three weeks after planting. If the radishes grow slowly they will have a pungent flavor and will not be fit for table use. For a constant supply successive plantings should be made every two weeks, as the roots lose their crispness and delicate flavor if allowed to remain long in the open ground. As a rule a large percentage of radish seed will grow, and it is often possible by careful sowing to avoid the necessity of thinning, the first radishes being pulled as soon as they are of sufficient size for table use, thus making room for those that are a little later. Radishes will not endure hot weather and are suited to early spring and late autumn planting. There are a number of varieties of winter radishes, the seed of which may be planted the latter part of summer and the roots pulled and stored for winter use. These roots should remain in the ground as long as possible without frosting and should then be dug and stored the same as turnips. This type of radish will not compare with the earlier summer varieties, which may be easily grown in a hotbed or cold frame during the winter. One ounce of radish seed is sufficient to plant 100 feet of row, and when grown on a large scale 10 to 12 pounds of seed will be required to the acre.--(F. B. 255, 295; U. Id. E. S. 10; Mich. E. S. 20; N. Car. E. S. 132.) RHUBARB (PIE PLANT). The soil for rhubarb should be deep, and there is little danger of having it too rich. Like asparagus the seedling plants of rhubarb can be grown and transplanted. Ten to twelve good hills are sufficient to produce all the rhubarb required by the average family, and these are most easily established by planting pieces of roots taken from another bed. Good roots may be secured from dealers and seedsmen at about $1.50 a dozen. The old hills may be divided in the early spring or late fall by digging away the earth on one side and cutting the hill in two with a sharp spade, the part removed being used to establish a new hill. The usual method of planting rhubarb is to set the plants in a single row along the garden fence, and the hills should be about 4 feet apart. If more than one row is planted the hills should be 3-1/2 or 4 feet each way. The thick leaf stems are the part used, and none should be pulled from the plants the first year after setting. Rhubarb should receive the same treatment during winter as asparagus, and the plants should never be allowed to ripen seed. The roots may be brought into the greenhouse, pit, cold frame, or cellar during the winter and forced. Rhubarb does not thrive in warm climates. The use of rhubarb is principally during the early spring for making pies and sauces, and the stems may be canned for winter use.--(F. B. 255; N. Car. E. S. 132; U. Id. E. S. 10.) RUTA-BAGA (SWEDES). The culture of the ruta-baga is the same as for the turnip, except that the former requires more room and a longer period for its growth. The roots are quite hardy and will withstand considerable frost. The ruta-baga is used like the turnip, and also for stock feed. Two pounds of seed are required for one acre.--(F. B. 255; Mich. E. S. 6.) SALSIFY (VEGETABLE OYSTER). Sow seeds of salsify during the spring in the same manner as for parsnips or carrots. At the South, a sowing may be made in summer to produce roots for winter use. One ounce of seed is required to plant 100 feet of row, and on a large scale 10 pounds to the acre. After the plants are well established they should be thinned sufficiently to prevent their crowding. The cultivation should be the same as for parsnips or carrots, and frequent use of a wheel hoe will avoid the necessity for hand weeding. Salsify may be dug in the autumn and stored or allowed to remain in the ground during the winter, as its treatment is the same as for parsnips. Salsify is a biennial, and if the roots are not dug before the second season they will throw up stems and produce seed. It is of a weedy nature and care should be taken that it does not run wild by seeding freely. Salsify is deserving of more general cultivation, as it is one of the more desirable of the root crops for the garden. The uses of salsify are similar to those of the parsnip, and when boiled and afterwards coated with rolled crackers and fried in butter it has a decided oyster flavor, from which the name vegetable oyster is derived.--(F. B. 255, 295; N. Car. E. S. 132; Idaho E. S. 10.) SCOLYMUS. Scolymus is a vegetable with spiny, thistle-like leaves, from Spain, with roots much like a small parsnip and keeping equally well in winter.--(S. Dak. E. S. 68.) SKIRRET. This is called "Zuckerwurzel" (Sugar root) in Germany. The plump, fleshy roots are sweet and used boiled during winter, the same as Salsify.--(S. Dak. E. S. 68.) SORREL. This plant resembles the weed "sour dock" of the fields. The leaves are large, tender and juicy, very broad and often 10 inches long, retaining the pleasant acid flavor of the original weed. Much prized in France where it is cultivated as a spring vegetable and used singly or mixed with spinach.--(Mich. E. S. 20; U. Idaho E. S. 10.) SPINACH. Spinach thrives in a rather cool climate and attains its best development in the Middle South, where it can be grown in the open ground during the winter. Large areas are grown near Norfolk, Va., cuttings being made at anytime during the winter when the fields are not frozen or covered with snow. When the weather moderates in the early spring the plants make a new growth, and a large crop of early greens is available. North of the latitude of Norfolk, spinach can be planted in the autumn and carried over winter by mulching with straw or leaves. Sow the seeds in drills 1 foot apart at the rate of 1 ounce to 100 feet of row or 10 to 12 pounds to the acre. To produce good spinach, a rich loam which will give the plants a quick growth is required. As ordinarily grown, it occupies the land during the autumn and winter only and does not interfere with summer cultivation. It is an easily grown garden crop, and there is, perhaps, no other of its kind that will give as good satisfaction. Three or four ounces of seed, planted in the autumn after a summer crop has been harvested from the land, will produce an abundance of greens for the average family during the late autumn and early spring. In gathering spinach the entire plant is removed rather than merely cutting off the leaves. The larger plants are selected first, and the smaller or later ones are thus given room to develop. No thinning is required if this plan of harvesting is practiced.--(F. B. 255; Mich. E. S. 20; U. Id. E. S. 10; N. C. E. S. 132.) SQUASH. There are two types of the squash, the bush varieties, which may be planted in hills 4 or 5 feet apart each way, and the running varieties, which will require from 8 to 16 feet for their development. Squashes may properly be grown in the garden, as 3 or 4 hills will produce all that are required for family use. They require practically the same soil and cultural methods as the muskmelon. A number of varieties are used during the summer in the same manner as vegetable marrow, but squashes are principally used during the winter, in much the same way as pumpkins, to which they are superior in many respects. Squashes are also used extensively for pie purposes. The varieties known as Hubbard and Boston Marrow are most commonly grown. Squashes, like pumpkins, should be handled carefully to avoid bruising, and should be stored in a moderately warm but well ventilated room.--(F. B. 255; Mich. E. S. 190; S. Dak. E. S. 42, 68.) STACHYS. This vegetable, known to the botanists as _Stachys sieboldi_, has been introduced into America from Japan and has a number of different names, such as Japanese potato, Chinese artichoke, chorogi, etc., but the name stachys seems to have been adopted as the common one in this country. The plant is a small perennial belonging to the mint family and produces just below the ground a multitude of small, white, crisp edible tubers, varying from an inch to two and one-half inches in length, and about one-half an inch in thickness and marked by irregular spiral rings, which give them a corkscrew-like appearance. Stachys has been tested at the New York (Cornell) and a number of the other agricultural experiment stations, and proved so easy of cultivation and pleasant in taste (the flavor resembling artichokes) that the vegetable has made many friends and is now procurable at the markets in most of our larger cities. The agreeable quality is in considerable measure due to the crispness of the tubers, and as this disappears when they are exposed to the air they should be stored in sand or sawdust. They are ready for use when the plant dies down in the autumn, though they may be easily carried over the winter and are prepared for the table like potatoes or other vegetables, or may be eaten raw like radishes.--(F. B. 295.) SWEET BASIL. The leaves are used for flavoring purposes. SWEET CORN. Plant sweet corn as soon as the soil is warm in the spring, and make successive plantings every two weeks until July, or the same result can be attained to some extent by a careful selection of early, medium, and late varieties. Plant the seeds in drills 3 feet apart and thin to a single stalk every 10 to 14 inches, or plant 5 to 6 seeds in hills 3 feet apart each way, and thin out to 3 to 5 stalks in a hill. Cover the seeds about 2 inches deep. Cultivate frequently and keep down all weeds, removing suckers from around the base of the stalk. Sweet corn should be planted on rich land, and the method of cultivation is practically the same as for field corn, but should be more thorough. There are a number of good early varieties, and for a midsummer and late sort there is none better than Stowell's Ever-green.--(F. B. 255; N. J. E. S. 199; S. Dak. E. S. 91.) SWEET MARJORAM. Leaves and ends of shoots used for seasoning. SWEET POTATO. Owing to the tropical nature of the sweet potato it naturally thrives best in the South Atlantic and Gulf Coast States, but it may be grown for home use as far north as southern New York and westward along that latitude to the Rocky Mountains. The climatic requirements for the production of sweet potatoes on a commercial scale are (1) a growing period of at least four and half months without frost, (2) warm nights and abundant sunshine during the day, and (3) a moderate rainfall during the growing period. Where irrigation is depended upon for the supply of moisture, the greatest quantity of water should be applied between the time the plants are set in the field and the time when the vines practically cover the ground. If too much water is applied during the latter part of the season the result may be an abundant growth of vine and a small yield of stringy potatoes. For some time before harvesting the crop the water should be withheld altogether, in order that the roots may ripen properly. _Soil._--Sweet potatoes thrive on a moderately fertile sandy loam which does not contain an excess of organic matter. They are frequently grown upon almost pure sand, especially where the subsoil is a yellow clay. Soils containing considerable calcium or underlain with limestone are well adapted to the growing of the crop. The sweet potato is exceptional in that a fairly good crop can be grown upon soils that are too poor for the production of the majority of farm crops. Sweet potatoes yield a fair crop on the "worn-out" tobacco and cotton lands of the South, especially when used in a rotation including some leguminous crop for increasing the humus in the soil. Like many other crops, the sweet potato thrives on newly cleared land, but the crop should not be planted continuously in the same place. With the sweet potato, as with other crops, rotation is the keynote of success. Good drainage is essential, the original idea of planting upon high ridges being for the purpose of securing better drainage. The surface soil should extend to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, and the subsoil should be of such a nature that it will carry off excessive moisture without leaching away the fertilizers applied to the land. Too great a depth of loose surface soil or an alluvial soil having no subsoil will produce long, irregular potatoes that are undesirable for marketing. Planting upon land having a loose, sandy surface soil underlain by a well-drained clay subsoil will tend to produce the type of rather thick, spindle-formed potato that commands the highest price. The depth of plowing is a prominent factor in the preparation of land for sweet potatoes, and on soils of too great depth before the subsoil is reached very shallow plowing should be practiced, leaving the soil firm beneath, against which the roots must force their way. If the surface soil is of insufficient depth, it should be gradually increased by plowing a little deeper each year or by subsoiling in the furrow behind the regular turning plow. _Fertilizers._--The root portion of the plant is the part having the greatest value, though the foliage and vines have some value as food for certain kinds of stock. It has been found that an excessive amount of organic matter in the soil will frequently produce an abundant growth of vines at the expense of the roots. It has also been noted that the potatoes will be small and the yield unsatisfactory on soils that do not contain sufficient organic matter to produce a fair growth of vine. The use of stable manure as a fertilizer for sweet potatoes is recommended on lands that are deficient in organic matter. Heavy applications of fresh manure shortly before planting the land to sweet potatoes will stimulate not only the growth of weeds but also of the vines at the expense of the roots. Well-rotted stable manure may be used at the rate of 10 to 15 carloads to the acre, spread broadcast or beneath the ridges and harrowed into the soil, but it is always well to apply the manure with the crop grown the previous season. By this method the manure will become thoroughly incorporated with the soil and become somewhat reduced before the sweet potatoes are planted upon the land. Stable manure will be found most beneficial on worn-out soils, but on the more fertile soils its use should be restricted and the method of application carefully studied. The sweet potato is one of the few crops that thrive equally as well (or better) upon commercial fertilizers as upon stable manure. A fertilizer for use on the majority of sweet potato lands should contain 3 to 6 per cent of nitrogen, 6 or 7 per cent of phosphoric acid, and 8 to 10 per cent of potash. Every grower should make a study of the requirements of his soil and apply the fertilizer that will give the best results. Many growers purchase the ingredients and mix their own special fertilizers, or use a standard fertilizer as a base and increase the percentage of certain elements by adding high-grade elementary ingredients. Some soils require that certain elements should be in a more available form than others; in the case of nitrogen it is often desirable to have a portion of that contained in the fertilizer quickly available and the remainder more slowly in order to feed the plants throughout the season. A mixture adapted to the growing of sweet potatoes on most soils may be made by combining the following: 200 pounds of high-grade sulphate of ammonia, 25 per cent pure. 200 pounds of dried blood, or 300 pounds of fish scrap. 1,200 pounds of acid phosphate, 11 per cent pure. 400 pounds of high-grade muriate of potash, 50 per cent pure. The quantity of fertilizer that may be profitably applied will be governed entirely by local conditions. Many growers do not depend upon commercial fertilizers, but merely apply from 200 to 300 pounds to each acre as a supplement to the organic matter and natural fertility of the soil. Others apply from 300 to 1,000 pounds, according to the condition of the soil, while a few growers use a ton to the acre. The general rule is to apply the fertilizer in the row where the crop is to be grown, but where large quantities are used it should be distributed at least ten days before planting and thoroughly incorporated with the soil. An application of 1,000 pounds of high-grade fertilizer placed in the row at planting time has been known to injure seriously or kill the plants. For the best results the fertilizer should be applied at least ten days before planting, or a portion of the fertilizer may be applied a month or more in advance and the remainder at the time of preparing the land for planting. Hardwood ashes are desirable for use on sweet potato land and may be applied at the rate of from 1,200 to 2,000 pounds to the acre. The value of wood ashes depends upon how much they have become leached, but hardwood ashes should contain from 6 to 8 per cent of available potash. Wood ashes also contain considerable lime. Where large quantities of any green crop are plowed into the soil there is a tendency to sourness, and occasional applications of from 1 to 2 tons of lime to the acre are beneficial. The presence of an abundance of lime in soils devoted to the growing of sweet potatoes hastens the maturity of the crop and increases the yield. On poor soils the lime and potash work together to produce potatoes of uniform size and shape, but on rich or alluvial soils the tendency is toward the production of over-large and irregular roots. The lime should be applied the previous season, or at least the autumn before planting the land to sweet potatoes. _Propagation of Plants._--The more common varieties of the sweet potato have for a great many years been propagated by cuttings, or sets, taken either from the potatoes themselves or from growing vines, and as a result the plants have ceased to flower and produce seed. The greater portion of the commercial crop is grown from sets, or "draws," produced by sprouting medium-sized potatoes in a warm bed of soil. Where only a small area of sweet potatoes is to be grown for home use, the necessary plants can generally be secured from some one who makes a business of growing them. If an acre or more is to be planted it will in most cases be more economical to prepare a bed and grow the plants. The method of starting the plants will depend upon the locality and the acreage to be planted, the essentials being a bed of warm earth and a covering to protect the young plants during the early springtime. _Selection of Seed._--The potatoes that are to serve as seed from which to grow the plants for the next season's crop should always be selected at the time of digging and housing the crop. For seed purposes it is the custom to select the medium or undersized potatoes, such as are too small for marketing. Those potatoes that will pass through a 2-inch ring or can be circled by the thumb and first finger of a man having a hand of average size are used for seed purposes. The seed potatoes should be uniform in size and of the shape desired in the following year's crop. The seed should be free from cuts, bruises, decay, or disease of any kind. Throughout the handling of the seed potatoes they should not receive any treatment that would break eggs. The seed should always be handled and kept separate from the regular crop. The oftener the seed is handled the greater the danger of decay, and it should not be sorted over until everything is ready for bedding. The best seed is grown from cuttings taken from the regular plants after they have begun to form vines. These cuttings produce large numbers of medium or small-sized potatoes that are free from diseases and adapted for use as seed the following year. _Hotbeds._--Toward the northern part of the area over which sweet potatoes are grown it is necessary to start the plants in a hotbed in order that the length of season may be sufficient to mature the crop. The roots that are too small for marketing are used for seed, and these are bedded close together in the hotbed and covered with about 2 inches of sand or fine soil, such as leaf mold. The seed should be bedded about five or six weeks before it will be safe to set the plants in the open ground, which is usually about May 15 or May 20. Toward the last the hotbed should be ventilated very freely in order to harden off the plants. _Drawing the Sets._--As a general rule sweet potato plants are set in the field shortly after a rain. In order to avoid delay in planting, the hands should begin to get out the sets as soon as the rain ceases falling and place them in crates or baskets ready for transportation to the field. The sets are not all produced at once, and only those that have formed good roots are "drawn," the others being left until later. In drawing the sets the seed potato is held down with one hand while the plants are removed with the thumb and finger of the other hand. It often happens that five or six plants will cling together at the base, and these should be separated in order to avoid loss of time in the field. The roots should all be kept in one direction, and if the tops are long or irregular they may be trimmed off even by means of a knife. While drawing the sets it is a good plan to have at hand a large pail or tub containing water to which there has been added a quantity of clay and cow manure which has been stirred until it forms a thin slime. As the plants are pulled from the bed they are taken in small bunches and their roots dipped into this mixture. This process, termed "puddling," covers the roots with a coating which not only prevents their becoming dry in handling but insures a direct contact with the soil when they are planted in the field or garden. After removing the sets that are ready, the bed should be watered to settle the soil where it has become disturbed and then left for the younger plants to develop. _Packing for Shipment._--In preparing sweet potato plants for shipment or for sale, they are "drawn" from the bed and tied in bunches of 100 each with soft string. Sweet potato plants will not withstand excessive moisture and should always be packed while the tops are dry. A little damp moss or paper may be placed in the crate or basket and the roots bedded in it, but the tops should remain dry and have free ventilation. If the roots of sweet potato plants are carefully puddled without the mixture coming in contact with the tops, they will keep in good condition for a week or ten days. _Preparation of Land._--The character of soil devoted to sweet potato culture is generally quite easy to prepare. In preparing land for planting to sweet potatoes the plowing and fitting are practically the same as for corn. It should be borne in mind, however, that the work necessary for thorough preparation will be well repaid by the increased ease in handling the crop later. It is always desirable that a crop like sweet potatoes be grown as a part of the regular farm rotation. In the northern portion of the sweet-potato-growing area the crop will occupy the land the entire growing season, and a three or four year rotation should be practiced. Where the climate will permit, a crop of early snap beans, peas, or cabbage may precede the sweet potatoes, but in any case the land should not be planted to sweet potatoes oftener than once every three years. A good rotation is to devote the land to corn one year, sowing crimson clover in the alleys between the rows at the time the corn is given the last cultivation. During the following spring the crimson clover should be turned under and sweet potatoes planted; then in the autumn, after the potatoes are harvested, the land may be plowed, fitted and sown to rye or winter oats with plenty of grass seed. In this way a crop of grain may be obtained during the time that the grass is becoming established. Allow the land to remain in grass one or two years and then repeat the rotation. Where corn is followed by sweet potatoes in the rotation, stable manure should be applied while fitting the land for the corn, and commercial fertilizers should be applied with the sweet potato crop. The usual depth of plowing in preparing land for corn will prove satisfactory for sweet potatoes. The fact that sweet potatoes are not planted in the field until quite late in the spring makes it possible for the grower to select a time when conditions are favorable for the preparation of the land. Plowing may be deferred until the soil has become sufficiently dry to break up fine and mellow. It is important that the land should be harrowed within a few hours after plowing; further fitting may be deferred until later, and if the soil is inclined to be lumpy the work of pulverizing may best be done shortly after a shower and while the lumps are mellow. When the primary work of preparation is finished, the soil should be mellow to a depth of 6 or 7 inches and the surface smooth and even. Subsequent handling of the soil preparatory to planting will depend upon whether ridge or level culture is to be followed. _Preparation for Planting._--After plowing and fitting the land it is generally allowed to lie several days before being put in shape for planting. If level culture is to be practiced, the only thing necessary will be to run the harrow over the soil once and then mark in both directions at the desired distances for planting. The marking is generally done with either a one-horse plow, a flat-soled marker, or a disk marker. The disk marker is well adapted to this work, as it throws up a slight ridge which furnishes fresh earth in which to plant. Some growers who practice level culture mark the ground with a small one-horse plow and throw up a slight ridge upon which to plant; behind the plow a roller is used to compress this ridge to a low, flat elevation. Where the more universal ridge method of planting is employed the soil is thrown up by means of a turning plow or a disk machine. The ridges should be made at least one week before planting, in order that the soil may become settled and compact. The majority of sweet-potato growers make the ridges whenever the land is in good condition to work and then either roll or drag the tops just ahead of the planters. _Setting the Plants._--The success of the crop depends largely upon the way in which the plants start after being removed from the bed and set in the field or garden. Practical growers always plan to set the plants during a "season" or period when the conditions are suitable to a quick start into growth, either just before a rain or as soon afterward as the soil can be worked. The method of setting will depend entirely upon local conditions and the acreage to be grown, the essential features, however, being to get the roots in contact with moist earth and the soil firmly pressed about the plants. The use of water around the roots of the plants is desirable under most circumstances, as it not only moistens the soil but assists in settling it about the roots. A large quantity of water is not necessary, one-half pint to each plant being generally considered sufficient. Where level culture is practiced, the plants are set from 24 to 30 inches apart in each direction. On the eastern shore of Virginia the greater portion of the crop is planted 24 inches apart each way, requiring about 11,000 plants to an acre. By planting 30 inches apart each way, only about 7,000 plants are required to set one acre. Where the crop is grown on ridges it is customary to have the ridges from 36 to 42 inches apart from center to center and to place the plants 14 to 18 inches apart in the row. By this method an acre will require from 8,000 to 12,500 plants. An acre of good sweet potato land will readily support 9,000 to 11,000 plants, and the number most commonly planted by the several methods will fall within these figures. _Cultivation._--The methods of handling a crop of sweet potatoes do not differ materially from those employed with ordinary farm and garden crops. Within a few days after planting, a sweep or one-horse plow should be run in the alleys to break out the strip of earth left in ridging. The loose earth in the alleys should be worked toward the rows until a broad, flat ridge is formed upon which a small-tooth cultivator can be run quite close to the plants. After each rain or irrigation the soil should receive a shallow cultivation, and during dry weather frequent cultivations are necessary in order to retain moisture. About two hand hoeings are generally necessary in order to keep the rows free from weeds and the soil loose around the plants. As hand labor is expensive, it should be the aim to perform the greater part of the work by means of horse tools. Where sweet potatoes are planted in check rows and worked in both directions the hand work required will be reduced to a minimum, but a certain amount of hoeing is always necessary. When the vines begin to interfere with further cultivation the crop may be "laid by," i. e., given a final working in which the soil is drawn well up over the ridges and the vines then allowed to take full possession of the land. To do this it is often necessary to turn the vines first to one side of the row and then to the other by means of a stick or a wooden rake. After "laying by," very little attention is required until time for harvesting the crop. _Harvesting._--The harvesting and marketing of sweet potatoes direct from the field begins about the middle of August and continues until the crop is all disposed of or placed in storage for winter marketing. During the early part of the harvesting season the yield is light, but as a rule the prices paid are good. The supply for home use and those potatoes that are to be kept in storage should not be dug until just before frost. In the localities where frosts do not occur until quite late in the season the sweet potatoes ripen and the vines show a slight tinge of yellow when ready for handling. _Effect of frost._--The foliage of the sweet potato is very tender and is easily injured by frost. A light frosting of the leaves will do no harm, but should the vines become frozen before digging they should be cut away to prevent the frozen sap passing down to the roots and injuring them. Where there is a heavy yield of potatoes the soil is frequently cracked or the ends of the potatoes protrude above ground and are liable to injury from severe frost. If on account of rainy weather or for any other cause the potatoes can not be dug before frost or immediately afterwards, the vines should be cut away and the potatoes removed at the first opportunity. If cold weather continues it may be necessary to draw a little extra soil over the hills to protect the potatoes, or the vines may be piled in a ridge over the row. A very slight frosting of the potatoes will cause them to decay within a short time after being placed in storage. It is desirable that the soil should be comparatively dry at the time of harvesting sweet potatoes, and bright, drying weather is essential to the proper handling of the crop. Sweet potatoes differ from Irish potatoes in that they are not so easily injured by sunlight. However, they should not be exposed for any length of time if the sunshine is very warm. During the handling in the field it should be the purpose to remove all soil and surface moisture from the potatoes. Sweet potatoes should not lie exposed upon the surface of the ground during the night. _Grading and Packing._--In sorting sweet potatoes preparatory to packing, about four grades are recognized, as fancy, primes, seconds and culls. Those packed as fancy include only the most select, both in size and shape. The primes include all those adapted to general first-class trade, while the seconds include the smaller and more irregular stock which goes to a lower priced trade. The culls are not marketed unless good stock is exceedingly scarce, and as a rule are used for feeding to hogs. Sweet potatoes are usually shipped in barrels holding eleven pecks each. Some markets require that the barrels be faced and headed, while for others the tops are slightly rounded and covered with burlap. Small lots of extra-fancy sweet potatoes are sometimes shipped in one-bushel crates having raised tops; also in patent folding crates. Throughout the process of handling care must be exercised to see that the sweet potatoes do not become bruised, for upon this their shipping and keeping qualities greatly depend. _Storage._--Unlike most perishable products, the sweet potato requires warmth and a dry atmosphere while in storage. The method of storing will depend both upon the locality and the quantity of potatoes to be cared for. The temperature and conditions of a rather cool living room are admirably adapted for keeping sweet potatoes intended for home use in the North, while in the South they may be placed in pits or stored in outdoor cellars. The home supply may be placed in crates and stored in a loft over the kitchen part of the dwelling. Sweet potatoes should not be stored in bags or in barrels without ventilation. The seed stock for planting the following year should be selected and stored separately in a small bin. As the potatoes are separated into their respective grades they are put into baskets and carried to the bins. Some growers prefer to do the grading in the field, but this necessitates the employment of a larger percentage of expert labor and delays the work of getting the potatoes hauled to the storehouse. Women and children can pick up the potatoes in the field, and two or three experienced men can do the sorting and grading at the house in a much shorter time and in a more satisfactory manner. Before starting to fill a bin, 2 or 3 inches of dry pine needles, straw, or chaff should be placed upon the floor. Beginning at the back of the bin the potatoes are piled to a depth of 30 or 40 inches until the entire floor space is covered and a number of slats are required to be placed across the doorway opening. A few grain bags filled with straw should be placed upon the potatoes at intervals from front to back of the bin, and upon these planks on which the men may walk while carrying in the next layer of potatoes may be laid. In this way a bin may be filled to a depth of 8 or 9 feet by about three layers. By dumping them in layers the potatoes have an opportunity to become thoroughly dry before a new layer is placed over them. _Temperature and Ventilation of Storage Houses._--Two or three days before beginning to bring in the potatoes, the storage house should be thoroughly cleaned and the heating appliance put in working order and started, in order to have the house both warm and dry when the crop comes in. Throughout the time of storing and for about ten days after the potatoes are all in the bins a temperature of 85° or 90° F. should be maintained in the house, with plenty of ventilation. This constitutes what is known as the sweating or curing process, and the keeping qualities of the potatoes depend upon the thoroughness with which this part of the work is done. Wood-burning stoves are frequently employed for heating sweet potato storage houses, but a hot-water boiler with coils of pipes along the walls of the building is very satisfactory. After the crop is all in and thoroughly cured, the temperature of the storage house should be gradually lowered and may vary between 55° and 65° F., but considerable ventilation should be maintained. Sweet potatoes should be handled very carefully and as few times as possible, the essentials to good keeping being a reasonable degree of warmth, a dry atmosphere, and careful handling. Great care should be taken with the seed for the next year's planting to see that it is carefully handled and properly stored. While a temperature of 80° or 85° F. is required to properly start the seed into growth in the spring, a higher temperature during a long period of time in storage is liable to injure or even kill the buds. Potatoes intended for seed should not be stored in too great quantities, and where but a small supply is needed they can often be kept buried in dry sand after having first been thoroughly cured. The sand used for this purpose should be baked to insure the driving off of moisture, and may be placed around the potatoes while slightly warm. In controlling the ventilation of the storage house during the winter months, outside air should be admitted only when quite dry and when its temperature is lower than that of the air in the storage house. If warm, moist air is admitted considerable moisture will be deposited upon the potatoes, thus injuring their keeping qualities. _Loss from Shrinkage in Storage._--Under proper storage conditions sweet potatoes will shrink from 6 to 10 per cent, but the loss in weight will be greater if the temperature of the house is carried too high. If the potatoes are not mature when dug from the field the loss from shrinkage may be as much as 15 per cent, and immature stock should be marketed early in the winter. _Marketing During Winter Months._--For marketing from outside pits it is desirable to have the quantity stored in one pit small enough to permit of all being removed at one time. The potatoes may be removed from outdoor cellars as desired. In marketing from heated storage houses the potatoes should not be disturbed until they are barreled or crated, and then they should be placed directly upon the market and sold without delay. When shipping during cold weather the barrels should at least be lined with paper, and a covering of heavy brown paper over the outside of the barrels will form a safeguard. If the potatoes are shipped in carload lots during the winter the cars should be either of the regular refrigerator type or felt lined. _Varieties._--Of the large number of varieties of the sweet potato there are not more than ten that are now of great commercial importance in the United States. For the markets that require a dry, mealy-fleshed potato those varieties belonging to the Jersey group are suitable. For the southern trade and where a moist-fleshed potato is desired those commonly designated as yams are in demand. Among the Jerseys that are extensively grown are the Big-Stem Jersey, the Yellow Jersey and the Red Jersey. The principal varieties of the yam group are the Southern Queen, the Pumpkin Yam, the Georgia, the Florida, and the Red Bermuda. Of the varieties mentioned there are a large number of special strains, known under many local names. In the selection of varieties for home use one must be governed largely by locality. As a rule those of the Jersey group will thrive farther north than those of the so-called yam types. For market purposes the particular variety or strain grown in the vicinity should first be selected, and afterward other varieties may be experimented with in a small way.--(F. B. 255, 295, 324; Tuskegee E. S. 2, 10, 17; Ariz. E. S. 86; N. Mex. E. S. 70; S. Car. E. S. 5, 136; S. Dak. E. S. 91.) SWISS CHARD. The part eaten is not the root, but the midrib of the leaf which is prepared much the same as asparagus. The flavor is distinct from that of the ordinary beet root. Give the same culture as required for beets. The soil should be richer. In the fall cover with straw. This will aid an early growth and help blanch the stems. This is a very valuable plant and should be cultivated more extensively. THYME. The leaves are used for seasoning, and a tea is also made therefrom for nervous headache. TOMATOES. Because of the tropical origin of the tomato it requires a long season for its growth and development, and on this account it is necessary in the Northern States, in order to secure paying crops, to resort to methods which lengthen the growing season. It is much easier for the gardener to accomplish this while the plant is small than when it is large, and because early fruits are as a rule more valuable than late ones it is of advantage to the gardener to secure his crop as early in the season as practicable. The season is, therefore, lengthened at the beginning rather than at the end. This is accomplished by sowing seeds in hotbeds or greenhouses several weeks in advance of the time when they could be safely planted in the open. _The Tomato as a Field Crop at the North._--East of the Mississippi River and north of the latitude of Washington, D. C., the tomato is handled as an annual, the seeds being sown in hotbeds about the middle of March. The young plants, as soon as they have developed their first true leaves, are transplanted to stand about 2 inches apart each way and are allowed to develop in these quarters until they have attained a height of from 4 to 6 inches and the leaves begin to crowd considerably. They are then transplanted to pots, 3 or 4 inches in diameter. _Training Plants to Stakes._--For earliest returns it is desirable to train forced plants to a single stem by tying them to a stake 4 or 5 feet in height. These stakes should be driven firmly into the ground beside the plants and the plants carefully tied to them to prevent whipping and to keep the fruits off the ground. All side shoots should be kept pinched out and only the central leading stem allowed to develop to bring larger results. If the plants are to be trained in this way they can be set from 18 inches to 2 feet apart in the row, and about 3-1/2 to 4 feet between the rows. _Training Plants on Frames._--Another plan sometimes followed in the training of tomatoes is to place a flaring frame, about 18 inches square at the base and 24 inches square at the top over the plants before they begin to spread. The shoots as they become heavy with fruit fall over against the sides of the rack and are prevented from coming in contact with the earth. For a kitchen garden where but few plants are grown this is a very satisfactory plan. The plants can be set somewhat closer than is the case where no supports are provided. For commercial plantations, however, the cost of the frames is prohibitive. The common commercial practice is to place the plants about 4 feet apart each way in check rows so as to allow them to be cultivated in both directions. Under intensive cultivation in a small garden, however, the first method, that of tying the vines to stakes, will be found very satisfactory. Where tomatoes are grown on a large scale and where the product brings only a small price per bushel, expensive methods of handling and training can not be profitably followed. The common practice in growing tomatoes for the general market and for canning purposes in localities north of New York City is to sow the seed very thinly in a hotbed about March 15 and allow the plants to grow slowly without transplanting them until they can be put in the field about June 1. The plants, even with the most careful attention, when grown under these conditions will become long and thin stemmed, with a small tuft of leaves at the top. _Setting the Plants._--Plants more than a foot high which have been grown under these conditions should be treated somewhat as follows: Instead of attempting to set the plant deeply and maintain it in an upright position, remove all except three or four of the top-most leaves about the growing point. Dig a shallow trench along the row--a trench 3 or 4 inches deep--slightly sloping from a deep point at one end to the surface of the ground at the other. Place the bare stem of the tomato and the root in this trench, with the root in the deepest portion, cover the stem throughout its length with fresh soil, and pack this firmly. Under these conditions the plant will take root throughout the length of the buried stem, and in a short time the added root system which is thus given the plant will force it into vigorous growth. Plants of this character which are to be grown on an extensive scale are never trained. They are allowed to grow at will, and the fruits are gathered as they ripen without special attention to keep them off the ground or otherwise to care for them. _Length of Season._--The season of fruit production is longer in the higher than in the lower latitudes. This is a rather interesting and unexpected condition. Normally one would expect to find that the tomato would begin maturing its fruit earlier and would continue bearing longer in the latitude of the city of Washington than it would in the latitude of Boston; but this is not the case. Tomatoes in the latitude of Washington and south of this point come into bearing, quickly produce a heavy flush of fruit, and then refuse to do more, and in order to have a continuous supply throughout the season it is necessary for market gardeners and truckers to plant seeds in succession so as to keep up a continuous supply. _Fertilizers._--Since the tomato is grown exclusively for its fruit, those fertilizers which induce a large growth of plant and foliage are not desirable in the production of this crop. Soils vary greatly in regard to the quantity of available plant food they contain. The use of a fertilizer is determined largely by the character, mechanical condition, and composition of the soil. If a soil is deficient in all the essential elements of plant food--nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid--the application of any one or even two of them will not materially influence the yield of the crop. On the other hand, on soils deficient only in potash or phosphoric acid, or both, little would be gained by adding nitrogen, which is already in excess, to the other element or elements to be applied. Economy of operation, as well as the general effect upon the soil, must also be considered. This may be influenced by the character of the season, but should be based on the increased yield and increased net receipts of the crop. As a general rule, readily soluble, "quick-acting" fertilizers which produce an early growth and early ripening of the crop are most desirable. Heavy dressings of stable manure tend to produce too much vine, and are seldom or never employed. If stable manure is used it is at a moderate rate, usually not more than one or two shovelfuls to a plant. This, if well decomposed and thoroughly incorporated with the soil, is very stimulating to the young plant and consequently very beneficial. Any fertilizer used should be applied, in part at least, at the time the plants are transplanted to the field. _Cultivation._--As soon as the young seedling plants from the hotbed or greenhouse are transferred to the field they should be given clean cultivation with implements which stir the surface of the soil but do not produce ridges or furrows. When the plants are set in check rows 4 feet apart each way it is possible in field culture to keep the plantation almost free from weeds by the use of horse hoes. If, however, the plants are set so that cultivation can be carried on only in one direction, hand hoeing will be necessary to keep down weeds between the plants in the row. Where land is not expensive, and where labor costs heavily, the cost of producing a crop of tomatoes can be decidedly lessened by planting in check rows and carrying on the cultivation by horsepower. The grower should bear in mind, however, that the object of cultivation is not merely to kill weeds. The destruction of weeds is an important factor and in itself sufficient to justify clean culture, but the preservation of a soil mulch for the purpose of husbanding the moisture of the soil during periods of drought is of even greater value. With care in the choice of implements both results can be attained with the same expenditure of labor. _Harvesting and Marketing._--The fruits should be gathered two or three times a week if the tomato is grown as a truck crop. When used for canning purposes the harvesting periods need not be quite so close, and when the fruits are to be shipped some distance they should be gathered as soon as partially colored, instead of allowing them to become colored on the vine. The fruit of the tomato is velvet green up to the time the ripening process begins, and at this stage, if the products are to be shipped long distances, the fruits should be harvested. For home markets, however, the fruits should be allowed to ripen upon the plant. In harvesting, none except sound fruits of a similar stage of maturity should be harvested and packed in any one receptacle. Leaky fruits and deformed fruits should be rejected. In packing tomatoes for the market, those that are symmetrical in form and uniform in size and of a like degree of ripeness should be selected for filling any one receptacle. _Varieties for the North._--There are a large number of sorts of tomatoes, each one possessing some points of merit or difference which distinguish it from all others. These differences enable the intelligent cultivator to select sorts for special purposes, as well as for special soils and climates. The varying demands of the markets and the different soil and climatic conditions presented in the various sections of the United States where the tomato is grown can only be satisfied by a variety list as variable as are the conditions. Early ripening sorts are frequently irregular in shape, have comparatively thin walls, large seed cavities, and numerous seeds. The fruit is apt to color and ripen unevenly, remaining green around the stem, or to contain a hard green core. Later-ripening sorts, while not all superior to the others, have as a rule thicker and firmer walls, smaller seed cavities, and few seeds. The most highly developed varieties now make few seeds and ripen evenly. These characteristics of the fruits are important factors in determining their fitness for special purposes. Medium-sized, smooth, spherical fruits, which ripen evenly and have small seed cavities and thick walls are especially suited to long-distance shipment. These qualities should enter into every sort selected to the greatest possible degree consistent with earliness, lateness, heavy yield, or any other special quality which gives the variety a marked commercial advantage. The following list is made up of varieties possessing some markedly distinct character, such as earliness, great size, purple, red, or yellow color, dwarf habit, etc.: _Early Ripening Varieties._--Sparks' Earliana, Atlantic Prize, Early Freedom. _Large-Fruited Varieties._--Ponderosa, Beefsteak. _Purple-Fruited Varieties._--Beauty, Acme, Imperial. _Red-Fruited Varieties._--Favorite (late), Honor Bright, Matchless, Stone, Royal Red, New Jersey. _Yellow-Fruited Varieties._--Golden Queen, Lemon Blush. _Dwarf or Tree Types._--Dwarf Champion, Station Upright Tree, Aristocrat. _Potato-Leaf Types._--Livingston's Potato-Leaf, Mikado, Turner's Hybrid. _The Tomato as a Field Crop at the South._--Commercial tomato growing in the Southern States is almost exclusively confined to the production of tomatoes at a season when they can not be grown at the North, except in greenhouses. On this account the commercial production of this crop is restricted to areas where there is very little, if any, freezing during the winter months. _Time of Planting._--At the extreme southern limit of the commercial cultivation of this crop in Florida the plants are grown so as to be ready for setting in the open about December 1. The date of seed sowing advances as the cultivation of the crop progresses northward, so that in northern Florida the seeds are sown early in January and the young plants placed in the field in March. Where frost conditions do not form barriers against the production of seedling plants in the open, the seed beds for the young plants are prepared in some sheltered situation where partial shade can be given and where the seed bed can be frequently watered. The young plants, as soon as they have attained the proper size--that is, from 6 to 10 inches in height--are transferred to the field in practically the same manner as are the hotbed-grown plants produced for general field culture at the North, and except for a specially early crop they are not transplanted or potted. The young seedlings in the cold frame will require careful attention in the way of watering and ventilation; otherwise many plants will be lost by damping off or from sun-scorching during bright days unless the sash are lifted or entirely removed. _Yield._--The yield of fruit in the South, under the conditions mentioned, is much less than it is in regions having the long growing periods characteristic of higher latitudes. Yields vary from 75 to 250 bushels to the acre, but the high price obtained for the fruits which are thus produced at a season when the sole competition comes from the products of northern greenhouses renders the crop, when well handled, very remunerative. _Soil._--The soil which is preferred for the production of this crop is one which contains a comparatively high percentage of sand. In this region sandy loam or a sandy soil is preferred to bottom land for the cultivation of tomatoes. An area with a gentle slope to the south is considered more desirable than that with other exposure. If a wind-break can be secured along the north and west sides of the area very early crops can frequently be preserved through a wind-storm when the temperature, while not low enough to freeze the plants, will, when accompanied by a high wind, chill and destroy them. _Varieties for the South._--In the South, where the tomato is handled as a short-season crop, certain varieties are found to give best results in certain districts. Along the Atlantic seaboard the growers of tomatoes use such sorts as Beauty, Stone, Perfection, Aristocrat, and Paragon. In the truck regions of eastern Texas the Dwarf Champion is perhaps more universally grown than any other variety, but in this same region the Success is found to be a more profitable late-season or fall crop than the Champion. _Forcing Tomatoes._--In the forcing of plants, which means the growing of a plant out of its natural season and in an artificial environment, the first requirement for success is a properly constructed protective structure or greenhouse. Because of the tropical nature of the tomato more than ordinary provisions must be made in order to meet the demands of this crop. In the forcing of most vegetables a lower temperature and benches without bottom heat are satisfactory, but with the tomato the house must be piped so as to maintain a minimum temperature of 65 degrees F., and the benches should be so constructed as to admit of applying bottom heat. _Type of Greenhouse._--The type of house that is generally employed for the forcing of tomatoes is the even-span or a three-fourths span house. If the even-span house is used it is preferable to have the ridge running north and south; if the three-fourths span house is employed it is best to have the long side sloping toward the south. The tomato when grown in the forcing house, because of its long fruiting season and the fact that its clusters of fruit are borne one above the other, requires a considerable amount of head room. Low houses are therefore not desirable in the production of this crop. The side walls of a house designed for the forcing of tomatoes should be at least 4 feet in height, and the distance from the top of the middle bench to the ridge of the house should be at least 10 feet. _Soil._--The soil for the production of this crop should be well decomposed loam, made, if possible, from sods from an old pasture, the soil of which is a rather light clay loam or a heavy sandy loam. With this should be incorporated about one-fourth its bulk of well-rotted stable manure, preferably cow manure. By composting these two materials for from four to six months before they are required for use a very satisfactory soil for the forcing of tomatoes will result. Care should be exercised to allow the soil that is used for forcing tomatoes to be frozen each year. The depth of soil required for the successful growth of tomatoes is considerably more than that employed for roses, although the temperature and other requirements are very similar to those demanded by the rose. While 4 or 5 inches of soil are adequate to produce a crop of roses, the soil for tomatoes should be at least 6 or 8 inches in depth; 8 inches is preferable. It is not well to allow the soil to remain in the greenhouse longer than a single season. It becomes somewhat exhausted and is likely to become infested with injurious forms of life, particularly nematodes, which cause root-knots upon the tomato plants, thus defeating the work of the gardener. This trouble, however, can be easily overcome by subjecting the soil to freezing. _Seedling Plants._--Two types of plants are used for forcing purposes--seedling plants and cutting plants. The former are, of course, seedlings grown from seed especially sown for the purpose of raising plants to be grown in a greenhouse. It is customary in the latitude of New York and northward to sow the seed for a forcing crop of tomatoes in the month of August. The young seedling plants, as soon as they develop the first true leaves, are then transplanted from the seed bed to small pots, preferably 3-inch pots. They are planted deeply at this time and are kept growing rapidly but not sufficiently to produce a soft, succulent growth. As soon as the 3-inch pots are filled with roots the plants are shifted to 4-inch pots, and when the plants have attained a height of 12 or 15 inches, and have developed their first blossoms, they are usually placed on the benches of the greenhouse, where they are to produce their crop. The plants are then set 15 or 18 inches apart each way in a soil prepared as previously described. _Cutting Plants._--Cuttings should be taken from strong, healthy, vigorous-growing plants in the field, and placed in the cutting bed about the last of August, where they will quickly take root. As soon as the roots have developed to a length of from one-half to 1 inch the young plants are shifted to 3 or 4 inch pots, where they are allowed to develop until the blossom buds are well formed or the blossoms have expanded, when they should be planted on the bench where they are to mature their crop, in like manner as noted for seedling plants. _Pollination._--In the field, where the tomato plants are exposed to the action of wind and to the visits of insects, no special attention is necessary in order to secure the pollination of the flowers and the setting of the fruits. Under the conditions existing in a greenhouse, however, it is necessary to artificially pollinate the flowers of the tomato; otherwise only a very small percentage of fruits will set and the object of the work will be defeated. It is therefore necessary to allow the temperature of the house to become quite high in the middle of the day on bright sunshiny days while the plants are in bloom, and to pass through the house at this time with a little stick, 18 inches or 2 feet in length, with which to strike the supporting strings or wires and thus to set the plants in motion and liberate the pollen and cause it to fertilize the flowers. A more satisfactory way, however, is to use a watch glass, 1-1/4 or 1-12 inches in diameter, embedded in putty, at the end of a handle composed of a light material, preferably white pine, which shall be 12 or 18 inches long. Grasp this spatula in the left hand and, with a light pine stick of equal length in the right hand, pass through the house, tapping each open flower lightly with the wand, at the same time holding the watch glass under the flowers to catch the pollen. Before removing the watch glass from this position lift it sufficiently to cause the stigma of the flower to dip into the pollen contained in the glass. By carefully going through the house from day to day during the blooming period nearly 90 per cent of the blossoms which develop can be caused to set. During dark, cloudy, stormy weather, however, a smaller percentage of plants will be fertilized than during bright, comparatively dry weather. The conditions in the greenhouse can not be modified so as to entirely overcome the adverse conditions existing on the outside, although with care much can be done in this direction. _Manuring._--It is desirable to keep plants of the tomato which are designed for forcing growing at a moderately rapid rate throughout the whole forcing period. Growth should be strong and robust at all times, yet slow enough to produce close-jointed plants which bear their fruit clusters at near intervals. There is considerable difference in varieties of tomatoes in this respect, and those which naturally bear their fruit clusters close together should be selected for forcing purposes. The manuring of the plants should, therefore, take a form which will be conducive to this strong, vigorous growth, yet not sufficiently heavy to produce plants which run to wood at the expense of fruit bearing. _Ventilating and Watering._--If careful attention is given to keeping the plants in a healthy condition by never allowing them to suffer from overwatering or from becoming too dry, and if sufficient ventilation is given without allowing draughts of cold air upon the plants, much can be done to prevent the development of mildew. If the plants are to be sprayed it should be done once a week or once in ten days, and then only in the mornings of bright days. Ordinarily, however, the atmosphere of the house should be kept dry rather than moist, as a very moist atmosphere is liable to produce a soft, succulent growth, which brings on a disease known to gardeners as oedema. This, however, can be prevented by care in keeping the house rather dry. The temperature of the house, too, should not be allowed to fluctuate through too wide a range. The night temperature for tomatoes should range between 65° and 68° F., while the day temperature should run from 70° to 80° F. _Varieties for Forcing._--The comparatively limited use of tomatoes for forcing purposes in this country has not resulted in the development of many sorts especially suited for this purpose. The Lorillard is the one American sort which is now almost exclusively confined to this use, and it is perhaps more generally cultivated in forcing houses than any other single variety. _The Tomato as a Field Crop for Canneries._--Owing to the fact that in canned tomatoes it is difficult for the average consumer to note any deficiencies in the appearance of the original fruit, many labor under the delusion that any variety will answer for this purpose. This is a mistaken idea, as quality in canned goods is now an important factor, and it is quite as necessary that a good quality of product should be used for canning as for growing for the early or general market, although from the field side it is natural that tonnage should be a primary consideration. In the matter of varieties, as in the case of early tomatoes, too much dependence should not be placed upon the name or upon the fact that a neighboring farmer secures good results from a given variety. There are so many variations in the character of soils, even in the same locality, which exert an influence upon the size and quality of crop that the best variety is usually one that is, in part at least, developed by the individual grower. The main point is to select varieties that produce large, smooth, solid fruits, which do not remain green or crack on the shaded side near the stem. Those which possess size as their chief characteristic are frequently of poor quality, as they are likely to possess large seed cavities and to ripen unevenly. The conditions in some sections are such as to prevent the canners from making as much distinction between good and poor varieties as they would like. Canneries are in a measure obliged to receive all that come, unless they can control absolutely the land upon which the crop is grown. The variation in the quality of the crops of different farmers will make a difference of from 25 to 40 cans on a ton of fruit, or from 6 to 10 per cent--a very considerable item. In good seasons and with good fruit 400 cans may be regarded as the maximum number to be derived from a ton, though late in the season, and with poor varieties, as already stated, the pack from a ton is very much less. The interests of the grower and the canner are really identical in this regard. An improvement in the quality of the fruit will result in an improvement of the canned product and a consequent increase in the price of both the raw and manufactured products. Less expense is involved in growing suitable plants for cannery purposes than for other crops. This is due to the fact that earliness is not so important a factor as it is in the market garden crop. _Fertilizing and Cultivating the Soil._--In manuring and fertilizing, the character of the crop and the season of its growth should be remembered. Hence, recommendations that were made for an early crop do not apply in all cases except perhaps on the poorer classes of soils. In the first place, the plants are not put in the soil until summer, when the conditions are most favorable for the rapid change of organic forms of nitrogen into nitrates, and thus, if the soil has been manured or is naturally rich in vegetable matter, the additional application of nitrogen in immediately available forms is not so important. In the second place, the object of the growth is not early maturity, but the largest yield of mature fruit. _Setting and Cultivating the Plants._--The plants should be set from 4 to 4-1/2 feet apart each way and cultivation should begin immediately. The first cultivation should be deep, in order to conserve the moisture, and each subsequent cultivation shallower, in order not to destroy the roots, which will fill the soil as soon as the plants reach maturity. The crop in good seasons should begin to ripen in August, and picking will continue from that time until the last of September. _Cost, Yield, and Value of Crop._--The cost of production per acre is much less for fruit for canning than in the case of early tomatoes, the chief difference being in the production of the plants. The several items may be classified as follows: _Cost of growing an acre of tomatoes for canning:_ Plants $ 2.00 Manures and fertilizers 8.00 Preparation of land, setting plants and cultivation 8.00 Picking and carting 10.00 _____ Total $28.00 The yield, as in the case of the early tomatoes, varies widely, ranging from 5 to as high as 20 tons per acre, even 30 tons per acre having been reported in exceptional cases, although the average for a series of years on average land will probably be under 8 tons. Where all conditions are carefully observed, 20-ton yields are frequently obtained, and at the prices received at the cannery, ranging from $5 to $7.50 per ton, according to the locality, the crop is a fairly good one and the net profits are quite as large as for other field crops. TURNIPS. A great variety of turnips is grown throughout temperate climates, some of which being coarse in texture are used as food for farm animals while other varieties are raised as table vegetables. There is considerable variation in the color, flavor, and composition of the turnip, the yellow-fleshed sorts as a group being commonly distinguished from the white by the name "Swedes" or "ruta-bagas." In the summer the early white varieties are usually preferred in spite of the fact that they are more watery, while in winter the yellow turnips are more commonly used. The turnip requires a rich soil, and may be grown either as an early or a late crop. For an early crop, sow the seeds in drills 12 to 18 inches apart as early in the spring as the condition of the soil will permit. Two pounds of seed are required to plant an acre. After the plants appear, thin to about 3 inches. The roots will be ready for use before hot weather. For late turnips the seeds are usually sown broadcast on land from which some early crop has been removed, generally during July or August, but later in the South. Turnips are quite hardy, and the roots need not be gathered until after several frosts. Turnips may be stored in a cellar or buried in a pit outside. Before storing, the tops should be removed.--(F. B. 255, 295; U. Id. E. S. 10; Mich. E. S. 20.) VEGETABLE MARROW. The so-called vegetable marrows are a valuable product and closely allied to the pumpkin, both as to species and habit of growth, the principal difference being that the vegetable marrows are used while quite young and tender, and may be baked and served very much the same as sweet potatoes. The vegetable marrows should receive thorough cultivation in order that a tender product may be secured, and should be gathered while the outside skin is still so tender that it may easily be broken by the finger nail. The flesh is either boiled and mashed or baked in the oven and served with butter while hot.--(F. B. 255; Oreg. E. S. B. 74.) _Quantity of Seeds or Number of Plants Required for a Row 100 Feet in Length, with Distances to Plant, Times for Planting, and Period Required for Production of Crop_. Brackets indicate that a late or second crop may be planted the same season. --------------------+---------------+------------------------------------------+-------------+-----------------------------------------------+-----------------+ | | Distance for plants to stand---- | | Time of planting in open ground. | | | Seeds or +---------------------------+--------------+ Depth +------------------------+----------------------+ Ready for use | | plants | Rows apart. | | of | | | after planting. | Kind of vegetable. | required +-------------+-------------+ Plants | planting. | South | North | | | for 100 feet | Horse | Hand | apart | | | | | | of row. | cultivation.| cultivation.| in rows. | | | | | --------------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------+ Artichoke, Globe | 1/2 ounce | 3 to 4 ft.| 2 to 3 ft. | 2 to 3 ft. | 1 to 2 in. | Spring | Early spring | 15 months. | Artichoke, Jerusalem| 2 qts. tubers | 3 to 4 ft.| 1 to 2 ft. | 1 to 2 ft. | 2 to 3 in. | Spring | Early spring | 6 to 8 months. | Asparagus, seed | 1 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 1 to 2 ft. | 3 to 5 in. | 1 to 2 in. | Autumn or early spring | Early spring | 3 to 4 years. | Asparagus, plants |60 to 80 plants| 3 to 5 ft.| 12 to 24 in.| 15 to 20 in. | 3 to 5 in. | Autumn or early spring | Early spring | 1 to 3 years. | Beans, bush | 1 pint | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 5 or 8 to ft.| 1/2 to 2 in.| February to April. | | | | | | | | | [August to September.]| April to July | 40 to 65 days. | Beans, pole | 1/2 pint | 3 to 4 ft.| 3 to 4 ft. | 3 to 4 ft. | 1 to 2 in. | Late spring | May and June | 50 to 80 days. | Beets | 2 ounces | 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 5 or 6 to ft.| 1 to 2 in. | February to April. | | | | | | | | | [August to September.]| April to August | 60 to 80 days. | Brussels sprouts | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 16 to 24 in. | 1/2 in. | January to July | May and June | 90 to 120 days. | Cabbage, early | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 12 to 18 in. | 1/2 in. | October to December | March and April. | | | | | | | | | (Start in hotbed | | | | | | | | | during February) | 90 to 130 days. | Cabbage, late | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 40 in.| 24 to 36 in.| 16 to 24 in. | 1/2 in. | June and July | May and June | 90 to 120 days. | Cardoon | 1/2 ounce | 3 ft. | 2 ft. | 12 to 18 in. | 1 to 2 in. | Early spring | April and May | 5 to 6 months. | Carrot | 1 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 6 or 7 to ft.| 1/2 in. | March and April. | | | | | | | | | [September] | April to June | 75 to 110 days. | Cauliflower | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 14 to 18 in. | 1/2 in. | January and February. | April to June. | | | | | | | | [June] | (Start in hotbed | | | | | | | | | during February | | | | | | | | | or March) | 100 to 130 days.| Celeriac | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 1/2 in. | Late spring | May and June. | | | | | | | | | (Start in cold | | | | | | | | | frame during April) | 100 to 150 days.| Celery | 1/4 ounce | 3 to 6 ft.| 18 to 36 in.| 4 to 8 in. | 1/2 in. | August to October | May and June. (Start | | | | | | | | | in hotbed or cold | | | | | | | | | frame during March | | | | | | | | | or April) | 120 to 150 days.| Chervil | 1 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 3 or 4 to ft.| 1 in. | Autumn | Autumn | 1 year. | Chicory | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 1/2 in. | March and April | May and June | 5 to 6 months. | Citron | 1 ounce | 8 to 10 ft.| 8 to 10 ft.| 8 to 10 ft. | 1 to 2 in. | March and April | May and June | 100 to 130 days.| Collards | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 14 to 18 in. | 1/2 in. | May and June | Late spring | 100 to 120 days.| Corn salad | 2 ounces | 30 in. | 12 to 18 in.| 5 or 6 to ft.| 1/2 to 1 in.| January and February. | | | | | | | | | [September and October]| March to September | 60 days. | Corn, sweet | 1/4 pint | 36 to 42 in.| 30 to 36 in.| 30 to 36 in. | 1 to 2 in. | February to April | May to July | 60 to 100 days. | Cress, upland | 1/2 ounce | 30 in. | 12 to 18 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 1/2 to 1 in.| January and February. | March to May | | | | | | | | (Autumn) | [September] | 30 to 40 days. | Cress, water | 1/2 ounce | Broadcast | | | On surface | Early spring | April to September | 60 to 70 days. | Cucumber | 1/2 ounce | 4 to 6 ft.| 4 to 6 ft. | 4 to 6 ft. | 1 to 2 in. | February and March. | | | | | | | | | [September] | April to July | 60 to 80 days. | Dandelion | 1/4 ounce | 30 in. | 18 to 24 in.| 8 to 12 in. | 1/2 in. | Early spring or autumns| Early spring | 6 to 12 months. | Eggplant | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 18 to 24 in. | 1/2 to 1 in.| February to April | April and May. (Start| | | | | | | | | in hotbed during | 100 to 140 days.| | | | | | | | March) | Endive | 1 ounce | 30 in. | 18 in. | 8 to 12 in. | 1/2 to 1 in.| February to April | April [July] | 90 to 180 days.| Horse-radish | 70 roots | 30 to 40 in.| 24 to 30 in.| 14 to 20 in. | 3 to 4 in. | Early spring | Early spring | 1 to 2 years| Kale or borecole | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 18 to 24 in. | 1/2 in. | October to February | August and September.| | | | | | | | | [March and April] | 90 to 120 days.| Kohl-rabi | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 4 to 8 in. | 1/2 in. | September to March | March to May | 60 to 80 days.| Leek | 1/2 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 14 to 20 in.| 4 to 8 in | 1 in. | May to September | March to May | 60 to 80 days.| Lettuce | 1/2 ounce | 30 in | 12 to 18 in.| 4 to 6 in | 1/2 in. | September to March | March to September | 120 to 180 days.| Melon, muskmelon | 1/2 ounce | 6 to 8 ft. | 6 to 8 ft.| Hills 6 ft. | 1 to 2 in. | February to April | April to June (Start | | | | | | | | | early plants in | | | | | | | | | hotbed during March)| 120 to 150 days.| Melon, watermelon | 1 ounce | 8 to 12 ft.| 8 to 12 ft.| Hills 10 ft. | 1 to 2 in. | March to May | May and June | 100 to 120 days.| Mustard | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 1/4 in. | Autumn or early spring | March to May. | 60 to 90 days. | | | | | | | | [September] | | New Zealand spinach | 1 ounce | 36 in. | 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in. | 1 to 2 in. | Early Spring | Early spring | 60 to 100 days.| Okra, or gumbo | 2 ounces | 4 to 5 ft. | 3 to 4 ft.| 24 to 30 in. | 1 to 2 in. | February to April | May and June | 80 to 140 days.| Onion, seed | 1 ounce | 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 1/2 to 1 in.| October to March | April and May | 130 to 150 days.| Onion, sets | 1 qt. of sets.| 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 4 or 5 to ft.| 1 to 2 in. | Early spring | Autumn and February | | | | | | | | | to May | 90 to 120 days.| Parsley | 1/4 ounce | 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 3 to 6 in. | 1/8 in. | September to May | September and early | 90 to 120 days.| | | | | | | | spring | | Parsnip | 1/2 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 5 or 6 to ft.| 1/2 to 1 in.| | April and May | 125 to 160 days.| Peas | 1 to 2 pints. | 3 to 4 ft. | 30 to 36 in.| 15 to ft. | 2 to 3 in. | September to April | March to June | 40 to 80 days. | Pepper | 1/2 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 15 to 18 in. | 1/2 in. | Early spring | May and June (Start | | | | | | | | | early plants in | | | | | | | | | hotbed during March)| 100 to 140 days.| Physalis | 1/2 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 18 to 24 in. | 1/2 in. | March to May | May and June | 130 to 160 days.| Potato, Irish | 5 lbs. (or 9 | | | | | | | | | bu. per acre) | 30 to 36 in.| 24 to 36 in.| 14 to 18 in. | 4 in. | January to April | March to June | 80 to 140 days.| Potato, sweet | 3 lbs. (or 75 | | | | | | | | | slips) | 3 to 5 ft. | 3 to 5 ft.| 14 in. | 3 in. | April and May | May and June (Start | | | | | | | | | plants in hotbed | | | | | | | | | during April) | 140 to 160 days.| Pumpkin | 1/2 ounce | 8 to 12 ft.| 8 to 12 ft.| Hills 8 to 12| 1 to 2 in. | April and May | May to July | 100 to 140 days.| | | | | ft. | | | spring | | Radish | 1 ounce | 24 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 8 to 12 to ft| 1/2 to 1 in.| September to April | March to September | 20 to 40 days. | Rhubarb, seed | 1/2 ounce | 36 in. | 30 to 36 in.| 6 to 8 in. | 1/2 to 1 in.| | Early Spring | 2 to 4 years. | Rhubarb, plants | 33 plants | 3 to 5 ft. | 3 to 5 ft.| 3 ft. | 2 to 3 in. | | Autumn or early | 1 to 3 years. | | | | | | | | spring | | Ruta-baga | 1/4 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 6 to 8 in. | 1/2 to 1 in.| August and September | May and June | 60 to 80 days. | Salsify | 1 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 18 to 24 in.| 2 to 4 in. | 1/2 to 1 in.| | Early spring | 120 to 180 days.| Spinach | 1 ounce | 30 to 36 in.| 12 to 18 in.| 7 or 8 to ft.| 1 to 2 in. | September to February | September or very | | | | | | | | | early spring | 30 to 60 days. | | Squash, bush | 1/2 ounce | 3 to 4 ft. | 3 to 4 ft.| Hills 3 to 4 | 1 to 2 in. | Spring | April to June | 60 to 80 days. | | | | | ft. | | | | | Squash, late | 1/2 ounce | 7 to 10 ft.| 7 to 10 ft.| Hills 7 to 9 | 1 to 2 in. | Spring | April to June | 120 to 180 days.| | | | | ft. | | | | | Tomato | 1/2 ounce | 3 to 5 ft.| 3 to 4 ft. | 3 ft. | 1/2 to 1 in.| December to March | May and June (Start | | | | | | | | | early plants in | | | | | | | | | hotbed during | 100 to 140 days.| | | | | | | | February and March) | | Turnip | 1/2 ounce | 24 to 36 in | 18 to 24 in | 6 or 7 to ft | 1/4 to 1/2in| August to October | April. [July] | 60 to 80 days. | Vegetable marrow | 1/2 ounce | 8 to 12 ft.| 8 to 12 ft.| Hills 8 to | 1 to 2 in. | Spring | April to June | 110 to 140 days.| | | | | 9 ft. | | | | | --------------------+---------------+-------------+-------------+--------------+-------------+------------------------+----------------------+-----------------+ Average Composition of Succulent Roots. ----------------------+-------+-------------------------------------------------------- | | Edible portion | +-------+-------+-------+---------------+------+--------+ | | | | | Carbohydrates | | | | | | | +-------+-------+ | | Kind of Vegetable |Refuse | | | |Sugar, |Crude | |Fuel | | | Water |Protein| Fat |starch,|fiber | Ash |value | | | | | | etc. | | |per | | | | | | | | |pound | ----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+ |Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct.|Per ct|Calories| | | | | | | | | | Beets, fresh | 7.0 | 87.5 | 1.6 | 0.1 | 8.8 | 0.9 | 1.1 | 215 | Beets, cooked | .... | 88.6 | 2.3 | .1 | 7.4 | ....| 1.6 | 185 | Celeriac | 20.0 | 84.1 | 1.5 | .4 | 11.8 | 1.4 | .8 | 285 | Carrots, fresh | 20.0 | 88.2 | 1.1 | .4 | 8.2 | 1.1 | 1.0 | 210 | Carrots, desiccated | .... | 3.5 | 7.7 | .6 | 80.3 | ....| 4.9 |1,790 | Parsnips | 20.0 | 83.0 | 1.6 | .5 | 11.0 | 2.5 | 1.4 | 300 | Salsify "Oyster plant"| 25.0 | 85.4 | 4.3 | .3 | 6.8 | 2.0 | 1.2 | 250 | Black salsify | 20.0 | 80.4 | 1.0 | .5 | 17.1 | 2.3 | 1.0 | 390 | Radishes | .... | 91.8 | 1.3 | .1 | 5.1 | .7 | .1 | 135 | Turnips, white | 10.0 | 89.6 | 1.3 | .2 | 6.8 | 1.3 | .8 | 160 | Turnips, yellow | 10.0 | 88.9 | 1.3 | .2 | 7.3 | 1.2 | 1.1 | 185 | (ruta-bagas) | | | | | | | | | Kohl-rabi | 20.0 | 91.1 | 2.0 | .1 | 4.2 | 1.3 | 1.3 | 145 | Onions | 30.0 | 87.6 | 1.6 | .3 | 9.1 | .8 | .6 | 225 | Garlic | .... | 64.7 | 6.8 | .1 | 27.9 | .8 | 1.5 | 650 | Potatoes | 20.0 | 78.3 | 2.2 | .1 | 18.0 | .4 | 1.0 | 375 | ----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------+--------+ (Authorities consulted in the Chapter on Vegetable Garden.--Colo. Ag. Col. E. S.; U. Ill. A. E. S.; U. Idaho A. E.; Purdue U. A. E. S.; N. H. Col. A. E. S.; Mich. St. A. E. S.; Mass. Ag. Col. E. S.; Ohio Ag. E. S.; S. C. A. E. S.; Okla. A. E. S.; Texas A. E. S.; Va. A. E. S.; W. Va. U. A. E. S.; Cornell U. A. E. S.; R. I. Col. of Ag. and Mech. Arts E. S.; N. C. Col. of Ag. and Mech. Arts; N. Y. A. E. S.; U. Tenn. A. E. S.; Pa. St. Col. A. E. S.; Mich. St. Ag. Col. A. E. S.; S. Dak. A. E. S.; U. Wyo. E. S.; B. P. I.; Kans. St. Ag. Col. E. S.; N. J. A. E. S.; Tuskegee Normal & Industrial Inst. E. S.; S. S. E. S. Clemson Ag. Col.; N. Mex. Col. of Ag. and Mech. Arts E. S.; Fla. A. E. S.; Iowa Ag. Col. E. S.; U. Minn. A. E. S.; U. Nevada A. E. S.; N. Dak. E. S.; Oreg. A. E. S.; Del. Col. A. E. S.; Ark. Ag. Col. E. S.; U. Nebr. A. E. S.; Ga. E. S.; Md. A. E. S.; Miss. Ag. E. S. The entire article on Vegetable Garden was taken bodily from the best portions of the above bulletins, etc.) THE COUNTRY LIFE PRESS GARDEN CITY, N. Y. Transcriber's Note: For reasons of clarity the illustration labels and tables have been moved to the end of the relative paragraph. The oe ligature has been expanded. The following changes have been made: Page 5 The word 'in' was repeated and deleted. Page 26 havings is now having. Page 54 to is now too. Page 64 tumber is now number Page 68 maturty is now maturity. Page 70 conditons is now conditions. Page 75 flshy is now fleshy. Page 78 bettles is now beetles. Page 88 The word 'as' was repeated and deleted. Page 101 cutlivated is now cultivated. Page 116 necessisity is now necessity. Page 81 toughtened is now toughened. 
4512	----	Cascadia Gardening Series Gardening Without Irrigation: or without much, anyway Steve Solomon CONTENTS Chapter 1 Predictably Rainless Summers 2 Water-Wise Gardening Science 3 Helping Plants to Need Less Irrigation 4 Water-Wise Gardening Year-Round 5 How to Grow It with Less Irrigation: A-Z 6 My Own Garden Plan 7 The Backyard Introduction Starting a New Gardening Era First, you should know why a maritime Northwest raised-bed gardener named Steve Solomon became worried about his dependence on irrigation. I'm from Michigan. I moved to Lorane, Oregon, in April 1978 and homesteaded on 5 acres in what I thought at the time was a cool, showery green valley of liquid sunshine and rainbows. I intended to put in a big garden and grow as much of my own food as possible. Two months later, in June, just as my garden began needing water, my so-called 15-gallon-per-minute well began to falter, yielding less and less with each passing week. By August it delivered about 3 gallons per minute. Fortunately, I wasn't faced with a completely dry well or one that had shrunk to below 1 gallon per minute, as I soon discovered many of my neighbors were cursed with. Three gallons per minute won't supply a fan nozzle or even a common impulse sprinkler, but I could still sustain my big raised-bed garden by watering all night, five or six nights a week, with a single, 2-1/2 gallon-per-minute sprinkler that I moved from place to place. I had repeatedly read that gardening in raised beds was the most productive vegetable growing method, required the least work, and was the most water-efficient system ever known. So, without adequate irrigation, I would have concluded that food self-sufficiency on my homestead was not possible. In late September of that first year, I could still run that single sprinkler. What a relief not to have invested every last cent in land that couldn't feed us. For many succeeding years at Lorane, I raised lots of organically grown food on densely planted raised beds, but the realities of being a country gardener continued to remind me of how tenuous my irrigation supply actually was. We country folks have to be self-reliant: I am my own sanitation department, I maintain my own 800-foot-long driveway, the septic system puts me in the sewage business. A long, long response time to my 911 call means I'm my own self-defense force. And I'm my own water department. Without regular and heavy watering during high summer, dense stands of vegetables become stunted in a matter of days. Pump failure has brought my raised-bed garden close to that several times. Before my frantic efforts got the water flowing again, I could feel the stressed-out garden screaming like a hungry baby. As I came to understand our climate, I began to wonder about _complete_ food self-sufficiency. How did the early pioneers irrigate their vegetables? There probably aren't more than a thousand homestead sites in the entire maritime Northwest with gravity water. Hand pumping into hand-carried buckets is impractical and extremely tedious. Wind-powered pumps are expensive and have severe limits. The combination of dependably rainless summers, the realities of self-sufficient living, and my homestead's poor well turned out to be an opportunity. For I continued wondering about gardens and water, and discovered a method for growing a lush, productive vegetable garden on deep soil with little or no irrigation, in a climate that reliably provides 8 to 12 virtually dry weeks every summer. Gardening with Less Irrigation Being a garden writer, I was on the receiving end of quite a bit of local lore. I had heard of someone growing unirrigated carrots on sandy soil in southern Oregon by sowing early and spacing the roots 1 foot apart in rows 4 feet apart. The carrots were reputed to grow to enormous sizes, and the overall yield in pounds per square foot occupied by the crop was not as low as one might think. I read that Native Americans in the Southwest grew remarkable desert gardens with little or no water. And that Native South Americans in the highlands of Peru and Bolivia grow food crops in a land with 8 to 12 inches of rainfall. So I had to wonder what our own pioneers did. In 1987, we moved 50 miles south, to a much better homestead with more acreage and an abundant well. Ironically, only then did I grow my first summertime vegetable without irrigation. Being a low-key survivalist at heart, I was working at growing my own seeds. The main danger to attaining good germination is in repeatedly moistening developing seed. So, in early March 1988, I moved six winter-surviving savoy cabbage plants far beyond the irrigated soil of my raised-bed vegetable garden. I transplanted them 4 feet apart because blooming brassicas make huge sprays of flower stalks. I did not plan to water these plants at all, since cabbage seed forms during May and dries down during June as the soil naturally dries out. That is just what happened. Except that one plant did something a little unusual, though not unheard of. Instead of completely going into bloom and then dying after setting a massive load of seed, this plant also threw a vegetative bud that grew a whole new cabbage among the seed stalks. With increasing excitement I watched this head grow steadily larger through the hottest and driest summer I had ever experienced. Realizing I was witnessing revelation, I gave the plant absolutely no water, though I did hoe out the weeds around it after I cut the seed stalks. I harvested the unexpected lesson at the end of September. The cabbage weighed in at 6 or 7 pounds and was sweet and tender. Up to that time, all my gardening had been on thoroughly and uniformly watered raised beds. Now I saw that elbow room might be the key to gardening with little or no irrigating, so I began looking for more information about dry gardening and soil/water physics. In spring 1989, I tilled four widely separated, unirrigated experimental rows in which I tested an assortment of vegetable species spaced far apart in the row. Out of curiosity I decided to use absolutely no water at all, not even to sprinkle the seeds to get them germinating. I sowed a bit of kale, savoy cabbage, Purple Sprouting broccoli, carrots, beets, parsnips, parsley, endive, dry beans, potatoes, French sorrel, and a couple of field cornstalks. I also tested one compact bush (determinate) and one sprawling (indeterminate) tomato plant. Many of these vegetables grew surprisingly well. I ate unwatered tomatoes July through September; kale, cabbages, parsley, and root crops fed us during the winter. The Purple Sprouting broccoli bloomed abundantly the next March. In terms of quality, all the harvest was acceptable. The root vegetables were far larger but only a little bit tougher and quite a bit sweeter than usual. The potatoes yielded less than I'd been used to and had thicker than usual skin, but also had a better flavor and kept well through the winter. The following year I grew two parallel gardens. One, my "insurance garden," was thoroughly irrigated, guaranteeing we would have plenty to eat. Another experimental garden of equal size was entirely unirrigated. There I tested larger plots of species that I hoped could grow through a rainless summer. By July, growth on some species had slowed to a crawl and they looked a little gnarly. Wondering if a hidden cause of what appeared to be moisture stress might actually be nutrient deficiencies, I tried spraying liquid fertilizer directly on these gnarly leaves, a practice called foliar feeding. It helped greatly because, I reasoned, most fertility is located in the topsoil, and when it gets dry the plants draw on subsoil moisture, so surface nutrients, though still present in the dry soil, become unobtainable. That being so, I reasoned that some of these species might do even better if they had just a little fertilized water. So I improvised a simple drip system and metered out 4 or 5 gallons of liquid fertilizer to some of the plants in late July and four gallons more in August. To some species, extra fertilized water (what I call "fertigation") hardly made any difference at all. But unirrigated winter squash vines, which were small and scraggly and yielded about 15 pounds of food, grew more lushly when given a few 5-gallon, fertilizer-fortified assists and yielded 50 pounds. Thirty-five pounds of squash for 25 extra gallons of water and a bit of extra nutrition is a pretty good exchange in my book. The next year I integrated all this new information into just one garden. Water-loving species like lettuce and celery were grown through the summer on a large, thoroughly irrigated raised bed. The rest of the garden was given no irrigation at all or minimally metered-out fertigations. Some unirrigated crops were foliar fed weekly. Everything worked in 1991! And I found still other species that I could grow surprisingly well on surprisingly small amounts of water[--]or none at all. So, the next year, 1992, I set up a sprinkler system to water the intensive raised bed and used the overspray to support species that grew better with some moisture supplementation; I continued using my improvised drip system to help still others, while keeping a large section of the garden entirely unwatered. And at the end of that summer I wrote this book. What follows is not mere theory, not something I read about or saw others do. These techniques are tested and workable. The next-to-last chapter of this book contains a complete plan of my 1992 garden with explanations and discussion of the reasoning behind it. In _Water-Wise Vegetables_ I assume that my readers already are growing food (probably on raised beds), already know how to adjust their gardening to this region's climate, and know how to garden with irrigation. If you don't have this background I suggest you read my other garden book, _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades,_ (Sasquatch Books, 1989). Steve Solomon Chapter 1 Predictably Rainless Summers In the eastern United States, summertime rainfall can support gardens without irrigation but is just irregular enough to be worrisome. West of the Cascades we go into the summer growing season certain we must water regularly. My own many-times-revised book _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades_ correctly emphasized that moisture-stressed vegetables suffer greatly. Because I had not yet noticed how plant spacing affects soil moisture loss, in that book I stated a half-truth as law: Soil moisture loss averages 1-1/2 inches per week during summer. This figure is generally true for raised-bed gardens west of the Cascades, so I recommended adding 1 1/2 inches of water each week and even more during really hot weather. Summertime Rainfall West of the Cascades (in inches)* Location April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Eureka, CA 3.0 2.1 0.7 0.1 0.3 0.7 3.2 Medford, OR 1.0 1.4 0.98 0.3 0.3 0.6 2.1 Eugene, OR 2.3 2.1 1.3 0.3 0.6 1.3 4.0 Portland, OR 2.2 2.1 1.6 0.5 0.8 1.6 3.6 Astoria, OR 4.6 2.7 2.5 1.0 1.5 2.8 6.8 Olympia, WA 3.1 1.9 1.6 0.7 1.2 2.1 5.3 Seattle, WA 2.4 1.7 1.6 0.8 1.0 2.1 4.0 Bellingham, WA 2.3 1.8 1.9 1.0 1.1 2.0 3.7 Vancouver, BC 3.3 2.8 2.5 1.2 1.7 3.6 5.8 Victoria, BC 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.4 0.6 1.5 2.8 *Source: Van der Leeden et al., _The Water Encyclopedia,_ 2nd ed., (Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, 1990). Defined scientifically, drought is not lack of rain. It is a dry soil condition in which plant growth slows or stops and plant survival may be threatened. The earth loses water when wind blows, when sun shines, when air temperature is high, and when humidity is low. Of all these factors, air temperature most affects soil moisture loss. Daily Maximum Temperature (F)* July/August Average Eureka, CA 61 Medford, OR 89 Eugene, OR 82 Astoria, OR 68 Olympia, WA 78 Seattle, WA 75 Bellingham, WA 74 Vancouver, BC 73 Victoria, BC 68 *Source: The Water Encyclopedia. The kind of vegetation growing on a particular plot and its density have even more to do with soil moisture loss than temperature or humidity or wind speed. And, surprising as it might seem, bare soil may not lose much moisture at all. I now know it is next to impossible to anticipate moisture loss from soil without first specifying the vegetation there. Evaporation from a large body of water, however, is mainly determined by weather, so reservoir evaporation measurements serve as a rough gauge of anticipated soil moisture loss. Evaporation from Reservoirs (inches per month)* Location April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Seattle, WA 2.1 2.7 3.4 3.9 3.4 2.6 1.6 Baker, OR 2.5 3.4 4.4 6.9 7.3 4.9 2.9 Sacramento, CA 3.6 5.0 7.1 8.9 8.6 7.1 4.8 *Source: _The Water Encyclopedia_ From May through September during a normal year, a reservoir near Seattle loses about 16 inches of water by evaporation. The next chart shows how much water farmers expect to use to support conventional agriculture in various parts of the West. Comparing this data for Seattle with the estimates based on reservoir evaporation shows pretty good agreement. I include data for Umatilla and Yakima to show that much larger quantities of irrigation water are needed in really hot, arid places like Baker or Sacramento. Estimated Irrigation Requirements: During Entire Growing Season (in inches)* Location Duration Amount Umatilla/Yakama Valley April-October 30 Willamette Valley May-September 16 Puget Sound May-September 14 Upper Rogue/Upper Umpqua Valley March-September 18 Lower Rogue/Lower Coquille Valley May-September 11 NW California April-October 17 *Source: _The Water Encyclopedia_ In our region, gardens lose far more water than they get from rainfall during the summer growing season. At first glance, it seems impossible to garden without irrigation west of the Cascades. But there is water already present in the soil when the gardening season begins. By creatively using and conserving this moisture, some maritime Northwest gardeners can go through an entire summer without irrigating very much, and with some crops, irrigating not at all. Chapter 2 Water-Wise Gardening Science Plants Are Water Like all other carbon-based life forms on earth, plants conduct their chemical processes in a water solution. Every substance that plants transport is dissolved in water. When insoluble starches and oils are required for plant energy, enzymes change them back into water-soluble sugars for movement to other locations. Even cellulose and lignin, insoluble structural materials that plants cannot convert back into soluble materials, are made from molecules that once were in solution. Water is so essential that when a plant can no longer absorb as much water as it is losing, it wilts in self-defense. The drooping leaves transpire (evaporate) less moisture because the sun glances off them. Some weeds can wilt temporarily and resume vigorous growth as soon as their water balance is restored. But most vegetable species aren't as tough-moisture stressed vegetables may survive, but once stressed, the quality of their yield usually drops markedly. Yet in deep, open soil west of the Cascades, most vegetable species may be grown quite successfully with very little or no supplementary irrigation and without mulching, because they're capable of being supplied entirely by water already stored in the soil. Soil's Water-Holding Capacity Soil is capable of holding on to quite a bit of water, mostly by adhesion. For example, I'm sure that at one time or another you have picked up a wet stone from a river or by the sea. A thin film of water clings to its surface. This is adhesion. The more surface area there is, the greater the amount of moisture that can be held by adhesion. If we crushed that stone into dust, we would greatly increase the amount of water that could adhere to the original material. Clay particles, it should be noted, are so small that clay's ability to hold water is not as great as its mathematically computed surface area would indicate. Surface Area of One Gram of Soil Particles Particle type Diameter of Number of particles particles Surface area in mm per gm in sq. cm. Very coarse sand 2.00-1.00 90 11 Coarse sand 1.00-0.50 720 23 Medium sand 0.50-0.25 5,700 45 Fine sand 0.25-0.10 46,000 91 Very fine sand 0.10-0.05 772,000 227 Silt 0.05-0.002 5,776,000 454 Clay Below 0.002 90,260,853,000 8,000,000 Source: Foth, Henry D., _Fundamentals of Soil Science,_ 8th ed. (New York: John Wylie & Sons, 1990). This direct relationship between particle size, surface area, and water-holding capacity is so essential to understanding plant growth that the surface areas presented by various sizes of soil particles have been calculated. Soils are not composed of a single size of particle. If the mix is primarily sand, we call it a sandy soil. If the mix is primarily clay, we call it a clay soil. If the soil is a relatively equal mix of all three, containing no more than 35 percent clay, we call it a loam. Available Moisture (inches of water per foot of soil) Soil Texture Average Amount Very coarse sand 0.5 Coarse sand 0.7 Sandy 1.0 Sandy loam 1.4 Loam 2.0 Clay loam 2.3 Silty clay 2.5 Clay 2.7 Source: _Fundamentals of Soil Science_. Adhering water films can vary greatly in thickness. But if the water molecules adhering to a soil particle become too thick, the force of adhesion becomes too weak to resist the force of gravity, and some water flows deeper into the soil. When water films are relatively thick the soil feels wet and plant roots can easily absorb moisture. "Field capacity" is the term describing soil particles holding all the water they can against the force of gravity. At the other extreme, the thinner the water films become, the more tightly they adhere and the drier the earth feels. At some degree of desiccation, roots are no longer forceful enough to draw on soil moisture as fast as the plants are transpiring. This condition is called the "wilting point." The term "available moisture" refers to the difference between field capacity and the amount of moisture left after the plants have died. Clayey soil can provide plants with three times as much available water as sand, six times as much as a very coarse sandy soil. It might seem logical to conclude that a clayey garden would be the most drought resistant. But there's more to it. For some crops, deep sandy loams can provide just about as much usable moisture as clays. Sandy soils usually allow more extensive root development, so a plant with a naturally aggressive and deep root system may be able to occupy a much larger volume of sandy loam, ultimately coming up with more moisture than it could obtain from a heavy, airless clay. And sandy loams often have a clayey, moisture-rich subsoil. _Because of this interplay of factors, how much available water your own unique garden soil is actually capable of providing and how much you will have to supplement it with irrigation can only be discovered by trial._ How Soil Loses Water Suppose we tilled a plot about April 1 and then measured soil moisture loss until October. Because plants growing around the edge might extend roots into our test plot and extract moisture, we'll make our tilled area 50 feet by 50 feet and make all our measurements in the center. And let's locate this imaginary plot in full sun on flat, uniform soil. And let's plant absolutely nothing in this bare earth. And all season let's rigorously hoe out every weed while it is still very tiny. Let's also suppose it's been a typical maritime Northwest rainy winter, so on April 1 the soil is at field capacity, holding all the moisture it can. From early April until well into September the hot sun will beat down on this bare plot. Our summer rains generally come in insignificant installments and do not penetrate deeply; all of the rain quickly evaporates from the surface few inches without recharging deeper layers. Most readers would reason that a soil moisture measurement taken 6 inches down on September 1, should show very little water left. One foot down seems like it should be just as dry, and in fact, most gardeners would expect that there would be very little water found in the soil until we got down quite a few feet if there were several feet of soil. But that is not what happens! The hot sun does dry out the surface inches, but if we dig down 6 inches or so there will be almost as much water present in September as there was in April. Bare earth does not lose much water at all. _Once a thin surface layer is completely desiccated, be it loose or compacted, virtually no further loss of moisture can occur._ The only soils that continue to dry out when bare are certain kinds of very heavy clays that form deep cracks. These ever-deepening openings allow atmospheric air to freely evaporate additional moisture. But if the cracks are filled with dust by surface cultivation, even this soil type ceases to lose water. Soil functions as our bank account, holding available water in storage. In our climate soil is inevitably charged to capacity by winter rains, and then all summer growing plants make heavy withdrawals. But hot sun and wind working directly on soil don't remove much water; that is caused by hot sun and wind working on plant leaves, making them transpire moisture drawn from the earth through their root systems. Plants desiccate soil to the ultimate depth and lateral extent of their rooting ability, and then some. The size of vegetable root systems is greater than most gardeners would think. The amount of moisture potentially available to sustain vegetable growth is also greater than most gardeners think. Rain and irrigation are not the only ways to replace soil moisture. If the soil body is deep, water will gradually come up from below the root zone by capillarity. Capillarity works by the very same force of adhesion that makes moisture stick to a soil particle. A column of water in a vertical tube (like a thin straw) adheres to the tube's inner surfaces. This adhesion tends to lift the edges of the column of water. As the tube's diameter becomes smaller the amount of lift becomes greater. Soil particles form interconnected pores that allow an inefficient capillary flow, recharging dry soil above. However, the drier soil becomes, the less effective capillary flow becomes. _That is why a thoroughly desiccated surface layer only a few inches thick acts as a powerful mulch._ Industrial farming and modern gardening tend to discount the replacement of surface moisture by capillarity, considering this flow an insignificant factor compared with the moisture needs of crops. But conventional agriculture focuses on maximized yields through high plant densities. Capillarity is too slow to support dense crop stands where numerous root systems are competing, but when a single plant can, without any competition, occupy a large enough area, moisture replacement by capillarity becomes significant. How Plants Obtain Water Most gardeners know that plants acquire water and minerals through their root systems, and leave it at that. But the process is not quite that simple. The actively growing, tender root tips and almost microscopic root hairs close to the tip absorb most of the plant's moisture as they occupy new territory. As the root continues to extend, parts behind the tip cease to be effective because, as soil particles in direct contact with these tips and hairs dry out, the older roots thicken and develop a bark, while most of the absorbent hairs slough off. This rotation from being actively foraging tissue to becoming more passive conductive and supportive tissue is probably a survival adaptation, because the slow capillary movement of soil moisture fails to replace what the plant used as fast as the plant might like. The plant is far better off to aggressively seek new water in unoccupied soil than to wait for the soil its roots already occupy to be recharged. A simple bit of old research magnificently illustrated the significance of this. A scientist named Dittmer observed in 1937 that a single potted ryegrass plant allocated only 1 cubic foot of soil to grow in made about 3 miles of new roots and root hairs every day. (Ryegrasses are known to make more roots than most plants.) I calculate that a cubic foot of silty soil offers about 30,000 square feet of surface area to plant roots. If 3 miles of microscopic root tips and hairs (roughly 16,000 lineal feet) draws water only from a few millimeters of surrounding soil, then that single rye plant should be able to continue ramifying into a cubic foot of silty soil and find enough water for quite a few days before wilting. These arithmetical estimates agree with my observations in the garden, and with my experiences raising transplants in pots. Lowered Plant Density: The Key to Water-Wise Gardening I always think my latest try at writing a near-perfect garden book is quite a bit better than the last. _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades_, recommended somewhat wider spacings on raised beds than I did in 1980 because I'd repeatedly noticed that once a leaf canopy forms, plant growth slows markedly. Adding a little more fertilizer helps after plants "bump," but still the rate of growth never equals that of younger plants. For years I assumed crowded plants stopped producing as much because competition developed for light. But now I see that unseen competition for root room also slows them down. Even if moisture is regularly recharged by irrigation, and although nutrients are replaced, once a bit of earth has been occupied by the roots of one plant it is not so readily available to the roots of another. So allocating more elbow room allows vegetables to get larger and yield longer and allows the gardener to reduce the frequency of irrigations. Though hot, baking sun and wind can desiccate the few inches of surface soil, withdrawals of moisture from greater depths are made by growing plants transpiring moisture through their leaf surfaces. The amount of water a growing crop will transpire is determined first by the nature of the species itself, then by the amount of leaf exposed to sun, air temperature, humidity, and wind. In these respects, the crop is like an automobile radiator. With cars, the more metal surfaces, the colder the ambient air, and the higher the wind speed, the better the radiator can cool; in the garden, the more leaf surfaces, the faster, warmer, and drier the wind, and the brighter the sunlight, the more water is lost through transpiration. Dealing with a Surprise Water Shortage Suppose you are growing a conventional, irrigated garden and something unanticipated interrupts your ability to water. Perhaps you are homesteading and your well begins to dry up. Perhaps you're a backyard gardener and the municipality temporarily restricts usage. What to do? First, if at all possible before the restrictions take effect, water very heavily and long to ensure there is maximum subsoil moisture. Then eliminate all newly started interplantings and ruthlessly hoe out at least 75 percent of the remaining immature plants and about half of those about two weeks away from harvest. For example, suppose you've got a a 4-foot-wide intensive bed holding seven rows of broccoli on 12 inch centers, or about 21 plants. Remove at least every other row and every other plant in the three or four remaining rows. Try to bring plant density down to those described in Chapter 5, "How to Grow It: A-Z" Then shallowly hoe the soil every day or two to encourage the surface inches to dry out and form a dust mulch. You water-wise person--you're already dry gardening--now start fertigating. How long available soil water will sustain a crop is determined by how many plants are drawing on the reserve, how extensively their root systems develop, and how many leaves are transpiring the moisture. If there are no plants, most of the water will stay unused in the barren soil through the entire growing season. If a crop canopy is established midway through the growing season, the rate of water loss will approximate that listed in the table in Chapter 1 "Estimated Irrigation Requirement." If by very close planting the crop canopy is established as early as possible and maintained by successive interplantings, as is recommended by most advocates of raised-bed gardening, water losses will greatly exceed this rate. Many vegetable species become mildly stressed when soil moisture has dropped about half the way from capacity to the wilting point. On very closely planted beds a crop can get in serious trouble without irrigation in a matter of days. But if that same crop were planted less densely, it might grow a few weeks without irrigation. And if that crop were planted even farther apart so that no crop canopy ever developed and a considerable amount of bare, dry earth were showing, this apparent waste of growing space would result in an even slower rate of soil moisture depletion. On deep, open soil the crop might yield a respectable amount without needing any irrigation at all. West of the Cascades we expect a rainless summer; the surprise comes that rare rainy year when the soil stays moist and we gather bucketfuls of chanterelle mushrooms in early October. Though the majority of maritime Northwest gardeners do not enjoy deep, open, moisture-retentive soils, all except those with the shallowest soil can increase their use of the free moisture nature provides and lengthen the time between irrigations. The next chapter discusses making the most of whatever soil depth you have. Most of our region's gardens can yield abundantly without any rain at all if only we reduce competition for available soil moisture, judiciously fertigate some vegetable species, and practice a few other water-wise tricks. _Would lowering plant density as much as this book suggests equally lower the yield of the plot? Surprisingly, the amount harvested does not drop proportionately. In most cases having a plant density one-eighth of that recommended by intensive gardening advocates will result in a yield about half as great as on closely planted raised beds._ Internet Readers: In the print copy of this book are color pictures of my own "irrigationless" garden. Looking at them about here in the book would add reality to these ideas. Chapter 3 Helping Plants to Need Less Irrigation Dry though the maritime Northwest summer is, we enter the growing season with our full depth of soil at field capacity. Except on clayey soils in extraordinarily frosty, high-elevation locations, we usually can till and plant before the soil has had a chance to lose much moisture. There are a number of things we can do to make soil moisture more available to our summer vegetables. The most obvious step is thorough weeding. Next, we can keep the surface fluffed up with a rotary tiller or hoe during April and May, to break its capillary connection with deeper soil and accelerate the formation of a dry dust mulch. Usually, weeding forces us to do this anyway. Also, if it should rain during summer, we can hoe or rotary till a day or two later and again help a new dust mulch to develop. Building Bigger Root Systems Without irrigation, most of the plant's water supply is obtained by expansion into new earth that hasn't been desiccated by other competing roots. Eliminating any obstacles to rapid growth of root systems is the key to success. So, keep in mind a few facts about how roots grow and prosper. The air supply in soil limits or allows root growth. Unlike the leaves, roots do not perform photosynthesis, breaking down carbon dioxide gas into atmospheric oxygen and carbon. Yet root cells must breathe oxygen. This is obtained from the air held in spaces between soil particles. Many other soil-dwelling life forms from bacteria to moles compete for this same oxygen. Consequently, soil oxygen levels are lower than in the atmosphere. A slow exchange of gases does occur between soil air and free atmosphere, but deeper in the soil there will inevitably be less oxygen. Different plant species have varying degrees of root tolerance for lack of oxygen, but they all stop growing at some depth. Moisture reserves below the roots' maximum depth become relatively inaccessible. Soil compaction reduces the overall supply and exchange of soil air. Compacted soil also acts as a mechanical barrier to root system expansion. When gardening with unlimited irrigation or where rain falls frequently, it is quite possible to have satisfactory growth when only the surface 6 or 7 inches of soil facilitates root development. When gardening with limited water, China's the limit, because if soil conditions permit, many vegetable species are capable of reaching 4, 5, and 8 eight feet down to find moisture and nutrition. Evaluating Potential Rooting Ability One of the most instructive things a water-wise gardener can do is to rent or borrow a hand-operated fence post auger and bore a 3-foot-deep hole. It can be even more educational to buy a short section of ordinary water pipe to extend the auger's reach another 2 or 3 feet down. In soil free of stones, using an auger is more instructive than using a conventional posthole digger or shoveling out a small pit, because where soil is loose, the hole deepens rapidly. Where any layer is even slightly compacted, one turns and turns the bit without much effect. Augers also lift the materials more or less as they are stratified. If your soil is somewhat stony (like much upland soil north of Centralia left by the Vashon Glacier), the more usual fence-post digger or common shovel works better. If you find more than 4 feet of soil, the site holds a dry-gardening potential that increases with the additional depth. Some soils along the floodplains of rivers or in broad valleys like the Willamette or Skagit can be over 20 feet deep, and hold far more water than the deepest roots could draw or capillary flow could raise during an entire growing season. Gently sloping land can often carry 5 to 7 feet of open, usable soil. However, soils on steep hillsides become increasingly thin and fragile with increasing slope. Whether an urban, suburban, or rural gardener, you should make no assumptions about the depth and openness of the soil at your disposal. Dig a test hole. If you find less than 2 unfortunate feet of open earth before hitting an impermeable obstacle such as rock or gravel, not much water storage can occur and the only use this book will hold for you is to guide your move to a more likely gardening location or encourage the house hunter to seek further. Of course, you can still garden quite successfully on thin soil in the conventional, irrigated manner. _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades_ will be an excellent guide for this type of situation. Eliminating Plowpan Deep though the soil may be, any restriction of root expansion greatly limits the ability of plants to aggressively find water. A compacted subsoil or even a thin compressed layer such as plowpan may function as such a barrier. Though moisture will still rise slowly by capillarity and recharge soil above plowpan, plants obtain much more water by rooting into unoccupied, damp soil. Soils close to rivers or on floodplains may appear loose and infinitely deep but may hide subsoil streaks of droughty gravel that effectively stops root growth. Some of these conditions are correctable and some are not. Plowpan is very commonly encountered by homesteaders on farm soils and may be found in suburbia too, but fortunately it is the easiest obstacle to remedy. Traditionally, American croplands have been tilled with the moldboard plow. As this implement first cuts and then flips a 6-or 7-inch-deep slice of soil over, the sole--the part supporting the plow's weight--presses heavily on the earth about 7 inches below the surface. With each subsequent plowing the plow sole rides at the same 7-inch depth and an even more compacted layer develops. Once formed plowpan prevents the crop from rooting into the subsoil. Since winter rains leach nutrients from the topsoil and deposit them in the subsoil, plowpan prevents access to these nutrients and effectively impoverishes the field. So wise farmers periodically use a subsoil plow to fracture the pan. Plowpan can seem as firm as a rammed-earth house; once established, it can last a long, long time. My own garden land is part of what was once an old wheat farm, one of the first homesteads of the Oregon Territory. From about 1860 through the 1930s, the field produced small grains. After wheat became unprofitable, probably because of changing market conditions and soil exhaustion, the field became an unplowed pasture. Then in the 1970s it grew daffodil bulbs, occasioning more plowing. All through the '80s my soil again rested under grass. In 1987, when I began using the land, there was still a 2-inch-thick, very hard layer starting about 7 inches down. Below 9 inches the open earth is soft as butter as far as I've ever dug. On a garden-sized plot, plowpan or compacted subsoil is easily opened with a spading fork or a very sharp common shovel. After normal rotary tilling, either tool can fairly easily be wiggled 12 inches into the earth and small bites of plowpan loosened. Once this laborious chore is accomplished the first time, deep tillage will be far easier. In fact, it becomes so easy that I've been looking for a custom-made fork with longer tines. Curing Clayey Soils In humid climates like ours, sandy soils may seem very open and friable on the surface but frequently hold some unpleasant subsoil surprises. Over geologic time spans, mineral grains are slowly destroyed by weak soil acids and clay is formed from the breakdown products. Then heavy winter rainfall transports these minuscule clay particles deeper into the earth, where they concentrate. It is not unusual to find a sandy topsoil underlaid with a dense, cement-like, clayey sand subsoil extending down several feet. If very impervious, a thick, dense deposition like this may be called hardpan. The spading fork cannot cure this condition as simply as it can eliminate thin plowpan. Here is one situation where, if I had a neighbor with a large tractor and subsoil plow, I'd hire him to fracture my land 3 or 4 feet deep. Painstakingly double or even triple digging will also loosen this layer. Another possible strategy for a smaller garden would be to rent a gasoline-powered posthole auger, spread manure or compost an inch or two thick, and then bore numerous, almost adjoining holes 4 feet deep all over the garden. Clayey subsoil can supply surprisingly larger amounts of moisture than the granular sandy surface might imply, but only if the earth is opened deeply and becomes more accessible to root growth. Fortunately, once root development increases at greater depths, the organic matter content and accessibility of this clayey layer can be maintained through intelligent green manuring, postponing for years the need to subsoil again. Green manuring is discussed in detail shortly. Other sites may have gooey, very fine clay topsoils, almost inevitably with gooey, very fine clay subsoils as well. Though incorporation of extraordinarily large quantities of organic matter can turn the top few inches into something that behaves a little like loam, it is quite impractical to work in humus to a depth of 4 or 5 feet. Root development will still be limited to the surface layer. Very fine clays don't make likely dry gardens. Not all clay soils are "fine clay soils," totally compacted and airless. For example, on the gentler slopes of the geologic old Cascades, those 50-million-year-old black basalts that form the Cascades foothills and appear in other places throughout the maritime Northwest, a deep, friable, red clay soil called (in Oregon) Jori often forms. Jori clays can be 6 to 8 feet deep and are sufficiently porous and well drained to have been used for highly productive orchard crops. Water-wise gardeners can do wonders with Joris and other similar soils, though clays never grow the best root crops. Spotting a Likely Site Observing the condition of wild plants can reveal a good site to garden without much irrigation. Where Himalaya or Evergreen blackberries grow 2 feet tall and produce small, dull-tasting fruit, there is not much available soil moisture. Where they grow 6 feet tall and the berries are sweet and good sized, there is deep, open soil. When the berry vines are 8 or more feet tall and the fruits are especially huge, usually there is both deep, loose soil and a higher than usual amount of fertility. Other native vegetation can also reveal a lot about soil moisture reserves. For years I wondered at the short leaders and sad appearance of Douglas fir in the vicinity of Yelm, Washington. Were they due to extreme soil infertility? Then I learned that conifer trees respond more to summertime soil moisture than to fertility. I obtained a soil survey of Thurston County and discovered that much of that area was very sandy with gravelly subsoil. Eureka! The Soil Conservation Service (SCS), a U.S. Government agency, has probably put a soil auger into your very land or a plot close by. Its tests have been correlated and mapped; the soils underlying the maritime Northwest have been named and categorized by texture, depth, and ability to provide available moisture. The maps are precise and detailed enough to approximately locate a city or suburban lot. In 1987, when I was in the market for a new homestead, I first went to my county SCS office, mapped out locations where the soil was suitable, and then went hunting. Most counties have their own office. Using Humus to Increase Soil Moisture Maintaining topsoil humus content in the 4 to 5 percent range is vital to plant health, vital to growing more nutritious food, and essential to bringing the soil into that state of easy workability and cooperation known as good tilth. Humus is a spongy substance capable of holding several times more available moisture than clay. There are also new synthetic, long-lasting soil amendments that hold and release even more moisture than humus. Garden books frequently recommend tilling in extraordinarily large amounts of organic matter to increase a soil's water-holding capacity in the top few inches. Humus can improve many aspects of soil but will not reduce a garden's overall need for irrigation, because it is simply not practical to maintain sufficient humus deeply enough. Rotary tilling only blends amendments into the top 6 or 7 inches of soil. Rigorous double digging by actually trenching out 12 inches and then spading up the next foot theoretically allows one to mix in significant amounts of organic matter to nearly 24 inches. But plants can use water from far deeper than that. Let's realistically consider how much soil moisture reserves might be increased by double digging and incorporating large quantities of organic matter. A healthy topsoil organic matter level in our climate is about 4 percent. This rapidly declines to less than 0.5 percent in the subsoil. Suppose inches-thick layers of compost were spread and, by double digging, the organic matter content of a very sandy soil were amended to 10 percent down to 2 feet. If that soil contained little clay, its water-holding ability in the top 2 feet could be doubled. Referring to the chart "Available Moisture" in Chapter 2, we see that sandy soil can release up to 1 inch of water per foot. By dint of massive amendment we might add 1 inch of available moisture per foot of soil to the reserve. That's 2 extra inches of water, enough to increase the time an ordinary garden can last between heavy irrigations by a week or 10 days. If the soil in question were a silty clay, it would naturally make 2 1/2 inches available per foot. A massive humus amendment would increase that to 3 1/2 inches in the top foot or two, relatively not as much benefit as in sandy soil. And I seriously doubt that many gardeners would be willing to thoroughly double dig to an honest 24 inches. Trying to maintain organic matter levels above 10 percent is an almost self-defeating process. The higher the humus level gets, the more rapidly organic matter tends to decay. Finding or making enough well-finished compost to cover the garden several inches deep (what it takes to lift humus levels to 10 percent) is enough of a job. Double digging just as much more into the second foot is even more effort. But having to repeat that chore every year or two becomes downright discouraging. No, either your soil naturally holds enough moisture to permit dry gardening, or it doesn't. Keeping the Subsoil Open with Green Manuring When roots decay, fresh organic matter and large, long-lasting passageways can be left deep in the soil, allowing easier air movement and facilitating entry of other roots. But no cover crop that I am aware of will effectively penetrate firm plowpan or other resistant physical obstacles. Such a barrier forces all plants to root almost exclusively in the topsoil. However, once the subsoil has been mechanically fractured the first time, and if recompaction is avoided by shunning heavy tractors and other machinery, green manure crops can maintain the openness of the subsoil. To accomplish this, correct green manure species selection is essential. Lawn grasses tend to be shallow rooting, while most regionally adapted pasture grasses can reach down about 3 feet at best. However, orchard grass (called coltsfoot in English farming books) will grow down 4 or more feet while leaving a massive amount of decaying organic matter in the subsoil after the sod is tilled in. Sweet clover, a biennial legume that sprouts one spring then winters over to bloom the next summer, may go down 8 feet. Red clover, a perennial species, may thickly invade the top 5 feet. Other useful subsoil busters include densely sown Umbelliferae such as carrots, parsley, and parsnip. The chicory family also makes very large and penetrating taproots. Though seed for wild chicory is hard to obtain, cheap varieties of endive (a semicivilized relative) are easily available. And several pounds of your own excellent parsley or parsnip seed can be easily produced by letting about 10 row feet of overwintering roots form seed. Orchard grass and red clover can be had quite inexpensively at many farm supply stores. Sweet clover is not currently grown by our region's farmers and so can only be found by mail from Johnny's Selected Seeds (see Chapter 5 for their address). Poppy seed used for cooking will often sprout. Sown densely in October, it forms a thick carpet of frilly spring greens underlaid with countless massive taproots that decompose very rapidly if the plants are tilled in in April before flower stalks begin to appear. Beware if using poppies as a green manure crop: be sure to till them in early to avoid trouble with the DEA or other authorities. For country gardeners, the best rotations include several years of perennial grass-legume-herb mixtures to maintain the openness of the subsoil followed by a few years of vegetables and then back (see Newman Turner's book in more reading). I plan my own garden this way. In October, after a few inches of rain has softened the earth, I spread 50 pounds of agricultural lime per 1,000 square feet and break the thick pasture sod covering next year's garden plot by shallow rotary tilling. Early the next spring I broadcast a concoction I call "complete organic fertilizer" (see _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades_ or the _Territorial Seed Company Catalog_), till again after the soil dries down a bit, and then use a spading fork to open the subsoil before making a seedbed. The first time around, I had to break the century-old plowpan--forking compacted earth a foot deep is a lot of work. In subsequent rotations it is much much easier. For a couple of years, vegetables will grow vigorously on this new ground supported only with a complete organic fertilizer. But vegetable gardening makes humus levels decline rapidly. So every few years I start a new garden on another plot and replant the old garden to green manures. I never remove vegetation during the long rebuilding under green manures, but merely mow it once or twice a year and allow the organic matter content of the soil to redevelop. If there ever were a place where chemical fertilizers might be appropriate around a garden, it would be to affordably enhance the growth of biomass during green manuring. Were I a serious city vegetable gardener, I'd consider growing vegetables in the front yard for a few years and then switching to the back yard. Having lots of space, as I do now, I keep three or four garden plots available, one in vegetables and the others restoring their organic matter content under grass. Mulching Gardening under a permanent thick mulch of crude organic matter is recommended by Ruth Stout (see the listing for her book in More Reading) and her disciples as a surefire way to drought-proof gardens while eliminating virtually any need for tillage, weeding, and fertilizing. I have attempted the method in both Southern California and western Oregon--with disastrous results in both locations. What follows in this section is addressed to gardeners who have already read glowing reports about mulching. Permanent mulching with vegetation actually does not reduce summertime moisture loss any better than mulching with dry soil, sometimes called "dust mulching." True, while the surface layer stays moist, water will steadily be wicked up by capillarity and be evaporated from the soil's surface. If frequent light sprinkling keeps the surface perpetually moist, subsoil moisture loss can occur all summer, so unmulched soil could eventually become desiccated many feet deep. However, capillary movement only happens when soil is damp. Once even a thin layer of soil has become quite dry it almost completely prevents any further movement. West of the Cascades, this happens all by itself in late spring. One hot, sunny day follows another, and soon the earth's surface seems parched. Unfortunately, by the time a dusty layer forms, quite a bit of soil water may have risen from the depths and been lost. The gardener can significantly reduce spring moisture loss by frequently hoeing weeds until the top inch or two of earth is dry and powdery. This effort will probably be necessary in any case, because weeds will germinate prolifically until the surface layer is sufficiently desiccated. On the off chance it should rain hard during summer, it is very wise to again hoe a few times to rapidly restore the dust mulch. If hand cultivation seems very hard work, I suggest you learn to sharpen your hoe. A mulch of dry hay, grass clippings, leaves, and the like will also retard rapid surface evaporation. Gardeners think mulching prevents moisture loss better than bare earth because under mulch the soil stays damp right to the surface. However, dig down 4 to 6 inches under a dust mulch and the earth is just as damp as under hay. And, soil moisture studies have proved that overall moisture loss using vegetation mulch slightly exceeds loss under a dust mulch. West of the Cascades, the question of which method is superior is a bit complex, with pros and cons on both sides. Without a long winter freeze to set populations back, permanent thick mulch quickly breeds so many slugs, earwhigs, and sowbugs that it cannot be maintained for more than one year before vegetable gardening becomes very difficult. Laying down a fairly thin mulch in June after the soil has warmed up well, raking up what remains of the mulch early the next spring, and composting it prevents destructive insect population levels from developing while simultaneously reducing surface compaction by winter rains and beneficially enhancing the survival and multiplication of earthworms. But a thin mulch also enhances the summer germination of weed seeds without being thick enough to suppress their emergence. And any mulch, even a thin one, makes hoeing virtually impossible, while hand weeding through mulch is tedious. Mulch has some unqualified pluses in hotter climates. Most of the organic matter in soil and consequently most of the available nitrogen is found in the surface few inches. Levels of other mineral nutrients are usually two or three times as high in the topsoil as well. However, if the surface few inches of soil becomes completely desiccated, no root activity will occur there and the plants are forced to feed deeper, in soil far less fertile. Keeping the topsoil damp does greatly improve the growth of some shallow-feeding species such as lettuce and radishes. But with our climate's cool nights, most vegetables need the soil as warm as possible, and the cooling effect of mulch can be as much a hindrance as a help. I've tried mulching quite a few species while dry gardening and found little or no improvement in plant growth with most of them. Probably, the enhancement of nutrition compensates for the harm from lowering soil temperature. Fertigation is better all around. Windbreaks Plants transpire more moisture when the sun shines, when temperatures are high, and when the wind blows; it is just like drying laundry. Windbreaks also help the garden grow in winter by increasing temperature. Many other garden books discuss windbreaks, and I conclude that I have a better use for the small amount of words my publisher allows me than to repeat this data; Binda Colebrook's [i]Winter Gardening in the Maritime Northwest[i] (Sasquatch Books, 1989) is especially good on this topic. Fertilizing, Fertigating and Foliar Spraying In our heavily leached region almost no soil is naturally rich, while fertilizers, manures, and potent composts mainly improve the topsoil. But the water-wise gardener must get nutrition down deep, where the soil stays damp through the summer. If plants with enough remaining elbow room stop growing in summer and begin to appear gnarly, it is just as likely due to lack of nutrition as lack of water. Several things can be done to limit or prevent midsummer stunting. First, before sowing or transplanting large species like tomato, squash or big brassicas, dig out a small pit about 12 inches deep and below that blend in a handful or two of organic fertilizer. Then fill the hole back in. This double-digging process places concentrated fertility mixed 18 to 24 inches below the seeds or seedlings. Foliar feeding is another water-wise technique that keeps plants growing through the summer. Soluble nutrients sprayed on plant leaves are rapidly taken into the vascular system. Unfortunately, dilute nutrient solutions that won't burn leaves only provoke a strong growth response for 3 to 5 days. Optimally, foliar nutrition must be applied weekly or even more frequently. To efficiently spray a garden larger than a few hundred square feet, I suggest buying an industrial-grade, 3-gallon backpack sprayer with a side-handle pump. Approximate cost as of this writing was $80. The store that sells it (probably a farm supply store) will also support you with a complete assortment of inexpensive nozzles that can vary the rate of emission and the spray pattern. High-quality equipment like this outlasts many, many cheaper and smaller sprayers designed for the consumer market, and replacement parts are also available. Keep in mind that consumer merchandise is designed to be consumed; stuff made for farming is built to last. Increasing Soil Fertility Saves Water Does crop growth equal water use? Most people would say this statement seems likely to be true. Actually, faster-growing crops use much less soil moisture than slower-growing ones. As early as 1882 it was determined that less water is required to produce a pound of plant material when soil is fertilized than when it is not fertilized. One experiment required 1,100 pounds of water to grow 1 pound of dry matter on infertile soil, but only 575 pounds of water to produce a pound of dry matter on rich land. Perhaps the single most important thing a water-wise gardener can do is to increase the fertility of the soil, especially the subsoil. _Poor plant nutrition increases the water cost of every pound of dry matter produced._ Using foliar fertilizers requires a little caution and forethought. Spinach, beet, and chard leaves seem particularly sensitive to foliars (and even to organic insecticides) and may be damaged by even half-strength applications. And the cabbage family coats its leaf surfaces with a waxy, moisture-retentive sealant that makes sprays bead up and run off rather than stick and be absorbed. Mixing foliar feed solutions with a little spreader/sticker, Safer's Soap, or, if bugs are also a problem, with a liquid organic insecticide like Red Arrow (a pyrethrum-rotenone mix), eliminates surface tension and allows the fertilizer to have an effect on brassicas. Sadly, in terms of nutrient balance, the poorest foliar sprays are organic. That's because it is nearly impossible to get significant quantities of phosphorus or calcium into solution using any combination of fish emulsion and seaweed or liquid kelp. The most useful possible organic foliar is 1/2 to 1 tablespoon each of fish emulsion and liquid seaweed concentrate per gallon of water. Foliar spraying and fertigation are two occasions when I am comfortable supplementing my organic fertilizers with water-soluble chemical fertilizers. The best and most expensive brand is Rapid-Gro. Less costly concoctions such as Peters 20-20-20 or the other "Grows," don't provide as complete trace mineral support or use as many sources of nutrition. One thing fertilizer makers find expensive to accomplish is concocting a mixture of soluble nutrients that also contains calcium, a vital plant food. If you dissolve calcium nitrate into a solution containing other soluble plant nutrients, many of them will precipitate out because few calcium compounds are soluble. Even Rapid-Gro doesn't attempt to supply calcium. Recently I've discovered better-quality hydroponic nutrient solutions that do use chemicals that provide soluble calcium. These also make excellent foliar sprays. Brands of hydroponic nutrient solutions seem to appear and vanish rapidly. I've had great luck with Dyna-Gro 7-9-5. All these chemicals are mixed at about 1 tablespoon per gallon. Vegetables That: Like foliars Asparagus Carrots Melons Squash Beans Cauliflower Peas Tomatoes Broccoli Brussels sprouts Cucumbers Cabbage Eggplant Radishes Kale Rutabagas Potatoes Don't like foliars Beets Leeks Onions Spinach Chard Lettuce Peppers Like fertigation Brussels sprouts Kale Savoy cabbage Cucumbers Melons Squash Eggplant Peppers Tomatoes Fertigation every two to four weeks is the best technique for maximizing yield while minimizing water use. I usually make my first fertigation late in June and continue periodically through early September. I use six or seven plastic 5-gallon "drip system" buckets, (see below) set one by each plant, and fill them all with a hose each time I work in the garden. Doing 12 or 14 plants each time I'm in the garden, it takes no special effort to rotate through them all more or less every three weeks. To make a drip bucket, drill a 3/16-inch hole through the side of a 4-to-6-gallon plastic bucket about 1/4-inch up from the bottom, or in the bottom at the edge. The empty bucket is placed so that the fertilized water drains out close to the stem of a plant. It is then filled with liquid fertilizer solution. It takes 5 to 10 minutes for 5 gallons to pass through a small opening, and because of the slow flow rate, water penetrates deeply into the subsoil without wetting much of the surface. Each fertigation makes the plant grow very rapidly for two to three weeks, more I suspect as a result of improved nutrition than from added moisture. Exactly how and when to fertigate each species is explained in Chapter 5. Organic gardeners may fertigate with combinations of fish emulsion and seaweed at the same dilution used for foliar spraying, or with compost/manure tea. Determining the correct strength to make compost tea is a matter of trial and error. I usually rely on weak Rapid-Gro mixed at half the recommended dilution. The strength of the fertilizer you need depends on how much and deeply you placed nutrition in the subsoil. Chapter 4 Water-Wise Gardening Year-Round Early Spring: The Easiest Unwatered Garden West of the Cascades, most crops started in February and March require no special handling when irrigation is scarce. These include peas, early lettuce, radishes, kohlrabi, early broccoli, and so forth. However, some of these vegetables are harvested as late as June, so to reduce their need for irrigation, space them wider than usual. Spring vegetables also will exhaust most of the moisture from the soil before maturing, making succession planting impossible without first irrigating heavily. Early spring plantings are best allocated one of two places in the garden plan: either in that part of the garden that will be fully irrigated all summer or in a part of a big garden that can affordably remain bare during the summer and be used in October for receiving transplants of overwintering crops. The garden plan and discussion in Chapter 6 illustrate these ideas in detail. Later in Spring: Sprouting Seeds Without Watering For the first years that I experimented with dry gardening I went overboard and attempted to grow food as though I had no running water at all. The greatest difficulty caused by this self-imposed handicap was sowing small-seeded species after the season warmed up. Sprouting what we in the seed business call "big seed"--corn, beans, peas, squash, cucumber, and melon--is relatively easy without irrigation because these crops are planted deeply, where soil moisture still resides long after the surface has dried out. And even if it is so late in the season that the surface has become very dry, a wide, shallow ditch made with a shovel will expose moist soil several inches down. A furrow can be cut in the bottom of that damp "valley" and big seeds germinated with little or no watering. Tillage breaks capillary connections until the fluffy soil resettles. This interruption is useful for preventing moisture loss in summer, but the same phenomenon makes the surface dry out in a flash. In recently tilled earth, successfully sprouting small seeds in warm weather is dicey without frequent watering. With a bit of forethought, the water-wise gardener can easily reestablish capillarity below sprouting seeds so that moisture held deeper in the soil rises to replace that lost from surface layers, reducing or eliminating the need for watering. The principle here can be easily demonstrated. In fact, there probably isn't any gardener who has not seen the phenomenon at work without realizing it. Every gardener has tilled the soil, gone out the next morning, and noticed that his or her compacted footprints were moist while the rest of the earth was dry and fluffy. Foot pressure restored capillarity, and during the night, fresh moisture replaced what had evaporated. This simple technique helps start everything except carrots and parsnips (which must have completely loose soil to develop correctly). All the gardener must do is intentionally compress the soil below the seeds and then cover the seeds with a mulch of loose, dry soil. Sprouting seeds then rest atop damp soil exactly they lie on a damp blotter in a germination laboratory's covered petri dish. This dampness will not disappear before the sprouting seedling has propelled a root several inches farther down and is putting a leaf into the sunlight. I've used several techniques to reestablish capillarity after tilling. There's a wise old plastic push planter in my garage that first compacts the tilled earth with its front wheel, cuts a furrow, drops the seed, and then with its drag chain pulls loose soil over the furrow. I've also pulled one wheel of a garden cart or pushed a lightly loaded wheelbarrow down the row to press down a wheel track, sprinkled seed on that compacted furrow, and then pulled loose soil over it. Handmade Footprints Sometimes I sow large brassicas and cucurbits in clumps above a fertilized, double-dug spot. First, in a space about 18 inches square, I deeply dig in complete organic fertilizer. Then with my fist I punch down a depression in the center of the fluffed-up mound. Sometimes my fist goes in so easily that I have to replace a little more soil and punch it down some more. The purpose is not to make rammed earth or cement, but only to reestablish capillarity by having firm soil under a shallow, fist-sized depression. Then a pinch of seed is sprinkled atop this depression and covered with fine earth. Even if several hot sunny days follow I get good germination without watering. This same technique works excellently on hills of squash, melon and cucumber as well, though these large-seeded species must be planted quite a bit deeper. Summer: How to Fluid Drill Seeds Soaking seeds before sowing is another water-wise technique, especially useful later in the season. At bedtime, place the seeds in a half-pint mason jar, cover with a square of plastic window screen held on with a strong rubber band, soak the seeds overnight, and then drain them first thing in the morning. Gently rinse the seeds with cool water two or three times daily until the root tips begin to emerge. As soon as this sign appears, the seed must be sown, because the newly emerging roots become increasingly subject to breaking off as they develop and soon form tangled masses. Presprouted seeds may be gently blended into some crumbly, moist soil and this mixture gently sprinkled into a furrow and covered. If the sprouts are particularly delicate or, as with carrots, you want a very uniform stand, disperse the seeds in a starch gelatin and imitate what commercial vegetable growers call fluid drilling. Heat one pint of water to the boiling point. Dissolve in 2 to 3 tablespoons of ordinary cornstarch. Place the mixture in the refrigerator to cool. Soon the liquid will become a soupy gel. Gently mix this cool starch gel with the sprouting seeds, making sure the seeds are uniformly blended. Pour the mixture into a 1-quart plastic zipper bag and, scissors in hand, go out to the garden. After a furrow--with capillarity restored--has been prepared, cut a small hole in one lower corner of the plastic bag. The hole size should be under 1/4 inch in diameter. Walk quickly down the row, dribbling a mixture of gel and seeds into the furrow. Then cover. You may have to experiment a few times with cooled gel minus seeds until you divine the proper hole size, walking speed and amount of gel needed per length of furrow. Not only will presprouted seeds come up days sooner, and not only will the root be penetrating moist soil long before the shoot emerges, but the stand of seedlings will be very uniformly spaced and easier to thin. After fluid drilling a few times you'll realize that one needs quite a bit less seed per length of row than you previously thought. Establishing the Fall and Winter Garden West of the Cascades, germinating fall and winter crops in the heat of summer is always difficult. Even when the entire garden is well watered, midsummer sowings require daily attention and frequent sprinkling; however, once they have germinated, keeping little seedlings growing in an irrigated garden usually requires no more water than the rest of the garden gets. But once hot weather comes, establishing small seeds in the dry garden seems next to impossible without regular watering. Should a lucky, perfectly timed, and unusually heavy summer rainfall sprout your seeds, they still would not grow well because the next few inches of soil would at best be only slightly moist. A related problem many backyard gardeners have with establishing the winter and overwintered garden is finding enough space for both the summer and winter crops. The nursery bed solves both these problems. Instead of trying to irrigate the entire area that will eventually be occupied by a winter or overwintered crop at maturity, the seedlings are first grown in irrigated nurseries for transplanting in autumn after the rains come back. Were I desperately short of water I'd locate my nursery where it got only morning sun and sow a week or 10 days earlier to compensate for the slower growth. Vegetables to Start in a Nursery Bed Variety Sowing date Transplanting date Fall/winter lettuce mid-August early October Leeks early April July Overwintered onions early-mid August December/January Spring cabbage mid-late August November/December Spring cauliflower mid-August October/November 1st Winter scallions mid-July mid-October Seedlings in pots and trays are hard to keep moist and require daily tending. Fortunately, growing transplants in little pots is not necessary because in autumn, when they'll be set out, humidity is high, temperatures are cool, the sun is weak, and transpiration losses are minimal, so seedling transplants will tolerate considerable root loss. My nursery is sown in rows about 8 inches apart across a raised bed and thinned gradually to prevent crowding, because crowded seedlings are hard to dig out without damage. When the prediction of a few days of cloudy weather encourages transplanting, the seedlings are lifted with a large, sharp knife. If the fall rains are late and/or the crowded seedlings are getting leggy, a relatively small amount of irrigation will moisten the planting areas. Another light watering at transplanting time will almost certainly establish the seedlings quite successfully. And, finding room for these crops ceases to be a problem because fall transplants can be set out as a succession crop following hot weather vegetables such as squash, melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, potatoes, and beans. Vegetables that must be heavily irrigated (These crops are not suitable for dry gardens.) Bulb Onions (for fall harvest) Celeriac Celery Chinese cabbage Lettuce (summer and fall) Radishes (summer and fall) Scallions (for summer harvest) Spinach (summer) Chapter 5 How to Grow It with Less Irrigation: A-Z First, a Word About Varieties As recently as the 1930s, most American country folk still did not have running water. With water being hand-pumped and carried in buckets, and precious, their vegetable gardens had to be grown with a minimum of irrigation. In the otherwise well-watered East, one could routinely expect several consecutive weeks every summer without rain. In some drought years a hot, rainless month or longer could go by. So vegetable varieties were bred to grow through dry spells without loss, and traditional American vegetable gardens were designed to help them do so. I began gardening in the early 1970s, just as the raised-bed method was being popularized. The latest books and magazine articles all agreed that raising vegetables in widely separated single rows was a foolish imitation of commercial farming, that commercial vegetables were arranged that way for ease of mechanical cultivation. Closely planted raised beds requiring hand cultivation were alleged to be far more productive and far more efficient users of irrigation because water wasn't evaporating from bare soil. I think this is more likely to be the truth: Old-fashioned gardens used low plant densities to survive inevitable spells of rainlessness. Looked at this way, widely separated vegetables in widely separated rows may be considered the more efficient users of water because they consume soil moisture that nature freely puts there. Only after, and if, these reserves are significantly depleted does the gardener have to irrigate. The end result is surprisingly more abundant than a modern gardener educated on intensive, raised-bed propaganda would think. Finding varieties still adapted to water-wise gardening is becoming difficult. Most American vegetables are now bred for irrigation-dependent California. Like raised-bed gardeners, vegetable farmers have discovered that they can make a bigger profit by growing smaller, quick-maturing plants in high-density spacings. Most modern vegetables have been bred to suit this method. Many new varieties can't forage and have become smaller, more determinate, and faster to mature. Actually, the larger, more sprawling heirloom varieties of the past were not a great deal less productive overall, but only a little later to begin yielding. Fortunately, enough of the old sorts still exist that a selective and varietally aware home gardener can make do. Since I've become water-wiser, I'm interested in finding and conserving heirlooms that once supported large numbers of healthy Americans in relative self-sufficiency. My earlier book, being a guide to what passes for ordinary vegetable gardening these days, assumed the availability of plenty of water. The varieties I recommended in [i]Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades[i] were largely modern ones, and the seed companies I praised most highly focused on top-quality commercial varieties. But, looking at gardening through the filter of limited irrigation, other, less modern varieties are often far better adapted and other seed companies sometimes more likely sources. Seed Company Directory* Abundant Life See Foundation: P.O. Box 772, Port Townsend, WA 98368 _(ABL)_ Johnny's Selected Seeds: Foss Hill Road, Albion, Maine 04910 _(JSS)_ Peace Seeds: 2345 SE Thompson Street, Corvallis, OR 97333 _(PEA)_ Ronninger's Seed Potatoes: P.O. Box 1838, Orting, WA 98360 _(RSP)_ Stokes Seeds Inc. Box 548, Buffalo, NY 14240 _(STK)_ Territorial Seed Company: P.O. Box 20, Cottage Grove, OR 97424 _(TSC)_ *Throughout the growing directions that follow in this chapter, the reader will be referred to a specific company only for varieties that are not widely available. I have again come to appreciate the older style of vegetable--sprawling, large framed, later maturing, longer yielding, vigorously rooting. However, many of these old-timers have not seen the attentions of a professional plant breeder for many years and throw a fair percentage of bizarre, misshapen, nonproductive plants. These "off types" can be compensated for by growing a somewhat larger garden and allowing for some waste. Dr. Alan Kapuler, who runs Peace Seeds, has brilliantly pointed out to me why heirloom varieties are likely to be more nutritious. Propagated by centuries of isolated homesteaders, heirlooms that survived did so because these superior varieties helped the gardeners' better-nourished babies pass through the gauntlet of childhood illnesses. Plant Spacing: The Key to Water-Wise Gardening Reduced plant density is the essence of dry gardening. The recommended spacings in this section are those I have found workable at Elkton, Oregon. My dry garden is generally laid out in single rows, the row centers 4 feet apart. Some larger crops, like potatoes, tomatoes, beans, and cucurbits (squash, cucumbers, and melons) are allocated more elbow room. Those few requiring intensive irrigation are grown on a raised bed, tightly spaced. I cannot prescribe what would be the perfect, most efficient spacing for your garden. Are your temperatures lower than mine and evaporation less? Or is your weather hotter? Does your soil hold more, than less than, or just as much available moisture as mine? Is it as deep and open and moisture retentive? To help you compare your site with mine, I give you the following data. My homestead is only 25 miles inland and is always several degrees cooler in summer than the Willamette Valley. Washingtonians and British Columbians have cooler days and a greater likelihood of significant summertime rain and so may plant a little closer together. Inland gardeners farther south or in the Willamette Valley may want to spread their plants out a little farther. Living on 16 acres, I have virtually unlimited space to garden in. The focus of my recent research has been to eliminate irrigation as much as possible while maintaining food quality. Those with thinner soil who are going to depend more on fertigation may plant closer, how close depending on the amount of water available. More irrigation will also give higher per-square-foot yields. _Whatever your combination of conditions, your results can only be determined by trial._ I'd suggest you become water-wise by testing a range of spacings. When to Plant If you've already been growing an irrigated year-round garden, this book's suggested planting dates may surprise you. And as with spacing, sowing dates must also be wisely adjusted to your location. The planting dates in this chapter are what I follow in my own garden. It is impractical to include specific dates for all the microclimatic areas of the maritime Northwest and for every vegetable species. Readers are asked to make adjustments by understanding their weather relative to mine. Gardeners to the north of me and at higher elevations should make their spring sowings a week or two later than the dates I use. In the Garden Valley of Roseburg and south along I-5, start spring plantings a week or two earlier. Along the southern Oregon coast and in northern California, start three or four weeks sooner than I do. Fall comes earlier to the north of me and to higher-elevation gardens; end-of-season growth rates there also slow more profoundly than they do at Elkton. Summers are cooler along the coast; that has the same effect of slowing late-summer growth. Items started after midsummer should be given one or two extra growing weeks by coastal, high-elevation, and northern gardeners. Gardeners to the south should sow their late crops a week or two later than I do; along the south Oregon coast and in northern California, two to four weeks later than I do. Arugula (Rocket) The tender, peppery little leaves make winter salads much more interesting. _Sowing date:_ I delay sowing until late August or early September so my crowded patch of arugula lasts all winter and doesn't make seed until March. Pregerminated seeds emerge fast and strong. Sprouted in early October, arugula still may reach eating size in midwinter. _Spacing:_ Thinly seed a row into any vacant niche. The seedlings will be insignificantly small until late summer. _Irrigation:_ If the seedlings suffer a bit from moisture stress they'll catch up rapidly when the fall rains begin. _Varieties:_ None. Beans of All Sorts Heirloom pole beans once climbed over considerable competition while vigorously struggling for water, nutrition, and light. Modern bush varieties tend to have puny root systems. _Sowing date:_ Mid-April is the usual time on the Umpqua, elsewhere, sow after the danger of frost is over and soil stays over 60[de]F. If the earth is getting dry by this date, soak the seed overnight before sowing and furrow down to moist soil. However, do not cover the seeds more than 2 inches. _Spacing:_ Twelve to 16 inches apart at final thinning. Allow about 2[f]1/2 to 3 feet on either side of the trellis to avoid root competition from other plants. _Irrigation:_ If part of the garden is sprinkler irrigated, space beans a little tighter and locate the bean trellis toward the outer reach of the sprinkler's throw. Due to its height, the trellis tends to intercept quite a bit of water and dumps it at the base. You can also use the bucket-drip method and fertigate the beans, giving about 25 gallons per 10 row-feet once or twice during the summer. Pole beans can make a meaningful yield without any irrigation; under severe moisture stress they will survive, but bear little. _Varieties:_ Any of the pole types seem to do fine. Runner beans seem to prefer cooler locations but are every bit as drought tolerant as ordinary snap beans. My current favorites are Kentucky Wonder White Seeded, Fortrex (TSC, JSS), and Musica (TSC). The older heirloom dry beans were mostly pole types. They are reasonably productive if allowed to sprawl on the ground without support. Their unirrigated seed yield is lower, but the seed is still plump, tastes great, and sprouts well. Compared to unirrigated Black Coco (TSC), which is my most productive and best-tasting bush cultivar, Kentucky Wonder Brown Seeded (sometimes called Old Homestead) (STK, PEA, ABL) yields about 50 percent more seed and keeps on growing for weeks after Coco has quit. Do not bother to fertigate untrellised pole beans grown for dry seed. With the threat of September moisture always looming over dry bean plots, we need to encourage vines to quit setting and dry down. Peace Seeds and Abundant Life offer long lists of heirloom vining dry bean varieties. Serious self-sufficiency buffs seeking to produced their own legume supply should also consider the fava, garbanzo bean, and Alaska pea. Many favas can be overwintered: sow in October, sprout on fall rains, grow over the winter, and dry down in June with the soil. Garbanzos are grown like mildly frost-tolerant peas. Alaska peas are the type used for pea soup. They're spring sown and grown like ordinary shelling peas. Avoid overhead irrigation while seeds are drying down. Beets Beets will root far deeper and wider than most people realize--in uncompacted, nonacid soils. Double or triple dig the subsoil directly below the seed row. _Sowing date:_ Early April at Elkton, late March farther south, and as late as April 30 in British Columbia. Beet seed germinates easily in moist, cool soil. A single sowing may be harvested from June through early March the next year. If properly thinned, good varieties remain tender. _Spacing:_ A single row will gradually exhaust subsoil moisture from an area 4 feet wide. When the seedlings are 2 to 3 inches tall, thin carefully to about 1 inch apart. When the edible part is radish size, thin to 2 inches apart and eat the thinings, tops and all. When they've grown to golfball size, thin to 4 inches apart, thin again. When they reach the size of large lemons, thin to 1 foot apart. Given this much room and deep, open soil, the beets will continue to grow through the entire summer. Hill up some soil over the huge roots early in November to protect them from freezing. _Irrigation:_ Probably not necessary with over 4 feet of deep, open soil. _Varieties:_ I've done best with Early Wonder Tall Top; when large, it develops a thick, protective skin and retains excellent eating quality. Winterkeepers, normally sown in midsummer with irrigation, tend to bolt prematurely when sown in April. Broccoli: Italian Style Italian-style broccoli needs abundant moisture to be tender and make large flowers. Given enough elbow room, many varieties can endure long periods of moisture stress, but the smaller, woody, slow-developing florets won't be great eating. Without any irrigation, spring-sown broccoli may still be enjoyed in early summer and Purple Sprouting in March/April after overwintering. _Sowing date:_Without any irrigation at all, mid-March through early April. With fertigation, also mid-April through mid-May. This later sowing will allow cutting through summer. _Spacing:_ Brocoli tastes better when big plants grow big, sweet heads. Allow a 4-foot-wide row. Space early sowings about 3 feet apart in the row; later sowings slated to mature during summer's heat can use 4 feet. On a fist-sized spot compacted to restore capillarity, sow a little pinch of seed atop a well-and deeply fertilized, double-dug patch of earth. Thin gradually to the best single plant by the time three or four true leaves have developed. _Irrigation:_ After mid-June, 4 to 5 gallons of drip bucket liquid fertilizer every two to three weeks makes an enormous difference. You'll be surprised at the size of the heads and the quality of side shoots. A fertigated May sowing will be exhausted by October. Take a chance: a heavy side-dressing of strong compost or complete organic fertilizer when the rains return may trigger a massive spurt of new, larger heads from buds located below the soil's surface. _Varieties:_ Many hybrids have weak roots. I'd avoid anything that was "held up on a tall stalk" for mechanical harvest or was "compact" or that "didn't have many side-shoots". Go for larger size. Territorial's hybrid blend yields big heads for over a month followed by abundant side shoots. Old, open-pollinated types like Italian Sprouting Calabrese, DeCicco, or Waltham 29 are highly variable, bushy, with rather coarse, large-beaded flowers, second-rate flavor and many, many side shoots. Irrigating gardeners who can start new plants every four weeks from May through July may prefer hybrids. Dry gardeners who will want to cut side shoots for as long as possible during summer from large, well-established plants may prefer crude, open-pollinated varieties. Try both. Broccoli: Purple Sprouting and Other Overwintering Types _Spacing:_ Grow like broccoli, 3 to 4 feet apart. _Sowing date:_ It is easiest to sow in April or early May, minimally fertigate a somewhat gnarly plant through the summer, push it for size in fall and winter, and then harvest it next March. With too early a start in spring, some premature flowering may occur in autumn; still, massive blooming will resume again in spring. Overwintering green Italian types such as ML423 (TSC) will flower in fall if sown before late June. These sorts are better started in a nursery bed around August 1 and like overwintered cauliflower, transplanted about 2 feet apart when fall rains return, then, pushed for growth with extra fertilizer in fall and winter. With nearly a whole year to grow before blooming, Purple Sprouting eventually reaches 4 to 5 feet in height and 3 to 4 feet in diameter, and yields hugely. _Irrigation:_ It is not essential to heavily fertigate Purple Sprouting, though you may G-R-O-W enormous plants for their beauty. Quality or quantity of spring harvest won't drop one bit if the plants become a little stunted and gnarly in summer, as long as you fertilize late in September to spur rapid growth during fall and winter. Root System Vigor in the Cabbage Family Wild cabbage is a weed and grows like one, able to successfully compete for water against grasses and other herbs. Remove all competition with a hoe, and allow this weed to totally control all the moisture and nutrients in all the earth its roots can occupy, and it grows hugely and lushly. Just for fun, I once G-R-E-W one, with tillage, hoeing, and spring fertilization but no irrigation; it ended up 5 feet tall and 6 feet in diameter. As this highly moldable family is inbred and shaped into more and more exaggerated forms, it weakens and loses the ability to forage. Kale retains the most wild aggressiveness, Chinese cabbage perhaps the least. Here, in approximately correct order, is shown the declining root vigor and general adaptation to moisture stress of cabbage family vegetables. The table shows the most vigorous at the top, declining as it goes down. Adapted to dry gardening Not vigorous enough Kale Italian broccoli (some varieties) Brussels sprouts (late types) Cabbage (regular market types) Late savoy cabbage Brussels sprouts (early types) Giant "field-type" kohlrabi Small "market-garden" kohlrabi Mid-season savoy cabbage Cauliflower (regular, annual) Rutabaga Turnips and radishes Italian Broccoli (some varieties) Chinese cabbage Brussels Sprouts _Sowing date:_ If the plants are a foot tall before the soil starts drying down, their roots will be over a foot deep; the plants will then grow hugely with a bit of fertigation. At Elkton I dry garden Brussels sprouts by sowing late April to early May. Started this soon, even late-maturing varieties may begin forming sprouts by September. Though premature bottom sprouts will "blow up" and become aphid damaged, more, higher-quality sprouts will continue to form farther up the stalk during autumn and winter. _Spacing:_ Make each spot about 4 feet apart. _Irrigation:_ Without any added moisture, the plants will become stunted but will survive all summer. Side-dressing manure or fertilizer late in September (or sooner if the rains come sooner) will provoke very rapid autumn growth and a surprisingly large yield from plants that looked stress out in August. If increasingly larger amounts of fertigation can be provided every two to three weeks, the lush Brussels sprouts plants can become 4 feet in diameter and 4 feet tall by October and yield enormously. _Varieties:_ Use late European hybrid types. At Elkton, where winters are a little milder than in the Willamette, Lunet (TSC) has the finest eating qualities. Were I farther north I'd grow hardier types like Stabolite (TSC) or Fortress (TSC). Early types are not suitable to growing with insufficient irrigation or frequent spraying to fight off aphids. Cabbage Forget those delicate, green supermarket cabbages unless you have unlimited amounts of water. But easiest-to-grow savoy types will do surprisingly well with surprisingly little support. Besides, savoys are the best salad material. _Sowing date:_ I suggest three sowing times: the first, a succession of early, midseason, and late savoys made in mid-March for harvest during summer; the second, late and very late varieties started late April to early May for harvest during fall and winter; the last, a nursery bed of overwintered sorts sown late in August. _Spacing:_ Early-maturing savoy varieties are naturally smaller and may not experience much hot weather before heading up--these may be separated by about 30 inches. The later ones are large plants and should be given 4 feet of space or 16 square feet of growing room. Sow and grow them like broccoli. Transplant overwintered cabbages from nursery beds late in October, spaced about 3 feet apart; these thrive where the squash grew. _Irrigation:_ The more fertigation you can supply, the larger and more luxuriant the plants and the bigger the heads. But even small, somewhat moisture-stressed savoys make very edible heads. In terms of increased yield for water expended, it is well worth it to provide late varieties with a few gallons of fertigation about mid-June, and a bucketful in mid-July and mid-August. _Varieties:_ Japanese hybrid savoys make tender eating but may not withstand winter. European savoys are hardier, coarser, thicker-leaved, and harder chewing. For the first sowing I suggest a succession of Japanese varieties including Salarite or Savoy Princess for earlies; Savoy Queen, King, or Savoy Ace for midsummer; and Savonarch (TSC) for late August/early September harvests. They're all great varieties. For the second sowing I grow Savonarch (TSC) for September[-]November cutting and a very late European hybrid type like Wivoy (TSC) for winter. Small-framed January King lacks sufficient root vigor. Springtime (TSC) and FEM218 (TSC) are the only overwintered cabbages available. Carrots Dry-gardening carrots requires patiently waiting until the weather stabilizes before tilling and sowing. To avoid even a little bit of soil compaction, I try to sprout the seed without irrigation but always fear that hot weather will frustrate my efforts. So I till and plant too soon. And then heavy rain comes and compacts my perfectly fluffed-up soil. But the looser and finer the earth remains during their first six growing weeks, the more perfectly the roots will develop. _Sowing date:_ April at Elkton. _Spacing:_ Allocate 4 feet of width to a single row of carrot seed. When the seedlings are about 2 inches tall, thin to 1 inch apart. Then thin every other carrot when the roots are [f]3/8 to [f]1/2 inch in diameter and eat the thinnings. A few weeks later, when the carrots are about 3/4 to 1 inch in diameter, make a final thinning to 1 foot apart. _Irrigation:_ Not necessary. Foliar feeding every few weeks will make much larger roots. Without any help they should grow to several pounds each. _Varieties:_ Choosing the right variety is very important. Nantes and other delicate, juicy types lack enough fiber to hold together when they get very large. These split prematurely. I've had my best results with Danvers types. I'd also try Royal Chantenay (PEA), Fakkel Mix (TSC), Stokes "Processor" types, and Topweight (ABL). Be prepared to experiment with variety. The roots will not be quite as tender as heavily watered Nantes types but are a lot better than you'd think. Huge carrots are excellent in soups and we cheerfully grate them into salads. Something about accumulating sunshine all summer makes the roots incredibly sweet. Cauliflower Ordinary varieties cannot forage for moisture. Worse, moisture stress at any time during the growth cycle prevents proper formation of curds. The only important cauliflowers suitable for dry gardening are overwintered types. I call them important because they're easy to grow and they'll feed the family during April and early May, when other garden fare is very scarce. _Sowing date:_ To acquire enough size to survive cold weather, overwintered cauliflower must be started on a nursery bed during the difficult heat of early August. Except south of Yoncalla, delaying sowing until September makes very small seedlings that may not be hardy enough and likely won't yield much in April unless winter is very mild, encouraging unusual growth. _Spacing:_ In October, transplant about 2 feet apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. _Irrigation:_ If you have more water available, fertilize and till up some dusty, dry soil, wet down the row, direct-seed like broccoli (but closer together), and periodically irrigate until fall. If you only moisten a narrow band of soil close to the seedlings it won't take much water. Cauliflower grows especially well in the row that held bush peas. _Varieties:_ The best are the very pricy Armado series sold by Territorial. Chard This vegetable is basically a beet with succulent leaves and thick stalks instead of edible, sweet roots. It is just as drought tolerant as a beet, and in dry gardening, chard is sown, spaced, and grown just like a beet. But if you want voluminous leaf production during summer, you may want to fertigate it occasionally. _Varieties:_ The red chards are not suitable for starting early in the season; they have a strong tendency to bolt prematurely if sown during that part of the year when daylength is increasing. Corn Broadcast complete organic fertilizer or strong compost shallowly over the corn patch till midwinter, or as early in spring as the earth can be worked without making too many clods. Corn will germinate in pretty rough soil. High levels of nutrients in the subsoil are more important than a fine seedbed. _Sowing date:_ About the time frost danger ends. Being large seed, corn can be set deep, where soil moisture still exists even after conditions have warmed up. Germination without irrigation should be no problem. _Spacing_: The farther south, the farther apart. Entirely without irrigation, I've had fine results spacing individual corn plants 3 feet apart in rows 3 feet apart, or 9 square feet per each plant. Were I around Puget Sound or in B.C. I'd try 2 feet apart in rows 30 inches apart. Gary Nabhan describes Papago gardeners in Arizona growing individual cornstalks 10 feet apart. Grown on wide spacings, corn tends to tiller (put up multiple stalks, each making one or two ears). For most urban and suburban gardeners, space is too valuable to allocate 9 square feet for producing one or at best three or four ears. _Irrigation:_ With normal sprinkler irrigation, corn may be spaced 8 inches apart in rows 30 inches apart, still yielding one or two ears per stalk. _Varieties:_ Were I a devoted sweetcorn eater without enough irrigation, I'd be buying a few dozen freshly picked ears from the back of a pickup truck parked on a corner during local harvest season. Were I a devoted corn grower without any irrigation, I'd be experimenting with various types of field corn instead of sweet corn. Were I a self-sufficiency buff trying earnestly to produce all my own cereal, I'd accept that the maritime Northwest is a region where survivalists will eat wheat, rye, millet, and other small grains. Many varieties of field corn are nearly as sweet as ordinary sweet corn, but grain varieties become starchy and tough within hours of harvest. Eaten promptly, "pig" corn is every bit as tasty as Jubilee. I've had the best dry-garden results with Northstine Dent (JSS) and Garland Flint (JSS). Hookers Sweet Indian (TSC) has a weak root system. Successfully Starting Cucurbits From Seed With cucurbits, germination depends on high-enough soil temperature and not too much moisture. Squash are the most chill and moisture tolerant, melons the least. Here's a failure-proof and simple technique that ensures you'll plant at exactly the right time. Cucumbers, squash, and melons are traditionally sown atop a deeply dug, fertilized spot that usually looks like a little mound after it is worked and is commonly called a hill. About two weeks before the last anticipated frost date in your area, plant five or six squash seeds about 2 inches deep in a clump in the very center of that hill. Then, a week later, plant another clump at 12 o'clock. In another week, plant another clump at 3 o'clock, and continue doing this until one of the sowings sprouts. Probably the first try won't come up, but the hill will certainly germinate several clumps of seedlings. If weather conditions turn poor, a later-to-sprout group may outgrow those that came up earlier. Thin gradually to the best single plant by the time the vines are running. When the first squash seeds appear it is time to begin sowing cucumbers, starting a new batch each week until one emerges. When the cucumbers first germinate, it's time to try melons. Approaching cucurbits this way ensures that you'll get the earliest possible germination while being protected against the probability that cold, damp weather will prevent germination or permanently spoil the growth prospects of the earlier seedlings. Cucumbers _Sowing date:_ About May 5 to 15 at Elkton. _Spacing:_ Most varieties usually run five about 3 feet from the hill. Space the hills about 5 to 6 feet apart in all directions. _Irrigation:_ Like melons. Regular and increasing amounts of fertigation will increase the yield several hundred percent. _Varieties:_ I've had very good results dry-gardening Amira II (TSC), even without any fertigation at all. It is a Middle Eastern[-]style variety that makes pickler-size thin-skinned cukes that need no peeling and have terrific flavor. The burpless or Japanese sorts don't seem to adapt well to drought. Most slicers dry-garden excellently. Apple or Lemon are similar novelty heirlooms that make very extensive vines with aggressive roots and should be given a foot or two more elbow room. I'd avoid any variety touted as being for pot or patio, compact, or short-vined, because of a likely linkage between its vine structure and root system. Eggplant Grown without regular sprinkler irrigation, eggplant seems to get larger and yield sooner and more abundantly. I suspect this delicate and fairly drought-resistant tropical species does not like having its soil temperature lowered by frequent watering. _Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time, about two weeks after the tomatoes, after all frost danger has passed and after nights have stably warmed up above 50 degree F. _Spacing:_ Double dig and deeply fertilize the soil under each transplant. Separate plants by about 3 feet in rows about 4 feet apart. _Irrigation:_ Will grow and produce a few fruit without any watering, but a bucket of fertigation every three to four weeks during summer may result in the most luxurious, hugest, and heaviest-bearing eggplants you've ever grown. _Varieties:_ I've noticed no special varietal differences in ability to tolerate dryish soil. I've had good yields from the regionally adapted varieties Dusky Hybrid, Short Tom, and Early One. Endive A biennial member of the chicory family, endive quickly puts down a deep taproot and is naturally able to grow through prolonged drought. Because endive remains bitter until cold weather, it doesn't matter if it grows slowly through summer, just so long as rapid leaf production resumes in autumn. _Sowing date:_ On irrigated raised beds endive is sown around August 1 and heads by mid-October. The problem with dry-gardened endive is that if it is spring sown during days of increasing daylength when germination of shallow-sown small seed is a snap, it will bolt prematurely. The crucial moment seems to be about June 1. April/May sowings bolt in July/August,: after June 1, bolting won't happen until the next spring, but germination won't happen without watering. One solution is soaking the seeds overnight, rinsing them frequently until they begin to sprout, and fluid drilling them. _Spacing:_ The heads become huge when started in June. Sow in rows 4 feet apart and thin gradually until the rosettes are 3 inches in diameter, then thin to 18 inches apart. _Irrigation:_ Without a drop of moisture the plants, even as tiny seedlings, will grow steadily but slowly all summer, as long as no other crop is invading their root zone. The only time I had trouble was when the endive row was too close to an aggressive row of yellow crookneck squash. About August, the squash roots began invading the endive's territory and the endive got wilty. A light side-dressing of complete organic fertilizer or compost in late September will grow the hugest plants imaginable. _Varieties:_ Curly types seem more tolerant to rain and frost during winter than broad-leaf Batavian varieties. I prefer President (TSC). Herbs Most perennial and biennial herbs are actually weeds and wild hillside shrubs from Mediterranean climates similar to that of Southern California. They are adapted to growing on winter rainfall and surviving seven to nine months without rainfall every summer. In our climate, merely giving them a little more elbow room than usually offered, thorough weeding, and side-dressing the herb garden with a little compost in fall is enough coddling. Annuals such as dill and cilantro are also very drought tolerant. Basil, however, needs considerable moisture. Kale Depending on the garden for a significant portion of my annual caloric intake has gradually refined my eating habits. Years ago I learned to like cabbage salads as much as lettuce. Since lettuce freezes out many winters (19-21 degree F), this adjustment has proved very useful. Gradually I began to appreciate kale, too, and now value it as a salad green far more than cabbage. This personal adaptation has proved very pro-survival, because even savoy cabbages do not grow as readily or yield nearly as much as kale. And kale is a tad more cold hardy than even savoy cabbage. You may be surprised to learn that kale produces more complete protein per area occupied per time involved than any legume, including alfalfa. If it is steamed with potatoes and then mashed, the two vegetables complement and flavor each other. Our region could probably subsist quite a bit more healthfully than at present on potatoes and kale. The key to enjoying kale as a salad component is varietal choice, preparation, and using the right parts of the plant. Read on. _Sowing date:_ With irrigation, fast-growing kale is usually started in midsummer for use in fall and winter. But kale is absolutely biennial--started in March or April, it will not bolt until the next spring. The water-wise gardener can conveniently sow kale while cool, moist soil simplifies germination. Starting this early also produces a deep root system before the soil dries much, and a much taller, very useful central stalk on oleracea types, while early sown Siberian (Napa) varieties tend to form multiple rosettes by autumn, also useful at harvest time. _Spacing: _Grow like broccoli, spaced 4 feet apart. _Irrigation:_ Without any water, the somewhat stunted plants will survive the summer to begin rapid growth as soon as fall rains resume. With the help of occasional fertigation they grow lushly and are enormous by September. Either way, there still will be plenty of kale during fall and winter. _Harvest:_ Bundles of strong-flavored, tough, large leaves are sold in supermarkets but are the worst-eating part of the plant. If chopped finely enough, big raw leaves can be masticated and tolerated by people with good teeth. However, the tiny leaves are far tenderer and much milder. The more rosettes developed on Siberian kales, the more little leaves there are to be picked. By pinching off the central growing tip in October and then gradually stripping off the large shading leaves, _oleracea_ varieties may be encouraged to put out dozens of clusters of small, succulent leaves at each leaf notch along the central stalk. The taller the stalk grown during summer, the more of these little leaves there will be. Only home gardeners can afford the time to hand pick small leaves. _Varieties:_ I somewhat prefer the flavor of Red Russian to the ubiquitous green Siberian, but Red Russian is very slightly less cold hardy. Westland Winter (TSC) and Konserva (JSS) are tall European oleracea varieties. Winterbor F1 (JSS, TSC) is also excellent. The dwarf "Scotch" kales, blue or green, sold by many American seed companies are less vigorous types that don't produce nearly as many gourmet little leaves. Dwarfs in any species tend to have dwarfed root systems. Kohlrabi (Giant) Spring-sown market kohlrabi are usually harvested before hot weather makes them get woody. Irrigation is not required if they're given a little extra elbow room. With ordinary varieties, try thinning to 5 inches apart in rows 2 to 3 feet apart and harvest by thinning alternate plants. Given this additional growing room, they may not get woody until midsummer. On my irrigated, intensive bed I always sow some more on August 1, to have tender bulbs in autumn. Kohlrabi was once grown as European fodder crop; slow-growing farmers, varieties grow huge like rutabagas. These field types have been crossed with table types to make "giant" table varieties that really suit dry gardening. What to do with a giant kohlrabi (or any bulb getting overblown)? Peel, grate finely, add chopped onion, dress with olive oil and black pepper, toss, and enjoy this old Eastern European mainstay. _Sowing date:_ Sow giant varieties during April, as late as possible while still getting a foot-tall plant before really hot weather. _Spacing:_ Thin to 3 feet apart in rows 4 feet apart. _Irrigation:_ Not absolutely necessary on deep soil, but if they get one or two thorough fertigations during summer their size may double. _Varieties:_ A few American seed companies, including Peace Seeds, have a giant kohlrabi of some sort or other. The ones I've tested tend to be woody, are crude, and throw many off-types, a high percentage of weak plants, and/or poorly shaped roots. By the time this book is in print, Territorial should list a unique Swiss variety called Superschmeltz, which is uniformly huge and stays tender into the next year. Leeks Unwatered spring-sown bulbing onions are impossible. Leek is the only allium I know of that may grow steadily but slowly through severe drought; the water-short gardener can depend on leeks for a fall/winter onion supply. _Sowing date:_ Start a row or several short rows about 12 inches apart on a nursery bed in March or early April at the latest. Grow thickly, irrigate during May/June, and fertilize well so the competing seedlings get leggy. _Spacing:_ By mid-to late June the seedlings should be slightly spindly, pencil-thick, and scallion size. With a sharp shovel, dig out the nursery row, carefully retaining 5 or 6 inches of soil below the seedlings. With a strong jet of water, blast away the soil and, while doing this, gently separate the tangled roots so that as little damage is done as possible. Make sure the roots don't dry out before transplanting. After separation, I temporarily wrap bundled seedlings in wet newspaper. Dig out a foot-deep trench the width of an ordinary shovel and carefully place this earth next to the trench. Sprinkle in a heavy dose of organic fertilizer or strong compost, and spade that in so the soil is fluffy and fertile 2 feet down. Do not immediately refill the trench with the soil that was dug out. With a shovel handle, poke a row of 6-inch-deep holes along the bottom of the trench. If the nursery bed has grown well there should be about 4 inches of stem on each seedling before the first leaf attaches. If the weather is hot and sunny, snip off about one-third to one-half the leaf area to reduce transplanting shock. Drop one leek seedling into each hole up to the point that the first leaf attaches to the stalk, and mud it in with a cup or two of liquid fertilizer. As the leeks grow, gradually refill the trench and even hill up soil around the growing plants. This makes the better-tasting white part of the stem get as long as possible. Avoid getting soil into the center of the leek where new leaves emerge, or you'll not get them clean after harvest. Spacing of the seedlings depends on the amount of irrigation. If absolutely none at all, set them 12 inches apart in the center of a row 4 feet wide. If unlimited water is available, give them 2 inches of separation. Or adjust spacing to the water available. The plants grow slowly through summer, but in autumn growth will accelerate, especially if they are side-dressed at this time. _Varieties:_ For dry gardening use the hardier, more vigorous winter leeks. Durabel (TSC) has an especially mild, sweet flavor. Other useful varieties include Giant Carentian (ABL), Alaska (STK), and Winter Giant (PEA). Lettuce Spring-sown lettuce will go to large sizes, remaining sweet and tender without irrigation if spaced 1 foot apart in a single row with 2 feet of elbow room on each side. Lettuce cut after mid-June usually gets bitter without regular, heavy irrigation. I reserve my well-watered raised bed for this summer salad crop. Those very short of water can start fall/winter lettuce in a shaded, irrigated nursery bed mid-August through mid-September and transplant it out after the fall rains return. Here is one situation in which accelerating growth with cloches or cold frames would be very helpful. Water-Wise Cucurbits The root systems of this family are far more extensive than most people realize. Usually a taproot goes down several feet and then, soil conditions permitting, thickly occupies a large area, ultimately reaching down 5 to 8 feet. Shallow feeder roots also extend laterally as far as or farther than the vines reach at their greatest extent. Dry gardeners can do several things to assist cucurbits. First, make sure there is absolutely no competition in their root zone. This means[i]one plant per hill, with the hills separated in all directions a little farther than the greatest possible extent of the variety's ultimate growth.[i] Common garden lore states that squashes droop their leaves in midsummer heat and that this trait cannot be avoided and does no harm. But if they've grown as described above, on deep, open soil, capillarity and surface moisture reserves ensure there usually will be no midday wilting, even if there is no watering. Two plants per hill do compete and make each other wilt. Second, double dig and fertilize the entire lateral root zone. Third, as much as possible, avoid walking where the vines will ultimately reach to avoid compaction. Finally, [i]do not transplant them.[i] This breaks the taproot and makes the plant more dependent on lateral roots seeking moisture in the top 18 inches of soil. Melons _Sowing date:_ As soon as they'll germinate outdoors: at Elkton, May 15 to June 1. Thin to a single plant per hill when there are about three true leaves and the vines are beginning to run. _Spacing:_ Most varieties will grow a vine reaching about 8 feet in diameter. Space the hills 8 feet apart in all directions. _Irrigation:_ Fertigation every two to three weeks will increase the yield by two or three times and may make the melons sweeter. Release the water/fertilizer mix close to the center of the vine, where the taproot can use it. _Varieties:_ Adaptation to our cool climate is critical with melons; use varieties sold by our regional seed companies. Yellow Doll watermelons (TSC) are very early and seem the most productive under the most droughty conditions. I've had reasonable results from most otherwise regionally adapted cantaloupes and muskmelons. Last year a new hybrid variety, Passport (TSC), proved several weeks earlier than I'd ever experienced and was extraordinarily prolific and tasty. Onions/Scallions The usual spring-sown, summer-grown bulb onions and scallions only work with abundant irrigation. But the water-short, water-wise gardener can still supply the kitchen with onions or onion substitutes year-round. Leeks take care of November through early April. Overwintered bulb onions handle the rest of the year. Scallions may also be harvested during winter. _Sowing date:_ Started too soon, overwintered or short-day bulbing onions (and sweet scallions) will bolt and form seed instead of bulbing. Started too late they'll be too small and possibly not hardy enough to survive winter. About August 15 at Elkton I sow thickly in a well-watered and very fertile nursery bed. If you have more than one nursery row, separate them about by 12 inches. Those who miss this window of opportunity can start transplants in early October and cover with a cloche immediately after germination, to accelerate seedling growth during fall and early winter. Start scallions in a nursery just like overwintered onions, but earlier so they're large enough for the table during winter, I sow them about mid-July. _Spacing:_ When seedlings are about pencil thick (December/January for overwintering bulb onions), transplant them about 4 or 5 inches apart in a single row with a couple of feet of elbow room on either side. I've found I get the best growth and largest bulbs if they follow potatoes. After the potatoes are dug in early October I immediately fertilize the area heavily and till, preparing the onion bed. Klamath Basin farmers usually grow a similar rotation: hay, potatoes, onions. Transplant scallions in October with the fall rains, about 1 inch apart in rows at least 2 feet apart. _Irrigation:_ Not necessary. However, side-dressing the transplants will result in much larger bulbs or scallions. Scallions will bolt in April; the bulbers go tops-down and begin drying down as the soil naturally dries out. _Varieties:_ I prefer the sweet and tender Lisbon (TSC) for scallions. For overwintered bulb onions, grow very mild but poorly keeping Walla Walla Sweet (JSS), Buffalo (TSC), a better keeper, or whatever Territorial is selling at present. Parsley _Sowing date:_ March. Parsley seed takes two to three weeks to germinate. _Spacing:_ Thin to 12 inches apart in a single row 4 feet wide. Five plants should overwhelm the average kitchen. _Irrigation:_ Not necessary unless yield falls off during summer and that is very unlikely. Parsley's very deep, foraging root system resembles that of its relative, the carrot. _Varieties:_ If you use parsley for greens, variety is not critical, though the gourmet may note slight differences in flavor or amount of leaf curl. Another type of parsley is grown for edible roots that taste much like parsnip. These should have their soil prepared as carefully as though growing carrots. Peas This early crop matures without irrigation. Both pole and bush varieties are planted thickly in single rows about 4 feet apart. I always overlook some pods, which go on to form mature seed. Without overhead irrigation, this seed will sprout strongly next year. Alaska (soup) peas grow the same way. Peppers Pepper plants on raised beds spaced the usually recommended 16 to 24 inches apart undergo intense root competition even before their leaves form a canopy. With or without unlimited irrigation, the plants will get much larger and bear more heavily with elbow room. _Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time. Double dig a few square feet of soil beneath each seedling, and make sure fertilizer gets incorporated all the way down to 2 feet deep. _Spacing:_ Three feet apart in rows 3 to 4 feet apart. _Irrigation:_ Without any irrigation only the most vigorous, small-fruited varieties will set anything. For an abundant harvest, fertigate every three or four weeks. For the biggest pepper plants you ever grew, fertigate every two weeks. _Varieties:_ The small-fruited types, both hot and sweet, have much more aggressive root systems and generally adapt better to our region's cool weather. I've had best results with Cayenne Long Slim, Gypsie, Surefire, Hot Portugal, the "cherries" both sweet and hot, Italian Sweet, and Petite Sirah. Potatoes Humans domesticated potatoes in the cool, arid high plateaus of the Andes where annual rainfall averages 8 to 12 inches. The species finds our dry summer quite comfortable. Potatoes produce more calories per unit of land than any other temperate crop. Irrigated potatoes yield more calories and two to three times as much watery bulk and indigestible fiber as those grown without irrigation, but the same variety dry gardened can contain about 30 percent more protein, far more mineral nutrients, and taste better. _Sowing date:_ I make two sowings. The first is a good-luck ritual done religiously on March 17th--St. Patrick's Day. Rain or shine, in untilled mud or finely worked and deeply fluffed earth, I still plant 10 or 12 seed potatoes of an early variety. This provides for summer. The main sowing waits until frost is unlikely and I can dig the potato rows at least 12 inches deep with a spading fork, working in fertilizer as deeply as possible and ending up with a finely pulverized 24-inch-wide bed. At Elkton, this is usually mid-to late April. There is no rush to plant. Potato vines are not frost hardy. If frosted they'll regrow, but being burned back to the ground lowers the final yield. _Spacing:_ I presprout my seeds by spreading them out in daylight at room temperature for a few weeks, and then plant one whole, sprouting, medium-size potato every 18 inches down the center of the row. Barely cover the seed potato. At maturity there should be 2[f]1/2 to 3 feet of soil unoccupied with the roots of any other crop on each side of the row. As the vines emerge, gradually scrape soil up over them with a hoe. Let the vines grow about 4 inches, then pull up about 2 inches of cover. Let another 4 inches grow, then hill up another 2 inches. Continue doing this until the vines begin blooming. At that point there should be a mound of loose, fluffy soil about 12 to 16 inches high gradually filling with tubers lushly covered with blooming vines. _Irrigation:_ Not necessary. In fact, if large water droplets compact the loose soil you scraped up, that may interfere with maximum tuber enlargement. However, after the vines are a foot long or so, foliar feeding every week or 10 days will increase the yield. _Varieties:_ The water-wise gardener's main potato problem is too-early maturity, and then premature sprouting in storage. Early varieties like Yukon Gold--even popular midseason ones like Yellow Finn--don't keep well unless they're planted late enough to brown off in late September. That's no problem if they're irrigated. But planted in late April, earlier varieties will shrivel by August. Potatoes only keep well when very cool, dark, and moist--conditions almost impossible to create on the homestead during summer. The best August compromise is to leave mature potatoes undug, but soil temperatures are in the 70s during August, and by early October, when potatoes should be lifted and put into storage, they'll already be sprouting. Sprouting in October is acceptable for the remainders of my St. Pat's Day sowing that I am keeping over for seed next spring. It is not ok for my main winter storage crop. Our climate requires very late, slow-maturing varieties that can be sown early but that don't brown off until September. Late types usually yield more, too. Most of the seed potato varieties found in garden centers are early or midseason types chosen by farmers for yield without regard to flavor or nutrition. One, Nooksack Cascadian, is a very late variety grown commercially around Bellingham, Washington. Nooksack is pretty good if you like white, all-purpose potatoes. There are much better homegarden varieties available in Ronniger's catalog, all arranged according to maturity. For the ultimate in earlies I suggest Red Gold. For main harvests I'd try Indian Pit, Carole, German Butterball, Siberian, or a few experimental row-feet of any other late variety taking your fancy. Rutabagas Rutabagas have wonderfully aggressive root systems and are capable of growing continuously through long, severe drought. But where I live, the results aren't satisfactory. Here's what happens. If I start rutabagas in early April and space them about 2 to 3 feet apart in rows 4 feet apart, by October they're the size of basketballs and look pretty good; unfortunately, I harvest a hollow shell full of cabbage root maggots. Root maggots are at their peak in early June. That's why I got interested in dry-gardening giant kohlrabi. In 1991 we had about 2 surprising inches of rain late in June, so as a test I sowed rutabagas on July 1. They germinated without more irrigation, but going into the hot summer as small plants with limited root systems and no irrigation at all they became somewhat stunted. By October 1 the tops were still small and a little gnarly; big roots had not yet formed. Then the rains came and the rutabagas began growing rapidly. By November there was a pretty nice crop of medium-size good-eating roots. I suspect that farther north, where evaporation is not so severe and midsummer rains are slightly more common, if a little irrigation were used to start rutabagas about July 1, a decent unwatered crop might be had most years. And I am certain that if sown at the normal time (July 15) and grown with minimal irrigation but well spaced out, they'll produce acceptably. _Varieties:_ Stokes Altasweet (STK, TSC) has the best flavor. Sorrel This weed-like, drought-tolerant salad green is little known and underappreciated. In summer the leaves get tough and strong flavored; if other greens are available, sorrel will probably be unpicked. That's ok. During fall, winter, and spring, sorrel's lemony taste and delicate, tender texture balance tougher savoy cabbage and kale and turn those crude vegetables into very acceptable salads. Serious salad-eating families might want the production of 5 to 10 row-feet. _Sowing date:_ The first year you grow sorrel, sow mid-March to mid-April. The tiny seed must be placed shallowly, and it sprouts much more readily when the soil stays moist. Plant a single furrow centered in a row 4 feet wide. _Spacing: _As the seedlings grow, thin gradually. When the leaves are about the size of ordinary spinach, individual plants should be about 6 inches apart. _Irrigation:_ Not necessary in summer--you won't eat it anyway. If production lags in fall, winter, or spring, side-dress the sorrel patch with a little compost or organic fertilizer. _Maintenance:_ Sorrel is perennial. If an unusually harsh winter freeze kills off the leaves it will probably come back from root crowns in early spring. You'll welcome it after losing the rest of your winter crops. In spring of the second and succeeding years sorrel will make seed. Seed making saps the plant's energy, and the seeds may naturalize into an unwanted weed around the garden. So, before any seed forms, cut all the leaves and seed stalks close to the ground; use the trimmings as a convenient mulch along the row. If you move the garden or want to relocate the patch, do not start sorrel again from seed. In any season dig up a few plants, divide the root masses, trim off most of the leaves to reduce transplanting shock, and transplant 1 foot apart. Occasional unique plants may be more reluctant to make seed stalks than most others. Since seed stalks produce few edible leaves and the leaves on them are very harsh flavored, making seed is an undesirable trait. So I propagate only seed-shy plants by root cuttings. Spinach Spring spinach is remarkably more drought tolerant than it would appear from its delicate structure and the succulence of its leaves. A bolt-resistant, long-day variety bred for summer harvest sown in late April may still yield pickable leaves in late June or even early July without any watering at all, if thinned to 12 inches apart in rows 3 feet apart. Squash, Winter and Summer _Sowing date:_ Having warm-enough soil is everything. At Elkton I first attempt squash about April 15. In the Willamette, May 1 is usual. Farther north, squash may not come up until June 1. Dry gardeners should not transplant squash; the taproot must not be broken. _Spacing:_ The amount of room to give each plant depends on the potential of a specific variety's maximum root development. Most vining winter squash can completely occupy a 10-foot-diameter circle. Sprawly heirloom summer squash varieties can desiccate an 8-or 9-foot-diameter circle. Thin each hill to one plant, not two or more as is recommended in the average garden book. There must be no competition for water. _Irrigation:_ With winter storage types, an unirrigated vine may yield 15 pounds of squash after occupying a 10-foot-diameter circle for an entire growing season. However, starting about July 1, if you support that vine by supplying liquid fertilizer every two to three weeks you may harvest 60 pounds of squash from the same area. The first fertigation may only need 2 gallons. Then mid-July give 4; about August 1, 8; August 15, feed 15 gallons. After that date, solar intensity and temperatures decline, growth rate slows, and water use also decreases. On September 1 I'd add about 8 gallons and about 5 more on September 15 if it hadn't yet rained significantly. Total water: 42 gallons. Total increase in yield: 45 pounds. I'd say that's a good return on water invested. _Varieties:_ For winter squash, all the vining winter varieties in the C. maxima or C. pepo family seem acceptably adapted to dry gardening. These include Buttercup, Hubbard, Delicious, Sweet Meat, Delicata, Spaghetti, and Acorn. I wouldn't trust any of the newer compact bush winter varieties so popular on raised beds. Despite their reputation for drought tolerance C. mixta varieties (or cushaw squash) were believed to be strictly hot desert or humid-tropical varieties, unable to mature in our cool climate. However, Pepita (PEA) is a mixta that is early enough and seems entirely unbothered by a complete lack of irrigation. The enormous vine sets numerous good keepers with mild-tasting, light yellow flesh. Obviously, the compact bush summer squash varieties so popular these days are not good candidates for withstanding long periods without irrigation. The old heirlooms like Black Zucchini (ABL) (not Black Beauty!) and warty Yellow Crookneck grow enormous, high-yielding plants whose extent nearly rivals that of the largest winter squash. They also grow a dense leaf cover, making the fruit a little harder to find. These are the only American heirlooms still readily available. Black Zucchini has become very raggedy; anyone growing it should be prepared to plant several vines and accept that at least one-third of them will throw rather off-type fruit. It needs the work of a skilled plant breeder. Yellow Crookneck is still a fairly "clean" variety offering good uniformity. Both have more flavor and are less watery than the modern summer squash varieties. Yellow Crookneck is especially rich, probably due to its thick, oily skin; most gardeners who once grow the old Crookneck never again grow any other kind. Another useful drought-tolerant variety is Gem, sometimes called Rolet (TSC). It grows an extensive winter-squash-like vine yielding grapefruit-size, excellent eating summer squash. Both Yellow Crookneck and Black Zucchini begin yielding several weeks later than the modern hybrids. However, as the summer goes on they will produce quite a bit more squash than new hybrid types. I now grow five or six fully irrigated early hybrid plants like Seneca Zucchini too. As soon as my picking bucket is being filled with later-to-yield Crooknecks, I pull out the Senecas and use the now empty irrigated space for fall crops. Tomato There's no point in elaborate methods--trellising, pruning, or training--with dry-gardened tomato vines. Their root systems must be allowed to control all the space they can without competition, so allow the vines to sprawl as well. And pruning the leaf area of indeterminates is counterproductive: to grow hugely, the roots need food from a full complement of leaves. _Sowing date:_ Set out transplants at the usual time. They might also be jump started under cloches two to three weeks before the last frost, to make better use of natural soil moisture. _Spacing:_ Depends greatly on variety. The root system can occupy as much space as the vines will cover and then some. _Irrigation:_ Especially on determinate varieties, periodic fertigation will greatly increase yield and size of fruit. The old indeterminate sprawlers will produce through an entire summer without any supplemental moisture, but yield even more in response to irrigation. _Variety:_ With or without irrigation or anywhere in between, when growing tomatoes west of the Cascades, nothing is more important than choosing the right variety. Not only does it have to be early and able to set and ripen fruit when nights are cool, but to grow through months without watering the plant must be highly indeterminate. This makes a built-in conflict: most of the sprawly, huge, old heirloom varieties are rather late to mature. But cherry tomatoes are always far earlier than big slicers. If I had to choose only one variety it would be the old heirloom [Large] Red Cherry. A single plant is capable of covering a 9- to 10-foot-diameter circle if fertigated from mid-July through August. The enormous yield of a single fertigated vine is overwhelming. Red Cherry is a little acid and tart. Non-acid, indeterminate cherry types like Sweetie, Sweet 100, and Sweet Millions are also workable but not as aggressive as Red Cherry. I wouldn't depend on most bush cherry tomato varieties. But our earliest cherry variety of all, OSU's Gold Nugget, must grow a lot more root than top, for, with or without supplemental water, Gold Nugget sets heavily and ripens enormously until mid-August, when it peters out from overbearing (not from moisture stress). Gold Nugget quits just about when the later cherry or slicing tomatoes start ripening heavily. Other well-adapted early determinates such as Oregon Spring and Santiam may disappoint you. Unless fertigated, they'll set and ripen some fruit but may become stunted in midsummer. However, a single indeterminate Fantastic Hybrid will cover a 6-to 7-foot-diameter circle, and grow and ripen tomatoes until frost with only a minimum of water. I think Stupice (ABL, TSC) and Early Cascade are also quite workable (and earlier than Fantastic in Washington). Chapter 6 My Own Garden Plan This chapter illustrates and explains my own dry garden. Any garden plan is a product of compromises and preferences; mine is not intended to become yours. But, all modesty aside, this plan results from 20 continuous years of serious vegetable gardening and some small degree of regional wisdom. My wife and I are what I dub "vegetablitarians." Not vegetarians, or lacto-ovo vegetarians because we're not ideologues and eat meat on rare, usually festive occasions in other peoples' houses. But over 80 percent of our calories are from vegetable, fruit, or cereal sources and the remaining percentage is from fats or dairy foods. The purpose of my garden is to provide at least half the actual calories we eat year-round; most of the rest comes from home-baked bread made with freshly ground whole grains. I put at least one very large bowl of salad on the table every day, winter and summer. I keep us in potatoes nine months a year and produce a year's supply of onions or leeks. To break the dietary monotony of November to April, I grow as wide an assortment of winter vegetables as possible and put most produce departments to shame from June through September, when the summer vegies are "on." The garden plan may seem unusually large, but in accordance with Solomon's First Law of Abundance, there's a great deal of intentional waste. My garden produces two to three times the amount of food needed during the year so moochers, poachers, guests, adult daughters accompanied by partners, husbands, and children, mistakes, poor yields, and failures of individual vegetables are inconsequential. Besides, gardening is fun. My garden is laid out in 125-foot-long rows and one equally long raised bed. Each row grows only one or two types of vegetables. The central focus of my water-wise garden is its irrigation system. Two lines of low-angle sprinklers, only 4 feet apart, straddle an intensively irrigated raised bed running down the center of the garden. The sprinklers I use are Naans, a unique Israeli design that emits very little water and throws at a very low angle (available from TSC and some garden centers). Their maximum reach is about 18 feet; each sprinkler is about 12 feet from its neighbor. On the garden plan, the sprinklers are indicated by a circle surrounding an "X." Readers unfamiliar with sprinkler system design are advised to study the irrigation chapter in Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades. On the far left side of the garden plan is a graphic representation of the uneven application of water put down by this sprinkler system. The 4-foot-wide raised bed gets lots of water, uniformly distributed. Farther away, the amount applied decreases rapidly. About half as much irrigation lands only 6 feet from the edge of the raised bed as on the bed itself. Beyond that the amount tapers off to insignificance. During summer's heat the farthest 6 feet is barely moistened on top, but no water effectively penetrates the dry surface. Crops are positioned according to their need for or ability to benefit from supplementation. For convenient description I've numbered those rows. The Raised Bed Crops demanding the most water are grown on the raised bed. These include a succession of lettuce plantings designed to fill the summer salad bowl, summer spinach, spring kohlrabi, my celery patch, scallions, Chinese cabbages, radishes, and various nursery beds that start overwintered crops for transplanting later. Perhaps the bed seems too large just for salad greens. But one entire meal every day consists largely of fresh, raw, high-protein green leaves; during summer, looseleaf or semiheading lettuce is our salad item of choice. And our individual salad bowls are larger than most families of six might consider adequate to serve all of them together. If water were severely rationed I could irrigate the raised bed with hose and nozzle and dry garden the rest, but as it is, rows 1, 2, 7, and 8 do get significant but lesser amounts from the sprinklers. Most of the rows hold a single plant family needing similar fertilization and handling or, for convenience, that are sown at the same time. Row 1 The row's center is about 3 feet from the edge of the raised bed. In March I sow my very first salad greens down half this row--mostly assorted leaf lettuce plus some spinach--and six closely spaced early Seneca Hybrid zucchini plants. The greens are all cut by mid-June; by mid-July my better-quality Yellow Crookneck squash come on, so I pull the zucchini. Then I till that entire row, refertilize, and sow half to rutabagas. The nursery bed of leek seedlings has gotten large enough to transplant at this time, too. These go into a trench dug into the other half of the row. The leeks and rutabagas could be reasonably productive located farther from the sprinklers, but no vegetables benefit more from abundant water or are more important to a self-sufficient kitchen. Rutabagas break the winter monotony of potatoes; leeks vitally improve winter salads, and leeky soups are a household staple from November through March. Row 2: Semi-Drought Tolerant Brassicas Row 2 gets about half the irrigation of row 1 and about one-third as much as the raised bed, and so is wider, to give the roots more room. One-third of the row grows savoy cabbage, the rest, Brussels sprouts. These brassicas are spaced 4 feet apart and by summer's end the lusty sprouts form a solid hedge 4 feet tall. Row 3: Kale Row 3 grows 125 feet of various kales sown in April. There's just enough overspray to keep the plants from getting gnarly. I prefer kale to not get very stunted, if only for aesthetics: on my soil, one vanity fertigation about mid-July keeps this row looking impressive all summer. Other gardens with poorer soil might need more support. This much kale may seem an enormous oversupply, but between salads and steaming greens with potatoes we manage to eat almost all the tender small leaves it grows during winter. Row 4: Root Crops Mostly carrots, a few beets. No irrigation, no fertigation, none needed. One hundred carrots weighing in at around 5 pounds each and 20-some beets of equal magnitude make our year's supply for salads, soups, and a little juicing. Row 5: Dry-Gardened Salads This row holds a few crowns of French sorrel, a few feet of parsley. Over a dozen giant kohlrabi are spring sown, but over half the row grows endive. I give this row absolutely no water. Again, when contemplating the amount of space it takes, keep in mind that this endive and kohlrabi must help fill our salad bowls from October through March. Row 6: Peas, Overwintered Cauliflower, and All Solanaceae Half the row grows early bush peas. Without overhead irrigation to bother them, unpicked pods form seed that sprouts excellently the next year. This half of the row is rotary tilled and fertilized again after the pea vines come out. Then it stays bare through July while capillarity somewhat recharges the soil. About August 1, I wet the row's surface down with hose and fan nozzle and sow overwintered cauliflower seed. To keep the cauliflower from stunting I must lightly hand sprinkle the row's center twice weekly through late September. Were water more restricted I could start my cauliflower seedlings in a nursery bed and transplant them here in October. The other half is home to the Solanaceae: tomato, pepper, and eggplant. I give this row a little extra width because pea vines run, and I fertigate my Solanaceae, preferring sprawly tomato varieties that may cover an 8-foot-diameter circle. There's also a couple of extra bare feet along the outside because the neighboring grasses will deplete soil moisture along the edge of the garden. Row 7: Water-Demanding Brassicas Moving away from irrigation on the other side of the raised bed, I grow a succession of hybrid broccoli varieties and late fall cauliflower. The broccoli is sown several times, 20 row-feet each sowing, done about April 15, June 1, and July 15. The late cauliflower goes in about July 1. If necessary I could use much of this row for quick crops that would be harvested before I wanted to sow broccoli or cauliflower, but I don't need more room. The first sowings of broccoli are pulled out early enough to permit succession sowings of arugula or other late salad greens. Row 8: The Trellis Here I erect a 125-foot-long, 6-foot-tall net trellis for gourmet delicacies like pole peas and pole beans. The bean vines block almost all water that would to on beyond it and so this row gets more irrigation than it otherwise might. The peas are harvested early enough to permit a succession sowing of Purple Sprouting broccoli in mid-July. Purple Sprouting needs a bit of sprinkling to germinate in the heat of midsummer, but, being as vigorous as kale, once up, it grows adequately on the overspray from the raised bed. The beans would be overwhelmingly abundant if all were sown at one time, so I plant them in two stages about three weeks apart. Still, a great many beans go unpicked. These are allowed to form seed, are harvested before they quite dry, and crisp under cover away from the sprinklers. We get enough seed from this row for planting next year, plus all the dry beans we care to eat during winter. Dry beans are hard to digest and as we age we eat fewer and fewer of them. In previous years I've grown entire rows of dry legume seeds at the garden's edge. Row 9: Cucurbits This row is so wide because here are grown all the spreading cucurbits. The pole beans in row 8 tend to prevent overspray; this dryness is especially beneficial to humidity-sensitive melons, serendipitously reducing their susceptability to powdery mildew diseases. All cucurbits are fertigated every three weeks. The squash will have fallen apart by the end of September, melons are pulled out by mid-September. The area is then tilled and fertilized, making space to transplant overwintered spring cabbages, other overwintered brassicas, and winter scallions in October. These transplants are dug from nurseries on the irrigated raised bed. I could also set cold frames here and force tender salad greens all winter. Row 10: Unirrigated Potatoes This single long row satisfies a potato-loving household all winter. The quality of these dry-gardened tubers is so high that my wife complains if she must buy a few new potatoes from the supermarket after our supplies have become so sprouty and/or shriveled that they're not tasty any longer. Chapter 7 The Backyard Water-Wise Gardener I am an unusually fortunate gardener. After seven years of struggling on one of the poorest growing sites in this region we now live on 16 acres of mostly excellent, deep soil, on the floor of a beautiful, coastal Oregon valley. My house and gardens are perched safely above the 100-year flood line, there's a big, reliable well, and if I ever want more than 20 gallons per minute in midsummer, there's the virtually unlimited Umpqua River to draw from. Much like a master skeet shooter who uses a .410 to make the sport more interesting, I have chosen to dry garden. Few are this lucky. These days the majority of North Americans live an urban struggle. Their houses are as often perched on steep, thinly soiled hills or gooey, difficult clay as on a tiny fragment of what was once prime farmland. And never does the municipal gardener have one vital liberty I do: to choose which one-sixth of an acre in his 14-acre "back yard" he'll garden on this year. I was a suburban backyard gardener for five years before deciding to homestead. I've frequently recalled this experience while learning to dry garden. What follows in this chapter are some strategies to guide the urban in becoming more water-wise. Water Conservation Is the Most Important First Step After it rains or after sprinkler irrigation, water evaporates from the surface until a desiccated earth mulch develops. Frequent light watering increases this type of loss. Where lettuce, radishes, and other shallow-rooting vegetables are growing, perhaps it is best to accept this loss or spread a thin mulch to reduce it. But most vegetables can feed deeper, so if wetting the surface can be avoided, a lot of water can be saved. Even sprinkling longer and less frequently helps accomplish that. Half the reason that drip systems are more efficient is that the surface isn't dampened and virtually all water goes deep into the earth. The other half is that they avoiding evaporation that occurs while water sprays through the air between the nozzle and the soil. Sprinkling at night or early in the morning, when there is little or no wind, prevents almost all of this type of loss. To use drip irrigation it is not necessary to invest in pipes, emitters, filters, pressure regulators, and so forth. I've already explained how recycled plastic buckets or other large containers can be improvised into very effective drip emitters. Besides, drip tube systems are not trouble free: having the beds covered with fragile pipes makes hoeing dicey, while every emitter must be periodically checked against blockage. When using any type of drip system it is especially important to relate the amount of water applied to the depth of the soil to the crops, root development. There's no sense adding more water than the earth can hold. Calculating the optimum amount of water to apply from a drip system requires applying substantial, practical intelligence to evaluating the following factors: soil water-holding capacity and accessible depth; how deep the root systems have developed; how broadly the water spreads out below each emitter (dispersion); rate of loss due to transpiration. All but one of these factors--dispersion--are adequately discussed elsewhere in _Gardening Without Irrigation._ A drip emitter on sandy soil moistens the earth nearly straight down with little lateral dispersion; 1 foot below the surface the wet area might only be 1 foot in diameter. Conversely, when you drip moisture into a clay soil, though the surface may seem dry, 18 inches away from the emitter and just 3 inches down the earth may become saturated with water, while a few inches deeper, significant dispersion may reach out nearly 24 inches. On sandy soil, emitters on 12-inch centers are hardly close enough together, while on clay, 30-or even 36-inch centers are sufficient. Another important bit of data to enter into your arithmetic: 1 cubic foot of water equals about 5 gallons. A 12-inch-diameter circle equals 0.75 square feet (A = Pi x Radius squared), so 1 cubic foot of water (5 gallons) dispersed from a single emitter will add roughly 16 inches of moisture to sandy soil, greatly overwatering a medium that can hold only an inch or so of available water per foot. On heavy clay, a single emitter may wet a 4-foot-diameter circle, on loams, anywhere in between, 5 gallons will cover a 4-foot-diameter circle about 1 inch deep. So on deep, clay soil, 10 or even 15 gallons per application may be in order. What is the texture of your soil, its water-holding capacity, and the dispersion of a drip into it? Probably, it is somewhere in between sand and clay. I can't specify what is optimum in any particular situation. Each gardener must consider his own unique factors and make his own estimation. All I can do is stress again that the essence of water-wise gardening is water conservation. Optimizing Space: Planning the Water-Wise Backyard Garden Intensive gardening is a strategy holding that yield per square foot is the supreme goal; it succeeds by optimizing as many growth factors as possible. So a raised bed is loosened very deeply without concern for the amount of labor, while fertility and moisture are supplied virtually without limit. Intensive gardening makes sense when land is very costly and the worth of the food grown is judged against organic produce at retail--and when water and nutrients are inexpensive and/or available in unlimited amounts. When water use is reduced, yield inevitably drops proportionately. The backyard water-wise gardener, then, must logically ask which vegetable species will give him enough food or more economic value with limited space and water. Taking maritime Northwest rainfall patterns into consideration, here's my best estimation: Water-Wise Efficiency of Vegetable Crops (in terms of backyard usage of space and moisture) EFFICIENT ENOUGH Early spring-sown crops: peas, broccoli, lettuce, radishes, savoy cabbage, kohlrabi Overwintered crops: onions, broccoli cauliflower, cabbage, favas beans Endive Kale Garden sorrel Indeterminate tomatoes Giant kohlrabi Parsley--leaf and root heirloom summer squash (sprawly) Pole beans Herbs: marjoram, thyme, dill, cilantro, fennel, oregano Root crops: carrots, beets, parsnips MARGINAL Brussels sprouts (late) Potatoes Determinate tomatoes Rutabagas Eggplant Leeks Leeks Savoy cabbage (late) Peppers, small fruited INEFFICIENT Beans, bush snap Peppers, bell Broccoli, summer Radishes Cauliflower Scallions, bulb onions Celery Sweet corn Lettuce Turnips Have fun planning your own water-wise garden! More Reading About the Interlibrary Loan Service Agricultural books, especially older ones, are not usually available at local libraries. But most municipal libraries and all universities offer access to an on-line database listing the holdings of other cooperating libraries throughout the United States. Almost any book published in this century will be promptly mailed to the requesting library. Anyone who is serious about learning by reading should discover how easy and inexpensive (or free) it is to use the Interlibrary Loan Service. Carter, Vernon Gill, and Tom, Dale. _Topsoil and Civilization._ Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974. The history of civilization's destruction of one ecosystem after another by plowing and deforestation, and its grave implications for our country's long-term survival. Cleveland, David A., and Daniela Soleri. _Food from Dryland Gardens: An Ecological, Nutritional and Social Approach to Small-Scale Household Food Production._ Tucson: Center for People, Food and Environment, 1991. World-conscious survey of low-tech food production in semiarid regions. Faulkner, Edward H. _Plowman's Folly._ Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1943. This book created quite a controversy in the 1940s. Faulkner stresses the vital importance of capillarity. He explains how conventional plowing stops this moisture flow. Foth, Henry D. _Fundamentals of Soil Science._ Eighth Edition. New York: John Wylie & Sons, 1990. A thorough yet readable basic soil science text at a level comfortable for university non-science majors. Hamaker, John. D. _The Survival of Civilization._ Annotated by Donald A. Weaver. Michigan/California: Hamaker-Weaver Publishers, 1982. Hamaker contradicts our current preoccupation with global warming and makes a believable case that a new epoch of planetary glaciation is coming, caused by an increase in greenhouse gas. The book is also a guide to soil enrichment with rock powders. Nabhan, Gary. _The Desert Smells like Rain: A Naturalist in Papago Indian Country._ San Francisco: North Point Press, 1962. Describes regionally useful Native American dry-gardening techniques Russell, Sir E. John. _Soil Conditions and Plant Growth._ Eighth Edition. New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1950. Probably the finest, most human soil science text ever written. Russell avoids unnecessary mathematics and obscure terminology. I do not recommend the recent in-print edition, revised and enlarged by a committee. Smith, J. Russell. Tree Crops: a Permanent Agriculture. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1929. Smith's visionary solution to upland erosion is growing unirrigated tree crops that produce cereal-like foods and nuts. Should sit on the "family bible shelf" of every permaculturalist. Solomon, Stephen J. _Growing Vegetables West of the Cascades._ Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1989. The complete regional gardening textbook. -------------------------. _Backyard Composting._ Portland, Ore.: George van Patten Publishing, 1992. Especially useful for its unique discussion of the overuse of compost and a nonideological approach to raising the most nutritious food possible. Stout, Ruth. _Gardening Without Work for the Aging, the Busy and the Indolent._ Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair, 1961. Stout presents the original thesis of permanent mulching. Turner, Frank Newman. _Fertility, Pastures and Cover Crops Based on Nature's Own Balanced Organic Pasture Feeds._ San Diego: Rateaver, 1975. Reprinted from the 1955 Faber and Faber, edition. Organic farming using long rotations, including deeply rooted green manures developed to a high art. Turner maintained a productive organic dairy farm using subsoiling and long rotations involving tilled crops and semipermanent grass/herb mixtures. ven der Leeden, Frits, Fred L. Troise, and David K. Todd. _The Water Encyclopedia, Second Edition._ Chelsea, Mich.: Lewis Publishers, 1990. Reference data concerning every possible aspect of water. Weaver, John E., and William E. Bruner. _Root Development of Vegetable Crops._ New York: McGraw-Hill, 1927. Contains very interesting drawings showing the amazing depth and extent that vegetable roots are capable of in favorable soil. Widtsoe, John A. _Dry Farming: A System of Agriculture for Countries Under Low Rainfall._ New York: The Macmillan Company, 1920. The best single review ever made of the possibilities of dry farming and dry gardening, sagely discussing the scientific basis behind the techniques. The quality of Widtsoe's understanding proves that newer is not necessarily better. 
42825	----	[Illustration: Camellia Fimbriata.] THE AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY, CONTAINING PRACTICAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE CULTURE OF PLANTS, IN THE =HOT-HOUSE, GARDEN-HOUSE, FLOWER GARDEN AND ROOMS OR PARLOURS,= FOR EVERY MONTH IN THE YEAR. With A DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANTS MOST DESIRABLE IN EACH, THE NATURE OF THE SOIL AND SITUATION BEST ADAPTED TO THEIR GROWTH, THE PROPER SEASON FOR TRANSPLANTING, &c. INSTRUCTIONS FOR ERECTING A Hot-house, Green-house, and laying out a Flower Garden. ALSO _Table of Soils most congenial to the Plants contained in the Work_. THE WHOLE ADAPTED TO EITHER LARGE OR SMALL GARDENS, WITH LISTS OF ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS, CONTENTS, A GENERAL INDEX, AND A FRONTISPIECE OF CAMELLIA FIMBRIATA. By HIBBERT AND BUIST. EXOTIC NURSERYMEN AND FLORISTS. PHILADELPHIA: E. L. CAREY & A. HART--CHESNUT STREET. BOSTON: ALLEN & TICKNOR. 1834. PREFACE. This volume owes its existence principally to the repeated requests of a number of our fair patrons, and amateur supporters, whose enquiries and wishes for a practical manual on Floraculture, at last induced us to prepare a work on the subject. That now offered is given unaffectedly and simply as a plain and easy treatise on this increasingly interesting subject. It will at once be perceived that there are no pretensions to literary claims--the directions are given in the simplest manner--the arrangement made as lucidly as was in our power--and the whole is presented with the single wish of its being practically useful. How far our object has been attained of course our readers must judge. Nothing has been intentionally concealed; and all that is asserted is the result of minute observation, close application, and an extended continuous experience from childhood. We pretend not to infallibility, and are not so sanguine as to declare our views the most perfect that can be attained. But we can so far say, that the practice here recommended has been found very successful. Some very probably may be disappointed in not having the means of propagating as clearly delineated as those of culture; but to have entered into all the minutiæ connected therewith, would have formed materials for two volumes larger than the present. We might have described that branch, as it has already been done in works published both on this continent and in Europe. In one of the former it is said, "You may now propagate many kinds (_Exotic Plants_) by suckers, cuttings, and layers, which should be duly attended to, particularly such as are scarce and difficult to be obtained." And the directions given in one of the most extensive works in Europe on the propagation of an extensive genus, varied in character and constitution, run thus: "Cuttings of most kinds will strike root. From the strongest growing kinds, take off large cuttings at a joint, and plunge them in a pot of sand under a hand-glass in the bark bed. Of the smaller kinds take younger kinds, and put them under a bell-glass, also plunged in heat. The sooner the plants are potted off after they are rooted the better." Such instructions to the inexperienced, are imperfect and unavailing, which, we flatter ourselves, is not the character that will attach to the present work. We are well aware that there are persons, who, to show their own superior abilities, may cavil and say that there is nothing new. To such critics it may be answered, if arranging, simplifying, digesting, and rendering Floraculture attainable by the humblest capacity, with useful lists and tables on a plan quite novel, as we believe--offer nothing new, it may at least be called an improvement. However, we submit all to a generous public, to whom we are already under many obligations. HIBBERT & BUIST. _Philadelphia, April 18th, 1832._ INTRODUCTION. In presenting this work, constructed as a monthly calendar, which is the most simple and easy method to convey the necessary operations of the year, considerably more labour has been expended, than was at first expected, to render it as accurate as possible. Some verbal mistakes may have been overlooked in the botanical names. Where such occur, the list of names at the end of the volume will enable the reader to correct them; as well as the accentuation. For such other errors as may be discovered, the indulgence of the reader is solicited. Frequently, in the description of plants, there are Botanical and English names compounded, in order the more clearly to elucidate their several parts to those who are not fully acquainted with scientific terms. The description of the colour of flowers and habits of plants will be useful to such as are at a great distance from collections, in enabling them to make selections judiciously. Those plants described and recommended have all, with a few exceptions, passed under our own observation, and are generally such as are most worthy of attention, either for beauty of flower, foliage, or habit, together with those celebrated in arts and medicine. Many may possibly have passed unobserved, either from their being very generally known, or difficult to obtain; but in no case has there been suppression from selfish motives. Where the words "our collections" occur, it is meant for those of the country generally, and especially those immediately in the vicinity of Philadelphia. In all our observations, no regard has been paid to what has been written by others, either in the way of depreciation, or of particular appreciation. Perhaps some other cultivators may differ from us respecting culture and soil; however this may be, we rest satisfied, as our work is designedly and professedly given as the result of our own experience, the plan laid down is our own routine of culture, and the soils are those which we adopt. We do not say that there is no soil in which the plants will not grow better, fully aware that every art and profession is subject to improvement. The table of soils has been constructed at the expense of much labour, and condensed as much as possible; to every one that has a single plant it will be found invaluable. Many are the publications in Europe on Gardening and Floraculture, the directions in which, when practised in the United States, prove almost a perfect dead letter. A work adapted to the climate must be the guide in this country, and not one which is foreign to us in every respect. On this account a work like the present has been a desideratum, considering the rapidly increasing and interesting advancement of the culture of flowers amongst the fair daughters of our flourishing republic. To aid them and others seeking information in this instructive and delightful pursuit--to enable them to examine more minutely, and judge more correctly of the qualities, properties, and beauties of plants--have been prominent objects in this publication. Here, as knowledge is increased, the warmer will be the devotion of the delighted student; and as the mind correspondingly expands, the desire for further information will keep pace--advancing constantly in the development of nature, the mind will participate in the enjoyment, and become meliorated and purified--as the study of nature's works inevitably lead to the contemplation of nature's God, and the result of the whole prove a harmonious combination of personal gratification and mental improvement. TABLE OF CONTENTS. =HOT-HOUSE.= _JANUARY._ Page Of Temperature, 9 Firing and Fuel, ib. Watering 11 Insects, to destroy, 12 Shifting Plants, 17 Cleaning do., &c., 19 _FEBRUARY._ Of Temperature, 33 Insects, 34 Shifting Plants, 35 Cleaning do. and House, 37 _MARCH._ General Observations, 56 Of Shifting Plants, 57 _APRIL._ Of Temperature, 168 Observations in general, 169 _MAY._ Of Repotting Plants, 219 Hot-house Plants described, ib. Of bringing out the Hot-house Plants, 255 Succulents 257 _JUNE & JULY._ General Observations, 272 _AUGUST._ Of Repotting, 284 Repairing the House, ib. _SEPTEMBER._ Of Dressing the Plants, 298 Taking in do., ib. _OCTOBER._ Of Airing and Temperature, 311 _NOVEMBER._ Of Temperature, 326 Cistern and Water, ib. _DECEMBER._ Of Firing, 337 Shutters, ib. Placing Bulbs in the Hot-house, 338 =GREEN-HOUSE.= _JANUARY._ Green-house, 20 Of Temperature, 21 Watering, ib. Camellia Japonica, 22 Oranges, Lemons, &c., 24 Cape Bulbs, &c., ib. Hyacinths, &c., 25 _FEBRUARY._ Of Temperature, 38 Watering, 39 Oranges and Lemons, ib. Bulbs, 40 Camellia Japonica, 41 Shifting, ib. Cleaning, &c., 43 _MARCH._ Of Temperature, 57 Watering, 58 Oranges and Lemons, ib. Myrtles and Oleanders, 59 Geraniums, 60 Herbaceous plants, ib. Cape Bulbs, ib. Repotting, 61 Enarching, 127 _APRIL._ Of Repotting, 170 Watering, ib. Oranges and Lemons, 171 Myrtles and Oleanders, 173 Geraniums, ib. Of Herbaceous Plants and Bulbs, 174 Flowering Plants, 175 Insects, ib. Flowering Stocks, 176 _MAY._ Of bringing out the Green-house Plants, 258 Repotting Plants, 259 Camellias, 264 Cape Bulbs, 265 _JUNE & JULY._ General Observations, 273 _AUGUST._ Of Geraniums, 286 Oranges and Lemons, 287 Pruning do., 289 Repotting Plants, ib. _SEPTEMBER._ Of Repairing the House, 300 Watering, 301 Preparing for taking in the Plants, ib. Stocks and Wall-flowers, 302 Chrysanthemums, ib. Cape and Holland Bulbs, 303 Repotting, 306 _OCTOBER._ Of taking in and arranging the Plants, 312 Repotting, 313 Camellias, 315 _NOVEMBER._ Of Air and Water, 327 Tender Bulbs, 328 _DECEMBER._ Of Temperature, 340 Bulbous Roots, 341 FLOWER-GARDEN. _JANUARY._ Flower Garden, 25 Of Framing, &c. 26 Pruning, 27 _FEBRUARY._ Of Pruning, 44 Planting Shrubs, 48 Hyacinths and other Bulbs, 51 Framing, ib. _MARCH._ Of Planting Box Edgings, 130 Sowing Tender Annuals, 131 Sowing Hardy " 132 Sowing Biennials, 133 Planting Perennials, ib. Bulbous Roots, 152 Repotting Carnations, Pinks and Primroses, 153 Auriculas, 154 Ranunculus and Anemone, 155 Roses, planting, ib. Pruning Climbing Roses, 159 Planting Ornamental Shrubs, ib. Grass-plats and Walks, 160 Gravel-walks, 162 Fancy-edgings, ib. Grafting, 163 _APRIL._ Of Annuals, 178 Biennials and Perennials, 179 Dahlias, 180 China Roses, 182 Climbing " 189 " Plants, 196 Deciduous Shrubs, 199 Planting Evergreens, ib. Care of choice Bulbs, 201 Anemone and Ranunculus, 203 Auriculas, 204 Carnations and Pinks, ib. Polianthus tuberosa, 205 Jacobea Lily, &c. 207 Tiger-flower, 208 Walks, 209 Evergreen Hedges, 210 Box-edgings, 211 Grass-plats & Flowering-plants, 212 _MAY._ Of Annuals, hardy and tender, 266 Hyacinths and Tulips, ib. Anemone and Ranunculus, 267 Dahlia, Tuberose, and Amaryllis, ib. Auricula, Polyanthus and Primrose, ib. Wall-flower, double, 268 _JUNE AND JULY._ Holland Bulbs, 274 Autumn flowering-bulbs, ib. Carnations and Pinks, 275 Of Laying Carnations and Pinks, 277 Pruning Roses, 278 Budding, 279 Watering, 281 _AUGUST._ Of Evergreen Hedges, 293 Carnations and Pinks, 294 Bulbous Roots, ib. Sowing Seeds of do. 295 " and gathering Seeds, 296 _SEPTEMBER._ Of Dahlias, 307 General care of Plants in pots, ib. Beds for Bulbous-roots, 308 _OCTOBER._ Of Planting various Bulbs, 317 " and transplanting, 302 Grass and Gravel-walks, 322 Planting Evergreens, ib. _NOVEMBER._ Of Protecting Choice Bulbs, 329 Tuberose, Dahlia, Tigridia, and Amaryllis 330 Erythrinas, ib. Primrose and Daisy, 331 Choice Carnations, Pinks, and Auriculas, ib. Protecting Plants, 332 " Seeding-bulbs, 333 Planting Deciduous Trees and Shrubs, ib. _DECEMBER._ General Observations, 342 ROOMS. _JANUARY._ Rooms, 28 Of Temperature, ib. Watering, 29 Camellia Japonica, ib. Insects, 30 Bulbous Roots, 31 _FEBRUARY._ Of Temperature, 54 Hyacinths, 55 Camellias, ib. _MARCH._ General Observations, 165 Of Flowering Plants, 166 _APRIL._ Of plants brought from the Green-house, 214 Flowering Plants, 215 Bringing Plants out of the cellar, ib. _MAY._ Of Bringing out the Plants, 269 Cape bulbs, 270 Repotting, 271 _JUNE AND JULY._ General Observations, 282 _AUGUST._ General Observations, 296 Sowing Mignonette, 297 _SEPTEMBER._ Of a Stage for Rooms, 309 General Observations, 310 _OCTOBER._ Of taking in the Plants, 323 Bulbous roots, 324 _NOVEMBER._ Of Camellias, &c. 335 _DECEMBER._ An outline of culture of plants, 344 Index of Plants, 353 Description of Soils, 375 Table of Soils, ib. On the construction of a Hot-house, 345, 348 " " " Green-house, 349 On laying out a Flower Garden, 349, 352 OMITTED IN MARCH. _Jasmìnum_, Jasmine. A few species of this genus are celebrated either for the Green-house or Rooms. _J. odoratíssimum_, Azorian, has very sweet-scented yellow flowers, blooming from April to November. _J. revolùtum_ is the earliest flowering one, and of the same colour; it is apt to grow straggling, and should be close pruned as soon as done blooming, which will be about June. _J. grandiflòrum_ is frequently called Catalonian, and should be pruned early in spring to make it bloom well, especially old plants. _J. officinàle_ is a hardy climbing plant for arbours, walls, &c. There are several varieties of it, and it is reported there is a double one. ERRATA. Page 104, _dele_ "_L. Silaifòlia_ has leaves bipinnatifid and smooth; segments wedge-shaped and cut; _L. dentáta_ and _L. ilicifòlia_, are the finest;" and place it to "_Lomàtia_," page 103. Page 321, ninth line from top, _dele_ "_Pèdulis_." THE AMERICAN FLOWER GARDEN DIRECTORY. Hot-House. _JANUARY._ At all times be very careful of the temperature of this department, and more especially at this season of the year, as a few minutes' neglect might materially injure many of the delicate plants. The thermometer ought to range between 58° and 65°. In fine sunshine days, admit a little air by having some of the top sashes let down, one, two, or three inches, according to the weather, and let it always be done from eleven to one o'clock; but by no means in such a manner as to cause a draught in the interior of the house, which would be very prejudicial. Therefore be always cautious during cold weather, in administering that necessary element to vegetation, which is so conducive to health. OF FIRING AND FUEL. The Hot-house ought never to be left entirely to inexperienced persons, because they are not aware of what might be the result of inattention even for an hour. Attention to the following observations will obviate every difficulty. About this season of the year, frost generally sets in very severe in the middle states. Suppose the day may have all the clemency of spring, the night may be directly the reverse. Every precaution is necessary to guard against extremes. According to what was said last month, it is understood that the shutters are put on every night at sundown, and in severe weather, they must be put on as soon as the sun goes off the glass. If the shutters are omitted till late in severe frost, it will so reduce the heat of the house, that you cannot overcome it by fire until near midnight; and when done, the fire or fires have been made more powerful than they ought to be, proving uncongenial to the plants that are near the flues. The air, as above directed, having been taken off the house at one o'clock, as soon as the mercury begins to fall in the thermometer, kindle the fire, and supposing it is anthracite coal, in twenty minutes, with a good drawing furnace, the heat will operate in the house. If a coal fire, kindled about four o'clock, it will require an addition about six, and then may be made up again about nine or ten, which will suffice until morning. The quantity must be regulated by the weather. If the fuel is wood, it must be attended to three or four times during the evening; and when the mornings are intensely cold, one fire in the morning is requisite. When there are bad drawing furnaces the fires must be made much earlier, perhaps by two or three o'clock, which will be easily observed by the time the fire takes effect upon the air of the house. The temperature ought never to be under 55° of Fahrenheit. OF WATERING THE PLANTS. To do this judiciously, is so necessary to vegetation, and so requisite to understand, and yet the knowledge so difficult to convey to others (being entirely acquired by practice,) that if the power was in man to impart it to his fellow-men, he would possess the power of perfecting a gardener by diction. However, the hints on this important point of floraculture, will be as clear and expressive as can at present be elicited. All plants in this work that are aquatic, shall be specified as such; and those that are arid shall be duly mentioned. All others will come in the medium. All the plants must be looked over every day, and those watered that appear to be getting dry on the top. It must be strictly observed not to give water to any but such as are becoming dry, and let it be given moderately at this season. Two or three days may perhaps elapse before it need be repeated. There is not so much liability to err at present in giving too little, as in administering too much. Vegetation amongst the stove or Hot-house plants will soon begin to show, and the soil will prove uncongenial if it is impregnated with stagnant moisture. Small plants should always be watered with a pot, having what is termed a rose upon it. The surface of the rose, that is, where it is perforated with small apertures, ought to be level, or a little concave, which would convey the water more to a centre, and make neater work, by preventing any water from being unnecessarily spilt in the house. The size of the pot will be regulated by the person to suit the conveniences of the place. Water, when applied either to the roots or foliage of the plants, should be about the medium temperature of the house. The cistern, built on the plan herein recommended, will always give this, and sometimes more, which can easily be reduced by adding cold water. Where there are no cisterns, a tank or barrel might be in the house, in which the water could stand for one night or more, as is most suitable. When water is given without being thus aired, it chills the roots, prevents a luxuriant growth, injures the fresh and healthful appearance of the foliage, and too frequently gives to all the plants a sickly hue. OF INSECTS, THEIR DESTRUCTION, &c. In this department, insects begin to increase by hundreds, and too frequently their ravages are very obvious before their progress is arrested. We will treat of those which are most common, under their respective heads, with their nature and cure, as far as has come under our observation. _Aphis rosæ_, of the natural order of Hemiptera, or what is commonly known by Green Fly, Green Lice, &c. infect plants in general, and are particularly destructive in the Hot-house to _Hibíscus ròsa-sinénsis_, _Asclèpias_, _Crássula coccínea_, _Alstr[oe]meria_, and many other plants of a free growing nature. They attack the young and tender shoots at the point, leaving a dark filthy appearance on the foliage. Many remedies for their destruction have been offered to the public by various writers, each equally secure in his own opinion. Extensive practice alone can show the most easy and effectual cure. Fumigating with tobacco is decidedly the most efficacious, and in the power of any to perform. Take a small circular furnace, made of sheet iron, diameter at top twelve inches, and at bottom eight; depth one foot, having a grating in it to reach within three inches of the bottom, which will leave space for the air to pass, and where the ashes will fall and be kept in safety, having a handle like a pail to carry it with. This, or any thing similar, being ready, put in it a few embers of ignited charcoal; take it into the centre of the house, and put on the coals a quantity of moist tobacco stems. If they attempt to blaze or flame, sprinkle a little water over them; and as they consume, continue to add tobacco until the house is entirely full of smoke, observing always to do it in still, cloudy weather, or in the evening. If it is windy, the smoke is carried off without having half the effect, and requires more tobacco. The house must be closely shut up. There are several plants whose foliage is of a soft downy nature, such as _Helitròpiums_, _Callacárpas_, _Sálvias_, and many of the _Lantànas_, _Víncas_, with several others, that cannot stand, without danger, strong fumigation. These should be put low down in the house, or under the stage. These fumigations will have to be repeated frequently, the time for which will easily be perceived; and, when required, ought not to be delayed. Several species and varieties of the same genus, _Aphis_, can be destroyed in the like manner. _Acaris tellurius_, or red spider, is caused by a dry atmosphere, and its havoc generally is obvious before it is arrested. With its proboscis, it wounds the fine capillary vessels; and if the leaves are fine, they will appear as if probed with a needle, and yellowish around the wound. If they have farther progressed in their destructive work, the leaves will prematurely decay. On this appearance, turn up the leaf, and you will see them running about with incredible swiftness. Their body is of a blood colour, and their feet, eight in number, light red. When very numerous, they work thick webs on the under side of the leaf, and frequently all over it, forming a mass of half dead plants, decayed leaves, and thousands of spiders. The most effectual remedy is a thorough syringing with water, and profusely under the foliage. This being done every evening, will subdue and eventually banish them. Had the house been syringed two or three times per week, these intruders would not have appeared. It is said by some writers, that watering only reduces them to a temporary state of inaction, and will not destroy them. Laying aside the many prescribed nostrums, we assert that the pure element is the most effectual cure, as well as the most easy to be obtained. _Thrips_, order _Hemiptera_, are insects so minute as scarcely to be perceptible to the naked eye. They generally lurk close to the veins of the leaves of plants, and frequently attack esculents. When viewed through a glass, they are seen, when touched, to skip with great agility. The larva is of a high brown, or reddish colour. The thrip has four wings, and walks with its body turned upwards. It frequently attacks the extremities of tender shoots, or young leaves, which become shrivelled, brown, and will rub to dust easily between the thumb and finger. When any leaves or shoots are perceived to be so, if you do not observe the green fly, expect the thrips. They may be destroyed by a fumigation of tobacco, in the same manner as the green fly. By the simple and expeditious method of fumigation, these insects and several others may be destroyed effectually at any time they appear. _Cocus hesperidus_, or mealy bug, has appeared in the Hot-houses about Philadelphia within these few years, and, if not instantly destroyed, increases rapidly. It is of a white dusty colour, when broken, of a brownish red, generally covered with down, under which it deposits its eggs; and they, in a few months, come forth in great numbers. The cocus generally is of a dormant nature, but, in warm weather, they may be seen moving rapidly up the stems of the plants. Fumigating has no observable effect on these insects; therefore, as soon as they appear, recourse must be had to other means. The liquid made from the following receipt, is death to any of the _Cocus_ tribe: Take two pounds of strong soap, one pound flour of sulphur, one pound of leaf tobacco, one and a half ounce of nux vomica, with a table spoonful of turpentine, which boil in four gallons of river water to three; then set aside to cool. When boiling, stir it well with a stick, continuing to do so until it is reduced as above. In this liquor immerse the whole plant, drawing it to and fro gently, that the liquor may penetrate every where. This done, lay the plant on its side, until it begin to dry, then syringe well with clean water, and put it in its respective station. Where a collection of plants is free from any insects of the kind, every plant that is introduced, ought to be minutely scrutinized, that the unclean may be kept from the clean: the above insect will feed almost on any plant, but indulges on _Crássulas_, any of the bristly _Cáctus_, _Gardènias_, and in fact whatever is in the way. _Cocus--------_, or brown scaly insect, is frequently found on many plants, but we never could perceive that it does any other material injury, than dirtying them. We have always observed, that it is found in winter to abound most in those situations which are most excluded from air; therefore is of less importance than the other species, which eat and corrode the leaves of tender plants. A washing with strong soap suds will destroy them, or the above liquid will do it more effectually. Tie a piece of sponge on the end of a small stick, and scrub every leaf, stem, and crevice. Fumigating destroys the larvæ of this species. _Cocus--------_, or small white scaly insect, which generally infests _Cycas revolùta_ and _circinàlis_, the varieties of _Nèrium oleánder_, _Oleas_, and several species of _Acacias_, may be destroyed by washing as above with a sponge, and a strong decoction of tobacco, using the liquid about the warmth of 100°. Being thus heated, it irritates the insect, when, by easing itself from its bed, the fluid passes under it, and causes immediate death. If it is not thus irritated, it adheres so closely to the foliage, that it will keep you at defiance. The under, or dark side of the leaves is its residence; and we have observed a plant in a house where there was only light on one side, with the dark side literally covered, while the light side was clean. So much for having houses with plenty of light. The effects of this insect are of a corroding nature, extracting all the juices from the leaf under it, even straining to the other side; and where they have got to the extremity, the foliage is completely yellow, and of a decayed appearance. _Cocus--------_, or turtle insect. We have never observed this insect arrive to any extent, but think that the _Datura arborea_ is most infested with it. It is the largest of any genus known amongst us, and very like a turtle in miniature. On lifting it from the wood, to which it generally adheres, there appear to be hundreds of eggs under it, but fumigating completely destroys the larvæ. In our opinion this turtle insect is no other than the old female of the brown scaly insect, which swells to a large size before depositing its eggs. We have frequently observed the insect dead in this enlarged state, and question if this is the last stage of its transmigration. The male insect is winged, and very active in its movements. OF SHIFTING PLANTS. At this period of the season very little is required to grow _Calceolàrias_ to perfection. They require a few months of the Hot-house, and if the directions given last month were followed up, some of these will have advanced a little in growth. The herbaceous kinds, when grown about one inch high, ought to be divided, and put into four inch pots, sprinkled gently, and kept in the shade until they begin to grow; after which, keep them near the glass, to prevent them from becoming spindly and drawn. Their farther treatment will be observed as they require. This is a beautiful genus of plants, flowering very profusely all summer, and some of them early in spring. _Alstr[oe]merias_, about the beginning or middle of the month, will have made their appearance above ground. When shot about one inch, turn them out, and carefully shake them clear of earth; and if required, divide the crowns, and put them in as small pots as possible, taking care not to break any of the strong fleshy roots. (For Soil, see Table.) To flower these plants well, they require to be frequently shifted, during their active stage of growth, which must be duly observed. The most of the species of this genus will more than repay the attention, by their abundantly and beautifully spotted flowers. _A. flósmartìna_, _A. Pelegrìna_, _A. pulchélla_, and _A. atrópurpurea_, are the most splendid. The former flowers very freely. All natives of South America. Where bulbous roots, such as _Hyacinths_, _Jonquils_, _Narcissus_, _Ixias_, _Lachenàllas_, &c. are required to be early in flower, they may, about the beginning or end of the month, be put in the front of the Hot-house, giving very little water until they begin to grow; then water freely, and tie up the flower stems as they advance. OF CLEANSING PLANTS, HOUSE, &c. This subject ought to be kept constantly in view. However correct every thing may be executed, without that adorning beauty, cleanliness, all will appear only half done. Therefore let all the dead leaves be picked off every day, and with dust and other litter swept out of the house, and when necessary, the house washed, which will be at least once a week. That the foliage of the plants may always appear fresh, syringe them in the evening, twice or three times per week; (when the weather is very cold, do it in the morning.) At present this will in a great measure keep down the insects, and will prove a bane to the red spider. A hand engine is certainly the best. Milne's patent hand engine surpasses any that we have used. Nevertheless a hand syringe is very effectual. Some of these engines are powerful, throwing the water above forty feet. Read's patent of London is excellent. At the store of D. & C. Landreth, Phila., there is a very good kind, which answers admirably in small houses. Tie up neatly with stakes, and threads of Russia mat, all the straggling growing plants; let the stakes be proportionate to the plants, and never longer, except they are climbing sorts. Do not tie the branches in bundles, but singly and neatly, imitating nature as much as possible. If any of the plants are affected with the _Cocus_ insect, let them be cleaned according to the plan already mentioned, taking particular care also in washing the stakes to which they had been previously tied, and burning all the old tyings, which contain the larvæ of the insect in many instances, especially of _Cocus hesperidus_. It is premised, when any of these things are done, that they will be well done, and not half doing, and always doing. Cleanliness, in every respect, promotes a pure air, which is congenial to vegetation, and will, with other attention, always ensure a healthful and vigorous appearance in the house. Green-House. _JANUARY._ This compartment requires particular attention, in order to preserve the plants in good health, and carry them through this precarious season of the year. A little air must be admitted at all convenient times. An hour or two at mid-day will be of the utmost importance in drying up damp, and clearing off stagnated air, which is a harbour for every corruption. The top sashes being let down, or turned a few inches, in mild days (that is, when it is not high and cutting winds) from ten or eleven o'clock to two or three, according to the intensity of the frost, will renovate the interior air of the house, and harden the plants. When the weather will permit, let the front sashes be opened about one inch or more. An assiduous, experienced hand will never omit an opportunity. With regard to fire heat, the temperature must be regulated to suit the nature of the plants in a general sense; so let the mercury, or spirits of wine, of Fahrenheit's thermometer, be from 34° to 43°; if it begins to fall, give a little fire heat. No doubt we have seen the thermometer much lower in the Green-house, than the above, even as low as 24°, without any immediate injury; but it was in an extensive collection, where the most hardy of the plants were selected into one house. Many boast how little fire they give their Green-house, and how cold it is kept, not observing the miserable state of their plants,--inexperience causing them to think, that the least fire heat will make them grow, and would rather look on naked stems than healthy plants. The above temperature will not, in exotics, cause premature vegetation, but will cause the plants to retain the foliage requisite to vegetative nature. A high temperature is not necessary for the generality of Green-house plants; on the contrary, it might very much injure them. OF WATERING. In this month very little is requisite, and must be given with great caution. Few plants will require much, and some hardly any; but all must be attended to, and have their wants supplied. Some will need it twice, some once a week, and some in two weeks, according to their shrubby and woody nature. Herbaceous and deciduous plants will seldom need water. Perhaps, from the throwing of the foliage, to the commencement of vegetation, three or four times will be sufficient. Particular attention should be paid to the state of health and of growth, in which the plants respectively are, in the application of water; otherwise much mischief may be done, and many entirely ruined. Green-house plants, being now in an absolutely inactive state, require little more water than merely to keep the earth about their roots from becoming perfectly dry, by occasionally applying a very small quantity at the root; and, if done with a watering pot, as described under this head in the Hot-house of this month, very little will be spilt in the house to increase dampness, which, if it does appear, by any of the leaves of the plants becoming musty, they must be instantly picked off; and, if it increases, give a little fire and air. Succulent plants will not need any water during this month, unless omitted in December. CAMELLIA JAPONICA. This magnificent and attractive flower, with all its splendid varieties, will, about this time, begin to open its beautiful flowers. But for this admired genus of plants, our Green-houses, at this season, would be void of allurement. It is, in this country, subject to mildew and red spider, and more especially in the city, which appears to be from the nature of the air. The effects of mildew on these plants, if not prevented, would prove fatal; as, from appearance, many have died by it in our city. If it has reached a great extent, the leaves are brownish, having the appearance of being decayed, or scorched with the sun. In taking hold of the leaf, it feels soft, and altogether seems to have lost its nutritive substance; and, when the young foliage expands, it becomes covered with dark brown spots, and finally very much disfigured; and, when in this state, it is attacked by red spider, and, ultimately, death ensues. If any of the plants are affected as above described, take a sponge, and wash every leaf minutely with soft water, and syringe them with water three or four times a week, which will clean them. All the young foliage will be healthy, and that which has been affected will fall off. However, prevention is better than cure; and if the _Camellias_ are properly syringed every evening during summer, and once or twice a week during winter, they will never be subject to the ravages of mildew or of red spider. Tie up any of the flowers that are expanded to stakes, in case of accident; and, in syringing, observe not to let any water fall on the flowers, as it causes premature decay, and change of colour. The mildew first appears like small particles of very fine flour, around the under edge of the leaves, and visible to the naked eye; so that, syringing, sponging, &c. under the leaf is most requisite; but, as the mildew extends, both sides of the leaves are covered with these white particles. OF ORANGES, LEMONS, &c. As there will perhaps be more leisure in the Green-house this month than in any other during the winter, it is presumed that there will not be a moment lost. If any of the trees are infested with insects, these, being now in their inactive state, may be more easily destroyed than at any other time. It is the brown scaly insect that generally infests them. For treatment, see _Hothouse, January_. The plant, or tree, after being washed, before it becomes dry, will require to be syringed with water, otherwise the dust will adhere to the glutinous particles of the soap. Set the plant in an airy situation to dry, in case of damp. There are several others subject to this insect, such as _Myrtles_, _Oleas_, _Oleanders_, &c. which treat in the same manner. Be careful that these trees are not over watered; if the soil is moist, it is sufficient. OF CAPE BULBS, &c. If there are any out of the ground, it is time that the whole were potted, such as _Lachenàlia_, _Wachendórfia_, _Eùcomis_, _Ixia_, _Gladìolus_, with several others. Keep them in the shade until they begin to grow; then put them on shelves near the light. Those that are growing must be kept in front of the house, to prevent them being weak. _Wachendórfia_ has a beautiful large red tuber root; and, as the new root descends, give it a pot about six or seven inches. OF HYACINTHS AND OTHER BULBOUS ROOTS. All these roots must be carefully examined. In case slugs or snails are preying upon the embryo of the flower, some of those that are farthest advanced, may be put for a few weeks in the Hot-house. It will greatly accelerate their flowering, but they must be brought out again before the florets expand, and carefully tied up, leaving room for the increase and extension of the flower stem. Give them plenty of water, and if saucers can be placed under them to retain it, it will be of advantage. Change the water every week on those that are in glasses, and keep all the growing bulbs near the light. _Narcissus_, _Jonquils_, &c. may be similarly treated. Flower Garden. _JANUARY._ If the covering of the beds of choice bulbs, herbaceous plants, or tender shrubs, has been neglected last month, let it be done forthwith. The season is now precarious, and delays are dangerous. For particular directions, see _December_. Any bulbous roots that have been kept out of the ground, should be planted immediately, according to directions in _October_. Some writers have recommended keeping some of the bulbs until this month, in order to have a continued succession. Experience will prove the inefficacy of the plan, and will satisfactorily show that the difference is almost imperceptible, while the flowers are very inferior and much degenerated; and in place of having "a long continued succession of bloom," there appear, along with your finest specimens, very imperfect flowers, calculated to discourage the admirers of these "gaudy" decoratives of our flower gardens. Whereas every art employed should be to the advancement and perfection of nature. OF FRAMING, &c. The plants and roots that are in frames, should be protected with straw mats, and the frame surrounded with litter, or leaves, or what is more advisable, banked with earth--the former being a harbour for mice and other vermin. For full directions, see _December_. Under this head the plants, such as _Auriculas_, _Polyanthus_, _Daisies_, _Carnations_, _Pinks_, _Gentianellas_, _Campanula pyramidalis_, _Double rocket_, _Double stock_, _or Stockgillys_, _Double Wall-flower_, _Anemone_, _Ranunculus_, &c. as previously enumerated as frame plants, will require very little water, and be sure to give none while they are in a frozen state. If snow should cover them, the plants will keep in a fine state under it, so never remove snow from covering cold frames, even suppose it should lay for months,--nature will operate here herself. All the above plants except _Anemone_ and _Ranunculus_ are kept in perfection in the Green-house; but where neither this nor framing can be obtained, they will, in most winters, keep tolerably, if well covered with litter--the roughest from the stable, straw or hay, or such like, using means to secure it from being blown over the whole garden. OF PRUNING AND PREPARING FOR SPRING. It is not advisable to carry on a general pruning in this month, in whatever state the weather may be. The severest frosts generally are yet to come, and too frequently in this operation, what is done now has to be repeated on the opening of spring, causing at that time work to a disadvantage; because, if pruning, when done just now, is accomplished judiciously, whatever more on the same bush is requisite to be done in spring, from the effects of frost, will be injudicious. Hence it is far preferable to delay it until the frost is over, when all can be done to advantage. There are, undoubtedly, some shrubs that may be pruned any time, from the end of November to the first of March, such as _Hibíscus syrìacus_ (_Althea_), and all its varieties, except the _Double White_, which is in some instances entirely killed by our severe winter, and certainly, for precaution, would be the better of some simple protection. In many seasons, the beginning of this month is open, and admits of the operation of digging, which if it is not all done as advised last month, ought not to be delayed. The fruits of it will appear in the mellowed state of your soil in spring. If there is any spare time, straight sticks or stakes may be prepared for summer. Tie them up in neat bundles, which will be of great service during the hurried period of the year. An opportunity of this kind should always be laid hold of; the beneficial results will in season be displayed. =ROOMS.= _JANUARY._ Plants that are kept in rooms generally are such as require a medium temperature, say 40°. Sitting rooms or parlours, about this season, are, for the most part, heated from 55° to 65°, and very seldom has the air any admittance into these apartments, thus keeping the temperature from 15° to 25° higher than the nature of the plants requires, and excluding that fresh air which is requisite to support a forced vegetative principle. Therefore, as far as practicable, let the plants be kept in a room adjoining to one where there is fire heat, and the intervening door can be opened when desirable. They will admit sometimes of being as low as 33°. If they be constantly kept where there is fire, let the window be opened some inches; two or three time a day, for a few minutes, thereby making the air of the apartment more congenial, both for animal and vegetable nature. WATERING, &c. There are very few plants killed for want of water, during winter. All that is necessary is merely to keep the soil in a moist state, that is, do not let it get so dry that you can divide the particles of earth, nor so wet that they could be beat to clay. The frequency of watering can be best regulated by the person doing it, as it depends entirely upon the size of the pot or jar in proportion to the plant, whether it is too little or too large, and the situation it stands in, whether moist or arid. Never allow any quantity of water to stand in the flats or saucers. This is too frequently practised with plants in general. Such as _Cálla Æthiòpica_, or African Lily, will do well, as water is its element, (like _Sagittària_ in this country;) and the _Hydrángea horténsis_, when in a growing state, will do admirably under such treatment. Many plants may do well for some time, but it being so contrary to their nature, causes premature decay; a f[oe]tid stagnation takes place at the root, the foliage becomes yellow, and the plant stunted; and in the winter season, death will ensue. OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA. In rooms the buds of Camellias will be well swelled, and on the Double White and Double Variegated sorts, perhaps they will be full blown. While in that state the temperature should not be below 34°; if lower they will not expand so well, and the expanded petals will soon become yellow and decay. If they are where there is fire heat, they must have plenty of air admitted to them every favourable opportunity, or the consequence will be, that all the buds will turn dark brown, and fall off. It is generally the case, in the treatment of these beautiful plants in rooms, that through too much intended care they are entirely destroyed. In the city, they do not agree with confined air, and they cannot get too much of pure air, if they are kept from frost or cutting winds. To sponge frequently will greatly promote the health of the plants, and add to the beauty of their foliage, as it prevents the attacks of mildew. In this season they do not require much water at root, which may be observed in the slight absorption by the soil. See this subject under the head of _Watering_. When the flowers are expanded, and droop, tie them up neatly, so that the flower may be shown to every advantage. OF INSECTS, &c. Insects of various kinds will be appearing on your plants. For method of destruction see _Hot-house_, _January_. It will not be agreeable to fumigate the room or rooms, or even to have the smell of tobacco near the house from this cause. Many ingredients have been compounded, and prescriptions recommended, for the destruction of these nefarious pests. Many of them are altogether ineffectual. Of receipts specified in works of this kind, not a few of them (though eagerly sought for) by men of extensive practice, have been rejected. We shall give the most simple, and in part effective receipt for the destruction of the Green fly. Take a large tub of soft water, (if the day is frosty, it had better be done in the house,) invert the plant, holding the hand, or tying a piece of cloth, or any thing of the kind, over the soil in the pot, put all the branches in the water, keeping the pot in the hand, drawing it to and fro a few times; take it out, and shake it. If any insects remain, take a small fine brush, and brush them off, giving another dip, which will clean them for the present. As soon as they appear again, repeat the process--for nothing that we have found out, or heard of, can totally extirpate them. OF BULBOUS ROOTS IN GENERAL. If you have retained any of the _Cape bulbs_ from the last planting, let them be put in, in the early part of the month. For method, see _September_. Those that are growing must be kept very near the light, that is, close to the window, or they will not flourish to your satisfaction. The fall-flowering oxalis may be kept on the stage, or any other place, to give room to those that are to flower. _Hyacinths_, _Jonquils_, _Narcissus_, _Tulips_, &c. will keep very well in a room where fire heat is constantly kept, providing that they are close to the window. A succession of these, as before observed, may beautify the drawing room from February to April, by having a reserved stock, in a cold situation, and taking a few of them every week into the warmest apartment. Wherever any of the bulbs are growing, and in the interior of the room, remove them close to the light, observing to turn the pots or glasses frequently to prevent them from growing to one side, and giving them support as soon as the stems droop, or the head becomes pendant. The saucers under the Hyacinth and Narcissus especially may stand with water, and observe to change the water in the glasses, as already mentioned. Every one that has any taste or refinement in their floral undertakings, will delight in seeing the plants in perfection; to have them so, they must be divested of every leaf that has the appearance of decaying--let this always be attended to. =Hot-House.= _FEBRUARY_. In the early part of this month the weather generally is very cold and changeable in the middle states, and strict attention, with the greatest caution, will require to be paid to the management of the Hot-house. Most of the tropical plants commence an active state of vegetation; and if checked by temperature or otherwise, they will not recover until midsummer. The thermometer may be kept two or three degrees higher with fire heat than last month; the sun will be more powerful, and this will, in a great degree, increase the vigour of the plants. Air may be admitted when the thermometer rises to 75° or 80°, not allowing it to rise higher than the latter. In giving air, let it be done by the top sashes. It is improper to give it in any way to cause a current, for the external air is very cold, although the sun is more powerful. An inch or two on a few of the sashes, as has been previously observed, will be effectual in keeping the temperature low enough, except the weather is very mild. With regard to firing, what was said last month may suffice for this. Always recollect that it is preferable to keep out the cold than to put it out. It will frequently happen in the time of intense frost, that the weather is dull. In such cases fire in a small degree is requisite all day. Heavy snows ought never to be allowed to remain on the shutters while they are on the house. If the snow lies on the sashes one day, the internal heat will dissolve some of it; night coming on will freeze it to the wood work, when it will become a solid mass, and too frequently cannot be separated without much damage. If allowed to remain on for two days, the plants are very much weakened, and the foliage discoloured. Therefore let the snow be cleared off instantly, that no inconvenience may take place. It will be observed that plants absorb more water this month than last. The quantity given will require to be increased, according to the increase of vegetation and the advancement of the season; but never give it until the soil begins to get dry, and then in such proportion as will reach the bottom of the pot. After the sun has got on the house in the morning is the best time to water, observing all the directions given in January. OF INSECTS, &c. Perhaps sufficient observations were given under this head last month; but the importance of keeping these disagreeable visitors out of the house, constrains us to make a few more remarks, and perhaps it may be necessary every month. Man cannot be too frequently guarded against his foes, more especially when they are summoning all their forces, and no profession has more than that of the Horticulturist. Let a strict examination be made about the end of the month for the Red spider; they will be in operation some weeks before their depredations are observed on the foliage. The under side of the leaf is their resort in the first instance, and on such plants as have been already mentioned. Observe daily the young shoots, in case the Green fly becomes numerous. They give the foliage a very disagreeable appearance, and with most people it is intolerable, before their career is arrested. It also takes a stronger fumigation, which has frequently to be repeated the following day to the same degree, much to the injury of many of the plants, and adding to the disagreeableness of the continued vapour in the house. OF SHIFTING PLANTS. The _Calceolàrias_ that were put in small pots about the beginning or middle of last month, will, if they have done well, require, about the end of this, to be put in pots a size larger. If any of _Lilìum longiflòrum_, _Speciòsum_, or _Japónicum_, are wanted to flower early, and were put in the Hot-house in December, without dividing, those that are to flower will have pushed their flower stems, and can be separated from those that will not flower, and put singly into pots; the two former into five or six inch pots, while the latter require six or seven inch pots. Of those that do not flower, three or four can be put into one pot. About the end of the month, some of the plants of _Eurcúma_, _Amómum_, _Kæmpféria_, _Glóbba_, _Phrynium_, _Cánna_, _Zíngiber_, _Hedychium_, and others that are on the dry shelf, will be offering to grow. Let them be taken out of their pots, some of their weakest shoots or tubers taken off, and the strong ones repotted: give gentle waterings until they grow freely, then give an abundance. _Dionæa mucípula_, or Venus fly trap, grows best in the Hot-house, and will, about the end of the month, stand in need of being repotted. This plant is very seldom grown in any degree of perfection, having been always considered a delicate plant in collections. The operator has never had courage to treat it according to its nature in a cultivated state. If it is taken out of the pot, just when beginning to grow afresh, and divested of all the soil, leaving only a few of the young roots, (it is a bulb, and will receive no injury by so doing,) put it in new soil; when potted, place the pot in a saucer with one inch of water in it, giving always a fresh supply, when necessary. A shady and moist situation is best adapted to it; this being repeated every year, it will grow, flower, and seed in perfection. _Gesnérias_, if in small pots, give larger as they advance in growth. This genus requires to be well attended to make them flower well. _G. bulbósa_ ought to have a situation in every Hot-house. It is remarkable for its many brilliant crimson flowers, and continues in flower for a length of time. When the bulb begins to push, shake it out of the earth, putting it into a small pot; and, as soon as the roots reach the side of the earth, which will be in about one month, put it in a larger pot, and continue to do so until flowering, which will be about the first of June, observing always to keep the ball of earth entire. _Gloriósas_ must be repotted in the beginning of this month. Etymologists have said that this _genus_ is named from the glorious appearance of its flowers. _G. supérba_ is the most beautiful and curious. The roots ought to be planted one and a half inch deep, taking care not to break them; if there is a bark bed, place the pots in it. Do not water much until they begin to grow. Where there is no bark bed, put the pots into others three inches larger, filling all round with sand, and place them in the warmest part of the house. Keep the sand moist, which will assist to keep the soil in a moist state. The earth must not have much water. As the plants grow, they will require a more liberal supply; yet it is necessary, at all times, to be moderate in giving it. If well treated, the superb flowers will appear in June or July. OF CLEANSING PLANTS, HOUSE, &c. With regard to cleaning the plants. Sprinkling, or syringing, is at all times, to a greater or less degree, necessary. The plants will, in this compartment, be in their first stage of growth, and, if dust or foulness be permitted to lodge on their foliage, the pores will be obstructed, the plants will become unhealthy, and the growth of insects increased. Let all moss, litter, decayed leaves, or weeds, be cleared out of the house, the earth in the pots stirred up with a round pointed stick, and fresh earth given where required, that the air may operate therein freely. The house ought always to be sprinkled before being swept, to prevent the dust rising. Attend to the bulbous roots as directed last month, such as _Hyacinths_, _Narcissus_, &c. =Green-House.= _FEBRUARY_. The directions given last month respecting the airing and temperature of the house, may still be followed, differing only in admitting air more freely as the season advances, and according to the power the sun has on the glass, which now begins to be considerable. If the weather is tolerably mild, air may be admitted in time of sunshine, so as to keep the mercury as low as 45°, but be cautious in cold, cloudy, frosty weather. It is a practice with many in such weather to keep the shutters on the house night and day, for the space of a week, and sometimes more, never entering it; and, when the weather has induced them to look in, they find that the frost and damp have made many lifeless subjects; whereas, had the house and plants been attended to, in taking off the shutters, and giving a little fire when requisite, all would have been in safety, and many that cannot be replaced still in the collection. When watering, strictly adhere to the directions of last month, except with _Geraniums_, and other soft wooded plants, which require a little more water toward the end of the month. If the days are mild and sunny about eight or nine o'clock in the morning, all the plants would be benefited by a gentle syringing, which retards the progress of insects, and accelerates vegetation. Succulents, such as _Cáctus_, _Mesembryánthemum_, _Aloes_, _Furchræas_, _Crássulas_, _Cotylèdons_, &c. will very seldom need water, at the same time keep them from getting as dry as powder. OF ORANGES, LEMONS, &c. Similar treatment to that recommended last month will do for this. Where the soil in the tubs or pots requires to be enriched, take of bone dust or shavings, and fresh sheep dung, equal quantities; put the mixture into a large tub or barrel, until one third full; and fill it up with water. Stir it well two or three times every day for a week, then give each tree one good watering with the compound. Continue to mix up afresh, and let it stand another week, and so on until all the trees requiring it are watered. This watering will greatly enrich the soil, and invigorate the roots. OF CAPE BULBS, &c. The bulbs, of _Ferrària undulata_ and _F. antheròsa_, that were taken out of the pots in October, will now require to be planted. Five inch pots will be large enough for good roots. The grand criterion for planting bulbs is when there is a protuberant appearance about the bottom, or root part of the bulb, showing, by a principle of nature, the true time for transplanting. When bulbous roots of any description appear above ground, they ought to be placed in an airy situation. They are very frequently placed under other plants, by the inexperienced, until they show their flowers, and then brought to the light, having weak flowers, and comparatively of momentary existence. _Hyacinths_, _Narcissus_, _Gladìolus_, _Ixia_, &c. having flower stems, ought to have support, to prevent accident, especially the two former; keep them nigh the glass, and water freely. Change the water regularly in the bulb glasses, observing that their roots are never allowed to become matted with f[oe]tid water. Any of the above plants that are in flower, might, if desired, be taken into the drawing room or parlour, washing the pots clean, and putting saucers under them, keeping therein a little water. Twice a week the decayed ones can be taken out, and supplanted with those that are coming into bloom. CAMELLIA JAPONICA Will, in this month, show a profusion of flowers; and, where there is a variety, they have truly a magnificent appearance. From a good selection, endless varieties, by seed, of exquisite beauty, might be obtained by attention to the following rule. The best to select for bearing seed are _Single white_, _Atoniana_, _Grandiflora_, _Waratah_, _Carnation Waratah_, _Fulgens_, and, in many instances, the pistil, or pistillum of _Variegata_, _Pompone_, _Pæoniflora_, and _Intermedia_, are perfect, with several others. When any of the above are newly expanded, (_Waratah_ is most perfect about one day before expansion,) take a fine camel hair pencil, and put it gently on the farina or pollen, which is a yellow substance on the anthers, and, when ripe, appears in thousands of small particles. Take the finest double kinds, then, with this on the pencil, rub lightly the stile of those intended to carry seed. Between the hours of ten and twelve in the forenoon, is the most proper time for the operation; the seed will be ripe in September or October, which will be taken notice of, and directions given. For other particulars on cleaning and syringing, see _January_ under this head. OF SHIFTING &c. The best time to repot _Camellias_, is just when they are done flowering, which will be before they begin to grow. There are, though not frequently, some flowers after the young foliage begins to appear, and probably it would be better to discriminate the time by the buds offering to push, which will answer to those that have no flowers, as well as those that have. The most general time in shifting _Camellias_ is in August and September, indiscriminately with other plants; and, if then not very gently handled, bad roots eventually are produced. Frequently very fine plants have been killed by probing, and breaking the young fibrous roots, thus causing mortification. In the process, do not, by any means, break, or bruise any of the roots: and do not give large pots, with the idea of making them grow fast: it acts on most plants diametrically opposite to what is intended. A pot one or one and a half inches wider and deeper than the one they have been in previously, is sufficient. Healthy plants under five feet will not require shifting oftener than once in two years; from five feet upwards in three or four years, according to the health of the plants. This treatment, in the opinion of some, will appear not sufficient: it will be found enough with a top-dressing every year to keep them in a healthy, flowering condition, the soil being according to our description. On turning the plant out of the pot, it may easily be observed if the soil has, in any degree, been congenial to it; for if so, the roots will be growing all round the ball; if otherwise, no roots will appear. Therefore, with a blunt pointed stick, probe away all the bad earth, until you come to the roots; then put the plant in the pot about one inch in diameter, larger than the combined roots, previously putting a few small pieces of broken pots, or clean gravel, to drain off the superabundant moisture, and give light waterings, as the roots in this case will grow but slowly. Top dress all that requires shifting, probe out the soil down to the roots, and by the side of the pot, taking care not to break the fibres; then fill up with fresh earth, watering gently with a rose on the watering pot to settle it. OF CLEANING, &c. If any of the plants require cleaning, either by fumigation or otherwise, let it be done before the young foliage appears, according to directions heretofore given. Likewise tie neatly all that require it, clean and top dress those that will not be shifted, having every plant and all in the Green-house, in perfect order, before the throng of spring commences. The weather will now admit, in very fine mornings, of the plants being syringed, which may be done between half past seven and half past eight: and the path or pavement should be washed out once a week, which is a great improvement to the appearance of the whole interior. In winter whenever any glass is broken it should be immediately mended. Broken glass in cold nights causes a very destructive current of air. It should always be made water tight, for if the drops fall into the pots upon the roots, they will frequently prove fatal to the plants; therefore care ought to be taken during rain to remove those that stand in any manner exposed. =Flower Garden.= _FEBRUARY_. Where the borders and beds were dug in the fall, and compost or a thin coating of well decayed manure given, the advantage will now in part be experienced. If the weather is open about the end of the month, the pruning should be done with the utmost despatch; that all may be prepared for a general dressing next month, and let nothing be delayed which can now properly be accomplished, under the idea that there is time enough. OF PRUNING, &c. Generally about the end of the month the very severe frosts are over; and when none need be apprehended that would materially injure hardy shrubs, they may freely be pruned of all dead branches, and the points cut off such shoots as have been damaged by the winter. Most of shrubs require nothing more than to be pruned of straggling, irregular, and injured branches, or of suckers that rise round the root, observing that they do not intermingle with each other. Never trim them up in a formal manner. Regular shearing of shrubs and topiary work have been expelled as unworthy of a taste the least improved by reflections on the beauty, simplicity, and grandeur of nature. In fact, the pruning of deciduous hardy shrubs should be done in such a manner as not to be observable when the plants are covered with verdure. It may frequently be observed in Flower-gardens, that roses and shrubs of every description are indiscriminately cut with the shears, the _Amórphas_ and _Althèas_ sharing the same fate. _Robínias_, _Colùteas_, _Cyticus_, _Rhús_, _Genístas_, with several of the _Viburnums_, and many others, bear their flowers on the wood of last year, and when thus sheared afford no gratification in flowering. And those shrubs that thus flower on the shoots of last year are perhaps worse to keep in regular order, than those to which the knife can be freely applied; but good management while young will ensure handsome free flowering plants. Climbing shrubs, and others that are trained against outbuildings, walls, or such as are sheltered thereby, and not now in danger of suffering by frost, may be pruned and dressed. These should be neatly trimmed, and the branches moderately thinned out, tying in all the shoots straight and regular. Avoid at all times, if possible, the crossing of any shoots. There is not a shrub in the garden that agrees so well with close cutting, as the _Althèa_, and all its varieties. These can be made either bushes or trees, and kept at any desired height. Where the wood of last year is cut to about two or three inches from the wood of the former year, the young shoots of this year will produce the largest and finest flowers, and likewise more profusely. When they have attained the desired height, let them be kept in the most natural and handsome shape that the taste of the operator can suggest. They will bear cutting to any degree. Honeysuckles of every description may with all freedom be trimmed, providing the frost is not very severe. These are very frequently allowed to become too crowded with wood, and then superficially sheared or cut. The flowers would be much finer, and the bush handsomer, if they were regularly thinned out, divesting them of all naked and superfluous shoots. Of those that remain, shorten the shoots of last year. Where any of the honeysuckle kind has become naked at the bottom, and flowering only at the top of the trellis, or extremities of the shoots, one half of the bush should be cut to within four inches of the ground. It will throw out plenty of fine young wood, which give room for, and train them straight, and to the full extent, during summer. These shoots will flower profusely the following season, and in like manner, when thought proper, the other half can be cut. Roses of the hardy kinds (termed garden roses) that were not attended to in November, should, if the weather permit, be dressed and pruned forthwith. In small gardens, where these are generally attached to the walls and fences, neatness should be a very particular object. If any of such bushes have got strong and irregular, the most proper method to bring them to order, will be to cut down each alternate shoot of the bush to within a few inches of the surface, thereby renovating it, and, in part, preserving the flowers. Those that are cut down will put out several luxuriant shoots, which must be regularly tacked in, spreading them in a fan shape. These, in another year, will flower well, when the others may go through the same operation. Thus, in two or three years, the bushes will have resumed a different, and more agreeable aspect. By the above treatment, these ornaments of the garden will always have a neat and healthful appearance, and the roses will be much finer. Where they are intended for the borders, they should never be allowed to get too high. In a border from four to six feet, they ought never to exceed four feet at the back of the border, and in front, one foot, after being pruned; they can be kept down by the above method. It is not advisable to cut down rose bushes all at once, unless no regard is paid to flowering. The roses that are in grass plats would have a superior appearance in every respect, if they were kept and trimmed like small trees. They may be of different sizes and heights, according to the extent of the grass plat or clump. A single stem may arise from six inches to six feet, with a head in proportion to the height of the stem. Where it is necessary to have them above two feet, and likewise to carry a good head, inoculation must be resorted to, which, in the months of June and July, will be fully treated of. All under two feet (except the weak growing kinds) will do on their own stems, taking care not to allow shoots to arise from the bottom during the summer. For directions for pruning climbing roses, see March and April. OF PLANTING SHRUBS, &c. As soon as the frost is out of the ground, these should be planted if the soil is not too wet. Where soil is binding, upon no consideration plant in it while wet, rather defer it until the end of March. Shrubs, if they are well arranged, are the chief ornament, give the most pleasure, and afford the greatest delight that we enjoy in our gardens. Although they give no sort of nourishment, nor produce any edible fruits, yet they are particularly grateful and conducive to our enjoyments. Our walks in summer would be oppressive, but for their agreeable shade; in the fall and winter, we would be left exposed to the chilling winds, but for the shelter they afford. Likewise they produce a great variety of flowers; a varied foliage, and are standing ornaments that give no great trouble. In the character of screens they are particularly useful, whether to hide disagreeable objects, or as a guard against the weather; and for either of these purposes, they can be planted nearer to the house than large trees. Or, if they are planted in masses at a distance, they soon become agreeable objects, frequently very much improve the scenery of the place, become objects of utility as well as ornament, and, in such case, afford the highest satisfaction. When formed so as to exclude offices from the view of the house, or for sheltering the latter, or for connecting the house with the garden, orchard, or any similar purpose, shrubs are both useful and interesting. Where many shrubs are to be planted, the disposing of them properly is a matter of considerable importance to the future welfare of the whole; and, whether deciduous or evergreens be mixed or grouped, that is, indiscriminately planted together, or the evergreens planted by themselves, as is frequently done, a regular and natural arrangement is indispensable for establishing ornament. Arranging, no doubt, depends very much on fancy; still, there ought always to be plenty of evergreens planted, that the whole may be more cheerful in winter. If shrubberies were made to a great extent, the scenery would be much more varied and characteristic by grouping judiciously than by indiscriminately planting. However, in small flower gardens and shrubberies, the latter has to be adopted. In such places, tall growing kinds should never be introduced, unless merely as a screen from some disagreeable object, for they crowd and confuse the whole. The dwarf and more bushy sorts should be placed next to the walks, or edges, in order that they may conceal the naked stems of the others. Generally when shrubs are planted, they are small; therefore, to have a good effect from the beginning, they should be planted much thicker than they are intended to stand. When they have grown a few years, and interfere with each other, they can be lifted, and such as have died, or become sickly, replaced, and the remainder can be planted in some other direction. Keep them always distinct, one from another, in order that they may be the better shown off. But, if it is not desired that they should be thicker planted than it is intended to let them remain, the small growing kinds may be four or five feet apart; the larger, or taller sorts, six or eight feet, according to the condition of the soil. Thick masses of shrubbery, called thickets, are sometimes wanted. In these there should be plenty of evergreens. A mass of deciduous shrubs has no imposing effect during winter; and, as this is not the proper season for planting evergreens, (April and October being best,) small stakes can be placed in the destined spot. Planting in rows, or in any plan of a formal character, should at all times be avoided. In planting at this season, observe that the roots are not much exposed to the air, especially if the wind be high and sharp; but it is always better, if possible, to defer the business until good, mild weather. According to directions in November, the ground will be well prepared, and only requires a hole dug for the reception of the roots, which must be considerably larger, that the roots may not be in the least confined. Break the earth well at bottom, put in as much as will receive the plant from one to two inches (according to its size) lower than it has previously been in the Nursery. If any of the roots are bruised or broken, cut them off; then place the plant in the centre of the hole, breaking fine all the soil that is put in, at the same time shaking the stem a little, that the earth may mix with the roots when full up; press all the soil down with the foot, that it may, in some degree, consolidate about the roots, and support the plant. If it is tall, or top heavy, put in a good stake for a support, and place a small, bandage between the stake and stem of the plant, shrub, or tree, where the tie is to be made, to prevent the bark from suffering by friction. Observe always before planting, if the soil is not suitable, to supply that which is congenial to the nature of the intended plant. When shrubs or trees are to be carried to any distance, the roots should be carefully kept from air, by tying damp moss, straw, or Russia mats about them, as circumstances will admit; their success greatly depends on due attention being paid to this. OF HYACINTHS AND OTHER BULBOUS ROOTS. It sometimes occurs that _Hyacinths_ and other bulbous roots that were planted in the fall, are thrown above ground by the frost. This will take place if the soil is inclined to moisture, and they not being deep enough planted. If such is the case, cover them with wood earth, old decayed tan, or soil, whichever is most convenient; if not done, the sun and air overpower the bulbs, and, although the fibres have hold of the ground, the flowers will be miserably weak. _Hyacinth_ bulbs, and many others of Holland, are very hardy. Even exposure to our severest frosts would not kill them, but they would be much weakened. OF FRAMING, &c. Where a frame or hotbed is wanted to grow some of the finest and more tender annuals, it is time, about the 20th of the month, to collect and prepare manure for the desired hotbed. And, as that operation, in many instances, is very imperfectly performed, a few observations on the subject may be useful. Take three parts of fresh hot stable manure, with one part of fresh oak leaves. Have a sufficient quantity to make the intended bed or beds from three to four feet high. Shake and mix up both together in a compact conical heap, in order to encourage fermentation. If the weather is cold and windy, cover it with straw or leaves and boards, which is necessary to produce the desired effect. If fermentation soon takes place, it will need to be thoroughly turned over in eight or ten days. If any of it has become dry and musty from excessive heat, as you proceed, water the affected parts, pile all up neatly, and leave it protected in part as before. In five or six days more, it will have to be turned again, repeating it until the first extreme heat has been over. In neglect of this, the heat, after making up the bed, will be vehement for a week or two, frequently destroying the vegetative purity of the soil, and proving destructive to the seeds. Allowing the manure to come to a lively heat, having no unpleasant, rancid smell, proceed to mark off your intended bed, running it east and west as nearly as possible, measure your frame, and allow the site of the bed eight inches each way larger than the frame: at the corners place a stick or rod perpendicularly. The ground ought to be higher than that around it, to prevent water from getting into the bed, which, if low, must be filled up; or, if supposed that water may lodge there, a little Brushwood might be put under the manure, which would keep it from being inundated. The manure must be built up square and level, shaking, mixing, and beating it regularly with the back of the fork. When you have it to the desired height, (three feet will be sufficient for annuals,) leave the centre of the bed a little higher than the sides, thus allowing it more to subside. When finished, put on the frame and sash or sashes, keep them close until the heat arises, covering them at night with mats and shutters. As soon as you feel the heat increased, give air by tilting the sashes a few inches to let off the steam and stagnated air, observing to close in the afternoon, and cover at night. If the heat is violent, about an inch of air might be left during the night. In about three days, if all has been properly attended to, the bed will be what is termed sweet. Then put in about six inches of fine garden soil; if heavy, mix a little sand with it. Spread it level, and, when the soil is heated through, sow in small drills from one eighth to an inch deep, according to the size of the seeds. Some very small kinds do best when sown upon the surface. When sown, give gentle sprinklings of water until they come up, when it will be necessary to give air to prevent them from being weak, or damping off, which many of them will do if they have not air regularly admitted. When they begin to crowd, thin them out, to allow those that remain to grow strong. It is better at all times to have one strong, healthy plant, than two weak and sickly objects. =ROOMS.= _FEBRUARY_. At this season, the plants call for the most assiduous attention. If the stage has been made according to our description, in very cold nights it should be drawn to the centre of the room, or at least withdrawn from the window, observing every night to close the window tight by shutters, or some substitute equally as good. And, if the temperature begins to fall below 34°, means should be adopted to prevent it, either by putting a fire in the room, or opening any adjoining apartment where fire is constantly kept. This latter method is the best where it is practicable, and ought to be studied to be made so. Some, very injudiciously, in extreme frosts put into the room, where there is no chimney, amongst the plants, a furnace of charcoal, in order to heat the room. The effect is, that the foliage becomes dark brown, and hardened like, and many of the plants die, the rest not recovering until summer. Watering may be attended to according to the directions of January, only observing that those that begin to grow will absorb a little more than those that are dormant. Roses, especially the Daily, if kept in the house, will begin to show flower buds. Use means to kill the Green-fly that may attack them. Hyacinths and other bulbs must have regular attendance in tying up, &c. Take care not to tie them too tight, leaving sufficiency of space for the stem to expand. Give those in the glasses their necessary supplies, and keep them all near the light. Never keep bulbous roots while growing under the shade of any other plant. _Camellias_, with all their varied beauties, will, in this month, make a splendid show. Adhere to the directions given in the previous month, and so that new varieties may be obtained, (see _Green-house_, _February_, under the head of _Camellia_,) which directions are equally applicable here. When the flowers are full blown, and kept in a temperature between 34° and 44°, they will be perfect for the space of four, five, and frequently six weeks, and a good selection of healthy plants will continue to flower from December to April. Be sure that there is air admitted at all favourable opportunities. Give a little every day that there is sunshine, if it is only for a few minutes. =Hot-House.= _MARCH_. If this department has been regularly attended to, the plants will be in a fresh healthy state. Where there is any sickly appearance, heat has been deficient, or insects of a destructive character are preying upon them. Too much water at the root frequently causes the foliage to become yellow. It will add greatly to their general improvement, to syringe the whole twice or three times a week, observing to do it in the morning about sunrise; and it is highly necessary that the water that is used should be of the same temperature as the house; and at all times, whatever water is given to the roots, the same must be observed. For airing, see last month, observing, as the season advances, to increase the quantity. Continue to fumigate when any of the Green-fly appears, (see _January_ for directions,) and where there are any of the plants infected with the white scaly insect, clean them as there directed. If overlooked for a few months, they will be increased tenfold. Very frequently, where there are only a few, they are neglected until the plant is overrun with them, and then it may be said, it is impossible to dislodge them entirely. Clear off all decayed leaves from the plants. These will have made fresh shoots, and the decayed leaves very much disfigure the whole collection. We would not have repeated this observation, if it was not an essential point, and one which is so frequently neglected. OF SHIFTING PLANTS. Those _Alstr[oe]merias_ that are growing freely, and in small pots, should be put into pots of a larger size. This genus of plants will not flower except they are encouraged with frequent shifting: they are all beautiful. =Green-House.= _MARCH_. The plants in this compartment will begin to assume a different aspect, and air must be admitted every day if practicable, giving large portions in sunshine by the sashes regularly over all the house, opening those of the front a little, and likewise the doors in fine mild days. To perform this judiciously, give a little about eight or nine o'clock, more at ten, and the whole from eleven till twelve o'clock, shutting again by degrees. Fire heat will now be dispensed with, but in frosty nights have the shutters on about sundown. The sun is now powerful, and the house can be early shut up in the afternoon, and will gain as much natural heat as will keep up the required temperature, viz. 36° to 40°. Perhaps there may be uncommonly cold weather; at such times be attentive to ward off danger by applying artificial heat. OF WATERING. Look over the pots and tubs at least every alternate day, to see where water is wanted. In watering, too much caution cannot be used, especially during winter and the commencement of spring. It was observed last month what would be the effect of too much water. It may be remarked, that if the exterior of the pot is very damp, the soil inside is too wet, and in that state is uncongenial to vegetation, which now begins to start, and ought by all possible means to be encouraged. People may be frequently observed watering all plants indiscriminately, not taking the trouble to look into or feel the state of the soil in the pots or tubs, and by going over them three or four times in this manner will be sufficient to put the plants in such a state, that they will not be recruited for some months. Hence the reason of so many sickly plants. _Caméllias_, where there are collections, will continue to flower. Treat them according to the directions given last month. OF ORANGES, LEMONS, &c. Be sure they are not too wet, as too much humidity as well as aridity causes their foliage to have a yellow appearance, with this difference, that in the former case the foliage is the same to the touch as when green; but in the latter, it is soft and dry. We have observed trees in tubs and half barrels, with holes all round their sides. This is a ludicrous idea, having the appearance of keeping the water from reaching the bottom of the tub or barrel. For the best kind of tub for large trees, see _August_ under this head. If any of the trees have stunted, straggling, or irregular heads, about the end of this month, or beginning of next, head or cut them down to the shape desired. The old wood will push fresh shoots. You may cut close, or shorten less or more, according as you desire young shoots to arise; at the same time observe that you do not cut below the graft or inoculation. Trees thus headed down should be kept until May, and then planted in the garden, (see _May_,) or if that cannot be done, turn it out, and reduce the ball of earth by probing with a pointed stick all round the sides and bottom of the ball, cutting off any very matted roots. If any of the roots are decayed, cut them into the sound wood. By being thus reduced, it will go into the same pot or tub if not a less one. Having a good supply of fresh earth ready, put a few inches in the bottom of the pot or tub, place the tree therein, and fill all round, at the same time pressing it down with the hand or a stick. Give very little water until there are signs of vegetation. MYRTLES, OLEANDERS, &c. These, with similar exotics, may be treated as above. If any of them have been infected with the scaly insect, after heading down, &c. scrub the remaining stems with a strong decoction of tobacco, heated to about 100°. Afterwards clean with soap and water. GERANIUMS. These will be growing freely. Keep them in airy situations, so that they may not grow too weak, and flower imperfect. To flower these plants strong, and of good colour, they must not be too crowded together, neither far from the light, and have plenty of air admitted to them, when the weather is favourable. Keep them free from the Green-fly by fumigating frequently. HERBACEOUS PLANTS. Plants of this character will, by the first of the month, begin to grow. The best time to divide and fresh pot them is when the young shoots are about one inch above ground. See under the head _Shifting_ in this month. OF CAPE BULBS, &c. _Cape Bulbs_, such as _Lachenàlias_, _Oxalis_, _Ixias_, _Gladìolus_, _Watsònias_, _Babiànas_, &c. will in many of the species be showing flower. Keep all of them near the glass, to prevent them from being weak and unsightly. _Hyacinths_, _Tulips_, _Narcissus_, &c. Those that have been kept in the Green-house during winter will be in great perfection. Have all the flower stems tied up neatly to small stakes, (which, if painted green, will look much better,) and keep them from the direct rays of the sun. In the front of the house perhaps will be the best situation. They must be freely watered while in flower. Where there is convenience, it will be essential to keep the pots in saucers containing water; it will strengthen both stems and flowers, and likewise preserve them longer in perfection. Those that are blooming should be put aside, and watered sparingly, until the foliage begins to decay, when the pots may be laid on their side to ripen the bulbs. REPOTTING. If you have any of the following plants that you are desirous of encouraging, they should be repotted this or next month at the latest. Large plants will not require it, if they were done in August. Pots one size larger than those that they are in, are sufficient. _Acacias and Mimòsas_ being now united into one genus, there are above two hundred species. About one hundred and thirty belong to the Green-house. Amongst such a beautiful family, both for elegance of flower and beauty of foliage, it will be difficult to specify the most handsome and desirable for this department. _A. móllis_, _A. glaucéscens_, _A. verticilàta_, _A. florabúnda_, _A. diffùsa_, _A. armàta_, _A. verniciflùa_, _A. decúrrens_, _A. armàta_--weeping variety, _A. púbescens_, _A. leucolòbia_, _A. decípiens_, _A. fragràns_, _A. pulchélla_, _A. lophántha_, _A. myrtifòlia_, &c. These will afford a great variety of foliage, and are very desirable, flowering principally in winter, or early in spring. The flowers of those belonging to the Green-house are of a yellow or straw colour; the most of those that are red or purple, with the celebrated medicinal species, belong to the Hot-house, for which see _May_. There are some of the species very subject to the white scaly insect, which must be attended to, that they may not get to any extent. _Agapánthus_, three species. They are all blue flowers. _A. umbellàtus_ is very celebrated, and well known in the collections of the country. There is a variegated variety of it highly desirable, the foliage being white striped, and frequently the flower stem and the flower are as good as the species. They have very strong roots, and require plenty of freedom. Plants are always large before they flower, and when the pots, by frequent shifting, become inconvenient, the plant should be divested of all the earth, and, if too large, divide it, cutting off the strongest of the fibres; then they will admit of being put into smaller pots. If the above operation is performed in August or September, it will not retard their flowering, which, when well grown, is very handsome, the flower stem arising about three feet, and crowned with twenty or thirty brilliant blue blossoms, continuing to bloom successively. _Alonsòas_, five species, all soft wooded, small, shrubby plants, with scarlet flowers. _A. incisifòlia_ is known amongst us under the name of _Hemímeris urticifólia_, and _A. lineàris_ as _H. lineàris_. If well treated, they form very handsome plants, and flower freely. They will not bear strong fumigation; and, when the house is under that operation, they must be put on the floor of the Green-house, where they will not be so much affected. They flower from May to August. _Aùcuba japónica_ is the only species. The flowers are small and almost insignificant, colour purple; but the foliage is a desirable object, being yellow spotted, or blotched. It is tolerably hardy, and withstands our winters. It prefers shade, and, if the situation was such when planted out, it would grow more freely. The hot rays of the sun are very prejudicial to its growth. It is an evergreen shrub, and very desirable. _Anagyris_, three species, evergreen, pea flowered shrubs, flowers yellow, nothing very attractive in either of the species. A. _f[oe]tida_ is found in many collections, and we have no doubt but it may prove, in this country, a hardy shrub. _Azàleas_, seven of the China species, which are those we shall enumerate here. The one that has been longest known in the collections of this country is _A. índica_, a most splendid shrub, with scarlet cup flowers and dark spots. _A. índica àlba_, flowers of the purest white, and rather larger than the former. _A. índica purpùrea pleno_, double purple. This variety is not so fine as any of the others. Properly it is not purple, or, if it may be termed so, the colour is very light; the flower irregular. _A. índica ph[oe]nícea_ is magnificent. The colour is darker, and the flower larger than _A. índica_, and a free grower. _A. sinénse_, flowers large, yellow. The wood is much stronger than any of those previously mentioned. It bears a very high character in Europe. It has not yet flowered in our collection, but appears as if it would in the ensuing season (1832). All the above ought to have a situation in every Green-house. They flower from March until May. There are two other varieties which have not come under our observation. Do not shift or repot them, if they are in flower, until the flowering is over. The pots must be well drained; and the plants require a shaded situation. If they are properly treated, they will be completely covered with their showy flowers every year. _Aòtus_, two species, both fine leguminose plants. _A. villòsa_, is a native of Van Dieman's Land; and _A. virgàta_, is from New Holland. The former is preferable. Both have yellow flowers, and are small evergreen shrubs. _Andersónia sprengelioídes_, is the only species, and closely allied to _Epácris_, flowers small, and of a pale yellow colour. Drain the pots well; flowers from March to August. _Arbutus_, eight exotic species, and six varieties. They are generally hardy in England; but we question if they stand out in the middle states. _A. unìdo rùbra_ has the finest crimson flowers; _A. serratifólia_, the largest panicles; and _A. Andráchne_, the finest foliage. They flower in nodding panicles; the flowers are principally white, tinged with green, and wax-like. They bear a pretty fruit similar to a strawberry; hence it is called strawberry tree, and the fruit will remain on the bush a long time. They are very fine evergreens, and if any of them become acclimated, they will be a great acquisition to our gardens. _Bánksias_. There are about thirty-two species, all curious in flower, and handsome and various in foliage; flowers in large heads and cone-shaped anthers, mostly green, and continue a considerable time in flower; produces a cone in shape of a pine, but not imbricate. The substance is as hard as bone, and contains many seeds. A cone of _B. grándis_ in our possession weighs one pound twelve ounces, and contains about 107 seeds. Those most admired for the foliage are _B. dentata_, _B. æmula_, _B. serràta_, _B. latifòlia_, _B. grándis_, which is the largest. _B. speciòsa_ has the longest foliage. _B. Cunninghámii_, _B. spinulòsa_, _B. palludòsa_, and _B. rèpens_, these will afford a good variety. _B. verticillàta_ is entirely different in appearance from the others. They should be well drained, and placed in an airy part of the Green-house. Great care should be taken that they do not get too dry, for they seldom recover if allowed to flag for want of water. This genus is named in honour of Sir Joseph Banks, a distinguished promoter of the study of natural history. _Bignònias._ Those of this genus belonging to the Green-house have been divided to _Tecòma_, and there are only three for this department. _T. austràlis_ known as _B. Pandòræ_; _T. grandiflòra_, known as _B. grandiflòra_, and has large and magnificent clusters of orange-coloured flowers, flowering from May to October. _Tecòma capénsis_ is a very pretty climbing shrub, a free grower, and flowers abundantly; flowers in dense panicles, colour orange and red, continues for several weeks in succession from April to August, greatly esteemed in Europe where it is known; being now in a few of our collections, will soon be generally admired. _Blètia hyacinthìna_ is the only species belonging to the Green-house, once known as _Cymbídium hyacinthìnum_. It is herbaceous, and when it begins to grow divide the root, putting the best into five inch pots. The spike of flowers are hyacinth-like, and of a beautiful purple, flowering from April to July. _Borònia_ is a beautiful genus of New Holland plants, contains about nine species; most of them have been universally admired; the flowers are star-like, and rose-coloured, and some of them sweet-scented. _B. pinnàta_ grows and flowers freely. _B. serrulàta_, foliage serrated and very crowded, bearing the flowers on the extremity of the shoot. _B. alàta_ has a fine appearance, and grows handsomely. The foliage is winged and pinnate, of a hardy nature, and easy culture, flowers freely. They are in flower about April and May, and continue a considerable time; are subject to mildew if not frequently syringed; drain the pots well. _Bouvárdias_, two species. _B. triphylla_ is well known amongst us, has brilliant scarlet flowers, and when well grown, will flower beautifully from May till September. To keep the plants, they should be frequently renewed; otherwise they are liable to grow straggling, and become subject to the small white scaly insect. _B. Jacquìnæ_ we suspect has got confounded with the former, being very little different, except the foliage, which is more pointed. They flower from the young wood, and often throw their foliage in winter. _Brachysèmas_, two species, both evergreen climbers. _B. latifòlium_ has the best foliage, and large purple leguminose flowers. _B. undulàtum_, flowers yellow, and more plentiful than the former, continuing in long successions. The pots require to be well drained; very few plants of either in the country. _Burchéllias_, two species. _B. capénsis_ is a beautiful dwarf evergreen shrub, with tubular scarlet flowers in large terminate clusters; when well treated, grows and flowers freely, and highly deserving of attention. _B. parviflòra_ differs from the above in the flowers being smaller and paler, and the foliage more pointed. _Beaufórtias_, only two species. _B. decussàta_ is splendid; the flowers come out of the wood with stamens in fine parcels, colour bright scarlet, foliage decussate, oval, and many-nerved, bloom persistent, and much esteemed. _B. spársa_, in flower similar to the other, colour light pink, foliage scattered, both easy of culture, and flower abundantly. _Brùnias_, about ten species, have heath-like foliage, very fine, generally, on close observation, found to be three cornered. The flowers are white and globular, the plants when young are very handsome; the finest are _B. nodiflòra_, _B. lanuginósa_, _B. comòsa_, _B. abrotanoídes_, and _B. formòsa_. They require an airy situation, and in summer to be protected from the powerful rays of the sun. Drain the pots well. _Bósea yervamóra_, Golden rod tree, leaves large, alternate, ovate, acute, with purple veins and nerves, flowers brown, in axillary dense panicles, grows strong and freely. _Bæckias_, above twelve species, of heath-like appearance, and except for variety, are not otherwise desirable. _B. camphoràta_ is camphor-scented; _B. pulchélla_ is very neat; and _B. virgàta_ flowers freely. Pots should be well drained. The flowers of all the genus are white. _Billardiéras_, about five species, are desirable as climbers, being of rapid growth, and abundant in flower. _B. longiflòra_, fruits freely, and has fine blue berries which look handsome. _B. mutábilis_ is changeable from purple to scarlet. The fruit of _B. scàndens_ is covered with down, flowers straw coloured. _B. fusifórmis_ differs in colour from the others, the flowers being blue. They require to be well drained. _Calceolàrias_, about fourteen species, besides many hybrid varieties. _C. angustifòlia_, and _C. integrifòlia_ are the best of the shrubby species. _C. plantagínea_, _C. corymbósa_, _C. purpùrea_, and _C. hopiána_, and of the hybrid varieties, _C. micàns_ and _C. hybrìda_ are very fine; but we understand they are numerous, and some of them very splendid. To grow any of these properly, they should be divided a few weeks after they begin to grow; put them in small pots at first, and enlarge them gradually. Where there is a hot-house, after dividing them, it will greatly promote their growth to keep them in it a few weeks near the glass, until the weather gets mild, when they may be removed to the Green-house. The flowers are principally yellow. _C. Fothergíllii_, _purpùrea_, and _archnoidea_ are purple; the hybrids are spotted with red and brown, and some of them streaked many colours. They continue a long time in flower. _Calothámnus_, four species. This genus is named in allusion to the splendid appearance of the branches, covered with scarlet flowers of curious construction, which come out of the old wood. All the species are of easy culture, and very like dwarf pines. _C. quadríffida_ has the largest flowers; _C. claváta_ the most abundant. They are all evergreens, and flower from April to November. _Caméllias._ There are about nine species, celebrated over the known world as furnishing the domestic drug called tea, in universal use, besides many flowering trees and shrubs as universally admired. Oil may be expressed from the seeds of all the species, and used as that of hemp and poppy in cookery. _C. víridis_ and _C. bohèa_ are said to be the species which supply the tea. Some have asserted that there is only one shrub used, but by examination it may be easily perceived that there are leaves of various shape and texture, some of them similar to _C. sasanqua_. Dr. Abel gives an explicit detail of the growing and manufacturing process of tea, from which, in compliment to our fair patrons, we give a few extracts: "The tea districts of China extend from the twenty-seventh to the thirty-first degree of north latitude. It seems to succeed best on the sides of mountains. The soils from which I collected the best specimens consisted chiefly of sand-stone, schistus, or granite. The plants are raised from seeds sown where they are to remain. Three or more are dropped into a hole four or five inches deep; these come up without further trouble, and require little culture, except that of removing weeds, till the plants are three years old. The more careful stir the soil, and some manure it, but the latter practice is seldom adopted. The third year the leaves are gathered, at three successive gatherings, in February, April and June, and so on until the bushes become stunted or slow in their growth, which generally happens in from six to ten years. They are then cut in to encourage the production of fresh roots. "The gathering of the leaves is performed with care and selection. The leaves are plucked off one by one: at the first gathering only the unexpanded and tender are taken; at the second those that are full grown; and at the third the coarsest. The first forms what is called in Europe imperial tea; but as to the other names by which tea is known, the Chinese know nothing; and the compounds and names are supposed to be made and given by the merchants at Canton, who, from the great number of varieties brought to them, have an ample opportunity of doing so. Formerly it was thought that green tea was gathered exclusively from _C. víridis_; but that is now doubtful, though it is certain that there is what is called the green tea district and black tea district; and the varieties grown in the one district differ from those of the other. I was told by competent persons that either of the two plants will afford the black or green tea of the shops, but that the broad thin-leaved plant (_C. víridis_) is preferred for making the green tea. "The tea leaves being gathered, are cured in houses which contain from five to twenty small furnaces, about three feet high each, having at top a large flat iron pan. There is also a long low table covered with mats, on which the leaves are laid, and rolled by workmen, who sit round it: the iron pan being heated to a certain degree by a little fire made in the furnace underneath, a few pounds of the fresh-gathered leaves are put upon the pan; the fresh and juicy leaves crack when they touch the pan, and it is the business of the operator to shift them as quickly as possible, with his bare hands, till they cannot be easily endured. At this instant he takes off the leaves with a kind of shovel resembling a fan, and pours them on the mats before the rollers, who, taking small quantities at a time, roll them in the palm of their hands in one direction, while others are fanning them, that they may cool the more speedily, and retain their curl the longer. This process is repeated two or three times, or oftener, before the tea is put into the stores, in order that all the moisture of the leaves may be thoroughly dissipated, and their curl more completely preserved. On every repetition the pan is less heated, and the operation performed more closely and cautiously. The tea is then separated into the different kinds, and deposited in the store for domestic use or exportation. "The different sorts of black and green arise, not merely from soil, situation, or the age of the leaf; but after winnowing the tea, the leaves are taken up in succession as they fall; those nearest the machine being the heaviest, are the gunpowder tea; the light dust the worst, being chiefly used by the lower classes. That which is brought down to Canton, then undergoes a second roasting, winnowing, packing, &c. and many hundred women are employed for these purposes." Kæmpfer asserts that a species of _Caméllia_ as well as _Olea fràgrans_ is used to give it a high flavour. _C. oleíferia_ is cultivated principally in China for the oil which is expressed from its seeds, which is much used in the domestic cookery of the country; flower single white. _C. Sesánqua_, Lady Banks's. The foliage of this species is very small, and paler, and the green not so fine, as any of the others. It seeds freely, and is often used as the female parent in producing new varieties; flowers small white and single, with many anthers. There are a Semi-double, and Double variety of it of the same colour. _C. maliflòra_ is figured in the Botanical Register, under the name of _C. Sesánqua rósea_. The foliage is about the same shape as _C. Sesánqua_, but the appearance and habit of the plant are completely different, growing very freely and quite erect; flowers very abundant. A large plant of it will continue in bloom for the space of three months. The flowers are of about six weeks' duration, colour and shape of _Rose de meaux_; has been highly esteemed. One plant of it has been sold for one hundred and eighty dollars. _C. Kíssii_. We believe it is single white, has not come under our observation, the only species that is a native of Nepaul. _C. reticuláta_ was brought from China by Capt. Rawes. The foliage is very characteristic, being rougher than any of the other flowers, about five inches in diameter, brilliant scarlet, and semi-double. It was introduced into Europe in 1822, and is still very scarce. Twenty-five dollars are paid for a small twig of it. From present appearance, it will never be so plenty as many of the others, being tardy of propagation; only a few eyes on the extremity of each shoot make young wood, and if these are cut off, the plant does not seem to push afresh. C. _japónica_, the original of many splendid varieties, probably to the amount of one hundred. The true one is in very few collections; it is single striped. C. _japónica rùbra_ is the single red of our collections, and used as stocks to enarch, graft, or inoculate the other varieties upon, being easily struck by cuttings. It seeds very freely, when the stile is impregnated, and the seedlings make the strongest and best stocks. C. _japónica álba_, single white. It is mentioned in some of our catalogues, as being very sweet-scented, though not very perceptible to us. The foliage and wood are very strong, being a free seeding variety, consequently particularly desirable, as a stock to grow new varieties from. Its flowers are large and abundant. C. _semidúplex._ This is a flower with two rows of petals. Some good varieties might be got from it, if properly impregnated. C. _rùbro-plèno_ is a strong growing and free-flowering variety. The flowers are large, double red, petals irregular, with the anthers in bunches amongst them; flowers are of long duration and showy. C. _cárnea_, frequently known as Middlemist's blush. Colour pink, one of the original varieties, and frequently produces seeds; grows freely. C. _myrtifólia_, known in some collections as _involúta_. There are two varieties of it, major and minor; the former is certainly the best, and has a very handsome, large, and regular red flower; the centre frequently is pink and purple; it is much the shape of _Double white_, only the petals are more cupped. The flower is of considerable duration. It is not properly named. The foliage, though the smallest of the variety, is much larger than that of any of our common myrtles, which might make many mistake its character; and another prominent feature is, the leaves are much recurved and shining. C. _hexanguláris_. The flower is six angled, very compact, and dark red. It is an esteemed variety, and there has unfortunately been another inferior, substituted for it, in some of our collections. The foliage is similar in shape to _anemoniflòra_, with the nerves more sunk; the flowers are of an ordinary size. C. _atro-rùbens_, Loddiges' red, is a very fine variety; colour dark red outside, petals large inside, small and irregular, forming a very distinct character; foliage stiff; grows freely and flowers well; and of long duration. We have seen a flower stand fresh on the plant two months; however, that cannot be a rule, as it depends on the situation. C. _anemoniflòra_, or _Waratah_ (from the central petals, having the appearance of the Waratah plant, _Telopìa speciosissima_.) This variety is very characteristic, both in flower and foliage. The flower is dark crimson, with five or six regular large outside petals; those of the centre are very small, and neatly plaited, with the stile (female organ) prominent; the foliage is large and oblong, nerves very smooth, and the wood strong, bark light. Had this kind not been found, we would have been deprived of many most splendid varieties, which have originated from it, and we have no doubt they may become as diversified as the roses of the garden. This variety in a collection for that alone is invaluable. It seeds freely, and the pollen of any of the others applied to the style of this, will produce a new variety, which seldom fails of being double, provided the pollen is from a double variety. It must be applied the first day that the flower is expanded, for the flower is only of a few days' duration. Those that are not acquainted with the buds of this _Caméllia_, will take them to be dead, because, before expansion, they are very dark brown. _C. dianthiflòra_, or Knight's _carnation Waratah_, is, when well grown, a very beautiful flower; shape and size same as _anemoniflòra_ (and a seedling from it by Mr. Knight, King's Road, Chelsea, London,) seemingly the stamens are crowned with small petals, red and white striped, appearing like a fine large carnation. The style appears fertile, and there is no doubt but some splendid varieties may be obtained from it. _C. blánda_, or blush Waratah, flower in shape similar to _anemoniflòra_, rather larger, and of considerable duration. _C. pompónia_, or Kew blush, flowers very large, white, with a tinge of blush at the bottom of the petals, which has a good effect in setting off the flower. They frequently bloom all blush, which appears rather curious on the same plant; shape one or two rows of guard or outside petals; those of the inside are short, stubby, and generally irregular, continues long in flower, yellow anthers among the short petals, and seeds when the female organ is perfect; foliage narrower than any of the others, a very fast grower, and flowers freely. _C. pæòniflora_. The foliage, shape, and size of the flower of this, is similar to the last mentioned, colour a rich pink; we have never seen any of them vary from this; and have seen it seed very double. _C. Walbánkii_, has a very large white irregular flower, by some called poppy-flowered. It is not so pure as the common double white; the anthers show amongst the petals, and the buds before expansion are very round, inclining to flatness; the foliage long and shining. The flowers are of considerable duration. We question with lutea-alba. _C. alba-plèna_, common double white, is admired by the most casual observer, and is generally considered a very superior flower, from the purity of its whiteness, and the abundance of its large flowers, which are thickly and regularly set with round petals. The foliage is large, and the plant grows freely; we have seen one shoot grow two feet in one summer. It was imported into Europe from China, amongst the first of the varieties, about eighty years ago. _C. flavéscens_, Lady Hume's blush, and by some called _buff_. It is a very double flower, and frequently hexangular; the bottom of the petals are most delicately tinged with blush; on looking into it, it shows more like a blush vapour than nature, and is a great favourite, and deservedly so, with the ladies: flowers and grows freely, foliage rhomboid, elongate, nerves very visible, surface smooth and pale green, distantly serrate. _C. fimbriàta._ The size, shape, and set of the flower same as _alba-plena_, and the white as pure, with the edges of the petals deeply serrated, or rather fringed; is equally as free in flowering and growing. It is universally admired, and in great demand. Its character is unique, foliage very like _alba-plèno_. [See Frontispiece.] _C. imbricàta_, said to be a very double red, with imbricated petals, and very handsome. We have not seen it in flower. _C. variagàta_, is one of the old standard varieties, and very much esteemed. It is striped with red and white; sometimes the ground is red, with white streaks or blotches, and _vice versa_. The flower when well grown is large, and very abundant; foliage very fine dark green, similar to single white. We have had seed from it. The petals are regular, with the anthers showing amongst them; the flower double, though not so much so as many of the others. _C. crassinérvis._ We have not the smallest doubt but this is the same as _hexangularis_, and in confirmation of our opinion, we have lately had the best authority in Europe to that effect. _C. conchiflòra_, shell flowered, double, a very handsome shape, petals round, stiff set, and in the centre quite erect, red with occasional splashes of white. _C. rubricáulis_, Lady Campbell's, very double, colour very rich dark red, with stripes of pure white, beautifully contrasted. The richness of this flower is very striking, and much esteemed; flowers freely. _C. longifòlia_ is a single red, the foliage is large, and longer than the generality of them. _C. chandlrerii_, or versicolor, colour vivid scarlet with occasional splashes of pure white; the flowers vary, and are of long duration, from six to eight weeks; foliage large and dark glossy green. _C. aitònia_. This variety is a beautiful specimen of a single flower affording a developement of the organ of fructification; the petals are delicately penciled, and the anthers very bold, colour pink, and the flower very large; grows freely, and, in our opinion, is surpassed by none of the single sorts, for raising fine new varieties, if impregnated with the pollen from double flowers. _C. althæiflòra_, hollyhock-flowered, is a great beauty, with large double dark red flowers, the veins are very prominent, petals frequently irregular; foliage large, and approaches to the foliage of single red; and is much esteemed. _C. corallìna_, coral-flowered, a very deep scarlet double flower, and bears a high character. _C. insígnis_, a most splendid double flower, large dull red colour; a very free grower, and highly estimated. _C. anemoneflòra álba_. Those that have seen the common _anemoneflòra_ will be disappointed in the appearance of this, not being pure white, neither properly anemone-flowered, though a very good flower, and very distinct from any other; the petals are irregular, anthers abundant, shape resembling _pompone_; flower not so large. _C. heterophylla_. The foliage of this varies very much, a character that none of the others possess; flower double red; and merits a place in collections. _C. Woódsii_, flower fine double, rose colour; and much has been said in its favour. _C. bícolor_, a single flower, with a rose ground and white streaks, very pretty, but not so large as many of the single ones. _C. speciosa_ is a most splendid variety, has been called _China striped Waratah_. The guard petals are large, round, and bold; colour red with stripes of white; the centre is full of small petals, (like _anemoneflòra_,) and spotted; the foliage large and more heart-shaped than any of the others; grows freely, flower persistent, highly esteemed, and considered one of the finest of the coloured _Caméllias_. _C. fúlgens_, flower large, and very bright double red, approaching to _C. atro-rubens_, but more brilliant; foliage a lucid green, very smooth, young wood and wood buds have a red appearance. We have no doubt but it will seed; if so, it will be a first rate breeder. _C. grandiflóra_, a very large single rich red flower, foliage very large; a most splendid single variety, and grows freely. It is recommended to all who wish to improve their collections by raising new varieties. _C. rósa sinénsis_, a very large double flower, colour bright pink, petals long and full, a very distinct variety, with a beautiful dark green shining foliage, grows and flowers freely, and is highly esteemed. C. _intermédia_, a very large flower, shape of _C. pompònia_, outside petals streaked to the extremity with a rich blush, ground colour pure white, and is in high estimation; grows and flowers freely. It is in very few collections in Europe, and only in three in the United States. C. _rose Waratáh_. The description of this flower is the same as _anemoneflòra_, but differs in colour, and being of longer duration, the foliage is uncommonly large. C. _Pressíi's invincible_. It has been asserted that it is the same as that known by _C. punctata_ and _C. Pressíi_. We have not seen it flower, but have seen a drawing of it, the flower equally as large as _double white_, and same shape, with the petals as regular; the ground colour brilliant red, and spotted with pure white. It is one of the newest varieties, and much valued for its unique beauty; hence called _Invincible_; foliage large. C. _Rose Mundií_, is like the garden rose of that name; a large flower, ground colour pink streaked with white. C. _compàcta_ is a new double white, petals and flower not so large as the common, but more compact, and is considered a very fine variety. C. _gloriòsa_, is said to be a fine dark double red. C. _Róssii_, is said to be a fine rich double scarlet. _Callicòma serratifòlia_, the only species and remarkable for tufted yellow heads of flowers, which come out at the axils, and continue from May to July. The foliage is ovate lanceolate, deeply serrated, and opposite. _Carmichælia austràlis_, the only species, has very curious foliage, which the lilac leguminose flowers come out off, and continue from April to June. _Cunònia capénsis_, the only species, and a handsome shrub, with large pinnated shining leaves, beautifully contrasted by numerous dense elongated branches of small white flowers, and twigs of a red colour, having the habit of a tropical more than a Cape of Good Hope plant. _Cléthra arbórea_, and _C. arbórea variagàta_, are both fine shrubs; the latter is preferable; leaves are oblong, accuminate, and serrated with a gold edge; flowers white, downy, in large branching racemose spikes, and sweet-scented; grows freely. _Cotoneásters_. Two of this genus are deserving a situation in the Green-house, _C. denticulàta_, and _C. microphylla_; the last is a native of the mountainous districts of Nepaul, and may prove hardy; the flowers are white, small, and solitary, but in the fall it is covered with pretty red berries, and then looks beautiful; culture very easy; will grow in any situation. _Cròwea solígna_, is amongst one of the finest and easiest cultivated plants of New South Wales. It flowers at the axils of the leaves, colour pink, with five petals, connected by entangled hairs; in flower from April to December, and frequently through the winter; foliage lanceolate, and a fine green. The plant grows neat, and requires an airy situation; drain the pots well. _Chorizèmas_, about six species, foliage very like some varieties of the _Holly_; flowers small and papilionaceous; colour red and yellow; though small, they are very neat. C. _nàna_ and C. _ilicifòlia_ are amongst the best; if grown from seed, they will flower freely the second year; drain the pots well. _Cineràrias_, Cape aster, about twelve belong to the Green-house. They are herbaceous, or half shrubby, soft wooded plants. C. _speciòsa_, C. _amelloídes_, (now called _Agathæa cæléstus_,) C. _purpùrea_, and C. _lanàta_, are among the finest; flowers blue or yellow; the latter is considered the handsomest of the genus. The exterior petals are bright purple, and the interior ones white, and with _A. cæléstus_, flowers most of the year; flowers syngenesious and star-like. The herbaceous species must be treated as previously mentioned for that kind of plants. _Cístus_, or Rock rose. There are above thirty species, principally natives of Europe, consequently hardy there, and form a great ornament to their gardens, being very abundant and various in flower; but with us they will not stand the rigour of winter. We have no doubt, however, but, through time, some kinds may be grown that will withstand the greatest cold of the middle states; they are low shrubby plants of easy cultivation. C. _ladaníferus_, C. _monspeliénsis_, C. _sálignus_, C. _popolifòlius_, and C. _undulàtus_, are perhaps the best; the flowers are of short duration, frequently only for one day; but the quantity makes up this deficiency, being constantly in flower in May and June, and sometimes flower again in autumn. C. _crèticus_ is most productive of the Gum laudanum, which is secreted about its leaves and branches. The flowers are generally five-petaled, and some of them large; centre full of stamens; the foundation of the natural order _Cistinea_. _Clématis_, Virgin's Bower. There are only six of these belonging to this, all climbing plants. C. _aristàta_ and C. _brachiàta_ are the best; flowers in racemose clusters, pure white; foliage small; and natives of the Cape of Good Hope. The foliage of C. _aristàta_ is cordate and blotched. _Cobæa scándens_, the only species. It is a climber of very rapid growth, has been known to grow above two hundred feet in one summer; large bell-shaped flowers; when they are newly expanded, they are of a pale green colour, and change to dark purple; will grow in the garden during summer, bearing a continual profusion of flowers, but will not stand frost. When this plant becomes too large in the house, do not cut it close to the root, except there is a young shoot arising to carry off the superabundant sap, for the old wood will not push, which will soon cause a mortification. The best method to adopt in such case is to turn back a shoot, and lay it in the ground to root, when it will become a young plant; which should always be done as soon as it appears unsightly. It does best to be planted in the ground, but will not give any satisfaction as to flowering in a pot. It will flower as an annual if sown in pots this month, and placed in a warm room or hot-bed, and planted into the garden about the end of May. _Coroníllas_, a very few are fine species in the Green-house. C. _glaúca_ is a celebrated plant amongst us, as a free and early flowering shrub. C. _valentíana_ and C. _viminális_ are equally so, flower from April to June, colour yellow; papilionaceous flowers in clusters; agree best with shade. In summer they ought to be kept behind a fence, or under a tree, as the sun would destroy them in a few weeks. Drain the pots well. _Corréas_, five species, all very pretty dwarf shrubs, and flower profusely; foliage ovate, cordate, and either rusty or downy beneath. C. _álba_ and C. _rúfa_ have both white flowers a little tubular. C. _pulchélla_ is a very handsome erect growing plant, flowers large and tubular, of a deep pink colour, and grows freely: it is thought the finest of the genus. C. _speciòsa_ has been long admired as a splendid free flowering plant; flowers same shape as C. _pulchélla_, but not so large; colour red and yellowish green. C. _virèns_ is a very free grower, flowers same shape as the two last, colour entirely green. These three last mentioned are abundant flowerers, having a continued succession from November to June, possessing the valuable requisite of flowering through the winter, and ought to be in every collection. They require an airy situation, and the pots to be well drained. The plants in summer must not be fully exposed to the sun. _Cratàgus._ There are none of these belonging to the Green-house; but there is a plant in the collections, known as C. _glabra_, which is _Photínia serrulàta_, a native of China, and is a very handsome plant, has long foliage, deeply serrated, very shining. _P. arbutifòlia_, a native of California, and is the finest of the genus; flowers in large dense panicles, foliage larger than the former, and not so deeply serrated; they are both comparatively hardy, and we soon expect to see them acclimated. _Cupréssus_ may be desired in collections, as erect and handsome growing evergreen shrubs. C. _lusitánica_, the famed cedar of Goa; C. _péndula_ and C. _juniperoídes_ are the most desirable; flowers are insignificant, and yellowish; we have no doubt they may prove hardy. C. _lusitánica_ is the handsomest tree of the genus. Its abundant, very long dichotomous branchlets, distinguish it from all the evergreens of the conoferious tribe. _Calámpelis scábra_, once _Eccremocárpus scáber_, is a very fine climber, where there is a convenience to plant it in the ground. It will flower profusely from March to November; foliage pinnate, with tendrils; flowers from the axils on young shoots in a kind of racemose, and of a golden colour; grows freely. _Celástris_, staff-tree, about twenty-five species; of no particular beauty. Some of them have numerous small white flowers, in cymes and panicles; foliage generally ovate, acute, and serrated. C. _pyracántha_, C. _cymósa_, C. _multiflòrus_, and C. _lúcidus_, are the most conspicuous, and all the genera are of easy culture. _Coòkia púnctata_, Wampee-tree of China, named in honour of the celebrated Capt. Cook. The fruit is much esteemed in China, where it grows to about the size of a walnut, in bunches; leaves pinnate, ovate, lanceolate, accuminate; when rubbed, have a strong odour; flower small white in racemose spikes, of slow growth. C. _allistàchys_. There are two of them very handsome large growing shrubs. C. _lanceolàta_ and C. _ovàta_, foliage silky-like, and light coloured; flowers yellow, papilionaceous, and very abundant. _Davièsias_, above ten species, principally natives of New South Wales, all yellow papilionaceous flowers. _D. ulicìna_, _D. latifòlia_, _D. aciculàris_, and _D. inricssàta_, are very fine species, flower and grow freely, and require to be well drained; bloom from April to August. _Diósmas_. This genus is now very much divided, and only contains about thirteen species: the generas that they have been given to, are _Adenándra_, _Barosma_, _Acmadènia_, and _Agathósma_. We will enumerate a few of the finest species of each. _D. capitála_, _D. oppositifólia_, _D. longifòlia_, _D. rùbra_, and _D. teretifòlia_, are the most conspicuous, all small white flowers except _D. rùbra_; foliage small, and all handsome growing evergreens. _Adenándras_, eight species. This genus is the most select of those that have been subdivided. _A. speciòsa_, _A. umbellàta_, _A. álba_, _A. fragràns_, and _A. uniflòra_, are all splendid flowers: and all white except _A. fragràns_, which is red. Pots must be well drained. _Barósmas_, above ten species. _B. serratifòlia_, _B. pulchèlla_, purple, _B. f[oe]tidíssima_, blush, _B. odoràta_, white, and _B. dioíca_, pink, are the finest. _Acmadènias_, five species. _A. lavigàta_, _A. púngens_, and _A. tetragònia_, blush, are good species. _Agathósmas_, above twenty-five species, many of them very celebrated free flowering shrubby plants. _A. accuminàta_, _A. hybrida_, _A. Thunbergiàna_, _A. imbricàta_, _A. prolífera_, _A. pátula_, and _A. pulchélla_, which is the finest of the genus, the dried leaves of which the Hottentots use as powder to mix with the grease with which they anoint their bodies. Some travellers assert that it gives them so rank an odour, that they sometimes could not bear the smell of those who were their guides. In fact the foliage of all the five last mentioned generas, if rubbed by the hand while on the plant, has a very strong smell, some of them very agreeable, others disagreeable. They are all heath-like and evergreen small neat growing shrubs. They require while growing luxuriantly to have their young shoots topped to make them bushy; drain all the pots well, and keep them in airy situations, and not crowded with other plants, or they will become slender and unsightly. _Dryándras._ This genus is closely allied in character and habits to _Bánksia_, and contains above sixteen species. D. _nívea_, has a most beautiful foliage, very long and deeply indented. D._formòsa_, has a scent like the fruit of an Apricot. D. _nervòsa_, D. _floribúnda_, D. _armàta_, D. _plumòsa_, D. _Baxtèri_, D. _nervòsa_, and D. _falcàta_, are the most conspicuous, and all highly desirable plants in collections. They are very delicate of importation; flowers are straw and orange coloured and thistlelike. Seeds in small cones. Treat them the same as directed for _Bánksias_. _Dillwynias_, above twelve species, and plants very little known. D. _floribúnda_, D. _teretifòlia_, and D. _phylicoides_, are desirable plants; flowers small, papilionaceous, and colour yellow. They are very liable to suffer from too much wet; while dormant, therefore, the pots must be effectually drained. _Dampièras_, four species. The genus is named in honour of Captain W. Dampier, a famous voyager, has Lobelia-like flowers, either blue or purple. C. _purpùrea_, C. _undulàta_, and C. _strícta_, are the finest; the two former are shrubby; the latter is herbaceous; they all flower freely. _Edwárdsias_, about four species, very beautiful foliaged plants and have very curious yellow flowers, but do not flower until the plant becomes large. _E. grandiflòra_, _E. chrysòphylla_, and _E. meirophylla_, are the best, and are tolerably hardy, though doubtful of ever being acclimated. The flowers are leguminose, foliage ovate, pinnate, from eight to forty on one footstalk, and appears to be covered with gold dust. The hardier they are grown, the more visible it will appear. _Elichrysums_. This genus is now extinct, and two splendid species of it given to others. _E. proliferum_ is now _Phænàcoma prolífera_, and has beautiful purple everlasting rayed flowers, and highly esteemed: the foliage round, ovate, smooth, and closely imbricated. _E. spectábile_ is now _Aphélexis hùmilis_, has pine-like foliage, and large light purple flowers and everlasting; care must be taken that they are not over watered; drain the pots well. _Enkiánthus_, only two species, both very fine. _E. quinqueflòrus_ has large ovate accuminate foliage, flowers pink, and pendulous; very handsome. _E. reticulátus_, the foliage is netted, and the flowers blush; they are liable when dormant to suffer from wet. Be sure to drain the pots well, and sparing in water while in that state. _Epácris_, above twelve species, and all very ornamental. _E. grandiflòra_ has been celebrated ever since it was known; the foliage is small, flat, and accuminate; flowers tubular and pendulous, bright crimson, with a tinge of white, and very abundant, in flower from January to June. _E. pulchélla_ is likewise a most beautiful plant; foliage very small and closely set, flowers pure white, and in long spikes, sweet-scented. _E. impréssa_, foliage impressed, and flowers rose-coloured. _E. paludòsa_, flowers white, and grows very handsomely. _E. purpuráscens rùbra_ is a good variety, with bright red flowers. They are mostly erect growing plants; flower from March till June, and a rough, turfy, sandy soil is found most congenial. They are natives of the mountainous districts of New South Wales. The pots must be well drained; the roots will run with avidity amongst the potshreds. _Erìcas_, heath. There are in cultivation in Europe above five hundred and fifty species and varieties of this magnificent genus. About sixty, years ago it consisted only of a few humble British plants, with the heath of Spain, _E. Mediterrànea_, which is at present most common in our collections, though in a few years we may expect to see it supplanted by others more splendid. In their native countries, they are adapted to a great many useful purposes. In the north of Britain, the poorer inhabitants cover their cabins or huts with heath, and build the walls with alternate layers of it and a kind of cement made with straw and clay. They likewise brew ale, and distil a hot spirit from the tender shoots; and it has been known to be used in dyeing, tanning, and many other useful domestic purposes. Encomium on their beauty is not requisite; they are almost as diversified in colour as colour itself. Many are graceful, and most elegant; hundreds are pretty; a few noble and splendid; others grotesque, curious, and odoriferous. To cultivate and propagate them is one of the most delicate branches of horticulture. Nevertheless, it has been said by a scientific writer, that "those who complain of the difficulty of growing the heath are ignorant people who have never had a heath to grow." The most splendid collection in Europe is under the care of Mr. M'Nab, of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, where there are two large houses devoted to their culture; and through the whole year a continued profusion of bloom is kept up. Some of the plants are six feet in diameter, and twelve feet high. The soil used is a coarse sandy peat. Pots drained with potshreds, and pieces of freestone, are put down the sides of the large pots and tubs: where these can be had they are essential to the culture of mountainous plants, preventing them from being saturated with moisture, or from becoming dry, they being retentive of moisture, thus keeping the roots in a medium state; for if once the roots are allowed to get thoroughly dried, no art of the gardener can recover them. This may be the true reason why they are said to be difficult of cultivation. In the summer season the pots must be kept out of the sun, for in a few hours the pot would become heated, dry the roots, and cause death, or a brownness of foliage which would never again become natural. Too much fire heat will hurt them. They only require to be kept free from frost, need a great deal of air and plenty of light; consequently, should be placed near the glass, that they may have the benefit of all the air that is admitted. Their flowers are as varied in shape as variety or colour, but they all partake of a wax-like nature, and are very persistent. For the finest and most select varieties, see the catalogue at the end of this work. _Eròdiums_, Heron's bill. There are about thirty species, all of a Geranium character, and there are among them some very pretty flowering, soft wooded, shrubby, herbaceous, and annual plants. Only a few of them belong to the Green-house, of which _E. incarnàtum_, _E. crassifòlium_, and _E. laciniàtum_, are the finest; culture similar to _Gerànium_. The flowers of these are scarlet, pentapetalous, and veiny. _Eucalyptus_, above fifty species of them, and the tallest growing trees of New Holland; foliage very diversified, generally of a hard glaucous texture. From their rapid growth, they soon grow higher than the loftiest house. The most conspicuous are _E. cordàta_, _E. rostràta_, _E. radiàta_, _E. pulvigéra_, _E. glòbifera_, _E. pulverulénta_, and _E. resínefera_. In Van Dieman's Land, a manufactory has been established, where a tannin is extracted from many of the species. The last mentioned produces gum, like that which the druggists call _Kino_. They ought not to be too much fostered, as it would in some degree retard their growth. They are of a very hardy nature. When large, the plants will flower freely, and are similar in flower to _Myrtle_; many stamina proceeding from a hard nut-like capsule. _Eupatòrium._ There is only one species deserving of cultivation in the Green-house; flowers syngenesious, white, and in large flattened panicles; very sweet-scented. The plant, when growing freely, in the beginning of summer, should be topped, which would make it more bushy; if not, it is apt to grow straggling. Known as _E. elegáns_, in our collections. _Eutáxia's_, two species. _E. myrtifòlia_ is a most beautiful free-flowering evergreen shrub; foliage small, but very neat; flowers leguminose, small, and very many; colour yellow and red; grows freely. The young plants should be frequently topped, or they will grow naked and unsightly. _E. pùngens_, similar to the other except in foliage. They flower from March to June, and ought to have a place in every Green-house. Culture very easy. _Euchìlus obcordàtus_ is the only species: Flowers similar to _Eutàxia_; foliage almost unique, being inverse, cordate; time of flowering from March to June. _Fúchsias_, Ladies' ear drop. About twelve species. Several of them elegant and handsome shrubs. _F. virgáta_ and _F. cònica_ are the most splendid of deciduous Green-house shrubs; the nerves of the leaves and young wood of the former are tinged with purplish red; the large pendant flowers which are produced from the axils of the leaves of the young wood continue during the growing season. _F. cònica_ grows strong, foliage green, flowers pendant, corolla more spreading than the other, and when in flower is a complete mass of scarlet blossoms. It flowers all summer. _F. coccínea_ is a common and celebrated plant, and deservedly so. _F. microphylla_ is a neat glowing, small flowering species. _F. arbórea_, has very large foliage, and rose coloured flowers; a scarce species, but very desirable. _F. gràcilis_ and _F. thymifòlia_, are both fine; most of the flowers are a bright scarlet, the stamens are encircled with a petal of bright purple, and are of very curious construction; they bear a dark purple berry, and are of the easiest cultivation, but during summer they must be carefully kept in the shade. _Gelsèmium nìtidum_, Carolina jessamine, a most beautiful climbing evergreen, flowering shrub. In the months of April and May, it produces many large yellow trumpet-like blossoms of delicious fragrance. If much fostered in growth, it will not flower so freely. _Gnaphàlium_, everlasting. This genus has got all the beautiful Cape species taken out of it, and given to _Astélma_ and _Helichrysum_. Of _Astélma_ there are above ten species, most of them very splendid, everlasting flowers. _A. exímia_ has brilliant red flowers. _A. spiràlis_, _A. speciosíssima_, _A. frùticans_, and _A. imbricàtum_, are all very fine; pots must be well drained. _Helychrysums_, above forty species, chiefly belonging to the Green-house, all everlasting flowers. _H. grandiflòrum_, _H. arbòreum_, _H. orientàle_, _H. fràgrans_, _H. adoratìssimum_, _H. frùticans_, and _H. fúlgidum_, are all very esteemed species, mostly soft white foliage. The pots should be well drained, and the plants kept in an airy situation, as they suffer from the least damp. If the flowers are cut off before they fade, they will retain for many years all the splendour of their beauty; but if allowed to decay on the plant, they will soon become musty, and all their colour fade. _Gompholòbiums_, a genus of very pretty delicate plants, all papilionaceous; flowers generally yellow with a little red; foliage very variable. G. _barbígerum_, G. _polimórfum_, G. _latifòlium_, G. _grandiflòrum_, and G. _venústum_, are fine, the pots must be well drained, and care taken that they are not over watered; they grow freely. _Genístas_: a few of these are very pretty free flowering shrubs. G. _canariénsis_, G. _tricuspidáta_, G. _cuspidòsa_, and G. _umbellàta_, are the finest Green-house species. All of them have yellow leguminose flowers in great abundance; leaves small, lanceolate. _Gnídias_, about ten species of pretty Green-house shrubs. G. _símplex_, G. _serícea_, G. _imbérbis_, and G. _pinifòlia_, flower the most freely; flowers straw colour, tubular, and corymbose. G. _símplex_ is sweet-scented, leaves small; the pots must be well drained, and care taken that they do not get either too wet or too dry, for the roots are very delicate. The plants must be kept near the glass, or they will be drawn weak. _Goodènia_, a genus of about twelve species, with cordate, serate, alternate foliage. G. _stellígera_, and G. _suáveolens_ are sweet-scented; G. _ovàta_ and G. _grandiflòra_ are the best. They are principally small shrubs, with terminale or axillary flowers, and flower during summer. _Gortèria personàta_ is the only species that belongs to this genus, and is an annual. There are several plants in our collections known as _Gortèrias_, but which properly are _Gazània_, of which there are five species. G. _rìngens_, when the flowers are fully expanded, (which will only be while exposed to the sun, closing at night, and opening again with the influence of the sun's rays,) is a great beauty. The rays of the flowers are bright orange, and the centre dark purple. _G. pavónia_ has handsome foliage; flower similar to _G. rìngens_, except the centre of the flower being spotted, and is thought to be the finest, but does not flower so freely. _G. heterophylla_ is of the same character, except the foliage, which is variable, the colour orange and vermilion. They are half shrubby dwarf growing plants, and during the months of July, August, and September, are liable to damp off at the surface of the earth, from the action of heat, and too much water. Pots must be well drained, and the plants kept partially in the shade. Their flowers are syngenesious, and about two inches in diameter. _Grevílleas_, about thirty species. A few of them very handsome in flower and foliage, among which are _G. punícea_; _G. acanthifòlia_, (beautiful foliage); _G. concínna_, very pretty straw and rose-coloured flowers; _G. juniperìna_, green and straw-coloured; _G. lineàris_, white flowers. The flowers of the whole are curious, though not very attractive. Some carry their flowers in racemose spikes, others on flowering branches, which are recurved; the petals are very small and rugged; the stile longer than the appendage. They grow freely, flower and ripen seeds; all evergreen dwarf shrubs. _Hàkeas_, about forty species, not generally so interesting or attractive as the last genus; flowers all white; construction similar to _Grevíllea_, but the foliage more varied. _H. gibbòsa_, _H. nítida_, _H. salígna_, _H. suavèolens_, sweet-scented, _H. conculàta_, and _H. lambérti_, are the best, and afford a curious variety of foliage; flower in June. Drain the pots well. _Hemerocállis_, Day Lily. Only _H. speciòsa_ of this genus belongs to the Green-house; the flower is spacious, and of copper colour. A native of Jamaica. It has not found its way into our collections. It is herbaceous, and while growing requires much water. The plant known with us as _H. japónica_ is now _Fúnkia álba_, (and justly, for the most superficial observer could have distinguished it as not belonging to _Hemerocállis_.) It requires to be much fostered to flower well, and plenty of water. If properly treated, it is a magnificent flower, and continues flowering from July to September. We doubt not it may prove a hardy herbaceous plant, (the same as _F. cærùlea_,) if protected during the first winter. _Hermánnias_, a genus of about forty species, all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and not worth cultivating. They have yellow cup-like flowers, and are of the easiest cultivation. Several species are in our collections. _Hibbértias_, about ten species. Three of them are very fine climbing evergreen shrubs, viz. _H. glossulariæfòlia_; _H. dentàta_; _H. volùbilis_, if closely approached has a disagreeable smell; _H. fasciculàta_, _H. salígna_, and H. _pedunculàta_, are evergreen shrubs; they have pure yellow flowers of five petals, blooming from May to September. _Habránthus_, about ten species of small South American bulbs, nearly allied to _Amaryllis_. H. _Andersónii_, H. _versícolor_, and H. _robústa_ are the finest; they are in colour yellow, blue, and lilac. We have very little doubt but these bulbs will do to plant out in the garden in April, and be lifted in October. Keep them from frost. Thus treated, they are very desirable bulbs. _Hòveas_, about eight species, pretty plants of New South Wales, blue pea-flowering evergreen shrubs; the finest are H. _lineàris_, H. _rosmarinifòlia_, H. _longifòlia_, and H. _Célsii_, which is the most superb, and flowers in abundance. They grow and flower freely; the pots should be drained. _Hydrángea horténsis_ is a well known plant, and much esteemed for its great profusion of very elegant, though monstrous, flowers. They are naturally of a rose colour, but under certain circumstances of culture they become blue. If grown in brown loam with a little sand, they will preserve their original colour; but if grown in swamp earth with a little mould of decayed leaves, they will become blue. The swamp earth and vegetable mould being more combined with aluminous salt than brown loam, is the cause of the change; and, when first found out, (which was merely by chance,) was thought a great wonder. It must have a very plentiful supply of water when in flower, which is produced on the shoots of the previous year. They will neither grow nor flower well if they are not kept constantly in the shade. When kept in the sun, the foliage is very brown; and by being neglected in watering, we have seen the flowers completely scourged. Being tolerably hardy, when the winters are mild, by a little protection in the open air, they will flower profusely; the flowers will be very large, and in bloom from June to October. They are deciduous, soft wooded shrubs. _Hypéricums_, St. John's wort, about twenty species. A few of them are very showy, and with few exceptions have yellow flowers. _H. monógynum_, H. _balearicum_, H. _floribúndum_, H. _canariénse_, H. _ægyptìacum_, and H. _cochinchinense_, which has scarlet flowers, are amongst the best, and all of them flower freely; five petals, filaments many in three or five parcels. They are all of very easy cultivation, and bloom generally from April to September. _Ilex_, Holly, of _I. aquifòlium_. There are above one hundred species of them in cultivation in Europe, differing in variegation, margin, shape, and size of the leaves; some are only prickly on the margin of the foliage, others prickly over all the surface. In Europe they are all hardy, but with us few or none of the varieties are so. If they become acclimated, they will be a great ornament to our gardens, being all low evergreen shrubs. The most common and conspicuous varieties are the _hedgehog_, _striped hedgehog_, _white edged_, _gold edged_, and _painted_; the flowers are white and small, berries yellow or red; they do not agree with exposure to the sun. _J. Cassíne_ and _J. vomitòria_ have very bitter leaves, and, though natives of Carolina, we have to give them the protection of a Green-house. It is said that at certain seasons of the year the Indians make a strong decoction of the leaves, which makes them vomit freely, and after drinking and vomiting for a few days, they consider themselves sufficiently purified. _Illíciums_, Aniseed-tree, three species. _I. floridànum_, has very sweet-scented, double purple flowers, and the plant grows freely and systematically if properly treated, and deserves the attention of the admirers of flowers. _I. parviflòrum_ has small yellow flowers; _I. anisàtum_ is so very like _I. parviflòrum_ in every respect, as to make us conclude they are the same, were _I. anisátum_ not a native of China, and the other two natives of Florida. When the leaves and capsules of either of them are rubbed, they have a very strong smell of anise;--they grow very freely. _Indigófera_; Indigo-tree, about twenty species, belong to the Green-house, and are chiefly pretty free flowering shrubs. _I. denudàta_, _I. amæna_, _I. austràlis_, _I. angulàta_, _I. càndicans_, and _I. filifòlia_, are very fine; flowers papilionaceous, in long panicles; colour various, red, blue, yellow, and pink. _Isopògons_, about ten species of _Pròtea_-like plants, all natives of New Holland. They are very stiff shrubs, with leaves very much divided, and cone-like flowers at the extremity of the shoots. _I. formòsus_, _I. anemonifòlius_, _I. attenuàtis_, and _I. polycéphalis_, are the finest; flowers are straw, lilac, white, and yellow coloured; the pots must be well drained, and the plants not over-crowded. _Justícias._ Only a few of these belong to the Green-house, and are very simple looking flowers. The most beautiful of them belong to the Hot-house. _J. nìgricans_, small striped flower; _J. orchioídes_ and _J. Adhátoda_, Malanut, are the only ones that are worth observation, and are very easily cultivated. _J. Adhátoda_ has good looking foliage, but does not flower until the plant becomes large; colour white and light purple. _Jacksònias._ A genus consisting of five species. The foliage is varied, and all natives of New South Wales. _J. scopària_ is similar to a plant in our collections, called _Vimenària denudata_. _J. hórrida_, and _J. reticulàta_, are the finest; the small flowers come out of the young shoots, are yellow and papilionaceous; the pots should be well drained. _Kennèdias_, about nine species, all evergreen climbers, of the easiest culture, and flower abundantly. _K. monophylla_, blue flowered, and _K. rubicúnda_, crimson flowered, are common in our collections. _K. prostràta_, (once _Glycine coccínea_) one-flowered scarlet, and _K. coccínea_, many flowered scarlet, are very pretty. _K. Comptoniàna_ has splendid purple flowers, and _K. inophylla_ is thought the most superb. It is very rare, and we have not seen it flower. They are large purple. The pots should be well drained; and if the plants are much fostered, they will not flower so well; flowers are either in racemose spikes, or solitary, which is rather too much distinction for the same genus. _Lambértias_, four species of very fine plants, natives of New Holland. L. _formòsa_ is the finest of the genus that we have seen; flowers large and of a splendid rose colour. L. _echinàta_ is said to be finer, but has not flowered in cultivation. L. _uniflòra_ has single red flowers, and L. _inérmis_ orange coloured. They are rare plants in the collections on this side of the Atlantic. Drain the pots well; the foliage is narrow, and of a hard dry nature. _Lasiopètalums_, only two species. There were a few more, but they are now _Thomàsias_, plants of no merit whatever, in regard to flower; foliage three lobed, small, rough, and rusty-like. _Thomàsia solanàcea_ and _T. quereifòlia_, are the best species; foliage of the former is large, cordate, and deep indented; they are all of the easiest culture. _Lavándulas_, Lavender, about seven species belong to the Green-house, and a few of them very pretty soft-wooded, half shrubby plants, and if touched, are highly scented. L. _dentàta_ has narrow serrated foliage, very neat. _L. formòsa_ and _L. pinnàta_ are desirable; blue flowers on a long spike; should be kept near the glass; they are of the easiest culture. _Laúrus._ A few species are Green-house plants. This genus has been divided to _Cinnamòmum_; still there are a few celebrated plants in the original. L. _nòbilis_, sweet bay, though hardy, is kept under protection. It will bear the winter with a little straw covering, notwithstanding there should be a plant kept in the house in case of accident by frost or otherwise; there is a variegated variety of it. _L. índica_, royal bay, _L. f[oe]tens_, _L. aggregàta_, and _L. glúaca_, are favourites. There is a species known in our collections as _L. scábra_. The Camphire tree, known as _L. camphòra_, is _Cinnamòmum camphòra_; the wood, leaves, and roots of this tree have a very strong odour of camphire. It is obtained by distillation from the roots and small branches, which are cut into chips, and put into a net suspended within an iron pot, the bottom of which is covered with water, having an earthen head fitted in it; heat is then applied, and the steam of the boiling water acting upon the contents of the net, elevates the camphire into the capital, where it concretes on the straws, with which this part of the apparatus is lined. They are all fine evergreens, (which the name denotes,) and easily cultivated, _Lìnums_, Flax, two or three species are very fine, and flower freely. _L. trigynum_ has large yellow flowers in clusters, and _L. ascyrifôlium_, whose flowers are large, blue, and white, and in long spikes. The shape of them is very like the flower vulgarly called Morning-glory. _Lobèlias._ Several of them when well treated, form most magnificent flowering plants; they are principally herbaceous. L. _Tùpa_ has the largest foliage, and fine scarlet flowers. L. _speciôsa_, flowers light purple; L. _fúlgens_, crimson flowers; L. _spléndens_, scarlet flowers. The three last are of the same habit; the colours brilliant; and to grow them well, they should be divided, (if there are several shoots arising,) when they begin to grow, putting them first into four inch pots, and shifting them frequently, having them to flower in those of nine or ten inches, which will be about the end of June, or first of July, and they will continue until October. The pots must be always kept in pans or saucers filled with water; likewise give plenty to the surface of the earth, which is to be done during their time of growth and flowering. If this is attended to, they will produce flower stalks from four to six feet in height, and covered with branches and spikes of flowers from bottom to top. The corolla is pentapetalous, three down and two up; they require a little shade. The genus consists of about eighty species; seventy of them are exotics; many of them natives of the Cape of Good Hope, with little flowers of brilliant colours. L. _cærùlea_, L. _Thunbérgii_, L. _corymbôsa_, L. _pyramidàlis_, and L. _ilicifòlia_, are very fine species, of weak growth, but flower freely. _Lomàtias_, about six species; flowers are white or straw colour, and similar to _Grevíllea_, but the foliage more handsome. _Lophospérmum scándens._ This is a magnificent new climbing soft wooded shrub, with purple, campanulate flowers, which are produced from the axils on the young wood; they bloom from May to September; leaves large, cordate, and tomentose; grows rapidly, and flowers abundantly. _Lachnæas_, about five species, remarkable for their downy heads of white flowers; leaves small, ovate, lanceolate. L. _glaùca_, L. _conglomeràta_, and L. _eriocéphala_, are the best species. The pots must be well drained, and in summer the plants protected from the sun. _Leonòtis_, Lion's-ear, four species. They have very fine scarlet tubular flowers, orifice-toothed. They come out in large whorls, and look elegant; but neither plant nor foliage has an agreeable appearance. They are of the easiest culture. L. _intermédia_, and L. _Leonùrus_, are the best flowering species. _Leucospérmums_, about eighteen species, of Proteacious plants, chiefly low growing, and are mostly downy or hairy; flowers yellow, in terminale heads. L. _formósum_, L. _grandiflòrum_, L. _tomentósum_, and L. _candicans_, rose-scented. These are fine species. For treatment, see _Pròteas_. _Lipàrias_, about five species, much esteemed for their beauty of foliage; leaves ovate, lanceolate, downy or woolly; flowers yellow, leguminose, and capitate. L. _sphærica_, L. _tomentósa_, L. _villósa_, and L. _serícea_, are the finest. L. _vistìta_ and L. _villósa_ are the same, although put in many catalogues as different species. None of them ought to be much watered over the foliage, as it adheres to the down, and causes the young shoots to damp off. Drain the pots well, and keep the plants in an airy situation. _Lysinèmas_, four species, closely allied to _Epácris_. In every respect treatment the same. L. _pentapítalum_, L. _conspicum_, and L. _ròseum_, are the best; the flowers of the two former are white. L. _silaifòlia_ has leaves bipinnatifid and smooth, segments wedge-shaped and cut. L. _dentàta_ and L. _ilicifòlia_ are the finest; the pots should be drained. _Lonícera japónica._ There is a plant in our collections known by that name, which is now _Nintooa longiflàra_; flowers of a straw colour, but come out white. It has been known to withstand the winter, but does not flower, and is frequently killed entirely. _Lychnis coroàta_, is an esteemed Chinese plant; flowers-in abundance, pentapetalous, large, and a little indented at the edges; colour a red-like orange; flowers terminale and axillary. The roots must be divided every spring, or they will dwindle away to nothing. Perhaps a good method of treatment would be to divide the roots, and plant them in the garden; they would flower well, and could be lifted in the fall, and put under protection. We have no doubt that it may become acclimated. If not done so, plant them in four inch pots, and repot them into those of six inch in May. Do not expose them while in flower to the mid-day sun, for it will deteriorate the fine colour. _Leptospérmums_, about thirty species, all pretty New Holland evergreen dwarf shrubs, with small white flowers. L. _baccàtum_, L. _péndulum_, L. _juníperinum_, L. _ovátum_, L. _stellàtum_, L. _grandiflórum_, and L. _scopàrium_, are the best of the species. The latter was used as tea by Capt. Cook's ship's crew. It is an agreeable bitter, with a pleasant flavour, when fresh. When young plants are growing, they ought to be frequently topped to make them bushy, and kept in an airy situation, or they will be drawn and unsightly. They are of very easy culture. _Leucadéndrons_, Silver tree, above forty species, all natives of Cape of Good Hope. They are evergreens with handsome, silvery-like foliage. L. _argentéum_ (once _Pròtea argentéa_) is a great beauty; foliage white, lanceolate, and silky. It is a plant that has been long in cultivation, greatly admired, and much sought for, and is the finest of the genus. L. _squarròsum_, L. _stellàtum_, (once _Pròtea stellaris_) L. _tórtum_, L. _servíceum_, L. _margìnàtum_, and L. _plumôsum_ (once _P. parviflòra_) are all fine species. The pots must be well drained, and the plants never over-watered. They are very desirable in collections for their beauty of foliage; flowers similar to _Pròtea_. _Magnòlias._ There are four species that require the protection of our Green-houses; all the others are hardy. M. _fuscàta_, and M. _annonæfòlia_, are very similar in foliage and flower: the young branches and leaves of M. _fuscàta_ is covered with a brown, rusty-like down; the other by some is considered merely a variety; flowers small, brown, and very sweet-scented. M. _pùmila_ is very dwarf growing; leaves large and netted; flowers semi-double, white, pendant, and fragrant. They are natives of China. We have several others from the east, but being deciduous are perfectly hardy. M. _odoratíssima_, now _Talàuma Candólii_, a native of the Island of Java, and said to be very odoriferous, but is very rare even in Europe; said to have a straw coloured flower. M. _conspícua_ is desirable to have in the Green-house, if enarched on a stock of M. _purpùrea_, which will always keep it dwarf, and it will flower magnificently in February and March. _Melalèucas_, above thirty species, and a beautiful genus of New Holland plants, of easy culture; flowers come out of the wood like fringes. M. _elíptica_, M. _fúlgens_, scarlet, M. _decussàta_, M. _hypericifòlia_, M. _squarròsa_, M. _linarifòlia_, M. _incana_, M. _tetragònia_, M. _thymifòlia_, are all very fine species, and flower freely if they have been grown from cuttings; the singularity of flower and diversity of foliage make them generally thought of. _Maurándias_, three species, of very pretty climbing Green-house plants, flowering from March to October. M. _Barclàyana_ has splendid flowers, large, light blue, campanulate, and very abundant. M. _semperflòrens_ has rose coloured flowers, of the same character. They will flower best if planted in the ground. _Myrsínes_, Cape Myrtle, dwarf cape evergreen shrubs covered with small flowers from March to May. M. _retùsa_ has green and purple flowers; M. _rotundifòlia_, flowers white and purple. They will grow in any situation, and are of easy culture. _Méspilus japónica._ The plant, known under that name, is now _Eriabòtrya japónica_, Loquat, is a fine plant with large lanceolate, distantly serrated leaves, white underneath; small white flowers on a racemose spike, and produces a fruit about the size of a walnut, of a fine yellow blush colour, and of delicious flavour. If it flowers in the fall, it will require the heat of a Hot-house to ripen the fruit. It is of very easy culture, and its noble aspect is never passed unobserved. _Metrosidèros_, about five species. Many have been added to _Callistèmon_. M. _flòrida_, M. _umbellata_, and M. _angustifòlia_, are the best species. C. _salígnum_, C. _lanceolàtum_, variety _semperiflòrens_, C. _glaùcum_, once M. _speciòsa_, has splendid scarlet flowers and C. _formòsum_; these are all beautiful plants, with scarlet flowers. Other two beautiful species with white flowers have been given to _Angóphora_. A. _cordifòlia_, once M. _híspida_, and A. _lanceolàta_, once M. _costàta_; these genera are very easily distinguished from any other Australasian shrubs, by the peculiar character of having both sides of the leaves alike. The flowers consist of stamens, stiles, and anthers, coming in hundreds out of the young wood for the length of three or four inches, forming a dense cone crowned with a small twig; leaving capsules in the wood, which will keep their seeds perfect for a great number of years. They grow freely, and the pots should be well drained. _Myrtus_, Myrtle, is a well known and popular shrub, especially the common varieties; and was a great favourite, (even to adoration,) among the ancients. It was the mark of authority for Athenian rulers, and is amongst the moderns an emblem of pre-eminence. They are elegant evergreen shrubs, with an agreeable odour. M. _commùnis multipléx_, double flowering, is a very neat shrub, and flowers abundantly. M. _commùnis leucocárpa_, White-fruited Myrtle, is quite unique, when the berries are on it. M. _itálica variagáta_, striped leaved; M. _itálica maculàta_, blotch leaved, are very fine shrubs; and M. _tomentòsa_, Chinese Myrtle, is a magnificent erect growing shrub, with a white down over the foliage; the flowers are the largest of the genus. When they first expand, they are white, and afterwards change to purple, so that there are beautiful flowers of several shades of colour on the plant. We have not the smallest doubt but this species will become in many instances as plentiful as the common myrtle. It is more easily grown, but cannot stand much exposure to the sun in summer. M. _tenuifòlia_ is a very fine plant, and a native of New South Wales. Myrtles in general should be sprinkled with water in the evenings, to keep off mildew and red spider. _Nandìna doméstica_, the only species, and a popular shrub in the gardens of Japan, where it is called _Nandin_. It has supra-decompound leaves, with entire lanceolate leaflets, a kind of foliage that is very rare; the flowers are small, whitish green, in panicles, succeeded by berries of the size of a pea; drain the pots well. _Nèrium_, (Oleander,) is a genus of beautiful erect growing evergreen shrubs, of the easiest culture, and abundant in flower. _N. oleánder_ is the common rose coloured single flowering species, from which six varieties have originated. At present the most popular is _N. oleánder splèndens_, which has a double rose coloured flower. There is one that has got in our collections as double white which is only semi-double. We have seen a white, variety as double as _N. o. splèndens_, and have no doubt but in a few years it will be plentiful. _N. oleánder elegantìssimum_, a most beautiful plant, with deep silver-edged foliage; and the young wood is striped white and green. We are not positive in respect to the beauty of its flowers, but it has a high character. We have heard of a double-yellow variety, but the reports are not properly authenticated; and we doubt it very much. There are likewise single yellow, single white, and single blotched varieties of _N. oleánder_. They are subject to the small white scaly insect, and should be frequently washed, as has been directed, to keep it off. _Oleas_, Olive, about twelve species and varieties. _O. Europæa longifòlia_, is the species that is cultivated to such an extent in the south of France, and Italy. _O. Europæa latifòlia_ is chiefly cultivated in Spain. The fruit is larger than that of Italy, but the oil is not so pleasant, which is obtained by crushing the fruit to a paste, and pressing it through a woollen bag, adding hot water as long as any oil is yielded. The oil is then skimmed off the water, and put into barrels, bottles, &c. for use. The tree seldom exceeds thirty feet, and is a branchy glaucous evergreen, and said to be of great longevity. Some plantations at Turin in Italy are supposed to have existed from the time of Pliny. It frequently flowers in our collections, but seldom carries fruit; flowers white, in small racemose axillary spikes. _O. cupénsis_ has a thick large oblong foliage; flowers white, in large terminale panicles. _O. verrucòsa_, foliage flat, lanceolate, and white beneath, branches curiously warted. _O. fragráns_, foliage and blossoms are both highly odoriferous; the plant is much esteemed in China, and is said to be used to adulterate and flavour teas. Leaves are elliptic, lanceolate, and a little serrated; flowers white in lateral bunches. It is subject to the small, white scaly insect, and ought to be carefully kept from them by washing. _O. paniculata_ is a fine species. They are all very easily cultivated. _Oxylòbiums_, seven species, plants very similar to _Callistachys_, with ovate, cordate, light coloured, pubescent foliage, with papilionaceous flowers. _O. obtusifòlium_ has scarlet flowers; _O. retùsum_, orange flowers; and _O. ellípticum_, yellow flowers. They grow freely, and should be well drained; flower from May to August. _Pelargòniums_, Stork's Bill. This genus, so universally known amongst us as _Gerànium_, from which it was separated many years ago, is a family of great extent and variety, for which we are principally indebted to the Cape of Good Hope. By cultivation from seed many hundred beautiful species and well marked varieties have been obtained. There are about five hundred species, with upwards of two hundred varieties. They are of every character, colour and shade, of the most vivid description. The easy cultivation of the _Pelargònium_ tribe, or _Geràniums_, as they are commonly called, has rendered them very popular; also the agreeableness of scent and fragrance of which many of them are possessed, makes them favourites. If their flowering season was of longer duration, the varieties and species would be quite indispensable in collections; but there is every appearance that in a few years the aspect of them will be changed. The present prevailing colour of the flower, (which has five petals, three hanging and two erect, the erect petals being always of the darkest shade,) is a white or pink ground, with lilac, purple, or pink stripes, flakes, or spots, and blooms from April to June; though they bloom profusely in large bunches, the time is limited. The species and varieties that have a red ground, with black or dark crimson stripes or spots, generally bloom during the whole summer. These, though scarce in the collections of the country, will in a few years root out those whose flowers are of such short duration, and by their blooms charm us half of the year. The tuberous and fleshy stemmed species are far more interesting to the discriminating inquirer than the common kinds. Their habit and constitution are so peculiar, that we have frequently wondered that they have not been separated into distinct genera. The cultivation of them is more difficult, water being very prejudicial to them when they are inactive. When they are well managed, they flower beautifully, and the colours are very superior and peculiar, having frequently bright green and purple in the same flower. If some of the colours of these could be compounded with the large flowering kinds, those hybridised would be magnificent. The best method to adopt in impregnating these, is to choose the female, one that has large flowers, of easy cultivation, and as nearly allied in character and other habits as possible. When a flower of the intended female is newly expanded, take a pair of very fine pointed scissors, and cut off the anthers before the pollen expands; then as soon as the summit of the stile divides, apply the pollen taken from the anthers of the intended male plant on a very fine camel hair pencil, or cut out the stigma entirely, and place the anther on the summit of the stile, which, if correctly done, will have the desired effect. As soon as the seed is ripe, sow it in light sandy soil; and when it has come up, take care not to over-water the soil, which would cause them to damp off. When they are about one inch high, put them into small pots, and treat as the other varieties. Have them all distinctly marked until they flower, which will be in the second year from the time of sowing. _Phórmium tènax_, New Zealand flax lily, the only species; foliage resembling an _Iris_, and very thready. In New Zealand and Norfolk Island, the natives manufacture from this plant a kind of stuff like coarse linen, cordage, &c.; the plant is very hardy, and we would be no way surprised to see it stand the severity of our winters. It bears exposure to the open air in Europe in the 56th degree of north latitude. The flowers are said to be yellow and lily-like; of the easiest culture. _Phylicas_, above twenty-five species. Several of them are very pretty growing evergreen shrubs, and of easy culture. P. _horizontàlis_, P. _squarròsa_, P. _imbricàta_, P. _myrtifòlia_, P. _callòsa_, P. _bícolor_, and P. _ericoídes_, are all neat growing; flowers small, white, in heads; drain the pots well, and keep them in an airy situation. The foliage of several of the species is downy. _Pimèleas_, about fourteen species. Most of them are highly esteemed, and are not often seen in our collections. P. _decussàta_ is the finest of the genus, both in foliage and flowers, which are red, and in large terminale clusters; P. _rôsea_, P. _linifòlia_, white, P. _spicàta_, and P. _drupàcea_, are all fine species. The latter has the largest foliage, which is ovate and accuminate; berry-bearing. They should be well drained. They are very small evergreen shrubs, with white or red flowers. _Pittósporums_, about nine species, with handsome foliage, and small white flowers in clusters, which are fragrant. P. _Tobìra_ is a native of China, and nearly hardy; leaves lucid, obovate, obtuse, and smooth. P. _undulàtum_, P. _coriàceum_, P. _revolùtum_, P. _fúlvum_, and P. _ferrugíneum_, are very ornamental evergreens, and will grow with the most simple treatment. _Platylòbiums_, Flat Pea, four species of fine free flowering plants; flowers leguminose; colour yellow. P. _formòsum_, P. _oràtum_, and P. _triangulàre_, are the best; the foliage of the two former is cordate, ovate; the latter hastate, with spiny angles. _Pistàcias_, seven species of trees, principally of the south of Europe. There is nothing particular in their appearance, except their productions in their native country. P. _terebínthus_ is deciduous, and produces the Cyprus turpentine. P. _lentíscus_ is the true mastich tree, which is obtained by cutting transverse incisions in the bark. P. _vèra_ and P. _reticulàta_ are good species; leaves pinnated; leaflets ovate, lanceolate; easily cultivated. _Plumbàgos_, Lead-wort. There are only two species of any consequence belonging to the Green-house, P. _trístis_ and P. _capénsis_. The former is a shy flowerer, but the latter flowers freely; colour beautiful light blue, and flowers in spikes; foliage oblong, entire, and a little glaucous; of very easy culture, and continues in bloom a considerable time. _Psoràleas_, above forty species. A few of them are worthy of cultivation, P. _odoratíssima_, P. _spicàta_, P. _aculeàta_, P. _argéntea_, and P. _tomentòsa_. They have all blue flowers, and leguminose. They are chiefly low shrubs; and will flower and grow freely; the pots require draining. _Podalyrias_, about fourteen species of pretty Cape shrubs; foliage oblong, obovate, and silky-like; the flowers leguminose; colour blue or pink. P. _serícea_, P. _styracifòlia_, P. _corúscans_, P. _argéntea_, P. _liparioídes_, and P. _subbiflòra_, are the finest and most distinct species, and flower abundantly. _Petsoónias_, about sixteen species of dwarf evergreen shrubs; leaves oblong, or lanceolate, hairy, or downy; flowers axillary and solitary; the pots should be well drained, and the plants in summer protected from the sun. P. _hirsùta_, P. _móllis_, P. _teretifòlia_, and P. _lùcida_, are the most distinct, and grow freely. _Pròteas_, about forty-four species. The foliage of this genus is very diversified; flowers very large, terminale; stamens protected by an involucrum; many-leaved and imbricated; which is very persistent. P. _cynaroídes_ has the largest flower, which is purple, green, and red. P. _speciòsa_, P. _umbonàlis_, once P. _longifòlia_, P. _melaleùca_, P. _grandiflòra_, P. _coccínea_, P. _cenocárpa_, P. _pállens_, P. _formòsa_, P. _magnífica_, P. _speciòsa rúbra_, and P. _mellífera_, will afford a very good variety. It is almost impossible to describe their true colour, it being so various; red, white, straw, brown, green, and purple, are most predominant, and frequently to be seen in the same flower; the plants must be well drained; and during warm weather be careful that they are not neglected in water, for if they are suffered to droop, they seldom recover. For this reason the pots ought not to stand in the strong sun; the plants can bear it, but to the roots it is injurious. _Pultenæas_, about forty species, pretty little dwarf growing shrubs of New South Wales; flowers small, leguminose, all yellow, with a little red outside of the petals. P. _villòsa_, P. _obcordàta_, P. _argéntea_, P. _plumòsa_, P. _fléxilis_, shining leaved, fragrant; P. _cándida_, and P. _strìcta_, are all fine species, and esteemed in collections. The leaves are all small; they require an airy exposure, and the pots drained. _Rhododéndrons_ (Rose tree), a magnificent genus, and contains some of the most superb and gigantic plants that adorn the Green-house. All the _Azàleas_ (except A. _procúmbens_) both Chinese and American, have been arranged under this genus. At present the most admired is _R. arbòreum_, with varieties. _R. arbòreum_ has deep scarlet flowers, with dark spots and flakes campanulated, and in large clusters; leaves lanceolate, acute, rough, and silvery beneath. _R. arbòreum albúm_ is very rare. _R. arbòreum supérbum_, flowers same shape as _arbòreum_, colour bright scarlet; foliage one third larger, but not silvery beneath; grows freely, and generally thought the finest variety. _R. arbòrea álte-Clàrance_ is also very superb. There are several other varieties of minor note. A Green-house without some of the scarlet varieties of that plant, is deficient of a flower whose beauty and grandeur are beyond the highest imagination. It is a native of Nepaul in India, and when found by Dr. Wallach awakened the ambition of every cultivator and connoisseur in Europe. There are several other species brought from that country lately, but none of them has yet flowered. They are highly valued from the productions of the above; the species are _R. campanulàtum_, _R. anthopògon_, and _R. cinnamòmeum_. This is named from the colour of the leaves, which are very peculiar and very handsome; the flowers are said to be rose-coloured. These three last cannot be purchased under an immense price; the others have been rarely seen in our collections, but another year or two will make them more plentiful. Their beauty of flower is beyond description. The pots should be well drained, and if they are large, put several pieces of sandy stones or potshreds around the side, for the fine fibres delight to twine about such, being mountainous plants. _Roéllas_, pretty leafy shrubs, with blue terminale funnel-shaped flowers, lip-spreading; _R. cilliàta_, _R. spicàta_, and _R. pedunculàta_, are the finest of the genus. The pots must be well drained, and care taken that they are not over-watered. _Sálvia_ (Sage), is an extensive genus of soft-wooded, shrubby, or herbaceous plants; very few of them do well in the Green-house, and many of them are very trifling, having no other attraction than the flower, and those of the tender species, when compared with _S. élegans_, _S. spléndens_, _S. cærúlea_, and _S. coccìnea_, (which in artificial climates constitute the standard of the genus,) are not worth cultivation. These last mentioned, if kept in the Green-house, will merely keep in life, but a situation in the Hot-house would cause them to flower frequently. The best method to adopt with the summer flowering kinds, is to plant them in the garden in May; they will grow strong and flower abundantly, and in the fall they can be lifted, and preserved during winter in pots. They neither grow nor flower so well as when planted out, and even a slip planted in the ground in moist weather will root in a few days, grow, and flower in a few weeks. _S. spléndens_ is the best to select for the purpose. _S. aùrea_, _S. paniculàta_, and _S. índica_, are fine species. The latter is white and blue, with large leaves; flowers monopetalous, and irregular; colour generally red or blue in spiked whorls. All will grow easily with encouragement. _Senècios._ Some species of this genus are pestiferous weeds all over the world. They are found near the limits of perpetual snow, where neither tree nor shrub is able to rear its head. Yet there are three species that are neat little plants, and are worthy of a situation, viz. _S. grandiflòrus_, _S. venústus_, and _S. cineráscens_, with the double white and red variety of _S. élegans_. The two last varieties are free flowering, but if allowed to grow several years, they become unsightly. Being very easily propagated, a few cuttings of them should be put in, in September, and in two weeks they will strike root, when they may be put in pots to keep through the winter, and then planted in the garden, continuing to renew them. The other mentioned species should be frequently done the same way. Do not keep them damp during winter, or they will rot off. Keep them in an airy exposure. _Schótias_, a beautiful genus of six species, which will require the warmest part of the Green-house to keep them. The foliage is handsome; leaves compound: leaflets oval-lanceolate, and in pairs from six to ten; _S. speciòsa_, crimson, flowers nearly papilionaceous, and in bunches, the most superb of the genus. _S. alàta_, _S. latifòlia_, once _Omphalòbium Schótia_, and _S. tamarindifólia_, are the finest; the flowers of the others are red. The pots require to be drained, and the plants protected from the hot sun. _Swainsònas_, four species of free flowering, soft wooded shrubs, natives of New South Wales. _S. galigifòlia_, _S. coronillæfòlia_, and _S. astragalifòlia_, are red, purple, and white; leguminose flowers in spikes from the axils, are of easy culture, and deserving of a situation; the foliage is pinnate; leaflets ovate, acute. _Scòttias_, three species of valuable plants; _S. dentàta_, with scarlet leguminose blossoms; leaves opposite, ovate, accuminate, serrate; _S. angustifòlia_ has brown flowers; _S. trapezifòrmus_, leaves ovate, acute, serrulate. We do not know the colour of its flowers; the pots must be well drained, and the plants kept in the warmest part of the Green-house, and near the light. _Sparrmánnias_, are strong growing Green-house shrubs. _S. africàna_, is a plant very common in our collections, with large three lobed cordate leaves, hairs on both sides; flowers from March to July. _S. rugósa._ The leaves are rugged; flowers of both are white, in a kind of corymb, supported by a long footstalk; buds drooping, flowers erect. There is a plant known in our collections, as the free-flowering _Sparrmánnia_, (which is _Entèlia arboréscens_,) and is easily distinguished from _Sparrmánnia_ by the leaves being cordate, accuminate, and otherwise, by all its filaments being fertile, and the flowers more branching, and blooming from November to June, profusely; very easily cultivated, and desirable. _Sphærolòbiums_, only two species of leafless plants, with yellow and red leguminose flowers, which proceed from the young shoots. _S. vimíneum_ and _S. médium_. They flower freely, and are easily cultivated. The old wood should be frequently cut out where it is practicable. Drain the pots. _Sprengélia incarnàta_,, the only species, a very pretty plant, allied to _Epàcris_; small foliage, long, accuminate; flowers small, pink, bearded, and in close spikes; grows freely, delighting in shade. The pots must be well drained, and the plants, when dormant, watered sparingly, for if they get sodden about the roots, they very seldom recover. _Stylidíums_, six species of pretty litte plants, with small linear leaves, and remarkable for the singular elasticity of the style or column, which, when the flower is newly expanded, lays to one side, and on being touched with a pin starts with violence to the opposite side. S. _graminifòlium_, S. _fruticòsum_, S. _laricifòlium_, and S. _adnàtum_, are all free flowering; flowers in spikes, very small; colour light and dark pink; blooms from April to July. S. _adnàtum_ is half herbaceous, and should, when growing, be kept nigh the glass, or it will be drawn, and the flowers become of a pale colour. They are all of easy cultivation. _Styphèlias_, seven species of very showy flowers, with mucronate leaves; corolla in a long tubular form, having several bundles of hairs in it; segments reflex and bearded. _S. tubiflòra_, crimson, _S. triflòra_, crimson and green; _S. adscéndens_, and _S. longifòlia_, are beautiful species. They grow freely, and should be well drained, as too much water is very hurtful to them. In summer they ought not to be much exposed to the hot sun, or the foliage will become brown. _Salpiglóssis_, four species of fine herbaceous Green-house plants, natives of Chili. The flowers are tubular and campanulate. _S. pícta_, flowers white and blue painted; _S. atropurpùrea_, flowers dark purple, and _S. isnuàta_, flowers crimson, are superb, and if planted in the garden during summer will flower profusely. They must be lifted in October, and taken under protection. _Tagètes lùcida_ is found in many of our collections. The leaves are simple, oblong, and finely serrated. When rubbed by the hand, they have an agreeable fragrance; the flowers are syngenesious, small, and in terminale bunches. It is herbaceous; and when about an inch grown should be divided and potted into five inch pots. Repot it again about the first of June. It keeps in flower from July to November. _Testudinària_, Elephant's foot, or Hottentot's bread, two species remarkable for their appearance. The root or bulb, if it may be so called, is of a conical shape, and divided into transverse sections. Those of one foot diameter are computed to be 150 years of age. It is a climbing herbaceous plant, with entire reniforme leaves of no beauty; flowers small; colour green. The pots must be well drained, for when the plant is inactive it is in danger of suffering from moisture, and ought not to get any water. _T. Elephántiphes_ and _T. montàna_ are the species, natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and require the warmest part of the house. _Táxus nucífera_, is the only species that requires protection, and bears a small acorn; flowers are trifling; an evergreen, with ovate, lanceolate foliage, thickly set on the wood; will grow in any situation. There is a plant in our collections known as _T. chinénsis_ or _T. elongáta_, which is _Podocárpus elongàtus_. It has lanceolate leaves, erect growing, and very hardy; flowers m[oe]onacious, and of no estimation except to the curious. _Telopèa speciosíssimus_, is the only species, and was once called _Embóthrium speciosíssimus_. It is now called _Telopèa_ in allusion to the brilliant crimson flowers, which from their great size are seen at a large distance, and which render it one of the most conspicuous productions of New South Wales. The leaves are oblong, deeply toothed, veiny, and smooth; wood strong; flower ovate, connate, and terminale, and of considerable duration. There ought to be a specimen of it in every collection. The pots must be well drained, and the plant in the extreme heat of summer not too much exposed to the sun. _Templetònia_, a very pretty genus, containing only two species. _T. retùsa_ is an erect growing shrub, with wedge-shaped green leaves. _T. gláuca_, leaves glacuous, blunt, and a little apiculate; flowers of both scarlet. They are leguminose plants of free growth, and should be well drained; blooming from April to June. _Tristànias_, seven species of evergreen shrubs. Several of them require to be very large before they flower. _T. neriifòlia_ is a very neat little plant, and flowers abundantly; colour yellow; shape star-like, and in clusters; leaves lanceolate and opposite. _T. conférta_, white flowers in spikes, leaves alternate. _T. suavèolens_, sweet-scented; flowers yellow. They are all of very easy culture. _Verbénas._ A few of these are showy, herbaceous, Green-house plants. _V. chamædryfòlia_, lately known as _V. Melíndres_, is a beautiful plant of a procumbent habit; flowers brilliant scarlet, in glomerated heads from the axils of the young shoots; blooming from April to October. A large plant will appear as a solid mass of scarlet. _V. lambértii_ and _V. pulchélla_ are also very pretty; colour, rose and lilac. A very good method of treating these plants, is, to plant them in the garden in April; and give them copious waterings in dry weather, and they will flower profusely, lifting some of the plants before frost, to preserve them during winter. They ought to be allowed to run according to their nature; for if tied up, they will not do so well, being in that way too much exposed. There is a plant known in our collections as _Verbéna triphylla_, which is _Aloysia citriodòra_. The flowers are in long spikes, very small, and pale purple. The celebrity of the plant is in the foliage, which is linear, lanceolate, ternate, and it has the most agreeable fragrance in the vegetable world. It is of very easy culture, and has been known to survive the winter, in open air, in Philadelphia. It is deciduous, and would do to plant in the garden during summer, lifting it again before frost, and putting it under protection through winter. When large before it begins to grow, in spring cut it into a neat shape or form. _Vibúrnums._ A few of these are very ornamental evergreen shrubs, and almost hardy. _V. tìnus_ is the well known Laurestine, (or what is commonly called Laurestinus,) is of the easiest culture; flowers small white, and in large flattened panicles; blooming from February to May, and universally esteemed. It will stand the winter by a little protection, but the flower buds being formed in the fall, the intense frost destroys them; consequently, it will not flower except by the buds, which sometimes form early in summer. _V. lùcidum_ is a good species, and superior in flower and foliage to the former, but does not flower so freely, when the plants are small. When they grow large, they flower profusely. There is a desirable variegated variety. _V. odoratíssimum_ has smooth evergreen, oblong, elliptic, distantly toothed, leaves, and frequently a stripe in them, is sweet-scented, and a free flowerer. _V. hirsútum_ has flowers similar to the above; foliage ovate, with rough brown hairs on both sides, and very characteristic. _V. stríctum variagàtum_ is a very fine variety, and upright growing. These plants are all very desirable, blooming early in spring, and continuing for several months; all easily cultivated. _Viminària denudàta_, the only species. This plant is remarkable for its twiggy appearance, but it has no foliage, except when growing from seed. It has at the extremity of the twigs or shoots, an ovate, lanceolate, leaf, disappearing when the plant grows old; the flowers are small, yellow, coming out of the young shoots, to the astonishment of the beholder. It grows freely. _Virgília capènsis_ is a beautiful cape shrub, with a compound leaf of twenty-five leaflets, ovate, lanceolate, edges hairy; flowers in spikes at the axils; colour blue and leguminose. The pots require to be well drained, and the plants protected from the sun. _Volkamèria japónica._ There is a plant known in our collections under that name, which is _Clerodéndron fràgrans múltiplex_. It keeps in a good Green-house, and flowers well, frequently blooming during winter, and if planted in the garden during summer, will flower superbly. The flowers have a delicious fragrance; but if the foliage is rubbed with the hand, the smell is not so pleasant. The leaves are large, round, ovate, and tomentose; flowers corymbose, compact, and terminale. There are several fine plants in _Clerodéndron_ belonging to the Hot-house. This plant will not bear much fumigation. _Witsènias_, four species. _W. corymbòsa_ is a plant that has stood in high estimation ever since it was known, but unfortunately there is a very inferior plant, _Aristèa cyànea_, got into our collections under that name. The panicles of _W. corymbòsa_ is quite smooth; those of _Aristèa_ are hairy, which is itself sufficient to detect them; but otherwise the appearance of _W. corymbòsa_ is much stronger, and more erect growing, not inclining to push at the roots so much as _Aristèa_. The foliage is lanceolate and amplexicaule, the leaves having much the nature and appearance of _Iris_. The plant is of easy culture, and blooms from November to April; colour fine blue. The true one has come into the country lately. _W. ramòsa_ is a very fine species, similar to the above; flowers yellow and blue; plant branching. _Westríngias_, a genus of four species, very like the common _Rosemary_. _W. rosmarinifórmis_, leaves lanceolate, and silvery beneath; _W. longifòlia_ is similar; both have small white silvery flowers, and are easily cultivated. _Zàmias_, about twenty species, eight of which belong to this compartment. The foliage is greatly admired, and is in large fronds, with oblique, lanceolate leaflets. Several of them glaucous. It bears heads of flowers of a brown colour in the centre of the plant, very like large pine cones. _Z. hórrida_, the finest, _Z. púngens_, _Z. spíralis_, and _Z. latifòlia_, are the most conspicuous. They must be kept in the warmest part of the Green-house; and give them large well drained pots. They are imported from the Cape of Good Hope. All the plants herein named requiring to be drained. In preparing the pots, place first a piece of broken pot, or any similar substitute, with the convex side on the hole of the pot, and then put in a few, or a handful, (according to the size of the pot,) of shivers of broken pots, or round gravel, about the size of garden pease. Those that we have mentioned in this _Repotting_, as to be done in this, or beginning of next month, is not intended to apply to plants in general, large and small, but to those that are young, and require encouragement, or to those that were not shifted last autumn. The roots must not be disturbed, but the ball turned out entire; and put as much earth as will raise the ball within about an inch of the rim of the pot. Press the earth down around it with a thin-narrow piece of wood, frequently shaking it that no vacancy may be left. If the roots are rotten, or otherwise injured, take all such off. If this be the case, the plant will be sickly. Give it a new pot of a smaller size, administering water moderately until there are visible signs of fresh growth. The plants must not be disturbed while flowering; let the repotting be done afterwards. Plants are, at certain stages of growth, if in good health, in such a state that no one can err in shifting them when desirous to hasten their growth. Those plants that make two or more growths during the summer may be repotted in the interim of any of these growths, and all others just before they begin to push in the spring; that is, when the wood buds are perceptibly swelled. Never saturate with water fresh potted plants. There are many kinds that, without injury, could be repotted when growing; but it requires an experienced operator to decide. It would be of no material service to enumerate them here. When done potting, tie all up neatly with stakes rather higher than the plant, that the new shoots may be tied thereto during their stage of growth, to prevent them from being destroyed by the wind. There may be many that do not require repotting, but would be benefited by a top-dressing. This should be done by probing off all the surface earth down to the roots, replacing it with fresh compost, suitable to the nature of the plant. When the above is done, arrange all the plants in proper order, and syringe them clean; but if there are any of the Green-fly, they must be fumigated previous to syringing. Take an opportunity, on the first fine day, to wash out all the pavement of the house, which should be made dry before the evening if the nights are cold. Thus every part of the house will be in order before the hurry of the garden commences. OF ENARCHING OR GRAFTING BY APPROACH, _also termed_ ABLACTATION. In this method of grafting, the scion is not separated from the parent plant until it is firmly united with the stock; consequently, they must stand contiguously. We intend the following method to apply directly to _Caméllias_, as they are the principal plants in the Green-house that are thus worked. The criterion for the operation is, just as the plants begin to grow, either in spring or mid-summer. Place the stock contiguous to the plant where the graft or enarch is to be taken from. If the branches, where the intended union is to take place, do not grow at equal heights, a slight stage may be erected to elevate the pot that holds the lower. Take the branch that is to be enarched, (the wood of last or previous year is the most proper,) and bring it in contact with the stock; mark the parts where they are to unite, so as to form a pointed arch. In that part of the branch which is to rest against the stock, pare off the bark and part of the wood to about two or three inches in length, and in the side of the stock which is to receive the graft, do the same, that the inside rind of each may be exactly opposite, which is the first part where a union will take place. Bind them firmly and neatly together with strands of Russia matting, and protect the joint from the air by a coat of close composition; clay of the consistency of thick paint, turpentine, or wax, will equally answer. Finish by fastening the grafted branch to the head of the stock or a rod. Many practitioners make a slit or tongue into the enarch and stock, but we find it unnecessary, more tedious, and likewise more danger in breaking. _Caméllias_ are also grafted, and budded, but these two operations require great experience and continued attention, and seldom prove so successful as enarching. When they have perfectly taken, which will be after the first growth is over, begin to separate them by cutting the scion a little at three different periods, about a week apart, separating it at the third time. If the head is intended to be taken off the stock, do it in like manner after the second growth is over. By the above method, many kinds can be grown on the same stock. The same plan applies to all evergreens. =Flower Garden.= _MARCH._ It is expected that all the pruning is finished. If not, get all expeditiously done, according to directions given in the preceding months, likewise all digging, and that which was dug in the autumn, point over, or half dig, that all may have a neat appearance. This must not be done when the ground is too much imbibed with moisture, as that would harden the soil. Break it well with the spade, leaving it one or two days before the surface is raked smooth, that all may be ready to receive the seeds or plants that are intended to be sown or planted. As soon as the frost is entirely gone, uncover all plants or shrubs that have been protected; preserving carefully such articles as will answer the same purpose next year. The frost disappears generally from the middle to the end of this month. Cut off all decayed shoots, or such as have been hurt by the frost. The _Lagerstræmias_ will flower in greater perfection if they are cut closely; that is, where the wood of last year is cut to within a few eyes of the wood of the previous year, at the same time having regard to the shape that the plant is required to take. Cut off the injured part of any of the evergreens that have had their foliage much injured by the severity of winter, leaving the part that is green, which is essential to the support of these kinds of plants. Such work as can be done in this month, should not be delayed, such as hoeing, digging, raking, and clearing away all decayed leaves, and litter of every description that have been brought or blown in the garden, during autumn or winter. BOX EDGINGS May be planted any time this month, or beginning of next, which in most seasons will be preferable. We will give a few simple directions how to accomplish the work. In the first place, dig over the ground deeply where the edging is intended to be planted, breaking the soil fine, and keeping it to a proper height, viz. about one inch higher than the side of the walk; but the taste of the operator will best decide according to the situation. Rake the surface even, and tread it down with the feet, or beat it with the spade. Where it gives most, continue to add, keeping the surface at the desired height. If the edging is to be in a direct line, either on a level or inclined plane, you may be correctly and simply regulated by making the desired level at each end of the line. Take three rods about four feet long each, having a piece of one foot to cross at one end, two of these pieces painted black, the other white. Have a black one at each end of the line on the level, take the white one for the centre, going along the line, and about every twenty feet, level a spot to the exact height, which will be seen by looking over the top of the rods from one end. Having found the level, drive in a peg to it, so that no mistake may occur; beat and level between them, leaving a smooth surface. This being done, strain the line, and with the spade proceed to cut out the trench perpendicularly on the side next the walk, six, eight, ten, or twelve inches deep, according to the length of the plants. Afterwards take the plants, and cut the tops even, with the knife or shears, at the same time shortening the roots. Then with the left hand next the line, plant forward, keeping the tops of the plants level, and from one to two inches above ground, keeping the plants close according to the required thickness. Put in the earth as you proceed, and tread it firm, then rake the surface even, and with the spade beat it smooth. If the weather sets in very dry, the box will be the better of a few waterings. Sometimes boxwood is planted without roots, but it seldom gives satisfaction; not growing equally. TENDER ANNUALS. When it is wished to have any of these flower early, if they were not sown as directed last month, on a hotbed, let it be done early in this. Those that were sown and now growing freely, must have plenty of air. In fine days the sashes may be taken off a few hours about mid-day; and where the plants are too thick, thin them out a few inches apart, that the air may circulate amongst them. Have another bed ready to transplant them into about the end of this or beginning of next month. When transplanted, sprinkle them with water, and shade them with mats from the sun, one or two days. By this treatment they will be much stronger for planting into the borders, about the first of May. For the different kinds, see list. HARDY ANNUALS May be sown in the borders about the end of the month, when the ground is prepared, and the weather fine, but avoid it at all times if the earth will not pulverise properly. The neatest and most expeditious method is to take a rod about one foot long, and one inch in diameter, rounding at the end, with which end draw a circle of nine inches diameter, from one inch to one eighth of an inch deep, according to the size of the seeds. Many very small seeds will grow best if sown on the surface of fine mould. When sown, cover in with the back of the rake, placing a small twig, or a tally with the name, in the centre of the circle, to prevent mistakes, either in sowing, planting, or hoeing. When they come above ground, the first moist day should be taken to pull up such as are too crowded. Annuals are generally too delicate to bear transplanting, therefore they ought always to be sown where they are intended to remain. A few kinds do best with removing, such as Balsam, Mary-gold, China Aster, Stockgilly, and several others of a free growing, strong-wooded nature. Annuals are such plants as grow from seed, flower, and perfect their productions, and then die, within one year. For hardy sorts, see list. Sow in rows or fancy spots the varieties of sweet pea. BIENNIALS Are such as are of two years' duration. Being sown this year they flower, seed, or fruit next year, and soon after decay. The seeds should be sown about the end of this or beginning of next month, either in the spot where they are intended to remain, or in a compartment by themselves, regularly marked, and transplanted when convenient. When they appear above ground, thin them out distinctly, that when they are to be removed, a little earth may adhere to them; and if put where they are to stand, leave only three plants. PERENNIALS. In every Flower-garden there ought to be a good selection of these plants. They are lasting ornaments, and when judiciously selected, will give yearly gratification. In making a choice, a view should be had to have those that flower abundantly, are of free growth, beauty, and continuation of flower. It would go beyond our limits, to give an extensive description of any, but a few remarks on some of the finest, with their names, are indispensable. _Adònis vernális_, is a fine border flower, and will grow in any common soil; flowers large, yellow rayed, having in the rays about twelve petals; leaves much divided, bloom in April and May. _Anemóne_, Wind-flower. Several fine species, with flowers from one to three inches in diameter. _A. Hallèri_, blue; _A. pulsatìlla_, blue pasque flower; _A. alpìna_, large white. These are fine plants, and are now given to a genus called _Pulsatìlla_. _A. palmàta flòre-plèno_, yellow; _A. stellàta versícolor_, various coloured; _A. pavonìna flòre-plèno_, scarlet; _A. narcissiflòra_, white. Any of these are very desirable. _Antirrhìnums_, Snap-dragon. All the varieties of _A. màjus_ are esteemed in the flower borders; the pure white and bright red are very showy. A few of the species, _A. mólle_ and _A. sículum_, where there is variety required, deserve a situation. The flowers are all large, and similar to the snout of an animal. _Asclèpias._ The finest of this genus are native plants, and are highly esteemed in Europe, but frequently rejected with us, because "they are wild plants." _A. tuberòsa_ has beautiful orange flowers, and delight in dry situations. _A. rùbra_, _A. nívea_, _A. purpuráscens_; and _A. incarnàta_, are the finest of the family. It is best to plant _A. tuberòsa_ in October. _Aconítums_, Wolfs'-bane, one hundred and twenty-eight distinct species, with several varieties. Many of them are of consequence and beauty; the flower stems rise from one and a half to six feet upright, and strong, furnished with many palmate and digitate leaves, terminated by spikes of blue, yellow, or white flowers, similar to a hood; hence the name of Monk's Hood is often applied to them. They are scarce in collections, but in a few years we have no doubt but many of them will be plentiful. The finest species are _A. speciòsum_, _A. anthòra_, _A. neúrbergensis_, _A. amænum_, _A. napéllus_, _A. venústum_, _A. zoóctonum_, _A. pyramidàle_, _A. lycóctonum_, _A. albùm_, and _A. versícolor_. They flower from May to September, and will grow in any common garden soil. The roots of _A. napéllus_ are like small turnips, and are said to be poisonous. _Cáltha palústris flòre-plèno_ is a good border plant, delights in moist situations, has large cordate, crenated leaves; flowers double yellow; blooming from April till June; and is a desirable plant. _Béllis perénnis horténsis_, Daisy. We might almost say with another, "every one knows the Daisy." It is named from being pretty, and is perfectly hardy, though generally kept under cover. They delight to have a shaded situation during summer, to protect them from the sun, which, as it were, scorches the roots. There are many double varieties in the gardens, which flower early. The one called _Crown_, or _Carnation_ Daisy, is twice the size of the common varieties, and has white and red petals alternately, and very double. Loamy soil, inclined to moisture, is best adapted to their growth. _Campánulas._ This genus affords many very ornamental plants for the Flower-garden and Shrubbery, and they flower superbly during the summer, agreeing better with our climate than with that of Europe. Several have two successions of flowers, _C. persicifòlia álba plèna_; _C. persicifòlia cærùlea plèno_; _C. urticifòlia_, white. Of this last there is also a double variety. _C. speciòsa_; _C. glomerata_; _C. versícolor_; with several others, are worthy of a situation in every garden. Their roots are strong, fleshy, and fibrous. They are easy of culture, and will retain their situation in the severest of our winters. _C. grandiflòra_ is now _Wahlenbérgia grandiflòra_. It has fine blue large flowers; the flower stems are slender, and should be supported as soon as they grow. _Cheiránthus Chéiri vulgàris_ is the common garden Wall-flower. There are about ten varieties of it, all admired for their various colours and agreeable odour. The common variety survives the mildest of our winters. The most esteemed variety is _Hæmánthus_, Double bloody. They should all be protected by a frame. _C. mutábilis_ is a beautiful species; it has many shades of colour from lilac to dark purple. The flowers are on extending racemose spikes; blooming from April to June; it requires a light rich soil; is a half shrubby evergreen plant. _Chelònes._ This genus belongs entirely to this continent, and possesses many fine species. It is a matter of astonishment that they are not more cultivated and sought for in our collections. _C. glábra_; _C. oblíqua_; _C. barbàta_; _C. atropurpùrea_; _C. pulchélla_; _C. venústa_; and _C. speciòsa_; are all handsome, and flower from May to September; corolla large, ringent; ventricose flowers in spikes or panicles. _Chrysánthemums._ There are few of this genus of any consequence as herbaceous plants, except the varieties of _C. sinénse_, of which there are about fifty, all desirable; but in small gardens, where there is a deficiency in room, the following are select in colour and quality: _Tubulòsum álbum_, quilled white; _supérbum_, superb white; _díscolor_, large lilac; _fúlvum_, Spanish brown; _atropurpùreum_, early crimson; _involùtum_, curled lilac; _fasciculàtum_, superb cluster yellow; _serotìnum_, late pale purple; _papyràceum_, paper white; _Waratáh_, yellow Waratah; _versícolor_, two-coloured red; _stellàtum_, starry purple; _verecúndum_, early blush; and _mutábile_, changeable pale buff. To grow these in perfection, they require rich light soil; and about the end of this month the roots should be lifted, divided, and planted into fresh soil, either by giving them a new situation, or changing the earth they were in. Two or three stems together are quite sufficient. The flowers, by the above treatment, will be much larger, more double, and finer in colour; where they are wanted to grow low and bushy, top them in June, but not later than the first of July. Where the soil is rich, and the plant having only one stem, by topping it, makes a beautiful bush. They are in flower from the first of October until severe frost; thus beautifying our gardens at a season when they would be destitute of one single attraction. If the season is dry, to water them with liquid manure will add to their vigour. They are all natives of China, and greatly esteemed by the Chinese, who only allow a few blooms to come out on the top of each stem, thereby having the flowers much finer. _Clématis_, Virgin's-bower. A few species are good herbaceous plants, of upright growth, and blue flowers, _C. integrifòlia_; _C. angustifòlia_; and _C. erécta_; they grow best in light soil. _Coreópsis_, chiefly native plants, and free-flowering; colour principally yellow; flowers rayed. _C. tenuifòlia_, _C. verticilláta_, _C. díscolor_, and _C. trípteris_, are the finest of the genus, and will grow in any common garden soil. _Delphínums._ There are some showy border flowers of these, of strong growth. The leaves are much divided; the flowers in terminale spikes; colour blue, purple, red, white and yellow, with various shades. _D. grandiflòrum_, with its varieties, are the best of the genus. _D. intermèdium_, and its varieties, _D. elátum_, Bee Larkspur, from the ringent part of the flower being very like a bee, and _D. montánum_, are good varieties, and easily cultivated. When the plants become large, they ought to be divided, and planted in fresh soil. They are in bloom from May to September. _Diánthus._ Some of the species of this genus are the most prominent of the Flower-garden, not only for their beauty, but also their fragrance, which is peculiarly grateful, especially in the well known and celebrated pink and carnation, with the Sweet-william, which was esteemed, in the days of old, "for its beauty to deck up the bosoms of the beautiful, and garlands and crowns for pleasure." The finest species are _D. barbàtus_, and _D. barbàtus plèno_, Sweet-william; _D. discolor_; _D. chinènsis_; _D. alpínus_, _D. supérbus_; _D. caryophyllus_, from which have originated the Picotee and the Carnation; _D. plumàrius_, from which originated the Double Pink; _D. fràgrans_ and _D. supérbus_. Several of these, although they will stand the severest cold, have to be protected in frames during winter, to have them in the perfection of beauty. For the character of a Pink and Carnation, see _May_. _Dictámnus._ Two species of this genus, _D. fraxinélla_ and _D. álbus_, have been cultivated and esteemed upwards of two hundred and forty years. A plant of the first of these species, when gently rubbed, emits an odour like that of lemon-peel; and when bruised emits a balsamic scent, which is strongest in the pedicles of the flowers. They have glands of a rusty colour, that exude a viscid juice, or resin, which exhales in vapour, and in a dark place may be seen to take fire. Its flowers are red, those of the other white, in loose terminale spikes; the flower has five petals, clawed and unequal, with glandular dots; in bloom from May to July; delights in sandy loam. _Dodecàtheon._ This is a native genus, and commonly called American cowslip. The generic term, a name of the Romans, signifying twelve gods or divinities, is applied with great absurdity to a plant, a native of a world the Romans never saw nor had any idea of, neither resembling, in any particular, the poetical fancy of their writers. The most admired species is _D. mèdia_; the flowers are in umbels, on a pedicle, from six to twelve inches high; the corolla is rotata reflexa, colour light purple, bottom of petals lake and yellow; blooming in May. The white variety is very much esteemed, and surpasses the preceding. The ground is pure white, the bottom of the petals the same as the other. There is also a spotted variety found on the banks of the Missouri. They delight in brown loam, a half shady situation, inclining to moisture. The foliage soon decays after flowering. _Digitàlis_, Fox-glove, about forty species of annuals and herbaceous plants. A few are cultivated in the flower borders, and are very showy. These are D. _leucophæa_, D. _ferrugínea_, D. _ochroleùca_, large yellow; and D. _purpuráscens_; and are good species. D. _purpúrea_ and D. _álba_, are very conspicuous biennials; the flowers are solitary, and in long spikes; the corolla of D. _purpúrea_ is campanulate, ventricose, and ringent; the interior is spotted, and is considered the finest of the genus. Delights in poor soil, with a little shade. _Eupatóriums._ These generally are native plants, not worthy of notice here, except for two species. _E. c[oe]lestínum_ has syngenesious flowers in flattened panicles, colour fine light blue, blooming from September to November, desirable for its beauty at that season. _E. aromàticum_ may be cultivated for its spicy odour; flowers white, in loose terminale panicles; blooming from August to October. Either of them will grow in common soil. _Gentiánas_, a genus of very showy plants, and flower in great abundance. The flowers are tubular and inflated; colour generally blue. A few species are yellow, and some white; flowers in whorls, terminale, or solitary. They grow best in a light rich soil. _G. lútea_, _G. purpúrea_, _G. septémfida_. _G. acaúlis_ is a pretty dwarf growing species, and often used as edgings in flower compartments; the flower dark and light blue; interior of the corolla spotted; has a succession of flower from April to June. We have no doubt of it succeeding in our gardens, but not being plentiful, it has not been perfectly tried. A few years will exhibit it in abundance. _G. imbricàta_ and _G. conférta_. They are all fine exotics, but many of them may give place to our native species, such as _G. Catesbæí_; _G. ochroleúca_; _G. incarnàta_; with several others, and _G. crinàta_, which is a biennial, and finely fringed; colour light blue. _Gèum._ There are only two species that are worth cultivation, viz. _G. quéllyon_, once _G. coccíneum_; and _G. hybridum_. _G. urbànum_ is sometimes cultivated for its roots, which, when chewed, sweeten the breath. They are all of easy culture. _G. quéllyon_ flowers from May to October, and is a very desirable small plant for the borders, and much esteemed in Europe. _Hemerocállis_, Day Lily; two species, _H. fúlva_ and _H. gramínea_, flower well, and are remarkable among the border flowers for their large yellow or copper coloured corollas, some of them about six inches diameter; bloom from May to July, and will grow in almost any soil. There is a plant known in our gardens as _H. cærùlea_, which is _Fúnkia cærùlea_, and has a campanulate corolla, with a cylindrical tube; flowers in spikes; leaves ovate, accuminate. _Hibíscus._ There are several herbaceous species very showy and handsome, _H. palústris_; _H. ròseus_; _H. militàris_; _H. speciòsus_; _H. grandiflòrus_; and _H. púngens_. They grow best in moist situations, and where these are not to be had, give them plenty of water, and plant in sandy soil enriched with decayed leaves. The flowers are about six inches in diameter, flowering up the stem, either solitary or in small bunches. _H. speciòsus_ is the most splendid, and deserves a situation in every garden. The roots in winter ought to be covered by litter, tan, or saw dust; but a better method is to lift them, and put them in the cellar, covered with dry earth, and kept from the frost. All the above mentioned species are improved by being protected during winter. _Iris_, Flower-de-luce, has many fine species of various shades and colours, _I. subiflòra_, _I. nepalénsis_, _I. Pallàsii_, _I. pállida_, _I. cristàta_, _I. arenària_, _I. furcàta_, _I. germánica_, _I. florentìna_, _I. vérna_, and _I. susiàna_. The last is the finest of the herbaceous species; the flowers are striped, blue, brown, and spotted; but we are not certain if it will stand the severity of our winters. The roots of _I. florentìna_ is the orrice root of the druggists. They are all of easy culture in any loamy soil inclining to moisture. The bulbous species will be treated of in _September_ or _October_. Corolla six-petaled, three erect, and three reclined alternately; proceeding from spathes or sheaths with flowers in succession. _Lìatris_ is a genus of native plants, containing several fine species, _L. squarròsa_, large purple heads of beautiful flowers; _L. élegans_; _L. paniculàta_. _L. macróstachya_, now _L. spicàta_, is a fine large growing species. They have syngenesious purple flowers in long close spikes, differing from other spiked flowering genera by blooming first at the extremity. They grow best in strong heavy soil. _Lychnis._ Three species are very desirable in the flower borders. _L. chalcedónica_ has bright scarlet crowned flowers; the double scarlet variety is splendid. There is also a double white variety, _L. fúlgens_ and _L. flós-jòvis_. They ought to be frequently lifted, and planted afresh, or they will dwindle to nothing. The best time is when they begin to grow. There is a plant known in our collections as _Lychnis flós-cucùla_, which is now _Agrostéma flós-cucùla_; it is a fine and showy border plant with double red flowers. They delight in a light sandy rich soil. _Lythrums._ A few species flower well, and have small pink blossoms in great profusion, _L. alàtum_, _L. virgàtum_, _L. diffùsum_, and _L. lanceolàtum_. They will grow in any common garden soil if not too much shaded; and flower from June to September. _Mimùlus_, Monkey-flower. A few species may be cultivated. They will grow in any soil or situation. _M. lùteus_ and _M. rivulàris_ are the best. _M. moschàtus_ has a very strong musk scent, to many agreeable. We think it will prove hardy. The two former have large gaping flowers, of a gold yellow, and beautifully spotted with purple in the interior. _Monárdas_, a fine native genus and showy. The foliage of several of the species is aromatic, and resembles mint. _M. dídyma_ has long scarlet ringent flowers, in headed whorls; _M. kalmiana_, flowers very long, and a beautiful crimson, with fragrant leaves. _M. Russelliana_ has red and white flowers; curious and handsome. _M. punctata_ has yellow and red flowers; they grow in any common soil. _Mathíola_, is the generic of the Stock-gilly. None of them will survive severe winters; yet many of them are indispensable in the Flower-garden. _M. simplicicáulis_, Brompton-stock, and its varieties; with _M. incàna_, Queen-stock, and its varieties, require the protection of a good frame in winter, and about the end of this month, or beginning of next, plant them in good light rich soil to flower, which they will do all summer, if attended to with frequent supplies of water. _M. ánnua_ has about sixteen varieties, valuable for flowering the first year from seed, and are all annuals. They ought to be sown on a gentle hot-bed about the first of this month, and carefully pricked out so as they may be ready to transplant about the end of April or the first of May. Plant them in light rich soil, and they will flower profusely through the season; if it is very dry, they must be watered to keep them growing. The scarlet, white, and purple varieties are the finest; but there are many intermediate sorts all handsome. _M. glàbra_ is the Wall-flower leaved stock, and requires the same treatment as the two former. There are about eight varieties of this, all various in colour. In planting any of these into the open ground, choose cloudy weather, except they have been in pots; in such case, plant at any time in beds, keeping each kind separate. _[OE]nothèras._ The most of them are indigenous, and in Europe they afford a continual ornament to the Flower-garden from April to November, but in our gardens they are entirely neglected. By rejecting these and many others, our Flower-gardens are deprived both of much beauty and interest they might easily possess. These plants delight in light rich soil. _[OE]. odoràta_, sweet scented; _[OE]. macrocárpa_; _[OE]. mèdia_; _[OE]. latiflòra_; _[OE]. Frazèri_; _[OE]. speciòsa_; and _[OE]. pállida_; are all fine native herbaceous plants, mostly with large yellow four-petaled corollas; in bloom from April to September. There are several of them beautiful annual and biennial plants. For the finest, see list. _Phlóx_, another American genus, and one of the most handsome in cultivation. It consists of elegant border flowers, valuable for flowering early, and more so for blossoming late in autumn. While the majority of plants blooming late in the season are generally syngenesious, with yellow flowers, these delight us with their lively colours of purple, red, and white. A collection of them properly attended to, would of themselves constitute a beautiful flower garden. It will be difficult to state which are the finest, but the following are select varieties: P. _paniculàta_; P. _acuminàta_; P. _intermèdia_; P. _odoràta_; P. _pyramidàlis_; with _pyramidàlis álba_, which is splendid; P. _suavèolens_; P. _refléxa_; P. _stolonífera_; P. _pilòsa_; P. _divaricàta_; P. _nivàlis_; and P. _subulàta_. In the spring of 1831, an eminent British collector[A] exclaimed, on seeing a patch of P. _subulàta_ in one of the pine barrens of New Jersey, "The beauty of that alone is worth coming to America to see, it is so splendid." Most of the species delight in a rich light sandy loam. When the plants become large, they ought to be divided, and planted in fresh ground. [A] Mr. Drummond. _Prímulas_, Primrose. To this genus belong the celebrated _Cowslip_, _Oxlip_, _Primrose_, and the esteemed _Aurícula_. The double varieties of Primrose have originated from _P. vulgàris_. These are such as carry their flowers on separate pedicles, rising from the root on a small stem. The double varieties are desirable for their beauty, but require the protection of a frame during winter. They are in colour red, white, yellow, lilac, purple, and crimson. P. _elàtior_ is the Oxlip, from which all the _Polyánthuses_ have been grown. They are in variety innumerable, and are those whose flowers are in umbels, on a scape or flower-stalk, rising from three to nine inches. The rules for judging of their merits are wholly artificial, agreed on from time to time by Florists. The one that is the leading beauty this year would in a few years be far in the rear. The principal character is that the corolla is not notched or fringed; the colours pure and distinct, not running into one another; the tube small; the eye round, and a little prominent. Being surrounded with white, and the ground purple, is a fine character. P. _aurícula_. From this the highly esteemed varieties have originated. The cultivated _aurícula_ has many admirers, both for its exquisite beauty and fragrance. For the criterion of a fine flower see _May_. There are several other species worthy of a situation, such as P. _cortusoídes_, P. _dentiflòra_, P. _suavèolens_, P. _decòra_, with P. _scótica_ and P. _farinòsa_, both small neat species. A shady situation agrees best with them; and they require loamy soil, free from any kind of manure, except it be fully decomposed. The leaves of P. _vèris_ are recommended for feeding silk worms. _Potentíllas._ We mention this genus here as affording several free flowering dwarf plants; not as being certain that any of the most desired species will withstand our winters, being natives of Nepaul; but, from the character of the plant, we think that they are adapted to bear severe cold. They are similar to the strawberry in habit and appearance. P. _nepalénsis_, or _formòsa_, has rose-coloured flowers; P. _atropurpùrea_; P. _Russelliàna_, scarlet; P. _Hopwoodiàna_, rose and scarlet; and P. _spléndens_, yellow, with superb leaves. These are the finest of the genus, and flower from May to September. It will be well to protect them in a frame with the Carnations; they delight in light soil. _Saponària officinàlis_, and _S. O. plèna_, are fine free-flowering dwarf plants; the colour is pink in both double and single varieties. The roots run under ground, and care should be taken to keep them within bounds: they flower from June till October. _S. cæspitòsa_ is a neat growing species of a rose colour. They will grow in any soil. _Silène._ Several of this genus are popular annuals, but the herbaceous species are very indifferent. _S. viscósa_ and S. _viscósa flòre plèna_, are frequently cultivated for their beauty; they will grow well if not too much shaded. _Saxífraga_, above one hundred species. Many of them are beautiful plants for rock-work. They are regardless of cold, but will not generally withstand much moisture. A few of them are highly deserving a situation in any garden. _S. hirsùtum_, and _S. crassifòlia_, are used in some countries for tanning. _S. granulàta multipléx_ has fine double-white flowers, and is desirable. _S. umbròsa_, London-pride, makes a beautiful edging for a flower border; the flowers are small, but on close examination its colours are unrivalled. It is vulgarly called, "none so pretty." _S. sarmentòsa_ is kept in the Green-house, but is perfectly hardy, and makes a fine plant in a shaded situation. We have no doubt but it would make a good fancy edging. _S. pulchélla_, straw coloured, and _S. pyramidàlis_; these are all easily cultivated; and flower in spikes from May to July. _Spiræas._ A few species are showy plants, and continue flowering from May to September. _S. ulmària múltiplex_, Meadow-sweet, has sweet scented white flowers, in long dense spikes. _S. Filipéndula múltiplex_, Drop-wort, double white. _S. lobàta_ is a native, and has fine rose coloured flowers, in June and July; these are the finest of the herbaceous species, and will grow in any common garden soil. _Státice_, Thrift. A genus containing many fine herbaceous plants, only a few of them are common in collections. The finest of them are scarce, and said to be "bad to cultivate." _S. vulgàris_, once _Armèria vulgàris_, is the most valuable plant for an edging, next to box, that the Flower-garden is possessed of, and does extremely well in our climate, flowering in great profusion from May to July. When done flowering, the stems should be cut off. The foliage is an agreeable evergreen; the plant increases rapidly, and in a few years may be planted to a great extent. _S. speciòsa_ has red flowers, crowded in spreading panicles. _S. tatàrica_ has also very showy flowers, and is now given to the genus _Taxànthema_. _S. latifòlia_ and _S. maritìma_ are the finest. _T. latifòlia_ and _T. conspícua_ deserve attention. They should be lifted every alternate year, and sunk deeper into the soil, because they incline to grow out, and are sometimes during summer killed by the drought. Hence they are said to be "bad to cultivate." _Tróllius europæus_, and _T. asiàticus_, are fine border plants, with large yellow semi-double flowers; the petals are much cupped, which causes the flowers to have a globular appearance. They are easily grown in any loamy soil, and flower from May to July. Few flowers have the curious globular character which these have. _Verónica_, Speed-well. This genus consists of about one hundred and twenty species of herbaceous plants, besides several varieties. The flowers are in long close spikes, either white, flesh coloured, or blue; they are generally of the latter colour. Above sixty species are equally fine, and being generally of the same character, the Catalogue at the end of this work will contain the best selection that we can make. Very few of them are in the collections of the country, although they are very showy, and flower from June to August. They will grow in any soil, but will not flourish where they are much shaded. _V. officinàlis_ has been used in Germany and Sweden as a substitute for tea. Some prefer _V. chamædrys_ for the same purpose. _Valerìanas._ Several species are showy border plants, with small flowers in large close flattened panicles. _V. dioíca_ is remarkable for having the stamens and pistils in separate flowers, situated on different plants; the flowers are of a blush colour, and the roots when planted must be protected from the cats, for they are delighted with them, and scrape them up. _V. phù_, a large growing species with white flowers; and _V. rùbra_, with its varieties, are the finest of the genus. They are now given to _Centrànthus_. They are all of easy culture in common garden earth, but preferring moist shady situations. In flower from May to September. _Vìola_, a genus consisting of upwards of eighty species, of low pretty plants, of great diversity of colour and foliage. Many of them are natives, and well worth a situation in our gardens. They mostly delight in sandy loam, and a little shade. A few of the species grow in moist situations. The most esteemed varieties for fragrance are, _V. odoràta purpúrea plèna_, double purple, with _V. odoràta àlba plèna_, double white. They flower very early, and make good edgings where they are kept in order; flowering profusely from April to June, and flowering again in autumn. _Yúcca_, Adam's-needle. This is a very showy and ornamental genus; their character forming a picturesque contrast in the Flower-garden; foliage long, narrow, lanceolate, and stiff; with white companulate flowers, about two inches in diameter, in conical spikes from two to four feet long, arising from the centre of the plant, containing frequently from two to four hundred florets. They are principally native plants. _Y. strícta_ is the freest flowerer. _Y. supérba_; _Y. aloifòlia_; _Y._ _angustifòlia_, _Y. acuminàta_, _Y. serrulàta_, and _Y. filamentòsa_, are all fine species, and will grow in any common soil. When in flower, if protected from the sun by an awning, they will be of considerable duration. There are variegated varieties of _Strícta_, _Aloifòlia_, and _Serrulàta_, which look very handsome in foliage, but are at present very rare, and it will be a number of years before they are plentiful. There ought at least to be one specimen of some of the free-flowering species in every garden. Having given the names and characters of a few herbaceous plants, all or most of them easily obtained, many of them extremely handsome, and such as agree best with transplanting at this season of the year; for several others, such as _Pæònias_, or any other strong fibrous or bulbous sorts, see _September_ and _October_. Where they are in pots, they can be planted at any time, the weather permitting, provided the ball of earth is not broken. But where they are only to be removed, the best time is just as vegetation commences. That herbaceous plants may look to the best advantage, and flower well, they must not be allowed to get into large stools; but as soon as they are above one foot in diameter, they should be divided. Very frequently those who perform this operation, take the spade, and cut a piece off all round, which to a degree improves the look of the plant; but this is only half justice. It should be lifted entirely, fresh soil given, or removed a few feet, and planted a little deeper than it was before, as the plant tends apparently to grow out of the soil when allowed to stand long. If the weather becomes dry shortly after transplanting, give them a few waterings, until they have taken fresh roots, which will be within two weeks. Colour should be diversified through the garden as much as practicable, and the highest growing sorts planted farthest from the walk, so as all may appear in view. At all times avoid crowding the plants together. BULBOUS ROOTS. About the middle of this month, let the covering of tan, saw-dust, or decayed leaves, be cleared from the beds of such as were directed to be covered in November; afterwards carefully stirring the surface among them with a kind of wooden spatula, or wedge, breaking the surface fine; then dress all the alleys smooth and neat with the hoe and rake, clearing away every particle of litter. When the leaves of Tulips are expanding, they frequently become entangled so much, that the force of growth breaks the foliage: if there are any appearance of this at any time, they should be set right with the hand. In early seasons these roots will be far advanced, and perhaps one night of frost unexpectedly might materially injure them. When there is any suspicion of cold weather, hoops should be spanned across the beds, so that the necessary mats or canvass could in a few minutes be placed over them, to ward off danger. Protect the finest sorts from heavy drenching rains, and give them small neat rods for support, as they grow up. If the rods and tyings are painted green, the effect will be improved. These directions equally apply to _Narcissus_, _Jonquils_, _Iris_, and all Holland bulbs. CARNATIONS, PINKS, PRIMROSES, &c. Which have been protected by frames through the winter, must have at all favourable opportunities plenty of air admitted to them by lifting the sashes, and in fine mild days and nights, the sashes may be taken entirely off. Divest them of all decayed leaves, and stir up the earth on the surface of the pots; those that are intended to be planted in the garden may be set to one side, while those that are to be kept in pots must be more strictly attended to. Of these the Pinks and Carnations should be repotted about the first of the month. Those that have been kept in four inch pots, should be put into pots of seven inches, and those that are in five inch pots may be put into eight inch. Give a gentle watering after repotting. Pinks do not require the pots so large, but the same treatment in every other respect. Where the extremity of the leaves are decayed, cut them off, with any other decayed leaves: the pots must be well drained with shivers or fine gravel. Give them plenty of air, otherwise they will be weak in growth. _Primroses_ require only a little fresh earth on the top of the pots. _Daisies_ may be planted out in shady situations; the sun destroys them during summer if exposed. AURICULAS. These beautiful and highly interesting plants are, to a great degree, neglected in our collections. It cannot be from want of beauty or fragrance that they have not attracted our attention, for they are exquisite in both. We are rather inclined to think that those who have them do not give them the treatment they require yearly to perfect their bloom. They should now have the surface earth taken off about half an inch down, and fresh soil added, which will cause them to put out fresh fibres about the upper part of the roots, and greatly increase their growth. The frame in which they are placed should now face the east, as the sun will be too strong for them; and about the end of the month turn it to the north. The glass of the frame may be white-washed, which will partially shade them from the sun, that being their delight. Give them water sparingly until they begin to grow, and never water them over the foliage previous to flowering, as water injures that fine mealy-like substance found on many of the sorts, and which so greatly improves their beauty. Defend them, therefore, from rain and high winds. To have them flower strongly, only one flower stem should be allowed to grow. The first one that shows is generally the best. At all events leave the strongest, and cut off all the others, or only nip off the flower pips, which answers the same end. Never keep the sash off during night, lest it should rain before morning. RANUNCULUS AND ANEMONE. The frames must have plenty of air, and give frequent sprinklings of water. The sashes or boards should be taken entirely off every mild day, and in fine nights leave them exposed to the dew; stir up the earth amongst them, breaking it fine, making all neat. They require liberal supplies of water after they begin to grow. ROSES. This is the most favourable month for planting all kinds of garden roses, which must be done as soon as the weather opens, and the ground in a proper state. The earlier in the month they flower the more perfect they will be. Never delay planting when there is an opportunity; for if delayed until the leaves are expanding, the bloom will be much weakened, and the probability is there will be no flowers, and the plants meet with a premature death. It has been said, "there is a particular advantage in planting some every ten days, even to the middle of May; for the flowering of them may be retarded in this way, and the bloom of these delightful shrubs continue for a much longer period." One moment's reflection will convince us, that nature, while in her own element, will not be retarded, suppose there was no danger of instantaneous death to the plants. The artificial means that might be judiciously adopted, with which we are acquainted, to keep back the blooming of hardy plants, is to lift them as soon in spring as is practicable, put them in boxes of earth, and then place them in the driest part of an icehouse until the desired time of planting, which may be delayed as long as the required time of flowering. This will be found a true method of retarding the flowering of roses especially, and not going counter to the rules and principles of nature. There are many beautiful varieties of the garden rose in cultivation, the names of the finest of which we will give in the Catalogue, but perhaps it may be proper to mention here a few of the most particular sorts. The finest unquestionably when in bloom, is the _Moss_ and its varieties, but the flowering is of so limited duration, that it is in a great degree surpassed by others. There is said to be a striped variety of the _Moss Rose_, but we do not credit it. The _Blush Moss_, _Clinton White Moss_, and _Mottled Moss_, at present certainly are the most superb of that kind. _Lee's Crimson Perpetual_ is a magnificent rose, and flowers in profusion from June to October. This is considered, and justly too, the finest of all the garden roses; its fragrance is exquisite, and the plant highly valued. There is a striped _Unique Rose_, and a _Rosa tricolor_, which are much thought of. We have mentioned these as the finest we have seen, but amongst two thousand cultivated varieties of the garden rose, there must be many of equal beauty. Of _Rósa spinosíssima_ there are above three hundred varieties; _R. gàllica_; two hundred; _R. centifòlia_, one hundred and fifty; _R. damascène_, above one hundred; _R. álba_, fifty; _R. rubiginósa_, thirty; and of various sorts above eleven hundred. In several individual collections of Europe, there are cultivated above fifteen hundred species, sub-species, and varieties. When planted, they are too frequently crowded indiscriminately amongst other shrubs, which prevents them having the effect they would have if planted singly or grouped. They vary in size in different sorts from one to ten feet. When planted in the latter method, they should be assimilated in size of leaves and manner of growth, with the greatest variation of flower; or if planted in many small patches, giving each a distinct colour, which has a picturesque effect. An other desirable and fanciful method, is to plant them in figures, giving them edgings of wire, willow, or any other substitute, in imitation of basket work, which is called "baskets of roses;" the ground enclosed in the basket margin to be made convex, which will present a greater surface to the eye; the strong shoots to be layered, or kept down by pegs into the ground, having the points of the shoots only to appear above the soil, which should be covered with moss. With this treatment, in a few years the whole surface of the basket will be covered with rose buds and leaves, of one or various sorts. If two or three of the larger growing sorts are taken, such as _Moss_ or _Provins_, they may be trained so as to cover a surface of several square yards. One of these covered with _Lee's Crimson Perpetual Rose_, would be one of the greatest ornaments of the Flower-garden. A modern invention in the cultivation of the rose is, to grow them in shape of trees, by budding on strong growing kinds at different heights from the ground, according to taste, and the purposes intended. They will form in a few years handsome round heads, which will flower more freely than by layers, or trained on their own stalk. They are particularly desirable amongst low shrubs. When planted, they should be well supported by strong rods, to prevent the wind from destroying them. If any of the roots have been bruised in lifting, cut off the bruised part with the knife, and likewise shorten the young shoots; breaking the earth well about their roots when planting. This has been an esteemed shrub among all civilized nations. The flowers are double, semi-double, and single; the colours are pink, red, purple, white, yellow, and striped, with almost every shade and mixture; the odour universally grateful. This plant is cultivated in every garden, from the humblest cottager to the loftiest prince, and by commercial gardeners in Europe extensively, for distilling rose water, and making the essential oil of roses. They delight in a rich loamy soil, and require plenty of moisture while in a growing state. Those sorts which throw up numerous suckers should be lifted every three or four years, reduced, and then transplanted. When thus removing them, avoid as much as possible exposing their roots; and when newly planted, mulching is of considerable advantage; that is, putting half rotten stable-manure on the surface of the ground round their roots, which prevents evaporation, and keeps up a constant moisture. If this was done in general to our roses in dry seasons, it would greatly improve their flowering. For China roses see next month. CLIMBING ROSES. This is the best time to prune ever-blooming climbing roses, such as _Champney_, _Scarlet Cluster_, _Duchesse de Dino_, _Notsette_, _Burgenville_, &c. Many of these, when allowed to grow year after year without pruning, become unsightly; they never bear flowers on the old wood, that is, wood of three or four years. Having a tendency to throw out young shoots from the bottom of the stem, the old wood should be cut out, thus encouraging the young wood, which the second year bears the most and finest flowers. In severe winters, the extremities of the shoots are frequently killed, and we have often seen all the wood black or brown, and apparently dead. When that is the case it is best to leave it until they begin to grow, which will show what is dead or alive, when they can be pruned to better advantage. DECIDUOUS ORNAMENTAL FLOWERING SHRUBS. The earlier the planting of these shrubs is attended to in this month, the more will their growth and flowering be promoted, having all finished before the buds begin to expand. (For kinds recommended see List, end of the volume.) They should never be planted too thick, but leave space for them to grow as they respectively require, and according as they are designed for open or close shrubberies, clumps, or thickets. Have all in readiness, that it may be done with as much expedition as possible, to prevent their roots from being dried by the sun and wind in time of planting. Make the holes intended for their reception round, capacious, and deep enough to hold their roots, without confining them in the least, and loosen the bottom well, putting new and fresh soil under their roots, breaking and pulverizing it during the operation, and frequently shaking the plant as you progress in filling up. When done, make all firm with the foot, leaving a circular cavity to hold the water they will require during dry weather. Give rods, and tie with bands all that need that support before they are left, lest they should be neglected. Cut off any of the bruised roots or irregular growths of the branches. GRASS PLATS AND WALKS. Rake and sweep off from these all litter and worm cast earth, and give an occasional rolling to settle the ground, and render the surface smooth, where the scythe is to be used. The grass will likewise grow better by rolling it where the frost has partially thrown it out, and add greatly to the beauty of the whole. Cut the edgings with an edging iron or spade, so that the whole will have a finished appearance. If any new turf is required to be laid down, this is a very good time to do it, before vegetation is strong; as the turf that is now laid will have taken root before the dry season commences. Where a great extent is to be done, sowing might be adopted; but it will not have the effect of turf under three years, and during that time must be carefully cut, after the first season, every three weeks, while growing, nor must it be walked upon. White clover and true perennial rye-grass are the seeds most proper for sowing. The ground must in the first place be all equally made up, and levelled with the spade and rake; not "cart loads of soil laid down and leveled," which would finally become very uneven, and would need to be lifted and relaid next year. The best turf is that of a close growing pasture or common, free from all kinds of weeds or strong roots, and the grass short. To cut it expeditiously, be provided with a turfing-iron; but if that cannot be conveniently had, a spade may do very well. Strain a line tight, cutting the turf lengthways, at equal distances, from twelve to eighteen inches. Next draw the line across, cutting from one and a half to two feet; then cut them up with the spade, about one and a half inch thick. In laying, join them close and alternately; when done, beat them firm with a level wooden beater, and roll with a heavy roller. Grass walks, in the last century, were very popular; but time having put them to the test, they are found unfit for walking upon or using in any manner, almost for one half of the year; therefore not answering the purposes intended. They require great attention to keep them in order; and if not always neat and clean, they are a disagreeable object in a garden; but when they are well dressed, their effect is very enlivening. Where they are desired, prepare the ground as above directed; making the walk a little higher than the adjoining borders, to prevent the earth from being washed on it by the rain. Allowing the walks to be six feet wide, make the centre five inches higher than the sides, or about seven-eighths of an inch to the foot whatever the breadth may be, which will form a gentle declivity to throw off the rain. When laid, beat and roll it well; cutting the edge neat and even. Water frequently if the weather sets in dry. To keep grass walks or plats in order, they should be mown once every three or four weeks from May to September, and the grass each time swept clean off. When the grass is allowed to get long before being cut, the roots become tender; and die when exposed to the sun; at last the grass is all in spots, and in another year requires to be relaid. GRAVEL WALKS. A practice once existed of turning these into heaps or ridges during winter to destroy weeds, &c. But this has almost been given up as unnecessary, unsightly, inconvenient, and not doing any material service. Where the surface of these has become foul, irregular, or mossy, they had better be turned over four or five inches deep where the gravel will admit of it; but if not, hoe and rake them perfectly clean, give a new coat of gravel, and pick up any stones that you think too large; then give them a good rolling, applying it frequently after showers of rain. When they are well attended to just now, they will look well all the season; but if neglected, they take more labour, and are never in such good condition. Fancy edgings of _Thyme_, _Thrift_, _Gentiana_, _Lavender_, and _Violets_--(_Daisies_ may be used if the situation is shaded.) The whole of these may be planted by the line with the dibber except _Thyme_, which lay as directed for _Box_. See this month, under that head. Any time in this or beginning of next month will answer to make edgings of these; and if dry weather occurs before they begin to grow after planting, they must have frequent waterings until they have taken fresh root. Thyme requires to be dressed twice during the season to keep it in order. OF GRAFTING. There are four methods of grafting. The one we will describe is _whip_ or _tongue grafting_, which is the preferable and most expeditious plan with all deciduous shrubs or trees. The stock upon which it is performed must be slender, from two-thirds of an inch to any diameter suitable to the thickness of the graft. Having headed the stock at a clear smooth part, slope it on one side with a sharp knife at a very acute angle, make a slit on the lower side of the slope about an inch downwards, to receive the tongue or wedge of the graft or scion. Secondly, having the prepared scions cut into lengths of 3, 4, or 5 eyes, take one which matches the stock in size, and slope the bottom of it so as to fit the stock, that the rinds of both may correspond exactly, especially on one side and at bottom; make also a slit upward in the graft, like that in the slope of the stock, so as the one may be inserted in the other as evenly and completely as possible. Let the graft be carefully held in its due position, while a bandage is applied. Take strands of Russian mat, and bind them in a neat manner several times round the stock and graft. Lastly, cover the joint with well worked clay, coat from half an inch below the bottom of the graft to an inch above the top of the stock, and to the thickness of half an inch all round, finish it in an oblong globular form, taking care to work it close, that no air may penetrate. If the clay is covered with moss, it will partially prevent it from cracking. The grafts will have taken when they begin to grow freely; then the clay may be taken off, and the bandage loosened, and put on again, but not so tight; give the grafts a stake for support, tying them thereto to prevent accidents from the wind. Allow no shoots to arise from the stock. Any of the rare deciduous trees may, by the above method, be grafted on one of its own family, that is more common, and in that respect is the finest species of propagation that is resorted to. =Rooms.= _MARCH._ If the plants in these situations have been properly attended to by admitting air at all favourable times, and when the apartment was below 36° a little fire heat applied to counteract the cold, keeping the heat above that degree; your attention will be rewarded by the healthy appearance of your plants. The weather by this time has generally become milder, so that air may be more freely admitted, especially from ten to three o'clock. Where the leaves are grown to one side, turn the plant with the dark side to the light. They will require a more liberal supply of water, but always avoid keeping them wet. Pick off all decayed leaves, and tie up any straggling shoots; stir up the earth on the top of the pots, breaking it fine where it is hardened by the frequent waterings. This will allow the fresh air to act upon the roots, which is one of the principal assistants in vegetation. For those that require shifting or repotting, see _Green-house_, _March_; the plants enumerated there equally apply here, if they are in the collection, with this difference, that well kept rooms are about two weeks earlier than the Green-house. After the end of this month, where there is a convenience, plants will do better in windows that look to the east, in which the direct rays of a hot sun are prevented from falling upon them, and the morning sun is more congenial for plants in this country than the afternoon sun. Where there is any dust on the leaves of any of them, take a sponge and water, and make the whole clean, likewise divest them of all insects. The green-fly is perhaps on the roses; if there are no conveniences for fumigating, wash them off as previously directed. Where there are only a few plants, these pests could be very easily kept off by examining the plants every day. For the scaly insect, see _January_. If they have not been cleared off, get it done directly; for by the heat of the weather they will increase tenfold. FLOWERING PLANTS. _Hyacinths_, _Tulips_, _Narcissus_, _Jonquils_, and _Crocus_, will be generally in flower. The former requires plenty of water, and the saucers under the pots should be constantly full until they are done blooming. The others need only be liberally supplied at the surface of the pot. Give them neat green-painted rods to support their flower stems, and keep them all near the light. The spring flowering _Oxalis_ will not open except it is exposed to the full rays of the sun. The _Lachenàlia_ is greatly improved in colour with exposure to the sun, though when in flower its beauties are preserved by keeping it a little in the shade. _Prímulas_, or Primrose, both Chinese and European, delight in an airy exposure; but the sun destroys the beauty of their flowers by making the colours fade. _Caméllias._ Many of them will be in perfection. See Green-house this month for a description of the finest varieties. Do not let the sun shine upon the blooms. Those that are done flowering, will, in small pots, require to be repotted. The _Cálla_ or Æthopian water-lily, when in flower, ought to stand in saucers with water. The Hyacinths that are in glasses must be regularly supplied with water. The roots will be very much reduced by this method; therefore, when the bloom is over, if possible plant them in the garden, or bury them in pots of earth, to ripen and strengthen the bulbs. They will take two years with good encouragement, before they can satisfactorily be again flowered in glasses, and properly they ought not be allowed to bloom next year. Those that are done flowering in pots, can be set aside, and the usual waterings gradually withdrawn. Treat all other Dutch bulbs in a similar manner. =Hot-House.= _APRIL._ Where the Hot-house has been properly conducted, the plants generally will have a vigorous and healthful aspect. An error frequently arises in the conducting of these departments, by inexperienced operators being ambitious of outstripping their competitors. They keep the house in a very high temperature, and admit little or no air. Where such mode has been pursued, the plants will have got over their first growth, and the foliage look yellow and decaying, thus throwing the plants into a state of inactivity, when nature herself commences her most active movements. The temperature should not be under 60° nor much above 75°, without admitting a little air by the top lights. It will not do yet to give air by the front sashes, the wind being cool, and a current in the house would be hurtful. The sun is not so powerful but the heat can be kept down by the air given from above. In very cold cutting winds, though the effects of sun heat be great, admitting of much air may be injurious. Whatever error may arise, let it be on the side of caution. However, when high winds prevail, there is little danger of the house becoming overheated by the effect of the sun. Hot-house or tropical plants will not be hurt with 110°, if they are not touching the glass. And if the plants are near the glass generally, the glass should have a coat of very thin white-wash (not lime), where the glass is thin and light in colour; but if it is thick and green, there need be no white-washing. The plants will need a liberal supply of water every day. We have so constantly cautioned the operator on administering this element, that a repetition here is unnecessary. Sprinkle them well with the syringe or engine in the evenings about sundown, four or five times a week, and strictly observe that none of them are omitted; for where there are such, it is probable they are attacked by the red spider. If any of these are detected, syringe them powerfully morning and evening. Water is most effectual in their destruction, and most congenial to the plants. Give regular fumigations to destroy the green-fly. Wherever there is dust or foulness contracted on the foliage, wash all clean with sponge and water; for on these insects are harboured in such quantities that they, in a short time, would overrun all the plants in the house. Keeping the house constantly clean, the plants clear of decayed leaves and every thing of a corroding nature, and duly syringing them, is the surest method of not being much troubled with insects. For repotting plants, see next month; except those that you are fostering to a great extent, such as _Alstr[oe]merias_, _Calceolàrias_, or any herbaceous plants that require great encouragement to make them flower well. These should always be repotted, as soon as the roots come to be round the outside of the ball. =Green-House.= _APRIL._ Regarding the shifting or repotting of plants, the directions given last month may be followed. If the plants are not shifted that require it, get them done as soon as possible, for they will soon get into a luxuriant state of growth, and then it would not be advisable to shift them. Those that were repotted last month will have taken fresh root in the new soil, and the advantage will soon be perceptible. In order to strengthen the plants, and keep them from becoming drawn and spindly, admit large portions of air every mild day. Indeed there will be very few days in this month, that a little air may not be given, always observing to divide the quantity regularly over the house, in cool nights closing in time. About the end of the month an abundance of air is indispensable, leaving the sashes and doors open every mild night, that the plants may be inured to the open exposure they will have in a few weeks. WATERING. As the season advances and vegetation increases, the waterings will require to be more copious and more frequent. Look over all plants minutely every day, and with judicious care supply their wants. Those that are of a soft shrubby nature, and in a free-growing state, will require a larger portion at one time than those of a hard texture, which may only want it every two or three days. The weather and situation in some instances may require a modification of these directions. Plants in general will not suffer so soon from being a little dry as from being over-watered. The health and beauty of the foliage of the plants may be much improved by syringing them freely three evenings in the week, except in moist weather, when it ought not to be done. The ravages of many insects also will be retarded, especially mildew and red spider, which will be entirely destroyed. If the red spider is on any of the plants, particularly take them aside evening and morning, and give them a good dashing with water through the syringe. Where there is mildew, after syringing the plant, dust it on the affected parts with flowers of sulphur, and set them for a few days where they will be sheltered from the wind, after which wash off the sulphur. If the cure is not complete, renew the dose. Always sweep out and dry up the water in the house when any is spilt. The succulent plants will be in want of a little water about once a week, but do not overwater them, as there is not heat enough to absorb much moisture. If the soil is damp, it is quite sufficient. ORANGES, LEMONS, &c. Will in many instances about the end of this month be showing flowers or flower buds. They must under these circumstances have plenty of air to prevent them from falling off when entirely exposed. The reason that we see so much fine blossom falling to the ground where the trees are brought out of the house in May, is from the confinement they have had. Where there is a convenience of giving air from the back of the Green-house, it should always be given in mild days, especially in those houses that have a recess back from the top of the sashes, for even if the sashes are let down every day, still the house will not be properly ventilated. Any plants that are sickly and intended to be planted in the garden next month to renovate their growth, may be cut back, (if not already done,) as far as is required to give the tree a handsome form, taking care not to cut below the graft or inoculation. Let the operation be done with a fine saw and sharp knife, smoothing the amputations that are made by the saw; and if they are large, put a little well made clay over the wound, to prevent the air from mortifying the shoot. Turpentine is preferable to clay, not being subject to crack or fall off by the weather. If there are any _Lagerstr[oe]mias_, _Pomegranate_, or _Hydràngeas_ in the cellar, they should be brought out about the first of the month, and planted in their respective situations. Give the _Hydràngea_ a very shady spot. It does not require one ray of the sun, providing it has plenty of air, and do not plant it into soil that has been lately manured. A large plant must have great supplies of water in dry weather. If the plant is very thick, the oldest branches may be thinned out, but do not cut out any of the young shoots, as they contain the embryo of the flower. _Lagerstr[oe]mias_ will flower abundantly without pruning, but to have fine large spikes of flowers, cut in the wood of last year to about three eyes from the wood of the preceding year; by this they will be much finer. _Pomegranates_ will only require a little of the superfluous wood cut out. Perhaps some of them may be desired to flower in pots or tubs during summer: the balls will admit of being much reduced, and by this a pot or tub very little larger will do for them. Do not give much water until they begin to grow. MYRTLES AND OLEANDERS. If any of these have grown irregularly, and are not headed down or otherwise pruned, as directed last month, they should now be done. Oleanders are very subject to the white scaly insect, and before the heat of summer begins, they should be completely cleansed. This insect is likewise found on _Myrtles_, which are worse to clean, and ought to be minutely examined twice every year. We have observed mildew on these shrubs, which makes the foliage brown and unsightly. If it is detected in time, syringing is an effectual remedy. GERANIUMS. Some of the earliest blooming kinds of these will now begin to flower, and the sun will greatly deteriorate their rich colours where they are near the glass with a south aspect. The glass should be white-washed, which will cast a thin shade over them, and prolong the duration of the bloom, but if they are above five feet from the glass, white-washing is not requisite. The strong kinds will be growing very luxuriantly, and require liberal supplies of water. When syringing, do not sprinkle the flowers, as it would make the colours intermingle with each other, and cause them to decay prematurely. If they have been properly attended to in that respect, it may be dispensed with after they have generally come in flower, which will not be until about the first of May. HERBACEOUS PLANTS AND BULBOUS ROOTS. If any of the herbaceous plants were neglected to be divided last month, do not omit it now. They will not flower so well if potted entire, and their growth by this time will be much hurt, if not carefully shaded from the sun. After dividing, sprinkle gently with water three times a day, until they have taken fresh root, when they can be put amongst the other plants. _Cape Bulbs._ Those that flowered late in autumn, as soon as the foliage begins to decay, may be set aside, and the water withheld by degrees. When the foliage is entirely gone, and the roots dry, clear them from the earth, and after laying exposed in the shade for a few days to dry, pack them up in dry moss, with their respective names attached, until August, when they may be again potted. Treat those that are in flower the same as directed in last month. _Dutch Roots._ All the species and varieties of these that have been kept in the Green-house during winter, will now be done flowering; the water should be withdrawn gradually from them; and then the pots turned on their sides to ripen the bulbs. Or, a superior method is, where there is the convenience of a garden, to select a bed not much exposed. Turn the balls out of the pots and plant them; the roots will ripen better this way than any other. Have them correctly marked, that no error may take place. They can be lifted with the other garden bulbs. FLOWERING PLANTS. The best situation for most plants while in flower, is where they are shaded from the sun, and fully exposed to the air. _Primroses_, both European and Chinese, flower best, and the colours are finest when the plants are in the front of the house, and entirely shaded from the sun. The Chinese _Azàleas_ and _Rhododéndrons_ require, while in flower, a similar situation. Have all the shoots tied naturally to neat rods, and keep them clear from others by elevating them on empty pots, or any other substitute. See that there are no insect upon them; for they make a miserable contrast with flowers. The _Cálla æthiopica_ should stand in water when in flower, and even before flowering they will be much strengthened by it. INSECTS. Insects will on some plants be very perplexing. The weather may admit of those that are infected to be taken out of doors, and put into a frame in any way that is most convenient. Fumigating them about half an hour, if the day is calm, will be sufficient; but if windy, they will take an hour. When done, syringe them well, and put them in their respective situations. By the above method, the house will not be made disagreeable with the fumes of tobacco. Tie up neatly all the climbing plants. Keep those that are running up the rafters of the house close to the longitudinal wires. As previously observed, running plants should not be taken across the house, except in some instances where it can be done over the pathway, otherwise it shades the house too much. Clear off all decayed leaves, and all contracted foulness, that the house and plants may in this month have an enlivening aspect, as it is undoubtedly one of the most interesting seasons of the year in the Green-house. FLOWERING STOCKS. Those that have been kept in the Green-house, or in frames, should be planted into beds or the borders, where they will seed better than if kept in the pots. The method generally adopted is to select the plants that are intended for seed; plant the different kinds distinctly and separately; then take a few double flowering plants of each kind, which plant round their respective single varieties that are to be kept for seed. Whenever any of the colours sport, that is, become spotted or striped with other colours, pull these up, and destroy them, for they will soon degenerate the whole, and ought never to be seen in collections that have any pretensions to purity. Many have been the plans recommended as the best for saving, and growing from seed the double varieties of German stock. In every method we have tried we have been successful and unsuccessful; although we generally practise planting the double kinds beside the single, where they are intended for seed. We have no scientific reason for it; not seeing what influence these monsters of flowers can have over a flower where the male and female organs are perfect; which in these are wanting. Some say that the semi-double sorts are best: we have likewise found them both abortive and fruitful in the desired results. =Flower Garden.= _APRIL._ The ambition of every attentive gardener, during this month, is to be at the head of every department, and over every spot. The operator's activity in this month regulates the whole season. Every weed ought to be cut down as soon as it appears, and the proverbial saying will be realized, "a garden that is well kept is easily kept." A wet day need cause no loss of time. Prepare rods, bands, and tallies, to be in readiness when required. Damp weather should always be taken to prick out or transplant annuals, or stocks, but by no means go on the borders while they are wet. If it cannot be done by keeping on the walks, defer it until they are in a proper state. One day of laborious attention just now will save two in the heat of summer. Many in the height of bustle never finish properly as they proceed, which is the worst of practices. Every operation ought to be completely and properly finished before another is taken in hand, which will ultimately prove the quickest and best method to work upon. Let digging, pruning, hoeing, raking, &c. be done as expeditiously as strength will allow; that the time may be devoted for a few weeks to the beautifying of the garden by sowing and planting. ANNUALS. Those that are tender and were sown last month, according to directions, will be ready to prick out into another light hot-bed, about two feet high, prepared as directed in February. Keep them a few inches apart to let the air circulate. Give them frequent sprinklings with water, and shade them with a mat for a few days until they have taken fresh root; then give them plenty of air, and by the first of next month expose them night and day to harden the plants for the open ground. A few of the annual seeds of every description, and of every country and climate, may be sown any time after the middle of the month. If the season prove favourable they will do well; but reserving a part to sow about the 15th of May, will guard against every extreme. Those that have come above ground should be thinned out, the dwarf-growing kinds to two or three inches, and the large sorts to four or five inches apart; or they may be only separated about an inch, going over them again in a few weeks; when a few might be taken of those that will bear removing, and plant them in vacant spaces that require filling up. All the varieties of French and African Marygold answer best when transplanted, likewise the species of _Coreòpsis_ that were sown in autumn. The varieties of _Ten-week Stock_, _Balsams_, _Coxcombs_, and other strong growing sorts, generally flower stronger when replanted. BIENNIALS AND PERENNIALS. Any biennials that are intended to be removed, and not done last month, must not be delayed longer. The roots of many of them will be very strong, and if possible a cloudy day should be chosen for the operation. Give copious waterings in the evenings until they begin to grow. When the sun is strong, they must be shaded by a piece of board, shingle, or any similar substitute, for some days. When the seeds of these are sown, they should be distinctly marked. The initial B. is the most appropriate. _Perennials._ For a limited description of several genera and species, see last month. Those that have not been divided and replanted, where large, they should be done directly, if the weather is dry. They must be carefully watered, and shaded as above directed for _Biennials_. DAHLIAS. _Dáhlia supérflua_, or what is now called _Georgìana variábilis_, is one of the most fashionable and popular hardy herbaceous plants of the present day. The varieties of the present species are almost endless. The double kinds only are cultivated, the single varieties having been thrown aside. Several collections in Europe contain upwards of three hundred double varieties, of every colour and taste, occupying more than two acres of ground. It will be difficult to specify the finest; but in this country the dwarf-growing sorts are preferred. To make them flower freely, they should be planted in poor heavy soil. From the end of this month to the middle of May, take the roots from their winter quarters to the garden, and with a spade make a hole sufficiently wide and deep to receive the crowns of the roots one inch deeper than the surface of the ground, cutting off with a sharp knife the old stumps close to the eyes. They have the finest effect in rows; plant them four feet apart in the row, and the rows six feet asunder. Individual plants of a dwarf nature look extremely well. The best one for this is the _Dwarf Globe Crimson_, and is perhaps the finest that is known, being prolific, compact, beautiful, and very dwarf, never exceeding three feet: if properly grown, _Púlla elècta_, _Famæa_, and _Zenò_, are also fine dwarf sorts; as tall growing kinds _Etna_; _Imperiòsa_; _Ciceró_; _Cocàde_; _Cambridge Surprise_; _Dutchess of Wellington_; _Countess of Liverpool_; _Barret's William Fourth_; _True Mountain of Snow_; _Diàna_; _Crimson Bonnet_; and _Exímia_, are all superb, and at present the highest in estimation. For the names of more of the finest varieties, with their colour, see Catalogue at the end of the work. When the roots become very large, they ought to be divided, and in dry seasons they require to be liberally supplied with water to keep them growing. If their growth is obstructed, the flowering will be imperfect. Where they are grown to any extent, it would be advisable to put up a large hot-bed about the end of March, and plant them close together therein, about the beginning of April, which would immediately cause them to grow. Give plenty of air, and about the middle of May plant them in the borders, beds, or rows, which will in cool seasons cause them to flower earlier. The flowers are from three to eight inches in diameter. There ought to be a few of the most distinct and superb varieties, in every garden. Some individuals consider the _Anemoné-flowered_ varieties the finest; but those who never saw a _Dáhlia_ flower of any character, would, in our opinion, chose the large petaled flowers. The _Anemoné-flowered_ sorts likewise are not so large in flower as the other varieties. The foliage has no particular attraction about it; the stems look strong, but are soft in substance. If seeds are sown on a hot-bed in March, most of them will flower the same year, by transplanting in the garden about the end of May; but the fine double kinds seldom produce seeds. CHINA ROSES. From the first to the middle of this month is the best time to plant the varieties of Chinese roses. If they are to be removed out of the ground, the earlier in the month the better; but where they are in pots, the precise time is not so material. There are about seventy varieties, including the species of these in cultivation; all of them do extremely well in this country, growing freely, and flowering abundantly in the open air. A few of them require protection during winter. The List at the end of the work will contain all the finest varieties; but as they are not generally known, and the greater part of them highly deserving a situation in every garden, a few limited specific observations is obviously desirable to those who are not acquainted with their beauty and fragrance. No. 1. _Ròsa índica_, common China or daily. From the last name an error has taken place, that it blooms every day. In one sense of the word it does. Plants that are young, and in good ground, will grow and flower constantly from the end of April until the buds are killed with frost; but they will never flower when not growing; the bloom being produced on the young wood. The flower is about three inches in diameter, of a dark blush or rose colour, petals large, and loose, between a semi-double and double, and perfectly hardy. No. 2. *[B]_Rose Animated_, daily, is a very fine rose, and its merits are appreciated by those who have it in their collections. It is more double, and better formed than No. 1, and partakes of the fragrance of No. 8, is perfectly hardy, colour a fine blush, grows freely, and flowers abundantly; and is coming into great repute. [B] Those marked thus * we have grown from seed. No. 3. _Rosa Indìca mínor_, is the smallest of the China roses that we are familiar with; about the end of April or beginning of May it is completely covered with pretty little flowers, and much admired for its diminutiveness: colour same as No. 1. No. 4. _Rosa Bengal elongáta_, named from the foliage being more elongate than the other common roses. It grows and flowers freely, petals large, colour light red, very distinguishable from any of the other sorts. No. 5. _Rosa belle Chinese_, is a beautiful French rose, and blooms in great abundance; flowers large and double, colour when first expanded pink, and changes to crimson, making a striking appearance, and greatly admired. No. 6. _Rosa la tendere japonica_, an erect growing rose, of a handsome purple colour, with large petals; much like the garden velvet rose. No. 7. _Rosa belle vibert_, does not produce so large flowers as the three last mentioned; but they are very double, blooming abundantly in the latter part of summer; colour very dark, and by some called the Black China Rose. No. 8. _Rosa odoràta_, or Tea-rose, celebrated in this country for its fragrance being similar to fine Hyson tea. It justly deserves the preference of all the China roses, for the delicacy of its flavour. The flowers are a cream coloured blush, the petals round and full, forming a very large rose; when full blown, it is pendulous. It will withstand the winter of the middle states with a little protection, such as straw, box, or barrel; requires very rich light soil. No. 9. _Rosa Florence_, or Scarlet-tea. This rose partakes of the fragrance of No. 8, is perfectly hardy, grows freely, and flowers profusely. The flower is well formed, very double, and a distinct variety from any that we know. The flower is lightest when first expanded. No. 10. _Rose, Purple-tea._ We have not found how this name has originated: but when the plant known in our collections under that name is compared, there is no difference between it and No. 9. No. 11. _Rosa odoràta álba_, or White-tea, is not so odorous as No. 8, but blooms more profusely, and grows more freely. The beautiful and neat appearance of the buds, when half expanded, is not surpassed; and when full blown, they are a fine delicate white. The bush in that state is showy, much admired, and scarce; we are not positive of its being hardy. No. 12. _Rosa Bengal_, or Yellow-tea, is a very free flowerer, the shape of the flower is more like No. 8. than any of the others; the petals are large and gracefully set, having a peculiar scent or flavour, and is of a sulphur colour. We cannot say as to its being hardy, but suppose it as much so as No. 8. No. 13. _Rosa Venella_, or Venella Scented-tea, is undoubtedly a handsome rose, and has many admirers; colour a bloody velvet; flowers large and very double, rising in the centre more than any of the others; blooming freely, and of pleasant flavour; rendering it altogether a desirable rose. No. 14. _Rosa belle de monza._ The flower of this rose is flatter than any of the other sorts; the petals are regularly laid over each other, making it very compact; it is about four inches in diameter when well grown; the plant is of quick growth, free in flowering, darker in colour than No. 1, equally as hardy, and ought to have a situation in every garden where roses are grown. No. 15. _Rosa amaránthe_, is a showy brilliant scarlet rose, flower compact, and of a moderate size. No. 16. *_Rosa Clintónia_, is a good rose, and in a favourable situation will produce abundantly large, round, and compact flowers, differing in shape from any of the others; colour similar to the provins rose. No. 17. _Rosa semperflòrens plèno_, or sanguinea, is a celebrated rose, the foliage small, and of a reddish appearance. The flower is well shaped, and of a blood colour; wood of a slender growth, requires some protection in winter, or it will die to the surface of the ground; delights in sandy soil. This rose is frequently called anemone-flowered, though in no respects similar to the character of an anemone-flower. The _Otaheite_ rose is of the same colour, but very inferior. No. 18. *_Rosa purple sanguinea_, is of a purple colour, same in shape as No. 17, but in size larger; is a good flowerer, making a fine variety. We do not know any similar to it. No. 19. _Rosa grandvàl_, is a magnificent rose; flower full and large, petals closely set, colour dark crimson. The wood and leaves are like the _Hamilton_ rose, but it grows and flowers more freely. It is scarce. No. 20. _Rosa Indica álba plèno_, or white China, is a rose of free growth, abundant in flower, and pure white, which renders it very desirable; is larger than No. 1, is greatly admired, and rare; requires rich light soil. No. 21. _Rosa Magnifier_, _magnificent_, or _magnìfica_. It is known under all these names. The general appearance of the plant resembles No. 19, but the flowers in shape and colour are similar to the garden Provins rose, and nearly as large. No. 22. *_Rosa florabùnda multiplèx_. This rose is very correctly named, although the plant is of a moderate stature. The whole is covered with immense clusters of various coloured flowers, changing from pink to dark crimson; the flowers very double, and greatly admired. No. 23. *_Rosa flamæa_, has a very striking appearance, is of a flame colour, and distinct from any other of the China roses; blooms freely, and is a little fragrant, which makes it desirable. No. 24. *_Rosa Hibbèrtia_, is a superb rose of a light red colour; flower of a common size, double and compact, very fragrant, and abundant in bloom. The buds are of a particular shape, being flat at the extremity where others are pointed. It is highly deserving of a situation, and universally admired. No. 25. *_Rosa Jacksónia_, is deep red, large, and very double, of luxuriant growth; is more spiny and elastic than any of the China roses that have come under our observation. The plant altogether is unique in its character, and flowers profusely. No. 26. _R. Adamsônia_, is dwarf growing; has flowers of a beautiful purple velvet colour, inclining to black; and is much admired. When well grown, it will bloom freely. No. 27. *_Rosa Webestèria._[C] None of the China roses approaches this, except _Hortensia_, and it is much inferior. The rose is very double, and particularly well formed; colour similar to No. 8, with a beautiful rich blush in the centre, flowing to the extremity of the petals. It blooms profusely, and grows freely in light rich soil. [C] Named in honour of D. Webster, Esq. whose productions deserve a place in every library; and this plant a spot in every garden. No. 28. _Rosa gigántea._ Without exception, this is the handsomest shaped China rose that has come under our observation, the colour dark crimson, with a few shades through it. The centre is full set; petals regular and large, the flower very double, plant strong, growing and free blooming--it is scarce. No. 29. _Rosa Washington_,[D] is a very good and distinct variety; the foliage is pale green with red nerves; flower full and compact, the extremity of the petals dark red, the bottom white; showing, when the flower is full expanded, a white centre, and is frequently a little striped; grows well, and blooms freely, in light sandy soil. [D] Originated on the substantial establishment of D. & C. Landreth, and called by them "Scarlet and White." No. 30. *_Rosa calyxifòlia_. The calyx of this rose has large leaflets attached to it. It blooms very early, and is of a deep crimson colour, with recurved petals, which give it a singular and beautiful appearance. The young shoots and leaves are of a purple hue. It grows and flowers freely, and is quite characteristic, and surpasses any we know for flowering early in the Green-house or Rooms. No. 31. _Rosa Montezùma_ (Mexican-rose.) This is an esteemed variety, with large double flowers of a red colour, and when the flowers begin to fade they become darker; it is of a strong growing and hardy nature, much admired, and scarce. No. 32. _Rosa horténsia._ The buds of this rose are very beautiful before expansion, and when fully expanded, are of a fine colour, assimilated to No. 8; flowers large in proportion to the growth of the plant. * * * * * These roses are all of a shrubby nature, and the finest flowering varieties that have come under our observation and culture. The China roses generally are not completely double, though going under the name of double flowers, and having the appearance of such. Those that are mentioned above as _double_ and _very double_ are those that are more double than No. 1, which is a rose that is generally known. The whole of them are much admired, and being now of great variety in colour, shade and aspect, constitute a valuable addition to the Flower-garden. A bed of varieties planted therein in good light rich soil, and well dressed by hoeing deep, raking, &c. during the early stage of their growth every season, will form an ornament varied in colour, unrivalled, and as yet not found in our Flower-gardens. Their nature agrees so well with our summer seasons, that it will not surprise us to see, in a few years, selections of them planted in rows or hedges, dividing the compartments in our gardens. They are all hardy, but of those that are not perfectly so, we have mentioned the required protection. Any of them that have not been proved hardy in your collections, it would be extremely injudicious to leave them exposed the first winter after planting out. Caution is necessary on every unknown point; therefore, we would recommend to give them slight protection, by a covering of straw, mats, boxes, &c. and if they appear to withstand the winter in perfect safety, they will not need again to be covered. The best season of the year for pruning them is about the first of this month. In doing so it is not advisable to shorten any of the young shoots, except in cutting off the injured parts, that being the wood most productive of bloom; but where there is old stinted wood, it should be cut out as close to the surface of the ground as the other parts of the bush will permit, with any other of the oldest wood that is too crowded. If the plants have been long established, dig in amongst their roots a little well decomposed manure, and stir and hoe them frequently during the summer. CLIMBING ROSES. No. 1. _Rosa Champneyàna._ This celebrated rose has a situation in almost every garden in our city, and forms a great ornament, flowering very profusely in immense clusters from May to November. Many of these having more than thirty buds upon them of a light pink colour, it is sometimes called "Pink Cluster." It is of rapid growth, and does well for covering arbours, fences, or any unsightly object. The foliage is of a lucid green, and the wood very strong in growth. This rose is at present one of the most abundant in flower, the easiest of cultivation, (growing in any exposure,) and in every respect is highly deserving of attention. No. 2. _Rosa blush Noisettià_ is very similar to No. 1. in habit; the flowers are lighter in colour, and a little larger; but the plant does not flower so profusely during the heat of the season. There is a variety of _Noisettia_ in our gardens, known from this by the bud being more rounded, and another under the name of _Charles 10th_, which has fine large flowers of a dark blush colour. No. 3. _Rosa red Noisettià_, or what we consider more properly _Scarlet cluster_. It is very distinct from any other of the Noisettias in habit. It is an excellent variety, and blooms abundantly; of a scarlet colour; forming a fine contrast with the two last, which are light in colour, and though not generally known is very desirable. No. 4. _Rosa moschàta_, musk-scented, or white cluster, is an esteemed rose both for profusion of flower and agreeableness in fragrance. It is not of so rapid growth as the three previous, and may be kept as a bush; though it will grow to a considerable height if protected by a wall or close fence, being tacked thereto. Where kept as a bush, in very severe winters, it is the better of a slight covering, and is the latest flowering rose in the garden. The flowers are frequently on the same bush single, semi-double, and double, but mostly semi-double. No. 5. _Rosa moschàta supérba_, or superb white cluster. This in habit and appearance is the same as No. 4, only the roses are double, and never vary; which makes it a very superior rose. It is highly esteemed and scarce. No. 6. _Rosa Aralie Noisettià._ This has been called by some _Purple Noisettià_, (which is a very different rose, and not generally known.) In growth it is similar to No. 4, and could be kept in the same manner. The flowers are of a dark pink colour, very prolific, but not so large as No. 2. These are all what are termed with us ever-blooming roses, being in flower from May until the buds are destroyed by frost. They should be pruned about the first of this month. The young wood is most productive of bloom; where the branches are too crowded, cut out the oldest wood as close to the ground as is practicable, and any of the dead branches. The shoots when tied to the trellis, arbour, wall, or fence, should be about six inches clear. The branches when made fast to their support ought to be in direct lines, which must at all times be strictly observed. It is very unsightly to see shoots trained crooked, or over each other, and, unsightly or unscientifical as it may be, it is too prevalent in every garden. No. 7. _R. Bourbòn_ is a double rose of brilliant red colour, petals large, stiff, and neatly set; the flower about the size of a common Provins rose, and finely scented; grows freely. The wood is strong, and undoubtedly it is the finest climbing rose that has come under our observation, and is highly admired. No. 8. R. _Boursault_. This rose is much thought of in Europe. It is of a purple colour (and once called _Purpurea_), has a little fragrance, flower nearly the size of No. 7; wood more slender, and of very rapid growth, and capable of covering a large space. When in flower it is very showy. The old wood is of a purple colour. There is a white variety of it. No. 9. R. _Lisle_, is of a light pink colour, about the shape and size of No. 8, grows freely, and flowers abundantly. This and No. 8. are the hardiest climbing roses that we know. No. 10. R. _microphylla_. This rose is unique in every character, resembling No. 21. more than any other. The foliage is very small and neat, and the calyx thick and bristly. The flowers are produced at the extremity of the young shoots in twos or threes, according to the strength of the plant; they are large and double; the exterior petals large and full; those of the interior are very short and thick set; the colour in the centre is dark, shading lighter towards the exterior; the spines are in pairs on each side of the compound leaves. It is perfectly hardy, and greatly esteemed, and not so subject to be attacked by insects as other roses. No. 11. R. _Franklinia_, or Cluster-tea, generally flowers well in May and June, but during the remainder of the season the heat appears to be too strong for it, the buds dropping off before expansion. The flower bud is larger than that of the Tea-rose; the petals large but loose, colour light blush. No. 12. R. _Bánksiæ_, or Lady Banks' rose, is a free growing kind, and has a lucid green foliage; flowers small white clusters with pink centre, very double, and sweet scented; in bloom during May. From what we have seen of it, the spring months appear too changeable for perfecting all its bloom, many falling off from the chilliness of the nights. The plant naturally is an evergreen, but in our city is deciduous; grows best in sandy soil, and should be protected by mats during winter. No. 13. R. _Bánksiæ lùtea pléno_. The habit and foliage of this are the same as No. 12, and whether hardy or not we have not proved. In Europe it is considered more hardy than the preceding variety. The flowers are larger, of a fine gold yellow, very double, and neatly set. It is considered very pretty. No. 14. R. _multiflòra_, was amongst the first climbing roses that was planted in this city, and was so highly admired, that twenty dollars were given for one plant. It bears its flowers in close clusters on the wood of last year; the colour is a deep blush; petals thickly set, making it a close and compact small rose; blooming in June. It is losing its celebrity, and giving place to _Champnèy_, _Noisèttia_, _Grevìllii_, &c. No. 15. R. _white multiflòra_. In all respects same as No. 14, except in flower, which is much lighter, but not a pure white. No. 16. R. _scarlet multiflòra_, is darker in colour than No. 14, but is not properly a scarlet flower. No. 17. R. _purple multiflòra_. We suspect that there is some confusion in this plant being confounded either with _Scarlet multiflòra_ or with _Grevìllii_. Plants imported as such have proved to be the latter. No. 18. R. _Grevìllii_, is a very curious rose, flowered the first time with us in June 1830. It is of the variety of No. 14, and of China origin; growth free and luxuriant; leaves large and deeply nerved; flowers in large clusters, almost every eye of the wood of last year producing one cluster, having on it from eight to twenty roses, according to the state of the plant, each rose expanding differently in colour or shade. Many suppose that they expand all of the same colour, and change afterwards. This is not the case. We have seen them white, pink, red, purple, and various other shades when the bloom expanded; and on two clusters we have observed twenty-two distinct shades of colour. In fact, it is a complete nondescript, having roses, single, semi-double, and double, large and small, and every colour between white and purple, forming, in every garden where it is planted, a wonder of the vegetable world. It is very hardy; an eastern aspect will answer it best, preserving the flowers from the direct rays of the sun, which will keep the colours purer. We readily recommend it to every lover of _Flora_. No. 19. R. _arvénsis scándens multiplèx_, or double Ayrshire. We imported this rose last year, as being a very double blush, sweet-scented variety. It is highly valued, and said to be more rapid in growth than any other variety, and likewise a profuse flowerer. As far as we know it remains to be proved how it will agree with our climate, and have its high characters substantiated; although we have no reason to doubt the authority we received it from. No. 20. R. _sempervírens plenò_. This is a most handsome double white rose. The strong shoots of last year will produce a large cluster of flowers from almost every eye, and as a profuse flowering double white climbing rose we have seen none to surpass it. It grows freely, the foliage and wood pure green, leaves much nerved. No. 21. R. _bracteàta plenò_, double Macartney, is a very fine large double white variety, with strongly marked red edged petals; blooming from May to July. It is very scarce, and grows best in sandy soil. The best time for pruning those roses which only bloom once in the season, and are of a climbing habit, is immediately after flowering, cutting out all the old wood that has produced flowers, thereby invigorating the young wood that is to bear the flowers the ensuing year; and the stronger the wood of this year can be made to grow, the finer and more profuse will be the flowers. The plants of Nos. 12, 14, 18, and the intermediate varieties, have been pruned on a wrong system. In place of giving them a general dressing in spring, they ought to have it immediately after flowering; the old wood cut out, leaving only the young and such as is of a healthy nature. Avoid crowding them together, and tie them all straight and regular. Never top the shoots except where there is a supply of wood wanted. In spring the only dressing requisite is to cut off the injured shoots or branches, making good the tyings that have given way. Trellises for these roses are generally made too wide; the shoots cannot be neatly kept to them. They ought never to exceed nine inches between each spar or rod. There are several species and varieties of climbing roses of high standing in character, but not being perfectly known to us in regard to hardiness, &c. we forbear making any remarks upon them, knowing that much exaggeration exists. CLIMBING PLANTS. As shade is much required in this country, and plants suitable for covering arbours, &c. eagerly sought for, we will make a few remarks on those which are preferred for their beauty, growth, hardiness, &c. _Atragène alpìna_, is a free growing deciduous shrub, with large blush-coloured flowers, which continue blooming from May to July; has small pinnated foliage. _Clématis viticélla pulchélla_, or double purple virgin's bower, is an esteemed climbing plant; of rapid growth, with large flowers in great profusion from June to September. There are several varieties of the above, two of them single, and it is said that there is likewise a double red. _C. flámmula_, sweet scented virgin's bower, is of very rapid growth. Established plants will grow from twenty to forty feet in one season, producing at the axils of the young shoots large panicles of small white flowers of exquisite fragrance; the leaves are compound pinnate; in bloom from June to November, but in June, July, September, and October, the flowers are in great profusion, perfuming the whole garden. This is one of the best climbing hardy plants that we know, and it ought to have a situation in every garden. _C. Virgiàna_, is of rapid growth, and well adapted for arbours; flowers small white in axillary panicles, di[oe]cious, leaves ternate, segments cordate, acute, coarsely toothed and lobed, in bloom from June to August. A native, and a little fragrant. _C. flòrida plenò_, is a fine free flowering plant, though generally considered a shrub, is more herbaceous than shrubby; the flowers are large double white; in growth will not exceed ten feet in one season. _Glycine frutéscens_, a beautiful native climbing shrub, known in our gardens under that name, but is properly _Wistèria frutéscens_. It has large pendulous branches of blue (leguminose) flowers, blooming from May to August; pinnated leaves with nine ovate downy leaflets; grows freely. _Glycine chinénsis_, is given to Wistèria, and is the finest climbing shrub of the phaseolious tribe. The flowers are light blue, in long nodding many-flowered racemose spikes, blooming from May to August profusely; leaves pinnated, with eleven ovate lanceolate silky leaflets, and is of a very rapid growth. We are not certain if it will withstand our winters without protection. _Bignònia crucígera_, is an evergreen which is very desirable in many situations, being likewise of luxuriant growth. It will cover in a few years an area of fifty feet; flowers of an orange scarlet colour, blooming from May to August. _B. grandiflòra_, now given to _Tecôma_, has large orange coloured flowers, blooming from June to August, and grows very fast. We are not positive that it will stand our winters without protection. _B. rádicans_, is likewise given to _Tecòma_, and is a native plant. When in flower it is highly ornamental, but it requires great attention to keep it in regular order, being of a strong rough nature; in bloom from June to August. _Periplàca græca_, is a climber of extraordinary growth. Well established plants grow thirty or forty feet in one season; flowers in clusters from May to July, of a brownish yellow colour, and hairy inside; leaves smooth, ovate, lanceolate, wood slender, twining, and elastic. _Hedéra Hélix_, Irish Ivy, is a valuable evergreen for covering naked walls, or any other unsightly object. The foliage is of a lively green, leaves from three to five angled. There are several varieties of it, all valuable for growing in confined shady situations where no other plant will thrive. _Ampelópsis hederàcea._ This plant is commonly employed for covering walls, for which the rapidity of its growth, and the largeness of the leaves, render it extremely appropriate. There are several species of the genus, all resembling the _Vine_ in habit and in flower. It is called by some _Císsus hederàcea_, which is certainly improper, this belonging to _Tetandria_, and the former to _Pentandria_. There are several other plants of a climbing habit, both curious and ornamental; but our limits will not admit of a detail. DECIDUOUS SHRUBS. Finish planting all deciduous shrubs in the early part of the month. These plants are generally delayed too long, the leaves in many instances are beginning to expand, thereby giving a check to the ascending sap, which we may safely assert causes the death of one third of the plants, when perhaps the operator or some individual more distantly concerned is blamed. These shrubs, if properly removed and planted at the exact starting of vegetation, pressing the earth close to their roots when planting, (previously taking care that the small fibres have not become dry by exposure,) will not, by these simple attentions, one out of fifty fail. Those that are late planted should have frequent waterings, and if large, firmly supported, that the wind may have no effect in disturbing the young and tender fibrous roots. OF PLANTING EVERGREEN SHRUBS. Now is the season to plant all kinds of evergreen trees and shrubs. In most seasons the middle of the month is the most proper time, the weather then being mild and moist; or if a late season, defer it to the end of the month. When planted earlier, they will remain dormant until this time, and their tender fibrous roots in that case frequently perish from their liability to injury from frost or frosty winds, being more susceptible of such injury than fibres of deciduous plants. They now begin to vegetate, which is the _grand criterion_ for transplanting any plant. The buds begin to swell, the roots to push, and if they can be quickly lifted and replanted, they will hardly receive a check. At all events care must be taken that they are not long out of the ground and exposed to the air, which greatly assists the success in planting. It may be observed that evergreens in general succeed the better the smaller they are, although we have seen plants, trees, and evergreens, successfully lifted upwards of thirteen feet high and fifteen in diameter, and carried several miles. By the second year there was no appearance that such operation had taken place. In preparing a hole for the reception of these plants, make it larger than the roots, breaking the bottom thereof fine, and putting in some fresh soil. Place the plant upright in the centre, putting in the earth and breaking it fine, and give the plant a few gentle shakes. When the roots are more than half covered, put in a pot or pail full of water, allowing it to subside, then cover all the roots, give a second or third pail full, and when subsided the earth will be close to all the roots. Cover with more earth, pressing all firm with the foot. Put more soil loosely on, which will give it a finished appearance, and prevent it from becoming dry, and not requiring mulching, which has an unsightly appearance. All that the wind will have any hurtful effect upon, must be firmly supported, especially large plants. If the weather sets in dry and hot, they should be watered as often as necessity shall direct. Those that are established, it will be necessary to go over them (if not already done) to cut off all wood killed in winter, and also to thin them if too thick and crowded. When the above is done, let every part of the shrubbery be dressed off as directed in _March_. Shrubs of all kinds will now begin to look gay and lively, which may be very much heightened or depreciated, according to the state in which the ground and contiguous walks are kept. Always keep in view that weeds are no objects of beauty. CARE OF CHOICE BULBS. _Hyacinths_ of the earliest sorts will begin to expand and show their colours, of which we can boast of a few as fine sorts in the vicinity of Philadelphia, as in any garden of Europe; but even these very superior sorts, when in bloom, are too frequently neglected, being allowed to stand without rods, stakes, or any means of support, likewise equally exposed to drenching rains and scorching suns; and the finest collections may be seen after heavy rains prostrate on the ground, whereas a few hours' trouble would give them the requisite support, thereby preserving their beauty much longer, and giving more gratification. As soon as the stems advance to any height, they should be supported by wires, rods, &c. and tied slightly thereto with threads of matting, or any other substitute, repeat the tying as they advance, avoid tying amongst the florets, because they grow by extension, and are liable to be broken off by so doing. The sun deteriorates the colours very much, especially the red, blue, and yellow sorts; whereas if they were simply protected from the sun by an awning of thin canvass, the colours would be preserved and the beauty protracted. If there are stakes drove into the ground on each side of the beds, about three feet high, with others in the centre about eight feet, having laths or hoops from the side to the centre, formed similar to the roof of a house, so that people may walk or sit under it, the canvass or awning being thin to admit of the light freely, the effect in the time of sunshine from the brilliancy of the colours is peculiarly gratifying. Where an awning is thus erected, it requires to be kept on only from nine to three o'clock in sunshine days, and during nights or time of rain, allowing the awning on the most northern side to come close to the ground when necessary, to shelter them from cold cutting winds. _Tulips_ in every respect should have the same care and protection, never neglecting to have the beds with a smooth clean surface, and the stems neatly tied up, although they are not in so much danger as Hyacinths. The properties of a good Hyacinth are, viz--the stem strong and erect, the florets or bells occupying one half of the stem, each floret suspended by a short strong footstalk, longest at the bottom, the uppermost floret quite erect, so that the whole may form a pyramid. Each floret well filled with petals rising towards the centre, that it may appear to the eye a little convex. Regarding colour, fancy does not agree, and the scrupulous cultivators differ materially. However the more pure and bright the finer, or a white with a pink centre, or the centre of the petals with a paler or deeper colour appearing striped, which is considered to have a good effect. Those of a good _Tulip_ are--the stem strong, elastic, and erect, about two feet high, the flower large and composed of six petals, proceeding a little horizontally at first, and then turning upwards, forming a flat-bottomed cup, rather widest at the top; the three exterior petals should be larger than the three interior ones, and broader at their base; the edges of the petals entire, free from notch or ruggedness; the top of each well rounded; the colour of the flower at the bottom of the cup ought to be pure, white, or yellow, and the rich coloured stripes which are the principal ornament should be pure, bold, regular, and distinct on the margin, and terminate in fine points elegantly pencilled. The centre of each petal should have one bold stripe, or blotch of rich colouring. The ground colours that are most esteemed are white, the purer the finer; or, on the other hand, the dark grounds, and of course the darker the better; but these vary in estimation, according to the prevailing taste of amateurs. ANEMONES AND RANUNCULUS. Moist weather and frequent showers are highly essential to the perfecting of these flowers, and if these should fail at this season of the year, artificial means must be used to supply the deficiency. Take a watering-pot without the rose, and run the water (river or rain water is best) gently between the rows, taking care not to make holes in the ground. When they have got a good watering at root, take the syringe and give them a gentle sprinkling in fine evenings, observing not to use force for fear of breaking the flower stems. In dry weather the result of a deficiency of water would be that the stems and flowers of the strongest roots will be weak, and make no progress, and many of them will not bloom; the foliage of a sickly, yellow appearance, from which they would not recover; and the roots when taken up of little use for farther transplanting. A good plan in dry seasons is to cover the ground between the rows with cow manure, which will prevent the moisture from evaporating, and the rain or water passing through it greatly enriches the soil, and strengthens the roots. AURICULAS. Having under this head last month given ample directions for the treatment of these plants previous to flowering, we refer to that head to avoid repetition. CARNATIONS, PINKS, &c. If any of these were omitted to be shifted last month, or planted out according to directions therein given, let it be done forthwith. Where they are still protected with frames, give them plenty of air, keeping the sashes entirely off during the day, keep the pots perfectly free from weeds, and give the foliage frequent sprinklings with water. _Polyanthus_ and _primroses_ will be exhibiting their beautiful flowers. They require the same treatment, and delight in moisture and a shaded situation. Do not sprinkle them while in flower, and keep them clear of weeds or decayed leaves, never exposing them to the sun. They are very hardy, and where required may be planted in very shady situations, for they will suffer more from the influence of the sun's rays than from frost. Those plants in pots in general that have been protected in frames, and are destined for the borders, should now as soon as possible be planted in their destined situations, having nothing to fear from chilling winds or frosts after the middle of this month, except in uncommon seasons. Those that are to be kept in pots, if not repotted, do it immediately, and give regular supplies of water. POLIANTHUS TUBEROSA FLORE PLENO. This very popular bulb, generally known as _Tuberose_, has been cultivated in England upwards of two centuries, whence we no doubt have received it, and now can return those of our production to supply their demand. The flowers are many and highly odoriferous, and of the purest white, and on a flower stem from three to five feet high. To have them in the greatest perfection, they should be planted in a lively hot-bed, about the first of this month in six inch pots filled with light rich earth, giving very little water until they begin to grow, when they ought to be liberally supplied with plenty of air, and about the end of next month they may be planted in the borders, providing a spot for them that is or has been well worked, and enriched with well decomposed manure. Secure their flower stems to proper rods. Previous to planting the roots, all the off-sets should be taken off and planted separately; keep the crown of the bulb level with the surface of the pot, and when they are replanted in the open ground, put them two inches deeper. But when the convenience of a hot-bed cannot be obtained, they will succeed very well if planted about the end of this month or first of next in the garden, in a bed of earth prepared for their reception. Let it be dug deep, and make the soil light and rich, by giving it a good supply of manure two years old, well broken and incorporated with the earth, adding a little sand where the soil is heavy. The black earth from the woods produced from decayed leaves is equally as good without sand. Having the ground in proper order, draw drills about two and a half inches deep, and eighteen inches apart; plant the bulbs (after divesting them of their off-sets) nine inches apart in the row, covering the crown of the bulb about an inch and a half. When done, carefully rake and finish off the beds. When they shoot up their flower stems, give them neat rods for their support. Plant the off-sets in closer rows to produce flowering roots for next year, because they seldom flower the second time. AMARYLLIS FORMOSISSIMA, OR JACOBEA LILY. About the end of this or beginning of next month, is the most proper time for planting out these bulbs. This flower is of the most beautiful and rich crimson velvet colour. The bulb generally produces two stems, the one after the other, about the end of May or first of June. The stem is from nine inches to one foot high, surmounted by a single flower, composed of six petals, three hanging down, three erect and recurved; the stamens droop on the centre of the under petals. The flower thus appears nodding on one side of the stem, and has a most graceful and charming appearance. If planted in a bed, prepare the ground as before directed for _Tuberoses_. Keep the rows one foot asunder, and the bulbs six inches apart in the rows, covering them two inches over their crowns. This plant is now called _Spreikèlia formosíssima_, and we think properly too, for its habit differs from _Amaryllis_. We have not the smallest doubt that in a few years, not only this superb South American bulb will adorn our flower gardens, but many of the rich bulbs of Brazil and South America generally will yearly exhibit to us the beauty of their colours and the beautiful construction of their flowers and foliage, of which we are now generally deprived, perhaps because we have not the conveniency of a proper hot-house for their protection during winter. But it will be found, in many instances, that these bulbs will do perfectly well to be kept dry in a warm room from October to May, when the heat of our summer is sufficient for the perfection of their flowers, and many species will ripen their seeds. The bulb that is known as _Amaryllis Belladónna_, now called _Belladónna purpuráscens_, is hardy. TIGER FLOWER. _Tigrídia_, a genus of Mexican bulbs belonging to _Monadelphia Triándria_, and produce the most beautiful flowers of the natural order of _Irideæ_. _T. pavònia_ is of the brightest scarlet, tinged and spotted with pure yellow. _T. conchiiflòra_, colour rich yellow, tinged and spotted with bright crimson. The colours are very rich, and purely contrasted. The corolla is about four inches in diameter, composed of six petals; the outer are reflexed, the flower of the largest, though splendid in beauty, exists only one day; but to compensate for that, a plant will produce flowers for several weeks; and where a bed of them can be collected, they will bloom in profusion from July to September. They like a light rich free soil. Lift the bulbs in October, and preserve them as directed in that month for _Tuberoses_. Be sure that they be kept dry, and secure from frost. A bed of these should be in every garden. A writer says, "it is the most beautiful flower that is cultivated." Plant them about the end of this or first of next month; if in beds keep them one foot apart each way. WALKS. The walks in general should be put in the neatest order during this month. Little requires to be added to the observations of last month, but if these have not been executed, fail not to have it done the first opportunity, choosing dry weather for the operation of _turning_ the old or adding new gravel to them, levelling, raking, and rolling neatly as you proceed. Always after rain give the whole of the gravel walks a good rolling. This being frequently done during the early part of the season, will be a saving of much labour and time through the summer. The walks having a firm surface, the growth of weeds will be retarded, and the heavy rains will not be so apt to injure them. Where there are any pretensions to keeping these in order, they ought to be picked of weeds and litter once a week, and gone over with the roller at least once every two weeks during the season. Sweep and divest the grass walks of all worm casts, litter, &c. cutting the edgings neatly. Mow the grass every two weeks from this time to October, sweeping off the grass clean each time, and give frequent rollings to keep the surface smooth. If any require to be laid with turf, delay it no longer. For directions see last month. The above observations on walks in general, will apply through the season; therefore we will not repeat this subject until October. EVERGREEN HEDGES. We have previously observed, under the head of Evergreens, that this is the best season for their replanting. We cannot pass over the observations of this month, without having reference to evergreen hedges, so much neglected amongst us, and yet so important to the diversity of aspect, and especially to soften a little the gloomy appearance of our winters. There are three indigenous shrubs, and at least one exotic, that are well adapted for the purpose, viz, _Pìnus canadénsis_, Hemlock-spruce; _Thùja occidentàlis_, American arbor-vitæ; and _Juníperis virginiána_, Red cedar. These are natives, and the two former are admirably adapted for the purpose. Where there is to be a hedge of any of these planted, select plants about two feet high; lift them carefully, preserving the roots as much as possible. Dig a trench from one and a half to two feet wide, and from one to one foot and a half deep. This will admit the soil about the roots to be well broken, which must be done in planting. Keep the plants in the centre of the trench, mixing the shortest and the tallest, that it may be of one height, putting the earth close about their roots as you proceed, and make it firm with the foot; fill up, and water as directed for evergreens in this month. If the season is very dry, give it frequent copious waterings. None of them should be topped for a few seasons, except such as are much above the others in height, keeping the sides regular and even by clipping or shearing once a year, either in this month or at the end of August. It is better to keep the top (when they have got to the desired height) pointed, than broad. The latter method retains a heavy weight of snow, which frequently breaks down, or otherwise deforms, that which has cost much labour to put into shape. BOX EDGINGS. Where these have not been laid, this month is the proper time. Do not delay the planting of such any later. For ample directions see _March_ under this head. Clipping of those should be done about the middle of this month. There will then be no danger of frosts to brown the cut leaves, and the young foliage will not be expanded. To keep these edgings in order, they must be cut once a year, and never be allowed to get above four inches high, and two inches wide. What we consider the neatest edging is three inches high, two inches wide at the bottom, tapering to a thin edge at the top. It is very unsightly to see large bushy edgings, especially to narrow walks. The use of edgings is to keep the soil from the gravel, and the larger they are allowed to grow the more ineffectual they become; growing more open below as they advance in height. The operation may be done very expeditiously by clipping the tops level, going longitudinally along with shears for the purpose, called "box shears." Strain a line along the centre of the edgings, cutting perpendicularly from the line to the bottom on each side, leaving only the breadth of the line at top. Edgings, cut in this manner, every spring will always look well, and the trouble, comparatively, is a mere trifle. GRASS PLATS, &c. If these have not been laid down where wanted, delay it no longer, for which see directions in _March_; and where these are desired to be kept in order, they should be mown every two or three weeks at farthest; from this month to October when cut, the grass should be clean swept off, and the edgings, if out of order, adjusted. To mention this subject again will be only a repetition, therefore we will let this suffice. GENERAL CARE OF PLANTS COMING INTO FLOWER. Every part of the flower ground should be put into neat order, giving such plants about the borders as are shooting up their flower stems, and are tender, and in danger of being hurt or broken by the wind, proper sticks or rods for their support. In doing this, endeavour to conceal the rods, &c. as much as possible, by dressing the stems and leaves in a natural looking manner over them. Let the stakes be in proportion to the heighth and growth of the plants. It looks very unsightly to see strong stakes to short and weak growing plants. The tyings likewise should be proportionate. Examine all the beds and patches of seedling flowers now coming up, and let them be refreshed with water as it may be necessary, and pick out the weeds as they appear. We cannot leave this department at this season of the year, without enforcing the benefit and beauty that will result from keeping the weeds down during this and next month. Therefore strictly observe that there are none running to seed in any part of the garden; in fact, they ought not to be allowed to rear their heads above one day in sight. =Rooms.= _APRIL._ We remarked last month, that about this season, where it is convenient, an eastern window is more congenial to plants than a southern. The sun becomes too powerful, and the morning sun is preferable to that of the afternoon. West is also preferable to south. Some keep their plants in excellent order at a north window. But the weather is so mild after this, that there is no difficulty in protecting and growing plants in rooms. They generally suffer most from want of air and water; the window must be up a few inches, or altogether, according to the mildness of the day. And as plants are more liable to get covered with dust in rooms than in any other department, and not so convenient to be syringed or otherwise cleaned, take the first opportunity of a mild day to carry them to a shady situation, and syringe such as are not in flower well with water; or for want of a syringe take a watering-pot with a rose upon it: allowing them to stand until they drip, when they may be put into their respective situations. DIRECTIONS FOR PLANTS BROUGHT FROM THE GREEN-HOUSE. Any plants that are brought from the Green-house during the spring months ought to be as little exposed to the direct rays of the sun as possible. Keep them in airy situations, with plenty of light, giving frequent and liberal supplies of water. Plants may be often observed through our city during this month fully exposed in the outside of a south window, with the blaze of a mid-day sun upon them, and these too just come from the temperate and damp atmosphere of a well regulated Green-house. Being thus placed in an arid situation, scorched between the glass and the sun whose heat is too powerful for them to withstand, the transition being so sudden, that, however great their beauties may have appeared, they in a few days become brown, the flowers tarnished or decayed, and the failure generally attributed to individuals not at all concerned. From this and similar causes many have drawn the unjust conclusion, viz. that "plants from Green-houses are of too delicate a nature to be exposed in rooms or windows at this early season." But every year gives more and more proof to the contrary. There are ladies in Philadelphia, and those not a few, whose rooms and windows at this period vie with the finest of our Green-houses, with respect to the health, beauty and order of their plants, and we might almost say in variety. Some of them have got above eight kinds of Camellias in their collections, which afford a continual beauty through the winter, with many other desirable and equally valuable plants. Exposure to the sun, and want of water, are the general cause of failures at this period. We have spoken so minutely and so frequently on these two subjects, that we think more repetition unnecessary. The plants generally are growing pretty freely by this time, and are not so liable to suffer from liberal supplies of water, observing never to give it until the soil in the pot is inclining to become dry, and administering it always in the evenings. FLOWERING PLANTS. Our directions last month under this head will equally apply now. The China _roses_ that are now coming plentifully in flower should be kept near the light, and in airy exposures, to brighten their colours, otherwise they will be very pale and sickly. _Geraniums_ too ought to have the like treatment. BRINGING PLANTS OUT OF THE CELLAR, &c. All or most of the plants that have been in the cellar during winter, such as _Pomegranates_, _Lagerstræmias_, _Hydrángeas_, _Oleanders_, _Sweet-bay_, _&c._ may be brought out to the open air any time about the middle of the month. If any of them stand in need of larger pots or tubs, have them turned out, the balls reduced, and put them in others a little larger; or where convenient they may be planted in the ground, except _Oleanders_, which do best to be a little confined. Be sure to keep the _Hydrángeas_ in shady situations. It will not be advisable to expose entirely the Orange and Lemon trees, until the end of this or first of next month. Where there are any scale or foulness of any kind collected on the foliage or wood, have them cleaned directly before the heat increases the one, and to get clear of the disagreeable appearance of the other. =Hot-House.= _MAY._ Very few directions for this department remain to be given; except for shifting plants, and a few observations on those that are most desirable for the Hot-house; which we will do in this month, considering May and June the best months of the year for that operation. The days and nights will be very mild by this time, and the sashes in every favourable day should be opened both in front and top, so that the plants may be enured to the open air, which they will be exposed to by the end of the month, Leave in the beginning of the month the top sashes a little open every mild night, and gradually as the heat increases leave the front sashes and doors open. Continue to syringe them at least every alternate night, and if possible every night; and give them all, according to their respective wants, liberal supplies of water every day. Absorption amongst Hot-house plants is as great during this month as in any period of the year. OF REPOTTING PLANTS, &c. It is our candid opinion that this and next month are the best periods for shifting or repotting all or most of Hot-house plants. The end of August being the time always adopted around Philadelphia for that operation (and then they are done indiscriminately,) we will assign a few reasons for our practice. _First_, that it is not congenial to the nature of these plants to have their roots surrounded with fresh soil, when they are becoming inactive; _secondly_, that there is not a sufficiency of heat naturally to quicken them to an active state when they are encouraged; and _thirdly_, being thus in new soil while dormant, they have a yellow and sickly aspect until they begin to grow; and the foliage thus deprived of its natural vigour will not appear so healthful again. Whereas, if they are shifted or repotted in this or next month, at which season they are between two stages of growth, they immediately, on receiving fresh assistance, and by the increasing heat of the summer, make new growths, are perfectly ripened before the approach of winter, and never lose that verdureal appearance they have attained. These are our reasons acquired from a close practice and observation, and are not influenced by the doings of others which are so much aside. No practical operator especially, nor in fact any individual, ought to be governed by custom in regard to the treatment of plants, without having an idea as to why and wherefore, founded on the principles of nature, and governed by her unerring results. As many are desirous of having a knowledge of plants, before they order them, and likewise which are the finest flowerers and their general character, especially those who are at a great distance, and seldom have the privilege of seeing what is most desirable, our descriptions will be limited, and simply such as are given for the Green-house in March. _Acàcias._ Several of these are desirable in the Hot-house, for the grandeur of their foliage, beauty of flower, and a few of them as specimens of valuable medicinal plants. _A. Houstóni_, now _Anneslèia Houstóni_, is one of the most magnificent of the _Mimòsa_ tribe, blooming from August to November in large terminale spikes, of a crimson colour, stamens very long, and beautiful; leaves bipinnated in pairs. _A. grandiflòra_, likewise given to _Anneslèia_, and similar to the former in colour; has very large compound bipinnate leaves, with from twenty to forty pairs. _A. Catèchu_, flowers yellow, wood spiny, leaves bipinnated, about ten pairs. The inner wood of this tree is of a brown colour, from which the _Catèchu_ used in medicine is prepared. It is disputed whether _A. Véra_, or _A. Arábica_ produces the gum Arabic. We are inclined to think it is the latter, which grows principally on the Atlas mountains. The gum exudes spontaneously from the bark of the tree in a soft half fluid state. There are many others of this genus belonging to the Hot-house, but being shy in flowering, are not generally esteemed. Most of the flowers have the appearance of yellow balls of down, and are hermaphrodite. The pots should all be well drained. _Aloe._ These grotesque looking succulent plants are principally natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and consequently will do well in the warmest part of the Green-house, although when convenient, they frequently get a situation in the Hot-house. It is not requisite, except for _A. vulgàris_, known as _A. barbadénsis_; which has orange yellow flowers; _A. oblíqua_, now called _Gastèria oblíqua_; _A. dichótoma_; and _A. lineàta_, which is perhaps the finest of the genus. The leaves are beautifully striped, with red spines, flowers scarlet and green. These are the only ones that actually need heat during winter. They ought to have very little water, once a month is sufficient. They would grow without it, and several of them would also grow by being suspended in the house, without earth or any substitute about their roots, by being frequently sprinkled with water. Few of them are admired for the beauty of their flowers, but the whole are considered curious. They flower from May to September. _Ardísias_, about eighteen species. Plants highly esteemed for the beauty of their foliage, flowers, and berries. The most popular in our collections is _A. crenulàta_. It has rose coloured star-like flowers, in terminale panicles, and produces beautiful small red berries, which continue until other berries are produced the following year, and frequently there may be seen on one plant, the berries of three successive years, thus being a very ornamental plant and very desirable. It is vulgarly called the Dwarf ever-bearing cherry. It will keep in a good Green-house, but not grow freely. _A. solanàcea_ has large oblong leaves, narrowed at each end, and bears purple berries; _A. élegans_ has entire, oblong, shining leaves; _A. umbellàta_, once _A. littoràlis_, is the finest of the genus for abundance of flower and beauty of foliage. The flowers are pink, in large decompound panicles, the leaves the largest of all the species, oblong, wedge shaped, nearly sessile, entire, smooth, and reflexed. They are all evergreens, and the pots should be well drained. They are natives of the East Indies, and delight in a high temperature. _Aristolochias_, Birth-wort. There are several of these belonging to the Hot-house, but none of them deserving particular observation, except _A. labiosa_. The leaves are reniform, roundish, cordate, and amplexicaule; the flower or corolla is of a curious construction, being incurved, and at the base swelled or saccate with a large lip, and all beautifully spotted; colour greenish brown. It is a climbing plant, and requires a strong heat. _Astrap[oe]as_, three species. _A. Wallichii_ is a celebrated plant in Europe, and a few specimens of it are in this country. It has scarlet unbellated flowers, with an involucre, has twenty-five stamens united into a tube, bearing the corolla with five petals; leaves roundish, cordate, accuminate, very large with persistent, ovate wavy stipules. The plant is of easy culture, and grows freely, wood very strong. _Areca_, Cabbage-tree, ten species. They are a kind of palms, with large pinnated leaves, or properly fronds. In their indigenous state they are from six to forty feet high, but in the Hot-house they seldom exceed twenty feet. _A. catechu_ is used in medicine. _A. olerácea_ is cultivated extensively in the West Indies, and the tender part of the top is eaten by the natives. _A. montana_ is most frequent in collections. There is no particular beauty in the flowers. They are all easily grown, if plenty of heat be given. _Brunsvigias_ are all large bulbs from the Cape of Good Hope, and will keep in the Green-house during winter, but are better where they can obtain a situation in the Hot-house. It is a splendid genus, containing about ten species. Some of the bulbs grow to an enormous size, and all of them while growing require a liberal supply of water; but when dormant it must be wholly withheld, and they should have large pots to make them grow and flower in perfection. _B. multiflora_, flowers scarlet and green; the leaves lay on the surface of the pot. _B. latìcoma_, flowers pale purple. _B. Josephinæ_ has splendid rose coloured flowers, and is the most admired species of the genus: the foliage spreading, half erect, and glacous; flowers numerous, and in large umbels, on a stem two feet high, blooming successively; there is a variety that has striped flowers. Several other species have been given to different genera. _B. falcata_ is now _Ammocharis falcata_; _B. marginata_, now _Imhofia_; and _B. cilliaris_, is now _Buphone cilliaris_. They all flower in umbels, on stems from six inches to two feet; flowers lily-like with six petals. _Bambusa_, Bamboo-cane, two species. Plants of very strong growth, and are used in the East Indies, where they are indigenous, for every purpose in the construction of huts, for furniture both domestic and rural, for fences, boats, boxes, paper, &c. It is frequently used as pipes to convey water. The species thus useful, is _B. arundinacea_, which grows to a great height. We do not mention it as interesting in beauty, but as a valuable plant, for the many useful purposes to which it is applied. It requires to be kept wet. _Banistèrias_, a genus of about fourteen climbing evergreen plants. Three of them are esteemed. _B. fúlgens_, yellow flowers in racemose spikes, leaves subovate, and downy beneath. _B. Chrisophylla_ has beautiful foliage, as if covered with a shining gold coloured dust; leaves large, oblong, acute. _B. splèndens_, flowers in spikes of a yellow colour; foliage large and silvery like; the pots should be well drained. _Barringtònias_, two species. _B. speciòsa_ has produced a great excitement amongst cultivators, and is one of the handsomest plants produced within the tropics. The leaves are large, oblong, acute, shining, with fleshy nerves, tinged with red; the flowers are large, full of stamens with four petals, opens in the evening and fades at sunrise; colour purple and white; grows freely in strong heat. _Brôwneas_, five species of splendid plants, but scarce in collections. _B. coccínea_ has scarlet flowers in pendulous bunches, corolla semi-double, foliage bipinnate, in three pairs. _B. ròsa_, mountain rose of Trinidad. _B. grandicéps_ is the finest of the genus, leaves bipinnated; leaflets cordate, accuminate, downy and pendulous, flowers rose colour, in large close heads. Drain the pots well. _Calathèa zebrìna_, frequently known as _Maránta zebrìna_, and now _Phrynum zebrìnum_, is a plant unique in its appearance. The large elongated ovate leaves are beautifully striped with green and dark purple, and called _Zebra plant_. It has light blue flowers in ovate spikes, about the size of large pine cones. It is a herbaceous plant; but in the warmest part of the Hot-house retains its splendid foliage; requires a very liberal supply of water, and ought to be in every collection. _Cánnas_, about thirty species, several of them deserving cultivation both for flower and foliage; they are principally natives of the West Indies, and might all be easily obtained. The finest are _C. gigántea_, has large leaves and orange flowers; _C. limbàta_, flowers scarlet and yellow; _C. díscolor_, has large cordate, accuminate leaves of a crimson colour, the flowers are scarlet; _C. iridiflòra_, has large crimson nodding flowers, very different from any of the others, and the finest of the genus. They all, while in a growing state, require a liberal supply of water; and being herbaceous plants watering ought to be given up about the first of November, and renewed about the first of January, thus giving them a cessation which they require to flower freely; but when water is constantly given, which is the general plan in our collections, they continue to push weak shoots and few flowers. _Cáctus._ This extensive genus is curious, grotesque, interesting, and varied in character and habit; is now divided into six distinct genera according to their natural appearance and habit. We will describe a few of each genus, none of which going under the name of _Cáctus_, we will give them the six following. _Mamillàrias_, above twenty species, and are those which are covered with roundish bearded tubercles, and with small red and white flowers. _M. coccínea_; _M. simplex_; _M. pusílla_, and _M. cònica_, are good species, and will do well with water five or six times during summer. _Melocáctus_, seven species, and are those that are roundish with deep and many angles, with spines in clusters on the top of the angle. _M. commùnis_, is the Turk's cap, named from having an ovate conate crown upon the top, from which proceed the small red flowers. _M. macránthus_, has large spines; _M. pyramidàlis_, is a conical growing species. These require the same treatment as the last. _Echinocáctus_, about twenty species; are those that have many deep angles, and have a remarkable swelling, with each parcel of spines; _E. gibbòsus_; _E. crispàtus_; _E. recúrvus_; are curious in appearance, with small white and purple flowers. These three genera in most collections are not well known specifically, but it is easy to discriminate which genus they are connected with. _Cèreus._ This is the most magnificent genus with regard to the magnitude and beauty of the flowers, but not so closely allied. It takes in all those of a trailing or erect growing habit, having spines in clusters, solitary, or spineless. _C. peruviànus_ and _C. heptagònus_, grow very erect, and to the height of thirty or forty feet in Peru and Mexico, where they plant them close together as fences, and they are in a few years impenetrable. _C. flagellifórmus_ is a well known creeping free flowering species, has ten angles; will keep in a good Green-house, and produce in May and June a great number of blooms. The petals are of a fine pink and red colour; the tube of the flower is long, and will stand a few days in perfection, when others come out successively for the space of two months, and during their continuance make a brilliant appearance. _C. grandiflòrus_ is the celebrated "Night-blooming Cereus." The flowers are very large, beautiful, and sweet-scented. They begin to open about sun-down, and are fully expanded about eleven o'clock. The corolla, or rather calyx, is from seven to ten inches in diameter, the outside of which is a brown, and the inside a fine straw yellow colour; the petals are of the purest white, with the stamens surrounding the stile in the centre of the flower, which add to its lustre, and make it appear like a bright star. Its scent is agreeable, and perfumes the air to a considerable distance; but these beauties are of momentary duration. By sunrise they fade, and hang down quite decayed, and never open again.[E] One of these ought to be in every collection, and if trained up a naked wall will not occupy much room, and grow and flower profusely. They need very little water. C. _speciosíssimus_ has most beautiful large flowers, about six inches diameter; the outside petals are a bright scarlet, those of the inside a fine light purple. One flower lasts a few days, and a large plant will produce every year from ten to twenty flowers, blooming from May to August. It has flowered in some of our collections, and is highly esteemed. _C. triangulàris_ has the largest flower of the _Cacteæ_ family; the bloom is of a cream colour, and about one foot in diameter. In its indigenous state, it produces a fine fruit called "Strawberry Pear," and is much esteemed in the West Indies as being slightly acid, and at the same time sweet, pleasant, and cooling. It seldom flowers. C. _phyllanthoídes_, once _Cáctus speciósus_, is one of the most profuse in flowering; the branches are ensate, compressed, and obovate, without spines; flowers of a pink colour, about four inches in diameter; the stamens as long as the corolla, with white anthers. It will keep well in a Green-house or Room. If in either of the two latter, give water only a few times during winter. This is becoming a very popular plant. C. _Jenkinsòni_ is a magnificent hybrid from C. _speciosíssimus_. The flowers are equally as large, and of a brilliant scarlet colour, with a profusion of pure white anthers; is greatly admired, and is only in a few collections. C. _Ackermánni_ is very similar to C. _phyllanthoídes_, flowering equally as profusely, the colour a bright scarlet, and the scarcest species of the genus that is worthy of notice. C. _truncàtus_, branches truncated, flowers deep scarlet and tubular, from two to three inches in diameter; the stamens protrude from the corolla; the plant is of a dwarf growth and branched; when in flower it is quite a picture. It is said that there are free and shy flowering varieties of this species, but we doubt it; perhaps it is owing to the cultivation and soil. [E] They may be preserved if cut off when in perfection, and put in spirits of wine, in a chrystal vase, made air tight. A plant flowered in our collection in May 1830, at 12 o'clock at noon--the only instance of the kind we ever heard of. _Opúntias_, about forty species, and are those whose branches are in joints flatly oblong, or ovate, spines solitary, or in clusters. The plants are not so desirable for beauty of flower as the species of the former genus, but many of them are remarkable for their strong grotesque and spiny appearance; besides several of the species are extensively cultivated for the Cochineal insect. The one most valued for that purpose, is _O. cochiníllifera_, which has only small clusters of bristles upon the oblong ovate joints, and produces small red flowers; C. _ficus índica_, is also used, but is very spiny. _Peréskias._ About four species, and those that are of a shrubby nature producing leaves; _P. aculeàta_ bears a fruit called "Barbadoes-gooseberry." The flowers are very small and simple, spines about half an inch long, leaves fleshy and elliptical. The whole of the plants in the family of _Cacteæ_ require very little water, and delight in a dry warm situation. They do not agree with frequent repotting; once in two or three years to young plants, and in five or six to those that are established, with the exception of the large, free flowering species, which should be repotted once in two years. _Coffèa Arábica._ It produces the celebrated coffee, and is a plant universally known in our collections, and of easy culture. The leaves are opposite, oblong, wavy and shining, the flowers white, of a grateful odour, but of short duration. There is a plant known as C. _occidentalis_, which is now _Tetramèrium odoratíssimum_. It requires a great heat to grow well, therefore should be kept in the warmest part of the Hot-house. The flowers are white, in panicles, and larger than the common jasmine, and is very sweet-scented; leaves oblong, lanceolate, accuminate. _Callicárpas._ About twelve species, and are generally admitted into collections, though of no particular interest or beauty, except in the bright purple berries they produce, which is rarely. The foliage is of a rugose, hoary appearance. _Carolíneas._ About six species of tender plants, with large digitate leaves, and of handsome growth. The flowers have numerous filaments, and are large and singular. C. _insígnis_ has the largest and compactest blossoms; C. _àlba_ is the only one of the genus that has white flowers, all the others being red; C. _prínceps_ and C. _robústa_ are noble looking species, and are much esteemed. They require a good heat, with which they will grow freely. _Caryòtas._ A genus of palms. C. _ùrens_ is an admired species, produces flowers in long pendulous spikes, which are succeeded by strings of succulent globular berries. In its native state it produces a sweet liquor in large quantities, and no stronger than water. _Coccolòbas_, Sea-side grape. This genus is admired for its beautiful large foliage, which is oblong ovate, and cordate ovate; C. _pubéscens_ and C. _latifòlia_ are the finest species. They bear berries in clusters like the grape, but never come to perfection in artificial cultivation. _Cùphea Melvílla_, is the only species of the genus that is particularly deserving of a situation, has lanceolate scabrous leaves, narrowed at each end, flowers tubular in a terminale whorl, colour scarlet and green. The plant must be well drained. It will flower from May to September. _Cròtons._ About twenty-eight species, few of them deserving cultivation; but the genus is celebrated for its beautiful C. _pìctus_, leaves oblong-lanceolate, variegated with yellow, and stained with red, flowers small green, on axillary spikes. C. _variagàtus_, variety _latifòlia_, is finer than the original _variagàtus_, the nerves in the leaves are yellow, and the leaves lanceolate, entire and smooth. To make them grow freely, give the warmest part of the Hot-house, and drain the pots well. _Cérberas._ About twelve species of strong growing trees, full of poisonous juice. C. _thevètia_ is an elegant plant, with accumulate leaves, and large, nodding, yellow, solitary, fragrant flowers, proceeding from the axil; C. _ahoùai_ produces a nut which is deadly poison. C. _odàllam_, once C. _mànghas_, has large star-like flowers, white, shaded with red. They are principally East India plants, and require great heat. _Cycas_, four species, generally called _Sago palm_, as an English name. The plant that _Sago_ is extracted from, belongs to another genus, (see _Sàgus_.) C. _revolùta_ is a well known palm, and will keep perfectly well in the Green-house. We have seen a beautiful specimen of it which is kept every winter in the cellar, but those that are kept so cool in winter only grow every alternate year, while those that are kept in the Hot-house grow every year, which shows that heat is their element. C. _circinàlis_ is a large growing species; the fronds are much longer, but not so close and thick. C. _glaùca_ is a fine species; the foliage is slightly glaucous. They require plenty of pot room, are much infested with the small white scaly insect, and ought to be frequently examined and carefully washed as prescribed in January. _Combrètums._ Nine species of beautiful flowering climbing plants, standing in very high estimation. The leaves of the principal part of them are ovate, acute, flowers small but on large branches, the flowers all coming out on one side of the branch. They have a magnificent effect. _C. èlegans_, red; _C. formòsum_, red and yellow; _C. pulchéllum_, scarlet; _C. comòsum_ has crimson flowers in tufts; _C. purpùreum_ is the most splendid of the genus. It was first cultivated in 1818, and so much admired, that the whole of the species as soon as introduced, was extravagantly bought up, and none of them has retained their character, except _C. purpùreum_, which is now called _Poívrea coccínea_. The flowers are bright scarlet, in large branches, blooming profusely from April to September, and flower best in a pot. When planted in the ground it grows too much to wood, carrying few flowers. This plant ought to be in every Hot-house. _Cràssula._ This genus has no plants in it attractive in beauty. Several beautiful plants in our collections belong to _Ròchea_ and _Kalosánthus_. There is a strong growing succulent plant, known in our collections as _C. falcàta_, which is _R. falcàta_. It seldom flowers; the minor variety blooms profusely every year from May to August, and has showy scarlet flowers in terminale panicles. The plants known as _C. coccínea_ and _C. versícolor_ are now given to the genus _Kalosánthus_. The flowers of the former are like scarlet wax, terminale and sessile; _K. odoratíssima_ has yellow terminale sweet-scented flowers. They require very little water, only a few times in winter, and about twice a week in summer; they are all desirable plants. _Córyphas_, (Large fan Palm,) five species of the most noble and magnificent of palms. _C. ambraculífera_, the fronds or leaves are palmate; in Ceylon, where the tree is indigenous, they are frequently found fifteen feet wide and twenty feet long. Knox says they will cover from fifteen to twenty men, and when dried will fold up in the shape of a rod, and can be easily carried about, and serve to protect them from the scorching sun. _C. talièra_, now _Talièra bengalénsis_, being stronger, is of great utility for covering houses. They do not grow to such immense extent in artificial cultivation, but require large houses to grow them. _Crìnums_, about one hundred species, chiefly stove bulbs, many of them beautiful. Those that are of great celebrity are _C. cruéntum_, colour red; _C. scàbrum_, crimson and white; _C. amàbile_, purple and white; the neck of the bulb of the latter is long and easily distinguished from its purplish colour, and is considered the finest of the genus. Several specimens of it are in our collections. Their flowers are in umbels, on a stalk from one to three feet high; corolla funnel shaped; petals recurved. They require large pots to make them flower well, and when growing to be liberally supplied with water. _Cyrtànthus_, a genus of Cape bulbs, containing nine species, and will do very well in the Green-house, but we find the assistance of the Hot-house a great advantage. They are closely allied to _Crìnum_. The tubes of the flowers are long and round, with various shades of orange, yellow, red, and green. _C. odòrus_, _C. striátus_, _C. oblíquus_, and _C. vittàtus_, are the finest. When the bulbs are dormant, which will be from October to January, they should not get any water; before they begin to grow, turn the bulb out of the old earth, repotting it immediately. At this time they should be potted with the balls of earth entire, which will cause them to flower stronger. _Caryophyllus aromáticus_, is the only species, and the tree that produces cloves. The whole plant is aromatic, and closely allied to _Myrtus_; the flowers are in loose panicles, the leaves oblong, accuminate, entire. It is a fine evergreen. Pots must be well drained. _Dillènias_, three species of fine plants, with beautiful foliage. _D. speciòsa_ has produced considerable excitement in our collections. The leaves are elliptic, oblong, simply serrated, nerves deep; the flower is white, with five bold petals, centre filled with barren anthers; it has not been known to flower in America. _D. scándens_ has ovate, simply serrated leaves, but is not known as to flower; it is a fine climber. _Dracænas_, Dragon-tree, about twelve species of Asiatic plants, varied in character. _D. férrea_ is plentiful in our collections, and will keep in the Green-house; but the foliage is not so well retained as when kept in the Hot-house; the leaves are lanceolate, acute, of a dark purple colour. _D. fràgrans_, when in bloom, will scent the air for a considerable distance, leaves green and lanceolate. _D. marginàta_ is rare, yet it is to be seen in a few of our collections. _D. strícta_ is now _Charlwòodia_[F] _strícta_, flowers blush and in loose panicles. _D. Dráco_ is admired, and the most conspicuous of the genus. [F] In honour of Mr. Charlwood, an extensive seedsman of London, who has made several botanical excursions on this continent. _Eránthemums_, about ten species. _E. pulchéllum_ and _E. bícolor_ are the finest of the genus; the former is in our collections, but miserably treated. The soil in which it is grown is too stiff and loamy, and it seldom gets enough of heat. The latter is indispensable to make it flower in perfection; therefore it should have the warmest part of the house, and it will produce flowers of a fine blue colour from January to September. The flowers of the latter are white and dark purple, with a few brown spots in the white; blooms from April to August. Drain the pots well, and give the plants little sun during summer. _Eugènias_, about thirty species, esteemed for their handsome evergreen foliage. This genus once contained a few celebrated species, which have been divided. (See _Jambòsa_.) The Allspice tree, known as _Myrtus Piménta_, is now _E. Piménta_; the leaves are ovate, lanceolate, and when broken have an agreeable scent. There are several varieties all of the same spicy fragrance. The plant is in very few of our collections. _E. fràgrans_ is sweet scented; the flowers are on axillary peduncles; leaves ovate, obtuse. _Euphórbia_ (spurg), a genus of plants disseminated over every quarter of the globe; a few are beautiful, many grotesque, and several the most worthless weeds on the earth. There are about two hundred species, and from all of them, when probed, a thick milky fluid exudes. Those of the tropics are the most curious, and very similar in appearance to _Cáctus_, but easily detected by the above perforation. There is a magnificent species in our collections, which was lately introduced from Mexico.[G] It goes under the name of _E. heterophylla_. The flowers of the whole genus are apetalous, and the beauty is in the bracteæ; of the species alluded to the bracteæ is bright crimson, very persistent, and above six inches in diameter, when well grown. The plant requires a strong heat, or the foliage will become yellow and fall off. We question whether this species is nondescript or as above. It is a brilliant ornament to the Hot-house three fourths of the year, and always during winter, and should have a situation in every tropical collection. [G] By Poinsett the American Consul for Mexico in 1828. _Erythrìnas_ (Coral tree), a genus containing about thirty species of leguminose, scarlet-flowering plants. Several species are greatly esteemed for their beauty and profusion of flowers, which in well established plants are produced in long spikes at the end of the stems and branches. _E. Corallodéndrum_ blooms magnificently in the West Indies, but in our collections has never flowered. Perhaps if it was kept dry during its dormant season, which is from November to January, and when growing greatly encouraged, it might produce flowers. _E. speciòsa_ is a splendid flowerer, leaves large, ternated, and prickly beneath; stem prickly. _E. pubéscens_ is valued for its large peculiar brown pubescent leaves. In regard to _E. herbàcea_, which is a native of the Carolinas, and frequently treated as a Hot-house plant, it is our opinion that it would be more perfectly grown if planted about the first of this month in the garden; and when growing, if well supplied with water, it would flower from July to September. About the first of November lift the roots and preserve them in half dry earth, in the same place with the _Dáhlias_. _E. laurifòlia_ and _E. crísta-gálli_ are likewise often treated as Hot-house plants, and in such situations they cast prematurely their first flowers, by the confined state of the air. They will keep in perfect preservation during winter in a dry cellar, half covered with earth, or entirely covered with half dry earth; consequently, the best and easiest method of treatment, is to plant them in the garden about the first of May, and when growing, if the ground becomes dry, give them frequent waterings. They will flower profusely three or four times in the course of summer. We freely recommend the last species to all our patrons, confident that it will give ample satisfaction, both in profusion of flower and beauty of colour. The soil they are to be planted into should be according to that prescribed in the list; or if they are kept in pots, they must be enlarged three or four times, when they are in a growing state, to make them flower perfectly; otherwise they will be diminutive. _Fìcus_, Fig-tree, a genus containing above fifty Hot-house species, besides several that belong to the Green-house; greatly admired for the beauty of their foliage. A few of them are deciduous, and all of the easiest culture. We have seen plants of _F. elástica_ hung in the back of the Hot-house, without the smallest particle of earth, their only support being sprinklings of water every day. _F. Brássii_ is the finest looking species that has come under our observation; the leaves are very large, shining, cordate, accuminate; nerves strong and white. As the beauty of these plants is entirely in the foliage and habit, we will select the best of them in the list to which we refer. _Gærtnèra racemòsa_, is a large climbing woody shrub, with pinnated leaves, leaflets ovate, lanceolate, flowers white, five petaled, beautifully fringed; blooms in dense panicles. When the plants are allowed to climb, they do not flower freely; but if closely cut in, they will flower every year in great profusion, after the plants are well established. It is now called _Hiptàge Madablòta_. _Geissomèria longiflòra._ This is a new genus, and closely allied to _Ruéllia_. The species alluded to, is a free flowerer, blooming from May to August, in close spikes of a scarlet colour; leaves opposite, ovate, elongate, and shining; the plants must be well drained, and in summer kept from the direct influence of the sun. _Gardènias_, a genus containing about seventeen species, several of them very popular in our collections, going under the name of _Cape Jasmine_, which do well in the Green-house, (see _May_.) The species requiring this department, and deserving attention, are _G. campanulàta_, of a soft woody nature, with ovate, accuminate leaves; flowers of a straw colour, and solitary; _G. am[oe]na_, the flowers are white, tinged with crimson, terminale and solitary; _G. costàta_, admired for its beautiful ribbed foliage, _G. lùcida_ has a handsome, ovate, accuminate, shining foliage; flowers white and solitary. They require to have the pots well drained. _Heritièra littóralis_, Looking-glass plant. This plant is unisexual, has beautiful large, ovate, veiny leaves; the flowers are small, red, with male and female on the same plant, but different flowers. It requires a strong heat, and plenty of pot room. How the English name becomes applicable to it, we are not acquainted. _Hibíscus._ This genus affords many fine species and varieties of plants for the Hot-house, besides others for every department of the garden. The most popular in our collections for the Hot-house, is _H. Ròsa sinénsis_, with its varieties, which are magnificent, and flower profusely, from April to September. The single or original species is seldom seen in cultivation; the varieties are _H. Ròsa sinénsis rùbro plénus_, double red; _H. R. S. cárnea plènus_, double salmon; _H. R. S. variegàtus_, double striped; _H. R. S. flávo-plènus_, double buff; _H. R. S. lùtea plènus_, double yellow, or rather sulphur. The plants grow freely, and produce their flowers three or four inches of diameter, from the young wood; the leaves are ovate, accuminate, smooth, entire at the base and coarsely toothed at the end. All the varieties are of the same character, and highly deserving of a situation in every collection. There is said to be a double white variety, which we doubt; it is not in artificial cultivation. _H. mutàbilis flòre plèno_ is a splendid plant of strong growth, and will, when well established, flower abundantly, if the wood of last year is cut to within a few eyes of the wood of the previous year; the flowers are produced on the young wood, and come out a pale colour, and change to bright red, and about the size of a garden Provins rose; leaves downy, cordate, angular, five-lobed, accuminate, and slightly toothed. _H. lilliiflòrus_, is a new highly esteemed species; the flowers are various in colour, being pink, blush, red, purple, and striped. We have not seen it in flower, but had its character verbally, from a respectable cultivator. The leaves vary in character, but are generally cordate, crenate, accuminate; the petioles are brown, and the whole slightly hirsute; is deciduous, and requires to be kept in the warmest part of the house. _Hóyas_, Wax-plant, seven species. All of them are climbing succulents, requiring plenty of heat and little water. _H. carnòsa_ is the finest flowering species of the genus, and known in our collections as the wax plant; the leaves are green and fleshy; the flowers are mellifluous, five parted, and in pendulous bunches, slightly bearded, and have every appearance of a composition of the finest wax; of a blush colour. _H. crassifòlia_ has the best looking foliage, and the flowers are white. The former will keep in the Green-house, but will not flower so profusely. _Hernándias_, Jack-in-a-box. The species are rare, except _H. sonòra_, which is an elegant looking plant, when well grown; the leaves are peltate, cordate, accuminate, smooth; flowers white, and in panicles; the fruit a nut. The English name is said to have been given, in allusion to the small flowers and large leaves of the plant. A great heat is required to grow it well. _Ipomæas_, a genus of tropical climbing plants, nearly allied to _Convolvúlus_, but of greater beauty. _I. paniculàta_ has large purple flowers in panicles, with large palmated smooth leaves. _I. Jálapa_ is the true jalap of the druggists, but not worthy of any other remark. _I. grandiflòra_, large white flowers, with acute petals; leaves large, cordate, ovate. _I. pulchélla_ has flowers of a handsome violet colour. They are all easily cultivated. It is said that _I. tuberòsa_ is much used in the West Indies to cover arbours, and will grow three hundred feet in one season; the flowers are purple striped with yellow, leaves palmated. We are not certain but the roots of this kind may be kept like the sweet potato, and become a useful ornament to our gardens. _Ixòras_, a genus of fine flowering plants, and does extremely well in our collections in comparison to the state they are grown in England. The genus specifically is much confused amongst us, either from error originating with those who packed them for this country, or after they have arrived. _I. purpùrea_, leaves oblong, ovate, blunt; flowers crimson; it is now called _I. obavàta_. _I. crocàta_, leaves oval, lanceolate, narrowing towards the stem, smooth, underside of the leaf the nerves are very perceptible; flowers saffron coloured. _I. ròsea_, leaves large, regular, oblong, a little acute, very distant on the wood, centre nerve strong; flowers rose coloured in large corymbs, branching: _I. Bandhùca_, leaves very close to the stem, ovate, accuminate; nerves straight, middle nerve stronger than any other of the genus; flowers scarlet, corymbs crowded. _I. Blánda_, leaves small, lanceolate, ovate; flowers blush, cymes branching in three. _I. dichotìma_, leaves largest of the genus, ovate, accuminate, undulate, footstalk 3/8 of an inch long; whereas none of the leaves of the other species has footstalks of any length. It is now called _I. undulàta_, flowers are white. _I. grandiflòra_, leaves ovate, elongate, sessile; flowers in crowded corymbs, and scarlet; is called, _I. coccínea_ in the Botanical Magazine, by which it is known in our collections, and is the same as _I. strícta_. _I. flámmea_ and _I. speciòsa_, leaves oblong, subsessile; flowers scarlet, in round spreading dense corymbs. _I. fúlgens_, same as _I. longifòlia_ and _I. lanceolàta_; foliage glossy; flowers scarlet. _I. Pavétta_, the flowers are white, and said to be sweet-scented, the leaves of all the species are opposite; there are a few other species that we are not thoroughly acquainted with, but have been thus explicit to prevent error as far as possible in this beautiful genus. They are all evergreen, low growing shrubs; the plants grow best in Jersey black sandy earth, but flower most abundantly with half loam. _Jacarándas_, a genus of beautiful shrubs, containing five species, with _Bignônia_-like blue or purple flowers. _I. mimòsifolia_ and _I. filicifòlia_ are the finest. The former has blue, and the latter purple flowers; in loose branching panicles. They are evergreen, and easy of culture. _Jambòsas_, about twelve species, which have been principally taken from _Eugènia_, and contain its finest plants, and is a splendid genus of evergreen shrubs. _E. Jámbos_ is now _Jambòsa vulgàris_, which flowers and fruits freely in our Hot-houses. The fruit is about an inch in diameter, eatable, and smelling like a rose, hence called "Rose Apple." The petals of all the species are simple, and may rather be considered the calyx; the beauty of the flowers is in the many erect spreading stamens, either straw, white, rose, or green colour. _J. malaccénsis_, Malay Apple, is greatly esteemed for the delightful fragrance of its fruit. We frequently see _J. purpuráscens_, which is a native of the West Indies, going under _J. m._ which is an Asiatic species, with white flowers and entire oblong leaves; whereas the leaves of _J. p._ are small, ovate, accuminate, young shoots and leaves purple. _J. macrophylla_, white, and _J. amplexicaùlis_, green, have very large oblong, lanceolate leaves, and is of a strong woody habit. They are all easy of culture. _Jasmìnum_, Jasmine, is a favourite genus of shrubs, for the exquisite fragrance of its flowers, of which none are more delightful than _J. Sàmbac_ or Arabian Jasmine. There are two other varieties of it, _J. S. múltiplex_, semi-double; and _J. S. trifòliatum_, Double Tuscan Jasmine. The latter requires a great heat to make it grow and flower freely. We suspect there is another variety in cultivation. _J. hirsùtum_ has cordate downy leaves; flowers many, in terminale, sessile umbels. _J. paniculàtum_, white, flowering in terminale panicles from March to November; leaves smooth, oval, obtusely accuminate; _plant scarce_. _J. simplicifòlium_ is in our collections under the name of _J. lucidum_; plant spreading; leaves oblong and shining. There are several other species, all with white flowers, and generally easy of culture. _Játropha_, Physic-nut, is a genus of six strong growing shrubs, natives of the West Indies. _J. multifida_ and _I. panduræfòlia_ have the handsomest foliage, and both have scarlet flowers; the appearance of the foliage of this genus is the only object; the flowers are small, in coarse disfigured panicles, and several of the species have not been known to flower in artificial cultivation. The seeds of _J. cúrcas_ are often received from the West Indies; the leaves are cordate, angular, and smooth. _J. manihot_, now _Manihot cannabìna_, is the Cassada root, the juice of which, when expressed, is a strong poison. They are all easy of culture: want of strong heat in winter will make them cast their leaves, but do them no other injury. _Justícia._ A few species of this genus are fine showy hot-house plants. _J. coccínea_ has large terminale spikes of scarlet flowers, blooming from December to March, and a very desirable plant, of easy culture, and should be in every collection; it is apt to grow spindly, if not kept near the glass. _I. picta_, with its varieties; _I. lúcida_ and _I. formósa_, are fine shrubby species. _I. speciòsa_ is a beautiful purple flowering herbaceous plant. _Kæmpfèria_, an Asiatic genus of tuberose rooted plants; none of them in our collections, except _K. rotúnda_; the flowers come up a few inches above the pot, without the leaves, in April and May and frequently sooner; they are purple and light blue, partially streaked and spotted; leaves large, oblong, purplish coloured beneath. The roots when dormant ought to be kept in the pot without watering, otherwise they will not flower freely. No bulbs or strong tuberose rooted plants, will flower in perfection if kept moist when they are not growing. _Lantàna_, a genus of twenty species, all free flowering shrubs; the flowers are small, in round heads blooming from the axils, in yellow, orange, pink, white, and changeable colours; the plants are of such a rough straggling growth, that they are not esteemed. There are four or five species in our collections. They will not bear a strong fumigation; therefore, when the Hot-house is under that operation, they must be set down in the pathway, or other low part in the house. _Latànias._ This genus contains three species of handsome palms. _L. borbònica_ is one of the finest of the _Palmæ_, not growing to great magnitude; the leaves or fronds are plaited flabelliform, leaflets smooth at the edge, footstalk spiny, and the plant spreading. _L. rùbra_, fronds same as the former, but leaflets more divided and serrulate; footstalk unarmed; foliage reddish. _L. glaucophylla_, same as _L. rùbra_, only the foliage glaucous. They are all valuable plants, and are obtained by seed from the East Indies. They require plenty of pot room. _Laúrus._ This genus, though of no beauty in flower, is generally admired in collections for its fine evergreen foliage, and aromatic or spicy flavour, and several trees are important in medicine. The most esteemed are given to a genus named _Cinnamòmum_, as has been observed in the Green-house, (see _March_.) _L. Chloróxylon_ is the Cogwood of Jamaica. _L. Pérsea_ is now _Pérsea gratíssima_, Alligator-pear, a fruit about the size of a large pear, and greatly esteemed in the West Indies. The plant is generally known in our collections. _C. vérum_ is the true Cinnamon of commerce. The part taken is the inside of the bark when the tree is from five to eighteen years old. The leaves are three-nerved, ovate, oblong; nerves vanishing towards the point, bright green above, pale beneath, with whitish veins. This plant ought to be kept in the warmest part of the Hot-house. C. _cássia_, is frequently given under the former name, but when compared may be easily detected by the leaves being more lanceolate, and a little pubescent. They both make handsome plants, but require great heat. Drain the pots well of the delicate sorts. _Magnífera_, Mango tree. There are two species. _M. índica_ is in our collections, and bears a fruit which is so highly esteemed in the East Indies, as to be considered preferable to any other except very fine pine apples. The leaves are lanceolate, and from six to eight inches long, and two or more broad. The flowers are produced in loose bunches at the end of the branches, but of no beauty, and have to be artificially impregnated, or it will scarcely produce fruit. The shell is kidney-shaped, and of a leathery, crustaceous substance. They contain one seed, and in their indigenous state are more juicy than an apple. Drain the pots well, as the roots are apt to get sodden from moisture. The other species goes under the name of _oppositifòlia_, but we question if it is not only a variety, for it has every character of the one just described. _Melàstoma_, was once an extensive genus, on which the natural order _Melastomaceæ_ is founded; but is now much divided into other genera contained in the natural tribe _Micomeæ_. There are about thirteen species remaining in the genus. They now display great unity of character, and many of them may be considered very ornamental. The finest are _M. malabáthrica_, rose-coloured; _M. sanguínea_, lilac; _M. decémfida_, purple; _M. pulverulénta_, red; and _M. áspera_, rose. There is a plant in several of our collections known as _M. purpùrea_ and _M. tetragòna_, which is _Ossæa purpuráscens_; leaves ovate, lanceolate, accuminate, five-nerved, pilose; the footstalk and nerves underside of the leaf covered with brown hairs; stem four-sided; flowers purple. All the species are easy of culture. _M. nepalénsis_ is a Green-house plant. _Malpíghia_, (Barbadoes-cherry,) about eighteen species, all beautiful evergreen trees or shrubs. They are easily distinguished by having bristles on the under side of the leaves. These bristles are fixed by the centre, so that either end of it will sting. We are not aware of any other plant being defended in the manner. _M. ùrens_ has oblong ovate leaves with decumbent stiff bristles; flowers pink. _M. aquifòlia_ has lanceolate, stiff, spiny leaves, and we think the most beautiful foliage of the genus. _M. fucàta_ has elliptical shining leaves, with lilac flowers. _M. glábra_, leaves ovate, entire, smooth; flowers purple. They all have five rounded clawed petals. The last species is cultivated in the West Indies for its fruit. The pots must be well drained. _Márica_, a genus of Hot-house plants, closely allied to Iris, between which there is no distinction in the leaves. The flowers of _M. cærùlea_ are beautifully spotted with light and dark blue, the scape many flowered. M. _Sabìni_ has flowers similar, but not so dark in colour. M. _Northiàna_ has splendid white and brown spotted flowers, spathe two flowered. These plants when growing require a liberal supply of water, and to be greatly encouraged by frequent potting to flower well. _Mùsa_ (Plantain-tree), contains eight species, and is greatly esteemed in the East and West Indies for the luscious sweet flavour of its fruit, which can be converted into every delicacy in the domestic cookery of the country. M. _paradisìæa_ is the true plantain tree, has a soft herbaceous stalk, 15 or 20 feet high, with leaves from 5 to 7 feet long, and about 2 feet wide. M. _sapiéntum_ is the true Banana-tree; habit and character same as the former, except it has a spotted stem, and the male flowers are deciduous. The pulp of the fruit is softer, and the taste more luscious. M. _rosàcea_, M. _coccínea_, and M. _chinènsis_, are most esteemed in artificial cultivation for their flowers, and being smaller in growth. They all require a very liberal supply of water when growing. They do best to be planted in the soil, where there can be a small corner of the Hot-house set apart for the purpose. They will be ornamental, but if kept in pots they will never attain any degree of perfection. _Nepénthes_ (Pitcher plant). There are two species of this plant. _N. distillatòria_ is an esteemed and valuable plant in European collections. The leaves are lanceolate and sessile; from their extremity there is a spiral, attached to which are lublar inflated appendages that are generally filled with water, which appears to be confined within them by a lid, with which the appendages are surmounted; hence the name of pitcher plant. We have never observed these lids close again when once open. Writers have called it a herbaceous plant, but it is properly a shrub, never dying to the ground, having a continuation of extension. The pot in which it grows should be covered with moss, and the roots liberally supplied with water every day. It delights to be in a marshy state. The flowers are small and in long spikes. _Pancràtium_ is a genus of Hot-house bulbs, and now only contains five species. They are all free-flowering. Several of them are handsome and fragrant. P. _Marítimum_ and P. _verecúndum_ are the finest; the flowers are white, in large umbels; petals long, recurved, and undulate. P. _littoràlis_, P. _speciòsum_, and P. _caribæum_, are now given to the genus _Hymenocállis_, and are fine flowering species. Care must be taken not to give them much water while dormant. The soil ought at that time to be in a half dry state. They are in flower from May to August. _Polyspòra axillàris_, once called _Caméllia axillàris_, though in appearance it has no characteristic of a _Caméllia_, and has been frequently killed in the Green-house by being too cold for its nature; leaves oblong, obovate, towards the extremity serrulate. The leaves on the young wood are entire. Flowers white; petals a little notched. It is worthy of a situation in every collection. _Passiflòra_, "Passion-Flower, so named on account of its being supposed to represent in the appendages of its flower the Passion of Jesus Christ." There are about fifty species, all climbing plants, that belong to the Hot-house. Many are of no ordinary beauty; a few species are odoriferous; others bear edible fruits, though not rich in flavour. P. _alàta_ is in our collections, and greatly admired; the flowers are red, blue, and white, beautifully contrasted, and flower profusely in pots. P. _racemòsa_, has red flowers, and one of the most profuse in flowering. P. _cærùleo-racemòsa_, purple and red, and by many thought to be the finest of the genus. P. _quadrangulàris_ has beautiful red and white flowers. The plant is in several collections, but has seldom flowered; it requires to be planted in the ground to make it flower freely, and it will also produce fruit. P. _filamentòsa_ is white and blue, and a good flowerer. P. _picturàta_ is a scarce and beautiful variously coloured species. There are many other fine species, but these are the most esteemed sorts; and when well established will flower profusely from May to August. They are desirable in every collection, and will take only a small space to hold them, by training the vines up the rafters of the Hot-house. _Pandànus_, Screw Pine. There are above twenty species in this genus, several of them very interesting, but none so greatly admired as P. _odoratíssimus_. The leaves in established plants are from four to six feet long, on the back and edges spiny; are spreading, imbricated, and embracing the stem, and placed in three spiral rows upon it. The top soon becomes heavy when the plant throws out prongs one, two, or three feet up the stem in an oblique descending direction, which take root in the ground, and thus become perfectly supported. It is cultivated in Japan for its delightful fragrance, and it is said, "of all the perfumes, it is by far the richest and most powerful." P. _ùtilis_, red spined. We question this species, and are inclined to believe that it is the former, only when the plants are newly raised from seed, the spines and leaves are red, changing to green as they become advanced in age. The plants are easy of culture, and will grow almost in any soil. _Pterospérmum_, five species of plants that have very curiously constructed flowers, of a white colour, and fragrant; the foliage is of a brown rusty nature, and before expansion silvery-like. P. _suberifòlium_ is in several of our collections, and esteemed. P. _semisagittàtum_ has fringed bractæa; leaves oblong, accuminate, entire, sagittate on one side. _Plumèrias_, above twenty species. Plants of a slow growth, robust nature, and are deciduous. The foliage is greatly admired. The plants are shy to flower, but are brilliant in colour. P. _acuminàta_, has lanceolate, acute leaves; flowers corymbose and terminale. P. _trícolor_ has oblong, acute, veiny leaves; corolla red, yellow, and white. This and P. _rùbra_ are the finest of the genus. They ought not to get any water while not in a growing state. _Ph[oe]nix_, Date-palm, about eight species, principally Asiatic plants. The foliage is not so attractive as many others of the palm family, but it is rendered interesting by producing a well known fruit called Date. P. _dactylífera_ will do very well in a common Green-house. In Arabia, Upper Egypt, and Barbary, it is much used in domestic economy. P. _paludósa_ has the most beautiful foliage, and the best habit. The flowers are di[oe]cious. _Roscòea._ A genus of about five species, all pretty, but not much known. _R. purpùrea_ has been introduced into our collections, and is the finest of the genus. The flowers are light purple, large, and in terminale sheaths at the top of the stem. _R. spicàta_ and _R. capitàta_ are both fine species, with blue flowers. They are all herbaceous, with strong half tuberous roots, requiring little water while dormant, and a liberal supply when growing. _Ruéllia._ There are a few species, very pretty free flowering plants, of easy culture. _R. formòsa_, flowers long, of a fine scarlet colour; plant half shrubby. _R. fulgída_ has bright scarlet flowers on axillary long stalked fascicles. _R. persicifòlia_, with unequal leaves, and light blue flowers, is now called _R. anisophylla_; and the true one has oblong, wavy, leaves, deeply nerved, petioles long; flowers yellow, sessile, in axillary and terminale heads, stem erect. One healthy plant will be frequently in flower from January to June. This species ought to be in every collection, both for its beauty of flower and foliage. _Rhápis_, a genus of palms, that will grow very freely with heat, and room at the roots. _R. flabellifórmis_ is an erect growing palm, with a spreading head. It is a native of China. _Thunbérgia_, a genus containing six climbing plants, of a half shrubby nature. Some of them have a fragrant odour. _T. coccínea_, red; _T. grandiflòra_, blue; _T. fràgrans_, sweet-scented; _T. alàta_, has pretty buff and purple flowers, which are in great profusion. We are not certain but the latter will make a beautiful annual in the Flower-garden. It seeds freely, and from the time of sowing until flowering is about two months, if the heat is brisk. If sown in May, they will bloom from July until killed by frost. _Sàgus_, Sago-palm. We are of opinion that the true palm from which the sago of the shops is produced, has not been introduced into our collections. It is very rare in the most extensive collections of Europe, but is not so fine as the one we have under the Sago, which is placed in the natural order of _Cycadeæ_; and Sagus is in that of _Palmæ_. The finest of this genus is _S. vinífera_ and _S. Rúmphii_. They grow to a great height; even in artificial cultivation they may be seen from ten to twenty-five feet. We have not introduced them here for their beauty, but to prevent error. _Solándra_, a genus of four species, remarkable for the extraordinary size of their flowers, and are considered beautiful. _S. grandiflòra_ and _S. viridiflòra_ are the two best. The plants will bloom best if they are restricted in pot room, and are only introduced as being worthy of cultivation. If they are repotted once in two or three years, it is sufficient, except where the plants are small and want encouragement. _Strophánthus_, a small genus of beautiful tropical shrubs. The segments of the corolla are curiously twisted before expansion. _S. divérgens_ is a neat spreading shrub, with yellow flowers, a little tinged with red; the petals are about four inches long, undulate, lanceolate. _S. dichótomus_ is rose coloured, corolla funnel shaped. The plants will flower freely in a strong moist heat. Drain the pots well. _Swietènia_ (mahogany-tree), the wood of which is celebrated in cabinet-work. _S. Mahógoni_, common. This tree varies much in general appearance according to soil and situation. The leaves are pinnated in four pairs; leaflets ovate, lanceolate; flowers small, white, in axillary panicles. _S. fubrifùga_, leaves pinnated, in four pairs; leaflets elliptical; flowers white, in terminale panicles. The wood of the last is the most durable of any in the East Indies. They are fine plants, and require heat and pot room to produce flowers. _Tecòma_, a genus of plants closely allied to _Bignònia_, and are free-flowering; several of them much esteemed. _T. móllis_, _T. digitàta_, and _T. splèndida_, are the most beautiful of those that belong to the Hot-house. They have large orange coloured, tubular, inflated, ringent flowers, in loose panicles. There is a plant known in our collections as _Bignònia stáns_, which is now _T. stàns_; has pinnated leaves, with oblong, lanceolate, serrated, leaflets; flowers in simple terminale, raceme, and of a yellow colour, and sometimes known by Ash-leaved _Bignònia_. It will always have a sickly aspect, if not well encouraged in light rich soil. Drain the pots well, as much moisture disfigures the foliage. _Tabernæmontána_, a genus of little beauty, except for one or two species. A plant known in some collections as _Nèrium coronàrium_, is now, and properly, _T. coronària_. The variety, _flòre plèno_, is the one most deserving of culture, and will flower profusely from May to August; the flowers are double white, fragrant, and divaricating. The plant will lose its foliage if not kept in a strong heat; therefore place it in the warmest part of the Hot-house. _T. densiflòra_ is a fine species, but very rare. Drain all the plants well, and keep them in the shade during summer. _Thrinax parviflòra_, is a fine dwarf palm of the West Indies, with palmated fronds, plaited with stiff, lanceolate segments. The plant is of easy cultivation, and will grow in any soil. _Zàmia_, a genus of plants in the natural order of _Cycadeæ_. Several species of them are admired. _Z. média_, _Z. furfuràcea_, _Z. ténuis_, _Z. integrifòlia_, are the most showy that belong to the Hot-house. The whole genus is frequently kept in this department. They are all plants of a slow growth, and the beauty is entirely in the pinnated fronds, with from ten to forty pairs of leaflets. The pots must be well drained. Those genera of plants which we have enumerated under the head of repotting in this or next month, are composed of the finest Hot-house plants that have come under our observation. There are perhaps a few of them that are not to be found in the United States, or even on our continent; but the great object, in a choice collection of plants, is to have the finest from all parts of the known world. There are many plants whose nature does not require much support from soil, which is frequently observed in those that are mentioned. And there are many hundreds of plants desirable for beauty, ornament, and curiosity, which are not specified, our limits not permitting such an extended detail. Those whose nature agrees better with repotting at other periods, shall be noticed, especially those that are in the collections of the country. We have previously observed, that plants ought not to be flooded with water when newly potted, as it saturates the soil before the roots have taken hold of it; and that the best draining for pots is small gravel or potshreds broken fine. We wish it to be understood that when plants are repotted, any irregular branch or shoot should be lopped off, that cannot be tied in to advantage. And repotting may take place either before or after the plants are exposed to the open air, according to convenience. OF BRINGING OUT THE HOT-HOUSE PLANTS. Where the Hot-house is very crowded with plants, the best method to have them exposed without danger is, to take out those of the hardiest nature first, that have no tender shoots upon them, thereby thinning the house gradually. This may be done from the 16th to the 20th of the month, which will admit of a free circulation of air amongst those that remain. All may be exposed from the 24th to the 28th of the month. This is a general rule, though in some seasons there maybe exceptions. Having previously given all the air possible to the house, that no sudden transition take place, which would make the foliage brown, and otherwise materially injure the plants, choose calm days for the removing of them. There are few plants while in pots that agree with the full sun upon them; or if the plants receive the sun, the pots and roots ought not. The best situation for them is on the north side of a fence, wall, house, or other building, where they are excluded from the mid-day sun, and they should stand on boards or gravel, with the tallest at the back, firmly, tied to a rail or some other security, to prevent them from being overturned by high winds. A stage erected, where it is practicable, for the reception of the smaller plants, and they set thinly and regularly thereon, is preferable to crowding them with the taller sorts. And it may be desired to have some of the plants plunged in the garden through the flower borders. Of those that are so treated, the pots must be plunged to the brim, and regularly turned round every two weeks, to prevent the roots from running into the earth. If the roots were allowed to do so, it might for the present strengthen the plant, but ultimately would prove injurious. Where a sufficiency of shade cannot be obtained, it would be advisable to go to the expense of a very thin awning, that would not exclude the light, but merely the powerful rays of the sun, attending to roll it up every evening. Plants will keep in beautiful order by the above method, which amply repays for the trouble or expense. Avoid putting plants under trees; comparatively few thrive in such situations. When they are thus all exposed to the open air, it will be very little trouble to give them a gentle syringing every evening when there is no rain, and continue your usual examinations for insects: when they appear resort to the prescribed remedies. _Green-fly_ will not affect them, but perhaps the thrips. Give regular supplies of water to their roots every evening, and some will require it in the morning, especially small pots. SUCCULENTS. These plants are habituated to exposed dry, hot, situations in their indigenous state; and an aspect, where they would have the full influence of the sun, is the best, giving them water two or three times a week. =Green-House.= _MAY._ About the first of the month, all the small half hardy plants may be taken out of the green house, and those that are left will be more benefited by a freer circulation of air, which will enure them to exposure. The _Geraniums_ ought to stand perfectly clear of other plants, while in flower and growing, or they will be much drawn and spindly. WATERING. We have advanced so much on this subject, another observation is not necessary; except as to succulents, which are frequently overwatered about this period. Before they begin to grow, once a week is sufficient. OF BRINGING OUT THE GREEN-HOUSE PLANTS. Those trees or plants of _Orange_, _Lemon_, _Myrtle_, _Nerium_, &c. that were headed down with the intention of planting them into the garden, to renovate their growth, should be brought out and planted in the situations intended for them. A good light rich soil will do for either, and the balls of earth might be a little reduced, that when they are lifted they might go into the same pot or tub, or perhaps a less one. This being done, the plants, generally in a calm day from the 12th to the 18th of the month, should be taken out, carrying them directly to a situation shaded from the sun, and protected from the wind. In regard to a situation best adapted for them during summer, see _Hot-house_ this month, which will equally apply to Green-house plants, except _Dáphne odòra_, _Dáphne hybrida_, and the Green-house species of _Coronílla_, which must be shaded from every ray of the sun, and even from dry parching winds. All Primroses and Polyanthus delight in shade. The reason of so many plants of the _D. odòra_[H] dying is from the effects of the sun and water. [H] On examining these plants, when the first appearance of decay affected them, the decayed part was without exception at the surface of the soil, which was completely mortified, while the top and roots were apparently fresh. This led us to conclude that the cause was the effect of sun and water on the stem. We have since kept the earth in a conical form round the stem, thereby throwing the water to the sides of the pot, and kept them in the shade. Previous to doing this, we had quantities died every year, and now no plants thus treated die with us. The large trees may be fancifully set either in a spot for the purpose, or through the garden. Put bricks or pieces of wood under the tubs to prevent them from rotting, and strew a little litter of any description over the surface of the soil to prevent evaporation, or about one inch of well decayed manure, which will from the waterings help to enrich the soil. A liberal supply of water twice or three times a week is sufficient. A large tree will take at one time from two to four gallons. We make this observation, for many trees evidently have too limited a supply. Continue to syringe the plants through the dry season every evening, or at least three times per week. All the tall plants must be tied to some firm support, because the squalls of wind frequently overturn them, and do much harm by breaking, &c. Keep those that are in flower as much in the shade as will preserve them from the direct influence of the sun. REPOTTING PLANTS. After the following mentioned plants, or any assimilated to them, are brought out of the house, and before they are put in their respective stations, repot them where they are required to grow well. _Aloes._ These plants so varied in character, have been divided into several genera. These are _Gastèria_, _Pachidéndron_, _Riphidodéndron_, _Howárthia_, and _Apicra_. Of these there are above two hundred species and varieties. To enter into any specific detail, would be beyond our limits; but the catalogue at the end of the work will contain the finest species. _Amaryllis._ This is a genus of splendid flowering bulbs containing about eighty species, and one hundred and forty varieties. They are natives of South America, but more than one half of them are hybrids grown from seed by cultivators. They are generally kept in the Hot-house, but in our climate will do perfectly well in the Green-house; and we have no doubt that in a few years many of them will be so acclimated, as to keep as garden bulbs, planting about the end of April, and lifting them in October. As the beauty of these plants is in the flowers, it will be proper to give a small description of a few of them. _A. striatifòlia_, has a stripe of pure white in the centre of each leaf, the flowers are purple and white, an esteemed species. _A. Johnsòni_, the flowers are a deep scarlet, with a white streak in the centre of each petal, four bloom on a stem of about two feet, each flower about six inches diameter; a bulb well established has two stems. _A. regìna_, Mexican Lily, has large scarlet pendant flowers, tube of the flower fringed-like, with three or four on the stem. _A. vittàta_ is an admired species with scarlet flowers, striped with a greenish white. There are two or three varieties of it; corolla campanulate, three or four on the stem, about five inches diameter; petals a little undulate. _A. fùlgida_, flower scarlet, large tube striped, petals acute, two flowers on the stem. _A. áulica_ is one of the most magnificent, has four flowers about seven inches diameter, erect on a stem about two and a half feet high; six petals, strongly united to the capsule, bottom of the petals green, connected with spots of dark crimson, which spread into fine transparent red, covered with rich tints, nerves very perceptible, anthers bold. It is called crowned _Amaryllis_. _A. psittácina_, Parrot Amaryllis, is scarlet striped with green, two flowers on the stem, each about five inches diameter. There are several varieties of it; the best that we have seen are _cowbèrgia_ and _pulverulènta_. A bulb known in our collections as _A. purpùrea_ is _Ballóta purpùrea_, has beautiful erect scarlet flowers, three or four on the stem, each about five inches in diameter. There are three varieties of it, differing only in habit. _A. longifòlia_ is now _Crìnum capénse_, and is perfectly hardy; flowers pink, inclining to white, in large umbels, leaves long, glaucous, and is a desirable garden bulb. There are many other superb Amaryllis, especially the hybrid sorts; from _Johnsòni_ there are above twenty cultivated varieties; from _formòsa_ above twelve; and from _Griffìni_ about ten, all of them esteemed. Where they have been kept in the earth in which they were grown last year, the ball ought at this repotting to be reduced; when the bulbs are done flowering, they ought to have little water, so that they may be perfectly ripened, which will cause them to produce their flowers more freely. _Araucària._ This noble genus contains four species, which are without exception the handsomest plants we are acquainted with, for the beauty of their foliage, and symmetry of their growth, that belong to the Green-house. _A. excélsa_, Norfolk Island Pine, has leaves closely imbricated as if with a coat of mail, and are imperishable. _A. imbricàta_, Chile Pine, is one of the grandest of trees, and is the hardiest of the genus; the leaves are also closely imbricated. The other two species are rarely seen even in European collections. The foliage of either of the species will adhere to the wood many years after the plant is dead. They are all highly valued, the pots must be well drained; for if the plants get much water while dormant, the foliage becomes yellow, and never attains its beautiful green colour again; otherwise they are easily grown. _Chamærops._ There are about seven species of these palms: four of them belong to this department, and are the finest of those that will keep in the Green-house. They all have large palmated fronds, and require large pots or tubs to make them grow freely, and are tenacious of life if kept from frost. _Gardènia._ This is an esteemed genus of plants, especially for the double flowering varieties, which are highly odoriferous, and have an evergreen shining foliage. _G. flòrida flòre-plèno_, Cape Jasmine, is a plant universally known in our collections, and trees of it are frequently seen above seven feet high and five feet in diameter, blooming from June to October. _G. rádicans_, dwarf Cape Jasmine, _G. longifòlia_, and _G. latifòlia_, are also in several collections, but not so generally known; the flowers are double, and all equally fragrant. We are inclined to think they are only varieties of _G. flòrida_. Any of the above will keep in the coldest part of the Green-house, and even under the stage is a good situation for them, where the house is otherwise crowded during winter. They must be sparingly watered from November to March. Much water while they are dormant, gives the foliage a sickly tinge, a state in which they are too frequently seen. _G. Rothmànnia_ and _G. Thunbérgia_ are fine plants, but flower sparingly; the flowers of the former are spotted, and are most fragrant during night. _Mesembryànthemum._ A very extensive genus, containing upwards of four hundred and fifty species, and varieties, with few exceptions natives of the Cape of Good Hope. They are all singular, many of them beautiful, and some splendid; yet they have never been popular plants in our collections. The leaves are almost of every shape and form; their habits vary in appearance. Some of them are straggling, others insignificant, and a few grotesque. When they are well grown, they flower in great profusion; the colours are brilliant, and through the genus are found of every shade; yellow and white are most prevalent. Each species continues a considerable time in flower. The flowers are either solitary, axillary, extra axillary, but most frequently terminale; leaves mostly opposite, thick, or succulent, and of various forms. They are sometimes kept in the Hot-house, but undoubtedly the Green-house is the best situation for them. They must not get water above once a month during winter, but while they are in flower and through the summer, they require a more liberal supply, and they seldom need to be repotted; once in two years is sufficient. _Strelítzia_, a most superb genus of evergreen perennial plants. They are greatly esteemed and highly valued in our collections. The finest flowering species are _S. regìnæ_ and _S. ováta_; the former is the strongest of the two, but in respect to the beauty of their flowers there is no difference. The scape arises about three feet, headed with a sheath which lies horizontal before the flowers burst forth. The sheath contains three, four, or five flowers, according to the strength of the plants. These arise erect, and pass in a few days to the bottom of the sheath, the one before the other. _S. hùmilis_ is another fine species, but the most rare are _S. agústa_, which has a leaf nearly like the plantain; _S. jùncea_, _S. parvifòlia_, and _S. farinòso_. The flowers of all these are yellow and blue, except those of _S. agústa_, which are white, and it flowers sparingly. A few species of these plants ought to be in every Green-house: they are vulgarly called Queen plant. While in flower they should be liberally supplied with water, but while dormant very sparingly. They will suffer sooner from the effects of too much, than too little water. The roots are strong tubers, and require plenty of pot room, and will thrive exceedingly where they can be planted in the soil. CAMELLIAS. These plants, when they are brought from the Green-house, ought to be set in a situation by themselves, that they may be the more strictly attended to in watering and syringing. An airy situation where the sun has no effect upon them is the best. They should be syringed every evening when there has been no rain through the day. After heavy rains examine the pots, and where water is found, turn the plant on its side for a few hours to let the water pass off, and then examine the draining in the bottom of the pots, which must be defective. CAPE BULBS. As soon as these are done flowering, and the foliage begins to decay, cease watering, and turn the pots on their sides, until the soil is perfectly dry; then take out the bulbs and preserve them dry until the time of planting, which will be about the end of August or first of September. =Flower Garden.= _MAY._ It is highly desirable to have all the scientific operations as much advanced in the beginning of this month as is practicable, that at all times immediate attention may be given to the destroying of weeds wherever they appear. ANNUALS, HARDY AND TENDER. By the first of the month finish sowing all hardy Annuals and Biennials; and about the middle of the month all those that are tropical. The weather being now warm, they will vegetate in a few days or weeks. Attend to thinning of those that are too thick, giving gentle waterings to such as are weak in dry weather. Those that have been protected in frames should be fully exposed therein night and day; take the first opportunity of damp cloudy days to have them transplanted into the borders or beds, after the 10th, lifting them out of the frame with as much earth as will adhere to their roots. CARE OF HYACINTHS, TULIPS, &c. For the treatment of these while in bloom, see last month. The best time to take them out of the ground is about five weeks after they are done flowering, or when the stem appears, what may be termed half decayed. The best method to dry them is to place the roots in rows, with bulb to bulb, the stems laying north and south, or east or west. Give the bulbs a very thin covering of earth, merely to exclude the sun, so that they may not dry too rapidly, being thereby liable to become soft. When they have thoroughly dried in this situation, which will be in eight or ten days in dry weather, (and if it rains cover them with boards,) take them to an airy dry loft or shade, clearing off the fibres or stems, and in a few weeks put them in close drawers, or cover them with sand perfectly dry, until the time of planting, for which see October. It is not advisable to allow any of the bulbs of either Hyacinths or Tulips to seed, as it retards their ripening, and weakens the root, except where there are a few desired for new varieties. The small offsets must be carefully kept in dry sand, or immediately planted. ANEMONES AND RANUNCULUS. These while in bloom should be carefully shaded from the sun by hoops and thin canvass, or an erect temporary awning; and as soon as they are done flowering, they must be fully exposed, and the waterings given up. DAHLIAS, TUBEROSES, AND AMARYLLIS, That are not planted, should now be done. For full directions see last month. In many seasons, any time before the twelfth is quite soon enough; but nothing ought to be delayed when the season will permit it to be done. It is necessary to have them properly labeled. AURICULAS, POLYANTHUS, AND PRIMROSES. They will now be done flowering, but still must be carefully kept in a cool, shady situation, and all decayed leaves cut off as soon as they appear. Examine them carefully and frequently, in case slugs of any description be preying upon them. A dusting of hot lime will kill them, or they may be otherwise destroyed. Some have recommended to repot and slip those plants when done flowering, "or they will contract a destructive disease;" which disease is a loss of verdure, and is induced by too much heat and drought, and a few other causes from inattention; but if attended to as above until September, when they should be fresh potted, they will have time to be sufficiently established before winter, which is the most judicious time to take off slips, for two reasons, viz.--they do not need so much nursing through the most precarious season of the year (summer) for these plants, and they begin to grow, and will root afresh sooner. DOUBLE WALL-FLOWERS. As these are very seldom grown from seed, and are semi-biennials, art has to be used to preserve or renew them. About the end of this month take shoots of this year about three inches long, cutting them carefully off, and smoothing the cut end with a sharp knife; from this cut the lower leaves off about one inch and a half, and then put it in the ground; choose a very shady spot, mixing the soil with a little sand and earth of decayed leaves. Sprinkle them three times a day until they have taken root, which will be in a few weeks. Keep the cuttings about four inches apart. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. We do not consider that it is essential every month to repeat the necessity of tying up plants, saving seeds when ripe, cutting down weeds, raking, &c. with many other similar observations. We have already been full on these subjects, and expect these to be remembered through the season. Particular care, however, is required to _carnations_, _pinks_, or any plants that have heavy heads and slender stems. If carnations are desired to flower strongly, cut off all the buds except three, leaving the uppermost and any other two of the largest. All climbing plants should have timely support, and tied securely every week while they are growing. =Rooms.= _MAY._ All the plants will be able to withstand exposure, in the general state of the seasons, about the 10th of the month. Begin about the first to take out the hardiest, such as _Laurestínus_, _Hydrángeas_, _Roses_, _Primroses_, _Polyanthus_, &c. and thus allow the others to stand more free, and become hardened to exposure. The reason that plants are so often seen brown, stunted, and almost half dead, is from the exposed situation they are placed in, with the direct sun upon them, and too frequently from being so sparingly watered. There are no shrubby plants cultivated in pots that are benefited by the hot sun from this period to October. A north aspect is the best for every plant, except _Càctus_, _Aloe_, _Mesembryànthemum_, and such as go under the name of succulents. Where there are only a few, they should be conveniently placed, to allow water from a pot with a rose mouth to be poured frequently over them, which is the best substitute for the syringe. _Dáphne_, _Coronílla_, _Fúchsia_, _Caméllia_, _Primrose_, and _Polyánthus_, do not agree with a single ray of the sun, through the summer. There has been a general question what is the cause of the death of so many of the _Dáphne odòra_. It may be observed, that the first place that shows symptoms of decay, is at the surface of the soil, and this takes place a few weeks before there are evident effects of it. The cause is from the effect of heat or sun and water acting on the stem at least. If the soil is drawn in the form of a cone round the stem, to throw off the water to the edges of the pot, that the stem may be dry above the roots, mortification does not take place, neither do they die prematurely, when thus treated. For further remarks, see Green-house, this month. CAPE BULBS. Any of these that are done flowering, such as _Ixia_, _Oxalis_, _Lachenàlia_, &c. as soon as the foliage begins to decay, turn the pots on their sides, which will ripen the roots, and when perfectly dry, clear them off the soil, wrap them up in paper, with their names attached, and put them carefully aside until the time of planting. REPOTTING. Where it is required, repot _Cáctus_, _Aloe_, _Mesembryánthemums_, and all other succulents, with any of the _Amaryllis_ that are required to be kept in pots, also Cape Jasmines. For description of the above, see Hot-house and Green-house of this month, under the same head. =Hot-House.= _JUNE AND JULY._ As the plants of the Hot-house are all exposed to the open air, the directions will include both months. If the repotting is over, as recommended last month, all the attention they will require until the end of August, is the administering of water at the roots, and by the syringe over head. It will be impossible to say how great are their wants, that depending entirely upon the nature of the plant, the situation, and the season; but never neglect to look over them every evening, and after very dry nights they will need a fresh supply in the morning, observing to give to none except they are becoming a little dry. Make weekly examinations for insects of any description, and when they appear, have them instantly destroyed. Always after heavy rains look over the pots, in case water should be standing in them, which would injure the roots. Where any is found, turn the pot on its side, and in a few hours examine the draining which is defective; small pots in continued rains should be turned likewise. Tie up all plants and shoots to prevent them from being destroyed by the wind, and be attentive to pick all weeds from the pots. Turn round all the plants occasionally, to prevent them from being drawn to one side by the sun or light. =Green-House.= _JUNE AND JULY._ The plants being out of the house, there need be little added under this head. Their treatment is in the general, and the required attention is in giving water according to their different constitutions and habits. Where there are not rain or river water, it should stand at least one day in butts or cisterns, to take the chilly air from it, and become softened by the surrounding atmosphere. This is more essential to the health of the plants than is generally supposed. The small plants in dry weather will need water evening and morning. Continue regular syringings as directed last month. There are frequently rains continuing for several days, which will materially injure many plants, if they are not turned on their sides until the rain is over, especially small plants. The syringings should never be done till after the waterings at the roots, and they should never be seldomer than every alternate evening. Turn all the plants frequently to prevent them from being drawn to one side by the sun or light. Carefully look over them at these turnings, to detect any insects. And observe that the tuberose rooted geraniums, such as _Ardéns_, _Bicòlor_, _Trístum_, &c. are not getting too much water, they being now dormant. =Flower Garden.= _JUNE AND JULY._ HOLLAND BULBS. The lifting of these will be general in June. For directions see _May_. It is not advisable to take up _Jonquils_, _Fritillària_, _Crocus_, and _Iris_, oftener than every alternate year; _Jonquils_ may stand three years. _Anemones_ and _Ranunculus_ should be carefully lifted after their leaves begin to fade. Do not expose them to the sun, but cover slightly with earth or sand until they are perfectly dry, when they may be sifted out of the earth, and put into drawers carefully labeled. Some recommend to soak these roots in soap-suds, to destroy a worm that they are frequently attacked with. We know not how far this may be carried, nor the good or bad effects, never having practised it. AUTUMN FLOWERING BULBS. These are _Amaryllis lùtea_, now called _Sternbérgia lùtea_; _A. Belladónna_, now _Belladónna purpuráscens_; and _Nerìne sarniénsis_. This is a beautiful flowering bulb, and requires the protection of a frame during winter. The old bulb seldom flowers oftener than two succeeding years, and then decays, but the off-sets will flower the second year; therefore when the old bulbs are lifted, they ought to be immediately planted, and receive every encouragement to strengthen them for flowering. _Crôcus satìvus_, _C Pallàsii_, _C. serotìnus_, and _C. nudiflòrus_, and all the species of _Cólchicum_, with species of several other genera not introduced into the country. They should all be lifted as soon as the foliage is decayed, and kept only a few weeks out of the ground, and then again replanted in fresh soil. The economy of the genus _Cólchicum_ in regard to its bulbs, flowers, and seeds, is altogether singular, and may be termed an anomaly of nature. In producing the new bulbs or off-sets in a very curious manner, the old one perishes. The flowers which arise with long slender tubes from the root die off in October, without leaving any external appearance of seeds. These lie buried all the winter within the bulb, in spring they grow upon a fruit stalk, and are ripe about the first of June. How beautiful and admirable is this provision! The plant blooming so late in the year, would not have time to mature its seeds before winter; and is, therefore, so contrived that it may be performed out of the reach of the usual effects of frost, and they are brought above the surface when perfected, and at a proper season for sowing. CARNATIONS AND PINKS. In order to make the former flower well, if the weather is dry, give them frequent waterings at the root, and tie them up neatly to their rods. The criterion of a fine carnation is--the stem strong and straight, from thirty to forty inches high, the corolla three inches diameter, consisting of large round well formed petals, but not so many as to crowd it, nor so few as to make it appear thin or empty; the outside petals should rise above the calyx about half an inch, and then turn off in a horizontal direction, to support the interior petals, they forming nearly a hemispherical corolla. The interior petals should decrease in size toward the centre, all regularly disposed on every side; they should have a small degree of concavity at the lamina or broad end, the edges perfectly entire. The calyx above one inch in length, with strong broad points in a close and circular body. The colours must be perfectly distinct, disposed in regular long stripes, broadest at the edge of the lamina, and gradually becoming narrower as they approach the unguis or base of the petal, there terminating in a fine point. Those that contain two colours upon a white ground are esteemed the finest. Of a double pink--the stem about twelve inches, the calyx smaller but similar to a carnation; the flowers two inches and a half in diameter; petals rose edges; colour white, and pure purple, or rich crimson; the nearer it approaches to black it is the more esteemed; proportions equal as in carnation. Those that are very tasteful with these flowers are attentive to the manner of their opening. Where the calyx is deficient in regular expansion to display the petals; that is, where there is a tendency to burst open on one side more than on the other, the opposite side in two or three different indentions should be slit a little at several times with the point of a small sharp knife, taking care not to cut the petals, and about the centre of the calyx tie a thread three or four times round to prevent any farther irregularity. Some florists and connoisseurs place cards on them. This is done when the calyx is small. Take a piece of thin pasteboard, about the size of a dollar; cut a small aperture in its centre to admit the bud to pass through. When on tie it tight to the rod, to prevent the wind from blowing it about; and when the flower is expanded, draw up the card to about the middle of the calyx, and spread the petals one over the other regularly upon it. When these plants are in flower, their beauty may be prolonged by giving them a little shade from the mid-day sun by an awning of any simple description. Where they are in pots, they can be removed to a cool shady situation, (but not directly under trees.) OF LAYING CARNATIONS AND PINKS. This is a necessary and yearly operation to keep a supply of plants, and likewise to have them always in perfection. As the process of laying, though simple, may not be known to all who are desirous of cultivating these plants, we will give an outline of the mode of operation. Provide first a quantity of small hooked twigs (pieces of _Asparagus_ stems are very suitable) about three inches long, for pegging the layers down in the earth. Select the outward strongest and lowest shoots that are round the plant, trim off a few of the under leaves, and shorten with the knife the top ones even, and then applying it at a joint about the middle of the under-side of the shoot, cut about half through in a slanting direction, making an upward slit towards the next joint, near an inch in extent; and loosening the earth, make a small oblong cavity one or two inches deep, putting a little fresh light earth therein. Lay the stem part where the slit is made into the earth, keeping the cut part open, and the head of the layer upright one or two inches out of the earth; and in that position peg down the layer with one of the hooked twigs, and cover the inserted part to the depth of one inch with some of the fresh earth, pressing it gently down. In this manner proceed to lay all the proper shoots of each plant. Keep the earth a little full round the plant, to retain longer the water that may be applied. Give immediately a moderate watering, with a rose watering pot, and in dry weather give light waterings every evening. Choose a cloudy day for the above operation. In about two months they will be well rooted. PRUNING ROSES. The best time to prune what are termed "Garden roses" is immediately after flowering, which is generally about the middle of June. Cut out all old exhausted wood, and where it is too thick and crowded, shortening those shoots which have flowered to a good fresh strong eye, or bud, accompanied with a healthy leaf, but leaving untouched such shoots as are still in a growing state, except where they are becoming irregular. Such should be cut to the desired shape. There is not a better period of the year for puting these bushes in handsome order, which ought to be studied. All wood that grows after this pruning will ripen perfectly and produce fine flowers next year. Our reasons for doing so at this period are these: The points of the shoots of the more delicate sorts of roses are very apt to die when pruned in winter or spring; hence the consequences of this evil are avoided. The stronger the wood of roses is made to grow, the flowers will be the larger and more profuse, and this effect is but produced by cutting out the old and superfluous wood; at least it prevents any loss of vegetative power, which ought always to be considered. OF BUDDING OR INOCULATION OF ROSES. According to what we have previously hinted in regard to having roses as standards, where such are desired, the month of July is a proper time for the operation of budding. The kinds to be taken for stocks should be of a strong free growth. Such as _Ornamental parade_; _Dutch tree_; _R. vilòsa_; _R. canína_; and frequently the French _Eglantine_, are taken. Be provided with a proper budding-knife, which has a sharp thin blade adapted to prepare the bud, with a tapering ivory haft made thin at the end for raising the bark of the stock. For tieings use bass strings from Russia mats, which should be soaked in water to make them more pliable. The height of the stock or stem at which the bud is to be inserted, is to be determined by the intended destination of the tree, (as it may be properly called.) Choose a smooth part of the stem, from one to three years old. Having marked the place, prune away all the lateral shoots about and underneath it. With the knife directed horizontally, make an incision about half an inch long in the bark of the stock, cutting into the wood, but not deeper; then applying the point of the knife to the middle of this line, make a perpendicular incision under the first, extending from it between one and two inches. Having a healthy shoot of the growth of this year provided of the kind that is desired, begin at the lower end of this shoot, cut away all the leaves, leaving the footstalk of each. Being fixed on a promising bud, insert the knife about half an inch above the eye, slanting it downwards, and about half through the shoot. Draw it out about an inch below the eye, so as to bring away the bud unimpaired with the bark, and part of the wood adhering to it; the wood now must be carefully detached from the bark. To do this insert the point of the knife between the bark and wood at one end, and holding the bark tenderly, strip off the woody part, which will readily part from the bark if the shoot from which the piece is taken has been properly imbued with sap.[I] Look at the inner rind of the separated bark, to see if that be entire; if there be a hole in it, the eye of the bud has been pulled away with the wood, rendering the bud useless, which throw away; if there be no hole, return to the stock, and with the haft of the knife gently raise the bark on each side of the perpendicular incision, opening the lips wide enough to admit the prepared slip with the eye. If the slip is longer than the upright incision in the stock, reduce the largest end. Stock and bud being ready, keep the latter in its natural position, introduce it between the bark and wood of the stock, pushing it gently downwards until it reaches the bottom of the perpendicular incision. Let the eye of the bud project through the centre of the lips; lay the slip with the bud as smooth as possible, and press down the raised bark of the stock. The bud being deposited, bind that part of the stock moderately tight with bass, beginning a little below the incision, proceeding upward so as to keep the eye uncovered, finishing above the incision. In a month after the operation, examine whether the bud has united with the stock. If it has succeeded, the bud will be full and fresh; if not, it will be brown and contracted. When it has taken, untie the bandage, that the bud may swell, and in a few days afterwards cut the head of the stock off about six inches above the inoculation, and prevent all shoots from growing by pinching them off. This will forward the bud, which will push and ripen wood this season; but it must be carefully tied as it grows to the remaining head of the stock. Some do not head down the stock until the following spring, thereby not encouraging the bud to grow, which if winter sets in early is the safest method. [I] We once budded three eyes of the white moss rose, after they had by mistake been carried in the pocket of a coat three days. The shoot was soaked six hours in water, and two of the buds grew. From this we infer that shoots, if properly wrapped up, may be carried very great distances, and grow successfully. OF WATERING. If the season is dry, look over the late planted shrubs, and give them frequent copious waterings; and a few of the finest annuals that are wanted to flower perfectly should be attended to. _Dahlias_ suffer very much in dry seasons, therefore it is advisable to water the most beautiful (or all) of them two or three times per week, and be careful to tie up their shoots to any support that is given to them, in case of high winds breaking or otherwise destroying the flower stems. =Rooms.= _JUNE AND JULY._ The only attention requisite to _these_ plants, is in giving water, keeping them from being much exposed to either sun or high winds, and preventing the attack of insects. Water must be regularly given every evening, when there has not been rain during the day. Where they are in a growing state, they are not liable at this season of the year to suffer from too much water, except in a few instances, such as the Lemon-scented Geranium, and those kinds that are tuberose rooted, as _Ardèns_, _Bicòlor_, _Tristúm_, &c. which should have moderate supplies. All the plants ought to be turned round every few weeks to prevent them from growing to one side, by the one being more dark than the other, and keep those of a straggling growth tied neatly to rods. Wherever insects of any description appear, wash them off directly. Give regular syringings or sprinklings from the rose of a watering pot. Be particularly attentive in this respect to the _Caméllias_, which will keep the foliage in a healthy state, and prevent the effects of mildew. If the foliage of _Lílium longiflòrum_, or _japónicum_, has died down, do not water them while dormant, as they are easily injured by such treatment. =Hot-House.= _AUGUST._ The plants of the Hot-house that were repotted in May and June, according to the directions therein given, will at present be in an excellent state of health, provided they have got at all times the requisite supplies of watering. And as we already have been very explicit on that subject, more remarks now would be merely repetition. REPOTTING. If any of the repottings were neglected, during May or June, let it be done about the first of this month. Let young plants that are growing freely, where the roots have filled the pots, and the plants required to grow, have pots one size larger. In turning out the ball of earth, keep it entire, not disturbing any of the roots. OF PAINTING, REPAIRING, AND CLEANSING THE HOUSE. The necessary repairs of the Hot-house are too often put off to the last day or week; and then with hurry are superficially attended to. Previous to the first of September, have all the wood-work painted; which ought to have one coat every year, and the glass all repaired. Have the flues and furnace examined, and all rents plastered over, or any deficiency made good. Give the flue a thick coat of lime white-wash, and properly white-wash the whole interior stages and shelves to destroy any larvæ of insects; or, what is preferable for the latter, use oil paint. If there is a tan bed, have that renewed; take out what is most decayed, and add new tan. Wash out the floor perfectly clean, so that all may be in readiness for the plants next month. =GREEN-HOUSE.= _AUGUST._ Any of the _Myrtles_, _Oranges_, _Lemons_, _Oleanders_, &c. that were headed down in April or May, will be pushing many young shoots. The plant must be carefully examined, to observe which of the shoots ought to be left to form the tree. Having determined on this, cut out all the others close to the stem with a small sharp knife; and if the remaining shoots are above one foot long, pinch off the tops to make them branch out. The trees that were entirely headed down, should not have above six shoots left, which will, by being topped, make a sufficient quantity to form the bush or tree. GERANIUMS. These plants, about the first of the month, require a complete dressing. In the first place collect them all together, and with a sharp knife cut off the wood of this year to within a few eyes of the wood of last year. _Citriodórum_ and its varieties do not need pruning. The plants grown from cuttings during the season, that have flowered, cut them to about four inches from the pot. This being done, have the earth all prepared with potshreds or fine gravel for draining the delicate kinds. And in a shaded situation turn the plants progressively out of the pots they are in, reducing the balls of earth so that the same pots may contain them again, and allow from half an inch to two inches, according to the size of the pot, of fresh soil around the ball, which press down by a thin piece of wood cut for the purpose. Finish by leveling all neatly with the hand. Give very gentle waterings from a pot with a rose mouth, for a few weeks, until they have begun to grow, protecting them entirely from the sun, till that period, then take the opportunity of a cloudy day to expose them. After this repotting, the following kinds are liable to suffer from too much water: _Pavonínum_, _Davey[)a]num_, _fúlgens_, _ardens_, _citriodórum_, _rubéscens_, _florabùndum_, _ardèscens_; with those of a similar habit, and these species do not require so much encouragement at the root as the strong growing sorts. The tuberous rooted and deciduous species must be very moderately supplied. Be careful when watering that the new soil does not become saturated with water, as, though allowed to dry again, it will not be so pure. When they shoot afresh, turn them regularly every two weeks, to prevent them growing to one side. ORANGES, LEMONS, &c. As it is frequently very inconvenient to shift these trees into larger tubs in the months of March and April, this month is a period that is suitable both from the growth of the trees, and their being in the open air. It would be improper to state the day or the week, that depending entirely on the season. The criterion is easily observed, which is when the first growth is over, these trees making another growth in autumn. When they are large, they require great exertion, and are frequently attended with inconvenience to get them shifted. Where there is a quantity of them, the best plan that we have tried or seen adopted is as follows: Have a strong double and a single block trimmed with a sufficiency of rope; make it fast to the limb of a large tree, or any thing that projects, and will bear the weight, and as high as will admit of the plant being raised a few feet under it. Take a soft bandage and put around the stem, to prevent the bark from being bruised; make a rope fast to it, in which hook the single block. Raise the plant the height of the tub, put a spar across the tub, and strike on the spar with a mallet, which will separate the tub from the ball. Then with a strong pointed stick probe a little of the earth from amongst the roots, observing to cut away any that are affected by dry-rot, damp, or mildew, with any very matted roots. Having all dressed, place a few potshreds over the hole or holes in the bottom of the tub; measure exactly the depth of the ball that remains around the plant, and fill up with earth, pressing it a little with the hand, until it will hold the ball one inch under the edge of the tub. If there is from four to six inches of earth under it, it is quite enough. Fill all around the ball, and press it down with a stick, finishing neatly off with the hand. Observe that the stem of the tree is exactly in the centre. This being done, carry the tree to where it is intended to stand, and give it water with a rose on the pot. The earth will subside about two inches, thus leaving three inches, which will at any time hold enough of water for the tree. Trees thus treated will not require to be shifted again within four or five years, having in the interim got a few rich top-dressings. Frequently in attempting to take out of the tubs those that are in a sickly state, all the soil falls from their roots, having no fibres attached. When there are any such, after replanting, put them in the Green-house, and shut it almost close up, there give shade to the tree, and frequent sprinklings of water, until it begins to grow, when admit more air gradually until it becomes hardened. These trees should be put in very small tubs, and a little sand added to the soil. Give very moderate supplies of water, merely keeping the soil moist. Tubs generally give way at the bottom when they begin to decay, and in the usual method of coopering after this failure they are useless, the ledging being rotten, and will not admit of another bottom. The staves should be made without any groove, and have four brackets nailed on the inside, having the bottom in a piece by itself that it can be placed on these brackets, and there is no necessity of it being water tight. Then when it fails, it can be replaced again at a trifling expense. A tub made this way will last out three or four bottoms, and is in every respect the cheapest, and should be more wide than deep. _Large Myrtles_ and _Oleanders_ may be treated in the same manner as directed for the above. OF PRUNING ORANGES, LEMONS, &c. These trees will grow very irregularly, especially the _Lemon_, if not frequently dressed or pruned. Any time this month look over them all minutely, and cut away any of the small naked wood where it is too crowded, and cut all young strong straggling shoots to the bounds of the tree, giving it a round regular head. It is sometimes necessary to cut out a small limb, but large amputations should be avoided. Cover all wounds with turpentine or bees-wax, to prevent the bad effects of the air. OF REPOTTING PLANTS. Any of the plants enumerated in March under this head, may be now done according to directions therein given, and which apply to all sizes. This is the proper period for repotting the following:-- _Cálla_, a genus of four species. None of them in our collections, and in fact are not worth cultivation, except _C. æthiòpica_, Ethiopian Lily, which is admired for the purity and singularity of its large white flowers, or rather spatha, which is cucullate, leaves sagittate. It is now called _Richárdia æthiópica_. The roots which are tubers should be entirely divested of the soil they have been grown in, breaking off any small offsets, and potting them wholly in fresh earth. When growing they cannot get too much water. The plant will grow in a pond of water, and withstand our severest winters, provided the roots are kept at the bottom of the water. _Cyclamen._ There are eight species and six varieties of this genus, which consists of humble plants with very beautiful flowers. The bulbs are round, flattened, and solid, and are peculiarly adapted for pots and the decorating of rooms. _C. côum_, leaves almost round; flowers light red; in bloom from January to April. _C. pérsicum_, with its four varieties, flower from February to April; colour white, and some white and purple. _C. hederæfòlium_, Ivy-leaved; colour lilac; there is a white variety; flowers from July to September. _C. Europæum_, colour lilac, in bloom from August to October. _C. neapolitànum_, flowers red, in bloom from July to September. These are all desirable plants. When the foliage begins to decay, withhold the accustomed supplies of water, keeping them in a half dry state; and when growing they must not be over watered, as they are apt to rot from moisture. Keep them during the summer months in the shade. The best time for potting either of the sorts is when the crown of the bulb begins to protrude. If the pots are becoming large, every alternate year they may be cleared from the old soil, and put in smaller pots with the crown barely covered. When the flowers fade, the pedicles twist up like a screw, inclosing the germen in the centre, lying close to the ground until the seeds ripen, from which plants can be grown, and will flower the third year. _Lachenàlia_, a genus of about forty species of bulbs, all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and grow remarkably well in our collections. The most common is _L. trícolor_. _L. quadrícolor_, and its varieties, are all fine; the colours yellow, scarlet, orange, and green, very pure and distinct; _L. rùbida_. _L. punctàta_, _L. orchoídes_, and _L. nervòsa_, are all fine species. The flowers are on a stem from a half to one foot high, and much in the character of a hyacinth. The end of the month is about the time of planting. Five inch pots are large enough, and they must get very little water till they begin to grow. _Oxalis_, above one hundred species of Cape bulbs, and like all other bulbs of that country, they do exceedingly well in our collections, in which there are only comparatively a few species, not exceeding twelve. _O. rubèlla_, branching, of a vermilion colour; _O. marginàta_, white; _O. elongàta_, striped; and _O. amæna_, are those that require potting this month. The first of September is the most proper period for the others. This genus of plants is so varied in the construction of its roots, that the same treatment will not do for all. The root is commonly bulbous, and these will keep a few weeks or months out of the soil, according to their size. Several are only thick and fleshy: these ought not to be taken out of the pots, but kept in them, while dormant; and about the end of this month give them gentle waterings. When they begin to grow, take the earth from the roots, and pot them in fresh soil. In a few years the bulbs are curiously produced, the original bulb near the surface striking a radical fibre downright from its base, at the extremity of which is produced a new bulb for the next year's plant, the old one perishing. _Ornithógalum_, Star of Bethlehem, about sixty species of bulbs, principally from the Cape of Good Hope. Many of them have little attraction. The most beautiful that we have seen are _O. lactéum_, which has a spike about one foot long of fine white flowers; and _O. aùreum_, flowers of a golden colour, in contracted racemose corymbs. These two are magnificent. _O. marítimum_ is the officinale squill. The bulb is frequently as large as a human head, pear-shaped, and tunicated like the onion. From the centre of the root arise several shining glaucous leaves a foot long, two inches broad at base, and narrowing to a point. They are green during winter, and decay in the spring; then the flower-stalk comes out, rising two feet, naked half way, and terminated by a pyramidal thyrse of white flowers. The bulb ought to be kept dry from the end of June till now, or it will not flower freely. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Watering, and other practical care of the plants, to be done as heretofore described. Frequently the weather at the end of this month becomes cool and heavy. Dew falling through the night will in part supply the syringing operation, but it must not be suspended altogether. Three times a week will suffice. Any of the plants that are plunged should be turned every week. In wet weather observe that none are suffering from moisture. =FLOWER-GARDEN= _AUGUST._ EVERGREEN HEDGES. These always make two growths in the season, and the best time to perform the clipping or dressing of them is before the plants begin their second growth. Choose if possible dull and cloudy days for the operation. The general practice in forming these, is to have the sides even, and the top level, forming a right angle on each side. However neat in appearance this may be considered, it certainly is stiff and formal. We never approve of shearing where it can be avoided, and when adopted, nature ought to be imitated. We consider that all hedges and edgings ought to be narrowed at the top. CARNATIONS AND PINKS. If layed about the end of June, and been properly attended, they will by the end of this month be well rotted and fit for transplanting. Clear away the earth lightly, and cut them clean off from the parent plant, nearer the stool than the original slit. Raise them neatly out of the earth, with as many of the root-fibres as possible; cut off the naked part of the stem close to the fibrous roots, and trim away the straggling leaves. Plant the finest sorts in four inch pots, and those more common three plants in five inch pots, in the form of a triangle, which can be separated in spring to plant in the garden. Any of the principal stools should be (if in the ground) lifted and put into seven inch pots to be preserved: the others may be allowed to stand through the winter, covering them with a few dry leaves. Keep them in the shade a few weeks, when they may be fully exposed. Give gentle and frequent sprinklings of water until they have taken fresh root; or if in want of pots, mark out a bed that can be covered with a frame, preparing the soil therein properly. Plant them from four to six inches apart. Shade them from the sun until they begin to grow, giving sprinklings of water over the foliage every evening. BULBOUS ROOTS. Look over the bulbs that are out of the ground, and examine those that require planting. _Fritillària_, about twenty species, but few of them generally cultivated, except _F. imperiàlis_, Crown Imperial; and _F. pérsica_. These will require planting, and ought not to be lifted oftener than every third year. There are four or five varieties of the above, showy flowers, and singular in appearance. They require a deep rich loamy soil, and if in beds, plant them from three to four inches deep, and one foot apart. They will grow under shade of trees, or any situation where the soil is adapted for them. No imbricated or scaly bulb ought to be retained long out of the ground. When any of these are lifted, and the young bulbs taken off, they should be planted at once. See particularly on bulbous roots in general next month. SOWING SEEDS OF BULBOUS ROOTS. Where any seeds of these are saved, with the intention of sowing, let it be done this month. Procure boxes about seven inches deep, and in size proportioned to the quantity to be sown. Put five inches of light sandy soil in the box, level it smoothly, and sow the seeds separately and thickly; cover with half an inch of light sandy loam, with a portion of earth from the woods. Keep the box or boxes in a sheltered situation, giving frequent sprinklings of water to keep the earth damp, which must be protected with a frame, or covered with leaves during winter. The plants will appear in spring, and must be watered and kept in the shade: when the leaves decay in June, put one inch more soil upon them, and the second year they can be planted with the small offsets in the garden, and treated as other bulbs. They must be carefully marked every year. Tulips require many years of trial before their qualities are known; and a poor soil is best to produce their characters after the first bloom. SOWING AND SAVING SEEDS. About the end of this month or first of next, is an advisable period to sow seed of _Delphínum Ajácis flòreplèno_, or Double Rocket Larkspur. This plant does not flower in perfection except it is sown in autumn, and grown a little above ground before winter, when a few leaves can be lightly thrown amongst them, but not to cover them entirely, as that would cause damp, and they would rot off. _Coreópsis tinctòria_, which is now _Calliópsis tinctòria_, and a beautiful plant, should likewise be sown. Be attentive in saving all kinds of seeds, many of which will keep best in the capsule. Name them all correctly, and with the year in which they were grown. =Rooms.= _AUGUST._ For the kinds of plants that require potting, we refer to the Green-house for this month. All that are therein specified are peculiarly adapted for rooms, and we would call attention to the genus _Cyclamen_, which has not been generally introduced into the collections of our ladies; as, from the character and beauty of the flowers, they are very attracting and highly deserving of culture. Attend to the Geraniums as there directed, and be particular in having them cut down, and repotted, as there fully described. The _Oranges_, _Lemons_, _Oleanders_, and _Myrtles_, that are kept in cellars or rooms, should have the same attention in this month as directed in the Green-house, which to repeat here would be occupying space unnecessarily. _Réseda odoráta_, or Mignonette, is one of the most fragrant annuals. To have it in perfection, the seed should be sown about the end of this month, or beginning of next, into pots of fine light earth, and sprinkled with water frequently. When it comes up the plants must be thinned out or transplanted; the former method is preferable. Keep them from frost during winter, and always near the light. This will equally apply to the Green-house. =Hot-House.= _SEPTEMBER._ DRESSING THE PLANTS. Having last month put the house in complete order, all that remains necessary to be attended to, is the state of the plants and pots, which should be regularly examined, and of those where the roots fill the soil, a little may be taken off the top, supplying its place with fresh earth, thereby giving what is called a top dressing. Give each a sufficient rod that requires it, tieing the plant neatly thereto; minutely scrutinise each for insects, and where they are detected, have them eradicated. Finally, wash all contracted foulness from off the pots, at the same time pick off any decayed leaves; thus all will be in perfect order to take into the house. If any plants have been kept in the Hot-house during summer, they must likewise go through the same operations. OF TAKING IN THE PLANTS. From the 16th to the 24th, according to the season, is the proper time to take in the Hot-house plants. It is preferable to have them what might be deemed a few days too early, than have them in the slightest affected by cold. Commence by housing the largest first, and those that stand farthest in the house, observing to place the most tender sorts nearest the heat or warmest part of the house. For observations on them, see _May_: in regard to arrangement, that must be according to the taste of the operator. We may observe that in a small collection it is better to have them in a regular than in a picturesque form. A dry shelf is indispensable in this department for placing on it all herbaceous plants, such as _Cánna_, _Hedychium_, _Zíngiber_, _Kæmpféria_, &c. the watering of which from this time should be gradually suspended, that they may have their required cessation to make them flower well. This shelf may be in any situation; one in darkness, where other plants will not grow, will answer perfectly well. If there is a bark bed, do not, until the end of December, plunge any of the pots therein. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The plants being now all under protection, they must have as much air as possible admitted to them every day, by opening the doors, front and top sashes, closing only at night. The syringings must be continued, and care taken that plants of a deciduous or herbaceous nature are not over watered. _Alstr[oe]merias_ are apt to rot while dormant when they are supplied with water. The tuberous species might be kept almost dry. Some practical men of sound science repot these plants in this month into fresh soil, and allow them to stand till January almost without water. We have never adopted this method with any description of plants, but do not doubt of its success with that genus. See that the ropes and pullies of the sashes are in good order, and fit to stand all winter. =Green-House.= _SEPTEMBER._ During this month every part of the Green-house should have a thorough cleansing, which is too frequently neglected, and many hundreds of insects left unmolested. To preserve the wood work in good order, give it one coat of paint every year. Repair all broken glass, white-wash the whole interior, giving the flues two or three coats, and cover the stages with hot-lime, white-wash, or oil-paint; examine ropes, pullies, and weights, finishing by washing the pavement perfectly clean. If there have been any plants in the house during summer, be sure after this cleansing that they are clean also, before they are returned to their respective situations. OF WATERING. The intensity of the heat being over for the season, the heavy dews during night will prevent so much absorption amongst the plants. They will, in general, especially by the end of the month, require limited supplies of water comparatively to their wants in the summer months. Be careful amongst the _Geraniums_ that were repotted in August, not to water them until the new soil about their roots is becoming dry. Syringing in this month may be suspended in time of heavy dews, but in dry nights resort to it again. The herbaceous plants and those of a succulent nature must be sparingly supplied. The large trees that were put in new earth will require a supply only once a week, but in such quantity as will go to the bottom of the tubs. PREPARING FOR TAKING IN THE PLANTS. About the end of the month all the plants should be examined and cleaned in like manner as directed for those of the Hot-house last month, which see. From the 1st to the 8th of October is the most proper time to take them into the Green-house, except those of a half hardy nature, which may stand out till the appearance of frost. All the Geraniums that were put in the shade after shifting, may after the 10th be fully exposed, which will in some degree prevent them from being weak. Turn them in such a manner as will make them grow equally. Always endeavour to have these plants short and bushy, for they are unsightly otherwise, except where a few very large specimens are desired for show. All Myrtles and Oleanders that were headed down, if the young shoots are too crowded, continue to thin them out, and give regular turnings, that all the heads may grow regularly. STOCKS AND WALL-FLOWERS, That are wanted to flower in the Green-house (where they do remarkably well) and are in the ground, have them carefully lifted before the end of the month, and planted in six or seven inch pots, with light loamy soil. Place them in the shade till they take fresh root, and give them frequent sprinklings of water. As soon as the foliage becomes erect, expose them to the full sun, and treat as Green-house plants. CHRYSANTHEMUMS. These very ornamental plants blooming so late, and at a period when there are few others in flower, one of each variety (or two of some of the finest) should be lifted and put in 8 inch pots, in light loamy soil, and treated as above directed for Stocks, &c. These will flower beautifully from October to December, and when done blooming the pots may be plunged in the garden, or covered with any kind of litter, until spring, when they can be divided and planted out. CAPE AND HOLLAND BULBS. About the end of this month is the period for all of these that are intended for the Green-house to be potted. We specified some of the former last month, and will here enumerate a few others. _Babìana_, a genus of small bulbs, with pretty blue, red, and yellow flowers. _B. distíca_, pale blue flowers in two ranks. _B. strícta_, flowers blue and white. _B. tubiflòra_ is beautiful, colour white and red. _B. plicàta_ has sweet-scented pale blue flowers. There are about twenty species of them, and they grow from six to twelve inches high. Four inch pots are sufficient for them. _Gladìolus_, Corn-flag, a genus of above fifty species. There are several very showy plants amongst them, and a few very superb. _G. floribúndus_, large pink and white flowers. _G. cardinàlis_, flowers superb scarlet, spotted with white. _G. byzantìnus_, large purple flowers. _G. blándus_, flowers of a blush rose colour, and handsome. _G. cuspidàtus_, flowers white and purple. _G. psittácinus_ is the most magnificent of the genus, both in size and beauty of flower; the flowers are striped with green, yellow, and scarlet, about four inches diameter, in great profusion, on a stem about two feet high, and though rare in Europe may be seen in some collections in this country. The beauty of this genus is all centred in the flowers; the leaves are similar to _Iris_. _Ixia_, a genus containing about twenty-five species of very free-flowering bulbs. _I. monadélpha_, flowers blush and green. _I. leucántha_, flowers large, white. _I. capitàta_, flowers in heads of a white and almost black colour. _I. cònica_, flowers orange and velvet. _I. columellàris_ is beautifully variegated with purple, blush, and vermilion colours. The flower stems are from six to twenty-four inches high. _Sparáxis_, a beautiful genus of twelve species, closely allied to the last, but more varied in colour. _S. grandiflòra striàta_ is striped with purple ground blush. _S. versícolor_, colours crimson, dark purple, and yellow. _S. anemonæflòra_ is of various colours, and very similar to _Anemòne_. _Tritònia_, a genus of about twenty-five species. Few of them deserve culture in regard to their beauty. _T. crocàta_ is in our collections, as _I. crocàta_, which is amongst the finest, and _T. zanthospìla_ has white flowers curiously spotted with yellow. _Watsònia_, a genus containing several species of showy flowers, several of which are in our collections, under the genus _Gladíolus_, but the most of the species may easily be distinguished from it by their flat shell formed bulbs. _W. iridifòlia_ is the largest of the genus, and has flowers of a flesh colour. _W. ròsea_ is large growing, the flowers are pink, and on the stem in a pyramid form. _W. humilis_ is a pretty red flowering species. _W. fúlgida_, once _Antholyza fúlgens_, has fine bright scarlet flowers. _W. rùbens_ is an esteemed red flowering species, but scarce. These six genera are in general cultivation. There are several of others of merit that our limits will not admit of inserting. We have no doubt there are some splendid species that have not come under our observation, and others which may be obtained from the Cape of Good Hope not known in any collection. Many hundreds of superb bulbs indigenous to that country, and of the same nature and habit of the above, have not been seen in collections. The flowers of those which we have specified are from one to four inches in diameter, ringent, tubular, or campanulate. Pots from four to seven inches diameter, according to the size of the roots, will be large enough. Give them very little water until they begin to grow; then supply moderately, and keep them near the light. Of the Holland or Dutch bulbs, the _Hyacinth_ is the favourite to bloom in the Green-house. A few of the _Tulip_, _Narcissus_, _Iris_, and _Crocus_, may for variety be also planted with any other that curiosity may dictate. When these are grown in pots, the soil should be four-eighths loam, two-eighths leaf mould, one-eighth decomposed manure, one-eighth sand, well compounded; plant in pots from four to seven inches, keep the crown of the bulb above the surface of the soil, except of the Tulip, which should be covered two inches. When these roots are potted, plunge them in the garden about three inches under ground; mark out a space sufficient to contain them; throw out the earth about four inches deep, place the pots therein, covering them with earth to the above depth, making it in the form of a bed. Leave a trench all round to carry off the rain. By so doing, the bulbs will root strong, the soil will be kept in a congenial state about them, and they will prove far superior than if done in the common method. Lift them from this bed on the approach of frost, or not later than the second week of December, wash the pots and take them to the Green-house. OF REPOTTING. _Vibúrnum._ This is a good period to repot all the flowering plants of this genus. For a full description of them, see _Green-house_, _March_. The repotting is only intended for young plants that are wanted to grow freely. When the _V. tìnus_ is much encouraged, it does not flower profusely. _Lìlium_, Lily. There are four species of this splendid genus kept in the Green-house. It has always been our practice to repot them when they begin to grow, though it is said by some that, when removed at that time, they will not flower perfectly. They will not do to be kept above a few weeks out of the ground, and we think they ought never to be kept out any period. We place them here, that a choice may be made by the cultivator of either of the periods, which is not material; observing in either case, that excess of moisture is injurious while they are dormant. _L. longiflòrum_ grows about one foot high, with one or more flowers. _L. longiflòrum suavèolens_, is sweet-scented, and has only one flower. _L. japònicum_ is the most magnificent, grows about two feet high, with three or more flowers on one stem. _L. lancifòlium_; we incline to class this with _L. speciòsum_, there being no apparent distinction in any character. The flowers are all of the purest white. They require from five to seven inch pots. =Flower Garden.= _SEPTEMBER._ OF DAHLIAS. See that all these plants are supported with proper stakes, rods, &c., that the wind may have no effect in breaking down or otherwise destroying the flower stems. Strictly observe their respective heights and colours, that they may be duly disposed and interspersed next year, if not done so this. If the early part of the month is dry, give them liberal supplies of water. GENERAL CARE OF PLANTS IN POTS. All the flowers that are in pots, and intended to be kept in frames during winter, should have a top-dressing, and a general preparation for their winter quarters, by tieing up, &c. The carnation and pink layers that were lifted and potted last month must be brought from the shade as soon as they begin to grow; and those that are not lifted, have them done forthwith, that they may be rooted afresh before the frost sets in. All Wall-flowers and Stocks should be lifted this month, and planted in five to seven inch pots, and treated as directed for carnation layers last month, until they begin to grow, when they must be fully exposed. PREPARE BEDS AND BORDERS FOR BULBOUS ROOTS. Bulbous roots of every character delight in deep free soil; consequently, wherever they are desired to be planted, due attention must be paid to put the soil in proper order, to have them in perfection. Where there are a quantity intended to be planted, to have them in beds is the general and preferable method. These ought to be dug from eighteen inches to two feet deep, at the bottom of which place three or four inches of decayed manure. Where the soil is poor it should be enriched with well decomposed manure and earth from the woods, incorporating both well with the soil, breaking it all fine. This being done, allow it to stand until the middle of next month, which see for farther directions. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Tie up carefully all the _Chrysánthemums_, _Tuberoses_, &c. Clear away the stems or haulm of any decayed annuals or herbaceous plants, that nothing unsightly may appear. Be attentive to the collecting of all kinds of seeds. =Rooms.= _SEPTEMBER._ Where there is a quantity of plants to be kept in these apartments, they should be disposed to the best effect, and at the same time in such a manner as will be most effectual to their preservation. A stage of some description is certainly the best, and, of whatever shape or form, it ought to be on castors, that it may, in severe nights of frost, be drawn to the centre of the room. The shape may be either concave, a half circle, or one square side. The bottom step or table should be six inches apart, keeping each successive step one inch farther apart, to the desired height, which may be about six feet. Allowing the first step to be about two feet from the floor, there will be five or six steps, which will hold about fifty pots of a common size. A stage in the form of half a circle will hold more, look the handsomest, and be most convenient. We have seen them circular, and when filled appeared like a pyramid. These do very well, but they must be turned every day, or the plants will not grow regularly. With this attention it is decidedly the best. Green is the most suitable colour to paint them. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The directions given for the Green-house this month are equally applicable here. The _Tasseled White Chrysanthemum_, and a few other late blooming sorts, are particularly adapted for rooms. If there is no convenience to plunge the pots with Dutch bulbs in the garden, as described in the Green-house of this month, give them very little water until they begin to grow. =Hot-House.= _OCTOBER._ Very few directions remain to be given to the department of the Hot-house. The supplies of water for this and the two preceding months are, according to the state and nature of tropical plants, more limited than at any other period of the year. This is the first month of what may be called their dormant state. Observe the herbaceous plants, that they are, as soon as their foliage decays, set aside, in case of being too liberally supplied with water. Airing is highly essential about this period, that the plants may be gradually hardened; but guard against injuring them. The temperature should not be under fifty degrees; when the days are cool, and the wind chilling, airing is not necessary; and when air is admitted, always close up early in the afternoon, whilst the atmosphere is warm, to supersede the necessity of fire as long as possible. If at any time you have recourse to it in this month, use it with great caution. Examine all the shutters and fastenings, and see that they are in good substantial order, and where deficient repair them instantly, that they may be in readiness. Remove all leaves, and give syringings twice a week. Clear off, sweep out, and wash clean, that every part may be in the neatest order. =Green-House.= _OCTOBER._ OF TAKING IN AND ARRANGING THE PLANTS. As observed in the previous month, let the housing of Green-house plants now be attended to. Have all in before the eighth of the month, except a few of the half hardy sorts, which may stand until convenient. Begin by taking in all the tallest first, such as _Oranges_, _Lemons_, _Myrtles_, _Oleanders_, &c. Limes ought to be kept in the warmest part of the house, otherwise they will throw their foliage. In arrangement, order is necessary to have a good effect; and in small houses it ought to be neat and regular, placing the tallest behind, and according to their size graduating the others down to the lowest in front. Dispose the different sorts in varied order over the house, making the contrast as striking as possible. Having the surface of the whole as even as practicable, with a few of the most conspicuous for shape and beauty protruding above the mass, which will much improve the general appearance, and greatly add to the effect. All succulents should be put together. They will do in a dark part of the house, where other plants would not grow, studying to have the most tender kinds in the warmest part, and giving gentle waterings every three or four weeks. When all are arranged, give them a proper syringing, after which wipe clean all the stages, _benches_, &c. sweeping out all litter, and wash clean the pavement, which will give to all a neat and becoming appearance. Let the waterings now be done in the mornings, as often and in such quantities as will supply their respective wants, examining the plants every day. During the continuance of mild weather, the circulation of air must be as free as possible, opening the doors and front and top sashes regularly over the house. But observe in frosty nights, and wet, cloudy weather, to keep all close shut. Be attentive in clearing off decayed leaves and insects. Any plants of _Lagerstræmia_, _Stercùlia_, _Hydrángea_, _Pomegranate_, and others equally hardy, that are deciduous, may be kept perfectly in a dry, light, airy cellar, giving frequent admissions of air. OF REPOTTING. _Anemònes._ Where _A. nemoròsa flòre plèno_ and _A. thalictròides flòre plèno_ are kept in pots in the Green-house, they should be turned out of the old earth, and planted in fresh soil. They are both pretty, low growing, double white flowering plants, and require a shaded situation. The latter is now called _Thalíctrum anemonoídes_. _Dáphne_, is a genus of diminutive shrubs, mostly evergreens, of great beauty and fragrance. Very few species of them are in our collections. _D. odòra_, frequently called _D. índica_, is an esteemed plant for the delightful odour of its flowers, and valuable for the period of its flowering, being from December to March, according to the situation; leaves scattered, oblong, lanceolate, smooth; flowers small, white, in many-flowered terminale heads. _D. hybrida_ is a species in high estimation at present in Europe, but little known here, being only in a few collections; flowers rose-coloured, in terminale heads, and lateral bunches in great profusion, and very similar to the former in habit and shape of flower; blooms from January to May, and is of a peculiar fragrance. _D. oleoídes_ is what may be termed "ever-blooming;" flowers of a lilac colour; leaves elliptic, lanceolate, smooth. _D. laurèola_, Spurge laurel; _D. póntica_, _D. alpìna_, and _D. Cneòrum_, are all fine species, and in Europe are esteemed ornaments in the shrubbery, but we are not certain if they will prove hardy in our vicinity. _Prímula._ There are a few fine species and varieties in this genus, adapted either for the Green-house or Rooms. All the species and varieties will keep perfectly well in a frame, except the China sorts. Having previously observed a few of the other species and varieties, we will observe the treatment of these. _P. sinénsis_, now _prænitens_, known commonly as China Primrose; flowers pink, and in large proliferous umbels, flowering almost through the whole year, but most profusely from January to May. Keep them in the shade, and be careful that they are not over-watered during summer. As the stems of the plant become naked, at this repotting a few inches should be taken off the bottom of the ball, and placing them in a larger pot will allow the stems to be covered up to the leaves. _P. p. albiflòra_, colour pure white and beautiful. _P. p. dentiflòra_. There is also a white variety of this, both similar to the two former, only the flower indented. All these require the same treatment. As they only live a few years, many individuals, to propagate them, divide the stems, which in most cases will utterly destroy them. The best, and we may say the only method to increase them, is from seed, which they produce in abundance every year. _Pæonia_, is a magnificent genus. There are four varieties of them, half hardy and half shrubby. They will bear the winter if well protected, but are better in the Green-house. These are _P. moután_, Tree Pæony; the flower is about four inches in diameter, of a blush colour, and semi-double; _P. M. Bànksii_ is the common Tree Pæony, and called in our collection _P. Moutàn_; it has a very large double blush flower, and is much admired. _P. M. papaveràcea_ is a most magnificent variety; has large double white flowers, with pink centres; _P. M. ròsea_ is a splendid rose-coloured double variety, and is scarce. These plants ought not to be exposed to the sun while in flower, as the colours become degenerated, and premature decay follows. If the Dutch bulbs intended for flowering during winter are not potted, have them all done as soon as possible, according to directions given last month. CAMELLIAS. These plants ought to have a thorough examination, and those that were omitted in repotting before they commenced growing, may be done in the early part of this month; but it is not adviseable, except the roots are matted round the ball of earth, which should be turned out entire. Examine all the pots, stir up the surface of the earth, and take it out to the roots, supplying its place with fresh soil. Destroy any worms that may be in the pots, as they are very destructive to the fibres. Look over the foliage and with a sponge and water clear it of all dust, &c. Frequently the buds are too crowded on these plants, especially the _Double white_ and _Variegated_. In such case pick off the weakest, and where there are two together, be careful in cutting, so that the remaining bud may not be injured. This is the best period of the year to make selections of these, as they now can be transported hundreds of miles without any material injury, if they are judiciously packed in close boxes. In making a choice of these, keep in view to have distinctly marked varieties, including a few of those that are esteemed as stocks for producing new kinds, which are undoubtedly indispensable; and will reward the cultivator in a few years with new sorts. Besides, it will afford unbounded gratification to behold any of these universally admired ornaments of the Green-house improving by our assistance and under our immediate observation. There is nothing to prevent any individual from producing splendid varieties in a few years. Mr. Hogg correctly observes, "It is very probable in a few years we shall have as great a variety of Camellias, as there are of Tulips, Hyacinths, Carnations, Auriculas, &c." It has been often said that these plants are difficult of cultivation. This is unfounded, indeed they are the reverse if put in a soil congenial to their nature. When highly manured soils are given, which are poisonous to the plants, sickness or death will inevitably ensue; but this cannot be attributed to the delicacy of their nature. We can unhesitatingly say there is no Green-house plant more hardy or easier of cultivation, and they are equally so in the parlour, if not kept confined in a room where there is a continuance of drying fire heat, their constitution not agreeing with an arid atmosphere. =Flower-Garden.= _OCTOBER._ OF PLANTING VARIOUS BULBOUS FLOWER ROOTS. From the middle of October to the beginning of November is the best period for a general planting of Dutch bulbs. _Cròcuses_ are the earliest in flower, and may be planted about six inches off the edgings, about four inches apart and two deep, or in beds four feet wide; the varieties selected and planted across the bed in rows of distinct colours, they flowering so early, and in that manner have a grand effect. There are above sixty varieties to be had. _Hyacinths._ The ground that was prepared for these last month, should be all divided into beds four feet wide, leaving between each alleys of twenty inches. Skim off three inches of the surface of the former into the latter, level the bed smoothly with the rake, and mark it off in rows eight inches apart. Plant the roots in the row eight inches asunder. Thus they will be squares of eight inches, and by planting the different colours alternately the bed will be beautifully diversified. Press each root gently down with the hand, that in covering up they may not be displaced. Put about four inches of earth over the crowns, which will make the beds from two to three inches higher than the alleys. The beds before and after planting should be gently rounded from the middle to each side to let the rain pass off. Finish all by raking evenly, straighten the edgings with the line, and clear out the alleys or pathways. _Tulips_ like a lighter and richer earth than Hyacinths. Prepare the beds in the same manner, and so as the roots will stand nine inches apart each way; cover them five inches deep, as the new bulbs are produced above the old. If it is intended to screen either of these while in flower, the beds should be made wider. Where two beds are to be shaded under one awning, make the alleys alternately two or three feet wide; the one two feet wide to be under the awning. _Polyanthus and Italian Narcissus_, may be planted in every respect as _Hyacinths_, only they require a lighter and richer soil. _Jonquils._ Plant these in the same soil as _Tulips_, six inches apart, and cover three inches deep. They do not flower so well the first year as in the second and third, therefore should only be lifted every third year. _Anemones and Ranunculuses._ These roots like a fresh rich, well pulverized, loamy soil. In light sandy soils they will languish in early droughts, and sometimes do not show their flowers fully. Cow manure is the best to use for enriching the soil. The whole should be well mixed and incorporated to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches. The roots may be planted in four-foot beds, or in such a manner as a low frame of boards can be placed over them, when the winter sets in very severe. If intended to be shaded while in flower, leave a sufficiency of space in the alleys as directed for Tulips and Hyacinths. Do not raise the beds above one inch higher than the alleys, and form the surface level, in order to detain rather than throw off moisture. Then draw drills exactly two inches deep and six inches apart across the bed. In these place the roots, claws down, about four inches distant from each other. The roots of the Anemones are flat, and the side on which there are small protuberances, is that from which the stems proceed. Press each root a little down with the hand, and cover all carefully so as not to displace them. Smooth the surface with the rake, leaving the bed quite level. Many other bulbous flowers might be added to the above; but as their culture is so similar, it would be superfluous to say more of them. They should be allowed space and depth according to the size of the bulb; a covering of two inches for the smallest, and five for the largest, will generally answer, and the intermediate roots in proportion. We will enumerate a few of the different kinds, _Starch_ and _Musk Hyacinths_; of _Narcissus_, the _Paper_, _Grand Monarque_, and _Nodding_, with the two previously mentioned, are the most profuse in flower. Some of them will have above twelve flowers on one stem. Of _Lilies_, all the varieties of _Mártagon_, _Tigrìnum_ and _Chalcedónicum_, with our native species and varieties. Of _Iris_, _Lusitánica_, two varieties, yellow and blue; _Xiphioídes_, or _Ziphioídes_; and _Pérsica_, are the finest of the bulbous sorts. Snow-drop with several other minor bulbs. All of these flowering bulbs may be advantageously planted in patches through the garden by taking out about one square foot of earth. Break it well, and if poor enrich it. Plant four bulbs in each of the same colour, and the clumps that are contiguous to contain different colours. PLANTING AND TRANSPLANTING. This is a very proper period to plant the beautiful and early flowering _Pyrus japónica_, now called _Cydónia japónica_. The blossoms are of a rich scarlet colour. It is the earliest flowering shrub of the garden, and deciduous, though said by some to be "an evergreen." The plant is bushy, and well adapted for single plants in grass plats, or forming low ornamental hedges. There is likewise _C. j. álba_, a fine white variety of the same habit, and both are of the hardiest nature--also for the various species of _Anemònes_ and all the herbaceous _Pæonias_. Of the latter there are above nineteen species and twenty-two varieties, a few of which are particularly esteemed, and exceedingly handsome. _P. èdulis whitlíji_ is a splendid large double _P èdulis_ white; _P. Hùmei_ is a beautiful large double dark blush; _P. èdulis fràgrans_ is a fine large double scarlet, rose-scented variety. These three plants ought to be in every garden. The flowers are full in the centre, and frequently above six inches in diameter; _P. álba chinènsis_ is said to be the largest and finest of the herbaceous sorts; colour pure white, with pink at the bottom of the petals--it is a scarce variety; _P. paradóxa fimbàtria_, fringed double red, and esteemed; _P. officinális rúbra_ is the common double red. There are several other very fine single species and varieties, the flowers of which are principally red or blush, but none so magnificent as the above mentioned. This is perhaps a more favourable period to plant _Dodecátheon_ than March; for its character see that month of this department. _Asclèpias tuberòsa_ should now be planted. _Double Primroses_, _Polyanthus_, _Daisies_, &c. Any of these that were planted in shaded situations in spring, and have been preserved through the summer, should have for their farther protection a bed well sheltered from the north west, in which they should be planted four inches apart. Give them a few sprinklings of water in the morning, and have a temporary frame of rough boards put together to place over them during the severity of winter. The frame may be covered with the same in place of glass, which must be kept over them while they are in a frozen state. Any other plants that are in the ground, which are intended to be protected with frames through the winter, ought to be immediately lifted and potted; and treated as directed for all new potted plants. GRASS AND GRAVEL WALKS. The former should be trimly cut and well rolled this month, that they may appear neat all winter. Never allow decayed leaves to lay any time upon them, as they are apt to rot out the grass. The latter should be divested of every weed, and receive a firm rolling. Clear them at all times of leaves and other litter. These, if on a declivity, and have not a firm substantial bottom, will be subject to be cut up with every heavy rain. A break should be put in every twenty, forty, or eighty feet, to throw off the water. A strong plank will answer perfectly well, but in such situations we would prefer grass-walks. PLANTING EVERGREENS. This month is the best period in autumn to plant these shrubs, and where there is a great extent to be planted it would be advisable to do a part of it now; but we give the preference to April, which see for directions. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. When the plantings of bulbs, &c. are finished, every part of the garden should have a thorough cleaning. All annual flowers will have passed the season of their beauty; therefore, remove the decayed flower stems or haulm, and trim off the borders. Dig all vacant ground, especially that intended to be planted with shrubs in the ensuing spring, which ought to be dug from one to two feet deep. Roses delight in a deep light soil. =Rooms.= _OCTOBER._ Have a stage or stages, as described last month, in the situations where they are intended to remain all winter; place the plants on them from the first to the eighth of this month, beginning with the tallest on the top, graduating to the bottom. It is desirable to place flats or saucers under each, to prevent the water from falling to the floor, and the water should be emptied from the flats of all except those of _Cálla_ and _Hydrángea_. The latter while dormant should be kept only a little moist. Previous to taking in the plants, they should be divested of every decayed leaf, insects, and all contracted dust, having their shoots neatly tied up, and every one in correct order. Every leaf of the _Caméllias_ ought to be sponged, and the plants placed in a cool airy exposure, shaded from the direct rays of the sun. If the flower buds are too crowded, picking off the weakest will preserve the remainder in greater perfection, and prevent them in part from falling off. Do not on any occasion keep them in a room where there is much fire heat, as the flower buds will not expand in an arid atmosphere. See Green-house this month more largely on this subject. OF BULBOUS ROOTS. Those that are intended to flower in glasses, should be placed therein this month and kept in a cool room. After the fibres begin to push a few shoots, the glasses may be taken to the warmest apartments to cause them to flower early. Bring a few from the coldest to the warmest every two weeks, and thus a succession of bloom may be kept up from January to March. Where the roots intended for pots are still out of the ground, the sooner they are planted the better. (See last month for directions.) _Cape Bulbs._ All that are unplanted and offering to grow, should be put in pots forthwith. Ample directions are given for the planting of these in the two preceding months. Repot _Rùbus rosæfòlius_, or Bramble-rose. They should have pots one size larger than those they are now in. To make them flower profusely, when done blooming in May, divide them and put only a few stems in one pot, and repot them in this month, as above directed. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Any herbaceous plants in the collection ought to be set aside, and the water in part withheld. When the stems and foliage are decayed, the plants may be put in a cool cellar, where they will not be in danger of frost, and be permitted to remain there until they begin to grow; then bring them to the light, and treat as directed for these kinds of plants. Deciduous plants may be treated in a similar manner. =Hot-House.= _NOVEMBER._ The essential points to be attended to in the Hot-house during this month, are _fire_, _air_, and _water_. The former must be applied according to the weather, observing not to allow the temperature to be under fifty degrees, and it ought not to continue long at that degree; fifty-two degrees being preferable. The shutters should be on every night when there is any appearance of frost, and taken off early in the morning. Admit air in small portions every day that the sun has any effect, and the atmosphere mild, observing that the temperature of the house be above sixty degrees previous to admission. Shut all close early in the afternoon or when any sudden changes occur. OF A CISTERN AND WATER. In watering it is important to have the water of the same temperature in this department as the roots of the plants. To have this there are two kinds of cisterns, or tanks, that might be adopted; one may be sunk in the house under ground, either closely plastered, or lined with lead, and neatly covered up, having a small perpendicular pump therein, or placed so that the water could be lifted by hand. The other might, where convenience will admit, be placed over the furnace, either in the back shed, or inside of the house, and the water could be drawn off this by a stop-cock. These can be supplied in part with rain water by having spouts round the house to lead into the cisterns, supplying any deficiency from the pump. Thus water of a congenial temperature may always be at hand, which is of great importance to the healthful constitution of the plants. The water must now be given in moderate portions, examining the plants every day. Be careful in watering bulbs, as the smallest supply is sufficient for them at present. Succulents will require a little every two weeks, except they are over the flues, when they may have some every week. Constantly clear off all decayed leaves, and carry them out of the house, which sweep and wash clean, and keep all in the neatest order. =Green-House.= _NOVEMBER._ OF AIR AND WATER. Airing the house should be strictly attended to. Every day that there is no frost it may be admitted largely, and in time of slight frosts in smaller portions, never keeping it altogether close when the sun has any effect on the interior temperature of the house, which should not be allowed to be higher than fifty degrees. Water must be given in a very sparing manner. None of the plants are in an active state of vegetation, consequently it will be found that looking over them twice a week and supplying their wants will be sufficient. Succulents will need a little once in three weeks or a month. Give very moderate supplies to the _Amaryllis_ that are dormant, and keep all of these bulbs in the warmest part of the house. OF TENDER BULBS. Where there are tropical bulbs in the collection, and there is not the convenience of a Hot-house; they may be very well preserved by shaking them clear of the soil. Dry them properly, and place them in a box of very dry sand, or moss, which also must be perfectly dry, and put them in a situation where they will be clear of frost, and free from damp. These can be potted about the first of April. Give no water till they begin to grow, then plant them in the garden about the middle of May, when they will flower during the summer season, if their age will permit. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. If there are any of the half hardy plants exposed, have them taken into the house, or under the requisite protection, in frames, pits, cellars, &c. The autumn flowering Cape bulbs should be placed near the glass, and free from the shade of other plants. Cleanliness through the whole house and amongst the plants ought at all times to be attended to. =Flower-Garden.= _NOVEMBER._ Wherever there are any Holland bulbs remaining unplanted, have them put in as soon as possible, lest frost should set in. It is not advisable to keep them later out of the ground than the beginning of this month. PROTECTION OF CHOICE BULBS. On the appearance of the severity of winter, the finer sorts of these should have a simple protection, not because they will not do without such care, but to prevent the alternate thawing and freezing of the embryo of the bulb. To give them a covering three inches deep of any of the following substances, will do perfectly well,--saw-dust not resinous, old tan bark, half decayed leaves, or very rotten manure. The last is preferable, as it would in part enrich the soil. _Anemònes_ and _Ranunculus_ ought to be protected by a frame; the foliage being above ground, none of the above will answer. It is not necessary that the frame should be covered with glass, close boards will answer perfectly, which must not be over them except during frost. TUBEROSES, DAHLIAS, TIGRIDIAS, AND AMARYLLIS. These tubers and bulbs, as soon as the frost has partly injured the foliage, should be taken up, and dried thoroughly, either in the sun or a room where there is fire heat, taking care at all times to keep them clear from frost. When they are dry, divest them of their foliage and fibres. When perfectly dry, pack them in boxes with dry sand, or moss. Store these away for the winter, either in a warm room or a dry cellar, where they will at all times be exempt from frost, the least touch of which would destroy them. We have kept them completely secure in the cellar. ERYTHRINAS. Where there are any plants of _E. herbàcea_, _E. laurifòlia_, or _E. crísta-gálla_, which are intended to be lifted, they should be carefully done and preserved in half dry earth, and kept beside the _Dáhlias_. We are not sure of the former agreeing with this treatment, but certain of the others, which are magnificent ornaments in the Flower-garden. PRIMROSES, POLYANTHUS, AND DAISIES, That were planted in a sheltered spot, as directed last month, should have a frame placed over them, and their covering in readiness for the approach of winter; giving the plants a light covering of leaves, which will preserve their foliage from the effects of frost. CHOICE CARNATIONS, PINKS, AND AURICULAS, That are in pots, should be placed in the frame intended for their abode during winter. If the pots are plunged to the rims in tan, half decayed leaves, or saw dust, it will greatly protect their roots from the severe effects of frost. Where glass is used for these frames, they should have besides a covering of boards, or straw mats; those that are in beds may be covered as above directed for Primroses, &c. They ought not to be uncovered while in a frozen state. It is not altogether the intensity of cold that destroys these plants so much as the alternate thawing and freezing. All half hardy plants, such as _Wall-flower_, _German stocks_, _Sweet-bay_, tender roses, with several others, should be protected as above directed for Carnations. Earth or tan should be put round the outside of these frames, which will be a partial shelter from the changing state of the atmosphere. Oak leaves answer the purpose very well, but they are a harbour for all kinds of vermin, especially rats and mice, which would destroy every thing. It may be useful to say a few words on the nature of tan or tanner's bark. Many suppose that the smallest quantity will produce heat, If three or four cart loads of it are put into one heap, and protected from the rain, it will ferment; and when the first fermentation is abated, by mixing it with leaves, a substantial hot-bed may be made. Or put it by itself into a pit, and where there is no pit, boards may be substituted to keep it together; either of these methods will produce a lasting heat. But in small quantities and exposed to rain, &c. no heat will be produced, but rather the contrary. It is excellent when dry in keeping out frost from any plants, being a body not easily penetrated, similar to dry sand, saw-dust, or dry leaves. Frequently the same opinion is held in regard to stable manure, small portions of which will never produce heat. OF PROTECTING PLANTS IN THE GARDEN. During this or next month, according to the state of the season, protect all the plants that are in the ground, which are not completely hardy. To avoid repetition, these will be designated in the general list. The coverings may be straw, Russia mats, canvass, boxes or barrels. The two latter must be perforated in the top, to let the damp air pass off, or the plant would become musty, or finally mortify. Those covered with straw or mats should have small stakes placed round the plants, and covering tied thereto, and remain so until the month of March or first of April. Herbaceous plants that are tender, may be covered with three or four inches of tan, saw-dust, or half decayed leaves, which will tend greatly to preserve their roots. These coverings must be carefully removed on the first opening of spring. The shrubs that are otherwise covered would be greatly benefited by having their roots protected in a similar manner as directed for herbaceous plants. PROTECTION OF SEEDLING BULBS. If any seeds of _Hyacinths_, _Tulips_, _Fritillària_, were sown in pots or boxes, let them be removed to a dry sheltered situation, and plunged level with the ground; or fill the spaces between them with dry leaves or tanner's bark, and cover the whole with new fallen leaves, laying over all a few boards to prevent the wind blowing them off. These form better coverings than straw or haulm, which is liable to become musty, and communicate the effect to the roots. The above covering is not required until the approach of severe frost. OF PLANTING DECIDUOUS TREES AND SHRUBS. It is not recommendable to make a general planting of these at this period of the year; the success entirely depending on the nature of the season and the state of the soil. If any are planted, let them be those of the hardiest nature, and in light and absorbent soil, not subject to be stagnated or over-flooded during winter. When this and next month are mild, autumn plantings are frequently as sure as those of the spring. But the precarious state of the seasons is not to be depended upon, therefore avoid largo plantings of any kind, and more especially of delicate roses, the roots of which are apt to rot off except they have been previously grown in pots. Nothing can be more injurious to a plant at this season particularly, than to bed its roots in mortar, by which the tender fibres either perish or are cramped ever afterwards. The soil at time of planting should be so friable as not to adhere to the spade, which is a good rule in planting at any season, or in any soil. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Carry out of the garden all decayed leaves and litter of every description, cutting down any weeds that remain. Collect all the stakes and rods that have been supporting plants; tie them up in bundles for the use of next year, and put them under cover. Look over every part of the garden, and see that nothing has been omitted in the way of covering or other protection. The sashes that are to be used on the frames should be perfectly whole, every interstice in the glass puttied, and all ready for use when occasion may require. Attend to all plants in pots, and give them gentle waterings as they stand in need; but never during the time the soil is frozen about their roots. =Rooms.= _NOVEMBER._ GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. The remarks and instructions that are given last month for these apartments will equally answer here. Where the Dutch bulbs were omitted to be placed in glasses, they ought not to be longer delayed. A few pots of those that were planted in September may be placed in a warmer situation. If they were plunged in the ground, the roots will be strongly fibred, and will produce large flowers, providing the bulbs are of a good sort. _Oxàlis._ The autumn flowering species will now be in bloom, and must be kept in the sun to make them expand freely. The neglect of this is the principal reason that these plants do not flower perfectly in Rooms. _Caméllias._ These plants, where there is a collection, flower from this period to April; and the general desire to be fully acquainted with the method of their culture has induced us to be liberal in our observations on every point and period through the various stages of their growth and flowering. We will here only remind the enquirer, that a pure air, a damp atmosphere, and giving the plants frequent sprinklings, are the present necessities, which only are conducive to their perfection. Attend to the turning of Geraniums and other rapid growing plants, that all sides of them may have an equal share of light. =Hot-House.= _DECEMBER._ The uncertainty of the weather in this month requires the operator to be constantly on guard, to ward off danger, either from frost, snow, or cutting winds. The temperature observed last month must be continued, but not exceeded, which would cause premature vegetation, of which the result and effects have already been frequently observed. Always kindle the fires in time, to prevent the heat from being lower than what has been mentioned, lest a severe frost should take, as then a considerable lapse ensues before the fire has any effect, and if the wind blows high, the result might be injurious, unless the house be very close. OF SHUTTERS. The benefit of these in severe weather is of material service, for the preservation of an even temperature in the house during the night, when changes are not observed, but they ought never to remain on through the day when the fire can be properly attended to. If the front and the lowest sash of the roof are covered with these, it is generally sufficient. They should be made of half inch boards, closely grooved together, having a cross bar in the centre, and one at each end with one at each side, which will make them substantial. If they are frequently painted with care, they will last many years. No snow ought to be allowed to lay on these while they are on the glass, for reasons that we have assigned. See _January_ and _February_. Some adopt double panes of glass to supersede the use of shutters, which, they think are attended with considerable labour, (at the most only ten minutes a day while in use.) The sash frame is made a little deeper, so as to allow half an inch between the panes of glass. The one is glazed from the out and the other from the inside. It appears to answer the purpose tolerably well, but the glass must be both fine and even in the surface, lest a lens should be produced, and cause a focus, which would evidently hurt some part of the plants. We are almost confident that we have seen this effect in some instances. There must be a small hole about an eighth of an inch in both ends of each row of glass to allow a current to dry up the moisture that may arise. OF PLACING BULBS, &c. IN THE HOT-HOUSE. If any _Hyacinths_ or other Dutch roots are wanted to flower early, a few of them may be put in the Hot-house near the front glass, which will greatly tend to forward their time of flowering. By having some brought in every two weeks, a continued succession of bloom will be kept up. _Calceolàrias._ Two or three plants of the fine blooming kinds may be placed in this department, towards the end of the month. Divide the roots as soon as they begin to grow, leaving only one stem to each root, which put in a four inch pot, enlarging it as soon as the roots extend to the outside of the ball, that by the month of May they may be in seven or eight inch pots, in which they will flower superbly. Give _Alstr[oe]merias_ the same treatment. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. If there is a tan bed in the house, and it was renewed in September, the pots should now be plunged therein. The violent heat will partly be over, and the plants are not so liable to suffer at root in this as last month. It will in part prevent the plants from being affected by sudden changes of temperature. Be attentive in keeping all insects completely under. This is the period that these are most neglected, but by attending to the modes of their destruction, as already given, no species of them will either be hurtful or unsightly. Syringe the plants about twice a week, and always remember that decayed leaves or litter of any description do not beautify healthy plants, neither do they form a part of a well kept Hot-house. =Green-House.= _DECEMBER._ The weather may probably be now severe, and it is at all times advisable to keep the temperature as steady and regular as possible. The thermometer should be kept in the centre of the house, and free from the effects of reflection. As noticed last month, sun heat may be as high as 50° in the house, and would not be hurtful, but it should not continue so for any considerable time without admission of air. The fire heat should not exceed 43°, and never be below 33°. It ought not to continue at that point--36° is the lowest for a continuation that with safety can be practised. So that no error may occur, the temperature ought to be known in the coolest and warmest part of the house, and the variation remembered. Then whatever part of the house the thermometer is placed, a true calculation of the heat of the whole interior can be made. We would recommend to the inexperienced to keep the thermometer in the coldest part of the house. A Green-house compactly and closely built, and the glass all covered with shutters, (which no house ought to be constructed without,) will seldom require artificial heat; but by being long kept close, the damp will increase. In such case give a little fire heat, and admit air to purify the house. In fresh mild weather, give liberal portions of air all over the house; and though there is a little frost, while mild, and the sun shining, the plants will be benefited by a small portion of air for the space of an hour, or even for half of that time. Whatever state the weather may be through the winter, never keep the house long shut up. Thirty-six hours, or at most sixty, should be the longest time at once; rather give a little fire heat. We are no advocates for keeping plants long in darkness, and never think that our plants are receiving justice, if kept longer in darkness than two nights and one day. Respecting watering and other necessary operations, see next month particularly. BULBOUS ROOTS. Those that were plunged in the garden, if not lifted and brought under cover, should now be done without delay. Clean the pots, and stir up the surface of the soil. Hyacinths grow neatest by being kept very close to the top glass; the flower stems are thereby stronger and shorter. Water moderately until they begin to grow freely. =Flower Garden.= _DECEMBER._ GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. Having in the preceding month, under this head, given details for the protection of plants of a delicate nature, and the forwarding of necessary work, only a few remarks remain to be added. If there is any part therein described omitted, have it done forthwith; every day increases the danger of the effects of frost. If there is a doubt of any plants not standing without protection which are generally considered perfectly hardy, such as _Champney_, _Grevillii_, _Noisette_, and similar roses, tie straw or mats three or four feet up the stems of such, which will prevent all risk.[J] For valuable plants that are on walls, and in danger of being entirely destroyed, it is advisable to be at the expense of having a frame made to answer them, and cover the same with oil-cloth. The frame thus covered could be taken off in mild weather, and replaced again when necessary, causing very little trouble; and if properly taken care of, would last many years. Coverings of any construction and of the same material would answer for any part of the garden, and are the best in our opinion that could be adopted. [J] In the winter of 1831-1832, some of these roses were cut to the ground, where strong plants of _Lagerstr[oe]mia índica_ received not the smallest injury. =Rooms.= _DECEMBER._ As the trying season is now approaching for all plants that are kept in rooms, especially those that are desired to have a flourishing aspect through the winter, a few general instructions (although they may have been previously advanced) will perhaps be desirable to all those who are engaged in this interesting occupation, which forms a luxury through the retired hours of a winter season, and with very little attention many are the beauties of vegetative nature that will be developed to the gratification of every reflecting mind. The following is a routine of every day culture. Do not at any time admit air (except for a few moments) while the thermometer is below 32° exposed in the shade. In time of very severe frosts the plants ought to be withdrawn from the window to the centre of the room during night. Never give water until the soil in the pots is inclining to become dry, except for Hyacinths and other Dutch bulbs that are in a growing state, which must be liberally supplied. Destroy all insects as soon as they appear; for means of destruction see next month. Give a little air every favourable opportunity, (that is, when the thermometer is above 33° exposed in the shade,) by putting up the window one, two or three inches, according to the state of the weather. Clean the foliage with sponge and water frequently to remove all dust, &c. The water thus used must not exceed 96° or blood-heat, but 60° is preferable. Turn the plants frequently to prevent them growing to one side. _Roses_ of the daily sort may be obtained early by having them in a warm room, that has a south window, and as soon as they begin to grow, admit air in small portions about noon every day that the sun has any effect. Such must be well supplied with water. _Caméllias_, when in bud and flower, should never be allowed to become the least dry, neither confined from fresh air. The effects would be that the buds would become stinted, dry, and drop off. Therefore, to have these in perfection, attend strictly to watering. Give frequent airings, and wash the leaves once in two weeks with water. Never keep them above one day in a room, where there is a strong coal fire, and not above two days where wood is used as fuel. The most of _Caméllias_ will bear 3° of frost without the smallest injury, so that they are easier kept than _Geraniums_, except when they are in bloom. In that state frost will destroy the flowers. The air of a close cellar is destruction to the buds. Bulbs in glasses must be supplied with fresh water once a week, in which period they will inhale all the nutritive gas that they derive from that element, if they are in a growing state. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A HOT-HOUSE. There have been many plans devised and visionary projects offered to the public as the best for a well regulated Hot-house. As we intend forming one for practical purposes, we shall adopt a convenient size, have flues for the conveyance of heat, and coal or wood for fuel. _Site and Aspect._--The house should stand on a situation naturally dry, and if possible sheltered from the north west, and clear from all shade on the south, east and west, so that the sun may at all times act effectually upon the house. The standard principle as to aspect is to set the front directly to the south. Any deviation from that point should incline to east. _Dimensions._--The length may be from ten feet upwards; but if beyond thirty feet, the number of fires and flues are multiplied. The medium width is from twelve to sixteen feet. Our directions will apply to the two extreme points, viz. thirty feet by sixteen, and in height at back from twelve to eighteen feet; the height in front six feet, including about three feet in brick basement to support the front glass, which will be two and a half feet, allowing six inches for frame work. _Furnace and Flues._--It is of great importance to have these erected in such a manner as will effectually heat the house. The greatest difficulty is to have the furnace to draw well. As workmen are not generally conversant on the subject, nor yet understand the effect or distribution of heat in these departments, we will give minute details on their construction. The furnace should be outside of the house, either at back or end; the former is preferable, circumstances not always allowing it on the other plan. Dig out the furnace hole, or what is termed stock hole, about five feet deep. Let the door of the furnace be in the back wall of the house, thereby having all the heated building inside, that no heat may be lost. The brick work round the furnace should be from fifteen to eighteen inches thick, laying the inside with fire-brick. The furnace will require to be two and a half feet long, ten inches wide, and one foot high, before the spring of the arch and clear of the bars; leave one foot for an ash pit, then lay the bars. They should be sixteen inches long, one inch broad on the upper side, two inches deep, and two eighths broad on the lower side, and with the door and frame should be cast iron. Half an inch between each bar will be sufficient. The flue should rise from the furnace by a steep declivity of about two feet, and pass the door of the house (without a dip), when it must be elevated above the level of the floor of the house along the front, and at the opposite end of the house must dip to pass the door. The dip must not be lower than the top of the furnace, and should be of a concave form, (avoiding acute angles.) Lead it along the back to enter the wall over the furnace. When thus taken round the house, the heat will be expanded before it passes off, The inside of the flues should be about six inches wide and eight inches deep; plaster the bottom of it, but no other part, as plaster is partially a non-conductor. The above description is for burning anthracite coal, but where wood is to be the fuel, the furnace and flues must be one half larger. We have been particular in the description of furnace bars, as those generally used are miserable substitutes. Circumstances may cause the furnace to be placed at the end or front of the house. In either case the stock hole will not require to be so deep; or where there is only one door in the house a stock hole three and a half feet deep will be enough, which should be built like a cellar to keep out any under water. In all instances pass the first flue to the front of the house, over which have a close shelf eight inches clear, covered with two inches of sand, and by keeping it moist will afford a very congenial heat to young valuable plants. Likewise over the furnace have a frame in the same manner, which will be found valuable. Any part of the furnace or flue that is under the floor of the house, should have a vacuity on both sides to let the heat pass upward. _Bark Pit._--We consider such an erection in the centre of a Hot-house a nuisance, and prefer a stage, which may be constructed according to taste. It should be made of the best Carolina pine, leaving a passage round the whole to cause a free circulation of air. The back and end paths should be about two feet wide, and the front three feet. The angle of the stage should be parallel with the glass, having the steps from six inches to one foot apart. Where there are some large plants, they may stand on the floor behind the stage, or on tressels, according to their height. _Angle of the glazed roof._--The pitch of the roof is usually varied to agree with the design of the house, and the size of the plants to be grown therein. Where pleasure and ornament are the principal objects, the angle should be about 43°, but a few degrees of inclination either way is of minor importance, the height and elevation being regulated by the size of the plants intended to be cultivated. It is not advisable to shingle any part of the roof on the south aspect. _Materials for glazed frames._--Carolina pine is the best material for the wood work, as it is not so subject to decay from moisture and heat as the other kinds of pine wood. The frames or sashes can be of any convenient length, not exceeding ten feet, and about three and a half or four feet wide, divided so as they can be glazed with glass six inches wide. _Of glazing._ The pieces of glass should not exceed six inches by ten, the lappings about one quarter of an inch. The frames ought to have one coat of paint previous to glazing, and all under the glass puttied. Some prefer the lappings to be puttied also. It is our opinion that in a Hot-house these should not be puttied, but in the Green-house the closer they can be made the better. _Of Shutters._--These should be made of half inch white pine, and bound on both ends and sides, having a cross piece in the middle of the same. They ought to be painted once in three years. ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF A GREEN-HOUSE. In many respects, the construction of the Green-house will be the same as the Hot-house, but might be made much more an ornamental object, and could be erected contiguous to the mansion-house, with large folding doors to open at pleasure, and be connected with the drawing-room or parlour. The extent may vary according to the collection to be cultivated. It was formerly the practice to build these houses with glass only in front, and even to introduce between the windows strong piers of brick or stone: but this is now abolished, and has given way to a light and ornamental style, by which cheerfulness and the desired utility are better consulted. There should be conveniences in the back part of the house, that a free current of air may be obtained whenever desired, which is an essential point. Two or three dark windows will answer the purpose well, if made to open and shut at pleasure. ON LAYING OUT A FLOWER-GARDEN. _Soil, situation, and ground--Plan._--A soil of common good qualities, moderately light and mellow, will grow most of the hardy herbaceous flowers, and the evergreen and deciduous ornamental shrubs. The situation should not be so low as to be damp and wet, or liable to be inundated, neither so high as to be scorched or dried up by the sun. The surface should be level or moderately sloping, and if unequal, parts of it may be transposed, so as to make gentle inclinations. In regard to form, it may be of any shape, and must be often adapted to local circumstances; but if it is so circumscribed that the eye can at once embrace the whole, it is desirable that it should be of some regular figure. _Of Fences._--Where domestic buildings do not serve as a boundary, either paling or hedge-fence has to be resorted to: we would prefer the former on the north or north-west side, which is of great advantage as a screen from cutting winds. For hedge-fences and their kinds, see page 210. The exotic observed there is _Thùja orientàlis_, Chinese Arbor-vitæ. The internal fences for shade or shelter to particular compartments, or to afford a diversity of aspect, may be made of _Sweetbriar_, _hardy China roses_, _Pyrus_, _red_ and _white_, with a few others of a similar nature, all of which must be attended to, to have them in neat order. _Style of dividing the Ground._--This may vary with the extent of the ground, and the object of the cultivator. The principal designs may be delineated, but one to answer every view and situation, we pretend not to give. In the first place, carry a boundary walk all round the garden, on one or two sides of which it may be straight, the others winding. The intersecting walks should (almost imperceptibly) lead to a centre, but not to cross at right angles, or to have parallel lines, as if divided or laid down by a mathematical scale, which is too formal for the diversification of nature. All walks through these pleasure departments should be winding and enlivening, not continuing any length in one direction.[K] The continuous view of a straight walk is dull and monotonous. The divisions should be highest about the centre, that whatever is planted therein may have effect; and to make a Flower-garden fully interesting, and render it a source of natural information, where free scope might at all times be afforded to employ the leisure hours in mental improvement, there should be a good system of arrangement adopted. [K] Since writing the above we have seen the Flower-garden of J. B. Smith, Esq. and consider it a beautiful specimen, finely illustrating the taste of that gentleman. The _Linnean_ system is the most easily acquired. A small compartment laid out in beds might contain plants of all the twenty-four _classes_, and a few of all the hardy _orders_, which do not exceed one hundred. Or to have their natural characters more assimilated, the _Jussieuean_ system could be carried into effect by laying down a grass plat, to any extent above one quarter of an acre, and cut therein small figures to contain the natural families, which of hardy plants we do not suppose would exceed one hundred and fifty. The difficulties of this arrangement are, that many of the characters are imperfectly known even to the most scientific. _Mr. John Lindley_ has given additional light on the subject by his last publication. All the large divisions should be intersected by small allies, or paths, about one and a half or two feet wide. These may be at right angles, or parallel, for convenience and order, in making beds, &c. for the various Dutch roots and other flowers. Patches or plats of grass studded with shrubs, deciduous and evergreen, are indispensable, and perhaps one or two grass walks. _Of Walks._--These should have five or six inches of lime and brick rubbish, or broken stone in the bottom, covered with small pebbles, and firmly rolled with a heavy roller, over which lay two or three inches of fine gravel, giving the whole a complete rolling. Walks made on this method will stand well, and be always dry and firm. With regard to breadth, they must be made according to the extent of ground, and vary from three to thirty feet; from four to eight feet is generally adopted. _Plants described or mentioned in this Work._ _Linnæan Name_. _English Name_. ACÀCIA 61, 219. 1 móllis, downy. glaucéscens, glaucescent. verticiláta, whorl-leaved. florabùnda, many-flowered. diffùsa, spreading. _prostràta_. armàta, armed. var. pendùla, weeping. verniciflùa, varnished. decúrrens, decurrent. púbescens, hairy-stemmed. leucolòbia, white-podded. _dealbàta_. decípiens, paradoxical. fragràns, scented. pulchélla, neat. lophántha, two-spiked. _Mimósa élegans_. myrtifòlia, myrtle-leaved. Catéchu, Catechu. véra, true. Arábica, Arabian. ANNESLÈIA 219. 1 Houstóni, Houston's. _Acàcia Houstóni_. grandiflòra, large-flowered. _Acácia grandiflòra_. ACMADÈNIA 86. 6 lávigata, smooth. púngens, pungent. tetragýnia, four-sided. AGATHÓSMA 86. 6 accuminàta, taper-pointed. hýbrida, hybrid. Thunbergiàna, Thunberges. imbricàta, imbricated. prolífera, proliferous. pátula, spreading. pulchélla, pretty. ciliáta, profuse-flowering. ADENÁNDRA 86. 6 speciòsa, large-flowered. umbellàta, umbel-flowered. álba, white-flowered. fragràns, sweet-scented. uniflòra, one-flowered. ANEMÓNE 134. Wind-flower. 15 palmàta plèno, double-yellow. stellàta versícolor, various. pavonìna plèno, scarlet. narcissiflòra, narcissus-flowered. Hallèri, Haller's. alpìne, alpine. nemoròsa plèno, double-leaved. thalictròides " common-double. AMÓMUM 36. ATRÀGENE 196. alpìna, alpine. ÁPICRA 260. AMARÝLLIS 260, 271, 274. 11 striatfòlia, stripe-leaved. Jonsòni, Johnson's. regìna, Mexican-lily. vittàta, striped. fùlgida, fulged. àulica, crowned. psittácina, parrot. " Cowbèrgia, Cowberges'. " pulverulènta, powdered. Griffìni, Griffin's. formòsa, large. ANTIRRHÌNUM 134, Snap-dragon. màjus, large. mólle, soft. Sículum, Sicilian. ASCLÈPIAS 134, 321, Silk-flower. tuberòsa, tuberous. rùbra, red. nívea, white. purpuráscens, purple-coloured. incarnàta, fleshy-coloured. ACONÍTUM 134, Wolfe's-bane. speciòsum, showy. anthòra, wholesome. neúrbergensis, Syria. amæ'num, pretty. napéllus, monk's-hood. venústum, beautiful. zoóctonum, beast-bane. pyramidále, pyramidal. lycóctonum great-yellow. albùm, white. versícolor, three-coloured. ÁLOE 219, 271. 10 vulgàris, common. Barbadénsis, Barbadoes. oblíqua, oblique. dichótoma, smooth-stemmed. lineàta, red-edged. ADÓNIS 134. vernális, spring. ARISTÉA 125. 5 cyànea, blue. ALSTR[OE]MERIA 18, 57, 229, 339. 10 flós-martína, san-martin. pelegrìna, spotted. pulchélla, pretty. atro-purpùrea, dark. AGROSTÉMMA 143. flós-cucùla, ragged-robin. _Lychnìs flós-cucùla_. ARAUCÀRIA 261. 12 excélsa, Norfork-Island-pine. imbricàta, Chile-pine. APHÉLEXIS 88. 5 hùmilis, dwarf. _Elichrýsum spectábile_. AMÓRPHA 45. ASTÉLMA 93. 8 exímia, beautiful. spiràlis, spiral-leaved. speciosíssimus, showy. fruticàns, frutescent. imbricàtum, imbricated. ANGÓPHORA 107. 6 cordifòlia, heart-leaved. híspida, hispid. ALOÝSIA 123. 9 citriodòra, lemon-scented. _Verbéna tripfýlla_. AMPELÒPSIS 198. hederàcea, Virginian creeper. _Císsus hederàcea_. ARISTOLÓCHIA 221. Birth-wort. 9 labiòsa, lipped. ASTRAP`ÆA 221. 12 wallíchii, Wallich's. ARÉCA 221. Cabbage-tree. 12 cátechu, catechu. olerácea, eatable. montàna, mountain. ARDÍSIA 220. 10 crenulàta, crenulate. solanàcea, night-shade-leaved. élegans, elegant. umbellàta, umbel-flowered. _littoràlis_. AGATHAÉA 82. 12 cæléstus, blue. AGAPÁNTHUS 62. African lily. umbellàtus, umbel-flowered. var. variegàtus, striped-leaved. ALONSÒA 62. incisifòlia, nettle-leaved. _Hemímeris urticifòlia_. lineàris _Hemímeris lineàris_. AÙCUBA 63. 4 japónica, blotch-leaved. ANAGÝRIS 63. 4 fætida, strong smelling. AZÁLEA 63. 5 índica, Chinese. " álba, white. " purpùrea, double. " ph[oe]nícea, purple. sinénse, yellow. AÒTUS 64. 1 villòsa, villous. virgáta, slender. ANDERSÒNIA 64. 6 sprengelioídes, sprengilia-like. ÁRBUTUS 64. Strawberry-tree. 7 Unèdo, common. " rùbra, red-flowered. hýbrida hybrid. _serratifòlia_, _andrachnoides_. andráchne, oriental. BÁNKSIA 64. 8 dentàta, tooth-leaved. æ'mula, deeply sawed. serráta, saw-leaved. _undulàta_. latifòlia, broad-leaved. grándis, great-flowered. speciòsa, long-leaved. cunninghàmii, Cunningham's. spinulòsa, spiny-leaved. palludòsa, marsh. rèpens, creeping verticillàta, whorl-leaved. BLÈTIA 66. 9 hyacinthìna, hyacinthine. _Cymbídium hyacinthìnum_. BÒRONIA 66 5 pinnáta, scented. serruláta, rose-scented. aláta, wing-leaved. BARÓSMA 86. 6 serratifòlia, saw-leaved. pulchèlla, blunt-leaved. f[oe]tidíssima, strong-scented. odoráta, odoriferous. dioíca, dioecious. BABÌANA 303. 11 distíca two-ranked. strícta, erect. tubiflòra, tube-flowered. plicáta, plaited. BRUNSVÌGIA 222. 11 multiflòra, many-flowered. laticòma, broad-headed. Josephínæ, Josephine's falcáta, falcate margináta, red-margined cilliáris, hairy-margined. BAMBUSA 222. Bamboo-cane. 14 arundinàcea, reed-like. BANISTÈRIA 223. fúlgens, fulgent. chrisophýlla, shining. splèndens, splendid. BARRINGTÒNIA 223. 10 speciòsa, showy. BRÒWNEA 233. 10 coccínea, scarlet. ròsa, Trinidad-rose. grandicéps, grandest. BOUVÁRDIA 66. 7 triphýlla, three-leaved. Jacquínii, shark-leaved. _Ìxora americána_. BRACHYSÈMA 66. 5 latifòlium, broad-leaved. undulátum, wave-leaved. BURCHÉLLIA 67. 10 capénsis, cape. parviflòra, small-flowered. BEAUFÓRTIA 67. 8 decussáta, cross-leaved. spàrsa, alternate-leaved. BRÙNIA 67. 5 nodiflòra, imbricated. languinósa, woolly. comòsa, tufted. abrotanoídes, southern wood-like. formòsa, handsome. BÓSEA 67. Golden-rod-tree. 5 yervamóra. B`ÆCKIA 67. 6 camphoráta, camphor. pulchélla, neat. virgáta, slender. BILLARDIÉRA 68. Apple-berry. longiflòra, long-flowered. mutàbilis, changeable. scándens, climbing. fusifórmis, long-fruited. BÉLLIS 135. Daisy. perénnís hortensis var. var. garden. BALLÓTA 260. 11 purpúrea, purple-flowered. _Amarýllis purpúrea_. BELLADÓNNA 208. 11 purpuráscens, Belladonna Lily. _Amarýllis Belladónna_. BIGNÒNIA 197. Trumpet-flower. crucígera, cross-bearing. grandiflòra, large-flowered. rádicans, rooting. COTYLÉDON 39. COLÙTEA 45. CÝTICUS 45. CÁLTHA 135. palústris plèno, double yellow. CHAM´ÆROPS 262. Dwarf-fan-palm. 12 sp. sp. CÓRYPHA 232. Large-fan-palm. 11 ambraculifera, large. talìera, great. CLÉMATIS 196, 138, 83, Virgin's-bower. 12 integrifòlia, entire-leaved. angustifòlia, narrow-leaved. erécta, erect-growing. viticélla pulchélla, double-blue. flámmula, sweet-scented. virginiàna, Virginian. flòrida plèno, double-white. aristàta, awned. brachiàta, armed. COB´ÆA 83. scándens, climbing. CALLICÁRPA 229. CAROLINEA 229. Cream-nut. 17 insignis, great-flowered. álba, white-flowered. prínceps, digitated. robústa, robust. CARYÓTA 229. 12 ùrens, stinging. CALÀTHEA 223. zebrìna Zebra-plant. _Maránta Zebrína_. CÁNNA 224, 35. Indian-shot. 3 gigántea, tall. limbàta, bordered. díscolor, two-coloured. iridiflòra, nodding-flowered. CÁCTUS 224, 271. CÈRUS 225. 18 peruviànus, Peruvian. heptagònus, seven-angled. flagellifórmus, creeping. grandiflòrus, night-blooming. triangulàris, triangular. phyllanthoiídes, rosy-flowered. _Cáctus Speciosus_. Jenkinsòni, Jenkinsons'. Speciosíssimus, showy. Ackermánnia, Ackerman's. truncàtus, truncated. COREÓPSIS, 138. tenuifòlia, slender-leaved. verticullàta, whorl-leaved. díscolor, two-coloured. trípteris, three-leaved. CALCEOLÁRIA 68, 17, 35, 338., Slipper-wort. 10 angustifòlia, narrow-leaved. integrifòlia, entire-leaved. plantagínea, plantain-leaved. corymbósa, corymb-flowered. purpùrea, purple-flowered. Hopiána, Dr. Hopes'. micàns, fine. hybrìda, hybrid. Fothergíllii, Fothergill's. arachnóidea, cob-web. CALOTHÁMNUS 68. 6 quadrífida, four-cleft. claváta, club-leaved. CAMÉLLIA 69, 80., Japan-rose. 11 víridis, green-tea. Bohèa, black-tea. sesánqua, Lady Banks'. oleífera, oleiferous. maliflòra, pink-flowered. _Sesanqua rosea_. kíssi, nepaul. reticulàta, Capt. Rawes'. japónica, original. rùbra, common. álba, single-white. semidúplex, semidouble red. rùbro pléno, double red. cárnea, Middlemist's. myrtifòlia, myrtle-leaved. _involuta_. myrtifolia, minor. hexanguláris, six-sided. atrorùbens, Loddiges' red. anemoniflòra, red waratah. " rósea, rose war. dianthiflòra, carnation war. blánda, blush war. pompónia, Kew blush. pæoniflòra, pæony flowered. Welbánkii, Welbank's. álba-plèno, double white. flavéscens, ladies'-blush. fimbriàta, fringed white. imbricàta, imbricate petaled. variegàta, double striped. crassinervis? thick-nerved. conchiflòra, shell-flowered. rubricáulis, Lady Campbell's. longifòlia, long leaved. chandlèrii, Chandler's. _versìcolor_. Aitònia, Aiton's. althæflòra, holly-hock flowered. corallìna, coral-flowered. insígnis, splendid. anemoneflòra álba, white anemone flowered. heterophýlla, various leaved. Woódsii, Mr. Wood's. speciósa, striped waratah. fúlgens, fulgent. grandiflòra, large flowered. rósa-sinénsis, bright pink. intermédia, new blush. invíncible, Press's. _punctàta_. _pressíi_. rose-mundií, streaked. compàcta, compact-white. gloriòsa, dark-red. Róssii, Ross's. CALLICÒMA 80. 6 serratifòlia, saw-leaved. CARMICH`ÆLIA 81. 8 austrális, New-Zealand. CUNÒNIA 81, Decandria-digynia. 2 Capénsis, Cape. CLÉTHRA 81. 2 arbórea, tree. " variegàta, variegated-leaved. COTONEASTÈR 81. 2 denticulàta, toothed. microphýlla, small-leaved. CRÒWEA 81. 1 salígna, willow-leaved. CHORIZÈMA 81. 5 nàna, dwarf. ilicifòlia, holly-leaved. CINERÀRIA 82, Cape-aster. 12 speciósa, large-flowered. amelloìdes, blue. purpûrea, purple. lanáta, woolly. CÍSTUS 82, Rock-rose. 3 ladaníferus, gum. Monspeliénsis, Montpelier. sálignis, willow-leaved. populifòlius, poplar-leaved. undulàtus, wave-leaved. CAMPÁNULA 135, Bell-flower. persicifòlia, peach-leaved. " àlba-plèno, double-white. " cærùlea-plèno, " blue. urticifòlia, nettle-leaved. speciòsa, spacious. glomeràta, headed-flowered. versícolor, three-coloured. CHEIRÁNTHUS 136. chéiri-vulgaris, Wall-flower. " hæmànthus, double-bloody. mutàbilis, changeable. CHELONE 136. glábra, glabrous. oblíqua, oblique-leaved. barbàta, bearded-flowered. atropurpùrea, purple-flowered. pulchélla, pretty. venústa, showy. speciòsa, spacious. CHRYSÁNTHEMUM 137. sinénse, variable-chinese. " tubulòsum álbum, quilled-white. " supèrbum, superb-white. " díscolor, large-lilac. " fúlvum, Spanish-brown. " atropurpùreum, early-crimson. " involùtum, curled-lilac " fasciculàtum, superb-yellow. " serotìnum, pale-purple. " papyràceum, paper-white. " waratáh, yellow-anemone-flow'd. " versícolor, two-coloured red. " stellàtum, starry-purple. " verecúndum, early-blush. " mutábile, changeable. COCOLÒBA 229, Sea-side-grape. 15 pubéscens, downy. latifòlia, broad-leaved. CÙPHEA 229. 6 Melvílla, Melvill's. CRÒTON 230. pìctus, painted. variegàtus, variegated. " latifòlia, broad-leaved. CÉRBERA 230. 17 thevètia, linear-leaved. ahoùai, oval-leaved. odállam, spear-leaved. mànghas, blunt-leaved. CÝCAS 230, Sago-palm? 11 revolúta, revolute. circinàlis great. glaùca, glaucous. COMBRÈTUM 231. élegans, elegant. formòsum, handsome. purpùreum, scarlet. CRÀSSULA 231. CRÒCUS 275, saffron. satìvus, garden. Pallàsii, Pallas'. serotìnus, late-flowered. nudiflòrus, naked-flowered. CÓLCHICUM 275. CÁLLA 289. 12 Æthiòpica, Ethiopian-lily. CORONÍLLA 83. 12 glaúca, glaucous. valentìna, nine-leaved. _stipulàris_. viminális, slender. CORRÈA 84. 5 álba, white-flowered. rúfa, rusty-leaved. pulchélla, pretty. speciósa, showy. virèns, green-flowered. CRAT`ÆGUS 84. CUPRÈSSUS 85, Cypress. 6 lusitánica, cedar of Goa. péndula, pendulous. juniperoídes, African. CALÁMPELIS 85. 11 scábra, climbing. _Eccremocárpus scáber_. CELÁSTRIS 85. Staff-tree. 4 pyracánthus, red-fruited. cymósus, cyme-flowered. multiflòrus, many-flowered. lúcidus, shining. COÒKIA 85. Wampee-tree. 11 punctàta, punctate. CALLISTÀCHYS 85. 6 lanceoláta, lanceolated. ovàta, oval-leaved. CHARLWÒODIA 234. 11 strícta, erect. COFFÈA 227, Coffee-tree. 17 Arábica, Arabian. CINNAMÓMUM 101. 15 camphòra, camphire-tree. CLERODÉNDRON 124. 12 fràgrans múltiplex, double. CRINÙM 261, 232. 11 capénse, cape. _Amarýllis longifòlia_. cruéntum, red. scábrum, scabrous. amàbile, showy. CYRTÀNTHUS 232. 11 odòrus, scented. striátus, striped. oblíquus, oblique-leaved. vittàtus, ribanded. CARÝOPHYLLUS 233. 9 aromáticus, aromatic. CALLÌSTEMON 107. 6 salígnum, willow-leaved. lanceolàtum, lance-leaved. semperflòrens, ever-blooming glaùcum, glaucous. _metrosidèros speciòsa_. CÝCLAMEN 290, 297. 11 Coúm, round-leaved. Pérsicum, Persian. hederæfòlium, ivy-leaved. Europ'æum, round-leaved. Neapolitànum, Neapolitan. CENTRÀNTHUS 150. Phù, garden. _Valeriána Phù_. rùbra, red. _Valeriána rùbra_. DION'ÆA 36. 5 mucípula, Venus-fly-trap. DILLÈNIA 233. 7 speciòsa, spacious. scàndens, climbing. DRAC'ÆNA 233. Dragon-tree. 11 férrea, purple-leaved. frágrans, scented. margináta, margined. dráco, large DÁPHNE 313, 258, 270. 15 odòra, sweet-scented. _índica_. hýbrida, daphine. oleoídes, olea-leaved. laurèola, spurg-laurel. póntica, pontic. alpìna, alpine. cneòrum, trailing. DELPHÍNUM 138. Larkspur. grandiflòrum, large-flowered. intermèdium, intermediate. _var._ _var._ elàtum, Bee-larkspur. montànum, tall-growing. DIANTHUS 138. Pink. 17 barbátus, sweet-william. " plèno, double. díscolor, two-coloured. chinènsis, china. alpínus, alpine. supérbus, superb-red. caryophýllus, clove. plumárius, common. frágrans, sweet-scented. DICTÁMNUS 139. fraxinélla, red. àlbus, white. DODECÀTHEON 321.139. American cow-slip. mèdia, purple. " àlba, white. DIGITÀLIS 140. Fox-glove. leucoph`æa, broad-lipped. ferrugínea, rusty-flowered. ochroleùca, large yellow. purpuràscens, blush-flowered. _erubéscens_. purpúrea, purple. " àlba, white. DAVÌESIA 86. 6 ulicìna, furze-like. latifòlia, broad-leaved. aciculáris, needle-leaved. incrassáta, thick-leaved. DIÓSMA 86. 6 capitàta, crown-flowered. oppositifòlia, opposite-leaved. longifòlia, long-leaved. rùbra, heath-leaved. _ericifòlia_. treretifòlia, round-leaved. DRYÁNDRA 87. 6 nívea, white-leaved. formòsa, apricot-scented. floribúnda, many-flowered. armáta, acute-leaved. plumòsa, feathered. baxtèri, Baxter's. nervòsa, nerve-leaved. falcáta, falcate-leaved. DILLWÝNIA 87. 6 floribúnda, close-flowered. _ericifòlia_. teretifòlia, round-leaved. phylicoídes, phylica-like. DAMPIÈRA 87. 6 purpùrea, purple-flowered. unduláta, wave-leaved. strícta, upright. EDWÁRDSIA 88. 6 grandiflòra, large-flowered. chrysophýlla, silver-leaved. microphýlla, small-leaved. ELICHRÝSUM 88. ENKIÁNTHUS 88. 6 quinqueflòrus, Canton. reticulàtus, netted-leaved. EPÁCRIS 88. 5 grandiflòra, large-flowered. pulchélla, sweet-scented. impréssa, unpressed. palludòsa, marsh. purpuráscens _rúbra_. red. ERÍCAS 89. Heath. 6 mediterránea, common. 5 aristáta, awned. bàccans, arbutus-flowered. bowieána, Bowie's. conférta, crowded-flowered. élegans, elegant. fasciculáris, cluster-flowered. florabùnda, many-flowered. glomeràta, glomerate. grandiflòra, large-flowered. inflàta, inflated. mammòsa, nipple. prégnans, swelled. pubéscens, downy. refúlgens, refulgent. regérminans cluster-flowered. rùbens, red-flowered. speciòsa, specious. spléndens, splendid. tenélla, delicate. triúmphans, triumphant. vestìta, tremulous. _var._ _var._ ventricòsa, beautiful. víscaria, clammy-flowered. ERÁNTHEMUM 234. 11 pulchéllum, neat. bícolor two-coloured. EUGÈNIA 234. 11 piménta, Allspice. _Mýrtus Piménta_. frágrans, scented. EUPHÓRBIA. 234. Spurg. 18 heterophýlla.? ERYTHRÌNA 235. 330. Coral-tree. 13 corallodéndrum, smooth. speciòsa, splendid. pubéscens, downy. herbácea, herbaceous. laurifòlia, laurel-leaved crísta-gàlli, Cocks-comb. ERIABÒTRYA 107. loquat. 11 japónica, Japan. ENTÈLIA 119. 12 arboréscens, tree. ECHINOCÁCTUS 225. 18 gibbòsus, gouty. crispàtus, curled-ribbed. recúrvus, recurve-spined. EUPATÓRIUM 91. 140. 10 élegans, scented. c[oe]lestínum, blue. aromáticum, aromatic. EUTÁXIA 92. 6 myrtifòlia, myrtle-leaved. pùngens, pungent. EUCHÌLUS 92. 6 obcordáta. ERÓDIUM 91, Heron's-bill. incarnàtum, fleshy. crassifòlium, thick-leaved. laciniátum, laciniated. EUCALÝPTUS 91. 6 cordàta, Heart-leaved. rostráta, beaked. radiáta, rayed. pulvigéra. glóbifera, round-fruited. pulverulénta, powdered. resinífera, red-gum-tree. EURCÚMA 36. EÙCOMIS 24. FURCHR`ÆA. 39. FÚNKIA 96, 141. 11 álba. _Hemerocállis japónica_. cærùlea. _Hemerocállis cærùlea_. FERRÀRIA 40. 11 undulàta, curled. antheròsa, variegated. FRITILLÀRIA 295. imperiàlis, Crown-imperial. Pérsica, Persian. FÌCUS 236, Fig-tree. 12 elástica, gum-elastic. brassiì, brass. religiòsa, superstitious. lùcida, shining. Bengalénsis, Bengal. nìtida, glossy. índica, banyan-tree. exasperàta, very-rough. costàta, rib-leaved. FÚCHSIA 92, Ladies-ear-drop. 13 virgáta, twiggy. cònica, conical-tubed. coccínea, scarlet. microphýlla, small-leaved. arbórea, tree. gràcilis, slender. thymifòlia, thyme-leaved. GELSÈMIUM 93. Carolina-jasmine. 5 nìtidum, shining-leaved. GNAPHÀLIUM 93. (See _Astélma_.) GOMPHOLÒBIUM 94. 5 barbigérum, bearded-flowered. polimórphum, variable. GEORGIÀNA 180. _Dáhlia supérflua_. dwarf-globe, crimson. pulla. Electa, scarlet. flamæa, flame. Zeno. Etna, scarlet. imperiosa. Cicero. cocade. Cambridge-surprise. Duchess-of-Wellington, pink. Countess-of-Liverpool. Barret's-Wm.-4th, scarlet. mountain-of-snow, _true_. Diana, lilac. crimson-bonnet, glob. eximia, scarlet. star-of-Brunswick, pink. Lafayette, orange. morning-star, red. Romulus, scarlet. Florabunda, crimson. speciosissima, purple. Veitches-triumphant, purple. coronation, maroon. Stephenia, bloody. feathered, light crimson, _glob_. dwarf, crimson, _fine glob_. striated buff, _anemone-flowered_. large-pink, " " rose, " spectabile, " painted-lady, " early-blood, " GLÓBBA 36. GESNÉRIA 36. 10 bulbósa, bulbous. GLORIÓSA 37. 10 supérba, superb. GASTÈRIA 259. GEÙM 141. quéllyon, scarlet. _coccíneum_. hýbridum, hybrid. urbánum, common. GENTIÁNA 140. lútea, yellow. purpúrea, purple. septémfida, crested. acaúlis, dwarf. GÆRTNÈRA 237. 12 racemòsa, climbing. GEISSOMÉRIA 237. 2 longiflòra, long-flowered. GARDÈNIA 237, 262. 9 campanuláta, bell-flowered. am`æna, neat. costàta, ribbed. lúcida, shining. flòrida-pléno, Cape-jasmine. ràdicans, dwarf. longifòlia, long-leaved. latifòlia, broad-leaved. Rothmònnia, spotted. Thunbérgia, Thunberg's. GLADIÒLUS 303. Corn-flag. 11 floribùndus, many-flowered. cardinàlis, cardinal. Byzantínus, Turkish. blándus, fairest. cuspidàtus, sharp-pointed. psittàcinus, parrot. GOMPHOLÒBIUM 94. latifòlium, broad-leaved. grandiflòrum, large-flowered. venústum, showy. GENÍSTA 94. 1 Canariénsis, Canary. tricuspidáta, three-pointed, cuspidòsa, sharp-pointed. umbellàta, umbelled. GNÍDIA 94. 6 símplex, flax-leaved. serícea, silky. imbérbis, smooth-scaled. pinifòlia, pine-leaved. GOODÈNIA 94. 6 stellígera, starry-haired. suavèolens, sweet-scented. ovàta, oval-leaved. grandiflòra, large-flowered. GORTERIA 94. 6 personàta. GAZÀNIA 94. 6 rìgens, great. Pavònia, peacock. heterophýlla, various-leaved. GREVÌLLEA 95. 6 punícea, scarlet. acanthifòlia, acanthus-like. coccínea, pretty. juniperìna, juniper-like. lineàris, linear-leaved. HÀKEA 95. 6 gibbòsa gibbous-fruited. nítida, glossy. salígna, willow-leaved. suavèolens, sweet-scented. conculàta, conculate. Lambérti, Lambert's. HEMEROCÁLLIS, 96. Day-lily. 11 speciòsa, spacious. HERMÁNNIA 96. HELICHRÝSUM 93. Everlasting. 8 grandiflòrum, large-flowered. arbòreum, árborescent. orientàle, common. fràgrans, sweet-scented. odoratìssimum, odoriferous. fruticàns, shrubby. fúlgidum, splendid. HIBBÉRTIA 96. 12 grossulariæfòlia, gooseberry-leaved. dentàta, toothed. volùbilis, twining. fasciculàta, bushy. salígna, willow-leaved. pedunculàta, long-pedicled. HABRÁNTHUS 96. 2 Andersónii, Anderson's. versícolor, three-coloured. robústa, robust. HÒVEA 97. 6 lineàris linear-leaved. rosmarinifòlia, rosmary-leaved. longifòlia, long-leaved. Célsii, Cels's. HYDRÁNGEA, 97. 172. 14 horténsis, variable. hypéricum, St. John's-wort. 10 monógynum, three-styled. baleàricum, warted. floribúndum, many-flowered. canariénse, canaries. ægyptìacum, Egyptian. cochinchinénse, cochinchina. HIBÍSCUS 238. 141. 27. 45. 9 Ròsa sinénsis plénus, double red. " " cárnea, " salmon. " " variegàtus, " striped. " " lútea, " yellow. palústris, marsh. ròseus, rose-coloured. militàris, smooth. speciòsus, showy crimson. grandiflòrus, large flowered. púngens, pungent. Syrìacus, Althea. var. var. mutábilis plènus, double-changeable. lilliiflòrus, various. HEDÝCHIUM 36. HEMEROCÁLLIS 141. Day lily. fúlva, copper-coloured. gramínea, grass-leaved. HÉDERA 198. Hèlix, Irish-ivy. HERITÉRIA 238. Looking-glass-plant. 11 littoràlis, large-leaved. HOWÁRTHIA 260. HÓYA 239. wax-plant. carnòsa, common. crassifòlia, thick-leaved. HERRNÁNDIA 239. Jack-in-a-box. Sonòra, peltate-leaved. ÌXORA 240. 5 obovàta, purple. _purpùrea_. crocàta, saffron-coloured. ròsea, rose-coloured. bandhùca, stem-clasping. blànda, charming. undulàta, waved. dichotíma. coccínea, scarlet. _grandiflòra_, _strícta_, _flámmea_, _speciòsa_. fúlgens, glossy. _longifòlia_, _lanceolàta_. pavètta, scented. ÍRIS, 142, 320. Flower-de-luce. subiflòra, sub-flowered. nepalénsis, Nepaul. Pallàsii, Pallas'. pállida, pale. cristáta, crested. arenària, sand. furcàta, forked. germánica, German. florentìna, florentine. vérna, spring. susiàna, chalcedonian. lusitánica, Portuguese. _var._ _var._ Hiphioídes, great bulbous. Pérsica, Persian. ÍXIA, 203. 11 monadélphia, monadelphus. leucántha, white flowered. capitàta, headed. cònica, orange-coloured. colamelàris, variegated. IPOMAÈA 240. 9 paniculáta, panicle-flowered. ÌLEX 98. Holly. 15 aquifòlium, European. var. var. cassìne, cassine-like. vomitòria, south-sea tea. ILLÍCIUM 99. Anniseed-tree. floridànum, purple-flowered. parviflòrum, small-flowered. anisàtum, anise-scented. INDIGÓFERA 99. Indigo-tree. denudàta, smooth-leaved. am'æna, pretty. austrális, round-stemmed. angulàta, angular-stemed. cándicans, white-leaved. filifòlia, filiform-leaved. ISOPÒGON 99. 9 formòsus, handsome. anemonefòlious, anemone-leaved. attenuàtis, attenuated. polycéphalus, many-headed. jálapa, Jalap. grandiflòra, large-flowered. pulchélla, pretty. tuberòsa, tuberous. JUSTÍCIA 99. 243. nìgricans, spotted. orchioídes, orchis-like. adhàtoda, Malabar-nut. coccínea, scarlet. pícta, painted. lúcida, shining. form`osa, handsome. speciòsa, showy. JACKSÒNIA 100. 6 scopària, broom-like. hórrida, horrid. reticulàta, netted. JUNÍPERUS 210. Juniper. virginiàna, red-cedar. JÁTROPHA 242. Physic-nut. 17 multífida, multifid. panduræfòlia, fiddle-leaved. cúrcas, angular-leaved. JACARÁNDA 241. 9 mimosifòlia, mimosa-leaved. filìcifòlia, fern-leaved. JAMBÒSA 241. Rose-apple. 11 vúlgáris, common. malacénsis, Malay-apple. purpuráscens, purple-flowered. macrophýlla, large-leaved. amplexicaùlis, stem-clasping. JASMÌNUM 242. Jasmine. 3 sámbac, Arabian. " multiplex, semi-double. " trifoliàtum, double-Tuscan. hirsútum, hairy-stemmed. paniculàtum, panicled. simplicifòlium, simple-leaved. _lucídium_? shining. odoratíssimum 3, Azorian. revolùtum revolute-leaved. grandiflòrum, Catalonian. officinàle, common. KALOSANTHUS 231, 18 coccínea, scarlet. _Crassùla coccínea_. versícolor, changeable. _Crassùla versícolor_. odoratíssima, sweet-scented. KÆMPFÈRIA 243, 36. 17 rotúnda, round-rooted. KENNÈDIA 100. 5 monophýlla, simple-leaved. rubicúnda, dingy-flowered. prostráta, trailing. _Glýcine coccínea_. coccínea, many-flowered. comptoniána, comptonian. inophýlla, few-leaved. LAGERSTR`ÆMIA 129. 172. índica, crape-flower. LAMBÉRTIA 100. 6 formòsa, handsome. echinàta, lobe-leaved. uniflòra, one-flowered. inérmis, unarmed. LASIOPÈTALUM 100. LAVÁNDULA 101. Lavender. 7 dentáta, toothed. formòsa, handsome. pinnàta, pinnated. LAÚRUS 101. 244. Laurel. 15 f`ætens, til. aggregàta, clustered. glaùca, glaucous. scàbra, rough. vérum, true. cássia, false. chloróxylon, cogwood. LANTÀNA 244. LANTÀNIA 244. Dwarf-palm. 12 borbònica, borbon. rùbra, red. glaucophýlla, glaucous. LÌATRIS 142. Gay-feather. squarròsa, squarrose. élegans, elegant. paniculáta, paniculate. spicáta. _macróstachya_, large-spiked. LÝCHNIS, 143. 104. 9 chalcedònica, chalcedonian. fúlgens, fulgent. flós-jòvis, umbelled. _Agrostéma flós-jòvis_. coronáta, crowned. LÝTHRUM 143. alàtum, erect-growing. virgàtum, twiggy. diffùsum, diffuse. lanceolàtum, lance-leaved. LOMÀTIA 103. (See errata.) 6 silaifòlia, cut-leaved. dentàta, toothed. ilicifòlia, holly-leaved. LACHENÀLIA 291. 11 trícolor, three-coloured. quadrícolor, four-coloured. rùbida, dotted-flowered. punctàta, spotted-flowered. orchoídes, orchis-like. nervòsa, nerved-leaved. LILÌUM 32. 35. 306. 11 màrtagon, red. tygrìnum, spotted. chalcedònicum, Chalcedonian. speciòsum? showy. longiflòrum? japónicum. Japan. LOBÈLIA 102. 6 tùpa, mullein-leaved. speciòsa, specious. spléndens, splendid. fúlgens, fulgent. cærùlea, blue. Thunbérgii, Thurberg's. corymbòsa, corymbose. pyramidàlis pyramidal. ilicifòlia, holly-leaved. LOPHOSPHÉRMUM 103. 12 scándens climbing. LACHN`ÆA 103. 1 glaùca, glaucous. conglomeràta, clustered. eriocéphala, wooly-headed. LEONÒTIS, Lion's-ear. 7 intermédia, intermediate. LEONÙRUS, narrow-leaved. LEUCOSPÉRMUM 103. 9 formòsum, handsome. grandiflòrum, tomentose. cándicans, hoary. LIPÀRIA 104. sphæ'rica, crowned. tomentòsa, downy. villósa, hairy. serícea, silky. LYSINÈMA 104. 5 pentapétalum, five-petaled. conspícum, conspicuous. róseum, rose-coloured. LÝCHNIS 104. 9 coronàta, crowned. LEPTOSPÉRMUM 104. South-Sea-Myrtle. 6 baccàtum, berry-fruited. péndulum, pendulous. juníperinum, juniper-leaved. ovátum, ovate-leaved. stellàtum, starry-flowered. grandiflórum, large-flowered. scopàrium, New-Zealand-tea. LEUCADÉNDRON 105. Silver-Tree. 9 argentéum, silvery. _Pròtea argentéa_. squarròsum, squarrose. stellàtum, starry _Pròtea stellàris_. tórtum, twisted. seríceum, silky. marginàtum, margined. plumòsum, feathered. _Pròtea parviflòra_. MAGNÓLIA 105. 9 fuscàta, rusty. annonæfòlia, annonæ-leaved. pùmila, dwarf. conspícua, youlan. purpùrea, purple. MELALÈUCA 106. 6 elíptica, eliptic. fúlgens, fulgent. decussàta, cross-leaved. hypericifòlia, hypericum-leaved. squarròsa, square-set. linarifòlia, linear-leaved. incàna, hoary. telragònia, four-sided. thymifòlia, thyme-leaved. MAURÁNDIA 106. 6 Barclàyana, Barclay's. semperflòrens, ever-blooming. MÝSINE 106, Cape-Myrtle. 4 retùsa, erect. rotundifòlia, round-leaved. MÉSPILUS 107. Medlar. METROSIDÈROS. 6 flòrida, many-flowered. umbellàta, umbel-flowered. angustifòlia, narrow-leaved. lanceolàta, lance-leaved. MÁNIHOT 243. 17 cannabìna, cassada root. MESEMBRÝANTHEMUM 263. 271. 18 sp. sp. MÝRTUS 108. Myrtle. 12 commùnis, common múltiplex, double. leucocàrpa, white-fruited. itálica variegàta, variegated. maculàta, blotch-leaved. tomentòsa, downy. tenuifòlia, slender-leaved. MIMÙLUS 143. Monkey-flower. lùteus, yellow. rivulàris, dark-spotted. moschàtus, musk-scented. MONÁRDA 143. dídyma, Oswego-tea. kalmiána, pubescent-flowered. Russeliàna, Russells'. punctàta, spotted. MATHÍOLA 144. Stock-gilly. simplicicáulis, Brompton-stock. _var._ _var._ incàna, queen-stock. _var._ var._ ánnua, annual. _var._ _var._ glàbra, wall-leaved. MAMILLÀRIA 224. 18 coccínea, scarlet-flowered. símplex, small-red-spined. pusílla, starry. cònica, cone-headed. MELOCÁCTUS 225. 18 commùnis, Turk's-cape. macránthus, large-spined. pyramidàlis, pyramidale. MELÀSTOMA 245, 1 Malabáthrica, Malabar. sanguìnea, bloody. decémfida, ten-cleft. pulverulénta, powdered. áspera, rough. nepalénsis, Nepaul. MALPÍGHIA 246. Barbadoes-cherry. 17 ùrens, stinging, aquifòlium, holly-leaved. fucáta, painted. glábra, smooth. MÁRICA 246. 12 _cærùlea_, _blue_. Sabìni, Sabin's. northiána, spotted. MÙSA, 247, Plantain-tree. 15 paradisìaca, common. sapiéntum, banana-tree. rosàcea, rose-coloured. coccínea, scarlet-coloured. chinénsis, Chinese. MANGÍFERA 245, Mango-tree. 11 índica, common. oppositifòlia? opposite-leaved. NANDÌNA 108, Nandin. 1 doméstica, common. NINTÒOA. longiflòra, long-flowered. _Lonicéra-japónica_. NÉRIUM 108, Oleander. 12 oleánder, common. " spléndens, double-rose. " elegantìssimum, variegated. " álba, white. " " pleno? double-white. [OE]NOTHÈRA 144, Evening-primrose. macrocárpa, broad-leaved. média, intermediate. latiflòra, broad-flowered. Frazèri, Frazer's. speciòsa, handsome. pállida, pale. odoràta, sweet-scented. ÒLEA 109, Olive-tree. 11 europæa, common. " longifòlia, long-leaved. " latifòlia, broad-leaved. capènsis, Cape. verrucòsa, warted. fràgrans, scented. paniculàta, panicled. OXYLÒBIUM 110. obtusifòlium, blunt-leaved. retùsum, retuse-leaved. ellípticum, elliptic-leaved. ÓXALIS. 11 rubèlla, red. marginàta, margined. elongàta, striped-flowered. am'æna, neat. OSS'ÆA 246. 1 purpuráscens, purple. _Melàstoma-purpùrea_. ORNITHÓGALUM 292. Star-of-Bethlehem. 11 lactéum, white. aùreum, golden. marítimum, squill. OPÚNTIA 227. 18 cochinillìfera, cochineal-fig. fìcus-índica, Indian-fig. PELARGÒNIUM 110, 273, Stork's-bill. _Gerànium_. 12 álbum. macrànthum. grandiflòrum. Navarino. Longstrethium. Jacksonium. Lucretia. Leopold. Lafayette. triumphans. Jeffersoniaum. Franklinium. Queen-Adelaide. Simsium. obovatum. Pepperium. Philadelphicum. foliosum. Dutchess-of-Gloucester. verecundum. Lady Clifford. Delaware. marianum. urbanum. dissimilum. Royal-George. Washington. Scotiaum. banburyensis. florabundum. 19 pavoninum. Waterloo. ignescens. Lord-Yarborough. decorum. Sherwoodium. doubreyanum. Effi-Deans. Lord-Byron. Glorianum. Chandler's-grand-purple. Princess-Augusta, _new_. Lord-Brougham. Websterium. ardescens. Russellianum. succulentum. Rob-Roy. Davyanam. [The above begin with the lightest, and end with the darkest colours] _The following are various fancy sorts_. Lemon-scented. apple-scented. rose-scented. peppermint-scented. oak-leaved. ardens. bicolor. tristum. pulchellum. nutmeg-scented. PHÓRMIUM 112, New-Zealand. 7 tenàx, flax. PHÝLICA 113. 5 horizontàlis, spreading. _plumòsa_. squarròsa, squarrose. imbricàta, imbricated. myrtifòlia, myrtle-leaved. callòsa, callous-leaved. bícolor, two-coloured. ericoídes, heath-like. PIMÈLEA 113. 5 decussàta, cross-leaved. ròsea, rose-coloured. linifòlia, flax-leaved. spicàta, spike-flowered. drupàcea, berry-bearing. PITTOSPÓRUM 113. 13 tobìra, Chinese. undulàta, wave-leaved. coriàceum, leather-leaved. revolùtum, revolute. fúlvum, yellow. ferrugíneum, rusty. PHR'YNIUM 36. PACHIDÉNDRON 259. PÌNUS 210. Canadénsis, hemlock-spruce. PERIPLÓCA 198. Silk-vine. gr'æca, Virginian. PHÆNÀCOMA 88. 5 prolífera, many-headed. PHOTÍNIA 84. 10 serrulàta, serrulate. arbutifòlia, arbutus-leaved. PÉRSEA 244. Alligator-pear. 11 gratíssima, common. _Laúrus-pérsea_. PUNÍCA 172, Pomegranate. PULSATÍLLA 134, Pasque-flower. vernàlis, spring. PERÍSKIA 228, Barbadoes-gooseberry. 18 aculeàta, prickly. PÝRUS 320. japònica, red. " álba, white. PÓÆNIA 321, 315, 151. èdulis-whitlìjii, white. " fràgrans, scented. " hùmea, crimson. chinènsis-álba, double-white? paradòxa-fimbriàta, fringed. officinàlis-rúbra, common. 15 moután, tree. " bànksii, common. " papaverácea, white. " rosèa, rose-coloured. POTENTÍLLA 147. nepalénsis, Nepaul. _formòsa_. atropurpùrea, dark-purple. Russelliàna, Russell's. Hopwoodiàna, Hopwood's. spléndens, splendid. PLATYLÒBIUM 113, Flat-pea. 5 formòsum, handsome. ovàtum, ovate-leaved. triangulàre, triangular-stock. PISTÀCIA 113. 2 terebínthus, turpentine-tree. lentíscus, mastic-tree. vèra, true. reticulàta, netted-leaved. PLUMBÀGO 114, Lead-wort. trístis, red-leaved. Capénsis, Cape. PSORÀLEA 114. 6 odoratíssima, sweet-scented. spicàta, spike-flowered. aculeàta, prickly. argéntea, silvery. tomentòsa, downy. PODALÝRIA 114. serícea, silky. styracifòlia, storax-leaved. corúscans, glittering. argéntea, silvery. laparioídes, liparia-like. subiflòra, netted-leaved. PERSOÓNIA 114. 6 hirsùta, hairy-leaved. móllis, soft-leaved. teretifòlia, round-leaved. lùcida, shining-leaved. PRÓTEA 115. 9 cynaroídes, artichoke-flowered. speciòsa, splendid. " rùbra, red. umbonàlis, embossed. _longifòlia_. melaleùca, black-fringed. grandiflòra, large-flowered. coccínea, scarlet-flowered. cenocárpa. pállens. formòsa, handsome. magnífica, magnificent. mellífera, honey-bearing, PULTEN'ÆA 115. 5 villòsa, villous. obcordàta, heart-leaved. argéntea, silvery-leaved. plumòsa, feathered. fléxilis, fragrant. cándida, white-leaved. strìcta, erect-growing. PHLÓX 145. paniculàta, panicled. acuminàta, cross-leaved. intermèdia, intermediate. odoràta, odoriferous. pyramidàlis, pyramid-flowered. " álba, white. suavèolens, sweet-scented. refléxa, reflex-leaved. stolonífera, creeping. pilòsa, hairy. divaricáta, early-flowering. nivàlis, snowy-white. subulàta, awl-leaved. PRÍMULA 146, 314, Primrose. vulgàris, English-primrose. elàtior, ox-lip. _var._ _var._ polyanthus. aurícula, auricula. _var._ _var._ cortusoídes, cortuso-like. dentiflòra, jagged-flowered. suavèolens, sweet-scented. decòra, pretty. scótica, Scotch. farinòsa, bird's-eye. vèris, cowslip. 2 sinènsis, China. " alba, white. dentiflòra, ragged. PANCRÀTIUM 248. 11 maritímum, sea-daffodil. verecúndum, narcissus-leavad. littoràlis, sea-side. speciòsum, showy. carib'æum, Caribbean. POLYSPÒRA 248. axillàris, axil-flowered. _Caméllia axillàris_. PASSIFLÒRA 248, Passion-flower. 13 alàta, winged-stalked. racemòsa, racemose. cærulea " blue quadrangulàris, square-stalked. filamentòsa, thready. picturàta, pictured. PANDÀNUS 249, Screw-Pine. 13 odoratíssimus, scented. utilis? red-spined. PTEROSPÉRMUM 250. 13 suberifòlium, various-leaved. semisagittàtum, half-sagittate. PLUMÉRIA 250. 11 acuminàta, acuminate. trícolor, three-coloured. rùbra, red-coloured. PH'[OE]NIX 250, Date-Palm. 12 dactylìfera, common. paludòsa, marsh. RÉSEDA 297, Mignonette. 11 odoràta, scented. RÒCHEA 231. 18 falcàta. sickle-leaved. _Crussùla fulcáta_. RHÚS 45. ROBÍNIA 45. ROSCÒEA 251. purpùrea, purple. spicàta, spike-flowered. capitàta, crown-flowered. RUÉLLIA 251. 10 formòsa, handsome. fulgída, shining. anisophýlla, unequal-leaved. _persicifòlia_. persicifòlia. peach-leaved. RHÁPIS 251. 11 flabellifòrmis, creeping-rooted. RHODODÉNDRON 115, Rose-tree. 16 arbòreum, tree. " álbum, white-flowered. " supérbum, superb. " purpùreum, purple-flowered. " álte-clárance, large. campanulàtum, bell-flowered. anthopògon, bearded-flowered. cinnamòmeum, cinnamon-coloured. ROÉLLA 116. 5 cilliáta, cilliate. spícàta, spiked-flowered. pedunculàta, peduncled. RIPHIODÉNDRON 260. RÙBUS 325. 3 rosæfòlius, Bramble-rose, RÒSA 172, China-Rose, 12 índica. " mínor. animated. Bengal elongata. Belle-Chinese. La-tendere-japonica. belle-vibert. odorata, tea-scented. " alba, white-tea. Florence, scarlet-tea. Bengal, yellow-tea. Venella. Belle-de-monza. amaranthe. Clintonia. semperflòrens-plèno. Otaheite. sanguinea-purpurea. Grandvil. Indica-alba, white-China. magnifier. Florabunda-multiplex. Flamæa. Hibbertia. Jacksonia. Adamsonia. Websteria. gigantea. Washington. calyxifòlia. Montezuma. Hortensia. ROSA 156, common Moss, Garden-rose. blush " crimson " white " scarlet " Clinton " Damask " mottled " sweet-briar " de-Meaux " Lee's-crimson-perpetual. unique, or white-Provence. tricolor. spinosíssima, Scotch. gàllica, officinale. centifòlia, Provins. Damacène, damask. álba, white. rubiginósa, sweet-briar. white-monthly, red " striped " Black-Tuscany. Sponge's-provins. favourite-mignone. champion. fair-maid. rouge-superb. red-and-violet. Pomonia. black-fringe. royal-provins. royal-virgin. royal-bouquet. Great-Mogul. striped-nosegay. paragon. ornament-de-parade. York-and-Lancaster. mundii. Flanders. delicious. ROSA 189, Climbing. Champneyàna, pink-cluster. blush-noisettia. red-noisettia, scarlet-cluster. white-cluster or musk. superb " " aralie-noisettia. " purple. Bourbon. Boursault. Lisle. microphýlla. Franklin, cluster-tea. Banksiæ, white. " yellow. multiflòra, " white. " scarlet. " purple. Grevíllii, many-coloured. arvensis multiplex. sempervírens pléno. bracteàta plèno, Macartney. SÀGUS 252, Sago-Palm. 11 vinìfera, prickly-leaved. Rumphii, Rumphius'. SOLÁNDRA 252. 7 grandiflòra, large-flowered. viridiflòra, green-flowered. STROPHÁNTHUS. divérgens, spreading. dichótomus, forked. SWIETÉNIA 253, Mahogany-tree. 15 mahógoni, common. febrifùga, febrifuge. SÁLVIA 117. 12 spléndens, splendid. cærúlea, blue-flowered. coccínea, scarlet-flowered. aùrea, yellow-leaved. paniculàta, panicle-flowered. índica, Indian. élegans, elegant. SENÈCIO 117. ground-sel. 12 grandiflòrus, large-flowered. venústus, wing-leaved. cineràscens, gray. élegans plèno, elegant. SCHÓTIA 118. 1 speciòsa, spacious. aláta, wing-leaved. latifòlia, broad-leaved. _Omphalòbium schótia_. tamarindifòlia, Tamirand-leaved. SWAISÒNA 118. 1 galegifòlia, red-flowered. coronillæfòlia, purple-flowered. astragalifòlia, white-flowered. SCÒTTIA 118. 6 dentáta, toothed. angustifòlia, narrow-leaved. trapezifòrmus, trapeziforum. SPARRMÁNNIA 119. 12 africàna, African. SPHÆROLÒBIUM. 6 vimíneum, yellow-flowered. médium, red-flowered. SPRENGÉLIA 119. 6 incarnáta, flesh-coloured. STYLIDÍUM 120. 6 graminifòlium, grass-leaved. fruticòsum, shrubby. laricifòlium, larch-leaved. adnátum, adnate. STYPHÌLIA 120. 6 tubiflòra, tube-flowered. triflòra, three-flowered. adscéndens, ascending. longifòlia, long-flowered. SALPIGLÓSSIS 120. 13 pícta, painted. atropurpùrea, dark-purple. sinuáta, crimson. STRELÍTZIA 263. 19 regìnæ, Queen. ováta, oval-leaved. hùmilis, dwarf. agústa, large-leaved. jùncea, rush-leaved. parvifòlia, small-leaved. farinòsa, mealy-stalked. SPARÁXIS 304. grandiflòra striáta, striped. versícolor, various. anemonæflòra, anemone-flowered. STERNBÉRGIA 274. 11 lútea, yellow. _Amarýllis lútea_. SPREIKÈLIA 207. 11 formosíssima, Jacobea-lily. _Amarýllis formosíssima_. SAPONÀRIA 147, Soap-wort. officinális plèno, double. cæspitòsa, tufted. SILÈNE 147, Catch-fly. viscósa, clammy. " plèna, double. SAXÍFRAGA 147, Saxifrage. hirsùta, hairy. crassifòlia, thick-leaved. granolata multiplex, double. umbròsa, London-pride. sarmentòsa, sarmentose. pulchélla, pretty. pyramidális, pyramidal. SPIR'ÆA 148, ulmária multiplex, double meadowsweet. filipéndula " drop-wort. lobàta lobe-leaved. STÁTICE 148. Thrift. vulgáris, common. _Armèria vulgáris_. speciòsa, showy. latifòlia, broad-leaved. maritìma, sea-side. TAGÈTES 120. 11 lúcida, sweet-scented. TESTUDINÀRIA 221, Hottentot's bread. elephántipes, Elephant's-foot. montàna, mountain. TÁXUS 121. Yew. 14 nucífera, nut-bearing. TELOPÈA 121. 19 speciosíssimus, showy. TEMPLETÒNIA 122. 6 retùsa, erect. gláuca, glaucous. TRISTÀNIA 122. 1 neriifòlia, oleander-leaved. confertá, crowded. suavèolens, scented. TECÒMA 253, 65. 10 móllis, soft. digitàta, digitated. splèndida, splendid. capènsis, cape. stáns, ash-leaved. _Bignònia stáns_. TABERNÆMONTÁNA 11 coronària plèno, double-white. _Nèrium coronàrium plèno_. densiflòra, dense-flowered. THRÌNAX 254. 11 parviflòra, small-flowered. TAXÁNTHEMA 149. tatàrica, Tartarean. _Státice tatàrica_. latifòlia, broad-leaved. conspícua, conspicuous. THOMÀSIA 101. 1 solanàcea, night-shade-leaved. quercifòlia, oak-leaved. TRITÒNIA 304. 11 crocàta, crocus-leaved. _Ixìa crocàta_. xanthosphìla, yellow-spotted. THUNBÉRGIA 251. 1 coccínea, scarlet. grandiflòra, large-flowered. fràgrans, scented. alàta, wing-leaved. TRÓLLIUS 149, Globe-flower. Europ'æus, European. Asiàticus, Asiatic. THÙJA 210. American arbor-vitæ. accidentalis, western. orientàlis, eastern. TIGRÍDIA 208. Tiger-flower. 11 pavònia, peacock. conchiiflòra, yellow-spotted. TETRAMÈRIUM 228. 17 odoratíssimum, scented. _Coffèa occidentàlis_. VERBÉNA 122, Vervain. chamædryfòlia, scarlet. _melíndres_. Lambértii, Lambert's. pulchélla, pretty. VIBÚRNUM 123, 306, 45. 17 tìnus, laurestinus. lùcidum, shining. odoratíssimum, scented. hirsútum, hairy. strìctum, erect. variegàtum, variegated. VEMINÀRIA 124. 6 denudàta, half-naked. VIRGÍLIA 124. capènsis, cape. VOLKAMÈRIA 124. VERÓNICA 149. Speed-well. officinàlis, officinal. cham'ædrys, Germander. mèdia, long-spiked. incàna, hoary. élegans, elegant. spícàta, spiked. grándis, large white. incarnàta, flesh-coloured. cárnea, pale red. leucántha, white-flowered. bellidioídes, daisy-leaved. vérna, vernal. am'[oe]na, fine-blue. pulchélla, neat. VALERÌANA 149. dioíca, dioicious. VÌOLA 150. Violet. odoràta, sweet-scented. " plèno álba, double-white. " " purpùrea, " purple. WITSÈNIA 125. 8 corymbòsa, corymbose. WESTRÍNGIA 125. 1 rosmarinifórmis, rosemary-leaved. longifòlia, long-leaved. WACHENDÓRFIA 24. WHALÉNBERGIA 136. 7 grandiflòra, large-flowered. _Campánula grandiflòra_. WATSÒNIA 304. 11 iridifòlia, iris-leaved. ròsea, rose-coloured. hùmilis, dwarf. fúlgida, scarlet. _Antholýza fúlgens_. rúbens, red-spotted. WISTÈRIA 197. frutéscens, shrubby. _Glýcine frutéscens_. chinéusis, Chinese. _Glýcine chinénsis_. YÚCCA 150. Adam's-needle. supérba, superb. _Gloriòsa_. aloifòlia, aloe-leaved. angustifòlia, narrow-leaved. acuminàta, tapering-flowered. serrulàta, saw-leaved. filamentòsa, thready. ZÀMIA 125, 254. 11 hórrida, horrid. púngens, pungent. spíralis, spiral. latifòlia, broad-leaved. média, intermediate. furfuràcea, chaffy. ténuis, slender. integrifòlia, entire-leaved. =Zíngiber= 36. Ginger. INDEX. Airing the green-house, 20. 38. 172. hot-house, 33. Annuals, of sowing tender, 53. Awning for hyacinths, 202. for carnations, 277. for plants, 256. Box edgings, directions for planting, 139. Bulbs, of protecting, 25. preserving of Cape, 175. method of planting Dutch 318. care of tender 328. Bulbous roots, of uncovering, 152. protecting, 152. Cistern, of a, 12. 273. Cold, in the green-house, effects of, 21. Cleanliness, good and bad effects of, 38. Clipping shrubs, observations on, 44. Carnation, qualities of a fine, 275. and pink layers, care of, 307. Camellias, period of selecting, 316. Coverings, oil-cloth, 342. Damp, in the green-house, effects of, 20. 22. Dahlias, forwarding in a hot-bed, 181. Daisies, primroses, &c. method of protecting, 321. Engine for the green-house, best kind of, 19. Enarching, method of, 127. Edgings, fancy, 162. method of dressing box, 211. Fires, how to regulate the, 21. 33. Fumigating, method of, 13. Frames, of protecting, 26. Glass, effects of broken, 43. of double, 338. Grass-seeds, most approved, 161. walks, of laying down, ib. Grafting, whip or tongue, 163. Green-house, temperature of the, 340. how to regulate the, ib. Geraniums, how to prune or dress, 286. Hedges, how to keep evergreen, 211. Herbaceous plants, how to treat, 325. criterion for planting, 151. Hotbeds, of making, 52. 178. Hyacinth, properties of a good, 202. Hyacinths, of plunging new potted, 305. Insects, their destruction, 12. 30. 35. 56. effects of light on, 17. Inoculation, method of, 47. Liquid for orange and lemon trees, 39. to destroy the cocus insect, 15. Lime trees, situation in the green-house of, 312. Leaves, bad effects of, 332. Mildew on Camellias, &c., how to destroy, 22, 23. 173. Manure, fermentation of, 52. Orange and Lemon trees, when to transplant, 287. how to prune, 289. Plants, criterion for repotting, 126. of training climbing green-house, 176. in summer the best situation for, 256. Pots, method of draining flower, 126. Pruning, good or bad effects of, 27. various shrubs, manner of, 45. China roses, manner of, 189. climbing ever-blooming roses, method of, 191. roses, 195. Planting, bad effects in, 334, state of the soil when, 48. Pink, qualities of a fine, 276. Perennials, description of fine, 133. Parlours, treatment of plants in, 28. 54. 343. Repotting plants, 17. 35. 41. 57. 61. 169. Roses, how to retard the blooming of, 155. finest sorts of, 156. varieties of, ib. of fancy planting, 157. of mulching, 158. in June, reasons for pruning, 279. nature of the soil for, 323. early, how to have, 344. Shutters, benefit of, 10. how to make, 337. Slugs, detect, 25. how to destroy, 267. Stocks, of procuring seed from flowering, 176. Shrubs, of uncovering 129. pleasure and effect of, 48. Shrubs, manner of planting, 50. of supporting, 51. of packing, 51. Snow on the houses, bad effects of, 34. Syringes, best kind of, 19. Syringing, good effects of, 14. 19. 37. 39. 171. Tieing up plants, method of, 19. Tubs for trees, perforated, 59. best kind of, 288. Trees, of heading down, 59. of watering and arranging large, 259. Tanners' bark, nature of, 332. Tan-bed, plunge the plants in the, 339. Tobacco for destroying insects, decoction of, 60. Turf, of laying, 160. Trellises, of, 196. Tulip, properties of a fine, 203. Watering, good or bad effects of, 11. 21. 29. 34. 56. 58. Water on hot-house plants, effects of cold, 12. Watering-pot, best kind of, 11. Wounds on trees, composition for covering, 172. White-washing the glass with whiting, of, 173. Walks with turf, of laying, 209. Wall-flowers, how to propagate, 268. " and stocks, time of lifting, 307. LIST OF HARDY SHRUBS. _Those marked thus [*], require protection in winter, and those marked thus [+], shade in summer._ AMÓRPHA, Bastard-indigo. fruticòsa, shrubby. AMÝGDALUS, Almond. nàna, dwarf. púmila, double-flowering. aérsica, peach-leaved. ANDRÓMEDA. all the species. AZÀLEA, American honeysuckle. all the hardy species. AUCÚBA, Gold-tree. [+]japònica, Japan. BÚXUS, Box-tree. two species. CALYCÀNTHUS, Sweet-scented shrub. flòridus, purple-flowered. _var._ _var._ CASTÍNEA, Chesnut-tree. púmila, dwarf. CÉRCIS, Judas-tree. canadènsis. CHIONÁNTHUS. Fringe-tree. virgìnica, common. CLÉTHRA. all the hardy species. CÓRNUS, Dogwood. flórida, large-flowered. sangùinea, bloody. DÁPHNE. mezerium, red. _var._ _var._ red, white, and purple. GORDÒNIA, Franklinia. pubèscens, downy. HIBÌSCUS, Althæa. syrìacus, Althæa frutax. _var._ _var._ HYDRÀNGEA. all the varieties. [+][*]hortensis, garden. ÌLEX, Holly. _var._ _var._ JASMÌNUM, Jasmine, fruticàns, shrubby. officinàle, climbing white. JUNIPÈRUS, Juniper. suècica, Swedish. virgìnicus, Virginian. KÁLMIA, American Laurel. gláuca, glaucous. latifòlia, broad-leaved. LAÙRUS, Laurel. [*]nòbilis, sweet-bay. _var._ _var._ LAVENDÙLA, Lavender. spíca, spike-flowered. MAGNÒLIA. purpùrea, purple. Róbus, slender. _grácilis_. grandiflòra, large-flowered. _var._ _var._ thomsoniàna, hybrid. conspícua, zoulan. soulangeàna, hybrid. PHILADÈLPHUS, mock-orange. grandiflòra, large-flowered. màna, dwarf. variegàtus, variegated. PÌNUS, Pine or Fir-tree. balsàmea, balm of Gilead. PINCKNÉYA, Georgia bark-tree. púbens, downy. PRÚNUS, Cherry. [*]lusitánica, Portugal-laurel. [*]laurocérasus, English-laurel. RHODODÉNDRON, Rose-bay. catawhiénse, Catawba. daùricum, daurian. _var._ _var._ pónticum, pink. _var._ _var._ máximum. common. RHÙS, Sumach. cotìnus, mist-tree. RÍBES. aureum, fragrant. sanguìneum, bloody. ROBÌNIA, Locust-tree. hìspida, rose-acacia. SÓRBUS. hýbrida, mountain-ash--a beautiful shrub. SPIR`ÆA. tomentòsa, tomentose. bélla. red flowered. frútex. shawy. SYMPHÒRA, Snow-berry. racemòsa, white-berried. glomeràta. red-berried. SYRÌNGA, Lilac. all the species. TÁXUS, Yew. baccàta. hibérnica, a handsome, erect growing evergreen. THÚJA. arbor-vitæ. occidentàlis, American. orientàlis, Chinese. TÍLLIA, Lime or Linden-tree. parvifòlia, small-leaved. coccínea, scarlet. VIBÙRNUM. opùlus, guelder-rose. _var._ _var_. LIST OF ANNUALS THAT MAY BE SOWN ON A HOT-BED. AMARÁNTHUS, Amaranth. tricólor, three-coloured. hypochondrìacus, Prince's-Feather. caudàtus, love-lies-bleeding. globbòsus, globe. _var._ _var._ BALSAMÌNA, Ladies-slipper. horténsis, garden. _var._ _var._ BROWÁLLIA. elàta, blue. _var._ white. CÁNNA, Indian-shot. índica, Indian. CELÒSIA. cristàta, cockscomb. _var._ _var._ IPOM`ÆA, Cypress-vine. _var._ _var._ MIMÒSA. sensitìva, sensitive-plant. STRAMÒNIUM. purpúrea pleno double-blue. alba " " white. SCHIZÁNTHUS. pinnàtus and porrígens. ÁSTER. chinènsis, Queen Margaret's. _var._ _var._ CALENDÙLA, Mary-gold. " African, French. " dwarf and sweet-scented XERÁNTHEMUM of sorts. STOCKS, 10 week varieties. HARDY ANNUALS. ALYSSUM, white or sweet. ANTÍRHÌNUM latifòlia. medíum. speciòsum. versicolor. ARGERATUM mexicanum. odoratum. ARGEMONE, of sorts. ASTER, Chinese, of varieties. AMARANTHUS, do. do. BALSAM, do. do. CACCÀLIA Coccinea. CENTÁUREA Americàna. CALCEOLARIA of sorts. CLÁSKIA, pulchélla. CELOSIA of sorts. CALENDÙLA Mary-Gold, of sorts. CANDYTUFT, of var. CONVÓLVULUS, of var. COREOPSIS, of var. GYPSOPHÌLA elegans. HOLLYHOCK, Chinese, of var. HAWKWEED, of var. IPOMÈA, do. LARKSPUR, dwarf-rocket. LARKSPUR, branching. Neapolitan. LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. LUPINS, of sorts. MARVEL of Peru. MIGNONETTE, sweet. MARYGOLD, of sorts. NASTURTIUM, dwarf. NIGELLA, of var. [OE]NOTHERA, do. do. PINK Indian. PEAS, sweet, of sorts. PERSICÀRIA, red and white. POPPY, double var. PRINCESS FEATHER. SNAP-DRAGON. STOCK, Prussian, in var. SUN-FLOWER, of var. SULTAN, sweet. SILENE, of sorts. VENUS' LOOKING-GLASS. Navel-Wort. XERANTHEHUM, of var. ZINNIA, elegans. of sorts. [We have not been minute in the list of annuals, as they are generally known, and a judicious selection adapted to this country may be found in the catalogue of D. & C. Landreth, Philadelphia, or that of Smith & Hogg, New York.] HARDY BIENNIALS. CAMPANULA spicàta. medium Canterbury-bells. álbida, white. DELPHÍNIUM píctum. DIAITÀLIS, Fox Glove. purpùrea. álba. HONESTY, or Lunaria. HONEYSUCKLE, French. HORNED POPPY. HÚMEA, élegans. MÁLVA ARBÒREA. MIMULUS, of var. [OE]NOTHÈRA, Evening Primrose. elata, tall. suavèolens, sweet-scented. spectábilis, showy. biénnis, common. var. var. longiflòra. long-flower. corymbòsa, corymbose. SILÈNE, Catch-fly. multiflòra, many-flowered. viscòsa, clammy. divaricàta, avaricate. WALL-FLOWER, bloody. " white. " yellow. TABLE OF SOILS. The following compound of soils are adapted to the nature of the Plants contained in this Work. The figures attached to the first species of each Genus refer to the Table of Soils, where the compost is in parts; and where any figures occur in the same Genus, the species following are of the same nature. NUMBER. | Savanna. Loam. Leaf. Sand. Manure. 1 | 2 - 1 - - - - - - 2 | - - 3 - 2 - - - - 3 | - - 4 - - - 1 - 1 4 | - - 2 - 1 - - - - 5 | all - - - - - - - - 6 | 3 - 1 - - - - - - 7 | - - 3 - 1 - 1 - - 8 | 4 - 1 - - - - - - 9 | - - 2 - 2 - 1 - - 10 | 1 - 1 - 1 - - - - 11 | - - 3 - 2 - 1 - - 12 | - - 3 - 1 - 1 - 1 13 | 2 - 2 - 1 - - - 1 14 | - - 4 - - - 1 - - 15 | - - 4 - 2 - 1 - - 16 | 4 - - - 1 - - - - 17 | - - 5 - 1 - 1 - 1 18 | - - 1 - 1 - 1 - - 19 | 1 - 1 - - - - - - REMARKS ON THE NATURE OF SOILS USED IN THE ABOVE TABLE. _Savanna soil_--is of a dark colour, with a large portion of white sand incorporated with it, and is found frequently in New Jersey. A mixture of two-thirds black earth from the woods, and one-third of pure white sand, will be similar to it, and may be used as a substitute, but is not exactly of the same nature. _Loam_--is of a light brown colour, and is that from old pastures or commons, which should lie one year, and be frequently turned before using. It ought not to be from a clay bottom. _Leaf mould_--is that which is to be found on the surface of the ground in woods, and is the decomposed leaves. It may be termed nearly of first rate importance in vegetation. _Sand_--is a substance that is generally known, and that which is found on the surface is decidedly the best. If it is from a pit, it must be spread out, and frequently turned, that it may assimilate with the atmosphere before using;--four months will be sufficient. _Manure_--before using, must be decomposed to very fine particles. It will require two years, during which time it must be often turned, and the longer it lays it will be the finer and more congenial. =HIBBERT AND BUIST=, =EXOTIC NURSERYMEN AND FLORISTS=, Respectfully inform their friends and the public generally, that in addition to the Garden in Thirteenth-street, they have purchased the Nursery Grounds, Green-Houses, &c., established by the late B. M'Mahon, Esq., on the township line, near the Germantown road, about three miles from the city, where the propagation and cultivation of Ornamental Trees, Shrubs, Plants, and Flowers, will hereafter be extensively carried on, and improved in accordance to the increasing demand. The Thirteenth-street Garden will be appropriated as a repository for the sale of plants and the receiving of orders. A splendid collection of Camellia Japonica, containing the most approved and distinct varieties; also a very large selection of the most esteemed and beautiful Roses. Their Dahlias were selected by R. Buist, last year, from the finest collection in England, together with many Ornamental and other Plants not surpassed for extent in the Union. Orders at either of the establishments, or per post, will be duly received and punctually attended to. Transcriber notes: All original typographical errors and inconsistencies other than the ones listed below are preserved in this version. Various spellings of Alstr[oe]meria have been made consistent. [OE]: in this version, is used to represent the oe ligature. [)a]: in this version, is used to represent letter a with breve. Page vi: replaced "apppreciation' with "appreciation" Page ix: replaced " and transplanting, 302" with " and transplanting, 320" Page 16-17: removed "The ance." Page 56: replaced "frequentl ycauses" with "frequently causes" Page 63: Italicized "A. f[oe]tida" for consistency. Page 96: replaced comma with period in "much water," Page 109: replaced "sbrubs" with "shrubs" Page 144: replaced "beatiful" with "beautiful" Page 160: replaced "firt" with "first" Page 163: replaced "it it" with "it is" Page 187: Replaced second "No. 27." to "No. 29." to fix sequence Page 224: replaced "end of the month," with "end of the month." Page 227: replaced "phyllnthoídes" with "phyllanthoídes" Page 280: replaced "seeif" with "see if" Page 282: Replaced "intances" with "instances" Page 304: Replaced "observatign" with "observation" 
45599	----	unkown source Note: Project Gutenberg also has an HTML version of this file which includes the original illustrations. See 45599-h.htm or 45599-h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45599/45599-h/45599-h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/45599/45599-h.zip) Transcriber's note: Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). A WOMAN'S HARDY GARDEN * * * * * * [Illustration: Printer's Mark.] THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LIMITED TORONTO * * * * * * [Illustration: Rose Arch and Garden Walk. From a water-color sketch by George B. Bartholomew.] A WOMAN'S HARDY GARDEN by HELENA RUTHERFURD ELY With Illustrations from Photographs Taken in the Author's Garden by Professor C. F. Chandler New York The Macmillan Company London: Macmillan & Co., Ltd. 1930 Copyright, 1903, By the Macmillan Company. All rights reserved--no part of this book may be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publisher. Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1903. Printed in the United States of America by Berwick & Smith Co. Dedication TO THE BEST FRIEND OF MY GARDEN, WHO, WITH HEART AND HANDS, HAS HELPED TO MAKE IT WHAT IT IS PREFACE This little book is only meant to tell briefly of a few shrubs, hardy perennials, biennials and annuals of simple culture. I send it forth, hoping that my readers may find within its pages some help to plant and make their gardens grow. MEADOWBURN FARM October, 1902 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I. Introduction 2 II. Hardy Gardening and Preparation of the Soil 9 III. Laying Out a Garden and Borders Around a House 19 IV. How to Plant a Small Plot 35 V. The Seed-bed 57 VI. Planting 65 VII. Annuals 75 VIII. Perennials 93 IX. Biennials and a Few Bedding-out Plants 117 X. Roses 125 XI. Lilies 139 XII. Spring-flowering Bulbs 149 XIII. Shrubs 159 XIV. Water, Walks, Lawns, Box-Edgings, Sun-dial and Pergola 171 XV. Insecticides. Tool-room 189 XVI. Conclusion 203 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Rose arch and garden walk _Frontispiece_ From a water-color sketch made by George D. Bartholomew Garden gate, with Japanese gourds 1 September twenty-ninth Broad grass walk 5 August twenty-fifth A shady garden walk 12 May thirty-first Asters blooming in a border 16 September fifteenth A clump of Valerian 19 June sixth _Rhododendron maximum_ and Ferns along north side of house, with _Ampelopsis Veitchii_ 23 July fourth Arch over Rose-walk covered with Golden Honeysuckle and _Clematis paniculata_ 26 September fifteenth _Rhododendron maximum_ under a cherry tree 30 July fourth Vase of Delphinium (Perennial Larkspur) 33 June twenty-first Vase of Peonies 39 June sixth _Lilium speciosum rubrum_ 42 September fifteenth Vase of Altheas 48 September sixteenth Planting on the edge of lawn 51 August second Asters in rows for picking 55 August twenty-fifth Foxgloves--seedlings ready for final transplanting 58 September twenty-ninth Long grass walk, with _Narcissus Poeticus_ blooming in the border 62 April twenty-sixth Long grass walk, with Peonies in the border 65 June sixth Long grass walk, with Foxgloves blossoming in the border 67 June thirteenth Long grass walk, with Hydrangeas; Rudbeckias in background 78 August twenty-fifth A single plant of Asters 80 September tenth Poppies growing in rows 83 July fourteenth A bowl of Cosmos 87 September twenty-ninth A mass of Phlox; Rudbeckias in the background 90 August second Hollyhocks in blossom 94 July twelfth A single plant of Delphinium (Perennial Larkspur) 97 June twenty-first Yuccas in blossom 103 July twelfth Bed of Peonies, on edge of lawn 106 June sixth A single plant of Phlox 112 August twenty-fifth Vase of Canterbury Bells 115 June twenty-first A single plant of Foxgloves, White Sweet William in front 119 June thirteenth Vase of Foxgloves 122 June fourteenth Summer-house covered with Clematis and Crimson Rambler Roses 126 June twenty-first Rose bed carpeted with Pansies 129 June twenty-first Canterbury Bells blooming in a border 133 June twenty-first _Lilium auratum_ growing behind Peonies and Columbines that bloomed earlier 140 August tenth Vase of _Lilium auratum_ 144 August second Vase of _Lilium speciosum album_ and _rubrum_ 147 September sixth Garden arch, covered with Japanese Gourds 151 August twenty-seventh Vase of Phlox; single blossoms actual size 154 August second _Spiræa Van Houttei_ 158 May thirty-first _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_ 161 August twenty-sixth Vase of _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_ 165 September tenth Vase of double Hardy Sunflowers (_Helianthus multiflorus plenus_) 172 September fifteenth Vase of Monkshood 176 September thirtieth Sun-dial in center of formal garden 179 August second The Pergola (first summer) 190 August twenty-fifth Tritoma (Red-Hot Poker Plant) 197 September twenty-eighth Bringing in the flowers 204 September sixth [Illustration: Garden gate, with Japanese gourds September twenty-ninth] INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Love of flowers and all things green and growing is with many men and women a passion so strong that it often seems to be a sort of primal instinct, coming down through generation after generation, from the first man who was put into a garden "to dress it and to keep it." People whose lives, and those of their parents before them, have been spent in dingy tenements, and whose only garden is a rickety soap-box high up on a fire-escape, share this love, which must have a plant to tend, with those whose gardens cover acres and whose plants have been gathered from all the countries of the world. How often in summer, when called to town, and when driving through the squalid streets to the ferries or riding on the elevated road, one sees these gardens of the poor. Sometimes they are only a Geranium or two, or the gay Petunia. Often a tall Sunflower, or a Tomato plant red with fruit. These efforts tell of the love for the growing things, and of the care that makes them live and blossom against all odds. One feels a thrill of sympathy with the owners of the plants, and wishes that some day their lot may be cast in happier places, where they too may have gardens to tend. [Illustration: Broad grass walk August twenty-fifth] It has always seemed to me that the punishment of the first gardener and his wife was the bitterest of all. To have lived always in a garden "where grew every tree pleasant to the sight and good for food," to have known no other place, and then to have been driven forth into the great world without hope of returning! Oh! Eve, had you not desired wisdom, your happy children might still be tilling the soil of that blessed Eden. The first woman longed for knowledge, as do her daughters of to-day. When the serpent said that eating of the forbidden fruit would make them "as gods," what wonder that Eve forgot the threatening command to leave untouched the Tree of Life, and, burning to be "wise," ate of the fateful apple and gave it to her Adam? And then, to leave the lovely place at the loveliest of all times in a garden, the cool of the day! Faint sunset hues tinting the sky, the night breeze gently stirring the trees, Lilies and Roses giving their sweetest perfume, brilliant Venus mounting her accustomed path, while the sleepy twitter of the birds alone breaks the silence. Then the voice of wrath, the Cherubim, the turning flaming sword! Through trials and tribulations and hardly learned patience, I have gained some of the secrets of many of our best hardy flowering plants and shrubs. Many friends have asked me to tell them when to plant or transplant, when to sow this or that seed, and how to prepare the beds and borders; in fact, this has occurred so often that it has long been in my mind to write down what I know of hardy gardening, that other women might be helped to avoid the experiments and mistakes I have made, which only served to cause delay. But just this "please write it down," while sounding so easy and presenting to the mind such a fascinating picture of a well-printed, well-illustrated and prettily bound book on the garden, is quite a different matter to one who has never written. When you diffidently try to explain the chaos in your brain, family and friends say, "Oh! never mind; just begin." That often-quoted "_premier pas_!" To-day is the first snow-storm of the winter, and, while sitting by the fireside, my thoughts are so upon my garden, wondering if this or that will survive, and whether the plants remember me, that it seems as though to-day I could try that first dreaded step. Living all my life, six months and sometimes more of each year, in the country,--real country on a large farm,--I have from childhood been more than ordinarily interested in gardening. Surrounded from babyhood with horses and dogs, my time as a little girl was spent out of doors, and whenever I could escape from a patient governess, whose eyes early became sad because of the difficulties of her task, I was either riding a black pony of wicked temper, or was to be found in a lovely garden with tall Arborvitæ hedges and Box-edged walks, in the company of an old gardener, one of my very best friends, who for twenty years ruled master and mistress, as well as garden and graperies. Under this old gardener, I learned, even as a child, to bud Roses and fruit trees, and watched the transplanting of seedlings and making of slips; watched, too, the trimming of grape-vines, fruit trees and shrubs; so that while still very young I knew more than many an older person of practical garden work. Then, as I grew older, the interests of a gay girl, and, later, the claims of early married life and the care of two fat and fascinating babies, absorbed my time and thoughts to the exclusion of the garden. But as the babies grew into a big boy and girl, the garden came to the front again, and, for more than a dozen years now, it has been my joy,--joy in summer when watching the growth and bloom, and joy in winter when planning for the spring and summer's work. There is pleasure even in making lists, reading catalogues of plants and seeds, and wondering whether this year my flowers will be like the pictured ones, and always, in imagination, seeing how the sleeping plants will look when robed in fullest beauty. HARDY GARDENING AND THE PREPARATION OF THE SOIL CHAPTER II HARDY GARDENING AND THE PREPARATION OF THE SOIL It has not been all success. I have had to learn the soil and the location best suited to each plant; to know when each bloomed and which lived best together. Mine is a garden of bulbs, annuals, biennials and hardy perennials; in addition to which there are Cannas, Dahlias and Gladioli, whose roots can be stored, through the winter, in a cellar. All the rest of the garden goes gently to sleep in the autumn, is well covered up about Thanksgiving time, and slumbers quietly through the winter; until, with the first spring rains and sunny days, the plants seem fairly to bound into life again, and the never-ceasing miracle of nature is repeated before our wondering eyes. I have no glass on my place, not even a cold-frame or hot-bed. Everything is raised in the open ground, except the few bedding plants mentioned whose roots are stored through the winter. Therefore, mine can truly be called a hardy garden, and is the only one I know at all approaching it in size and quantity of flowers raised, where similar conditions exist. [Illustration: A shady garden walk May thirty-first] I have observed that, with few exceptions, the least success with hardy perennials is found in the gardens of those of my friends whose gardeners are supposed to be the best, because paid the most. These men will grow wonderful Roses, Orchids, Carnations, Grapes, etc., under glass, and will often have fine displays of Rhododendrons. But to most of them the perennial or biennial plant, the old friend blossoming in the same place year after year, is an object unworthy of cultivation. Their souls rejoice in the bedding-out plant, which must be yearly renewed, and which is beautiful for so short a time, dying with the early frost, I was astounded last summer on visiting several fine places, where the gardeners were considered masters of their art, to see the poor planting of perennials and annuals. I recall particularly two Italian gardens, perfectly laid out by landscape gardeners, but which amounted to nothing because the planting was insufficient,--here a Phlox, there a Lily, then a Rose, with perhaps a Larkspur or a Marigold, all rigidly set out in single plants far apart, with nothing in masses, and no colour effects. To attain success in growth, as well as in effect, plants must be so closely set that when they are developed no ground is to be seen. If so placed, their foliage shades the earth, and moisture is retained. In a border planted in this way, individual plants are far finer than those which, when grown, are six inches or a foot apart. First of all in gardening, comes the preparation of the soil. Give the plants the food they need and plenty of water, and the blessed sunlight will do the rest. It is wonderful what can be done with a small space, and how from April to November there can always be a mass of bloom. I knew of one woman's garden, in a small country town,--house and ground only covering a lot hardly fifty by one hundred feet,--where, with the help of a man to work for her one day in the week and perhaps for a week each spring and fall, she raises immense quantities of flowers, both perennials and annuals. For six months of the year she has always a dozen vases full in the house, and plenty to give away. More than half the time her little garden supplies flowers for the church, while others in the same village owning large places and employing several men "have really no flowers." I remember returning once from a two weeks' trip, to find that my entire crop of Asters had been destroyed by a beetle. It was a horrid black creature about an inch long, which appeared in swarms, devoured all the plants and then disappeared, touching nothing else. Such a thing had never before happened in my garden. One of the men had sprayed them with both slug-shot and kerosene emulsion to no effect,--and so no Asters. My friend with the little garden heard me bemoaning my loss, and the next day sent me, over the five intervening miles, a hamper--almost a small clothes-basket--full of the beautiful things. It quite took my breath away. I wondered how she could do it, and thought she must have given me every one she had. Yet, upon driving over in hot haste to pour out thanks and regrets, lo! there were Asters all a-blow in such quantities in her garden that it seemed as if none had been gathered. Except by the sea-coast, our dry summers, with burning sun and, in many places, frequent absence of dew, are terribly hard on a garden; but with deep, rich soil, and plenty of water and proper care, it will yield an almost tropical growth. Therefore, whenever a bed or border is to be made, make it right. Unless one is willing to take the trouble properly to prepare the ground, there is no use in expecting success in gardening. I have but one rule: stake out the bed, and then dig out the entire space two feet in depth. Often stones will be found requiring the strength and labor of several men, with crowbars and levers, to remove them; often there will be rocks that require blasting. Stones and earth being all removed, put a foot of well-rotted manure in the bottom; then fill up with alternate layers, about four inches each, of the top soil, taken out of the first foot dug up, and of manure. Fill the bed or border very full, as it will sink with the disintegration of the manure. Finish off the top with three inches of soil. Then it is ready for planting. If the natural soil is stiff or clayey, put it in a heap and mix with one-fourth sand, to lighten it, before returning to the bed. Thus prepared, it will retain moisture, and not pack and become hard. [Illustration: Asters blooming in a border September fifteenth] LAYING OUT A GARDEN AND BORDERS AROUND THE HOUSE [Illustration: A clump of Valerian June sixth] CHAPTER III LAYING OUT A GARDEN AND BORDERS AROUND THE HOUSE Perplexities assail a would-be gardener on every side, from the day it is decided to start a garden. The most attractive books on the subject are English; and yet, beyond the suggestions for planting, and the designs given in the illustrations, not much help is to be derived in this latitude from following their directions. In England the climate, which is without great extremes of heat and cold, and the frequent rains, with the soft moist atmosphere, not only enable the English gardener to accomplish what would be impossible for us, but permit him to grow certain flowers out of doors that here must be housed in the winter. Daffodils and Narcissi bloom in England, near the coast, at the end of February and early in March,--Lilies-of-the-Valley in March. Many Roses live out of doors that would perish here during our winters. Gardening operations are begun there much earlier than in this part, at least, of the United States, and many of the methods for culture differ from those employed here. In England there is excess of moisture; therefore, care in securing good drainage is essential, while here, except in low places near streams, special provision for drainage is rarely necessary. It is more important to have a deep, rich preparation of the soil, so that plants may not be dried out. A serious part of the gardener's work during the average summer consists in judicious watering of the garden. One writer will say that this or that plant should have sun, another that it does best in the shade. One advocates a rich soil, another a light sandy soil; so that after all, in gardening, as in all else in life, experience is the best teacher, either your own or that of others who have already been successful under similar conditions. A garden is almost sure to be gradually increased in size, and its capacity limited only by the grounds of the owner and his pocket-book. The possibilities and capabilities of a couple of acres are great, and will give the owner unlimited pleasure and occupation. Individuality is one of the most marked of American characteristics; hence, in making a place, whether it is big or little, the tastes and individuality of the owner will generally direct his efforts, and no hard and fast rules can be given. In starting a garden, the first question, of course, is where to plant. If you are a beginner in the art, and the place is new and large, go to a good landscape gardener and let him give advice and make you a plan. But don't follow it; at least not at once, nor all at one time. Live there for a while, until you yourself begin to feel what you want, and where you want it. See all the gardens and places you can, and then, when you know what you want, or think you do, start in. The relation of house to grounds must always be borne in mind, and simplicity in grounds should correspond with that of the house. A craze for Italian gardens is seizing upon people generally, regardless of the architecture of their houses. To my mind, an Italian garden, with its balustrades, terraces, fountains and statues, is as inappropriate for surrounding a colonial or an ordinary country house as would be a Louis XV drawing-room in a farm-house. [Illustration: _Rhododendron maximum_ and Ferns along north side of house, with _Ampelopsis Veitchii_ July fourth] What is beautiful in one place becomes incongruous and ridiculous in another. Not long ago, a woman making an afternoon visit asked me to show her the gardens. Daintily balancing herself upon slippers with the highest possible heels, clad in a costume appropriate only for a fête at Newport, she strolled about. She thought it all "quite lovely" and "really, very nice," but, at least ten times, while making the tour, wondered "Why in the world don't you have an Italian garden?" No explanation of the lack of taste that such a garden would indicate in connection with the house, had any effect. The simple, formal gardens of a hundred years ago, with Box-edged paths, borders and regular Box-edged beds, are always beautiful, never become tiresome, and have the additional merit of being appropriate either to the fine country-place or the simple cottage. [Illustration: Plan for a Small Plot] For a small plot of ground, like the one before mentioned, the plan of which is on page 24, the matter is simple, because of the natural limitations. I love to see a house bedded, as it were, in flowers. This is particularly suitable for the usual American country house, colonial in style, or low and rambling. Make a bed perhaps four feet wide along three sides of the house,--south, east and west. Close against the house plant the vines. Every one has an individual taste in vines,--more so, perhaps, than in any other ornamental growth. If the house be of stone, and the climate not too severe, nothing is more beautiful than the English Ivy. It flourishes as far north as Princeton, New Jersey. I have never grown it, fearing it would be winter-killed. _Ampelopsis Veitchii_, sometimes called Boston Ivy, grows rapidly, clinging closely to the wall and turning a dark red in the autumn, and is most satisfactory. The Virginia Creeper, and the Trumpet Creeper, with its scarlet flowers, are both beautiful, perfectly hardy, and of rapid growth. All of these vines cling to stone and wood, and, beyond a little help for the first two or three feet, need not be fastened to the house. Care must be taken to prevent the vines growing too thickly to admit sun and air to the house. If the house be of wood, the question of repainting must be considered. Both the White and the Purple Wistaria, which can be twined about heavy wire and fastened at the eaves, Rambler Roses and Honeysuckles may be grown. They can be laid down, to permit painting. But, if the house be of wood and well covered with vines, put off the evil day of painting until it can be deferred no longer, and then have it done early in November. Never, never permit it to be done in the spring, or before November, unless you would take the risk of killing the vines or of losing at least a season's growth. The house surrounded by my gardens is colonial, something over a hundred and fifty years old, stern and very simple. Tall locusts, towering above the roof, and vines that cover it from ground to eaves, have taken away its otherwise puritanical and somewhat uncompromising aspect. These vines are mostly the ordinary Virginia Creeper, which I had dug from the woods and planted when the first fat baby was two months old. Now their main trunks are, in places, as large as my arm. They have never been laid down. Whenever the house has been repainted, I have been constantly by, and admonished the men to gently lift the heavy branches while painting under them, and not to paint the light tendrils. When the master-painter has remonstrated, that it was not a "good job" and took three times as long as if the vines were laid down, my reply has been, that "three times" was nothing in comparison with the years it had taken to grow them, and that stunting or killing the vines could never be a "good job." [Illustration: Arch over rose-walk, covered with Golden Honeysuckle and _Clematis paniculata_. September fifteenth] Among the creepers are the Crimson Rambler Rose and the Honeysuckle. In three years the Roses have grown above the second-story windows. _Clematis paniculata_, with its delicate foliage and mass of starry bloom in early autumn, is particularly good to plant by veranda posts in connection with other vines. It grows luxuriantly and is absolutely hardy. The large white-flowered Henryi and purple-flowered Jackmani Clematis, though of slow growth, should always have a place, either about a veranda, a summer-house or a trellis, for the sake of their beautiful flowers. While waiting for the hardy vines to make their first year's growth, the seeds of the Japanese Morning-Glory, the Japanese Moonflower and _Coboea scandens_ may be planted. All of these will grow at least ten feet in a summer, and cover the bare places. But I would not advise sowing them among the hardy vines, except the first summer. In their luxuriance they may suffocate the Roses and Clematis. The seeds of the Moonflower must be soaked in hot water, and left over night, before sowing. So much for the vines about a house. In front of the vines, and on the south side in the same bed, plant masses of Hollyhocks, from eight to twelve in a bunch, and Rudbeckia in bunches of not more than five, as they grow so large. Hollyhocks and Rudbeckias plant two feet apart; they will grow to a solid mass. In front of these, again, put a clump of Phloxes, seven in a bunch, and Larkspur, _Delphinium formosum_ being the best. On either side of the Delphinium have clumps of about a dozen _Lilium candidum_, which bloom at the same time. Edge the border with Sweet Williams, three kinds only,--white, pink and dark scarlet. I should not advise making all the borders around a house alike. The easterly one will be most lovely if planted with tall ferns or brakes, taken from near some stream in early April, before they begin to grow. These will become about four feet high if you get good roots and keep them wet. Plant in among them everywhere Auratum Lilies, and you will have a border that will fill your heart with joy. On the north side of the house it is not possible to have much success with vines, as they need the sun. They will grow, but not with great luxuriance. Here plant two rows of the common _Rhododendron maximum_, which grows in our woods. I crave pardon for calling it "common," since none that grows is more beautiful. In front of these plant ferns of all kinds from the woods, and edge the border with Columbines. If these Rhododendrons do not grow in your vicinity, they can be ordered from a florist. In the hills, about five miles from us, acres of them grow wild, and twice a year I send my men with wagons to dig them up. They stand transplanting perfectly if care is taken to get all the roots, which is not difficult, as they do not grow deep. Keep them quite wet for a week after planting, and never let them get very dry. A good plan is to mulch them in early June to the depth of six inches or more with the clippings of the lawn grass, or with old manure. When once well rooted, the Rhododendrons will last a lifetime. They seem to bear transplanting at any season. Some think they do best if taken when in full bloom. I have always done this in April or late October, and, of a wagon-load transplanted last October, all have lived. Many of these were like trees, quite eight feet tall and too large to be satisfactory about the house, so they were set among the evergreens in a shrubbery. [Illustration: _Rhododendron maximum_ under a Cherry tree July fourth] In cold localities, where the thermometer in winter falls below zero, Rhododendrons should be mulched with stable litter or leaves to the depth of one foot, after the ground has frozen. They should also have some protection from the winter sun, which can be easily given them by setting evergreen boughs of any kind into the ground here and there among them. Rhododendrons are as likely to be killed by alternate freezing and thawing of the ground in winter as by summer drought. The lovely _Azalea mollis_, and many beautiful varieties of imported Rhododendrons, are usually described as "hardy," but I cannot recommend them to those who live where the winters are severe. In such places their growth is very slow, and many perish. Maidenhair, the most beautiful of the hardy ferns, is to be found in quantities in many of our woods, particularly those covering hillsides. Their favorite spot is along the edges of mountain brooks. I know such a hillside, where Maidenhair Ferns are superb. But nothing would induce me to venture there again, since I have been told it was infested with rattlesnakes, and that the woodchoppers kill a number of them every year. This fact, too, gives me scruples about sending the men to dig them up, although it is an awful temptation. All ferns should be transplanted late in the autumn, or very early in the spring before the fronds are started, as they are very easily broken. This is particularly the case with ferns from wet places. When planted on the east or north side of a house, the tall ones at the back, and Maidenhair and other low varieties in front, they make a beautiful bank of cool green. They must be kept moist, however, to be successful, and in dry weather require a daily soaking. [Illustration: Vase of Delphinium (Perennial Larkspur) June twenty-first] The Cardinal Flower, whose natural haunt is along the banks of streams, and whose spikes are of the most beautiful red, can also be safely transplanted, and will bloom in deep, rich soil equally well in shade or sun and will be very effective among the Ferns. About the end of November, after cutting the dead stalks, cover each plant with a piece of sod, laid grass-side down. Remove this the first of April, and the little sprouts will soon appear above the ground. Cardinal Flowers bloom for nearly a month--during the last two weeks of August and first two weeks of September. HOW TO PLANT A SMALL PLOT CHAPTER IV HOW TO PLANT A SMALL PLOT I am frequently surprised to hear people say, "Oh, a flower garden is very nice, but such a trouble!" I have heard this expression several times from friends who employ a number of men and have large places with extensive lawns, shrubberies and vegetable gardens, but without flowers, except, perhaps, a few annuals growing among the vegetables. Yet no one is indifferent to the beauty of garden, or unobservant of the improvement which even a few flowers can make around the humblest cottage. Think of the pretty thatched cottages one sees everywhere in England and France, covered to the eaves with Roses and Clematis, and surrounded by flowers growing wherever they can find root in the tiny gardens. Yet all this is the result of only a half hour's daily care after the long day's work is done. One should begin with a few plants--perhaps a dozen only--and the "trouble" will soon become a delight, unless one is devoid of all love for flowers. [Illustration: Vase of Peonies June sixth] Whenever I hear remarks on the "trouble" of a flower garden, I think of those peasant homes, and also of a little plot grown and cared for by a certain tenant farmer's wife I know. She has six children, and must cook and bake and clean for four men in addition; yet, some time every day, she finds a few minutes to tend her flowers. She has a border along the fence four by fifty feet, filled with perennials; a border across the front of her house with Phlox and Funkias, and a couple of beds with Asters, Poppies, Balsams, Portulaca and Pinks. The perennials were given her, a few at a time. She separated the roots, saved the seeds to raise others, and has been able in this way to increase her borders. The seeds of the few annuals she buys do not cost more than a dollar a year. Thus, for a trifling expenditure and a short time every day, this woman makes her humble surroundings beautiful, while her soul finds an object upon which to expend its love of beauty, and her thoughts have a respite from the daily cares of life. Many people have the mistaken idea that a flower garden, however small, is an expensive luxury, and are so convinced of this, that they never venture any attempt at gardening, and pass their lives knowing nothing of its pleasures. Let us suppose some one is starting a suburban home in a simple way, and see how flowers can be had for many months at small cost. If one has a place in a town or village, the plot of ground not over fifty by two hundred feet, still the possibilities are great, and the owner can easily gather flowers for herself and her friends from April until mid-November. A house or cottage on such a piece of ground generally stands back from twenty to fifty feet, with a gravel or flagged walk running to the street. If the owner be a beginner in gardening and expects to do most of the work herself, let her commence with a few plants in a small space. As the plants thrive and become beautiful, the care of them will give an added pleasure to life, and, little by little, the beds and borders can be increased. In beginning to plant a small plot, the most natural place first is a border, say two feet wide, on either side of the walk leading from the house to the street. Have these borders dug out and made properly. Then, if the owner wishes to see them continually abloom, bulbs must be planted, to give the early spring flowers. Tulips can be had for eighty cents a hundred, _Narcissus Poeticus_ for sixty-five cents a hundred, and Yellow Daffodils for one dollar and twenty-five cents a hundred. Hyacinths are more expensive, and cost from four dollars a hundred up. If a hundred each of the Tulips, Narcissi, Hyacinths and Daffodils were planted they would make the borders lovely from early in April until late in May. The Daffodils will bloom first, then the Hyacinths, followed by the Narcissi, and the Tulips last, if care is taken to buy a late variety. There should certainly be three or four Peonies in the borders,--pink, white, and dark red; good roots of these can be had for about thirty-five cents each. Once planted, they should not be disturbed for years; and, although the first season they may not yield more than two or three blossoms, in each succeeding year the flowers will increase in number. A friend told me, not long ago, that she had counted sixty blossoms upon each of several of her plants. There should also be at least a dozen Columbines (Aquilegias) to bloom the end of May and the first of June. The roots of these can be bought for a dollar and a half a dozen, or they can be raised from seed; in the latter case, however, they would not bloom until the second year, being perennials. No border can be complete without Delphiniums (Larkspur). Good-sized roots of the _Delphinium formosum_, lovely dark blue, are a dollar and twenty-five cents a dozen. _Formosum Coelistina_, the light blue variety, is two dollars and a half a dozen. Then, of course, there must be other perennials,--Phlox, at least a dozen plants in the different colours, which will cost a dollar and a half. A few Lilies will add greatly to the beauty of the borders. Tiger Lilies, which are only sixty cents a dozen; Auratums, which can be had from eighty-five cents a dozen up, according to the size of the bulbs; _Speciosum rubrum_ from eighty-five cents a dozen up, and Candidums, or Madonna Lilies, a dollar and a half a dozen. German Iris, a dollar a dozen, and Japanese Iris, at a dollar and a quarter a dozen, should also have a place. [Illustration: _Lilium speciosum rubrum_ September fifteenth] Excellent Gladioli can be bought for a dollar and fifty cents a hundred, and these will be most satisfactory if planted in the border about May fifteenth in groups of six to ten. A dozen Chrysanthemums of the hardiest varieties to be obtained, and costing a dollar and a half a dozen, will, with the other plants mentioned, about fill two borders two feet wide by thirty long. It would also be well to sow the seeds of some Calendulas, Nasturtiums and Asters wherever there may be a vacant place. Or better, perhaps, sow the seeds in boxes in mid-April, and transplant to the border the early part of June. The first cost will be the only expense for these borders, except in the case of the Auratum Lilies, which will die out in about three years, and of the few flower seeds. The only care needed is to keep the borders free from weeds, to stir the soil every week, and to water after sunset in dry weather. It will be seen, from the following list, that such borders can easily be made and planted at a cost of less than thirty dollars. This can be reduced by omitting the Hyacinths. Directions for planting are given elsewhere. PRICE Tulips $0 80 Narcissi 65 Daffodils 1 25 Hyacinths 4 00 Peonies 1 40 Columbines 1 50 _Delphinium Formosum_ 1 25 _Delphinium Coelestina_ 2 50 Phlox 1 50 Tiger Lilies 60 Auratum 85 _Lilium rubrum_ 85 _Lilium candidum_ 1 50 Japanese Iris 1 25 _Iris Germanica_ 1 00 Chrysanthemums 1 50 Flower seeds 1 00 Three days' work, at $1.50 per day 4 50 Manure 1 50 ------ Total $29 40 After a year or two, the owner of the cottage may want to increase the flower garden, and the next place to plant is close about the house. It is to be taken for granted that the house and piazzas have the proper gutters. This is necessary, of course, for the preservation of the house, and without gutters the drip from the eaves would be such that nothing could grow directly against the house. The bed might be three feet wide and run across the front of the house on either side of the steps. The owner would probably wish to plant vines over the porch or piazza, in case it has not already been done. The best for this purpose are mentioned elsewhere. Should the house front the south, east or west, nearly everything can be grown; but should it face the north, nothing but Ferns and Rhododendrons would be successful on the front. Dahlias of the Cactus variety, in different colours, could be planted at the back of the bed on one side of the steps. Get good-sized roots, plant them two feet apart. They will grow against the house like a tall hedge. If planted the third week in April quite deep, say eight inches, they will begin to bloom about the sixth of July, and continue to be covered with flowers until killed by frost. In front of the Dahlias, plant white Phlox. In front of the Phlox sow a row of _Centaurea_ or Cornflowers, the Emperor William variety. These should be sown early in April, will begin to bloom by June tenth, and, if they are not allowed to go to seed, will blossom all summer. Sow in front of the Cornflowers, at the same time, a row of white Candytuft, of the Empress variety. This also will bloom continuously if the flowers are cut as soon as they wither. On the other side of the steps, at the back of the bed, plant Rudbeckia (Golden Glow) two feet apart. The roots should be bought and planted, preferably in October, otherwise as soon as the frost is out of the ground in the spring, as they start very early. In front of the Rudbeckias plant Cannas--the Tarrytown, of most vivid scarlet hue, I have found the best and freest-flowering of all. The roots should be planted about May fifteenth. On the edge of the bed, sow by April fifteenth a row of salmon-pink Zinnias, and when they are well up, thin out to six inches apart. They begin to blossom when very small, and will stand considerable frost. The expense of these beds will be trifling. Rudbeckias of the Golden Glow variety, one dollar a dozen; the Tarrytown Canna, two dollars and a half a dozen; Cactus Dahlias, two dollars a dozen; Phlox, one dollar and a half a dozen. The small quantity of flower seeds required will cost less than a dollar. A man can easily make the beds in three days. Therefore, the cost with manure will be less than fifteen dollars. After a hard frost has killed the tops, the Dahlias, Cannas and Gladioli should be taken up, the tops cut off, the roots well dried, and then stored in a cellar that does not freeze. The Canna and Dahlia roots will have grown so large that they can be divided and it will be found that there are enough to plant, the following spring, nearly twice the space they occupied before. It is impossible, if successful with the borders already planned, for the owner not to wish for more garden. She sees the neighbors' gardens with newly opened eyes; flowers and their treatment become an absorbing topic of conversation, and the exchange of plants a delightful transaction. [Illustration: Vase of Altheas September sixteenth] It will be seen that the next places to plant are along the boundary lines of the property. Even if one side only be laid out at a time, a large number of plants will be required. The owner will find great pleasure in raising as many of these herself as possible. To accomplish this, somewhere at the back of the place, a seed-bed should be made, and in April the seeds of perennials and annuals sown. The border must be made by September the twentieth and should be at least four feet wide. Either a hedge can be placed at the back of the border, or tall-growing flowering shrubs, such as white and purple Lilacs (not the Persian), Mock Oranges (Syringa), Deutzia and Roses of Sharon (Althea). These shrubs will grow about equally high, yield an abundance of flowers, the Altheas in August, the others in May or June, and in four or five years will form a complete screen from the neighboring grounds. In front of the shrubs perennials can be planted, taller ones at the back, lower-growing ones in front, and annuals along the edge. Such a border, if from fifty to a hundred feet in length, will be a garden by itself. The plants will do best if closely set, and every vacant space filled in June with annuals. Weeds then have little chance to grow, and a short time every day will keep such a border in order. The border can be of any width from four to twelve feet, but when more than four feet, the front edge should be made with irregular curves to avoid a stiff appearance. Shrubs should be set out not later than October tenth, and, as they or the hedge would be at the back of the bed, the planting of them will not interfere with the perennials that have already been transplanted from the seed-bed. Hedges are so much more beautiful than any fence that ever was built that, in towns or villages where cattle are not allowed to run at large, hedges should, wherever possible, be used in place of fences. To prepare the ground for a hedge, make a trench eighteen inches deep, put a good layer of well-rotted manure in the bottom and fill up with earth. When the hedge is planted give it a good top-dressing of manure, and continue this top-dressing, with a little bone-meal sown on the surface of the ground, every spring. [Illustration: Planting on the edge of lawn August second] The best and hardiest evergreen hedge is of Hemlock Spruce. Plants of this can be bought for fifteen dollars a hundred, and should be set eighteen inches apart. The Privet is a favorite hedge in this country. It keeps green until December, and leafs out early in the spring. It is hardy and of rapid growth. Good plants are six dollars a hundred, and should be planted a foot apart. Catalogues say that if planted in rich soil one foot apart, a hedge five feet high can be grown in three seasons. Common Privet is more hardy than California Privet. _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_ makes a beautiful low-growing hedge; good plants can be bought for six dollars a hundred. _Berberis Thunbergii_, or Barberry, makes a fine hedge, on account of its beautiful foliage and scarlet fruit. It is, however, slow-growing. The owner of a small place should avoid the temptation to scatter flower beds about the lawn. Keep all the planting along the edges of the property and around the house, and leave the lawn unbroken by flower beds. The years when gardening consisted only of beds of Coleus, Geraniums, Verbenas and bedding plants have passed away, like the black walnut period of furniture. And even as the mahogany of our grandfathers is now brought forth from garrets and unused rooms, and antiquity shops and farm-houses are searched for the good old-time furniture, so we are learning to take the old gardens for our models, and the old-fashioned flowers to fill our borders. The nurseryman of to-day has greatly improved the size and colour of the old varieties of perennials, so that they are far more beautiful than formerly, and offer a much greater choice. By skilful hybridization a hundred or more kinds of Phlox have been developed. In the same way, numerous varieties of Delphiniums, Iris, Peonies, Columbines, Canterbury Bells and Foxgloves have been produced. The old-fashioned annuals also appear in many new forms. In addition to the pink and white "Painted Lady," the pure white and the dark purple Sweet Peas of our mothers' time, we may now cultivate some eighty varieties of this delicate flower. Thus the garden of hardy perennials, annuals and bulbs will give us a continual sequence of flowers in every form and colour from April until November, if properly made and tended. [Illustration: Asters in rows for picking August twenty-fifth] THE SEED-BED CHAPTER V THE SEED-BED The possessor of a garden, large or small, should have a seed-bed, where seeds of perennials and some of the annuals can be sown and grown until large enough to be permanently placed. Not only will this bed give great pleasure in enabling one to watch the plants from the time the first tiny leaf appears, but also when laden with blossoms in fullest beauty. The knowledge that you have raised them gives a thrill of pride in the result which no bought plants, however beautiful, can impart. It is not necessary to prepare the seed-bed over a foot in depth, but the soil must be very light and fine, as well as rich. It is best, if possible, to have a portion of the bed somewhat shaded from the sun for a part of the day. If this combination cannot be had in one bed, there should be a second for plants that want less sun. Biennials must, of course, be sown every year, as they bloom but once, then die. Every year some perennials will disappear, killed by severe winters, by pests of one kind or another, or dying without apparent cause. To keep up the supply, therefore, some of each variety should be raised every year. Foxgloves and Sweet Williams, if allowed to go to seed, will sow themselves and increase rapidly. The same with Hollyhocks, but, except on the edges of shrubberies and in wild borders, it is better to cut the stalk just before the seed is ready to fall, and save it to sow in the seed-bed. [Illustration: Foxgloves--seedlings ready for final transplanting September twenty-ninth] In my garden, some seventy miles from New York, and where the spring opens ten days later, I sow my seeds,--the perennials about the tenth of April and the annuals from April twentieth to May first. Buy the seeds, if the garden is large, by the ounce or half-ounce; if small, in the seedsman's packets. I always have the seeds of perennials soaked for twenty-four hours before planting, and find that by so doing they are very sure to germinate. Care must be taken, when soaking a number of different kinds at the same time, to place the name of each variety of seed under the glass or bowl containing the same. When ready for planting, pour off the water and mix the wet seeds carefully with very dry earth, in a cigar-box, which is of the right size and easy to handle. Then sow, not too deeply, in rows about a foot apart in the bed, covering very lightly, according to size. One-half inch is enough for the large seeds. The very fine varieties should simply have the earth sprinkled on them. If planted too deep they will never come up. Seeds of annuals do not require soaking. Pat the earth down firmly with the back of the trowel, sprinkle with a fine sprinkler late every afternoon, and it is not your fault if you do not have hundreds and thousands of young plants to make your own place beautiful and to give to your friends. It is a keen delight, when a friend says that she has not raised such and such plants this year, to run and get your trowel and dig a bunch of this and that from the rows of sturdy little plants. It is a pleasure to know that a bit of your garden has gone to help make another's beautiful. One of the greatest pleasures of a garden is in giving flowers and plants to your friends. Every October, when arranging the borders and separating plants, I send away great boxes of them, some to fortunate friends with lovely gardens, but without the same varieties; some to humble cottage gardens, and others to friends who have never grown a flower, but would like to try. This year, having made a large new garden, I was able to give away to friends and neighbors only about seven hundred plants, not seedlings but large plants and roots. Generally I can send away far more. Think what a delight this is! A request for some plants came to me last autumn from the baggage-master of a railroad station some twenty miles from us, who, by the boxes of shrubs and plants that came to me, inferred that I might have some to spare. I learned that all this man's spare time was spent in his little garden plot, so great was his love of flowers. I know, too, a village expressman (another whom nature intended for a gardener), whose little plot of ground is always a mass of beauty. He has a surprising variety of plants, and every one is a fine specimen of its kind. His _Anemone Japonica alba_ are the finest I have ever seen, each one sending up perhaps a dozen slender stalks of the beautiful flowers. I have had great difficulty with this plant and have lost dozens of them. I always drive very slowly by the expressman's garden, burning with envy and wondering how he does it. In fact, it was only last year that I had my first success with these obdurate plants. They must grow under trees whose branches are sufficiently high to admit the sun half the day. As they bloom in September and October, the tree protects them from the frost, and in winter they should be well covered with stable litter. They are among the few plants to be set out in the spring, for if not well established they are always winter-killed. It is well not to empty the perennial seed-bed entirely in the autumn, but to leave a few plants of each variety to transplant in the spring, to take the place of those which have not survived the winter. When the bed is empty, in the spring, have a good coating of manure spaded in and proceed again with the sowing. Biennials, and also most perennials, must be raised every year to keep up the supply. [Illustration: Long grass walk, with _Narcissus Poeticus_ blooming in the border April twenty-sixth] PLANTING [Illustration: Long grass walk, with Peonies in the border June sixth] CHAPTER VI PLANTING I cannot impress too strongly upon my readers the importance of ordering their plants and seeds of well-known firms. The best are always the cheapest in the end. Inquiry among friends will generally give the best information as to reliable seedsmen and growers. In ordering shrubs and plants it is important to specify the precise date of delivery, that you may know in advance the day of arrival. The beds or borders should be prepared in advance, so that everything may be set out without delay. Care must be taken that the roots are not exposed to the air and allowed to become dry. It is a good plan, when unpacking a box of plants, to sort them, laying each variety in a pile by itself, covering the roots with the moss and excelsior in which they were packed, and then, if at all dry, to sprinkle thoroughly. Unpacking should, if possible, be done under cover--in the cellar if there be no other place. Great care must also be taken in setting out plants that ample room be given; as the roots should be well spread out and never doubled up. Do not be afraid of having the hole too big; see that the earth is finely pulverized and well packed about the roots; that the plant is thoroughly soaked, and, if the weather is dry, kept watered for a couple of weeks. If the plants have arrived in good condition and are carefully set out, but few should die. I have never lost a deciduous tree, and frequently, in setting out a hundred shrubs at one time, all have lived. [Illustration: Long grass walk, with Foxgloves blossoming in the border June thirteenth] Wherever there is a fence make a border, wide or narrow according to your space; if wide,--and it may be as much as twelve feet wide,--always make the edge irregular, never straight. Some prefer a hedge at the back of the border. The best effect and quickest screen is made by planting, against the fence at the back of the border, White Lilacs (not the Persian), Syringas, Deutzias and the beautiful new Altheas. Plant these shrubs three feet apart. In good soil they will send up great canes, and in four years time should be six feet high and shut you in from all prying gaze. In planting a border, always keep in mind the fact that it should be blooming from May to November. Put in the plants according to height, the tallest, of course, at the back and the lowest in front, filling the front also with spring-flowering bulbs, Daffodils, Tulips and Narcissi, which will blossom and be over before the plants come on. You will thus have the longest succession of bloom. If the border is quite wide--from four to six feet--and perhaps one hundred and fifty feet long, it will hold a surprising number of plants. Certain plants, in a long border with a background of shrubs, look best in rows, in spite of all that has been written against it: For instance, Hollyhocks, a long row of plants three deep, broken every ten feet or so by a clump of a dozen, and in front of these a single row of Rudbeckias, broken with clumps of six or so, and the rest of the border planted in masses, more or less according to space, of Phloxes, Larkspur, Lilies, Columbines, Sweet Williams, with every now and then a good clump of Chrysanthemums to blossom when all other flowers are gone. In filling a border along a rather short path, the plants should always be set in clumps of from six to twelve of a kind. If the border is narrow and has no shrubs or hedge back of it, the effect will be better if the plants do not exceed three feet in height. Omit from such a border Hollyhocks, Rudbeckias, Sunflowers and Cosmos. Sweet Williams, Columbines, Sweet Alyssum, Candytuft, Nasturtiums and _Phlox Drummondii_ can all be grown as edging for borders. I have a border, two and a half feet wide and three hundred and fifty feet long, that is a mass of bloom from the middle of May until the last of September. It may give the reader a suggestion to know its contents. Everything is in rows, the only border in my garden where the planting is done in this way. Along the edge is _Narcissus Poeticus_; back of _Narcissus Poeticus_ a row of Sweet Williams, pink, white and very dark red; back of the Sweet Williams, Foxgloves; back of the Foxgloves, Peonies and _Hydrangea grandiflora_ planted alternately; and back of these, a row of Hollyhocks. About two feet behind this border, a row of Rudbeckia (Golden Glow) grows like a tall hedge. When _Narcissus Poeticus_ has finished blooming, the Peonies come on. Before the last Peony has lost its petals, the Sweet Williams (quite two feet high) are in blossom, and the Foxgloves (from three to four feet high) begin to bloom, and last for a month. While these flowers are still lovely, the tall Hollyhocks begin to flower, each plant sending up from three to five stalks. Then, by the time the Hollyhock stalks are cut down, the Hydrangeas, which are trimmed back very severely every autumn, are a mass of white. Meanwhile the Rudbeckias, for quite six weeks, form a yellow background. The illustrations show this row of flowers while the Narcissi, Peonies, Foxgloves, and Hydrangeas are successively in blossom. Early in June, I transplant into perennial borders, wherever a spot can be found, clumps of Asters, Cosmos and other late annuals, which are beautiful in September and October when most flowers have ceased to bloom. From September twentieth to October fifteenth is a busy time in the garden. New beds and borders should be made then. The plants in all borders four years old should be lifted, and the beds or borders spaded deeply with plenty of manure, the plants reset, and the young perennials transplanted from the seed-bed into their final places. All perennial plants whose roots are sufficiently large, should now be divided and reset. This fall planting and transplanting should be done at about the time mentioned, for the shrubs and plants must become well rooted before the ground freezes, or they will rarely survive the winter. No matter how rich a bed or border may be, I always have the hole to receive the plant made larger than is necessary, and put a spadeful of manure in the bottom. In transplanting, my man always has a wheelbarrow of this at his side to work from. If there are bare places in lawns or grass paths, sow grass seed about the twentieth of September, then roll, and the grass will be well rooted before cold weather. It must be borne in mind that everything possible should be done in the fall. Perennials start early in the spring, and it is a pity, when they are once started, to disturb them. When the frost has finally killed everything, all the dead tops should be cut off at the ground, the dead annuals pulled up, the borders made clean and neat, and, about the last of November, covered with a good layer of stable litter, leaves or straw. I have always found the plants start earlier and do better for this slight protection. Whenever I tell my inquiring friends of the proper preparation of beds, and the spring top-dressing, and winter covering with manure, there is generally an exclamation of alarm at the quantity used. But much is required to make the garden grow. I call upon the farm for manure when the stable supply is insufficient, and both my farmer-husband and his manager at times look askance. But how can I live unless my garden has what it needs! The farmer-husband looks upon my gardening as a mild species of insanity, and cannot understand why a _little_ garden with a few plants is not enough for any woman. By dint of much showing and explanation through many years, he has acquired a floricultural knowledge which enables him to tell a Rose, Lily, Sunflower and Phlox, and of this knowledge he is proud. All manure should be drawn out into the garden when the ground is still frozen, in March or earlier, and placed in convenient piles, so that the ground may not be cut up, when soft, by the wagon wheels; and also to facilitate work when the first spring days come, and there are a hundred things to be done. If possible, have a spadeful of well-rotted stable manure stirred into the ground around each shrub and vine in early spring. The result will amply repay you. Save all wood-ashes carefully, under cover, for the garden, and scatter them on the beds and on the grass. Get well-ground fresh bone-meal, and let all plants have only a handful in the spring, and the reward in bloom is great. To have good results from the hardy Chrysanthemums the soil cannot be too rich, and I generally "give them something to eat," as a boy who helps in the garden calls it, about the fifteenth of June and the fifteenth of August. Care must be taken, in using bone-meal, not to put on too much, and to keep it away from contact with the rootlets. ANNUALS CHAPTER VII ANNUALS There are so many annuals that I will write only about the few which are easiest to grow and are most desirable. For me a flower must have merits for decorating the house as well as for making the garden beautiful. The other day I found an English book on flowers, and at once sat down to read it, expecting enjoyment and profit from every page; but at the end of a few minutes I came upon the following paragraph: "Particularly to most women one of the chief uses or functions of a garden is to provide flowers to be cut for the decoration of rooms. But I hold that a flower cut from its plant and placed in a vase is as a scalp on the walls of a wigwam." And I read no further in that book. I grow flowers to gather them, both for the house and to give away. We keep about sixty vases full in the house from late May until October, and never allow more than two colours in the same room. I have a yellow room, where only yellow and white flowers, or white and blue, are permitted; a pink room, for white and pink or pink and crimson flowers; and a hall, whose dominant tone is a rich red, where the flowers are red and white. Some of the annuals, like Mignonette and Poppies, must be sown where they are to grow. Mignonette does best in cool, rather moist soil. [Illustration: Long grass walk, with Hydrangeas; Rudbeckias in the background August twenty-fifth] Poppies, and oh! have plenty of them and all kinds. Get the Shirley Poppies, the Giant Double, the fringed kind, and the California with their sunny petals. Sow in great numbers wherever they are wanted, here and there in the borders wherever there is space. If there is no other place, sow them in rows in the vegetable garden. They are splendid in the house, but, alas! fall too quickly. The Shirley Poppies are almost like fairy flowers, they are so delicate and beautiful. They are the first of the annual Poppies to bloom. Then comes the variety which grows wild in France and Germany,--scarlet, with black blotches at the base of the petals. Last to bloom are the tall, fringed double and single Poppies,--white, pink and scarlet, growing on strong stems three feet high. Poppies must be sown thinly and the earth only sprinkled over the seeds. Sow as early in the spring as the ground can be worked, and thin out to six inches apart when the plants are well up. Nasturtiums, too, should be planted where they are to grow, also Sweet Alyssum and Candytuft. All of these make good edgings for borders. If not allowed to go to seed they will bloom all summer. Sunflowers, the Dwarf Double, and the tall Giant Sunflowers, are fine in backgrounds and against fences. THE FOLLOWING ANNUALS SHOULD BE SOWN IN THE SEED-BED ABOUT APRIL TWENTIETH TO MAY FIRST _Antirrhinum_, or _Snapdragon_, growing eighteen inches high. If sown in early May they will bloom from August until late autumn. The same is true of the German Ten-weeks Stocks, which have a long period of bloom. The white ones are most lovely. _Asters_, all varieties; sow a quantity. They are not only beautiful, but they give an abundance of blossoms in late September and early October, when flowers are beginning to be scarce. I prefer the Giant, Comet, Ostrich Plume and the late-flowering branching kind. Of these last, "Purity" (snow-white) and "Daybreak" (shell-pink) are the best, often bearing thirty flowers on a plant and lasting, in water, five days. A small quantity of wood-ashes stirred into the soil of the Aster bed is a fine fertilizer and destroys insects that attack the roots. Transplant in June to wherever they are to blossom. [Illustration: A single plant of Asters September tenth] I have lately learned, that the only way to destroy the black beetle which appears upon the Asters and eats the flowers, is to have them picked off morning and evening and thrown into a pan containing kerosene oil, which kills them. _Cosmos._ The early-summer flowering variety of Cosmos will begin to bloom in July, and, if not allowed to go to seed, will be a mass of flowers until killed by frost. In favorable soil Cosmos grows luxuriantly, and resembles a small tree six or eight feet high. This plant should be staked, or it is likely to be blown down. It is very effective when transplanted to the borders, blooming gayly when there is not much else. The pink and crimson varieties are beautiful, but do not compare with the white. _Calendula_, growing about a foot high in every shade of yellow from deep orange to pale ivory, is one of the best and most constant blooming of the yellow flowers. _Centaurea_, or _Cornflower_. These come in many colours, but I grow only the tall, ragged, blue variety. If not permitted to go to seed, they will bloom plentifully for several months. On the dinner-table with blue and white china, and in June combined with Syringa, they make a beautiful and unusual decoration. _Marigold_, both the double African and the double French. These flowers always give me a pricking of the conscience, for during the summer, when there are plenty of others, I give them the "go by," but in October turn to them with shame and thankfulness. _Phlox Drummondii_ grows about six or eight inches high, and comes in many colours. It makes beautiful borders, particularly the white, pink and dark red. _Plumed Celosia_, or _Cockscomb_. The new varieties are very effective. [Illustration: Poppies growing in rows July fourteenth] _Zinnias._ Lately I have grown only two varieties, a vivid scarlet and a salmon-pink. They are not only lovely when growing, but make a beautiful house decoration, as the stems are long and stiff. _Sweet Peas_, which no garden can do without. Several books say, plant in autumn, very late. I have twice sown two pounds at this time, carefully following the directions, and not one single Pea came up the following spring. Sweet Peas should be sown in the spring the moment the frost comes out of the ground, so that they may become deeply rooted before dry weather. Make a trench about a foot deep and a foot wide. Have a good layer of manure in the bottom of the trench, over which put a couple of inches of earth, and over this earth put a good layer of wood-ashes, again a sprinkling of earth. Then sow the Peas, and cover them with a couple of inches of earth. As they grow, fill in the trench, and keep on hilling up the plants until the roots are very deep. It is well to mulch them with the clippings of lawn grass. In this way the plants are kept from drying up, and will bloom until October. Sweet Peas flourish best on a trellis of galvanized wire netting. It should be a permanent trellis, made of cedar posts set three feet deep, so as to be below the frost line and four feet high. To this attach the wire netting. A trench should be made on either side of the netting, so that a double row of Peas may be sown. The quantity sown depends on the length of the trellis; three pounds will sow a double row one hundred and twenty-five feet long. I always sow the different colours separately. It simplifies the task of arranging them, if they can be gathered separately. A bowl of white Sweet Peas and Maidenhair Fern is indeed a "thing of beauty." _Pansies_, every one loves them. They are annuals, but do best if treated as biennials. The most practical hint that I was able to get from "Elizabeth's German Garden" was where she spoke of carpeting her Rose beds with Pansies. This instantly appealed to me, as I greatly dislike to see the earth in the beds and borders, and in Rose beds it always is to be seen. So I bought an ounce each of white and yellow Pansy seed, sowed it about the tenth of July in the partly shaded end of the seed-bed, and by October first had splendid great plants. I did not allow these to blossom, but picked off the buds, and, after the Rose beds had been given a plentiful top-dressing of manure carefully stirred in with a large trowel, I transplanted my Pansy plants. Of course, they had to be covered over with the Roses the last of November, and often during the winter I wondered whether the dears would be smothered. On the twenty-eighth of March the beds were uncovered, and, imagine it! there were Pansies in bloom. From April tenth until late in August these beds were simply a carpet of white and yellow. I never saw anything like it. It was probably due to the rich soil, perhaps also to the free watering necessary for the Roses. Then, in order that no Pansies should go to seed, my own maid, who is very fond of flowers, undertook each morning to cut off all that were beginning to wither. This required from one to two hours, but certainly prolonged the bloom, and I could never have spared a man so long for just the Pansies. Sow Pansy seed in the seed-bed about the tenth of July, and transplant late in October. * * * * * These are some of the more important annuals which no garden should be without. All of them are easy to raise, and blossom abundantly. I do not speak of the many others, but advise trying new flowers every year. [Illustration: A Bowl of Cosmos September twenty-ninth] The first week in June is the time to transplant all annuals. Do it, if possible, directly after a rain, always late in the afternoon, and, of course, water well after transplanting. I have a method of my own for the transplanting of seedlings, and by following it the tiny plants never wither or are set back, and in fact do not seem to know that they have been moved. Take a tin box, such as biscuits come in, half fill it with water, then lift into it from the seed-bed about one hundred seedlings at a time. With a sharp-pointed stick make holes in the bed where the little plants are to go, and then put them in. Soak the ground thoroughly after each patch is finished. In this way the tiny rootlets never become dry. All the beds and borders can be kept free from weeds and in good condition if gone over with a trowel every five days, or once a week, the earth stirred thoroughly, and any weeds that may have grown taken out. It is particularly necessary, for a few weeks in the spring, to keep well ahead of the weeds. I always think of my sins when I weed. They grow apace in the same way and are harder still to get rid of. It seems a pity sometimes not to nurture a pet one, just as it does to destroy a beautiful plant of Wild Mustard, or of Queen Anne's Lace. LIST OF ANNUALS, WITH HEIGHT, COLOUR AND PERIOD OF BLOOMING _Asters_, all colours; one to two feet; August to October. _Alyssum_, white, dwarf for borders; six inches; blooms all summer if not allowed to go to seed. _Balsam_, Camellia-flowered, pale pink, dark red, white; two to three feet; July and August. _Calendula_ (Pot Marigold), all shades of yellow; mid-July until killed by frost. _Calliopsis_ (Coreopsis), yellow with red or brown center; two feet; mid-July, until killed by frost. _Candytuft_, red, white, purple, Empress variety white the best, fine for edging; six inches; blooms continually if not allowed to go to seed. _Centaurea_ (Cornflower), all shades of blue; three feet; blooms three months if kept cut. _Cockscomb_, crimson and scarlet; two to three feet; August and September. _Cosmos_, white, pink, crimson; three to five feet; from the fifteenth of July until killed by frost. _Eschscholtzia_, yellow Poppies; one foot; blooms all summer. _Godetia_, pink, crimson, white; one foot; blooms all summer. _Marigold_, all shades of yellow; one to two and one-half feet; mid-July until killed by frost. _Mignonette_, average height one foot; blooms all summer if kept from seeding. _Nasturtiums_, all shades of yellow and red; dwarf, nine inches; climbing, five feet; bloom all summer until killed by frost. _Pansy_, many colours; six inches; from early spring until November, if kept well cut. _Petunia_, double giant-flowered the only kind to raise; white, crimson and pink; one and one-half feet; bloom all summer. _Phlox Drummondii_, many colours; one foot; blooms July, August and September if not allowed to seed. _Poppy_, all shades of pink and red, also white; one to three feet. If several varieties are planted can be had in bloom from three to four weeks; end of June and July. _Snapdragon_, scarlet and white, white and yellow, pure white; one and one-half feet; July and August. _Stocks_ (German Ten-Weeks), white, pink, red, purple; one and one-half feet; middle of July until middle of September. _Sunflower_, yellow, dwarf and tall varieties, single and double; three to six feet; all summer. _Sweet Peas_, all colours; three feet; grown on bush or trellis; end of June until October if kept well cut and moist. _Sweet Sultan_, purple, white, yellow; one and one-half feet; June, July and August. _Zinnia_, many colours; one and one-half to two feet; July, August and September. [Illustration: A mass of Phlox; Rudbeckias in the background August second] PERENNIALS CHAPTER VIII PERENNIALS Some of the perennials to be sown yearly in the seed-bed from about April first to tenth, are the following: _Columbines_ of all varieties, yellow, white, shading from pink to red and from pale blue to darkest purple. Of Columbines every garden should have plenty. Blooming about May twentieth for three weeks, they are a perfect delight. They are very hardy, germinate readily in the seed-bed, are easy to transplant and need but little care. I have never been able to get them much over three feet in height, but then I have often a dozen stalks of bloom on a single plant, which is very satisfactory. The first dozen plants were sent to me by a friend from his garden on Long Island; now I have hundreds of them,--single and double, white, yellow, all shades of red and pink, pale blue, and a blue one with a white center almost like an Orchid; many shades of purple, also purple and white. _Hollyhocks_, single and double, of all colours. In order to get the desired colour effect with these, keep each variety separate. [Illustration: Hollyhocks in blossom July twelfth] No one can have too many Hollyhocks. Plant them at the back of the borders among the shrubbery, along fences, and in great clumps in any odd corner, or around buildings; they are never amiss, and always beautiful. I find that a Hollyhock cannot be counted upon to bloom more than three years. First-year stalks are about four feet high; afterwards, if in good soil, they will be from six to eight feet. There were hundreds of this size in my garden last summer, each plant with from three to five towering stalks of bloom. As soon as they have gone to seed, I save what seed I want and the stalks are then cut down and burned. By sowing the seeds as soon as thoroughly ripe and dry, plants can be raised which will be large enough to transplant in October, and will bloom the next year. These young plants should be given a slight covering the first winter, that they may not be winter-killed. When in a border, the Hollyhock, which will flourish in any soil, grows to such an extent that Lilies or Phloxes, or anything else near by, are likely to be crowded out, unless care is taken to cut off the lower leaves, which become enormous. I have this done usually three times before they bloom, beginning early in May, and great wheelbarrow-loads of leaves are taken away at each cutting. _Sweet Williams_, red, white and pink. These will grow from eighteen inches to two feet. The stems are straight and stiff, and the trusses of bloom about five inches across, with individual flowers as large as a nickel; they keep well in water and make a beautiful edging for a border, or give great effect when planted in masses. They bloom for three weeks or more, and make fine decorations for church or house. _Platycodon Mariesi_, beautiful blue; they resemble Canterbury Bells, and, as they blossom after the Canterbury Bells, are valuable in continuing the period of blue flowers, with the advantage of being perennials. _Delphiniums_, perennial Larkspurs, all varieties. These seeds I have found more difficult to make germinate than any others, so I do not rely upon what I raise, but purchase many plants. My best results have come from saving the seeds from the first crop of blossoms, drying thoroughly, and then sowing at once. I have found these seeds more sure to germinate than those bought in early spring. Perhaps nature intends them to be sown in this way, instead of nine months later. [Illustration: A single plant of Delphinium (Perennial Larkspur) June twenty-first] One can never say enough in praise of Delphiniums. Three-year-old plants will send up eight to ten beautiful great spikes of the richest blue, four feet high. The moment a blossom withers, cut the stalk down to the ground; another will immediately spring up. I had four crops of blossoms from some of my Delphiniums last summer, so that, from the end of June until the middle of October, there were always some of them in blossom. Some varieties of tall English Delphiniums are very beautiful. Among them is one, Coelestinum, of the loveliest shade of light blue, with very large, double individual flowers. As I have said before, the Delphinium blossoms at the same time as _Lilium candidum_, and should be planted near by. Great bunches of these two flowers, in tall vases, are lovely as well as unusual. There is a horrid small white worm which attacks the roots of the Delphinium, and gives no sign until you see the plant dying. I have found that keeping the soil around the plant well covered with coal ashes is a preventive. Delphiniums are hardy and long-lived (unless the worm gets them), and, once planted, they live a dozen years. _Coreopsis_ (Grandiflora). Every one knows the Coreopsis, which, by continual cutting, will give abundant bloom for three months. The variety with velvety maroon centers is particularly fine. _Hibiscus_ is very easy to raise, and should be planted among and along the edge of shrubbery. The plants are quite hardy, grow four feet high, and masses of them in pink or white are fine. They bloom in August and September. _Rockets_, white and purple. These increase tremendously from self-sowing, so be careful or they will suffocate all that grows near them. I have many plants, all of which have come from a single one that a colored woman gave me a few years ago. She is a nice comfortable old "mammy," black as the ace of spades, with a great love for flowers and a nice patch of them. We have exchanged plants several times. Some of the nicest things I have in my garden came to me in this way, and it is great fun. Whenever, in driving about, I see a particularly fine plant in a dooryard, I make friends with its owner, and later suggest that if she (it is usually "she") will give me a small root of this or that, I will bring her some plants or bulbs from my garden, of a kind which she has not. So we are both equally benefited. In this way I was once given a plant of _Valerian_, which has a tall, beautiful white flower with a most delicious odour like vanilla. It blooms for three weeks in late May and early June. From this one plant there are now in the garden a number of large clumps several feet in diameter, and I have given away certainly fifty roots. Valerian is a small white flower in good-sized clusters on long stems, seen now-a-days only in old-fashioned gardens. I am told it cannot be bought of horticulturists. One must have _Chrysanthemums_, but where the thermometer falls below zero there are not many to be bought, other than the pompon varieties, that will blossom in the garden before being killed by frost, or that will survive the winter. Year after year I have bought dozens of the so-called "September-flowering Chrysanthemums," and have only succeeded in making them blossom by the middle of October, by planting them on the south side of a building, in richest soil, giving abundance of water, and covering on all cold nights. But I have beautiful plants of perfectly hardy, good-sized blossoms of yellow, white, pink and red, the roots of which have come from the gardens of my farmer friends. I have never been able to buy this old-fashioned hardy kind. In the spring, as soon as the plants begin to sprout, divide them, setting out three or four sprouts together. In this way the stock will increase wonderfully. Chrysanthemums require very rich soil, must have sun, and do best against a building or a wall. About the first of July and the first of September have a couple of trowelfuls of manure carefully dug in about the roots of each plant. Buds should not be allowed to form until September, and the new shoots should be pinched back until then, to make the plants strong and bushy. I do not envy any one who has only the great, solemn, stiff flowers of the prize-show variety. An armful of the hardy garden ones, with their delicious odour, is worth a green-house full of the unnatural things which are the professional gardener's pride. When you can keep twenty or more vases filled from your own garden with these last blossoms of the year, in all their lovely colours, and not miss one of them from the plants, you will agree with me that they are the only kind to raise. Perennials, sown in rows in the seed-bed in April, will be nice little plants by July, when they should be lifted and transplanted some six inches apart. The portion of the seed-bed where the annuals were raised can be used now for the purpose. This is particularly necessary for Larkspur, Columbines, Monkshood, Platycodon, Coreopsis, Hibiscus and Pinks. If, when transplanting, each plant is set with a trowelful of manure, the result will be plants twice as large by the first of October, when they can be again transplanted to their permanent places. _Oriental Poppies_ and _Pinks_ should also be sown in the perennial seed-bed. Oriental Poppies, with great blossoms as large as a tea plate borne on strong stems, make a grand show about the end of May and beginning of June. Pinks, too, should be in every garden, if only for their delicious, spicy odor. The Chinensis, or China Pinks, are the best. Sweet Williams and Oriental Poppies need not be moved from the time they are sown until finally transplanted in the autumn. [Illustration: Yuccas in blossom July twelfth] _Yucca filamentosa_, the hardy native of Mexico, sends up, about the tenth of July, great stalks six to eight feet high, bearing masses of white flowers. The individual blossoms are of creamy waxy texture and as beautiful as an orchid. A single stalk of Yucca, in a tall vase, will last nearly a week, and is as unusual as it is beautiful for house decoration. Yuccas are perfectly hardy, need no protection in winter, no fertilizer, no water in dry weather. In my garden, at least, they have not been attacked by insects and have grown placidly on, needing absolutely no care but to have the stalks cut down when they have finished blossoming. They are most effective when grown in clumps, but look very well along a fence with Hollyhocks at the back. The plants are so inexpensive that I have bought mine, but see no reason why they cannot be raised from seed. Small plants form near the parent stem, and these can be separated and transplanted. A late spring frost will sometimes nip the flower stalk that has just started, and there will be no bloom that year. To avoid such a disaster, whenever, in late spring, a frosty night is suspected, cover the plants with a piece of burlap. _Tritomas_ (Red-hot Poker Plant) bloom in September and October, and should always be planted in masses, and in full sun. They must be well covered with leaves or stable litter late in November, or they will be winter-killed. They increase rapidly. _Gaillardias_ bloom all summer, and keep fresh in water for days. The plants are covered with long-stemmed, yellow flowers with dark crimson centers, and should also be protected in winter. _Veronica longifolia_, a most beautiful dark blue flower, which grows in long spikes. Veronica remains in bloom during the month of August, and is one of the most showy flowers in the garden at that time. _Iris_, Japanese and German, do well when naturalized in the grass. These plants increase so, that every four years they can be separated. Beginning with the German Iris, flowering the end of May, they can be had in bloom until the Japanese Iris finishes blossoming the middle of July. No Orchids are more beautiful than the Japanese Iris. A couple of weeks before and during the period of bloom they must be kept very moist. Both the German and the Japanese Iris are perfectly hardy and increase rapidly. The English Iris, of which the white variety, known as Mont Blanc, is the most beautiful, and the Spanish Iris, in all its varieties, are not hardy. But with careful winter covering, about equal to that given to the everblooming Roses, they will generally survive, and are well worth the trouble. The roots of all varieties of Iris are very long, and care must be taken to give them plenty of room and to plant deep. _Peonies._ For beauty and usefulness Peonies rank with Phloxes. Large plants will frequently bear twenty great blossoms. By raising both early and late varieties, their period of bloom can be continued for a month. The old, dark crimson variety is the first to bloom; the old-fashioned double pink and double white are beautiful enough to satisfy any one, but the new varieties give immense choice as to colour and form. The Japanese Tree Peonies do not die to the ground every year, like the herbaceous kinds, but form woody branches and grow like a small shrub. The blossoms of these Tree Peonies are truly wonderful; the only care needed is a little fertilizer in the autumn and a slight winter covering. They are best grown in front of the shrubbery. They blossom before the herbaceous varieties. The herbaceous Peonies can be grown in large beds by themselves, in borders with other plants, or as single specimens in the grass or among the shrubs. Peonies start so early in the spring that they should be manured in the fall, or there is danger of breaking the tender shoots. [Illustration: Bed of Peonies on edge of lawn June sixth] _Phlox._ There is no flower in the garden more beautiful, more easily cultivated, or giving so much bloom as the Phlox. I could certainly never have a garden without it. In mine there must be a couple of thousand. I have a great mass, of probably two hundred herbaceous Phloxes, growing together in one corner of my garden, the very tall varieties over four feet high. About the fifteenth of July, every year, this corner is a superb sight. Most of these plants are over fifteen years old. They have been kept fine by heaviest top-dressing every year, and by lifting all the plants every three years and digging in quantities of manure, and also by separating each plant into three, by cutting the roots with a spade, or pulling apart with the fingers. The newer varieties of Phlox come in the most beautiful colours,--dark crimson, fiery scarlet, many shades of pink, pink striped with white, and pink with a white eye; all shades of lilac, lilac with white and purple, the beautiful pure white, and the white with the scarlet eye. Of all the varieties, my favorites are the snowy white, and the salmon-pink with the dark red eye. Buy fifty large field-grown plants; at the end of three years separate them, and you have a hundred and fifty. They present a picture of progression much surer than the tale of the eggs that were to do so much. Many of the individual blossoms of my Phloxes are larger than a fifty-cent piece; a number of them larger by measurement than a silver dollar, and the heads also are very large. Always erect, neat and smiling, never needing to be staked (such a task in a large garden), when once grown they must always be dear to a gardener's heart. By breaking off the heads of Phlox immediately after blooming, a second crop of flowers will appear in about three weeks. The heads will not be so large as the first, but they will amply repay the slight trouble. Every owner of a garden has certain favorites; it really cannot be helped, although the knowledge that it is so makes it seem almost as unfair as for a mother to have a favorite child. A real lover of flowers finds it difficult to cast away a plant that has bloomed its best, even though the blossom is unsatisfactory. In my garden there are, at present, some plants that I am longing to dig up and burn. There are two climbing Roses that came by mistake in a large order and were set out. They have thriven as no others, cover a very large space on a trellis, and in June bear thousands of a most hideous, small, purplish crimson Rose. The other plant is _Scabiosia Caucasica_. Beware of the same. The description of it in a catalogue caused me to feel that without it the garden was nothing. A dozen were ordered and set out in a border, in two clumps. They grew and waxed strong, and fairly clambered over everything within several feet of them, seeming to be like gigantic thistles. Finally in August, on stems two feet long, the eagerly looked-for blossoms appeared. These were described in the catalogue as "a large head of pale blue flowers." But, to my despair, it developed a round green ball about three inches in circumference, with white thistle-like petals. And yet the plants had surpassed themselves. It seems a poor reward to turn them out to die. _Lychnis_ (London Pride). I cannot now recall any perennial except the Cardinal Flower, which has blossoms of so brilliant a scarlet as Lychnis, or London Pride, growing tall and erect, with its bright colour. It is most effective when grown in large clumps. _Monkshood_ (_Aconitum Napellus_) grows four feet high, and has a beautiful blossom of rich blue growing in quite large clusters. The name must come from the resemblance each individual blossom bears to the capuchin of a monk. These plants should be grown under tall trees, for they cannot stand too strong sun, and will blossom very late in the autumn if protected by the trees from frost. I gathered them last year in November. Phloxes, Rudbeckias, Monkshood, Valerian, Lychnis, Tritomas, Iris, Peonies and Veronica are best raised, not from seed, but by buying the plants, and then after a time, as I have said before, dividing them. For instance, take a fine large plant of Phlox of some choice variety, divide all the roots and set out each one separately. From one plant you may, in two years' time, get twenty splendid ones, and the same with the other varieties I have mentioned. _Rudbeckias_, of the Golden Glow variety, grow from six to eight feet high, and must be staked, or when heavy with blossoms they will blow down or be beaten down by the rain. Each plant will bear quantities of long-stemmed double yellow blossoms, which resemble a double Dahlia. These will keep nearly a week in water. When the plant has finished blossoming, cut down the tops, and in October there will be a second crop of blossoms just above the ground. The Golden Glow should be divided every other year, and in this way it is even more remunerative than the Phlox. I started with fifty plants, and think it will soon be possible to have a farm of them. LIST OF HARDY PERENNIALS, WITH HEIGHT, COLOUR AND TIME AND PERIOD OF BLOOMING, ARRANGED ALPHABETICALLY. _Aquilegia_, or Columbine, all colours; one to two and one-half feet; tenth of May to first week in June. _Chrysanthemums_, all colours but blue; three feet; end of September until very cold weather. _Delphiniums_, all shades of blue; three to four feet; July; later crops after cutting down. _Dianthus barbatus_ (Sweet William), red, pink, white; one to two feet; June. _Dicentra spectabilis_ (Bleeding Heart), red and white; one to two feet; May. _Gaillardia_, yellow, red center; two feet; July, August and September until killed by frost. [Illustration: A single plant of Phlox August twenty-fifth] _Helianthus multiflorus plenus_, hardy double Sunflower; yellow; four to five feet; all summer. _Hibiscus_, pink, white; four to five feet; August and September. _Hollyhocks_, all colours but blue; single, double, four to eight feet; tenth of July to middle of August; two to five stalks on a plant. _Hyacinthus candicans_, white; four feet; last three weeks of August. _Iris Germanica_, all colours; two to three feet; end of May to first of June. _Lychnis_ (London Pride), scarlet; two and one-half feet; July. _Oriental Poppy_, scarlet, also pink; three feet; end of May and first of June. _Peonies_, all colours but blue; two to two and one-half feet; end of May, for three weeks. _Pentstemon_, many colours; three feet; August and September. _Phlox_, all colours; two to four feet; early July until killed by frost, if the heads are cut as soon as finished flowering. _Platycodon Mariesi_, blue; one and one-half feet; August. _Rocket_ (_Hesperis Matronalis_), white and purple; two feet; May. _Rudbeckia_ (Golden Glow), yellow; five to eight feet; middle of July to September first; second crop in October. _Tritoma_ (Red-hot Poker Plant), orange-scarlet; three to four feet; September and October until killed by frost. _Valerian_, white; three feet; May and June. _Veronica longifolia_, blue; two feet; August. _Yucca filamentosa_, white; three to five feet; second and third weeks in July. [Illustration: Vase of Canterbury Bells June twenty-first] BIENNIALS AND A FEW BEDDING-OUT PLANTS CHAPTER IX BIENNIALS AND A FEW BEDDING-OUT PLANTS There are but few hardy biennials. The important ones, which no garden should be without, are: _Digitalis_ (Foxgloves) and _Campanula medium_, (Canterbury Bells.) Foxgloves and Canterbury Bells bloom in June and July for more than a month, and give a touch of glory to any garden. Catalogues and many gardening books say that the seeds should be sown in early autumn, and the plants will bloom the following year. It is true that they will bloom when sown in the autumn, but unless kept over the winter in a cold-frame the plants will send up stalks, only about a foot in height. Sow the seeds of Foxgloves and Canterbury Bells in the shady part of the seed-bed in early April. Keep the young plants moist. About the fifteenth of July, if there are a large number of plants and there be no other place, they should be transplanted to the vegetable garden, where they can follow early crops of peas or lettuce. Have the ground spaded finely, and make shallow trenches, perhaps six inches deep, in which put a good layer of manure and cover this with earth, then set the plants about six inches apart. Keep them well watered when the weather is dry, and the earth thoroughly stirred. By the twentieth of September or the first of October they should be transplanted to the places where they are to bloom the following year. The plants should then be a foot across, and next June will send up several stalks about three feet high. The Canterbury Bells should be six inches across in the fall, and the next year about two feet high. [Illustration: A single plant of Foxgloves; White Sweet William in front June thirteenth] _Foxgloves_ seed themselves with great abundance, unless the stalk is cut before the seed ripens. In the spring I have the little plants, seeded in this way from the year before, taken from the borders and transplanted in rows, and find they are larger and stronger than any others. Foxgloves, white, spotted and pale lilac, are the pride of the garden. Plant them back of the Sweet Williams, in clumps of six or eight, or else with Peonies. They blossom at the same time, and the pinks or reds of Sweet Williams or Peonies, with here and there a mass of white, and the tall, graceful spikes of the Foxgloves rising above them, produce so beautiful an effect that you will simply have to go and look at them many times a day. _Canterbury Bells._ Let any one who has been at Oxford in June and July recall the Canterbury Bells in those loveliest of all gardens, New College and St. Johns, and she will not rest until they have a place in her garden. I did not know these flowers before going to Oxford, and after seeing them could not wait to raise them from seed, but bought three dozen plants to look at the first year. The roots that came to me were miserable little things, and, in spite of every care, half of them died. Those which lived and bloomed were very lovely. They begin to blossom with us about the sixth of June, and last four or five weeks. In colour they are white, pink, purple and blue. Canterbury Bells and Foxgloves are biennials. They are sown one year and grow for a year, then bloom and die. This seems a great deal of trouble for one season's flowers, but their beauty repays the gardener a hundred fold. They require a slight winter protection of leaves or stable litter, but care must be taken that the tops of the plants are not covered. THE BEDDING-OUT PLANTS And now a little about the only three bedding-out plants that I grow--Dahlias, Cannas and Gladioli. I should have said four, for there is always a large bed of about four dozen Scarlet Salvia (the Bonfire variety is the best), whose brilliant colour and sturdy growth cannot be spared. They begin to blossom in July. By driving a tall stake in the center, and other stakes around the edge of the bed of Salvia, it can be covered with burlaps or carriage covers when the nights are frosty and preserved in all its beauty until November. _Dahlias_ can be grown in rows in the vegetable garden, if there be no other place for them. They are decorative and desirable for cutting. Plant two or three tubers in a hill about the third week in April. They should be planted eight inches deep and three feet apart, and kept well staked. The soil should not be too rich, or they will all grow to stalk and leaf, and blossom but little. All the varieties are lovely, the Cactus kind more so, perhaps, than the others. In the autumn, when the tops have been killed by the frost, the tubers must be taken up, dried off carefully, and stored in a cellar that does not freeze. _Gladioli_ can be planted from April fifteenth to June fifteenth, in beds by themselves or in clumps in the borders, so that the blossoms may be had in succession. Gladioli come in many colours. _Cannas_, the beautiful French varieties. These, of course, are most effectively grown in masses, and require full sun. The roots, like those of the Dahlias, increase so that there is almost double the quantity to plant the next spring. It is well to have the Cannas started in boxes in sunny windows, in tool-room or carriage-house, by mid-April. They can be kept through the winter with the Dahlias and Gladioli. [Illustration: Vase of Foxgloves June fourteenth] ROSES CHAPTER X ROSES The Rose asserts her right to the title of the "queen of flowers" through her very exclusiveness. She insists upon being grown apart from other plants; otherwise she sulks and is coy, refusing to yield more than an occasional bloom. I speak from experience, having tried several times to grow Roses in the front of wide borders, where soil and sun and everything except the proximity of other plants was propitious. But they scarcely bloomed at all. Now, the same bushes, planted in rows so that a cultivator may be run between them, flourish satisfactorily. Grow Roses, then, in beds by themselves or in rows. If one has but half a dozen Roses, let them be grown apart from other plants. Pansies, however, can be grown in the Rose beds, as I have elsewhere described; Gladioli can also be planted among them without detriment to either. The reason for this is that the roots of these two flowers are not deep and do not interfere with the nourishment of the Roses. Roses on their own roots should live for years, if given proper treatment. Witness the Rose bushes in gardens, where with but little care they have flourished more than a generation. [Illustration: Summer-house, covered with Clematis and Crimson Rambler Roses June twenty-first] Budded stock must be planted very deep. The joint should be at least three inches under ground. Roses grown on their own roots are more expensive than the budded stock, but a far better investment. The budded stock is apt to send up from the parent root suckers or shoots of Sweetbrier, Buckthorn, Flowering Almond, or whatever it may be. These shoots must be carefully cut off. A friend told me that, when new to Rose growing, his bed of budded Roses sent up so many strange shoots that, not knowing what to do, he dug them all up but one. This he kept as a curiosity, and now it is a bush of Flowering Almond six feet in circumference. Everblooming Roses should be set out in the spring, about the middle of April. Hybrid Perpetual and Hardy Roses are best set out in autumn, about October tenth. When planting, always cut the plants back to about a foot in height. All Roses should be lifted every three years, late in October, and plenty of manure, with fresh earth and leaf-mould, mixed with sand if the soil is heavy, dug in. After five or six years I dig up my Roses about October tenth, cut the tops down to about twelve inches, cut out some of the old wood, cut off the roots considerably, trench the ground anew, and replant. The following year the Roses may not bloom very profusely, but afterwards for four or five years the yield will be great. My physician in the country is a fine gardener, and particularly successful with Roses. We have many delightful talks about gardening. When I told him of my surgical operations upon the Roses he was horrified at such barbarity, and seemed to listen with more or less incredulity. So I asked him if, as a surgeon as well as physician, he approved, on occasion, of lopping off a patient's limbs to prolong his life, why he should not also sanction the same operation in the vegetable kingdom. He was silent. I shall not say much about Roses, because there is so much to say. They need a book by themselves, and many have already been written. In my garden there are not more than five hundred Roses, including the climbing varieties. They have done very well, and have not been given more care than other plants. [Illustration: Rose bed carpeted with Pansies June twenty-first] For years I did not grow Roses, fearing they would not be a success. I had read about the beetles and spiders and other creatures that attack them, and dreaded the spraying and insect-picking that all the books said must be done. But, of course, I finally yielded to the temptation of having the very flower of all flowers, in my garden, and have found the trouble slight and the reward great. I have them in beds in a little formal garden, and in rows in a picking garden. The beds and the trenches for the rows are both made in the usual way, and every fall, in late October, before the Pansies are set out as already described, manure is dug in, and in the early spring, about the tenth of April, a handful of finely ground fresh bone-meal is stirred in around each plant with a trowel. They are sprayed with slug-shot three times between April tenth and May fifteenth, when they get a thorough spraying with kerosene emulsion, and, as a result, my Roses are not troubled with the usual pests. In November the hardy perpetuals are all cut back to about two feet in height, and the old wood is thinned out. The everblooming Roses are cut back to a foot in height. And Roses! well, really, no one could ask better from a garden. I have not many varieties, but when I left the country last fall, the tenth of November, although ice nearly an inch in thickness had formed, there were Roses still in bloom in the garden. The very hardy Roses, which, with a few exceptions, bloom only in June and early July, with an occasional flower in the autumn, should be planted together, as they need but slight covering. In late November the hardy ones get about a foot of stable litter over the beds. The everblooming kinds have six inches of manure, then a foot of leaves, and then a good covering of cedar branches over all. But cover late and uncover early (the very minute the frost is out of the ground), or your Roses will die. If asked to name, from my own experience, the best dozen Roses, I should say the following were the most satisfactory: General Jacqueminot, Jubilee, Ulrich Brunner, Madame Plantier, Clothilde Soupert, Kaiserin Augusta Victoria, La France, Mrs. Robert Garrett, Princess Alice de Monaco, Soleil d'Or, Perle des Jardins, and Mrs. John Laing or Baroness Rothschild. Paul Neyron and Prince Camille de Rohan might also be added to the list. Between Mrs. John Laing and Baroness Rothschild, it is a toss-up. Mrs. John Laing is a healthy, strong Rose, and a most constant bloomer. But none that grows is more beautiful than the Baroness Rothschild. Rather a shy bloomer; still each Rose, on its long, strong stem, surrounded by the very fine foliage that distinguishes this variety, makes a bouquet in itself. Baroness Rothschild is also vigorous, and I have never seen it attacked by the enemies of most Roses. Climbing Roses have so much use, as well as beauty, in a garden, that my advice is, wherever there is an excuse for having one, plant it there. They do finely on the south side of a house, on arches, summer-houses and trellises. I have a trellis along one side of a grass walk three hundred and fifty feet long. At each post are planted two Roses, a Crimson Rambler and a Wichuraiana. The Wichuraiana blossoms when the Rambler is done. Imagine the beauty of this trellis when the Roses are in bloom! On the other side of this walk there is a border four feet wide, with shrubs at the back, filled, all of the three hundred and fifty feet, with many varieties of perennials, also with Lilies and annuals planted in wherever a foot of space can be found. All of the Ramblers are good, but none blooms so luxuriantly as the crimson. The Climbing Clothilde Soupert, Baltimore Belle and Climbing Wootton are also fine. Of the Wichuraiana Hybrids, Jersey Beauty and Evergreen Gem are the best. The foliage is lovely, and the perfume of the flowers delicious. [Illustration: Canterbury Bells blooming in a border June twenty-first] The Climbing Roses should be yearly enriched in the spring with manure and bone-meal, and, after two years, some old wood should be cut out every autumn. Many of the Crimson Ramblers and Wichuraiana in my garden made growth last summer of splendid great canes, larger around than one's thumb and from ten to fourteen feet long. Monday was the day for tying and training the Roses, and often it seemed impossible for them to grow so much in a week. It would have been incredible, had we not the actual proof before our eyes. LIST OF HYBRID PERPETUAL AND HARDY ROSES BLOOMING IN JUNE, WITH AN OCCASIONAL BLOOM IN SEPTEMBER _Red_ General Jacqueminot Prince Camilla de Rohan, (darkest Rose of all). Jubilee. Baron Bonstetten. General Washington. John Hopper. Ulrich Brunner. Victor Verdier. _Pink_ Mrs. John Laing (constant bloomer). Anne de Diesbach. La France (blooms all summer). Magna Charta. Mme. Gabriel Luizet. Baroness Rothschild. Paul Neyron. _White_ Margaret Dickson. Coquette des Alpes. White Maman Cochet (blooms continually). Madame Plantier (blooms continually). Coquette des Blanches. Mme. Alfred Carriere. Marchioness of Londonderry. _Yellow_ I know but two hardy yellow Roses: The Persian Yellow. Soleil d'Or. The monthly or everblooming Roses, which need very heavy covering in winter, should be planted together. The following are a few of the best and most constant bloomers: Kaiserin Augusta Victoria, white. Bride, white. Clothilde Soupert, white with faint blush center. Madame Hoste, creamy white. Perle des Jardins, yellow. Sunset, yellow. Mlle. Germaine Trochon, yellow. American Beauty, rich crimson. Marion Dingee, deep crimson. Souvenir de Wootton, crimson. Bridesmaid, pink. Hermosa, pink. Madame de Watteville, pink. Burbank, pink. Mrs. Robert Garrett, pink. Princess Alice de Monaco, petals white, edged with blush-pink. LILIES CHAPTER XI LILIES Lilies, too, should have a book for themselves. My knowledge of them is slight. _Lilium auratum_ (Auratum Lily), the grandest of all Lilies, disappears after a few years. If large-sized bulbs are bought there will be the first year from twenty to thirty Lilies on a stalk four feet high, the second year seven to ten, the third year perhaps two or three, but oftener none at all. If you then dig for the bulb, lo! it is gone. The expense, therefore, of these Lilies is great, from their having to be often renewed. Still, do not fail to have them, if possible, for nothing can take their place. They bloom from the middle of July for about a month. I wrote to an authority on Lilies to ask the cause of this disappearance. He told me that, as soon as planted in this country, a microbe disease attacked them and they gradually disappeared under its ravages. Botanists surely should find a specific, or antidote for this; but perhaps, like some of the most terrible diseases of the human being, it evades all research. Miss Jekyll, in her book on Lilies for English Gardens, in speaking of _Lilium auratum_ says: "This grand Lily, well planted, and left alone for three years, will probably then be at its best. After this the bulbs will be likely to have increased so much that it will be well to divide them." This would seem to imply that the Auratums thrive in England. Well, they have climate in England, even if we have weather, and English gardens will always fill American gardeners with despair. [Illustration: _Lilium auratum_ growing behind Peonies and Columbines that bloomed earlier August tenth] _Lilium candidum_, which blooms before the other Lilies, is hardy and fragrant and increases rapidly. These Lilies must have full sun and light soil. About every three or four years they can be separated, which should be done as soon as the stalks turn yellow, as the bulb makes an autumn growth. For this reason the Candidums must always be bought and planted by the tenth of September. Other Lilies may be planted in the spring, when the frost leaves the ground, or in October. _Lilium speciosum rubrum_ thrives and increases in our climate, needs a partly shaded location and, therefore, does well when planted among Rhododendrons. It blooms after the Auratum, the end of August and first two weeks of September. _Lilium speciosum album_ blooms at the same time as _Lilium rubrum_. It is a beautiful pure white Lily with wax-like curved petals, grows best in full sun, and averages six Lilies on a stalk, although I have often counted more. _Lilium longiflorum_ blooms early in July. These lilies are very much like the Bermuda Lily, except that they have, as a rule, about four blossoms on a stalk, and are hardy. In my garden they have not increased. _Hansoni_, a Japanese Lily, flowering in June; bright yellow in color; perfectly hardy and very desirable. _Lilium Canadense_ (the Meadow Lily), yellow, red and orange, increases, and is very satisfactory, but likes as moist a situation as possible. _Tigrinum_, the old Tiger Lilies, both single and double. These bloom in July, increase rapidly, and by planting, when fully ripened, the little black bulbils which form on the stalk, any number of bulbs can be raised. _Funkia subcordata_ is the old-fashioned white Day Lily of our grandmothers' gardens. The broad leaves of this plant are almost as handsome as the spikes of bloom. These Lilies flower best when grown in the sun, but then the leaves turn yellow--so give them a partly shaded place. _Funkia cærulea_, with the blue blossom, is worthy of a place in the garden, though far from being as effective as the white-flowered variety. I also grow the kind with the small white and green variegated leaves for the sake of the foliage, so useful in house decoration. Funkias are not, botanically speaking, Lilies, but are mentioned in this chapter because popularly known as Day Lilies and on account of the lily-like form of their blossoms. _Lily-of-the-valley_ should have a place in every garden. Absolutely hardy, requiring no care, it blooms prolifically in early May, fills the air with its fragrance, and is beloved by every one. The German name for this flower, Mai Glöcken (May Bells) is particularly appropriate. I have heard of one woman whose bed of these flowers, four feet by fifty feet, has yielded as many as twenty thousand sprays in one season. The pips can be set out the end of October or the beginning of November. If the bed is quite large, when the Lilies have finished blooming, some can be lifted here and there and transplanted. As the pips increase rapidly, their places will soon be filled. Lilies-of-the-valley do best in a partially shaded place, and require a deep, rich soil, well mixed with leaf-mould. * * * * * A Lily bed should be prepared, if the place is damp and drainage not good, by digging out the soil for three feet, and putting a foot of cobblestones in the bottom; then fill up with a mixture of good soil, leaf-mould and sand, and very old, well-rotted manure. In the ordinary garden that is not wet, two feet are enough to dig out the bed, and the cobblestones can be omitted. Lilies should always be set with a handful of sand around the bulb, to prevent any possibility of manure coming in contact with it, as the manure will destroy the bulb. [Illustration: Vase of _Lilium auratum_ August second] In my garden there is no special place prepared for the Lilies, but they are grown in all the borders, the _Rubrums_ in the shade, the others in the sun, and this year there have been thousands of them. If there are no woods near, where the men can gather leaf-mould, have the rakings of the autumn leaves put in a pile, cover with boards, and occasionally during the spring and summer have them well forked over; the next autumn there will be a quantity of the finest thing for Lilies, Rhododendrons, Ferns, or indeed any kind of plant. This should be mixed in a pile in the proportion of one wheelbarrow of mould, two of good soil, two coal-scuttlefuls of wood-ashes, one-half barrow of old manure and two spadefuls of fine bone-meal. There is also nothing better for the Roses than some of this mixture. All Lilies do better if well mulched with clippings of lawn grass or with very old manure. The varieties of Lilies mentioned are the easiest grown and the most satisfactory. Lilies should always be planted in clumps of the same kind--never less than six, and the number increased according to the size of the garden. Alternate clumps of a dozen each of _Lilium auratum_ and _Lilium album_ planted in a border just behind Foxgloves and Canterbury Bells will come into bloom when these two biennials have finished, the _Auratum_ first, then the _Album_; these four flowers will keep the border gay from early in June until the middle of September. Lilies should be planted about eight inches deep, and have a covering of litter late in the autumn. [Illustration: Vase of _Lilium speciosum album_ and _rubrum_ September sixth] SPRING-FLOWERING BULBS CHAPTER XII SPRING-FLOWERING BULBS Bulbs can be planted at any time in the autumn before the ground freezes; the first week in November is as good a time as any. The cost of Tulips, Narcissi and Daffodils is not great. They multiply and need not be disturbed for three or four years. _Snowdrops._ The earliest of all flowers to bloom is the Snowdrop. After the long, cold winter, with the melting of the snow and the first suspicion of milder air, these frail beauties send up their graceful bells of white. With what triumph the first one is found and brought to the house, and what a thrill of joy it gives to know that spring will soon be here! Snowdrops can be planted thickly in the borders and also, like Crocuses, in the grass. The foliage of both will die before it is time to mow the lawn. _Crocuses_, which should be planted in the grass, will begin to bloom as soon as the Snowdrops pass. The gay little things make the lawn, while still brown, a carpet of bright colors. I heard of a gentleman who planted ten thousand of them in this way, and was rewarded by a most beautiful display at a time when there were no other flowers. [Illustration: Garden arch, covered with Japanese gourds August twenty-seventh] _Tulips_ I plant everywhere in the borders about four inches apart, all kinds, such as single, double, Gesnerianas and Parrot Tulips; but always a quantity of only one kind together. The bed where later the Salvias are put, has three hundred Golden Yellow Tulips. When these have faded, the Salvia plants are set out in the same bed, without disturbing the bulbs. This can be done if the men are careful, and when the Tulip leaves are quite yellow they are cut off (for unless allowed to ripen the bulb does not grow and multiply). Every three years all Tulips are dug up in the autumn, after the Salvias have died; the bed is then made very rich, and the Tulips reset. There are generally more than enough to refill the bed. The same treatment is pursued in the Canna bed, only here the Tulips are double white. Tulips will bloom from April twentieth until the last of May, if both the very early as well as the late kinds are planted. The late varieties are the Parrot and Gesneriana, which latter grow two feet high and are very showy. I have been constantly surprised to find that many good gardeners take up all bulbs when through flowering in the spring, store through the summer and replant in the autumn. This is not only unnecessary, but it is better for the bulbs to remain in the ground as nature intended. Mine have always been so treated and have been successful. In planting bulbs in newly prepared soil, great care must be taken that they do not come in contact with manure. To prevent this, the man should have a box of sand, in a handful of which each bulb should be set. Spring-flowering bulbs should be planted about four inches deep. _Poeticus Narcissus_ and _Daffodils_, both single and double, do well when naturalized in grass that need not be cut until the foliage of the bulb has died in June. They also make a very good edging for a border along a walk. The single Van Sion and Emperor Narcissus are excellent varieties. The old-fashioned sweet-scented Jonquil and double Van Sion, or Double Yellow Daffodil, are as satisfactory as any of the numerous kinds named in the catalogues. One early spring, the Double Yellow Daffodils were all in bloom on the tenth of April. Narcissi and Daffodils live for generations. I know some double yellow Daffodils growing in my great-grandfather's garden, that were planted over seventy years ago. The place was sold and the house burned about thirty years since, and all this time has been entirely neglected. Some one told me that Daffodils and Narcissi still bloomed there bravely in the grass. With a cousin, one lovely day last spring, I took the train out to this old place and there found quantities of the dainty yellow flowers. We had come unprovided with any gardening implements, having nothing of the kind in town, and brought only a basket for the spoils, and a steel table-knife. We quickly found the knife of no avail, so borrowed a sadly broken coal-shovel from a tumble-down sort of a man who stood gazing at us from the door of a tumble-down house. The roots of the Daffodils were very deep, and neither of us could use a spade, so the driver of the ramshackle wagon taken at the station was pressed into service. Handling of shovel or spade was evidently an unknown art to him. The Daffodil roots were nearly a foot deep, but we finally got them, several hundreds of them, all we could carry. The driver seemed to think us somewhat mad and said "Them's only some kind of weed," but when I told him the original bulbs from which all these had come were planted by my great-grandmother and her daughter, and that I wanted to carry some away, to plant in my own garden, he became interested and dug with all his heart. The bulbs were in solid clumps a foot across and had to be pulled apart and separated. They were the old Double Yellow Daffodil and a very large double white variety, the edges of the petals faintly tinged with yellow and delightfully fragrant. My share of the spoils is now thriving in my garden. By the process of division every three years, these Daffodils can be made to yield indefinitely, and perhaps some great-grandchild of my own may gather their blossoms. [Illustration: Vase of Phlox; single blossoms actual size August second] _Hyacinths_, too, should have a place in the spring garden. They are more expensive, as a rule, than Tulips, Narcissi and Daffodils, but, in large or small quantities, are well worth the money. The single varieties are generally preferred, while, of all kinds, the white and pale blue are the loveliest. Nothing in the garden gives so much pleasure as the early spring flowers. Perhaps this is because they are the first to bloom. Every one knows how beautiful the first lovely Dandelion seems, gold-starring the new grass. Many bulbs can be had for little money, and I would say to all, plant as many as you can squeeze in. From April fifteenth to May fifteenth I receive in town, twice a week, great boxes of spring flowers from my garden, enough each time to fill sixteen to twenty vases; yet my orders to the men are to cut always so that the flowers cannot be missed from the garden. SHRUBS [Illustration: Spiræa Van Houttei May thirty-first] CHAPTER XIII SHRUBS Of the hundreds of shrubs, comparatively few survive the severe winter climate of interior New York, or grow very luxuriantly. Lilacs of all varieties, white and purple, single and double; Deutzias, white and pink; and Syringa, the improved large-flowered variety, are most beautiful. _Spiræa Van Houttei_, sometimes called Bridal Wreath, with its long trails of white blossoms; and _Viburnum plicatum_, or Japanese Snowball, which in late May bears a ball of bloom on every twig and is both healthy and hardy, are also desirable shrubs. The old variety of Snowball is attacked by a blight, the leaves curl up and grow black and the blooms are imperfect. A few years ago I dug up all of mine and burned them. Altheas, or Rose of Sharon,--not by any means the old purplish red variety, but the beautiful new double white and double pale pink kinds, with blossoms coming in August and reminding one of Camellias,--are indispensable. Do not fail to have _Hydrangea paniculata_, with its great heads of white bloom, slowly changing to dull pink, and lasting quite six weeks. [Illustration: _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_ August twenty-sixth] Japanese Barberry, a dwarf shrub, covered in autumn with scarlet berries which remain on the bush all winter, is very ornamental. Many of us remember _Calycanthus floridus_, or the Sweet-scented Shrub of our young days, when the children would tie two or three of the queer brown blossoms in the corner of a handkerchief to regale their less fortunate companions with a sniff of the delicious odor. _Forsythia_ and _Laburnum_, or Golden Chain, both have yellow blossoms. Others are, _Weigela Rosea_, the well-known pink-flowering shrub; _Rhus Cotinus_, or Purple Fringe, and _Cydonia Japonica_, or Japanese Quince, deep rose-pink, flowering early in the spring. These all yield beautiful flowers, beside being hardy and of rapid growth. All shrubs should be trimmed as soon as they have finished flowering, but only enough to prevent their becoming spindling, with the exception of _Hydrangea grandiflora_, which should be trimmed back, at least three-quarters of the new growth, every year. It is important, also, to thin out the old wood of most shrubs after five or six years. Shrubs can be grown from cuttings if one has patience to wait for the result. But as it takes from three to four years' time and considerable care to grow a shrub that would cost but twenty cents, for which price many varieties of shrubs can be bought, few people care to raise them. On a large place it might be worth while to raise shrubs from cuttings. And where there is plenty of space, a small nursery of them might be kept. At the end of June take clippings about a foot long, make a shallow trench in good ground and plant them a couple of inches deep. They should be well rooted, in about six weeks. If the weather be dry, after planting them, they must be watered daily. The following spring they should be reset, a foot apart, where they can grow until transplanted to their final resting place. I know a beautiful hedge of _Cydonia Japonica_, or Japanese Quince, that has been grown from cuttings. Privet can easily be grown from cuttings, and I have raised Box from clippings. Fortunately, the season was a wet one, for if allowed to become dry before being well rooted, they would probably have died. LIST OF MOST SATISFACTORY SHRUBS _Altheas_, pink or white; blooms in August. Jeanne d'Arc, pure double white, the best. Grows six to eight feet in five years; must be trimmed in October. _Berberis Thunbergii_, or Barberry, of slow growth; about three feet high; desirable for its beautiful foliage and scarlet fruit in winter. _Calycanthus floridus_, or Sweet-scented Shrub. It yields its brown blossoms the end of May; slow-growing; requires but little trimming; height, five to six feet. _Cydonia Japonica_, Japanese Quince, has brilliant red blossoms in early May; grows six to seven feet high. _Deutzia crenata_, variety of pale pink, and _Candidissima_, white; of rapid growth, and very high; six to eight feet in five years. _Forsythia_ blooms in April with masses of yellow flowers; moderate, quick growth; seldom over six feet high. _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_, the finest of all hardy shrubs. The flowers are great panicles of white. They bloom about the first of August and remain beautiful for six weeks, slowly changing to a soft, dull pink. This shrub is most effective when grown in masses of a dozen or more, although single specimens are very fine. They must be vigorously cut back late every fall, leaving only about six inches of new growth. _Lilac_, common purple and common white; also _Marie Legray_, a fine white Lilac, and _Madame Lemoine_, a new double variety bearing very large trusses of flowers. All of these varieties of Lilac grow high and rapidly--frequently eight feet in six years. They require little or no pruning. It is sufficient to cut the blossoms either before or after they go to seed. _Lonicera rosea_ and _Lonicera albida_, upright Honeysuckles, in shrub form, vigorous, quick-growing, requiring but slight pruning in late autumn. They flower in May, and in midsummer are covered with beautiful berries. [Illustration: Vase of _Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora_ September tenth] _Magnolia conspicua_, with large white blossoms, blooms the middle of April; _Soulangeana_ has large pink flowers and blossoms the end of April. Magnolias should be pruned when set out, and should be moved only in spring. _Philadelphus syringa_, or Mock Orange; _grandiflorus_ is the finest. The flowers are pure white, very fragrant and bloom about the middle of June. The shrub grows high, is perfectly hardy and in every way satisfactory. It should be trimmed as soon as it has finished blossoming. Cut back about three-quarters of the new growth; it will then send out side shoots and become continually thicker. _Privet._ The common Privet is of very rapid growth and excellent for a screen. It should be trimmed the end of June, but only enough to prevent its becoming scraggly. The California Privet is not so hardy. _Rhus Cotinus_, popularly known as Smoke Tree or Purple Fringe, grows as high as a small tree and requires almost no pruning. In midsummer it is covered with fine, mist-like, purple flowers. _Spiræa Van Houttei._ This is one of the most satisfactory shrubs; is rather dwarf in habit, growing about five feet high. The end of May it is covered with clusters of white flowers on long, pendulous branches. Trim as soon as it has finished blooming, cutting off about half of the new growth. _Spiræa Anthony Waterer,_ another Spirea, very dwarf, only about a foot in height, and covered with bright crimson flowers from June to October. _Viburnum plicatum,_ Japan Snowball, one of the finest shrubs. It grows about six feet high, and is completely covered with its balls of snow in early June. It requires comparatively little trimming. _Weigela._--The two most satisfactory varieties of this shrub are _Candida_, whose blossoms are white, and _Rosea_, with pink flowers. They bloom most freely about the tenth of June, when each shrub becomes a mass of flowers. Care must be taken to cut out the old wood from time to time, and to trim after the shrub has finished blooming. A FEW EVERGREEN SHRUBS Of evergreen shrubs, _Kalmia latifolia_, or Mountain Laurel, is most satisfactory, growing three to four feet high. It is covered in early June with large clusters of pale pink and white flowers. _Rhododendron maximum_, the large-leaved hardy American variety. Under cultivation this shrub seldom grows more than six feet high; in the woods it is found much larger. _Japanese Holly_, a dense-growing shrub about four feet high, with deep glossy green foliage. _Tree Box_, generally trimmed in standard or pyramidal form and very slow-growing. PERENNIAL VINES AND CREEPERS _Ampelopsis quinquefolia_, Virginia Creeper. _Ampelopsis Veitchi_, Boston Ivy. _Aristolochia Sipho_, Dutchman's Pipe. _Bignonia radicans_, Trumpet Creeper. _Clematis paniculata_, clusters of fine white flowers. _Clematis Henryi_, large white flowers. _Clematis Jackmani_, large purple flowers. _English Ivy._ _Honeysuckle_, Hall's Japan, Golden Japan. _Hops._ _Vitis Coignetiæ_, Japanese ornamental grapevine; rapid grower. _Wistaria_, both purple and white. A FEW OF THE BEST ANNUAL VINES _Cobæa scandens_, purple and white. _Moonflower_, white. _Japanese Morning-glory_, all colors. _Passion Flower_, blue and white; must be started very early, and if well protected will sometimes survive the winter. _Japanese Gourd._ This must be descended from Jonah's Gourd of biblical fame, as it often grows from forty to fifty feet in a summer. It has yellow flowers and gourds, and is very decorative. WATER, WALKS, LAWNS, BOX-EDGINGS, SUN-DIAL AND PERGOLA CHAPTER XIV WATER, WALKS, LAWNS, BOX-EDGING, SUN-DIAL AND PERGOLA It is not advisable to arrange for a garden of any size without considering the question of water. Within the limits of a town supply there is only the comparatively simple matter of laying the pipes. But when the place is dependent upon its own water system, the amount to be counted upon and the situation of the garden with reference to the source of supply must be seriously considered. If possible the garden hydrants should not be more than fifty feet apart. This greatly facilitates watering. When further apart, plants are in danger of being injured by the unwieldy hose. A nozzle that will regulate the flow of water from a fine spray to a strong stream will be found convenient. Opinions differ upon the best way to lay water-pipes through a place, some preferring to put them but a foot under ground, and turn off the water in winter; others lay them in trenches three and a half to four feet deep, so that they are beyond all danger from frost. This latter plan was followed in my garden and I recommend it as being most satisfactory. The watering of a garden requires nearly as much judgment as the seasoning of a soup. Keep the soil well stirred and loose on the surface, going through the garden, where possible, with a rake; and if there is no room for a rake, stir gently with a trowel every five days or once a week. In this way moisture will be retained in the soil, since the loose earth acts as a mulch. [Illustration: Vase of double hardy Sunflowers (_Helianthus multiflorus plenus_) September fifteenth] When watering, be generous. Soak the plants to the roots; wet all the earth around them, and do it late in the afternoon, when the sun is low. How often have I been obliged to chide the men for watering too early in the afternoon, and not doing it thoroughly, for, upon stirring the ground, I would find that the water had penetrated but a couple of inches. During long periods of dry weather, the garden, without water, will simply wither and burn. Rhododendrons, Ferns and Lilies suffer in dry time, even though well mulched, and must be kept moist. Japanese Iris blooms but indifferently unless quite wet. When dry weather continues for a long period I divide the garden into three parts; one part is thoroughly watered every evening, and the following day the soil is stirred. In this way the plants suffer comparatively little. For years we had no water supply through the gardens, and really, in dry weather, life had no pleasure for me because of my unhappiness at the sight of the withered garden. I would drag watering-cans about, and beg and bribe all the family to do likewise. Every afternoon, about five o'clock, one of the men would fill eight ten-gallon milk-cans with water, put them in a wagon, and drive about the place watering the flower beds and borders. Frequently he would fill these cans three times in one afternoon. This, as may be imagined, was slow and unsatisfactory work, and, except in the case of a small garden, is too great a task. Often in a dry time, after dinner, I bethink me of the Rhododendrons or Ferns or Iris, or some other plants to which drought means death, and I feel sure "that boy has not watered them enough." Then, in ten minutes the garden skirt, shoes and gloves are on, and those thirsty plants get a drenching to their very roots such as they would never receive from any perfunctory "boy" or gardener. I go to bed warm and weary, yet sleep is sweet from satisfaction at the thought of the garden's happiness. WALKS Unquestionably, walks near the house should be graveled; they naturally have too hard usage to keep turf in good condition. Graveled walks should be dug out a foot or more in depth, filled in with broken stone, this covered well with coarse gravel, and finished with a coating of a couple of inches of whatever fine gravel is chosen. A walk thus made will be dry and well drained and weeds have little chance to grow. The most beautiful walks of all are those of grass. Strange to say, they are seldom seen in this country. Through any garden, some little distance from the house, where they will be walked on only by those going to the garden, the turf-walks, with ordinary care, will last well, require only the usual cutting with the lawn-mower, and, especially if edged with Box, should be the very pride and joy of the possessor's heart. The ground for such walks should be spaded deeply with plenty of manure, raked carefully and made very smooth. Prepare in September, and by the fifteenth or twentieth sow, very thickly, a mixture of one-third each to the bushel of Kentucky Blue Grass, Long Island Bent Grass and Red Top. Roll thoroughly, and if the weather be dry have the newly sown paths sprinkled daily and kept moist. The tender grass should appear in two weeks, and will continue to grow during October. [Illustration: Vase of Monkshood September thirtieth] About Thanksgiving time of the first year, cover with a layer of straw, and uncover about the twenty-fifth of March. At this time it is well to sow thinly some more grass seed of the same kinds, and again roll, the reason for the additional spring sowing being to replace any of the grass that may have been winter-killed. About the twentieth of April spread cotton-seed meal, the best of all fertilizers for grass, all over the paths. For years we have had the lawns covered with stable manure in February and raked off the first of April, and for years I have waged war with the weeds and wild grasses. But sow cotton-seed meal early in April, and if possible give the paths a little wood-ashes in June; the result will be a hundred per cent better than from the use of manure. Cotton-seed meal should not be sown too thickly, and wood-ashes must be spread thinly, so as not to burn the grass. The men tell me that a sharp-pointed mason's trowel is more satisfactory than any other tool for removing weeds from the lawns and grass paths. If this is carefully attended to the end of May, and again the latter part of June, and only artificial fertilizer used, there will be but little trouble with weeds in the grass. BOX-EDGING Box-edging should be set out in the spring, that it may be thoroughly rooted before winter. Great care must be taken in setting out the Box, that the row be absolutely straight and even. The garden cord is carefully stretched; a shallow, narrow trench is dug with the spade, and then the little plants are placed about three inches apart, each plant against the string. The trench is half filled in with earth, then a layer of manure, and finally more earth packed down. Box planted in this way should grow and thrive, especially if given, along in May, a little bone-meal. [Illustration: Sun-dial in center of formal garden August second] I write feelingly of Box-edging to-day. Last week, Holy Week, I spent in the country, and most of my time was passed on my knees. For, when not at church or driving the intervening five miles, I was setting out plants in the garden, and that, like one's prayers, requires kneeling. Four men were working, setting out plants and trees, but the earth was so sweet and warm and brown that it was impossible to keep away from it. With trowel in hand and joy in my heart, I set out hundreds of little Box plants, transplanted Columbines, Foxgloves and Canterbury Bells. Big robins were hopping tamely about, calling to one another; blackbirds and meadow-larks were singing their refrains; the brave plants were pushing their way through the earth to new life, and I thought how good it was to be alive, to have a garden to dig in, and, above all, to be well and able to dig. With work in the garden care and worry vanish. The cook (as some cooks of mine have done) may announce that "'tis a woild waste of a place. I be lavin' the mornin'." The hamper of meat does not arrive on the one train from town, or somebody smashes something very dear to your heart,--just go to the garden, tie up some Roses or vines, or poke about with a trowel, and though murder may have been in your thoughts, in half an hour serenity will return. And what does it all matter, anyway? Another maid can cook for a few days, and there are always bacon and eggs. Philosophy is inevitably learned in a garden. Speaking of eggs, I think of hens. Living on a farm, of course there have always been hens and chickens. These creatures were provided with houses and yards and fences, and given every inducement to remain where they belonged; yet with diabolical ingenuity they would escape from their quarters, dig under the fence, fly over it, or some one would leave a door or a gate open, and then, with one accord, all the flock would make for the gardens and scratch and roll in the borders. This sort of thing happened repeatedly, until I felt there must be a league between the farmer's wife and the hens. But the limit of endurance was reached when, one afternoon, coming out to look at a bed of several dozen Chrysanthemums set out in the morning, I found the poor plants all scratched out of the ground, broken and wilted. Then in wrath the fiat went forth, "No more hens on this farm, those on hand to be eaten at once." For days a patient family had hen soup, hen croquettes, hen salad and hen fricassee, until the last culprit came to her end. SUN-DIAL There is no more charming and interesting addition to a garden than a sun-dial. For hundreds of years sun-dials have been used as timekeepers, and though some of the very old ones were occasionally set into the façade of a building, they are generally found in the _plaisaunce_ or garden, mounted upon quaint pedestals. Sun-dials are supposed, by their owners, to keep accurate time, but it must be remembered that there is always a difference between clock-time and sun-time. While, to-day, our lives are frequently portioned into minutes, and it would seem as if one might loiter and be lazy in a garden, if anywhere, still even among the flowers we find a "_tempus fugit_." For a time after my sun-dial was set, it was amusing to notice how often, about half after eleven o'clock, and again at five, this late addition to the garden would claim the attention of the workmen. My sun-dial stands in the center of a formal garden where four paths meet, forming a circle twenty feet across. The pedestal is a simple column of marble, four and one-half feet high, slightly tapering toward the top, with beveled corners. This is placed on a stone foundation three and one-half feet deep, laid in cement. The pedestal I found at the yard of a second-hand building-material man, on Avenue B, in New York city. After it had been set in place, I wanted it rubbed up and a chipped place smoothed. The only available man for this work, was the gravestone-cutter from the nearest town. When he was recognized at work in the garden by passing countrymen, they supposed, of course, that some one was buried there, and many have been the inquiries as to "whose be that mouny-ment." Crimson Rambler Roses twine about the pedestal. At the corners of the four paths are standard Box trees, which stand like sentinels, and between them there are Bay trees in terra-cotta vases of simple shape--copies of antique ones. The dial made for the latitude bears this inscription, "_Utere praesenti, memor ultimae_" (Use the present hour, mindful of the last), which I found in an old book on sun-dials in the Avery Library, at Columbia University. PERGOLA Across the end of this garden is a rustic pergola seventy feet long, made of cedar posts cut from the woods on the farm, ten posts on a side, each post being set four feet deep. A string-piece of heavy chestnut rests on the tops of each row of posts. Cedar poles ten inches apart extend across the top and project two feet over each side. The pergola is eight feet wide and ten feet high, is easy to build and very effective. Care must be taken to set the posts at least four feet. At each post are planted a two-year-old root of Wistaria and one of Virginia Creeper, and I live in the hope of some day seeing the vines cover the pergola. The ground slopes gently where this is built, and the first autumn after it was made, it looked, from a little distance, so much like a section of an elevated railroad as to be very depressing. But one must possess imagination to be a gardener, and have the ability to see the garden as it will look "next year." So I refused to see the pergola except as clothed with vines, and in May, with the beautiful racemes of Purple Wistaria hanging from every rafter. Patience and perseverance are traits necessary to the gardener. One must not be discouraged, but determined to succeed. If a set of plants die, or do not flourish this year, try them again next season, under different conditions, until the difficulties are overcome. I have known people who began gardening as a mere pastime when over forty years old, and who have told me what an absorbing interest it had become and how greatly it changed the whole aspect of life for them in the country. What a delightful tie, fondness for gardening makes between people! I know several men with beautiful places and lovely gardens in which they take the warmest personal interest. Whenever I meet one of them at dinner, if by chance I am not seated next to him, I am unhappy and cannot listen sympathetically, either to the enthusiasm of the man on one side whose heart is, perhaps, bound up in golf, or to the laments of my neighbor on the other, who may be suffering from rheumatism or gout, and unable to eat or drink what he wants. INSECTICIDES--TOOL-ROOM CHAPTER XV INSECTICIDES--TOOL-ROOM The enemies of growing things have certainly increased alarmingly of late years. I cannot recall that formerly any insect was to be found in either vegetable or flower garden, other than the potato bug, currant-worm, cabbage-worm, and the green worm and small black beetle on the Rose; but now there are so many horrid creatures lying in wait until a plant is in perfection, to cut the stalk, or eat the root, or eat the pith from the stalk so that it falls, or to devour the leaves and eat the blossoms, that insecticides and a spraying machine are as necessary to a garden as a spade. For a small garden a spraying machine holding from a couple of quarts to a gallon, can be bought for a trifling sum, that will answer the purpose very well For a larger garden, a good air-pump, costing from five dollars upwards, will be found an excellent investment. One of the best insecticides is Bordeaux mixture, which can either be bought or made. I have twenty-five gallons made at a time and keep it always on hand. The following is the receipe: Three pounds of blue vitriol in coarse crystals; three pounds of unslaked lime. Slake the lime in two and one-half gallons of water; pour two and one-half gallons of water over the blue vitriol in another receptacle, and let both stand over night. In the morning stir the blue vitriol until all is dissolved; then let two persons pour simultaneously the lime water and the blue vitriol into the same receptacle, and add twenty gallons of water; stir well before filling the spraying machine. [Illustration: The Pergola (first summer) August twenty-fifth] Bordeaux mixture is to be used for rust, mildew, and all kinds of blight, whenever the leaves of plants have a tendency to turn black. Hollyhocks seem to be universally attacked by rust. Spraying the plants at the end of April, and again in the middle of May, should entirely prevent this. I have found that Bordeaux mixture prevents the leaves of Monkshood from turning black and falling off, if the plants are well sprayed with it about the middle of June and the first of July. Phloxes grown in rather shady places will, in damp weather, fall victims to mildew on the leaves. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture the end of June and middle of July should prevent this. Roses also have a tendency in warm, damp weather to mildew, which can be prevented by spraying the plants with Bordeaux mixture. Kerosene emulsion may also be prepared, and is excellent for killing, both the small green aphids that often cover the leaves of Roses, and other hard, scaly insects. Following is the receipe: Put one cake of laundry soap shaved fine into one gallon of water. When dissolved, add two gallons of kerosene oil. This makes the emulsion. For spraying, use one quart of the emulsion in fourteen quarts of water. Be sure that this is very thoroughly mixed before filling the sprayer. Powdered hellebore, if dissolved in the proportion of one pound of powder to one gallon of water, will destroy both the green worm on the Rose leaf and the small dark beetle that eats the Roses. It will also dispose of green worms on other plants. Slug-shot dissolved, one-half pound of powder to one gallon of water, will, if used the latter part of April and several times in May, keep the Roses comparatively free from insects. Slug-shot and hellebore may also be used dry and blown on to the plants with a bellows. I have used Hellebore in my garden for many years without harm to anything except the worms and beetles. But recently I heard of a lady who was severely poisoned in using dry Hellebore. The wind blew it into her face; perhaps some was inhaled, and serious illness resulted. I mention the fact here, to caution all who use it not to let either the spray or the powder come in contact with the skin. Some persons may be susceptible to the poison while others are not,--presenting a case of what the doctors call an "idiosyncrasy." Paris green, mixed in the proportion of two tablespoonfuls to three quarts of water and used as a spray, will destroy a beetle that sometimes appears upon the Gourd vines. Tobacco water will kill the black aphids which appear on the stems and leaves of hardy Chrysanthemums. It will also kill green aphids. This spray is made by filling an ordinary pail lightly, not pressed down, with tobacco stems. Pour as much cold water into the pail as it will hold; let it stand for three hours, when it is ready to use in the spraying machine. This mixture will be good for only twenty-four hours. Tobacco spray will also destroy the large red aphid (I call it this for want of, perhaps, the proper name) that has recently appeared in some localities upon the stems of the Rudbeckia (Golden Glow) and of the single hardy Sunflower, just below the blossom. The enemy of the Box is the white spider. The insect spins its web on the Box and works from the inside. If the branches are pulled aside, the inside of the plant will be found full of dead leaves in the vicinity of the web. Recently I read in a well-known gardening monthly, that this spider could be destroyed by spraying with kerosene emulsion. I have some fine Box trees, and there were several white spider-webs on each. Watering with a very strong force of water had been tried without effect. Upon reading the article in the monthly and finding that the spider was certainly causing disaster which might be fatal, I proceeded to have the trees sprayed with kerosene emulsion, using it of the same strength as for Roses. In fact, the sprayer was not re-filled, as there was enough left in it since last using it on the Roses. About three days after the Box had been sprayed, large, unsightly brown patches appeared on the trees, showing that the emulsion had killed the leaves wherever it touched them. The spider was not harmed. I mention this experience as an example of the danger of taking all the directions found in horticultural publications as gospel truth. Nor should an amateur gardener ever be tempted to trifle with plant medicines. I have a certain friend whose affection for her Roses is more profound than her knowledge of how to treat their natural diseases. Observing last summer that one of her most cherished Crimson Ramblers was covered with aphids, she concluded to spray it with "something." A bottle of carbolic acid being most available, she tested its merits at once. The efficacy of carbolic acid as a poison was proved beyond a doubt, for the insects became singularly dead in a day or two, and so did the leaves; they fell off together. There was nothing left but the forlorn stems and branches, looking like some freak of the vegetable kingdom. TOOL-ROOM [Illustration: Tritoma (Red-Hot Poker Plant) September twenty-eighth] It is of the greatest importance to have a tool-room or closet according to the size of the place, and to require all implements to be kept there when not in actual use. There should be shelves across one end or side, where shears, trowels, garden cord, clippers, watering-cans, mallet, various mixtures for spraying, oil-cans, keys for turning on the water, twine and all the smaller things one uses, may be found at a moment's notice. Garden sticks painted green, in three sizes, three and a half and four feet long, and five-eighths of an inch in diameter, and thicker ones an inch in diameter for Dahlias, should be kept on hand in barrels. They can be bought of lumber-dealers in New York, where they are known as "dowels." They come in bundles of one hundred, costing from sixty cents to a dollar and twenty-five cents a bundle, according to size, unpainted, and the men can paint them on rainy days. The lawn mowers and the roller (which should be a heavy one) can also be kept in the tool-room. Rakes, both iron and wooden, hoes, spades and shovels, the latter both long-handled and short-handled, are best kept hung up along one side of the closet, where the men can see at a glance what they want. There should also be a pickaxe and a crowbar for taking out refractory stones, and, most necessary of all things in a garden, the wheelbarrow should be kept here, too. A sickle and a scythe must not be forgotten. If the garden is large, a two-wheel tip-cart will prove a great saver of labor in carting manure and soil and in the removal of debris. On a particular shelf in my tool-room I keep my private trowel and flower scissors, to which are attached long red ribbons as a warning of "Hands off!" to others. There is also a clipper which I often use in walking about to trim a bit here and there from a shrub or a climbing Rose. If a scrap-book be kept, in which everything of interest pertaining to the garden can be pasted or written, it will be found a great help. In this way items about fertilizers, insecticides, special treatment of plants, with copies of lists ordered, can be preserved, and also, most interesting of all, notes of when the different plants bloom each year. I find the following under date of October 18, 1901: "To-day, though ice has formed three times, I have filled nineteen vases with flowers. They are Phlox, Larkspur, Monkshood, Salvia, Nasturtium, Roses, Mignonette and Chrysanthemums." After trying many kinds of gloves for gardening, including the rubber ones, I now use only old Suede gloves; they give sufficient covering and permit more freedom of movement to the hands and fingers than those of heavier material. It would be quite impossible to transplant tiny seedlings while wearing gloves with clumsy finger-tips. Unless a woman possesses a skin impervious to wind and sun, she is apt to come through the summer looking as red and brown as an Indian; and if one is often out in the glare, about the only headgear that can be worn to prevent this, is the old-fashioned sunbonnet. With its poke before and cape behind, protecting the neck, one really cannot become sunburned, and pink ones are not so bad. Retired behind its friendly shelter, you are somewhat deaf to the world; and at the distant house, people may shout to you and bells be rung at you, and, if your occupation be engrossing, the excuse "no one can hear through a sunbonnet," must be accepted. CONCLUSION CHAPTER XVI CONCLUSION The character of professional gardeners seems to be changing. They have become more perfunctory, more stubborn, more opinionated, until now it is a really serious question with them of "the danger of a little knowledge." To find a man who combines sobriety and a good disposition with a fair knowledge of his business and a real liking for it, is a difficult matter. Where but one man is kept to care for vegetables, flowers and lawn, he is more than likely to have little interest beyond potatoes or corn, or to be good at raising small fruits, and to consider everything else he has to do as so much waste of time. When first married, one of our gardeners was a German who took no interest in flowers, and planted half the vegetable garden with "kohlrabi" and "korn salad." We had never heard of these delicacies before, and did not care for them. I remember also his telling me that one kind of flower was enough to raise anyway. If a young man with an elementary knowledge of gardening can be found, who wants to learn, is strong, willing and intelligent, it is better to supply most of the brains yourself. You will find your own wishes more apt to be carried out than by the gardener who "knows it all," and seems to resent what he calls "interference" on the part of his employer. I remember, when a child, seeing my father's gardener walking about in the early evening after his supper, smoking a meditative pipe, tying up Roses or spraying plants, and often setting out seedlings after sundown. He was never idle; he loved his work and attended to it. But now it is rare indeed to see a gardener, after hours, going about his work; _autre temps autres moeurs_. [Illustration: Bringing in the flowers September sixth] Remember always that it is the overcoming of the difficulties in the gardener's way, the determination to succeed, that gives zest to the occupation. Did everything planted grow and flourish, gardening would be too tame. Rust and blight, cutworms, rose-beetles and weeds, afford the element of sport so attractive to us all. A lesson must be learned from every failure; with renewed patience persevere until success is reached. I would make the strongest plea in favor of a garden to all those who are so fortunate as to possess any land at all. The relaxation from care and toil and the benefit to health are great, beyond belief, to those who may have to work with head or hands. If you can snatch a few minutes in early morning or late afternoon, to spend among the plants, life takes on a new aspect, health is improved, care is dissipated, and you get nearer to Nature, as God intended. If the rich and fashionable women of this country took more interest and spent more time in their gardens, and less in frivolity, fewer would suffer from nervous prostration, and the necessity for the multitude of sanitariums would be avoided. Flower gardening is preëminently a woman's occupation and diversion. Nearly every great lady in England takes a personal interest in her gardens and conservatories, and knows all about the plants and flowers. Here, the majority of women having large places leave the direction of the flowers, as well as the vegetables and fruit, to the taste and discretion of the gardener, and thus miss a great and healthful pleasure. As a rule, young people do not care for gardening. They lack the necessary patience and perseverance. But in the years of middle life, when one's sun is slowly setting and interest in the world and society relaxes, the garden, with its changing bloom, grows ever dearer. [Illustration] [Illustration: Bed edged all the way with Sweet Williams PLAN FOR BORDER] [Illustration: PLAN FOR BORDER] INDEX _Aconitum Napellus_, 110. Altheas, 160. _Ampelopsis Veitchii_, 25. _Anemone Japonica alba_, difficulty with, 61. Annuals-- List, with height, colour and period of blooming, 88. Sowing, 78, 80. Transplanting, 86. [_See also names of flowers._] Antirrhinum, sowing, 80. Aquilegias, _see Columbines_. Asters-- Destruction by beetle, 14, 81. Sowing, 80. Auratum lily, 139. Disappearance of bulb, 139. Price, 42. Autumn work in garden, 70-72. _Azalea mollis_, perishability of, 13. Barberry as hedge, 51, 160. Bedding-out plants, 120. [_See also names of plants._] Beds, rule for making, 16. Beetle destroying asters, 14, 81. Biennials, 117. [_See also names of flowers._] Bone-meal, 73, 74. Bordeaux mixture, 190. Borders-- Around house, 29. Blooming from May to September, contents of border, 69. Planting, 29, 40-44, 67. Short path and narrow borders, 68. Small plot borders-- Boundary lines of property, 48-50. Cost, 44. Planting, 40-44. Boston ivy, 25. Box, white spider pest, 194. Box-edging, 177-178. Bulbs, purchasing and planting, 40-44, 149-156. Calendula, 81. _Calycanthus floridus_, 160. _Campanula medium_, 117. Candytuft, planting, 46. Cannas, 48, 120, 122. Canterbury bells, 117, 190. Cardinal Flower, transplanting, etc., 32. Centaurea, _see Cornflower_. Chrysanthemums, 43, 99. Clayey soil, lightening, 16. _Clematis paniculata_, 27. Climbing roses, 27, 131. Columbines, 41. Planting, 41. Sowing, 93. _Coreopsis_, 98. Cornflowers-- Blooming, etc., 81. Planting, 46. Cosmos, sowing, 81. Cost, _see Expense_. Creepers, _see Vines_. Crocuses, 150. Daffodils, 41, 152-154. Dahlias, 120, 121. Cost, 47. Planting, 45. Storage, 47, 48. Delphiniums, 96. Digitalis, 117. Double yellow daffodils, 152-154. "Dowels," 197. England-- Gardening seasons, etc., 19. Gardens, small plots, 37. English ivy, 25. Everblooming roses, 127, 134. Evergreen shrubs, 167. Exchange of plants, 98, 99. Expense-- Border planting, 40-44. Front beds, 47. Fall work in the garden, 70-72. Ferns-- Border of, 29. Maidenhair haunts, 31. Planting, 32. Transplanting, 32. Watering, 173, 174. Flowers-- Annuals, _see that title_. Gathering, extract from English book, 77. Perennials, _see that title_. [_See also names of flowers._] Flower garden-- Small plots of ground, 23, 37. Foxgloves, 117-120. France, small plots, 37. Front of the house, planting bed, 45. _Funkia cærulea_, 142. _Funkia subcordata_, 142. Gaillardias, 104. German iris, 104. Gladioli, 120, 122, 126. Purchasing, 43. Storing, 47. Gloves for gardening, 198. Golden Glow, 46, 47, 111. Grandiflora, 98. Grass walks, 175-177. Graveled walks, 174-175. Ground, _see Soil_. Hansoni, 142. Hardy roses, 127, 130. List of roses blooming in June and September, 133. Hedges-- Beauty of, as fences, 50. Preparing ground for, 50. Quick screens, 67. Varieties, 50-51. [_See also names, Privet, etc._] Hellebore, 192. Hemlock spruce, 50. Henryi, 27. Hibiscus, 98. Hollyhocks, 94. Planting, 28, 68. Seeding, 58. House-- Painting, 25-27. Plan of garden to suit style of house, 21. Vines, _see that title_. Hyacinths, 40, 154. Hybrid perpetual roses, 127. List of roses blooming in June and September, 133. _Hydrangea paniculata_, 160. Insects and insecticides, 189. Asters destroyed by beetle, 14, 81. Bordeaux mixture, 190. Hellebore, 192. Kerosene emulsion, 191. Paris green, 192. Slug-shot, 192. Tobacco water, 193. White spider on box, 194. Iris, 104, 173, 174. Ivy-- Boston ivy, 25. English ivy, 25. Jackmani clematis, 27. Japanese barberry, 51, 160. Japanese iris, 104, 173, 174. Japanese lily, 142. Japanese tree peonies, 106. Japanese vines, planting, 28. Kerosene emulsion, 191. Laying out a garden-- Beds in front of vines, 28. Borders, _see that title_. North side of house, 29. Plan of garden, suiting to style of house, 21. Soil, _see that title_. Vines, _see that title_. [_See also names of flowers, etc._] Lilac, 164. Lilies, 139-146. Auratum lily, _see that title_. Border planting, 42. Planting, etc., 144-146. Watering, 173. [_See also names, Lilium, etc._] _Lilium auratum, see Auratum lily._ _Lilium Canadense_, 142. _Lilium candidum_, 140. _Lilium longiflorum_, 141. _Lilium speciosum album_, 141. _Lilium speciosum rubrum_, 141. Lily-of-the-valley, 143. London Pride, 110. Lychnis, 110. Maidenhair fern, haunts of, 31. Mai Glöcken, 143. Marigolds, 82. Meadow lily, 142. Monkshood, 110. Moonflower, Japanese, 28. Morning-glory, Japanese, 28. Narcissus, 40, 152. Nasturtiums, planting, 79. Ordering plants, 65. Oriental poppies, 102. Painting of house and care of vines, 25-27. Pansies, carpeting rose beds with, 84, 126. Paris green, 192. Peonies, 41, 105. Perennial vines and creepers, 167. Perennials-- Development, 52. List, with height, colour and time of blooming, 112. Planting, 49. Raising in seed-bed, 48, 57. Seed-bed, _see that title_. Sowing seeds, 59, 93. Transplanting, 102. [_See also names of perennials._] Pergola, 183-184. Pests, _see_ Insects. _Philadelphus syringa_, 165. Phlox, 82, 106, 111. Pinks, 102. Plan of garden, suiting to style of house, 21. Planting, 66-74. Borders, 29, 40-44, 67. Candytuft, 46. Cornflowers, 46. Dahlias, 45. Fall work, 70-72. Ferns, 32. Hollyhocks, 28, 68. Lilies, 144-146. Perennials, 49. Roses, 126, 127. Rows, 68, 69. Small plot, 37-54. Starting a garden, 21. Transplanting, _see that title_. Plants-- Exchange, 98, 99. Ordering, 65. Unpacking, 65. _Platycodon Mariesi_, 96. Poeticus narcissus, 40, 152. Poppies, 102. Sowing, 78-79. Privet, purchase, etc., 51. Professional gardeners, 13, 203. Red-hot poker plant, 104. Rhododendrons-- Planting and care of, 29-31. Watering, 173, 174. Rockets, 98. Roots, purchasing, 40-44. Rose of Sharon, 160. Roses, 125-135. Best roses, list of, 131. Budded stock, 126. Carpeting rose bed with pansies and gladioli, 84, 126. Climbing, 27, 131. Everblooming, 127, 134. Exclusiveness, 125. Hardy, _see that title_. Hybrid Perpetual, _see that title_. List of hybrid perpetual and hardy roses blooming in June and September, 133. Planting, 126, 127. Replanting and cutting, 127, 130. Rudbeckias, 28, 46, 47, 111. Salvia, 121. _Scabiosa Caucasica_, 109. Scarlet salvia, 121. Scrap-book, 198. Screens, quick, 67. Seed-bed-- Empty, 62. Importance and satisfaction, 48, 57. Preparing, 57. Seeds, sowing, 58. Setting of plants, 13. Shirley poppies, 78, 79. Shrubs, 159-168. Evergreen shrubs, 167. Growth from cuttings, 161, 162. List of most satisfactory shrubs, 162. Planting, 50. [_See also names of shrubs._] Slug-shot, 192. Small plot, planting, 37-54. Borders, _see that title_. Front of the house, 45-48. Snowball, blight, 159. Snowdrops, 149. Soil-- Beds, rules for making, 13. Clayey, lightening, 16. Manure, use of, 71-74. Preparation of, 13, 16, 20. Sowing-- Annuals sown in seed-bed in spring, list of, 80. Seeds, 58. Spider on box, 194. Spring-flowering bulbs, 40-44, 149-156. Starting a garden, 21. Sticks, "dowels," 196. Suburban gardens, 39. Sunbonnet, 199. Sun-dial, 181-183. Sweet Peas-- Sowing, 83. Trellis, 84. Sweet Williams, 95. Tigrinum, 142. Tobacco water, 193. Tools and tool-room, 196-199. Transplanting-- Annuals, 86. Cardinal flower, 32. Fall work, 70-72. Ferns, 32. Perennials, 102. Tritomas, 104. Trumpet creeper, 25. Tulips, 41, 150. Unpacking plants, 65. Valerian, 99. _Veronica longifolia_, 104. Vines and Creepers-- _Ampelopsis Veitchii_, 25. Best annual vines, 168. Care of, 25. _Clematis paniculata_, 27. English ivy, 25. Henryi, 27. Jackmani clematis, 27. Japanese vines, 28. North side of house, 29. Painting of house, 25-27. Perennials, 167. Planting, 23. Roses, climbing, 27, 131. Trumpet creeper, 25. Virginia creeper, 25. Walks, grass and graveled, 174-177. Water supply and watering, 171-174. Weeding, 87. White spider on box, 194. _Yucca filamentosa_, 102. Zinnias, varieties of, 82. F. C. Printed in the United States of America. * * * * * * Transcriber's note: Apparent typographical errors have been corrected and hyphenation standardised, e.g., sunbonnet and Sunflower are written without hyphens throughout the book. Unusual punctuation and original spelling have been retained, receipe (recipe?) left as printed. The 1930 date on the title page might be a misprint for 1903, although there was a 1930 edition. 
45946	----	HARPER'S A-B-C SERIES A-B-C OF HOUSEKEEPING. By CHRISTINE TERHUNE HERRICK A-B-C OF ELECTRICITY. By WILLIAM M. MEADOWCROFT A-B-C OF GARDENING. By EBEN E. REXFORD A-B-C OF MANNERS. By ANNE SEYMOUR 16mo, Cloth HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK A-B-C OF GARDENING BY EBEN E. REXFORD HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS NEW YORK & LONDON COPYRIGHT, 1915, BY HARPER & BROTHERS PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA PUBLISHED MARCH, 1915 CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE I. MAKING THE GARDEN 1 II. MAKING A LAWN 5 III. THE BORDER 8 IV. ANNUALS 12 V. VINES 15 VI. SPRING WORK IN THE GARDEN 21 VII. MIDSUMMER IN THE GARDEN 26 VIII. WINDOW-BOXES 30 IX. THE USE OF GROWING PLANTS FOR TABLE DECORATION 33 X. DECORATIVE PLANTS 39 XI. THE BULB-BED 44 XII. GETTING READY FOR WINTER 48 XIII. BULBS FOR WINTER FLOWERING 54 XIV. THE WINTER WINDOW-GARDEN 61 XV. THE INSECT ENEMIES OF PLANTS 67 XVI. GARDENING FOR CHILDREN 72 XVII. HOME AND GARDEN CONVENIENCES 75 XVIII. GARDEN DON'TS 81 XIX. A CHAPTER OF HELPFUL HINTS 99 A-B-C OF GARDENING A-B-C OF GARDENING I MAKING THE GARDEN The first thing to do in making a garden is to spade up the soil to the depth of a foot. The second thing to do is to work this spaded-up soil over and over until it is thoroughly pulverized. The third thing to do is to add to it whatever fertilizer you decide on using. This may be old, well-rotted manure from the cow-yard, if you can get it, for it is the ideal fertilizer for nearly all kinds of plants. But if you live in city or village the probabilities are that you will be obliged to make use of a substitute. Bone meal--the finely ground article--is about as good as anything I know of for amateur use. The amount to use will depend on the condition of the soil to which you apply it. If of simply ordinary richness, I would advise a teacupful of the meal to a yard square of ground. If the soil happens to be poor, a large quantity should be used. It is not possible to say just how much or how little, because no two soils are exactly alike. One can decide about this when he sees the effect of what has been used on the plants whose cultivation he has undertaken. I speak of using it by measure rather than by weight because the gardener will find it easier to use a cup than a set of scales. When the soil has been thoroughly pulverized and the fertilizer has been well worked into it you are ready for sowing seed--that is, if the weather conditions are favorable. It is always advisable to wait until all danger from frost is over and the ground is warm enough to facilitate prompt germination. At the North the seed of our hardier plants can safely be put into the ground about the middle of May, but the tenderer kinds can well afford to wait until the first of June. In sowing seed don't follow the old way of making a furrow an inch deep in the soil, by drawing the hoe-handle along it, and then covering the seed deeply. Fine seed often fail to germinate when given this treatment. Simply scatter the seed _on the surface_, and then sift a little fine soil over it, or press the ground down firmly with a smooth board, thus imbedding the seed in the ground to a depth that is sufficient to insure enough moisture to facilitate the process of germination. Large seed, like that of the sweet-pea, nasturtium, mirabilis, and morning-glory can be covered with half an inch of soil. Weeding should begin as soon as you can tell the weeds and the flowering plants apart. It is absolutely necessary to keep the beds clean if you would have good flowers. Allow weeds to remain, and in an incredibly short time they will get such a start of the other plants in the bed that these will have received a check from which it will take them a long time to recover, when given an opportunity to do so by the removal of the enemy. There can be no compromise between weeds and flowering plants. One must give way to the other, and weeds will have it all their own way if given the ghost of a chance. Every gardener should be the owner of a wheelbarrow, a hoe, a spade, an iron rake, a watering-pot, and a weeding-hook. The last, which will cost ten or fifteen cents, will enable you to destroy as many weeds in half an hour as you could pull in half a day by hand, and it will leave the soil in as light and porous a condition as would result from going over it with rake or hoe. II MAKING A LAWN Most home-makers labor under the impression that it would be useless for them to undertake the making of a lawn, thinking it requires the knowledge and experience of the professional gardener to make such an undertaking successful. This is where they make a mistake. Anybody can make a lawn that will afford a great deal of pleasure if he sets about it, provided he is willing to do some hard work. The first thing to do is to make the surface of the ground level. This can be done by the use of spade and hoe. Take off the tops of the hillocks, if there happens to be any, and fill the hollows with the soil thus obtained. When you have a fairly even surface, go over it with an iron-toothed rake and make it fine and mellow. It is very important that all stones and rubbish of every kind should be removed if you want a good sward. After reducing the soil to the necessary degree of fineness, add whatever fertilizer to it you propose to make use of, and then go over the ground again with the rake and work this fertilizer in thoroughly. It is necessary to have it evenly distributed. If it is not, there will be patches where the grass will be thick and luxuriant, and others where it will be scanty and poor. Such a result should be guarded against by working the fertilizer into the soil so evenly that no part of it will be without its proper share. Then you are ready for sowing the seed. The seed to sow is the very best kind in the market. This will cost you a little more than the inferior kind that is offered each season, but it is worth a good deal more, and it is what you must have if you would make your lawn a thing of beauty. Procure it from some reliable dealer who makes a specialty of "lawn-grass mixtures." If you tell the dealer the size of your lawn and ask how much seed you will need, he will give you what he considers a fair estimate. I would advise you to double the amount, for this reason: a thickly seeded lawn will have the appearance, by the middle of the first season, of a lawn a year or two old. And because of the thickness of the grass it will be better able to stand the effect of drought and heat. You will find that the extra money invested in seed was a wise investment, and you will never have cause to regret making it. Sowing seems, to the amateur gardener, a matter of so little importance that it requires no special attention. All there is to do is to scatter the seed over the ground. But nine out of ten amateurs who do the work with this idea in mind will speedily discover their mistake. When the grass comes up thickly here and there, with vacant places between, they will come to the conclusion that sowing grass seed evenly isn't the easiest thing in the world, for the seed is so light that the slightest puff of air will blow it away, and some will settle where you want it to, and some will lodge where other seed has already lodged, and the result will be very unsatisfactory. In order to prevent such a condition of things as far as possible, I would advise sowing from north to south, and then from east to west. Do this on a still, damp day, if possible, and hold your hand close to the ground as you scatter the seed. Don't attempt to broadcast it, as you may have seen some gardener do, but be content to scatter it over a small portion of soil each time you sow a handful of it. By doing this you will prevent most of it from being blown away. III THE BORDER The owner of a small lot is often puzzled to know what to do with it. Of course there must be flowers, but where shall they be put? As a general thing, they are set out here and there, indiscriminately, and the result of such haphazard planting is far from pleasing. There ought always to be at least a suggestion of system in all garden arrangements. To scatter shrubs all over the lawn breaks up the sense of breadth and dignity which should characterize it, however small it may be. This being the case, the best place for shrubs and perennials is at the sides of the lot, leaving the rear for the vegetable garden. A border extending along the sides of the lot will serve as a frame for the home picture, and will be found the most satisfactory arrangement possible for small places. It ought to be at least four feet wide--six or eight will be found much better if ground can be spared for it--and a pleasing effect can be secured by letting it increase in width as it approaches the rear of the lot. It will be far more attractive if its inner edge curves a little here and there than if it is confined to straight lines. I would advise a "mixed border." By that is meant one in which shrubs and perennials are grown together and where annuals and spring-flowering bulbs can be used effectively to "fill in." The soil for such a border must be made and kept quite rich, for almost always we put so many plants into it that great demands are made upon the nutriment contained in it, and in order to have fine plants they must get all the food they can make good use of. You can't grow plants to perfection unless you feed them well. Every season--preferably in spring--manure should be applied liberally. In setting out shrubs one should take a look ahead and endeavor to see, with the mind's eye, what they will be likely to be when fully developed. If this is not done we are pretty sure to plant them so close that by and by we have a thicket of them, in which none of them can properly display their charms. Between the shrubs plant perennials and such summer-flowering plants as dahlias and gladioli. Plant the taller perennials at the rear, and those of medium height in the center, of the row, with low-growing kinds in front. By doing this we secure a sort of banklike effect which will be very pleasing. In order to plant intelligently, study the catalogues of the florists, for most of them give the height of each plant listed in them. If I were asked to name the best shrubs for amateur use, I would choose these: spiræa (especially the _Van Houttei_ variety), weigelia deutzia, lilacs in variety, flowering currant, and golden elder--the last a shrub with rich yellow foliage, capable of producing a most delightful effect when planted among richly colored flowering plants like the hollyhock and delphinium. From the perennial list I would select peonies, phlox, delphinium, iris, and hollyhocks. My selection would include the kinds named above because of their hardiness and ease of culture as well as their beauty. There are many other kinds which richly deserve a place in all gardens that are large enough to allow of free selection, but the owner of the average home lot will be obliged to draw a line somewhere, and he will be safe in confining his choice to the kinds I have mentioned. They are among the very best plants we have in their respective classes. IV ANNUALS The owner of a garden that is so small that but few plants can be grown in it naturally desires to confine her selection to such kinds as will be likely to give the greatest amount of bloom and require the least amount of care. At the head of the list it is quite safe to place the sweet-pea. This old and universal favorite blooms profusely and throughout the entire season if prevented from ripening seed. It is beautiful, wonderfully varied as to coloring, and so fragrant that it is almost a rival of the rose in this respect. It requires a treatment so unlike that of ordinary plants that it is really in a class by itself, if one would secure the best results from it. It likes to get a start early in the season and to have its roots deep in the soil, where they will be cool and moist when the hot, dry, midsummer season comes. To gratify this desire on the part of the plant we sow its seed in trenches four or five inches deep, about the middle of April, at the North, or as soon as the ground is free from frost. These trenches are V-shaped, and can easily be made by drawing the corner of a hoe through the soil. Sow the seed quite thickly, and cover with an inch of soil, trampling it down firmly. When the young plants are about three inches tall draw in about them some of the soil thrown out from the trench, and continue to do this from time to time as the plants reach up, until the trench is full. In this way we succeed in getting the roots of the plant deep enough to prevent them from drying out if the season happens to be one of drought. The best support for the sweet-pea is brush. The next best is woven-wire netting with a large mesh. Another plant that the amateur gardener cannot afford to overlook is the nasturtium. It is a most profuse and constant bloomer. Its colors run through all shades of yellow, orange, and red. It has a delicious spicy fragrance quite unlike that of any other flower I have any knowledge of. Fine for cutting. The aster must also be given a place in all gardens, large or small, because of its beauty, its wide range of color, and its ease of culture. There are several quite distinct varieties, all good, but none better than the long-stalked "branching" kind. This is the ideal sort for cutting. Its flowers rival those of the chrysanthemum in general effect and lasting quality. _Phlox Drummondii_ is an old favorite that holds its own against any of the new-comers. So is the verbena, and the calliopsis, and the good old "bachelor's-button," which you will find masquerading in the florists' catalogues as centaurea. It must not be blamed for this, as it has no reason to be ashamed of its old-fashioned name. The seedsmen alone are responsible for the change in nomenclature. Other stand-bys among the annuals are poppies, larkspur, petunias, ten-week stock, marigolds, scabiosa, mignonette, eschscholtzia (better known as California poppy). Of course the list of really desirable kinds could be extended almost indefinitely, but I do not think it advisable to make mention of other kinds here, because it is not the part of wisdom for the amateur gardener to attempt growing "a little of everything." It is better to confine one's attention to a few of the kinds with which success is reasonably sure until experience justifies one in undertaking the culture of those which are not so self-reliant and unexacting as the kinds mentioned. V VINES If any one were to ask me to tell him what vine I considered best adapted to amateur culture _in all respects_, I would decide in favor of the ampelopsis--better known in many localities as Virginia creeper. My decision would be based on the beauty of the vine, its rapid growth, its hardiness, and its ability to furnish its own support on walls of wood, brick, or stone. Its foliage is very pleasing in summer, but it is doubly so in autumn, when its green gives place to a brilliant crimson and a rich maroon. At that season of the year all our flowering vines are eclipsed by its magnificent coloring. It grows well in all kinds of soil--better, of course, in a good one than a poor one--and it will go to the eaves of a three-story house if given an opportunity to do so, and cover every inch of the wall unless special efforts are made to prevent it from doing this. If you do not want your windows hidden under its luxuriance it will be necessary for you to cut away a good many of its branches during the summer. The Dorothy Perkins rose--one of the rambler class--is a most charming vine when in full bloom, and it has the merit of being quite attractive at other periods, as its foliage is a rich, dark, shining green--something that cannot truthfully be said of some of the other members of this class of roses. It is the only rambler I would advise for use about porches and verandas. It blooms in wonderful profusion. Its flowers are a soft pink, borne in large, loose clusters or sprays. The general habit of the plant is all that could be desired. It is the only member of the rambler class that is really vinelike. There are two varieties of clematis that I am always glad to speak a good word for. One is the native variety, catalogued as _C. flammula_. This is a very rampant grower, and well adapted for use wherever a dense shade is desired. It blooms in August. Its flowers are white. They are succeeded by seed with a feathery tail which makes the plant look as if covered with gray smoke. This variety is always greatly admired because of this peculiarity. The other variety that I have a special fondness for is _C. paniculata_. This is a late bloomer, being in the prime of its flowering period long after the plants in the garden have completed the work of the season. Its flowers are of the purest white. They are small, individually, but they are borne in such profusion that the upper portion of the vine will be completely covered with them. It will look as if a fall of snow had tried to hide it. I consider this one of our very best flowering vines. Unlike the hybrid members of the clematis family, with their enormous flowers of rich colors and scanty foliage, it is perfectly healthy, and it has ample foliage to make a charming background for its blossoms. The trumpet honeysuckle is a favorite wherever grown. It is one of our best vines for porch use, as it does not climb to a great height. It bears its scarlet-and-orange flowers throughout the entire season. It is an especial favorite because its foliage is always clean and seldom attacked by insects. The good old morning-glory is, all things considered, our best annual flowering vine. It grows rapidly, reaching to the windows of the second story by midsummer. It is a free and constant bloomer. It is excelled by no other vine in richness and variety of color--white, pink, purple, blue, violet, and crimson flowers will make a veritable "morning glory" of it. Care should be taken to provide it with stout cord to climb by. A light twine is not strong enough to support the weight of its heavy vines. Another good flowering vine is the hyacinth bean. Why it should be given this name I do not know, as there is nothing about it suggestive in the remotest degree of the hyacinth. Its flowers are a brilliant scarlet. It seldom grows to a greater height than seven or eight feet, and is therefore well adapted to use about porches where a rampant grower is not wanted. The wild cucumber, catalogued as echynocystis, is a good vine for covering tall buildings and screens. It will make a growth of twenty-five or thirty feet in a season. Its foliage is pretty, as are its white flowers, which make the vines look as if covered with foam. These give place to prickly fruit, somewhat resembling some varieties of cucumber, hence its popular name. The wild grape that is found growing along creeks and rivers in almost all parts of the country is a most excellent vine for covering summer-houses and for planting where it can have trees to clamber over. Its flowers are so small and so pale in color as to be scarcely distinguishable, but they are so delightfully fragrant that every one knows when the vine is in bloom without looking at it. Its fragrance has much of the pervading quality that characterizes mignonette, and is quite unlike that of any other plants I can call to mind. It seems to have the very spirit of the spring in it--vague, elusive, and sweet beyond description. I would not class the crimson-rambler rose among the vines, though the majority of our florists have done so. I treat it as a shrub, and find it most satisfactory when grown in that manner. I allow the young canes to reach a length of seven or eight feet. Then I nip off the tops of them. This causes side branches to develop. A central support is provided for these branches. In this way I succeed in getting flowers all over the plant--in other words, of making it a shrub instead of a vine. If it is used to cover summer-houses, the canes can be allowed to grow to suit themselves. Celastrus _scandens_, more commonly known as bittersweet, is a native vine that can easily be domesticated. It is well worth a place about every home. Its foliage is bright and clean, its flowers inconspicuous, but its fruit makes the vine a favorite wherever grown. This is a bright crimson, each berry being inclosed in an orange shell which splits apart in three pieces, revealing the fruit inside. As this fruit remains on the plant until late in the season, it makes the vine quite as attractive as if it were covered with flowers at a time of the year when bits of brightness are greatly appreciated in the garden. VI SPRING WORK IN THE GARDEN There will be a good deal of work to do in the garden, no matter how small it is. A good deal of this work will consist in cleaning up and removing rubbish, unless attention was given to this in the fall. The tops of last year's perennials should be cut away close to the ground, and dead annuals should be pulled up and added to the refuse-heap. If a covering was provided for your plants, it should be removed altogether or dug into the soil about the roots of the plants it protected. Never allow it to remain upon the ground about the plants unless it is of a kind that is not particularly noticeable. This should not be done, however, until the season is so far advanced that all danger of severe freezing is over. A plant that has had winter protection will not be in as good condition to resist the effect of severe cold as it would have been if that protection had not been given it. Therefore do not be in that haste which may result in waste. Rome wasn't built in a day, and spring isn't confined to a week. There will be plenty of time for uncovering plants when the weather will justify it. The bulb-bed should not have its covering taken off until you are quite sure that the weather will not be severe enough to injure the tender plants just peeping through the soil. Of course one cannot be quite sure when it is safe to do this, as our Northern seasons are subject to frequent and sometimes severe relapses. But if we keep an eye on the weather we can generally tell when uncovering is advisable. If, after the beds have been uncovered, a cold spell happens along and there seems to be danger in the air, spread blankets, old carpeting, or something of a similar nature over them. But before doing this drive pegs into the ground for the covering to rest on. Its weight should not be allowed to fall upon the young shoots, which will be so tender at this period as to be easily broken. Go through the garden with a view to finding what changes can be made advantageously. We often make sad mistakes in the location of our plants, and do not discover them until it is too late to unmake them that season. Sometimes a plant that has got into the wrong place so disappoints us that we think of throwing it out, but if we give it a place where its merits have an opportunity to assert themselves properly it turns out to be extremely satisfactory. The aim should be to get every plant into the place just suited to its peculiarities. It may take several seasons to bring about so desirable a result, but something along this line should be part of every season's work. Old clumps of perennials will be greatly benefited by a division of their roots about once in three years. Take them up, cut their roots apart, discard all but the youngest and strongest ones, and reset in a soil that has been made rich and mellow. Shrubs should be looked over with a view to doing whatever pruning may seem necessary. I do not advise much pruning, however. A shrub knows better than I do what shape to grow in to be most effective, and I prefer to let it train itself. About all the pruning I do is to cut away weak wood and to thin out the branches if there seems too many of them. Early-flowering shrubs should never be pruned until after their flowering period is over. Manure should be applied to all plants each spring. The older it is the better if you procure it from the barn-yard. On no account should fresh manure be used. Spread your fertilizer out about the plants, and then work it into the soil with spade or hoe. You will doubtless find many seedling plants in the beds where they germinated last fall. These should be transplanted to places where they are to bloom as early in the spring as possible. All perennials that got a start last year will bloom this season, but those grown from seed sown this spring will not bloom until next year. Therefore make liberal use of self-sown plants. We are generally in such a hurry to do garden work in spring that we begin it before the ground is in proper condition to make good work possible. If it is spaded up before the surplus water from early rains and melting snows has had a chance to drain out of it, no attempt should be made to pulverize it then. It simply will not pulverize, but the result of your attempt to make it do so will be a lot of lumps and chunks. But if left exposed to the disintegrating action of wind and sunshine and possible showers for a few days, it will be in a condition that will make it an easy matter to reduce it to fineness under the application of hoe or rake. Plan your garden. Never trust to "the inspiration of the moment" in making it. Go over the ground and decide where you think this or that plant would be most effective. Make a diagram of it, locating each plant that you propose to make use of, and when seeding-time comes you will have something definite to work to. Haphazard gardening is never satisfactory. VII MIDSUMMER IN THE GARDEN We somehow get the impression that when our garden is made in spring that's about all there will be for us to do. Our share of the work has been done, and if Nature does _her_ share, well and good. But in our endeavor to shirk further responsibility on to Nature we lose sight of the fact that gardening isn't a thing of periods. It is, on the contrary, a thing of one period, and that period covers the entire season. We soon discover that weeds will need attention every day. It really seems, sometimes, as if the pulling of one weed gave a score of others an opportunity to take its place, and that these were waiting impatiently to step into the shoes of their predecessors, if such a figure of speech is allowable in this connection. Neglect weeding for a week and you will be pretty sure to find that your seedlings of flowering plants are "out of sight" in more senses of the term than one. But weeding is not all that needs to be done. There will be more or less transplanting to do in the early part of the season. This should be done on a cloudy day, if possible. If no such day happens along at the time when it is absolutely necessary that this phase of gardening should be attended to, do it after sundown. Before lifting the young plants, water them well to make the soil adhere to their roots. As little exposure to the air as possible is desirable. Also have the ground in which they are to be set ready to receive them, that the work of transplanting may be completed with the least possible delay. Every gardener ought to provide herself with a little trowel that will enable her to lift a plant without breaking apart the soil about its roots. Drop the seedling into the place prepared for it, and press the soil about it firmly but gently. Then water well. If the next day is a warm and sunshiny one, some shade should be given the newly set plants. By tacking pieces of pasteboard six inches wide and eight or ten inches long to sticks a foot in length a very practical shade can easily be made. The stick to which the pasteboard is fastened by carpet-tacks is to be inserted in the ground by each plant. The pasteboard is to be bent over in such a manner as to prevent the sun's rays from striking the plant. By this method the plant gets all the protection it needs and the air is allowed free circulation about it. The hoe ought to be used daily in all gardens. If the season happens to be a dry one, don't forego its use under the impression that stirring the soil will result in its drying out. If you want to keep moisture _out_ of the soil, there is no way of doing it more effectually than by allowing it to become crusted over. But if you want to get all possible moisture _into_ it, keep it light and porous. Such a condition will make it possible for it to absorb whatever moisture there may be in the air. Make it a rule to go over your plants when they come into bloom and cut off every faded flower, to prevent the formation of seed. Most plants will give but one general flowering period if left to manage their own affairs. All their energies will be expended in the production of seed. As a natural consequence they will give you few or no flowers after the early part of summer. But, thwart them in their seed-producing intent and they will at once set about getting the start of you by making another effort to carry forward to completion their original plan. The result will be satisfactory to you, if it isn't to them. See that all plants needing support are provided with it. Never allow plants of slender habit to sprawl all over the ground. They give the garden an untidy, "mussy" look, and constantly accuse you of neglect. A bit of brush inserted by the side of such plants will furnish all the support required by them. In watering the garden in a dry season make the application after sundown. This will allow the plants to get the benefit of the water before the sun has a chance to draw the moisture out of the soil, as it will rapidly do if watering is done in the morning. What every gardener needs is a watering-pot with a long spout. This will make it an easy matter to apply the water close to the plant, where none will be wasted. Never use a nozzle on your pot when watering plants in the garden. That will scatter the water over a wide surface, and so thinly that but little good will result from the application. VIII WINDOW-BOXES Blessed be window boxes! They are excellent substitutes, on a small scale, for a garden, and almost any woman can have them, while a _real_ garden is out of the question for a majority of the women who love flowers. A garden on the ground is one of the impossibilities for most women in the city who could well afford one, so far as financial ability is concerned, but she can make her windows so attractive with flowers and "green things growing" that she will not greatly miss the garden in a crowded city whose every foot of land is worth thousands of dollars and therefore cannot be given up to anything as unprofitable, from a pecuniary standpoint, as flower-growing. The culture of plants in a window-box seems an easy thing to the person who sees plants growing luxuriantly in it. But it is not as easy as it looks, because the beginner in this phase of gardening seldom studies conditions before undertaking it. It generally takes one or two seasons of mistakes and consequent failures to make one a successful grower of plants in window-boxes. But after repeated failures the amateur generally discovers what was wrong in her treatment, and after that the probabilities of failure are slight. The cause of failure nine times out of ten is lack of sufficient moisture in the soil. A box exposed to air on all sides, as most window-boxes are, parts rapidly with the water that has been applied to it, and before one suspects the actual condition of things the soil in the box becomes so dry that the plants wilt. Then a little more water is applied, and the plants revive temporarily, but next day they wilt again, and shortly this alternation of a good deal of drought and a small amount of moisture results in the death of the plants. A box a foot wide and a foot deep and four or five feet long will require a large pailful of water daily. If you want to grow good plants in boxes don't form the habit which prevails to a great extent among amateur gardeners--that of applying a small quantity of water whenever you happen to think of it. A small amount makes the soil look wet on its surface and deceives one into thinking that because it looks wet there it must be in proper condition below. Examination will convince you of this mistake. Always apply enough water each time to saturate all the soil in the box, and make it a rule to do this every morning or evening. If you go on the "every-time-you-think-of-it" plan the chances are that you will not think of it at the right time or as frequently as you ought to. Be regular in caring for your plants. If those who complain of failure with window-boxes will use more water and use it frequently, they will have no trouble in growing plants in them, and growing them as well as they can be grown in pots. And they can grow almost any kind of plant. The soil used should be rich, to begin with, and later on in the season fertilizers should be applied to keep the plants well supplied with nutriment. IX THE USE OF GROWING PLANTS FOR TABLE DECORATION The woman who takes pride in making the family table attractive at all times finds nothing quite so effective for this purpose as flowers, and these she cannot always afford. But she need not be without material for beautifying the home table if she has windows in which plants can be grown, for there are many plants that are quite as attractive as flowers. But a good many persons have not yet learned that they can be made satisfactory substitutes for cut flowers, because they have not taken the trouble to study the thing out. They have heretofore depended on cut flowers for table decoration, as have their friends, and it has not occurred to them to get out of the rut they are in and think out new ways and means for making home pleasant. A well-shaped, medium-sized plant with fine foliage will add quite as much to the appearance of any table as a vaseful of flowers that would cost several times as much. True, it may lack the brilliant coloring of the flowers whose place it takes, but that does not prevent it from being beautiful, and beauty is what we aim at when we supplement the attractions of fine table-linen, sparkling cut glass, silver, and dainty china of the well-arranged table with the added attraction of plants and flowers. One of the best plants for this purpose is the variety of asparagus catalogued as _plumosus nanus_. It is more commonly known as asparagus fern, though it is not even a most distant relative of the fern family. It has foliage so fine that it has all the delicacy of lace, and is more like a mist of green than like ordinary foliage. It sends up frondlike growth that spreads out symmetrically on all sides of the pot. Pruning is seldom required to bring it into or keep it in proper shape. A plant of it, with its pot hidden by a pretty jardinière or wrapped in tissue-paper will be in perfect harmony with any table fittings. If a bit of bright color is desired, three or four roses or half a dozen carnations with their stems thrust into the soil in the pot will furnish it. If the housewife provides herself with three or four plants of this asparagus, she will at all times have something at hand with which to make her table attractive. In this way she will become independent of the florist and his fancy prices. These plants are of the easiest culture, and succeed wherever geraniums can be grown. At holiday-time several plants that make excellent table decorations are on the market. One is ardisia, with rich, dark-green foliage, and scarlet berries that are quite as brilliant as flowers. Another is the Jerusalem cherry, with pretty foliage and a profusion of crimson fruit. These plants remain in attractive condition for weeks, and the woman who invests in them has something with which to make her table as attractive as it would be if two or three dollars had been expended in flowers that would last for only a few days. It will be seen that it is economy to buy plants of this kind. Where there are several there is opportunity for variety, thus ruling monotony out of the question. _Cocos Weddelliana_ is a small-growing palm with delicate, feathery foliage. One might call it a "baby" palm because of its small size. A plant of it always adds distinction to the table on which it is used. This, like the asparagus, the ardisia, and the Jerusalem cherry, readily adapts itself to ordinary window culture. _Begonia Gloire de Lorraine_ is a most beautiful flowering plant. It bears its dainty pink blossoms so profusely and in such wide-spreading panicles that the pot in which it grows is often entirely hidden by it. Its color is charming by daylight, and under artificial light it is lovely beyond description. I know of no other pink flower that is as satisfactory by lamplight. When an especially dainty and out-of-the-common decoration is wanted for the table, nothing superior to it can be found. This begonia can be obtained from most florists in fall. If care is taken to remove it from the table to the window after it has done decorative duty, it will remain in bloom during the greater part of winter. But it must not be left on the table long at a time. Neither should any of the other plants named, for they will suffer if kept away from good light very long. _Primula obconica_ is a most satisfactory plant for table use when in full bloom. Its trusses of pale lilac, soft pink, or pure white have such a wild-woodsy air about them that they are always sure of such attention as American Beauties seldom get. The baby primrose is a miniature edition of _P. obconica_, and it is one of the most lovable flowers imaginable. Like its larger relative, it is a free and constant bloomer, and on this account will be found very useful as a table ornament. Small specimens of auricaria, with heavy, dark-green foliage much like that of our native hemlocks and balsam, make a novel decoration. This is the plant that the children delight in calling the Christmas-tree plant, because of its shape and its evergreen foliage. During fall and winter, when fruit and vegetables are plentiful, very pleasing table decorations can be made from them. On Thanksgiving Day such an arrangement will be found very appropriate. A friend of mine who has no windows at which flowers can be grown well, but who, in spite of that, is determined to make her table attractive, lays in a supply of bittersweet berries during the fall, and "everlasting flowers," like gomphrena, helichrysum, cockscomb, and others whose petals are strawlike in texture, and from these she contrives some really charming decorations for her table. Where there is a will there is always a way, you know. It will be seen from what I have said above that many plants can be grown in the windows of the living-room that can be used with fine effect in table decoration. I would advise making a collection of such varieties as I have named for this especial purpose. With such a collection to draw from no woman need be at loss for decorative material, and while her plants are not doing duty on the table they will be making her windows attractive, thus serving a double purpose. X DECORATIVE PLANTS There are few homes nowadays in which at least one plant of ornamental foliage cannot be found. I know of many in which some have had place so long that they have come to be considered as members of the family. Especially is this true among German people, who have an especial fondness for bride's myrtle and English ivy. In many of these homes I have found finer plants than I have seen in any greenhouse. I am not sure that they do not get more care than the children of the family. The myrtle to which I refer has small, fine foliage, evergreen in character, of a rich, glossy green. It branches freely, and in two or three years becomes a good-sized shrub. It does not bloom very freely, but this does not detract much from the value of the plant, as its flowers are small and not at all showy, though really quite pretty in their snow-white purity. The real value of the plant is in its foliage. It can be kept growing the year round, or it can be wintered in the cellar. In summer a plant of this kind will be found very effective for porch decoration. The English ivy is our best evergreen vine. It is one of the few plants that can be grown successfully in rooms where there is not much direct light. Indeed, I have seen it trained across the ceiling, in German homes, where the light seemed insufficient to meet the requirements of any plant, and there its leaves were as dark in color as those of most other plants are when standing close to the glass, and seemed to be quite as healthy. Two or three times a year, the owners told me, the vine was taken down, coiled up for convenience in transit, and taken out of doors. There it was spread out upon the grass and left until the rain had washed it clean. Because of the thick, firm, leathery texture of its foliage it seemed immune from the bad effects of dust, hot, dry air, and the absence of direct light. When well grown it is a plant that any one might well be proud of. For training up about the ceiling of the bay-window it stands at the head of the list of vines adapted to house culture. Sometimes scale attacks both myrtle and ivy. When this happens heroic measures must be resorted to in order to head off permanent injury. In the chapter on "The Insect Enemies of Plants" a remedy is suggested that seldom fails to produce most satisfactory results. Palms are universal favorites. There are but three varieties that I feel justified in recommending for amateur culture. These are the arecas, especially _A. lutescens_, _Latania borbonica_, better known as the "fan palm," and the kentias, _belmoreana_ and _fosteriana_. Of these three varieties I would advise the kentias for beginners in palm-culture, as they are more robust than any of the others and quite as ornamental. They are of somewhat coarser habit than _Areca lutescens_, which is an almost ideal sort for general use. _Latania borbonica_ has large, almost circular leaves borne on short, stout stalks, thrown out from the center of the plants. It does not grow tall like the kentias or the arecas. It is the variety from which our palm-leaf fans are made. One who has never seen this plant can get a fairly good idea of the shape of its foliage by looking at one of these fans. The three varieties mentioned are all of comparatively easy culture. Give them a loamy soil, well drained, and enough water to keep the soil always moist. Keep them out of strong sunshine. Don't experiment with them, hoping to hasten development. As long as they keep on producing three or four new leaves during the year, let them alone. If they lift the crown of the plant out of or above the soil, and the roots give them the appearance of a plant on stilts, don't be frightened, and repot them, setting them low in the soil to cover the roots. It's natural for them to grow in that way. Wash the foliage at least once a week. Add a little sweet milk to the water. This will give a gloss to the foliage that will add much to its attractiveness. Next to the palm in popularity is the Boston fern. This is a favorite with every one who succeeds in growing it well, because of its great profusion of fronds, three or four feet long, which droop over the pot gracefully and make the plant a veritable fountain of foliage. Another reason for its great popularity is its ease of culture. Give it a light, spongy soil and a moderate amount of water and it will make quite a rapid growth. It is not an exacting plant in any respect, and will do well in almost any kind of soil except those which contain a large amount of clay. But it does best in a soil that is light and porous. Never give enough water to make the soil muddy. The third place on the list ought to be given to the ficus, more commonly known as rubber-plant. This is also of easy culture. It never fails to attract attention by its large, thick, glossy, dark-green foliage. The aspidistra ought not to be overlooked. Because it does not grow to a considerable height, like the ficus, it has not attained the popularity of that plant, as yet, but it will be a universal favorite as soon as its merits become fully known. Its great masses of dark-green foliage are extremely ornamental, and the fact that it is the one plant in the list of decorative plants suitable for amateur use that can be said to almost take care of itself will appeal to those who want something that can always be depended on to look well. Give it enough water to keep the soil in its pot moist at all times, and that is about all it will ask of you. It is not at all particular as to the soil given it, and it seems to care very little for direct light. It will stand more abuse and neglect, and flourish under it, than any other plant I have any knowledge of. XI THE BULB-BED The bulb-bed should be located in some part of the yard where there is good, natural drainage or where it will be an easy matter to secure an artificial one by excavating the soil to the depth of a foot and a half and filling the bottom of it with material that will not readily decay, such as broken brick, crockery, or crushed stone. The object is to provide escape for surplus water from the soil above in spring. No bulb can be grown successfully in a soil that is unduly retentive of water about its roots. In arranging for artificial drainage, after filling the bottom of the excavation with five or six inches of drainage material, the soil that was thrown out should be returned to it, working into it, as this is done, a liberal amount of good manure. The best of all fertilizers for all bulbs is old, well-rotted barn-yard soil. If this cannot be obtained make use of some good commercial fertilizer. As soils differ greatly, and not all commercial fertilizers are adapted to all soils, I would suggest that some person in the community who understands the nature of its soil and the kind of fertilizer which suits it best should be consulted, and that the maker of a bulb-bed should be governed by his advice as to what kind to make use of. It is not well to let guesswork govern in the matter. If possible, choose a location that slopes toward the south. This will give the bed the benefit of sun warmth early in the season, and the plants in it will be greatly helped by it. It is quite important that the soil for bulbs should be made fine and mellow and that whatever fertilizer is used should be thoroughly incorporated with it. While it is true that most bulbs will do fairly well in soils of only moderate richness, it is impossible for them to do themselves anything like justice in it. Keep this fact in mind, and be generous in your supply of plant food. The proper time to plant bulbs is in late September and early October. This enables them to make a strong root-growth before winter sets in. Such a growth puts them in proper condition for flowering in spring. Late planting does not admit of the completion of root-growth in fall, consequently some of it has to be made in spring. This obliges the plants to divide their work at that season between root-growth and flower production, and as these processes ought not to go on at the same time the result is an inferior crop of flowers and unsatisfactory bulb-development. I cannot urge too strongly the advantages of early planting. The best bulbs for the amateur gardener are Holland hyacinths, tulips, and the narcissus. These are very hardy and floriferous, and succeed in almost all soils. And they are so beautiful that they deserve a place in all collections. They should be set about four inches below the surface, and about that distance apart. Before winter sets in the bed should be covered with leaves, straw, or coarse litter from the barn-yard. Let the covering be about six inches deep. It will not prevent the ground from freezing, but it will prevent it from freezing and thawing alternately. If this takes place the bulbs are pretty sure to be torn from their places, and their tender, recently formed roots broken off. Of course there are other bulbs than those of which I have made mention that are well worth growing, but they are not as well adapted to amateur culture as those are, therefore I would advise the beginner in bulb-growing to confine her attention to the hardiest and least particular kinds until she feels that her success with them justifies her in "branching out" and making an attempt to grow those which require greater care and a good deal more of it. XII GETTING READY FOR WINTER A supply of good potting-soil should be put into the cellar for use during the winter if needed. Often a plant will have outgrown its pot, thus making immediate repotting necessary in order to continue the healthy condition of it, but if there is no good soil at hand it will be obliged to do the best it can until spring comes, and by that time it will have received a check from which it will be a long time in recovering, and quite often it will die as the result of failure to give it proper attention when it was in most need of it. If you have a supply of potting-soil in stock there will be no excuse for not caring for your plants promptly when the advisability of repotting is indicated. A very satisfactory potting-soil is composed of garden loam, two parts; leaf-mold or its substitute, one part; and clean, coarse sand, one part. To this should be added some well-rotted cow manure, if obtainable. Work the compost over until all its ingredients are thoroughly mixed. The quantity of manure required to make the compost sufficiently rich to suit all kinds of plants will depend on the quality of the loam used. If that is quite rich, do not add much manure to it. If only of moderate richness, more can be used. This is a matter which will have to be decided largely by results. If the plants you put into the compost make a strong, healthy growth, the soil is rich enough. If the growth does not seem strong, more plant food is required. A good substitute for cow manure is fine bone-meal in the proportion of a pound to a bushel of soil. A good substitute for leaf-mold will be found in that portion of old sward from pasture or roadside which contains fine grass roots. Turn the sward over and cut away this part of it, to mix with the loam and sand. These roots will be found almost as rich in vegetable matter as pure leaf-mold. Some persons may wonder why I advise the liberal use of sand, which is not supposed to contain much nutriment. I do it because I have found from long experience in growing plants that sand not only facilitates good drainage, but enables air to get to the roots of the plants as it never can do when the soil is not light and porous. And sand is a sweetener of soil, as is charcoal. Of course not all plants are alike in their requirements. Roses, for instance, like a rather heavy, compact soil. In growing them use the loam without sand. If I had to choose between sand and manure in making potting-soil for nearly all plants adapted to window culture, I would take the sand. It is not too late to set out seedling plants of such perennials as phlox and hollyhock if care is taken to lift enough soil with them to insure against disturbance of their roots. Work of this kind can be done to better advantage now than in spring. Now is a good time to go over the shrubs and give such pruning as may seem necessary. As a general thing, the less pruning given a shrub the better, for if left to itself it will do a much better job of training than we are capable of doing for it. But it is advisable that all shrubs should have the old, weak wood cut away each season. This is pruning for health--not for symmetry. Nature has a keener eye for the symmetrical than we have, therefore we are justified in leaving the training of our shrubs to her, or to the shrubs, acting under her advice. Oleanders, fuchsias, hydrangeas, chrysanthemums--in fact, all hard-wooded plants that are summer and autumn bloomers--should be wintered in the cellar. Here, if the temperature is kept low, they will be practically dormant for several months, thus getting the same kind of a resting-spell that comes to deciduous plants out of doors during winter. Give just enough water to prevent the soil from becoming dust-dry. Do not be frightened if some of them shed their foliage while in cold storage; outdoor plants do that. If the place in which they are kept can be made dark, all the better. Dahlia roots should be spread out on swinging-shelves of wire netting when stored away. Never heap them together, and never put them on the cellar-bottom, for it is likely to be too damp there. Mold, which is largely the result of dampness, must be guarded against, hence the advantage of hanging-shelves which will allow a free circulation of air about the roots spread out on them. Look them over at least every week. If you find any that show signs of mold or decay, separate them immediately from the healthy ones. If allowed to remain, the diseased condition will surely be communicated to the entire mass of roots. All plants that seem to need repotting should be attended to before winter sets in. This will give them plenty of time to become thoroughly re-established before the winter campaign is on, and it will not be necessary to disturb them in the middle of the busy season. All the windows at which plants are kept should be looked over before cold weather comes, and made proof against cracks and crevices that will let in cold air. It is a good plan to provide these windows with storm-sash. If this is done, the plants can be allowed to stand with their leaves against the glass, as the air space between window and storm-sash will prevent frost from forming on the inner panes. Gladiolus roots should be stored in boxes of perfectly dry sawdust or buckwheat hulls and kept in a dry and rather cool place. Never put them in the cellar. Be careful to see that no frost gets to them. Or they can be wrapped in paper and put into paper bags and hung in a closet. If kept in a very warm place over winter they frequently become so dry that there is little vitality left in them by spring. Tuberous begonias and gloxinias will most likely have ended their flowering season by this time. Allow the soil in their pots to become dry. Then set them away in a dark closet without in any way disturbing the tubers. Treated in this manner, they winter much more satisfactorily than when the roots are taken out of the soil. In spring, when the plants are brought to the light and water is given, they will soon send up new sprouts. Then the roots should be shaken out of the old soil and supplied with fresh earth. In covering roses do not make use of leaves if there happens to be anything else at hand that will afford the necessary protection. Leaves would make an ideal covering were it not for the fact that it is almost impossible to keep mice from working in them. Last season I lost every rose-bush that was covered with leaves. The mice had gnawed all the bark from them. Covering the bushes with dry earth is preferable. XIII BULBS FOR WINTER FLOWERING Whenever any one writes me that she is fond of flowers, and would be delighted if she could have some in winter, but that she fails to get satisfaction from the ordinary house-plant, I always advise her to try bulbs. For I know that one is reasonably sure of getting fine flowers from this class of plants, provided we are willing to give them the right kind of treatment. One will get more flowers from them than she can expect from the ordinary collection found in the average window garden--we can have them through the entire winter if we plan for a succession--and we have few flowers that equal those of the bulbs in beauty. And, last but not least, they require really less care than is demanded by the majority of house-plants. Three things are essential to success in the culture of bulbs in the house: _First_--Good stock. _Second_--Good soil. _Third_--Root development before top growth takes place. The first essential is readily met if you order your bulbs from reliable dealers--dealers who have established a reputation for honesty and the handling of bulbs of the best quality only. Each season we see advertisements in which large collections of bulbs are offered at very low prices. Beware of them. As a general thing the wonderfully cheap ones are as cheap in quality as they are in price, and from such a grade of bulbs you cannot expect fine flowers. The best bulbs are imported ones, grown largely in Holland, where both soil and climate are admirably adapted to the production of first-class stock, and where the matter of bulb-growing has been reduced to almost a science. These will cost a little more than American-grown ones, but they are well worth the difference in price. Inferior stock will give inferior flowers every time, and what one wants in forcing bulbs in winter is the best flowers possible. The item of good soil is a most important one. Bulbs can be grown, after a fashion, in almost any kind of soil, but they can only be grown to perfection in a soil whose basis is a sandy loam made quite rich with some good fertilizer. Heavy soils can be made lighter by mixing sharp, coarse sand with them until the mixture, after being squeezed tightly in the hand, will readily fall apart after pressure is relaxed. The ideal fertilizer for all bulbs is old, thoroughly rotted cow manure. On no account should fresh manure of any kind be used. But it is not always possible to procure manure from the cow-yard, and those who are unable to do so will find fine bone meal a good substitute. Use this in the proportion of a pound to a half-bushel of soil. Whatever fertilizer is used should be thoroughly mixed with the soil. Be very sure that the latter is free from lumps. In potting bulbs for winter use I would advise putting several in the same pot. Fill the pot loosely with soil, then press such bulbs as those of the hyacinth, tulip, and narcissus down into it just their depth. As many can be used in a pot as can be set on the surface of the soil in it so that they just touch one another. Do not attempt to make the soil firm about them or beneath them. If this is done their tender roots will often fail to penetrate it, and the consequence will be that the bulbs are hoisted upward as the roots develop. This should be guarded against by having the soil so light that the young roots will find no difficulty in making their way into it. I advise the use of several bulbs in the same pot because it gives a greater amount of bloom in a limited space, and greatly economizes in soil, pots, and labor. When you have put your bulbs into the soil, water them well, and then set the pots away in a place that is _cool_ and _dark_. Some persons consider this unnecessary, and put their plants in the window as soon as potted. This is all wrong. Storage in a cool, dark room until roots have formed is absolutely necessary to success. The reason for it is plain if we stop to think that the bulbs must have roots before they can make a satisfactory growth of top. Roots first, flowers afterward. As a general thing bulbs will have to remain in cold storage at least six weeks before it will be safe to bring them to the windows in which they are to bloom. But no definite time can be assigned. One must examine the plants from time to time, and on no account should they be taken to the light until the pot is filled with roots and indications of top growth are seen. It may sometimes be necessary to water them while in the dark room, but as a general thing one watering--the one given at potting-time--will be sufficient. Too much water while in the dark may cause serious trouble. But this, like the length of time allowed for root formation, is a matter that must be left largely to the good judgment of the grower. When plants have been brought from the cellar, or wherever they have been placed while roots were forming, they should not be put into very warm rooms. Too much heat, combined with the effects of light and water, will result in rapid growth, which is not a healthy one. In warm rooms the flowers will be short-lived. I have spoken of planting for a succession of bloom. This is important if you want flowers throughout the winter. Pot a few at intervals of ten days or two weeks, beginning the middle of September or first of October. If this is done it is an easy matter to keep the window supplied with flowers from the holidays to the advent of spring. A little calculation will enable one to plant enough to meet the demand and to regulate the planting intervals in such a manner as to bring about the succession necessary to cover the season. What has been said above may seem so elaborate to the person who has never grown bulbs for winter flowering that it may give the impression that what is really a simple matter is too difficult for the amateur. But if what I have written is read over carefully and given a little thought you will readily see, I think, that most of what I have said has been devoted to giving reasons for the treatment outlined, so that the "whys and wherefores" may be understood. And it will be seen that it all resolves itself into a very simple proposition--_viz._, good stock, good soil, and cold storage until roots have formed--the three essentials spoken of at the beginning of this chapter. Nothing is required that the beginner in floriculture is not equal to. Potting the bulbs is a much simpler matter than potting a plant, and the preparation of soil for them involves no more labor or skill than the preparation of a soil for a geranium to grow in. Now as to kinds to grow. I advise the Holland hyacinth, preferably the single varieties; the Roman hyacinth, the white variety only; early tulips; and five varieties of the narcissus--Van Sion, Horsfeildii, empress, trumpet-major, and paper-white--and the Bermuda, or, as it is more commonly called, Easter lily. The double Holland hyacinths are too double to be pleasing to a person who likes individuality in a flower. The Roman hyacinth is more graceful than any other member of the family. The early tulip is much surer to bloom well than any of the others described in the florist's catalogue. The Easter lily requires a treatment somewhat different from that advised for the other bulbs. It sends forth two sets of roots, one from the base of the bulb and one from the stalk sent up from the bulb. In order to give each set of roots a chance we have to set the bulb deep down in the soil. Let the pot be only half filled with earth when the lily is put into it, press it down as directed for the other bulbs, and add no more soil until growth begins. Then, as the stalk reaches up, put more soil into the pot, and continue to do this until it is full. In this way give the two sets of roots the support they need. If bone meal is used as a fertilizer, be sure to get the finely ground article. Coarse bone meal is not what you need, as it does not give an immediate effect. XIV THE WINTER WINDOW-GARDEN In fall, when we bring in the plants that have been growing out of doors during the summer, they usually look healthy, and we congratulate ourselves that we are likely to have a fine crop of flowers from them later on. But soon we see some of their leaves turning yellow and falling off, and though they may make considerable growth, it is unsatisfactory because it is spindling and weak. If buds form, they are pretty sure to blight before reaching maturity, and, instead of having the fine, floriferous plants we had counted on, we have a window-garden that is more noticeable for its discouraged look than for anything else. The owner of such a garden too often aims to remedy the unfavorable conditions which exist in it by applying some kind of fertilizer to her plants. By doing this she simply makes a bad matter worse, for the application of any kind of plant food to weak and debilitated plants is on a par with giving rich food to a person whose stomach is not in a condition to make proper use of it. No fertilizer should ever be given to a plant that is not in healthy condition; neither should it be given to dormant plants. When active growth begins, then, and then only, should they be stimulated to stronger growth by feeding them well. But care must be taken to not overfeed them. Give only enough to bring about a vigorous growth, but not a rapid one, for that is pretty sure to be a weak one from which there will be a reaction by and by, from which your over-stimulated plants will suffer severely. Most growers of house plants are too kind to them. In this respect they are like a good many mothers who injure their children by over-indulgence through mistaken ideas of kindness. In applying fertilizers, begin by giving them in small quantities. Watch their effect upon the plants. If their leaves increase in size and take on a rich color, be satisfied that you are feeding your plants quite enough for their good. The impression prevails to a considerable extent that by fertilizing plants we secure more flowers from them than we would be likely to do if no fertilizer was used. Such is not the case. Feed a plant rich food and it will be likely to make a vigorous growth of branches and foliage at the expense of flowers. The aim should be to simply keep the plants growing well. If this is done, whatever flowers they produce will share in the general benefit of the application, but they will not be increased in quantity by it. One reason why the plants in the winter window-garden fail at the time when we think they ought to be doing their best is lack of fresh air. If one stops to think about it one will not wonder that her plants have a sickly look. We keep our windows closed tightly, thus keeping out the air that the plants need, and we put storm-doors on every entrance. In fact, we do everything in our power, seemingly, to prevent fresh air from getting to them, and then we wonder why our plants do not flourish. We lose sight of the fact that plants breathe, the same as human beings do. A little intelligent consideration of the conditions under which we undertake to grow them ought to convince us of the mistake we make in expecting them to do well without a regular supply of fresh air. While it is well to make the windows at which plants are kept tight enough to prevent draughts of cold air from coming in upon them, it is not only advisable but absolutely necessary, if we would grow healthy plants, to give them a liberal supply of fresh air every day, and preferably several times a day. This can be done by opening a door or a window at some distance from them, and letting fresh, pure air rush into and fill the room. If possible, let down a window a few inches from the top on the side of the room opposite from where the air comes in, to allow the vitiated air of the room to readily escape before the onrush of outdoor air. In this way it is an easy matter to completely change the character of the air in a room in a few minutes, and in doing it we benefit the human occupants of the room quite as much as we do the plants in it. If the owner of every window-garden would make it a daily practice to give her plants an air-bath she would be surprised at the speedy improvement that would be noticeable in them. We weaken our plants, as we do ourselves, by keeping the temperature of our rooms too high. We are not satisfied with a comfortable warmth. We want heat enough to keep us constantly conscious of it by its intensity. This is all wrong from the health point of view. What ought to be done is to install a thermometer in every room, and so regulate the amount of heat that all are kept at summer warmth by arranging for a system of ventilation that will act automatically when the thermometer goes above a certain point. This system is speedily coming into general use, and gives most excellent satisfaction. Where it is not in use, the temperature can be kept somewhere near where it ought to be by opening doors or windows from time to time, as already spoken of. Keep in mind that too much heat and too little fresh air will kill almost any plant in time, and the two, working together, will, nine times out of ten, make any window-garden a comparative failure. Care must be taken in watering plants in winter. Those which are dormant, or are making but little growth, will require very little water. Those in active growth will need more. The only way to tell how much to give is to watch your plants closely, and observe the effect of the applications given. When the surface of the soil takes on a dry look it is safe to conclude that the roots of the plant in the pot have made use of most of the moisture in it, and that more water should be given. Then give enough to make the soil moist all through, and withhold further applications until the dry look appears again. Never form the habit of watering your plants every time you happen to think about it, and then apply just enough to make the soil look wet on its surface. If this is done you will never grow good plants, for only the surface roots will get the moisture they need. Have a stated time for watering, and let the appearance of the soil govern the amount used. XV THE INSECT ENEMIES OF PLANTS Every woman who attempts to grow flowers in the house will sooner or later have to wage warfare against insects. Perhaps the first battle will have to be fought with the aphis, or plant-louse. This insect sucks the sap--the life-blood of the plant--from stalk and leaf, and soon, if let alone, it will exhaust the vitality of the plant to a degree that is wholly incompatible with health. In fact, if allowed to have its way, it will kill your plants, for it propagates its species with such rapidity that a plant will soon be literally covered with them. We used to kill off these insects by fumigating the plants infested with them with tobacco smoke, and in doing it we made ourselves about as sick as the insects were, and the nauseating fumes of it clung to everything in and about the house for days. Nowadays we make use of the nicotine principle of tobacco in our warfare against the aphis, but in a manner that leaves out the objectionable features of fumigation. Tobacco manufacturers have prepared an extract of the nicotine in the plant, and put it on the market under the name of nicoticide. All we have to do when we want to make use of it is to put a small quantity in water, and spray our plants with the mixture. Every aphis that it touches will die, and those that it fails to reach will take the hint that they are not wanted and that their presence will not long be tolerated, and the first you know they will have disappeared. Instead of waiting for the attack of the enemy I consider it good policy to anticipate it by frequent applications of the tobacco-bath. It will be found easier to keep the enemy away than to rout it after it has established itself on your plants. The red spider is another insect that does deadly work in the window-garden, especially in rooms where the temperature is high and there is little moisture in the air--a condition that generally prevails in the ordinary living-room. This pest is so small that its presence is seldom suspected until considerable injury has been done to the plants it works on. If you notice that leaves are turning yellow and dropping off, and that more and more of them fall each day, you had better look into the matter. Examine some of the fallen leaves. If you find tiny webs on the under side of them you may be quite sure that the spider is responsible for the condition your plants are in. Look at some of the leaves that are yellowing, but have not yet let go their hold, and you will be quite likely to find little red specks on them. These specks resemble grains of fine Cayenne pepper more than anything else. Watch them for a while and you will find that they are living organisms. It seems hardly possible that such tiny creatures can do much harm to a strong plant, but the fact is that there is no more voracious enemy of plant life in existence. Here the tobacco-bath does not come in play. Cold water is all the insecticide we need. Spray it over every portion of the infested plants daily, until they again take on a healthy look and begin to grow. The spider will not stay long in a moist atmosphere. Make it moist and keep it so by the liberal use of water sprayed upon your plants, and you will have very little trouble with this dangerous pest. But if you neglect to use water regularly and freely the probabilities are that your window-garden will look rather sickly by spring. Scale is an insect that often attacks plants having thick, firm-textured foliage, like the oleander, lemon, ivy, ficus, and palm. It is a flat creature, looking more like a fish-scale than anything else, hence its name. It attaches itself to the leaf and sucks the life out of it. The best weapon to fight this enemy with is an emulsion made as follows: shave thinly half a pound of white soap; pour a little water over it and set it on the stove to liquefy. When the soap is melted, add to it a pint of water and bring to a boil. When boiling, add a teacupful of kerosene and three tablespoonfuls of the tobacco extract. These ingredients, under the effect of heat, will form an emulsion that will unite readily with water. Use in the proportion of one part emulsion to fifteen parts water. Apply to the infested plants with a soft cloth or a camel's-hair brush. Be sure that some of it gets to all parts of the plant. Two or three applications may be necessary. Prepare a quantity of it and keep it on hand for use when needed. The emulsion spoken of above is an excellent remedy for the ills the rose is heir to during the early part of the season. If Paris green is sprayed onto the plants the foliage is frequently burned by it. If kerosene is mixed with water and applied, the oil will seldom emulsify perfectly with the water, and wherever a drop of it falls on leaf or bud it will do quite as much damage as would the bug or worm you are fighting. Hellebore is never to be depended on. The kerosene-tobacco-soap emulsion will be found safe and effective. Worms in the soil of pot plants can be got rid of by the use of lime-water. Put a piece of _perfectly fresh_ lime as large as the ordinary coffee-cup in ten quarts of water. If fresh, as it must be to be of any benefit, the water will seem to boil for a little while. By and by a white sediment will settle to the bottom of the vessel, and the water above will be clear. Pour this off and apply enough of it to each plant to saturate all the soil in the pot. Plug up the drainage hole in the bottom of the pot before the application is made, that the water may be retained long enough to do its work. Repeat the application if necessary. XVI GARDENING FOR CHILDREN If you want to keep children out of mischief give them a little garden. One that they can call their own will afford them far more pleasure than they get out of working in _your_ garden. Of course they will not be expected to go ahead with garden work at first and make much success at it without assistance from some one, and by object-lessons, but they will soon master the fundamental points of it, and when they have done that they will surprise you by the facility with which they pick up the information that grows out of their early experience and the amount of work that they will accomplish all by themselves. And you will be pleased to see how interested they are in the new undertaking. It will not seem like work to them. It will be play, and play of such a healthy character that you can well afford to ignore soiled clothes, and hands that have caught the grime of the soil, and faces on which sweat and soil have met on common ground and formed an intimate partnership. The healthy color of the faces of the children who work out of doors, and the excellent appetites that they bring to the table, will convince you that gardening is the best of all tonics for them. And you will be gratified to know that they are learning more from the great book of Nature than they would ever learn in the schools. They are learning things at first hand, for Nature will take charge of the little pupils and not trust her kindergarten work to an assistant. Nine children out of ten who have a garden to work in will become more interested in it than in all the fairy-books that were ever written. For are not the processes of germination and growth going on before their eyes akin to magic? The miracle of life is being performed before them every day, and they are taking part in it. That is what will make it so delightful to them. They have formed a partnership with Nature in miracle-making. Parents who have only a hazy notion of garden-work may think themselves incompetent to teach their children. But if they set out to do so they will soon find that they are daily learning enough to make them safe teachers for the little folks. And the best of it will be that they themselves are getting quite as much good and pleasure out of it as the children are. Give the boys and girls good tools to work with. Never ask them to make use of those you have worn out or found worthless. Something quite as good as you would provide for yourself is what should be provided for them. They will appreciate a good thing, be very sure, and the fact that they have it will be one of the best possible incentives to work. Supply them with good seed. And do not fail to encourage them by giving all the credit justly due them for what they accomplish. Children like to know that their efforts are properly appreciated. We grownups and the children are very much alike in that respect. XVII HOME AND GARDEN CONVENIENCES There are many ways in which work in the garden and about the home can be varied in such a manner as to give a variety of comparatively new and pleasing effects with so little trouble and expense that the amateur gardener and home-maker who would like "something new" will, I feel sure, be delighted to undertake some of them. One is a floral awning for the windows which are exposed to strong sunshine. A frame is made of lath, the width of the window and half its depth, by nailing four of the strips together in a square and then fastening other strips across it in a diamond or lattice fashion. Attach this frame to the top of the window-casing by door-butts. Then push the lower part of it away from the window until you have it at the angle at which a cloth awning would hang when dropped, and support it in that position by running strips of wood from each corner to the sides of the window-frame. If such vines as morning-glory, flowering bean, and cypress are trained up each side of the window until they reach these supports, it will be an easy matter to coax them up them and from them to the awning's framework, which they will soon cover with foliage and flowers. Such an awning will be found quite as satisfactory as one of cloth, so far as shade is concerned, and, as for beauty, there is no comparison between them, for the ordinary awning of striped cloth is never ornamental. A floral awning is to the upper part of the window what the window-box of plants is to the lower portion of it, and the two can be used in combination with most delightful results. Indeed, they belong together, and one without the other only half carries out the scheme of window decoration. Such awnings will be found as satisfactory for exposed doors as for windows. The boys of the family--or the women of it--can make them and put them in place, and the cost of them will be so small, compared with their ornamental and practical value, that one season's trial of them will make them permanent features of home-beautifying thereafter. I would advise planing the strips of lath and giving the frames a coat of green or white paint before putting them in place. Green paint will make them unobtrusive, and white will give a pleasing color contrast. If they are taken down in fall and stored in a dry place over winter they will last for a good many seasons. * * * * * As a general thing the front gate, if there is one, is not particularly ornamental. But it can easily be made so by setting posts ten or twelve feet tall at either side, and attaching to the top of them a double awning-frame similar to that advised for windows. Let these frames meet at the top and slope outward and downward, roof fashion, and have supports running to each outer corner from the posts. When vines are trained up the posts and over the frames, and are allowed to droop in graceful festoons of foliage and flower from them, the effect will be charming. Here is where the wild cucumber--the most rapid climber of all our annuals--will be able to do most effective work. I would advise the use of hardy vines for positions of this kind, as they will be attractive from the beginning of the season, while an annual has to be given considerable time to grow before it becomes equal to the task assigned it. Garden-seats ought to be a feature of all home grounds large enough to admit of them. And these seats can be made as ornamental as the gateway just described by providing them with awnings large enough to afford complete shade. Of course, where there are trees to furnish shade such awnings will not be needed--and the logical place for a garden-seat is under a tree, if there is one--but on grounds where there are no trees to furnish shade, such protection from the heat of summer sunshine as these awnings will afford becomes more a necessity than a luxury. As it is, they are both ornamental and useful, and the ease and cheapness with which they are made commends them to all who believe in the value of "little things" in making home attractive and pleasant. * * * * * Often it is desirable to furnish certain portions of the home grounds with screens large enough to shut off the public view. These should have frames of a size that guarantees strength. Lath put on in lattice fashion will make a good covering for them, but it will not be strong enough to insure durability in itself, hence the necessity of a more substantial framework. It is always advisable to paint them before covering them with vines. As screens of this kind are generally built with a view to permanence, I would advise covering them with hardy vines, like ampelopsis, _Clematis flammula_ and _C. paniculata_, aristolochia, or trumpet honeysuckle. * * * * * If low screens are wanted anywhere about the place, as a dividing factor between the flower and vegetable gardens, for instance, sweet-peas will make a charming covering for them. Large screens that are intended to separate the ornamental portions of the home grounds from the not generally attractive yards at the rear can be made extremely effective by training rambler roses over them. * * * * * One of the most attractive features about the home of the author of this book is the fence which divides it from the property of his next-door neighbor. When the lawn was made, cedar posts were set along one side of it, and on these woven-wire netting was stretched. This netting was about four feet wide and of a rather heavy grade of wire. Small plants of ampelopsis were set out along it, about twenty feet apart. As fast as branches were thrown out they were trained out and in through the meshes of the netting. In one season the plants made enough growth to meet one another, and the second season the netting was completely covered. The result has been extremely satisfactory. Throughout the summer this fence has the appearance of a closely clipped hedge of luxuriant green. In fall it is a mass of scarlet and crimson, quite as brilliant as the bed of geraniums near by. It is vastly more ornamental than a fence of wood or iron, and makes an entirely satisfactory substitute for a hedge that it would take years to grow. In some respects it is more satisfactory than such a hedge would be, as it requires no annual shearing to keep it in proper shape and condition. XVIII GARDEN DON'TS Don't let your springtime enthusiasm lead you to undertake more than you _feel quite sure_ of being able to carry out. Keep in mind the fact that there will be work to do all through the season in order to make your garden a success, and think over what the result will be if you fail to give your plants all the care they need after you have got them well under way. Don't give them a chance to say that you haven't given them fair treatment because your enthusiasm waned with the season. * * * * * Don't attempt to grow all the plants that the florists describe so attractively in their catalogues. Concentrate your efforts on the best ones--that is, the ones best adapted to amateur gardening. Give these the best possible care. This advice applies with equal pertinence to all phases of gardening, outdoors or indoors. * * * * * Don't pattern your garden after your neighbor's. Think out original features for the garden you propose to make, if you choose to do so, but don't aim to be so extremely original that the originality of it will attract more attention than the flowers in it. These should receive first consideration always. * * * * * Don't waste your time on "carpet-bedding" unless you make use of plants with colored foliage in carrying out your designs. Flowering plants are practically worthless for this purpose, as they have such a tendency to reach out beyond the limits assigned them that all distinctness in the outline of your pattern will soon be lost sight of. About all that seems worth while for the amateur gardener to do in the arrangement of her plant is to so use them that strong masses of color can be produced. If care is taken to choose those of harmonious colors, these can be so arranged as to heighten the general effect by contrast. * * * * * Don't set out to have a garden or to grow house plants unless you have the true gardening instinct. By that I mean a love for plants and flowers that would make you _attempt_ to grow them under circumstances which your own judgment tells you make success impossible. The woman who tries to grow a geranium in a tin can in a window four or five stories up in the air because of her love for flowers would be almost sure to make a splendid success of a garden on the ground if she had one. But the woman who attempts to grow a plant because her neighbors do so, and who is honest enough to say to herself that "it's more bother than it's worth," will fail because she lacks the true incentive. Such persons ought not to undertake the cultivation of flowers. They cannot grow them with any degree of success, for flowers know who loves them, and will absolutely refuse to flourish under the care of those who do not want them for their own sweet sakes. * * * * * Don't fill your windows to overflowing. Give each plant enough elbow-room to admit of its displaying its charms effectively. A crowded plant is never a symmetrical one, and one really symmetrical is worth a score of poorly shaped ones. The fact is, a window of ordinary size cannot satisfactorily accommodate more than eight or ten plants of ordinary size without crowding. There should be space enough between them to allow the sunshine to get to all portions of them. A free circulation of air among them is quite important. * * * * * Don't be a plant-beggar. By that I do not mean that you are not to "swap" plants with your neighbors if it is mutually agreeable to do so. When I speak of a "plant-beggar" I have in mind the person who depends upon her plant-growing friends for enough plants to keep her window well stocked, and her garden also. As soon as she discovers that you have a plant that she would like she does not hesitate to ask for a root or a cutting of it. She never stops to think that you are trying to grow the plant for your own pleasure. It doesn't matter to her how much it interferes with its satisfactory development in complying with her request. If she gets what she wants she is satisfied. The probabilities are that when her plant gets to be as large as yours was when she asked you to divide it with her she'll not hesitate to refuse the woman who suggests that she'd "like one just like it--won't you let me have a slip?" That there are persons quite as selfish as this cannot be denied. But they ought not to be encouraged. Don't gratify them in their unreasonable demands simply because you are afraid of being considered "small" and "stingy." * * * * * Don't fail to have a corner in your garden devoted expressly to plants from which to cut for friends and the sick and shut-ins. Perhaps it is more a fancy of mine than anything else, but it has always seemed to me that plants grown for this purpose know what use they are to be put to and do their best in order to help carry out the plan of the person who grows them. If we who have all the flowers of our own that we care for could only know what a vast amount of pleasure we can give our less fortunate neighbors by dividing our supply with them, we would be more liberal than we are. * * * * * Don't keep fuchsias in the window in winter, for they are not winter-flowering plants, and the space they will occupy might better be given up to plants from which we can reasonably expect blossoms. They should go into the cellar in November, along with oleanders, hydrangeas, chrysanthemums, and plants of similar habit, there to remain until March. Then they can be brought to the light, watered, and again started into growth. It is well to cut most plants that have been wintered in the cellar back at least half, and allow them to renew most of their branches. While in cold storage they should be given just enough water to prevent the soil from becoming really dry, and no more. Keep them in the dark, if possible, and in a cool place. Do not allow the temperature to go below the frost-point, however. * * * * * Don't think because you have only a little bit of ground that it isn't worth while to attempt having a garden. Some of the most delightful gardens I have ever seen were small ones. You will be surprised to find how many plants can be grown in a very small space. Utilize all the nooks and corners about the place for plants. * * * * * Don't depend on home-grown seed if you want the best in flowers. The seedsman knows just what to do to secure the best results in seed, and just how to do it. He also knows what _not_ to do in raising seed for the market, and this the amateur gardener really knows nothing about. While we often grow fine flowers from seed of our saving, the fact remains that home-grown seed seldom gives entire satisfaction to the person who wants the best. * * * * * Don't invest your money in new plants until you are satisfied that they have all the merit claimed for them. As a general thing, the "novelties" sent out every spring at a high price are greatly inferior to the good old stand-bys. We seldom hear anything about them after the second season. Put your money into plants that you know can be depended on. * * * * * Don't attempt the culture of hanging-plants unless you are willing to give them the care they must have in order to be satisfactory. Plants suspended in the window, where the temperature is considerably higher than at the sill, speedily dry out, and after this has happened a few times they become diseased and finally die. It will be necessary to apply water daily and in sufficient quantity to saturate all the soil in the pot or basket. Because it requires special effort on the part of the owner to get to suspended plants, they are generally neglected. It is a most excellent plan to have them arranged in such a manner that they can be let down into a tub of water and left there until the soil has absorbed all the water it can retain. This can be done by cords running over pulleys in the ceiling. Try it. Hanging-plants are always pleasing when healthily grown, and the window-garden that is without them is not living up to its privileges. * * * * * Don't "fuss" with your plants too much. See that they get all the water they need, as much sunshine as possible, plenty of fresh air, an occasional application of some good fertilizer, and shower them frequently to keep them clean, and be satisfied with this treatment. They object to being treated as some mothers treat their children, who would be much better off if they were let alone after actual wants were provided for. Don't coddle your plants. * * * * * Don't start dahlias into growth in the house early in the season, thinking that you are going to "get the start of the season" by so doing. We used to think that, because the dahlia came from a country where the summer was long, we must get it to growing in March or April, and we set the tubers out in pots and boxes and forced them to make a rapid and weak growth so early in the season that long before it was safe to put them out in the garden they were poor, spindling things, with just enough vitality in them to make it possible to say that they were alive. When they were planted out the change from indoors to outdoors had such a debilitating effect on them that for weeks they were undecided whether to live or die. If they lived we considered ourselves fortunate if we got a dozen flowers from each plant. Nowadays we understand the plant better. We don't attempt to start it in the house. We wait until the weather and the ground are warm and then we plant the tubers in the garden where they are to grow and bloom. We make the soil very rich. The plants begin to grow shortly after being planted, and in late August they come into bloom, and all through September they yield such a profusion of flowers as we never thought of getting from the plants when grown after the old method. The dahlia is one of our very best late-summer flowering plants when well grown. It must have a rich soil--it must not be allowed to get dry at the roots at any time--and it must be given substantial support, as its stalks are extremely brittle and easily broken down by hard winds and heavy rains. Dahlias are very effective when planted in the border among shrubs and perennials. There are few plants with a wider range of rich and brilliant color. By all means give them a place in your garden. * * * * * Don't sow hollyhock seed in the spring expecting to get flowers from your plants the same season. They will not bloom the first year from seed. * * * * * Don't allow your pansies to bloom--or _try_ to bloom--during the hot, dry, midsummer season. They may produce _some_ flowers, but they will be so inferior in quality that you will get no pleasure from them. I would advise cutting away all the old branches the latter part of July and encouraging the plants to renew themselves preparatory to fall flowering. If this is done, and strong, healthy growth results from the liberal application of a good fertilizer during August, you may expect a generous crop of large, fine flowers all through the autumn. If it is _not_ done, and the plants are allowed to keep on trying to grow through the trying period of late summer, you will get few flowers and no really good ones. * * * * * Don't allow any plant to develop seed if you want it to keep on blooming after its first flowering period. The aim of all plants is to reproduce themselves, and this can only be done by seed development. If we interfere with the ordinary process of seed production by cutting away all flowers as soon as they begin to fade, the plants will at once make another effort to perpetuate their kind, and, as the first step in this direction is the production of flowers, it will be readily seen that it is possible to make many of them bloom all through the season. * * * * * Don't expect good flowers of any kind unless you are willing to give them the care and attention they require. If you are not willing to do this, or if, for any reason, you _cannot_ do it, don't attempt gardening. Have enough regard for the flowers to not undertake their culture unless you can do them justice. * * * * * Don't throw away plants of any kind. Somebody will always be glad to get those you have no use for. * * * * * Don't neglect a plant to-day and think you can make up for that neglect by being very good to it to-morrow. Plants must receive care _when it is needed_, and this care should be given regularly, instead of spasmodically, to be effective. * * * * * Don't begin to water your plants in your garden in a dry season unless you can keep on doing so as long as the dry spell lasts. * * * * * Don't fail to keep close watch of your asters. Of late years many failures have resulted from the attack of a black beetle, which comes from no one knows where--comes so suddenly and does such deadly work in so short a time that the plants are often ruined before the presence of the pest is suspected. There is but one way of getting rid of this pest, and that is to make use of nicoticide, the standard remedy for all plant troubles of this kind. A small quantity of this extract of tobacco, diluted with water and sprayed over all portions of each plant, will effectually rout the enemy if applied promptly and thoroughly. Unless something is done as soon as the beetle is discovered, it will destroy every plant. Be on the lookout for it constantly, acting on the supposition that it will be sure to put in an appearance some time during the summer. Get ready in advance for prompt action against it by laying in a supply of the insecticide at the beginning of the summer. * * * * * Don't think that your house plants need repotting two or three times a year if they are growing in good-sized pots. Once a year is quite often enough if you apply fertilizers at intervals of four or five months. Plants in small pots may outgrow their quarters, and these should be shifted to those of larger size when they have filled the old ones with roots. * * * * * Don't make the mistake of putting small plants in large pots, thinking that they will be benefited by it. Wait for them to signify a desire for more room by filling all the soil of a small pot with roots. A plant with a small, weak root-system is often seriously injured by giving it a large pot to grow in, as it is not in a condition to make use of all the nutriment in a large amount of soil. A plant treated in this manner will often develop a sort of vegetable dyspepsia as a result of giving it more food than it can digest properly. * * * * * Don't be in too great a hurry to obtain results. Some persons think to accomplish this by frequent applications of strong fertilizers in large quantities. This will force plants to a rapid and always unhealthy growth, from which, later on, there is sure to be a most discouraging reaction. Be content with a healthy growth, and give your plants a chance to make that naturally. More plants are injured by overfeeding than from any other cause. * * * * * Don't think that you can learn all there is to know about gardening from books. Books will furnish the theory. You must contribute experience in order to attain success. * * * * * Don't neglect your plants while they are growing. Then is just the time to give them the training that is necessary to make them shapely. The fact is, plants are very much like children in the family. Let them have their own way about everything while they are growing up and you will find that when they have grown up they are not at all like what you would like to have them, in many respects, and you don't see how you are going to make them conform to your ideas of what they ought to be, since it is impossible to make children of them again and give you another chance at their development. Begin with the training of your plants while they are small, and train them as they grow. * * * * * Don't treat all your plants alike. Study their peculiarities and give them such treatment as will fit those peculiarities. To illustrate this idea: a calla likes a good deal of water; a geranium is satisfied with a moderately moist soil; a cactus does best when allowed to get really dry at certain seasons. If we were to treat these three plants alike, what do you suppose the result would be? Don't ignore the peculiarities of your plants if you want them to do well. * * * * * Don't neglect to prepare for an annual invasion of your roses by bugs, worms, and insects. You can safely count on their coming, but if you are prepared for it you can speedily put the enemy to rout. The best plan is to act on the offensive. Head off the pests by making applications of nicoticide before they make their appearance. You can do this, for, if their advance-agent arrives and finds the tang of tobacco all over the plants, he will go back and advise the others to seek more agreeable quarters. Begin to spray your bushes early in the season, and keep on doing so until after the flowering period is over. There will be no likelihood of an invasion after that, as the enemies of the rose do their deadly work early in the season. * * * * * Don't get the idea for a moment, as so many do, that all you need to do to have a fine lot of plants is to put some soil--any kind that happens to be handiest--in a pot, set out a plant in it, and, presto! you will have just as fine a lot of plants as your neighbor who searches here and there and everywhere until she finds just the kind of soil that experience tells her the plants must have if she would have good ones. She gives some of her time daily to caring for them, while you expect your plants to take care of themselves. That will never answer. If you do your share of the work the plants will do theirs, but you must not expect them to do all, any more than you must expect them to make a strong, healthy growth in a soil that is unsuited to their requirements or sadly lacking in nutriment. * * * * * Don't build up a great fire in stove or furnace if you discover that your plants have been nipped by frost, thinking to save them by "thawing them out." Heat at such a time is the very thing needed to complete the misfortune. Put them at once in a room where the temperature can be kept just a little above the frost-point, and shower them thoroughly with cold water. This will extract the frost from them so gradually that it will be possible to save many of them unless they are badly frozen. Keep them in a cool room for three or four days. It may be necessary to cut away most, or all, of the branches of some of them. Unless the degree of cold to which they were subjected was sufficient to freeze the soil in the pot, many of them will throw up new shoots from their roots after a little; therefore don't throw out a plant that has been obliged to part with all its top until it has been given a chance to make a new start in life. * * * * * Don't put your house plants out of doors for the summer until the weather has become warm and can be depended on to remain so. The first of June will be quite early enough. * * * * * Don't plant them out in the garden-beds, thinking thereby to save yourself the work of taking care of them during the summer and of benefiting them at the same time. Of course they will take care of themselves there, and very likely make a much more luxuriant growth than they would in pots, but when fall comes and you have to lift and repot them you will find that more hard work is required of you than you would have expended on them throughout the summer if you had kept them in pots. As for the benefit to the plants--where will it come in? They will have made such a rampant growth of roots that most of them will have to be sacrificed in reducing the earth containing them to the size of the pots you put them into, and this at the very time when the poor plants ought to be at their best in order to successfully withstand the unfavorable conditions resulting from the change from outdoors to indoors. Plants treated in this manner receive a check that they seldom fully recover from during the entire winter. Instead of saving yourself work and doing a kindness to your plants, you have done just the contrary. XIX A CHAPTER OF HELPFUL HINTS In some of the foregoing chapters I have had something to say about the advisability of using seed in which each color is kept by itself in order to secure the greatest possible degree of color-harmony in the garden. Many persons tell us that they cannot afford to pay the extra prices which the seedsmen put on unmixed seed. It is true that it costs more than the seed in which all colors are jumbled together, and it is also true that plants grown from it are really no better than those grown from mixed seed, but the fact remains that it gives so much more satisfactory results, from an artistic standpoint, that it is not throwing money away, as some claim, to make use of it. Of course if one gets as much pleasure from a mass of color without regard to harmony as from fewer colors all in perfect harmony with one another, it would hardly be worth while to invest more money in such seed. But where the finest possible effects are desired I contend that unmixed seed is cheapest, in that sense of the term that means the greatest satisfaction. There is a way by which unmixed seed can be obtained without its really costing each person more than mixed seed. Every amateur gardener knows that more plants of a kind can be grown from one package of seed than a person cares for in the average-sized garden. Nine times out of ten only part of the seed in the package is sown and the rest is either discarded or given away to friends. Now if those who would like to secure the best results in gardening will get up a seed club among their flower-loving friends, and confine their selection to packages in which each color is by itself, the seed in those packages can be divided among the various members of the club, and each person will have enough to meet her requirements, and this at a less price than she would have to pay for ordinary mixed seed if she were to order alone, because none of the seed would be wasted. Try the seed-club plan for a season and see if it doesn't work out to your satisfaction. If you are likely to have more plants of a kind than you care for, don't throw any of the seedlings away when you thin them out. There are poor children in every neighborhood that would be delighted to get them. Never waste any plants that are worth growing. If a plant is wanted for low beds under the windows of the dwelling or near the paths, portulacca is about as satisfactory as anything I know of. It blooms with great profusion throughout the entire season. Its colors range from pure white through pink, yellow, and violet to dark crimson. It is a plant that seems to delight in locations exposed to the hottest sunshine, and in soils so lacking in moisture that ordinary plants would live but a short time in it. It is enabled to do this because of the succulent nature of its foliage. Indeed, the portulacca is a vegetable salamander so far as its ability to stand heat and drought is concerned. Those who have had experience with purslane in the vegetable garden will understand something about the nature of this plant, for the two are closely related. In furnishing support for vines that clamber over the walls of the house, do not use strips of cloth, as so many do. The cloth is good for a season only. After the vines have become large and heavy their weight will be sufficient to tear the cloth loose from the tacks that held it in place, especially after a heavy rain or in strong winds, and down will come the plant. It will be found impossible to put it back in place in anything like a satisfactory manner. For supporting large, stiff vines I make use of screw-hooks, which are easily inserted in wooden walls. Turn the hooks in until there is just enough room between their points and the wall to admit of slipping the vine in. Not one vine in fifty will work loose from the grip of the hooks. Some vines are not adapted to this treatment. These I support by using strips of leather instead of cloth. The leather should be soaked in oil for twenty-four hours before using, to make it pliable and water-resisting. Do not use small tacks, as these do not have sufficient hold on the wood to make them dependable. Use nails at least an inch long, with good-sized heads. Some persons object to the use of vines about the house, especially if it is of wood, claiming that they retain moisture to such an extent as to soon injure the walls. I have convinced myself that facts are directly contrary to this theory. The overlapping leaves act as shingles--shedding rain and preventing it from getting to the walls against which the vines are trained. Try to interest the children in the making of a fern-garden and a collection of native plants. A little encouragement at the beginning will do this, and after the project is well under way it will not need encouraging, for the little folks will be so fascinated by it that there will be little likelihood of their abandoning the undertaking. Take half a dozen or more children to the woods with you, with baskets in which to bring home their specimens. Show them how to take up the plants in such a manner that a considerable amount of soil will adhere to their roots. Help them pack them snugly into the baskets to prevent their being shaken about in transit, thereby losing the soil taken up with them. If the day happens to be a warm and sunny one, have them sprinkle the plants and pack some wet moss about them to keep them as fresh as possible until they can be planted in the home garden. Discourage them from taking large plants in preference to small ones, as they will most likely be eager to do. Explain that the small ones stand the best chance of living, and that nothing is gained by choosing large ones, because these will be sure to lose their foliage, and that, even if they live, which nine out of ten will not, they will receive such a check by removal that the small plants will soon get the start of them. It will greatly add to the pleasure of plant-collecting if you make a kind of picnic excursion of it. Take along something good to eat, and spend half a day in the woods, if possible. You will enjoy it as much as the children will. Don't dig your plants, however, until you are about ready to start for home, for it is quite important that they should be planted as soon as possible after being taken up. When they are set out, water them well and shade them for several days. Give all plants taken from shady places a location as nearly like that from which they were taken as possible. A fern that grew in shade will be pretty sure to die if planted in a place fully exposed to the sun. It helps matters very much if you can have a load of woods earth drawn to the home garden to plant these children of the forest in. They do not take kindly to loam, after having been grown in loose, porous soil, though many of them are strong enough to adapt themselves to ordinary garden conditions. I know of many neighborhoods in which clubs for collecting native plants have been formed, and the children who are in these clubs have become intensely interested in their gardens of native plants. This is as it should be, for we have many beautiful wild flowers that are better worth growing than foreign kinds for which large prices are asked. Pride in our home plants ought to be encouraged, and there is no better way of doing this than by interesting the boys and girls in the making of a wild garden. The tuberose is a plant which everybody admires, but which is seldom seen in amateur gardeners' collections. I think the general impression is that it is not an easy plant to grow. Such is not the case, however. It can be grown successfully by any one who is willing to give it a little attention. Tubers should be obtained in March or April. They should be planted in pots containing sandy garden loam into which a liberal amount of good fertilizer has been thoroughly worked. If the tubers are small, two or three can be put into each seven-inch pot used. Before planting them the mass of dried roots which will generally be found adhering to the base of the tuber should be cut away with a thin, sharp-bladed knife. If this is not done, these roots often decay and the diseased condition will be communicated to the tuber and cause it to die, or, if death does not result, to become so unhealthy that it will fail to bloom. The plants can be turned out of their pots when the weather becomes warm, and grown on in the garden through the summer, but I would not advise this, for it will be necessary to lift and pot them before frosty nights come, as they are very tender, and a little disturbance of their roots at this time may cause their buds to blast. I would urge keeping them in pots throughout the season, as, if this is done, you always have them under control. The flowers of the tuberose are ivory-white in color. They are of thick, waxen texture, and have that heavy, rich fragrance that characterizes the magnolia and the cape jasmine of the South. They are borne in a spike at the extremity of tall stalks, thus being very effective for cutting. Because of their thick texture they last for a long time after cutting. Plants in pots remain in bloom for a month or six weeks. Every lover of deliciously fragrant flowers will do well to grow at least half a dozen of them to do duty in the window-garden in fall. A second crop of flowers need not be expected from a tuber that has borne one crop. In order to make sure of bloom it will be necessary to purchase fresh tubers each spring. The abutilon is an old favorite among house plants, and its popularity is well deserved. It is of as easy culture as a geranium. Give it a good soil--preferably loam--drain its pot well, keep the soil evenly moist but never wet, and that is about all the care it will require. It may be necessary to prune it now and then during its early stages of growth in order to secure symmetrical shape, but this is easily done by pinching off the ends of such branches as seem inclined to get the start of others, and keeping them from making more growth until the others have caught up with them. Pinching back branches that do not develop side shoots will generally result in their branching freely. In this way you secure a bushy, compact plant. In order to make a little tree of the abutilon--and it is most satisfactory when grown in that manner--train it to one straight stalk until it reaches the height where you want the head to form. Allow no side branches to grow during this period of the plant's development. When three or four feet tall, nip off the top and keep it nipped off until as many branches as you think necessary have started at the top of the stalk. Allow none to grow below. By persevering in this treatment you will succeed in getting a number of branches with which to form a treelike head. There are several varieties of abutilon. Some have orange flowers, some red, some yellow, some pink, and some pure white. These flowers are bell-shaped and pendent. One name for the plant is the Chinese bell-flower because of its bell-like blossoms. Another is flowering maple, because of the resemblance in shape of its foliage to our native maple. There are two or three varieties with beautifully variegated foliage in which green and white and yellow are about equally distributed. I am always glad to speak a good word for this plant because of its beauty, its ease of culture, its constancy of bloom, and the fact that it is seldom attacked by insects. Another most deserving old plant is the rose geranium. This used to be found in nearly all collections of house plants. It is as easily grown as the flowering geranium. Its foliage is very pleasing, being as finely cut as some varieties of fern. It is delightfully fragrant. A leaf or two will be found a most desirable addition to a buttonhole or corsage bouquet. It can be grown in tree form by giving it the pinching-back treatment advised for the abutilon, or it can be grown as a bush by beginning the pinching process when it is only three or four inches high, thus obliging it to throw out several stalks near the base of the plant. Old plants of oleander may easily be renewed when they have become so large as to be unwieldy, or have outgrown the space that can be given up to them. Cut away _all_ the branches to within four or five inches of the main stalk, leaving nothing but a mass of stubs. In a very short time new branches will be sent out. There will be so many of them that it will be necessary to remove the larger share of them. If this pruning is done in early spring, when the plant is brought from cold storage, the new growth ought to bear a crop of flowers in late summer. The following season the plant should be literally covered with bloom during the greater part of summer, these blossoms being as large and fine in all respects as those borne by the plant when young. I know of no plant that is more tractable than this one, and certainly we have few that are more beautiful. Large specimens are magnificent for porch and veranda decoration in summer. In December they should go into the cellar, to remain there until March. Plants with variegated foliage are becoming more in demand yearly. Japanese maize, with long leaves striped with white and cream, is very effective when grown in a mass in the center of a bed. The Japanese hop, with foliage heavily marbled with creamy white, is quite as attractive without flowers as many of our flowering vines are. Ricinus, with enormous foliage of a lustrous coppery bronze, will be found far more "tropical" in effect then the cannas and caladiums we see so much of nowadays. The leaves of this plant often measure a yard across. If you want it to be most effective, plant it in some exposed place where it will have plenty of room to spread its branches. From what I have said in a preceding chapter it will be readily understood that I am not an admirer of "carpet-bedding" except where plants with small, richly colored foliage are made use of. These can be pruned in such a manner as to keep each color inside its proper limit, but flowering plants will straggle across the lines assigned them, and all clearness of outline in the "pattern" will soon be lost. But when plants are located with a view to securing color contrast, very fine effects can be obtained from them. A circular bed filled with pink, white, and pale-yellow _phlox drummondii_ in rows of each color will be found pleasing, and it has the merit of being easily made. If a round bed has scarlet salvia for its center, surrounded with yellow calliopsis, or California poppy, it will afford a mass of most intense color that will produce a most brilliant effect. A bed of pink flowering geraniums--pink, mind you, not scarlet or any shade of red--bordered with lavender ageratum, will be found extremely attractive if care is taken to cut away all trusses of bloom from the geraniums as soon as they have begun to fade. If this is not done the bed will have a draggled, slovenly effect. Scarlet salvia combined with euphorbia, better known as "snow-on-the-mountain," will be found very effective, the white and green of the euphorbia bringing out the scarlet of the salvia most vividly, and affording such a strong contrast that a bed of these two plants will always challenge admiration. The euphorbia will be found a very useful plant for almost any place in beds or borders where something seems needed to relieve the prevailing color. It deserves more attention than it gets. The impression seems to prevail that many plants ought to retain their old leaves indefinitely. They will not do this, however. Leaves ripen after a time, and the plant will shed them, as all deciduous plants shed theirs in fall. Therefore if you find the lower leaves on your ficus turning, yellow and dropping, don't be frightened. The plant is simply going through one of the processes of nature. But if a good many of the leaves fall all at once it will be well to look for some other explanation of the plant's action. The loss of foliage may come from lack of moisture in the soil, or the roots of the plant may be pot-bound. Examination will show if either is the case. If the soil is found to be dry, more water should be given. If the pot is filled with roots, repot the plant, giving it more root room. The owners of plants should take all these things into consideration before coming to any conclusion as to what the cause of trouble is. Unless they do so there will have to be "guesswork" relative to it, and that is never safe or satisfactory. Trouble may come from overwatering, or from lack of good drainage, or a soil deficient in nutrition. You see, it is necessary to study these matters from several angles, so to speak, as the trouble complained of may have its origin in any one of the conditions mentioned, and not much can be done to remedy matters until one has made an examination that brings to light the facts in the case. These known, it will be a comparatively easy matter to determine the treatment required, for the conditions that are found to exist will, to a great extent, indicate in almost every instance the remedy needed. * * * * * Some good vines for window-box culture are: Madeira vine.--Heart-shaped foliage of a rich, glossy green. Very rapid grower. Tradescantia.--Green, green striped with white, and olive striped with Indian red. Quick grower. Vinca Harrisonii.--Dark-green foliage, edged with yellow. Senecio.--More commonly known as German ivy. Pretty, ivy-shaped foliage of a clear, bright green. Very rapid grower. Needs frequent pinching back to make it branch freely. Glechoma.--Green, variegated with bright yellow. Othonna.--Better known as "pickle-plant" because of its cylindrical foliage, which resembles a miniature cucumber. Has pretty yellow flowers. Saxifraga.--Leaves of graying olive sprinkled with white. Ivy-leaved geraniums.--There are many varieties, some with pink, some with white, and others with red flowers. These are excellent where flowering plants of drooping habit are desired. A box edged with these plants, especially the pink variety, with white Marguerites--better known as Paris daisies--in the center, will be found especially pleasing. In window-boxes having a northern exposure such plants as Boston and Whitman fern, _asparagus plumosus_, _asparagus Sprengerii_, and any of the fibrous-rooted begonias will be found very effective. These plants can be turned out of their pots and planted in the earth in the box, or the pots in which they grow can be sunk in the soil. This is in several respects the best way, as in fall, when the window-box has to be discontinued, the plants will not have to be repotted. Petunias are excellent plants for window-box culture. They can be made to grow in upright form by giving them a little support, or they can be allowed to droop over the sides of the box. A combination of purple and white varieties will be found pleasing. This plant comes into bloom early in the season, when grown from seed, and it continues to bloom until cold weather comes. THE END TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE -Plain print and punctuation errors fixed. 
45978	----	Morrison, Missouri. Described by Mitzky, 1893, as healthy, moderate grower, very productive; bunch medium, compact, shouldered; berry medium, white with white bloom; skin tough; without pulp, very sweet, pure flavor, delicious; ripens with Concord. =White Delaware.= (Lab. Bourq. Vin.) From C. J. Copley, Stapleton, New York. Described in _Massachusetts Horticultural Society Report_, 1880, as having a small bunch, exceedingly compact; berries very small, round, green with an amber tint in the sun, thin bloom; skin very thick; sweet with not much pulp but pretty hard. White Delaware seedlings have also been produced by John Burr, J. Sacksteder, Dr. J. Stayman, D. B. Woodbury and others. =White Elizabeth.= _Hart's White_; _White Isabella_. Listed by Prince in _Gardener's Monthly_ for 1863. =White English.= Mentioned in the _United States Patent Office Report_ for 1845 as being grown by Sidney Weller, Brinkleyville, North Carolina. =Whitehall.= (Lab.) Supposed to be a chance seedling from Geo. Goodale, of Whitehall, Washington County, New York; first fruited in 1870. Of medium vigor, not very productive, comparatively healthy; stamens reflexed; clusters large, moderately compact, shouldered; berry medium, dark purple or nearly black with thin bloom; pulp tender, melting and sweet; ripens about with Hartford. =White Jewel.= (Rip. Lab.) _Burr's No. 19._ A seedling of Elvira; supposed to be from John Burr, of Leavenworth, Kansas. Vigorous, hardy and very productive; stamens upright; bunch medium, long, compact; berry medium, round, white with abundant bloom; skin thin, rather tender; pulp very juicy, tender, sweet, sprightly, very good; ripens about with Moore Early. =White Mountain.= From Connecticut; very early. =White Muscadine.= Mentioned in the _United States Patent Office Report_, 1862, in a list of grapes that do well as far north as Burlington, Vermont. =White Musk.= (Lab. Vin.) According to Fuller, 1867, a hybrid from Jacob Moore, of Rochester, New York. Vine resembles Sweetwater but does not require protection; of medium size with insipid flavor. =White Northern Muscat.= (Vin. Lab.) _Culinary Grape_; _White's Northern Muscadine_. A seedling of Brighton fertilized with Muscat; from W. T. White, Troy, Ohio, about 1889. Vigorous, tender, moderately productive; stamens upright; bunch medium size, compact; berries large, nearly round, brownish-green or amber color; skin thick, tough; pulp large, tender, juicy, sweet; high flavor; about ten days earlier than Concord. =White Norton.= (Aest. Lab.) A seedling of Norton; from F. Langendoerfer, Hermann, Missouri. Noted in _Missouri Horticultural Society Report_, 1883, as a slow grower, moderately productive, very hardy; smaller than its parent, of a golden yellow color and a few days earlier. =White Norton.= (Aest. Lab.) _White Virginia Seedling._ Another Norton seedling, probably crossed with some Labrusca; produced by J. Balziger, Highland, Illinois. Strong, hardy; healthy and vigorous; fruit similar to Elvira but better in quality; very late; shows some Labrusca blood. =White Rose.= Received at this Station for testing in 1906 from Miss R. R. Short, Clifton Springs, New York. =White Sugar.= W. R. Prince in _Gardener's Monthly_ for 1863, mentions this variety as a worthless Labrusca. =White Tennessee.= According to _Grape Culturist_, 1871, grown by W. Valiant, of Clarksville, Tennessee, and known by him for about fifty years. Hardy, productive and free from disease. =White Ulster.= (Lab. Vin.) According to _Bushberg Catalogue_, 1894, an amateur variety, raised by A. J. Caywood from a seedling of Ulster crossed with White Concord. =Wilcox.= Mentioned in the _United States Patent Office Report_, 1845, as being grown by Sidney Weller, Brinkleyville, North Carolina. =Wilding.= (Rip. Lab.) A seedling found by Jacob Rommel, Morrison, Missouri. Vigorous, hardy and healthy, moderately productive; stamens reflexed; bunch medium, loose, shouldered; berry medium, round, pale green, almost transparent; skin very thin, and tender; no pulp, juicy, very sweet; very good; ripens with Concord. =Wilkins Seedling.= (Lab.) From O. Fitzalwyn Wilkins, Bridgeburgh, Ontario, about 1895. Described in the _Canadian Horticulturist_, 1898, as follows: Bunch of good size and form; berries white, round, of medium size; skin thin and tender; pulp tender and separates readily from the seeds; flavor agreeable, somewhat foxy, but much sweeter and pleasanter than Concord; early. =Willard.= (Lab.) From E. P. Fisher, Sterling, Kansas; received at this Station for testing in 1905. Described by originator as a vigorous, short-jointed grower, perfectly hardy, sometimes mildews; bunch a little smaller than Concord, compact; berry nearly large, round, red; sweet, without any foxiness; lacks vigor here; tendrils continuous or sometimes intermittent. =Williamson.= (Cand.) A wild variety of Candicans from Williamson County, Texas; collected by T. V. Munson. Stamens reflexed; small bunch with very large, black berry; early. =Williamsport.= Noted in the _Magazine of Horticulture_, 1860, as a new variety originated on the mountain near Williamsport, Pennsylvania. Perfectly hardy, and very prolific. =William Wine.= (Lab. Aest.) Mentioned by S. J. Parker in the _United States Department of Agriculture Report_ for 1864. Cluster small with long peduncle; berry large, round, having "the fox grape perfume mingled with that of a rose." =Willie.= (Lab.) Said to be a seedling of Northern Muscadine crossed with Concord; from L. C. Chisholm, Spring Hill, Tennessee. Vigorous, rampant grower, healthy and very productive; fruit larger than Concord, shouldered, very showy; black with white bloom; pulp vinous and sprightly, no foxiness; excellent wine grape; ripens with or a few days later than Concord. =Willis.= (Lab. Bourq. Vin.) A seedling of Delaware; from Willis W. Jones, Camargo, Illinois, about 1865. Usually vigorous, as hardy as Concord, healthy, generally quite productive; bunch medium, compact, shouldered, in shape like the Delaware; berry medium, round, pale green or amber-yellow with a slight bloom; pulp tender, very juicy, slightly vinous, sweet, foxy; good; early. =Willis Fredonia.= _Guernsey Grape_; _Jersey Grape_. Origin unknown; grown by John Willis, of Maryland. According to Prince, 1830, a vigorous rampant grower, healthy, very productive; fruit black and pleasant for the table. =Willis Large Black.= _Great Black Muscadine._ An old variety mentioned by Prince in 1830, who says, "according to a traditional account of the Southern Indians, this vine and the White Scuppernong have been in bearing among them for more than five hundred years." Very vigorous; berries very large; foxy. =Wilmington.= (Lab. Vin.) _Wilmington White._ Originated with a Mr. Jeffries, near Wilmington, Delaware, about 1856. Very vigorous, hardy, productive; bunches large, loose, shouldered; berries large, roundish or inclining to oval, greenish-white; tender and not pulpy, sweet and pleasant when properly ripened but requires a long southern season; late. =Winchester.= (Lab. Vin.) _Brackett's Seedling_; _Brackett's Winchester_. A seedling of Union Village; from E. A. Brackett, Winchester, Massachusetts, first fruited in 1858. Vigorous, hardy; bunch large; berry large, round, black, heavy bloom; juicy, sweet, vinous; resembles parent but ripens a week earlier. =Windsor.= Noted by Prince in 1830. Found growing wild twelve miles north of Baltimore, at Windsor, on the plantation of George Fitzhugh. Very luxuriant and productive; clusters large and long; berries round, blue, juicy. =Winedrop.= (Linc. Bourq.) A cross between Post-oak No. 1 and Herbemont by Munson, in 1884. Stamens reflexed; bunch large with small, dark red berry; late. =Wine House.= Noted in _United States Patent Office Report_, 1854. Found growing spontaneously in the vineyard of Frederick Muench. Sweet and aromatic; not very juicy. =Wine King.= (Aest. Linc. Rup. Lab.) A seedling of Winona crossed with America; from Munson, in 1898. Very vigorous, prolific, healthy; stamens erect; cluster large, compact; berry medium, black with blue bloom; very little pulp, tender, very juicy, vinous, rich and sprightly; good. =Winona.= (Aest. Lab.) A seedling of Norton; from Munson, about 1895. Vigorous, productive; stamens upright; cluster large, loose, conical; berries small to medium, black; skin thin, tough; pulp juicy, tender, good; about a week earlier than Norton. =Winslow.= (Rip.?) A seedling raised by Charles Winslow, of Cleveland, Ohio, about 1857. Hardy and productive; bunch medium, long, compact; berries small, round, black; pulp vinous and juicy; resembles Clinton but is less acid; very early. =Winter Wine.= (Simp. Linc. Bourq.) A cross between _Vitis simpsoni_ and Marguerite by Munson in 1898. Stamens reflexed; bunch large with medium-sized black berry; "extra late." =Witt.= (Lab.) A white seedling of Concord; from Michael Witt, of Columbus, Ohio, about 1880. Not very vigorous, hardy, moderately healthy, very productive; clusters medium to large, conical, moderately compact, sometimes shouldered; berries variable in size, usually large, roundish, greenish-white or pale yellow with thin whitish bloom; pulp tender, juicy, vinous, sweet; good; ripens with Concord or a little before. =Woodbury.= (Lab. Bourq. Vin.) _Woodbury White._ A seedling of Delaware from D. B. Woodbury, Paris, Maine, about 1891. Described in _Bushberg Catalogue_, 1894, as resembling Delaware in growth and foliage; bunch medium, compact; berry larger than Delaware, slightly oblong, greenish-white with fine bloom; skin thin, yet tough, almost transparent; juicy, sweet, good; ripens two weeks before Concord; a very good keeper. =Woodbury.= Mentioned in the _United States Department of Agriculture Report_ for 1863, as being on trial in the government experimental garden. =Woodcock Seedling.= Exhibited by H. Woodcock at the Western New York Horticultural Society meeting in 1887. A large red grape, of very good quality; ripens with Delaware. =Woodford.= On trial in the United States Department of Agriculture experimental vineyard in 1860. Vigorous; purple; pulpy, juicy, sweet. =Woodriver.= According to _Bushberg Catalogue_, 1883, originated near Woodriver, Washington County, Rhode Island, by a Mr. Brown. White, very early, fine quality. =Woodson.= From Prince Edward County, Virginia, previous to 1830. Bunch medium, very compact; berry medium red; no pulp, rich; good for table and wine; later than Cunningham. =Wyman.= (Lab. Vin.) _Wyman's Seedling._ Exhibited by Joseph Breck in 1854 at a session of the fruit committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Said to be a seedling of Catawba; berries large, sweet and free of pulp; ripens with or before Isabella. =Wynant.= (Lab. Vin.) According to Mitzky, 1893, a chance seedling grown by D. W. Babcock, Dansville, New York; almost identical with Dutchess. =Wyoming.= Noted in the _United States Patent Office Report_, 1860. Vigorous; black; juicy, somewhat pulpy. =Wylie's Seedlings.= Unnamed seedlings of Dr. A. P. Wylie, of Chester, South Carolina: _No. 4._ A cross between two hybrids. Described by originator in _Bushberg Catalogue_, 1883, as bunch somewhat larger than Lenoir; berry medium, of a clear transparent golden color; finest texture and flavor, resembles White Frontignan; ripens as early as Concord. _Concord and Foreign No. 8._ (Vin. Lab.) Seedling of Concord and Bowood Muscat. Strong grower; foliage Labrusca; cluster very large, loose; berry very large, black, of foreign texture; skin thick; ripens with Catawba. _Delaware and Concord No. 1._ (Lab. Vin. Bourq.) Very hardy with Labrusca foliage; a great bearer; bunch and berry medium; skin thick, dark red; juicy, rich and sweet, slightly musky. _Halifax and Delaware No. 30._ (Lab. Bourq. Vin.) The same color as Delaware with bunch of same size and berries one half larger; texture and flavor also much like Delaware; generally more healthy than that variety; a great bearer. _Halifax and Delaware No. 38._ (Lab. Bourq. Vin.) Hardy and healthy with Labrusca foliage, not so strong a grower as _No. 30_; dark red in color with purple bloom and superior to _No. 30_ in flavor. _Halifax and Delaware No. 49._ (Lab. Bourq. Vin.) A black grape of high vinous flavor. _Halifax and Delaware No. 55._ (Lab. Bourq. Vin.) Bunch medium, long, shouldered; berries large, dark blue or purple with a purple bloom; flesh tender, juicy, very sweet, sprightly, high flavored; best. _Halifax and Hamburg No. 11._ (Vin. Lab.) Very productive and healthy; bunch medium; berry medium, black, with thick skin. _Hybrid Scuppernong No. 4._ (Rot.) Exhibited at the American Pomological Society in 1877. Healthy, very productive; bunches medium, compact; berry round, greenish-white; pulp nearly melting, very juicy, sprightly, vinous, with a musky aroma; good. _Hybrid Scuppernong No. 5._ (Rot. Vin.) Parentage, Bland Madeira and Foreign No. 1, crossed with a staminate hybrid Scuppernong produced by impregnating Black Hamburg with Scuppernong. Healthy and hardy; bunch medium; berries large, white, transparent with thin tough skin; almost pulpless, rich, sweet, with a peculiar flavor; as early as Concord. =Xenia.= (Lab. Vin. Bourq.) Parentage, Delaware, Goethe and Triumph; from Munson. Vigorous; cluster medium, compact; berry very large, white; skin thin and tough; pulp meaty, tender, sprightly, high flavor; best; very late, with Fern Munson or just before. =Xlnta.= (Linc. Rup. Vin. Lab.). One of Munson's seedlings; America fertilized with R. W. Munson. Vigorous, hardy in Southern States; stamens reflexed; cluster large, cylindrical, shouldered, fairly compact; berries medium to large, globular, black, with little bloom; skin thin; pulp meaty, tender, sprightly; season with or later than Concord. =Yoakum.= (Bourq.) According to _Bushberg Catalogue_, 1894, "resembling the Herbemont, its juice is of deeper color, its foliage is more deeply lobed, but otherwise much inferior; ripening unevenly and being less productive." =Yomago.= (Lab. Vin. Bourq.) A cross between Delago and Brilliant, by Munson, about 1894. As grown at this Station, a weak grower, not hardy, variable in productiveness; flowers fertile, bloom late; stamens upright; clusters large, usually single-shouldered, compact; berries large, roundish, black, glossy, covered with heavy blue bloom; skin thin and tender; flesh pale green, tender, spicy, sweet with Post-oak flavor; fair to good; it is doubtful if it will ripen in this locality. =Yonkers.= (Lab.) A Concord seedling; from J. W. Gray, Atwood, Illinois. Hardy, not a strong grower; bunch medium, shouldered, compact; berries large, round, light green; sweet; good; ripens a little before Concord. =York Claret.= (Lab.) According to Prince, 1830, a native cultivated near York, Pennsylvania, where it is much esteemed for wine. Bunches and berries smaller than those of Alexander; without pulp, very juicy, sweet. =York Lisbon.= (Lab. Vin.) Noted by Prince in 1830. Grown around York, Pennsylvania. Resembles Alexander but larger and a little elongated and the pulp is more acid; coarse, pulpy and foxy; some consider it identical with Alexander. =York Madeira.= (Lab. Vin.?) _Baldwin's Early; Black German; Canby's August; German Wine; Large German; Marion Port; Monteith; Shepherd's Port Wine; Small German; Tryon; Wolfe._ An old variety of Isabella type, originated at York, Pennsylvania. Vigorous, generally hardy, productive; cluster medium, compact, shouldered; berries medium, roundish, inclining to oval, black; pulp juicy, sweet, somewhat vinous, pleasant; ripens with Isabella or before. Some consider Marion (II) identical with this variety. =Young America.= (Lab.) Raised by Samuel Miller, of Calmdale, Pennsylvania, about 1860. A seedling of Concord and resembling its parent in color and shape but three weeks later. =Zane.= From a Mr. Zane, Wheeling, West Virginia; found by him growing wild on Wheeling Island. Berry medium, red. =Zelia.= (Lab. Vin.) Parentage, Telegraph crossed with Black Hamburg; from C. J. Copley, Stapleton, New York. Medium in vigor, productive, quite hardy; leaves five-lobed, some indistinctly so, dull green; cluster large, compact; berry very large, black; skin thin, fine bloom; pulp tender, rich, sweet, aromatic; season earlier than Concord. =Zinnia.= (Lab.) Origin unknown. Cluster large, loose, shouldered; berry medium, round, black with a rich bloom. =Zita.= (Lab. Bourq. Vin.) A seedling of Delaware; from John Sacksteder, Leavenworth, Crawford County, Indiana. Vigorous, productive, healthy; cluster above medium; berry medium, round, yellow. =Zoe.= Mentioned by Campbell in _Garden and Forest_, 1890, as a northern grape attaining its best quality in long seasons. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES WITH ABBREVIATIONS USED In the standard works listed below, the date of copyright has been preferred to that of the title page although where there are several editions from the same copyright they are given, so far as our knowledge permits. This is thought to be more just to the writers as the copyright date is usually a better indication of the time when the book was written than the date of publication. An effort has been made to present a complete bibliography of grape literature in the United States including many books which, owing to their nature, have been of no use in the preparation of this work. In addition there are given all agricultural works and periodicals to which references will be found in the preceding pages. Reports and bulletins of experiment stations and reports of horticultural societies are not included as in each case the abbreviation used is standard and sufficiently full for ready recognition. Only such European works have been included as were found useful in preparing the volume. Adlum A Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in America and the Best Mode of Making Wine. By John Adlum. Washington: 1823. Second edition, 1828. Allen A Practical Treatise on the Culture and Treatment of the Grape Vine, etc. By J. Fisk Allen. Second edition, Boston: 1848. Third edition, 1853. Amer. Farmer The American Farmer. Baltimore: 1819-1832. Amer. Gard. The American Garden. 1888-1891. American Gardening, New York: 1892-1904. (The American Garden and Popular Gardening were combined in 1892 to form American Gardening.) Am. Hort. An. American Horticultural Annual. A Year Book of Horticultural Progress, etc. New York: 1867-1871. Am. Jour. Hort. The American Journal of Horticulture and Florist's Companion. Name changed in 1869 to Tilton's Journal of Horticulture and Florist's Companion. Boston: 1867-1871. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. American Pomological Society Report. Issued usually biennially from 1852 to date. Andrae A Guide to the Cultivation of the Grape Vine in Texas, and Instructions for Wine-Making. By E. H. Andrae. Dallas, Texas: 1890. An. Hort. Annals of Horticulture in North America. A Witness of Passing Events and a Record of Progress. By L. H. Bailey. New York: 1889-1893. (Appearing annually.) Antill An Essay on the Cultivation of the Vine, etc. By Edward Antill. (Appearing in Transactions American Philosophical Society.) Philadelphia: 1771. Bailey American Grape Training; An Account of the Leading Forms Now in Use of Training the American Grapes. By L. H. Bailey. New York: 1893. Barry The Fruit Garden; A Treatise, etc. By P. Barry. New York: 1851. Revised edition (Barry's Fruit Garden), New York: 1872. Revised edition (Barry's Fruit Garden), New York: 1883. Bolling Sketch of Vine Culture. By Robert Bolling. (Never printed but several manuscript copies were circulated during the latter half of the 18th century. Extracts were published in several periodicals.) Bright Bright's Single Stem Dwarf and Renewal System of Grape Culture, etc. By William Bright. New York: 1860. Second edition, New York: 1861. (Same copyright date as first edition.) Buchanan The Culture of the Grape and Wine-Making. By Robert Buchanan. Cincinnati: 1852-1860 or later. (Eight editions or more.) Budd-Hansen American Horticultural Manual, etc. By J. L. Budd and N. E. Hansen. New York and London: 1903. Busby Journal of a Recent Visit to the Principal Vineyards of Spain and France, etc. By James Busby, Esq. New York and Boston: 1835. Bush. Cat. Illustrated Descriptive Catalogue of American Grape Vines, etc. By Bush and Son and Meissner. Third edition, St. Louis: 1883. Fourth edition same, St. Louis: 1894. Can. Hort. Canadian Horticulturist. Toronto: 1878 to date. Chorlton The Cold Grapery, from Direct American Practice, etc. By Wm. Chorlton. New York: 1853. Chorlton The American Grape Growers' Guide, etc. By Wm. Chorlton. Many editions. With the exception of a final chapter added to the later editions there are no revisions. New York: 1852-1883. Cole The American Fruit Book, etc. By S. W. Cole. Boston and New York: 1849. Cope Physiography in its Application to Grape Culture. An essay in Saunders' "Both Sides of the Grape Question". De Berneaud The Vine-Dresser's Theoretical and Practical Manual, etc. By Thiebaut de Berneaud. (Translated from the French.) New York: 1829. Denniston Grape Culture in Steuben County, New York. By G. Denniston. Albany: 1865. (In New York Agricultural Society Report, and also as a separate.) Dom. Enc. The Domestic Encyclopedia; or a Dictionary of Facts, etc. By A. F. M. Willich. First American edition with additions by James Mease. In five volumes. (The fifth volume contains an article on grapes by William Bartram and James Mease.) Philadelphia: 1804. Downing The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. By A. J. Downing, 1845. Second edition, same text, with colored plates, 1847. First revision, by Charles Downing, 1857. Second revision, 1869. First appendix, 1872. Second appendix, 1876. Third appendix, 1881. Du Breuil The Thomery System of Grape Culture. (A translation from the French.) New York: No date. Du Breuil Vineyard Culture, etc. By A. Du Breuil. Translated (from the French) by E. & C. Parker, with notes and adaptations by John A. Warder. Cincinnati: 1867. Dufour The American Vine-Dresser's Guide, etc. By John James Dufour. Cincinnati: 1826. Eisen The Raisin Industry, etc. By Gustav Eisen. San Francisco: 1890. Elliott Elliott's Fruit Book, or the American Fruit Growers' Guide, etc. By F. R. Elliott. New York: 1854. Revised edition (same), 1859. Ev. of Nat. Fruits Sketch of the Evolution of our Native Fruits. By L. H. Bailey. New York: 1898. Fisher Observations on the Character and Culture of the European Vine, etc. By S. I. Fisher. Philadelphia: 1834. Flagg Three Seasons in European Vineyards, etc. By Wm. J. Flagg. New York: 1869. Floy-Lind. Guide to the Orchard and Fruit Garden, etc. By George Lindley; edited by John Lindley. American edition with notes and additions by Michael Floy. New York: 1833. Fuller The Grape Culturist; a Treatise, etc. By Andrew S. Fuller. New York: 1864. Same, new and enlarged edition, New York: 1867. Same, new revised and enlarged edition, New York: 1894. Gard. Chron. Gardener's Chronicle, etc. London: 1841 to date. Gar. Mon. Gardener's Monthly, etc. Thomas Meehan, editor. Philadelphia: 1859-1887. Goessman Contribution to the Chemistry of the American Grape Vine. By C. A. Goessman. In Proceedings American Chemical Society, volume 2, and also as separate. Grape Cult. The Grape Culturist, a Monthly Journal, etc. George Husmann, editor. St. Louis: 1869-1871. Grant Manual of the Vine. By C. W. Grant, Iona, N. Y.: 1864. Haraszthy Grape Culture, Wines and Wine-Making, etc. By A. Haraszthy. New York: 1862. Haskell An Account of Various Experiments for the Production of New and Desirable Grapes. Ipswich, Mass.: 1877. Hoare A Practical Treatise on the Cultivation of the Grape Vine on Open Walls. By Clement Hoare. Boston: 1837. Same, Boston: 1840. Same, Boston: 1845. Same, New York: 1847. Hofer Grape Growing. A Simple Treatise on the Single Pole System, etc. By A. F. Hofer. New York: 1878. Hooper Hooper's Western Fruit Book, etc. By E. J. Hooper. Cincinnati: 1857. Horticola The pseudonym of Dr. Charles Siedhof who translated and added notes to Mohr's "The Grape Vine," etc. Horticulturist The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste. Albany, Philadelphia and New York: 1846-1875. Husmann The Cultivation of the Native Grape and Manufacture of American Wines. By George Husmann. New York: 1866. Husmann American Grape Growing and Wine Making. By George Husmann. Fourth edition, New York: 1895. Hyatt Hyatt's Handbook of Grape Culture, etc. By T. Hart Hyatt. San Francisco: 1867. Johnson Rural Economy, etc. By S. W. Johnson. New York: 1806. Keech The Grape Growers' Guide. By J. Keech. Waterloo, N. Y.: 1869. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. A Catalog of the Fruits Cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society of London. First edition, London: 1826. Same, second edition, 1831. Longworth The Cultivation of the Grape and Manufacture of Wine. By N. Longworth. Cincinnati: 1846. Loubat The American Vine Dresser's Guide. By Alphonse Loubat. New York: 1827. Same, 1872. McMahon The American Gardener's Calendar, etc. By Bernard McMahon. Philadelphia: 1806. McMinn A Contribution to the Classification of the Species and Varieties of the Grape Vine. By J. M. McMinn. (An essay appearing in Saunders' "Both Sides of the Grape Question.") McMurtrie Report upon Statistics of Grape Culture and Wine Production in the United States for 1880. By Wm. McMurtrie, United States Department of Agriculture. Washington: 1881. Mag. Hort. Magazine of Horticulture. Published first two years under name American Gardener's Magazine. C. M. Hovey, editor. Boston: 1835-1868. Mead An Elementary Treatise on American Grape Culture and Wine Making. By Peter B. Mead. New York: 1867. Mitzky Our Native Grape, etc. Published by C. Mitzky & Co. Rochester: 1893. Mohr The Grape Vine. A Practically Scientific Treatise on its Management, etc. By Frederick Mohr. Translated from the German by Horticola (Charles Siedhof). New York: 1867. Muench School for American Grape Culture, etc. By Frederick Muench. Translated from the German by Elizabeth H. Cutter. St. Louis: 1865. Munson Classification and Generic Synopsis of the Wild Grapes of North America. By T. V. Munson. United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Pomology, Bulletin 3. Washington: 1890. My Vineyard My Vineyard at Lakeview. By a western grape-grower (A. N. Prentiss). New York: 1866. Persoz New Process for the Culture of the Vine. By Persoz. Translated by J. O. C. Barclay. New York: 1856. Phelps The Vine: Its Culture in the United States, etc. By R. H. Phelps. Hartford: 1855. Phin Open Air Grape Culture, etc. By John Phin. New York: 1862. Same, 1876. Prince A Treatise on the Vine, etc. By William Robert Prince, aided by William Prince. New York: 1830. Rafinesque American Manual of the Grape Vines, etc. By C. S. Rafinesque. Philadelphia: 1830. Rec. of Hort. Woodward's Record of Horticulture. Edited by A. S. Fuller. (An annual). New York: 1866-1868. Reemelin The Vine-Dresser's Manual; An Illustrated Treatise, etc. By Charles Reemelin. New York: 1856. Rural N. Y. Rural New Yorker. Rochester and New York: 1850 to date. Saunders Both Sides of the Grape Question, etc.: Three essays on grape culture by Wm. Saunders, F. J. Cope and J. M. McMinn. Philadelphia: 1860. Siedhof, Charles (See Mohr.) Sou. Agr. Southern Agriculturist, Horticulturist, etc. Charleston: 1828-1846. Speechly A Treatise on the Culture of the Vine, etc. By William Speechly. Dublin: 1791. Spooner The Cultivation of American Grape Vines, etc. By Alden Spooner. Brooklyn: 1846. Story of the Vine The Story of the Vine. By Edward R. Emerson. New York and London: 1901. Strong Culture of the Grape. By W. C. Strong. Boston: 1866. Thomas The American Fruit Culturist. By J. J. Thomas. Published at various places. First edition, 1846; twenty-first edition, 1903. Tomes The Champagne Country. By Robert Tomes. New York: 1867. Traité gen. de vit. Traité general de viticulture, etc. Published under the direction of P. Viala and V. Vermorel assisted by many others. In six volumes. Paris: 1903. Tryon A Practical Treatise on Grape Culture, etc. By J. H. Tryon. Willoughby, Ohio: 1887. Same, second edition, Willoughby, Ohio: 1893. U. S. D. A. Rpt. Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1862 to date. U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt. Reports of the Agricultural Section of the United States Patent Office: 1837 to 1861. Vineyardist The Vineyardist. Penn Yan, N. Y. Wait Wines and Vines of California, etc. By Frona Eunice Wait. San Francisco: 1889. Warder See Du Breuil. West. Hort. Rev. Western Horticultural Review. J. A. Warder, editor. Cincinnati: 1850-1853. Woodward Woodward's Graperies and Horticultural Buildings. By Geo. E. & F. W. Woodward. New York: 1865. INDEX. (Names of varieties in this index, if accepted names, appear in roman type; if synonyms, in italics.) Abby Clingotten, 433 Ada, 433 Adaptation, 68; influence of air current, 71; of altitude and latitude, 69; of fertility, 70; of insects and fungi, 72; of moisture, 69, 70; of soil, 71; of temperature, 69 Adelaide, 433 Adelia, 433 Adeline, 433 Adirondac, 157 Adlum, John, attempt to establish an experimental farm, 45, 46; book by, 45; life of, 45; quoted, 45, 46, 161; var. found by, 449 Admirable, 433 _Admirable_ (syn. of Fern Munson), 271 _Admiral_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Adobe, 433 _Adobe Land grape_ (syn. of _V. champini_), 124 Advance, 158 Agawam, 158 Aiken, 433 Air currents, 71 Alabama, grapes in, 20 _Alabama_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Alabama_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 369 Albaiis, 433 Albania, 433 Albert, 433 Albino, 433 Alderton, D., var. found by, 466 Aledo, 433 Aletha, 433 Alexander, 17, 45, 50, 160 _Alexander_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Alexander, John, var. found by, 161 Alexander, S. R., var. orig. by, 163 Alexander Winter, 163 _Alexander's_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Alexandria_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 Alfarata, 434 Alice (I), 164 Alice (II), 164 Alice Lee, 434 Allair, 434 Allen, John Fisk, var. orig. by, 166, 461 Allen's Hybrid 56, 57, 165 Alma, 434 Alphonse, 434 Aluwe, 434 Alvey, 434 _Alvey's Lenori_ (syn. of Lenori), 479 _Alvey's Logan_ (syn. of Logan), 481 Amadas and Barlowe, quoted, 30, 31, 51 Amalia, 434 Amanda, 434 Ambecon, 434 Amber, 434 _Amber_ (syn. of Early Amber), 455 Amber Queen, 166 Ambrosia, 167 _Amelia_ (syn. of Amalia), 434 Amerbonte, 434 America, 168 American grapes, characters of, 3, 4, 98, 103, 105; distribution of, 26; early history of, 26 et seq.; resistance to disease, 6; species of, 107 _American grape vine_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 American Hamburg, 434 _American Muscadine_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 Amersion, 434 Amethyst, 169 Aminia, 170 Amonta, 435 _Amoreaux_ (syn. of Louisiana), 331 _Amoreux_ (syn. of Rulander), 508 Amos, 435 Amy, 435 Andover, 435 Anida, 435 Anna, 435 _Ann Arbor_ (syn. of White Ann Arbor), 523 Annie M., 435 Anthracnose, 87 Antill, Edward, essay by, 15, 40; quoted, 41 Antoinette, 171 Anuta, 435 Arbeka, 435 Archer, 435 _Archer_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Archer, Ellis S., var. orig. by, 435 _Arcott_ (syn. of Cassady), 445 Ariadne, 435 _Arizona grape_ (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 _Arizonensis_ (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 Arkansas, grapes in, 54 _Arkansas_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Arkansas_ (syn. of Cynthiana), 228 _Arkansas_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 Arkansaw, 435 Armalaga, 435 Armbrilong, 435 Armlong, 435 Arnold, Charles, life of, 200; var. orig. by, 174, 190, 200, 375, 450 _Arnold's Hybrid No. 1_ (syn. of Othello), 374 _Arnold's No. 2_ (syn. of Cornucopia), 450 _Arnold's No. 5_ (syn. of Autuchon), 173 _Arnold's No. 8_ (syn. of Brant), 190 _Arnold's No. 16_ (syn. of Canada), 199 _Arnott_ (syn. of Cassady), 445 Aroma, 435 Arrold, 436 _Arrott_ (syn. of Cassady), 445 Arthur, J. S., var. found by, 500 _Ash_ (syn. of Ironclad), 306 _Ash-leaved grape_ (syn. of _V. cinerea_), 131 _Ashy grape_ (syn. of _V. cinerea_), 131 _Asiatic Wine grape_ (syn. of _V. vinifera_), 154 Atavite, 436 Atoka, 436 Auburn Pearl, 436 Aughwick, 436 August Coral, 436 August Giant, 172 _August Isabella_ (syn. of Valentine), 519 August Pioneer, 436 Augusta, 436 Augustina, 436 _Australian_ (syn. of Huntingdon), 471 Australis, 436 Auteonello, 436 Autuchon, 173 Avery, John P., var. orig. by, 436 Avery, Seth, var. orig. by, 462 Avery Prolific, 436 Avilla, 436 Ayres, E. J., var. orig. by, 436 Ayres Pride, 436 Azure, 436 Babcock, D. W., var. orig. by, 527 Bacchus, 174 Bachman, Joseph, var. orig. by, 177, 406, 515 Badart, 437 Bailey, 176 Bailey, L. H., cited, 106, 121, 149; life of, 142; quoted, 4, 112, 133, 144; work on Vitis by, 101; writings of, 142 Bailey Prolific, 437 Bailie, 437 Bailie, Samuel, var. orig. by, 437 Baker, 437 Baldwin Lenoir, 437 _Baldwin's Early_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 Baltimore Seedling, 437 Balziger, 437 Balziger, J., var. orig. by, 437 _Balziger's Concord Seedling No. 2_, 437 _Balziger's No. 32_, 437 Banner, 177 Barbara, 437 Bark, taxonomic value of, 105 Barnes, 437 Barnes, Parker, var. orig. by, 437 Baroness, 437 Barry, 177 Barry, Patrick, cited, 350 _Barry's No. 19_ (syn. of Rochester), 388 Bartlett, 437 Bartram, John, life of, 97 Bartram, William, cited, 161, 162; life of, 97; quoted, 4, 67, 139; species compared by, 98; works of, 97 Bashtite, H. T., var. found by, 211 Bates, 437 Bauchman Red Fox, 437 Baxter, 437 Bay State, 437 Beach, 438 Beach, Dr. Soloman, mentioned, 206 Beach, S. A., quoted, 105 _Beach grape_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 Beacon, 179 _Beaconsfield_ (syn. of Champion), 210 Beagle, 438 Beansville, 438 Beaufort, 438 Beauty, 180 Beauty of Minnesota, 438 Beaverdam, 438 Beeby Black, 438 Belinda, 438 Bell, 181 Bellomont, Earl of, cited, 13; quoted, 12 Belton, 438 Belvidere, 438 Belvin, 438 Ben, 438 Ben Hur, 438 Benjamin, 438 Bentham, George, life of, 135; works of, 135 Berckmans, 182 Berckmans, P. J., mentioned, 182 Berks, 439 Berlandier, Jean Louis, life of, 131 Berlaussel, 439 Berlin, 439 _Bermuda vine_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 Bertha, 439 Bertrand, 183 Bessey, C. E., cited, 106 Beta, 439 Bettina, 439 Beverly, Robert, quoted, 8, 33, 38, 39 _Big B Con_ (syn. of Beacon), 179 Big Berry, 439 Big Black, 439 _Big Bunch_ (syn. of Big Berry), 439 Big Cluster, 439 _Big Concord_ (syn. of Jumbo), 475 _Big Extra_ (syn. of Extra), 460 Big Hope, 439 Big Ozark, 439 _Big Red_ (syn. of Collier), 449 _Bird grape_ (syn. of _V. munsoniana_), 112 Bird's Egg, 439 Bird's-eye rot (See Anthracnose) Bishop, 440 Bishop, D., var. orig. by, 440 Bismarck, 440 Bissell, J. W., cited, 214 Black, Dr. R. B., var. found by, 478 Black Bear, 440 _Black Cape_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Black Claret, 440 Black Cluster, 440 Black Delaware, 440 _Black Delaware_ (syn. of Nectar), 358 Black Defiance, 184 Black Eagle, 185 _Black El Paso_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Black Fox_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _Black German_ (syn. of Marion (I)), 339 _Black German_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 _Black Gibraltar_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Black Grape_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Black Guignard_ (syn. of Guignard), 465 Black Hamburg, 186 Black Hawk, 188 Black Heart, 440 Black Herbemont, 440 Black Imperial, 189 _Black July_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Black July_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Black King, 440 _Black Lenoir_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Black Madeira, 440 _Black Palestine_ (syn. of Orwigsburg), 497 Black Pearl, 189 _Black Portugal_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Black Rose, 440 Black-rot, 86 Black September, 440 _Black Souvignon_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Black Spanish_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Black Spanish_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 369 _Black Spanish Alabama_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 369 Blackstone, 441 Black Taylor, 441 _Black Teneriffe_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Black Tennessee, 441 Black Virginia, 441 Blackwood, 441 Blanco, 441 Bland, 441 _Bland's Fox_ (syn. of Bland), 441 _Bland's grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _Bland's Madeira_ (syn. of Bland), 441 _Bland's Pale Red_ (syn. of Bland), 441 _Bland's Virginia_ (syn. of Bland), 441 Blondin, 441 Blood, 441 Blood, Mr., var. originated by, 441 Blood Black, 441 Blood White, 441 _Bloom_ (syn. of Creveling), 224 _Bloomburg_ (syn. of Creveling), 224 Blue Dyer, 441 _Blue Elsingburg_ (syn. of Elsingburgh), 257 Blue Favorite, 442 _Blue French_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Blue French_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 _Blue grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _Blue Grape_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Blue grape_ (syn. of _V. bicolor_), 144 _Blue Grape of the South_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Blue Imperial, 442 _Blue Seedling_ (syn. of Bertrand), 183 _Blue Tart_ (syn. of Oporto), 372 _Blue Trollinger_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Blue Vine Grape_ (syn. of Oporto), 372 Boadicea, 442 _Bocksaugen_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Bogue's Eureka_ (syn. of Eureka (I)), 268 Bokchito, 442 Bolling, Col. Robert, book by, 15; quoted, 40 _Bommerer_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Bonne Madame, 442 Bossung, Jacob P., var. orig. by, 509 Bostwick, Rev. William, mentioned, 54, 83 Bottsi, 442 _Bottsi_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 Boulevard, 442 Bowker, Mr., var. orig. by, 492 Bowman, 442 _Brackett's Seedling_ (syn. of Winchester), 526 _Brackett's Winchester_ (syn. of Winchester), 526 Braddock, 442 Bradley, 442 Braendley, 442 Brand White, 442 Brant, 190 Breck, 442 Breece, J. S., var. orig. by, 436, 451 Bridgewater, 442 Brighton, 191 Brilliant, 193 Broderick, Mr., var. orig. by, 436 Brown, 195 Brown, Mr., var. orig. by, 527 Brown, Jason, var. orig. by, 469 Brown, Wm. B., quoted, 195; var. found by, 195 _Brown French_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 _Brown Hamburgh_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Brown Seedling_ (syn. of Brown), 195 _Brown's Early_ (syn. of Brown), 195 Bruce, Philip Alexander, quoted, 32 Brunk, 443 _Buck Grape_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 Buckley, Samuel Botsford, cited, 128; life of 116, 117 Buist, 443 Buist, H. B., var. orig. by, 443 _Bull_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 Bull, Ephraim W., life of, 221; var. orig. by, 221, 223, 264, 389, 479, 481, 488, 508, 519 _Bull grape_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 _Bull's Seedling_ (syn. of Concord), 219 _Bullace_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 _Bullace_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _Bullet_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 _Bullet grape_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 _Bullis_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _Bullit_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _Bullitt_ (syn. of Taylor), 408 Bullitt, Cuthbert, mentioned, 409 Bumper, 443 _Bunch grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 Buncombe, 443 Bundy, 443 Bundy, David, var. orig. by, 217, 443 Burbank, Luther, var. orig. by, 455 _Burgunder_ (syn. of Louisiana), 331 _Burgundy_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Burgundy_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 _Burgundy of Georgia_ (syn. of Pauline), 499 Burlington, 443 Burnet, 443 Burr, John, life of, 251; var. orig. by, 251, 256, 301, 322, 337, 405, 449, 460, 462, 472, 474, 486, 487, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 502, 503, 511, 515, 524 _Burr No. 1_ (syn. of Jewel), 321 _Burr No. 9_ (syn. of Ideal), 301 _Burr No. 47_ (syn. of Leavenworth), 479 _Burr's Early_ (syn. of Jewel), 321 _Burr's No. 15_ (syn. of Paragon), 499 _Burr's No. 19_ (syn. of White Jewel), 524 Burroughs, 443 Burrows, J. G., var. orig. by, 443 _Burrows No. 42C_, 443 Burton Early, 443 _Burton's Early August_ (syn. of Early August), 455 Bush, 443 Bush, Isadore, cited, 119, 180, 208; life of, 119; quoted, 144 _Bush grape_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 _Bush grape of Texas_ (syn. of _V. rupestris_), 113 Bushberg, 443 Bushberg Catalogue, quoted, 189, 236 _Bushy grape_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 Cabot, 444 Cairnano, 444 _California grape_ (syn. of _V. californica_), 135 _California grape_ (syn. of _V. girdiana_), 136 California, grapes in, 25; raisins in, 67 California region, 61 California Rosea, 444 California White, 444 Calkins, Mr., var. orig. by, 471 Calloway, 444 _Caloosa_ (syn. of _V. cariboea_), 146 _Caloosa grape_ (syn. of _V. candicans coriacea_), 148 Calypso, 444 Camaks, 444 Camaks, James, var. orig. by, 444 Cambridge, 444 Camden, 444 Cameron, John D., var. orig. by, 494 _Campbell_ (syn. of Campbell Early), 196 _Campbell_ (syn. of Early Golden), 456 Campbell, Geo. W., cited, 115; life of, 198; var. orig. by, 198, 413, 439, 475, 495, 500, 503, 523, 549, 550 Campbell Early, 196 _Campbell's Concord Hybrid No. 6_ (syn. of Triumph), 411 _Campbell's Seedling No. 6_ (syn. of Triumph), 411 Canaan, 444 Canada, 199 _Canadian Hamburg_ (syn. of Othello), 374 _Canadian Hybrid_ (syn. of Othello), 374 Canandaigua, 201 Canby, 444 Canby, W., var. orig. by, 444 _Canby's August_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 _Canon grape_ (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 Canonicus, 444 _Canyon grape_ (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 _Cape_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Cape_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Cape grape_ (syn. of Alexander), 50 Cape May Prolific, 444 _Cape of Good Hope grape_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 Capital, 444 Captain, 201 _Captraube_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Carlotte, 444 Carman, 202 Carminet, 445 _Carolina_ (syn. of Caroline), 445 Carolina Blue Muscadine, 445 _Carolina Powel_ (syn. of Bland), 441 Caroline, 445 Carpenter, Charles, var. orig. by, 448, 458, 483, 491 _Carpenter's Seedling_ (syn. of Mottled), 491 Carter, 445 _Carter_ (syn. of To-Kalon), 410 Carver, 445 Case, 445 Case, S. D., var. found. by, 451 Case Crystal, 445 Caspar, 445 Caspar, A., var. orig. by, 445 Cassady, 445 Cassady, H. P., var. orig., by, 445 _Cat Bird grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _Cat grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 Catarobe, 445 Catawba, 50, 203 _Catawba Tokay_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Catawissa_ (syn. of Creveling), 224 _Catawissa Bloom_ (syn. of Creveling), 224 Catherine, 445 Catoosa, 445 Cayuga, 208 Caywood, Andrew Jackson, life of, 247; var. orig. by, 247, 272, 358, 381, 414, 420, 445, 471, 480, 483, 487, 490, 524 _Caywood No. 1_, 445 _Caywood No. 50_, 445 Centennial, 208 Central lake district, 72; acreage of, 85; climate of, 82, 83; first plantings in, 83; first shipments from, 84; fungi in, 86, 87; geology of, 81; insects in, 85, 86; pruning and training in, 85; season of, 84, 85; soils of, 82; topography of, 82; wine in, 84 Challenge, 209 _Challenge_ (syn. of Othello), 374 Chambersburg White, 445 Chambril, 445 Champagne, 65; production of in U. S., 65 Champanel, 446 _Champania_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Champin grape_ (syn. of _V. champini_), 124 Champion, 210 Champova, 446 Chandler, 446 Chandler, N. M., var. orig. by, 446 Chapin, 446 Charles, 446 Charles A. Green, 446 _Chas. Downing_ (syn. of Downing), 242 Charlotte, 446 Charlton, 446 Charlton, John, var. orig. by, 446 Charter Oak, 446 Chase, Col. L., var. orig. by, 494, 575 Chautauqua, 211 Chautauqua district, 61, 72; acreage of, 78; care of vineyards in, 79; climate of, 75, 76; first plantings in, 54, 76; first shipments from, 77; geology of, 73; grape juice in, 66; history of, 76 et seq.; insects in, 79; production of grapes in, 79; rank of varieties in, 79; soil of, 74, 75; wine in, 77 Chavoush, 446 Cheowa, 446 Cherokee, 446 _Cherokee_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Cherokee_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Chicago, 446 _Chicken-grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 Chidester, C. P., var. orig. by, 446, 447, 483 _Chidester No. 1_ (syn. of Lyon), 483 Chidester's Seedlings, 446, 447 Childers, James, var. found by, 476 Chillicothe, 447 Chippewa, 447 Chisholm, Dr. L. C., var. orig. by, 235, 334, 435, 443, 447, 463, 478, 525 Chisholm's Seedlings, 447 Chlorosis, 87 Chocolate, 447 Choteau, 448 Christian, Jacob, var. orig. by, 502 _Christie's Improved Isabella_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Christine_ (syn. of Telegraph), 409 Christine, Mr., var. found by, 410 Church Seedling, 448 _Cigar Box_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 _Cigar Box Grape_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Cincinnati Horticultural Society Report, quoted, 370, 371 _Clarence_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Claret, 448 Clarissa, 448 Clark, 448 Clark, B. W., var. orig. by, 361 Clark, Dr., var. orig. by, 506 Clark, J. T. C., var. orig. by, 449, 459 Clark, James W., var. orig. by, 448, 509 Clark Seedling, 448 Clarkes, 448 Classification of Vitis, 107 Claude, 448 Cleary, M. F., var. orig. by, 451 Clement, Asa, var. orig. by, 244 Cleopatra, 448 Clevener, 212 _Clevener_ (syn. of Louisiana), 331 Clifton, 448 Clifton, William, mentioned, 161 _Clifton's Constantia_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 Climax, 448 Clinton, 213 Clinton-Vialia, 448 Cloantha, 448 Cloeta, 216 Clough, James Milton, var. orig. by, 426 Clover Street Black, 448 Clover Street Red, 448 Cluster, 448 Clyde, 449 Cobb, Mr., var. found by, 409 Coble, H. C., var. orig. by, 452 Cochee, 449 Coe, 449 Coffin, J. T., var. orig. by, 485 _Coleman's White_ (syn. of Cuyahoga), 451 Colerain, 217 Colesvine, 449 Collier, 449 Collina, 449 Colorado, 449 Colp, 449 Columbia, 449 _Columbia Bloom_ (syn. of Creveling), 224 _Columbia County_ (syn. of Creveling), 224 Columbian, 449 _Columbian_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Columbian_ (syn. of Columbian Imperial), 218 Columbian Imperial, 218 Columbus, 449 _Common Blue grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 Compacta, 449 _Conckling's Wilding_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Concord, 55, 57, 66, 219 Concord Chasselas, 449 Concord Muscat, 450 Concordia, 450 Conelva, 450 Connecticut, 450 Connecticut Seedling, 450 Conqueror, 450 _Constantia_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Constantia_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Continental_ (syn. of Centennial), 208 Cooke, Dr. Thos. R., var. orig. by, 487 Cooper, Joseph, var. orig. by, 450 Cooper Wine, 450 Copley, C. J., var. orig. by, 442, 444, 448, 450, 452, 453, 482, 488, 498, 508, 523, 529 Copley's Hybrids, 450 Coppermine, 450 Corby, 450 Corby, C. C., var. orig. by, 450, 490 Coriel, 450 Cornelia, 450 Cornucopia, 450 Corporal, 451 Corsican, 451 Cortland, 451 Cotoctin, 451 Cottage, 222 _Courtland_ (syn. of Cortland), 451 Covert, 451 Covert, N. B., var. orig. by, 451 Cowan, 451 Cox, Mr., var. orig. by, 436 Cozy, 451 Craig, 451 Crandall, P. B., var. orig. by, 480 Crans, Peter, mentioned, 344 Crehore, Mrs. Diana, var. orig. by, 240 Creveling, 224 Critic, 451 Croton, 225 Crown, 451 Crystal, 451 Culbert, Dr. W. A. M., var. orig. by, 249, 451, 452, 463, 493, 503, 513 Culbert Seedling, 451 _Culbert's No. 3_ (syn. of Newburgh Muscat), 493 _Culbert No. 5_ (syn. of Golden Berry), 463 _Culbert's Seedling No. 6_ (syn. of Purple Bloom), 503 _Culinary Grape_ (syn. of White Northern Muscat), 524 Cunningham, 227 Cunningham, Jacob, var. orig. by, 228 _Currant grape_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 Curtis, 451 Curtis, Dr., cited, 236 Curtis, Geo., var. orig. by, 491 Curtis, Mrs., var. orig. by, 464 Cuyahoga, 451 Cuyarano, 452 Cyncon, 452 Cynthiana, 228 Daisy, 230 Dale, Sir Thomas, mentioned, 32 Dana, 452 Dana, Francis, var. orig. by, 452, 494 Danbury, 452 Dankers, Jasper, quoted, 10 Daphne, 452 Dartmouth, 452 Darwin, 452 _David Hall Grape_ (syn. of Logan), 481 Davis, 452 Davkina, 452 Davy, General, mentioned, 206 Dawson, J. H., var. orig. by, 497 De Candolle, Augustin Pyramus, life of, 146; writings of, 146 De Candolle, Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyrame, life of, 146; writings of, 146; cited, 155 De Grasset, 452 Delago, 452 _Delaware and Clinton No. 1_ (syn. of Berckmans), 182 Delaware, 231 Delaware, grapes in, 34 Delaware, Lord, mentioned, 32; quoted, 6, 9 Delaware Seedling, 452 _Delaware Seedling No. 2_, 453 _Delaware Seedling No. 4_ (syn. of Delaware Seedling), 452 _Delaware Seedling No. 9_, 453 _Delaware Seedling No. 16_, 453 Delawba, 234 D'Elboux, 453 _D'Elboux Seedling_ (syn. of D'Elboux), 453 Delgoethe, 453 Delicious, 453 Delmar, 453 Delmerlie, 453 De Lyon, Abraham, mentioned, 9 Dempsey, P. C., var. orig. by, 443, 453 Dempsey's Seedlings, 453 Denison, 453 Dennis, John, var. found by, 454 Dennis Seedling, 454 Denniston, 454 Denniston, Isaac, var. found by, 454 Department of Agriculture Report, quoted, 396 Dery, Alexis, var. orig. by, 509 Dery, Magloire, var. orig. by, 463 De Soto, 454 Detroit, 454 Devereaux, 235 _Devereaux_ of "Gardening for the South" (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Devereaux_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Devereaux_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 Devereaux, Samuel M., mentioned, 236 _Devereux_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Devereux_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Diamond, 236 _Diamond, Moore_ (syn. of Diamond), 236 Diana, 238 Diana Hamburg, 241 Diaphragm, taxonomic value of, 102 Dickens, Albert, cited, 271 Diller, 454 Dingwall White, 454 Dinkel, 454 _Diogenes_ (syn. of Ironclad), 306 _Dissected vine_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 140 Distribution, factors of, 69 _Diverse Leaved_ (syn. of Texas), 516 Dixie, 454 Dixon, Mr., var. orig. by, 475 _Doan's grape_ (syn. of _V. doaniana_), 137 Dr. Bain, 454 _Dr. Collier_ (syn. of Collier), 449 _Dr. Keller_ (syn. of Keller), 475 Dr. Kemp, 454 Dr. Robinson Seedling, 454 Dr. Warder, 454 Doder, 454 Doder, Mr., var. orig. by, 454 Dog Ridge, 454 Dolle, 455 Don Juan, 242 Donnelly, R. J., mentioned, 210 _Dorchester_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Dorinda, 455 Dorr Seedling, 455 Downing, 242 Downing, A. J., quoted, 56, 163 Downing, Charles, quoted, 191, 195, 341 _Downy Canyon grape_ (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 _Downy grape_ (syn. of _V. cinerea_), 131 Downy mildew, 86 Dracut Amber, 244 Dry Hill Beauty, 455 _Duck-shot grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 Dufour, 455 Dufour, John James, cited, 163; life of, 17; quoted, 17, 18, 19, 20, 24, 47, 57, 162 Dunlap, 455 _Dunlap_ (syn. of Lady Dunlap), 478 Dunn, 455 _Dunn_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 Duquett, 455 _Duquett's Seedling_ (syn. of Duquett), 455 Durfee, Dr., var. orig. by, 448 Dutch, American grape culture by, 10 _Dutch Hamburgh_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Dutchess, 246 Eames, Luther, var. orig. by, 455 Eames Seedling, 455 Early, 455 Early Amber, 455 _Early Amber_ (syn. of Dracut Amber), 244 Early August, 455 Early Bird, 456 Early Black, 456 _Early Black_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Early Black July, 456 Early Black Summer Grape, 456 _Early Champion_ (syn. of Champion), 210 Early Concord, 456 Early Daisy, 248 Early Dawn, 249 Early Delmonico, 456 Early Golden, 456 Early Harvest, 456 Early Hudson, 456 Early June, 456 Early Lebanon, 456 Early Malvasia, 456 Early Market, 457 _Early Northern Muscadine_ (syn. of Northern Muscadine), 365 Early Ohio, 249 Early Prolific, 457 Early Purple, 457 Early Vicks, 457 Early Victor, 250 Early Wine, 457 Eastern region, 59, 61 Eaton, 252 Eaton, Calvin, var. orig. by, 253 _Eaton's Seedling_ (syn. of Eaton), 252 Ebony, 457 Echland, 457 Eclipse (I), 254 Eclipse (II), 256 Eden, 457 Edmeston, 457 Edmeston, D. G., var. orig. by, 457 _Edmeston No. 1_ (syn. of Edmeston), 457 Edward, 457 Eggert, H., mentioned, 115 _Eggert's grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 Eichelberger, Thomas, mentioned, 44 Elaine, 457 Elbling, 457 Eleala, 457 Electra, 458 Elizabeth, 458 Elkton, 458 Ellen, 458 Ellwanger and Barry, var. orig. by, 350, 388 _El Paso_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _El Paso_ (syn. of Mission), 489 _El Paso_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 Elpo, 458 _Elsenburgh_ (syn. of Elsinburgh), 257 _Elsinboro_ (syn. of Elsinburgh), 257 _Elsinborough_ (syn. of Elsinburgh), 257 _Elsinburg_ (syn. of Elsinburgh), 257 _Elsingburg_ (syn. of Elsinburgh), 257 Elsinburgh, 257 Elsmere, 458 Elvibach, 458 Elvicand, 258 Elvin, 458 Elvira, 259 _Elvira Seedling No. 8_ (syn. of Etta), 265 Emerald, 458 Emma, 458 Empire State, 261 Enfield, 458 Englemann, George, life of, 131, 132; cited, 106, 118, 123, 128, 132; quoted, 104, 105, 143; work on Vitis by, 100, 101 Engle, C., var. orig. by, 457, 458, 465, 468, 469, 472, 487, 488, 503, 516, 520, 565 Engle's Seedlings, 458 English, American grape culture by, 6 Ensenberger, G. A., var. orig. by, 293, 311, 459, 468, 472, 475, 486 Ensenberger's Seedlings, 459 Eolia, 459 Epurill, 459 Erickson, 459 Erskine, E. M., mentioned, 62; quoted, 53 Essex, 263 Essex County (Mass.) Seedling, 459 Estave, Andrew, mentioned, 8 Estell, Mr., var. orig. by, 506 Estella, 459 Ester, 264 Etawa, 459 Etta, 265 Eudora, 459 Eufala, 459 Eugenia, 459 Eumedel, 459 Eumelan, 266 Eumorely, 460 Eureka (I), 268 Eureka (II), 268 _European grape_ (syn. _V. vinifera_), 154 European grapes, American culture by French, 9; characters of, 3, 4, 155; culture in Virginia, 8; first plantings in America, 6 Eva, 460 Evaline, 460 Evenden, Mr., var. orig. by, 483 _Everbearing grape_ (syn. of _V. munsoniana_), 112 Everett, 460 Ewing, 460 _Ewing's Seedling_ (syn. of Ewing), 460 Excelsior, 269 Exquisite, 460 Extra, 460 Faith, 270 _Fall grape_ (syn. of _V. berlandieri_), 130 Fallwicke, 460 Fallwicke, Joseph, var. orig. by, 460 _False Scuppernong_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 Fancher, 460 _Fancher_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Fanny Hoke, 460 Farmers Club, 460 Farrell, 460 Farrell, D., var. found by, 460 Far West, 461 Fay, Elijah, mentioned, 54; life of, 76 Fay, Lincoln, mentioned, 77 Feemster, 461 Feemster Favorite, 461 Fena, 461 _Fern_ (syn. of Fern Munson), 271 Fern Munson, 271 Fidia, 79, 80 _Fidia viticida_ (See Fidia) Fisher, E. P., var. orig. by, 514, 522, 525 Fisk, 461 Fitchburg, 461 Flea-beetle, 80 _Fleish Traube_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Flickwir, 461 Flora, 461 Florence, 272 Florence, 461 Florida, grapes in, 30 _Florida Bird grape_ (syn. of _V. munsoniana_), 112 _Florida grape_ (syn. of _V. munsoniana_), 112 Flower of Missouri, 461 Flowers, 461 Fluke, Newton K., var. orig. by, 461 Fluke's Hybrids, 461 Folsom, S., var. orig. by, 268 _Foreign grape_ (syn. of _V. vinifera_), 154 Foster, 461 Fox, 461 _Fox_ (syn. of Fitchburg), 461 Fox grape, 39, 41 _Fox grape_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _Fox grape_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 149 _Fox grape_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 _Fox grape of the Northern States_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _Fox grape of the South_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 Foxy, defined, 4 _Frakenthaler_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Fraker, William A., var. found by, 436 _Framboisier_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Framingham, 461 Frances E. Willard, 462 _Franc's Hybrid_ (syn. of Hybrid Franc), 300 _Frankendale_ (syn. Black Hamburg), 186 _Frankenthaler gros noir_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Franklin, 462 Fredonia, 462 _Free Black_ (syn. of Fitchburg), 461 French, American grape culture by, 9 _French Grape_ (syn. of Craig), 451 _French grape_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 _French Grape_ (syn. of Franklin), 462 Fritz, 462 Frost, 462 _Frost_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Frost grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _Frost grape_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _Frost-grape_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 Fruit, taxonomic value of, 103 Gaertner, 272 Gallup Seedling, 462 Gandy, R. W., var. orig. by, 500 Garber, 462 Garber, J. B., var. orig. by, 433, 462, 485, 494 Garber Red Fox, 462 _Garber's Albino_ (syn. of Albino), 433 _Garber's Red-Fox_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Garber's White_ (syn. of Albino), 433 Gardner, Mr., var. orig. by, 466 Garfield, 462 Garnet, 462 Garrigues, 462 Gassman, 462 Gauger, 462 Gazelle, 462 _Gelbholziger Trollinger_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 General Pope, 462 Genesee, 463 Geneva, 274 Georgia, grapes in, 9, 54 Gerbig, A. V., var. orig. by, 463 _Gerbig No. 2_, 463 _Gerbig No. 10_, 463 _German Grape_ (syn. of Marion (II)), 341 German Seedling, 463 _German Wine_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 Giant, 463 _Giant Leaf_ (syn. of Riesenblatt), 506 Gibb, 463 Gibbs, Mrs. Isabella, mentioned, 308 _Gibb's grape_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Gibralter_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Gilbert, Garret, var. orig. by, 463 Gilbert's White Shonga, 463 Gill Wylie, 463 Gilt Edge, 463 Glenfeld, 275 _Globe_ (syn. of Sage), 395 Godard, Francis, var. orig. by, 479 Goethe, 276 Goff, 277 Goff, E. S., var. orig. by, 278 Gold Coin, 280 Gold Dust, 463 Golden Beauty, 463 Golden Berry, 463 Golden Clinton, 463 Golden Concord, 464 Golden Drop, 281, 464 Golden Gem, 464 Golden Grain, 464 _Golden Pocklington_ (syn. of Pocklington), 379 Goldstein, 464 _Goldstein's Early_ (syn. of Goldstein), 464 Good Adle, 464 Goodale, Geo., var. orig. by, 524 Goodhue, C. H., var. orig. by, 498 Goodman, 464 Governor Ireland, 464 Governor Ross, 464 Graham, 464 Graham, W., var. orig. by, 464 Grant, Dr. C. W., life of, 304; var. orig. by, 304, 312 Grape districts of New York, 72 Grape fruit worm, 80, 81 Grape-growers, early, in United States, 48 Grape-growing, development of, 58; rank of, in states, 72; specialization of, 59; status of in 1830, 47, 48, 49; status of in 1859, 53, 55; status of in 1880, 59; status of in 1890, 59, 61 Grape juice, 66 Grape leaf-hopper, 80 Grape regions, 59, 60 Grape-vine flea-beetle, 80 Grape-vine fidia, 79 Grapes, adaptation of, 68; culture by Dutch, 10; culture by English, 6, 7; culture by Spaniards, 6; culture by Swedes, 10; early history of, 26; evolution of, 36; accounts of by early explorers, 29; classification of, 107, 108; improvement of, 28; evolution of, 26; first records of, 29; habitat of, 27; means of distribution of, 27; native, 39; value of, 36; self-fertility of, 104; self-sterility of, 104; soil for, 71; wild, as index to grape regions, 28; wild, in North America, 26 Gravel, 464 Gravestock, John, var. orig. by, 449 Gray, Asa, cited, 106 Gray, J. W., var. orig. by, 528 Gray, W. C., var. orig. by, 464 _Gray Delaware_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 Gray's Seedlings, 464 Grayson, 464 _Great Black Muscadine_ (syn. of Willis Large Black), 525 _Great Cluster_ (syn. of Big Berry), 439 Greeley, Horace, mentioned, 222; quoted, 220 Green Castle, 464 Green Early, 281 Greene, O. J., var. found by, 281 Greene, William E., var. found by, 417 Green, William E., var. orig. by, 456, 490 _Green Mountain_ (syn. of Winchell), 425 _Green Muscadine_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 _Green Scuppernong_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 Green Ulster, 465 Greer, 465 Grein Extra Early, 465 Grein Golden, 282 Grein, Nicholas, var. orig. by, 283, 349, 465 _Grein No. 7_ (syn. of Grein Extra Early), 465 _Grein's No. 1_ (syn. of Missouri Riesling), 349 _Grein's No. 2_ (syn. of Grein Golden), 282 Grein's Seedlings, 465 Grevaduly, 465 Greverson, 465 Grote, 465 Grove, 465 _Guernsey Grape_ (syn. of Willis Fredonia), 525 Guesta, 465 Guignard, 465 _Guignardia bidwellii_ (See Black-rot) Guinevra, 465 Gula, 465 Gulch, 465 _Gulch grape_ (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 _Gulch grape_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 Gunn, Ward D., var. found by, 164 Hadden, Mr., var. orig. by, 465 Hadden Seedling, 465 Hagar, 466 _Hagar_ (syn. of Alvey), 434 Halifax, 466 Halifax Seedling, 466 Hall, 466 Hall, Mr., var. orig. by, 466 Hall, David, var. orig. by, 466 _Haltica chalybea_ (See Grape-vine flea-beetle) Hamill Seedling, 466 Hamilton, 466 _Hampton Court Vine_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Hanover_ (southern) (syn. of Isabella), 307 Hardy Chasselas, 466 Hariot, Thomas, cited, 31 Harmer, 466 Harmer Seedling, 466 Harmonists, grape culture by, 19, 20 Harrell, 466 Harrell, Obed, var. orig. by, 466, 495 Harriet Beecher, 466 Harris, 466 _Harris_ (syn. Lenoir), 328 Harris, Mr., var. found by, 466 Harrison, 466, 467 _Hart_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Hart_ (syn. of Lincoln), 480 Hart, Joseph, var. orig. by, 435, 458 Hartford, 284 _Hart's White_ (syn. of White Elizabeth), 523 _Hartford Prolific_ (syn. of Hartford), 284 Harvard Seedling, 467 Harvey, Dr., var. orig. by, 434 Harwood, 467 Harwood, Major, var. orig. by, 467 Hasbrouck, Eli, var. orig. by, 435 Haskell, George, var. orig. by, 467, 508 Haskell, N. R., var. orig. by, 467 Haskell's Seedlings, 467 Haskew, 467 Hattie, 467 Hatton, 467 Hattus, 467 Hawkins, Captain John, cited, 30 Hawkins, D. J., mentioned, 365 Hawkins, William, var. orig. by, 467, 468 _Hawkins No. 3_, 467 _Hawkins No. 10_, 468 Hayes, 286 Headlight, 287 Hearthenge, 468 _Heart-leaved vitis_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _Heath_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 Helen, 468 Helen Keller, 468 Helpfer, 468 Hencke, Ludwig, var. orig. by, 461, 479, 487, 508 Henderson, G., var. orig. by, 483 Henrico, 468 Henry, 468 _Hensell's Long Island_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Henshaw, 468 Herald, 468 Herbemont, 288 Herbemont, Nicholas, cited, 329; mentioned, 290, 309 _Herbemont Madeira_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 Herbemont Seedling, 468 Herbert, 291 Hercules, 293 Heriulfusson, Biarni, mentioned, 29 Hermann, 294 _Hermann Jaeger_ (syn. of Jaeger), 314 Hero, 468 Hertia, 468 Hertlein, John, var. orig. by, 449 Hettie, 468 Heunis, 468 Hewitt, Alexander, quoted, 9 Hexamer, 469 Hexamer, Dr., var. orig. by, 469 Hiawasse, 469 _Hickman_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 Hicks, 295 Hidalgo, 296 Higginson, Francis, quoted, 12 Highland, 297 _Hilgarde_ (syn. of Fern Munson), 271 _Hill Grape of Ohio_ (syn. of Collina), 449 Hine, 469 _Hine Seedling_ (syn. of Hine), 469 History, of Old World grape, 1 Hoag, C. L., var. orig. by, 361 Hobbs, O. T., var. orig. by, 497 Hock, 469 Hofer, A. F., var. orig. by, 469 _Hofer Seedling No. 2_, 469 Holmes, 469 Honey, 469 _Honey_ (syn. of Raabe), 504 Honey Dew, 469 Hooker, 469 Hopeon, 469 Hopherbe, 469 Hopican, 470 Hopkins, 470 Hopkins, Mr., var. orig. by, 516 _Hopkins Early Red_ (syn. of Wyoming), 431 Horner, 470 Horner, Joe, var. orig. by, 470 Hosford, 299 Hosford, George, var. orig. by, 299, 439 _Hosford's Mammoth Seedling_ (syn. of Hosford), 299 _Hosford's Seedling_ (syn. of Hosford), 299 Hoskins, A., var. orig. by, 470 Hoskins Seedling, 470 Houghton, Francis, var. orig. by, 444 Howell, 470 Hubbard Seedless, 470 Huber, 470 Huber, Theophile, var. orig. by, 339, 433, 434, 437, 439, 454, 457, 458, 468, 471, 472, 484, 516, 519 Huber's Seedlings, 470, 471 _Hudler_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Hudson, 471 Hudson River district, 72, 88; acreage of, 88; climate of, 89; diseases in, 92; early plantings in, 89, 90; early viticulturists in, 90; first plantings in, 55; geology of, 88; packing and shipping in, 91, 92; rain-fall in, 89; training and pruning in, 91; varieties in, 90, 91 Hueber, Lewis, var. orig. by, 496 Huguenots, 38 Hulings, Dr., mentioned, 258 Hulkerson's Seedlings, 471 Humboldt, 471 _Hunt_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 Hunt, R. A., var. found by, 250 Hunt, R. H., var. found by, 371 Hunterville, 471 Huntingdon, 471 Husmann, 471 Husmann, G., cited, 115, 221; quoted, 114 _Husson_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 Hutchinson, 471 Hutporup, 471 _Hybride de Concord No. 6_ (syn. of Triumph), 411 Hybrid, first Labrusca-vinifera, 56 Hybrid Franc, 300 Hyde, Wilkes, var. orig. by, 471 Hyde Black, 471 Hyde Eliza, 471 Icterida, 472 Ida, 472 Ideal, 301 Iden, 472 _Iden_ (syn. of Lake), 478 Illinois, grapes in, 53, 54 Illinois City, 472 Illinois Early, 472 Illinois Prolific, 472 _Imitation Hamburg_ (syn. of Union Village), 415 Imlay, Mr., mentioned, 326 Imperial, 302 _Imperial_ (syn. of Columbian Imperial), 218 Improved Purple Fox, 472 _Improved Warren_ (syn. of Harwood), 467 Indiana, 472 Indiana, grapes in, 20, 54 Indian Field, 472 Infloresence, taxonomic value of, 102 International, 472 Iola, 472 Iona, 302 Iowa, 472 Iowa, grapes in, 61 Iowa Excelsior, 472 Iris, 472 Ironclad, 306 Irvin October, 472 Irving, 473 Isabella, 50, 307 _Isabella Regia_ (syn. of Pierce), 500 Isabella Seedling, 310 _Isabelle d'Amerique_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Israella, 311 _Italian wine grape_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 Ithaca, 473 Ives, 312 Ives, Henry, var. orig. by, 313 _Ives' Maderia_ (syn. of Ives), 312 _Ives' Maderia Seedling_ (syn. of Ives), 312 _Ives' Seedling_ (syn. of Ives), 312 _Ives' Seedling Maderia_ (syn. of Ives), 312 _Jac_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Jac_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 Jacent, 473 _Jack_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Jack_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 _Jacques_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Jacques_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 _Jacquet_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 _Jacquet_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Jacquez_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Jacquez_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 Jaeger, 314 Jaeger, Hermann, cited, 115; var. found by, 461; var. orig. by, 455, 473, 474, 481, 492, 523 _Jaeger, Herman_ (syn. of Jaeger), 314 _Jaeger No. 50_ (syn. of Longworth), 481 _Jaeger No. 56_ (syn. of Dufour), 455 _Jaeger No. 70_ (syn. of Munson), 492 Jaeger's Seedlings, 473 James, 315 James, J. H., var. orig. by, 474 James Seedling, 474 Janesville, 316 Jane Wylie, 474 _Janie Wylie_ (syn. of Jane Wylie), 474 Jaques, John, mentioned, 89 Jefferson, 317 Jefferson, Thomas, quoted, 45, 161 Jeffries, Mr., var. orig. by, 526 Jelly, 474 Jemina, 474 Jennie May, 474 Jennings, 474 _Jersey Grape_ (syn. of Willis Fredonia), 525 Jessica, 320 Jessie, 474 Jesuits, 17 Jeter, 474 Jewel, 321 _Jewell_ (syn. of Jewel), 321 Joen, 474 _Joe's Mariole_ (syn. of Mariole), 485 John Burr, 474 Johnson, 474 Johnson, David, var. orig. by, 498 Johnson, J., mentioned, 206 Johnson, S. W., cited, 17; quoted, 44 Jolly, 474 Joly, 474 Jonathan, 474 Jones, Calvin, quoted, 51, 400 Jones, Judge J. B., var. found by, 184 Jones, W. W., var. orig. by, 435, 468, 525 _Jones Perfumed_ (syn. of Carolina Blue Muscadine), 445 Joplin, J., var. orig. by, 474 Joplin's Peaks of Otter, 474 _Jordan_ (syn. of Moyer), 354 Jordan Large Blue, 475 _Jordan's Blue_ (syn. of Jordan Large Blue), 475 Joseph Henry, 475 Josselyn, John, quoted, 35 Judd, 475 Judge, 475 Judge Miller, 475 July, 475 _July Sherry_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 July Twenty-fifth, 475 Jumbo, 475 _Jumbo_ (syn. of Columbian Imperial), 218 _June Grape_ (syn. of _V. riparia præcox_), 121 Juno, 475 Juno's Sister, 475 Kalamazoo, 475 Kalista, 475 Kansas July, 475 Kay Seedling, 475 _Kay's Seedling_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 Keller, 475 Keller White, 475 _Keller's White_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Kelley, Datus, var. orig. by, 485 Kellog, 476 Kelly, W. B., var. orig. by, 467 Kemp, 476 Kendall, 476 Kenena, 476 Kenrick's Native, 476 Kensington, 322 Kentucky, 476 Kentucky, grapes in, 17, 54 Kentucky wine, 476 Ketchum, 476 _Keuka_ (syn. of Neff), 492 Keuka Lake, first plantings about, 54 Key to species of Vitis, 107, 108 Keystone, 476 Kiamichi, 476 Kilvington, 476 King, 324 _King_ (syn. of Golden Clinton), 463 King Philip, 476 Kingsessing, 476 Kingsessing, Edward G., var. orig. by, 462 King William, 476 Kinney, I., var. orig. by, 476, 477 Kinney's Seedlings, 476, 477 Kiowa, 477 Kitchen, 477 _Kittredge_ (syn. of Ives), 312 Kniffin, William, mentioned, 91 Kniffin system of training, 91 Knob Mountain, 477 Knox, Rev. J., var. orig. by, 504 Koeth, A., var. orig. by, 442 Kosomo, 477 Kramer, J. C., var. orig. by, 438, 477 Kramer Seedling, 477 Krause, 477 Kready, John, var. orig. by, 248, 456, 476 Kruger, 477 Labe, 477 Labrusca, origin of the name, 149 Lacon, 477 Laconia, 477 La Crissa, 477 Ladies, 477 _Ladies Choice_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 Lady, 325 Lady Charlotte, 477 Lady Dunlap, 478 Lady Helene, 478 Lady Washington, 327 Lady Younglove, 478 Lake, 478 _Lake_ (syn. of Iden), 472 _Lama_ (syn. of Laura), 478 La Marie, 478 Lane, Ralph, cited, 31 Langendoerfer, F., var. orig. by, 295, 524 _Languedoc_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Langworthy, L. B., var. found by, 214 La Reine, 478 Large Berry, 478 _Large Blue English_ (syn. of Cape May Prolific), 444 _Large German_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 Large Leaf, 478 Larrowe, Hon. Jacob, mentioned, 83 La Salle, 478 Laughlin, 478 Laughlin, W. R., var. orig. by, 478 Laura, 478 _Laura Beverly_ (syn. of Creveling), 224 Laussel, 478 Lavega, 478 Lawrence, 478 Laws, John, var. orig. by, 474 Lawson, 479 Lawson, John, life of, 36; quoted, 37 Leader, 479 Leaf-hopper (See Grape leaf-hopper) _Leather-Leaf grape_ (syn. of _V. candicans coriacea_), 148 Leavenworth, 479 Leaves, taxonomic value of, 105, 106 _Lebanon Seedling_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Le Conte, John Eaton, life of, 144; work on Vitis by, 100; writings of, 144 Legaux, Peter, cited, 42; life of, 16; mentioned, 15, 18, 161, 162 _Lehigh_ (syn. of Berks), 439 Lehman, 479 Lehman, William, var. orig. by, 479 Leif the Lucky, 29, 30 Lemosy, Mr., cited, 367 Lenoir, 328 _Lenoir_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Lenoir_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 Lenori, 479 Leon, 479 _Lespeyre_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Letovey, 479 Lewis, 479 Lexington, 479 Lida, 479 Lightfoot, 479 Lightfoot, W. H., var. orig. by, 434, 435, 438, 444, 479, 489, 514 _Lightfoot Seedling No. 34_, 479 Lightfoot's Seedlings, 479 _Lilac_ (syn. of Shurtleff Seedling), 512 Limington White, 479 Linceola, 479 Lincoln, 480 _Lincoln_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Lincoln_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Lincoln County_ (syn. of Lincoln), 480 Lincoln Downer, 480 Lincrup, 480 Lincy, 480 Lindell, 480 Linden, 480 Lindley, 329 Lindley, John, mentioned, 330 Lindmar, 480 Linelvi, 480 Linherbe, 480 Linley, 480 Linn, 480 Linn Queen, 480 Linnaeus, Carolus, life of, 149, 150; quoted, 118, 151, 155 Linville, Robert, var. orig. by, 459 Little Blue, 480 Little Giant, 481 _Little grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _Little Mountain grape_ (syn. of _V. berlandieri_), 130 Little Ozark, 481 Livingston, 481 Lizzie, 481 Lobata, 481 Logan, 481 London Company, 6, 7 Long, 481 _Long_ (syn. of Cunningham), 227 _Long_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Long, Col. James, var. found by, 481 Long John, 481 _Long No. 2_ (syn. of Cunningham), 227 Longfellow, quoted, 204 _Long's_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 _Long's Arkansas_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 Longworth, 481 Longworth Monster, 481 Longworth, Nicholas, books by, 23; grapes imported by, 23; life of, 22, 23; mentioned, 206, 236, 340, 416; var. found by, 370; var. orig. by, 481 _Longworth No. 20_ (syn. of Longworth), 481 _Longworth's Ohio_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Longworth's Ohio_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 Loomis' Honey, 481 Looney, C. S., var. orig. by, 482 Looney Seedling, 482 Lorain, 482 Loretto, 482 Loubat, Alphonse, mentioned, 24 Loudon, F. W., var. orig. by, 281, 316, 446, 474, 482 Loudon Seedling, 482 Louisa, 482 Louise, 482 Louisiana, 331 Louisiana, grapes in, 13 Louisville, 482 _Louisville Seedling_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Lowell Globe, 482 Lucile, 332 Lucky, 482 Luckyne, 482 Lucy Winton, 482 Luders, 482 Luffborough, 482 Lugawana, 482 _Lugiana nera_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Lukfata, 482 Lulie, 482 Lum, H. B., var. orig. by, 478 Luna, 482 Lutie, 334 Lycoming, 483 Lydia, 483 Lyman, 483 Lyon, 483 _Lyon_ (syn. of Presly), 502 Mabel, 483 _MacCandless_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _MacCandless_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 _McCowan_ (syn. of Cowan), 451 McDonald's Ann Arbor, 483 _McGowan_ (syn. of Cowan), 451 Macedonia, 483 McKay, E. A., mentioned, 83 _McKee_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 McKinley, 483 McKinley, J. S., var. orig. by, 218 _McLean_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _McLean_ (syn. of Lincoln), 480 McLean, Dr. Wm., var. orig. by, 480 _McLure_ (syn. of Mrs. McLure), 491 McMahon, Bernard, cited, 44 McMurtrie, Dr. William, mentioned, 59 McNeil, 483 _McOwen_ (syn. of Cowan), 451 McPike, 335 McPike, H. G., var. orig. by, 336 Madeira, 483 _Madeira_ (syn. of Black Madeira), 440 _Madeira of York, Pa._ (syn. of Alexander), 160 Madeline, 483 _Madison County_ (syn. of Long), 481 Magee, 484 Magee, George J., cited, 275; var. found by, 275 Magnate, 336 Magnificent, 484 Maguel, Francis, cited, 32 Maguire, 484 _Mahogany_ (syn. of Mahogany Colored), 484 Mahogany Colored, 484 Main, 484 Main, Mr., var. orig. by, 484 Maine, grapes in, 13 Malinda, 484 _Malvasier_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Malvin, 484 _Mammoth_ (syn. of Sage), 395 _Mammoth Catawba_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Mammoth Globe_ (syn. of Carter), 445 _Mammoth Sage_ (syn. of Sage), 395 Manhattan, 484 Manito, 337 Manockanock, 484 Mansfield, 484 Manson, 484 Marguerite, 484 Marie Louise, 338 Marine's Seedlings, 485 Marine, William M., var. orig. by, 461, 466, 476, 479, 482, 484, 485, 487, 489, 493, 496, 505 Mariole, 485 Marion (I), 339 Marion (II), 341 _Marion Port_ (syn. of Marion (I)), 33 _Marion Port_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 Marique, 485 Marker, 485 Marsala, 485 Marshall, Humphrey, life of, 96; quoted, 151; writings of, 96 Martha, 341 Marvin, D. S., var. orig. by, 208, 209, 405, 444, 451, 464, 470, 474, 478, 485, 509, 510, 521 Marvina, 485 Marvin's Seedlings, 485 Mary, 485 Mary Ann, 485 Mary Favorite, 485 Mary Mark, 486 Maryland, grapes in, 9, 10, 18 Maryland Purple, 486 Mary Wylie, 486 Mason, 486 Mason, Mrs. E., var. orig. by, 486, 507 Mason, B., var. orig. by, 486 Mason Renting, 486 _Mason's Seedling_ (syn. of Mason), 486 Massachusetts, grapes in, 12 Massachusetts White, 486 Massasoit, 343 Matchless, 486 Mathews, Professor, var. orig. by, 472 Mathilde, 486 _Matlock_ (syn. of Miles), 488 Mauston, 486 Maxatawney, 344 May Red, 486 Mead, John, mentioned, 84 Mead, John, var. orig. by, 486 Mead Seedling, 486 _Mead's Seedling_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Meanko, 487 Mease, Dr. James, life of, 42, 43; mentioned, 45; paper by, 43 Medora, 487 _Meisch_ (syn. of Mish), 489 Melasko, 487 Memory, 487 Mendota, 487 Meno, 487 Merceron, 487 _Merceron_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Merceron, F. E., var. orig. by, 487, 499 Mericadel, 487 Merrimac, 345 Meta, 487 Metis, 487 Metternich, 487 Mianna or Mienna, 487 Michaux, André, cited, 126; life of, 108; quoted, 118; works of, 108 Michaux, F. André, life of, 108; works of, 108 Michigan, 488 _Michigan_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Michigan, grapes in, 61 Middle region, 59, 60, 61 Middlesex, 488 _Mignonette vine_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 Miland, 488 Mildew (See Downy and Powdery mildew) Miles, 488 Millardet, 488 Millardet, cited, 102, 233, 368 Miller, 488 Miller, J. B., var. orig. by, 463 Miller, Samuel, var. orig. by, 188, 342, 460, 482, 483, 488, 529 _Miller No. 1_ (syn. of Martha), 341 _Miller's No. 2_ (syn. of Eva), 460 _Miller's No. 3_ (syn. of Macedonia), 483 _Miller's No. 4_ (syn. of Black Hawk), 188 Miller's Seedlings, 488 Millington, 488 Millington, Dr., var. found by, 488 Millington, Mrs., var. orig. by, 498 Millington White, 488 Mills, 347 Mills, W. H., var. orig. by, 348, 478 Mineola, 488 Miner, T. B., var. orig. by, 172, 418, 433, 436, 438, 442, 444, 459, 472, 479, 480, 489, 507 Miner's Seedlings, 489 Mingo, 489 Minnehaha, 489 Minnesota, 489 Minnesota Mammoth, 489 Minnie, 489 _Minor's Seedling_ (syn. of Venango), 520 Miriam, 489 Mish, 489 Mission, 489 Missouri, 489 Missouri, grapes in, 52 Missouri Bird Eye, 490 _Missouri Bird's Eye_ (syn. of Elsinburgh), 257 _Missouri grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 Missouri Muscadine, 490 Missouri Riesling, 349 _Missouri Seedling_ (syn. of Missouri), 489 Modena, 490 Moffats, 490 _Mohrendutte_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Moltke, 490 Monarch, 490 Monard, 490 Monlintawba, 490 Monroe, 350 Montclair, 490 Montefiore, 351 _Monteith_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 Montisella, 490 Montour, 490 Montreal, 490 Moore, Captain John B., var. orig. by, 286, 353, 456, 465 Moore, Jacob, life of, 192; var. orig. by, 192, 237, 241, 274, 448, 466, 514, 524 Moore, Rev. Archer, var. orig. by, 209, 450 Moore Early, 353 _Moore's Diamond_ (syn. of Diamond), 236 _Moore's No. 31_ (syn. of Hayes), 286 Morin, 490 Morneberg, J. G., var. orig. by, 461 Morrell, Mr., var. orig. by, 490 Morrell Seedling, 490 Morse, 491 Morton, Thomas, quoted, 35 Mosher, S., mentioned, 206 Mottier, John E., var. orig. by, 523 _Mottier_ (syn. of Purple Marion), 504 Mottled, 491 Mountain, 491 _Mountain grape_ (syn. of _V. berlandieri_), 130 _Mountain grape_ (syn. of _V. monticola_), 116 _Mountain grape of Texas_ (syn. of _V. rupestris_), 113 Mount Lebanon, 491 Moyer, 354 _Moyer's Early Red_ (syn. of Moyer), 354 Mrs. McLure, 491 Mrs. Munson, 491 Mrs. Stayman, 491 Muench, 491 Muench, F., var. orig. by, 376, 471, 511, 521 Multiple, 491 Muncie, 491 _Muncy_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Muncy Black, 491 _Muncy Pale Red_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Munier, 491 Munson, 492 Munson, Thomas Volney, cited, 105, 106, 114, 118, 124, 128, 134, 143, 149, 233, 267, 271, 287, 290, 331; life of, 122; quoted, 122, 126, 216; var. orig. by, 122, 169, 170, 176, 179, 181, 194, 202, 216, 259, 271, 280, 287, 296, 315, 337, 385, 393, 394, 421, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 445, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 463, 464, 465, 470, 471, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 525, 526, 528; work on Vitis by, 101 Munson, W. K., var. found by, 324 _Munson's No. 13_ (syn. of Striped Ruby), 515 _Munson's No. 21_ (syn. of Bell), 181 _Munson No. 22_ (syn. of Gold Dust), 463 _Munson's No. 29_ (syn. of Old Gold), 495 _Munson's No. 33_ (syn. of Red Bird), 505 _Munson No. 45_ (syn. of Linelvi), 480 _Munson No. 47_ (syn. of Red Eagle), 385 _Munson's No. 76_ (syn. of Fern Munson), 271 _Munson No. 81_ (syn. of Jaeger), 314 _Munson's No. 107_ (syn. of Multiple), 491 _Munson's No. 111_ (syn. of Sweetey), 515 _Munson's No. 130_ (syn. of Texas Highland), 516 _Munson's No. 181_ (syn. of Texas), 516 _Munson's Riparia_ (syn. of _V. longii microsperma_), 123 _Munson's Riparia_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 Murdock, 492 Murdock, Judge, var. orig. by, 492 Murry, William, mentioned, 206 Muscadine Superior, 492 _Muscadine_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _Muscadine_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 _Muscadine grape_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 Muscat, 492 Muscat Catawba, 492 Muscat Hamburg, 356 Musky, defined, 4 _Mustang_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _Mustang grape_ (syn. of _V. candicans_), 147 _Mustang grape_ of Chapman (syn. of _V. munsoniana_), 112 Mylitta, 492 Nahab, 492 Naomi, 357 Nashua, 492 Native grape, 39, 41, 42, 43; described by Prince, 49; evolution of, 36; habitat of, 27; means of distribution of, 27; value of, 36 Naumkeag, 492 Nazro, 492 Nazro, Henry, var. orig. by, 492 _Neal grape_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 Nebraska, 492 Nectar, 358 Neff, 492 Neff, Mr., var. orig. by, 492 _Neil grape_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 Nell, 492 Nelson, 492 Nelson, Roger, var. orig. by, 492 Neosho, 492 Neponset, 493 Nerluton, 493 _Neva_ (syn. of Neva Munson), 493 Neva Munson, 493 Neverfail, 493 Newark, 493 New Buda, 493 Newburgh, 493 Newburgh Muscat, 493 New England, grapes in, 12, 13, 34, 35; wine in, 13 _New Hanover_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 New Haven, 493 _New Haven Red_ (syn. of New Haven), 493 New Jersey, grapes in, 53 Newman, 493 Newman, C. C., cited, 111, 400 New Mary, 493 New Netherland, grapes in, 11 Newport, 493 Newton, 493 Newtonia, 494 New York, champagne in, 65; grapes in, 10, 11, 12, 23, 24, 53, 54; grape districts of, 72 et seq.; viticulture in, 68; wine in, 11, 12 Niagara, 359 Niagara district, 72; acreage of, 92; climate of, 93; diseases in, 94; geology of, 92; markets of, 93; soil of, 93 Nicholson, James, var. orig. by, 468 Nicolls, mentioned, 11 Nimalba, 494 Nina, 494 Ninekah, 494 Nizola, 494 _No. 93 A_ (syn. of Imperial), 302 Noah, 362 Nonantum, 494 Nonpareil, 494 Nora, 494 Norfolk, 364 _Norfolk Muscat_ (syn. of Norfolk), 364 Norseman, account of grapes by, 29 North America, 494 _North California grape_ (syn. of _V. californica_), 135 North Carolina, 494 North Carolina, grapes in, 38, 54 _North Carolina Muscadine_ (syn. of Mary Ann), 485 _North Carolina Seedling_ (syn. North Carolina), 494 North Carolina White, 494 North Star, 495 _Northern aestivalis_ (syn. of _V. bicolor_), 145 _Northern Fox Grape_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 Northern Light, 494 Northern Muscadine, 365 Northern Muscat, 495 _Northern Summer grape_ (syn. of _V. bicolor_), 145 Norton, 366 _Norton_ (syn. of Cynthiana), 228 Norton, Dr. D. N., mentioned, 367 Norton, E. Q., quoted, 27 _Norton's Seedling_ (syn. of Norton), 366 _Norton Virginia_ (syn. of Cynthiana), 228 _Norton's Virginia_ (syn. of Norton), 366 _Norton's Virginia Seedling_ (syn. of Cynthiana), 228 _Norton's Virginia Seedling_ (syn. of Norton), 366 Norwood, 369 Noyes, Dr., mentioned, 215 Nuttall, Thomas, quoted, 56, 57; life of 98; writings of, 98 Obed, 495 Oberon, 495 Occidental, 495 Octavia, 495 Odart, Count, quoted, 144 Offer, 495 Ohio (I), 369 Ohio (II), 371 _Ohio_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Ohio, grapes in, 22, 52, 53, 54 _Ohio Cigar Box_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Ohio Claret, 495 Oklahoma, grapes in, 61 Oktaha, 495 Old Ford, 495 Old Gold, 495 _Oldhouse_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Old House Grape_ (syn. of Harris), 466 Old Hundred, 495 Old World grape, 19, 24; failure in America, 29; habitat of, 1 history of, 1, et seq. Olita, 495 Olitatoo, 496 Olmstead, 496 Olympia, 496 Omega, 496 _Omega_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Onderdonk, 496 Onderdonk, G., var. orig. by, 455 Oneida, 371 Oneovem, 496 One Seed, 496 Onondaga, 496 Ontario, 496 _Ontario_ (syn. of Union Village), 415 Onyx, 496 Opal, 496 Oporto, 372 Oriental, 373 Oriole, 497 Orphan Boy, 497 Orwigsburg, 497 Osage, 497 Osceola, 497 Osee, 497 Oskaloosa, 497 Osmond, 497 Oswego, 497 Othello, 374 Otoe, 497 Ouachita, 498 Owego, 498 Owens White, 498 Owens, Wm., var. orig. by, 498 Owosso, 498 Ozark, 376 Ozark Seedling, 498 Pacific region, 59; development of, 60, 61 Pagan, 498 _Paign's Isabella_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Pale, Tennis, mentioned, 34 _Pale Wooded Trollinger_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Palermo, 498 _Palmate grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _Palmate-leaved grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _Palmate-leaved vine_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _Palmated leaves_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 Palmer, 498 Palmetto, 498 _Palmetto-leaved grape_ (syn. of _V. simpsoni_), 149 Pamlico, 498 Paradox, 498 Paragon, 498, 499 _Parker_ (syn. of Ithaca), 473 Parker, Dr. S. J., cited, 431 Parker Rocky Mountain Seedling, 499 Parmentier, M., mentioned, 23, 24 Parry, cited, 134 Pattison, 499 Pauline, 499 Paultne, 499 Pawnee, 499 Paxton, 499 _Payne's Early_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Peabody, 377 Peake, E. M., var. found by, 384 Pearl, 499 Pearson, A. W., cited, 306 _Pearson's Ironclad_ (syn. of Ironclad), 306 Pedee, 499 Peerless, 500 Peggy, 500 Pell, G. T., var. orig. by, 500 Pell's Illinois, 500 Penn, William, mentioned, 10 Pennsylvania, grapes in, 19, 44, 53, 54 Peola, 500 Perfection, 377 Perfume, 500 Perkins, 378 Perkins, Jacob, var. orig. by, 378 Perry, 500 Peter Wylie, 500 _Peter Wylie No. 1_ (syn. of Peter Wylie), 500 _Petit Noir_ (syn. of Adelia), 433 Phelps, J. S., var. orig. by, 448 Phinney, Elias, var. found by, 437 Phylloxera, 5 _Phylloxera vastatrix_ (See Phylloxera) Pierce, 500 _Pigeon grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _Pine-wood grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 140 Pioneer, 500 Piper, D. J., var. orig. by, 475, 513 Piqua, 500 Pittsburg Seedling, 500 Pizarro, 500 Planchette, 501 Planchon, Jules Emile, cited, 106, 124, 126, 131; life of, 124 Planet, 501 Plant lice (See Phylloxera) Plantagenet, Beauchamp, quoted, 34 _Plasmopara viticola_ (See Downy mildew) Pliny, cited, 2 _Plum grape_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 Plymouth, 501 _Plymouth White_ (syn. of Plymouth), 501 Pocklington, 379 Pocklington, John, var. orig. by, 380, 455 Pocohontas Red, 501 Poeschel Mammoth, 501 Poeschel, William, var. orig. by, 461, 501 Pollock, 501 Pollock, Mr., var. orig. by, 501 _Polychrosis viteana_ (See Grape fruit worm) Pond, Samuel, var. orig. by, 501 Pond's Seedling, 501 Ponroy, 501 Pontotoc, 501 Porup, 501 _Possum grape_ (syn. of _V. baileyana_), 129 _Possum grape_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _Post-oak grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 52, 140 Post-oak No. 1, 501 Post-oak No. 2, 501 Post-oak No. 3, 501 Potter, 501 _Potter's Early_ (syn. of Potter), 501 _Potter's Seedling_ (syn. of Potter), 501 _Potter's Sweet_ (syn. of Potter), 501 Poughkeepsie, 381 _Poughkeepsie Red_ (syn. of Poughkeepsie), 381 Powdery mildew, 86 _Powell_ (syn. of Bland), 441 Prairie State, 502 Prentiss, 382 Prentiss, J. W., mentioned, 83; var. orig. by, 383 President, 502 _President Lyon_ (syn. of Presly), 502 Presly, 502 _Pres. Lyon_ (syn. of Lyon), 483 Primate, 502 _Prince Edward_ (syn. of Cunningham), 227 Prince Nurseries, 48 Prince, William Robert, cited, 121; life of, 21, 22; quoted, 57, 161; writings of, 22 Pringle, C. G., var. orig. by, 281, 464, 477, 484, 520 Professor Brunk, 502 _Prof. Curtis' grape_ (syn. of _V. caribæa_), 146 Professor Gulley, 502 Professor Hillgard, 502 Profitable, 502 Profusion, 502 Progress, 502 Prolific, 503 Prolific Chicken Grape, 503 Provost, Paul H., mentioned, 233 Provost White, 503 Prunella, 503 Pukwana, 503 Pulaski, 503 Pulliat, 503 Pulliat, M., var. orig. by, 503 Pulpless, 503 _Pungo of N. C._ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Purity, 503 Purple Bloom, 503 Purple Favorite, 503 _Purple Favorite_ (syn. of Blue Favorite), 442 _Purple Fox_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _Purple Hamburgh_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Purple Hamburgh of Troy_ (syn. of Troy), 518 Purple Marion, 504 _Purple Urbana_ (syn. of Logan), 481 Pursh, cited, 128 Putnam, 504 Putnam, J. A., var. orig. by 164, 333, 467 Quassaic, 504 _Queen Loretto_ (syn. of Loretto), 482 Queen of Sheba, 504 Quinnebang, 504 Quintina, 504 Raabe, 504 Raabe, Peter, var. orig. by, 504 _Raabe's Honey_ (syn. of Raabe), 504 _Raabe's No. 3_ (syn. of Raabe), 504 Raabe's seedlings, 504 _Raccoon grape_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 Rachel, 504 Racine, 504 Rafinesque, Constantine Samuel, book by, 47; life of, 99; quoted, 42, 47, 113; works of, 99 Ragan, 504 Raisin, 504 _Raisin de cassis_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Raisin de Cote, 505 _Raisin du Cap_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Raisin Fraise_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Raisin Framboise_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Raisins, how made, 67 Ramsey, 505 Randall, 505 _Randall_ (syn. of Agawam), 159 Randall, Mr., var. orig. by, 505 Raritan, 505 Rautenberg, F. E. L., var. orig. by, 434, 440, 446, 448, 467, 490, 505, 506 Rautenberg's Seedlings, 505 Ravenel, H. W., cited, 114; mentioned, 206 Ravesies, Frederick, quoted, 21 _Ray's Victoria_ (syn. of Victoria), 520 Read, M. A., var. orig. by, 505 Read, William H., var. orig. by, 320, 355, 416, 480 Read Seedling, 505 _Read's Hybrid_ (syn. of Lincoln), 480 _Reagan_ (syn. of Ragan), 504 Rebecca, 383 Red Bird, 505 _Red Bland_ (syn. of Bland), 441 Red Eagle, 385 _Red Elben_ (syn. of Louisiana), 331 _Red Elben_ (syn. of Rulander), 508 _Red Fox_ (syn. of V. labrusca), 150 Red Giant, 505 _Red grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _Red Hamburgh_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Red Jacket, 505 Red Juice, 505 Red Leaf, 505 _Red Lenoir_ (syn. of Pauline), 499 _Red Muncy_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Red Riesling, 505 _Red Riesling_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 _Red River_ (syn. of Cynthiana), 228 Red Rover, 505 _Red Scuppernong_ (syn. of Bland), 441 Red Sheperd, 506 Red Sweet Water, 506 Regal, 386 Regina, 506 Regions of grape growing, 59 Reichenbach, John, var. orig. by, 461, 462 Reinecke, 506 Reinike, 506 Reisinger, Andrew, mentioned, 54, 83; var. orig. by, 448 Reliance, 506 Rentz, 506 Rentz, Sebastian, var. orig. by, 506 _Rentz Seedling_ (syn. of Rentz), 506 Requa, 387 Rhenish, 506 Rhode Island, grapes in, 13 _Riatz_ (syn. of Rentz), 506 Rice, A. F., var. orig. by 407, 484, 502 Richards, Paul, mentioned, 11, 12 Richmond, 506 _Richmond Villa Hamburgh_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Ricketts, James H., life of, 318, 319; quoted, 269; var. orig. by, 158, 169, 175, 242, 243, 257, 262, 269, 298, 302, 318, 319, 327, 357, 377, 402, 433, 434, 435, 455, 462, 464, 478, 493, 500, 501, 504, 505, 508, 519, 522 _Ricketts' Delaware Seedling No. 1_ (syn. of Raritan), 505 _Ricketts' Delaware Seedling No. 2_ (syn. of Putnam), 504 _Ricketts' No. 1_ (syn. of Downing), 242 _Ricketts' No. 37_ (syn. of Highland), 297 Riehl, E. A., var. orig. by, 255, 506 _Riehl's New Early Grape_ (syn. of Eclipse), 254 _Riehl's No. 10_ (syn. of Eclipse), 254 Riehl's Seedlings, 506 Riesenblatt, 506 _Riesling_ (syn. of Missouri Riesling), 349 _Riverbank_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _River grape_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Riverside grape_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Roanoke_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 Roanoke Red, 506 Robert Wylie, 506 Robeson, 507 Robeson, Mr., var. orig. by, 507 Robeson Seedling, 507 Robinson Unnamed Seedling, 507 Robusta, 507 Rochester, 388 _Rock grape_ (syn. of _V. rupestris_), 113 _Rock House Indian_ (syn. of Waterloo), 521 Rockingham, 507 Rockland Favorite, 507 Rockwood, 389 Roe, E. P., var. orig. by, 514 Roenbeck, 507 Roenbeck, Fred, var. orig. by, 439, 440, 462, 478 Rogers, A. D., quoted, 392 Rogers, Edward Staniford, life of, 390; var. orig. by, 158, 170, 178, 263, 273, 276, 292, 330, 343, 346, 387, 390, 397, 424, 507, 508 Rogers' Hybrids discussed, 390 _Rogers' No. 1_ (syn. of Goethe), 276 _Rogers' No. 3_ (syn. of Massasoit), 343 _Rogers' No. 4_ (syn. of Wilder), 423 _Rogers' No. 5_, 507 _Rogers' No. 9_ (syn. of Lindley), 329 _Rogers' No. 13_, 507 _Rogers' No. 14_ (syn. of Gaertner), 272 _Rogers' No. 15_ (syn. of Agawam), 159 _Rogers' No. 19_ (syn. of Merrimac), 345 _Rogers' No. 22_ (syn. of Salem), 397 _Rogers' No. 24_, 507 _Rogers' No. 28_ (syn. of Requa), 387 _Rogers' No. 32_, 508 _Rogers' No. 39_ (syn. of Aminia), 170 _Rogers' No. 41_ (syn. of Essex), 263 _Rogers' No. 43_ (syn. of Barry), 178 _Rogers' No. 44_ (syn. of Herbert), 291 _Rogers' No. 53_ (syn. of Salem), 397 Rombrill, 508 Rommel, 393 Rommel, Jacob, life of, 352; var. orig. by, 180, 260, 265, 270, 352, 434, 440, 441, 453, 456, 470, 475, 499, 518, 523, 525 _Rommel's Amber_ (syn. of Amber), 434 _Rommel's Etta_ (syn. of Etta), 265 _Rommel's No. 3_ (syn. of Etta), 265 _Rommel's No. 19_ (syn. of Black Taylor), 441 _Rommel's Taylor Seedling No. 10_ (syn. of Pearl), 499 _Rommel's Taylor Seedling No. 14_ (syn. of Montefiore), 351 Root worm (See Fidia) Rosalie, 508 Roscoe, 508 Rose, 508 Rose, Alfred, var. orig. by, 167 Rose, Henry, mentioned, 84 Rose, Reuben, var. orig. by, 475 _Rose Colored Delaware_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 _Rose Grape_ (syn. of Bland), 441 _Rose of Tennessee_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Roslyn, 508 Roswither, 508 Rot (See Black-rot) _Rothrock of Prince_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Royal Isabella_ (syn. of Pierce), 500 Ruby, 508 Ruckland, 508 _Ruff_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 Rulander, 508 _Rulander_ (syn. of Louisiana), 331 Rupel, 509 Rupert, 509 Rustler, 509 Rusty Coat, 509 Rutland, 509 R. W. Munson, 394 Ryckman, G. E., cited, 78 _Saccharissa_ (syn. of La Crissa), 477 _Sacks of Wine_ (syn. of Harwood), 467 Sacksteder, J., var. orig. by, 475, 477, 478 _Sacrissa_ (syn. of La Crissa), 477 Sage, 395 Sage, Henry E., var. found by, 395 Saginaw, 509 St. Albans, 509 St. Augustine, 509 St. Catherine, 509 _St. Genevieve_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _St. Genevieve_ (syn. of Louisiana), 331 _St. Genevieve_ (syn. of Rulander), 508 St. Hilaire, 509 St. John, 509 St. Louis, 396 _Sainte-Helene_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Salabra, 510 Salado, 510 Salem, 397 Salisbury, E. S., var. orig. by, 516 _Salisbury Violet_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Sally, 510 Salt Creek, 510 Saluda, 510 _Saluda_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Salzer Earliest, 510 Salzer, John A., var. orig. by, 510 Samuels, 510 Samuels, M. M., var. orig. by, 520 Sanalba, 510 Sanborn, Jos. N., var. orig. by, 477 Sanbornton, 510 _Sanbornton_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Sanborton_ (syn. of Sanbornton), 510 _Sand-beach grape_ (syn. of _V. rupestris_), 113 _Sand grape_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 _Sand grape_ (syn. of _V. rupestris_), 113 San Jacinto, 510 Sanmelaska, 510 Sanmonta, 510 Sanrubra, 510 Santa Clara, 511 _Saratoga_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Saratoga_ (syn. of Fancher), 460 Saunders, Dr. William, var. orig. by, 323, 458 Saxe White Seedling, 511 Saxe, W. H., var. orig. by, 511 Schenck White, 511 Schiller, 511 Schmitz Seedling, 511 Scholl, Mrs., mentioned, 205 Schoonemunk, 511 Schraidt, Casper, var. orig. by, 190 _Schraidt's Seedling_ (syn. of Black Pearl), 189 Schroeder, Dr. H., var. orig. by, 437 _Schuylkill_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 _Schuylkill_ (syn. of Orwigsburg), 497 _Schuylkill Muscadel_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Schuylkill Muscadell_ (syn. of Alexander), 50 _Schuylkill Muscadine_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Schwarzeblauer Trollinger_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Schwarzer Gutedel_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Schwarzwelscher_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Scott, 511 _Scott_ (syn. of Ironclad), 306 Scott, Colonel, mentioned, 306 Scott, Gen. John, var. orig. by, 511 Scuppernong, 399 _Scuppernong_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 Scuppernong, origin of the word, 51 Secretary, 402 Secunda, 511 Seedlin, 511 _Seedling No. 502_ (syn. of Paradox), 498 Seeds, taxonomic value of, 103 Seelye, C. W., var. orig. by, 505 _Segar Box_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Segar Box_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 370 Segessman, G., var. orig. by, 511 Self-fertility, 104, 105 Self-sterility, 104, 105 Selma, 511 Senasqua, 403 Seneca, 511 Septimia, 512 Seward, 512 Sex, taxonomic value of, 104 _Shaker_ (syn. of Union Village), 415 Shala, 512 Sharon, 512 _Sharon_ (syn. of Cayuga), 208 Sharp Beak, 512 Shelby, 404 Shelley, Daniel, var. orig. by, 512 Shelley Seedling, 512 Shephard, Orlando, mentioned, 83 Shepherd, Mr., mentioned, 340 _Shepherd's Port Wine_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 Sheppard, J, N., var. orig. by, 512 Sheppard Delaware, 512 Sheppard, 512 Sherman, 512 _Sherry_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Sherry of the South_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Sheruah, 512 Shirland, W. W., mentioned, 83 Short, Miss R. R., var. orig. by, 524 Shull, J., var. orig. by, 512 _Shull No. 2_, 512 Shurtleff, Dr. S. A., var. orig. by, 512 Shurtleff Seedling, 512 Shuttleworth, mentioned, 148 Siglar, 513 Silkyfine, 513 Silvain, 513 Silver Dawn, 513 Simpson, J. H., mentioned, 113 Simpson, R., var. orig. by, 511 _Simpson's grape_ (syn. of _V. simpsoni_), 148 Sinawissa, 513 _Singleton_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Skunk grape_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _Skunnymunk_ (syn. of Schoonemunk), 511 _Skuppernong_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 Sloe, 513 Sluyter, Peter, quoted, 10 _Small German_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 _Small grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 Small Leaf, 513 _Smart's Elsingborough_ (syn. of Elsingburgh), 257 _Smart's Elsingburgh_ (syn. of Elsingburgh), 257 Smallwood, 513 Smallwood, E., var. orig. by, 513 Smith, Captain John, quoted, 31, 32 Smith, S. V., var. orig. by, 512 _Smooth Canyon Grape_ (syn. of _V. treleasei_), 122 Snelter, 513 Snelter, L., var. orig. by, 439, 513 Snow, Seward, var. orig. by, 356 Snowflake, 513 Solander Large Purple, 513 Solrupo, 513 Somerville, 513 Sophia, 513 Souland, 514 _Sour grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _Sour or Pungent Winter grape_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _Sour Winter grape_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _South California grape_ (syn. of _V. girdiana_), 136 South Carolina, 514 South Carolina, grapes in, 54 _Southern Aestivalis_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis bourquiniana_), 142 Southern Champion, 514 _Southern Fox grape_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 Southern region, 59, 60, 61 Spangler, A. M., var. orig. by, 461 Spaniards, American grape culture by, 6 _Spanish grape_ (syn. of _V. berlandieri_), 130 Species, blooming order of, 103; botanical key to, 107, 108; compared by Bartram, 98; conspectus of, 107, 108; resistance to Phylloxera, 5; seed characters of, 103 Spencer, 514 Spencer, Henry B., var. orig. by, 434, 458, 509 _Sphaceloma ampelinum_ (See Anthracnose) Spinosa, 514 Spofford, Dr., var. orig. by, 411 _Spofford Seedling_ (syn. of To-Kalon), 410 Spotswood, Alexander, mentioned, 8 Spotted Globe, 514 Springfield, 514 _Spring Mill Constantia_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 _Springstein_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Stayman, Dr. J., life of, 422; quoted, 155, 422; var. orig. by, 189, 230, 268, 337, 376, 378, 422, 423, 446, 450, 452, 460, 486, 491, 497, 499, 503, 513, 523 Stace, S., var. orig. by, 514 Stace White, 514 Standard, 405 Staples, Isaac, var. orig. by, 466 Stark-Star, 406 Steele, Paphro, var. found by, 285 _Steele's Seedling_ (syn. of Hartford), 284 Stelton, 514 Sterling, 514 Stetson, Amos W., var. orig. by, 444, 514 Stetson, Nahum, var. orig. by, 451 _Stetson No. 1_ (syn. of Cabot), 444 _Stetson's Seedling No. 4_ (syn. of Curtis), 451 Stetson's Seedlings, 514 Stewart, Philemon, mentioned, 365 Stewart, P., var. orig. by, 475, 515 Stinger, B. F., var. orig. by, 433 Stock, 112, 114, 121, 148 Stone, J. I., mentioned, 210 Storm King, 514 Strachey, William, quoted, 32 Stratton, Benjamin, var. orig. by, 467 Strawberry, 515 Striped Ruby, 515 Success, 515 Sugar Grape, 515 _Sugar grape_ (syn. of _V. rupestris_), 113 _Summer grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _Summer grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 141 Summer White, 515 Sumner, 515 _Sumpter_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Sumpter_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Sunrise, 515 Superb, 407 Superior, 515 Supreme, 515 _Swamp grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 Swatara, 515 Swedes, American grape culture by, 10 _Sweet Mountain grape_ (syn. of _V. monticola_), 116 _Sweet scented_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Sweet scented grape_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Sweet Winter grape_ (syn. of _V. cinerea_), 131 Sweetey, 515 Taft, 515 Talala, 516 Talequah, 516 _Tallman_ (syn. of Champion), 210 _Tallman's Seedling_ (syn. of Champion), 210 Tamala, 516 Tasker, Mr., mentioned, 50, 161 _Tasker's grape_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 Tatnall, Edward, var. orig. by, 470 Taylor, 408 Taylor, A., var. orig. by, 443 Taylor, Judge John, mentioned, 409 _Taylor Bullit_ (syn. of Taylor), 408 _Taylor's Seedling No. 14_ (syn of Montefiore), 351 Tekoma, 516 _Tekomah_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 Telegraph, 409 Tenderpulp, 516 Ten-Dollar-Prize, 516 Tendrils, continuous, 102; intermittent, 102; taxonomic value of, 102 Tennessee, 516 Tennessee, grapes in, 54 Tennessee Island, 516 Texas, 516 Texas Highland, 516 _Texas Panhandle Large Grape_ (syn. of _V. doaniana_), 137 _Texas Post-oak grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 141 Thacher, H., var. orig. by, 372 _The Beautiful_ (syn. of To-Kalon), 410 _The Black_ (syn. of Ohio (I)), 369 Themis, 516 Theodosia, 516 Theophile, 517 Thomas, 517 Thomas, Drury, var. found by, 517 Thompson, Abram, mentioned, 232 Thompson, David, var. orig. by, 460, 517 Thompson, Mr., var. orig. by, 517 Thompson, R. O., var. orig. by, 517 Thompson, W., var. orig. by, 514 Thompson Red Seedling, 517 Thompson's Seedlings, 517 Thompson Wine, 517 Thorne, Mr., var. orig. by, 267 _Thurmond_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Thurmond_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Thurlow, Thomas C., var. orig. by, 459 Tinker, Dr. G. L., var. orig. by, 494 Tishomingo, 517 Togni, 517 To-Kalon, 410 _Tokay_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Tolman_ (syn. of Champion), 210 _Tolman's Seedling_ (syn. of Champion), 210 Tonkawa, 518 Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de, life of, 95; mentioned, 118 _Traminer_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 Transparent, 518 Trask, 518 _Trask_ (syn. of Brighton), 191 Trask, Jas. W., var. orig. by, 507 Triumph, 411 Triumphant, 518 _Troller_ (syn. Black Hamburg), 186 Trollinger, 518 _Trollinger_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Trowbridge, 518 Troy, 518 _Troy Hamburg_ (syn. of Troy), 518 _True Frost grape_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _Tryon_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 Tryone, 518 Tucker, Mr., var. orig. by, 473 _Tucker's Parker_ (syn. of Ithaca), 473 Tuckerman, 518 Tuckerman, J. B., var. orig. by, 442, 511, 518 _Tuley_ (syn. of Devereaux), 235 _Turkey grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 141 Tuskahoma, 518 _Two-colored-leaved vine_ (syn. of _V. bicolor_), 144 _Typhlocyba comes_ (See Grape leaf-hopper) Tyrker, mentioned, 30 U. B., 518 Uhland, 518 Uller Mammoth, 518 Ulrey, 519 Ulster, 414 _Ulster Prolific_ (syn. of Ulster), 414 Una, 519 _Uncinula necator_ (See Powdery mildew) Underhill, 519 Underhill, Dr. A. K., var. orig. by, 519 Underhill, Robert, life of, 226; mentioned, 23, 24 Underhill, R. T., life of, 226; mentioned, 24 Underhill, Stephen W., life of, 26; var. orig. by, 184, 185, 226, 404, 473 Underhill, William A., life of, 226; mentioned, 24 _Underhill's Celestial_ (syn. of Underhill), 519 _Underhill's seedling_ (syn. of Underhill), 519 _Underhill's 8-8 Hybrid_ (syn. of Black Defiance), 184 _Underhill's 8-12_ (syn. of Black Eagle), 185 Undine, 519 Union village, 415 Universal, 519 _Uno_ (syn. of Juno), 475 Urbana, 519 _Urbana_ (syn. of Logan), 481 Ursula, 519 _Uva Fragola_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Vahl, Martin, cited, 126; life of, 125 Valencia, 519 Valentine, 519 _Valentines_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Valhallah, 519 Valiant, W., var. orig. by, 524 Valk, Dr. William W., mentioned, 56; var. orig. by, 433 _Valk's Seedling_ (syn. of Ada), 433 Valle, John, var. orig. by, 464, 493 _Valle's White Concord_ (syn. of Golden Concord), 464 _Valley grape_ (syn. of _V. girdiana_), 136 Valverde, 519 VanDeman, 519 Van Deman, H. E., quoted, 371 Vanderburgh, 519 Van Lindley, J., var. orig. by, 315 Van Wormer, E. L., var. found by, 201 _Variable grape_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 Venango, 520 Vergennes, 416 Vergil, quoted, 2, 3, 303 Vermont, 520 Vermont Giant, 520 Vermorel, 520 _Vernet_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Vesta, 520 _Vevay_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 Viala, 520 Viala, P., cited, 229 Vialla, 520 Vibert, M., var. orig. by, 503 Victoria, 418, 520 _Victoria_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Villars, Charles, cited, 20 Vine and Olive Colony, 20, 21 Vine Arbor, 520 _Vine Wood grape_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 141 Vinita, 520 Vinland, 29 Vinrouge, 520 Virginia, 521 Virginia, grapes in, 8, 14, 31, 32, 33, 38; wine in, 8, 40 _Virginia Amber_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 _Virginia grape_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _Virginia Muscadell_ (syn. of Bland), 441 _Virginia Seedling_ (syn. of Norton), 366 Viticulture of New York, 68 Vitis, characters of, 28 classification of, 107, 108 classified by Rafinesque, 100 described by Linnaeus, 95, 96; by Marshall, 96; by Michaux, 97; by Nuttall, 98, 99; by Tournefort, 95; by Walter, 96, 97 distribution of, 26 genus of, 95 number of species of, 106 sexual status of, 104 _Vitis acerifolia_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _aestivalis_, 108, 138; (syn. of _V. bicolor_), 144; (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Vitis aestivalis bourquiniana_, 142 _lincecumii_, 140 var. _bicolor_ (syn. of _V. bicolor_), 145 _canescens_ (syn. of _V. cinerea_), 131 _canescens_ (syn. of _V. cinerea canescens_), 133 _cinerea_ (syn. of _V. cinerea_), 131 _Lincecumii_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 141 _monticola_ (syn. of _V. berlandieri_), 130 _Americana_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _angulata_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _araneosus_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _Argentifolia_ (syn. of _V. bicolor_), 144 _Arizonensis_ (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 _arizonica_, 107, 133 _arizonica glabra_, 134 _Arizonica_ var. _glabra_ (syn. of _V. arizonica glabra_), 134 _baileyana_, 107, 129 _berlandieri_, 107, 130 _bicolor_, 108, 144 _blanda_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _blandi_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _Bourquina_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis bourquiniana_), 142 _Bourquiniana_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis bourquiniana_), 142 _bracteata_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _californica_, 107, 135 _Californica_ (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 var. _Girdiana_ (syn. of _V. girdiana_), 136 _callosa_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Canadensis aceris folio_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _candicans_, 108, 147; as stock, 148 _coriacea_, 148 _Florida form_ (syn. of _V. candicans coriacea_), 148 _canina_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _caribæa_, 108, 146 _Caribea_ (syn. of _V. candicans coriacea_), 148 _caribea_ var. _coriacea_ (syn. of _V. candicans coriacea_), 148 _champini_, 107, 124 _cinerea_, 107, 131 _canescens_, 133 _floridana_, 133 var. _canescens_ (syn. of _V. cinerea canescens_), 133 _Floridana_ (syn. of _V. cinerea floridana_), 133 _cordifolia_ 107, 127; (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _coriacea_ (syn. of _V. berlandieri_), 130 _foetida_, 128 _helleri_, 129 _sempervirens_, 129 _cordifolia_ var. (syn. of _V. cordifolia helleri_), 129 _foetida_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia foetida_), 128 _Helleri_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia helleri_), 129 _riparia_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _sempervirens_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia sempervirens_), 129 _coriacea_ (syn. of _V. candicans coriacea_), 148 _dimidiata_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _diversifolia_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 140 _doaniana_, 108, 137 _ferruginea_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _Floridana_ (syn. of _V. munsoniana_), 112 _Floridana_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _girdiana_, 108, 136 _hyemalis_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Illinoensis_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _incisa_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127; (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117; (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 _incisifolia_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 141 _intermedia_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138; (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _labrusca_, 4, 102, 108, 149 _Labrusca_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138; (syn. of V. _cordifolia_), 127 _labrusca_ var. _aestivalis_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _Labrusca var._ _alba_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _nigra_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _rosea_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _labruscoides_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _latifolia_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _linsecomii_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 140 _longii_, 107, 123 _longii microsperma_, 123 _luteola_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _Missouriensis_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _monosperma_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _monticola_, 107, 116; (syn. of _V. berlandieri_), 130 _multiloba_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis lincecumii_), 140 _munsoniana_, 107, 112 _muscadina_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 _Mustangensis_ (syn. of _V. candicans_), 147 _Nortoni_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138; (syn. of Cynthiana), 228 _Novo Mexicana_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123; var. (syn. of _V. longii microsperma_), 123 _Nuevo Mexicana_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 _obovata_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _occidentalis_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138; (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _odoratissima_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117; (syn. of _V. riparia præcox_), 121 _Palmata_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _peltata_ (syn. of _V. munsoniana_), 112; (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 _prolifera_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _pullaria_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _riparia_, 107, 117; (syn. of _V. arizonica_), 133 var. _palmata_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _præcox_, 121 _rotundifolia_, 50, 51, 107, 108 _rubra_, 107, 125 _rugosa_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _rupestris_, 70, 71, 107, 113, 114 _dissecta_, 115 var. _dissecta_ (syn. of _V. rupestris dissecta_), 115 _serotina_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127; (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _simpsoni_, 108, 148 _Solonis_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 var. _microsperma_ (syn. of _V. longii microsperma_), 123 _sylvestris_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138; (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _Virginiana_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 149 _taurina_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 149; (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 _tenuifolia_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _Texana_ (syn. of _V. monticola_), 116 _treleasei_, 107, 122 _verrucosa_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 _vinifera_, 3, 4, 25, 108, 154 _americana_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138 _sylvestris americana_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 149 _Virginiana_ (syn. of _V. baileyana_), 129; (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127; (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 _virginiana_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _Virginiensis_ (syn. of _V. rubra_), 125 _vulpina_ (syn. of _V. aestivalis_), 138; (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127; (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 149; (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117; (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 108 var. _cordifolia_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _præcox_ (syn. of _V. riparia præcox_), 121 Vivie, M., var. orig. by, 521 Vivie Hybrid, 521 _Vivie's Hartford_ (syn. of Vivie Hybrid), 521 Waddel, 521 Waddel, John F., var. orig. by, 521 Waldo, J. B., var. orig. by, 521 Waldo Seedling, 521 Wales, 521 Wallis, Henry, cited, 396; mentioned, 295 Walter, 419 Walter, Thomas, life of, 96 Waneta, 521 Wapanuka, 421 Ward, Edmund, var. orig. by, 446 Warder, J. A., mentioned, 311; var. orig. by, 452 Warmita, 521 _Warner's_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Warner's Black Hamburgh_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Warner's Hamburgh_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Warren, 521 _Warren_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 _Warren_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 _Warrenden_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 _Warrenton_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 _Warty grape_ (syn. of _V. rotundifolia_), 109 Washington, 521 _Washington_ (syn. of Doder), 454 _Washington_ (syn. of Eumelan), 266 Washita, 521 Wasserzieher, Otto, var. orig. by, 363 Waterloo, 521 Waterman, N. M., var. orig. by, 445 Watertown, 521 _Watertown_ (syn. of Laura), 478 Watova, 522 Waubeck, 522 Waverly, 522 W. B. Munson, 522 Webb Grape, 522 Webb, Samuel, var. orig. by, 522 Weeks, Dr. Cyrus, var. orig. by, 522 Weeks Seedling, 522 Weidmeyer, Wm., var. orig. by, 518 _Weissholziger Trollinger_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 Weller, Sidney, var. orig. by, 466 _Weller's Halifax_ (syn. of Halifax), 466 Wells, 522 _Wells_ (syn. of Spencer), 514 Wells, Mr., var. orig. by, 522 _Wells Seedling_ (syn. of Arkansaw), 435 _Wells' Seedling_ (syn. of Wells), 522 _Wells White_ (syn. of Spencer), 514 _Welscher_ (syn. of Black Hamburg), 186 _Wemple_ (syn. of Cuyahoga), 451 Wemple, Mr., var. found by, 451 _Wemple's Seedling_ (syn. of Cuyahoga), 451 Western Beauty, 522 Western region, 59, 60, 61 Wetumka, 522 Wewoka, 522 Wheaton, 522 Wheaton, John C., var. orig. by, 481, 522 White, Nelson Bonney, life of, 364; var. orig. by, 166, 172, 364, 369, 374, 437, 440, 472, 476, 495 White, Hugh, mentioned, 215 White Ann Arbor, 523 White Beauty, 523 White Cape, 523 _White Catawba_ (syn. of Catawba), 204 White Clinton, 523 White Cloud, 523 White Delaware, 523 _White Delaware_ (syn. of White Clinton), 523 White Elizabeth, 523 White English, 524 _White Fox_ (syn. of _V. labrusca_), 150 _White grape_ (syn. of _V. monticola_), 116 Whitehall, 524 _White Herbemont_ (syn. of Herbemont), 288 White Imperial, 422 _White Isabella_ (syn. of White Elizabeth), 523 White Jewel, 524 _White Moline_ (syn. of Newburgh Muscat), 493 White Mountain, 524 White Muscadine, 524 _White Muscadine_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 _White Muscat of Newburgh_ (syn. of Newburgh Muscat), 493 White Musk, 524 _White's Northern Muscadine_ (syn. of White Northern Muscat), 524 White Northern Muscat, 524 White Norton, 524 White Rose, 524 _White Scuppernong_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 White Sugar, 524 White Tennessee, 524 White Ulster, 524 _White Virginia Seedling_ (syn. of White Norton), 524 Wier, D. H., var. orig. by, 477 Wilcox, 525 Wilder, 423 Wilder, Marshall P., quoted, 391; var. orig. by, 489 _Wild Grape_ (syn. of _V. californica_), 135 _Wild green Muscadine_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 Wilding, 525 Wilkins, O. Fitzalwyn, var. orig. by, 525 Wilkins Seedling, 525 Willard, 525 Williamson, 525 Williamsport, 525 William Wine, 525 Willie, 525 _Willie Bell_ (syn. of Bell), 181 Willis, 525 Willis Fredonia, 525 Willis Large Black, 525 Wilmington, 526 _Wilmington Red_ (syn. of Wyoming), 431 _Wilmington White_ (syn. of Wilmington), 526 Winchell, 425 Winchell, C. E., mentioned, 426 Winchester, 526 Windsor, 526 Wine, 53, 62; color of, 62, 63; how made, 62, 63; kinds of, 63; production of in U. S., 63, 64 Winedrop, 526 _Wine Grape_ (syn. of Delaware), 231 _Wine grape_ (syn. of V. vinifera), 154 Wine House, 526 Wine King, 526 Wineland, 30 Wine-making, 55; premiums for, 7 Wingworth, G., var. orig. by, 509 _Winne_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 Winona, 526 Winslow, 526 Winslow, Charles, var. orig. by, 526 Winslow, Governor Edward, quoted, 35 _Winter grape_ (syn. of _V. berlandieri_), 130 _Winter grape_ (syn. of _V. bicolor_), 145 _Winter grape_ (syn. of _V. cordifolia_), 127 _Winter grape_ (syn. of _V. riparia_), 117 Winter Wine, 526 Winthrop, John, mentioned, 13 Witherbee, J. G., var. found by, 157 Witt, 526 Witt, Michael, var. orig. by, 526 _Wolfe_ (syn. of York Madeira), 529 Wood, William, quoted, 35 Woodbury, 526, 527 Woodbury, D. B., var. orig. by, 526 _Woodbury White_ (syn. of Woodbury), 526 Woodcock Seedling, 527 Woodford, 527 Woodriver, 527 Woodruff, 427 Woodruff, C. H., var. orig. by, 428, 494, 523 Woodruff, W. W., var. orig. by, 459 _Woodruff's No. 1_ (syn. of Etawa), 459 _Woodruff Red_ (syn. of Woodruff), 427 Woodson, 527 _Woodward_ (syn. of Isabella), 307 Woodward, A. W., var. orig. by, 386 Woodward, W. A., var. found by, 511 _Wooly Riparia_ (syn. of _V. longii_), 123 Worden, 429 Worden, Schuyler, var. orig. by, 430 _Worden's Seedling_ (syn. of Worden), 429 _Worthington_ (syn. of Clinton), 213 _Wylie_ (syn. of Lenoir), 328 Wylie, Dr. A. P., life of, 182, 183; var. orig. by, 182, 462, 463, 474, 486, 491, 500, 506, 527, 528 Wylie's Seedlings, 527, 528 Wyman, 527 _Wyman_ (syn. of To-Kalon), 410 _Wyman's Seedling_ (syn. of Wyman), 527 Wynant, 527 Wyoming, 431, 527 _Wyoming Red_ (syn. of Wyoming), 431 Xenia, 528 Xlnta, 528 Yellow-leaf (See Chlorosis) _Yellow Muscadine_ (syn. of Scuppernong), 399 Yoakum, 528 Yomago, 528 Yonkers, 528 _Yonkers Honey Dew_ (syn. of Honey Dew), 469 York Claret, 528 York Lisbon, 529 _York Lisbon_ (syn. of Alexander), 160 York Madeira, 529 Young, Frank L., var. orig. by, 483 Young America, 529 _Youngken's Honey Dew_ (syn. of Honey Dew), 469 _Yunker's Honey Dew_ (syn. of Honey Dew), 469 Zane, 529 Zane, Mr., var. orig. by, 529 Zelia, 529 Zinnia, 529 Zita, 529 Zoe, 529 * * * * * FOOTNOTES: [1] De Candolle, Alphonse. _Origin of Cultivated Plants_: 191. 1882. [2] Translation of Dryden. [3] Perhaps the most marked distinguishing feature between ancient and modern grape-growing is the training of vines to trees as indicated in the above verse. Pliny says of this practice: "In Campania they attach the vine to the poplar; embracing the tree to which it is thus wedded, the vine grasps the branches with its amorous arms, and as it climbs, holds on with its knotted trunk till it has reached the very summit; the height being sometimes so stupendous that the vintager when hired, is wont to stipulate for his funeral pile and grave at the owner's expense." [4] Bailey gives the following interpretation of the word "fox" and its derivatives as applied to grapes: "The term fox-grape was evidently applied to various kinds of native grapes in the early days, although it is now restricted to the _Vitis labrusca_ of the Atlantic slope. Several explanations have been given of the origin of the name fox-grape, some supposing that it came from a belief that foxes eat the grapes, others that the odor of the grape suggests that of the fox--an opinion to which Beverly subscribed nearly two centuries ago--and still others thinking that it was suggested by some resemblance of the leaves to a fox's track. William Bartram, writing at the beginning of this century, in the Medical Repository, is pronounced in his convictions: 'The strong, rancid smell of its ripe fruit, very like the effluvia arising from the body of the fox, gave rise to the specific name of this vine, and not, as many have imagined, from its being the favourite food of the animal; for the fox (at least the American species) seldom eats grapes or other fruit if he can get animal food.' I am inclined to suggest, however, that the name may have originated from the lively foxing or intoxicating qualities of the poor wine which was made from the wild grapes. At the present day we speak of 'foxiness' when we wish to recall the musk-like flavor of the wild _Vitis labrusca_; but this use of the term is of later origin, and was suggested by the name of the grape." Bailey, L. H. _Evolution of Our Native Fruits_: 5. 1898. [5] The phylloxera (_Phylloxera vastatrix_ Planch.) has four forms: the leaf-gall form, the root form, the winged form, and the sexual form. Individual leaf insects produce from 500 to 600 eggs, the root insect about 100, the winged insect from 3 to 8, and the sexual insect but 1. The last is laid in the fall on old wood; the following spring a louse hatches from it and at once goes to the upper surface of a leaf and inserts its beak. The irritation thus produced causes a gall to form on the lower side of the leaf. In fifteen days the louse becomes a full-grown wingless female and proceeds to fill the gall with eggs after which it dies. In about a week females hatch from the eggs and migrate to form new colonies. Several generations of females occur in a summer. At the approach of winter the lice go into the ground where they remain dormant until spring when they attack the roots forming galls analogous to those on the leaves and passing through a series of generations similar to those above ground. In the fall of the second year some of the root forms give rise to winged females which fly to neighboring vines. These lay eggs in groups of two or four on the wood of the grape. The eggs are of two sizes; from the smaller size, males hatch in nine or ten days; from the larger, females. In the sexual stage no food is taken and the insects quickly pair. The female produces an egg which fills its entire body and after three or four days lays it, this being the winter egg, the beginning of the cycle. There are no remedies worthy the name and the only efficient preventive is to graft susceptible varieties on resistant stocks. Species are resistant about in the order named: _V. rotundifolia_, _V. riparia_, _V. rupestris_, _V. cordifolia_, _V. berlandieri_, _V. cinerea_, _V. aestivalis_, _V. candicans_, _V. labrusca_, _V. vinifera_. [6] Delaware wrote as follows: "In every boske and hedge, and not farr from our pallisade gates we have thousands of goodly vines running along and leaving to every tree, which yealds a plentiful grape in their kinde. Let me appeale, then, to knowledge if these naturall vines were planted, dressed and ordered by skilfull vinearoons, whether we might not make a perfect grape and fruitfull vintage in short time?" Delaware's Relation. _Brown's Genesis of the United States._ 1611. [7] Discourse of the Old Company, _British State Papers_, Vol. III:40 See _Virginia Magazine of History_, Vol. I:159. [8] Laws and Orders of Assembly, Feb. 16, 1623. _McDonald Papers_, Vol. I:97. Va. State Library. [9] The clause in this act reads: "That all workers upon corne and tobacco shall this spring plant five vyne plants per pol, and the next year, before the first day of March, 20 per pol, upon penaltie to forfeite one barrell of corne for every one that shall make default." [10] Roger Beverly, writing a century later, describes the early grape-growing in Virginia as follows: "The Year before the Massacre, _Anno_ 1622, which destroyed so many good projects for Virginia; some French vignerons were sent thither to make an experiment of their vines. These people were so in love with the country, that the character they then gave of it in their letters to the company in England, was very much to its advantage, namely: 'That it far excelled their own country of _Languedoc_, The vines growing in great abundance and variety all over the land; that some of the grapes were of that unusual bigness, that they did not believe them to be grapes, until by opening them they had seen their kernels; that they had planted the cuttings of their vines at Michaelmas, and had grapes from those very cuttings, the spring following. Adding in the conclusion, that they had not heard of the like in any other country.' Neither was this out of the way, for I have made the same experiment, both of their natural vine, and of the plants sent thither from England." _Beverly's Virginia_, Second Edition: 107. 1722. [11] Fiske, John. _Old Virginia and Her Neighbors._ Vol. II:372, 385. [12] _American Farmer_, Baltimore, 11:35. 1829-30. _Ib._, 12:396. 1830-31. [13] Dankers, Jasper, and Sluyter, Peter. _Journal of a Voyage to New York in 1679-80_: 130. [14] _Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New York_, Holland Documents, 1603-1656. Vol. I:277. [15] The grant of the bounty is recorded in Volume II, _Deeds of New York_, page 87, on file in the office of the Secretary of State at Albany. It runs as follows:-- "Whereas Paul Richards an inhabitant of this Citty of New York hath made knowne to mee his intent to plant vines at a certaine Plantation that hee hath upon Long Island, called the little ffiefe, which if it succeed, may redound very much to the future benefitt and advantage of the inhabitants within this Government; and in regard, it will require much labour and a considerable charge to provide vines and to p'pare the ground and make it fitt for production of wines; ffor an Encouragemt to the said Paul Richards in his proceedings therein, I have thought fitt to grant unto him these following privileges (viz.) "That all wines of the growth of such vines as the said Paul Richards shall plant, or cause to bee planted at the place aforesaid, shall be free from any kind of impositions for ever if sold in grosse, and not by retaile: "That the said Paul Richards, his heirs, executors, or assignes shall have the privilege to have such wines sold by retaile in any one house in New York for the term of thirty years to come, from the time of the first selling of his wines, free from all imposts or excise: "That every person who shall hereafter for thirty years to come, plant vines within any place in this Government, shall upon the first yeares improvement pay unto the said Paul Richards, his heirs, executors, or assignes, five shillings for every acre so planted as an acknowledgement of his being the first undertaker and planter of vines in these parts. For the confirmacon of the privileges above specified, I have hereunto put my hand and seale. "Given at ffort James in New York this 10th day of January, 1664. RIC. NICOLLS." [16] Bellomont's letter is as follows: "As to propagating vines in these plantations to supply all of the dominions of the Crown, I can easily make that appear. In the first place Nature has given us an index in these Plantations that points to us what may be done in that by the help of art. There grows wild grapes in all of the woods here in very great abundance; I have observed them in many places but especially above Albany on the side of the Hudson river where the vines all along twine around great trees and fair clusters of grapes appear sometimes above 30 foot from the ground. I have eaten of the wild grapes which I thought tastefull enough, only somewhat harsh as an effect of their wildness." Then follows an account of how the French had previously made wine in Canada but that the Court of France had forbade its being made fearing that it might be prejudicial to the wine trade of the French. Earl of Bellomont to the Lords of Trade, Nov. 28, 1700. _Documents Relating to Colonial History of the State of New York_, 4:787. [17] Francis Higginson wrote in 1630: "excellent Vines are here up and downe in the Woods. Our Governour hath already planted a Vineyard with great hope of encrease." [18] Bellomont records that a company of French immigrants had made good wine in Rhode Island toward the close of the 17th century but they were driven out of the Colony by the English and the industry ceased. _N. Y. Col. Doc._, 4:787. [19] _American Farmer_, Baltimore, 10:387. 1828-29. [20] _American Farmer_, Baltimore, 10:387. 1828-29. _Ib._, 11:172. 1829-30. [21] Vol. I:117-198. 1769-71. [22] All that is known of the life of Edward Antill is found in _Johnson's Rural Economy_ where he is spoken of as "Mr. Antill, late of Middlesex County, New-Jersey, a gentleman who cultivated the grape with sedulous attention." _Johnson's Rural Economy_: 164. 1806. [23] Legaux's paper is found as a treatise on the cultivation of the vine in _The True American_ of March 24, 1800. The article contains about 2000 words, the main part of it being "A Statement of the Expense and Income of a Vineyard, Made on Four Acres of Land, situated in Pennsylvania, in the 40th Degree of Latitude." Of Legaux's life, little is known, other than that he was a French vine-grower with an experimental vineyard, as he says in the above article, at "Spring Mill, 13 miles N. N. W. from Philadelphia." Johnson speaks of Legaux as a philanthropist; McMahon calls him a "gentleman of Worth and Science"; while Rafinesque accuses him of fraud and deception in the matter of calling the native grapes Bland and Alexander, _Madeira_ and _Cape_. Judging the man from his article in _The True American_ and from the words of his contemporaries, he was a capable, enthusiastic and intelligent grape-grower. His philanthropy is more doubtful. It is true that he distributed many grape plants but as he himself says to "fellow citizens possessing pecuniary means." That he practiced deceit in the matter of the introduction of the Alexander as the Cape is probable. However, his deceit, if such it were, may be forgotten and he should be remembered as the chief disseminator of the Alexander, the first distinctive American variety of commercial value. [24] _The True American_, March 24, 1800. [25] Johnson, S. W., _Rural Economy_: 156. New Brunswick, N. J., 1806. [26] John James Dufour, born in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland, in 1763, came to America in 1796 to engage in grape-growing and wine-making. An account of his work is given in the text. In 1826 Dufour published the _Vine Dresser's Guide_, which became the authority on the culture of this fruit at that time. Dufour must be remembered for this book, for the dissemination of the Cape or Alexander grape, and as one of the pioneer vineyardists and wine-makers of the New World. [27] Dufour, John James. _Vine Dresser's Guide_: 307. 1826. [28] _U. S. Statutes at Large_, 3:374. [29] _American State Papers_, Public Lands, 3:396. [30] For fuller accounts of this dramatic episode in French and American history, and in American agriculture, see: _The Napoleonic Exiles in America_, J. S. Reeves, Johns Hopkins University Studies, 23 Series, pp. 530-656; _The Bonapartists in Alabama_, A. B. Lyon, _Gulf State Historical Magazine_, March, 1903; _The French Grant in Alabama_, G. Whitfield Jr., _Ala. Hist. Soc._, Vol. IV; _The Vine and Olive Colony_, T. C. McCorvey, _Alabama Historical Reports_, April, 1885. [31] The last official account of this colony in the records of the United States Government is found in _American State Papers_, Vol. III. "In a letter of Frederick Ravesies to the treasury department dated January 18, 1828, is the following: 'We have suffered severely from the unparalleled drought of the last summer; many of our largest and finest looking vines, which had just commenced bearing luxuriantly, were totally killed by the dry hot weather. Yet, notwithstanding this misfortune, the grantees, with increased diligence, are using every exertion to procure others which are thought to be more congenial to the soil and climate, and are now generally engaged in replanting.'" Quoted from _Studies in Southern and Alabama History_, 1904:131. [32] William Robert Prince, fourth proprietor of the Prince Nursery and Linnæan Botanic Garden, Flushing, Long Island, was born in 1795 and died in 1869. Prince was without question the most capable horticulturist of his time and an economic botanist of note. His love of horticulture and botany was a heritage from at least three paternal ancestors, all noted in these branches of science, and all of whom he apparently surpassed in mental capacity, intellectual training and energy. He was a prolific writer, being the author of three horticultural works which will always take high rank among those of Prince's time. These were: _A Treatise on the Vine_, _Pomological Manual_, in two volumes, and the _Manual of Roses_, beside which he was a lifelong contributor to the horticultural press. All of Prince's writings are characterized by a clear, vigorous style and by accuracy in statement. His works are almost wholly lacking the ornate and pretentious furbelows of most of his contemporaries though it must be confessed that he fell into the then common fault of following European writers somewhat slavishly. During the lifetime of Wm. R. Prince, and that of his father Wm. Prince, who died in 1842, the Prince Nursery at Flushing was the center of the horticultural nursery interests of the country; it was the clearing-house for foreign and American horticultural plants, for new varieties and for information regarding plants of all kinds. [33] Prince, Wm. R. _A Treatise on the Vine_: 337. 1830. [34] Nicholas Longworth, known as the "father of American grape culture", was born in 1783, in Newark, New Jersey. At an early age he went West making his home in Cincinnati where he became a lawyer, banker, and a man of large business affairs in what was then the far frontier. From his boyhood Longworth was interested in horticulture and as a young man became greatly interested in native grapes. He was one of the men to whom John Adlum sent the Catawba and he became its disseminator and a promoter for the region in which he lived, making this grape the first great American grape and Cincinnati the center of the foremost grape-growing region of the Continent. He was the first vineyardist to make wine on a large scale and perfected methods of making wine from the native grapes so that the product was comparable to that from the best wine cellars of Europe. Longworth introduced the first cultivated variety of the wild black raspberry, _Rubus occidentalis_, under the name of the Ohio Everbearing. His interest in the strawberry was second only to that in the grape and he not only did much to encourage its cultivation in America but also, after a long controversy with horticulturists and botanists, fully established the fact that many varieties of this fruit are infertile with themselves and that under cultivation infertile varieties must have sorts planted near them capable of cross-pollinating them. Longworth took a deep interest in horticulture generally and gathered about him a group of pioneer horticulturists who did much for American fruit-growing in the middle of the nineteenth century, in many respects molding and guiding the horticulture of that time in this country. Longworth wrote much for the contemporary horticultural magazines and published two small books, "_The Cultivation of the Grape and Manufacture of Wine_" and "_Character and Habits of the Strawberry Plant_." He died in 1863, aged 80, at Cincinnati, one of the most distinguished, enterprising and wealthy citizens of his State. For further discussion of his life see Bailey's _Evolution of Our Native Fruits_: 61-65. 1898. [35] Probably the northern part of the vine region of France; the Jura mountains are in the east central part. [36] _Transactions New York State Agricultural Society_, 6:689. 1846. [37] Fuller, Andrew S. _Record of Horticulture_: 21. 1866. [38] There is a wild grape vine (probably _Vitis aestivalis_) near Daphne, Alabama, on the shores of Mobile Bay, known as the "General Jackson vine" because of General Jackson having camped under it during the war with the Seminole Indians in 1817-18, which for age and size is truly remarkable. Mr. E. Q. Norton of Daphne writes of this vine as follows: "There is little known regarding the Jackson grape vine beyond the fact that the oldest man living here when I came here--20 years ago--told me that the Indians told him when he came here as a boy--90 years ago--that the vine was at that time an old one, which had been growing longer than any of them could remember. It was 27 inches through the trunk, four feet above the ground, when I measured it ten years since, and the vines were running over the surrounding trees for many rods. The grapes were very small, quite hard and not very juicy." [39] The following is an account of the discovery of grapes in Vinland translated from the Icelandic manuscript by Reeves: "When they had completed their house Leif said to his companions, 'I propose now to divide our company into two groups, and to set about an exploration of the country; one half of our party shall remain at home at the house, while the other half shall investigate the land, and they must not go beyond a point from which they can return home the same evening, and are not to separate. Thus they did for a time; Leif himself, by turns, joined the exploring party or remained behind at the house. * * * "It was discovered one evening that one of their party was missing, and this proved to be Tyrker the German. Leif was sorely troubled by this, for Tyrker had lived with Leif and his father for a long time, and had been very devoted to Leif, when the latter was a child. Leif severely reprimanded his companions, and prepared to go in search of him, taking twelve men with him. They had proceeded but a short distance from the house, when they were met by Tyrker, whom they received most cordially. Leif observed at once that his foster-father was in lively spirits. * * * Leif addressed him, and asked: 'Wherefore art thou so belated, foster-father mine, and astray from the others'. In the beginning Tyrker spoke for some time in German, rolling his eyes, and grinning, and they could not understand him; but after a time he addressed them in the Northern tongue: 'I did not go much further [_than you_], and yet I have something of novelty to relate. I have found vines and grapes.' 'Is this indeed true, foster-father?' said Leif. 'Of a certainty it is true', quoth he, 'for I was born where there is not lack of either grapes or vines.' They slept the night through, and on the morrow Leif said to his shipmates: 'We will now divide our labours, and each day will either gather grapes or cut vines and fell trees, so as to obtain a cargo of these for my ship.' They acted upon this advice, and it is said, that their after-boat was filled with grapes. A cargo sufficient for the ship was cut, and when the spring came, they made their ship ready, and sailed away; and from its products Leif gave the land a name, and called it Wineland." _Finding of Wineland the Good_: 66. Oxford University Press, London, 1890. [40] Winsor, Justin. _Narrative and Critical History of America_, Vol. III:61. [41] First Voyage to Virginia, _Hakluyt's Voyages_, 3:301-306. [42] _Hakluyt's Voyages_, 3:311. [43] Discourse of Thomas Hariot, _Hakluyt's Voyages_, 3:326. [44] _Smith's History of Virginia_, 1:122 (1629) Reprint 1819. [45] _Works of Capt. John Smith_, p. 502. [46] Bruce, Philip Alexander. _Economic History of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century_, Vol. 1:219. 1896. [47] Report of Francis Maguel, Spanish Archives, _Brown's Genesis of the United States_: 395. 1610. [48] _The History of Travaile into Virginia_: 120. 1610, printed 1849. [49] Anonymous. _A Perfect Description of Virginia._ 1649, Peter Force's Tracts, Vol. II, 1838. [50] "Grape vines of the English stock, as well as those of their own production, bear most abundantly, if they are suffered to run near the ground, and increase very kindly by slipping; yet very few have them at all in their gardens, much less endeavor to improve them by cutting or laying. But since the first impression of this book, some vineyards have been attempted, and one is brought to perfection, of seven hundred and fifty gallons a year. The wine drinks at present greenish, but the owner doubts not of good wine, in a year or two more, and takes great delight that way. "When a single tree happens in clearing the ground, to be left standing, with a vine upon it, open to the sun and air, that vine generally produces as much as four or five others, that remain in the woods. I have seen in this case, more grapes upon one single vine, than would load a London cart. And for all this, the people till of late never removed any of them into their gardens, but contented themselves throughout the whole country with the grapes they found thus wild." Beverly, Robert. _The History of Virginia_: 260. 1722, Reprint, 1855. [51] "Will fox," _i. e._ intoxicate. See footnote on page 4. [52] _New English Canaan_, 1632. Reprinted in _Force's Tracts_, 1838. [53] _Vine_, much differing in the fruit, all of them very fleshy, some reasonably pleasant; others have a taste of Gun Powder, and these grow in swamps, and low wet Grounds. Josselyn, John, Gent. _New England's Rarities_: 66. London, 1672. [54] Speaking of the Horne-bound tree (probably hornbeam from his description) he says: "This Tree growing with broad spread Armes, the vines winde their curling branches about them; which vines affoard great store of grapes, which are very big both for the grape and Cluster, sweet and good: these be of two sorts, red and white, there is likewise a smaller kind of grape which groweth in the Islands which is sooner ripe and more delectable; so that there is no knowne reason why as good wine may not be made in those parts, as well as in _Burdeuax in France_; being under the same degree. It is a great pittie no man sets upon such a venture, whereby he might in small time inrich himselfe, and benefit the Countrie, I know nothing which doth hinder but want of skilfull men to manage such an employment; For the countrey is hot enough, the ground good enough, and many convenient hills lye towards the south Sunne, as if they were there placed for the purpose." Wood, William. _New England's Prospect_: 20. London, 1634. [55] Lawson, John. _History of North Carolina_: 169-171. 1714, Reprint 1860. [56] Lawson, John. _History of North Carolina_: 141. 1714, Reprint 1860. [57] _Ib._: 184-189. [58] Beverly, Robert. _History of Virginia_: 105-107. 1722, Reprint 1855. [59] _Transactions American Philosophical Society_, 1:191-193. 1769-71. [60] _The True American_, Philadelphia, March 24, 1800. [61] But little is known of Dr. James Mease other than that he was one of the editors of _The Domestic Encyclopedia_, a Fellow of the _American Philosophical Society_ and Vice-President of the _Philadelphia Agricultural Society_. That he was a student of American grapes is shown in his letter of transmissal of Bartram's paper to the _Medical Repository_ in which he says: "It is my present intention to publish the description of one species of vine every year in Latin and English, with a coloured plate, and I had made arrangements for the publication of the first fascicle last year; but the very unfavourable season, which had prevented the ripening of the species (Bland's Grape) I had resolved first to describe, obliging me to defer the task until the present year, when I hope the weather will prove more favourable. Medical gentlemen, and others fond of natural history, and anxious to have the description of American vines and their classification completed, will have it much in their power to assist my undertaking. I have taken measures to have the _Bull_ or Bullet grape of Carolina and Georgia sent me; but I shall nevertheless be much indebted for any specimens of the plant that may be transmitted." [62] The same year, 1804, Mease published Bartram's paper, with some omissions, in the _Medical Repository_ (Second Hexade, 1:19) under the heading, "Account of the Species, Hybrids, and other Varieties of the Vine of North-America. By Mr. William Bartram, of Pennsylvania." The same paper was again published in 1830 in Prince's _A Treatise on the Vine_, pp. 216-220. [63] Bartram states that "bull" is an abbreviation of bullet; the grapes being so called because they were of the size of a bullet. He held that the name "_taurina_" applied to the species was not proper. [64] _Johnson's Rural Economy_: 155-197. New Brunswick, N. J., 1806. [65] _McMahon's Gardening_: 226-241. Philadelphia, Pa., 1806. [66] _American Farmer_, 8:116. Baltimore, 1826. [67] Adlum, John. _Cultivation of the Vine_: 149. Second Edition, Washington, 1828. [68] John Adlum, a native of Pennsylvania, was born in 1759 and died at Georgetown, D. C., in 1836. Adlum was one of the first men to see clearly the possibility of improving the wild grapes of America and of bringing them under cultivation. He published accounts of this fruit in his _Cultivation of the Vine_ and in the agricultural papers of his time, thereby aiding in bringing it into public notice as a cultivated plant. At "The Vineyard", near Georgetown, he established an experimental plantation of grapes from which he distributed many vines, chief of which were those of the Catawba, a variety for whose dissemination he is largely responsible. Adlum tried without avail to have the national government found an experimental farm for the culture of grapes and his effort was one of the first to secure governmental aid in agricultural experimentation. Beside his work with the grape, Adlum was deeply interested in other phases of agriculture and in the scientific movements of his time. He was a soldier of the Revolution, a brigadier-general in the militia of Pennsylvania, a county judge, and a civil engineer and surveyor. In spite of his work in the early part of the last century for agriculture and for his State and country, Adlum was practically unknown to the present generation until a sketch of his life and work appeared in Bailey's _The Evolution of Our Native Fruits_ from which this sketch is written. Adlum's memory is perpetuated in the name of the beautiful climbing fumitory of one of the Northern Atlantic States, _Adlumnia cirhosa_, bestowed upon him by his contemporary, Rafinesque. (For a more complete account of Adlum's life, see Bailey's _Evolution of Our Native Fruits_, pp. 50-61.) [69] Adlum, John. _Cultivation of the Vine._ Preface. 1823. [70] For a full account of Dufour's attempts to grow European grapes see Bailey's _Evolution of Our Native Fruits_, pp. 21-42. [71] Rafinesque has also preserved for us the names of many of the vine-growers of his time. The following is his list: "Wishing to preserve the names of the public benefactors who had in 1825 established our first vineyards, I herewith insert their names. They are independent of the vineyards of York, Vevay, and Vincennes. "In New York, George Gibbs, Swift, Prince, Lansing, Loubat, etc. "In Pennsylvania, Carr, James, Potter, J. Webb, Legaux, Echelberger, E. Bonsall, Stoys, Lemoine, Rapp. "In Delaware, Broome, J. Gibbs, etc. "In Maryland, Adlum, W. Bernie, C. Varle, R. Sinclair, W. Miles, etc. "In Virginia, Lockhart, Zane, R. Weir, Noel, J. Browne, J. Duling, etc. "In Carolina, Habersham, Noisette, etc. "In Georgia, Maurick, James Gardiner, S. Grimes, Checteau, M'Call. "In New Jersey, Cooper at Camden. Another at Mount Holly. "In Ohio, Gen. Harrison, Longworth, Dufour, etc. "In Indiana, Rapp of Harmony, the French of Vincennes. "In Alabama, Dr. S. Brown, at Eagleville." Continuing, he gives an idea of grape production in 1830:--"The average crop of wine with us is 300 gallons per acre. At York, where 2700 vines are put on one acre, each vine has often produced a quart of wine, and thus 675 gallons per acre, value $675 in 1823, besides $200 for 5000 cuttings. One acre of vineyard did then let for $200 or 300, thus value of the acre about $5000: This was in poor soil unfit for wheat, and for mere Claret. "Now in 1830, that common French Claret often sells only at 50 cents the gallon, the income must be less. I hope our claret may in time be sold for 25 cents the gallon, and the table grapes at one cent the lb. and even then an acre of vineyard will give an income of $75, and be worth $1000 the acre. "The greatest check to this cultivation is the time required for grapes to bear well, from 3 to 6 years: our farmers wishing to have quick yearly crops; but then when a vineyard is set and in bearing, it will last forever, the vines themselves lasting from 60 to 100 years, and are easily re-placed as they decay. "The next check is the precarious crops if badly managed. Every year is not equally plentiful and sometimes there is a total failure when rains drown the blossoms; but an extra good crop of 500 or 600 gallons commonly follows and covers their loss." Rafinesque, C. S. _American Manual of the Grape Vines._, Philadelphia. 1830. pp. 43-45. [72] Tradition relates that the first Scuppernong vine known by civilized man was found on the coast of North Carolina by Amadas and Barlowe in 1584 and was transplanted by them to Roanoke Island. An old vine of great diameter of stem and spread of vine, gnarled in trunk and branch, evidently of great age, is known as the "Mother Scuppernong" and is supposed to be the vine transplanted in 1584. [73] Calvin Jones writing June 17, 1817, in the _American Farmer_, =3=:332, from Raleigh, North Carolina, gives the following account of the name Scuppernong: "This grape & wine, had the name of Scuppernong, given to them by Henderson & myself, in compliment to Jas. Blount, of Scuppernong, who first diffused a general knowledge of it in several well written communications in our paper--and it is cultivated with more success on that river, than in any other part of the state, perhaps, except the Island of Roanoke." It is worthy of note that Scuppernong is largely a sea-board name for _Vitis rotundifolia_ and is not commonly applied to it outside of the Atlantic States. [74] There is some evidence to show that the Clinton contains Labrusca blood. [75] Buchanan, Robert. _Grape Culture_: 61. 1850. [76] British Parliamentary Papers (Library of Congress), Vol. 30. 1859. [77] _American Pomological Society Report_ for 1852:45. [78] _Horticulturist_, 6:445. 1851. [79] _Horticulturist_, 6:444. 1851. [80] _American Pomological Society Report_ for 1852:45. [81] _Magazine of Horticulture_, 11:134. 1845. [82] Nuttall says: "It is probable that hybrids betwixt the European Vine (_Vitis vinifera_) and those of the United States would better answer the variable climates of North America, than the unacclimated vine of Europe. When a portion of the same industry shall have been bestowed upon the cultivation of the native vines of America, which has for so many ages and by so many nations, been devoted to the amelioration of _Vitis vinifera_, we cannot imagine that the citizens of the United States will be longer indebted to Europe for the luxury of wine. It is not however in the wilds of uncultivated nature that we are to obtain vines worthy of cultivation. Were this the case, Europe would to the present have known no other Malus than the worthless austere crab, in place of the finest apple; no other Pyrus than the acerb and inedible Pyraster or stone Pear, from which cultivation has obtained all the other varieties. It is from seed that new and valuable varieties are invariably to be obtained. There is however at the present time, a variety of one of the native species cultivated under the name of 'Bland's grape', a hybrid no way in my opinion inferior to some of the best European grapes." [83] "People who have a good deal of leisure time, ought to make those experiments which take many years to know the result. If any where in the United States a public Botanic garden should be established, there would be the proper place, to have a corner of it appropriated solely for the purpose of trying the raising of new species of grapes, either by seeds or grafts; and if there was a green or hot house, several species of the best grapes, and even a male plant of the most vigorous indigenous ought to be introduced in it, and trained so that the crossing of the breed may be easily done, by bringing two different sorts of grapes together in time of blossoming, and sow the seeds. I think we may anticipate some very good results from such an arrangement." _Vine Dresser's Guide_: 228. 1826. [84] Of hybridization he says: "In all attempts at artificial fecundation, I would recommend that one of the varieties selected be of native origin, as there exists no want of hybrids between European varieties alone; a large proportion of those now in cultivation having been doubtless produced by natural admixture of the pollen, in the vineyards where they originated. For the purpose of hybridizing, the varieties of _Vitis aestivalis_ should be selected in preference to those of _Vitis labrusca_, on account of the much higher vinous properties of the former; and there cannot exist a doubt but that we may readily produce well acclimated hybrids between the native and foreign varieties, without the trouble of continuing the course of reproduction for many generations, although such reproduction from species so dissimilar may continue to present additional modifications of character." _A Treatise on the Vine_: 253-254. 1830. [85] U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Special Report, No. 36. 1880. [86] Wine is the fermented juice of the grape. When the juice or must of the grape is exposed to temperatures ranging from 55° to 65°F. the micro-organisms which accompany the fruit, the yeast of the wine-maker, are transformed from a comparatively dormant state to one of great activity. The action of the organisms on grape must is called fermentation and through it certain physical and chemical changes take place whereby the must is changed in taste and in color, and a part or all of its sugar is changed into alcohol. The methods of making wine differ in different countries and in different localities depending upon the climate, kind of grapes grown, condition of growth, and the kind of wine produced, yet the principles and chief processes are much the same and may be briefly described as follows: In general grapes are not picked for wine-making until they have reached full maturity thus insuring a higher sugar content, richness of flavor and perfect color. It is customary to determine the composition of the must as to sugar and acid content by various instruments devised for the purpose and if it lack sugar this ingredient is added; if it be too acid water is added; or the composition may be otherwise changed depending upon a number of circumstances though manifestly reputable wine-makers change the natural grape juice as little as possible. Soon after harvesting the grapes are crushed. The ancient method, which still prevails in many parts of Europe, was to tramp the grapes with bare feet or wooden shoes. Tramping is for most part superseded by mechanical crushers which break the skins but do not crush the seeds. For some wines the stems of the grapes are removed; for others it is essential that the grapes be not stemmed. Stemming may be done by hand, by a rake over a screen, or by specially devised machines. If white wine is to be made the juice is separated from skins and pulp at once; if red wine is desired fermentation takes place in the crushed grapes or marc. Fermentation is carried on in large tanks or vats varying in capacity from 1000 gallons to 10,000 gallons or more. Some wine-makers prefer open vats, others keep them closed. The duration of fermentation depends upon many conditions and varies from two or three to fifteen or twenty days, depending upon the amount of sugar in the must, the temperature, activity of ferments, etc., etc. Wine-makers observe several distinct stages of fermentation which must be closely watched and controlled. A most important influence is exerted on fermentation by temperature. The limits below which and above which fermentation does not take place are 55° and 90°F. In general it is desirable that fermentation take place at temperatures ranging about 70°. When it is found that the sugar is practically all converted into alcohol, or that such conversion has proceeded far enough, the new wine is drawn or pumped from the fermenting vats into casks or barrels where it ages though it may require special treatment for clearing. Before bottling it is usually necessary to rack the wine into new barrels twice or three times to stop secondary fermentations which invariably take place. Special treatments result in several distinct classes of wine. Thus we can divide wine into _red_ and _white_ as to color. Red wines are produced from colored grapes the color being extracted in the process of fermentation. White wines are made from light colored grapes or if from colored fruit the must is not allowed to ferment on the marc and so extract the color. We may again divide wines into _dry_ and _sweet_. Dry wines are those in which the sugar is practically all converted into alcohol. Sweet wines are those which retain more or less sugar. These are often fortified by the addition of alcohol. A third division is that of _still_ and _sparkling_ wines. Still wines are those in which the carbonic acid gas formed by fermentation has wholly escaped. Sparkling wines retain a greater or less amount of this carbonic acid gas. All of the above classes are further divided into well marked types according to their color and taste, their alcoholic content, and the countries in which they are produced. The following are the leading wines made from native grapes: _Catawba_, _Delaware_, _Concord_, _Norton's Virginia_, _Ives_, _Scuppernong_, _Iona_, _Claret_, _Port_ and _Champagne_. Of these _Claret_, _Norton's Virginia_ and _Ives_ are red dry wines. _Catawba_, _Delaware_, _Iona_ and _Scuppernong_ may be either dry or sweet white wines. _Port_ is a red sweet wine. [87] Vol. 22: No. 3:22. [88] Champagne obtains its name from the fact that it is chiefly produced in the Province of Champagne in France. Its special characteristic is that during fermentation, which is usually brought about in the bottle, the carbonic acid gas generated is absorbed by the wine. When the bottle is opened the gas is disengaged and the wine effervesces or "sparkles". Good champagne requires grapes of high quality and of special adaptability; the fruit must be well ripened, free from decayed berries, and clean. The first fermentation takes place during a period of several months in the regular receptacles for this purpose after which the wine from several varieties of grapes is blended. Good champagne usually contains some old wine. After bottling, the wine is held at slightly different temperatures for varying lengths of time to secure proper fermentation in the bottle until at the end of several months it is held at a comparatively low temperature in which the bottles remain from three to four years. The bottles must then receive some treatment which will remove the sediment which has been formed by fermentation. This is usually done by placing them in racks cork down at about an angle of 45 degrees or a little more. By dexterously shaking and jarring the bottles the sediment is loosened and deposited in the neck of the bottle. Lastly the sediment is disgorged by skillfully withdrawing the cork, a small portion of the wine being wasted in the operation. The bottles are then filled with a dosage of rock-candy dissolved in an old dry wine, the amount used determining the sweetness of the champagne. The bottles are then corked, wired, capped, labelled and cased, after which the champagne is ready for the market. [89] _Champagne: Decrease in Imports and Increase in Domestic Production_, April 25, 1907, p. 427. [90] Grape juice is made from clean, sound but not over-ripe grapes. The juice is pressed out by machinery in commercial practice but in the home manufacture of the product, the grapes may be pressed by the hands. If a light-colored juice is desired the liquid is extracted without heating the grapes; for a red juice the pulp is heated before pressing and the grapes must be dark in color. In either case the heating is done in a double boiler so that the juice does not come in direct contact with the fire. The proper temperature ranges from 180° F. to 200° F. and must never exceed the 200° mark if the flavor of uncooked grapes is desired. After heating, the juice is allowed to settle for twenty-four hours in a glass, crockery or enameled vessel after which it is carefully drained from the sediment and strained through some sterilized filter. In home practice several thicknesses of flannel, previously boiled, will do for a filter. The liquid is then filled into clean bottles leaving room for expansion in the second heating. The bottled juice is now heated a second time after which it is immediately corked and sealed. The principles involved in making grape juice are the same as those observed in canning fruit and the operation may be varied in the former as it is in the latter if only certain fundamental processes are followed. [91] A raisin is a dried and cured grape. Raisin-making is a simple process. The grapes are arranged on shallow trays, and placed in the sun to dry, being turned now and then by placing an empty tray on a full one and turning both over after which the top tray is removed. When the grapes are properly dried they are put in bins to sweat preparatory to packing and shipping. The finishing touch in the drying is sometimes given in curing-houses, however, to avoid injury from rain or dust. Seeding, grading, packing and selling are now separate industries from growing and curing. At present all raisins are made from varieties of the Old World grape, no American sort having been found suitable for raisin-making. A variety adapted for making a raisin, something better than simply a "dried grape", must have a large percentage of sugar and solids, a thin skin, and a high flavor. American grapes lack in sugar content and have a skin so thick and tough that the fruit does not cure properly for a good raisin. The raisin industry in the United States is carried on only in California, the great bulk of the crop coming from the San Joaquin Valley and a few of the southern counties of that State. Formerly the raisins used in this country were wholly imported; now this product of the grape is exported and in increasing quantities. The annual production of raisins is in the neighborhood of 100,000,000 pounds. [92] According to Bartram, the aborigines of eastern America made raisins from the wild grapes. He describes the process they used as follows: "The Indians gather great quantities of wild grapes which they prepare for keeping, by first sweating them on hurdles over a gentle fire, and afterwards dry them on their bunches in the sun and air, and store them up for provisions." [93] Tarr, R. S., _Cornell_ (_N. Y._) _Exp. Sta. Bul._, 109. 1896. [94] Burke, R. T. Avon, and Marean, Herbert, Field Operations, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1901. [95] Tarr, R. S., _Cornell_ (_N. Y._) _Exp. Sta. Bul._, 109. 1896. [96] Burke, R. T. Avon, and Marean, Herbert, Field Operations, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1901. [97] Elijah Fay was born in Southborough, Massachusetts, in 1781. He moved to Brocton, Chautauqua County, New York, in the fall of 1811. The early history of not only the viticulture but of the horticulture of the Chautauqua region is interwritten with that of the Fay family. Elijah Fay's children and grandchildren inherited a love of horticulture from their ancestor and several of them, as mentioned in the text, have been noted for their horticultural work in this region. Lincoln Fay, a nephew of Elijah Fay, one of the first men to grow and sell grape vines in the region, originated the Fay currant which was afterwards introduced by him and his son Elijah H. Fay. Of the Fay family, noted in the annals of grape-growing in this region, only G. E. Ryckman and L. R. Ryckman, grandchild and great-grandchild of Elijah Fay, are now living. Elijah Fay lived to the ripe age of eighty, dying in 1860. His memory should be long cherished as one of the founders of the viticulture of New York. [98] The writer is indebted to Mr. G. E. Ryckman of this firm, for the information given here. [99] _The Grape Belt_, 16: No. 20, Feb. 26, 1907. [100] _The Grape Belt_, 16: No. 20, Feb. 26, 1907. [101] The grape-vine fidia (_Fidia viticida_ Walsh) is a robust beetle, a quarter of an inch in length, brown in color but whitened by a thick covering of yellowish-white hairs. The beetle lays its eggs in the cracks and crevices of the bark of the grape vines well above ground. The eggs are produced in large numbers, often as many as several hundred to the vine. Upon hatching, the larvae quickly worm their way into the ground and begin to feed upon the fibrous roots of the vine, passing from these to the larger roots. Possibly the chief damage is done on the larger roots which are often entirely stripped of bark for a length of several feet. The larvae attain their full size, a half inch in length, by the middle of August, and then hibernate until the following June. The winter is spent in earthen cells. After about two weeks as pupae in June, the full grown beetles emerge from the ground and begin to feed upon the upper surface of the leaves, eating out the cellular tissue, thus skeletonizing the foliage. The adults disappear the succeeding August. The most efficient means of checking the fidia so far found is an application of an arsenical spray applied during the time the beetles are feeding on the foliage. [102] Grape-vine flea-beetle (_Haltica chalybea_ Ill.).--The adult insects are shining steel-blue flea-beetles measuring about one-fifth of an inch in length. They live during the winter under the bark of the old vines or in rubbish in the fields. They emerge from their winter quarters during the first warm days of spring, and feed upon the opening buds and young leaves. Egg-laying begins late in April or early in May. The eggs are placed singly near the buds or upon the leaves and hatch in about ten days. The young larvae are dark brown in color but soon become prominently marked with black dots and patches. They are full grown in from three to four weeks at which time they measure about a quarter of an inch in length. They feed on the leaves devouring only the soft parts at first, but finally eating irregular holes through the leaves. When ready to pupate they go a short distance into the ground. The adults emerge during the latter part of June or early in July. They probably feed during all of the summer, finally seeking shelter for the winter as above indicated. The vines should be sprayed with paris green, one pound to fifty gallons of water, just before the buds begin to swell or with some other arsenite. Much pains should be taken to make this application thorough. Later when the worms appear on the leaves, paris green may be applied at the usual strength, one pound to 150 gallons of lime and water, or combined with bordeaux mixture. Both upper and under surfaces of the leaves should be covered. Applications of arsenicals for the grape-vine fidia will help greatly to keep this insect in check. [103] Grape leaf-hopper (_Typhlocyba comes_ Say).--There are several species of leaf-hoppers which attack the grape but this species is probably the most common in this State. These little leaf-hoppers are often erroneously called thrips. The adult insects measure about one-eighth of an inch in length. They vary greatly in color but the prevailing color is usually light yellowish-green. The back and wings are ornamented with bright red, yellow and brown. They are found upon the vines from spring until fall. They feed together, sucking the sap from the leaves, principally from the under surface, causing them to turn brown in patches. The eggs are deposited singly in the tissue of the under surface of the leaves. The young resemble the adults in form but are not provided with wings and are green or yellowish-green in color. There are several broods during the season. Some of the adults of the last brood hibernate in any convenient rubbish about the vineyard. Treatment for young hoppers should be made early in July. To obtain the best results use whale-oil soap at the rate of one pound to ten gallons of water, directing the spraying with the hand. Vineyards and adjacent land should be kept as free as possible from grass and weeds as they afford shelter to the insect. [104] Grape berry moth (_Polychrosis viteana_ Clem.).--The young caterpillars feed within the grapes finally causing them to turn dark colored and to wither. This injury is sometimes mistaken for the black-rot. After devouring the soft parts of one grape the caterpillar goes to another, fastening the two together by a silken thread. This may be continued until several in a bunch have been destroyed by one caterpillar. The young caterpillars are very light green in color with a brown head. When full grown they measure about one-fourth of an inch in length and are dark olive green in color tinged slightly with red. The cocoon is formed on a leaf and is partially composed of two small pieces cut out of the leaf. The adults of the spring brood emerge in from twelve to fourteen days. The fore-wings have a bluish tinge and are marked with brown, while the posterior wings are dull brown. The moths are small measuring nearly half an inch from tip to tip when the wings are spread. The eggs are probably laid late in June or early in July. There are two broods annually in this State. As the caterpillars spend most of their lives within the grape berries, spraying does not entirely control the pest. Yet the arsenicals applied for the grape-vine fidia will help much in keeping it in check. Picking and destroying the infested fruit and the leaves containing the cocoons helps much. [105] For a full account of the geology of these lakes and the valleys in which they lie, see the _Physical Geography of New York State_ by Ralph S. Tarr. New York. 1902. [106] Black-rot (_Guignardia bidwellii_ (Ell.) V. & R.) usually appears first on the leaves where it forms circular, reddish-brown spots on which black pimples, or spore cases, develop. Within these spore cases, at maturity, are the summer spores. These are distributed by the elements to the growing parts of the plant and form new centers of infection. The diseased berries show analogous circular spots bearing spores and as the disease progresses the grapes wither, turn black, and become hard and shrivelled, sometimes clinging to the vine until the following spring. Growing shoots are attacked as well as leaves and fruit. During the winter and spring the resting spores are formed, usually upon the shrivelled berries. Treatment consists of destroying as far as possible all diseased fruit, old leaves and prunings and in spraying thoroughly with bordeaux mixture as follows:-- 1. Just as the pink tips of the first leaves appear. 2. From ten days to two weeks after the first spraying. 3. Just after the blossoming. 4. From ten to fourteen days after the third spraying. 5. After an interval of from ten to fourteen days from the fourth spraying. [107] Downy mildew (_Plasmopara viticola_ (B. & C.) Berl. & De Toni) is a troublesome fungus attacking all of the tender growing parts of the grape. It does most damage to the leaves, upon the upper surface of which it produces greenish-yellow spots of irregular outline. At the same time a loose white downy growth appears on the under side of the leaves. This growth consists of short filaments bearing spores, the summer spores, which are carried by the elements to other growing parts of the plant, thus spreading the disease. Affected berries, if young, first show a brown spot, and become covered with the gray down which distinguishes the fungus. On older berries the fungus causes a brown-purple spot which spreads until it takes in the whole berry, which then becomes soft and often falls, or they may become hard and persist. At this stage the disease is commonly known as "brown rot". The winter, or resting, spores are produced in the tissue of fruit and leaves and with a thick protective covering. The winter spores are dark, almost black, in color. Downy mildew spreads and does most damage in hot wet weather. Spraying with bordeaux mixture as indicated for black-rot will keep downy mildew in check. [108] Powdery mildew (_Uncinula necator_ (Schw.) Burr.) is caused by a fungus which lives on the surface of the leaves. It subsists by means of sucker-like organs which penetrate the walls of the surface layer of cells. The vegetative portion of the parasite consists of fine white filaments which spread over the surface of the leaves, shoots and fruit. In the summer these filaments send up short, irregular stalks upon which large numbers of barrel-shaped spores are produced in chain-like arrangement. These are the summer spores of the fungus. They are borne in greatest quantity on the upper surfaces of the leaves and give the leaf a gray, powdery appearance--hence the name, powdery mildew. Affected leaves finally become light brown and often fall. Diseased fruits are gray in color, scurfy, become specked with brown, fail to develop and often burst on one side thereby showing the seeds. The winter or resting spores are borne in sacs, in the latter part of the season. The spore sacs, in their turn, are borne in small, black, spherical spore cases, each furnished with a number of slender appendages having curled tips. The powdery mildew, unlike most other fungus troubles of the grape, is most prevalent in hot dry weather. The disease is combatted by dusting with flowers of sulphur or by spraying with bordeaux mixture as for black-rot. [109] Anthracnose (_Sphaceloma ampelinum_ De By.).--This disease attacks any of the tender portions of the growing vine. When the leaves are affected dark spots are first formed on their surface. As the disease advances these spots enlarge, and irregular cracks are often formed through the dead tissue. Frequently many of these small cracks run together, forming a long irregular slit through the leaf. Similar marks are formed on the tender shoots, though they are not so noticeable. When the fruit is attacked the disease is sometimes called bird's-eye rot. Circular spots are formed on the surface of the berry. The spots may be of different colors and usually have a dark border; as the spots enlarge and eat in, a seed is often exposed in the center. In rotting the tissue becomes hard and wrinkled. Sometimes the disease girdles the stem of a fruit cluster, cutting off the supply of sap from the grapes beyond the diseased line and causing them to shrivel and die. Anthracnose does not spread as rapidly as some other vineyard diseases, neither does it yield as readily to treatment. When a vineyard is badly infested with anthracnose, it requires prompt attention and a careful treatment to control the disease. It is not satisfactorily controlled by bordeaux mixture alone. It is suggested that in addition to such treatment with this mixture as is given for black-rot the plan be followed which is advocated by certain European authorities, of applying a warm saturated solution of copperas (iron sulphate) in spring when the buds are swelling but before they begin to open. One per ct. or more of sulphuric acid may be added to the solution before it is applied. This solution must be handled with care as it is very caustic. It is applied with swabs or if the acid is not used it may be sprayed. It is essential that the work be done thoroughly, covering all the surface of the canes. [110] Chlorosis or yellow leaf.--The name is applied to a grape disease in which the foliage turns yellow, later becoming brown. It is common in several parts of the State but more particularly in the Central Lakes district. Chlorosis is more likely to appear in wet seasons. Some varieties, as the Diamond, are much more susceptible than others. In some seasons portions of the leaves may become yellow but eventually regain their normal color so that at the close of the season the vine appears to be in a healthy condition. In other instances the yellow color extends over the entire leaf; brown, dead patches appear; the leaf curls and eventually drops from the vine. If the vine loses its leaves two or three seasons in succession it is likely to die. One striking peculiarity of the disease is the fact that a badly diseased vine may appear by the side of a perfectly healthy vine of the same variety. The cause of chlorosis, as given by foreign investigators, is the presence of a large amount of lime in the soil which prevents the roots from taking up an amount of iron sufficient for satisfactory growth. Their experiments seem to show that the difficulty may be overcome by applying a small amount of sulphate of iron around affected plants. But since there are a number of good American varieties that are not subject to chlorosis, perhaps the better method to pursue is to plant only such varieties as are known to be free from this trouble. The standard varieties given in the following list are, so far as we know, practically exempt from chlorosis: Moore Early, Concord, Winchell, Delaware, Worden, Niagara, Catawba, Vergennes and Agawam. [111] Tarr, R. S., _The Physical Geography of New York State_: 4. 1902. [112] See _Story of the Vine_, E. R. Emerson: 198. 1902. [113] Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, a French botanist of considerable reputation in his day, was born at Aix, Provence, in 1656 and died in 1708. He was educated by the Jesuits for a priest but following a natural inclination he later became a botanist. In 1683 he became professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. While occupying this position he made trips through western Europe, Greece and Asia Minor. His principal work, and the one quoted here, is _Institutiones Rei Herbariae_ in three volumes, published in Paris in 1700. He was one of the most prominent systematic botanists who preceded Linnaeus. [114] Humphrey Marshall was born in the town of West Bradford, Pennsylvania, in 1722, of Quaker parents. He was a cousin of John Bartram, their mothers being sisters. Like Bartram, he had few opportunities for education, not going to school after he was twelve years of age. He was a stone-mason by trade, studying botany in his leisure moments. In 1773 he started a botanic garden at Marshallton. In 1785 he published _Arbustrum Americanum, The American Grove, or An Alphabetical Catalog of Forest Trees and Shrubs, Natives of the American United States_. This work had been in preparation about five years previous to its publication. It is said to be the first botanical work of a native American. Marshall died in 1801. [115] But little is known of the life of Thomas Walter. He was a native of Hampshire, England, and migrated to St. John's Parish, South Carolina, where he had a plantation on the Santee River. Here he died in 1788 at about the age of forty-eight years. His only publication of note is the _Flora Caroliniana_, published in the year of his death. He must have been in correspondence with European botanists of that time as his herbarium is preserved in the British Museum. [116] Grapes are not to-day considered dioecious but polygamo-dioecious, a distinction which will be defined later. [117] John Bartram was born near the village of Darby in Delaware (then Chester) County, Pennsylvania, in 1699. Bartram is generally credited with having established the first botanical garden in America. This garden was founded about 1728, some four miles south of what was the town of Philadelphia and is now a part of the Park System of that city. He was bred a Quaker but owing to his liberal opinions was excluded from that Society in 1758. During his life he was in correspondence with many of the leading scientific men of Europe to whom he sent many specimens of plants and other things of scientific interest. He made many trips into various parts of the colonies, to Ontario, Lake George, the Carolinas, Florida and Georgia, in search of information. The last of these journeys, that to the southern states, was made after he was seventy years of age. Bartram is blamed by all of his contemporaries for not having published more than he did. His death occurred in 1777. William Bartram, son of John Bartram, was born in 1739 and died in 1823. Much of his work was done in connection with his father under whom he received his botanical training. His best known work is his _Travels in the Carolinas, Georgia and Florida_ (1791), in which he gives an interesting account of that region, including descriptions of a number of new southern plants. His article on grapes which is here quoted was published in the _Domestic Encyclopedia_, 1804, and also in the _Medical Repository_ of the same year. [118] Thomas Nuttall was born in Settle in Yorkshire, England, in 1786. He migrated to the United States in 1807, making his home in Philadelphia where he became acquainted with William Bartram and Dr. Barton. It was largely owing to the influence of these men that he turned his attention to botany. Nuttall was an extensive traveler and made botanical expeditions into many parts of the country. He explored the Middle West up to the Rocky Mountains and made a trip around the Horn to California. From 1825 to 1834 he was connected with Harvard College. In 1842 he was called to England by a bequest from an uncle left to him conditional on his residing for nine months of each year in England; compliance with this request caused a cessation of his botanical work in America. He died at Nutgrove, Lancashire, in 1859. Nuttall's first and probably greatest work was his _Genera of North American Plants and Catalogue of the Species_, published in 1818. Besides various accounts of his expeditions he made an addition of three volumes to Michaux's _Sylva_ bringing that work up to six volumes. [119] Constantine Samuel Rafinesque was born in Galata, a suburb of Constantinople in European Turkey, in 1783. He was of French-German descent, his father being a French merchant of Marseilles, and his mother of Saxon parentage. In 1802 he came to Philadelphia. While here he was busied with mercantile pursuits, occupying a position as clerk, but studied botany out of office hours for amusement. In 1805 he went to Sicily where he spent the next ten years. Here he commenced the extensive series of publications which have made his name so well known to scientists. In 1815 he returned to the United States, traveling about from place to place for some time and finally settling in Lexington, Kentucky, where he became a professor in Transylvania University. He left Lexington in 1825, removing to Philadelphia, where he spent the remainder of his life, dying in poverty in 1840. Rafinesque's biographer gives 420 differently titled articles on nearly all scientific subjects as the product of his pen. His monograph on grapes, entitled _American Manual of the Grape Vine and The Art of Making Wines_, etc., was published in Philadelphia in 1830. [120] _Mo. Ent. Rpt._, =1874=:71. [121] _Bush. Cat._, =1883=:9. [122] _N. Y. Sta. An. Rpt._, =17=:518. 1898. _N. Y. Sta. Bul._ =157.= 1898. [123] _Tex. Sta. Bul._, =56=:239. 1900. [124] _Gar. and For._, =8=:47. 1895. [125] W. Brennan, Gilgandra, N. S. W. [126] André Michaux was a French botanist, born at Satory, Versailles, in 1746. He took up the study of botany and made many trips to foreign lands in behalf of the French Government. One of these was an expedition to North America where he remained from 1785 to 1796 exploring the country and gathering many botanical specimens through Canada, Nova Scotia and the United States as far west as the Mississippi. His chief works are _Histoire des chenes de l'Amerique Septentrionale (History of the Oaks of North America)_, 1801; and _Flora Boreali Americana_, 1803. He described and named _Vitis rotundifolia_, _V. aestivalis_, _V. cordifolia_, _V. riparia_, and _V. rubra_, as well as giving much information on other species. Michaux died on the Island of Madagascar in 1802. F. André Michaux was born at Versailles in 1770 and died at Vaureal in 1855. He was a son of André Michaux and also a botanist, and like his father employed by the French Government to explore North America with a view of introducing valuable plants into France. He published in =18=10-13 a _Histoire des Arbres Forestieres de l'Amerique Septentrionale_ which was later translated into English under the name _North American Sylva_. He also published _A Voyage a l-ouest des Monts Alleghanys_, 1804. [127] For discussion of _Vitis vulpina_ see foot-note under _Vitis riparia_. [128] All grapes, other than the Rotundifolia, are in the South known as "bunch grapes" because they are sold on the market in clusters, the Rotundifolia being sold off the stems. [129] _S. C. Sta. Bul._ =132. 1907.= [130] _Bush. Cat._, =1894=:22. [131] Husmann, =1895=:188. [132] Husmann, G. C., _California Fruit Grower_, Mar. 14, 1908. [133] Samuel Botsford Buckley was born in 1809, in Yates County, New York, and was educated at Wesleyan University, where he graduated in 1836. In 1866 he was appointed State Geologist of Texas where he resided until he died in 1884. Buckley traveled extensively in connection with his work, explored the southwestern region of the Appalachian Mountains, as well as the southwestern portion of the United States. He was at great disadvantage in his publications in that they were prepared without the benefit of a library. His articles on grapes were published in the _Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences_ for 1861, and in the _United States Patent Office Report_ for the same year. [134] The description of _Vitis vulpina_ by Linnaeus is so meager, including the leaves only, that for many years botanists were in doubt as to the species intended. Muhlenberg was the single exception when he gave Linnaeus' Vulpina and Michaux's Cordifolia as synonymous. Whether he did this from knowledge, or whether it was by chance, it is impossible to say. He states no reasons and consequently received no following among other botanists. Elliott supposed that Linnaeus intended to describe the southern Rotundifolia and this view seems to have been generally accepted. In the late eighties or early nineties, Planchon first, and later Britton, by referring to Linnaeus' specimens, determined that the latter's Vulpina was the same as Riparia, and in accordance with botanical rules, presented the name Vulpina as the correct name for this species. Bailey, however, states (_Ev. Nat. Fr._, =1898=:102) that he found two specimens in the Linnaeus collection labeled Vulpina, one of which was the true Riparia and the other Cordifolia. Since a change of the name would bring confusion to more than ninety years of botanical and horticultural literature, it seems inadvisable to make one on such contradictory evidence. [135] Planchon is our authority for calling this Riparia. [136] Translation from the Latin. [137] Isadore Bush was born at Prague, Bohemia, in 1822. Bush was one of those Germans who, taking part in the troubles of the Fatherland in 1848, found it necessary to seek a home in the New World. He went to Missouri upon his arrival in the country and there spent the remainder of his life. During the Civil War he was secretary to General Frémont and at various times occupied many other positions of trust. He established the Bushberg nursery which for many years was the leading grape nursery of this country. With the aid of Engelmann and others he wrote the _Bushberg Catalogue and Grape Manual_, a work which has passed through many editions and has probably been more popular and useful than any other book on American grapes published in the English language. Bush died in St. Louis in 1898, having been a citizen of that place for forty-nine years. [138] Thomas Volney Munson, the well-known nurseryman, viticulturist, and plant-breeder, was born near Astoria, Illinois, September 26, 1843. He graduated from Kentucky University, Lexington, Kentucky, in 1870. His nursery has for thirty-one years been located at Denison, Texas. Munson has introduced more hybrid grapes than any other man in America and probably in the world. He has paid great attention to grape botany, particularly to the southwestern species. Monographs on grapes, from his hand, have appeared in the proceedings of various horticultural societies and in horticultural journals. Bulletins written by him have been issued by the United States Department of Agriculture and the Texas Experiment Station. He has at present a book ready for publication entitled _Foundations of American Grape Culture_. The varieties produced by Munson are particularly successful in the Southwest where conditions are such that most of our northern varieties fail. The most valuable of those that have been thoroughly tested are Brilliant, America, Carman, Gold Coin and Rommel. [139] See page 21. [140] Jules Emile Planchon, a French systematic and horticultural botanist, was born in Ganges (Herault) in 1823, and died at Montpellier in 1888. Planchon was a writer of many valuable monographs on botanical subjects and in combination with F. Sahut and J. Bazille discovered that the cause of a mysterious and serious malady which had been affecting the French vineyards for some years, was due to an insect on the roots, the phylloxera. Later, he and C. V. Riley determined that this insect was a native of America. Planchon was one of the first to suggest, and always urged, the reconstitution of French vineyards by the use of American stocks. During the later years of his life he was professor of botany in the School at Montpellier. His most noted contribution to grape literature is his monograph of the grape vine and other plants of the Ampelopsis family which appeared as the second half of the fifth volume of the continuation of De Candolle's _Prodromus Systematis Naturalis_. [141] Martin Vahl, a Norwegian, was born in 1749, and died in 1804. As a pupil of the great Linnaeus, Vahl became a prominent worker in botany and natural history in Denmark and was an author and writer of note on these subjects, publishing much on botany. He traveled extensively, but it does not appear that he visited North America, though he wrote three large volumes on the flora of tropical America. It is probable that he named and described _Vitis palmata_ from herbarium specimens. [142] Jean Louis Berlandier was a Belgian pupil of the great De Candolle, but left Europe about 1828 for America and became a druggist in Matamoras, Mexico. He was one of the first botanists to explore northern Mexico and Texas. In attempting to cross one of the small streams south of the Rio Grande in 1851, he was drowned. Many of his papers, plants and some paintings are preserved in the herbarium of Harvard University and his services to botany are commemorated by the genus Berlandiera, dedicated to him by De Candolle, and the species _Vitis berlandieri_ here described. [143] George Engelmann was born at Frankfurt-on-the-Main in 1809. He was educated at the Universities of Heidelberg, Berlin and Wurzburg, receiving a doctor's degree in medicine from the latter institution. In 1832 Dr. Engelmann sailed for America and spent some months in exploring the forests of the Mississippi Valley studying the plants of the region, having become deeply absorbed in botany. He soon after began the practice of medicine in St. Louis where he spent the remainder of his life, dying in 1884. Engelmann was one of the most patient and devoted students of natural history of his time. He mastered several difficult genera of plants, doing his work so well that his monographs will long remain, not only authorities on the plants described, but models for the systematic botanist. Among the genera to which he devoted his time was Vitis, upon which he published several monographs. These appeared in various publications, particularly the _Proceedings of the Academy of Science of St. Louis_ in 1860, the _American Naturalist_ for 1868, Riley's reports as entomologist of Missouri for 1872 and 1874, and the third and all later editions of the _Bushberg Catalogue_. [144] George Bentham was born near Plymouth, England, in 1800. His father was a man of considerable wealth and the son was privately educated. Early in life he showed an inclination toward botany, writing a book on _The Plants of the Pyrenees and Lower Languedoc_ which was published when he was only twenty-six years old. For a time he studied law in which he showed considerable talent and where his original views attracted some attention. Later, however, he gave his attention to botany almost exclusively, joined the London Horticultural Society and the Linnaean Society, and was more or less closely connected with the workers at Kew. In connection with J. D. Hooker he wrote the _Genera Plantarum_. Others of his well-known works are _Flora Australiensis_ and _Handbook of the British Flora_. Bentham died in 1884. [145] This name has been spelled "Lincecumii" and "Linsecomii." Buckley tells us (_U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._, =1861=:486) that this grape was named in honor of "Dr. Gideon Linsecom" of Long Point, Washington County, Texas. Engelmann changed the spelling to Lincecum without giving any reason for the change. Munson states that a daughter of Dr. Lincecum says that her father always spelled his name Lincecum. It is inconceivable that Buckley did not know how to spell his friend's name. There is other corroborative evidence that Buckley was either a poor penman, or did not read proof, or both. In his Latin description of this species nearly every other word is misspelled, and the mistakes are those of a printer rather than of one whose Latin is weak, such as "totis" for "lobis," etc. Munson says that on the different herbarium specimens of this species collected by Buckley, the name is spelled both ways but he is not able to tell which are in Buckley's hand. As the original error seems to be one by the printer or amanuensis it does not seem desirable to perpetuate it. We have consequently adopted the spelling of Engelmann and Munson. [146] Liberty Hyde Bailey was born in 1858 in South Haven, Michigan. He graduated from the Michigan Agricultural College in 1882 and then studied botany for two years with Asa Gray at Harvard University. He became professor of horticulture at his Alma Mater in 1885 and resigned in 1888 to accept the Chair of Horticulture in Cornell University, a position which he filled until 1904 when he became Director of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station and Dean of the New York State College of Agriculture. In 1907 he was given the degree of Doctor of Laws by the University of Wisconsin. Dr. Bailey is known as a teacher and experimenter but is better known for his horticultural and botanical writings. He has published many popular books on agricultural subjects. The best known of these are: _The Nursery Book_; _The Rule Book_; _Principles of Vegetable Gardening_; _Garden Making_; _The Pruning Book_; _The Survival of the Unlike_; _The Evolution of Our Native Fruits_. Besides these popular, or semi-popular works he has published two cyclopedias: _The Cyclopedia of American Horticulture_ and _The Cyclopedia of American Agriculture_. Dr. Bailey's position in American horticultural literature is unique in that he represents the botanical side of horticulture. He has written monographs on several of our cultivated fruits, notably grapes and plums, both appearing in _The Evolution of Our Native Fruits_. [147] _Am. Gard._, =12=:584. 1891. [148] John Eaton Le Conte was born near Shrewsbury, New Jersey, in 1784 and died at Philadelphia in 1860. In 1817 he entered the army as a topographical engineer, and in 1831 was retired with the grade of major. Le Conte early became interested in natural history and his military expeditions gave him ample opportunity for studying the flora and fauna of eastern America. He published a number of important botanical papers, one of which was _The Vines of North America_ published in 1854-55. His contributions to the genus Vitis will be found under that head. [149] Augustin Pyramus De Candolle was born at Geneva, Switzerland, 1778, and died at Turin, Italy, in 1841. He came of an ancient French family which had been driven out of Provence in the middle of the sixteenth century owing to their religion. He began his scientific studies at the College of Geneva, but later removed to Paris where he attended courses of lectures on natural science under the greatest scientists of that day. His best known works are: _Historia plantarum Succulentarum_; _Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum_; and _Prodromus Systematis regni vegetabilis_ (1824-), this last being only about two-thirds completed at the time of his death. Alphonse Louis Pierre Pyrame De Candolle was born in Paris, France, in 1806. Like his father, whose life is sketched above, he became a noted botanist. His most important works have been translated into English and are as follows: _Geographical Botany_, 1855; _Origin of Cultivated Plants_, 1883; and the _Memoirs_ of his father, 1862. He died in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1893. [150] The name Labrusca is an old one originally applied to a grape growing wild in Italy. Engelmann states that this grape is still known to the Italians by the name Brusca. It was probably applied to the American species by Linnaeus under the mistaken supposition that our northern Fox grape was the same as the wild Italian species. [151] Carl von Linne, better known in the Latin form of Carolus Linnaeus, was born in 1707 at Rashult in the province of Smäland, Sweden. His father, a minister, endeavored to educate his son to follow the same profession. In this he failed, as Linnaeus from his earliest years took no interest in the classical studies then taught. His father was finally induced to educate young Linnaeus as a physician. Linnaeus was the greatest systematist in the history of botany. His general system, though much modified, is still in use. Although he named many species of plants, it was not as a traveler and explorer but as a recipient of the results of travels of others that the specimens were secured from which the descriptions were made. Linnaeus died at Upsala, Sweden, in 1778. His herbarium after his death was sold and finally became the property of the Linnaean Society of London, where the specimens are frequently used by botanists from various parts of the world for purposes of comparison. [152] Husmann, =1895=:189. [153] _Grape Cult._, =1=:4. 1869. [154] _U. S. D. A. Rpt._, =1862=:198. [155] _Gar. and For._, =2=:584. 1889. [156] Numbers in parentheses designate authors or publications cited in the list of references. [157] Adlum, John. _Cultivation of the Vine_: 149. 1828. [158] Downing, =1872=:119 app. [159] _Traité gen. de vit._, =5=:201. 1903. [160] _Bush. Cat._, =1883=:71. [161] _Bush. Cat._, =1894=:89. [162] Dr. A. P. Wylie was a southern hybridizer. His life was one of exceptionally varied usefulness. Besides being a physician he worked with many different plants, producing new varieties of cotton, peach, nectarine, magnolia and other species. His hybrids were produced chiefly during the sixties and early seventies. His method of testing hybrid grapes was unique; as soon as the fruit from the cross-fertilized blossoms ripened, the seeds were planted and the seedlings forced the first winter in a hothouse. In the spring it was planted by the side of a mature vine outside and the seedling grafted by inarching on the established vine. In this manner, his son writes us, he frequently secured fruit the second summer. In 1873 he suffered the irreparable misfortune of losing his residence by fire. This destroyed all of his seeds and also his seedlings, which were in an adjacent hothouse. The number of Dr. Wylie's grape seedlings cannot be accurately told as many of them were never disseminated. Of his better known sorts there are Berckmans, Dr. Wylie, Mrs. McClure, and Peter Wylie, the best known of which is the first. Dr. Wylie was the first man to hybridize the _Vitis rotundifolia_ with other species of grapes. Unfortunately these hybrids appear to have been lost to cultivation. He died at his home in Chester, South Carolina, in 1877. [163] _Tex. Sta. Bul._, =48=:1153. 1898. [164] _Mag. Hort._, =1863=:67. [165] Fuller, =1867=:237. [166] _Bush. Cat._, =1883=:75. [167] Downing, =1869=:532. [168] Jacob Moore was born in Brighton, New York, in 1835. He early engaged in the nursery business and about 1860 began to experiment in hybridizing grapes, his first production of note being Diana Hamburg which proved too tender to be of value in New York. In 1873 he sold the Brighton to its introducer, the grape having come from a union of Diana Hamburg and Concord. In 1882 Moore's third grape of note, the Diamond, was introduced, its parents being Concord, fertilized by Iona. One other grape completes his list of varieties of this fruit--the Geneva, a Vinifera-Labrusca hybrid from seed planted in the spring of 1874. Beside these grapes, Moore was the originator of the Ruby, Red Cross and Diploma currants and the Bar-seckel pear. Jacob Moore died in January, 1908, having devoted a life to the improvement of fruits and having spent a patrimony of no small amount and all of his earnings in carrying on experiments in horticulture. It saddens one to know that after having devoted a half century to the enrichment of agriculture, poor Moore should have passed his last years in comparative poverty, and that they were embittered with the thought that, unlike the inventor, the producer of new fruits can in no way protect the products of his originality, even though they added millions to the wealth of the country as have his fruits. [169] Advertising circular sent out by Wm. B. Brown in 1899. [170] George W. Campbell was born in Cortlandville, New York, in 1817. The family moved to Ohio in 1821. In early life Campbell was a printer and editor, as his father had been before him. In 1849 he moved from Sandusky, Ohio, to Delaware in the same State and it was in the latter place that his attention was first turned to horticulture as a livelihood, although he had been interested in it as an amateur much earlier. He was a continuous member of the American Pomological Society from the time of its organization in 1850 until his death. He raised thousands of seedling grapes, of which the following were given names: Campbell Early, Concord Chasselas, Concord Muscat, Juno, Lady, Purity, Triumph, White Delaware. All of these are practically obsolete in the North except Campbell Early and Lady. Campbell died at his home in Delaware, Ohio, in 1898. For many years before his death he had been the leading writer and speaker in the North on the culture of the grape and on grape-breeding, and his work had a marked influence on the improvement of viticulture. [171] Charles Arnold was born in Bedfordshire, England, in 1818. In 1833 he removed to Paris, Ontario. He was an enthusiastic hybridizer in many lines, producing a white wheat, the Ontario apple, and the American Wonder pea. In 1853 he established the Paris Nurseries. Of his numerous seedling grapes he gave names to Autuchon, Brant, Canada, Cornucopia and Othello. He was for many years prominent in the agricultural and scientific associations of his adopted country. His object in crossing grapes was to secure varieties sufficiently hardy and early for the Canadian climate. In this he was in a measure successful but his crosses are so susceptible to mildew and rot that their culture has been generally abandoned in both Canada and the United States. He died at his home in Paris, Canada, in 1883. [172] _Cat._, =1908=:18. [173] Ephraim W. Bull was born in Concord, Massachusetts, in 1805 and died in 1895. He will long be remembered by grape-growers as the originator and introducer of the Concord grape, the history of which is given in the above account of that variety. Bull grew many other seedlings, none of which attained a reputation among growers unless it be Cottage. Ephraim Bull's ninety years were spent in the quiet of his Concord home and he would have remained unknown by others than his neighbors, who honored and loved him, had it not been for his fortunate discovery of the Concord grape, which must always give him a place in the history of American grape culture. The grape which has added immensely to the wealth of a nation, brought its originator scarcely a year's competence. As a partial recompense for his great service to horticulture and to the nation, the memory of Ephraim W. Bull should live long. [174] No one family has furnished so many members who have been prominent in American grape-growing as the Underhills. The first of this remarkable family, Robert Underhill, was born in Yorktown, Westchester County, New York, in 1761. During his early life he appears to have been engaged in various enterprises. At one time he was part owner and conductor of a flouring mill at the head of navigation on the Croton River; later he sold his interest in this business and in 1804 removed to Croton Point, which he had previously bought. Here, during the War of 1812, the supply of watermelons from the South being cut off, he planted eighty acres of melons, and it is said that as many as six vessels were lying off Croton Point at one time waiting for the melons to mature. Among other of his ventures was the growing of castor beans, and toward the end of his life he became interested in viticulture. An account of his operations cultivating grapes is given in the first part of this work. Robert Underhill died at Croton Point in 1829. After his death his two sons, William Alexander Underhill and Robert T. Underhill, bought from their father's estate the two hundred and fifty acres comprising Croton Point. Their holdings were not in common, William A. Underhill having about one hundred and sixty-five acres and his brother the balance. R. T. Underhill was born on the Croton River in 1802 and died in 1871 at Croton Point. William A. Underhill was born at the same place as his brother in 1804, and died suddenly while on a trip to New York City in 1873. The first three Underhills were pioneer vineyardists in this State, and were men of great enterprise and initiative, contributing much to American viticulture by precept and example; but none of them was an originator of new varieties. Stephen W. Underhill, son of William A. Underhill, was born at Croton Point in 1837. In his boyhood he became familiar with the grape-growing operations of his father and uncle, and about 1860 became interested in hybridizing as a means of originating new varieties. Most of his work was done between 1860 and 1870. He originated Black Defiance, Black Eagle, Croton, Irving, Senasqua and many other named and unnamed sorts. Of his varieties it may be said that they generally show too many Vinifera weaknesses for profitable commercial sorts. S. W. Underhill is still living at Croton-on-Hudson, a short distance from Croton Point, the scene of the labors of three generations of the Underhill family. Since the death of his father, in 1873, he has devoted himself almost exclusively to brick-making, an occupation in which his father had been interested. [175] _Bush. Cat._, =1883=:89. [176] _Traité gen. de vit._, =6=:278. 1903. [177] _Ib._, p. 279. [178] The grape vine in the vineyard is not ornamental, but only because its beauty is marred by the formal shapes in which it must be trained to meet the purposes of the cultivator. But as a festoon for an arbor, or for hiding a neglected building, for the porch of the farmhouse, or for any place where a bold or picturesque effect is wanted, or for giving an expression of strength, no vine surpasses some of the varieties of our native grapes. Properly planted they are not only beautiful in themselves but attractive through their suggestiveness. To sit under one's own vine and fig tree is the ancient idea of a life of peace, contentment and security; and this association with the patriarchal use of the vine is one of the charms of the grape. [179] Often incorrectly spelled Devereux. [180] _Horticulturist_, =12=:458. 1857. [181] _Gar. Mon._, =2=:265. 1860. [182] _Bush. Cat._, =1894=:116. [183] After the above was in type we received a communication from Ricketts stating that Downing came from seed of Concord fertilized by Muscat Hamburg. If this is true it is difficult to account for the apparent Aestivalis characters. [184] This variety was named after Dutchess County, New York, and the spelling is as given in this text and not "Duchess" as usually spelled. [185] Andrew Jackson Caywood was born near Modena, Ulster County, New York, in 1819. During his early life he was a mason and contractor and engaged in building operations in Orange and Ulster counties. When about twenty-five years of age he became interested in fruit culture and was soon one of the leading fruit-growers in his section. Caywood's grape-breeding work appears to have started about 1850, while he still lived at Modena. In 1861 he removed to Poughkeepsie, and about 1865, what was probably his first grape, the Walter, was brought to the attention of the public. In 1877 he removed to Marlboro, where for many years he conducted a nursery business in connection with fruit raising, first under the firm name of Ferries & Caywood, and later as Caywood & Son, his son Walter having entered the business. Caywood's last years were clouded with financial troubles and failing health. In 1889 he died at his home in Marlboro. No record is available of Caywood's productions nor his manner of work. He appears to have differed from the grape-breeders of his day in that he produced second rather than first generation hybrids. Of these his most important productions are: Dutchess, Metternich, Nectar, Poughkeepsie, Ulster and Walter, though he raised many others, most of which were never named nor disseminated. Caywood's years of unremitting labor in improving grapes will long make his name prominent in American viticulture. [186] John Burr was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut, in 1800. In early life he removed to Ohio, where, although he was engaged in mercantile pursuits, he passed his leisure time in experimenting with strawberries. In this work he was quite successful, producing Burr's Pine and Burr's Seedling, once popular sorts. In 1858 Burr moved to Kansas and soon after began breeding grapes. For this work he was a believer in natural pollination and planted the varieties which he desired to use as parents in close proximity that they might pollinate each other. Burr at first used Concord, Hartford, Isabella, and other grapes of this class as parents, but later he destroyed all of the seedlings of these and used Delaware, Goethe, Salem, Catawba, and other Vinifera hybrids. He did not take trouble to note from which variety the seed came but mixed and planted all together. The records of the parentage of his productions are consequently usually unsatisfactory. Most of his grape productions were introduced to the public by Stayman & Black, a nearby nursery firm. Of Burr's many seedlings he gave names to the following: Cochee, Early Victor, Eclipse, Evaline, Ideal, Iola, Jewel, Magnate, Matchless, Mendota, Omega, Osage, Osee, Paragon, Peola, Primate, Pulasky, Seneca, Superior, Standard, Supreme, and White Jewel. Burr died at his home in Leavenworth, Kansas, in 1892. [187] _Traité gen. de vit._, =6=:192. 1903. [188] _Cat._, =1907-8=:18. [189] This variety was named Glenfeld by Mr. Magee, its originator, not Glenfield as it is frequently spelled. [190] _Tex. Sta. Bul._, =56=:267. 1900. [191] Munson regards them as identical. [192] Dr. C. W. Grant was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1810. Early in life he became a Doctor of Medicine but soon became dissatisfied with that profession as it was then practiced, and entered dentistry. He settled in Newburgh, New York, where he built up a very large dental practice. Dr. Grant was an enthusiastic amateur horticulturist and numbered among his friends such men of national note as A. J. and Charles Downing, Horace Greeley, Henry Ward Beecher, W. C. Bryant, Donald G. Mitchell and others like these who were interested in rural pursuits. He bought Iona Island in the Hudson River and planted thereon a commercial vineyard. On the death of his wife in 1856 he gave up his dental practice and took up his residence on Iona Island. Here for twelve years he grew grapes and conducted a grape nursery. Unfortunately Dr. Grant's business experience was not such as to enable him to make a success of a commercial nursery. In 1868 he retired from active pursuits and returned to his old home at Litchfield, where he died in 1881. Dr. Grant's chief interest to grape-growers lies in the fact that he was the originator of Iona and Israella and the introducer of Anna and Eumelan. He was one of the first and a most ardent grape-breeder, working especially toward improving the quality of commercial varieties of grapes. [193] On account of criticisms of the justice of the award, Grant returned the prize to be competed for a second time. At the second trial it went to Concord on vine characters. [194] _Sou. Agr._, =2=:552. 1829. [195] In 1889 Munson sent out a grape under the name Jaeger and in 1890 he introduced the variety here described under the name Hermann Jaeger, at the same time withdrawing the former variety from further dissemination. As the first named Jaeger is apparently obsolete there seems to be no objection to shortening the name so as to conform in nomenclature with the recommendations of the American Pomological Society. [196] James H. Ricketts was born in Oldbridge, Middlesex County, Massachusetts, in 1830, the family moving to Indiana while Ricketts was still a child. When a young man Ricketts learned the trade of bookbinding in Cincinnati and later practiced this art in New York City. In 1857 he established a bookbinding business at Newburgh, New York; here he became interested in raising fruit, devoting to it such time as could be be spared from his business. In 1861 he started his work in grape improvement, reading all the books then published on this subject in order to prepare himself to carry on the work intelligently. His first production was Raritan which he says he thought not much improvement. In 1862, he built a glass house in order that he might have Vinifera vines for crossing with natives outside. His first production of foreign cross-breeds was the Charles Downing, now known as Downing. Ricketts produced many hundred seedlings, and for ten or twelve years exhibited them at various fairs, horticultural society meetings and other places, where their magnificent appearance and fine flavor attracted universal and favorable attention and made him the recipient of many medals and prizes. Unfortunately Ricketts, like many other American grape-breeders, fell into financial difficulties, and in 1877 lost his vineyard and home by foreclosure. In 1888, he moved to Washington, D. C., to work at his trade but has again started to improve grapes and is now growing a number of new varieties which will probably be shown to the public in the near future. [Illustration: JEFFERSON] Ricketts' seedlings are characterized by a large size of bunch and berry, and by high quality. Unfortunately it has been the experience of growers in nearly all grape regions that the vine characters of his varieties are not equal to those of the fruit, the vines being subject to mildew and other Vinifera weaknesses. However, Ricketts produced magnificent specimens of his grapes, year after year, under conditions which every one admits were less favorable than those of the average grape-grower. The secret of his success seems never to have been discovered. This anomaly is so striking that Campbell did not hesitate to suggest that the fault was with the American grape-grower rather than with Ricketts' grapes or the location of the vineyard. The best known of his varieties are: Advance, Bacchus, Don Juan, Downing, Eldorado, Empire State, Highland, Jefferson, Lady Washington and Secretary. Besides these he produced many others, some of which were named but many of which were known only under numbers. [197] _Amer. Farmer_, =11=:237, 412. 1829-30. [198] The illustrations in _The Grapes of New York_, unless otherwise mentioned, are life-size; but it must be remembered that when objects having three dimensions are reproduced on a flat surface there is seemingly a considerable reduction in size. Allowance should be made for this illusion in comparing fruit with illustration. [199] _Bush. Cat._, =1883=:120. [200] Downing, =1857=:341. [201] Pronounced Reezling. [202] Jacob Rommel was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1837. The family moved to Hermann, Missouri, in 1838 where his father, Jacob Rommel, Sr., engaged in the nursery business and became interested in grape-growing and wine-making. In 1860 the younger Rommel removed to Morrison where he entered into partnership with H. Sobbe to grow nursery stock and cultivate grapes. At this time much dissatisfaction was felt among the grape-growers of the Middle West with the standard varieties then grown, most of which were table grapes secured from the East, and were poorly adapted to wine-making and to Missouri conditions. To remedy this defect Rommel originated many new varieties, using Taylor chiefly as a parent. Among others he produced Amber, Beauty, Black Delaware, Elvira, Etta, Faith, Montefiore, Pearl, Transparent and Wilding. Rommel's seedlings are characterized by extreme vigor and productiveness. They were not designed for table grapes and they lack the qualities to recommend them as such. In 1900 Rommel retired from business and removed to Chamois, Missouri, where he still lives. [203] Nelson Bonney White was born in the town of Putney, Windham County, Vermont, in 1824. During his younger years he lived for a time in Ohio and in New York but finally settled in Norwood, Massachusetts. White was a cabinet maker by trade, but coming under the influence of E. S. Rogers at the time when Rogers' hybrids were causing a stir in New England, he took up grape-breeding as a pastime. He is probably the oldest grape-breeder of note now alive, as he has been engaged in this occupation over fifty years. His best known productions are August Giant, Amber Queen, and Norfolk. Two other of his varieties, International and King Philip, are very highly spoken of but have not yet been distributed. [204] _Horticulturist_, =16=:286. 1861. [205] _Mag. Hort._, =9=:430. 1843. [206] _Traité gen. de vit._, =6=:166. 1903. [207] _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._, =1855=:308. [208] A. J. Caywood, of Marlboro, New York, published the claim that this variety was originated by him, that he had named it Hudson but had delayed sending it out on the advice of several grape experts till it had been further tested. For this purpose Caywood says he sent the variety to about sixty men, among them J. W. Prentiss. Those who examined fruit from the two original vines said they were certainly very similar if not identical. [209] Edward Staniford Rogers was born in the old family mansion on Essex Street, Salem, Massachusetts, June 28, 1826, and died in Peabody, Massachusetts, March 29, 1899. He was the son of Nathaniel Leverett Rogers, an old-time Salem merchant, who, with his brothers John and Richard, was engaged in the maritime trade. Edward Rogers was educated in Master Ira Cheever's school, a famous Salem school of the day, and, later, he made several voyages in his father's ships as clerk and supercargo and, finally, passed a number of years in the counting-room of the firm in Salem. After his father's death, Mr. Rogers lived in the old family home with his brother and their mother, and in the garden back of the house, quite large for a city lot, he indulged his natural taste for horticulture and conducted his experiments in grape hybridization. By temperament Mr. Rogers was quiet and retiring and so generous that he gained practically no profit from his horticultural productions, for he freely gave cuttings and rooted plants of the hybrids he raised to friends and visitors before his own stock was by any means large. Mr. Rogers possessed literary ability and was an extensive reader, but could rarely be drawn into conversation excepting among his most intimate friends who were wont to "drop in" at his long, low greenhouse in the garden or at his office, extemporized in the old colonial barn at the rear of the house. After the death of his mother the old house was sold and the brothers removed to another house in Salem and some years later, after the death of his brother, Mr. Rogers bought the place, his last home, in Peabody, Massachusetts, where he cultivated trees and flowers for pleasure and experiment. An accident which resulted in a permanent lameness prevented much physical labor during his last years and probably in a measure hastened his death. [210] In the eastern portion of the Southern States, the section where this variety originated and where it is still most largely grown, Scuppernong is applied only to a white variety of _Vitis rotundifolia_. Unfortunately in many portions of the South and in the North, the word Scuppernong is apparently taken as meaning a grape of the southern Fox or Rotundifolia class; thus we find some writers using such contradictory expressions as White Scuppernong, Green Scuppernong, and Black Scuppernong. In the South, at least, this use of the term appears to have arisen in the last fifty years, usage previous to that time being practically unanimous in recognizing that the Scuppernong was the white Rotundifolia which had been selected at an early day for cultivation on account of certain superior cultural characters distinguishing it from the rest of the species. [211] _Amer. Farmer_, =3=:332. 1822. [212] _S. C. Sta. Bul._, =132=:17, 18. 1907. [213] Dr. Joseph Stayman was born in Cumberland County, Pennsylvania, in 1817. The family was of German descent and had long been identified with the Mennonites of the region of his birthplace. Stayman's father was a farmer and miller and during early life the son was engaged in these occupations. In 1839 he accompanied his parents to Ohio, where he was engaged in the milling business with his father for a time and later entered the lecture field and studied medicine. In 1849 he married and established his home in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, removing two years later to Abingdon, Illinois. For several years he practiced medicine but in 1858 purchased a nursery which was the beginning of his connection with the fruit business. In 1860 he removed to Leavenworth, Kansas, where he lived the remainder of his life, dying at his home in that city in 1903. Dr. Stayman was a man of great originality and had varied interests. In plant-breeding he worked with strawberries, apples, raspberries and grapes, producing among others the Clyde strawberry, the Stayman apple and a host of varieties of grapes. Of his named sorts of grapes there are: Black Imperial, Cherokee, Concordia, Daisy, Darwin, Exquisite, Marsala, Mary Mark, Mrs. Stayman, Osceola, Oscaloosa, Oswego, Ozark, Pawnee, Perfection, Prolific, Snowflake, White Beauty, White Cloud and White Imperial. Stayman and John Burr were neighbors and friends, and held similar opinions as to the best methods of procedure in originating new varieties. Neither believed in artificial pollination but grew the several varieties from which crosses were desired in close proximity and then planted seed from the best developed fruits. Their methods certainly gave them varieties with a high standard of excellence. Stayman may be regarded as one of the leading viticulturists of the Great Plains region. He was, too, one of the pioneers of America in breeding fruits. His many contributions to our lists of fruits make his name memorable to fruit-growers and lovers of fine fruits. * * * * * Typographical errors corrected by the etext transcriber: suspectible=> susceptible {pg 136} while the the chalaza=> while the chalaza {pg 119} suceptible=> sucseptible {pg 228} Must 888=> Must 88° {pg 261} Must 808=> Must 80° {pg 314} 1889 and it still retained=> 1889 and is still retained {pg 329} possiby=> possibly {pg 346} apperance=> appearance {pg 469} goverment=> government {pg 521} Munson' scrosses=> Munson's crosses {pg 493} enlongated=> elongated {pg 500} Brillant, 193=> Brilliant, 193 {pg 540 index} selfsterility of, 104;=> self-sterility of, 104; {pg 546 index} means of dstribution of, 27;=> means of distribution of, 27; {pg 553} 
46052	----	HARPER'S A-B-C SERIES A-B-C OF VEGETABLE GARDENING. By EBEN E. REXFORD A-B-C OF CORRECT SPEECH. By FLORENCE HOWE HALL A-B-C OF ARCHITECTURE. By FRANK E. WALLIS A-B-C OF HOUSEKEEPING. By CHRISTINE TERHUNE HERRICK A-B-C OF ELECTRICITY. By WILLIAM H. MEADOWCROFT A-B-C OF GARDENING. By EBEN E. REXFORD A-B-C OF GOOD FORM. By ANNE SEYMOUR 16mo, Cloth HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK A-B-C OF VEGETABLE GARDENING BY EBEN E. REXFORD HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS NEW YORK & LONDON A-B-C OF VEGETABLE GARDENING Copyright, 1916, by Harper & Brothers Printed in the United States of America Published February, 1916 CONTENTS CHAP. PAGE FOREWORD 1 I. GETTING THE GARDEN READY 8 II. LAYING OUT THE GARDEN 13 III. PLANTING THE GARDEN 17 IV. SEEDS THAT GIVE BEST RESULTS 20 V. EARLY GARDEN WORK 23 VI. VEGETABLE PLANTS IN THE HOUSE 27 VII. STANDARD VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES 33 VIII. SMALL FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE 56 IX. HOTBEDS AND COLD-FRAMES 68 X. SMALL GARDENS 76 XI. LEFT-OVERS 81 XII. HEALTH IN THE GARDEN. A CHAPTER EXPRESSLY FOR WOMEN READERS 111 A-B-C OF VEGETABLE GARDENING A-B-C OF VEGETABLE GARDENING FOREWORD Not everybody has a garden. Some deny themselves the pleasure and the profit of one because they have never had any experience in gardening, and have somehow got the impression that special training is necessary to make a success of the undertaking. Here is where they make a mistake. There is no special "knack" about it. Any one who owns a bit of land, and has some time that can be given to garden-work, and an inclination to do so, can make a gardener of himself in a season--and a successful one, too--if he allows himself to be governed by the advice of some one who has had some experience along this line. After the first season he will not be likely to ask or need advice, for the practical knowledge which comes with one season's work among vegetables will not only be sufficient to enable him to go on with his gardening operations on his own responsibility, but it will have made him so enthusiastic over them that he will be eager to enlarge his knowledge of "the green things growing," and in doing this he will find a pleasure that will make him wonder how he ever came to consider gardening something to dread. Others, who have but a small piece of land, may think it not worth while to attempt to grow vegetables on it. They labor under the impression that a garden, in order to prove a success, requires more land than is at their disposal. Here is where _they_ make a mistake. Of course one cannot grow a large quantity of vegetables on a small piece of ground, but the one who undertakes to make the most of a small piece will be surprised at the amount that can be grown on it. In a garden that is not more than twenty-five feet square a friend of mine grows all the summer vegetables required by his family of four persons. This calls for what the scientific people call "intensive gardening," and makes it necessary to plant and plan for a succession of vegetables; but that twenty-five feet square of ground enables him to get a good share of the summer living of his family. Another notion is, that in order to have a good garden a large amount of time and labor must be expended on it. Not so. A very small amount of systematized labor will be demanded by even a good-sized garden, if it is planned in such a manner that labor-saving tools can be used in its cultivation. If we look back to the gardening days of fifty or even twenty-five years ago, when everything was done at the hardest and the hand had to do a good share of the work that we now do with helpful implements, it is not to be wondered at that the old-time care of a garden discourages many from undertaking to have one. Happily those days are over, and with the gardening facilities of the present it is an easy matter to accomplish more in an hour than could be done then in a day. There is really no drudgery in gardening as it is done to-day. On the contrary, there is positive pleasure in the operation of the machinery which inventive genius has furnished for the up-to-date gardener's use. Those who have never had a garden of their own, but have bought vegetables in the ordinary market, are not in a position to understand the wide difference between the article we buy and the one which is taken directly from the ground and eaten at once. While it is possible to keep most vegetables looking fresh for a considerable time by the use of water and ice, it is not possible to make them retain that delicacy of flavor known only to those whose vegetables go straight from the garden to the kitchen. If you want any vegetable _at its best_ you must grow it in your own garden. The general impression seems to be that gardening is essentially man's work, and that women and children are not equal to it. This is another mistake that will rapidly be done away with, for the woman of to-day is no longer a housed-up woman. She is rapidly learning the value of fresh air, and the tonic of outdoor life is fast taking the place of the doctor's prescriptions. The writer knows of many women who have found work in the garden not only a healthful occupation, but one so delightful that they look forward to spring with most pleasurable anticipations, and long for the time to come when they can get to work out of doors. When we have tried both we learn that work in the vegetable-garden is no harder than that in the flower-garden, and that neither demands more strength or time than the average woman is able to give it if she makes use of labor-saving tools. What is true of the woman is equally true of the children. A child ten years of age can do a good deal of the work that a good-sized garden calls for. I would not be understood as advocating the giving up of garden-work to women and children. I would not deny man the pleasure of sharing in it. But I would urge the importance of interesting women and children in it, and of encouraging them to take part in it from the viewpoint of health. Benefit in other respects will become so apparent, after a little, that further encouragement will not be necessary. Most women who have some leisure--especially if they are of the housewife class--will be so pleased with the results of gardening that they will be glad to supplement the labors of the man of the family by what they can accomplish in it, if he is employed in work that will not allow him to devote much time to the garden. And they will find that the boys of the family--and the girls as well--can be made to take an active part in the good work with but little encouragement from their elders. It is natural for both boys and girls to dig in the soil, and it is well to encourage them to dig to some purpose. It is natural work, and healthy work, and work that will do more to keep the average child out of mischief than any other influence that can be brought to bear on it. But I would not allow the child to get the impression that I gave it garden-work to do as a mischief-preventative. That would spoil everything. Aim to interest the boys and girls in the mysterious processes of nature. Encourage them to plan and execute as much of the work as can safely be trusted to them. In a short time you will find that most of them are equal to all the requirements of the ordinary garden. I have often been told by those who have had years of experience in garden-work that at least half one's living for half the year can be obtained from the garden, even if it happens to be a small one, and my own experience bears out the truth of this statement. If we grow our own vegetables we are quite sure to have a greater variety to add to the daily bill of fare than would be the case if we were to buy them. We have them when we want them without making a trip to the market for them, or depending on the uncertainties of telephone orders which grocers so frequently fill by sending vegetables of a quality that would not satisfy us if we gave them personal inspection before purchasing. The entire family will be delighted with the frequent changes that can be made in the bill of fare, and no one more so than the housewife who often finds it a difficult matter to plan for a variety of food when the family income does not warrant a liberal outlay. No owner of a bit of ground that can be made into a garden can afford to let it remain unused. If he does so he does it in disregard of the economy which most of us are obliged to consider and practise in these days of high prices and the increasing cost of daily living. Have a garden if you can. I GETTING THE GARDEN READY The amateur gardener will almost invariably be in too great a hurry to begin gardening operations in the spring. But a few warm days are not sufficient to put the ground in proper condition for seeding, or even for plowing and spading. The frost must be allowed to get out of it, and after that an opportunity must be given for surplus water from melting snows and spring rains to drain away before work can be done to any advantage. As a general thing not much can be done in gardening at the North before the first of May. It is an old saying that "haste makes waste," and the gardener who is in too great a hurry often learns the truth which underlies the saying by the failure to germinate of the seed he puts into the ground very early in the season. Another old saying that should be kept in mind is that "one swallow does not make a summer." Read "warm day" for "swallow" and you will get the force of the statement. It is not advisable to do much at gardening until you are reasonably sure that warm weather has come to stay. Even if early-planted seed comes up, spells of cold weather, and often of frost, which we are likely to have at the North until about the first of May, will have such a debilitating effect on comparatively hardy plants that those grown from later sowings, when all conditions are favorable, will come to maturity ahead of them. Therefore it will be seen that it is poor policy to be in too great a hurry, and good policy to wait for what the farmer calls "growing weather" before doing much work in the garden. If very early vegetables are wanted it will be necessary to start them in the hotbed. In another chapter I will give some directions for the making and management of this very important adjunct of gardening. The first thing to do in making a garden is to plow or spade it. Plowing is not admissible on small grounds, but where there is room enough to allow a team and plow to operate I would advise it in preference to spading, because it will save a good deal of hard work, and greatly expedite matters. Before plowing some system of manuring should be decided on, as whatever fertilizer is used should be worked well into the soil, and this the plow can do most effectively. Barn-yard manure, if old and well rotted, is better than anything else I have any knowledge of for all kinds of vegetables, but unfortunately it is seldom obtainable by those who do not live in the country. There are many commercial fertilizers on the market, but not all kinds of them are adapted to all kinds of soil. In order to secure the best results it is advisable that the amateur gardener should consult some dealer in these fertilizers in his immediate vicinity, or some one who has had personal experience in their use, with a view to making sure that he is getting just the kind best adapted to the soil in his garden. It is absolutely necessary that he should do this, in fact, for if he buys at random he runs the risk of getting something that will fail to answer his purpose. While it is always advisable to apply whatever fertilizer is used before plowing, commercial fertilizers can be applied later with good effect; but it will be necessary to apply them in such a manner that they do not come directly into contact with the seed, as many of them are so strong that they kill it. Plow the garden deeply, for by so doing you bring to the surface a stratum of soil in which there is more latent fertility than in that close to the surface. After plowing, allow the soil to remain as thrown up from the furrow for two or three days. Sunshine and warm air will have a disintegrating effect on it, which will make it easy for you to reduce it under the application of hoe and iron rake to that mellow condition so necessary to the welfare of the plants you propose to grow. It should be worked over and over until not a lump is left in it. You cannot expect to grow good vegetables in a soil that has not been well pulverized before seed is planted. Large grounds, or those of a size that admit of the use of horses, can be speedily mellowed with the harrow, which should be run over the ground from all directions until it is thoroughly pulverized. In the small garden the rake and hoe will have to take the place of the harrow. Small pieces of ground should be spaded. Let the soil remain as thrown up by the spade for two or three days before attempting to work it. I have been told by some amateur gardeners that they did not use much manure because trees and shrubs that grew in close proximity to their gardens were so thrifty without manuring that they felt confident that the soil must be quite rich enough for vegetables without resorting to the use of any fertilizer. These persons lacked the experience which would have enabled them to understand the wide difference between tree and vegetable growth. A tree or a bush sends its roots deeply and widely into the soil, and applies to its uses food that the vegetable cannot send its roots in search of. The roots of most garden plants do not extend far in any direction, nor go very deep; therefore food must be given directly to them if we would secure the best possible result. There are very few gardens in which the natural soil has a sufficient amount of nutriment to produce the effect we aim at without the addition of some kind of plant-food. A rich soil is absolutely necessary in order to hasten development. Unless a vegetable makes a quick growth it is pretty sure to be lacking in tenderness and flavor. Of course it is possible to apply a greater amount than a plant can make use of, thus forcing an unhealthy growth, but this is not likely to happen if we consult the wise old gardener who knows his garden and the plants he grows in it as a mechanic knows the machine he uses. II LAYING OUT THE GARDEN There will be little "laying out" to do in the small garden. Here the chief aim will be to make use of every available bit of soil; the beds will be narrow, and the paths between them will be just wide enough to walk in, and these will be the only portions of the ground in which something is not grown. Not much chance for planning, you see. In the larger garden it will be not only possible, but advisable, to do considerable planning. If a garden-cultivator is used--and this should be done whenever possible--plan for rows that will enable you to run it the entire length of the garden without turning. Beds are no longer in favor with gardeners who aim to reduce the work to be done to the minimum, for in them the cultivator cannot be used to advantage, and weeding cannot be done with the facility which characterizes row-planting, nor can the hoe be used as effectively. There is really no argument that can be advanced in favor of the old bedding system for gardens in which we propose to use labor-saving implements. If possible, have the rows run north and south. This enables the sun to get at the ground lengthwise of the rows, and between them, which it could not do if they ran east and west, as the plants in them would shade all the ground except that in the first and most southerly row. It is not enough that the sun should get at the tops of the plants. The soil needs its vivifying effect. Plant with regard to the height and habit of the vegetables you propose to grow. Give corn a place at the side of the garden. Then peas which grow tall enough to require bushing, and then beans, working down through potatoes, tomatoes, and beets and other low-growing kinds to onions, radishes, and cucumbers. If the garden-cultivator is to be used, leave a space about eighteen inches wide between the rows to work in. This implement can be adjusted to fit any width desired. Its teeth can be set to throw the soil toward a plant or away from it. It can be made to do deep or shallow work, as the case may require. As a general thing, after a plant has attained some size we throw the soil toward it. If the teeth are set to do this we go down one side of the row and back on the other, thus throwing the soil about the plant alike on both sides. It will probably be necessary to remove some weeds _in the row_, which cannot be reached by the cultivator. This can be done most effectively by the use of a hoe which is triangular in shape, with the handle-socket in the center of it. One side is a blade like the ordinary hoe. The other comes to a sharp point, with which it is possible to work close to a plant without running any risk of injuring it--something that cannot be done with the ordinary wide-bladed hoe. Weeds that grow up side by side with vegetable seedlings can be picked away from them so easily, and without disturbing them in the least, that no hand-pulling will have to be resorted to in cleaning the rows. Where the garden-cultivator is used there will be very little work to do with the hoe, as this implement stirs the soil and uproots weeds at the same time. But in the small garden either hoe or weeding-hook will come into daily use. The weeding-hook is a most important tool, though its cost is but ten or fifteen cents. It enables one to do a good deal of weeding in a short time, does its work well, and does away entirely with hand-pulling, which has heretofore been one of the chief arguments that men have advanced against gardening. III PLANTING THE GARDEN Most persons make the serious mistake of covering garden seed too deeply. Very small seed needs hardly any covering. Indeed, it does its best, as a general thing, when simply scattered on the surface and pressed down into the soil by a smooth board. This embeds the seed in the soil, which is made firm enough under the pressure of the board to retain a sufficient amount of moisture to assist germination. Very fine seed often fails to sprout if covered too deeply. But most of the seed of garden vegetables is not fine enough to admit of this method of planting. If a seed-sower is not used, little furrows should be made by drawing a stick through the soil, into which the seed should be dropped as evenly as possible. It should then be covered lightly and the soil should be pressed down with the hoe to make it comparatively firm. The probabilities are that many more plants will come up than it is advisable to let grow. These surplus seedlings should be removed from the rows as soon as the plants get a good start. Nearly all gardeners make use of the seed-sower. This is an implement that can be adjusted to sow all kinds of seed more evenly than it can be sown by hand, and it can be sown thickly or thinly, as desired, and at any required depth. It cannot be used to much advantage in the very small garden, where only a small quantity of each kind of seed will be made use of, but in large gardens it will be found as much a labor-saver as the garden-cultivator. It is always advisable to plant for a succession if the garden is large enough to admit of it. By planting at intervals of ten days or two weeks it is possible to have fresh vegetables throughout almost the entire season. Where this is done it will not be advisable to plant very much of any one kind. Among almost all vegetables there are early, medium, and late varieties. Some of each of these should be planted in all gardens of a size to warrant so doing. In the small garden I would advise the choice of the later varieties, as these are almost without exception superior in flavor to the earlier kinds, which are grown more on account of earliness than quality. IV SEEDS THAT GIVE BEST RESULTS It is very important that seed of only the best kind should be used, if we would grow vegetables of superior quality. Every gardener of experience will indorse the truth of this statement. Said one amateur gardener to me when I gave him this advice: "Why should one be so particular about the seed? It's the culture that you give the plant that counts. Plant any kind of seed that happens to be handiest and take good care of the plants that grow from it and you'll have good vegetables." To some extent what he said was true, but he had yet to learn that there is a vast difference between ordinary seed and seed that has bred into it by careful culture the superior qualities which characterize the choicest varieties of all our garden plants. There is such a thing as aristocracy of seed, and no seed that is lacking in this feature can be expected to afford the satisfaction that results from the use of the best. No amount of culture can make a superior vegetable from plants grown from inferior seed. Bear this in mind, and buy only the best seed on the market, be your garden large or small. The smaller it is, the greater the importance of using only the best. "But how are we who know very little about such things to know which _is_ the best?" some one may ask. The only answer I can make to this question is this: We have in this country many seed firms that have been in existence for years--some of them over half a century--and these have built up for themselves a reputation for handling only seed of the very best varieties of garden vegetables that it is possible to grow. Inferior sorts have been discarded from time to time as those of superior merit have been produced. These firms, proud and jealous of the reputation they have gained, cannot afford to deal in anything that is not up to their standard of "the best." From these dealers you can be sure of getting seed that can always be depended on to give the highest degree of satisfaction. The seed they sell you may cost a little more than some of the newer dealers ask for theirs, but the certainty of getting _what you want_ makes it well worth while to invest some extra money in it. Cheap seed--that which is advertised as being "just as good as higher-priced seed for a much smaller amount of money"--is likely to prove as cheap in quality as in price. V EARLY GARDEN WORK After planting the garden there will be a little interval of leisure while the seed that has been put into the ground is germinating. Then will come the time of early warfare with the weeds. Here is where the weeding-hook of which I have spoken will come into play in the small garden. This little implement is in the form of a claw, with five or six fingers, each about an inch long, and shaped so that they reach into the ground and take a firm hold of whatever plants they are placed over. It can be so operated that these fingers, working close to plants which it is not desired to uproot, will tear away the weeds without disturbing the other plants, and the soil will be left in light and mellow condition, as if a tiny rake had been drawn through it. With this tool the work can be done with great rapidity. No owner of a garden, large or small, can afford to be without it. It should be used to supplement the work of the cultivator, which can be depended upon to take care of all the weeds between the rows, but which cannot be worked among the plants _in the row_. Weeding should be begun as soon as the plants are of a size that makes it possible to tell which is seedling and which is weed. By beginning the work of clearing the garden at this period, and doing it thoroughly, and continuing it at intervals thereafter, it will be a comparatively easy matter to keep weeds under control. But if they are allowed to get a strong start--as they will in an incredibly short time if let alone--it will be a difficult matter to subdue them and keep the upper hand during the rest of the season. It is very important that they should be given to understand, at the outset, that they will not be tolerated in your garden. This will necessitate early work and careful and regular attention thereafter, but it will not be the laborious work that so many persons think it is if it is begun at the right season and always carried on on the offensive. It is when weeds have been allowed to intrench themselves firmly in the garden that this work becomes disagreeable. Nor is it work that will require a good deal of one's time. In the cultivation of a garden it is the little attentions, given when needed, that count, rather than the amount of labor and time expended there, as you will find when you come to have a garden of your own. If there are any vacant places in the beds or rows, fill with plants taken from places where they stand too thick. In the small garden there should be not one vacant spot. Every bit of soil should be made to do its share of work in the production of some vegetable. If weeds are kept down during the early part of the season there ought not to be many during the latter part of it. But there will be no time when there will not be _some_ to wage warfare against, and every gardener should make it a rule to destroy every one that gets a start as soon as discovered, for, by preventing it from developing seed, we can save ourselves a good deal of work next season. One weed will bear seed enough to fill the whole garden with its progeny if allowed to do so. If the soil was properly fertilized at planting-time it will not be necessary to apply more fertilizer, if any, until the latter part of the season, and then only a small amount will be required--just enough to enable the soil to do its share in ripening off the plants that are growing in it. But if, at any time, the plants seem to lag or come to a standstill enough should be given to stimulate active growth. Careful watch should be kept of everything in the garden, and prompt advantage should be taken of any tendency toward slow development by making fresh applications of whatever fertilizer was used at the beginning of the season. In order to attain the success that the gardener aims at in the cultivation of vegetables it is absolutely necessary to keep them going steadily ahead from start to finish, and this can only be done by supplying them with a generous amount of plant-food. There should be no alternations of liberal feeding and lack of feeding. VI VEGETABLE PLANTS IN THE HOUSE Many persons would like to grow early vegetables. With a view to "getting the start of the season" and, incidentally, of their neighbors, they sow seed in pots and boxes in March and April and attempt to get an "early start" for plants that will form a basis of supply for family use while they are waiting for the development of the general crop from seed sown in the garden after the weather has become sufficiently warm to warrant outdoor gardening. In some instances comparative success has resulted from plants started into growth in the house, but nine times out of ten, it is safe to say, the result has been entire failure. The seedlings grow fairly well at first, but soon become weak and die. If, by chance, a few survive until conditions warrant putting them in the ground, they are so lacking in vitality that the change from indoors to outdoors is pretty sure to be the end of them. I would never advise trying to grow plants from seed, in the house, unless the grower understands beforehand the drawbacks to plant-growth which prevail in the average dwelling, and is willing to do all he can to overcome them. Simply filling boxes or pots with earth, putting seed into them, and supplying water will not insure success. One of the unfavorable conditions which seedling plants must struggle against is too much heat, if they are kept in the living-room. An undue amount of warmth forces them into abnormal development in the early stages of their growth, and a little later on there comes a reaction from the weakness thus brought about, and this reaction is almost invariably death to the tender plant. Another unfavorable condition is the result of indiscriminate watering. The soil is either kept too wet or too dry. To grow good plants there must be an even supply of moisture. A third unfortunate condition is the result of failure to give the plants a liberal supply of fresh air. It is possible, however, to overcome these conditions and grow really good plants from seed in the living-room, but it cannot be done unless the amateur gardener is sufficiently interested in the undertaking to give his plants all the attention they need. Instead of keeping them in the living-room--which in most instances will have a temperature of 79 or 80°--I would advise giving them place in a room opening off the sitting-room, where the temperature can be so regulated that it will not go above 65° at any time. There is far less danger of plants suffering from a low temperature than of their being injured by an excess of heat. If the room in which they are kept has snug windows, in most instances it will get all the warmth that is needed by leaving open at night the door which connects it with the living-room. If the weather is very cold, the plants can be removed, temporarily, to the living-room, or they can be covered with newspapers. Thick paper shades at the windows will do much to keep out cold and prevent draughts. Storm-sash will do this most effectively, but it interferes with giving the young plants the fresh air they need. Therefore I would prefer the shades, and depend upon removal to a warmer place on extra-cold nights. Fresh air will be found a most important factor in the growth of seedling plants indoors. Unless it can be given it will be almost impossible to grow any plant well in the ordinary dwelling. It should be admitted to the room on every pleasant day by opening a window at the top, or a door at some distance from the plants. The fresh, cold air should be allowed to mix with the warm air in the room before it comes in contact with the plants, as a chill will often do about as much damage as a touch of frost. Watering these plants is a matter of prime importance. Generally water is applied carelessly and irregularly--too much to-day, and none at all to-morrow. We saturate the soil with it while only enough is required to make it moist. An over-supply of water at the roots, combined with too much heat and lack of fresh air, will undermine the constitution of any plant, because such a combination excites unnatural development, and this means a lowering of the vital force to the danger-point. I have devised a method by which I have succeeded in controlling the supply of moisture in the soil to my complete satisfaction. I use boxes about four inches deep to start my plants in. In the bottom of these boxes I put sphagnum moss. There should be at least an inch of it after it has been pressed down by the weight of the soil above. The bottom of the seed-box is bored full of small holes. Each box sets in a shallow pan of galvanized iron, on a layer of coarse gravel, which raises it enough to allow water to circulate freely under it. Water is poured into the iron pan, using enough to come up about half an inch above the bottom of the seed-box, or in contact with the moss in it, and it should be kept at this height at all times. The moss absorbs the moisture like a sponge, and the soil above constantly sucks up all that is needed to keep it in a sufficiently moist condition to meet the requirements of the plants growing in it. The absorbent qualities of the moss are such that an excessive amount of moisture is never communicated to the soil above. Thus I secure a steady and even supply, which does away entirely with the danger resulting from the application of water to the surface of the soil from watering-pot or basin. If the temperature can be controlled in such a way that it will not vary much from 60 to 65°, if the soil can be kept moist but never wet, and fresh air can be given in generous quantity regularly, it will be found a comparatively easy matter to grow plants satisfactorily from seed in the house, and have them in such healthy condition by the time it is safe to put them out in the garden that they will average up well with the plants the professional gardener raises in hotbed and cold-frame. By the use of such plants, and such plants only, can we expect to grow early vegetables successfully. VII STANDARD VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES The amateur gardener will find it extremely perplexing work to make a satisfactory selection of _varieties_ of vegetables to grow in his garden. He knows quite well, as a general thing, what _kinds_ he wants to grow, but when he comes to a consultation of the seedsmen's catalogues he discovers that of each _kind_ of vegetable listed therein there are so many _varieties_ mentioned that he is bewildered. Most of them are described as being so desirable that he cannot help getting the impression that if he rules out this or that one he is likely to deprive himself of the very thing from which he would obtain the highest degree of satisfaction. Nine times out of ten he finds, after going through the catalogues and marking the kinds and varieties that appeal to him most forcibly, that he has a list which would furnish enough seed to supply an average-sized market-garden. I would advise the amateur gardener to attempt the culture of only a few of the many varieties described in the catalogues, and these of the very best. But what constitutes "the very best" is a hard matter for him to decide where all are described by adjectives in the superlative degree. He will find, by comparing the catalogues of the various seed firms, that there are described in most of them certain varieties of each kind of vegetable that seem common to all, along with many other varieties whose names differ greatly, though the descriptions of them indicate that there is not much difference in quality, or in other general respects. If he confines his selection to such varieties of each kind as the various dealers list _under the same names_ in their catalogues he will be making no mistake, for the fact that all leading dealers carry these varieties in stock is sufficient proof that they are standard varieties, and of such superior merit that no up-to-date dealer can afford to exclude them from his list. Take, for instance, Stowell's Evergreen sweet-corn, and Champion of England pea. _All_ dealers handle these, because they _are_ standard, and always in demand because their superior qualities have made them universal favorites wherever grown. But they have other varieties of the same vegetable of which each makes a specialty, under names which will be found in no catalogue but their own. Many of these are doubtless possessors of all the good qualities claimed for them, but this we cannot be sure about. But the sorts which are common to all are those of whose merit there can be no two opinions. These are the varieties the inexperienced gardener can select with the assurance that he is getting the best thing of its kind on the market. In this chapter I propose to make mention of only such kinds of vegetables as I have grown in my own garden. I do this because so many beginners in gardening prefer to depend on the advice of some one who has familiarized himself with the merits of the various vegetables adapted to ordinary gardening. And I propose to give with each such brief cultural directions as seem of most importance, thus making it possible for the amateur to avoid some of the mistakes that might be made if he were wholly ignorant of the requirements of his plants. After having experimented with many kinds I have pinned my faith to the kinds I shall make mention of, and I have no hesitancy in recommending them to the attention of all gardeners, feeling confident that a trial of them will bear me out in the statement that no better list can be made. There _may_ be others of equal or superior merit, but if there are I have still to find out what they are. _Asparagus_ Taking the list alphabetically, the first vegetable to consider is asparagus. Conover's Colossal seems to combine all the merits of the several varieties on the market in such a degree as to give it a place at the head of the list of desirable kinds for ordinary garden culture. It is tender, fine-flavored, and very productive. A dozen plants, after becoming well established, will furnish all that will be required by a family of four or five persons. In order to secure good crops of this delicious vegetable it will be necessary to dig up the soil in which it is to be planted to the depth of two or three feet, and fill the bottom of the excavation with strong manure. Pack this down firmly, and then return to the trench the soil thrown out from it, fertilizing this well as you do so. While asparagus will grow in a soil that is not at all rich, and will live on indefinitely under all kinds of neglect and abuse, it must be given plenty of strong food and good care in order to enable it to do itself justice. I would not advise attempting to grow it from seed, as it takes a long time for seedling plants to reach maturity. I would get two- or three-year-old plants. Set them about eighteen inches apart and at least four inches below the surface. Keep weeds and grass away from them. Give the asparagus-bed a place in the garden by itself, preferably along a fence or in some location where it will not interfere with other plants which call for the frequent use of the garden-cultivator. On no account plant it in that part of the garden where it will be necessary to use a plow, for it is a plant that must be left undisturbed if you would have it do its best. Cover the beds with coarse manure in the fall, and work this into the soil about the plants in spring. _Beans_ Mammoth Stringless Green Pod matures early, and is very tender, fine-flavored, and productive. It is a general favorite for the home garden. Golden Wax is later than the green-podded variety mentioned above. It is valuable as a string-bean, and for shelling. Beans are quite tender, therefore they should not be planted until the weather becomes warm and settled. Plant in rows two feet apart, and about four inches apart in the row, or in hills of three or four plants each. Cultivate frequently during the early part of summer, throwing the soil toward the plants. Do not work among them while they are wet from dew or rain. If a pole-bean is wanted, Improved Lima will be found extremely satisfactory because of its productiveness and its fine, buttery flavor. This class supplies the table with shelled beans only, its pods being too tough to use as a string-bean. Plant in hills of six or eight, setting a pole six or seven feet tall in the center of each hill for the plants to climb by. _Beet_ I would advise two varieties of this vegetable where the garden is large enough to warrant the use of more than one. Crosby's Egyptian stands at the head of the list as an early variety. It is remarkably tender, and has a sugary flavor that is most delicious. As a second variety I would advise Crimson Globe. This is very sweet and fine-flavored, and comes to perfection during the latter part of summer. It is a good keeper, and a quantity of it should be stored in the cellar for winter use. Sow seeds in rows sixteen to eighteen inches apart. Sow thickly, and use the surplus plants as greens while young and tender, making use of both top and root. Thin to three or four inches apart. _Cabbage_ Unless the garden is of considerable size I would not advise planting this vegetable, because it takes up so much room that might better be given to other kinds which the housewife will find more useful. The plants should stand at least two feet apart. Seed can be put into the ground about the first of May, or plants can be started in the hotbed if wanted for very early use. Seedlings can be transplanted as soon as they have made their second leaf. For a very early variety I would advise Jersey Wakefield. For late use Late Drumhead or Stone Mason Marblehead--both excellent in all respects, and fine for winter use. Care must be taken to prevent insects from injuring the plants during the various stages of their development. Spray with an infusion of the tobacco extract known as Nicoticide. This will effectually prevent the pests from doing harm if applied thoroughly and frequently. If cabbage is to be wintered in the cellar, it must be kept cool and dry. Some prefer to bury the heads in trenches, in dry locations in the garden. The trench should be about two feet deep. Spread straw in the bottom of it, and place the cabbage on it, head down, with the large leaves folded well together. Then cover with three or four inches of hay, and bank up with soil. Put a board over this to shed rain. The cabbage will freeze, but if left in the ground until the frost is gradually extracted from it it will be found crisp and brittle, and much more satisfactory for table use than that which is wintered in the cellar. Care must be taken to exclude rain. If water gets to it it will be ruined. It is a good plan to cover the trench with oilcloth or tarred paper, both being waterproof. _Cauliflower_ This is a favorite vegetable when well grown and properly cared for. It requires a rich soil, a location well exposed to the sun, and frequent applications of water if the season happens to be a dry one. Cultivate as you would cabbage. For early use the plants should be started in the hotbed, and transplanted to the cold-frame as soon as they have made their third leaves. Put into the open ground as soon as the soil is in good working condition. Set the plants about two feet apart. When heads have formed they should be bleached by drawing the large leaves together and tying them with strips of soft cloth. For a late crop, to mature during the pickling season, start plants in open ground in May. The best early variety is Dwarf Erfurt. Autumn Giant is an excellent late variety. _Carrot_ This plant likes a deep, warm, sandy soil. Early Short Horn matures by midsummer. It is rich and sweet in flavor. Red Intermediate is a later variety, excellent for fall and winter use. Comparatively few persons give this plant a place in their gardens, but it richly deserves a place there because of its value as an article of food, as well as because of its health-giving qualities. It adds greatly to the variety of the bill of fare, and where it appears frequently on the table a liking for it is soon developed, and thereafter it becomes a standard vegetable in the housewife's list of "must-haves." It adds a delightful flavor to vegetable soups. _Celery_ The seed of early celery should be sown in the hotbed. Transplant the seedlings to the cold-frame and allow them to remain there until May. Then set in the richest soil at your disposal, six inches apart in the row. Blanch by setting up boards a foot or more in width each side the row, allowing an opening about three inches wide at the top through which the plants can get a little light. For late and winter use, sow the seeds in open ground in May. Bleach by earthing up gradually, as the stalks develop, until you have the plants buried to within a few inches of the tip of their leaves. Use clean, dry soil in banking the plants. Sawdust is good, but care must be taken to make use of a kind that does not have a strong odor. Pine-dust will give the plants a disagreeable flavor. For winter use, take up plants, root and all, and pack close together in boxes and store in a cool, dark cellar. White Plume is the best early variety. Giant Pascal is probably the most satisfactory winter variety, but Winter Queen is a favorite with many. Both are so tender and have such a rich, nutty flavor that it is not an easy matter to decide between them. _Cucumber_ For very early cucumbers plant the seed in the hotbed in March or April, but do not put the plants into the garden until all danger of frost is over. This plant requires a rich and mellow soil. It should be set in hills at least four feet apart. It is a good plan to start the seed in pieces of sod placed grass-side down. This enables one to move them from the hotbed without any disturbance of their roots. The cucumber- or squash-beetle often destroys the plants when they are put in the open ground if close watch is not taken and prompt effort made to rout the enemy. Spray with Nicoticide infusion, taking pains to have it reach the under side of the leaves. Dry road-dust sifted thickly over the plants is often found quite effective, but because of the inability to apply it to the under side of the leaves the liquid insecticide will be found more effective. Improved Early White Spine is a favorite with all who like a crisp, tender-meated, finely flavored cucumber. Ever-bearing is an excellent sort for pickling as well as for use on the table during the fall, as it continues to bear until frost kills the vines. _Corn_ Sweet-corn is one of the most delicious of all garden vegetables, and every garden that is large enough to admit of its culture should give place to two or three varieties of it. Because of its tall growth and the distance required between rows it is not adapted to culture in the very small garden, though I would willingly go without some of the other vegetables generally grown there in order to give place to a few hills of it. Golden Bantam produces ears only four or five inches in length, but what they lack in size they make up for in tenderness and sweetness. Country Gentleman is a medium variety, very tender, sweet, and juicy. But the ideal sweet-corn is Stowell's Evergreen. No other variety equals it in tenderness, sugary sweetness, and rich flavor. It does not come to maturity until quite late in the season, but it remains in excellent eating-condition until the plant is killed by frost. Do not plant until the weather and the ground are warm--generally about May 10th at the extreme North. Sweet-corn seed often decays if put into the ground as early as field-corn. Have the soil rich and mellow, and cultivate frequently and thoroughly. If a dry spell comes along make use of the cultivator daily until the drought is broken. _Endive_ This plant ought to be grown far more extensively than it is because it is one of the best salad plants we have for fall and winter use. Some should be sown in April for use during the summer, and some in July, for late use. When the plants are two or three inches high transplant to rich soil, setting them about ten inches apart. When nearly full-grown, gather the leaves together and tie them with strips of cloth, thus excluding the light from the central part of the bunch. It must be blanched before it is fit for table use. This part of the work must be done while the plants are perfectly dry. If done when they are wet or even moist, they will be quite sure to rot. _Lettuce_ This plant should be started in the hotbed if there is one. The seedlings should be transferred to the cold-frame before they have attained much size, and left there until the ground becomes warm. Very fine lettuce, however, can be grown from seed sown directly in the open ground about the first of May, if the soil is warm and rich. A fertile soil is quite important, as it is necessary to bring on a rapid growth in order to have the plant crisp and tender. Slow development gives a comparatively worthless article. The All Heart variety is excellent for spring and early summer use. It forms a solid head, and is very crisp and tender, with that rich, buttery flavor that the lover of this plant insists on. Mammoth Salamander is one of the best late-season kinds. _Melons_ These, like corn and cabbage, are not adapted to culture in the small garden because they require more room than it is possible to give them without giving up other vegetables which the housewife cannot well afford to go without. But in good-sized gardens I would advise their culture, because there is nothing else quite equal to them in delicacy of flavor and luscious sweetness. They require a light, rich soil. Plant when the ground is warm, and not before, in hills four feet apart. It is a good plan to put a generous quantity of manure from the henhouse in each hill, working it well into the soil before seed is planted. Put at least a dozen seed in each hill, for some of the seedlings will doubtless be destroyed by the beetle that works on cucumber- and squash-vines. Spray all over with Nicoticide infusion as soon as the first beetle is seen, also shower with dry road-dust. If a fungous disease attacks them spray with Bordeaux mixture. Rocky Ford is the standard variety of muskmelon at present. It has a thick greenish-yellow flesh, is smooth-grained, is very sweet, has a most delicious flavor, and is so tender that it fairly seems to melt in the mouth. Netted Gem is another standard variety. Among the watermelons Ice-Cream is a general favorite. Mammoth Ironclad grows to a very large size, is solid-meated, and has a peculiarly sweet and luscious flavor. _Onion_ This should be sown in light, sandy soil, if possible, as it seldom does well in a heavy soil. Yellow Danvers is the leading variety for the home garden. Silverskin has a mild flavor, and on that account it is a favorite with many. It is fine for pickling. It also keeps well in winter. _Parsley_ Sow this plant thickly, in April, in rows of mellow soil. As the seed germinates very slowly, it is well to soak it in warm water before sowing. If you have a light cellar, plants can be potted in fall and stored there for winter use. The cellar window is a good place for them. Every housewife who prides herself on the attractive appearance of her roasts and other meat dishes and many kinds of salad will not be willing to be without this plant. Dwarf Perpetual is the standard variety for the home garden. Its leaves are charmingly crimped and curly, and of beautiful dark green that makes them very ornamental when used as a garnish for the table. _Parsnip_ This vegetable is not grown as much as it ought to be. One does not care for it until winter sets in. Then it affords a much-appreciated change from other vegetables. It is an excellent keeper when stored in the cellar in winter. Or the roots can be left in the ground until spring, when they will be found delightfully fresh and tender. Sow in April or May, in deep, rich soil. Hollow Crown is the standard variety. _Pea_ This vegetable is so extremely hardy that it can be planted with entire safety quite early in spring. There are varieties that come into bearing a few weeks after sowing, followed by medium early kinds, which give place, a little later, to such varieties as Champion of England and Telephone. Champion of England is the most delicious of all peas. Unless the garden is a very small one, one should plan for a succession. If this is done it will be possible to enjoy this vegetable during the greater part of the season, with possibly the exception of the very hottest part of summer. Best results are secured by planting the seed two or three inches deep in furrows. The soil should be rich. If there is a little clay in it, all the better. Low-growing varieties require no support, but the tall kinds must be bushed or trained on coarse-meshed wire netting. Bushes suit this plant better than anything else. If the vines are allowed to crinkle down and come in contact with the ground their pods will almost always decay, and the vines will mildew and become so diseased that an end will be put to their bearing. American Wonder is one of the best very early kinds. Gradus is next in order. Advancer I consider the best medium variety. Telephone is a most excellent late variety, second only to Champion of England, which is everywhere conceded to be the ideal pea so far as productiveness, size, rich flavor, and sweetness are concerned. _Potato_ Anybody can grow the potato, _after a fashion_. But in order to grow it _well_ it must receive more attention than is generally given it. It must have a rich and mellow soil--a sandy one is preferable--and the best of cultivation. This is one of the vegetables that require considerable room, therefore it is not adapted to small-garden culture. But when space will admit of it it should always be grown, because it is one of the garden products that can be used in so many ways that the housewife finds it one of the things she cannot well get along without. Seed is obtained by cutting old potatoes in pieces, each piece having an "eye" or growing-point. The pieces should be planted in hills, four or five pieces to a hill, with hills two feet apart. Cover to a depth of four inches. If plants are not watched while small, insects are likely to attack them. Spray with Nicoticide infusion. Later in the season the Colorado beetle will be quite likely to put in its appearance. Then use Paris green, either in infusion, or mixed with land-plaster, and applied in a dry state while the plants are moist from dew. If any fungous disease is discovered, spray with Bordeaux mixture. All these insecticides can be procured from druggists or dealers in agricultural goods, or they can be obtained from the dealer from whom you buy seed. It is well to plant this vegetable for a succession. One of the best early varieties is Beauty of Hebron, which matures in eight to ten weeks from planting. Early Rose is everywhere a favorite, as is Early Ohio. Rural New-Yorker is a standard late variety. Burbank's Seedling is excellent as an intermediate sort. All the varieties named are of superior flavor, very productive, and sure to give complete satisfaction. _Radish_ This most toothsome vegetable should be sown early, either in the hotbed or the open ground. If you have a light, warm soil and a location that is fully exposed to the sun you can raise almost as fine radishes outside of the hotbed as in it, though of course not as early in the season. A crop will develop in five or six weeks from sowing. Plant at intervals of two or three weeks for a succession. Cardinal Globe is the standard early variety. Crimson Giant is a little later. Both have that crisp, tender, and juicy quality which makes the radish so universal a favorite. Icicle is a long-growing white variety, very crisp and brittle. This has the merit of remaining in condition for use longer than any other variety. _Rhubarb_ This plant likes a deep, rich, and rather moist soil. It should be planted in permanent beds, about three feet apart. I would not advise attempting to grow it from seed. Get roots one or two years old. Victoria is a standard variety. _Salsify_ A vegetable that ought to be grown a great deal more than it is. Its popular name of "vegetable oyster" is not a misnomer, for it has a distinct oyster flavor. Many persons prefer it to the bivalve, when it is cooked properly. Being hardy, it can be left in the ground over winter, or it can be dug and stored in the cellar along with parsnips and carrots for use in winter. Sow early. _Squash_ Probably the best variety of summer squash for home use is Giant Crook Neck. For winter use the Hubbard stands at the head of the list. These favorite vegetables require a rich soil. They should be planted in hills about three feet apart. Have the soil rich. Keep watch of them, for they are liable to attacks from beetles. It is well to sprinkle a handful of tobacco-dust about the young plants. As they become larger they can be sprayed with the Nicoticide infusion heretofore spoken of. _Spinach_ Desirable for "greens." Sow as early in the spring as the ground is in good working condition. Have the soil quite rich to force a tender, succulent growth. Sow for succession, a month apart. The Long-Season variety is the best I have any knowledge of. _Tomato_ Start this plant in the hotbed if you have one. If not, sow in the open ground as soon as it has become warm. To secure a very early crop the plants must be started as early as March. When three or four inches high transplant from hotbed to cold-frame, but do not put into the open ground until all danger from frost is over. If you are without hotbed facilities I would advise purchasing plants from the gardener, who tries to supply his customers with strong and healthy plants very early in the season. Plants from seed sown in the open ground will be so late in ripening a crop, as a general thing, that they will not afford satisfaction. Standard varieties are Stone, very solid and firm-fleshed and of fine quality, and Ponderosa, very large, fine-flavored, and almost seedless. VIII SMALL FRUITS AND THEIR CULTURE Quite as important as garden vegetables is the small-fruit department of each home that is living up to its privileges. Of course there will be no room for raspberries and blackberries on the little home lot, but one can have a row of strawberries there, in almost all cases, and a few currant-bushes can be tucked away in nooks and corners where quite likely nothing else would be grown if the tiny space were not given up to them. There are places all over the country where a collection of small fruit ought to be grown, but which are without it. Why? There are several answers to the question. One is: Neglect to live up to the possibilities of the place because of carelessness, or possibly because the owner is distrustful of his ability to grow them successfully. Another is: The impression that these plants are so exacting in their demands that none but skilled gardeners are warranted in undertaking their culture. And a third one is: The uncertainty of being unable to take them through our severe Northern winters safely. The first objection is met with the argument that the man who is obliged to work for a living, and has a family to support, has no excuse for neglecting to avail himself and those dependent on him of all the good things that can be grown from the plants named, if he owns a piece of ground large enough to accommodate a small collection. The second objection is not justified, because it is an easy matter for any man to learn how to care for small fruits if he sets about it with the intention of mastering its details. There is really no basis in fact for the third one, for we have, to-day, varieties of each kind of small fruit that are entirely hardy at the North if properly cared for in the fall. There should be a strawberry-bed, large or small, in every garden, if I had my way about it. Here I suppose some reader will meet me with the objection that "strawberries don't pay. They require too much care, and the beds soon run out, and then everything has to be done over again." Now I claim that strawberries _do_ pay if they get the right kind of treatment. No one has a right to expect much from them if he simply sticks a plant into the soil and leaves it to take care of itself thereafter. Strawberries cultivated in this manner _don't_ pay, I admit. And it is well that they do not, for no one has a right to expect much, if anything, from a plant of any kind that he isn't willing to take good care of. While the strawberry will not take care of itself, it really requires no more attention than most other crops. And as to "running out," that cuts no figure, when you come to think about it, because "doing things all over again" amounts to no more than planting vegetables each season. This has to be done yearly, and strawberries will demand only annual attention, thus putting the two classes of plants on practically the same basis. I am aware that some writers on strawberry culture have ventilated a good many far-fetched ideas of their own in print relative to the culture of this plant, and so elaborate and complicated are some of these theories that many an amateur has, after reading them, abandoned the idea of having a strawberry-bed. But it is a fact susceptible of proof by any man who gives it a trial that strawberry culture may be made a success without adopting the views of persons who seem to think that theory is more important than common sense. The simplest method of strawberry-growing that I know anything about is what is called the "one-crop system." Set the plants in rows three feet apart, to allow the use of the cultivator between them. Let the plants be a foot apart in the row. Keep the ground between the rows well cultivated, and in the second summer, when the plants are bearing their first crop of fruit, allow them to send their runners into the space between the rows and take root there. When these young plants have fully established themselves--which will be by the end of August, as a general thing--take a spade and cut down between them and the old plants. Then dig up the old plants, making the place where they grew a space between rows. Next season train runners from the bearing plants back into the old row. By thus alternating the location of the plants you keep the garden supplied with one-year-old ones from which you get but one crop of fruit. This method is so simple that any one can understand it, and it has the indorsement of some of our most up-to-date gardeners who recognize the fact that one full crop of berries is about all that can be expected from the strawberry. Of course older plants will bear fruit, but never of the quantity and quality which is obtained from strong, healthy young plants whose vitality has not been drawn upon by the production of a heavy first crop. This one-crop system makes it possible to grow fine berries without giving the plants more care than is required by ordinary vegetables. The soil for strawberries should be rich and mellow, and should be kept entirely free from weeds. It is a good plan to spread clean straw between the rows before the crop ripens, to keep the fruit from coming in contact with the ground or having sand washed upon it by heavy rains. The best variety of strawberry that I have ever grown is Brandywine. It is very productive, bears large berries, has a most delicious flavor, and is never hollow-hearted. It ripens in mid-season. The best late variety, allowing me to be judge, is Gandy. This kind requires a very rich soil. Where it can be given this, no more satisfactory late-cropper can be grown. The two varieties named above combine all the best qualities of this most popular fruit. Several times in the last few years the announcement has been made that a fall-bearing strawberry has been produced, but as it was of European origin it did not prove satisfactory under American conditions. Of late, however, some of our most progressive small-fruit growers have succeeded in growing two varieties that promise to be really good fall-croppers. These produce, if allowed to do so, their main crop at the same time as other varieties, and keep on bearing until frost. But in order to secure a good crop late in the season it is advisable to cut away all buds that appear in June, keeping the strength of the plant in reserve for the fall crop. It is well to mulch these plants during the hot, dry weather of summer. These fall-bearing varieties are on the market under the names of Superb and Progressive. * * * * * The blackberry responds generously to good treatment, bearing enormous quantities of large, juicy berries of most delicious flavor when given proper care. It prefers a rather sandy soil. In order to secure a fresh stock of wood for each season's crop the old canes should be cut away as soon as they have ripened their fruit, thus throwing all the strength of the plant into the production of new canes from which fruit is to be expected next season. While the two leading varieties, Kittatinny and Snyder, are quite hardy, it is well to take the precaution of giving them some protection to guard against the possible loss of some of the unripened growth of the season. This is done to the best advantage by removing two or three spadefuls of soil from the base of each plant, close to its roots, and then tipping the bush over until it lies flat on the ground. This could not be done without running the risk of breaking some of the stiff and brittle canes if the excavation were not made. When the bushes are spread out on the ground, where they are held in place by laying boards across them, throw some coarse litter over the base of the plant, and scatter a covering of straw over the branches. As soon as the frost is out of the ground in the spring, lift the bushes and replace the soil that was taken away in the fall. * * * * * Raspberries are second only to strawberries in deliciousness of flavor, and should have a place in all gardens where there is room for them. They do well in almost all soils, if well drained. A sandy loam, however, is the soil that seems to suit them best. Their old canes, like those of the blackberry, should be cut away at the end of the fruiting season. Cuthbert is the leading red variety. Cumberland is the favorite black kind. I notice that one of our most prominent growers of small fruit offers an ever-bearing raspberry this season, under the name of Red Ranere. I have no knowledge of its merits other than that which I gain from the grower's announcement in introducing this sort to the market, but from intimate personal acquaintance with the man I am quite confident that the plant must possess real merit, for he is not a person given to exaggeration. I quote from what he has to say in reference to this variety in a leading horticultural magazine: This is not only the earliest red raspberry, but it is a perpetual fruiting one. Its main crop is greater than that of any other variety I grow. It continues to bear on its old canes until late in August, at about which time the canes of the season's growth come into bearing. These produce a large amount of fine fruit until late in the fall. The berries are very attractive, being a bright, rich crimson. They are of good size, and of very superior quality, with a rich, sugary, full raspberry flavor. I would advise the amateur gardener to give this variety a trial. Raspberries late in the fall would be thoroughly appreciated by those with whom this fruit is a favorite. * * * * * The currant is one of the garden's indispensables. It furnishes us with fruit of just the right degree of tart acidity to fit the season in which it is at its prime, and who does not get a deal of enjoyment out of a green-currant pie? No kind of small fruit is easier to grow successfully. Worms frequently attack the bushes in spring, and often ruin the crop unless steps are taken to put a prompt end to their depredations, but spraying with Nicoticide infusion will rout them in most cases. Application of this insecticide should be repeated at intervals during the earlier part of the season. Fay's Prolific is a standard variety for home use. This is a dark, rich red, most beautiful to behold. White Grape is an ideal white variety. Combine the two and you have a table decoration quite as colorful as that furnished by any flowers, and almost as attractive. The currant is one of the housewife's most valued fruits for jam- and jelly-making. One enterprising dealer has recently introduced to this country a French sort known as Bar-le-Duc, or Preserving Currant. This variety has a flavor that no other variety can lay claim to, and another feature of merit peculiar to it is that it is almost seedless. For a good many years the entire output of this currant was under the control of a French fruit company who manufactured it into jam which has been extensively sold in this country under the name of Confiture Bar-le-Duc. So superior has it been considered to home-made as well as imported jams, that it has readily sold at double the price of them. I would advise the amateur to procure a few plants of this variety and experiment with it. * * * * * The gooseberry must not be overlooked in this connection. Many persons claim that the bush mildews to such an extent that the crop is oftener than not a failure. This can largely be prevented by planting the bushes farther apart than the currant, and thinning out the branches so that there will at all times be a free circulation of air about them. It is well to give a heavy mulch of coarse manure in the hot weather of summer. Spray with the infusion recommended for currants to prevent injury from worms. If mildew of an apparently fungous nature attacks the plants, spray with Bordeaux mixture. * * * * * This hardly seems the place in which to say much about the culture of the apple, plum, pear, and cherry, for that is a phase of gardening quite distinct from that which this little book aims to interest the homemaker in. However, the writer would urge having all these fruits when conditions are favorable to their culture. The more fruit we eat the healthier we will be. All kinds of small fruit can be planted in spring to better advantage than in fall, though the nurseryman will tell you, if you consult him, that it makes little difference whether you plant in spring or fall. The writer has tried both methods, and he has always been most successful when plants were put out in April and May, provided they were sent from the nursery that spring. If they are sent in fall they should be "heeled-in" over winter. "Heeling-in" consists in burying the roots in a place where they will be kept dry during the winter. It will not be necessary to cover all the top, though there is no objection to this if the owner thinks it safer to do so. Care should be taken to keep the plants well protected from storms. This can be done very effectively by spreading tarred paper over them, pains being taken to weight it down with stones or something else equally heavy to prevent its being blown out of place. Plants that have been "heeled-in" over winter should be set out as soon as possible in spring. IX HOTBEDS AND COLD-FRAMES In order to have vegetables early in the season it will be necessary to give them a start some weeks before the ground is in proper condition for the reception of seed. Sometimes this is done by sowing the seed in pots and boxes in the living-room, as advised in Chapter VI, but here conditions are not very favorable to healthy growth, unless great care is taken to follow the directions given in the chapter mentioned, and even then success does not always attend our efforts. In order to give our plants the early start that they must have if we want vegetables at a time when most gardeners are getting the garden ready for planting, we must make use of the hotbed. If this is done we can gain from six weeks to two months in time, and have lettuce and radishes before our neighbors who are without hotbed facilities consider it safe to put seed into the ground. At the North the first of March is quite early enough to get the hotbed under way. I am aware that many young gardeners have the impression that a hotbed is, in some respects, a mysterious thing, and because of this they do not undertake to make one. Now there is nothing simpler than a hotbed when you come to a study of it. It is simply making a place in which summer conditions can be imitated by supplying it with steady, gentle heat, and in confining this heat within an inclosure. The heat is generated by the use of material which ferments, and the inclosure is nothing but a combination of boards and glass so arranged that the temperature inside it can be regulated to suit the requirements of the plants you undertake to grow in it. The heat-generating material is generally fresh manure from the horse-stable, or a mixture of that and coarse litter. Because the heat from rapid fermentation is quite intense, at first the material from which it is obtained should be prepared before the hotbed is brought into use. A quantity of it should be spread on the site selected for the hotbed--which should be one that is high and dry--covering a space larger than the hotbed frame is to be. Spread it in layers four or five inches deep, tramping each layer down well. When there is a foot and a half of it, cover it with something that will shed rain, and wait for fermentation to take place. A warm moisture will rise from it like steam. After two or three days fork the material over, and remove all straw, and make another heap similar to the first one, taking great pains to have it firm and compact. It is very important that it should have considerable solidity, as a heap of loose litter will never give satisfactory results. There should be at least a foot and a half of this heat-generating material. While waiting for fermentation to take place in the manure-pile, prepare the frame for your hotbed. Let it be about a foot and a half in depth at the back, and eight or ten inches deep in front, with sides that slope from the wider boards to the narrower ones. Cover it with glass set in sash. If possible have the sash hinged to the back-board, so that it can be lifted for ventilation without removing it. The best location for a hotbed is one facing the south, that all possible advantage can be taken of sunshine, and against a building or fence that will protect it on the north from cold winds. Some persons prefer to make an excavation a foot or more in depth for the reception of the heating material, but this is not a matter of much importance. As a general thing it will not be possible to do this in a satisfactory manner while there is frost in the ground, as there will be at the North until after the first of March. When the first stages of fermentation are over, set the hotbed frame in place, and fill in with five or six inches of very fine, rich soil. This is what your seed is to be planted in. The young gardener will be surprised at the amount of heat contained in an inclosure like the one described. It will be very similar to the weather conditions of early or middle May out of doors. In it plants will grow healthily and vigorously, provided they are given plenty of fresh air. This is a matter of the greatest importance. Unless your seedlings are aired daily, if the weather is pleasant, they will make a rapid but weak growth, and when the time comes to put them in the cold-frame or the open ground--provided they are alive then--they will be so lacking in vitality that the change will be pretty sure to put an end to them. On every sunny or warm day the sash should be lifted an inch or two, about ten o'clock, and left in that condition until about two. Care must be taken, however, to see that the wind does not blow from a quarter that will drive the cold air in upon the plants. The admission of a cold blast will often be fatal to the tender plants. Great caution must be exercised in regard to ventilation. The aim should be, at all times, to admit pure, fresh air without allowing cold to enter with it. This may seem a somewhat paradoxical statement, for at first thought it will seem impossible for air from without to come in without taking along with it the cold air which is in circulation outside, but when one takes into consideration the fact that the warm air inside the hotbed meets the air from out of doors at the point of entrance it will be understood that it repels or counteracts it to an extent that makes it safe to open the sash slightly when the outside temperature is nearly down to freezing-point. The hotbed-owner must study existing conditions and be governed accordingly. It is impossible to lay down any hard-and-fast rules to apply in this case. On cold nights the hotbed sash should be covered with blankets or old carpeting to prevent the formation of frost on the glass. If you find, in the morning, that the glass is covered with moisture on its under side, raise the sash a trifle and leave it so until the moisture clears away. If at any time you have reason to think that the warmth inside the frame is decreasing too rapidly, bank up about it with fresh fermenting material. After constructing the hotbed and putting the frame and sash in place, test the heat inside by an accurate thermometer before venturing to sow any seed. When it registers 85° or 90° the bed is ready for seeding. In making the frame for a hotbed care should be taken to see that all joints fit snugly. A great deal of cold can be admitted through a very small crevice. A few cracks will let out the heat faster than it is generated, therefore see to it that in constructing the frame a good piece of work is done. Some persons tell me that they always bank up a hotbed with earth. This enables it to retain the heat better than it is possible for it to do without banking. A hotbed will be of no particular benefit unless supplemented by a cold-frame. This is simply a snug inclosure of boards covered with glass, into which plants from the hotbed are to be set for the purpose of hardening them off before they are put into the open ground. In other words, it is a hotbed without heat. The temperature in it ought to register from 60° to 65°. Raise the sash an inch or two on sunny days before the rays of the sun striking on the glass raise the temperature inside to a degree too intense for the good of your plants. It will be readily understood from what I have said above that in order to attain success in the management of a hotbed great care will have to be exercised at all times and frequent attention given. It is not a self-regulating thing by any means. You will have to consider the weather, the time of day when ventilation should be given, frequency of watering, and other matters which cannot be touched on here because of a more or less local character. Plants in the hotbed should be watered cautiously. An over-supply will often cause the seedlings to "damp off," and a lack of sufficient moisture at the roots will speedily result in injury, if not death. Whenever water is applied, use a sprinkler that throws a fine spray. If thrown on the soil in a stream the water will often wash the smaller plants out of place. It may puzzle one to tell when _just enough_ has been given. This is best determined by an examination of the soil. If moderately moist there is plenty of moisture below. X SMALL GARDENS Many persons who would like to grow flowers and vegetables do not attempt to grow any because they do not consider that they have a place large enough to justify them in doing so. Here is where they make a mistake. A garden need not be a large one to be enjoyable. A few plants are better than none. It is possible to make a bit of garden more satisfactory than a large one because it will be more likely to get more attention than would be given to the larger one, and attention is one of the important features of any successful garden. There will, in the majority of cases, be little nooks and corners here and there about the home grounds in which some plants can be grown by those disposed to make the most of existing conditions. These, if not improved, will be pretty sure to be given over to weeds, or to the accumulation of rubbish of one kind or another, and they will detract from the tidy and clean appearance which should characterize the home everywhere. If the owners of these bits of ground--these possibilities for adding to the attractiveness of home--could be made to realize the amount of pleasure they could be made to afford with very little exertion on their part, the general work of civic improvement societies would be most beneficial, and this would be done at the very place where civic improvement ought to start--the home. There can be no real and lasting improvement in civic undertaking unless the individual home takes up the matter. The civic improvement society that starts out with the idea of improving things generally, but does not begin the good work _at the home_ is working on the idea of making clean the outside of the cup and ignoring the condition inside it. Just as the home is the foundation of society, so must it be made the pivotal point at which any substantial and lasting improvement finds its beginning. Because the scattered places about the small home in which few plants could be grown will not admit of bed-making, or the "designs" which many persons seem to think indispensable in gardening, is no good reason why we should not take advantage of and make the most of them. If one lives in a community where there are German families he will be surprised at the amount of vegetables they grow in each home-lot. Not an inch of soil is allowed to go to waste. A large amount of the food of the family is grown in places which most Americans would overlook, simply because of the prevailing idea that unless one can do things on a large scale it is not worth while to attempt doing anything. The German has been brought up to not "despise the day of small things," and he profits by the advice. As we might, if we would, and, I am glad to say, as more and more are profiting by year by year as they become aware of the fact that much can be done where conditions are limited. I would not advise much mixing of varieties. On the contrary, I would prefer to give over each little piece of ground to one plant. Those of low habit I would have near the path, giving the places back of them to taller-growing kinds. Of course, in the majority of small homes, there is not much chance for exercising a choice in the location of one's flowering or vegetable plants; still, it is well to study the possibilities for general effect, and do all that can be done to secure pleasing results. Where plants that grow to a height of three feet are grown, the best place for them is at the rear, or along the boundary of the lot, where they will serve as a background for plants of lower habit. Children should be encouraged to take an interest in the cultivation of small gardens. They will do this if the parents are willing to help them a little at the start. Show them how to spade up the soil in spring, and how to work it over and over until it is fine and mellow. They will make play of this part of garden work, as it is as natural for a child to dig in the dirt as it is for a pig to wallow in a mud-puddle. Add some kind of fertilizer to the soil, and explain to the boys and girls that it is food for the plants that are to be. Show them how to sow seed, and tell them all you can about the processes of germination, and encourage them to watch for the appearance of the seedlings. In a short time you will have aroused in them such interest in the work they have undertaken that it will be as fascinating to them as a story, and nature will take delight in writing it out for them in daily instalments that constantly increase in interest. The ability to know plants and how to grow them ought to be a part of every child's education. Don't let a bit of ground go to waste. Have flowers and vegetables, even if there isn't room for more than half a dozen plants--or only _one_ plant for that matter, for that one solitary plant will be a great deal better than none at all. XI LEFT-OVERS There are more ways than one to secure fertilizers and fine soil for the small garden. If sward is cut from the roadside, chopped into small pieces, and stored away in some corner of the yard that is convenient to get at, and the soapsuds from wash-day are poured over it each week, it will, in a short time, if stirred frequently, become a most excellent substitute for leaf-mold. The grassroots, when decayed, will become a vegetable fertilizer which will be found extremely valuable in the culture of such plants as require a light, rich soil, especially when small. * * * * * Some quite artistic effects can be secured in the vegetable-garden by the exercise of a little thought. The large-leaved beet has foliage of a dark, rich crimson quite as ornamental as that of many plants used by gardeners to produce the "tropical effects" which many persons admire. When planted in the background, with fine-foliaged plants like carrot or parsley in front of it, the effect will be extremely pleasing because of the contrast of color, and also of habit. The red pepper, planted where it can show its brilliantly colored fruit against the green of some plant, will give a bit of brightness that will not fail to be appreciated by those who have a keen eye for color-harmony. It is well to plan for these touches of the artistic, even in the vegetable garden. * * * * * Tomatoes are often grown on racks and trellises. Where this is done there will be no danger of the fruit's decaying, as is often the case when the plants are given no support and their branches come in contact with the ground. It is a good idea to scatter clean, dry straw under the plants after they begin to set fruit. * * * * * It is also a good plan to pinch off the ends of some of the tomato-vines after the first liberal setting of fruit. This throws the strength of the plant into the development of the fruit that has set, instead of into the production of new branches which are not needed. It also hastens the maturity of it. If the tomato is allowed to do so it will keep on growing and blooming and setting fruit throughout the entire season, and as a natural consequence much of it will be immature when frost comes. It is well to prevent this wasting of the plant's forces by shortening the main branches of it in August and September. * * * * * In the chapter devoted to the mention of the best varieties of vegetables to plant, I neglected to say a good word for sage and summer savory, both of which the housewife will find very useful in seasoning soups, sausage, and other articles of food. If cut when in their prime and hung in the shade to dry, all their flavor will be retained. When perfectly dry, rub the leaves from the stalks, pulverize them well, and store in paper bags to prevent the loss of their flavor. * * * * * Dill and caraway seed are often used in cookery, and, as "variety is the spice of life," it may be well for the housewife to grow a few plants of each. The writer has a very vivid recollection of grandmother's caraway cookies, and many of the present generation declare a liking for pickles flavored with dill. * * * * * To add to the attractive appearance of the table in winter I would advise growing a few plants of the red or purple cabbage to work up in slaws and salads. Beets are capable of giving a bit of color to the table that will be as pleasing to the eye as the taste of this vegetable is delightful to the palate. A root of parsley, potted in fall, will not only afford much material for the garnishing of the various dishes to which the housewife likes to add a touch of this kind, but it can be made the basis of a really beautiful table decoration. A few bright flowers thrust in among its crinkly foliage will be quite as effective as many more pretentious decorative schemes. * * * * * The amateur gardener may begin work with the belief that one crop in a season is all he can expect from his garden. He will soon discover his mistake. The early radishes and the first crop of lettuce will mature before midsummer, and the ground they occupied can be planted to later varieties from which a fully developed second crop can be expected. Or other vegetables, like beets and onions, can be planted where they grew, to furnish material for the pickling season. After the early potatoes have been dug the ground they occupied should not be allowed to lie idle. Something can be planted there for fall use. To make the garden the greatest possible source of profit, not a foot of it should be suffered to go to waste at any time during the growing season. * * * * * Radishes would be well worth growing for their beauty alone. A plate of them, nested in their own green foliage gives the breakfast-table a touch of bright color that adds the charm of beauty to the food with which it is associated. The writer believes in making the table as attractive in appearance as the food on it is toothsome whenever it is possible to do so. * * * * * I notice that I have overlooked the pumpkin. The oversight was unintentional, and I beg the pardon of the vegetable without which the housewife would be "lost" along about Thanksgiving-time. The pumpkin is out of place in the small garden because of its rampant growth, but a few plants of the New England Pie variety should be grown wherever there is room for it, to supply material for the delicious pumpkin pies most of us enjoy so much in winter. Well-ripened specimens keep well when stored in cool, dry cellars, if placed on racks or shelves that will prevent them from coming in contact with the cold, damp cellar-bottom. * * * * * If frost nips the tomato-vines before all their fruit is fully ripened, pull them up and hang them against a wall where the sun can get at them. Hang blankets over them if the nights are cold. Here they will ripen as perfectly as on the vines in the garden, and one can enjoy fresh fruit from them until the coming of very cold weather. * * * * * Before cold weather sets in go over the garden, be it large or small, and gather up every bit of rubbish that can be found. Pull up the dead plants and burn them. Store racks and trellises under cover for use another season. If these are properly taken care of they will last for several years, but if left exposed to the storms of winter they will be short-lived. * * * * * Dig a quantity of parsnips and salsify to be stored in the cellar for winter use. Cover the strawberry-bed with leaves or straw, spreading lightly. Coarse litter from the barn-yard is often used for this purpose, but it is objectionable because of its containing so many weed-seeds. * * * * * Many experienced gardeners advocate plowing or spading the garden in fall. This, they claim, helps to kill the larvæ which insects have deposited in the soil, and it puts the ground in good working condition earlier in spring. But it will have to be gone over in spring to incorporate with it whatever fertilizer is made use of. * * * * * Fresh barn-yard manure should never be used. It ought to lie for at least a season before applying it to the vegetable-garden. Give it a chance to ferment and kill many of the seeds that are in it. * * * * * If the soil of the garden contains considerable clay, and is rather stiff in consequence, the application of coarse sand, old mortar, and coal-ashes will lighten and greatly improve it. * * * * * Do not allow grass or weeds to grow on any of the unused soil in or about the garden, for insects will congregate there and make it the base from which to make their raids upon the plants you set out to grow. * * * * * We are often advised to apply a dressing of salt to the asparagus-bed. I have never been able to see that the plants received any direct benefit from it, but if it is scattered quite thickly over the ground it will prevent weeds from growing, thus benefiting the plants indirectly. * * * * * Asparagus is often attacked by a sporadic growth which causes the foliage to look rusty, hence the term, asparagus-rust. As soon as it is discovered, cut the tops and burn them. If allowed to remain the plants will likely be attacked next season, as the spores are not killed by cold. * * * * * If the bugs and beetles that attack young plants of cucumber, squash, and melon do not yield promptly to the application of dry road-dust, fine coal-ashes, or land-plaster, it may be well to cover frames with fine wire netting, such as door- and window-screens are made from, and put over the plants. Care should be taken to see that these frames fit the ground snugly, or have earth banked up about them, to prevent the enemy from crawling under. After the plants have made their third or fourth leaves the beetle will not be likely to injure them. * * * * * I am often asked why writers on gardening matters never advise the use of home-grown seed. One answer to this query is this: In the ordinary garden plants stand close to one another, and the varieties we grow are almost sure to mix, by one variety being pollenized by another. The seed from these plants will seldom produce plants like either parent variety. Sometimes they may be equal to them in most respects, but we cannot depend on their being so. Therefore, if we desire to grow superior varieties that are of pure blood, it becomes necessary for us to procure fresh seed each season from dealers who take pains to see that there shall be no "mixing" among their plants. * * * * * Every season some enterprising seedsman comes out with an announcement that he has developed or discovered a remarkable new variety of some standard vegetable so far superior to any other variety on the market that, as soon as its merits become fully known, it will drive all competitors out of the field. Of course this new candidate for favor is offered at a fancy price, "because the supply is limited, and the demand for it is increasing to such an extent that the entire stock will soon be sold out. Order at once, to avoid disappointment." Don't be in a hurry to take this advice. Wait until next season. The chances are that you will hear nothing more about it. We have so many very excellent varieties now that there is no reason why we should ask for anything better. If the "novelty" is the possessor of real merit you will be sure to hear about it later, but it is hardly likely to prove an improvement on what we already have, for it is hard to imagine anything superior to the standard varieties of vegetables that we have at present. * * * * * I would not advise purchasing seed at the general store. Some of this may be reliable, but so much of it is inferior that one cannot afford to run the risk of experimenting with it. It is the part of wisdom to purchase where you can feel sure of getting just the variety you want. * * * * * We are likely to have a few frosty nights along about the middle of September. Tender vegetables may be injured if not protected. But if covered with blankets or papers the danger may be tided over, and during the long period of pleasant weather that generally follows these early frosts we can get as much pleasure out of the garden as it afforded during the early fall. It pays to protect. * * * * * The housewife will take a great deal of delight in the preparation of piccalilli, chow-chow, and the various other condiments which have such a stimulating effect on the appetite in early spring, when "that tired feeling" is likely to make a good deal of the food that is placed before us unattractive. In the making of these good things unripe tomatoes and peppers will play an important part. So will onions that are too small to store away for winter use. She will find use for all of these things which a man would consider worthless. Really, there is but little chance for waste of garden productions if there is an appreciative and prudent woman in the kitchen. * * * * * A few roots of horseradish should find a place in all gardens, preferably in some out-of-the-way corner where it can be allowed to spread without interfering with other plants. Spread it will, every little piece of root that is broken off in the ground in digging the large roots becoming an independent plant as soon as thrown upon its own resources. Because of this tendency to "take possession of the land" many persons who have undertaken its culture refuse to give it a place in their gardens. But it is really an easy matter to keep it within the limits assigned it by promptly uprooting any plant that may make its appearance outside the space given over to it. Those who are fond of something pungent and peppery to eat with meats, either hot or cold, will not consent to be without it. It is at its best as soon as the frost is out of the ground sufficiently to admit of its being dug. It should be used as soon as possible after digging, as it loses much of its piquant quality if left exposed to the air for a short time. Roots can be dug in late fall for winter use, and packed in boxes of soil, which should be stored in the cellar or some other place where they can be kept as cool as possible without actually freezing. But in order to have it in perfection roots freshly dug in spring must be depended on. * * * * * Leaves of horseradish make excellent greens if used when green and tender. A few of them cooked with young beets will give the latter a flavor that will make their sweetness all the more appreciable. * * * * * Speaking of greens reminds me to say that the dandelion can be cultivated to advantage in the home garden. Under cultivation it improves in size, and becomes a plant quite unlike the tiny, hundred-leaved specimens we dig from the roadside in spring, of which a bushel will be required in order to secure a good "mess" for a greens-loving family, as most of such a picking will have to be discarded when it is "looked over" preparatory to cooking. In order to prevent the garden-grown dandelion from becoming a nuisance it must not be allowed to bloom and develop seed. * * * * * A most delightful salad can be made from the new growth of the dandelion, in spring, if properly bleached. This can be done by covering the plants with dry leaves as soon as they begin to grow, thus excluding light and inducing rapid development. Or, if most convenient, flower-pots can be inverted over the plants. The small amount of light that comes to them through the drainage-hole in the bottom of the pot will materially assist in hastening the growth of the leaves in such a manner as to give them a crisp tenderness and deprive them of that bitter tang which characterizes the foliage when fully grown under exposure to the light and air. Just enough of this spicy quality to make the salad delightfully appetizing will be found in them when grown in this way. * * * * * Mention has several times been made in the preceding pages of Bordeaux mixture. This is a preparation used by small-fruit growers everywhere to combat diseases of a fungous character which prevail to an alarming extent in almost all sections of the country in early spring. It is a standard remedy for many of the ills that this class of plants is heir to, and no up-to-date orchardist would think for a moment of neglecting its use if he would grow a fine crop of apples. It has not heretofore come into common use among those who grow small fruit on a small scale, because it is rather difficult to prepare it properly, but now a preparation of it that is ready for use by simply mixing it with water can be obtained from all seedsmen. The use of it in spring when fruit is setting, to prevent injury from the curculio and other enemies of small fruits, is to be encouraged. * * * * * Every gardener should be provided with pruning-shears with which to prune whatever plants he or she may grow that require frequent attention of that kind. A jack-knife answers the purpose very well in the hands of a man, but up to the present time no woman is known to have made a success of its use. * * * * * Currant-bushes grow readily from cuttings. Insert a piece of half-ripened wood five or six inches long into the ground and it will almost invariably take root. In order to keep this plant in healthy bearing condition it should be pruned rather severely each season. Cut away all weak wood, and encourage the production of strong new shoots, from which fruit will be borne next season. Remove a good share of the old branches after they have ripened the present season's crop. If this is not done the bush will after a little become crowded with branches, and as all branches, old and new, will attempt to bear, you will be pretty sure to have a production of very inferior fruit, since it will be impossible for the bush to perfect all the berries that set and have them come up to the standard of superiority that should govern the grower. Small currants are good, as far as they go, but the trouble is--they don't go far enough. Many of them will have to be discarded when the housewife makes her selection. * * * * * If the amateur gardener desires to give some of his vegetables an early start, I would advise him to try what may be called the "sod-method" in preference to any other. Sod is cut from roadside or pasture in fall and stacked up in the cellar for use in early spring. When seed is to be sown, invert the piece of sod, and scatter the seed over the surface, which, it will be understood, was _not_ the surface originally. In other words, what _was_ the surface is now the bottom of the piece which receives the seed. When it comes time to put the seedlings out of doors the sod can be cut apart in such a manner that each has its bit of soil, and this can be transferred to the garden without interfering in any way with the roots of the young plant. * * * * * While barn-yard manure--especially that which contains a good deal of cow manure--is one of the very best of all fertilizers, it is not always obtainable, and this makes it necessary to resort to some kind of commercial fertilizer. If one is not familiar with any of these fertilizers he ought not to select at random, as he may get a kind not at all adapted to his requirements. I would advise finding some one who understands the peculiarity of the soil in his locality, and who has had some experience in the use of commercial fertilizers, and being governed by his advice. Experimental knowledge is often expensive, and the use of a fertilizer that is not adapted to the soil in one's garden often ruins a season's crops. * * * * * The ideal support for pea-vines is brush, but not every gardener is able to obtain it. Some persons substitute binder-twine stretched from stake to stake. This answers very well as long as the weather remains dry, but as soon as a rain-storm comes along the twine absorbs so much moisture that it relaxes its tension and sags in such a manner as to endanger the vines which have taken hold of it. Coarse-meshed wire netting will be found much more satisfactory, as it will not sag and cannot be blown down by winds. Care must be taken to see that it _is_ coarse-meshed, as the fine-meshed sorts will not admit of the vine's working its way out and in among the meshes. If a supply of brush can be obtained, use it by all means, and at the end of the pea-season pull it up and store it away in a dry place. If this is done, it can be made to do duty for several seasons. If netting is used, do not allow it to remain out of doors in winter. By untacking it from the stakes which are set for its support, and rolling it up carefully, and storing it away from the storms of winter, it can be made to last a lifetime. * * * * * Don't depend upon home-grown seed. Some of it may be just as good as that which can be bought from reliable seedsmen, but the probabilities are that it is not, because of the tendencies of most plants to "mix." Plants grown from seed saved from the home garden often--and generally--show some of the characteristics of several varieties of the same family, and frequently these characteristics are not the ones we would like to perpetuate. Seedlings from varieties pollenized by other varieties show a decided inclination to revert to original types, and these are in most instances the very characteristics we would like to get away from. It is always advisable to procure fresh seed each season, and to procure it from men who make seed-growing a specialty. * * * * * The housewife who likes to make her table and the food she places upon it as attractive as possible, will do well to pot a few plants of parsley in early fall. Choose for this purpose the smaller plants. Three or four can be put into one pot if the latter is of good size. These can be kept in the kitchen window, where they will be quite as ornamental as most house plants, or they can be kept in the cellar window if frost is prevented from getting to them. From them one can always obtain material for the decoration of roasts and other dishes which require garnishment. * * * * * Squashes and pumpkins will not keep well if stored in very warm places. A room that is just a little above the frost-point is the best place for them. It will be found far superior to a cellar, as the latter is generally more or less damp, and dampness is one of the worst enemies of these vegetables. A cool, dry atmosphere is what they need, and if it can be given them they can be kept in fine condition throughout the entire winter. Care should be taken, in gathering them, to not break their stems. If this is done they frequently decay at the place where stem and vegetable unite, and this condition spreads rapidly to all portions of them. * * * * * The question is frequently asked: Would you advise plowing or spading the garden in fall? If it could have but one season's attention, I would advise giving it in spring. But if the owner of a garden has ample time to devote to it, I would advise plowing or spading in both seasons. Turning up the soil in fall exposes to the elements that portion of it which is most likely to contain worms and insects which have burrowed away for the winter, and it is desirable to make way with as many of these as possible. Stirring the soil in spring will do them very little harm, as the weather will be in their favor. Fall stirring of the soil is also conducive to a greater degree of mellowness than is likely to result from one operation, and that in spring, as the clods of earth that are thrown up disintegrate under the influence of frost and will be in a condition to pulverize easily when spring comes. * * * * * The average gardener doesn't seem to associate the growing of vegetables with an idea of beauty, but he will find, if he looks into the matter, that the vegetable-garden can be made really ornamental. A row of carrots with its feathery green foliage is quite as attractive as many of our decorative plants; and beets, with crimson foliage, are really tropical in their rich coloring. Parsley and lettuce make excellent and ornamental edgings for beds containing other vegetables. Tomatoes, trained to upright trellises, are quite as showy as many kinds of flowers, when their fruit begins to ripen. Peppers work in charmingly with the colorscheme of the vegetable-garden. A little study of garden possibilities will soon convince one that it is an easy matter to make the vegetable-garden as attractive, so far as color is concerned, as the flower-garden is. And while we are at work at gardening, why not make it as attractive as possible? The pleasing appearance of it will lend additional qualities to the fine flavor of its vegetables if we believe that beauty and practicality ought to work in harmony with each other. * * * * * Sage, summer savory, and other garden-grown plants used for seasoning or medicinal purposes should be gathered when in their prime. If one waits until late in the season before cutting them, much of their virtue will have been expended in the ripening process which all plants undergo after they complete their growth. Cut them close to the ground, and tie them in loose bunches, and hang them in a shady place until their moisture has evaporated. Then put them in paper bags and hang away in a store-room or closet for the winter. Plants treated in this way will retain nearly all their original flavor, and be found far superior to the kinds you buy at the store. Cucumbers that have grown to full size should be gathered if not wanted for use, as to allow them to remain on the vines after reaching maturity, and while ripening, materially affects the productiveness of the plants. * * * * * Endive is the basis of one of our best and most wholesome fall and winter salads. When nearly full-grown it must be bleached, like celery. Gather the leaves together and tie them in such a manner as to exclude the light. Do this when they are perfectly dry. If wet or damp they are likely to rot. * * * * * Some gardeners use what is called onion "sets" instead of seed. These "sets" are the result of sowing seed very thickly in spring the season before they are wanted for planting. As soon as their tops die off in summer--as they will if seed was sown thickly enough--store in a dry and airy place, and the following spring replant. By this method large onions are obtained very early in the season. Most market-gardeners depend on "sets" instead of seed. * * * * * Mention has been made of a few of our pot and medicinal plants. Here is a larger list for those who are interested in plants of this kind: balm, sweet basil, caraway, catnip, camomile, coriander, dill, pennyroyal, peppermint, saffron, tansy, and wormwood. Our grandmothers had unlimited faith in the medicinal qualities of some of these plants, and many a mother will be glad to know that she has a stock of some of them stored away for winter use when colds and coughs are prevalent among children or grown people. Some of the old home remedies are far preferable to those we are accustomed to using, as they are harmless, if they do no good, which is something that cannot be said of most drugs that are taken into the system. * * * * * Don't wait for the currant-worm to show itself on your bushes. You can safely count on its coming. Act on the defensive in advance by spraying your plants thoroughly with an infusion of Nicoticide, keeping in mind the fact that it is easier to prevent an insect from establishing itself on your plants than it is to get rid of it when it has secured a foothold there. In spraying, be sure that the infusion gets to all parts of the bush. Throw it up well among the branches. Simply spraying it over the plant isn't what is needed. It must reach the under side of the foliage, and all parts where insects and other enemies might hide away and escape contact with the infusion used. * * * * * When the small-fruit plants in your garden show evidence of having outlived their usefulness, don't try to renew them, but dig them up and plant new ones. You cannot make a satisfactory plant out of one that has begun to show age. It is a good plan to set a few new plants each season. If this is done there need be no gap in the fruit-supply, as there will always be some coming on to take the places of those whose days of usefulness are over. Too often we neglect our gardens until they are in such a debilitated condition that we get but slight returns from them, and then we set to work to make them all over, and in this way we fail to get as much out of them as we ought to. By planting something each season we keep them up to bearing-point, and have no "off seasons." * * * * * I wonder how many housewives who may read this little book have ever dried sweet-corn for winter use. Not many, I think. But if they were to do so one season I am quite confident that thereafter they would not willingly be without a generous supply of it, for it will be found far more delicious than the ordinary canned article. In drying it, some cook it for a few minutes, and then cut it from the cob and spread it out on plates to dry. Others do not think it worth while to cook it, but cut it from the cob as soon as gathered, and dry it by first putting it in the oven for a few minutes before exposing it to the sun to dry. The little time in the oven is equivalent to the partial cooking spoken of. Turn it on the plates on which it is spread every day, and do not consider it dry enough to store away until it appears to have parted with all its moisture. Then put it into paper bags or glass jars, and set away in a cool, dark place to remain until you desire to use it. Soak it for two or three hours before putting it on the stove to cook. When properly cooked it will be tender and have a more delicious flavor than canned corn. The generous use of butter and cream will make it a dish that is fit to set before a king. * * * * * Those who happen to live in places where it is not possible to have cellars, because of low ground, can have places in which to store vegetables for winter use that are really preferable to the ordinary cellar, by constructing what might be called above-ground pits, for want of a better name. Build up a wall four or five feet high, and bank up about it with so much earth that frost cannot penetrate it. Cover with a roof that will keep out cold and rain. Have a doorway opening into it from an entry built after the fashion of the little storm-vestibules we put over the front doors of our dwellings in winter. In other words, an entry into which we can step and close one door behind us before we open the one that lets us into the place where our vegetables are. Such a room can be constructed with but little expense. Because of its being above ground it will be drier than a cellar, and in the majority of cases it will be more convenient to get at. It should be boarded up with a good quality of matched boarding, and its walls should be lined with two or three thicknesses of sheathing paper put on in such a manner as to show no cracks or openings. * * * * * The best place for a vegetable-garden is where the soil is naturally well drained and where there is a slope to the south. Such a slope enables it to get the full benefit of sunshine, and sunshine, it will be found, is an important factor in successful gardening. If such an exposure is out of the question, aim to make conditions as favorable as possible. A closely boarded fence on the north side of a garden affords excellent protection from cold winds early in the season, and helps greatly in keeping away frost in fall, when many plants are maturing. Mention is made in the above paragraph of good drainage. This is quite important. If the soil of a garden is _not_ well drained, many kinds of vegetables cannot be grown in it, and few will attain to even a partial degree of success. Therefore see to it that by ditching, or the use of tile, all surplus water is properly disposed of. Much good can be done to a heavy soil by adding to it sharp, coarse sand, old mortar--anything that will have a tendency to counteract the heaviness resulting from undue retention of water or a naturally too close character of soil. If sand is obtainable, and your garden is one in which clay predominates, use it in generous quantities. You will find it as beneficial as manure. Spread it over the surface before plowing or spading, and work it in thoroughly. A few seasons' application will bring about a very marked change for the better in any garden whose soil cannot be made fine and mellow without the addition of some disintegrating matter. Good drainage must be secured in order to grow good vegetables, and the use of tile will be found a most effective remedy for the evil of a soil unduly retentive of moisture. * * * * * In almost all localities there will be families who have no garden, but who would make liberal use of vegetables if they were easily procurable. There is a chance for boys and girls to earn an "honest penny." If it is found that there is likely to be more in the home garden than the family can make use of, canvass the neighborhood for customers for the probable surplus. It will be found an easy matter to dispose of it. I know several amateur child gardeners who secure enough in this way to pay for all the seed they need. Some of them have regular customers each season, and gardening begins to look to them like a profitable occupation. I don't know that they will become professional gardeners, but they will be learning something as well as earning something while they are fitting themselves for whatever occupation in life they may decide on, and what they learn in the garden will be of benefit in after-life in more ways than one. Don't neglect to save everything that can be made use of for fertilizing purposes. In many a home the "suds" of washing-day are disposed of as worthless. If applied to growing things in the garden they will often prove as beneficial as the application of a fertilizer that costs quite a little sum of money. Especially is this the case if the season happens to be a dry one. If there does not seem to be a need of more moisture in the soil on wash-day, save the soapy water against a time of need. It will be sure to "come handy" during the season. Some families are so unfortunate as to have no cellar. Few vegetables can be kept well, or for a great length of time, in ordinary rooms, unless something is done to modify the conditions usually existing there. If a large box is filled with dry sand, potatoes, parsnips, salsify, beets, and carrots can be buried in it and made to retain their freshness for an indefinite period. Of course this storage-box should be kept as far as possible from artificial heat, and no dampness should be allowed to come in contact with it, as sand absorbs moisture almost as readily as a sponge, and the satisfactory keeping of the vegetables named depends upon dryness more than anything else. The lower the temperature of the place in which vegetables are stored the better, provided it never gets below the freezing-point. Where boxes of sand are used, slight freezings are not likely to seriously injure vegetables, as the sand extracts the frost so gradually that but little harm is done. But hard freezing must be guarded against or premature decay will result. It is an excellent plan to bury some of the vegetables named above in a dry place in the garden, for use in spring. They will be found as fresh and crisp as when put into the ground, if covered deep enough to protect them from frost. XII HEALTH IN THE GARDEN. A CHAPTER EXPRESSLY FOR WOMEN READERS The writer of this book often finds women who seem "all run down," without being able to tell of any positive physical ailment. Inquiry generally develops the fact that they have overworked; that they have been confined to the house the greater part of the time, busy with household matters, and that in caring for others they have neglected to care for themselves. Though I am not an M.D. I take the liberty of prescribing for patients of this class. My prescription is a course of treatment in the garden. I insist on their getting out of doors, where the air is pure, and the sunshine bright and warm, and Nature is waiting to give her pleasant companionship to whoever signifies a desire to make her acquaintance. There is health in the garden. But because one has to dig for it some persons prefer to keep on enjoying their old miserableness day after day and year after year. These are the incurables--the "chronic" cases that one cannot expect to do much with or for. But those who are willing to exert themselves in an effort to get back the tone that life has lost to a considerable extent will find that work in the garden is a better tonic than our doctors have a record of in their pharmacopoeia. The earth fairly tingles with life in spring, and by putting ourselves in contact with it we absorb some of this vitality. We breathe in the wine of a _new_ life, and we thrill with a thousand sensations that can come only from putting ourselves in close touch with Nature. You can tell a woman who needs a change from indoors to outdoors that she ought to take more exercise, but if you advise walking the chances are that she won't walk much. That kind of exercise doesn't appeal to her, and to make whatever kind of exercise she takes effective it must be something that affords her pleasure--something that she enjoys more than she does doing things from a "_sense of duty_," or simply because she has been _told_ to do it. What is needed is some form of exercise that has _an object in it_--a definite object, rather than the more or less abstract one of "regaining health." Give her a few packages of seeds and arouse in her the enthusiasm to have a garden and she will get the very best kind of exercise out of her attempt to carry out the plan, and the "definite object"--in other words, the garden--that she has in mind will keep her so delightfully busy that she will forget all about the health-features of the undertaking until it dawns upon her with startling suddenness some fine day that she "has got her health back." How or when it came she cannot tell you. All she knows is that she feels like a new woman. After that there will be no necessity to repeat the prescription, for one year's half-way successful work in the garden fixes "the garden habit" for all time. Nothing else can afford so much pleasure and exercise in happy combination as gardening, or exert a greater fascination over the person who allows herself to come under its influence. I cannot begin to tell you what wonderful and delightful things I have learned in the garden. It is like having the Book of Nature opened before you and being taught its lore by the book's own author. You see magical things taking place about you every day, and every day there are more of them, to set you thinking and wondering. You may work until you are tired, but you do not realize physical wear and tear because your mind has something else that it considers of greater importance to busy itself over. Only after the work of the day is done will you become conscious of physical weariness, and then it is that you find out what the luxury of rest is; to fully appreciate rest we must first understand what it is to be really tired. Lassitude, ennui--these do not give us a knowledge of genuine tiredness, therefore we are not in a condition to receive the full benefit of that rest which means a reaction of the physical system until we have done some kind of work that makes reaction necessary in order to establish a normal equilibrium. The rest that comes after getting really tired is so full of delightful sensations that we admit to ourselves that it is richly worth the price we have to pay for it. There is a subtle charm about garden work from its very beginning. The seed we sow has a mystery wrapped up in it. The processes of germination are as fascinating as a fairytale. The development of the tiny seedling is a source of constant wonder to us. We watch for the first bud with eager impatience, and it has to be on the alert if it succeeds in opening without our being on hand to observe the performance. Spring begins the story, summer carries it forward, and autumn seems to complete it, but there is always the promise of the retelling of the story another year to keep us interested from the end of one season to the coming of another. Garden work is a sort of thousand and one days' entertainment, in which the interest is continually kept up--always something to look forward to--always something new. The woman who grows weary over the monotony of household duties, but cannot put them entirely aside, will find relaxation in the garden. The change will rest her. And the woman who has no household duties to claim her attention needs something to get interested in. Both will find the necessary stimulus in growing flowers. But in order to do this it must not be "played at." Set about it because you mean to accomplish something. A week after you have begun in earnest you will find yourself looking forward impatiently to the hour that takes you out of doors. You will forget about the gloves that you probably provided yourself with at the outset. You won't be bothered with veils. Tan will have no terrors for you. You will look upon dirt as something pleasing because you begin to see the possibilities in it. You will go back to the house with an appetite that makes plain bread and butter delicious. Have a garden. And do all the work in it yourself. That's the secret of the benefit you are to get out of it. THE END TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE -Plain print and punctuation errors fixed. 
47232	----	provided by the Internet Archive [Illustration: 006] [Illustration: 007] THE BOOK OF ROSES By Francis Parkman Boston J. E. Tilton And Company. 1871. INTRODUCTION |IT IS needless to eulogize the Rose. Poets from Anacreon and Sappho, and earlier than they, down to our own times, have sung its praises; and yet the rose of Grecian and of Persian song, the rose of troubadours and minstrels, had no beauties so resplendent as those with which its offspring of the present day embellish our gardens. The "thirty sorts of rose," of which John Parkinson speaks in 1629, have multiplied to thousands. New races have been introduced from China, Persia, Hindostan, and our own country; and these, amalgamated with the older families by the art of the hybridist, have produced still other forms of surpassing variety and beauty. This multiplication and improvement are still in progress. The last two or three years have been prolific beyond precedent in new roses; and, with all regard for old favorites, it cannot be denied, that, while a few of the roses of our forefathers still hold their ground, the greater part are cast into the shade by the brilliant products of this generation. In the production of new roses, France takes the lead. A host of cultivators great and small--Laffay, Vibert, Verdier, Margottin, Trouillard, Portemer, and numberless others--have devoted themselves to the pleasant art of intermarrying the various families and individual varieties of the rose, and raising from them seedlings whose numbers every year may be counted by hundreds of thousands. Of these, a very few only are held worthy of preservation; and all the rest are consigned to the rubbish heap. The English, too, have of late done much in raising new varieties; though their climate is less favorable than that of France, and their cultivators less active and zealous in the work. Some excellent roses, too, have been produced in America. Our climate is very favorable to the raising of seedlings, and far more might easily be accomplished here. In France and England, the present rage for roses is intense. It is stimulated by exhibitions, where nurserymen, gardeners, landed gentlemen, and reverend clergymen of the Established Church, meet in friendly competition for the prize. While the French excel all others in the production of new varieties, the English are unsurpassed in the cultivation of varieties already known; and nothing can exceed the beauty and perfection of some of the specimens exhibited at their innumerable rose-shows. If the severity of our climate has its disadvantages, the clearness of our air and the warmth of our summer sun more than counterbalance them; and it is certain that roses can be raised here in as high perfection, to say the very least, as in any part of Europe. The object of this book is to convey information. The earlier portion will describe the various processes of culture, training, and propagation, both in the open ground and in pots; and this will be followed by an account of the various families and groups of the rose, with descriptions of the best varieties belonging to each. A descriptive list will be added of all the varieties, both of old roses and those most recently introduced, which are held in esteem by the experienced cultivators of the present day. The chapter relating to the classification of roses, their family relations, and the manner in which new races have arisen by combinations of two or more old ones, was suggested by the difficulties of the writer himself at an early period of his rose studies. The want of such explanations, in previous treatises, has left their readers in a state of lamentable perplexity on a subject which might easily have been made sufficiently clear. Books on the rose, written for the climates of France or England, will, in general, greatly mislead the cultivators here. Extracts will, however, be given from the writings of the best foreign cultivators, in cases where experience has shown that their directions are applicable to the climate of the Northern and Middle States. The writer having been for many years a cultivator of the rose, and having carefully put in practice the methods found successful abroad, is enabled to judge with some confidence of the extent to which they are applicable here, and to point out exceptions and modifications demanded by the nature of our climate. Among English writers on the rose, the best are Paul, Rivers, and more recently Cranston, together with the vivacious Mr. Radclyffe, a clergyman, a horticulturist, an excellent amateur of the rose, and a very amusing contributor to the "Florist." In France, Deslongchamps and several able contributors to the "Revue Horticole" are the most prominent. From these sources the writer of this book drew the instructions and hints which at first formed the basis of his practice; but he soon found that he must greatly modify it in accordance with American necessities. There was much to be added, much to be discarded, and much to be changed; and the results to which he arrived are given, as compactly as possible, in the following pages. Jan. 1,1866. [Illustration: 0018] [Illustration: 0019] CHAPTER I. OPEN AIR CULTURE [Illustration: 0021] |THE ROSE requires high culture. This belle of the parterre, this "queen of flowers," is a lover of rich fare, and refuses to put forth all her beauties on a meagre diet. Roses, indeed, will grow and bloom in any soil; but deficient nourishment will reduce the size of the flowers, and impair the perfection of their form. Of all soils, one of a sandy or gravelly nature is the worst; while, on the other hand, a wet and dense clay is scarcely better. A rich, strong, and somewhat heavy garden loam, abundantly manured, is the soil best adapted to all the strong-growing roses; while those of more delicate growth prefer one pro-portionably lighter. Yet roses may be grown to perfection in any soil, if the needful pains are taken. We will suppose an extreme case: The grower wishes to plant a bed of roses on a spot where the soil is very poor and sandy. Let him mark out his bed, dig the soil to the depth of eighteen inches? throw out the worst portion of it, and substitute in its place a quantity of strong, heavy loam: rotted sods, if they can be had, will be an excellent addition; and so, also, will decayed leaves. Then add a liberal dressing of old stable manure: that taken from a last year's hot-bod will do admirably. It is scarcely possible to enrich too highly. One-fourth manure to three-fourths soil is not an excessive proportion. Now incorporate the whole thoroughly with a spade, level the top, and your bed is ready. Again: we will suppose a case, equally bad, but of the opposite character. Here the soil is very wet, cold, and heavy. The first step is to drain it. This may be done thoroughly with tiles, after the approved methods; or, if this is too troublesome or expensive, simpler means may be used, which will, in most situations, prove as effectual. Dig a hole about five feet deep and four feet wide at the lower side of your intended bed of roses: in this hole place an inverted barrel, with the head knocked out; or, what is better, an old oil cask. In the latter case, a hole should be bored in it, near the top, to permit the air to escape. Fill the space around the cask or barrel with stones, and then cover the whole with earth. If your bed is of considerable extent, a drain, laid in stone or tile, should be made under or beside the bed, at the depth of three feet, and so constructed as to lead to the sunken barrel. Throw out, if necessary, a portion of the worst soil of the bed, substituting light loam, rotted leaves, and coarse gritty sand. Then add an abundance of old stable manure, as in the former case. In the great majority of gardens, however, such pains are superfluous. Any good garden soil, deeply dug, and thoroughly enriched, will grow roses in perfection. Neither manure nor the spade should be spared. Three conditions are indispensable,--sun, air, and exemption from the invasion of the roots of young growing trees. These last are insidious plunderers and thieves, which invade the soil, and rob its lawful occupants of the stores of nutriment provided for them. A rose planted on the shady side of a grove of elm or maple trees is in one of the worst possible of situations. If, however, the situation is in other respects good, the evil of the invading roots may be cured for a time by digging a trench, three feet deep, between the trees and the bed of roses; thus cutting off the intruders. The trench may then be filled up immediately; but, if the trees are vigorous, it must be dug over again the following year. It is much better to choose, at the outset, an airy, sunny situation, at a reasonable distance from growing trees; but, at the same time, a spot exposed to violent winds should be avoided, as they are very injurious and exhausting. [Illustration: 0024] Roses may be planted either in spring or in autumn. In the Northern States, the severity of the winter demands some protection, when planted in autumn, for all except the old, hardy varieties. Plant as early as possible, that the roots may take some hold on the soil before winter closes. October, for this reason, is better than November. The best protection is earth heaped around the stem to the height of from six inches to a foot. Pine, cedar, or spruce boughs are also excellent. When earth alone is used, the top of the rose is often frost-killed; but this is usually of no consequence, the growth and bloom being only more vigorous for this natural pruning. Dry leaves heaped among or around the roses, and kept down by sticks or pieces of board, or by earth thrown on them, are also good protectors. In spring, plant as early as the soil is in working order; that is to say, as soon as it is dry enough not to adhere in lumps to the spade. In planting, prune back the straggling roots with a sharp knife, but save as many of the small fibres as possible. If you plant in spring, prune back the stem at least half way to the ground; but, if you plant in autumn, by all means defer this operation till the winter is over. The ground around autumn-planted roses should be trodden down in the spring, since the plant will have been somewhat loosened in its place by the effect of frost; but this treading must not take place until the soil has become free from excessive moisture. Budded roses require a peculiar treatment in planting, which we shall describe when we come to speak of them. [Illustration: 0025] Next to soil and situation, pruning is the most important point of attention to the rose-grower. Long treatises have been written on it, describing in detail different modes applicable to different classes of roses, and confusing the amateur by a multitude of perplexing particulars. One principle will cover most of the ground: _Weaklygrowing roses should be severely pruned: those of vigorous growth should be pruned but little_. Or, to speak more precisely, _roses should be pruned in inverse proportion to the vigor of their growth._ Much, however, depends on the object at which the grower aims. If he wishes for a profusion of bloom, without regard to the size and perfection of individual flowers, then comparatively little pruning is required. If, on the other hand, he wishes for blooms of the greatest size and perfection, without regard to number, he will prune more closely. The pruning of any tree or shrub at a time when vegetation is dormant acts as a stimulus to its vital powers. Hence, when it is naturally vigorous, it is urged by close pruning to such a degree of growth, that it has no leisure to bear flowers, developing instead a profusion of leaves and branches. The few flowers which it may produce under such circumstances, will, however, be unusually large. The most vigorous growers among roses are the climbers, such as the "Boursaults" and the "Prairies." These require very little pruning: first, because of their vigor; and, secondly, because quantity rather than quality of bloom is asked of them. The old and dry wood should be cut wholly away, leaving the strong young growth to take its place, with no other pruning than a clipping-off of the ends of side-shoots, and a thinning-out of crowded or misshapen branches. In all roses, it is the young, well-ripened wood that bears the finest flowers. Old enfeebled wood, or unripe, soft, and defective young wood, should always be removed. Next in vigor to the climbers are some of the groups of hardy June roses; such, for example, as those called the Hybrid China roses. These are frequently grown on posts or pillars; in which case they require a special treatment, to be indicated hereafter. We are now supposing them to be grown as bushes in the garden or on the lawn. Cut out the old wood, and the weak, unripe, and sickly shoots, as well as those which interfere with others; then shorten the remaining stems one-third, and cut back the side-shoots to three or four buds. This is on the supposition that a full mass of bloom is required, without much regard to the development of individual flowers. If quality rather than quantity of bloom is the desideratum, the pruning both of the main stems and of the side-shoots must be considerably shorter. Roses of more moderate growth, including the greater part of the June, Moss, Hybrid Perpetual, and Bourbon roses, require a proportionally closer pruning. The stems may be cut down to half their length, and the side-shoots shortened to two buds. All the weak-growing roses, of whatever class, may be pruned with advantage even more closely than this. Some of the weak-growing Hybrid Perpetuals grow and bloom best when shortened to within four or five buds of the earth. The stronggrowing kinds, on the contrary, if pruned thus severely, would grow with great vigor, but give very few flowers. The objects of pruning are threefold: first, to invigorate the plant; secondly, to improve its flowers; and, thirdly, to give it shape and proportion. This last object should always be kept in view by the operator. No two stems should be allowed to crowd each other. A mass of matted foliage is both injurious and unsightly. Sun and air should have access to every part of the plant. Six or seven stems are the utmost that should be allowed to remain, even on old established bushes; and these, as before mentioned, should be strong and well ripened, and should also be disposed in such a manner, that, when the buds have grown into shoots and leaves, the bush will have a symmetrical form. In young bushes, three, or even two, good stems are sufficient. Pruning in summer, when the plant is in active growth, has an effect contrary to that of pruning when it is in a dormant state. Far from increasing its vigor, it weakens it, by depriving it of a portion of its leaves, which are at once its stomach and its lungs. Only two kinds of summer pruning can be recommended. The first consists in the removal of small branches which crowd their neighbors, and interfere with them: the second is confined to the various classes of Perpetual roses, and consists merely in cutting off the faded flowers, together with the shoots on which they grow, to within three or four buds of the main stem. This greatly favors their tendency to bloom again later in the summer. When old wood is cut away, it should be done cleanly, without leaving a protruding stump. A small saw will sometimes be required for this purpose; though in most cases a knife, or, what is more convenient, a pair of sharp pruning-shears, will be all that the operator requires. [Illustration: 0029] When roses are trained to cover walls, trellises, arches, or pillars, the main stems are encouraged to a strong growth. These form the permanent wood; while the side-shoots, more or less pruned back, furnish the flowers. For arbors, walls, or very tall pillars, the strongest growers are most suitable, such as the Prairie, Boursault, and Ayrshire roses. Enrich the soil strongly, and dig deep and widely. Choose a healthy young rose, and, in planting, cut off all the stems close to the earth. During the season, it will make a number of strong young shoots. In the following spring cut out half of them, leaving the strongest, which are to be secured against the wall, or over the arbor, diverging like a fan or otherwise, as fancy may suggest. The subsequent pruning is designed chiefly to regulate the growth of the rose, encouraging the progress of the long leading shoots until they have reached the required height, and removing side-shoots where they are too thick. Where a vacant space occurs, a strong neighboring shoot may be pruned back in spring to a single eye. This will stimulate it to a vigorous growth, producing a stem which will serve to fill the gap. Of the young shoots, which, more or less, will rise every season from the root, the greater part should be cut away, reserving two or three to take the place of the old original stems when these become weak by age. When these climbing roses are used for pillars, they may either be trained vertically, or wound in a spiral form around the supporting column. Roses of more moderate growth are often trained to poles or small pillars from six to twelve feet high. Some of the Hybrid China roses are, as before mentioned, well adapted to this use; and even some of the most vigorous Moss roses, such as _Princess Adelaide_, may be so trained. Where a pole is used, two stems are sufficient. These should be examined, and cut back to the first strong and plump bud, removing the weaker buds always found towards the extremity of a stem. Then let the stems so pruned lie flat on the earth till the buds break into leaf, after which they are to be tied to the pole. If they were tied up immediately, the sap, obeying its natural tendency, would flow upward, expanding the highest bud, and leaving many of those below dormant, so that a portion of the stem would be bare. (The same course of proceeding may be followed with equal advantage in the case of wall and trellis roses.) The highest bud now throws up a strong leading shoot, while the stem below becomes furnished with an abundance of small side-shoots. In the following spring, the leading shoot is to be pruned back to the first strong bud, and the treatment of the previous year repeated. By pursuing this process, the pillar may, in the course of two or three years, be enveloped from the ground to the summit with a mass of leaves and blossoms. These and all other rose-pruning operations are, in the Northern States, best effected in March, or the end of February; since roses pruned in autumn are apt to be severely injured and sometimes killed by the severity of our winters. [Illustration: 0032] Nothing is more beneficial to roses than a frequent digging and stirring of the soil around them. The surface should never be allowed to become hard, but should be kept light and porous by hoeing or forking several times in the course of the season. A yearly application of manure will be of great advantage. It may be applied in the autumn or in the spring, and forked in around the plants. Cultivators who wish to obtain the finest possible blooms sometimes apply liquid manure early in the summer, immediately after the flower-buds are formed. This penetrates at once to the roots, and takes immediate effect on the growing bud. [Illustration: 0033] The amateur may perhaps draw some useful hints from an experiment made by the writer in cultivating roses, with a view to obtaining the best possible individual flowers. A piece of land about sixty feet long by forty wide was "trenched" throughout to the depth of two feet and a half, and enriched with three layers of manure. The first was placed at eighteen inches from the surface; the second, at about nine inches; and the third was spread on the surface itself, and afterwards dug in. The virgin soil was a dense yellow loam of considerable depth; and, by the operation of "trenching," it was thoroughly mixed and incorporated with the black surface soil. Being too stiff and heavy, a large quantity of sandy road-scrapings was laid on with the surface-dressing of manure. When the ground was prepared, the roses were planted in rows. They consisted of Hardy June, Moss, Hybrid Perpetual, Bourbon, and a few of the more hardy Noisette roses. They were planted early in spring, and cut back at the same time close to the ground. Many of the Perpétuais and Bourbons flowered the first season, and all grew with a remarkable vigor. In November, just before the ground froze, a spadesman, working backward midway between the rows, dug a trench of the depth and width of his spade, throwing the earth in a ridge upon the roots of the roses as he proceeded. This answered a double purpose. The ridge of earth protected the roots and several inches of the stems, while the trench acted as a drain. In the spring, the earth of the ridge was drawn back into the trench with a hoe, and the roses pruned with great severity; some of the weak-growing Perpetuals and Mosses being cut to within two inches of the earth, and all the weak and sickly stems removed altogether. The whole ground was then forked over. The bloom was abundant, and the flowers of uncommon size and symmetry. Had the pruning been less severe, the mass of bloom would have been greater, but the individual flowers by no means of so good quality. [Illustration: 0034] Of budded roses we shall speak hereafter, in treating of propagation. There is one kind, however, which it will be well to notice here. In England and on the Continent, it is a common practice to bud roses on tall stems or standards of the Dog Rose, or other strong stock, sometimes at a height of five feet or more from the ground. The head of bloom thus produced has a very striking effect, especially when the budded rose is of a variety with long slender shoots, adapted to form what is called a "weeper." [Illustration: 0035] In France, standard roses are frequently planted near together in circular or oval beds, the tallest stems being in the centre, and the rest diminishing in regular gradation to the edge of the bed, which is surrounded with dwarf roses. Thus a mound or hill of bloom is produced with a very striking and beautiful effect. Unfortunately, the severe cold and sudden changes of the Northern States, and especially of New England, are very unfavorable to standard roses. The hot sun scorches and dries the tall, bare stem; and the sharp cold of winter frequently kills, and in almost every case greatly injures, the budded rose at the top. It is only by using great and very troublesome precaution that standards can here be kept in a thriving condition. This may be done most effectually by cutting or loosening the roots on one side, laying the rose flat on the ground, and covering it during winter under a ridge of earth. Some protection of the stem from the hot sun of July and August can hardly be dispensed with. With regard to the mounds of standard roses first mentioned, it is scarcely worth while to attempt them here; but a very good substitute is within our reach. By choosing roses with a view to their different degrees of vigor,--planting the tall and robust kinds in the middle, and those of more moderate growth in regular gradation around them,--we may imitate the French mounds without the necessity of employing standards. Of course it will require time, and also judicious pruning, to perfect such a bed of roses; but, when this is done, it will be both a beautiful and permanent ornament of the lawn or garden. [Illustration: 0038] A new mode of growing roses, so as to form a tall pyramid instead of a standard, has been recently introduced in England. Instead of inserting buds at the top of the stem only, they are inserted at intervals throughout its whole length, thus clothing it with verdure and flowers. By this means it is effectually protected from the sun, and one of the dangers which in our climate attend standard roses is averted. The following directions are copied from a late number of the "Gardener's Chronicle:"-- "Some strong two-years-old stocks of the Manetti Rose should be planted in November, in a piece of ground well exposed to sun and air. The soil should have dressings of manure, and be stirred to nearly two feet in depth. In the months of July and August of the following year, they will be in a fit state to bud. They should have one bud inserted in each stock close to the ground. The sort to be chosen for this preliminary budding is a very old Hybrid China Rose, called Madame Pisaroni; a rose with a most vigorous and robust habit, which, budded on strong Manet-ti stocks, will often make shoots from six to seven feet in length, and stout and robust in proportion. In the month of February following, the stocks in which are live buds should be all cut down to within six inches of the bud. In May, the buds will begin to shoot vigorously: if there are more shoots than one from each bud, they must be removed, leaving only one, which in June should be supported with a slight stake, or the wind may displace it. "By the end of August, this shoot ought to be from five to six feet in height, and is then in a proper state for budding to form a pyramid. Some of the most free-growing and beautiful of the Hybrid Perpetual roses should be selected, and budded on these stems in the following manner: Commence about nine inches from the ground, inserting one bud; then on the opposite side of the stock, and at the same distance from the lower bud, insert another; and then at the same distance another and another; so that buds are on all sides of the tree up to about five feet in height, which, in the aggregate, may amount to nine buds. "You will thus have formed the foundation of a pyramid. I need scarcely add that the shoots from the stock must be carefully removed during the growing season, so as to throw all its strength into the buds. It will also be advisable to pinch in the three topmost buds rather severely the first season, or they will, to use a common expression, draw up the sap too rapidly, and thus weaken the lower buds. In the course of a year or two, magnificent pyramids may thus be formed, their stems completely covered with foliage, and far surpassing any thing yet seen in rose culture." [Illustration: 0040] Another new method of culture is put forward in recent French and English journals, and is said to have proved very successful, increasing both the size of the flowers and the period of bloom. I cannot speak of it from trial; but, as it may be found worth an experiment, I extract from the "Florist and Pomologist" the account there given of the process by a Mr. Perry, who was one of the first to practise it. He says,-- "As I have now spoken of the advantages attendant upon this mode of training, I will proceed to explain the method of carrying it out. I will suppose that the plants are well established, and are either on their own roots, or budded low on the Manetti (the former I prefer). The operation of bending and pegging-down should be performed in the month of March, or early in April. All the small growth should be cut clean away, and the ends of the strong shoots cut off to the extent only of a few inches. These shoots should then be carefully bent to the ground, and fastened down by means of strong wooden pegs, sufficiently stout to last the season, and to retain the branches in their proper positions. Care must be taken that the branches do not split off at the base; but the operator will soon perceive which is the best and easiest mode of bending the tree to his wishes. Many shoots will spring up from the base of the plants, too strong to produce summer blooms; but most of them will gratify the cultivator will such noble flowers in the autumn that will delight the heart of any lover of this queen of flowers. These branches will be the groundwork for the next year. I have recently been engaged in cutting all the old wood away which last season did such good duty, and am now furnished with an ample supply of snoots from four to eight feet high, which, if devoid of leaves, would strongly remind me of fine raspberry-canes, and which, by their appearance, promise what they will do for the forthcoming season. I would suggest that these long shoots should now be merely bundled together, and a stake put to each plant, so as to prevent their being injured by the wind. In this state let them remain until the latter end of March, and then proceed as I have before mentioned. I feel convinced, that, when this method of pegging-down and dwarfing stronggrowing roses becomes generally known, many of the justly esteemed and valuable robust show varieties will occupy the position in our flower-gardens they are justly entitled to." [Illustration: 0042] A good soil, a good situation, free air and full sun, joined with good manuring, good pruning, and good subsequent culture, will prevent more diseases than the most skilful practitioner would ever be able to cure. There are certain diseases, however, to which roses, under the best circumstances, are more or less liable. Of these, the most common, and perhaps the worst, is mildew. It consists in the formation on the leaves and stems of û sort of minute fungus, sometimes presenting the appearance of a white frost. Though often thought to be the result of dampness, it frequently appears in the dryest weather. Many of the Bourbon roses, and those of the Hybrid Perpétuais nearest akin to the Bourbons, are peculiarly liable to it. In the greenhouse, the best remedy is sulphur, melted and evaporated at a heat not high enough to cause it to burn. In the open air, the flour of sulphur may be sifted over the diseased plants. English florists use a remedy against mildew and other kinds of fungus, which is highly recommended, but of which I cannot speak from trial. It consists in syringing the plants affected with a solution of two ounces of blue vitriol dissolved in a largo stable bucket of water. The worst enemies of the rose belong to the insect world. Of these there are four, which, in this part of the country, cause far more mischief than all the rest combined. The first is the aphis, or green fly; the second is the rose-slug, or larva of the saw-fly; the third is the leaf-hopper, sometimes called the thrip; and the fourth is the small beetle, popularly called the rose-bug. The first three are vulnerable, and can be got rid of by using the right means. The slug is a small, green, semi-transparent grub, which appears on the leaves of the rose about the middle of June, eats away their vital part, and leaves nothing but a brown skeleton, till at length the whole bush looks as if burned. The aphis clings to the ends of young shoots, and sucks out their sap. It is prolific beyond belief, and a single one will soon increase to thousands. Both are quickly killed by a solution of whale-oil soap, or a strong decoction of tobacco, which should be applied with a syringe in the morning or evening, as the application of any liquid to the leaves of a plant under the hot sun is always injurious. The same remedy will kill the leaf-hopper, which, being much more agile than the others, is best assailed on a cold day, when its activity is to some degree chilled out of it. Both sides of the leaves should be syringed, and the plant thoroughly saturated with the soap or tobacco-water. Two thorough and well-timed applications will suffice to destroy the year's crop of slugs. The rose-bug is endowed with a constitution which defies tobacco and soap; and, though innumerable remedies have been proposed, we know no better plan than to pick them off the bushes by hand, or, watching a time when they are chilled with cold, to shake them off upon a cloth laid on the ground beneath. In either case, sure work should be made of them by scalding or crushing them to death. The following account of the rose-bug and the slug is from Dr. Harris's work on "Insects Injurious to Vegetation:"-- "The saw-fly of the rose, which, as it does not seem to have been described before, may be called _Selandria Rosae_, from its favorite plant, so nearly resembles the slug-worm saw-fly as not to be distinguished therefrom except by a practised observer. It is also very much like _Selandria barda, Vitis_, and _pygmaea_, but has not the red thorax of these three closely-allied species. It is of a deep and shining black color. The first two pairs of legs are brownish-gray, or dirty white, except the thighs, which are almost entirely black. The hind legs are black, with whitish knees. The wings are smoky and transparent, with dark-brown veins, and a brown spot near the middle of the edge of the first pair. The body of the male is a little more than three-twentieths of an inch long; that of the female, one-fifth of an inch or more; and the wings expand nearly or quite two-fifths of an inch. These saw-flies come out of the ground at various times between the 20th of May and the middle of June, during which period they pair, and lay their eggs. The females do not fly much, and may be seen, during most of the day, resting on the leaves; and, when touched, they draw up their legs, and fall to the ground. The males are now active, fly from one rose-bush to another, and hover around their sluggish partners. The latter, when about to lay their eggs, turn a little on one side, unsheathe their saws, and thrust them obliquely into the skin of the leaf, depositing in each incision thus made a single egg. The young begin to hatch in ten days or a fortnight after the eggs are laid. They may sometimes be found on the leaves as early as the 1st of June, but do not usually appear in considerable numbers till the 20th of the same month. How long they are in coming to maturity, I have not particularly observed; but the period of their existence in the caterpillar state probably does not exceed three weeks. They somewhat resemble young slug-worms in form, but are not quite so convex. They have a small, round, yellowish head, with a black dot on each side of it; and are provided with twenty-two short legs. The body is green above, paler at the sides, and yellowish beneath; and it is soft and almost transparent, like jelly. The skin of the back is transversely wrinkled, and covered with minute elevated points; and there are two small, triple-pointed warts on the edge of the first ring, immediately behind the head. "The gelatinous and sluggish creatures eat the upper surface of the leaf in large, irregular patches, leaving the veins and the skin beneath untouched; and they are sometimes so thick, that not a leaf on the bushes is spared by them, and the whole foliage looks as if it had been scorched by fire, and drops off soon afterwards. They cast their skins several times, leaving them extended and fastened on the leaves: after the last moulting, they lose their semi-transparent and greenish color, and acquire an opaque yellowish hue. They then leave the rose-bushes; some of them slowly creeping down the stem, and others rolling up and dropping off, especially when the bushes are shaken by the wind. Having reached the ground, they burrow to the depth of an inch or more in the earth, where each one makes for itself a small oval cell of grains of earth, cemented with a little gummy silk. Having finished their transformations, and turned to flies within their cells, they come out of the ground early in August, and lay their eggs for a second brood of young. These, in turn, perform their appointed work of destruction in the autumn: they then go into the ground, make their earthen cells, remain therein throughout the winter, and appear in the winged form in the following spring and summer. During several years past, these pernicious vermin have infested the rose-bushes in the vicinity of Boston, and have proved so injurious to them as to have elicited the attention of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, by whom a premium of one hundred dollars, for the most successful mode of destroying these insects, was offered in the summer of 1840. In the year 1832, I first observed them in the gardens in Cambridge, and then made myself acquainted with their transformations. At that time they had not reached Milton, my former place of residence; and they did not appear in that place till six or seven years later. They now seem to be gradually extending in all directions; and an effectual method for preserving our roses from their attacks has become very desirable to all persons who set any value on this beautiful ornament of our gardens and shrubberies. Showering or syringing the bushes, with a liquor made by mixing with water the juice expressed from tobacco by tobacconists, has been recommended: but some caution is necessary in making this mixture of a proper strength; for, if too strong, it is injurious to plants; and the experiment does not seem, as yet, to have been conducted with sufficient care to insure safety and success. Dusting lime over the plants, when wet with dew, has been tried, and found of some use; but this and all other remedies will probably yield in efficacy to Mr. Haggerston's mixture of whale-oil soap and water, in the proportion of two pounds of the soap to fifteen gallons of water. "Particular directions, drawn up by Mr. Haggerston himself, for the preparation and use of this simple and cheap application, may be found in the 'Boston Courier' for the 25th of June, 1841, and also in most of our agricultural and horticultural journals of the same time. The utility of this mixture has already been repeatedly mentioned in this treatise, and it may be applied in other cases with advantage. Mr. Haggerston finds that it effectually destroys many kinds of insects; and he particularly mentions plant-lice, red spiders, canker-worms, and a little jumping insect, which has lately been found quite as hurtful to rose-bushes as the slugs or young of the saw-fly. The little insect alluded to has been mistaken for a Thrips, or vinc-frettor: it is, however, a leaf-hopper, or species of _Tettiyonia_, and is described in a former part of this treatise. "The rose-chafer, or rose-bug as it is more commonly and incorrectly called, is also a diurnal insect. It is the _Melolontha subspinosa_ of Fabricius, by whom it was first described, and belongs to the modern genus _Macrodaclylus_ of Latreille. Common as this insect is in the vicinity of Boston, it is, or was a few years ago, unknown in the northern and western parts of Massachusetts, in New Hampshire, and in Maine. It may, therefore, be well to give a brief description of it. This beetle measures seven-twentieths of an inch in length. Its body is slender, tapers before and behind, and is entirely covered with very short and close ashen-yellow down; the thorax is long and narrow, angularly widened in the middle of each side, which suggested the name _subspinosa_, or somewhat spined; the legs are slender, and of a pale-red color; the joints of the feet are tipped with black, and are very long; which caused Latreille to call the genus _Macrodactylus_: that is, long toe, or long foot. "The natural history of the rose-chafer, one of the greatest scourges with which our gardens and nurseries have been afflicted, was for a long time involved in mystery, but is at last fully cleared up. The prevalence of this insect on the rose, and its annual appearance coinciding with the blossoming of that flower, have gained for it the popular name by which it is here known. For some time after they were first noticed, rose-bugs appeared to be confined to their favorite, the blossoms of the rose; but within forty years they have prodigiously increased in number, have attacked at random various kinds of plants in swarms, and have become notorious for their extensive and deplorable ravages. The grape-vine, in particular, the cherry, plum, and apple trees, have annually suffered by their depredations: many other fruit-trees and shrubs, garden vegetables and corn, and even the trees of the forest and the grass of the fields, have been laid under contribution by these indiscriminate feeders, by whom leaves, flowers, and fruits are alike consumed. The unexpected arrival of these insects in swarms at their first coming, and their sudden disappearance at the close of their career, are remarkable facts in their history. They come forth from the ground during the second week in June, or about the time of the blossoming of the damask-rose, and remain from thirty to forty days. At the end of this period the males become exhausted, fall to the ground, and perish; while the females enter the earth, lay their eggs, return to the surface, and, after lingering a few days, die also. "The eggs laid by each female are about thirty in number, and are deposited from one to four inches beneath the surface of the soil: they are nearly globular, whitish, and about one-thirtieth of an inch in diameter, and are hatched twenty days after they are laid. The young larvæ begin to feed on such tender roots as are within their reach. Like other grubs of the Scarabæians, when not eating they lie upon the side, with the body covered, so that the head and tail are nearly in contact: they move with difficulty on a level surface, and are continually falling over on one side or the other. They attain their full size in the autumn, being then nearly three-quarters of an inch long, and about an eighth of an inch in diameter. They are of a yellowish-white color, with a tinge of blue towards the hinder extremity, which is thick, and obtuse or rounded. A few short hairs are scattered on the surface of the body. There are six short legs; namely, a pair to each of the first three rings behind the head: and the latter is covered with a horny shell of a pale rust color. In October they descend below the reach of frost, and pass the winter in a torpid state. In the spring they approach towards the surface, and each one forms for itself a little cell of an oval shape by turning round a great many times, so as to compress the earth, and render the inside of the cavity hard and smooth. Within this cell the grub is transformed to a pupa during the month of May by casting off its skin, which is pushed downwards in folds from the head to the tail. The pupa has somewhat the form of the perfected beetle, but is of a yellowish-white color; its short, stump-like wings, its antennæ, and its legs, are folded upon the breast; and its whole body is enclosed in a thin film, that wraps each part separately. During the month of June, this filmy skin is rent: the included beetle withdraws from its body and its limbs, bursts open its earthen cell, and digs its way to the surface of the ground. Thus the various changes, from the egg to the full development of the perfected beetle, are completed within the space of one year. "Such being the metamorphoses and habits of these insects, it is evident that we cannot attack them in the egg, the grub, or the pupa state: the enemy in these stages is beyond our reach, and is subject to the control only of the natural but unknown means appointed by the Author of Nature to keep the insect tribes in check. When they have issued from their subterranean retreats, and have congregated upon our vines, trees, and other vegetable productions, in the complete enjoyment of their propensities, we must unite our efforts to seize and crush the invaders. They must indeed be crushed, scalded, or burned, to deprive them of life; for they are not affected by any of the applications usually found destructive to other insects. Experience has proved the utility of gathering them by hand, or of shaking them or brushing them from the plants into tin vessels containing a little water. They should be collected daily during the period of their visitation, and should be committed to the flames, or killed by scalding water. The late John Lowell, Esq., states that, in 1823, he discovered on a solitary apple-tree the rose-bugs 'in vast numbers, such as could not be described, and would not be believed if they were described, or at least none but an ocular witness could conceive of their numbers. Destruction by hand was out of the question,' in this case. He put sheets under the tree, shook them down, and burned them. "Dr. Green of Mansfield, whose investigations have thrown much light on the history of this insect, proposes protecting plants with millinet, and says that in this way only did he succeed in securing his grape-vines from depredation. His remarks also show the utility of gathering them. 'Eighty-six of these spoilers,' says he, 'were known to infest a single rose-bud, and were crushed with one grasp of the hand.' Suppose, as was probably the case, that one-half of them were females: by this destruction, eight hundred eggs, at least, were prevented from becoming matured. During the time of their prevalence, rose-bugs are sometimes found in immense numbers on the flowers of the common white-weed, or ox-eyed daisy (_Chrysanthemum leucanihemum_); a worthless plant, which has come to us from Europe, and has been suffered to overrun our pastures and encroach on our mowing-lands. In certain cases, it may become expedient rapidly to mow down the infested white-weed in dry pastures, and consume it, with the sluggish rose-bugs, on the spot. "Our insect-eating birds undoubtedly devour many of these insects, and deserve to be cherished and protected for their services. Rose-bugs are also eaten greedily by domesticated fowls; and when they become exhausted and fall to the ground, or when they are about to lay their eggs, they are destroyed by moles, insects, and other animals, which lie in wait to seize them. Dr. Green informs us that a species of dragon-fly, or devil's-needle, devours them. He also says that an insect, which he calls the enemy of the cut-worm (probably the larva of a Carabus or predaceous ground-beetle), preys on the grubs of the common dor-bug. In France, the golden ground-beetle (_Carabus auratus_) devours the female dor, or chafer, at the moment when she is about to deposit her eggs. I have taken one specimen of this fine ground-beetle in Massachusetts; and we have several other kinds equally predaceous, which probably contribute to check the increase of our native Melolonthians." [Illustration: 0052] CHAPTER II. POT CULTURE [Illustration: 0053] |MANY OF the ever-blooming roses cannot, in our climate, be cultivated in the open air without extreme precaution to protect them from the cold. To grow them most successfully, the aid of glass is necessary. Many of the Hardy Perpetual roses may also be grown with advantage in pots, by which means their bloom may be prolonged into the early winter months, or they may be forced into premature flowering long before their natural season of bloom. The first essential in the pot culture of roses is the preparation of the soil. Those of delicate growth, like most of the China and Tea roses, require a lighter soil than the more robust varieties, like most of the Hardy Perpetuals. A mixture of loam, manure, leaf-mould, and sand, in the proportion of two bushels of loam to one bushel of manure, one bushel of leaf-mould, and half a bushel of sand, makes a good soil for the more delicate roses. For the more robust kinds, the proportion of loam and of manure should be greater. In all cases, the materials should be mixed two or three months before they are wanted for use, and turned over several times to incorporate them thoroughly. They are frequently, however, mixed, and used at once. The best loam is that composed of thoroughly rotted turf. A very skilful English rose-grower, Mr. Rivers, recommends the compact turf shaved from the surface of an old pasture, and roasted and partially charred on a sheet of iron over a moderate fire. I have found no enriching material so good as the sweepings from the floor of a horse-shoer, in which manure is mixed with the shavings of hoofs. It is light and porous, and furnishes, in decomposing, a great quantity of ammonia. For the more delicate roses it is particularly suited, while the stronger kinds will bear manures of a stronger and denser nature. The light black soil from the woods is an excellent substitute for leaf-mould; or, to speak more correctly, it is a natural leaf-mould in the most thorough state of decomposition. Young and thrifty roses which have been grown during summer may be potted for the house in September. They should be taken up with care, the large straggling roots cut back, and all bruised ends removed with a sharp knife. The ends of the branches should also be cut back. They may then be potted in the compost just described, which should first be sifted through a very coarse sieve. The pots must be well drained with broken crocks placed over the hole at the bottom. Care must be taken that the pot be not too large, as this is very injurious. A sharp stick may be used to compact the soil about the roots; and from half an inch to an inch in depth should be left empty at the top, to assist in thorough watering, which is a point of the first importance. When the roses are potted, they should be placed in a light cellar or shed, or under a shady wall. They must be well watered, and it is well to syringe them occasionally. In a week or two they will have become established, and may then be removed to a greenhouse without fire, and with plenty of air; care, however, being taken to protect them from frost at night. The roses so treated are intended for blooming from mid-winter to the end of spring; and we shall soon speak further of them under the head of Forcing. A great desideratum is the obtaining of roses in the early part of winter. This may be done by growing everblooming roses in pots in the open air during summer, plunging the pot in the earth, and placing a tile or brick beneath it to prevent the egress of roots and the ingress of worms. Towards the end of August, cut off all the flowers and buds, at the same time shortening the flower-stalks to two or three eyes. Then give the roses a supply of manure-water to stimulate their growth. If they are in a thrifty condition, they will form new shoots and flower-buds before the frost sets in; and may then be removed to a cold greenhouse, where they will continue, to flower for several months. The following is the description given by Mr. Rivers of a practice recently introduced in England, and which seems well worth a trial here, with such modifications as the heat of our sun may require:-- "To have a fine bloom of these roses, or, indeed, of any of the Hybrid Perpetuals, Bourbons, or China roses, in pots towards the end of summer or autumn, take plants from small pots (those struck from cuttings in March or April will do), and put them into six-inch, or even eight-inch pots, using a compost of light turfy loam and rotten manure, equal parts: to a bushel of the compost add half a peck of pounded charcoal, and the same quantity of silver sand; make a hot-bed of sufficient strength, say three to four feet in height, of seasoned dung, so that it is not of a burning heat, in a sunny, exposed situation,' and on this place the pots; then fill up all interstices with sawdust, placing it so as to cover the rims, and to lie on the surface of the mould in the pots about two inches deep. The pots should have a good sound watering before they are thus plunged, and have water daily in dry weather. The bottom heat and full exposure to the sun and air will give the plants a vigor almost beyond belief. This very simple mode of culture is as yet almost unknown. I have circulated among a few friends the above directions; and have no doubt, that, in the hands of skilful gardeners, some extraordinary results may be looked for in the production of specimens of soft-wooded plants. I may add, that, when the heat of the bed declines towards the middle of July, the pots must be removed, some fresh dung added, and the bed remade, again plunging the plants immediately. Towards the end of August, the roots of the plants must be ripened: the pots must, therefore, be gradually lifted out of the saw-dust; i.e., for five or six days, expose them about two inches below their rims; then, after the same lapse of time, a little lower, till the whole of the pot is exposed to the sun and air: they may be then removed to the greenhouse, so as to be sheltered from heavy rain. They will bloom well in the autumn, and be in fine order for early forcing. If plants are required during the summer for exhibition, or any other purpose, care must always be taken to harden or ripen their roots, as above, before they are removed from the hot-bed." [Illustration: 0058] "Forcing" is the very inappropriate name of the process by which roses and other plants are induced to bloom under glass in advance of their natural season. We say that the name is inappropriate, because one of the chief essentials to the success of the process consists in an abstinence from all that is violent or sudden, and in the gentle and graduated application of the stimulus of artificial heat. Roses may be forced in the greenhouse, but not to advantage, because the conditions of success will be inconsistent with the requirements of many of the other plants. The process is best carried on in a small glass structure made for such purposes, and called a "forcing-pit." A pit ten or twelve feet long and eight or ten wide will commonly be large enough. It may be of the simplest and cheapest construction. In a dry situation, there is advantage in sinking the lower part of it two or three feet below the surface of the ground. The roses may be placed on beds of earth, or on wooden platforms, so arranged as to bring the top of the plants near the glass; and a sunken path may pass down the middle. The pit may be heated by a stove enclosed with brick-work, and furnished with a flue of brick or tile passing along the front of the pit, and entering the chimney at the farther end. The lights must be movable, or other means provided' for ample ventilation; and if these are such that the air on entering will pass over the heated flues, and thus become warmed in the passage, great advantage will result. A pit may be appended to a greenhouse; in which case it may be heated by hot-water pipes furnished with means of cutting off or letting on the water. The roses potted for forcing, as directed in the last section, should be kept in a dormant state till the middle of December. A portion of them may then be brought into the pit, and the young shoots pruned back to two or three eyes. The heat at first must be very moderate, not much exceeding forty-five degrees in the daytime: and, throughout the process, the pit should be kept as cool as possible at night; great care, however, being taken that no frost is admitted. With this view, the glass should be covered at sunset with thick mats. Syringe the plants as the buds begin to swell, and lose no opportunity to give air on mild and bright days. Raise the heat gradually till it reaches sixty degrees; which is enough during the winter months, so far as fire-heat is concerned. The heat of the sun will sometimes raise it to seventy or eighty degrees. Syringe every morning; and, if the aphis appears, fumigate with tobacco; then syringe forcibly to wash off the dead insects. As the plants advance in growth, they require plenty of water; and, as the buds begin to swell, manure-water may be applied once or twice. When the buds are ready to open, the pots may be removed to the greenhouse or drawing-room, and another supply put in their place for a second crop of flowers. When the blooms are faded, the flower-stalks may be cut back to two or three eyes, and the plants placed again in the forcing-pit for another crop. This, of course, is applicable to ever-blooming roses only. The most common and simple way, however, of obtaining roses in winter, is to grow them on rafters in the greenhouse. Some of the Noisette, China, and Tea roses, thus treated, will furnish an abundant supply of excellent flowers. By pruning them at different periods during the summer and autumn, they will be induced to flower in succession; since, with all roses, the time of blooming is, to a great degree, dependent on the time of pruning. Roses potted in the manner described for forcing may also be brought into bloom in the sunny window of a chamber or drawing-room. They will bloom much better if allowed to remain at rest in a cool cellar for a month or two after potting. [Illustration: 0061] The following is a cheap mode of forcing, described by an English cultivator. The amateur may, perhaps, be disposed to make the experiment. "Those who wish for the luxury of forced roses at a trifling cost may have them by pursuing the following simple method: Take a common garden frame, large or small, according to the number of roses wanted; raise it on some posts, so that the bottom edge will be about three feet from the ground at the back of the frame, and two feet in front, sloping to the south. If it is two feet deep, this will give a depth of five feet under the lights at the back of the frame, which will admit roses on little stems as well as dwarfs. Grafted or budded plants of any of the Perpetual roses should be potted in October, in a rich compost of equal portions of rotten dung and loam, in pots about eight inches deep and seven inches over, and plunged in the soil at the bottom. The air in the frame may be heated by linings of hot dung; but care must be taken that the dung be turned over two or three times before it is used, otherwise the rank and noxious steam will kill the young and tender shoots: but the hazard of this may be avoided by building a wall of turf, three inches thick, from the ground to the bottom edge of the frame. This will admit the heat through it, and exclude the steam. The Perpetual roses, thus made to bloom early, are really beautiful." [Illustration: 0062] Now, in the way of exciting the reader's emulation, I will mention a few items of the opening flower-show of the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, on the 26th of May, a few years ago. The following specimens of roses, in pots, are chronicled among innumerable others:-- Madame Willeemoz (_Tea-scented Rose_), seven feet high, with more than a hundred expanded flowers. Souvenir de la Malmaison (_Bourbon Rose_), with thirty expanded flowers, the largest more than five inches in diameter. Paul Pereas (_Hybrid Bourbon Rose_), six feet high, with nearly a hundred expanded flowers. Coupe d'Hébé (_Hybrid Bourbon Rose_), six feet high, covered with a mass of bloom. These were all raised by Mr. Paul, one of the most skilful of English rose-growers; and were the results of patience, care, and experience. We hold the production of specimens like these a work of art worthy of zealous emulation. Our climate is quite as favorable to their production as that of England; and, when the floricultural art has reached among us the same development, our horticultural shows will, no doubt, boast decorations equally splendid. The plants just mentioned were the productions of a nurseryman; but specimens of roses grown to the highest perfection are every year exhibited in England by amateur cultivators. The competition for prizes, far from being a mere strife for a small sum of money, is an honorable emulation, in which the credit of success is the winner's best reward. One point cannot be too often urged in respect to horticultural pursuits. Never attempt to do any thing which you are not prepared to do thoroughly. A little done well is far more satisfactory than a great deal done carelessly and superficially. He who raises one perfect and fully developed specimen of a plant is a better horticulturist than he who raises an acre of indifferent specimens. The amateur who has made himself a thorough master of the cultivation of a single species or variety, has, of necessity, acquired a knowledge and skill, which, with very little pains, he may apply to numberless other forms of culture. Learn to produce a first-class specimen of the rose grown in a pot, and you will have no difficulty in successfully applying your observation and experience to a vast variety of plants. We will, therefore, enter into some detail as to the methods of procedure. For many of the specific directions I am indebted to Mr. Paul, the exhibiter of the fine specimens named above, and the author, among other books, of a useful little treatise on the cultivation of roses in pots. _Soil_ is the point that first demands attention, and directions concerning it have already been given. You have bought a number of young roses, in small pots, in the spring. Be sure that these roses have been in a dormant state during the winter; for, if they have been kept in growth, their vital power is partially exhausted. They may be budded on short stems of the Manetti or other good stock (see the chapter on _Budding_), or they may be on their own roots. The Tea and China roses are certainly better in the latter condition. Shift them from the small pots into pots a very little larger, without breaking the ball of earth around their roots. Water them well, and plunge them to the edge of the pot in earth, in an open, airy, sunny place. Or they may be set on the surface, provided the spaces between them are well packed with tan, coal-ashes, or swamp-moss. The last is excellent: it holds moisture like a sponge. In every case, the pots should rest on flat bricks, slates, tiles, or inverted pans, in order that worms may be excluded, and that the roots may not be tempted to thrust themselves through the hole. In potting, thorough drainage should be secured by placing broken crocks at the bottom of the pot. Encourage the growth of the plants by pinching off the flower-buds. The object throughout the summer is to get a few stout well-ripened shoots by autumn. Therefore the pots should not be very close together, since this would deprive the plants of free air and sunlight. Watering must be carefully attended to. Cut out, or pinch off, weak or ill-placed shoots; or, what is better, prevent their growth by rubbing off the buds that threaten to form such. Thus, if several buds are crowded together in one place, rub off all but one or two of them, choosing the strongest for preservation. This is called _dis-budding_. Those of the plants that grow most vigorously will require to be shifted into still larger pots in July; but this should be done only in cases where it is necessary. As a guide on this point, turn them carefully out of the pots to examine the roots; and, if these are found protruding in great abundance from the ball of earth, larger pots will be required; but, if otherwise, the same one will suffice. Some roses suffer greatly if placed in pots too large for them; and the same is more or less true of all plants. Late in autumn, when growth has ceased, shift the roses again, if they need it, and place them for wintering in a cellar or cold frame. In the spring, prune them, as directed in the chapter on Pruning. After the rose is pruned, stake out the shoots to as great distances as possible. Indeed, the larger ones should be made to lie almost horizontal: this will cause the buds to "break," or open, regularly along their whole length; whereas, if left upright, a few at the top would break, and the rest remain dormant. As soon as the buds have opened, the shoots may be tied up again. Syringe the opening buds, and water moderately, increasing the amount of moisture as the leaves expand, and watering abundantly during all the period of full activity of growth; that is, during summer and early autumn. An occasional application of manure-water is useful. Watch for insects and mildew, and apply the remedies elsewhere directed. About midsummer, shift those that need it into larger pots; an operation which, if performed with skill, will not check their growth in the least. Continue to disbud and to remove weak and ill-placed shoots, tying out the rest, as they grow, to stakes, in order to bring the plant into a symmetrical form. This form is a matter of taste with the cultivator: it may be a half-globe, a fan, or a pyramid or cone. The last is usually the best; one strong stem being allowed to grow in the centre, and smaller stems trained in gradation around it. None must interfere with their neighbors, and air should have free play through the plant. You have reached the second autumn, and your plants are now excellent for forcing; but, if you aim at first-class specimens, you must give them, at the least, one season more of growth and training. To this end, keep them dormant through the winter in a cellar or cold frame as before, and prune them early in spring. We will suppose that a pyramidal plant is desired. As soon as they are pruned, draw the lower shoots downwards over the rim of the pot, just beneath which a wire should pass around, to which the shoots are to be tied with strings of bass-matting. The shoots higher up are to be arranged, with the aid of sticks and strings, so as to decrease in circumference till they terminate in a point. Constant care and some judgment are needed throughout the growing season to preserve symmetry of form. Strong shoots must be pinched back, and weak ones encouraged. Both the plant, and the pot that contains it, are, or ought to be, so large by this time, that handling them, especially in the act of shifting, becomes somewhat difficult. In the third, or at farthest in the fourth autumn, you may expect, as the result of your pains, a plant that in its blooming season will make a brilliant contrast with the half-grown and indifferent specimens sometimes exhibited at our horticultural shows. If you forget every other point of the above directions, keep in mind the following: Drain your pots thoroughly; and, when you water them, be sure that you give water enough to penetrate the whole mass of the earth contained in them. Watering only the surface, and leaving the roots dry, is ruinous. [Illustration: 0068] CHAPTER III. PROPAGATION [Illustration: 0069] |THERE ARE live modes of propagating the rose,--by layers, by cuttings, by budding, by grafting, and by suckers. [Illustration: 0070] This is perhaps, for the amateur, the most convenient and certain method. The best season for layering is the summer, from the end of June to the end of August; and, for some varieties, even later. The rose which is to be multiplied should be in a condition of vigorous growth. Loosen and pulverize the soil around it; and, if heavy and adhesive, add a liberal quantity of very old manure mixed with its bulk of sharp sand. The implements needed for the operation are a knife, a trowel, and hooked wooden pegs. Choose a well-ripened shoot of the same season's growth, and strip off the leaves from its base a foot or more up the stalk; but, by all means, suffer the leaves at the end to remain. Bend the shoot gently downward with the left hand, and insert the edge of the knife in its upper or inner side six or eight inches from its base, and immediately below a bud. Cut half way through the stem; then turn the edge of the knife upward, and cautiously slit the stem through the middle, to the length of an inch and a half, thus a tongue of wood, with a bud at its end, will be formed. With the thumb and finger of the left hand raise the upper part of the stem erect, at the same time by a slight twist turning the tongue aside, steadying the stem meanwhile with the right hand. Thus the tongue will be brought to a right angle, or nearly so, with the part of the stem from which it was cut. Hold it in this position with the left hand, while with the trowel you make a slit in the soil just beneath it. Into this insert the tongue and bent part of the stem to a depth not much exceeding two inches. Press the earth firmly round them, and pin them down with one of the hooked pegs. Some operators cut the tongue on the lower or outer side of the stem; but this has a double disadvantage. In the first place, the stem is much more liable to break in being bent; and, in the next place, the tongue is liable to re-unite with the cut part, and thus defeat the operation. When all is finished, the extremity of the shoot should stand out of the ground as nearly upright as possible, and should by no means be cut back,--a mistaken practice in use with some gardeners. In a favorable season, most of the layers will be well rooted before the frost sets in. If the weather is very dry, there will be many failures. Instead of roots, a hard cellular substance will form in a ball around the tongue. In the dry summer of 1864, the rose-layers were thus "clubbed" with lumps often as large as a hen's egg; but cases like this are rare. In November, it is better in our severe climate to take up the rooted layers, and keep them during winter in a "cold frame;" that is, a frame constructed like that of a hot-bed, without the heat. Here they should be set closely in light soil to the depth of at least six inches, and covered with boards and matting; or they may be potted in small pots, and placed in a frame or cellar. Layers may be made in spring from wood of the last season's growth; but laying the young wood during slimmer, as described above, is much to be preferred. [Ill 0072] All roses may be propagated by cuttings; but some kinds strike root much more readily than others. The hard-wooded roses, including the entire family of the Hardy June roses, and especially the Mosses, are increased with difficulty by cuttings. The Hybrid Perpétuais root more readily; while the tender ever-blooming roses, including the Teas, Noisettes, and Chinas, are propagated in this way with great ease. Cuttings may be made from the ripened or the half-ripened wood. In the case of roses, and of nearly all ligneous plants, cuttings made from the ripe wood do not require bottom-heat, and are more likely to be injured than benefited by it. On the other hand, cuttings of the soft or unripe wood strike root with more quickness and certainty if stimulated by the application of a gentle heat from below. In propagating roses from the ripe wood, the cuttings must be made early in autumn from wood of the same season's growth. The chances of success will be increased if they are taken off close to the old wood with what is called a "heel;" that is, with a very small portion of the old wood attached. The heel should be trimmed smooth with a sharp knife: the cuttings may be six or eight inches long. Strip off any leaves which may still adhere to them, and plant them in rows, at a depth of about five inches, in a cold frame. The soil should be very light, and thoroughly drained: water it, to settle it, around the cuttings. On the approach of frost, they should be protected with boards and mats, giving them air on fine days during winter. In the spring, a white cellular growth called a "callus" will have formed at the heel of each cutting, which, if the process succeeds, will soon emit roots, and become a plant. Propagation in summer from the half-ripe wood is a better and less uncertain method. In June and July, immediately after the blossoms wither, and before the rose has begun its second growth, cuttings should be made of the flower-stems. Each cutting may contain two or three buds. The lower leaves must be taken off; but the upper leaves must remain. Trim off the stem smoothly with a sharp knife below the lowest bud, and as near to it as possible without injuring it. If the cuttings are taken off with a heel, as above described, the chance of success will be greater. They may now be inserted at the depth of an inch and a half around the edge of a small pot filled one-third with broken crocks, and the remainder with a mixture of loam, leaf-mould, and sharp sand. Now place them in a frame on the shady side of a hedge or fence, water them to settle the soil, and cover them closely with glass. Sprinkle them lightly every morning and night; and, when moisture gathers on the inner surface of the glass, turn it over, placing the dry side inward. If mould or decay attacks the cuttings, wedge up the glass a little to give them air. In a week or two, they will form a callus; after which they may be removed to a gentle hot-bed, kept moderately close, and shaded from the direct sun. Here they will quickly strike root, and may be potted off singly into small pots. Another mode of propagation, and a favorite one with nursery-men, is practised early in the spring. In this case, the cuttings are made from forced roses, or roses grown on greenhouse rafters. Some propagators prefer the wood in a very soft state, cutting it even before the flowers are expanded. The cuttings may be placed in pots as in the former case, or in shallow boxes or earthen pans thoroughly drained with broken crocks. The soil should be shallow enough to allow the heel of the cutting to touch the crocks. They are to be placed at once on a moderate bottom-heat, covered closely with glass, and shaded from the direct rays of the noontide sun. Their subsequent treatment is similar to that of summer cuttings. They must be closely watched, and those that show signs of mould or decay at once removed. After the callus is formed, they will bear more air. When rooted, they should be potted into small pots, and placed on a hot-bed of which the heat is on the decline. Towards the end of May, when the earth is warmed by the sun, they may be turned out of the pots into the open ground, where they will soon make strong plants. Many American nursery-men strike rose-cuttings in spring, in pure sand, over a hot-bed or a tank of hot water, in the close air of the propagating-house. They must be potted immediately on rooting, as the sand supplies them with nothing to subsist on. We have seen many hundreds rooted in this way with scarcely a single failure. The management of difficult cuttings requires a certain tact, only to be gained by practice and observation; and the gardener who succeeds in rooting a pot of cuttings of the Moss Rose has some reason to be proud of his success. With respect to the relative value of roses propagated by the methods above described, the most experienced cultivators are unanimous in the opinion, that those raised from layers and from cuttings of the ripe wood, without artificial heat, are superior in vigor and endurance to those raised from the half-ripe wood with the stimulus of a close heat. Unfortunately, the former method is so slow and uncertain when compared with the latter, that nurserymen rarely employ it to any great extent; and a good choice of roses on their own roots, raised without heat, is sometimes difficult to find. The following is a mode of propagation not often practised, but which is well worthy of trial, as it is applicable to prunings which are usually thrown away. The extract is from the "Gardener's Chronicle." "The rose is as easily propagated by means of buds or eyes as the vine. If your correspondent 'X' will take a strong shoot from almost any kind of rose in a dormant state, and with a sharp knife cut it into as many pieces as there are good eyes on the shoots, the pieces not being more than one inch long, taking care to have the eye in the centre of the piece, he will doubtless succeed. One-third of the wood should be cut clean off from end to end at the back of the eye, just as you would prepare a vine eye. In preparing the cutting-pans, it is most essential to put a good quantity of broken potsherds in the bottom, beginning with large pieces, and finishing with others more finely broken: then mix a quantity of good loam, leaf-soil, and sand, in equal proportions; rub it through a fine sieve, and fill the pans to within one inch of the top, pressing down the soil moderately firm. After that, put in the eyes in a leaning or slanting position, pressing them firmly into the soil with the thumb and finger; taking care to keep the thumb on the bottom end of the cutting, to prevent the bark from being injured. After the eyes are put in, give the pan two or three gentle raps on the bench; then put half an inch of silver or clean river sand on the top, water with a fine rose, and plunge the pans in a nice bottom heat of say sixty degrees, covering the surface over with moss to prevent the soil from getting dry: they will not require any more water for a week or ten days. The moss should be carefully removed as soon as the young shoots begin to push through the sand. In three weeks from that time, the roses will be fit for potting off into large sixty-sized pots. They should then be placed in a temperature of seventy degrees, when they will soon repay the care bestowed on them. I, however, prefer grafting on the Manetti stock. I grafted a lot in a dormant state seven weeks ago: they are now nice plants, and will be in bloom by May."--_J. Willis, Oulton Park, Cheshire_. [Illustration: 0077] This mode of propagation is attended with great advantages and great evils. A new or rare rose may be increased by it more rapidly and surely than by any other means; while roses of feeble growth on their own roots will often grow and bloom vigorously when budded on a strong and congenial stock. On the other hand, the very existence of a budded rose is, in our severe climate, precarious. A hard winter may kill it down to the point of inoculation, and it is then lost past recovery; whereas a rose on its own roots may be killed to the level of the earth, and yet throw up vigorous shoots in the spring. Moreover, a budded rose requires more attention than the cultivator is always willing to bestow on it. An ill-informed or careless amateur will suffer shoots to grow from the roots or stem of the stock; and, as these are always vigorous, they engross all the nourishment, and leave the budded rose to dwindle or die; while its disappointed owner, ignorant of the true condition of things, often congratulates himself on the prosperous growth of his plant. At length he is undeceived by the opening of the buds, and the appearance of a host of insignificant single roses in the place of the Giant of Battles or General Jacqueminot. Budding, however, cannot be dispensed with, since, in losing it, we should lose the most effectual means of increasing and distributing the choicest roses. The process consists in implanting, as it were, an undeveloped leaf-bud, of the variety we wish to increase, in the bark and wood of some other species of rose. The latter is called the stock, and it should be of a hardy and vigorous nature. Two conditions are essential to the process. The first is, that the bark of the stock will "slip;" in other words, separate freely from the wood. The second is, that the rose to be increased should be furnished with young and sound leaf-buds in a dormant state. These conditions are best answered in summer and early autumn, from the first of July to the middle of September. During the whole of this period, the sap being in active motion, the bark separates freely from the wood, while there is always a supply of plump and healthy buds on shoots of the same year's growth. The only implement necessary is a budding-knife. The operator should also provide himself with strings of bass-matting, moistened to make them pliant. Instead of the bass, cotton-wicking is occasionally used. Cut well-ripened shoots of the variety to be increased, provided with plump and healthy buds. In order to prevent exhaustion by evaporation from the surface of the leaves, these should be at once cut off; leaving, however, about half an inch of the leaf-stalk still attached to the stem. Insert the knife in the bark of the stem half an inch above a bud, and then pass it smoothly downward to the distance of half an inch below the bud, thus removing the latter with a strip of bark attached. A small portion of the wood will also adhere. This may be removed; though this is not necessary, and is attended with some little risk of pulling out with it the eye, or vital part, of the bud. Now place the bud between the lips while you take the next step of the process. This consists in cutting a vertical, slit in the bark of the stock. This done, cut a tranverse slit across the top of the vertical one. Both should be quite through the bark to the wood below; then, with the flat handle of the budding-knife, raise the corners of the bark, and disengage it from the wood sufficiently to allow of the bud being slipped smoothly into the crevice between the wood and bark of the stock. Next apply the edge of the knife to the protruding end of the bark attached to the bud, and cut it smoothly off immediately over the tranverse slit in the bark of the stock. The bud is now adjusted accurately in its place, the overlapping bark closing neatly around it. Now tie it above and below pretty firmly with repeated turns of the bass-matting, and the work is done. It must be remembered, that, to be well done, it must be quickly done; and it is better to insert the bud on the north or shady side of the stock. The bud and the stock will soon begin to grow together. After a week or two they should be examined, and the tie loosened. If the bud is put in early in the season, it may be made to grow almost immediately by cutting off the ends of the growing shoots of the stock, and thus forcing sap towards the bud. As the bud grows, the stock should be still further shortened, and all the shoots growing below the bud should be removed altogether. Budded stocks require in this country, at least when the buds are dormant, a protection against the winter. Where there are but few, oiled paper, or something of' a similar nature, may be tied over the bud as a shelter from snow, rain, and sun; but, when there are many, this is impossible, and the stocks may be taken up, and "heeled" close together in a dry soil under a shelter of boards and mats. "Heeling" is merely a temporary planting. In the following spring, the stocks may be cut off to within an inch of the bud, and then planted where they are to remain. When the bud is inserted near the ground,--which in our climate should always be done,--the stock should be planted in such a manner that the bud is a little below the level of the earth. To this end, the stock should be set in a slanting position in the hole dug for it; the bud, of course, being uppermost, and about an inch below the level of the edge of the hole: then the hole should be partially filled in. When the bud has grown out to the height of six or eight inches, the hole may be filled altogether. No part of the stock will now be seen above the earth. By this means, the point of junction of the stock and the bud is protected from the cold of winter and the heat of summer, and the rose will live longer and thrive better than where the stock is exposed. In many cases, the rose will throw out roots of its own above its junction with the stock, and thus become in time a self-rooted plant. There are two kinds of stocks in common use at the present time for out-door roses. One is the Dog Rose, a variety growing wild in various parts of Europe; the other is the Manetti Rose, a seedling raised by the Italian cultivator whose name it bears. There can be no doubt, that, of the two, the Manetti is by far the better for this climate. It is very vigorous, very hardy, easily increased by layers or cuttings of the ripe wood, and free from the vicious habit of the Dog Rose, of throwing out long under-ground suckers. We would by no means say that it will not throw up an abundance of shoots from the roots if allowed to do so; but these shoots are easily distinguished by a practised eye from those of the budded rose. They may be known at a glance by the peculiar reddish tint of the stem, and by the shape and the deep glossy hue of the leaves. They must be removed as soon as seen, not by cutting them off, but by tearing them off under ground, either by hand if possible, or with the help of a forked stick, which, pressed strongly into the earth, slips them off at their junction with the root. It cannot be denied that many kinds of roses, budded low on the Manetti stock, will grow with a vigor, and bloom with a splendor, which they do not reach on their own roots, and which will often repay the additional labor which they exact. We once planted in the manner above described a strong Manetti stock containing a single bud of the Hybrid Perpetual Hose,---Triomphe de l'Exposition. In the September following, it had thrown up a stem with several branches, the central shoot rising to the height of six feet and a half, and bearing on its top the largest and finest blossom we have ever seen of that superb variety. Some roses, however, will not grow well on the Manetti. Others, again, can scarcely be grown with advantage in any other way, refusing to strike root from layers, and often failing when the attempt is made to root them from cuttings even of the soft wood. Some, even when rooted, remain feeble and dwarfish plants; while, if a bud from them is implanted in a good Manetti stock, it would grow to a vigorous bush in one season. To sum up, we would say, that, for the amateur, nine roses out of ten are better on their own roots, while there are a few which can only be grown successfully, budded on a good stock. [Illustration: 0085] All the evil that can be spoken of budded roses is doubly true of grafted roses; while the advantages which the former can claim are possessed in a less degree by the latter. The reason is, simply, that, in the case of the budded rose, the junction between the stock and foreign variety is commonly more perfect than in the case of the grafted rose. Indeed, it would not be worth while to graft roses at all, were it not for the fact that grafting can be practised at times when budding is impossible. This is because it is indispensable, in budding, that the sap of the stock should be in full motion; whereas, in grafting, it may be at rest. There are innumerable modes of grafting; but, for the rose, the simplest form of what is called "whip-grafting" is perhaps the best. In the end of winter, or at the beginning of spring, take young well-rooted plants of the Ma-netti stock, having stems not much larger than a quill. Beginning very near the root, shave off with a sharp knife a slip of the bark, with a little of the wood, to the length of something more than an inch; then shave down the lower end of the graft until it fits accurately the part of the stock whence the bark and wood have been pared off. The essential point is, that the inner bark of the graft should be in contact with the inner bark of the stock. When the two are fitted, bind them around with strings of wet bass-matting. Now plant the stock in a pot, setting it so deeply, that its point of junction with the graft is completely covered with soil. Place the pots thus prepared on a gentle hot-bed, and cover them closely with glass. When the shoots from the graft are well grown out, give them air by degrees to harden them. A better way is to pot the stocks early in autumn, so that they may become well established. In this case, it will be necessary to cover the junction of the stock and graft with grafting wax or clay in such a manner as to exclude all air; then plunge the pots in old tan over a gentle hot-bed, so deeply that the grafted part is completely covered, the ends only of the grafts being visible. This keeps them in an equable heat and moisture. The subsequent treatment is the same as in the former case. As the stock has acquired a hold on the earth of the pot, or is, as the gardeners express it, "established," the graft will grow much more quickly, and make a strong blooming plant the same season. In all grafting, whether of roses or other woody plants, it is necessary that the buds of the graft should be completely dormant. In the stock, on the other hand, a slight and partial awakening of the vital action at the time the graft is put on seems rather beneficial than injurious. [Illustration: 0086] [Illustration: 8086] In this mode of increasing roses, Nature, rather than the cultivator, may be said to do the work of propagation. Many sorts of roses throw out spontaneously long underground stems, from which roots soon issue, and which soon throw up an abundance of shoots above ground. When these suckers, as they are called, are separated from the parent, and planted apart, they make a strong growth, but rarely form plants so symmetrical as those raised from cuttings or layers. [Illustration: 0087] CHAPTER IV. MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS |RAISING NEW VARIETIES.--A layer, a cutting, a bud, a graft, and a sucker, are detached portions of an individual plant; and the plant resulting from them is of precisely the same character with the parent. But, when the seed germinates, it is not the reproduction of the same individual, but it is the birth of a new one. The offspring will show a family likeness; but it is by no means probable, at least in the case of the rose, that its features will be precisely the same with those of its parent. Plant the seeds of a rose; as, for example, of the Hybrid Perpetual, La Reine, and of the resulting seedlings: all will probably show traces, more or less, of their origin; but the greater part will be far inferior to the parent. Some will be single; many will be half double; and, among a large number of seedlings, we shall be fortunate if we find two or three equal in beauty to La Reine herself. Nor is it at all likely that even these will be her precise counterparts. They may possibly be her equals; but they will not exactly resemble her: and thus we obtain a new and valuable acquisition to the list of roses. Now, if, instead of singly gathering and sowing the seeds of La Reine, we first impregnate its flowers with the pollen of a different variety, such as the Giant of Battles, our chance of a valuable result is increased, because, if we are fortunate, we combine the desirable qualities of two sorts. It is not impossible that we may thus produce a rose combining the vigorous growth and large globular flowers of La Reine with some portion of the vivid coloring of the Giant of Battles. It is by the raising of seedlings with or without hybridization that the innumerable roses that decorate our gardens and fill the catalogues of nursery-men have been produced. M. Laffay, to whom more than to any other single cultivator we are indebted for bringing into existence the splendid family of the Hybrid Perpetual roses, raised in one year more than three hundred thousand seedlings. Of these, all but a small portion were, no doubt, pulled up, and thrown away as worthless, after their first blooming; the rest were allowed to stand for further trial: and if, finally, a score or two of roses really distinct and valuable were obtained, the year's culture may have been regarded as a great success. It requires a long time before the character of a seedling-rose can be thoroughly ascertained. M. Margottin, another eminent rose-grower, says that no conscientious cultivator will permit a seedling to pass out of his hands until lie has given it a six-years' trial. The raising of roses from seed is an occupation of so much interest, that few who have fairly entered upon it have ever willingly abandoned it. Many choice roses have been raised by amateurs; and those who have the time and means to enter on a large or a small scale upon this pursuit will find it a source of abundant enjoyment. In the next chapter, we shall point out the combinations from which the existing classes of Hybrid roses have sprung; and hereafter, when we come to the description of these classes, we shall add a few suggestions as to other combinations likely to produce good results. Some roses bear seed freely, while others can hardly be induced to bear it at all. The hybridizer should take note of their peculiarities in this respect, or he will throw away much labor and patience; for it is a thankless task to hybridize a rose, which, after all the labor spent upon it, will not produce a single seed-vessel. Fortunately, many of the best roses bear seed abundantly; and La Reine, General Jacqueminot, Jules Margottin, Madame Laffay, and many others as good as these, may confidently be relied on. It is a good rule, that no seedling-rose is worth preserving, or at least worth propagating, that is not, in some one point, superior to or distinct from any other rose existing. Roses should be hybridized immediately after they open, or they will become thoroughly fertilized with their own pollen, and the object of the operation will thus be defeated. The best time of the day is about ten o'clock in the morning, as soon as the sun has dried the dew from the centre of the flower. The pollen of the rose whose qualities it is wished to impart may be applied to the pistils of the maternal or seed-bearing flower with a camel's-hair pencil; or one rose may be held over the other, and tapped with the finger till the pollen falls upon the pistils of the seed-bearer. Roses are uncertain as to the production of pollen. In some seasons and some situations it is abundant, while in others it is produced very scantily. The impregnated roses may be marked by strings or labels tied to their stems. The seed should not be gathered till the first frost; and, to insure its ripening, the plant should stand in a warm, sunny exposure. The pods should be laid in the sun to dry, then broken up, and the seed separated by means of a sieve. We have found the following mode of sowing a successful one: A frame--a shallow hot-bed frame answers perfectly--should be prepared by making within it a bed of loam, old manure, leaf-mould, and sand, at least eighteen inches deep. These materials should be thoroughly mixed, and the surface layer for an inch or two in depth sifted through a moderately coarse sieve, and then levelled and smoothed. The seeds may be sown broadcast; that is to say, scattered over the surface. They may be sown thickly, as not a third part will germinate; and, when sown, they should be pressed firmly into the soil with a board or the back of a spade. Then the same soil should be sifted over them to the depth of half an inch, and pressed down very lightly. Some will prefer to sow them in drills, which should be about six inches apart; the seed in no case being more than half an inch deep. Now leave the frame open, and exposed to rain and frost. Just before the heavy snows begin, and when the whole is hard frozen, cover it with boards and mats, that it may remain frozen till spring. The object of this is to protect the seeds from mice, which are exceedingly fond of them. When the mild weather begins, open the frame, and allow the ground to thaw: keeping, however, a close watch upon them; for, though these depredators like to do their work under cover and in darkness, there is still some little danger of their attacks. As the soil warms, the seeds will begin to come up. Some of the ever-blooming roses may blossom the first season; but the Hardy June kinds will not show bloom before the third, or even the fourth year. If the plants are too crowded, pull up some of them when the ground is softened after a rain, and plant them in a bed by themselves. In the autumn, take them all up, and heel them in a mouse-proof frame for safe keeping through the winter. In the spring, plant them out in rich soil, a foot apart. They might, indeed, be wintered safely in the frame where they originally grew: but this is attended with one disadvantage; for many of the seeds will not germinate till the second year; and, in removing the plants at that time, these infant seedlings would be destroyed; whereas, by leaving them undisturbed, a second crop may be obtained. Care must be taken throughout to keep the frame free from weeds. The eminent English rose-grower, Mr. Rivers, recommends a method of raising seedlings, which we have not tried, but which we have no doubt is a good one, though not applicable to raising them on a large scale. We give his directions in his own words:-- "The hips of all the varieties of roses will, in general, be fully ripe by the beginning of November: they should then be gathered, and kept entire in a flower-pot filled with dry sand, carefully guarded from mice. In February, or by the first week in March, they must be broken to pieces with the fingers, and sown in flower-pots, such as are generally used for sowing seeds in, called 'seed-pans;' but, for rose-seeds, they should not be too shallow: nine inches in depth will be enough. These should be nearly, but not quite, filled with a rich compost of rotten manure, and sandy loam or peat. The seeds may be covered to the depth of about half an inch with the same compost. A piece of kiln-wire must then be placed over the pot, fitting closely at the rim, so as to prevent the ingress of mice, which are passionately fond of rose-seeds. There must be space enough between the wire and the mould for the young plants to come up: half an inch will probably be found enough. The pots of seed must never be placed under glass, but kept constantly in the open air, in a full sunny exposure, as the wire will shade the mould, and prevent its drying. Water should be given occasionally in dry weather. The young plants will perhaps make their appearance in April or May; but very often the seed will not vegetate till the second spring. When they have made their 'rough leaves,' that is, when they have three or four leaves, exclusive of their seed-leaves, they must be carefully raised with the point of a narrow priming-knife, potted into small pots, and placed in the shade: if the weather be very hot and dry, they may be covered with a hand-glass for a few days. They may remain in those pots a month, and then be planted out into a rich border: by the end of August, those that are robust growers will have made shoots long enough to take buds from. Those that have done so may be cut down, and one or two strong stocks budded with each: these will, the following summer, make vigorous shoots; and the summer following, if left unpruned, to a certainty they will produce flowers. This is the only method to insure seedling roses flowering the third year: many will do so that are not budded; but very often the superior varieties are shy bloomers on their own roots, till age and careful culture give them strength. "It may be mentioned here, as treatment applicable to all seed-bearing roses, that, when it is desirable the qualities of a favorite rose should preponderate, the petals of the flower to be fertilized must be opened gently with the fingers. * A flower that will expand in the morning should be opened the afternoon or evening previous, and the anthers all removed with a pair of pointed scissors: the following morning, when this flower is fully expanded, it must be fertilized with a flower of some variety, of which it is desired to have seedlings partaking largely of its qualities. * "It requires some watchfulness to do this at the proper time: if too soon, the petals will be injured in forcing them open; and in hot weather, in July, if delayed only an hour or two, the anthers will be found to have shed their pollen. To ascertain precisely when the pollen is in a fit state for transmission, a few of the anthers should be gently pressed with the finger and thumb: if the yellow dust adheres to them, the operation may be performed. It requires close examination and some practice to know when the flower to be operated upon is in a fit state to receive the pollen: as a general rule, the flowers ought to be in the same state of expansion; or, in other words, about the same age. It is only in cases where it is wished for the qualities of a particular rose to predominate that the removal of the anthers of the rose to be fertilized is necessary: thus, if a yellow climbing rose is desired by the union of the Yellow Brier with the Ayrshire, 'every anther should be removed from the latter, so that it is fertilized solely with the pollen of the former. In some cases, where it is desirable to have the qualities of both parents in an equal degree, the removal of the anthers need not take place: thus I have found by removing them from the Luxembourg Moss, and fertilizing that rose with a dark variety of Rosa Galliea, that the features of the Moss Rose are totally lost in its offspring, and they become nearly pure varieties of Rosa Galliea; but if the anthers of the Moss Rose are left untouched, and it is fertilized with Rosa Galliea, interesting hybrids are the result, more or less mossy. This seems to make superfetation very probable; yet Dr. Lindley, in 'Theory of Horticulture' p.332, 'thinks it is not very likely to occur.'" To exemplify this, we will suppose that a climbing Moss Rose with red or crimson flowers is wished for. The flowers of the Blush Ayrshire, which bears seed abundantly, may be selected, and, before expansion, the anthers removed. The following morning, or as soon after the operation as these flowers open, they should be fertilized with those of the Luxembourg Moss. If the operation succeed, seeds will be procured, from which the probability is that a climbing rose will be produced with the habit and flowers of the Moss Rose, or at least an approximation to them; and as these hybrids often bear seed freely, by repeating the process with them, the at present apparent remote chance of getting a climbing Moss Rose may be brought very near. "I mention the union of the Moss and Ayrshire roses by way of illustration, and merely to point out to the amateur how extensive and how interesting a field of operations is open in this way. I ought to give a fact that has occurred in my own experience, which will tell better with the sceptical than a thousand anticipations. About four years since, in a pan of seedling Moss roses was one with a most peculiar habit, even when very young: this has since proved a hybrid rose, partaking much more of the Scotch Rose than of any other, and, till the plant arrived at full growth, I thought it a Scotch rose, the seed of which had by accident been mixed with that of the Moss Rose, although I had taken extreme care. To my surprise, it has since proved a perfect hybrid, having the sepals and the fruit of the Provence Rose, with the spiny and dwarf habit of the Scotch Rose: it bears abundance of hips, which are all abortive. * The difference in the fruit of the Moss and Provence roses and that of the Scotch is very remarkable, and this it was which drew my particular attention to the plant in question. * "It is more than probable, that, if the flowers of this rose were fertilized with those of the single Moss Hose, they would produce seed from which some curious hybrid Moss roses might be expected." It was raised from the same seed and in the same seed-pan as the Single Crimson Moss Rose. As this strange hybrid came from a Moss Rose, accidentally fertilized, we may expect that art will do much more for us." [Illustration: 0097] Some of the more hardy kinds of climbing roses, as, for example, the Queen of the Prairies, may be induced to wear borrowed robes, and assume beauties beyond those with which Nature endowed them. At the proper season, they may be budded here and there with some of the most hardy and vigorous of the June and Hybrid Perpetual roses. As these varieties bloom earlier than the Prairie roses, the period of bloom of the climber will be greatly protracted by this process, while at the same time it will be made to bear flowers incomparably finer in form and color than its own. It will be necessary, however, in our Northern climate, to protect it by nailing mats over it, since otherwise many of the buds will be winter-killed; and, as it is expected to yield more than its natural share of bloom, it should be stimulated with more than the usual manuring, and pruned more closely than the ordinary climbing roses. [Illustration: 0098] We have before spoken of the difficulty of cultivating standard roses, or roses budded on tall stems, in our climate. It is possible, however, to produce a kind of standard without a resort to budding. We may choose some of the most hardy and vigorous of the June roses,--we may find such especially in the class known as the Hybrid Chinas,--and encourage the growth of a single, strong, upright stem, removing all other shoots from the base of the plant as fast as they appear. The stem should be kept straight by tying it to a stick till it has gained strength enough to hold itself erect. Thus, in a single season, we shall have, with some varieties, a stem five or six feet high. Early in spring, prune it down to the first healthy and plump bud. During the following season, allow no shoots to develop themselves, except at the top; and, in the succeeding spring, prune back these top-shoots to two or three eyes. All of these eyes will, in their turn, develop into shoots; and these, again, are to be pruned back like the first. Thus, in two or three seasons, we obtain a thick bushy head at the top of a tall upright stem; in short, a standard, capable of bearing even a New-England winter. [Illustration: 0099] It is always better to prepare beds for roses in the autumn, that they may have the benefit of a thorough exposure to the winter frost. With this view, the soil should be thrown up into ridges as roughly as possible. It will then be thoroughly frozen through, and subjected to all the changes of temperature during the season. This will not only tend to destroy worms and noxious insects, but it will separate the particles of the soil, and leave it light and pliable. Soil thrown into ridges can also be worked earlier in the spring than that which is left at its natural level. The cardinal points of successful rose-culture are a good soil, good pruning, and good cultivation. By cultivation, we mean a repeated digging, hoeing, or forking of the earth around the plants, by which the surface is kept open, and enabled freely to receive the dew, rain, and air, with its fertilizing gases. Plants so treated will suffer far less in a drought than if the soil had been left undisturbed; for not only will it now absorb the dew at night, but it will freely permit the moisture which always exists at certain depths below the surface to rise, and benefit the thirsty roots. For a similar reason, the process of subsoiling, or trenching, by which the earth is loosened and stirred to a great depth, is exceedingly beneficial to roses, since the lower portions of the disturbed soil are a magazine of moisture which the severest drought cannot exhaust. With newly-planted roses it is well to practise "mulching" with manure; or, in other words, to place manure on the surface around the roots of the plants. This keeps the ground moist and open, while every rain washes down a portion of nutriment to the roots. [Illustration: 0100] Roses may be planted in clumps, on the lawn, with far better effect than when arranged in formal beds. They may be separated according to their classes, as June roses, Bourbons, Hybrid Perpétuals, Mosses, &c.; and the effect will be vastly better, if, instead of mingling colors indiscriminately, each is placed by itself. Thus the pure white of Madame Plantier will form a rich contrast with the deep crimson of General Jacqueminot, the vivid rose of Jules Margottin, the clear flesh-color of Ville de Bruxelles, and the pale rose of Baronne Prévost, each massed by itself; while all these varied hues are beautifully relieved by the fresh green of a well-kept lawn with its surrounding trees and shrubbery. [Illustration: 0101] [Illustration: 0103] [Illustration: 0105] CHAPTER V. GROUPS and FAMILIES |LIKE ALL things living, in the world of mind or of matter, the rose is beautified, enlarged, and strengthened by a course of judicious and persevering culture, continued through successive generations. The art of horticulture is no leveller. Its triumphs are achieved by rigid systems of selection and rejection, founded always on the broad basis of intrinsic worth. The good cultivator propagates no plants but the best. He carefully chooses those marked out by conspicuous merit; protects them from the pollen of inferior sorts; intermarries them, perhaps, with other varieties of equal vigor and beauty; saves their seed, and raises from it another generation. From the new plants thus obtained he again chooses the best, and repeats with them the same process. Thus the rose and other plants are brought slowly to their perfect development. It is in vain to look for much improvement by merely cultivating one individual. Culture alone will not make a single rose double, or a dull rose brilliant. We cultivate the parent, and look for our reward in the offspring. The village maiden has a beauty and a charm of her own; and so has her counterpart in the floral world,--the wild rose that grows by the roadside. Transplanted to the garden, and, with its offspring after it to the fourth and fifth generation, made an object of skilful culture, it reaches at last a wonderful development. The flowers which in the ancestress were single and small become double in the offspring, and expand their countless petals to the sun in all the majesty of the Queen of Flowers. The village maid has risen to regal state. She has lost her native virgin charm; but she sits throned and crowned in imperial beauty. Now, all the roses of our gardens have some wild ancestress of the woods and meadows, from whom, in the process of successive generations, their beauties have been developed, sometimes by happy accidents, but oftener by design. Thus have arisen families of roses, each marked with traces of its parentage. These are the patricians of the floral commonwealth, gifted at once with fame, beauty, and rank. The various wild roses differ greatly in their capacity of improvement and development. In some cases, the offspring grow rapidly, in color, fulness, and size, with every successive generation. In other cases, they will not improve at all; and the rose remains a wild rose still, good only for the roadside. With others yet, there seems to be a fixed limit, which is soon reached, and where improvement stops. It requires, even with the best, good culture and selection through several generations before the highest result appears. In horticulture, an element of stability is essential to progress. When the florist sees in any rose a quality which he wishes to develop and perfect, he does not look for success to the plant before him, but to the offspring which he produces from this plant. 'But this production and culture must be conducted 'wisely and skilfully, or the offspring will degenerate instead of improving. There are different kinds of culture, with different effects. That which is founded in the laws of Nature, and aims at a universal development, produces for its result not only increased beauty, but increased symmetry, strength, and vitality. On the other hand, it is in the power of the skilful florist to develop or to repress whatever quality he may please. By artificial processes of culture, roses have been produced, beautiful in form and color, but so small, that the whole plant, it is said, might be covered with an egg-shell. These are results of the ingenious florists of China and Japan. The culture that refines without invigorating, belongs, it seems, to a partial or perverted civilization. These several families of roses, resulting from the development of the several species of wild rose, have mingled together; in other words, they have intermarried: for Linnaeus has shown that "the loves of the flowers" are more than a conceit of poetical fancy. From the fertilization of the flowers of a rose of one family with the pollen of a rose of another family arises a mixed offspring, called _hybrids_: Seeds--which are vegetable eggs--are first produced; and these seeds germinate, or hatch, into a brood of young plants, combining in some degree the qualities of their parents. As this process of intermixture may be carried on indefinitely, a vast number of new varieties has resulted from it. The botanical classification of the rose is a perplexity to botanists. Its garden classification--quite another matter--is no less a source of embarrassment to its amateur, not to say professional, cultivator. To many, indeed, its entire nomenclature is a labyrinth of confusion; and some have gone to the length of proposing to abolish distinctions, which, in their eyes, seem arbitrary or fanciful. These distinctions, however, are founded in Nature, though the superstructure built upon her is sometimes flimsy enough to justify the impatience of its assailants. The chief difficulty arises from the extent to which the hybridization of the rose has been carried, and the vast entanglement of combinations which has resulted. Out of a propensity to classify, where, in the nature of things, precise classification is impossible, has arisen the equivocal and shadowy character of many of the nominal distinctions. Omitting less important divisions, the following are the groups into which cultivated roses are ordinarily divided: The Provence,* the Moss,* the French,* the Hybrid China, the Damask,* the Alba,* the Austrian Brier,* the Sweet-brier,* the Scotch,* the Double Yellow,* the Ayrshire,* the Sempervirens,* the Multiflora,* the Boursault,* the Banksia,* the Prairie.* These bloom once in the season. The following are perpetual or _remontant_: The China,* the Tea,* the Bourbon, the Hybrid Perpetual, the Perpetual Moss, the Damask Perpetual,* the Noisette, the Musk,* the Macartney,* the Microphylla.* Some of the above are marked with a star*: these are roses of _pure blood_. The rest are roses of mixed or hybrid origin. By the former are meant those which have sprung, without intermixture, from the wild roses which grew naturally in various parts of the world, and which are the only roses of which the botanical classifier takes cognizance. Many of them are of great beauty, and would be highly prized for ornamental uses, were they not eclipsed by the more splendid double varieties, which the industry of the florist has developed from them. Each of these groups of unmixed roses, however modified in form, size, or color, retains, as already mentioned, distinctive features of the native type from which it sprang. Yet it often happens that the name is misapplied. Thus a rose called Damask is not always a Damask, but a hybrid between a Damask and some other variety. The true distinctive features of the group are thus rendered, in some nominal members of it, so faint, that they can scarcely be recognized. Leaving these bastards out of view, we will consider at present only the legitimate offspring of the various families of the rose. On Mount Caucasus grows a single wild rose, from the seeds of which have sprung the numerous family of the Provence or Cabbage roses, very double, very large, and very fragrant. This race is remarkable for its tendency to sport, from which have resulted some of the most singular and beautiful forms of the rose. For example, a rose-colored variety of the Provence produced a branch bearing striped flowers, and from that branch has been propagated the Striped Provence. The Crested Moss is the product of another of these freaks, being of the pure Provence race. The Common Moss, and all its progeny, have the same origin; being derived, in all probability, from a sporting branch of one of the Provence roses. The family of the French-Rose, or Rosa Gallica, is of vast extent, and, though including many diverse shades of color,--some pale, some bright, others spotted, striped, or marbled,--is commonly recognized without much difficulty by its family features. It is a native of Southern Europe. The wild progenitor of the Damask or Damascus roses is a native of Syria. The name _Damask_, by the way, is popularly applied to deep-colored roses in general; but its floral signification is very different. In this group, for the first time, we meet with a feature, which, desirable as it is, was not many years since regarded as rare and exceptional. June has always been regarded as the month of the rose; but some of the Damasks have the peculiarity of blooming twice, or more than twice, during the season. These have been placed in a group by themselves, and christened Damask Perpétuais. The remontant character, however, is not confined to them; for individual plants belonging to groups and varieties which usually bloom but once will sometimes display an autumnal bloom. Thus the common wild rose of New England is now and then to be seen covered with flowers in September; and there is little doubt, that, from the seeds of these twice-blooming individuals, a new race of hardy _remontant_ roses might be produced. It should be added, that many of the so-called Damask Perpetuals are not pure Damask, but crossed with the blood of other families. Of the remaining races of pure blood, the Alba is remarkable for the delicate coloring of its flowers; the greater part being, as the name imports, white, or nearly so. The original variety grows wild in Central Europe. The Austrian Brier is another family, of features very strongly marked. Yellow and copper are its prevailing colors; and from its habit of growth, and the color of its twigs, it is easily recognized under all its forms. Its original types are natives of the south of Europe, and probably of Persia; to which country we owe its finest development,--the well-known Persian Yellow. The Double Yellow Rose, Rosa Sulphurea, remarkable for its beauty, and, in our climate, notorious for its intractable and uncertain character, is regarded by some botanists as belonging to a group distinct from the preceding. The Single Yellow, from which it must have sprung, has been found wild in the north of India. The Sweet-brier, found wild in various parts of the world, is too well known to need further notice. The American variety differs distinctly from the European. The Scotch roses owe their origin to the dwarf wild rose of Scotland. The Ayrshire is a family of climbing roses, originating from the wild trailing rose, Rosa Arven-sis, common in the British islands. The best of them are said, however, to be hybrids between this rose' and other species. The Boursault roses are descendants of Rosa Alpina, a native of the Alps; and no family is more clearly marked by distinctive features. The Sempervirens and the Multiflora are, with us at least, less familiar. Both are climbers, like the former; the one originating from a wild rose of Italy, the other from a wild rose of Japan. The Banksia, with its smooth, shining leaves, and slender, green stems, is well known in every greenhouse. Its progenitor is a native of China or Tartary, and the improved varieties are chiefly due to the labors of Chinese florists. There is another race of climbers, held in great scorn by foreign florists, but admirably adapted to our climate, under whose influences they put forth beauties by no means contemptible. These are the progeny of the wild Michigan or Prairie Rose, rampant growers, and generally sturdy enough to outface our hardest winters. The best of them, however, the Baltimore Belle, is evidently the offspring of a foreign marriage, which, while contributing fragrance and beauty to the rugged race of the prairies, has detracted something from its hardihood. The union, probably accidental, seems to have been with the Tea Rose or the Noisette. Of the foregoing groups, all except the Damask Perpetual are once-blooming. The following have, to a greater or less extent, the desirable character of a continued or successive bloom. The Macartney Rose is a wild rose of China, from which a few improved varieties have been raised from seed. Its evergreen shining foliage is its most attractive feature. The Microphylla, or Small-leaved Rose, is closely akin to the Macartney, and, like the latter, is a native of the East. The Musk is a rose much more familiarly known. It descends from a Persian or Syrian progenitor, and its vigorous growth, rich clusters of bloom, and peculiar fragrance, have long made it a favorite. But by far the most interesting and valuable among the unmixed races of ever-blooming roses are the numberless offspring of Rosa Indica, in its several varieties. To it we owe all the China and Tea-scented roses, while to its foreign alliances we are indebted for a vast and increasing host of brilliant hybrids. Thus, from the families of pure blood, we come at length to those in which is mingled that of two or more distinct races. Convey the pollen of a China rose to the stigmas of a French, Damask, or Provence rose, and from the resulting seed an offspring arises different from either parent. Hence a new group of roses known as the Hybrid Chinas. The parents are both of moderate growth. The offspring is usually of such vigor as to form with readiness a pillar eight feet high. Its foliage is distinct, its bloom often as profuse and brilliant as that of the China, and its constitution as hardy, or nearly so, as that of the French Rose. Unlike the former, it blooms but once in the year, or only in a few exceptional instances shows a straggling autumnal flower. By a vicious system of subdivision, the group has been separated into Hybrid China, Hybrid Bourbon, and Hybrid Noisette. The two latter are the same as the first: except, in the one case, a slight infusion of the Damask Perpetual; and, in the latter, of the Musk Rose. In many cases, no human discernment could detect the effects of the admixture. Again: convey the pollen of the China or Tea Rose to the flowers of the Musk, or _vice versa_ and for a result we obtain the Noisette, inheriting from the former various striking characteristics of foliage and bloom, and from the latter its vigorous climbing habit and clustering inflorescence. But, by impregnation through several generations, some of the Noisettes retain so little of their Musk parent, that its traits are almost obliterated: they no longer bloom in clusters, and can scarcely be distinguished from the pure Tea Rose. Again: a union of a Damask Perpetual with a China rose has produced a distinct race, of vigorous habit and peculiar foliage, possessing in a high degree the ever-blooming character of both its parents. It is hardier than the China Rose, though usually unable to bear a New-England winter unprotected. This is the Bourbon Rose, a brilliant and beautiful group, worth all the care which in this latitude its out-door culture requires. The Moss Rose, impregnated with various ever-blooming varieties, has borne hybrids partially retaining the mossy stem and calyx, with a tendency more or less manifest to bloom in the autumn. Hence the group of the Perpetual Moss, a few only of whose members deserve the name. It is evident, that, by continuing the process of hybridizing, hybrids may be mixed with hybrids, till the blood of half a score of the original races is mingled in one plant. This, in some cases, is, without doubt, actually the case; and this bastard progeny must, of necessity, be classified rather by its visible characteristics than by its parentage. Thus a host of ever-blooming hybrids, which are neither Noisette nor Bourbon nor Perpetual Moss, have been cast into one grand group, under the comprehensive title of Hybrid Perpetuals. Whence have they sprung? What has been their parentage? The question is easier asked than answered: for as, in a great nation of the West, one may discern the lineaments and hear the accents of diverse commingled races; so here we may trace the features of many and various families of Indian or Siberian, Chinese or European, extraction. The Hybrid Perpetuals, however, inherit their _remontant_ character chiefly from Rosa Indica,--the China or Tea Rose,--and, in a far less degree, from the Damask Perpetual. An infusion of the former exists, in greater or less degree, in all of them; while the blood of the Damask Perpetual shows its traces in comparatively few. Many of the group are the results of a union between the Hybrid China roses and some variety of the China or Tea. Others owe their origin to the Hybrid China and the Bourbon, both parents being hybrids of Rosa Indica. Others are offspring of the Hybrid China crossed with the Damask Perpetual; while many spring from intermarriages within the group itself,--Hybrid Perpetual with Hybrid Perpetual. By some over-zealous classifiers, this group has been cut up into various subdivisions, as Bourbon Perpetual, Rose de Rosomène, and the like; a procedure never sufficiently to be deprecated, as tending to produce no results but perplexity and confusion. Where there, can be no definite basis of division, it is well to divide as little as may be; and it is to be hoped that secession from the heterogeneous commonwealth of the Hybrid Perpetuals will be effectually repressed. In regard to roses in general, while a classification founded on evident natural affinities is certainly desirable, yet, in the name of common sense, let us avoid the multiplication of new hybrid groups, founded on flimsy distinctions, and christened with new names, which begin with meaning little, and end with meaning nothing. In our enumeration of the families and varieties of the rose, we shall make two great divisions,--that of the "Summer," or once-blooming, and that of the "Autumnal," or "ever-blooming" roses. In each of these divisions, we shall place first the roses of unmixed race, and, after them, the hybrids which have sprung from their combinations. [Illustration: 0119] [Illustration: 0120] CHAPTER VI. SUMMER ROSES |THESE ARE roses which bloom but once in the year; hence they have lost favor of late: for superb families of roses, fully equal in beauty, if not in hardiness, and endowed with an enviable power of renewing or perpetuating their charms,--of smiling in October as well as in June, and glowing in full effulgence even on the edge of winter,--have dazzled us into a forgetfulness of our ancient favorites. Yet all the poetry of the rose belongs to these old roses of summer. It is they that bloomed in white and red in the rival shields of York and Lancaster; and it is they that, time out of mind, have been the no silent interpreters of hearts too full to find a ruder utterance. For the rest, they are, in the main, very hardy, very easy of culture, and often very beautiful. [Illustration: 0121] _Rosa Centifolia_.--This is the family of the old, well-known, and deservedly admired Cabbage Rose. Its ancestors, as we have seen, grew on Mount Caucasus; though some have supposed that it is a native of the south of France: hence the name Provence, by which it is often known in England, though it is never so designated in France. The French, translating its Latin name, Rosa Centifolia, or the Hundred-leaved Rose, commonly call it Rose à Cent Feuilles. It is supposed to have been known to the Romans, and to have been one of their favorite roses; and it was introduced into England before the end of the sixteenth century, where at least, until these latter days, it has been greatly admired and prized. Recently, however, the introduction of the families of hardy, ever-blooming roses, has thrown the Cabbage and all its compeers into the shade. Nevertheless, it is one of the most desirable of flowers; and even those who are disposed to pass it by with slight regard will never deny that some of the progeny which have arisen from it are unsurpassed in beauty and attractiveness. It is remarkable among roses for the singular changes, in horticultural language called "sports," which it has assumed, and which, among other results, have given rise to the entire family of Moss roses, of which we shall speak in the next section. The prevailing colors in this group are light. The Cabbage Rose is a somewhat weak grower in a heavy soil, though in a light soil it grows vigorously. As a general rule, it needs close pruning. The members of the family are numerous; but, besides the Old Cabbage, the following are the best: The Dutch Provence is remarkable for the size of its flowers, in which respect it even surpasses the Old Cabbage. The Unique Provence is probably a sport from the Old Cabbage; that is to say, an accidental variation of the flowers on some particular branch; which branch being propagated, the accidental features become permanent. The Unique Provence, which is pure white, has, in its turn, produced another sport, called the Striped Unique, the flowers being white, striped with lake; though they are very capricious in their coloring, sometimes opening pure white, and occasionally light rose. But a more remarkable sport of the Provence is the variety called the Crested Provence, Rosa Cristata, or, very commonly among us, the Crested Moss. It is not, however, a true Moss, as its stems are smooth. Its peculiarity consists in a curious and very beautiful mossy growth about the calyx. This growth is developed in proportion to the vigor of the plant: therefore it should be strongly manured and closely pruned, as should the whole race of Provence roses. Adeline, the Duc de Choiseul, the Stadtholder, and, above all, the Reine de Provence, are beautiful varieties of this group. To it also belong a sub-group of Miniature or Pompone roses, well suited for edging beds. They bloom early, and are exceedingly pretty and graceful. Among the best of them are the White Burgundy, the Dwarf Burgundy, De Meaux, and Spong. The above are all old roses; for it is rarely that a cultivator of the present day will give himself the trouble to raise new varieties of any of the June roses, excepting always the Mosses, which can never be out of favor. [Illustration: 0123] _Rosa Centifolia Muscosa_.--We have spoken of the tendency of the Provence Rose to "sport." The most widely known and the most beautiful of the results arising from this tendency is the Moss Rose and its varieties; for that such is the true origin of this unique family, there can be very little doubt. There is, however, no record of the first appearance of the Moss Rose. The original type of the race--the Old Red Moss--was introduced into England as early as 1596. It came immediately from Holland, but seems not to have originated there: indeed, to this day, we have remained in doubt as to whence it drew its birth. Of the large number of Moss roses now on the lists of nursery-men, some owe their origin to sporting branches, others to seed. Of the plants arising from the seed of a Moss rose, not more than one in three will show the characteristic of the parent; that is, the "moss," the rest will be mere varieties of the Provence Rose. Sometimes a Moss rose will put forth a branch perfectly free from the mossy covering. In cold, heavy soils, Moss roses are somewhat difficult of cultivation; but in a light, rich loam, and a sunny exposure, free from roots of growing trees, they thrive luxuriantly. They all require high enrichment. All excepting the strongest growers should be closely pruned; and, in the Northern States, it is well to give them protection in winter by means of pine-boughs, or by laying them down like raspberries. Here, as in other classes of the rose, the hybridist has been at work. By impregnating Moss roses with the pollen of some of the ever-blooming sorts, a group of Perpetual Mosses has been produced. These have, to a greater or less extent, the ever-blooming quality; but this is acquired at some sacrifice of the peculiar beauty of the moss. They will receive a separate notice. Again: these roses have been fertilized with the pollen of the Hybrid China Rose; and the result is a Moss rose, remarkably vigorous in growth, and particularly well suited to form pillars. Any, however, of the more vigorous Mosses may be used for this purpose, provided always that they receive the highest culture in a warm and open exposure. We have it on the authority of the well-known English rose-grower, Mr. Paul, that, in the garden of an amateur near Cheshunt, there is a pillar of the Old Red Moss fifteen feet high! At the present day, when the annual progeny of new Perpetual roses from the nurseries of France, with a humble re-enforcement from those of England, has eclipsed by numbers the old garden favorites, the well-remembered roses of our infancy, the Moss alone stands in tranquil defiance of this gay tide of innovation. Nothing can eclipse and nothing can rival her. She is, and ever will be, the favorite of poetry and art; and the eloquence of her opening buds, half wrapped in their mossy envelope, will remain through all generations a chosen interpreter of the language of youth and beauty. Alice Le Roy is a distinct and beautiful rose, very large, full, and mossy; color, lilac and rose; form, cupped: it grows vigorously. Angélique Quétier is also of a rosy-lilac hue, large, very double, and very mossy: it grows freely, like the former. The Blush Moss is of growth somewhat more moderate: the flower is large and full, the foliage fine, and stems and buds well mossed; color, clear pale pink. Celina is of a deep, rosy crimson, sometimes verging to purple. The Common, or Old Moss, is still one of the most beautiful of the whole family. Its flowers are large and full, and of a pale rose-color and globular form. It is more abundantly mossed than most of its progeny; and none of them surpass it, indeed very few equal it, in the beauty of its half-opened bud. Its growth is tolerably vigorous, and foliage fine. Laneh is a vigorous and beautiful rose; flowers large, full, and globular; color, a light rosy-crimson. The buds are large, full, and well mossed; its growth is vigorous; and, under good cultivation, the whole plant, with its large and bright-green foliage, bears a striking appearance of thrift and health. Luxembourg is of a deep crimson, moderately double, and of growth nearly as vigorous as the last, with which the deep hue of its buds forms a striking contrast. Malvina is a good rose, with clusters of pink flowers. Eclatante is of a deep pink, large, double, and well mossed. Comtesse de Murinais is one of the best of the White Mosses. Its flowers, though not so double as the Old Moss, are large, and of the purest white; and the growth is very vigorous. The Crimson or Tinwell Moss somewhat belies its name; for its flowers are rather of a deep rose than crimson. It is, however, a beautiful variety. Princess Adelaide is remarkable for the extreme vigor of its growth, and is evidently a hybrid of some of the Hybrid Bourbon or Hybrid China roses. It is admirably suited for a pillar or a wall, but requires a full sun, and, if closely pruned, will not bloom at all. It blooms in large clusters: the flowers are of a light glossy rose, very large and full; and, if not too closely pruned, they are very abundant. The White Bath is an admirable White Moss, large and full in flower, and exquisite in bud. As it is of moderate growth, it will bear dose pruning. Prolific is a very beautiful variety, resembling the Old Moss. Baronne de Wassenaër is a very vigorous rose, of a bright red, and flowering in clusters. Captain Ingram is of a dark, velvety purple. Gloire des Mousseuses is very large and double, and of a blush-color. Rosa Bonheur is of a bright rose-color. Nuits d'Young is of a very dwarfed growth, and small deep-purple flowers. Vandael is purple, edged with lilac. The above afford excellent examples of the various characteristics of the family of the Mosses. Additions in considerable number are still made to it every year; but it is very rarely that any decisive improvement upon the old varieties is shown in the recent seedlings. "Moss roses, when grown on their own roots, require a light and rich soil: in such soils, they form fine masses of beauty in beds on lawns. The varieties best adapted to this purpose are the Common Moss, the Prolific, the Luxembourg, the Crimson, and Lane's Moss. Plants of these are procurable at a moderate price; and, by pegging down their shoots with hooked sticks, the surface of the bed will be covered with a mass of foliage and flowers. They require the same severe pruning as the Provence Rose. To have a succession of flowers on the same bed, half of the shoots may be shortened in March, the remainder the beginning of May, pruning closely as recommended for the Provence roses. By this method, the blooming season may be prolonged from a fortnight to three weeks. They should have an abundant animal dressing of manure on the surface in November, and the bed lightly stirred with the fork in February.... "To raise Moss roses from seed is a most interesting employment for the genuine rose amateur; such a pleasing field is open, and so much may yet be done. The following directions will, I hope, assist those who have leisure, perseverance, and love for this charming flower. A plant of the Luxembourg Moss, or one of the Celina Moss, and one of the Single Crimson Moss, should be planted against a south wall, close to each other, so that their branches may be mingled. In bright, calm, sunny mornings, in June, about ten o'clock, those flowers that are expanded should be examined by pressing the fingers on the anthers. It will then be found if the pollen be abundant: if so, a flower of the former should be shaken over the latter; or, what perhaps is better, its flower-stalks should be fastened to the wall, so that the flower will be kept in an erect position. Then cut a flower of the Luxembourg Moss, strip off its petals with a sharp pair of scissors, and place the anthers firmly, but gently, upon a flower of the Single Crimson, so that the anthers of each are entangled: they will keep it in its position: a stiff breeze will then scarcely remove it. The fertilizing will take place without further trouble, and a fine hip full of seed will be the result. To obtain seed from the Luxembourg Moss, I need scarcely say that this operation must be reversed. A wall is not always necessary to ripen seed; for in dry soils, and airy, exposed situations, the above Moss roses bear seed in tolerable abundance. The treatment of the hips, sowing the seed, and the management of the young plants, as applicable to all, has already been given."--_Rivers._ [Illustration: 0130] _Rosa Damascena_.--Any deeply colored rose is popularly called a Damask; but the true Damask--the rose of Damascus--is of various shades, from the darkest to the lightest. All these varieties have sprung from one origin,--the wild rose of Syria, which was introduced into England in the year 1573, or, according to some writers, much earlier. It is this rose from which is made the rosewater of the East, and on this the Eastern poets and their Western imitators have lavished the wealth of their fancy. In poetry, indeed, the Damask Rose has woven more garlands than the Moss. Nor is it unknown to history, since the five hundred camel-loads of rose-water with which the Sultan Saladin purified the Mosque of Omar after it had been used as a Christian church were doubtless distilled from its leaves. But, without falling into an anachronism, it is hardly possible to claim for it, as some have done, the honor of having been the renowned Red Rose of Lancaster. Both the Damask and the Provence roses are extensively cultivated in France and England for the purpose of making rose-water. The Damask is very hardy, vigorous of growth, and abundant in bloom. Its shoots are full of spines, and its leaves of a light green. Its old original varieties are wholly eclipsed by those which the industry of the florist has produced from their seed. The following are among the best of these:-- La Ville de Bruxelles is a very beautiful rose, of delicate waxy tint and vigorous growth. Madame Stoltz is of a pale straw or lemon color. Madame Soëtmans is of delicate cream-color, tinged with buff. Madame Hardy is a large and very full rose of the purest white. It has but one fault,--that of sometimes showing a green bud in the centre. But for this, it would be almost unrivalled among white roses. Leda is of a blush tint, edged with lake. There are but few new varieties of this family, as the double sorts do not bear seed freely. [Illustration: 0132] _Rosa Alba_.--The parent of the Alba, or White roses, is a native of Central Europe. The species is so called from the prevailing delicacy of hue in its varieties, many of which are of a pure white, while none are of a deeper coloring than a bright pink. The original stock is spineless; but many of its progeny, in consequence, probably, of hybridization, have spines in greater or less number. The upper surface of the leaves has a glaucous or whitish tinge, and the shoots are of a clear green. Félicité is a large double rose, of a delicate flesh-color, and a most symmetrical shape. La Séduisante is of a bright rose in the centre, shading into flesh-color at the circumference: it rivals the last in the perfection of its shape. Madame Audot is of a pale flesh-color. Madame Legras is a white rose of a peculiar delicacy, and very graceful in its habit of growth. The Queen of Denmark is of a clear rosy pink. Sophie de Marsilly is of a delicate rose-color, slightly mottled, and, when half opened, is a rose of remarkable beauty. The Alba roses bloom abundantly, and form in masses a beautiful contrast, in their chaste and delicate hues, with the deeper colors of the French and Hybrid China roses. They rarely bear seed freely. [Illustration: 0133] _Rosa Gallica_.--This rose draws its origin from the south of Europe, where its wild progenitor still grows abundantly in the hedges. It is one of the best known, and longest under cultivation, of all the species. We confess our strong partiality for it. It is perfectly hardy, compact in growth, abundant in bloom, beautiful in form, and rich and various in coloring. It will grow and bloom anywhere, and endures neglect with a patience unknown to most others of its race. Yet none better rewards a careful and generous culture. It returns a rich response to the care bestowed upon it; and, under high cultivation, the members of this group have no superiors in beauty. It is not, however, in favor at the present day. Roses of equal beauty, though, not of equal hardihood, and endowed with the one valuable quality in which it is wanting,--that of continuous or repeated blooming,--have, of late, supplanted it. We may as well say here, while protesting against the neglect into which the hardy June roses have fallen, that, of the so-called Perpetuals, a great many are undeserving of the name. Some, even with tolerably good treatment, rarely show a flower after the June blooming; and none will put forth freely and abundantly in autumn, without more pains in the management than most persons are willing to bestow. The French Rose has been known in England since the close of the sixteenth century. It is very prolific, and innumerable seedlings have been raised from it. Some of these produce flowers exceedingly double, of the most vivid color, and remarkable even now for the symmetry of their forms. Among the rest is a great variety of marbled, striped, and spotted roses, which, though curious and interesting, are certainly less beautiful than the "self-colored" sorts. The varieties of this rose formerly catalogued and cultivated might be numbered by hundreds. Of these, it is needless to mention any but a few of the best and most distinct. Boula de Nanteuil is a rose of the richest crimson-purple, with a centre, at times, of a vivid red. It varies, however, very much in different seasons, and, while sometimes splendid in coloring, is occasionally dull and cloudy. Grandissima is of a deep purplish-rose, very large and double. Kean closely resembles it. Adele Prévost is of a silvery blush. Blanchefleur is white, with a tinge of flesh-color. Cynthia is of a pale rose. The Duchess of Buccleugh is of a dark rose. Ohl is of a deep crimson and scarlet, and, when grown in perfection, is one of the finest roses in existence. La Reine des Français is also of a bright crimson. Perle des Panachées is white, striped with rose; and Oeillet Parfait is white, striped with light crimson, much like a carnation. D'Aguesseau, Gloire de Colmar, Latour d'Auvergne, Triomphe de Jaussens, Letitia, Napoléon, Duc de Valmy, and Transon Goubault, are all excellent roses of this family. "To grow them fine for exhibition, as single blooms or 'show-roses,' the clusters of buds should be thinned early in June, taking at least two-thirds of the incipient flowers from each: manure should also be laid round their stems on the surface, and manure-water given to them plentifully in dry weather. With this description of culture, these roses will much surpass any thing we have yet seen in this country. "Although the varieties of this group are summer roses only, their period of flowering may be prolonged by judicious pruning; and for this purpose two trees of each variety should be planted, one to be pruned in October, the other early in May, or just when the buds have burst into leaf: these will give a regular succession of flowers. In pruning, cut out with a sharp knife all the spray-like shoots, and then shorten to within six or eight buds of their base all the strong shoots (by such I mean those that are above fifteen inches in length): the weak shoots cut down to two or three buds. This is the pruning required by the Alba, Damask, and Hybrid Provence roses.... "To raise French roses from seed, they should be planted in a warm, dry border sloping to the south, in an open, airy situation: the shade of trees is very pernicious to seed-bearing roses. The following kinds * may be selected, as they bear seed freely: The Tuscany Rose, a very old variety, with rich, deep crimson, semi-double flowers; also Ohl and Latour d'Auvergne. The two latter should have their flowers fertilized with the pollen of the Tuscany Rose, and some fine crimson roses will probably be raised. The Village Maid and Oillet Parfait are the most eligible to raise striped roses from: if their flowers are deficient in pollen, they should be fertilized with those of Rosa Mundi."--_Rivers_. * Some of the roses recommended for seed-bearing are old varieties, which may be procured from any old-fashioned English rose-nursery. _Rosa Indica Hybrida_.--This class has been divided by some writers into three; viz., Hybrid China, Hybrid Noisette, and Hybrid Bourbon. The division seems to us needless, for the reason that all these, on analysis, resolve themselves into hybrids of the Chinese Rose, since both the Noisette and the Bourbon owe their distinctive character to their Chinese parentage. The hybrids of the Noisettes are usually inclined to bloom in clusters: those of the Bourbons are distinguishable by their large, smooth, and thick leaves. This class, then, may be defined as the offspring of intermarriage of the French and other June roses with the Chinese Rose and its hybrids. It has, however, none of the ever-blooming qualities which distinguish the China roses. It is remarkable, as a class, for vigor of growth, in which, strange as it may appear, it surpasses, in some cases, both its parents. Most of the Hybrid China roses are, moreover, perfectly hardy even in the climate of the Northern States; and they are admirably adapted for forming pillars. For this purpose, they should be planted in a very deep and rich soil. If the soil is naturally poor, dig it out to the width and depth of three feet, and replace it with a mixture of strong loam and old manure. Some of the Hybrid Chinas thus generously treated, and trained and pruned in the manner recommended in a former chapter, will form most gorgeous decorations of a garden; for in the size of the flowers, in beauty of form, and brilliancy of color, some of the varieties are unsurpassed. Every autumn, the surface of the soil around the stem should be covered with manure to the depth of several inches; and this should be allowed to remain throughout the summer, renewing it as often as necessary, after a previous forking-up of the soil, which this covering or "mulching" enriches, at the same time that it keeps it moist and cool. The following are among the best of this family of roses: Beauty op Billiard, of vigorous growth, and bright-scarlet and crimson flowers. Brennus, or Brutus, is a superb rose, of great size, and strong, rapid growth. Blair, No. 2, is particularly adapted for a pillar rose; its bloom being very profuse. The color of its flowers is pink or blush. George the Fourth is an old rose raised some forty years ago by the excellent English cultivator, Mr. Rivers. Its bright crimson color and its neat foliage make it very attractive, though it is less double than some other varieties. The Duke op Devonshire is of a lilac-color, striped with white, and perfect in form; its petals overlapping with the greatest regularity. Charles Duval is of a deep pink; Charles Lawson, of a vivid rose. Chenedolé is regarded by many as the best rose of the class; for its color is the brightest and clearest crimson, and its flowers are large and very full. Inferior roses, however, are frequently sold under its name, especially in I this country. Coupe d'Hébé is remarkable both for the perfection of its cup-like form, and for the delicate rose-color of its petals. Its growth is very vigorous; and, like most of its kindred, it is perfectly hardy. General Jacqueminot is a large purplish-crimson rose. It must not be confounded with the Hybrid Perpetual of the same name. Fulgens is of a deep crimson. Triomphe de Bayeux is white, and an excellent pillar-rose. Madame Plantier is also white, but very distinct from the last; for, as it sprang on the mother's side from the Noisette, it blooms in dusters. Its individual flowers are surpassed by those of one or two other white roses; but the extraordinary profusion of its bloom, its graceful habit, its neat foliage, and its hardy, enduring nature, make it, on the whole, the best rose of its color in cultivation. Paul Perras is Bourbon on the mother's side, as is also Paul Ricaut. The first is of a pale rose, the second of a bright crimson. Vivid is a seedling of the English rose-grower, Mr. William Paul. Its flowers are not large, but they are of the most vivid crimson; and the vigorous habit of the plant makes it very suitable either for a pillar or a trellis. "When grown as large standards, these roses require peculiar pruning. If their shoots are shortened too much, they will grow vigorously, but give no flowers. They should, therefore, be thinned out, so that the head of the tree is not at all crowded, and then be shortened to within twelve buds of their base: a crop of fine flowers will then be produced. This is the pruning to be done either in the early part of November or in February: we will call it the winter pruning. * There is another mode of pruning these roses, partly in summer, which will be found highly eligible. Thin out the shoots in the winter, and leave a selected number of those that are most vigorous nearly their full length, merely cutting off their tips: these will be loaded with blossoms so as to make the trees quite pendulous. As soon as the blooming season is past, shorten them all to within six inches of their base. They will immediately put forth strong shoots, which, while in a very young state, thin out, leaving those that are the most vigorous. These shoots treat in the same manner the following year. By this method of pruning, a pendulous, graceful head is formed, instead of a stiff, formal one, so common to standard roses. In pruning these roses, when trained as pillars, the spurs from the shoots fastened to the stake merely require thinning out, so as not to be crowded, and then shortened to within five or six buds of their base. Trained as pillar-roses, they give flowers often too abundantly; so that they are small and ill-shaped: it is, therefore, often a good practice to thin the flower-buds as soon as they can be distinguished. * These directions, it will be remembered, are for the climate of England. The November pruning will not do here; indeed, it will require much precaution to make even the hardy roses succeed as standards. "I shall now proceed to give a list of those roses, from which, in combination with others, choice seedlings may be raised. "The Duke of Devonshire, in a very warm and dry soil, will produce hips in tolerable abundance; and, as it is inclined to be striped, it would possibly form a beautiful combination with some striped rose, which should be planted with it. "Riego, which partakes of the Sweet-brier, might be made the parent of some beautiful brier-like roses by planting it with the Splendid Sweet-brier. "General Allard, a hybrid rose, from which Monsiem Laffay raised his perpetual rose, Madame Laffay, is much inclined to give a second series of flowers. This rose should be planted in a very warm border, or trained against a south wall with Bourbon Gloire de Rosomènes; and, if carefully fertilized with it, some beautiful crimson autumnal roses would probably be originated. Chênedolé may also be subjected to the same treatment. What a fine autumnal rose one like it would be!"--_Rivers._ [Illustration: 0142] _Rosa Spinosissima._--The original Scotch Rose is a wild dwarf rose, common in Scotland and the north of England. As it bears seed in great abundance, as these seeds vegetate freely, and as the Scotch gardeners have taken pride in multiplying and improving this native growth of the soil, the number of varieties is nominally immense. Many of them, however, are scarcely to be distinguished the one from the other. The flowers are small, and exceedingly numerous. They bloom earlier than most roses, and show various shades of crimson, rose, white, and yellow,--or rather straw-color; for the yellow Scotch Rose is apparently a hybrid. They are useful for covering banks and forming clumps where masses of bloom are required. Nothing can exceed their hardiness, and they increase abundantly by suckers. A list of named varieties of the Scotch Rose would, from their multiplicity, and want of distinctness, be even more unsatisfactory than the florist's lists of pansies or verbenas. The following, however, are good:-- La Neige is pure white, and very double. Guy Mannering is of a deep blush. Sulphurea, Lady Balllie, and the Marchioness of Lansdowne, are of a pale straw or sulphur color. The Yellow Scotch is of a deeper yellow tint. Flora, Daphne, Erebus, Venus, and the Countess of Glasgow, are of deep shades of rose and crimson. "Scotch roses, when grown into beds and clumps as dwarfs, are beautiful; and in early seasons they will bloom nearly a fortnight before the other summer roses make their appearance. This, of course, makes them desirable appendages to the flower-garden. They bear seed profusely; and raising new varieties from seed will be found a most interesting employment. To do this, all that is required is to sow the seed as soon as ripe, in October, in pots or beds of fine earth, covering it with nearly an inch of mould: the succeeding spring they will come up, and bloom in perfection the season following. "The aim should be to obtain varieties with large and very double crimson flowers: this can only be done by slightly hybridizing; and to effect this it will be necessary to have a plant or two of the Tuscany Rose trained to a south wall, so that their flowers are expanded at the same time as the Scotch roses in the open borders: unless thus forced, they will be too late. Any dark-red varieties of the Scotch roses, such as Venus, Erebus, or Flora, should be planted separately from others, and their flowers fertilized with the above French Rose. Some very original deep-colored varieties will probably be obtained by this method. Sulphurea and one or two other straw-colored varieties may be planted with the Double Yellow Austrian Brier; and most likely some pretty sulphur-colored roses will be the result of this combination."--_Rivers_. _Rosa Lutea_.--This is a small family of roses, very distinct in all its characteristics; a native of Southern Europe and of some parts of the East. It is seldom that any seedlings have been obtained from it, as its flowers, even in the single varieties, are usually barren. They may, however, be made productive by fertilizing them with the pollen of other varieties. Its stems are spiny, and of a reddish or brownish color. Its leaves are small, and its growth somewhat straggling. The colors of its flowers are copper and yellow in various shades. It should not be pruned too closely; but the shoots may with great advantage be pinched back in midsummer, thus causing them to throw out a great number of lateral shoots, and correcting the loose and straggling habit of the bush. The bloom, with this treatment, is very profuse. The best known roses of this family are five in number. The Single Austrian Yellow and the Single Austrian Copper may be regarded as the original types of the species. William's Double Yellow is an English seedling of a pale-yellow color. Harrison's Yellow is an excellent yellow rose, originated in America. It is very vigorous in growth, and, on the whole, the best yellow rose for general cultivation. The Persian Yellow, however, is of a much deeper hue, and is unrivalled in its way. It is one of those roses which are feeble on their own roots, but grow very vigorously either on the Dog Rose or on the Manetti stock. It is said to have originated, as its name imports, from Persia. A moist soil, and a dry, pure air, are essential to the growth of all this family of roses. "No family of roses offers such an interesting field for experiments in raising new varieties from seed as this. First we have the Copper Austrian, from which, although it is one of the oldest roses in our gardens, a double flowering variety has never yet been obtained. This rose is always defective in pollen; and consequently it will not bear seed unless its flowers are fertilized. As it will be interesting to retain the traits of the species, it should be planted with and fertilized by the Double Yellow: it will then, in warm, dry seasons, produce seed, not abundantly; but the amateur must rest satisfied if he can procure even one hip-full of perfect seed. "The beautiful and brilliant Rosa Harrison, however, gives the brightest hopes. This should be planted with the Double Yellow Brier: it will then bear seed abundantly. No rose will, perhaps, show the effects of fertilizing its flowers more plainly than this; and consequently, to the amateur, it is the pleasing triumph of Art over Nature. Every flower on my experimental plants, not fertilized, proved abortive; while, on the contrary, all those that were so, produced large black spherical hips-full of perfect seed. The Persian Yellow does not seem inclined to bear seed; but it may be crossed with Rosa Harrison, and, I trust, with some good effect."--_Rivers_. [Illustration: 0146] _Rosa Sulphurea_.--This beautiful rose is difficult of cultivation both in England and in this country, though in Italy and the south of France it grows and blooms luxuriantly. Its original species is found growing wild, and yielding single flowers, on the Himalaya Mountains, and also, it is said, in Persia. Only two varieties are in cultivation,--the Double (called also the Yellow Provence) and the Dwarf Double. The climate of the Southern and Middle States is far more suitable to them than that of the North; though it is more than probable, that, with careful and judicious treatment, they would do well even here. They need a rich diet, and a sunny and airy situation, to induce them to expand their flower-buds, which are provokingly apt to fall before opening. They are also very liable to the attacks of insects. The difficulty of the cultivation of this rose is greatly to be lamented, since it surpasses even the Persian Yellow in beauty. "Various situations," says Mr. Rivers, "have been recommended. Some have said, 'Plant it against a south wall;' others, 'Give it a northern aspect, under the drip of some water-trough, as it requires a wet situation.' All this is quackery and nonsense. The Yellow Provence Rose is a native of a warm climate, and therefore requires a warm situation, a free and airy exposure, and rich soil: a wall with a south-east or north-west aspect will be found eligible. Give the plants surface-manure every autumn, and water with manure-water in May; prune with the finger and thumb in summer, as recommended for the Persian Yellow. * * M. Godefroy, a French nursery-man, has cultivated it as a pillar-rose, in a free and open situation, with much success. Manuring as above, and summer pruning, are indispensable. "At Burleigh, the seat of the Marquis of Exeter, the effect of situation on this rose is forcibly shown. A very old plant is growing against the southern wall of the mansion, in a confined situation, its roots cramped by a stone pavement: it is weakly, and never shows a flower-bud. In the entrance-court is another plant, growing in front of a low parapet wall, in a good loamy soil, and free, airy exposure: this is in a state of the greatest luxuriance, and blooms in fine perfection nearly every season. "Mr. Mackintosh, the gardener, who kindly pointed out these plants to me, thought the latter a distinct and superior variety, as it was brought from France by a French cook a few years since; but it is certainly nothing but the genuine Old Double Yellow Rose. "In unfavorable soils, it will often flourish and bloom freely if budded on the Musk Rose, the common China Rose, or some free-growing hybrid China Rose; but the following pretty method of culture I beg to suggest: Bud or graft it on some short stems of the Rosa Manetti. In the autumn, pot some of the strongest plants; and, late in spring, force them with a gentle heat, giving plenty of air. It will now also be very interesting to plant trees of this variety in orchard-houses: this seems to me to be the exact climate required by it. By this method, the dry and warm climate of Florence and Genoa may, perhaps, be partially imitated; for there it blooms in such profusion, that large quantities of its magnificent flowers are daily sold in the markets during the rose-season. "The following extract relative to this rose is from the quaint old book, 'Flora, Ceres, and Pomona, by John Rea, Gent., 1655,' showing that budding and double-budding of roses and trees is no new idea: 'The Double Yellow Rose is the most unapt of all others to bear kindly and fair flowers, unless it be ordered and looked unto in an especial manner. For whereas all other roses are best natural, this is best inoculated upon another stock. Others thrive and bear best in the sun, this in the shade. Therefore the best way that I know to cause this rose to bring forth fair and kindly flowers is performed after this manner: First, in the stock of a Francford * Rose, near the ground, put in a bud of the Single Yellow Rose, which will quickly shoot to a good length; then, half a yard higher than the place where the same was budded, put into it a bud of the Double Yellow Rose; which growing, the suckers must be kept from the root, and all the buds rubbed off, except those of the kind desired; which being grown big enough to bear (which will be in the two years), it must in winter be pruned very near, cutting off all the small shoots, and only leaving the biggest, cutting off the tops of them also, as far as they are small; then in the spring, when the buds for leaves come forth, rub off the smallest of them, leaving only some few of the biggest, which by reason of the strength of the stock affording more nourishment than any other, and the agreeable nature of the Single Yellow Rose (from whence it is immediately nourished), the shoots will be then strong, and able to bear out the flowers if they be not too many, which may be prevented by nipping off the smallest buds for flowers, leaving only such a number of the fairest as the tree may be able to bring to perfection; which tree should stand something shadowed, and not too much in the heat of the sun, and in a standard by itself, rather than under a wall. These rules being observed, we may expect to enjoy the full delight of these beautiful roses, as I myself have often done by my own practice in divers trees so handled, which have yearly borne store of fair flowers, when those that were natural, not withstanding all the helps I could use, have not brought forth one that was kindly, but all of them either broken, or, as it were, blasted.'" * This is the Frankfort Rose, a variety of Rosa Gallica, with very double flowers, one of our oldest garden-roses. _Rosa Rubignosa_.--This is the Eglantine of the poets, celebrated in song by bards known and unknown to fame, from Milton down to the rustic rhymer offering the trib-. ute of his untutored Muse to the charms of some village beauty. Nothing is easier than its cultivation; but, to our mind, it loses half its attraction when transplanted from its native road-side or thicket into the garden. From its perfect hardiness and free growth, it is sometimes used as a stock for budding or grafting. The fragrance of its leaves readily distinguishes it from other species. Most of the named varieties under this head in the catalogues of nursery-men are hybrids; sometimes, as in the case of the Double-margined Hip, or Madeline, retaining little trace of the Sweet-Brier. Among the best are the Monstrous Sweet-Brier, the Carmine, the Celestial, the Splendid, the Scarlet, the Rose Angle, the Royal, and the Superb. [Illustration: 0151] _Rosa Alpina_.--This familiar climbing rose is easily known by its long shoots, nearly or quite free from thorns, and the reddish tinge, shaded into green, which marks the stems of most of the varieties. Its parent is a native of the Alps, and it is perfectly hardy. The flowers grow in clusters. In the Old Red Boursault, they are semidouble, and indifferently formed; but some of the other varieties show great improvements both in shape and color. They are excellent climbing or pillar roses, and require less sun to develop their flowers than most other species. Like other climbing roses, they should be primed but little, though the old stems should be well thinned out. _Amadis_, or the Crimson Boursault, is of a deep purplish-crimson, with large semi-double flowers. The Blush Boursault is, in its flowers, larger and more full than most others of the species. They are of a deep flesh-color, passing into a lighter shade towards the edge. It can scarcely owe its qualities to the Boursault race alone, but seems to be a hybrid of some of the Chinese roses. When in perfection, it is much the best of the group, but requires a warmer and brighter aspect than the others. It is, however, perfectly hardy. This variety is also called Calypso, De l'Isle, The White Boursault, and Florida. Inermis Elegans and Gracilis are the only other varieties of the group that need be mentioned here. [Illustration: 0152] _Rosa Arvensis Hybrida_.--The origin of the Ayrshire Rose has been the subject of some discussion among botanists and cultivators. It is generally supposed, however, to have sprung from the seed of a wild trailing rose common in Great Britain and in Western Europe, the flowers of which had been impregnated by accident or design with the pollen of some other species. The Ayrshire roses are known in Europe for their astonishing vigor of growth; some species, it is said, growing nearly thirty feet in a year,--an achievement which we never knew them to equal in this country. Their growth, however, is very rapid; and, when once established, their long, slender shoots quickly possess themselves of every object near them. As may be gathered from their name, most of them originated in Scotland. In Europe, these roses are valued as standard weepers, since, when budded on tall stocks, they form huge heads of pendulous foliage and bloom. Doubtless they would succeed as well or better in our Southern and Middle States; but in the North they would probably require, in common with other standard roses, a careful protection against the changes of the seasons. Bennett's Seedling and the Dundee Rambler have white flowers; those of the last being not fully double. The Countess of Lieven is creamy-white and semidouble. Splendens is white, edged with red; and the Queen of the Belgians is of a cream-color. The Ayrshire Queen is of a dark crimson-purple, and less vigorous in growth than the rest. Ruga is of a pale flesh-color. Like the last, it is a hybrid, probably between the Tea Rose and one of the Ayrshires; for it has much of the fragrance of the former. "I have a steep bank of a hard white clay," says an English writer, "which, owing to a cutting made in the road, became too steep for cultivation. About sixteen years since, this was planted with Ayrshire and other climbing roses. Holes were made in the hard soil with a pick, two feet over and two feet deep; some manure mixed with the clay, after it had lain exposed to frost to mellow it, and climbing roses planted. This bank is, when the roses are in bloom, a mass of beauty: I have never seen any thing in climbing roses to equal it. On another bank, they are gradually mounting to the tops of the trees: none of them have ever been pruned. Ayrshire roses, as articles of decoration in places unfitted for other ornamental climbers, are worthy of much more attention than they have hitherto received." The following extract from the "Dundee Courier" of July 11,1837, will give some idea how capable these roses are of making even a wilderness a scene of beauty:-- "Some years ago, a sand-pit at Ellangowan was filled up with rubbish found in digging a well. Over this a piece of rock was formed for the growth of plants which prefer such situations, and amongst them were planted some half-dozen plants of the Double Ayrshire Rose, raised in this neighborhood about ten years ago. These roses now most completely cover the whole ground,--a space of thirty feet by twenty. At present they are in full bloom, showing probably not less than ten thousand roses in this small space." [Illustration: 0155] _Rosa Sempervirens_.--This is a climbing rose of very vigorous growth, a native of the middle and south of Europe. The garden varieties originated from it bloom in clusters of small and usually very double flowers, of which the prevailing tints are light, varying from delicate shades of rose and pink to a pure white. They are not absolutely evergreen, but only partially so, retaining their bright, glossy leaves till spring, provided they are planted in shady and sheltered places, as under trees, or in the angles of walls, but dropping them in open situations. In England they have come into great favor as pillar-roses, and for covering walls, banks, or unsightly objects in the garden or on the pleasure-ground. Budded on tall stems of the Dog Rose, they form pendulous standards of magnificent proportions; rivalling, in this respect, the Ayrshire. Whether such standards would be equally successful in the Northern States, is, to say the least, doubtful. Most of the varieties of the Evergreen Rose now most in esteem were originated in the gardens of Reuilly, near Paris, by M. Jacques, gardener to King Louis Philippe. One or two are crossed with the Musk Rose; whence they acquire a fragrance in which their own race is deficient. Bankslæflora is one of these. It has small double white flowers. Félicite Perpétuée, in spite of its preposterous name, is one of the most beautiful of climbing roses; and trained as it sometimes is in European gardens, drooping in graceful festoons from pillar to pillar on supporting wires, or mantling some unsightly dead trunk with its foliage of shining green and its countless clusters of creamy white flowers, it forms one of the most attractive objects imaginable. Thin out its shoots; but do not prune them, since, if they are much shortened, they will yield no flowers whatever. Give it a rich soil, with autumnal top-dressing of manure; a treatment good for the whole group, and, indeed, for all climbing roses. Donna Maria has pure white flowers. Its growth is less vigorous than others, its foliage light green, and it blooms in large clusters. Myrianthes Rénoncule has flowers of a pale peach-color, drooping in large clusters, and in form resembling a double ranunculus. Rosa Plena is of a bright flesh-color, large and double. Princesse Marie is reddish-pink. Fortune's Yellow is a native of China and Japan, and is sometimes included in this class. It is of a bright fawn-color, with a tinge of copper; beautiful under shelter, but will not bear a winter exposure in the Northern States. It is of comparatively recent introduction. Rampante blooms profusely in clusters of pure white. Flora is of a bright rose; Leopoldine d'Orléans, white, tinged with rose; and Spectabilis, rosy-lilac. While some of this race are perfectly hardy, others will require protection against a Northern winter. The ease of their culture, their rapid growth, and their admirable effect where masses of flowers and verdure are desired, will commend them all to favor in the Middle and Southern States. "I know of no rose idea," says Mr. Rivers, "prettier than that of a wilderness of evergreen roses, the varieties planted promiscuously, and suffered to cover the surface of the ground with their entangled shoots. To effect this, the ground should be dug, manured, and thoroughly cleaned from perennial weeds, such as couch-grass, &c., and the plants planted from three to five feet asunder. If the soil be rich, the latter distance will do. They must be hoed amongst, and kept clean from weeds after planting, till the branches meet: they will then soon form a beautiful mass of foliage and flowers, covering the soil too densely for weeds of minor growth to flourish. Those weeds that are more robust should be pulled out occasionally; and this is all the culture they will require. For temples, columns, wire-fences, which they soon cover with beauty, and verandas, their use is now becoming well known. One of the most complete temples of roses is that at the seat of-----Warner, Esq., Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire; and the prettiest specimens of festooning these roses from one column to another by means of small iron chains (strong iron wire will do) may be seen at Broxbourn Bury, near Hoddesdon, the seat of-------Bosanquet, Esq. "... About six or eight years ago, I received, among others, some very stout short stocks of the Dog Rose: they were not more than two feet in height, but stouter than a large broom-handle, the bark thick and gray with age. They were planted, and grew most luxuriantly. I was for some little time at a loss what varieties to bud them with; for, be it remembered, all stout and old rose-stocks require to be worked with very strong-growing sorts of roses, to take off the abundance of sap, and keep them in a healthy state. At last, in a mere freak of fancy, I had them budded with some varieties of the Evergreen Rose (_Rosa Sempervirens_). They grew most luxuriantly; and after a year or two, not being trees adapted for sale, they were planted in a sloping bank of strong white clay, and left to grow and bloom as Nature dictated: not a shoot was ever touched with the pruning-knife. "One of these trees is on a stem a trifle more than two feet in height, and it has been these two or three summers past a picture of beauty. When in full bloom, the ends of its shoots rest on the ground, and it then forms a perfect dome of roses: nothing in rose-culture can really be more beautiful. It will be at once seen with what facility such stout, short, old rose-stocks can be found in any hedge. They may be planted in the kitchen-garden, budded with the above-mentioned sort, and, to give variety in color, with some of the following kinds,--all varieties of Rosa Sempervirens, Myrianthes, Jaunâtre, Adelaide d'Orléans, and Spectabilis. Every bud will succeed, as no roses grow more freely; and, after remaining one season from budding in their 'nursery,' some nice places must be found for them on the lawn, where, unpruned, unchecked, they will, with all the freshness of unassisted Nature, annually delight the eye of the lover of flowers." * * This will do for the Southern States. Unhappily, it will not do in New England. [Illustration: 0159] _Rosa Multiflora_.--The parent of this family belongs to Japan and China. With few exceptions, we cannot recommend them to Northern cultivators for growth in the open air, as they bear our winters but indifferently, and, in some cases, are killed outright. Russelliana, or Scarlet Grevillia, blooms in large clusters of a rich, dark lake, changing to various shades of red and lilac, so that the cluster presents a curious diversity of hue. As it is extremely vigorous in growth, it would make an admirable pillar or climbing rose, were it but a little more hardy. It would, no doubt, succeed if the pillar were protected during winter by fastening around it a covering of pine or spruce boughs. These exclude sun, but not air; so that the rose is not exposed to the dangers from dampness which attend a compact mass of straw soaked by rain and snow. As Russelliana bears pruning better than most climbing roses, it may be grown as a bush; in which state it has flourished here for a number of years without protection. De la Grifferaie may also be grown as a bush with perfect success as far North as Boston. It gives a great abundance of blush and rose-colored flowers, forming a high mound of bloom. Laura Davoust forms an admirable greenhouse stock for rafter roses. Indeed, it is well worth a place for its own sake. Its small double flowers of bright pink and flesh-color, changing to white, are produced in large and graceful clusters, beautiful from the varieties of shade which they exhibit. Carmin Velouté, Alba, and Coccinea are also good varieties of this family, the value of which is greatly diminished by the imperfect hardiness of many of its members. [Illustration: 0161] The following are roses of doubtful parentage, several of them much esteemed abroad; though, for the most part, they have not been sufficiently tried here to establish their merit and their hardiness in our Northern climate. All those named below bear an English winter. Madame d'Arblay, or Wells's White, is of a light flesh-color, and its growth is exceedingly vigorous. The Garland is of a light fawn-color, changing to white, and blooms in large clusters of double flowers, which turn to pink before fading. Sir John Sebright has small semidouble crimson flowers, a color valuable in a climbing rose, because not very common. Menoux is also crimson. Indica Major is of a pale blush. Among others under this head may be mentioned Astrolabe, Bengale Formidable, Queen, and Clair. The last, however, is but a moderate grower for a climbing rose. "Among climbing roses, but few can be found that will bear seed in England, the Ayrshire roses excepted, from some of which it is probable that some fine and original climbers may be raised. A most desirable object to obtain is a dark crimson Rosa ruga: this may possibly be accomplished by planting that favorite rose with the Ayrshire Queen, and fertilizing its flowers very carefully with those of that dark rose. It is remarkable, that although these roses are both hybrids, from species apparently very remote in their affinities, yet both of them bear seed, even without being fertilized. The Blush Ayrshire, a most abundant seed-bearer, may also be planted with the Ayrshire Queen, the Gloire de Rosomènes, the Double Yellow Brier, Single Crimson Moss, Celina Moss, the China Rose Fabvier, and its flowers fertilized with the pollen of these roses: if any combination can be effected, pleasing results may reasonably be hoped for. To make assurance doubly sure, the anthers of the Ayrshire Rose should be removed from some of the flowers with which the experiment is tried."--_Rivers_. [Illustration: 0162] _Rosa Banksia_.--This very beautiful and very singular family more resembles in bloom a double Spiraea prunifolia, dwarf almond, or Chinese plum, than a rose. Its shoots are long, flexible, and graceful, and its foliage of a deep, polished green. In the flowering season, each shoot is like a pendulous garland of white, yellow, or rose-colored blossoms, small in size, and countless in number. It is not hardy here, or even in England; but it is one of the few once-blooming roses that are worth training on a greenhouse rafter. We have found it to succeed in a house without fire, with the protection of straw placed around it in winter. It will then bloom in the spring. This rose is a native of China, and was named in compliment to Lady Banks. In Italy and the south of France it grows to perfection, climbing with an astonishing vigor, and covering every object within its reach. According to the French writer Deslongchamps, there was in 1842 a Banksia Rose at Toulon, of which the stem was, at its base, two feet and four inches in circumference; while the largest of the six branches measured a foot in girth. Its foliage covered a space of wall seventy-five feet wide, and about eighteen feet high; and it sometimes produced shoots fifteen feet long in a single year. It flowered in April and May; from fifty to sixty thousand of its double white blossoms opening at once, with an effect which the writer describes as magical. This remarkable tree was then about thirty-four years old. Deslongchamps also describes another Banksia Rose at Caserta, in the kingdom of Naples, which climbed to the top of a poplar sixty feet high, killed it with its embraces, and mantled its lifeless form with its rich green drapery, and its flowery garlands and festoons of white. Banksian roses must not be shortened much; for, if they are, they will not bloom. The branches may be thinned out, however, to any degree necessary. The strong, thick shoots of overgrown proportions, and often but half ripened, which they sometimes make towards the end of summer, should be cut out, as they draw too much life from the blooming part of the plant. The same rule will also apply to many other species. These gross and immature shoots occur in many roses, both in the open ground and under glass; and, as they rarely produce good flowers, they should not be suffered to rob the rest of the plant of its nourishment. The Double White Banksia is the best known, and one of the most beautiful. Jaunâtre Pleine is of a primrose yellow. Jaune Serin is of a bright yellow. Fortune's Banksia has double white flowers, much larger than usual with the species, and is greatly admired. The Yellow Banksia is of a bright yellow, small, and very double. Rosea is of a bright rose, double. The Banksia is frequently used in greenhouses and conservatories as a stock for other climbing roses; and, in many cases, answers well. [Illustration: 0165] _Rosa Rubifolia_.--This native rose has been much improved by Mr. Feast and others, and now has many varieties, some of which are evidently hybrids. The single variety is in itself very attractive; blooming in clusters, which last a long time, and exhibit a pleasing diversity of shade, since the flowers grow paler as they grow old. For our own part, we prefer the parent to most of its more pretending offspring. All of this family are held in great scorn by transatlantic cultivators. Perhaps the climate of England is unfavorable to them; perhaps national prejudice may color the judgment; or perhaps the fact that a less rigorous climate permits the successful cultivation of many fine climbing roses which cannot well be grown here may explain the slight esteem with which these coarse children of the prairies are regarded. Coarse, without doubt, they are, except those into which another element has been infused by hybridization, accidental or otherwise: and yet our climate forbids us to dispense with them. The Queen of the Prairies is among those best known and most desirable. Individually, its flowers are as void of beauty as a rose can be. Sometimes they are precisely like a small cabbage,--not the rose so called, but the vegetable,--and they are as deficient in fragrance as in elegance. Yet we regard this rose as a most valuable possession. It will cover a wall, a pillar, a bank, or a dead trunk, with a profusion of bloom, gorgeous as a feature of the garden landscape, though unworthy to be gathered or critically examined. It is perfectly hardy, and of the easiest culture. Those who can make no other rose grow rarely fail with this. The Baltimore Belle is a notable exception to every thing we have said in disparagement of the Prairie roses. It is evidently a hybrid of some tender, ever-blooming variety, apparently one of the Noisettes; and derives, from its paternal parent, qualities of delicacy and beauty which are not conspicuous in the maternal stock. At the same time, it has lost some of the robust and hardy character of the unmixed Prairie. In a severe New-England winter, its younger shoots are often killed back. It shows a tendency to bloom in the autumn; and a trifle more of the Noisette blood infused into it would, no doubt, make it a true autumnal rose. Some florists use it for spring forcing in the greenhouse; for which the delicacy of its clustering white flowers, shaded with a soft, flesh-color, well fits it. When the worthy Rivers, patriarch of English rose-growers, pronounced sentence, ex cathedra, against the whole race of Prairies,--"I will dismiss them with the remark, that none of them are worth cultivating,"--he included in his decree of excommunication one of the prettiest climbing roses in existence. Anna Maria has very double flowers of pink and rose. Linnæan Hill Beauty bears white and pale blush flowers. Miss Gunnell is pale pink, with a tinge of buff. It is one of the best, though not equal to the Baltimore Belle. Mrs. Hovey has large white flowers; President, deep pink; Triumphant, deep rose; Superba, light pink. Among other sorts are the King of the Prairie, Eva Corinne, Jane, and Seraphim, all excellent for general effect, but not to be classed with the roses suitable for the bouquet or the drawing-room. The Prairie roses might, no doubt, be greatly improved by hybridizing. Thus, by fertilization with the pollen of the Musk Rose, we should probably obtain an offspring with some of the delicacy and fragrance of that species. Again: by applying the pollen of some vigorous, hardy rose of deep and vivid color, we should improve the color of the Prairie without impairing its hardiness. Hybrid China Paul Ricaut would probably answer well for this experiment. The Baltimore Belle bears seed occasionally; but is so uncertain and capricious in this respect, that it will require no little perseverance in the hybridist. [Illustration: 0168] [Illustration: 0169] CHAPTER VII. AUTUMNAL ROSES |THE ROSES of which we have hitherto spoken have but one period of bloom in the year. June is gay with their flowers; but at midsummer their glory is departed, not again to return till a winter of rest has intervened. Various families of roses have, however, the faculty of continuous or repeated blooming. Some remain in bloom with little interruption for a long time; while others bloom at intervals, after periods of rest. These classes are known, with little discrimination, as "Autumnal Roses," "Ever-blooming Roses," or "Perpetual Roses." The French have a name for those blooming at intervals, which is very appropriate. They call them "Remontant Roses,"--_Rosiers Remontants_,--in other words, roses which grow again. This very well describes them. They make a growth in spring and early summer, and the young wood thus produced bears a crop of flowers. Then the plant rests for a while; but soon begins another growth, which, in turn, bears flowers, though less abundantly than before. The June, or once blooming roses, it is true, make also a first and second growth; but, with them, the second growth gives leaves alone. In the true ever-blooming roses, or roses that bloom continuously, the growth of young wood capable of bearing flowers is going on with little interruption during the whole period when the vital powers of the plant are awake. It is to stimulate the production of this blooming wood that we prune back the shoots that have already bloomed, as soon as the flowers have faded. It is the possession of a great variety of roses of repeated or continuous bloom that gives to the rose-lovers of our own day their greatest advantage over those of former times. Our forefathers had but very few autumnal roses. The ancient Romans, it seems, had roses in abundance in November and December; but this must have been with the aid of a supreme skill in cultivation, as there is no reason to believe that they were in possession of those Chinese and Indian species, to which the modern florist is indebted, directly or indirectly, for nearly all his autumnal flowers. As these species are by far the most important of the ever-blooming and _remontant_ families, both in themselves and in the numberless progeny of hybrids to whom they have transmitted their qualities, we place them first on our list. [Illustration: 0171] _Rosa Indica.--Rosa Semperflorens._--We include under the head of the Chinese Rose two botanical species, because they are so much alike, that, for floral purposes, it is not worth while to separate them, and because their respective offspring are often wholly undistinguishable. The most marked distinction between the two is the greater depth and vividness of the color of Rosa Semperflorens; though, by a singular freak of Nature, seedlings perfectly white are said to have been produced from it. China roses will not endure our winters without very careful protection; yet they bloom so constantly and so abundantly, that they are very desirable in a garden. In large English pleasure-grounds, they are sometimes planted in masses, each of a distinct color. They may also be so used here by those who will take the trouble to remove them from the ground in the autumn, and place them in a frame for protection. For this purpose, a hotbed frame may be used, substantially made of plank. It should be placed in a situation where the soil is thoroughly drained either by Nature or Art. The roses are to be placed in it close together, and overlapping each other, to save room; the roots being well covered with soil, and the plants laid in a sloping position. By covering them with boards and mats, they will then be safe from every thing but mice. The most effectual way to defeat the mischievous designs of these pestiferous vermin is to cover, not the roots only, but the entire plants, with earth. The covering of boards and mats must be so placed as to exclude water from rain and melting snow. Tea roses, of which we shall speak under the next head, are, as a class, more tender than the Chinas; and, in order to preserve them, the soil in the frame should be dug out to the depth of a foot, the roses laid at the bottom, and wholly covered with earth somewhat dry. On this earth, after the roses are buried, place a covering of dry leaves some six inches deep, and then cover the whole with waterproof boards or sashes. The leaves alone, if in sufficient quantity, would protect the roses from cold, but, at the same time, afford a tempting harborage for mice, which would destroy the plants, unless buried out of their reach. Thus treated, the tenderest Tea roses will bear the winter with impunity in the coldest parts of New England. Though China roses are not equal in beauty to some of their hybrid offspring to be hereafter described, they surpass all other roses for pot-culture in the window of the parlor or drawing-room. They are more easily managed than Tea roses, and, though less fragrant, are not less abundant in bloom. No roses are of easier culture in the greenhouse. The varieties of this group are the Bengal roses of the French, and are those familiarly known among us as Monthly roses. They were introduced into England from the East about the beginning of the last century. Carmin d'Yèeles, or Carmin Superbe, has bright carmine flowers. Cramoisie Supérieure has double crimson flowers, and, like the former, is excellent for pot-culture. Eugène Beauharnais is large, very double, and of a bright amaranth-color, approaching crimson. Fabvier is of crimson scarlet, very vivid and striking. President d'Olbeque is of a cherry-red. All of the above belong to the Semperflorens species, and are of deep colors. The following are varieties of Rosa Indica. Archduke Charles is of a bright rose-color, gradually deepening as the flower grows older, till it becomes, at times, almost crimson. Cels Multiflora is white, shaded with pink, and flowers very freely. Madame Bréon is of a rich rose-color, very large, double, and compact in form. Clara Sylvain is pure white. Madame Bureau is white, with a faint tinge of straw-color. Mrs. Bosanquet may be placed in this division; for, though it is certainly a hybrid, the blood of the China Rose predominates in it, and characterizes it. It is of a pale, waxy, flesh color, very delicate and beautiful, at the same time large and double. Napoléon is of a bright pink, and the Duchess of Kent is white. The Dwarf roses, called Lawrenceanas, or Fairy roses, are varieties of the Chinese. They are very small, many of them not exceeding a foot in height, and are used as edging for flower-beds in countries of which the climate is not too severe for them. Like all other China roses, they are very easily grown in pots. "China roses are better adapted than almost any other class for forming groups of separate colors. Thus, for beds of white roses,--which, let it be remembered, will bloom constantly from June till October,--Clara Sylvain and Madame Bureau are beautiful. The former is the taller grower, and should be planted in the centre of the bed. For crimson, take Cramoisie Supérieure,--no other variety approaches this in its peculiar richness of color; for scarlet, Fabvier; for red, Prince Charles and Carmin Superbe; for deep crimson, Eugene Beauhamais; for blush, Mrs. Bosanquet; for a variegated group, changeable as the chameleon, take Archduke Charles and Virginie; for rose, Madame Bréon. I picture to myself the above on a well-kept lawn, their branches pegged to the ground so as to cover the entire surface; and can scarcely imagine any thing more chaste and beautiful. "To succeed in making these roses bear and ripen their seed in England, a warm, dry soil and south wall are necessary; or, if the plants can be trained to a fined wall, success will be more certain. Eugène Beauharnais, fertilized with Fabvier, would probably produce first-rate brilliant-colored flowers. Archduke Charles, by removing a few of the small central petals, just before their flowers are expanded, and fertilizing it with pollen from Fabvier or Henry the Fifth, would give seed; and as the object ought to be, in this family, to have large flowers with brilliant colors, and plants of hardy, robust habits, no better union can be formed. China roses, if blooming in an airy greenhouse, will often produce fine seed: by fertilizing their flowers, it may probably be insured. In addition, therefore, to those planted against a wall, some strong plants of the above varieties should be planted in the orchard-house,--the place, above all others, adapted for seed-bearing roses."--_Rivers_. [Illustration: 0176] _Rosa Indica Odorata_.--This is a Chinese species, closely allied to the last named, but more beautiful, far more fragrant, and usually more tender. The two original varieties of it, the Blush Tea and the Yellow Tea, were introduced into England early in the "present century; and between them they have produced a numerous family, than which no roses are more beautiful. To grow them in the open air, they require,'in the first place, a very thorough drainage. If the situation is at all damp, the bed should be raised some six inches above the surrounding surface; but this will be rarely necessary in our climate. If it rests on a good natural stratum of gravel, this will be drainage sufficient; but, if not, the whole bed should be excavated, and underlaid to the depth of four or five inches with broken stones, broken bricks, or with what is much better than either,--oyster-shells. Over these, sift coarse gravel to prevent the soil from working into their crevices, and on the gravel make a bed somewhat more than a foot deep of good loam, mixed with a nearly equal quantity of light, well-rotted manure, adding sand if the texture of the loam requires it. The bed should be in an open, sunny situation, and sheltered, as far as may be, from strong winds. The Tea roses planted in it--unless they have been exhausted by forcing in the greenhouse--will give a liberal supply of bloom until checked by the autumn frosts. Many of these roses can be grown to great advantage in a cold grapery, in a bed suitably prepared. They differ greatly in hardiness, and in respect to ease of culture. Some are so vigorous as to form greenhouse climbers, and so hardy as to bear a Northern winter by being simply laid down, and covered with earth, like a raspberry. Of these is Gloire de Dijon, a rose of most vigorous growth, and closely resembling in the shape of its blossoms that matchless Bourbon Rose, the well-known Souvenir de la Malmaison. Its color, however, is very different, being a mixture of buff and salmon. It has one defect,--a crumpled appearance of the central leaves, which gives them a somewhat withered look, even when just open. Five or six large plants of this variety are growing here with the utmost luxuriance on the rafters of a glass house, without fire. In winter they are protected by meadow-hay thrust between them and the glass, and have never been injured by the frost. For preserving a small number of Tea roses through the winter, an ordinary cellar answers perfectly, provided there is no furnace in it. They may either be potted or "heeled" in earth in a box. A few degrees of frost will not hurt them. Roses and all other plants will bear the same degree of cold much better in a close, still air than in the open sunlight and wind. The prevailing colors of Tea roses are light and delicate: of the rose-colored varieties, Adam is one of the finest, as is also Souvenir d'un Ami. Moiret is of a pale yellow, shaded with fawn and rose. Bougere is of a deep rosy bronze, large and double. Silène resembles it in color, and is very much admired. Canary is of the color which its name indicates, and its buds are extremely beautiful. Yet, in this respect, no variety can exceed the Old Yellow Tea, which is, however, one of the most tender and difficult of culture in the whole group. Devoniensis is very large, double, and of a pale clear yellow; a very fine rose, but shy of bloom. Gloire de Dijon, already mentioned, is a superb rose, though somewhat wanting in that grace and delicacy, which, in general, characterize this class. Madame Bravy is of a creamy white, and very beautifully formed. Madame Damaizin is salmon, and very free in bloom. Madame William is of a bright yellow, large, and very double. Niphetos is of a pale lemon, turning to snow-white. Safeano is one of the most distinct and remarkable roses in the group. It is of a buff and apricot hue, altogether peculiar. Its buds are beautifully formed; as are also its half-opened flowers, though they are not very double. It is a very profuse bloomer, easy of culture, free of growth, and hardy as compared with most other Tea roses. "With attention, some very beautiful roses of this family may be originated from seed; but the plants must be trained against a south wall, in a warm, dry soil, or grown in pots, under glass. A warm greenhouse or the orchard-house will be most proper for them, so that they bloom in May, as their hips are a long time ripening. "For yellow roses, Vicomtesse Decazes may be planted with and fertilized by Canary, which abounds in pollen: some fine roses, almost to a certainty, must be raised from seed produced by such a union. For the sake of curiosity, a few flowers of the latter might be fertilized with the Double Yellow Brier, or Rosa Harrison. The Old Yellow Tea Rose bears seed abundantly; but it has been found from repeated experiments that a good or even a mediocre rose is seldom or never produced from it: but, fertilized with the Yellow Brier, something original may be realized. Souvenir d'un Ami and Adam would produce seed of fine quality, from which large and bright rose-colored varieties might be expected; Niphetos would give pure white Tea roses; and Gloire de Dijon, fertilized with Safrano, would probably originate first-rate fawn-colored roses: but the central petals of the latter should be carefully removed with tweezers or pliers, as its flowers are too double for it to be a certain seed-bearer."--_Rivers_. [Illustration: 0180] _Rosa Moschata_.--This rose is a native of Asia, Northern Africa, and adjacent islands. In Persia it is said to reach a prodigious size, resembling some gorgeous flowering tree. It is said, too, that it is the favorite rose of the Persian poets, who celebrated its loves with the nightingale in strains echoed by their English imitators. Being very vigorous, it is best grown as a climber; but, with us, it requires the shelter of glass. It flowers in large clusters late in summer, and in a warm, moist air, exhales a faint odor of musk. The Double White Musk has yellowish white flowers of moderate size. Eponine has pure white flowers, very double. The New Double White, or Ranunculus Musk, is an improvement on the Double White, which it much resembles. Nivea, or the Snowy Musk, can hardly be said to belong to the group, as it blooms only once in the year. Ophir, Princess of Nassau, and Rivers, are also good examples of this family. [Illustration: 0181] _Rosa Moschata Hybrida._--Having treated of the China, Tea, and Musk roses, we now come to the hybrid offspring which they have jointly produced. In 1817, M. Noisette, a French florist at Charleston, S.C., raised a seedling from the Musk Rose, impregnated with the pollen of the' common China Rose. The seedling was different from either parent, but had the vigorous growth of the Musk Rose, together with its property of blooming in clusters, and a slight trace of its peculiar fragrance. This was the original Noisette Rose, and it has been the parent of a numerous family; but as it has, in turn, been fertilized with the pollen of the Tea, and perhaps of other roses, many of its descendants have lost its peculiar characteristics, so that in some cases they cannot be distinguished from Tea roses. It is thus that confusion is constantly arising in all the families of the rose; the groups becoming merged in each other by insensible gradations, so that it is impossible to fix any clear line of demarcation between them. The distinctive characteristic of the true Noisette is blooming in clusters. Different varieties have different habits of growth, some being much more vigorous than others; but the greater part are true climbing roses. Those in which the blood of the Musk and China predominate are comparatively hardy. Many of them can be grown as bushes in the open air, with very little winter protection, even in the latitude of Boston. Two varieties--Madame Massot and Caroline Marniesse--are today (Oct. 16) in full bloom here, where they have stood for several years, with very little precaution to shelter them. Some other varieties, again, strongly impregnated with the Tea Rose, are quite as tender as Tea roses of the pure race. As rafter-roses in the greenhouse, the Noisettes are unsurpassed. [Illustration: 0183] Aimée Vibert is one of the prettiest of the group. It was raised by the French cultivator Vibert, who named it after his daughter. The flowers are pure white, and grow in large clusters. Though not among the most vigorous in growth of the Noisettes, this variety is comparatively hardy, and in all respects very desirable. Miss Glegg resembles her French sister, but is scarcely so graceful or elegant. Joan of Arc is a pure white rose, growing very vigorously. Madame Massot, sometimes sold by American nursery-men under the name of Mademoiselle Henriette, bears large clusters of small flowers of a waxy white, faintly tinged with flesh-color. It is one of the hardiest of the group. Caroline Marniesse somewhat resembles it, but is not equal in beauty. All of the above have very distinctly the Noisette characteristics, as inherited from their parent, the Musk Rose. Those which follow have been hybridized to such a degree with the Tea Rose, that its traits predominate; and though, in some of them, the cluster-blooming habit of the Musk is not lost, the flowers bear, in size, shape, color, and fragrance, a marked resemblance to the Tea. Chroma-tella, or the Cloth of Gold, is, when in perfection, the most beautiful of all the yellow roses; but it is shy of bloom, and difficult of culture. Solfaterre is also a fine yellow rose, much more easily managed than the last. The same may be said of Augusta, a seedling raised from it in this country. Isabella Gray was also raised in America, and is a seedling from the Cloth of Gold, which it rivals in beauty; though, like its parent, it is somewhat difficult to manage. Jaune Desprez, or Desprez's Yellow, is of a sulphur-color tinged with red, very large and fragrant. America is also a large and fine flower of a creamy white; but perhaps the best known of the whole group is Lam arque, in New England the greatest favorite among greenhouse climbers. Its flowers are of a sulphur-yellow, large and double; and its growth is very vigorous. "But few of the Noisette roses will bear seed in this country: the following, however, if planted against a south wall, and carefully fertilized, would probably produce some. The object here should be to obtain dark crimson varieties with large flowers; and for this purpose Fellenberg should be fertilized with Octavie, Solfaterre with the Tea Rose. Vicomtesse Decazes would probably give yellow varieties; and, these would be large and fragrant, as in Lamarque and Jaune Desprez. In these directions for procuring seed from roses by fertilizing, I have confined myself to such varieties as are almost sure to produce it; but much must be left to the amateur, as many roses may be made fertile by removing their central petals, and consequently some varieties that I have not noticed may be made productive."--_Rivers_. [Illustration: 0187] _Rosa Damascena_.--This is a race of Damask roses endowed with the faculty of blooming in the autumn. The old roses known as the Monthly (not the China roses so called) and the Four Seasons are the parents of the group, though not without some infusion of foreign blood. The Damask Perpetuals are hardy, and remarkable for fragrance. They demand rich culture, even more than most other roses; and the best of them with neglect and low diet will bloom but once in the year, and that indifferently. On the other hand, they repay generous treatment liberally, as some of them are as beautiful as they are fragrant. American nursery-men usually catalogue them among the Hybrid Perpetuals, where they are out of place; since the true Damask Perpetual is not, in any sense, a hybrid, though, as before mentioned, some foreign blood has found its way into the family. The French rose-grower Vibert has formed a new group, which he calls the Rose de Trianon, out of the Damask Perpetuals; but, as the subdivision seems unnecessary and perplexing, we shall re-annex it to the parent group. The following are good examples of these Perpetuals: Joasine Hanet has deep purplish-red flowers, very showy. Sydonie bears large flowers of a rose or bright salmon, and blooms profusely. Yolande of Aragon has deep-pink flowers, and is an abundant autumn bloomer. The above belong to Vibert's new division. The following are unquestioned Damask: Crimson, or Rose du Roi, is of a bright crimson, very large, very fragrant, and an excellent autumn bloomer. There is a history attached to it. Count Lelieur was superintendent of the royal gardens of St. Cloud, where this rose was raised from seed, a little before the restoration of the Bourbons. He named it Rose Lelieur, after himself. When Louis the Eighteenth came to the throne, an officer of his household insisted that the new rose should be named after him. Count Lelieur resisted. A debate ensued. The party of the courtiers prevailed: the new rose was called the King's Rose, Rose du Roi; and the count resigned his post in disgust. Mogador is a seedling from this rose, and is, perhaps, an improvement on it. Portland Blanche is pure white, and blooms well in autumn. An English writer sets it down as worthless: whence I infer that there must be two of the same name; for here it lias proved itself one of the most beautiful of white roses. Bernard is a small but very beautiful rose, of a clear salmon-color, and is said to be a sport from the Crimson. "As the culture of this class of roses," says Rivers, "is at present but imperfectly understood, I shall give the result of my experience as to their cultivation, with suggestions to be acted upon according to circumstances. One peculiar feature they nearly all possess,--a reluctance to root when layered: consequently, Perpetual Damask roses, on their own roots, will always be scarce. When it is possible to procure them, they will be found to flourish much better on dry, poor soils than when budded, as at present. These roses require a superabundant quantity of food: it is therefore perfectly ridiculous to plant them on dry lawns, to suffer the grass to grow close up to their stems, and not to give them a particle of manure for years. Under these circumstances, the best varieties, even the Rose du Roi, will scarcely ever give a second series of flowers. To remedy the inimical nature of dry soils to this class of roses, an annual application of manure on the surface of the soil is quite necessary. The ground must not be dug, but lightly pricked over with a fork in November; after which some manure must be laid on, about two or three inches in depth, which ought not to be disturbed, except to clean with the hoe and rake, till the following autumn. This, in some situations, in the spring months, will be unsightly: in such cases, cover with some nice green moss, as directed in the culture of Hybrid China roses. I have said that this treatment is applicable to dry, poor soils: but, even in good rose soils, it is almost necessary; for it will give such increased vigor, and such a prolongation of the flowering season, as amply to repay the labor bestowed. If the soil be prepared as directed, they will twice in the year require pruning: in November [in March, for this country] when the beds are dressed; and again in the beginning of June. In the November pruning, cut off from every shoot of the preceding summer's growth about two-thirds its length: if they are crowded, remove some of them entirely. If this autumnal pruning is attended to, there will be, early in June the following summer, a vast number of luxuriant shoots, each crowned with a cluster of buds. Now, as June roses are always abundant, a little sacrifice must be made to insure a fine autumnal bloom: therefore leave only half the number of shoots to bring forth their summer flowers; the remainder shorten to about half their length. Each shortened branch will soon put forth buds; and in August and September the plants will again be covered with flowers. In cultivating Perpetual roses of all classes, the faded flowers ought immediately to be removed; for in autumn the petals do not fall off readily, but lose their color, and remain on the plant, to the injury of the forthcoming buds. Though I have recommended them to be grown on their own roots, in dry soils, yet, on account of the autumnal rains dashing the dirt upon their flowers when close to the ground, wherever it is possible to make budded roses grow, they ought to be preferred; for, on stems from one to two feet in height, the flowers will not be soiled: they are also brought near to the eye, and the plant forms a neat and pretty object." [Illustration: 0191] _Rosa Hybrida Bourboniensis_.--The China Rose and one of the old Damask Perpetuals, known as the Red Four Seasons, have produced between them a distinct family of hybrids known as the Bourbon roses. They are so called because they were originated on the Isle of Bourbon. One M. Perichon, an inhabitant of that island, in planting a quantity of seedling roses raised for a hedge, found one very different from the rest, and planted it apart. On flowering, it proved to be distinct from any rose before known. Soon after, in the year 1817, a French botanist, M. Bréon, arriving at the Isle of Bourbon as curator of the government botanical garden established there, investigated the case of this remarkable seedling, and became convinced that it was produced between the two species named above; since these were then the only roses on the island, and both were freely used as hedges. M. Bréon sent plants and seeds of the new rose to Paris; and from these have sprung the whole race of the Bourbons,--a race of sweeter savor in horticulture than in history. They are remarkable as a family for clearness and brightness of color, perfection of form, and freedom of autumnal blooming. Some of them are quite hardy; others are not so in New England. Their growth is various; some climbing vigorously if trained to do so, and others forming compact bushes. Abundance of manure, a deep and well-dug soil, and mulching with newly-cut grass or some similar substance to keep them moist in dry weather, joined to judicious pruning, are needed to bring forth their beauties in perfection. The stronger growers cannot be pruned severely without greatly diminishing the quantity of their bloom; but the ends of tall, strong shoots of the same season's growth may be cut off with great advantage, thus checking their growth, and causing them to throw out small blooming side-shoots. No roses are better than these where the object is to produce a late autumnal bloom. They may be made to bloom into the winter by pinching off their summer flower-buds, in order that they may not exhaust themselves in that season, and by sheltering them from the frost. For forcing, they are unsurpassed. Some of the most vigorous varieties would make gorgeous pillar-roses, provided pains were taken to lay them flat, and cover them with earth every winter. Without protection, they would suffer severely in the Northern States. Acidalie was, till recently, the only white Bourbon; yet it is not pure white, but has a tinge of blush. Of late, another white Bourbon has been added,--Blanche Lafitte,--which is also faintly tinged with flesh-color. Adelaide Bougère is of a rich velvety purple. Du-petit Thouars is of a vivid crimson, large and double. George Peabody is of a purplish-crimson. Louise Odier is a rose of very vigorous growth, and one of the hardier members of the family: its flowers are of a bright rose-color, of a beautiful cupped form; and it has a tendency to bloom in clusters. Prince Albert is still hardier. Its color is a brilliant crimson-scarlet, and its autumn bloom is abundant. Sir Joseph Paxton is of a bright rose-color, tinged with crimson: its growth is exceedingly vigorous; and, with moderate protection, it will bear our winters. Souvenir de la Malmaison is unsurpassed among roses. It is very large, and beautifully formed. It is of a light, transparent flesh-color; and no rose is more admired in a greenhouse. It will also thrive in the open air, and, when the soil is well drained, may safely be trusted to bear a New-England winter, provided it is covered with earth. In a wet soil, it is usually killed. Vorace is of a dark purplish-crimson, and, like the last named, only partially hardy. Hermosa, or Armosa, resembles a China rose in the character and abundance of its bloom. None surpasses it for forcing. The above will serve as favorable examples of the best types of this group. "I hope in a few years to see Bourbon roses in every garden; for 'the Queen of Flowers' boasts no member of her court more beautiful. Their fragrance also is delicate and pleasing, more particularly in the autumn. They ought to occupy a distinguished place in the autumnal rose-garden, in clumps or beds, as standards and as pillars. In any and in all situations, they must and will please. To insure a very late autumnal bloom, a collection of dwarf standards, i. e. stems one to two feet in height, should be potted in large pots, and, during summer, watered with manure-water, and some manure kept on the surface. Towards the end of September or the middle of October, if the weather be wet, they may be placed under glass. They will bloom in fine perfection even as late as November.... "It is difficult to point out roses of this family that bear seed freely, except the Common Bourbon; but Acidalie, planted against a south wall, would probably give some seed. * If any pollen can be found, it might be fertilized with the flowers of Julie de Loynes. A pure white and true Bourbon Rose ought to be the object: therefore it should not be hybridized with any other species. Bouquet de Flore may be planted against a south wall with Menoux, with which it should be carefully fertilized: some interesting varieties may be expected from seed thus produced. Queen of the Bourbons, planted with the yellow China Rose, might possibly give some seeds; but those would not produce true Bourbon roses, as the former is a hybrid, partaking of the qualities of the Tea-scented roses. Anne Beluze, planted with Madame Nerard, would give seed from which some very delicate Blush roses might be raised; and Le Florifère, fertilized with the Common Bourbon, would also probably produce seed worthy of attention."--Rivers. * In America, several varieties bear seed well. Sir Joseph Paxton rarely fails, and is a very good subject for experiment. The varieties named above by Mr. Rivers are not, for the most part, of the first merit. [Illustration: 0195] We reach, at length, the vast family of the Hybrid Perpetuals,--a race of brilliant parvenus, which, within the last twenty-five years, have risen to throw other roses into the shade. As we look upon them, we survey a gorgeous chaos. Here are innumerable varieties of foliage and flower, perplexing us in our search for genealogies and relationships. All of them, however, have, as a basis, some hardy, once-blooming rose, with which has been mingled the blood of one, and often of many, of the ever-blooming roses, in sufficient proportion to impart some of their qualities of autumnal flowering. Many of the Hybrid Perpetuals have, as their basis, the Hybrid China Rose, already described under the head of the summer roses. This, as we have seen, blooms but once; but when crossed with the China, Tea, Bourbon, Damask Perpetual, or several of these combined, it becomes capable of blooming in the autumn, without losing its hardiness. Such, then, is the origin of this group; and the diversity of its characteristics answers to the diversity of its parentage. Thus two roses can scarcely be more unlike than Baronne Prévost and the Giant of Battles, or La Reine and Arthur de San sal. In Baronne Prévost and La Reine, the hardier and more vigorous elements prevail; and they probably owe their ever-blooming qualities to an infusion of the Damask Perpetual, rather than of the more tender China roses. In the Giant of Battles and Arthur de Sansal, on the contrary, the China and Bourbon clements are very apparent; and, while these roses are excellent autumn bloomers, they are much less hardy and vigorous than the other two. M. Laffay, in his garden at Bellevue, a few miles from Paris, may be said to have laid the foundations of the Hybrid Perpetual family. Indeed, to a great extent, he created it; having originated a great number of beautiful roses, some of which none of the more recent productions have been able in the least degree to eclipse. Laflay's roses were chiefly of the hardier and stronger type, with La Reine, which was produced about the year 1840, at their head. From the motley character of the group, the lines that separate it from the Bourbon and from some other families cannot be definitely drawn; and there are certain varieties which always hold an equivocal position, being sometimes placed with one group, and sometimes with another. These Perpetuals differ greatly in the freedom of their autumn blooming; some giving a second and third crop of flowers in abundance; while others will not bloom at all after midsummer, except under careful and skilful treatment. All require rich culture and good pruning. When an abundant autumn bloom is required, a portion of the June bloom must be sacrificed by cutting back about half the flower-stems to three or four eyes as soon as the flower-buds form. When the flowers fade, these also should be cut off with the stems that bear them, in a similar manner. The formation of the seed-vessels, by employing the vitality of the plant, tends greatly to diminish its autumn bloom. Give additional manure every year, and keep the ground open, and free of weeds. If rank, strong shoots, full of redundant sap, form in summer, check their disproportioned growth by cutting off their tops. In the North, these roses are better for a little winter protection, such as earthing them up at the base, or thrusting pine-boughs into the soil among them. They may with great advantage be taken up as often as once in three years, and replanted after two or three shovelfuls of old manure have been dug into the soil, which, at the same time, should be forked to the greatest possible depth. Indeed, it does them no harm to replant them yearly: on the contrary, they, generally bloom the better for it. An excellent way to preserve them during winter, when they have been taken out of the ground, is to bury them, root and branch, in earth. The earth for this purpose should not be very moist. The place selected should be sheltered and dry; the latter point being of the last importance. The roses may be tied in bundles, and the earth thrown over them to the depth of six inches or more, in such a manner as to shed the rain and snow; and if a few boards are placed over it, in a sloping position, it will be so much the better. In this way, all the half-hardy roses, and many of those regarded as the most tender, can be safely wintered in the coldest parts of New England. It is to the family of Hybrid Perpetuals that the French rose-growers have given their chief attention. Hence an enormous multiplication of varieties, every year bringing forth a new brood, perplexing us with their numbers, and by the clamor with which the merits of each and all are proclaimed by their respective originators. Some of these new roses are unsurpassed in beauty, and deserve all that can be said of them. Yet thoroughly to establish the character of a rose requires several years,--not less than six, according to the eminent French rose-grower, M. Jules Margottin: therefore it is impossible to speak with entire confidence of these novelties. I shall begin with roses of well-established merit, which have been for years in cultivation here. Of the rest, which have had not more than a season's trial, mention will be made afterwards. La Reine is perhaps entitled to the first mention, as it was one of the first in its origin, and has never since lost ground. It varies very much in quality with circumstances of soil and cultivation, and in its color is surpassed by many other roses. Its very large size when well grown, its fine form and perfect hardiness, are its points of merit. It is the mother of a numerous progeny, among which Auguste Mie is one of the best, growing very vigorously, and bearing flowers equal to those of its parent in beauty of form, and superior in delicacy of color. They are of a fine rose-color, several shades lighter than that of La Reine. Louise Peyronney also, in many respects, surpasses her parent; and is a rose of great beauty, though scarcely so vigorous as La Reine. Baronne Prévost is another hardy and vigorous rose, of a type wholly different: it grows with great vigor, bears the rudest winter, and, both in June and in the autumnal months, yields an abundance of large, very double flowers of a light rose-color. Pius IX. has the same vigor of constitution, and the same abundant bloom: its flowers are of a deep rose, tinged with crimson. Dr. Arnold is of a deeper color, approaching to crimson, and is one of the best autumn bloomers. Madame Boll is a superb rose, very vigorous, very hardy, and very double. L'Enfant du Mt. Carmel somewhat resembles it, but grows and blooms more freely: its color is a rosy crimson. Jules Margottin has no superior in its way: it is of a clear, rosy-crimson color, and its half-opened buds are especially beautiful. Triomphe de l'Exposition is of a deep crimson; and Souvenir de la Reine d'Angleterre, of a bright rose: both are very vigorous and very effective. General Jacqueminot is of a fine crimson, and, though not perfectly double, is, nevertheless, one of the most splendid of roses. Its size, under good culture, is immense. It is a strong grower and abundant bloomer, and glows like a firebrand among the paler hues around it. It is one of the hardier kinds, and is easily managed. Its offspring are innumerable. The greater part of the new roses of the last year or two own it as a parent, and inherit some of its qualities. Of its older progeny, Triomphe des Beaux Arts and the Oriflamme de St. Louis may be mentioned with honor. The last, especially, is a very brilliant rose. Among other deep-colored roses are Triomphe de Paris, Gloire de Santenay, and General Washington; the last a seedling from Triomphe de l'Exposition. It is a new rose; but there can be little doubt of its merit. Perhaps no rose among the Hybrid Perpetuals has been so famous, and so much praised, as the Giant of Battles; but we cannot fully echo the commendations bestowed upon it. All the roses just named are hardy, vigorous, and of easy culture, available to the half-practised amateur as well as to the experienced cultivator. But the class of Hybrid Perpetuals of which the Giant of Battles is the type, and, to a great extent, the parent, requires more skill and precaution for successful culture. They are all more or less liable to mildew. "I can do nothing with the Giant, because the mildew destroys it," a well-known nursery-man writes me. Besides this tendency, it is by no means of the vigorous growth which the catalogues of nursery-men commonly ascribe to it. Its flowers, however, are very brilliant, and, in a favorable season, are produced in abundance. In color, they resemble those of General Jacqueminot. Some of the seedlings raised from them are much darker; and among these may be mentioned Arthur de Sansal, Cardinal Patrizzi, and the Emperor of Morocco. Lord Raglan is one of the very finest flowers of this section; and the plant is more vigorous, and less liable to mildew, than the rest of the group. The following are of the lighter, and more delicate shades: Caroline de Sansal is of a clear flesh-color, large, full, and of a vigorous, hardy constitution. Madame Vidot is, when in perfection, an exquisite rose, of a transparent, waxy, flesh color, and formed like a camellia: it has not proved hardy here, and has suffered severely every winter. Queen Victoria is of a better constitution: it is white, shaded with pink. William Griffiths is an old and excellent rose, of a peculiar light satin rose-color: it rarely suffers from the winter. Virginal is pure white. La Mere de St. Louis is of a waxy flesh-color, and, though not very full, is distinct and beautiful. Madame Rivers is of a very light rose. Comtesse de Chabrillant is of a clear pink, and very fine. Madame Knorr is of a somewhat deeper shade, and singularly beautiful in bud. Louise Magnan and Dr. Henon may, with Virginal, in the absence of better, represent the white Hybrid Perpetuals,--a color in which this class is very deficient; while a yellow or buff rose is as yet unknown in it, although it is said that such an one has been produced, and will soon be "brought out." The following are a selection from the new roses; and, though their merits have not as yet been tried by the test of time, there can be very little doubt that all of them will prove of the highest merit:-- Maurice Bernardin is of a bright vermilion, very large and full. Charles Lefebvre is of a bright crimson, purplish at the centre, and seems an admirable rose. Mrs. William Paul is of a violet-red, shaded with crimson. Madame Clémence Joigne aux is of a red and lilac color, and grows with great vigor. Lord Macaulay is of a rich scarlet-crimson: a bloom of it is now before me, cut here, in the open air, on the 22d of October. Sour des Anges owes its singular name to the delicacy of its tint,--a soft flesh-color; yet the habit of the plant is vigorous, and it seems of a hardy nature. Duc de Rohan is red, shaded with vermilion. Beauty of Waltham, an English seedling like Lord Macaulay, is of a bright carmine, and blooms profusely. Madame Furtado is very large, fragrant, and double: its color is a light rosy-crimson. Le Rhone is of a brilliant and deep vermilion. Duc de Cazes is of a purplish crimson, so deep as almost to appear black. President Lincoln is cherry-red. Princess of Wales is a recent seedling of Mr. William Paul, the English rose-grower; and, though I have not yet seen it in flower, it is so highly extolled by an English amateur, that I mention it here. It is of a bright crimson, with thick and firm petals, and said to be very hardy. Sénateur Vaisse is of a brilliant red, and has found numerous admirers. Victor Verdier is carmine, shaded with purple, large and showy. Louise Margottin is of a delicate, glossy rose-color, beautifully formed; and, though marked of moderate growth on foreign catalogues, it has grown with uncommon vigor here. Prince Camille de Rohan is of a deep maroon approaching crimson. It is very large and full. The above comprise the flowers of most brilliant promise among the recent novelties. Many others will be mentioned in the supplementary list. The Hybrid Perpetuals combine merits so numerous and so brilliant, that they are rapidly driving out of cultivation many roses once in the highest esteem. Indeed, with the exception of Moss roses, and some of the Teas, Noisettes, and Bourbons, none seem likely to maintain their ground before these gorgeous upstarts, some of which are as robust as they are beautiful. Their beauties, however, depend greatly on their culture; and this is true of all roses. A rose which, under indifferent treatment, will be passed unnoticed, puts on, in the hands of a good cultivator, its robes of royalty, and challenges from all beholders the homage due to the Queen of Flowers. In conclusion, the amateur will do well to make this his golden rule: Cultivate none but the best, and cultivate them thoroughly. Thoroughness is at the bottom of all horticultural success. "Raising new varieties of this family from seed presents an extensive field of interest to the amateur; for we have yet to add to our catalogues pure white and yellow and fawn-colored Hybrid Perpetuals: and these, I anticipate, will be the reward of those who persevere. Monsieur Laffay, by persevering through two or three generations, obtained a mossy Hybrid Bourbon rose, and many of the finest varieties described in the foregoing pages. This information will, I trust, be an incentive to amateurs in this country. To illustrate this, I may here remark, that a yellow Ayrshire Rose, now a desideratum, must not be expected from the first trial; but probably a climbing rose, tinged with yellow or buff, may be the fruit of the first crossing. This variety must again be crossed with a yellow rose: the second generation will, perhaps, be nearer the end wished for. Again: the amateur must bring perseverance and skill into action; and then, if in the third generation a bright yellow climbing rose be obtained, its possession will amply repay the labor bestowed. But these light gardening operations are not labor: they are a delightful amusement to a refined mind, and lead it to reflect on the wonderful infinities of Nature. "Madame Laffay is an excellent seed-bearing rose: this may be fertilized with the Bourbon Gloire de Rosomènes and with Comte Bobrinsky. Dr. Marx may be crossed with the Bourbon Paul Joseph and with the Bourbon Le Grenadier. These should all be planted against a south wall, so that their flowers expand at the same time; and they will probably give some fine autumnal roses, brilliant in color, and very double. For fawn-colored, or yellowish and white roses, Duchess of Sutherland may be fertilized with the Tea-scented roses Victoria and Safrano. These must all have a south wall. These hints may possibly be considered meagre and incomplete; but I trust it will be seen how much depends upon the enterprise and taste of the cultivator."--_Rivers._ [Illustration: 0207] _Rosa Bracteata_.--The original species was brought to England from China by Lord Macartney in 1795. The varieties are few, and very distinct in appearance from other roses. The leaves are small, and of a deep shining green. This rose is not hardy, even in England; at least, the old varieties of it are not so: but one has lately been sent me, under the formidable appellation of Rosa Bracteata Alba Venusta, which is reported to have proved hardy in New Jersey. The Macartney roses are of a climbing habit, and evergreen. Alba Odorata is white, with a yellow centre. The flowers are double. Alba Simplex is a single white. Maria Leonida is white, with a blush centre, and is the best of the group. There is a hybrid rose raised by M. Hardy, of the Luxembourg Garden, and known by the name of Berberifolia Hardi. From its resemblance to this division, it is commonly placed with it, though not properly belonging here. It is a pretty rose, with bright yellow flowers, marked with a chocolate spot in the centre; but it is not hardy, nor is it easy of culture. [Illustration: 0208] _Rosa Roevigata_.--No foreign work on the Rose includes this species among those held worthy of culture; yet in our Southern States, where it is naturalized, it is singularly beautiful. In the North it is not hardy, though the root commonly survives the winter, while the stem and branches are destroyed. It comes originally from China. Its shoots and leaves resemble those of the Banksia Rose; the former being long, pendulous, and graceful, and the latter of the most vivid green. Its flowers are single, very large, and of the purest waxy white, in the midst of which appears the bright yellow of the clustering stamens. Its long, slender, tapering buds are unsurpassed in beauty. It thrives admirably in a cool greenhouse, climbing with a rampant growth over the rafters, and giving forth a profusion of flowers through the greater part of the winter. Unlike all the other roses described in this book, it is a species in its original, undeveloped state, and, as such, offers a tempting subject for the art of the hybridist. [Illustration: 0209] _Rosa Microphylla_.--This is an introduction within the present century from the Himalaya Mountains, and is rather a curiosity than an ornament. The leaves are very small and very numerous; and, by a curious freak of Nature, all the spines seem gathered together on the calyx, or outer covering of the flower-buds. The original variety, Microphylla Rubra, is perhaps the best. Among others may be named Carnea, Coccinea, Rosea, and Purpurea. There is a rose, commonly sold under the name of Microphylla Rugosa, which is very desirable from the abundance of its autumnal bloom, and from its hardy nature; a point in which it differs from the true Microphyllas. It grows vigorously, and in autumn blooms profusely in large clusters of purplish-red flowers. [Illustration: 0210] _Rosa Centifolia_.--This is a group of Moss roses to which, by hybridization, has been communicated some of the character of the autumn-blooming roses. The power of repeated blooming has, however, in some cases, been acquired at the expense of the distinctive characteristic of the Moss Rose; and few of this group are so well mossed as the parent to which they owe their name. One of the best is Salet, which is of a bright rose-color, tolerably well mossed, a vigorous grower, and an excellent autumn bloomer. Madame Edouard Ory is of a somewhat brighter hue, but by no means equal in vigor. The Perpetual White Moss is better deserving of the name of Moss than either of the others. It is double, blooms in clusters, and grows vigorously. Besides these, there are many other varieties, most of them indifferent. These roses require the same culture with the Hybrid Perpetuals. Their power of autumnal blooming is increased by high enrichment and frequent transplanting. [Illustration: 0211] _Rosa Spinosissima_.--The Perpetual Scotch is a group of the well-known Scotch roses, endowed, probably by hybridization, with a power of blooming twice or more in the year. None of them are of much value except Stan-well, which is of a blush color, double, prettily cupped, and very fragrant. [Illustration: 8211] Here closes our list of Autumnal roses, and with it our book. In conclusion, we would remind the cultivator, that although, even under neglect and scorn, the Rose has smiles for all, it is only to a loving and constant suitor that she clothes herself in all her beauty. Among all the flowers of our gardens, none is more grateful for a careful attention, and none more abundantly rewards it. ROSES MOST APPROVED BY THE BEST CULTIVATORS OF THE PRESENT DAY In Addition To Those already mentioned under their respective Classes. PROVENCE ROSES. Madame Henriette, rosy, very large and beautiful. Madame L'Arbry, bright rose, large and full. Royal, pale rink, globular and large, very fine. White Provence, pure white, large and full. MOSS ROSES. ADELE FAVIE, BLUSH. Aristides, bright crimson. Arthur Yong. �tna, brilliant crimson, tinted with purple, félicité Bohain, bright rose, large and full. Gracilis, or Prolific, deep pink, free bloomer, large and full. Henri Martin, shaded velvety carmine, good. James Mitchell, rose-shaded, full. John Cranston, crimson-shaded, full. Julie de'Mersent, rose, shaded with blush. Latone, blush, large and full. Marie de Blois, rosy-lilac, large and full. Madame de la Rochelambert, amaranth, large and full. Pompon (Moss de Meaux), blush, peach centre, pretty, small and full. Princess Alice, blush, pink centre. Princesse Royale, salmon-flesh, full, fine form. Princesse de Vaudemont, pink, good. Purpurea Rubra, purple, large and full. Reine Blanche, pure white, large and full. Unique, pure white, large and full. William Lobb, velvety-lake, very distinct. DAMASK ROSES. Calypso, shaded pink, large and good. Columella, bright rose, large, full. Helvetius, shaded rosy-crimson, very large and good. Mariquita, white, lightly shaded, beautiful. ALBA ROSES. Blanchefleur, white. Blush Hip, delicate blush, exquisite in bud, full. Princesse Lamballe, white. GALLICA ROSES Asfasie, beautiful flesh, changing to blush, fine form. Baron Cuvier, rosy-crimson, good shape. Bizarre Marbrée, mottled crimson, large and very fine. Colonel Coombes, light crimson, shaded with purple, very large and full. Comte Plater, creamy-blush, splendid. Comtesse de Segur, pale flesh, clear and beautiful, full, fine. Docteur Deiltheim, rose, often shaded with purple, very large and full. La Calaisienne, delicate pink, large and beautiful. La Ville de Londres, shaded rose, very large and good. Letitia, bright rose, large and full. Louis Philippe, pinkish-blush, light margin. Madame Duberry, mottled crimson-lake. Prince Regent, deep rose, superb, large and full. William Tell, bright rose, edges blush, very large and full. HYBRID CHINA ROSES. Comte Boubert, light rose, large and very double. Comtesse Lacépède, silvery-blush, flesh centre, large and full Comtesse Mole, delicate rosy-fink, beautiful. �lise Mercour, pale-shaded rose, beautiful. Fimbriata, rosy-crimson, petals fringed at edges. Frederick the Second, rich crimson-purple, large and double. General Allard, fine deep rose, very double. Général Lamoricière, rose, fine form, large and full, fine. Great Western, bright reddish-crimson, beautiful. Jenny, mottled rosy-pink. Juno, pale rose, blush edges, very large and full. Lady Stuart, silvery-blush, fine form, medium and full. Madeline (Emmeline), pale flesh, edged with crimson, beautiful, large, and very double. Nathalie Daniel, pink, fine. Perfection, delicate pink, fine form. Stadtholder, shaded pink, very good. Triomphe en Beauté, deep-shaded rose, globular and beautiful. Triomphe de Laqueue, purplish-rose, large and splendid. William Jesse, purplish-crimson, tinged with lilac, superb, very large and very double. AUTUMNAL ROSES. CHINA ROSES. Abbé Midland, fine crimson-red, good. Antheros, creamy-white, large and full. Belle de Florence, light carmine, blooms in large clusters. �lise Fleury, fine rose, large and full. Henry the Fifth, vivid scarlet, very good. La Fraîcheur, rosy-white, centre yellowish. Madame Desprez, white, centre lemon. Marjolin de Luxembourg, dark crimson, superb, very large and full. Miellez, lemon-white, good. Prince Charles, bright cherry, very double. Tancrede, fine rosy-purple, distinct, large and full. VIRIDIFLORA, GREEN, CURIOUS. TEA-SCENTED ROSES. Abricotée, fawn, apricot centre, large and double. Adam, blush-rose, very sweet, very large and full. Alba Rosa, white, centre rose, large, full, and very sweet. Amabilis, flesh-color, large and full. Archimede, rosy-fawn, darker centre, large and full. Auguste Oger, rose, centre copper. Auguste Vacher, yellow, shaded with copper-color, large and full. Belle Chartronnaise, red, changing to crimson, large and full. Belle de Bordeaux, pink, large and full, habit and growth of Gloire de Dijon. Bride of Abydos, white, shaded with pink, large. Buret, bright rosy-purple, distinct, large and full. Caroline, blush-pink, centre delicate rose, large and full. Clara Sylvain, pure white, centre cream, large and full. Climbing Devoniensis, identical with the old Devoniensis flower, but of a rapid running growth, and hence valuable as a clumber. Comte de Paris, flesh colored rose, superb, very large and full. Comtesse de Brossard, bright yellow, large and full. Comtesse de Labaethk, salmon-pink. Comtesse Ouvaroff, rose-shaded, large and full. David Pradel, rose, large and full. Delmink Gaudot, white, large and double. Duc de Magenta, salmon, very large and full. �lise Sauvage, yellow, centre orange, beautiful, large and full. Enfant de Lyon, pale yellow, large and full. Eugène Desgaches, clear rose, beautiful, large and full, vert sweet. General Tartas, dark rose, large and full. Gerard; esbois, bright red, large and full, very showy. Gloire de Bordeaux, silvery-rose, the back of the petals rosy, very large and full. Goubault, bright rose, centre buff, very large and double. Grandiflora, shaded rose, very large and double. Homer, rose, centre salmon, variable, large, full, and good. Jaune d'Or, fine golden-yellow, of medium size, full, form globular. Jaune of Smith (Yellow Noisette), straw-color, large and full. Julie Mansais, pure white, large and full. La Boule d'Or, deep golden-yellow, large and full. Lais, pale yellow, full, of fine form, blooms freely. L'Enfant Trouvé, fine, large, pale yellow. Le Pactole, pale yellow. Louise de Savoie, fine yellow, large and full. Madame Blachet, pale rose, medium and double. Madame Bravy, creamy-white, large and full, perfect shape. Madame Charles, sulphur-yellow, salmon centre, large, full, and of good form, free bloomer. Madame de Sertot, cream, good. Madame de St. Joseph, salmon-pink, beautiful, very large and double, very sweet. Madame de Tartas, bright rose, large and full, free bloomer. Madame de Vatry, deep rose, large and full. Madame Falcot, yellow, in the way of Safrano, but of a deeper shade, and more double. Madame Halphin, salmon-pink, centre yellowish, large and full. Madame Lartay, yellow, shaded with salmon, large and full. Madame Villermoz, white, centre salmon, large, full, and good. Mademoiselie Adèle Jougant, clear yellow, medium size. Madame Maurin, white, shaded with salmon, large and full. Madame Pauline Labonté, salmon, large and full. Maréchal Bugeaud, bright rose, large and full. Maréchal Niel, beautiful deep yellow, large, full, and of globular form, very sweet, the shoots well clothed with large shining leaves. Marquise de Foucault, white, fawn, and yellow, variable, large and double, one of the best. Mirabile, pale yellow, edges dark rose, pretty, distinct. Narcisse, fine pale yellow, large and full. Nina, blush rose, fine, large and double. Nisida, rose and yellow shaded, large and double. Odorata, blush, centre rose, large and full. President, rose, shaded with salmon, very large, and of good form. Princess Adelaide, yellow, large and full. Princesse Marie, rosy-pink, large and full, form globular. Regulus, bright rose, shaded with copper, large and full. Reine des Pays Bas, pale sulphur, free bloomer. Rubens, white, shaded with rose, yellowish centre, large, full, and fine form. Socrates, deep rose, centre apricot, large, full. Sombreuil, white, tinged with rose, very large and full. Souvenir de David, bright cherry-color, distinct and good. Souvenir d'�lise Vardon, creamy-white, centre yellowish, very large and full; a splendid rose. Souvenir de Mademoiselle Eugénie Pernet, white, tinged with flesh-color, and shaded 'with rose-salmon, large, full, and of good, hardy habit. Triomphe de Guillot fils, white, shaded with rose and salmon, very large, full, and sweet; one of the best. Triomphe du Luxembourg, coppery-rose, superb, very large and full. Vicomtesse de Cazes, yellow, centre deeper yellow, tinted with copper-color, large and very double. Victoria, yellow, changing to white, large and full. NOISETTE ROSES. Adèle pavie, white, rose centre. Aimée Vibert Scandens, pure white, large clusters. Baronne de Maynard, French white, beautifully cupped. Blanche De Solville, creamy-white, tinged pink, strong grower. Cerise, rosy-purple, very good. Claudie Augustin, white, with yellowish centre. Cornelia Koch, pale yellow, very full and fine form. Desprez a Fleur Jaune, red, buff, and sulphur, variable, very sweet, large and full. Du Luxembourg, lilac-rose, centre deep red, large. �clair de Jupiter, bright crimson-scarlet, large and double. Euphrosine, creamy-buff, very sweet and good. Fallenberg, rosy-crimson, very free bloomer. Jane Hardy, golden-yellow, large and full. Jacques Ormyott, deep rose, fine. La Biche, flesh-white, large and full. Lady Emily Peel, shaded French white. Lais, French white, large and good. Madame Deslongchamps, creamy-white, deeper centre, beautiful. Madame Gustave Bonnet, white, tinged with salmon, first class. Madame Schultz, primrose, shaded with carmine, very sweet. Mademoiselle Aristide, pale yellow, centre salmon, large and full. Narcisse, fine pale yellow. Octavie, crimson, large, strong grower. Ophirie, nankeen and copper, distinct, full. Phaloë, rosy-buff, very good. Pumila Alba, white, small and double. Triomphe de la Duchere, rosy-blush, large and full. Triomphe de Rennes, canary, large, full, and fine. Vicomtesse d'Avesne, light salmon-rose, large, full, and distinct. BOURBON ROSES. Appoline, light pink, large and full. Aurore du Guide, purplish-violet, sometimes crimson-scarlet large and full. Baronne de Noirmont, pale, shaded rose, compact and good. Bouquet de Flore, bright rosy-carmine. Catherine Guillot, bright rosy-pink, compact, and first-rate. Celine Gonod. Charles Robin, flesh-color, small, full, and produced abundantly. Comice de Tarne et Garonne, cherry-color. Comte de Montijo, rich reddish-purple, velvety, fine shape. Comtesse de Babbantannes, flesh-color, large, full, and of fine Form. Docteur Berthet, brilliant cherry red, large, full, and good. Docteur Lepreste, bright purplish-red, shaded. Duc de Crillon, brilliant red, changing to bright rose, large and full. Edith de Murat, flesh-color, changing to white, of fine form. Emotion, delicate shaded blush, compact and good. Empress Eugénie, pale rose, purple edges, large and full, good. Ferdinand Dieppe, reddish-violet, bright and good. George Cuvier, bright rose, fine form, large and full. Gloire de Rosomènes, bright crimson, semi-double, but effective. Glorietta, deep red, or crimson. Gourdault, rich purple, fine form, full. Josephine Clermont, pink, full. Julie de Fontenelle, crimson-purple, fine form, full, Justine, rosy-carmine, good, very double. L'Avenir, bright rose, large, full, and of good form. La Quintinie, bright crimson, shaded, or changing to blackish-violet, full. Le Florifère, rose, with a lilac and crimson tint, large and full. Leon Oursel, light red, large, full, and good. Louise Makgottin, beautiful bright rosy-pink, cupped and good. Madame Angelina, rich cream, fawn centre, medium size, distinct. Madame Cousin, flesh-colored rose, large and full. Madame de Stella, delicate pink, very double, fine shape, first class. Madame Desprez, lilac-rose, large and full. Madame �lise de Chenier, bright rose, blooms freely. Madame Helfenbein, pale rose, very good. Madame Josephine Guyet, deep red. Madame la Comtesse, bright pink, fine shape. Madame Manoel, light-shaded pink, very large. Madame Maréchal, flesh, white edges, distinct and good. Madame Nerard, silvery-blush, centre pink. Mademoiselle C. Riguet, pure white, very abundant bloomer. Mademoiselle Félicité Truillot, bright rose, abundant bloomer. Marguerite Bonnet, fleshy-white, large and good. Marquis Balbiano, rose, tinged with silver, full, fine form, distinct. Marquis d'Ivry, lilac-rose, forms a large and showy head. Marquis de Moyra, rose, shaded with vermilion, fine form, large. Marquis de Murat, pink, pale edges. Menoux, bright red, approaching to scarlet, full. Michel Bonnet, bright rosy-pink, fine. Modèle de Perfection, delicate pink, compact, and most beautiful. Monsieur Jard, cherry-red, large and full. Octavie Fontaine, white, tinted with flesh-color, good shape. Omar Pacha, brilliant red, large, full, and good form. Phénix, purplish-red, large and fine. Pierre St. Cyr, pink, large and full. Prince de Chimay, purplish-crimson, large and fine, flowers freely. Queen, buff-rose, free bloomer, large and double. Heine de Castille, light rose, good. Rev. H. Dombrain, brilliant carmine, fine shape. Reveil, cherry, richly shaded with violet. Souchkt, deep crimson-purple, vivid, superb. Souvenir de Louis Gaudin, reddish-purple, shaded with black, fine form, full, abundant bloomer. Vicomte de Cussy, lively red, large, and very double. Victor Emanuel, purple and purplish-maroon, large and double, good and distinct. HYBRID PERPETUAL ROSES. Abbé Reynaud, clear dark violet, large, full, distinct, and fine; good habit. Abd-el-Kader, deep velvety-crimson, good. Admiral Nelson, crimson, color beautiful. Adolphe Noblet, rosy-carmine, very beautiful. Agatoide, lively rose, shaded with deep rose, full. Alcide Vigneron, bright rose, large and full. Alexandre Dumas, velvety-maroon, highly scented. Alexandre Fontaine, reddish-cerise, fine form. Alexandrine Rachmeteff, bright red, large, full, and showy. Alexandrine Belfroy, peach-color, large and full. Alfred de Rougemont, crimson-purple, shaded with fiery red, very bright, large and full. Alpaide de Rotalier, fine transparent rose-color, glossy, large, full, and of good form. Alphonse Belin, clear brilliant red, the reverse of the petals whitish, large, full, and of fine form. Alphonse Damaizin, brilliant-shaded crimson, good form. Alphonse de Lamartine, light rosy-pink. Alphonse Karr, bright rose, full. Amiral Gravina, blackish-purple, changing to amaranth, large and full. Amiral la Peyrouse, brilliant crimson, sometimes dark crimson, shaded with violet, large, full, and very fine. André Leroy, purplish-crimson, fine color, large and full. Anna Alexieff, pretty rose-color, large, full, and of good habit; flowers freely. Anna de Diesbach, clear rose, fine color, very large and showy. Archevêque de Paris, shaded velvety-maroon. Arles Dufour, deep purple, with violet centre, large, and deep imbricated form, beautiful new rose. Armide, rosy-salmon, distinct, imbricated, and full form. Auguste Guinoisseau, shaded dark crimson, very large. Aurore, salmon-rose, large and full, distinct. Barlow, bright rosy-crimson. Baron Adolphe de Rothschild, fiery red, petals often edged with white, large, full, and very effective. Baron Gonella, pink and lilac shaded, large, full, and fine. Baronne Daumesnil, beautiful bright rose, large, full, and of good form. Baronne de Heckeren, rosy-pink, very large and double. Baronne Hallez, dark red, full, and of fine form. Baronne Noirmont, deep rose, large, and of good form. Baronne Pelletan de Kinkelin, crimson and purple shaded, colors brilliant, large, full, and of fine form. Beauté Française, velvety violet-red, reverse of petals fiery red, large, full, and well formed. Belle Anglaise, beautiful bright pink, fine shape. Belle de Bourg la Reine, satin-rose, large and full, fine form. Belle des Massifs, beautiful rosy-pink. Belle du Printemps, beautiful pale, mottled rose. Berceau Impérial, flesh-color, large and full. Bernard Palissy, bright carmine, large, full, and very fine; good habit. Buffon, light rosy-crimson. Burke, rosy-lilac, or violet, full. Catherine Guillot, deep pink, perfect form; one of the best. Centifolia Rosea, bright pink, large, of beautiful cupped form. Christian Puttner, purple, shaded with crimson, large and full. Claude Million, scarlet-crimson, dashed with rose and violet, velvety, large, full, and of excellent form, habit good. Clement Marot, clear rosy-lilac, large and very double. Cleostine, large rose, large, fine globular form. Colonel de Rougemont, pale rose, shaded with carmine, very large and full. Colonel Soufflot, beautiful rosy-pink. Comte Cavour, pale-shaded rose, fine. Comte de Nanteuil, bright rose, darker edges, large and full. Comtesse Barbantanne, flesh-color, large, full, and of fine form, free and good. Comtesse de Courcy, rose, shaded with brilliant red, flowers very freely. Comtesse de Kergorlay, bright glossy purple, large and full. Comtesse de Séguier, velvety-red, shaded with violet, large and full. Darzens, salmon-rose, large and double, very sweet. Deuil de Prince Albert, blackish-crimson, shaded, centre fiery red, large, full, and good. Dominique Daran, dark crimson-purple, large and very double. Dr. Juillard, rosy-purple, shaded with carmine, large and double. Dr. Spitzer, bright red, large, fine globular form. Duc D'Anjou, crimson, shaded with dark red, very large, full, and well formed. Duc De Bassano, dark velvety-crimson, cupped, large and full; one of the best. Due D'llarcourt, bright reddish-carmine, blooming freely and in clusters, large and full. Duc De Ruschpler, deep rose, full. Duc D'Ossuna, rich crimson. Duchesse de Magenta, flesh, changing to white, distinct and beautiful. Duchesse d'Orléans, fine lavender-blush, large, full, and good. Duchess of Norfolk, rich purple-crimson, medium, double. Duchess of Sutherland, pale rose, large, and very double. Duke of Cambridge, cherry-red, fine form. �clair de Jupiter, rosy-crimson, large and showy. �mile Dulac, bright rose, large, full, and deeply cupped; the best of the color. Emotion, white, tinted with rose, of medium size, full, form perfect, flowers abundantly. Eugène Appert, scarlet and crimson shaded, splendid colors, fine foliage, free bloomer. Eugène Verdier, dark violet, large, full, and of perfect form; one of the best. Eugénie Ledkun, dark crimson, large and full. Evoque de Nismes, scarlet and crimson, full, flat form. Fernando, fiery red, tinted with white, large, full, and very sweet. Francois Bacharme, bright carmine, changing to red, full and globular; a superb rose. Francois Louvat, lilac-red, large, full, globular, good, and distinct. François Premier, cherry-red, shaded, fine form. Gabriel de Peyronney, fiery red, shaded with violet towards the centre, large, full, and of fine form. Général Castellane, bright crimson, large and full. General Simpson, bright carmine, full and free. George Paul, bright red, velvety, blooming in clusters, large and full. George Prince, fine brilliant red, shaded with dark rose, reverse of petals whitish, large, full, form globular. Gloire de Chatillon, brilliant red, shaded with violet, large and full. Gloire de Vitry, bright rose, large and full. Gloire du Sacré Coeur, flesh-colored rose, tipped with bright red, and shaded with purple; good habit. Gustave Coraux, bright purple, free in autumn. Gustave Rousseau, purple, shaded with violet-red, large, and full. Henri IV., shaded vermilion, very good. Héroïne Vaucluse, clear rose, beautiful form, free bloomer. H. Laurentius, fine reddish-crimson, shaded with black, velvety, large, and full; form cupped. Hortense Blachette, white, with rosy centre, medium size, full. Impératrice Eugénie, white, tinted with rose, full and good. Impératrice Maria Alexandria, white, tinged with blush, good form, medium size, full. James Dickson, velvety-lake, semi-double. Jean-Baptiste Guillot, velvety-carmine. Jean Bart, red and violet shaded, brilliant, very effective. Jean Goujon, beautiful clear red, very large, full, and good. Jean Touvais, beautiful reddish-purple, shaded with crimson, very large, full, and of excellent form; blooms freely. John Hopper, rose, crimson centre, reverse of the petals purplish-lilac, large and full. John Standish, very dark crimson, fine globular form. Joseph Flala, bright dark-red, with whitish edging, large and full, form cupped. Kate Hausburg, fine bright rose, large, full, and of excellent shape and substance. L'Abbé Laury, bright red. L'Avenir, glossy pink, large, full, and of good form. La Brillante, transparent carmine, very bright and beautiful, large, and of fine form. La Duchesse de Morny, bright but delicate rose-color, the reverse of the petals silvery, large and full, form globular. L'�blouissante, brilliant red, large, full, and of good habit. L'�clatante, bright red, changing to violet-red, large, full, and of good form. L'�légante, blush-white, full, free, flat form. Lælia, shaded rose, very large, full, and very fine. La Esmeralda, bright cherry-color, large, full, and of good form. Lafontaine, purplish-rose, very large and full. La Phocéenne, blackish-crimson, fine shell-shaped, cupped form. La Pivoine, shaded rosy-carmine, peculiar foliage. La Reine de la Pape, fine rosy-pink, large and beautiful. La Tour de Courcy, rosy-pink, very good. Laurent Descourt, deep purplish-crimson, rich and velvety, large and full. La Ville de St. Denis, rosy-carmine, fine form, large and full. Le Baron de Rothschild, dark reddish-carmine, sometimes shaded with violet, very large and full. Le Géant, clear bright rose, tinted with violet, very large and full, blooms freely; the largest rose yet introduced. Le Mont d'Oe, pale rose, cupped and double. Léopold Hausbuug, bright carmine, shaded with purple, large and double, of fine form. Léopold Premier, bright dark-red, very large and full, fine form. Léon des Combats, reddish-violet, often shaded with scarlet, large and full. Lord Clyde, crimson and purple, deeply shaded, large and full. Lord Herbert, rosy-carmine, the petals reflexing at the summits; large, full, finely formed. Lord Palmerston, cherry-red, full, fine form; flowers freely. Louis Van Houtte, bright rosy-carmine, very large, full, and of fine, globular form. Louis XIV., rich blood-color, large and full, form globular; a distinct and beautiful variety. Louise Damaizin, white, with peach centre, good size and form. Louise Darzens, pure white, not large, but full, and of fine form; one of the best for massing. Louise d'Autriche, rose, large and full. Louise Gulino, velvety-maroon, fine. Louise Odier, fine bright rose, full, very free bloomer. Madame Alfred de Rougemont, pure white, lightly and delicately shaded with rose and carmine, large and full, shape of the Cabbage Rose; one of the best. Madame Van Geert, rosy-pink, striped white, very beautiful. Madame Boutin, cherry-crimson, large and full. Madame Brianson, reddish-carmine, shaded with light red, very large and full. Madame Bruni, delicate peach, large and full. Madame Caillat, bright cerise, large, full, and of good habit. Madame C. Crapelet, rosy-red, large, full, and very fine. Madame Celine Touvais, shaded carmine. Madame Charles Boy, shaded rosy-crimson, good shape. Madame Charles Wood, vinous-crimson, very large, full, and effective. Madame Crespin, rose, shaded with dark violet, medium size, full, form good. Madame de Cambacérès, rosy-carmine, large and full, fine form. Madame de Canrobert, white, slightly tinged with peach, large and full, nicely cupped. Madame Derreux Douville, delicate glossy rose, bordered with white, large, full, and of fine form; good habit. Madame de Stella, bright rose, large, full, and of fine form. Madame Domage, bright rose, very large and double. Madame Duchère, rosy-white, delicate tint, full. Madame Emain, fine purplish-red, globular, large and full. Madame Ernest Dréol, dark rose, shaded with lilac, large, full, and of good form, foliage fine. Madame Eugène Verdier, deep pink, large, full, and finely cupped. Madame Freeman, creamy-white, medium size, globular and full, thoroughly perpetual. Madame Hector Jacquin, clear rose, shaded with lilac, large and full. Madame Helye, carmine, shaded-lilac, medium, distinct. Madame Julie Daran, purplish-vermilion, glossy, very large and full; one of the best. Madame Laffay, rosy-crimson, large and double. Madame Louise Carique, fine rose and carmine, full. Madame Masson, reddish-crimson, changing to violet, velvety, large and full. Madame Melaine, shaded vermilion. Madame Pauline Villot, crimson-purple, fine form; blooms freely. Madame Phelip, silvery-rose, beautifully shaded with crimson, small and pretty. Madame Pierson, bright red, silvery edges, large and globular. Madame Place, beautiful light rose, small, but pretty form. Madame Schmidt, shaded rosy-pink, large and beautiful. Madame Souppert, beautiful pale flesh-color, fine form. Madame Standish, clear pale pink, delicate color, large and full Madame Sylvain Caubert, bright rose, delicately edged with white; very distinct. Madame Thérèse Levet, pale pink, globular and good. Madame Valembourg, bright purplish-red, shaded, large, full, and of good form. Madame Victor Verdier, rich bright rosy-cherry color, large, full, and fine formed, cupped; blooms in clusters. Madame Vigneron, pale rose, large and full, very sweet and good. Mademoiselle Alice Leroy, delicate rose, shaded, fine form full. Mademoiselle Betsy Hainman, brilliant cerise; a most effective climber. Mademoiselle Bonnaire, white, rosy-centre, large, full, and of exquisite form; one of the best. Mademoiselle Emain, white, rosy centre, full, and of good form. Mademoiselle Gabrielle de peyronney, bright red, with shaded centre, large, full. Mademoiselle Goddard, rosy-pink, light margin, good. Thérèse Appert, peach-color, large and full, cupped, good shape, free bloomer. Maréchal Canrobert, fine bright rose, sometimes shaded with purple, very large, habit good. Maréchal Forey, velvety-crimson, reverse of petals violet, large and full. Maréchal Souchet, beautiful reddish-crimson, shaded with dark maroon, very large and full, petals also large, habit good, one of the best. Maréchal Souchet (Damaizin), fine rosy-carmine, large, full, and of exquisite form. Maréchal Vaillant, purplish-red, very large, full, and of good form. Marguerite Appert, lavender-blush, large and full, form cupped, pretty and distinct. Marie Portemer, purplish-red, full, and fine form. Mathurin Regnier, beautiful pale rose, large and full. Maxime, violet-rose, large and full. Mexico, velvety reddish-purple, shaded with blackish-violet, large and full, blooms freely, habit good. Modèle de Perfection, lively pink, very pretty, blooms freely; one of the best. Monsieur de Montigny, rosy-carmine, large and full. Monsieur Joigneaux, shaded maroon, strong grower. Monsieur Moreau, shaded crimson. Monte Christo, blackish-purple, often dashed with scarlet, very rich color, large and good in form. Mrs. Charles Wood, bright red, large, full, and superb form. Mrs. Elliot, purple, large and double. Murillo, rich purplish-red, shaded with carmine and violet, large, double, and of good form. Noemi, blush, pink centre, full. Notre Dame de Fourvières, pale satin-rose, large and full. Oderic Vital, silvery-rose, large and full, good form. Olivier Delhomme, brilliant purplish-red, large, and perfect shape, foliage handsome. Panachée d'Orléans, flesh, striped with rose and purple, distinct. parmentier, rosy-pink, blooms freely, very brilliant. Paul de la Meilleray, fine purplish-cerise, very large, full, and of excellent form. Paul Desgrand, fine bright-red, large and full, form globular. Paul Dupuy, velvety-crimson, shaded, large and full. Paul Feval, cherry-color, large and full, form cupped. Pauline Lansézeur, bright crimson, changing to violet, full. Pauline Villot, shaded rosy-carmine, compact and good. Pavillon de Pregny, white and red, medium size, full, most abundant bloomer. Peter Lawson, brilliant red, shaded with carmine, large and double. Pierre Notting, blackish-red, shaded with violet, very large and full, form globular, habit good; one of the best. Prairie de Terre Noire, velvety-purple, large and full. Prince Henri des Pays Bas, bright crimson, shaded with velvety-purple, of medium size, full, fine. Prince Impérial, rosy-carmine, large and full. Prince Leon, fine bright crimson, large, and very double. Prince Noir, very dark maroon, good climber. Princess Alice, bright rose, the reverse of the petals whitish, large. full, and sweet; a distinct and desirable variety. Princesse Impériale Clotilde, glossy-white, pink centre. Princesse Mathilde, crimson, maroon, and purple shaded, colors exquisite, medium size, double, form expanded; a good hardy variety. Professor Koch, bright rosy-cerise, shaded with carmine, beautifully cupped; one of the best. Queen, rose, very large and beautiful. Red Rover, fiery red, growth more than usually vigorous, flowering up to Christmas. Not double, enough for a Show Rose, but the finest and most effective of Pillar Roses. Reine de Castille, whitish-rose, large and full, of good habit, and blooms freely. Reine de la Cité, blush, pink centre, large, full, and of good habit. Reynolds Hole, lively pink, increasing in brilliancy as the flowers advance in age, large, not very full. Richard Smith, velvety-maroon, very dark. Robert Fortune, bright red, large, full, and good. Sénateur Reveil, brilliant reddish-crimson, shaded with dark purple, large and full, form fine, blooms freely, habit good. Simon Oppenheim, maroon, shaded vermilion, very fine. Souvenir de Béranger, light rose, very large and double. Souvenir de Charles Montault, brilliant red, cupped, large and full, free bloomer. Souvenir de Comte Cavour, crimson and black shaded, of good size and form. Souvenir de Lady Eardley, reddish-scarlet, richly shaded, large, very light, and effective. Souvenir de Leveson gower, fine dark red, changing to ruby, very large and full. Souvenir de M. Rousseau, scarlet, changing to crimson, shaded with maroon, very rich and velvety, large and very double. Toujours Fleuri, violet-purple, full and good. Triomphe d'Alencon, bright red, very large, full, and fine. Triomphe d'Amiens, vivid crimson, sometimes striped with lake, large and double. Triomphe-d'Angers, crimson-scarlet, large, full, free. Triomphe de Bagatelle, bright cherry-carmine, large, full, and free. Triomphe de Caen, deep velvety-purple, shaded with scarlet-crimson, large and full. Triomphe de Lyon, shaded maroon, beautiful. Triomphe de Villecresnes, clear red, more brilliant at the centre, large and full, blooms freely. Turenne, brilliant red, large, handsome petals, very effective. Vainqueur de Goliath, brilliant crimson-scarlet, very large and double. Vainqueur de Solferino, dark red, brighter centre, large, full, blooms abundantly. Vase d'élection, bright rose. Veloutée d'Orléans, brilliant velvety-red, almost scarlet, large and full. Vicomte Vigier, bright violet-red, large, full, and good. Vicomtesse Belleval, beautiful blush, large and full, fine form, blooms freely, habit good. Vicomtesse de Montesquieu, double white, useful as a bedder. Vicomtesse Douglas, beautiful rose, the reverse of the petals whitish, very large and full, form cupped. Victor Trouillard, brilliant crimson and purple shaded, large and full. Vulcan, bright purplish-violet, shaded with black, good and distinct. Wilhelm Pfitzer, brilliant red, color often superb, large and full. William Jesse, crimson, tinged with lilac, superb, very large and double. William Paul, brilliant reddish-crimson, large and full; a free, hardy, late-blooming rose, excellent for bedding. PERPETUAL MOSS ROSES. Alfred de Dalmas, rose, edges rosy-white, blooming in clusters, full. Eugène de Savoie, bright red, large and full. Eugénie Guinoiseau, bright cherry, changing to violet, large, full, and well mossed. Hortense Vernet, white, tinged with light rose, fine, large, and full. James Veitch, deep violet, shaded with crimson, large and double. Madame la Rivière, rosy-pink, distinct and good. Pompone, mottled rose, abundant bloomer. Raphael, flesh-color, flowering in corymbs, large, full. NEW ROSES OF 1866 The following are the most promising of the latest new roses. The descriptions are those of the raisers; and as the varieties have not yet bloomed in this country, and very few of them in England, it is impossible to speak of them definitely. Most of them are results of the skill and perseverance of French cultivators. The letters immediately succeeding the name refer to the class,--H. P., Hybrid Perpetual; B., Bourbon; T., Tea-scented, ABB� BERL�ZE, H. P.; flowers varying from bright-reddish cerise to rosy-carmine, large, full, and of fine form; growth vigorous. ACHILLE GONOD, H. P.; flowers bright-reddish carmine; a seedling from Jules Margottin; very large and full; extra fine foliage, dark green; growth vigorous. ADRIENNE DE CARDOVILLE, B.; flowers delicate rose, of medium size; full, perfect form. AUGUSTE RIVI�RE, H. P.; flowers beautiful bright-reddish carmine, the reverse of the petals of a paler hue, distinctly edged with white; large, and of regular globular form; growth vigorous. BAPTISTE DESPORTES, H. P.; flowers bright scarlet, very abundant, of medium size, full; growth vigorous. BARONNE DE MAYNARD, B.; flowers beautiful pure white, of medium size, fine form; growth vigorous. BEAUTY OF WESTERHAM, H. P. (Cattell); flowers brilliant scarlet; foliage bright green; habit free and vigorous; fragrance powerful. BELLE NORMANDE, H. P.; flowers pale rose, shaded with silvery white; very large and Bill; form globular; growth vigorous; of the race of La Reine. BELLE ROSE, H. P.; flowers bright rose, very large, full, and of fine globular form; very sweet; habit good; growth vigorous. CAPITAINE ROGNAT, H. P.; flowers brilliant red; cupped, large and full; growth vigorous. CHARLES MARGOTTIN, H. P.; flowers brilliant carmine, their centre fiery red, very large, full, and sweet; form fine; outer petals large and round; growth vigorous; of the race of Jules Margottin. CHARLES WOOD, H. P.; flowers deep red, shaded with blackish-crimson, very large, full, and of tine form; growth vigorous. CLIMBING DEVONIENSIS, T.; identical with the old Devoniensis in flower, but of a rapid running growth, and hence valuable as a climber. COMTESSE DE PARIS, H. P.; beautiful, distinct lively rose, with lighter edges; flowers very large and double; habit vigorous; a very beautiful variety. DENIS HELYE, H. P.; flowers brilliant rosy-carmine; lovely color; very large and full; very effective; growth vigorous. DR. ANDRY, H. P.; flowers dark bright-red; very large, full, and perfectly imbricated; growth vigorous. DUCHESSE DE CAYLUS, H. P.; flowers brilliant carmine; large, full, and of perfect form; growth vigorous; foliage very rich and fine. DUCHESSE DE MEDINA COLI, H. P.; flowers dark blood-purple; large, full, good, and distinct; growth vigorous. DUKE OF WELLINGTON, II. P.; flowers bright velvety-red, shaded with blackish-maroon; their centre fiery red; large and full; growth vigorous. ELIZABETH VIGNERON, II. P.; flowers fine rosy-pink, very large and full; in the style of Laelia, but fuller, fresher, and brighter in color; constitution hardy; growth vigorous. G�N�RAL D'HAUTPOULT, H. P.; flowers brilliant reddish-scarlet; the centre petals sometimes striped with white; large, full, and of globular form. GLORY OF WALTHAM, H. P.(Paul)-, flowers rich crimson, very large and full; a seedling from Leveson Gower; larger, brighter, darker, and of better form, than the parent; a superb rose, of hardy, vigorous growth. JEAN ROSENKRANTZ, H. P.; flowers brilliant coral-red; large, full, and of perfect form; growth vigorous. JOHN KEYNES, H. P.; flowers bright reddish-scarlet, shaded with maroon; large and full; growth vigorous. . KING'S ACRE, H. (Cranston); flowers bright vermilion-rose; reverse of petals satiny; large, and of fine cupped form; foliage, rich dark-green; growth vigorous. MADAME VERSCHAFFELT, H. P.; flowers beautiful delicate rose; large, full, and of fine form; growth vigorous; shoots almost thornless. MADAME ANDR� LEROY, H. P.; flowers salmon-rose; large, very double, form fine; growth vigorous. MADAME CHARLES, T.; flowers sulphur or yellow, their centre salmon; large, full, of good form, and very abundant; growth vigorous; of the race of Madame Damaizin. MADAME CHARLES VERDIER, H. F.; flowers fine vermeil-rose; very large, full, and of fine form; growth vigorous. MADAME �LISE VILMORIN, H. P.; flowers dark vermilion, shaded with blackish-crimson; large, full, of good form, and very abundant; growth vigorous. MADAME �MILE BOYAU, H. P.; flowers soft, rosy flesh-color, changing to blush; sufficiently large, perfect in form, moderate in growth, hardy in constitution; good and distinct. MADAME GUSTAVE BONNET, B.; flowers white, shaded with rose and carmine; of medium size, full, very abundant, form globular; growth vigorous. MADAME HERMAN STENGER, H. P.; flowers rose, suffused with lilac; their centre shaded with sulphur; large and full; the outer petals large, form cupped; growth vigorous. MADAME MOREAU, H. P.; flowers brilliant red, shaded with violet; very large, full; outer petals large; very sweet; growth vigorous. MADAME ROUSSET, II. P.; flowers beautiful pale rose; the reverse of the petals silvery, large, full, finely cupped, and good habit; growth vigorous. MADEMOISELLE AMELIE HALPHEN, H. P.; flowers fine rosy-carmine; large, full, of fine form, bright and beautiful; habit good; growth vigorous. . MADEMOISELLE LOIDE DE FALLOUX, H. P.; white, suffused or veined with rose; flowers large, double, and of good form; habit vigorous. MAR�CHAL NIEL, T.; flowers beautiful deep-yellow; large, full, and of globular form, very sweet; growth vigorous; the shoots well clothed with large shining leaves. MARGUERITE BONNET, B.; flowers white, shaded with flesh-color; large, full, and of fine form; growth vigorous; of the race of Louise Odier. MARGUERITE DE ST. AMAND, H. P.; flowers rosy flesh-color; large, full, of fine form, and abundant; habit fine; growth vigorous; of the race of Jules Margottin. MARIE BOISS�E, H. P.; blush-white in opening, passing to pure white when expanded; flowers double and cup-shaped; habit vigorous; very free-flowering. MICHEL BONNET, B.; flowers beautiful bright rose; large and full; growth vigorous. MONSIEUR DE PONTBRIANT, H. P.; flowers dark blackish-crimson, shaded with carmine; very large, full, of good form; growth vigorous. MONSIEUR �DOUARD ORY, H. P.; flowers beautiful vermilion; large, full, and of globular form; fine habit; growth vigorous. PRINCE DE JOINVILLE, H. P.; flowers light crimson; a fine, large, showy rose, of vigorous and hardy habit. PRINCE EUGENE BEAUHARNAIS, H. P.; flowers brilliant reddish-scarlet, shaded with purple; large and full; form cupped; growth vigorous. PRINCE NAPOL�ON, H. P.; flowers bright rose; very large and very double; growth vigorous; very effective. PRINCESS LICHTENSTEIN, H. P.; flowers white, globular, large and full; a good hardy, white rose, of compact growth, flowering abundantly. ROSA MUNDI, H. P.; pure rose, flowers large, double, globular, and well-shaped; habit vigorous. RUSHTON RADCLYFFE, H. P.; flowers beautiful clear bright red; large, full, and of perfect form; growth vigorous. SEMIRAMIS, H. P.; flowers clear pink; large, full, and of fine globular form; growth vigorous. SOUVENIR DE BERNARDIN DE ST. PIERRE, II. P.; flowers varying from crimson to violet; their centre fiery red; large, full, and of fine form; habit good; growth vigorous. SOUVENIR DE LOUIS GAUDIN, B.; flowers fine reddish-purple, shaded with black; of medium size, full; very abundant; form fine. SOUVENIR DE WILLIAM WOOD, H. P.; flowers dark blackish-purp e, shaded with scarlet; darker than Prince Camille de Rohan; large, full, and very effective; growth vigorous. TRIOMPHE DE LA TERRE DES ROSES, H. P.; flowers fine violet-rose, very large and full; very sweet; blooms freely. TRIOMPHE DES FRAN�AIS, H. P.; flowers brilliant crimson; large, very double; growth vigorous; fine habit; very free. WILLIAM BULL, H. P.; flowers brilliant cherry-red; large, full, and of fine globular form; growth vigorous. XAVIER OLIBO, H. P.; flowers velvety-black, shaded with fiery amarant, colors exceedingly rich; large; well formed; growth vigorous. THE END. 
47638	----	A TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE TOBACCO PLANT. Price Two Shillings and Sixpence. [Illustration: _Flowers of the Tobacco plant_ _Drawn and Engraved by Copland & Sansom No 16 Maiden Lane_] A TREATISE ON THE CULTURE OF THE TOBACCO PLANT; WITH THE MANNER in which it is usually CURED. ADAPTED TO NORTHERN CLIMATES, AND DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF THE LANDHOLDERS OF GREAT-BRITAIN. TO WHICH ARE PREFIXED, TWO PLATES OF THE PLANT AND ITS FLOWERS. BY JONATHAN CARVER, ESQ. Author of TRAVELS through the interior Parts of NORTH-AMERICA. LONDON: Printed for the AUTHOR, And sold by J. JOHNSON, in St. Paul's Church-yard. 1779. TO THE RIGHT HONOURABLE THE PRESIDENT, VICE-PRESIDENTS, AND MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY FOR THE ENCOURAGEMENT OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES AND COMMERCE. The Extension of every Branch of useful Knowledge being the great Object of the SOCIETY for the Encouragement of ARTS, MANUFACTURES and COMMERCE, the Author begs Leave to commit the following Treatise to their Patronage. London, March 26th, 1779. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. _Of the Discovery and Uses of Tobacco_ P. 1 CHAPTER II. _A Description of the Plant and its Flowers_ 9 CHAPTER III. _Of the Soil and Situation most proper for raising the Plant_ 13 CHAPTER IV. _Of its Culture, with a Description of the Worm that annoys it_ 15 CHAPTER V. _Of the Manner in which it is usually cured_ 28 APPENDIX 35 [Illustration: _Tobacco plant_ _Drawn and Engraved by Copland & Sansom No 16 Maiden Lane_] A TREATISE, _&c._ CHAPTER I. _Of the Discovery and Uses of Tobacco._ Tobacco, or Tabacco, is a medicinal plant, which remained unknown to Europeans till the discovery of America by the Spaniards; being first imported from thence about the year 1560. The Americans of the continent called it Petun; those of the islands, Yoli. Hernandez de Toledo sent it into Spain from Tabaco, a province of Yucatan, where he first found and learned its use; and from which place he gave it the denomination it still bears. Sir Walter Raleigh first introduced the use of it into England, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, about the year 1585. The plant was probably known in this kingdom before that time, by means of the Spaniards or Portuguese; it is however certain, that he first taught the English to smoke it. The French, on its first introduction among them, gave it various names, as Nicotiana, or the Embassador's Herb, from John Nicot, who came soon after it was discovered, as embassador to that court, from Francis the Second of Portugal, and brought some of it with him; which he presented to a grand Prior of the house of Lorrain, and to Queen Catherine de Medicis: on this account it was sometimes called the Grand Prior's Herb, and sometimes the Queen's Herb. When, or in what manner this plant was introduced into the oriental nations is uncertain, although it is at present in general use among them. Considerable quantities of it are likewise cultivated in the Levant, the coasts of Greece and the Archipelago, in the island of Malta and in Italy. Tobacco is termed by botanists, Nicotiana; and is arranged by them as a genus of the Pentandria Monogynia class of plants. It is sometimes used medicinally; but being very powerful in its operations, this must be done with great caution. The most common uses of it are, either as a sternutatory when taken by way of snuff, as a masticatory by chewing it in the mouth, or as an effluvia by smoking it; and when used with moderation is not an unhealthy amusement, whether it replenishes the humble pouch of the rustic, or the golden box of the courtier. Before pipes were invented, it was usually smoked in segars, and they are still in use among some of the southern nations. The method of preparing these is at once simple and expeditious: a leaf of tobacco being formed into a small twisted roll somewhat larger than the stem of a pipe, and about eight inches long, the smoke is conveyed through the winding folds, which prevent it from expanding, as through a tube; so that one end of it being lighted, and the other applied to the mouth, it is in this form used without much inconvenience: but in process of time, pipes being invented, they were found more commodious vehicles for the smoke, and are now in general use. Among all the productions of foreign climes introduced into these kingdoms, scarcely any has been held in higher estimation by persons of every rank than tobacco. In the countries of which it is a native, it is considered by the Indians as the most valuable offering that can be made to the Beings they worship: they use it in all their civil and religious ceremonies. When once its spiral wreaths ascend from the feathered pipe of peace, the compact that has just been made, is considered as sacred and inviolable. Likewise, when they address their great Father, or his guardian Spirits, residing as they believe in every extraordinary production of nature[1], they make liberal offerings of this valuable plant to them, doubting not but that they secure thereby the protection they request. Smoking was at first supposed to be the only means by which its virtues could be attained; but at length it was found out that the juices of it extracted by chewing were of a cordial nature, alleviating, in laborious employments, the cravings of hunger, or the depression of fatigue; and also, that the powder of it received into the head through the nostrils, in moderate quantities, was a salubrious and refreshing sternutatory. For these purposes, the Americans inhabiting the interior settlements manufacture it in the following easy manner. Being possessed of a tobacco-wheel, which is a very simple machine, they spin the leaves, after they are properly cured, into a twist of any size they think fit, and having folded it into rolls of about twenty pounds weight each, they lay it by for use. In this state it will keep for several years, and be continually improving, as it every hour grows milder. When they have occasion to use it, they take off such a length as they think necessary, which, if designed for smoking, they cut into small pieces, for chewing into longer, as choice directs; if they intend to make snuff of it they take a quantity from the roll, and laying it in a room where a fire is kept, in a day or two it will become dry, and being rubbed on a grater will produce a genuine snuff. Those, in more improved regions, who like their snuff scented, may apply to it such odoriferous waters as they can procure, or think most pleasing. The Illinois usually form it into carots, which is done by laying a number of leaves, when cured, on each other, after the ribs have been taken out, and rolling them round with packthread, till they become cemented together. These rolls commonly measure about eighteen or twenty inches long, and nine round in the middle part. But as many other methods are at present well known in England, that probably answer the purpose full as well as these, it is almost unnecessary to describe them. These directions are here given for the benefit of those who raise tobacco for their own use, and chuse to make their snuff without applying to the manufacturer for it. Among the articles of commerce tobacco holds a distinguished rank, and affords no inconsiderable addition to the revenues of the state. Before the present unhappy dissentions broke out between Great-Britain and America, about ninety-six thousand hogsheads were annually imported from Maryland and Virginia. Thirteen thousand five hundred of which were consumed at home; the duty of which, at the rate of 26_l._ 1_s._ per hogshead, amounted to 351,765_l._ The remaining eighty-two thousand, five hundred hogsheads were exported to various parts of Europe, and their value received in specie, or the produce of those countries. To the uses already enumerated, I shall add another to which tobacco might be applied, that I believe has never been made known to Europeans, and which will render it much more estimable than any of the foregoing. It has been found by the Americans to answer the purpose of tanning leather, as well, if not better, than bark; and was not the latter so plentiful in their country would be generally used by them instead of it. I have been witness to many experiments wherein it has proved successful, especially on the thinner sorts of hides, and can safely pronounce it to be, in countries where bark is scarce, a valuable substitute for that article. FOOTNOTE: [1] Vide Travels into the interior parts of North-America, chap. 13, page 382. CHAPTER II. _A Description of the Plant and its Flowers._ There are several species of the Tobacco Plant, and these are chiefly distinguishable by their flowers, and the junction of the leaves to the stalks; but as this is not intended for a Botanical Treatise, I shall confine my description to those sorts which are cultivated in the colonies for exportation: these are two; the Oronokoe and the sweet-scented; which differ from each other in no respect but in the shape of their leaves, those of the former being longer and narrower than the latter. Both are tall, herbaceous plants, of an erect growth and noble foliage, rising each with a strong stem (in their native soil) to the height of from six to nine feet. The stalk is upwards of an inch diameter near the root, and surrounded with a kind of hairy or velvet, clammy substance, of a yellowish green colour. The leaves, which are rather of a deeper green, grow to the stalk alternately, at the distance of about two or three inches from each other. They are oblong, of a spear-shaped-oval, and simple; without pedicles embracing the stalk by an auriculated base. The largest are about twenty inches long, decreasing in size as they ascend, till they are not longer than ten inches, and nearly half as broad. The face of the leaves is much undulated, or corrugated, not unlike those of spinnage when full ripe. In their first state, at the time they do not exceed five or six inches, the leaves are usually of a full green, and rather smooth, but as they increase in size they acquire a yellowish cast and become rougher. The stem and branches are terminated by large bunches of flowers, collected into clusters of a delicate red, the edges, when quite blown, inclining to a pale purple. The flowers continue in succession until the end of summer, when they make room for the seed. These are of a brown colour, kidney-shaped, and very small, each capsule generally containing about a thousand, and the whole produce of a single plant is estimated at three hundred and fifty thousand. The seeds are usually ripe in the month of September, and when perfectly dry may be rubbed out and preserved in bags till the following season. The Oronokoe, or, as it is termed by the seedsmen, the long Virginia, appears to me to be the sort best suited to bear the rigour of a northern climate, the strength of the plant, as well as the scent and efficacy of the leaves being greater than the other. The sweet-scented flourishes most in a sandy soil and warm countries, where it greatly exceeds the former in the celerity of its growth; and although, as I have before observed, it differs from the Oronokoe only in the shape of its leaves, being shorter and rounder, yet it is unlike in its strength and flavour, being, agreeable to its name, much milder and pleasanter. As a species of garden plants, the Nicotiana is an ornamental annual for the pleasure ground, as it attains a majestic stature, and being adorned with fine luxuriant leaves, and large clusters of pleasing flowers which terminate all the shoots, during the autumn it exhibits an elegant appearance. For a more compleat idea of the Oronokoe plant and its flowers, the reader is referred to the plate prefixed to this Work. But it must be observed, that the number of leaves represented on the stalk is not designed to serve as a rule for topping the tobacco, as directed in the fourth chapter. Only a few of them are annexed to the stalk, that the representation of the leaf might be the more compleat. CHAPTER III. _Of the Soil and Situation most proper for raising the Plant._ The best ground for raising the plant is a warm, kindly, rich soil, that is not subject to be over-run with weeds; for from these it must be totally cleared. The soil in which it grows in its native climate, Virginia, is inclining to sandy, consequently warm and light; the nearer therefore the nature of the land in which it is planted in England approaches to that, the greater probability there is of its flourishing here. Other kinds of soils may probably be brought to suit it, by a mixture with some attenuating species of manure, but a knowledge of this must be the result of repeated trials. It must however be remembered, that whatever manure is added to the soil must be thoroughly incorporated with it. The situation most preferable for a plantation is the southern declivity of a hill, rather gradual than abrupt; or a spot that is sheltered by a wall, a bank, or any other means, from the blighting north winds which so frequently blow, during the spring months, in this island: but at the same time it is necessary to observe, that the plants must enjoy a free current of air; for if that be obstructed they will not prosper. CHAPTER IV. _Of its Culture, with a Description of the Worm that annoys it._ As the tobacco plant, being an annual, is only to be raised from seed, I would particularly recommend to such as mean to cultivate it, the greatest care in purchasing these, lest by sowing such as is not good, they lose, with their expected crop, the season. The different sorts of the seeds not being distinguishable, like the plants, from each other, nor the goodness to be ascertained by their appearance, the purchaser, till he has raised a supply from his own cultivation, must depend on the veracity of the seedsman; who may be also sometimes deceived, having nothing to rely on but the honour of the person who raised it: prudence therefore requires that he should apply to a person of character in that profession. In describing the manner in which the plant ought to be raised from the seed, as well as in the succeeding process, I shall confine myself (without regarding the methods usually pursued in Virginia or Maryland, which, from the difference of the climate, can be of little service here) to the practice of the northern colonies of America; as these are more parallel in their latitude to England. And there being even a difference between the climate of these and that of Great-Britain, to the disadvantage of the latter (I mean with regard to the cultivation of the tobacco plant) I shall minutely attend to this variation, and in the directions I give endeavour to guard against the inconveniences of it. These instructions shall likewise be given in plain and familiar terms, and not in a language that can be only understood by the Botanist or Gardener, that this Treatise may be of general use. About the middle of April, or rather sooner in a forward spring, (for the season must be attended to, as this plant will not bear forcing) sow the seed in beds first prepared for the purpose, composed of such soil as before described, mixed with some warm, rich manure. In a cold spring, regular hot beds would be most eligible for this purpose; and indeed the Gardeners of this country are persuaded, that the Nicotania cannot be raised in any other way; but as these are seldom to be found in the garden of the farmer, and as I am convinced that if the weather is not remarkably severe, they might be reared without doors, for his benefit I shall give the following instructions relative to their treatment. Having sown the seed in the manner directed, on the least apprehension of a frost after the plants appear, it will be necessary to spread mats over the beds, a little elevated from the ground by poles laid across, that they may not be crushed. These however must be removed in the morning soon after the sun appears, that they may receive as much benefit as possible from its warmth, and from the air. In this manner proceed till the leaves have attained the size of about two inches in length, and one in breadth, which they will do in about a month after they are sown, or near the middle of May, when the frosts usually are at an end. One invariable rule for their being able to bear removal is, when the fourth leaf is sprouted, and the fifth just appears. Then take the opportunity of the first rains, or gentle showers, to transplant them into such a soil and situation as before described. This must be done in the following manner: The land must be plowed, or dug up with spades, and made as mellow and light as possible. Where the plants are to be placed, raise with the hoe small hillocks at the distance of two feet, or a little more, from each other, taking care that no hard sods or lumps are in it, and then just indent the middle of each, without drilling holes as for some other plants. When your ground is thus prepared, dig in a gentle manner from their native bed, such plants as are arrived at the state before-mentioned, and drop, as you pass, one on every hillock. Insert a plant gently into each center, pressing the soil around it with your fingers, and taking the greatest care, during the operation, that you do not break off any of the leaves, which are at this time exquisitely tender. If the weather proves dry, after they are thus transplanted, they must be watered with soft water, in the same manner as is usually done to coleworts or plants of a similar kind. Notwithstanding you now appear to have a sufficient quantity of plants for the space you intend to cultivate, yet it is necessary that you continue to attend to your bed of seedlings, that you may have enough to supply any deficiences which, through accident, might arise. From this time great care must be taken to keep the ground soft, and free from weeds, by often stirring with your hoe the mould round the roots; and to prune off the dead leaves that sometimes are found near the bottom of the stalk. The difference of this climate from that in which I have been accustomed to observe the progress of this plant, will not permit me to direct with certainty the time which is most proper to take off the top of it, to prevent it from running to seed. This knowledge can only be perfectly acquired by experience. When it has risen to upwards of two feet, it commonly begins to put forth the branches on which the flowers and seeds are produced; but as this expansion, if suffered to take place, would drain the nutriment from the leaves, which are the most valuable part, and thereby lessen their size and efficacy, it becomes needful at this stage to nip off the extremity of the stalk, to prevent its growing higher. In some other climates the top is commonly cut off when the plant has fifteen leaves. If the tobacco is intended to be a little stronger than usual, this is done when it has only thirteen; and sometimes, when it is chosen to be remarkably powerful, eleven or twelve leaves only are allowed to expand. On the contrary, if the planter is desirous to have his crop very mild, he suffers it to put forth eighteen or twenty: but in this calculation the three or four lower leaves next the ground, which do not grow so large and fine as the others, are not to be reckoned. This is denominated "topping the tobacco," and is much better done by the finger and thumb, than with any instrument, because the former close, at the same time, the pores of the plant; whereas, when it is done with the latter, the juices are in some degree exhausted. And though this might appear unimportant, yet every method that tends to give vigour to the leaves should be carefully pursued. For the same reasons care must be taken to nip off the sprouts that will be continually springing up at the junction of the leaves with the stalks. "This is termed succouring or suckering the tobacco," and ought to be repeated as often as occasion requires. The last, and not the least concern in the cultivation of this plant, is the destruction of the worm that nature has given it for an enemy, and which, like many other reptiles, preys on its benefactor. To destroy these, which are the only insects that molest this plant, or at least to keep them under, for it is impossible totally to exterminate them, every leaf must be carefully searched. As soon as a wound is discovered, and it will not be long before it is perceptible, care must be taken to destroy the cause of it, who will be found near it, and from his unsubstantial texture, which I shall describe at the conclusion of this chapter, be easily crushed: but the best method is to pluck it away by the horn, and then crush it. Without a constant attention to these noxious insects, a whole field of plants may be soon destroyed; and even if any of them are left in the leaves, during the cure, they prove equally destructive. This is termed "worming the tobacco;" and as these worms are found most predominant the latter end of July, and the beginning of August, they must be particularly attended to at that season. As I have just observed, that it is impossible, without experience, to point out the due time for topping the plant, so it is equally as impossible to ascertain the time it will take to ripen in this climate. That can only be known by future observations; for as it is at present only cultivated in England as an ornament for the garden, no attention has, I believe, been hitherto bestowed on the preservation of its leaves. The apparent signs, however, of its maturity are these: The leaves, as they approach a state of ripeness, become more corrugated or rough; and when fully ripe, appear mottled with yellowish spots on the raised parts, whilst the cavities retain their usual green colour. They are, at this time, also thicker than they have before been, and are covered with a kind of downy velvet, in the same manner as the stalks are described to be, in the preceding chapter. If heavy rains happen at this critical period, they will wash this excrescent substance off, and thereby damage the plants. In this case, if the frosty nights are not begun, it is proper to let them stand a few days longer; when, if the weather be more moderate, they will recover this substance again. But if a frost unexpectedly happens during the night, they must be carefully examined in the morning before the sun has any influence on them; and those which are found to be covered with frosty particles, whether thoroughly ripe or not, must be cut up: for though they may not all appear to be arrived at a state of maturity, yet they cannot be far from it, and will differ but little in goodness from those that are perfectly so. Having now given every instruction that occurs to my memory relative to the culture of the plant, I shall proceed, as proposed, to describe the worm that infests it. It is of the horned species, and appears to be peculiar to this plant; so that in many parts of America it is distinguished by the name of the Tobacco-Worm. In what manner it is first produced, or how propagated, is uncertain; but doubtless by the same inexplicable means that nature makes use of to continue the existence of many other classes of this minute part of the creation. The first time it is discernible, is when the plants have gained about half their height: it then appears to be nearly as large as a gnat; soon after which it lengthens into a worm, and by degrees increases in magnitude to the size of a man's finger. In shape it is regular from its head to its tail, without any diminution at either extremity; indented or ribbed round at equal distances, nearly a quarter of an inch from each other, and having at every one of these divisions, a pair of feet or claws, by which it fastens itself to the plant. Its mouth, like that of the caterpillar, is placed under the fore-part of the head. On the top of the head, between the eyes, grows a horn about half an inch in length, and greatly resembling a thorn; the extreme part of which is in colour brown, of a firm texture, and sharp pointed. By this horn, as before observed, it is usually plucked from the leaf. It is easily crushed, being only, to appearance, a composition of green juice inclosed by a membranous covering, without the internal parts of an animated being. The colour of its skin is in general green, interspersed with spots of a yellowish white; and the whole covered with a short hair scarcely to be discerned. To preserve the planter from the ravages of an insect so destructive to his plantation, as he will thereby be able to distinguish it with a greater degree of precision, I have given in the frontispiece as exact a representation of it as can be done from memory. CHAPTER V. _Of the Manner in which it is usually cured._ When the plant is found, agreeable to the preceding directions, to be fit for gathering, on the first morning that promises a fair day, before the sun is risen, take an axe or a long knife, and holding the stalk near the top with one hand, sever it from its root with the other, as low as possible. Having done this, lay it gently on the ground, so as not to break off the leaves, and there let it remain exposed to the rays of the sun throughout the day, or until the leaves are entirely wilted, as it is termed in America; that is, till they become limber, and will bend any way without breaking. But if, on the contrary, the rain should continue without any intervals, and the plants appear to be full ripe, they must be cut down and housed immediately. This must be done, however, with great care, that the leaves, which are in this state very brittle, may not be broken. Being placed under proper shelter, either in a barn or a covered hovel, where they cannot be affected by the rain or too much air, they must be thinly scattered on the floor, and if the sun does not appear for several days, so that they can be laid out again, they must remain to wilt in that manner; which is not indeed so desirable as in the sun, nor will the tobacco prove quite so good. When the leaves have acquired the flexibility before described, the plants must be laid in heaps, or rather in one heap, if the quantity be not too great, and in about twenty-four hours they will be found to sweat. But during this time, when they have lain for a little while, and begin to ferment, it is necessary to turn them; bringing those which are in the middle to the surface, and placing those which were at the surface, in the middle, that by this means the whole quantity may be equally fermented. The longer they lie in this situation the darker coloured the tobacco becomes. This is termed "sweating the tobacco." After they have lain in this manner for three or four days, for in a longer time they may heat so much as to grow mouldy, the plants may be fastened together in pairs, with cords or wooden pegs, near the bottom of the stalk, and hung across a pole, with the leaves suspended, in the same covered place, a proper interval being left between each pair. In about a month the leaves will be thoroughly dried, and of a proper temperature to be taken down. This state may be ascertained by their appearing of the same colour as those imported from America, with which few are unacquainted. But this can be done at no other season than during wet weather; for the tobacco being a plant greatly abounding with salts, it is always affected if there is the least humidity in the atmosphere, even though it be hung in a dry place. If this rule be not observed, but they are removed in dry weather, the external parts of the leaves will crumble into dust, and a considerable waste will attend its removal. As soon as the plants are taken down, they must once more be laid in a heap, and pressed with heavy logs of wood for about a week. This climate, however, may require a longer time. While they remain in this state, it will be necessary to introduce your hand frequently into the heap, to discover whether the heat be not too intense; for in large quantities this will sometimes be the case, and considerable damage will accrue from it. When they are found to heat too much, that is, when the heat exceeds a moderate glowing warmth, part of the weight by which they are compressed must be taken away; and the cause being removed, the effect will cease. This is called "the second or last sweating," and when compleated, which it generally will be in about the time just mentioned, the leaves may be stripped from the stalks for use. Many omit this last operation, but I think it takes away any remaining harshness, and renders the tobacco more mellow. The strength of the stalk also is diffused by it through the leaves, and the whole mass becomes equally meliorated. When the leaves are stripped from the stalks, they are to be tied up in bunches or hands, and kept in a cellar, or any other place that is damp; though if not handled in dry weather, but only during a rainy season, it is of little consequence in what part of the house or barn they are laid up. At this period the tobacco is thoroughly cured, and equally as proper for manufacturing as that imported from the colonies. Having gone through the whole process, if it has been properly managed, that raw fiery taste so frequently found in the common sale tobacco will be totally eradicated, and though it retains all its strength, will be soft and pleasing in its flavour. Those who are curious in their tobacco in the northern colonies of America sprinkle it, when made up into the roles for keeping, described in the first chapter, with small common white wines or cyder, instead of salt water, which gives it an inexpressibly fine flavour. APPENDIX. That estrangement which at present subsists between Great-Britain and the American colonies, renders a supply of the article of which I treat, and which is become so essentially necessary to the happiness of a great number of his Majesty's subjects, very uncertain; it depends, in a great measure, on the prizes, freighted with this commodity, that happen to be taken, and on the quantities which are imported from other commercial states at a high price. It is therefore to be hoped that the legislature will take into consideration so important a concern, and pursue such measures as will conduce to remove this uncertainty. A remedy is at hand; that of cultivating it in these kingdoms; but this appears to be prohibited by the following ancient acts of parliament: In an act of Charles the Second, entitled, "An act for prohibiting the planting, setting, or sowing tobacco in England and Ireland," the prohibition is thus expressed: "Your Majesty's loyal and obedient subjects, the Lords and Commons in this present parliament assembled, considering of how great concern and importance it is, that the colonies and plantations of this kingdom in America, be defended, protected, maintained, and kept up, and that all due and possible encouragement be given unto them; and that not only in regard great and considerable dominions and countries have been thereby gained, and added to the imperial crown of this realm, but for that the strength and welfare of this kingdom, do very much depend upon them, in regard of the employment of a very considerable part of its shipping and seamen, and of the vent of very great quantities of its native commodities and manufactures, as also of its supply with several considerable commodities which it was wont formerly to have only from foreigners, and at far dearer rates: And forasmuch as tobacco is one of the main products of several of those plantations, and upon which their welfare and subsistence, and the navigation of this kingdom, and vent of its commodities thither, do much depend; and in regard it is found by experience, That by the planting of tobacco in these parts your Majesty is deprived of a considerable part of your revenue arising by customs upon imported tobacco; Do most humbly pray, That it may be enacted by your Majesty: And it is hereby enacted by the King's Most Excellent Majesty, and the Lords and Commons in this present parliament assembled, and by authority of the same, That no person or persons whatsoever, shall or do from and after the first day of January, in the year of our Lord One Thousand Six Hundred and Sixty, set, plant, improve to grow, make or cure any tobacco either in seed, plant, or otherwise, in or upon any ground, earth, field, or place within the kingdom of England, dominion of Wales, islands of Guernsey or Jersey, or town of Berwick upon Tweed, or in the kingdom of Ireland, under the penalty of the forfeiture of all such tobacco, or the value thereof, or of the sum of forty shillings for every rod or pole of ground so planted, set or sown as aforesaid, and so proportionably for a greater or lesser quantity of ground; one moiety thereof to his Majesty, his heirs and successors; and the other moiety to him or them that shall sue for the same, to be recovered by bill, plaint, or information in any court of record, wherein no essoign, protection or wager in law shall be allowed. "Provided always and it is hereby enacted, That this act, nor any thing therein contained, shall extend to the hindering of the planting of tobacco in any physic garden of either university, or in any other private garden for physic or chyrurgery, only so as the quantity so planted exceed not half of one pole in any one place or garden." In this act all sheriffs, justices of the peace, or other officers, upon information or complaint made unto them, are empowered to cause to be burnt, plucked up, consumed or utterly destroyed all such tobacco, set, sown, planted or growing within their jurisdiction. But it not proving forcible enough to prevent the cultivation of tobacco; in the fifteenth year of the reign of the said King, a clause was inserted in an act, entitled, "An act for the encouragement of trade," to the following purport, clause 18. "And forasmuch as planting and making tobacco within the kingdom of England doth continue and encrease, to the apparent loss of his said Majesty in his customs, the discouragement of the English plantations in the parts beyond the seas, and prejudice of this kingdom in general, notwithstanding an act of parliament made in the twelfth year of his said Majesty's reign for prevention thereof, entituled, An act for prohibiting the planting, setting or sowing of tobacco in England and Ireland; and forasmuch as it is found by experience, that the reason why the said planting and making of tobacco doth continue, is, That the penalties prescribed and appointed by that law are so little, as to have neither power or effect over the transgressors thereof; For remedy therefore of so great an evil, Be it enacted by the authority aforesaid, That all and every the person or persons whatsoever, that do, or shall at any time hereafter set, plant or sow any tobacco in seed, plant or otherwise, in or upon any ground, field, earth, or place within the kingdom of England, &c. shall, over and above the penalty of the said act for that purpose ordained, for every such offence forfeit and pay the sum of ten pounds for every rod or pole of ground that he or they shall so plant, set, or sow with tobacco, and so proportionably for a greater or lesser quantity of ground; one third part thereof to the King, one other third part to the poor of such respective parish or parishes wherein such tobacco shall be so planted, and the other third thereof to him or them that shall sue for the same." "Physic gardens excepted as before." This penalty also proving insufficient to put a stop to the cultivation, it was found necessary in the twenty-second year of the reign of the said Charles the Second to enforce it by the following act, entitled, "An act to prevent the planting of tobacco in England, and regulating the plantation trade." "Whereas the sowing, setting, planting and curing of tobacco, within divers parts of the kingdom of England, doth continue and increase, to the apparent loss of his Majesty's customs, and the discouragement of his Majesty's plantations in America, and great prejudice of the trade and navigation of this realm, and the vent of its commodities thither, notwithstanding an act of parliament made in the twelfth year of his Majesty's reign that now is, for the prevention thereof, entitled, 'An act for prohibiting the planting, setting, or sowing of tobacco in England and Ireland;' And also one other act of this present parliament, made in the fifteenth year of his said Majesty's reign, entitled, 'An act for the encouragement of trade.' "And forasmuch as the remedies and provisions by these laws are found not large enough to obviate and prevent the planting thereof, Be it therefore enacted by the King's Most Excellent Majesty, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, That from and after the first day of May, which shall be in the year of our Lord, One Thousand Six Hundred and Seventy-one, all justices of the peace, within their several limits and jurisdictions, shall and do, a month before every general quarter-sessions to be holden for their respective counties, issue forth their warrants to all high-constables, petty-constables, and tything-men, within their several limits, thereby requiring the said high-constables, petty-constables and tything-men, and every of them, to make diligent search and inquisition, what tobacco is then sown, set, planted, growing, curing, cured or made within their several and respective limits and jurisdictions, and by whom; and to make a true and lawful presentment in writing upon oath, at the next general quarter-sessions to be holden for such county, of the names of all such persons as have sown, set, planted, cured or made any tobacco; and what the full quantity of land is, or was sown, set or planted therewith, and who are the immediate tenant or tenants, or present occupiers of the land so sown, set or planted, who are or shall be deemed planters thereof, to all intents and purposes. "Which said presentment upon oath, shall be received and filed by the clerk of the said county in open sessions; and after such receipt and filing, shall be a sufficient conviction in law to all intents and purposes, of all such persons as shall be so presented for the sowing, setting, planting, improving to grow, making or curing tobacco, either in seed, plant, leaf, or otherwise, contrary to the said recited act or either of them; unless such person or persons so presented shall, according to the usual forms, traverse such presentment. "And it is hereby further enacted, That all constables, tything-men, bailiffs, and other public officers, shall and do within their respective jurisdictions, from time to time, as often as occasion shall require, within fourteen days after warrant from two or more of the justices of the peace within such county, town, city or place, to them, calling to their assistance such person or persons as they and every of them shall find convenient and necessary, pluck up, burn, consume, tear to pieces, and utterly destroy, all tobacco seed, plant, leaf, planted, sowed, or growing in any field, earth or ground." The other clauses relative to the cultivation of tobacco in this act, are, "A penalty on the officers of five shillings for every rod, perch, or pole of ground so set, planted, or sowed with tobacco, that shall be suffered or permitted to grow or be consumed in seed, plant or leaf, within their jurisdiction, by the space of fourteen days after the receipt of such warrant or warrants." "A penalty for refusing to assist the officers, and also for resisting them." And after making the same provision as before for the physic gardens, and reciting many other articles for regulating the plantation trade, the act thus concludes: "Provided always, and be it enacted. That this act shall continue in force for nine years, and from thence to the next session of parliament, and no longer." By an act made the fifth of George the First, these acts are confirmed and rendered perpetual. The repeated inforcement of them seems to prove, that large quantities of tobacco were raised at that period in these dominions, and that even the penalty of ten pounds per rod was not sufficient to deter persons from the cultivation of it. As an application has just been made to parliament for an act to permit the growth of it in Ireland, the observations made in this Treatise will not, I flatter myself, be thought unworthy the notice of the legislature, that so advantageous a branch of agriculture may not be confined to one division of Great-Britain, but that every part of these united kingdoms may be allowed to share in the emoluments arising from it. The advantages which will proceed from the permission, are too many to be enumerated in so short a Work. Whether a sufficient quantity can be raised in these kingdoms to supply the demand there was for it before the American trade became interrupted, (as a revival of the demand will be the certain consequence of a reduction of the price) time alone can discover: but if enough be only raised for home consumption, this will be no inconsiderable saving to the nation. When the very great profits, arising to the planter from every acre of tobacco, come to be known, (they will appear chimerical if I inform my readers to what they amount) I doubt not but that tobacco will be considered as the most valuable branch of agriculture which can be attended to. An emulation, heightened by the prospect of gain, being once excited in the breasts of the landholders of these kingdoms, large tracks of land that now lie unimproved, will be cultivated, and, after some years, enough may probably be raised to answer the usual demands for exportation. By this means the revenue, which has been so greatly diminished by the unhappy divisions between Great-Britain and the colonies, will be in a great measure restored. The duties to be collected for this purpose may either be laid on the plants before they are gathered, or during the time of cure, as on the article of malt; the collection of which would be attended with very little additional expence, and probably, at no distant period, amount to as much as was heretofore received on imported tobacco. When the happy æra arrives that will unite once more Great-Britain to the American colonies (an event, I fear, more to be wished than expected) and a constant uninterrupted supply of this necessary exotic provided, the wonted restraint might be renewed, as far as is consistent with the situation of both countries at that time. By pursuing the rules laid down in the preceding chapters, which I have endeavoured to give in as explicit terms as possible, country gentlemen and landholders in general will be enabled to raise much better tobacco than that which is usually imported from Maryland or Virginia: for notwithstanding there are not wanting prohibitory laws in those countries to prevent the planters from sending to market any but the principal leaves, yet as most other commodities are subject to abuse or adulteration, they frequently, to increase their profit, suffer the sprouts to grow, and mix the smaller leaves of these with the others, which renders them much inferior in goodness. The crops that I have reason to believe may be raised in England, will greatly exceed in flavour and efficacy any that is imported from the southern colonies: for though northern climates require far more care and exactness to cultivate and bring tobacco to a proper state of maturity than warmer latitudes, yet this tardiness of growth tends to impregnate the plants with a greater quantity of salts, and consequently of that aromatic flavour for which it is prized, than is to be found in the produce of hotter climes, where it is brought to a state of perfection, from the seed, in half the time required in colder regions. A pound of tobacco raised in New-England or Nova-Scotia is supposed to contain as much real strength as two pounds of Virginia; and I doubt not but that near double the quantity of salts might be extracted from it by a chymical process. Good tobacco, the produce of the northern colonies, is powerful, aromatic, and has a most pleasing flavour. The fumes of it are invigorating to the head, and leave not that nausea on the stomach that the common sort does. As much time would be required to smoke one pipe of it, as three of that which is generally used: before so great a quantity of the vapour could be drawn from it as to prove hurtful, the smoker, from intoxication, would be unable to continue his amusement. I can truly say, after a residence of several years in England, that I never met with any tobacco, though I frequently smoke, that in strength or the delicacy of its flavour, is to be compared with that which I have been accustomed to in New-England. Many authors have given accounts of the bad effects proceeding from an immoderate use of tobacco. Borrhi mentions a person, who through excess of smoking, had dried his brain to so great a degree, that after his death there was nothing found in his skull but a small black lump confirming of mere membranes. From the use of good tobacco this could not have happened; for, as I have just observed, the fumes which only prove noxious from an immoderate continuance, could not have been repeated so often as to produce such dreadful effects. To the instructions already given I shall add, that I would advise the planter, in his first trials, not to be too avaricious, but to top his plants before they have gained their utmost height; leaving only about the middle quantity of leaves directed before, to give it a tolerable degree of strength. For though this, if excessive, might be abated during the cure, by an increase of sweating, or be remedied the next season by more leaves being suffered to grow, it can never be added; and without a certain degree, the tobacco will always be tasteless and of little value. On the contrary, though it be ever so much weakened by sweating, and thereby rendered mild, yet it will never lose that aromatic flavour which accompanied that strength, and which greatly adds to its value. In the directions before given for raising the plants from the seed, I have omitted to mention the size of the beds on which a specified number of them may be produced. I apprehend that a square yard of land, for which a very small quantity of seed is sufficient, they being so diminutive, will produce about five hundred plants, and allow proper space for their nurture till they are fit to transplant. I shall also just add, though the example can only be followed in particular parts of these kingdoms, that the Americans usually chuse for the place where they intend to make the seedling-bed, part of a copse, or a spot of ground covered with wood, of which they burn down such a portion as they think necessary. Having done this, they rake up the subjacent mould, and mixing it with the ashes thus produced, sow therein the seed, without adding any other manure, or taking any other steps. Where this method cannot be pursued (though it is much the best, as it destroys at the same time the weeds) wood ashes, which are most proper manure for this purpose, may be strewed over the mould in which the seed is designed to be sown. The Author presumes that the preceding instructions will be found sufficient for any person inclined to enter upon the cultivation of tobacco; yet if any nobleman or gentleman wishes to consult him upon the subject, he will give his attendance on receiving a line at his Publisher's. FINIS. 
47688	----	THE BROCHURE SERIES Japanese Gardens FEBRUARY, 1900 [Illustration: PLATE XI DAIMIO'S GARDEN AT SHINJIKU] THE BROCHURE SERIES OF ARCHITECTURAL ILLUSTRATION. 1900. FEBRUARY No. 2. JAPANESE GARDENS. The Japanese garden is not a flower garden, neither is it made for the purpose of cultivating plants. In nine cases out of ten there is nothing in it resembling a flower-bed. Some gardens may contain scarcely a sprig of green; some (although these are exceptional) have nothing green at all and consist entirely of rocks, pebbles and sand. Neither does the Japanese garden require any fixed allowance of space; it may cover one or many acres, it may be only ten feet square; it may, in extreme cases, be much less, and be contained in a curiously shaped, shallow, carved box set in a veranda, in which are created tiny hills, microscopic ponds and rivulets spanned by tiny humped bridges, while queer wee plants represent trees, and curiously formed pebbles stand for rocks. But on whatever scale, all true Japanese gardening is landscape gardening; that is to say, it is a living model of an actual Japanese landscape. But, though modelled upon an actual landscape, the Japanese garden is far more than a mere naturalistic imitation. To the artist every natural view may be said to convey, in its varying aspects, some particular mental impression or mood, such as the impression of peacefulness, of wildness, of solitude, or of desolation; and the Japanese gardener intends not only to present in his model the features of the veritable landscape, but also to make it express, even more saliently than the original, a dominant sentimental mood, so that it may become not only a picture, but a poem. In other words, a Japanese garden of the best type is, like any true work of art, the representation of nature as expressed through an individual artistic temperament. Through long accumulation of traditional methods, the representation of natural features in a garden model has come to be a highly conventional expression, like all Japanese art; and the Japanese garden bears somewhat the same relation to an actual landscape that a painting of a view of Fuji-yama by the wonderful Hokusai does to the actual scene--it is a representation based upon actual and natural forms, but so modified to accord with accepted canons of Japanese art, so full of mysterious symbolism only to be understood by the initiated, so expressed, in a word, in terms of the national artistic conventions, that it costs the Western mind long study to learn to appreciate its full beauty and significance. Suppose, to take a specific example, that in the actual landscape upon which the Japanese gardener chose to model his design, a pine tree grew upon the side of a hill. Upon the side of the corresponding artificial hill in his garden he would therefore plant a pine, but he would not clip and trim its branches to imitate the shape of the original, but rather, satisfied that by so placing it he had gone far enough toward the imitation of nature, he would clip his garden pine to make it correspond, as closely as circumstances might permit, with a conventional ideal pine tree shape (such a typical ideal pine tree is shown in the little drawing on page 25), a shape recognized as the model for a beautiful pine by the artistic conventions of Japan for centuries, and one familiar to every Japanese of any pretensions to culture whatsoever. And, as there are recognized ideal pine tree shapes, there are also ideal mountain shapes, ideal lake shapes, ideal water-fall shapes, ideal stone shapes, and innumerable other such ideal shapes. [Illustration: PLATE XII "RIVER VIEW," KORAKU-EN, KOISHIKAWA] In like manner in working out his design the gardener must take cognizance of a multitude of religious and ethical conventions. The flow of his streams must, for instance, follow certain cardinal directions; in the number and disposition of his principal rocks he must symbolize the nine spirits of the Buddhist pantheon. Some tree and stone combinations are regarded as fortunate, and should be introduced if possible; while other combinations are considered unlucky, and are to be as carefully avoided. [Illustration: MODEL PINE TREE] But endless and complex and bewildering to the western mind as are the rules and formulæ, æsthetic, symbolistic and religious, by which the Japanese landscape gardener is bound, it is apparent that most of them were originally based upon purely picturesque considerations, and that the earliest practitioners of this very ancient art, finding that certain types of arrangement, certain contrasts of mass or line, led to harmonious results, formulated their discoveries into rules, much as the rules of composition are formulated for us today in modern artistic treatises. Moreover, as Japanese gardening was at first, and for many years, practised only as a sacred art and by the priests of certain religious cults, it was but natural that they should impart to these laws which they had discovered symbolic and religious attributes. To preserve the arts in their purity, and to prevent the vulgar from transgressing æsthetic laws, combinations productive of beauty were represented as auspicious, and endowed with moral significance, while inharmonious arrangements were condemned as unlucky or inauspicious. It is one of the cardinal principles of Japanese philosophy, for example, that the inanimate objects of the universe are endowed with male or female attributes, and that from a proper blending of the two sex essences springs all the harmony, good fortune and beauty in this world. When, therefore, two contrasting shapes, colors, or masses, such as those of the sturdy pine tree and the graceful willow, were found conducive of a pleasing combination, they were named respectively male and female, and it became almost a religious observance to thereafter place them together in their attributed sex relations. It will be apparent, therefore, that with an art of such antiquity, originally practised as a religious ceremony, and in a country in which inherited tradition has such binding force, that there should have grown up around the craft of landscape gardening, a code of the most complex laws, rules, symbolism, formulæ and superstitions, which the artistic gardener is bound to learn and to implicitly obey. And yet it must not be considered that the art of the Japanese gardener has, through the accumulation of its limiting rules, become a mere science, or that its practice is only a mechanical expression of pre-established artistic conventions. On the contrary, the landscape gardener must be, first of all, a student and lover of nature, for his art is founded on nature; he must be next a poet, in order to appreciate and re-express in his garden the moods of nature, and he must thereafter be a lifelong student of his craft, that he may design in accordance with its established principles. But the very number of these precepts makes a wide range of choice among them possible; and in almost every instance, even the most apparently superstitious and fanciful of them will be found, upon examination, to make in some way for beauty in the final result. To those who can understand it, moreover, the mystical symbolism of a Japanese garden design is an added source of pleasure, just as a knowledge of symphonic form makes a symphony more enjoyable to the musician. "After having learned," writes Mr. Lafacdio Hearn, "something about the Japanese manner of arranging flowers, one can thereafter consider European ideas of floral decoration only as vulgarities. Somewhat in the same way, and for similar reasons, after having learned what a Japanese garden is, I can remember our costliest and most elaborate gardens at home only as ignorant displays of what wealth can accomplish in the creation of incongruities that violate nature." The Japanese artist who is called upon to design a new garden will first examine the site, and confer with his patron regarding its proposed size and character. If the site be large, and already furnished with natural hills, trees and water, the gardener will, of course, take advantage of these features. If it possess none of them, he will inquire the amount of money that can be placed at his disposal for the construction of artificial hills, lakes and the like; and this amount of money will also determine another important point, namely, the degree of elaboration with which the whole is to be treated. For all works of Japanese art whatsoever are rigorously divided into three styles, the "rough" style, the "finished" style and the "intermediate" style; and the adoption of any one style governs the degree of elaboration to which any part of the design may be carried. If the "rough" style is chosen, even the smallest accessory detail--a rustic well, or a stone lantern--must be rude to harmonize; if the "finished" style, no detail that does not correspond can be admitted,--a restriction greatly conducive to harmony, and one to which the almost invariable congruity and unity of Japanese compositions is due. [Illustration: PLATE XIII DAIMIO OF SATSUMA'S GARDEN, KAGOSHIMA] Knowing, then, the size and character of the site, and his patrons' wishes as to expense and elaboration, the landscape gardener will next choose the model landscape, or landscapes, upon which he is to base his design. He will find them divided by convention into two classes: those representing "Hill Gardens" and "Flat Gardens." (There is a third class, the "Tea Garden," but as this is of a separate genus altogether, it will be considered later.) [Illustration: DETAIL OF GARDEN, FUKAGAWA Showing some important features of arrangement close to a dwelling,--the water basin with its rock-hidden drain, the lantern, with its fire-box partially concealed by the trained branches of the pine tree.] The "Hill Garden" class is the more elaborate of the two, and that best adapted for large gardens, and for those where the natural site is undulating, or where money can be spent in artificial grading. The "Hill Garden" has many different species, such, for instance, as the "Rocky-ocean" style, which represents in general an inlet of the sea surrounded by high cliffs, the shores spread with white sea-sand, scattered with sea rocks and grown upon with pine trees trained to look as if bent and distorted with the sea wind; or the "Wide-river" style, showing a spreading stream issuing from behind a hill and running into a lake; or the "Reed-marsh" style, in which the hills are low, rounded sand dunes bordering a heath or moor in which lies a marshy pool overgrown with rushes; and many other such "styles," all well recognized, all carefully discriminated and all modelled upon actual landscapes. In any case, however, the true "Hill Garden" must present, in combination, mountain or hill, and water scenery. If on the contrary the site be small and flat, and the garden is to be less elaborate, the "Flat" style is usually chosen. The "Flat Garden" is generally supposed to represent either the floor of a mountain valley, a moor, a rural scene, or the like; and as in the case of "Hill Gardens," there are a number of well recognized and classical examples. Having, then, determined that the garden is to be of one of these types, and having also determined the degree of elaboration with which it is to be treated, the gardener will next proceed to fix the scale upon which it is to be constructed,--and this scale (a most important factor) is decided by the size of the garden area, and the number of features which must be introduced into the scene; for it is clear that if the site be large, and one in which natural hills or large bodies of water are already present, the scale will be a normal one; whereas if a whole valley, with hills, a river, a water-fall, a lake and a wooded slope is to be presented in a space of some fifty or sixty square yards, the scale of the whole must be miniature. But whatever scale is adopted, every tree, every rock, every pool, every accessory detail must be made exactly to correspond to it. A hill that might in a large garden be a natural elevation of considerable size, with full sized trees planted upon it, might in a smaller one modelled after the same design, be only a hillock, planted with dwarfed trees or shrubs; or in a still smaller area become only a clump of thick-leaved bushes trimmed to resemble a hill-shape, or even a large boulder flanked by tiny shrubs. So skilfully and completely do Japanese gardeners carry out any scale that they have determined upon, however, that Mr. Hearn describes a garden of not much above thirty yards square, that when viewed through a window from which the garden alone was visible, seemed to be really an actual and natural landscape seen from a distance,--a perfect illusion. [Illustration: PLATE XIV MERCHANT'S GARDEN, AWOMORI] Having determined upon the natural model and the scale for it, the gardener will begin by imitating on the given site the main natural land conformations of his original, building hills or grading slopes, excavating lake basins and cutting river channels. These natural features he will next proceed to elaborate, and it is in this process of elaboration that he must most carefully observe all those complex laws and conventions to which we have before alluded. [Illustration: DETAIL OF A MERCHANT'S VILLA GARDEN, FUKAGAWA Showing some characteristic garden accessories,--stepping-stones, a lantern, a common variety of bamboo fence. The lantern and plum tree conventionally mark the approach to a little shrine reached through a Shinto archway by means of a row of stepping-stones.] Almost every Japanese garden, be it hilly or flat, large or small, rough or elaborate, must be made to contain, in some form, water, rocks and vegetation, as well as such architectural accessories as bridges, pagodas, lanterns, water-basins, stepping-stones and boundary fences or hedges. Water may be made to present the sea, lakes, rivers, brooks, water-falls, springs, or combinations of them. It is not, of course, possible to imitate the open sea with any degree of realism; and when a coast scene is presented, it is customary to fashion the body of water as an ocean inlet, the supposed juncture with the sea being hidden by a cliff or hill. Lake scenes are much more common. There are six "classical" shapes into which lake forms are divided, some of them more formal for use near buildings, others more natural for use in wilder landscapes. It is an axiom that every lake, or pool, or stream represented must have both its source and outlet indicated. Sometimes the inflow is indicated by a stream issuing from behind a hillock which conceals its artificial source, sometimes a deep pool of clear water may suggest a spring, sometimes a water-fall (at least ten individual and distinct forms of water-fall are recognized as admissible into a properly planned garden) supplies the water; but water showing no inflow or outlet is termed "dead" water, and is regarded with the contempt bestowed upon all shams and falsities in art. In cases where it is impossible to introduce actual water into a garden its presence is often imitated by areas of smooth or rippled sand, the banks of the sand bed treated to simulate the banks of a natural lake or stream, and islands and bridges introduced to further the illusion. [Illustration: PLATE XV SHIRASE-NO-NIWA, NIIGATA] Extreme importance is attached to the use in gardens of natural stones, rocks and boulders; and some teachers of the craft go so far as to maintain that they constitute the skeleton of the design, and that their proper disposition and selection should receive the primary consideration. In large gardens there may be as many as one hundred and thirty-eight principal rocks and stones, each having its special name and function; but in smaller ones as few as five rocks will often suffice. Whatever the style of landscape composition, three stones, the "Guardian Stone," the "Stone of Worship," and the "Stone of the Two Deities" must never be dispensed with, their absence being regarded as inauspicious. On the same principle there are certain stone forms which are considered unlucky, and are therefore invariably avoided. The raised parts of a Japanese garden are supposed to represent the nearer eminences or distant mountains of natural scenery, and the stones which adorn them are intended to imitate either minor undulations and peaks, or rocks or boulders on their slopes. In like manner there are no less than twenty "water" stones, which have their places in lake and river scenery, as well as nine varieties of "cascade" stones alone. There are also sixteen stones which have their functions solely in the adornment of islands. After the contours of land and water and the principal rocks and stones have been arranged, the distribution of garden vegetation is considered; for the garden rocks form only the skeleton of the design and are only complete when embellished with vegetation. [Illustration: TYPICAL ARRANGEMENTS OF STONES WITH FOLIAGE] In the grounds of the larger temples, avenues and groves of trees are planted with the same formality adopted in Western gardens, but in true landscape gardening such formal arrangements are never resorted to. Indeed it is an axiom that when several trees are planted together they should never be placed in rows, but always in open and irregular groups. The rules for planting the clumps are rigidly determined; and these clumps may be disposed in double, triple or quadruple combinations, while these combinations may be again regrouped according to recognized rules based upon contrasts of form, line and color of foliage. Occasionally, when it is the designer's purpose to represent a natural forest or woodland, formulas are, of course, disregarded, and the trees are grouped together irregularly. [Illustration: TYPICAL VARIETIES OF GARDEN LANTERN] The architectural accessories of the Japanese garden,--bridges, pagodas, lanterns, water-basins, wells and boundary fences or hedges, we have no space to consider in detail. It must suffice to say that their use is rather ornamental than to aid in the landscape imitation, and that they are generally placed in the foreground of the scene. There are many beautiful designs for each of them, and their use and disposition is formally regulated. [Illustration: PLATE XVI PUBLIC GARDEN OF SHUZENJI, KUMAMATO] Important accessories in the Japanese garden are Stepping-Stones. Turf is not used in the open spaces, but these are spread with sand, either pounded smooth or raked into elaborate patterns. This sand, kept damp at all times, presents a cool and fresh surface, and to preserve its smoothness, which the marks of the Japanese wooden clogs would sadly mar, a pathway is invariably constructed across such areas with stones called "stepping-stones," or "flying stones" as they are occasionally termed, on account of the supposed resemblance in their composition to the order taken by a flight of birds. In the simpler and smaller gardens such stones form one of the principal features of the design. As nothing could be less artistic than a formal arrangement of stones at regular intervals, not to speak of the difficulty of keeping one's balance while walking upon them, the Japanese gardener therefore uses certain special stones and combinations having definite shapes and dimensions, the whole being arranged with a studied irregularity. The sketch on this page exhibits three typical arrangements. The left hand group shows stepping-stones as arranged to lead from a tea room. The centre group shows stepping-stones combined with a "pedestal stone" which marks the point from which a typical cross view in the garden is to be observed. The right hand group shows the stones near a veranda with a "shoe-removing" stone terminating the series. [Illustration: ARRANGEMENTS OF STEPPING-STONES] A third main type of garden, neither "Flat" nor "Hilly," to which we have before referred, properly speaking, is called the "Tea Garden." "Tea Gardens" are used for the performance of the "tea ceremony," and to explain the principle of its design would require a preliminary explanation of the intricacies of that ceremony itself, to which an entire volume might easily be devoted. A most cursory indication of the principal use and requirements must here suffice. "Tea Gardens" are divided into outer and inner inclosures separated by a rustic fence. The outermost inclosure contains a main entrance gate, and behind this there is often a small building in which it is sometimes the custom to change the clothing before attending the ceremony. The outer inclosure also contains a picturesque open arbor, called the "Waiting Shed," which plays an important part in tea ceremonies, for here the guests adjourn at stated intervals to allow of fresh preparations being made in the tiny tea room. The tea room is entered from the garden through a low door, about two and one-half feet square, placed in the outer wall and raised two feet from the ground, through which the guests are obliged to pass in a bending posture indicative of humility and respect. The rustic well forms an important feature of the inner garden, as do the principal lantern and the water-basin. A portion of the inner inclosure of a "Tea Garden" in the Tamagawa, or Winding-river style, showing the stream, bridge, lantern, water-basin, and an arrangement of stones, including the indispensable "Guardian Stone," is represented in the drawing on this page. All these separate features are connected, according to very rigid principles, by stepping-stones which make meandering routes between them, and form the skeleton of the whole design. [Illustration: INNER INCLOSURE OF A TEA GARDEN, "TAMAGAWA" STYLE] We can, perhaps, no better summarize this necessarily sketchy review of a complex subject, than by reproducing here, from Professor Conder's very elaborate monograph, "Landscape Gardening in Japan," (Tokio, 1893)--from which most of the information in this article has been derived, and to which the student of the subject is referred,--a figured model of an ordinary "Hill Garden" in the finished style. The numbers refer to the titles of the principal hills, stones, tree clumps and accessories, the positions of which are all relatively established by rule. [Illustration: PLATE XVII DAIMIO OF MITO'S GARDEN, HONJO] [Illustration: FIGURED MODEL OF AN ORDINARY HILL GARDEN IN THE FINISHED STYLE HILLS: 1, Near Mountain. 2, Companion Mountain. 3, Mountain Spur. 4, Near Hill. 5, Distant Peak. STONES: 1, Guardian Stone. 2, Cliff Stone. 3, Worshipping Stone. 4, View Stone. 5, Waiting Stone. 6, "Moon-Shadow" Stone. 7, Cave Stone. 8, Seat of Honor Stone. 9, Pedestal Stone. 10, Idling Stone. TREES: 1, Principal Tree. 2, "View Perfecting" Tree. 3, Tree of Solitude. 4, Cascade-Screening Tree. 5, Tree of Setting Sun. 6, Distancing Pine. 7, Stretching Pine. ACCESSORIES: A, Garden Well. B, Lantern. C, Garden Gate. D, Boarded Bridge. E, Plank Bridge. F, Stone Bridge. G, Water Basin. H, Lantern, I, Garden Shrine.] Hill 1 represents a mountain of considerable size in the middle distance, in front of which should be placed the cascade which feeds the lake; while Hills 2 and 3 are its companions, the depressions between them being planted with shrubs giving the idea of a sheltered dale. Hill 5 represents a distant peak in the perspective. The model shows ten important stones. The "Guardian Stone," 1, representing the dedication stone of the garden, occupies the most central position in the background, and in this case forms the flank of the cliff over which the cascade pours. The broad flat "Worshipping Stone," 3, indicating the place for worship, is placed in the foreground, or some open space. The "Moon-Shadow Stone," 6, occupies an important position in the distant hollow between two hills and in front of the distant peak, its name implying the sense of indistinctness and mystery attached to it. The term "tree" as used in the diagram often refers to an arrangement or clump of trees. The "Principal Tree," 1, is placed in the centre of the background, and is usually a large and striking specimen. The "View Perfecting Tree," 2, generally stands alone, and its shape is carefully trained to harmonize with the foreground accessories. The "Tree of Solitude," 3, is a group to afford a shady resting place. The "Tree of the Setting Sun," 5, is planted in the western part of the garden to intercept the direct rays of the sunset. The titles of the other features in the model will probably be found self explanatory. Errata. By an unfortunate misprint in the preceding issue of THE BROCHURE SERIES, Prof. A. D. F. Hamlin, author of the article on the "Ten Most Beautiful Buildings in the United States," was announced as Professor of Architecture in "Cornell" University, instead of in "Columbia" University. Mr. Hamlin's correct title is: "Adjunct-Professor of Architecture, Columbia University." In the same issue (page 15), it was stated that the terraces and approaches to the Capitol at Washington were the work of Mr. Edward Clark. This was an error: they were designed by Mr. Frederick Law Olmstead, and elaborated by Mr. Thomas Wisedell under Mr. Olmstead's supervision. [Illustration: PLATE XVIII DAIMIO'S GARDEN, KANAZAWA] Transcriber's Note: Small capitals have been rendered in full capitals. A number of minor spelling errors have been corrected without note. 
49302	----	from The Internet Archive. Transcribers Note Text emphasis denoted as _Italics._ SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP H. S. COE Assistant, Office of Forage Crop Investigations [Illustration] FARMERS' BULLETIN 797 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, chief Washington, D. C. April, 1917 THE cultivation of sweet clover should be preceded by a through knowledge of the requirements for obtaining a stand. The white species comprises a very large percentage of the present acreage of sweet clover. Annual yellow sweet clover should be sown in no portion of the United States except the South and Southwest, and then only as a cover of green-manure crop. Sweet clover is being cultivated in practically every State in the Union. At the present time the largest acreage is found in The western North-Central States and in the Mountain States. Sweet clover is adapted to a wider range of climatic conditions than any of the true clovers, and possibly alfalfa. Sweet clover will grow on practically all soil types to be found in this country, provided the soil is not acid and is well inoculated. Sweet clover is more drought resistant than alfalfa or red clover. It is quite resistant to alkali. The lime requirement of sweet clover is as high as that of red clover or alfalfa. Maximum growth is obtained only on soils that are not acid. Sweet clover usually will respond to applications of fertilizers and manure. In the move humid sections of the country good stands usually are obtained by seeding with a nurse crop. Only seed which germinates 75 per cent or more should be sown in the spring of the year unless the rate of seeding is increased to make up for poor germination. Sweet clover does best when seeded on a well-firmed seed bed which has only sufficient loose soil on the surface to cover the seed. It is very essential that inoculation be provided in some form if success is to be expected. The large number of failures in obtaining a stand of sweet clover are due primarily to acid soils, lack of inoculation, and seed which germinates poorly. Spring seedings in general are satisfactory, but in the South excellent stands are obtained from midwinter seedings also Fall seedings are usually successful south of the latitude of southern Ohio. A Farmers' Bulletin (No. 820) on the utilization of sweet clover for pasture, hay, and as a green-manure is about to be issued. SWEET CLOVER: GROWING THE CROP. CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 3 Species of sweet clover 4 White sweet clover 5 Biennial yellow sweet clover 8 Annual yellow sweet clover 9 Other species of sweet clover 9 History 10 Distribution 10 Climatic adaptations 12 Requirements for obtaining a stand 12 Soils suitable for sweet clover 13 Resistance to alkali 13 Need of lime on acid soils 14 Fertilizers 17 Use of a nurse crop 18 Choice of seed 19 Preparation of the seed bed 21 Seeding 22 Hulled sweet-clover seed 23 Unhulled sweet-clover seed 24 Rate of seeding 25 Methods of seeding 25 Inoculation 27 The soil-transfer method 28 The pure-culture method 29 Treatment of the stand 30 Treatment the first season 30 Treatment the second season 32 Sweet clover in mixtures 32 Eradication of sweet clover 33 INTRODUCTION. Sweet clover is an important forage crop in many regions. Although one of the oldest of known plants, not until very recently has it been considered seriously as a forage plant in this country. The principal causes for not utilizing this crop were its aggressiveness on uncultivated land in many localities, the tendency of the stems to become woody as they mature, and the refusal of stock to eat sweet clover before they had become accustomed to the bitter taste. Another reason was the fact that until recently red clover could be grown in the eastern half of the United States without difficulty. In northern Kentucky the continuous growing of tobacco or of tobacco and wheat impoverished the soil to such an extent that crops no longer could be grown successfully. Upon the abandoned farms in this section sweet clover was introduced as a honey plant. Owing to the remarkable yields of tobacco that were obtained on such farms after sweet clover had been grown for a few years the acreage of this plant increased very rapidly. For a number of years sweet clover has been grown on the Selma chalk (rotten-limestone) soils of Alabama and Mississippi as a soil-improving crop. At the present time it is being cultivated in practically every State, and the acreage is increasing very rapidly. After it had been demonstrated that sweet clover would grow successfully on soils too depleted for other crops, many experiments were conducted to determine its value as forage. It was found that it was not only a valuable soil-improving crop, but that it made an excellent pasture and hay plant, quite palatable and rich in protein. White sweet clover comprises a very large percentage of the acreage seeded to sweet clover at the present time. On this account this species ordinarily is referred to simply as "sweat clover." The yellow biennial species is designated as yellow sweet clover, and the annual yellow species as bitter clover, sour clover, or annual yellow sweet clover. This usage has been adopted in this bulletin. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--Seeds and seed pods of three species of Melilotus and seeds of alfalfa: 1. White sweet clover; 2, biennial yellow sweet clover; 3, annual yellow sweet clover, or sour clover; 4, alfalfa. The small figures in each drawing show the natural size of the seed. The venation and shape of the seed pods are important characters in distinguishing the different species of sweet clover.] The cultivation of sweet clover should be preceded by a thorough understanding of the requirements for obtaining a stand. It can not be grown successfully on all soils, as many assume from seeing it growing in uncultivated places. Neither will it thrive in many sections of the country without careful preparation of the seed bed. Sweet clover will not grow successfully in acid soils unless lime is applied, but it will make a good growth in soils too low in humus to grow red clover, provided the soil is neutral or alkaline. Sweet clover is an excellent plant to precede alfalfa, as the large roots do much toward breaking up and aerating the subsoil. Contrary to the belief of many, it will not inoculate the soil for alfalfa unless inoculation is applied to the sweet clover. If, however, the soil contains but few inoculating germs, the sweet clover will serve as a medium to inoculate it thoroughly. SPECIES OF SWEET CLOVER. A number of species of sweet clover are found throughout the world, and most of them are native to temperate Europe and Asia as far east as Tibet. White sweet clover,[1] yellow biennial sweet clover,[2] and yellow annual sweet clover[3] are the only species which have given sufficient promise as forage and green-manure crops in this country to warrant growing them under cultivation. [1] _Melilotus alba_ Dear. [2] _Melilotus officinalis_ (L.) Lam. [3] _Melilotus indica_ (L.) All. It is difficult for the average person to distinguish between the different species of sweet clover from an examination of the seeds or seed pods only. The differences are indicated in figure 1. Where there is a question as to the identity of a sample of seed it should be sent to a State agricultural experiment station or to one of the seed laboratories of the United States Department of Agriculture for identification. WHITE SWEET CLOVER. White sweet clover (fig. 2) is ordinarily referred to as melilotus or meliot in the South and merely as sweet clover in other portions of the country. When soil conditions are favorable for germination, sweet-clover seedlings will appear from one to two weeks after seeding. On account of the biennial nature of the plants, they do not seem to make much growth above ground the first month or six weeks after germination, but during this time they are developing root systems rapidly and thus becoming established, so to be able to withstand adverse conditions. Plants which have made no more than 2 inches of top growth very often have produced roots 6 inches or more in length (fig. 3). The tap-root continues to develop rapidly throughout the growing season the first year, and by autumn often reaches a length of 24 to 36 inches and a diameter of three-fourths to 1 inch at the crown. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--A branch of white sweet clover, showing the long, loose racemes which bear white flowers.] After the root system becomes established the plants produce an upright, branching, leafy growth, which under ideal growing conditions may reach a height of 48 inches the first season, but more often 18 to 30 inches. A large quantity of reserve food is stored in the tap-root the first season; this reserve food enables the plants to make a rapid and vigorous growth early the following spring. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--White sweet-clover plants collected from a plat six weeks from the date of seeding. An extensive root system such as is shown here is often developed before much growth is made above ground.] Toward the end of the growing season of the first year a number of buds, which serve to produce the second year's growth (fig. 4), are formed on the crowns of the plants. After these buds are formed the plants may be clipped quite close to the ground, as the buds are not developed until the plants have made sufficient growth to live through the winter. During the second season sweet clover makes a rapid, erect, stemmy, branching growth from 5 to 10 feet in height, the plants producing only a moderate number of leaves, which drop as the seed matures. A large number of loose racemes bearing white flowers (see fig. 2) are produced during the flowering period, which usually lasts from three to five weeks. Before sweet clover has made a growth of 12 to 18 inches it closely resembles alfalfa. The plants may be distinguished from alfalfa by the absence of pubescence on the under side of the leaves and by their bitter taste. When they are in bloom they may be identified easily by their long, loose racemes of white flowers and their open, coarse growth. Unlike alfalfa, the seeds are ordinarily found singly in the pods. Two seeds may occasionally be found, and very rarely three, in a single pod. STRAINS OF WHITE SWEET CLOVER. A number of different strains of white sweet clover are to be found in the average field, but most of them are not as marked or as conspicuous as the different strains of red clover. The principal differences between strains of sweet clover are in leafiness, habit of growth, and date of blooming. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Buds produced on the crown of a sweet-clover plant at the end of the first season's growth. These buds will produce the first crop the second season.] Occasional plants are especially heavy seed producers and bear many pods containing more than one seed. Other plants bloom earlier than the average date for white sweet clover, and it may be possible by selecting such strains to find one which matures early enough to produce two crops a season at high altitudes in the northern sections of the United States. Fields of an exceptionally early blooming strain were found in Illinois, Iowa, and North Dakota in the summer of 1916. The plants were different in type of growth from the ordinary white sweet clover, being most conspicuous from the fact that they were in bloom during the first week of June, which is at least three weeks earlier than the ordinary species should bloom in these localities. [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Root of white sweet clover (on the left) and of biennial yellow sweet clover (on the right). These roots were collected on October 28, 1915, at Arlington, Va., from adjacent plats seeded to cuts and sweet clover on April 10, 1915. Note the difference in the size of the roots. Tubercles are present on the right-hand side of each root.] An annual white-flowered sweet clover was found in several localities in the fall of 1916. The seed which produced these plants was grown in Alabama. These plants resembled _Melilotus alba_ in most respects except that they were strictly annual. They flowered and matured seed abundantly in South Dakota and North Dakota. It has not been determined whether this is a distinct species or merely an annual strain of the species mentioned. BIENNIAL YELLOW SWEET CLOVER. Biennial yellow sweet clover ordinarily is referred to in the seed trade and among farmers in regions where it is grown simply as yellow sweet clover. The plants of this species are somewhat more decumbent the first year, and ordinarily with more deeply notched leaves than the white-flowering species. Yellow sweet clover usually grows from 3 to 5 feet in height. This plant blooms from 10 to 14 days earlier than the white species, and for this reason it is advisable to sow seed of both plants when they are to be used for bee pasturage. On account of the finer stems of yellow sweet clover it is preferred in some localities for hay, but since it does not produce as much forage as white sweet clover and there is much less demand for the seed, it constitutes only a very small percentage of the total acreage. The much larger root growth of the white species, as illustrated in figure 5, is desirable because of the additional quantity of hummus added to the soil. The seeds of the yellow species may usually be distinguished from those of other species, as some of them are slightly mottled with purple. The shape of the calyx, which is generally present on unhulled seed, and the venation of the seed pods also distinguish it. (See fig, 1.) ANNUAL YELLOW SWEET CLOVER. Annual yellow sweet clover, more commonly known as sour clover or bitter clover, is found chiefly in the South and Southwest. This plant is considered a noxious weed in grain fields throughout the Southwest. It is claimed that the flavor of the seed which is imparted to wheat can not be removed. Bakers decidedly object to this flavor, stating that it injures bread. Sour clover is grown rather extensively as a green-manure crop in orchards in portions of Arizona and southern California and when properly handled in these regions it has given profitable results. As the seed is obtained from the screenings of wheat, it is offered on the market at a very low price. Occasionally it is sold for the yellow biennial sweet clover. Seed of this plant should not be sown in any part of the United States except the extreme South or Southwest, and then only as a green hay manure crop. Where it is desired to plant sweet clover for pasturage or for the biennial white or biennial yellow species should be used. OTHER SPECIES OF SWEET CLOVER. Thirteen species of sweet clover have been tested by the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations to determine their economic value. With the exception of white sweet clover, yellow biennial sweet clover, and yellow annual sweet clover, but four species in the somewhat limited tests have given sufficiently good results to merit special attention, and none have so far proved superior to white sweet clover, which is now extensively grown in many States. A species of Trigonella[4] is often referred to as blue-flowered melilotus or blue-flowered sweet clover. While this plant is closely related to the plants belonging to the genus Melilotus, it does not belong to this genus and therefore should not be called sweet clover. It is an erect, quite leafy, very fragrant annual, which produces a fair growth. It may prove of value as a green-manure crop or as a catch crop under certain conditions, but at the present time it is not to be recommended where sweet clover can be grown successfully. In most tests Trigonella has produced less forage than the better species of sweet clover. [4] _Trigonella caerulea_. HISTORY. Sweet clover has been used as a honey plant and for forage and green-manure for more than 2,000 years in the Mediterranean region, although it has never been considered of much importance. The first authentic report of sweet clover in the United States was in 1739, when Gronovius stated in his Flora Virginica that it was collected by Clayton. Cutler reported its presence in New England as early as 1785, and Pursh in 1814 stated in his Flora Americæ Septentrionulis that it is found on the gravelly shores of rivers from Pennsylvania to Virginia. Elliott reported the presence of yellow biennial sweet clover in his Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia in 1824, and Beck found the species _Melilotus leucantha_[5] in the Northern States in 1833. [5] Undoubtedly meaning _Melilotus alba_. In 1856 Prof. Tutwiller, of Green Springs Academy, Ala., received a small quantity of white sweet-clover seed from the secretary to the United States consul in Chile. Part of this seed was planted by a young man named Stendwick on his father's plantation on the prairie limestone belt, where it flourished. This plantation later became the property of J. T. Collins who, realizing the value of this plant, sold seed to persons in many States. Not until recently has sweet clover been grown to any extent as a cultivated crop in this country. DISTRIBUTION. While sweet clover is to be found growing in many countries and on all the continents of the world, it is native to temperate Europe and Asia as far east as Tibet. It is grown to a limited extent in England, while in the eastern part of Scotland a small quantity is considered valuable in hay on account of its agreeable odor. The famous Cruyere cheese of Switzerland owes its flavor to yellow sweet clover. In Germany it has given very good results when used as a green-manure, while in parts of Russian Poland and Austria-Hungary it is grown as a green-manure, pasturage, and hay crop on poor soils. This plant is used for forage and as a soil-improving crop in the central provinces of India, while sour clover, commonly referred to as _Melilotus parviflora_, is credited with furnishing 75 per cent of the feed for the cattle of King Island, Tasmania, which produce the best beef and butter sold on the Tasmania market. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Outline map of the United States, showing the localities where sweet clover is grown for forage or for green-manure. Each dot or circle indicates a county where 50 acres or more is grown under cultivation. The solid dots represent white or yellow sweet clover; the circles represent annual yellow sweet clover.] At the present time sweet clover is grown rather extensively as a field crop in the limestone regions of Alabama, Mississippi, and Kentucky, in northern Illinois, and throughout the western North-Central and Mountain States (fig. 6): in fact, it is grown as a cultivated crop to some extent in nearly every State in the Union. Comparatively little sweet-clover seed is sown in the Atlantic Coast States, since there the soils are for the most part acid, and heavy applications of lime will be necessary before sweet clover can be grown successfully. It is questionable whether this plant will ever be of much importance in the South Atlantic States, as cowpeas, soy beans, and crimson clover will make a fair growth on those soils in their present condition. The acreage of sweet clover probably will increase in the New England States, where it should prove of value as pasturage and as a soil-improving crop on soils where red clover no longer can be grown. Sweet clover grows abundantly in the limestone regions of northwestern New York. A much larger acreage of sweet clover is grown in northern Illinois than in any other of the eastern North-Central States. The conditions in the western North-Central States and in the Mountain States appear to be particularly adapted to this crop. It is in that part of the country that the largest acreage is found, and, with the exception of the limestone regions of the South, that the least difficulty is experienced in obtaining a stand. In those parts of the Mountain and Pacific Coast States, especially Utah, where it has not been tested carefully or where red clover or alfalfa can be grown successfully, sweet clover is looked upon as a weed. It may rightly be considered a weed in the irrigated regions of the West and Northwest, where it grows luxuriantly on ditch Banks. The dissemination of this plant in all parts of the country has been hastened by beekeepers who have seeded it in waste places for the production of honey. CLIMATIC ADAPTATIONS. Sweet clover is adapted to a wider range of climatic conditions than any of the true clovers and possibly alfalfa; in fact, it may be grown successfully in any portion of the United States except, perhaps, Florida, and in Florida trials with biennial yellow sweet clover, annual sweet clover, and _Melilotus suaveolens_ have been successful. Apparently neither the high temperatures of the South nor the cold winters of the North severely affect the plants, provided there is sufficient moisture in the soil. Comparatively little winterkilling is experienced in Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, and North Dakota when the seed is sown in close drills or broadcasted. Although approximately 50 per cent of the sweet clover seeded in rows 3 feet apart at Moccasin, Mont., was killed by the unusually severe winter of 1915-16, no winterkilling was noted in plats seeded in close drills. Sweet clover thrives in the more humid parts of the country, as well as in the semiarid regions where the rainfall is but three-fifths of that required for the normal growth of such crops as red clover and timothy. In the semiarid regions of the West sweet clover has proved to be somewhat more drought resistant than alfalfa. REQUIREMENTS FOR OBTAINING A STAND. The requirements for obtaining a stand of sweet clover are somewhat exacting. It is for this reason that so many failures have been experienced. It must not be assumed, because sweet clover is found growing luxuriantly in many waste places and on uncultivated land, that a stand may be obtained by planting it at any time of the year, in any manner, and under all conditions. Throughout the eastern and southern portions of the country, with the exception of a few regions rich in limestone, much care must be used in the preparation of the seed bed, the selection of seed, and the manner of seeding if success is to be expected. For this reason it is necessary to understand fully the requirements for obtaining and maintaining a successful stand. SOILS SUITABLE FOR SWEET CLOVER. Sweet clover thrives on the adobe and granitic soils of the Pacific coast; upon the gumbo, hardpan, prairie, and sandy soils of the western North-Central States; and upon the heavy clay, loam, limestone, and sandy soils of the South and East. In fact, it has been grown successfully on all the principal soil types of the United States where the soils were not acid and were well inoculated. It grows luxuriantly on the Selma chalk (rotten-limestone) soils of Alabama and upon soils rich in calcium carbonate in many parts of the country where the lack of nitrogen and humus has caused large numbers of farms to be abandoned. The plants thrive on newly exposed heavy clay soils and upon steep embankments where little else will grow. Sweet clover is more tolerant of poor drainage, overflow, and seepage conditions than alfalfa. In irrigated sections, especially where the reservoir system is in use, large bodies of land are likely to become useless for the growth of alfalfa because of the rising of the water table. On such areas sweet clover will make a vigorous growth. However, maximum growth is to be expected only on well-drained soil. Sweet clover will do well on many soils which are not fertile enough to grow red clover or alfalfa, and it is on these soils that it will prove most valuable. Like many other plants, it makes its best growth on fertile soils rich in calcium carbonate, although it will make sufficient growth on poor soils which are not acid to warrant planting it on them. Many hilly pastures may profitably be seeded to sweet clover. It will not only make a valuable addition to the forage of these pastures but will improve the soil so that grasses will grow more abundantly. Some of the best pastures in the Middle West are composed of bluegrass, timothy, and sweet clover. RESISTANCE TO ALKALI. Sweet clover grows successfully on soils in the West which apparently are too alkaline for grains or alfalfa. The Wyoming Agricultural Experiment Station reports that it has obtained good yields of sweet clover on seepage land which is so strongly alkaline that no other plants except some of the native grasses will survive, while the California Agricultural Experiment Station found that sweet clover will withstand alkali to a remarkable degree. Prof. F. S. Harris, agronomist of the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station at Logan, claims that it is one of the most alkali-resistant crops grown in Utah, and that in and 1913 and 1914 quite an industry developed in some parts of that State in growing sweet clover for hay and seed on land too alkaline for other crops. In reply to a circular letter on the culture of sweet clover, approximately 100 county agents and extensive growers of this crop located in many parts of the West state that this plant is one of the most alkali-resistant plants grown in their respective districts. In Crook County, Oreg., a good stand was obtained from April seeding in 1915 on a 20-acre demonstration field of sandy loam bottom land so strongly alkaline from black alkali that only salt grass was growing on it before it was planted to sweet clover. This field pastured from 18 to 28 head of calves, cows, and horses from June 1 to October 1 without being irrigated. Sweet clover generally will grow on soils where salt grass[6] will survive, and it is very much superior to this grass as pasture. After the drainage of water-logged land on which there is a surface accumulation of alkali, it is the common practice in parts of Utah to grow sweet clover for several years before planting alfalfa. It is often stated that alkali land will grow less tolerant crops after sweet clover has been grown on it for a few years. The long roots will open up the subsoil and cause better drainage, thereby affording an excellent means for removing the salts from the soil, as they are readily soluble in water. [6] _Distichlis spicata_. NEED OF LIME ON ACID SOILS. Sweet clover, like many other legumes, requires a soil containing an abundance of limestone if a maximum growth is to be expected. Throughout the world it makes a luxuriant growth only on calcareous soils. On the black prairie limestone soils of Alabama and Mississippi it grows luxuriantly, although in this region it is very seldom found on the outcroppings of red clay, which are acid. The distribution corresponds sharply with the line of demarcation between the black prairie soils and other soil types. In some places sweet clover makes a vigorous growth on the Selma chalk (rotten-limestone) soils, while none is to be found on red post-oak clay but a few yards away; yet sweet clover will grow on the red post-oak clay after the soil has received an application of lime. It will thrive on the bald lime-rock spots and rotten-limestone hills of Mississippi, which are so barren that practically no other plants will survive. Thus it appears that lime is essential for the maximum growth of sweet clover in this Region. The reason for the exceptional growth of sweet clover in north-central Kentucky is undoubtedly the fact that these soils contain an abundant supply of limestone. The Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station states that this area is the only portion of the State where sweet clover is being grown with general success without applying lime. Soils on which sweet clover is aggressive are almost invariably alkaline or but slightly acid. This plant is often found in valleys of streams in localities where the soils are supposedly acid, but such streams generally have their origin in limestone areas or flow through limestone regions, and calcium carbonate is thus deposited in these valleys during flood periods with the sedimentary deposits from flood waters. Sweet clover often appears in deep cuts along highways or railroads in localities where the soil is known to be acid and where sweet clover has not previously grown. In many of these cuts the acid soil has been removed and neutral or alkaline subsoil exposed, or limestone has been used in ballasting or road making and the dust has blown on the exposed soil. It is a very common occurrence to find sweet clover making an abundant growth along macadamized roads from which the wind has scattered the finely pulverized limestone. An application of burnt lime or finely ground limestone has made the difference between success and failure in most experiments which have thus far been conducted on decidedly acid soils. (Fig. 7.) A number of sweet-clover experiments were performed on acid soils and on adjacent plats or fields of the same type of soil that had received applications of limestone varying from 1 to 4 tons to the acre. There was a marked difference in the stands obtained and in the growth of the plants on the limed and unlimed areas. In some cases the difference in growth was so marked that the last round of the lime spreader could be distinguished at some distance from the plats. The stands were much heavier on the limed areas and the plants made from two to three times more growth than those on the unlimed plats. Yields of hay were doubled on soils that received only sufficient limestone to neutralize the acids in the surface soil, although the yields were further increased when more limestone was added. Mr. W. E. Watkins, county agent of Allen County, Kans., made counts of the number of plants which winterkilled during the winter of 1914-15 on given areas of limed and unlimed soil. It was found that from 15 to 35 per cent more plants winterkilled on the unlimed soil than on the limed areas. That portion of the unlimed field on which the fewest plants winterkilled was found to have the lowest lime requirement. On the unlimed areas with a low lime requirement 15 per cent more plants winterkilled than on the limed areas; on those with a high lime requirement the increase in winterkilling was 33 per cent. In the fall of 1914 the hay cut from the limed areas exceeded that from the areas with a low lime requirement by 600 pounds per acre and exceeded that from the areas of high lime requirement by 4,000 pounds per acre. In July, 1915, the increase in hay yield on the limed areas over that from the areas with a low and with a high lime requirement was 2,300 and 9,400 pounds per acre, respectively. The area of high lime requirement returned a small yield in 1914 and no hay in 1915. In spite of the fact that sweet clover is as sensitive to soil acidity as red clover or alfalfa, a large percentage of the acreage thus far seeded in the eastern half of the United States has been composed of acid soils, and this soil acidity undoubtedly is responsible for a very large percentage of the failures with sweet clover in this section. Where sweet clover is to be sown on acid soils a sufficient quantity of lime should first be applied to at least neutralize the fields in the soil to a depth of 6 inches. An application of 1 ton of burnt lime or 2 tons of finely ground limestone will usually be sufficient for this purpose. [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Sweet-clover plants, showing the effect of lime upon their growth. The plants at the left represent the average growth on the unlimed portion of a field; the plants at the right show the average growth on the limed part of the same field.] Fields have been noted where sweet clover was making a fair growth on apparently acid soils. Such fields usually are rich in humus or phosphorus and are exceptional cases rather than the rule. Soil types which have slightly acid surface soils and alkaline subsoils will grow sweet clover successfully, provided the acid soil is not more than 6 to 12 inches in depth. FERTILIZERS. Owing to the fact that sweet clover thrives on the barren Selma chalk (rotten-limestone) hills of Alabama and Mississippi and grows abundantly on worn-out, abandoned land in north-central Kentucky, it is often assumed that it will grow on soils too depleted in plant food to produce other crops. These regions represent soils which have become exhausted primarily in nitrogen and humus as the result of continuous cropping with nonleguminous plants. Some of these soils contain sufficient phosphorus and potassium for fair crop production, although this supply may be in such a condition that it will not become available fast enough to supply the needs of most crops. Sweet clover, like all legumes, has the power to extract nitrogen from the atmosphere, and on account of its extensive root system it is able to obtain phosphorus and potassium from a larger area than most plants. The large roots not only add a quantity of humus and nitrogen to the soil but they also open it up to a considerable depth, thus providing better aeration and improving its physical condition. Improved physical condition causes the bacterial flora to increase and thereby indirectly causes a larger quantity of unavailable phosphorus and potassium to be made available for plant use. On soils which are known to be low in phosphorus or potassium an application of fertilizer containing the necessary element should be made when sweet clover is sown without a nurse crop. However, when it is sown with a nurse crop or in the late summer or early fall on grain stubble, the residues left in the soil from fertilizers applied to the nurse crop will, under ordinary conditions, be sufficient for the plants. That sweet clover will respond readily to applications of phosphorus on soils low in this element has been well demonstrated by the farmers of Livingston County, Ill. In this county finely ground rock phosphate was applied to a portion of a number of fields at the rate of 1,500 to 2,000 pounds per acre. The phosphate was thoroughly incorporated with the soil just before seeding oats and sweet clover. In the growth of sweet clover there was a marked difference the following year between the treated and untreated portions of the fields. Those portions of the fields which received an application of phosphate not only contained many more plants on a given area, but the vigor and growth of the plants were most marked. On June 1 the plants on the treated areas were 12 to 15 inches taller than those on the untreated parts of the fields. This difference in the thickness of stand and the height of plants was so striking that the last round of the phosphate spreader was plainly distinguishable. Yields of sweet-clover hay have been increased as much as 2 tons per acre from applications of barnyard manure. Such an increased yield would be equal approximately to 8 tons of green-manure. Some people may consider it poor farm practice to apply manure to such crops as sweet clover, but it is very probable that the cumulative effect of the increased yields of the following crops, especially on soils low in organic matter, will be greater than if the manure is applied to other crops. Heavy applications of manure to the preceding crop should also greatly benefit sweet clover. USE OF A NURSE CROP. If sweet clover is to become an important crop throughout the North-Central States it must necessarily be seeded with grain. Good success has been obtained by seeding sweet clover in the spring on winter grain or with spring grain on soil that was inoculated and not acid. Seed may be broadcasted in the early spring on winter grain when the ground is in a honeycombed condition, or it may be sown later when the ground may be cultivated. A large acreage of sweet clover is sown in the western North-Central States and in Illinois in the spring with oats, barley, or wheat as a nurse crop. Early varieties of oats and spring wheat have given somewhat better results in portions of the Northwest than barley. In Illinois oats are used almost entirely. Only a few fields were noted where flax had been used as a nurse crop, but in these fields it was successful. In wet seasons the sweet clover may make a growth sufficiently large to interfere seriously with harvesting the flax. On this account this combination should be tested thoroughly in an experimental way before being recommended for general field practice. In those sections of the country where the moisture supply is limited, sweet clover should be sown without a nurse crop. Failure to obtain a stand is more likely to occur when the seed is sown with grain than when it is sown alone, because during dry weather, which is likely to occur when the grain is maturing, the supply of moisture in the soil is apt to be insufficient for both crops. When this condition prevails the clover will suffer badly and in some cases be killed. When sweet clover is sown with a nurse crop it is strongly recommended that the grain be seeded at not more than two-thirds the usual rate. This will give the sweet clover a much better chance than when a full seeding is made. When severe droughts occur it may be necessary to cut the grain for hay if the stand is to be saved. CHOICE OF SEED. On account of the low germination of much of the sweet-clover seed offered for sale it is very important that seed be tested for germination before planting. Low germination usually is due to the fact that many of the seeds remain hard after they have been in the germinator or soil for a month or more. The seed coats of hard sweet-clover seeds become permeable to water very slowly, if at all, in storage. The germination of such seeds is greatly increased, however, when they are subjected for a time to alternating temperatures, such as freezing and thawing. It is on this account that unhulled seed, which germinates poorly in the laboratory, often will produce good stands when sown during the winter. When sweet clover is to be sown in the spring it is very important that only hulled seed which germinates 75 per cent or more be sown. As explained later under the heading "Seeding," unhulled seed which has a low germination should be used for seeding only during the winter months, so that there will be sufficient time for the alternating temperatures of winter and early spring to cause it to germinate during favorable weather. Hulled seed usually germinates much better than unhulled seed, as is shown in Table I. Table I.--_Germination and hard seed content of samples of sweet-clover seed, hulled, and unhulled, from different sources._ Average percentage of-- Number of Description. samples. Germination. Hard Seed. --------------- ---------- ------------ ---------- Kind of seed: Hulled 237 53.25 18.7 Unhulled 45 11.8 70.9 Source of seed: Southern 22 14 60 Northern 22 37 43 Imported 28 56 12 Table I shows that northern-grown seed germinates better than northern-grown seed and imported seed better than either. The low germination of the southern-grown seed is probably due to the fact that a very large percentage of it is flailed out and sown in the hull. Northern-grown seed generally is thrashed with either a grain separator or a clover huller. Imported seed always is hulled. In hulling seed the rasps or concaves of the machines scratch the seed coats sufficiently to permit water to penetrate them, so that the germination is greatly increased. Apparently there is no reason why southern-grown seed when it is properly hulled should not germinate as well as northern-grown seed. Since the Ames scarifying machine (fig. 8)[7] has been placed on the market, it is possible to buy scarified seed. This machine is so constructed that the seed is forced through a conveyor, part of which is covered with sandpaper. When the seed comes in contact with the sandpaper it is scratched, so that water will penetrate the seed coats. When this machine is run properly the germination of seed is greatly increased, but when carelessly operated germination may be lessened, as many of the seeds may be broken. [7] This machine was invented by Prof. H. D. Hughes, of the Iowa State College at Ames. A United States patent covering this device has been issued and dedicated to the free use of the public. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Ames hulling and scarifying machine.] The retarded germination of sweet-clover seed may be overcome by soaking it in commercial concentrated sulphuric acid for 20 minutes. It should then be washed quickly, using running water if possible, as sulphuric acid becomes very hot when mixed with small proportions of water. A great deal of water therefore is necessary in order to lessen the danger of burning. The seed should be dried quickly by spreading it out on a floor or canvas, and it should be stirred at intervals. Unhulled seed should never be treated with sulphuric acid. When only a small quantity of sulphuric acid comes in contact with the hulls a very high temperature will result and the seed will be killed. The treatment of seed with sulphuric acid for seeding on a field scale is not to be recommended, in view of the fact that as good or better results may be obtained by using scarified seed. It is very important that seed of the desired species be obtained. Many lots of sweet-clover seed offered for sale on the market consist of mixtures of the yellow and white species, and many samples also are adulterated with alfalfa. Seed which is simply labeled sweet clover should never be purchased, as seed so labeled may be any one of the several varieties offered for sale. It is always best to state the specific kind of seed ordered and then submit a sample to either your State Agricultural experiment Station or one of the seed laboratories of the United States Department of Agriculture[8] for identification before purchasing. [8] Samples of seed may be submitted for analysis or identification to the Seed Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., or to any of the following laboratories maintained through the cooperation of the Department: Branch Seed-Testing Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment Station, Columbia, Mo.; Branch Seed-Testing Laboratory, Agricultural Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, la.; Branch Seed-Testing Laboratory, Oregon Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oreg.; Branch Seed-Testing Laboratory, Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind.; Branch Seed-Testing Laboratory, California Agricultural Station, Berkeley, Cal. The Seed Laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture during the winter of 1915-16 obtained 172 trade samples of sweet-clover seed and, as may be seen from Table II, many of the samples were not true to name. Table II.--_Trade samples received in response to requests for white sweet clover seed._ Key to Columns [A] White sweet clover. [B] Biennial yellow sweet clover. [C] White and biennial yellow sweet clover. [D] Annual yellow sweet clover. Number of Seed when tested Seed labeled-- samples. found to be-- Alfalfa and-- [A] [B] [C] [D] [A] [B] [C] White flowering sweet clover, white sweet clover, or Holhara clover, or _Melilotus alba_. 147 91 10 28 -- 13 1 4 Sweet clover 22 6 4 2 5 5 -- -- Not labeled 3 1 -- -- 2 -- -- -- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- Total 172 98 14 30 7 18 1 4 PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED. Sweet clover requires a well-settled and firm seed bed, with just sufficient loose soil on the surface to permit the seed to be well covered. When the seed is sown in the spring on winter grain the seed bed usually is in good condition. At this season of the year the seed may be sown, so that it will be covered by freezing and thawing weather. It may be sown also when the ground is in condition to cultivate and then may be harrowed or drilled in. When the seed is sown with spring grain the seed bed is not as firm as it should be for the prompt germination and establishment of the young clover plants. If sown in this manner the soil should be worked into a fine condition and firmed as much as possible. It is good practice to roll the ground with a corrugated roller after seeding. Better stands are usually obtained by seeding on fields that have been disked and harrowed than on those that have been plowed. When sweet clover is seeded without a nurse crop it should not be sown on freshly plowed land which has had no opportunity to settle. The land preferably should be plowed several months before the seed is to be sown, and then worked at intervals with soil packers or harrows. Double disking and harrowing just previous to seeding are to be strongly recommended in preference to plowing at this time. When sweet clover is to be seeded in the fall on grain stubble, the ground should be disked and worked into good condition as soon as the grain can be removed. If the seed is sown immediately the field should be rolled after seeding. Fall-plowed ground ordinarily makes an ideal seed bed for spring seeding. Soil which has been previously planted to a cultivated crop, such as corn, is usually put in sufficiently good condition for sweet clover by disking. Good success has been attained by merely broadcasting the seed on sandy soil and scratching it in with a harrow. Such a seed bed appears to be ideal when the seed can be covered sufficiently to insure plenty of moisture. It must be remembered that young sweet-clover plants are not drought resistant and that every precaution should be taken in seasons of drought or on laud which drought affects badly to so prepare the seed bed that the largest quantity of moisture will be conserved. Excellent stands have been obtained at times by double-disking native prairie sod and either covering the seed with a harrow or sowing it with a drill. SEEDING. The proper time to seed sweet clover should be determined by the germination of the seed, the climatic conditions of the region, and the condition of the seed bed at the time of sowing. When growing under natural conditions, seed which has lain in the ground over winter germinates in sufficient quantity during the following spring to produce a stand. It is therefore assumed that since this seed has passed the winter on or in the ground and has produced a good stand the following spring, sweet clover may be sown at any time of the year and a satisfactory stand obtained. Little is thought of the enormous number of seeds which shatter from a single plant and fall on an area not exceeding 5 or 6 feet in diameter. Single plants have produced as many as 350,000 seeds (the approximate number in 1½ pounds), or about 10,000 seeds for each square foot of ground covered. It matters little how many of these seeds germinate in the fall they mature or during the following winter, when the seedlings will be killed by freezing, for there will be enough viable seeds left in the ground to germinate when conditions are favorable in the spring. Conditions are very different when sweet clover is sown on cultivated soil at the rate of 5 to 20 pounds of seed to the acre--25 to 100 seeds to the square foot. When this quantity is sown, it is necessary that it be planted at such a time that the greatest number of seeds will germinate and produce plants. HULLED SWEET-CLOVER SEED. Hulled seed makes up a large percentage of the sweet-clover seed sown. The germination of hulled seed varies considerably, although ordinarily it is higher than that of unhulled seed. Seeding experiments conducted at Arlington, Va., with seed which germinated 80 per cent show clearly that seed which germinates well should not be sown during the winter months in those sections of the country where midwinter thaws are likely to occur, and especially in sections south of the latitude of southern Ohio. In these experiments seed was sown during each month of the winter. Good stands were obtained only on those plats which were sown in the latter part of February and during March and April. At least 75 per cent of the seed sown during November, December, and January germinated on warm days during winter thaws and was killed by later cold weather. Notwithstanding the fact that sweet-clover seedlings will endure fairly low temperatures, seed germinating more than 50 per cent should not be sown during the winter months, and preferably not more than a week previous to the average date for the last severe freeze. No data have been secured on winter seeding in those portions of the United States where open winters do not occur. It is probable that in those sections the winters are sufficiently cold to prevent germination before spring. Good results may be obtained by winter seeding, but as usually no trouble is experienced in those sections in obtaining a stand by seeding as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring, it is strongly recommended that seeding be done with hulled seed, which germinates well at this time of the year. Many excellent stands have been obtained by seeding late in the spring, but in most sections seeding at this time is not as certain to produce a good stand as earlier seeding. Late spring seeding may be preferable when the ground is weedy and the clover is to be seeded without nurse crop. Under these circumstances a crop of weeds may be destroyed before seeding. Very good success has been obtained in the Southern and Central States, and in some of the Northern States, by seeding sweet clover in the late summer or early autumn. When there is sufficient moisture in the soil for germination and when good seed is used, better stands have been obtained by seeding about eight weeks before severe frosts are to be expected than from spring sowing. This is particularly true in regions where late spring droughts or severe summer droughts are likely to occur. Seeding at this time may be done after an early crop has been harvested and when weeds are not likely to be troublesome. Plants from fall seeding mature from 10 days to two weeks later the following season than plants from spring sowing of the same year. The later time of maturing is an advantage, in that the plants will be ready to cut during better haying weather. The root growth is not as large from fall seeding as from spring seeding, and therefore not quite as much humus is added to the soil. Late fall seedings are very likely to be injured from heaving on wet clay soils. UNHULLED SWEET-CLOVER SEED. Unhulled sweet-clover seed is sown principally in Kentucky, Alabama, and Mississippi. On the limestone soils of regions, which appear to be naturally adapted to sweet clover, very good results are obtained by using unhulled seed. It is not because southern-grown unhulled seed germinates better than northern-grown unhulled seed that better stands are obtained in the South from it, but it is mainly because southern farmers better understand the somewhat exacting conditions necessary for obtaining a stand with this kind of seed. Unhulled sweet clover contains a large percentage of hard seeds which will not germinate until they have been in the soil for some time and have been subjected to varying temperatures. Seeding experiments have been conducted at Arlington, Va., where unhulled seed which contained 90 per cent of hard seed was sown during each month of the winter. Good stands were obtained on those plats seeded at the rate of 24 pounds (3 pecks) of seed to the acre during December and January, and fair stands on the plats seeded at this rate in February. Later seedings failed to produce a stand. A large percentage of the unhulled seed sown in the South is seeded during January and the first part of February. Good stands are seldom obtained from unhulled seed south of the latitude of Washington, D. C., when the seed is sown later than the middle of February. The use of unhulled seed has usually been attended with failure in the northern portion of the United States, although occasionally good stands have been obtained the following spring from late fall seeding. This failure is in part due to the fact that the seed has been sown in the spring and at a tine when only seed germinating well should be used. When unhulled seed is to be sown north of the latitude of Washington, D. C., it should be sown not later than February 15, and preferably earlier. Observations show that fairly good stands may be obtained by seeding during the winter, but care should be taken not to sow seed earlier than necessary on land which is subject to washing. Farmers should have no trouble in purchasing hulled seed, and therefore it is recommended that only hulled seed which germinates well be sown. RATE OF SEEDING. The rate at which sweet clover should be seeded varies with the germination of the seed, the condition of the seed bed, the climatic conditions of the region, and the method of seeding. Throughout the humid sections of the eastern United States sweet clover ordinarily is seeded at the rate of 15 to 20 pounds of hulled seed to the acre. From 12 to 15 pounds should be ample where the seed bed is in good condition and the seed germinates 75 per cent or more. In Illinois, the western North-Central States, the Mountain States, and the Pacific Coast States good stands are generally obtained by sowing 10 to 12 pounds of hulled seed to the acre. In eastern Washington it is claimed that from 5 to 8 pounds to the acre are sufficient for good stands. When sweet clover is grown under irrigation, 8 to 10 pounds of hulled seed usually are sufficient, and from 2 to 4 pounds per acre are enough when seeded in rows from 2 to 4 feet apart. Of unhulled seed 3 to 6 pecks (24 to 48 pounds) or 20 pounds of hulled seed are usually sown in the South for pasturage or hay. In any region at least 10 pounds more of the unhulled than of hulled seed should be sown to an acre. Unless annual yellow sweet-clover seed is thoroughly cleaned it should be sown at the rate of 25 to 30 pounds to the acre. METHODS OF SEEDING. The methods used for seeding red clover or alfalfa in any particular region will be suitable for seeding sweet clover. Good results have been obtained by broadcasting the seed on winter grain in the spring when the ground is in a honeycombed condition. Perhaps a better method is to wait until the ground can be worked and then to broadcast and cover the seed with a harrow or to sow it with a drill. Unhulled seed is usually broadcasted, since it is necessary to sow it before the ground is in condition to be worked. Unless the hulls have been rubbed smooth, some difficulty may be experienced in seeding it evenly with a drill. When sweet clover is to be sown with spring-seeded grain or when it is to lie sown without a nurse crop it may be drilled in or sown broadcast and covered with a harrow. Better stands are generally obtained with a smaller quantity of seed when it is sown with the drill than when it is broadcasted on honeycombed ground. When the seed is sown at the time the grain is planted, the grass-seeder attachment of the drill commonly is used. In some sections the end-gate seeder is used almost entirely. When the seed is sown by either of these methods it may be seeded alone or mixed with the grain. When only the clover seed is sown with a drill, the alfalfa and clover seed drills are to be preferred. Sweet-clover seed may be mixed with some inert substance of approximately the same size and weight and sown with an ordinary grain drill. Finely cracked corn, cracked wheat, or coarse bran often are used for this purpose. When one portion of sweet clover is mixed with two portions of a filler find the drill is set to sow one-half bushel of wheat, it will usually sow from 15 to 20 pounds of sweet clover to the acre. As this quantity will vary with the different types of drills, it is necessary to test each drill, so that the seed may be mixed with the filler in such proportions that the desired quantity will be sown. The drill may be tested by blocking it up, so that the geared wheel is off the ground, and this wheel may be turned a sufficient number of times to establish a definite portion of an acre. The seed that runs through can then be weighed and the rate per acre determined. The rate may be determined more accurately by plugging up the grain tubes or by tying a small sack on each tube and pulling the drill for a specific distance over the field to be sown. The jar of the drill will cause it to drop more seed than when it is blocked up and run by hand. It is often desired to seed sweet clover on land which can not be cultivated. When sown on such land it is recommended that unhulled seed or seed that contains a large percentage of hard seed be used and that it be broadcasted during the winter. The subsequent freezing and thawing will cover many of the seeds and cause them to germinate. It is a good plan to scatter in deep gulleys mature plants that have not shattered all their seed. The branches of these plants will help to hold the seed in place until it germinates and the young plants become established. Seed may be scattered on native prairie ground in the late winter, but unless it is trampled into the ground by live stock disappointing results are likely to be obtained at first. Fair results have been secured by planting seed with disk drills on prairie sod after it had been double-disked in the early spring. This method should be used in preference to broadcasting the seed and depending on cattle to trample it in. Mr. George Hummer, of Prairie Point, Miss., reports good success in his locality by simply broadcasting 1 peck of unhulled seed on Bermuda-grass sod not later than January 1. INOCULATION. Excepting soil acidity, lack of inoculation probably is responsible for more failures with sweet clover than any other one cause. When sweet-clover plants are not inoculated they must depend upon the available nitrogen in the soil for their supply, and as the crop is grown for the most part on soils low in nitrogen the plants can not be expected to make more than a small growth. (Fig. 9.) [Illustration: Fig. 9.--White sweet clover at Arlington, Va., showing the effect of inoculation upon their growth. The plants at the left represent the average growth on the inoculated plats; those at the right the average growth on the plats not inoculated. The plats had been previously limed and were seeded on the same date.] Arny and Thatcher, at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, obtained 10 times as much dry matter in the tops and seven times as much in the roots of sweet-clover plants which had been grown on thoroughly inoculated soil as from plants Which had been grown on soil not inoculated. Moreover, the plants grown on the inoculated soil contained 117 pounds more nitrogen to the acre than those grown on the uninoculated soil. Experiments in many other sections of the country, and especially in the northeastern quarter of the United States, where but little sweet clover or alfalfa has thus far been grown, show that inoculation is very essential to success. Ordinarily it is not necessary to inoculate sweet clover when it is to be planted on land where alfalfa, bur-clover, or black medic thrives, because the same strain of inoculating germs inoculates all of these plants. However, when this closer is to be planted on land where none of the plants inoculated by this strain of the organism have been grown, inoculation should be provided. In localities where sweet clover or other plants inoculated by the same strain of bacteria thrive, the early growth has at times been made much more vigorous by inoculating the soil or seed thoroughly. It is not safe to assume that a certain piece of soil is inoculated because any one of the plants inoculated by the same strain of the organism is growing or has been grown on other fields in the same vicinity. Many fields have come under observation where sweet clover was a failure because the plants were not inoculated, when plats or fields of alfalfa growing near by were abundantly inoculated. There are several methods of inoculating sweet clover, any one of which when properly applied should give good results. THE SOIL-TRANSFER METHOD. The soil-transfer method of inoculation consists in scattering over the field to be seeded 200 to 400 pounds to the acre of soil collected from sweet-clover, alfalfa, or bur-clover fields where the healthy plants show an abundance of tubercles on the roots. It is strongly recommended that this soil be scattered on a cloudy day or in the early morning or in the evening and immediately harrowed or disked into the ground, as the sun's rays are very injurious to the inoculating germs. It is a good plan for the person scattering the soil to walk directly in front of the harrow. When this practice is followed little harm can be done by the light. To facilitate even scattering, the soil may be mixed thoroughly with two or three times its weight of other soil, preferably from the field where the sweet clover is to be sown. Soil used for inoculating sweet clover does not necessarily have to be scattered on the land just previous to sowing the seed. It may be scattered a few months or a year in advance of the time the sweet clover is to be seeded and be just as effective as if it were scattered at a later time. In general, where sweet clover is to be seeded in the spring on winter grain, the inoculation should be applied before the grain is sown. Good success has been obtained by drying in a dark place soil containing the inoculating germs, sifting it, and running it through the fertilizer compartment of a grain drill. When this method is employed it is not necessary to use as much soil as when it is scattered broadcast. A comparatively new method which has given successful results calls for dampening each bushel of seed and spreading it on a cloth, paper, or cement floor, where half a gallon of throughly inoculated soil from sweet-clover or alfalfa plants may be sifted over it. Some people prefer to add a trace of glue or sugar to water, so that more of the soil will adhere to the seed, although some soil will remain on the seed if the glue or sugar is not used. When only this quantity of soil is used it should be collected from around the roots of sweet-clover plants which are abundantly inoculated. Such soil may be collected in the fall and kept until spring in a cool, dry, dark place with no injury to the inoculating organisms. Seed treated in this manner should be kept in the dark and should be sown as soon as possible after treating. THE PURE-CULTURE METHOD. The pure-culture method has the advantage of greater case of transportation and freedom from danger of introducing harmful pests upon the farm. Inoculation by pure cultures may be carried out in either of two ways: (1) A bottle of pure culture of the proper kind of bacteria is opened and the culture mixed with a convenient quantity of water; this diluted culture now is mixed thoroughly with a considerable quantity of soil, preferably from the field where the legume is to be sown; the treated soil is then distributed in the same manner as when inoculation is made by the soil-transfer method. (2) A pure culture of the proper kind of bacteria should be applied to the seeds in such a way that they will all be moistened. The seed should then be permitted to dry in a shady or dark place and should be planted as soon as possible after it is dry. Drying may be facilitated by adding dry, sifted soil, preferably from the field where the seed is to be sown. Inoculating organisms very often die within a week after the seed is inoculated. It is highly desirable, therefore that the inoculation be made the day the seed is sown. Inoculated seed never should be dried in the sun. The question is often asked whether it is advisable to inoculate seed with pure-culture method and sow it on honeycombed ground in the spring. No experiments have thus far been completed to determine the advisability of this procedure. Some inoculation would probably result from this practice, because the bacteria on that portion of the seed next to the ground would be protected from the sunlight and would in a short time under ordinary conditions be covered by the freezing and thawing of the soil. While it is hardly possible to obtain as complete inoculation by this practice as by other methods, it is to be preferred to no inoculation. TREATMENT OF THE STAND. The manner in which a stand of sweet clover is handled should depend somewhat upon the method and date of seeding and the purpose for which it is sown. Climatic conditions should also be taken into consideration and the handling of the crop governed accordingly. TREATMENT THE FIRST SEASON. The most serious objection to seeding sweet clover in the spring without a nurse crop is weeds. In many sections of the country seeds will take as much water from the soil and make as much or more shade than a crop of grain. In spite of the fact that sweet clover will withstand more adverse conditions than red clover or alfalfa, a heavy growth of weeds will greatly retard the growth of the plants and in some cases kill most of them. (Fig. 10.) On plats sown in April without a nurse crop at Arlington, Va., it was necessary to mow weeds five times during the summer of 1915 in order to keep them partly checked. Where it is necessary to mow a field so many times the plants are not only checked or killed, but as much time is required for this work as would be necessary to harvest a crop of grain. This trouble may be overcome in part by pasturing the sweet clover the first season, but even then during wet weather it may be necessary to cut the weeds at least once before the plants become well enough established to turn live stock on the field. The plants should at no time be clipped closer than 5 inches from the ground. After a field of sweet clover has become well established, it may be pastured throughout the summer and fall. Close grazing should be avoided during the summer, or the plants may be killed, but they may be pastured fairly close to the ground in the autumn, as it does not appear as necessary to provide a winter covering as is the case with red clover. Close pasturing or clipping late in the fall has had a marked effect on the growth of the plants the following spring on some fields and no apparent effect on the stand and growth of the plants on other fields. A portion of a field in Livingston County, Ill., was clipped close to the ground in the late fall of 1915. On June 1, 1916, the stand was somewhat heavier on the unclipped part of the field. More noticeable than the thickness of the stand was the fact that the plants on the unclipped portion were 8 to 10 inches higher than those on the clipped area. It is reasonable to believe that plants going into the winter with no protection are more likely to be injured than those having some protection. On the other hand, many fields in different parts of the country have been closely clipped or pastured in the late fall with no noticeable injury. Because of the value of the hay or pasturage in the late summer and autumn of the year of seeding, it is strongly recommended that the first year's growth be utilized. If the field be cut for hay it is well to leave a 4-inch or 5-inch stubble, as this will serve to catch drifting snow during the winter, thereby adding to the protection against winterkilling. If the field is not pastured the first season and weeds are not troublesome, a cutting of hay may be made when growth ceases in the fall. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--White sweet-clover plant (at the left), showing the effect of a heavy growth of weeds. Had the weeds not been present the plant at the left should have been larger than the one at the right, as the seed was sown two weeks earlier and the other conditions for growth were ideal. Four-fifths of the plants on the plat which had a heavy growth of weeds were entirely killed.] When sweet clover is seeded with grain, moisture conditions should serve to determine whether the grain should be permitted to ripen or be cut for hay. When untimely droughts appear the plants may be killed if the grain is not cut as early as possible. In the South and in some sections of the Eastern and North-Central States where the soil contains an abundance of limestone and is well inoculated, a cutting of hay may usually be obtained after a grain crop has been harvested. In other sections of the North in only exceptionally favorable weather will more than pasturage be obtained after the grain is cut. TREATMENT THE SECOND SEASON. One of the special advantages of sweet clover is that it produces good pasturage somewhat earlier in the spring than most forage crops. In the North, with the exception of the extreme northern portion of the United States, it will furnish a cutting of hay in June or excellent pasturage until that time and a crop of hay or seed in late summer. In the South two cuttings of hay and a seed crop may be harvested. After maturing seed the plants die. It is a common practice in many sections to pasture the crop until about June 10, when the stock is removed and the plants are permitted to mature seed. If the plants have not been grazed closely they should be clipped at this time, so that the seed crop will ripen more evenly. Sweet clover may be pastured during the entire second season's growth, provided sufficient stock is kept on the field to prevent the growth from becoming woody. If the plants become coarse the pasture may be clipped, leaving an 8-inch stubble, so as to induce a new growth which will be more palatable. If it is desired to have the pasture reseed itself stock should be removed at least eight weeks before heavy frosts are expected, or only sufficient stock should be permitted to remain on the pasture to keep some of the plants in check. SWEET CLOVER IN MIXTURES. Very little sweet clover thus far has been grown in mixtures with other crops. A few farmers have sown red clover and sweet clover together, but such a mixture has no advantage over sweet clover seeded alone for hay, as sweet clover should be cut at least two Weeks before the red clover is ready to harvest. Sweet clover is being seeded to some extent on native prairie sod in the Northwest, where it is claimed it adds greatly to the value of the native grasses for pasturage. A thin seeding of sweet clover is often desired in bluegrass pastures on this account. One of the best pastures in eastern Iowa consists of a mixture of bluegrass, timothy, and sweet clover. The Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station recommends a mixture of Johnson grass and sweet clover. In this mixture the first cutting will consist of almost pure sweet clover, while the second and third cutting's will be a mixture of those plants. A number of southern farmer have had good success in seeding sweet clover on Bermuda-grass sod. The New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station has obtained excellent results from a mixture of Dwarf Essex rape and sweet clover, and also by the addition of soy beans to this mixture. It was found that by seeding 6 pounds of rape and 10 pounds of sweet clover per acre an abundance of nutritious pasturage was produced and that pigs preferred this mixture to alfalfa. When soy beans were added it was seeded at the rate of 1 bushel of soy beans, 6 pounds of Dwarf Essex rape, and 18 pounds of sweet clover. The soy beans were drilled by themselves, and the rape and sweet clover were mixed and seeded with a press drill. Brood sows made a gain of from three-fourths to 1 pound a day during July on this mixture without additional feed and gave unusual evidence of thrift and vigor. [Illustration: Fig. 11.--A cornfield, showing the effect of fall and spring plowing in killing sweet clover that had made but one year's growth. The portion of the field at the left was plowed in the autumn, while that at the right was plowed the following spring, after the plants had started growth. The corn is 4 inches high.] ERADICATION OF SWEET CLOVER. Some farmers hesitate to plant sweet clover on their farms for fear they will have difficulty in eradicating it when the fields are planted to other crops. The results obtained annually by hundreds of farmers are sufficient proof that there is no foundation for such fear; in fact, farmers are experiencing much difficulty in cutting the first crop the second season so high that the plants will not be killed. The new crop of sweet clover, unlike that of red clover and alfalfa, must come from the buds left on the stubble, so when the plants are cut below these buds they will be killed. As sweet clover is a biennial, the plants die as soon as the seed crop is produced. When the first year's growth of sweet clover is to be turned under for green-manure it is recommended that the field be plowed after the plants have made some growth the following spring rather than in the fall of the year of seeding. When the first year's growth is plowed under the same fall many of the plants will not be entirely covered, and these will made a vigorous growth the following spring. When the plowing is delayed until the plants have made some growth the following spring no trouble will be experienced in eradicating them. (Fig. 11.) * * * * * PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO FORAGE CROPS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Cowpeas. (Farmers' Bulletin 318.) Alfalfa. (Farmers' Bulletin 339.) Soy Beans. (Farmers' Bulletin 372.) Red Clover. (Farmers' Bulletin 455.) Alfalfa Seed Production. (Farmers' Bulletin 495.) Forage Crops for the Cotton Region. (Farmers' Bulletin 509. ) Vetches. (Farmers' Bulletin 515.) Vetch Growing In the South Atlantic States. (Farmers' Bulletin 529.) Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop. (Farmers' Bulletin 550.) Crimson Clover: Seed Production. (Farmers' Bulletin 646.) The Field Pen as a Forage Crop. (Farmers' Bulletin 690.) Bur Clover. (Farmers' Bulletin 693.) Button Clover. (Farmers' Bulletin 730.) The Clover leafhopper and Its Control in the Central States. (Farmers' Bulletin 737.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring. (Farmers' Bulletin 278.) Price, 5 cents. Lespedeza, or Japan clover. (Farmers' Bulletin 441.) Price, 5 cents. Crimson Clover: Utilization. (Farmers' Bulletin 579.) Price, 5 cents. Alfalfa Production: Pollination Studies. (Department Bulletin 75.) Price, 5 cents. Red-Clover Seed Production: Pollination Studies. (Department Bulletin 289.) Price, 5 cents. Variegated Alfalfa. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 169.) Price, 10 cents. Leguminous Crops for Hawaii. (Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 23.) Price, 10 cents. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 * * * * * Transcribers Note All illustrations moved to avoid splitting paragraphs. Sweet clover and sweet-clover variants retained. 
59318	----	+----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | United States Department of Agriculture | | Bureau of Biological Survey | | ------- | | Wildlife Research and Management Leaflet BS-54 | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Washington, D. C. Rev., December 1936 | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ RODENT CONTROL AIDED BY EMERGENCY CONSERVATION WORK By Stanley P. Young, Chief, Division of Game Management Contents Page Need for rodent control 1 Federal, State, and local cooperation 2 Training of E.C.W. crews 2 Timeliness of emergency aid 3 Forest and forage protection 3 Aid in erosion control 4 Examples of benefits derived 4 Safeguarding harmless species 5 Control work illustrated 6 Prairie dogs 7 Ground squirrels 13 Pocket gophers 15 Kangaroo rats 20 Rabbits and hares 25 Porcupines 27 A typical E.C.W. crew 30 Need for Rodent Control The Emergency Conservation Work Program has been of inestimable value in the control of prairie dogs, ground squirrels, pocket gophers, kangaroo rats, rabbits, and porcupines. The citizens of the West have been forced to carry on campaigns for the control of these rodents since the settlers first staked out claims on the prairies. To the agricultural interests of the West the control of rodents is as vital as is the proper spraying of trees throughout the East to prevent damage by insects. These small mammals cover the western ranges by countless thousands, and control is necessary if crops are to be grown. Rodent control is nothing new. Records indicate that as early as 1808, strychnine was shipped by boat around Cape Horn to the Santa Barbara Mission, Calif., in order that the early settlers might kill off the ground squirrels. A constant fight has been waged ever, since, but unfortunately, while the landowners were willing to finance the killing of squirrels on their own holdings, the Federal Government provided inadequate funds to take care of the vast areas of public domain, national forests, Indian reservations, and other Federal holdings. Federal, State, and Local Cooperation When the Emergency Conservation Work Program came into being, the Forest Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Bureau of Reclamation, the Division of Grazing, and the Bureau of Biological Survey took the opportunity to treat a vast acreage that would have been treated years ago had funds permitted. During the three fiscal years 1934 to 1936 a total of almost 20,000,000 acres had been covered by E.C.W. for the control of these various rodent pests. On the statute books of several Western States rodent-control laws provide that landowners may establish rodent-control districts wherein all lands are treated simultaneously by paid crews working under the supervision of the Biological Survey. Never before the E.C.W. program were there adequate Federal funds to make these laws effective by taking proper care of infested public lands adjacent to private holdings. The most concrete proof of the necessity of rodent control is found in the amount of money expended by private individuals throughout the West for this purpose. The Federal Government, while owning as much as 60 percent of the land in many of the Western States, contributes only about 25 percent of the total cost of rodent-control operations. During the fiscal year 1936, States, counties, and private individuals expended $665,785 for the purpose, while the Biological Survey was able to expend only $226,623 from regular appropriations. The E.C.W. program afforded the first opportunity of somewhere near meeting the Federal Government's obligations to the citizens of the West in the matter of adequately controlling the rodent pests that breed and range on public lands and from these strongholds infest and reinfest adjacent private holdings. Training of E.C.W. Crews Rodent control is one of the most popular projects with E.C.W. enrollees themselves as well as with the local people benefited. In many cases, crew foremen supplied by the Survey took boys who would not work satisfactorily on any other type of project and made real hands of them on rodent-control crews. The boys liked to work in these crews, as it afforded them opportunity to become acquainted not only with methods of rodent control but with the various habits of wildlife as well. In order to employ proper methods and place all possible safeguards around poisoning operations for the protection of beneficial and harmless species, the Biological Survey has insisted upon approving the appointments of all men employed on the supervision of rodent-control work for its various cooperating agencies. This is for the reason that when poisoning campaigns are properly handled and carefully supervised, there is little danger of the accidental poisoning of other animals. The records indicate that there have been practically no cases of destruction of other forms of life through the E.C.W. rodent-control program. Naturally, the supervisors not only must know rodent control but also must be acquainted with the habits and status of wildlife in general, and in handling the crews they have imparted knowledge to the beys that will be of permanent benefit to them and to the Nation. Educational programs were provided as regularly as possible, in order to tell the C.C.C. enrollees of various wildlife problems. The entire personnel of E.C.W. camps were shown films depicting the work of beavers, showing measures for the protection of elk, deer, and other big-game animals, and portraying the need of sane, sensible conservation methods, in order that the remnants of our fast-vanishing forms of valuable wildlife might be preserved. Mimeographed leaflets on wildlife management studies were made up by district agents of the Survey for the boys in order that they might be given as broad instructions as possible in the protection and preservation of species that are an asset rather than a liability to man's interest. It has been the attempt of the Biological Survey to make the rodent-control project a field laboratory for the education of the enrollees in natural history and wildlife management, and the popularity of the project among the boys attests to the wisdom of this course. In many camps more applications for places on rodent-control crews were received than there were places to fill. Timeliness of Emergency Aid Fortunately, the E.C.W. program came at the most opportune time. The extreme drought throughout the west had forced rodents from the open lands into adjacent irrigated valleys and mountain meadows, where they became especially objectionable in their competition with livestock for the available forage. Livestock and rodents together, during dry periods, have in many places almost entirely denuded the surface soil of its vegetation. This has caused the beginning of sheet erosion in areas where there would still be ample forage for livestock had it not been for the excessive numbers of rodents. On many areas, grazing by livestock and rodents combined has practically eliminated the native grasses, and these are now being replaced with weeds and poisonous plants. Damage in some instances has amounted to at least 75 percent of the available forage, and the average loss has probably been approximately 25 percent. On some of the Indian reservations of the Southwest, the condition has been pitiful. On the Navajo Reservation, in particular, the Indians have carried on a losing fight against drought and rodents. It has often been necessary for them to replant their corn three and four times a season, since kangaroo rats and other native rodents dig up the kernels as rapidly as they are planted. Prior to the spring of 1936, there had been four years of drought, and this, coupled with rodent damage, had reduced corn production to the point where the Indians had barely enough for the spring seeding. All were clamoring for aid, and in order to save their last crop of corn it was necessary to detail a foreman with four or five E.C.W. Indians to go from farm to farm and conduct rodent-control operations. Forest and Forage Protection The Forest Service is endeavoring to carry on a reforestation program throughout much of the cut-over area in the Lake States and the Pacific Northwest. One of the chief problems to successful reforestation is the control of rodents, particularly the snowshoe hare. In the Olympic Forest in Washington, the snowshoe hare has destroyed as much as 40 percent and damaged 70 percent of the Douglas fir seedlings. In Michigan and Wisconsin, it was necessary to carry on extensive rodent-control operations to permit the seedlings to survive. Much of this work would never have been possible but for E.C.W. help. In the open area, jack rabbits have become a serious pest. The Biological Survey, in 1934, received a petition bearing the signatures of more than 8,000 individuals of eastern Colorado, requesting Government aid in killing jack rabbits, which were ravaging the meager stocks of forage left after drought and wind had taken their toll. The Forest Service recognized that rodent control would be essential if the Plains Shelterbelt program of planting trees from the Canadian border to Texas was to be effective, and in 1935 approximately one-tenth of its entire appropriation for the program was expended for rodent control under the supervision of the Biological Survey. Crews patrolled the planted areas constantly to prevent the gnawing of the seedlings by jack rabbits and pocket gophers. Aid in Erosion Control The permanent benefits accruing from the E.C.W. rodent-control program have been enormous from the standpoint of erosion control alone. An associate range examiner of the Forest Service has the following to say regarding the effect of rodents on erosion in the Boise watershed of Idaho: "Rodents, numerous and spreading over nearly 80 percent of the Boise watershed, have undoubtedly been responsible for no small part of the present erosion. Wholly dependent upon the herbaceous plants for their food supply, their tremendous numbers, along with over-grazing by livestock and unfavorable climate, have been an important contributing factor in depleting this cover, and thus have greatly reduced the protection afforded the soil and subjected it the more to increased sheet erosion. Even light rains on rodent-infested areas are likely to start cutting, which may develop into destructive gully erosion because of the almost immediate accumulation of run-offs in the myriads of burrows and channels which these animals construct just under the surface of the soil." The control of rodents is vital to the successful operation of reclamation projects in the western third of the United States. Rodents, particularly pocket gophers, find the banks of irrigation canals an ideal location for their burrows and runways. These subterranean passageways frequently are the cause of serious breaks in canals, through which the flow of irrigation water is diverted and wasted to flood adjacent lands, destroying valuable crops, and indirectly ruining others by causing delays in delivery of water. Through the E.C.W. program, C.C.C. crews working under the direction of experienced foremen trained by the Biological Survey have greatly reduced this menace. In the past year alone half a million acres of canal banks and contiguous lands were treated by C.C.C. rodent-control crews with a thoroughness that will be of lasting benefit to the nation's reclamation projects. Examples of Benefits Derived A few concrete examples will illustrate the great good that has resulted from the E.C.W. rodent-control program. A group of farmers living at Springfield, Idaho, suggested to the camp superintendent there that the jack rabbit control work done by the E.C.W. crew during the summer of 1935 might pay the cost of the camp. It is estimated that not less than 600,000 rabbits were killed by this crew on public lands adjacent to farming areas between American Falls and Moreland, Idaho. The work afforded protection to not less than half a million dollars worth of cultivated crops and to more than 75,000 acres of grazing lands. The control work carried on by an E.C.W. crew near Weber Lake, Calif., in 1933 has been responsible for a 50 percent comeback of the grass on a large mountain meadow, which had been made a dust heap because of pocket gopher workings. The pocket gophers had honeycombed the surface of the ground, and sheep had trampled out most of the grass, while livestock grazing had been reduced to a negligible figure. The restoration in two years was due primarily to the elimination of the pocket gophers. To control prairie dogs in Oklahoma, an area, of 47,000 acres in Pawnee, Noble, and Kay Counties was treated through the medium of the E.C.W. The Indian lands here are interspersed with private lands, and the landowners were unable to make any progress in a general clean up because there were insufficient Federal funds to treat the Indian lands until the E.C.W. project afforded opportunity to carry on a systematic campaign over the entire area. A good piece of work was accomplished, and this, in conjunction with water developments, made the grass so much better over these old prairie dog towns in the spring of 1935 that the Indian Service officials at Pawnee received an increased rental of 25 cents an acre on their grazing lands. On areas where they received 50 cents an acre in 1934, they received 75 cents in 1935, a direct increase in receipts to the Federal Treasury. The permanent benefit accruing to the Indians from E.C.W. rodent control is summed up as follows by an Agricultural Extension agent of the Indian Service, at Anadarko, Oklahoma: "No little stress can be placed upon the financial value of the rodent-control project to the Indians. The Indian enrollees received the labor benefit on both Indian and deeded land throughout the reservation but still greater than the temporary labor relief, the Indian has received a lasting increase in the financial rental of his land. Due to such heavy prairie dog infestation of the allotted land it had become necessary to reduce the rental value of the grass land infested. Now that the prairie dogs have been controlled the rental value will be increased by approximately 10 cents or more per acre because the pastures will regrass and the carrying capacity will be increased. In comparing this increase in rental value with the cost of controlling the prairie dogs, the Indians will reap the financial benefit of the Government expenditures in two or three years. Therefore, this project has certainly been of utmost value to the reservation and the Extension Division in helping the Indian to help himself." Safeguarding Harmless Species Some persons uninformed as to the need for rodent control and the methods followed by the Biological Survey in carrying on the work have stated that control by use of poison and C.C.C. workers endangers the existence of other forms of wildlife. This, however, is not the case. The Biological Survey has studied rodent-control methods for more than twenty years and in this period it has developed the most scientific and selective poisons possible. Scientific investigations conducted by the Bureau are bringing increasing knowledge of the habits of economically injurious species and of their physiological reaction to various baits. This has made it possible to use more and more specific control methods and so to select, prepare, and expose poison baits as not seriously to endanger animals other than those for which the baits are intended. When these scientific methods are carried out under direct supervision of trained personnel, the total number of beneficial species destroyed is negligible. The Biological Survey is a conservation organization and will undertake no work that will be detrimental to any species of animal not interfering too greatly with the interests of man. Those conversant with actual conditions in the range States realize that if agriculture is to survive, the control of injurious rodents is as essential as is control of the corn borer, the chinch bug, the boll weevil, the grasshopper, the coddling moth, and numerous other agricultural pests. The Survey insists that in conducting work of this sort, the most careful supervision by trained technicians must be given. All cooperating agencies recognize the necessity for such supervision, and as a result a most worth-while program has been carried on during the past three fiscal years. The Biological Survey has entered into written cooperative understandings with the various governmental agencies under which rodent-control activities have been conducted. These agreements place the responsibility for technically supervising all rodent-control activities in the hands of the Bureau, leaving the cooperating agencies responsible for administration. Control Work Illustrated The illustrations on the following pages tell better than would volumes of written words, the story of rodent damage and of cooperative work to reduce this damage. PRAIRIE DOGS Four years experimental study in northern Arizona showed that prairie dogs destroy 60 percent of the wheat grass, 99 percent of the dropseed, and 83 percent of the grama grass, or 80 percent of the total potential annual production of forage. The possible destruction of four-fifths of the forage, or even a far smaller proportion, is serious enough at any time, but in periods of drought it is likely to be calamitous. The following pictures show typical prairie dog infestation. [Illustration] Prairie dog mounds on abandoned Indian farm, Southern Navajo Reservation, Arizona. [Illustration] Area practically denuded of grass by prairie dog--Wescalero Indian Reservation, New Mexico. [Illustration] Dogs on leash and tin cans rattling in the wind are some of the primitive methods employed by Indians in futile attempt to save crops from ravages of prairie dogs in the Southwest. [Illustration] [Illustration] Indian cornfield totally destroyed by prairie dogs. [Illustration] Cotton and corn fields damaged by prairie dogs in northwest Texas. [Illustration] [Illustration] Side of basin denuded by prairie dogs--devastation being rapidly completed by erosion. Cochetopa Forest, Colorado. [Illustration] Prairie dogs prepare an ideal condition for the start of sheet erosion on hillsides by denudation of vegetative cover. Note lack of vegetation. Erosion once started is accelerated by other factors as shown on page 11. [Illustration] [Illustration] Overgrazing, wind, and flood-- [Illustration] resulting in gullies and arroyos. [Illustration] [Illustration: Interpreter explaining to Indian farmer in Arizona how to expose poisoned grain. The Indian, at the left, stated that he picked up 180 dead prairie dogs over an area estimated at about 200 acres around his 48 acre farm.] GROUND SQUIRRELS [Illustration: Ground squirrel damage. Semidesert type country. Note squirrel at mouth of burrow.] [Illustration: E.C.W. ground squirrel control crew--Payette National Forest, Idaho.] [Illustration: E.C.W. crew at work on Umatilla National Forest, Washington.] [Illustration] Ground squirrel burrows become waterways during a rain and are the beginning of this type of erosion. [Illustration] Papago Indian Reservation, Arizona. POCKET GOPHERS [Illustration: Typical mountain range land, heavily infested with pocket gophers--Davis Lake, Oregon--before treatment.] [Illustration: Same area one year later after pocket gophers were brought under control and native grasses had had a chance to reseed.] [Illustration: Farm land infestation--Texas. Mounds represent pocket gopher workings.] [Illustration: Mountain meadow in Utah. Picture taken just after snow had melted in spring. Ridges of dirt show extent of pocket gopher operations under snow in winter.] [Illustration: Pocket gopher infestation--Louisiana.] [Illustration: Break in terrace caused by pocket gophers burrowing through embankment.] [Illustration: Pocket gopher infestation along highway.] [Illustration: Flood water starting through a pocket gopher burrow passed under a cement highway,--] [Illustration: Flooded the barrow pit on the opposite side of road, and poured into farmer's field, leaving a deep wash as a monument.] [Illustration: Damage starting from pocket gopher hole in irrigation canal bank--] [Illustration: Soon results in bad breaks causing expensive repairs and loss to crops through failure of irrigation water.--] [Illustration: And is often responsible for start of gullies.] KANGAROO RATS Kangaroo rats abound on millions of acres of desert and semidesert range and farm lands. On ranges that have been overgrazed, kangaroo rats must be controlled before reseeding can be accomplished, as they gather and store practically all of the seed within a radius of 100 yards from their burrows. [Illustration: Close-up of typical kangaroo rat den.] [Illustration: Showing plot protected from both livestock and kangaroo rats.] [Illustration: Plot showing grazing by kangaroo rats--livestock being excluded.] [Illustration: Area on left of fence subject to grazing by both livestock and kangaroo rats. On right of fence shows protection from both livestock and rodents.] [Illustration: Open range--note lack of native grasses.] [Illustration: Kangaroo rat den around mesquite bush. Note lack of vegetation.] [Illustration: Typical kangaroo rat infestation.] [Illustration: Trail leading from kangaroo rat den to feeding ground.] [Illustration: Close-up of feeding ground. Note rat pellets and close cropped grass.] [Illustration: Kangaroo rat den before excavating,] [Illustration: Cross section of den, showing storage chambers and stored grass seeds.] [Illustration: Seed heads taken from one kangaroo rat den-- A--Burrow grass seed. B--Indian wheat heads. C--Weed seeds. D--Unidentified grass heads.] [Illustration: Kangaroo rat den before treatment (July 1, 1935), Papago Indian Reservation, Sells, Arizona.] [Illustration: Same location as above two months later after eliminating the kangaroo rats.] RABBITS AND HARES Reforestation is greatly hampered by rabbits in cut-over areas where intermittent fires have killed all seedlings over a period of years. In many areas the snowshoe hare will eat off as many as 40 percent of the seedlings and damage up to 70 percent of them. [Illustration: Rabbit-infested reforestation area--Olympic National Forest, Washington.] [Illustration: Damage to jackpine caused by snowshoe hares--Dukes, Michigan.] [Illustration: Healthy Norway pine. Snowshoe hare damage to pine and spruce seedlings at this stage of growth consists of nipping the terminal bud.] [Illustration: Spruce tree with lateral branches removed by snowshoe hares--Price County, Wisconsin.] [Illustration: Typical damage to cornfield by jack rabbits--Texas.] PORCUPINES On many national forest areas the control of porcupines is imperative from the standpoint of timber reproduction. This is especially true on cut-over areas and where fires have destroyed all seedlings. Porcupines will often destroy up to 90 percent of the seedlings and, through continued girdling of young trees 15 to 25 years of age, will destroy all chance for commercial timber for many years to come. [Illustration: Typical porcupine den. Picture taken on Pike National Forest in Colorado, in area where porcupine control work was conducted under the Forest Service E.C.W. program.] [Illustration: Porcupine at work girdling pine tree.] [Illustration: Showing one of 114 young pines damaged by porcupines on 15 acres.] [Illustration: Additional evidence on cut-over areas.] [Illustration: Porcupine at foot of tree probably 15 years old, which it has damaged beyond hope of recovery.] [Illustration: Complete girdling by porcupines about 12 inches above ground.] A TYPICAL E.C.W. CREW [Illustration: E.C.W. crews have treated almost 12,000,000 acres of rodent-infested lands during the past three years, have done it carefully and well, and in so doing have been taught valuable lessons in wildlife management.] * * * * * Transcriber's Note Original publication appears to have been a copy of a typewritten document. 
48063	----	A LITTLE GARDEN CALENDAR [Illustration] A LITTLE GARDEN CALENDAR _For Boys and Girls_ by ALBERT BIGELOW PAINE _Author of "The Little Lady, Her Book," "The Arkansaw Bear," Etc._ WITH FORTY-SIX ILLUSTRATIONS PHILADELPHIA HENRY ALTEMUS COMPANY _Copyright, 1905, by Henry Altemus Published March, 1905_ BY THE SAME AUTHOR The Little Lady, Her Book, $1.00 The Arkansaw Bear, 1.00 The Wanderings of Joe and Little Em, .50 A WORD TO TEACHERS AND PARENTS WHEN Dr. S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, established the Children's Room in that great museum, he took for his motto, "Knowledge begins in wonder," and he put into this room a selection of specimens especially intended to excite interest in the young mind. The biggest bird and the littlest were placed side by side; curious eggs, nests, and insects--not many in number, but temptingly displayed--were ranged about to attract attention and to awake the desire to know more. It was the same Dr. Langley who had once declared that his chief interests in life were children and fairy stories, and it is in the little Washington room that we seem to find the thought embodied, for the children are there, and the fairy stories of nature are suggested on every hand. It is with Dr. Langley's motto in mind that the "Little Garden Calendar" is offered to parents and teachers, and to children themselves who are old enough to read. The author has tried to tell in simple language a few of the wonders of plant life, and to set down certain easy methods of observation, including planting, tending, and gathering the harvests, from month to month, throughout the year. Along with this it has been his aim to call attention to the more curious characteristics of certain plants--the really human instincts and habits of some, the family relations of others, the dependence of many upon mankind, animals, and insects, and the struggle for existence of all. Simple botany plays a part in the little narrative, which forms a continuous story from chapter to chapter, interwoven with a number of briefer stories--traditions, fairy tales, and the like, all relating to plant life and origin. These are presented by way of entertainment--to illuminate fact with fancy--to follow, as it were, the path of knowledge through the garden of imagination. The illustrations in this book are from excellent photographs--especially made for the various chapters--that the student of plant life may compare and identify with some degree of assurance as to varieties and particular specimens, especially in the matter of plant organisms. The volume is divided according to the calendar, for the reason that in the plant world there is interest for every month in the year if only someone is by to point the way, and it is for this purpose that the little story of Prue and Davy and their garden is offered to instructors in the schoolroom and at home, and to the young people themselves, with the greetings and good wishes of THE AUTHOR. CONTENTS PAGE JANUARY, 13 I You may begin your garden right away II Your garden may not look as I have it here III Many seeds are given wings IV I think seeds know the months FEBRUARY, 43 I Little plants won't stand much handling II Hey for the merry little sweet pease III Even clover belongs to the pulse family IV Beans and morning-glories twine to the right V The honeysuckle twines always to the left MARCH, 73 I Still it was really a radish II The sun swings like a great pendulum III Long before there were any railroads and cities IV Did you ever see the little man in the pansy? APRIL, 103 I The yellow dust is a food for the seed II The coming of the corn III Cross by name and cross by nature IV A peppery family V For in that dish was Davy's corn MAY, 131 I Sweet pease have to be put down pretty deep II Different families of ants have different droves of cows III There are many ways of producing species JUNE, 159 I Then they went down into the strawberry patch II How the rose became queen III The sun is the greatest of all JULY, 187 I A plant is divided into three principal parts II There are exogens and endogens III I don't see what weeds are for, anyway AUGUST, 211 I There are just two kinds of leaves II Sometimes I think plants can see and hear III There are plants which do not bloom IV The princess by the sea SEPTEMBER, 241 I A flower really has clothes II A flower has many servants III A flower may really reason IV Some flowers live off other flowers and plants V The prince and the thread of gold OCTOBER, 267 I Seeds are made to be planted II There are bitter nuts and sweet ones III There are many things called fruits NOVEMBER, 291 I There are annuals, biennials, and perennials II Plants know how to spread III All thanks for the plants DECEMBER, 313 I New gardens in the windows II To the garden of sleep III In the gardens of Christmas IV Some verses, and then good-by ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE _Frontispiece_ Davy's window--Prue's window 19 The beans at the end of two weeks 23 The morning-glories two weeks old 27 The pot of radishes 35 The pease two weeks old 37 The corn at the end of two weeks 47 The pease run up straight ladders 53 A member of the pulse family 59 The morning-glory twines to the right 65 The nasturtiums began to hide the little pot 75 The very small lettuce leaves 81 Davy's pot of radishes 93 "Davy's corn sent out a plume at the top" 97 "The morning-glories had bloomed and already had seed pods" 113 "Cabbage" was the fat fellow's name 115 "They called it nasturtium" 121 Alyssum--the sweetest of the "Cross" family 123 "Don't you think the blackberry looks a little like a wild rose?" 135 "And the apple blossom, too?" 139 Budding 149 The Chief Gardener's strawberries 161 Big, big berries that looked so good 165 The rose stamens and pistil which produce the seed 175 "Gardeners often take a rose of one kind and shake it gently over a rose of another kind" 178 "Sometimes the gardener takes up the pollen on a soft brush and lays it gently on the stigma of another rose" 179 The pistil and stamens of the lily 192 A pistil and calyx and a complete flower 193 A group of endogens--the lily, hyacinth, and daffodil 195 Some simple leaves 217 Pine-needles are leaves 218 There is a lot of kinds and shapes 221 "Beware of the vine with the three-part leaf" 253 The dandelion is bound to spread its seed 256 "So it blooms below the lawn-mower's cutting-wheel" 257 "They cling to everything that passes" 269 Three members of the acorn family 277 The apple is a calyx. The pistil is the core inside of it 283 A raspberry is a cluster of pistils without the core 285 The seed and sets of the onion 295 A black raspberry vine preparing to spread 299 "What are stuck-ins?--oh, slips!" 301 The wool that grows on the sheep's back is there because the sheep feeds on the green grass in summer 307 A Japanese fern-ball 316 The kind of a tree that nobody but Santa Claus ever raises 323 JANUARY A LITTLE GARDEN CALENDAR JANUARY I YOU MAY BEGIN YOUR GARDEN RIGHT AWAY THIS is the story of a year, and begins on New Year's day. It is the story of a garden--a little garden--and of a little boy and girl who owned the garden, and of the Chief Gardener, who helped them. And the name of the little boy was David, after his grandfather. So they called him Davy, because when grandfather was a little boy, he had been called Davy, and this little boy wanted to be just as his grandfather had been--just the same kind of a little boy, with the same name and all. And the name of the little girl was Prudence, and she was called Prue. For when her mother was a little girl, _she_ had been called Prue, and the Chief Gardener still called her that, sometimes, when he did not call her just Mamma. And the little girl was five years old, and the little boy was 'most seven--"going-on seven" the little boy always said, when you asked him. The garden was in a window, at first--in two windows, side by side--called a double window. It had to be in a window, because outside it was very cold, and the snow was white and deep on the beds where the Chief Gardener had flowers and vegetables in summer-time. Prue and Davy were looking out on this white, snow-covered garden on New Year's afternoon. Christmas was over, and spring seemed far away. And there had been _so_ much snow that they were tired of their sleds. "I wish it would be warm again," said Davy, "so there would be strawberries and nice things to eat in the garden; don't you, Prue?" "And nice green grass, and dandelions and pinks and morning-glories," said Prue, who loved flowers. Then the little girl went over to where the Chief Gardener was reading. She leaned over his knee and rocked it back and forth. "Will it _ever_ be warm again?" she asked. "Will we _ever_ have another garden?" The Chief Gardener turned another page of his paper. Prue rocked his knee harder. "I want it to be warm," she said. "I want it to be so we can plant flowers." "And things," put in Davy, "_nice_ things, to eat; pease and berries and radishes." "Oh, Davy, you always want things to eat!" said the little girl. "We've just had our New Year's dinner!" "But I'd be hungry again before the things grew, wouldn't I? And you like strawberries, too, and short-cake." The Chief Gardener laid down his paper. "What's all this about strawberry short-cake and morning-glories?" he asked. "We want it to be warm," said Prue, "so we can have a garden, with pinks and pansies--" "And pease--" began Davy. "And a short-cake tree," put in the Chief Gardener, "with nice short-cakes covered with whipped cream, hanging on all the branches. That would suit you, wouldn't it, Davy boy?" The very thought of a tree like that made Davy silent with joy; but Prue still rocked the knee and talked. "When _will_ it be warm? When _can_ we have a garden?" she kept asking. "It is warm, _now_, in this room," said the Chief Gardener, "and you may begin your garden right away, if you like." The children looked at him, not knowing just what he meant. "In the window," he went on. "There are two, side by side. They are a part of the garden, you know, for we always see the garden through them, in summer. You remember, we said last year they were like frames for it. Now, suppose we really put a little piece of garden in the windows." Prue was already dancing. "Oh, yes! And I'll have pansies, and roses, and hollyhocks, and pinks, and morning-glories, and--" "And I'll have peaches, and apples, and strawberries, and pease--" "And a field of corn and wheat," laughed the Chief Gardener, "and a grove of cocoanut trees! What magic windows we must have to hold all the things you have named. They will be like the pack of Santa Claus--never too full to hold more." "But can't we have all the things we like?" asked Davy, anxiously. "Not _quite_ all, I'm afraid. The hollyhocks and roses that Prue wants do not bloom the first year from seed. It would hardly pay to plant them in a window-garden, and as for peach and apple trees, I am afraid you would get very tired waiting for them to bear. It takes at least five years for apple-trees to give us fruit, often much longer. Peach-trees bear about the third year. I think we would better try a few things that bloom and bear a little more quickly." II YOUR GARDEN MAY NOT LOOK AS I HAVE IT HERE THE Chief Gardener took his pencil and a piece of paper, and drew a little plan. He was not much of an artist, and sometimes when he drew things he had to write their names below, so that Prue and Davy could tell which was the rabbit and which was the donkey, and so they wouldn't think the kitten was a lion. But a window was not so hard, and then he could put names under the plants, too. On the next page is the picture that the Chief Gardener drew. While he was making the picture, the children had been asking questions. "Which is my side? Oh, what's that in the center--that tall plant? What are those vines? What will we have in those littlest pots? Oh, I know what those are! Those are morning-glories! Oh, goody!" [Illustration: DAVY'S WINDOW PRUE'S WINDOW] The last was from Prue, when she saw the artist putting the flowers along the vines that he had made climbing up the sides of her window. "Yes," said the Chief Gardener, "those are morning-glories. You can have two vines in each pot, if you wish, and in that way get four colors--blue, white, purple, and pink. On Davy's side I have made climbing beans--scarlet and white runners--because they are very pretty, and also very good to eat. Davy's is a vegetable, and yours a flower, garden. Then, if Davy wants some flowers, and you get hungry, you can give him flowers for vegetables." "Oh, that will be playing 'market,' won't it? I just love to play 'store' and 'going to market.'" "My beans look a good deal like Prue's morning-glories, all but the flowers," said Davy. "So they do, Davy; and they really look something the same in the garden. The leaves are nearly the same shape, only that the morning-glory's is more heart-shaped, and then beans have three leaves to the stem instead of one. Sometimes I have taken a morning-glory for a bean, just at first." "What else have we?" asked Prue. "What are the little flowers, and the big one in the center?" If the Chief Gardener felt hurt because his pictures did not show just what all the flowers were, without telling, he did not say so. He said: "Well, in the center of your window, Prue, the big flower is made for a sunflower. Not the big kind, but the small western sunflower, such as we had along the back fence last summer. I think we can raise those in the house." "I just love those," nodded Prue. "Then those two slender plants are sweet-pease on your side, and garden-pease on Davy's. I put two in each window, because I know that you love sweet-pease, while Davy is very fond of the vegetable kind." "I'd like a whole bushel of sweet-pease!" said Prue. "And I wish I had a bushel of eating pease!" said Davy, "and I know that's sweet corn in the middle of my window. I just love it!" "Yes," said the Chief Gardener, "and a little pot of radishes on one side, and a pot of lettuce salad on the other. Do you think you like that, Davy?" "Can't I have strawberries, instead of the salad?" asked Davy. "Strawberries don't bear from seed the first season, and I can't remember any fruit that does, unless you call tomatoes fruit, and I don't think a tomato vine would be quite pleasant in the house. It doesn't always have a sweet odor." "Oh, well, I can eat lettuce," said Davy. "I can eat anything that's good." "What are in my other little pots?" asked Prue for the third or fourth time. "Well, one is meant for a pot of pansies--" "Oh, pansies! pansies! Can't I have two pots of pansies?" "You can have three or four plants in one pot--perhaps that will do. Then you can put nasturtiums in the other little pot. They are easy to grow, and very beautiful." "Yes," said Prue, "I never saw anything so _lovely_ as your nasturtiums by the house, last year." The Chief Gardener looked at the sketch and tapped it with his pencil. [Illustration: THE BEANS AT THE END OF TWO WEEKS] "Of course," he said, "your garden may not look just as I have it here. I don't draw very well, but I can make things about the right sizes to fit the windows, and that isn't so hard to do with a pencil as it is with the plants themselves. Plants, like children, don't always grow just as their friends want them to, and they are not always well behaved. You see--" "But won't my bean vines and corn grow up like that?" asked Davy. "And won't my morning-glories have flowers on them?" asked Prue. "I hope they will, and we will try to coax them. But you see things may happen. Sometimes it comes a very cold night when the fires get low, and then plants are likely to chill, or perhaps freeze and die. We can only try to be very careful." "How long will it take them to grow?" asked Davy. "That is not easy to say. When everything is just right, some seeds start very soon. I have known radishes to pop up within three days, when the weather was warm and damp. Corn will sprout in about a week, in warm weather. Sweet-pease take a good deal longer, though we can hurry them a little by soaking them in warm water before we plant them. But we will talk about all that later. First, let's see about the pots and earth, and the seeds." III MANY SEEDS ARE GIVEN WINGS THE Chief Gardener took Davy and Prue down in the basement, where in one corner he kept his flower-pots and garden-tools. "I'm going to use the hoe," said Davy, reaching for the long handle. "I'll have the rake for my garden," said Prue. The Chief Gardener smiled. "I don't think we'll need either for this gardening. A small weeder or an old kitchen-knife will be about the largest tool you can use." Then he picked out some pots, set them side by side on a table, and measured them to see how long a row they made. Then he changed them and measured again. "There," he said, "those will just fit one window. Now, another set for the other window and we are ready for the soil." "Where will you get dirt? Everything is frozen hard," said Davy. The Chief Gardener took up a spading-fork from among the tools. "We'll get our hats and coats, first," he said, "then we'll see what we can find." Outside it was really very cold, but the children, with their thick wraps, did not mind. They raced in the snow across the empty little garden, and followed the Chief Gardener to a small mound in one corner. Here he pushed away the snow, and with the fork lifted up a layer of frozen-looking weeds; then another layer, not quite so frozen and not quite so weedy; then still another layer that did not seem at all frozen, but was just a mass of damp leaves and bits of grass. And under this layer it must have been quite warm, for steam began to rise white in the cold air. "Oh, see!" said Prue. "What makes the smoke?" "That's steam," said Davy, wisely; "but what makes it warm?" [Illustration: THE MORNING-GLORIES TWO WEEKS OLD] "Fever," said the Chief Gardener, "just as you had, Davy, that night you ate too much layer-cake. You said you were burning up, but it was only nature trying to burn up the extra food. That is what nature is doing here--trying to burn up and turn to earth the pile of weeds and grass I threw here last summer for compost. Next spring the fire will be out, and leave only a heap of rich soil for the garden." Beneath the last layer there was warm, dark earth. The Chief Gardener filled the basket he had brought, and they hurried back to the basement to fill the pots. "Not too full--we must leave room at the top for digging and watering, without spilling dirt and water on the floor. Then the plants will help fill up by and by, too, and I think we would better put in a little of this compost at the bottom. When the roots run down they will be glad to find some fresh, rich food. Don't pack the earth too tightly, Davy; just jar the pot a little to settle it, and it should be fine and quite dry. Perhaps we'd better dry it a little," the Chief Gardener added, as he saw by the children's hands that some of the earth was rather damp and sticky. So he brought out a flat box, emptied all the pots into it, and set the box on top of the furnace. "While it's drying, we'll go upstairs and pick out the seeds," he said. "Oh, see my beans! How pretty they are!" cried Davy, as the Chief Gardener pointed out the purple-mottled seeds of the scarlet runners. Prue looked a little envious. She was fond of pretty things. "But my pease are better-looking than those crinkly things of yours," she said; "mine are most like little beads; and see my nasturtium seed! They look good to eat, like little peanuts." It was Davy's turn now to be envious. Anything that looked like peanuts must be very good to eat. "People often pickle nasturtium pods," said the Chief Gardener. "They are fine and peppery. So Prue will really have something to eat in her garden, while Davy will have beautiful flowers on his scarlet runners." "See my morning-glory seed, like quarters of a little black apple, and how tiny my pansy seeds are!" cried Prue, holding out the papers. Davy was looking at the little round, brown kernels that the Chief Gardener had said were radish seeds, and the light little flakes that were to grow into lettuce. "What makes seeds so different?" he asked soberly. "Ah, Davy, that is a hard question," answered the Chief Gardener. "A great many very great people have tried to answer it." He opened a little paper and held it out for them to see. "What funny little feather-tops!" said Prue. "Like little darts," said Davy. "What are they?" "Marigold seeds. They are very light, and the little tufts or wings are to carry them through the air, so they will be scattered and sown by the wind. Many seeds are given wings of different kinds. Maple seeds have a real pair of wings. Others have a tuft of down on them, so light that they are carried for miles. But many seeds are hard to explain. Plants very nearly alike grow from seeds that are not at all alike, while plants as different as can be grow from seeds that can hardly be told apart, even under the magnifying-glass." The pots filled with the warm earth were brought up and ranged in the windows. "How deep, and how many seeds in a pot?" asked Davy. "That depends," the Chief Gardener answered. "I believe there is a rule that says to plant twice as deep as the seed is long, though sweet-pease and some other things are planted deeper; and you may plant more seeds than you want plants, so that enough are pretty sure to grow; four beans in each pot, Davy--two white and two colored, and three grains of corn in the large center pot." The children planted the seeds--the Chief Gardener helping, showing how to cover them with fine earth--the corn and beans quite deeply, the sweet-pease still deeper, fully an inch or more, the smaller seeds thinly and evenly: then how to pat them down so that the earth might be lightly but snugly packed about the sleeping seeds. "Now we will dampen them a little," he said, "and when they feel their covering getting moist, perhaps they will think of waking." So he brought a cup of warm water, and the children dipped in their fingers and sprinkled the earth in each pot until it was quite damp. Then they drew up chairs and sat down to look at their garden, as if expecting the things to grow while they waited. IV I THINK SEEDS KNOW THE MONTHS BUT the seeds did not sprout that day, nor the next, nor for many days after they were planted. Prue and Davy watered them a little every morning, and were quite sure the room had been warm, but it takes sunshine, too, to make seeds think of waking from their long nap, and the sun does not always shine in January. Even when it does, it is so low in the sky, and stays such a little time each day, that it does not find its way down into the soil as it does in spring and summer time. "You said that corn sprouts in a week," said Davy to the Chief Gardener, one morning, "and it's a week to-day since we planted it, and even the radishes are not up yet." Prue also looked into her little row of pots, and said sadly that there was not even a little teeny-weeny speck of anything coming up that she could see. "I'm sorry," said the Chief Gardener, "but you know I really can't make the sun shine, and even if I could, perhaps they would be slow about coming, at this season. Sometimes I think seeds know the months as well as we do, for I have known seeds to sprout in June in a place where there was very little warmth or moisture and no sunshine at all. Yes, I think the seeds know." "And won't my pansies come at all?" whimpered little Prue. "Oh, I think so. They only need a little more coaxing. Suppose we see just what is going on. You planted a few extra radish seeds, Davy. We will do as little folks often do--dig up one and see what has happened." So the Chief Gardener dug down with his pocket-knife and lifted a bit of the dirt, which he looked at carefully. Then he held it to the light and let the children look. Sticking to the earth there was a seed, but it was no longer the tiny brown thing which Davy had planted. It was so large that Davy at first thought it was one of his pease, and on one side of it there was an edge of green. "It's all right, Davy boy. They'll be up in a day or two," laughed the Chief Gardener. "Now, we'll try a pansy." "Oh, yes, try a pansy! try a pansy!" danced little Prue, who was as happy as Davy over the sprouting of the radish. [Illustration: THE POT OF RADISHES] So the Chief Gardener dug down into the pansy-pot, but just at first could not find a pansy seed, they were so small. Then he did find one, and coming out of it were two tiny pale-green leaves, and a thread of white rootlet that had started downward. Prue clapped her hands and wanted the Chief Gardener to dig in all the pots, but he told them that it would not be good gardening to do that, and that they must be patient now, and wait. So then another anxious week went by. And all at once, one morning very early, Prue and Davy came shouting up the stairs to where the Chief Gardener was shaving. "They're up! They're up!" "My pansies!" "And my radishes! They've lifted up a piece of dirt over every seed, and there's one little green point in the corn-pot, too!" The Chief Gardener had to leave his shaving to see. Sure enough! Davy's radishes and Prue's pansies were beginning to show, and one tender shoot of Davy's corn. And in less than another week Davy's lettuce and pease and beans were breaking the ground above each seed, while Prue's garden was coming too, all but the sweet-pease, which, because of their hard shell, sprouted more slowly, even though they had been soaked in warm water before planting. But in another week they began to show, too, and everything else was quite above ground. [Illustration: THE PEASE TWO WEEKS OLD] Then the Chief Gardener dug up one each of the extra seeds, root and all, and showed them just how they had sprouted and started to grow. He showed them how the shell or husk of the seed still clung to the two first leaves of some of the morning-glory and radish plants, how when the little plant had awakened from its long nap, it had stretched, just as a little boy would stretch, getting up out of bed, and how, being hungry, it had made its breakfast on a part of the tender kernel packed about it in the seed, and then pushed its leaves up for light and air. He also showed them how the grain of corn and the pea stayed below the ground to feed the little shoots that pushed up and the sprangled roots that were starting down to hunt for richness. But they all laughed at the beans, for the beans left only the husk below and pushed the rich kernel up into the air--coming up topsy-turvy, Davy said, while Prue thought the leaves must be very greedy to take the kernel all away from the roots, instead of leaving it where both could have a share. And now another week passed, and other tiny leaves began to show on most of the plants. These were different shaped from the first oval or heart-shaped seed-leaves--real, natural leaves, Prue said, such as they would have when they were grown. Only the corn did not change, but just unfolded and grew larger. And so in every pot there were tender green promises of fruit and flower. The little garden was really a garden at last. FEBRUARY FEBRUARY I LITTLE PLANTS WON'T STAND MUCH HANDLING YET the little garden seemed to grow slowly. The sun in February was getting farther to the north, and came earlier and stayed later than it had in January, and was brighter, too. But for all that, to Davy and Prue, each new leaf came quite slowly--just a tiny point or bud at first, then a little green heart or oval or crinkly oblong with a wee stem of its own. It was very hard to see each morning, just what had grown since the morning before. Of course they did grow--little by little, and inch by inch--just as children grow, and a good deal faster, for when they measured their bean and morning-glory vines, they found one morning that they had grown at least a half an inch since the day before, and that would be a good deal for a little boy or girl to grow in one day. But Davy perhaps remembered the story of "Jack and the Beanstalk" and how Jack's bean had grown to the sky in a very short time; and, of course, remembering a story like that is apt to make anybody impatient with a bean that grows only half an inch a day. "I think it would be a good plan," he said one morning, "to tie a rubber band to the top of each of my bean vines, and then fasten the other end higher up the window to help pull the vines along." And little Prue said: "I pulled my morning-glories along yesterday a little, with my fingers. I know they grew a tiny speck then, but they don't look quite so nice this morning." The Chief Gardener came over to see what was going on. "I don't think we'd better try any new plans," he said. "I'm afraid if we pull our plants to make them grow, we will have to pull them up altogether, pretty soon, and plant new ones. Tender little plants won't stand much handling." The Chief Gardener was not cross, but his voice was quite solemn. Little Prue looked frightened and her lip quivered the least bit. "Oh, will my morning-glories die now?" she asked; "and I pulled the pansies just a tiny speck, too. Will they die?" "Not this time, I think; but I wouldn't do it again. Just give them a little water now and then, and dig in the pots a little, and turn them around sometimes so that each side of the plant gets the light, and nature will do the rest. Of course you can't turn the bean and morning-glory pots after they get to climbing the strings, but they will twine round and round and so turn themselves. Your garden looks very well for the time of year. Perhaps if you did not watch it so much it would grow faster. They say that a watched pot never boils, so perhaps a watched plant does not grow well. I am sure they do not like to be stretched up to a measuring-stick every morning at eight o'clock. Suppose now we put up the strings for the morning-glories and beans to climb on, and some nice branchy twigs for the pease, then water them well and leave them for a few days and see what happens." So then the Chief Gardener and the two little gardeners went down in the basement, where they found some tiny screw-hooks and some string, and where they cut some nice sprangly little limbs from the Christmas tree that still stood in one corner, and was getting very dry. Then they all came up again and put up strings for the scarlet runners and morning-glories, by tying one end of each string to a stout little stick which the Chief Gardener pushed carefully into the soil between the plants, and then carried the string to the small screw-hooks, which were put about half-way up, and at the top of the window-casings. The branchy twigs were stuck carefully into the pots where the pease grew, and stood up straight and fine--like little ladders, Prue said--for the pease to climb. [Illustration: THE CORN AT THE END OF TWO WEEKS] "It's just like a circus," said Davy. "The beans and morning-glories will be climbing ropes, and the pease will be running up straight ladders." "And while we are waiting for the performance to begin," added the Chief Gardener, "suppose you let me tell you something about the performers--where they came from, and some stories that are told of them." II HEY FOR THE MERRY LITTLE SWEET-PEA THE Chief Gardener went into the next room, which was the library, and drew a cozy little settee up before the bright hickory fire. It was just wide enough for three, and when he sat down, Davy and Little Prue promptly hopped up, one on each side. In a low rocker near the window Big Prue was doing something with silks and needles and a very bright pair of scissors. The Chief Gardener stirred the fire and looked into it. Then he said: "Speaking of pease, I wonder if you ever heard this little song about 'THE TWO PEAS 'Oh, a little sweet-pea in the garden grew-- Hey, for the merry little sweet-pea! And a garden-pea, it grew there, too-- Hi, for the happy little eat-pea! In all kinds of weather They grew there together-- Ho, for the pease in the garden! Hey, for the sweet-pea! Hi, for the eat-pea! Hey, he, hi, ho, hum! 'Oh, the sweet-pea bloomed and the eat-pea bore-- Hey, for the merry little sweet-pea! And they both were sent to a poor man's door-- Hi, for the happy little eat-pea! In all kinds of weather They came there together! Ho, for the pease from the garden! Hey, for the sweet-pea! Hi, for the eat-pea! Hey, he, hi, ho, hum! 'Now, the poor man's poor little girl lay ill-- What a chance for a merry little sweet-pea! And there wasn't a cent in the poor man's till-- Good-by to the jolly little eat-pea! In all kinds of weather They brought joy together When they came from the happy little garden! Hey, for the sweet-pea! Hi, for the eat-pea! Hey, he, hi, ho, hum!'" "Was there really ever a poor man and a little sick girl who had pease sent to them?" asked little Prue, as the Chief Gardener finished. "Oh, I am sure there must have been! A great many of them." "But the ones you sung about. Those really same ones--did they ever really live, or did you make it up about them?" "I don't think my pease would be quite enough for a poor man who didn't have a cent of money," said Davy, after thinking about it. "But my sweet-pease will be enough, only I want to know if there is really such a little girl, so I can send them. Is there, Papa?" "Well, I am sure we can find such a little girl, if we try. And I know she'd be glad for some sweet-pease. And now here's a little story that I really didn't make up, but read a long time ago. "Once upon a time there were two friars--" "What are friars?" asked Prue. "Do they fry things?" "Well, not exactly, though one of these did do some stewing, and the other, too, perhaps, though in a different way. A friar is a kind of priest, and these two had done something which the abbot, who is the head priest, did not like, so he punished them." "What did they do?" asked Prue, who liked to know just what people could be punished for. "I don't remember now. It's so long--" "What do you _s'pose_ it was?" "Well, I really can't s'pose, but it may have been because they forgot their prayers. Abbots don't like friars to forget their prayers--" "If I should forget my prayers, I'd say 'em twice to make up." "Oh, Prue!" said Davy, "_do_ let Papa go on with the story!" "But I would. I'd say 'em sixty times!" "Yes," said the Chief Gardener, "friars have to do that, too, I believe; but these had to do something different. They had to wear pease in their shoes." "Had to wear pease! In their shoes!" "Yes, pease, like those we planted, and they had to walk quite a long ways, and, of course, it wouldn't be pleasant to walk with those little hard things under your feet. "Well, they started, and one of them went limping and stewing along, and making an awful fuss, because his feet hurt him so, but when he looked at the other he saw that instead of hobbling and groaning as he was, he was walking along, as lively as could be, and seemed to be enjoying the fine morning, and was actually whistling. "'Oh, dear!' said the one who was limping, 'how is it you can walk along so spry, and feel so happy, with those dreadful pease in your shoes?' "'Why,' said the other, 'before I started, I took the liberty to _boil my_ pease!'" "But, Papa," began little Prue, "I don't see--" "I do," said Davy, "it made them soft, so they didn't hurt." "What kind of pease were they?" asked Prue. "Like Davy's or mine?" [Illustration: THE PEASE RUN UP STRAIGHT LADDERS] "Well, I've never heard just what kind they were. There are a good many kinds of pease, and they seem to have come from a good many places. Besides the sweet-pease and garden-pease, there are field-pease, used dry for cattle, and in England there is what is called a sea-pea, because it was first found growing on the shore of a place called Sussex, more than three hundred and fifty years ago, in a year of famine. There were many, many of them and they were in a place where even grass had not grown before that time. The people thought they must have been cast up by some shipwrecked vessel, and they gathered them for food, and so kept from going hungry and starving to death. The garden-pea is almost the finest of vegetables, and there are many kinds--some large, some small, some very sweet, some that grow on tall vines and have to have stakes, and some that grow very short without stakes, and are called dwarfs. There are a good many kinds of sweet-pease, too, different sizes and colors, but I think all the different kinds of garden-pease and sweet-pease might have come from one kind of each, a very, very long time ago, and that takes me to another story which I will have to put off until next time. I have some books now to look over, and you and Davy, Prue, can go for a run in the fresh air." III EVEN CLOVER BELONGS TO THE PULSE FAMILY IT was on the same evening that Prue and Davy asked for the other story. And of course the Chief Gardener had to tell it, for he had promised, and little Prue, especially, didn't like to put off anything that had been promised. So this is the story that the Chief Gardener told: "The Pulse family is a very large one. I don't know just where the first old great-grandfather Pulse ever did come from, but it is thought to be some place in Asia, a great country of the far East. It may be that the first Pulse lived in the Garden of Eden, though whether as a tree or a vine or a shrub, or only as a little plant, we can't tell now." "I think it's going to be a fairy story," said Prue, settling down to listen. "Is it, Papa? A real, true fairy story?" "Well, perhaps it is a sort of a fairy story, and I'll try to tell it just as truly as I can. Anyway, the story goes, that a long time after the Garden of Eden was ruined and the Pulse family started west, there were two cousins, and these two cousins were vines, though whether they were always vines, or only got to be vines so they could travel faster, I do not know. Some of their relations were trees then, and are now; the locust tree out in the corner of the yard is one of them." Davy looked up, and was about to ask a question. The Chief Gardener went on. "The cousins I am talking about, being vines, traveled quite fast in the summer-time, but when it came winter, they lay down for a long nap, and only when spring came they roused up and traveled on. One of them was a very fine fellow, with gay flowers that had a sweet smell, and people loved him for his beauty and fragrance. The other brought only greenish-white flowers, not very showy, but some thought him far more useful than his pretty cousin, for he gave the people food as he passed along. "So they journeyed on, down by the way of the Black Sea, which you will know about when you are a little older, and still farther west until at last the pretty Pulse cousin and the plain but useful Pulse cousin had spread their families all over Europe, and were called P's, perhaps because the first letter of their family name began with P. Then by and by it was spelled p-e-a, and they were called garden-pease and sweet-pease, and were planted everywhere, one for the lovely flowers, and the other for food. Now we have them side by side in your windows, just as they were when they first started on their travels, so very, very long ago." "Did they really travel as you have told?" asked Davy, looking into the fire. "Well, I have never been able to find any printed history of their travels, so it may have been something like that." "They did, didn't they, Papa?" insisted little Prue, who always wanted to believe every word of every fairy story. "They went hand in hand, just as Davy and I do when we go walking, didn't they?" "And Davy is the garden-pea and you the sweet-pea, is that it? Well, they did come a long way--that is true--and they do belong to a very large family. Why, even the clover belongs to the Pulse family, and the peanut, and the locust, and the laburnum, and there is one distant branch of the family that is so modest and sensitive that at the least touch its members shrink and hide, and these are called sensitive plants." "Aren't beans of the Pulse family, too?" asked Davy. "Why do you think so?" asked the Chief Gardener. "Well, I remember that the flowers are something alike, and then they both have pods." [Illustration: A MEMBER OF THE PULSE FAMILY] "And you are right, Davy. Both the flowers are what is called butterfly-shaped, and pods of that kind are called legumes. Whenever you see a flower of that shape, or a pod of that kind, no matter how small or how large, or whether they grow on a plant or a tree or a shrub, you will know you have found one of the Pulse family and a relative of the pea. Your scarlet runners are about second cousins, I should think, and I have something to tell about them, too, but it is too late this evening." IV BEANS AND MORNING-GLORIES TWINE TO THE RIGHT "MY morning-glories are climbing! My morning-glories are climbing up the strings!" "And so are my scarlet runners! Two of them have gone twice around already, and one of them three times! But oh, Papa, something has broken one of my stalks of corn, right off close to the ground!" It was two days after the strings had been put up, and Prue and Davy had tried very hard not to look at their garden during all that time. Then they just had to look, and found that the beans and morning-glories were really starting up the strings. But what could have happened to Davy's corn! The Chief Gardener hurried down to see. Then with an old knife he dug down into the pot a little, and up came, what do you suppose? Why, a white, fat ugly worm--a cut-worm, the Chief Gardener called him. "They are a great enemy to young corn," he said, "especially in cool weather. Sometimes almost whole fields have to be replanted. Blackbirds will kill them, but many times the farmer thinks the blackbird is pulling up his corn, and drives him away with a gun, when the blackbird is only trying to help the farmer." "Do you suppose there are any more?" asked Davy anxiously. The Chief Gardener dug carefully around the other stalk, until the white roots began to show. "No, I think your other stalk is safe," he said, "at least from cut-worms." Grown-up Prue came to see the gardens. Yes, the vines were really making a nice start, as well as the other things. One of Davy's pease had sent out some tiny tendrils that were reaching toward the slender twig-branches, but thoughtful Davy was looking first at his beans, then at Prue's morning-glories. "They all go around the strings just alike," he said at last; "all the same way. Why don't some go the other way?" "You ask such hard questions, Davy," the Chief Gardener answered. "I have never known anybody to tell why all the beans and morning-glories twine to the right, any more than why all the honeysuckles twine to the left." The Chief Gardener turned to the little woman beside him. "There must be some reason, of course; some law of harmony and attraction. I suppose it would be quite simple to us if we knew. Why, where did Davy go?" Davy came in, just then, with his hat and coat on. "I'm going to look at the honeysuckles," he said, "those out on the porch." The others put on wraps, too, and went with him. It was crisp and bright out there, and dry leaves still clinging to the vines whispered and gossiped together in the wintry breeze. "They do!" said Davy, "they every one turn the other way--every single one! How do you suppose they can tell which way to start--which is right, and which is left?" The Chief Gardener shook his head. "Perhaps a story might explain it," he said. "Stories have to explain a good many things until we find better ways." So then they went inside to see if a story would really tell why the morning-glory and scarlet runner always twined to the right, and why the honeysuckle always twined to the left. And this was the Chief Gardener's story: V THE HONEYSUCKLE TWINES ALWAYS TO THE LEFT "AWAY back in the days that came after Eden, the time I told you of, when the garden was given up to weeds and the plants went wandering out through the world, a certain morning-glory and climbing-bean were good friends, and were often found together--twining up the same little tree or trellis, and very happy. Of course they were not called morning-glory and bean then, and the honeysuckle that grew near was not called honeysuckle either, though it had just the same sweet flowers, and the humming-birds came to suckle honey from them, just as they do now, in summer-time. I don't know what the old names were. It has been so long since then, I suppose they are all forgotten. "Now the honeysuckle was very proud of its sweet flowers, that scented all the air around and drew the beautiful humming-birds, while the morning-glory and bean had only very pale little flowers that the humming-birds did not care for at all. "And the honeysuckle used to laugh at them, and tell them how plain and useless they were. How they lived only a little while in summer, and withered when the frost came, while it only shed its leaves, and stood strong and sturdy against the wind and cold of winter, ready to grow larger and more useful each spring. And this, of course, made the two friends feel very sorry, and wish they could be beautiful and useful, too. [Illustration: THE MORNING-GLORY TWINES TO THE RIGHT] "Now, one day in early spring, the sun, who makes the plants grow and gives the colors to the flowers, heard the honeysuckle, which was putting out green leaves on its strong vines, laughing at the bean and morning-glory, that were just peeping from the earth. "And the sun said, 'This is too bad. It is not fair for one who has so much to make fun of those who have so little. I must give them more.' "So, lo and behold, when the morning-glory vine began to bloom, instead of having pale little flowers, they were a beautiful white and blue and purple and rose color, and when the bean blossomed, it had a fine scarlet flower, and both were more beautiful than the honeysuckle, though the honeysuckle still had its sweet perfume, and its honey for the humming-birds." "But what about the twining?" asked Davy. "That is what you started to tell." "Why, yes, of course. I forgot that. Well, when the sun came to look at them he said, first to the honeysuckle, 'Because you have been so proud, you must follow me,' and to the bean and morning-glory, 'Because you have been meek, you shall turn always to meet me,' and since that day, the honeysuckle has turned always to the left, following the sun, while the bean and the morning-glory have twined always to the right, to meet it on every turn." The Chief Gardener paused, seeing that Davy was making circles in the air with his finger--first circles to the right, then more circles to the left. Then the circles got slower and slower, showing that he was thinking very hard. "That's right," he said at last. "If they turned to the right, they would meet the sun every time around, and if they turned to the left they would be following it." The Chief Gardener was glad he had told his story right. "And then, by and by," he said, "I suppose people must have given them their names--the honeysuckle's because of the humming-birds that came to suckle the flowers, and the morning-glory's because it made each morning bright with its beautiful flowers, while the bean they called the scarlet runner, and when they found that its pods held good food, they planted it both for its flowers and its usefulness, and valued it very highly, indeed. Just where all this happened I do not know. The honeysuckle and morning-glory now grow wild, both in Europe and the United States, and the scarlet runner is said to have been found wild in these countries, too, though I have never seen it except in gardens." "Papa," asked little Prue, "haven't my morning-glories any useful relations, like my sweet-pease?" "Why, yes, of course, let me see. The sweet potato belongs to that family. It is really about a first cousin, and useful drugs are made from the juice and root of a wild morning-glory. There are hardly any families that do not have both useful and ornamental members, and most of them, I am sorry to say, have troublesome ones, too, which we call weeds. But I must run away now, and all that will have to wait until another time." MARCH MARCH I STILL, IT WAS REALLY A RADISH AND so the month of February passed. Once the vines had started up the strings, they seemed to grow faster--almost as if they were running races, while the pease reached out and clung to the little twigs, and stood up straight and trim, like soldiers. The pansies and nasturtiums, too, and the lettuce and radishes all sent out more and more leaves, and began to hide the little pods. Davy was wild to pull up just one radish to see if it wasn't big enough to eat, but on the first day of March, when the Chief Gardener told him that he might do so, he was grieved to find only a pale little root, just a bit larger and a trifle pinker at the top, instead of the fat, round vegetable he had expected. Still, it was really a radish, Davy said, and he cut the thickest part in two and gave half to little Prue, who brought out her little dishes and set her table that Santa Claus left under the Christmas Tree. Then she put her piece on one little plate, and Davy's piece on another, and picked one tiny pansy leaf and one from the nasturtiums to make bouquets. And Davy picked a lettuce leaf--a very small lettuce leaf--for a salad, so that when their little table was all spread and ready, with some very small slices of bread, and some cookies--some quite large cookies--and some animal crackers, with milk for tea, it really looked quite fresh and pretty and made you hungry just to look at it. [Illustration: THE NASTURTIUMS BEGAN TO HIDE THE LITTLE POT] And, oh, yes, I forgot to say that there was some salt, the least little bit, in two of the tiniest salt dishes, and when they sat down at last to the very first meal out of their garden, all on the first day of March, when no other gardens around about had been planted yet, they dipped the tiny bits of radish into the tiny salt dishes, and nibbled it, just a wee bit at a time to make it last, and last, ever so long. And they said it tasted real radishy, and that the lettuce leaf, with one drop of vinegar and a speck of salt, was just fine. And little Prue held her doll and made her taste, too, and then the Chief Gardener and grown-up Prue must each have a tiny, tiny bite. And so, of course, Davy got to be really quite proud of his first radish, and said that after all it wasn't so bad for the first one, and that it was almost as big as a slate-pencil, in the thickest part. Pretty soon they might have a radish that would be big enough for each one to have quite a piece, and they would serve it on a whole leaf of salad. He felt sure that on his birthday, which would be on the tenth, they might really have something very nice. Then Prue was very quiet for a minute, thinking. By and by she asked: "And do you think I will have flowers for Davy's birthday? Davy can just pick his lettuce and radishes any time. My 'sturtiums and pansies are as big as his things, but I have to wait for them to bloom." "Why, that's so, Prue." The Chief Gardener went over to her pansies and looked at them very closely, but if he saw anything he did not speak of it. "Oh, well," he said, "if you don't have flowers for Davy's birthday, maybe you will for mine. It comes in March, too, you know. And then it's ten days yet till Davy's, and you never can tell what will happen in ten days." Alas, this was too true. It got quite warm during the second week of March, and the fire in the furnace was allowed to get low. Then one night it suddenly turned cold--as cold as January. "Oh, what makes some of my pea leaves look so dark?" asked Davy, as they stopped in the icy sitting-room for a moment, before hurrying through to the warm dining-room, where a big open fire was blazing. The Chief Gardener shook his head, rather solemnly. "I'm afraid they are bitten a little by Jack Frost," he said. "Oh, mine are all dark, too," whispered Prue, sorrowfully. "I am going to take them right out to the dining-room fire, and warm them." "And that would be the very worst thing you could do," said the Chief Gardener. "Let them stay right where they are, and we will heat the room slowly by opening the register just the least bit at a time, and draw the shades to keep out the sun. Perhaps if we do that the frost will come out so gently that the plants will not be killed. If you should warm them quickly they would be very apt to die, or at least to be badly injured." So they did as the Chief Gardener said, and kept the sitting-room quite cool all day. Then by another day the pease and all the others looked about as well as ever, only a few of the tenderest leaves withered up and dropped off because Jack Frost had breathed harder on these than on the others. As for the radishes and lettuce and pansies, they hadn't minded it the least bit, for they can stand a good deal of cold, and the corn and sunflower and nasturtiums didn't lose any leaves, so, perhaps, they didn't care for a touch of frost either. II THE SUN SWINGS LIKE A GREAT PENDULUM AND now with each day there was brighter sunshine that came earlier and stayed longer. From a high east window they saw the sun rise each morning, when it was bright weather, and when they happened to be awake in time, and they saw how the big red ball crept farther and farther to the north, along the far fringe of trees, beyond all the houses which they could see. "It rose away down beyond that little white house on Christmas morning," said Davy, who was always up early. "I remember very well. Now it's got past the tall pine by the red barn. How much farther will it go?" The Chief Gardener pointed to a dim pencil-mark on the window-sill. "That was the angle of the shadow," he said, "on the twenty-first of June, and points to just where the sun will rise on the longest day of the year. You will have to be up very early to see it on that day." He pointed to another faint line. "That," he said, "was the angle on the twenty-first of December, the shortest day. The sun swings like a great pendulum from one point to the other and gives us winter and summer, and all the seasons between. Half-way between these marks is due east, and there the sun will rise on the twenty-first of March, which is the first day of spring." "Do you think our garden things are looking at it, and wishing it would hurry and get farther toward the June mark," said little Prue. "I think they are," the Chief Gardener answered. "They don't have eyes, as we have, but they have a way of seeing the sun, and of knowing just where it is, for most of them turn toward it as they grow, and some of them follow it all the way across the sky, from morning until night, and then turn back and wait for it to rise again. Your sunflower would do that, Prue, if it were out under the open sky." [Illustration: THE VERY SMALL LETTUCE LEAVES] "Oh, it does now. I mean it looks toward the sun in the morning, with its top leaves, and keeps them turned toward it as far as it can." "So you have noticed that, have you? Well, I'm glad, for I have read in books--books written by very wise men--that the sunflower did not really do this, but that it was just an old fable. I think those wise men, perhaps, never saw the wild western sunflowers, but only the big tame ones that have heavy, coarse stems and are so big and clumsy and fat that they couldn't well turn, even if they wanted to. I have seen whole fields of wild sunflowers--little ones like yours, and long before they were in bloom--with every stem bent toward the sunrise, when there was not a breath of wind blowing; and I have seen the same flowers straighten their little stems as the sun rose higher, and then bend them again to the west in the evening; and the little bend would be so tight and firm that you could hardly straighten the stalk without breaking it. Very wise men make mistakes sometimes, mistakes that even a little girl would not make, just because they have not happened to see something which a little girl with sharp eyes has seen and thought about. It is a wonderful and beautiful sight on the prairies of the West to see miles of wild sunflowers in full bloom. They are like a great sea of gold, and in the early morning, when the air is still, every bloom is faced toward the sunrise, as bright and fresh and faithful as the sun itself." "I should think there would be a story about the sunflower," said Davy, half speaking to himself. "Oh, there have been many stories about it, Davy. After breakfast I will try and remember the one I like best." So then they hurried down to the dining-room, pausing just long enough to see that the garden was all safe, and to notice that the upper leaves of Prue's sunflower were really faced so far to the sun that there was a sharp little crook in the stem, then out to the big dining-room fire, for the fragrant breakfast that was waiting, and back to the library fire for the story that was to be told. III LONG BEFORE THERE WERE ANY RAILROADS AND CITIES "ONCE upon a time--" "Oh," said Prue, "once upon a time--I just love 'once upon a time.'" "Yes," nodded Davy, solemnly, "and once upon a time there was a little girl who couldn't keep still so that her Papa could tell a story." Prue snuggled down, and the Chief Gardener began all over. "Once upon a time, long before there were any railroads, and cities such as ours, long before Columbus ever sailed over the ocean to a new world--when all this great wide country, as you know, was held by Indians, who hunted and fished, and made war sometimes, when they had disputes--there lived away in the far West two very friendly tribes. Their lands joined and they hunted together, and when one tribe was at war the other joined in and helped to fight the enemy. So they became almost as one tribe and their children grew up together. "Now, in one tribe there was a little Indian boy, a chief's son, who was very fond of a little Indian girl of the other tribe. Their mothers had always been great friends, and often for a whole day at a time the little Indian boy and girl played together, and as they grew up they cared for each other more and more, and the Indian boy, Ahlogah, said that when he was older and a chief he would make the little Indian girl, Laida, his wife. "But it happened that in Laida's tribe there was also a chief's son, a jealous-hearted and cruel boy that Laida did not like. But this boy cared for Laida, and like Ahlogah made up his mind that some day she should be his wife. "So they all grew up, and Ahlogah and Laida loved each other more dearly every day, and Kapoka, the other youth, grew more jealous and more cruel-hearted. And when one day his father died, and he became chief of his tribe, he said that if she did not give up Ahlogah, he would make war on Ahlogah's tribe. "So then Ahlogah and Laida met one evening just before sunset to say good-by for the last time. Their tribes had never been at war, and they were willing to part forever to keep Kapoka from making a war now. Laida had not promised to marry Kapoka, she had only promised not to see Ahlogah again. And now they parted, just as the sun was going down, and they both turned to see it for the last time side by side. And then Ahlogah said: "'To-morrow just at sunrise go to the high rocks above the river and look to the east. And where the river passes through our lands, I will go also to see some high rocks, and I will look to the east, too, when the sun rises, and I will know that though we are apart, we are watching the sun rise together, and it will be always our message of love to each other as it travels across the sky.' "So Laida went back to her tribe and Ahlogah to his, and every morning they watched from their high rocks above the river, and held out their arms to the rising sun, as a message it should bear between them. "And Kapoka found out that Laida went every morning to the high rocks, and held out her arms to the sun. And he found that Ahlogah also went every morning to the high rocks farther up the river. Then Kapoka knew that Laida would never be his wife as long as Ahlogah was alive. And one morning very early Kapoka left his wigwam and crept across to the lands of the other tribes, and to the high rocks where Ahlogah stood waiting for the sunrise. And just as the sun rose, and Kapoka knew that Ahlogah would not hear him, he slipped up behind Ahlogah, and gave him a great push that sent him over into the swift river, hundreds of feet below. "And the swift river caught him and tossed him and whirled him about, and finally carried him down past the high rocks where Laida was sending her message to the sun. And Laida looked down and saw him coming. She saw his chieftain's dress and plumes tossed and whirled by the water. She knew it was Ahlogah, and she waited for him. Then, when he just was below the high rocks where she stood, she gave a great cry, 'Ahlogah!' and she was in the whirling, tossing water beside him. "Then the tribes searched together, and they found Ahlogah and Laida far below, cast up on a place of white pebbles, side by side. And they buried them, side by side, and both the tribes mourned. But when the spring came there grew upon their graves two strange flowers with bright, beautiful faces that turned each morning to the sunrise. And these they named Ahlogah and Laida, but in another year there were more of them, so they called them sunflowers, and after that the land in September, the month when they had died, was like gold with the beautiful flowers of the sun." "But what became of the wicked Kapoka? What did they do with him?" asked Prue, anxiously. "They never saw him again. I suppose he was ashamed to come back, and by and by his brother, who was good and noble, ruled the tribe, and they dwelt in peace for many generations." "Do sunflowers belong to a family now?" asked Davy. "Oh, yes, to the very largest of all families--a family that spreads all over the world, and the sunflower has been found to be so perfect in form that the family is sometimes called the Sunflower Family. Its true name is the Composite Family, which means flowers with thick, bunchy centers, formed of a lot of very tiny little flowers, with a rim of petals around the whole--rays they are called--making it into one big flower." "The black-eyed Susans must belong to that family, too," said Davy. "They do, and the daisy, and the marigold, and the zinnia, and the aster, and your lettuce, too, Davy, and many, many more. Whenever you see a flower with a round bunchy center and a rim of petals, like a sunflower--no matter what color or how small it is--you will know it belongs to the Composite Family. I suppose there are more of this family in America than in any other country, but the sunflower is the finest of them all, and the most generally useful. Its seeds are full of fine oil, and are excellent food for cattle and poultry. The Indians sometimes use them for bread. The flowers themselves are full of honey, the leaves, too, are good for cattle, and the stalks make fine fuel. In many places and many countries the sunflowers are cultivated and valued highly. Of course, there are other useful members, and your lettuce is one of the finest salads in the world." IV DID YOU EVER SEE THE LITTLE MAN IN THE PANSY? MARCH was really an exciting month in the little window gardens. With longer and brighter suns, everything grew faster, until the windows began to look full and green, and the children often went outside to look in, and were very proud, indeed, of the pretty show of vines and leaves beyond the glass. The race of vines became very close. Davy had one bean and Prue one morning-glory which kept ahead of the others, and grew about the same each day. They grew so fast that Davy thought if he would only watch very closely he would be able to see them grow a little, but watch as he would, he never could catch the little vine turning or sending out a new leaf. It was like the short hand of the clock. It went twice around each day, but nobody could see it move. The corn and the sunflower were having a race, too, and the sunflower was a little ahead, though Davy's corn was a good deal taller when he lifted the points of the leaves. "I don't think that is fair," said Prue, and the Chief Gardener was called to decide. "No," he said, "the corn must be measured from where the leaves turn over, until it sends up its tassel, or bloom. Then it may be measured to the top of that. And that may be sooner than you think, too," he added, as he looked down into the healthy-looking green stalk that was fully two feet high. "And just see those vines; why they are more than half-way up the casings already!" It was the day before Davy's birthday, and Prue was looking anxiously at her pansies. All at once she gave a joyous cry. "Oh, Papa, a bud! Oh, it truly is, a real sure enough bud!" The Chief Gardener looked with care. "Yes," he said, "it is really a bud, and quite a large one, too. It begins to show the color. It's going to be a purple one, I believe." Prue was fairly wild with excitement. [Illustration: DAVY'S POT OF RADISHES] "Oh, may I pick it to-morrow for Davy's birthday?" she asked. "I don't believe I would, Prue. It won't be open for a week or more, perhaps. I would wait until it opens." So Davy's birthday came and passed without flowers from their garden, but they did have radishes, two of them, and these were cut in two and divided around so that each had quite a nice taste, and a leaf of salad, too. The radishes were nearly as big as marbles, little marbles, of course, and very red and beautiful, and Prue put her pansy-pot on the table, and showed the bud, with its purple tip, every time Davy made any mention of his radishes or his lettuce, and with a big cake and other good things they had a very happy time indeed. But now things began to happen in real earnest. The pansy bloomed--a big velvety, purple bloom, and then there was a yellow bud and a yellow bloom with a purple spot in the center. Little Prue was simply too happy to keep still, and danced in front of her garden almost from morning until night. Then suddenly they found a bud on the bean vines, and then on the morning-glories, and then there were blooms--pink and purple blooms on the morning-glories, and scarlet and white ones on the beans. Then Davy's corn sent out a plume at the top, a wonderful tassel, and when Davy measured to the top of it he found that it was over three feet high. "My birthday will be a regular feast of flowers," said the Chief Gardener, and really there was good reason for saying so, for the window casings were white, scarlet, pink, and purple, and the tasseling corn and the broad green leaves of the sunflower were fair and lovely. And Prue's pansy-pot was again on the table, and when the dinner was over, the Chief Gardener drew it toward him, and picking one of the purple blooms that was nearly ready to fall, said: "Did you ever see the little man in the pansy?" "No, oh, no," said Prue and Davy together. "Show him to us, Papa." So then the Chief Gardener pulled off carefully all the petals of the flower, and there, sure enough, sat a little round-bodied man, in a wonderful green chair, made of the outer part, or calyx, of the flower. His head was light green, his coat pale yellow, and he wore a rich, brown collar. Just below him was a round green sack or tube, filled with water, and when the Chief Gardener slitted it down, why there, truly, were two little legs and feet that had been in the little vessel. The children were delighted. "Oh, tell us about him!" they said. "Who is he?" "He was a king," said the Chief Gardener, "a poor, feeble king, who always sat on a green throne, with his feet in a tub of water. And his wife and daughters, all very splendidly dressed, used to perch themselves around him on the throne and ask for more money to spend on their fine clothes, and they were often cruel to him because he wouldn't give it to them, crowding him and almost smothering him with their velvet dresses. [Illustration: "DAVY'S CORN SENT OUT A PLUME AT THE TOP"] "So one day the fairies heard of it, and came to see. And they took pity on the poor king, and the next time the wife and daughters were crowding him on his throne they changed the king and his throne and all the others, with their fine dresses, into a flower. And the flower was the pansy. The velvet petals are the wife and daughters. The calyx is the green throne, and this little man is the poor, sick king with his feet and legs still in the little tub of water, though he can never be worried and scolded again." "I know that story is true," said little Prue, "for there is the very little man, himself, and oh, see, you can take his coat off, and there is a little green body inside." Sure enough, it was as Prue had said, and the Chief Gardener explained. "That little body becomes a pod to hold the seeds by and by. The little coat helps to make the seed, too. I won't tell you all the names of these things now, for you could not remember so much. Only try to remember that the green throne is called the calyx, and each little piece of it is a sepal, while the beautiful wife and daughters are called petals, and when taken together are called a corolla, and that this is true of every complete flower." And so March, too, slipped away. And on one day near the very end of the month, when it had been warm and bright for nearly a week, the Chief Gardener went out into his garden and turned over some of the earth which was getting dry. Davy said that it smelled all new and springy, and reminded him of kite-time. And then the Chief Gardener made two little beds of his own, and in one he sowed some lettuce, and in the other some radish seed, because these were the things most likely to grow from an early planting. Davy and Prue watched and helped, and were very anxious to have little beds of their own, but the Chief Gardener told them that they would better wait at least another month before they did any outside gardening. Their window gardens were just coming to their best time, he said, and planting outside so early was always risky. And that night when the wind went to the northeast, and a cold rain set in, that turned to snow before morning, and made the ground all white and glassy like December, they were very glad they had not made any beds, and were sorry for the Chief Gardener's little beds of vegetables, outside beneath the cold, cold snow. APRIL APRIL I THE YELLOW DUST IS A FOOD FOR THE SEED APRIL showers began early. The sun shone out brightly on the morning of the first day, but by breakfast time the rain was pattering down, and all the rest of the day there were showers, one after another, that streamed down the garden windows and made a little river of the path outside. Davy said he had never seen it rain so much in one day, and Prue said it was too bad. The Chief Gardener said it was an April fool. But there was reason to be happy, after all. Whether it was the shower outside; or the sun that was trying to shine; or just because it was April, Prue and Davy did not know, but Prue all at once found a bud on her sunflowers and Davy about the same time discovered a tiny brown silky bunch on his corn, the beginning of the ear. Then they forgot all about the rain, or at least they did not care so much, and got their books and their little table and sat down by their garden, which was now a real garden, of real flowers and vegetables, and read some stories about other little people, and looked at the pictures and talked about what they would do when warm weather came and they had a still bigger garden outside. And that night, when the Chief Gardener came home, he had to look at the corn and the sunflower the first thing, and say, "Well, well," every time Prue told him how she had first seen the bud, which was a good many times, and he had to explain to Davy all about the corn silk, and the little ear that was still behind the rough green leaf, and how the dust, or pollen, dropping down from the tassel above helped to make the corn swell and grow on the ear. "It is so in every flower, the yellow dust is a food for the seed. In most plants the seed-pod and the food-dust or pollen are all in one flower, but with the corn they are separate, as you see. Did you ever notice, Davy, how much a cornstalk looks like an Indian, with plumes, and its ear, like a quiver for holding arrows?" "Oh, is that why people sometimes call it Indian corn?" asked Davy. "No, that is not the reason. At least, there is a better one which I will tell you when we have had our dinner." So by and by, when dinner was over, and Prue had two servings of pudding because she didn't care for chocolate cake--one very little serving, of course, the Chief Gardener and Davy, and big Prue and little Prue all went into the library, and the Chief Gardener told the story of II THE COMING OF THE CORN "YOU remember," said the Chief Gardener, "how I told you about the first sunflowers--" "Yes," put in Prue, "about that wicked Kapoka, who pushed poor Ahlogah from the high rocks. Oh, I hope he is not in the corn story, too." "No, he isn't in the corn story, but it was, perhaps, about that time that the corn came to the American Indian tribes, for the corn was first found in America, and it is a true Indian plant like the sunflower. Like the sunflower, too, it came once upon a time. "Well, then, once upon a time, there was a year of famine. The winter had been very cold, and almost all the wild game, upon which the Indians then lived, had either died or gone out of the country. The fish, too, seemed scarce and hard to catch, and the wild fruit had been winter-killed. There was little to eat during the winter, and even when spring came it was not much better, though by and by some of the game came back and there were more fish in the streams. "Still it was very hard to get enough food, and every bird and animal was killed wherever found, and brought to the camps to be eaten. "But one day there flew down very close to one of the very large camps a big bird, such as no one of the tribe had ever seen before. It was not a hawk, nor an eagle, for it was a golden yellow, and it seemed to have come a very long way. It sat quite still, and its wings drooped, and it did not seem frightened when the wondering and hungry Indians came nearer to look at it. "Then one or two Indians began stringing their bows to shoot the great bird for food. But others said, 'No, let us not harm the stranger. He has come from a far country. And see, the color is golden, like the sun. Perhaps, the sun has sent a messenger, as a good omen.' "So they did not kill the bird, but even brought it food, little as they had, and the bird ate and rested through the day. Then just at evening he lifted his great wings and flew away into the sunset, and was seen no more. "But when a week had gone by, there came up where the bird had rested a strange new plant which grew very fast in the warm sun and shower and sent out long graceful leaves, and at last a plume at the top like that of an Indian chief, and from behind the graceful drooping leaves, tufts of silk that became ears, and were like Indian quivers. And when the summer was past, the tribe gathered these ears, and pulled away the husk, and lo, there were the rows of ripened corn, golden like the great bird. "Then the tribes from far and near were called together, and there was great rejoicing and thanks for this new gift, brought to them by the wonderful bird of the sun. And to each chief was given a few of the grains for planting, so that the next year all the tribes around about were watching and tending the tall green stalks that were to give them abundance of seed against another famine. "And that is the legend of the corn. After the third year there was seed for all, and corn became the best and surest food for all the Indian tribes. When the white men came, they ate it, too, and by cultivation made new kinds and colors. Now we have the sweet or sugar corn, the Davy's, and we have popcorn, too, which is only a dwarf corn with a hard, flinty shell which pops open with heat." "Do they raise corn in any other country except America?" asked Davy. "Oh, yes, there is a great deal raised in other countries now, and I believe they claim to have found some grains of it in a very old tomb in Greece, and a picture of it in a very old book in China, so, perhaps, it was from some place in the far East that the great bird of the Indians came with the seed." "And does it belong to a family, too?" asked little Prue. "It is claimed by the grass family, and, of course, it is something like big grass. Wheat and oats and, indeed, all the grains, belong to that wonderful family, too. Then there is broom-corn, useful for making brooms, while sugar-cane, which is also a grass, gives us our best sugar and molasses, but corn not only gives us the ears for food, but the leaves are used for cattle, and the husks for making cushions and mattresses, and for packing fruits. Syrup also is made from the young stalks, and the dry stalks are used for thatching, stable-bedding and fuel. In fact, every part of the corn is valuable, and I think we might call it the king, or, perhaps, being an Indian, the chief of the tribe of Grasses." "I know the best of all the things that comes from it," said little Prue. "What?" asked Davy. "Pop-corn balls," said Prue. III CROSS BY NAME AND CROSS BY NATURE WHAT wonderful things happened to the little window-garden in April! The nasturtium bloomed early in the month--first a red one then a yellow one, then a lot of red and yellow ones. They were so beautiful that almost every meal the little pot stood on the table, and sometimes the pansy-pot, too. And then the sweet-pease bloomed, beautiful pink and white and purple blooms that were so sweet you could smell them as soon as you came into the room. Davy's garden-pease had bloomed even sooner, and had little pods on them by April. Before many days the tiny pease inside began to swell, and you could see every one quite plainly when you turned the pod flat side to the light. As for the beans and morning-glories, they had bloomed and bloomed, and already had seed-pods hanging all the way up the vines that now reached to the top of the casings and looped down and joined in a long festoon which hung between. And how proud the children were of their two beautiful windows. And how happy they were when passers-by stopped to look in, and perhaps wondered about the gardens, and maybe thought that the rosy-cheeked boy and girl looking out between the blossoms and leaves and vines were the brightest and best flowers that bloomed there. And Davy's corn sent out another ear, a little one, and both ears grew and the pollen from above sifted down, and Davy knew that inside the green husks the sweet kernels were forming. "When can we eat it?" he asked almost every day. "Don't you think it's about big enough now?" "When the silk turns brown," said the Chief Gardener. "That is about the best rule. I think you'll have pease and beans, too, pretty soon, so you can have quite a feast." [Illustration: "THE MORNING-GLORIES HAD BLOOMED AND ALREADY HAD SEED-PODS"] "Just in time for my birthday," said big Prue, who had been an April baby a long time ago. "It's ever so long till my birthday," said little Prue, rather sadly. "I don't think we'll have anything left by August." "Oh, but I'll have a fine garden outside by then," said the Chief Gardener, "and you will, too. I'll have radishes and lettuce now before you know it;" for in spite of the cold snow and freeze, the Chief Gardener's first planting had sprouted fairly well, and was rapidly filling his first two little beds. "Papa, you haven't told us a word about my nasturtiums yet, and they're so lovely. Not a single story or anything, nor about their family relations, or where they came from--not a thing." "Well, that's so," said the Chief Gardener, "perhaps because I wanted to make a family affair of it. You see, Davy's radish is a sort of a name-cousin of your nasturtium, and I've been thinking that when I told about one I'd tell of the other, too, and that I'd call the story IV A PEPPERY FAMILY [Illustration: "CABBAGE" WAS THE FAT FELLOW'S NAME] "NOBODY seems to know just where the Cross family came from. You can find them in every part of the world now, some of them growing as weeds, some as flowers, and some as very fine vegetables. But wherever they came from, in the beginning, they were certainly of very sharp, biting natures, and never could agree. Why, they were so cross that even their flowers were shaped like little crosses, and people called them cruciferous, which means cross-shaped, and used to say of them, "'Cross by name and cross by nature, Cross of fibre, face, and feature,' and did not want them in their gardens, because they disturbed the other vegetables and flowers, and might make them cross, too. "Well, the Cross family became tired of this, at last, and made up their minds to be either useful or ornamental: at least, most of them did. So they got together, and after a great deal of quarrelling among themselves to begin with, for, of course, they couldn't help that when they had been unpleasant so long, they at last began to work together and decide what each wanted to be, and how it could be brought about. "'I think,' said a fat one who was always better-natured than any of the others, 'I should like to be a nice sweet vegetable that people were very fond of and gave a good place to, in their gardens, where I should be well taken care of.' "So the Clerk of Plants, who was alive then, like the Weather Clerk, you know, put down 'Cabbage,' which was the fat fellow's name, and wrote after it, 'Sweet vegetable--needs care.' "'I,' said another, 'would like to be a sweet vegetable, too, but I want to grow mostly under the ground, so that I will need less care to keep off insects and worms.' "So then the Clerk of Plants wrote 'Turnip,' and put after it, 'Vegetable with sweet, wholesome root; needs little care.' "So they went on with those who wanted to be vegetables. But most of the others did not want to be quite so sweet in their nature as the turnip and the cabbage. They said they liked people with a little temper of their own, so the radish, who was a fat, red little chap, was put down as a vegetable rather sweet, but with sharp flavor, and 'Horseradish' was put down, 'Very sharp and biting, to be used only for seasoning.' The Clerk was about to turn to those who wanted to be flowers, when a little green plant, who had been named 'Nose Torment,' because he made people's noses itch and burn, spoke up and said, 'I should like to be beautiful and useful, too--a pretty green dressing that people like, and I will grow in the water, which may wash away some of my ill manners.' "So then the Clerk of Plants dropped the name of 'Nose Torment' and wrote down, 'Water Cross, a fine table-salad--grows in clear streams.' "'But I don't like the name "Cross,"' said the little plant. "'Oh, well,' said the clerk, 'spell it with an "e" then--make it Cress.' So Water-cress it became, and all the others spelled their family name with an 'e,' too, and became the Cress family instead of the Cross family, just as people often change the spelling of their names to-day. "But the Clerk of Plants wasn't through, for there were a good many who wanted to be flowers. Some of them wanted to be very sweet flowers, and some, like mustard, wanted to be flowers and useful, too. So the Clerk wrote down 'Wallflower,' and 'Stock' and Candy tuft,' and a good many others, but there was one gentle little blossom which said, 'Oh, I want to be white and pure, and have a sweet and delicate perfume that all people will love.' And this was 'Alyssum,' and when the Clerk wrote it down, he wrote it 'Sweet Alyssum,' and so it has been called ever since. "And then, when the Clerk was all through, he said, 'There are some who have not come to the meeting. Where is your brother, Mustard? And yours, Alyssum, the one we call Pepper-grass, because he is so fiery?' "Mustard and Alyssum shook their heads sadly. "'Well,' said the Clerk, 'they have had their chance. They are wild and will always be,' so he wrote down. 'Wild Mustard' and Pepper-grass,' and after these names he put the word 'Weeds.'" "But my nasturtium, Papa, what about that?" "Why, that's so, I forgot all about your nasturtium. Well, you see, it doesn't really belong to the Cress family, but is only a name-relative. The word nasturtium comes from two Latin words, _nasi tormentum_, which means Nose Torment, and it was Nasturtium that little Water-cress had sometimes been called." "But," said Prue, "my nasturtium isn't water-cress." [Illustration: "THEY CALLED IT NASTURTIUM"] "No, but when it was discovered, and the people tasted the leaves and the flowers, and sometimes used them for salad, and especially when they found it had a sharp-tasting seed, they called it Cress, Indian Cress, and then they took the name that little Water-cress had dropped and called it Nasturtium. So you see it isn't really a Cress or a Nasturtium. It is only called that. It's true name is Acriviola, or Sharp Violet, because of its taste, and the flower, which is shaped something like a violet. All the true Cress family have a corolla of but four petals, shaped like a cross, and nearly all the flowers, and especially the seed-pods, have a sharp flavor. Even the Sweet Alyssum has the least touch of the old flavor, and mustard is very sharp. On the whole, the Cress family has become a most useful and ornamental family, and the Acriviola or Nasturtium, which is neither a violet nor a nasturtium, but a geranium--of the geranium family, I mean--need not be at all ashamed of its adopted names." V FOR IN THAT DISH WAS DAVY'S CORN WHEN big Prue's birthday came, there was much excitement. Of course, there were the presents which must be hidden until the very morning, but even the presents were not of the very greatest importance this year. Oh, no, this year it was the garden. Big Prue's birthday was to be a regular garden feast. [Illustration: ALYSSUM--THE SWEETEST OF THE "CROSS" FAMILY] For now the days had become warm and bright. Already the children had been to the woods for hepaticas and violets, and everywhere the trees were tinged with green. The little garden had fairly filled the window so that now you had to look between the vines to see. Even in the garden outside, the Chief Gardener had made some more beds, and the first ones--the radishes and lettuce--were so well along, that early on the morning of big Prue's birthday he brought in some tiny radishes and some tender green salad leaves, almost as good, Davy said, as the first ones from his garden. "These are for breakfast," he said. "You and Prue will have to supply the birthday dinner." And that is just what they did. First of all there was a lovely bunch of sweet-pease on big Prue's plate--these, of course, being from Prue's garden. There was a little bunch of pansies for Prue, while for the Chief Gardener and Davy there were round, bright sunflowers, one each for their buttonholes. In the center of the table there was a wonderful little glass bowl of nasturtium flowers, that were so fresh and pretty that one must be hungry just to look at them. Then it was Davy's turn. In a pretty salad-dish on a little side table, there was a lettuce salad that looked like a great green bloom, and lying upon another smaller dish at the side, were four of the roundest, reddest radishes imaginable, the very last of the little garden crop. But now something came in in two small covered dishes, something that steamed, and behold, when they were opened, in one were Davy's beans, ever so many, white and mottled, all cooked and hot and ready to be eaten, and in the other Davy's pease! But that was not all. Still another steaming dish came in, and when that was opened, everybody fairly shouted, "Oh, my!" for in that dish was Davy's corn! Think of it! Two whole ears of corn, one large one to be divided between little Prue and Davy. Never was there such a birthday dinner as that. The flowers were beautiful, the beans and the pease splendid, while the corn, why the corn was just the sweetest and best corn that was ever raised. They all said so, and Davy got excited and said he was going to plant a thousand acres of corn just as soon as the Chief Gardener would let him. And then they began to plan for the new garden of summer-time, which was to be made outside. Most of their things they thought they would take out of the windows, and reset in the open garden, but, of course, there were no radishes or lettuce to take now, and the corn and pease were no longer of value, while the vines would be hard to move. So they decided to take out all but the vines. Prue could reset her pansies and nasturtiums and sunflower, and the sweet-pease, which would bloom all summer, perhaps, leaving the morning-glories and scarlet runner in the windows, to bloom as long as they would. "My windows would look very bare without even the vines left of the little gardens," said big Prue, "but it is getting so green outside, that we won't miss them so much now, and, of course, everything must go, sometime." "And we are going to have them next year," said Davy. "We will begin then earlier, and have other things, too, but first we are going to have ever and ever so much outside, in the real garden. Prue is going to have flowers, and I am going to have, oh, ever and ever so many good things to eat!" And so with big Prue's birthday dinner, the little garden in the windows saw its greatest glory, and the month of April, which had been its happiest season, came to a happy end. MAY MAY I SWEET-PEASE HAVE TO BE PUT DOWN PRETTY DEEP IT was May and the apple-trees were in bloom. In the garden outside was the Chief Gardener, with Prue and Davy--one on each side--hoeing and digging and raking. The early plantings, like radishes and lettuce and pease, were already well along, but it was just time, now, for a second planting of these things, and for the first planting of such things as corn and beans, and most of the kinds of flowers. Some sweet-pease, it is true, little Prue had planted earlier, one warm day in April, when the Chief Gardener had dug for her a trench along the fence, and she had put in the pease, one at a time, and just so far apart, so that they wouldn't crowd, she said, or get in each other's way. The trench was quite deep--most too deep, Prue thought, but then sweet-pease have to be put down pretty deep, and the soil dragged up to the vines as they grow, to give them strength. Now, she planted some sweet-williams, and pansies, and mignonettes, and alyssum, and had brought most of her pots from the house, and set the things in a little row by themselves, so that they might still be company as they had been through the long winter and late spring. Davy, too, had made a fine garden, with six hills of sweet-corn, one hill of cantaloupes, a row of pease, a little row of onions, lettuce, and radishes, besides a very small row of sweet herbs, such as marjoram, fennel, and thyme. Each garden was fully eight feet square, which is really quite a good-sized garden, when you remember that it must be kept nicely tilled and _perfectly clean_ of weeds. "I think I will have a hill of cucumbers, too," said Davy. "I like cucumbers." "But they won't do, near your cantaloupes," said the Chief Gardener. "You see, cucumbers and cantaloupes belong to the same family, and one of the most twining, friendly families I know of. Each member left to itself is very good in its way, and often ornamental, but let them run together ever so little and before you know it they begin to mix up and look like one another, and even have tastes alike. A cucumber-hill there, Davy, would spoil the taste of your cantaloupes, and the cucumbers would not be good either. It's the same way with watermelons, and citrons, and pumpkins, and all the rest of the gourds." "Gourds!" "Why, yes, they all belong to the Gourd family, and they will all look and taste like gourds if you give them a chance. It's really, of course, because the pollen of one blows into the bloom of the other, and the members of the Gourd family are so closely related that pollens blend and mix. Different kinds of corn will do the same thing. That is why we have our popcorn as far from our sweet corn as we can get it. There are other families that do not mix at all. We grow apples and plums and peaches and roses, side by side--even different kinds of each--and they never mix." "But apples and plums and peaches are not roses, are they?" asked little Prue. "Just as much as strawberries, and pears and quinces are," said the Chief Gardener. The children looked at him rather puzzled. "How about blackberries and raspberries?" asked the Chief Gardener. "Don't you think they look a little, a very little, like wild roses, only the flowers are smaller and white, instead of pink?" "Why, yes, so they do!" nodded Davy. "And doesn't the bloom of a blackberry look like the bloom of a plum, and a cherry, and a pear, and an apple, and all those things?" "A good deal," said Prue, "and wild crab blossoms look just like little wild roses, and they smell so sweet, too." "And the wild crab has thorns like a rose, only not so sharp," said Davy. [Illustration: "DON'T YOU THINK THE BLACKBERRY LOOKS A LITTLE LIKE A WILD ROSE?"] "And a rose has little apples after the bloom falls," said the Chief Gardener. "I have known children to eat rose apples, though I don't think they could be very good." Davy had run down to the corner of the garden and came back now with something in his hand. It was a wild rose that grew by the hedge there; a pretty, single pink blossom. Then he stopped and picked a strawberry bloom, and one from the apple-tree that hung over the fence. These he brought over to the little bench where Prue and the Chief Gardener had sat down to rest. The Chief Gardener took them and held them side by side. "There, you will see they are all very much alike," he said. The children looked at them. Then Prue ran across the lawn and came back with a little yellow bloom. "Isn't this flower one of them, too?" she asked. "Some people call it wild strawberry, and some sink-field." "That," said the Chief Gardener, "is cinque-foil. I suppose the name sink-field comes from that. It is French, and means five-leaved, but sink-field is not so bad a name either, for it often grows in moist places. Yes, that is a rose, too." "Then buttercups must be roses," said Davy. "They look just like that." "No, Davy, that is one place where our eyes must look sharp. Can you find a buttercup?" "Oh, plenty," said Prue, and ran to bring them. Then the Chief Gardener took a buttercup and an apple-bloom, and held them side by side. There was a difference, but not very great. Then he took his knife, and divided the blossoms in half. "Now look again," he said, and he took a small magnifying-glass from his pocket and held it so that they could see. "The petals and the sepals (that make the corolla and the calyx, you know) are a good deal the same," he said, "but, you see, there are many more stamens in the buttercup, and then the seed pod or pods, which we call the pistils, are not at all alike. The buttercup has a lot of tiny pods or pistils inside the flower, while the apple-bloom has one round pod below the flower, and this forms the fruit. The buttercup does not make fruit. It belongs to the Crowfoot family, and is a cousin of the hepatica and of the larkspur, which you would not think from the shape of the larkspur's bloom. The Crowfoot family is not so beautiful nor so useful as the Rose family, which is, perhaps, the most useful family next to the Grass family, and certainly one of the most beautiful families in the world." "I think the Rose family is nicer than the Grass family," said Prue. "Oh, no," said Davy. "We couldn't do without wheat and corn, and we could do without fruit and flowers--that is, of course, if we had to," he added with a sigh. "I couldn't," said little Prue. "I like flowers best, and jelly and jam to eat on my biscuits, and you like all those things, too, Davy, and shortcake, and berry pie." "Of course! but how would you have biscuits and shortcake without wheat to make the flour of?" The Chief Gardener smiled. [Illustration: "AND THE APPLE-BLOSSOM, TOO"] "We can't decide it," he said. "They go together. It is said that we shall not live on bread alone, and I don't think we could live altogether on fruit and flowers, though I believe some people try to do so. Jam and bread go together, and a shortcake must have both crust and fruit to be a real shortcake. Wheat fields and orchards march side by side, and taking these together we have peach pudding and apple tart." Prue was looking out over her little garden where the smoothly patted rows of beds made her quite happy, just to see them. "I've got four things that begin with sweet," she said. "Sweet-pease, sweet-williams, sweet-mignonette, and sweet-alyssum." "And my little Sweetheart is the sweetest flower of all," said the Chief Gardener. II DIFFERENT FAMILIES OF ANTS HAVE DIFFERENT DROVES OF COWS IT seemed wonderful to the Chief Gardener how much the children had learned just from the little pots of their window-garden. He had let them begin these gardens merely as an amusement, at first, but during those long winter weeks while the plants were growing and being cared for daily, little by little, Prue and Davy had been learning the how and why. When the seeds began to come now, he had to tell them very little about the care of the plants. It is true that Davy was a little too anxious to hoe his rows of pease and salad almost before they were out of the ground, and hoed up a few plants, while Prue wanted to water her garden when the bright sun was shining, which would have baked the ground and done more harm than good. But they both knew so much more than they had known a year ago, that the Chief Gardener was glad of those little window-gardens which were now gone. "You see, I was remembering the worm that cut off one of my cornstalks," said Davy one morning when the Chief Gardener found him digging carefully around the tender shoots. "I found one, too, but he hadn't done any harm yet." "I'm crumbling the hard dirt around my little plants," said Prue, "it's so sharp and cakey, and I pull out every little weed I see, so they won't have a chance to get big." The Chief Gardener looked on approvingly. Then he walked over to his own rows and looked carefully at his pease, which were just now beginning to bloom. Then he got down and looked more closely. Then he called Davy and Prue. They left their work and came quickly. "Look here," said the Chief Gardener, "I have a whole drove of cattle in my garden." "Cattle!" said Davy. "Oh, Papa's just fooling," said Prue. "Why, no," said the Chief Gardener, "don't you see them. There is a whole drove of cows," and he pointed to some little green bug-like things that clustered on the tips of his pea-vines. The children looked closely and then turned to him to explain. "There are some ants there, too," said Davy. "They are crawling up and down." "Yes," said the Chief Gardener. "They own the cows. The cows are those green things--aphides, they are called, and the ants milk them. Look very carefully now." Prue and Davy watched and saw an ant go to one of the green insects and touch with its bill first one, and then the other, of two little horns that grew from the aphid's back. And then the ant went to another aphid, and did the same thing. Then they saw that tiny drops of fluid came from the ends of these tiny green horns. "That," said the Chief Gardener, "is honeydew, or ant's milk. The ants are very fond of it, and wherever you find these aphides, you will find ants, milking them. In fact, I believe the ants keep these aphides during the winter in some of their houses, and drive them in the spring to tender green feeding-places like these pea-vines, so that the milk will be sweet and plentiful. I have heard that different families of ants have different droves of cows, and fight over them, too." The children were very much interested in all this, and watched the ants run up and down the vines and milk their cows. Then the Chief Gardener said, "I'm sorry, but I'm afraid we'll have to get rid of these. They are very bad for young plants, and ants are, too. They suck the juice, and ruin them. I must give them a mixture." He went into the basement and cut up a few ounces of whale-oil soap, and dissolved it in hot water. Then when it was cool and weakened, he sprinkled the pease with it. The next day all the cows were gone, and most of the ants. But about a week later, just after a shower, there they were again, and the Chief Gardener said that the ants must have driven up a new herd. So he had to sprinkle them again, and even once more before the end of the month; and while he was sprinkling, he sprinkled the little gardens, too, for whale-oil soap when it isn't used strong enough to hurt the young plants is a fine thing for little gardens, and big ones, too. III THERE ARE MANY WAYS OF PRODUCING SPECIES THERE were a good many rains in May. The weeds grew and grew, and it was hard to keep them down when it was wet and warm, and the plants were still so small. Prue and Davy had to get down close and pull them out carefully with their fingers, and this left the little green rows so straight and trim, and the earth smelled so nice when the sun came out warm, after a shower, that the children grew happy in the work, and wanted to plant new things almost every day. Around the house Prue had planted a border of nasturtiums on one side, and a border of marigolds on the other, and they were all coming up and looked as if they would grow into strong, fine plants. Davy had planted some hills of castor beans in the garden, because the Chief Gardener had said that they were good for the three Ms--moles, malaria, and mosquitoes. He was also attending very faithfully to a row of strawberries which the Chief Gardener had told him he might have for his own. The little boy was quite skillful with a hoe, and could take care of his vegetables almost as well as the Chief Gardener, so the Chief Gardener thought. "You must not hoe your beans when the dew is on them, Davy," he said one morning. "The vines are tender and it causes them to rust or blight, but you may hoe most of the other things, and you may hoe around most of your vegetables as often as you want to. Loosening up the soil about young plants makes them grow. It gives the roots a chance to spread, and lets sun and air into the soil. You must be a little more careful with flowers, Prue, for they are usually more tender, and it is better to dig with an old knife or a small, weeding rake. You must thin out your plants, too. Keep pulling from between, as they grow larger, so that they stand farther and farther apart. Where plants grow too thickly they are small, and the flowers and vegetables poor. People sometimes try to raise more on a small piece of ground by having more plants on it, but it does not pay, for the plants do not produce as much as if there were only half as many on the same soil. Give everything plenty of room and air, and they will grow and thrive like children who have a good playground and plenty of wholesome food." "Papa," said Prue, "you were talking the other day of the different kinds of one thing: what makes them?--the different kinds of roses, I mean, and pansies, and--" "And peaches and apples," interrupted Davy, "I want to know that, too." The Chief Gardener did not answer just at first. Then he said, "I am afraid that is a pretty big subject for little people. There are a good many ways of producing species of flowers, and some of them are not easy to understand. But I can tell you, perhaps, about the fruits now, and we will try to understand about some of the flowers another time. "To begin with, the upper part and the lower parts of our fruit-trees are different. The root and a little of the lower stalk is from a seed, and upon this has been grafted or spliced with soft bands and wax, a bud from some choice kind of peach or apple or plum, or whatever the tree is to be, and this new bud grows and forms the tree. Sometimes a bud of the choice kind is merely inserted beneath the bark of another tree and grows and forms a new limb. By and by, when it bears fruit, the fruit will be of the kind that was on the choice tree, but the seed, though it looks just the same, may be altogether different. If a seed like that is planted, it may make a tree like the root part of the one from which it came, or it may make a tree like the upper part, or it may make something different from either one. No one can tell what that seed will bring. So fruit growers plant a great many such seeds each year, and once in a great while some new peach, or apple, or plum, or cherry, finer than anything ever grown before, comes from one of those seeds. Then every little limb of that tree is saved and grafted or spliced to a lot of sturdy little roots that have come from other seeds, and this new kind of fruit goes out all over the world and is grafted, and re-grafted, until there are trees everywhere of the new kind." [Illustration: The bark is slit to receive the bud The bud is inserted in the opening The limb is then closely bound BUDDING] "And wouldn't I get those same fine peaches we had last year if I planted the seeds?" asked Davy. "You might, Davy, but there are a hundred chances to one that you would get a very poor, small peach, which you would not care to eat." Davy looked disappointed. "Well," he said, "I might as well pull it up, then." "Why, did you plant one, Davy?" asked the Chief Gardener. "Yes, last summer. I didn't know then, and after I ate my peach I planted the seed over there in the corner, and now it's just coming up, and I was going to keep it for a surprise for you." "That's too bad, Davy, but let it grow, anyway. Perhaps it will make some new and wonderful kind. Even if it doesn't, we can have the limbs grafted when it is larger." "Oh, and can you have more than one kind on a tree?" "Why, yes, I have seen as many as three or four kinds of apples on one tree." "And peaches, and apples, and plums, and pears, all on one tree, too?" said Prue. "Why that would be a regular fairy tree!" "We could hardly have that," laughed the Chief Gardener, "though I have heard of peaches, and nectarines, and plums being all on one tree, though I have never seen it. I don't think such things do very well." They went over to look at Davy's little peach-tree, which was fresh and green and tender, and seemed to be growing nicely. "It should have fruit on it in three years," said the Chief Gardener. Davy and Prue did not look very happy at this. It seemed such a long time to wait. "It will pass before you know it," the Chief Gardener smiled. "I shall be as old as Nellie Taber," said little Prue, who had been counting on her fingers, "but Nellie will be older, too," she added with a sigh. "So I'm afraid I can't catch up with her." The Chief Gardener led them over to another part of the garden, where there was a bunch of green leaves, like the leaves of a violet, but when they got down to look, they found that the flowers, instead of being all blue, were speckled and spotted with white. "Oh, Papa, where did you get those funny violets?" asked Prue. "What makes them all speckly?" "I think," said the Chief Gardener, "that this is one of Nature's mixtures. I found it in the Crescent Lake woods last spring, and brought it home. There may be others like it, but I have never seen them. So you see, Nature makes new kinds herself, sometimes. You know, don't you, that the pansies you love so much, Prue, are one kind of violet, cultivated until they are large and fine?" "Why, no, are they violets? Are my pansies violets?" "Yes, they are what is called the heartsease violets. They were a very small flower at first, and not so brightly colored. They will become small again if you let them run wild a year or two." Prue was looking at the variegated violet in her hand. "I should think there's a story about this," she said, nodding her busy, imaginative little head. "Suppose you tell it to us, Prue," said the Chief Gardener. "Well, I think it's this way," said Prue. "Once upon a time there was a little girl named Bessie. And she lived way off--way over by Crescent Lake--with an old witch-woman who was poor. And Bessie had to carry milk to sell, every day, because they had a cow, and Bessie couldn't drink the milk, because they had to sell it. "And one day when Bessie was going with the milk through the woods, she stopped to pick some flowers, because she liked flowers, all kinds, and specially violets. And when she stooped over to pick the violets, a little of her milk spilled out of her pail, and it went on the violets, right on the blue flowers. And when Bessie saw them all spattered with the milk she says, 'Oh, how funny you look! I wish you'd stay that way all the time.' And there was a fairy heard her say that, and she liked Bessie because she was so good, so she made the violets stay just that way with the white spots on them, and Bessie went home, and one day when the old witch-woman died the fairy brought a prince on a white horse, and Bessie went away with him to be a princess, in a palace covered with gold and silver, and lived happy ever after." The Chief Gardener looked down at the little girl beside him. "Why, what an exciting story! Did you make it all just now?" "Yes, just now. It just came of itself," said little Prue. "And didn't Bessie want her violets?" asked Davy. "She took some of them along with her in a basket, and planted them around her new palace." "And the rest she left for us," said the Chief Gardener. "I know now what to call them. We shall call them Bessie's Violets." JUNE JUNE I THEN THEY WENT DOWN INTO THE STRAWBERRY PATCH JUNE, the month of roses, and strawberries. The beautiful month when spring is just turning to summer, and summer is giving us her first rare gifts. In Davy's garden the corn was up, and had grown more in two weeks than the corn planted in the house had grown in four. It was the long sunny days that did this, and the showers that seemed to come almost too often, but perhaps the gardens didn't think so, for they grew, and the weeds grew, too, and kept Prue and Davy busy pulling and hoeing and cultivating. Davy's radishes were big enough to eat just a month from the day they were planted--think of it!--when those planted in the house had taken ever and ever so long. Prue's pansies and sweet-pease, and her other three "sweets" were all up, too, and so green and flourishing. But perhaps the thing that made them both happiest, at this season, was the Chief Gardener's strawberry-patch. Either that or big Prue's roses--they were not sure which. "When I grow up, I am going to have acres and acres of strawberries," said Davy. "And miles and miles of roses," said Prue. "And herds and herds of little Jersey cows that only give the richest cream," said the Chief Gardener. "And we'll put wreaths of roses about the cows' necks," said big Prue, "and drive them home at evening, and milk the rich creamy milk and put it on the fresh strawberry shortcake, just out of the oven--" [Illustration: THE CHIEF GARDENER'S STRAWBERRIES (Members of the Rose Family)] "And eat and eat forever," interrupted Davy. "And be happy ever after," finished little Prue. After that nobody said anything for quite a long time--thinking how fine all that would be, when it came. Then they went down into the strawberry-patch where the big red berries were ripening on the broad, green leaves. And little Prue and her mamma went into the house and came out with two bowls--one quite large bowl--white, with blue vines and flowers on it, and one quite small bowl--white, with blue kittens on it, chasing one another around and around on the outside. And the Chief Gardener and big Prue picked the ripe red berries and put them in the big bowl. And Davy and little Prue picked the ripe red berries and put them into the little bowl. And sometimes the Chief Gardener would eat a berry--a real, real ripe one--just to see if they were good, he said. And sometimes big Prue would eat a berry--a real, real little one--just to see if little berries would do for a shortcake, she said. And sometimes little Prue would eat a berry, and sometimes Davy would eat a berry--big, big berries--just because they looked so good, and tasted so good, that a little boy and a little girl could not help eating them, even if it took some of the berries out of the shortcake they were going to have for tea. But they didn't eat all of the berries they picked. Oh, no. They put some of the berries into the little white bowl with the blue kittens chasing one another around and around on the outside. And the Chief Gardener and big Prue put most of their berries into the big bowl with the blue flowers and vines on it. And by and by both of the bowls were full--full clear to the top and heaping--so that no more berries, not even the very little ones, would lay on. And then big Prue took the big bowl, and little Prue the little bowl, and they went up the little garden step into the house, carrying the bowls very carefully, so as not to spill any of the red berries that were heaped up so high that no more, not even very little ones, would lay on. And the Chief Gardener and Davy followed along behind, talking of the fine June evening, and saying how long the days were now and how far to the north the sun was setting. Then they looked around at the garden, and wondered if they would have green corn by the middle of July, and when they looked under the bean vines they found that some pods were quite large, and the Chief Gardener said that by Sunday they could have beans, and pease, with lettuce and several other green things--a regular garden dinner. And then little Prue came out and called them to come--right off. And they saw that she was dressed in a fresh white dress, and that her hair was tied with a bright blue ribbon, and her face was as rosy as a strawberry. "We have got the deliciousest shortcake that ever was!" she called, as they came closer, "and I helped, and rolled the dough and picked over some of the berries!" "You didn't put all the berries in," said the Chief Gardener. "Oh, I did--I did, Papa--all but two." [Illustration: BIG, BIG BERRIES THAT LOOKED SO GOOD] "And I will have those," said the Chief Gardener, and he lifted the little girl in his arms and gave her a big, big kiss, on each rosy cheek. "I think June is the best month that ever was!" said Davy a little later, as he finished his second large piece. "It always seems the queen month to me," said big Prue, "perhaps because it is the month of the rose--the queen of the flowers." "Is the rose really the queen of the flowers?" asked little Prue. "I have always heard so." "How did she get to be queen? Did she just happen to be queen, or did the other flowers choose her?" Little Prue's mamma looked thoughtfully out the garden window, where a great climbing rambler was a mass of red blossoms. "Do you think any other flower could be queen over that?" she asked. "Why, no, but--but don't folks have to choose queens, or something?" "They do presidents," said Davy. "I think you'll have to tell us about it," laughed the Chief Gardener. "It's your turn for a story, anyway." So then big Prue took them all out on the wide veranda, where they could watch the sunset, that came very late now, and there she told them II HOW THE ROSE BECAME QUEEN "ONCE upon a time there was a very great garden that lay between two ranges of blue, blue hills. And the sky above was blue, as blue as the hills, so that you could hardly tell where the sky ended and the hills began, and underneath was the great, beautiful garden which covered all the lands between. "And in this rare garden there were all the choicest flowers and fruit that the world knew, and when the flowers were all in bloom, under that blue, blue sky--in all the wonderful colors of gold and crimson, and royal purple, and with all the banks of white daisies, and all the sweet orchards of apple-bloom, there was nothing like it in the whole world, and the sweet perfume went out so far that sailors on the ships coming in from sea, a hundred miles away, could smell the sweet odors, and would say, 'The wind blows from the garden of the Princess Beautiful.' For I must tell you that the garden was owned by a great Princess, and she was called Beautiful by all who knew of her, and every traveler to that distant country made his way to her white marble palace to seek permission to look upon the most wonderful garden in all the world. "And many who came there were of high rank, like herself, and some of them tried to win her love, for the Princess was like her name and as beautiful as the rarest flower in all that marvelous garden. But to princes and even kings she would not listen, for her heart and pride were only in her flowers, and she wished to remain with them forever and be happy in their beauty. She was only sad when she saw that some of those who came went away with heavy hearts because she would not leave her palace for theirs. "Now once there came to the palace of the Princess Beautiful a great queen. She had traveled far to see the splendid garden, and when she came, the Princess led her with all her court among the flowers. And all that sunlit day, under the blue, blue sky, the great queen and her court lingered in the garden--up and down the paths of white shells, where hyacinths and lilies and daffodils and azaleas grew on every side--and rested in the shade of the blossoming orchard trees. And when it was evening, and they had gone, and the flowers were left alone, they whispered and murmured together, for never before had they seen a queen and her court. "And by and by as the days passed, the flowers decided that they, too, must have a queen--some rare flower, fine and stately, whom they would honor, even as they had seen their beautiful Princess honor her royal guest. And night after night they talked of these things, but never could decide which of their number should be chosen for the high place. "And then one day a great sadness came upon the fair garden between the hills. A young traveler from an unknown country had come to the white palace, and one sunny afternoon the Princess Beautiful had led him among the beds of primroses and lilies and daffodils. And when the sun was going down and she turned and looked into his face, and saw how fair he was, and how the sun made his hair like gold, how it shimmered on his beautiful garments of velvet and fine lace, she felt for the first time a great love arise within her heart. Then, all at once, she forgot her garden, her palace and her pride--forgot everything in all the world except the fair youth who stood there with her in the sunset--and she told him her great new love. "And as she spoke, softly and tenderly, the words she had never spoken to any one before, the breeze died, and the sun slipped down behind the far-off hills. And then, as the light faded, it seemed to the Princess Beautiful that the fair youth before her was fading, too. His face grew dim and misty--his hair became a blur of gold--his rare garments melted back into the beds of bloom. And behold, instead of the fair youth there stood before her in the twilight only a wonderful golden lily with a crimson heart. "Then the Princess Beautiful knew that because she had cared only for her garden, and had sent from her those who had offered a great love like her own, that this wonderful lily had come to her as a youth with a face of radiant beauty, and with hair of gold, to awaken a human love in her heart. And each day she mourned there by the splendid lily, and called upon it to return to her as the fair youth she had loved; and at last when its flowers faded and the stem drooped, the white palace of the Princess Beautiful was empty, for the Princess lay dead beside the withered lily in the rare garden between the hills. "And there they made her grave, and above it they built a trellis where a white climbing rose might grow. But when the rose bloomed, instead of being white, it was a wonderful crimson, such as no one had ever seen before. And when the other flowers saw those beautiful crimson blossoms, they no longer mourned, for they said, 'This is our Princess Beautiful who has returned to be our queen.' "And so it was the red rose became the queen of flowers, and a symbol of great human love. The poet Burns sings, 'My love is like a red, red rose That's newly blown in June,' and it was always in June that the great crimson rose bloomed on the grave in the garden of the Princess Beautiful." "And did the lily ever bloom again?" asked little Prue. "I'm sure it must have done so. We always speak of roses and lilies as belonging together, and there is a great golden lily called the Superbus, which I think might have been the beautiful youth that came to the white palace." "Does the story mean that we shouldn't care too much for our gardens?" asked Davy. "More than for folks, I mean?" "Do you know, Davy," said the Chief Gardener, "I was just wondering about that, too." III THE SUN IS THE GREATEST OF ALL CHEMISTS IT was about a week later, that one afternoon little Prue and Davy and the Chief Gardener were helping big Prue with her roses, and admiring all the different kinds. Little Prue had been thinking a good deal about roses since the story of the Princess Beautiful, and wondering just which of the climbing red ones had grown about her grave. Then she began to wonder about all the kinds, and how they came. She spoke about this now, as her mamma pointed out one which she said was a new rose--just offered for sale that year. "Where did it come from?" asked the little girl, "where do new roses come from?" "From seed," answered the Chief Gardener, "like the new peaches and apples I told you of. Roses belong to the same family, you know, and they are grafted much in the same way. Then the seeds are planted, and from these, fine new kinds are likely to come. Rose-growers are always trying hard to make new kinds by mixing the pollen. The pollen, you remember, is the yellow powder on the little tips of the stamens. These tips, as I believe I told you, are called anthers, and the slender part of the stamen is the filament. It is the pollen falling from the anthers upon the single green stem or pistil in the center of the flower that produces the seed. The pistil is divided in parts, too. The little top piece is called the stigma, and the slender green stem is called the style. The pollen falls on the stigma and is drawn down through the style to give life to the seed-pod below." [Illustration: THE ROSE STAMENS AND PISTIL WHICH PRODUCE THE SEED] The Chief Gardener picked the bloom of a single bramble rose and pulled it apart to show the children all these things. "Now," he went on, "gardeners often take a rose of one kind and color and shake it gently over a rose of another kind and color, so that the pollen will fall from the anthers of one upon the stigma of the other. In this way the seeds are mixed and it may happen that wonderful new roses come from those seeds. Sometimes, instead of shaking the rose, the gardener carefully takes up the pollen on a tiny soft brush and lays it gently on the stigma of the other rose, all of which has to be done as soon as the bloom is open. Of course, such roses are kept to themselves, and labeled, and the seeds are carefully labeled also." Davy and Prue were both interested. "Oh, can I make some new kinds of roses," asked little Prue, greatly excited. "Can I, Mamma?" "You may try, but I am afraid you will not be very successful where all the roses are out here in the open air. Still, it will do no harm to see what will happen, and you might get something very wonderful." "I am already trying for a new kind of peach," said Davy. "And if you get a good one we will call it the 'Early David,'" laughed the Chief Gardener. "And what will you call my rose?" "Why, 'the Princess Prue,' of course." "Do seeds from the same bush make the different roses?" asked Davy. "Yes, and from the same pod." "But are the seeds just alike?" "They are so far as anybody can see, but when they come to grow and bloom, one may be a white rose, another pink, and another red. Some may be dwarfs in size, and others giants. All may have the same sun, the same water, the same air, and the same soil. It is only the tiny little difference which we cannot see that makes the great difference in the plant, by and by." Davy was thinking very hard. Soon he said: "And where do sweet and sour and all the pepper and mustard and horseradish tastes come from? The air and the water don't taste. I never tasted much dirt, but I don't believe any of it would bite like a red pepper." [Illustration: "GARDENERS OFTEN TAKE A ROSE OF ONE KIND AND SHAKE IT GENTLY OVER A ROSE OF ANOTHER KIND"] The Chief Gardener laughed. "No, Davy, I don't believe it would," he said. "And I think the sun is the only one who could answer your question. It is a chemistry which no one of this world has been able to explain. Chemistry is a magic which you will understand by and by, and you will know then that the sun is the greatest of all chemists. Suppose we go down into your gardens and see what he is doing there." [Illustration: "SOMETIMES THE GARDENER TAKES UP THE POLLEN ON A SOFT BRUSH AND LAYS IT GENTLY ON THE STIGMA OF ANOTHER ROSE"] They all went down the little steps that led to the Chief Gardener's enclosure, where Prue and Davy had their gardens, side by side with his. There just as they entered was a great mass of morning-glory vines that every morning were covered with a splendor of purple, and pink, and white, and blue, and just beyond these was a mass of dianthus pinks of every hue and shade. Bachelor-buttons, petunias, and verbenas were all there, too, besides Prue's sweet-pease by the fence, and her alyssum and mignonette. Then came Davy's things, all fresh and growing, and beyond these the Chief Gardener had ever so many things, from beets to beans, from parsley to parsnips, from carrots to corn. In one small corner by the strawberry-bed there grew a little bed of pepper plants, and near-by a row of tomatoes. The Chief Gardener stopped in the midst of all these things. "Here is the sun's chemistry," he said. "We put some tiny bits of life in the ground. The same earth holds them, the same rain wets them, the same air is above them. Then the sun shines, and with that earth and water and air and that tiny seed, it makes something different of its own. Of one it makes a flower, of another a fruit, and of another a vegetable. Of the flowers it makes many kinds and colors--of the fruits and vegetables it makes many shapes and flavors. The sweet red strawberry and the fiery red pepper grow side by side. It makes food of the roots of the beet, and the parsnip, and carrot, and of the seed of the bean, and of the corn. It fills the mustard, and the horseradish, and the pepper, with a flavor so that we may season our meats and soups, and it gives to thyme, and marjoram, and fennel, a sweet savor that is like an odor of by-gone days. Into the flowers it pours the color and perfume that make them delicious and beautiful, and into the fruit and vegetables the starch and phosphates that make them pleasant to the taste and nourishing to our bodies. Where do all these things come from? We do not see the colors, or smell the perfumes, or taste the sweet and the sour and the bitter in the air and water, and we could not see, or smell, or taste, them in the earth. Yet they must be there, and only the sun knows just how and where to find them, and how to make the best use of them for the world's good, and comfort, and happiness. Without the sun the earth would be bare and cold, and there would be no life--at least, not such life as we know. Every breath we draw, every bite we eat, every step we take, every article of clothing we wear, comes to us through the sun." "Papa, we _can_ see the sun's colors," said Davy. "When it shines through the cut-glass berry-dish it makes all its colors on the table-cloth." "So it does, Davy, I didn't remember that. A glass prism shows us all the colors in the sunlight, and these are the colors that it puts into the flowers and fruit--just how, I am afraid we shall never know, though like all great wonders, I suppose, it is really a very simple thing. When plants grow without sunlight, they grow without color, and it is the same with little boys and girls. Open air, sunlight, fresh water, and good food--these are what make plants and people strong and happy and beautiful." And so June passed and half the year was gone. Prue and Davy were brown from working and playing out of doors, and were growing so fast that Davy said it was hard for his corn to keep up with him. They took great pride in the flowers and vegetables that came to the table from their gardens and always wanted them in separate dishes from those that came from the larger garden. When any of their friends came to dine with them, it was Prue's flowers that were to be worn and Davy's vegetables that were first to be served. By the end of June some of the early things were gone, and had been replanted. Other things had grown so big that they were beginning to crowd in their rows and beds, so that by the first of July, the little gardens that grew side by side, and could be seen like a picture through the windows where the winter gardens had been, reminding little Prue of Alice's garden in Wonderland, had become almost a wonderland jungle. JULY JULY I A PLANT IS DIVIDED INTO THREE PRINCIPAL PARTS "CLASS in botany will please rise." Davy and Prue looked up quickly from their little corner by the peach-tree. It was a warm day, and they were resting in what they called their "house," because it was a shut-in nook behind the corn, and with tall sunflowers on the other side. Just now when the Chief Gardener came upon them they were pulling some flowers to pieces and talking about them very earnestly. "Class in botany please rise," he said again, taking a seat himself on a bench close by. "But I can't--it's too warm," said little Prue, "and besides I've got my lap full of flowers." "Can't the class in botany sit by the teacher?" asked Davy. The teacher moved over. Prue gathered her dress into an apron, and presently the children were perched one on each side of the Chief Gardener, who fanned himself with his straw hat, for it was a real July day. "We've been seeing how many of the parts of a plant we knew," said Davy. "We know all the parts, I guess, but of some plants we can't tell which are which." "Suppose you name the parts for me," said the Chief Gardener. "Oh, let me! Let me!" began Prue. "I asked first!" Davy looked a little disappointed, but waited. "Very well, suppose you try, Prue." The little maid was excited. "Why--why, there's the c'roller and the calyx and the pistil and the panthers, and--" The Chief Gardener laughed in spite of himself, and Davy looked rather shocked. "She always calls the anthers 'panthers,'" he said, sorrowfully, "and she never will say 'corolla' right." "And those are not the parts of a plant either," added the Chief Gardener, "but the parts of a flower. A plant is divided into three principal parts. Now, Davy, it's your turn. See if you can tell me what they are." "Well," began Davy, "the root is one." "The root is one, Davy; quite right. Now for the others." "The leaves are another." "The leaves, yes, the leaves are another." "And the flower makes three, doesn't it? But then there's the stalk, too. That makes four. There must be four parts." "There are a great many parts," nodded the Chief Gardener, "but there are only three principal parts--the root, the stem, and the leaf. To a botanist--one who studies plants and how they grow--the flower is only a branch of the stem, and its parts are leaves." "I suppose that is why rose-petals are called leaves," said little Prue. "I think it is." "But--but don't you think a flower _ought_ to be a principal part?" asked Davy. "Well, it is in a way. It is a particular kind of a principal part, made for a special purpose. But after all, it is really a branch, for it comes from a bud, just as other branches do, and it comes just where any branch would come. Many times you cannot tell whether a bud is going to make a flower or just leaves until it opens. And there are a few queer flowers in the world that can hardly be told from leaves even after they do open." II THERE ARE EXOGENS AND ENDOGENS "NOW let us tell the parts of a flower. That was what we were doing when you came up," said Davy. "And let me tell again," said little Prue. "I know I can get them right, this time." So little Prue told again, and got it almost right, though she did call anthers "panthers" again, just as the first time. "Now, Davy, it's your turn," said the Chief Gardener. Davy picked up a little pink flower which he had found in the grass. It was oxalis, or sorrel, and sometimes the children nibbled the sour leaves, calling it sour-grass. Of course, you must not forget that Davy was older than Prue, and perhaps a little more thoughtful. "This," he began, picking off the little green flower-casing, "is the calyx, and each little piece is called a sepal. This flower has five sepals in its calyx, and five petals in its corolla. These are the petals," and he pulled out the little pink flower-leaves, and laid them by the green sepals. Then he held it up for the Chief Gardener and little Prue to see. "Look at the stamens," he said. "They all grow together at the bottom." "That's because your sorrel is a Monadelphian," said the Chief Gardener. Davy looked puzzled. [Illustration: THE PISTIL AND STAMENS OF THE LILY] "I know what a Philadelphian is," said Prue. Davy laughed. "The words are very much alike," smiled the Chief Gardener. "They both mean brotherhood, and come from some old Greek words. Philadelphia means brotherly love, and Monadelphia means brotherly union. You see those stamens are all brothers and are joined together as one. All plants with such stamens are called Monadelphians." "A stamen has three parts," Davy went on, "its filament, its anther, and its pollen. The filament is the stem, the anther is its cap, and the pollen is the dust which falls on the pistil and helps to make the seed." [Illustration: A PISTIL AND CALYX AND A COMPLETE FLOWER] Very carefully Davy took away the ring of stamens, and left only the little yellowish-green center of the sorrel flower. "This is where we get the seed," he said, as gravely as an old college professor lecturing to a class. "This is the pistil, and it has three parts, too: the pod, the style, and the stigma. The stigma is the little piece at the top which catches the pollen from the anthers. The style is the stem, and the pod is the big part below which holds the seeds." He held up the little stripped flower again. "This pistil has five styles and five stigmas," he went on. "A good many flowers have more than one. It has ten stamens, too--two stamens for each style, and five petals and five sepals. You can divide it by five all the way through." "Even to the seed-pod," added the Chief Gardener. "It has five divisions," and he cut the tiny green pulp and showed them with his magnifying-glass. "The little sorrel flower is one of the most perfect of flowers--one of the most perfect in a great class of flowers called Ex-o-gens. There is one other class called End-o-gens. Those words are from the Greek, too. Exogen means outward-growing. Endogen means inward-growing. The stem of an Exogen grows by layers, as most trees grow." "Oh, yes," said Prue, "I know. We counted the rings on that big oak that was cut down over by the lake last year. It had one ring for each year." [Illustration: A GROUP OF ENDOGENS--THE LILY, HYACINTH, AND DAFFODIL] "That's right, Prue, and the stem of the Endogen grows inside a shell, and is often just a soft pith, like the inside of a cornstalk. These are the two great classes of all flowering plants and trees. You can always tell the difference by their stems; nearly always from their leaves; always from their seeds, if you have a strong magnifying-glass, for the little germ of the Exogen has two leaves like the morning-glory, and the germ of the Endogen has but one like the lily, or corn. But the easiest way for you to tell is by the flowers. An Exogen flower nearly always goes by fives, like the little sorrel bloom, sometimes by fours, but hardly ever by threes. The Endogen flower is nearly always divided in threes, like the lily, which has six petals. It very seldom has four parts, and never five. So, you see, we know right away that the sorrel and the rose and buttercup are Exogens, and that the lily and the hyacinth and the daffodil are Endogens. Of course, there are many flowers not so easy to place as these, and I am afraid I am giving you too hard a lesson for one time, especially for such a hot day." "But I'm not hot now," said Davy. "There's a fine breeze, and I like to sit here and talk." So they talked on about the different kinds and classes of plants, and by and by when big Prue found them, little Prue had much to tell her about all the new things she had learned. And she was careful not to pronounce anything wrong, and to explain that an Exogen was a plant that grew on the outside, and that an Endogen was another plant that grew on the inside, and big Prue said that Davy must be an Exogen, because he was getting so fat, and that little Prue must be an Endogen, because she was growing so smart. Then everything had to be told over, and then it was tea-time, with a dainty table all spread under the arbor, and delicious raspberries, and very, very delicious ice-cream. III I DON'T SEE WHAT WEEDS ARE FOR, ANYWAY AND the very next day was Fourth of July, with all the fire-crackers and torpedoes and sky-rockets that always come on that day. But there was something else. For when big Prue and the Chief Gardener come to the breakfast-table, they found that Davy and little Prue had arranged what Prue called a "susprise." The room was all red, white, and blue--not with flags or bunting, but with flowers. There were bowls of red and white and blue morning-glories on the sideboard, and in the center of the table there was a very large bowl of red, white, and blue sweet-pease, so nicely arranged that each color was separate, and the whole looked like a cake of flowers cut in three equal parts. And there were other red and white and blue flowers, too, but the sweet-pea bowl in the center was the finest of all. There was not much gardening that day, of course, for there were parades to see and music to hear, and fireworks in the evening. The Chief Gardener had brought home the fireworks, and when all the rockets had been fired and the Roman candles, he brought out something larger than the rest, and when it was lighted, it all at once turned into a great flower-pot and sent out hundreds of the most beautiful fiery flowers, such as no garden would grow, no matter how hot it was. "That is to pay for the sus-prise you gave us this morning," said the Chief Gardener, when little Prue was through dancing and squealing and jumping up and down with delight. "They grew in that hot sun yesterday." But little Prue didn't believe it, though she did ask if some of the stars which came out of the rockets didn't stay in the sky with the other stars. She was quite certain she had never seen so many in the sky before. July was a great month in the little gardens. Almost everything bloomed and bore. The pinks, the pansies, the alyssum, the sweet-williams and the morning-glories--they grew and then bloomed and crowded each other in their beds until some of them had to be moved into new places, while as for Davy's things, his corn grew taller and taller, until it shaded his tomato vines, and he was afraid they would not do well for want of sun. But the sun was up so high, and was so hot in July, that perhaps they got enough anyway, for they grew so big they had to be tied up, and the tomatoes on them were so large that Davy thought one was almost enough for a whole family. As for his beans--well, Davy will plant fewer beans next year. They began to bear just a little at first, and then, all at once, there were beans enough on his few hills, not only for himself and Prue, but for the rest of the family, and then for the neighbors, too. Davy picked nearly all one hot afternoon to keep up with his bean crop, and then nearly trotted his fat legs off carrying little baskets to the different people that he knew, explaining to each that these were really from his own garden--his own beans that he had planted and tended himself. Then he and Prue carried some vegetables and flowers to a little hospital not far away, where there were some sick children, and some who were just getting well. And it was a happy, happy time for the little boy and girl when they took the things they had planted and cared for to the other little boys and girls who seemed so glad to have them come. But as the weather grew warmer and summer showers came the weeds got worse and worse. Sometimes when Davy and Prue had tried very hard to get them all out and found that new ones had come almost over night, while some of the old ones they had cut down had taken root again, they were almost discouraged. "I don't see what weeds are for anyway," Davy said one warm morning, almost crying, and little Prue, whose face was very red and hot, flung herself down in the shady peach-tree house, too tired to talk. "Now, there's that old pursley, I pull and pull and cut, and unless I carry every bit of it away, it all takes root again and grows right along as if I hadn't touched it." "Yes," said the Chief Gardener, "it is a nuisance. I suppose its pretty sister is very much ashamed of it." "Its sister! Why, who is its sister?" asked Davy, while little Prue sat up and forgot she was tired. "Miss Portulaca Purslane, of course, sometimes called Rose-moss, because her flower is something like a wild rose and her stem and leaves a little like overgrown moss." "Oh, is my sweet rose-moss just old pursley weed?" whimpered little Prue, who was very proud of a little bunch of portulaca that was just in full bloom. She had chosen the pretty flower from a catalogue, and it had been one of her best growers. "Why, no, Prue, your rose-moss is not a weed at all, but she belongs to the Purslane family, and like a good many other families it has a member who has run wild and become a disgrace to its relatives and a trouble to everybody. There is another wild purslane, but it is not a weed. It is just a little wild-wood cousin of Portulaca. Her name is Claytonia, and she lives in pleasant places in the woods, and hides under the leaves in winter-time. Most people call her Spring-beauty." "Oh, Spring-beauty! Oh, I know! Just bushels of them--Davy and I found over by the lake last spring! Little white flowers with pink lines in them, and smell--just a little tiny smell--so--so springy and wild. Oh, I just love Spring-beauties! But I'm sorry my nice rose-moss is pursley. Is it, Papa? Is it really a sister to that ugly weed?" "Suppose you bring a branch of each over to the bench here--one with flowers on it." Prue brought a sprig of her precious rose-moss, and Davy a large piece of the pursley from the pile he had just cut down. The Chief Gardener took them and put them together. "You see, they are a good deal alike," he said, "though the leaves are different--Miss Portulaca's being the finer." Then he took one of the tiny pursley flowers and put it under the magnifying-glass, and let the children look. Yes, it was almost exactly like the beautiful flower of the rose-moss, only smaller. Each flower had two green sepals and five colored petals, also five stamens, so they knew it was an exogen, though it would have been harder to tell this from the thick, pulpy leaves and stem. The little seed-pod of each had a tiny cap which lifted off when the seeds were ripe, leaving a perfect cup, heaping full. "You see, children," said the Chief Gardener, "weeds do not care to be either useful or ornamental. So they become rank and common, and lose their beautiful flowers. But somehow they never have any less seed. They want to grow just as thickly as they can, and however small their flowers are, the seed-pods are always full to the brim." "Well," said Prue, "I'm sure there can't be any of my flowers relation to chickweed. I never can get that out of my beds." The Chief Gardener thought a minute. "Why, yes, Prue," he said, "that's Cousin Stella; I suppose she came to see the beautiful Dian and to make her all the trouble she can." "Oh, Papa! what do you mean by Stella and Dian?" "Well, Stellaria is chickweed, and she's a cousin to Dianthus, your lovely pinks. I suppose you might call them Stella and Dian, for short. They are not very nearly related, but they do belong to the same family, and perhaps they were once more alike. I don't suppose beautiful Dian would own Stella, but Stella (or perhaps her weed friends call her Chick), is a great nuisance and makes Dian and _her_ friends all the trouble she can." "Papa," said Davy, who had been silent all this time, "are there really any plant families that don't have wild members who behave badly and become just weeds?" "I don't remember any real weeds in the Lily family, Davy, though almost any plant will become a weed if allowed to run wild and live in fence corners, like a tramp. They become prodigals then, like the man's son in the Bible. And sometimes they come back to the garden, as the prodigal son did, to become well-behaved and useful flowers again. Of course, there are many others that have always lived wild in the woods and fields, and are not called weeds, because they do not spread and destroy other plants. These are our wild flowers, and the world would be poor, indeed, without them. Sometimes we bring them into the garden, and make them grow larger and call them by a new name. And sometimes, I am sorry to say, a sweet wild flower will suddenly spread and overrun the fields and become almost a weed. I am afraid our beautiful daisies are becoming a weed to a good many farmers. Those fields that are like banks of snow, and so beautiful to us, must worry the man who owns them and cannot get rid of the millions of 'rare Marguerites!'" Little Prue sighed. "Oh, dear," she said, "it's just too bad that there isn't some flower, or somebody, or something that can be just every bit good, all the time, to everybody." The Chief Gardener smiled. "We can only do our very best," he said. AUGUST AUGUST I THERE ARE JUST TWO KINDS OF LEAVES A GOOD many things were ripe in August, and some of the things were through blooming. Prue did not plant a great deal. It was too hot to dig long in the sun, and then there did not seem to be much in the way of flowers that could be planted so late. Davy planted a few turnips and some late beans and salad, because there was time for these, but even Davy found it pleasanter to sit in the shade, where there was a breeze, and pull plants to pieces and talk about Exogens and Endogens and the different parts of things, than to hoe and dig and rake on an August day. The Chief Gardener heard quite loud voices under the peach-trees, one warm afternoon. Prue and Davy were not really quarreling, but they seemed to be a good deal in earnest about something. The Chief Gardener went over there. "What is all the excitement?" he asked. Davy held up and waved a large stem of very coarse grass. "It's an Endogen," he said, very decidedly, "isn't it, Papa?" "It isn't at all, is it, Papa?" eagerly asked little Prue. The Chief Gardener took the plumey stem and sat down. "Why do you think it is an Endogen, Davy?" he asked. "Because it's a grass, and belongs to the grass family. And corn belongs to the grass family, too, and corn is an Endogen, for it has a big pith instead of rings. So if corn is an Endogen, grass is, too." The Chief Gardener smiled. "Well, that's pretty good, Davy, and is true enough, but it isn't just the best way to reason. Now, Prue, why did you think it was an Exogen?" "Because the stem is hollow, and makes a ring when you cut off a little slice of it, and because the bloom part is in five pieces." "Sharp eyes," nodded the Chief Gardener, "but Davy is right. There is not always a pith in the endogens. Pipe-stems and fish-poles are hollow, but the cane we make them of is an Endogen, too. And as for the bloom part of this grass, it is a sort of a tassel, like that of the corn. The real blooms are very tiny--too small for us to examine. And then, perhaps, some insect or bird has nipped some of it away. I think I must tell you a little more about leaves, so Davy won't have to know that grass is an Endogen because corn is, and so you won't be mistaken. Suppose, Davy, you try to tell me how many kinds of leaves there are." Davy looked quite helpless. "It would take a hundred years," he said. "Why, no," said Prue. "There are just two kinds. Exogens and Endogens." Davy laughed, and the Chief Gardener laughed with him. "But you are right, Prue, in one way," he said. "There are just two kinds of leaves--simple and compound. A simple leaf is a leaf of just one blade, like a grass leaf, or the leaf of a morning-glory. A compound leaf is a leaf made up of several blades, like a bean leaf, which you know is divided into three parts. Of course, there are hundreds of shapes and thousands of species of leaves, but there are just two great kinds, simple and compound. Suppose, Davy, you look about and bring me three compound leaves, and you, Prue, try to find three simple leaves, and let's see what they are." The children jumped up quickly, and wandered out into the sunny garden, looking as they went. The Chief Gardener heard them chatting, as they looked this way and that. Presently they returned with what they had found. Little Prue climbed up in his lap. "Look at mine first!" she said, holding them out, and fanning herself with her little hat. Davy sat down by them, and looked his collection over to be sure they were right. "Well, Prue, let's see what you have," began the Chief Gardener. "One peach leaf--that's simple enough. Then here's a lily leaf--that's simple, too. But what's this? It looks as if it came from a Virginia creeper. But where's the rest of it? That's only part of a leaf." "I told Prue that," said Davy, "and I brought a whole one for one of my compound leaves." Davy held up what he had brought. The Chief Gardener took the stem of the Virginia creeper. Branching from it were five little stems with a small leaf on each. Prue had taken one of these to be a complete leaf, when it was really only a part of one compound leaf divided into five parts. "You see, Prue, there is only one stem that joins the main stalk," explained the Chief Gardener. "Whatever branches out from that stem is a part of that leaf. What else have you brought, Davy?" Davy held up a blackberry leaf, and the leaf of a tomato. "Those are both right," said the Chief Gardener. "The blackberry has three parts like the bean, and the tomato has a good many parts. There are some leaves that are compounded as many as four times--each little stem being compounded over and over until there are hundreds of little parts, and yet all are connected with the main leaf-stem which joins the stalk or branch, making really only one leaf. Of course, it is not always easy to tell about leaves, any more than about flowers. Sometimes shapes are so peculiar that it is almost impossible to tell just what they are. Pine-needles are leaves, but it is hard to tell whether they are simple or compound, and it would be hard to tell whether the pine was an Exogen or an Endogen if we had only the needles to go by." "But you haven't told us how to tell that by the leaves at all," said Davy. "That is what we started to find out." [Illustration: SOME SIMPLE LEAVES] "That's so, Davy. It's hard to keep to the subject in botany. There are so many things, and all so interesting." The Chief Gardener took up the lily leaf and that of the blackberry, and held them up to the light. "Do you see the difference?" he asked. "Why, yes," said Prue, "the blackberry is all criss-crossy, and the lily leaf runs straight and smooth." "Those are the veins," said Davy; "I heard Mamma say so." [Illustration: PINE-NEEDLES ARE LEAVES] "Yes, they are the veins," nodded the Chief Gardener, "and when they form a network, or run criss-crossy, as Prue says, it means that the plant is an Exogen. When they run side by side smoothly, as they do in corn and grass, it means that the plant is an Endogen. There are a few of both kinds which do not quite follow this rule, like the pine-tree, which is an Exogen, but has its little straight-grained needles, or like smilax, which has netted leaves, but is an Endogen." II SOMETIMES I THINK PLANTS CAN SEE AND HEAR IT was about a week after this that Davy and Prue came to the Chief Gardener with their hands filled with leaves. "We want you to tell us about them," they said. "There is a lot of kinds and shapes, and some we can't tell whether they are simple or compound, or anything." The Chief Gardener looked over their collection. "Well," he said, "I am afraid you are getting ahead too fast. It would take a real sure-enough botanist to tell all about these leaves." Davy picked up a daisy leaf. "Is that simple or compound?" he asked. "It's mostly ribs," laughed the Chief Gardener. "There really isn't much leaf about a daisy leaf, but what there is of it is simple, only it is so cut and sprangly that it might almost be called a compound leaf." They looked at many others in the collection, and the Chief Gardener explained as far as he could. "You will learn all the names of the different shapes some day," he said, "but it is too much for little folks. I suppose, though, you might remember the parts of a leaf. They are the blade, the stem, and the stipules." "This is the blade, and this is the stem," said Davy, "but what are stipules?" The Chief Gardener picked up a red clover leaf, and pointed to a little thin pale-green husk where the stem joined the main stalk. "Those are stipules," he said. "In the clover they grow together, as one. The stipules are a part of the outside of the leaf-bud. When the bud opens, and the leaf goes out into the world, the stipules stay behind. Sometimes they are like little leaves, and take up air for the plant, just as the leaves do. Sometimes they almost take the place of leaves, and are quite large. Sometimes they are very tiny, and some plants have no stipules at all." [Illustration: "THERE IS A LOT OF KINDS AND SHAPES"] "But leaves have veins, too," said Davy. "Those are parts of the blade. The blade has ribs--they make a framework which holds it together; also veins--the fine threads which help to carry the sap. You see, plants are a good deal like ourselves, and live much in the same way. Some leaves have only one strong rib through the center--a sort of a backbone. Some have as many as six or seven." They talked about these things, and looked at the different leaves and stems. Then they spoke of the stalks of different plants, and the Chief Gardener explained how the tender stalk of the lowliest plant, that of the tall twining vine, and the trunk of the giant oak, were all one one and the same, only different in kind. Each came at some time from a tiny seed. Each put forth buds and leaves and branches. Each was made to withstand the storm--the oak by its strength, the vine by its fast hold on the wall or lattice, the tender plant through its lowliness. "Oh," said Davy suddenly, "that makes me think of something. Our Virginia creeper on the front lattice has three ways to climb." "What are they, Davy?" "Why, it twists, for one way." "Twines, you mean." "Yes, twines, and then it has little curlers, like a grape-vine." "Tendrils, they are called, Davy." "And little clingers, like an ivy." "Feet, you should say. Yes, I have noticed that. A lattice is not very well suited to a Virginia creeper, and ours has to try every way known to vines, to hold on. I have never known all three ways on one vine before. But vines are very curious things. Sometimes I think they can see and hear. I know they can feel, for a honeysuckle shoot will grow perfectly straight until it touches something that can be climbed. Then it will begin to twist so fast you can almost see it." "But why do you think they can see and hear?" asked little Prue. "I don't know that I do really think so, but I have tried every way I can think of to keep those morning-glories of yours from running up my little pear-tree. I have pushed them away, and tied them away, and I have even cut some of them away. But if I turn my back for a day, or even a half a day, there is one of them starting up the stalk, or, at least, reaching out for it as hard as ever it can." Little Prue laughed, and ran over to see. Yes, there it was--a fuzzy green shoot half-way up the little pear-tree, and three more reaching out in the same direction. "A vine will grow in the direction of a tree or shrub, if it is half way across the garden from it. Whether it hears or sees, or, perhaps, smells it, I do not know. Some vines will turn out of their way for a drink." "For a drink! Oh, Papa!" "Yes, certain melon vines. In dry weather they will turn to find a pan of water set several feet away. I suppose they can sense the moisture from it." The children talked the rest of the afternoon about these curious things. They found where a scarlet runner had traveled several feet through the grass to reach a peach-tree, and had climbed far up into its branches. Then Davy happened to remember the story about the vines which the Chief Gardener had told them during the winter, and told it all over to little Prue--how the honeysuckle had laughed at the scarlet runner and the morning-glory, and had been punished by being made to twine to the left, away from the sun, instead of to the right, toward it, like the morning-glory and the bean. So the happy summer day passed, and in the cool of the evening big Prue came out to watch the sun go down, and in the pleasant arbor they all had tea together. III THERE ARE PLANTS WHICH DO NOT BLOOM BUT during the last two weeks of August the Chief Gardener and big Prue and little Prue and Davy all went to the seashore, which was not far away. They lived in a pretty cottage near the beach, and there were meadows behind that stretched away to the blue hills. Davy and Prue loved the sea, with all its curious shells and star-fishes and other wonderful creatures. They loved the white sand, where they found these things, and where the great waves billowed and broke over them when they bathed on hot afternoons. They loved the meadows, too, for here there were birds building in the grass, and flowers unlike any in their gardens, and little streams of clear water that went singing to the sea. It was when they came from the meadow one afternoon, that they hurried to the Chief Gardener with the little basket which they always carried. "We have found some things," said Davy, "and want you to look at them." The Chief Gardener took the basket. On top were some mushrooms--two kinds. One had whity-brown tops, and was pink or brown or almost black underneath, while the other had yellow tops with white spots on them, and was very pale underneath. The Chief Gardener looked sharply at the children when he saw these yellow mushrooms. "Go and wash your hands, quickly," he said, "and I hope neither of you have put your hands to your mouth since you touched these." "I haven't," said Davy, "and I picked the yellow ones." "They are deadly poison," said the Chief Gardener, "they are called the Amanita, and even to touch the tongue with your fingers after handling them might make you very ill. The others are meadow mushrooms and harmless. But even they could not be eaten after being in the basket with the Amanitas." The children ran to wash their hands, and were presently back to ask questions. Meantime the Chief Gardener had found a lot of beautiful moss and ferns in the bottom of the basket, and some lichens, which the children had gathered from a rocky cliff not far away. "Papa, _aren't_ mushrooms toad-stools, and _don't_ they build them to sit on, in pleasant weather, and to get under, when it rains?" This was little Prue, and she was quite excited. "I think they are some kind of plants," said Davy, "but I don't see where the flowers are, or how they make seeds." "How about the ferns?" asked the Chief Gardener. "Did you find any flowers on the ferns?" "No, but we found seeds." Davy turned one of the fern leaves over, and, sure enough, there were a lot of little brown seeds under the ends of some of the leaflets. Then the Chief Gardener turned over one of the meadow mushrooms, and divided the little layers beneath with the tip of his pencil. "That is where the mushroom keeps its seeds, too," he said. "We do not call them seeds, though, but spores. Fern seeds are called spores, also." "But toads do sit under mushrooms, don't they?" insisted little Prue. "Why, yes, I suppose a great many toads have done that, but they are really plants, as Davy says." Davy had become thoughtful. "Are they Exogens?" he asked, "or Endogens? I should think the mushrooms might be Endogens from their stems, and the fern Exogens from their leaves." "Well, Davy, that is very well said, but they are really neither one. They belong to a great class of their own. Exogens and Endogens are only the two kinds of flowering plants. These mushrooms and ferns and mosses and lichens all belong to the flowerless plants, and are called Crip-tog-a-mous--a very long word, which I do not expect you to remember. The divisions of flowerless plants are too hard a study for little folks, but the plants are all very interesting, and we can gather them, and see how they grow. In fact, I think we will have to call our meadow and our beach your August garden." "But there isn't anything on the beach," said Prue. "How about all that seaweed you were gathering yesterday?" "But does that really grow like our plants on the shore?" asked Davy. "Very much the same, and it belongs to the flowerless class, too, along with the mosses and lichens and ferns and mushrooms. It has spores instead of seeds, and is really a sort of a moss of the sea." "Oh, call us not weeds, we are flowers of the sea, For lovely and bright and fresh-tinted are we," sang little Prue, with a memory of her kindergarten. "Yes, they are flowers of the sea, though they do not bloom," said the Chief Gardener, "and are very beautiful in color and form. I will give you some white cards and you can gather specimens to dry. You spread out the little branches with a tooth-pick, and the cards make pretty little books afterwards." "But do seaweeds and mosses and lichens and ferns and mushrooms all belong to one family?" asked Davy. "Oh, by no means. Not even all to the same division of flowerless plants. But it is too hard a study for a little boy, and it is enough to learn now that they do all belong to the big flowerless or Crip-tog-a-mous class." "Papa, is it true that if you put fern seeds in your shoes, nobody can see you?" asked little Prue. "Why, I don't very well see how '_nobody_' could see you, but I think somebody might." "It says in my fairy book that the princess put fern seed in her shoe, and then there wasn't any one who could see her. I wish it was like that. I'm going to try it," and the little girl pulled off some of the brown spores and tucked them in her dusty ties. "Can you see me? Can you see me, now?" she asked, dancing about. "Why, no," said the Chief Gardener, who pretended to be looking for her in another direction. "Can you, Davy? Can you see me?" "Not very well, when _you_ go so fast," laughed Davy. "Stand still, and let me try." Just then big Prue came out on the porch, and little Prue danced up to her. "Can _you_ see me? Can you _see_ me, Mamma? You mustn't, you know, because I've got fern seed in my shoe." Big Prue shut her eyes, and put out her arms. "No, I can't see you," she said, "but you feel like the same little girl," and she kissed the little round tanned face on her shoulder. IV THE PRINCESS BY THE SEA "I HEARD you talking about flowerless plants," big Prue went on, "as I sat there by the window. I wonder if you would like to hear a little story of how they came to be without flowers." "Please, yes!" and little Prue forgot her fern seed and hugged closer. "Well, once upon a time there was a princess with a beautiful garden--" "Is this the same princess that turned into a red rose?" "Oh, no, this is another princess. There have been a great many princesses with gardens. This princess lived by the sea, where there was a meadow, and a cliff not far away, much like it is here. She loved her flowers more than anything in the world, and her garden was so beautiful that even the fairies loved it better than their own gardens of fairyland and came at midnight to dance in the moonlight, after the princess was asleep. "And the princess knew that they danced there, for once a gentle fairy had come to her and told her of it, and warned her never to try to see them, for whoever sees the fairies dance by the midnight moon may meet with some dreadful misfortune, which even the fairies themselves cannot help. "But when the princess heard about the fairy dance, she wanted to see it very much. Instead of trying to forget it and going to bed before it began, she thought of it all the time, and the more she thought, the more she made up her mind to see it, no matter what might happen afterwards. "So one night, just before twelve o'clock, she crept into a large cluster of blooming ferns--" "But ferns do not bloom--" "They did then, and their sweet odor filled the still night air; the moon was white and round in the sky, and the level sea had a path of glory that led close to where she lay. "The princess thought how beautiful was all the world, and especially her garden, and she grew sad to think that perhaps some time she would not be there to see it all. And then all at once she forgot everything else, for there in the moonlight were the fairies, dancing in a great glittering ring. "The princess looked, hardly daring to breathe. Then it seemed to her that she could not see so well. She rubbed her eyes, but the world about her only grew dimmer still. She thought the moon had gone under a cloud, but it was sailing high in the sky. And then everything faded out, the world became dark and the princess gave a great cry of grief, for she knew that her punishment had come, and she was _blind_! "The fairies heard the cry, too, and vanished, but the gentle little fairy who was her friend came and guided her in sorrow to her palace, and said, 'I can grant you one wish, but it must not be to see again--that I cannot grant.' "'Then,' said the princess, 'if I cannot see my flowers, I wish that they may never bloom again until some one, who cares more for them than I, shall wish to see them.' "And the wish came true. Never a flower in the garden of the princess bloomed from that day. Their buds dropped, their leaves shrank, and many of them hid away where they would not be seen by passers-by. Some slipped away into the water and became seaweeds. Some hid in the deep woods, and crept into dark places, and became ferns. Others, growing smaller each year, became moss. Some hid among the rocks of the cliff and became lichens. And some, who wanted to be useful if they could not bloom, scattered themselves over the woods and fields and became mushrooms. But some of these were of bitter or sharp nature, and these we cannot eat. And some grew wicked and vicious, and these are poison. One of them, the Amanita, which had bloomed as a great golden white-spotted flower in the garden of the princess, became the most vicious of all. It kept much of its color, which now makes people shun it because it is a sign of deadly poison." "And will the flowers that grew in the garden of the princess never bloom again?" "Never, unless some one who cares more for them than she did shall wish to see them." "But how can I care so much unless I can see them?" asked little Prue. "Perhaps that is why they will never bloom again," said Davy. SEPTEMBER SEPTEMBER I A FLOWER REALLY HAS CLOTHES THE little gardens were in quite a bad way when Davy and Prue came back from the seashore. Everything had done well, even to the weeds, and that was just the trouble. It took two whole days, working when the sun was not so very hot, to get the beds in shape, and the Chief Gardener had to work, too, very hard. But by and by everything was clean and beautiful again, and the seat under the peach-tree was a finer place than ever, because there were more things in bloom, and everything had become more beautiful. One day Davy came to the seat, where little Prue and the Chief Gardener were resting, with a double carnation in his hand. "I wish you would look at this," he said. "I can't tell petals from stamens." The Chief Gardener took the flower, and slowly pulled it to pieces. "Well, no," he said; "it isn't the easiest thing to do, though, of course, those anther-looking things must belong to stamens." "But the filaments are like petals," objected Davy. "Yes, and here are others like them, though they have no anthers. Those are supposed to be stamens, too, or, at least, they were stamens, once." Davy looked puzzled. "You remember I told you once, Davy, that a flower was only one form of a leaf--a leaf intended to make the plant beautiful, and to make it bear seed. Well, in some plants, especially cultivated ones, the flower-leaves seem to get rather mixed in their parts." The Chief Gardener picked a scarlet canna that grew near. "Here is a flower which has three little petals and four large flower-leaves which you would think were petals, wouldn't you? But the stamens and petals and sepals are so mixed that even botanists can hardly decide which is which. In a water-lily, too, the petals gradually become stamens, so, perhaps, the leaf came first, ages and ages ago, and little by little it has changed, first to sepals, then petals, then to stamens and pistils, so that it could make seeds and scatter them to the wind. Gardeners make double flowers out of single ones by a process of turning stamens and even pistils into petals. The double flower is sometimes very beautiful, but it is not the most perfect flower. The wild rose is more perfect than the finest double American Beauty. Perhaps double flowers came before single ones, a long time ago, when the leaves were turning to blossoms, so that the gardeners who make the wonderful double blooms now are really going backward instead of forward. But that is all too hard. I'm afraid--especially for a little girl who likes very double carnations." "I know everything you're talking about, just as well as Davy does," said the little girl, sitting up quite straight. "And I like single flowers, 'specially lilies, and wild roses; but I think double flowers are nice, too, because they seem dressed up, like folks--queens and princesses, all with nice dresses--velvet and chiffon and lacey stuff." "Why, that is just what they are, Prue. They are dressed up, and, of course, the more anything, or anybody, is dressed up the less they are really like themselves. The petals and sepals of a flower are really fine clothes, you know, just as you sometimes play they are, when you make hollyhock dolls, and it wears them for just about the same reason that we wear ours. It might grow and be useful without them, but it would not be very attractive, and some of its friends and servants might pass by without seeing it." "Servants! But flowers don't really have servants. That must be just a story." "No--at least, it is all very true. Flowers are like people in very many ways. They really have servants and friends, and some of them live off other flowers and plants, and some of them eat and sleep, very much as we do. I will tell you something about that another time." II THE FLOWER HAS MANY SERVANTS IT was about a week after this that little Prue was picking some sweet-pease for the table when Davy came along with the Chief Gardener. "The servants are busy this morning," said the Chief Gardener. "Do you mean me?" asked little Prue. "I am trying to pick some flowers, but there are so many bees around that I'm afraid." "Those are the servants I mean. I do not think they will hurt you if you are careful. They are only collecting their wages, and working at the same time." Davy and Prue looked close. "What do you mean by their working?" asked Davy. "Do you mean for the flower, or for themselves?" "For both. Watch this bee. You see, he pushes open the flower for honey, but to get it he has to cover his legs with the pollen from the anthers, which are placed down in this little lower part called a keel, just where his legs and body will be covered. Then he comes out and goes to another flower and carries this pollen, and really rubs it on the stigma there as he crawls in and out, and takes more pollen, and so goes on from one to another--a real servant, doing a real duty and getting his pay as he goes." "But he doesn't have to do it. The pollen would fall on the stigma anyway, wouldn't it?" "It might with the sweet-pea, but even if it did, the pollen from the same flower is not as good as the pollen from another flower from a different plant, and the seed would be poor and the plants would grow weaker every year. There are many insects that act as servants to the flowers, and the wind is one of the servants, too. It shakes the corn-tassel so that the pollen falls on the silk and makes the ear, and it carries the pollen of one stalk to the silk of another--sometimes from one field to another." "But, of course, the bee doesn't know that he does it," said Prue, who was still very intently watching the little servants of the sweet-pease. "I am not so certain of that," the Chief Gardener said musingly. "The flower must know, for it dresses in bright colors so that the bee may see it, and offers honey as pay for his work. And if the flower knows, why shouldn't the bee?" "But don't you think it might all just happen so?" asked Davy. "I don't think anything in nature just 'happens so,' Davy, and I am sure that the bee's work for the flower doesn't, for there are too many flowers that would have no seed and would die out if it were not for the bees that carry the pollen, and most of these flowers have grown just to fit in every way the especial little bee, or big bee, or insect, that comes to work for them. There are some flowers, like the sweet-pea, that the bee cannot get into without getting pollen on his legs, and there are others that drop it upon his back. Some flowers have stamens that wither before the pistil is ready for the pollen. In such flowers the little servants go from one to the other--from a new flower to an old one--carrying the pollen which would not be of any use in the flower where it grew." "And is that really all that the flower's pretty color and sweet smell and delicious honey are for?" asked little Prue, "just to get bees to work for it?" "No, Prue, I don't think so. I think all the world of nature is harmony, like sweet music, and the flowers with their beauty and sweetness are part of it, but I think that just as we may attract friends and good servants by kindness and offering something in return, so the flowers attract the bees and butterflies, and even a little girl and boy to keep the weeds away. The more a flower depends on an insect to carry its pollen, the gayer or sweeter that flower always is. The orchids, which are almost the finest flowers in the world, seem to be made especially for the insects, and they could not do without them, any more than the insects could do without the flowers." "And is that what makes some flowers such funny shapes, too?" "I think it is. The foxglove, and the horse mint, and many others, have curious shapes and forms, just to fit their little helpers, and the milkweed has a funny little saddle-bag which it hangs to the bee's feet, so that he can carry it to another plant. There is another kind of a milkweed which is very cruel, for it attracts small insects by its odor, and when they come they are caught by a sticky substance and held until the weed sucks them down and really eats them, much as we eat our food. So, you see, plants are a good deal like people, just as I told you the other day." "You said they could sleep, too." "Yes, your rose-moss closes up every night, shuts its eyes just as you do, and rests. Many flowers close at night, and some even droop their heads quite low, like the bird, which sleeps with its head beneath its wing." III A FLOWER MAY REALLY REASON HOW beautiful was the September garden! The wild sunflowers were all in bloom like a wall of gold. A bunch of black-eyed Susans at the corner of the house seemed trying to imitate its large cousins, and was just as bright and yellow, too, in a small way. The little Susans had not been planted, but had strayed in out of the field somewhere, perhaps longing to be with people. A row of bright red cockscombs made a crimson line of plumes down one side of a garden-path, and just beyond them Davy's third planting of beans was in full bearing. Prue's pinks and sweet-pease bloomed on and on, and her alyssums and the other sweets became sweeter every day. "Do you think all these things like to be together?" Prue asked, one afternoon, as they sat looking at them from the shade of the peach-tree. "I think those that grow well do," said Davy. "They seem to, anyway." "And they do, Davy," said the Chief Gardener. "A plant that doesn't like a place will not grow in it, and in the woods and fields we only find those plants together which like that particular spot. Down below the hillside yonder you will find golden-rod and several kinds of tall blue and white daisies and grasses that all belong there, and seem very happy together. They would not grow well in the wet woods, and would soon die out, but there are other plants that grow and tangle and are happiest where the ground is damp and the shade overhead. So, you see, there we have another way that plants are like people--they have their proper company, and, perhaps, their societies and friendships. I am sure they have their friendships, for there are certain little plants, and big ones, too, that you will nearly always find together. Violets and spring-beauties and adder-tongues must love each other, I am sure, for you seldom see one without the others, and there are certain vines, like the Virginia creeper and the poison-ivy, that are nearly always together, though why the Virginia creeper should care for the poison-ivy I don't see. Perhaps it doesn't seem poison to the creeper, but only to us." "It seemed poison enough to me," said Davy, "when I got a dose of it last year. It nearly itched me to death." [Illustration: "BEWARE OF THE VINE WITH THE THREE-PART LEAF"] "Yes, it is terrible stuff, and little folks, and big ones, too, have to be very careful, for it looks very much like its friend, the creeper, only that its compound leaf is divided into three parts instead of five. You can always tell by that, and you must always _beware of the vine with the three-part leaf_." "Do poison-ivy and Virginia creeper belong to the same family?" asked Davy. "No, though they look so much alike. The poison-ivy belongs to the Sumach family, while the creeper belongs to the Grape family. The families are quite close together, but are separate. Often members of different families are better friends than members of the same family, and that is still another way that plants are like people." "Do you suppose the poison-ivy knows that it is poison?" asked Prue, who liked to believe that plants were really _just_ like people. "Perhaps it does. We can never be quite sure how much a plant knows. I told you once how I believed they could feel and hear, and even see. I am almost sure that the dandelion can reason." Davy looked interested, and the Chief Gardener went on. "You will remember, Davy, how when the dandelions first bloomed they had quite tall stems. Then we mowed the lawn, and when they tried to bloom again the stems were shorter. We mowed again, and the stems grew still shorter, and so they became shorter and shorter each time, until they bloomed flat against the ground, so low that we could not mow them. They were bound to bloom, and they did bloom, and then all at once almost in a day they shot up long pale stems with balls of white-winged seeds that were ready when we mowed again to float away at a touch or a puff, to be ready to sprout and grow another year. The dandelion is bound to spread its seed. By and by it learns that the lawn-mower cannot cut below a certain level. So it blooms below the lawn-mower's cutting-wheel, and then when it is ready to seed, it pops up as high as ever it can, and stands waiting for the mower to come around and help scatter its seed. Perhaps it doesn't really reason, but it does something exactly like it, and there are people in the world who would be happier if they could do the same thing." [Illustration: THE DANDELION IS BOUND TO SPREAD ITS SEED] And just then big Prue came out into the garden, and they all sat on the bench under the peach-tree, and watched the sun going down, away off over the purple hills. And they thought how the summer was nearly over, and how soon the glory of the little garden would be fading, and how the snow would be sifting down among the withered leaves. [Illustration: "SO IT BLOOMS BELOW THE LAWN-MOWER'S CUTTING-WHEEL"] IV SOME FLOWERS LIVE OFF OTHER FLOWERS AND PLANTS SO summer with its song and its blossom came to an end. Autumn clad in gold and purple came across the land, and the gentle haze of Indian summer lay upon the fields. From the banks of golden-rod below the hill, Prue and Davy filled jars and vases, and one day they brought in great bunches all linked and bound together with something like a tangle of golden thread. The Chief Gardener was not at home that day, so they brought their discovery to big Prue to explain. "Why," she said, "that is dodder, or love-vine. It is what is called a parasite, for it has no root in the ground, but lives from the plant it grows on." Then she showed them where the small, tough little rootlets were really embedded in the stalk of the golden-rod from which it drew its strength and life. "Oh," said Prue, "that is what Papa meant when he told us once that some flowers lived off other flowers and plants, just as some people live off other people." Big Prue nodded. "There are a good many such plants," she said. "The mistletoe we get for Christmas grows on several sorts of trees. Its seed lodges under the bark and sprouts there, just as it would in the ground. Then the wood grows up around the root, and the mistletoe becomes almost a part of the tree. Then there are many kinds of mosses, and the Indian pipe--that white, waxy flower which you found in the woods not long ago, and thought you had found a flowering mushroom. It is a sort of a relation of the mushroom, for it springs from damp, decaying leaves, and has no real root, but it is more of a parasite, for it feeds mainly on roots of living trees and plants. This dodder blooms and drops its seeds to the ground, where they sprout, but as soon as it finds a weed to cling to, the root dies and it lives only on the weed." "Why do they call it love-vine?" asked little Prue. Her mother took the long golden tendril and twined it about her slender white finger. Then she told them the story of V THE PRINCE AND THE THREAD OF GOLD "THERE was once a prince," she began, "who lived in a far country between blue seas. And all the land the prince owned, and a great palace, but he was not happy, because there was a little fisher girl more beautiful than the sunrise, who would not come and dwell in his palace and be his princess. "When this fisher girl saw the prince coming toward her, she would dance away laughing, like a ripple of sunlight on the water, and there were some who said she was not a real child, but a sea-fairy, for she had been found as a babe by the fisher's wife, cast up on the sand, after a great storm. "But the prince did not care whether she was a human being or not. He thought only of her, as each day she grew taller and always more beautiful. He went every morning to the fisher's hut to beg that they would give her to him, and this they would have been glad to do had Dodora been willing, but always she laughed and danced away when they spoke of it, and sometimes they did not see her again until evening. "But one morning, when she was eighteen years old, and they spoke to her, she said, laughing: "'Tell the prince to tie a knot in the thread of love. If he will tie a knot in the thread of love it will hold me fast,' and again she danced away, while her laugh came as the tinkle of the tide among the pebbles on a still evening. "So when the prince came that day they told him, and he went away sadly, for he thought she was only playing with him for her amusement. "But that night, as he walked alone in the moonlight by the shore, he suddenly saw on the sand in front of him a radiant fairy, spinning on a silver spinning-wheel a wonderful thread of gold. Without daring to breathe he stood and looked at her, and then he saw that it was from the rays of moonlight that she was spinning the thread. All at once she rose and came to where he was standing. "'Here is the thread of love,' she said to him, and then she showed him how to tie the true lover's knot in it. 'With this you may win our Dodora,' the fairy added, and then suddenly like a breath of perfume she was gone, leaving the thread of gold in the prince's hands. "And all that night the prince tied and retied the true lover's knot, as the fairy had showed him, and next morning he hurried with it to the fisherman's cottage where Dodora lived. And when Dodora saw him coming, she did not dance away as she had always done before, but went forward to meet him, and took his hand. Then suddenly she snatched the golden thread from him and ran, with the prince after her. She ran fast, but he was about to overtake her, when Dodora dropped the knot into the weeds, and then all at once she stopped, for the wonderful thread had suddenly become a great tangle of gold that held Dodora fast, and she could not get away. So the prince overtook her, and led her to his palace, where they lived happily for a long time. And the thread of love grew as a wonderful vine that had no root in the earth, but twined about the weeds and spread over the country in many places. Some called it Dodora, after the princess, and this was changed at last to 'dodder' by those who did not know. Others called it golden thread, and still others called it love-vine, and tied true lover's knots in it which they threw over their shoulders on moonlight nights. If these knots grew they won their sweethearts. They did not always grow, but about the palace of the prince the vine flourished in a golden mass, and the prince, never forgetting the wonderful night when it had been spun for him out of moonbeams, let it grow through all the world, to become the golden thread of love." OCTOBER OCTOBER I SEEDS ARE MADE TO BE PLANTED OCTOBER brought seedtime in the little garden. Many seeds had ripened during the summer, and Prue had already gathered some of the tiny black flakes from the opened pods of her precious pinks, and Davy had saved some seed pease. But October was the real harvest-time. The children took a lot of white envelopes, and upon them Davy printed the names of all the seeds they expected to gather. Into these envelopes they put carefully the different little black and brown and white seeds after they had picked and blown the husks all away, so, as Davy said, they would look just like seeds bought at the store. And some of the seeds were big flat beans, or little long round beans; and some, like the sweet-pease, were very round, like shot; and some, like the cockscomb seeds, were tiny and shiny and black and so slippery that Prue lost more than she got in her envelope, though she got enough, for there is _such a lot of seed_ on a cockscomb. Some seeds were in funny little pods that snapped when you touched them, and sent the little black or brown shot flying in every direction, like a charge out of a bomb, and these had to be gathered very carefully. Then there were seeds with little wings, made to help them to fly, and there were seeds with little claws made to catch and hold on, so they would be carried and planted in many places. But these were mostly weed seeds, and were only gathered because they clung to the children's clothes, and stuck so fast that it was hard to pick them off. [Illustration: "THEY CLING TO EVERYTHING THAT PASSES"] "You see," said the Chief Gardener, who was watching them, "everything has a way of taking care of itself. Just as I told you about the dandelion, the plants have something which is very much like reason, or instinct, to guide them. These zinnia seeds do not have the little prongs, because the zinnia does not need them. It is a garden flower, and the seed will be taken care of. But those brown two-pronged little things you are picking off your coat-sleeve came from its very near relation, the Spanish needle, which is a weed, and must look out for its own planting. Those wild sunflowers turn top-side down, and the little yellow birds that peck and chirp about them all day are scattering the seed so thickly that next spring the garden will be covered with the young plants. The big tame sunflower doesn't take care of itself nearly so well. Of course, you remember how the dandelion seeds go drifting on the wind, while the thistle-down that goes floating by is carrying seed to some farmer's field, or fence corner. Then there are the maple seeds, which have two wings, or keys, as they are called, and there are many of these key seeds that are tossed here and there when the wind blows. The wind and the birds are the servants that sow the wild seeds, just as the bees and butterflies helped to make them." "But there are some thistles," said little Prue, "that are not blown by the wind. They have stickery balls, and I make baskets out of them." "Those are burs, and they are carried by sheep and cows, and by people. They cling to everything that passes. I have seen a horse's mane so full of them that it had to be cut off. The burdock is a very bad weed, and there ought to be a story about it, but I suppose if there was one, it must have been so unpleasant that it has been forgotten. There are many other weeds almost as bad. There are seeds with all kinds of hooks and claws to grab and stick, and there are many that are carried in the dirt which clings to the feet of animals and men and even birds." "I should think some weeds would make their seeds look like flower seeds, to fool people." "Well, that is just about what they do. There are cockle seeds in the wheat, and so nearly the same size that the threshing-machine will not take them out, and there are many little plants in the grass that have seeds so nearly like those of the grass itself that we are obliged to sow them with the grass seed. So, you see, men, too, become servants of the wise, persevering weeds. Certain beans and grains have been carried by water, and have been known to be brought across stretches of the sea to be scattered and planted upon a new shore." "How many kinds of seeds are there?" asked Davy. "About as many as plants, Davy." "I don't mean that. I mean how many principal kinds--like flowers, you know--they are Exogens and Endogens." "Oh, I see. You mean classes. Well, I suppose we might say two, fleshy and dry. Then we might divide the dry into seeds and nuts, and the fleshy into fruits and vegetables." Davy and Prue were both thinking. "I suppose my beans are dry," Davy said at last. "Yes, of course." "But we ate them green, and they were not dry then." "That was before they were ripe. There are a number of things that are fleshy when eaten green, that become pods or hulls when the fruit is really ready to gather. Of course, there are fruits and nuts and vegetables that, like flowers, are hard to put in any class. Take the almond--you would call that a nut, of course." "I just love almonds," said little Prue. "And aren't they nuts?" asked Davy. "Yes, the almond is a nut, but you would hardly call the peach a nut; yet they grow exactly alike, except that the outside of the almond is tough and not fit to eat. The walnut is a nut, too, of course, but the hull is quite fleshy, even after the nut is ripe; and there are certain sorts of foreign plums that have a sweet kernel, so they are really fruit and nut in one. But I think we shall have to go nutting next week, and then we can tell more what we think about them." "Nutting! Oh, yes, we'll go nutting!" cried little Prue. "And we'll take baskets, and Mamma, and stay all day and bring home just bushels." "We must take plenty of dinner in the baskets," said Davy, who remembered one time when the dinner had been less than he thought it should be. So then they ran into the house to put away their envelopes of seeds, and to tell the news. II THERE ARE BITTER NUTS AND SWEET ONES HOW splendid it was in the October woods. Some of the trees were almost bare, some of them were a fine russet brown, and some were all crimson and gold; and the gold was so beautiful against the blue sky that it seemed to Davy and Prue that October, after all, might be the very best month of the year. There was a brook that wound through the woods. On both sides of it were bottom lands, and here the hickory and walnut and butternut trees grew. Near the hillsides there were groves of hazel with their brown clusters, half opened by the frost, ripe for gathering. Camp was made near the brook, and then all hurried to the nut-trees; the children kicking their feet through the rustling leaves that covered the ground. The Chief Gardener found quite a large section of a young tree which he put on his shoulder for a battering-ram. Then he walked several steps, and butted one end of it against a tall hickory-tree, and down showered the nuts, clattering in the leaves--the hulls bursting and flying in all directions. Then how the children scrambled and gathered. "Let's clear the leaves away first, next time," said Davy, "so they will be easier to find." And this they did, and so they went from tree to tree, gathering hickory-nuts, large and small, and walnuts, butternuts, and chestnuts, and these they emptied into sacks they had brought in the little wagon that was not hitched far away. By and by, Davy spied a patch of hazel, and each with a basket, Prue and he gathered until they were tired, and it was lunch-time. How very hungry they were! Is there really anything like nutting to make a little boy and girl hungry? And there was plenty of luncheon, this time. Davy ate until he did not care to get up right away, but was glad to lean back against a tree, and talk, while the Chief Gardener smoked and little Prue and big Prue put away the things, and hulled some of the hazelnuts, which little Prue said seemed to be more hulls than nuts, for there was only about enough to cover the bottom of one basket when they were all hulled. "What makes all the nuts have such big, thick hulls, anyway?" she asked, as she tried to pound open a thorny chestnut-bur. "I think the hulls must be to protect the young nuts from birds and squirrels," answered her mother. "The trees do not like to have them carried off until they are quite ripe, so they hold them very tight and enclose them in a very tough shell, and the shell is very bad-tasting, too. But when the nuts are ripe and sweet they let go of them very easily, just as other seeds are dropped, and the hulls open and the harvest is ready for whoever may come to gather it." The Chief Gardener picked up a hickory-nut from one of the baskets. "You see, we are eating flower-pistils all the time," he said. "Are we? I don't believe I ever thought about that," said Davy. [Illustration: THREE MEMBERS OF THE ACORN FAMILY] The Chief Gardener pointed to the little black tip on the top of the nut. "That was once the stigma," he said. "You see, it is quite like one, even now. Of course, it was soft then, and the pistil below was soft, too. Then as it grew it became harder and harder until the shell formed, and it was really a nut. The calyx hardened, and made the hull. The pistil and the calyx of a flower are the parts that last longest, but the stamens and the corolla are just as useful in their way. They form a separate flower on the nut-trees. We will have to come to the woods next spring when they are in bloom." "Papa, don't hazelnuts and chestnuts belong to the same family?" asked little Prue, who had some of each in her chubby hands. "Why, yes, but why did you think so, Prue?" "Well, you see, they both have those white spots on them, and I thought mebbe it was a kind of family mark." "Wise little head, Prue. And now what else is there that has the family mark--we might call it the family seal?" The children were silent a moment, thinking. They were sitting under a big oak tree, and all at once Davy's eye caught something in the leaves, just by his hand. "This!" he shouted, and held up an acorn. "Right you are, Davy boy! The nut that stands at the head of the family. Few acorns are fit to be eaten, except by animals, but you see how round and perfect the family seal is, and though the acorn-cup is nothing like the chestnut-bur, or the husk of the hazel, it perhaps would be, if the green acorn itself was not so bitter that it does not need any other protection. The oak is one of the finest and most useful of all trees, and the hazel and chestnut and beech are probably very proud of belonging to the Oak family." "And how about hickory and walnuts?" asked Davy. "They are in a family together--the Walnut family. There are three kinds of walnuts--the English walnuts, the butternuts, and these. There are as many as half a dozen kinds of hickory nuts, and some of them are as bitter as the bitterest acorns." "Pignuts--I know those," said Davy. "They're awful. I tried to eat some last year." "You gave me one, too," said Prue. "I don't think that was very nice of you." Davy blushed and grinned, as he recollected the round, puckered face of little Prue, after she had tasted the bitter nut. "Never mind, Prue; we'll give him a mock-orange some day," said her mother. "The pecan is a hickory-nut, too," said the Chief Gardener, "a nut that has left all its bitterness in the shell." "Davy is a pecan-nut," said little Prue. "He's just bad outside." Then the little party made ready to go home. They had a good way to drive, and it grows chilly on October evenings. How still it seemed to have grown in the woods when they were ready to go. A squirrel scrambled up a hickory-tree, and sat chattering at them as they drove away. "He is scolding us for carrying off his winter food," said big Prue. "Oh, let's leave him some!" said little Prue, the tender-hearted. "Pshaw!" said Davy. "There are enough nuts in these woods to feed all the squirrels in the world." III THERE ARE MANY THINGS CALLED FRUITS TRULY October was harvest-time in the little garden. The winter apple-tree yielded several bushels of bright red fruit, and Davy's pumpkin-vine had great yellow pumpkins scattered all about. Some of them Davy could hardly lift, and when they were carried into the cellar, on the very last day of the month, they made a real pyramid of gold. Then there were some late tomatoes, too, and peppers, which big Prue made into pickles; also, a last gathering of green corn, besides several ears of ripe corn, for seed, and all the pop-corn--fifty-five ears of it from Davy's little patch. There were some things to be taken up, too, and put into little pots for the window-gardens, which Davy and Prue were going to have all through the winter, this time. There was a good open fire in the dining-room when Davy came in, after picking his pumpkins, for the nights were getting colder, and the bright blaze seemed so friendly and cheerful. "I am going to try some of my pop-corn," he said suddenly, and started for the popper. "I'll get some apples," said little Prue. "I'll bring some nuts," added the Chief Gardener. "And I'm afraid if you have all those things now, you won't care for tea afterwards," objected big Prue. "Never mind tea," said Davy. "These are the very best things for a fire like this, and then if we don't want tea afterwards it'll save trouble." So the pop-corn and apples and nuts were brought, and the little family gathered about the bright blaze. [Illustration: THE APPLE IS A CALYX. THE PISTIL IS THE CORE INSIDE OF IT] "Just think," said Davy, "it's only a few months ago that I planted this corn, and saw it come up, just little green sprouts, and now it's ripe and in the popper." "And just think," said his mother, "it's a little while ago that the apple-trees were all in bloom so sweet, and now the apples are ripe, and we have them here on a plate." "I like to think about the summer," said little Prue. "It all seems so nice and shiny. It was hot, though, too, sometimes, in the garden." The Chief Gardener picked up one of the apples. "That is a pretty good calyx, Davy," he said. Davy stopped popping corn a minute. His face was rather hot, anyway, from the glowing coals. "Why, I thought that was the pistil," he said. "The pistil is the core inside of it. It is the calyx of the apple-bloom that grows fleshy and makes the best part of the apple." The Chief Gardener cut the apple in half, and showed the faint line that marked the core. "That was the pistil," he said, "and at the end you see there are still the tips of the sepals and little traces of the stamens. The apple is one of our very finest fruits, and we ought to be glad that at least one of the Rose family has such a fine calyx. The rose itself gives us sweet flowers, but its apples would be pretty poor eating. They are called hips." "But is the peach a calyx, too?" asked Davy. "It belongs to the same family." [Illustration: A RASPBERRY IS A CLUSTER OF PISTILS WITHOUT THE CORE. A BLACKBERRY IS THE END OF A FLOWER-STEM WITH A CLUSTER OF PISTILS AROUND IT.] "No, the peach is just the pistil, and it is the same with the plum and apricot and cherry. In the pear and quince it is the calyx, like the apple; in the raspberry each little part is a separate pistil with one seed, as I believe I showed you once, last summer." "How about the strawberries?" asked Prue. "I like those best." "I think I showed you that, too, but perhaps you have forgotten. The strawberry is still different. It is neither a calyx nor a pistil, but just the pulpy top of the stem that the flowers rest upon. It is covered with tiny pistils, though, of one seed each." "That is why strawberry seeds are on the outside," said Davy. "Yes, and the little pistils are called akenes, though you need not try to remember that now." "It is strange," said big Prue, "how many things become fruits." "Yes," said the Chief Gardener. "A fig, for instance, is simply a hollow stalk which grows thick and pulpy, and has a lot of little flowers inside that turn to seed when the fig ripens. A pineapple is a cluster of flower-leaves. A strawberry is the end of a flower-stem. A blackberry is the same, with a little cluster of pulpy pistils on the outside. A raspberry is the little cluster of pistils without the core; so that the blackberry is really the connecting-link between the strawberry and the raspberry. In gooseberries, grapes, cranberries, and huckleberries we eat the entire pistil, seeds and all. In peaches, plums, and cherries we eat only the outer part, and in apples, pears, and quinces we eat only the calyx, unless we eat the core." "Well," interrupted Davy, "I am going to eat a nice big red calyx, now, core and all, and I'm going to eat some hickory-nut and pop-corn pistils, all but the shells and cob, and I feel hungry enough to eat those, too." So then they drew closer around the bright blaze as evening gathered on the little faded garden outside. NOVEMBER NOVEMBER I THERE ARE ANNUALS, BIENNIALS, AND PERENNIALS BUT November was not all brown and dry. The warm days lingered. The lawn kept green, and suddenly about the house there was the most wonderful glory of yellow and rose and white and crimson, for the radiant flower of autumn, the chrysanthemum, was in full bloom. How beautiful the flowers were when the sun was bright, and when it was cloudy they seemed to have kept some of the sunlight and cheer to make the dooryard glad. "I don't remember when you planted the chrysanthemums," said Prue, one bright morning to the Chief Gardener. "No, it was when you were a very little girl--about four years ago." "I remember," said Davy. "I helped you." "Why don't you have to plant them every year?" asked Prue. "Because they are perennials--they live on, year after year." Prue did not seem to understand very well, so the Chief Gardener explained. "There are three kinds of plants," he said: "Annuals, biennials, and perennials. The annuals live but one season. They come from the seed each spring, and when they have grown and bloomed and made seed for another year they die. Sweet-pease and sunflowers and Davy's corn are annuals." "And radishes and beets," said Davy. "No, Davy. That is where you are mistaken." "But we have to plant them every spring," said Davy. "We do so to get good vegetables for our table. But if we were planting only for seed we would leave the roots in the ground, or take them up and reset them in the spring. Then they would send up long stalks to bloom and bear seed. Beets and radishes and turnips and most such things are biennials, which means that they bloom the second year and then die. They spend all the first year in laying up strength in the roots, to use in making seed the second summer. Some biennials, like the cabbage, lay up this strength in the thick stalk. The strength which they take up from the earth and from the air, through their leaves, they do not spend in flowers and show, but turn it into food for themselves, and the food is so good that men gather it for their own use." "I don't think that is quite right," said Prue, "after the poor thing has worked so hard all summer to be ready to bloom next year, for us to take it and eat it." The Chief Gardener smiled and shook his head. "I'm afraid we do not think much about the plant's rights," he said, "unless they happen to be the same as our own. And after all there are plenty of seeds saved every year--more than are ever planted." "And are potatoes biennials, too?" asked Davy. "No, potatoes are perennials. In the right climate they would live on year after year, laying up new strength each year for the next season's growth. Dahlias are perennials, too, and most of the grasses, and, of course, all trees, and shrubs. Your pinks, Prue, and sweet-williams, and the hollyhocks, are perennial, and live through the winter, though they bear a great deal of seed, which shows how determined they are to live on. These chrysanthemums also bear seed, and most plants have at least two ways, and some as many as four ways of producing others like them. Your onions, Davy, can be produced in four different ways. They can be grown from seed, from sets--which are little seed-onions taken out of the ground and kept through the winter--from bulblets--which are the little onions you saw growing on the top of the stalk last summer--and from multipliers--which are large bulbs broken into several small parts." [Illustration: THE SEED AND SETS OF THE ONION] "I should think an onion was surely perennial enough," said Davy, "with four ways of keeping alive." "Can you name the three kinds of plants now?" asked the Chief Gardener, turning to little Prue. "Yes," said Prue, putting out three fingers. "Annuals that have to die every fall, like my sweet-pease. Bi-yennials, that have to die every other fall, like Davy's turnips. Only we don't let 'em die--we kill 'em and eat 'em just when they are ready for their best time. Perennials, that have a lot of ways to live and never die at all." The Chief Gardener laughed. "Well, that's pretty good for a little girl. I think we might almost make a poem out of it. "The annuals we plant each spring-- They perish in the fall; Biennials die the second year, Perennials not at all." "I've made a rhyme, too," said Prue. "It's about the kinds of plants in a different way. This is it: "The kinds of plants are these-- Herbs, shrubs, and trees." "Why, I think we shall have to make up some more," said the Chief Gardener. "It will help us to remember." II PLANTS KNOW HOW TO SPREAD IT was not many days after this that the Chief Gardener was digging among his vines, and he called to the children, who came running. "We were talking the other day," he said, "about the many ways that old plants have of making new ones. See how this black raspberry vine is spreading." The Chief Gardener pointed to a long branch that had bent over until the end touched the earth. This end had taken root, and now a new little plant was there all formed and ready to grow the coming year. "There is another just like it," said Davy, "and another--why, there are lots of them!" "Yes, the vine sends out many of those long slender branches with a heavy little bud at the end of each to weigh it down. Such branches are called stolons, and when the bud touches the earth it sends out roots. Strawberries have runners which do the same thing. You will find plenty of them if you look in the patch." Davy and Prue went over to the strawberries and found that the vines, now red and brown from frost, had sent out runners, and made little new plants, like the black raspberries. "You see," said the Chief Gardener, "we pick the berries, which are the seeds, so all berry vines must have some other way of spreading. The red raspberries do it in a different way. They send out runners, too, but they are from the roots, and when the sprouts come up, we call them suckers. Many kinds of plants have suckers, and there are some kinds of trees sprout so badly that they cannot be used for shade." "What a lot of ways there are for plants to start!" said Davy. "Suppose we try to think of as many as we can," said the Chief Gardener. "You begin, Prue." "Seeds and roots and bend-overs and stuck-ins," said Prue. "That's four." [Illustration: A BLACK RASPBERRY VINE PREPARING TO SPREAD] Davy and the Chief Gardener laughed. "Well, that is a good start, but there are a good many kinds of roots and 'bend-overs,' and what are 'stuck-ins?'" "Why, pieces stuck in the ground to grow. Mamma does it with her geraniums." "Oh, slips! I see. Why, Prue, your answer covers about everything, after all. Now, Davy, suppose we hear from you." "Well, seeds--that's one. Bulbs, all the kinds, like the three onion kinds, and maybe other kinds, roots like the red raspberries, that make suckers and other kinds of roots, like potatoes, and then all the runners and suckers that Prue calls 'bend-overs,' and slips and grafts and buds." "Stuck-ins," nodded the Chief Gardener. "Prue was about right after all, for there are so many kinds of each different thing, and so many ways, that I am afraid we should never remember all the kinds and ways. 'Seeds and roots and bend-overs and stuck-ins' take in about all of them, and we are not apt to forget it. If you'll come now, we'll look at some of the kinds of roots." They went down into the garden, and the Chief Gardener opened a hill of potatoes which had not been dug. Then he picked up one of the potatoes and showed it to Davy and Prue. [Illustration: "WHAT ARE STUCK-INS?--OH, SLIPS!"] "That kind of a root is called a tuber," he said. "Those little spots on it are eyes, and make the sprouts. You remember we cut the potatoes we planted into little pieces, with one eye on each." "I remember," said Prue, "and I asked if they had eyes so they could see which way to grow." "The pieces we planted sprouted, and kept the sprout growing until it could send out roots. Besides the roots, there were little underground branches, and a potato formed on the end of each branch. When the soil and the season are both good there will be a great many of these branches and new tubers, but when the soil is poor and the season bad there will be very little besides roots." The children followed the Chief Gardener, and dug up a bunch of thick dahlia roots, and he told them how these were really roots, and not tubers, like the potatoes. Then he dug up some sweet-flag, and they saw how the rough root-pieces were joined one to the other, in a sort of chain of roots, and these he told them were root-stalks, and that they kept a store of nourishment for the new plants, in the spring. "There is a grass," he said, "which has such a root, and every time it is cut it sends up a new plant, so that every time the farmer tries to get it out of his grain-field he only makes more plants, unless he pulls up every piece and destroys it. You see, that grass has to fight to live, and it makes one of the very best fights of any plant I know, except the Canada thistle, which does very much the same thing. And that is what all plant life is. It is the struggle to live and grow and spread. The struggle with men and animals and heat and cold and with other plants. And in the struggle the plants, and especially the weeds, which have to fight hardest, have grown strong and persevering, and have learned a thousand ways to multiply their roots and to scatter their seed." III ALL THANKS FOR THE PLANTS THANKSGIVING brought the usual good dinner, and upon the table and the sideboard there were many things to remind the little family of their garden and their summer-time. There was a large plate of red apples and a dish of nuts, and there was a pot of pinks, which Prue had saved for her window-garden. Then there was a fine little jar of pickles, made from Davy's tomatoes, besides dishes of tomatoes and turnips, all from the little garden that had come and gone, leaving these good things and many pleasant memories behind. And after the dinner was over, and the pudding eaten and the nuts passed, the little family sat around the table to talk, as they often did. "I am sure we have a great deal to be thankful for this year," said big Prue. "Two such nice healthy children, with plenty to eat and wear, and a fire to keep us warm, and a good roof over our heads." "And all from the plants," said the Chief Gardener. "If we are thankful for the plants, we are thankful for almost everything we have." Davy sat thinking silently about this, but little Prue did not quite understand. "I suppose you mean that the plants made us healthy to work in them," she said. "I mean that, and I mean a great many other things. In the first place, plants furnish all the food in the world. Not only the vegetables, but the animal-food. Our turkey would not have been here to-day if he had not been fed on grain, and even the oysters must live from a sort of plant-food in the sea. Every creature that walks or flies or swims lives either on plants themselves or from some creature that does live on them." "Do sharks live on plants, too?" asked Prue. "Of course!" said Davy. "Sharks eat men, and men eat plants." "I don't suppose sharks live altogether on men," laughed big Prue, "and the little fish they eat may live on other little fish, but if you go far enough you will find that somewhere the beginning is plant-life." "Plants also warm and light us," went on the Chief Gardener. "Every stick of wood, or bit of coal, or drop of oil we burn, comes from plant-life. The coal was vegetation long ago--very long ago--and the heat and light that come from it were stored there in that far-away time by the green leaves that drew in life and light from the sunbeams." "Do the leaves really take up light?" asked Davy. "They really do. With every particle of vegetable matter that is made, a portion of the sun's heat and light is laid up in it. The light is still in the coal, though it looks so black. We have only to burn it, to get back the sunlight." That was a very wonderful thought to the children, and they had to talk about it a great deal before the Chief Gardener went on. "Every bit of clothing we wear comes from the plants," he said at last. "The cotton grows like the down about the thistle seed, and the wool that grows on the sheep's back is there because the sheep feeds on the green grass in summer and upon hay and grain in the winter-time. Silk is made by worms from mulberry leaves, linen is from the flax plant, and leather from the cattle that grow in the same way that the sheep grows. [Illustration: THE WOOL THAT GROWS ON THE SHEEP'S BACK IS THERE BECAUSE THE SHEEP FEEDS ON THE GREEN GRASS IN SUMMER] "Then there is our house. A great deal of it is made from wood, and even the bricks have vegetable matter in them, while the stones are shaped by tools that have wooden handles, and the bricks and stones are hauled in wooden carts." "But the iron doesn't grow, Papa," said little Prue. "No, but without heat to forge it--heat that comes from wood and coal--it would be of no use." "But there is one other thing that is more to us than all the rest. Plants purify the air we breathe. Air that we have breathed once is not fit for us again. We have used the oxygen from it, and turned it into carbonic acid gas. But carbonic acid gas is just what the plants need, so they take our breathed air and turn it into oxygen again and give it back to us fresh and pure, so that we can keep our life and health." "Don't forget the flowers, Papa," said little Prue. "I haven't forgotten them. If it were not for the flowers many of the plants would die out, and besides being so useful, the flowers feed the bees and make the world beautiful, and our lives happier and sweeter, by filling them with color and perfume and loveliness. No, I could hardly forget the flowers, Prue. They are the crowning glory of the plants that feed and clothe and warm and shelter us. So let us be thankful for the plants, every part of them, and especially for the flowers." "We ought to be thankful for the sun that makes them grow, too," said Davy. "And we must not forget the One to whom all thanks are due," added his mother. And as the November day closed in they gathered around the big open fire, and were happy and cheerful in the blaze of the same sunbeams that had shone on the great forests which had perished so many ages ago. DECEMBER DECEMBER I NEW GARDENS IN THE WINDOWS DECEMBER was a month for putting things away. The envelopes of seeds which Davy and Prue and the Chief Gardener had gathered were all put into separate tin boxes, and these boxes were put in a dry place on the top cupboard shelf, where they would not be disturbed. The bulbs and roots were also put into dry boxes in the basement, and the different kinds labelled in large plain letters by Davy, who could print very nicely indeed. The bulbs were quite interesting. Some, like those of the Easter lily, had small bulbs formed inside of them. Others, like the crocus, had tiny bulbs formed on the outside, and then there were bulblets which had formed above the ground, just where the leaf joins the stalk. These were little lily bulbs. So all the seeds and bulbs and roots were put away for the winter, except a few that Davy and Prue planted in some pots for their window-gardens. They decided to have different things this year. Instead of scarlet runners to climb on the sides of his window, Davy had decided to have melon vines. His cantaloupes had not done very well in the garden, for the reason that the pumpkin had sent its long tendrils across the cantaloupe bed, and the pollen had been carried from the flowers of one to the other by the busy bees, and this caused all his cantaloupes to have a flavor of pumpkin. Davy had eaten them, though, and even little Prue had said they were not so _very_ bad, and had really eaten nearly all of one piece. Now, Davy was going to have two cantaloupe vines, and let them climb on each side of his window, and see if he couldn't raise some melons that folks would be glad to get a piece of. In the middle of his window he was going to have an eggplant, which he very much wanted to try, and in the little pots at the sides, there were to be a peanut, which he wanted to try, too, and a special little red pepper which had looked very nice in the seed-catalogue. Then there were two little pots, one holding a small turnip and the other a radish, which Davy wanted to see bloom and go to seed. So, you see, Davy's garden was going to be quite different this year, and Prue's was different, too. For Prue did not have morning-glories to climb, this winter. Not because she did not like them, but because she wanted her window, like Davy's, to be different from the window of the winter before. She had a cypress vine planted this year, on one side, and a moon vine on the other. And in the center of her window, she was to have a cosmos flower, with a fuchsia and a hyacinth and a tulip at the sides, and one of her precious pinks brought in from the summer garden. Of course, the tulip and the hyacinth were to grow from little bulbs, while the fuchsia was a small plant which she had bought at the greenhouse. And in this way both the windows were to be very different from the winter before, and many new things were to be learned in seeing the seeds and the bulbs and the roots sprout and grow and bloom. [Illustration: A JAPANESE FERN-BALL] And there was one thing more which was to be different, for Prue and Davy had put their money together and bought a Japanese fern-ball to hang between the windows, and a hook to hang it on. The ball they soaked in warm water, as the directions had said, and then hung it on the hook. As often as it seemed dry they soaked it again, and one day it was sending out little green points, and soon, even before the rest of their window-garden was fairly started, there were feathery little fern leaves all over the ball, and before Christmas it was very beautiful indeed. II TO THE GARDEN OF SLEEP _December_ was not a very bright month for Davy and Prue. Very little snow fell, so they could not use their sleds. If it had not been for their gardens and their lessons, which took several hours each day, they would have been rather lonely, looking out on brown woods and meadows. But there was the joy of Christmas coming, and this thought made them happier, as each day brought it nearer. They counted the weeks first, then the days, and at last the hours. And then they had secrets. Secrets from big Prue and the Chief Gardener, and secrets from each other. Sometimes little Prue whispered to big Prue, and did not want Davy to hear. Sometimes Davy whispered to the Chief Gardener, and stopped very quick and began to whistle, if Prue came into the room. Packages began to be brought in after dark, or when everybody else was upstairs, and then, one afternoon--the afternoon of that wonderful eve when stillness and mystery seem to gather on the fields--there was a row of stockings along the mantel, hanging ready for somebody to fill. Santa Claus, of course, must do that, but there were packages hidden here and there for the good old Saint to find and put where they belonged. And Prue and Davy were in bed almost before dark, because you see the time passes quicker if you are asleep, and the sooner to bed the sooner to sleep. But when big Prue came in to kiss them good-night she told them a story--the old sweet story of the Little Child who was born so long ago, and to whom the first gifts were brought by the wise men. And then she told how that little baby boy in the manger had become a sweet child, with games and playmates like other children, with toys and, perhaps, a little garden of his own, something as they had made during the summer-time. And she told also a little story which, perhaps, is only a story, but it is what it would seem might have happened to the Little Child of Bethlehem. "Once," she said, "when he was playing he grew very tired and thirsty, and his playmate was very thirsty, too. So Jesus ran to the well for a cup of water, and hurried back with it without stopping to drink. But his playmate was greedy, for he seized the cup and drank it all, except a few drops at the bottom. Then he gave the empty cup to Jesus, who took it and let the last few drops fall on the grass, when suddenly from where they fell there flowed a little clear stream of water, with lilies-of-the-valley blooming along its banks." "Please sing the verse about the story of old," said Davy, when she had finished. So his mother sang: "I think, when I read that sweet story of old, How Jesus was here among men, How he called little children as lambs to his fold, I should like to have been with them then." And it was only a moment longer that the Christmas Saint had to wait on the sand-man, for presently the door closed softly on the singer. Davy and Prue had entered the fair garden of sleep. III IN THE GARDENS OF CHRISTMAS _I cannot_ tell you all the wonders of that Christmas. I can only tell you that the presents which the little family had bought for one another were all in their proper places next morning, and that there were ever so many things that nobody but Santa Claus could possibly have brought. There was a Christmas tree, for one thing, the kind of a tree that nobody but Santa Claus ever raises, or brings, and there was everything upon it and about it that a little boy and girl could want, unless they wanted a great deal more than a little boy and girl ought to have, at one time. But the very finest Christmas gift of all was a splendid great big snow-storm, which had begun in the night and was still going on, as fast and as thick as the big, soft, fleecy flakes could fall. Every few minutes the children left the beautiful tree to look at the beautiful snow. They could hardly wait until breakfast was over, and the Chief Gardener had made a photograph of the tree with them in it, before they wanted to rush out with their sleds. All at once Davy called Prue to the window. "Look," he said, "some of these flakes on the window-sash are like little white flowers!" Then every one came to see, and, sure enough, some of the snowflakes that had fallen next to the glass were wonderfully shaped, and did look like tiny blossoms. The Chief Gardener got a magnifying-glass and they looked at them through it, when they saw how really beautiful they were. "I have heard them called 'the flowers of winter,'" said big Prue. "There is a little story about how the flowers complained that they must all die when cold weather came, and never see the winter. So then their spirits were allowed to come back as snowflakes." [Illustration: THE KIND OF A TREE THAT NOBODY BUT SANTA CLAUS EVER RAISES] That was a glorious Christmas. All day the snow came down outside, and all day the big fire blazed and the Christmas tree gleamed and shimmered and sparkled inside. And then, in the afternoon, there was a Christmas dinner which was quite as good as any of the rest of the things, even to the snow. And after the dinner was over, and they sat around the fire, the Chief Gardener said: "We have had a happy year. I know it has been happy, for the time has gone so fast. It seems not more than a few weeks ago that we were keeping last Christmas, and almost no time at all since Prue and Davy started their first little gardens in the window. Yet, a week from to-day, and that will be a year ago, too. Now, I have a plan. It was Prue who made me think of it. She said something not long ago that I made into a little verse, about annuals, biennials, and perennials. Then Prue made one, too, about herbs and shrubs and trees. Now I propose that we each make some rhymes for New Year's day to celebrate the starting of the window-garden, and also the little garden which Prue and Davy had outside. The rhymes must tell something that has been learned during the year, and they must be short, and easy to remember. Of course, we won't expect very much, but Prue has done so well, that I am sure the rest of us can do something, too." "I never made any rhymes," said Davy. "I'll help you," said Prue. "It's just as easy." So they all agreed, and during the holidays, when the children were not busy with their sleds or books or gardens, they were making rhymes. IV SOME VERSES AND THEN GOOD-BY AND these are the rhymes that were read and recited after dinner on New Year's day, just a year after the first little window-garden was started. I shall not tell you whose they were. Of course, you will all remember little Prue's: "The kinds of plants are these, Herbs and shrubs, and trees," and the Chief Gardener's: "The annuals we plant each spring-- They perish in the fall; Biennials die the second year, Perennials not at all," but the writers of the others you will have to guess. THE PLANT The parts of every plant are three-- The root, and stem, and leaf they be. The flowers are only leaves more fair, Which nature makes, to bloom and bear. THE ROOT Most roots are hidden in the ground, As they should _always_ be, by rights, But some in other plants are found, And these belong to parasites. THE STEM The stem may be a stalk or vine To stand erect, or creep, or twine-- For frailest plant, or firmest oak That's ne'er by storm of winter broke. THE LEAF A leaf has a stem, and of stipules a pair, Though the stipules are often quite small, or not there. A leaf has a blade, and of ribs one or more; While of veins and of veinlets it has many score. A leaf may be simple, or it may be compound, And a million small pores for its breathing are found. THE FLOWER The blossom has a calyx That is very often green, And just above the sepals The corolla bright is seen. And above the pretty petals May be stamens eight or nine-- Slender filaments, and anthers, To hold the pollen fine. While in the blossom's center Doth the sturdy pistil grow, With stigma and with style that lead To seed-cups just below. HOW PLANTS INCREASE From seed and from runner, from stolon bent low-- From sucker and slip and from layer they grow-- From bulb and from bulblet--from tuber and root, They give us the flower and the grain and the fruit. All thanks to the plants for the clothes that we wear-- The food that we eat and the home that we share-- For the air that we breathe and the fuel we burn-- All thanks to the plants, 'tis our only return. Davy rather objected to the last line of these verses. He said that it was some return to take good care of plants, especially in the hot summer-time, when it was ever so much nicer to sit in the shade. So another little rhyme was made, like this: A plant should have the sun and air And water, and the proper care. If it has these, and doesn't die, We'll reap the harvest, by and by. Then to end the day they all sang a little song about the snowflakes, that Jack Frost sends out of his gardens of winter-time: THE SNOWFLAKES Jack Frost, he makes the snowflakes, He paints the snowflakes white. He sent them Christmas morning To make our landscape bright. For in the deepest winter The world is bleak and bare-- Jack Frost, he sends the snowflakes To make our winter fair. And so ends the story of a year, and of its little gardens. Also of Prue and Davy, who owned the little gardens, and of her who was called big Prue and of him who was called the Chief Gardener. Other years will bring other gardens, and other summers. Prue and Davy will grow older, and learn more and more with each year that passes. But no year will ever be happier and no gardens ever brighter than those to which we are now saying good-by. * * * * * Transcriber's Notes Minor punctuation errors corrected on pages 16, 68, 104, 105, 214, 219, 276, 285, 294, 297, 328. Slight discrepancies in some of the titles given in the Table of Contents and those given at the beginning of each section have been retained here. Original spellings and hyphenation have been retained except in the cases of these apparent typographical errors: Page 23, "lovelly" changed to "lovely." (I never saw anything so lovely...) Page 60, "no" changed to "not." (...not to look at their garden...) 
62921	----	available by USDA through The Internet Archive. All resultant materials are placed in the Public Domain. Transcriber Note Text emphasis is denoted as _Italics_. Whole and fractional parts of numbers as 123-4/5. SWEET CLOVER HARVESTING AND THRASHING THE SEED CROP H. S. COE Assistant Agrononmist, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations [Illustration] FARMERS' BULLETIN 836 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. July, 1917 Show this bulletin to a neighbor. Additional copies may be obtained free from the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 SWEET CLOVER should be cut for seed when three-fourths of the seed pods have turned dark brown to black. At this time some flowers and many immature pods will be found on the plants, but the field will have a brownish cast. Sweet-clover seed pods shatter badly when mature. For this reason every precaution should be taken to cut the plants at the proper stage and to save as much of the shattered seed as possible. Shattering may be reduced to a minimum by cutting the plants when they are damp from rain or dew. No machine thus far placed on the market has given entire satisfaction in cutting sweet clover for seed. The ordinary mower should not be used for harvesting the seed crop. The seed crop is usually cut with a self-rake reaper, grain binder, grain header, or corn harvester. The self-rake reaper and the grain binder have been most satisfactory. The seed crop should be stacked unless it can be thrashed within two weeks after cutting. Much shattered seed will be saved if a wagon with a tight floor is used for hauling the plants. If the wagon bed is not tight it should be covered with a tarpaulin or canvas. The seed may be flailed from the plants, as is customary in the South, or it may be thrashed with a grain separator or clover huller, as is the practice in the North. The ordinary grain separator may be adjusted so that it will hull 90 per cent of the seed. Sweet-clover straw has considerable feeding value. SWEET CLOVER: HARVESTING AND THRASHING THE SEED CROP.[1] [1] This bulletin discusses only the harvesting and thrashing of the sweet-clover seed crop. The growing of sweet clover and its utilization are discussed in Farmers' Bulletin 797, entitled "Sweet Clover; Growing the Crop," and Farmer's Bulletin 820, entitled "Sweet Clover: Utilization," respectively. CONTENTS. Page. The crop to harvest for seed 3 Time to cut the seed crop 4 Loss of seed from shattering 4 Machinery used for harvesting the seed crop 5 Stacking the sweet-clover seed crop 17 Thrashing the sweet-clover seed crop 18 Yields of sweet-clover seed 21 Sweet-clover straw 23 THE CROP TO HARVEST FOR SEED. White sweet clover and biennial yellow sweet clover are harvested for seed the year following seeding. In localities where those species will produce two cuttings the second year, either the first or the second crop may be harvested for seed. As the plants die when mature, only one cutting will be obtained if the first crop is permitted to ripen. It is becoming a general practice in many sections of the country to utilize the first crop of the second season for pasture, ensilage, or hay, and the second crop for seed. As a rule, this is the most profitable and economical way to handle sweet clover, as the first crop will produce an abundance of nutritious pasturage or from 6 to 10 tons of ensilage or 1 to 3 tons of hay to the acre. The second crop seldom grows more than 4 feet high when the first crop is pastured or cut. The shorter growth of the second crop is a very desirable feature, as it may be cut with a grain binder without difficulty. When the first crop of white sweet clover is permitted to mature, the plants often make so large a growth that it is very difficult to handle them with ordinary farm machinery. This trouble is experienced more often in humid regions than in semiarid sections. As biennial yellow sweet clover seldom grows as tall as the white species, little difficulty is experienced in cutting the first crop of the second year for seed with a grain binder. Annual yellow sweet clover, or sour clover, is seldom grown for seed, as a sufficient quantity to supply the market is obtained from the screenings of wheat grown in the Southwest. Sweet-clover seed ripens irregularly and shatters badly when mature. On this account much seed is lost before and during harvest, and ordinary harvesting machinery has not been entirely satisfactory for handling the crop. TIME TO CUT THE SEED CROP. Opinions of extensive growers of sweet clover differ as to the proper stage at which to cut the seed crop. Some believe that it should be cut when the pods on the lower branches have turned dark brown to black, while others maintain that it is best to wait until the seed on the upper portions of the plants is mature. The time of cutting the seed crop should be governed largely by the machinery which is to be used. If the plants are to be harvested with a self-rake reaper or a grain binder, they should be cut when approximately three-fourths of the seed pods have turned dark brown to black. At this time some flowers and many immature pods will be found on the plants, but the field will have a brownish cast. If the crop is not cut until the seed pods on the uppermost branches have matured, most of the pods on the lower branches will have shattered. It is the practice in regions where a grain header is employed to permit the plants to become somewhat more mature before cutting the seed crop than in sections where other machines are used. More seed is shattered when the plants are cut at the latter stage, but this is not necessarily a loss, as the grain header is employed for the most part in semiarid regions, where the shattered seed is depended upon to reseed the land. LOSS OF SEED FROM SHATTERING. From one-fifth to three-fourths of the total seed yield of sweet clover is lost from shattering. The percentage of the loss which occurs before harvesting will depend largely on the time the crop is cut. Much seed may be lost if harvesting is delayed for only a few days, and many fields have been observed in which at least 90 per cent of the seed had shattered in less then two weeks after the time the plants should have been cut. The percentage of seed which is lost in harvesting will depend largely upon the manner of handling the crop. The binder or header may be equipped at a small cost, so that much of the seed which ordinarily is lost while cutting may be saved. Much shattered seed will be saved by using wagons with tight platforms or platforms covered with canvas. All unnecessary handling should be avoided. Shattering may be reduced to a minimum by cutting the plants when they are damp from rain or dew. It is the practice in some regions to cut in the early morning or late evening, but this procedure will apply only to small acreages, since it is necessary to cut the crop as soon as possible when it reaches the proper stage for harvesting. It is a good practice to cut sweet clover at night, as the plants usually are damp at that time. MACHINERY USED FOR HARVESTING THE SEED CROP. No machine thus far manufactured has given entire satisfaction for cutting the sweet-clover seed crop. On account of the ease with which the pods shatter, it is a question whether any machine can be devised which will handle this crop without the loss of some seed. It is possible and practicable, however, for farmers at a small cost to equip their binders with pans and guards, so as to save most of the seed which otherwise would be lost. THE ORDINARY MOWER. The ordinary mowing machine is one of the most unsatisfactory devices used for harvesting this crop, as the subsequent handling necessary to place the plants in windrows or cocks causes much of the seed to shatter. The use of this machine for this purpose should be avoided whenever possible. THE SELF-RAKE REAPER. The self-rake reaper is one of the most efficient machines employed to cut sweet clover for seed. (Fig. 1.) This machine deposits the newly cut plants with the tops all turned one way in gavels or bunches at the side, so that the horses do not trample them on the next round. A high stubble also may be left, thereby reducing the weight and bulk of the plants which must be hauled to the thrashing machine. [Illustration: Fig. 1.--A self-rake reaper used in some sections of the country for cutting the sweet-clover seed crop.] [Illustration: Fig. 2.--A sled used in western Kansas for hauling sweet clover from the field to the thrashing machine.] It is the custom in some localities to leave the gavels to cure as dropped by the reaper on the ground, while in other sections they are placed in cocks that weigh about 300 pounds each when cured. If the gavels are to be placed in cocks, this should be done immediately after cutting, as the plants will be somewhat green and tough at this time and fewer pods will shatter than when the plants are permitted to dry before handling. When the crop is to be hauled to the thrashing machine on wagons it is best to permit the gavels to cure as dropped by the reaper, as it will then be possible to pitch them on the wagon with a large 4-tined fork. If the crop is to be hauled to the thrashing machine on large sleds, which is the practice in western Kansas, less seed will be lost from shattering if the gavels at the time of cutting are placed in cocks of such a size that they may be put on the sleds entire by two men lifting from opposite sides of the cock with 4-tined forks. The sleds used for this purpose usually are 12 by 20 foot in size, made of matched flooring and with 6 to 12 inch sides. (Fig. 2.) Matched or tight floors are necessary, so that all seed which shatters may be saved. These would not be so essential, however, if the sleds were covered with a tarpaulin or canvas. From the standpoint of saving shattered seed, this method of hauling the crop from the field to the thrashing machine is possibly the most economical thus far used. It is estimated that at times as much as one-third of the seed yield is collected from the floors of the sleds. It would be a good plan to replace the runners of the sleds with very low trucks, as this would lighten the draft considerably. When sweet clover is cut with a self-rake reaper the crop is thrashed directly from the field. From 7 to 10 days of good haying weather in sufficient to cure the plants in the gavel or cock. Thrashing should be done as soon as possible, much seed is shattered by rains and winds. While a self-rake reaper is used to some extent in different sections of the country, it is used most extensively in the western North-Central States, and especially in western Kansas. THE GRAIN BINDER. A grain binder is employed extensively for cutting the sweet-clover seed crop. (Fig. 3.) The general use of this machine in many sections of the country is due to the fact that it is found on most farms and therefore causes no outlay of money, rather than because of its efficient work. It is not so efficient as the self-rake reaper unless it is equipped with pans and guards to save the seed which shatters. [Illustration: Fig. 3.--Cutting sweet clover for seed with a grain binder.] It is possible to equip the grain binder with pans and extensions to the rear elevator plate and binder deck, so that at least 95 per cent of the seed which shatters when the crop is cut may be saved. Those pans and extensions may be made out of ordinary galvanized metal and strap iron. The galvanized metal may be purchased at any tin shop or hardware store, and if sufficient strips of iron can not be found around the farm for this purpose strap iron may be purchased at any blacksmith shop. The material for those pans and extensions should not cost more than $4.50 or $5, and it should be possible to have them made complete for $8 or $10, including material. Unless there are a forge and drill on the farm it will be necessary to have the braces and supports for the pans made at a blacksmith shop. The strap iron used in connection with the pans may vary in size, but for the most part it need not be heavier than one-eighth inch in thickness, and seven-eighths inch in width. The supports for the pan under the binder deck preferably should be one-quarter inch thick, as this pan will have much more strain on it than the pans under the elevators. Where bolts are to be used, ordinary stove bolts will suffice. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Plans for a pan to be placed under the opening between the platform and lower elevator of a grain binder in order to save the sweet-clover seed which falls on the platform and on the extension to the rear elevator plate. _A_, size and shape of the metal before bending; _B_, general plan of the pan when completed, as viewed from the top; _C_, cross section of the pan and outline of the support which holds it in position; _D_, stirrup which hooks over the inside and to which the support is fastened; _E_, door.] [Illustration: Fig. 5.--Rear view of a grain binder, showing a cross section of the pans and supports and the parts of the machine to which they are attached. _A_, Pan under the opening between the platform and lower elevator; _B_, support of the pan; _C_, stirrup which fits over the inside sill and to which the support is bolted; _D_, angle iron under the end of the platform and over which one end of the support is hooked; _E_, cross section of pan under the binder deck; _F_, support of the pan; _G_, stirrup which hooks over the outside sill and to which the support is bolted; _H_, angle iron which supports the guard at the end of the deck; _I_, guard which directs the seed that falls on the binder deck into the pan below; _J_, binder pipe over which one end of the support is hooked.] The plans for making the pan which should be placed under the opening between the platform and the lower elevator are illustrated in figure 4. The material to be used for this pan should be cut to conform to the size and shape shown in figure 4, _A_; the sides should then be bent upright along the dotted lines, so that the pan will be 18 inches wide at the top. One end, which should be solid, may be made so by bending the center portion upright and then bending the sides against it. The side and center pieces should be riveted together. (Fig. 4, _C_.) Any suitable door which will prevent seed from falling out of the pan will suffice for the other end. A door is highly desirable, so that the seed may be removed more easily when the pan is full. A convenient type is shown in figure 4, _E_. A top view of the pan when completed is given in figure 4, _B_. It will be necessary to brace the pan, and this may be done by riveting strips of strap iron, preferably one-eighth inch thick and one-half inch wide, on the outer edges of the sides. This pan is held in position by two supports made of strap iron, preferably seven-eighths inch wide and one-eighth inch thick, which have been bent to conform to the outside of a cross section of the pan. (Figs. 4, _C_, and 5, _B_.) The ends of these supports which fasten under the platform should be bent to a sharp angle and the tip of each slightly flattened, so that they may be pushed between the angle bar at the end of the platform and the bottom of the platform. The other end of each support should have a hole drilled in it, so that it may be bolted to the stirrups, which should be made to hook over the inside sill. (Figs. 4, _C_, and 5.) These supports should be placed about 6 inches from the ends of the pan and riveted or bolted to it. This will serve to brace the pan and to hold it in place. The pan may be attached to the machine by hooking the supports over the angle iron on the bottom of the platform and by bolting them to the stirrups on the sill. By supporting the pan in this manner it may be easily and quickly attached or removed. [Illustration: Fig. 6.--Plans for the pan to be placed under the binder deck of the grain binder. _A_, Size and shape the metal should be cut before bending; _B_, general plan of the pan when completed, as viewed from the top.] [Illustration: Fig. 7.--Plans for the guard to be placed at the end of the binder deck of the grain binder and cross section of the pan and supports illustrated in figure 6. _A_, Size and shape of the metal for the guard; _B_, shape of the guard when completed; _C_, cross section of the pan and support to which this guard is attached; _D_, angle iron which supports the guard at the end of the deck; _E_, guard bolted in position; _F_, stirrup which hooks over the outside sill and to which the support is belted.] The pan to be placed under the deck of the machine will serve to collect the seed which is shattered on the deck and the extension to the deck. The plans for making this pan are shown in detail in figure 6. The material should be cut along the solid lines and of the size designated in figure 6, _A_. The sides of the pan should be bent upward on the dotted lines, so that the pan will be 24 inches wide at the top. The ends should then be made in the manner described for the pan which is placed under the opening of the platform and lower elevator. A door may be put in the rear end of this pan if desired; but this is not necessary, as no trouble will be experienced in removing the seed. Figure 6, _B_, gives a top view of the pan when completed and also a portion, of the guard which serves to direct into this pan the seed which shatters on the deck. This guard is shown in detail in figure 7. As this pan is larger and heavier than that placed under the lower elevator, not only should it have strips of iron riveted to the outer edges of the sides, but two cross braces also should be employed. Those may be fastened to the strips of iron supporting the sides of the pan and should be about 12 inches from the ends of it. This pan is supported by two strips of strap iron bent to conform to the outside of a cross section of it and hook over the binder pipe under the deck and bolt to stirrups placed on the outer sill of the frame. Each support may be made from one strip of strap iron. It may be necessary to bend the ends of the supports which hook over the binder pipe in opposite directions. Both ends of the supports which hook over the binder pipe may hook outward, as shown in figure 7, _C_, or the rear support may hook inward, as illustrated in figure 5. It is not absolutely necessary that those supports of the pan hook in opposite directions on the binder pipe, yet when this is done it will make the pan more rigid. The pan may be attached by first hooking the supports over the binder pipe underneath the deck and then bolting the other end of the supports to the stirrups on the outer sill. The pan should be fastened to the supports. A cross section of this pan, the supports for it, and the stirrups which hook over the sill are shown in figure 7, _C_. If this pan extends beyond the deck so that the seed which is shattered on the deck will drop directly into it, the bundles when released from the packers will strike the pan. For this reason it is necessary to place a guard at the end of the deck, so that the seed which falls on the deck will be directed into the pan. This guard, as shown in figures 5 and 7, consists of a piece of galvanized metal, to the upper side of which has been riveted a strip of iron. The upper side of this guard should be bent slightly inward at the lower edge of the strip of iron and placed in such a position that it will be approximately 1-1/2 inches beyond the lower end of the binder deck and extend from 1 to 1-1/2 inches above the deck. If it is placed at right angles to the deck and no higher than 1-1/2 inches above it, it will not interfere with the bundles as they are released from the packers. This guard should be supported by two angles of strap iron, as shown in figure 7, _D_. Those braces are bolted to the supports of the pan, and the guard is bolted to the braces. As this guard should extend a little below the supports of the pan, so as to prevent the wind from blowing the seed over it, it is necessary to cut slots in the guard so it will fit over the supports. The ends of this guard should be rolled slightly inward, so that the seed falling close to them will be directed into the pan. When the extension to the binder deck is placed in the proper position, the seed collected by it will be directed against the guard and then into the pan below. The extension to the elevator should be bolted to the rear elevator plate. This extension should be so wide that the tops of the plants will not reach beyond it. The details for this extension are shown in figure 8. The outer edge and lower end of this extension should be bent upward and slightly inward, so that the seed which falls upon it will be directed to the opening between the platform and lower elevator, where it will fall into the pan beneath. The curved edge of the lower part of this extension should be flattened as much as possible, so that it will not interfere with the upper portions of the plants as they pass from the platform to the elevators. The opening must be sufficiently large, however, to permit small branches and racemos which fall upon the extension to pass into the pan. The angle of the lower portion of it must be large enough to permit the seed to run directly into the pan below. If this portion is sloped from the seat pipe to the opening between the platform and the lower elevator no trouble will be experienced. This extension may be bolted to the machine by drilling holes in it to coincide with those in the elevator plate. [Illustration: Fig. 8.--Plan of the extension which is bolted to the rear elevator plate of the grain binder. _A_, Size and shape of the metal to be used for this extension; _B_, extension when completed.] It is necessary to widen the binder deck, so as to save the seed which is shattered from those portions of the plants which extend beyond it. This may be done by bolting to the rear end of this deck an extension, as shown in detail in figure 9. This extension may be made from one piece of galvanized iron, which should be cut along the solid lines and of the size shown in figure 9, _A_. It should be bent upward and slightly inward at the dotted lines shown in this figure. The extended strips, as shown in figure 9, _B_, should be riveted to the main part of the extension. When this is done a trough will be formed along the side and lower end of it, so that all seed which shatters upon it will be directed into the pan below the deck. The object in riveting the extended strips at the end of the extension to the main part is to prevent the tops of the plants from catching in the trough when the bundles leave the packers. It may be necessary to fasten a brace to the bottom of the deck to support this extension. This can be done, however, by using a strip of strap iron or wood. The upper end of this extension should be bent to fit under the upper end of the one attached to the elevator plate, so that the plants will not be hindered in passing from one to the other. Both extensions may be braced strongly at the top by fastening them to a right angle of iron or wood. A grain, binder equipped with the pans and extensions herein outlined is shown in figure 10. Binders equipped in the manner described have been tested carefully in different sections and have proved beyond doubt that they offer an economical device for harvesting sweet clover for seed. This equipment has been used most extensively in Livingston County, Ill., where farmers have saved with it from $6 to $10 worth of seed per acre. When this equipment is used the plants may be permitted to become somewhat more mature before cutting, as the seed which is shattered will be saved by the pans. [Illustration: Fig. 9.--Extension to the binder deck of the grain binder. _A_, size and shape of the metal before bending; _B_, extended points which are to be bolted to the main portion of the metal; _C_, extension when completed.] As the pans and extensions described have been designed for one type of binder, it may be necessary to modify them slightly for use on other types of machines. Before making a set of these pans and extensions for any machine, the plans shown should be compared carefully with the binder to be equipped, in order that any changes which will need to be made may be noted. The pans and extensions at least maybe made on the farm, and then it will be an easy matter to check up the measurements for the supports, which may be made at a blacksmith shop. Difficulty may be experienced in cutting sweet clover with a binder when the first crop has been permitted to mature, as the plants may be so tall that the machine will not handle them properly. This difficulty may be overcome entirely in most sections of the country by pasturing the field until the first part of June or by cutting the first crop for hay. It is recommended that the stubble be left as high as possible when cutting sweet clover for seed. Not only will this greatly facilitate harvesting but it will leave many of the woody, unpalatable portions of the plants on the ground, where they will decay quickly, and help to increase the humus content of the soil. (See the illustration on the title-page.) When the seed crop is cut with a binder it is best to shock the bundles as soon as possible, so as to avoid unnecessary shattering. Conditions should determine whether the bundles be placed in long narrow shocks or in round shocks. The plants will cure somewhat faster in long narrow shocks, and this form should be preferred when grasshoppers are not troublesome. Sweet-clover shocks should not be capped, as capping will cause some seed pods to shatter. [Illustration: Fig. 10.--A grain binder equipped with pans and extensions to the rear elevator plate and binder deck to save the sweet-clover seed which is shattered while cutting the crop.] THE GRAIN HEADER. Grain headers have been used successfully for harvesting the sweet-clover seed crop in several sections of the United States, especially in western Kansas. The principal advantages in using this machine are that a larger acreage may be cut in a given time than with either a grain binder or a self-rake reaper and that a high stubble may be left. The greater acreage which may be cut with a header is important when large acreages are to be harvested, as much seed is lost by shattering if the crop is not cut at the proper stage for harvesting, while the high stubble which may be left when cutting the seed crop with a grain header is a decided advantage, as it not only reduces greatly the weight and bulb of the plants which must be thrashed, but it also leaves the hard, woody portions on the ground, where they will decay and be of some value as a fertilizer. It is best to remove only those portions of the plants which contain sufficient seed to thrash, but this is not always possible, even with a header, unless the field contains a fairly thin stand and the plants are not more than 4-1/2 to 5 feet high. When the seed crop is to be cut with a grain header, it usually is permitted to stand somewhat longer than when other machines are used. A tin pan or some other receptacle should be placed at the lower end of the header elevator in order to save the seed which otherwise would be lost at that place. The plants are carried into header wagons or barges in the same way as grain. When a heavy crop is cut it will be necessary to have two men in the barge to handle the plants. The floor of the header wagon should be made perfectly tight, or it should be covered with a canvas or tarpaulin, so as to save the seed pods which shatter. When the crop is cut at the proper stage it may be placed directly in stacks or ricks without danger of heating or molding, provided the ricks are covered or topped with some material which will shed water and are built upon a foundation, so that air may circulate under them. Native grass or green sweet-clover plants of the first year's crop will serve very nicely for topping the stacks. It is the custom of some people to place the barge loads close together in individual stacks so located that they may be hauled quickly and easily to the thrashing machine. On other farms enough barge loads are placed together to make a rick approximately 10 by 10 by 40 feet in size. When each barge load is placed in a separate stack it is necessary to load the plants again, so as to haul them to the thrashing machine. The shattering of seed pods and the extra labor caused by reloading and by hauling the plants may be avoided for the most part by placing the crop in ricks large enough for a day's thrashing. It is good practice to place such ricks in pairs sufficiently close together for both to be pitched directly to the feeder of the machine. When this method is employed two days' thrashing may be done without moving the machine. The header binder, consisting of an attachment placed upon the header to bind the cut plants, has been used successfully in cutting the sweet-clover seed crop. THE CORN HARVESTER. Corn harvesters are proving to be efficient machines for cutting sweet clover which has made a growth too large to be cut with a grain binder. Even when the field has been seeded broadcast a 3-foot swath may be cut with the corn harvester, provided the gathering or divider points are extended to collect the plants. This may be done by fastening to each point a piece of wood or iron about 18 inches long. When a corn binder is used no more seed is lost from shattering than when an ordinary grain harvester is employed, unless the later is equipped with special pans and extensions, for the reason, primarily, that the portions of the plants which produce most of the seed extend above the gathering or divider boards and are not crushed. When a 5-foot or larger growth is cut with a corn binder, the plants are tied below the seed-bearing branches. In the semiarid sections of the country a limited quantity of sweet clover is planted in rows for both forage and seed production. In such a case the seed may be harvested with a corn binder. (Fig. 11.) [Illustration: Fig. 11.--Cutting sweet clover for seed with a corn harvester. This field had been seeded in 30-inch rows.] STACKING THE SWEET-CLOVER SEED CROP. Much discussion has taken place among extensive growers of sweet clover as to the advisability of stacking the seed crop after it is cut with a grain binder or a corn harvester. The conditions present in each case should determine the proper course to pursue. If it will be impossible to thrash within 10 days after cutting, much less seed will be lost by stacking two or three days after cutting than by permitting the plants to remain in the field subject to possible rains. In such cases it is urged that the crop be stacked, as the seed saved by this operation, if the handling is done with care, will much more than pay for the labor. When it is possible to thrash in a week or 10 days after cutting, the crop should be thrashed directly from the field, as little seed ordinarily will be lost during this time and the work of stacking will be avoided. When the crop is to be stacked, the stacks should be built in the same way as stacks of grain; and when properly built they will shed water as well as grain stacks. (Fig. 12.) It is well, however, to provide a covering, and if canvas is not available a top-dressing of green grain or young sweet-clover plants will suffice. Sweet clover should remain in the stack for three or four weeks, as it will require about that time for the plants to pass through the sweat. A stack should always be placed on high ground, where water will not collect about the base, and it is recommended that a foundation of some kind be provided, so that air may circulate beneath. A few posts or rails will answer this purpose very well. [Illustration: Fig. 12.--A stack of sweet clover.] THRASHING THE SWEET-CLOVER SEED CROP. Two methods are in general use for thrashing the sweet-clover seed crop. The seed may be flailed from the plants, or it may be removed by a grain separator or a clover huller. FLAILING THE SEED. Much of the sweet-clover seed harvested in the South is flailed from the plants. This method is necessarily slow and does not hull the seed. It is practicable, therefore, only in regions where the necessary machinery for hulling the seed crop is not available or where the acreage to be thrashed is very limited. One advantage of thrashing the seed in this manner is that the straw is left in the field, where it will add much organic matter to the soil. When the seed is to be flailed, the crop ordinarily is cut with a scythe or mowing machine and the plants raked into piles or windrows. If only small areas are to be harvested in this manner, a canvas or tarpaulin may be spread on the ground beside a windrow or pile and several forkfuls of sweet clover pitched on the canvas, where the seed may be removed from the plants by striking them a few times with flails, sticks, or forks. After the plants have been struck a few times they should be turned over and struck again. When the seed is removed front the plants, the straw may be pitched to one side, the canvas placed beside another portion of the windrow or by another pile, and the operation repeated. It is not necessary to remove the seed from the canvas until its weight or bulk interferes with moving the canvas. It is the practice in some sections of the country to place a well-braced frame, covered with wire netting, on a sled and to flail the seed on this frame. The netting used for covering the frame should have meshes 1 inch or loss in diameter. The sled should be at least 7 feet wide and 10 feet long and should have sides and ends approximately 12 inches high. Smaller sleds sometimes are used, but a larger one is to be preferred if two or more persons are to flail on it at one time. If the floor of the sled is not perfectly tight, it should be covered with canvas and the edges of the canvas thrown over the sides and ends of the sled, so as to avoid losing any of the seed and to facilitate its removal. A sled so equipped may be drawn from pile to pile, the plants pitched on it, the seed flailed from them, and the straw returned to the land for soil improvement. Another method, very similar to that just described, is to place a frame on a hayrack. The frame should be built sufficiently strong and in such a manner that the person who is to do the flailing may stand on it. It should be covered preferably with galvanized-wire netting having half-inch meshes, and if this is stretched tightly it will serve to strengthen the frame. If it is not practicable to make the hayrack perfectly tight, it should be covered with a tarpaulin or canvas. A wagon so equipped may be pulled from pile to pile or along the windrows, where one person may pitch the plants upon the frame, to be flailed by one or more persons standing on it. After the seed is removed from the plants, the straw may be scattered easily and quickly over the ground for soil improvement. Flailed seed should be cleaned thoroughly with sieves and fanning mills to remove the inert matter and immature pods before it is sown or offered for sale on the market. It is recommended that whenever possible unhulled seed be run through a clover huller to hull the seed or through an Ames hulling and scarifying machine to remove the hulls and to scarify the seed. By this process the outer coat of the seed is scratched or broken. The scarifying increases the percentage of germination by facilitating the entrance of moisture. [Illustration: Fig. 13.--Thrashing sweet clover with a grain separator. Note the large sleds used for handling the plants from the field to the thrashing machine.] THE GRAIN SEPARATOR. A grain separator (fig. 13) is used more than any other machine for thrashing sweet clover. This is because more grain separators than clover hullers are found in localities where sweet clover is grown and because the ordinary clover huller will not handle a large growth of sweet clover satisfactorily. When the grain separator is operated carefully no trouble should be experienced in removing the seed from the plants, but it is necessary to make certain adjustments if the seed is to be hulled. The adjustments required will vary somewhat with the make of machine and the dryness of the crop. The riddles should be adjusted or changed so they will handle sweet-clover seed properly. Alfalfa or red-clover riddles will answer this purpose. The speed of the fan should be decreased, so the seed will not be blown over, and this usually will be accomplished when the speed is reduced to about one-half that used in thrashing grain. The number of rows of concave teeth which should be used will vary with the dryness of the plants and somewhat with their size. When it is not desired to hull the seed, one or two rows of concave teeth will be sufficient. Some operators believe that one or two rows are sufficient to hull 40 to 50 per cent of the seed when the plants are very dry. Those are exceptional cases, and hulled seed should not be expected unless more rows of concave teeth are used. If hulled seed is desired it is recommended that a full set be used and that these be set to run closer to the cylinder teeth than is customary when thrashing grain. Some operators replace two rows of the smooth, concave teeth with corrugated teeth. This practice is recommended wherever possible, as the corrugated teeth will facilitate greatly the hulling of the seed. Even where these changes are made, only a small percentage of the seed will be hulled if the pods are damp. If the plants have been permitted to make a very large growth the machine may clog unless the number of rows of concave teeth is reduced. Clogging may be overcome for the most part by feeding the bundles to the machine slowly. This precaution is necessary regardless of the size of the plants if the seed is to be removed properly and hulled. It is possible to hull from 90 to 95 per cent of the seed when the proper adjustments are made and the plants are dry. A clover-hulling attachment, which consists for the most part of special sieves and a number of rows of corrugated concave teeth which replace the ordinary concave teeth, has been used with success in different sections of the country. THE CLOVER HULLER. As a rule, ordinary clover hullers do not handle sweet clover very satisfactorily. Machines with cylinders larger than those commonly used are giving fair satisfaction provided the plants do not make a large growth, but even these machines have not been so successful as properly adjusted and equipped grain separators. A clover huller will handle a 2 to 3 foot growth of sweet clover if the rows of thrashing concaves are reduced and the plants are fed slowly to the machine. It will not hull sweet clover as well as red clover, and it is very doubtful whether it will hull more seed than a grain separator equipped with a hulling attachment. The manufacturer of at least one clover huller has designed special rasps for the hulling cylinder and concaves of his machine, and these rasps do better work than the ones ordinarily used for hulling red clover. It is the custom in some localities to run the sweet clover through a thrashing machine without adjusting the concaves and then to run the unhulled seed as delivered by the grain separator through a clover huller. A fair quality of seed may be obtained by this process, but it calls for much extra labor and time, and for this reason should be avoided Whenever possible. YIELDS OF SWEET-CLOVER SEED. Many factors besides shattering influence the yield of sweet-clover seed. As only those portions of the plants exposed directly to the sunlight set seed abundantly, thin stands usually produce more seed to the acre than heavy stands. When very heavy stands make a large growth, seed is produced only on the upper 24 to 30 inches of the plants, whereas with thinner stands it is produced on the lower branches as well. The quantity of moisture in the soil at the time the seed is maturing is an important factor also. During hot, dry weather the plants may not be able to absorb from the soil sufficient water to supply the excess required by them for seed production. In this event many of the seed pods will abort and fall when partly mature. Pods abort and fall in a very short time, so that partly shriveled ones seldom are found on the plants, although the extent of the aborting is shown by the number of barren racemos. When such weather conditions prevail, the second crop usually will produce a heavier yield than the first crop. This is due for the most part to the inability of the large plants to obtain sufficient water for seed production. The much smaller plants of the second crop do not require as much moisture as the larger plants of the first crop, as the vegetative growth is seldom more than half as much. The type of root growth has much to do with the quantity of water the plants are able to obtain during droughty weather. When sweet clover is planted on soil that has a tendency to be wet, the plants will produce a much-branched shallow root system instead of the normal deep roots which are found on well-drained soils. During dry weather the upper layers of soil become so depleted that plants having a very large percentage of their roots in these layers can not obtain a sufficient quantity of moisture to supply their requirements for seed production. It is often stated that the first crop of sweet clover will produce more seed to the acre than the second crop. This depends very largely upon the thickness of the stand and on weather conditions. In regions where two crops may be grown in a season, the first usually will produce more seed to the acre than the second if the field has a thin stand. When the stand is thick the second crop ordinarily yields more seed. In regions where a crop of hay or pasturage may be obtained in addition to the seed crop, it is seldom an economical procedure to permit the first crop to mature. Not only will sweet clover produce an abundance of nutritious pasturage or a cutting of 1 to 3 tons of hay in addition to the seed, but the difficulty of handling the large, stemmy growth of the first crop for seed is avoided. Yields of sweet-clover seed have been reduced during the last two seasons by several fungous diseases. Experimental work has not been completed to show the percentage of damage done by these organisms, but in some sections of the country seed yields were reduced considerably. The clover stem borer,[2] which is prevalent in red clover in certain sections of the country, also infests sweet clover. It is probable that this insect did some damage to the seed crop in certain sections of the country in 1916. [2] Languria mozardi. The yield of sweet-clover seed varies from 2 to 10 bushels of re-cleaned seed per acre. SWEET-CLOVER STRAW. Sweet-clover straw may be utilized for soil improvement or as a roughage for stock. When it is not needed for feeding it should be turned under, as it will add much humus and nitrogen to the soil. When the seed is flailed from the plants the straw may be easily and quickly spread over the land at the time of flailing, but when the crop is thrashed with a grain separator or a clover huller it will be necessary to haul the straw and scatter it over the field. When the crop is thrashed in this manner the straw will be broken and crushed so that stock will eat it freely. The straw may be run directly from the thrashing machine into the silo, where, by adding sufficient water, it can be made into good silage. Table I gives the analyses of nine samples of sweet-clover straw which were collected in Illinois in the fall of 1916. Table I.--Analyses of sweet-clover straw.[3] | | Nitrogen- | | | Fiber | | Crude | free Sample.|Moisture.| Ash. | extract.|Protein.| fiber.| extract. -------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-------+----------- | | | | | | No. 1 | 4.2 | 3.18 | 1.20 | 8.31 | 49.37 | 33.74 No. 2 | 4.7 | 3.40 | 1.03 | 5.88 | 53.65 | 31.34 No. 3 | 5.34 | 3.02 | .89 | 6.14 | 51.11 | 32.9 No. 4 | 5.55 | 4.14 | 1.54 | 8.44 | 43.00 | 37.33 No. 5 | 4.75 | 2.64 | 1.28 | 6.81 | 51.42 | 32.8 No. 6 | 4.23 | 2.58 | 1.13 | 5.44 | 55.41 | 31.21 No. 7 | 5.53 | 3.66 | 1.52 | 7.19 | 46.34 | 35.70 No. 8 | 4.65 | 2.98 | 1.38 | 7.09 | 51.56 | 32.34 No. 9. | 4.92 | 4.22 | 1.70 | 8.44 | 46.11 | 34.61 -------+---------+-------+---------+--------+-------+----------- [3] These analyses were made by the Bureau of Chemistry. * * * * * Transcriber Note Minor typos may have been corrected. Illustrations were moved to prevent splitting of paragraphs. Content produced from files generously provided by the USDA through The Internet Archive and all resultant files are placed in the Public Domain. 
62677	----	Transcriber Note Whole and fractional parts are shown as 2-1/2. Emphasis shown as _Italics_ and =Bold=. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE =BULLETIN No. 816= Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry Wm. A. Taylor, Chief ------------------------------------------------------- Washington, D. C. [Illustration] January 19, 1920 ------------------------------------------------------- =STREET TREES= By =F. L. MULFORD, Horticulturist= Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations ------------------------------------------------------- CONTENTS Page Importance of Shade Trees 1 Public Control of Street Trees 6 Planning for Trees on City Streets 8 Spacing Trees 9 Conditions for Tree Growth 10 Kinds of Trees Suitable for City Streets 14 Qualities Necessary 14 Trees for Different Regions 16 Trees for Special Purposes 20 Descriptions of Street Trees 20 Culture of Street Trees 43 Selection of Individual Trees 43 Preparation of Holes 44 Planting 45 Pruning 50 Stakes and Guards 51 Later Care 52 Care of Mature Trees 53 Pruning 53 Feeding 55 Spraying 55 [Illustration] WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1920 =BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY.= William A. Taylor, _Chief_. K. F. Kellerman, _Associate Chief_. James E. Jones, _Assistant to Chief_. J. E. Rockwell, _Officer in Charge of Publications_. Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. L. C. Corbett, _Horticulturist in Charge_. Truck Crop Production Investigations: J. H. Beattie. F. E. Miller. C. J. Hunn. B. J. McGervey. Irish Potato Production Investigations: William Stuart. C. F. Clark. W. C. Edmundson. P. M. Lombard. J. W. Wellington. L. L. Corbett. Truck Crop Improvement Investigations: W. W. Tracy. D. N. Shoemaker. Landscape Gardening and Floriculture Investigations: F. L. Mulford. W. Van Fleet. Bulb Culture Investigations: David Griffiths. Fruit and Vegetable Utilization Investigations: J. S. Caldwell. C. A. Magoon. C. W. Culpepper. Fruit Production Investigations: H. P. Gould. L. B. Scott. C. F. Kinman. George M. Darrow. E. D. Vosbury. Grape Production Investigations: George C. Husmann. Charles Dearing. F. L. Husmann. Elmer Snyder. G. L. Yerkes. Fruit Breeding and Systematic Investigations in Pomology: W. F. Wight. Magdalene R. Newman. Fruit Improvement through Bud Selection: A. D. Shamel. Nut Investigations: C. A. Reed. E. R. Lake. Fruit and Vegetable Storage Physiology: L. A. Hawkins. R. C. Wright. J. R. Magness. J. F. Fernald. Extension Work (in cooperation with States Relations Service): W. R. Beattie. C. P. Close. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE [Illustration] BULLETIN No. 816 [Illustration] Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. [Illustration] January 19, 1920 =STREET TREES.= By F. L. Mulford, _Horticulturist, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations_. ----- CONTENTS Page Importance of Shade Trees 1 Public Control of Street Trees 6 Planning for Trees on City Streets 8 Spacing Trees 9 Conditions for Tree Growth 10 Kinds of Trees Suitable for City Streets 14 Qualities Necessary 14 Trees for Different Regions 16 Trees for Special Purposes 20 Descriptions of Street Trees 20 Culture of Street Trees 43 Selection of Individual Trees 43 Preparation of Holes 44 Planting 45 Pruning 50 Stakes and Guards 51 Later Care 52 Care of Mature Trees 53 Pruning 53 Feeding 55 Spraying 55 ----- IMPORTANCE OF SHADE TREES. The comfort to be derived from shade trees has long been recognized. The early settlers of this country saved fine trees about their homes, on the village greens, along the country roads, and in the fields. Later, as villages grew, the householders planted trees adjoining their properties, and the result has been the beautiful elm-shaded villages of New England, the maple-shaded towns of New York and the Ohio Valley, and the oak-shaded streets of the Southeastern States. (Fig. 1.) With time, the villages and towns became cities, and the woodlands were largely destroyed. Conditions for tree growth were less favorable in the cities, and nurseries had to be depended upon for planting material. With these changed conditions the native trees of a region became less dominant in the city planting and were largely replaced by those trees listed in nursery catalogues which took the fancy of each property owner along the street. (Fig. 2.) The quickest growing trees were considered first, and as some of these made a big showing the first few years and were easily transplanted, they have become the dominating trees in street planting from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico. (Figs. 2, 10, and 13.) A few have planted better and more lasting trees (figs. 1, 3, and 4); but the tree growth on the streets of the average town or city is ragged and unkempt in appearance, while that of the suburb or small village is not much better unless the planting has been done under municipal control and the plantings on a street have been confined to a single kind of tree. [Illustration: P15311HP Fig. 1.--An oak-shaded street in the South. Willow oaks in Birmingham, Ala., in late summer.] [Illustration: P18826HP Fig. 2.--A street with mixed plantings. The trees are of different kinds, some unsuited for the purpose, planted at varying distances apart, according to the inclination of the property holders. A street in Stockton, Calif., photographed in early summer.] [Illustration: P12515HP Fig. 3.--American elms on a city street in midsummer. All these trees were planted at one time at uniform distances apart by the Commissioners of Washington, D. C.] The advent of such civilizing agencies as the telegraph, the telephone, the electric light, and the trolley car have added each its share toward the mutilation or destruction of the good trees that were in existence at the time of their coming. Faulty methods of pruning also have caused much disfigurement and ruin. (Figs. 5 and 21.) To this mutilation has been added the unnecessary destruction of many trees in centers of business (fig. 6), because they excluded a little daylight, or made a store less prominent, or were somewhat in the way of using the sidewalk for merchandise. In spite of all these troubles tree planting has continued because people love trees, enjoy well-shaded streets, and are willing to make efforts to get them. The trees on well-shaded streets are not only pleasing, but also contribute toward the health of the community by transpiring moisture into the atmosphere and by producing a restful effect on eyes and nerves. Red, especially, is known to have an exciting effect on human beings, and where city streets are well-shaded it makes less prominent those colors that might otherwise prevail and offend. [Illustration: Fig. 4.--Trees 18 years old on adjacent streets: _A_, Pin oaks; _B_, ginkgos; _C_, Norway maples. Note the differences in size.] Good shade is so appreciated that its presence adds a value to adjoining properties. Real-estate men recognize this factor and plant shade trees as early as practicable on land which they develop. That the beauty of a city is improved by good street trees is becoming recognized more and more and is finding expression in the desire of garden clubs, civic improvement associations, and boards of trade for information on this subject. Success in planting street trees can be attained only by planning and controlling the planting as a whole, by selecting the most suitable varieties, by securing trees in the best condition and planting them properly, and by giving the necessary later care. While towns were small, conditions for tree growth favorable, and woodlands plenty, so that native trees were easily obtained and started, the practice of each householder planting his own trees as he saw fit gave good results. As towns became larger and impervious pavements took the place of earth roads, the conditions for tree growth became more severe and the results from the individual planting of trees less uniform. In large cities the conditions to be met are so extreme that it has become practically impossible for the average householder to grow street trees successfully, or to do so only at excessive cost. Then, too, a lineman in a few minutes often undoes what the individual has achieved with care and years of patient waiting (see fig. 5). The trees and the lines are both needed by the public, but when provided by individual initiative at private expense, but trimmed for the benefit of electric lines by employees of corporations intent on maintaining service at the least cost, the trees suffer unduly. [Illustration: P16692HP Fig. 5.--A tree mutilated by linemen. An otherwise beautiful red oak in Louisville, Ky., as it appeared in midsummer.] In order to have good shade trees at a reasonable cost which receive timely and efficient attention, with the effective control of wire lines, the care of the trees needs to be vested in some adequate authority. PUBLIC CONTROL OF STREET TREES. Providing shade on city streets is as much a municipal function as providing lights or sidewalks and should, therefore, be cared for by public officials. All street trees should be directly under the care of duly appointed officers, who should be responsible for their planting and care, as well as for their pruning or removal. Negative control by requiring permits for planting, pruning, and removal is little better than no control. [Illustration: P16986HP Fig. 6.--A desert of asphalt in the business center of a city having less than 100,000 population.] The officials in charge should have the necessary authority and should be required to initiate and carry forward planting and all other needed work connected with the establishment and maintenance of street trees. Probably the most satisfactory way of securing supervision is through an unpaid commission of three or five members, which in turn employs an executive officer. In a small place a commission of three persons may be best, one being appointed every 2 years for a 6-year term. In large places five members may be better, and the ideal term would be 10 years. A compromise would be a 5-year term, a new member being appointed each year. The great need of long-term appointees is that it takes two or three years for a member of such a board or commission to see and realize the things needed to be done and the policies that should be carried out. Because it takes a long time to get results in growing street trees, the policies should be as nearly continuous as possible and the terms of the members long enough to insure a majority of experienced persons on the board at all times. The method of appointing the commissioners is not so important as that each shall be selected from the territory as a whole rather than from a part of it. In some places where the term of service is 10 years, each one's successor is appointed by the remaining commissioners, subject to confirmation by the court. Where this is done a member is not permitted to succeed himself. In other places the commission is appointed by the court; in others, it is elected by the city legislative body or is appointed by the mayor subject to the approval of the legislative body. The important point is to keep the administration as nearly as possible on a purely business basis. A good board can accomplish nothing without liberal funds. There are two methods of providing these: (1) By an appropriation from the general tax levy and (2) by direct assessment against the properties, collectible with the other taxes. If the funds are provided by appropriation, a fixed minimum, expressed in millage of the tax rate, should be provided in the organization of the commission. This minimum should be such that a fair amount of maintenance work can be done when no other funds are available. Councils that appropriate money sometimes hamper boards by withholding appropriations. Work of the nature of tree planting should not be permitted to suffer or be lost by a year's neglect. The fund provided by this minimum amount should not be so large that regular additional appropriations will not be needed to carry on the work properly, as this will give a desirable point of contact of the commission or board with the ordinary channels of expressing public sentiment in the district interested. The minimum appropriation mandatory should be sufficient to prevent injury from lack of care of work already begun. A period of minimum care and attention while a board and the people or their representatives are coming to a new understanding of one another's position is not necessarily a detriment, provided a reasonable maintenance has been possible in the interim, but without such care the results are ruinous and work would better not be started than be undertaken with the possibility of such a period of neglect occurring. It is probably desirable to assess the cost of tree planting against the adjacent property owners at a proportional cost per front foot and to provide for maintenance out of a general fund. Boulevards and other unusual developments are sometimes maintained with satisfactory results by regular assessments against the abutting properties. After a proper governing board is provided, the securing of a competent executive is a matter of ordinary business procedure. It is usually desirable that he shall be not only a good executive but also a man with a knowledge of trees and trained in their care, so that he may be a competent adviser of the board as well as its executive. [Illustration: P18857HP Fig. 7.--Increased attractiveness due to trees on a city street, as shown by contrasting the two sides of the thoroughfare. If trees like red oaks, American elms, or the Eucalyptus in the distance had been used, the effect on this wide street would have been comparable to figure 3. The trees in the left foreground are umbrella trees. Merced, Calif.; midsummer.] PLANNING FOR TREES ON CITY STREETS. With the help of one who knows trees and the local conditions to be met, the town should be studied and a suitable kind of tree selected for each street or for a large portion of a street (figs. 1 and 3), and as conditions warrant the plan should be carried out as outlined. Mixed plantings of different sorts of trees (figs. 2 and 7) are not as pleasing and effective as the use of a single species for considerable distances. The use of only one or two kinds for a whole town is likely to be monotonous, and it is also undesirable because the variety most used may become subject to serious disease or insect attacks. The species and varieties of trees suitable for city planting are few enough, if all are used, so an endeavor should be made to include as many different kinds as practicable, assigning one variety for a long stretch of street unless there is a marked change in its character, in which case a change of trees would be warranted. Where trees are already on a street, the problem of planning for the future is frequently much complicated, especially if there are several kinds in good condition. Where there is but one good kind, gaps can be replanted with young trees of that sort. If there are poor trees of a good variety or trees of a poor or short-lived variety it would be advisable to remove these and do all the replanting at one time, so as to have the trees on the street as nearly uniform as possible. Where there are several good varieties in good condition the sensible thing is to care for the trees that are there and then, after careful study, decide on one variety for all future plantings on that street. [Illustration: P14631HP Fig. 8.--Trees 20 feet apart that should be at least 60 feet apart. Sycamores in Washington, D. C., as they appear in late winter.] SPACING TREES. A common fault in all street planting is to put the trees too near together. (Fig. 8.) This is more evident where the work has been done by the abutting property owners than by municipalities. After trees are started and have attained some size it is extremely difficult to get them removed, even where the good of the remaining trees demands it. The removal of a fairly good tree merely because it is short lived in order to make room for a good one that will be permanent does not appeal to the average citizen. Where trees which have been planted by the property holder come under city control a strong feeling of proprietorship still remains, which is outraged by the suggestion of the removal of even poor trees. Where all the work is under city control good work is often hampered by a strong public sentiment against the removal of trees, even though they are poor or crowding. Because of this difficulty it is extremely important that young trees be planted farther apart than at that time seems reasonable. If they are planted as far apart as is proper for mature trees the distance will be so great as to make planting seem a joke. If they are planted half the distance apart they should be when mature, good results would follow if the intermediate trees were removed when they nearly touch those to be left. As the intermediate trees would probably not be removed, or not until too late for the good of the remaining ones, planting had better be sufficiently far apart in the beginning to avoid the necessity of later removals. In the beginning the trees will be too far apart and when mature too close together, but it seems to be the alternative imposed by a misguided public opinion. There is scarcely a community that would permit the removal of interplanted trees from a street of fine elms, oaks, or other worthy varieties without a protest that would be the almost sure political death of the administrative authorities responsible, no matter how great the need or how much expert support they might have. If short-lived intermediate trees were used they would not be likely to be taken out before they died, and they probably would not die before they had irreparably injured the permanent trees. The removal of surplus or interplanted trees can be made with least shock to the community by gradually narrowing the tree tops by severe pruning from year to year on the sides next the permanent trees until finally they are so narrow they may be removed and leave only small openings between the permanent trees. Even this method will not materially lessen the public protest at the final removal. A common practice is to set street trees 35 feet apart. If it were practicable to remove one-half the trees at the proper time this would be a good distance, but in the eastern half of the United States and on the Pacific slope 50 feet apart is close enough for most varieties, and for the larger growing trees 60 to 70 feet would be better. CONDITIONS FOR TREE GROWTH. In order to grow, trees must have a soil of suitable texture, in proper mechanical condition, that contains sufficient available mineral elements and plenty of organic matter, and, last but not least, a constant supply of moisture and air. In addition to these there must be in active growth in the soil many forms of organic life that are in various ways preparing the material in the soil for the use of the larger plants. Not only must these things be present, but others that are deleterious must be absent, whether the substance is hurtful in itself or whether it is an excess of one that is otherwise beneficial. Above the soil three things must be present--air, sunlight, and moisture--and, as in the soil, harmful things must be absent in order to have success. Among the deleterious substances are sulphur and other fumes and soot and other products from incomplete combustion. [Illustration: P14633HP Fig. 9.--The irregularity in the size of the trees shown is due to a part of the first planting having been killed by illuminating gas from defective pipes. Norway maples as seen in Washington, D. C., in late winter.] Some of the more obvious things with which a city tree has to contend are: Water-tight pavements, both on the sidewalk and street, that prevent the admission of air and water; the removal of the topsoil in street grading, thus forcing the tree to exist on the good soil provided in the hole; careless digging near the tree for gas, water, and electric service, and especially for the placing of curb-stones; the saturation of the soil with illuminating or sewer gas from defective pipes (fig. 9); the pouring of salt water from ice-cream freezers into gutters, where it may find its way into the soil near tree roots; the gnawing of the trunks by horses; and the cutting of the tops by linemen and tree trimmers. Because of the uncongenial conditions for the growth of trees on city streets comparatively few kinds are satisfactory for such use. Among those available are some that will grow under extremely trying conditions. Kinds can be found that will thrive wherever it is suitable for human beings to live. If it is impossible to grow trees on a street, as a health measure that street should be closed for human use until conditions are so improved that it will support trees. [Illustration: P15298HP Fig. 10.--A business center relieved by a parking with Carolina poplars. Macon, Ga.; late summer.] More kinds will thrive under suburban conditions where only a small portion of the roadway is covered by an impervious coating, where the parking spaces are liberal, and where the street is lined with open lawns than under the conditions in a city, where the street is covered with a water and air proof coating and the sidewalks with an impervious material, where parking spaces are limited, and where adjoining lawn areas are small or lacking. By a careful selection of kinds, all conditions in a city can be met. In some places bad conditions could have been improved greatly by a little forethought; in others, such conditions can be bettered. These details, like many other matters connected with city planning, have been ignored, but should be considered immediately, especially by villages and small cities. Figure 6 shows how an opportunity for creating a beauty spot has been lost sight of, while figure 10 shows how a city has utilized less ground to increase the comfort and attractiveness of its business center. [Illustration: P15278HP Fig. 11.--A street well proportioned in width of roadway, sidewalk, and parkings, with willow oaks on the left, American elms on the right, and young Carolina poplars near the roadway that should be removed. Columbus, Ga.; midsummer.] [Illustration: P14359HP Fig. 12.--A street with too much pavement and too little parking space. Carolina poplars in Baltimore, Md., in midautumn.] A common mistake in ambitious young cities and many old ones is to pave more of the width of the street for traffic purposes than, is likely ever to be needed. By reducing the roadway and throwing the remainder into liberal parking spaces much is added to the attractiveness and comfort of a city. A contrast in the two methods of treatment is illustrated in figures 11 and 12. The recommendation that the roadway prepared for travel be made narrow is not to be interpreted as a reason for lessening the area dedicated to the public use; in fact, in most cities, especially in the northeastern quarter of the United States, too little space has been reserved from houseline to houseline (fig. 13). By reserving more room between the houses and the street for use as lawns and gardens the conditions would be made more livable, opportunity would be offered for widening the public way without prohibitive expense if traffic or business demanded it, and the growing of street trees would cease to be a serious problem. [Illustration: P16842HP Fig. 13.--A street with too little room from houseline to houseline. Note the more attractive appearance of the side with trees. Norway and silver maples in Frederick, Md., in midsummer.] KINDS OF TREES SUITABLE FOR CITY STREETS. QUALITIES NECESSARY. Compared with the whole number of trees used for ornamental planting, the number of kinds suitable for street planting is very small. For use under city conditions a tree must be adapted to the climate and to the soil upon which it is to be grown. It must have healthy foliage that withstands dust and smoke and a root system not easily affected by unusual soil conditions, by restricted feeding areas, or by root pruning when street improvements are made. The top should be in proportion to the width of the street upon which it is used, and it should be rather high headed or easily trained to that form and of open growth without being too spreading or sprawling. Of minor consideration is the character of the foliage masses, whether dark or light, heavy and somber or open and airy, and also whether they have vivid autumn colorings. Only in the most southern parts of the country and in western California should evergreen trees be considered for street planting, and then only the broad-leaved evergreens, such as magnolias and live oaks. In the North the lack of sunshine during the short cloudy days of winter makes it desirable to admit all the light possible. Even in the South the question of sunshine should be considered when selecting varieties. [Illustration: P12536HP Fig. 14.--Narrow upright trees (Lombardy poplars) on a Barrow Conditions, it is better street. Washington, D. C.; midsummer.] Narrow streets should be planted with columnar trees (fig. 14) or sometimes with small trees. Broad streets may be planted with spreading trees (figs. 3 and 16), or, if provided with a central parking space, with moderate-sized trees in the center and on the sides, or with trees on the sides suited to the space and formal trees in the center. (Fig. 15.) [Illustration: P18856HP Fig. 15.--Formal trees in a central parking, but appropriate trees wanting on the sides of the street. Canary Island date palms in Merced, Calif.; midsummer.] As a rule, trees native to the locality that have been successfully grown in other cities should be given the preference. When a choice must be made between untried native trees and those tested in a city or town under different soil or climatic to give the native trees the first trial. There are many native trees that are promising which have not been planted on a sufficient scale or under sufficiently varied conditions to demonstrate their real value for street planting over any considerable area. Many of the trees mentioned in this bulletin may prove valuable far beyond the areas for which they are suggested. The burr oak, the swamp white oak, the scarlet oak, the chestnut oak, the white oak, the sour gum, and others may be found on further trial to be as valuable as those already demonstrated to be valuable over large areas. Those mentioned have all been tested in a small way. Caution should be used in selecting trees with conspicuous flowers and those with edible fruits or nuts, as in many parts of the country such trees are badly mutilated by the public. Even horse-chestnuts, although the nuts are not edible, are often broken by boys clubbing the trees. That public opinion can prevent such vandalism is in evidence all along the Pacific coast and at a few places in the East. Every effort should be made to create a sentiment that will protect these attractive additions to street adornment, but where the sentiment does not exist it is better to avoid the planting of such trees except in a limited way. [Illustration: P15394HP Fig. 16.--Live oaks, the handsomest southern street tree for broad street: Biloxi, Miss.; late summer.] Besides the native trees there are many introduced trees that have proved valuable and many more that are worthy of trial.[1] A fair trial of promising introduced trees should be made, and the native kinds should be thoroughly tested. [1] As examples of this are a number of new elms such as _Ulmus pumila_ and _Ulmus densa_, besides lindens, poplars, and _Koelreuteria paniculata_, while _Pistacia chinensis_ is suitable for warm regions. The Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction of the United States Department of Agriculture will be glad at any time to suggest new trees that are promising for any region. TREES FOR DIFFERENT REGIONS. To simplify the discussion of kinds of street trees likely to prove satisfactory, the United States has been arbitrarily divided into the regions shown in figure 17. An endeavor has been made to make each division cover an area having similar growing conditions, so that the trees suggested will be likely to thrive in all its parts. A discussion of the strong and weak points of the different kinds will be found with the description of the kinds farther on in this bulletin. _Region 1._--Region 1 comprises the mild humid portion of the northern Pacific coast east to the Cascade Mountains, including the western third of Washington and Oregon and a portion of northern California. The trees native to western Europe are adapted to this region, as the climatic conditions are quite comparable. Most of our American trees also succeed here. Some of the desirable varieties for street planting in region 1 are the Oregon, Norway, sycamore, and sugar maples; California walnut; tulip; European linden; basswood; sycamore; London plane; white and European ashes; English and American elms; English, red, and pin oaks; ginkgo; and the black locust. [Illustration: Fig. 17.--Outline map of the United States, showing the regions within which essentially similar conditions for tree growth exist.] _Region 2._--Region 2 is that portion of California lying between the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys and the Pacific Ocean. Many varieties of trees will succeed here if given water. Because of the lack of water, unless specially irrigated the more drought-resistant species should be used. Among the deciduous trees useful for this region are the London plane; the California and common sycamore; English, Huntingdon, and American elms; Oregon, Norway, sycamore, and English maples; white, green, and European ashes; red, English, and pin oaks; European linden; basswood; California walnut; honey and black locusts; horse-chestnut; Albizzia; and the Japanese varnish tree, or Sterculia. Evergreen trees which will probably be successful in region 2 are the Eucalyptus[2] in variety, acacias, rubber, magnolia, California live oak, Victorian and poplar-leaved bottle trees, and in the southern portions the California pepper, silk oak, and jacaranda. Palms are much planted, but they do not make good street trees except where a formal effect instead of shade is desired. [2] Some cities have ordinances against the planting of certain trees because their roots sometimes obstruct sewers. Among these trees are the Eucalyptus in California and some of the poplars in several of the States. _Region 3._--Region 3 comprises the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys. The deciduous trees for this region are the California walnut; London plane; California and common sycamores; Oregon, Norway, and sycamore maples; white, European, and green ashes; red, English, valley, and pin oaks; European linden; basswood; English and Huntingdon elms; honey locust; and horse-chestnut. Chinaberries and Texas umbrellas are much planted in these valleys, but are not good street trees. Olives and palms are suitable only for formal effects, while eucalypti are satisfactory but are liable to make trouble with defective sewers. Acacias grow especially well in this region except in the extreme north. _Region 4._--Region 4 includes the country from the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys to the crest of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. It varies in elevation and correspondingly in temperature and the amount of available moisture. Where there is sufficient moisture, the deciduous trees recommended for region 3, except the valley oak and possibly the California sycamore, may be used. Where there is less moisture the thornless honey locust, black locust, green ash, hackberry, poplars, ash-leaved maple, and the American elm if it can be watered the first few years may be planted. In the warmer sections the chinaberry and Texas umbrella may be used. _Region 5._--Region 5 comprises the hot semiarid country of southern California and southwestern Arizona which is dependent on irrigation. The best deciduous trees for this region are those suggested for the drier portions of region 4. With ample irrigation the deciduous trees recommended for region 3 might grow. Among the evergreens the Texas palmetto, Parkinsonia, and the Washingtonia and some other palms can be used where other trees do not succeed. The red and desert gums may be used also in the drier regions. With ample irrigation the evergreens suggested for region 2 should succeed. _Region 6._--Region 6 comprises the intermountain section and extends from the crest of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains eastward to the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains. The region includes great variations in growing conditions, often in very short distances. As a whole it is semiarid, and in most places trees can hardly be expected to thrive without more or less irrigation, although in some of the mountain valleys and on some of the mountain slopes almost ideal conditions for tree growth exist. In the drier parts of the region only those deciduous trees that are weeds under more congenial conditions can be grown. Those that can be planted with the greatest hope of success are the thornless honey locust, black locust, green ash, hackberry, and where the others do not succeed, the poplars and ash-leaved maple. If it can be watered for a few years the American elm usually can be grown, and in the southern half of the region the Mississippi hackberry will probably succeed. Near the southern border, on lower elevations, the chinaberry and Texas umbrella can also be planted. In the locations most favored naturally or where irrigation is possible, the trees suggested for region 9 can be used. Evergreens that may be used for the drier portions of the southern part of region 6 are the Parkinsonia and the Texas palmetto. Native trees may be found that will prove of greater value for limited areas than any suggested. Cities and towns contemplating street tree planting would do well to consult the nearest State agricultural experiment station or the United States Department of Agriculture if it is thought possible that something better has been found than the trees suggested. _Region 7._--Region 7 is the northern part of the Great Plains area from the foot of the Rocky Mountains at about the 5,000-foot contour line east to the ninety-eighth meridian. It is rather uniform in general conditions, the character of soil having no wide divergence and the elevation increasing gradually from south to north and east to west. The rainfall gradually increases from west to east until at about the ninety-eighth meridian the conditions are more favorable for tree growth. The trees to be relied on are the thornless honey locust, common hackberry, black locust, green ash, ash-leaved maple, the poplars, the Chinese elm, and the American elm if it can be watered the first few years after transplanting. The mossy-cup oak is another tree worth testing in a small way, as it is native a little east of the ninety-eighth meridian. The basswood and Norway maple would probably succeed if supplied with plenty of water. _Region 8._--Region 8 is the southern part of the Great Plains. In addition to the deciduous trees recommended for the northern Great Plains (region 7) the Mississippi hackberry, Texas umbrella, and chinaberry may be successfully grown. Evergreen trees that may be used in region 8 are the Texas palmetto and Parkinsonia. _Region 9._--Region 9 is the upper Mississippi Valley, including the area from that already considered to Lake Michigan and south to southern Kansas. It is more favorable to tree growth than regions 6 and 7. Trees which will succeed here are the American elm; red, pin, mossy-cup, and other native oaks; white ash; sycamore; basswood; and Norway and sugar maples. _Region 10._--Region 10 includes the northeastern part of the country from eastern Illinois to the Atlantic Ocean, and extends southward through the Appalachian Mountains. It is most favorable for tree growth. The best trees for street planting in region 10 are the red and pin oaks, London plane, sycamore, the staminate form of the ginkgo, basswood, tulip, Norway maple, white ash, thornless honey locust, American elm, and in the southern portion of the region on light land the sweet gum. The red and sugar maples are among the best trees for suburban conditions. The hackberry will grow, but should be discarded in favor of better varieties. The mossy-cup and chestnut oaks are worthy of trial on gravelly soils in the suburbs. _Region 11._--Region 11 includes the lower Mississippi Valley and the country east of the southern Appalachian Mountains, extending from the light lands near the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts to the northern limits of the distinctively southern flora. The typical street trees of this region are the willow oaks (fig. 1) and water oaks, the former a valuable street tree, the latter good when young but comparatively short lived, with no advantages over the willow oak. Other good trees are the red, Spanish, laurel, Darlington, and pin oaks, tulip, sweet gum, American elm, red and Norway maples, and the ginkgo. _Region 12._--Region 12 is the land near the coast from Wilmington, N. C., to the Mexican border, exclusive of the southern part of Florida. Good deciduous trees for this region are the willow, laurel, Darlington, and Spanish oaks, tulip, sweet gum, sycamore, London plane, American elm, and the staminate form of the ginkgo. The honey locust, red or scarlet maple, Norway maple, and the hackberries are not so good. The live oak is the characteristic tree of region 12 (fig. 16) and is the pride of the cities that have used it. Even though an evergreen, it is an excellent street tree, as it is large, spreading, and open. The palmetto and palms thrive and may be used for producing formal effects. The evergreen magnolia is a good broad-leaved evergreen. _Region 13._--Region 13 consists of the southern part of Florida. The deciduous trees suitable for this section are the willow, Spanish, and southern red oaks; American elm; Mississippi hackberry; and in the southern half of the region the Poinciana. Evergreen trees are better suited to region 13 than to, any other portion of the United States except possibly southern California. Among the best are the live and laurel oaks, evergreen magnolia, camphor, rubber, silk oak, or grevillea, and casuarina. Eucalypti are planted to some extent in Florida, but the climate is such that only on the drier grounds of the interior are they likely to succeed, and even there they are not to be compared with other excellent species of trees that may be cultivated successfully. TREES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES. In the heart of a city, where the greatest difficulty is experienced in getting trees to grow, the ailanthus will probably thrive when nearly all other kinds fail. The sycamore and the London plane are also good for such places. The Carolina poplar will frequently grow under these conditions, and its use may sometimes be warranted. For very narrow streets the Lombardy poplar is the best tree. (Fig. 14.) Trees suitable for use within the reach of ocean spray or on sandy lands near the coast are the red oak and the red or scarlet maple south to Charleston, S. C., while the sweet gum and the live oak are equally good from Norfolk southward and along the Gulf of Mexico. The red oak, sweet gum, red maple, and eastern live oak are all grown successfully along the Pacific Ocean, while the California live oak can be used from San Francisco southward. The trees that endure the most alkali appear to be the bladder-nut tree,[3] London plane, peppermint gum,[4] blue gum,[5] the Washingtonia and other hardy fan palms, Canary Island date palm, the camphor tree, and _Acacia cyclops_ and _Acacia retinodes_. Only the first two withstand severe freezing weather. The red oak and the red maple are worth testing for these conditions. [3] _Koelreuteria paniculata_. [4] _Eucalyptus amygdalina_ Labill. [5] _Eucalyptus amygdalina angustifolia_. DESCRIPTIONS OF STREET TREES. ACACIA. The acacias, or wattles, are a large group mostly of small trees with showy yellow flowers. Although much used in California, many of them are too small to make satisfactory shade trees, and because of shallow rooting they are injurious to sidewalks. They also stump-sprout badly. They thrive in regions 2 and 3 and in restricted portions of regions 1 and 5. The Australian blackwood,[6] blackwood acacia, or wattle, is a strong, upright tree, growing to a height of 75 feet and forming a well-shaped head. It is badly affected by citrus scale, and on this account its planting is sometimes prohibited. [6] _Acacia melanoxylon_ R. Br. The black wattle[7] is a strong-growing round-headed tree that reaches a height of 40 feet and has dark-green leaves. [7] _Acacia decurrens mollis_ Lindl. The green wattle[8] is a rapid-growing tree, reaching a height of 60 feet and forming a round head with finely cut leaves. [8] _Acacia decurrens_ Willd. The silver wattle[9] is much like the black wattle except that its leaves and young branches are covered with a whitish down. [9] _Acacia decurrens dealbata_ F. Muell. AILANTHUS. The ailanthus,[10] or tree of heaven, is a tall, broad, handsome tree that is especially valuable in the heart of closely built or smoky cities. The staminate and pistillate flowers are borne on separate trees. Only the pistillate trees should be used, as the odor of the blossoms of the staminate ones is very objectionable for about 10 days in late spring. These may be produced by grafting from pistillate trees or by propagating from suckers or root cuttings from such trees if they have not been grafted. The ailanthus may not succeed in regions 5 and 13. [10] _Ailanthus altissima_ (Mill.) Swingle (_A. glandulosa_ Desf.). ASH. There are three kinds of ash trees that are useful for street planting. The white ash[11] is a large oval-headed tree, reasonably satisfactory on rich lands in regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, and 12, but it is better adapted to suburban than urban conditions. [11] _Fraxinus americana_ L. The green ash[12] is one of the few successful trees in regions 6, 7, and 8 and may succeed in region 5. It grows well throughout the remainder of the United States, but is of less value than other trees there. It is much smaller than the white ash, with a broad round top. [12] _Fraxinus lanceolata_ Borck. The European ash[13] is a large, handsome, round-headed tree suited to regions 1, 2, 3, and 4. [13] _Fraxinus excelsior_ L. CAMPHOR. The camphor tree[14] is a large, handsome, oval-headed evergreen that will succeed in the southern half of region 2, in regions 3, 5, and 13, and in the warmer parts of region 12. It will endure more frost than the orange, and where it is successfully grown it is deservedly popular. [14] _Cinnamomum camphora_ (L.) Nees and Eberm. CHINABERRY. The chinaberry,[15] sometimes known as the China tree, is a small, round-headed, short-lived tree that will grow in regions 2, 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, and 13 and near the southern edge of region 6. It is too short lived to be considered for planting where other trees will grow. [15] _Melia azedarach_ L . The umbrella tree,[16] or Texas umbrella, is a small, compact form of the chinaberry with an umbrella-shaped top. It is useful for formal effects, as in the parking on a wide street where taller trees are used on the side. It will grow in regions 2, 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, and 13 and in the southern parts of region 6. [16] _Melia azedarach umbraculiformis_ Berckmans and Bailey. ELM. The elms are large, handsome shade trees suitable for use over a wide range of territory. [Illustration: P12460HP Fig. 18.--An American elm with crotches liable to be split by heavy winds. Note the supporting chains.] The American elm[17] sometimes called the white elm and water elm, is one of the handsomest American shade trees. (Fig. 3.) It has been the standard street tree of New England, giving to the roadsides and village streets the characteristic appearance which is so attractive to summer visitors. [17] _Ulmus americana_ The American elm is tall and spreading, and where planted as near together as is customary on streets and country roads the effect of the mature trees is that of an arch formed by the growing together of their spreading tops. It is of rapid growth and long lived. This elm drops its leaves very early in the fall, but it comes into leaf early in the spring. Because of its manner of branching it is especially liable to be split by heavy winds. This trouble may be lessened by selecting and planting specimens with a close, compact habit of growth or possibly also by great care in training young trees. Two limbs separating from one another by a very small angle, that is, when they start to grow in nearly the same direction, make a crotch that is liable to split. (Fig. 18.) Where two limbs separate at nearly a right angle or where three or more limbs of about equal size grow from a common point or very nearly so, the crotch is likely to be much stronger. Careful pruning and training to provide a proper system of branches may be especially helpful with this elm. Because of the attacks of the elm leaf-beetle[18] and the European elm bark louse,[19] many handsome trees have been severely damaged or killed before communities were properly equipped for fighting them, for with careful spraying these insects may be kept in check. However, on account of the existence of these pests and because they are gradually spreading to new territory, tree planters should consider carefully whether it is advisable to plant the elm in their localities. Where there is no danger from these insects, this elm is one of the best of street trees. Consultation with the nearest State agricultural experiment station or with the Entomologist of the United States Department of Agriculture would be advisable in order to determine this point. [18] _Galcrucella luteola_ Mull. [19] _Gossyparia spuria_ Mod. (Data regarding both insects furnished by the Bureau of Entomology.) The best specimens are to be found in the northern part of region 10, although the elm is being grown all over the United States and is proving a valuable street tree even in towns and villages of regions where the rainfall is as low as 15 inches. It is not recommended for planting in regions 3 and 5. The English elm[20] is a tall, oval-headed, compact, handsome tree with leaves smaller than the American elm and which stay on much later in the fall. In regions 1 and 2 it is at its best, in the former equaling the American elm and in the latter excelling it. It also thrives in regions 3 and 10 and in the eastern part of region 11. [20] _Ulmus campestris_ L. The Huntingdon elm[21] is a comparatively round-headed European variety. [21] _Ulmus hollandica vegeta_ (Lindl.) Rend. It is a large, handsome tree with good foliage and is more compact in growth than the American elm. It succeeds well in regions 1, 2, 3, and 4. The wahoo, or winged elm,[22] is native to the South Atlantic and Gulf States near the ocean. It has larger leaves than the American elm and is not as spreading in its growth, but it succeeds well on city streets in regions 11, 12, and 13. [22] _Ulmus alata_ Michx. EUCALYPTUS. There are a large number of species of Eucalyptus, many of which can be used for street planting in regions 2, 3, and 5. Some cities prohibit their planting because their roots are liable to penetrate defective sewers, and in other cities they must be kept at least 70 feet from a sewer, though even this distance may not prove permanently effective. The roots of any tree are liable to find their way into a defective sewer, but the trees mentioned are especially noticeable because of their vigorous root growth. It may be questioned whether a tree should be condemned for this growth, as it may be better to have a defective sewer thus revealed than to continue a menace to public health. Eucalypti are also being planted in southern Florida, but on account of the moist climate there it is not to be expected that they will succeed as well as in the other regions mentioned. They are tall, handsome, quick-growing trees, usually bearing two kinds of leaves at some time in their development. The blue gum[23] is one of the best eucalypti and the one most commonly used in California. It is tall, globular headed, handsome, and will survive several degrees of frost, but it will not withstand the heat of the deserts in region 5. Its roots are especially liable to invade sewers. [23] _Eucalyptus globulus_ Labill. The desert gum[24] is one of the trees most resistant to heat and cold, and it makes a handsome avenue tree. It has pendent branches that have a tendency to severe splitting with age, but with early attention this may be overcome largely. It may prove especially valuable for region 5. [24] _Eucalyptus rudis_ Endl. The manna gum[25] is another Eucalyptus which withstands several degrees of frost and makes an excellent roadside tree. Some forms shed their bark in long bands that leave the trunks almost white. Many people consider it a dirty tree on this account. [25] _Eucalyptus viminalis_ Labill. The red gum[26] grows with a broad head, is one of the most resistant of the eucalypti to frost, drought, and heat, and succeeds wherever any of these trees can be grown in regions 2, 3, or 5, but is most useful in region 5. [26] _Eucalyptus longirostris_ F. Muell. The sugar gum[27] is a drought-resistant variety, but it does not withstand cold. It is a common roadside tree in southern California, but becomes straggling with age. [27] _Eucalyptus corynocalyx_ F. Muell. GINKGO. The ginkgo,[28] or maidenhair tree (fig. 4, _B_), is a native of Japan that thrives in a cool climate or a hot, moist one and succeeds in regions 1, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13. It is extremely erratic in its behavior, sometimes growing well, sometimes practically not growing at all, but where it succeeds it is very disease resistant, and it withstands severe windstorms remarkably well. The leaf is peculiar in appearance, resembling in outline a much enlarged leaflet of maidenhair fern with a corrugated surface. The tree is conical when young, but as it reaches maturity its top usually fills out, making a broad, almost flat-topped, handsome tree. Only the staminate form should be used, because the pistillate form bears fruits the flesh of which is slippery and dangerous when it drops to the pavement, and to some people it is somewhat poisonous to the touch. Ginkgo trees, therefore, would need to be secured by budding or grafting from the mature staminate form. [28] _Ginkgo biloba_ L. HACKBERRIES. The hackberry,[29] or sugarberry, is especially valuable in regions 6, 7, 8, and 9, as it grows satisfactorily where there is comparatively slight rainfall. It is also much used in region 11, but should be superseded there by other varieties that are better. It is of moderate size with an oblong head and of rather open growth. It is comparatively short lived. Its leaves are much like those of the elm. [29] _Celtis occidentalis_ L. The name sugarberry comes from the sweet black berries that are borne in the early fall. The tree is sometimes affected by a fungous trouble known as witches'-broom. This trouble causes large numbers of small sprouts to start from the affected portion, which gives the infected tree an unsightly appearance. The hackberry should not be planted where this trouble is prevalent. The Mississippi hackberry[30] is a large, open, oblong-headed tree with smoother leaves than the common hackberry. It is useful in the southern part of region 6, in region 8, and to some extent in regions 11 and 12. It thrives well under the same adverse moisture conditions as the common hackberry. The trunk and the large branches have little wartlike projections of the bark scattered irregularly over them. The small twigs are sometimes more or less spotted or winged in the same way. The tree is rather larger than the common hackberry and apparently is less subject to witches'-broom. [30] _Celtis mississippiensis_ Bosc. HONEY LOCUST. The honey locust[31] is a large, open, round-headed, fine-foliaged tree, admitting much light through its top. (Fig. 19.) The common form has stiff spines 2 to 6 inches long, or even longer. There is also a form without spines, which is the one that should be used for street planting. It is a useful tree in regions 1, 2, 3, 9, 10, and 11, but is especially valuable for planting in regions 6, 7, and 8, and may prove useful in region 5. [31] _Gleditsia triacanthos_ L. [Illustration: Fig. 19.--A street shaded with honey locusts, as seen in late summer. Washington, D. C.] HORSE-CHESTNUT. The horse-chestnut[32] has handsome blossoms that are very showy, and when in bloom an avenue of these trees commands attention. It is a close relative of the buckeye, or Ohio buckeye, which is also a handsome tree, though less desirable. It is objectionable because it is likely to be broken by boys clubbing it for its nuts, which are inedible, or where its leaves are affected with a midsummer blight which makes it unsightly during the remainder of the season. It is a medium-sized round-headed tree that does much better under suburban than under city conditions. It thrives in regions 1, 2, 3, and 10. [32] _Aesculus hippocastanum_ L. LINDEN. The basswood,[33] or linden, is a large round-headed tree that is excellent for roadsides in suburban locations and does well on city streets if the conditions are not too severe. On account of the dark upper surface and the lighter under surface of the leaves and the sweet-scented blossoms in early summer it is much admired. It is not as reliable as some of the other shade trees, as when young it is sometimes attacked at the base of the trunk by a fungous growth that kills the tree. When once established it forms handsome avenues. It is suited to regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 10, and 11. [33] _Tilia americana_ L. The linden,[34] or European linden, has much smaller leaves than the American linden, or basswood, with more contrast between their upper and lower surfaces. It is not much different in size, but is a little more compact in growth and holds its leaves longer in the fall. It is a useful tree for street planting in regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 11. [34] _Tilia platyphyllos_ Scop. LOCUST. The locust,[35] or black locust, is one of the desirable street trees in regions 6, 7, 8, and probably in region 5, as it thrives with comparatively little moisture. It makes a moderate-sized oval head that bears sweet-scented white flowers in late spring or early summer. Its greatest drawback is its liability to serious injury and disfigurement by the locust borer,[36] but with proper care this injury can be prevented.[37] In some parts of the East it is also subject to a leaf miner[38] that gives its foliage a burned appearance. In region 3 it holds its seed pods for several years and thus becomes very unsightly. [35] _Robinia pseudacacia_ L. [36] _Cylene robiniae_ Forst. (Data furnished by the Bureau of Entomology). [37] See U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 787, entitled "Protection from the Locust Borer." [38] _Chalepis dorsalis_ Thunb. MAGNOLIA. The evergreen magnolia[39] is one of the few good evergreen trees for street planting, but it is adapted only to regions 1, 2, 3, 11, 12, and 13. There are but few conditions that warrant the planting of a tree having foliage as thick as this, because of the dense shade, which is especially undesirable in winter. It grows to be a large oval-headed tree and bears beautiful large white blossoms in late spring or early summer. [39] _Magnolia grandifolia_ L. MAPLE. Among the maples are some undesirable trees much used for street planting and some that are valuable only in restricted areas or under special conditions. The maples are not as satisfactory for street planting as usually has been supposed, few of the species being suitable for this purpose and these only in a limited way. The ash-leaved maple, or box elder,[40] is native to all of the country east of the Rocky Mountains except the regions near the South Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is a small, quick-growing tree that will thrive almost anywhere, but it reaches maturity early. Because of its early decay and of its being subject to destruction by wind, it should not be used for street planting where other trees succeed. It would be a good tree for interplanting were it safe to risk taking out some of the trees at the right time. The objection to using these trees is that they would be so likely to look larger and better than the permanent trees at the time they should be removed that public opinion would probably resent their removal. There may be conditions requiring the use of this tree in regions 6, 7, and 8, but it should be grown only when the other trees suggested for these regions will not succeed. [40] _Acer negundo_ L. The English maple[41] is small, round-headed, with small dark-green leaves, useful in regions 1, 2, 3, and 4. [41] _Acer campestre_ L. [Illustration: P20042HP Fig. 20.--A Norway maple, as seen in late winter, showing its poor shape when trimmed to a high head.] The Norway maple[42] is round-headed and eventually reaches large size, but, as compared with most of the other maples, it is slow growing (fig. 4, _C_). The persistence of its tendency to form a low head makes it difficult to give it a high head of desirable shape (fig. 20). It is also very thickly branched, and its foliage, being heavy and dark-green, permits but little light to pass through. On this account it is rather undesirable for street planting. By severe pruning of the interior of the head this defect may be somewhat overcome. The tree is practically disease and insect free, with the exception of a liability to infestation by a leaf aphis[43] which produces yellow spots on the leaves and causes them to drop prematurely; also, the honeydew which they produce is so abundant at times as to cover the leaves and wet the sidewalk beneath the tree, the leaves under certain weather conditions becoming blackened with dust accumulating and a fungus growing in the secretion, thereby giving the tree an unsightly appearance. This aphis, however, is not always present and does not seriously injure the tree. The Norway maple comes into leaf later than most of the other maples, but holds its leaves later in the fall. They usually assume a bright yellow hue before they drop. The leaves are preceded by an abundance of yellow-green blossoms. On account of its dense shade and masses of fine fibrous roots it is difficult to grow grass under this tree. Its good shape and attractive dark-green foliage make it popular for street planting in spite of its dense, low head. It will succeed in regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, and 12. [42] _Acer platanoides_ L. [43] _Periphyllus lyropictus_ Kess. (Data furnished by the Bureau of Entomology.) The Oregon maple[44] is the large-leaved maple of the northern Pacific slope. It forms a large round head, and with its unusually large dark-green leaves makes a very attractive street tree that succeeds well in regions 1, 2, 3, and 4. It is valuable and worthy of more extended cultivation on the Pacific coast. [44] _Acer macrophyllum_ Pursh. The red maple,[45] scarlet maple, or swamp maple is one of the most widely distributed of American trees. It is found from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico and west to the Rocky Mountains. Its leaves are the smallest of any of the eastern native maples, but it grows large and the trees are usually of rather upright outline. It is better adapted to suburban conditions than to city streets and is one of the few trees that succeed well near the ocean. It has bright-red blossoms before the leaves appear. The young leaves and fruits are also red. The mature leaves begin to color early, some branches coloring as early as the middle of July, assuming brilliant reds and yellows and staying on later than those of the sugar maple. It is a handsome tree that is not as much used as it deserves to be in regions 1, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13. [45] _Acer rubrum_ L. [Illustration: P12542HP Fig. 21.--Silver maples severely headed back, an improper way to treat trees, especially silver maples, except under very unusual conditions. Washington, D. C.; midsummer.] The silver maple,[46] also called the soft maple, white maple, and swamp maple, is probably more used for street planting through the whole United States than any other tree, and with one exception it is the least desirable. It is usually planted because it is a quick-growing tree, but it is not more rapid in growth than several other much better trees. There are three serious objections to its use as a street tree. The first is its brittle wood, which at an early age is easily broken by ordinary windstorms and causes it when a comparatively young tree to become unsightly. The second is its shallow rooting, which has a tendency to destroy pavements and also makes it difficult to grow grass near the trees. The roots also will grow into sewers. The third is the tendency to decay; the tips of the limbs frequently die, leaving the whole top of the tree bare of leaves, and the wood decays quickly, especially if the bark is broken. For this reason it does not stand pruning as well as most other street trees, and it probably has been pruned more ruthlessly than any other tree, unless it is the Carolina poplar. It should never be severely deheaded or, as it is popularly called, "dehorned" (fig. 21), as the stubs will practically never heal over, and from these cuts decay will start, which in a very few years will rot the center of the limbs and trunk and thus destroy the tree. Although it forms a large round head with an open top and its foliage is pale green above and almost white beneath, making a very delightful shade, on account of its weaknesses it should never be used for street planting where other trees can be made to grow. [46] _Acer saccharinum_ L. The sugar maple,[47] or hard maple, is especially adapted to gravelly soils in regions 1, 10, and 11, the northern parts of regions 2 and 3, and the eastern and southern parts of region 9. It is oval-headed, large, and handsome, having red blossoms which individually are inconspicuous but which in mass are showy early in the spring before the leaves appear. The leaves come early, but in late summer they begin to turn brilliant yellow and red and drop before most other leaves. The sugar maple does not thrive under city conditions, but is admirably adapted to suburban conditions. [47] _Acer saccharum_ Marsh. Although the sycamore maple[48] is similar in appearance to the Norway maple, it is not a satisfactory street tree in the eastern United States. It succeeds, however, in regions 1, 2, 3, and 4. [48] _Acer pseudoplatanus_ L. [Illustration: P15662HP Fig. 22.--A sugar maple (on the left) and a white oak (on the right), each 32 years old and nearly the same size.] OAK. Of the trees used for street planting the oaks are best. They probably have not been more widely planted because of the prevalent belief that they are slow growers and because in the North they are rather difficult to transplant. Although some of the handsomest species, like the white oak and live oak, are slow growers, those suitable for street planting are comparatively rapid-growing. The white oak and sugar maple shown in figure 22 are each 32 years old and although differing in shape are practically the same size, yet the sugar maple is considered a sufficiently rapid-growing tree to be planted frequently as a street tree, while the white oak is seldom so used. The oaks are hardy, most of them are long lived, and for the most part they are free from disease and insect attacks. Some of the southern species are subject to attacks of mistletoe. The California live oak[49] is an evergreen suitable for use in region 2 and succeeds adjacent to the ocean. It is also useful in region 3 and in the western part of region 5. It is easily transplanted if handled young, and especially so when planted from pots. [49] _Quercus agrifolia_ Nee. The chestnut oak[50] is a native of gravelly soils on eastern mountains and is suitable for gravelly soils in suburban locations in regions 9, 10, and 11. It is a large, handsome tree. [50] _Quercus montana_ Willd. (formerly _Q. prinus_). The Darlington oak[51] is a form of laurel oak especially desirable for street planting. It is large, round-headed; the leaves are a trifle smaller and not quite so nearly evergreen as the laurel oak. It is found wild about Darlington, S. C., where a good form of the laurel oak appears to have been introduced as a shade tree in the early part of the nineteenth century. (Fig. 23.) Its range of usefulness lies in regions 11 and 12. [51] _Quercus laurifolia_ Michx. The laurel oak[52] is a large, oval-headed tree that is not as rugged and irregular as the live oak, but is suitable for street planting in regions 11, 12, and 13. It has large, thick, glossy leaves, and in the warmer regions it is almost evergreen. It is readily transplanted, but as it is not so common in the woods as the willow oak and the water oak, it has not been so much used as a street tree. [52] _Quercus laurifolia_ Michx. [Illustration: P15461HP Fig. 23.--A Darlington oak as seen in late summer, Darlington. S. C.] The live oak[53] (fig. 16) is probably the noblest and most majestic of the oaks of regions 12 and 13. It is evergreen and of slow growth, but wherever it is found, whether on streets or in public parks, it is the pride of the people. Although an evergreen it is sufficiently open-headed to make a good street tree. When it becomes old it is spreading and as a rule does not form as high a head as the willow oak and the laurel oak. Compared with other southern oaks it is difficult to transplant. It is of sufficient merit to be used on broad streets, and especially on boulevards, where the good of the future as well as the present is considered. [53] _Quercus virginiana_ Mill. [Illustration: P14413HP Fig. 24.--A street shaded with red oaks, Washington, D. C.; midsummer.] The burr oak,[54] or mossy-cup oak, is native in the northeastern United States and west of the Mississippi River on the hills lying between the river bottoms and the prairies west to the western parts of the Dakotas and Nebraska and central Kansas and Texas. It is a large; handsome tree that should prove satisfactory under suburban conditions in regions 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11 and on fertile well-watered soils. [54] _Quercus macrocarpa_ Michx. The pin oak,[55] sometimes called the swamp oak, is a tall tree, conical when young, oval at maturity, with a drooping habit of the lower branches. The leaves are quite finely divided and are of a bright glossy green. The tree comes into leaf late in the spring and holds its foliage late in the fall. One objection to the pin oak for street planting is that on many specimens the dead leaves hang on through the winter. It is adapted to narrower streets than the red oak, as its habit of growth is not so spreading. On account of the tendency of the limbs to droop, particularly as they get older, it is desirable that a good strong leader should be developed, so that the lower limbs may be removed from time to time as conditions require. The pin oak thrives on wet and on heavy clay soils, as well as on a wide range of other soils. Figure 4 shows pin oaks, Norway maples, and ginkgos 18 years old on adjacent streets, and illustrates the rapid growth of this oak. At the time of planting these trees the pin oaks were thought to have the poorest location. This tree is adapted to regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, and 11. [55] _Quercus palustris_ L. The red oak[56] (fig. 24) is probably the best tree for street planting in regions 1, 9, 10, and 11 and is satisfactory in regions 6, 7, 8, and 12. It is a large, oval, open-headed tree of rapid growth. Under good conditions a young red oak will grow 4 feet in a single season. Like the other oaks it is slow in coming into leaf in the spring, but holds its foliage late in the fall. The leaves usually turn a brilliant red before they drop. It is comparatively free from insect and fungous attacks, and it is one of the few trees really suitable for planting close to the ocean, as it thrives on sandy lands only a few feet above high tide or within the reach of ocean spray. [56] _Quercus maxima_ (March.) Ashe (formerly _Q. rubra_). The scarlet oak[57] is a large, open, round-headed tree. Its leaves are more deeply divided than those of the red oak. As its name indicates, the leaves turn a brilliant scarlet in autumn, being even more gorgeous than the red oak. This tree is adapted for street planting and is especially desirable for suburban conditions in regions 1, 9, and 10. [57] _Quercus coccinea_ Muench. The swamp Spanish oak[58] is adapted to regions 11, 12, and 13. It belongs to the red oak group, but is larger than the other oaks suggested for street planting. It is well adapted to suburban locations, but apparently it has not been tested under severe city conditions. [58] _Quercus rubra_ L. (formerly _Q. falcata_, and certain forms separated by some botanists as _Q. pagodaefolia_ Ashe). The valley oak[59] is a beautiful tree for regions 2 and 3 and the more favorable parts of region 5. When transplanted young, especially if taken from a pot, it is easily established where there is opportunity to water it for a few years. [59] _Quercus lobata_ Nee. The water oak[60] is frequently confused with the willow oak and the laurel oak, as these three oaks are not distinguished from one another except by close observers of trees. It is probably more used than any other tree in the cities of region 12 and the adjoining portions of region 11. It is the weed of the southern oaks and one of the weeds of the street trees of the Southern States. It is comparatively short lived and seems to be more subject to attacks of mistletoe and more easily affected by windstorms than the willow oak, the Darlington oak, and the laurel oak. The planting of this tree should be avoided, because it is less desirable than the other oaks mentioned. [60] _Quercus nigra_ L. [Illustration: Fig. 25.--Leaves of some of the southern oaks; _A_, Live oak; _B_, willow oak; _C_, laurel oak; and _D_, water oak.] The willow oak[61] (fig. 1), sometimes erroneously called the water oak, is one of the best of the quick-growing oaks for use in regions 11 and 12. It is frequently used with the water oak for street planting and in the mind of the average planter is confused with it. It is, however, a distinct tree, which can be distinguished readily from the water oak. It is longer lived and is its equal in every other respect. Trees of this variety which apparently have been planted about 80 years are found in excellent condition, while water oaks planted at the same time have either entirely disappeared or are showing marked evidences of decline. Figure 25 shows the characteristic appearance of the leaves of these nearly related species of oaks. That the willow oak is readily transplanted in the South when of comparatively large size is proved by the success with which trees 12 feet high are dug from the woods and planted on the street (fig. 26). In the extreme South this tree is nearly half evergreen. Its foliage does not assume the bright colors of the trees of the red oak class. [61] _Quercus phellos_ L. [Illustration: P15321HP Fig. 26.--Recently transplanted willow oaks, showing trees taken from the woods as they appeared near the end of the second summer. Montgomery, Ala.] PALM.[62] [62] The palms are treated on the basis of notes furnished by Dr. O. F. Cook, of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Several varieties of palms are used more or less for street planting in regions 2, 3, 5, 12, and 13. Though sometimes effective as a formal street decoration (fig. 27), they can hardly be considered shade trees. PALMETTO. Palmettos, or sabals, abound in region 12 near the coast; succeed in regions 3, 5, and 13; live in region 2; but are seldom grown satisfactorily close to the Pacific coast. They can be used effectively for formal plantings along some streets, park drives, or in liberal central parking spaces in boulevards, but they are not useful as a substitute for shade trees. They should have then leaves and damaged roots cut off in transplanting and should be set about 3 feet deep in their new location. The Carolina palmetto[63] is a native of and useful in regions 12 and 13, where it sometimes attains a height of 60 or 80 feet. It will thrive in regions 3 and 5, but is used less there. [63] _Inodes palmetto_ (Walt.) Cook. The Texas palmetto[64] is especially valuable for southern Texas, where it is indigenous, and it is likely to succeed generally in regions 3, 5, and 12. It grows to a height of 40 feet and in appearance is quite distinct from the Carolina palmetto, the leaf segments being much broader and less drooping.[65] [64] _Inodes texana_ Cook. [65] The Texas palmetto. _In_ Jour. Heredity, v. 8, no. 3, p. 123, pl. 1917. [Illustration: P18989HP Fig. 27.--A formal planting on a city street. Palms with interplantings. Redlands, Calif., in midsummer.] The Victoria palmetto[66] is another hardy species, probably a native of Mexico, but grown for many years at Victoria, Tex. It is similar to the native Texas species and worthy of general planting in the same region. A feature of this species is that the persistent leaf bases remain alive and green for many years instead of turning yellow or brown, as in the Carolina palmetto. [66] Cook, O. F. A new ornamental palmetto in southern Texas. _In_ U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 113, p. 11-14. 1913. WASHINGTONIA PALM. Washingtonia palms are a very conspicuous feature of street and ornamental planting in southern California. Two species are represented, _Washingtonia filifera_ Wendland and _W. robusta_ Wendland. The first is a native of the canyons and barren slopes that surround the Coachella Valley of southern California, while the other species probably was brought by way of the Isthmus of Panama from the region of San Jose del Cabo, the extremity of Lower California, in the early days of travel. The name _robusta_ alludes to the fact that this species grows much more rapidly in height than _W. filifera_, though the trunk is more slender. Both species are hardy and thrive well through regions 2, 3, and 5, and also in regions 12 and 13. _Washingtonia robusta_ requires less heat than _W. filifera_, but both will endure several degrees of frost. Even in California _Washingtonia robusta_ is distinctly preferable for localities near the coast. In the vicinity of San Diego the leaves of _Washingtonia filifera_ become badly infested with a parasitic fungus that does not attack _Washingtonia robusta_. OTHER HARDY FAN PALMS. The species most commonly used for street and ornamental planting in the California coast districts is the Chinese or windmill palm.[67] This palm has a slender trunk clothed with brown fibers, flat fan-shaped leaves, and rather straight radiating segments. The same species is hardy at New Orleans and Charleston, and even at Laurens, S. C., at an altitude of 600 feet, but it does not thrive in the sandy soil of Florida. [67] _Trachycarpus excelsa_ (Thunb.) Wendl. The vegetable hair palm,[68] a native of Spain, Sicily, and North Africa, is similar to the Chinese palm but smaller and more compact and with large, sharp spines on the petioles of the leaves. When young it suckers from the base, like the date palm, so that clusters of it may be formed. [68] _Chamaerops humilis_ L. The Guadeloupe Island palm[69] is one of the most popular species in southern California in the region of Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and San Diego. This palm is a native of Guadeloupe Island, of! the coast of lower California, and is not known to occur elsewhere in the wild state. It is well adapted to the cool coast climate of California, but not to the interior valleys. It is smaller than the Washingtonia palms, with a rather short trunk, 15 to 20 feet high, and a dense crown of fresh green leaves. [69] _Erythea edulis_ (H. Wendl.) S. Wats. The California blue palm,[70] formerly placed in the same genus with the Guadeloupe Island species, is very distinct in habits as well as in general appearance, having bluish or grayish green leaves, strongly toothed petioles, and long, slender inflorescences. The trunk is very robust, often 2 to 3 feet in diameter, and is said to attain a height of 30 to 40 feet in Mexico. Several of these features are shared with the Washingtonia palms. It also has the ability to grow in the dry, hot interior valleys (regions 3 and 5). In Texas the blue palm has proved hardy at San Antonio, and even as far north as Austin. [70] _Glaucothea armata_ (formerly known as _Erythea armata_). See Cook, O. F., Glaucothea, a new genus of palms from Lower California. _In_ Jour. Washington Acad. Sci., v. 5, p. 236-241. 1915. DATE PALM. The Canary Island date palm[71] is the most popular palm for park or street planting, being more hardy than the true date palm, larger and more vigorous in growth, and producing no suckers from the base of the trunk. Well-grown specimens in the California coast districts (region 2) with trunks from 2 to 3 feet thick and immense crowns of spreading deep-green leaves are among the most imposing forms of plant life. Though less robust in other regions, the species is very hardy and adapted for planting anywhere in the palm belt (regions 3, 5, 12, and 13). [71] _Phoenix canariensis_ Hort. The true date palm[72] is adapted to the warmer parts of regions 3 and 5, but it is much inferior to the Canary Island species for ornamental use because the foliage is less attractive, due to its habit of sending out suckers from the base of the trunk. [72] _Phoenix dactylifera_ L. THE COCONUT AND ITS RELATIVES. The true coconut palm is confined to a narrow belt along the coast of southern Florida, but other species of cocos are planted in the coast districts of California. The species that is most prominent in park and street plantings around San Diego, Los Angeles, and Santa Barbara is usually known as _Cocos plumosa_ or _Cocos romanzoffiana_, and is a rather tall, slender palm with a long-jointed trunk about 1 foot in diameter and long, spreading, feathery, deep-green leaves. Another series is represented by _Cocos yatay_ and several similar species, often called _Cocos australis_ in nursery catalogues. They have short, thick trunks, very glaucous grayish or bluish foliage, and fleshy edible fruits, highly flavored, somewhat like pineapples. These gray-leaved species are very hardy. Another coconut relative is the Chilean molasses palm,[73] which has a massive trunk 3 or 4 feet in diameter, specimens of which are growing at a few places in California. [73] _Jubaea chilensis_ Baill. OTHER PINNATE PALMS. The amethyst palm, a native of Australia, is commonly planted in California. It usually appears in lists and nursery catalogues as _Seaforthia elegans_ or _Archontophoenix alexandrae_, but it is now recognized as distinct from both of these species and has received a new name, _Loroma amethystina_. It is the only pinnate-leaved palm, except certain species of Phoenix and Cocos, that grows freely in the open air in the coast districts of California, from Santa Barbara to San Diego. In habit and general appearance Loroma is more like the royal palm, though with a smaller trunk and fewer leaves. The pinkish purple drooping inflorescence is very attractive and develops into a large cluster of scarlet berries. The royal palms, species of Roystonea, are perhaps the most striking ornamental members of the whole group. They can be grown in southern Florida and even exist in the wild state in some of the hammocks below Miami. PEPPER TREE. The California pepper tree[74] is much used in regions 2 and 3 and in the western part of region 5. It is a moderate-sized broad-headed tree with fine foliage, which gives it a light, airy appearance. During the fall and winter it is covered with scarlet berries, which in contrast with the persistent foliage produce a pleasing effect. [74] _Schinus molle_ L. [Illustration: Fig. 28.--A pavement heaved by the roots of poplar trees.] POPLAR. Poplars are not desirable for street planting. Their wood is brittle and easily broken by ordinary windstorms, and their roots run near the surface and are likely to interfere with pavements, as shown in figure 28, while those of some varieties are especially liable to make trouble in sewers by filling them with a mass of fibrous roots if access is once gained. Vigorous root growth is encouraged by the moisture from a leak, and the roots ultimately find their way inside. The southern cottonwood,[75] Carolina poplar, and the northern cottonwood[76] are so similar in their adaptability for street planting purposes that they will be discussed together. They are easily propagated, easily transplanted, are quick-growing, and where they reach maturity under normal conditions form very large oval-headed handsome trees, but under the artificial conditions existing in cities it is necessary to prune them quite severely when young to remove the long vigorous growths and make the heads more compact. This pruning stimulates more vigorous growth, which must be removed or they will form long branches with heavy tops, that are especially liable to be injured by windstorms. The more they are pruned the greater the tendency to an undesirable form of growth. They begin dropping their leaves early in the summer and lose them very early in the autumn. Their root growth is especially vigorous, so that they are liable to make trouble in sewers in the manner already mentioned. It is largely on this account that many cities prohibit the planting of these trees. Except in regions 6, 7, or 8 or in locations where smoke and fumes in the air prevent the growing of other trees, they should not be planted. [75] _Populus deltoides_ Marsh. [76] _Populus virginiana_ Fouger. The Lombardy poplar[77] is a tall columnar tree adapted for use on very narrow streets (fig. 14). It is short lived in many places, due largely to the European poplar canker, but otherwise is a satisfactory tree for these conditions in all parts of the United States. The trees may be planted as close together as 30 feet. [77] _Populus italica_ (Du Roi) Moench. None of the other poplars have much to recommend them for street planting. RUBBER TREE. The rubber tree[78] is a large-headed handsome evergreen, suitable for regions 3 and 5 and the southern parts of regions 2 and 13 when the use of an evergreen tree is warranted. [78] _Ficus elastica_ Roxb. SILK OAK. The silk oak,[79] or Australian fern, is a large, handsome tree that succeeds well in regions 2, 3, and 13; also in region 5 if provided with a reasonable amount of moisture, as it stands drought remarkably well. It is covered in early summer with orange-colored flowers. [79] _Grevillea robusta_ A. Cunn. SWEET GUM. The sweet gum[80] is adapted to regions 11, 12, and 13, especially on sandy lands. It forms an oval-headed, handsome tree with star-shaped leaves that assume a particularly brilliant hue in the autumn. It is better adapted to suburban conditions than to the heart of a city. Toward the northern limits of its successful cultivation it is difficult to transplant, while in the warmer sections of the country it can be moved with comparative ease. It should be transplanted only in the spring. [80] _Liquidambar styraciflua_ L. SYCAMORE. The sycamore[81] also called the buttonwood and buttonball tree, is a large, open, spreading, quick-growing tree native along water-courses. It is adapted to regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, and 13 and is worth testing in regions 5, 6, 7, and 8. Its habit of shedding its outer bark in large flakes, leaving the white new bark showing in large patches, makes it a conspicuous tree wherever grown. The fruits are balls 1 inch or more in diameter and are sometimes objected to because they make dirt when falling; also the shed bark is considered objectionable. It is such a strong-growing handsome tree and succeeds so well under city conditions that it is being planted more and more frequently. It will stand more pruning and shaping than any other street tree. Without pruning it is too large for ordinary streets unless spaced at almost double the usual planting distance, with the trees staggered along the street instead of being planted opposite. Its high head and open habit of growth are distinct advantages for street planting. Its foliage, too, is a light green, which gives an impression of airiness with the shade. It is subject to attack by a fungus that kills the leaves while still small or partially mutilates them, giving them an unsightly appearance. In some places this trouble is quite serious. [81] _Platanus occidentalis_ L. The California sycamore[82] is a native of California adapted to regions 1, 2, 3, and 4 and portions of region 5. It is similar in general characteristics to the sycamore. [82] _Platanus racemosa_ Nutt. The London plane tree[83] is one of the Old World forms of sycamore. According to Alfred Render,[84] "the true oriental plane is rare in cultivation, the tree usually planted under this name being _Platanus acerifolia_" It it more compact in habit of growth and has the other good qualities of the sycamore. It is being more and more used on city streets and is proving satisfactory in regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, and 12. It will probably succeed in the warmer parts of regions 6 and 7 and also in regions 5 and 8. It is a more desirable tree for ordinary use than the sycamore, on account of its more compact habit and comparative freedom from disease, though it is tender in the northernmost sections. [83] _Platanus acerifolia_ (Ait.) Willd. [84] Bailey, L. H., ed. New York, 1916. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, v. 5, p. 2707. TULIP TREE. The tulip tree[85] is also sometimes called the tulip poplar or yellow poplar, though the latter names are unfortunate, as the tree is not a poplar or even closely related to the poplars. It is a large, rapid-growing tree suitable for suburban conditions in regions 1, 2, 10, 11, and 12. The leaves are of unusual form, the upper half appearing to have been cut away, leaving a notch about where it would seem the middle of the leaf should be. The color is a light green. The roots are unusually soft and tender, and therefore the tree needs to be transplanted quickly and with great care. Small sizes should be planted, especially near the northern limits of growth. It should be transplanted only in the spring. If after transplanting it the top should die and a new vigorous shoot should put out from the root, it would be desirable to form a new top from this shoot rather than to transplant another tree. [85] _Liriodendron tulipifera_ L. CULTURE OF STREET TREES. SELECTION OF INDIVIDUAL TREES. Nursery-grown trees should be used for street planting, and they should have been transplanted at least every two years while in the nursery. This is to insure a thorough root pruning and the production of numerous fibrous roots close to the trunk. Trees not frequently transplanted form a few long roots that are largely cut off when the tree is dug. Trees growing in the woods form a few very long roots, and when an attempt is made to dig them only a little of the root next the trunk is obtained, while most of the roots, including the fibrous ones, are left in the ground. If woodland trees are wanted for street purposes, most kinds should be grown for a few years in a nursery in order to form a good root system before being planted on the streets. In addition to a good root system, the tree should have a straight trunk for the variety, with a good set of branches, called the head, the bottom branches being from 7 to 9 feet from the ground. Trees which naturally head low should be started with a higher head than those varieties that have a tendency to an upright growth. A good head for a shade tree is a leader or upright branch with three or more side branches about equally spaced around the tree. The trees should be healthy, free from scars, and also free from evidences of insects or diseases. In the presence of insects, trees should be thoroughly fumigated along approved methods before leaving nurseries, to insure against the introduction and distribution of pests. Weakened vitality resulting from transplanting and subsequent neglect will frequently invite attack by bark-boring insects which seriously damage or kill the trees. Mulching and watering will often prevent this damage. Opinion as to the size to plant differs somewhat, but for average conditions trees from 10 to 12 feet high and with trunks or stems from 2 to 2-1/2 inches in diameter[86] are very satisfactory in most varieties used for street purposes. With such varieties as elms sycamores, and some southern oaks, somewhat larger trees can be used equally well, while smaller trees would be better in the regions of limited rainfall both east and west of the Rocky Mountains and for tulip trees and sweet gums, especially in the northern portion of their range of usefulness. [86] Designated by nurserymen as "caliper." PREPARATION OF HOLES. Next to the selection of a proper variety, the preparation of the hole is the most important detail of street tree planting. Because of the restricted area available for the spread of the tree roots, and owing to the artificial conditions imposed by the improvement of city streets, the soil provided for the feeding ground of the roots of the young tree must be liberal in quantity and of the best quality. From 2 to 3 cubic yards of soil should be provided for each tree. It is desirable to have at least 18 square feet of opening in the sidewalk, especially if it is of concrete or other impervious material. Trees will grow with smaller sidewalk openings, but they are not likely to thrive so well, and it is impossible properly to prepare a hole for planting a tree without disturbing at least this much surface soil. The proper depth of soil is from 2-1/2 to 3 feet. A hole 3 feet deep large enough to hold 2 cubic yards of soil has a surface area of 18 square feet. A hole 6 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep will hold 2 cubic yards of soil, will have the smallest desirable surface area, and will be of such dimensions as will best conform to the usual sidewalk and roadway widths and thus not interfere with traffic. The tree hole must be so drained that water will not stand in it. If the soil is so impervious as to hold water some artificial drainage must be provided. That portion of the depth of a hole that acts as a cistern for holding water is valueless as a feeding ground for roots. For every cubic foot of soil in the bottom of a hole that might thus be made valueless by standing water, 1-1/2 cubic feet of soil should be added by increasing the length or width of it. Under no circumstances, however, should the depth of available feeding ground be less than 2 feet. The deeper the roots may be encouraged to grow, the less injury is likely to be experienced from drought. The soil used should be topsoil from land that has been producing good crops. This should be well enriched with rotted manure, one part of manure to four of soil. The addition of such fertilizers as ground bone, tankage, fish scrap, or cottonseed meal at the rate of 1 pound to the cubic yard of soil is also helpful. Commercial fertilizers containing mostly phosphoric acid obtained from other substances than ground bone are not to be recommended for use in the soil about the roots at planting time. When used they should form a surface application, worked into the soil after planting. PLANTING. If trees are shipped from a distance they should be taken at once on arrival to some point where the roots may be carefully covered with soil; there they should be unpacked and plenty of loose moist earth worked thoroughly around and over the roots as fast as they are taken from the box. This temporary covering of the roots is called "heeling in." (Fig. 29.) The tops may be either erect or laid almost on the ground in successive rows, the tops of one row lying over the roots of the previous rows, the object being to cover the roots thoroughly and keep them moist until the tree is wanted for permanent setting. Not a moment of exposure should be permitted between the box and the soil. If the roots appear dry, they may be dipped for a few minutes before "heeling in" in a tub of water or in thin mud. [Illustration: P20370HP Fig. 29.--Trees properly "heeled in."] [Illustration: P20000HP Fig. 30.--Trees handled in a careless manner. The roots should have been covered with wet canvas.] Trees in large quantities are often packed directly in cars with a small quantity of straw about the roots. When shipped in this way extra care (compare figs. 30 and 31) must be exercised in taking the trees to the point where they are to be heeled in. The wagon in which they are to be hauled should have a tight box, and wet canvas should be tied tightly over the load. The last is important, so that there may be no chance for the roots to dry. When taking trees from the ground where they have been heeled in to the place for planting, great care must also be exercised to see that the roots are not exposed to sun or wind, but are kept closely covered with moss, wet burlap, or canvas until planted. Lack of care in this matter is a greater cause of loss in tree planting than carelessness in any other particular. One city that has its own nursery and uses largely trees that are supposed to be difficult to move, but is careful about not exposing the roots for a moment (fig. 31), has a loss of less than 1 per cent. If the roots once dry the trees will die, and it takes but a short exposure to dry the roots. The holes should be prepared well in advance of planting, so that no time will be lost when conditions are right for putting the trees in the ground. [Illustration: P20350HP Fig. 31.--A load of trees and tree boxes. The roots are packed in wet moss and a tree is not taken from the wagon until the planter and two shovelers are at the hole where it is to be planted.] In regions 1, 10, 11, 12, and 13 (fig. 17) the best time for planting deciduous street trees is the month or six weeks just preceding freezing weather in the fall. The other desirable time for planting is as soon after freezing weather is over in the spring as the ground is dry enough for the mechanical operations. This should be as early as possible, as the more opportunity there is for root growth before warm weather forces the top into growth, the better the results are likely to be. In regions 6, 8, and 9, where the ground freezes to a considerable depth, spring planting is to be preferred to fall planting unless it is possible to drench the soil thoroughly for a considerable distance around the trees at planting time and after that to mulch the soil thoroughly and also to protect the top from the effect of drying winter winds. Where mice abound they may be harbored in the mulch and may girdle the tree. This may be prevented by a collar of wire netting about the base of the trunk or by banking the earth about it. The death of trees at the time of transplanting is due to the drying out of either roots or tops before opportunity is given them to become reestablished in their new locations. This drying may be due to improper exposure at the time of digging or before packing (fig. 30), poor packing, prolonged delay in delivery, improper handling between unpacking and planting, or the existence of conditions conducive to excessive drying out of the plant after setting. [Illustration: P14340HP Fig. 32.--A city nursery.] The atmosphere is continually claiming a tribute of moisture from all living plants, whether the plant is in leaf and growing or is dormant. Growing plants, and dormant plants under normal conditions, are able to replace this moisture by absorption through the roots. In climates where newly planted trees may obtain sufficient soil water to replace these losses by drying, fall planting is best. Where the plants are unable to get sufficient winter moisture, planting would better be done only in the spring. Where the soil freezes to a depth greater than that to which the plant roots extend, the supply of water is cut off from the roots and the tree will be killed by drying out through evaporation from the top. Where winter winds are very drying and the soil moisture is limited, evaporation from the top is likely to be in excess of that supplied by the roots and the tree is killed in the same way. [Illustration: Fig. 33.--Setting a tree: _A_, Measuring from the curb to get the tree in line; _B_, filling the hole: _C_, placing the box; _D_, fastening the box.] In regions normally adapted to fall planting, newly set trees may be killed by a dry autumn followed by a dry winter with, high winds or by a cold winter with so little snow that the ground freezes below the roots. On the other hand, trees may often be successfully planted in the fall where such practice is not usually successful by thoroughly mulching the soil if freezing is the sole cause of the difficulty, or by drenching the soil thoroughly and then mulching well if lack of moisture and high winds are the causes of the trouble. Protection from the wind by wrapping the trunk and large limbs with burlap or some other protecting material is also desirable. After a liberal opening has been made in the specially prepared soil the tree should be brought, preferably from the city's own nursery (fig. 32), but if such a nursery has not been provided, then from among the newly received trees that have been "heeled in" as already described. If the tree has been well handled and the roots carefully protected it is ready for setting. It is desirable to immerse the roots in a thin mixture of clay and water just before putting it in the hole if there is suspicion that the roots have been exposed. This can be done before leaving the nursery or "heeling in" ground, but the roots must be properly protected. Any mutilated ends of roots should be removed, the top should be severely pruned, as described later, and the tree should be placed in the hole in line with the other trees (fig. 33, _A_) and at such a height that after the filling is completed it will be about an inch deeper in the ground than it was before transplanting. The roots should be spread out in as near their original position as practicable, and soil should be carefully worked in about them with the fingers, so that each rootlet may come in contact with soil and not be crowded against other rootlets. When all the roots have been placed and covered the soil should be thoroughly trampled or tamped to bring the roots into as close contact as possible with it. Then more soil should be put in and the ground again tamped. Of course, in order to get satisfactory results the soil used for planting must not be too wet or too dry. If the soil is in such a state as to hold together in soggy masses and not spring apart again when squeezed in the hand, it is too wet for planting. If the soil is too dry, it will not stay in contact with the roots during the planting operations. A soil that is too dry may be well-watered a day or two in advance of the planting, or if excessive dryness does not make it difficult to handle, the tree may be planted and then be thoroughly watered. After the watering 3 or 4 inches of loose soil should be spread over the wet ground in order to prevent undue evaporation. It should not be trampled or pounded in any way after the water is applied. If trees planted in moist retentive soils are watered after planting they should be provided with a mulch of similar earth. East of the Missouri River trees planted in soil that is in good condition usually do not need watering at the time of planting. Trees planted from pots, cans, or boxes should have the ball of earth taken from the receptacle handled with care, so as not to break it further than to loosen some of the roots on the outside of the ball; then the soil should be as carefully placed about this ball and the loosened roots as about the roots of trees without balls. Trees planted with balls need no root pruning and little top pruning. [Illustration: P20367HP Fig. 34.--A pin oak trimmed for planting. Note the bad stubs (_A, A_) on the left-hand side of the tree.] [Illustration: P20368HP Fig. 35.--A sycamore trimmed for planting. Well primed, without bad stubs.] PRUNING. At planting time the trees should be so pruned as to remove from one-half to three-fourths of the leaf buds. The head should be formed in the nursery, so that at planting time the only problem is how to reduce the amount of prospective growth the first season without destroying the form of the head. Specific directions are difficult, because different species of trees are so different in their character of growth. A species that is naturally compact in growth (fig. 34) should be pruned by removing whole branches rather than by having the ends of branches removed. One that is open and spreading (fig. 35) will probably need the shortening of the longer limbs as well as the removal of interior branches. The first pruning should be the removal of such branches as can be spared. If enough buds can not be removed in this way without leaving the head too open, then the shortening of the branches must follow. It is usually necessary to remove three-fourths of the limbs to accomplish this. An expert can do this pruning or most of it more easily before the tree is planted than afterwards. Some additional pruning may be necessary after the tree is set. In addition to the pruning of the top the roots may need some cutting. Any broken pieces or ends should be removed, making a clean cut with a sharp knife, as new rootlets put out more readily from a cleanly cut fresh surface than from ragged breaks. If the roots are very long, without branches or rootlets, it sometimes makes planting easier to cut off some of the ends. As roots are the braces by which a tree is supported in the ground, it is undesirable to reduce their length unless some positive good is to be gained by it. [Illustration: P20372HP Fig. 36.--Types of tree guards.] The best implement for cutting small limbs is a sharp knife, and for larger limbs a fine-toothed saw. Pruning shears are sometimes used, but they are likely to bruise the wood. If used at all, the blade should always be turned toward the tree so that the bruise made by the supporting bar will be on the portion cut off. Where branches are taken off, the cut should be close to the remaining limb, so that no suggestion of a stub will remain. (Figs. 34 and 35.) Where ends are cut from branches the cut should be just above a bud, and the remaining bud should point in the direction that it is desired the limb should grow. STAKES AND GUARDS. Under city conditions young trees need the support of a strong stake as well as protection for the trunk. Boys like to swing around small trees or see the tops fly up if bent to the ground. Men find them convenient hitching posts for their horses, and horses frequently like the taste of the bark or tear it off for the sake of having something to do. Guards are of many forms (fig. 36), from stakes 2-1/2 inches square set 3 feet in the ground and extending 6 feet above, with heavy-netting placed about the tree and stapled to the stake, to heavy wooden cribs of four stakes and intermediate slats and wrought-iron patterns of many forms. The trees should be firmly secured to the tops of the guards so that they will not swing against them in the wind and be rubbed. This is best done by securing the tree in place in the guard by two loops of pieces of old garden hose, soft leather, or rope, in such a way as not to bind the tree too tightly while keeping it from swinging much or rubbing. The essentials are a firm support for the tree while young with reasonable protection of the trunk from careless depredations until the tree has reached a diameter of 6 inches or more. LATER CARE. If after planting, the season is dry and it becomes necessary to apply water, the ground should be soaked thoroughly, and as soon as it has dried sufficiently to work up loosely it should be hoed or raked to make a good earth mulch. A mulch of strawy manure or litter may be used in place of the earth mulch if desired. The watering should not require repeating for a week or more. If the weather becomes warm soon after planting and the trees come into leaf, wither, and droop, further pruning may save them. The reason for the difficulty is probably that the growth of the top has been greater than the newly formed roots can support; therefore the additional pruning is likely to restore the balance between the top growth and root growth. At least three-fourths of the remaining young wood should be removed. This may leave the tree looking almost like a bean pole, but if it induces a vigorous root growth the top can easily be re-formed. Young trees should have an annual inspection, and all crossing branches and any that are not well placed to form a good head should be removed. Attention should be given also to all forks, and where two branches start almost parallel to one another or at a small angle, making a fork liable to split apart as the tree grows, one branch should be removed. Where three branches start from almost the same point there is little likelihood of their splitting apart, but with only two growing at a less angle than 30° there is liable to be trouble in the case of most kinds of trees. On trees on which few but long shoots form, it may be well to remove the ends of such shoots. As a rule, it is undesirable to use for street planting trees with this kind of growth. Young trees should be trained into a desirable shape by the use of a pruning knife each year, so that a saw will not be necessary later. Some trees have a tendency to form too dense a head. The interior branches of these should be removed and the head made as open as possible while the work can be done with a knife. No attempt should be made to alter the natural form of a tree but only to insure its best development. A skillfully pruned young tree will show no evidences of the pruning after three or four years. CARE OF MATURE TREES. PRUNING. It is very little trouble to train a tree into a good shape by using the pruning knife while the limbs are small, but it is usually difficult to re-form a tree after it has grown to maturity. One who understands tree growth, however, can often reshape the top of a neglected tree to advantage, though many who make a business of tree trimming know so little about it that they do more harm than good. More mature trees have been hurt by severe pruning than have been helped. Of course, dead or dying wood should be removed whenever it is found, no matter what the age of the tree. This should be done by cutting off the limb back to the nearest healthy crotch. A limb should not be cut off square across (fig. 21) unless the tree is apparently in a dying condition and the whole top is treated thus in an attempt to save its life. In such a case, a second pruning should follow within two years, at which time the stubs left at the first trimming should be cut off in a proper manner near the newly started limbs. Healthy silver maples and willows are frequently cut in this way, but the maples in particular would better be cut down at once than to subject the public to the dangers of the insidious decay that almost always follows such an operation on these trees and completes their destruction promptly. Trees that have been neglected a long time frequently have interfering or crossing branches, or are too low headed or too densely headed for the place where they are growing. Defects of this kind may be at least partially remedied. The removal of limbs by cutting them off at a crotch in such a manner that the wound is parallel with the remaining branch (fig. 37) inflicts the least possible damage. Such a wound in a healthy tree will soon heal over if the cut is made through the slight collar or ring that is nearly always present at the base of a branch. The closer this cut can be made to the trunk the better the appearance when the cut is healed. The closer the cut the larger the wound, but the difference is unimportant if the wood is well protected until it is healed. These operations are entirely different in purpose and result from the "heading in" or "heading back" so often practiced under the guise of tree pruning, either from a false notion of forming a top or for the passage of wires. Changing the form of a tree by pruning should not be attempted. Each species has its own form or forms, and no attempt should be made to change or distort a tree from its normal habit of growth. Successful pruning will accentuate rather than disguise a tree's characteristics. [Illustration: P20371HP Fig. 37.--Part of a tree trunk showing proper and improper methods of removing old limbs. Although healing has started on the stub (at the right) it is likely to proceed very slowly. The nearer the cut is to the tree the larger the wound but the less conspicuous the stub will be when healed.] All cuts should be made so that no stubs or protuberances are left to prevent quick healing. Small wounds need no after treatment if the cut is well made. Large wounds should have the wood of the center of the cut well protected to prevent decay until the new growth has had an opportunity to heal over the cut. An application made to the center of the cut to preserve the wood should not be permitted to come near the cambium layer or inner bark, especially of soft-wooded trees like the tulip and magnolia, as the oil or other substances contained in the paint, tar, or other covering may spread to the cambium layer and kill it. It is well not to make any application within half an inch of the outside of the wound unless the coating has been thoroughly tested. Dead wood should be entirely removed, the cut being made through good live tissue. Removing such wood frequently exposes decayed cavities, usually from bad stubs or injuries which have started decay that has followed back to the main limbs or the trunk. The treatment of such cavities is the province of tree surgery and is discussed in another publication.[87] [87] Collins, J. F. Practical tree surgery. _In_ U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1913, pp. 163-190, pl. 16-22. Published as Yearbook Separate 622, obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents for 10 cents in coin. One source of trouble with a large tree that has developed with two trunks or branches instead of three or more is the liability of their splitting apart in the crotch. This is especially characteristic of the elm. Careful attention to the early pruning of trees may eliminate this defect, but when it exists in mature trees it is frequently advisable to connect the branches by a strong chain (fig. 18) in order to prevent the limbs from being torn apart. FEEDING. It is difficult to do anything to stimulate the growth of street trees after they are once started, because usually the only uncovered area over the roots is the small opening immediately about the tree; hence, the importance of supplying the best of soil well enriched at the time of planting. Sometimes a stimulation is desirable, which can be accomplished by dissolving one-half to 1 pound of nitrate of soda in 50 gallons of water and applying from 1 to 25 gallons of the liquid, depending on the size of the tree. Unless the soil is damp at the time of application water will be needed immediately afterward. This material should be applied only when the tree is in full leaf and growing. If applied when the tree is dormant it is likely to be leached from the soil before it is absorbed. If applied late in the season, that is, within three months of freezing weather, it would likely stimulate a late growth that would be liable to be killed the following winter and might make the whole tree more susceptible to injury from cold. Water is one of the great needs of city trees, as the ground surface is often almost completely roofed over with water-tight coverings. It is usually a help for the pavement washings to drain into the parking space where the tree is planted. If a curb is placed about the parking space, frequent, regular watering is necessary where the ground is thoroughly covered with water-tight pavements. Where growing under suburban conditions, that is, with streets partially pervious to water, liberal parking spaces, and adjoining lawns, street trees will respond to all extra care given the near-by open spaces, whether parkings, lawns, or gardens. If these are well cared for the trees should have ample sustenance from them without any direct applications. In order to prevent the soil about a tree from being packed too hard by trampling it is frequently desirable on business streets to cover the soil about it with an iron grating. SPRAYING. Street trees, like all other forms of vegetation, are subject to attacks of insects and diseases. Because of the unfavorable conditions under which they grow, spraying for biting and sucking insects and suitable treatment for borers or other burrowing insects require especially careful attention. In addition to a number of troubles common to street trees in general, each species is liable to troubles of its own; hence, the need of competent supervision by a trained man with an efficient outfit rather than leaving; the work to individual initiative. Because of the height which many street trees attain a powerful outfit is required to spray them properly. One capable of maintaining a pressure of 200 pounds per square inch is desirable. The type of spray required for tall trees is different from that used on fruit trees and other low plants. For low trees the ideal spray is a mist within a few feet of the nozzle, application being accomplished by having the nozzles near the foliage to be treated. For tall trees it is desirable that the liquid should leave the nozzle in a solid stream, which is broken into spray as it passes through the air. The material has to be projected with sufficient force to reach the highest trees before being entirely converted into mist, as it is impracticable to extend the nozzles into the trees to reach the farthest portions, as is done with fruit and other low trees. The spray can not be applied as uniformly as a mist, but it is impracticable to climb into the tops of shade trees to cover every part with a cloudlike spray. On the other hand, the mist spray is better for small trees, as much injury may be done to low trees or to the lower branches of high trees by the force of the stream from high-pressure outfits. It is estimated that in practice up to 95 per cent of the attacking insects can be killed with insecticides carefully applied by the stream method under high pressure. In addition to the mechanical problem of satisfactorily covering high trees with insecticides or fungicides there is the problem of selecting materials that will be effective against the insects and diseases and at the same time will not disfigure the paint or stone work of adjacent buildings with which the materials must inevitably come in contact in street tree spraying. It frequently happens that the most effective remedies must be rejected because of the damage they would do to buildings and that less efficient materials must be used. Whitewashing the trunks of trees is a useless and unsightly practice--useless, as it does not prevent the attacks of insects, and unsightly, because it makes the trunks of the trees obtrusive when they should be inconspicuous. Banding with cotton or proprietary preparations may occasionally be useful, but because such applications are so seldom helpful and because some of the preparations result in injury due to constriction of the trunks, it should not be resorted to except upon special recommendation of an entomologist familiar with the existing conditions. Details as to enemies to be expected, methods of treatment, and materials to be used may be found in other publications[88] or may be obtained by correspondence with the nearest State agricultural experiment station or with the United States Department of Agriculture. [88] See list on following pages. * * * * * PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO DISEASES AND INSECTS AFFECTING SHADE AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. =AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION.= Control of Root-Knot. (Farmers' Bulletin 648.) The San Jose Scale and Its Control. (Farmers' Bulletin 650.) The Bagworm, an Injurious Shade-Tree Insect. (Farmers' Bulletin 701.) The Catalpa Sphinx. (Farmers' Bulletin 705.) The Leopard Moth: A Dangerous Imported Enemy of Shade Trees. (Farmers' Bulletin 708.) The Oyster-Shell Scale and the Scurfy Scale. (Farmers' Bulletin 723.) The White-Pine Blister Rust. (Farmers' Bulletin 742.) Carbon Disulphid as an Insecticide. (Farmers' Bulletin 799.) The Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail Moth and Their Control. (Farmers' Bulletin 845.) Common White Grubs. (Farmers' Bulletin 940.) The Blights of Coniferous Nursery Stock. (Department Bulletin 44.) Forest Disease Surveys. (Department Bulletin 658.) =FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C.= The Mistletoe Pest in the Southwest. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 166.) Price, 10 cents. The Death of Chestnuts and Oaks Due to Armillaria mellea. (Department Bulletin 89.) Price, 5 cents. New Facts Concerning the White-Pine Blister Rust. (Department Bulletin 116.) Price, 5 cents. The Huisache Girdler. (Department Bulletin 184.) Price, 5 cents. Report on the Gipsy Moth Work in New England. (Department Bulletin 204.) Price, 30 cents. A Disease of Pines Caused by Cronartium pyriforme. (Department Bulletin 247.) Price, 5 cents. Food Plants of the Gipsy Moth in America. (Department Bulletin 250.) Price, 10 cents. Dispersion of Gipsy Moth Larvæ by the Wind. (Department Bulletin 273.) Price, 15 cents. The Cottonwood Borer. (Department Bulletin 424.) Price, 5 cents. Solid-Stream Spraying against the Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail Moth in New England. (Department Bulletin 4.80.) Price, 15 cents. Protection from the Locust Borer. (Department Bulletin 787.) Price, 5 cents. Principal Insects Liable to be Distributed on Nursery Stock. (Entomology Bulletin 34, n. s.) Price, 5 cents. The Locust Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 58, part 1.) Price, 5 cents. Additional Data on the Locust Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 58, part 3.) Price, 5 cents. The San Jose or Chinese Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 62.) Price, 25 cents. Report on Field Work against the Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 87.) Price, 35 cents. The Importation into the United States of the Parasites of the Gipsy Moth and the Brown-Tail Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 91.) Price, 65 cents. The Dispersion of the Gipsy Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 119.) Price, 20 cents. The Green-Striped Maple Worm. (Entomology Circular 110.) Price, 5 cents. The Oak Pruner. (Entomology Circular 130.) Price, 5 cents. The Dying Hickory Trees: Cause and Remedy. (Entomology Circular 144.) Price, 5 cents. Flour Paste as a Control for Red Spiders and as a Spreader for Contact Insecticides. (Entomology Circular 166.) Price, 5 cents. Three Undescribed Heart-Rots of Hardwood Trees, Especially of Oak. (Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 1, No. 2.) Price, 25 cents. A Serious Disease in Forest Nurseries Caused by Peridermium filamentosum. (Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. v, No. 17.) Price, 10 cents. The Chestnut Bark Disease. (Separate 598, from Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1918.) Price, 10 cents. Practical Tree Surgery. (Separate 622, from Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1913.) Price, 10 cents. Forest Tree Diseases Common in California and Nevada. (Forest Service Unnumbered Publication.) Price, 25 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY * * * * * Transcriber Notes Illustrations were moved so as to not split paragraphs. 
5418	----	THE HOME ACRE E. P. ROE CONTENTS CHAPTER I TREE-PLANTING CHAPTER II FRUIT-TREES AND GRASS CHAPTER III THE GARDEN CHAPTER IV THE VINEYARD AND ORCHARD CHAPTER V THE RASPBERRY CHAPTER VI THE CURRANT CHAPTER VII STRAWBERRIES CHAPTER VIII THE KITCHEN-GARDEN CHAPTER IX THE KITCHEN-GARDEN (Concluded) CHAPTER I TREE-PLANTING Land hunger is so general that it may be regarded as a natural craving. Artificial modes of life, it is true, can destroy it, but it is apt to reassert itself in later generations. To tens of thousands of bread-winners in cities a country home is the dream of the future, the crown and reward of their life-toil. Increasing numbers are taking what would seem to be the wiser course, and are combining rural pleasures and advantages with their business. As the questions of rapid transit are solved, the welfare of children will turn the scale more and more often against the conventional city house or flat. A home CAN be created in rented dwellings and apartments; but a home for which we have the deed, a cottage surrounded by trees, flowers, lawn, and garden, is the refuge which best satisfies the heart. By means of such a suburban nook we can keep up our relations with Nature and all her varied and health-giving life. The tired man returning from business finds that his excited brain will not cease to act. He can enjoy restoring rest in the complete diversion of his thoughts; he can think of this tree or that plant, and how he can fill to advantage unoccupied spaces with other trees, flowers, and vegetables. If there is a Jersey cow to welcome him with her placid trust, a good roadster to whinny for an airing, and a flock of chickens to clamor about his feet for their supper, his jangling nerves will be quieted, in spite of all the bulls and bears of Wall Street. Best of all, he will see that his children have air and space in which to grow naturally, healthfully. His fruit-trees will testify to his wisdom in providing a country home. For instance, he will observe that if sound plums are left in contact with stung and decaying specimens, they too will be infected; he will see that too close crowding renders the prospect for good fruit doubtful; and, by natural transition of thought, will be glad that his boys and girls are not shut in to the fortuitous associations of hall-way and street. The area of land purchased will depend largely on the desires and purse of the buyer; but about one acre appears to satisfy the majority of people. This amount is not so great that the business man is burdened with care, nor is its limit so small that he is cramped and thwarted by line fences. If he can give to his bit of Eden but little thought and money, he will find that an acre can be so laid out as to entail comparatively small expense in either the one or the other; if he has the time and taste to make the land his play-ground as well as that of his children, scope is afforded for an almost infinite variety of pleasing labors and interesting experiments. When we come to co-work with Nature, all we do has some of the characteristics of an experiment. The labor of the year is a game of skill, into which also enter the fascinating elements of apparent chance. What a tree, a flower, or vegetable bed will give, depends chiefly upon us; yet all the vicissitudes of dew, rain, frost, and sun, have their part in the result. We play the game with Nature, and she will usually let us win if we are not careless, ignorant, or stupid. She keeps up our zest by never permitting the game to be played twice under the same conditions. We can no more carry on our garden this season precisely as we did last year than a captain can sail his ship exactly as he did on the preceding voyage. A country home makes even the weather interesting; and the rise and fall of the mercury is watched with scarcely less solicitude than the mutations of the market. In this chapter and in those which may ensue I merely hope to make some useful suggestions and give practical advice--the result of experience, my own and others'--which the reader may carry out and modify according to his judgment. We will suppose that an acre has been bought; that it is comparatively level, with nothing of especial value upon it--in brief, that the home and its surroundings are still to be created. It is not within my design to treat of the dwelling, its architecture, etc., but we shall have something to say further on in regard to its location. Before purchasing, the most careful investigations should be made as to the healthfulness of the region and the opportunities for thorough drainage. Having bought the acre, the question of removing all undue accumulations of water on or beneath the surface should be attended to at first. The dry appearance of the soil during much of the year may be misleading. It should be remembered that there are equinoctial storms and melting snows. Superabundant moisture at every period should have channels of immediate escape, for moisture in excess is an injury to plant as well as to family life; while thoroughly and quickly drained land endures drought far better than that which is rendered heavy and sour by water stagnating beneath the surface. Tile-drains are usually the cheapest and most effective; but if there are stones and rocks upon the place, they can be utilized and disposed of at the same time by their burial in ditches--and they should be covered so deeply that a plow, although sunk to the beam, can pass over them. Tiles or the top of a stone drain should be at least two feet below the surface. If the ground of the acre is underlaid with a porous subsoil, there is usually an adequate natural drainage. Making haste slowly is often the quickest way to desired results. It is the usual method to erect the dwelling first, and afterward to subdue and enrich the ground gradually. This in many instances may prove the best course; but when it is practicable, I should advise that building be deferred until the land (with the exception of the spaces to be occupied with the house and barn) can be covered with a heavy dressing of barnyard manure, and that this be plowed under in the autumn. Such general enriching of the soil may seem a waste in view of the carriage-drive and walks yet to be laid out; but this will not prove true. It should be remembered that while certain parts of the place are to be kept bare of surface-vegetation, they nevertheless will form a portion of the root-pasturage of the shade and fruit trees. The land, also, can be more evenly and deeply plowed before obstructions are placed upon it, and roots, pestiferous weeds, and stones removed with greatest economy. Moreover, the good initial enriching is capital, hoarded in the soil, to start with. On many new places I have seen trees and plants beginning a feeble and uncertain life, barely existing rather than growing, because their roots found the soil like a table with dishes but without food. If the fertilizer is plowed under in the autumn, again mixed with the soil by a second plowing in the spring, it will be decomposed and ready for immediate use by every rootlet in contact with it. Now, as farmers say, the "land is in good heart," and it will cheer its owner's heart to see the growth promptly made by whatever is properly planted. Instead of losing time, he has gained years. Suppose the acre to have been bought in September, and treated as I have indicated, it is ready for a generous reception of plants and trees the following spring. Possibly at the time of purchase the acre may be covered with coarse grass, weeds, or undergrowth of some kind. In this case, after the initial plowing, the cultivation for a season of some such crop as corn or potatoes may be of great advantage in clearing the land, and the proceeds of the crop would partially meet expenses. If the aim is merely to subdue and clean the land as quickly as possible, nothing is better than buckwheat, sown thickly and plowed under just as it comes into blossom. It is the nature of this rampart-growing grain to kill out everything else and leave the soil light and mellow. If the ground is encumbered with many stones and rocks, the question of clearing it is more complicated. They can be used, and often sold to advantage, for building purposes. In some instances I have seen laboring-men clear the most unpromising plots of ground by burying all rocks and stones deeply beneath the surface--men, too, who had no other time for the task except the brief hours before and after their daily toil. I shall give no distinct plan for laying out the ground. The taste of the owner, or more probably that of his wife, will now come into play. Their ideas also will be modified by many local circumstances--as, for instance, the undulations of the land, if there are any; proximity to neighbors, etc. If little besides shade and lawn is desired, this fact will have a controlling influence; if, on the other hand, the proprietor wishes to make his acre as productive as possible, the house will be built nearer the street, wider open space will be left for the garden, and fruit-trees will predominate over those grown merely for shade and beauty. There are few who would care to follow a plan which many others had adopted. Indeed, it would be the natural wish of persons of taste to impart something of their own individuality to their rural home; and the effort to do this would afford much agreeable occupation. Plates giving the elevation and arrangement of country homes can be studied by the evening lamp; visits to places noted for their beauty, simplicity, and good taste will afford motives for many a breezy drive; while useful suggestions from what had been accomplished by others may repay for an extended journey. Such observations and study will cost little more than an agreeable expenditure of time; and surely a home is worth careful thought. It then truly becomes YOUR home--something that you have evolved with loving effort. Dear thoughts of wife and children enter into its very materiality; walks are planned with a loving consciousness of the feet which are to tread them, and trees planted with prophetic vision of the groups that will gather beneath the shade. This could scarcely be true if the acre were turned over to architect, builders, and landscape-gardeners, with an agreement that you should have possession at a specified time. We will suppose that it is early spring, that the ground has received its second plowing, and that the carriage-drive and the main walks have been marked out on paper, or, better still, on a carefully considered map. There is now so much to do that one is almost bewildered; and the old saying, "Rome was not built in a day," is a good thing to remember. An orderly succession of labor will bring beauty and comfort in good time, especially if essential or foundation labors are first well performed. Few things will prove more satisfactory than dry, hard, smooth carriage-roads and walks. These, with their curves, can be carefully staked out, the surface-earth between the stakes to the depth of four or five inches carted to the rear of the place near the stable, or the place where the stable is to be. Of the value of this surface-soil we shall speak presently, and will merely remark in passing that it is amply worth the trouble of saving. Its removal leaves the beds of the driveway and walks depressed several inches below the surrounding surface. Fill these shallow excavations with little stones, the larger in the bottom, the smaller on top, and cover all with gravel. You now have roads and walks that will be dry and hard even in oozy March, and you can stroll about your place the moment the heaviest shower is over. The greater first cost will be more than made good by the fact that scarcely a weed can start or grow on pathways thus treated. All they will need is an occasional rounding up and smoothing with a rake. While this labor is going on you can begin the planting of trees. To this task I would earnestly ask careful attention. Your house can be built in a summer; but it requires a good part of a century to build the best trees into anything like perfection. The usual tendency is to plant much too closely. Observe well-developed trees, and see how wide a space they require. There is naturally an eager wish for shade as soon as possible, and a desire to banish from surroundings an aspect of bareness. These purposes can, it is true, often be accomplished by setting out more trees at first than could mature, and by taking out one and another from time to time when they begin to interfere with each other's growth. One symmetrical, noble tree, however, is certainly worth more than a dozen distorted, misshapen specimens. If given space, every kind of tree and shrub will develop its own individuality; and herein lies one of their greatest charms. If the oak typifies manhood, the drooping elm is equally suggestive of feminine grace, while the sugar-maple, prodigal of its rich juices, tasselled bloom, and winged seeds, reminds us of wholesome, cheerful natures. Even when dying, its foliage takes on the earliest and richest hues of autumn. The trees about our door become in a sense our companions. They appeal to the eye, fancy, and feelings of different people differently. Therefore I shall leave the choice of arboreal associates to those who are to plant them--a choice best guided by observation of trees. Why should you not plant those you like the best, those which are the most congenial? A few suggestions, however, may be useful. I would advise the reader not to be in too great haste to fill up his grounds. While there are trees to which his choice reverts almost instantly, there are probably many other beautiful varieties with which he is not acquainted. If he has kept space for the planting of something new every spring and fall, he has done much to preserve his zest in his rural surroundings, and to give a pleasing direction to his summer observation. He is ever on the alert to discover trees and shrubs that satisfy his taste. During the preparation of this book I visited the grounds of Mr. A. S. Fuller, at Kidgewood, N. J., and for an hour or two I broke the tenth commandment in spite of myself. I was surrounded by trees from almost every portion of the northern temperate zone, from Oregon to Japan; and in Mr. Fuller I had a guide whose sympathy with his arboreal pets was only equalled by his knowledge of their characteristics. All who love trees should possess his book entitled "Practical Forestry." If it could only be put into the hands of law-makers, and they compelled to learn much of its contents by heart, they would cease to be more or less conscious traitors to their country in allowing the destruction of forests. They might avert the verdict of the future, and prevent posterity from denouncing the irreparable wrong which is now permitted with impunity. The Arnolds of to-day are those who have the power to save the trees, yet fail to do so. Japan appears to be doing as much to adorn our lawns and gardens as our drawing-rooms; and from this and other foreign lands much that is beautiful or curious is coming annually to our shores. At the same time I was convinced of the wisdom of Mr. Fuller's appreciation of our native trees. In few instances should we have to go far from home to find nearly all that we wanted in beautiful variety--maples, dogwoods, scarlet and chestnut oaks, the liquid-amber, the whitewood or tulip-tree, white birch, and horn-beam, or the hop-tree; not to speak of the evergreens and shrubs indigenous to our forests. Perhaps it is not generally known that the persimmon, so well remembered by old campaigners in Virginia, will grow readily in this latitude. There are forests of this tree around Paterson, N. J., and it has been known to endure twenty-seven degrees below zero. It is a handsome tree at any season, and its fruit in November caused much straggling from our line of march in the South. Then there is our clean-boled, graceful beech, whose smooth white bark has received so many tender confidences. In the neighborhood of a village you will rarely find one of these trees whereon is not linked the names of lovers that have sat beneath the shade. Indeed I have found mementoes of trysts or rambles deep in the forest of which the faithful beech has kept the record until the lovers were old or dead. On an immense old beech in Tennessee there is an inscription which, while it suggests a hug, presents to the fancy an experience remote from a lover's embrace. It reads, "D. Boone cilled bar on tree." There is one objection to the beech which also lies against the white oak--it does not drop its leaves within the space of a few autumn days. The bleached foliage is falling all winter long, thus giving the ground near an untidy aspect. With some, the question of absolute neatness is paramount; with others, leaves are clean dirt, and their rustle in the wind does not cease to be music even after they have fallen. Speaking of native trees and shrubs, we shall do well to use our eyes carefully during our summer walks and drives; for if we do, we can scarcely fail to fall in love with types and varieties growing wild. They will thrive just as well on the acre if properly removed. In a sense they bring the forest with them, and open vistas at our door deep into the heart of Nature. The tree is not only a thing of beauty in itself, but it represents to the fancy all its wild haunts the world over. In gratifying our taste for native trees we need not confine ourselves to those indigenous to our own locality. From the nurseries we can obtain specimens that beautify other regions of our broad land; as, for instance, the Kentucky yellow-wood, the papaw, the Judas-tree, and, in the latitude of New Jersey and southward, the holly. In many instances the purchaser of the acre may find a lasting pleasure in developing a specialty. He may desire to gather about him all the drooping or weeping trees that will grow in his latitude, or he may choose to turn his acre largely into a nut-orchard, and delight his children with a harvest which they will gather with all the zest of the frisky red squirrel. If one could succeed in obtaining a bearing tree of Hale's paper-shell hickory-nut, he would have a prize indeed. Increasing attention is given to the growing of nut-trees in our large nurseries, and there would be no difficulty in obtaining a supply. In passing from this subject of choice in deciduous trees and shrubs, I would suggest, in addition to visits to woods and copse, to the well-ornamented places of men who have long gratified a fine taste in this respect, that the reader also make time to see occasionally a nursery like that of S.B. Parsons & Co., at Flushing, N.Y. There is no teaching like that of the eyes; and the amateur who would do a bit of landscape-gardening about his own home learns what he would like and what he can do by seeing shrubs and trees in their various stages of growth and beauty. I shall treat the subject of evergreens at the close of this chapter. As a rule, I have not much sympathy with the effort to set out large trees in the hope of obtaining shade more quickly. The trees have to be trimmed up and cut back so greatly that their symmetry is often destroyed. They are also apt to be checked in their growth so seriously by such removal that a slender sapling, planted at the same time, overtakes and passes them. I prefer a young tree, straight-stemmed, healthy, and typical of its species or variety. Then we may watch its rapid natural development as we would that of a child. Still, when large trees can be removed in winter with a great ball of frozen earth that insures the preservation of the fibrous roots, much time can be saved. It should ever be remembered that prompt, rapid growth of the transplanted tree depends on two things--plenty of small fibrous roots, and a fertile soil to receive them. It usually happens that the purchaser employs a local citizen to aid in putting his ground in order. In every rural neighborhood there are smart men--"smart" is the proper adjective; for they are neither sagacious nor trustworthy, and there is ever a dismal hiatus between their promises and performance. Such men lie in wait for newcomers, to take advantage of their inexperience and necessary absence. They will assure their confiding employers that they are beyond learning anything new in the planting of trees--which is true, in a sinister sense. They will leave roots exposed to sun and wind--in brief, pay no more attention to them than a baby-farmer would bestow on an infant's appetite; and then, when convenient, thrust them into a hole scarcely large enough for a post. They expect to receive their money long before the dishonest character of their work can be discovered. The number of trees which this class of men have dwarfed or killed outright would make a forest. The result of a well-meaning yet ignorant man's work might be equally unsatisfactory. Therefore, the purchaser of the acre should know how a tree should be planted, and see to it himself; or he should by careful inquiry select a man for the task who could bring testimonials from those to whom he had rendered like services in the past. The hole destined to receive a shade or fruit tree should be at least three feet in diameter and two feet deep. It then should be partially filled with good surface soil, upon which the tree should stand, so that its roots could extend naturally according to their original growth. Good fine loam should be sifted through and over them, and they should not be permitted to come in contact with decaying matter or coarse, unfermented manure. The tree should be set as deeply in the soil as it stood when first taken up. As the earth is thrown gently through and over the roots it should be packed lightly against them with the foot, and water, should the season be rather dry and warm, poured in from time to time to settle the fine soil about them. The surface should be levelled at last with a slight dip toward the tree, so that spring and summer rains may be retained directly about the roots. Then a mulch of coarse manure is helpful, for it keeps the surface moist, and its richness will reach the roots gradually in a diluted form. A mulch of straw, leaves, or coarse hay is better than none at all. After being planted, three stout stakes should be inserted firmly in the earth at the three points of a triangle, the tree being its centre. Then by a rope of straw or some soft material the tree should be braced firmly between the protecting stakes, and thus it is kept from being whipped around by the wind. Should periods of drought ensue during the growing season, it would be well to rake the mulch one side, and saturate the ground around the young tree with an abundance of water, and the mulch afterward spread as before. Such watering is often essential, and it should be thorough. Unskilled persons usually do more harm than good by their half-way measures in this respect. Speaking of trees, it may so happen that the acre is already in forest. Then, indeed, there should be careful discrimination in the use of the axe. It may be said that a fine tree is in the way of the dwelling. Perhaps the proposed dwelling is in the way of the tree. In England the work of "groving," or thinning out trees, is carried to the perfection of a fine art. One shudders at the havoc which might be made by a stolid laborer. Indeed, to nearly all who could be employed in preparing a wooded acre for habitation, a tree would be looked upon as little more than so much cord-wood or lumber. If I had a wooded acre I should study the trees most carefully before coming to any decision as to the situation of the dwelling and out-buildings. Having removed those obviously unworthy to remain, I should put in the axe very thoughtfully among the finer specimens, remembering that I should be under the soil before Nature could build others like them. In the fitting up of this planet as the home of mankind it would appear that the Creator regarded the coniferae, or evergreen family, as well worthy of attention; for almost from the first, according to geologists, this family records on the rocky tablets of the earth its appearance, large and varied development, and its adaptation to each change in climate and condition of the globe's surface during the countless ages of preparation. Surely, therefore, he who is evolving a home on one acre of the earth's area cannot neglect a genus of trees that has been so signally honored. Evergreens will speedily banish the sense of newness from his grounds; for by putting them about his door he has added the link which connects his acre with the earliest geological record of tree-planting. Then, like Diedrich Knickerbocker, who felt that he must trace the province of New York back to the origin of the universe, he can look upon his coniferae and feel that his latest work is in accord with one of the earliest laws of creation. I imagine, however, that my readers' choice of evergreens will be determined chiefly by the fact that they are always beautiful, are easily managed, and that by means of them beautiful effects can be created within comparatively small space. On Mr. Fuller's grounds I saw what might be fittingly termed a small parterre of dwarf evergreens, some of which were twenty-five years old. Numbers of this family might be described as evergreen and gold; for part of the perennial foliage shades off from the deepest green to bright golden hues. Among the group of this variety, Japanese in origin, Mr. Fuller showed me a "sporting" specimen, which, from some obscure and remarkable impulse, appeared bent on producing a new and distinct type. One of the branches was quite different from all the others on the tree. It was pressed down and layered in the soil beneath; when lo! a new tree was produced, set out beside its parent, whom it soon surpassed in size, beauty, and general vigor. Although still maintaining its green and golden hues, it was so distinct that no one would dream that it was but a "sport" from the adjacent dwarf and modest tree. Indeed, it reminded one of Beatrix Esmond beside her gentle and retiring mother. If it should not in the future emulate in caprice the fair subject of comparison, it may eventually become one of the best-known ornaments of our lawns. At present it appears nowise inclined to hide its golden light under a bushel. What I have said about forming the acquaintance of deciduous trees and shrubs before planting to any great extent, applies with even greater force to the evergreen, family. There is a large and beautiful variety from which to choose, and I would suggest that the choice be made chiefly from the dwarf-growing kinds, since the space of one acre is too limited for much indulgence in. Norway spruces, the firs, or pines. An hour with a note-book spent in grounds like those of Mr. Fuller would do more in aiding a satisfactory selection than years of reading. Moreover, it should be remembered that many beautiful evergreens, especially those of foreign origin, are but half hardy. The amateur may find that after an exceptionally severe winter some lovely specimen, which has grown to fill a large space in his heart, as well as on his acre, has been killed. There is an ample choice from entirely hardy varieties for every locality, and these, by careful inquiry of trustworthy nurserymen, should be obtained. Moreover, it should be remembered that few evergreens will thrive in a wet, heavy soil. If Nature has not provided thorough drainage by means of a porous subsoil, the work must be done artificially. As a rule, light but not poor soils, and warm exposures, are best adapted to this genus of trees. I think that all authorities agree substantially that spring in our climate is the best time for the transplanting of evergreens; but they differ between early and advanced spring. The late Mr. A. J. Downing preferred early spring; that is, as soon as the frost is out, and the ground dry enough to crumble freely. Mr. A. S. Fuller indorses this opinion. Mr. Josiah Hoopes, author of a valuable work entitled "The Book of Evergreens," advises that transplanting be deferred to later spring, when the young trees are just beginning their season's growth; and this view has the approval of the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder and Mr. S. B. Parsons, Jr., Superintendent of City Parks. Abundant success is undoubtedly achieved at both seasons; but should a hot, dry period ensue after the later planting--early May, for instance--only abundant watering and diligent mulching will save the trees. It should be carefully remembered that the evergreen families do not possess the vitality of deciduous trees, and are more easily injured or killed by removal. The roots of the former are more sensitive to exposure to dry air and to sunlight; and much more certainty of life and growth is secured if the transfer can be accomplished in cloudy or rainy weather. The roots should never be permitted to become dry, and it is well also to sprinkle the foliage at the time of planting. Moreover, do not permit careless workmen to save a few minutes in the digging of the trees. Every fibrous root that can be preserved intact is a promise of life and vigor. If a nurseryman should send me an assortment of evergreens with only the large woody roots left, I should refuse to receive the trees. What I have said in opposition to the transplanting of large trees applies with greater force to evergreens. Mr. Hoopes writes: "An error into which many unpracticed planters frequently fall is that of planting large trees; and it is one which we consider opposed to sound common-sense. We are aware that the owner of every new place is anxious to produce what is usually known as an immediate effect, and therefore he proceeds to plant large evergreens, covering his grounds with great unsightly trees. In almost every case of this kind the lower limbs are apt to die, and thus greatly disfigure the symmetry of the trees. Young, healthy plants, when carefully taken up and as properly replanted, are never subject to this disfigurement, and are almost certain to form handsome specimens." Any one who has seen the beautiful pyramids, cones, and mounds of green into which so many varieties develop, if permitted to grow according to the laws of their being, should not be induced to purchase old and large trees which nurserymen are often anxious to part with before they become utterly unsalable. When the evergreens reach the acre, plant them with the same care and on the same general principles indicated for other trees. Let the soil be mellow and good. Mulch at once, and water abundantly the first summer during dry periods. Be sure that the trees are not set any deeper in the ground than they stood before removal. If the soil of the acre is heavy or poor, go to the roadside or some old pasture and find rich light soil with which to fill in around the roots. If no soil can be found without a large proportion of clay, the addition of a little sand, thoroughly mixed through it, is beneficial. The hole should be ample in size, so that the roots can be spread out according to their natural bent. If the ground after planting needs enriching, spread the fertilizer around the trees, not against them, and on the surface only. Never put manure on or very near the roots. Fine young seedling evergreens can often be found in the woods or fields, and may be had for the asking, or for a trifling sum. Dig them so as to save all the roots possible. Never permit these to become dry till they are safe in your own grounds. Aim to start the little trees under the same conditions in which you found them in Nature. If taken from a shady spot, they should be shaded for a season or two, until they become accustomed to sunlight. This can easily be accomplished by four crotched stakes supporting a light scaffolding, on which is placed during the hot months a few evergreen boughs. Very pretty and useful purposes can often be served by the employment of certain kinds of evergreens as hedges. I do not like the arbitrary and stiff divisions of a small place which I have often seen. They take away the sense of roominess, and destroy the possibility of pretty little vistas; but when used judiciously as screens they combine much beauty with utility. As part of line fences they are often eminently satisfactory, shutting out prying eyes and inclosing the home within walls of living green. The strong-growing pines and Norway spruce are better adapted to large estates than to the area of an acre. Therefore we would advise the employment of the American arbor vitae and of hemlock. The hedge of the latter evergreen on Mr. Fuller's place formed one of the most beautiful and symmetrical walls I have ever seen. It was so smooth, even, and impervious that in the distance it appeared like solid emerald. The ground should be thoroughly prepared for a hedge by deep plowing or by digging; the trees should be small, young, of even height and size, and they should be planted carefully in line, according to the directions already given for a single specimen; the ground on each side mulched and kept moist during the first summer. In the autumn, rake the mulch away and top-dress the soil on both sides for the space of two or three feet outward from the stems with well-decayed manure. This protects the roots and ensures a vigorous growth the coming season. Allow no weeds or even grass to encroach on the young hedge until it is strong and established. For the first year no trimming will be necessary beyond cutting back an occasional branch or top that is growing stronger than the others; and this should be done in early October. During the second season the plants should grow much more strongly; and now the shears are needed in summer. Some branches and top shoots will push far beyond the others. They should be cut back evenly, and in accordance with the shape the hedge is to take. The pyramidal form appears to me to be the one most in harmony with Nature. In October, the hedge should receive its final shearing for the year; and if there is an apparent deficiency of vigor, the ground on both sides should receive another top-dressing, after removing the summer mulch. As the hedge grows older and stronger, the principal shearing will be done in early summer, as this checks growth and causes the close, dense interlacing of branches and formation of foliage wherein the beauty and usefulness of the hedge consist. CHAPTER II FRUIT-TREES AND GRASS It is a happy proof of our civilization that a dwelling-place, a shelter from sun and storm, does not constitute a home. Even the modest rooms of our mechanics are not furnished with useful articles merely; ornaments and pictures appear quite as indispensable. Out-of-doors the impulse to beautify is even stronger; and usually the purchaser's first effort is to make his place attractive by means of trees and shrubs that are more than useful--they are essential; because the refined tastes of men and women to-day demand them. In the first chapter I endeavored to satisfy this demand in some degree, and now will ask the reader's attention to a few practical suggestions in regard to several of the fruits which best supply the family need. We shall find, however, that while Nature is prodigal in supplying what appeals to the palate and satisfies hunger, she is also like a graceful hostess who decks her banquet with all the beauty that she can possibly bestow upon it. We can imagine that the luscious fruits of the year might have been produced in a much more prosaic way. Indeed, we are at a loss to decide which we value the more, the apple-blossoms or the apples which follow. Nature is not content with bulk, flavor, and nutriment, but in the fruit itself so deftly pleases the eye with every trick of color and form that the hues and beauty of the flower are often surpassed. We look at a red-cheeked apple or purple cluster of grapes hesitatingly, and are loth to mar the exquisite shadings and perfect outlines of the vessel in which the rich juices are served. Therefore, in stocking the acre with fruit, the proprietor has not ceased to embellish it; and should he decide that fruit-trees must predominate over those grown for shade and ornament only, he can combine almost as much beauty as utility with his plan. All the fruits may be set out both in the spring and the fall seasons; but in our latitude and northward, I should prefer early spring for strawberries and peaches. By this time we may suppose that the owner of the acre has matured his plans, and marked out the spaces designed for the lawn, garden, fruit trees, vines, etc. Fruit trees, like shade trees, are not the growth of a summer. Therefore there is natural eagerness to have them in the ground as soon as possible, and they can usually be ordered from the same nursery, and at the same time with the ornamental stock. I shall speak first of apples, pears, and cherries, and I have been at some pains to secure the opinions of eminent horticulturists as to the best selections of these fruits for the home table, not for market. When there is a surplus, however, there will be no difficulty in disposing of the fine varieties named. The Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, the veteran President of the American Pomological Society, writes as follows: "Herewith is the selection I have made for family use; but I could put in as many more in some of the classes which are just as desirable, or nearly so. These have been made with reference to covering the seasons. Apples--Red Astrakhan, Porter, Gravenstein, Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Roxbury Russet, and Sweet Bough for baking. Pears--Clapp's Favorite (to be gathered August 20), Bartlett, Seckel, Sheldon, Beurre Bosc, Buerre d'Anjou, and Vicar of Winkfield for baking, etc. Cherries--Black Eagle, Black Tartarian, Downer, Windsor, Cumberland, and Red Jacket." Mr. Wilder's honored name, like that of the late Charles Downing, is inseparably linked with American fruits, and the country owes these two men a debt of gratitude which never can be paid for their lifelong and intelligent efforts to guide the people wisely in the choice and culture of the very best varieties. A moment's thought will convince the reader that I am not giving too much space to this matter of selection. We are now dealing with questions which wide and varied experience can best answer. Men who give their lives to the cultivation and observation of fruits in all their myriad varieties acquire a knowledge which is almost invaluable. We cannot afford to put out trees, to give them good culture, and wait for years, only to learn that all our care has been bestowed on inferior or second-rate varieties. Life is too brief. We all feel that the best is good enough for us; and the best usually costs no more in money or time than do less desirable varieties. Therefore I seek to give on this important question of choice the opinions of some of the highest authorities in the land. Mr. A. S. Fuller is not only a well-known horticultural author, but has also had the widest experience in the culture and observation of fruit. He prefaces his opinion with the following words: "How much and how often we horticulturists have been puzzled with questions like yours! If we made no progress, were always of the same mind, and if seasons never changed, then perhaps there would be little difficulty in deciding which of the varieties of the different kinds of fruit were really the best. But seasons, our tastes, and even the varieties sometimes change; and our preferences and opinions must vary accordingly. Apples--Early Harvest, Fall Pippins, Spitzenburgh, Rhode Island Greening, Autumn Sweet Bough, and Talman's Sweet. Cherries--Early Purple Guigne, Bigarreau of Mezel, Black Eagle, Coe's Transparent, Governor Wood, and Belle Magnifique." The choice of Mr. E. S. Carmen, editor of the "Rural New Yorker:" "Apples--Early Harvest, Gravenstein, Jefferis, Baldwin, Mother, Spitzenburgh. Pears--Seckel, Tyson, Clapp's Favorite, Bartlett, Beurre d'Anjou, and Dana's Hovey. Cherries--Black Tartarian, Coe's Transparent, Governor Wood, Mezel, Napoleon Bigarreau." The authorities appear to differ. And so they would in regard to any locality; but it should be remembered that President Wilder advises for the latitude of Massachusetts, Messrs. Fuller and Carmen for that of New Jersey. I will give now the selection of the eminent horticulturist Mr. P. O. Berckmans for the latitude of Georgia: "Cherries (this is not a good cherry-producing region, but I name the following as the best in order of merit)--Buttners, Governor Wood, Belle de Choisy, Early Richmond, and May Duke. Pears (in order of maturity)--Clapp's Favorite, Seckel, Duchesse, Beurre Superfine, Leconte, Winter Nellis, or Glout. Morceau. Apples--Early Harvest, Red June, Carter's Blue, Stevenson's Winter, Shockley, Buncombe, Carolina Greening." He who makes his choice from these selections will not meet with much disappointment. I am aware, however, that the enjoyment of fruit depends much upon the taste of the individual; and who has a better right to gratify his taste than the man who buys, sets out, and cares for the trees? Some familiar kind not in favor with the fruit critics, an old variety that has become a dear memory of boyhood, may be the best one of all for him--perhaps for the reason that it recalls the loved faces that gathered about the wide, quaint fireplace of his childhood's home. It is also a well-recognized fact that certain varieties of fruit appear to be peculiarly adapted to certain localities. Because a man has made a good selection on general principles, he need not be restricted to this choice. He will soon find his trees growing lustily and making large branching heads. Each branch can be made to produce a different kind of apple or pear, and the kindred varieties of cherries will succeed on the same tree. For instance, one may be visiting a neighbor who gives him some fruit that is unusually delicious, or that manifest great adaptation to the locality. As a rule the neighbor will gladly give scions which, grafted upon the trees of the Home Acre, will soon begin to yield the coveted variety. This opportunity to grow different kinds of fruit on one tree imparts a new and delightful interest to the orchard. The proprietor can always be on the lookout for something new and fine, and the few moments required in grafting or budding make it his. The operation is so simple and easy that he can learn to perform it himself, and there are always plenty of adepts in the rural vicinage to give him his initial lesson. While he will keep the standard kinds for his main supply, he can gratify his taste and eye with some pretty innovations. I know of an apple-tree which bears over a hundred varieties. A branch, for instance, is producing Yellow Bell-flowers. At a certain point in its growth where it has the diameter of a man's thumb it may be grafted with the Red Baldwin. When the scion has grown for two or three years, its leading shoots can be grafted with the Roxbury Russet, and eventually the terminal bough of this growth with the Early Harvest. Thus may be presented the interesting spectacle of one limb of a tree yielding four very distinct kinds of apples. In the limited area of an acre there is usually not very much range in soil and locality. The owner must make the best of what he has bought, and remedy unfavorable conditions, if they exist, by skill. It should be remembered that peaty, cold, damp, spongy soils are unfit for fruit-trees of any kind. We can scarcely imagine, however, that one would buy land for a home containing much soil of this nature. A sandy loam, with a subsoil that dries out so quickly that it can be worked after a heavy rain, is the best for nearly all the fruit-trees, especially for cherries and peaches. Therefore in selecting the ground, be sure it is well drained. If the acre has been enriched and plowed twice deeply, as I have already suggested, little more is necessary in planting than to excavate a hole large enough to receive the roots spread out in their natural positions. Should no such thorough and general preparation have been made, or if the ground is hard, poor, and stony, the owner will find it to his advantage to dig a good-sized hole three or four feet across and two deep, filling in and around the tree with fine rich surface soil. If he can obtain some thoroughly decomposed compost or manure, for instance, as the scrapings of a barnyard, or rich black soil from an old pasture, to mix with the earth beneath and around the roots, the good effects will be seen speedily; but in no instance should raw manure from the stable, or anything that must decay before becoming plant food, be brought in contact with the roots. Again I repeat my caution against planting too deeply--one of the commonest and most fatal errors. Let the tree be set about as deeply as it stood before removal. If the tree be planted early in spring, as it should be, there will be moisture enough in the soil; but when planting is delayed until the ground has become rather dry and warm, a pail of water poured about its roots when the hole has been nearly filled will be beneficial. Now that the tree is planted, any kind of coarse manure spread to the depth of two or three inches on the surface as a mulch is very useful. Stake at once to protect against the winds. Do not make the common mistake of planting too closely. Observe the area shaded by fully grown trees, and you will learn the folly of crowding. Moreover, dense shade about the house is not desirable. There should be space for plenty of air and sunshine. The fruit from one well-developed tree will often more than supply a family; for ten or fifteen barrels of apples is not an unusual yield. The standard apples should be thirty feet apart. Pears, the dwarfer-growing cherries, plums, etc., can be grown in the intervening spaces. In ordering from the nurseries insist on straight, shapely, and young trees, say three years from the bud. Many trees that are sent out are small enough, but they are old and stunted. Also require that there should be an abundance of fibrous and unmutilated roots. Because the young trees come from the nursery unpruned, do not leave them in that condition. Before planting, or immediately after, cut back all the branches at least one-half; and where they are too thick, cut out some altogether. In removal the tree has lost much of its root power, and it is absurd to expect it to provide for just as much top as before. In many books on fruit-culture much space has been given to dwarf pears, apples, and cherries, and trees of this character were planted much more largely some years ago than they are at present. The pear is dwarfed by grafting it on the quince; the apple can be limited to a mere garden fruit-tree in size by being grown on a Doucin stock, or even reduced to the size of a bush if compelled to draw its life through the roots of the Paradise. These two named stocks, much employed by European nurserymen, are distinct species of apples, and reproduce themselves without variation from the seed. The cherry is dwarfed by being worked on the Mahaleb--a small, handsome tree, with glossy, deep-green foliage, much cultivated abroad as an ornament of lawns. Except in the hands of practiced gardeners, trees thus dwarfed are seldom satisfactory, for much skill and care are required in their cultivation. Their chief advantages consist in the fact that they bear early and take but little space. Therefore they may be considered worthy of attention by the purchasers of small places. Those who are disposed to make pets of their trees and to indulge in horticultural experiments may derive much pleasure from these dwarfs, for they can be developed into symmetrical pyramids or graceful, fruitful shrubs within the limits of a garden border. When the seeds of ordinary apples and pears are sown they produce seedlings, or free stocks, and upon these are budded or grafted the fine varieties which compose our orchards. They are known as standard trees; they come into bearing more slowly, and eventually attain the normal size familiar to us all. Standard cherries are worked on seedlings of the Mazzard, which Barry describes as a "lofty, rapid-growing, pyramidal-headed tree." I should advise the reader to indulge in the dwarfs very charily, and chiefly as a source of fairly profitable amusement. It is to the standards that he will look for shade, beauty, and abundance of fruit. Since we have been dwelling on the apple, pear, and cherry, there are certain advantages of continuing the subject in the same connection, giving the principles of cultivation and care until the trees reach maturity. During the first summer an occasional watering may be required in long periods of drought. In many instances buds will form and start along the stem of the tree, or near the roots. These should be rubbed off the moment they are detected. One of our chief aims is to form an evenly balanced, open, symmetrical head; and this can often be accomplished better by a little watchfulness during the season of growth than at any other time. If, for instance, two branches start so closely together that one or the other must be removed in the spring pruning, why let the superfluous one grow at all? It is just so much wasted effort. By rubbing off the pushing bud or tender shoot the strength of the tree is thrown into the branches that we wish to remain. Thus the eye and hand of the master become to the young tree what instruction, counsel, and admonition are to a growing boy, with the difference that the tree is easily and certainly managed when taken in time. The study of the principles of growth in the young trees can be made as pleasing as it is profitable, for the readiness with which they respond to a guiding hand will soon invest them with almost a human interest. A child will not show neglect more certainly than they; and if humored and allowed to grow after their own fashion, they will soon prove how essential are restraint and training. A fruit tree is not like one in a forest--a simple, unperverted product of Nature. It is a result of human interference and development; and we might just as reasonably expect our domestic animals to take care of themselves as our grafted and budded trees. Moreover, they do not comply with their raison d'etre by merely existing, growing, and propagating their kind. A Bartlett pear-tree, like a Jersey cow, is given place for the sake of its delicious product. It is also like the cow in requiring judicious feeding and care. Trees left to themselves tend to form too much wood, like the grape-vine. Of course fine fruit is impossible when the head of a tree is like a thicket. The growth of unchecked branches follows the terminal bud, thus producing long naked reaches of wood devoid of fruit spurs. Therefore the need of shortening in, so that side branches may be developed. When the reader remembers that every dormant bud in early spring is a possible branch, and that even the immature buds at the axil of the leaves in early summer can be forced into immediate growth by pinching back the leading shoot, he will see how entirely the young tree is under his control. These simple facts and principles are worth far more to the intelligent man than any number of arbitrary rules as to pruning. Reason and observation soon guide his hand in summer or his knife in March--the season when trees are usually trimmed. Beyond shortening in leading branches and cutting out crossing and interfering boughs, so as to keep the head symmetrical and open to light and air, the cherry does not need very much pruning. If with the lapse of years it becomes necessary to take off large limbs from any fruit-tree, the authorities recommend early June as the best season for the operation. It will soon be discovered--quite likely during the first summer--that fruit-trees have enemies, that they need not only cultivation and feeding, but also protection. The pear, apple, and quince are liable to one mysterious disease which it is almost impossible to guard against or cure--the fireblight. Of course there have been innumerable preventives and cures recommended, just as we see a dozen certain remedies for consumption advertised in any popular journal; but the disease still remains a disheartening mystery, and is more fatal to the pear than to its kindred fruits. I have had thrifty young trees, just coming into bearing, suddenly turn black in both wood and foliage, appearing in the distance as if scorched by a blast from a furnace. In another instance a large mature tree was attacked, losing in a summer half its boughs. These were cut out, and the remainder of the tree appeared healthy during the following summer, and bore a good crop of fruit. The disease often attacks but a single branch or a small portion of a tree. The authorities advise that everything should be cut away at once below all evidence of infection and burned. Some of my trees have been attacked and have recovered; others were apparently recovering, but died a year or two later. One could theorize to the end of a volume about the trouble. I frankly confess that I know neither the cause nor the remedy. It seems to me that our best resource is to comply with the general conditions of good and healthy growth. The usual experience is that trees which are fertilized with wood-ashes and a moderate amount of lime and salt, rather than with stimulating manures, escape the disease. If the ground is poor, however, and the growth feeble, barnyard manure or its equivalent is needed as a mulch. The apple-blight is another kindred and equally obscure disease. No better remedy is known than to cut out the infected part at once. In coping with insects we can act more intelligently, and therefore successfully. We can study the characters of our enemies, and learn their vulnerable points. The black and green aphides, or plant-lice, are often very troublesome. They appear in immense numbers on the young and tender shoots of trees, and by sucking their juices check or enfeeble the growth. They are the milch-cows of ants, which are usually found very busy among them. Nature apparently has made ample provision for this pest, for it has been estimated that "one individual in five generations might be the progenitor of six thousand millions." They are easily destroyed, however. Mr. Barry, of the firm of Ellwanger & Barry, in his excellent work "The Fruit Garden," writes as follows: "Our plan is to prepare a barrel of tobacco juice by steeping stems for several days, until the juice is of a dark brown color; we then mix this with soap-suds. A pail is filled, and the ends of the shoots, where the insects are assembled, are bent down and dipped in the liquid. One dip is enough. Such parts as cannot be dipped are sprinkled liberally with a garden-syringe, and the application repeated from time to time, as long as any of the aphides remain. The liquid may be so strong as to injure the foliage; therefore it is well to test it on one or two subjects before using it extensively. Apply it in the evening." The scaly aphis or bark-louse attacks weak, feeble-growing trees, and can usually be removed by scrubbing the bark with the preparation given above. In our region and in many localities the apple-tree borer is a very formidable pest, often destroying a young tree before its presence is known. I once found a young tree in a distant part of my place that I could push over with my finger. In June a brown and white striped beetle deposits its eggs in the bark of the apple-tree near the ground. The larvae when hatched bore their way into the wood, and will soon destroy a small tree. They cannot do their mischief, however, without giving evidence of their presence. Sawdust exudes from the holes by which they entered, and there should be sufficient watchfulness to discover them before they have done much harm. I prefer to cut them out with a sharp, pointed knife, and make sure that they are dead; but a wire thrust into the hole will usually pierce and kill them. Wood-ashes mounded up against the base of the tree are said to be a preventive. In the fall they can be spread, and they at least make one of the best of fertilizers. The codling-moth, or apple-worm, is another enemy that should be fought resolutely, for it destroys millions of bushels of fruit. In the latitude of New York State this moth begins its depredations about the middle of June. Whatever may be thought of the relation of the apple to the fall of man, this creature certainly leads to the speedy fall of the apple. Who has not seen the ground covered with premature and decaying fruit in July, August, and September? Bach specimen will be found perforated by a worm-hole. The egg has been laid in the calyx of the young apple, where it soon hatches into a small white grub, which burrows into the core, throwing out behind it a brownish powder. After about three weeks of apple diet it eats its way out, shelters itself under the scaly bark of the tree--if allowed to be scaly--or in some other hiding-place, spins a cocoon, and in about three weeks comes out a moth, and is ready to help destroy other apples. This insect probably constitutes one of Nature's methods of preventing trees from overbearing; but like some people we know, it so exaggerates its mission as to become an insufferable nuisance. The remedies recommended are that trees should be scraped free of all scales in the spring, and washed with a solution of soft soap. About the 1st of July, wrap bandages of old cloth, carpet, or rags of any kind around the trunk and larger limbs. The worms will appreciate such excellent cover, and will swarm into these hiding-places to undergo transformation into moths. Therefore the wraps of rags should often be taken down, thrown into scalding water, dried, and replaced. The fruit as it falls should be picked up at once and carried to the pigs, and, when practicable, worm-infested specimens should be taken from the trees before the worm escapes. The canker-worm in those localities where it is destructive can be guarded against by bands of tar-covered canvas around the trees. The moth cannot fly, but crawls up the tree in the late autumn and during mild spells in winter, but especially throughout the spring until May. When, the evil-disposed moth meets the 'tarry band he finds no thoroughfare, and is either caught or compelled to seek some other arena of mischief. We have all seen the flaunting, unsightly abodes of the tent caterpillar and the foliage-denuded branches about them. Fortunately these are not stealthy enemies, and the owner can scarcely see his acre at all without being aware of their presence. He has only to look very early in the morning or late in the evening to find them all bunched up in their nests. These should be taken down and destroyed. Cherry and pear slugs, "small, slimy, dark brown worms," can be destroyed by dusting the trees with dry wood ashes or air-slacked lime. Field-mice often girdle young trees, especially during the winter, working beneath the snow. Unless heaps of rubbish are left here and there as shelter for these little pests, one or two good cats will keep the acre free of them. Treading the snow compactly around the tree is also practiced. Do not let the reader be discouraged by this list of the most common enemies, or by hearing of others. After reading some medical works we are led to wonder that the human race does not speedily die out. As a rule, however, with moderate care, most of us are able to say, "I'm pretty well, I thank you," and when ailing we do not straightway despair. In spite of all enemies and drawbacks, fruit is becoming more plentiful every year. If one man can raise it, so can another. Be hospitable to birds, the best of all insect destroyers. Put up plenty of houses for bluebirds and wrens, and treat the little brown song-sparrow as one of your stanchest friends. A brief word in regard to the quince, and our present list of fruits is complete. If the quince is cultivated after the common neglectful method, it would better be relegated to an obscure part of the garden, for, left to itself, it makes a great sprawling bush; properly trained, it becomes a beautiful ornament to the lawn, like the other fruits that I have described. Only a little care, with the judicious use of the pruning-shears, is required to develop it into a miniature and fruitful tree, which can be grown with a natural rounded head or in the form of a pyramid, as the cultivator chooses. It will thrive well on the same soil and under similar treatment accorded to the pear or the apple. Procure from a nursery straight-stemmed plants; set them out about eight feet apart; begin to form the head three feet from the ground, and keep the stem and roots free from all sprouts and suckers. Develop the head just as you would that of an apple-tree, shortening in the branches, and cutting out those that interfere with each other. Half a dozen trees will soon give an ample supply. The orange and the pear shaped are the varieties usually recommended. Rea's Mammoth is also highly spoken of. Remember that the quince equally with the apple is subject to injury from the borer, and the evil should be met as I have already described. There is a natural wish to have as much grass about the dwelling as possible, for nothing is more beautiful. If there are children, they will assuredly petition for lawn-tennis and croquet grounds. I trust that their wishes may be gratified, for children are worth infinitely more than anything else that can be grown upon the acre. With a little extra care, all the trees of which I have spoken can be grown in the spaces allotted to grass. It is only necessary to keep a circle of space six feet in diameter--the trunk forming the centre--around the tree mellow and free from any vegetable growth whatever. This gives a chance to fertilize and work the ground immediately over the roots. Of course vigorous fruit-trees cannot be grown in a thick sod, while peaches and grapes require the free culture of the garden, as will be shown hereafter. In view, however, of the general wish for grass, I have advised on the supposition that all the ornamental trees, most of the shrubs, and the four fruits named would be grown on the portions of the acre to be kept in lawn. It may be added here that plums also will do well under the same conditions, if given good care. Grass is a product that can be cultivated as truly as the most delicate and fastidious of fruits, and I had the lawn is mind when I urged the generous initial deep plowing and enriching. Nothing that grows responds more promptly to good treatment than grass; but a fine lawn cannot be created in a season, any more than a fine tree. We will suppose that the spring plantings of trees have been made with open spaces reserved for the favorite games. Now the ground can be prepared for grass-seed, for it need not be trampled over any more. If certain parts have become packed and hard, they should be dug or plowed deeply again, then harrowed and raked perfectly smooth, and all stones, big or little, taken from the surface. The seed may now be sown, and it should be of thick, fine-growing varieties, such as are employed in Central Park and other pleasure-grounds. Mr. Samuel Parsons, Jr., Superintendent of Central Park, writes me: "The best grass-seeds for ordinary lawns are a mixture of red-top and Kentucky blue-grass in equal parts, with perhaps a small amount of white clover. On very sandy ground I prefer the Kentucky blue-grass, as it is very hardy and vigorous under adverse circumstances." Having sown and raked in the seed very lightly a great advantage will be gained in passing a lawn-roller over the ground. I have succeeded well in getting a good "catch" of grass by sowing the seed with oats, which were cut and cured as hay as soon as the grain was what is termed "in the milk." The strong and quickly growing oats make the ground green in a few days, and shelter the slower maturing grass-roots. Mr. Parsons says, "I prefer to sow the grass-seed alone." As soon as the grass begins to grow with some vigor, cut it often, for this tends to thicken it and produce the velvety effect that is so beautiful. From the very first the lawn will need weeding. The ground contains seeds of strong growing plants, such as dock, plantain, etc., which should be taken out as fast as they appear. To some the dandelion is a weed; but not to me, unless it takes more than its share of space, for I always miss these little earth stars when they are absent. They intensify the sunshine shimmering on the lawn, making one smile involuntarily when seeing them. Moreover, they awaken pleasant memories, for a childhood in which dandelions had no part is a defective experience. In late autumn the fallen leaves should be raked carefully away, as they tend to smother the grass if permitted to lie until spring. Now comes the chief opportunity of the year, in the form of a liberal top-dressing of manure from the stable. If this is spread evenly and not too thickly in November, and the coarser remains of it are raked off early in April, the results will be astonishing. A deep emerald hue will be imparted to the grass, and the frequent cuttings required will soon produce a turf that yields to the foot like a Persian rug. Any one who has walked over the plain at West Point can understand the value of these regular autumnal top-dressings. If the stable-manure can be composted and left till thoroughly decayed, fine and friable, all the better. If stable-manure can not be obtained, Mr. Parsons recommends Mapes's fertilizer for lawns. CHAPTER III THE GARDEN We now approach that part of the acre to which its possessor will probably give his warmest and most frequent thoughts--the garden. If properly made and conducted, it will yield a revenue which the wealth of the Indies could not purchase; for whoever bought in market the flavor of fruit and vegetables raised by one's own hands or under our own eyes? Sentiment does count. A boy is a boy; but it makes a vast difference whether he is our boy or not. A garden may soon become a part of the man himself, and he be a better man for its care. Wholesome are the thoughts and schemes it suggests; healthful are the blood and muscle resulting from its products and labor therein. Even with the purse of a millionaire, the best of the city's markets is no substitute for a garden; for Nature and life are here, and these are not bought and sold. From stalls and pedlers' wagons we can buy but dead and dying things. The indolent epicure's enjoyment of game is not the relish of the sportsman who has taken his dinner direct from the woods and waters. I am often told, "It is cheaper to buy fruit and vegetables than to raise them." I have nothing to say in reply. There are many cheap things that we can have; experience has proved that one of the BEST things to have is a garden, either to work in or to visit daily when the season permits. We have but one life to live here, and to get the cheapest things out of it is a rather poor ambition. There are multitudes who can never possess an acre, more or less, and who must obtain Nature's products at second hand. This is not so great a misfortune as to have no desire for her companionship, or wish to work under her direction in dewy mornings and shadowy evenings. We may therefore reasonably suppose that the man who has exchanged his city shelter for a rural home looks forward to the garden with the natural, primal instinct, and is eager to make the most of it in all its aspects. Then let us plunge in medias res at once. The ideal soil for a garden is a mellow, sandy loam, underlaid with a subsoil that is not too open or porous. Such ground is termed "grateful," and it is not the kind of gratitude which has been defined as "a lively appreciation of favors to come," which is true of some other soils. This ideal land remembers past favors; it retains the fertilizers with which it has been enriched, and returns them in the form of good crops until the gift is exhausted; therefore it is a thrifty as well as a grateful soil. The owner can bring it up to the highest degree of fertility, and keep it there by judicious management. This sandy loam--Nature's blending of sand and clay--is a safe bank. The manure incorporated with it is a deposit which can be drawn against in fruit and vegetables, for it does not leach away and disappear with one season's rains. Light, thin, sandy soil, with a porous or gravelly subsoil, is of a very different type, and requires different treatment. It is a spendthrift. No matter how much you give it one year, it very soon requires just so much more. You can enrich it, but you can't keep it rich. Therefore you must manage it as one would take care of a spendthrift, giving what is essential at the time, and in a way that permits as little waste as possible. I shall explain this treatment more fully further on. In the choice of a garden plot you may be restricted to a stiff, tenacious, heavy clay. Now you have a miser to deal with--a soil that retains, but in many cases makes no proper use of, what it receives. Skill and good management, however, can improve any soil, and coax luxuriant crops from the most unpropitious. We will speak first of the ideal soil already mentioned, and hope that the acre contains an area of it of suitable dimensions for a garden. What should be the first step in this case? Why, to get more of it. A quarter of an acre can be made equal to half an acre. You can about double the garden, without adding to it an inch of surface, by increasing the depth of good soil. For instance, ground has been cultivated to the depth of six or seven inches. Try the experiment of stirring the soil and enriching it one foot downward, or eighteen inches, or even two feet, and see what vast differences will result. With every inch you go down, making all friable and fertile, you add just so much more to root pasturage. When you wish to raise a great deal, increase your leverage. Roots are your levers; and when they rest against a deep fertile soil they lift into the air and sunshine products that may well delight the eyes and palate of the most fastidious. We suggest that this thorough deepening, pulverization, and enriching of the soil be done at the start, when the plow can be used without any obstructions. If there are stones, rocks, roots, anything which prevents the treatment which a garden plot should receive, there is a decided advantage in clearing them all out at the beginning. Last fall I saw a half-acre that was swampy, and so encumbered with stones that one could walk all over it without stepping off the rocks. The land was sloping, and therefore capable of drainage. The proprietor put three men to work on the lower side with picks, shovels, and blasting-tools. They turned the soil over to the depth of eighteen inches, taking out every stone larger than a walnut. Eight or ten feet apart deep ditches were cut, and the stones, as far as possible, placed in these. The rest were carted away for a heavy wall. You may say it was expensive work. So it was; yet so complete a garden spot was made that I believe it would yield a fair interest in potatoes alone. I relate this instance to show what can be done. A more forbidding area for a garden in its original state could scarcely be found. Enough vegetables and fruit can be raised from it hereafter, with annual fertilizing, to supply a large family, and it will improve every year under the refining effects of frost, sun, and cultivation. It should be remembered that culture does for soil what it does for men and women. It mellows, brings it up, and renders it capable of finer products. Much, indeed, can be done with a crude piece of land in a single year when treated with the thoroughness that has been suggested, and some strong-growing vegetables may be seen at their best during the first season; but the more delicate vegetables thrive better with successive years of cultivation. No matter how abundantly the ground may be enriched at first, time and chemical action are required to transmute the fertilizers into the best forms of plant-food, and make them a part of the very soil itself. Plowing or spading, especially if done in late autumn, exposes the mould to the beneficial action of the air and frost, and the garden gradually takes on the refined, mellow, fertile character which distinguishes it from the ordinary field. In dealing with a thin, sandy soil, one has almost to reverse the principles just given. Yet there is no cause for discouragement. Fine results, if not the best, can be secured. In this case there is scarcely any possibility for a thorough preparation of the soil from the start. It can gradually be improved, however, by making good its deficiencies, the chief of which is the lack of vegetable mould. If I had such soil I would rake up all the leaves I could find, employ them as bedding for my cow and pigs (if I kept any), and spread the compost-heap resulting on the sandy garden. The soil is already too light and warm, and it should be our aim to apply fertilizers tending to counteract this defect. A nervous, excitable person should let stimulants alone, and take good, solid, blood-making food. This illustration suggests the proper course to be taken. Many a time I have seen action the reverse of this resulting disastrously. For instance, a man carts on his light thin soil hot fermenting manure from the horse-stable, and plows it under. Seeds are planted. In the moist, cool, early spring they make a great start, feeling the impulse of the powerful stimulant. There is a hasty and unhealthful growth; but long before maturity the days grow long and hot, drought comes, and the garden dries up. Therefore every effort should be made to supply cool manures with staying qualities, such as are furnished by decayed vegetable matter composted with the cleanings of the cow-stable. We thus learn the value of fallen leaves, muck from the swamp, etc.; and they also bring with them but few seeds of noxious vegetation. On the other hand, stolid, phlegmatic clay requires the stimulus of manure from the horse-stable. It can be plowed under at once, and left to ferment and decay in the soil. The process of decomposition will tend to banish its cold, inert qualities, and make the ground loose, open, and amenable to the influences of frost, sun, and rain. Does the owner of light, warm soils ask, "What, then, shall I do with my stable-manure, since you have said that it will be an injury to my garden?" I have not said this--only that it will do harm if applied in its raw, hot, fermenting state. Compost it with leaves, sod, earth, muck, anything that will keep it from burning up with its own heat. If you can obtain no such ingredients, have it turned over and exposed to the air so often that it will decay without passing through a process approaching combustion. When it has become so thoroughly decomposed as to resemble a fine black powder, you have a fertilizer superior to any high-priced patent compound that can be bought. Further on I will show how it can be used both in this state and also in its crude condition on light soils with the best results. It is scarcely possible to lay too much stress on this subject of fertilizers. The soil of the garden-plot looks inert: so does heavy machinery; but apply to it the proper motive power, and you have activity at once. Manure is the motive power to soil, and it should be applied in a way and degree to secure the best results. To produce some vegetables and fruits much is required; in other growths, very little. In laying out a garden there are several points to be considered. The proprietor may be more desirous of securing some degree of beauty in the arrangement than of obtaining the highest condition of productiveness. If this be true, he may plan to make down its centre a wide, gravelled walk, with a grape-arbor here and there, and fruit-trees and flowers in borders on each side of the path. So far from having any objection to this arrangement, I should be inclined to adopt it myself. It would be conducive to frequent visits to the garden and to lounging in it, especially if there be rustic seats under the arbors. I am inclined to favor anything which accords with my theory that the best products of a garden are neither eaten nor sold. From such a walk down the middle of the garden the proprietor can glance at the rows of vegetables and small fruits on either side, and daily note their progress. What he loses in space and crops he gains in pleasure. Nor does he lose much; for if the borders on each side of the path are planted with grape-vines, peach and plum trees, flowers and shrubs, the very ground he walks on becomes part of their root pasturage. At the same time it must be admitted that the roots will also extend with depleting appetites into the land devoted to vegetables. The trees and vines above will, to some extent, cast an unwholesome shade. He who has set his heart on the biggest cabbages and best potatoes in town must cultivate them in ground open to the sky, and unpervaded by any roots except their own. If the general fruitfulness of the garden rather than perfection in a few vegetables is desired, the borders, with their trees, vines, and flowers, will prove no objection. Moreover, when it comes to competing in cabbages, potatoes, etc., the proprietor of the Home Acre will find that some Irishman, by the aid of his redolent pig-pen, will surpass him. The roots and shade extending from his borders will not prevent him from growing good vegetables, if not the largest. We will therefore suppose that, as the simplest and most economical arrangement, he has adopted the plan of a walk six feet wide extending through the centre of his garden. As was the case with the other paths, it will be greatly to his advantage to stake it out and remove about four inches of the surface-soil, piling it near the stable to be used for composting purposes or in the earth-closet. The excavation thus made should be filled with small stones or cinders, and then covered with fine gravel. A walk that shall be dry at all times is thus secured, and it will be almost wholly free from weeds. In these advantages alone one is repaid for the extra first cost, and in addition the rich surface soil obtained will double the bulk and value of the fertilizers with which it is mixed. Having made the walk, borders five feet wide can be laid out on each side of it, and the soil in these should be as rich and deep as any other parts of the garden. What shall be planted in these borders will depend largely on the tastes of the gardener; but, as has been suggested, there will assuredly be one or more shadowy grape-arbors under which the proprietor can retire to provide horticultural strategy. This brings us to that chef-d'oeuvre of Nature-- The vine. It climbs by its tendrils, and they appear to have clasped the heart of humanity. Among the best of Heaven's gifts, it has sustained the worst perversions. But we will refrain from a temperance lecture; also from sacred and classical reminiscences. The world is not composed of monks who thought to escape temptation--and vainly too--in stony cells. To some the purple cluster suggests Bacchanal revelry; to others, sitting under one's own vine and fig-tree--in brief, a home. The vine is like woman, the inspiration of the best and the worst. It may well become one of the dreams of our life to own land, if for no other reason than that of obtaining the privilege of planting vines. As they take root, so will we, and after we have eaten their delicious fruit, the very thought of leaving our acre will be repugnant. The literature of the vine would fill a library; the literature of love would crowd many libraries. It is not essential to read everything before we start a little vineyard or go a-courting. It is said that about two thousand known and named varieties of grapes have been and are being grown in Europe; and all these are supposed to have been developed from one species (Vitis vinifera), which originally was the wild product of Nature, like those growing in our thickets and forests. One can scarcely suppose this possible when contemplating a cluster of Tokay or some other highly developed variety of the hot-house. Yet the native vine, which began to "yield fruit after his kind, the third day" (whatever may have been the length of that day), may have been, after all, a good starting-point in the process of development. One can hardly believe that the "one cluster of grapes" which the burdened spies, returning from Palestine, bore "between two of them upon a staff," was the result of high scientific culture. In that clime, and when the world was young, Nature must have been more beneficent than now. It is certain that no such cluster ever hung from the native vines of this land; yet it is from our wild species, whose fruit the Indians shared with the birds and foxes (when not hanging so high as to be sour), that we have developed the delicious varieties of our out-door vineyards. For about two centuries our forefathers kept on planting vines imported from Europe, only to meet with failure. Nature, that had so abundantly rewarded their efforts abroad, quietly checkmated them here. At last American fruit-growers took the hint, and began developing our native species. Then Nature smiled; and as a lure along this correct path of progress, gave such incentives as the Isabella, the Catawba, and Concord. We are now bewildered by almost as great a choice of varieties from native species as they have abroad; and as an aid to selection I will again give the verdict of some of the authorities. The choice of the Hon. Norman J. Colman, Commissioner of Agriculture: "Early Victor, Worden, Martha, Elvira, Cynthiana." This is for the region of Missouri. For the latitude of New Jersey, A.S. Fuller's selection: "Delaware, Concord, Moore's Early, Antoinette (white), Augusta (white), Goethe (amber)." E.S. Carmen: "Moore's Early [you cannot praise this too much. The quality is merely that of the Concord; but the vines are marvels of perfect health, the bunches large, the berries of the largest size. They ripen all at once, and are fully ripe when the Concord begins to color], Worden, Brighton, Victoria (white), Niagara (white), El Dorado. [This does not thrive everywhere, but the grapes ripen early--September 1, or before--and the quality is perfection--white.]" Choice of P.J. Berckman, for the latitude of Georgia: "White grapes--Peter Wylie, Triumph, Maxatawny, Scuppernong. Bed grapes--Delaware, Berckman's, Brighton. Black--Concord, Ives." As I have over a hundred varieties in bearing, I may venture to express an opinion also. I confess that I am very fond of those old favorites of our fathers, the Isabella and Catawba. They will not ripen everywhere in our latitude, yet I seldom fail to secure a good crop. In the fall of 1885 we voted the Isabella almost unsurpassed. If one has warm, well-drained soil, or can train a vine near the south side of a building, I should advise the trial of this fine old grape. The Iona, Brighton, and Agawam also are great favorites with me. We regard the Diana, Wyoming Red, Perkins, and Rogers' hybrids, Lindley, Wilder, and Amenia, as among the best. The Rebecca, Duchess, Lady Washington, and Purity are fine white grapes. I have not yet tested the Niagara. Years ago I obtained of Mr. James Ricketts, the prize-taker for seedling grapes, two vines of a small wine grape called the Bacchus. To my taste it is very pleasant after two or three slight frosts. Our list of varieties is long enough, and one must be fastidious indeed who does not find some to suit his taste. In many localities the chief question is, What kind CAN I grow? In our favored region on the Hudson almost all the out-door grapes will thrive; but as we go north the seasons become too cool and short for some kinds, and proceeding south the summers are too long and hot for others. The salt air of the sea-coast is not conducive to vine-culture, and only the most vigorous, like the Concord and Moore's Early, will resist the mildew blight. We must therefore do the best we can, and that will be very well indeed in most localities. Because our list of good grapes is already so long, it does not follow that we have reached the limit of development by any means. When we remember that almost within a lifetime our fine varieties have been developed from the wild northern Fox grape (Vitis labrusca), the Summer grape (oestivalis), Frost (cordifolia), we are led to think that perhaps we have scarcely more than crossed the stile which leads into the path of progress. If I should live to keep up my little specimen vineyard ten years longer, perhaps the greater part of the varieties now cultivated will have given place to others. The delicious Brighton requires no more space than a sour, defective variety; while the proprietor starts with the best kinds he can obtain, he will find no restraint beyond his own ignorance or carelessness that will prevent his replacing the Brighton with a variety twice as good when it is developed. Thus vine-planting and grape-tasting stretch away into an alluring and endless vista. When such exchanges are made, we do not recommend the grafting of a new favorite on an old vine. This is a pretty operation when one has the taste and leisure for it, and a new, high-priced variety can sometimes be obtained speedily and cheaply in this way. Usually, however, new kinds soon drop down within the means of almost any purchaser, and there are advantages in having each variety growing upon its own root. Nature yields to the skill of the careful gardener, and permits the insertion of one distinct variety of fruit upon another; but with the vine she does not favor this method of propagation and change, as in the case of pears and apples, where the graft forms a close, tenacious union with the stock in which it is placed. Mr. Fuller writes: "On account of the peculiar structure of the wood of the vine, a lasting union is seldom obtained when grafted above-ground, and is far from being certain even when grafted below the surface, by the ordinary method." The vine is increased so readily by easy and natural methods, to be explained hereafter, that he who desires nothing more than to secure a good supply of grapes for the table can dismiss the subject. On the other hand, those who wish to amuse themselves by experimenting with Nature can find abundant enjoyment in not only grafting old vines, but also in raising new seedlings, among which he may obtain a prize which will "astonish the natives." Those, however, whose tastes carry them to such lengths in vine-culture will be sure to purchase exhaustive treatises on the subject, and will therefore give no heed to these simple practical chapters. It is my aim to enable the business man returning from his city office, or the farmer engrossed with the care of many acres, to learn in a few moments, from time to time, just what he must do to supply his family abundantly with fruits and vegetables. If one is about to adopt a grape-culture as a calling, common-sense requires that he should locate in some region peculiarly adapted to the vine. If the possessor of a large farm purposes to put several acres in vineyard, he should also aim to select a soil and exposure best suited to his purpose. Two thousand years ago Virgil wrote, "Nor let thy vineyard bend toward the sun when setting." The inference is that the vines should face the east, if possible; and from that day to this, eastern and southern exposures have been found the best. Yet climate modifies even this principle. In the South, I should plant my vineyard on a north-western slope, or on the north side of a belt of woods, for the reason that the long, hot days there would cause too rapid an evaporation from the foliage of the vines, and enfeeble, if not kill them. In the limited space of the Home Acre one can use only such land as he has, and plant where he must; but if the favorable exposures indicated exist, it would be well to make the most of them. I can mention, however, as encouragement to many, that I saw, last fall, splendid grapes growing on perfectly level and sandy soil in New Jersey. A low-lying, heavy, tenacious clay is undoubtedly the worst ground in which to plant a vine; and yet by thorough drainage, a liberal admixture of sand, and light fertilizers, it can be made to produce good grapes of some varieties. A light sandy soil, if enriched abundantly with well-decayed vegetable and barnyard manures, gives wider scope in choice of kinds; while on the ideal well-drained sandy loam that we have described, any outdoor grape can be planted hopefully if the garden is sufficiently removed from the seaboard. As a general truth it may be stated that any land in a condition to produce a fine crop of corn and potatoes is ready for the vine. This would be true of the entire garden if the suggestions heretofore made have been carried out. Therefore the borders which have been named are ready to receive the vines, which may be planted in either spring or fall. I prefer the fall season for several reasons. The ground is usually drier then, and crumbles more finely; the young vine becomes well established and settled in its place by spring, and even forms new roots before the growing season begins, and in eight cases out of ten makes a stronger growth than follows spring planting; it is work accomplished when there is usually the greatest leisure. If the ground is ready in EARLY spring, I should advise no delay. A year's growth is gained by setting out the vines at once. As a rule I do not advise late spring planting--that is, after the buds have started on the young vines. They may live, but usually they scarcely do more, the first year. In ordering from a nursery I should ask for vigorous, well-rooted two-year-old vines, and I should be almost as well contented with first-class one-year-olds. If any one should advertise "extra large, strong vines, ready to bear at once," I should have nothing to do with him. That's a nursery trick to get rid of old stock. The first year after the shock of removal a vine should not be permitted to bear at all; and a young vigorous vine is worth a dozen old stunted ones. Having procured the vines, keep them in a cool, moist place until ready to plant. Never permit the roots to become dry; and if some of them are long and naked, shorten them to two feet, so as to cause them to throw out side fibrous roots, which are the true feeders. Excavate holes of ample size, so that all the roots may be spread out naturally. If you have reason to think the ground is not very good, two or three quarts of fine bone-dust thoroughly mixed with the soil that is placed on and about the roots will give a fine send-off. Usually a good mulch of any kind of barnyard manure placed on the SURFACE after planting will answer all purposes. Before filling in the hole over the roots, place beside the vine a stout stake six or seven feet high. This will be all the support required the first year. Cut back the young vine to three buds, and after they get well started, let but one grow. If the planting is done in the fall, mound the earth up over the little vine at the approach of winter, so as to cover it at least six inches below the surface. In spring uncover again as soon as hard frosts are over--say early April in our latitude. Slow-growing varieties, like the Delaware, may be set out six feet apart; strong growers, like the Concord, eight feet. Vines can not be expected to thrive under the shade of trees, or to fight an unequal battle in ground filled with the roots of other plants. Vines may be set out not only in the garden borders, but also in almost any place where their roots will not be interfered with, and where their foliage will receive plenty of light and air. How well I remember the old Isabella vines that clambered on a trellis over the kitchen door at my childhood's home! In this sunny exposure, and in the reflected heat of the building, the clusters were always the sweetest and earliest ripe. A ton of grapes may be secured annually by erecting trellises against the sides of buildings, walls, and poultry yard, while at the same time the screening vines furnish grateful shade and no small degree of beauty. With a little petting, such scattered vines are often enormously productive. An occasional pail of soapsuds gives them a drink which eventually flushes the thickly hanging clusters with exquisite color. People should dismiss from their minds the usual method of European cultivation, wherein the vines are tied to short stakes, and made to produce their fruit near the ground. This method can be employed if we find pleasure in the experiment. At Mr. Fuller's place I saw fine examples of it. Stubby vines with stems thick as one's wrist rose about three feet from the ground, then branched off on every side, like an umbrella, with loads of fruit. Only one supporting stake was required. This method evidently is not adapted to our climate and species of grape, since in that case plenty of keen, practical fruit-growers would have adopted it. I am glad this is true, for the vine-clad hills of France do not present half so pleasing a spectacle as an American cornfield. The vine is beautiful when grown as a vine, and not as a stub; and well-trained, well-fed vines on the Home Acre can be developed to almost any length required, shading and hiding with greenery every unsightly object, and hanging their finest clusters far beyond the reach of the predatory small boy. We may now consider the vines planted and growing vigorously, as they will in most instances if they have been prepared for and planted according to the suggestions already given. Now begins the process of guiding and assisting Nature. Left to herself, she will give a superabundance of vine, with sufficient fruit for purposes of propagation and feeding the birds. Our object is to obtain the maximum of fruit from a minimum of vine. The little plant, even though grown from a single bud, will sprawl all over everything near it in three or four years, if unchecked. Pruning may begin even before midsummer of the first year. The single green shoot will by this time begin to produce what are termed "laterals." The careful cultivator who wishes to throw all the strength and growth into the main shoot will pinch these laterals back as soon as they form one leaf. Each lateral will start again from the axil of the leaf that has been left, and having formed another leaf, should again be cut off. By repeating this process during the growing season you have a strong single cane by fall, reaching probably beyond the top of the supporting stake. In our latitude I advise that this single cane--that is, the vine--be cut back to within fifteen inches of the surface when the leaves have fallen and the wood has well-ripened--say about the middle of November--and that the part left be bent over and covered with earth. When I say "bent over," I do not mean at right angles, so as to admit of the possibility of its being broken, but gently and judiciously. I cover with earth all my vines, except the Concords and Isabellas, just before hard freezing weather; and even these two hardy kinds I weight down close to the ground. I have never failed to secure a crop from vines so treated. Two men will protect over a hundred vines in a day. In early April the young vine is uncovered again; and now the two uppermost buds are allowed to grow and form two strong canes, instead of one, and on this new growth four or five clusters of grapes may be permitted to mature if the vine is vigorous. If it is feeble, take off all the fruit, And stimulate the vine into greater vigor. Our aim is not to obtain half a dozen inferior clusters as soon as possible, but to produce a vine that will eventually almost supply a family by itself. If several varieties have been planted, some will be found going ahead rampantly; others will exhibit a feebler growth, which can be hastened and greatly increased by enriching the surface of the soil around them and by a pail of soap-suds now and then in May or June--but not later, unless there should be a severe drought. There should be no effort to produce much growth during the latter part of the summer and early autumn, for then both the wood and roots will be immature and unripened when frost begins, and thus the vine receive injury. For this reason it is usually best to apply fertilizers to vines in the fall; for if given in the spring, a late, unhealthful growth is often produced. Throughout all subsequent years manure must be applied judiciously. You may tell the hired man to top-dress the ground about the vines, and he will probably treat all alike; a vine that is already growing so strongly that it can scarcely be kept within bounds will receive as much as one that is slow and feeble in its development. This is worse than waste. Each vine should be treated in accordance with its condition and habit of growth. What would be thought of a physician who ordered a tonic for an entire family, giving as much to one who might need depleting, as to another who, as country people say, was "puny and ailin'?" With even an assortment of half a dozen varieties we shall find after the first good start that some need a curb, and others a spur. Stakes will answer as supports to the vines during the first and second seasons; but thereafter trellises or arbors are needed. The latter will probably be employed over the central walk of the garden, and may be constructed after several simple and pretty designs, which I leave to the taste of the reader. If vines are planted about buildings, fences, etc., trellises may be made of anything preferred--of galvanized wire, slats, or rustic poles fastened to strong, durable supports. If vines are to be trained scientifically in the open garden, I should recommend the trellises figured on pages 120 and 142 of Mr. Fuller's work, "The Grape Culturist." These, beyond anything I have seen, appear the best adapted for the following out of a careful system of pruning and training. Such a system Mr. Fuller has thoroughly and lucidly explained in the above-named book. Unless the reader has had experience, or is willing to give time for the mastery of this subject, I should advise that he employ an experienced gardener to prune his vines after the second year. It is a brief task, but a great deal depends upon it. In selecting a man for the work I should require something more than exaggerated and personal assurances. In every village there are terrible butchers of vines and fruit-trees, who have some crude system of their own. They are as ignorant of the true science of the subject as a quack doctor of medicine, and, like the dispenser of nostrums, they claim to be infallible. Skilful pruning and training is really a fine art, which cannot be learned in a day or a year. It is like a surgical operation, requiring but little time, yet representing much acquired skill and experience. In almost every locality there are trustworthy, intelligent gardeners, who will do this work for a small sum until the proprietor has learned the art himself, if so inclined. I should also employ the same man in spring to tie up the vines and train them. If one is not ambitious to secure the best results attainable, he can soon learn to perform both the tasks well enough to obtain fairly good fruit in abundance. It should be our constant aim not to permit long, naked reaches of wood, in one part of the vine, and great smothering bunches of fruit and foliage in another part. Of course the roots, stem, and leading arms should be kept free from useless shoots and sprouts; but having reached the trellis, the vine should be made to distribute bearing fruit-spurs evenly over it. Much can be learned about pruning from books and by watching an expert gardener while giving the annual pruning; but the true science of trimming a vine is best acquired by watching buds develop, by noting what they will do, where they go, and how much space they will take up in a single summer. In this way one will eventually realize how much is wrapped up in the insignificant little buds, and now great the folly of leaving too many on the vine. In my next chapter I shall treat briefly of the propagation of the grape, its insect enemies, diseases, etc.; and also of some other fruits. CHAPTER IV THE VINEYARD AND ORCHARD He who proposes to plant grape-vines will scarcely fail to take the sensible course of inspecting the varieties already producing fruit in his locality. From causes often too obscure to be learned with certainty, excellent kinds will prove to be well adapted to one locality, and fail in others. If, therefore, when calling on a neighbor during August, September, or October, we are shown a vine producing fruit abundantly that is suited to our taste, a vine also which manifests unmistakable vigor, we may be reasonably sure that it belongs to a variety which we should have, especially if it be growing in a soil and exposure somewhat similar to our garden plot. A neighbor worthy of the name will be glad to give us a few cuttings from his vine at the time of its annual pruning; and with, very little trouble we also may soon possess the desired variety. When the vine is trimmed, either make yourself or have your friend make a few cuttings of sound wood from that season's growth. About eight inches is a good length for these vine-slips, and they should contain at least two buds. Let each slip be cut off smoothly just under the lowest bud, and extend an inch or two above the uppermost bud. If these cuttings are obtained in November or December, they may be put into a little box with some of the moist soil of the garden, and buried in the ground below the usual frost-line--say a foot or eighteen inches in our latitude. The simple object is to keep them in a cool, even temperature, but not a frosty one. Early in April dig up the box, open a trench in a moist but not wet part of the garden, and insert the cuttings perpendicularly in the soil, so that the upper bud is covered barely one inch. In filling up the trench, press the soil carefully yet firmly about the cuttings, and spread over the surface just about them a little fine manure. The cuttings should be a foot apart from each other in the row. Do not let the ground become dry about them at any time during the summer. By fall these cuttings will probably have thrown out an abundance of roots, and have made from two to three feet of vine. In this case they can be taken up and set out where they are to fruit. Possibly but one or two of them have started vigorously. The backward ones had better be left to grow another year in the cutting bed. Probably we shall not wish to cultivate more than one or two vines of the variety; but it is just as easy to start several cuttings as one, and by this course we guard against failure, and are able to select the most vigorous plant for our garden. By taking good care of the others we soon derive one of the best pleasures which our acre can afford--that of giving to a friend something which will enhance the productiveness of his acre, and add to his enjoyment for years to come. Not only on our neighbor's grounds, but also on our own we shall discover that some varieties are unusually vigorous, productive, and well-adapted to our locality; and we may very naturally wish to have more vines of the same sort, especially if the fruit is to our taste. We can either increase this kind by cuttings, as has been described, or we can layer part of the vine that has won our approval by well-doing. I shall take the latter course with several delicious varieties in my vineyard. Some kinds of grapes do not root readily as cuttings, but there is little chance of failure in layering. This process is simply the laying down of a branch of a vine in early spring, and covering it lightly with soil, so that some buds will be beneath the surface, and others just at or a little above it. Those beneath will form roots, the others shoots which by fall should be good vines for planting. Every bud that can reach the air and light will start upward, and thus there may be a thick growth of incipient vines that will crowd and enfeeble each other. The probabilities are that only two or three new vines are wanted; therefore all the others should be rubbed off at the start, so that the strength of the parent plant and of the new roots that are forming may go into those few shoots designed to become eventually a part of our vineyard. If we wish only one vine, then but one bud should grow from the layer; if two vines, then two buds. The fewer buds that are permitted to grow, the stronger vines they make. It must be remembered that this layer, for the greater part of the growing season, is drawing its sustenance from the parent plant, to which it is still attached. Therefore the other branches of this vine thus called upon for unusual effort should be permitted to fruit but sparingly. We should not injure and enfeeble the original vine in order to get others like it. For this reason we advise that no more buds be permitted to grow from the layer than we actually need ourselves. To injure a good vine and deprive ourselves of fruit that we may have plants to give away, is to love one's neighbor better than one's self--a thing permitted, but not required. When our vines are pruned, we can make as many cuttings as we choose, either to sell or give away. The ground in which a layer is placed should be very rich, and its surface round the young growing vines always kept moist and free from weeds. In the autumn, after the leaves have fallen and the wood is ripe and hard, cut off the layered branch close to the vine, and with a garden-fork gently and carefully lift it, with all its roots and young vines attached, out of the soil. First cut the young vines back to three or four buds, then separate them from the branch from which they grew, being sure to give each plant plenty of roots, and the roots BACK of the point from which it grew; that is, those roots nearest the parent plant from which the branch was layered. All the old wood of the branch that is naked, free of roots, should be cut off. The young shoots thus separated are now independent vines, and may be set out at once where they are to fruit. If you have a variety that does not do well, or that you do not like, dig it out, enrich the soil, and put one of your favorites in its place. We will now consider briefly the diseases and insect enemies of the grape. A vine way be doomed to ill-health from its very situation. Mr. Hussman, a grape-culturist of great experience and wide observation, writes: "Those localities may generally be considered safe for the grape in which there are no miasmatic influences. Where malaria and fevers prevail, there is no safety for the crop, as the vine seems to be as susceptible to such influences as human beings." Taking this statement literally, we may well ask, Where, then, can grapes be grown? According to physicians, malaria has become one of the most generally diffused products of the country. When a man asserts that it is not in his locality, we feel sure that if pressed he will admit that it is "round the corner." Country populations still survive, however, and so does grape-culture. Yet there are low-lying regions which from defective drainage are distinctively and, it would almost seem, hopelessly malarial. In such localities but few varieties of the vine will thrive, The people who are compelled to live there, or who choose to do so, should experiment until they obtain varieties so hardy and vigorous that they will triumph over everything. The best course with grape-diseases is not to have them; in other words, to recognize the fact at once that certain varieties of the grape will not thrive and be productive of good fruit unless the soil and climate suit them. The proprietor of the Home Acre can usually learn by a little inquiry or observation whether grapes thrive in his locality. If there is much complaint of mildew, grape-rot, and general feebleness of growth, he should seek to plant only the most hardy and vigorous kinds. As I have said before, our cultivated grapes are derived from several native species found growing wild, and some now valued highly for wine-making are nothing but wild grapes domesticated; as, for instance, Norton's Virginia, belonging to the oestivalis class. The original plant of this variety was found growing upon an island in the Potomac by Dr. Norton, of Virginia. The species from which the greatest number of well-known grapes is obtained is the Vitis labrusca, the common wild or fox grape, found growing in woods and thickets, usually where the ground is moist, from Canada to the Gulf. The dark purple berries, averaging about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, ripen in September, and they contain a tough, musky pulp. Yet this "slip of wilderness" is the parent of the refined Catawba, the delicious Brighton, and the magnificent white grape Lady Washington--indeed, of all the black, red, and white grapes with which most people are familiar. Our earliest grapes, which ripen in August, as well as some of the latest, like the Isabella, come from the labrusca species. It is said that the labrusca class will not thrive in the extreme South; and with the exception of the high mountain slopes, this appears reasonable to the student of the vine. It is said that but few of this class will endure the long hot summers of France. But there are great differences among the varieties derived from this native species. For example, the Concord thrives almost anywhere, while even here upon the Hudson we can scarcely grow the Catawba with certainty. It is so good a grape, however, that I persist in making the effort, with varying success; but I should not recommend it, or many of its class, for those localities not specially suited to the grape. I will now name a few varieties which have proved to be, or promise to be, the most thrifty and productive whereever grapes can be grown at all the labrusca class: Black--Concord, Wilder, Worden, Amenia, Early Canada, Telegraph or Christine, Moore's Early. Red-Wyoming, Goethe, Lindley, Beauty, Brighton, Perkins (pale red), and Agawam. White--Rebecca, Martha, Alien's Hybrid, Lady Pocklington, Prentiss, Lady Washington. These are all fine grapes, and they have succeeded throughout wide areas of country. Any and all are well worth a trial; but if the grower finds that some of them are weak and diseased in his grounds, I should advise that he root them out and replace them with those which thrive. The Niagara is highly praised, and may make good all that is claimed for it. Of the aestivalis class I can recommend the Cynthiana and the Herbemont, or Warren, for the extreme South. Both of them are black. There are new varieties of this vigorous species which promise well. The cordifolia species promises to furnish some fine, hardy, and productive grapes, of which the Amber is an example. The Elvira, a pale yellow grape, is highly praised by Mr. Hussman. Although the Bacchus is distinctively a wine grape, I have already said that its flavor, when fully ripe, was agreeable to me. The only difficulty in growing it is to keep the ground poor, and use the pruning-knife freely. I have enlarged on this point, for I wish to direct the mind of the reader to the fact that there are many very hardy grapes. I congratulate those who, with the taste of a connoisseur, have merely to sample until they find just the varieties that suit them, and then to plant these kinds in their genial soil and favored locality. At the same time I should like to prevent others from worrying along with unsatisfactory varieties, or from reaching the conclusion that they can not grow grapes in their region or garden. Let them rather admit that they can not raise some kinds, but may others. If a variety were persistently diseased, feeble, and unproductive under good treatment, I should root it out rather than continue to nurse and coddle it. When mildew and grape-rot first appear, the evil can often be remedied in part by dusting the vines with sulphur, and continuing the process until the disease is cured, if it ever is. I have never had occasion to do this, and will not do it. A variety that often requires such nursing in this favored locality should be discarded. There is one kind of disease, or feebleness rather, to which we are subject everywhere, and from which few varieties are exempt. It is the same kind of weakness which would be developed in a fine sound horse if we drove him until he dropped down every time we took him out. Cultivated vines are so far removed from their natural conditions that they will often bear themselves to death, like a peach-tree. To permit this is a true instance of avarice overreaching itself; or the evil may result from ignorance or neglect. Close pruning in autumn and thinning out the crowding clusters soon after they have formed is the remedy. If a vine had been so enfeebled, I should cut it back rigorously, feed it well, and permit it to bear very little fruit, if any, for a year. Of insect enemies we have the phylloxera of bad eminence, which has so dismayed Europe. The man who could discover and patent an adequate remedy in France might soon rival a Rothschild in his wealth. The remedy abroad is also ours--to plant varieties which are phylloxera-proof, or nearly so. Fortunately we have many which defy this pestiferous little root-louse, and European vine-growers have been importing them by the million. They are still used chiefly as stocks on which to graft varieties of the vinifera species. In California, grapes of the vinifera or European species are generally cultivated; but the phylloxera is at its destructive work among them. The wine-grapes of the future throughout the world may be developed from the hardy cestivalis and cordifolia classes. In many localities, even in this new land, varieties like the Delaware succumb to this scourge of foreign vineyards. The aphis, or plant-louse, sometimes attacks the young, tender shoots of the vine. The moment they appear, take off the shoot, and crush it on a board with the foot. Leaf-rollers, the grape-vine sphinx, and caterpillars in general must be caught by hand and killed. Usually they are not very numerous. The horrid little rose-chafers or rose-bugs are sometimes very destructive. Our best course is to take a basin of water and jar them off into it--they fall readily--and then scald them to death. We may discover lady-bugs--small red or yellow and black beetles--among our vines, and many persons, I fear, will destroy them with the rest. We should take off our hats to them and wish them godspeed. In their destruction of aphides and thrips they are among our best friends. The camel-cricket is another active destroyer of injurious insects. Why do not our schools teach a little practical natural history? Once, when walking in the Catskills, I saw the burly driver of a stage-load of ladies bound out of his vehicle to kill a garter-snake, the pallid women looking on, meanwhile, as if the earth were being rid of some terrible and venomous thing. They ought to have known that the poor little reptile was as harmless as one of their own garters, and quite as useful in its way. Every country boy and girl should be taught to recognize all our helpers in our incessant fight with insect enemies--a fight which must be maintained with more organized vigor and intelligence than at present, if horticulture is ever to reach its best development. Wasps and hornets often swarm about the sweet and early ripe varieties. A wide-mouthed bottle partially filled with molasses and water will entrap and drown great numbers of these ugly customers. Some of our favorite birds try our patience not a little. During the early summer I never wearied of watching the musical orioles flashing with their bright hues in and out of the foliage about the house; but when the early grapes were ripe, they took pay for their music with the sang-froid of a favorite prima donna. On one occasion I saw three or four alight on a Diana vine, and in five minutes they had spoiled a dozen clusters. If they would only take a bunch and eat it up clean, one would readily share with them, for there would be enough for all; but the dainty little epicures puncture an indefinite number of berries, merely taking a sip from each. Then the wasps and bees come along and finish the clusters. The cardinal, cat-bird, and our unrivalled songster the wood-thrush, all help themselves in the same wasteful fashion. One can't shoot wood-thrushes. We should almost as soon think of killing off our Nilssons, Nevadas, and Carys. The only thing to do is to protect the clusters; and this can be accomplished in several ways. The most expeditious and satisfactory method is to cover the vines of early grapes with cheap mosquito netting. Another method is to make little bags of this netting and inclose each cluster. Last fall, two of my children tied up many hundreds of clusters in little paper bags, which can be procured at wholesale for a trifling sum. The two lower corners of the paper bags should be clipped off to permit the rain to pass freely through them. Clusters ripen better, last longer on the vine, and acquire a more exquisite bloom and flavor in this retirement than if exposed to light as well as to birds and wasps. Not the fruit but the foliage of the grape-vine needs the sun. Few of the early grapes will keep long after being taken from the vine; but some of the later ones can be preserved well into the winter by putting them in small boxes and storing them where the temperature is cool, even, and dry. Some of the wine-grapes, like Norton's Virginia, will keep under these conditions almost like winter apples. One October day I took a stone pot of the largest size and put in first a layer of Isabella grapes, then a double thickness of straw paper, then alternate layers of grapes and paper, until the pot was full. A cloth was next pasted over the stone cover, so as to make the pot water-tight. The pot was then buried on a dry knoll below the reach of frost, and dug up again on New Year's Day. The grapes looked and tasted as if they had just been picked from the vine. For the mysteries of hybridizing and raising new seedlings, grafting, hot-house and cold grapery culture, the reader must look in more extended works than this, and to writers who have had experience in these matters. We shall next consider three fruits which upon the Home Acre may be regarded as forming a natural group-peaches, plums, and raspberries, if any one expresses surprise that the last-named fruit should be given this relationship, I have merely to reply that the raspberry thrives in the partial shade produced by such small trees as the peach and plum. Where there is need of economy of space it is well to take advantage of this fact, for but few products of the garden give any satisfaction when contending with roots below and shade above. We have taken it for granted that some grape-vines would be planted in the two borders extending through the centre of the garden, also that there would be spaces left which might be filled with peach and plum trees and small flowering shrubs. If there is to be a good-sized poultry-yard upon the acre, we should advise that plums be planted in that; but we will speak of this fruit later, and now give our attention to that fruit which to the taste of many is unrivalled--the peach. With the exception of the strawberry, it is perhaps the only fruit for which I prefer spring planting. At the same time, I should not hesitate to set out the trees in autumn. The ground should be good, but not too highly fertilized. I prefer young trees but one year old from the bud. If set out in the fall, I should mound up the earth eighteen inches about them, to protect the roots and stem, and to keep the tree firmly in the soil. With this precaution, I am not sure but that fall planting has the greater advantage, except when the climate is very severe and subject to great alternations. Plant with the same care and on the same principles which have been already described. If a careful system of pruning is to be adopted, the trees may be set out twelve feet apart; but if they are to be left to grow at will, which I regret to say is the usual practice, they should be planted fifteen feet from each other. There are many good reasons why the common orchard culture of the peach should not be adopted in the garden. There is no fruit more neglected and ill-treated than the beautiful and delicious peach. The trees are very cheap, usually costing but a few cents each; they are bought by the thousand from careless dealers, planted with scarcely the attention given to a cabbage-plant, and too often allowed to bear themselves to death. The land, trees, and cultivation cost so little that one good crop is expected to remunerate for all outlay. If more crops are obtained, there is so much clear gain. Under this slovenly treatment there is, of course, rapid deterioration in the stamina of the peach. Pits and buds are taken from enfeebled trees for the purpose of propagation, and so tendencies to disease are perpetuated and enhanced. Little wonder that, the fatal malady, the "yellows," has blighted so many hopes! I honestly believe that millions of trees have been sold in which this disease existed from the bud. If fine peaches were bred and propagated with something of the same care that is bestowed on blooded stock, the results would soon be proportionate. Gardeners abroad often give more care to one tree than hundreds receive here. Because the peach has grown so easily in our climate, we have imposed on its good-nature beyond the limits of endurance, and consequently it is not easy to get sound, healthful trees that will bear year after year under the best of treatment, as they did with our fathers with no care at all. I should look to men who had made a reputation for sending out sound, healthful stock grown under their own eyes from pits and wood which they know to be free from disease. Do not try to save a few pennies on the first cost of trees, for the probabilities are that such economy will result in little more than the "yellows." In large orchards, cultivated by horse-power, the stems of the trees are usually from four to six feet high; but in the garden this length of stem is not necessary, and the trees can be grown as dwarf standards, with stems beginning to branch two feet from the ground. A little study of the habit of growth in the peach will show that, to obtain the best results, the pruning-shears are almost as essential as in the case of the grape-vine. More than in any other fruit-tree, the sap tends strongly toward the ends of the shoots. Left to Nature, only the terminal buds of these will grow from year to year; the other buds lower down on the shoots fail and drop off. Thus we soon have long naked reaches of unproductive wood, or sucker-like sprouts starting from the bark, which are worse than useless. Our first aim should be to form a round, open, symmetrical head, shortening in the shoots at least one-half each year, and cutting out crossing and interlacing branches. For instance, if we decide to grow our trees as dwarf standards, we shall cut back the stems at a point two feet from the ground the first spring after planting, and let but three buds grow, to make the first three or leading branches. The following spring we shall cut back the shoots that have formed, so as to make six leading branches. Thereafter we shall continue to cut out and back so as to maintain an open head for the free circulation of air and light. To learn the importance of rigorous and careful pruning, observe the shoots of a vigorous peach-tree, say three or four years old. These shoots or sprays are long and slender, lined with fruit-buds. You will often find two fruit-buds together, with a leaf-bud between them. If the fruit-buds have been uninjured by the winter, they will nearly all form peaches, far more than the slender spray can support or mature. The sap will tend to give the most support to all growth at the end of the spray or branch. The probable result will be that you will have a score, more or less, of peaches that are little beyond skin and stones. By midsummer the brittle sprays will break, or the limbs split down at the crotches. You may have myriads of peaches, but none fit for market or table. Thousands of baskets are sent to New York annually that do not pay the expenses of freight, commission, etc.; while the orchards from which they come are practically ruined. I had two small trees from which, one autumn, I sold ten dollars' worth of fruit. They yielded more profit than is often obtained from a hundred trees. Now, in the light of these facts, realize the advantages secured by cutting back the shoots or sprays so as to leave but three or four fruit-buds on each. The tree can probably mature these buds into large, beautiful peaches, and still maintain its vigor. By this shortening-in process you have less tree, but more fruit. The growth is directed and kept within proper limits, and the tree preserved for future usefulness. Thus the peach-trees of the garden will not only furnish some of the most delicious morsels of the year, but also a very agreeable and light phase of labor. They can be made pets which will amply repay all kindness; and the attentions they most appreciate, strange to say, are cutting and pinching. The pruning-shears in March and early April can cut away forming burdens which could not be borne, and pinching back during the summer can maintain beauty and symmetry in growth. When the proprietor of the Home Acre has learned from experience to do this work judiciously, his trees, like the grape-vines, will afford many hours of agreeable and healthful recreation. If he regards it as labor, one great, melting, luscious peach will repay him. A small apple, pear, or strawberry usually has the flavor of a large one; but a peach to be had in perfection must be fully matured to its limit of growth on a healthful tree. Let no one imagine that the shortening in of shoots recommended consists of cutting the young sprays evenly all round the trees as one would shear a hedge. It more nearly resembles the pruning of the vine; for the peach, like the vine, bears its fruit only on the young wood of the previous summer's growth. The aim should be to have this young bearing wood distributed evenly over the tree, as should be true of a grape-vine. When the trees are kept low, as dwarf standards, the fruit is more within reach, and less liable to be blown off by high winds. Gradually, however, if the trees prove healthful, they will get high enough up in the world. Notwithstanding the rigorous pruning recommended, the trees will often overload themselves; and thinning out the young peaches when as large as hickory nuts is almost imperative if we would secure good fruit. Men of experience say that when a tree has set too much fruit, if two-thirds of it are taken off while little, the remaining third will measure and weigh more than would the entire crop, and bring three times as much money. In flavor and beauty the gain will certainly be more than double. Throughout its entire growth and fruiting life the peach-tree needs good cultivation, and also a good but not overstimulated soil. Well-decayed compost from the cow-stable is probably the best barnyard fertilizer. Wood-ashes are peculiarly agreeable to the constitution of this tree, and tend to maintain it in health and bearing long after others not so treated are dead. I should advise that half a peck be worked in lightly every spring around each tree as far as the branches extend. When enriching the ground about a tree, never heap the fertilizer round the trunk, but spread it evenly from the stem outward as far as the branches reach, remembering that the head above is the measure of the root extension below. Air-slacked lime is also useful to the peach in small quantities; and so, no doubt, would be a little salt from time to time. Bone-meal is highly recommended. Like other fruit-trees, the peach does not thrive on low, wet ground, and the fruit-buds are much more apt to be winter-killed in such localities. A light, warm soil is regarded as the most favorable. Of course we can grow this fruit on espaliers, as they do abroad; but there are few localities where any advantage is to be derived from this course. In our latitude I much prefer cool northern exposures, for the reason that the fruitbuds are kept dormant during warm spells in winter, and so late in spring that they escape injury from frost. Alternate freezing and thawing is more harmful than steady cold. The buds are seldom safe, however, at any time when the mercury sinks ten or fifteen degrees below zero. As we have intimated, abuse of the peach-tree has developed a fatal disease, known as the "yellows." It manifests itself in yellow, sickly foliage, numerous and feeble sprouts along the larger limbs and trunk, and small miserable fruit, ripening prematurely. I can almost taste the yellows in much of the fruit bought in market. Some regard the disease as very contagious; others do not. It is best to be on the safe side. If a tree is affected generally, dig it out by the roots and burn it at once; if only a branch shows evidence of the malady, cut it off well back, and commit it to the flames. The only remedy is to propagate from trees in sound health and vigor. Like the apple, the peach-tree is everywhere subject to injury from a borer, named "exitiosa, or the destructive." The eggs from which these little pests are hatched are laid by the moth during the summer upon the stem of the tree very near the root; the grubs bore through the outer bark, and devour the inner bark and sap-wood. Fortunately they soon reveal their evil work by the castings, and by the gum which exudes from the hole by which they entered. They can not do much harm, unless a tree is neglected; in this case, however, they will soon enfeeble, and probably destroy it. When once within a tree, borers must be cut out with a sharp-pointed knife, carefully yet thoroughly. The wounds from the knife may be severe, but the ceaseless gnawing of the grub is fatal. If the tree has been lacerated to some extent, a plaster of moistened clay or cow-manure makes a good salve. Keeping the borers out of the tree is far better than taking them out; and this can be effected by wrapping the stem at the ground--two inches below the surface, and five above--with strong hardware or sheathing paper. If this is tied tightly about the tree, the moth cannot lay its eggs upon the stem. A neighbor of mine has used this protection not only on the peach, but also on the apple, with almost complete success. Of course the pests will try to find their way under it, and it would be well to take off the wrapper occasionally and examine the trees. The paper must also be renewed before it is so far decayed as to be valueless. It should be remembered also that the borer will attack the trees from the first year of life to the end. In order to insure an unfailing supply of this delicious fruit, I should advise that a few trees be set out every spring. The labor and expense are scarcely greater than that bestowed upon a cabbage patch, and the reward is more satisfactory. For this latitude the following choice of varieties will prove, I think, a good one: Early Alexander, Early Elvers, Princess of Wales, Brandywine, Old Mixon Free, Stump the World, Picquet's Late, Crawford's Late, Mary's Choice, White Free Heath, Salway, and Lord Palmerston. If the soil of one's garden is stiff, cold, adhesive clay, the peach would succeed much better budded or grafted on plum-stocks. Some of the finest fruit I have ever seen was from seedlings, the trees having been grown from pits of unusually good peaches. While the autumn planting of pits lightly in the soil and permitting them to develop into bearing trees is a pleasing and often profitable amusement, there is no great probability that the result will be desirable. We hear of the occasional prizes won in this way, but not of the many failures. By easy transition we pass to the kindred fruit the plum, which does not generally receive the attention it deserves. If one has a soil suited to it--a heavy clay or loam--it can usually be grown very easily. The fruit is so grateful to the taste and useful to the housekeeper that it should be given a fair trial, either in the garden borders or wherever a tree can be planted so as to secure plenty of light and air. The young trees may be one or two years old from the bud; I should prefer the former, if vigorous. Never be induced to purchase old trees by promises of speedy fruit. It is quite possible you may never get any fruit at all from them worth mentioning. I should allow a space of from ten to fifteen feet between the trees when they are planted together, and I should cut them back so that they would begin to branch at two feet from the ground. Long, naked stems are subject to the gum-disease. In the place of general advice in regard to this fruit I shall give the experience of Mr. T. S. Force, of Newburgh, who exhibited seventy varieties at the last annual Orange County fair. His plum-orchard is a large poultry-yard, containing half an acre, of which the ground is a good loam, resting on a heavy clay subsoil. He bought trees but one year from the bud, set them out in autumn, and cut them back so that they began to form their heads at two feet from the ground. He prefers starting with strong young plants of this age, and he did not permit them to bear for the first three years, his primal aim being to develop a healthy, vigorous tree with a round, symmetrical head. During this period the ground about them was kept mellow by good cultivation, and, being rich enough to start with, received no fertilizers. It is his belief that over-fertilization tends to cause the disease so well known as the "black knot," which has destroyed many orchards in this vicinity. If the garden has been enriched as I have directed, the soil will probably need little, if anything, from the stables, and certainly will not if the trees are grown in a poultry-yard. During this growing and forming period Mr. Force gave careful attention to pruning. Budded trees are not even symmetrical growers, but tend to send up a few very strong shoots that rob the rest of the tree of sustenance. Of course these must be cut well back in early spring, or we have long, naked reaches of wood and a deformed tree. It is far better, however, not to let these rampant shoots grow to maturity, but to pinch them back in early summer, thus causing them to throw out side-branches. By summer pinching and rubbing off of tender shoots a tree can be made to grow in any shape we desire. When the trees receive no summer pruning, Mr. Force advises that the branches be shortened in at least one half in the spring, while some shoots are cut back even more rigorously. At the age of four or five years, according to the vigor of the trees, he permits them to bear. Now cultivation ceases, and the ground is left to grow hard, but not weedy or grassy, beneath the boughs. Every spring, just as the blossoms are falling, he spreads evenly under the branches four quarts of salt. While the trees thrive and grow fruitful with this fertilizer, the curculio, or plum-weevil, does not appear to find it at all to its taste. As a result of his methods, Mr. Force has grown large and profitable crops, and his trees in the main are kept healthy and vigorous. His remedy for the black knot is to cut off and burn the small boughs and twigs affected. If the disease appears in the side of a limb or in the stem, he cuts out all trace of it, and paints the wound with a wash of gum shellac and alcohol. Trees load so heavily that the plums rest against one another. You will often find in moist warm weather decaying specimens. These should be removed at once, that the infection may not spread. In cutting out the interfering boughs, do not take off the sharp-pointed spurs which are forming along the branches, for on these are slowly maturing the fruit-buds. In this case, as in others, the careful observer, after he has acquired a few sound principles of action to start with, is taught more by the tree itself than from any other source. Mr. Force recommends the following ten varieties, named in the order of ripening: Canada; Orleans, a red-cheeked plum; McLaughlin, greenish, with pink cheek; Bradshaw, large red, with lilac bloom; Smith's Orleans, purple; Green Gage; Bleeker's Gage, golden yellow; Prune d'Agen, purple; Coe's Golden Drop; and Shropshire Damson for preserves. If we are restricted to very light soils, we shall probably have to grow some of the native varieties, of the Canada and Wild-Goose type. In regard to both this fruit and peaches we should be guided in our selection by information respecting varieties peculiarly suited to the region. The next chapter will treat of small fruits, beginning with the raspberry. CHAPTER V THE RASPBERRY The wide and favorable consideration given to small fruits clearly marks one of the changes in the world's history. This change may seem trifling indeed to the dignified chroniclers of kings and queens and others of high descent--great descent, it may be added, remembering the moral depths attained; but to those who care for the welfare of the people, it is a mutation of no slight interest. I am glad to think, as has been shown in a recent novel, that Lucrezia Borgia was not so black as she has been painted; yet in the early days of June and July, when strawberries and raspberries are ripening, I fancy that most of us can dismiss her and her kin from mind as we observe Nature's alchemy in our gardens. When we think of the luscious, health-imparting fruits which will grace millions of tables, and remember that until recent years they were conspicuous only by their absence, we may not slightingly estimate a great change for the better. Once these fruits were wildings which the vast majority of our forefathers shared sparingly with the birds. Often still, unless we are careful, our share will be small indeed; for the unperverted taste of the birds discovered from the first what men have been so slow to learn--that the ruby-like berries are the gems best worth seeking. The world is certainly progressing toward physical redemption when even the Irish laborer abridges his cabbage-patch for the sake of small fruits--food which a dainty Ariel could not despise. We have said that raspberries thrive in partial shade; and therefore some advice in regard to them naturally follows our consideration of trees. Because the raspberry is not so exacting as are many other products of the garden, it does not follow that it should be marked out for neglect. As it is treated on many places, the only wonder is that even the bushes survive. Like many who try to do their best in adversity, it makes the most of what people term "a chance to get ahead." Moreover, the raspberry is perhaps as often injured by mistaken kindness as by neglect. If we can imagine it speaking for itself, it would say: "It is not much that I want, but in the name of common-sense and nature give me just what I do want; then you may pick at me to your heart's content." The first need of the raspberry is a well-drained but not a very dry, light soil. Yet such is its adaptability that certain varieties can be grown on any land which will produce a burdock or a mullien-stalk. In fact, this question of variety chiefly determines our chances of success and the nature of our treatment of the fruit. The reader, at the start, should be enabled to distinguish the three classes of raspberries grown in this country. As was true of grapes, our fathers first endeavored to supply their gardens from foreign nurseries, neglecting the wild species with which our woods and roadsides abounded. The raspberry of Europe (Rubus idaeus) has been developed, and in many instances enfeebled, by ages of cultivation. Nevertheless, few other fruits have shown equal power to adapt themselves to our soil and climate, and we have obtained from foreign sources many valuable kinds--as, for instance, the Antwerp, which for weeks together annually taxed the carrying power of Hudson River steamers. In quality these foreign kinds have never been surpassed; but almost invariably they have proved tender and fastidious, thriving well in some localities, and failing utterly (except under the most skilful care) in others. The frosts of the North killed them in winter, and Southern suns shrivelled their foliage in summer. Therefore they were not raspberries for the million, but for those who resided in favored regions, and were willing to bestow upon them much care and high culture. Eventually another process began, taking place either by chance or under the skilful manipulation of the gardener--that of hybridizing, or crossing these foreign varieties with our hardier native species. The best results have been attained more frequently, I think, by chance; that is, the bees, which get more honey from the raspberry than from most other plants, carried the pollen from a native flower to the blossom of the garden exotic. The seeds of the fruit eventually produced were endowed with characteristics of both the foreign and native strains. Occasionally these seeds fell where they had a chance to grow, and so produced a fortuitous seedling plant which soon matured into a bearing bush, differing from, both of its parents, and not infrequently surpassing both in good qualities. Some one horticulturally inclined having observed the unusually fine fruit on the chance plant, and believing that it is a good plan to help the fittest to survive, marked the bush, and in the autumn transferred it to his garden. It speedily propagated itself by suckers, or young sprouts from the roots, and he had plants to sell or give away. Such, I believe, was the history of the Cuthbert--named after the gentleman who found it, and now probably the favorite raspberry of America. Thus fortuitously, or by the skill of the gardener, the foreign and our native species were crossed, and a new and hardier class of varieties obtained. The large size and richness in flavor of the European berry has been bred into and combined with our smaller and more insipid indigenous fruit. By this process the area of successful raspberry culture has been extended almost indefinitely. Within recent years a third step forward has been taken. Some localities and soils were so unsuited to the raspberry that no variety containing even a small percentage of the foreign element could thrive. This fact led fruit-growers to give still closer attention to our native species. Wild bushes were found here and there which gave fruit of such good quality and in such large quantities that they were deemed well worthy of cultivation. Many of these wild specimens accepted cultivation gratefully, and showed such marked improvement that they were heralded over the land as of wonderful and surpassing value. Some of these pure, unmixed varieties of our native species (Rubus strigosus) have obtained a wide celebrity; as, for instance, the Brandywine, Highland Hardy, and, best of all, the Turner. It should be distinctly understood, however, that, with the exception of the last-named kind, these native varieties are decidedly inferior to most of the foreign berries and their hybrids or crosses, like the Cuthbert and Marlboro. Thousands have been misled by their praise, and have planted them when they might just as easily have grown far better kinds. I suppose that many wealthy persons in the latitudes of New York and Boston have told their gardeners (or more probably were told by them): "We do not wish any of those wild kinds. Brinckle's Orange, Franconia, and the Antwerp are good enough for us." So they should be, for they are the best; but they are all foreign varieties, and scarcely will live at all, much less be productive, in wide areas of the country. I trust that this preliminary discussion in regard to red raspberries will prepare the way for the advice to follow, and enable the proprietor of the Home Acre to act intelligently. Sensible men do not like to be told, "You cannot do this, and must not do that"--in other words, to be met the moment they step into their gardens by the arbitrary dictum of A, B, or C. They wish to unite with Nature in producing certain results. Understanding her simple laws, they work hopefully, confidently; and they cannot be imposed upon by those who either wittingly or unwittingly give bad advice. Having explained the natural principles on which I base my directions, I can expect the reader to follow each step with the prospect of success and enjoyment much enhanced. The question first arising is, What shall we plant? As before, I shall give the selection of eminent authorities, then suggest to the reader the restrictions under which he should make a choice for his own peculiar soil and climate. Dr. F. M. Hexamer, the well-known editor of a leading horticultural journal, is recognized throughout the land as having few, if any, superiors in recent and practical acquaintance with small fruits. The following is his selection: "Cuthbert, Turner, and Marlboro." The Hon. Marshall P. Wilder's choice: "Brinckle's Orange, Franconia, Cuthbert, Herstine, Shaffer." The Hon. Norman J. Colman, Commissioner of Agriculture: "Turner, Marlboro, Cuthbert." P. J. Berckmans, of Georgia: "Cuthbert, Hansel, Lost Rubies, Imperial Red." A. S. Fuller: "Turner, Cuthbert, Hansel." In analyzing this list we find three distinctly foreign kinds named: the Orange, Franconia, and Herstine. If the last is not wholly of foreign origin, the element of our native species enters into it so slightly that it will not endure winters in our latitude, or the summer sun of the South. For excellence, however, it is unsurpassed. In the Cuthbert, Marlboro, and Lost Rubies we have hybrids of the foreign and our native species, forming the second class referred to; in the Turner and Hansel, examples of our native species unmixed. To each of these classes might be added a score of other varieties which have been more or less popular, but they would serve only to distract the reader's attention. I have tested forty or fifty kinds side by side at one time, only to be shown that four or five varieties would answer all practical purposes. I can assure the reader, however, that it will be scarcely possible to find a soil or climate where some of these approved sorts will not thrive abundantly and at slight outlay. Throughout southern New England, along the bank of the Hudson, and westward, almost any raspberry can be grown with proper treatment. There are exceptions, which are somewhat curious. For instance, the famous Hudson River Antwerp, which until within a very few years has been one of the great crops of the State, has never been grown successfully to any extent except on the west bank of the river, and within the limited area of Kingston on the north and Cornwall on the south. The Franconia, another foreign sort, has proved itself adapted to more extended conditions of soil and climate. I have grown successfully nearly every well-known raspberry, and perhaps I can best give the instruction I desire to convey by describing the methods finally adopted after many years of observation, reading, and experience. I will speak of the class first named, belonging to the foreign species, of which I have tested many varieties. I expect to set out this year rows of Brinckle's Orange, Franconia, Hudson River Antwerp, and others. For this class I should make the ground very rich, deep, and mellow. I should prefer to set out the plants in the autumn--from the middle of October to the tenth of November; if not then, in early spring--the earlier the better--while the buds are dormant. I should have the rows four feet apart; and if the plants were to be grown among the smaller fruit-trees, I should maintain a distance from them of at least seven feet. I should use only young plants, those of the previous summer's growth, and set them in the ground about as deeply as they stood when taken up--say three or four inches of earth above the point from which the roots branched. I should put two well-rooted plants in each hill, and this would make the hills four feet apart each way. By "hills" I do not mean elevations of ground. This should be kept level throughout all future cultivation. I should cut back the canes or stems of the plants to six inches. Thousands of plants are lost or put back in their growth by leaving two or three feet of the canes to grow the first year. Never do this. The little fruit gained thus prematurely always entails a hundred-fold of loss. Having set out the plants, I should next scatter over and about them one or two shovelfuls of old compost or decayed manure of some kind. If the plants had been set out in the fall, I should mound the earth over them before freezing weather, so that there should be at least four inches of soil over the tops of the stems. This little mound of earth over the plants or hill would protect against all injury from frost. In the spring I should remove these mounds of earth so as to leave the ground perfectly level on all sides, and the shortened canes projecting, as at first, six inches above the surface. During the remainder of the spring and summer the soil between the plants chiefly requires to be kept open, mellow, and free from weeds. In using the hoe, be careful not to cut off the young raspberry sprouts, on which the future crop depends. Do not be disappointed if the growth seems feeble the first year, for these foreign kinds are often slow in starting. In November, before there is any danger of the ground freezing, I should cut back the young canes at least one-third of their length, bend them gently down, and cover them with earth to the depth of four or five inches. It must be distinctly remembered that very few of the foreign kinds would endure our winter unprotected. Every autumn they must be covered as I have directed. Is any one aghast at this labor? Nonsense! Antwerps are covered by the acre along the Hudson. A man and a boy would cover in an hour all that are needed for a garden. After the first year the foreign varieties, like all others, will send up too many sprouts, or suckers. Unless new plants are wanted, these should be treated as weeds, and only from three to five young canes be left to grow in each hill. This is a very important point, for too often the raspberry-patch is neglected until it is a mass of tangled bushes. Keep this simple principle in mind: there is a given amount of root-power; if this cannot be expended in making young sprouts all over the ground, it goes to produce a few strong fruit-bearing canes in the hill. In other words, you restrict the whole force of the plant to the precise work required--the giving of berries. As the original plants grow older, they will show a constantly decreasing tendency to throw up new shoots, but as long as they continue to grow, let only those survive which are designed to bear the following season. The canes of cultivated raspberries are biennial. A young and in most varieties a fruitless cane is produced in one season; it bears in July the second year, and then its usefulness is over. It will continue to live in a half-dying way until fall, but it is a useless and unsightly life. I know that it is contended by some that the foliage on the old canes aids in nourishing the plants; but I think that, under all ordinary circumstances, the leaves on the young growth are abundantly sufficient. By removing the old canes after they have borne their fruit, an aspect of neatness is imparted, which would be conspicuously absent were they left. Every autumn, before laying the canes down, I should shorten them in one-third. The remaining two-thirds will give more fruit by actual measurement, and the berries will be finer and larger, than if the canes were left intact. From first to last the soil about the foreign varieties should be maintained in a high degree of fertility and mellowness. Of manures from the barnyard, that from the cow-stable is the best; wood-ashes, bone-dust, and decayed leaves also are excellent fertilizers. During all this period the partial shade of small trees will be beneficial rather than otherwise, for it should be remembered that sheltered localities are the natural habitat of the raspberry. By a little inquiry the reader can learn whether varieties of the foreign class are grown successfully in his vicinity. If they are, he can raise them also by following the directions which have been given. Brinckle's Orange--a buff-colored berry--is certainly one of the most beautiful, delicate, and delicious fruits in existence, and is well worth all the care it requires in the regions where it will grow; while the Franconia and others should never be permitted to die out by fruit connoisseurs. If the soil of your garden is light and sandy, or if you live much south of New York, I should not advise their trial. They may be grown far to the north, however. I am told that tender varieties of fruits that can be covered thrive even better in Canada than with us. There deep snow protects the land, and in spring and autumn they do not have long periods when the bare earth is alternately freezing and thawing. In the second class of raspberries, the crosses between the foreign and native species, we now have such fine varieties that no one has much cause for regret if he can raise them; and I scarcely see how he can help raising them if he has sufficient energy to set out a few plants and keep them free from weeds and superabundant suckers. Take the Cuthbert, for instance; you may set it out almost anywhere, and in almost any latitude except that of the extreme Southern States. But you must reverse the conditions required for the foreign kinds. If the ground is very rich, the canes will threaten to grow out of sight. I advise that this strong-growing sort be planted in rows five feet apart. Any ordinary soil is good enough for the Cuthbert to start in, and the plants will need only a moderate degree of fertilizing as they begin to lose a little of their first vigor. Of course, if the ground is unusually light and poor, it should be enriched and maintained in a fair degree of fertility. The point I wish to make is that this variety will thrive where most others would starve; but there is plenty of land on which anything will starve. The Cuthbert is a large, late berry, which continues long in bearing, and is deserving of a place in every garden. I have grown it for many years, and have never given it any protection whatever. Occasionally there comes a winter which kills the canes to the ground. I should perhaps explain to the reader here that even in the case of the tender foreign kinds it is only the canes that are killed by the frost; the roots below the surface are uninjured, and throw up vigorous sprouts the following spring. The Cuthbert is so nearly hardy that we let it take its chances, and probably in eight winters out of ten it would stand unharmed. Its hardiness is greatly enhanced when grown on well-drained soils. It now has a companion berry in the Marlboro--a variety but recently introduced, and therefore not thoroughly tested as yet. Its promise, however, is very fine, and it has secured the strong yet qualified approval of the best fruit critics. It requires richer soil and better treatment than the Cuthbert, and it remains to be seen whether it is equally hardy. It is well worth winter protection if it is not. It is not a suitable berry for the home garden if no other is grown, for the reason that it matures its entire crop within a brief time, and thus would give a family but a short season of raspberries. Cultivated in connection with the Cuthbert, it would be admirable, for it is very early, and would produce its fruit before the Cuthberts were ripe. Unitedly the two varieties would give a family six weeks of raspberries. There are scores of other kinds in this class, and some are very good indeed, well worth a place in an amateur's collection; but the two already named are sufficient to supply a family with excellent fruit. Of the third class of red raspberries, representing our pure native species, I should recommend only one variety--the Turner; and that is so good that it deserves a place in every collection. It certainly is a remarkable raspberry, and has an unusual history, which I have given in my work "Success with Small Fruits." I doubt whether there is a hardier raspberry in America--one that can be grown so far to the north, and, what is still more in its favor, so far to the south. In the latter region it is known as the Southern Thornless. The fact that it is almost wholly without spines is a good quality; but it is only one among many others. The Turner requires no winter protection whatever, will grow on almost any soil in existence, and in almost any climate. It yields abundantly medium-sized berries of good flavor. The fruit begins to ripen early, and lasts throughout a somewhat extended season. It will probably give more berries, with more certainty and less trouble, than any other variety. Even its fault leans to virtue's side. Set out a single plant, leave it to Nature, and in time it will cover the place with Turner raspberries; and yet it will do this in a quiet, unobtrusive way, for it is not a rampant, ugly grower. While it will persist in living under almost any circumstances, I have found no variety that responded more gratefully to good treatment. This consists simply in three things: (1) rigorous restriction of the suckers to four or five canes in the hill; (2) keeping the soil clean and mellow about the bearing plants; (3) making this soil rich. Its dwarf habit of growth, unlike that of the Cuthbert, enables one to stimulate it with any kind of manure. By this course the size of the bushes is greatly increased, and enormous crops can be obtained. I prefer to set out all raspberries in the fall, although as a matter of convenience I often perform the task in the early spring. I do not believe in late spring planting, except as one takes up a young sprout, two or three inches high, and sets it out as one would a tomato-plant. By this course time is often saved. When it is our wish to increase the quality and quantity of the fruit, I should advise that the canes of all varieties be cut back one-third of their length. A little observation will teach us the reason for this. Permit a long cane to bear throughout its natural length, and you will note that many buds near the ground remain dormant or make a feeble growth. The sap, following a general law of nature, pushes to the extremities, and is, moreover, too much diffused. Cut away one-third, and all the buds start with redoubled vigor, while more and larger fruit is the result. If, however, earliness in ripening is the chief consideration, as it often is, especially with the market-gardener, leave the canes unpruned, and the fruit ripens a few days sooner. In purveying for the home table, white raspberries offer the attractions of variety and beauty. In the case of Brinckle's Orange, its exquisite flavor is the chief consideration; but this fastidious foreign berry is practically beyond the reach, of the majority. There is, however, an excellent variety, the Caroline, which is almost as hardy as the Turner, and more easily grown. It would seem that Nature designed every one to have it (if we may say IT of Caroline), for not only does it sucker freely like the red raspberries, but the tips of the canes also bend over, take root, and form new plants. The one thing that Caroline needs is repression, the curb; she is too intense. I am inclined to think, however, that she has had her day, even as an attendant on royalty, for a new variety, claiming the high-sounding title of Golden Queen, has mysteriously appeared. I say mysteriously, for it is difficult to account for her origin. Mr. Ezra Stokes, a fruit-grower of New Jersey, had a field of twelve acres planted with Cuthbert raspberries. In this field he found a bush producing white berries. In brief, he found an Albino of the Cuthbert. Of the causes of her existence he knows nothing. All we can say, I suppose, is that the variation was produced by some unknown impulse of Nature. Deriving her claims from such a source, she certainly has a better title to royalty than most of her sister queens, who, according to history, have been commonplace women, suggesting anything but nature. With the exception of the Philadelphians, perhaps, we as a people will not stand on the question of ancestry, and shall be more inclined to see how she "queens it." Of course the enthusiastic discoverer and disseminators of this variety claim that it is not only like the Cuthbert, but far better. Let us try it and see; if it is as good, we may well be content, and can grace our tables with beautiful fruit. There is another American species of raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) that is almost as dear to memory as the wild strawberry--the thimble-berry, or black-cap. I confess that the wild flavor of this fruit is more to my taste than that of any other raspberry. Apparently its seeds have been sown broadcast over the continent, for it is found almost everywhere, and there have been few children in America whose lips have not been stained by the dark purple juice of its fruit. Seeds dropped in neglected pastures, by fence and roadsides, and along the edges of the forest, produce new varieties which do not propagate themselves by suckers like red raspberries, but in a manner quite distinct. The young purple canes bend over and take root in the soil during August, September, and October. At the extreme end of the tip from which the roots descend a bud is formed, which remains dormant until the following spring. Therefore the young plant we set out is a more or less thick mass of roots, a green bud, and usually a bit of the old parent cane, which is of no further service except as a handle and a mark indicating the location of the plant. After the ground has been prepared as one would for corn or potatoes, it should be levelled, a line stretched for the row, and the plants set four feet apart in the row. Sink the roots as straight down as possible, and let the bud point upward, covering it lightly with merely one or two inches of soil. Press the ground firmly against the roots, but not on the bud. The soil just over this should be fine and mellow, so that the young shoot can push through easily, which it will soon do if the plants are in good condition. Except in the extreme South, spring is by far the best time for planting, and it should be done early, while the buds are dormant. After these begin to grow, keep the ground mellow and free from weeds. The first effort of the young plant will be to propagate itself. It will sprawl over the ground if left to its wild impulses, and will not make an upright bearing bush. On this account put a stake down by the young sprout, and as it grows keep it tied up and away from the ground. When the side-branches are eight or ten inches long, pinch them back, thus throwing the chief strength into the central cane. By keeping all the branches pinched back you form the plant into an erect, sturdy bush that will load itself with berries the following year. No fruit will be borne the first season. The young canes of the second year will incline to be more sturdy and erect in their growth; but this tendency can be greatly enhanced by clipping the long slender branches which are thrown out on every side. As soon as the old canes are through bearing, they should be cut out and burned or composted with other refuse from the garden. Black-caps may be planted on any soil that is not too dry. When the plant suffers from drought, the fruit consists of little else than seeds. To escape this defect I prefer to put the black-caps in a moist location; and it is one of the few fruits that will thrive in a cold, wet soil. One can set out plants here and there in out-of-the-way corners, and they often do better than those in the garden. Indeed, unless a place is kept up very neatly, many such bushes will be found growing wild, and producing excellent fruit. The question may arise in some minds, Why buy plants? Why not get them from the woods and fields, or let Nature provide bushes for us where she will? When Nature produces a bush on my place where it is not in the way, I let it grow, and pick the fruit in my rambles; but the supply would be precarious indeed for a family. By all means get plants from the woods if you have marked a bush that produces unusually fine fruit. It is by just this course that the finest varieties have been obtained. If you go a-berrying, you may light on something finer than has yet been discovered; but it is not very probable. Meanwhile, for a dollar you can get all the plants you want of the two or three best varieties that have yet been discovered, from Maine to California. After testing a great many kinds, I should recommend the Souhegan for early, and the Mammoth Cluster and Gregg for late. A clean, mellow soil in good condition, frequent pinchings back of the canes in summer, or a rigorous use of the pruning-shears in spring, are all that is required to secure an abundant crop from year to year. This species may also be grown among trees. I advise that every kind and description of raspberries be kept tied to stakes or a wire trellis. The wood ripens better, the fruit is cleaner and richer from exposure to air and sunshine, and the garden is far neater than if the canes are sprawling at will. I know that all horticulturists advise that the plants be pinched back so thoroughly as to form self-supporting bushes; but I have yet to see the careful fruit-grower who did this, or the bushes that some thunder-gusts would not prostrate into the mud with all their precious burden, were they not well supported. Why take the risk to save a two-penny stake? If, just before the fruit begins to ripen, a mulch of leaves, cut grass, or any litter that will cover the ground slightly, is placed under and around the bushes, it may save a great deal of fruit from being spoiled. The raspberry season is also the hour and opportunity for thunder-showers, whose great slanting drops often splash the soil to surprising distances. Sugar-and-cream-coated, not mud-coated, berries, if you please. In my remarks on raspberries I have not named many varieties, and have rather laid stress on the principles which may guide the reader in his present and future selections of kinds. Sufficient in number and variety to meet the NEEDS of every family have been mentioned. The amateur may gratify his taste by testing other sorts described in nurserymen's catalogues. Moreover, every year or two some new variety will be heralded throughout the land. The reader has merely to keep in mind the three classes of raspberries described and their characteristics, in order to make an intelligent choice from old and new candidates for favor. It should also be remembered that the raspberry is a Northern fruit. I am often asked in effect, What raspberries do you recommend for the Gulf States? I suppose my best reply would be, What oranges do you think best adapted to New York? Most of the foreign kinds falter and fail in New Jersey and Southern Pennsylvania; the Cuthbert and its class can be grown much further south, while the Turner and the black-caps thrive almost to Florida. Raspberries, especially those of our native species, are comparatively free from disease. Foreign varieties and their hybrids are sometimes afflicted with the curl-leaf. The foliage crimps up, the canes are dwarfed, and the whole plant has a sickly and often yellow appearance. The only remedy is to dig up the plant, root and branch, and burn it. A disease termed the "rust" not infrequently attacks old and poorly nourished black-cap bushes. The leaves take on an ochreous color, and the plant is seen to be failing. Extirpate it as directed above. If many bushes are affected, I advise that the whole patch be rooted up, and healthy plants set out elsewhere. It is a well-known law of Nature that plants of nearly all kinds appear to exhaust from the soil in time the ingredients peculiarly acceptable to them. Skill can do much toward maintaining the needful supply; but the best and easiest plan is not to grow any of the small fruits too long in any one locality. By setting out new plants on different ground, far better results are attained with much less trouble. CHAPTER VI THE CURRANT Who that has ever lived in the country does not remember the old straggling currant-bushes that disputed their existence with grass, docks, and other coarse-growing weeds along some ancient fence? Many also can recall the weary task of gathering a quart or two of the diminutive fruit for pies, and the endless picking required to obtain enough for the annual jelly-making. Nor is this condition of affairs a thing of the past. Drive through the land where you will in early July, and you will see farmers mowing round the venerable Red Dutch currants "to give the women-folks a chance at 'em." The average farmer still bestows upon this fruit about as much attention as the aborigines gave to their patches of maize. This seems very absurd when we remember the important place held in the domestic economy by the currant, and how greatly it improves under decent treatment. If it demanded the attention which a cabbage-plant requires, it would be given; but the currant belongs to that small class of creatures which permit themselves to be used when wanted, and snubbed, neglected, and imposed upon at other times. It is known that the bushes will manage to exist, and do the Very best they can, no matter how badly treated; and average human nature has ever taken advantage of such traits, to its continuous loss. The patience of the currant is due perhaps to its origin, for it grows wild round the northern hemisphere, its chief haunts being the dim, cold, damp woods of the high latitudes. You may tame, modify, and vastly change anything possessing life; but original traits are scarcely ever wholly eradicated. Therefore the natural habitat and primal qualities of the currant indicate the true lines of development, its capabilities and limitations. It is essentially a northern fruit, requiring coolness, moisture, and alluvial soils. It begins to falter and look homesick even in New Jersey; and one has not to go far down the Atlantic coast to pass beyond the range of its successful culture. I do not see why it should not thrive much further south on the northern slopes of the mountains. From Philadelphia northward, however, except on light dry soils and in sunny exposures, there is no reason why it should not give ample returns for the attention it requires. I shall not lay stress on the old, well-known uses to which this fruit is put, but I do think its value is but half appreciated. People rush round in July in search of health: let me recommend the currant cure. If any one is languid, depressed in spirits, inclined to headaches, and generally "out of sorts," let him finish his breakfast daily for a month with a dish of freshly picked currants. He will soon, almost doubt his own identity, and may even begin to think that he is becoming a good man. He will be more gallant to his wife, kinder to his children, friendlier to his neighbors, and more open-handed to every good cause. Work will soon seem play, and play fun. In brief, the truth of the ancient pun will be verified, that "the power to live a good life depends largely upon the LIVER." Out upon the nonsense of taking medicine and nostrums during the currant-season! Let it be taught at theological seminaries that the currant is a "means of grace." It is a corrective; and that is what average humanity most needs. The currant, like the raspberry, is willing to keep shady; but only because it is modest. It is one of the fruits that thrive better among trees than in too dry and sunny exposures. Therefore, in economizing space on the Home Acre it may be grown among smaller trees, or, better still, on the northern or eastern side of a wall or hedge. But shade is not essential, except as we go south; then the requisites of moisture and shelter from the burning rays of the sun should be complied with as far as possible. In giving this and kindred fruits partial shade, they should not be compelled to contend to any extent with the roots of trees. This will ever prove an unequal contest. No fruit can thrive in dense shade, or find sustenance among the voracious roots of a tree. Select, therefore, if possible, heavy, deep, moist, yet well-drained soil, and do not fear to make and keep it very rich. If you are restricted to sandy or gravelly soils, correct their defects with compost, decayed leaves and sods, muck, manure from the cow-stable, and other fertilizers with staying rather than stimulating qualities. Either by plowing or forking, deepen as well as enrich the soil. It is then ready for the plants, which may be set out either in the fall or in early spring. I prefer the autumn--any time after the leaves have fallen; but spring answers almost as well, while buds are dormant, or partially so. It should be remembered that the currant starts very early, and is in full foliage before some persons are fairly wakened to garden interests. It would, in this case, be better to wait until October, unless the plants can be obtained from a neighbor on a cloudy day; then they should be cut back two-thirds of their length before being removed, and the transfer made as quickly as possible. Under any circumstances, take off half of the wood from the plants bought. This need not be thrown away. Every cutting of young wood six inches long will make a new plant in a single season. All that is needful is to keep the wood moist until ready to put it in the ground, or, better still, a cool, damp place in the garden can be selected at once, and the cuttings sunk two-thirds of their length into the ground, and the soil pressed firm around them. By fall they will have a good supply of roots, and by the following autumn be ready to be set out wherever you wish them to fruit. Currant-bushes may be planted five feet apart each way, and at the same distance, if they are to line a fence. They should be sunk a few inches deeper in the soil than they stood before, and the locality be such as to admit of good culture. The soil should never be permitted to become hard, weedy, or grass-grown. As a rule, I prefer two-year-old plants, while those of one year's growth answer nearly as well, if vigorous. If in haste for fruit, it may be well to get three-year-old plants, unless they have been dwarfed and enfeebled by neglect. Subsequent culture consists chiefly in keeping the soil clean, mellow, rich, and therefore moist. I have named the best fertilizers for the currant; but if the product of the horse-stable is employed, use it first as a mulch. It will thus gradually reach the roots. Otherwise it is too stimulating, and produces a rampant growth of wood rather than fruit. Under any circumstances this tendency to produce an undue amount of wood must be repressed almost as rigorously as in the grape-vine. The secret of successful currant-culture is richness beneath, and restriction above. English gardeners are said to have as complete and minute systems of pruning and training currants as the grape; but we do not seem to have patience for such detail. Nor do I regard it as necessary. Our object is an abundant supply of excellent fruit; and this result can be obtained at a surprisingly small outlay of time and money, if they are expended judiciously. The art of trimming a currant-bush, like that of pruning a grape-vine, is best learned by observation and experience. One can give principles rather than lay down rules. Like the vine, the currant tends to choke itself with a superabundance of wood, which soon becomes more or less barren. This is truer of some varieties than of others; but in all instances the judicious use of the pruning-knife doubles the yield. In view of the supposition that the leading shoot and all the branches were shortened in one-half when the plant was set out, I will suggest that early in June it will be observed that much more wood is forming than can be permitted to remain. There are weak, crowding shoots which never can be of any use. If these are cut out at this time, the sap which would go to mature them will be directed into the valuable parts of the forming bush. Summer pruning prevents misspent force, and it may be kept up with great advantage from year to year. This is rarely done, however; therefore early in spring the bushes must receive a good annual pruning, and the long shoots and branches be cut well back, so as to prevent naked reaches of wood. Observe a very productive bush, and you will see that there are many points abounding in little side-branches. It is upon these that the fruit is chiefly borne. A bush left to itself is soon a mass of long, slender, almost naked stalks, with a little fruit at the ends. The ideal bush is stocky, open, well branched, admitting light, air, and sun in every part. There is no crowding and smothering of the fruit by the foliage. But few clusters are borne on very young wood, and when this grows old and black, the clusters are small. Therefore new wood should always be coming on and kept well cut back, so as to form joints and side-branches; and as other parts grow old and feeble they should be cut out. Observation and experience will teach the gardener more than all the rules that could be written, for he will perceive that he must prune each bush according to its own individuality. For practical purposes the bush form is the best in which to grow currants; but they can easily be made to form pretty little trees with tops shaped like an umbrella, or any other form we desire. For instance, I found, one autumn, a shoot about three feet long. I rubbed off all the buds except the terminal one and three or four just beneath it, then sunk the lower end of the shoot six inches into the soil, and tied the part above the ground to a short stake. The following spring the lower end took root, and the few buds at the top developed into a small bushy head. Clumps of miniature currant-trees would make as pretty an ornament for the garden border as one would wish to see. It should be remembered that there is a currant as well as an apple borer; but the pests are not very numerous or destructive, and such little trees may easily be grown by the hundred. Clean culture has one disadvantage which must be guarded against. If the ground under bushes is loose, heavy rains will sometimes so splash up the soil as to muddy the greater part of the fruit. I once suffered serious loss in this way, and deserved it; for a little grass mown from the lawn, or any other litter spread under and around the bushes just before the fruit ripened, would have prevented it. It will require but a very few minutes to insure a clean crop. I imagine that if these pages are ever read, and such advice as I can give is followed, it will be more often by the mistress than the master of the Home Acre. I address him, but quite as often I mean her; and just at this point I am able to give "the power behind the throne" a useful hint. Miss Alcott, in her immortal "Little Women," has given an instance of what dire results may follow if the "jelly won't jell." Let me hasten to insure domestic peace by telling my fair reader (who will also be, if the jelly turns out of the tumblers tremulous yet firm, a gentle reader) that if she will have the currants picked just as soon as they are fully ripe, and before they have been drenched by a heavy rain, she will find that the jelly will "jell." It is overripe, water-soaked currants that break up families and demolish household gods. Let me also add another fact, as true as it is strange, that white currants make red jelly; therefore give the pearly fruit ample space in the garden. In passing to the consideration of varieties, it is quite natural in this connection to mention the white sorts first. I know that people are not yet sufficiently educated to demand white currants of their grocers; but the home garden is as much beyond the grocer's stall as the home is better than a boarding-house. There is no reason why free people in the country should be slaves to conventionalities, prejudices, and traditions. If white currants ARE sweeter, more delicious and beautiful than the red, why, so they are. Therefore let us plant them abundantly. If there is to be a queen among the currants, the White Grape is entitled to the crown. When placed upon the table, the dish appears heaped with translucent pearls. The sharp acid of the red varieties is absent, and you feel that if you could live upon them for a time, your blood would grow pure, if not "blue." The bush producing this exquisite fruit is like an uncouth-looking poet who gives beauty from an inner life, but disappoints in externals. It is low-branching and unshapely, and must be forced into good form--the bush, not the poet--by the pruning-knife. If this is done judiciously, no other variety will bear more profusely or present a fairer object on a July day. The White Dutch has the well-known characteristics in growth of the common Red Dutch currant, and is inferior only to the White Grape in size. The fruit is equally transparent, beautiful, mild, and agreeable in flavor, while the bush is enormously productive, and shapely in form, if properly trained and fertilized. While the white currants are such favorites, I do not undervalue the red. Indeed, were I restricted to one variety, it should be the old Dutch Red of our fathers, or, more properly, of our grandmothers. For general house uses I do not think it has yet been surpassed. It is not so mild in flavor as the white varieties, but there is a richness and sprightliness in its acid that are grateful indeed on a sultry day. Mingled with the white berries, it makes a beautiful dish, while it has all the culinary qualities which the housekeeper can desire. If the bush is rigorously pruned and generously enriched, it is unsurpassed in productiveness, and the fruit approaches very nearly to the Cherry currant in size. I do not recommend the last-named kind for the home garden, unless large, showy fruit counts for more than flavor. The acid of the Cherry currant, unless very ripe, is harsh and watery. At best it never acquires an agreeable mildness, to my taste. The bushes also are not so certainly productive, and usually require skilful pruning and constant fertilizing to be profitable. For the market, which demands size above all things, the Cherry is the kind to grow; but in the home garden flavor and productiveness are the more important qualities. Fay's Prolific is a new sort that has been very highly praised. The Victoria is an excellent late variety, which, if planted in a sheltered place, prolongs the currant-season well into the autumn. Spurious kinds are sold under this name. The true Victoria produces a pale-red fruit with tapering clusters or racemes of berries. This variety, with the three others recommended, gives the family two red and two white kinds--all that are needed. Those who are fond of black currants can, at almost any nursery, procure the Black Naples and Lee's Prolific. Either variety will answer all practical purposes. I confess they are not at all to my taste. From the currant we pass on naturally to the gooseberry, for in origin and requirements it is very similar. Both belong to the Ribes family of plants, and they are to be cultivated on the same general principles. What I have written in regard to partial shade, cool, sheltered localities, rich, heavy soils, good culture, and especially rigorous pruning, applies with even greater force to this fruit, especially if we endeavor to raise the foreign varieties, in cultivating this fruit it is even more important than was true of raspberries that the reader should distinguish between the native and foreign species. The latter are so inclined to mildew in almost every locality that there is rarely any certainty of satisfactory fruit. The same evil pursues the seedling children of the foreign sorts, and I have never seen a hybrid or cross between the English and native species that was with any certainty free from a brown disfiguring rust wholly or partially enveloping the berries. Here and there the fruit in some gardens will escape year after year; again, on places not far away, the blighting mildew is sure to appear before the berries are fully grown. Nevertheless, the foreign varieties are so fine that it is well to give them a fair trial. The three kinds which appear best adapted to our climate are Crown Bob, Roaring Lion, and Whitesmith. A new large variety, named Industry, is now being introduced, and if half of what is claimed for it is true, it is worth a place in all gardens. In order to be certain of clean, fair gooseberries every year, we must turn to our native species, which has already given us several good varieties. The Downing is the largest and best, and the Houghton the hardiest, most productive and easily raised. When we remember the superb fruit which English gardeners have developed from wild kinds inferior to ours, we can well understand that the true American gooseberries are yet to be developed. In my work "Success with Small Fruits" those who are interested in this fruit will find much fuller treatment than is warranted in the present essay. Not only do currants and gooseberries require similar treatment and cultivation, but they also have a common enemy that must be vigilantly guarded against, or the bushes will be defoliated in many localities almost before its existence is known. After an absence of a few days I have found some of my bushes stripped of every leaf. When this happens, the fruit is comparatively worthless. Foliage is as necessary to a plant as are lungs to a man. It is not essential that I should go into the natural history of the currant worm and moth. Having once seen the yellowish-green caterpillars at their destructive work, the reader's thoughts will not revert to the science of entomology, but will at once become bloody and implacable. I hasten to suggest the means of rescue and vengeance. The moment these worms appear, be on your guard, for they usually spread like fire in stubble. Procure of your druggist white hellebore, scald and mix a tablespoonful in a bowl of hot water, and then pour it in a full watering-can. This gives you an infusion of about a tablespoonful to an ordinary pail of water at its ordinary summer temperature. Sprinkle the infected bushes with this as often as there is a worm to be seen. I have never failed in destroying the pests by this course. It should be remembered, however, that new eggs are often hatched out daily. You may kill every worm to-day, yet find plenty on the morrow. Vigilance, however, will soon so check the evil that your currants are safe; and if every one would fight the pests, they would eventually be almost exterminated. The trouble is that, while you do your duty, your next-door neighbor may grow nothing on his bushes but currant-worms. Thus the evil is continued, and even increased, in spite of all that you can do; but by a little vigilance and the use of hellebore you can always save YOUR currants. I have kept my bushes green, luxuriant, and loaded with fruit when, at a short distance, the patches of careless neighbors were rendered utterly worthless. Our laws but half protect the birds, the best insecticides, and there is no law to prevent a man from allowing his acres to be the breeding-place of every pest prevailing. There are three species of the currant-borer, and their presence is indicated by yellow foliage and shrivelling fruit. The only remedy is to cut out and burn the affected stems. These pests are not often sufficiently numerous to do much harm. I earnestly urge that virulent poisons like Paris green, London purple, etc., never be used on fruit or edible vegetables. There cannot be safety in this course. I never heard of any one that was injured by white hellebore, used as I have directed; and I have found that if the worms were kept off until the fruit began to ripen, the danger was practically over. If I had to use hellebore after the fruit was fit to use, I should first kill the worms, and then cleanse the bushes thoroughly by spraying them with clean water. In treating the two remaining small fruits, blackberries and strawberries, we pass wholly out of the shade and away from trees. Sunshine and open ground are now required. Another important difference can also be mentioned, reversing former experience. America is the home of these fruits. The wild species of the blackberry abroad has never, as far as I can learn, been developed into varieties worthy of cultivation; and before importations from North and South America began, the only strawberry of Europe was the Alpine, with its slight variations, and the musky Hautbois. I do not know whether any of our fine varieties of blackberries are cultivated abroad, but I am perfectly certain that they are worthy of the slight attention required to raise them in perfection here. Like the blackcaps, all our best varieties are the spontaneous products of Nature, first discovered growing wild, and transferred to the garden. The blackberry is a fruit that takes kindly to cultivation, and improves under it. The proper treatment is management rather than cultivation and stimulation. It requires a sunny exposure and a light, warm soil, yet not so dry as to prevent the fruit from maturing into juicy berries. If possible, set the blackberries off by themselves, for it is hard to prevent the strong roots from travelling all over the garden. The blackberry likes a rich, moist, mellow soil, and, finding it, some varieties will give you canes sixteen feet high. You do not want rank, thorny brambles, however, but berries. Therefore the blackberry should be put where it can do no harm, and, by a little judicious repression, a great deal of good. A gravelly or sandy knoll, with a chance to mow all round the patch, is the best place. The blackberry needs a deep, loose soil rather than a rich one. Then the roots will luxuriate to unknown depths, the wood ripen thoroughly, and the fruit be correspondingly abundant. Let the rows be six feet apart; set out the plants in the fall, if possible, or EARLY spring; put two plants in the hills, which may be four feet apart. If the ground is very poor, give the young plants a shovelful of old compost, decayed leaves, etc. Any fertilizer will answer, so that it is spread just over the roots to give the plants a good send-off. As a rule, complete success in blackberry culture consists in a little judicious work performed in May, June, and July. The plants, having been set out as I have advised in the case of raspberries, throw up the first season strong green shoots. When these shoots are three feet high, pinch off the top, so as to stop upward growth. The result of this is that branches start on every side, and the plant forms a low, stocky, self-supporting bush, which will be loaded with fruit the following season. The second year the plants in the hill will send up stronger canes, and there will be plenty of sprouts or suckers in the intervening spaces. When very young, these useless sprouts can be pulled out with the least possible trouble. Left to mature, they make a thorny wilderness which will cause bleeding hands and faces when attacked, and add largely to the family mending. That which a child could do as play when the suckers were just coming through the ground, is now a formidable task for any man. In early summer you can with the utmost ease keep every useless blackberry sprout from growing. More canes, also, will usually start from the hill than are needed. Leave but three strong shoots, and this year pinch them back as soon as they are four feet high, thus producing three stocky, well-branched bushes, which in sheltered places will be self-supporting. Should there be the slightest danger of their breaking down with their load of fruit, tie them to stakes by all means. I do not believe in that kind of economy which tries to save a penny at the risk of a dollar. I believe that better and larger fruit is always secured by shortening in the side branches one-third of their length in spring. Fine varieties like the Kittatinny are not entirely hardy in all localities. The snow will protect the lower branches, and the upper ones can usually be kept uninjured by throwing over them some very light litter, like old pea or bean vines, etc.--nothing heavy enough to break them down. As soon as the old canes are through bearing, they should be cut out. If the blackberry patch has been left to its own wild will, there is nothing left for us but to attack it, well-gloved, in April, with the pruning-shears, and cut out everything except three or four young canes in the hill. These will probably be tall, slender, and branchless, therefore comparatively unproductive. In order to have any fruit at all, we must shorten them one-third, and tie them to stakes. It thus may be clearly seen that with blackberries "a stitch in time" saves almost ninety-nine. Keep out coarse weeds and grass, and give fertilizers only when the plants show signs of feebleness and lack of nutrition. A rust similar to that which attacks the black-cap is almost the only disease we have to contend with. The remedy is the same--extirpation of the plant, root and branch. After testing a great many kinds, I recommend the three following varieties, ripening in succession for the family--the Early Harvest, Snyder, and Kittatinny. These all produce rich, high-flavored berries, and, under the treatment suggested, will prove hardy in nearly all localities. This fruit is not ripe as soon as it is black, and it is rarely left on the bushes until the hard core in the centre is mellowed by complete maturity. I have found that berries picked in the evening and stood in a cool place were in excellent condition for breakfast. To have them in perfection, however, they must be so ripe as to drop into the basket at the slightest touch; then, as Donald Mitchell says, they are "bloated bubbles of forest honey." I fancy the reader is as impatient to reach the strawberry as I am myself. "Doubtless God could have made a better berry"--but I forbear. This saying has been quoted by the greater part of the human race, and attributed to nearly every prominent man, from Adam to Mr. Beecher. There are said to be unfortunates whom the strawberry poisons. The majority of us feel as if we could attain Methuselah's age if we had nothing worse to contend with. Praising the strawberry is like "painting the lily;" therefore let us give our attention at once to the essential details of its successful culture. As we have intimated before, this fruit as we find it in our gardens, even though we raise foreign kinds, came originally from America. The two great species, Fragaria chilensis, found on the Pacific slope from Oregon to Chili, and Fragaria virginiana, growing wild in all parts of North America east of the Rocky Mountains, are the sources of all the fine varieties that have been named and cultivated. The Alpine strawberry (Fragaria vesca), which grows wild throughout the northern hemisphere, does not appear capable of much variation and development under cultivation. Its seeds, sown under all possible conditions, reproduce the parent plant. Foreign gardeners eventually learned, however, that seeds of the Chili and Virginia strawberry produced new varieties which were often much better than their parents. As time passed, and more attention was drawn to this subject, superb varieties were originated abroad, many of them acquiring a wide celebrity. In this case, as has been true of nearly all other fruits, our nursery-men and fruit-growers first looked to Europe for improved varieties. Horticulturists were slow to learn that in our own native species were the possibilities of the best success. The Chili strawberry, brought directly from the Pacific coast to the East, is not at home in our climate, and is still more unfitted to contend with it after generations of culture in Europe. Even our hardier Virginia strawberry, coming back to us from England after many years of high stimulation in a moist, mild climate, is unequal to the harsher conditions of life here. They are like native Americans who have lived and been pampered abroad so long that they find this country "quite too rude, you know--beastly climate." Therefore, in the choice varieties, and in developing new ones, the nearer we can keep to vigorous strains of our own hardy Virginia species the better. From it have proceeded and will continue to come the finest kinds that can be grown east of the Rockies. Nevertheless, what was said of foreign raspberries is almost equally true of European strawberries like the Triomphe de Gand and Jucunda, and hybrids like the Wilder. In localities where they can be grown, their beauty and fine flavor repay for the high culture and careful winter protection required. But they can scarcely be made to thrive on light soils or very far to the south. So many varieties are offered for sale that the question of choice is a bewildering one. I have therefore sought to meet it, as before, by giving the advice of those whose opinions are well entitled to respect. Dr. Hexamer, who has had great and varied experience, writes as follows: "A neighbor of mine who has for years bought nearly every new strawberry when first introduced, has settled on the Duchess and Cumberland as the only varieties he will grow in the future, and thinks it not worth while to seek for something better. Confined to two varieties, a more satisfactory selection could scarcely be made. But you want six or seven, either being, I think, about the right number for the home garden. I will give them in the order of desirability according to my judgment--Cumberland, Charles Downing, Duchess, Mount Vernon, Warren, Sharpless, Jewell." The selection which places the Cumberland Triumph at the head of the list is but another proof how kinds differ under varied conditions. On my place this highly praised sort is but moderately productive and not high-flavored, although the fruit is very large and handsome. I regard the list, however, as a most excellent one for most localities. The Hon. Marshall P. Wilder's choice for the latitude of Massachusetts: "Charles Downing, Wilder, Hervey Davis, Sharpless, Cumberland, Kentucky. Jewell is very promising." A. S. Fuller, for latitude of New York: "Charles Downing, Sharpless, Miner's Prolific, Wilson's Albany, Champion." P. C. Berckmans, for the latitude of Georgia: "Wilson, Sharpless, Charles Downing, Triomphe de Gand, Glendale." The Hon. Norman J. Colman's choice for Missouri and the West: "Crescent, Captain Jack, Cumberland, Champion, Hart's Minnesota, Cornelia." If I gave a hundred other lists, no two of them probably would agree in all respects. Mr. Downing often said to me, "Soil, climate, and locality make greater differences with the strawberry than with any other fruit." This is far more true of some varieties than others. I believe that the excellent kind named after Mr. Downing, if given proper treatment, will do well almost anywhere on the continent. It will be noted that it is on all the lists except one. I should place it at the head of garden strawberries. It is a kind that will endure much neglect, and it responds splendidly to generous, sensible treatment. Its delicious flavor is its chief recommendation, as it should be that of every berry for the home garden. I have tested many hundreds of kinds, and have grown scores and scores that were so praised when first sent out that the novice might be tempted to dig up and throw away everything except the wonderful novelty pressed upon his attention. There is one quiet, effective way of meeting all this heralding and laudation, and that is to make trial beds. For instance, I have put out as many as seventy kinds at nearly the same time, and grown them under precisely the same conditions. Some of the much-vaunted new-comers were found to be old varieties re-named; others, although sold at high prices and asserted to be prodigies, were seen to be comparatively worthless when growing by the side of good old standard sorts; the majority never rose above mediocrity under ordinary treatment; but now and then one, like the Sharpless, fulfilled the promises made for it. In my next chapter I shall venture to recommend those varieties which my own experience and observation have shown to be best adapted to various soils and localities, and shall also seek to prove that proper cultivation has more to do with success than even the selection of favored kinds. Nor would I seek to dissuade the proprietor of the Home Acre from testing the many novelties offered. He will be sure to get a fair return in strawberries, and to his interest in his garden will add the pleasure and anticipation which accompany uncertain experiment. In brief, he has found an innocent form of gambling, which will injure neither pocket nor morals. In slow-maturing fruits we cannot afford to make mistakes; in strawberries, one prize out of a dozen blanks repays for everything. CHAPTER VII STRAWBERRIES There is a very general impression that light, dry, sandy soils are the best for the strawberry. Just the reverse of this is true. In its desire for moisture it is almost an aquatic plant. Experienced horticulturists have learned to recognize this truth, which the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder has suggested in the following piquant manner: "In the first place, the strawberry's chief need is a great deal of water. In the second place, it needs more water. In the third place, I think I should give it a great deal more water." While emphasizing this truth the reader should at the same time be warned against land whereon water stands above the surface in winter and spring, or stagnates beneath the surface at any time. Moisture is essential to the best results; good drainage is equally so. The marvellous crops of strawberries raised in California under well-directed systems of irrigation should teach us useful lessons. The plants, instead of producing a partially developed crop within a few brief days, continue in bearing through weeks and months. It may often be possible to supply abundantly on the Home Acre this vital requirement of moisture, and I shall refer to this point further on. My first advice in regard to strawberries is to set them out immediately almost anywhere except upon land so recently in grass that the sod is still undecayed. This course is better than not to have the fruit at all, or to wait for it A year without strawberries is a lost year in one serious respect. While there is a wide difference between what plants can do under unfavorable conditions and what they can be made to do when their needs are fully met, they will probably in any event yield a fair supply of delicious fruit. Secure this as soon as possible. At the same time remember that a plant of a good variety is a genius capable of wonderful development. In ordinary circumstances it is like the "mute, inglorious" poets whose enforced limitations were lamented by the poet Gray; but when its innate powers and gifts are fully nourished it expands into surprising proportions, sends up hundreds of flowers, which are followed by ruby gems of fruit whose exquisite flavor is only surpassed by its beauty. No such concentrated ambrosia ever graced the feasts of the Olympian gods, for they were restricted to the humble Fragaria vesca, or Alpine species. In discovering the New World, Columbus also discovered the true strawberry, and died without the knowledge of this result of his achievement. I can imagine the expression on the faces of those who buy the "sour, crude, half-ripe Wilsons," against which the poet Bryant inveighed so justly. The market is flooded with this fruit because it bears transportation about as well as would marbles. Yes, they are strawberries; choke-pears and Seckels belong to the same species. There is truth enough in my exaggeration to warrant the assertion that if we would enjoy the possible strawberry, we must raise it ourselves, and pick it when fully matured--ready for the table, and not for market. Then any man's garden can furnish something better than was found in Eden. Having started a strawberry-patch without loss of time wherever it is handiest, we can now give our attention to the formation of an ideal bed. In this instance we must shun the shade of trees above, and their roots beneath. The land should be open to the sky, and the sun free to practice his alchemy on the fruit the greater part of the day. The most favorable soil is a sandy loam, verging toward clay; and it should have been under cultivation sufficiently long to destroy all roots of grass and perennial weeds. Put on the fertilizer with a free hand. If it is barnyard manure, the rate of sixty tons to the acre is not in excess. A strawberry plant has a large appetite and excellent digestion. It prefers decidedly manure from the cow-stable, though that from the horse-stable answers very well; but it is not advisable to incorporate it with the soil in its raw, unfermented state, and then to plant immediately. The ground can scarcely be too rich for strawberries, but it may easily be overheated and stimulated. In fertilizing, ever keep in mind the two great requisites--moisture and coolness. Manure from the horse-stable, therefore, is almost doubled in value as well as bulk if composted with leaves, muck, or sods, and allowed to decay before being used. Next to enriching the soil, the most important step is to deepen it. If a plow is used, sink it to the beam, and run it twice in a furrow. If a lifting subsoil-plow can follow, all the better. Strawberry roots have been traced two feet below the surface. If the situation of the plot does not admit the use of a plow, let the gardener begin at one side and trench the area to at least the depth of eighteen inches, taking pains to mix the surface, subsoil, and fertilizer evenly and thoroughly. A small plot thus treated will yield as much as one three or four times as large. One of the chief advantages of thus deepening the soil is that the plants are insured against their worst enemy--drought. How often I have seen beds in early June languishing for moisture, the fruit trusses lying on the ground, fainting under their burden, and the berries ripening prematurely into little more than diminutive collections of seeds! When ground has been deepened as I have said, the drought must be almost unparalleled to arrest the development of the fruit. Even in the most favorable seasons, hard, shallow soils give but a brief period of strawberries, the fruit ripens all at once, and although the first berries may be of good size, the later ones dwindle until they are scarcely larger than peas. Be sure to have a deep, mellow soil beneath the plants. Such a bed can be made in either spring or fall--indeed, at any time when the soil is free from frost, and neither too wet nor dry. I do not believe in preparing and fertilizing ground during a period of drought. We will suppose the work has been done in the spring, as early as the earth was dry enough to crumble freely, and that the surface of the bed is smooth, mellow, and ready for the plants. Stretch a garden line down the length of the plot two feet from the outer edge, and set the plants along the line one foot apart from each other. Let the roots be spread out, not buried in a mat, the earth pressed FIRMLY against them, and the crown of the plant be exactly even with the surface of the soil, which should also be pressed closely around it with the fingers. This may seem minute detail, yet much dismal experience proves it to be essential. I have employed scores of men, and the great majority at first would either bury the crowns out of sight, or else leave part of the roots exposed, and the remainder so loose in the soil that a sharp gale would blow the plants away. There is no one so economical of time as the hired man whose time is paid for. He is ever bent on saving a minute or half-minute in this kind of work. On one occasion I had to reset a good part of an acre on which my men had saved time in planting. If I had asked them to save the plants in the year of '86, they might have "struck." The first row having been set out, I advise that the line be moved forward three feet. This would make the rows three feet apart--not too far in ground prepared as described, and in view of the subsequent method of cultivation. The bed may therefore be filled up in this ratio, the plants one foot apart in the row, and the rows three feet apart. The next point in my system, for the kind of soil named (for light, sandy soils another plan will be indicated), is to regard each plant as an individual that is to be developed to the utmost. Of course only young plants of the previous season's growth should be used. If a plant has old, woody, black roots, throw it away. Plants set out in April will begin to blossom in May. These buds and blossoms should be picked off ruthlessly as soon as they appear. Never does avarice overreach itself more completely than when plants are permitted to bear the same season in which they are set out. The young, half-established plant is drained of its vitality in producing a little imperfect fruit; yet this is permitted even by farmers who would hold up their hands at the idea of harnessing a colt to a plow. The plants do not know anything about our purpose in regard to them. They merely seek to follow the law of Nature to propagate themselves, first by seeds which, strictly speaking, are the fruit, and then by runners. These slender, tendril-like growths begin to appear early in summer, and if left unchecked will mat the ground about the parent with young plants by late autumn. If we wish plants, let them grow by all means; but if fruit is our object, why should we let them grow? "Because nearly every one seems to do it," would be, perhaps, the most rational answer. This is a mistake, for many are beginning to take just the opposite course even when growing strawberries by the acre. Let us fix our attention on a single plant. It has a certain amount of root pasturage and space in which to grow. Since it is not permitted to produce an indefinite number of young plants, it begins to develop itself. The soil is rich, the roots are busy, and there must be an outlet. The original plant cannot form others, and therefore begins to produce fruit-crowns for the coming year. All the sap, all the increasing power of root and foliage, are directed to preparation for fruit. In brief, we have got the plant in traces; it is pulling in the direction we wish, it will eventually deliver a load of berries which would surprise those who trust simply to Nature unguided. Some one may object that this is a troublesome and expensive way of growing strawberries. Do not the facts in the case prove the reverse? A plant restricted to a single root can be hoed and worked around like a hill of corn or a currant-bush. With comparatively little trouble the ground between the rows can be kept clean and mellow. Under the common system, which allows the runners to interlace and mat the ground, you soon have an almost endless amount of hand-weeding to do, and even this fails if white clover, sorrel, and certain grasses once get a start. The system I advocate forbids neglect; the runners must be clipped off as fast as they appear, and they continue to grow from June till frost; but the actual labor of the year is reduced to a minimum. A little boy or girl could keep a large bed clipped by the occasional use of a shears or knife before breakfast; and if the ground between the plants is free of runners, it can be hoed over in an hour. Considering, therefore, merely the trouble and expense, the single-plant system has the facts in its favor. But our object is not to grow strawberry plants with the least trouble, but to have strawberries of the largest and finest quality. In addition to ease and thoroughness of cultivation, there are other important advantages. The single narrow row of plants is more easily protected against winter's frosts. Light, strawy manure from the horse-stable serves well for this purpose; but it should be light and free from heat. I have seen beds destroyed by too heavy a covering of chunky, rank manure. It is not our purpose to keep the beds and plants from freezing, but from alternately freezing and thawing. If snow fell on the bed in December and lasted till April, no other protection would be needed. Nature in this latitude has no sympathy for the careless man. During the winter of 1885, in January, and again in February and March, the ground was bare, unprotected plants were badly frozen, and in many instances lifted partly out of the ground by midday thawing and night freezing. The only safe course is to cover the rows thoroughly, but not heavily, early in December. If then light stable-manure is not at hand, leaves, old bean-vines, or any dry refuse from the garden not containing injurious seeds will answer. Do not employ asparagus-tops, which contain seed. Of course we want this vegetable, but not in the strawberry bed. Like some persons out of their proper sphere, asparagus may easily become a nuisance; and it will dispossess other growths of their rights and places as serenely as a Knight of Labor. The proper balance must be kept in the garden as well as in society; and therefore it is important to cover our plants with something that will not speedily become a usurper. Let it be a settled point, then, that the narrow rows must be covered thoroughly out of sight with some light material which will not rest with smothering weight on the plants or leave among them injurious seeds. Light stable-manure is often objected to for the reason that employing it is like sowing the ground with grass-seed. If the plants had been allowed to grow in matted beds, I would not use this material for a winter covering, unless it had been allowed to heat sufficiently to destroy the grass and clover seed contained in it. I have seen matted beds protected with stable-manure that were fit to mow by June, the plants and fruit having been over run with grass. No such result need follow if the plants are cultivated in a single line, for then the manure can be raked off in early spring--first of April in our latitude--and the ground cultivated. There is a great advantage in employing light manure if the system I advocate is followed, for the melting snows and rains carry the richness of the fertilizer to the roots, and winter protection serves a double purpose. We will now consider the proper management for the second year, when a full crop should be yielded. I know that many authorities frown upon cultivation during the second spring, before plants bear their fruit. I can not agree with this view, except in regard to very light soils, and look upon it as a relic of the old theory that sandy land was the best for strawberries. Take the soil under consideration, a sandy loam, for instance. After the frost is out, the earth settled, and the winter covering raked off, the soil under the spring sun grows hard, and by June is almost as solid as a roadbed. Every one knows that land in such condition suffers tenfold more severely from drought than if it were light and mellow from cultivation. Perennial weeds that sprouted late in the fall or early spring get a start, and by fruiting-time are rampant. I do advocate EARLY spring cultivation, and by it I almost double my crop, while at the same time maintaining a mastery over the weeds. As soon as the severe frosts are over, in April, I rake the coarsest of the stable-manure from the plants, leaving the finer and decayed portions as a fertilizer. Then, when the ground is dry enough to work, I have a man weed out the rows, and if there are vacant spaces, fill in the rows with young plants. The man then forks the ground lightly between the rows, and stirs the surface merely among the plants. Thus all the hard, sodden surface is loosened or scarified, and opened to the reception of air and light, dew and rain. The man is charged emphatically that in this cultivation he must not lift the plants or disturb the roots to any extent. If I find a plant with its hold upon the ground loosened, I know there has been careless work. Before digging along the row the fork is sunk beside the plants to prevent the soil from lifting in cakes, and the plants with them. In brief, pains are taken that the plants should be just as firm in the soil after cultivation as before. Let the reader carefully observe that this work is done EARLY in April, while the plants are comparatively DORMANT. Most emphatically it should not be done in May, after the blossoms begin to appear. If the bed has been neglected till that time, the SURFACE MERELY can be cultivated with a hoe. When the plants have approached so near to the fruiting, the roots must not be disturbed at all. EARLY cultivation gives time for new roots to grow, and stimulates such growth. Where the rows are sufficiently long, and the ground permits it, this early loosening of the soil is accomplished with a horse-cultivator better than with a fork, the hoe following and levelling the soil and taking out all weeds. My next step during the second season is to mulch the plants, in order to keep the fruit clean. Without this mulch the fruit is usually unfit for the table. A dashing shower splashes the berries with mud and grit, and the fruit must be washed before it is eaten; and strawberries with their sun-bestowed beauty and flavor washed away are as ridiculous as is mere noise from musical instruments. To be content with such fruit is like valuing pictures by the number of square inches of canvas! In perfecting a strawberry, Nature gives some of her finest touches, and it is not well to obliterate them with either mud or water. Any light clean material will keep the fruit clean. I have found spring rakings of the lawn--mingled dead grass and leaves--one of the best. Leaves from a grove would answer, were it not for their blowing about in an untidy way. Of course there is nothing better than straw for the strawberry; but this often costs as much as hay. Any clean litter that will lie close to the ground and can be pushed up under the plants will answer. Nor should it be merely under the plants. A man once mulched my rows in such a way that the fruit hung over the litter on the soil beyond. A little common-sense will meet the requirement of keeping the berries well away from the loose soil, while at the same time preserving a neat aspect to the bed. Pine-needles and salt-hay are used where these materials are abundant. Make it a rule to mulch as soon as possible after the plants begin to blossom, and also after a good soaking rain. In this case the litter keeps the ground moist. If the soil immediately about the plants is covered when dry, the mulch may keep it dry--to the great detriment of the forming berries. It is usually best to put on the mulch as soon as the early cultivation is over in April, and then the bed may be left till the fruit is picked. Of course it may be necessary to pull out some rank-growing weeds from time to time. If the hired man is left to do the mulching very late in the season, he will probably cover much of the green fruit and blossoms as well as the ground. After the berries have been picked, the remaining treatment of the year is very simple. Rake out the mulch, cultivate the soil, and keep the plants free of weeds and runners as during the previous year. Before hard freezing weather, protect again as before, and give the plants similar treatment the following spring and summer. Under this system the same plants may be kept in bearing three, four, and five years, according to the variety. Some kinds maintain their vigor longer than others. After the first year the disposition to run declines, and with the third year, in most instances, deterioration in the plant itself begins. I would therefore advise that under this system a new bed be made, as described, every third year; for, it should be remembered, the new bed is unproductive the first year. This should never be forgotten if one would maintain a continuous supply of berries, otherwise he will be like those born on the 29th of February, and have only occasional birthdays. If the old bed is just where you wish, and has been prepared in the thorough manner described, it can be renewed in the following manner: When the old plants begin to decline in vigor--say the third or fourth spring--a line of well-decayed compost and manure from the cow-stable a foot wide may be spread thickly down between the rows, dug under deeply, and young plants set out just over the fertilizer. The old plants can be treated as has already been described, and as soon as they are through bearing, dug under. This would leave the young plants in full possession of the ground, and the cultivation and management for three or more years would go on as already directed. This course involves no loss of time or change of ground for a long periods. If, however, a new bed can be made somewhere else, the plants will thrive better upon it. Unless there are serious objections, a change of ground is always advantageous; for no matter how lavishly the plot is enriched, the strawberry appears to exhaust certain required constituents in the soil. Continued vigor is better maintained by wood-ashes perhaps than by any other fertilizer, after the soil is once deepened and enriched, and it may be regarded as one of the very best tonics for the strawberry plant. Bone-meal is almost equally good. Guano and kindred fertilizers are too stimulating, and have not the staying qualities required. As has been intimated before, the strawberry bed may often be so located on the Home Acre as to permit of irrigation. This does not mean sprinkling and splattering with water, but the continuous maintenance of abundant moisture during the critical period from the time the fruit begins to form until it ripens. Partial watering during a drought is very injurious; so also would be too frequent watering. If the ground could be soaked twice a week in the evening, and then left to the hardening and maturing influence of the sun and wind, the finest results would be secured. I am satisfied that in most localities the size of the berries and the number of quarts produced might be doubled by judicious irrigation. The system given above applies not only to sandy loam, but also to all varieties of clay, even the most stubborn. In the latter instance it would be well to employ stable-manure in the initial enriching, for this would tend to lighten and warm the soil. Care must also be exercised in not working clay when it is too wet or too dry. Mulch also plays an important part on heavy clay, for it prevents the soil from baking and cracking. One of the best methods of preventing this is to top-dress the ground with stable-manure, and hoe it in from time to time when fighting the weeds. This keeps the surface open and mellow--a vital necessity for vigorous growth. Few plants will thrive when the surface is hard and baked. Nevertheless, if I had to choose between heavy clay and light sand for strawberries, I should much prefer the clay. On the last-named soil an abundant winter protection is absolutely necessary, or else the plants will freeze entirely out of the ground. The native strain of cultivated strawberries has so much vigor and power of adaptation that plenty of excellent varieties can be grown on the lightest soil. In this instance, however, we would suggest important modifications in preparation and culture. The soil, as has been already shown, must be treated like a spendthrift. Deep plowing or spading should be avoided, as the subsoil is too loose and leachy already. The initial enriching of the bed should be generous, but not lavish. You cannot deposit fertilizers for long-continued use. I should prefer to harrow or rake in the manure, leaving it near the surface. The rains will carry it down fast enough. One of the very best methods is to open furrows, three feet apart, with a light corn-plow, half fill them with decayed compost, again run the plow through to mix the fertilizer with the soil, then level the ground, and set out the plants immediately over the manure. They thus get the benefit of it before it can leach away. The accomplished horticulturist Mr. P. T. Quinn, of Newark, N. J., has achieved remarkable success by this plan. It is a well-known fact that on light land strawberry plants are not so long-lived and do not develop, or "stool out," as it is termed, as on heavier land. In order to secure the largest and best possible crop, therefore, I should not advise a single line of plants, but rather a narrow bed of plants, say eighteen inches wide, leaving eighteen inches for a walk. I would not allow this bed to be matted with an indefinite number of little plants crowding each other into feeble life, but would leave only those runners which had taken root early, and destroy the rest. A plant which forms in June and the first weeks in July has time to mature good-sized fruit-buds before winter, especially if given space in which to develop. This, however, would be impossible if the runners were allowed to sod the ground thickly. In principle I would carry out the first system, and give each plant space in which to grow upon its own root as large as it naturally would in a light soil, and I would have a sufficient number of plants to supply the deficiency in growth. On good, loamy soil, the foliage of single lines of plants, three feet apart, will grow so large as to touch across the spaces; but this could scarcely be expected on light soil unless irrigation were combined with great fertility. Nevertheless, a bed with plants standing not too thickly upon it will give an abundance of superb fruit. Strawberries grown in beds may not require so much spring mulching to keep the fruit clean, but should carefully receive all that is needed. Winter protection also is not so indispensable as on heavier soils, but it always well repays. A thick bed of plants should never be protected by any kind of litter which would leave seeds of various kinds, for under this system of culture weeds must be taken out by hand; and this is always slow, back-aching work. When plants are grown in beds it does not pay to continue them after fruiting the third year. For instance, they are set out in spring, and during the first season they are permitted to make a limited number of runners, and prepare to fruit the following year. After the berries are picked the third year, dig the plants under, and occupy the ground with something else. On light soils, and where the plants are grown in beds instead of narrow rows, new beds should be set out every alternate year. In order to have an abundant supply of young plants it is only necessary to let one end of a row or a small portion of a bed run at will. Then new plants can be set out as desired. While more strawberries are planted in spring than at any other time, certain advantages are secured by summer and fall setting. This is especially true of gardens wherein early crops are maturing, leaving the ground vacant. For instance, there are areas from which early peas, beans, or potatoes have been gathered. Suppose such a plot is ready for something else in July or August, the earlier the better. Unless the ground is very dry, a bed can be prepared as has been described. If the soil is in good condition, rich and deep, it can be dug thoroughly, and the plants set out at once in the cool of the evening, or just before a shower. During the hot season a great advantage is secured if the plants are set immediately after the ground is prepared, and while the surface is still moist. It is unfortunate if ground is made ready and then permitted to dry out before planting takes place, for watering, no matter how thorough, has not so good an influence in starting new growth as the natural moisture of the soil. It would be better, therefore, to dig the ground late in the afternoon, and set out the plants the same evening. Watering, however, should never be dispensed with during warm weather, unless there is a certainty of rain; and even then it does no harm. Suppose one wishes to set a new bed in July. If he has strawberries growing on his place, his course would be to let some of his favorite varieties make new runners as early as possible. These should be well-rooted young plants by the middle of the month. After the new ground is prepared, these can be taken up, with a ball of earth attached to their roots, and carried carefully to their new starting-place. If they are removed so gently as not to shake off the earth from the roots, they will not know that they have been moved, but continue to thrive without wilting a leaf. If such transplanting is done immediately after a soaking rain, the soil will cling to the roots so tenaciously as to ensure a transfer that will not cause any check of growth. But it is not necessary to wait for rain. At five in the afternoon soak with water the ground in which the young plants are standing, and by six o'clock you can take up the plants with their roots incased in clinging earth, just as successfully as after a rain. Plants thus transferred, and watered after being set out, will not wilt, although the thermometer is in the nineties the following day. If young plants are scarce, take up the strongest and best-rooted ones, and leave the runner attached; set out such plants with their balls of earth four feet apart in the row, and with a lump of earth fasten down the runners along the line. Within a month these runners will fill up the new rows as closely as desirable. Then all propagation in the new bed should be checked, and the plants compelled to develop for fruiting in the coming season. In this latitude a plant thus transferred in July or August will bear a very good crop the following June, and the berries will probably be larger than in the following years. This tendency to produce very large fruit is characteristic of young plants set out in summer. It thus may be seen that plants set in spring can not produce a good crop of fruit under about fourteen months, while others, set in summer, will yield in nine or ten months. I have set out many acres in summer and early autumn with the most satisfactory results. Thereafter the plants were treated in precisely the same manner as those set in spring. If the plants must be bought and transported from a distance during hot weather, I should not advise the purchase of any except those grown in pots. Nurserymen have made us familiar with pot-grown plants, for we fill our flowerbeds with them. In like manner strawberry plants are grown and sold. Little pots, three inches across at the top, are sunk in the earth along a strawberry row, and the runners so fastened down that they take root in these pots. In about two weeks the young plant will fill a pot with roots. It may then be severed from the parent, and transported almost any distance, like a verbena. Usually the ball of earth and roots is separated from the pot, and is then wrapped in paper before being packed in the shallow box employed for shipping purposes. A nurseryman once distributed in a summer throughout the country a hundred thousand plants of one variety grown in this manner. The earth encasing the roots sustained the plants during transportation and after setting sufficiently to prevent any loss worth mentioning. This method of the plant-grower can easily be employed on the Home Acre. Pots filled with earth may be sunk along the strawberry rows in the garden, the runners made to root in them, and from them transferred to any part of the garden wherein we propose to make a new bed. It is only a neater and more certain way of removing young plants with a ball of earth from the open bed. Some have adopted this system in raising strawberries for market. They prepare very rich beds, fill them with pot-grown plants in June or July, take from these plants one crop the following June, then plow them under. As a rule, however, such plants cannot be bought in quantities before August or September. As we go south, September, October, or November, according to lowness of latitude, are the favorite months for planting. I have had excellent success on the Hudson in late autumn planting. My method has been to cover the young plants, just before the ground froze, with two or three inches of clean earth, and then to rake it off again early in April. The roots of such plants become thoroughly established during the winter, and start with double vigor. Plants set out in LATE autumn do best on light, dry soils. On heavy soils they will be frozen out unless well covered. They should not be allowed to bear the following season. A late-set plant cannot before winter in our climate become strong and sturdy enough to produce much fruit the following season. I make it a rule not to permit plants set out after the first of October to bear fruit until a year from the following June. In setting out plants, the principle of sex should be remembered. The majority of our favorite varieties are bisexual; that is, the blossoms are furnished with both stamens and pistils. A variety with this organization, as the Sharpless, for instance, will bear alone with no other kind near it. But if one set out a bed of Champions--another fine variety--well apart from any staminate kind, it would blossom profusely, but produce no fruit. When I was a boy, Hovey's Seedling was the great strawberry of the day, and marvellous stories were told of the productiveness of the plants and the size of the berries. How well I remember the disappointment and wrath of people who bought the plants at a high price, and set them out with no staminate varieties near to fertilize the pistillate blossoms. Expectations were raised to the highest pitch by profuse blossoming in May, but not a berry could be found the ensuing June. The vigorous plants were only a mockery, and the people who sold them were berated as humbugs. To-day the most highly praised strawberry is the Jewell. The originator, Mr. P. M. Augur, writes me that "plants set two feet by eighteen inches apart, August 1, 1884, in June, 1885, completely covered the ground, touching both ways, and averaged little over a quart to the plant for the centre patch." All runners were kept off, in accordance with the system advocated in this paper. "At Boston a silver medal was awarded to this variety as the best new strawberry introduced within five years." People reading such laudation--well deserved, I believe--might conclude the best is good enough for us, and send for enough Jewell plants to set out a bed. If they set no others near it, their experience would be similar to that which I witnessed in the case of Hovey's Seedling thirty odd years ago. The blossom of the Jewell contains pistils only, and will produce no fruit unless a staminate variety is planted near. I have never considered this an objection against a variety; for why should any one wish to raise only one variety of strawberry? All danger of barrenness in pistillate kinds is removed absolutely by planting staminate sorts in the same bed. In nurserymen's catalogues pistillate varieties are marked "P.," and the purchaser has merely to set out the plants within a few feet of some perfect flowering kind to secure abundant fruit. As a result of much experience, I will now make some suggestions as to varieties. In a former paper I have given, the opinions of others upon this important subject, and one can follow the advice of such eminent authorities without misgiving. The earliest strawberry that I have ever raised, and one of the best flavored, is the Crystal City. It is evidently a wild variety domesticated, and it has the exquisite flavor and perfume of the field-berry. It rarely fails to give us fruit in May, and my children, with the unerring taste of connoisseurs, follow it up until the last berry is picked. It would run all over the garden unchecked; and this propensity must be severely curbed to render a bed productive. Keeping earliness and high flavor in view, I would next recommend the Black Defiance. It is not remarkably productive on many soils, but the fruit is so delicious that it well deserves a place. The Duchess and Bidwell follow in the order of ripening. On my grounds they have always made enormous plants, and yielded an abundance of good-flavored berries. The Downing is early to medium in the season of ripening, and should be in every collection. The Indiana is said to resemble this kind, and to be an improvement upon it. Miner's Prolific is another kindred berry, and a most excellent one. Among the latest berries I recommend the Sharpless Champion, or Windsor Chief, and Parry. If one wishes to raise a very large, late, showy berry, let him try the Longfellow. The Cornelia is said to grow very large and ripen late, but I have not yet fruited it. As I said fifteen or twenty years ago, if I were restricted to but one variety, I should choose the Triomphe de Gand, a foreign kind, but well adapted to rich, heavy soils. The berries begin to ripen early, and last very late. The Memphis Late has always been the last to mature on my grounds, and, like the Crystal City, is either a wild variety, or else but slightly removed. The Wilson is the great berry of commerce. It is not ripe when it is red, and therefore is rarely eaten in perfection. Let it get almost black in its ripeness, and it is one of the richest berries in existence. With a liberal allowance of sugar and cream, it makes a dish much too good for an average king. It is also the best variety for preserving. It should be remembered that all strawberries, unlike pears, should be allowed to mature fully before being picked. Many a variety is condemned because the fruit is eaten prematurely. There is no richer berry in existence than the Windsor Chief, yet the fruit, when merely red, is decidedly disagreeable. The reader can now make a selection of kinds which should give him six weeks of strawberries. At the same time he must be warned that plants growing in a hard, dry, poor soil, and in matted beds, yield their fruit almost together, no matter how many varieties may have been set out. Under such conditions the strawberry season is brief indeed. While I was writing this paper the chief enemy of the strawberry came blundering and bumping about my lamp--the May beetle. The larva of this insect, the well-known white grub, has an insatiable appetite for strawberry roots, and in some localities and seasons is very destructive. One year I lost at least one hundred thousand plants by this pest. This beetle does not often lay its egg in well-cultivated ground, and we may reasonably hope to escape its ravages in a garden. If, when preparing for a bed, many white grubs are found in the soil, I should certainly advise that another locality be chosen. The only remedy is to dig out the larvae and kill them. If you find a plant wilting without apparent cause, you may be sure that a grub is feeding on the roots. The strawberry plant is comparatively free from insect enemies and disease, and rarely disappoints any one who gives it a tithe of the attention it deserves. There are many points in connection with this fruit which, in a small treatise like this, must be merely touched upon or omitted altogether. I may refer those who wish to study the subject more thoroughly to my work, "Success with Small Fruits." CHAPTER VIII THE KITCHEN-GARDEN The garden should be open to the sky, and as far as possible unshaded by adjacent trees from the morning and afternoon sun. It is even more essential that the trees be not so near that their voracious roots can make their way to the rich loam of the garden. Now for the soil. We should naturally suppose that that of Eden was a deep sandy loam, with not too porous a subsoil. As we have already seen again and again, such a soil appears to be the laboratory in which we can assist Nature to develop her best products. But Nature has a profound respect for skill, and when she recognizes it, "lends a hand" in securing excellent crops from almost drifting sand or stubborn clay. She has even assisted the Hollander in wresting from the ocean one of the gardens of the world. We must again dwell on the principles already emphasized, that soils must be treated according to their nature. If too damp, they must be drained; if of the fortunate quality of a sandy loam resting on a clay subsoil, they can be abundantly deepened and enriched from the start, if of a heavy clay, inclined to be cold and wet in spring, and to bake and crack in summer, skill should aim to lighten it and remove its inertia; finally, as we have shown, a light, porous soil should be treated like a spendthrift. All soils, except the last-named, are much the better for being enriched and deeply plowed or forked in October or November. This exposes the mould to the sweetening and mechanical action of frost, and the fertilizers incorporated with it are gradually transformed into just that condition of plant food which the rootlets take up with the greatest ease and rapidity. A light soil, on the contrary, should not be worked in autumn, but be left intact after the crops are taken from it. In one respect a light soil and a stiff, heavy one should be treated in the same way, but for different reasons. In the first instance, fertilizers should be applied in moderation to the surface, and rains and the cultivation of the growing crops depended upon to carry the richness downward to the roots. The porous nature of the earth must ever be borne in mind; fertilizers pass through it and disappear, and therefore are applied to the surface, to delay this process and enable the roots to obtain as much nutriment as possible during the passage. Equal and even greater advantages are secured by a top-dressing of barnyard manures and composts to the heaviest of clay. The surface of such soils, left to Nature, becomes in hot, dry weather like pottery, baking and cracking, shielding from dew and shower, and preventing all circulation of air about the roots. A top-dressing prevents all this, keeps the surface open and mellow, and supplies not only fertility, but the mechanical conditions that are essential. If we are now ready to begin, let us begin right. I have not much sympathy with finical, fussy gardening. One of the chief fascinations of gardening is the endless field it affords for skilful sleight of hand, short-cuts, unconventional methods, and experiments. The true gardener soon ceases to be a man of rules, and becomes one of strategy, of expedients. He is prompt to act at the right moment. Like the artist, he is ever seeking and acting upon hints from Nature. The man of rules says the first of July is the time to set out winter cabbage; and out the plants go, though the sky be brazen, and the mercury in the nineties. The gardener has his plants ready, and for a few days watches the sky. At last he perceives that rain is coming; then he sets out his plants, and Nature's watering starts them, unwilted, on their new growth. At the same time I protest against careless, slovenly gardening--ground imperfectly prepared, crooked rows, seed half covered, or covered so deeply that the germs are discouraged long before they reach light. One of the best aids to success is a small compost-heap composed equally of manure from the horse-stable, the cow-stable, and of leaves. This should be allowed to stand so long, and be cut down and turned so often, that it becomes like a fine black powder, and is much the better for being kept under shelter from sun and rain. All who hope to have a permanent garden will naturally think first of asparagus--one of the vegetables that have bee a longest in cultivation, and one which is justly among the most valued. It was cultivated hundreds of years before the Christian era, and is to-day growing in popular esteem among civilized peoples. In the matter of preparation I shall take issue with many of the authorities. I have read and known of instances wherein extraordinary expense and pains have been bestowed upon the asparagus-bed. The soil has been dug out to the depth of two or more feet, the bottom paved, and the homely, hardy roots, accustomed to roughing it the world over, set out and tended with a care which, if given to a potato, would make it open its eyes. There are few more hardy or widely distributed species of vegetables than asparagus. It is "a native of the sea-coasts of various countries of Europe and Asia." According to Loudon, it is abundant on the sandy steppes in the interior of Russia. In Southern Russia and Poland the horses and cows feed upon it. It grows freely in the fens of Lincolnshire, and is indigenous to Cornwall. On the borders of the Euphrates the shoots are so extraordinarily large and vigorous that Thompson thinks it would be to the advantage of gardeners to import roots from that region. These facts may indicate that too much stress may have been laid on its character as a marine plant. Yet it is true that it grows naturally on the coast of Holland, in the sandy valleys and on the downs, while off Lizard Point it flourishes naturally on an island where, in gales, the sea breaks over the roots. In this country also it has escaped cultivation, and is establishing itself along our coasts, The truth is that it is a plant endowed with a remarkable power of adaptation to all soils and climates, and does not need the extravagant petting often given it. On different portions of my place chance seeds have fallen, and annually produce almost as fine heads as are cut from the garden. Nature therefore teaches what experience verifies--that asparagus is one of the most easily grown and inexpensive vegetables of the garden. From two small beds we have raised during the past eight years twice as much as we could use, and at the cost of very little trouble either in planting or cultivation. In my effort to show, from the hardy nature of the asparagus plant, that extravagant preparation is unnecessary, let no one conclude that I am opposed to a good, thorough preparation that accords with common-sense. It is not for one year's crop that you are preparing, but for a vegetable that should be productive on the same ground thirty or forty years. What I said of strawberries applies here. A fair yield of fruit may be expected from plants set out on ordinary corn-ground, but more than double the crop would be secured from ground generously prepared. When I first came to Cornwall, about twelve years ago, I determined to have an asparagus bed as soon as possible. I selected a plot eighty feet long by thirty wide, of sandy loam, sloping to the southwest. It had been used as a garden before, but was greatly impoverished. I gave it a good top-dressing of barnyard manure in the autumn, and plowed it deeply; another top-dressing of fine yard manure and a deep forking in the early spring. Then, raking the surface smooth, I set a line along its length on one side. A man took a spade, sunk its length in the soil, and pushed it forward strongly. This action made an almost perpendicular wedge-shaped aperture just back of the spade. The asparagus plant, with its roots spread out fan-shape, was sunk in this opening to a depth that left the crown of the plant between three and four inches below the surface. Then the spade was drawn out, and the soil left to fall over the crown of the plant. Rapidly repeating this simple process, the whole plot was soon set out. The entire bed was then raked smooth. The rows were three feet apart, and plants one foot apart in the row. A similar plot could scarcely have been planted with potatoes more quickly or at less expense, and a good crop of potatoes could not have been raised on that poor land with less preparation. A few years later I made another and smaller bed in the same way. The results have been entirely satisfactory. I secured my object, and had plenty of asparagus at slight cost, and have also sold and given away large quantities. A bit of experience is often worth much more than theory. At the same time it is proper that some suggestions should follow this brief record. The asparagus bed should be in well-drained soil; for while the plant will grow on wet land, it will start late, and our aim is to have it early. Again, with asparagus as with nearly everything else, the deeper and richer the soil, the larger and more luxuriant the crop. Listen to Thompson, the great English gardener: "If the ground has been drained, trenched, or made good to the depth of THREE feet, as directed for the kitchen-garden generally [!], that depth will suffice for the growth of asparagus." We should think so; yet I am fast reaching the conclusion that under most circumstances it would in the end repay us to secure that depth of rich soil throughout our gardens, not only for asparagus, but for everything else. Few of the hasty, slipshod gardeners of America have any idea of the results secured by extending root pasturage to the depth of three feet instead of six or seven inches; soil thus prepared would defy flood and drought, and everything planted therein would attain almost perfection, asparagus included. But who has not seen little gardens by the roadside in which all the esculents seemed growing together much as they would be blended in the pot thereafter? Yet from such patches, half snatched from barrenness, many a hearty, wholesome dinner results. Let us have a garden at once, then improve it indefinitely. I will give in brief just what is essential to secure a good and lasting asparagus bed. We can if we choose grow our own plants, and thus be sure of good ones. The seed can be sown in late October or EARLY spring on light, rich soil in rows eighteen inches apart. An ounce of seed will sow fifty feet of drill. If the soil is light, cover the seed one inch deep; if heavy, half an inch; pack the ground lightly, and cover the drill with a good dusting of that fine compost we spoke of, or any fine manure. This gives the young plants a good send-off. By the use of the hoe and hand-weeding keep them scrupulously clean during the growing season, and when the tops are killed by frost mow them off. I should advise sowing two or three seeds to the inch, and then when the plants are three inches high, thinning them out so that they stand four inches apart. You thus insure almost the certainty of good strong plants by autumn; for plants raised as directed are ready to be set out after one season's growth, and by most gardeners are preferred. In most instances good plants can be bought for a small sum from nurserymen, who usually offer for sale those that are two years old. Strong one-year-olds are just as good, but under ordinary culture are rarely large enough until two years of age. I would not set out three-year-old plants, for they are apt to be stunted and enfeebled. You can easily calculate how many plants you require by remembering that the rows are to be three feet apart, and the plants one foot apart in the row. Now, whether you have raised the plants yourself, or have bought them, you are ready to put them where they will grow, and yield to the end of your life probably. Again I substantiate my position by quoting from the well-known gardener and writer, Mr. Joseph Harris: "The old directions for planting an asparagus bed were well calculated to deter any one from making the attempt. I can recollect the first I made. The labor and manure must have cost at the rate of a thousand dollars an acre, and, after all was done, no better results were obtained than we now secure at one-tenth of the expense." If the ground selected for the bed is a well-drained sandy loam, is clean, free from sod, roots, stones, etc., I would give it a top-dressing of six inches of good barnyard manure, which by trenching or plowing I would thoroughly mix with the soil to the depth of at least two feet. If the ground is not free from stones, roots, and sod, I should put on the manure, as directed, in the autumn, and begin on one side of the prospective bed and trench it all over, mingling the fertilizer through the soil. The trencher can throw out on the surface back of him every stone, root, and weed, so that by the time he is through there is a sufficient space of ground amply prepared. On all soils except a wet, heavy clay I prefer autumn planting. During the latter part of October or early November put in the plants as explained above, or else make a straight trench that will give room for the spreading of the roots, and leave the crowns between three and four inches below the surface. Then level the ground, and cover the row with a light mulch of stable-manure as you would strawberries. If more convenient to set out the plants in spring, do so as soon as the ground is dry enough to crumble freely when worked. In the spring rake off the mulch, and as early as possible fork the ground over lightly, taking pains not to touch or wound the crowns of the plants. The young, slender shoots will soon appear, and slender enough they will be at first. Keep them free of weeds and let them grow uncut all through the first year; mow off the tops in late October, and cover the entire bed with three or four inches of coarse barnyard manure. In spring rake off the coarsest of this mulch, from which the rains and melting snows have been carrying down richness, dig the bed over lightly once (never wounding the roots or crowns of the plants), and then sow salt over the bed till it is barely white. Let the tops grow naturally and uncut the second year, and merely keep clean. Take precisely the same action again in the autumn and the following spring. During the latter part of April and May a few of the strongest shoots may be cut for the table. This should be done with a sharp knife a little below the surface, so that the soil may heal the wound, and carefully, lest other heads just beneath the surface be clipped prematurely. Cut from the bed very sparingly, however, the third year, and let vigorous foliage form corresponding root-power. In the autumn of the third and the spring of the fourth year the treatment is precisely the same. In the fourth season, however, the shoots may be used freely to, say, about June 20, after which the plants should be permitted to grow unchecked till fall, in order to maintain and increase the root-power. Every year thereafter there should be an abundant top-dressing of manure in the fall, and a careful digging of the ground in the early spring. Light, sandy soil, clear of stones, is well adapted to asparagus, but should be treated on the principles already indicated in this work. There should be no attempt, by trenching, to render a porous subsoil more leaky. It is useless to give the bed a thorough initial enriching. Put on a generous top-dressing every autumn and leave the rains to do their work, and good crops will result. If, on the contrary, a cold, heavy clay must be dealt with, every effort should be made to ameliorate it. Work in a large quantity of sand at first, if possible; employ manures from the horse-stable, or other light and exciting fertilizers, and there will be no failure. In regard to the use of salt, Mr. Harris writes: "It is a popular notion that common salt is exceedingly beneficial to asparagus. I do not know that there is any positive proof of this, but, at any rate, salt will do no harm, even if applied thick enough to kill many of our common weeds. Salt is usually sown broadcast, at the rate of ten bushels to the acre." Until recently I have grown asparagus without salt. Hereafter I shall employ it in sufficient degree to kill all weeds except the strongest. I shall sow it every spring after the bed is dug until the ground is as white as if a flurry of snow had passed over it. I think salt is a good manure for asparagus, and many other things. At any rate, we secure a great advantage in keeping our beds free of weeds. I have written thus fully of asparagus because when a man makes a bed as directed he makes it for a lifetime. He can scarcely find another investment that will yield a larger return. We have asparagus on our table every day, from the middle of April to July 1; and the annual care of the crop is far less than that of a cabbage-patch. I do not advise severe cutting, however, after the middle of June, for this reason: it is well known that the most pestiferous perennial weed can be killed utterly if never allowed to make foliage. As foliage depends upon the root, so the root depends on foliage. The roots of asparagus may therefore be greatly enfeebled by too severe and long-continued cutting. Avarice always overreaches itself. In some localities the asparagus beetle destroys whole plantations. Thompson, the English authority, says: "The larvae, beetles, and eggs are found from June to the end of September. Picking off the larvae and beetles, or shaking them into receptacles, appears to be the only remedy." Peter Henderson, in his valuable book, "Gardening for Profit," figures this insect and its larvae accurately, and says: "Whenever the eggs or larvae appear, cut and burn the plants as long as any traces of the insect are seen. This must be done if it destroys every vestige of vegetation." He and other authorities speak of the advantage of cooping a hen and chickens in the bed. Most emphatically would I recommend this latter course, for I have tried it with various vegetables. Active broods of little chickens here and there in the garden are the best of insecticides, and pay for themselves twice over in this service alone. We will next speak of the ONION, because it is so hardy that the earlier it is planted in spring the better. Indeed, I have often, with great advantage, sown the seed on light soils the first of September, and wintered over the young plants in the open ground. Nature evidently intended the onion for humanity in general, for she has endowed the plant with the power to flourish from the tropics to the coldest limit of the temperate zone. While onions are grown in all sorts of careless ways, like other vegetables, it is by far the best plan to select a space for an annual and permanent bed, just as we do for asparagus. Unlike most other crops, the onion does not require change of ground, but usually does better on the same soil for an indefinite number of years. Therefore I would advise that upon the Home Acre the onion, like the asparagus bed, should be made with a view to permanence. Not much success can be hoped for on rough, poor land. The onion, like the asparagus bed, should be made and maintained with some care. If possible, select a light, well-drained, but not dry plot. Make the soil rich, deep, mellow, to the depth of twenty inches, taking out all stones, roots, etc.; cover the land with at least six inches of good strong barnyard manure. This should be done in the autumn. Sow the ground white with salt, as in the case of asparagus, and then mingle these fertilizers thoroughly with the soil, by forking or plowing it at once, leaving the surface as rough as possible, so that the frost can penetrate deeply. Just as soon as the ground is dry enough to work in the spring, fork or plow again, breaking every lump and raking all smooth, so that the surface is as fine as the soil in a hot-bed. You cannot hope for much in heavy, lumpy ground. Sow at least three seeds to the inch in a shallow drill one inch deep, and spat the earth firmly over the seed with the back of a spade or with your hand. In subsequent culture little more is required than keeping the MERE SURFACE stirred with a hoe, and the rows clean of weeds. Onions are not benefited by deep stirring of the soil, but the surface, from the start, should be kept clean and scarified an inch or two deep between the rows during the growing season. I prefer to have my onions growing at the rate of one or two to every inch of row, for I do not like large bulbs. I think that moderate-sized onions are better for the table. Those who value largeness should thin out the plants to three or four inches apart; but even in the market there is less demand for large, coarse onions. When the tops begin to fall over from their own weight, in August or September, leave them to mature and ripen naturally. When the tops begin to dry up, pull them from the soil, let them dry thoroughly in the sun, and then spread them thinly in a dry loft till there is danger of their freezing. Even there they will keep better, if covered deeply with straw, hay, etc., than in a damp cellar. Wherever the air is damp and a little too warm, onions will speedily start to grow again, and soon become worthless. After the crop has been taken, the ground should be treated as at first--thoroughly enriched and pulverized late in autumn, and left to lie in a rough state during the winter, then prepared for planting as early as possible. I prefer March sowing of the seed to April, and April, by far, to May. In England they try to plant in February. Indeed, as I have said, I have had excellent success by sowing the seed early in September on light soils, and letting the plants grow during all the mild days of fall, winter, and early spring. By this course we have onions fit for the table and market the following May. In this latitude they need the protection of a little coarse litter from December 1 to about the middle of March. Only the very severest frost injures them. Most of us have seen onions, overlooked in the fall gathering, growing vigorously as soon as the thaws began in spring. This fact contains all the hint we need in wintering over the vegetable in the open ground. If the seed is sown late in September, the plants do not usually acquire sufficient strength in this latitude to resist the frost. It is necessary, therefore, to secure our main crop by very early spring sowings, and it may be said here that after the second thorough pulverization of the soil in spring, the ground will be in such good condition that, if well enriched and stirred late in autumn, it will only need levelling down and smoothing off before the spring sowing. Onions appear to do best on a compact soil, if rich, deep, and clean. It is the SURFACE merely that needs to be stirred lightly and frequently. If young green onions with thin, succulent tops are desired very early in spring, it will be an interesting experiment to sow the seed the latter part of August or early in September. Another method is to leave a row of onions in the garden where they ripened. When the autumn rains begin, they will start to grow again. The winter will not harm them, and even in April there will be a strong growth of green tops. The seed stalk should be picked off as soon as it appears in spring, or else the whole strength will speedily go to the formation of seed. It should be remembered that good onions can not be produced very far to the south by sowing the small gunpowder-like seed. In our own and especially in warmer climates a great advantage is secured by employing what are known as "onion sets." These are produced by sowing the ordinary black seed very thickly on light poor land. Being much crowded, and not having much nutriment, the seed develop into little onions from the size of a pea to that of a walnut, the smaller the better, if they are solid and plump. These, pressed or sunk, about three inches apart, into rich garden soil about an inch deep, just as soon as the frost is out, make fine bulbs by the middle of June. For instance, we had in our garden plenty of onions three inches in diameter from these little sets, while the seed, sown at the same time, will not yield good bulbs before August. There is but little need of raising these sets, for it is rather difficult to keep them in good condition over the winter. Any seedsman will furnish them, and they are usually on sale at country stores. Three or four quarts, if in good condition, will supply a family abundantly, and leave many to be used dry during the autumn. Insist on plump little bulbs. If you plant them early, as you should, you will be more apt to get good sets. Many neglect the planting till the sets are half dried up, or so badly sprouted as to be wellnigh worthless. They usually come in the form of white and yellow sets, and I plant an equal number of each. The chief insect enemies are onion maggots, the larvae of the onion fly. These bore through the outer leaf and down into the bulb, which they soon destroy. I know of no remedy but to pull up the yellow and sickly plants, and burn them and the pests together. The free use of salt in the fall, and a light top-dressing of wood-ashes at the time of planting, tend to subdue these insects; but the best course is prevention by deeply cultivating and thoroughly enriching in the fall, leaving the ground rough and uneven for the deep action of frost, and by sowing the seed VERY early in spring. I have found that the insect usually attacks late-sown and feeble plants. If the maggot were in my garden, I should use the little sets only. Some special manures have been employed in attaining the greatest success with this vegetable. In England, pigeon-dung and the cleanings of the pigsty are extensively employed. In this country the sweepings of the hen-roost are generally recommended. It should be remembered that all these are strong agents, and if brought in contact with the roots of any vegetable while in a crude, undiluted state, burn like fire, especially in our climate. What can be done in safety in England will not answer under our vivid sun and in our frequent droughts. These strong fertilizers could be doubled in value as well as bulk by being composted with sods, leaves, etc., and then, after having been mixed, allowed to decay thoroughly. Then the compost can be used with great advantage as a top-dressing directly over the drills when either sets or seeds are planted. The spring rains will carry the richness from the surface to the roots, and insure a very vigorous growth. When the compost named in the early part of this paper is used, I sow it thickly IN the drill, draw a pointed hoe through once more, to mingle the fertilizer with the soil, and then forthwith sow the seeds or put in the sets one inch deep; and the result is immediate and vigorous growth. Wood-ashes and bone-dust are excellent fertilizers, and should be sown on the surface on the row as soon as planted, and gradually worked in by weeding and cultivation during the growing season. Manure from the pigsty, wherein weeds, litter, sods, muck, etc., have been thrown freely during the summer, may be spread broadcast over the onion bed in the autumn, and worked in deeply, like the product of the barnyard. The onion bed can scarcely be made too rich as long as the manure is not applied in its crude, unfermented state at the time of planting. Then, if the seed is put in very early, it grows too strongly and quickly for insects to do much damage. Varieties.--Thompson in his English work names nineteen varieties with many synonyms; Henderson offers the seed of thirteen varieties; Gregory, of seventeen kinds. There is no need of our being confused by this latitude of choice. We find it in the great majority of fruits and vegetables offered by nurserymen and seedsmen. Each of the old varieties that have survived the test of years has certain good qualities which make it valuable, especially in certain localities. Many of the novelties in vegetables, as among fruits, will soon disappear; a few will take their place among the standard sorts. In the case of the kitchen, as well as in the fruit, garden, I shall give the opinion of men who have a celebrity as wide as the continent for actual experience, and modestly add occasionally some views of my own which are the result of observation. As a choice for the home-garden, Mr. Henderson recommends the following varieties of onions: Extra Early Red, Yellow Globe Danvers, White Portugal or Silver Skin, and Southport Yellow Globe. Mr. Joseph Harris, the well-known and practical author: Yellow Danvers, Extra Early Large Bed, and White Globe. Mr. J. J. H. Gregory: New Queen, Early Yellow Acker, Yellow Danvers, Early Red Globe Danvers, Large Red Wethersfield. They all recommend onion sets. The Queen onion is quite distinct. For the home table, where earliness, as well as quality, size and quantity is desired, I think the Queen deserves a place. It is admirably fitted for pickling. I have tried all the varieties named, with good success, and grown some of the largest kinds to six inches in diameter. CHAPTER IX THE KITCHEN-GARDEN (concluded) In the last chapter I dwelt somewhat at length on two vegetables for which thorough and enduring preparation is profitable. There is one other very early garden product which requires our attention during the first warm days of spring--rhubarb; sold in some instances under the name of "wine-plant." Wine is made from the juicy stalks, but it is an unwholesome beverage. The people call rhubarb "pie-plant;" and this term suggests its best and most common use, although when cooked as if it were a fruit, it is very grateful at a season when we begin to crave the subacid in our food. Its cultivation is very simple. Those who propose to produce it largely for market will find it to their advantage to raise this plant from the seed; but for the Home Acre enough plants can be procured, at a moderate cost, from almost any nurseryman. In this instance, also, thorough preparation of the soil is essential, for the rhubarb bed, under good care, will last eight or ten years. A rich, deep, clean, warm soil is the chief essential. It belongs to that class of vegetables known as "gross feeders." During the first year, however, I would apply the fertiliser directly to the hills or plants. These are obtained by dividing the old roots, which may be cut to pieces downward so as to leave a single bud or "eye" surmounting a long tapering portion of root. Each division will make a new, vigorous plant, which should be set out so that the bud or crown is three inches below the surface in light soils, and two inches in heavy soils. The plants should be four feet apart each way, and two or three shovelfuls of rich compost worked into the soil where the plant is to stand. You cannot make the ground too rich; only remember that in this, as in all other instances, light, fermenting manures should not be brought into immediate contact with the roots. Plant in either autumn or spring. In this latitude and southward I should prefer autumn; northward, perhaps spring is the best season. Keep the intervening ground clean and mellow, and pull no stalks the first year, unless it be in the autumn if the plants have become very strong. In the fall, when the foliage has died down, cover the crowns with two or three shovelfuls of rich manure--any kind will do in this instance--and work in a heavy top-dressing all over the ground early in spring. Unless seed is required, always cut down the seed-stalks as soon as they appear. The best early variety is the Linnaeus. The Victoria is a little later, but much larger, and is the kind that I have usually grown. Radish-seed may be sown one inch deep as soon as the ground is dry enough in spring, and if the vegetable is a favorite, the sowing may be repeated every two weeks. A common error is to sow the seed too thickly. A warm, RICH soil is all that is necessary to secure a crop. What has been said about radishes applies equally to early turnips, with the exception that the plants when three inches high should be thinned so as to stand four inches apart. The ground for these vegetables should be very rich, so as to secure a very rapid growth; for otherwise they are attacked by a little white worm which soon renders them unfit for use. Mr. Harris recommends the following varieties of early radishes, and his selection coincides with my own experience: Bound Scarlet Turnip, French Breakfast, Rose (olive-shaped), Long Scarlet Short-top. Winter radishes: California Mammoth White, and Chinese Rose. For spring sowing of turnips, Mr. Henderson recommends Red-top Strap-leaf, and Early Flat Dutch. The earlier they are sown the better. Beets--a much more valuable vegetable--require similar treatment. The ground should be clean, well pulverized, and very rich. I prefer to sow the seed the first week in April, unless the soil is frozen, or very cold and wet. The seed may be sown, however, at any time to the first of July; but earliness is usually our chief aim. I sow two inches deep and thickly, pressing the soil firmly over the seed. Let the rows be about fifteen inches apart. Referring to the manure which had been left to decay in a sheltered place until it became like fine dry powder, let me say here that I have always found it of greater advantage to sow it with the beet-seed and kindred vegetables. My method is to open the drill along the garden-line with a sharp-pointed hoe, and scatter the fertilizer in the drill until the soil is quite blackened by it; then draw the pointed hoe through once more, to mingle the powdery manure with the soil and to make the drill of an even depth; then sow the seed at once. This thoroughly decayed stable-manure has become the best of plant-food; it warms the ground, and carries the germinating seed and young plants with vigor through the first cold, wet weeks. In the home garden there are several reasons for sowing beet-seed thickly. Unfavorable weather and insects will be less apt to cause a thin, broken stand of plants. In order to produce good roots, however, the plants should be thinned out so as to stand eventually three or four inches apart I do not advise very large, coarse roots for the table. For home use I think only three varieties are essential. The Egyptian Turnip Beet is the best very early variety, and can be planted closely, as it has a small top; the Bassano is next in earliness, and requires more room; the Early Blood Turnip is the best for a general crop and winter use. The beet is a root which deteriorates rapidly from age; I therefore advise that the seed of the winter supply be sown the last of June or first of July in our latitude. Parsnips should be sown at the same time with early beets and in the same way, with the exception that the seed should be covered only an inch deep. I doubt whether there are any marked distinctions in variety, and would advise that only the Long Smooth or Hollow-crowned be sown. The carrot is not quite so hardy as the parsnip, and the seed may be sown a week or two later, or indeed at any time up to the middle of June. Its culture and treatment are precisely like those of the parsnip; but the roots should be gathered and stored before a severe frost occurs. For home use a short row of the Early Horn will answer; for the general crop, sow the Long Orange. Vegetable-oyster, or salsify, is another root-crop which may be treated precisely like the parsnip, and the seed sown at the same time. The seed should be sown in a deep, rich, mellow soil, which is all the better for being prepared in autumn. Plant, as early in April as possible, in the same manner as described for beets, thin out to four inches apart, and keep the soil clean and mellow throughout the entire season; for this vegetable grows until the ground freezes. There is only one variety. The pea is another crop which may be put into the ground as soon as the frost is out--the earlier the better, if the smooth, hardy varieties are sown. There are so many varieties that the novice to-day may well be excused for perplexity in choice. Thompson, the English authority, gives forty kinds, and one hundred and forty-eight synonyms. Mr. Gregory recommends the American Wonder, Bliss's Abundance, Bliss's Ever-bearing, McLean's Advancer, Yorkshire Hero, Stratagem, and Champion of England. Mr. Henderson's list includes Henderson's First of All, American Wonder, Bliss's Abundance, Champion of England, and Pride of the Market. Mr. Harris in his catalogue marks first and best, American Wonder, and also says, "For the main crop there is nothing better than the Champion of England." My own experience would lead me to plant the Tom Thumb either just before the ground froze in the fall, or as early in March as possible. It is almost perfectly hardy, and gives me the earliest picking. I should also plant Henderson's First of All as soon as the frost was out, on a warm, well-drained soil. For second crops, American Wonder and Premium Gem; and for the main and most satisfactory crop of all, Champion of England. The Champion requires brush as a support, for it grows from four to six feet high; but it is well worth the trouble. I plant the other kinds named because they are much earlier, and so dwarf as to need no brush; they are also productive, and excellent in quality if not left to grow too old. For the dwarf kinds the soil cannot be too rich, and the warmer the ground and exposure, the earlier the crop. For the tall late sorts the soil may easily be made too fertile; they should also be planted in cooler, moister, and heavier ground. In the case of the dwarfs I put a fertilizer in with the seed as I have already explained. Cover the dwarfs about two and a half inches deep, and the tall late sorts from three to four inches according to the nature of the soil. Plant the Champion of England every ten days until the middle of June, and thus secure a succession of the best of all. We all know how numerous have been the varieties of potato introduced into this country of late years--many kinds sent out at first at the rate of one or more dollars per pound. I amuse myself by trying several of these novelties (after they become cheap) every year, and one season raised very early crops of excellent potatoes from the Vanguard and Pearl of Savoy. The Early Rose and Early Vermont have long been favorites. They resemble each other very closely. I have had excellent success with the Beauty of Hebron. It is a good plan to learn what varieties succeed well in our own neighborhood, and then to plant chiefly of such kinds; we may then add to our zest by trying a few novelties. Not only much reading on the subject, but also my own observation, and the general law that "like produces like," lead me to indorse the practice of planting large tubers cut into sets containing one or more eyes, or buds. The eye of a potato is a bud from which the plant grows; and the stronger backing it has, the stronger and more able is the plant to evolve new fine tubers through the action of its roots and foliage. A small potato has many immature buds, which as a rule produce feeble plants. The potato will grow on almost any soil; but a dry, rich, sandy loam gives the best, if not the largest, yield. I do not think the potato can be planted too early after the ground is fit to work. One spring I was able to get in several rows the 15th of March, and I never had a finer yield. I observe that Mr. Harris strongly indorses this plan. Nearly every one has his system of planting. There is no necessity for explaining these methods. I will briefly give mine, for what it is worth. I prefer warm, well-drained soils. Plow deeply in autumn, also in spring; harrow and pulverize the ground as completely as possible; then open the furrows with the same heavy plow, sinking it to the beam, and going twice in the furrow. This, of course, would make too deep a trench in which to place the sets, but the soil has been deepened and pulverized at least fourteen inches. A man next goes along with a cart or barrow of well-decayed compost (not very raw manure), which is scattered freely in the deep furrows; then through these a corn-plow is run, to mingle the fertilizer with the soil. By this course the furrows are partially filled with loose, friable soil and manure, and they average four or five inches in depth. The sets are planted at once eight inches apart, the eye turned upward, and the cut part down. The sets are then covered with three or four inches of fine soil, not with sods and stones. When the plants are two or three inches high, they receive their first hoeing, which merely levels the ground evenly. The next cultivation is performed by both corn-plow and hoe. In the final working I do not permit a sharp-slanting slope from the plants downward, so that the rain is kept from reaching the roots. There is a broad hilling up, so as to have a slope inward toward the plants, as well as away from them. This method, with the deep, loosened soil beneath the plants, secures against drought, while the decayed fertilizers give a strong and immediate growth. Of course we have to fight the potato, or Colorado, beetle during the growing season. This we do with Paris green applied in liquid form, a heaping teaspoonful to a pail of water. In taking up and storing potatoes a very common error is fallen into. Sometimes even growing tubers are so exposed to sun and light that they become green. In this condition they are not only worthless, but poisonous. If long exposed to light after being dug, the solanine principle, which exists chiefly in the stems and leaves, is developed in the tubers. The more they are in the light, the less value they possess, until they become worse than worthless. They should be dug, if possible, on a dry day, picked up promptly and carried to a dry, cool, DARK cellar. If stored on floors of outbuldings, the light should be excluded. Potatoes that are long exposed to light before the shops of dealers are injured. Barrels, etc., containing them should be covered; if spread on the barn-floor, or in places which can not be darkened, throw straw or some other litter over them. There is no occasion to say much about lettuce. It is a vegetable which any one can raise who will sow the seed a quarter of an inch deep. I have sowed the seed in September, wintered the plants over in cold-frames, and by giving a little heat, I had an abundance of heads to sell in February and March. For ordinary home uses it is necessary only to sow the seed on a warm, rich spot as soon as the frost is out, and you will quickly have plenty of tender foliage. This we may begin to thin out as soon as the plants are three or four inches high, until a foot of space is left between the plants, which, if of a cabbage variety, will speedily make a large, crisp head. To maintain a supply, sowings can be made every two weeks till the middle of August. Hardy plants, which may be set out like cabbages, are to be obtained in March and April from nurserymen. Henderson recommends the following varieties: Henderson's New York, Black-seeded Simpson, Salamander, and All the Year Round. I would also add the Black-seeded Butter Lettuce. We have now, as far as our space permits, treated of those vegetables which should be planted in the home garden as early in spring as possible. It is true the reader will think of other sorts, as cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, etc. To the professional gardener these are all-the-year-round vegetables. If the amateur becomes so interested in his garden as to have cold-frames and hot-beds, he will learn from more extended works how to manage these. He will winter over the cabbage and kindred vegetables for his earliest supply, having first sown the seed in September. I do not take the trouble to do this, and others need not, unless it is a source of enjoyment to them. As soon as the ground is fit to work in spring, I merely write to some trust-worthy dealer in plants and obtain twenty-five very early cabbage, and twenty-five second early, also a hundred early cauliflower. They cost little, and are set out in half an hour as soon as the ground is fit to work in spring. I usually purchase my tomato, late cabbage, and cauliflower, celery and egg-plants, from the same sources. Cabbages and cauliflowers should be set out in RICH warm soils, free from shade, as soon as the frost is out. After that they need only frequent and clean culture and vigilant watchfulness, or else many will fall victims to a dirty brown worm which usually cuts the stem, and leaves the plant lying on the ground. The worm can easily be found near the surface the moment it begins its ravages, and the only remedy I know is to catch and kill it at once. In this latitude winter cabbage is set out about the fourth of July. I pinch off half the leaves before setting. Good seed, deep plowing or spading, rich soil, and clean culture are usually the only requisites for success. Experience and consultation of the books and catalogues enable me to recommend the Jersey Wakefield for first early, and Henderson's Summer Cabbage and Winningstadt as second early. As a late root I ask for nothing better than Premium Flat Dutch. The Savoy is the best flavored of the cabbage tribe. Henderson recommends the Netted Savoy, which may be treated like other late cabbage. The cauliflower is ranked among the chief delicacies of the garden, and requires and repays far more attention than cabbage. Even the early sorts should have a richer, moister soil than is required for very early cabbage. I advise two plantings in spring, of first and second early; I also advise that late varieties be set out on RICH ground the last of June. As with cabbage, set out the plants from two and a half to three feet apart, according to the size of the variety, from trial I recommend Early Snowball, Half-early Paris, and Large Late Algiers. Spinach thrives in a very rich, well-drained, fine, mellow soil. I prefer a sunny slope; but this is not necessary. Sow the seed from the first to the fifteenth of September, so as to give the plants time to become half grown by winter. Cover the seeds--three to an inch--two inches deep, and pack the ground well over them; let the rows be three inches apart. When the plants are three inches high, thin out to three inches apart, and keep the soil clean and mellow about them. Just before hard freezing weather, scatter about three inches of straw, old pea-vines, or some light litter over the whole bed. As soon as the days begin to grow warm in spring, and hard frost ceases, rake this off. The hardy vegetable begins to grow at once, and should be cut for use so as to leave the plants finally six inches apart, for as fast as space is given, the plants fill it up. By those who are fond of spinach it may be sown in spring as soon as the frost is out. It quickly runs to seed in hot weather, and thinnings of young beets may take its place where space is limited. The Round or Summer is good for fall or spring planting. Those who need much instruction in regard to bush-beans should remain in the city and raise cats in their paved back yards. We shall only warn against planting too early--not before the last of April in our region. It does not take much frost to destroy the plants, and if the soil is cold and wet, the beans decay instead of coming up. If one has a warm, sheltered slope, he may begin planting the middle of April. As a rule, however, bush-beans may be planted from the first of May till the middle of July, in order to keep up a succession. Cover the first seed planted one inch deep; later plantings two inches deep. I think that earliest Red Valentine, Black Wax or Butter, Golden Wax, and the late Refugee are all the varieties needed for the garden. The delicious pale Lima bean requires and deserves more attention. I have always succeeded with it, and this has been my method: I take a warm, rich, but not dry piece of ground, work it deeply early in spring, again the first of May, so that the sun's rays may penetrate and sweeten the ground. About the tenth of May I set the poles firmly in the ground. Rough cedar-poles, with the stubs of the branches extending a little, are the best. If smooth poles are used, I take a hatchet, and beginning at the butt, I make shallow, slanting cuts downward, so as to raise the bark a little. These slight raisings of the bark or wood serve as supports to the clambering vines. After the poles are in the ground I make a broad, flat hill of loose soil and a little of the black powdery fertilizer. I then allow the sun to warm and dry the hill a few days, and if the weather is fine and warm, I plant the seed about the fifteenth, merely pressing the eye of the bean downward one inch. If planted lower than this depth, they usually decay. If it is warm and early, the seed may be planted by the fifth of May. After planting, examine the seed often. If the beans are decaying instead of coming up, plant over again, and repeat this process until there are three or four strong plants within three or four inches of each pole. Let the hills be five feet apart each way, hoe often, and do not tolerate a weed. The Long White Lima and Dreer's Improved Lima are the only sorts needed. The Indians in their succotash taught us long ago to associate corn with beans, and they hit upon a dish not surpassed by modern invention. This delicious vegetable is as easily raised as its "hail-fellow well met," the bean. We have only to plant it at the same time in hills from three to four feet apart, and cover the seed two inches deep. I have used the powdery fertilizers and wood-ashes in the hill to great advantage, first mingling these ingredients well with the soil. We make it a point to have sweet-corn for the table from July 1 until the stalks are killed by frost in October. This is easily managed by planting different varieties, and continuing to plant till well into June. Mr. Gregory writes: "For a succession of corn for family use, to be planted at the same time, I would recommend Marblehead Early, Pratt's, Crosley's, Moore's, Stowell's Evergreen, and Egyptian Sweet." Mr. Harris names with praise the Minnesota as the best earliest, and Hickox Improved as an exceedingly large and late variety. Mr. Henderson's list is Henderson Sugar, Hickox Improved, Egyptian, and Stowell's Evergreen. Let me add Burr's Mammoth and Squantum Sugar--a variety in great favor with the Squantum Club, and used by them in their famous clam-bakes. The cucumber, if grown in the home garden and used fresh, is not in league with the undertaker. The seed may be planted early in May, and there are many ways of forcing and hastening the yield. I have had cucumbers very early in an ordinary hotbed. Outdoors, I make hills in warm soil the first of May, mixing a little of my favorite fertilizer with the soil. After leaving the hill for a day or two to become warm in the sun, I sow the seed in a straight line for fifteen inches, so that the hoe can approach them closely. The seed is covered an inch deep, and the soil patted down firmly. It is possible that a cold storm or that insects may make partial planting over necessary; if so, this is done promptly. I put twenty seeds in the hill, to insure against loss. For a succession or long-continued crop, plant a few hills in rich moist land about the last of May. The young plants always run a gauntlet of insects, and a little striped bug is usually their most deadly enemy. These bugs often appear to come suddenly in swarms, and devour everything before you are aware of their presence. With great vigilance they may be kept off by hand, for their stay is brief. I would advise one trial of a solution of white hellebore, a tablespoonful to a pail of water. Paris green--in solution, of course--kills them; but unless it is very weak, it will kill or stunt the plants also. My musk and watermelons were watered by too strong a solution of Paris green this year, and they never recovered from it. Perhaps the best preventive is to plant so much seed, and to plant over so often, that although the insects do their worst, plenty of good plants survive. This has usually been my method. When the striped bug disappears, and the plants are four or five inches high, I thin out to four plants in the hill. When they come into bearing, pick off all the fruit fit for use, whether you want it or not. If many are allowed to become yellow and go to seed, the growth and productiveness of the vines are checked. The Early White Spine and Extra Long White Spine are all the varieties needed for the table. For pickling purposes plant the Green Prolific on moist rich land. The other varieties answer quite as well, if picked before they are too large. The cultivation of the squash is substantially the same as that of the cucumber, and it has nearly the same enemies to contend with. Let the hills of the bush sorts be four feet apart each way, and eight feet for the running varieties. The seed is cheap, so use plenty, and plant over from the first to the twenty-fifth of May, until you have three good strong plants to the hill. Three are plenty, so thin out the plants, when six or seven inches high, to this number, and keep the ground clean and mellow. I usually raise my running squashes among the corn, giving up one hill to them completely every seven or eight feet each way. Early bush sorts: White Bush Scalloped, Yellow Bush Scalloped. The Perfect Gem is good for both summer and winter, and should be planted on rich soil, six feet apart each way. The Boston Marrow is one of the best fall sorts; the Hubbard and Marblehead are the best winter varieties. When we come to plant musk-melons we must keep them well away from the two above-named vegetables, or else their pollen will mix, producing very disagreeable hybrids. A squash is very good in its way, and a melon is much better; but if you grow them so near each other that they become "'alf and 'alf," you may perhaps find pigs that will eat them. The more completely the melon-patch is by itself, the better, and the nearer the house the better; for while it is liable to all the insects and diseases which attack the cucumber, it encounters, when the fruit is mature, a more fatal enemy in the predatory small boy. Choose rich, warm, but not dry ground for musk-melons, make the hills six feet apart each way, and treat them like cucumbers, employing an abundance of seed. As soon as the plants are ready to run, thin out so as to leave only four to fruit. Henderson recommends Montreal Market, Hackensack, and Netted Gem. Gregory: Netted Gem, Boston Pet, Bay View, Sill's Hybrid, Casaba, and Ward's Nectar. He also advocates a remarkable novelty known as the "Banana." Harris: Early Christiana and Montreal Market. Water-melons should be planted eight feet apart; but if one has not a warm, sandy soil, I do not advise their culture. The time of planting and management do not vary materially from those of the musk variety. The following kinds will scarcely fail to give satisfaction where they can be grown: Phinney's Early, Black Spanish, Mammoth Ironclad, Mountain Sprout, Scaly Bark, and Cuban Queen. The tomato has a curious history. Native of South America like the potato, it is said to have been introduced into England as early as 1596. Many years elapsed before it was used as food, and the botanical name given to it was significant of the estimation in which it was held by our forefathers. It was called Lycopersicum--a compound term meaning wolf and peach; indicating that, notwithstanding its beauty, it was regarded as a sort of "Dead Sea fruit." The Italians first dared to use it freely; the French followed; and after eying it askance as a novelty for unknown years, John Bull ventured to taste, and having survived, began to eat with increasing gusto. To our grandmothers in this land the ruby fruit was given as "love-apples," which, adorning quaint old bureaus, were devoured by dreamy eyes long before canning factories were within the ken of even a Yankee's vision. Now, tomatoes vie with the potato as a general article of food, and one can scarcely visit a quarter of the globe so remote but he will find that the tomato-can has been there before him. Culture of the tomato is so easy that one year I had bushels of the finest fruit from plants that grew here and there by chance. Skill is required only in producing an early crop; and to secure this end the earlier the plants are started in spring, the better. Those who have glass will experience no difficulty whatever. The seed may be sown in a greenhouse as early as January, and the plants potted when three inches high, transferred to larger pots from time to time as they grow, and by the middle of May put into the open ground full of blossoms and immature fruit. Indeed, plants started early in the fall will give in a greenhouse a good supply all winter. Tomatoes also grow readily in hot-beds, cold-frames, or sunny windows. We can usually buy well-forwarded plants from those who raise them for sale. If these are set out early in May on a sunny slope, they mature rapidly, and give an early yield. The tomato is very sensitive to frost, and should not be in the open ground before danger from it is over. Throughout May we may find plants for sale everywhere. If we desire to try distinct kinds with the least trouble, we can sow the seed about May 1, and in our climate enjoy an abundant yield in September, or before. In the cool, humid climate of England the tomato is usually grown en espalier, like the peach, along sunny walls and fences, receiving as careful a summer pruning as the grape-vine. With us it is usually left to sprawl over the ground at will. By training the vines over various kinds of supports, however, they may be made as ornamental as they are useful. The ground on which they grow should be only moderately fertile, or else there is too great a growth of vine at the expense of fruit. This is especially true if we desire an early yield, and in this case the warmest, driest soil is necessary. But comparatively a few years ago the tomato consisted of little more than a rind, with seeds in the hollow centre. Now, the only varieties worth raising cut as solid as a mellow pear. The following is Gregory's list of varieties: Livingston's Beauty, Alpha, Acme, Canada Victor, Arlington, General Grant. I will add Trophy and Mikado. If a yellow variety is desired, try Golden Trophy. If the tomato needs warm weather in which to thrive, the egg-plant requires that both days and nights should be hot. It is an East Indiaman, and demands curry in the way of temperature before it loses its feeble yellow aspect and takes on the dark green of vigorous health. My method is simply this: I purchase strong potted plants between the twentieth of May and the first of June, and set them out in a rich, warm soil. A dozen well-grown plants will supply a large family with egg-fruit. Of course one can start the young plants themselves, as in the case of tomatoes; but it should be remembered that they are much more tender and difficult to raise than is the tomato. Plants from seed sown in the open ground would not mature in our latitude, as a rule. The best plan is to have the number you need grown for you by those who make it their business. Eggplants are choice morsels for the potato-beetle, and they must be watched vigilantly if we would save them. There is no better variety than the New York Improved. The pepper is another hot-blooded vegetable that shivers at the suggestion of frost. It is fitting that it should be a native of India. Its treatment is usually the same as that of the egg-plant. It matures more rapidly, however, and the seed can be sown about the middle of May, half an inch deep, in rows fifteen inches apart. The soil should be rich and warm. When the plants are well up, they should be thinned so that they will stand a foot apart in the row. The usual course, however, is to set out plants which have been started under glass, after all danger from frost is over. Henderson recommends New Sweet Spanish and Golden Dawn, The Large Bell is a popular sort, and Cherry Red very ornamental. From the okra is made the famous gumbo soup, which ever calls to vision a colored aunty presiding over the mysteries of a Southern dinner. If Aunt Dinah, so well known to us from the pages of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," could have left her receipt for this compound, her fame might have lasted as long as that of Mrs. Stowe. The vegetable furnishing this glutinous, nutritious, and wholesome ingredient is as easily raised as any product of the garden. We have only to sow the seed, from the first to the tenth of May, two inches deep, and let the plants stand from two to three feet apart each way, in order to have an abundant supply. The new Dwarf Prolific is about the best variety. Fall turnips are so easily grown that they require but few words. They are valuable vegetables for utilizing space in the garden after early crops, as peas, beans, potatoes, etc., are removed. The seed of ruta-baga, or Swedish turnips, should be planted earliest--from the twentieth of June to the tenth of July in our latitude. This turnip should be sown in drills two feet apart, and the plants thinned to eight inches from one another. It is very hardy, and the roots are close-grained, solid, and equally good for the table and the family cow. The Yellow Aberdeen is another excellent variety, which may be sown EARLY in July, and treated much the same as the foregoing. The Yellow Stone can be sown on good ground until the fifteenth of July in any good garden soil, and the plants thinned to six inches apart. It is perhaps the most satisfactory of all the turnip tribe both for table use and stock. The Bed-top Strap-leaf may be sown anywhere until the tenth of August. It is a general custom, in the middle of July, to scatter some seed of this hardy variety among the corn: hoe it in lightly, and there is usually a good crop. Every vacant spot may be utilized by incurring only the slight cost of the seed and the sowing. It may be well, perhaps, to remember the advice of the old farmer to his son. He said, "Stub your toe and spill half the seed before sowing it; for scattered broadcast it is usually much too thick." If this proves true, thin out the plants rigorously. This turnip is good for table and stock as long as it is solid and crisp; but it grows pithy toward spring. There are other kinds well worth a trial. Perhaps no vegetable is more generally appreciated than celery. Like asparagus, it was once, and is still by some, regarded as a luxury requiring too much skill and labor for the ordinary gardener. This is a mistake. Few vegetables in my garden repay so amply the cost of production. One can raise turnips as a fall crop much easier, it is true; but turnips are not celery, any more than brass is gold. Think of enjoying this delicious vegetable daily from October till April! When cooked, and served on toast with drawn butter sauce, it is quite ambrosial. In every garden evolved beyond the cabbage and potato phase a goodly space of the best soil should be reserved for celery, since it can be set out from the first to the twentieth of July in our latitude; it can be grown as the most valuable of the second crops, reoccupying space made vacant by early crops. I find it much easier to buy my plants, when ready for them, than to raise them. In every town there are those who grow them in very large quantities, and, if properly packed, quickly transported, and promptly set out in the evening following their reception, and watered abundantly, they rarely fail. There are decided advantages, however, in raising our own plants, especially if midsummer should prove dry and hot, or the plants must be long in transit. When they are growing in our own garden, they can be moved with very slight check to their growth. In starting the seed there is no necessity for hot-bed or cold-frame. It may be put in the ground the first week of April, and the best plants are thus secured. Much is gained by preparing a warm but not dry plot of ground in autumn, making it very rich with short, half-decayed stable-manure. This preparation should be begun as soon as possible after the soaking September rains. Having thoroughly incorporated and mixed evenly in the soil an abundance of the manure described, leave the ground untouched for three weeks. The warm fertilizer will cause great numbers of weed-seeds to germinate. When these thrifty pests are a few inches high, dig them under and bring up the bottom soil. The warmth and light will immediately start a new and vigorous growth of weeds, which in turn should be dug under. If the celery seed bed be made early enough, this process can be repeated several times before winter--the oftener the better; for by it the great majority of weed-seeds will be made to germinate, and thus are destroyed. The ground also becomes exceedingly rich, mellow, and fine--an essential condition for celery seed, which is very small, and germinates slowly. This thorough preparation does not involve much labor, for the seed-bed is small, and nothing more is required in spring but to rake the ground smooth and fine as soon as the frost is out. The soil has already been made mellow, and certainly nothing is gained by turning up the cold earth in the bottom of the bed. Sow the seed at once on the sunwarmed surface. The rows should be nine inches apart, and about twelve seeds sown to every inch of row. The drills should be scarcely an eighth of an inch deep. Indeed, a firm patting with the back of a spade would give covering enough. Since celery germinates so slowly, it is well to drop a lettuce-seed every few inches, to indicate clearly just where the rows are. Then the ground between the rows can be hoed lightly as soon as the weeds start, also after heavy rains, so as to admit the vivifying sun-rays and air. Of course when the celery plants are clearly outlined, the lettuce should be pulled out. If the bed is made in spring, perform the work as early as possible, making the bed very rich, mellow, and fine. Coarse manures, cold, poor, lumpy soil, leave scarcely a ghost of a chance for success. The plants should be thinned to two inches from one another, and when five inches high, shear them back to three inches. When they have made another good growth, shear them back again. The plants are thus made stocky. In our latitude I try to set out celery, whether raised or bought, between the twenty-fifth of June and the fifteenth of July. This latitude enables us to avoid a spell of hot, dry weather. There are two distinct classes of celery--the tall-growing sorts, and the dwarf varieties. A few years ago the former class was grown generally; trenches were dug, and their bottoms well enriched to receive the plants. Now the dwarf kinds are proving their superiority, by yielding a larger amount of crisp, tender heart than is found between long coarse stalks of the tall sorts. Dwarf celery requires less labor also, for it can be set on the surface and much closer together, the rows three feet apart, and the plants six inches in the row. Dig all the ground thoroughly, then, beginning on one side of the plot, stretch a line along it, and fork under a foot-wide strip of three or four inches of compost, not raw manure. By this course the soil where the row is to be is made very rich and mellow. Set out the plants at once while the ground is fresh and moist. If the row is ten feet long, you will want twenty plants; if fifteen, thirty plants; or two plants to every foot of row. Having set out one row, move the line forward three feet, and prepare and set out another row in precisely the same manner. Continue this process until the plot selected is occupied. If the plants have been grown in your own garden, much is gained by SOAKING the ground round them in the evening, and removing them to the rows in the cool of the morning. This abundant moisture will cause the soil to cling to the roots if handled gently, and the plants will scarcely know that they have been moved. When setting I usually trim off the greater part of the foliage. When all the leaves are left, the roots, not established, cannot keep pace with the evaporation. Always keep the roots moist and unshrivelled, and the heart intact, and the plants are safe. If no rain follows setting immediately, water the plants thoroughly--don't be satisfied with a mere sprinkling of the surface--and shade from the hot sun until the plants start to grow. One of the chief requisites in putting out a celery plant, and indeed almost any plant, is to press the soil FIRMLY ROUND, AGAINST, AND OVER THE ROOTS. This excludes the air, and the new rootlets form rapidly. Neither bury the heart nor leave any part of the root exposed. Do not be discouraged at the rather slow growth during the hot days of July and early August. You have only to keep the ground clean and mellow by frequent hoeings until the nights grow cooler and longer, and rains thoroughly moisten the soil. About the middle of August the plants should be thrifty and spreading, and now require the first operation, which will make them crisp and white or golden for the table. Gather up the stalks and foliage of each plant closely in the left hand, and with the right draw up the earth round it. Let no soil tumble in on the heart to soil or cause decay. Press the soil firmly, so as to keep all the leaves in an upright position. Then with a hoe draw up more soil, until the banking process is begun. During September and October the plants will grow rapidly, and in order to blanch them they must be earthed up from time to time, always keeping the stalks close and compact, with no soil falling in on the developing part. By the end of October the growth is practically made, and only the deep green leaves rest on the high embankments. The celery now should be fit for use, and time for winter storing is near. In our region it is not safe to leave celery unprotected after the tenth of November, for although it is a very hardy plant, it will not endure a frost which produces a strong crust of frozen soil. I once lost a fine crop early in November. The frost in one night penetrated the soil deeply, and when it thawed out, the celery never revived. NEVER HANDLE CELERY WHEN IT IS FROZEN. My method of preserving this vegetable for winter use is simply this. During some mild, clear day in early November I have a trench ten inches wide dug nearly as deep as the celery is tall. This trench is dug on a warm dry slope, so that by no possibility can water gather in it. Then the plants are taken up carefully and stored in the trench, the roots on the bottom, the plants upright as they grew, and pressed closely together so as to occupy all the space in the excavation. The foliage rises a little above the surface, which is earthed up about four inches, so that water will be shed on either side. Still enough of the leaves are left in the light to permit all the breathing necessary; for plants breathe as truly as we do. As long as the weather keeps mild, this is all that is needed; but there is no certainty now. A hard black frost may come any night. I advise that an abundance of leaves or straw be gathered near. When a bleak November day promises a black frost at night, scatter the leaves, etc., thickly over the trenched celery, and do not take them off until the mercury rises above freezing-point. If a warm spell sets in, expose the foliage to the air again. But watch your treasure vigilantly. Winter is near, and soon you must have enough covering over your trench to keep out the frost--a foot or more of leaves, straw, or some clean litter. There is nothing better than leaves, which cost only the gathering. From now till April, when you want a head or more of celery, open the trench at the lower end, and take out the crisp white or golden heads, and thank the kindly Providence that planted a garden as the best place in which to put man, and woman also. GARNISHING AND POT HERBS "There's fennel for you; there's rue for you." Strange and involuntary is the law of association! I can never see the garnishing and seasoning herbs of the garden without thinking of the mad words of distraught Ophelia. I fancy, however, that we are all practical enough to remember the savory soups and dishes rendered far more appetizing than they could otherwise have been by these aromatic and pungent flavors. I will mention only a few of the popular sorts. The seeds of fennel may be sown in April about three-quarters of an inch deep, and the plants thinned to fifteen inches apart. Cut off the seed-stalks to increase the growth of foliage. Parsley, like celery seed, germinates slowly, and is sometimes about a month in making its appearance. The soil should therefore be made very rich and fine, and the seed sown half an inch deep, as early in spring as possible. When the plants are three inches high, thin them to eight inches apart. Sweet-basil may be sown in early May, and the plants thinned to one foot apart. The seeds of sweet-marjoram are very minute, and must be covered very thinly with soil finely pulverized; sow in April or May, when the ground is in the best condition. Sage is easily raised from seeds gown an inch deep the latter part of April; let the soil be warm and rich; let the plants stand about one foot apart in the row. Thyme and summer-savory require about the same treatment as sage. I find that some of the mountain mints growing wild are quite as aromatic and appetizing as many of these garden herbs. THE END 
56526	----	Literature (Images generously made available by the Internet Archive.) HOW THE GARDEN GREW BY MAUD MARYON "Mary, Mary, quite contrairy, How does your garden grow?" _With Four Illustrations by Gordon Browne_ LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON NEW YORK AND BOMBAY 1900 To HIS REVERENCE CONTENTS PAGE SEASON I.--WINTER 3 SEASON II.--SPRING 71 SEASON III.--SUMMER 127 SEASON IV.--AUTUMN 191 INDEX 253 ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE WINTER 2 SPRING 70 SUMMER 126 AUTUMN 190 [Illustration: WINTER] HOW THE GARDEN GREW SEASON I Winter "Now is the winter of my discontent." I have not had charge of my garden very long; and I am not sure that I should have undertaken such a charge had there been anyone else to do it. But there was no one else, and it so obviously needed doing. Of course there was the gardener--I shall have to allude to him occasionally--but just now I will only mention the fact that his greatest admirer could not have accused him of _taking care_ of the garden. Then there was his Reverence; he was by way of being in charge of everything, me included, I suppose, and of course nominally it was so. He had the parish and the church, and the rectory and his family, and the men-servants and the maid-servants, a horse and a pony _and_ the garden! He managed most things well, I will say, and the kitchen garden gave some account of itself, but in the flower garden desolation cried aloud. I was moved one day to say I thought it disgraceful. "There are no flowers anywhere; nothing but some semi-red geraniums and some poverty-stricken calceolarias and scraggy lobelias. We have none of those nice high blue things, what do you call them? or those yellow round things with red fringes, like daisies, which are not daisies; we have no sweet-Williams even, though they are the sort of flowers that grow in every _cottage_ garden!" There was a twinkle in his Reverence's eye. "You seem to know a good deal about flowers, Mary; I can't even follow your descriptions. I try my best with the carrots and onions. You must acknowledge you have vegetables." "Oh, vegetables!" I cried with a tone of contempt. "Yes, vegetables! You don't seem to despise them at dinner." "No, but vegetables! Anyone can buy vegetables." "Anyone can buy flowers, I suppose, if they have the money to spend." "They can't buy the look of flowers in the garden," I argued; "that is what one wants; not a few cut things on the table." "Well, I spend," began his Reverence, and then paused, and looked through a little drawer of his table that contained account-books. An idea struck me. I waited eagerly for his next words. "Let me see," continued his Reverence, running his eye down long rows of figures. "Ah! here is one of last year's bills for seeds, etc. Just on ten pounds, you see, and half of that certainly was for the flower garden. There were new rose trees." "They are mostly dead. Griggs said it was the frost," I interpolated. "And some azaleas, I remember." "They don't flower." "And bulbs." "Oh! Griggs buried _them_ with a vengeance." "Well, anyway, five pounds at least was--" "Was wasted, sir; that is what happened to that five pounds. Now, look here." His Reverence looked. "Give me that five pounds." "That particular one?" "Of course not. Five pounds, and I will see if I can't get some flowers into the garden. Five pounds! Why, my goodness, what a lot of things one ought to get with five pounds. Seeds are so cheap, sixpence a packet I have heard; and then one takes one's own seeds after the first year. Come, sir, five pounds down and every penny shall go on the garden." "Dear me! but according to you five pounds is a great deal too much. I can't say that it has produced very fine results under Griggs's management; but at sixpence a packet!" "No, sir, it is not too much really," I said gravely. "I shall have to buy a heap of things besides seeds, I expect. But you shall see what I will do with it. I want that garden to be full of flowers." His Reverence looked out of the study window. It was a bleak, windy day towards the end of November. A few brown, unhappy-looking leaves still hung on the trees; but most of them, released at last, danced riotously across the small grass plot in front of the old red brick house, until they found a damp resting-place beneath the shrubbery. The border in front looked unutterably dreary with one or two clumps of frost-bitten dahlias and some scrubby little chrysanthemums. "Full of flowers!" The eye of faith was needed indeed. "I don't mean before Christmas," I added, following his Reverence's eye. "But there are things that come out in the spring, you know, and perhaps they ought to be put in now. Is it a bargain?" "Yes, Mary, it shall be a bargain. Here is the fiver. Don't waste it, but make the best of that garden. You had better consult old Griggs about bulbs and such-like. There ought to be some. I don't think the few snowdrops I saw can represent all I bought." "They never came up. I know they didn't. I believe he planted them topsy-turvy. I suppose there is a right side up to bulbs, and if so, Griggs would certainly choose the wrong. It's his nature. Can't we get rid of him, sir? Isn't there any post besides that of gardener which he might fill?" His Reverence will not always take my words of wisdom seriously. "What, more posts! Why, he is clerk and grave-digger and bell-ringer! Would you like me to retire in his favour?" "_I_ am speaking seriously, Father. If anything is to be made of this garden it can't be done whilst that old idiot remains here." "I fear he must remain here. I have inherited him. His position is as firm as mine." "Not as gardener!" "No; but he can't live on his other earnings. No, Mary, put your best foot foremost and make something of old Griggs and the garden and the five pounds. And now take this bulb catalogue. I have not had time to look it through, and perhaps it may not be too late to get some things in for the spring. But don't spend all the five pounds on bulbs," he shouted after me as I left the study. And so I plunged into gardening, a very Ignoramus of the Ignorami, and what is herein set down will be written for the edification, instruction, warning and encouragement of others belonging to that somewhat large species. * * * * * I opened the bright-coloured catalogue. Oh! what fascination lurks in the pages of a bulb catalogue. The thick, highly-glazed leaves turn with a rich revelation on both sides. It scarcely needs the brilliant illustrations to lift the imagination into visions of gorgeous beauty. Parterres of amazing tulips, sheets of golden daffodils, groups of graceful, nodding narcissus, the heavy, sweet scent of hyacinths comes from that glorious bloom "excellent for pot culture"; and here in more quiet letters grow the early crocus--yellow, white, blue and mixed--and snowdrops. Ah! snowdrops, coming so early, bringing the promise of all the rich glory that is to follow. And scillas, aconites, chionodoxa or "Glory of the Snow"! What were all those lovely, to me half unheard-of names that could be had for two shillings and sixpence, three shillings or four shillings and sixpence a hundred? They bloomed in February and March, they were hardy and throve in any soil. Oh! how they throve in the pages of that catalogue. And anemones! My mind rushed to the joys of the Riviera, revealed in occasional wooden boxes, mostly smashed, sent by friends from that land of sunshine, and whose contents, when revived, spoke of a wealth of colour forever to be associated with the name of anemone. To grow them myself, rapture! "Plant in October or November." It was still November; they must be ordered at once, "double," "mixed," "single," "fulgens"; they were "dazzling," "effective," "brilliant," and began to flower in March. I was plunged into a happy dream of month succeeding month, bringing each with it its own glory of radiant bloom, very much after the manner of Walter Crane's picture-books. Life was going to be well worth living. So now to make my first list and secure all this treasure for the coming beautiful flower-laden year. I made a list; and then, mindful of the limited nature of even five pounds and all that would be required of it, I made up a long row of figures. This gave me an ugly jar. Flowers should be given freely and graciously, not bought and sold, to everyone by everyone for the promotion of beauty and happiness upon earth. Any good Government should see to this. But present arrangements being so defective, I had to remodel my list considerably. I cheered up with the thought, however, that bulbs were not annuals, but on their own account, so I had heard, grew and multiplied quietly in the earth. What could have become of those planted by Griggs last year? Did worms eat bulbs? * * * * * I wandered round the garden, seeing possibilities and refusing to be depressed by the sadness of sodden grass, straggling rose branches bare of beauty, heavy earth that closed in dejected plants, weeds or what not; I saw them all with new eyes and scanned them closely. Did they mean flowers? Down in their hearts could those poor draggled, tangled specimens dream of radiant blooms turned to the sun? I had not studied my garden before; there were prisoners in it. Care and attention, the right food and freedom, should bring new beauties to light. I had grumbled and growled for over two years at the hopelessness of it, and at the dearth of flowers for house decoration. Now all was to be changed; the garden was to be beautiful! I thought of that catalogue. Griggs was digging in the kitchen garden; not hard, not deep, still, no one could say he was unemployed. He was himself very muddy, and gave one the idea of working with all parts of his person except his brains. My former interviews with him had been short if not sweet; but there was no open quarrel. He paused as I stood near him, wiping his spade with his hands, kicking at the clods of earth round him as though they were troublesome. "Is that for potatoes?" I asked, wishing to show not only interest but knowledge. He tilted his cap to one side and viewed the bare expanse of upturned earth. "Oi 'ad taters in 'ere last; thought oi'd dig it a bit. Diggin' allays comes in 'andy." "Oh, yes;" and then I made a fresh start. "I wanted to know about those bulbs you planted last autumn. Did they come up?" This was evidently an awkward question. "Bulbs! Oh, there wur a few wot the Rector give me some toime back lars year. They didn't come to much. Never knows with bulbs, you don't!" "Oh! but bulbs ought to come up." "Some on 'em do, some times. Don't 'old myself with them furrin koinds." "What, not with Dutch bulbs? Why, they grow the best kind in Holland." "Maybe they do; over there. P'haps this soil didn't soute 'em. Wot I found diggin' the beds I put in them two round beds on the lawn. They wasn't no great quantity. Most on 'em perished loike, it 'pears to me." "Perhaps you did not put them in right," I ventured. "How deep should you plant them?" Oh! how ignorant I was. I did not feel even sure that I knew the right side up of a bulb. Griggs gave a hoarse chuckle. "They don't need to go fur in; 'bout so fur," and he made a movement that might indicate an inch or a yard; "but there's lots o' contrairy things that may 'appen to bulbs same as to most things. En'mies is wot there is in gardins, all along o' the curse." Griggs was clerk; he never forgot that post of vantage. He looked at me as he said the word "curse." I wondered if his mind had made the connection between Eve and her daughter. But to return to the bulbs. Were worms the enemies in this particular case? I knew they buried cities and raised rocks, and were our best diggers and fertilisers, because I had once read Darwin on the subject; but were they the enemies of bulbs? "I am going to take the garden in hand a bit," I said after a pause. "I think it needs it." "Well, I could do wi' a bit o' elp," and he wiped more mud from his spade to his hands, and from his hands to his trousers, and then back again, until I wondered what his wife did with him when she got him home. "But I reckon a boy 'ud be more 'andy loike. There's a lot o' talk," he added, half to himself. I remembered with a feeling of pain how our old cook and factotum had received the news that I was taking cooking lessons in much the same spirit; but my newly-found energy was not going to be suppressed by Griggs. "I am going to order some more bulbs," I began. "Ah! you might do _that_. The gardin needs things puttin' into it, that's what it needs." I looked at him sternly. "And things taken out of it too. I never knew such a place for weeds." "No more didn't I. It's fearful bad soil for weeds; but maybe if there warn't so much room for 'em they'd get sort of crowded out." "You have been here a good many years," I said, not without an afterthought. "Yes; that's wot I 'ave been. I come first in ole Mr Wood's time; 'e was a 'and at roses, 'e was; somethin' loike we 'ad the place then, me an' 'im. Then Mr 'Erbert took it, that's when ole Woods, 'is father as 'twere, doied. But 'e didn't stay long; went fur a missunairy 'e did to them furrin parts and never come back, 'e didn't neither. Then come Mr Cooper, ten years, no, 'levin, he was 'ere and never did a bit to the gardin; took no interes', no cuttin's, no seeds, no manure, no nothink. That's 'ow the weeds overmastered us." "But at least you might have dug up the weeds." "Allays callin' me away for some'ot, they was. The Bath chair for 'is sister as lived with 'im, allays some'ot. Talk o' gardinin'! The weeds just come." Then his tone brightened a bit; the Bath chair had been an unpleasing retrospect. "But if the Rector looks to spend a bit, we might get some good stuff in." A pause, and a searching look at the setting sun. "I must be going. Got a bit to see to up at my place. Can't never git round with these short days." Griggs collected his implements and with fine independence walked off, giving me a backward nod and a "Good evenin', miss. We could do wi' a few bulbs and such loike." I was to divide Griggs's time with his Reverence, but Griggs seemed quite able to dispose of it himself. * * * * * I opened a strong wooden box with much interest and examined the result of my first venture in bulbs. Brown paper bags full of little seeds in which were carefully packed the firm dry brown roots, big and little, round and oblong. How wonderful that these "dead bones" should be capable of springing up into the glories of sight and smell foretold by my catalogue. This withered brown ball a hyacinth! unfolding, unfolding, until green tips, broadening leaves, and at last a massive crown of flowers appear. And the magician's wand to work this transformation? Just the good old brown earth, the common rain, and the wonderful work-a-day sun. I was soon busy in the garden depositing my various bulbs in heaps where I intended them to be buried. I called Griggs and requested suitable tools for the work. "I am going to plant daffodils under these trees," I said; "and I want you to take that bag of crocuses and put them in all over the grass in front. Put them anywhere and everywhere, like the daisies grow." "What! front of the Rector's winder?" "Yes; all over." "'Ow many 'ave you got 'ere?" "Three hundred; but they don't take long planting." "'Ope not! I've got a good bit else to to do; can't fiddle faddle over them." "Put them in the right side up. I want them to grow," I called after his retreating figure. Then I eyed my pile of bulbs. Of course I did know the right side up of a bulb; of course everybody did; and if anyone was likely to make a mistake it was surely Griggs, so it was clearly no use asking him. Nice brown thing, why had you not given just one little green sprout as the crocuses and snowdrops had done, so that there _could_ be no mistake? And what would happen if they were planted topsy-turvy? Could they send up shoots from anywhere they chose? or would the perversity of such a position be too much for their budding vitality? I did not wish to try the experiment; my daffodils _must_ make their appearance next March. I ranged them out in broad circles under one or two trees, in patches at the corner of projecting borders, and walked away to see the effect from different points; the effect, not of brown specks, but of sheets of gold that were to be. His Reverence found me with my head on one side taking in the future from the drawing-room windows. "You seem very busy, Mary." "I am. You see, it is a great thing to place them where they can stay. I like permanent things. It will be lovely, won't it, to see that golden patch under the mulberry tree and another at the corner there; and then under the chestnut just a sheet of white?" "Oh, lovely! And what kind of sheet or wet blanket is old Griggs preparing for my eyes in front?" "Oh, the old owl! I must run and see he is doing as I told him. You might be useful, sir, for a bit, mightn't you? and begin popping in those daffodils under that tree exactly as I have arranged them. I will be back directly." His Reverence loved walking round with a tall spud prodding up weeds, but it was a new idea to set him to work in other ways. I left him for some time and came back with a heated face. "Just imagine! Oh, really, sir, we can't go on with that--that--unutterable idiot! He won't do as he is told. What do you think he was doing? I told him to plant all that front piece of grass with crocuses, you know--told him as plainly as I could speak--and there he was burying my crocuses, by handfuls I think, in the border." "Oh, well, he doesn't understand your ideas, you see, Mary; he has not seen them carried out yet." "Oh, but he did understand, only he said it would take longer to plant them in the grass and they would come up better in the border. 'I want that for tulips,' I said, and stood over him while he unburied all he had done. Then he said, 'Can't stand cuttin' up the grass like this; better put 'em straight 'long that shady border there, give a bit o' colour to it.' 'I want them here, in the grass,' I said. 'And how 'bout my mowing? I shall cut 'em to pieces.' That was a bright idea, he thought. 'You don't begin mowing until after the crocuses are well over; that won't hurt.' And now I have spread them all over the lawn myself and left him to put them in. He can't make any further mistake I hope." His Reverence was laughing. Old Griggs amused him much more than he did me. "How many have you done?" I asked, and I looked at the still unburied bulbs. "Why, sir--" "I have done two, Mary, really; but look at this pile of plantains! Oh, these horrid things! you must clear the garden of them." "I can't," I said sternly. "There is too much else to do. What we want is colour, flowers everywhere. The plantains are green so they don't disturb the harmony. But you may take them up if you like." "Colour! harmony! If you talk to old Griggs like that he will think you are mad. And, Mary, you bought _all_ these bulbs? Remember there is the spring and summer to be reckoned with. How much has gone?" "Two pounds. It ought to have been twenty. Seeds are cheaper, you know. I must do a lot with seeds, I find. But bulbs go on, that is the comfort of them. They will be there for always!" "Well, I won't interfere. Don't bully my old Griggs." And his Reverence walked off. I proceeded, yes, I will confess it, carefully to open up one of the bulbs he had planted. Yes, there it was, it had its point upward. Oh! I hoped he really knew. And so all the others were placed snugly in their narrow beds, and patted down with a kind of blessing. "Wake up soon and be glorious, brilliant, effective." * * * * * There were hours of deep dejection after all my planting was done. It was December, and so much ought to have been done in November, October, and even September. In fact, I ought to have begun nine months ago. And those nine months could not be caught up for another year, depressing thought! Wallflowers, polyanthus, forget-me-nots, sweet-Williams, all the dear, simple things of which I wanted masses, instead of the one or two stalky bushes that grew down a long herbaceous border, all these should have begun their career, it appeared, last February or March if I wanted them to flower next spring. I must wait. I had not set out on my gardening experience to learn patience, it is always being rubbed into one; but I warn you, O brother or sister Ignoramus! that of all stocks you will need patience the most. My garden was now a white world. Snow buried everything: hopes and depressions were equally hidden. A fine time for castle-building, for hurrying through the seasons and imagining how many treasures ought to be, might be, should be hidden beneath that cold, pure coverlid and warmly, snugly nestling in Mother Earth's brown bosom. What energy must be at work, what pushing, struggling, expanding of little points of life downwards, upwards, until they burst into resurrection with little green hands folded as in thanksgiving. In the meantime I turned to books, on gardening, of course. My new "fad," as the Others called it, having announced itself in plenty of time for Christmas, my pile of gifts presented a most learned appearance. This was my first taste of that fascinating literature. His Reverence had handed over to me a brown-clad work on gardening--somewhat ancient I must say--at the beginning of my enterprise. I had scanned it critically and compared it to an ordinary cookery-book in which recipes are given, and unless you are already familiar with the art you are continually faced with difficulties. The cookery-books tell one to "make a white sauce of flour, butter and milk," but how? Wherein lies the mystery of that delicately-flavoured, creamy substance or that lumpy kind of paste? Just so my regular handbook to gardening. For example:-- "They vary very much in habit, but should be of easy cultivation. The compost required is rich, deep and moist. Any sourness in the soil will be fatal to flowering. When planting supply liberally with manure, and occasionally mulch in dry weather." But what did it all mean? How test the soil and the sourness which would be fatal to flourishing? The proof of the pudding would be in the eating, but how prevent any tragic consequences? But these other books, this literature on gardening! They are generally better than the garden itself. Practical they are not, but why ask it of them? They are the seductive catalogue turned into finest art. One wanders with some sweet, madonna-like lady of smooth fair hair, mild eyes and broad-brimmed hat, or with a courtly parson of the old school, in a garden where the sun always shines. Green stretches of lawn (no plantains), trees grouped from their infancy to adorn and shade and be the necessary background to masses of flowering shrubs. Through rockeries, ferneries, nut-groves, copses we wander as in a fairy dream. Borders laid out to catch the sun, sheltered by old red brick walls where fruit ripens in luscious clusters. Rose gardens, sunk gardens, water gardens lead on to copses where all wild things of beauty are met together to entrance the eye. Broad walks between herbaceous borders, containing every flower loved from the time of Eve; sheltered patches where seedlings thrive, a nursery of carefully-reared young. And in this heaven of gardening land gardeners galore flit to and fro, ever doing their master's behest, and manure and water, and time and money may be considerations but are not anxieties. I ought to have begun years ago; seven, nine, fifteen, and even twenty-five years are talked of but as yesterday. I felt out of it in every sense. My garden lay out there in the cold, grey mist; it had been neglected, it held no rippling stream, no nut-grove, it ran upward into no copse or land of pine and bracken and heather. It had a hedge one side and a sloping field the other. The straight kitchen garden was bounded by no red brick wall, and the birds from the convenient hedges ate all the fruit, unless gooseberries and currants were so plentiful that we also were allowed a share. Griggs talked of an 'urbrageous' border. But what a border! Evening primroses, the common yellow marigold, a few clusters of golden-rod, and other weed-like flowers that persist in growing of themselves, with Griggs, five pounds a year and an Ignoramus to work it! Oh! why had I so cheerfully undertaken such an apparently hopeless task? But my honour was now at stake. I had said I would have flowers on five pounds a year, and I could not draw back. Let me clear away the mists that had arisen. After all, that tree down there was a pink chestnut, and beneath it lay my sheet of snowdrops and blue scillas. Before it burst into beauty they would have done their share of rejoicing the eye. At that corner, where the field sloped so prettily downwards, daffodils were hidden, and under the clump just over the fence more and more daffodils. A row of stately limes, dismally bare now, carried the eye down to the next field. There, where it was always shady, I pictured future ferns and early wild-flowers, and maybe groups of foxgloves. I turned again to my gardening books. I too would have a garden "to love," to "work in"; if not a "Gloucestershire garden," or a "German garden," or a "Surrey" one, still a garden. Months with me, also, should be a successive revelation of flowers; though I knew not a Latin name I would become learned in the sweet, simple, old-fashioned flowers that cottagers loved, and though I could not fit poetry on to every plant, I would have a posy for the study table right through the year. That was my dream! * * * * * The first, the very first produce of the opening year in my garden was a winter aconite. The little dead-looking roots had been planted in a sunny shrubbery border and had quickly thrust up their golden crowns, circled with the tender green collar. Have you ever noticed how a winter aconite springs from its bed? Its ways are most original. The sturdy little stem comes up like a hoop; at one end is the root, at the other the blossom, with its green collar drooped carefully over the yellow centre. Gradually it raises itself, shakes off the loosened mould--you may help it here if you like--lays back its collar and opens its golden eye. I picked every one I could find. It seemed sinful, but occasionally pride overcomes the most modest of us. "There," I cried, "my garden is beginning already. Just look at them! Are they not lovely?" "What, buttercups?" asked one of the Others. "No, oh, ignorant one! they are not buttercups. They are winter aconite; note the difference." "Let's look!" and the brown little fist of one of the youngest of the Others was thrust forth. "All that fuss about those! You wait a minute!" He ran off, returning shortly with quite a big bunch of my yellow treasures in his hand. "Where did you get them? Jim, you bad boy! you must not pick my flowers," I exclaimed. "_Your_ flowers! and you hadn't an idea that they grew there. These are from _my_ garden, and no one has given _me_ a fiver to raise them with. Come, Mary, I shall cry halves. You had better square me!" "Oh, Jim, where did you find them?" was all I could gasp. I did square Jim, but it was in "kind," and then he showed me much winter aconite hidden away in an unfrequented shrubbery, where his quick little eyes had spied it. I thought of moving it to where it would show. Everything with me was for show in those early days; but these surprises hold their own delight, and I learnt to encourage them. I suffered many things at the hands of the Others for spending five pounds on winter aconite when already the garden held "such heaps "--that was their way of putting it. I began to hope that more surprises of such sort might be in store for me. It is wonderful how one may avoid seeing what is really just under one's nose. The Others might laugh, but I doubt if they even knew winter aconite as the yellow buttercup-looking thing before that morning. Another yellow flower tried to relieve the monotony of that dead season of the year. Struggling up the front of the house, through the virginian creeper and old Gloire de Dijon rose, were the bare branches of a yellow jasmine. From the end of December on through January and February it did its poor best to strike a note of colour in the gloom. But why was it not more successful? Judging from its performance, I had formed the meanest opinion of its capabilities, until one bright day in January my eye had been caught by a mass of yellow--I say advisedly a mass--thrown over the rickety porch of old Master Lovell's abode. Yellow jasmine! yes, there was no mistake about it, but the bare greenish stems were covered with the brilliant little star-flowers, shining and rejoicing as in the full tide of summer. I thought of my bare straggling specimen and stopped to ask for the recipe for such blossoming. Old Lovell and old Griggs had both lived in Fairleigh all their lives, and there was an old-timed and well-ripened feud between the pair. "A purty sight I calls that," said old Lovell, surveying his porch, "an' yourn ain't loike it, ain't it? Ah! and that's not much of a surprise to me. Ever see that old Griggs up at th' Rectory working away wi' his shears? Lor' bless you, he's a 'edging and ditching variety of gardener, that's wot I calls 'im. Clip it all, that's 'is motive, autumn and spring, one with another, an' all alike, and then you 'spects winter blooming things to pay your trouble! But they don't see it, they don't." "Oh! it's the clipping, is it? Well, then, how do you manage yours? It is quite beautiful." I always dealt out my praise largely in return for information. "Leaves it to Natur', I do. You wants a show? 'Ave it then and leave interfering with Natur'. She knows 'er biz'ness." I did not feel quite convinced of this axiom; gardening seemed to be a continual assistance or interference with Nature in her most natural moods. So I said dubiously, "Yellow jasmine should never be cut at all, then?" "Look you 'ere, miss, at them buds all up the stem. If I cuts the stem wot becomes of them buds, eh?" Unanswerable old Lovell! But as I looked at the thick matted trailings that covered his porch, it dawned on me that perhaps a judicious pruning out of old wood at the right season would help and not hinder the yellow show. "Does it bloom on the new wood?" I asked with a thought most laudable in an Ignoramus. "Blooms! why, it blooms all over. Look at it!" And having sounded the depth of old Lovell's knowledge, I left him with more words of praise. So that was it! And my yellow jasmine might be blooming like that if left alone, or better, if rightly handled; and doubtless the poverty-stricken appearance of the white jasmine, the small and occasional flowers of the clematis, were due to the same cause. Here was a new and important department of my work suddenly opened up. I determined Nature should have a free hand until I could assist her properly. Until I knew the how, when and why of the clipping process, the edict should go forth to old Griggs, "Don't _touch_ the shears." On examining my own decapitated climbers I found that Griggs had indeed been hedging and ditching in the brutal way in which the keepers of our country lanes perform their task. It had often grieved my spirit to see the beautiful tangle late autumn produces in the hedges ruthlessly snipped and snapped by the old men, told off by some of the mysterious workings of the many councils under which we now groan, to do their deed of evil. That it ever recovers, that spring again clothes the hedges brilliantly, that the wild rose riots, the wild clematis flings itself, the honeysuckle twines, all again within the space of six or eight months, is an ever-recurring miracle. But my creepers and climbers did not so recover; their hardy brethren in the hedges outstripped them. Griggs impartially clipped the face of the house in the autumn when ivy is trimmed, and, now that I noticed it, the results overpowered me with wrath. How extraordinary that people should let such things go on, should live apathetically one side of the wall when flowers were being massacred on the other; should have streamers of yellow glory within their reach in December and January, and should sit placidly by the fire when the iron jaws were at work and never shout to the destroyer, "Hold!" Well, it was no use carrying every tale of woe to his Reverence or the Others. Jim was fully informed, and being, as I have often noticed, a person of immense resource, he very shortly afterwards whispered to me that the "old guffoon" would have great difficulty in finding his shears again. If I would obtain proper advice on the point it was a department, he thought, peculiarly suited to his abilities. I might grow giddy on a ladder, but as the navy was to be his profession he thought the opportunity one to be taken. There was nothing to cut of the yellow jasmine; it must grow first, and then the older stems might be judiciously trimmed after its flowering time is over. A year to wait for that, to Jim's disgust, but toward the end of February we cautiously trimmed the Japanese variety of "old man's beard," called by the learned "clematis flamulata." It grew on the verandah, and one of the Others had driven Griggs off when he approached with his shears. She said he looked like murder, and whether it was right or not it should not be done. I had to give her chapter and verse for it that this variety of clematis ought to have a very mild treatment, a sort of disentanglement, and thus help it to long streamers before she would allow Jim and me and a modest pair of scissors to do ever so little work. Jim sighed for the shears, and I had to warn him against the first evidence of the murderous spirit of old Griggs. * * * * * In one garden book of the most precious description I read of "hellebore." Now I am writing for Ignoramuses. Do you know what "hellebore" is? No! of course not, nor did I, but it was spoken of as forming "a complete garden full of flowers in the months of February and March," so of course I wanted it. Out-door flowers are scarce in February, but I learned as time went on that most flowers announced for an early appearance generally arrive a month late, at least it is so with me. None of the Others, not even his Reverence, had heard of hellebore. It continued to haunt me for some time. February was near and I sighed for that "complete garden." * * * * * I was encouraging my snowdrops with welcoming smiles as they pierced through the damp grass, and dreaming of hellebore, for the name attracted me strongly, when his Reverence's Young Man joined me. He has not much to do with the garden, though he often strayed into it--very often, in fact--so he ought to be mentioned. As my book is about my garden, only the people who either help or hinder there need be introduced. His Reverence's Young Man was really his curate. Our parish was not a large one, but very scattered, and a little distant hamlet with a tiny chapel necessitated a Young Man. He was a great favourite with his Reverence, who would often walk about with him, leaning on his arm, and this had caused old Master Lovell, the village wit, to call him his Young Man. Of course he had to see his Reverence occasionally, and if he did not find him in the study he generally looked for him in the garden. "What is growing here?" he asked. "Look!" I answered. "Grass? It is grass, isn't it?" "It is a comfort to find some people, and clever people withal, even more ignorant than I am. Snowdrops and scillas." "Oh! I see, you are making progress, at least, I beg pardon, _they_ are. I positively see some white." "Now can _you_ tell me what are hellebores?" "Ask another!" "That is worthy of Jim. You don't know?" "But wait a bit, I have heard of them, I really have. Isn't it deadly nightshade, or something like that?" I shook my head. "It is worse to know wrong than not at all." "But if you don't know, how do you know I am wrong?" "Because they form a complete garden in February and March--there!" "A complete garden! How wonderful. Doesn't anyone know? Doesn't Griggs?" "I haven't asked him, of course he wouldn't know. Here he is, we will see what he says. Griggs, do you know what flower is called hellebore?" Griggs had no spade and no mud handy; he was very much nonplussed. "El-bore!--did you say? Whoi, el-bore? Don't seem to have 'eeurd of 'em before; not by that name leastways. You never can tell in these days; lot o' noo-fangled words they call 'em. Oi might know it right 'nuff if you could show me. Dessay it's a furriner. I must be goin'." He wandered down the garden. There was not much I could give him to do, but I knew from my gardening books that he should be trimming trees, or marking those to come down, or cutting stakes, and lots of other useful things. I possessed no woods, or groves, or copses, however, so I gave Griggs over unreservedly to his Reverence, and he dug and banked up celery. "Shall I write and ask my mother?" said the Young Man. "She is quite a gardener, you know; and when they divide up roots--as they do, don't they?--she would send you some, I am sure. Geraniums and fuchsias and--and lilies. They always divide them up, don't they? and throw away half." "I don't think they throw away half, not always. But would she really? It would be awfully kind; and I might send her things when I had anything to send. Only I don't want geraniums; I can't bear them, and old Griggs has filled our one and only frame with nothing else. They seem to me a most unnecessary flower." I spoke in my ignorance, and I learnt the use of geraniums later on. His Reverence's Young Man never smiled when I spoke of sending things back to his mother; perhaps he did inside him, for she had a lovely garden and half a dozen gardeners, but still was chief there. I was overcome when I paid her a visit and remembered my offer; but again I spoke in my ignorance and thought it showed the right gardener's spirit, and perhaps it did. His Reverence's Young Man grew to take the greatest interest in gardening. He was one of my first converts; but I learnt about hellebore from someone else. * * * * * And now the Master must be introduced. I cannot tell what particular month he came into my garden, but I remember when I first went into his. He had a genius for flowers. I do not know if he looked at children and animals with that light of fatherly love in his eyes, but I think it must have been there for all things that needed his care and protection. Flowers, however, were his "dream children." His was no ideal garden, and he had never written about it. It was scarcely larger or more blessed by fate than mine, but was as perfect as could be. He knew each flower intimately; he had planted each shrub, and I never met a weed or a stone on his borders. He had but little glass, and no groves and copses and woods, or heather, or pine, or any unfair advantages in that way; but when I looked at his herbaceous border in the autumn I could not help thinking of harvest decorations. Such a wealth of colour was piled up, it hardly seemed possible it could all be growing on the spot. From early spring to late autumn a succession of brilliant blooms reigned one after another in that border; to look upon it was indeed "seeing of the labour of one's hands and being satisfied." And he had said, "There is no reason why you should not have it too." I think that border sowed the first seeds of gardening love in my heart. "But when you came here was it like this?" I asked. "It was a pretty bad wilderness," he said with a look round. "Oh! things take _such_ a time," I groaned. "I have been here twenty-five years. I have planted nearly everything you see, except the big trees." "Twenty-five years! But I!--I can't begin planting things for twenty-five years hence. It is too bad of one's predecessors to leave one nothing but weeds and stones and Griggs!" "Yes. Well, you have got to make things better for your successors. Not but what you can get results of some sort under twenty-five years. All this"--and he waved his hand to that wonderful border--"comes, at least comes in part, with but eighteen months' careful tending." Even eighteen months seemed to my impatient spirit too long; I wished for a fairy wand. But fairy effects have a way of vanishing like the frost pictures on the window pane. "Well, if ever I try to make our wilderness blossom like the rose I will just grow perennial things and pop them in and have done with it." At which the Master laughed. "Oh, will you? I don't think I shall come to admire your garden then. Why are you so afraid of time? You are young. But I suppose that is the reason." After I had made the plunge we talked again on this matter. "Most of these people who write of their gardens own them. They have lived there and will live there always. But in a Rectory garden one is but a stranger and a pilgrim. Don't you feel this?" "No. We are growing old together, and perhaps it will be given me to stay here; anyway, my garden is better than I found it. Is not that something?" "Oh, yes," I said discontentedly. He laughed. "Ah! the spirit will grow; you are cultivating it just as surely as you are the seeds." "There are plenty of weeds and stones to choke all the seeds everywhere," I answered. "Old Griggs's way of weeding is to chop off the heads, dig everything in again, and for a fortnight smile blandly over his work. Then he says that it is no use weeding, 'Just look at 'em again.'" "Old Griggs seems to afford you plenty of parables from Nature, anyhow. He is instructive in his way. But can't he be retired?" "Alas, no! he is a fixture." "And you the pilgrim! Well, go ahead. And now come and see what the nurseries contain; there is always to spare in the nurseries." Many of his spare children found their way to my garden, and it grew quite a matter of course to turn to him in any dilemma. But Ignoramuses must learn, in gardens as in everything else, to work out their own salvation. So in fear and trembling, and a good deal of hope, too, I made my own experiments; for hill and dale divided the Master's garden from mine, and I doubt if even he could grasp the utter ignorance of the absolutely ignorant. * * * * * Ice and snow and thaw, and again thaw and ice and snow had held their sway through January and early February, and my garden slept. Another year I would have violets growing in the narrow border under the verandah, and tubs--big green tubs--of Christmas roses under its shelter. Were they expensive, I wondered? And thus I found out, by the simple process of asking at a florist, that for one shilling and sixpence or two shillings a root I could buy--why, hellebores! But for me they will always be "Christmas roses." At present the verandah was bare, oh, so bare! It needed more roses to climb up the trellis and the newness of its two years' existence to be hidden. It held attraction for the birds, however, this cold winter time; crumbs and scraps were expected by them as regularly as breakfast and dinner by us. The pert sparrow came by dozens, of course, but out of our four robins one knew himself to be master of the ceremony. He came first, at a whistle, the signal for crumbs, and he allowed the sparrows to follow, really because he could not help himself. But should another robin come--his wife or their thin-legged son--he made for them and spent the precious moments pecking them away while the sparrows gobbled. His is not a beautiful disposition, I fear, but oh! how gladly one forgives him for the sake of his bold black eye, cheering red breast and persistent joyfulness of song. The colder weather brought other pensioners, chaffinch, bullfinch, even hawfinch, and, of course, the thrush and blackbird; a magpie eyed the feast from afar, but the starlings waddled boldly up, not hopping as birds, but right-left, right-left like wobbling geese; and the tom-tits and blue and black-tits, came and continued to come as long as they found a cocoa-nut swinging for their benefit. None of the other birds would touch it. Next winter they shall have hellebore for their table decoration. * * * * * Oh! how lucky men are, they have so many things we women seem forever to miss. Very thick, sensible boots that won't get wet through; no skirts to get muddy when gardening; the morning paper first, of course, because they are men and politics are for them; voting powers, too, which on occasions give them a certain very much appreciated weight; and money, even if poor, always more money than their wives and daughters. These reflections, and I notice you may reflect on most irrelevant matter in a garden, were called forth by a boy-man who kindly took me in to dinner one evening. I soon discovered he had a little "diggings" and was going in for gardening "like anything." Yet was my soul not drawn to him. "Bulbs, oh, rather! Had a box over from Holland the other day, just a small quantity, you know. Mine isn't a large place, but five thousand or so ought to fill it up a bit; make a mass of colour, that's what I go in for. Told my man to plant 'em in all over, thick as bees. Then I had great luck. Dropped in at an auction in the City just in the nick of time, got a box-load of splendid bulbs for half-a-crown--worth a guinea at the very least--shoved them all in too. I shall have a perfect blaze, I tell you. Like you to come and look me up in April if you go in for that kind of thing." But I hated the boy-man. Five thousand bulbs! without a second thought. And then--according to the rule that works so invariably among material goods, "to him that hath shall be given"--this aggressive youth also buys a guinea's worth of bulbs for half-a-crown. Think what I would have given to be at that auction. But women can't "drop in" in the City. * * * * * Towards the end of February my snowdrops made their appearance. The scillas followed a little later and with less regularity. They were not quite the perfect sheet I had dreamt of, but each little bulb did its duty manfully and raised one slender stem with its bell-like head. One at every few inches over a space of some yards was not wealth; and I almost wept when some of them were sacrificed for the drawing-room. The Others said, "A garden should grow flowers for the house. Who wanted them out there in the cold, where no one would see them!" But I did, for out there in the cold they lived for weeks and in the warm room a few days faded them. I must have more and more so that we may all be satisfied. In the Master's garden I found sixteen varieties of snowdrops, not very many of each, but he has no Others. What I longed for was quantity; and as for quality, each snowdrop holds its own, I think. Up through the softened grass came the strong, pointed leaves of the daffodils. My mass of gold promised to be very regular, but the small crocus leaves were harder to find, and they had no sign of yellow points as yet. And the anemones! What had happened to them? I nearly dug them up to see. Were the buds on the trees swelling? The birds were twittering busily on the branches, as though they knew their covering would not be long delayed, but the little brown knobs, so shiny and sticky on the chestnuts, appeared hardly to have gained in size since they pushed off the old leaf in the autumn. For in the time of scattering wind and falling leaf it is well to remember that it is the coming bud which loosens the hold of the old leaf. Life, and not death, which makes the seasons and the world go round. * * * * * I was busy again with catalogues. "Begin things in time," preached the Master; but ah! I seem to have been born a month too late, for I never catch up time in my garden, except when there is nothing to do, and then you _can_ do nothing. Nature has cried a "halt," and all the fidgeting in the world will not start the race before "time" is said. So I studied my catalogue and made my list in February. Stocks. I need them in plenty, but I must walk warily amongst such luxuries with only three pounds to spend and so many other things to buy. Wallflowers, red and gold; but, alas! the Master has warned me these are for next year, as also many other things. The polyanthuses, that I long to see in masses like a fine Persian carpet, the pansies and violas, the forget-me-nots, even the Canterbury bells and campanulas and sweet-Williams must be thought of now, and will need the year round before coming to flowering time. Still, down they go on my list. And gaillardias, too, they look so handsome in the picture and promise so much: "showy, beautiful, brilliant, useful for cutting" (there were those Others to think of), and they were perennials. Blessed perennials! Then larkspur or delphinium, I should say, for I did not want the annual variety. I could not wait, however, to grow those tall, beautiful spikes of bright blue, Oxford and Cambridge in colour, from seed, I must indulge in plants. Hollyhocks must also be bought ready-made, and phlox. Oh! the poverty-stricken little specimens that grew in my garden, flowers capable of such beauty. I had seen them growing in the Lake country and marvelled at their upstanding mass of brilliant heads. They were a revelation as to what the phlox family could do. And there were all the magnificent possibility of lilies, of gladiolas and montbresias, and ixias. These must be bought. I must have them, but oh! the years before I could make a home for all. I turned to the annuals; they sounded as easy to grow as Jack's bean-stalk. What a list! Antirrhinum--that is, snapdragon, but one gets used even to spelling the other name--red, white and yellow; the taller kind call themselves half-hardy perennials, but I don't believe they would stand my winter, and the dwarf variety do their duty nobly for one summer. Mignonette, that was a necessity; marguerites, annual chrysanthemums sounded inviting; "continuous blooming" would suit the Others. Convolvulus and heaps of nasturtium, canariensis and other little tropoeoleum. Balsam and asters; no, though I liked the sound of balsam, still I could do without it, and I must do without something! But of sweet-peas I could not have too many, even though most of the "dukes" and "duchesses" cost a shilling a packet. I pictured hedges and hedges of sweet-peas in the garden, and bowls and bowls of blossom in the house. Sunflowers again--"golden-nigger," "æsthetic gem," "Prussian giant"--how could one help sampling such seductive names? And tagetes, the Master had said, "Get tagetes, it is a useful border." Marigolds, too, they were not a favourite of mine, but they lasted well into the autumn, and I had to think of the failing months. Zinnias I could not resist because they are so "high art" in their colouring; and salpiglosis, the Master had a lovely group of these daintily-pencilled belles. Then I made up my list, threepence, and sixpence, and one shilling, and one shilling and sixpence. How they mounted up. Thirty shillings in seeds! and I had to buy plants and bulbs too. But I could cut out nothing, though it had been very easy to make additions. But now to get all these thousands of seeds sown. They could not all be sown in the open; I knew so much. Those for coming on quickly would need little wooden boxes and a place in the one frame full of bothering geraniums; and when they were bigger they would need pricking out in more wooden boxes, and could only be planted out permanently the beginning of June. Well, what for the open? Sweet-peas--thank goodness for that!--and the wallflowers, Canterbury bells--cup and saucer variety had taken my fancy--sweet-Williams, sunflowers, nasturtium, mignonette and forget-me-nots, they could all be trusted straight to Mother Earth; and I had enough of the dear brown bosom, bare of all children, down in that long desolate border. And for the boxes and pricking out and glass frame I would begin with antirrhinum, stocks, violas, tagetes, zinnia, salpiglosis, lobelias, polyanthus and columbine. That must suffice for the first year. But oh! what a lot of flowers there were to be had, and how lovely a garden might be if only--well, if only one had a real gardener, money, the sunny border, good soil, and--if they all came up! And what flowers had I omitted? Of simple things that even an Ignoramus may have heard. There were all the poppy tribe, Iceland, Shirley, the big Orientals, Californian, though these are not poppies proper at all; verbena, the very name smelt sweet; gypsophila, a big word, but I knew the dainty, grass-like flower from London shops; penstemons, carnation, scabious, or lady's pincushions. The only way was to shut that book resolutely and go and write to Veitch. The book said, and so did each little neat packet of seeds, "sow in pots or pans," or "sow in heat," and talked of a cool frame and compost, so, armed with this amount of knowledge, I took my seeds out to old Griggs. "Griggs, have you any wooden boxes or pans or things in which we can sow these seeds?" Griggs looked at me suspiciously; he did not like my energy, there was no doubt of that, but since he was a gardener he recognised that flower seeds, or such-like, ought to be in his line. He took the packets. "P'haps I can knock up a box or two. That frame's mostly full of janiums, though. I've a nice quantity of them saved." "But we can't fill the garden with nothing but geraniums, you know. I want to have a great show this year; don't you? Wouldn't it be more satisfactory to you to see the garden looking nice than like a howling wilderness?" Griggs laughed, positively. "You've got to spend money if you wants flowers, and the old rector as was 'e never put 'is 'and in 'is pocket for no sich thing as flowers. I dunno 'bout a 'owling wilderness. My fancy is them janiums brightens up a place wonderful." I pushed open the lights of the long frame by which we were standing and looked at the stalky, unpromising appearance of old Griggs's favourites. There were other lean and hungry-looking plantlets there, a bit yellow about the tips. "What are those?" I asked, pointing. "Oh, them's marguerites, white and yellow. I got Mr Wright up at the 'All to give me them cuttings. They wanted a bit of water this morning so I give it em." I pressed my finger on the sodden soil of the box that held the drooping cuttings. "They have had too little, and now you have given them too much," I said sternly. How could I trust my precious seeds to this old murderer? "Griggs, if you would only _love_ the flowers a bit, they would grow with you." "Bless you! they'll grow, they 'aven't took no hurt. Let's look at your seeds. Anti--rrh--well, what's this name?" "Snapdragon." "Oh, and violas and polyan--thus. Well, we can get 'em in. I've a box or two." But I grabbed all my packets quickly. "All right, get the boxes ready and I will come and sow them myself." The boxes were filled with a light soil, mixed with sand and leaf mould. I turned it over myself to look for worms or other beasts, and very, very thinly, as I thought, I scattered the tiny seeds over the surface and gave them a good watering. Then out with some of the scraggiest of Griggs's plants and in with my precious boxes. I felt Griggs's hands must not touch them. He had something wrong about him, for a gardener, that is to say. He always broke the trailing branch he was supposed to be nailing up; he always trod on a plant in stepping across a border; if he picked a flower he did it with about an inch of stalk and broke some other stem; no blessing flowed from his hand when he planted out the flowers. I sowed the end of February, and in March little tiny green heads were peeping up in most of the boxes. The violas still remained hidden. If Griggs had sown I should have said he had done it very irregularly, for the green heads came in thick patches and then again very sparingly; but I knew, of course, it must have been the seeds' own fault, since I had done it myself! * * * * * I was standing with his Reverence at the study window watching a squirrel swing himself from bough to bough, and I think we were both envying him, when my eye caught some specks of colour on the grass plot in front, that grass plot which ought to have a sun-dial in the centre and a stately bed of flowering shrubs as a background instead of laurels! What was it growing in the grass? White, yellow, purple, a touch here and there, all across, straight across, in one horrid straight line! Could it be? "Look, Mary, there he goes! See him spring up that tree?" "Look," I said in a tragic voice, "look at them! Do you think--can it be--are they my crocuses?" "Where? Oh, there! Yes, I thought they looked like a rather straggly regiment this morning, marching single file. Was that your idea?" "My idea! a straight line! Oh, how can you! That old fiend of a Griggs!" And then I rushed out to see the full extent of the horror. It was too true. In spite of my careful scattering the old ruffian had drawn my crocus bulbs into line. I can see how he did it, striding across the grass, clutching bulbs to right and left, sticking them in under his nose, and probably sweeping up those outside his reach with the dead leaves. What a show! Many had not come up, and many had no flower, so the regiment was ragged. I could have cried. Jim had joined me. "Don't think much of this idea anyhow Mary." "Don't you know how I meant it to be? Haven't you seen the Park?" "Can't say I've given it my undivided attention lately. Shall I go and pitch into old Griggs?" "It would be no good. I must do that." "That isn't fair, Mary. If I'm to help you I must have some of the fun." "Jim! It is no fun to me. You can't _murder_ him, and nothing else would be any good. What shall I do with them?" I looked at my poor little first-fruits. They did look so forlorn and battered. A crocus all alone, separated from its kind by a foot or so, has a most orphaned and cheerless appearance. "Let's have 'em up," said Jim, the man of action. "No, they mustn't be moved in flower, not even till their leaves die, and by that time the grass will be mowed and I shan't know where they are, and then it will look like this next year too." "Oh rot!" said Jim, "something has got to be done. Can't have these stragglers roaming across the lawn and never getting home. I know," and off he was and returned with a lot of little sticks which he proceeded to plant by the side of each crocus. "Now we will locate the gentlemen and have 'em up when their poverty-stricken show is over." Afterwards, when Jim saw in my account that crocuses were two shillings a hundred, he said I did not value his time very highly. He thought by my face we were dealing with things of value. But anyway we moved that ragged regiment on and stationed them in clumps at the foot of trees, where they will look more comfortable. * * * * * March should be a very busy month, and old Griggs found employment in the kitchen garden. I should have moved plants now, and arranged the neglected herbaceous border of the autumn, but, alas! all the new green things coming up were strangers to me, and I saw quickly that in their present state Griggs was as likely to make mistakes as I. He hazarded names with a scratch of the head and a pull at the tender green shoots that made me angry. "Them's a phlox, and them's--oi can't quite mind, it's purple like; and them's flags, but they ain't never much to look at; too old, I reckon. That's a kind of purple flower, grows it do, and that 'ere's a wallflower." This was said with decision, and I too could recognise the poor specimen of a spring joy. So I left well, or ill, alone until the nature of the plant should be declared, and then, if useless, out it could come later. We prepared a long narrow bed alongside a row of cabbages, made a neat little trench some three inches deep, put in a layer of manure and mould on top, and there my first sowing of sweet-peas was placed, and carefully covered and watered and patted down. I felt like a mother who tucks her child in bed. Surely the pat did good! February, March and April were all to have their sowing, and then the summer months should have a succession of these many-coloured fragrant joys. In March also the other annuals found resting-places; some in square patches down the long border, some in rows that looked inviting down the side and cross paths of the kitchen domain. It was encroaching, of course, but no one used the spare edges, and it seemed kind to brighten up the cabbages and onions, all now coming up in long thread-like lines of green. I had added a few more seeds to my list, so a long row of tiny seeds that were to be blue cornflowers, with another row in front of godetia, would provide, I hoped, a very bright sight and be so useful for cutting. On Shirley poppies, too, I ventured. It seemed so easy just to sow a few seeds and trust to Nature to do the rest. I did not then appreciate the backache caused by the process "thinning out." People may talk of sowing in February, but one cannot sow in either frozen ground or deep snow. Some Februarys may be possible, but it was the beginning of March that year before I committed my seeds to Mother Earth, and even then it seemed a very unsafe proceeding. However, a lot of tiny green pin points soon appeared, and the only havoc wrought by birds, mice and rabbits--Griggs suggested every imaginable animal--was amongst the sweet-peas. These had to be protected with a network of cotton. * * * * * So the winter slipped away very gradually, for even after the first breath of spring, which comes to us from afar and thrills us as no other fragrance of air, frost, snow, rain and biting winds triumph again, and bud and sprouting green seem to shrink up and cower away. Yet we know the winter is surely passing and the first trumpet-blast of spring's procession has blown. [Illustration: SPRING] SEASON II Spring "And then my heart with pleasure fills, And dances with the daffodils." Daffodils always make me glad. From the moment their strong, blue-green blades pierce the grass, they give one a feeling of strength, vigour, activity and determination to be up and doing, unmindful of wind or weather; in fact, using all for their own purpose, bending circumstances to their own development. And when the big golden bell bursts its sheath of pale green it does it with fine independence, and then swings on its strong stem, ringing out lustily that the spring is here, the sun is shining, for the sun always seems to shine on the daffodils, they reflect his glory under all clouds, and depression flies before their sturdy assumption of "All's well with the world." And so I felt very hopeful as I saw my circles, my clusters, my rows of daffodils, one by one, flashing up from the delicious blue-green blades. They none of them failed me, none, bless them! So plant daffodils, O friend Ignoramus! the single, the double, and any other of that dear family, the narcissus. The birds were singing, and oh, so busy making late love, building and even nesting! The trees were bursting, the lilacs had a shimmer of green. The larches had colour almost too dim to be called green, they streaked the woods that still looked brown without looking bare; little catkins hung and danced, the blackthorn looked like forgotten snow, the grass was greener, and here and there a sweet primrose bud peeped up, whispering, "We are coming." Down under the row of limes bordering the sloping field I found many pretty crumpled primrose leaves, and they gave me the idea to plant more and more, and to have my wild garden here, with snowdrops and cowslips, unseen things in our woods and fields. Ferns, too, of the common kind must be collected, and foxgloves, the seeds of which must be bought and sown. For the present there were the little wild things that grow on their own account, and are so sparklingly green and spring-like that one hardly likes to rebuke them with the name of weed. Hope was in the air. Everything is young again once a year. * * * * * I felt obliged to begin the second division of my year in a hopeful voice, so I opened with my daffodils; but if March be taken as the first month of spring, then indeed I should not have written of that chime of golden bells. March holds February very tightly by the hand, and cannot make up her mind to hurry on with her work of opening the buds and encouraging the flowers. She blows cold winds in their faces, nips them with frosty nights, occasionally wraps them up in snow, then suddenly, repenting her of the evil, she opens up a blue sky and pours a hot sun down on them. A most untrustworthy month. There is plenty of work to do, particularly if February has not been an open month, and for gardening purposes I really think it ought never to be so considered, and still more particularly if much has been neglected in the foregoing November. If you are an Ignoramus, and have a Griggs as gardener, the chances are much will have been neglected. My attention was called to the subject of roses by the arrival of a rose-grower's catalogue. Roses! I could only touch the very outer fringe of this magnificent garment, but I felt I must, positively must, have one or two of the cheaper sort of these dazzling beauties; and though they are better moved in the autumn, in early spring it is not impossible. A crimson rambler, the modest price one shilling and sixpence, tempted me to indulge in three. The deep yellow William Allen Richardson, delightful for buttonholes, which Jim assured me no garden should be without; the thought of a red Gloire de Dijon or Reine Marie Hortense was also quite overcoming. Our old yellow Gloire de Dijon was the only rose in my neglected garden that did herself proud, and she flourished up the front of the house and festooned one of the Others' windows, from which Griggs and his shears had been summarily banished. "Cut where you like, but never dare to come here," had been uttered in a voice that made even Griggs "heed." If her red sister only equalled this "glory" that half-crown would be well expended. Then two standards needed replacing, for one could not have dead sticks down so conspicuous a row; though standards were not my idea of roses, still there they were and I must make the best of them. So off went my modest order. I had indicated the whereabouts of each rose to Griggs, but was unfortunately not present on their arrival. I think even an Ignoramus might have helped Griggs on that occasion--but more of that anon. The Others could see but little improvement in the garden, this they let me know; they were full of ideas, and I found them as trying as some Greek heroine must have found an unsympathetic chorus. "The verandah was so bare! Was it really any use putting in that silly little twig? Would it ever come to anything?" This of my new and very bare-looking crimson rambler. And then, "Why had we no violets? Surely _violets_ were not an impossibility? They grew of themselves. Just look at the baskets full in the London streets. Such a bunch for a penny! But it would be nice not to have to go to London for one's bunch of violets!" I took up the cudgels. They should see how that crimson rambler ramped, yes, I prophesied, positively ramped up the archway. They should be buried in a fragrant bower of ruby-coloured clusters, and they might cut and come again. As to violets, I was giving them my best consideration; the bed down the garden produced but a few--certainly not a pennyworth--of inferior quality, because neither violets nor anything else, save weeds, grew and flourished by the light of Nature alone. The violet roots were choked with weeds, and I must have new suckers and begin all over again; and that was not possible until the violet season was over; then I intended to beg, borrow or steal some good suckers, and buy others if I had any money. "Mary, you speak like a book with pictures; but I hope there will be _some_ result, and that the violets will be ready before they are needed for our funeral wreaths." I entreated them to find the patience I had thoroughly lost, and hurried out to rage over the thickly weed-wedged violet plants, with here and there a feeble bloom, and to imagine myself in years to come bending over this same bed, picking one long strong stalk after another, and scarcely lessening the store by the big bunch I should carry away. Oh! a lifetime was not enough for all I should or could do in a garden. * * * * * There is a row of standard roses skirting the lawn on one side, and also a round bed of rose bushes. I had not much idea if they were any good, for roses had been to a great extent spoilt the last two years by very wet weather, still I had noticed the shoots they were sending forth with great pleasure. Anyhow _they_ were growing right enough. One day, the middle of March, I found Griggs busy down the row with a large knife. What was he doing? Horror! All the long shoots were being ruthlessly sacrificed. "Griggs, what _are_ you doing?" I gasped, and afterwards I felt very glad I said nothing stronger. Griggs paid no attention to my tone; he took the words as showing a desire for enlightenment. "You 'as to cut 'em a bit in spring-time, you know; or p'haps you don't know, missy." This mode of address was one of Griggs's most unpardonable sins, but I never had the strength of character to tell him not to do it. "But do you cut off _all_ the new growth?" I said, with an inner conviction that if Griggs were doing it it needs must be wrong. "Well, you trims 'em round a bit, starts 'em growin' more ways than one, d'ye see." "But those aren't suckers?" I said, still feebly fighting with my ignorance and incredulity. Then Griggs laughed. He did not like me, and I suppose I ought not to wonder, but he enjoyed laughing at me when he got the chance. "No-a, they ain't suckers; suckers come from the root, leastways, they start down there, and, bless yer! they be the ol' stock trying to have a look in as you may say. I cuts them off soon as I sees 'em, as they wastes the tree; but you _can_ see suckers as 'as got the upper 'and. That rose front of the 'ouse is all sucker now. 'Twas a beautiful pink rose I mind in old Rector Wood's time." "That is very instructive," I remarked, feeling no gratitude to Griggs for his information, as he felt no shame for the metamorphosis of the once beautiful pink rose, which was now a wild one. We had wondered how it came to be growing up with the clematis. "And can't one cut back the suckers and let the pink rose grow again?" I added. "'Tain't likely," was all I could get out of Griggs. I bicycled over that very day to the Master's garden, a hot and tiring way of getting information, but a sure one, I knew, and one to which I often had recourse in desperate moments. The Master was out, but his garden was there, and all his rose trees were clipped. So I breathed again. I had a little good luck with violets a few weeks later. A friend who had heard of my gardening efforts sent me several dozen runners of the "Czar," and the Master spared me some others from his frame. I was full of joy, and choosing a shady spot, saw it dug, raked, helped out with a mixture of manure and leaf-mould, planted the violets at six inches apart and liberally watered them. Shade, of course, for the modest violet, I thought, carefully selecting for their home the shelter of an overhanging chestnut. Well, well! one lives to learn, or for some such purpose, I suppose. The thick branches of that shadowing tree kept out sun as well as rain; and, doubt it not, brother Ignoramus, violets, be they ever so modest, like the sunshine and will only pine without it. So in the autumn another move took place, and again I waited, whilst the Others bought penny bunches and talked of funeral wreaths in the far future. * * * * * The long herbaceous border grew more and more interesting. A broad-leafed plant had been sending up tall stems, now it opened out and a big daisy-like blossom of yellow shone in the sun. "Leopard's bane," said old Griggs with decision, and "doronicum," said the Master, both being right, but I know not why it was considered a bane or healing, for the banes among the flowers are surely blessings. But there it was, and very grateful and comforting at this early time of year. As though conscious that a friendly eye had begun to watch over them, the scattered old plants of polyanthus, wallflower, a group or so of tulips and some clumps of London pride brushed up this spring and cheered the eye. I was studying the shooting green clumps, lilies here and there, golden rod, autumn daisy, maybe a stray phlox, many, very much too many, evening primroses, seedlings of self-sown foxgloves, and wondering how to rearrange them and make room for the better company I intended introducing, when his Reverence's Young Man came down the path laden with a big brown hamper. He looked quite excited. "Oh, Mistress Mary, do come and examine the contents. I hope you may find welcome strangers here. I told my mother you needed anything and everything except geraniums. Was that right? So she has sent this hamper with instructions to get them in at once." The Young Man was cutting away at string and fastenings, and rapidly strewing the path with big clumps of roots in which a careful hand had stuck a label. I was divided between joy and reproof. "How kind of her! But you should not have bothered her. How nice to have such big, ready-grown plants! But why did you do it?" "Mayn't I help the garden to grow? My mother promises more in the autumn; it appears flowers like to move just before winter." "It is kind of you. This border is such a weight on my mind. It needs so much, I think. And what a lot the hamper holds!" "Let me do the dirty work," cried the Young Man, as I hauled out a big root. "You shall tell me where to plant them." "The earth isn't dirty, it is beautifully, healthily clean; and don't you love its 'most excellent cordial smell'? Shall I get Griggs and a spade?" "Oh, why bother Griggs? Won't I do as well? I know nearly as much and am twice as willing." "Yes, but think of--" "Don't say parish. There is only old Mrs Gunnet and she will keep. These plants demand immediate attention. My mother was most emphatic about that." It is very difficult to have a conscience as well as a garden and to keep both in good working order. I could not think Mrs Gunnet and her rheumatism as important as my garden; moreover, I felt I was carrying out the teaching of Tolstoy in bringing man and his Mother Earth into direct contact. "Griggs could not come anyhow, he is digging a grave," I said conclusively. "Let us do it." So the Young Man fetched a selection of gardening implements and we both set to work, he to dig and I to instruct. "This is delphinium," I cried joyfully, handing him a big clump, "dark blue, I want it badly." And in answer to an inquiring look, for the Young Man knew less, much less, than I did, "That is larkspur and it is a perennial, and this jolly big root means plenty of spikes." "Spikes!" he echoed, patting the roots vigorously. "Those tall spikes of flowers, you know, very blue. One looks so lonely all by itself." "Ah! that is a way we all have, we poor solitary ones." "These are penstemons. They are, well, I forget, but I know I want them. Suppose we put them further forward; they don't look like growing so tall. Gaillardias, ah! I know, they are brilliant and effective. I bought some seeds to suit the others. These will save time. Now, a big hole; this is Tritoma. What on earth is that? I have heard. Grandis means big but Tritoma?" We both studied the label. "Must it have another name? Is that the rule? I told my mother the gardener was an Ignoramus. She might have written in the vulgar tongue." "Did you mean me or Griggs?" "Griggs, of course." "Then you were wrong. But I remember now, I was studying its picture this morning in the catalogue. Tritoma stands for red-hot poker. It will look fine at the back." "Well, you are getting on," said the Young Man, in tones of admiration. "But why won't they say 'poker' and have done with it?" "I wish they would. It is very trying of them. See what a lot you are learning. This is much more improving for a son of Adam than visiting old women and babies." "_Much!_ And I like it much better, which shows it is good for me." "Ah, I don't know about that. Still, it does strike me as absurd to send a young man fresh from college to visit old women and babies. I can't think what you say to them." "I say 'Did ums was ums' to the babies. But I am not quite fresh from college, you know. I talk some kind of sense to the mothers; at least, I hope so." He was making a big hole and I was holding out a big root to fill it. "This is galega. It is rather tall and so must go at the back. I don't mean you never talk sense, though I consider it insulting to address a baby like that. They look so preternaturally grave that Greek would suit them better. But I mean it isn't a man's work, it is a woman's." "Galega! that means pok--no, larkspur! You see I am getting quite learned. There, it fits in beautifully." "Press the roots firmly or they don't take hold," I observed. "So. I always find your conversation very improving. My mother says the same things to me, I mean about old women." I had walked down the path for another root. He went on when I came back, "But you know the old women, and young ones too, like a visit from their clergy. The clergyman and doctor are great boons in their lives." "Poor souls, I know they are very hard up. Even I am considered a boon, especially when I go round with puddings and things." "Or without!" and he looked up quickly, "_I_ should think so if--but"--and his voice changed--"I do understand what you mean. _This_ is Adam's work, eh? Only the other is the vineyard too, and we, I--I mean, need the experience it gives me. They live at the root of things, touch life so nearly. It is something like coming in touch, actual touch, with the brown earth. Do you see what I am trying to say?" I looked up at him from my plants, at this tall young man in a bicycling suit of semi-clerical cut, with his keen face and earnest eyes, whom we had fallen into the way of treating in almost brotherly fashion since his Reverence had adopted him as his Young Man as well as curate. He had broken down in some Midland town from overwork and come to Fairleigh to recruit and study and fill in a convalescent time. As a rule we did not like the curates. "I think you are right," I said, "but somehow I feel I am right too in a way. One can't be saving souls all the time--one's own or other people's--and here, as you say, is Adam's work, the brown earth." He laughed. "And here is Eve naming the flowers! I am sure Eve kept Adam to the digging while she picked the fruit." "How men do love that old allegory! Personally I don't think they come out of it so well that they need quote it so often. However, as it gives them all the backbone, I feel quite absolved when I ask them to use it!" The Young Man rose up. "Ah! if Eve had had the spirit of her daughters!" "Here is a very large phlox, please dig that hole bigger," I interrupted, and as we carefully placed it in position, down the path came his Reverence and the Master. "Oh!" I shouted, "come and see all my new arrivals; I am going to cut you out!" The Master examined our work over his spectacles, and looked up and down the border critically, ending his survey with an unpromising "Humph." Something was very wrong, evidently. My hopeful spirits sank. "Have we been doing anything very ignorant? Don't you put plants straight into the earth? Will they all die?" The Master laughed. "Let us hope things are not as desperate as all that. I was looking at your border. Oh, what pauper fare! and what a lot of rubbish in it. Licence has reigned here for many a long year." "For over twenty," I exclaimed savagely. "Griggs has been here quite that time." "It used to look very well in Mr Wood's time, but that is many years ago, and he devoted himself chiefly to his roses. It is a pity you did not do it in the autumn." "Oh, don't, Master!" I cried dolefully. "Nothing is more trying to my temper than to be told of all the things that ought to have been done months and years ago. I can't go back and do them!" "No more you can. There is a great deal of sound sense in that remark, only--" "And don't tell me to wait until the autumn again. I can't always be waiting for the other end of the year to do the things I want done now." "Oh! then let us go forward at once," said the Master. "What shall I do?" asked the Young Man, with as much energy as though the afternoon were just beginning. "Shall I take out the roots we have put in to begin with?" The Master again looked up and down, and I could see he was again regretting the autumn. "If you won't wait it must be done," he said at last. "Have this border thoroughly well turned over, two feet deep at the least, and work in some of that savoury heap I saw in your little yard. You will find a good deal of root to cut away from those trees; they take the food from this border, but that can't be helped now. Then clear out the weeds and those terrible marigolds I see springing up everywhere, and those poppy seedlings. I think your new friends will have a better chance when that is done." "And the plants that are to stay, may they be touched?" "You _must_ touch them, but do a piece at a time, and lift them in and out with a good ball of earth round the roots so as to disturb them as little as possible. Press them well in afterwards and water." "Should Griggs put some of the savoury heap just round their roots?" "No, no, let the whole border have a dressing. Later on any special plant may be mulched if it is needed." "Mulched!" said the Young Man, turning to me. "Do you know what that is?" I shook an ignorant head. "Something to do with manure, I believe, but I don't know what." "Griggs will show you," laughed the Master. "No, he has his own vocabulary. I try the garden book words on him occasionally and he looks quite blank." "It is giving the plants a little extra food from the surface. So it sinks gradually in or the rain carries it down with it. A gentle process and the roots are not disturbed. The other process may produce indigestion, you see." Adam and Eve carefully replaced the unplanted roots in the hamper and gave a sigh. "Oh, dear! All our work. You might as well have gone to see Mrs Gunnet." "Oh, no," said Adam, "because I have learnt a great deal and can help you another time." It was a good thing for me and the border that the Master had looked so grave over it, for his Reverence was duly impressed with the necessity of the case, and Griggs and a helpful stranger were hard at work next day and the next, and by the end of that week the border lay smooth and brown and neat with hopeful green patches at intervals. Jim and I and the Young Man had been very busy arranging those patches, and I hoped the front plants would not grow taller than the back, but a good deal had been left to luck. The evening primroses and marigolds and weeds had disappeared, I hoped for good. Time proved that this was too hopeful a view to take of weeds. And I will never forget the Master's parting injunction. "Mind," with raised finger, "you ought never to take a spade near your herbaceous border, only turn it over with a little fork, for the well-established roots should not be disturbed. And good soil and sufficient water ought to be enough as a rule. To-day we have been dealing with an exceptional case, remember that!" Oh! Master, yes. Mine is an exceptional case; but I guess there are many would-be gardeners as ignorant, and, maybe, many gardens as exceptional. * * * * * But to return to my hopefully-growing seeds. I fear they were being left anyway rather longer than was judicious, for one day about the beginning of April it struck me my wooden boxes were very full and the plantlets growing very leggy. "Why is that?" I asked Griggs. I hated asking Griggs, but there was no one else to ask. After all it seemed _impossible_ but that Griggs, during the forty odd years he had pretended to be a gardener, should not have gathered together some scraps of information concerning plants and their ways. "They wants pricking out, that's why they're so spindle-shankey. 'Tain't no good asking me for more boxes, I ain't got no more; and you can't put 'em out in the open neither--leastways, they'll die if you do." "Of course not," I said with all the knowledge I possessed in my tone. "But we must have boxes. They can be knocked up, can't they?" "Not without wood, they can't. And just look at all them seeds wot you've sowed. Why, they wants a sight o' boxes now." It was a dilemma, but Jim revived my faint spirits. There were boxes--old winecases--in the cellar, he said. Jim knew every nook and cranny of the house; he would just ferret them out; no one would miss them. Jim never asked leave, for experience had taught him that a demand occasions a curious rise in the value of an article absolutely unknown to the possessor before it was required by someone else. And Griggs knocked them together, for Jim explained we had to let the fellow try his hand occasionally. We filled the new boxes with a little heavier diet than the baby seeds had enjoyed, good mould from under some shrubbery, and then carefully separated each stem; and carrying out Nature's law of the survival of the fittest, I placed the most promising in the new environment. I had done one whole box, it looked so neat, the little upright shoots all about three inches apart, when Jim and the Young Man came round. He had been away for a few days and was quite anxious to know how my garden grew. He had altered the old rhyme with which, of course, his Reverence and the Others were always pestering me; but I don't think his version was very original either-- "How does the garden so contrairy Get on with its new Mistress Mary?" I was seated on the corner of the one frame and the boxes were precariously placed on the edge. The Young Man's face beamed. "I have been learning to prick out; now, let me see." And to my horror he began to pull up my neat little plants. "There, that's wrong, and that and that. No, that stands; but see, all these are wrong." I gasped, "What are you doing? Do you call that pricking out? I don't." "By Jove! you'll catch it now, my dear fellow," said Jim. "Oh! don't you see it's all right to do that, because it shows you you have done them all wrong." "I think you have misunderstood the idea of 'pricking out,'" I said coldly. The Young Man was so full of information he paid no attention to my offended dignity or Jim's mirth. "I learnt it on purpose to show you. I planted a box full at home and the gardener came round and did that to my plants. I nearly whacked him on the head." "You're a parson," interrupted Jim, "you've got to think of that." "I know, Jim. I managed to bottle my feelings nearly as well as Mistress Mary did just now. I know what she is feeling." But I was still dignified. "Now will you tell me," I began. "Oh, it's a first-rate dodge! You see, if they are firmly put in they will stand that little pull, and if not it shows you ought to have wedged them in better." "Why," said Jim, "I bet I could tug out any you could wedge in." "That's the art; you must wedge right and tug just enough." "And why," I asked again, "why this tugging and this wedging?" "Oh, because otherwise they don't catch hold properly and make themselves at home. I didn't mean to spoil your neat box," he continued penitently. "May I help you?" "Why, of course you must," I said, brightening up. "Look at all that has to be done. Jim, dear, fill those boxes nicely with mould, a judicious mixture of looseness and compression." "I've other fish to fry this afternoon. If his Reverence's Young Man will do some beastly algebra for me I will stay and mess about with you; if not, he has got to do the messing." And so Jim deserted us, and we planted and pulled at each other's boxes, and I certainly tried to get some of his out. And then the fresh difficulty faced us where to put all these new boxes, for they had to be protected from the still frosty nights, and also from any too heavy rains which might, perchance, drown them. I wanted much more room than the one frame afforded, even could I turn out all the scraggy geraniums. "They must be protected somehow," I said despondingly, "and we can't carry them in and out of doors, and oh! how heavy even these little boxes are. There's the verandah, but the Others will never let me crowd them out with these boxes. It is just getting sunny out there. What can we do?" The Young Man looked round and thought, and thought, and then it came, an idea worth patenting. "You don't want heat for them?" "Oh, no, they ought to be hardened, you see." "And it's only at night, or against heavy rains, that they want protecting?" "That's all." "Well, then, I have it!" And he had it, the germ of the brilliant idea that, with Jim's assistance and mine, and Griggs's for actual manual labour, gradually evolved into an impromptu frame and saved us even the making of new boxes. This was the plan of action. We cleared a space in the little yard where the frame lived, and the manure heap in one corner, and one sunny border which held lettuce and I intended should hold my plantlets later on. We made first a bed of cinders (this for drainage), then a layer of manure (this for heat), then good mould, and all were enclosed with four strong planks, and in this protected spot we pricked out our nurslings. At night they were covered with a plank or two and some sacking, and this also protected them during any very heavy rains, until they grew strong enough to weather them. The boxes already pricked out we protected in like manner, only making no special bed for them. It became truly a delight to see how day by day those tiny sprigs of green grew and prospered, and to watch the development of the various leaves. The pretty crinkly little round leaves of the polyanthus, the neat spiky twig of the marigold and tagetes, the sturdy, even-growing antirrhinum with pale green stalks for white, and yellow and rich brown for the red variety, and the trim, three-cornered leaves of the nasturtium, each after its kind, very wonderful when we realise all that potentiality enclosed in a pin's point of a seed, and needing no difference of treatment to produce either zinnia or lobelia. I made all the Others, and everyone else too, walk round my nursery and dilated on the promising appearance of my children. "Wonderfully neat! but how tiny they all are. Do you mean to say you expect those little things to flower this year? Why, it is like asking a baby of six months old to ride a bicycle!" said one of the Others. "But they are annuals! In comparison they are now twenty years old! Of course they will flower this year, and be old and done for by October." "Well, you are _very_ hopeful, but _I_ don't expect much result _this_ year." "You will see!" "Well, we have not seen much yet, have we?" * * * * * The packets containing my biennial seeds, which, of course, means such seeds as sown one year furnish plants for the next year's flowering and then go the way of all "grass," instructed me to sow in the open from March or April to June. From what I have so far learned I would certainly advise sowing as early as possible and not taking June into consideration at all. The little plants get forward before the really hot weather begins, and usually the clouds supply sufficient water at that time; but if not, on no account must they go thirsty. I found watering a great necessity, for my ground is as porous as a sieve; a substratum of nice cool tenacious clay must be a great boon to those who happily have it. I suppose it may have some drawbacks, but my imagination is not lively enough to suggest any. Being light and poor, I usually doctored the soil before sowing the seeds. I believe it ought not to be really necessary; but a little manure mixed with leaf mould and some earth from a convenient shrubbery or background place, and all dug well in, was approved of by the plantlets. If by any chance you can lay aside, from hedgerows, corners of field or other prigable parts, some rolls of turf and let it stand aside until it rots, it makes most helpful dressing, particularly for rose roots. After the ground is ready make little straight trenches about one inch deep, and thinly, because they are certain anyway to be too close, scatter in your seeds. There for the present your work ends, and Mother Earth commences her never-ending miracle of death and resurrection. "Thou sowest not that body which shall be, but bare grain, it may chance of wheat or some other grain," and "that which thou sowest is not quickened except it die," when, "God giveth it a body, to every seed his own body." Those little brown pin points, of which you hold hundreds in a pinch on your palm, each one has its "celestial" body ready to spring into life through the dark gateway of death. Surely St Paul must have had his garden as a little boy, and sown his seeds, and marvelled, even as Jim and I did, with eyes opening to the wonder of it all. A wonder that is passed over in the matter-of-course way of the daily round, but that startles one, almost as a revelation, when one's own hand holds the seed, sows it, and then watches for the result. To say it is just "life" or the "force of nature" or "the energy that is behind all things," these are but words, the marvel remains. Irresistibly the thought arises, "With what body shall _we_ come?" Not with the old earth body for sure, if my seeds are to teach me anything. So I sowed first the forget-me-nots, as this year they must come from seed. Another year I will take the little shoots that are round the old plant and, separating them, will prick them out in a nursery spot, and so shall my plants for the following year be more mature, stronger, and therefore better flowering; a first year's forget-me-nots are apt to be straggling. Then the sweet-Williams, the wallflowers, red and gold, Canterbury bells, silene, the little bright pink edging that with forget-me-nots makes a border so gay in spring time, these were my first year's venture in biennials; for though some of them may be considered perennials, the best results may be hoped for from a continuously fresh store. The big sunflower seeds I placed just where I wanted them to come up, sometimes a single one, so that the plant should have all its own way, and wear as big a head as it knew how, and others in groups of four or five. Nasturtiums also I placed as a border to a lonely shrubbery. Some of the seeds had been got forward in the impromptu frame, but those were for my tree stumps and for creeping up the verandah. Canariensis the same; the convolvulus also were planted freely to cover up deficiencies wherever a creeping thing could grow. It is wise to sow your perennial seeds early; they get settled in life before they are called upon to face their first winter. So in another spot, judiciously cribbed from cabbage-room--crib I had to for my nursery ground--I sowed in like fashion the perennials, those which had not already begun their career in wooden boxes and frame. There were the big Oriental poppies, red and orange, for my impatience had so far succumbed to the gardening spirit that I could bear to contemplate sowing seeds with the hope of no immediate return, Brompton stocks, penstemons, foxgloves and gaillardias; campanulas, too, short and tall, white and blue; and those already started in boxes, the polyanthus and columbines, nice sturdy little plants by now, were moved to this division a little later, when frosty nights were a thing of the past. These for my first batch of perennials; others would surely follow with succeeding years. The thought of their permanence delighted me. Dear, nice things! they would not need sowing year by year, but would yearly grow more and more "in favour with God and man." So I hoped, even as a mother hopes it for her children. That long herbaceous border should one day be full of good stuff, one day blooming with a succession of flowers; but face the fact, one day is not to-morrow. The plants must grow; so, patience, patience, though mine was threadbare. * * * * * My other nursery of annuals sown in early March were growing apace and the sweet peas needed sticking. It certainly spoils their appearance for a time but is very necessary. I noticed all my seedlings growing in bits of kitchen garden filched from his Reverence's province grew with greater vigour than those down my own borders. I suspected that amongst much neglect the vegetable ground had suffered least, and so, in spite of his Reverence's outcry that I was robbing him of at least a sack of potatoes, I continued to make little inroads on his property. And thus I was brought in contact with the fruit-trees bordering the pathways. They had been renewed, many of them, when first his Reverence came to Fairleigh. They looked healthy enough, but very few blossoms and no fruit ever accounted for their existence. I pointed this out to his Reverence, and, full of newly-acquired knowledge, asked him if he had heard of tap-roots. "Griggs planted them, so you may depend that is what is the matter with them, and in the autumn we will have them up." "You are poaching," said his Reverence. "You ought to be full of gratitude, but I can't take them in hand myself, I only give you some of my overflowing knowledge. And we should all like to eat our own apples and pears!" Jim was much interested in tap-roots; he promised himself quite a good time hacking away at them in the autumn. He wondered if the barren fig-tree had a tap-root, but I could not enlighten him. Everything was growing, we had had some good rain. I can feel for the farmers now; I know what it is to _want_ rain. One of the Others said she wished we would keep quiet, all we gardeners and farmers who hankered after rain. She thought perhaps if we ceased the weather might get a little settled and the sun shine week in week out. To her mind that was far better than fields of corn or beds of even luxuriant flowers. There were sure to be _some_ corn and _some_ flowers anyhow, "so do let other people enjoy the sunshine in peace." Certainly if the English climate is the result of conflicting desires, it would be a good thing to have a national creed on the subject and make it obligatory. After the rain, however, in that particular month of April, came the sun, and things grew apace. Though not only my seeds and flowers. The enemy, who for many a long year had sown, or allowed to be sown, weeds in my garden, had his crop likewise. "They're overmastering us agin," said Griggs, who had his friendly moments; and sometimes, if we were working hard, quite enjoyed standing near and pretending to help us. "It's your fault that, you know," said Jim, who minced matters with nobody. He was doubled up over the border surrounded with all kinds of implements, for Jim liked everything handy. There was a big clasp knife and a spade and rake, a trowel and little fork, and then he generally used his hands. He was now "tracking home," as he said, that evil-minded weed called, I believe, the ground-elder, and pointed out with some heat, quite excusable under the circumstances, that Griggs, who had just calmly and coolly cut off the head of the plant, had done not a "blooming bit of good." If you should ever want a really good back-aching job, take a trowel or a little hand fork and begin a fight with those innocent-looking, many-fingered leaves growing in and out in so friendly a fashion with your flowers. You turn up the root, but its hold is still on the earth; you pull a bit and find it belongs to that other cluster of leaves some little distance off. You attack that, very careful not to lose your underground connection, it also has sent long stringy branches in all directions. Then you pull and tear and say "Oh, bother!" and "What a brute of a weed!" Jim and I are careful not to say anything stronger, though he has been known to indulge in "hang," but I feel sure Griggs gives us the character of using "most horful languidge you never heard." Still it goes on, and quite a heap of potato-like roots will be out and yet its hold is not slackened. Finally it lands you in an iris or lily root; it is not particular, but I find it prefers a solid root, and there you get sadly mixed as to what is root and what is weed. But if the job is to be done finally, these roots must be all taken up and carefully disentangled, for all are twined together. This radical measure is best, or rather least injurious to lilies and irises, when their flowering time is over--July and August--and moving or dividing does not disturb them. Never in all old Griggs's reign of twenty years had he tracked a ground-elder weed home; but I now know the look of those potato-like roots better than any other in my garden. I cannot say I like doing it. Boys are more invertebrate and do not get so red in the face; and this I pointed out to Jim, suggesting a division of labour. "You do get jolly red," said Jim, "but really, you know, I expect it's your stays." "Jim!" "Well, you needn't get up the steam. I only know when I was dressed up for those theatricals as a beastly, I mean, as a girl, the fellows got hold of some stays, I suppose they bagged their sister's, a precious tight pair, too! and I just tell you, in confidence, they made me absolutely sick. I had to retire looking like an unripe lemon. My! never again!" "You squeezed too much, Jim." "That girl must have squeezed more; and you all do, that's my private opinion." In consideration, therefore, of the infirmities to which a rigorous convention condemns my sex, Jim said he would do the thinning out for me. My promising annuals, designed for grand duty in the cutting line, godetias and larkspurs and chrysanthemums and Shirley poppies, were all most flourishing, but coming much too thick. They ought to have been thinned out sooner, of course, but we had been too busy, so Jim devoted his early morning hours to them, before the five minutes' rush on his bicycle which took him to the station for Gatley, where he and some other fellows were being crammed to pass the examination for the Royal Navy. Jim's days were always filled. He never neglected cricket, nor, in its good time, football and hockey; but he was going to see me through with my garden for the first year, he said, and his help and ideas were never-failing. On the thinning-out mornings Jim got up early; very early it seemed to me when he bounced into my room and sent a flood of light full on my face, or placed a damp sponge there. "Now I am going to thin, and I can't do it with any satisfaction if you are asleep. What you have to do is to think out any blooming thoughts for this blooming essay on courage. Why the blooming idiot gives us such rotten subjects I can't think. But you must jot down some headings and be ready with them when I come back." "Jim, what a worn-out old subject. I shall go to sleep over it." "This won't do," and Jim strode to the washing stand and plunged the sponge in water. "Oh, don't, Jim, I am awake! There was 'the boy who stood on the burning deck,'" I shouted hurriedly. Jim came back and stood over me. "Open your eyes then wide, so. You see you are wasting precious time with your sluggishness." I thought of those thickly-sown seedlings growing up so leggy, and I roused myself. "Well, 'the boy' will do, then; he is a good old stager." "Yes, so he mustn't be left out. All the other fellows will have him in for sure, and if I don't, 'old Joe' will think I don't know about him. They don't want any originality, these chaps; they want you just to stick on and learn what they learnt, then you see you can't put them in a corner. So just rout out good old standing dishes." Jim turned to go. "All right; but, Jim, remember to leave the strongest plant." "'Survival of the fittest,' yes, I've heard that before." "And don't forget about eight inches apart." "I prefer six; you turn your thoughts to courage." "Primitive instinct, difference between man and woman, one has more of the physical variety and the other of the moral," I shouted after him. "No twaddle," said Jim, striding back. "Think of what _I_ should be likely to say. Of course we all may pick up ideas outside as we have to write the blooming thing in form, but it must sound like me, not you." "It will, Jim, after it has been through your mill, never fear. And I think eight inches produces strongest plants." And then Jim slid down the bannisters and I heard him whistling in the garden; but that soon ceased, for you can't whistle when you are bent double. I must say the row looked very nice when I reviewed it after breakfast. Jim had selected with great care! but the heaps of rejected plantlets lying on the gravel path caused my motherly heart a pang. What a shocking waste! Every tiny seed had come up and ten were growing where but one could find sufficient support for full development, so out must come the nine. Nature is wasteful, and so is human nature, but we can't weed out the overcrowded families; and do the fittest there always survive? Truly it would need courage to tackle that problem. * * * * * A little later, in May, I found an employment in which I tried to interest the Others, but it was no good. The only one I brought up to the scratch, or rather the rose tree, fled with horror when I showed her what was needed, and vowed she would rather never smell a rose again than do such disgusting work. But his Reverence took quite kindly to the job, I am glad to say, and it was a good sight in my eyes when I saw his wideawake carefully bent over the standard roses, and then a certain look of victory rose over his spectacles as he spotted the enemy. This new enemy is a very vile-looking little green grub; one variety is brown and fat, and then indeed I have felt inclined to flee myself. I suppose his mamma lands him in an invisible stage on the tender young rose leaves and he curls them round him for a cradle. Then in some mysterious way, which I heartily wish Dame Nature had never taught him, he rocks his cradle to the side of a juicy young bud, glues himself to it and enjoys it. Not much bud is left. So his Reverence unfolds the green cradle and carefully ejects the baby. I simply cannot do that, I pick off the leaf; but in either case the end is rapid and final. And how prolific is that abominable butterfly! You may, in fact, you _must_, visit your rose trees daily if you would hope to see a goodly show. At least, so it is in my garden. I can but speak from a limited experience. I have often thought others may be more blessed than I am, but you may not be one of them, friend Ignoramus. Then there is the green fly, thickly swarming all over banksia or cluster roses, at least, more especially favouring them. Jim would have little to say to the green grub, though occasionally even he and the Young Man had their steps gently led in that direction; and seeing his Reverence's absorption, they too began and then somehow went on. A kind of fatal fascination, I suppose, "Just one more!" The Others would never give the spell a chance, but Jim grew to take the greatest interest in green fly. The Young Man suggested smoke for their destruction, but his cigarettes did not seem to effect much, though he blew round a bush for quite a long time while I picked the cradle leaves off another, and of course my work was the most effectual. Jim was very keen on trying this remedy too. I said the effect would be worse than his experience with the stays, at which he asked me with dignity if I supposed he was as green as all that! However, Griggs came out with an old syringe, and Jim said that was the work for him. Soapy water and a good shove, and the Young Man was simply deluged. All Jim said was, "What a mercy it was only you. Think if it had been his Reverence! Winkie! what a shine there would have been." I thought the young man behaved beautifully, for a man, though he did catch Jim and hold him upside down until he was gurgling. But when the green fly got the douche very strongly given they too objected, and vacated their position. Afterwards I obtained a recipe for a douche which had even more effectual results. Take two ounces of quassia chips (you get them from a chemist for a very small sum) and one ounce of soft soap, and pour on them about a pint of boiling water. Leave it till cold and then add water to the amount of two gallons. With this concoction syringe your green fly, and its extreme bitterness will make them lose all fancy for your rosebuds. * * * * * The lilacs were out, and the white guelder rose and the ash tree; may and syringa and laburnum were soon to follow. Truly even a poor neglected little garden has its happy moments! I would rest some days looking around and enjoying the green so new and fresh everywhere, and trying to shut the reformer's eye. But it was growing too strong for me; the only way to shut it was to reform. The shrubberies were terrible. Laurel was rampant everywhere. A nasty greedy thing, it cannot live and let live, for it takes the nourishment needed by its better brethren. I would have no laurel in my garden, none, but that is a dream for the future. The elder tree too has no manners, it shares this failing with its namesake weed; it shoves and pushes all more gentle growth to the wall. It must be cut back hard. And the syringas also, they need the judicious knife to prune out the old wood and so give strength to the young shoots. And so does the yellow Japanese rose, more learnedly called Kerria Japonica, which in late March and April had given but a poor little show of bloom. I guessed that its treatment had been that of the yellow jasmine. It had been clipped in the autumn on the hedging and ditching principle, and the young shoots with the promise of buds had disappeared beneath Griggs's shears. Better for the plant to have razed it to the ground after flowering, said the Master, for the vigorous young shoots would soon have appeared; so following his instruction I this spring cut the old stems right away, leaving only the new green ones springing from the ground. I am hoping here, too, for next year. It seems a gardener must always be living in the future, "possessing their souls in patience," and "hoping all things." Truly it is a liberal education, and I hope may prove very valuable to Jim and the Young Man--and other persons. It has done no good to Griggs. * * * * * Spring slipped into summer. The sun shone longer and melted the iciness in the wind's breath; the tender green of the trees gave place to "leafy June" and the shade was grateful. Jim found a waistcoat superfluous, and the head gardener donned a shady hat and tried to wear gloves. Yes, the spring was gone, and even with summer's glories to come one turns a regretful glance back to the months when "Behold, He maketh all things new." [Illustration: SUMMER] SEASON III Summer "Knee-deep in June." And knee-deep in work, too, for June will not give you anything for nothing if you are running a garden. I had my hands full, not only with the legitimate work of June, which is great, but May is sure to have left you in the lurch; this "getting forward" process so much preached by the Master is not seconded by May with at all a whole heart. "March ain't never nothin' new! Apriles altogether too Brash fer me, and May--I jes' 'Bominate its promises. Little hints o' sunshine and Green around the timber-land, A few blossoms and a few Chip birds, and a sprout or two-- Drap asleep, and it turns in 'Fore daylight and snows agen!"[1] [1] James Whitcomb Riley. My poet is an American, but the complaint may be raised also in the old country; only I do not "'bominate" promises. I love them, and as I am perforce a gardener it is a good thing, for I often get nothing else. But be the garden forward or not, how lovely a garden can be, even a neglected garden, these last weeks of May and first of June. The chestnuts are scarcely over, the laburnum is raining gold, the may trees are like snow, a delicious reminder when the sun is doing its duty brilliantly; the roses are just breaking from the bud, and now we can congratulate ourselves on the wholesale slaughter of green grub and green fly, without, however, giving up the pursuit. But what was the matter with those newly-planted rose trees? The crimson rambler, for one, that was to ramp up the verandah, had not ramped an inch; it had only put forth some miserable, half-starved leaves and not one bud. The Others derided it freely. William Allen Richardson looked unhappy too; the new standards seemed more contented, and the Reine Marie Hortense, who also was destined to cover the verandah as rapidly as might be with pink Gloire de Dijon roses, had really begun her work with a will. Why then had my much-vaunted crimson rambler failed me? I had been told they disliked a wall, but not a verandah. "A worm i' the root," suggested One; but I held to certain laws of the Medes and Persians, and one was to leave the roots alone until the right time; so if my rambler wished to flourish elsewhere it must bide until the autumn; though in the front, over an old stump, and down in the kitchen garden it was the same tale, the ramblers refused to ramble. * * * * * But the business of the month must not be kept waiting a day, in fact, we began the last week in May, and that was promoting the nurslings from their shelter to the open borders. The two large round beds that were generally devoted to Griggs's semi-red geraniums and scraggy calceolarias, and which were the only regular planting-out beds the garden possessed, were now a subject of much disquieting thought to me. They were so terribly important. By them I felt my reputation must stand or fall. They were plainly visible from everywhere. They needed to be a brilliant mass of colour from June to October; no easy problem for one lot of flowers to solve. I had set my face against Griggs's geraniums bordered with calceolarias and lobelias, the refuge of the destitute; any other refuge was to be mine, I resolved. And since it had been no silent resolve, it had perforce to be kept. At present those beds were an eyesore, but one for which I did not feel responsible. Before I took in hand the reins of garden government, Griggs had buried there a mixture of tulips and edged them with alternate polyanthuses--the poorest of specimens--and forget-me--nots that had weathered the winter in what Griggs termed a "spotty" way. It was certainly a suggestive phrase for those particular plants. But I had been able to join the Others in their chorus of condemnation. Now the time had arrived for a change, and the responsibility appalled me. I had had visions of those two beds with many various inhabitants. At first the dream had been of violas, pale mauve deepening into the dark purple, but to complete that idea some tall things with a strong colour--red salvias or good red geraniums--were needed; these, planted some eighteen inches apart, would bring out the delicate background. But the dream vanished perforce. Apart from the lack of good red anything, my violas had failed me, and some few dozen little plants were all I could reckon upon. Why, I do not know; it was just this, the seeds had not come up. So then I dreamed of all my straight little antirrhinums; they would surely make a fine glaring effect. I had red, yellow, white and a good quantity. Jim liked the idea; red was to be the centre, and yellow and white alternate, a broad border. Griggs took his arrangement away. The dilapidated tulips were saved, of course, and kept in a dry place stored for the autumn planting out. On the polyanthus roots too I laid rescuing hands. They were not very good colours, but needing so much I dared not waste. The best of the lot I had noted, and now placed them down the shaded lime walk. They could grow where the primroses grew, and in spring I should welcome even their uncertain shades down amongst the bright green of the wild things. The beds were turned over well, and a little fresh soil and manure dug in; then, when neat, smooth and ready, I brought up the first detachment of small antirrhinums from the nursery for their adornment. These had grown to the height of from five to six inches, but had still a slender air. I think it would have helped their more rapid development had they been moved sooner from their first box. With seedlings, friend Ignoramus, you cannot be _too_ particular. Never let them have the slightest check; keep them watered, cared for, and as they need it give them room. They will then reward you. All one cool afternoon Jim and I planted out. We began in the centre and made rings round with an impromptu compass formed by a stick and string. In the rounds thus made the plantlets were steadily and firmly placed, eight inches apart, though eight inches seemed a great deal of spare room. "They will grow," I persisted; "they are small for their age, but will soon need elbow room." "I feel I am playing with little tin soldiers, don't you?" suggested Jim; "but they are strong little beggars and will grow bigger, won't they?" "Oh, rather! over a foot, though they are the dwarf kind, you know; but they branch out like the wicked bay tree." "Well, there's room for it," said Jim, and then we worked on steadily until tea-time. "What are you sprinkling that bed with those tiny green twigs for?" asked one of the Others. "We want something a trifle cheering there, you must remember, Mary. We have to look at it all the summer." "We don't _want_ to have to regret Griggs's semi-red 'janiums," said another of the Others. "They will be a blazing mass of colour," I answered confidently as I hurried over my tea. "Come, Jim, they must be got in." "Remember it is for _this_ summer," shouted the Other. "And not to adorn our graves, my dear," came after us. What had happened in my short absence? I saw with new eyes, the eyes not of the fond mother but of the critic. "Jim!" and my whisper was awful. "What's up? Have we done anything wrong?" "Look at them!" They looked absurd. They looked impossible. The bed so big and they so small, so like tiny tin soldiers, that my faith failed me. The Others would be confronted by little green twigs all the summer and regret Griggs's _régime_. It was hopeless! they could never rise to the occasion. "They must come up, Jim." "Oh, rot! Let's put 'em a bit thicker; they will flower all right, you said so half-an-hour ago." "I don't know what I said half-an-hour ago; I feel sure now that they will take months to do anything! And what shall I do meanwhile? It's the pricking out; we were behind with that, you see. They must come up and go somewhere, where it won't matter so awfully. These beds _must_ be a success, even if I spend every farthing I possess on buying ready-made plants." We took them up. Jim was impressed with my sorrow. We planted those we had disturbed in the border in front as an edging. "It won't matter so much here, they don't strike the eye, because other things are coming here in clumps, but for those two beds!" I had nightmares of tiny tin soldiers dressed in green who marched round and round and disappeared, and then two bare brown beds loomed up like giant's eyes, and the Others all shouted, "Isn't it hideous? What did you do it for? Oh, Mary, what a mess you have made of it!" * * * * * Next afternoon Jim and I, his Reverence and the Young Man--who also joined the Council--calculated exactly how many plants would be required to really fill those beds with a desirable effect. I could hardly believe it, the calculation ended in two hundred for each bed. I sat down on the grass and looked and looked as though looking would make the necessary quantity appear. "It can't be done," I moaned in the bluest despair. "I don't possess four hundred of anything; so there!" "You might make a kind of pattern," began the Young Man. "I hate a kaleidoscopic effect," I growled. "You've jolly well got to have one," said Jim. "There might be a border," suggested his Reverence. "Really, you _may_ mix some flowers," ventured the Young Man, rather fearful of having his head snapped off again. "I have seen uncommonly pretty beds done that way. Why, in the Park this year I noticed a background of small close blue flowers, and out of them rose tall pink geraniums. The effect was excellent," said his Reverence. "'You may see as good sights many times in tarts,'" I remarked, and they none of them knew, not even Jim, that I was quoting the learned Bacon, but thought my temper was affecting my reason. "Get up off the damp grass," said Jim, offering violent assistance, "and come and contemplate the nursery. Great Scott! after all your bragging to collapse like this. Aren't the babies there still?" "I have hundreds of nothing, and they are all such tiny things it would take _thousands_ of them to fill these _hideous_ big beds." So rather a downcast procession wended their way round the shrubbery to the little yard with its frame and manure heap and enclosures of plantlets. His Reverence drew out pencil and paper, and after making several very shaky rounds to represent the two beds, he began to fill in with names as suggested to him by Jim and the Young Man. "Let us start with the biggest geraniums in the centre, a group of six we will say, as they are not very big any of them. Now then, a row next of those yellow daisies, that will fill up a good bit and look bright, too. Then we might have those stocks, all colours are they? Do famously. And then the little snapdragons, what do you call them?--anti--anti--what? snapdragon will do for me. You say they are too small! Oh, but they will grow. Red, then yellow, then white. Why, see, Mary, the round is nearly full. Then a row of the smallest geraniums, don't you think, and end up with an edging of blue lobelia. That would be fine, eh?" Jim saw my face and burst into laughter. I was in no laughing mood. "Good heavens, sir! Imagine such a higgledy-piggledy assembly as that--all sizes--all colours--all blooming anyhow!" "Not at all, not at all. Now, Young Man, what do you say? Look here--" And with the warmth of an inventor his Reverence read over his list and grew more in love with his colour scheme than ever. "Yes," said the Young Man, at intervals, "yes, that fills in grandly;" and then he caught my eye, a flash of indignation, so he began to hesitate and hedge. "Only, you see, your Reverence, that for flowers, that is, for bedding out, it seems you need--you have to think--" and he looked at me but got no assistance. "Perhaps there might be too many colours, mightn't there?" he wound up feebly. "Too many colours! Why, my dear fellow, it isn't for a funeral! Do you want all the flowers to wear black coats like you and me?" "No, no, sir, only, you see in one bed--" "Bless the man, of course they are in one bed! Why, where is the harm in variety? Just look here--" and we went through the scheme again. "Now, come; if you don't like this, what can you suggest better, eh?" The Young Man looked so nonplussed and uncomfortable, and his Reverence was falling deeper and deeper in love with his arrangement, I saw that I must at once take the matter in hand or it would be too late. "I know," I said suddenly. I did not know, at least, not what I would do, only what I would not, which is sometimes a great help in the other direction. "Well, let us hear your idea," said his Reverence, with enforced patience, looking fondly at his scheme. "The antirrhinums are too small and the violas too few," I began. "Well, that is not much of an idea!" "No, but I am thinking--" and so I was, for a thought had come. Then his Reverence laughed. "Ah, well, you _think_. In the meantime I will leave you my list and go and see after old Griggs." He linked his arm in the Young Man's and walked him off. He, looking penitently back, found no forgiveness; I had no use for the penitence of cowards. Then I began to expound to Jim the idea that had come like a flash! like a revelation! until Jim said, "Get on, let's have the idea. I don't personally think his Reverence's scheme at all bad, you know. I just laid low because I saw what a stew you were in, but _personally_ I like a bit of colour." Then I explained to Jim what a delirium those beds would be, and Jim would have left me too had I not said he should do all the measurements for the beds as I wanted somebody with an eye! How queer men are, even in embryo. They always hang together, and it is only flattery that can overcome their prejudices. Jim grew interested. The idea was to be all yellow. I had those marguerites of Griggs's cuttings developed now into fair-sized plants in spite of their neglected childhood, for I had seen to them since. They should grow in the centre; then should come my marigolds, which were very thriving, two kinds of them, the big, rather clumsy African, but with handsome colouring, and the smaller, neater, darker French variety, and we would finish with a good border of tagetes. They were all bushy plants, all hardy, and would bloom steadily through the summer and autumn. A basket of scabious--lady's pincushions--arriving from the Master while I was planting out were also worked into my scheme, and worked in well. The dark round balls of reds, browns, blues, with tiny white pin-points, did not disturb the yellow harmony. Eventually I was proud of those beds. When first planted they did look slightly new and stalky, but they filled out daily. His Reverence only remarked, "Well, well, have it your own way; I suppose it is æsthetic! But my idea was more cheerful." Griggs frankly said "yeller" was never his fancy. "Now, them 'janiums, that gives a bit o' colour." And I quite forgave the Young Man his past for his present admiration was unbounded. He had been quite unable to think, he explained. So that great difficulty was settled. * * * * * Griggs's geraniums turned out one or two good dark reds among the magenta hues, and these were put in the two old stumps that hitherto had been given over to mere ramping nasturtiums, and my superior seedlings of those useful flowers were encouraged to fall over the edge and ramp downwards. An old oil cask, cut in two, burnt out and painted green--Jim and I and the Young Man enjoyed that artistic work very much--formed two capacious tubs and were filled with more geraniums, the best and pinkest, and they brightened up the shrubbery corner where the daffodils had shone. Stocks and other geraniums--even the mauvy-tinted ones looked quite well away from all touch of red--with a border of lobelia, were placed under the study window in a narrow bed running along the front of the house, thus helping his Reverence to realise _his_ ideal. Then by degrees we arranged all the contents of my nursery, some in clumps, some in rows, down the herbaceous border, and others in the front border, the border which had looked so dismal and unpromising on that November day when I first took my garden in hand. There had been a brushing up of old inhabitants--Michaelmas daisies and chrysanthemums--but much was still left to be desired. You cannot do everything in the first year. It is no use thinking you can. * * * * * One day, at the very beginning of June, I visited the potting-shed, our one and only shed, which held a collection such as may be imagined after the reign of Griggs for twenty years. In a dark corner I came across some queer-looking roots sprouting away in a most astoundingly lively fashion. "Griggs, what on earth are these?" I called to that worthy. "Them? Oh! them's daylers. Just stuck 'em there to keep dry for the winter. They oughter be out by now, they oughter." "Oh! I should think so," and then I marvelled on the nature of dahlias. "Is this a good place for them during the winter? Don't they want anything to eat or drink?" "Bless yer! no, they takes their fill in the summer, but they oughter be out by now; some'ow I've come to overlook them." That these dahlias forgave the overlooking has always been a wonder to me; perhaps they did not do so entirely. I believe more firmly than ever in the thoroughness of the edict which rules "that what a man soweth that shall he reap." A child or a flower starved in infancy does not recover for some time, if ever, and though my dahlias kindly bloomed and did their best, once started in as good a bed as we could give them, they ought to have been "potted up" in the beginning of May and kept from frosty nights; then at the end of May or beginning of June they should have been placed in their flowering position. So soon as frost touches them they droop, as we all well know, in their own peculiar, utterly dejected and forlorn manner. Then cut them down, dig them up, let them dry, and place them for the winter in a dry and protected cellar or outhouse, there to sleep until the spring calls them to fresh life. * * * * * I watched the long herbaceous border with an anxious eye. The poppies--those dazzling papaver--opened their large green pods and shook out blazing red and rather crinkly leaves in the sunshine. They made one hot, but happy, to look at them. For that first year in my garden I think they did their duty well, but bigger clumps will look better. Some little spiky leaves that I had not recognised--how should I when no label accompanied them?--turned out to be the Iceland variety. They had one or two dainty blooms made of yellow butterflies' wings, but oh, dear! one or two! I needed a mass. The delphiniums looked healthy and promised a spiky bloom or two; the lupins were already in flower, nice, quite nice, when one has not much else, but the blue is too near purple. I must get some other varieties; the white would be prettier. The big thick leaves of the hollyhocks grew well at first, and then some beast of sorts began to fancy them and they developed a moth-eaten appearance. All Griggs could say was, "You never could do nothing with 'olly'ocks in this gardin, you couldn't." My other wiseacre, old Lovell, said, "They liked a bit o' wind through 'em." His own seemed to flourish, so mine must be moved from the sheltering hedge where I had thought they would show up. Everywhere still grew and flourished the ever-present weeds. They needed no watering, nothing to promote their vitality, they grew apace; and I could mention other varieties beside that champion grower, the ground-elder. There is a sticky, burry kind of rapid, straggling growth with tenacious hot-feeling leaves. Its hold on the earth is not strong, but it is brittle, and eludes its death-warrant that way; also a kind of elongated dandelion, that looks straight at you as though it had a right to be there. Then the common poppy, last year's nasturtium seeds, and the offspring of last year's sunflowers are as bad as weeds, and indeed the latter gave me as much trouble. The strong tuberous roots required a vigorous pull, and were growing everywhere, through the centre of every flower; I took at least a dozen out of one clump of golden rod, and vowed I would have every sunflower up before it had a chance of seeding. Of course all such things must come up or they exhaust the feeding capacity of the border. It is all very fine to say "_must_," but I believe a poor soil is composed of weed seeds. I walked down the garden with one of the Others, one who loved flowers, only in her own way. She arranged them beautifully when everything was put ready to her hand; she loved picking one here and there and sticking it in her waist-band, or playing with its soft petals against her cheek, then, its brief duty done, it was forgotten. I have seen people--even mothers--love children in the same way; but flowers and children need a broader love than that. We walked down armed with scissors and with an empty basket; I had said that there _were_ flowers. "My dear girl, what on earth _have_ you? when all is said and done. You show me a green bush thing and give it a name"--I had mentioned delphinium--"and it does sound aggressively knowledgeable, of course! And then another isolated and flowerless specimen and give _it_ a name. But wherewithal am I to do the dinner-table to-night? Will you tell me that?" "You have a most lovely bunch of poppies in the drawing-room, and I cut the copper-beech, which was wicked of me. Very soon you shall have roses and sweet-peas and all these seedlings; and next year you shall have sweet-Williams and cup and saucer Canterbury bells and foxgloves and--" "_Next_ year! my dear. I am wanting some flowers for _to-night_." "To-night! Oh, dear, let me think. Why won't the things make haste? You must have _something_, of course." What was there? A good many things in bud, but had they been out I could not have cut them. Just the one first specimen! To cut from a plant you need such a big show, and all the tall perennials were no good anyway for the table decoration. The blue cornflowers were coming; the godetias held promising buds of pinkiness; the Shirley poppies, too, and the sweet-peas; but for to-night! Everything was for to-morrow. Down the garden we walked, hope always deferred, and beyond the garden shone a field of brilliantly deep red. I caught my breath. "Isn't it lovely? It is old Mason's saint-foin; let us take some. And see, there are white daisies in the hay there, mine aren't out yet. And with grasses, those lovely, wavy grasses! don't you think that will do?" The table did look lovely, but small thanks to my garden, I felt; though the Other One cared not for that, and comforted me by saying that gardening had certainly developed my resources if not the flowers. Nature's garden is at its best in June. The wild rose and honeysuckle scent the hedges, the tall white daisies shine in the grass, the ruddy chickweed, with the setting sun behind, glows like the evening clouds; and the tall, dainty, white meadow-sweet offers itself to one's hand. Were it a garden flower we should prize it almost as we do gypsophila. But Nature does not mean her favourites to be promoted to the drawing-room. Their rustic beauty fades at once, and it seems truly unkind to cut so short their joyous sunny day. * * * * * The dinner-table that had caused me so much anxiety was specially needed for an American friend of one of the Others. She greeted the pretty effect with, "My! how cunning! Do all these pretty things grow in your garden, Mistress Mary?" "In mine and Nature's," I added. "You have a little rhyme about Mary and her garden, haven't you? And her lamb, too. Have you a lamb?" "Oh, yes," said one of the Others, "she has a lamb, the new version of that rhyme, too, 'with coat as black as soot.'" But what she meant, or why I grew hot, it passes my wisdom to say. "Say now, do you grow nightingales in your garden, Mistress Mary? I assure you, sir," turning to his Reverence, "I have never yet compassed an introduction to that much-vaunted British institooshon, the nightingale. I am just crazy till I hear those liquid tones, the jug jug and jar jar: such vurry ugly equivalents they sound to me for thrilling notes, but the best, I conclude, our poor speech can do in imitation of that divine melody." When our friend had quite finished--I noticed she landed herself without fear in the longest of sentences, and brought them always with much aplomb to the neatest of conclusions, an accomplishment in which she must find the majority of her English cousins sadly deficient--his Reverence promised her the wished-for concert; and he further dilated on the beauties represented by jug jug and jar jar, until she assured him that with him for her guide she would face that dark and lonely walk of Mistress Mary's--she meant my lime trees--where doubtless she would find a blue or white lady flitting past, with a sigh, wasn't it? for some recalcitrant lover. However, I noticed she walked off later with the Young Man, who dropped in after dinner, and she asked him all about the jug jug and jar jar with ever-increasing animation. It certainly was very cool that night, as it can be in June even after a hot day. We looked round to send Jim for shawls, but Jim had vanished, to his work, no doubt. We strolled down the lime walk to see if the nightingales would oblige us, which I doubted, as nightingales are as careful of their throats in a cool wind as are prima donnas. "You really mustn't talk," I heard the Young Man say. "Land's sake! but do they want it all their own way? Though who could talk when the whole night is throbbing with beauty? Just look at that intense blue vault above us, and the calm stars shimmering down on us. Say! doesn't it make you feel just too awfully small for anything? You don't feel inclined to get up and preach now, do you? Just shut your eyes and listen; that's about all one can do." The figures wandered up and down under the overhanging lime boughs, two and two, and presently the black and white ones ahead of us stopped. When we wandered off again somehow we had changed partners, and Mamie was arm-in-arm with her special Other One and the Young Man was walking with me. "I had such a lot I wanted to talk to you about," he began. This sounded interesting, but he seemed unable to get further. "About the Sunday school?" I asked gently, for we were still listening for the nightingale. It was almost a cross "No" that he muttered as we passed Mamie and her friend. "Oh, I know," I suggested; "it is about the garden. You haven't been helping me in my garden for weeks and weeks. What can one talk of better than a garden? I think it is the most interesting subject, and you must want to know how the nurslings are turning out, now they are started in real life." I suppose Mamie had caught the word garden, for she began to sing in a very high thread-of-silver voice, "If love's gardener sweet were I, I would cull the stars for thy pleasure." "Say, tall and reverend sir, can you reach a star? Look how they twinkle!" The Young Man is so very English I half feared he would not understand how to take her, but Mamie's freedom was infectious. "All the stars are not up there," he said, "fortunately for my arms. They are twinkling under these trees to-night." "Why, you _are_ poetical! But these lively stars of white and blue are not the kind to cull, are they, Mistress Mary? Land's sake! but they might prove as big an undertaking as one of those fiery worlds twinkling up there. 'How I wonder what you are!' Why, _we_ don't wonder, we _know_. I learnt all about them at school. But who knows what _I_ am composed of?" "'Ribbons and laces and sweet pretty faces!' is what they taught me at _my_ school," said the Young Man, calmly. "Really, the nightingale _can't_ sing if we all talk so much. Do let us try and be quiet for two minutes," I said. But Mamie was walking away laughing, and saying the nightingale would soon get used to her dulcet tones, and the Young Man stayed listening with me. "And yet it's true," he said, "what she says; how is one ever to know about another person, particularly when that other person always turns the conversation when one begins to talk about--" "You are getting mixed," I interrupted. "Don't you like talking about my garden?" "Not always." "Well, then, there's the parish." "You only do that to annoy." "I don't! But to please you I will talk of your last sermon." The Young Man was very hard to please; he said he preferred to know the exact ingredients of the stars, so I stopped Mamie to ask her, but she said we were becoming prosaic; the stars were really little holes in heaven's floor that the angels made to peep through. "That's what they taught at your school, didn't they, Reverend Young Man?" "They did. My education has greatly helped me to retain my fond delusions and pet prejudices." "Why, what an ideal education for a clergyman!" "Since young ladies are taught to weigh the stars and won't listen for nightingales, it does seem good to me." "Now, don't you get rattled. Mistress Mary, you have been rubbing him up the wrong way, and, mercy me! however can a poor Yank hear your nightingale? That is a delusion I must part with unless he condescends to commence soon." "Well, wait, do wait quietly for one minute." So for a brief pause there was silence; and the stir of the leaves and little rustle of unseen creeping things could be heard, and then, yes, there it was! We all raised a warning finger, but the throbbing note broke through the stillness; a little gurgle, a break, and then a longer effort. "Oh, my! Is that it? It makes me creep all over. Oh, don't let us talk. Will it go on?" Yes, it went on. After some tentative "jugs" and "jars" it broke into a full-throated throb, and even our fair visitor's exclamation did not scare it. "It _is_ singing to-night," said One; "really, it must be in honour of you, Mamie. It seldom sings with such vigour!" In the centre of the sloping field grew a fine clump of trees, birch, chestnut and one or two straight pines; the nightingale had chosen this for his stage, and now again quite distinctly rose the gurgling note, and continued, too, right through Miss Mamie's piercing whisper. "Why! it's purfectly lovely! I guess I must take one or two back to Amurica. This grove of trees, the dense blue sky, the silence of all you dear people, and just that one divine voice throbbing with love! It makes me feel like melting. If anyone proposed to me now I should just have no strength to refuse. Don't feel nervous, most Reverend Young Man. I am really thinking of that fascinating Mr Jim. Say! has he gone to bed?" Jim! Where was he? I saw the Young Man give a start, and a quick glance showed me we had both solved the mystery of that persistently gurgling bird. "He ought to be doing his preparation," I said in firm tones. "Don't, Mary! how you shouted. Now he has stopped. Oh, what a pity!" The Young Man whistled softly, and after a pause a little answering whistle came from another spot. "What is that?" asked Mamie. "Night-jar," suggested the Young Man. We listened in vain for more warblings from the nightingale. He had flown for good, and they all said it was my fault. "Did you have a good concert?" asked his Reverence, as we returned to the drawing-room. And at the chorus of approval he laughed, and assured us the nightingale had given him a dress rehearsal, and that was why we waited so long. Mamie declared his Reverence was the biggest dear she had met "this side," for you never could believe a word he said. He and the Young Man had both been to the same school, she reckoned. Next morning she had a tale to tell of her own special nightingale throbbing with love just below her window, and again in the early morning hours at her door. When she laid great stress on the "throbbing with love," Jim got bashfully red. Then she maintained she heard him flutter downstairs just as she was going to pipe her love tale too, and that always, always, she will love her English nightingale the best of all British institooshons. "You don't think she really knows," whispered Jim to me, "because if she does, she is going rather far, isn't she?" * * * * * How lovely a garden can be by moonlight, even a poor little garden. The moon is merciful, she touches all things, even the weeds, with a soft mystery; hallows the lily and every white bloom; in her light the red and blue flowers are not faded or extinguished, but softened; distances, shadows are intenser, more suggestive than in the garish glory of the sun; soft voices, soft footsteps are needed for the moonlit garden, and one may not think of work or gardeners. The flowers are asleep, wake them not; all but those of strong sweet scent and small blossom, like the jessamine and nicotina, which fittingly star the night garden, and these are sweeter now than ever, and thus woo to them the little moths, those flitting, dusky, silent lovers. The lime-tree avenue became a favourite night walk. The path that was once gravel, and by long neglect had become green in patches, was encouraged in its overgrowth, and Griggs and a scythe will turn it in time to quite a respectable grass walk, I hope. In the subdued light the feathery tall weeds gave it quite a fairy glade appearance. I can dream in my garden by moonlight, and perhaps not always of my garden. * * * * * The little perennial and biennial seeds sown in the open in April were, at the end of June, ready for thinning. They had each developed the "body" prepared for them, and nice, sturdy little "bodies" they were, but growing too close together and needing more elbow room. I do not think one ever sows seeds thinly enough, and this is not so much to be regretted for economy's sake as for the sake of the tiny plants' nourishment. Here again was a great waste of plant life, though, had all been wanted, all could have been used, for they are none the worse for this shifting. Still, half a row instead of two would have been sufficient for my needs. I selected the sturdiest, left some growing where they were, at about six inches apart, and moved the others to a new bed, also allowing them six inches; the rest were wasted, except a few, which found their way to a corner of some cottage gardens. But this is not the time when people are grateful for them; they like the well-grown plants in the autumn, which can then be placed in their spring bed. If the weather has been very dry it is a good plan to water the plants well before beginning to divide them, which, of course, is done by loosening the ground with a little fork and carefully selecting the young root you want from the many. Water well, too, when your work is finished, and continue to watch over them unless the rain comes to bless them. For these plantlets I chose a nursery that was not exposed all day to the sun. One has to think for them; they repay it with quicker and sturdier growth, which means better flowering capacity in the spring. So all my wallflowers, forget-me-nots, Canterbury-bells, sweet-Williams, silene, were thus attended to, and, added to my nursery division of perennial seeds, which I now divided up in like fashion, made a grand show, or promise rather. His Reverence was brought to admire, but he looked at the patch I had chosen and said, "Do you know I had cauliflowers in here last year, and it is just the very spot that suits them." "I know," I said. "I hope it will suit my children too." But his Reverence took quite another view of the matter, and talked of "landmarks," so I fled, for I did not want to be told I must move them all again. That was impossible. * * * * * And now, as the sun shone day by day both lustily and long, the great difficulty of watering arose. This was the time in the ideal gardens told of in my precious books when the busy garden boy rolls his clanking watering-tank, unfurls the sinuous hose, and from morning to night supplies the thirsting flowers. In the Master's garden there was no lack, and his long tubes were even emptying themselves, reckless extravagance! on the velvety lawn. But for me, oh, lack-a-day! The ground felt like hot dust, the seedlings drooped, and the Others told me not to pray for rain as they were doing the opposite, lawn tennis being in full swing. We had a rain-water tank, and in the stables water was laid on, but it was a far cry from the stables to the garden, especially the kitchen garden, and old Griggs was a slow mover. The watering-tank groaned its way, but only the two most important beds got their daily draught. They were beginning to turn yellow in an encouraging fashion, but it takes some time for the eight inches apart to fill up and become the mass of colour dreamt of. Then I disorganised the domestic economy by insisting on the contents of the household baths finding their way down to my rose bushes. At first the housemaids liked the little jaunt, but soon there were complaints of "'indering me getting on with my work, miss," and I began to inspect possibilities of converging drain-pipes and establishing receptive barrels; also I gave his Reverence small peace in those days in my desire for a further laying on of water to the kitchen garden and some yards of hose, but he said that these were big undertakings, he must think, etc., and for that hot, dry summer we got no further than thoughts. Griggs hated me worse than ever, an unavoidable evil. We had one pitched battle, and though it did some little good, the spirit of a defeated foe is not one easy to work with. In the dark winter evenings Griggs seeks his fireside as the light fails, or even before if it suits him. Against this I have nothing to say, but when the long days come with their need for more gardening care, I object to the early tea-time departure. I found my precious seedlings drooping and Griggs ready to depart for his tea. I love my own tea, so a fellow-feeling made me kind. "But come back, Griggs, for some watering must be done." "I can't come no more to-night, oi 'ave to see to things a bit up at 'ome." "Griggs "--and my voice held dignified rebuke--"you are gardener _here_, and these flowers are your first duty." "There ain't no gettin' round with all them little plants wot you've started. I did give 'em a watering two days ago!" "Two days ago! Don't _you_ want your tea every day?" "Maybe it'll rain soon, and that'll pull 'em round. They ain't human critturs. Don't you fuss over them, miss. Oi knows their ways. Bless you, I've been a gardener these forty years." At this I rose. And what had been the result? Would he care to have his gardening capacity judged by the dearth that reigned at the Rectory? Did the heavy weed crops speak well for his industry? Did the underground interlacement of that pernicious ground-elder do him credit? Did the roses, the jasmine, etc., etc. My pent-up indignation overflowed and Griggs had the full benefit. The only impression I conveyed was that "Miss Mary was takin' on in a terrible unchristian spirit." Clerk Griggs never had a doubt of his own uttermost fulfilment of the law. In his opinion, "young ladies should play the pianny and leave gardening to them as knows." Griggs meant to go home. I felt this was a decisive moment. "You will come back and do the necessary watering," I said, "and I shall be here to see it is done; you quite understand?" With this I walked away, and Griggs came back. I got his Reverence to support me, and we decided to give an extra hour's rest in the middle of the day and insist on the watering, without which all previous efforts are rendered, null and void. * * * * * A useful little book, procured for the modest sum of ninepence, gave me a more intimate knowledge of the dwellers in my garden. It is a plain little book, though it reads like a fairy tale, with its stories of marriage-customs and the wind and bees and flying insects as lovers. Straightforward and interesting reading, and to those who begin to desire more knowledge of their plant life, highly to be recommended is this _Story of the Plants_, by Grant Allen. For surely if you love your flowers it will not be from your own more or less selfish point of view that you will regard them. Their aims and objects will interest you; their growth and evolution be of importance; and, to come round again to one's own advantage, what is best for them must also be best for the garden, since flowers in their full beauty is the gardener's object, and the plants' too. But the plants go further; they wish to end in seed. All their fine show, their sweetness and light, is with this object in view; and here I for one must come in, in heartless fashion, and thwart them. My scissors in those summer days were as much employed in cutting off dying bloom as in selecting fresh ones. Not a sweet-pea, not an antirrhinum, not a rose must hang fading on its stem. For I must lure my plants on to further flowering and prevent the feeling of "duty done" and a fine set of seeds with which they would fain wind up their summer's career. And it is a business, this chopping off of old heads. "No strength to go that way, if you please," I said to my flowers; "keep it all for blossoms and growing purposes, and I promise that your seed shall not cease from the earth, in spite of your particular thwarted efforts." When I happen to want a seed pod preserved, I mean to label it with brilliant worsted, but my garden must have grown indeed before that good time comes. The seedlings which, sown in the open, were now rewarding Jim's matutinal thinnings-out, were a comfort and encouragement. The intensely blue cornflowers furnished many a dinner-table, and though they did not face the wind with all the backbone desirable, I had not staked them, they formed a very good background to the less tall pinky-white godetias, and these, too, in July were a boon to those Others. They last very well in water, and, if diligently cut and not allowed to seed, they continue a fine show of bloom into the early autumn. The Shirley poppies were pure joy. Sunlight or moonlight they were a feast for the eyes; but, _N.B._, only those which had been properly thinned out and cared for. Some had escaped this process, and the result was invariably miserable little starved plantlets, who would have been cut as poor relations could they have been seen by their fine, stately, well-developed, gorgeously-attired sisters in a patch of ground that they beautified with every shade of pink, and salmon, and white, and rose. So dainty, too, were the bright petals, like crumpled satin, delicately gauffered at the edges; and what matter that their day was brief, as befits such delicate beauties. There were more and more to follow; green bud on bud hanging their small heads among the sage-green leaves, until the time came for them too to "come out" and reign as beauties for a space as long as a butterfly's life. There was a chorus of praise from the Others. "Now, why don't you grow more of those?" "Why did you not fill the two round beds with these? They make a much finer show!" "Are they very difficult to grow, or very expensive? Why not more?" "Don't they last? Won't they come again? Oh, but I would make them!" "You shall do the thinning out and watering," said Jim, grimly, while I tried, but quite in vain, to explain that permanence was the chief thing needed by the two round beds, and that my yellow design would go on. "They aren't half so effective," the Others murmured, "but of course you will have it your own way!" * * * * * The mignonette failed me; a few straggling plants and no bloom was all that packet did for me. I thought it grew as a weed everywhere, and my soil suits weeds! But I cannot master the mystery of what happens to some things below ground. The anemones never gave a sign of life. "They've rotted, that's what they've done," said Griggs, sagaciously, as he dug the spot where they had been buried and found no trace of anything. I intend to try again. Someone said damp had that effect on their roots, so next time for a more open, more sunny spot; but maybe that will prove too dry. Those hot days of July and August! Alas and alas! how I and my flowers suffered from the "too-dry." With the exception of my blazing yellow beds and my nurslings for next year, which, after my interview with Griggs, did receive a daily draught, my other flowers lifted withered faces to a piteously sunny sky and dwindled away into little dried-up sticks, all for the lack of water. A drop now and then is worse than useless; it only brings their eager roots hastily to the watered surface, and there the strong sun catches them and they are withered up for good and all. The sweet-pea hedge that had been a source of delight and use, and that I had kept most diligently picked, during three days' absence converted its blossoms into seed-pods and then gave up the ghost. I tried to pick it back to life with the destruction of pods and a good watering, but it was no good, and I had to turn my attention to the other less advanced sweet-peas and try and keep them going; the heat seemed to scorch the bloom and hurry on the pod. The established perennials may survive the drought; later rains may revive them, but to the poor little annuals it is good-bye for ever; and many a zinnia, stock, lobelia, and even marigold, though it is more hardy, had but a poor little starved life, and passed away with a tiny drooping head. It was heart-breaking. Another year I must not have so large a family of these tender children. The hardy annuals which can be given straight away to Mother Earth's care fare better, and coming quicker to the flowering time are not so wasted. But those grown in boxes and transplanted claim more attention, and they could not have it; though to all water is a necessity, and they fade the sooner for its lack. The poor salpiglosis needs other soil; heavier, damper, I suppose, and some shade. I fear I must admire them in other people's gardens. Griggs and the clanging tank on wheels was a poor substitute for the "blessed rain from heaven" that falls on all alike, while his unwilling steps could scarcely be induced to water those that lay nearest to his hand; and I could not expect him--even I could not--to water everywhere every day. If I had water laid on! if I had a hose! how I would use it! "Yes, and think of my bill," said his Reverence. I suppose this is the way they talk of the revenue in India when the poor people are starving. Well, well, poor folk should not have more children than they can feed, so I must give my attention more especially to the deeper-rooted perennials, though even they hang limp-leaved and will reward me in the future only according to my treatment of them. It is the Law of the Universe. Some patches of seedlings in a neighbouring garden made all my resolves to curtail expenditure in that direction fly in an instant. These were Mother Earth's hardy babies; no boxes or transplanting were needed. It was a mass of the bright-coloured heads of the annual phlox which excited my admiration. They are more brilliant, though smaller, than their perennial sisters, and for cutting they are quite invaluable. They last, too, through three or four months. My garden must have them. Another yellow patch caught my fancy. (I have a theory yellow flowers are hardiest; it is the primitive colour.) This was eschscholtzia, Californian poppy in other words. These seem to me indispensable; their grey-green leaves make the prettiest decoration. * * * * * In the Master's garden peace and plenty reigned. The hose played all day long; the grass was a joy, green as perennial youth; the flowers nodded at him in full satisfaction, and he sat and smiled at them, "feeling good," as the Americans say. I went home and noted the brown lawn, in which even the plantains were beginning to turn colour, and thought of my border, and "felt bad." Even the brilliant yellow of my two round beds, staring like sunflowers, full among the starving, failed to comfort me. It is always the one lamb crying in the wilderness that pulls the true shepherd's heart away from the ninety and nine trim little sheep safe in the fold. * * * * * Jim was very busy those days and more or less deserted me. One of the Others, a mankind from Sandhurst, divided his allegiance, and holidays and cricket absorbed him. "One has to slack off a bit," he said, "and old Griggs can water. I'll come on again in the autumn; there will be some work with those tap-roots, you know." But when a question arose of how much to the good my reign had proved, then Jim was with me at once. Even "Sandhurst" and the grand ideas that are a necessity of that period of development, were not allowed to be too snubbing. "You look at those two yellow beds," said Jim. "That's one year's work, good. Next year we will have a bit more, up to that style. You try and get up some weeds yourself and then you can talk." And indeed those two yellow beds were a satisfaction; they grew and grew until not a spare inch was left between root and root, and they flared away gorgeously in the face of the hottest sun. I kept all dead heads cut down, for they were to go on right to the end of October. The antirrhinums came on bravely, too; my little straight soldiers, now no longer so thin and leggy, but beginning to branch out, and carrying their stiff red, white or yellow spear of flowers bolt upright in the centre. But they were still small, and I was glad that I had secured a quicker effect with my yellow design. They performed a gay march past in that forlorn old border in the front, but more toward the end of the summer, owing really to the delay in pricking them out. His Reverence said they consoled him for the disaster of the crocuses in spring. I bought some little plants of creeping jenny, six at threepence each, and put them in round one of the stumps holding a group of rather mauvy-coloured creeping geraniums. They took kindly to the position, and yellow and mauve go excellently well together. Also I added three plants of gypsophila to my long border. I felt the Others would appreciate them. I often wanted to buy ready-made flowers, and a flower shop or nursery garden became a real danger to me; but there was the five pounds to be thought of, or rather the few shillings which remained, and oh! the many things that were really necessities of the first order. In August Griggs and I, friends for the moment, took cuttings of those geraniums whose colours, for some reason Griggs failed to fathom, pleased me. Of course those that I least liked offered the better cuttings, but I was inexorable and told Griggs I had other uses for that solitary frame. We "struck" the cuttings in some big pots, six in each. They grew easily, and for next year I shall only have the colours I like. Then, rather in astonishment at myself for patronising geraniums, I bought a hundred cuttings of Henry Jacoby, a good dark red, for six shillings. I can't help coming round to the opinion that geraniums are an excellent stand-by. A dozen pink climbing geraniums were given me. My eye of faith already sees them growing up the verandah and causing even the Others to say pretty things to me. During the autumn and winter, as little cuttings they will pass their time making root in my frame. Yellow daisies and white, in wooden boxes, were to join them there; and, in order to be really forward with some things, a good supply of antirrhinum and lobelia cuttings. Naturally they will be more forward and stronger than the seedlings of February, but I have to face the question of room. * * * * * There comes a time of lull in the life of a garden when, if only the watering be seen to, it is possible for even the head gardener to take a holiday. In August what has been done is done and cannot be altered; and what left undone must remain so. It is too late now, and the hope of "next year" is turned to eagerly, for "next year" is the only remedy left. I had been driven to "next year" quite early in the day, for all my plants would be more established, and therefore I trusted more lavish with bloom in their second year with me. They had done their best, I doubted not, and to my eye the promise of growth at the roots began to give as much satisfaction as the few blooms sent, almost tentatively, up into their new surroundings. Ah! for the time when the blue delphinium should be a massive background for the white lilies, and these shine against a thick clump of red valerian; and then the eye should catch the brilliant yellow of the tiger-lily and feel cool in the clear purple of the Indian-pea. And then this scheme should repeat itself, diversified with the stately hollyhock and flaring sunflower, or the feathers of the spiræa, which should rival it in height. More forward in the border should glow the warm-scented sweet-Williams and the bright-headed phlox; the pure white campanula should nod its bells, and the quaint Turk's head hold its own stiffly. Gaillardias and gladiolas, ixias and montbresias should strike a strong-coloured note, and clumps of Canterbury-bells, stocks, zinnias, penstemons, marigolds and scabious should each in turn--and some take a good long turn--bring their share of brightness; and the flowers of the past, the irises, the bleeding heart, the columbines, the bright scarlet geum, the yellow doronicum, should be marked by a patch of green that by diligent growing gave hope of more beauty for the future. In this bright future I was apt to wander and to lose sight of the rather meagre present. But that needs must be one of the consolations of a garden. And so, hoping all things for my garden, I went to pay visits to other people's gardens. One grand garden filled me with anything but envy. It was so terribly trim, such rows of variegated geraniums, big calceolarias, featherfew and lobelia. I determined never to treat any bed or border to edgings; to mass even lobelia together and only break it with taller plants, such as geraniums, of the pure good colours quite possible I found, or salvias or fuchsias. Here was line after line, pattern after pattern; surely they were the "goodly sights" Bacon had seen in tarts! Grand beds of coleus and begonias there were, but these were beyond me, savouring too much of the greenhouse, and all the flowers in the rooms spoke of gardeners and hot-houses. "I don't think my gardener cares much for herbaceous things," said my hostess. "What flowers _do_ live out of doors? in this climate, I mean." And I found out that a greenhouse gardener very seldom does care for herbaceous things. But another smaller garden made me envious. How the plants grew in that blessed soil, with a little river meandering through. No difficulty about water, and that was half the difficulty of flower cultivation overcome. I knew at once that all I wanted for perfect contentment was one small stream and one small conservatory, then things should march; but I suppose even that highly-blessed woman had a "but" in her lot. Gardeners are so good to one another. I long for the day when I too shall say, "Oh, I will send you some of that, wait until the autumn," and "You care for this? I can spare some." They must feel they are really doing so much good in the world. It was a proud moment when one said, "If you have Canterbury-bells to spare, send me some; mine have failed me, they are wretched specimens, and will never do any good." And mine were sturdy; I knew that. Old Lovell was another of my customers. He was to have some sweet-Williams and some foxgloves, and I was to have two clumps of Turk's head in exchange, and some of the many young plants surrounding his big clump of that June joy, rosy red valerian. From my other friends I had promises of many good things; the small perennial sunflower, soleil d'or, some nice Michaelmas daisies, the useful pink and white Japanese anemone, a yellow lupin and some of the white variety. More delphiniums, too, I accepted with thankfulness, and I felt my garden growing and growing as the kind promises flowed in. * * * * * So back to my own garden with eyes terribly open to its deficiencies, "a poor thing, but mine own," at least, "mine own" for a time, and certainly "mine own" to improve; therefore the deficiencies were not to appal me, though they were still the most striking feature of my garden. The yellow beds still flared, the antirrhinums still marched, and, perhaps most consoling of all, the little plants for next year, and those for always, were well and thriving. The summer had not passed in vain as far as they were concerned. No, nor passed in vain even where it only chronicled failures, for Ignoramuses must take their share of these too, as a necessary part of their education; and how the spring and summer had opened my eyes! The red ash berries strewed the ground; the birds saw to that, finding pleasure in breaking them off with a knowing jerk of the head and not a bit from hunger; the convolvulus, nasturtium and canariensis were flinging themselves in wild confusion; there was a kind of riot even among the flowers and weeds in the long border. A few roses, especially the good old "Gloire," were giving a little after-show, but a touch of finality had come to my garden, and when a hush passed over it, broken only by an early falling leaf, I knew autumn had come, and I scarcely paused to say good-bye to my first summer's gardening, so eager was I for all that autumn meant in the way of work for the future. * * * * * [Illustration: AUTUMN] SEASON IV Autumn "Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness." "Delicious autumn! My very soul is wedded to it, and if I were a bird I would fly about the earth seeking the successive autumns." So said George Eliot, and with all due reverence for her opinion, my soul would fly in the opposite direction, seeking the spring. If the autumn led straight on to spring I could love it more, but through its stillness I hear the winter blast; its gorgeous colouring scarce hides the baring boughs; day by day death lays a withering hand on flower and tree; day by day the sun runs quicker to its golden resting-place. Have you ever noticed how great a difference there is between the sun's summer and winter march across the heavens? Note the tree behind which he sinks in June and then again in November. A whole third of the heavens separates the two; and what does that not mean to us of lack in light and warmth? "Ah! would that the year were always May." And yet there are days, such days of perfect beauty that the year could never spare them. They come in early autumn, and it is as though a recording angel passed, so sweet, so solemn is the hush, the pause, with which Nature holds her breath and listens as she lays open her store of harvest to the "Well done" of the voiceless blessing. And then, the blessed rest-day over, she turns about. "To work!" seems to be the order. "Away with these old flowers! No more need for pod-making; wither up the annuals, cut down the perennials, stop those busy youngsters and their growing process for a bit, shake off the leaves, they will come in useful later on, but pile them up now and let the children scuttle through them with happy feet, and have a good clear-out before you go to sleep and wake up again in the springtime--'the merry, merry springtime.' Away, you birds, and look out for yourselves those of you who stay; get your nests ready and your stores safely housed, my small friends of fur and feather, for my work is now to purge and to winnow, to try and to test, and woe betide the weaklings!" So the wind, Dame Nature's mighty broom-maiden, prepares her best besom, and there is soon a thorough good house-cleaning, to the great discomfort of the inhabitants. Well, we have to put up with it; and the best plan is to do a little of the same work on one's own account, that so, being in harmony with Nature, one's temper is less sorely tried. * * * * * There is enough to be done. I hardly consider September an autumn month, but the calendar does, so I will mention first one bit of work well worth doing. Sow a good long row of sweet-peas. Make a shallow trench and prepare it as was done in the spring, and before Nature stops all growth above ground you will have a lusty row of little plants five to six inches high. These I should stake before the winter, as a means of protection from frost and snow; and next year, a month earlier than most of your friends, you will have sweet-peas of a height, a size and profusion to make them all envious. And that is, of course, a consummation most devoutly to be wished. Some people's autumn borders are things of great joy and beauty. Looking on the Master's profusion, I felt like the Queen of Sheba, for I expect she thought her own house and grounds a very poor show when she got back to Sheba. But I did not, like that celebrated queen, turn and bless him unreservedly. I felt more like--much more like--abusing Griggs. Let me tell you what an autumn border can be like; not in my own poor words, but as a master-hand painted a Master's garden, and, though not _my_ Master's garden, the description fits. "Against the deep green of the laurels, the rhododendron and box are sunflowers six feet high, lit up each of them with a score of blooms, and hollyhocks, taller still, are rosetted with deep claret flowers and mulberry and strange old pink. Between them bushes of cactus dahlias literally ablaze with scarlet. In front are standard roses, only crimson and damask, and now in October bright with their second bloom. Hiding their barren stems, compact and solid, an exquisite combination of green and purple, are perennial asters--a single spike of them, with its hundreds of little stars, makes a noble decoration in a room--and humbler, if more vivid, companies of tritonia. Here and again are old clumps of phlox, of fervent carmine or white starred with pink, and, to my mind, of singular beauty, the rudbeckias in brilliant clusters of chrome yellow. "Three times in the long border Japanese anemones, mixed white and terra cotta, mark noble periods in the great curve of colour; and at corresponding intervals, as you walk round, your eye catches the beautiful response, set further forward, of clumps of chrysanthemums, lemon yellow and Indian red, tiny flowers, no doubt, 'for chrysanthemums', but sweetly pretty in their profusion and artless growth. Is that enough? Well, then, for more. There are the snapdragons in every shade of snapdragon colour, and geums now making second displays of flower, and penstemons; and salvias shaded in butterfly-blue, and Iceland poppies, and the round lavender balls--like the spiked horrors which genial Crusaders wore at the end of chains for the thumping of Saracens and similar heathens--which the Blessed Thistle bears. "Can you see this October garden at all?"[2] [2] _In Garden, Orchard and Spinney,_ by Phil Robinson. Indeed, that must look something like a garden border; and after all, friend Ignoramus, it is not totally out of your reach. Even with my disadvantages some of those glories can be mine. The sunflowers, of course, I had, and though rather roughly staked by my old enemy, yet their golden heads were there, and by diligent decapitation they continued until I "did up" the border. The dahlias did fairly, and some of the poor little water-starved annuals picked up a little and gave patches of colour, notably the marigolds. The Michaelmas daisy--which is here called "perennial aster"--gave but little bloom; all my bushy perennial plants will be better next year. The golden rod, that old inhabitant, was fine and useful even this first September. It kept the big jar in the drawing-room going with dahlias and sunflowers, but the day came all too soon when even these gave out, and then I fell back on Dame Nature and plundered her hedgerows. Such leaves, such yellows and reds, and berries, black, red and green, never was a bunch more beautiful than that provided by the country lanes; and if only a garden would go wild in such a fashion I should leave it to itself. But that is the trouble. When once civilisation has laid her hand on flower or savage there is no going back; one must progress, the primitive conditions are lost for ever. Unless the new ideal be lived up to, the latter state is worse than the first. * * * * * I had been collecting ideas as well as had experience during the summer months, and some of the ideas were greatly augmented by a Visitor who came into the garden during the month of October. He had had varied experiences during the years, not so many either, of his pilgrimage, and after having claimed America, Australia, India as his fields of action, and ranching, mining, pearl-fishing, architecture and the stock exchange as some of his employments, I was not surprised to find he had also made a thorough study of the art of Gardening; in fact, had thought of landscape gardening as a profession. His Reverence had said, "Get him to give you some advice; he knows all about it." So I sought this fount of knowledge. My garden looked indeed a poor thing seen through his eyes. He stood taking in the general effect. "Hump!--ha!--yes!--you ought to have all that cleared away," waving a hand towards a shrubbery which indeed looked as though it needed judicious pruning; "it is in the wrong place, and it would add considerably to the size of the lawn if it were done away with. And that path, you notice the fatal curve. Why in the name of Reason make a curve when a straight line leads quicker between two places? Curves and circles are an abomination in a garden. Don't you see it?" "Oh, quite, but I didn't make that path." "No, but why tolerate it? I can assure you I could not live with that silly crooked line waving itself aside like a fanciful damsel. Pah! Get that altered for one thing, and then, _don't_ have it gravelled. Between grass, what can look so staring and hideous as that patch of yellow? Not that yours is very yellow, been down some time, eh? Buy some old slabs of slate, quite easy to get. Go round to the old churches; you are sure to find some Philistine parson removing the old slate leading through the churchyard and putting down hideous, gritty gravel! You can benefit by his crass stupidity. And then--ah, yes--don't have wire fencing between the garden and that field. Prettily-laid-out field that is, too. I congratulate you on that clump of trees. Very nice! yes, very nice But that aggressive railing paling thing! Away with it! and have a sunk fence if you need anything." "Sheep are sometimes put in that field," I said timidly, for I felt, in spite of that clump of trees, that I was responsible for a great deal of fearful ignorance. "Oh, well, a sunk fence will keep them out. Now let us walk on a bit. Dear, dear, how those two round beds hurt one! Remind one of bulls'-eyes, don't they? You must not have round beds, have them in squares; two oblongs would fit in better there. But let me see, ah, yes, that would be better. Now look here. Take away that hedge"--he pointed to the holly hedge dividing the lawn from the kitchen garden--"right away; make there a good border, that will give you the colour, and you can do away with those beds." "But the kitchen garden!" "Don't you like the look of a kitchen garden? Nothing more beautiful. Border everything with flowers, and think what a vista you have from your window." "Oh, I know. I want an opening somewhere." "An opening! You want it _open_, not boxed in like this. The intention of hedges was to shut out the roads or one's prying neighbours. You have neither. For goodness' sake give yourself room. What is there so attractive in that prickly hedge? But if you want a division, if you must keep the vulgar vegetables in their place, why, put up a pergola!" "Oh!" I exclaimed. Pergola somehow suggested fairy-land, or Italian lakes at the least. "Yes, pergola. Now just see it. Beautiful green lawn. By the way, you must have this re-turfed, it is quite hopeless; good grass leading straight down to that hedge, no pathway between," and he shuddered. "Do away with the prickly hedge, have a border of bright flowers taking its place; behind that a pergola of roses, through which you get vistas of all the good sprouting green things, and clumps of flowers, hedges of sweet-peas, banks of poppies, and everything bright and beautiful, with suggestions of gooseberry bushes and strawberry beds, and feathery carrots and waving asparagus. Now, how does that sound?" "Delightful," I replied, sinking on a garden seat with a most doleful sigh, and looking from that picture to the one that lay before me. "Ah, yes," following my eye, "and don't forget that path; straight, mind you, and slates. There is something about a wet slate bordered with grass that gives you sensations of coolness and repose that really consoles you for the rain. You try it! Now, I daresay I could suggest a good many more things that need doing, but I suppose you won't manage more this autumn." "It is very kind of you," I began. "Oh, not at all, not at all. I assure you it is a great pleasure to suggest improvements. Now here you have a little garden, nothing much about it, you may say, but at once I see what can be made of it. My mind is full of the higher vision, until really sometimes it is a shock to me to come back to real earth, as it were, and find how far it is from the ideal." "Yes, I should think so," I murmured. "Of course that is what is needed for landscape gardening, to which I gave special attention at one time. Flowers I have not yet taken up; but shrubs! ah, well, I think I won't begin on shrubs, for I have to catch that train." Then we walked back to the house, and I wished I too had a train to catch that I might never, never look at my garden again. The Others said I was very depressed for some days, but at last I resolutely faced my garden. "You are all wrong," I said, "made wrong from the beginning, and I can't alter you, but as you are the only one we have I must just make the best of you. One thing I can do, and that is to have down the old holly hedge and make a pergola." So I approached the Others. They agreed at once that we wanted vistas, and jumped at the pergola, but Jim shook his head. "No go," said he, and said no more. "But I am not sure about a vista of cabbages and onions," remarked a cautious One. "I don't like them in any form." "But I should have borders of flowers everywhere," and the Visitor's picture rose in my mind. "You don't mind asparagus." "No, if you can keep your vistas to that." "But a pergola! Mary, that sounds a large order." "Yes. But this is a thing that affects us all, so we must all make an effort." "Does your effort mean £ s. d.?" "Something very like it." And there was a chorus of "Oh's" and "That's all very fine! _but_--" "Well, you are all _for_ it, anyhow?" I said. "Oh, yes, we are all _for_ it." "Then I am going to tackle his Reverence." "There he is, then, at the bottom of the lawn, with a slaughtered bunny in his hand, so the moment should be auspicious." But it wasn't. I approached my subject delicately, mindful of the overwhelming sense of impossibility with which the Visitor's suggestions had filled my soul; but when it dawned on his Reverence that I wanted not only to erect a pergola but to cut down the holly hedge, it then transpired that the holly hedge was the joy of his heart and the pride of his eyes; when other things failed, and snails ate the onions, _that_ hedge was always there, always green, always solid, and always a consolation. I explained my views and he explained his, and then we both explained them together; he said I was very obstinate, and I said he was not allowing me a free hand. He said he did, and I said, "Then may I do it?" He said, "Certainly not," and I said, "Very good, then, I resign the garden." I heard his laugh--a hearty one--as I marched with dignity back to the drawing-room. "Well!" the Others cried, "you look as though you had had a lively time." "I could have told you exactly what his Reverence would say and saved you the trouble of a row." I tried to squash Jim with a look, but nothing under many hundredweights could do that. So I said coldly, "We had no row; and little boys don't always know what their elders will say." "Bet you I know what _he_ said to you. And on the whole I agree with him. It's no use taking a bigger bite than you can chew." "It isn't a bigger bite than--Jim, you are very vulgar! But I don't care now, I have given up the garden." "Resigned your stewardship!" said Jim, tragically. "Anything over of the five pounds? I wouldn't retire yet, you can't have saved enough." "Don't talk nonsense, Mary. At least, it doesn't matter _what_ you talk, you can't do it," said one of the Others. "Can't I? we shall see," hardening my heart. "What did his Reverence say to your resignation?" "He--he didn't say anything." "He laughed! I heard him," said Jim, "and he is splitting his sides telling the Young Man all about it." "He isn't! Jim, go quick, interrupt them. I won't let them talk of m--my garden." Jim is really a nice boy; he swaggered off with his hands in his pockets, whistling, and joined the two men. I knew he would give the conversation the turn I wished. I began to cool down. It was easy to say I would "resign" the garden, but could I? Putting pride aside, was not my interest in all those young promising plants for the spring too deep for me now to desert them? Had I not rooted, amongst other things, too much of myself in my garden for me now lightly to withdraw? While I pondered I strolled down the garden, and coming up the other side ran into the group of three viewing the holly hedge from the back. "It is one of the best holly hedges I have ever seen," his Reverence was saying. "Cut it down! Why, it would be sheer madness." Then the Young Man, without noticing me, began, "All the same, you do want an opening somewhere. It is quite true that fine hedge shuts you in very much." "I like being shut in," said his Reverence; "but I might consider your idea of an opening here, an archway in the middle, particularly as the hedge is already rather thin in one place, only 'Mary, Mary, quite contrairy.'" "You had better not abuse me, because I am listening," I put in. "Oh, here you are. I was going to say you had resigned." "If you had heard all _your_ Visitor suggested you would have thrown up the living." "Bumptious fellow! I should not have listened to him." "But you told me to." "Because I had had enough of him." "But what he said was true. It is absolutely immoral to have that curveting path, that hideous paling, and this bisecting hedge." "Well, Mary, I did give you credit for _some_ common sense." "It's un-common sense I am blessed with, and I am trying to educate you up to higher ideals for the garden." But I had taken his arm. "Then do it by degrees. The Young Man suggests a peep-hole through the hedge. Will that satisfy you?" "Well, may I have this gravel path up and make a border here?" "What! more borders? However will you and Griggs manage those you have already?" "Perhaps if I have this I won't poach any more on the kitchen garden." His Reverence looked at the gravel path critically. "I don't see that we need this path very much, but it means a lot of work to take away this gravel and bring in good mould. It is no use having a bad border while you are about it. Who is to do it?" "Griggs and--and help," I answered boldly, "and you shall direct." "And you won't resign?" "I will think better of my decision." "And I may keep my holly hedge?" "For the present, until I have educated you up to the pergola." "Oh! thank you." Then I explained fully to the Young Man the glories and delights of a pergola and vistas; and he is quite ready to help fix the iron arches, fasten overhead the wire netting, train the clambering roses, vines and clematis, and--cut down the holly hedge. His Reverence's education will take a little time, I expect. In the meanwhile the archway made in the broad gap cut in his holly hedge will help to train his eye to the beauty of vistas. But how the Visitor would despise my compromising soul! It was judicious of me to give his Reverence the direction of the new border. I heard nothing of expense, and, once started, he went ahead in thorough fashion. The gravel was carted away, and some feet of stony earth. Then we came to a layer of good though light soil. The backs of shrubberies, a small wood at the bottom of a field, a bank in the kitchen garden were all taxed for their share of the best soil we could get, and this, finally mixed in with some old turf and manure, made a border that looked promising. There was no need to begin with a layer of broken china and sardine tins, for the drainage in my soil was more than sufficient, and this disappointed Jim, who said he was ready with a fine collection, had that substratum been necessary. And then, my new border ready, I launched out. It was to be partly herbaceous, partly for bulbs and annuals. The promised plants, which began to come in, supplied me with some delphiniums and small perennial sunflowers. I moved there some of my young plants of oriental poppies, planting them near together until they should have expanded. Then I selected my lilies. The auratum and other delightful varieties I had to leave out, but the white Madonna lily would thrive, and croceum, an orange-coloured bloom, and the soft apricot shade of an elegans promised to be hardy. These were placed in front of the delphiniums and room left for big sunflowers in the spring. Half forward the Canterbury bells, sweet-Williams and tall campanulas were placed in clumps, and in front of them, well buried, were groups of the Spanish and English irises, meant, as they succeed each other, to keep bright patches of yellow, purple and white flowering there for some time. They are not very dear--five shillings a hundred--and I now began to reckon on a new five pounds. Montbresias, too, I launched into, and left spaces for groups of gladiolas to join them in the spring. Then for early flowering I introduced my thriving young wallflowers, always in groups, not rows, and some of the dear narcissi and gorgeous tulips would, I thought, be admired before other things had a chance. To end up with, and be gay to the verge of gaudy, I had forget-me-nots and pink silene. Even the thought of the Visitor could not disturb my satisfaction over my new border. He had not given me his views on flowers. * * * * * The archway where the holly hedge was sacrificed for my vista was formed of two iron staves bent into arches and joined with wire netting of eighteen inches wide. The village blacksmith supplied the staves; they measured some fourteen feet when they arrived, but were cut and buried until the archway was at its highest point seven feet; and the wire netting was fastened on by my usual assistants. The Young Man was very neat-handed. Then we consulted as to its covering, and, had all suggestions been taken, it would have had to bear a vine on account of its foliage; a virginian creeper for the red leaves in autumn; a Gloire de Dijon since it seemed to prosper in my soil; clematis, both montana and flamulata, and any number of the coloured varieties; a wisteria, as we had none; a pink and a white banksia; a W. A. Richardson and a crimson rambler. My arch having but two sides I was obliged to offend a good many voters, and, despite jeers as to my former failures, I decided on giving the crimson rambler another try. I chose also a white banksia and a clematis montana, with free promises of introducing other clematis and annual creepers later on, and carrying out all ideas when once I had my pergola. * * * * * Even after this supreme effort my autumn's work was only just beginning. There was the verandah with its failures to tackle. The beginning of November I unearthed the ramblers that even still refused to ramble, and soon the cause of their stunted condition was laid bare. "Pot bound! Whoi," said Griggs, "so they are! Curious! I don't moind 'avin' see'd 'em look like that. Maybe I was drefful 'urried at the toime and never paid no 'eed." As he spoke he tore at the poor roots, confined with a web-like substance just the shape of the pot they had come in. Anyone, absolutely _any_ Ignoramus, must have seen the hopelessness of planting a rose-tree with its roots cramped like that. It was impossible for the poor plant to strike out, make itself at home, and get enough nourishment to grow on. How it had managed to live was the marvel. And they were all the same, W. A. Richardson and the other ramblers yellow and red; the standards had not come in pots, so their fate had been better. It was soon done, and I felt that prisoners had been released. We gave them turf mould and manure mixture to strengthen them. But it was not only the roses; all the creepers, excepting one clematis, had made but poor growth. At last the mystery was solved. A spreading beech threw its grateful shade over half the house and grew within three yards of one end of the verandah. How far-reaching were its roots I now discovered, and their greedy feelers taking every bit of nourishment, both deep and near the surface, my creepers fought an unequal fight for their daily bread. The condition of the roots of a poor honeysuckle reminded one of prisoners of the Bastille. But how to circumvent the tree? how to teach it manners? For there it must stay, and so must the creepers and plants. We could cut the roots, but they would come again. Griggs scratched his head. "It's Natur', that's wot it is, an' that ere tree 'ave been 'ere longer than any of us. So you can't do nothink." "We must do something. Young Man, are you thinking?" "Hard," was the answer. "Let's build an underground wall," suggested Jim. But we all shook our heads and thought again. "Let's sink something," said the Young Man. "Oh! a tub, an oil tub!" I almost shouted. "Why, yes," said the Young Man. "I was thinking of zinc, but that sounds so airtight and stuffy." "Wouldn't a wooden tub rot away, though? A coffin goes to pieces pretty quick," said Jim. "Well, it will give them a better chance, and perhaps the roots will get accustomed to going round. Anyway they can be renewed," said the Young Man, cheerfully. "If no other idea is forthcoming, let us go and find some tubs." Now, how long wooden tubs will last under ground I cannot say, but we did then and there sink four tubs beneath the gravel, and filled them with good mixture, making holes and placing stones at the bottom for drainage, and there the roots of the poor starvelings had, at least for a time, a good meal, and when growing time comes I expect the honeysuckle, the roses and the clematis to do justice to their fare. The further end of the verandah was almost out of reach of the greedy roots, as the long white streamers of the flamulata proved. It is a satisfaction when things grow and flower and flourish as books and catalogues have led you to expect. * * * * * Two of my green tubs were now emptied of the still rampant leaves of the nasturtium and the strong-growing geraniums. It seemed a pity to cut short any vigorous life at the dying season of the year, but Jack Frost would feel no compunction, and I might as well try and live up to the Master's maxim of "getting forward"; so after refilling my tubs with as wholesome a mixture as I could, I planted in each four good roots of my old friend hellebore, and had them placed just under the verandah. The Others at first looked askance. "Will they flower?" I bade them examine the already formed buds. For I bought my hellebore in promising condition at one shilling and sixpence each, and by moving them with a good solid lump of earth round the roots I hoped not to check their development. I bought the common kind of white Christmas rose, niger, and also a pinky-purple kind, with tall graceful heads called atrorubens. And when the robins, the snow, the sunshine and my Christmas roses all came together, my verandah realised a very pretty Christmas-card effect, and the Others said, "That is not at all bad." Then the jasmine growing under the verandah burst also into golden stars, its growth of one year having been carefully left alone, and I received as much praise as though I had done something wonderful, which is often the way of the world. "Luck was with glory wed." This, however, is very previous, and I must go back to the end of October. * * * * * I determined the Others should not complain next spring of lack of colour. The sturdy little forget-me-not plants were placed all round the narrow verandah border, and bright red tulips, I allowed myself fifty for that purpose, were buried between their roots a foot apart. That effect ought to be gay. In the small inner border between the windows that open on to the verandah I placed the violets from their too shady bed. By taking them up with good balls of earth I hoped not to check any flowering aspirations they might have, and as this was done in October they did recover, and in November and December they kept the verandah sweet, and ought to do even better in March. Under the study windows I planted a good mass of my red and yellow wallflowers, not only to delight the eye but to send up the fragrance that fills one with the joy of life and spring, and that his Reverence might open his windows in April and say, "Well, the garden _is_ growing;" I also gave him a touching border of forget-me-nots. Then, too, the desolate front border needed attention. It was always a trial, for it was the poorest of my poor soil, and much robbed by laurels, laburnum and may in the background. I knew I ought to re-make the whole border, and treat it as I had treated the new one; but prudence bade me lie low and leave it for another year. I removed the old things, the clumps of seedlings, marigolds, zinnias and the gallant little antirrhinums, who had now marched their last march, also geraniums and dahlias; the latter being carefully dried and stored in an open wooden box in the potting-shed. Griggs kindly gave it "a bit of a dig," and removed the stones that struck even him as being rather heavy for a border. I wish the worms could be taught to carry their useful work a little further and not only dig up the stones but place them in piles by the wayside. We supplemented the poverty of the border with a little of our manure heap diet, and here I may remark that our savoury heap was composed of all kinds of material besides that derived from the stable. The grass mowings, border trimmings, leaf sweepings, also all refuse of roots and vegetables, after having formed a bonfire, were carefully added to this store. The bonfire reduces the bulk but makes valuable diet without the danger of sowing unwelcome seeds. Though to the owners of big gardens worth writing about, and limitless gardeners and purse, my one poor means of improving the soil may seem very inadequate, still it was much better than nothing at all, and about suited to my other equipment of Griggs and ignorance and five pounds. Griggs, who regarded me more and more as an interloper, gave grudgingly of this store. "And wot 'ull I do for _my_ wegetables?" It was always "_my_ wegetables" and "_your_ flowers." "The Rector 'ull be at me if I let you finish hoff that 'ere 'eap. 'E thinks a lot more of 'es wegetables than you do. An 'e's right. You can _eat_ wegetables. So I ain't a-going to let you have no more." I felt reference to his Reverence just then might be injudicious, so I soothed Griggs and put up, or the border did, with pauper fare. The hardiest things were placed here. Foxgloves in clumps, and white and purple Canterbury-bells. Further forward I tried sweet-Williams and lupins. I bought some of these, both white and so-called blue, at five shillings a dozen, rather small plants, but though my friends fulfilled their promises and sent me hampers, I had so much room, and all the long border to think of. Some of my tulip bulbs from last year came in handy, and I edged off with pink silene. To get a border bright in May and June did not seem an impossibility to me now, but to continue the array through the summer was brain-splitting. But though looking forward and calculating is the very essence of gardening, one must also remember that one cannot get two seasons' work into one, and I tried resolutely to put the summer from my mind and reckon only with the spring, leaving February and March to tackle the further future. I turned then to my two round beds. They had been a consolation even after our Visitor had insulted them. "_Si on n'a pas ce qu'on aime, il faut aimer ce qu'on a."_ Theoretically I hate compromises, practically I live by them. And so I prepared two beautiful Persian carpets, nothing to do with carpet bedding, for March, April and May. My polyanthuses just filled in those two round beds, and Jim and I took up the yellow harmony with feelings of regret. "It was a jolly good idea," said Jim, "and you and I concocted it together, you know, Mary. But, would you believe it, his Reverence was talking the other day as though _he_ had evolved the whole blooming show. I said, 'You had better let Mary hear you.'" "Why, that is the biggest compliment the beds could have had, Jim. He would not have claimed them unless they had been a success. I hope my Persian carpets will come off as well; I am only going to give the plants six inches to expand in. They are very neat and trim, and some are forming buds already, which is foolish of them. Nip them off. But things don't grow rampantly in this soil, it is no use deceiving oneself." "I never did," said Jim; "'excepting weeds' you should add." Those beds had to be refreshed, and as Griggs was busy down the kitchen garden, Jim enlisted the Young Man as he left the study and made him help to wheel a barrowful of the "heap" on to the scene of action. "I tell him it's a healthy smell," said Jim; "fancy, he didn't want to come." "Didn't he? Then, Jim, it is very forward of you to make him. His Reverence's Young Man ought not to be worried. He has _much_ more important things to do than plant polyanthuses." "Oh, I dare say! but I wasn't going to lug all this smelly stuff about alone, and you know _you_ won't do it, and Griggs wouldn't let you have it if I had told him to do it, so who was there?" "I am very pleased to be of any service to you, Mistress Mary, but I didn't want to intrude," said the Young Man, and there was an east wind in his voice. "When a fellow was caught by the press-gang he didn't apologise for intruding," said Jim, scornfully. So the Young Man chased Jim round, and after the latter had screamed _"Peccavi!_" they both came back heated and consequently thawed, and I wondered over the boyishness of men. I don't think I am a very good hand at digging; I let Jim feel the superiority of his sex to the full when it comes to hard manual labour, and I have to retract a great deal that I have said in less guarded moments about the masculine hands and feminine head. Jim tried to lure the Young Man into the discussion, but when the opponent lies down flat there is nothing to be done. Jim said it was sneaky, and the Young Man said, "No, feminine diplomacy," with a look that meant "that will cause a rise"; but I was giving all the little brain I had to the work in hand, and my only answer was, "Oh, do dig that in quickly; if Griggs comes he will cart it all away for those rapacious cabbages of his." Jim is sometimes the Young Man's mouthpiece. "Ha, ha! you funk having it out with him." "Perhaps Mistress Mary is merciful because she is strong," said the Young Man. "You don't know her as I do, that's all. She is 'Mary, Mary, quite contrairy.'" I ignored Jim and turned to the Young Man. "And why did you need the press-gang to make you come and help this nice hard-working kind of an afternoon?" Then the reason for the east wind became clear. "I could hardly flatter myself you really wanted me. I have not seen you, not been in the garden, I mean, for five days." "Oh! but whose fault is that?" I asked mildly, for the heinousness of the omission did not startle me. The Young Man straightened up all his six foot and looked tragic. "I offered to come last Thursday, you may remember, and I was told, most politely, that I need not trouble myself." "Now really that is scarcely fair! I only said, I know I said how kind you were, but that you ought not to work too hard, and that, I remember I said quite a number of nice and considerate things." "I heard through all only the 'No,'" said the Young Man, giving a free translation of a favourite German quotation. "You know I value your help. The garden is much indebted to you, but of course I don't like to bother people." "That is quite a new idea," interrupted Jim, scraping his muddy little hands and then plunging them in among the roots again. "I can't say I have seen much result from it myself!" "Don't you know it is no bother to me," continued the Young Man with fresh earnestness. "Don't you know--" "Oh, no, really I don't. I have been working so hard these last few days, and I seem able to think of nothing but roots and bulbs and--practical things like that." "I am sure I wish to be practical. I wish for nothing better," he exclaimed energetically. "Then do finish that row of polyanthuses," I said, looking up with a forgiving smile. "The first sensible word either of you have spoken for the last five minutes," remarked Jim, with decision. "The way you two palaver while _I_ go steady ahead!" But the Young Man interpreted my smile in his own way and went on cheerfully, "That's all right, then. Now, Jim, look to your laurels; these plantlets are going in with a rush!" Weeks after, when contemplating the neat, regular little roots, my thoughts went back, as thoughts will, to the conversation attached to them, and I wondered what he meant by its being "all right." I had never felt anything was wrong. Words are such clumsy mediums, and sometimes even thoughts are too definite. There is a kind of inner consciousness, vague and mystical, full of colour and sensation, but without form or sound, and I think women develop it more strongly than men. The Young Man has a very definite character. His energy next took the form of a large hamper of plants from his mother's garden, a godsend for that half-empty, long border. And my conscience, growing with my garden, I suppose, found a safety-valve in ornamenting the window boxes of the Young Man's sitting-room, lately filled with Mrs Jones's screen of geraniums, with some spare bulbs. I do think they will look rather nice, but his gratitude was quite absurd, for really Jim did most of the work. * * * * * I am aware that to form a proper herbaceous border you should have a colour scheme, or rather several colour schemes, in your mind's eye from the very beginning. This is a counsel of perfection to which I humbly hope I may some day attain. I confess to being still at the stage where all flowers, all colours, and plenty of everything holds great attraction for me. But, Ignoramus as I am, I do not want disorder to reign; one must at least grasp the height and the flowering time of each plant, and strive after a succession of bloom fairly well represented over all the border and all the months. I thought therefore of my background, the tall varieties; my middle distance of less exalted growth, and my foreground of humble height. And then I took a large sheet of paper and drew on it a long border with three divisions, and proceeded to fill in these divisions with what flowers I already had planted, and others yet to come. Then I tried to imagine the plants in bloom, and what colours would look well next each other, and how to repeat them as the eye follows the length of the border. In early spring, as in late autumn, yellow is the most prevalent colour; but in spring the yellow mixed with all the budding green has a most bright and young appearance. It is the sunrise, the promise of the day that is to be; whereas in autumn, with the rich tints of departing glory surrounding it, the suggestion is of "mellow fruitfulness." The yellow doronicum in the middle distance will probably be the first to break the greenness of the herbaceous border, unless there are clumps of daffodils hidden, but I think the border may be full enough without them, and they can be massed in so many places unfit for border plants. Patches of polyanthus and even snowy London pride are useful at that early season, and can be placed near the edge. I saw one lovely effect, but cannot myself undertake to repeat it; it would answer better in a more favoured garden. Instead of the usual box edging the whole length of the border was given to violets, and a delightful purple line as well as delicious scent was the result. It needs more care than the trim box, but the close green leaves form a very effective edging after the flowers have departed. The "bleeding heart" should follow the doronicum very quickly, it also belongs to the middle division; but the colour scheme is still mostly green, with just these occasional breaks. Then the paper border was quickly filled with a bright procession for June and July. At the back delphiniums in numerous successive clumps and all degrees of blue; valerian, several of the strong little roots placed together to form a good show of delightful rosy red blossoms. Foxgloves should rear their effective spotted heads between, and later on lilies--Madonna's white and tiger's yellow--would take their place. Lupins were also in this division, but a little more forward, each division naturally sub-dividing itself into tall and taller. Galega, both white and mauve, were to grow here, but hollyhocks well at the back. The sunflower also, soleil d'or, with the thought of the annual variety to follow in spring, and therefore a space to be left. The smaller kind I kept for the middle division; it is a useful, neat little bush, rigidus by name, and cost me sixpence a plant. Spiræa, a strong, herbaceous variety, should come as a kind of break to the regularity; it should grow so bushy and tall that it must be given two divisions in which to expand. The phlox must be placed at the back, also the hardy white daisy, several old plants of which had weathered Griggs's reign; also the bright and useful golden rod, and some welcome clumps of Japanese anemones. My friends dealt in larger clumps than the mercenary florist, I found. We left a good space here and there for the dahlias, and thus my background seemed fairly full. I considered the iris roots for some time, and then determined to give the German variety a place all to themselves. Strained political relations had nothing to do with my decision, but when not on show the knife-like leaves and twisting roots are not particularly pleasing; so, before his Reverence could forbid, I had my iris row down a side border. The kitchen garden is cut by a most convenient number of paths, and Griggs has no objection to my taking from his space. Then for the middle division I had some of my nurslings ready. More oriental poppies, in groups of three for the present; campanulas, also in threes, but with room for each one to expand; penstemons, but these were cuttings that had been given me, and though promised a place here they were kept for their first winter in the frame and only figured on my paper border. Gaillardias, most promising plants, which even in this their first year had given me one or two of their "effective" blooms, were placed singly; my small and not very satisfactory chrysanthemums were moved forward from the background, where they had been hidden. Michaelmas daisies also were in this division, and my Canterbury-bells and sweet-Williams, though they were not to be permanent plants, and might come out year by year when their duty was done. The doronicums were there and the bleeding heart, and old Lovell's two Turks' heads in sturdy independence, and I added a few clumps of crown imperials. Coreopsis, at five shillings a dozen, joined the show, and montbresias, those that were over from my new border, and in time gladiolas also I hoped, but I had to remember my limitations. In front came groups of columbines and Iceland poppy, the small roots of campanula, the geum already there; and I collected from its scattered hiding-places all the Solomon's seal I could find, and grouped it behind the geums, for I noticed how well those two bore each other company. A few patches of Japanese irises I allowed myself, and again I tried the anemones. Neat labels marked the burying-places of those things that prefer to pass the winter with their heads underground. I think that border, in spite of its many disadvantages, ought to make something of a show, not only on paper. There are other things I hope to have in time for this my old-fashioned border. There is honesty, almost nicer in sound than in reality; and lavender must come here, or where will be the old fashion? Also the "Saracen-head thumping balls" of the purple thistle, and the blue-green sea-holly. Tritoma, called in the vulgar tongue "red poker," ought to have a place in the background. Then rocket, purple and white, is a neat, spikey little plant that should be represented, and I have no doubt that I shall be introduced to many more. If I love them at all, and if they can become at all reconciled to my soil, they shall find a home here. Of course, with so many alterations to be made, and so many new-comers to be welcomed, I had again to break all rules and regulations belonging to a herbaceous border. Griggs and a spade, fatal things both of them, had to be tolerated, and roots disturbed, for in the spring my arrangements had been very happy-go-lucky. Now, armed with a certain amount of information, I hoped to settle things more permanently. But when the length and depth of that border had been worked I felt that my life's task was finished, and I never went near it for three whole days. * * * * * My one and only frame presented a more cheering appearance than it had done the year before. It was a capacious frame, and possessed means for heating. This was often Griggs's one duty in the winter, and a grand excuse for not chopping wood. In the summer and autumn time an ignorant gardener can always account for himself with unnecessary lawn-mowing and diligent sweeping up of leaves that are instantly replaced by others; in the winter, unless snow provides a little gentle exercise, he is sore put to it to fill up his hours with a show of use. Thus the frame with its stoke-hole was a boon to Griggs, and I felt that I too should be much interested in its welfare this winter. For in their winter quarters were my hundred deep red "Henry Jacobys" and sundry other geranium cuttings far removed from Griggs's former favourites. Square wooden boxes held my young penstemons, a nice lot of tiny sprigs from the bluest of the lobelias, and three varieties of antirrhinum, also cuttings of yellow daisies and white. I was trying if cuttings from the not-successful violas would make better plants than those grown from seed, so there was one box devoted to these. A few pots held hyacinth bulbs and tulips, some choice arrangements that were to astonish the Others, coming in a time of dire scarcity. Griggs looked in with something like pride gleaming in his old eyes. He always talked of "moi frame" and what he would allow me to put there. But we had no ructions, and I must only guard against his pride overflowing in too much water. * * * * * One day I took his Reverence's arm and led him round the garden. I steered him past the plantains, for he loves prodding at their stubborn roots, and I wanted his whole attention. I pointed out the present, I referred gracefully to the past, and I dilated on the future. "Now, sir, the year is nearly up, say, 'how has the garden grown?'" "Grown! Why, you wicked girl! I believe you have prigged yet another border!" "Oh! for those irises! Yes. I wasn't talking about that little path and that little border: they will look very nice there by-and-by. I was talking of the flowers." And I led him away from that unlucky path and fixed him opposite my legitimate and much-developed border. "It looks much neater, certainly. I wonder, now, have you let Griggs have any time for the vegetables lately?" "Do you know, sir, the uninitiated might mistake you for a most cold-hearted and callous parent. If you lived up to the ideal, you would be saying beautiful things about my industry, and the conversion of wilderness into rose, and Griggs's, well, not _his_ conversion, but he has done more work this last year than for the twenty before. And you would be saying that the five pounds--" "Ah! I thought we were coming to that. It's quite gone, I suppose?" "Gone! Goodness me! and so has a good deal of its successor. But it is all right. I practically went the year round with that first fiver. All I am doing now is for next year, you see. I have drawn you up a statement of accounts and you will see that I even kept a little money for summer bulbs, though they can only come on next year. Which was generous of the first year to the second, you will perceive. But I wanted so many things that it was too late to buy last autumn or I did not know of them. And I have begged and borrowed as well as bought. Don't you think the garden has grown?" "Yes, Mary, I really do; and I conclude from your having entered upon the second five pounds that you want it, and are not going to resign the situation." "I don't think you can do without me." And his Reverence said, after a moment, "I don't want to try." The little statement of accounts that I formally laid upon the study table was as follows: Bulbs £2 0 0 Seeds £1 10 0 Odd Plants 0 3 6 Roses 0 13 6 Geranium Cuttings 0 6 0 Summer Bulbs 0 7 0 £5 0 0 His Reverence eyed it critically. "How neatly it fits in. You have not been driven to arrange matters with the usual feminine etcetera." "Because I have paid those etceteras myself." "Really, but what were the etceteras? I thought they were always unknown quantities in ladies' accounts." "That is one of the delusions of menkind. My etceteras were all the pennies paid for hampers coming and going, for labels, for scissors, three shillings those, without whose aid I could never have cut my way through the summer; they hold the flowers as you cut and save much backache. Then for sulphur, for quassia chips, for bast, for--" "Hold! I will never ask what a woman's etcetera means again. I see it is much the most important part of the whole account. I wish they always paid it themselves. But why did you?" "Oh, because, because five pounds is _so_ little, you can have no idea how little, to buy everything with." "Yes, but you started away with the idea it was a great deal." "I said I could put _some_ flowers in the garden with it anyway, and so I have. Even the Others allow that." "Well, shall we say six pounds for this next year?" "Will you really, sir? Oh, that is good! Now I shall go at once and order a pound's worth of peonies. There was such an enticing advertisement in this morning's _Standard_, and I have been resisting temptation, because I really had to buy herbaceous plants and a good many bulbs. They have made such a hole. But in time, you see, in time the garden will get quite full." Yes, peonies with the delicious description of "blush rose," "deep carmine," "snowy queen" had held my thoughts for some time. That front border ought to be devoted to all varieties of flowering shrubs, and in time it should be. There was plenty of room for my peonies; so they were quickly ordered and the border made as good for them as I could manage. They like being well-treated. But when I thought of the watering next year my heart failed me. Something must be done. That advertisement and the extra pound lured me on to further bulbs. Two hundred narcissi, mixed, and so cheap! only five shillings, were buried in the grass down the shrubbery side of the lawn. How cheering they would be in spring! A sweep of sweet nodding white and yellow. "There is one thing you have utterly forgotten, Mary, and really no garden should be without them," said one of the Others. "I know you are going to suggest some greenhouse nursling. Remember the frame is not a conservatory." And I hoped my bulbs were still a surprise. "Oh, you old Solomon! And since when do lilies of the valley refuse to grow out of doors?" "Lilies of the valley! Now, why didn't you speak sooner?" "Is it too late? Why? You are still grubbing in things, aren't you?" "I have shut the purse for the autumn. Honestly, I must keep the rest for the spring." "Well, look here, don't be alarmed, we won't do it often, but I looked at your catalogue and saw they were six shillings a hundred, so 'we' give them on the condition we may pick them." "I like you! Where don't you pick? All right, I will gratefully take the six shillings." "A shady spot," I should have said a year ago, but no, not a bit of it, after my experiences with the violets. A narrow border near a little wall, but on which the sun did not flare continuously, and there we prepared the ground, though it seemed pretty good on its own account for a wonder; and the hundred fibrous roots were carefully spread out and covered over. I thought of young "Sandhurst." If I give him lilies of the valley for a button-hole he will think the garden is indeed growing. Though if the lilies should fail! But why should they? Griggs did not touch them. * * * * * Jim said, "You are a fraud, Mary, that's what you are." My thoughts flew to suggestions given for an essay on "The Heroic Qualities" which Jim and I had discussed with much energy. But it was not that. "No, it was pretty footling, that essay, anyway; but the other fellows did just as badly. You promised me a go at tap-roots, and even old Griggs says we can't tackle them now. He says he thinks there are probably jolly long ones, and I do think you might have thought of it in time." "I have been so busy, Jim, and it isn't my department proper. Let us bike over and ask the Master if it is too late. Griggs doesn't really know; he generally repeats what I tell him." "He knows enough not to do things, does Griggs. I have found that out. He is a champion skulker." Jim was very despondent, but a good spin along the hard road, with the bright sun that late autumn sometimes sees, raised his spirits. The Master was in his garden, and oh! how neat and brushed up and ready for its sleeping-time looked his garden. Not empty or dead, but intentionally tucked up and ready for the snowy counterpane, and protected from the biting blast. It was late, he said, but the weather still held up; we might try taking up one at a time and replacing it so that it should not take cold. Jim took the directions with great attention. "I am going to boss this, Mary; you said it wasn't your department." The way he worked and ordered about Griggs and the coachman, summoned to give his unwilling help, promised well for his future as an admiral. The whole roots of the young pear tree were dug up with the greatest care; the tap-root, there it was sure enough, and all the vitality of the tree going gaily to swell its dimensions, was cut away, and then it was raised into a well-doctored hole, with a broad slab-like stone under it to cut short any further aspirations after such a root again, and all other branch roots carefully spread out to encourage growth and general productiveness. Jim worked himself and his men, and also the Young Man, hard; I was an admiring onlooker until the operation was finished and the tree standing up quite firm again. Then, as Jim was bent on yet another, and refused to think it too late, I wandered down my lime-tree walk, where snowdrops were now hidden. I had collected ferns there and more primroses, and clumps of foxgloves on the sunniest side, just where they would catch the eye from the garden. A feeling of peace was in the air; one bird dropped a note and another caught it up; not a ringing challenge of song, but a pleasant exchange of compliments. "Going strong?" "Oh, rather!" "Berries look well." "Prime!" "Good old world!" A squirrel frisked past up a tree with a look down at me, saying, "Ah! don't you wish you could do it!" and then off he went, terribly busy with his nut store. He and Griggs had had a race over the small walnuts which adorned one tree, and I think the squirrel could account for the better part. It was all right, all in order, this going to sleep time, this baring of boughs, decaying of vegetation, this "season of mists." A little while, only a little while and the change would begin; after sleep would come the great awakening. I picked a brown bud from the chestnut tree and cut it in half with my knife. There was the promise, the great life spirit already at work. Cushioned in the centre the embryo of the spiral-shaped bloom for May was to be plainly seen. The spring was preparing right through the winter. I heard Jim's voice, cheery and ringing, "Now then, you fellows, heave away! Oh, I say, Young Man, don't scoot just yet." Steps rustled behind me, and as he joined me we walked on under the lime trees and I tried to talk of my garden, but he did not appear responsive; and finally, when I could walk no further, for I was wedged in the swing gate that opened on to the field he blocked the opening and said, "I don't the least want to talk of the garden." "Well, talk of this," I said, and gave him the chestnut twig I had broken off; "it is full of meaning." "It is very bare and dead-looking." "No. It is really full of life and hope. See its wonderful centre. There, I will open one to give you a parable from Nature. We need hope at this time of the year." "I have been hoping so long," he would not be put off, "perhaps I am tired of mere hoping. I want to progress." "Try faith then," I suggested. His eyes held mine. "There is one thing better than faith, you know." I suppose the wind was cold. I gave a little shiver and he placed his hand over mine. Then I said, "I think faith ought to have its turn." "What is faith in this instance?" "Waiting, I should think," I answered slowly. "But waiting with a knowledge of--" "Ah! I must teach you another parable, I see. When the seed is sown in the ground we have to wait for it to spring up; it has to grow, to grow underground quite a long while before it comes to the light. It is not good to uncover it before it naturally springs up." "Can I be sure the seed is there?" he asked eagerly. "Some seeds take longer than others too, don't they?" I answered evasively. "The annuals come up quite quickly, but perennials are much slower. I prefer perennials, don't you?" "I will wait." "The winter is such a good time for waiting," I remarked cheerfully. "If faith be added to hope is the next step sure?" he questioned. "Don't you know we cannot hurry the seasons. It is no good. If you are in winter, in the faith time, why, be content." "Yes, spring will come, I will wait," he said again, and I too knew that spring would come. I loosened my hand gently and we walked back under the bared boughs of the lime trees, a tangle of grass, weeds and ferns, and a rustling of brown fallen leaves at our feet. A hush as of going to sleep was in the air, and a robin from a full throat seemed to assure us that each season in its turn is good, and that spring never quite leaves the earth. INDEX ACONITE, Winter, 29 Anemones, 10, 173, 235; --Japanese, 186, 195, 233 Annuals, 54, 66, 113 Antirrhinums, 54, 57, 101, 131, 132, 179, 181, 238 Asters, perennial, 195, 197 BEGONIAS, 184 Biennials, 102 Bleeding Heart, 183, 232, 235 CALCEOLARIAS, 4, 183 Campanulas, 53, 106, 183, 212, 234 Canariensis, 55, 105, 187 Canterbury-Bells, 53, 56, 105, 164, 183, 185, 212, 222, 235 Christmas Roses, 47, 218, 219 Chrysanthemums, annual, 55, 113; --perennial, 7, 144, 196, 234 Clematis, 35; --Flamulata, 37, 217; --Montana, 214 Coleus, 184 Columbines, 57, 106, 183, 235 Convolvulus, 55, 105, 187 Coreopsis, 235 Cornflowers, 66, 150, 171 Creeping Jenny, 179 Crocuses, 19, 62 Crown Imperials, 235 DAFFODILS, 20, 28, 52, 71 Dahlias, 7, 145, 233; --Cactus, 195, 221 Daisies, autumn, 81, 233; --white, 55, 150, 181; --yellow, 181 Delphiniums, 54, 84, 147, 182, 211, 232 Doronicum, 81, 183, 231, 235 Dressing for rose roots, 103 ESCHSCHOLTZIA, 57, 177 Elder-tree, 121 FEATHERFEW, 184 Ferns, 72, 248 Forget-me-nots, 104, 130, 164, 213, 219, 220 Foxgloves, 72, 106, 222, 232 Fruit-trees, 108, 247 Fuchsias, 184 GAILLARDIAS, 53, 84, 106, 183, 234 Galega, 86, 182, 233 Geraniums, 4, 143, 180, 221; --Henry Jacoby, 181, 238 Geums, 183, 196, 235 Gladiolas, 54, 183, 212, 235 Godetias, 66, 113, 150, 171 Golden Rod, 81, 197, 233 Green fly, 118, 120 Ground-elder, 110, 148 Gypsophila, 57, 180 HARDY ANNUALS, 175 Hellebore, 38, 47, 218 Hollyhocks, 54, 147, 182, 195, 233 Honeysuckle, 151, 216 Hyacinths, 18, 238 INDIAN-PEA, _see_ Galega Irises; English, 212; --German, 111, 183, 233; --Spanish, 212, 235 Ixias, 183 JAPANESE ROSE, 121 Jasmine, white, 35; --yellow, 32, 34, 37, 219 _KERRIA JAPONICA_, 121 LARKSPUR, 54, 84 Laurel, 120 Lavender, 236 Leopard's Bane, 81 Lilies, 81, 111, 182; --Auratum, 212; --Croceum,212; --Madonna, 212, 232; --Tiger, 182, 232 Lily-of-the-Valley, 244 Lobelia, 57, 101, 181, 238 London Pride, 81, 231 Lupins, 147, 186, 222, 232 MARGUERITES, 55, 59, 141, 181, 238 Marigolds, 55, 101, 141, 183, 197 Mignonette, 55, 56, 173 Montbresias, 54, 183, 212, 235 NARCISSI, 72, 212, 243 Nasturtium, 55, 56, 101, 105, 187 Nicotina, 161 'OLD MAN'S BEARD,' 37 PANSIES, 53 Papaver, _see_ Poppy Penstemons, 57, 84, 106, 183, 196, 234, 238 Peonies, 243 Perennials, 106 Pergola, 204, 210 Phlox, 54, 82, 88, 183, 195, 233; --annual, 176 Plantains, 22, 239 Polyanthus, 53, 57, 100, 106, 132, 224, 231 Poppies, Californian, 57, 177; --Iceland, 57, 147, 196, 235; --Oriental, 106, 211, 234; --Shirley, 57, 66, 113, 150, 171 Primroses, 72, 248 ROCKET, 236 Roses, 74; --Crimson Rambler, 74, 128, 214; --Gloire de Dijon, 74, 129, 187, 213; --Reine Marie Hortense, 74, 128; --William Allen Richardson, 74, 128, 214; --cutting, 77; --Suckers, 79 Rudbeckias, 195 SAINT-FOIN, 151 Salpiglosis, 57, 175 Salvias, 184 Scabious, 57, 142, 183 Scillas, 28, 40, 51 Sea-holly, 236 Silene, 105, 164, 213 Snapdragons, _see_ Antirrhinums Snowdrops, 28, 40, 51 Solomon's Seal, 235 Spiræa, 82, 233 Stocks, 53, 57, 106, 143, 183 Sunflowers, 56, 105, 182, 194, 196, 211, 233; --Rigidus, 233; --Soleil d'Or, 233 Sweet Peas, 56, 65, 107, 150, 174, 193 Sweet-William, 53, 56, 105, 164, 183, 185, 212, 222, 235 Syringa, 121 TAGETES, 55, 57, 101, 142 Thinning plants, 113, 163 Thistle, purple, 196, 236 Tritoma, 85, 236 Tritonia, 165 Tropoeolum, 55 Tulips, 81, 130, 132, 212, 220, 238 Turk's Head, 183, 185, 235 VALERIAN, 182, 185, 232 Verbena, 57 Viola, 53, 57, 60, 131, 238 Violets, 76, 80, 220 Virginian Creeper, 213 WALL-FLOWER, 53, 105, 164, 212, 220 Wisteria, 214 ZINNIA, 56, 57, 183, 221 THE END 
4924	----	Edited by Charles Aldarondo (aldarondo@yahoo.com). DRY-FARMING A SYSTEM OF AGRICULTURE FOR COUNTRIES UNDER LOW RAINFALL BY JOHN A. WIDTSOE, A.M., Ph. D PRESIDENT OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE OF UTAH NEW YORK 1920 TO LEAH THIS BOOK IS INSCRIBED JUNE 1, 1910 PREFACE Nearly six tenths of the earth's land surface receive an annual rainfall of less than twenty inches, and can be reclaimed for agricultural purposes only by irrigation and dry-farming. A perfected world-system of irrigation will convert about one tenth of this vast area into an incomparably fruitful garden, leaving about one half of the earth's land surface to be reclaimed, if at all, by the methods of dry-farming. The noble system of modern agriculture has been constructed almost wholly in countries of abundant rainfall, and its applications are those demanded for the agricultural development of humid regions. Until recently irrigation was given scant attention, and dry-farming, with its world problem of conquering one half of the earth, was not considered. These facts furnish the apology for the writing of this book. One volume, only, in this world of many books, and that less than a year old, is devoted to the exposition of the accepted dry-farm practices of to-day. The book now offered is the first attempt to assemble and organize the known facts of science in their relation to the production of plants, without irrigation, in regions of limited rainfall. The needs of the actual farmer, who must understand the principles before his practices can be wholly satisfactory, have been kept in view primarily; but it is hoped that the enlarging group of dry-farm investigators will also be helped by this presentation of the principles of dry-farming. The subject is now growing so rapidly that there will soon be room for two classes of treatment: one for the farmer, and one for the technical student. This book has been written far from large libraries, and the material has been drawn from the available sources. Specific references are not given in the text, but the names of investigators or institutions are found with nearly all statements of fact. The files of the Experiment Station Record and Der Jahresbericht der Agrikultur Chemie have taken the place of the more desirable original publications. Free use has been made of the publications of the experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture. Inspiration and suggestions have been sought and found constantly in the works of the princes of American soil investigation, Hilgard of California and King of Wisconsin. I am under deep obligation, for assistance rendered, to numerous friends in all parts of the country, especially to Professor L. A. Merrill, with whom I have collaborated for many years in the study of the possibilities of dry-farming in Western America. The possibilities of dry-farming are stupendous. In the strength of youth we may have felt envious of the great ones of old; of Columbus looking upon the shadow of the greatest continent; of Balboa shouting greetings to the resting Pacific; of Father Escalante, pondering upon the mystery of the world, alone, near the shores of America's Dead Sea. We need harbor no such envyings, for in the conquest of the nonirrigated and nonirrigable desert are offered as fine opportunities as the world has known to the makers and shakers of empires. We stand before an undiscovered land; through the restless, ascending currents of heated desert air the vision comes and goes. With striving eyes the desert is seen covered with blossoming fields, with churches and homes and schools, and, in the distance, with the vision is heard the laughter of happy children. The desert will be conquered. JOHN A. WIDTSOE. June 1, 1910. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION DRY-FARMING DEFINED Dry-farming, as at present understood, is the profitable production of useful crops, without irrigation, on lands that receive annually a rainfall of 20 inches or less. In districts of torrential rains, high winds, unfavorable distribution of the rainfall, or other water-dissipating factors, the term "dry-farming" is also properly applied to farming without irrigation under an annual precipitation of 25 or even 30 inches. There is no sharp demarcation between dry-and humid-farming. When the annual precipitation is under 20 inches, the methods of dry-farming are usually indispensable. When it is over 30 inches, the methods of humid-farming are employed; in places where the annual precipitation is between 20 and 30 inches, the methods to be used depend chiefly on local conditions affecting the conservation of soil moisture. Dry-farming, however, always implies farming under a comparatively small annual rainfall. The term "dry-farming" is, of course, a misnomer. In reality it is farming under drier conditions than those prevailing in the countries in which scientific agriculture originated. Many suggestions for a better name have been made. "Scientific agriculture" has-been proposed, but all agriculture should be scientific, and agriculture without irrigation in an arid country has no right to lay sole claim to so general a title. "Dry-land agriculture," which has also been suggested, is no improvement over "dry-farming," as it is longer and also carries with it the idea of dryness. Instead of the name "dry-farming" it would, perhaps, be better to use the names, "arid-farming." "semiarid-farming," "humid-farming," and "irrigation-farming," according to the climatic conditions prevailing in various parts of the world. However, at the present time the name "dry-farming" is in such general use that it would seem unwise to suggest any change. It should be used with the distinct understanding that as far as the word "dry" is concerned it is a misnomer. When the two words are hyphenated, however, a compound technical term--"dry-farming"--is secured which has a meaning of its own, such as we have just defined it to be; and "dry-farming," therefore, becomes an addition to the lexicon. Dry-versus humid-farming Dry-farming, as a distinct branch of agriculture, has for its purpose the reclamation, for the use of man, of the vast unirrigable "desert" or "semi-desert" areas of the world, which until recently were considered hopelessly barren. The great underlying principles of agriculture are the same the world over, yet the emphasis to be placed on the different agricultural theories and practices must be shifted in accordance with regional conditions. The agricultural problem of first importance in humid regions is the maintenance of soil fertility; and since modern agriculture was developed almost wholly under humid conditions, the system of scientific agriculture has for its central idea the maintenance of soil fertility. In arid regions, on the other hand, the conservation of the natural water precipitation for crop production is the important problem; and a new system of agriculture must therefore be constructed, on the basis of the old principles, but with the conservation of the natural precipitation as the central idea. The system of dry-farming must marshal and organize all the established facts of science for the better utilization, in plant growth, of a limited rainfall. The excellent teachings of humid agriculture respecting the maintenance of soil fertility will be of high value in the development of dry-farming, and the firm establishment of right methods of conserving and using the natural precipitation will undoubtedly have a beneficial effect upon the practice of humid agriculture. The problems of dry-farming The dry-farmer, at the outset, should know with comparative accuracy the annual rainfall over the area that he intends to cultivate. He must also have a good acquaintance with the nature of the soil, not only as regards its plant-food content, but as to its power to receive and retain the water from rain and snow. In fact, a knowledge of the soil is indispensable in successful dry-farming. Only by such knowledge of the rainfall and the soil is he able to adapt the principles outlined in this volume to his special needs. Since, under dry-farm conditions, water is the limiting factor of production, the primary problem of dry-farming is the most effective storage in the soil of the natural precipitation. Only the water, safely stored in the soil within reach of the roots, can be used in crop production. Of nearly equal importance is the problem of keeping the water in the soil until it is needed by plants. During the growing season, water may be lost from the soil by downward drainage or by evaporation from the surface. It becomes necessary, therefore, to determine under what conditions the natural precipitation stored in the soil moves downward and by what means surface evaporation may be prevented or regulated. The soil-water, of real use to plants, is that taken up by the roots and finally evaporated from the leaves. A large part of the water stored in the soil is thus used. The methods whereby this direct draft of plants on the soil-moisture may be regulated are, naturally, of the utmost importance to the dry-farmer, and they constitute another vital problem of the science of dry-farming. The relation of crops to the prevailing conditions of arid lands offers another group of important dry-farm problems. Some plants use much less water than others. Some attain maturity quickly, and in that way become desirable for dry-farming. Still other crops, grown under humid conditions, may easily be adapted to dry-farming conditions, if the correct methods are employed, and in a few seasons may be made valuable dry-farm crops. The individual characteristics of each crop should be known as they relate themselves to a low rainfall and arid soils. After a crop has been chosen, skill and knowledge are needed in the proper seeding, tillage, and harvesting of the crop. Failures frequently result from the want of adapting the crop treatment to arid conditions. After the crop has been gathered and stored, its proper use is another problem for the dry-farmer. The composition of dry-farm crops is different from that of crops grown with an abundance of water. Usually, dry-farm crops are much more nutritious and therefore should command a higher price in the markets, or should be fed to stock in corresponding proportions and combinations. The fundamental problems of dry-farming are, then, the storage in the soil of a small annual rainfall; the retention in the soil of the moisture until it is needed by plants; the prevention of the direct evaporation of soil-moisture during; the growing season; the regulation of the amount of water drawn from the soil by plants; the choice of crops suitable for growth under arid conditions; the application of suitable crop treatments, and the disposal of dry-farm products, based upon the superior composition of plants grown with small amounts of water. Around these fundamental problems cluster a host of minor, though also important, problems. When the methods of dry-farming are understood and practiced, the practice is always successful; but it requires more intelligence, more implicit obedience to nature's laws, and greater vigilance, than farming in countries of abundant rainfall. The chapters that follow will deal almost wholly with the problems above outlined as they present themselves in the construction of a rational system of farming without irrigation in countries of limited rainfall. CHAPTER II THE THEORETICAL BASIS OF DRY-FARMING The confidence with which scientific investigators, familiar with the arid regions, have attacked the problems of dry-farming rests largely on the known relationship of the water requirements of plants to the natural precipitation of rain and snow. It is a most elementary fact of plant physiology that no plant can live and grow unless it has at its disposal a sufficient amount of water. The water used by plants is almost entirely taken from the soil by the minute root-hairs radiating from the roots. The water thus taken into the plants is passed upward through the stem to the leaves, where it is finally evaporated. There is, therefore, a more or less constant stream of water passing through the plant from the roots to the leaves. By various methods it is possible to measure the water thus taken from the soil. While this process of taking water from the soil is going on within the plant, a certain amount of soil-moisture is also lost by direct evaporation from the soil surface. In dry-farm sections, soil-moisture is lost only by these two methods; for wherever the rainfall is sufficient to cause drainage from deep soils, humid conditions prevail. Water for one pound dry matter Many experiments have been conducted to determine the amount of water used in the production of one pound of dry plant substance. Generally, the method of the experiments has been to grow plants in large pots containing weighed quantities of soil. As needed, weighed amounts of water were added to the pots. To determine the loss of water, the pots were weighed at regular intervals of three days to one week. At harvest time, the weight of dry matter was carefully determined for each pot. Since the water lost by the pots was also known, the pounds of water used for the production of every pound of dry matter were readily calculated. The first reliable experiments of the kind were undertaken under humid conditions in Germany and other European countries. From the mass of results, some have been selected and presented in the following table. The work was done by the famous German investigators, Wollny, Hellriegel, and Sorauer, in the early eighties of the last century. In every case, the numbers in the table represent the number of pounds of water used for the production of one pound of ripened dry substance: Pounds Of Water For One Pound Of Dry Matter Wollny Hellreigel Sorauer Wheat 338 459 Oats 665 376 569 Barley 310 431 Rye 774 353 236 Corn 233 Buckwheat 646 363 Peas 416 273 Horsebeans 282 Red clover 310 Sunflowers 490 Millet 447 It is clear from the above results, obtained in Germany, that the amount of water required to produce a pound of dry matter is not the same for all plants, nor is it the same under all conditions for the same plant. In fact, as will be shown in a later chapter, the water requirements of any crop depend upon numerous factors, more or less controllable. The range of the above German results is from 233 to 774 pounds, with an average of about 419 pounds of water for each pound of dry matter produced. During the late eighties and early nineties, King conducted experiments similar to the earlier German experiments, to determine the water requirements of crops under Wisconsin conditions. A summary of the results of these extensive and carefully conducted experiments is as follows:-- Oats 385 Barley 464 Corn 271 Peas 477 Clover 576 Potatoes 385 The figures in the above table, averaging about 446 pounds, indicate that very nearly the same quantity of water is required for the production of crops in Wisconsin as in Germany. The Wisconsin results tend to be somewhat higher than those obtained in Europe, but the difference is small. It is a settled principle of science, as will be more fully discussed later, that the amount of water evaporated from the soil and transpired by plant leaves increases materially with an increase in the average temperature during the growing season, and is much higher under a clear sky and in districts where the atmosphere is dry. Wherever dry-farming is likely to be practiced, a moderately high temperature, a cloudless sky, and a dry atmosphere are the prevailing conditions. It appeared probable therefore, that in arid countries the amount of water required for the production of one pound of dry matter would be higher than in the humid regions of Germany and Wisconsin. To secure information on this subject, Widtsoe and Merrill undertook, in 1900, a series of experiments in Utah, which were conducted upon the plan of the earlier experimenters. An average statement of the results of six years' experimentation is given in the subjoined table, showing the number of pounds of water required for one pound of dry matter on fertile soils:-- Wheat 1048 Corn 589 Peas 1118 Sugar Beets 630 These Utah findings support strongly the doctrine that the amount of water required for the production of each pound of dry matter is very much larger under arid conditions, as in Utah, than under humid conditions, as in Germany or Wisconsin. It must be observed, however, that in all of these experiments the plants were supplied with water in a somewhat wasteful manner; that is, they were given an abundance of water, and used the largest quantity possible under the prevailing conditions. No attempt of any kind was made to economize water. The results, therefore, represent maximum results and can be safely used as such. Moreover, the methods of dry-farming, involving the storage of water in deep soils and systematic cultivation, were not employed. The experiments, both in Europe and America, rather represent irrigated conditions. There are good reasons for believing that in Germany, Wisconsin, and Utah the amounts above given can be materially reduced by the employment of proper cultural methods. The water in the large bottle would be required to produce the grain in the small bottle. In view of these findings concerning the water requirements of crops, it cannot be far from the truth to say that, under average cultural conditions, approximately 750 pounds of water are required in an arid district for the production of one pound of dry matter. Where the aridity is intense, this figure may be somewhat low, and in localities of sub-humid conditions, it will undoubtedly be too high. As a maximum average, however, for districts interested in dry-farming, it can be used with safety. Crop-producing power of rainfall If this conclusion, that not more than 750 pounds of water are required under ordinary dry-farm conditions for the production of one pound of dry matter, be accepted, certain interesting calculations can be made respecting the possibilities of dry-farming. For example, the production of one bushel of wheat will require 60 times 750, or 45,000 pounds of water. The wheat kernels, however, cannot be produced without a certain amount of straw, which under conditions of dry-farming seldom forms quite one half of the weight of the whole plant. Let us say, however, that the weights of straw and kernels are equal. Then, to produce one bushel of wheat, with the corresponding quantity of straw, would require 2 times 45,000, or 90,000 pounds of water. This is equal to 45 tons of water for each bushel of wheat. While this is a large figure, yet, in many localities, it is undoubtedly well within the truth. In comparison with the amounts of water that fall upon the land as rain, it does not seem extraordinarily large. One inch of water over one acre of land weighs approximately 226,875 pounds. or over 113 tons. If this quantity of water could be stored in the soil and used wholly for plant production, it would produce, at the rate of 45 tons of water for each bushel, about 2-1/2 bushels of wheat. With 10 inches of rainfall, which up to the present seems to be the lower limit of successful dry-farming, there is a maximum possibility of producing 25 bushels of wheat annually. In the subjoined table, constructed on the basis of the discussion of this chapter, the wheat-producing powers of various degrees of annual precipitation are shown:-- One acre inch of water will produce 2-1/2 bushels of wheat. Ten acre inches of water will produce 25 bushels of wheat. Fifteen acre inches of water will produce 37-1/2 bushels of wheat. Twenty acre inches of water will produce 50 bushels of wheat. It must be distinctly remembered, however, that under no known system of tillage can all the water that falls upon a soil be brought into the soil and stored there for plant use. Neither is it possible to treat a soil so that all the stored soil-moisture may be used for plant production. Some moisture, of necessity, will evaporate directly from the soil, and some may be lost in many other ways. Yet, even under a rainfall of 12 inches, if only one half of the water can be conserved, which experiments have shown to be very feasible, there is a possibility of producing 30 bushels of wheat per acre every other year, which insures an excellent interest on the money and labor invested in the production of the crop. It is on the grounds outlined in this chapter that students of the subject believe that ultimately large areas of the "desert" may be reclaimed by means of dry-farming. The real question before the dry-farmer is not, "Is the rainfall sufficient?" but rather, "Is it possible so to conserve and use the rainfall as to make it available for the production of profitable crops?" CHAPTER III DRY-FARM AREAS--RAINFALL The annual precipitation of rain and snow determines primarily the location of dry-farm areas. As the rainfall varies, the methods of dry-farming must be varied accordingly. Rainfall, alone, does not, however, furnish a complete index of the crop-producing possibilities of a country. The distribution of the rainfall, the amount of snow, the water-holding power of the soil, and the various moisture-dissipating causes, such as winds, high temperature, abundant sunshine, and low humidity frequently combine to offset the benefits of a large annual precipitation. Nevertheless, no one climatic feature represents, on the average, so correctly dry-farming possibilities as does the annual rainfall. Experience has already demonstrated that wherever the annual precipitation is above 15 inches, there is no need of crop failures, if the soils are suitable and the methods of dry-farming are correctly employed. With an annual precipitation of 10 to 15 inches, there need be very few failures, if proper cultural precautions are taken. With our present methods, the areas that receive less than 10 inches of atmospheric precipitation per year are not safe for dry-farm purposes. What the future will show in the reclamation of these deserts, without irrigation, is yet conjectural. Arid, semiarid, and sub-humid Before proceeding to an examination of the areas in the United States subject to the methods of dry-farming it may be well to define somewhat more clearly the terms ordinarily used in the description of the great territory involved in the discussion. The states lying west of the 100th meridian are loosely spoken of as arid, semiarid, or sub-humid states. For commercial purposes no state wants to be classed as arid and to suffer under the handicap of advertised aridity. The annual rainfall of these states ranges from about 3 to over 30 inches. In order to arrive at greater definiteness, it may be well to assign definite rainfall values to the ordinarily used descriptive terms of the region in question. It is proposed, therefore, that districts receiving less than 10 inches of atmospheric precipitation annually, be designated arid; those receiving between 10 and 20 inches, semiarid; those receiving between 20 and 30 inches, sub-humid, and those receiving over 30 inches, humid. It is admitted that even such a classification is arbitrary, since aridity does not alone depend upon the rainfall, and even under such a classification there is an unavoidable overlapping. However, no one factor so fully represents varying degrees of aridity as the annual precipitation, and there is a great need for concise definitions of the terms used in describing the parts of the country that come under dry-farming discussions. In this volume, the terms "arid," "semiarid," "sub-humid" and "humid" are used as above defined. Precipitation over the dry-farm territory Nearly one half of the United States receives 20 inches or less rainfall annually; and that when the strip receiving between 20 and 30 inches is added, the whole area directly subject to reclamation by irrigation or dry-farming is considerably more than one half (63 per cent) of the whole area of the United States. Eighteen states are included in this area of low rainfall. The areas of these, as given by the Census of 1900, grouped according to the annual precipitation received, are shown below:-- Arid to Semi-arid Group Total Area Land Surface (Sq. Miles) Arizona 112,920 California 156,172 Colorado 103,645 Idaho 84,290 Nevada 109,740 Utah 82,190 Wyoming 97,545 TOTAL 746,532 Semiarid to Sub-Humid Group Montana 145,310 Nebraska 76,840 New Mexico 112,460 North Dakota 70,195 Oregon 94,560 South Dakota 76,850 Washington 66,880 TOTAL 653,095 Sub-Humid to Humid Group Kansas 81,700 Minnesota 79,205 Oklahoma 38,830 Texas 262,290 TOTAL 462,025 GRAND TOTAL 1,861,652 The territory directly interested in the development of the methods of dry-farming forms 63 per cent of the whole of the continental United States, not including Alaska, and covers an area of 1,861,652 square miles, or 1,191,457,280 acres. If any excuse were needed for the lively interest taken in the subject of dry-farming, it is amply furnished by these figures showing the vast extent of the country interested in the reclamation of land by the methods of dry-farming. As will be shown below, nearly every other large country possesses similar immense areas under limited rainfall. Of the one billion, one hundred and ninety-one million, four hundred and fifty-seven thousand, two hundred and eighty acres (1,191,457,280) representing the dry-farm territory of the United States, about 22 per cent, or a little more than one fifth, is sub-humid and receives between 20 and 30 inches of rainfall, annually; 61 per cent, or a little more than three fifths, is semiarid and receives between 10 and 20 inches, annually, and about 17 per cent, or a little less than one fifth, is arid and receives less than 10 inches of rainfall, annually. These calculations are based upon the published average rainfall maps of the United States Weather Bureau. In the far West, and especially over the so-called "desert" regions, with their sparse population, meteorological stations are not numerous, nor is it easy to secure accurate data from them. It is strongly probable that as more stations are established, it will be found that the area receiving less than 10 inches of rainfall annually is considerably smaller than above estimated. In fact, the United States Reclamation Service states that there are only 70,000,000 acres of desert-like land; that is, land which does not naturally support plants suitable for forage. This area is about one third of the lands which, so far as known, at present receive less than 10 inches of rainfall, or only about 6 per cent of the total dry-farming territory. In any case, the semiarid area is at present most vitally interested in dry-farming. The sub-humid area need seldom suffer from drouth, if ordinary well-known methods are employed; the arid area, receiving less than 10 inches of rainfall, in all probability, can be reclaimed without irrigation only by the development of more suitable. methods than are known to-day. The semiarid area, which is the special consideration of present-day dry-farming represents an area of over 725,000,000 acres of land. Moreover, it must be remarked that the full certainty of crops in the sub-humid regions will come only with the adoption of dry-farming methods; and that results already obtained on the edge of the "deserts" lead to the belief that a large portion of the area receiving less than 10 inches of rainfall, annually, will ultimately be reclaimed without irrigation. Naturally, not the whole of the vast area just discussed could be brought under cultivation, even under the most favorable conditions of rainfall. A very large portion of the territory in question is mountainous and often of so rugged a nature that to farm it would be an impossibility. It must not be forgotten, however, that some of the best dry-farm lands of the West are found in the small mountain valleys, which usually are pockets of most fertile soil, under a good supply of rainfall. The foothills of the mountains are almost invariably excellent dry-farm lands. Newell estimates that 195,000,000 acres of land in the arid to sub-humid sections are covered with a more or less dense growth of timber. This timbered area roughly represents the mountainous and therefore the nonarable portions of land. The same authority estimates that the desert-like lands cover an area of 70,000,000 acres. Making the most liberal estimates for mountainous and desert-like lands, at least one half of the whole area, or about 600,000,000 acres, is arable land which by proper methods may be reclaimed for agricultural purposes. Irrigation when fully developed may reclaim not to exceed 5 per cent of this area. From any point of view, therefore, the possibilities involved in dry-farming in the United States are immense. Dry-farm area of the world Dry-farming is a world problem. Aridity is a condition met and to be overcome upon every continent. McColl estimates that in Australia, which is somewhat larger than the continental United States of America, only one third of the whole surface receives above 20 inches of rainfall annually; one third receives from 10 to 20 inches, and one third receives less than lO inches. That is, about 1,267,000,000 acres in Australia are subject to reclamation by dry-farming methods. This condition is not far from that which prevails in the United States, and is representative of every continent of the world. The following table gives the proportions of the earth's land surface under various degrees of annual precipitations:-- Annual Precipitation Proportion of Earth's Land Surface Under 10 inches 25.0 per cent From 10 to 20 inches 30.0 per cent From 20 to 40 inches 20.0 per cent From 40 to 60 inches 11.0 per cent From 60 to 80 inches 9.0 per cent From 100 to 120 inches 4.0 per cent From 120 to 160 inches 0.5 per cent Above 160 inches 0.5 per cent Total 100 per cent Fifty-five per cent, or more than one half of the total land surface of the earth, receives an annual precipitation of less than 20 inches, and must be reclaimed, if at all, by dry-farming. At least 10 per cent more receives from 20 to 30 inches under conditions that make dry-farming methods necessary. A total of about 65 per cent of the earth's land surface is, therefore, directly interested in dry-farming. With the future perfected development of irrigation systems and practices, not more than 10 per cent will be reclaimed by irrigation. Dry-farming is truly a problem to challenge the attention of the race. CHAPTER IV DRY-FARM AREAS.--GENERAL CLIMATIC FEATURES The dry-farm territory of the United States stretches from the Pacific seaboard to the 96th parallel of longitude, and from the Canadian to the Mexican boundary, making a total area of nearly 1,800,000 square miles. This immense territory is far from being a vast level plain. On the extreme east is the Great Plains region of the Mississippi Valley which is a comparatively uniform country of rolling hills, but no mountains. At a point about one third of the whole distance westward the whole land is lifted skyward by the Rocky Mountains, which cross the country from south to northwest. Here are innumerable peaks, canons, high table-lands, roaring torrents, and quiet mountain valleys. West of the Rockies is the great depression known as the Great Basin, which has no outlet to the ocean. It is essentially a gigantic level lake floor traversed in many directions by mountain ranges that are offshoots from the backbone of the Rockies. South of the Great Basin are the high plateaus, into which many great chasms are cut, the best known and largest of which is the great Canon of the Colorado. North and east of the Great Basin is the Columbia River Basin characterized by basaltic rolling plains and broken mountain country. To the west, the floor of the Great Basin is lifted up into the region of eternal snow by the Sierra Nevada Mountains, which north of Nevada are known as the Cascades. On the west, the Sierra Nevadas slope gently, through intervening valleys and minor mountain ranges, into the Pacific Ocean. It would be difficult to imagine a more diversified topography than is possessed by the dry-farm territory of the United States. Uniform climatic conditions are not to be expected over such a broken country. The chief determining factors of climate--latitude, relative distribution of land and water, elevation, prevailing winds--swing between such large extremes that of necessity the climatic conditions of different sections are widely divergent. Dry-farming is so intimately related to climate that the typical climatic variations must be pointed out. The total annual precipitation is directly influenced by the land topography, especially by the great mountain ranges. On the east of the Rocky Mountains is the sub-humid district, which receives from 20 to 30 inches of rainfall annually; over the Rockies themselves, semiarid conditions prevail; in the Great Basin, hemmed in by the Rockies on the east and the Sierra Nevadas on the west, more arid conditions predominate; to the west, over the Sierras and down to the seacoast, semiarid to sub-humid conditions are again found. Seasonal distribution of rainfall It is doubtless true that the total annual precipitation is the chief factor in determining the success of dry-farming. However, the distribution of the rainfall throughout the year is also of great importance, and should be known by the farmer. A small rainfall, coming at the most desirable season, will have greater crop-producing power than a very much larger rainfall poorly distributed. Moreover, the methods of tillage to be employed where most of the precipitation comes in winter must be considerably different from those used where the bulk of the precipitation comes in the summer. The successful dry-farmer must know the average annual precipitation, and also the average seasonal distribution of the rainfall, over the land which he intends to dry-farm before he can safely choose his cultural methods. With reference to the monthly distribution of the precipitation over the dry-farm territory of the United States, Henry of the United States Weather Bureau recognizes five distinct types; namely: (1) Pacific, (2) Sub-Pacific, (3) Arizona, (4) the Northern Rocky Mountain and Eastern Foothills, and (5) the Plains Type:-- _"The Pacific Type.--_This type is found in all of the territory west of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada ranges, and also obtains in a fringe of country to the eastward of the mountain summits. The distinguishing characteristic of the Pacific type is a wet season, extending from October to March, and a practically rainless summer, except in northern California and parts of Oregon and Washington. About half of the yearly precipitation comes in the months of December, January, and February, the remaining half being distributed throughout the seven months--September, October, November, March, April, May, and June." _"Sub-Pacific Type.--_The term 'Sub-Pacific' has been given to that type of rainfall which obtains over eastern Washington, Nevada, and Utah. The influences that control the precipitation of this region are much similar to those that prevail west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. There is not, however, as in the eastern type, a steady diminution in the precipitation with the approach of spring, but rather a culmination in the precipitation." _"Arizona Type.--_The Arizona Type, so called because it is more fully developed in that territory than elsewhere, prevails over Arizona, New Mexico, and a small portion of eastern Utah and Nevada. This type differs from all others in the fact that about 35 per cent of the rain falls in July and August. May and June are generally the months of least rainfall." _"The Northern Rocky Mountain and Eastern Foothills Type.--_This type is closely allied to that of the plains to the eastward, and the bulk of the rain falls in the foothills of the region in April and May; in Montana, in May and June." _"The Plains Type.--_This type embraces the greater part of the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas; Oklahoma, the Panhandle of Texas, and all the great corn and wheat states of the interior valleys. This region is characterized by a scant winter precipitation over the northern states and moderately heavy rains during the growing season. The. bulk of the rains comes in May, June, and July." This classification emphasizes the great variation in distribution of rainfall over the dry-farm territory of the country. West of the Rocky Mountains the precipitation comes chiefly in winter and spring, leaving the summers rainless; while east of the Rockies, the winters are somewhat rainless and the precipitation comes chiefly in spring and summer. The Arizona type stands midway between these types. This variation in the distribution of the rainfall requires that different methods be employed in storing and conserving the rainfall for crop production. The adaptation of cultural methods to the seasonal distribution of rainfall will be discussed hereafter. Snowfall Closely related to the distribution of the rainfall and the average annual temperature is the snowfall. Wherever a relatively large winter precipitation occurs, the dry-farmer is benefited if it comes in the form of snow. The fall-planted seeds are better protected by the snow; the evaporation is lower and it appears that the soil is improved by the annual covering of snow. In any case, the methods of culture are in a measure dependent upon the amount of snowfall and the length of time that it lies upon the ground. Snow falls over most of the dry-farm territory, excepting the lowlands of California, the immediate Pacific coast, and other districts where the average annual temperature is high. The heaviest snowfall is in the intermountain district, from the west slope of the Sierra Nevadas to the east slope of the Rockies. The degree of snowfall on the agricultural lands is very variable and dependent upon local conditions. Snow falls upon all the high mountain ranges. Temperature With the exceptions of portions of California, Arizona, and Texas the average annual surface temperature of the dry-farm territory of the United States ranges from 40 deg to 55 deg F. The average is not far from 45 deg F. This places most of the dry-farm territory in the class of cold regions, though a small area on the extreme east border may be classed as temperate, and parts of California and Arizona as warm. The range in temperature from the highest in summer to the lowest in winter is considerable, but not widely different from other similar parts of the United States. The range is greatest in the interior mountainous districts, and lowest along the seacoast. The daily range of the highest and lowest temperatures for any one day is generally higher over dry-farm sections than over humid districts. In the Plateau regions of the semiarid country the average daily variation is from 30 to 35 deg F., while east of the Mississippi it is only about 20 deg F. This greater daily range is chiefly due to the clear skies and scant vegetation which facilitate excessive warming by day and cooling by night. The important temperature question for the dry-farmer is whether the growing season is sufficiently warm and long to permit the maturing of crops. There are few places, even at high altitudes in the region considered, where the summer temperature is so low as to retard the growth of plants. Likewise, the first and last killing frosts are ordinarily so far apart as to allow an ample growing season. It must be remembered that frosts are governed very largely by local topographic features, and must be known from a local point of view. It is a general law that frosts are more likely to occur in valleys than on hillsides, owing to the downward drainage of the cooled air. Further, the danger of frost increases with the altitude. In general, the last killing frost in spring over the dry-farm territory varies from March 15 to May 29, and the first killing frost in autumn from September 15 to November 15. These limits permit of the maturing of all ordinary farm crops, especially the grain crops. Relative humidity At a definite temperature, the atmosphere can hold only a certain amount of water vapor. When the air can hold no more, it is said to be saturated. When it is not saturated, the amount of water vapor actually held by the air is expressed in percentages of the quantity required for saturation. A relative humidity of 100 per cent means that the air is saturated; of 50 per cent, that it is only one half saturated. The drier the air is, the more rapidly does the water evaporate into it. To the dry-farmer, therefore, the relative humidity or degree of dryness of the air is of very great importance. According to Professor Henry, the chief characteristics of the geographic distribution of relative humidity in the United States are as follows:-- (1) Along the coasts there is a belt of high humidity at all seasons, the percentage of saturation ranging from 75 to 80 per cent. (2) Inland, from about the 70th meridian eastward to the Atlantic coast, the amount varies between 70 and 75 per cent. (3) The dry region is in the Southwest, where the average annual value is not over 50 per cent. In this region are included Arizona, New Mexico, western Colorado, and the greater portion of both Utah and Nevada. The amount of annual relative humidity in the remaining portion of the elevated district, between the 100th meridian on the east to the Sierra Nevada and the Cascades on the west, varies between 55 and 65 per cent. In July, August, and September, the mean values in the Southwest sink as low as 20 to 30 per cent, while along the Pacific coast districts they continue about 80 per cent the year round. In the Atlantic coast districts, and generally east from the Mississippi River, the variation from month to month is not great. April is probably the driest month of the year. The air of the dry-farm territory, therefore, on the whole, contains considerably less than two thirds the amount of moisture carried by the air of the humid states. This means that evaporation from plant leaves and soil surfaces will go on more rapidly in semiarid than in humid regions. Against this danger, which cannot he controlled, the dry-farmer must take special precautions. Sunshine The amount of sunshine in a dry-farm section is also of importance. Direct sunshine promotes plant growth, but at the same time it accelerates the evaporation of water from the soil. The whole dry-farm territory receives more sunshine than do the humid sections. In fact, the amount of sunshine may roughly be said to increase as the annual rainfall decreases. Over the larger part of the arid and semiarid sections the sun shines over 70 per cent of the time. Winds The winds of any locality, owing to their moisture-dissipating power play an important part in the success of dry-farming. A persistent wind will offset much of the benefit of a heavy rainfall and careful cultivation. While great general laws have been formulated regarding the movements of the atmosphere, they are of minor value in judging the effect of wind on any farming district. Local observations, however, may enable the farmer to estimate the probable effect of the winds and thus to formulate proper cultural means of protection. In general, those living in a district are able to describe it without special observations as windy or quiet. In the dry-farm territory of the United States the one great region of relatively high and persistent winds is the Great Plains region east of the Rocky Mountains. Dry-farmers in that section will of necessity be obliged to adopt cultural methods that will prevent the excessive evaporation naturally induced by the unhindered wind, and the possible blowing of well-tilled fallow land. Summary The dry-farm territory is characterized by a low rainfall, averaging between 10 and 20 inches, the distribution of which falls into two distinct types: a heavy winter and spring with a light summer precipitation, and a heavy spring and summer with a light winter precipitation. Snow falls over most of the territory, but does not lie long outside of the mountain states. The whole dry-farm territory may be classed as temperate to cold; relatively high and persistent winds blow only over the Great Plains, though local conditions cause strong regular winds in many other places; the air is dry and the sunshine is very abundant. In brief, little water falls upon the dry-farm territory, and the climatic factors are of a nature to cause rapid evaporation. In view of this knowledge, it is not surprising that thousands of farmers, employing, often carelessly agricultural methods developed in humid sections, have found only hardships and poverty on the present dry-farm empire of the United States. Drouth Drouth is said to be the arch enemy of the dry-farmer, but few agree upon its meaning. For the purposes of this volume, drouth may be defined as a condition under which crops fail to mature because of an insufficient supply of water. Providence has generally been charged with causing drouths, but under the above definition, man is usually the cause. Occasionally, relatively dry years occur, but they are seldom dry enough to cause crop failures if proper methods of farming have been practiced. There are four chief causes of drouth: (1) Improper or careless preparation of the soil; (2) failure to store the natural precipitation in the soil; (3) failure to apply proper cultural methods for keeping the moisture in the soil until needed by plants, and (4) sowing too much seed for the available soil-moisture. Crop failures due to untimely frosts, blizzards, cyclones, tornadoes, or hail may perhaps be charged to Providence, but the dry-farmer must accept the responsibility for any crop injury resulting from drouth. A fairly accurate knowledge of the climatic conditions of the district, a good understanding of the principles of agriculture without irrigation under a low rainfall, and a vigorous application of these principles as adapted to the local climatic conditions will make dry-farm failures a rarity. CHAPTER V DRY-FARM SOILS Important as is the rainfall in making dry-farming successful, it is not more so than the soils of the dry-farms. On a shallow soil, or on one penetrated with gravel streaks, crop failures are probable even under a large rainfall; but a deep soil of uniform texture, unbroken by gravel or hardpan, in which much water may be stored, and which furnishes also an abundance of feeding space for the roots, will yield large crops even under a very small rainfall. Likewise, an infertile soil, though it be deep, and under a large precipitation, cannot be depended on for good crops; but a fertile soil, though not quite so deep, nor under so large a rainfall, will almost invariably bring large crops to maturity. A correct understanding of the soil, from the surface to a depth of ten feet, is almost indispensable before a safe Judgment can be pronounced upon the full dry-farm possibilities of a district. Especially is it necessary to know (a) the depth, (b) the uniformity of structure, and (c) the relative fertility of the soil, in order to plan an intelligent system of farming that will be rationally adapted to the rainfall and other climatic factors. It is a matter of regret that so much of our information concerning the soils of the dry-farm territory of the United States and other countries has been obtained according to the methods and for the needs of humid countries, and that, therefore, the special knowledge of our arid and semiarid soils needed for the development of dry-farming is small and fragmentary. What is known to-day concerning the nature of arid soils and their relation to cultural processes under a scanty rainfall is due very largely to the extensive researches and voluminous writings of Dr. E. W. Hilgard, who for a generation was in charge of the agricultural work of the state of California. Future students of arid soils must of necessity rest their investigations upon the pioneer work done by Dr. Hilgard. The contents of this chapter are in a large part gathered from Hilgard's writings. The formation of soils "Soil is the more or less loose and friable material in which, by means of their roots, plants may or do find a foothold and nourishment, as well as other conditions of growth." Soil is formed by a complex process, broadly known as _weathering, _from the rocks which constitute the earth's crust. Soil is in fact only pulverized and altered rock. The forces that produce soil from rocks are of two distinct classes, _physical and chemical. _The physical agencies of soil production merely cause a pulverization of the rock; the chemical agencies, on the other hand, so thoroughly change the essential nature of the soil particles that they are no longer like the rock from which they were formed. Of the physical agencies, _temperature changes _are first in order of time, and perhaps of first importance. As the heat of the day increases, the rock expands, and as the cold night approaches, contracts. This alternate expansion and contraction, in time, cracks the surfaces of the rocks. Into the tiny crevices thus formed water enters from the falling snow or rain. When winter comes, the water in these cracks freezes to ice, and in so doing expands and widens each of the cracks. As these processes are repeated from day to day, from year to year, and from generation to generation, the surfaces of the rocks crumble. The smaller rocks so formed are acted upon by the same agencies, in the same manner, and thus the process of pulverization goes on. It is clear, then, that the second great agency of soil formation, which always acts in conjunction with temperature changes, is _freezing water. _The rock particles formed in this manner are often washed down into the mountain valleys, there caught by great rivers, ground into finer dust, and at length deposited in the lower valleys. _Moving water _thus becomes another physical agency of soil production. Most of the soils covering the great dry-farm territory of the United States and other countries have been formed in this way. In places, glaciers moving slowly down the canons crush and grind into powder the rock over which they pass and deposit it lower down as soils. In other places, where strong winds blow with frequent regularity, sharp soil grains are picked up by the air and hurled against the rocks, which, under this action, are carved into fantastic forms. In still other places, the strong winds carry soil over long distances to be mixed with other soils. Finally, on the seashore the great waves dashing against the rocks of the coast line, and rolling the mass of pebbles back and forth, break and pulverize the rock until soil is formed._ Glaciers, winds, _and _waves _are also, therefore, physical agencies of soil formation. It may be noted that the result of the action of all these agencies is to form a rock powder, each particle of which preserves the composition that it had while it was a constituent part of the rock. It may further be noted that the chief of these soil-forming agencies act more vigorously in arid than in humid sections. Under the cloudless sky and dry atmosphere of regions of limited rainfall, the daily and seasonal temperature changes are much greater than in sections of greater rainfall. Consequently the pulverization of rocks goes on most rapidly in dry-farm districts. Constant heavy winds, which as soil formers are second only to temperature changes and freezing water, are also usually more common in arid than in humid countries. This is strikingly shown, for instance, on the Colorado desert and the Great Plains. The rock powder formed by the processes above described is continually being acted upon by agencies, the effect of which is to change its chemical composition. Chief of these agencies is _water, _which exerts a solvent action on all known substances. Pure water exerts a strong solvent action, but when it has been rendered impure by a variety of substances, naturally occurring, its solvent action is greatly increased. The most effective water impurity, considering soil formation, is the gas, _carbon dioxid. _This gas is formed whenever plant or animal substances decay, and is therefore found, normally, in the atmosphere and in soils. Rains or flowing water gather the carbon dioxid from the atmosphere and the soil; few natural waters are free from it. The hardest rock particles are disintegrated by carbonated water, while limestones, or rocks containing lime, are readily dissolved. The result of the action of carbonated water upon soil particles is to render soluble, and therefore more available to plants, many of the important plant-foods. In this way the action of water, holding in solution carbon dioxid and other substances, tends to make the soil more fertile. The second great chemical agency of soil formation is the oxygen of the air. Oxidation is a process of more or less rapid burning, which tends to accelerate the disintegration of rocks. Finally, the _plants _growing in soils are powerful agents of soil formation. First, the roots forcing their way into the soil exert a strong pressure which helps to pulverize the soil grains; secondly, the acids of the plant roots actually dissolve the soil, and third, in the mass of decaying plants, substances are formed, among them carbon dioxid, that have the power of making soils more soluble. It may be noted that moisture, carbon dioxid, and vegetation, the three chief agents inducing chemical changes in soils, are most active in humid districts. While, therefore, the physical agencies of soil formation are most active in arid climates, the same cannot be said of the chemical agencies. However, whether in arid or humid climates, the processes of soil formation, above outlined, are essentially those of the "fallow" or resting-period given to dry-farm lands. The fallow lasts for a few months or a year, while the process of soil formation is always going on and has gone on for ages; the result, in quality though not in quantity, is the same--the rock particles are pulverized and the plant-foods are liberated. It must be remembered in this connection that climatic differences may and usually do influence materially the character of soils formed from one and the same kind of rock. Characteristics of arid soils The net result of the processes above described Is a rock powder containing a great variety of sizes of soil grains intermingled with clay. The larger soil grains are called sand; the smaller, silt, and those that are so small that they do not settle from quiet water after 24 hours are known as clay. Clay differs materially from sand and silt, not only in size of particles, but also in properties and formation. It is said that clay particles reach a degree of fineness equal to 1/2500 of an inch. Clay itself, when wet and kneaded, becomes plastic and adhesive and is thus easily distinguished from sand. Because of these properties, clay is of great value in holding together the larger soil grains in relatively large aggregates which give soils the desired degree of filth. Moreover, clay is very retentive of water, gases, and soluble plant-foods, which are important factors in successful agriculture. Soils, in fact, are classified according to the amount of clay that they contain. Hilgard suggests the following classification:-- Very sandy soils 0.5 to 3 per cent clay Ordinary sandy soils 3.0 to 10 per cent clay Sandy loams 10.0 to 15 per cent clay Clay loams 15.0 to 25 per cent clay Clay soils 25.0 to 35 per cent clay Heavy clay soils 35.0 per cent and over Clay may be formed from any rock containing some form of _combined silica _(quartz). Thus, granites and crystalline rocks generally, volcanic rocks, and shales will produce clay if subjected to the proper climatic conditions. In the formation of clay, the extremely fine soil particles are attacked by the soil water and subjected to deep-going chemical changes. In fact, clay represents the most finely pulverized and most highly decomposed and hence in a measure the most valuable portion of the soil. In the formation of clay, water is the most active agent, and under humid conditions its formation is most rapid. It follows that dry-farm soils formed under a more or less rainless climate contain less clay than do humid soils. This difference is characteristic, and accounts for the statement frequently made that heavy clay soils are not the best for dry-farm purposes. The fact is, that heavy clay soils are very rare in arid regions; if found at all, they have probably been formed under abnormal conditions, as in high mountain valleys, or under prehistoric humid climates. _Sand.--_The sand-forming rocks that are not capable of clay production usually consist of _uncombined silica _or quartz, which when pulverized by the soil-forming agencies give a comparatively barren soil. Thus it has come about that ordinarily a clayey soil is considered "strong" and a sandy soil "weak." Though this distinction is true in humid climates where clay formation is rapid, it is not true in arid climates, where true clay is formed very slowly. Under conditions of deficient rainfall, soils are naturally less clayey, but as the sand and silt particles are produced from rocks which under humid conditions would yield clay, arid soils are not necessarily less fertile. Experiment has shown that the fertility in the sandy soils of arid sections is as large and as available to plants as in the clayey soils of humid regions. Experience in the arid section of America, in Egypt, India, and other desert-like regions has further proved that the sands of the deserts produce excellent crops whenever water is applied to them. The prospective dry-farmer, therefore, need not be afraid of a somewhat sandy soil, provided it has been formed under arid conditions. In truth, a degree of sandiness is characteristic of dry-farm soils. The _humus _content forms another characteristic difference between arid and humid soils. In humid regions plants cover the soil thickly; in arid regions they are bunched scantily over the surface; in the former case the decayed remnants of generations of plants form a large percentage of humus in the upper soil; in the latter, the scarcity of plant life makes the humus content low. Further, under an abundant rainfall the organic matter in the soil rots slowly; whereas in dry warm climates the decay is very complete. The prevailing forces in all countries of deficient rainfall therefore tend to yield soils low in humus. While the total amount of humus in arid soils is very much lower than in humid soils, repeated investigation has shown that it contains about 3-1/2 times more nitrogen than is found in humus formed under an abundant rainfall. Owing to the prevailing sandiness of dry-farm soils, humus is not needed so much to give the proper filth to the soil as in the humid countries where the content of clay is so much higher. Since, for dry-farm purposes, the nitrogen content is the most important quality of the humus, the difference between arid and humid soils, based upon the humus content, is not so great as would appear at first sight. _Soil and subsoil.--_In countries of abundant rainfall, a great distinction exists between the soil and the subsoil. The soil is represented by the upper few inches which are filled with the remnants of decayed vegetable matter and modified by plowing, harrowing, and other cultural operations. The subsoil has been profoundly modified by the action of the heavy rainfall, which, in soaking through the soil, has carried with it the finest soil grains, especially the clay, into the lower soil layers. In time, the subsoil has become more distinctly clayey than the topsoil. Lime and other soil ingredients have likewise been carried down by the rains and deposited at different depths in the soil or wholly washed away. Ultimately, this results in the removal from the topsoil of the necessary plant-foods and the accumulation in the subsoil of the fine clay particles which so compact the subsoil as to make it difficult for roots and even air to penetrate it. The normal process of weathering or soil disintegration will then go on most actively in the topsoil and the subsoil will remain unweathered and raw. This accounts for the well-known fact that in humid countries any subsoil that may have been plowed up is reduced to a normal state of fertility and crop production only after several years of exposure to the elements. The humid farmer, knowing this, is usually very careful not to let his plow enter the subsoil to any great depth. In the arid regions or wherever a deficient rainfall prevails, these conditions are entirely reversed. The light rainfall seldom completely fills the soil pores to any considerable depth, but it rather moves down slowly as a him, enveloping the soil grains. The soluble materials of the soil are, in part at least, dissolved and carried down to the lower limit of the rain penetration, but the clay and other fine soil particles are not moved downward to any great extent. These conditions leave the soil and subsoil of approximately equal porosity. Plant roots can then penetrate the soil deeply, and the air can move up and down through the soil mass freely and to considerable depths. As a result, arid soils are weathered and made suitable for plant nutrition to very great depths. In fact, in dry-farm regions there need be little talk about soil and subsoil, since the soil is uniform in texture and usually nearly so in composition, from the top down to a distance of many feet. Many soil sections 50 or more feet in depth are exposed in the dry-farming territory of the United States, and it has often been demonstrated that the subsoil to any depth is capable of producing, without further weathering, excellent yields of crops. This granular, permeable structure, characteristic of arid soils, is perhaps the most important single quality resulting from rock disintegration under arid conditions. As Hilgard remarks, it would seem that the farmer in the arid region owns from three to four farms, one above the other, as compared with the same acreage in the eastern states. This condition is of the greatest importance in developing the principles upon which successful dry-farming rests. Further, it may be said that while in the humid East the farmer must be extremely careful not to turn up with his plow too much of the inert subsoil, no such fear need possess the western farmer. On the contrary, he should use his utmost endeavor to plow as deeply as possible in order to prepare the very best reservoir for the falling waters and a place for the development of plant roots. _Gravel seams.--_It need be said, however, that in a number of localities in the dry-farm territory the soils have been deposited by the action of running water in such a way that the otherwise uniform structure of the soil is broken by occasional layers of loose gravel. While this is not a very serious obstacle to the downward penetration of roots, it is very serious in dry-farming, since any break in the continuity of the soil mass prevents the upward movement of water stored in the lower soil depths. The dry-farmer should investigate the soil which he intends to use to a depth of at least 8 to 10 feet to make sure, first of all, that he has a continuous soil mass, not too clayey in the lower depths, nor broken by deposits of gravel. _Hardpan.--_Instead of the heavy clay subsoil of humid regions, the so-called hardpan occurs in regions of limited rainfall. The annual rainfall, which is approximately constant, penetrates from year to year very nearly to the same depth. Some of the lime found so abundantly in arid soils is dissolved and worked down yearly to the lower limit of the rainfall and left there to enter into combination with other soil ingredients. Continued through long periods of time this results in the formation of a layer of calcareous material at the average depth to which the rainfall has penetrated the soil. Not only is the lime thus carried down, but the finer particles are carried down in like manner. Especially where the soil is poor in lime is the clay worked down to form a somewhat clayey hardpan. A hardpan formed in such a manner is frequently a serious obstacle to the downward movement of the roots, and also prevents the annual precipitation from moving down far enough to be beyond the influence of the sunshine and winds. It is fortunate, however, that in the great majority of instances this hardpan gradually disappears under the influence of proper methods of dry-farm tillage. Deep plowing and proper tillage, which allow the rain waters to penetrate the soil, gradually break up and destroy the hardpan, even when it is 10 feet below the surface. Nevertheless, the farmer should make sure whether or not the hardpan does exist in the soil and plan his methods accordingly. If a hardpan is present, the land must be fallowed more carefully every other year, so that a large quantity of water may be stored in the soil to open and destroy the hardpan. Of course, in arid as in humid countries, it often happens that a soil is underlaid, more or less near the surface, by layers of rock, marl deposits, and similar impervious or hurtful substances. Such deposits are not to be classed with the hardpans that occur normally wherever the rainfall is small. _Leaching.--_Fully as important as any of the differences above outlined are those which depend definitely upon the leaching power of a heavy rainfall. In countries where the rainfall is 30 inches or over, and in many places where the rainfall is considerably less, the water drains through the soil into the standing ground water. There is, therefore, in humid countries, a continuous drainage through the soil after every rain, and in general there is a steady downward movement of soil-water throughout the year. As is clearly shown by the appearance, taste, and chemical composition of drainage waters, this process leaches out considerable quantities of the soluble constituents of the soil. When the soil contains decomposing organic matter, such as roots, leaves, stalks, the gas carbon dioxid is formed, which, when dissolved in water, forms a solution of great solvent power. Water passing through well-cultivated soils containing much humus leaches out very much more material than pure water could do. A study of the composition of the drainage waters from soils and the waters of the great rivers shows that immense quantities of soluble soil constituents are taken out of the soil in countries of abundant rainfall. These materials ultimately reach the ocean, where they are and have been concentrated throughout the ages. In short, the saltiness of the ocean is due to the substances that have been washed from the soils in countries of abundant rainfall. In arid regions, on the other hand, the rainfall penetrates the soil only a few feet. In time, it is returned to the surface by the action of plants or sunshine and evaporated into the air. It is true that under proper methods of tillage even the light rainfall of arid and semiarid regions may he made to pass to considerable soil depths, yet there is little if any drainage of water through the soil into the standing ground water. The arid regions of the world, therefore, contribute proportionately a small amount of the substances which make up the salt of the sea. _Alkali soils.--_Under favorable conditions it sometimes happens that the soluble materials, which would normally be washed out of humid soils, accumulate to so large a degree in arid soils as to make the lands unfitted for agricultural purposes. Such lands are called alkali lands. Unwise irrigation in arid climates frequently produces alkali spots, but many occur naturally. Such soils should not be chosen for dry-farm purposes, for they are likely to give trouble. _Plant-food content.--_This condition necessarily leads at once to the suggestion that the soils from the two regions must differ greatly in their fertility or power to produce and sustain plant life. It cannot be believed that the water-washed soils of the East retain as much fertility as the dry soils of the West. Hilgard has made a long and elaborate study of this somewhat difficult question and has constructed a table showing the composition of typical soils of representative states in the arid and humid regions. The following table shows a few of the average results obtained by him:-- Partial Percentage Composition Source of soil Humid Arid Number of samples analyzed 696 573 Insoluble residue 84.17 69.16 Soluble silica 4.04 6.71 Alumina 3.66 7.61 Lime 0.13 1.43 Potash 0.21 0.67 Phos. Acid 0.12 0.16 Humus 1.22 1.13 Soil chemists have generally attempted to arrive at a determination of the fertility of soil by treating a carefully selected and prepared sample with a certain amount of acid of definite strength. The portion which dissolves under the influence of acids has been looked upon as a rough measure of the possible fertility of the soil. The column headed "Insoluble Residue" shows the average proportions of arid and humid soils which remain undissolved by acids. It is evident at once that the humid soils are much less soluble in acids than arid soils, the difference being 84 to 69. Since the only plant-food in soils that may be used for plant production is that which is soluble, it follows that it is safe to assume that arid soils are generally more fertile than humid soils. This is borne out by a study of the constituents of the soil. For instance, potash, one of the essential plant foods ordinarily present in sufficient amount, is found in humid soils to the extent of 0.21 per cent, while in arid soils the quantity present is 0.67 per cent, or over three times as much. Phosphoric acid, another of the very important plant-foods, is present in arid soils in only slightly higher quantities than in humid soils. This explains the somewhat well-known fact that the first fertilizer ordinarily required by arid soils is some form of phosphorus: The difference in the chemical composition of arid and humid soils is perhaps shown nowhere better than in the lime content. There is nearly eleven times more lime in arid than in humid soils. Conditions of aridity favor strongly the formation of lime, and since there is very little leaching of the soil by rainfall, the lime accumulates in the soil. The presence of large quantities of lime in arid soils has a number of distinct advantages, among which the following are most important: (1) It prevents the sour condition frequently present in humid climates, where much organic material is incorporated with the soil. (2) When other conditions are favorable, it encourages bacterial life which, as is now a well-known fact, is an important factor in developing and maintaining soil fertility. (3) By somewhat subtle chemical changes it makes the relatively small percentages of other plant-foods notably phosphoric acid and potash, more available for plant growth. (4) It aids to convert rapidly organic matter into humus which represents the main portion of the nitrogen content of the soil. Of course, an excess of lime in the soil may be hurtful, though less so in arid than in humid regions. Some authors state that from 8 to 20 per cent of calcium carbonate makes a soil unfitted for plant growth. There are, however, a great many agricultural soils covering large areas and yielding very abundant crops which contain very much larger quantities of calcium carbonate. For instance, in the Sanpete Valley of Utah, one of the most fertile sections of the Great Basin, agricultural soils often contain as high as 40 per cent of calcium carbonate, without injury to their crop-producing power. In the table are two columns headed "Soluble Silica" and "Alumina," in both of which it is evident that a very much larger per cent is found in the arid than in the humid soils. These soil constituents indicate the condition of the soil with reference to the availability of its fertility for plant use. The higher the percentage of soluble silica and alumina, the more thoroughly decomposed, in all probability, is the soil as a whole and the more readily can plants secure their nutriment from the soil. It will be observed from the table, as previously stated, that more humus is found in humid than in arid soils, though the difference is not so large as might be expected. It should be recalled, however, that the nitrogen content of humus formed under rainless conditions is many times larger than that of humus formed in rainy countries, and that the smaller per cent of humus in dry-farming countries is thereby offset. All in all, the composition of arid soils is very much more favorable to plant growth than that of humid soils. As will be shown in Chapter IX, the greater fertility of arid soils is one of the chief reasons for dry-farming success. Depth of the soil alone does not suffice. There must be a large amount of high fertility available for plants in order that the small amount of water can be fully utilized in plant growth. _Summary of characteristics.--_Arid soils differ from humid soils in that they contain: less clay; more sand, but of fertile nature because it is derived from rocks that in humid countries would produce clay; less humus, but that of a kind which contains about 3-1/2 times more nitrogen than the humus of humid soils; more lime, which helps in a variety of ways to improve the agricultural value of soils; more of all the essential plant-foods, because the leaching by downward drainage is very small in countries of limited rainfall. Further, arid soils show no real difference between soil and subsoil; they are deeper and more permeable; they are more uniform in structure; they have hardpans instead of clay subsoil, which, however, disappear under the influence of cultivation; their subsoils to a depth of ten feet or more are as fertile as the topsoil, and the availability of the fertility is greater. The failure to recognize these characteristic differences between arid and humid soils has been the chief cause for many crop failures in the more or less rainless regions of the world. This brief review shows that, everything considered, arid soils are superior to humid soils. In ease of handling, productivity, certainty of crop-lasting quality, they far surpass the soils of the countries in which scientific agriculture was founded. As Hilgard has suggested, the historical datum that the majority of the most populous and powerful historical peoples of the world have been located on soils that thirst for water, may find its explanation in the intrinsic value of arid soils. From Babylon to the United States is a far cry; but it is one that shouts to the world the superlative merits of the soil that begs for water. To learn how to use the "desert" is to make it "blossom like the rose." Soil divisions The dry-farm territory of the United States may be divided roughly into five great soil districts, each of which includes a great variety of soil types, most of which are poorly known and mapped. These districts are:-- 1. Great Plains district. 2. Columbia River district 3. Great Basin district. 4. Colorado River district. 5. California district. _Great Plains district.--_On the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, extending eastward to the extreme boundary of the dry-farm territory, are the soils of the High Plains and the Great Plains. This vast soil district belongs to the drainage basin of the Missouri, and includes North and South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, and parts of Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and Minnesota. The soils of this district are usually of high fertility. They have good lasting power, though the effect of the higher rainfall is evident in their composition. Many of the distinct types of the plains soils have been determined with considerable care by Snyder and Lyon, and may be found described in Bailey's "Cyclopedia of American Agriculture," Vol. I. _Columbia River district.--_The second great soil district of the dry-farming territory is located in the drainage basin of the Columbia River, and includes Idaho and the eastern two thirds of Washington and Oregon. The high plains of this soil district are often spoken of as the Palouse country. The soils of the western part of this district are of basaltic origin; over the southern part of Idaho the soils have been made from a somewhat recent lava flow which in many places is only a few feet below the surface. The soils of this district are generally of volcanic origin and very much alike. They are characterized by the properties which normally belong to volcanic soils; somewhat poor in lime, but rich in potash and phosphoric acid. They last well under ordinary methods of tillage. _The Great Basin.--_The third great soil district is included in the Great Basin, which covers nearly all of Nevada, half of Utah, and takes small portions out of Idaho, Oregon, and southern California. This basin has no outlet to the sea. Its rivers empty into great saline inland lakes, the chief of which is the Great Salt Lake. The sizes of these interior lakes are determined by the amounts of water flowing into them and the rates of evaporation of the water into the dry air of the region. In recent geological times, the Great Basin was filled with water, forming a vast fresh-water lake known as Lake Bonneville, which drained into the Columbia River. During the existence of this lake, soil materials were washed from the mountains into the lake and deposited on the lake bottom. When at length, the lake disappeared, the lake bottom was exposed and is now the farming lands of the Great Basin district. The soils of this district are characterized by great depth and uniformity, an abundance of lime, and all the essential plant-foods with the exception of phosphoric acid, which, while present in normal quantities, is not unusually abundant. The Great Basin soils are among the most fertile on the American Continent. _Colorado River district.--_The fourth soil district lies in the drainage basin of the Colorado River It includes much of the southern part of Utah, the eastern part of Colorado, part of New Mexico, nearly all of Arizona, and part of southern California. This district, in its northern part, is often spoken of as the High Plateaus. The soils are formed from the easily disintegrated rocks of comparatively recent geological origin, which themselves are said to have been formed from deposits in a shallow interior sea which covered a large part of the West. The rivers running through this district have cut immense canons with perpendicular walls which make much of this country difficult to traverse. Some of the soils are of an extremely fine nature, settling firmly and requiring considerable tillage before they are brought to a proper condition of tilth. In many places the soils are heavily charged with calcium sulfate, or crystals of the ordinary land plaster. The fertility of the soils, however, is high, and when they are properly cultivated, they yield large and excellent crops. _California district.--_The fifth soil district lies in California in the basin of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers. The soils are of the typical arid kind of high fertility and great lasting powers. They represent some of the most valuable dry-farm districts of the West. These soils have been studied in detail by Hilgard. _Dry-farming in the five districts.--_It is interesting to note that in all of these five great soil districts dry-farming has been tried with great success. Even in the Great Basin and the Colorado River districts, where extreme desert conditions often prevail and where the rainfall is slight, it has been found possible to produce profitable crops without irrigation. It is unfortunate that the study of the dry-farming territory of the United States has not progressed far enough to permit a comprehensive and correct mapping of its soils. Our knowledge of this subject is, at the best, fragmentary. We know, however, with certainty that the properties which characterize arid soils, as described in this chapter' are possessed by the soils of the dry-farming territory, including the five great districts just enumerated. The characteristics of arid id soils increase as the rainfall decreases and other conditions of aridity increase. They are less marked as we go eastward or westward toward the regions of more abundant rainfall; that is to say, the most highly developed arid soils are found in the Great Basin and Colorado River districts. The least developed are on the eastern edge of the Great Plains. The judging of soils A chemical analysis of a soil, unless accompanied by a large amount of other information, is of little value to the farmer. The main points in judging a prospective dry-farm are: the depth of the soil, the uniformity of the soil to a depth of at least 10 feet, the native vegetation, the climatic conditions as relating to early and late frosts, the total annual rainfall and its distribution, and the kinds and yields of crops that have been grown in the neighborhood. The depth of the soil is best determined by the use of an auger. A simple soil auger is made from the ordinary carpenter's auger, 1-1/2 to 2 inches in diameter, by lengthening its shaft to 3 feet or more. Where it is not desirable to carry sectional augers, it is often advisable to have three augers made: one 3 feet, the other 6, and the third 9 or 10 feet in length. The short auger is used first and the others afterwards as the depth of the boring increases. The boring should he made in a large number of average places--preferably one boring or more on each acre if time and circumstances permit--and the results entered on a map of the farm. The uniformity of the soil is observed as the boring progresses. If gravel layers exist, they will necessarily stop the progress of the boring. Hardpans of any kind will also be revealed by such an examination. The climatic information must be gathered from the local weather bureau and from older residents of the section. The native vegetation is always an excellent index of dry-farm possibilities. If a good stand of native grasses exists, there can scarcely be any doubt about the ultimate success of dry-farming under proper cultural methods. A healthy crop of sagebrush is an almost absolutely certain indication that farming without irrigation is feasible. The rabbit brush of the drier regions is also usually a good indication, though it frequently indicates a soil not easily handled. Greasewood, shadscale, and other related plants ordinarily indicate heavy clay soils frequently charged with alkali. Such soils should be the last choice for dry-farming purposes, though they usually give good satisfaction under systems of irrigation. If the native cedar or other native trees grow in profusion, it is another indication of good dry-farm possibilities. CHAPTER VI THE ROOT SYSTEMS OF PLANTS The great depth and high fertility of the soils of arid and semiarid regions have made possible the profitable production of agricultural plants under a rainfall very much lower than that of humid regions. To make the principles of this system fully understood, it is necessary to review briefly our knowledge of the root systems of plants growing under arid conditions. Functions of roots The roots serve at least three distinct uses or purposes: First, they give the plant a foothold in the earth; secondly, they enable the plant to secure from the soil the large amount of water needed in plant growth, and, thirdly, they enable the plant to secure the indispensable mineral foods which can be obtained only from the soil. So important is the proper supply of water and food in the growth of a plant that, in a given soil, the crop yield is usually in direct proportion to the development of the root system. Whenever the roots are hindered in their development, the growth of the plant above ground is likewise retarded, and crop failure may result. The importance of roots is not fully appreciated because they are hidden from direct view. Successful dry-farming consists, largely in the adoption of practices that facilitate a full and free development-of plant roots. Were it not that the nature of arid soils, as explained in preceding chapters, is such that full root development is comparatively easy, it would probably be useless to attempt to establish a system of dry-farming. Kinds of roots The root is the part of the plant that is found underground. It has numerous branches, twigs, and filaments. The root which first forms when the seed bursts is known as the primary root. From this primary root other roots develop, which are known as secondary roots. When the primary root grows more rapidly than the secondary roots, the so-called taproot, characteristic of lucerne, clover, and similar plants, is formed. When, on the other hand, the taproot grows slowly or ceases its growth, and the numerous secondary roots grow long, a fibrous root system results, which is characteristic of the cereals, grasses, corn, and other similar plants. With any type of root, the tendency of growth is downward; though under conditions that are not favorable for the downward penetration of the roots the lateral extensions may be very large and near the surface Extent of roots A number of investigators have attempted to determine the weight of the roots as compared with the weight of the plant above ground, hut the subject, because of its great experimental difficulties, has not been very accurately explained. Schumacher, experimenting about 1867, found that the roots of a well-established field of clover weighed as much as the total weight of the stems and leaves of the year's crop, and that the weight of roots of an oat crop was 43 per cent of the total weight of seed and straw. Nobbe, a few years later, found in one of his experiments that the roots of timothy weighed 31 per cent of the weight of the hay. Hosaeus, investigating the same subject about the same time, found that the weight of roots of one of the brome grasses was as great as the weight of the part above ground; of serradella, 77 per cent; of flax, 34 per cent; of oats, 14 per cent; of barley, 13 per cent, and of peas, 9 per cent. Sanborn, working at the Utah Station in 1893, found results very much the same Although these results are not concordant, they show that the weight of the roots is considerable, in many cases far beyond the belief of those who have given the subject little or no attention. It may be noted that on the basis of the figures above obtained, it is very probable that the roots in one acre of an average wheat crop would weigh in the neighborhood of a thousand pounds--possibly considerably more. It should be remembered that the investigations which yielded the preceding results were all conducted in humid climates and at a time when the methods for the study of the root systems were poorly developed. The data obtained, therefore, represent, in all probability, minimum results which would be materially increased should the work be repeated now. The relative weights of the roots and the stems and the leaves do not alone show the large quantity of roots; the total lengths of the roots are even more striking. The German investigator, Nobbe, in a laborious experiment conducted about 1867, added the lengths of all the fine roots from each of various plants. He found that the total length of roots, that is, the sum of the lengths of all the roots, of one wheat plant was about 268 feet, and that the total length of the roots of one plant of rye was about 385 feet. King, of Wisconsin, estimates that in one of his experiments, one corn plant produced in the upper 3 feet of soil 1452 feet of roots. These surprisingly large numbers indicate with emphasis the thoroughness with which the roots invade the soil. Depth of root penetration The earlier root studies did not pretend to determine the depth to which roots actually penetrate the earth. In recent years, however, a number of carefully conducted experiments were made by the New York, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Colorado, and especially the North Dakota stations to obtain accurate information concerning the depth to which agricultural plants penetrate soils. It is somewhat regrettable, for the purpose of dry-farming, that these states, with the exception of Colorado, are all in the humid or sub-humid area of the United States. Nevertheless, the conclusions drawn from the work are such that they may be safely applied in the development of the principles of dry-farming. There is a general belief among farmers that the roots of all cultivated crops are very near the surface and that few reach a greater depth than one or two feet. The first striking result of the American investigations was that every crop, without exception, penetrates the soil deeper than was thought possible in earlier days. For example, it was found that corn roots penetrated fully four feet into the ground and that they fully occupied all of the soil to that depth. On deeper and somewhat drier soils, corn roots went down as far as eight feet. The roots of the small grains,--wheat, oats, barley,--penetrated the soil from four to eight or ten feet. Various perennial grasses rooted to a depth of four feet the first year; the next year, five and one half feet; no determinations were made of the depth of the roots in later years, though it had undoubtedly increased. Alfalfa was the deepest rooted of all the crops studied by the American stations. Potato roots filled the soil fully to a depth of three feet; sugar beets to a depth of nearly four feet. Sugar Beet Roots In every case, under conditions prevailing in the experiments, and which did not have in mind the forcing of the roots down to extraordinary depths, it seemed that the normal depth of the roots of ordinary field crops was from three to eight feet. Sub-soiling and deep plowing enable the roots to go deeper into the soil. This work has been confirmed in ordinary experience until there can be little question about the accuracy of the results. Almost all of these results were obtained in humid climates on humid soils, somewhat shallow, and underlain by a more or less infertile subsoil. In fact, they were obtained under conditions really unfavorable to plant growth. It has been explained in Chapter V that soils formed under arid or semiarid conditions are uniformly deep and porous and that the fertility of the subsoil is, in most cases, practically as great as of the topsoil. There is, therefore, in arid soils, an excellent opportunity for a comparatively easy penetration of the roots to great depths and, because of the available fertility, a chance throughout the whole of the subsoil for ample root development. Moreover, the porous condition of the soil permits the entrance of air, which helps to purify the soil atmosphere and thereby to make the conditions more favorable for root development. Consequently it is to be expected that, in arid regions, roots will ordinarily go to a much greater depth than in humid regions. It is further to be remembered that roots are in constant search of food and water and are likely to develop in the directions where there is the greatest abundance of these materials. Under systems of dry-farming the soil water is stored more or less uniformly to considerable depths--ten feet or more--and in most cases the percentage of moisture in the spring and summer is as large or larger some feet below the surface than in the upper two feet. The tendency of the root is, then, to move downward to depths where there is a larger supply of water. Especially is this tendency increased by the available soil fertility found throughout the whole depth of the soil mass. It has been argued that in many of the irrigated sections the roots do not penetrate the soil to great depths. This is true, because by the present wasteful methods of irrigation the plant receives so much water at such untimely seasons that the roots acquire the habit of feeding very near the surface where the water is so lavishly applied. This means not only that the plant suffers more greatly in times of drouth, but that, since the feeding ground of the roots is smaller, the crop is likely to be small. These deductions as to the depth to which plant roots will penetrate the soil in arid regions are fully corroborated by experiments and general observation. The workers of the Utah Station have repeatedly observed plant roots on dry-farms to a depth of ten feet. Lucerne roots from thirty to fifty feet in length are frequently exposed in the gullies formed by the mountain torrents. Roots of trees, similarly, go down to great depths. Hilgard observes that he has found roots of grapevines at a depth of twenty-two feet below the surface, and quotes Aughey as having found roots of the native Shepherdia in Nebraska to a depth of fifty feet. Hilgard further declares that in California fibrous-rooted plants, such as wheat and barley, may descend in sandy soils from four to seven feet. Orchard trees in the arid West, grown properly, are similarly observed to send their roots down to great depths. In fact, it has become a custom in many arid regions where the soils are easily penetrable to say that the root system of a tree corresponds in extent and branching to the part of the tree above ground. Now, it is to be observed that, generally, plants grown in dry climates send their roots straight down into the soil; whereas in humid climates, where the topsoil is quite moist and the subsoil is hard, roots branch out laterally and fill the upper foot or two of the soil. A great deal has been said and written about the danger of deep cultivation, because it tends to injure the roots that feed near the surface. However true this may be in humid countries, it is not vital in the districts primarily interested in dry-farming; and it is doubtful if the objection is as valid in humid countries as is often declared. True, deep cultivation, especially when performed near the plant or tree, destroys the surface-feeding roots, but this only tends to compel the deeper lying roots to make better use of the subsoil. When, as in arid regions, the subsoil is fertile and furnishes a sufficient amount of water, destroying the surface roots is no handicap whatever. On the contrary, in times of drouth, the deep-lying roots feed and drink at their leisure far from the hot sun or withering winds, and the plants survive and arrive at rich maturity, while the plants with shallow roots wither and die or are so seriously injured as to produce an inferior crop. Therefore, in the system of dry-farming as developed in this volume, it must be understood that so far as the farmer has power, the roots must be driven downward into the soil, and that no injury needs to be apprehended from deep and vigorous cultivation. One of the chief attempts of the dry-farmer must be to see to it that the plants root deeply. This can be done only by preparing the right kind of seed-bed and by having the soil in its lower depths well-stored with moisture, so that the plants may be invited to descend. For that reason, an excess of moisture in the upper soil when the young plants are rooting is really an injury to them. CHAPTER VII STORING WATER IN THE SOIL The large amount of water required for the production of plant substance is taken from the soil by the roots. Leaves and stems do not absorb appreciable quantities of water. The scanty rainfall of dry-farm districts or the more abundant precipitation of humid regions must, therefore, be made to enter the soil in such a manner as to be readily available as soil-moisture to the roots at the right periods of plant growth. In humid countries, the rain that falls during the growing season is looked upon, and very properly, as the really effective factor in the production of large crops. The root systems of plants grown under such humid conditions are near the surface, ready to absorb immediately the rains that fall, even if they do not soak deeply into the soil. As has been shown in Chapter IV, it is only over a small portion of the dry-farm territory that the bulk of the scanty precipitation occurs during the growing season. Over a large portion of the arid and semiarid region the summers are almost rainless and the bulk of the precipitation comes in the winter, late fall, or early spring when plants are not growing. If the rains that fall during the growing season are indispensable in crop production, the possible area to be reclaimed by dry-farming will be greatly limited. Even when much of the total precipitation comes in summer, the amount in dry-farm districts is seldom sufficient for the proper maturing of crops. In fact, successful dry-farming depends chiefly upon the success with which the rains that fall during any season of the year may be stored and kept in the soil until needed by plants in their growth. The fundamental operations of dry-farming include a soil treatment which enables the largest possible proportion of the annual precipitation to be stored in the soil. For this purpose, the deep, somewhat porous soils, characteristic of arid regions, are unusually well adapted. Alway's demonstration An important and unique demonstration of the possibility of bringing crops to maturity on the moisture stored in the soil at the time of planting has been made by Alway. Cylinders of galvanized iron, 6 feet long, were filled with soil as nearly as possible in its natural position and condition Water was added until seepage began, after which the excess was allowed to drain away. When the seepage had closed, the cylinders were entirely closed except at the surface. Sprouted grains of spring wheat were placed in the moist surface soil, and 1 inch of dry soil added to the surface to prevent evaporation. No more water was added; the air of the greenhouse was kept as dry as possible. The wheat developed normally. The first ear was ripe in 132 days after planting and the last in 143 days. The three cylinders of soil from semiarid western Nebraska produced 37.8 grams of straw and 29 ears, containing 415 kernels weighing 11.188 grams. The three cylinders of soil from humid eastern Nebraska produced only 11.2 grams of straw and 13 ears containing 114 kernels, weighing 3 grams. This experiment shows conclusively that rains are not needed during the growing season, if the soil is well filled with moisture at seedtime, to bring crops to maturity. What becomes of the rainfall? The water that falls on the land is disposed of in three ways: First, under ordinary conditions, a large portion runs off without entering the soil; secondly, a portion enters the soil, but remains near the surface, and is rapidly evaporated back into the air; and, thirdly, a portion enters the lower soil layers, from which it is removed at later periods by several distinct processes. The run-off is usually large and is a serious loss, especially in dry-farming regions, where the absence of luxuriant vegetation, the somewhat hard, sun-baked soils, and the numerous drainage channels, formed by successive torrents, combine to furnish the rains with an easy escape into the torrential rivers. Persons familiar with arid conditions know how quickly the narrow box canyons, which often drain thousands of square miles, are filled with roaring water after a comparatively light rainfall. The run-off The proper cultivation of the soil diminishes very greatly the loss due to run-off, but even on such soils the proportion may often be very great. Farrel observed at one of the Utah stations that during a torrential rain--2.6 inches in 4 hours--the surface of the summer fallowed plats was packed so solid that only one fourth inch, or less than one tenth of the whole amount, soaked into the soil, while on a neighboring stubble field, which offered greater hindrance to the run-off, 1-1/2 inches or about 60 per cent were absorbed. It is not possible under any condition to prevent the run-off altogether, although it can usually be reduced exceedingly. It is a common dry-farm custom to plow along the slopes of the farm instead of plowing up and down them. When this is done, the water which runs down the slopes is caught by the succession of furrows and in that way the runoff is diminished. During the fallow season the disk and smoothing harrows are run along the hillsides for the same purpose and with results that are nearly always advantageous to the dry-farmer. Of necessity, each man must study his own farm in order to devise methods that will prevent the run-off. The structure of soils Before examining more closely the possibility of storing water in soils a brief review of the structure of soils is desirable. As previously explained, soil is essentially a mixture of disintegrated rock and the decomposing remains of plants. The rock particles which constitute the major portion of soils vary greatly in size. The largest ones are often 500 times the sizes of the smallest. It would take 50 of the coarsest sand particles, and 25,000 of the finest silt particles, to form one lineal inch. The clay particles are often smaller and of such a nature that they cannot be accurately measured. The total number of soil particles in even a small quantity of cultivated soil is far beyond the ordinary limits of thought, ranging from 125,000 particles of coarse sand to 15,625,000,000,000 particles of the finest silt in one cubic inch. In other words, if all the particles in one cubic inch of soil consisting of fine silt were placed side by side, they would form a continuous chain over a thousand miles long. The farmer, when he tills the soil, deals with countless numbers of individual soil grains, far surpassing the understanding of the human mind. It is the immense number of constituent soil particles that gives to the soil many of its most valuable properties. It must be remembered that no natural soil is made up of particles all of which are of the same size; all sizes, from the coarsest sand to the finest clay, are usually present. These particles of all sizes are not arranged in the soil in a regular, orderly way; they are not placed side by side with geometrical regularity; they are rather jumbled together in every possible way. The larger sand grains touch and form comparatively large interstitial spaces into which the finer silt and clay grains filter. Then, again, the clay particles, which have cementing properties, bind, as it were, one particle to another. A sand grain may have attached to it hundreds, or it may be thousands, of the smaller silt grains; or a regiment of smaller soil grains may themselves be clustered into one large grain by cementing power of the clay. Further, in the presence of lime and similar substances, these complex soil grains are grouped into yet larger and more complex groups. The beneficial effect of lime is usually due to this power of grouping untold numbers of soil particles into larger groups. When by correct soil culture the individual soil grains are thus grouped into large clusters, the soil is said to be in good tilth. Anything that tends to destroy these complex soil grains, as, for instance, plowing the soil when it is too wet, weakens the crop-producing power of the soil. This complexity of structure is one of the chief reasons for the difficulty of understanding clearly the physical laws governing soils. Pore-space of soils It follows from this description of soil structure that the soil grains do not fill the whole of the soil space. The tendency is rather to form clusters of soil grains which, though touching at many points, leave comparatively large empty spaces. This pore space in soils varies greatly, but with a maximum of about 55 per cent. In soils formed under arid conditions the percentage of pore-space is somewhere in the neighborhood of 50 per cent. There are some arid soils, notably gypsum soils, the particles of which are so uniform size that the pore-space is exceedingly small. Such soils are always difficult to prepare for agricultural purposes. It is the pore-space in soils that permits the storage of soil-moisture; and it is always important for the farmer so to maintain his soil that the pore-space is large enough to give him the best results, not only for the storage of moisture, but for the growth and development of roots, and for the entrance into the soil of air, germ life, and other forces that aid in making the soil fit for the habitation of plants. This can always be best accomplished, as will be shown hereafter, by deep plowing, when the soil is not too wet, the exposure of the plowed soil to the elements, the frequent cultivation of the soil through the growing season, and the admixture of organic matter. The natural soil structure at depths not reached by the plow evidently cannot be vitally changed by the farmer. Hygroscopic soil-water Under normal conditions, a certain amount of water is always found in all things occurring naturally, soils included. Clinging to every tree, stone, or animal tissue is a small quantity of moisture varying with the temperature, the amount of water in the air, and with other well-known factors. It is impossible to rid any natural substance wholly of water without heating it to a high temperature. This water which, apparently, belongs to all natural objects is commonly called hygroscopic water. Hilgard states that the soils of the arid regions contain, under a temperature of 15 deg C. and an atmosphere saturated with water, approximately 5-1/2 per cent of hygroscopic water. In fact, however, the air over the arid region is far from being saturated with water and the temperature is even higher than 15 deg C., and the hygroscopic moisture actually found in the soils of the dry-farm territory is considerably smaller than the average above given. Under the conditions prevailing in the Great Basin the hygroscopic water of soils varies from .75 per cent to 3-1/2 per cent; the average amount is not far from 12 per cent. Whether or not the hygroscopic water of soils is of value in plant growth is a disputed question. Hilgard believes that the hygroscopic moisture can be of considerable help in carrying plants through rainless summers, and further, that its presence prevents the heating of the soil particles to a point dangerous to plant roots. Other authorities maintain earnestly that the hygroscopic soil-water is practically useless to plants. Considering the fact that wilting occurs long before the hygroscopic water contained in the soil is reached, it is very unlikely that water so held is of any real benefit to plant growth. Gravitational water It often happens that a portion of the water in the soil is under the immediate influence of gravitation. For instance, a stone which, normally, is covered with hygroscopic water is dipped into water The hydroscopic water is not thereby affected, but as the stone is drawn out of the water a good part of the water runs off. This is gravitational water That is, the gravitational water of soils is that portion of the soil-water which filling the soil pores, flows downward through the soil under the influence of gravity. When the soil pores are completely filled, the maximum amount of gravitational water is found there. In ordinary dry-farm soils this total water capacity is between 35 and 40 per cent of the dry weight of soil. The gravitational soil-water cannot long remain in that condition; for, necessarily, the pull of gravity moves it downward through the soil pores and if conditions are favorable, it finally reaches the standing water-table, whence it is carried to the great rivers, and finally to the ocean. In humid soils, under a large precipitation, gravitational water moves down to the standing water-table after every rain. In dry-farm soils the gravitational water seldom reaches the standing water-table; for, as it moves downward, it wets the soil grains and remains in the capillary condition as a thin film around the soil grains. To the dry-farmer, the full water capacity is of importance only as it pertains to the upper foot of soil. If, by proper plowing and cultivation, the upper soil be loose and porous, the precipitation is allowed to soak quickly into the soil, away from the action of the wind and sun. From this temporary reservoir, the water, in obedience to the pull of gravity, will move slowly downward to the greater soil depths, where it will be stored permanently until needed by plants. It is for this reason that dry-farmers find it profitable to plow in the fall, as soon as possible after harvesting. In fact, Campbell advocates that the harvester be followed immediately by the disk, later to be followed by the plow The essential thing is to keep the topsoil open and receptive to a rain. Capillary soil-water The so-called capillary soil-water is of greatest importance to the dry-farmer. This is the water that clings as a film around a marble that has been dipped into water. There is a natural attraction between water and nearly all known substances, as is witnessed by the fact that nearly all things may be moistened. The water is held around the marble because the attraction between the marble and the water is greater than the pull of gravity upon the water. The greater the attraction, the thicker the film; the smaller the attraction, the thinner the film will be. The water that rises in a capillary glass tube when placed in water does so by virtue of the attraction between water and glass. Frequently, the force that makes capillary water possible is called surface tension. Whenever there is a sufficient amount of water available, a thin film of water is found around every soil grain; and where the soil grains touch, or where they are very near together, water is held pretty much as in capillary tubes. Not only are the soil particles enveloped by such a film, but the plant roots foraging in the soil are likewise covered; that is, the whole system of soil grains and roots is covered, under favorable conditions, with a thin film of capillary water. It is the water in this form upon which plants draw during their periods of growth. The hygroscopic water and the gravitational water are of comparatively little value in plant growth. Field capacity of soils for capillary water The tremendously large number of soil grains found in even a small amount of soil makes it possible for the soil to hold very large quantities of capillary water. To illustrate: In one cubic inch of sand soil the total surface exposed by the soil grains varies from 42 square inches to 27 square feet; in one cubic inch of silt soil, from 27 square feet to 72 square feet, and in one cubic inch of an ordinary soil the total surface exposed by the soil grains is about 25 square feet. This means that the total surface of the soil grains contained in a column of soil 1 square foot at the top and 10 feet deep is approximately 10 acres. When even a thin film of water is spread over such a large area, it is clear that the total amount of water involved must be large It is to be noticed, therefore, that the fineness of the soil particles previously discussed has a direct bearing upon the amount of water that soils may retain for the use of plant growth. As the fineness of the soil grains increases, the total surface increases' and the water-holding capacity also increases. Naturally, the thickness of a water film held around the soil grains is very minute. King has calculated that a film 275 millionths of an inch thick, clinging around the soil particles, is equivalent to 14.24 per cent of water in a heavy clay; 7.2 per cent in a loam; 5.21 per cent in a sandy loam, and 1.41 per cent in a sandy soil. It is important to know the largest amount of water that soils can hold in a capillary condition, for upon it depend, in a measure, the possibilities of crop production under dry-farming conditions. King states that the largest amount of capillary water that can be held in sandy loams varies from 17.65 per cent to 10.67 per cent; in clay loams from 22.67 per cent to 18.16 per cent, and in humus soils (which are practically unknown in dry-farm sections) from 44.72 per cent to 21.29 per cent. These results were not obtained under dry-farm conditions and must be confirmed by investigations of arid soils. The water that falls upon dry-farms is very seldom sufficient in quantity to reach the standing water-table, and it is necessary, therefore, to determine the largest percentage of water that a soil can hold under the influence of gravity down to a depth of 8 or 10 feet--the depth to which the roots penetrate and in which root action is distinctly felt. This is somewhat difficult to determine because the many conflicting factors acting upon the soil-water are seldom in equilibrium. Moreover, a considerable time must usually elapse before the rain-water is thoroughly distributed throughout the soil. For instance, in sandy soils, the downward descent of water is very rapid; in clay soils, where the preponderance of fine particles makes minute soil pores, there is considerable hindrance to the descent of water, and it may take weeks or months for equilibrium to be established. It is believed that in a dry-farm district, where the major part of the precipitation comes during winter, the early springtime, before the spring rains come, is the best time for determining the maximum water capacity of a soil. At that season the water-dissipating influences, such as sunshine and high temperature, are at a minimum, and a sufficient time has elapsed to permit the rains of fall and winter to distribute themselves uniformly throughout the soil. In districts of high summer precipitation, the late fall after a fallow season will probably be the best time for the determination of the field-water capacity. Experiments on this subject have been conducted at the Utah Station. As a result of several thousand trials it was found that, in the spring, a uniform, sandy loam soil of true arid properties contained, from year to year, an average of nearly 16-1/2 per cent of water to a depth of 8 feet. This appeared to be practically the maximum water capacity of that soil under field conditions, and it may be called the field capacity of that soil for capillary water. Other experiments on dry-farms showed the field capacity of a clay soil to a depth of 8 feet to be 19 per cent; of a clay loam, to be 18 per cent; of a loam, 17 per cent; of another loam somewhat more sandy, 16 per cent; of a sandy loam, 14-1/2 per cent; and of a very sandy loam, 14 per cent. Leather found that in the calcareous arid soil of India the upper 5 feet contained 18 per cent of water at the close of the wet season. It may be concluded, therefore, that the field-water capacities of ordinary dry-farm soils are not very high, ranging from 15 to 20 per cent, with an average for ordinary dry-farm soils in the neighborhood of 16 or 17 per cent. Expressed in another way this means that a layer of water from 2 to 3 inches deep can be stored in the soil to a depth of 12 inches. Sandy soils will hold less water than clayey ones. It must not be forgotten that in the dry-farm region are numerous types of soils, among them some consisting chiefly of very fine soil grains and which would; consequently, possess field-water capacities above the average here stated. The first endeavor of the dry-farmer should be to have the soil filled to its full field-water capacity before a crop is planted. Downward movement of soil-moisture One of the chief considerations in a discussion of the storing of water in soils is the depth to which water may move under ordinary dry-farm conditions. In humid regions, where the water table is near the surface and where the rainfall is very abundant, no question has been raised concerning the possibility of the descent of water through the soil to the standing water. Considerable objection, however, has been offered to the doctrine that the rainfall of arid districts penetrates the soil to any great extent. Numerous writers on the subject intimate that the rainfall under dry-farm conditions reaches at the best the upper 3 or 4 feet of soil. This cannot be true, for the deep rich soils of the arid region, which never have been disturbed by the husbandman, are moist to very great depths. In the deserts of the Great Basin, where vegetation is very scanty, soil borings made almost anywhere will reveal the fact that moisture exists in considerable quantities to the full depth of the ordinary soil auger, usually 10 feet. The same is true for practically every district of the arid region. Such water has not come from below, for in the majority of cases the standing water is 50 to 500 feet below the surface. Whitney made this observation many years ago and reported it as a striking feature of agriculture in arid regions, worthy of serious consideration. Investigations made at the Utah Station have shown that undisturbed soils within the Great Basin frequently contain, to a depth of 10 feet, an amount of water equivalent to 2 or 3 years of the rainfall which normally occurs in that locality. These quantities of water could not be found in such soils, unless, under arid conditions, water has the power to move downward to considerably greater depths than is usually believed by dry-farmers. In a series of irrigation experiments conducted at the Utah Station it was demonstrated that on a loam soil, within a few hours after an irrigation, some of the water applied had reached the eighth foot, or at least had increased the percentage of water in the eighth foot. In soil that was already well filled with water, the addition of water was felt distinctly to the full depth of 8 feet. Moreover, it was observed in these experiments that even very small rains caused moisture changes to considerable depths a few hours after the rain was over. For instance, 0.14 of an inch of rainfall was felt to a depth of 2 feet within 3 hours; 0.93 of an inch was felt to a depth of 3 feet within the same period. To determine whether or not the natural winter precipitation, upon which the crops of a large portion of the dry-farm territory depend, penetrates the soil to any great depth a series of tests were undertaken. At the close of the harvest in August or September the soil was carefully sampled to a depth of 8 feet, and in the following spring similar samples were taken on the same soils to the same depth. In every case, it was found that the winter precipitation had caused moisture changes to the full depth reached by the soil auger. Moreover, these changes were so great as to lead the investigators to believe that moisture changes had occurred to greater depths. In districts where the major part of the precipitation occurs during the summer the same law is undoubtedly in operation; but, since evaporation is most active in the summer, it is probable that a smaller proportion reaches the greater soil depths. In the Great Plains district, therefore, greater care will have to be exercised during the summer in securing proper water storage than in the Great Basin, for instance. The principle is, nevertheless, the same. Burr, working under Great Plains conditions in Nebraska, has shown that the spring and summer rains penetrate the soil to the depth of 6 feet, the average depth of the borings, and that it undoubtedly affects the soil-moisture to the depth of 10 feet. In general, the dry-farmer may safely accept the doctrine that the water that falls upon his land penetrates the soil far beyond the immediate reach of the sun, though not so far away that plant roots cannot make use of it. Importance of a moist subsoil In the consideration of the downward movement of soil-water it is to be noted that it is only when the soil is tolerably moist that the natural precipitation moves rapidly and freely to the deeper soil layers. When the soil is dry, the downward movement of the water is much slower and the bulk of the water is then stored near the surface where the loss of moisture goes on most rapidly. It has been observed repeatedly in the investigations at the Utah Station that when desert land is broken for dry-farm purposes and then properly cultivated, the precipitation penetrates farther and farther into the soil with every year of cultivation. For example, on a dry-farm, the soil of which is clay loam, and which was plowed in the fall of 1904 and farmed annually thereafter, the eighth foot contained in the spring of 1905, 6.59 per cent of moisture; in the spring of 1906, 13.11 per cent, and in the spring of 1907, 14.75 per cent of moisture. On another farm, with a very sandy soil and also plowed in the fall of 1904, there was found in the eighth foot in the spring of 1905, 5.63 per cent of moisture, in the spring of 1906, 11.41 per cent of moisture, and in the spring of 1907, 15.49 per cent of moisture. In both of these typical cases it is evident that as the topsoil was loosened, the full field water capacity of the soil was more nearly approached to a greater depth. It would seem that, as the lower soil layers are moistened, the water is enabled, so to speak, to slide down more easily into the depths of the soil. This is a very important principle for the dry farmer to understand. It is always dangerous to permit the soil of a dry-farm to become very dry, especially below the first foot. Dry-farms should be so manipulated that even at the harvesting season a comparatively large quantity of water remains in the soil to a depth of 8 feet or more. The larger the quantity of water in the soil in the fall, the more readily and quickly will the water that falls on the land during the resting period of fall, winter, and early spring sink into the soil and move away from the topsoil. The top or first foot will always contain the largest percentage of water because it is the chief receptacle of the water that falls as rain or snow but when the subsoil is properly moist, the water will more completely leave the topsoil. Further, crops planted on a soil saturated with water to a depth of 8 feet are almost certain to mature and yield well. If the field-water capacity has not been filled, there is always the danger that an unusually dry season or a series of hot winds or other like circumstances may either seriously injure the crop or cause a complete failure. The dry-farmer should keep a surplus of moisture in the soil to be carried over from year to year, just as the wise business man maintains a sufficient working capital for the needs of his business. In fact, it is often safe to advise the prospective dry-farmer to plow his newly cleared or broken land carefully and then to grow no crop on it the first year, so that, when crop production begins, the soil will have stored in it an amount of water sufficient to carry a crop over periods of drouth. Especially in districts of very low rainfall is this practice to be recommended. In the Great Plains area, where the summer rains tempt the farmer to give less attention to the soil-moisture problem than in the dry districts with winter precipitation farther West, it is important that a fallow season be occasionally given the land to prevent the store of soil moisture from becoming dangerously low. To what extent is the rainfall stored in soils? What proportion of the actual amount of water falling upon the soil can be stored in the soil and carried over from season to season? This question naturally arises in view of the conclusion that water penetrates the soil to considerable depths. There is comparatively little available information with which to answer this question, because the great majority of students of soil moisture have concerned themselves wholly with the upper two, three, or four feet of soil. The results of such investigations are practically useless in answering this question. In humid regions it may be very satisfactory to confine soil-moisture investigations to the upper few feet; but in arid regions, where dry-farming is a living question, such a method leads to erroneous or incomplete conclusions. Since the average field capacity of soils for water is about 2.5 inches per foot, it follows that it is possible to store 25 inches of water in 10 feet of soil. This is from two to one and a half times one year's rainfall over the better dry-farming sections. Theoretically, therefore, there is no reason why the rainfall of one season or more could not be stored in the soil. Careful investigations have borne out this theory. Atkinson found, for example, at the Montana Station, that soil, which to a depth of 9 feet contained 7.7 per cent of moisture in the fall contained 11.5 per cent in the spring and, after carrying it through the summer by proper methods of cultivation, 11 per cent. It may certainly be concluded from this experiment that it is possible to carry over the soil moisture from season to season. The elaborate investigations at the Utah Station have demonstrated that the winter precipitation, that is, the precipitation that comes during the wettest period of the year, may be retained in a large measure in the soil. Naturally, the amount of the natural precipitation accounted for in the upper eight feet will depend upon the dryness of the soil at the time the investigation commenced. If at the beginning of the wet season the upper eight feet of soil are fairly well stored with moisture, the precipitation will move down to even greater depths, beyond the reach of the soil auger. If, on the other hand, the soil is comparatively dry at the beginning of the season, the natural precipitation will distribute itself through the upper few feet, and thus be readily measured by the soil auger. In the Utah investigations it was found that of the water which fell as rain and snow during the winter, as high as 95-1/2 per cent was found stored in the first eight feet of soil at the beginning of the growing season. Naturally, much smaller percentages were also found, but on an average, in soils somewhat dry at the beginning of the dry season, more than three fourths of the natural precipitation was found stored in the soil in the spring. The results were all obtained in a locality where the bulk of the precipitation comes in the winter, yet similar results would undoubtedly be obtained where the precipitation occurs mainly in the summer. The storage of water in the soil cannot be a whit less important on the Great Plains than in the Great Basin. In fact, Burr has clearly demonstrated for western Nebraska that over 50 per cent of the rainfall of the spring and summer may be stored in the soil to the depth of six feet. Without question, some is stored also at greater depths. All the evidence at hand shows that a large portion of the precipitation falling upon properly prepared soil, whether it be summer or winter, is stored in the soil until evaporation is allowed to withdraw it Whether or not water so stored may be made to remain in the soil throughout the season or the year will be discussed in the next chapter. It must be said, however, that the possibility of storing water in the soil, that is, making the water descend to relatively great soil depths away from the immediate and direct action of the sunshine and winds, is the most fundamental principle in successful dry-farming. The fallow It may be safely concluded that a large portion of the water that falls as rain or snow may be stored in the soil to considerable depths (eight feet or more). However, the question remains, Is it possible to store the rainfall of successive years in the soil for the use of one crop? In short, Does the practice of clean fallowing or resting the ground with proper cultivation for one season enable the farmer to store in the soil the larger portion of the rainfall of two years, to be used for one crop? It is unquestionably true, as will be shown later, that clean fallowing or "summer tillage" is one of the oldest and safest practices of dry-farming as practiced in the West, but it is not generally understood why fallowing is desirable. Considerable doubt has recently been cast upon the doctrine that one of the beneficial effects of fallowing in dry-farming is to store the rainfall of successive seasons in the soil for the use of one crop. Since it has been shown that a large proportion of the winter precipitation can be stored in the soil during the wet season, it merely becomes a question of the possibility of preventing the evaporation of this water during the drier season. As will be shown in the next chapter, this can well be effected by proper cultivation. There is no good reason, therefore, for believing that the precipitation of successive seasons may not be added to water already stored in the soil. King has shown that fallowing the soil one year carried over per square foot, in the upper four feet, 9.38 pounds of water more than was found in a cropped soil in a parallel experiment; and, moreover, the beneficial effect of this. water advantage was felt for a whole succeeding season. King concludes, therefore, that one of the advantages of fallowing is to increase the moisture content of the soil. The Utah experiments show that the tendency of fallowing is always to increase the soil-moisture content. In dry-farming, water is the critical factor, and any practice that helps to conserve water should be adopted. For that reason, fallowing, which gathers soil-moisture, should be strongly advocated. In Chapter IX another important value of the fallow will be discussed. In view of the discussion in this chapter it is easily understood why students of soil-moisture have not found a material increase in soil-moisture due to fallowing. Usually such investigations have been made to shallow depths which already were fairly well filled with moisture. Water falling upon such soils would sink beyond the depth reached by the soil augers, and it became impossible to judge accurately of the moisture-storing advantage of the fallow. A critical analysis of the literature on this subject will reveal the weakness of most experiments in this respect. It may be mentioned here that the only fallow that should be practiced by the dry-farmer is the clean fallow. Water storage is manifestly impossible when crops are growing upon a soil. A healthy crop of sagebrush, sunflowers, or other weeds consumes as much water as a first-class stand of corn, wheat, or potatoes. Weeds should be abhorred by the farmer. A weedy fallow is a sure forerunner of a crop failure. How to maintain a good fallow is discussed in Chapter VIII, under the head of Cultivation. Moreover, the practice of fallowing should be varied with the climatic conditions. In districts of low rainfall, 10-15 inches, the land should be clean summer-fallowed every other year; under very low rainfall perhaps even two out of three years; in districts of more abundant rainfall, 15-20 inches, perhaps one year out of every three or four is sufficient. Where the precipitation comes during the growing season, as in the Great Plains area, fallowing for the storage of water is less important than where the major part of the rainfall comes during the fall and winter. However, any system of dry-farming that omits fallowing wholly from its practices is in danger of failure in dry years. Deep plowing for water storage It has been attempted in this chapter to demonstrate that water falling upon a soil may descend to great depths, and may be stored in the soil from year to year, subject to the needs of the crop that may be planted. By what cultural treatment may this downward descent of the water be accelerated by the farmer? First and foremost, by plowing at the right time and to the right depth. Plowing should be done deeply and thoroughly so that the falling water may immediately be drawn down to the full depth of the loose, spongy, plowed soil, away from the action of the sunshine or winds. The moisture thus caught will slowly work its way down into the lower layers of the soil. Deep plowing is always to be recommended for successful dry-farming. In humid districts where there is a great difference between the soil and the subsoil, it is often dangerous to turn up the lifeless subsoil, but in arid districts where there is no real differentiation between the soil and the subsoil, deep plowing may safely be recommended. True, occasionally, soils are found in the dry-farm territory which are underlaid near the surface by an inert clay or infertile layer of lime or gypsum which forbids the farmer putting the plow too deeply into the soil. Such soils, however' are seldom worth while trying for dry-farm purposes. Deep plowing must be practiced for the best dry-farming results. It naturally follows that subsoiling should be a beneficial practice on dry-farms. Whether or not the great cost of subsoiling is offset by the resulting increased yields is an open question; it is, in fact, quite doubtful. Deep plowing done at the right time and frequently enough is possibly sufficient. By deep plowing is meant stirring or turning the soil to a depth of six to ten inches below the surface of the land. Fall plowing far water storage It is not alone sufficient to plow and to plow deeply; it is also necessary that the plowing be done at the right time. In the very great majority of cases over the whole dry-farm territory, plowing should be done in the fall. There are three reasons for this: First, after the crop is harvested, the soil should be stirred immediately, so that it can be exposed to the full action of the weathering agencies, whether the winters be open or closed. If for any reason plowing cannot be done early it is often advantageous to follow the harvester with a disk and to plow later when convenient. The chemical effect on the soil resulting from the weathering, made possible by fall plowing, as will be shown in Chapter IX, is of itself so great as to warrant the teaching of the general practice of fall plowing. Secondly, the early stirring of the soil prevents evaporation of the moisture in the soil during late summer and the fall. Thirdly, in the parts of the dry-farm territory where much precipitation occurs in the fall, winter, or early spring, fall plowing permits much of this precipitation to enter the soil and be stored there until needed by plants. A number of experiment stations have compared plowing done in the early fall with plowing done late in the fall or in the spring, and with almost no exception it has been found that early fall plowing is water-conserving and in other ways advantageous. It was observed on a Utah dry-farm that the fall-plowed land contained, to a depth of 10 feet, 7.47 acre-inches more water than the adjoining spring-plowed land--a saving of nearly one half of a year's precipitation. The ground should be plowed in the early fall as soon as possible after the crop is harvested. It should then be left in the rough throughout the winter, so that it may be mellowed and broken down by the elements. The rough lend further has a tendency to catch and hold the snow that may be blown by the wind, thus insuring a more even distribution of the water from the melting snow. A common objection to fall plowing is that the ground is so dry in the fall that it does not plow up well, and that the great dry clods of earth do much to injure the physical condition of the soil. It is very doubtful if such an objection is generally valid, especially if the soil is so cropped as to leave a fair margin of moisture in the soil at harvest time. The atmospheric agencies will usually break down the clods, and the physical result of the treatment will be beneficial. Undoubtedly, the fall plowing of dry land is somewhat difficult, but the good results more than pay the farmer for his trouble. Late fall plowing, after the fall rains have softened the land, is preferable to spring plowing. If for any reason the farmer feels that he must practice spring plowing, he should do it as early as possible in the spring. Of course, it is inadvisable to plow the soil when it is so wet as to injure its tilth seriously, but as soon as that danger period has passed, the plow should be placed in the ground. The moisture in the soil will thereby be conserved, and whatever water may fall during the spring months will be conserved also. This is of especial importance in the Great Plains region and in any district where the precipitation comes in the spring and winter months. Likewise, after fall plowing, the land must be well stirred in the early spring with the disk harrow or a similar implement, to enable the spring rains to enter the soil easily and to prevent the evaporation of the water already stored. Where the rainfall is quite abundant and the plowed land has been beaten down by the frequent rains, the land should be plowed again in the spring. Where such conditions do not exist, the treatment of the soil with the disk and harrow in the spring is usually sufficient. In recent dry-farm experience it has been fairly completely demonstrated that, providing the soil is well stored with water, crops will mature even if no rain falls during the growing season. Naturally, under most circumstances, any rains that may fall on a well-prepared soil during the season of crop growth will tend to increase the crop yield, but some profitable yield is assured, in spite of the season, if the soil is well stored with water at seed time. This is an important principle in the system of dry-farming. CHAPTER VIII REGULATING THE EVAPORATION The demonstration in the last chapter that the water which falls as rain or snow may be stored in the soil for the use of plants is of first importance in dry-farming, for it makes the farmer independent, in a large measure, of the distribution of the rainfall. The dry-farmer who goes into the summer with a soil well stored with water cares little whether summer rains come or not, for he knows that his crops will mature in spite of external drouth. In fact, as will be shown later, in many dry-farm sections where the summer rains are light they are a positive detriment to the farmer who by careful farming has stored his deep soil with an abundance of water. Storing the soil with water is, however, only the first step in making the rains of fall, winter, or the preceding year available for plant growth. As soon as warm growing weather comes, water-dissipating forces come into play, and water is lost by evaporation. The farmer must, therefore, use all precautions to keep the moisture in the soil until such time as the roots of the crop may draw it into the plants to be used in plant production. That is, as far as possible, direct evaporation of water from the soil must be prevented. Few farmers really realize the immense possible annual evaporation in the dry-farm territory. It is always much larger than the total annual rainfall. In fact, an arid region may be defined as one in which under natural conditions several times more water evaporates annually from a free water surface than falls as rain and snow. For that reason many students of aridity pay little attention to temperature, relative humidity, or winds, and simply measure the evaporation from a free water surface in the locality in question. In order to obtain a measure of the aridity, MacDougal has constructed the following table, showing the annual precipitation and the annual evaporation at several well-known localities in the dry-farm territory. True, the localities included in the following table are extreme, but they illustrate the large possible evaporation, ranging from about six to thirty-five times the precipitation. At the same time it must be borne in mind that while such rates of evaporation may occur from free water surfaces, the evaporation from agricultural soils under like conditions is very much smaller. Place Annual Precipitation Annual Evaporation Ratio (In Inches) (In Inches) El Paso, Texas 9.23 80 8.7 Fort Wingate, New Mexico 14.00 80 5.7 Fort Yuma, Arizona 2.84 100 35.2 Tucson, AZ 11.74 90 7.7 Mohave, CA 4.97 95 19.1 Hawthorne, Nevada 4.50 80 17.5 Winnemucca, Nevada 9.51 80 9.6 St. George, Utah 6.46 90 13.9 Fort Duchesne, Utah 6.49 75 11.6 Pineville, Oregon 9.01 70 7.8 Lost River, Idaho 8.47 70 8.3 Laramie, Wyoming 9.81 70 7.1 Torres, Mexico 16.97 100 6.0 To understand the methods employed for checking evaporation from the soil, it is necessary to review briefly the conditions that determine the evaporation of water into the air, and the manner in which water moves in the soil. The formation of water vapor Whenever water is left freely exposed to the air, it evaporates; that is, it passes into the gaseous state and mixes with the gases of the air. Even snow and ice give off water vapor, though in very small quantities. The quantity of water vapor which can enter a given volume of air is definitely limited. For instance, at the temperature of freezing water 2.126 grains of water vapor can enter one cubic foot of air, but no more. When air contains all the water possible, it is said to be saturated, and evaporation then ceases. The practical effect of this is the well-known experience that on the seashore, where the air is often very nearly fully saturated with water vapor, the drying of clothes goes on very slowly, whereas in the interior, like the dry-farming territory, away from the ocean, where the air is far from being saturated, drying goes on very rapidly. The amount of water necessary to saturate air varies greatly with the temperature. It is to be noted that as the temperature increases, the amount of water that may be held by the air also increases; and proportionately more rapidly than the increase in temperature. This is generally well understood in common experience, as in drying clothes rapidly by hanging them before a hot fire. At a temperature of 100 deg F., which is often reached in portions of the dry-farm territory during the growing season, a given volume of air can hold more than nine times as much water vapor as at the temperature of freezing water. This is an exceedingly important principle in dry-farm practices, for it explains the relatively easy possibility of storing water during the fall and winter when the temperature is low and the moisture usually abundant, and the greater difficulty of storing the rain that falls largely, as in the Great Plains area, in the summer when water-dissipating forces are very active. This law also emphasizes the truth that it is in times of warm weather that every precaution must be taken to prevent the evaporation of water from the soil surface. Temperature Grains of Water held in in Degrees F. One Cubic Foot of Air 32 2.126 40 2.862 50 4.089 60 5.756 70 7.992 80 10.949 90 14.810 100 19.790 It is of course well understood that the atmosphere as a whole is never saturated with water vapor. Such saturation is at the best only local, as, for instance, on the seashore during quiet days, when the layer of air over the water may be fully saturated, or in a field containing much water from which, on quiet warm days, enough water may evaporate to saturate the layer of air immediately upon the soil and around the plants. Whenever, in such cases, the air begins to move and the wind blows, the saturated air is mixed with the larger portion of unsaturated air, and evaporation is again increased. Meanwhile, it must be borne in mind that into a layer of saturated air resting upon a field of growing plants very little water evaporates, and that the chief water-dissipating power of winds lies in the removal of this saturated layer. Winds or air movements of any kind, therefore, become enemies of the farmer who depends upon a limited rainfall. The amount of water actually found in a given volume of air at a certain temperature, compared with the largest amount it can hold, is called the relative humidity of the air. As shown in Chapter IV, the relative humidity becomes smaller as the rainfall decreases. The lower the relative humidity is at a given temperature, the more rapidly will water evaporate into the air. There is no more striking confirmation of this law than the fact that at a temperature of 90 deg sunstrokes and similar ailments are reported in great number from New York, while the people of Salt Lake City are perfectly comfortable. In New York the relative humidity in summer is about 73 per cent; in Salt Lake City, about 35 per cent. At a high summer temperature evaporation from the skin goes on slowly in New York and rapidly in Salt Lake City, with the resulting discomfort or comfort. Similarly, evaporation from soils goes on rapidly under a low and slowly under a high percentage of relative humidity. Evaporation from water surfaces is hastened, therefore, by (1) an increase in the temperature, (2) an increase in the air movements or winds, and (3) a decrease in the relative humidity. The temperature is higher; the relative humidity lower, and the winds usually more abundant in arid than in humid regions. The dry-farmer must consequently use all possible precautions to prevent evaporation from the soil. Conditions of evaporation from from soils Evaporation does not alone occur from a surface of free water. All wet or moist substances lose by evaporation most of the water that they hold, providing the conditions of temperature and relative humidity are favorable. Thus, from a wet soil, evaporation is continually removing water. Yet, under ordinary conditions, it is impossible to remove all the water, for a small quantity is attracted so strongly by the soil particles that only a temperature above the boiling point of water will drive it out. This part of the soil is the hygroscopic moisture spoken of in the last chapter. Moreover, it must be kept in mind that evaporation does not occur as rapidly from wet soil as from a water surface, unless all the soil pores are so completely filled with water that the soil surface is practically a water surface. The reason for this reduced evaporation from a wet soil is almost self-evident. There is a comparatively strong attraction between soil and water, which enables the moisture to cling as a thin capillary film around the soil particles, against the force of gravity. Ordinarily, only capillary water is found in well-tilled soil, and the force causing evaporation must be strong enough to overcome this attraction besides changing the water into vapor. The less water there is in a soil, the thinner the water film, and the more firmly is the water held. Hence, the rate of evaporation decreases with the decrease in soil-moisture. This law is confirmed by actual field tests. For instance, as an average of 274 trials made at the Utah Station, it was found that three soils, otherwise alike, that contained, respectively, 22.63 per cent, 17.14 per cent, and 12.75 per cent of water lost in two weeks, to a depth of eight feet, respectively 21.0, 17. 1, and 10.0 pounds of water per square foot. Similar experiments conducted elsewhere also furnish proof of the correctness of this principle. From this point of view the dry-farmer does not want his soils to be unnecessarily moist. The dry-farmer can reduce the per cent of water in the soil without diminishing the total amount of water by so treating the soil that the water will distribute itself to considerable depths. This brings into prominence again the practices of fall plowing, deep plowing, subsoiling, and the choice of deep soils for dry-farming. Very much for the same reasons, evaporation goes on more slowly from water in which salt or other substances have been dissolved. The attraction between the water and the dissolved salt seems to be strong enough to resist partially the force causing evaporation. Soil-water always contains some of the soil ingredients in solution, and consequently under the given conditions evaporation occurs more slowly from soil-water than from pure water. Now, the more fertile a soil is, that is, the more soluble plant-food it contains, the more material will be dissolved in the soil-water, and as a result the more slowly will evaporation take place. Fallowing, cultivation, thorough plowing and manuring, which increase the store of soluble plant-food, all tend to diminish evaporation. While these conditions may have little value in the eyes of the farmer who is under an abundant rainfall, they are of great importance to the dry-farmer. It is only by utilizing every possibility of conserving water and fertility that dry-farming may be made a perfectly safe practice. Loss by evaporation chiefly at the surface Evaporation goes on from every wet substance. Water evaporates therefore from the wet soil grains under the surface as well as from those at the surface. In developing a system of practice which will reduce evaporation to a minimum it must be learned whether the water which evaporates from the soil particles far below the surface is carried in large quantities into the atmosphere and thus lost to plant use. Over forty years ago, Nessler subjected this question to experiment and found that the loss by evaporation occurs almost wholly at the soil surface, and that very little if any is lost directly by evaporation from the lower soil layers. Other experimenters have confirmed this conclusion, and very recently Buckingham, examining the same subject, found that while there is a very slow upward movement of the soil gases into the atmosphere, the total quantity of the water thus lost by direct evaporation from soil, a foot below the surface, amounted at most to one inch of rainfall in six years. This is insignificant even under semiarid and arid conditions. However, the rate of loss of water by direct evaporation from the lower soil layers increases with the porosity of the soil, that is, with the space not filled with soil particles or water. Fine-grained soils, therefore, lose the least water in this manner. Nevertheless, if coarse-grained soils are well filled with water, by deep fall plowing and by proper summer fallowing for the conservation of moisture, the loss of moisture by direct evaporation from the lower soil layers need not be larger than from finer grained soils Thus again are emphasized the principles previously laid down that, for the most successful dry-farming, the soil should always be kept well filled with moisture, even if it means that the land, after being broken, must lie fallow for one or two seasons, until a sufficient amount of moisture has accumulated. Further, the correlative principle is emphasized that the moisture in dry-farm lands should be stored deeply, away from the immediate action of the sun's rays upon the land surface. The necessity for deep soils is thus again brought out. The great loss of soil moisture due to an accumulation of water in the upper twelve inches is well brought out in the experiments conducted by the Utah Station. The following is selected from the numerous data on the subject. Two soils, almost identical in character, contained respectively 17.57 per cent and 16.55 per cent of water on an average to a depth of eight feet; that is, the total amount of water held by the two soils was practically identical. Owing to varying cultural treatment, the distribution of the water in the soil was not uniform; one contained 23.22 per cent and the other 16.64 per cent of water in the first twelve inches. During the first seven days the soil that contained the highest percentage of water in the first foot lost 13.30 pounds of water, while the other lost only 8.48 pounds per square foot. This great difference was due no doubt to the fact that direct evaporation takes place in considerable quantity only in the upper twelve inches of soil, where the sun's heat has a full chance to act. Any practice which enables the rains to sink quickly to considerable depths should be adopted by the dry-farmer. This is perhaps one of the great reasons for advocating the expensive but usually effective subsoil plowing on dry-farms. It is a very common experience, in the arid region, that great, deep cracks form during hot weather. From the walls of these cracks evaporation goes on, as from the topsoil, and the passing winds renew the air so that the evaporation may go on rapidly. The dry-farmer must go over the land as often as needs be with some implement that will destroy and fill up the cracks that may have been formed. In a field of growing crops this is often difficult to do; but it is not impossible that hand hoeing, expensive as it is, would pay well in the saving of soil moisture and the consequent increase in crop yield. How soil water reaches the surface It may be accepted as an established truth that the direct evaporation of water from wet soils occurs almost wholly at the surface. Yet it is well known that evaporation from the soil surface may continue until the soil-moisture to a depth of eight or ten feet or more is depleted. This is shown by the following analyses of dry-farm soil in early spring and midsummer. No attempt was made to conserve the moisture in the soil:-- Per cent of water in Early spring Midsummer 1st foot 20.84 8.83 2nd foot 20.06 8.87 3rd foot 19.62 11.03 4th foot 18.28 9.59 5th foot 18.70 11.27 6th foot 14.29 11.03 7th foot 14.48 8.95 8th foot 13.83 9.47 Avg 17.51 9.88 In this case water had undoubtedly passed by capillary movement from the depth of eight feet to a point near the surface where direct evaporation could occur. As explained in the last chapter, water which is held as a film around the soil particles is called capillary water; and it is in the capillary form that water may be stored in dry-farm soils. Moreover, it is the capillary soil-moisture alone which is of real value in crop production. This capillary water tends to distribute itself uniformly throughout the soil, in accordance with the prevailing conditions and forces. If no water is removed from the soil, in course of time the distribution of the soil-water will be such that the thickness of the film at any point in the soil mass is a direct resultant of the various forces acting at that particular point. There will then be no appreciable movement of the soil-moisture. Such a condition is approximated in late winter or early spring before planting begins. During the greater part of the year, however, no such quiescent state can occur, for there are numerous disturbing elements that normally are active, among which the three most effective are (l) the addition of water to the soil by rains; (2) the evaporation of water from the topsoil, due to the more active meteorological factors during spring, summer, and fall; and (3) the abstraction of water from the soil by plant roots. Water, entering the soil, moves downward under the influence of gravity as gravitational water, until under the attractive influence of the soil it has been converted into capillary water and adheres to the soil particles as a film. If the soil were dry, and the film therefore thin, the rain water would move downward only a short distance as gravitational water; if the soil were wet, and the film therefore thick, the water would move down to a greater distance before being exhausted. If, as is often the case in humid districts, the soil is saturated, that is, the film is as thick as the particles can hold, the water would pass right through the soil and connect with the standing water below. This, of course, is seldom the case in dry-farm districts. In any soil, excepting one already saturated, the addition of water will produce a thickening of the soil-water film to the full descent of the water. This immediately destroys the conditions of equilibrium formerly existing, for the moisture is not now uniformly distributed. Consequently a process of redistribution begins which continues until the nearest approach to equilibrium is restored. In this process water will pass in every direction from the wet portion of the soil to the drier; it does not necessarily mean that water will actually pass from the wet portion to the drier portion; usually, at the driest point a little water is drawn from the adjoining point, which in turn draws from the next, and that from the next, until the redistribution is complete. The process is very much like stuffing wool into a sack which already is loosely filled. The new wool does not reach the bottom of the sack, yet there is more wool in the bottom than there was before. If a plant-root is actively feeding some distance under the soil surface, the reverse process occurs. At the feeding point the root continually abstracts water from the soil grains and thus makes the film thinner in that locality. This causes a movement of moisture similar to the one above described, from the wetter portions of the soil to the portion being dried out by the action of the plant-root. Soil many feet or even rods distant may assist in supplying such an active root with moisture. When the thousands of tiny roots sent out by each plant are recalled. it may well be understood what a confusion of pulls and counter-pulls upon the soil-moisture exists in any cultivated soil. In fact, the soil-water film may be viewed as being in a state of trembling activity, tending to place itself in full equilibrium with the surrounding contending forces which, themselves, constantly change. Were it not that the water film held closely around the soil particles is possessed of extreme mobility, it would not be possible to meet the demands of the plants upon the water at comparatively great distances. Even as it is, it frequently happens that when crops are planted too thickly on dry-farms, the soil-moisture cannot move quickly enough to the absorbing roots to maintain plant growth, and crop failure results. Incidentally, this points to planting that shall be proportional to the moisture contained by the soil. See Chapter XI. As the temperature rises in spring, with a decrease in the relative humidity, and an increase in direct sunshine, evaporation from the soil surface increases greatly. However, as the topsoil becomes drier, that is, as the water fihn becomes thinner, there is an attempt at readjustment, and water moves upward to take the place of that lost by evaporation. As this continues throughout the season, the moisture stored eight or ten feet or more below the surface is gradually brought to the top and evaporated, and thus lost to plant use. The effect of rapid top drying of soils As the water held by soils diminishes, and the water film around the soil grains becomes thinner, the capillary movement of the soil-water is retarded. This is easily understood by recalling that the soil particles have an attraction for water, which is of definite value, and may be measured by the thickest film that may be held against gravity. When the film is thinned, it does not diminish the attraction of the soil for water; it simply results in a stronger pull upon the water and a firmer holding of the film against the surfaces of the soil grains. To move soil-water under such conditions requires the expenditure of more energy than is necessary for moving water in a saturated or nearly saturated soil. Under like conditions, therefore, the thinner the soil-water film the more difficult will be the upward movement of the soil-water and the slower the evaporation from the topsoil. As drying goes on, a point is reached at which the capillary movement of the water wholly ceases. This is probably when little more than the hygroscopic moisture remains. In fact, very dry soil and water repel each other. This is shown in the common experience of driving along a road in summer, immediately after a light shower. The masses of dust are wetted only on the outside, and as the wheels pass through them the dry dust is revealed. It is an important fact that very dry soil furnishes a very effective protection against the capillary movement of water. In accordance with the principle above established if the surface soil could be dried to the point where capillarity is very slow, the evaporation would be diminished or almost wholly stopped. More than a quarter of a century ago, Eser showed experimentally that soil-water may be saved by drying the surface soil rapidly. Under dry-farm conditions it frequently occurs that the draft upon the water of the soil is so great that nearly all the water is quickly and so completely abstracted from the upper few inches of soil that they are left as an effective protection against further evaporation. For instance, in localities where hot dry winds are of common occurrence, the upper layer of soil is sometimes completely dried before the water in the lower layers can by slow capillary movement reach the top. The dry soil layer then prevents further loss of water, and the wind because of its intensity has helped to conserve the soil-moisture. Similarly in localities where the relative humidity is low, the sunshine abundant, and the temperature high, evaporation may go on so rapidly that the lower soil layers cannot supply the demands made, and the topsoil then dries out so completely as to form a protective covering against further evaporation. It is on this principle that the native desert soils of the United States, untouched by the plow, and the surfaces of which are sun-baked, are often found to possess large percentages of water at lower depths. Whitney recorded this observation with considerable surprise, many years ago, and other observers have found the same conditions at nearly all points of the arid region. This matter has been subjected to further study by Buckingham, who placed a variety of soils under artificially arid and humid conditions. It was found in every case that, the initial evaporation was greater under arid conditions, but as the process went on and the topsoil of the arid soil became dry, more water was lost under humid conditions. For the whole experimental period, also, more water was lost under humid conditions. It was notable that the dry protective layer was formed more slowly on alkali soils, which would point to the inadvisability of using alkali lands for dry-farm purposes. All in all, however, it appears "that under very arid conditions a soil automatically protects itself from drying by the formation of a natural mulch on the surface." Naturally, dry-farm soils differ greatly in their power of forming such a mulch. A heavy clay or a light sandy soil appears to have less power of such automatic protection than a loamy soil. An admixture of limestone seems to favor the formation of such a natural protective mulch. Ordinarily, the farmer can further the formation of a dry topsoil layer by stirring the soil thoroughly. This assists the sunshine and the air to evaporate the water very quickly. Such cultivation is very desirable for other reasons also, as will soon be discussed. Meanwhile, the water-dissipating forces of the dry-farm section are not wholly objectionable, for whether the land be cultivated or not, they tend to hasten the formation of dry surface layers of soil which guard against excessive evaporation. It is in moist cloudy weather, when the drying process is slow, that evaporation causes the greatest losses of soil-moisture. The effect of shading Direct sunshine is, next to temperature, the most active cause of rapid evaporation from moist soil surfaces. Whenever, therefore, evaporation is not rapid enough to form a dry protective layer of topsoil, shading helps materially in reducing surface losses of soil-water. Under very arid conditions, however, it is questionable whether in all cases shading has a really beneficial effect, though under semiarid or sub-humid conditions the benefits derived from shading are increased largely. Ebermayer showed in 1873 that the shading due to the forest cover reduced evaporation 62 per cent, and many experiments since that day have confirmed this conclusion. At the Utah Station, under arid conditions, it was found that shading a pot of soil, which otherwise was subjected to water-dissipating influences, saved 29 per cent of the loss due to evaporation from a pot which was not shaded. This principle cannot be applied very greatly in practice, but it points to a somewhat thick planting, proportioned to the water held by the soil. It also shows a possible benefit to be derived from the high header straw which is allowed to stand for several weeks in dry-farm sections where the harvest comes early and the fall plowing is done late, as in the mountain states. The high header stubble shades the ground very thoroughly. Thus the stubble may be made to conserve the soil-moisture in dry-farm sections, where grain is harvested by the "header" method. A special case of shading is the mulching of land with straw or other barnyard litter, or with leaves, as in the forest. Such mulching reduces evaporation, but only in part, because of its shading action, since it acts also as a loose top layer of soil matter breaking communication with the lower soil layers. Whenever the soil is carefully stirred, as will be described, the value of shading as a means or checking evaporation disappears almost entirely. It is only with soils which are tolerably moist at the surface that shading acts beneficially. Alfalfa in cultivated rows. This practice is employed to make possible the growth of alfalfa and other perennial crops on arid lands without irrigation. The effect of tillage Capillary soil-moisture moves from particle to particle until the surface is reached. The closer the soil grains are packed together, the greater the number of points or contact, and the more easily will the movement of the soil-moisture proceed. If by any means a layer of the soil is so loosened as to reduce the number of points of contact, the movement of the soil-moisture is correspondingly hindered. The process is somewhat similar to the experience in large r airway stations. Just before train time a great crowd of people is gathered outside or the gates ready to show their tickets. If one gate is opened, a certain number of passengers can pass through each minute; if two are opened, nearly twice as many may be admitted in the same time; if more gates are opened, the passengers will be able to enter the train more rapidly. The water in the lower layers of the soil is ready to move upward whenever a call is made upon it. To reach the surface it must pass from soil grain to soil grain, and the larger the number of grains that touch, the more quickly and easily will the water reach the surface, for the points of contact of the soil particles may be likened to the gates of the railway station. Now if, by a thorough stirring and loosening of the topsoil, the number of points of contact between the top and subsoil is greatly reduced, the upward flow of water is thereby largely checked. Such a loosening of the topsoil for the purpose of reducing evaporation from the topsoil has come to be called cultivation, and includes plowing, harrowing, disking, hoeing, and other cultural operations by which the topsoil is stirred. The breaking of the points of contact between the top and subsoil is undoubtedly the main reason for the efficiency of cultivation, but it is also to be remembered that such stirring helps to dry the top soil very thoroughly, and as has been explained a layer of dry soil of itself is a very effective check upon surface evaporation. That the stirring or cultivation of the topsoil really does diminish evaporation of water from the soil has been shown by numerous investigations. In 1868, Nessler found that during six weeks of an ordinary German summer a stirred soil lost 510 grams of water per square foot, while the adjoining compacted soil lost 1680 grams,--a saving due to cultivation of nearly 60 per cent. Wagner, testing the correctness of Nessler's work, found, in 1874, that cultivation reduced the evaporation a little more than 60 per cent; Johnson, in 1878, confirmed the truth of the principle on American soils, and Levi Stockbridge, working about the same time, also on American soils, found that cultivation diminished evaporation on a clay soil about 23 per cent, on a sandy loam 55 per cent, and on a heavy loam nearly 13 per cent. All the early work done on this subject was done under humid conditions, and it is only in recent years that confirmation of this important principle has been obtained for the soils of the dry-farm region. Fortier, working under California conditions, determined that cultivation reduced the evaporation from the soil surface over 55 per cent. At the Utah Station similar experiments have shown that the saving of soil-moisture by cultivation was 63 per cent for a clay soil, 34 per cent for a coarse sand, and 13 per cent for a clay loam. Further, practical experience has demonstrated time and time again that in cultivation the dry-farmer has a powerful means of preventing evaporation from agricultural soils. Closely connected with cultivation is the practice of scattering straw or other litter over the ground. Such artificial mulches are very effective in reducing evaporation. Ebermayer found that by spreading straw on the land, the evaporation was reduced 22 per cent; Wagner found under similar conditions a saving of 38 per cent, and these results have been confirmed by many other investigators. On the modern dry-farms, which are large in area, the artificial mulching of soils cannot become a very extensive practice, yet it is well to bear the principle in mind. The practice of harvesting dry-farm grain with the header and plowing under the high stubble in the fall is a phase of cultivation for water conservation that deserves special notice. The straw, thus incorporated into the soil, decomposes quite readily in spite of the popular notion to the contrary, and makes the soil more porous, and, therefore, more effectively worked for the prevention of evaporation. When this practice is continued for considerable periods, the topsoil becomes rich in organic matter, which assists in retarding evaporation, besides increasing the fertility of the land. When straw cannot be fed to advantage, as is yet the case on many of the western dry-farms, it would be better to scatter it over the land than to burn it, as is often done. Anything that covers the ground or loosens the topsoil prevents in a measure the evaporation of the water stored in lower soil depths for the use of crops. Depth of cultivation The all-important practice for the dry-farmer who is entering upon the growing season is cultivation. The soil must be covered continually with a deep layer of dry loose soil, which because of its looseness and dryness makes evaporation difficult. A leading question in connection with cultivation is the depth to which the soil should be stirred for the best results. Many of the early students of the subject found that a soil mulch only one half inch in depth was effective in retaining a large part of the soil-moisture which noncultivated soils would lose by evaporation. Soils differ greatly in the rate of evaporation from their surfaces. Some form a natural mulch when dried, which prevents further water loss. Others form only a thin hard crust, below which lies an active evaporating surface of wet soil. Soils which dry out readily and crumble on top into a natural mulch should be cultivated deeply, for a shallow cultivation does not extend beyond the naturally formed mulch. In fact, on certain calcareous soils, the surfaces of which dry out quickly and form a good protection against evaporation, shallow cultivations often cause a greater evaporation by disturbing the almost perfect natural mulch. Clay or sand soils, which do not so well form a natural mulch, will respond much better to shallow cultivations. In general, however, the deeper the cultivation, the more effective it is in reducing evaporation. Fortier, in the experiments in California to which allusion has already been made, showed the greater value of deep cultivation. During a period of fifteen days, beginning immediately after an irrigation, the soil which had not been mulched lost by evaporation nearly one fourth of the total amount of water that had been added. A mulch 4 inches deep saved about 72 per cent of the evaporation; a mulch 8 inches deep saved about 88 per cent, and a mulch 10 inches deep stopped evaporation almost wholly. It is a most serious mistake for the dry-farmer, who attempts cultivation for soil-moisture conservation, to fail to get the best results simply to save a few cents per acre in added labor. When to cultivate or till It has already been shown that the rate of evaporation is greater from a wet than from a dry surface. It follows, therefore, that the critical time for preventing evaporation is when the soil is wettest. After the soil is tolerably dry, a very large portion of the soil-moisture has been lost, which possibly might have been saved by earlier cultivation. The truth of this statement is well shown by experiments conducted by the Utah Station. In one case on a soil well filled with water, during a three weeks' period, nearly one half of the total loss occurred the first, while only one fifth fell on the third week. Of the amount lost during the first week, over 60 per cent occurred during the first three days. Cultivation should, therefore, be practiced as soon as possible after conditions favorable for evaporation have been established. This means, first, that in early spring, just as soon as the land is dry enough to be worked without causing puddling, the soil should be deeply and thoroughly stirred. Spring plowing, done as early as possible, is an excellent practice for forming a mulch against evaporation. Even when the land has been fall-plowed, spring plowing is very beneficial, though on fall-plowed land the disk harrow is usually used in early spring, and if it is set at rather a sharp angle, and properly weighted, so that it cuts deeply into the ground, it is practically as effective as spring plowing. The chief danger to the dry-farmer is that he will permit the early spring days to slip by until, when at last he begins spring cultivation, a large portion of the stored soil-water has been evaporated. It may be said that deep fall plowing, by permitting the moisture to sink quickly into the lower layers of soil, makes it possible to get upon the ground earlier in the spring. In fact, unplowed land cannot be cultivated as early as that which has gone through the winter in a plowed condition If the land carries a fall-sown crop, early spring cultivation is doubly important. As soon as the plants are well up in spring the land should be gone over thoroughly several times if necessary, with an iron tooth harrow, the teeth of which are set to slant backward in order not to tear up the plants. The loose earth mulch thus formed is very effective in conserving moisture; and the few plants torn up are more than paid for by the increased water supply for the remaining plants. The wise dry-fanner cultivates his land, whether fallow or cropped, as early as possible in the spring. Following the first spring plowing, disking, or cultivation, must come more cultivation. Soon after the spring plowing, the land should be disked and. then harrowed. Every device should be used to secure the formation of a layer of loose drying soil over the land surface. The season's crop will depend largely upon the effectiveness of this spring treatment. As the season advances, three causes combine to permit the evaporation of soil-moisture. First, there is a natural tendency, under the somewhat moist conditions of spring, for the soil to settle compactly and thus to restore the numerous capillary connections with the lower soil layers through which water escapes. Careful watch should therefore be kept upon the soil surface, and whenever the mulch is not loose, the disk or harrow should be run over the land. Secondly, every rain of spring or summer tends to establish connections with the store of moisture in the soil. In fact, late spring and summer rains are often a disadvantage on dry-farms, which by cultural treatment have been made to contain a large store of moisture. It has been shown repeatedly that light rains draw moisture very quickly from soil layers many feet below the surface. The rainless summer is not feared by the dry-farmer whose soils are fertile and rich in moisture. It is imperative that at the very earliest moment after a spring or summer rain the topsoil be well stirred to prevent evaporation. It thus happens that in sections of frequent summer rains, as in the Great Plains area, the farmer has to harrow his land many times in succession, but the increased crop yields invariably justify the added expenditure of effort. Thirdly, on the summer-fallowed ground weeds start vigorously in the spring and draw upon the soil-moisture, if allowed to grow, fully as heavily as a crop of wheat or corn. The dry-farmer must not allow a weed upon his land. Cultivation must he so continuous as to make weeds an impossibility. The belief that the elements added to the soil by weeds offset the loss of soil-moisture is wholly erroneous. The growth of weeds on a fallow dry-farm is more dangerous than the packed uncared-for topsoil. Many implements have been devised for the easy killing of weeds, but none appear to be better than the plow and the disk which are found on every farm. (See Chapter XV.) When crops are growing on the land, thorough summer cultivation is somewhat more difficult, but must be practiced for the greatest certainty of crop yields. Potatoes, corn, and similar crops may be cultivated with comparative ease, by the use of ordinary cultivators. With wheat and the other small grains, generally, the damage done to the crop by harrowing late in the season is too great, and reliance is therefore placed on the shading power of the plants to prevent undue evaporation. However, until the wheat and other grains are ten to twelve inches high, it is perfectly safe to harrow them. The teeth should be set backward to diminish the tearing up of the plants, and the implement weighted enough to break the soil crust thoroughly. This practice has been fully tried out over the larger part of the dry-farm territory and found satisfactory. So vitally important is a permanent soil mulch for the conservation for plant use of the water stored in the soil that many attempts have been made to devise means for the effective cultivation of land on which small grains and grasses are growing. In many places plants have been grown in rows so far apart that a man with a hoe could pass between them. Scofield has described this method as practiced successfully in Tunis. Campbell and others in America have proposed that a drill hole be closed every three feet to form a path wide enough for a horse to travel in and to pull a large spring tooth cultivator' with teeth so spaced as to strike between the rows of wheat. It is yet doubtful whether, under average conditions, such careful cultivation, at least of grain crops, is justified by the returns. Under conditions of high aridity, or where the store of soil-moisture is low, such treatment frequently stands between crop success and failure, and it is not unlikely that methods will be devised which will permit of the cheap and rapid cultivation between the rows of growing wheat. Meanwhile, the dry-farmer must always remember that the margin under which he works is small, and that his success depends upon the degree to which he prevents small wastes. Dry-farm potatoes, Rosebud Co., Montana, 1909. Yield, 282 bushels per acre. The conservation of soil-moisture depends upon the vigorous, unremitting, continuous stirring of the topsoil. Cultivation! cultivation! and more cultivation! must be the war-cry of the dry-farmer who battles against the water thieves of an arid climate. CHAPTER IX REGULATING THE TRANSPIRATION Water that has entered the soil may be lost in three ways. First, it may escape by downward seepage, whereby it passes beyond the reach of plant roots and often reaches the standing water. In dry-farm districts such loss is a rare occurrence, for the natural precipitation is not sufficiently large to connect with the country drainage, and it may, therefore, be eliminated from consideration. Second, soil-water may be lost by direct evaporation from the surface soil. The conditions prevailing in arid districts favor strongly this manner of loss of soil-moisture. It has been shown, however, in the preceding chapter that the farmer, by proper and persistent cultivation of the topsoil, has it in his power to reduce this loss enough to be almost negligible in the farmer's consideration. Third, soil-water may be lost by evaporation from the plants themselves. While it is not generally understood, this source of loss is, in districts where dry-farming is properly carried on, very much larger than that resulting either from seepage or from direct evaporation. While plants are growing, evaporation from plants, ordinarily called transpiration, continues. Experiments performed in various arid districts have shown that one and a half to three times more water evaporates from the plant than directly from well-tilled soil. To the present very little has been learned concerning the most effective methods of checking or controlling this continual loss of water. Transpiration, or the evaporation of water from the plants themselves and the means of controlling this loss, are subjects of the deepest importance to the dry-farmer. Absorption To understand the methods for reducing transpiration, as proposed in this chapter, it is necessary to review briefly the manner in which plants take water from the soil. The roots are the organs of water absorption. Practically no water is taken into the plants by the stems or leaves, even under conditions of heavy rainfall. Such small quantities as may enter the plant through the stems and leaves are of very little value in furthering the life and growth of the plant. The roots alone are of real consequence in water absorption. All parts of the roots do not possess equal power of taking up soil-water. In the process of water absorption the younger roots are most active and effective. Even of the young roots, however, only certain parts are actively engaged in water absorption. At the very tips of the young growing roots are numerous fine hairs. These root-hairs, which cluster about the growing point of the young roots, are the organs of the plant that absorb soil-water. They are of value only for limited periods of time, for as they grow older, they lose their power of water absorption. In fact, they are active only when they are in actual process of growth. It follows, therefore, that water absorption occurs near the tips of the growing roots, and whenever a plant ceases to grow the water absorption ceases also. The root-hairs are filled with a dilute solution of various substances, as yet poorly understood, which plays an important tent part in the ab sorption of water and plant-food from the soil. Owing to their minuteness, the root-hairs are in most cases immersed in the water film that surrounds the soil particles, and the soil-water is taken directly into the roots from the soil-water film by the process known as osmosis. The explanation of this inward movement is complicated and need not be discussed here. It is sufficient to say that the concentration or strength of the solution within the root-hair is of different degree from the soil-water solution. The water tends, therefore, to move from the soil into the root, in order to make the solutions inside and outside of the root of the same concentration. If it should ever occur that the soil-water and the water within the root-hair became the same concentration, that is to say, contained the same substances in the same proportional amounts, there would be no further inward movement of water. Moreover, if it should happen that the soil-water is stronger than the water within the root-hair, the water would tend to pass from the plant into the soil. This is the condition that prevails in many alkali lands of the West, and is the cause of the death of plants growing on such lands. It is clear that under these circumstances not only water enters the root-hairs, but many of the substances found in solution in the soil-water enter the plant also. Among these are the mineral substances which are indispensable for the proper life and growth of plants. These plant nutrients are so indispensable that if any one of them is absent, it is absolutely impossible for the plant to continue its life functions. The indispensable plant-foods gathered from the soil by the root-hairs, in addition to water, are: potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, nitrogen, and phosphorus,--all in their proper combinations. How the plant uses these substances is yet poorly understood, but we are fairly certain that each one has some particular function in the life of the plant. For instance, nitrogen and phosphorus are probably necessary in the formation of the protein or the flesh-forming portions of the plant, while potash is especially valuable in the formation of starch. There is a constant movement of the indispensable plant nutrients after they have entered the root-hairs, through the stems and into the leaves. This constant movement of the plant-foods depends upon the fact that the plant consumes in its growth considerable quantities of these substances, and as the plant juices are diminished in their content of particular plant-foods, more enters from the soil solution. The necessary plant-foods do not alone enter the plant but whatever may be in solution in the soil-water enters the plant in variable quantities. Nevertheless, since the plant uses only a few definite substances and leaves the unnecessary ones in solution, there is soon a cessation of the inward movement of the unimportant constituents of the soil solution. This process is often spoken of as selective absorption; that is, the plant, because of its vital activity, appears to have the power of selecting from the soil certain substances and rejecting others. Movement of water through plant The soil-water, holding in solution a great variety of plant nutrients, passes from the root-hairs into the adjoining cells and gradually moves from cell to cell throughout the whole plant. In many plants this stream of water does not simply pass from cell to cell, but moves through tubes that apparently have been formed for the specific purpose of aiding the movement of water through the plant. The rapidity of this current is often considerable. Ordinarily, it varies from one foot to six feet per hour, though observations are on record showing that the movement often reaches the rate of eighteen feet per hour. It is evident, then, that in an actively growing plant it does not take long for the water which is in the soil to find its way to the uppermost parts of the plant. The work of leaves Whether water passes upward from cell to cell or through especially provided tubes, it reaches at last the leaves, where evaporation takes place. It is necessary to consider in greater detail what takes place in leaves in order that we may more clearly understand the loss due to transpiration. One half or more of every plant is made up of the element carbon. The remainder of the plant consists of the mineral substances taken from the soil (not more than two to 10 per cent of the dry plant) and water which has been combined with the carbon and these mineral substances to form the characteristic products of plant life. The carbon which forms over half of the plant substance is gathered from the air by the leaves and it is evident that the leaves are very active agents of plant growth. The atmosphere consists chiefly of the gases oxygen and nitrogen in the proportion of one to four, but associated with them are small quantities of various other substances. Chief among the secondary constituents of the atmosphere is the gas carbon dioxid, which is formed when carbon burns, that is, when carbon unites with the oxygen of the air. Whenever coal or wood or any carbonaceous substance burns, carbon dioxid is formed. Leaves have the power of absorbing the gas carbon dioxid from the air and separating the carbon from the oxygen. The oxygen is returned to the atmosphere while the carbon is retained to be used as the fundamental substance in the construction by the plant of oils, fats, starches, sugars, protein, and all the other products of plant growth. This important process known as carbon assimilation is made possible by the aid of countless small openings which exist chicfly on the surfaces of leaves and known as "stomata." The stomata are delicately balanced valves, exceedingly sensitive to external influences. They are more numerous on the lower side than on the upper side of plants. In fact, there is often five times more on the under side than on the upper side of a leaf. It has been estimated that 150,000 stomata or more are often found per square inch on the under side of the leaves of ordinary cultivated plants. The stomata or breathing-pores are so constructed that they may open and close very readily. In wilted leaves they are practically closed; often they also close immediately after a rain; but in strong sunlight they are usually wide open. It is through the stomata that the gases of the air enter the plant through which the discarded oxygen returns to the atmosphere. It is also through the stomata that the water which is drawn from the soil by the roots through the stems is evaporated into the air. There is some evaporation of water from the stems and branches of plants, but it is seldom more than a thirtieth or a fortieth of the total transpiration. The evaporation of water from the leaves through the breathing-pores is the so-called transpiration, which is the greatest cause of the loss of soil-water under dry-farm conditions. It is to the prevention of this transpiration that much investigation must be given by future students of dry-farming. Transpiration As water evaporates through the breathing-pores from the leaves it necessarily follows that a demand is made upon the lower portions of the plant for more water. The effect of the loss of water is felt throughout the whole plant and is, undoubtedly, one of the chief causes of the absorption of water from the soil. As evaporation is diminished the amount of water that enters the plants is also diminished. Yet transpiration appears to be a process wholly necessary for plant life. The question is, simply, to what extent it may be diminished without injuring plant growth. Many students believe that the carbon assimilation of the plant, which is fundamentally important in plant growth, cannot be continued unless there is a steady stream of water passing through the plant and then evaporating from the leaves. Of one thing we are fairly sure: if the upward stream of water is wholly stopped for even a few hours, the plant is likely to be so severely injured as to be greatly handicapped in its future growth. Botanical authorities agree that transpiration is of value to plant growth, first, because it helps to distribute the mineral nutrients necessary for plant growth uniformly throughout the plant; secondly, because it permits an active assimilation of the carbon by the leaves; thirdly, because it is not unlikely that the heat required to evaporate water, in large part taken from the plant itself, prevents the plant from being overheated. This last mentioned value of transpiration is especially important in dry-farm districts, where, during the summer, the heat is often intense. Fourthly, transpiration apparently influences plant growth and development in a number of ways not yet clearly understood. Conditions influencing transpiration In general, the conditions that determine the evaporation of water from the leaves are the same as those that favor the direct evaporation of water from soils, although there seems to be something in the life process of the plant, a physiological factor, which permits or prevents the ordinary water-dissipating factors from exercising their full powers. That the evaporation of water from the soil or from a free water surface is not the same as that from plant leaves may be shown in a general way from the fact that the amount of water transpired from a given area of leaf surface may be very much larger or very much smaller than that evaporated from an equal surface of free water exposed to the same conditions. It is further shown by the fact that whereas evaporation from a free water surface goes on with little or no interruption throughout the twenty-four hours of the day, transpiration is virtually at a standstill at night even though the conditions for the rapid evaporation from a free water surface are present. Some of the conditions influencing the transpiration may be enumerated as follows:-- First, transpiration is influenced by the relative humidity. In dry air, under otherwise similar conditions, plants transpire more water than in moist air though it is to be noted that even when the atmosphere is fully saturated, so that no water evaporates from a free water surface, the transpiration of plants still continues in a small degree. This is explained by the observation that since the life process of a plant produces a certain amount of heat, the plant is always warmer than the surrounding air and that transpiration into an atmosphere fully charged with water vapor is consequently made possible. The fact that transpiration is greater under a low relative humidity is of greatest importance to the dry-farmer who has to contend with the dry atmosphere. Second, transpiration increases with the increase in temperature; that is, under conditions otherwise the same, transpiration is more rapid on a warm day than on a cold one. The temperature increase of itself, however, is not sufficient to cause transpiration. Third, transpiration increases with the increase of air currents, which is to say, that on a windy day transpiration is much more rapid than on a quiet day. Fourth, transpiration increases with the increase of direct sunlight. It is an interesting observation that even with the same relative humidity, temperature, and wind, transpiration is reduced to a minimum during the night and increases manyfold during the day when direct sunlight is available. This condition is again to be noted by the dry-farmer, for the dry-farm districts are characterized by an abundance of sunshine. Fifth, transpiration is decreased by the presence in the soil-water of large quantities of the substances which the plant needs for its food material. This will be discussed more fully in the next section. Sixth, any mechanical vibration of the plant seems to have some effect upon the transpiration. At times it is increased and at times it is decreased by such mechanical disturbance. Seventh, transpiration varies also with the age of the plant. In the young plant it is comparatively small. Just before blooming it is very much larger and in time of bloom it is the largest in the history of the plant. As the plant grows older transpiration diminishes, and finally at the ripening stage it almost ceases. Eighth, transpiration varies greatly with the crop. Not all plants take water from the soil at the same rate. Very little is as yet known about the relative water requirements of crops on the basis of transpiration. As an illustration, MacDougall has reported that sagebrush uses about one fourth as much water as a tomato plant. Even greater differences exist between other plants. This is one of the interesting subjects yet to be investigated by those who are engaged in the reclamation of dry-farm districts. Moreover, the same crop grown under different conditions varies in its rate of transpiration. For instance, plants grown for some time under arid conditions greatly modify their rate of transpiration, as shown by Spalding, who reports that a plant reared under humid conditions gave off 3.7 times as much water as the same plant reared under arid conditions. This very interesting observation tends to confirm the view commonly held that plants grown under arid conditions will gradually adapt themselves to the prevailing conditions, and in spite of the greater water dissipating conditions will live with the expenditure of less water than would be the case under humid conditions. Further, Sorauer found, many years ago, that different varieties of the same crop possess very different rates of transpiration. This also is an interesting subject that should be more fully investigated in the future. Ninth, the vigor of growth of a crop appears to have a strong influence on transpiration. It does not follow, however, that the more vigorously a crop grows, the more rapidly does it transpire water, for it is well known that the most luxuriant plant growth occurs in the tropics, where the transpiration is exceedingly low. It seems to be true that under the same conditions, plants that grow most vigorously tend to use proportionately the smallest amount of water. Tenth, the root system--its depth and manner of growth--influences the rate of transpiration. The more vigorous and extensive the root system, the more rapidly can water be secured from the soil by the plant. The conditions above enumerated as influencing transpiration are nearly all of a physical character, and it must not be forgotten that they may all be annulled or changed by a physiological regulation. It must be admitted that the subject of transpiration is yet poorly understood, though it is one of the most important subjects in its applications to plant production in localities where water is scaree. It should also be noted that nearly all of the above conditions influencing transpiration are beyond the control of the farmer. The one that seems most readily controlled in ordinary agricultural practice will be discussed in the following section. Plant-food and transpiration It has been observed repeatedly by students of transpiration that the amount of water which actually evaporates from the leaves is varied materially by the substances held in solution by the soil-water. That is, transpiration depends upon the nature and concentration of soil solution. This fact, though not commonly applied even at the present time, has really been known for a very long time. Woodward, in 1699, observed that the amount of water transpired by a plant growing in rain water was 192.3 grams; in spring water, 163.6 grams, and in water from the River Thames, 159.5 grams; that is, the amount of water transpired by the plant in the comparatively pure rain water was nearly 20 per cent higher than that used by the plant growing in the notoriously impure water of the River Thames. Sachs, in 1859, carried on an elaborate series of experiments on transpiration in which he showed that the addition of potassium nitrate, ammonium sulphate or common salt to the solution in which plants grew reduced the transpiration; in fact, the reduction was large, varying from 10 to 75 per cent. This was confirmed by a number of later workers, among them, for instance, Buergerstein, who, in 1875, showed that whenever acids were added to a soil or to water in which plants are growing, the transpiration is increased greatly; but when alkalies of any kind are added, transpiration decreases. This is of special interest in the development of dry-farming, since dry-farm soils, as a rule, contain more substances that may be classed as alkalies than do soils maintained under humid conditions. Sour soils are very characteristic of districts where the rainfall is abundant; the vegetation growing on such soils transpires excessively and the crops are consequently more subject to drouth. The investigators of almost a generation ago also determined beyond question that whenever a complete nutrient solution is presented to plants, that is, a solution containing all the necessary plant-foods in the proper proportions, the transpiration is reduced immensely. It is not necessary that the plant-foods should be presented in a water solution in order to effect this reduction in transpiration; if they are added to the soil on which plants are growing, the same effect will result. The addition of commercial fertilizers to the soil will therefore diminish transpiration. It was further discovered nearly half a century ago that similar plants growing on different soils evaporate different amounts of water from their leaves; this difference, undoubtedly, is due to the conditions in the fertility of the soils, for the more fertile a soil is, the richer will the soil-water be in the necessary plant-foods. The principle that transpiration or the evaporation of water from the plants depends on the nature and concentration of the soil solution is of far-reaching importance in the development of a rational practice of dry-farming. Transpiration for a pound of dry matter Is plant growth proportional to transpiration? Do plants that evaporate much water grow more rapidly than those that evaporate less? These questions arose very early in the period characterized by an active study of transpiration. If varying the transpiration varies the growth, there would be no special advantage in reducing the transpiration. From an economic point of view the important question is this: Does the plant when its rate of transpiration is reduced still grow with the same vigor? If that be the case, then every effort should be made by the farmer to control and to diminish the rate of transpiration. One of the very earliest experiments on transpiration, conducted by Woodward in 1699, showed that it required less water to produce a pound of dry matter if the soil solution were of the proper concentration and contained the elements necessary for plant growth. Little more was done to answer the above questions for over one hundred and fifty years. Perhaps the question was not even asked during this period, for scientific agriculture was just coming into being in countries where the rainfall was abundant. However, Tschaplowitz, in 1878, investigated the subject and found that the increase in dry matter is greatest when the transpiration is the smallest. Sorauer, in researches conducted from 1880 to 1882, determined with almost absolute certainty that less water is required to produce a pound of dry matter when the soil is fertilized than when it is not fertilized. Moreover, he observed that the enriching of the soil solution by the addition of artificial fertilizers enabled the plant to produce dry matter with less water. He further found that if a soil is properly tilled so as to set free plant-food and in that way to enrich the soil solution the water-cost of dry plant substance is decreased. Hellriegel, in 1883, confirmed this law and laid down the law that poor plant nutrition increases the water-cost of every pound of dry matter produced. It was about this time that the Rothamsted Experiment Station reported that its experiments had shown that during periods of drouth the well-tilled and well-fertilized fields yielded good crops, while the unfertilized fields yielded poor crops or crop failures--indicating thereby, since rainfall was the critical factor, that the fertility of the soil is important in determining whether or not with a small amount of water a good crop can be produced. Pagnoul, working in 1895 with fescue grass, arrived at the same conclusion. On a poor clay soil it required 1109 pounds of water to produce one pound of dry matter, while on a rich calcareous soil only 574 pounds were required. Gardner of the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Soils, working in 1908, on the manuring of soils, came to the conclusion that the more fertile the soil the less water is required to produce a pound of dry matter. He incidentally called attention to the fact that in countries of limited rainfall this might be a very important principle to apply in crop production. Hopkins in his study of the soils of Illinois has repeatedly observed, in connection with certain soils, that where the land is kept fertile, injury from drouth is not common, implying thereby that fertile soils will produce dry matter at a lower water-cost. The most recent experiments on this subject, conducted by the Utah Station, confirm these conclusions. The experiments, which covered several years, were conducted in pots filled with different soils. On a soil, naturally fertile, 908 pounds of water were transpired for each pound of dry matter (corn) produced; by adding to this soil an ordinary dressing of manure' this was reduced to 613 pounds, and by adding a small amount of sodium nitrate it was reduced to 585 pounds. If so large a reduction could be secured in practice, it would seem to justify the use of commercial fertilizers in years when the dry-farm year opens with little water stored in the soil. Similar results, as will be shown below, were obtained by the use of various cultural methods. It may therefore, be stated as a law, that any cultural treatment which enables the soil-water to acquire larger quantities of plant-food also enables the plant to produce dry matter with the use of a smaller amount of water. In dry-farming, where the limiting factor is water, this principle must he emphasized in every cultural operation. Methods of controlling transpiration It would appear that at present the only means possessed by the farmer for controlling transpiration and making possible maximum crops with the minimum amount of water in a properly tilled soil is to keep the soil as fertile as is possible. In the light of this principle the practices already recommended for the storing of water and for the prevention of the direct evaporation of water from the soil are again emphasized. Deep and frequent plowing, preferably in the fall so that the weathering of the winter may be felt deeply and strongly, is of first importance in liberating plant-food. Cultivation which has been recommended for the prevention of the direct evaporation of water is of itself an effective factor in setting free plant-food and thus in reducing the amount of water required by plants. The experiments at the Utah Station, already referred to, bring out very strikingly the value of cultivation in reducing the transpiration. For instance, in a series of experiments the following results were obtained. On a sandy loam, not cultivated, 603 pounds of water were transpired to produce one pound of dry matter of corn; on the same soil, cultivated, only 252 pounds were required. On a clay loam, not cultivated, 535 pounds of water were transpired for each pound of dry matter, whereas on the cultivated soil only 428 pounds were necessary. On a clay soil, not cultivated, 753 pounds of water were transpired for each pound of dry matter; on the cultivated soil, only 582 pounds. The farmer who faithfully cultivates the soil throughout the summer and after every rain has therefore the satisfaction of knowing that he is accomplishing two very important things: he is keeping the moisture in the soil, and he is making it possible for good crops to be grown with much less water than would otherwise be required. Even in the case of a peculiar soil on which ordinary cultivation did not reduce the direct evaporation, the effect upon the transpiration was very marked. On the soil which was not cultivated, 451 pounds of water were required to produce one pound of dry matter (corn), while on the cultivated soils, though the direct evaporation was no smaller, the number of pounds of water for each pound of dry substance was as low as 265. One of the chief values of fallowing lies in the liberation of the plant-food during the fallow year, which reduces the quantity of water required the next year for the full growth of crops. The Utah experiments to which reference has already been made show the effect of the previous soil treatment upon the water requirements of crops. One half of the three types of soil had been cropped for three successive years, while the other half had been left bare. During the fourth year both halves were planted to corn. For the sandy loam it was found that, on the part that had been cropped previously, 659 pounds of water were required for each pound of dry matter produced, while on the part that had been bare only 573 pounds were required. For the clay loam 889 pounds on the cropped part and 550 on the previously bare part were required for each pound of dry matter. For the clay 7466 pounds on the cropped part and 1739 pounds on the previously bare part were required for each pound of dry matter. These results teach clearly and emphatically that the fertile condition of the soil induced by fallowing makes it possible to produce dry matter with a smaller amount of water than can be done on soils that are cropped continuously. The beneficial effects of fallowing are therefore clearly twofold: to store the moisture of two seasons for the use of one crop; and to set free fertility to enable the plant to grow with the least amount of water. It is not yet fully understood what changes occur in fallowing to give the soil the fertility which reduces the water needs of the plant. The researches of Atkinson in Montana, Stewart and Graves in Utah, and Jensen in South Dakota make it seem probable that the formation of nitrates plays an important part in the whole process. If a soil is of such a nature that neither careful, deep plowing at the right time nor constant crust cultivation are sufficient to set free an abundance of plant-food, it may be necessary to apply manures or commercial fertilizers to the soil. While the question of restoring soil fertility has not yet come to be a leading one in dry-farming, yet in view of what has been said in this chapter it is not impossible that the time will come when the farmers must give primary attention to soil fertility in addition to the storing and conservation of soil-moisture. The fertilizing of lands with proper plant-foods, as shown in the last sections, tends to check transpiration and makes possible the production of dry matter at the lowest water-cost. The recent practice in practically all dry-farm districts, at least in the intermountain and far West, to use the header for harvesting bears directly upon the subject considered in this chapter. The high stubble which remains contains much valuable plant-food, often gathered many feet below the surface by the plant roots. When this stubble is plowed under there is a valuable addition of the plant-food to the upper soil. Further, as the stubble decays, acid substances are produced that act upon the soil grains to set free the plant-food locked up in them. The plowing under of stubble is therefore of great value to the dry-farmer. The plowing under of any other organic substance has the same effect. In both cases fertility is concentrated near the surface, which dissolves in the soil-water and enables the crop to mature with the Ieast quantity of water. The lesson then to be learned from this chapter is, that it is not aufficient for the dry-farmer to store an abundance of water in the soil and to prevent that water from evaporating directly from the soil; but the soil must be kept in such a state of high fertility that plants are enabled to utilize the stored moisture in the most economical manner. Water storage, the prevention of evaporation, and the maintenance of soil fertility go hand in hand in the development of a successful system of farming without irrigation. CHAPTER X PLOWING AND FALLOWING The soil treatment prescribed in the preceding chapters rests upon (1) deep and thorough plowing, done preferably in the fall; (2) thorough cultivation to form a mulch over the surface of the land, and (3) clean summer fallowing every other year under low rainfall or every third or fourth year under abundant rainfall. Students of dry-farming all agree that thorough cultivation of the topsoil prevents the evaporation of soil-moisture, but some have questioned the value of deep and fall plowing and the occasional clean summer fallow. It is the purpose of this chapter to state the findings of practical men with reference to the value of plowing and fallowing in producing large crop yields under dry-farm conditions. It will be shown in Chapter XVIII that the first attempts to produce crops without irrigation under a limited rainfall were made independently in many diverse places. California, Utah, and the Columbia Basin, as far as can now be learned, as well as the Great Plains area, were all independent pioneers in the art of dry-farming. It is a most significant fact that these diverse localities, operating under different conditions as to soil and climate, have developed practically the same system of dry-farming. In all these places the best dry-farmers practice deep plowing wherever the subsoil will permit it; fall plowing wherever the climate will permit it; the sowing of fall grain wherever the winters will permit it, and the clean summer fallow every other year, or every third or fourth year. H. W. Campbell, who has been the leading exponent of dry-farming in the Great Plains area, began his work without the clean summer fallow as a part of his system, but has long since adopted it for that section of the country. It is scarcely to be believed that these practices, developed laboriously through a long succession of years in widely separated localities, do not rest upon correct scientific principles. In any case, the accumulated experience of the dry-farmers in this country confirms the doctrines of soil tillage for dry-farms laid down in the preceding chapters. At the Dry-Farming Congresses large numbers of practical farmers assemble for the purpose of exchanging experiences and views. The reports of the Congress show a great difference of opinion on minor matters and a wonderful unanimity of opinion on the more fundamental questions. For instance, deep plowing was recommended by all who touched upon the subject in their remarks; though one farmer, who lived in a locality the subsoil of which was very inert, recommended that the depth of plowing should be increased gradually until the full depth is reached, to avoid a succession of poor crop years while the lifeless soil was being vivified. The states of Utah, Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota, Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, and the provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan of Canada all specifically declared through one to eight representatives from each state in favor of deep plowing as a fundamental practice in dry-farming. Fall plowing, wherever the climatic conditions make it possible, was similarly advocated by all the speakers. Farmers in certain localities had found the soil so dry in the fall that plowing was difficult, but Campbell insisted that even in such places it would be profitable to use power enough to break up the land before the winter season set in. Numerous speakers from the states of Utah, Wyoming, Montana, Nebraska, and a number of the Great Plains states, as well as from the Chinese Empire, declared themselves as favoring fall plowing. Scareely a dissenting voice was raised. In the discussion of the clean summer fallow as a vital principle of dry-farming a slight difference of opinion was discovered. Farmers from some of the localities insisted that the clean summer fallow every other year was indispensable; others that one in three years was sufficient; and others one in four years, and a few doubtful the wisdom of it altogether. However, all the speakers agreed that clean and thorough cultivation should be practiced faithfully during the spring, and fall of the fallow year. The appreciation of the fact that weeds consume precious moisture and fertility seemed to be general among the dry-farmers from all sections of the country. The following states, provinces, and countries declared themselves as being definitely and emphatically in favor of clean summer fallowing: California, Utah, Nevada, Washington, Montana, Idaho, Colorado, New Mexico, North Dakota, Nebraska, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Russia, Turkey, the Transvaal, Brazil, and Australia. Each of these many districts was represented by one to ten or more representatives. The only state to declare somewhat vigorously against it was from the Great Plains area, and a warning voice was heard from the United States Department of Agriculture. The recorded practical experience of the farmers over the whole of the dry-farm territory of the United States leads to the conviction that fallowing must he accepted as a practice which resulted in successful dry-farming. Further, the experimental leaders in the dry-farm movement, whether working under private, state, or governmental direction, are, with very few exceptions, strongly in favor of deep fall plowing and clean summer fallowing as parts of the dry-farm system. The chief reluctance to accept clean summer fallowing as a principle of dry-farming appears chicfly among students of the Great Plains area. Even there it is admitted by all that a wheat crop following a fallow year is larger and better than one following wheat. There seem, however, to be two serious reasons for objecting to it. First, a fear that a clean summer fallow, practiced every second, third, or fourth year, will cause a large diminution of the organic matter in the soil, resulting finally in complete crop failure; and second, a belief that a hoed crop, like corn or potatoes, exerts the same beneficial effect. It is undoubtedly true that the thorough tillage involved in dry-farming exposes to the action of the elements the organic matter of the soil and thereby favors rapid oxidation. For that reason the different ways in which organic matter may be supplied regularly to dry-farms are pointed out in Chapter XIV. It may also be observed that the header harvesting system employed over a large part of the dry-farm territory leaves the large header stubble to be plowed under, and it is probable that under such methods more organic matter is added to the soil during the year of cropping than is lost during the year of fallowing. It may, moreover, be observed that thorough tillage of a crop like corn or potatoes tends to cause a loss of the organic matter of the soil to a degree nearly as large as is the case when a fallow field is well cultivated. The thorough stirring of the soil under an arid or semiarid climate, which is an essential feature of dry-farming, will always result in a decrease in organic matter. It matters little whether the soil is fallow or in crop during the process of cultivation, so far as the result is concerned. A serious matter connected with fallowing in the Great Plains area is the blowing of the loose well-tilled soil of the fallow fields, which results from the heavy winds that blow so steadily over a large part of the western slope of the Mississippi Valley. This is largely avoided when crops are grown on the land, even when it is well tilled. The theory, recently proposed, that in the Great Plains area, where the rains come chicfly in summer, the growing of hoed crops may take the place of the summer fallow, is said to be based on experimental data not yet published. Careful and conscientious experimenters, as Chilcott and his co-laborers, indicate in their statements that in many cases the yields of wheat, after a hoed crop, have been larger than after a fallow year. The doctrine has, therefore, been rather widely disseminated that fallowing has no place in the dry-farming of the Great Plains area and should be replaced by the growing of hoed crops. Chilcott, who is the chief exponent of this doctrine, declares, however, that it is only with spring-grown crops and for a succession of normal years that fallowing may be omitted, and that fallowing must be resorted to as a safeguard or temporary expedient to guard against total loss of crop where extreme drouth is anticipated; that is, where the rainfall falls below the average. He further explains that continuous grain cropping, even with careful plowing and spring and fall tillage, is unsuccessful; but holds that certain rotations of crops, including grain and a hoed crop every other year, are often more profitable than grain alternating with clean summer fallow. He further believes that the fallow year every third or fourth year is sufficient for Great Plains conditions. Jardine explains that whenever fall grain is grown in the Great Plains area, the fallow is remarkably helpful, and in fact because of the dry winters is practically indispensable. This latter view is confirmed by the experimental results obtained by Atkinson and others at the Montana Experiment Stations, which are conducted under approximately Great Plains conditions. It should be mentioned also that in Saskatchewan, in the north end of the Great Plains area, and which is characteristic, except for a lower annual temperature, of the whole area, and where dry-farming has been practiced for a quarter of a century, the clean summer fallow has come to be an established practice. This recent discussion of the place of fallowing in the agriculture of the Great Plains area illustrates what has been said so often in this volume about the adapting of principles to local conditions. Wherever the summer rainfall is sufficient to mature a crop, fallowing for the purpose of storing moisture in the soil is unnecessary; the only value of the fallow year under such conditions would be to set free fertility. In the Great Plains area the rainfall is somewhat higher than elsewhere in the dry-farm territory and most of it comes in summer; and the summer precipitation is probably enough in average years to mature crops, providing soil conditions are favorable. The main considerations, then, are to keep the soils open for the reception of water and to maintain the soils in a sufficiently fertile condition to produce, as explained in Chapter IX, plants with a minimum amount of water. This is accomplished very largely by the year of hoed crop, when the soil is as well stirred as under a clean fallow. The dry-farmer must never forget that the critical element in dry-farming is water and that the annual rainfall will in the very nature of things vary from year to year, with the result that the dry year, or the year with a precipitation below the average, is sure to come. In somewhat wet years the moisture stored in the soil is of comparatively little consequence, but in a year of drouth it will be the main dependence of the farmer. Now, whether a crop be hoed or not, it requires water for its growth, and land which is continuously cropped even with a variety of crops is likely to be so largely depleted of its moisture that, when the year of drouth comes, failure will probably result. The precariousness of dry-farming must be done away with. The year of drouth must be expected every year. Only as certainty of crop yield is assured will dry-farming rise to a respected place by the side of other branches of agriculture. To attain such certainty and respect clean summer fallowing every second, third, or fourth year, according to the average rainfall, is probably indispensable; and future investigations, long enough continued, will doubtless confirm this prediction. Undoubtedly, a rotation of crops, including hoed crops, will find an important place in dry-farming, but probably not to the complete exclusion of the clean summer fallow. Jethro Tull, two hundred years ago, discovered that thorough tillage of the soil gave crops that in some cases could not be produced by the addition of manure, and he came to the erroneous conclusion that "tillage is manure." In recent days we have learned the value of tillage in conserving moisture and in enabling plants to reach maturity with the least amount of water, and we may be tempted to believe that "tillage is moisture." This, like Tull's statement, is a fallacy and must be avoided. Tillage can take the place of moisture only to a limited degree. Water is the essential consideration in dry-farming, else there would be no dry-farming. CHAPTER XI SOWING AND HARVESTING The careful application of the principles of soil treatment discussed in the preceding chapters will leave the soil in good condition for sowing, either in the fall or spring. Nevertheless, though proper dry-farming insures a first-class seed-bed, the problem of sowing is one of the most difficult in the successful production of crops without irrigation. This is chiefly due to the difficulty of choosing, under somewhat rainless conditions, a time for sowing that will insure rapid and complete germination and the establishmcnt of a root system capable of producing good plants. In some respects fewer definite, reliable principles can be laid down concerning sowing than any other principle of important application in the practice of dry-farming. The experience of the last fifteen years has taught that the occasional failures to which even good dry-farmers have been subjected have been caused almost wholly by uncontrollable unfavorable conditions prevailing at the time of sowing. Conditions of germination Three conditions determine germination: (1) heat, (2) oxygen, and (3) water. Unless these three conditions are all favorable, seeds cannot germinate properly. The first requisite for successful seed germination is a proper degree of heat. For every kind of seed there is a temperature below which germination does not occur; another, above which it does not occur, and another, the best, at which, providing the other factors are favorable, germination will go on most rapidly. The following table, constructed by Goodale, shows the latest, highest, and best germination temperatures for wheat, barley, and corn. Other seeds germinate approximately within the same ranges of temperature:-- Germination Temperatures (Degrees Farenheit) Lowest Highest Best Wheat 41 108 84 Barley 41 100 84 Corn 49 115 91 Germination occurs within the considerable range between the highest and lowest temperatures of this table, though the rapidity of germination decreases as the temperature recedes from the best. This explains the early spring and late fall germination when the temperature is comparatively low. If the temperature falls below the lowest required for germination, dry seeds are not injured, and even a temperature far below the freezing point of water will not affect seeds unfavorably if they are not too moist. The warmth of the soil, essential to germination, cannot well be controlled by the farmer; and planting must, therefore, be done in seasons when, from past experience, it is probable that the temperature is and will remain in the neighborhood of the best degree for germination. More heat is required to raise the temperature of wet soils; therefore, seeds will generally germinate more slowly in wet than in dry soils, as is illustrated in the rapid germination often observed in well-tilled dry-farm soils. Consequently, it is safer at a low temperature to sow in dry soils than in wet ones. Dark soils absorb heat more rapidly than lighter colored ones, and under the same conditions of temperature germination is therefore more likely to go on rapidly in dark colored soils. Over the dry-farm territory the soils are generally light colored, which would tend to delay germination. The incorporation of organic matter with the soil, which tends to darken the soil, has a slight though important bearing on germination as well as on the general fertility of the soil, and should be made an important dry-farm practice. Meanwhile, the temperature of the soil depends almost wholly upon the prevailing temperature conditions in the district and is not to any material degree under the control of the farmer. A sufficient supply of oxygen in the soil is indispensable to germination. Oxygen, as is well known, forms about one fifth of the atmosphere and is the active principle in combustion and in tile changes in the animal body occasioned by respiration. Oxygen should be present in the soil air in approximately the proportion in which it is found in the atmosphere. Germination is hindered by a larger or smaller proportion than is found in the atmosphere. The soil must be in such a condition that the air can easily enter or leave the upper soil layer; that is, the soil must be somewhat loose. In order that the seeds may have access to the necessary oxygen, then, sowing should not be done in wet or packed soils, nor should the sowing implements be such as to press the soil too closely around the seeds. Well-fallowed soil is in an ideal condition for admitting oxygen. If the temperature is right, germination begins by the forcible absorption of water by the seed from the surrounding soil. The force of this absorption is very great, ranging from four hundred to five hundred pounds per square inch, and continues until the seed is completely saturated. The great vigor with which water is thus absorbed from the soil explains how seeds are able to secure the necessary water from the thin water film surrounding the soil grains. The following table, based upon numerous investigations conducted in Germany and in Utah, shows the maximum percentages of water contained by seeds when the absorption is complete. These quantities are reached only when water is easily accessible:-- Percentage of Water contained by Seeds at Saturation German Utah Rye 58 -- Wheat 57 52 Oats 58 43 Barley 56 44 Corn 44 57 Beans 95 88 Lucern 78 67 Germination itself does not go on freely until this maximum saturation has been reached. Therefore, if the moisture in the soil is low, the absorption of water is made difficult and germination is retarded. This shows itself in a decreased percentage of germination. The effect upon germination of the percentage of water in the soil is well shown by some of the Utah experiments, as follows:-- Effect of Varying Amounts of Water on Percentage of Germination Percent water in soil 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5 25 Wheat in sandy loam 0.0 98 94 86 82 82 82 6 Wheat in clay 30 48 84 94 84 82 86 58 Beans in sandy loam 0 0 20 46 66 18 8 9 Beans in clay 0 0 6 20 22 32 30 36 Lucern in Sandy loam 0 18 68 54 54 8 8 9 Lucern in clay 8 8 54 48 50 32 15 14 In a sandy soil a small percentage of water will cause better germination than in a clay soil. While different seeds vary in their power to abstract water from soils, yet it seems that for the majority of plants, the best percentage of soil-water for germination purposes is that which is in the neighborhood of the maximum field capacity of soils for water, as explained in Chapter VII. Bogdanoff has estimated that the best amount of water in the soil for germination purposes is about twice the maximum percentage of hygroscopic water. This would not be far from the field-water capacity as described in the preceding chapter. During the absorption of water, seeds swell considerably, in many cases from two to three times their normal size. This has the very desirable effect of crowding the seed walls against the soil particles and thus, by establishing more points of contact, enabling the seed to absorb moisture with greater facility. As seeds begin to absorb water, heat is also produced. In many cases the temperature surrounding the seeds is increased one degree on the Centigrade scale by the mere process of water absorption. This favors rapid germination. Moreover, the fertility of the soil has a direct influence upon germination. In fertile soils the germination is more rapid and more complete than in infertile soils. Especially active in favoring direct germination are the nitrates. When it is recalled that the constant cultivation and well-kept summer fallow of dry-farming develop large quantities of nitrates in the soil, it will be understood that the methods of dry-farming as already outlined accelerate germination very greatly. It scareely need be said that the soil of the seed-bed should be fine, mellow, and uniform in physical texture so that the seeds can be planted evenly and in close contact with the soil particles. All the requisite conditions for germination are best met by the conditions prevailing in a well-kept summer fallowed soil. Time to sow In the consideration of the time to sow, the first question to be disposed of by the dry-farmer is that of fall as against spring sowing. The small grains occur as fall and spring varieties, and it is vitally important to determine which season, under dry-farm conditions, is the best for sowing. The advantages of fall sowing are many. As stated, successful germination is favored by the presence of an abundance of fertility, especially of nitrates, in the soil. In summer-fallowed land nitrates are always found in abundance in the fall, ready to stimulate the seed into rapid germination and the young plants into vigorous growth. During the late fall and winter months the nitrates disappear, at least in part, anti from the point of view of fertility the spring is not so desirable as the fall for germination. More important, grain sown in the fall under favorable conditions will establish a good root system which is ready for use and in action in the early spring as soon as the temperature is right and long before the farmer can go out on the ground with his implements. As a result, the crop has the use of the early spring moisture, which under the conditions of spring sowing is evaporated into the air. Where the natural precipitation is light and the amount of water stored in the soil is not large, the gain resulting from the use of the early spring moisture. often decides the question in favor of fall sowing. The disadvantages of fall sowing are also many. The uncertainty of the fall rains must first be considered. In ordinary practice, seed sown in the fall does not germinate until a rain comes, unless indeed sowing is done immediately after a rain. The fall rains are uncertain as to quantity. In many cases they are so light that they suffice only to start germination and not to complete it and give the plants the proper start. Such incomplete germination frequently causes the total loss of the crop. Even if the stand of the fall crop is satisfactory, there is always the danger of winter-killing to be reckoned with. The real cause of winter-killing is not yet clearly understood, though it seems that repeated thawing and freezing, drying winter winds, accompanied by dry cold or protracted periods of intense cold, destroy the vitality of the seed and young root system. Continuous but moderate cold is not ordinarily very injurious. The liability to winter-killing is, therefore, very much greater wherever the winters are open than in places where the snow covers the ground the larger part of the winter. It is also to be kept in mind that some varieties are very resistant to winter-killing, while others require well-covered winters. Fall sowing is preferable wherever the bulk of the precipitation comes in winter and spring and where the winters are covered for some time with snow and the summers are dry. Under such conditions it is very important that the crop make use of the moisture stored in the soil in the early spring. Wherever the precipitation comes largely in late spring and summer, the arguments in favor of fall sowing are not so strong, and in such localities spring sowing is often more desirable than fall sowing. In the Great Plains district, therefore, spring sowing is usually recommended, though fall-sown crops nearly always, even there, yield the larger crops. In the intermountain states, with wet winters and dry summers, fall sowing has almost wholly replaced spring sowing. In fact, Farrell reports that upon the Nephi (Utah) substation the average of six years shows about twenty bushels of wheat from fall-sown seed as against about thirteen bushels from spring-sown seed. Under the California climate, with wet winters and a winter temperature high enough for plant growth, fall sowing is also a general practice. Wherever the conditions are favorable, fall sowing should be practiced, for it is in harmony with the best principles of water conservation. Even in districts where the precipitation comes chiefly in the summer, it may be found that fall sowing, after all, is preferable. The right time to sow in the fall can be fixed only with great difficulty, for so much depends upon the climatic conditions. In fact the practice varies in accordance with differences in fall precipitation and early fall frosts. Where numerous fall rains maintain the soil in a fairly moist condition and the temperature is not too low, the problem is comparatively simple. In such districts, for latitudes represented by the dry-farm sections of the United States, a good time for fall planting is ordinarily from the first of September to the middle of October. If sown much earlier in such districts, the growth is likely to be too rank and subject to dangerous injury by frosts, and as suggested by Farrell the very large development of the root system in the fall may cause, the following summer, a dangerously large growth of foliage; that is, the crop may run to straw at the expense of the grain. If sown much later, the chances are that the crop will not possess sufficient vitality to withstand the cold of late fall and winter. In localities where the late summer and the early fall are rainless, it is much more difficult to lay down a definite rule covering the time of fall sowing. The dry-farmers in such places usually sow at any convenient time in the hope that an early rain will start the process of germination and growth. In other cases planting is delayed until the arrival of the first fall rain. This is an certain and usually unsatisfactory practice, since it often happens that the sowing is delayed until too late in the fall for the best results. In districts of dry late summer and fall, the greatest danger in depending upon the fall rains for germination lies in the fact that the precipitation is often so small that it initiates germination without being sufficient to complete it. This means that when the seed is well started in germination, the moisture gives out. When another slight rain comes a little later, germination is again started and possibly again stopped. In some seasons this may occur several times, to the permanent injury of the crop. Dry-farmers try to provide against this danger by using an unusually large amount of seed, assuming that a certain amount will fail to come up because of the repeated partial germinations. A number of investigators have demonstrated that a seed may start to germinate, then be dried, and again be started to germinate several times in succession without wholly destroying the vitality of the seed. In these experiments wheat and other seeds were allowed to germinate and dry seven times in succession. With each partial germination the percentage of total germination decreased until at the seventh germination only a few seeds of wheat, barley, and oats retained their power. This, however, is practically the condition in dry-farm districts with rainless summers and falls, where fall seeding is practiced. In such localities little dependence should be placed on the fall rains and greater reliance placed on a method of soil treatment that will insure good germination. For this purpose the summer fallow has been demonstrated to be the most desirable practice. If the soil has been treated according to the principles laid down in earlier chapters, the fallowed land will, in the fall, contain a sufficient amount of moisture to produce complete germination though no rains may fall. Under such conditions the main consideration is to plant the seed so deep that it may draw freely upon the stored soil-moisture. This method makes fall germination sure in districts where the natural precipitation is not to be depended upon. When sowing is done in the spring, there are few factors to consider. Whenever the temperature is right and the soil has dried out sufficiently so that agricultural implements may be used properly, it is usually safe to begin sowing. The customs which prevail generally with regard to the time of spring sowing may be adopted in dry-farm practices also. Depth of seeding The depth to which seed should be planted in the soil is of importance in a system of dry-farming. The reserve materials in seeds are used to produce the first roots and the young plants. No new nutriment beyond that stored in the soil can be obtained by the plant until the leaves are above the ground able to gather Carleton from the atmosphere. The danger of deep planting lies, therefore, in exhausting the reserve materials of the seeds before the plant has been able to push its leaves above the ground. Should this occur, the plant will probably die in the soil. On the other hand, if the seed is not planted deeply enough, it may happen that the roots cannot be sent down far enough to connect with the soil-water reservoir below. Then, the root system will not be strong and deep, but will have to depend for its development upon the surface water, which is always a dangerous practice in dry-farming. The rule as to the depth of seeding is simply: Plant as deeply as is safe. The depth to which seeds may be safely placed depends upon the nature of the soil, its fertility, its physical condition, and the water that it contains. In sandy soils, planting may be deeper than in clay soils, for it requires less energy for a plant to push roots, stems, and leaves through the loose sandy soil than through the more compact clay soil; in a dry soil planting may be deeper than in wet soils; likewise, deep planting is safer in a loose soil than in one firmly compacted; finally, where the moist soil is considerable distance below the surface, deeper planting may be practiced than when the moist soil is near the surface. Countless experiments have been conducted on the subject of depth of seeding. In a few cases, ordinary agricultural seeds planted eight inches deep have come up and produced satisfactory plants. However, the consensus of opinion is that from one to three inches are best in humid districts, but that, everything considered, four inches is the best depth under dry-farm conditions. Under a low natural precipitation, where the methods of dry-farming are practiced, it is always safe to plant deeply, for such a practice will develop and strengthen the root system, which is one big step toward successful dry-farming. Quantity to sow Numerous dry-farm failures may be charged wholly to ignorance concerning the quantity of seed to sow. In no other practice has the custom of humid countries been followed more religiously by dry-farmers, and failure has nearly always resulted. The discussions in this volume have brought out the fact that every plant of whatever character requires a large amount of water for its growth. From the first day of its growth to the day of its maturity, large amounts of water are taken from the soil through the plant and evaporated into the air through the leaves. When the large quantities of seed employed in humid countries have been sown on dry lands, the result has usually been an excellent stand early in the season, with a crop splendid in appearance up to early summer. .A luxuriant spring crop reduces, however, the water content of the soil so greatly that when the heat of the summer arrives, there is not sufficient water left in the soil to support the final development and ripening. A thick stand in early spring is no assurance to the dry-farmer of a good harvest. On the contrary, it is usually the field with a thin stand in spring that stands up best through the summer and yields most at the time of harvest. The quantity of seed sown should vary with the soil conditions: the more fertile the soil is, the more seed may be used; the more water in the soil, the more seed may be sown; as the fertility or the water content diminishes, the amount of seed should likewise be diminished. Under dry-farm conditions the fertility is good, but the moisture is low. As a general principle, therefore, light seeding should be practiced on dry-farms, though it should be sufficient to yield a crop that will shade the ground well. If the sowing is done early, in fall or spring, less seed may be used than if the sowing is late, because the early sowing gives a better chance for root development, which results, ordinarily, in more vigorous plants that consume more moisture than the smaller and weaker plants of later sowing. If the winters are mild and well covered with snow, less seed may be used than in districts where severe or open winters cause a certain amount of winter-killing. On a good seed-bed of fallowed soil less seed may be used than where the soil has not been carefully tilled and is somewhat rough and lumpy and unfavorable for complete germination. The yield of any crop is not directly proportional to the amount sown, unless all factors contributing to germination are alike. In the case of wheat and other grains, thin seeding also gives a plant a better chance for stooling, which is Nature's method of adapting the plant to the prevailing moisture and fertility conditions. When plants are crowded, stooling cannot occur to any marked degree, and the crop is rendered helpless in attempts to adapt itself to surrounding conditions. In general the rule may be laid down that a little more than one half as much seed should be used in dry-farm districts with an annual rainfall of about fifteen inches than is used in humid districts. That is, as against the customary five pecks of wheat used per acre in humid countries about three pecks or even two pecks should be used on dry-farms. Merrill recommends the seeding of oats at the rate of about three pecks per acre; of barley, about three pecks; of rye, two pecks; of alfalfa, six pounds; of corn, two kernels to the hill, and other crops in the same proportion. No invariable rule can be laid down for perfect germination. A small quantity of seed is usually sufficient; but where germination frequently fails in part, more seed must be used. If the stand is too thick at the beginning of the growing season, it must be harrowed out. Naturally, the quantity of seed to be used should be based on the number of kernels as well as on the weight. For instance, since the larger the individual wheat kernels the fewer in a bushel, fewer plants would be produced from a bushel of large than from a bushel of small seed wheat. The size of the seed in determining the amount for sowing is often important and should be determined by some simple method, such as counting the seeds required to fill a small bottle. Method of sowing There should really be no need of discussing the method of sowing were it not that even at this day there are farmers in the dry-farm district who sow by broadcasting and insist upon the superiority of this method. The broadcasting of seed has no place in any system of scientific agriculture, least of all in dry-farming, where success depends upon the degree with which all conditions are controlled. In all good dry-farm practice seed should be placed in rows, preferably by means of one of the numerous forms of drill seeders found upon the market. The advantages of the drill are almost self-evident. It permits uniform distribution of the seed, which is indispensable for success on soils that receive limited rainfall. The seed may be placed at an even depth, which is very necessary, especially in fall sowing, where the seed depends for proper germination upon the moisture already stored in the soil. The deep seeding often necessary under dry-farm conditions makes the drill indispensable. Moreover, Hunt has explained that the drill furrows themselves have definite advantages. During the winter the furrows catch the snow, and because of the protection thus rendered, the seed is less likely to be heaved out by repeated freezing and thawing. The drill furrow also protects to a certain extent against the drying action of winds and in that way, though the furrows are small, they aid materially in enabling the young plant to pass through the winter successfully. The rains of fall and spring are accumulated in the furrows and made easily accessible to plants. Moreover, many of the drills have attachments whereby the soil is pressed around the seed and the topsoil afterwards stirred to prevent evaporation. This permits of a much more rapid and complete germination. The drill, the advantages of which were taught two hundred years ago by Jethro Tull, is one of the most valuable implements of modern agriculture. On dry-farms it is indispensable. The dry-farmer should make a careful study of the drills on the market and choose such as comply with the principles of the successful prosecution of dry-farming. Drill culture is the only method of sowing that can be permitted if uniform success is desired. The care of the crop Excepting the special treatment for soil-moisture conservation, dry-farm crops should receive the treatment usually given crops growing under humid conditions. The light rains that frequently fall in autumn sometimes form a crust on the top of the soil, which hinders the proper germination and growth of the fall-sown crop. It may be necessary, therefore, for the farmer to go over the land in the fall with a disk or more preferably with a corrugated roller. Ordinarily, however, after fall sowing there is no further need of treatment until the following spring. The spring treatment is of considerably more importance, for when the warmth of spring and early summer begins to make itself felt, a crust forms over many kinds of dry-farm soils. This is especially true where the soil is of the distinctively arid kind and poor in organic matter. Such a crust should be broken early in order to give the young plants a chance to develop freely. This may be accomplished, as above stated, by the use of a disk, corrugated roller, or ordinary smoothing harrow. When the young grain is well under way, it may be found to be too thick. If so, the crop may be thinned by going over the field with a good irontooth harrow with the teeth so set as to tear out a portion of the plants. This treatment may enable the remaining plants to mature with the limited amount of moisture in the soil. Paradoxically, if the crop seems to be too thin in the spring, harrowing may also be of service. In such a case the teeth should be slanted backwards and the harrowing done simply for the purpose of stirring the soil without injury to the plant, to conserve the moisture stored in the soil and to accelerate the formation of nitrates.--The conserved moisture and added fertility will strengthen the growth and diminish the water requirements of the plants, and thus yield a larger crop. The iron-tooth harrow is a very useful implement on the dry-farm when the crops are young. After the plants are up so high that the harrow cannot be used on them no special care need be given them, unless indeed they are cultivated crops like corn or potatoes which, of course, as explained in previous chapters, should receive continual cultivation. Harvesting The methods of harvesting crops on dry-farms are practically those for farms in humid districts. The one great exception may be the use of the header on the grain farms of the dry-farm sections. The header has now become well-nigh general in its use. Instead of cutting and binding the grain, as in the old method, the heads are simply cut off and piled in large stacks which later are threshed. The high straw which remains is plowed under in the fall and helps to supply the soil with organic matter. The maintenance of dry-farms for over a generation without the addition of manures has been made possible by the organic matter added to the soil in the decay of the high vigorous straw remaining after the header. In fact, the changes occurring in the soil in connection with the decaying of the header stubble appear to have actually increased the available fertility. Hundreds of Utah dry wheat farms during the last ten or twelve years have increased in fertility, or at least in productive power, due undoubtedly to the introduction of the header system of harvesting. This system of harvesting also makes the practice of fallowing much more effective, for it helps maintain the organic matter which is drawn upon by the fallow seasons. The header should be used wherever practicable. The fear has been expressed that the high header straw plowed under will make the soil so loose as to render proper sowing difficult and also, because of the easy circulation of air in the upper soil layers, cause a large loss of soil-moisture. This fear has been found to be groundless, for wherever the header straw has been plowed under; especially in connection with fallowing, the soil has been benefited. Rapidity and economy in harvesting are vital factors in dry-farming, and new devices are constantly being offered to expedite the work. Of recent years the combined harvester and thresher has come into general use. It is a large header combined with an ordinary threshing machine. The grain is headed and threshed in one operation and the sacks dropped along the path of the machine. The straw is scattered over the field where it belongs. All in all, the question of sowing, care of crop, and harvesting may be answered by the methods that have been so well developed in countries of abundant rainfall, except as new methods may be required to offset the deficiency in the rainfall which is the determining condition of dry-farming. CHAPTER XII CROPS FOR DRY-FARMING The work of the dry-farmer is only half done when the soil has been properly prepared, by deep plowing, cultivation, fallowing, for the planting of the crop. The choice of the crop, its proper seeding, and its correct care and harvesting are as important as rational soil treatment in the successful pursuit of dry-farming. It is true that in general the kinds of crops ordinarily cultivated in humid regions are grown also on arid lands, but varieties especially adapted to the prevailing dry-farm conditions must be used if any certainty of harvest is desired. Plants possess a marvelous power of adaptation to environment, and this power becomes stronger as successive generations of plants are grown under the given conditions. Thus, plants which have been grown for long periods of time in countries of abundant rainfall and characteristic humid climate and soil yield well under such conditions, but usually suffer and die or at best yield scantily if planted in hot rainless countries with deep soils. Yet, such plants, if grown year after year under arid conditions, become accustomed to warmth and dryness and in time will yield perhaps nearly as well or it may be better in their new surroundings. The dry-farmer who looks for large harvests must use every care to secure varieties of crops that through generations of breeding have become adapted to the conditions prevailing on his farm. Home-grown seeds, if grown properly, are therefore of the highest value. In fact, in the districts where dry-farming has been practiced longest the best yielding varieties are, with very few exceptions, those that have been grown for many successive years on the same lands. The comparative newness of the attempts to produce profitable crops in the present dry-farming territory and the consequent absence of home-grown seed has rendered it wise to explore other regions of the world, with similar climatic conditions, but long inhabited, for suitable crop varieties. The United States Department of Agriculture has accomplished much good work in this direction. The breeding of new varieties by scientific methods is also important, though really valuable results cannot be expected for many years to come. When results do come from breeding experiments, they will probably be of the greatest value to the dry-farmer. Meanwhile, it must be acknowledged that at the present, our knowledge of dry-farm crops is extremely limited. Every year will probably bring new additions to the list and great improvements of the crops and varieties now recommended. The progressive dry-farmer should therefore keep in close touch with state and government workers concerning the best varieties to use. Moreover, while the various sections of the dry-farming territory are alike in receiving a small amount of rainfall, they are widely different in other conditions affecting plant growth, such as soils, winds, average temperature, and character and severity of the winters. Until trials have been made in all these varying localities, it is not safe to make unqualified recommendations of any crop or crop variety. At the present we can only say that for dry-farm purposes we must have plants that will produce the maximum quantity of dry matter with the minimum quantity of water; and that their periods of growth must be the shortest possible. However, enough work has been done to establish some general rules for the guidance of the dry-farmer in the selection of crops. Undoubtedly, we have as yet had only a glimpse of the vast crop possibilities of the dry-farming territory in the United States, as well as in other countries. Wheat Wheat is the leading dry-farm crop. Every prospect indicates that it will retain its preëminence. Not only is it the most generally used cereal, but the world is rapidly learning to depend more and more upon the dry-farming areas of the world for wheat production. In the arid and semiarid regions it is now a commonly accepted doctrine that upon the expensive irrigated lands should be grown fruits, vegetables, sugar beets, and other intensive crops, while wheat, corn, and other grains and even much of the forage should be grown as extensive crops upon the non-irrigated or dry-farm lands. It is to be hoped that the time is near at hand when it will be a rarity to see grain grown upon irrigated soil, providing the climatic conditions permit the raising of more extensive crops. In view of the present and future greatness of the wheat crop on semiarid lands, it is very important to secure the varieties that will best meet the varying dry-farm conditions. Much has been done to this end, but more needs to be done. Our knowledge of the best wheats is still fragmentary. This is even more true of other dry-farm crops. According to Jardine, the dry-farm wheats grown at present in the United States may be classificd as follows:-- I. Hard spring wheats: (a) Common (b) Durum II. Winter wheats: (a) Hard wheats (Crimean) (b) Semihard wheats (Intermountain) (c) Soft wheats (Pactfic) The common varieties of hard _spring wheats _are grown principally in districts where winter wheats have not as yet been successful; that is, in the Dakotas, northwestern Nebraska, and other localities with long winters and periods of alternate thawing and severe freezing. The superior value of winter wheat has been so clearly demonstrated that attempts are being made to develop in every locality winter wheats that can endure the prevailing climatic conditions. Spring wheats are also grown in a scattering way and in small quantities over the whole dry-farm territory. The two most valuable varieties of the common hard spring wheat are Blue Stem and Red Fife, both well-established varieties of excellent milling qualities, grown in immense quantities in the Northeastern corner of the dry-farm territory of the United States and commanding the best prices on the markets of the world. It is notable that Red Fife originated in Russia, the country which has given us so many good dry-farm crops. The durum wheats or macaroni wheats, as they are often called, are also spring wheats which promise to displace all other spring varieties because of their excellent yields under extreme dry-farm conditions. These wheats, though known for more than a generation through occasional shipments from Russia, Algeria, and Chile, were introduced to the farmers of the United States only in 1900, through the explorations and enthusiastic advocacy of Carleton of the United States Department of Agriculture. Since that time they have been grown in nearly all the dryfarm states and especially in the Great Plains area. Wherever tried they have yielded well, in some cases as much as the old established winter varieties. The extreme hardness of these wheats made it difficult to induce the millers operating mills fitted for grinding softer wheats to accept them for flourmaking purposes. This prejudice has, however, gradually vanished, and to-day the durum wheats are in great demand, especially for blending with the softer wheats and for the making of macaroni. Recently the popularity of the durum wheats among the farmers has been enhanced, owing to the discovery that they are strongly rust resistant. The _winter wheats, _as has been repeatedly suggested in preceding chapters, are most desirable for dry-farm purposes, wherever they can be grown, and especially in localities where a fair precipitation occurs in the winter and spring. The hard winter wheats are represented mainly by the Crimean group, the chief members of which are Turkey, Kharkow, and Crimean. These wheats also originated in Russia and are said to have been brought to the United States a generation ago by Mennonite colonists. At present these wheats are grown chiefly in the central and southern parts of the Great Plains area and in Canada, though they are rapidly spreading over the intermountain country. These are good milling wheats of high gluten content and yielding abundantly under dry-farm conditions. It is quite clear that these wheats will soon displace the older winter wheats formerly grown on dry-farms. Turkey wheat promises to become the leading dry-farm wheat. The semisoft winter wheats are grown chiefly in the intermountain country. They are represented by a very large number of varieties, all tending toward softness and starchiness. This may in part be due to climatic, soil, and irrigation conditions, but is more likely a result of inherent qualities in the varieties used. They are rapidly being displaced by hard varieties. The group of soft winter wheats includes numerous varieties grown extensively in the famous wheat districts of California, Oregon, Washington, and northern Idaho. The main varieties are Red Russian and Palouse Blue Stem, in Washington and Idaho, Red Chaff and Foise in Oregon, and Defiance, Little Club, Sonora, and White Australian in California. These are all soft, white, and rather poor in gluten. It is believed that under given climatic, soil, and cultural conditions, all wheat varieties will approach one type, distinctive of the conditions in question, and that the California wheat type is a result of prevailing unchangeable conditions. More researeh is needed, however, before definite principles can be laid down concerning the formation of distinctive wheat types in the various dry-farm sections. Under any condition, a change of seed, keeping improvement always in view, should be baneficial. Jardine has reminded the dry-farmers of the United States that before the production of wheat on the dry-farms can reach its full possibilities under any acreage, sufficient quantities must be grown of a few varieties to affect the large markets. This is especially important in the intermountain country where no uniformity exists, but the warning should be heeded also by the Pacific coast and Great Plains wheat areas. As soon as the best varieties are found they should displace the miscellaneous collection of wheat varieties now grown. The individual farmer can be a law unto himself no more in wheat growing than in fruit growing, if he desires to reap the largest reward of his efforts. Only by uniformity of kind and quality and large production will any one locality impress itself upon the markets and create a demand. The changes now in progress by the dry-farmers of the United States indicate that this lesson has been taken to heart. The principle is equally important for all countries where dry-farming is practiced. Other small grains _Oats _is undoubtedly a coming dry-farm crop. Several varieties have been found which yield well on lands that receive an average annual rainfall of less than fifteen inches. Others will no doubt be discovered or developed as special attention is given to dry-farm oats. Oats occurs as spring and winter varieties, but only one winter variety has as yet found place in the list of dry-farm crops. The leading; spring varieties of oats are the Sixty-Day, Kherson, Burt, and Swedish Select. The one winter variety, which is grown chiefly in Utah, is the Boswell, a black variety originally brought from England about 1901. _Barley, _like the other common grains, occurs in varieties that grow well on dry-farms. In comparison with wheat very little seareh has been made for dry-farm barleys, and, naturally, the list of tested varieties is very small. Like wheat and oats, barley occurs in spring and winter varieties, but as in the case of oats only one winter variety has as yet found its way into the approved list of dry-farm crops. The best dry-farm spring barleys are those belonging to the beardless and hull-less types, though the more common varieties also yield well, especially the six-rowed beardless barley. The winter variety is the Tennessee Winter, which is already well distributed over the Great Plains district. _Rye _is one of the surest dry-farm crops. It yields good crops of straw and grain, both of which are valuable stock foods. In fact, the great power of rye to survive and grow luxuriantly under the most trying dry-farm conditions is the chief objection to it. Once started, it is hard to eradicate. Properly cultivated and used either as a stock feed or as green manure, it is very valuable. Rye occurs as both spring and winter varieties. The winter varieties are usually most satisfactory. Carleton has recommended _emmer _as a crop peculiarly adapted to semiarid conditions. Emmer is a species of wheat to the berries of which the chaff adheres very closely. It is highly prized as a stock feed. In Russia and Germany it is grown in very large quantities. It is especially adapted to arid and semiarid conditions, but will probably thrive best where the winters are dry and summers wet. It exists as spring and winter varieties. is with the other small grains, the success of emmer will depend largely upon the satisfactory development of winter varieties. Corn Of all crops yet tried on dry-farms, corn is perhaps the most uniformly successful under extreme dry conditions. If the soil treatment and planting have been right, the failures that have been reported may invariably be traced to the use of seed which had not been acclimated. The American Indians grow corn which is excellent for dry-farm purposes; many of the western farmers have likewise produced strains that use the minimum of moisture, and, moreover, corn brought from humid sections adapts itself to arid conditions in a very few years. Escobar reports a native corn grown in Mexico with low stalks and small ears that well endures desert conditions. In extremely dry years corn does not always produce a profitable crop of seed, but the crop as a whole, for forage purposes, seldom fails to pay expenses and leave a margin for profit. In wetter years there is a corresponding increase of the corn crop. The dryfarming territory does not yet realize the value of corn as a dry-farm crop. The known facts concerning corn make it safe to predict, however, that its dry farm acreage will increase rapidly, and that in time it will crowd the wheat crop for preëminence. Sorghums Among dry-farm crops not popularly known are the sorghums, which promise to become excellent yielders under arid conditions. The sorghums are supposed to have come grown the tropical sections of the globe, but they are now scattered over the earth in all climes. The sorghums have been known in the United States for over half a century, but it was only when dry-farming began to develop so tremendously that the drouth-resisting power of the sorghums was recalled. According to Ball, the sorghums fall into the following classes:-- THE SORGHUMS 1. Broom corns 2. Sorgas or sweet sorghums 3. Kafirs 4. Durras The broom corns are grown only for their brush, and are not considered in dry-farming; the sorgas for forage and sirups, and are especially adapted for irrigation or humid conditions, though they are said to endure dry-farm conditions better than corn. The Kafirs are dry-farm crops and are grown for grain and forage. This group includes Red Kafir, White Kafir, Black-hulled White Kafir, and White Milo, all of which are valuable for dry-farming. The Durras are grown almost exclusively for seed and include Jerusalem corn, Brown Durra, and Milo. The work of Ball has made Milo one of the most important dry-farm crops. As improved, the crop is from four to four and a half feet high, with mostly erect heads, carrying a large quantity of seeds. Milo is already a staple crop in parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and New Mexico. It has further been shown to be adapted to conditions in the Dakotas, Nebraska, Colorado, Arizona, Utah, and Idaho. It will probably be found, in some varietal form, valuable over the whole dry-farm territory where the altitude is not too high and the average temperature not too low. It has yielded an average of forty bushels of seed to the acre. Lucern or alfalfa Next to human intelligence and industry, alfalfa has probably been the chief factor in the development of the irrigated West. It has made possible a rational system of agriculture, with the live-stock industry and the maintenance of soil fertility as the central considerations. Alfalfa is now being recognized as a desirable crop in humid as well as in irrigated sections, and it is probable that alfalfa will soon become the chief hay crop of the United States. Originally, lucern came from the hot dry countries of Asia, where it supplied feed to the animals of the first historical peoples. Moreover, its long; tap roots, penetrating sometimes forty or fifty feet into the ground, suggest that lucern may make ready use of deeply stored soil-moisture. On these considerations, alone, lucern should prove itself a crop well suited for dry-farming. In fact, it has been demonstrated that where conditions are favorable, lucern may be made to yield profitable crops under a rainfall between twelve and fifteen inches. Alfalfa prefers calcareous loamy soils; sandy and heavy clay soils are not so well adapted for successful alfalfa production. Under dry-farm conditions the utmost care must be used to prevent too thick seeding. The vast majority of alfalfa failures on dry-farms have resulted from an insufficient supply of moisture for the thickly planted crop. The alfalfa field does not attain its maturity until after the second year, and a crop which looks just right the second year will probably be much too thick the third and fourth years. From four to six pounds of seed per acre are usually ample. Another main cause of failure is the common idea that the lucern field needs little or no cultivation, when, in fact, the alfalfa field should receive as careful soil treatment as the wheat field. Heavy, thorough disking in spring or fall, or both, is advisable, for it leaves the topsoil in a condition to prevent evaporation and admit air. In Asiatic and North African countries, lucern is frequently cultivated between rows throughout the hot season. This has been tried by Brand in this country and with very good results. Since the crop should always be sown with a drill, it is comparatively easy to regulate the distance between the rows so that cultivating implements may be used. If thin seeding and thorough soil stirring are practiced, lucern usually grows well, and with such treatment should become one of the great dry-farm crops. The yield of hay is not large, but sufficient to leave a comfortable margin of profit. Many farmers find it more profitable to grow dry-farm lucern for seed. In good years from fifty to one hundred and fifty dollars may be taken from an acre of lucern seed. However, at the present, the principles of lucern seed production are not well established, and the seed crop is uncertain. Alfalfa is a leguminous crop and gathers nitrogen from the air. It is therefore a good fertilizer. The question of soil fertility will become more important with the passing of the years, and the value of lucern as a land improver will then be more evident than it is to-day. Other leguminous crops The group of leguminous or pod-bearing crops is of great importance; first, because it is rich in nitrogenous substances which are valuable animal foods, and, secondly, because it has the power of gathering nitrogen from the air, which can be used for maintaining the fertility of the soil. Dry-farming will not be a wholly safe practice of agriculture until suitable leguminous crops are found and made part of the crop system. It is notable that over the whole of the dry-farm territory of this and other countries wild leguminous plants flourish. That is, nitrogen-gathering plants are at work on the deserts. The farmer upsets this natural order of things by cropping the land with wheat and wheat only, so long as the land will produce profitably. The leguminous plants native to dry-farm areas have not as yet been subjected to extensive economic study, and in truth very little is known concerning leguminous plants adapted to dry-farming. In California, Colorado, and other dry-farm states the field pea has been grown with great profit. Indeed it has been found much more profitable than wheat production. The field bean, likewise, has been grown successfully under dry-farm conditions, under a great variety of climates. In Mexico and other southern climates, the native population produce large quantities of beans upon their dry lands. Shaw suggests that sanfoin, long famous for its service to European agriculture, may be found to be a profitable dry-farm crop, and that sand vetch promises to become an excellent dry-farm crop. It is very likely, however, that many of the leguminous crops which have been developed under conditions of abundant rainfall will be valueless on dry-farm lands. Every year will furnish new and more complete information on this subject. Leguminous plants will surely become important members of the association of dry-farm crops. Trees and shrubs So far, trees cannot be said to be dry-farm crops, though facts are on record that indicate that by the application of correct dry-farm principles trees may be made to grow and yield profitably on dry-farm lands. Of course, it is a well-known fact that native trees of various kinds are occasionally found growing on the deserts, where the rainfall is very light and the soil has been given no care. Examples of such vegetation are the native cedars found throughout the Great Basin region and the mesquite tree in Arizona and the Southwest. Few farmers in the arid region have as yet undertaken tree culture without the aid of irrigation. At least one peach orchard is known in Utah which grows under a rainfall of about fifteen inches without irrigation and produces regularly a small crop of most delicious fruit. Parsons describes his Colorado dry-farm orchard in which, under a rainfall of almost fourteen inches, he grows, with great profit, cherries, plums, and apples. A number of prospering young orchards are growing without irrigation in the Great Plains area. Mason discovered a few years ago two olive orchards in Arizona and the Colorado desert which, planted about fourteen years previously, were thriving under an annual rainfall of eight and a half and four and a half inches, respectively. These olive orchards had been set out under canals which later failed. Such attested facts lead to the thought that trees may yet take their place as dry-farm crops. This hope is strengthened when it is recalled that the great nations of antiquity, living in countries of low rainfall, grew profitably and without irrigation many valuable trees, some of which are still cultivated in those countries. The olive industry, for example, is even now being successfully developed by modern methods in Asiatic and African sections, where the average annual rainfall is under ten inches. Since 1881, under French management, the dry-farm olive trees around Tunis have increased from 45,000 to 400,000 individuals. Mason and also Aaronsohn suggest as trees that do well in the arid parts of the old world the so-called "Chinese date" or JuJube tree, the sycamore fig, and the Carob tree, which yields the "St. John's Bread" so dear to childhood. Of this last tree, Aaronsolm says that twenty trees to the acre, under a rainfall of twelve inches, will produce 8000 pounds of fruit containing 40 per cent of sugar and 7 to 8 per cent of protein. This surpasses the best harvest of alfalfa. Kearnley, who has made a special study of dry-land olive culture in northern Africa, states that in his belief a large variety of fruit trees may be found which will do well under arid and semiarid conditions, and may even yield more profit than the grains. It is also said that many shade and ornamental and other useful plants can be grown on dry-farms; as, for instance, locust, elm, black walnut, silverpoplar, catalpa, live oak, black oak, yellow pine, red spruce, Douglas fir, and cedar. The secret of success in tree growing on dry-farms seems to lie, first, in planting a few trees per acre,--the distance apart should be twice the ordinary distance,--and, secondly, in applying vigorously and unceasingly the established principles of soil cultivation. In a soil stored deeply with moisture and properly cultivated, most plants will grow. If the soil has not been carefully fallowed before planting, it may be necessary to water the young trees slightly during the first two seasons. Small fruits have been tried on many farms with great success. Plums, currants, and gooseberries have all been successful. Grapes grow and yield well in many dry-farm districts, especially along the warm foothills of the Great Basin. Tree growing on dry-farm lands is not yet well established and, therefore, should be undertaken with great care. Varieties accustomed to the climatic environment should be chosen, and the principles outlined in the preceding pages should be carefully used. Potatoes In recent years, potatoes have become one of the best dry-farm crops. Almost wherever tried on lands under a rainfall of twelve inches or more potatoes have given comparatively large yields. To-day, the growing of dry-farm potatoes is becoming an important industry. The principles of light seeding and thorough cultivation are indispensable for success. Potatoes are well adapted for use in rotations, where summer fallowing is not thought desirable. Macdonald enumerates the following as the best varieties at present used on dry-farms: Ohio, Mammoth, Pearl, Rural New Yorker, and Burbank. Miscellaneous A further list of dry-farm crops would include representatives of nearly all economic plants, most of them tried in small quantity in various localities. Sugar beets, vegetables, bulbous plants, etc., have all been grown without irrigation under dry-farm conditions. Some of these will no doubt be found to be profitable and will then be brought into the commercial scheme of dry-farming. Meanwhile, the crop problems of dry-farming demand that much careful work be done in the immediate future by the agencies having such work in charge. The best varieties of crops already in profitable use need to be determined. More new plants from all parts of the world need to be brought to this new dry-farm territory and tried out. Many of the native plants need examination with a view to their economic use. For instance, the sego lily bulbs, upon which the Utah pioneers subsisted for several seasons of famine, may possibly be made a cultivated crop. Finally, it remains to be said that it is doubtful wisdom to attempt to grow the more intensive crops on dry-farms. Irrigation and dry-farming will always go together. They are supplementary systems of agriculture in arid and semiarid regions. On the irrigated lands should be grown the crops that require much labor per acre and that in return yield largely per acre. New crops and varieties should besought for the irrigated farms. On the dry-farms should be grown the crops that can be handled in a large way and at a small cost per acre, and that yield only moderate acre returns. By such cooperation between irrigation and dry-farming will the regions of the world with a scanty rainfall become the healthiest, wealthiest, happiest, and most populous on earth. CHAPTER XIII THE COMPOSITION OF DRY-FARM CROPS The acre-yields of crops on dry-farms, even under the most favorable methods of culture, are likely to be much smaller than in humid sections with fertile soils. The necessity for frequent fallowing or resting periods over a large portion of the dry-farm territory further decreases the average annual yield. It does not follow from this condition that dry-farming is less profitable than humid-or irrigation-farming, for it has been fully demonstrated that the profit on the investment is as high under proper dry-farming as under any other similar generally adopted system of farming in any part of the world. Yet the practice of dry-farming would appear to be, and indeed would be, much more desirable could the crop yield be increased. The discovery of any condition which will offset the small annual yields is, therefore, of the highest importance to the advancement of dry-farming. The recognition of the superior quality of practically all crops grown without irrigation under a limited rainfall has done much to stimulate faith in the great profitableness of dry-farming. As the varying nature of the materials used by man for food, clothing, and shelter has become more clearly understood, more attention has been given to the valuation of commercial products on the basis of quality as well as of quantity. Sugar beets, for instance, are bought by the sugar factories under a guarantee of a minimum sugar content; and many factories of Europe vary the price paid according to the sugar contained by the beets. The millers, especially in certain parts of the country where wheat has deteriorated, distinguish carefully between the flour-producing qualities of wheats from various sections and fix the price accordingly. Even in the household, information concerning the real nutritive value of various foods is being sought eagerly, and foods let down to possess the highest value in the maintenance of life are displacing, even at a higher cost, the inferior products. The quality valuation is, in fact, being extended as rapidly as the growth of knowledge will permit to the chief food materials of commerce. As this practice becomes fixed the dry-farmer will be able to command the best market prices for his products, for it is undoubtedly true that from the point of view of quality, dry-farm food products may be placed safely in competition with any farm products on the markets of the world. Proportion of plant parts It need hardly be said, after the discussions in the preceding chapters, that the nature of plant growth is deeply modified by the arid conditions prevailing in dry-farming. This shows itself first in the proportion of the various plant parts, such as roots, stems, leaves, and seeds. The root systems of dry-farm crops are generally greatly developed, and it is a common observation that in adverse seasons the plants that possess the largest and most vigorous roots endure best the drouth and burning heat. The first function of the leaves is to gather materials for the building and strengthening of the roots, and only after this has been done do the stems lengthen and the leaves thicken. Usually, the short season is largely gone before the stem and leaf growth begins, and, consequently, a somewhat dwarfed appearance is characteristic of dry-farm crops. The size of sugar beets, potato tubers, and such underground parts depends upon the available water and food supply when the plant has established a satisfactory root and leaf system. If the water and food are scarce, a thin beet results; if abundant, a well-filled beet may result. Dry-farming is characterized by a somewhat short season. Even if good growing weather prevails, the decrease of water in the soil has the effect of hastening maturity. The formation of flowers and seed begins, therefore, earlier and is completed more quickly under arid than under humid conditions. Moreover, and resulting probably from the greater abundance of materials stored in the root system, the proportion of heads to leaves and stems is highest in dry-farm crops. In fact, it is a general law that the proportion of heads to straw in grain crops increases as the water supply decreases. This is shown very well even under humid or irrigation conditions when different seasons or different applications of irrigation water are compared. For instance, Hall quotes from the Rothamsted experiments to the effect that in 1879, which was a wet year (41 inches), the wheat crop yielded 38 pounds of grain for every 100 pounds of straw; whereas, in 1893, which was a dry year (23 inches), the wheat crop yielded 95 pounds of grain to every 100 pounds of straw. The Utah station likewise has established the same law under arid conditions. In one series of experiments it was shown as an average of three years' trial that a field which had received 22.5 inches of irrigation water produced a wheat crop that gave 67 pounds of grain to every 100 pounds of straw; while another field which received only 7.5 inches of irrigation water produced a crop that gave 100 pounds of grain for every 100 pounds of straw. Since wheat is grown essentially for the grain, such a variation is of tremendous importance. The amount of available water affects every part of the plant. Thus, as an illustration, Carleton states that the per cent of meat in oats grown in Wisconsin under humid conditions was 67.24, while in North Dakota, Kansas, and Montana, under arid and semiarid conditions, it was 71.51. Similar variations of plant parts may be observed as a direct result of varying the amount of available water. In general then, it may be said that the roots of dry-farm crops are well developed; the parts above ground somewhat dwarfed; the proportion of seed to straw high, and the proportion of meat or nutritive materials in the plant parts likewise high. The water in dry-farm crops One of the constant constituents of all plants and plant parts is water. Hay, flour, and starch contain comparatively large quantities of water, which can be removed only by heat. The water in green plants is often very large. In young lucern, for instance, it reaches 85 per cent, and in young peas nearly 90 per cent, or more than is found in good cow's milk. The water so held by plants has no nutritive value above ordinary water. It is, therefore, profitable for the consumer to buy dry foods. In this particular, again, dry-farm crops have a distinct advantage: During growth there is not perhaps a great difference in the water content of plants, due to climatic differences, but after harvest the drying-out process goes on much more completely in dry-farm than in humid districts. Hay, cured in humid regions, often contains from 12 to 20 per cent of water; in arid climates it contains as little as 5 per cent and seldom more than 12 per cent. The drier hay is naturally more valuable pound for pound than the moister hay, and a difference in price, based upon the difference in water content, is already being felt in certain sections of the West. The moisture content of dry-farm wheat, the chief dry-farm crop, is even more important. According to Wiley the average water content of wheat for the United States is 10.62 per cent, ranging from 15 to 7 per cent. Stewart and Greaves examined a large number of wheats grown on the dry-farms of Utah and found that the average per cent of water in the common bread varieties was 8.46 and in the durum varieties 8.89. This means that the Utah dry-farm wheats transported to ordinary humid conditions would take up enough water from the air to increase their weight one fortieth, or 2.2 per cent, before they reached the average water content of American wheats. In other words, 1,000,000 bushels of Utah dry-farm wheat contain as much nutritive matter as 1,025,000 bushels of wheat grown and kept under humid conditions. This difference should be and now is recognized in the prices paid. In fact, shrewd dealers, acquainted with the dryness of dry-farm wheat, have for some years bought wheat from the dry-farms at a slightly increased price, and trusted to the increase in weight due to water absorption in more humid climates for their profits. The time should be near at hand when grains and similar products should be purchased upon the basis of a moisture test. While it is undoubtedly true that dry-farm crops are naturally drier than those of humid countries, yet it must also be kept in mind that the driest dry-farm crops are always obtained where the summers are hot and rainless. In sections where the precipitation comes chiefly in the spring and summer the difference would not be so great. Therefore, the crops raised on the Great Plains would not be so dry as those raised in California or in the Great Basin. Yet, wherever the annual rainfall is so small as to establish dry-farm conditions, whether it comes in the winter or summer, the cured crops are drier than those produced under conditions of a much higher rainfall, and dry farmers should insist that, so far as possible in the future, sales be based on dry matter. The nutritive substances in crops The dry matter of all plants and plant parts consists of three very distinct classes of substances: First, ash or the mineral constituents. Ash is used by the body in building bones and in supplying the blood with compounds essential to the various life processes. Second, protein or the substances containing the element nitrogen. Protein is used by the body in making blood, muscle, tendons, hair, and nails, and under certain conditions it is burned within the body for the production of heat. Protein is perhaps the most important food constituent. Third, non-nitrogenous substances, including fats, woody fiber, and nitrogen-free extract, a name given to the group of sugars, starehes, and related substances. These substances are used by the body in the production of fat, and are also burned for the production of heat. Of these valuable food constituents protein is probably the most important, first, because it forms the most important tissues of the body and, secondly, because it is less abundant than the fats, starches, and sugars. Indeed, plants rich in protein nearly always command the highest prices. The composition of any class of plants varies considerably in different localities and in different seasons. This may be due to the nature of the soil, or to the fertilizer applied, though variations in plant composition resulting from soil conditions are comparatively small. The greater variations are almost wholly the result of varying climate and water supply. As far as it is now known the strongest single factor in changing the composition of plants is the amount of water available to the growing plant. Variations due to varying water supply The Utah station has conducted numerous experiments upon the effect of water upon plant composition. The method in every case has been to apply different amounts of water throughout the growing season on contiguous plats of uniform land. [Lengthy table deleated from this edition.] Even a casual study of . . . [the results show] that the quantity of water used influenced the composition of the plant parts. The ash and the fiber do not appear to be greatly influenced, but the other constituents vary with considerable regularity with the variations in the amount of irrigation water. The protein shows the greatest variation. As the irrigation water is increased, the percentage of protein decreases. In the case of wheat the variation was over 9 per cent. The percentage of fat and nitrogen-free extract, on the other hand, becomes larger as the water increases. That is, crops grown with little water, as in dry-farming, are rich in the important flesh-and blood-forming substance protein, and comparatively poor in fat, sugar, stareh, and other of the more abundant heat and fat-producing substances. This difference is of tremendous importance in placing dry-farming products on the food markets of the world. Not only seeds, tubers, and roots show this variation, but the stems and leaves of plants grown with little water are found to contain a higher percentage of protein than those grown in more humid climates. The direct effect of water upon the composition of plants has been observed by many students. For instance, Mayer, working in Holland, found that, in a soil containing throughout the season 10 per cent of water, oats was produced containing 10.6 per cent of protein; in soil containing 30 per cent of water, the protein percentage was only 5.6 per cent, and in soil containing 70 per cent of water, it was only 5.2 per cent. Carleton, in a study of analyses of the same varieties of wheat grown in humid and semi-arid districts of the United States, found that the percentage of protein in wheat from the semiarid area was 14.4 per cent as against 11.94 per cent in the wheat from the humid area. The average protein content of the wheat of the United States is a little more than 12 per cent; Stewart and Greaves found an average of 16.76 per cent of protein in Utah dry-farm wheats of the common bread varieties and 17.14 per cent in the durum varieties. The experiments conducted at Rothamsted, England, as given by Hall, confirm these results. For example, during 1893, a very dry year, barley kernels contained 12.99 per cent of protein, while in 1894, a wet, though free-growing year, the barley contained only 9.81 per cent of protein. Quotations might be multiplied confirming the principle that crops grown with little water contain much protein and little heat-and fat-producing substances. Climate and composition The general climate, especially as regards the length of the growing season and naturally including the water supply, has a strong effect upon the composition of plants. Carleton observed that the same varieties of wheat grown at Nephi, Utah, contained 16.61 per cent protein; at Amarillo, Texas, 15.25 per cent; and at McPherson, Kansas, a humid station, 13.04 per cent. This variation is undoubtedly due in part to the varying annual precipitation but, also, and in large part, to the varying general climatic conditions at the three stations. An extremely interesting and important experiment, showing the effect of locality upon the composition of wheat kernels, is reported by LeClerc and Leavitt. Wheat grown in 1905 in Kansas was planted in 1906 in Kansas, California, and Texas In 1907 samples of the seeds grown at these three points were planted side by side at each of the three states All the crops from the three localities were analyzed separately each year. The results are striking and convincing. The original seed grown in Kansas in 1905 contained 16.22 per cent of protein. The 1906 crop grown from this seed in Kansas contained 19.13 per cent protein; in California, 10.38 percent; and in Texas, 12.18 percent. In 1907 the crop harvested in Kansas from the 1906 seed from these widely separated places and of very different composition contained uniformly somewhat more than 22 per cent of protein; harvested in California, somewhat more than 11 per cent; and harvested in Texas, about 18 per cent. In short, the composition of wheat kernels is independent of the composition of the seed or the nature of the soil, but depends primarily upon the prevailing climatic conditions, including the water supply. The weight of the wheat per bushel, that is, the average size and weight of the wheat kernel, and also the hardness or flinty character of the kernels, were strongly affected by the varying climatic conditions. It is generally true that dry-farm grain weighs more per bushel than grain grown under humid conditions; hardness usually accompanies a high protein content and is therefore characteristic of dry-farm wheat. These notable lessons teach the futility of bringing in new seed from far distant places in the hope that better and larger crops may be secured. The conditions under which growth occurs determine chiefly the nature of the crop. It is a common experience in the West that farmers who do not understand this principle send to the Middle West for seed corn, with the result that great crops of stalks and leaves with no ears are obtained. The only safe rule for the dry-farmer to follow is to use seed which has been grown for many years under dry-farm conditions. A reason for variation in composition It is possible to suggest a reason for the high protein content of dry-farm crops. It is well known that all plants secure most of their nitrogen early in the growing period. From the nitrogen, protein is formed, and all young plants are, therefore, very rich in protein. As the plant becomes older, little more protein is added, but more and more carbon is taken from the air to form the fats, starches, sugars, and other non-nitrogenous substances. Consequently, the proportion or percentage of protein becomes smaller as the plant becomes older. The impelling purpose of the plant is to produce seed. Whenever the water supply begins to give out, or the season shortens in any other way, the plant immediately begins to ripen. Now, the essential effect of dry-farm conditions is to shorten the season; the comparatively young plants, yet rich in protein, begin to produce seed; and at harvest, seed, and leaves, and stalks are rich in the flesh-and blood-forming element of plants. In more humid countries plants delay the time of seed production and thus enable the plants to store up more carbon and thus reduce the percent of protein. The short growing season, induced by the shortness of water, is undoubtedly the main reason for the higher protein content and consequently higher nutritive value of all dry-farm crops. Nutritive value of dry-farm hay, straw, and flour All the parts of dry-farm crops are highly nutritious. This needs to be more clearly understood by the dry-farmers. Dry-farm hay, for instance, because of its high protein content, may be fed with crops not so rich in this element, thereby making a larger profit for the farmer. Dry-farm straw often has the feeding value of good hay, as has been demonstrated by analyses and by feeding tests conducted in times of hay scarcity. Especially is the header straw of high feeding value, for it represents the upper and more nutritious ends of the stalks. Dry-farm straw, therefore, should be carefully kept and fed to animals instead of being scattered over the ground or even burned as is too often the case. Only few feeding experiments having in view the relative feeding value of dry-farm crops have as yet been made, but the few on record agree in showing the superior value of dry-farm crops, whether fed singly or in combination. The differences in the chemical composition of plants and plant products induced by differences in the water-supply and climatic environment appear in the manufactured products, such as flour, bran, and shorts. Flour made from Fife wheat grown on the dry-farms of Utah contained practically 16 per cent of protein, while flour made from Fife wheat grown in Lorraine and the Middle West is reported by the Maine Station as containing from 13.03 to 13.75 per cent of protein. Flour made from Blue Stem wheat grown on the Utah dry-farms contained 15.52 per cent of protein; from the same variety grown in Maine and in the Middle West 11.69 and 11.51 per cent of protein respectively. The moist and dry gluten, the gliadin and the glutenin, all of which make possible the best and most nourishing kinds of bread, are present in largest quantity and best proportion in flours made from wheats grown under typical dry-farm conditions. The by-products of the milling process, likewise, are rich in nutritive elements. Future Needs It has already been pointed out that there is a growing tendency to purchase food materials on the basis of composition. New discoveries in the domains of plant composition and animal nutrition and the improved methods of rapid and accurate valuation will accelerate this tendency. Even now, manufacturers of food products print on cartons and in advertising matter quality reasons for the superior food values of certain articles. At least one firm produces two parallel sets of its manufactured foods, one for the man who does hard physical labor, and the other for the brain worker. Quality, as related to the needs of the body, whether of beast or man, is rapidly becoming the first question in judging any food material. The present era of high prices makes this matter even more important. In view of this condition and tendency, the fact that dry-farm products are unusually rich in the most valuable nutritive materials is of tremendous importance to the development of dry-farming. The small average yields of dry-farm crops do not look so small when it is known that they command higher prices per pound in competition with the larger crops of more humid climates. More elaborate investigations should be undertaken to determine the quality of crops grown in different dry-farm districts. As far as possible each section, great or small, should confine itself to the growing of a variety of each crop yielding well and possessing the highest nutritive value. In that manner each section of the great dry-farm territory would soon come to stand for some dependable special quality that would compel a first-class market. Further, the superior feeding value of dry-farm products should be thoroughly advertised among the consumers in order to create a demand on the markets for a quality valuation. A few years of such systematic honest work would do much to improve the financial basis of dry-farming. CHAPER XIV MAINTAINING THE SOIL FERTILITY All plants when carefully burned leave a portion of ash, ranging widely in quantity, averaging about 5 per cent, and often exceeding 10 per cent of the dry weight of the plant. This plant ash represents inorganic substances taken from the soil by the roots. In addition, the nitrogen of plants, averaging about 2 per cent and often amounting to 4 per cent, which, in burning, passes off in gaseous form, is also usually taken from the soil by the plant roots. A comparatively large quantity of the plant is, therefore, drawn directly from the soil. Among the ash ingredients are many which are taken up by the plant simply because they are present in the soil; others, on the other hand, as has been shown by numerous classical investigations, are indispensable to plant growth. If any one of these indispensable ash ingredients be absent, it is impossible for a plant to mature on such a soil. In fact, it is pretty well established that, providing the physical conditions and the water supply are satisfactory, the fertility of a soil depends largely upon the amount of available ash ingredients, or plant-food. A clear distinction must be made between the_ total _and _available _plant-food. The essential plant-foods often occur in insoluble combinations, valueless to plants; only the plant-foods that are soluble in the soil-water or in the juices of plant roots are of value to plants. It is true that practically all soils contain all the indispensable plant-foods; it is also true, however, that in most soils they are present, as available plant-foods, in comparatively small quantities. When crops are removed from the land year after year, without any return being made, it naturally follows that under ordinary conditions the amount of available plant-food is diminished, with a strong probability of a corresponding diminution in crop-producing power. In fact, the soils of many of the older countries have been permanently injured by continuous cropping, with nothing returned, practiced through centuries. Even in many of the younger states, continuous cropping to wheat or other crops for a generation or less has resulted in a large decrease in the crop yield. Practice and experiment have shown that such diminishing fertility may be retarded or wholly avoided, first, by so working or cultivating the soil as to set free much of the insoluble plant-food and, secondly, by returning to the soil all or part of the plant-food taken away. The recent development of the commercial fertilizer industry is a response to this truth. It may be said that, so far as the agricultural soils of the world are now known, only three of the essential plant-foods are likely to be absent, namely, potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen; of these, by far the most important is nitrogen. The whole question of maintaining the supply of plant-foods in the soil concerns itself in the main with the supply of these three substances. The persistent fertility of dry-farms In recent years, numerous farmers and some investigators have stated that under dry-farm conditions the fertility of soils is not impaired by cropping without manuring. This view has been taken because of the well-known fact that in localities where dry-farming has been practiced on the same soils from twenty-five to forty-five years, without the addition of manures, the average crop yield has not only failed to diminish, but in most cases has increased. In fact, it is the almost unanimous testimony of the oldest dry-farmers of the United States, operating under a rainfall from twelve to twenty inches, that the crop yields have increased as the cultural methods have been perfected. If any adverse effect of the steady removal of plant-foods has occurred, it has been wholly overshadowed by other factors. The older dry-farms in Utah, for instance, which are among the oldest of the country, have never been manured, yet are yielding better to-day than they did a generation ago. Strangely enough, this is not true of the irrigated farms, operating under like soil and climatic conditions. This behavior of crop production under dry-farm conditions has led to the belief that the question of soil fertility is not an important one to dry-farmers. Nevertheless, if our present theories of plant nutrition are correct, it is also true that, if continuous cropping is practiced on our dry-farm soils without some form of manuring, the time must come when the productive power of the soils will be injured and the only recourse of the farmer will be to return to the soils some of the plant-food taken from it. The view that soil fertility is not diminished by dry-farming appears at first sight to be strengthened by the results obtained by investigators who have made determinations of the actual plant-food in soils that have long been dry-farmed. The sparsely settled condition of the dry-farm territory furnishes as yet an excellent opportunity to compare virgin and dry-farmed lands and which frequently may be found side by side in even the older dry-farm sections. Stewart found that Utah dry-farm soils, cultivated for fifteen to forty years and never manured, were in many cases richer in nitrogen than neighboring virgin lands. Bradley found that the soils of the great dry-farm wheat belt of Eastern Oregon contained, after having been farmed for a quarter of a century, practically as much nitrogen as the adjoining virgin lands. These determinations were made to a depth of eighteen inches. Alway and Trumbull, on the other hand, found in a soil from Indian Head, Saskatchewan, that in twenty-five years of cultivation the total amount of nitrogen had been reduced about one third, though the alternation of fallow and crop, commonly practiced in dry-farming, did not show a greater loss of soil nitrogen than other methods of cultivation. It must be kept in mind that the soil of Indian Head contains from two to three times as much nitrogen as is ordinarily found in the soils of the Great Plains and from three to four times as much as is found in the soils of the Great Basin and the High Plateaus. It may be assumed, therefore, that the Indian Head soil was peculiarly liable to nitrogen losses. Headden, in an investigation of the nitrogen content of Colorado soils, has come to the conclusion that arid conditions, like those of Colorado, favor the direct accumulation of nitrogen in soils. All in all, the undiminished crop yield and the composition of the cultivated fields lead to the belief that soil-fertility problems under dry-farm conditions are widely different from the old well-known problems under humid conditions. Reasons for dry-farming fertility It is not really difficult to understand why the yields and, apparently, the fertility of dry-farms have continued to increase during the period of recorded dry-farm history--nearly half a century. First, the intrinsic fertility of arid as compared with humid soils is very high. (See Chapter V.) The production and removal of many successive bountiful crops would not have as marked an effect on arid as on humid soils, for both yield and composition change more slowly on fertile soils. The natural extraordinarily high fertility of dry-farm soils explains, therefore, primarily and chiefly, the increasing yields on dry-farm soils that receive proper cultivation. The intrinsic fertility of arid soils is not alone sufficient to explain the increase in plant-food which undoubtedly occurs in the upper foot or two of cultivated dry-farm lands. In seeking a suitable explanation of this phenomenon it must be recalled that the proportion of available plant-food in arid soils is very uniform to great depths, and that plants grown under proper dry-farm conditions are deep rooted and gather much nourishment from the lower soil layers. As a consequence, the drain of a heavy crop does not fall upon the upper few feet as is usually the case in humid soils. The dry-farmer has several farms, one upon the other, which permit even improper methods of farming to go on longer than would be the case on shallower soils. The great depth of arid soils further permits the storage of rain and snow water, as has been explained in previous chapters, to depths of from ten to fifteen feet. As the growing season proceeds, this water is gradually drawn towards the surface, and with it much of the plant-food dissolved by the water in the lower soil layers. This process repeated year after year results in a concentration in the upper soil layers of fertility normally distributed in the soil to the full depth reach by the soil-moisture. At certain seasons, especially in the fall, this concentration may be detected with greatest certainty. In general, the same action occurs in virgin lands, but the methods of dry-farm cultivation and cropping which permit a deeper penetration of the natural precipitation and a freer movement of the soil-water result in a larger quantity of plant-food reaching the upper two or three feet from the lower soil depths. Such concentration near the surface, when it is not excessive, favors the production of increased yields of crops. The characteristic high fertility and great depth of arid soils are probably the two main factors explaining the apparent increase of the fertility of dry-farms under a system of agriculture which does not include the practice of manuring. Yet, there are other conditions that contribute largely to the result. For instance, every cultural method accepted in dry-farming, such as deep plowing, fallowing, and frequent cultivation, enables the weathering forces to act upon the soil particles. Especially is it made easy for the air to enter the soil. Under such conditions, the plant-food unavailable to plants because of its insoluble condition is liberated and made available. The practice of dry-farming is of itself more conducive to such accumulation of available plant food than are the methods of humid agriculture. Further, the annual yield of any crop under conditions of dry-farming is smaller than under conditions of high rainfall. Less fertility is, therefore, removed by each crop and a given amount of available fertility is sufficient to produce a large number of crops without showing signs of deficiency. The comparatively small annual yield of dry-farm crops is emphasized in view of the common practice of summer fallowing, which means that the land is cropped only every other year or possibly two years out of three. Under such conditions the yield in any one year is cut in two to give an annual yield. The use of the header wherever possible in harvesting dry-farm grain also aids materially in maintaining soil fertility. By means of the header only the heads of the grain are clipped off: the stalks are left standing. In the fall, usually, this stubble is plowed under and gradually decays. In the earlier dry-farm days farmers feared that under conditions of low rainfall, the stubble or straw plowed under would not decay, but would leave the soil in a loose dry condition unfavorable for the growth of plants. During the last fifteen years it has been abundantly demonstrated that if the correct methods of dry farming are followed, so that a fair balance of water is always found in the soil, even in the fall, the heavy, thick header stubble may be plowed into the soil with the certainty that it will decay and thus enrich the soil. The header stubble contains a very large proportion of the nitrogen that the crop has taken from the soil and more than half of the potash and phosphoric acid. Plowing under the header stubble returns all this material to the soil. Moreover, the bulk of the stubble is carbon taken from the air. This decays, forming various acid substances which act on the soil grains to set free the fertility which they contain. At the end of the process of decay humus is formed, which is not only a storehouse of plant-food, but effective in maintaining a good physical condition of the soil. The introduction of the header in dry-farming was one of the big steps in making the practice certain and profitable. Finally, it must be admitted that there are a great many more or less poorly understood or unknown forces at work in all soils which aid in the maintenance of soil-fertility. Chief among these are the low forms of life known as bacteria. Many of these, under favorable conditions, appear to have the power of liberating food from the insoluble soil grains. Others have the power when settled on the roots of leguminous or pod-bearing plants to fix nitrogen from the air and convert it into a form suitable for the need of plants. In recent years it has been found that other forms of bacteria, the best known of which is azotobacter, have the power of gathering nitrogen from the air and combining it for the plant needs without the presence of leguminous plants. These nitrogen-gathering bacteria utilize for their life processes the organic matter in the soil, such as the decaying header stubble, and at the same time enrich the soil by the addition of combined nitrogen. Now, it so happens that these important bacteria require a soil somewhat rich in lime, well aerated and fairly dry and warm. These conditions are all met on the vast majority of our dry-farm soils, under the system of culture outlined in this volume. Hall maintains that to the activity of these bacteria must be ascribed the large quantities of nitrogen found in many virgin soils and probably the final explanation of the steady nitrogen supply for dry farms is to be found in the work of the azatobacter and related forms of low life. The potash and phosphoric acid supply can probably be maintained for ages by proper methods of cultivation, though the phosphoric acid will become exhausted long before the potash. The nitrogen supply, however, must come from without. The nitrogen question will undoubtedly soon be the one before the students of dry-farm fertility. A liberal supply of organic matter In the soil with cultural methods favoring the growth of the nitrogen-gathering bacteria appears at present to be the first solution of the nitrogen question. Meanwhile, the activity of the nitrogen-gathering bacteria, like azotobacter, is one of our best explanations of the large presence of nitrogen in cultivated dry-farm soils. To summarize, the apparent increase in productivity and plant-food content of dry-farm soils can best be explained by a consideration of these factors: (1) the intrinsically high fertility of the arid soils; (2) the deep feeding ground for the deep root systems of dry-farm crops; (3) the concentration of the plant food distributed throughout the soil by the upward movement of the natural precipitation stored in the soil; (4) the cultural methods of dry-farming which enable the weathering agencies to liberate freely and vigorously the plant-food of the soil grains; (5) the small annual crops; (6) the plowing under of the header straw, and (7) the activity of bacteria that gather nitrogen directly from the air. Methods of conserving soil-fertility In view of the comparatively small annual crops that characterize dry-farming it is not wholly impossible that the factors above discussed, if properly applied, could liberate the latent plant-food of the soil and gather all necessary nitrogen for the plants. Such an equilibrium, could it once be established, would possibly continue for long periods of time, but in the end would no doubt lead to disaster; for, unless the very cornerstone of modern agricultural science is unsound, there will be ultimately a diminution of crop producing power if continuous cropping is practiced without returning to the soil a goodly portion of the elements of soil fertility taken from it. The real purpose of modern agricultural researeh is to maintain or increase the productivity of our lands; if this cannot be done, modern agriculture is essentially a failure. Dry-farming, as the newest and probably in the future one of the greatest divisions of modern agriculture, must from the beginning seek and apply processes that will insure steadiness in the productive power of its lands. Therefore, from the very beginning dry-farmers must look towards the conservation of the fertility of their soils. The first and most rational method of maintaining the fertility of the soil indefinitely is to return to the soil everything that is taken from it. In practice this can be done only by feeding the products of the farm to live stock and returning to the soil the manure, both solid and liquid, produced by the animals. This brings up at once the much discussed question of the relation between the live stock industry and dry-farming. While it is undoubtedly true that no system of agriculture will be wholly satisfactory to the farmer and truly beneficial to the state, unless it is connected definitely with the production of live stock, yet it must be admitted that the present prevailing dry-farm conditions do not always favor comfortable animal life. For instance, over a large portion of the central area of the dry-farm territory the dry-farms are at considerable distances from running or well water. In many cases, water is hauled eight or ten miles for the supply of the men and horses engaged in farming. Moreover, in these drier districts, only certain crops, carefully cultivated, will yield profitably, and the pasture and the kitchen garden are practical impossibilities from an economic point of view. Such conditions, though profitable dry-farming is feasible, preclude the existence of the home and the barn on or even near the farm. When feed must be hauled many miles, the profits of the live stock industry are materially reduced and the dry-farmer usually prefers to grow a crop of wheat, the straw of which may be plowed under the soil to the great advantage of the following crop. In dry-farm districts where the rainfall is higher or better distributed, or where the ground water is near the surface, there should be no reason why dry-farming and live stock should not go hand in hand. Wherever water is within reach, the homestead is also possible. The recent development of the gasoline motor for pumping purposes makes possible a small home garden wherever a little water is available. The lack of water for culinary purposes is really the problem that has stood between the joint development of dry-farming and the live stock industry. The whole matter, however, looks much more favorable to-day, for the efforts of the Federal and state governments have succeeded in discovering numerous subterranean sources of water in dry-farm districts. In addition, the development of small irrigation systems in the neighborhood of dry-farm districts is helping the cause of the live stock industry. At the present time, dry-farming and the live stock industry are rather far apart, though undoubtedly as the desert is conquered they will become more closely associated. The question concerning the best maintenance of soil-fertility remains the same; and the ideal way of maintaining fertility is to return to the soil as much as is possible of the plant-food taken from it by the crops, which can best be accomplished by the development of the business of keeping live stock in connection with dry-farming. If live stock cannot be kept on a dry-farm, the most direct method of maintaining soil-fertility is by the application of commercial fertilizers. This practice is followed extensively in the Eastern states and in Europe. The large areas of dry-farms and the high prices of commercial fertilizers will make this method of manuring impracticable on dry-farms, and it may be dismissed from thought until such a day as conditions, especially with respect to price of nitrates and potash, are materially changed. Nitrogen, which is the most important plant-food that may be absent from dry-farm soils, may be secured by the proper use of leguminous crops. All the pod-bearing plants commonly cultivated, such as peas, beans, vetch, clover, and lucern, are able to secure large quantities of nitrogen from the air through the activity of bacteria that live and grow on the roots of such plants. The leguminous crop should be sown in the usual way, and when it is well past the flowering stage should be plowed into the ground. Naturally, annual legumes, such as peas and beans, should be used for this purpose. The crop thus plowed under contains much nitrogen, which is gradually changed into a form suitable for plant assimilation. In addition, the acid substances produced in the decay of the plants tend to liberate the insoluble plant-foods and the organic matter is finally changed into humus. In order to maintain a proper supply of nitrogen in the soil the dry-farmer will probably soon find himself obliged to grow, every five years or oftener, a crop of legumes to be plowed under. Non-leguminous crops may also be plowed under for the purpose of adding organic matter and humus to the soil, though this has little advantage over the present method of heading the grain and plowing under the high stubble. The header system should be generally adopted on wheat dry-farms. On farms where corn is the chief crop, perhaps more importance needs to be given to the supply of organic matter and humus than on wheat farms. The occasional plowing under of leguminous crops would he the most satisfactory method. The persistent application of the proper cultural methods of dry-farming will set free the most important plant-foods, and on well-cultivated farms nitrogen is the only element likely to be absent in serious amounts. The rotation of crops on dry-farms is usually advocated in districts like the Great Plains area, where the annual rainfall is over fifteen inches and the major part of the precipitation comes in spring and summer. The various rotations ordinarily include one or more crops of small grains, a hoed crop like corn or potatoes, a leguminous crop, and sometimes a fallow year. The leguminous crop is grown to secure a fresh supply of nitrogen; the hoed crop, to enable the air and sunshine to act thoroughly on the soil grains and to liberate plant-food, such as potash and phosphoric acid; and the grain crops to take up plant-food not reached by the root systems of the other plants. The subject of proper rotation of crops has always been a difficult one, and very little information exists on it as practiced on dry-farms. Chilcott has done considerable work on rotations in the Great Plains district, hut he frankly admits that many years of trial will he necessary for the elucidation of trustworthy principles. Some of the best rotations found by Chilcott up to the present are:-- Corn--Wheat--Oats Barley--Oats--Corn Fallow--Wheat--Oats Rosen states that rotation is very commonly practiced in the dry sections of southern Russia, usually including an occasional Summer fallow. As a type of an eight-year rotation practiced at the Poltava Station, the following is given: (1) Summer tilled and manured; (2) winter wheat; (3) hoed crop; (4) spring wheat; (5) summer fallow; (6) winter rye; (7) buckwheat or an annual legume; (8) oats. This rotation, it may be observed, includes the grain crop, hoed crop, legume, and fallow every four years. As has been stated elsewhere, any rotation in dry-farming which does not include the summer fallow at least every third or fourth year is likely to be dangerous In years of deficient rainfall. This review of the question of dry-farm fertility is intended merely as a forecast of coming developments. At the present time soil-fertility is not giving the dry-farmers great concern, but as in the countries of abundant rainfall the time will come when it will be equal to that of water conservation, unless indeed the dry-farmers heed the lessons of the past and adopt from the start proper practices for the maintenance of the plant-food stored in the soil. The principle explained in Chapter IX, that the amount of water required for the production of one pound of water diminishes as the fertility increases, shows the intimate relationship that exists between the soil-fertility and the soil-water and the importance of maintaining dry-farm soils at a high state of fertility. CHAPTER XV IMPLEMENTS FOR DRY-FARMING Cheap land and relatively small acre yields characterize dry-farming. Consequently Iarger areas must be farmed for a given return than in humid farming, and the successful pursuit of dry-farming compels the adoption of methods that enable a man to do the largest amount of effective work with the smallest expenditure of energy. The careful observations made by Grace, in Utah, lead to the belief that, under the conditions prevailing in the intermountain country, one man with four horses and a sufficient supply of machinery can farm 160 acres, half of which is summer-fallowed every year; and one man may, in favorable seasons under a carefully planned system, farm as much as 200 acres. If one man attempts to handle a larger farm, the work is likely to be done in so slipshod a manner that the crop yield decreases and the total returns are no larger than if 200 acres had been well tilled. One man with four horses would be unable to handle even 160 acres were it not for the possession of modern machinery; and dry-farming, more than any other system of agriculture, is dependent for its success upon the use of proper implements of tillage. In fact, it is very doubtful if the reclamation of the great arid and semiarid regions of the world would have been possible a few decades ago, before the invention and introduction of labor-saving farm machinery. It is undoubtedly further a fact that the future of dry-farming is closely bound up with the improvements that may be made in farm machinery. Few of the agricultural implements on the market to-day have been made primarily for dry-farm conditions. The best that the dry-farmer can do is to adapt the implements on the market to his special needs. Possibly the best field of investigation for the experiment stations and inventive minds in the arid region is farm mechanics as applied to the special needs of dry-farming. Clearing and breaking A large portion of the dry-farm territory of the United States is covered with sagebrush and related plants. It is always a difficult and usually an expensive problem to clear sagebrush land, for the shrubs are frequently from two to six feet high, correspondingly deep-rooted, with very tough wood. When the soil is dry, it is extremely difficult to pull out sagebrush, and of necessity much of the clearing must be done during the dry season. Numerous devices have been suggested and tried for the purpose of clearing sagebrush land. One of the oldest and also one of the most effective devices is two parallel railroad rails connected with heavy iron chains and used as a drag over the sagebrush land. The sage is caught by the two rails and torn out of the ground. The clearing is fairly complete, though it is generally necessary to go over the ground two or three times before the work is completed. Even after such treatment a large number of sagebrush clumps, found standing over the field, must be grubbed up with the hoe. Another and effective device is the so-called "mankiller." This implement pulls up the sage very successfully and drops it at certain definite intervals. It is, however, a very dangerous implement and frequently results in injury to the men who work it. Of recent years another device has been tried with a great deal of success. It is made like a snow plow of heavy railroad irons to which a number of large steel knives have been bolted. Neither of these implements is wholly satisfactory, and an acceptable machine for grubbing sagebrush is yet to be devised. In view of the large expense attached to the clearing of sagebrush land such a machine would be of great help in the advancement of dry-farming. Away from the sagebrush country the virgin dry-farm land is usually covered with a more or less dense growth of grass, though true sod is seldom found under dry-farm conditions. The ordinary breaking plow, characterized by a long sloping moldboard, is the best known implement for breaking all kinds of sod. (See Fig. 7a a.) Where the sod is very light, as on the far western prairies, the more ordinary forms of plows may be used. In still other sections, the dry-farm land is covered with a scattered growth of trees, frequently pinion pine and cedars, and in Arizona and New Mexico the mesquite tree and cacti are to be removed. Such clearing has to be done in accordance with the special needs of the locality. Plowing Plowing, or the turning over of the soil to a depth of from seven to ten inches for every crop, is a fundamental operation of dry-farming. The plow, therefore, becomes one of the most important implements on the dry-farm. Though the plow as an agricultural implement is of great antiquity, it is only within the last one hundred years that it has attained its present perfection. It is a question even to-day, in the minds of a great many students, whether the modern plow should not be replaced by some machine even more suitable for the proper turning and stirring of the soil. The moldboard plow is, everything considered, the most satisfactory plow for dry-farm purposes. A plow with a moldboard possessing a short abrupt curvature is generally held to be the most valuable for dry-farm purposes, since it pulverizes the soil most thoroughly, and in dry-farming it is not so important to turn the soil over as to crumble and loosen it thoroughly. Naturally, since the areas of dry-farms are very large, the sulky or riding plow is the only kind to be used. The same may be said of all other dry-farm implements. As far as possible, they should be of the riding kind since in the end it means economy from the resulting saving of energy. The disk plow has recently come into prominent use throughout the land. It consists, as is well known, of one or more large disks which are believed to cause a smaller draft, as they cut into the ground, than the draft due to the sliding friction upon the moldboard. Davidson and Chase say, however, that the draft of a disk plow is often heavier in proportion to the work done and the plow itself is more clumsy than the moldboard plow. For ordinary dry-farm purposes the disk plow has no advantage over the modern moldboard plow. Many of the dry-farm soils are of a heavy clay and become very sticky during certain seasons of the year. In such soils the disk plow is very useful. It is also true that dry-farm soils, subjected to the intense heat of the western sun become very hard. In the handling of such soils the disk plow has been found to be most useful. The common experience of dry-farmers is that when sagebrush lands have been the first plowing can be most successfully done with the disk plow, but that after. the first crop has been harvested, the stubble land can be best handled with the moldboard plow. All this, however, is yet to be subjected to further tests. While subsoiling results in a better storage reservoir for water and consequently makes dry-farming more secure, yet the high cost of the practice will probably never make it popular. Subsoiling is accomplished in two ways: either by an ordinary moldboard plow which follows the plow in the plow furrow and thus turns the soil to a greater depth, or by some form of the ordinary subsoil plow. In general, the subsoil plow is simply a vertical piece of cutting iron, down to a depth of ten to eighteen inches, at the bottom of which is fastened a triangular piece of iron like a shovel, which, when pulled through the ground, tends to loosen the soil to the full depth of the plow. The subsoil plow does not turn the soil; it simply loosens the soil so that the air and plant roots can penetrate to greater depths. In the choice of plows and their proper use the dryfarmer must be guided wholly by the conditions under which he is working. It is impossible at the present time to lay down definite laws stating what plows are best for certain soils. The soils of the arid region are not well enough known, nor has the relationship between the plow and the soil been sufficiently well established. As above remarked, here is one of the great fields for investigation for both scientific and practical men for years to come. Making and maintaining a soil-mulch After the land has been so well plowed that the rains can enter easily, the next operation of importance in dry-farming is the making and maintaining of a soil-mulch over the ground to prevent the evaporation of water from the soil. For this purpose some form of harrow is most commonly used. The oldest and best-known harrow is the ordinary smoothing harrow, which is composed of iron or steel teeth of various shapes set in a suitable frame. (See Fig. 79.) For dry-farm purposes the implement must be so made as to enable the farmer to set the harrow teeth to slant backward or forward. It frequently happens that in the spring the grain is too thick for the moisture in the soil, and it then becomes necessary to tear out some of the young plants. For this purpose the harrow teeth are set straight or forward and the crop can then be thinned effectively. At other times it may be observed in the spring that the rains and winds have led to the formation of a crust over the soil, which must be broken to let the plants have full freedom of growth and development. This is accomplished by slanting the harrow teeth backward, and the crust may then be broken without serious injury to the plants. The smoothing harrow is a very useful implement on the dry-farm. For following the plow, however, a more useful implement is the disk harrow, which is a comparatively recent invention. It consists of a series of disks which may be set at various angles with the line of traction and thus be made to turn over the soil while at the same time pulverizing it. The best dry-farm practice is to plow in the fall and let the soil lie in the rough during the winter months. In the spring the land is thoroughly disked and reduced to a fine condition. Following this the smoothing harrow is occasionally used to form a more perfect mulch. When seeding is to be done immediately after plowing, the plow is followed by the disk harrow, and that in turn is followed by the smoothing harrow. The ground is then ready for seeding. The disk harrow is also used extensively throughout the summer in maintaining a proper mulch. It does its work more effectively than the ordinary smoothing harrow and is, therefore, rapidly displacing all other forms of harrows for the purpose of maintaining a layer of loose soil over the dry-farm. There are several kinds of disk harrows used by dry-farmers. The full disk is, everything considered, the most useful. The cutaway harrow is often used in cultivating old alfalfa land; the spade disk harrow has a very limited application in dry-farming; and the orchard disk harrow is simply a modlfication of the full disk harrow whereby the farmer is able to travel between the rows of trees and so to cultivate the soil under the branches of the trees without injuring the leaves or fruit. One of the great difficulties in dry-farming concerns itself with the prevention of the growth of weeds or volunteer crops. As has been explained in previous chapters, weeds require as much water for their growth as wheat or other useful crops. During the fallow season, the farmer is likely to be overtaken by the weeds and lose much of the value of the fallow by losing soil-moisture through the growth of weeds. Under the most favorable conditions weeds are difficult to handle. The disk harrow itself is not effective. The smoothing harrow is of less value. There is at the present time great need for some implement that will effectively destroy young weeds and prevent their further growth. Attempts are being made to invent such implements, but up to the present without great success. Hogenson reports the finding of an implement on a western dry-farm constructed by the farmer himself which for a number of years has shown itself of high efficiency in keeping the dry-farm free from weeds. Several improved modifications of this implement have been made and tried out on the famous dry-farm district at Nephi, Utah, and with the greatest success. Hunter reports a similar implement in common use on the dry-farms of the Columbia Basin. Spring tooth harrows are also used in a small way on the dry-farms. They have no special advantage over the smoothing harrow or the disk harrow, except in places where the attempt is made to cultivate the soil between the rows of wheat. The curved knife tooth harrow is scareely ever used on dry-farms. It has some value as a pulverizer, but does not seem to have any real advantage over the ordinary disk harrow. Cultivators for stirring the land on which crops are growing are not used extensively on dry-farms. Usually the spring tooth harrow is employed for this work. In dry-farm sections, where corn is grown, the cultivator is frequently used throughout the season. Potatoes grown on dry-farms should be cultivated throughout the season, and as the potato industry grows in the dry-farm territory there will be a greater demand for suitable cultivators. The cultivators to be used on dry-farms are all of the riding kind. They should be so arranged that the horse walking between two rows carries a cultivator that straddles several rows of plants and cultivates the soil between. Disks, shovels, or spring teeth may be used on cultivators. There is a great variety on the market, and each farmer will have to choose such as meet most definitely his needs. The various forms of harrows and cultivators are of the greatest importance in the development of dry-farming. Unless a proper mulch can be kept over the soil during the fallow season, and as far as possible during the growing season, first-class crops cannot be fully respected. The roller is occasionally used in dry-farming, especially in the uplands of the Columbia Basin. It is a somewhat dangerous implement to use where water conservation is important, since the packing resulting from the roller tends to draw water upward from the lower soil layers to be evaporated into the air. Wherever the roller is used, therefore, it should be followed immediately by a harrow. It is valuable chiefly in the localities where the soil is very loose and light and needs packing around the seeds to permit perfect germination. Subsurface packing The subsurface packer invented by Campbell is [shown in Figure 83--not shown--ed.]. The wheels of this machine eighteen inches in diameter, with rims one inch thick at the inner part, beveled two and a half inches to a sharp outer edge, are placed on a shaft, five inches apart. In practice about five hundred pounds of weight are added. This machine, according to Campbell, crowds a one-inch wedge into every five inches of soil with a lateral and a downward pressure and thus packs firmly the soil near the bottom of the plow-furrow. Subsurface packing aims to establish full capillary connection between the plowed upper soil and the undisturbed lower soil-layer; to bring the moist soil in close contact with the straw or organic litter plowed under and thus to hasten decomposition, and to provide a firm seed bed. The subsurface packer probably has some value where the plowed soil containing the stubble is somewhat loose; or on soils which do not permit of a rapid decay of stubble and other organic matter that may be plowed under from season to season. On such soils the packing tendency of the subsurface packer may help prevent loss of soil water, and may also assist in furnishing a more uniform medium through which plant roots may force their way. For all these purposes, the disk is usually equally efficient. Sowing It has already been indicated in previous chapters that proper sowing is one of the most important operations of the dry-farm, quite comparable in importance with plowing or the maintaining of a mulch for retaining soil-moisture. The old-fashioned method of broadcasting has absolutely no place on a dry-farm. The success of dry-farming depends entirely upon the control that the farmer has of all the operations of the farm. By broadcasting, neither the quantity of seed used nor the manner of placing the seed in the ground can be regulated. Drill culture, therefore, introduced by Jethro Tull two hundred years ago, which gives the farmer full control over the process of seeding, is the only system to be used. The numerous seed drills on the market all employ the same principles. Their variations are few and simple. In all seed drills the seed is forced into tubes so placed as to enable the seed to fall into the furrows in the ground. The drills themselves are distinguished almost wholly by the type of the furrow opener and the covering devices which are used. The seed furrow is opened either by a small hoe or a so-called shoe or disk. At the present time it appears that the single disk is the coming method of opening the seed furrow and that the other methods will gradually disappear. As the seed is dropped into the furrow thus made it is covered by some device at the rear of the machine. One of the oldest methods as well as one of the most satisfactory is a series of chains dragging behind the drill and covering the furrow quite completely. It is, however, very desirable that the soil should be pressed carefully around the seed so that germination may begin with the least difficulty whenever the temperature conditions are right. Most of the drills of the day are, therefore, provided with large light wheels, one for each furrow, which press lightly upon the soil and force the soil into intimate contact with the seed The weakness of such an arrangement is that the soil along the drill furrows is left somewhat packed, which leads to a ready escape of the soil-moisture. Many of the drills are so arranged that press wheels may be used at the pleasure of the farmer. The seed drill is already a very useful implement and is rapidly being made to meet the special requirements of the dry-farmer. Corn planters are used almost exclusively on dry-farms where corn is the leading crop. In principle they are very much the same as the press drills. Potatoes are also generally planted by machinery. Wherever seeding machinery has been constructed based upon the principles of dry-farming, it is a very advantageous adjunct to the dry-farm. Harvesting The immense areas of dry-farms are harvested almost wholly by the most modern machinery. For grain, the harvester is used almost exclusively in the districts where the header cannot be used, but wherever conditions permit, the header is and should be used. It has been explained in previous chapters how valuable the tall header stubble is when plowed under as a means of maintaining the fertility of the soil. Besides, there is an ease in handling the header which is not known with the harvester. There are times when the header leads to some waste as, for instance, when the wheat is very low and heads are missed as the machine passes over the ground. In many sections of the dry-farm territory the climatic conditions are such that the wheat cures perfectly while still standing. In such places the combined harvester and thresher is used. The header cuts off the heads of the grain, which are passed up into the thresher, and bags filled with threshed grain are dropped along the path of the machine, while the straw is scattered over the ground. Wherever such a machine can be used, it has been found to be economical and satisfactory. Of recent years corn stalks have been used to better advantage than in the past, for not far from one half of the feeding value of the corn crop is in the stalks, which up to a few years ago were very largely wasted. Corn harvesters are likewise on the market and are quite generally used. It was manifestly impossible on large places to harvest corn by hand and large corn harvesters have, therefore, been made for this purpose. Steam and other motive power Recently numerous persons have suggested that the expense of running a dry-farm could be materially reduced by using some motive power other than horses. Steam, gasoline, and electricity have all been suggested. The steam traction engine is already a fairly well-developed machine and it has been used for plowing purposes on many dry-farms in nearly all the sections of the dry-farm territory. Unfortunately, up to the present it has not shown itself to be very satisfactory. First of all it is to be remembered that the principles of dry-farming require that the topsoil be kept very loose and spongy. The great traction engines have very wide wheels of such tremendous weight that they press down the soil very compactly along their path and in that way defeat one of the important purposes of tillage. Another objection to them is that at present their construction is such as to result in continual breakages. While these breakages in themselves are small and inexpensive, they mean the cessation of all farming operations during the hour or day required for repairs. A large crew of men is thus left more or less idle, to the serious injury of the work and to the great expense of the owner. Undoubtedly, the traction engine has a place in dry-farming, but it has not yet been perfected to such a degree as to make it satisfactory. On heavy soils it is much more useful than on light soils. When the traction engine works satisfactorily, plowing may be done at a cost considerably lower than when horses are employed. In England, Germany, and other European countries some of the difficulties connected with plowing have been overcome by using two engines on the two opposite sides of a field. These engines move synchronously together and, by means of large cables, plows, harrows, or seeders, are pulled back and forth over the field. This method seems to give good satisfaction on many large estates of the old world. Macdonald reports that such a system is in successful operation in the Transvaal in South Africa and is doing work there at a very knew cost. The large initial cost of such a system will, of course, prohibit its use except on the very large farms that are being established in the dry-farm territory. Gasoline engines are also being tried out, but up to date they have not shown themselves as possessing superior advantages over the steam engines. The two objections to them are the same as to the steam engine: first, their great weight, which compresses in a dangerous degree the topsoil and, secondly, the frequent breakages, which make the operation slow and expensive. Over a great part of the West, water power is very abundant and the suggestion has been made that the electric energy which can be developed by means of water power could be used in the cultural operations of the dry-farm. With the development of the trolley car which does not run on rails it would not seem impossible that in favorable localities electricity could be made to serve the farmer in the mechanical tillage of the dry-farm. The substitution of steam and other energy for horse power is yet in the future. Undoubtedly, it will come, but only as improvements are made in the machines. There is here also a great field for being of high service to the farmers who are attempting to reclaim the great deserts of the world. As stated at the beginning of this chapter, dry-farming would probably have been an impossibilityfifty or a hundred years ago because of the absence of suitable machinery. The future of dry-farming rests almost wholly, so far as its profits are concerned, upon the development of new and more suitable machinery for the tillage of the soil in accordance with the established principles of dry-farming. Finally, the recommendations made by Merrill may here be inserted. A dry-farmer for best work should be supplied with the following implements in addition to the necessary wagons and hand tools:-- One Plow. One Disk. One Smoothing Harrow. One Drill Seeder. One Harvester or Header. One Mowing Machine. CHAPTER XVI IRRIGATION AND DRY-FARMING Irrigation-farming and dry-farming are both systems of agriculture devised for the reclamation of countries that ordinarily receive an annual rainfall of twenty inches or less. Irrigation-farming cannot of itself reclaim the arid regions of the world, for the available water supply of arid countries when it shall have been conserved in the best possible way cannot be made to irrigate more than one fifth of the thirsty land. This means that under the highest possible development of irrigation, at least in the United States, there will be five or six acres of unirrigated or dry-farm land for every acre of irrigated land. Irrigation development cannot possibly, therefore, render the dry-farm movement valueless. On the other hand, dry-farming is furthered by the development of irrigation farming, for both these systems of agriculture are characterized by advantages that make irrigation and dry-farming supplementary to each other in the successful development of any arid region. Under irrigation, smaller areas need to be cultivated for the same crop returns, for it has been amply demonstrated that the acre yields under proper irrigation are very much larger than the best yields under the most careful system of dry-farming. Secondly, a greater variety of crops may be grown on the irrigated farm than on the dry-farm. As has already been shown in this volume, only certain drouth resistant crops can be grown profitably upon dry-farms, and these must be grown under the methods of extensive farming. The longer growing crops, including trees, succulent vegetables, and a variety of small fruits, have not as yet been made to yield profitably under arid conditions without the artificial application of water. Further, the irrigation-farmer is not largely dependent upon the weather and, therefore, carries on this work with a feeling of greater security. Of course, it is true that the dry years affect the flow of water in the canals and that the frequent breaking of dams and canal walls leaves the farmer helpless in the face of the blistering heat. Yet, all in all, a greater feeling of security is possessed by the irrigation farmer than by the dry-farmer. Most important, however, are the temperamental differences in men which make some desirous of giving themselves to the cultivation of a small area of irrigated land under intensive conditions and others to dry-farming under extensive conditions. In fact, it is being observed in the arid region that men, because of their temperamental differences, are gradually separating into the two classes of irrigation-farmers and dry-farmers. The dry-farms of necessity cover much larger areas than the irrigated farms. The land is cheaper and the crops are smaller. The methods to be applied are those of extensive farming. The profits on the investment also appear to be somewhat larger. The very necessity of pitting intellect against the fierceness of the drouth appears to have attracted many-men to the dry-farms. Gradually the certainty of producing crops on dry-farms from season to season is becoming established, and the essential difference between the two kinds of farming in the arid districts will then he the difference between intensive and extensive methods of culture. Men will be attracted to one or other of these systems of agriculture according to their personal inclinations. The scarcity of water For the development of a well-rounded commonwealth in an arid region it is, of course, indispensable that irrigation be practiced, for dry-farming of itself will find it difficult to build up populous cities and to supply the great variety of crops demanded by the modern family. In fact, one of the great problems before those engaged in the development of dry-farming at present is the development of homesteads in the dry-farms. A homestead is possible only where there is a sufficient amount of free water available for household and stock purposes. In the portion of the dry-farm territory where the rainfall approximates twenty inches, this problem is not so very difficult, since ground water may be reached easily. In the drier portions, however, where the rainfall is between ten and fifteen inches, the problem is much more important. The conditions that bring the district under the dry-farm designation imply a scarcity of water. On few dry-farms is water available for the needs of the household and the barns. In the Rocky Mountain states numerous dry-farms have been developed from seven to fifteen miles from the nearest source of water, and the main expense of developing these farms has been the hauling of water to the farms to supply the needs of the men and beasts at work on them. Naturally, it is impossible to establish homesteads on the dry-farms unless at least a small supply of water is available; and dry-farming will never he what it might be unless happy homes can be established upon the farms in the arid regions that grow crops without irrigation. To make a dry-farm homestead possible enough water must be available, first of all, to supply the culinary needs of the household. This of itself is not large and, as will be shown hereafter, may in most cases be obtained. However, in order that the family may possess proper comforts, there should be around the homestead trees, and shrubs, and grasses, and the family garden. To secure these things a certain amount of irrigation water is required. It may be added that dry-farms on which such homesteads are found as a result of the existence of a small supply of irrigation water are much more valuable, in case of sale, than equally good farms without the possibility of maintaining homesteads. Moreover, the distinct value of irrigation in producing a large acre yield makes it desirable for the farmer to use all the water at his disposal for irrigation purposes. No available water should be allowed to flow away unused. Available surface water The sources of water for dry-farms fall readily into classes: surface waters and subterranean waters. The surface waters, wherever they may be obtained, are generally the most profitable. The simplest method of obtaining water in an irrigated region is from some irrigation canal. In certain districts of the intermountain region where the dry farms lie above the irrigation canals and the irrigated lands below, it is comparatively easy for the farmers to secure a small but sufficient amount of water from the canal by the use of some pumping device that will force the water through the pipes to the homestead. The dry-farm area that may be so supplied by irrigation canals is, however, very limited and is not to be considered seriously in connection with the problem. A much more important method, especially in the mountainous districts, is the utilization of the springs that occur in great numbers over the whole dry-farm territory. Sometimes these springs are very small indeed, and often, after development by tunneling into the side of the hill, yield only a trifling flow. Yet, when this water is piped to the homestead and allowed to accumulate in small reservoirs or cisterns, it may be amply sufficient for the needs of the family and the live stock, besides having a surplus for the maintenance of the lawn, the shade trees, and the family garden. Many dry-farmers in the intermountain country have piped water seven or eight miles from small springs that were considered practically worthless and thereby have formed the foundations for small village communities. Of perhaps equal importance with the utilization of the naturally occurring springs is the proper conservation of the flood waters. As has been stated before, arid conditions allow a very large loss of the natural precipitation as run-off. The numerous gullies that characterize so many parts of the dry-farm territory are evidences of the number and vigor of the flood waters. The construction of small reservoirs in proper places for the purpose of catching the flood waters will usually enable the farmer to supply himself with all the water needed for the homestead. Such reservoirs may already be found in great numbers scattered over the whole western America. As dry-farming increases their numbers will also increase. When neither canals, nor springs, nor flood waters are available for the supply of water, it is yet possible to obtain a limited supply by so arranging the roof gutters on the farm buildings that all the water that falls on the roofs is conducted through the spouts into carefully protected cisterns or reservoirs. A house thirty by thirty feet, the roof of which is so constructed that all that water that falls upon it is carried into a cistern will yield annually under a a rainfall of fifteen inches a maximum amount of water equivalent to about 8800 gallons. Allowing for the unavoidable waste due to evaporation, this will yield enough to supply a household and some live stock with the necessary water. In extreme cases this has been found to be a very satisfactory practice, though it is the one to be resorted to only in case no other method is available. It is indispensable that some reservoir be provided to hold the surface water that may be obtained until the time it may be needed. The water coming constantly from a spring in summer should be applied to crops only at certain definite seasons of the year. The flood waters usually come at a time when plant growth is not active and irrigation is not needed. The rainfall also in many districts comes most largely at seasons of no or little plant growth. Reservoirs must, therefore, be provided for the storing of the water until the periods when it is demanded by crops. Cement-lined cisterns are quite common, and in many places cement reservoirs have been found profitable. In other places the occurrence of impervious clay has made possible the establishment and construction of cheap reservoirs. The skillful and permanent construction of reservoirs is a very important subject. Reservoir building should be undertaken only after a careful study of the prevailing conditions and under the advice of the state or government officials having such work in charge. In general, the first cost of small reservoirs is usually somewhat high, but in view of their permanent service and the value of the water to the dry-farm they pay a very handsome interest on the investment. It is always a mistake for the dry-farmer to postpone the construction of a reservoir for the storing of the small quantities of water that he may possess, in order to save a little money. Perhaps the greatest objection to the use of the reservoirs is not their relatively high cost, but the fact that since they are usually small and the water shallow, too large a proportion of the water, even under favorable conditions, is lost by evaporation. It is ordinarily assumed that one half of the water stored in small reservoirs throughout the year is lost by direct evaporation. Available subterranean water Where surface waters are not readily available, the subterranean water is of first importance. It is generally known that, underlying the earth's surface at various depths, there is a large quantity of free water. Those living in humid climates often overestimate the amount of water so held in the earth's crust, and it is probably true that those living in arid regions underestimate the quantity of water so found. The fact of the matter seems to be that free water is found everywhere under the earth's surface. Those familiar with the arid West have frequently been surprised by the frequency with which water has been found at comparatively shallow depths in the most desert locations. Various estimates have been made as to the quantity of underlying water. The latest calculation and perhaps the most reliable is that made by Fuller, who, after a careful analysis of the factors involved, concludes that the total free water held in the earth's crust is equivalent to a uniform sheet of water over the entire surface of the earth ninety-six feet in depth. A quantity of water thus held would be equivalent to about one hundredth part of the whole volume of the ocean. Even though the thickness of the water sheet under arid soils is only half this figure there is an amount, if it could be reached, that would make possible the establishment of homesteads over the whole dry-farm territory. One of the main efforts of the day is the determination of the occurrence of the subterranean waters in the dry-farm territory. Ordinary dug wells frequently reach water at comparatively shallow depths. Over the cultivated Utah deserts water is often found at a depth of twenty-five or thirty feet, though many wells dug to a depth of one hundred and seventy-five and two hundred feet have failed to reach water. It may be remarked in this connection that even where the distance to the water is small, the piped well has been found to be superior to the dug well. Usually, water is obtained in the dry-farm territory by driving pipes to comparatively great depths, ranging from one hundred feet to over one thousand feet. At such depths water is nearly always found. Often the geological conditions are such as to force the water up above the surface as artesian wells, though more often the pressure is simply sufficient to bring the water within easy pumping distance of the surface. In connection with this subject it must be said that many of the subterranean waters of the dry-farm territory are of a saline character. The amount of substances held in solution varies largely, but frequently is far above the limits of safety for the use of man or beast or plants. The dry-farmer who secures a well of this type should, therefore, be careful to have a proper examination made of the constituents of the water before ordinary use is made of it. Now, as has been said, the utilization of the subterranean waters of the land is one of the living problems of dry-farming. The tracing out of this layer of water is very difficult to accomplish and cannot be done by individuals. It is a work that properly belongs to the state and national government. The state of Utah, which was the pioneer in appropriating money for dry-farm experiments, also led the way in appropriating money for the securing of water for the dry-farms from subterranean sources. The world has been progressing in Utah since 1905, and water has been secured in the most unpromising localities. The most remarkable instance is perhaps the finding of water at a depth of about five hundred and fifty feet in the unusually dry Dog Valley located some fifteen miles west of Nephi. Pumping water The use of small quantities of water on the dry-farms carries with it, in most cases, the use of small pumping plants to store and to distribute the water properly. Especially, whenever subterranean sources of water are used and the water pressure is not sufficient to throw the water above the ground, pumping must be resorted to. The pumping of water for agricultural purposes is not at all new. According to Fortier, two hundred thousand acres of land are irrigated with water pumped from driven wells in the state of California alone. Seven hundred and fifty thousand acres are irrigated by pumping in the United States, and Mead states that there are thirteen million acres of land in India which are irrigated by water pumped from subterranean sources. The dry-farmer has a choice among several sources of power for the operation of his pumping plant. In localities where winds are frequent and of sufficient strength windmills furnish cheap and effective power, especially where the lift is not very great. The gasoline engine is in a state of considerable perfection and may be used economically where the price of gasoline is reasonable. Engines using crude oil may be most desirable in the localities where oil wells have been found. As the manufacture of alcohol from the waste products of the farms becomes established, the alcohol-burning engine could become a very important one. Over nearly the whole of the dry-farm territory coal is found in large quantities, and the steam engine fed by coal is an important factor in the pumping of water for irrigation purposes. Further, in the mountainous part of the dry-farm territory water Power is very abundant. Only the smallest fraction of it has as yet been harnessed for the generation of the electric current. As electric generation increases, it should be comparatively easy for the farmer to secure sufficient electric power to run the pump. This has already become an established practice in districts where electric power is available. During the last few years considerable work has been done to determine the feasibility of raising water for irrigation by pumping. Fortier reports that successful results have been obtained in Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. He declares that a good type of windmill located in a district where the average wind movement is ten miles per hour can lift enough water twenty feet to irrigate five acres of land. Wherever the water is near the surface this should be easy of accomplishment. Vernon, Lovett, and Scott, who worked under New Mexico conditions, have reported that crops can be produced profitably by the use of water raised to the surface for irrigation. Fleming and Stoneking, who conducted very careful experiments on the subject in New Mexico, found that the cost of raising through one foot a quantity of water corresponding to a depth of one foot over one acre of land varied from a cent and an eighth to nearly twenty-nine cents, with an average of a little more than ten cents. This means that the cost of raising enough water to cover one acre to a depth of one foot through a distance of forty feet would average $4.36. This includes not only the cost of the fuel and supervision of the pump but the actual deterioration of the plant. Smith investigated the same problem under Arizona conditions and found that it cost approximately seventeen cents to raise one acre foot of water to a height of one foot. A very elaborate investigation of this nature was conducted in California by Le Conte and Tait. They studied a large number of pumping plants in actual operation under California conditions, and determined that the total cost of raising one acre foot of water one foot was, for gasoline power, four cents and upward; for electric power, seven to sixteen cents, and for steam, four cents and upward. Mead has reported observations on seventy-two windmills near Garden City, Kansas, which irrigated from one fourth to seven acres each at a cost of seventy-five cents to $6 per acre. All in all, these results justify the belief that water may be raised profitably by pumping for the purpose of irrigating crops. When the very great value of a little water on a dry-farm is considered, the figures here given do not seem at all excessive. It must be remarked again that a reservoir of some sort is practically indispensable in connection with a pumping plant if the irrigation water is to be used in the best way. The use of small quantities of water in irrigation Now, it is undoubtedly true that the acre cost of water on dry-farms, where pumping plants or similar devices must be used with expensive reservoirs, is much higher than when water is obtained from gravity canals. It is, therefore, important that the costly water so obtained be used in the most economical manner. This is doubly important in view of the fact that the water supply obtained on dry-farms is always small and insufficient for all that the farmer would like to do. Indeed, the profit in storing and pumping water rests largely upon the economical application of water to crops. This necessitates the statement of one of the first principles of scientific irrigation practices, namely, that the yield of a crop under irrigation is not proportional to the amount of water applied in the form of irrigation water. In other words, the water stored in the soil by the natural precipitation and the water that falls during the spring and summer can either mature a small crop or bring a crop near maturity. A small amount of water added in the form of irrigation water at the right time will usually complete the work and produce a well-matured crop of large yield. Irrigation should only be supplemented to the natural precipitation. As more irrigation water is added, the increase in yield becomes smaller in proportion to the amount of water employed. This is clearly shown by the following table, which is taken from some of the irrigation experiments carried on at the Utah Station:-- Effect of Varying Irrigations on Crop Yields Per Acre Depth of Water Wheat Corn Alfalfa Potatoes Sugar Beets Applied (Inches) (Bushels) (Bushels) (Pounds) (Bushels) (Tons) 5.0 40 194 25 7.5 41 65 10.0 41 80 213 26 15.0 46 78 253 27 25.0 49 77 10,056 258 35.0 55 9,142 291 26 50 60 84 13,061 The soil was a typical arid soil of great depth and had been so cultivated as to contain a large quantity of the natural precipitation. The first five inches of water added to the precipitation already stored in the soil produced forty bushels of wheat. Doubling this amount of irrigation water produced only forty-one bushels of wheat. Even with an irrigation of fifty inches, or ten times that which produced forty bushels, only sixty bushels of wheat, or an increase of one half, were produced. A similar variation may be observed in the case of the other crops. The first lesson to be drawn from this important principle of irrigation is that if the soil be so treated as to contain at planting time the largest proportion of the natural precipitation,--that is, if the ordinary methods of dry-farming be employed,--crops will be produced with a very small amount of irrigation water. Secondly, it follows that it would be a great deal better for the farmer who raises wheat, for instance, to cover ten acres of land with water to a depth of five inches than to cover one acre to a depth of fifty inches, for in the former case four hundred bushels and in the second sixty bushels of wheat would be produced. The farmer who desires to utilize in the most economical manner the small amount of water at his disposal must prepare the land according to dry-farm methods and then must spread the water at his disposal over a larger area of land. The land must be plowed in the fall if the conditions permit, and fallowing should be practiced wherever possible. If the farmer does not wish to fallow his family garden he can achieve equally good results by planting the rows twice as far apart as is ordinarily the case and by bringing the irrigation furrows near the rows of plants. Then, to make the best use of the water, he must carefully cover the irrigation furrow with dry dirt immediately after the water has been applied and keep the whole surface well stirred so that evaporation will be reduced to a minimum. The beginning of irrigation wisdom is always the storage of the natural precipitation. When that is done correctly, it is really remarkable how far a small amount of irrigation water may be made to go. Under conditions of water scarcity it is often found profitable to carry water to the garden in cement or iron pipes so that no water may be lost by seepage or evaporation during the conveyance of the water from the reservoir to the garden. It is also often desirable to convey water to plants through pipes laid under the ground, perforated at various intervals to allow the water to escape and soak into the soil in the neighborhood of the plant roots. All such refined methods of irrigation should be carefully investigated by the who wants the largest results from his limited water supply. Though such methods may seem cumbersome and expensive at first, yet they will be found, if properly arranged, to be almost automatic in their operation and also very profitable. Forbes has reported a most interesting experiment dealing with the economical use of a small water supply under the long season and intense water dissipating conditions of Arizona. The source of supply was a well, 90 feet deep. A 3 by 14-inch pump cylinder operated by a 12-foot geared windmill lifted the water into a 5000-gallon storage reservoir standing on a support 18 feet high. The water was conveyed from this reservoir through black iron pipes buried 1 or 2 feet from the trees to be watered. Small holes in the pipe 332 inch in diameter allowed the water to escape at desirable intervals. This irrigation plant was under expert observation for considerable time, and it was found to furnish sufficient water for domestic use for one household, and irrigated in addition 61 olive trees, 2 cottonwoods, 8 pepper trees, 1 date palm, 19 pomegranates, 4 grapevines, 1 fig tree, 9 eucalyptus trees, 1 ash, and 13 miscellancous, making a total of 87 useful trees, mainly fruit-bearing, and 32 vines and bushes. (See Fig. 95.) If such a result can be obtained with a windmill and with water ninety feet below the surface under the arid conditions of Arizona, there should be little difficulty in securing sufficient water over the larger portions of the dry-farm territory to make possible beautiful homesteads. The dry-farmer should carefully avoid the temptation to decry irrigation practices. Irrigation and dry-farming of necessity must go hand in hand in the development of the great arid regions of the world. Neither can well stand alone in the building of great commonwealths on the deserts of the earth. CHAPTER XVII THE HISTORY OF DRY-FARMING The great nations of antiquity lived and prospered in arid and semiarid countries. In the more or less rainless regions of China, Mesopotamia, Palestine, Egypt, Mexico, and Peru, the greatest cities and the mightiest peoples flourished in ancient days. Of the great civilizations of history only that of Europe has rooted in a humid climate. As Hilgard has suggested, history teaches that a high civilization goes hand in hand with a soil that thirsts for water. To-day, current events point to the arid and semiarid regions as the chief dependence of our modern civilization. In view of these facts it may be inferred that dry-farming is an ancient practice. It is improbable that intelligent men and women could live in Mesopotamia, for example, for thousands of years without discovering methods whereby the fertile soils could be made to produce crops in a small degree at least without irrigation. True, the low development of implements for soil culture makes it fairly certain that dry-farming in those days was practiced only with infinite labor and patience; and that the great ancient nations found it much easier to construct great irrigation systems which would make crops certain with a minimum of soil tillage, than so thoroughly to till the soil with imperfect implements as to produce certain yields without irrigation. Thus is explained the fact that the historians of antiquity speak at length of the wonderful irrigation systems, but refer to other forms of agriculture in a most casual manner. While the absence of agricultural machinery makes it very doubtful whether dry-farming was practiced extensively in olden days, yet there can be little doubt of the high antiquity of the practice. Kearney quotes Tunis as an example of the possible extent of dry-farming in early historical days. Tunis is under an average rainfall of about nine inches, and there are no evidences of irrigation having been practiced there, yet at El Djem are the ruins of an amphitheater large enough to accommodate sixty thousand persons, and in an area of one hundred square miles there were fifteen towns and forty-five villages. The country, therefore, must have been densely populated. In the seventh century, according to the Roman records, there were two million five hundred thousand acres of olive trees growing in Tunis and cultivated without irrigation. That these stupendous groves yielded well is indicated by the statement that, under the Caesar's Tunis was taxed three hundred thousand gallons of olive oil annually. The production of oil was so great that from one town it was piped to the nearest shipping port. This historical fact is borne out by the present revival of olive culture in Tunis, mentioned in Chapter XII. Moreover, many of the primitive peoples of to-day, the Chinese, Hindus, Mexicans, and the American Indians, are cultivating large areas of land by dry-farm methods, often highly perfected, which have been developed generations ago, and have been handed down to the present day. Martin relates that the Tarahumari Indians of northern Chihuahua, who are among the most thriving aboriginal tribes of northern Mexico, till the soil by dry-farm methods and succeed in raising annually large quantities of corn and other crops. A crop failure among them is very uncommon. The early American explorers, especially the Catholic fathers, found occasional tribes in various parts of America cultivating the soil successfully without irrigation. All this points to the high antiquity of agriculture without irrigation in arid and semiarid countries. Modern dry-farming in the United States The honor of having originated modern dry-farming belongs to the people of Utah. On July 24th, 1847, Brigham Young with his band of pioneers entered Great Salt Lake Valley, and on that day ground was plowed, potatoes planted, and a tiny stream of water led from City Creek to cover this first farm. The early endeavors of the Utah pioneers were devoted almost wholly to the construction of irrigation systems. The parched desert ground appeared so different from the moist soils of Illinois and Iowa, which the pioneers had cultivated, as to make it seem impossible to produce crops without irrigation. Still, as time wore on, inquiring minds considered the possibility of growing crops without irrigation; and occasionally when a farmer was deprived of his supply of irrigation water through the breaking of a canal or reservoir it was noticed by the community that in spite of the intense heat the plants grew and produced small yields. Gradually the conviction grew upon the Utah pioneers that farming without irrigation was not an impossibility; but the small population were kept so busy with their small irrigated farms that no serious attempts at dry-farming were made during the first seven or eight years. The publications of those days indicate that dry-farming must have been practiced occasionally as early as 1854 or 1855. About 1863 the first dry-farm experiment of any consequence occurred in Utah. A number of emigrants of Scandinavian descent had settled in what is now known as Bear River City, and had turned upon their farms the alkali water of Malad Creek, and naturally the crops failed. In desperation the starving settlers plowed up the sagebrush land, planted grain, and awaited results. To their surprise, fair yields of grain were obtained, and since that day dry-farming has been an established practice in that portion of the Great Salt Lake Valley. A year or two later, Christopher Layton, a pioneer who helped to build both Utah and Arizona, plowed up land on the famous Sand Ridge between Salt Lake City and Ogden and demonstrated that dry-farm wheat could be grown successfully on the deep sandy soil which the pioneers had held to be worthless for agricultural purposes. Since that day the Sand Ridge has been famous as a dry-farm district, and Major J. W. Powell, who saw the ripened fields of grain in the hot dry sand, was moved upon to make special mention of them in his volume on the "Arid Lands of Utah," published in 1879. About this time, perhaps a year or two later, Joshua Salisbury and George L. Farrell began dry-farm experiments in the famous Cache Valley, one hundred miles north of Salt Lake City. After some years of experimentation, with numerous failures these and other pioneers established the practice of dry-farming in Cache Valley, which at present is one of the most famous dry-farm sections in the United States. In Tooele County, Just south of Salt Lake City, dry-farming was practiced in 1877--how much earlier is not known. In the northern Utah counties dry-farming assumed proportions of consequence only in the later '70's and early '80's. During the '80's it became a thoroughly established and extensive business practice in the northern part of the state. California, which was settled soon after Utah, began dry-farm experiments a little later than Utah. The available information indicates that the first farming without irrigation in California began in the districts of somewhat high precipitation. As the population increased, the practice was pushed away from the mountains towards the regions of more limited rainfall. According to Hilgard, successful dry-farming on an extensive scale has been practiced in California since about 1868. Olin reports that moisture-saving methods were used on the Californian farms as early as 1861. Certainly, California was a close second in originating dry-farming. The Columbia Basin was settled by Mareus Whitman near Walla Walla in 1836, but farming did not gain much headway until the railroad pushed through the great Northwest about 1880. Those familiar with the history of the state of Washington declare that dry-farming was in successful operation in isolated districts in the late '70's. By 1890 it was a well-established practice, but received a serious setback by the financial panic of 1892-1893. Really successful and extensive dry-farming in the Columbia Basin began about 1897. The practice of summer fallow had begun a year or two before. It is interesting to note that both in California and Washington there are districts in which dry-farming has been practiced successfully under a precipitation of about ten inches whereas in Utah the limit has been more nearly twelve inches. In the Great Plains area the history of dry-farming Is hopelessly lost in the greater history of the development of the eastern and more humid parts of that section of the country. The great influx of settlers on the western slope of the Great Plains area occurred in the early '80's and overflowed into eastern Colorado and Wyoming a few years later. The settlers of this region brought with them the methods of humid agriculture and because of the relatively high precipitation were not forced into the careful methods of moisture conservation that had been forced upon Utah, California, and the Columbia Basin. Consequently, more failures in dry-farming are reported from those early days in the Great Plains area than from the drier sections of the far West Dry-farming was practiced very successfully in the Great Plains area during the later '80's. According to Payne, the crops of 1889 were very good; in 1890, less so; in 1891, better; in 1892 such immense crops were raised that the settlers spoke of the section as God's country; in 1893, there was a partial failure, and in 1894 the famous complete failure, which was followed in 1895 by a partial failure. Since that time fair crops have been produced annually. The dry years of 1893-1895 drove most of the discouraged settlers back to humid sections and delayed, by many years, the settlement and development of the western side of the Great Plains area. That these failures and discouragements were due almost entirely to improper methods of soil culture is very evident to the present day student of dry-farming. In fact, from the very heart of the section which was abandoned in 1893-1895 come reliable records, dating back to 1886, which show successful crop production every year. The famous Indian Head experimental farm of Saskatchewan, at the north end of the Great Plains area, has an unbroken record of good crop yields from 1888, and the early '90's were quite as dry there as farther south. However, in spite of the vicissitudes of the section, dry-farming has taken a firm hold upon the Great Plains area and is now a well-established practice. The curious thing about the development of dry-farming in Utah, California, Washington, and the Great Plains is that these four sections appear to have originated dry-farming independently of each other. True, there was considerable communication from 1849 onward between Utah and California, and there is a possibility that some of the many Utah settlers who located in California brought with them accounts of the methods of dry-farming as practiced in Utah. This, however, cannot be authenticated. It is very unlikely that the farmers of Washington learned dry-farming from their California or Utah neighbors, for until 1880 communication between Washington and the colonies in California and Utah was very difficult, though, of course, there was always the possibility of accounts of agricultural methods being carried from place to place by the moving emigrants. It is fairly certain that the Great Plains area did not draw upon the far West for dry-farm methods. The climatic conditions are considerably different and the Great Plains people always considered themselves as living in a very humid country as compared with the states of the far West. It may be concluded, therefore, that there were four independent pioneers in dry-farming in United States. Moreover, hundreds, probably thousands, of individual farmers over the semiarid region have practiced dry-farming thirty to fifty years with methods by themselves. Although these different dry-farm sections were developed independently, yet the methods which they have finally adopted are practically identical and include deep plowing, unless the subsoil is very lifeless; fall plowing; the planting of fall grain wherever fall plowing is possible; and clean summer fallowing. About 1895 the word began to pass from mouth to mouth that probably nearly all the lands in the great arid and semiarid sections of the United States could be made to produce profitable crops without irrigation. At first it was merely a whisper; then it was talked aloud, and before long became the great topic of conversation among the thousands who love the West and wish for its development. Soon it became a National subject of discussion. Immediately after the close of the nineteenth century the new awakening had been accomplished and dry-farming was moving onward to conquer the waste places of the earth. H. W. Campbell The history of the new awakening in dry-farming cannot well be written without a brief account of the work of H. W. Campbell who, in the public mind, has become intimately identified with the dry-farm movement. H. W. Campbell came from Vermont to northern South Dakota in 1879, where in 1882 he harvested a banner crop,--twelve thousand bushels of wheat from three hundred acres. In 1883, on the same farm he failed completely. This experience led him to a study of the conditions under which wheat and other crops may be produced in the Great Plains area. A natural love for investigation and a dogged persistence have led him to give his life to a study of the agricultural problems of the Great Plains area. He admits that his direct inspiration came from the work of Jethro Tull, who labored two hundred years ago, and his disciples. He conceived early the idea that if the soil were packed near the bottom of the plow furrow, the moisture would be retained better and greater crop certainty would result. For this purpose the first subsurface packer was invented in 1885. Later, about 1895, when his ideas had crystallized into theories, he appeared as the publisher of Campbell's "Soil Culture and Farm Journal." One page of each issue was devoted to a succinct statement of the "Campbell Method." It was in 1898 that the doctrine of summer tillage was begun to be investigated by him. In view of the crop failures of the early '90's and the gradual dry-farm awakening of the later '90's, Campbell's work was received with much interest. He soon became identified with the efforts of the railroads to maintain demonstration farms for the benefit of intending settlers. While Campbell has long been in the service of the railroads of the semiarid region, yet it should be said in all fairness that the railroads and Mr. Campbell have had for their primary object the determination of methods whereby the farmers could be made sure of successful crops. Mr. Campbell's doctrines of soil culture, based on his accumulated experience, are presented in Campbell's "Soil Culture Manual," the first edition of which appeared about 1904 and the latest edition, considerably extended, was published in 1907. The 1907 manual is the latest official word by Mr. Campbell on the principles and methods of the "Campbell system." The essential features of the system may be summarized as follows: The storage of water in the soil is imperative for the production of crops in dry years. This may be accomplished by proper tillage. Disk the land immediately after harvest; follow as soon as possible with the plow; follow the plow with the subsurface packer; and follow the packer with the smoothing harrow. Disk the land again as early as possible in the spring and stir the soil deeply and carefully after every rain. Sow thinly in the fall with a drill. If the grain is too thick in the spring, harrow it out. To make sure of a crop, the land should be "summer tilled," which means that clean summer fallow should be practiced every other year, or as often as may be necessary. These methods, with the exception of the subsurface packing, are sound and in harmony with the experience of the great dry-farm sections and with the principles that are being developed by scientific investigation. The "Campbell system" as it stands to-day is not the system first advocated by him. For instance, in the beginning of his work he advocated sowing grain in April and in rows so far apart that spring tooth harrows could be used for cultivating between the rows. This method, though successful in conserving moisture, is too expensive and is therefore superseded by the present methods. Moreover, his farm paper of 1896, containing a full statement of the "Campbell method," makes absolutely no mention of "summer tillage," which is now the very keystone of the system. These and other facts make it evident that Mr. Campbell has very properly modified his methods to harmonize with the best experience, but also invalidate the claim that he is the author of the dry-farm system. A weakness of the "Campbell system" is the continual insistence upon the use of the subsurface packer. As has already been shown, subsurface packing is of questionable value for successful crop production, and if valuable, the results may be much more easily and successfully obtained by the use of the disk and harrow and other similar implements now on the market. Perhaps the one great weakness in the work of Campbell is that he has not explained the principles underlying his practices. His publications only hint at the reasons. H. W. Campbell, however, has done much to popularize the subject of dry-farming and to prepare the way for others. His persistence in his work of gathering facts, writing, and speaking has done much to awaken interest in dry-farming. He has been as "a voice in the wilderness" who has done much to make possible the later and more systematic study of dry-farming. High honor should be shown him for his faith in the semiarid region, for his keen observation, and his persistence in the face of difficulties. He is justly entitled to be ranked as one of the great workers in behalf of the reclamation, without irrigation, of the rainless sections of the world. The experiment stations The brave pioneers who fought the relentless dryness of the Great American Desert from the memorable entrance of the Mormon pioneers into the valley of the Great Salt Lake in 1847 were not the only ones engaged in preparing the way for the present day of great agricultural endeavor. Other, though perhaps more indirect, forces were also at work for the future development of the semiarid section. The Morrill Bill of 1862, making it possible for agricultural colleges to be created in the various states and territories, indicated the beginning of a public feeling that modern methods should be applied to the work of the farm. The passage in 1887 of the Hatch Act, creating agricultural experiment stations in all of the states and territories, finally initiated a new agricultural era in the United States. With the passage of this bill, stations for the application of modern science to crop production were for the first time authorized in the regions of limited rainfall, with the exception of the station connected with the University of California, where Hilgard from 1872 had been laboring in the face of great difficulties upon the agricultural problems of the state of California. During the first few years of their existence, the stations were busy finding men and problems. The problems nearest at hand were those that had been attacked by the older stations founded under an abundant rainfall and which could not be of vital interest to arid countries. The western stations soon began to attack their more immediate problems, and it was not long before the question of producing crops without irrigation on the great unirrigated stretches of the West was discussed among the station staffs and plans were projected for a study of the methods of conquering the desert. The Colorado Station was the first to declare its good intentions in the matter of dry-farming, by inaugurating definite experiments. By the action of the State Legislature of 1893, during the time of the great drouth, a substation was established at Cheyenne Wells, near the west border of the state and within the foothills of the Great Plains area. From the summer of 1894 until 1900 experiments were conducted on this farm. The experiments were not based upon any definite theory of reclamation, and consequently the work consisted largely of the comparison of varieties, when soil treatment was the all-important problem to be investigated. True in 1898, a trial of the "Campbell method" was undertaken. By the time this Station had passed its pioneer period and was ready to enter upon more systematic investigation, it was closed. Bulletin 59 of the Colorado Station, published in 1900 by J. E. Payne, gives a summary of observations made on the Cheyenne Wells substation during seven years. This bulletin is the first to deal primarily with the experimental work relating to dry-farming in the Great Plains area. It does not propose or outline any system of reclamation. Several later publications of the Colorado Station deal with the problems peculiar to the Great Plains. At the Utah Station the possible conquest of the sagebrush deserts of the Great Basin without irrigation was a topic of common conversation during the years 1894 and 1895. In 1896 plans were presented for experiments on the principles of dry-farming. Four years later these plans were carried into effect. In the summer of 1901, the author and L. A. Merrill investigated carefully the practices of the dry-farms of the state. On the basis of these observations and by the use of the established principles of the relation of water to soils and plants, a theory of dry-farming was worked out which was published in Bulletin 75 of the Utah Station in January, 1902. This is probably the first systematic presentation of the principles of dry-farming. A year later the Legislature of the state of Utah made provision for the establishment and maintenance of six experimental dry-farms to investigate in different parts of the state the possibility of dry-farming and the principles underlying the art. These stations, which are still maintained, have done much to stimulate the growth of dry-farming in Utah. The credit of first undertaking and maintaining systematic experimental work in behalf of dry-farming should be assigned to the state of Utah. Since dry-farm experiments began in Utah in 1901, the subject has been a leading one in the Station and the College. A large number of men trained at the Utah Station and College have gone out as investigators of dry-farming under state and Federal direction. The other experiment stations in the arid and semi-arid region were not slow to take up the work for their respective states. Fortier and Linfield, who had spent a number of years in Utah and had become somewhat familiar with the dry-farm practices of that state, initiated dry-farm investigations in Montana, which have been prosecuted with great vigor since that time. Vernon, under the direction of Foster, who had spent four years in Utah as Director of the Utah Station, initiated the work in New Mexico. In Wyoming the experimental study of dry-farm lands began by the private enterprise of H. B. Henderson and his associates. Later V. T. Cooke was placed in charge of the work under state auspices, and the demonstration of the feasibility of dry-farming in Wyoming has been going on since about 1907. Idaho has also recently undertaken dry-farm investigations. Nevada, once looked upon as the only state in the Union incapable of producing crops without irrigation, is demonstrating by means of state appropriations that large areas there are suitable for dry-farming. In Arizona, small tracts in this sun-baked state are shown to be suitable for dry-farm lands. The Washington Station is investigating the problems of dry-farming peculiar to the Columbia Basin, and the staff of the Oregon Station is carrying on similar work. In Nebraska, some very important experiments dry-farming are being conducted. In North Dakota there were in 1910 twenty-one dry-farm demonstration farms. In South Dakota, Kansas, and Texas, provisions are similarly made for dry-farm investigations. In fact, up and down the Great Plains area there are stations maintained by the state or Federal government for the purpose of determining the methods under which crops can be produced without irrigation. At the head of the Great Plains area at Saskatchewan one of the oldest dry-farm stations in America is located (since 1888). In Russia several stations are devoted very largely to the problems of dry land agriculture. To be especially mentioned for the excellence of the work done are the stations at Odessa, Cherson, and Poltava. This last-named Station has been established since 1886. In connection with the work done by the experiment stations should be mentioned the assistance given by the railroads. Many of the railroads owning land along their respective lines are greatly benefited in the selling of these lands by a knowledge of the methods whereby the lands may be made productive. However, the railroads depend chiefly for their success upon the increased prosperity of the population along their lines and for the purpose of assisting the settlers in the arid West considerable sums have been expended by the railroads in cooperation with the stations for the gathering of information of value in the reclamation of arid lands without irrigation. It is through the efforts of the experiment stations that the knowledge of the day has been reduced to a science of dry-farming. Every student of the subject admits that much is yet to be learned before the last word has been said concerning the methods of dry-farming in reclaiming the waste places of the earth. The future of dry-farming rests almost wholly upon the energy and intelligence with which the experiment stations in this and other countries of the world shall attack the special problems connected with this branch of agriculture. The United States Department of Agriculture The Commissioner of Agriculture of the United States was given a secretaryship in the President's Cabinet in 1889. With this added dignity, new life was given to the department. Under the direction of J. Sterling Morton preliminary work of great importance was done. Upon the appointment of James Wilson as Secretary of Agriculture, the department fairly leaped into a fullness of organization for the investigation of the agricultural problems of the country. From the beginning of its new growth the United States Department of Agriculture has given some thought to the special problems of the semiarid region, especially that part within the Great Plains. Little consideration was at first given to the far West. The first method adopted to assist the farmers of the plains was to find plants with drouth resistant properties. For that purpose explorers were sent over the earth, who returned with great numbers of new plants or varieties of old plants, some of which, such as the durum wheats, have shown themselves of great value in American agriculture. The Bureaus of Plant Industry, Soils, Weather, and Chemistry have all from the first given considerable attention to the problems of the arid region. The Weather Bureau, long established and with perfected methods, has been invaluable in guiding investigators into regions where experiments could be undertaken with some hope of success. The Department of Agriculture was somewhat slow, however, in recognizing dry-farming as a system of agriculture requiring special investigation. The final recognition of the subject came with the appointment, in 1905, of Chilcott as expert in charge of dry-land investigations. At the present time an office of dry-land investigations has been established under the Bureau of Plant Industry, which cooperates with a number of other divisions of the Bureau in the investigation of the conditions and methods of dry-farming. A large number of stations are maintained by the Department over the arid and semiarid area for the purpose of studying special problems, many of which are maintained in connection with the state experiment stations. Nearly all the departmental experts engaged in dry-farm investigation have been drawn from the service of the state stations and in these stations had received their special training for their work. The United States Department of Agriculture has chosen to adopt a strong conservatism in the matter of dry-farming. It may be wise for the Department, as the official head of the agricultural interests of the country, to use extreme care in advocating the settlement of a region in which, in the past, farmers had failed to make a living, yet this conservatism has tended to hinder the advancement of dry-farming and has placed the departmental investigations of dry-farming in point of time behind the pioneer investigations of the subject. The Dry-farming Congress As the great dry-farm wave swept over the country, the need was felt on the part of experts and laymen of some means whereby dry-farm ideas from all parts of the country could be exchanged. Private individuals by the thousands and numerous state and governmental stations were working separately and seldom had a chance of comparing notes and discussing problems. A need was felt for some central dry-farm organization. An attempt to fill this need was made by the people of Denver, Colorado, when Governor Jesse F. McDonald of Colorado issued a call for the first Dry-farming Congress to be held in Denver, January 24, 25, and 26, 1907. These dates were those of the annual stock show which had become a permanent institution of Denver and, in fact, some of those who were instrumental in the calling of the Dry-farming Congress thought that it was a good scheme to bring more people to the stock show. To the surprise of many the Dry-farming Congress became the leading feature of the week. Representatives were present from practically all the states interested in dry-farming and from some of the humid states. Utah, the pioneer dry-farm state, was represented by a delegation second in size only to that of Colorado, where the Congress was held. The call for this Congress was inspired, in part at least, by real estate men, who saw in the dry-farm movement an opportunity to relieve themselves of large areas of cheap land at fairly good prices. The Congress proved, however, to be a businesslike meeting which took hold of the questions in earnest, and from the very first made it clear that the real estate agent was not a welcome member unless he came with perfectly honest methods. The second Dry-farming Congress was held January 22 to 25, 1908, in Salt Lake City, Utah, under the presidency of Fisher Harris. It was even better attended than the first. The proceedings show that it was a Congress at which the dry-farm experts of the country stated their findings. A large exhibit of dry-farm products was held in connection with this Congress, where ocular demonstrations of the possibility of dry-farming were given any doubting Thomas. The third Dry-farming Congress was held February 23 to 25, 1909, at Cheyenne, Wyoming, under the presidency of Governor W. W. Brooks of Wyoming. An unusually severe snowstorm preceded the Congress, which prevented many from attending, yet the number present exceeded that at any of the preceding Congresses. This Congress was made notable by the number of foreign delegates who had been sent by their respective countries to investigate the methods pursued in America for the reclamation of the arid districts. Among these delegates were representatives from Canada, Australia, The Transvaal, Brazil, and Russia. The fourth Congress was held October 26 to 28, 1909, in Billings, Montana, under the presidency of Governor Edwin L. Morris of Montana. The uncertain weather of the winter months had led the previous Congress to adopt a time in the autumn as the date of the annual meeting. This Congress became a session at which many of the principles discussed during the three preceding Congresses were crystallized into definite statements and agreed upon by workers from various parts of the country. A number of foreign representatives were present again. The problems of the Northwest and Canada were given special attention. The attendance was larger than at any of the preceding Congresses. The fifth Congress will be held under the presidency of Hon. F. W. Mondell of Wyoming at Spokane, Washington, during October, 1910. It promises to exceed any preceding Congress in attendance and interest. The Dry-farming Congress has made itself one of the most important factors in the development of methods for the reclamation of the desert. Its published reports are the most valuable publications dealing with dry-land agriculture. Only simple justice is done when it is stated that the success of the Dry-farming Congress is due in a large measure to the untiring and intelligent efforts of John T. Burns, who is the permanent secretary of the Congress, and who was a member of the first executive committee. Nearly all the arid and semiarid states have organized state dry-farming congresses. The first of these was the Utah Dry-farming Congress, organized about two months after the first Congress held in Denver. The president is L. A. Merrill, one of the pioneer dry-farm investigators of the Rockies. Jethro Tull (see frontispiece) A sketch of the history of dry-farming would be incomplete without a mention of the life and work of Jethro Tull. The agricultural doctrines of this man, interpreted in the light of modern science, are those which underlie modern dry-farming. Jethro Tull was born in Berkshire, England, 1674, and died in 1741. He was a lawyer by profession, but his health was so poor that he could not practice his profession and therefore spent most of his life in the seclusion of a quiet farm. His life work was done in the face of great physical sufferings. In spite of physical infirmities, he produced a system of agriculture which, viewed in the light of our modern knowledge, is little short of marvelous. The chief inspiration of his system came from a visit paid to south of France, where he observed "near Frontignan and Setts, Languedoc" that the vineyards were carefully plowed and tilled in order to produce the largest crops of the best grapes. Upon the basis of this observation he instituted experiments upon his own farm and finally developed his system, which may be summarized as follows: The amount of seed to be used should be proportional to the condition of the land, especially to the moisture that is in it. To make the germination certain, the seed should be sown by drill methods. Tull, as has already been observed, was the inventor of the seed drill which is now a feature of all modern agriculture. Plowing should be done deeply and frequently; two plowings for one crop would do no injury and frequently would result in an increased yield. Finally, as the most important principle of the system, the soil should be cultivated continually, the argument being that by continuous cultivation the fertility of the soil would be increased, the water would be conserved, and as the soil became more fertile less water would be used. To accomplish such cultivation, all crops should be placed in rows rather far apart, so far indeed that a horse carrying a cultivator could walk between them. The horse-hoeing idea of the system became fundamental and gave the name to his famous book, "The Horse Hoeing Husbandry," by Jethro Tull, published in parts from 1731 to 1741. Tull held that the soil between the rows was essentially being fallowed and that the next year the seed could be planted between the rows of the preceding year and in that way the fertility could be maintained almost indefinitely. If this method were not followed, half of the soil could lie fallow every other year and be subjected to continuous cultivation. Weeds consume water and fertility and, therefore, fallowing and all the culture must be perfectly clean. To maintain fertility a rotation of crops should be practiced. Wheat should be the main grain crop; turnips the root crop; and alfalfa a very desirable crop. It may be observed that these teachings are sound and in harmony with the best knowledge of to-day and that they are the very practices which are now being advocated in all dry-farm sections. This is doubly curious because Tull lived in a humid country. However, it may be mentioned that his farm consisted of a very poor chalk soil, so that the conditions under which he labored were more nearly those of an arid country than could ordinarily be found in a country of abundant rainfall. While the practices of Jethro Tull were in themselves very good and in general can be adopted to-day, yet his interpretation of the principles involved was wrong. In view of the limited knowledge of his day, this was only to be expected. For instance, he believed so thoroughly in the value of cultivation of the soil, that he thought it would take the place of all other methods of maintaining soil-fertility. In fact, he declared distinctly that "tillage is manure," which we are very certain at this time is fallacious. Jethro Tull is one of the great investigators of the world. In recognition of the fact that, though living two hundred years ago in a humid country, he was able to develop the fundamental practices of soil culture now used in dry-farming, the honor has been done his memory of placing his portrait as the frontispiece of this volume. CHAPTER XX DRY-FARMING IN A NUTSHELL Locate the dry-farm in a section with an annual precipitation of more than ten inches and, if possible, with small wind movement. One man with four horses and plenty of machinery cannot handle more than from 160 to 200 acres. Farm fewer acres and farm them better. Select a clay loam soil. Other soils may be equally productive, but are cultivated properly with somewhat more difficulty. Make sure, with the help of the soil auger, that the soil is of uniform structure to a depth of at least eight feet. If streaks of loose gravel or layers of hardpan are near the surface, water may be lost to the plant roots. After the land has been cleared and broken let it lie fallow with clean cultivation, for one year. The increase in the first and later crops will pay for the waiting. Always plow the land early in the fall, unless abundant experience shows that fall plowing is an unwise practice in the locality. Always plow deeply unless the subsoil is infertile, in which case plow a little deeper each year until eight or ten inches are reached Plow at least once for each crop. Spring plowing; if practiced, should be done as early as possible in the season. Follow the plow, whether in the fall or spring, with the disk and that with the smoothing harrow, if crops are to be sown soon afterward. If the land plowed in the fall is to lie fallow for the winter, leave it in the rough condition, except in localities where there is little or no snow and the winter temperature is high. Always disk the land in early spring, to prevent evaporation. Follow the disk with the harrow. Harrow, or in some other way stir the surface of the soil after every rain. If crops are on the land, harrow as long as the plants will stand it. If hoed crops, like corn or potatoes, are grown, use the cultivator throughout the season. A deep mulch or dry soil should cover the land as far as possible throughout the summer. Immediately after harvest disk the soil thoroughly. Destroy weeds as soon as they show themselves. A weedy dry-farm is doomed to failure. Give the land an occasional rest, that is, a clean summer fallow. Under a rainfall of less than fifteen inches, the land should be summer fallowed every other year; under an annual rainfall of fifteen to twenty inches, the summer fallow should occur every third or fourth year. Where the rainfall comes chiefly in the summer, the summer fallow is less important in ordinary years than where the summers are dry and the winters wet. Only an absolutely clean fallow should be permitted. The fertility of dry-farm soils must be maintained. Return the manure; plow under green leguminous crops occasionally and practice rotation. On fertile soils plants mature with the least water. Sow only by the drill method. Wherever possible use fall varieties of crops. Plant deeply--three or four inches for grain. Plant early in the fall, especially if the land has been summer fallowed. Use only about one half as much seed as is recommended for humid-farming. All the ordinary crops may be grown by dry-farming. Secure seed that has been raised on dry-farms. Look out for new varieties, especially adapted for dry-farming, that may be brought in. Wheat is king in dry-farming; corn a close second. Turkey wheat promises the best. Stock the dry-farm with the best modern machinery. Dry-farming is possible only because of the modern plow, the disk, the drill seeder, the harvester, the header, and the thresher. Make a home on the dry-farm. Store the flood waters in a reservoir; or pump the underground waters, for irrigating the family garden. Set out trees, plant flowers, and keep some live stock. Learn to understand the reasons back of the principles of dry-farming, apply the knowledge vigorously, and the crop cannot fail. Always farm as if a year of drouth were coming. Man, by his intelligence, compels the laws of nature to do his bidding, and thus he achieves joy. "And God blessed them--and God said unto them, Be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth, and subdue it." CHAPTER XIX THE YEAR OF DROUTH The Shadow of the Year of Drouth still obscures the hope of many a dry-farmer. From the magazine page and the public platform the prophet of evil, thinking himself a friend of humanity, solemnly warns against the arid region and dry-farming, for the year of drouth, he says, is sure to come again and then will be repeated the disasters of 1893-1895. Beware of the year of drouth. Even successful dry-farmers who have obtained good crops every year for a generation or more are half led to expect a dry year or one so dry that crops will fail in spite of all human effort. The question is continually asked, "Can crop yields reasonably be expected every year, through a succession of dry years, under semiarid conditions, if the best methods of dry-farming be practiced?" In answering this question, it may be said at the very beginning, that when the year of drouth is mentioned in connection with dry-farming, sad reference is always made to the experience on the Great Plains in the early years of the '90's. Now the fact of the matter is, that while the years of 1893,1894, and 1895 were dry years, the only complete failure came in 1894. In spite of the improper methods practiced by the settlers, the willing soil failed to yield a crop only one year. Moreover, it should not be forgotten that hundreds of farmers in the driest section during this dry period, who instinctively or otherwise farmed more nearly right, obtained good crops even in 1894. The simple practice of summer fallowing, had it been practiced the year before, would have insured satisfactory crops in the driest year. Further, the settlers who did not take to their heels upon the arrival of the dry year are still living in large numbers on their homesteads and in numerous instances have accumulated comfortable fortunes from the land which has been held up so long as a warning against settlement beyond a humid climate. The failure of 1894 was due as much to a lack of proper agricultural information and practice as to the occurrence of a dry year. Next, the statement is carelessly made that the recent success in dry-farming is due to the fact that we are now living in a cycle of wet years, but that as soon as the cycle of dry years strikes the country dry-farming will vanish as a dismal failure. Then, again, the theory is proposed that the climate is permanently changing toward wetness or dryness and the past has no meaning in reading the riddle of the future. It is doubtless true that no man may safely predict the weather for future generations; yet, so far as human knowledge goes, there is no perceptible average change in the climate from period to period within historical time; neither are there protracted dry periods followed by protracted wet periods. The fact is, dry and wet years alternate. A succession of somewhat wet years may alternate with a succession of somewhat dry years, but the average precipitation from decade to decade is very nearly the same. True, there will always be a dry year, that is, the driest year of a series of years, and this is the supposedly fearful and fateful year of drouth. The business of the dry-farmer is always to farm so as to be prepared for this driest year whenever it comes. If this be done, the farmer will always have a crop: in the wet years his crop will be large; in the driest year it will be sufficient to sustain him. So persistent is the half-expressed fear that this driest year makes it impossible to rely upon dry-farming as a permanent system of agriculture that a search has been made for reliable long records of the production of crops in arid and semiarid regions. Public statements have been made by many perfectly reliable men to the effect that crops have been produced in diverse sections over long periods of years, some as long as thirty-five or forty year's, without one failure having occurred. Most of these statements, however, have been general in their nature and not accompanied by the exact yields from year to year. Only three satisfactory records have been found in a somewhat careful search. Others no doubt exist. The first record was made by Senator J. G. M. Barnes of Kaysville, Utah. Kaysville is located in the Great Salt Lake Valley, about fifteen miles north of Salt Lake City. The climate is semiarid; the precipitation comes mainly in the winter and early spring; the summers are dry, and the evaporation is large. Senator Barnes purchased ninety acres of land in the spring of 1887 and had it farmed under his own supervision until 1906. He is engaged in commercial enterprises and did not, himself, do any of the work on the farm, but employed men to do the necessary labor. However, he kept a close supervision of the farm and decided upon the practices which should be followed. From seventy-eight to eighty-nine acres were harvested for each crop, with the exception of 1902, when all but about twenty acres was fired by sparks from the passing railroad train. The plowing, harrowing, and weeding were done very carefully. The complete record of the Barnes dry-farm from 1887 to 1905 is shown in the table on the following page. Record of the Barnes Dry-farm, Salt Lake Valley, Utah (90 acres) Year Annual Yield When When Rainfall per Acre Plowed Sown (Inches) (Bu.) 1887 11.66 --- May Sept. 1888 13.62 Failure May Sept. 1889 18.46 22.5 --- Volunteer+ 1890 10.38 15.5 --- --- 1891 15.92 Fallow May Fall 1892 14.08 19.3 --- --- 1893 17.35 Fallow May Fall 1894 15.27 26.0 --- --- 1895 11.95 Fallow May Aug. 1896 18.42 22.0 --- --- 1897 16.74 Fallow Spring Fall 1898 16.09 26.0 --- --- 1899 17.57 Fallow May Fall 1900 11.53 23.5 --- --- 1901 16.08 Fallow Spring Fall 1902 11.41 28.9 Sept. Fall 1903 14.62 12.5 --- --- 1904 16.31 Fallow Spring Fall 1905 14.23 25.8 --- --- +About four acres were sown on stubble. The first plowing was given the farm in May of 1887, and, with the exception of 1902, the land was invariably plowed in the spring. With fall plowing the yields would undoubtedly have been better. The first sowing was made in the fall of 1887, and fall grain was grown during the whole period of observation. The seed sown in the fall of 1887 came up well, but was winter-killed. This is ascribed by Senator Barnes to the very dry winter, though it is probable that the soil was not sufficiently well stored with moisture to carry the crop through. The farm was plowed again in the spring of 1888, and another crop sown in September of the same year. In the summer of 1889, 22-1/2 bushels of wheat were harvested to the acre. Encouraged by this good crop Mr. Barnes allowed a volunteer crop to grow that fall and the next summer harvested as a result 15-1/2 bushels of wheat to the acre. The table shows that only one crop smaller than this was harvested during the whole period of nineteen years, namely, in 1903, when the same thing was done, and one crop was made to follow another without an intervening fallow period. This observation is an evidence in favor of clean summer fallowing. The largest crop obtained, 28.9 bushels per acre in 1902, was gathered in a year when the next to the lowest rainfall of the whole period occurred, namely, 11.41 inches. The precipitation varied during the nineteen years from 10.33 inches to 18.46 inches. The variation in yield per acre was considerably less than this, not counting the two crops that were grown immediately after another crop. All in all, the unique record of the Barnes dry-farm shows that through a period of nineteen years, including dry and comparatively wet years, there was absolutely no sign of failure, except in the first year, when probably the soil had not been put in proper condition to support crops. In passing it maybe mentioned that, according to the records furnished by Senator Barnes, the total cost of operating the farm during the nineteen years was $4887.69; the total income was $10,144.83. The difference, $5257.14, is a very fair profit on the investment of $1800--the original cost of the farm. The Indian Head farm An equally instructive record is furnished by the experimental farm located at Indian Head in Saskatchewan, Canada, in the northern part of the Great Plains area. According to Alway, the country is in appearance very much like western Nebraska and Kansas; the climate is distinctly arid, and the precipitation comes mainly in the spring and summer. It is the only experimental dry-farm in the Great Plains area with records that go back before the dry years of the early '90's. In 1882 the soil of this farm was broken, and it was farmed continuously until 1888, when it was made an experimental farm under government supervision. The following table shows the yields obtained from the year 1891, when the precipitation records were first kept, to 1909:-- RECORD OF INDIAN HEAD EXPERIMENTAL FARM AND MOTHERWELL'S FARM, SASKATCHEWAN, CANADA Year Annual Bushels of Wheat Bushels of Wheat Bushels of Wheat Rainfall per Acre per Acre per Acre (Inches)+ Experimental Experimental Motherwell's Farm Farm--Fallow Farm--Stubble 1891 14.03 35 32 30 1892 6.92 28 21 28 1893 10.11 35 22 34 1894 3.90 17 9 24 1895 12.28 41 22 26 1896 10.59 39 29 31 1897 14.62 33 26 35 1898 18.03 32 --- 27 1899 9.44 33 --- 33 1900 11.74 17 5 25 1901 20.22 49 38 51 1902 10.73 38 22 28 1903 15.55 35 15 31 1904 11.96 40 29 35 1905 19.17 42 18 36 1906 13.21 26 13 38 1907 15.03 18 18 15 1908 13.17 29 14 16 1909 13.96 28 15 23 +Snowfall not included. This has varied from 2.3 to 1.3 inches of water. The annual rainfall shown in the second column does not include the water which fell in the form of snow. According to the records at hand, the annual snow fall varied from 2.3 to 1.3 inches of water, which should be added to the rainfall given in the table. Even with this addition the rainfall shows the district to be of a distinctly semiarid character. It will be observed that the precipitation varied from 3.9 to 20.22 inches, and that during the early '90's several rather dry years occurred. In spite of this large variation good crops have been obtained during the whole period of nineteen years. Not one failure is recorded. The lowest yield of 17 bushels per acre came during the very dry year of 1894 and during the somewhat dry year of 1900. Some of the largest yields were obtained in seasons when the rainfall was only near the average. As a record showing that the year of drouth need not be feared when dry-farming is done right, this table is of very high interest. It may be noted, incidentally, that throughout the whole period wheat following a fallow always yielded higher than wheat following the stubble. For the nineteen years, the difference was as 32.4 bushels is to 20.5 bushels. The Mother well farm In the last column of the table are shown the annual yields of wheat obtained on the farm of Commissioner Motherwell of the province of Saskatchewan. This private farm is located some twenty-five miles away from Indian Head, and the rainfall records of the experimental farm are, therefore, only approximately accurate for the Motherwell farm. The results on this farm may well be compared to the Barnes results of Utah, since they were obtained on a private farm. During the period of nineteen years good crops were invariably obtained; even during the very dry year of 1894, a yield of twenty-four bushels of wheat to the acre was obtained. Curiously enough, the lowest yields of fifteen and sixteen bushels to the acre were obtained in 1907 and 1908 when the precipitation was fairly good, and must be ascribed to some other factor than that of precipitation. The record of this farm shows conclusively that with proper farming there is no need to fear the year of drouth. The Utah drouth of 1910 During the year of 1910 only 2.7 inches of rain fell in Salt Lake City from March 1 to the July harvest, and all of this in March, as against 7.18 inches during the same period the preceding year. In other parts of the state much less rain fell; in fact, in the southern part of the state the last rain fell during the last week of December, 1909. The drouth remained unbroken until long after the wheat harvests. Great fear was expressed that the dry-farms could not survive so protracted a period of drouth. Agents, sent out over the various dry-farm districts, reported late in June that wherever clean summer fallowing had been practiced the crops were in excellent condition; but that wherever careless methods had been practiced, the crops were poor or killed. The reports of the harvest in July of 1910 showed that fully 85 per cent of an average crop was obtained in spite of the protracted drouth wherever the soil came into the spring well stored with moisture, and in many instances full crops were obtained. Over the whole of the dry-farm territory of the United States similar conditions of drouth occurred. After the harvest, however, every state reported that the crops were well up to the average wherever correct methods of culture had been employed. These well-authenticated records from true semi-arid districts, covering the two chief types of winter and summer precipitation, prove that the year of drouth, or the driest year in a twenty-year period, does not disturb agricultural conditions seriously in localities where the average annual precipitation is not too low, and where proper cultural methods arc followed. That dry-farming is a system of agricultural practice which requires the application of high skill and intelligence is admitted; that it is precarious is denied. The year of drouth is ordinarily the year in which the man failed to do properly his share of the work. CHAPTER XVIII THE PRESENT STATUS OF DRY-FARMING It is difficult to obtain a correct view of the present status of dry-farming, first, because dry-farm surveys are only beginning to be made and, secondly, because the area under dry-farm cultivation is increasing daily by leaps and bounds. All arid and semiarid parts of the world are reaching out after methods of soil culture whereby profitable crops may be produced without irrigation, and the practice of dry-farming, according to modern methods, is now followed in many diverse countries. The United States undoubtedly leads at present in the area actually under dry-farming, but, in view of the immense dry-farm districts in other parts of the world, it is doubtful if the United States will always maintain its supremacy in dry-farm acreage. The leadership in the development of a science of dry-farming will probably remain with the United States for years, since the numerous experiment stations established for the study of the problems of farming without irrigation have their work well under way, while, with the exception of one or two stations in Russia and Canada, no other countries have experiment stations for the study of dry-farming in full operation. The reports of the Dry-farming Congress furnish practically the only general information as to the status of dry-farming in the states and territories of the United States and in the countries of the world. California In the state of California dry-farming has been firmly established for more than a generation. The chief crop of the California dry-farms is wheat, though the other grains, root crops, and vegetables are also grown without irrigation under a comparatively small rainfall. The chief dry-farm areas are found in the Sacramento and the San Joaquin valleys. In the Sacramento Valley the precipitation is fairly large, but in the San Joaquin Valley it is very small. Some of the most successful dry-farms of California have produced well for a long succession of years under a rainfall of ten inches and less. California offers a splendid example of the great danger that besets all dry-farm sections. For a generation wheat has been produced on the fertile Californian soils without manuring of any kind. As a consequence, the fertility of the soils has been so far depleted that at present it is difficult to obtain paying crops without irrigation on soils that formerly yielded bountifully. The living problem of the dry-farms in California is the restoration of the fertility which has been removed from the soils by unwise cropping. All other dry-farm districts should take to heart this lesson, for, though crops may be produced on fertile soils for one, two, or even three generations without manuring, yet the time will come when plant-food must be added to the soil in return for that which has been removed by the crops. Meanwhile, California offers, also, an excellent example of the possibility of successful dry-farming through long periods and under varying climatic conditions. In the Golden State dry-farming is a fully established practice; it has long since passed the experimental stage. Columbia River Basin The Columbia River Basin includes the state of Washington, most of Oregon, the northern and central part of Idaho, western Montana, and extends into British Columbia. It includes the section often called the Inland Empire, which alone covers some one hundred and fifty thousand square miles. The chief dry-farm crop of this region is wheat; in fact, western Washington or the "Palouse country" is famous for its wheat-producing powers. The other grains, potatoes, roots, and vegetables are also grown without irrigation. In the parts of this dry-farm district where the rainfall is the highest, fruits of many kinds and of a high quality are grown without irrigation. It is estimated that at least two million acres are being dry-farmed in this district. Dry-farming is fully established in the Columbia River Basin. One farmer is reported to have raised in one year on his own farm two hundred and fifty thousand bushels of wheat. In one section of the district where the rainfall for the last few years has been only about ten or eleven inches, wheat has been produced successfully. This corroborates the experience of California, that wheat may really be grown in localities where the annual rainfall is not above ten inches. The most modern methods of dry-farming are followed by the farmers of the Columbia River Basin, but little attention has been given to soil-fertility, since soils that have been farmed for a generation still appear to retain their high productive powers. Undoubtedly, however, in this district, as in California, the question of soil-fertility will be an important one in the near future. This is one of the great dry-farm districts of the world. The Great Basin The Great Basin includes Nevada, the western half of Utah, a small part of southern Oregon and Idaho, and also a part of Southern California. It is a great interior basin with all its rivers draining into salt lakes or dry sinks. In recent geological times the Great Basin was filled with water, forming the great Lake Bonneville which drained into the Columbia River. In fact, the Great Basin is made up of a series of great valleys, with very level floors, representing the old lake bottom. On the bench lands are seen, in many places, the effects of the wave action of the ancient lake. The chief dry-farm crop of this district is wheat, but the other grains, including corn, are also produced successfully. Other crops have been tried with fair success, but not on a commercial scale. Grapevines have been made to grow quite successfully without irrigation on the bench lands. Several small orchards bearing luscious fruit are growing on the deep soils of the Great Basin without the artificial application of water. Though the first dry-farming by modern peoples was probably practiced in the Great Basin, yet the area at present under cultivation is not large, possibly a little more than four hundred thousand acres. Dry-farming, however, is well established. There are large areas, especially in Nevada, that receive less than ten inches of rainfall annually, and one of the leading problems before the dry-farmers of this district is the determination of the possibility of producing crops upon such lands without irrigation. On the older dry-farms, which have existed in some cases from forty to fifty years, there are no signs of diminution of soil-fertility. Undoubtedly, however, even under the conditions of extremely high fertility prevailing in the Great Basin, the time will soon come when the dry-farmer must make provision for restoring to the soil some of the fertility taken away by crops. There are millions of acres in the Great Basin yet to be taken up and subjected to the will of the dry-farmer. Colorado and Rio Grande River Basins The Colorado and Rio Grande River Basins include Arizona and the western part of New Mexico. The chief dry-farm crops of this dry district are wheat, corn, and beans. Other crops have also been grown in small quantities and with some success. The area suitable for dry-farming in this district has not yet been fully determined and, therefore, the Arizona and New Mexico stations are undertaking dry-farm surveys of their respective states. In spite of the fact that Arizona is generally looked upon as one of the driest states of the Union, dry-farming is making considerable headway there. In New Mexico, five sixths of all the homestead applications during the last year were for dry-farm lands; and, in fact, there are several prosperous communities in New Mexico which are subsisting almost wholly on dry-farming. It is only fair to say, however, that dry-farming is not yet well established in this district, but that the prospects are that the application of scientific principles will soon make it possible to produce profitable crops without irrigation in large parts of the Colorado and Rio Grande River Basins. The mountain states This district includes a part of Montana, nearly the whole of Wyoming and Colorado, and part of eastern Idaho. It is located along the backbone of the Rocky Mountains. The farms are located chiefly in valleys and on large rolling table-lands. The chief dry-farm crop is wheat, though the other crops which are grown elsewhere on dry-farms may be grown here also. In Montana there is a very large area of land which has been demonstrated to be well adapted for dry-farm purposes. In Wyoming, especially on the eastern as well as on the far western side, dry-farming has been shown to be successful, but the area covered at the present time is comparatively small. In Idaho, dry-farming is fairly well established. In Colorado, likewise, the practice is very well established and the area is tolerably large. All in all, throughout the mountain states dry-farming may be said to be well established, though there is a great opportunity for the extension of the practice. The sparse population of the western states naturally makes it impossible for more than a small fraction of the land to be properly cultivated. The Great Plains Area This area includes parts of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. It is the largest area of dry-farm land under approximately uniform conditions. Its drainage is into the Mississippi, and it covers an area of not less than four hundred thousand square miles. Dry-farm crops grow well over the whole area; in fact, dry-farming is well established in this district. In spite of the failures so widely advertised during the dry season of 1894, the farmers who remained on their farms and since that time have employed modern methods have secured wealth from their labors. The important question before the farmers of this district is that of methods for securing the best results. From the Dakotas to Texas the farmers bear the testimony that wherever the soil has been treated right, according to approved methods, there have been no crop failures. Canada Dry-farming has been pushed vigorously in the semiarid portions of Canada, and with great success. Dry-farming is now reclaiming large areas of formerly worthless land, especially in Alberta, Saskatchewan, and the adjoining provinces. Dry-farming is comparatively recent in Canada, yet here and there are semiarid localities where crops have been raised without irrigation for upwards of a quarter of a century. In Alberta and other places it has been now practiced successfully for eight or ten years, and it may be said that dry-farming is a well-established practice in the semiarid regions of the Dominion of Canada. Mexico In Mexico, likewise, dry-farming has been tried and found to be successful. The natives of Mexico have practiced farming without irrigation for centuries--and modern methods are now being applied in the zone midway between the extremely dry and the extremely humid portions. The irregular distribution of the precipitation, the late spring and early fall frosts, and the fierce winds combine to make the dry-farm problem somewhat difficult, yet the prospects are that, with government assistance, dry-farming in the near future will become an established practice in Mexico. In the opinion of the best students of Mexico it is the only method of agriculture that can be made to reclaim a very large portion of the country. Brazil Brazil, which is greater in area than the United States, also has a large arid and semiarid territory which can be reclaimed only by dry-farm methods. Through the activity of leading citizens experiments in behalf of the dry-farm movement have already been ordered. The dry-farm district of Brazil receives an annual precipitation of about twenty-five inches, but irregularly distributed and under a tropical sun. In the opinion of those who are familiar with the conditions the methods of dry-farming may be so adapted as to make dry-farming successful in Brazil. Australia Australia, larger than the continental United States, is vitally interested in dry-farming, for one third of its vast area is under a rainfall of less than ten inches, and another third is under a rainfall of between ten and twenty inches. Two thirds of the area of Australia, if reclaimed at all, must be reclaimed by dry-farming. The realization of this condition has led several Australians to visit the United States for the purpose of learning the methods employed in dry-farming. The reports on dry-farming in America by Surveyor-General Strawbridge and Senator J. H. McColl have done much to initiate a vigorous propaganda in behalf of dry-farming in Australia. Investigation has shown that occasional farmers are found in Australia, as in America, who have discovered for themselves many of the methods of dry-farming and have succeeded in producing crops profitably. Undoubtedly, in time, Australia will be one of the great dry-farming countries of the world. Africa Up to the present, South Africa only has taken an active interest in the dry-farm movement, due to the enthusiastic labors of Dr. William Macdonald of the Transvaal. The Transvaal has an average annual precipitation of twenty-three inches, with a large district that receives between thirteen and twenty inches. The rain comes in the summer, making the conditions similar to those of the Great Plains. The success of dry-farming has already been practically demonstrated. The question before the Transvaal farmers is the determination of the best application of water conserving methods under the prevailing conditions. Under proper leadership the Transvaal and other portions of Africa will probably join the ranks of the larger dry-farming countries of the world. Russia More than one fourth of the whole of Russia is so dry as to be reclaimable only by dry-farming. The arid area of southern European Russia has a climate very much like that of the Great Plains. Turkestan and middle Asiatic Russia have a climate more like that of the Great Basin. In a great number of localities in both European and Asiatic Russia dry-farming has been practiced for a number of years. The methods employed have not been of the most refined kind, due, possibly, to the condition of the people constituting the farming class. The government is now becoming interested in the matter and there is no doubt that dry-farming will also be practiced on a very large scale in Russia. Turkey Turkey has also a large area of arid land and, due to American assistance, experiments in dry-farming are being carried on in various parts of the country. It is interesting to learn that the experiments there, up to date, have been eminently successful and that the prospects now are that modern dry-farming will soon be conducted on a large scale in the Ottoman Empire. Palestine The whole of Palestine is essentially arid and semi-arid and dry-farming there has been practiced for centuries. With the application of modern methods it should be more successful than ever before. Dr. Aaronsohn states that the original wild wheat from which the present varieties of wheat have descended has been discovered to be a native of Palestine. China China is also interested in dry-farming. The climate of the drier portions of China is much like that of the Dakotas. Dry-farming there is of high antiquity, though, of course, the methods are not those that have been developed in recent years. Under the influence of the more modern methods dry-farming should spread extensively throughout China and become a great source of profit to the empire. The results of dry-farming in China are among the best. These countries have been mentioned simply because they have been represented at the recent Dry-farming Congresses. Nearly all of the great countries of the world having extensive semiarid areas are directly interested in dry-farming. The map on pages 30 and 31 shows that more than 55 per cent of the world's surface receives an annual rainfall of less than twenty inches. Dry-farming is a world problem and as such is being received by the nations. 
47263	----	Fruit large, round; suture shallow; skin yellow, partly covered with a pink blush; flesh pale yellow, juicy, sweet; stone medium in size, free; ripens at the end of July. =Cornelia.= =1.= Harrison _Cat._ 19. 1912. Listed by J. G. Harrison, Berlin, Maryland, as a vigorous, productive, white-fleshed peach ripening at the end of July. =Corner.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 197. 1883. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:211. 1899. Originated by William Corner, Ganges, Michigan, where it is grown locally. Tree vigorous; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, oval to ovate; suture distinct; skin brightly blushed on a yellow ground; flesh red at the pit, moderately juicy, tender, mild but not rich; pit free, oval, pointed; matures early in September. =Corosa.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 66. 1907. According to the reference, Corosa ripens soon after Mamie Ross which it excels. =Corriell.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 335. 1896. A very hardy variety grown in southeastern Iowa. =Cothelstone Seedling.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 95. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Coulombier.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 392. 1889. Mentioned in this reference. =Countess.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 44. 1891. =2.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =27=:942. 1894. =3.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:811. 1896. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 36. 1909. Countess is a southern variety of unknown origin. It appeared on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1891 to 1899, reappearing in 1909. The fruit is white-fleshed, juicy, nearly free; ripens early in July. =Counts.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 605. 1869. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1877. Counts originated with H. H. Counts, Lylesford, South Carolina. It was on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1877 until 1891. Fruit large, white, blushed; flesh white, rich, juicy; clingstone; matures in mid-season. =Coupers.= =1.= _Am. Gard._ =24=:414. 1903. Coupers is a heavy bearer; skin white, with a blush; ripens late in August. =Cowan Late.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 186. 1860. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:811. 1896. Glands reniform; fruit very small, round; ripens in September. =Cox Cling.= =1.= _Wash. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 140. 1891-92. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1899. Cox Cling appeared on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1899 until 1909. It is listed as a medium-sized, white-fleshed clingstone of fair quality; originated in Texas. =Cox October.= =1.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 298. 1855. A choice variety grown at one time in Mississippi. =Cream.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 80. 1898. E. T. Daniels, Kiowa, Kansas, grew Cream from a stone of Marcella. It resembles Late Crawford in size and color; ripens October 15th. =Crimson Beauty I.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 161. 1881. =2.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:234. 1898. Tree tall, erect; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, globular; skin greenish-yellow, overspread with carmine; flesh white except at the stone; clingstone; ripens at the middle of August. =Crimson Beauty II.= =1.= Bailey _Ann. Hort._ 184. 1892. Tree with heavy, dark foliage; fruit large, highly colored; flesh firm, fine; freestone; ripens in November. =Crimson Galande.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 217. 1866. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:191, 192, fig. 94. 1866-73. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 441. 1884. _Crimson Mignonne._ =4.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =5=:188. 1863. Crimson Galande is one of the many seedlings raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Tree an abundant bearer; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, uneven in outline, faintly sutured; skin almost entirely covered with very dark crimson; flesh white, purple about the pit, melting, juicy, sprightly; stone free, small, ovoid; ripens at the end of August. =Crockett.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:811. 1896. _Crockett Late White._ =2.= _Gard. Mon._ =2=:335 fig. 1860. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1877. _Crockett Late._ =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1887. Crockett originated in New Jersey and was once popular as a late, market sort. In 1877, it was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society; in 1887, the name was changed to Crockett Late; the variety was finally dropped in 1891. Glands reniform; fruit medium to large, oblong, greenish-white, with an occasional blush; flesh pale, sweet, not very juicy; freestone; ripens the last of September. =Crofts Golden.= =1.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =3=:44. 1890. Listed by the Louisiana Experiment Station. =Cromwell Seedling.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =3=:280. 1861. An early variety introduced by a Mr. Cromwell, Baltimore, Maryland. =Crothers.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 289. 1893. =2.= _Rural N. Y._ =59=:626 fig. 1900. A Mr. Crothers of Neosho Falls, Kansas, found this variety on his farm. On the Station grounds it is very similar to Oldmixon Free. Tree fairly vigorous and productive; glands small, globose; flowers small, appearing early; fruit above medium in size, roundish-oval, sometimes oblique, angular; apex often with a recurved, mamelon tip; skin thin, tough, with fine, short pubescence, creamy-white, mottled with dark red; flesh white, stained about the pit, juicy, stringy, sprightly; quality not as high as Oldmixon Free; stone nearly free, large, plump, broadly oval, with a long point at the apex; ripens the last of September. =Crown.= =1.= _Rea Flora_ 211. 1676. Listed as a fair fruit ripening with Newington. =Cumberland.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 151. 1881. =2.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 300 fig., 301. 1904. An American variety but little known. Tree moderately vigorous, productive; glandless; flowers large; fruit medium in size, somewhat oblate; skin creamy-white, marbled with deep red; flesh white to the stone, melting, juicy, sweet; quality very good; stone small, oval, acutely pointed, nearly free; matures early in July. =Curtis.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:806. 1896. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1899. A southern variety named after Professor G. W. Curtis, College Station, Texas. The American Pomological Society held it on its fruit-list from 1899 until 1909. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; fruit of medium size, round to slightly oblong; skin clear yellowish-white; clingstone; matures early in July. =Cutter.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 194. 1849. Cutter is very similar to Lincoln but is a few days earlier. =Dabezac.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 48. 1876. Fruit medium in size, cordate; of first quality; ripens the last of August. =Dad.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 50. 1901. A seedling from F. G. Barker, Salina, Kansas. =Dagmar.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =9=:190. 1865. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 217. 1866. A seedling of Albert raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Glands round; flowers small; fruit round; suture shallow; skin very tender, thickly pubescent, with a pale straw-colored ground, almost entirely overlaid with crimson; flesh white, tender, vinous; freestone; ripens in August. =Darby.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1873. A seedling of the Heath type originated by I. W. and R. S. Chick, Newberry, South Carolina. Fruit large, round, with a well-marked suture; skin creamy-white, faintly washed with red; flesh white to the stone, fine, juicy, aromatic; quality very good; clingstone; matures at the end of October. =Daun.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 40. 1876. Glands globose; flowers large; fruit large, heavy, roundish, regular in outline; skin pale greenish-yellow, marbled with reddish-brown; flesh fine, melting, very juicy, aromatic; ripens before the middle of September. =David Hill.= =1.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =6=:283. 1858. According to this reference, David Hill was at one time valuable in western New York. =Davidson No. 1.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 113. 1880. This variety was raised by M. B. Bateham, Painesville, Ohio. It is said to ripen a few days earlier than Alexander. The fruit is of medium size, attractive and equal in quality to most early peaches. =Davidson No. 2.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 113. 1880. Another seedling raised by M. B. Bateham, Painesville, Ohio. Fruit medium in size, attractive, as good in quality as other early peaches. Ripens a few days later than the preceding sort. =Dawson.= =1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:132. 1911. Dawson is not recommended in the reference given. Tree slow growing; fruit of medium size, round; skin rich yellow; flesh yellow; flavor excellent; ripens June 15th; a poor shipper. =Dawson Early.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 170. 1882. A white-fleshed variety, little known in Michigan; glands globose; flowers large; fruit roundish; ripens late in August; said to be free from rot. =Day Yellow Free.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 311. 1889. A California seedling ripening with and closely resembling Foster; a good market variety. =De Citry.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =De Corsa Heath.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:97. 1892. Grown at one time near Seaford, Delaware. =De Ferrières.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed but not described. =De Gloria.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Listed in this reference. =De Grillet.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =De Halle.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:64. 1900. A weak grower; planted in Canada. =D'Ispahan à Fleurs Simples.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed but not described. =De Napier.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:64. 1900. A medium-vigorous variety grown in Canada. =De Thoissey.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =De Tondensis.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 199. 1841. A large, moderately productive, first quality, red and white peach, ripening in September. =De Trianon.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =De Tullias.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:271. 1854. "A variety of the Egyptian peach with larger fruit, surpassing the original type." =De Zelhern.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 606. 1869. Fruit of medium size, roundish; suture deep; skin downy, yellow, with more or less bright red; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet; freestone; matures in August. =Deaconess.= =1.= _Can. Hort._ =23=:379, 380. 1900. A yellow variety said to be immune from yellows. =Dean Orange.= =1.= Kan. Hort. Soc. _Peach, The_ 140. 1899. Named after its originator, Martin Dean, Bavaria, Kansas, about 1875. Another seedling that reproduces itself from seed. =Dean Red Free.= =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 16. 1896-97. Dean Brothers of southern Indiana originated this variety; flesh white, freestone; ripens with Oldmixon Free. =December.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 634. 1887. =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 318. 1889. A white clingstone occasionally grown because of its extreme lateness. =Decker.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 201. 1908. _Buck Prolific._ =2.= _Ibid._ 318. 1889. Decker is grown extensively for eastern shipment in Sutter and Butte Counties, and in Vaca Valley, California. =Dekenhoven Pfirsich.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. _Madeleine d'Ekenholen._ =2.= Carrière _Var Pêchers_ 80. 1867. _Madeleine Dekenhoven._ =3.= Decaisne _Jard. Fruit._ =7=:Pl. 1872-75. Tree moderately vigorous; branches slender; leaves devoid of glands; flowers large; fruit large, roundish, slightly depressed at the base, apex terminating in a small, mamelon tip; distinctly sutured; skin tender, almost entirely overlaid with reddish-black; flesh white except at the stone, melting, juicy, sweet; stone small, free; ripens the last of August. =Delavan White.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 450. 1879. =2.= _Ibid._ 458. 1883. Of American origin, but not generally known or valued. Glands round; flowers small; fruits large, roundish-oval; skin white, with a red cheek; freestone; ripens early in October. =Delaware.= =1.= Lovett _Cat._ 18. 1898. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 36. 1909. Delaware, or Delaware Rareripe as it is sometimes called, originated in Delaware as a seedling of Mountain Rose. The variety is unproductive on the Station grounds. Tree large, vigorous; leaves large, with small, globose glands; flowers appear in mid-season, small, edged with deep pink; fruit medium in size, roundish-cordate, halves unequal; skin thin, thickly pubescent, pale yellowish-white, blushed about the cavity; flesh white, stained at the pit, coarse, stringy, sweet; quality good but not high; stone free, small, oval, plump; ripens the second half of August. =Deming.= =1.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =4=:146. 1856. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 36. 1909. _Deming Orange._ =3.= _Ibid._ 28. 1875. _Deming September._ =4.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 24. 1876. =5.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:234. 1898. Deming is a southern variety which was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1875 as Deming Orange, remaining until 1897, and reappearing as Deming in 1909. Tree open; glands reniform; fruit large, oblate; flesh yellow; clingstone; ripens in mid-season. =Demouilles.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 55. 1876. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:106 fig., 107. 1879. An ornamental peach originating with a M. Demouilles, Toulouse, Haute-Garonne, France. Glands usually reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, generally depressed at the base; suture shallow; skin thick, orange-yellow, streaked and washed with deep red where exposed; flesh intense yellow, tinged with red at the pit, melting, juicy, vinous; stone free, small, ovoid, plump; ripens at the end of September. =Dennis.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:29. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:211. 1899. Tree strong, spreading, with drooping branches; glands globose; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish; suture distinct, two-thirds around; skin yellow; flesh yellow, juicy, tender, highly vinous; pit large, roundish-oval, plump, free; ripens early in September. =Denton.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1897. =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:96. 1901. J. W. Kerr, Denton, Maryland, grew this peach in 1888 from a seed of Early Beauty crossed with Elberta. Denton resembles Elberta very closely and on the Station grounds ripens a week later. Tree large, vigorous, moderately productive; glands large, reniform; flowers large; fruit large, oval; cavity deep; skin tough, covered with thick, coarse pubescence, lemon-yellow, with a few dark splashes; flesh yellow, with red radiating from the stone, juicy, firm, sprightly but varying in flavor; quality good; stone large, obovate, flattened, decidedly bulged, nearly free; ripens the third week in September. =Désiré Vitry.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 463. 1903. Listed in this reference. =Despot.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. Listed as a yellow peach spotted with red. =Desprez.= =1.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 39, Pl. 1846. Named after a M. Desprez, a judge at Alençon, Orne, France. Leaves carry from two to four reniform glands; flowers large; fruit variable, often large, roundish, with a small, mamelon tip at the apex; skin smooth, thick, yellow; flesh white, melting, vinous; stone plump, oval, pointed at the ends, free; ripens the last of August. =Desse Tardive.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N.S. =9=:250. 1865. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:143, 144, fig. 70. 1866-73. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 218. 1866. Desse Tardive was named after its originator, a M. Desse of Chantecoq, Seine, France, about 1835. Glands round; flowers small; fruit large, round, flattened at the top, deeply sutured; skin thin, greenish-white, marbled with vermilion-red; flesh white, slightly colored with red at the stone, melting, juicy, sweet; stone plump, nearly free; ripens at the end of September. =Dewey Cling.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 91. 1899. =2.= Peyton-Barnes _Cat._ 19. 1912. Dewey Cling originated with H. W. Jenkins, Boonville, Missouri, in 1898. Tree vigorous, healthy, upright yet spreading, hardy; fruit of good size; skin smooth, creamy-white; flesh white, very juicy, rich; of good quality; ripens in Missouri the middle of September. =Dey.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =41=:864, fig. 1882. Named after a Mr. Dey, Newark, New Jersey, in whose yard it was found. Fruit large, greenish-white; sweet, rich, juicy; freestone. =Di Carema Giallo.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 48. 1876. A delicious, yellow peach from Italy. =Diamond.= =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 50. 1888-89. =2.= _Ibid._ 16. 1896. =3.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:235. 1898. Diamond originated in Athens County, Ohio. On the grounds of this Station it closely resembles Orange Cling. Tree low, spreading; leaves with globose glands; fruit large, globular; flesh pale yellow except at the pit; clingstone; ripens the first of October. =Diana.= =1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 221. 1817. According to Coxe, Diana is a large, oblong clingstone, with white flesh, ripening the first of September. =Dix.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 199. 1841. A large, productive, first-rate peach. =Dixie.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 289. 1893. Fruit above medium in size, roundish; cavity deep, abrupt; skin thin, yellowish-white, with a blush; flesh white, slightly tinged at the stone, firm, mildly, subacid, slightly bitter; stone oval, clinging. =Docteur Burkard.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 393. 1889. Listed but not described. =Docteur Lucas.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. Found at the Saint-Florian Abbey, Germany. Tree vigorous; fruit large, roundish-oblate, blushed with deep red on a green ground; of first quality; matures the middle of September. =Docteur Krans.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:117, 118, fig. 57. 1866-73. Introduced by a Dr. Krans, Liege, Belgium. Tree vigorous; glands reniform; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, flattened at the ends; suture pronounced; skin thin, tender, pale yellow, blushed with intense purple where exposed; flesh white, tinged about the pit, melting, juicy, sweet; of first quality; stone small, elliptical, nearly free; ripens at the end of August. =Dr. Burton.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 6. 1905-06. According to T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, this variety is a seedling grown by Dr. E. L. Burton, Grayson County, Texas. In the Station orchard it is a fairly good peach but not of superior merit. Tree productive; glands globose, small; flowers appearing in mid-season, large; fruit large, oval; cavity deep; apex often ends in a mamelon tip; skin tough, creamy-yellow, with few splashes of dark, dull red usually near the cavity; flesh white, with a trace of pink along the suture, juicy, tender, stringy, sprightly; stone oval, with a long point at the apex, plump; ripens just before Champion. =Dr. Cummings.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =61=:734. 1902. A seedling of Early Crawford raised at Cayuga, New York, and disseminated by H. S. Wiley of the same place; a yellow freestone ripening about October 1st. =Dr. Graham White Freestone.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:412. 1826. Fruit large, perfectly white; juice rich and sweet; stone small; ripens the middle of September. =Dr. Hogg.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =9=:190. 1865. This peach was grown by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, from a French peach. Tree a strong grower, vigorous, productive; glands reniform; flowers large; fruit large, round, with a distinct suture; skin thin, tough, lemon-colored, faintly crimson where exposed; flesh yellowish-white, deeply stained at the pit, firm but tender, sugary, brisk; stone free; ripens in August. =Dr. Pilkington.= =1.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 393. 1895-97. An Oregon freestone seedling of promise. =Dr. Tomlinson.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:97. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Domergue.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 156, Pl. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 42. 1895. Originated near Marseilles, Bouches du Rhône, France, by a M. Domergue. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; flowers of medium size; fruit large, well colored; ripens early in August. =Donahoo.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 636. 1857. From a Mr. Donahoo, Clark County, Georgia. Glands reniform; fruit very large, roundish; suture visible around the entire fruit, deep on one side; skin creamy-white, tinged with red in the sun; flesh white to the stone, very juicy, excelling Heath Cling in tenderness and flavor; clingstone; ripens the second week in September in Georgia. =Donegal.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 25. 1894. Fruit large, roundish; cavity large and deep; skin thin, tenacious, velvety, yellow, sprinkled with dark red; flesh yellow, tinged at the pit, tender, melting, juicy, subacid; quality good to above; stone small, oval, free; season follows Smock. =Dorsetshire Mignonne.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 99. 1831. A large-sized fruit of second quality ripening at the end of September; glands reniform; flowers small; skin dark red on a pale yellow ground; flesh melting. =Dorothy.= =1.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 12. 1901. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:512. 1902. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 36. 1909. A seedling of Angel grown by G. H. Norton, Eustis, Florida. In 1909, it was listed by the American Pomological Society. Fruit large, nearly round; flesh yellow, rich, subacid; freestone; ripens early in July in Florida. =Double Blanche de Fortune.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Double Cramoisie de Fortune.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Double Jaune.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:165, 166, fig. 19. 1883. Originated in the vicinity of Montauban, Tarn-et-Garonne, France. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers medium in size; fruit large, roundish-oval, ending in a mamelon tip; deeply sutured; skin thin, tender, canary-yellow, nearly covered with an intense reddish-brown; flesh yellow to the stone, melting, juicy, with an apricot flavor; of first quality; stone small for the size of fruit, oval, freestone; ripens at the end of August. =Double Mountain.= =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ =1=:Pl. 26. 1817. =2.= Christ _Handb._ 592. 1817. =3.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 246. 1831. _Sion._ =4.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. _Doppelter Bergpfirsich._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:198. 1858. An excellent French variety very similar to Noblesse but ripening a week earlier. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless, not as susceptible to mildew as most French varieties; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish, flattened at the apex; skin greenish-white, marbled with deep red on a soft red blush; flesh white to the stone, melting, juicy, highly flavored; stone mucronate, rugged, free; ripens from the middle to the last of August. =Down Easter.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 283. 1854. _Hall Down-Easter._ =2.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 196, 197. 1849. This variety originated many years ago with M. Hall, Portland, Maine. It has long since passed from cultivation. Tree hardy and productive; fruit large, roundish, with a deep suture; skin yellow, with a broad, red cheek; quality fair; season the last of September. =Downer.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =19=:115. 1877. A seedling of the old Red Rareripe, grown at Newburyport, Massachusetts; never disseminated. =Dowling.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:811. 1896. _Dowling June._ =2.= _Ibid._ =8=:34. 1889. Tree vigorous, productive; glandless; fruit of medium size, roundish, with a slight projection at the apex; color creamy, with a red cheek; flavor subacid; clingstone; matures in Texas about July 8th. =Downing.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =17=:270. 1875. =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 462. 1885. =3.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 526. 1906. Downing originated about 1870 with H. M. Engle, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, from a pit of Hale Early. Tree productive; fruit of medium size, roundish, with a distinct suture; skin greenish-white, mottled with red; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet; quality good; ripens from the first to the middle of July. =Drain Seedling.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 491. 1908. One of the early seedlings planted in Iowa. =Drap d'Or.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:271. 1854. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =3=:1, Pl. 1855. _Drap d'or Esperen._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 52, 217. 1876. A variety of Belgian origin. Tree moderately vigorous, productive; glands small, round; fruit large, roundish, depressed; skin thin, clear yellow, with spots of carmine; noticeably sutured; flesh whitish-yellow, colored at the pit, fine, juicy, vinous; quality good; stone very large, roundish-oval, partly free; ripens September 20th. =Druid Hill.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 474. 1845. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:110 fig. 111. 1879. =4.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 191. 1908. Druid Hill originated about 1840 with Lloyd N. Rogers, Druid Hill, Baltimore, Maryland. From 1862 until 1899 it was listed in the catalog of the American Pomological Society. Tree vigorous, productive; glands reniform; fruit large, round, with a slight suture; skin pale greenish-white, clouded with a red blush; flesh greenish-white, almost purple at the pit, very juicy, melting, with a rich, vinous flavor; stone free; season the last of September. =Duboisviolette.= =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:476. 1860. This variety was brought to France from China by a M. Duboisviolette. The flowers are very large, semi-double, reddish-purple; glands reniform; fruit large, roundish, terminating in a mamelon tip; skin white except where exposed; flesh white, vinous. =Duboscq.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 122. 1860. Similar to Oldmixon Free; a very large, good, greenish-white peach. =Duchess of Cornwall.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ =59=:446. 1901. _Duchess of York._ =2.= _Ibid._ =58=:59. 1900. =3.= _Ibid._ =59=:427. 1901. Originated and introduced by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Fruit of medium size; skin creamy-yellow, with a striped red blush; flesh melting, with a distinct nectarine flavor; freestone; ripens with Alexander. =Duchesse de Galliera.= =1.= _Guide Prat._ 40. 1895. Vigorous, productive; glands globose; fruit very large, compressed; apex mucronate; skin thin, reddish-purple in the sun; flesh white, violet at the pit, melting, very juicy; freestone; ripens the second half of September. =Duff.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 44. 1891. _Duveteuse Jaune._ =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:237, 238, fig. 117. 1866-73. _Duff Yellow._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 608. 1869. =4.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 24. 1876. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1877. Duff is an early, market peach which appeared on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1877 until 1897. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit very large, round, with a sharp point; skin yellow, with a red cheek; flesh yellow, red about the stone, juicy, slightly acid; clingstone; ripens the middle of July in the South. =Duggar.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:811. 1896. _Duggar Golden._ =2.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =11=:8, 11. 1890. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish; color yellow, with a blush; flesh yellow, subacid, firm; clingstone; ripens the last of July. =Duggar White.= =1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =11=:8. 1890. Flowers large, white; fruit medium in size; flesh white, very firm; quality good; ripens the middle of July; not very prolific. =Duke of Marlborough.= =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ =1=:Pl. 27 fig. 1. 1817. A variety resistant to mildew, found in the garden of the Duke of Marlborough, near Brentford, Middlesex, England. Flowers large; fruit large, slightly flattened about the base, heavily pubescent; ripens August 10th. =Duke of York.= =1.= _Can. Hort._ =25=:326. 1902. =2.= Bunyard _Cat. Fr. Trees_ 35. 1913-14. This variety is a cross between Early Rivers nectarine and Alexander peach, made by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Fruit large; skin brilliant crimson; flesh tender, melting, refreshing; ripens with Alexander. =Du Lin.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 48. 1876. A variety from Aire, France, with reniform glands. =Du Moulin.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 48. 1876. A variety with reniform glands; recommended for central France. =Du Quesnoy.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:155, 156, fig. 14. 1883. A variety of Belgian origin. Leaves with small, globose glands; flowers large; fruit large, roundish, depressed at the ends, faintly sutured; skin heavily pubescent, greenish, covered more or less with an intense purplish-brown; flesh white, purplish about the pit, melting, sweet; stone small for the size of fruit, nearly free; ripens the middle of August. =Du Thiers.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 52. 1876. Glands reniform; flowers of medium size, pale rose-colored. =Dulany.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 95. 1854. A seedling of Heath Cling; superior to its parent in Maryland. =Dulce.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 7. 1904-05. On the Station grounds the trees of Dulce are weak and unproductive. The variety, according to T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas, originated with B. C. Murray, Denison, Texas. Leaves with large, reniform glands; flowers appear late; fruit small, roundish-cordate, angular, halves unequal; cavity narrow, flaring; suture shallow; apex roundish, usually with a small, mamelon tip; skin covered with heavy, coarse pubescence, tough, greenish-yellow, faintly blushed, with a bronze appearance; flesh yellow, stained at the pit, moderately juicy, fine-grained, mild, often astringent; stone below medium in size, ovate, plump, decidedly bulged, semi-clinging to free; ripens early in October. =Dumont.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 267. 1885. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:212. 1899. Raised by Peter Dumont, Allegan, Michigan, from seed planted about 1835. Tree strong, very hardy, susceptible to leaf-curl; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit medium to large, roundish-oval, much compressed; cavity narrow; suture distinct, extending beyond the apex which terminates in a short, projecting tip; skin covered with dense pubescence, dark golden, usually blushed, thick, tough; flesh deep yellow, tinged at the pit, melting, moderately juicy, brisk subacid; stone oval, free; ripens the middle of September. =Dun.= =1.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 97 fig. 1906. Dun originated in Austria. Leaves with small, globose glands; flowers large; fruit very large, roundish, with a mamelon tip at the apex; skin yellowish-white, marbled with dull red; flesh white, stained at the stone, melting, very juicy, aromatic; very good; stone ending in a long point, free; ripens the middle of August. =Dunlap.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:29. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:212. 1899. Tree a strong grower, spreading; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish to occasionally ovate; cavity wide; suture distinct; color yellow, nearly covered with dark red; flesh yellow, stained at the pit, quite juicy, rich, vinous; pit large, plump, free; ripens the last of August. =Dunnington Beauty.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 96. 1831. Very much like Noblesse. Leaves serrate, glandless; flowers large; fruit large; skin pale greenish-red; flesh melting; quality good; ripens at the end of August. =Duperron.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 608. 1869. A seedling raised by a M. Duperron. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large to very large, roundish, depressed at the end; suture shallow; skin downy, golden yellow, more or less washed with pale red; flesh yellow; clingstone; ripens in October. =Durasme.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 582. 1629. "The Durasme or Spanish Peach is of a darke yellowish-red colour on the outside and white within." =Durchsichtiger Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:202. 1858. Tree of medium size, productive; fruit large, roundish-oblate, yellowish-white, with a bright red blush; flesh firm yet melting, with a sweet, vinous flavor; quality good; season early in September. =Durham Favorite.= =1.= _Ind. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 52. 1867. Listed in this reference. =Dutchess.= =1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 223. 1817. A very large peach, with white skin, a red cheek and a clear stone; ripens in August and September. =Dwarf Aubinel.= =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 144. 1876. This variety is remarkable for the constancy with which it is reproduced from seed and for its dwarf, bushy habit of growth. Flowers large; fruit large, globular; skin pale orange, marbled with red near the apex; flesh yellow, red near the stone; quality good; freestone; ripens at the end of September. =Dwarf Champion.= =1.= _N. Mex. Sta. Bul._ =30=:224, 225. 1899. Listed as growing in New Mexico. =Dwarf Cuba.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:29. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =129=:23. 1896. A variety with small flowers and reniform glands. =Dwarf Orleans.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 17. 1828. _Nain._ =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:44, 45, Pl. 32. 1768. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:175 fig., 176. 1879. _Zwergpfirsich._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:199. 1858. _Italian Dwarf._ =5.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =1=:287, 288. 1867. Dwarf Orleans originated in Orleans, Loiret, France, early in the Eighteenth Century. The tree attains a height of two or three feet and is used mostly as an ornamental; leaves long, pendent, glandless and much indented; flowers large, showy; fruit about two inches long, roundish, deeply sutured; skin white; flesh white, melting, with bitter juice; freestone; ripens early in October. =Dyer June.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =24=:18. 1882. A chance seedling found near Ava, Missouri. Fruit large; early; clingstone. =Dymond.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ 3rd Ser. =3=:331. 1881. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 442. 1884. Said to have been introduced by a Mr. Veitch, Exeter, England. Leaves glandless; fruit large, roundish, with a deep suture; skin greenish-yellow, with a dull red cheek, mottled with brighter red; flesh white, slightly red at the pit, juicy, melting, with a high flavor; stone free; season the middle of September. =Eagle Red.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 199. 1841. Listed as a large, beautiful fruit, with a red blush, ripening in September. =Earliest Mignonne.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 99. 1831. A variety with globose glands and small flowers. =Early.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 96. 1831. A variety with globose glands and large flowers. =Early Alfred.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =7=:372. 1865. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 219. 1866. Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, grew Early Alfred from a seed of Hunt Tawny nectarine. Glands round; flowers large; fruit large; suture deeply marked, higher on one side than the other; skin tender, pale straw-colored, somewhat mottled with bright crimson; flesh white, melting, brisk, vinous; ripens early in August. =Early Ascot.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 1474, 1506. 1870. =2.= _Flor. & Pom._ 1, Pl. 1873. Early Ascot was raised from a seed of Elruge nectarine by a Mr. Standish of Ascot, England. Tree hardy, productive; glands small, roundish; flowers small; fruit medium in size, roundish, somewhat depressed, with a distinct suture; skin nearly smooth, almost entirely covered with red, becoming nearly black where exposed; flesh yellow, tinged at the stone, very juicy; partially freestone; ripens the second week in August. =Early Avant.= =1.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 27. 1803. An agreeable-flavored peach ripening in August. =Early Beauty.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 314. 1889. This is a Texas variety. Fruit large, yellow; freestone; ripens very early. Early Bourdine.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 94. 1831. Listed as having serrate, glandless leaves and small flowers. =Early Charlotte.= =1.= R. G. Chase _Cat._ 20. 1896. =2.= _Chico Nur. Cat._ 25. 1904. A seedling of Early Crawford which originated about 1878 with O. Dickenson, Salem, Oregon. The variety has considerable merit as it grows on the Station grounds. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers appear in mid-season, small, faded, pale pink; fruit large, roundish-oval, often cordate, halves unequal; cavity deep; apex with a recurved, mamelon tip; skin covered with long, thick pubescence, thin but tough, pale yellow, splashed with lively red on a slight blush; flesh yellow, deeply stained at the pit, slightly stringy, tender, sprightly, rich, pleasing; quality good to above; pit broadly oval, plump, bulged, free; matures early in September. =Early Chelmsford.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 190. 1849. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 614. 1857. Tree vigorous, productive, hardy; leaves glandless; fruit large, roundish; suture encircling the fruit; skin white, with a bright red cheek; flesh white, melting, juicy, vinous; freestone; ripens the third week in August. =Early Chevalier.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ N. S. =20=:47. 1883. A French peach in which early and late fruits are produced on different branches of the same tree. =Early China.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:804, 805. 1896. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 21. 1897. Early China is a Honey-flavored peach which originated in southern Texas where it has proved vigorous and productive, gaining a place in 1897 on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society. The glands are round, often lacking; fruit of medium size, oval; apex with a sharply recurved point; color creamy, with a bright red cheek; flesh white, pinkish at the pit, very sweet; quality fair; freestone; ripens the middle of June in Texas. =Early Crawford Seedlings Nos. 1 and 3.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:29. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:212. 1899. Seedlings obtained by C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan. =Early Cream.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 44. 1891. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:818. 1896. =3.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:144. 1904. _Kite._ =4.= _Ibid._ =73=:148. 1904. _Kite Honey._ =5.= _Ibid._ =73=:149. 1904. Early Cream is a seedling of Honey. It appeared on the American Pomological Society's fruit-list from 1891 until 1897. Tree strong, productive; fruit larger than Honey and resembles it in shape but is not as sharply pointed at the apex; skin very smooth, yellow, washed with red; flesh fine, sweet, juicy; flavor excellent; ripens the middle of June. =Early Cronesteyn.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:64. 1900. Listed as a slow grower in Canada. =Early Curtis.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 186. 1880. A seedling with reniform glands; very similar to Alexander but less inclined to adhere to the pit. =Early Downton.= =1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 247. 1831. Raised by Thomas Knight, Downton Castle, England, about 1815. Leaves crenate, with globose glands; flowers large, pale rose-colored; fruit narrowed at the apex, usually terminating in an acute nipple; skin pale yellowish-white, bright red in the sun; flesh yellowish-white to the stone from which it separates, juicy; ripens at the end of August. =Early Free.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:289. 1897. Growing on the grounds of this Station in 1896. =Early Imperial.= =1.= _Cal. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 241. 1890. W. W. Smith, Vacaville, California, grew Early Imperial from a pit of St. John open to cross-fertilization. It is highly recommended in California because of extreme earliness and its good drying qualities; flesh yellow; freestone. =Early Leopold.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =17=:58. 1869. =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 34. 1874. =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. Raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, from a seed of Early York. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, pale yellow, rich; succeeds Rivers. =Early Louise.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 609. 1869. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1875. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 444. 1884. =4.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 526. 1906. _Louise._ =5.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:350. 1903. Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, raised this peach from a seed of Early Albert and named it in honor of Queen Victoria's daughter, Princess Louise. From 1875 until 1883 the variety maintained a place in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society. Fruit of medium size, round, marked on one side with a deep suture; skin highly colored, with a bright red cheek; flesh yellowish-white, tender, richly flavored, partly adherent to the pit; season early. =Early Lydia.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. Early Lydia is said to be resistant to rot; a rose-colored freestone ripening with Hale Early. =Early Michigan.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:29. 1895. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 36. 1909. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:38, 39. 1910. Confusion has arisen over two seedlings put out by J. D. Husted, Lowell, Michigan, as Husted No. 15 and 16. Eventually, No. 15 was introduced as Early Michigan but because of its similarity to No. 16, the latter is often substituted for it. The true Early Michigan is a cross between Hale Early and Chili. As it fruits at this Station, the peaches lack size and quality. In 1909 the American Pomological Society added it to its fruit-list. Tree vigorous, spreading; glands reniform; flowers appear early, large, showy; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval; cavity deep, narrow; apex with a large, mucronate tip; skin thin, tender, with long, thick pubescence, creamy, blushed with dull red, with a few deep red splashes; flesh greenish-white, tinged at the pit, juicy, stringy, melting, sweet, mild; stone free, broadly oval, plump; ripens the last of August. =Early Miners.= =1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 40. 1878. Not spoken of favorably in New Jersey. =Early Newington Free.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 476. 1845. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. This freestone should not be confused with the other Newingtons which are all clings and usually later in season. One characteristic of this variety is that fruits on the same tree are free or adhere partially or wholly to the stone. Tree a moderate bearer; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit large, round, distinctly sutured; skin pale yellowish-white, with a rich red cheek; flesh white, tinged at the stone, juicy, melting, vinous; ripens late in August. =Early Purple.= =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:189, 190. 1831. =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 211. 1832. _Véritable Pourprée hâtive à grande fleur._ =4.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:16, 17, Pl. VIII. 1768. _Frühe Purpurfirsche._ =5.= Christ Handb. 593, 594. 1817. _Pourprée Hâtive._ =6.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 16, Pl. 1846. =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:241 fig., 242, 243. 1879. _Weiniger Lieblingspfirsich._ =8.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:203. 1858. _Desse Hâtive._ =9.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:201, 202, fig. 99. 1866-73. This variety originated far back in the Eighteenth Century. According to Mas, it was raised by a M. Desse, Chantecoq, Seine, France, and passed for a long time under the name Desse Hâtive. Early Purple long found favor in European orchards but is not much grown now, being surpassed by better sorts. It was brought to America by William Prince, Flushing, New York, early in the Nineteenth Century and soon became confused with Early York. The true variety, however, quickly passed from cultivation and the name has ever since been confused with that of Early York. Fruit medium to large, roundish, flattened at the base; suture deep; color yellowish, blushed with dark red and dotted with red on the shaded side; pubescence thick, fine; flesh white, stained red under the skin on the side exposed to the sun, tinged with red next the pit, juicy, vinous, highly flavored, melting; very good in quality; stone semi-free to free, brownish-red; ripens early. =Early Rareripe I.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 85. 1854. Dr. H. A. Muhlenberg, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, originated this freestone. =Early Rareripe II.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 50. 1901. Early Rareripe is an improvement on a seedling erroneously called Felt Rareripe, which was brought to Kansas from Illinois by F. G. Barker of Salina. Fruit large, deep yellow. =Early Red I.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 96. 1831. Leaves with globose glands; flowers large; fruit of medium size; skin pale yellow, with a red blush; flesh melting; fair in quality; ripens at the end of August. =Early Red II.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =152=:199. 1898. This Early Red originated with C. C. Engle of Paw Paw, Michigan. =Early Red Cling.= =1.= Prince _Cat. Fr. Trees_ 24. 1823. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:27. 1832. _Earliest Red Cling._ =3.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 16. 1820. This variety is thought to have been brought to Flushing, New York, by the French. The shoots are subject to mildew; flowers small. =Early Rose I.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 183. 1841. Of foreign origin. Fruit of medium size; red where exposed; ripens in August. =Early Rose II.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =22=:338. 1880. This Early Rose is one of the so-called Spanish peaches and was found on the farm of Preston Rose, Mission Valley, Texas. It is described as a medium-sized, round, rosy-red fruit, with firm flesh, ripening June 25th; freestone. =Early Rose III.= =1.= W. P. Stark _Cat._ 49, 50 fig. 1915. Early Rose III, according to W. P. Stark, Stark City, Missouri, was grown by John Keller, Fort Valley, Georgia, from the pit of a Honey-flavored peach crossed with one of the Indian peaches. Tree a moderate grower, rather small; flowers large; fruit of medium size, a rich, deep red; flesh white, rich, sweet; clingstone; ripens with Eureka. The fruit is handsomely colored and is said to sell for a fancy price wherever known. Unfortunately, it seems not yet to have been tried in the North. =Early Royal George.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 220. 1832. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:538. 1848. _Early George._ =3.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:811. 1896. This variety may be an American seedling of Royal George. Fruit large, roundish; skin yellowish-white, splashed with red in the sun; flesh juicy, tender, vinous, free; fair to good in quality; ripens in August. =Early Sam.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Early Silver.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 220. 1866. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:343. 1903. _Argentée Précoce._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 43, 215. 1876. _Silver._ =4.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:107. 1901. This variety was grown by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, in 1857, from a seed of White Nectarine. Fruit large, roundish-ovate, with a shallow suture; color creamy-white, slightly sprinkled with red; flesh entirely white, melting, juicy, with a vinous, pleasant, subacid flavor; stone free; quality good to very good; ripens from the middle to the last of August. =Early Strawberry.= =1.= _Ariz. Sta. Bul._ =15=:62, 67. 1895. Grown at one time in Arizona. =Early Tallman.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =40=:19. 1907. This is a small, white-fleshed peach of fair quality, ripening with Triumph. It is a semi-clingstone and of no value. =Early de Tours.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 96. 1831. Listed but not described. =Early Victoria.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 946. 1861. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:143, 144, fig. 8. 1883. _Victoria._ =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. Early Victoria should not be confused with the Victoria of the South. This variety first fruited in 1854 with Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, from a stone of Early York. In 1909 the American Pomological Society added it to its fruit-list as Victoria. Leaves glandless; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish; skin pale yellow, with a maroon blush; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet; stone free, small; season very early, a week before its parent. =Early Wheeler.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 360, 361, Pl. 28. 1906. This is one of a large number of Heath Cling seedlings grown by E. W. Kirkpatrick, McKinney, Texas, about 1900. Tree moderately productive; glands reniform; blossoms very large; fruit medium to large, roundish-oblong; cavity large, broad; apex protruding; skin thick, tough, heavily pubescent, creamy-white, marbled and splashed with crimson; flesh white, stained with red near the skin, firm, meaty, juicy, subacid; quality good to very good; stone adherent, oval; ripens with Alexander. =Early White.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 85. 1854. A large, fine-flavored freestone originating with Dr. H. A. Muhlenberg, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. =Early White Cling.= =1.= Prince _Cat. Fr. Trees_ 24. 1823. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:35. 1832. Fruit medium to small; skin pale yellow, marbled with red; flesh yellowish-green, juicy, pleasant; ripens early in September. =Eastburn Choice.= =1.= Hoffy _Orch. Comp._ =1=:Pl. 1841. The name is in honor of the originator, Rev. Joseph Eastburn, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, who planted a pit about 1825. The variety comes true from seed. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; fruit large, nearly round; skin pale yellow, blushed on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, tinged about the pit, sprightly, slightly acid, juicy; pit small; ripens late in September. =Eaton.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 44. 1891. _Eaton Golden._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 205. 1858. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 611. 1869. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 18. 1871. Eaton originated in North Carolina and its planting is confined chiefly to the South. In 1871 it was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society as Eaton Golden but in 1891 was changed to Eaton. Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit above medium in size, round; suture shallow; skin golden-yellow, with occasional pink spots near the base; flesh golden, sweet, juicy, with a marked apricot flavor; clingstone; ripens the middle of September. =Edgar Late Melting.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 96. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Edith.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. =2.= Griffing Bros. _Cat._ 12. 1900. Edith is a large, round, white-fleshed clingstone; ripens in Florida July 25th. =Edouard Andre.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 87, 208, 209, Pl. 1895. A French variety originating in the Department of Ain, France. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit roundish, compressed; cavity deep and narrow; distinctly sutured; skin deep reddish-purple on a yellow ground; flesh cream-colored, red at the pit, melting, juicy; stone plump, oval; ripens the middle of August. =Eduard Lucas.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 394. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Edward Late White.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 614. 1857. Raised by a Dr. Baldwin, Montgomery, Alabama. Fruit large, roundish, depressed at the apex; suture distinct; skin white, blushed with red; flesh white, stained at the pit, sweet, juicy; stone slightly adherent; ripens the first of October and continues all the month. =Eladie.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 21. 1877. A seedling of Chinese Cling; fruit of large size and excellent quality. =Elate.= =1.= _Ont. Sta. Rpt._ =1=:22. 1894 Mentioned but not described. =Elberta (Hottes).= =1.= _Winfield Nur. Cat._ 21 fig. 1912. This is a supposed strain of Elberta found in an orchard of Elbertas in Grand Valley, Colorado, according to the catalog of the Winfield Nursery Company, Winfield, Kansas. The fruit is said to be larger and better in quality than Elberta but its other characters are similar. =Elberta Cling.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 223. 1904. =2.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 42. 1914. This variety was brought to notice in Louisiana, Missouri, Stark Brothers having selected it from Elberta. Some pomologists rank it as identical with Elberta in growth and appearance except that it is a clingstone. As grown at this Station, however, it does not closely resemble Elberta in shape nor is it equal to that variety in quality. Tree vigorous, upright; glands usually reniform; fruit above medium in size, roundish-oblate, halves unequal, bulged near the apex; suture deepens toward the apex which is roundish; skin rich yellow, with an attractive blush of deep red; flesh yellow, deep red about the stone, juicy, meaty, often having a slight sprightliness, clinging; ripens the second week in September. =Eldred.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =18=:15. 1876. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:212, 213. 1899. Eldred was named after its originator, a Mr. Eldred of Washington County, Texas. It is one of the earliest clings to ripen; glands globose; flowers medium in size; fruit large, roundish-ovate; skin creamy-white, with a red blush; flesh white, firm, mild; pit roundish-oval; ripens just before Hale Early. =Elisabeth Bonamy.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:176. 1883. A French variety introduced in 1868 and named after Madame Elisabeth Bonamy. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit very large, roundish, irregular, with a mamelon tip at the apex; pale yellow, with a deep carmine blush; flesh yellow; matures the middle of September. =Eliza I.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 283. 1854. =2.= Hoffy _N. Am. Pom._ =1=:Pl. 1860. Gerard Schmitz, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, exhibited this seedling in 1849. Leaves large, with reniform glands; fruit large, round; skin yellow, with a mottled red cheek; flesh yellow except at the stone; freestone; matures the last of September. =Eliza II.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 187. 1880. This is a seedling of Late Crawford, originating with C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan. Foliage rather glaucous; fruit large, roundish, tapering at the apex; color yellow, blushed with red; flesh bright yellow, red at the pit, tender, juicy, rich, vinous; ripens after Late Crawford. =Ellison.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 314. 1889. =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 510. 1900. Ellison is another variety that reproduces itself from seed. It originated in Ohio. As it grows at this Station its only value is for canning. Tree not very productive; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit above medium in size, resembling Chili in shape; apex with a recurved, mamelon tip; skin covered with long pubescence, greenish-yellow, with narrow splashes of dull red; flesh yellow, faint red at the pit, rather dry, mild to sprightly; quality fair; stone free, small, oval, shortly pointed, plump; ripens the middle of October. =Elma.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. =2.= Griffing Bros. _Cat._ 12. 1900. A medium-sized clingstone of the Spanish type; ripens the last of July. =Elmira.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =3=:251. 1848-49. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 636. 1857. Originated with Dr. M. W. Phillips, Edwards, Mississippi. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit large, oval, depressed; suture shallow; skin heavily pubescent, creamy-white; flesh white, tinged with red at the stone to which it adheres, sweet, good; ripens early in August. =Elmo.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Listed as growing at the Florida Station. =Elodie.= =1.= _Pa. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ 586. 1878. A seedling of Chinese Cling not as susceptible to rot as its parent. =Elriv.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1897. =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:96. 1901. J. W. Kerr, Denton, Maryland, produced Elriv by crossing Rivers with Elberta, in 1888. Tree strong and productive; flowers large; fruit large, roundish to slightly oblong; suture very distinct; skin thin, tender, nearly entirely overlaid with bright red; flesh white, red at the pit, juicy, sprightly; quality good; pit large, oval, semi-clinging; ripens with St. John. =Elrose.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:98. 1901. Elrose is the result of a cross between Elberta and Mountain Rose made by J. W. Kerr, Denton, Maryland, in 1888. Flowers small; fruit oblong, irregular, large; suture distinct; skin almost entirely marbled with pale red; flesh firm, white; quality fine; stone plump, large; ripens with Mountain Rose. =Ely.= =1.= _Village Nur. Cat._ 9. 1914. Ely is a large, yellow-fleshed peach of good quality, ripening just before Carman, according to the catalog of the Village Nurseries, Hightstown, New Jersey. =Emil Liebig.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 394. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Emma.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 134. 1897. =2.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:235. 1898. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1899. Emma, on the Station grounds, is unproductive and of poor quality. It has had a place on the American Pomological Society's fruit-list since 1899. Tree upright, rather tall; branchlets inclined to throw out short, spur-like shoots; glands reniform; fruit small, roundish-cordate; apex usually with a mucronate tip; skin thin, tough, deep yellow, with a mottled blush of dull carmine; flesh yellow, stained at the pit, firm, stringy, sprightly; pit small, ovate, plump, free; ripens at the end of August. =Emporia.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. Emporia is a very early variety originated by Mrs. L. Burns, near Emporia, Kansas. =Endicott.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 159. 1889. A freestone seedling of Oldmixon Cling which it resembles in shape; ripens with Hale Early. =English.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:816. 1896. The tree of English is vigorous but not productive. Glands globose; fruit medium in size, oval, with a pointed apex; flesh white, firm; quality fair; clingstone; ripens the middle of August. =English Swash.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:401. 1847-48. Leaves globose; flowers small; ripens the middle of September; moderately productive. =Enon.= =1.= _Ohio Sta. Bul._ =170=:174. 1906. Fruit of medium size, globular, often oblate; suture shallow but distinct; color greenish-white, shaded and splashed with carmine; flesh white, moderately firm, melting; quality good; pit oval, short, free; ripens August 10th. =Equinox.= =1.= _Austin Nur. Cat._ 9. 1909. A very large, yellow freestone, ripening about the third week in September, according to the Austin Nursery Company, Austin, Texas. =Ermine.= =1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ =28=:83. 1896. Fruit of medium size, partially free; pit large; ripens early in August. =Ernoult.= =1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =2=:71, Pl. 1854. Ernoult originated about 1844 near Liege, Belgium. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; fruit large, roundish; apex with a peculiarly wrinkled depression; skin downy, clear yellow, shaded with deep reddish-purple in the sun; flesh white, stained at the pit, melting, juicy, rich; freestone; ripens the middle of September. =Ernst.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ 1913. According to F. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas, Ernst originated with a Mr. Surties, Bexar County, Texas, about 1905. Fruit of medium size, white; freestone; ripens the middle of July. =Erzherzog Carl.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:205. 1858. A seedling of Gemeiner Lieblingspfirsich with which it is similar but larger, more deeply sutured, less pubescent and not as dark red; ripens early in September. =Erzherzog Johann.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:205. 1858. _Archiduc Jean._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 48, 215. 1876. A productive seedling of Gemeiner Lieblingspfirsich which it resembles. It is larger, more pointed, more deeply sutured, less pubescent, and not as dark a red as its parent; ripens early in September. =Espagne Jaune.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:115 fig. 1879. This variety was found about 1840 in the vicinity of Bayonne, Basses-Pyrenees, France. Some believe it to be a native of Spain. Tree vigorous; glands large, reniform; flowers of medium size; fruit medium in size, ovoid, somewhat cylindrical, halves unequal; suture distinct; apex with a mamelon tip; skin thick, yellow, spotted and washed with red; flesh yellow, tinged at the pit, fibrous, melting, very juicy, acidulated; stone adheres very slightly, small, ovoid, plump; matures the latter part of October. =Essex Mammoth.= =1.= _Ont. Sta. Rpt._ =7=:53. 1900. Listed as having been grown in Canada. =Estella.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. =2.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 11. 1900. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. Estella originated in western Florida. In 1909 it was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society. Fruit almost round, very large; skin greenish-yellow, with a full, red cheek; flesh yellow; ripens in Florida early in September. =Esther.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 21. 1877. A Chinese Cling seedling of large size and excellent quality. =Esther Doom.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. =2.= _Austin Nur. Cat._ 9. 1909. Esther Doom originated with Judge Doom, Austin, Texas. A fine, productive, yellow clingstone, ripening July 25th. =Evangelist.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 306. 1899. A hardy variety grown in Iowa. =Evans.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 91. 1899. _Evans No. 3._ =2.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ 12. 1905-06. Evans is said to have the good characters of Elberta; ripens just after that variety is gone. =Evans Cling.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 195. 1902-03. A hardy clingstone grown in Iowa. =Everbearing.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 51. 1897. =2.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 498, 499, 500, Pl. 61. 1905. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. Everbearing originated in the garden of a Mrs. Page, Cuthbert, Georgia, in 1885, and was named and disseminated by P. J. Berckmans about 1897. A marked characteristic of this variety is that some trees have a long blossoming and fruiting period. It is too tender for the North but is recommended for southern peach-districts, having been placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1909. Tree vigorous, compact, productive; glands reniform; flowers large; fruit roundish-conical, large, the later-ripening fruits being smaller; cavity large, deep and abrupt; suture shallow, with a prominent apex; skin thick, tough, thickly covered with long pubescence, greenish-white, striped and mottled with purplish-red; flesh white, considerably stained and veined with red, meaty, juicy, subacid; stone oval, free; season July 1st to September or later in southern Georgia. =Excellente.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed but not described. =Excelsior.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 185. 1856. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. =3.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 201. 1913. _Prince's Excelsior._ =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 632. 1857. Excelsior was grown more than half a century ago by William R. Prince, Flushing, New York. It has been confused with Crosby, this sort having been once known as Excelsior. Fruit large, roundish to roundish-oblate; suture a line, ending in a flattened depression at the base; color attractive, bright orange-yellow; flesh golden-yellow, very rich, juicy, aromatic, sweet, separating freely from the stone; quality very good; season the middle of October. =Exquisite.= =1.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 380. 1858. =2.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =7=:152. 1864. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 612. 1869. =4.= _Gard. Mon._ =19=:114. 1877. _Pavie Georgia._ =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:218, 219 fig. 1879. Exquisite originated in Georgia many years ago. It seems to have been sent to England and France by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia. Leaves with globose glands; fruit large, roundish-oval, with a distinct suture; skin yellow, mottled with crimson in the sun; flesh yellow, red at the stone, free, tender, melting, juicy, vinous; ripens in September. =Extra Early.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =2=:337. 1860. A seedling of Fay Early Anne which precedes its parent by three weeks; the fruit is small and fleshy, with a small pit. =Fabre.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 54. 1867. Tree moderately vigorous, very productive; glands reniform; flowers very small; fruit large, roundish at the base; apex with a small, mamelon tip; skin blushed with deep red on a yellowish-white ground; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, melting, very juicy; pit large, oval, free; ripens early in September. =Fahnestock.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:111. 1847. A large-fruited seedling from A. Fahnestock, Lancaster, Ohio. =Fahnestock Mammoth.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:111. 1847. A large, yellow clingstone which originated with A. Fahnestock, Lancaster, Ohio. =Falcon.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:816. 1896. =2.= Rivers _Cat._ 28. 1909-10. _Faucon._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 55, 218. 1876. Falcon originated with Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, from a pit of White Nectarine. Fruit medium in size, roundish; cavity deep, wide; suture shallow; apex with a small, erect, mamelon tip; skin thin, creamy-white, blushed with dull red, with a few stripes, not very attractive; flesh white, tinged at the pit, meaty, sprightly; stone oval, moderately plump; ripens at this Station the middle of September. =Fame.= =1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:133. 1911. Fame is an upright-growing tree, bearing yellow, freestone fruits of medium size; ripens July 18th; very susceptible to rot. =Fanning.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 92. 1883. Fanning was exhibited in Philadelphia in 1883 by J. H. Ricketts of Newburgh, New York. Fruit medium in size, globular; skin striped and splashed with brownish-red on a yellowish-white ground; flesh greenish-white, melting, juicy, vinous, sprightly; very good; stone moderately plump, free. =Farrnbacher Lackpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:215. 1858. Tree very productive; branches long and slender; glands reniform; flowers of medium size; fruit large, long, halves unequal; deeply sutured; skin whitish-yellow, washed and striped with red; flesh whitish-yellow, red near the stone, very tender, fibrous, vinous; freestone; ripens the middle of September. =Faut.= =1.= _Am. Gard._ =12=:565. 1891. A Southern seedling. Tree strong, vigorous; fruit large; clingstone. =Favier.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:34. 1832. Favier was introduced by William Robert Prince from the region of the Mediterranean. Blossoms small; fruit of medium size, roundish; suture usually but a line; skin overlaid with red, with a deeper hue in the sun; flesh pale yellowish-white, strongly colored at the pit, melting, juicy; freestone; ripens September 10th. =Favourite.= =1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 219. 1817. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 477. 1845. _Favourite Large Red Clingstone?_ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 96. 1831. _Favourite Red._ =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:23. 1832. _Early Favourite?_ =5.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Glands small, globose, often lacking; flowers small; fruit large, oblong; skin white, rather downy, covered with dark red where exposed; flesh red at the stone, somewhat firm, juicy, vinous but not rich; ripens early in August. =Fay Early Anne.= =1.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =1=:91. 1853. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 41. 1856. =3.= _Ibid._ 78. 1862. _Anne Précoce de Fay._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:101, 102, fig. 49. 1866-73. A seedling of Anne, grown by Lincoln Fay, Chautauqua County, New York. It held a place in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1862 until 1869. Tree hardy and productive; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish; skin creamy-white, sometimes faintly tinged with red where exposed; flesh white, juicy, rich; ripens two weeks before Early Crawford. Fei Tau.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 21. 1909. Cions of the Fei Tau peach were brought to America by Frank N. Meyer, United States Department of Agriculture, from the province of Fei Tcheng, China. =Felicie.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:117, 118 fig. 1879. Charles Buisson, Tronche, Isère, France, grew this variety in 1863. Glands usually lacking; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, halves unequal, with a mamelon tip at the apex; faintly sutured; skin thick, heavily pubescent, whitish-yellow, washed and striped with carmine; flesh yellowish-white to the stone, firm, fibrous, juicy, vinous, with an after taste; stone small, ovoid, free; ripens the last of September. =Felt Rareripe.= =1.= Gregg _Fruit Cult._ 100. 1877. The chief characteristic of this variety is that it reproduces itself from seed. It originated with Cyrus Felt, Monte Bello, Illinois; fruit large, yellow-fleshed, freestone; ripens the last of August. =Ferdinand.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1897. =3.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:144. 1904. Ferdinand is a seedling of Honey raised by G. L. Taber, Glen Saint Mary, Florida, in 1892. It was entered on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1897 but was dropped in 1899. Fruit roundish, slightly flattened, bulged on one side, large; apex short, blunt, recurved; suture but a line; skin velvety, thick, tough, dull yellow, well covered with dull red; flesh firm, meaty, white, streaked with red; flavor insipid, poor; stone clinging, oval, plump, short; season early in July. =Fetters.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =16=:315. 1874. John Fetters, Lancaster, Ohio, raised this white-fleshed freestone from a pit of Lemon Cling. =Fine Jaboulay.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 395. 1889. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 99 fig. 1906. Thought to have originated with Armand Jaboulay, Oullins, Rhône, France. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers of medium size; fruit large, roundish, with a very small, mamelon tip at the apex; skin marbled and washed with red on a yellow ground; flesh white, melting, vinous, aromatic; quality very good; ripens the middle of September. =Finley October.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. Grown near Seaford, Delaware. =Finley Superb.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 186. 1860. Recommended for planting in Georgia. =Fisher.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Bul._ =12=:11. 1904. A variety grown in Texas and Wright Counties, Missouri. Fruit large, round, yellow, blushed with red; clingstone; ripens in Missouri about the middle of September. =Fleenor.= =1.= _Ind. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 25. 1864. =2.= _Ibid._ 60. 1870. Fleenor originated in Indiana. Tree hardy, productive, slender; fruit large, oblong, white; quality good; clingstone; used for market and canning; ripens in October. =Flewellen.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 636. 1857. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1875. Flewellen is of American origin and held a place in the American Pomological Society's fruit-list from 1875 until 1897. Fruit large, globular, depressed at the apex; skin downy, yellowish-white, dark, dull purplish-red where exposed; flesh red at the pit, very juicy, sweet; desirable for an early cling; ripens early in August. =Florence.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:235. 1898. This variety is a moderate bearer but rots badly. Tree tall, with dense foliage, vigorous; fruit of medium size, globular, greenish-white; flesh white, adherent; quality fair to good; ripens the middle of August. =Florida.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 36. 1909. _Florida Crawford._ =2.= _Ibid._ 44. 1891. =3.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:818. 1896. Introduced by G. L. Taber, Glen Saint Mary, Florida, in 1891. The variety appeared on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1891 as Florida Crawford where it remained until 1899. In 1909 it reappeared as Florida. Fruit belongs to the Spanish type, very large, roundish-oblong, somewhat bellied, with a shallow suture; skin pale to deeper yellow, frequently blushed at the base; flesh stained at the pit, firm, juicy, vinous; freestone; ripens the last of July. =Florida Gem.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:86. 1896. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:145. 1904. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 36. 1909. One of the best seedlings of Honey both for home and commercial purposes. Listed by the American Pomological Society in its fruit-catalog of 1909. Fruit medium to large, oval, angular; suture indistinct, often wanting; apex conical, long, recurved; skin fuzzy, thin, tough, greenish-yellow, washed with deep red where exposed; flesh firm, juicy, white, pink at the stone, sweet, agreeable; stone free, elliptical, reddish; ripens the last of June. =Florida Own.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Bul_. =14=:6. 1891. =2.= _Ibid._ =62=:513. 1902. Florida Own is a seedling of Peento, now out of cultivation. Fruit large, nearly round; skin white, overspread with carmine; flesh sweet, juicy, melting, semi-clinging; quality excellent; ripens with Peento. =Florin.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 313. 1889. Florin is a California variety ripening with Late Crawford but superior in size and flavor; tree hardy, a rapid grower and free from curl. =Floss.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:289. 1897. Received at this Station for testing in 1894, from E. A. Riehl, Alton, Illinois. Fruit above medium, roundish-oblong; color greenish-white, with a few red dots; flesh white, moderately juicy, firm, adherent; quality good; season the middle of October. =Floyd.= =1.= _Ortiz Fruit Farm Cat._ 27. 1900. According to the catalog of the Ortiz Fruit Farm, Mexico, Missouri, Floyd was found in Mexico, Missouri, by Wallace Bassford of that place. Tree very hardy; fruit hangs well, large; skin tough, creamy-white, blushed where exposed; flesh tender, white, juicy; freestone; ripens September 25th. =Flushing Heath.= =1.= Van Lindley _Cat._ 17. 1892. This is a large, white-fleshed clingstone which ripens the last of August, according to the Van Lindley Company, Pomona, North Carolina. =Ford.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:345. 1903. _New Ford._ =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ _118_:30. 1895. =3.= _Ibid._ =169=:213. 1899. Probably originated in Delaware. Tree moderately vigorous, upright, with drooping branches; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, yellow, blushed with red; flesh yellow, tinged at the pit, moderately juicy, firm, mild, sweet; quality good; pit free, oval, plump, pointed; ripens early in September. =Ford Choice.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:289. 1897. Ford Choice was received at this Station for testing in 1892 from J. S. Ford, Pittsford, New York. Fruit large, irregularly oval, with a shallow suture; skin yellow, with markings of dark red; flesh yellow, slightly stained with red at the pit which is nearly free, juicy, somewhat stringy, firm; quality good; ripens early in September. =Ford Late.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 53. 1896. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:345. 1903. Ford Late, as it fruits on the Station grounds, is of doubtful value. Trees vigorous, productive; leaves with small, globose glands; flowers appear early, large, pink; fruit large, oval, tapering, halves unequal, sides drawn in about the cavity; apex with a mucronate tip; skin covered with long, coarse pubescence, thin, tough, lemon-yellow to creamy, with a faint blush of pink; flesh white, neither very juicy nor stringy, sprightly; stone brown, free, large, obovate, with a wedge-shaped base; ripens early in October. =Ford No. 1.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. =2.= _Ibid._ =39=:807. 1896. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:213. 1899. Tree strong, spreading, productive if not too far south; glands few, reniform; fruit medium to large, roundish-elongated, faintly sutured; skin creamy-white, with a delicate wash of bright red; flesh creamy-white, tinged with red at the pit, juicy, tender, sprightly, vinous; quality good; pit plump, semi-clinging; ripens from the middle to the last of August. =Ford No. 2.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. =2.= _Ibid._ =39=:811. 1896. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:213. 1899. Trees round-headed, fairly productive; glands globose; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, slightly ovate; suture indistinctly marked; cavity broad, deep; color yellow, with a red cheek; flesh red at the stone, tender, vinous, juicy; stone oval, pointed, plump, free; quality good; ripens on the Station grounds the last of September. =Ford No. 3.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:214. 1899. Described as follows as it grows on the Station grounds: Trees strong; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish; apex indistinct; skin greenish-yellow, with a thin bloom; flesh white, tinged with red at the pit, juicy, tender, vinous; stone free, plump, pointed; quality poor; ripens the last of October. =Ford Red.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:30. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:213. 1899. Ford Red is thought to have originated in Delaware. Trees roundish, with an upright head, fairly productive; fruit medium-sized, slightly enlarged at the suture, generally oval; cavity deep, narrow; color creamy-white, with a slight blush; flesh white, reddish and rather bitter at the pit, juicy, tender, rich, mild; quality good; pit free, oval, pointed, quite plump; season early in September. =Ford Seedling.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =5=:539. 1824. =2.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 248. 1831. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large; fruit of medium size, slightly narrowed at the apex; skin yellowish-green, marbled with bright red; flesh yellow to the stone, juicy, with a rich, astringent flavor; freestone; ripens the middle of September. =Fords.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 63. 1891. A large, very early, white-fleshed freestone. =Fords Improved.= =1.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 393. 1895-97. A white-fleshed freestone of the Chinese type. It ripens early but is soft and is a poor keeper. =Forrester.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 33. 1899. =2.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 202. 1913. A large, round, good peach, from Georgia. Fruit yellowish-red; ripens in mid-season. =Four in One.= =1.= _Continental Pl. Cat._ 13. 1916. According to the Continental Plant Company, Kittrell, North Carolina, this variety is the largest peach that grows and the firmest of the mid-summer varieties. Skin deep creamy and crimson, tough; flesh soft, juicy, melting. =Fourteen Ounce.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. =2.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:65. 1900. A clingstone, listed but not described in these references. =Fox.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 44. 1891. =2.= _Ibid._ 33. 1899. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:214. 1899. =4.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:345. 1903. _Fox's Seedling._ =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 478. 1845. Fox originated in New Jersey. The American Pomological Society listed the variety in its fruit-catalog in 1891 but dropped it in 1897, replacing it in 1899. Tree vigorous; glands globose; fruit medium in size, roundish, slightly compressed, with a small suture which extends nearly around the fruit; skin creamy-white, with a red blush; flesh white, red at the pit, free, melting, juicy, sweet, with a rich, vinous flavor; season the last of September. =Frances.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:345, 346 fig. 1903. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. =3.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:133. 1911. =4.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 202. 1913. _Francis._ =5.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 42. 1895. There is doubt as to the place of origin of this peach. Most writers mention Ohio but a communication from Leon Sanders, Plain Dealing, Louisiana, states that the variety was found in that State by his father about 1895 and was introduced to the trade by L. T. Sanders and Son. Frances was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1909. Fruit large, roundish-oval, with a pronounced suture; apex prominent; skin yellow, washed and striped with bright red; flesh yellow, stained with red at the pit, melting, juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor; quality good; stone oval, free; season follows Elberta. =Frank.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 14, Pl. 1915-16. According to the Munson Nurseries, Denison, Texas, Frank was raised in 1903 by J. W. Stubenrauch, Mexia, Texas, from a pit of Elberta and named after Frank Holland of the _Farm and Ranch_. Fruit large, globular; skin yellow, covered with considerable rich red; clingstone; ripens two weeks after its parent. =Frankfort.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Franklin.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =31=:58. 1887. Listed as grown in Michigan at one time. =Franquières.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 31. 1895. Resembles Orchard Queen but is earlier, rounder, and higher in quality. Trees very vigorous and productive; glands reniform; fruit large, roundish, nearly covered with reddish-carmine; flesh very red at the stone, juicy; matures the first of September. =Franz Koelitz.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 395. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 40. 1895. An early, German variety without glands. =Fredenburgh.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =23=:303. 1881. A large, very early sort, like Alexander in appearance and quality, raised by W. H. Fredenburgh, Kingston, New York. =Freehold.= =1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 47. 1884. Freehold originated in Freehold, New Jersey; fruit large, with a red cheek; flesh white; freestone; of good quality; ripens the second week in November. =Free Mason.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =13=:26. 1871. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 1st App. 121. 1872. A seedling of Early Rareripe, grown by Rev. R. W. Todd, Denton, Maryland. Tree very vigorous, spreading in its habit; leaves serrate, glandless; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, inclining to oblong; skin white, shaded with red; flesh deep red at the stone, juicy; ripens immediately after Smock. =Freeman.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =10=:20, 21. 1868. _Freeman Late._ =2.= _Ibid._ =19=:336. 1877. Named after its originator, H. C. Freeman, Alto Pass, Illinois. The fruits resemble Smock of which it may be a seedling; however, it is later and higher in quality. =Freeman White.= =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1867. A variety of some repute in New Jersey. Resembles Heath Free but is larger; used for market. =French Blood Cling.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 104. 1831. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:33. 1832. _Wilder Blutpfirsich._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:194. 1858. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers large; fruit of medium size, dark red; used for preserves; matures at the end of October. =French Chancellor.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:189. 1831. A variety of French origin. Fruit large, with a distinct suture; apex with a small, mamelon tip; skin fine red next the sun; flesh melting, sweet, with a pleasant flavor; ripens the first of September. =French Mignonne.= =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =2.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ =1=:Pl. 21 fig. 2. 1817. Although bearing a close resemblance to Grosse Mignonne, this peach seems to be distinct. The chief points of difference are thicker skin, more brilliant color and more oblong form in the fruit of this variety. =French Willow Leaved.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:12. 1832. _A Feuilles de Saule._ =2.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 77, 78. 1867. This tree has leaves resembling those of the willow. Leaves devoid of glands; flowers very small; fruit of medium size or larger, roundish, halves unequal; flesh white, red at the stone; pit large, free; ripens in October and only succeeds in a warm exposure. =Friers.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. "Friers peach is an excellent fruit." =Fritzes Sämling.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 395. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Frogmore Golden.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 221. 1866. =2.= _Flor. & Pom._ 89, Pl. 1878. A Mr. Ingram, Frogmore, England, grew this variety from a pit of the Bellegarde peach crossed with Pitmaston Orange nectarine. Trees rather free from mildew; glands globose; fruit of medium size; of a deep apricot color, both in and out; flesh rich, vinous, tinged at the stone from which it separates; ripens early. =Frühe aus der Ortenau.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 395. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Frühe May von Brigg.= =1.= Lucas _Handb. Obst._ 475. 1893. Tree strong and very productive; fruit very large, whitish-yellow, with a red blush; ripens the middle of July. =Frühe Mignonne.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 100. 1831. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 395. 1889. _Large Early Mignonne._ =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:10. 1832. _Early Mignonne._ =4.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 211. 1832. _Frühe Lieblingspfirsich._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:202. 1858. _Early Grosse Mignonne._ =6.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 219. 1866. =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1877. =8.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:165 fig., 166. 1879. Frühe Mignonne was first mentioned early in the Nineteenth Century as coming from the vicinity of Paris, France. It is a strain of Grosse Mignonne, but with smaller and earlier fruit. The American Pomological Society listed it in its fruit-catalog from 1877 until 1897. Glands small, globose; flowers large; fruit large, roundish, more or less ovoid, regular in outline, strongly sutured; usually with a mamelon tip; skin pale yellow, marbled with carmine; flesh whitish-green, red at the pit, melting, juicy, sweet, sprightly; stone roundish-oval, plump, nearly free; ripens early in August. =Früher Bergpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:200, 201. 1858. Fruit large, oblate, halves unequal; deeply sutured; skin with a straw-yellow color, with dark red streaks, heavily pubescent; flesh white throughout, pleasing; stone small; ripens from the first to the middle of August. =Fruitland.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 613. 1869. Fruitland originated at Augusta, Georgia. Fruit large, obovate, tapering to a point; greenish-white, with a pale, mottled red cheek; flesh greenish-white, faintly red at the stone, very juicy, vinous; freestone; matures early in September. =Fulkerson.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 283. 1854. Of American origin, having been raised by R. P. Fulkerson, Ashland, Ohio, about 1851. Leaves without glands; fruit of medium size, obtuse, sides irregular and unequal; skin white, with a red cheek; flesh whitish-yellow, tinged at the stone, juicy, rich, high in quality; stone small, angular, flattened, free; ripens August 20th. =Fullers Galande.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Listed as having globose glands and small flowers. =Furness.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 59. 1869. Mentioned as a good, late clingstone. =G. & A.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. Fruit irregular in outline; yellow-fleshed; freestone; quality good; pit small; ripens the first of September. =G. Orange Cling.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 206. 1896. An inferior variety listed by the Illinois Horticultural Society; fruit of medium size; flesh yellow; quality fair. =Gaillard-Girerd I.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ N. S. =7=:12. 1907. Soon after the early American varieties of the Amsden and Hale Early type were introduced into France they were used in breeding new varieties. This peach is a white-fleshed freestone, resulting from a seed of Poirieux crossed with Hale Early. =Gaillard-Girerd II.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ N. S. =7=:12. 1907. Said to resemble closely its parent, Gaillard-Girerd I. =Gain de Montreuil.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 68. 1848. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:123, 124, fig. 60. 1866-73. _Galande von Montreuil._ =3.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =6=:No. 6, Pl. 1882. Alexis Lepère, Montreuil, France, grew this variety about 1846. Tree strong, unusually productive; leaves with both reniform and globose glands; flowers very small; fruit of medium size, roundish, depressed at the ends; suture distinct; apex with a small, mamelon tip; skin thin, with short pubescence, yellowish-white, with a red blush; flesh stained at the stone, firm, sweet; very good; stone adherent, elongated-oval, deeply furrowed; ripens the last of August. =Galande.= =1.= _Pom. Mag._ =1=:26, Pl. 1828. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:189, 190, fig. 93. 1866-73. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:124, 125 fig., 126. 1879. =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 396, 397. 1889. _Bellegarde._ =5.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =6.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 254, 255. 1831. =7.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 471. 1845. _Grosse Noire de Montreuil._ =8.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =1=:85, Pl. 1853. _Violette Galande._ =9.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:210, 211. 1858. The origin of this old variety is unknown. It apparently was known in France in the middle of the Seventeenth Century and was long and widely cultivated in that country under various names. The number of synonyms shows its popularity in France and England. Leaves crenate, with globose glands; flowers small; fruit large, round, regular, with a shallow suture; color pale yellowish-green, with a rich red cheek, often streaked with darker purple; flesh pale yellow, rayed with red at the stone, melting, juicy, highly flavored, free; season the last of August. =Galande Pointue.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:129, 130, fig. 63. 1866-73. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:127 fig., 128. 1879. _Spitze Galand Pfirsich._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 415. 1889. =4.= Gaucher _Pom. Prak. Obst._ No. 85, Tab. 77. 1894. About 1805 a M. Dormeau of Montreuil, Seine, France, seems to have been growing this variety. Fruit large, roundish-oval, irregular; skin yellowish-white, partly covered and dotted with carmine; flesh whitish, somewhat red at the center, firm but tender, juicy, sweet, vinous; quality good; stone free; season early in August. =Galbraith.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 167. 1871. =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 498. 1871. A variety from Illinois, recommended for market. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish; color white, with a red cheek; very good; ripens at the end of July. =Galland May.= =1.= _Greensboro Nur. Cat._ 22. 1898. A very early variety with good shipping qualities, according to the Greensboro Nurseries, Greensboro, North Carolina. =Galveston.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:805. 1896. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 33. 1899. Galveston was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1899; it comes from southern Texas. Tree very vigorous and productive, inclined to overbear; glands few, reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish; skin creamy, with a light red cheek; flavor subacid; ripens the last of July. =Gant Noir.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 397. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Garden Cling.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 289. 1893. Garden Cling on the Station grounds is not promising in fruit or tree characters. Fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed; skin thick, tough, greenish-white, more or less overspread with bright red; flesh white to the stone, juicy, sweet, rubbery; stone oval, smooth, plump; ripens early in October. =Gates Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 312. 1889. Originated and named by J. W. Gates, Vacaville, California. Trees tender; fruit large; skin too tender for shipping, silver-white, with a red blush; flesh white, firm; pit large, irregular. =Gather Late October.= =1.= Van Lindley _Cat._ 19. 1892. A very late clingstone listed by Van Lindley, Pomona, North Carolina. =Gaylord.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 614. 1869. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:812. 1896. A peach grown in Mississippi by Dr. M. W. Phillips. Tree fairly vigorous, but not productive; glands large, round; flowers small; fruit resembles Crothers, large, round, with a pointed apex; skin creamy-white, heavily pubescent; flesh white, juicy, rich; freestone; ripens the middle of August. =Geary.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:346. 1903. _Gearys Hold-On._ =2.= _Gard. Mon._ =19=:174. 1877. =3.= Hood _Cat._ 31. 1905. _Hold-On._ =4.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 176. 1908. Geary is said to be a seedling of Smock; on the Station grounds it ripens with it. Tree large, vigorous but not very productive, slightly drooping; leaves finely serrate, with large, reniform glands; flowers small, faded pink, darker at the edges; fruit above medium in size, oval, halves unequal; cavity deep, sides drawn up forming a prune-like neck; tip mucronate; skin tough, covered with short pubescence, golden-yellow, slightly splashed with darker red on a dull blush; flesh pale yellow, stained at the pit, rather dry, coarse, sweet; fair in quality; stone large, oval, flattened, more or less pointed, free. =Gebhardt.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:41. 1910. A locally known seedling of Hale Early grown by Benton Gebhardt, Oceana County, Michigan, about 1878. It is valued for high quality in fruit. Tree hardy and an early and regular bearer, not very susceptible to fungus; fruit above medium in size, roundish-oblong, flattened slightly at the ends; cavity broad; suture continuous, deeper at the ends; skin velvety, creamy-white, with a solid, dark crimson cheek; flesh creamy-white, tender, juicy, mild subacid, aromatic; quality very good; stone free; ripens just before Early Michigan. =Gem.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 6. 1893. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:812. 1896. Similar to Oldmixon Cling, but with more color in the cheek; glands reniform; season very late; unproductive. =Gemina.= =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 181. 1895. Mentioned as a very late and very hardy variety; recommended for Missouri. =General Bidwell.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 315. 1889. A seedling named by the California Horticultural Society in 1886 and recommended for cultivation. Fruit larger than Orange Cling, yellow; flesh solid, juicy, rich; pit small, free; ripens between Late Crawford and Salwey. =General Custer.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. A seedling raised by E. F. Hynes, Kansas, about 1878. =General Grant.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 317. 1889. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:214. 1899. Originated with W. W. Smith, Vacaville, California. Trees fairly strong; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit medium to large, roundish, tapering towards the apex; cavity narrow, deep; suture extends two-thirds around the fruit; skin pale creamy-white, with a mottled cheek; flesh red at the pit, moderately juicy, firm, vinous; pit roundish-oval, pointed, plump, adherent; ripens late. =General Greene.= =1.= _N. C. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:108. 1889. =2.= _Greensboro Nur. Cat._ 25. 1898. A large, white-fleshed freestone, ripening the last of August. The variety originated in Guilford County, North Carolina. =General Harrison.= =1.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 20. 1906. According to the Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, Glen Saint Mary, Florida, this variety was originated at Cocoa, Florida, by C. W. Harrison. Fruit above medium in size, shaped like the Honey seedlings without the long points; color light yellow, overlaid with red; flesh white; clingstone; ripens in July. =General Laudon. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:205. 1858. General Laudon is a seedling of Karl Schwarzenberg, raised about 1836. Tree productive; flowers large, pale red; fruit large, oval, deeply sutured; skin greenish-yellow, blushed; flesh white, vinous; freestone; ripens at the end of August. =General Taylor. 1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 25. 1876. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:812. 1896. General Taylor is an early clingstone of fair quality. Tree vigorous, productive; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish-ovate; skin creamy-white, with a red cheek; ripens in Texas the last of June. =Genesee. 1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 16. 1883. Fruit medium to large; flesh creamy-white, juicy; freestone; ripens in October. =Genueser. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 591. 1817. _Pêche de Genes._ =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 351. 1802. _Genueser Aprikosenpfirsich._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:218. 1858. Flowers small; fruit large, round, halves unequal; suture shallow; skin yellow, more or less mottled with clear red; flesh deep yellow, pleasing, melting; freestone; ripens early in October. =George Late. 1.= _Cal. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 73. 1891. =2.= _Cal. Nur. Cat._ 20. 1898. George Late originated in Sacramento, California, where the fruit is much esteemed as a clingstone because of its rich color, large size and superior shipping qualities. The trees on the Station grounds have not yet fruited. =Georgia Press. 1.= _Greensboro Nur. Cat._ 25. 1898. Fruit large; flesh nearly white, juicy, acid; ripens in August, according to the Greensboro Nurseries, Greensboro, North Carolina. =Gest Superb. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 292. 1854. An American variety bearing globose glands; fruit large, roundish; skin yellowish-white; flesh firm, subacid; ripens in September. =Gestreifter Blutpfirsich. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:194. 1858. Resembles Sanguinole but longer. Fruit striped; flesh clear red, not adhering to the pit; ripens early in October. =Gettysburg. 1.= _Rural N. Y._ =62=:820, fig. 304. 1903. Found and named by Earl Peters, Mount Holly Springs, Pennsylvania, who claims it to be the latest and best yellow-fleshed freestone in that vicinity. =Gibbon. 1.= _Gard. Mon._ =21=:149. 1879. Fruit large, oval, terminating in an acute, swollen tip; skin clear yellow, blushed; flesh yellow, melting, juicy; ripens the middle of August. =Gibbon October. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 44. 1891. =2.= Griffing _Cat._ 10. 1910. A seedling of the Spanish type from northern Florida. In 1891, it appeared on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society but was soon dropped. It is one of the last white-fleshed, freestone peaches to mature, ripening at the last of September. =Gibson. 1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 242. 1886. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:42. 1910. A seedling raised by Eugene Gibson, New Richmond, Michigan. The variety was said to be earlier than either Amsden or Alexander. It was thought by some to be identical with the Champion of Michigan. Leaves deeply serrate; susceptible to mildew. =Gibson Late.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =21=:362. 1879. Gibson Late has small value as grown on the Station grounds. Tree neither vigorous nor productive; fruit medium to above in size, oblong-oval, sometimes roundish-oval, with a bulge along the suture; skin with considerable pubescence, greenish-yellow, with a faint blush; flesh light yellow, stained at the pit, juicy, coarse, stringy; quality fair; freestone; ripens the latter half of October. =Gibson Seedling.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed as grown in Texas. =Gillingham.= =1.= _Oregon Nur. Cat._ 35. 1913. The Oregon Nursery Company, Orenco, Oregon, states that Gillingham resembles Early Crawford but ripens a few days later; the tree bears young and abundantly. =Gilman Early.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 199. 1841. A variety ripening in August; productive. =Gilmore.= =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 246. 1893. This variety was found growing in Gilmore, Arkansas, by S. W. Gilbert, Thayer, Missouri; said to be "very early and good to look at but not fit to eat." =Gladstone.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 448. 1884. This is another variety grown by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Leaves glandless; flowers large; fruit very large, round, often oblate; suture shallow; skin pale yellowish-green, with a faint red cheek; flesh white, tender, melting, vinous; freestone. =Glasgow.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =14=:119. 1863. Glasgow is listed as a freestone grown in Missouri. =Glen.= =1.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 19. 1911. Glen is a cross between Peento and Honey from Glen Saint Mary, Florida. Fruit two and one-half inches long, ending in a blunt point; deeply sutured; skin tough, yellow, often entirely covered with red; flesh light yellow, stained at the pit, firm; freestone; season early in June. =Glendale.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:812. 1896. Glendale, better known as Glendale Beauty, did not prove productive in Texas. Glands large, globose; fruit large, ovate, with an acute apex; skin yellow; flesh firm, sweet; freestone; ripens early in July. =Globe.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =27=:334. 1885. =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 314. 1889. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1889. =4.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:214. 1899. Globe is a chance seedling from Berks Center, Pennsylvania. The tree is a rapid and vigorous grower and usually productive. It was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1889 where it still remains. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, round, slightly ovate; cavity broad; skin yellow, with a red cheek; flesh yellow, vinous, sprightly; quality good; pit large, oval, plump, free; ripens at the last of September. =Gold Ball.= =1.= Bailey _Ann. Hort._ 184. 1892. A large, yellow-fleshed clingstone introduced in 1892 by Ramsey & Son, Mahomet, Texas. =Gold Dust.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 107. 1882. =2.= _Boonville Nur. Cat._ 18. 1912. Gold Dust originated with J. C. Evans, Howell County, Missouri. The peaches on the Station grounds are very attractive. Trees moderately productive; glands reniform, large; flowers appear in mid-season, small; fruit large, roundish-cordate, halves unequal; apex ends in a small, recurved, mamelon tip; skin thin but tough, heavily pubescent, golden-yellow, overspread with lively red and with few splashes of darker red; flesh tinged at the pit, juicy, meaty, sprightly; quality fair; stone adherent, large, oval to ovate, acutely pointed at the apex; ripens late in September. =Gold Mine.= =1.= Greening Bros. _Cat._ 85. 1901. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:45, Pl. 1910. G. E. Prater, Paw Paw, Michigan, grew and introduced Gold Mine. It is a cross between Barnard and Late Crawford, resembling the latter parent. On the Station grounds the variety lacks productiveness; trees vigorous, hardy; glands small, globose; flowers appear in mid-season, small; fruit large, oval to cordate, halves decidedly unequal; apex with a large, mucronate tip; skin thick, tough, coarsely pubescent, greenish-yellow, blushed with dull red; flesh yellow except at the pit, juicy, coarse, sprightly, pleasing; quality good; pit free, large, ovate, plump, tinged with purple; ripens late in September. =Golden.= =1.= _Horticulturist N. S._ =7=:178. 1857. Golden is a mediocre variety from Georgia. =Golden Ampère.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Golden Ball.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 292. 1854. Golden Ball is of American origin. Glands globose; fruit large, roundish, orange-yellow; flesh stained at the stone, juicy; freestone; ripens early in September. =Golden Belt.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 195. 1902-03. Listed as grown at one time in Kansas. =Golden Cling.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 147. 1881. =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 33. 1899. =4.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 202. 1913. Golden Cling is one of the standard peaches of California. It has held a place on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society since 1899. The variety originated with A. T. Hatch, Suisum Valley, California. Fruit large, oval, compressed, yellow-fleshed; quality good; season late; good for kitchen or market. =Golden Cuba.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =31=:58. 1887. Listed as growing in Michigan. =Golden Eagle.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 448. 1884. _Aigle doré_. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 54. 1876. Golden Eagle was raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, as a second generation from Late Crawford. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit very large, round, deeply sutured; skin deep orange, with a red cheek on the sunny side; flesh stained at the pit, tender, melting, rich; freestone; ripens at the end of September. =Golden Gate.= =1.= _New Haven Nur. Cat._ 7. 1899-1900. Dr. Smith, Hermann, Missouri, originated Golden Gate. Fruit yellow; season follows Elberta according to the New Haven Nurseries, New Haven, Missouri. =Golden Purple.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 200. 1841. _Gold and Purple._ =2.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 17, 18. 1828. =3.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 43, 44. 1867. _Pourpre Dorée._ =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:239, 240 fig. 1879. Golden Purple originated in Georgia and was sent out by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia. Fruit of medium size, round, with a distinct suture; color golden-yellow, with a deep crimson blush; flesh greenish-yellow, slightly red at the pit, juicy, sweet, with a pleasant, aromatic flavor; stone free; season the last of July. =Golden Rareripe.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 192. 1841. =2.= _Jour. Hort. N. S._ =5=:188. 1863. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 448. 1884. An American variety from Monmouth County, New Jersey, little known in America but listed by several English nurserymen. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit resembles the Crawfords. =Golden Sweet Cling.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 36. 1913. Originated near Fort Smith, Arkansas. Fruit large, juicy and sweet, according to the catalog of Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri. =Goode.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:347. 1903. _Goode October_. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 614. 1869. This variety originated in South Carolina. Fruit large, round or slightly oblong; skin white, veined with red, heavily pubescent; flesh white, stained at the stone, juicy, vinous; clingstone; matures early in October. =Gooding.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:100, 101. 1901. A Mr. Gooding, formerly of Smith County, Texas, originated this variety. It was introduced in 1892 by John F. Sneed, Tyler, Texas. The fruit resembles Mamie Ross but is a few days later. =Gordon.= =1.= Harrison _Cat._ 13. 1904. Gordon is a very late variety from J. G. Harrison and Sons, Berlin, Maryland. The trees are not productive on the Station grounds. Glands small, globose; flowers appear late; fruit large, oval-cordate, halves unequal; apex tipped with a recurved, mamelon tip; skin tough, covered with short pubescence, creamy-white, blushed with lively red, with a few dull splashes; flesh white, tinged at the stone, juicy, tender, rich; quality very good; stone large, oval to obovate, flattened, wedge-shape at the base, free; ripens at the last of September. =Gorgas.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:519. 1853. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 615, 616. 1857. =3.= Hoffy _N. Am. Pom._ No. 1, Pl. 1860. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:130, 131 fig. 1879. Gorgas originated with Benjamin Gullis, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from a stone of Morris White planted in the fall of 1846. The variety first fruited in 1850. Tree vigorous, bearing glandless leaves; fruit moderately large, roundish, with a swollen point at the apex; suture indistinct; color yellowish-white, clouded and blotched with red on the cheek; flesh white, stained at the stone which is free, firm, juicy, sweet and agreeably flavored; quality very good; ripens late in September. =Goshawk.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ 3rd Ser. =13=:494. 1886. =2.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 113. 1904. _Autour._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 55, 215. 1876. Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, raised Goshawk from a seed of Coolidge impregnated with pollen from the Stanwick nectarine. On the Station grounds the trees are not vigorous; leaves devoid of glands; flowers large; fruit large; skin greenish-white, mottled with spots of dull red; flesh juicy, melting, brisk; ripens in mid-season. =Gough Late Red Clingstone.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. Listed by Prince in 1820. =Governor.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1873. Governor is a seedling of President which it surpasses in quality of fruit. It originated with L. E. Berckmans of Rome, Georgia, many years ago. Fruit very large, roundish, regular; skin white, nearly covered with red and with a dark red cheek; flesh white, melting, vinous, aromatic, free; quality good; ripens the middle of August. =Governor Briggs.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:812. 1896. _Briggs._ =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:209. 1899. The origin of this sort is unknown but it has been propagated in Michigan for some years under the name Briggs. Tree unproductive; glands globose, small; fruit medium to large, roundish-ovate, with a distinct suture; color yellow, with a red cheek; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, tender, with a rich, vinous, sprightly flavor; quality good; pit free; season in Michigan the last of August. =Governor Campbell.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ 9. 1909. This is an old, white clingstone which ripens in Texas about July 20th, as described by F. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas. =Governor Garland.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 51. 1879. =2.= _Ibid._ 112. 1880. The original Governor Garland tree grew six miles from Bentonville, Arkansas. The fruits are described as larger, earlier and inferior in flavor to Amsden. =Governor Hubbard.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed by the Texas Experiment Station. =Governor Lanham.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ 9. 1909. Governor Lanham originated at Austin, Texas, and was introduced by F. T. Ramsey and Son, of that place. It resembles Elberta in size, shape and season but is a clingstone. =Governor Phelps.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. E. F. Hynes of Kansas introduced Governor Phelps; fruit large, yellow, clingstone. =Grand Admirable.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =3=:56. 1861. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. An attractive clingstone from Louisville, Kentucky, first grown about 1840. On the Station grounds the trees are only fairly productive; glands small, globose; flowers appear early, small; fruit medium in size, roundish, inclined to oblate, angular, halves unequal; skin tough, covered with short pubescence, creamy-white, with a carmine blush and a few lively red mottlings; flesh tinged at the stone, juicy, moderately coarse, meaty, with a trace of sprightliness; fair in quality; stone oval, somewhat plump; ripens the last week in September. =Grand Carnation.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. "Grand Carnation is like Carnation but greater and later, ripening the beginning of September." =Grand Monarque.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. This variety bears reniform glands and small flowers. =Grand Reporter.= =1.= _Weber Nur. Cat._ 14. 1900. Grand Reporter was found by a Mr. Pfister, Creve Coeur Lake, Missouri. Tree hardy and productive, with fruit similar to Late Crawford but a week later, according to H. J. Weber, Nursery, Missouri. =Grandeville.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Leaves deeply serrate and glandless; flowers large. =Granger.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 189. 1880. A seedling grown by S. L. Staley about 1850 and later given to F. Granger, Monterey, Michigan. It is distinguishable from Late Crawford only by a slight difference in habit of tree; leaves large, with globose glands. =Grant Cling.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:180. 1857. A clingstone peach from J. T. Grant, Georgia. Fruit above medium in size, oblong, tapering; distinctly sutured; skin heavily pubescent, with a pale cream color, blushed considerably; flesh pale red at the stone, juicy, tender. =Grant Large Yellow.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 194. 1841. Originated with a Mr. Grant, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; ripens late. =Grauer-Pfirsich.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Graven Red Cheek Cling.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:110. 1847. A seedling from Holmes County, Ohio. =Graves.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =21=:362. 1879. _Graves Semi-Cling._ =2.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1880. _Graves Early._ =3.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:816. 1896. A supposed hybrid between the apricot and peach by William Graves, Hazlehurst, Mississippi; larger and earlier than Alexander. =Gray.= =1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =112=:171. 1900. =2.= _Ibid._ =117=:308. 1901. =3.= _Ibid._ =156=:133. 1911. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit medium to large, rather long and flattened, with a prominent point at the apex; skin smooth, pale yellow, sprinkled with red; flesh yellow, thick, firm, rich; freestone; ripens the last of June; not recommended. =Great Eastern.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 614. 1869. Great Eastern originated in the Fruitland Nurseries, Augusta, Georgia. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit very large, round, often a trifle flattened; skin greenish-white, with a red cheek; flesh white, juicy, well-flavored; ripens the middle of July. =Great Northern.= =1.= _Ont. Sta. Rpt._ =3=:42. 1896. Mentioned as growing in Ontario. =Great Western.= =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:14. 1892. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:214. 1899. Trees strong, round-headed, moderately productive; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit medium to large, roundish or slightly ovate; cavity narrow, deep; apex prominent; skin creamy-white; flesh juicy, white to the pit, firm, mild, slightly bitter; quality poor; pit adherent, roundish-oval, pointed, plump; season the early part of October. =Great White.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. "The great white Peach is white on the outside as the meate is also, and is a good well rellished fruit." =Green Catharine.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 95. 1831. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =1=:210, 258, 259. 1846-47. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:84 fig., 85. 1879. W. R. Prince says, in the second reference, that Green Catharine was brought to notice by his grandfather. Glands small, globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, distinctly sutured; skin pale green in shade, becoming whitish-yellow, streaked with carmine; flesh greenish-white except at the stone, melting, fibrous, juicy, somewhat acid; stone free, plump; ripens at the end of August. =Green Rareripe.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:401. 1847-48. A productive and fine-flavored freestone adapted to New England. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit of medium size; ripens in September. =Green Winter.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 18. 1820. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:15. 1832. Green Winter is of no value as a table fruit but makes beautiful preserves, the fruits retaining their green color; the flesh is firm and adheres closely to the stone; matures in October. =Gregory.= =1.= _Horticulturist N. S._ =5=:70. 1855. _Gregory Late_. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 448. 1884. Introduced by William Gregory, a nurseryman at Cirencester, England, about 1849. It is an excellent, late, melting peach, but does not color nor ripen well in ordinary seasons. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, ovate, pointed; skin greenish, with a red blush; flesh vinous, sugary, high in quality; ripens early in October. =Gresham.= =1.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 357. 1895-97. Listed in this reference. =Griffing No. 4. 1.= Griffing Bros. _Cat._ 20. 1914. The catalog of Griffing Brothers, Jacksonville, Florida, describes the fruit as large, roundish; skin golden yellow, nearly covered with red; flesh streaked with red near the pit, fine-grained, juicy, subacid; clingstone; ripens the last of June. =Grimes.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 14. 1914-15. Grimes is thought to be a second generation seedling from Mamie Ross, which it closely resembles. It originated with T. H. Graves, Anderson, Texas; ripens in Texas about June 20th, as described by the Munson Nurseries, Denison, Texas. =Griswold.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 205. 1858. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 297. 1859. Fruit large, round, greenish-white, slightly tinged with red; flesh very juicy and highly flavored; ripens the middle of September. =Grosse Bourdine. 1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876 Listed in this reference. =Grosse Gallande.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 186. 1841. Fruit large, attractive, roundish; color white, with a red blush; flavor excellent; ripens early in September. =Grosse Madeleine Lepére.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Grosse Mignonne.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:18, 19, Pl. X. 1768. =2.= _Pom. Mag._ =1=:23, Pl. 1828. =3.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 258, 259. 1831. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 478. 1845. =5.= _Proc. Nat. Con. Fr. Gr._ 37, 51. 1848. =6.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 40, 219. 1876. =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:162, 163 fig., 164. 1879. =8.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 449. 1884. _Grimwood's Royal George._ =9.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ =1=:Pl. 21, fig. 1. 1817. _Early Vineyard._ =10.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 257. 1831. _Neil's Early Purple._ =11.= _Ibid._ 263, 264. 1831. _Royal Kensington._ =12.= _Ibid._ 271. 1831. _Superb Royal._ =13.= _Ibid._ 272, 273. 1831. _Gemeiner Lieblingspfirsich._ =14.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:201, 202. 1858. _Veloutée de Piémont._ =15.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 51. 1876. _Grosse Mignon Pfirsich._ =16.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 398, 399. 1889. The numerous synonyms for this variety are an evidence of the esteem in which it was long held. It undoubtedly originated in France; according to Leroy it was mentioned by Merlet in 1667. During the reign of George the Third, Grimwood, of the Kensington Nursery, sent it out as Grimwood's Royal George. A Mr. Lee of Hammersmith, England, called it Early Vineyard; Shailer, of Chelsea, Superb Royal; Forsyth, a royal gardener at Kensington in 1784, called it Royal Kensington. Lindley described the same variety under several different names, apparently believing them to be distinct. At the first meeting of the American Pomological Society, in 1848, Grosse Mignonne was placed on the list of recommended fruits, a place it held until 1899 when it was dropped. Tree large, moderately vigorous, subject to mildew, productive; glands small, globose; fruit large, roundish, depressed and marked with a hollow suture at the top, which seems to divide it into two lobes; color pale greenish-yellow, mottled with red which deepens to brownish-red on the sunny side; flesh free, pale yellow, rayed with red at the stone, melting, juicy, with a rich, delicate, vinous flavor; quality good; ripens at the last of August. =Grosse Mignonne Lepére.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Grosse Mignonne Saint-Cyr.= =1.= Thomas Guide Prat. 52. 1876. A variety of doubtful value, bearing globose glands and medium-sized flowers. =Grosse Montagne Précoce.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =29=:53. 1863. Another seedling from Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, which sprang from a seed of a very early, clingstone peach; the fruit is large and early, but a clingstone. =Grosse de Stresa.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. Listed as received from Italy. =Grosse de Vitry.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Grosser Blutpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:194. 1858. _Sanguine à gros fruit._ =2.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:477, 478. 1860. This variety differs from Sanguinole in being larger. =Grosster Aprikosenpfirsich. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:220. 1858. Flowers small, flesh-colored; fruit very large, roundish, lightly sutured; skin yellow, often without any red; flesh yellow to the stone, fine, sweet; clingstone; ripens at the end of August. =Grover Cleveland.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. Grover Cleveland originated as a chance seedling with J. W. Gates, Vacaville, California. Tree hardy, prolific; fruit small, yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh stained at the pit, firm; stone small, clinging; good for shipping and canning. =Grover Red.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 188. 1881. Grover Red is an early, white-fleshed freestone grown about Warsaw, Illinois. =Grubbs Cling.= =1.= _N. Mex. Sta. Bul._ =30=:243. 1899. Tested at the New Mexico Experiment Station. =Guadalupe.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 263. 1892. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:805. 1896. G. Onderdonk, Nursery, Texas, grew Guadalupe from a peach of the Spanish type. Glands reniform; fruit roundish-oblate, conical, small; suture deep; apex prominent; skin covered with a short, persistent down, thick, tough, dull creamy-white; flesh tinged at the stone, vinous, aromatic; quality very good; clingstone; ripens in August in southern Texas. =Gudgeon.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 301. 1890. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:215. 1899. Tree upright, roundish, not very productive; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit medium to large, roundish; apex prominent; color creamy-white, with a bright red blush; flesh red at the stone, juicy, sprightly; quality fair; stone free, oval, pointed; season the first of October. =Guespin.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 52. 1876. A variety of doubtful merit, bearing reniform glands. =Guinn.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ 9. 1909. According to F. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas, this variety was raised by a Mr. Guinn, Cherokee County, Texas. As grown on the Station grounds the fruits are very susceptible to brown-rot. Tree vigorous, moderately hardy; glands small, globose; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit of medium size, cordate, halves decidedly unequal; cavity deep and wide, with a mamelon tip at the apex; skin moderately thin and tough, covered with short, thick pubescence, deep yellow, blushed with dull red, with a few carmine mottlings; flesh tinged with red at the stone, juicy, coarse, firm, sprightly, moderately high in flavor, fairly good; stone free, ovate, noticeably bulged; ripens the last of August. =Gulley.= =1.= Bailey _Ann. Hort._ 173. 1890. Mentioned as introduced by A. G. Gulley of Michigan in 1890. =Gurney.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:45, 46 fig. 1910. One of the many late seedlings of the Chili type. Originated with C. A. Gurney, Hart, Michigan. On the Station grounds it grows as follows: Tree vigorous, spreading, an early bearer; fruit of medium size, conic, cleft into halves by a deep suture which extends beyond the apex; skin thick, tough, covered with short, thick pubescence, light yellow, with a faint red cheek; flesh light yellow, red at the pit, fine, juicy, mild subacid; quality very good; stone free. =Gustave Thuret.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 58. 1867. The seed of this variety came from China and was planted about 1862 at Antipolis, Alpes-Maritimes, France, by Gustave Thuret. Tree moderately vigorous; leaves with small, reniform glands; flowers large; fruit very small, halves unequal; noticeably sutured, with a small, mamelon tip at the apex; skin whitish-yellow, with a red blush; flesh whitish-yellow, tinged at the pit, firm though tender, juicy, sweet; stone ovoid, often clinging; ripens the latter part of August. =Haas.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:89. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:215. 1899. _John Haas._ =3.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 313. 1889. A variety from Delaware resembling Hale Early and ripening with it. Trees strong, spreading, moderately productive; glands reniform; flowers large; fruit medium to large, roundish, faintly sutured; cavity broad and deep; skin creamy-white, partially washed and striped with red; flesh yellowish-white, juicy, tender, vinous; quality fair to good; pit small, oval, plump, free; season from the first to the middle of August. =Hacker Seedling.= =1.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =3=:342. 1868. Formerly grown about Makanda, Illinois. =Hague.= =1.= Harrison _Cat._ 18. 1910. Hague is a large, yellow-fleshed freestone which ripens the last of August, according to J. G. Harrison, Berlin, Maryland. =Haines.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 458. 1883. _Haines' Early Red._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 479. 1845. =3.= _Gen. Farmer_ =8=:243. 1847. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. Haines is an early peach from New Jersey. The variety has been confused with several other sorts. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; glands globose; fruit of medium size, round, depressed at the base, with a distinct suture extending nearly around the fruit; skin pale yellowish-white, with deep red in the sun; flesh greenish-white, melting, very juicy, sweet, with a pleasant flavor; quality good; season the middle of August. =Hale.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 284. 1854. _Hale's Melocoton._ =2.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 193. 1849. Hale originated with a Col. E. Hale of Stowe, Massachusetts. Fruit moderately large, oblong, flattened at the base, with a slight suture on one side; color bright yellow; flesh yellow, rich, sweet; of excellent quality; freestone; ripens early in September. =Hale Oblong.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:89. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:215. 1899. A seedling from C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan. Very similar to Hale Round and Hale but more productive; fruit larger and pit less adherent than Hale Early. =Hale Rareripe.= =1.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =3=:45. 1890. Listed by the Louisiana Experiment Station. =Hale Round.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:89. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ =118=:35. 1895. A seedling from C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan, very similar to Hale Oblong. Tree more productive; fruit larger and pit less adherent than Hale Early. =Hall.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:514. 1902. _Hall Yellow._ =2.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 13, 14. 1903. Hall is a seedling of Angel. It was originated by R. C. Hall, Volusia County, Florida, about 1900. Many years ago a Mr. Hall of Maine originated a peach which he called Hall Down-Easter. Several writers since, have, in describing the Hall, of Florida, erroneously given its origin as Maine. Fruit large, roundish-oblate, sometimes inclined to oblong, bulged on one side; suture very shallow; apex rounded; skin yellow, washed with red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, with red lines radiating into the flesh, meaty, moderately juicy, with an agreeable acid flavor; quality good; stone free; season early. =Halliday.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 166. 1895. Halliday is a medium-sized, white-fleshed clingstone, which ripens about the first of August. =Halsteads Early.= =1.= _W. Va. Sta. Bul._ =82=:406. 1902. Halsteads Early is a white-fleshed peach of medium size, ripening in West Virginia the last of August. =Hamner.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =18=:241. 1876. A chance seedling clingstone which sprung up in Galveston, Texas. =Hance.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:347. 1903. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:215. 1899. _Hance Golden Rareripe._ =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 124. 1881. _Hance Golden._ =4.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:89. 1894. Hance originated in New Jersey. Trees fairly strong, moderately productive; glands globose; flowers small; fruit medium to large, roundish; suture indistinct; cavity broad; color yellow, with a dark red cheek in the sun; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, tender, vinous; quality good; pit free; season early September. =Hance Smock.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:89. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:215. 1899. Hance Smock came from Delaware. Tree upright, quite vigorous; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit large, roundish to oval; deeply sutured near the apex, often extending beyond; color pale yellow, with a marbled cheek; flesh yellow except at the pit, moderately juicy, tender, vinous; quality good; pit large, oval, pointed, free; season early in October. =Hannah.= =1.= _Ind. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 64. 1902. Hannah sprung from a seed of Arkansas, grown by William Hannah, Greene County, Indiana. Flesh clear yellow, freestone; used for canning locally. =Hape Early.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 50. 1879. Raised by Dr. Samuel Hape, Atlanta, Georgia; equal to any early, white variety known in 1879. =Hardy White Tuscany.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 317. 1889. This variety is very susceptible to leaf-curl; fruit large, clear white, with a pale pink wash; flesh very firm, white to the pit. =Harker.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1887. _Harker Seedling._ =2.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 9. 1857. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 297. 1859. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1877. A popular variety from New Jersey which appeared on the American Pomological Society's fruit-list in 1877 as Harker Seedling. In 1887 the name was changed to Harker and in 1891 the variety was dropped. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy; freestone; ripens early in September. =Harper Early.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 51. 1879. =2.= _Ibid._ 112. 1880. Harper Early is said to have originated in Wilson County, Kansas. It is neither as large nor as early as Amsden. =Harris Early.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 314. 1889. Similar to Mountain Rose; a shy bearer. =Harris Winter.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =20=:340. 1878. =2.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 112. 1880. Harris Winter is a late variety of value in the South but too late for cultivation in the North; originated in North Carolina. =Harter Blutpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:194. 1858. A dark red clingstone somewhat similar to Sanguinole; flowers and stone are small; ripens at the end of October. =Hartshorn.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 195. 1849. J. Hartshorn, Reading, Massachusetts, introduced this seedling which is said to reproduce itself from seed. Fruit large, roundish-oval, rich yellow, deeply blushed; flesh rather coarse; clingstone; ripens the middle of September; good for preserves. =Hastings.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:145. 1904. Hastings is a Honey-like peach which originated with Griffing Brothers, Macclenny, Florida, about 1900. Fruit medium to large, oval, very irregular, with a recurved tip at the apex; cavity deep, abrupt; skin very fuzzy, thin, tough, dull greenish-yellow, washed and streaked with deep red; flesh red at the stone, firm, meaty, juicy, sweet; stone free, oval, plump, with a broad, recurved point; season the last of June. =Hastings Rareripe.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:400. 1847-48. Probably of New England origin. Leaves with globose glands; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, often a little flattened; skin yellowish-white, with a purplish-red cheek; ripens the middle of September. =Hatch.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 192. 1849. This variety originated in Franklin, Connecticut, with S. O. Hatch, and reproduces itself from seed. Fruit very large, roundish, pointed; suture shallow; skin deep yellow, blushed where exposed; flesh melting, sweet; excellent; freestone; ripens September 1st. =Hâtive d'Aikelin.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. _Aikelin Frühpfirsich._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 386. 1889. This peach originated in Württemberg, Germany; fruit of medium size, globular; skin deep purple on a whitish ground; of first quality; ripens late in August. =Hâtive de Chine.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 400. 1889. Listed in the reference given. =Hâtive de Ferrières.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 617. 1857. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 297. 1859. A variety of French origin probably distinct from Grosse Mignonne. Fruit of medium size, roundish, with a shallow suture; skin white, nearly covered with rich red; flesh white, tinged with red at the stone, juicy, melting, with a sweet, rich, vinous flavor, free; season the last of August. =Hâtive de Gaillard.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 400. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Hâtive de Holland.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:229, 230, fig. 113. 1866-73. _Frühe Hollandische._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 395. 1889. Tree moderately vigorous; leaves with reniform glands; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish, flattened at the ends; skin thin, yellowish-white, striped with red; flesh white often to the pit, melting, juicy, sweet, aromatic; stone clinging, large for the size of the fruit, oval, acute at the base; ripens early in August. =Hâtive Lepère.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 400. 1889. Listed without description. =Hatt.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. Mentioned as received from France. =Haun Golden.= =1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ =25=:147. 1893. Listed in this reference. =Haupt.= 1. _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:812. 1896. =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:102. 1901. Tree vigorous, unproductive; glands globose; fruit of medium size, oval, with a pointed apex; skin creamy-white, blushed with red; flesh rather acid; quality fair; stone clinging; ripens in Texas the last of July. =Haupt Seedlings.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Haupt August, Haupt October Free, and Haupt No. 14, are seedlings, listed but not described, originating with W. W. Haupt, Kyle, Texas. =Hawkins Winter.= =1.= _N. C. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:108. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Heath Ringold. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 206. 1896. A small, red and white, freestone variety of no value. =Heckel.= =1.= Leonard Coates _Cat._ 7. 1910-11. A yellow freestone raised by George Heckel, Morganhill, California, according to Leonard Coates of that place. =Heim Lackpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:215. 1858. A seedling originating about 1855. Tree productive; glands reniform, large; flowers of medium size; fruit of medium size, roundish, somewhat flattened, halves unequal; deeply sutured; skin yellowish-white, with mottlings of purplish-red, heavily pubescent; flesh stained at the pit, tender, juicy, aromatic; stone free, oval, acutely pointed; ripens late in September. =Hemphill.= =1.= Hoopes Bros. & Thomas _Cat._ 16. 1907. Hemphill originated with Judge Hemphill, West Chester, Pennsylvania, according to the catalog of Hoopes Brother and Thomas Company of that place. At Geneva this variety proves to be weak and unproductive. Fruit large, white, clingstone; season early in October. =Hemskirk.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 105, Pl. 31 fig. 4. 1729. =2.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 259. 1831. A beautiful, early fruit from the Royal Gardens at Kensington, England. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large, with a pale rose-color; fruit below medium in size, oblate, somewhat narrowed at the apex; skin greenish-yellow, with a bright red blush, marbled with deeper red; flesh faintly tinged at the pit, melting, juicy, vinous; stone free, small, nearly round, smooth; ripens at the end of August. =Henry Clay.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =3=:139. 1853. A southern peach grown by Rev. A. B. Lawrence, Woodville, Mississippi. Leaves very large; fruit very large; skin creamy-white, with a deep crimson blush; flesh white, with the peculiar flavor of both strawberry and pineapple; pit small, free; ripens the last of July. =Henshaw.= =1.= _W. Va. Sta. Bul._ =82=:406. 1902. A large, white peach with a red blush ripening the latter part of August. =Herbert.= =1.= Bailey _Ann. Hort._ 185. 1892. A cross between Chinese Cling and Salwey, introduced by J. H. Jones, Georgia. Fruit large, yellow; clingstone; ripens about August 20th. =Hermione.= =1.= _Pa. Fr. Gr. Soc. Rpt._ 587. 1878. A white-fleshed variety listed by the Pennsylvania Fruit-Growers' Society. =Hero.= =1.= Bailey _Ann. Hort._ 185. 1892. Hero was introduced by J. H. Jones of Georgia. It is a seedling of Chinese Cling but larger, higher colored and freer from rot; ripens in Georgia July 20th. =Hewellay.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Hewellen.= =1.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =4=:146. 1856. A very early clingstone of southern origin. =Hicks Seedling.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 54. 1876. Listed as a variety of American origin. =Hilard.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:816. 1896. In Texas, Hilard proved a small, worthless variety ripening in October. =Hilborn.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 301. 1890. =2.= _Ibid._ 449. 1896. One of the best peaches for British Columbia; fruit of medium size, globular; color creamy-yellow, with a red cheek; flesh juicy, tender; ripens the middle of August. =Hill Home Chief.= =1.= _Ohio Sta. Bul._ =170=:176, 1906. A white-fleshed sort of no particular merit which ripens on the Station grounds about the middle of September. Tree open, hardy, unproductive; leaves with small, reniform glands; flowers appear in mid-season, small; fruit above medium in size, oval-cordate, halves slightly unequal; sides about the cavity drawn in, forming a prune-like neck; suture extends about three-quarters around the fruit; skin thin, tough, creamy, overlaid with a lively blush often becoming duller or even lacking; flesh stained at the pit, rather dry, firm, sprightly; stone free, obovate. =Hine Seedling.= =1.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 222. 1857. Raised by Daniel Hine of Talmadge, Ohio, from Heath Cling. Earlier and better colored than its parent. Leaves with globose glands; flowers large; fruit large, round; flesh juicy, sweet; clingstone; ripens in September. =Hinkley Seedling.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 366. 1908. A hardy seedling from Iowa. =Hlubek Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:206. 1858. Glands reniform; flowers large, white; fruit of medium size, roundish, deeply sutured; skin yellowish-white, with a dark red blush; flesh red at the stone, sweet, vinous; stone oval, free; ripens early in September. =Hobbs Early.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =3=:87. 1861. O. T. Hobbs, Randolph, Pennsylvania, says this variety is a seedling of Fay Early Anne, originating at the American Garden of Experiments. The fruit is very early and the pit small. =Hobson.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:102. 1901. Hobson is a seedling of Mamie Ross grown by E. W. Kirkpatrick, McKinney, Texas. Fruit of medium size, oval, compressed; apex uneven, blunt; skin firm, thick, creamy-white, faintly blushed; flesh firm, moderately juicy, astringent; stone clinging, short, blunt; good for canning. =Hobson Choice.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:236. 1898. Originated on the grounds of the Georgia Experiment Station. It is very similar to Admiral Dewey. Tree low in habit, spreading; leaves with globose glands; fruit of medium size, globular, deep yellow; freestone; ripens the last of June. =Hoffmanns White.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, whitish, with a red blush; flesh melting; quality good; ripens from the beginning to the middle of September. =Hoffmans Favorite.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit medium in size, melting, white; of second quality; ripens early in September. =Hoffner.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 292. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 617. 1869. Originated near Cincinnati, Ohio. Glands globose; fruit medium to large, roundish; skin greenish-white, blushed; flesh yellowish-white, juicy; freestone; ripens in August. =Holderbaum.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =59=:706. 1900. _Holder._ =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:347. 1903. Holderbaum originated in the mountains of Pennsylvania. The trees on the Station grounds are weak and only moderately productive. Leaves with small, globose glands; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit medium to above in size, roundish-oblate; cavity deep, narrow; suture deepens at the apex, often extending entirely around the fruit, with a mucronate tip at the apex; skin thin, tough, covered with short, thick pubescence, creamy-white, with a slight blush of red, often mottled with darker red; flesh white, tinged at the stone, juicy, melting, sprightly, rich; very good; stone free, rather small, oval; ripens at the end of August. =Hollister.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 169. 1895. Mentioned as a small, dry, white peach ripening in October. =Holsinger Salwey.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 24. 1912. According to Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri, this variety is supposed to be an improved Salwey from the orchard of Major Frank Holsinger, Wyandotte County, Kansas. Rated by Mr. Holsinger as the best of forty-nine Salwey seedlings raised by him. =Holt Early.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 188. 1881. An early, white freestone from Warsaw, Illinois. =Honest Abe.= =1.= _Cal. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 69. 1883. =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 312. 1891. Honest Abe is a California variety from Healdsburg; said to be curl-proof. Fruit large, yellow, blushed; ripens between the Crawfords. =Honest John.= =1.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 299. 1854. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1856. =3.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1873. =4.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =59=:14. 1890. =5.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:46. 1910. Honest John is an old variety whose origin is given both as in western New York and as in Michigan. The Honest John grown in Michigan and disseminated by C. C. Engle of Paw Paw, is probably the true variety. Half a century ago it was grown extensively in peach-sections but inferior quality and small size of fruit condemn it. Several writers have confused Honest John with Large York, George IV and Haines but all of these are distinct. Tree large, vigorous; fruit large, roundish-oval, compressed; apex roundish or slightly pointed; color greenish-yellow changing to deep yellow, mottled and blushed with dull carmine; fresh yellow, tinged with red near the pit, moderately juicy, meaty yet tender, subacid, inferior in flavor; fair in quality; stone free; ripens in mid-season. =Honey.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =8=:456. 1858. =2.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =5=:188. 1863. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 617. 1869. =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 450. 1884. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1889. =6.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:141-143. 1904. _Montigny._ =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:69, 70, fig. 33. 1866-73. =8.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 59, 60. 1867. =9.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:169, 170 fig. 1879. Honey is a Chinese peach probably first raised in Europe from seed sent to the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, by de Montigny, Consul of France, at Shanghai. The name Honey may have been applied to it in England. It reproduces itself closely from seed and a number of slight variations from the original type have been found in America. The strain chiefly grown in this country was raised by Charles Downing from seed brought from China. Downing's seedlings failed but prior to their failure he had sent grafts from them to Henry Lyons, Columbia, South Carolina, who grew some trees. The variety was probably disseminated in America from this source. In 1889 the American Pomological Society added Honey to its list of fruits. Tree vigorous, hardy and productive in the South; glands usually reniform but sometimes globose; fruit small to medium, oblong-oval, tapering at the apex into a long, sharp nipple or beak, and marked with a distinct suture; color whitish-yellow, washed and dotted with red, which deepens to almost a crimson blush; flesh creamy-white, streaked with red around the pit, juicy, very tender, melting, sweet, with a distinct, rich, honey-like flavor; quality very good; pit free; season in the South from the middle of June to the first of July. =Honey Cling.= =1.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 369, 371, 373. 1892-94. Fruit white, very highly colored and very sweet. =Honey Seedling.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:86, 89. 1896. A seedling of Honey propagated by the Florida Station. =Honeywell.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 299. 1875. John Honeywell, Randolph, Ohio, raised this peach. Said to be earlier than Alexander. =Hoover Heath.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1887. =2.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:236. 1898. _Hoover Late Heath._ =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1873. _Hoover Late._ =4.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 297. 1875. This variety is a seedling of Heath. It appeared on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1873 as Hoover Late Heath. In 1887 the name was changed to its present form; in 1899 the variety was dropped. Tree low in habit, straggling, spreading; glands reniform. =Hopes Early Red.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed but not described. =Hopkinsville.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 170. 1881. Raised from seed by James Quisenburg, near Hopkinsville, Kentucky. Tree reproduces itself from seed; leaves without glands; flowers small; fruit large, oblong, with a mamelon tip at the apex; skin dull white, quite downy, mottled with red; flesh tinged with red at the stone, juicy, melting; freestone; ripens early in September. =Horton Delicious.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 637. 1857. Probably from Georgia. Fruit large, roundish, inclining to oval; suture shallow; skin moderately downy, creamy-white, with a faint blush; flesh white to the stone, with a Heath Cling flavor; quality best; ripens from the first to the middle of October. =Horton Rivers.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 73, 74. 1890. Horton Rivers is a seedling of Early Rivers and is very similar to it. The trees did not prove hardy nor productive on the Station grounds. Tree dense and spreading; leaves long and broad, with reniform glands; blossoms appear early; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, oblique; suture indistinct except at the ends; apex with a prolonged, recurved tip; skin thin, tough, covered with short, thick pubescence, creamy-white, with a slight blush usually near the cavity; flesh white, juicy, tender, sweet, sprightly, high in flavor; quality good; stone free, large, oval, faintly obovate, not very plump; ripens the third week in August. =Houpt October.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:816. 1896. Listed in this reference. =Howard.= 1. _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. A seedling raised by E. F. Hynes of Kansas. =Howell Cling.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:812. 1896. Tree fairly vigorous and productive; glands small, reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish, creamy-white; clingstone; ripens the last of August. =Howers Frühpfirsich.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 401. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Hoyte Lemon Cling.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:414. 1826. A seedling of Pineapple which originated with a Mr. Hoyte of New York City. Fruit very large, resembles Pineapple; ripens late. =Hubbard Early.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 298. 1859. Hubbard Early is a medium-sized, white-fleshed peach of fair quality; season from July to August. =Hudson.= =1.= _Am. Gard._ =21=:693 fig. 1900. Hudson is a yellow peach put out by H. S. Wiley, Cayuga, New York. The trees on the Station grounds were not productive; stone free; season very late. =Hudson November.= =1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =11=:9. 1890. Flowers large; fruit of medium size, white; flesh firm; clingstone; ripens late in October; easily injured by drouth. =Hughes I. X. L.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 392. 1891. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:30. 1895. Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit of medium size, greenish-yellow, mottled and striped with deep crimson; flesh lemon-yellow, mild subacid; clingstone; season late in October in the South where it may be profitable. =Hull Athenian.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 638. 1857. Named after Henry Hull, Jr., of Athens, Georgia. Fruit very large, oblong; suture but a line; skin very downy, yellowish-white, marbled with dull red where exposed; flesh white, pale red at the stone, firm, vinous; ripens in October. =Hull Late.= =1.= Leonard Coates _Cat._ 7. 1911. According to Leonard Coates, Morganhill, California, this variety is a very late, market clingstone, valuable for shipping. =Hunter.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 95. 1854. _Hunter Favorite._ =2.= _Horticulturist_ =15=:491. 1860. Dr. Hunter of Lincoln, North Carolina, raised this freestone peach; color yellow; stone small; season the last of September. =Husted Early.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 42. 1895. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:47. 1910. Husted Early, or Husted No. 16 as it was first called, is often confused with Early Michigan. Although they are very similar in fruit, the tree-characters are different. Glands globose; flowers large; fruit roundish, medium in size; skin woolly, greenish-white, with a crimson blush, thick, tenacious; flesh fine-grained, juicy, subacid; stone oval, free; ripens in Georgia early in July. =Husted's Seedlings.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 191. 1879. In this reference are described several seedlings which were sent out by J. D. Husted, Lowell, Michigan, from a large number originated by him. =Husted No. 17.= This variety is thought to have originated as a cross between Chili and Hale Early. Fruit large, creamy-white, marbled with dark red; flesh creamy-white, firm, melting, juicy, mild, sweet, rich; ripens early. =Husted No. 20.= Fruit nearly large; color clear yellow, striped and shaded with dark red; flesh bright yellow, almost melting, very juicy, mild, vinous, rich. =Husted No. 22.= Fruit medium to large, bright yellow, with a dull red blush; flesh pale yellow, delicate, melting, juicy, very mild, vinous. =Husted No. 26.= Fruit large, clear yellow, with a dark red blush; flesh bright yellow, fine-grained, melting, juicy, rich, with a mild, vinous, almost almond flavor. =Husted No. 46.= Fruit large, yellow, faintly marbled with dull red; flesh orange-yellow, dark red at the pit, firm, slightly fibrous, juicy, with a mild acid flavor. =Huston Seedling.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. Listed as growing in Delaware. =Hutchinson.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =13=:31. 1871. This fruit is similar in appearance to the old Red Rareripe. The variety is said to have borne regularly for forty years in the vicinity of Reading, Massachusetts. =Hyatt.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 159. 1889. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:35. 1895. Hyatt is very much like Hale Early but more highly colored and better flavored; when fully ripe it is nearly free from the pit. =Hybride Quétier.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 115. 1888. This variety grew from a pit of Grosse Mignonne fertilized by an apricot. Fruit of medium size, pale yellow, very juicy; ripens in October. =Hydelberg.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 228. 1910-11. Hydelberg is a good, yellow peach ripening in Kansas about August 10th. =Hynds Yellow.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 6. 1903-04. Hynds Yellow is briefly described by the Munson Nurseries, Denison, Texas. It ripens earlier than Elberta. On the Station grounds it is a very mediocre sort. Tree vigorous, upright; leaves with small, globose glands; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, bulged near the apex, halves unequal; apex tipped with a small, recurved, mamelon point; skin covered with long, thick pubescence, thin, tough, light orange-yellow, with few stripes and splashes of dull red; flesh stained with red at the stone, juicy, firm, mild, not very pleasing; stone free, small, oval to ovate, usually bulged near the apex. =Hynes Nectar.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. This peach originated with E. F. Hynes, West Plains, Missouri. It is said by the originator to be a delicious freestone ripening a few days before Hynes. =Hyslop Cling.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:27. 1832. =2.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 223. 1857. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. This variety is named after David Hyslop, Brookline, Massachusetts, who disseminated cions of it as early as 1810. It was very desirable for northern climates and for that reason was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1862 where it remained until 1897. Fruit large, roundish; skin white, with a crimson blush; flesh very juicy, vinous; ripens in October. =Hyslop Favorite.= =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:14. 1892. Listed as growing in Oklahoma. =Ice Mountain.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:30. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =152=:197, 200. 1898. A very late freestone from Delaware. Flowers large; glands reniform; fruit small though good; moderately productive. =Idaho Mammoth.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 37. 1913. According to Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri, this peach is a large, yellow-fleshed freestone which originated with Major Manning of Idaho. =Imperatrice Eugenie.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. Glands globose; flowers of medium size; fruit large, of first quality; ripens at the end of September. =Imperial (Middleton).= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 298. 1859. An American variety of unknown origin. Fruit large, roundish, yellow mingled with red; flesh yellow, sweet, free; ripens the middle of September. =Imperial (Pettit).= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 298. 1859. Elliott mentions this variety as of American origin. Fruit large, roundish-oval, yellow, with red in the sun; flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, subacid, free; season the middle of September. =Improved Pyramidal.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1873. The habit of this variety is similar to that of a Lombardy poplar; it often attains a height of thirty feet. The original tree was found in Kentucky by W. P. Robinson. Fruit medium to large; skin white, covered with carmine; flesh juicy, melting, vinous; quality best; matures August first. =Incomparable.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =5=:549. 1824. =2.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 275. 1831. _Pavie Admirable._ =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 232. 1832. Incomparable ripens with and is very similar to Catharine. The variety appeared on the list of fruits of the American Pomological Society from 1877 to 1897. Leaves crenate, with reniform glands; flowers small, pale; fruit large, roundish, with a slight swelling on one side; skin light yellow, pale red in the sun, becoming deep crimson; flesh tinged with red at the pit, juicy, sugary; stone roundish, nearly smooth, adherent. =Incomparable en Beauté.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 224. 1866. A showy fruit but only fair in quality. Glands round; flowers small; fruit large, round, depressed at the ends; skin pale yellowish-green, streaked with crimson where exposed; flesh white, stained at the stone, melting, juicy, vinous; ripens the middle of September. =Incomparable Guilloux.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 478. 1905. M. Guilloux, horticulturist at Saint-Genis Laval, Rhône, France, obtained this variety by crossing Bonouvrier and Amsden. Tree vigorous; leaves glandless; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, highly colored; flesh melting, juicy, sweet, aromatic; stone slightly adherent; ripens with Hale Early. =Indian.= =1.= _Wash. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 139, 140. 1893. A singular and peculiar fruit raised by a Mr. Coxe from a seed brought from Georgia. Tree a slow grower and moderately productive. Fruit large, roundish, broad and depressed; flesh bright yellow, of the texture of a very ripe pineapple, rich, juicy, and of a very excellent flavor; stone free. =Indian Chief.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 290. 1893. A seedling of Hughes I. X. L., evidently of the Spanish type; of little value. Trees on the Station grounds spreading, vigorous; leaves coarsely crenate; glands reniform; fruit large, roundish, pointed; cavity large, deep; surface rather harsh; skin thick, tough, dark yellow, striped and splashed; flesh yellow, streaked with red near stone and skin, firm, mild, subacid; stone oval, clinging; ripens in Louisiana the second week in August. =Indian Rose.= =1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 107. 1912. Mentioned as growing in New Jersey. =Infant Wonder.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 114. 1880. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:35. 1895. =3.= _Ibid._ =169=:216. 1899. Infant Wonder was raised by Captain Daniel Webster, Denison, Texas. Tree strong, spreading; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish; cavity narrow, deep; skin creamy-white, with a thin blush where exposed; flesh red at the pit, juicy, tender, vinous, with a slight bitterness; pit large, oval, pointed, free; ripens the last of August. =Ingold.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 33. 1899. _Ingold Lady._ =2.= _Gard. Mon._ =26=:80. 1884. Ingold originated with Alfred Ingold, Guilford County, North Carolina. On the Station grounds the variety proved a very shy bearer, with fruit of fair size, high in quality. Tree upright-spreading, tall; leaves long, broad, with small, globose glands; flowers appear late; fruit roundish to cordate; cavity deep; apex somewhat pointed, with a recurved, mamelon tip; skin tough, covered with short, thick pubescence, pale yellow deepening to orange, with splashes of dull, dark red; flesh yellow, tinged at the stone, juicy, firm but tender, sweet, rich; very good; stone free, ovate-cordate, plump; ripens the last of August. =Ingraham.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 108. 1885. Ingraham, named after its originator, was introduced by Joseph J. Robinson, Lamont, Michigan. Fruit of medium size, dull greenish-white, with a few spots and blotches of red; freestone; quality good; ripens the middle of September. =Ireland Choice.= =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:14. 1892. Listed by the Oklahoma Station. =Ironclad.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 138. 1911. A very hardy variety in Iowa; similar to Bailey in tree and fruit. =Isabella.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. "Isabella peach is a fair reddish-yellow colour, and good taste." =Island.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. "The Island peach is a faire Peach and of a very good rellish." =Ispahan.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:180, 181. 1831. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 215. 1832. _Ispahaner Strauchpfirsich._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:195. 1858. This variety was discovered in 1799 by Brugniere and Oliver at Ispahan, Persia. The tree attains a height of twelve feet and forms a thick, round bush filled with numerous slender branches. Leaves from one to two inches long, finely serrated, devoid of glands; fruit spherical, whitish-green; flesh melting, juicy; freestone; matures the middle of September. =Italian.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 107, Pl. 33, fig. 5. 1729. _Italienischer Lackpfirsich._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:212. 1858. _Pêche d'Italie._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. The fruit of this variety is very similar to that of Chevreuse Hâtive but larger; its flowers are smaller; ripens the middle of September. =Italian Red.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. Listed by Charles Wright, Seaford County, Delaware. =Italienischer Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:208. 1858. Flowers large; fruit large, roundish, noticeably sutured, creamy-white, with a faint blush; flesh aromatic; clingstone; ripens early in August. =Ives Blood Free.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 404. 1894. =2.= Billings _Cat._ 22. 1906. Medium to large in size, blood-red throughout. Tree hardy, productive; glands reniform; flowers large. =J. Van.= =1.= Van Lindley _Cat._ 60. 1913. Originated about 1900 with W. E. Johnson, Silver City, North Carolina. It is probably a seedling of Elberta, which variety precedes it in ripening, according to. J. Van Lindley, Pomona, North Carolina. =Jack Ross.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. The Texas Experiment Station lists this variety. =Jackson Cling.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 638. 1857. =2.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:178. 1857. This peach is a seedling raised many years ago by Mrs. L. A. Franklin, Athens, Georgia. Fruit large, oblong, with a large, swollen apex; color dark yellow, covered with a dark red blush; flesh orange-yellow, dark red at the pit, firm, juicy, sprightly, rich; good; season the last of August. =Jacques.= =1.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =2=:57, Pl. 1851. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. _Jacques' Yellow Rareripe._ =3.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 18. 1828. =4.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 223. 1832. _Jacques' Rareripe._ =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 631. 1857. _Jaques._ =6.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 275. 1854. =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. This variety originated or was introduced by Colonel Jacques, Somerville, Massachusetts, at least a hundred years ago. It held a place in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1862 to 1891 when it was dropped but in 1909 was replaced. Leaves crenate, with reniform glands; fruit large, roundish, often compressed, with a shallow suture; skin yellow, much streaked and mottled with red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, free, melting, juicy, with a sweet yet sprightly flavor; season the middle of September. =Jacques Late.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:217. 1899. Tree vigorous, roundish, with large leaves bearing globose glands; fruit medium to large, roundish-ovate; suture shallow; color creamy-white, with a light red blush; flesh creamy-white, red at the pit, free, tender, juicy, rather acid, slightly bitter; quality good; season the last of September. =Jakobi-Aprikosenpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:220. 1858. Flowers medium in size; fruit of medium size, roundish, faintly sutured; skin clear yellow, blushed with red; flesh firm, aromatic; matures at the end of July. =Jane.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:516. 1853. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 617. 1857. Originated with Isaac B. Baxter, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Fruit large, roundish-oblate; color yellowish-white, with a red cheek; quality very good; freestone; ripens at the last of September. =Japan Nos. 1, 2 and 3.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. Three varieties listed by the Delaware Station. =Japan Nos. 7 and 10.= =1.= _Col. O. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 151. 1893. Varieties sent out by Lovett's Nursery Company, Little Silver, New Jersey; both are small, late clingstones unworthy of cultivation. =Japan No. 9.= =1.= _Col. O. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 150. 1893. A medium-sized, white, freestone of good quality; very susceptible to rot. =Japan Dwarf.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =129=:24. 1896. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. _Japan Blood._ =3.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 54. 1892. =4.= _Miss. Sta. Bul._ =93=:13. 1905. _Japan Dwarf Blood._ =5.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:819. 1896. =6.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:348. 1903. _Japan Dream._ =7.= _Winfield Nur. Cat._ 14, 15. 1915. This variety was introduced about a quarter of a century ago from Japan. It is dwarf in habit of growth and comes into bearing early, frequently two years from planting. Japan Dream, said to be a superior strain of this variety, seems to be in every way identical. Tree low, dwarfish, spreading, with a compact head, productive; fruit medium in size, roundish, somewhat flattened and pointed at the apex; color attractive greenish-yellow, mostly overspread with crimson; flesh blood-red, juicy, acid until fully ripe when it becomes very good; stone free; season very early. =Japanese Early.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:289. 1897. Leaves large, with globose glands; fruit of medium size, roundish; skin light greenish-yellow, with considerable dull purplish-red; flesh white to the pit, moderately juicy, insipid; stone free, of medium size; ripens the middle of August. =Japanese Wonder.= =1.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =112=:31. 1908. An inferior variety, ripening in Louisiana the last of June. =Jarle Late.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:66. 1900. _Jarle Late White._ =2.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 404. 1894. Tree a moderate grower. =Jarrell Late Yellow.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Jarretts Late White.= =1.= _Pa. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 48. 1882. Listed as growing in Pennsylvania. =Jaune d'Agen.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. Listed as an excellent variety; glands reniform. =Jaune de Barsac.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 401. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Jaune de Bertholon.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:159, 160, fig. 16. 1883. An old variety from Toulouse, Haute-Garonne, France. Leaves with large, reniform glands; flowers large; fruit of medium size, irregularly roundish-ovoid; skin thin, tender, yellow, purple where exposed; flesh deep yellow, stained at the pit, tender, melting, sweet; stone large for the size of fruit, free; ripens at the end of August. =Jaune des Capucins.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:135, 136, fig. 4. 1883. A variety raised from seed in the gardens of the Capuchin Monks, Toulouse, Haute-Garonne, France. Tree vigorous; leaves with large, reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, deeply sutured; cavity large, deep; skin thin, fine, clear yellow, deep red where exposed; flesh deep yellow, stained at the stone, melting, aromatic; quality excellent; stone of medium size, oval, nearly free; ripens the first half of September. =Jaune d'Espagne.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Jaune Hâtive de Doué.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 44. 1876. Tree vigorous; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit large, roundish-oval; skin yellow, with a red blush; flesh melting, juicy, agreeable; ripens the last of August. =Jaune de Mezen.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Jellico.= =1.= _Texas Nur. Cat._ 4. 1913. According to the Texas Nursery Company, Sherman, Texas, Jellico is a white, oblong clingstone, very fine for canning; matures in August. =Jennings.= =1.= _Franklin Davis Nur. Cat._ 21. 1907. The Franklin Davis Nursery Company, Baltimore, Maryland, states that Jennings originated in Richmond, Virginia. On the Station grounds the fruit is very similar to Elberta but ripens later. Tree vigorous, productive; leaves large, with reniform glands; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit large, oval-cordate, halves unequal, with a faint drawing in of the sides about the cavity; apex often with a recurved, mamelon tip; skin thick, tough, covered with thick, coarse pubescence, lemon-yellow to darker, with a lively red blush becoming duller, attractive; flesh light yellow, stained at the pit, juicy, stringy, resembles Elberta; stone free, large, oval to ovate, more or less purple. =Jersey Mixon.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 77. 1893. Exhibited at the World's Fair in 1893. =Jersey Pride.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =53=:7. 1894. Jersey Pride originated with the Newark Nursery, Newark, New Jersey. =Jersey Yellow.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =129=:24. 1896. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:217. 1899. Trees spreading; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, enlarged on one side of the suture; cavity narrow, deep; distinctly sutured; color clear yellow, slightly blushed; flesh red at the pit, moderately juicy, mild, often slightly bitter; stone plump, free; quality fair; matures early in October. =Jewel.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:86. 1896. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:514, 515. 1902. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. Jewel, one of the leading commercial peaches of Florida, is a seedling of Waldo. It originated with T. K. Godbey, Waldo, Florida. Fruit oblong, medium to large; cavity abrupt; suture frequently lacking; apex bluntly pointed, short, recurved; skin velvety, creamy, washed with red where exposed; flesh white, faintly stained at the stone, juicy, sweet; stone free, reddish, oval, one inch long; ripens two weeks earlier than Waldo. =Johnson Late Purple.= =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ =1=:Pl. 24, fig. 1. 1817. This variety is peculiarly marked with large, strong, dark blotches and heavy pubescence. It received its name from its originator, a gardener at Kew Green, England. The tree is an excellent bearer and ripens its fruit late in August. =Jones.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:30. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:217. 1899. Tree strong, roundish-upright; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, inclined to ovate; cavity deep; suture distinct, two-thirds around fruit; color yellow, with a mottled cheek of dark red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, vinous; pit long, oval, nearly free; quality fair to good; ripens the middle of September. =Jones Cling.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:237. 1898. Listed as a round-topped, dense tree, with medium-sized leaves and reniform glands. =Jones Early.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:447, 448. 1847. Raised by S. T. Jones, Staten Island, New York. Leaves crenate, with small, globose glands; fruit of medium size, roundish, oblique at the apex; suture shallow, extending around the fruit; skin yellowish-white, tinged with pale red in the sun; flesh yellowish-white, stained at the stone, tender, juicy, rich; stone small, free; ripens early in August. =Jones Large Early.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:447. 1847. Another of S. T. Jones' seedlings; leaves with reniform glands; fruit large, roundish, flattened at the ends; suture deep; skin clear white, blushed with crimson where exposed; flesh white, pink at the stone, juicy, rich, sprightly; stone of medium size; ripens early in August. =Jones No. 34.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. Fruit medium to small, roundish; cavity broad; skin bright yellow, downy; flesh stained at the stone, mild, firm, rather dry, poor in quality; freestone; ripens at this Station early in September. =Jose Sweet.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 200. 1841. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:400. 1847-48. A peach of delicious flavor but not very attractive outwardly; greenish-white, with a dull cheek. Flowers small; glands globose; ripens the last of September. =Josephine.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 188. 1880. Josephine is a seedling of Late Crawford grown by C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan, about 1875. On the Station grounds the fruit ripens early in October. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; leaves with crenate margins and globose glands; fruit large, roundish; cavity broad; suture shallow; skin orange-yellow, with a heavy, dark red blush, considerably mottled, heavily pubescent; flesh stained at the stone, juicy, rich, vinous; quality good; stone large, elliptical, free. =Joys Early.= =1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 107. 1912. Joys Early was introduced by R. G. Joyce of New York. The variety was grown for a time in New Jersey. =Judd.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:49. 1910. This is a cross between Chili and Barnard made by G. E. Prater, Jr., Paw Paw, Michigan. It is said to be an improvement over its parents. =Jühlke Liebling.= =1.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =VI=:No. 13, Pl. 1882. Raised from seed by August Fritze of Werder, near Potsdam, Prussia, Germany, in 1870. Tree vigorous, bears early; leaves of medium size, with small glands; flowers large, rose-colored; fruit large, globular, strongly sutured; skin heavily pubescent, thin, pale yellow, with a red blush; flesh yellowish-white, melting, aromatic, sweet; freestone; ripens at the end of August. =Julia.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 205. 1858. A southern variety. =June Beauty.= =1.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 408. 1892-93. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:515. 1902. June Beauty originated with Peter C. Minnich, Waldo, Florida, from a seed of Peento. Fruit medium to large, roundish-oblong; stone semi-clinging; ripens the middle of June in Florida. =June Elberta.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 43. 1914. June Elberta was introduced by Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri. In the hands of some growers it is thought to be Arp, which it closely resembles. =June Rose.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:89. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ =118=:30, 35. 1895. =3.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:812. 1896. =4.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:103. 1901. June Rose is a seedling of Rivers crossed with Mountain Rose grown by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas. Tree fairly vigorous and productive; glands globose; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish; suture distinct; skin greenish-white, with a red cheek; flesh white, stained at the stone, juicy, tender, vinous; freestone; ripens in Texas about the middle of June. =Juneripe.= =1.= Childs _Cat._ 147. 1905. A variety listed by J. L. Childs, Floral Park, New York. A large, handsomely colored, yellow peach ripening at the end of June. =Juno I.= =1.= Berckmans _Cat._ 13. 1899. =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:103, 104. 1901. Dr. L. E. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia, raised Juno I from a seed of General Lee in 1879. Fruit large, deep yellow, mottled; flesh fine, juicy, subacid; ripens the middle of August in Georgia. =Juno II.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 188. 1880. This is another of C. C. Engle's seedlings of Late Crawford grown at Paw Paw, Michigan. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; leaves long, broad, with globose glands; fruit very large, round, compressed; skin yellow, dark red in the sun; flesh slightly stained at the pit, vinous, juicy, rich; clingstone; ripens October first. =Kallola.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 301. 1890. =2.= Lovett _Cat._ 41. 1893. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:30, 35. 1895. _Kaloola Free._ =4.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =68=:843. 1894. A seedling of Chinese Cling; glands reniform; flowers large; fruit large, roundish-oval; skin white, tinged in the sun; flesh greenish-white, faintly stained about the pit, tender, juicy, vinous; quality fair; freestone; ripens the middle of September. =Kalo Cling.= =1.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =68=:843. 1894. Grown about Calhoun, Louisiana. =Karl Schwarzenberg.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde._ =3=:205. 1858. _Charles Schwarzenberg._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 48. 1876. A seedling of Early Purple, introduced about 1827. Trees vigorous; glands globose; flowers large; fruit large, roundish, strongly sutured; skin whitish-yellow, with a red blush; flesh white throughout, fine, juicy, aromatic; freestone; ripens early in September. =Katherine.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:104. 1901. The origin and parentage of Katherine are unknown. Said to be the earliest, good, clingstone peach; tree prolific and productive. =Katie.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 44. 1891. Katie held a place on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1891 until 1897. Fruit small, greenish-white; late in ripening. =Kay.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 203. 1879. Recommended in Hancock County, Illinois. =Keene Favorite.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 156. 1880. A variety that does well about Centralia, Illinois. =Keevit Cling.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:66. 1900. Listed as a medium grower in Canada. =Keith.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 290. 1893. Keith is a seedling of Peento ripening a little later than its parent. It originated with Robert Keith, Waldo, Florida. Fruit roundish-oval, of medium size; suture deep near the base; cavity deep; skin thick, tender, greenish-yellow, mottled and shaded with red; flesh white, tinged at the stone, tender, melting, subacid, slightly bitter; quality good; stone plump, oval, clinging. =Kelley Early.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1880. Raised by H. M. Kelley, Irving, Illinois; said to ripen three weeks before Amsden. =Kelly Surprise.= =1.= _Texas Nur. Cat._ 5. 1913. A semi-clingstone, yellow-fleshed variety ripening in June, according to the Texas Nursery Company, Sherman, Texas. =Kelsey Cling.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 188. 1880. Named after its originator, Stephen Kelsey, Three Rivers, Michigan. Tree vigorous; leaves crenate, with reniform glands; fruit of medium size, roundish; skin with a light coat of pubescence, creamy-white, with a marbled cheek; flesh stained at the pit, tender, firm, juicy, rich; ripens with Heath Cling. =Kenrick Clingstone.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 185. 1835. A variety of New England origin first fruiting in 1833. Fruit large, roundish-oblong, pointed at the apex; color golden-yellow, with a red cheek; flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, vinous, excellent; season the last of September. =Kent I.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 42, 43. 1895. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:48. 1910. J. D. Husted called this peach, his seedling No. 18, Kent, in honor of the county in Michigan where it originated. Glands globose; fruit roundish, above medium in size; skin rather harsh, with short down, greenish-white, washed, mottled and striped with crimson; flesh stained at the stone, tender yet firm, juicy, subacid; ripens in Georgia early in July. =Kent II.= =1.= Berckmans _Cat._ 9. 1908-09. The catalog of P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia, describes this peach as a new clingstone originating with L. W. Kent, Augusta, Georgia; skin very tough but peels readily; flesh yellow, buttery; ripens in Georgia August 1st to 15th. =Kernloser Aprikosenpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:220. 1858. Tree productive; flowers small; fruit large; flesh red; clingstone; ripens early in September. =Kerr.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1897. _Jessie Kerr._ =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 314. 1889. Kerr is a southern variety said to be larger and earlier than Alexander. It originated in Maryland. It was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1897. The fruit is of medium size and a freestone. =Kerr Dwarf.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 43. 1895. _Kerr Cling No. 1?_ =2.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 392. 1891. The tree is semi-dwarf in habit, with dense foliage; glands reniform; fruit large, roundish; suture shallow; skin yellow, washed, mottled and splashed with red, thick, tough; flesh stained slightly about the pit, firm, juicy, mild subacid, sprightly; stone large, oval, adherent; matures early in September. =Kestrel.= =1.= Bunyard _Cat. Fr. Trees_ 35. 1913-14. Kestrel is a variety raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Fruit large, rich crimson; flesh tender, juicy; ripens early in August. =Kew Seedling.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit of second size, pale yellow and dark red; flesh melting; of second quality; matures early in September. =Keyport.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1897. _Keyport White._ =2.= _Mich. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 411. 1871. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1875. =4.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 42. 1878. Keyport originated in the garden of Joseph Beer, Keyport, New Jersey, about 1852. In 1875 it was given a place on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society as Keyport White; later the name was changed to Keyport. Tree a good grower and a heavy bearer; leaves with reniform glands; fruit large, freestone; ripens very late. =Kibby Golden.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. Fruit above medium in size, distinctly sutured; light yellow, approaching white, almost entirely overspread with light pink; flesh decidedly tinged with red, changing to whitish toward the pit, soft, coarse, juicy, sweet; fair in quality; ripens the middle of September. =Kilbourn.= =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 419. 1885. =2.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 159. 1889. Because of hardiness, this peach is sometimes called Canada Iron Clad. Fruit large; flesh adheres to the stone; ripens with Hale Early. =King Solomon.= =1.= Smith Bros. _Cat._ 15. 1913. Said by Smith Brothers, Concord, Georgia, to be one of the best late, yellow peaches; larger than Elberta. It was propagated for many years in Georgia from seed; ripens there the last of September. =Kinnaman Early.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =20=:236. 1878. =2.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 51. 1879. This variety originated with Samuel Kinnaman of Delaware; fruit of medium size, roundish; skin pale brownish-red on a pale greenish ground; flesh greenish-white to the stone, juicy, sweet; very good; adheres partially to the pit; ripens a few days earlier than Alexander. =Kite.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:515. 1902. Kite is a Peento seedling which originated with Robert Kite, Waldo, Florida, about 1885. Fruit of medium size, roundish; cavity large, abrupt; suture wide, extending beyond the apex; skin velvety, thick, creamy, washed with red; flesh creamy, pink at the pit, firm, tender, juicy; quality medium, lacks character; clingstone; season the first of June. =Kitrells Favorite.= =1.= _Pa. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 48. 1882. Listed in this reference. =Kleine Charlestowner Ananaspfirsche.= =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 350. 1802. =2.= Christ _Handb._ 601. 1817. Very similar to Pineapple but smaller and more aromatic. =Kleiner Blutpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:193, 194. 1858. _Sanguine à petit fruit._ =2.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:478. 1860. Smaller and more heavily pubescent than Sanguinole. =Klondike.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =56=:662. 1897. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. Klondike is a chance seedling found in York County, Pennsylvania about 1885. The tree on the Station grounds is only a moderate producer and its fruit is not as good as Champion. It was put on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1909. Tree upright-spreading, open; leaves broad, with small, globose glands; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, halves unequal, compressed; sides inclined to draw in about the cavity; apex with a small, mamelon tip; skin thin, tender, with short pubescence, creamy-white, splashed and blushed with dark red; flesh stained at the pit, juicy, melting, sweet though sprightly, high in flavor; quality good; stone nearly free, oval; ripens the third week in September. =Kohler Cling.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 38. 1902-03. Large, yellow; ripens with Heath Cling. =Knapp Castle Seedling.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Fruit very much like Noblesse, large; leaves glandless; flowers large; skin pale green and red; flesh melting; quality good; ripens at the end of August. =Knight Early.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Fruit of medium size; leaves with globose glands; flowers large; skin pale green, blushed with dark red; flesh melting; quality good; ripens the middle of August. =Knight Mammoth.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Knight Markley Admirable.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 1009. 1871. Raised by G. Darby, Markley, Sussex, England; fruit oval, with a prominent, mamelon tip at the apex; freestone. =Knowles Hybrid.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. As this variety grows on the Station grounds it is not very promising. Fruit above medium in size, irregular; suture indistinct; skin rich yellow, blushed with carmine; flesh coarse, leathery, sweet; quality fair; clingstone; ripens at the end of September. =Kraus 4 & 16.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =143=:184. 1897. Two varieties listed in this reference. =Krengelbacher Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:205. 1858. Fruit large, similar in shape to a walnut, ribbed; skin greenish-yellow; flesh white, pleasantly subacid; ripens in September. =Krummel.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 210. 1906. _Krummel Late._ =2.= Weber & Son _Cat._ 15. 1900. _Krummel October._ =3.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 223. 1904. Krummel was found by a Mr. Krummel of St. Louis, Missouri. It is said to be one of the best of the very late, yellow freestones. =Kruse Kent.= =1.= Bunyard _Cat. Fr. Trees_ 35. 1913-14. Raised from Sea Eagle by a Mr. Kruse, late of Truro, Cornwall County, England. Flowers very dark; fruit large, white-fleshed, very late; a great improvement over its parent. =La Belle.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. A seedling raised by E. F. Hynes, Kansas. =La Chalonnaise.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 402. 1889. Listed in this reference. =La Fleur.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 197. 1883. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:218. 1899. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:50, 51 fig. 1910. This is a seedling of Chili which originated with G. H. La Fleur, Mill Grove, Michigan. It is popular in some places in Michigan because of hardiness. Tree vigorous, productive; glands reniform; flowers large; fruit medium to large, oval to oblong, usually irregular or lopsided; suture continuous; skin heavily pubescent, thick, tenacious, light yellow, with a bright crimson cheek; flesh golden yellow, stringy, moderately juicy, mild subacid; quality very good; stone free; season between Late Crawford and Smock. =La France.= =1.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 407. 1892-93. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 104 fig. 1906. M. Boussey, a nurseryman at Montreuil-sous-Bois, France, first propagated this variety. Glands globose; fruit very large, roundish, deeply sutured; skin thinly pubescent, clear red; flesh white, juicy, aromatic; quality very good; freestone; ripens early in August. =La Grange.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 194. 1841. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 480. 1845. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. _Tardive d'Oullins._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:39, 40, fig. 18. 1866-73. _5._ Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:141, 142 fig., 143. 1879. La Grange originated about 1840 with John Hulse, Burlington, New Jersey. A few years later a French sort, Tardive d'Oullins, said to have been found at Oullins, Rhône, France, made its appearance. The two were found to be the same. In 1862, La Grange was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society where it remained until 1891 and was reentered in 1909. Its lateness, size and productiveness have won it a good name among growers in New Jersey. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large, oblong; skin greenish-white; flesh pale, juicy, melting, rich, sweet; freestone; ripens at the end of September. =La Magnifique.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed as growing in Texas. =La Reine.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:805. 1896. La Reine was introduced by G. L. Taber, Glen Saint Mary, Florida, in 1889. Tree vigorous, but not recommended in Texas; fruit rather small, oblong; skin greenish, with a red cheek; flesh red at the stone, adherent; ripens early in August. =La Rieva.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Listed in this reference. =Lady Anne Stewart.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:414. 1826. Fruit of medium size, white, with a slight blush, very juicy, rich; stone free, flat, hollow at one end; ripens the middle of September. =Lady Farham.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed as growing in Texas. =Lady Lindsey.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 16. 1914-15. A seedling grown by Mrs. George Lindsey, Greenville, Texas. It is a large, yellow-fleshed clingstone, ripening between Munson Cling and Levy, according to the catalog of T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas. =Lady Palmerston.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 451. 1884. Raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, from a pit of Pineapple nectarine. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large, greenish-yellow, marked with crimson; flesh pale yellow, rich, melting; freestone; matures late in September. =Lafayette I.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 230. 1832. A large, yellow-fleshed clingstone; ripens late in August; sometimes called Meiggs Lafayette. =Lafayette II.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =152=:199. 1898. This is another of C. C. Engle's seedlings from Paw Paw, Michigan. =Lafayette Free.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 190. 1841. Introduced about 1840 from Monmouth County, New Jersey. Fruit large, round, dark crimson where exposed; flesh very juicy, stained with crimson throughout; freestone; ripens the last of August. =Lakeside Cling.= =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 29. 1888-89. A variety from Ottawa County, Ohio. =Lancaster.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 391. 1891. _Lancaster Yellow Rareripe._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 85. 1854. Raised by Dr. H. A. Muhlenberg, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Fruit large, free, very juicy. =Lane.= =1.= _Austin Nur. Cat._ 1913. According to the Austin Nursery Company, Austin, Texas, Lane is a large, golden clingstone raised by a Mr. Lane, Jacksonville, Texas; ripens with Elberta. =Langier.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Langlicher Blutpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:193. 1858. Very similar to Sanguinole but the fruit is longer and ripens earlier. =Lantheaume.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 408. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 40. 1895. Glands reniform; fruit large to very large, of a beautiful yellow, deepening on maturity; flesh firm, sweet, juicy, aromatic; clingstone; ripens the last of October. =Laporte.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:159, 160, fig. 78. 1866-73. Obtained from a seed of Belle de Vitry by A. M. Laporte near Lyons, Rhône, France. Leaves with very large, reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large, slightly oval, tapering to the apex; suture extends beyond the apex; skin thin, tender, creamy, washed and strongly splashed with deep red; flesh white, stained darker nearer the pit, juicy, sugary, melting; stone large for the size of the fruit; freestone; ripens at the end of August. =Larents.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Listed in this reference. =Large Early.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. =2.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 193. 1849. =3.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 224. 1857. This name has been incorrectly used as a synonym of Large Early York. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish, flattened at the base; suture distinct; skin whitish, with a red cheek, purple in the sun; flesh white, red at the stone, delicate, sweet, rich; quality good; stone very small; season the last of August. =Large Early Mignonne.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 451. 1884. Raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, in 1865 from a pit of Belle Beausse. Glands round; flowers large; fruit very large; skin pale straw-yellow, blushed where exposed; flesh melting, very juicy, rich. =Large-Fruited Mignonne.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 100. 1831. A large-flowered variety with glandless, serrate leaves. =Large White Cling.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 495. 1845. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 211. 1856. _New York White Cling._ =4.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:410. 1826. _Williams New York?_ =5.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 105. 1831. This variety was raised about 1807 by David Williamson of New York. It soon became very popular among the clingstones in New England and held a place in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1856 until 1891. Tree hardy and a regular bearer; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, round; suture slight; skin white, with a light red cheek; flesh tender, melting, juicy, sweet; ripens the first half of September. =Larkin Early.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1880. Raised by D. F. Larkin, Hunts Station, Tennessee. Said to be as fine as Large Early York and earlier than Alexander. =Larkin Trophy.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 161. 1881. Listed as growing in northern Texas. =Last of Season.= =1.= _Utah Sta. Bul._ =18=:13. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Late Barnard.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:218. 1899. Tree strong, roundish-upright, with drooping branches, fairly productive; fruit medium to large, roundish-oval, compressed near the suture; cavity narrow, deep; skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh red at the pit, firm, juicy, rich, sweet; quality good; stone large, plump, free; season the middle of September. =Late Catherine.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. Ripens in October. =Late Delaware.= =1.= _Pa. Dept. Ag. Rpt._ 149. 1895. Listed in this reference. =Late Devonian.= =1.= _Garden_ =53=:35. 1898. =2.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 113. 1904. =3.= Bunyard _Cat. Fr. Trees_ 36. 1913-14. Raised by Messrs. Veitch, Exeter, England, from a pit of Belle de Vitry crossed with Royale; introduced in 1894. The tree is very hardy and the fruit is winning a place among the good, late varieties of England. Glands globose; flowers large, rich pink; fruit large; skin rather woolly, greenish-yellow, with bright red marblings; flesh juicy, pale red at the stone, melting, brisk; freestone; ripens the middle of September. =Late Elberta.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 38. 1902-03. =2.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 35. 1914. This variety on the Station grounds seems to be identical with Elberta in tree and fruit-characters. =Late Free White.= =1.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =8=:49. 1870. This is a large, palatable peach, ripening about October 15th. =Late Mignonne.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:187. 1831. _Mignonne Tardive._ =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:79, 80, fig. 38. 1866-73. The origin of Late Mignonne is doubtful; it is thought to be an American strain of Grosse Mignonne. Glands small, globose; flowers large; fruit large, roundish-truncate, noticeably sutured; skin tender, heavily pubescent, greenish-white, more or less covered with deep purple; flesh white, stained with purple around the pit, melting, sweet; stone small, ovoid, free; matures the first of September. =Late Morris White.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 54. 1876. =2.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 393. 1895-97. This peach differs from Morris White only in time of maturity, this sort being later. The fruit is large and of good quality, ripening in September. =Late October.= =1.= _Wash. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 149. 1891-92. One of the latest varieties of the season. =Late Purple.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:17, 18, Pl. IX. 1768. =2.= Liegel _Anweisung_ 71. 1822. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:191. 1831. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:243, 244 fig., 245. 1879. _Späte Purpurfarbige Pfirsiche._ =5.= Sickler _Teutsche Obst._ =8=:308-313, Tab. 16. 1797. _Grosse Pourprée._ =6.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 102. 1831. _Später purpurrothe Lackpfirsich._ =7.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:213. 1858. _Pourprée tardive à petites fleurs?_ =8.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. An old variety mentioned as early as 1714 by French writers. Tree productive; glands usually reniform; flowers small, with an intense rose-color; fruit of medium size, roundish, halves unequal; skin very pubescent, whitish, deep purple where exposed; flesh stained at the pit, fine, melting, juicy, vinous; of first quality; stone free, plump, roundish; ripens the middle of September. =Late Red Magdalen.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:185. 1831. This variety has been confused with Royal George but is distinct. It ripens much later. Flowers small; fruit of medium size, highly colored and well-flavored; ripens the last of October. =Late Robinson Crusoe.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 192. 1841. This peach was raised by Dr. Coxe, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from a stone brought from Crusoe's Island of Juan Fernandez. Tree very productive; fruit large, round, white, with a pale red wash; ripens the first of October. =Late Rose.= =1.= _Wright Nur. Cat._ 14. 1892. This is a New Jersey variety of small value in the Station orchard. Fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, often compressed, bulged along the suture; skin greenish-white, with an unattractive blush; flesh stained at the pit, juicy, coarse and stringy; quality good; freestone; ripens the first week in October. =Late Serrate.= =1.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =3=:344. 1868. A late, freestone peach grown by W. C. Flagg, Alton, Illinois; ripens about October 15th. =Late White.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:89. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:218. 1899. A seedling from C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan. Tree fairly vigorous, drooping; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit medium to large, roundish-oval, slightly compressed near the suture; apex prominent; suture distinct; color creamy-white, bright red in the sun; flesh red at the pit, juicy, sprightly, vinous; quality good; pit free, large, plump, oval; ripens late in September. =Late Yellow Alberge.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:22. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 496. 1845. _Algiers yellow winter clingstone._ =3.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 18. 1820. _October yellow clingstone._ =4.= _Ibid._ 17. 1820. _Algiers Yellow._ =5.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:16. 1832. Late Yellow Alberge is a very late, clingstone peach highly esteemed in southern France. At one time it was much grown in America but was superseded by Heath Cling. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, distinctly sutured; skin downy; flesh yellow to the stone, very firm, juicy, sweet; matures in October. =Laura.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:515. 1902. A seedling of Peento. Fruit very large, nearly round; flesh white, sweet, juicy; quality excellent; clingstone; ripens about with Peento. =Laura Cling.= =1.= Weber & Sons _Cat._ 19. 1906. Laura Cling is identical with Krummel except that it is a clingstone while Krummel is a freestone. It originated in Missouri, according to H. J. Weber & Sons, Nursery, Missouri. =Laurenel.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =12=:158. 1870. A seedling from Monroe, Ohio; said to be larger and earlier than Hale Early. =Laurent de Bavay.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 75, 76. 1867. Probably of Belgian origin. Tree vigorous, a strong grower; glands globose; flowers large; fruit very large, roundish, halves unequal; skin heavily pubescent, pale yellow, washed with deep red; flesh white, red at the stone, melting, juicy, sweet; stone large, oval, free; ripens late in September. =Lawrence.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 52. 1871. Introduced by W. K. Tipton, Jerusalem, Ohio, who says it is superior to Hale Early in flavor and a week earlier. =Lawton.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 127. 1875. Raised by C. W. Lawton, Seattle, Washington, from a seed imported from England; fruit very large and ripens early. =Leader.= =1.= Burbank _Cat._ 1912-13. According to Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, California, Leader is of the Muir-Crawford type ripening in California in July; freestone. =Leatherbury Late.= =1.= _Pa. Hort. Assoc. Rpt._ 48. 1882. Listed in this reference. =Leatherland Late.= =1.= _N. Mex. Sta. Bul._ =30=:243. 1899. Listed by the New Mexico Station. =Lemon Cling.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. =2.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 188. 1846. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. _Large Yellow Pine Apple._ =4.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 224. 1817. _Kennedy Carolina._ =5.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. _Kennedy Lemon Cling._ =6.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 98. 1831. _Pine Apple Clingstone._ =7.= Hoffy _Orch. Comp._ =1=:Pl. 1841-42. _Englischer Lackpfirsich._ =8.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:215. 1858. _Pavie Citron._ =9.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:216. 1879. Lemon Cling dates back to before the Revolutionary War. From all accounts it originated in South Carolina, probably in Charleston. A number of seminal varieties, all very similar to Lemon Cling, are cultivated; all of these some writers combine under the name Lemon Cling. Robert Kennedy introduced the fruit into New York about 1800 where it became known as Kennedy's Carolina or Kennedy's Lemon Clingstone. The variety is very popular in many sections, especially California, as a canning peach. It was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1862. Tree vigorous, highly productive, bears regularly; leaves crenate, with reniform glands; flowers small, deep red; fruit large, oval, resembling a lemon; apex terminating in a large nipple; skin deep yellow, brownish-red where exposed; flesh firm, with a deep, lemon color, red at the stone, juicy, sprightly, vinous, with an agreeable acidity; very good when perfectly ripe; stone clings; ripens in September. =Lemon Clingstone (Hoyte).= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 98. 1831. Leaves with globose glands; flowers small; fruit large; skin yellow and dark red; of second quality; ripens at the end of September. =Leny Winter.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =23=:18. 1881. A large, yellow peach; will keep through November if gathered before a hard frost. =Leona.= =1.= _Austin Nur. Cat._ 4. 1912. Similar to a bright-colored Elberta but earlier and more productive, according to the catalog of the Austin Nursery Company, Austin, Texas. =Léonie.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:143, 144 fig. 1879. Charles Buisson raised Léonie from seed about 1863 at Tronche, Isère, France. Leaves glandless; flowers of medium size; fruit medium in size, roundish-oval; suture deep; skin thin, whitish-yellow, carmine where exposed; flesh red at the stone, melting, juicy, aromatic; of second quality; stone small, plump, roundish-oval, free; ripens the last half of September. =Lenoir.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 621. 1869. Lenoir is of medium size, round, halves unequal; skin white, washed and splashed with red; flesh juicy, aromatic; freestone; ripens the middle of August. =Leopard.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:816. 1896. A worthless, southern variety similar to Blood Cling. =Leopold I.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 195. 1841. _Leopold Clingstone._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. Leopold I originated at Smithfield, Virginia. It was put on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1862. Fruit very large, round, yellow, juicy; ripens in August. =Leopold II.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =3=:370. 1862. _2._ _Pom. France_ =6=:No. 9, Pl. 9. 1869. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 18. 1871. _Leopold Magdalene._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:199, 200. 1858. _Leopold Free._ =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1869. This peach was introduced by a M. Van Orlé, Villerne, Belgium. The variety was brought to America and appeared on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1869 until 1899. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; flowers large; fruit large, roundish, slightly attenuated at the base; suture distinct; skin yellowish-white, richly colored with carmine; flesh white, stained at the pit, melting, sweet, aromatic; quality very good; pit slightly adherent, oval; ripens the middle of September. =Lepère.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 38, 39. 1867. Tree vigorous, very productive; leaves with reniform glands; flowers small, rose-colored; fruit large, globular; cavity deep; skin thinly pubescent, blood-red where exposed; flesh whitish-yellow, blood-red at the pit, firm, juicy, aromatic; quality good; pit roundish-oval, clinging; ripens at the end of August. =Leroy Winter.= =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 276. 1896. A late, yellow variety from Missouri. =Lewenau Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:207. 1858. A seedling of Admirable, raised about 1851. Glands reniform; flowers large, white; fruit roundish, flattened, strongly sutured; skin greenish-yellow, heavily pubescent; flesh white, red at the stone, sprightly; stone free, sharply pointed; matures the middle of September. =Lewis.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 279. 1882. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 33. 1899. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:52. 1910. _Early Lewis._ =4.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 195. 1902-03. Lewis is the only white-fleshed seedling which appeared from about one hundred Chili pits, planted by N. W. Lewis, Allegan County, Michigan. The variety was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1899 where it still remains. Tree vigorous, bears early, productive, but subject to leaf-curl; glands reniform; flowers large; fruit medium to large, roundish, slightly flattened at the ends, a trifle irregular; suture shallow; skin smooth, thin, tough, creamy-white, splashed and mottled with crimson; flesh white, juicy, vinous; quality good; stone free, large; season immediately following Hale Early. =Libra.= =1.= _Garden_ =64=:109. 1903. =2.= Bunyard _Cat. Fr. Trees_ 36. 1913-14. A seedling raised by R. D. Blackmore and introduced by Will Taylor, Hampton, England. The fruits are large, very juicy; ripen in July. =Liefmanns.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 403. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Liermann Pfirsich.= =1.= Lauche _Ergänzungsband_ 711 fig., 712. 1883. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit very large, globular, surface irregular; suture deep, dividing the fruit unevenly; skin tender, yellowish-white, without a blush; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, aromatic; stone roundish, flattened at the base; ripens on a west wall toward the end of August. =Lilard October.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed as growing on the Station grounds. =Lillian.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 77. 1893. Exhibited at the World's Fair in 1893 from Illinois. =Limon.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 98. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Lina Hauser.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. _Lina Lackpfirsich._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:214, 215. 1858. Glands reniform; flowers small, white; fruit large, roundish, halves unequal, greenish-yellow and dark red; flesh stained at the pit, aromatic; freestone; ripens the middle of September. =Lincoln.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 194. 1849. Lincoln originated in Lincoln, Massachusetts, about 1800. Tree hardy, productive; glands globose; fruit very large, roundish; suture prominent; skin rich yellow, with considerable dark purplish-red; flesh tinged at the stone, juicy, rich, sweet; freestone; ripens the middle of September. =Lincoln Cling.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =15=:491. 1860. A spicy-flavored clingstone from a Dr. Hunter, Lincoln, North Carolina; fruit yellow, with a prominent, mamelon tip at the apex. =Lindley I.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 49. 1876. Glands reniform; flowers pale red; fruit very large; matures in September. =Lindley II.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 238, 239. 1911. Lindley II was found in a block of Elbertas by J. Van Lindley, Pomona, North Carolina. Flesh yellow, firm, free; ripens with Hiley. =Linzey White.= =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 246. 1893. Grown by S. W. Gilbert of Iowa. =Lipscomb.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:813. 1896. Lipscomb is vigorous but not productive; glands reniform; fruit small, round; color yellow, with a red cheek; flavor subacid; stone semi-clinging; ripens the last of June in Texas. =Lisle.= =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:21. 1832. Fruit roundish, of medium size; skin violet where exposed; flesh melting, vinous, pale yellow except about the pit; clingstone; ripens early in September. =Little Anne.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 167. 1871. Little Anne, ripening ten days earlier than Hale Early, was discarded on account of the small size of the fruit and tenderness of the tree. =Lizzie.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 114, 115, 116, Pl. X. 1913. Lizzie originated with J. W. Stubenrauch, Mexia, Texas, from an Elberta seed probably fertilized with Bell October. Tree thrifty, productive; fruit globular to obovate, sides often unequal, medium to large; suture shallow except at the cavity; skin tough, rich yellow, striped with light red; flesh stained at the pit, firm, meaty, juicy, vinous; good to very good; stone broad, obovate, large, free; ripens two weeks after Elberta. =Lock Cling.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 248. 1884. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:30. 1895. _Lock Late._ =3.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 77. 1893. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit yellow, late, clingstone. =Lockwood.= =1.= Ilgenfritz _Cat._ 24, fig. 1896. Lockwood is one of the earliest, yellow freestones, ripening three weeks before Early Crawford. =Lodge.= =1.= Harrison _Cat._ 17. 1904. According to the catalog of J. G. Harrison, Berlin, Maryland, Lodge originated in Kent County, Delaware. On the Station grounds the tree is vigorous but only moderately productive; leaves fairly broad; margin finely serrate, with small, globose glands; flowers appear early, of medium size, pale pink, darker at the edge; fruit medium in size, cordate, halves unequal, compressed; cavity abrupt, often with red markings; suture shallow; apex with a mucronate tip; skin thin, tough, covered with thick pubescence, creamy-white, with an attractive, lively red blush; flesh white, stained about the stone, juicy, stringy, melting, sprightly, pleasing; quality good; stone nearly free, large for the size of the fruit, oval, flattened at the base; ripens the last of August. =Lone Ark.= =1.= _N. Mex. Sta. Bul._ =30=:243. 1899. Listed in this reference. =Lone Tree.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 420. 1898. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. Lone Tree is one of many seedlings that thrive about Lone Tree, Iowa. In 1909 it was put on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society. Fruit of medium size, yellow, without any blush; quality good; pit very small, free; ripens about September 10th. =Long Leaved.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Longhurst.= =1.= Green _Cat._ 18. 1893. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:218. 1899. =3.= _Can. Hort._ =29=:105. 1906. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. Longhurst originated on the Niagara Peninsula, Canada. It was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1909. Trees very hardy, productive; glands globose; flowers large; fruit medium in size, oval, halves unequal, very pubescent, unattractive; suture indistinct; apex prominent; color yellow, with a red blush; flesh red at the pit, fibrous, vinous, sprightly; pit free, oval, pointed; ripens the last of September. =Longworthy.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:813. 1896. _Longworthy Late Rareripe._ =2.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 415. 1858. Tree vigorous but a shy bearer; glands reniform; fruit small, round, pale white, with a red cheek; flavor pleasant subacid; clingstone; ripens the last of July in Texas. =Lonoke.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. =2.= Munson _Cat._ 6. 1893. Flowers large; fruit large, yellow; clingstone; ripens late; sure bearer. =Lord Fauconberg Mignonne.= =1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 261, 262. 1831. An old English variety known as early as 1769. Leaves doubly serrate, without glands; flowers small; fruit above medium in size, ovate, deeply sutured, pale yellow, with wide splashes of deep, dull red; flesh yellowish-white, red at the stone, juicy; stone free, rather flat; ripens the middle of September. =Lord Palmerston.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 225. 1866. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 621. 1869. =3.= Lauche _Ergänzungsband_ 715 fig., 716. 1883. =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 452. 1884. _Palmerston._ =5.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:222. 1899. This variety was raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, from a pit of Princess of Wales. Fruit large, roundish, inclined to oval, with a distinct suture; color yellowish-white, with a red blush; flesh creamy-white, red at the pit which is somewhat adherent, juicy, firm, mild; quality good; season the last of September. =Lorentz.= =1.= Reid _Cat._ 33 fig. 1894. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:204, 219. 1899. =3.= _Ont. Fr. Exp. Sta. Rpt._ =7=:54. 1900. =4.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:350. 1903. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. Lorentz is supposed to have come from a seedling tree found about 1889 in the orchard of Fred Lorentz, Marshall County, West Virginia. It was introduced about 1894 by E. W. Reid, Bridgeport, Ohio. Fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed, with a shallow suture; color yellow, blushed with red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, tender, mild, free; quality good; season early October. =Lottie.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Grown by the Florida Experiment Station. =Loudon.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 60, 61. 1867. Tree moderately vigorous, very productive; glands reniform; flowers very large; fruit large, oblate; skin downy, marbled with deep red; flesh whitish-yellow, stained near the pit, melting, juicy, aromatic, sweet; stone free, oval; ripens at the end of August. =Louisiana.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. Listed by the American Pomological Society; fruit large, round, white; freestone. =Love All.= =1.= Lovett _Cat._ 39. 1889. According to J. T. Lovett, Little Silver, New Jersey, this variety is a large, yellow peach from California; excellent for canning. =Lovejoy Cling.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 191. 1860. Recommended for planting in Mississippi. =Lovell.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 33. 1899. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:219. 1899. Lovell is a chance seedling raised and named by G. W. Thissell of California in 1882. The fruit cans, ships and dries well. Tree fairly vigorous, drooping; glands globose; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed; suture distinct, extending beyond the apex; skin bright yellow, with a faint, marbled blush; flesh yellow to the pit, juicy, tender, vinous; pit small, roundish-oval, free; ripens the last of September in Michigan. =Lovell White Madison.= =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:14. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Lovett.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. _Lovett White._ =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 314. 1889. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:219. 1899. The American Pomological Society listed this variety in its catalog of 1909. Tree strong, roundish-upright, productive; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit large, roundish; suture distinct; skin creamy-white, with considerable bloom; flesh creamy-white to the pit, juicy, tender, sprightly; pit free; ripens the last of September; valuable for canning purposes. =Lowes Favorite.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 105. 1903. A peach of the Crawford type originating in Oceana County, Michigan. =Lowets White.= =1.= _Guide Prat._ 42. 1895. Fruit large, white, sweet; very late. =Lows Large Melting.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 98. 1831. Allied to Royal George but not as good; leaves glandless; flowers small; fruit large; color pale yellowish-green, with a red cheek; flesh melting; quality fair; ripens early in September. =Lucia.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 391. 1891. A large, globular fruit, yellow, shaded with rich purplish-red; flesh red at the stone, mild subacid; best of quality; clingstone; season the end of September. =Luizet Dwarf.= =1.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =6=:249. 1869. In 1861, Gabriel Luizet, Ecully, Rhône, France, grew this dwarf from a seed of Grosse Mignonne. Tree dwarf, vigorous, productive; leaves large, deeply serrate, glandless; fruit small, oval, surface uneven, halves unequal; skin nearly smooth, bright red where exposed; flesh yellowish-white, red at the stone, juicy, sprightly; stone free, deeply furrowed. =Lulu I.= =1.= _Cult. & Count. Gent._ =45=:536. 1880. A very early seedling from Batavia, New York; fruit globular; clingstone; ripens before Amsden. =Lulu II.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:806. 1896. Lulu II belongs to the so-called Spanish group; tree hardy, productive; glands numerous, globose; fruit small, greenish-yellow; flavor rather acid; quality poor. =Luton.= =1.= _Tex. Nur. Cat._ 12. 1909. The Texas Nursery Company, Sherman, Texas, states that this variety was grown from seed at Ector, Texas, by J. T. Luton; fruit large, oblong; clingstone; ripening a week before Elberta. =Luttichau.= =1.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 26. 1913. It is reported in the Glen Saint Mary Nursery Catalog, Glen Saint Mary, Florida, that Baron H. Von Luttichau, Earleton, Florida, originated this variety. Fruit large, oval; skin waxy, greenish-white, washed or blushed with red, thin, tough; flesh tinged at the pit, firm, juicy, sweet; pit free; season the last of May. =Lydon Cling.= =1.= Harrison _Cat._ 18. 1910. Lydon Cling is a large, firm, yellow peach ripening about the middle of August, according to J. G. Harrison, Berlin, Maryland. =Lynn Lemon Cling.= =1.= J. R. Johnson _Cat._ 6. 1894. Fruit large, with a red cheek; of excellent quality; ripens the last of September, as described in the catalog of J. R. Johnson, Coshocton, Ohio. =Lyon.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 622. 1869. A seedling originating with George Husman, Hermann, Missouri. Fruit large, round, somewhat irregular; suture a red streak; skin smooth, yellowish-white, marbled with deep red; flesh veined with red, deep at the stone, juicy, sweet, vinous; freestone; ripens early in August. =Lyon Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 317. 1889. _Lyon Mammoth Cling._ =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:98. 1892. From W. M. Williams, Fresno, California; flesh white to the stone; late. =McAllister.= =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:14, 1892. =2.= _Pa. Sta. Bul._ =37=:10. 1896. Listed as succeeding on either high or low land. =M'Clish.= =1.= _Pacific Nur. Cat._ 10. 1906. According to the Pacific Nursery Company, Tangent, Oregon, M'Clish is of the Orange Cling type ripening just after Early Crawford but is larger, sweeter and richer; used by the California canneries. =McCollister.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =31=:58. 1887. =2.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 43. 1895. McCollister on the Station grounds is neither hardy nor productive but is relatively free from leaf-curl. Trees large, with a slight drooping tendency; leaves long, large, with small, globose glands; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit large, irregular in outline, roundish-cordate, oblique, halves decidedly unequal; cavity deep and wide; suture often extends two-thirds around the fruit; apex with a small, mamelon tip; skin thick, tough, blushed with dull red on a deep lemon-yellow ground, attractive; flesh stained with red at the stone, firm, coarse, noticeably stringy, moderately sweet but not rich; stone free, ovate, bulged near the apex; ripens the first of September. =McConnell Seedling.= =1.= _Can. Hort._ =18=:417. 1895. A very hardy seedling grown in Essex County, Canada. =McCormick.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 189. 1880. This peach was found by W. H. McCormick, Clyde, Michigan. Tree similar to Late Crawford; glands reniform; fruit nearly round; flesh deep yellow to the stone which is small and free; ripens just ahead of Late Crawford. =McCowan Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. Dr. McCowan, Ukiah, California, raised this variety. It is free from leaf-curl; must be carefully thinned for size; flesh yellow, stained at the pit; good for canning. =McCoy Free.= =1.= _Winfield Nur. Cat._ 15. 1915. The Winfield Nursery Company, Winfield, Kansas, states that this variety is a large, yellow freestone, ripening two weeks after Elberta. =McCoy Seedling.= =1.= J. R. Johnson _Cat._ 6. 1894. Originated with Henry McCoy, Coshocton County, Ohio; very similar to Wonderful, according to J. R. Johnson, Coshocton, Ohio. =McDevitt.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 318. 1889. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1899. McDevitt is a yellow cling which originated with Neal McDevitt, Placer County, California. In 1899 it was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society. =McIntosh.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:238. 1898. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. McIntosh is a peach from Georgia which was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1909. At this Station, it is a light bearer and susceptible to leaf-curl. Tree with a drooping tendency; glands usually globose; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit medium in size, roundish-oval, tapers toward the apex, halves equal; cavity deep, wide, abrupt; suture shallow; apex with a mucronate tip; skin thin, tough, pale creamy-yellow, blushed with light red becoming deeper, attractive; flesh white, stained near the pit, juicy, stringy, melting, vinous, aromatic; stone with a clinging tendency, large, oval; ripens the last of August. =McIntyre Late Free.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 315. 1889. Approved by the growers in several counties in California; fruit large, yellow; of California origin. =McKay Late.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =62=:835. 1903. This is a very late, yellow freestone, originating about 1890 with the late W. L. McKay, Geneva, New York. Tree upright-spreading to slightly drooping, hardy; glands reniform; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit large, oval, angular; halves decidedly unequal; sides drawn in about the cavity, which is shallow and narrow; apex with a mucronate tip; skin heavily pubescent, thick, tough, pale yellow, usually with blush near the cavity but often without; flesh stained at the pit, juicy, coarse, stringy, sprightly; stone large, oval, plump, acutely pointed at the apex; ripens in October. =McKevitt. 1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 315. 1889. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:220. 1899. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. This white clingstone is widely distributed in California and in 1909 was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society. It originated on the farm of A. McKevitt, Vaca Valley, California. Tree upright, roundish; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish-oval; apex prominent; color creamy-white, marbled with bright red; flesh moderately juicy, faintly tinged with red at the pit, firm, sweet, highly flavored; stone oval, pointed; ripens in mid-season. =McKinley. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 420. 1898. A white peach from a Mr. Calkins, Iowa City, Iowa. =McKinnel. 1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:134. 1911. An upright, rank-growing tree with heavy foliage, productive but susceptible to rot; fruit roundish, medium to large; apex sharply pointed; flesh yellowish-white, fine, juicy; quality very good; ripens the last of May. =McKinney. 1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =117=:309. 1901. A promising new variety; tree a strong grower, fairly productive; fruit medium to large; flesh white, firm, juicy, sweet; clingstone; ripens the last of June. =McLide Seedling. 1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ App. 37. 1901. Exhibited at the Pan American Exposition. =McNair Late. 1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Bul._ =3=:38. 1902. A good variety for commercial or home use in Missouri. =McNeil. 1.= _Utah Sta. Bul._ =18=:13. 1892. Listed in this reference. =McNeil Early. 1.= King Bros. _Cat._ 14. 1915. This sort was found by Frank McNeil, Dansville, New York, and was introduced by King Brothers of that place in 1913. Fruit white-fleshed; a perfect freestone; one of the first to ripen. =Macon. 1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 450. 1879. A variety with fruit of fair quality, valued in Lenawee County, Michigan. =McShaw. 1.= Bailey _Ann. Hort._ 185. 1892. A large, clingstone peach ripening in October. =Madame d'Andrimont. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:77, 78, fig. 37. 1866-73. Probably originated about Liége, Belgium. Leaves glandless; flowers large; fruit large, spherical, depressed at the ends; suture shallow; skin downy, pale yellow, bright red in the sun; flesh white, stained about the pit, melting, juicy, aromatic; stone free, large; ripens the middle of August. =Madame Bernède. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 403. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Madame Daurel. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 403. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Madame Gaujard. 1.= Koch _Deut. Obst._ 540. 1876. =2.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =VI=:No. 23, Pl. 1882. Originated in 1858 with N. Gaujard, Ghent, Belgium. Flowers small; fruit large, roundish; suture more or less distinct; skin very pubescent, thin, clear yellow, with a purplish-red blush; flesh white, stained at the pit, juicy, sweet; stone free, broadly oval; ripens in September. =Madame Malfilâtre.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 403. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Madame Pynaert.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =29=:46. 1887. _Madame Edouard Pynaert._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 403. 1889. A large, dark red peach of superior quality, raised in Belgium about 1881. =Madeira.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 285. 1854. _Hill Madeira._ =2.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 224. 1817. _Madeira Freestone._ =3.= _Horticulturist_ =4=:243. 1849-50. Madeira was raised by Henry Hill, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from a pit brought from Madeira. Fruit large, whitish, with a pale red cheek; flesh highly flavored, melting, juicy; freestone; ripens in September. =Madeleine Blanche d'Anoot.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 52. 1876. A variety bearing globose glands. =Madeleine Blanche de Doué.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom_ 403. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Madeleine Blanche de Loisel.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 44. 1876. Often included incorrectly with the White Madeleine. =Madeleine Hariot.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 40. 1876. Tree vigorous, productive; leaves glandless; fruit large, ovoid, somewhat pointed at the base; greenish-yellow, striped and marbled with deep carmine; flesh white to the pit, juicy, vinous; matures at the end of August. =Madeleine Hâtive a Moyennes Fleurs.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:173, 174, fig. 85. 1866-73. This sort is thought by Leroy to be Royal Charlotte. Probably the only difference is in its ripening, this variety ripening early in August. =Madeleine à Mamelon.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 98. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Madeleine Paysanne.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:99, 100, fig. 48. 1866-73. This is an old French sort often confused with Bollweiler Magdalene of some authors. Tree vigorous, productive; leaves glandless; flowers large; fruit large, spherical, depressed at the ends, distinctly sutured; cavity large; skin finely pubescent, pale yellow, with a deep purple blush; flesh whitish-yellow, stained about the pit, melting, aromatic, sweet; pit small for the size of fruit, free. =Madeleine Striée.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 404. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 40. 1895. Tree very productive; leaves glandless; fruit large, roundish; skin thin, whitish-yellow, striped with red in the sun; flesh fine, melting, sweet, aromatic; ripens the last of August. =Madeleine Superbe de Choisy.= =1.= _Le Bon Jard._ 327. 1882. This variety originated with a M. Gravier of Choisy-le-Roi, France. Fruit very large, roundish, blushed with deep red where exposed; flesh white, purple at the stone, melting, sweet, aromatic; stone small, free; matures the last of September. =Madison County Mammoth.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ 11. 1901. This is a variety from Missouri which ripens too late in New York. The tree in the Station orchard is upright, moderately vigorous, very productive; glands reniform; fruit of the Chili type but more irregular and broader; cavity small; suture extends beyond the apex; skin heavily pubescent, whitish, with considerable mottling; flesh stained at the pit, moderately juicy, tough, leathery; flavor and quality fair; stone slightly elliptical, decidedly clinging; ripens the last of October. =Magdala.= =1.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =6=:250. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 452. 1884. Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, raised Magdala in 1865 from a seed of Orange nectarine. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers large; fruit of medium size, inclining to oval; skin nearly smooth, creamy-white, marbled with crimson; flesh tender, melting, rich; freestone; ripens the last of August. =Magdalen Clingstone.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:198. 1831. _Pavie Madeleine._ =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:13. 1768. This sort is a variation of White Magdalen. Some writers list it as identical with Smith Newington. Leaves devoid of glands; flowers large; fruit of medium size, broadly globular; suture shallow, deepening toward the base; skin pale yellowish-white, marbled and streaked where exposed; flesh firm, pale yellowish-white to the stone, juicy, sugary; stone clings, shortly ovate, thick; ripens early in September. =Maggie I.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1897. =2.= _Ibid._ 38. 1909. _Maggie Burt._ =3.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Maggie I. or Maggie Burt as it was first called, was put on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1897. It is a large, oval, white-fleshed clingstone from Texas. =Maggie II.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:86. 1896. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:516. 1902. Peter C. Minnich, Waldo, Florida, originated this variety which resembles and ripens with Bidwell Early. Fruit medium to large, roundish-oblong; cavity open, abrupt, suture but one-quarter around the fruit; apex rounded; skin velvety, thick, light yellow; washed with red; flesh firm, white, juicy; quality very good; stone partly clinging, large, oval. =Magistrate.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 293. 1854. A fruit of American origin; glands reniform; fruit large; skin greenish-white, with a red cheek; flesh juicy but not high in quality; freestone; ripens in September. =Magnifique de Daval.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed but not described. =Magnum Bonum.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =14=:119. 1863. Listed as a good peach for Missouri. =Maid of Malines.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 204. 1848. _Pucelle de Malines._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1875. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:249 fig., 250. 1879. _Jungfern-Magdalene._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:199. 1858. _Jungfrau von Mecheln._ =5.= Gaucher _Pom. Prak. Obst._ No. 87, Tab. 19. 1894. This variety from Belgium held a place on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1875 until 1897. Tree vigorous, productive; glands lacking; flowers large; fruit large, roundish, depressed; suture well marked; skin very downy, clear yellow, highly colored where exposed; flesh yellowish-white, stained at the stone, melting, juicy, sugary; freestone; ripens at the end of August. =Malden.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 286. 1854. _Early Malden._ =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:537. 1848. Leaves glandless; flowers small; fruit medium in size, roundish, compressed, one side enlarged; suture distinct; skin white, with a red cheek; juicy, sprightly; freestone; matures the last of August. =Malta.= =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =2.= _Pom. Mag._ =1=:No. 15, Pl. 1828. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:157 fig., 158. 1879. Malta is supposed to have originated in Malta or in Italy but the Italians did not mention it until it had been known in France for some time, Merlet having described it in 1667. It was early introduced into America and held a place on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1862 until 1891. Leaves doubly serrate, without glands; flowers large, pale; fruit of medium size, depressed at the apex; suture broad and shallow; skin dull green, broadly marbled with dull purplish-red; flesh greenish-yellow, stained with red near the pit, juicy, rich, vinous; stone free, oval, pointed; ripens at the end of August. =Malte de Gouin.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 41, 221. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:129, 130, fig. 1. 1883. The fruit is larger and the quality better than that of Malta. Tree productive; leaves glandless; fruit spherical, striped and marbled with reddish-purple; flesh white to the stone, melting, juicy, aromatic; stone small for the size of the fruit, free; ripens the first of September. =Malte de Lisieux.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 82. 1867. The fruits of this variety differ from Malta in their higher color, larger size and heavier pubescence. =Malte Saint Julien.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. A glandless variety listed by Thomas. =Mammoth.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:410, 411. 1826. This old peach was found in New York City a century ago by M. Brevoort. The stone, which is large for the size of the fruit, is remarkable for always having two kernels. The variety comes true from seed. Fruit large, greenish-yellow; stone free; ripens at the end of September. =Mammoth Cling.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 184. 1835. Fruit large, of a pale color, red where exposed; very juicy and fine. =Mammoth Freestone.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1873. A large, very late variety listed in the fruit-catalog of the American Pomological Society from 1873 until 1897. =Mammoth Golden.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 77. 1893. Listed as once grown in Illinois. =Mammoth Heath.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 52. 1899. According to the catalog of Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri, Mammoth Heath is supposed to be a strain of Heath Cling from Missouri. On the Station grounds the trees are unproductive and susceptible to leaf-curl; glands reniform; fruit above medium in size, halves unequal; cavity deep and wide; apex with a small, mamelon tip; suture often extends beyond the apex; skin thin, tender, unusually woolly, creamy-white, occasionally with a slight blush; flesh meaty, juicy, pleasing; stone oval, flattened at the base; ripens the second week in October. =Mammoth Melocoton.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 54. 1876. A large fruit of first quality, ripening in September. =Man.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 582. 1629. "The Man peach is of two sorts, the one longer than the other, both of them are good Peaches but the shorter is the better relished." =Mandelartige Magdalene.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:198. 1858. The leaves of this variety are glandless; flowers usually large; fruit of medium size, elongated, almond-like; skin yellowish-green; flesh white, stained at the pit, pleasantly subacid; stone free; ripens the middle of September. =Mandls Magdalene.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:199. 1858. _Lorenz Mandl._ =2.= Mathieu _Non. Pom._ 403. 1889. A seedling from Liegel, raised about 1851. Leaves glandless; flowers usually large, white; fruit large, roundish-oblate, halves unequal, deeply sutured; skin greenish-white, with a reddish-brown blush; freestone; ripens the middle of August. =Manning.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:441. 1847. J. F. Allen grew and named this variety after Robert Manning of Salem, Massachusetts. =Marcella.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 25. 1894. Marcella originated with E. T. Daniels, Kiowa, Kansas. On the Station grounds the trees are unproductive and susceptible to leaf-curl. Tree vigorous, upright-spreading or slightly drooping; glands reniform; flowers appear late; fruit large, roundish to oval, halves decidedly unequal; cavity shallow, sides slightly drawn in; apex roundish, with a mucronate tip; skin covered with long, thick pubescence, thin, tough, golden-yellow, with a few splashes, if any, of dark red; flesh faintly red at the pit, stringy, slightly subacid; fair in quality; stone large, oval or obovate; matures the first of October. =Marguerite.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 43, 221. 1876. _Saint Marguerite._ =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:41, 42, fig. 19. 1866-73. Originated at Liége, Belgium. Tree vigorous; leaves devoid of glands; flowers large; fruit medium to above, roundish-ovoid, small, with a mamelon tip at the apex; skin thin, greenish-yellow, with a dark red blush; flesh white to the stone, juicy, sweet, aromatic; stone large, ovoid, free; matures toward the end of July. =Marie de la Rochejaquelein.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. =2.= Mas. _Pom. Gen._ =12=:177, 178. 1883. Resembles Orchard Queen; leaves with reniform glands; flowers small. =Marie Talabot.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 404. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Marionville Cling.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 38. 1913. A productive, white clingstone from Marionville, Missouri, according to Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri. =Mark Chili.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:55 fig. 1910. Mark Chili is a Chili seedling raised by W. D. Markham, Hart, Michigan. The fruit is similar to that of its parent but is larger and later. Tree vigorous, free from diseases; flowers large; fruit large, oblong, decidedly ribbed; suture continuous, deepening toward the apex; skin heavily pubescent, thick, tough, light yellow, with a rich, dark cheek of solid red; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit, melting, juicy, brisk subacid; stone oval, free; very good in quality. =Markham.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:53, 54 fig. 1910. W. D. Markham, Hart, Michigan, raised this Chili seedling about 1880. It is very similar to Early Crawford which it follows in ripening. In the Station orchard the trees are vigorous, spreading, not very productive; leaves broad, with very small, globose glands; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit of medium size, roundish, halves decidedly unequal on some specimens; cavity deep, with radiating streaks of red; suture but a line until near the apex; skin heavily pubescent, tenacious, golden yellow, with a blush varying in size and shade; flesh tinged with red at the pit, tender, stringy, sweet, rich in flavor; quality good; stone large, broadly oval, flattened near the base, apex ending in a long point. =Marks Cling.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed as growing at the Texas Experiment Station. =Marlborough.= =1.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:27, Pl. 14. 1823. Marlborough was found in the garden of the late Duke of Marlborough near Brentford, England. Leaves long, narrow, not affected by mildew; blossoms large; fruit roundish; skin thin, white, with a brilliant red blush; flesh stained at the pit, with a pineapple flavor; ripens about August 10th. =Marquis of Downshire.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 1506. 1870. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 453. 1884. _Royal Ascot._ =3.= _Garden_ =52=:307. 1898. This peach was raised at East Hempsted Park, Berkshire, England, and was distributed by the Royal Ascot Nurseries. Glands globose; flowers large; fruit medium in size, slightly oblate, uneven in outline; suture distinct; skin greenish-yellow, with a light red cheek, mottled with darker red where exposed; flesh stained at the pit, tender, juicy, melting, sweet; freestone; ripens late. =Marquise de Brissac.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:159 fig., 160. 1879. This variety was found in the vicinity of Angers, France, and named after the Marquise de Brissac. Glands small, reniform; flowers of medium size; fruit large, oval-roundish, with a noticeable, mamelon tip at the apex; distinctly sutured; skin thick, heavily pubescent, pale yellow, with a few splashes of carmine; flesh greenish-white, stained at the stone, juicy, melting, very sweet, vinous; very good; stone free, large; matures early in October. =Marshall.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:30. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:219. 1899. _Marshall Late._ =3.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 451. 1896. Marshall comes from and is known only in Ohio. Tree fairly vigorous, roundish-upright; glands reniform; flowers small or medium; fruit medium to large, roundish, slightly oblong; suture distinct, two-thirds around the fruit; skin pale yellow, mottled with red; flesh deep red at the pit, moderately juicy, firm, with a slight acid taste; quality good; stone free; matures the last of September. =Martha Fern Cling.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 38. 1913. A white-fleshed clingstone from Pike County, Missouri, according to Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri. =Martindale.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 52. 1901. Raised by a Mr. Martindale of Kansas. Tree very hardy; fruit white, very sweet, rich and juicy; freestone; ripens early in August. =Mary.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 33. 1899. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:351 1903. _Mary Choice._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 44, 217. 1876. Mary is a good dessert and market sort grown in New Jersey and Maryland. It was placed on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1899. Fruit large, oblong; flesh yellow, firm, very good; freestone; season late. =Mary Choice (Kerr).= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Marydel.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Maryland Early.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =18=:273. 1876. A seedling from Frederick City, Maryland. One of the earliest to ripen in that locality. =Masicot.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1889. _Mascotte._ =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:516. 1902. Griffing Brothers raised Masicot from a seed of Waldo. It first fruited in 1894 and was put on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1889. Fruit two and one-half inches high, nearly round; color creamy-yellow, washed or flecked with carmine, becoming deeper; flesh creamy-white, stained at the stone, juicy, subacid; freestone; ripens a few days later than Waldo. =Mathews.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:351. 1903. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. _Mathews Beauty._ =3.= _Rural N. Y._ =57=:610. 1898. _Matthews Beauty._ =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 51. 1897. =5.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 13. 1907. _Matthews._ =6.= _Rural N. Y._ =59=:706. 1900. Mathews is supposed to be a cross between Elberta and Smock which originated with J. C. Mathews, Cuthbert, Georgia. Fruit large, roundish; color golden yellow, with streaks of red and a crimson cheek; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, mild, free; quality good; season early in August. =Maule Early.= =1.= Black _Cat._ 16. 1907. =2.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 203. 1911. =3.= Black _Cat._ 5. 1913. According to the statement of Joseph H. Black, Son and Company, Hightstown, New Jersey, this variety is a seedling of Mamie Ross. It was introduced in the fall of 1906 by this company. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit medium in size, roundish-oval, with a shallow suture; color creamy-white, mottled and striped with considerable bright red; flesh white, firm, juicy, sweet, semi-adherent; quality good; season early. =Maurice Desportes.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:160 fig., 161. 1879. This peach was raised about 1871 by Baptiste Desportes from a seed of Grosse Mignonne and named after his son, Maurice. Tree vigorous, productive; glands small, globular; flowers of medium size; fruit medium in size, globular, compressed at both ends; suture, wide, shallow; skin tender, covered with short hairs, washed with red on a pale yellow ground; flesh white, faintly red at the pit, melting, very juicy, acidulated, aromatic; very good; stone small, plump, free; ripens the middle of August. =May Choice.= =1.= _Batavia Nur. Cat._ 27. 1905. A very desirable peach ripening immediately after Early Crawford which it resembles but excels in quality, according to the Batavia Nurseries, Batavia, New York. =May Peach.= =1.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =4=:146. 1856. A very early, white-fleshed peach which may be Kleiner Weisser Frühpfirsich. =Mayflower.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. =2.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:134. 1911. =3.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 100. 1911. =4.= _Rev. Hort._ 66, 67. 1911. Tree productive; fruit of medium size, oval, with a pointed apex; color greenish-white, with a dark red blush; flesh greenish-white, juicy, tender, subacid, adherent; quality fair; season very early. =Melocotone.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. _Malacotune._ =2.= Langley _Pomona_ 107, Pl. 33 fig. 4. 1729. Fruit yellowish-green, with a deep red blush; flesh firm, clinging, with a pleasant flavor; ripens early in September. =Melting.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 293. 1854. An unproductive variety of American origin; glands globose; fruit large; flesh white, stained with red at the stone; freestone; ripens in September. =Mena.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ 13. 1905-06. Mena is a semi-free peach, with yellow flesh, ripening the middle of August. =Mendenhall.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 426. 1898. This is a white-fleshed seedling, bearing regularly near Des Moines, Iowa. =Merlin.= =1.= Rivers _Cat._ 29. 1909-10. _Emérillon._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 55, 218. 1876. Merlin is a large, luscious, pale peach from a pit of Frühe Mignonne; flavor rich; ripens early in August. =Merriam.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 197. 1849. E. Merriam, Roxbury, Massachusetts, first grew this variety; glands globose; fruit large, short-oval, light yellow, with a bright red cheek; flesh tinged at the stone, melting, very sweet, juicy; ripens October 1st. =Merriman.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:56, 57. 1910. Found on the Merriman farm near Bangor, Michigan. A yellow freestone ripening just after Smock. =Merveille de New-York.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Merveille d'Octobre.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. A good, late peach of unknown origin; glands globose; flowers small. =Metelka.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. A variety from Hungary; glands reniform; flowers medium in size. =Meyer.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:56 fig. 1910. A variety grown from seed by H. F. W. Meyer, Mears, Michigan. Tree vigorous, hardy, reasonably free from diseases; fruit ripens with Gold Drop but larger; flesh yellow, free. =Meyers Rareripe.= =1.= _Am. Gard._ =11=:715. 1890. This variety originated in Alameda, California. =Michigan I.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 187. 1880. C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan, introduced this variety about 1879 as a seedling of Late Crawford. Fruit yellow, juicy, vinous, ripening just before Late Crawford. =Michigan II.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:57. 1910. Raised many years ago by B. Hathaway, Little Prairie Ronde, Michigan; fruit large, yellow-fleshed; freestone. =Michigan Chili.= =1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =74=:373. 1894. Listed as grown near Newark, New York. =Michigan Nos. 1, 2 and 3.= =1.= _Ont. Sta. Rpt._ =1=:19. 1894. Listed in this reference. =Michelin.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 404. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Mid September.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ 14. 1905-06. This is a lemon-yellow freestone which ripens early in September. =Middleton Imperial.= =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 37. 1864. This variety is said to have come from New Jersey; resembles Susquehanna. =Mid-Season Favorite.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:613. 1893. Tree upright-spreading, vigorous; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, irregular in shape; suture distinct; skin pale, light yellow, with a moderate amount of bright red; flesh white, with red markings near the pit, juicy, tender, not firm, sweet; quality good; stone small, broad, thick, free; ripens the last of August. =Mifflin Pennsylvania.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 227. 1832. This name is given to a variety from Colonel Carr of Bartram's Botanic Garden; highly spoken of by the Philadelphia Horticultural Society. =Mignonne= (=American=). =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 99. 1831. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large; skin pale yellowish-red; flesh melting; of second quality; ripens at the end of September. =Mignonne Bosselée.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50, 221. 1876. A variety with globose glands, listed in this reference. =Mignonne Dubarle.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 225. 1866. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50, 221. 1876. This is a very early form of Grosse Mignonne which ripens about eight days earlier than Early Grosse Mignonne. Glands round; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish, inclining to oval, distinctly sutured; apex mamelon; skin nearly entirely covered with bright red; flesh tender, melting, very juicy. =Mignonne Frizee.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:10. 1832. _Pêcher à fleurs frisée._ =2.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 13, Pl. 1846. _Krauser Lieblingspfirsich._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:204. 1858. The principal traits distinguishing this variety are found in its flowers, which are curled and frizzled; the leaves have globose glands; fruit ripens at the end of August. =Mignonne Purple.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 100. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Mignonne de Saint Loup.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 404. 1889. Mentioned in this reference. =Mikado.= =1.= Capps Bros. _Cat._ 2. 1908. Mikado, a gold-medal peach at the St. Louis Exposition, was introduced by Capps Brothers, Mt. Pulaski, Illinois. On the Station grounds it is a light producer and is susceptible to mildew and leaf-curl. Tree above medium in size, dense-topped; leaves large, with reniform glands; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit above medium in size, roundish, slightly cordate, angular, halves decidedly unequal; cavity deep, wide; apex with a recurved, mamelon tip; skin thick, tough, covered with short pubescence, with splashes of dull red mingled with a lighter blush on a light yellow ground; flesh stained at the stone, juicy, stringy, moderately coarse, sprightly; quality good; stone large, ovate, broad, plump, with a clinging tendency; ripens the middle of October. =Miller.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. _Miller Cling._ =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:351. 1903. The American Pomological Society lists this variety in its fruit-catalog for 1909. Fruit large, yellow, firm. =Miller Cling.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:238. 1898. An early, white-fleshed cling of much promise, listed in this reference. =Millhiser.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:613. 1893. =2.= Hood _Cat._ 34. 1905. This variety originated with M. Millhiser, Richmond, Virginia. As it grows in the Station orchards it is of doubtful value, being only a fair yielder and somewhat susceptible to leaf-curl. Tree large, vigorous, the lower branches slightly drooping; leaves fairly broad, with globose glands; flowers appear in mid-season; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, halves unequal; cavity deep, abrupt; suture deepens at the apex; skin tough, covered with short, coarse pubescence, creamy-white, with a slight blush; flesh white to the stone, juicy, moderately coarse, tender, stringy, sweet and aromatic; of fair quality; stone large, broadly oval, plump, nearly free; ripens the last of September. =Millionaire.= =1.= E. D. Smith _Cat._ 30. 1898. E. D. Smith, Winona, Ontario, Canada, reports that this variety is a Canadian seedling found near St. Catharines. Fruit large, yellow; freestone; ripens a week later than Early Crawford. =Miner.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:816. 1896. Tree fairly vigorous; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, oval, with a large apex, yellow; flesh subacid, pleasant; ripens early in July. =Minerva.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =143=:185. 1897. Listed among the fruits grown in Michigan. =Minion.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 101, Pl. 28 fig. 2. 1729. "Minion abounds with fine juice and firm pulp which adheres to the stone; ripens on a South wall July 20." =Minnie.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =143=:185. 1897. Minnie is a stray variety planted on the grounds of the Michigan Agricultural College in 1892. It is a freestone, ripening in Michigan the last of September. =Minot.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 43. 1895. Fruit of medium size, oblique, oval; cavity broad, oval, deep; suture deep; skin thick, velvety, rich yellow, with a crimson cheek; flesh yellow to the stone, sprightly subacid; stone large, oval, free; ripens the last of September. =Mint Free.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ 14. 1905-06. Mint Free is described as a greenish-white clingstone, ripening throughout July. =Miss May.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 114. 1880. Miss May originated with a Mr. Carroll, Dresden, Texas; fruit large, of first quality and very late. =Miss Percival.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =21=:336. 1879. A large, white freestone; very productive. =Missouri Apricot.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Missouri Beauty.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Bul._ =3=:32. 1902. Listed as grown in Missouri. =Missouri Mammoth.= =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 410. 1865. This variety, as grown in Missouri, resembles Columbia of which it is believed to be a seedling. =Mitchell.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 47. 1899. =2.= _Ibid._ 217. 1901. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 251. 1903. Mitchell originated in Iowa with M. J. Graham of Adel; it is one of the few hardy sorts grown in Iowa. Fruit of medium size, slightly oval; suture distinct but not deep; apex conical; skin white, with a red cheek; flesh streaked with red and red at the pit, melting, juicy; stone free, of medium size; quality fair; ripens the last of September. =Mitchell Mammoth.= =1.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 380. 1858. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1875. This peach, of Southern origin, won a place in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1875 which it held until 1897; fruit large, late in ripening; flesh white; clingstone. =Mobray Heath Cling.= =1.= _Peachland Nur. Cat._ 12. 1892. According to the Peachland Nurseries, Seaford, Delaware, this variety is a beautiful, white cling from Dorchester County, Maryland. =Modena.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 210. 1676. "Modena is an excellent peach of a yellowish color and comes clean from the stone." =Modeste.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. A large and good peach with small flowers and globose glands. =Mogneneins.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 237. 1908. Listed in this reference. =Molden White.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 621. 1857. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. This sort originated on Molden Mountain on the Chesapeake, where it is valued for its lateness. From 1862 until 1897 it held a place in the fruit-catalog of the American Pomological Society. Fruit large, oblong; suture distinct; skin creamy-white, rarely with a tinge of red; flesh white to the stone, juicy, sweet, melting; freestone; ripens at the end of September. =Monfrein.= =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 352. 1802. This is a peach with firm, yellow flesh, not very juicy but sweet. =Monsieur Jean.= =1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 218. 1817. This variety ripens in July and August; fruit oval, greenish-white, with a red cheek. =Monstrous Free.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:36. 1832. 2. Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 187. 1841. Tree moderately productive; fruit very large, round, highly colored where exposed; flesh rich, juicy, sweet; ripens early in September. =Monstrous Lemon.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:29. 1832. _Largest Lemon._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 98. 1831. Tree vigorous; flowers small; fruit very large; ripens in October. =Monstrueuse de Saverdun.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. Probably of French origin; glands reniform. =Montagne Tardive.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. An English variety. =Montauban.= =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =2.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 263. 1831. _Montabon._ =3.= Langley _Pomona_ 102, Pl. 28 fig. 4. 1729. Tree productive; leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large, pale; fruit medium in size, with a small suture; skin greenish-yellow, covered with deep red in the sun; flesh white to the stone, melting, juicy, rich, freestone; ripens the middle of August. =Montgomery Late.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 621. 1857. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1875. This variety, of American origin, was listed by the American Pomological Society from 1875 until 1897. Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit large, round, depressed at the apex; suture shallow but distinct; skin downy, yellowish-white, with a dull red cheek; flesh red at the stone, very juicy, melting; freestone; ripens the first of September, lasting nearly a month. =Monticola.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:813. 1896. A good market peach but unproductive; glands reniform; fruit large, round; color beautiful yellow, with a deep red cheek; pleasant acid flavor. =Montreal.= =1.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =2=:191, 192, Pl. 100 fig. 2. 1823. This peach originated in Montreal, France. The fruit is nearly black and the variety is often called "The Black Peach of Montreal." The peach has a rich flavor, thin skin, and a remarkably small stone, close to which the flesh is red. It ripens the latter part of September when most other peaches are gone. =Moore Favorite.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 193. 1849. =2.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 186. 1908. _Moore._ =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:220. 1899. According to Cole, this peach originated with H. K. Moore, Chelsea, Massachusetts. Fulton claims that it is a native of Delaware, and that it originated with J. V. Moore, Odessa. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish, slightly oval, with a shallow suture; skin creamy-white, with a clear red blush; flesh white, red at the pit, juicy, tender, with a rich, vinous flavor; pit free; season early September. =Moore June.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 621. 1857. Moore June originated at Athens, Georgia. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit below medium in size, globular; suture shallow; cavity deep; skin yellowish, nearly covered with dots and marblings of deep red; flesh white, red at the pit and often near the skin, juicy, vinous, pleasantly flavored; freestone; ripens the last of June. =Moore Rareripe.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 200. 1841. A large, round, productive peach of excellent quality, ripening in September. =Moore Seedling.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. This is a small, yellow-fleshed freestone of little value. =Morello.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 210. 1676. "Morello peach is a fair, red-sided fruit, and parts from the stone." =Morris County.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:30, 36. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:220. 1899. This peach is similar to Morris White but ripens later. Tree strong, spreading; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish; suture a line; apex prominent; skin creamy-white, with a red cheek; flesh creamy-white, red at the pit, moderately juicy, tender, with a mild but somewhat astringent flavor; quality fair; stone oval, free; ripens the middle of September. =Morris Red.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 275. 1854. _Red Rareripe._ =2.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 219, 220. 1817. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:14. 1832. _Morris Red Rareripe._ =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 480. 1845. =5.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 192, 193. 1849. =6.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 225, 226. 1857. _Morris Red Freestone._ =7.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 189. 1846. Morris Red has been confused with George IV and Red Rareripe but is distinct. Prince believed that the variety came from Europe while Downing considered it of American origin. It seems to have been disseminated by Robert Morris, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, depressed at the apex, with a distinct suture; skin pale greenish-white, with a bright red cheek; flesh pale greenish-white, quite red at the pit, juicy, melting, with a rich, sweet flavor; freestone; ripens the last of August. =Morrisania.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 226. 1866. _Morrisania Pound._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:410. 1826. _Hoffman Pound._ =3.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 189. 1846. Martin Hoffman claims this variety originated with him at York Island, and that buds were taken by Gouverneur Morris of Morrisania, near New York City. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit very large, heavy, nearly round; flesh light yellow, firm, compact, juicy, rich, aromatic; stone free, large; ripens the middle of September. =Mother Porter.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 315. 1889. W. W. Smith found this seedling in the yard of a Mrs. Porter, Napa, California. The fruit is yellow-fleshed to the pit to which it clings. =Mountain Cling.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 120. 1898. Mentioned as grown in Iowa for home use. =Mountain Rareripe.= =1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 39, 40. 1884. Mountain Rareripe resembles Oldmixon Cling in general appearance and ripens about with it. It is recommended as a profitable variety for market. =Mountain White.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =31=:58. 1887. Listed by the Michigan Experiment Station. =Mountaineer.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 100. 1831. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 226. 1866. Mountaineer is a coarse peach raised from a pit of Red Nutmeg crossed with Early Violet nectarine. Glands globose; flowers large; fruit large, roundish, somewhat pointed at the apex; skin smooth, pale yellow and dark red; flesh red at the stone, melting, juicy, rich; freestone; matures early in September. =Mr. Gladstone.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:67. 1900. Listed as a weak grower. =Mrs. Hunley.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 623. 1869. This variety, of southern origin, comes from the Fruitland Nursery, Augusta, Georgia. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit of medium size, one-sided, pale yellow; flesh yellow, rich, melting; ripens late in September. =Mrs. Poinsett.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =4=:276. 1849-50. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 285. 1854. This variety is the result of crossing Blood Cling with some yellow freestone. It was named after Mrs. J. R. Poinsett of South Carolina. The limbs are inclined to be pendant; leaves with globose glands; fruit globular; suture distinct; skin yellow, veined with red; flesh yellow, juicy, melting; stone partially clinging; ripens early in September. =Munson Cling.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 6. 1904-05. This is a seedling of Elberta with which it ripens; the fruit is more spherical. It was grown by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas. =Munson Free.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 7. 1904-05. This is another Elberta seedling grown by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas. On the Station grounds the fruit ripens with Elberta and just after it. Tree upright, unproductive, quite spreading; leaves large, leathery, with reniform glands; flowers appear in mid-season, of medium size, reddish-pink; fruit large, oval-conic, halves unequal, sides drawn in about the cavity; cavity shallow; suture shallow; apex with a recurved, mamelon tip; skin thin, tough, with long, coarse pubescence, lemon-yellow, with narrow splashes and stripes of darker red; flesh red at the pit, juicy, stringy, firm, sprightly in some cases; quality good; stone free, large, oval-pointed, winged. =Murat.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 290. 1893. This is another seedling of Late Crawford grown by C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan. As tested in the Station orchard, it is of doubtful value. Tree spreading; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, bulged; suture shallow except at the apex; surface velvety, yellow, washed and mottled with red; flesh stained at the pit, melting, juicy, vinous, sprightly; quality very good; stone above medium in size, oval, free; season late. =Murray Malacatune.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 200. 1841. Listed as a large, fine fruit. =Murrays Early Anne.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:24. 1832. According to Prince, this is a seedling of Anne. =Muscade de Montauban.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. A productive variety devoid of glands, with medium-sized flowers and large fruit; ripens late. =Muscogee.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1873. Muscogee was raised by J. C. Cook, Columbus, Georgia. Fruit large, roundish or a little one-sided; skin dingy, pale yellow, striped like Columbia; flesh white, faintly red at the stone, melting, juicy, buttery, rich; quality very good; pit small, round, free; matures the middle of August. =Musi.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Growing at De Funiak Springs, Florida. =Musk.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. "Musk peach is a large, good tasted beautiful fruit." =Müskirter Aprikosenpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:218. 1858. Tree very productive; flowers small; fruit of medium size, round, yellow, with a light red blush; flesh firm, vinous; ripens at the end of July. =Musser.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =19=:274. 1877. =2.= Stoll _Pomologie_ Pl. 52 fig. 2. 1888. A variety from Pennsylvania; fruit globular, more flattened near the stem; suture broad; cavity deep; skin somewhat woolly, white except where washed with red; flesh very juicy, vinous, sugary, somewhat fibrous; stone clinging, small; ripens very early. =Muyzerwinkel.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50, 221. 1876. Listed in this reference. =My Choice.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 77. 1893. Listed as exhibited by the Illinois Station. =Myer Seedling.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:352. 1889. A freestone, making fair sauce but not rich. =Myers.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 238. 1906. Myers is one of the hardy seedlings from Iowa. =Myers Rareripe.= =1.= _Am. Gard._ =11=:715. 1890. A variety from Alameda, California. =Mystery.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:221. 1899. _Yellow Mystery._ =2.= Lovett _Cat._ 39. 1889. A variety from Maryland ripening a week before Troth. Tree moderately vigorous, fairly productive; fruit large, roundish, compressed; cavity narrow, deep; suture indistinct; skin dark yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh red at the pit, juicy, coarse but tender, vinous; freestone. =Nain Aubinel.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:176, 177 fig. 1879. This dwarf originated with a M. Aubinel, a nurseryman at Grenade, Haute-Garonne, France, about 1846, but was not introduced until some years later. Tree dwarf in habit; branches short; leaves with large, reniform glands; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, irregular, halves unequal; apex with a mamelon tip; skin thick, yellow, purple in the sun, heavily pubescent; flesh red at the stone, melting, juicy, sweet, vinous; of second quality; stone free, of medium size, oval, plump; ripens the first of September. =Nall.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 314. 1889. Nall originated with a Mr. Nall, Louisville, Kentucky. It is described as a strong grower and sure bearer. The fruit is a yellow cling. =Namaper.= =1.= _Ont. Sta. Rpt._ =4=:71. 1897. =2.= _Ibid._ =7=:54. 1900. A promising market sort, very productive and vigorous, little subject to leaf-curl; fruit large, oval, resembling Elberta but ripens a week later. =Nancy.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:57. 1910. Nancy was named by Peter Collier, Adrian, Michigan, about 1900. The fruit is large and ripens late; has no special merit. =Nanticoke.= =1.= _Pa. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 48. 1882. =2.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 406. 1890. A profitable, yellow freestone; upright grower. =Napoleon.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 624. 1869. Supposed to have originated near Macon, Georgia; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, round; skin very downy, dark red; flesh pink, juicy, rich; freestone; ripens the last of July. =Nash.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Listed in this reference. =National.= =1.= Burbank _Cat._ 1912-13. A giant Muir-Crawford peach. Tree strong, productive; fruits ripen before the Crawfords, according to Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, California. =Native Seedling.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Listed in this reference. =Natural Seedling No. 81.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Listed in this reference. =Navar.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 210. 1676. "Navar peach is of a whitish color and comes clean from the stone." =Near.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:58 fig. 1910. Near originated with John Near, Shelby, Michigan. It is a seedling of Chili, probably fertilized by Early Crawford. It ripens a week ahead of Chili and is considered promising but has not yet been disseminated. =Nectar.= =1.= Barnes Bros. _Cat._ 4. 1913. According to Barnes Brothers, Yalesville, Connecticut, Nectar was received in a shipment from Texas. Tree thrifty, hardy; flowers large; fruit of medium size; skin and flesh yellow, nearly free; ripens before Greensboro. =Nectarine.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =15=:208. 1868. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 454. 1884. Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, grew this peach from a pit of the Grand Noir nectarine. Leaves with reniform glands, small; flowers large; fruit very large, ovate, terminating in a pointed nipple; skin nearly smooth like a nectarine, yellow, with a mottled, red cheek; flesh semi-transparent, red at the stone, melting, brisk, rich; freestone; ripens the middle of September. =Need.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:31. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:221. 1899. Tree moderately strong, round, upright; glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, slightly ovate; suture extends two-thirds around the fruit; flesh yellow, stained at the stone, juicy, tender, mild, vinous; quality fair; season the last of August. =Neil (Marshall).= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:31. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:221. 1899. Tree moderately vigorous, unproductive; fruit of medium size, roundish, irregular, with a suture distinct only at the apex; color yellow, with a light marbling of red; flesh yellow, tender, moderately juicy, mild and pleasant, free; of fair quality; season early October. =Nelson.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 161. 1881. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:813. 1896. A small, late cling of little value in Texas. =Nelson Seedlings.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ =1=:11, 12. 1901. =2.= _Ibid._ 14. 1905-06. These seedlings are mentioned by numbers 1, 2, 4 and 5, numbers 4 and 5 being yellow-fleshed freestones. =Nettie Corbet.= =1.= Van Lindley _Cat._ 17. 1892. According to J. Van Lindley, Pomona, North Carolina, Robert Corbet, Gates County, North Carolina, originated and named this peach after his daughter, Nettie. Fruit large, of a dingy yellow color; freestone; ripens in August. =New Bellegarde.= =1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 264, 265. 1831. New Bellegarde is very similar to Galande but is probably distinct. Fruit medium in size, slightly oblong, with a very shallow suture; color pale yellow, marbled and shaded with deep red; flesh pale yellow, red at the pit, melting, juicy, highly flavored, free; ripens the first of September. =New England Cling.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =14=:119. 1863. A very profitable clingstone and uniformly productive. =New Golden Purple.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 190. 1841. A variety from Virginia where it is highly esteemed; fruit large, yellow-fleshed, stained with red at the stone; freestone; ripens two weeks before Heath Cling. =New Globe.= =1.= _Green River Nur. Cat._ 15. 1899. Tree vigorous; fruit golden-yellow, large, freestone, according to the Green River Nurseries, Bowling Green, Kentucky. =New Noblesse.= =1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 249. 1831. New Noblesse was grown at one time about Brentford, England. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large; fruit of medium size, oval, with an obscure suture; skin pale greenish-yellow, marbled where exposed; flesh greenish-yellow to the stone from which it separates, juicy, rich; ripens early in September. =New White Rareripe.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 103. 1831. Listed but not described. =New York Early Lemon Clingstone.= =1.= _Lond. Hort Soc. Rpt._ =6=:413, 414. 1826. A seedling of the Lemon Clingstone; fruit larger and ripens a fortnight earlier than that of its parent. =Newhall.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 313. 1889. Sylvester Newhall, San Jose, California, was the originator of this variety; tree hardy, vigorous, not affected by leaf-curl; fruit large; flesh deep yellow, juicy, vinous, rich; ripens a week before Late Crawford. =Newman.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 194. 1849. A seedling from Charles Newman, Reading, Massachusetts; fruit large, round; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet; ripens the last of September. =Newington (of America).= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 100. 1831. =2.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 25. 1876. This is an unproductive clingstone ripening at the end of September. The glands are globose and the fruit is of first size but the sort is unworthy cultivation. =Nicarde.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 238. 1908. A variety grown in France. =Nichols.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. _Nichols Orange Cling._ =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. This is a productive clingstone which originated with Joseph Nichols, Niles, California. In 1909 it gained a place on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society. =Nicholson Smock.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Grown on the Delaware Station grounds. =Nicols Beauty.= =1.= _Peachland Nur. Cat._ 14. 1892. A large, yellow variety from Delmar, Delaware, according to the Peachland Nurseries, Seaford, Delaware. =Nina Cling.= =1.= Harrison _Cat._ 18. 1910. According to J. G. Harrison and Sons, Berlin, Maryland, Nina Cling is a yellow peach of high quality ripening about the middle of August. =Nivette.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 103, 104, Pl. XXX fig. IV. 1729. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:196, 197. 1831. =3.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 24, Pl. 1846. _Nivette Veloutée._ =4.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:39, 40, Pl. 28. 1768. =5.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:135, 136, fig. 66. 1866-73. =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:197, 198 fig., 199. 1879. _White Rareripe._ =7.= _Horticulturist_ =1=:210, 258. 1846-47. The origin of Nivette is unknown. It is a very old variety and seems to have been popular in the Old World for many years. In America, where it was first known early in the Nineteenth Century, it became confused with Morris White. The distinguishing characters between the two are: Morris White has reniform glands and white flesh while Nivette has globose glands and flesh which is red at the pit. Tree vigorous, upright, productive; fruit large, roundish, more or less elongated, flattened a little at the base, having a distinct suture, which so divides the fruit that one side is more projecting than the other; apex a mamelon point; color yellowish-white, occasionally tinged with some red veins and with a blush on the sunny side; flesh white, with red veins around the stone, very juicy, melting, with a rich, sweet, vinous flavor; quality good to very good; stone free, oval; season the last of September. =Nix.= =1.= _Austin Nur. Cat._ 10. 1909. _Nix Late Cling._ =2.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =4=:146. 1856. _Nix Late White._ =3.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 25. 1876. _Nix October._ =4.= _N. C. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:108. 1889. _Nix Late._ =5.= J. S. Kerr _Cat._ 5. 1898. An old, southern peach highly esteemed at one time. =Noblesse.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 101, Pl. 28 fig. 3. 1729. =2.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 249, 250. 1831. =3.= _Pom. Mag._ =2=:95, fig. 1839. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1863. _Noblest._ =5.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. _Edlepfirsche._ =6.= Christ _Handb._ 592. 1817. _Mellish Favorite._ =7.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 178. 1835. _Edle Magdalene._ =8.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:198. 1858. Noblesse is a very old, English variety. It was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1862 where it remained until 1897. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large, pale; fruit large, roundish, terminating in an acute nipple at the apex; skin pale yellowish-green, marbled with dull red, with streaks and blotches of darker red; flesh pale white to the stone, melting, juicy, highly flavored; stone large, obovate, free; ripens at the end of August. =Noblesse Early.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 101. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Noblesse of Oatlands.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 101. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Nonpareil.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 293. 1854. _Scotts Nonpareil._ =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 301. 1849. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. Nonpareil originated in Burlington, New Jersey. The fruit resembles that of Late Crawford but is sweeter. Nonpareil was on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1862 until 1871. Glands globose; ripens the middle of September. =Normand.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:90. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:222. 1899. _Normand Choice._ =3.= Lovett _Cat._ 34. 1891. Tree strong, upright; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish to oval; flesh creamy-white to the stone, firm, mild; stone slightly adherent; quality fair; season early October. =North China No. 2.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. Received at this Station from the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. Fruit small, round, greenish-white, mottled with dull red; flesh juicy, sweet, good, free; ripens the first of September. =Norton Late.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 50. 1901. This is a fine, large peach resembling Elberta, ripening the last of September; obtained from J. I. Norton, Salina, Kansas. =Norvell Mammoth.= =1.= _Ind. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 64. 1902. A seedling clingstone raised by Dr. H. V. Norvell, Bloomfield, Indiana. Fruit larger than Heath Cling; ripens the middle of September. =Novalis.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 309. 1889. Novalis is a seedling of Peento which originated with S. M. Gass, San Diego, California. Fruit slightly oblong; flesh white; ripens with the Alexander to which it is superior in flavor. =Nugent June.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1883. This variety originated with E. J. Nugent, Ottawa, Kansas. It was on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1883 until 1891. Fruit very early, yellow; clingstone. =Number 2.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 80. 1898. This sort is a seedling of Marcella grown by E. T. Daniels, Kiowa, Kansas. It resembles Late Crawford but ripens the last of October. =Number 34 H.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:90. 1894. Listed as having reniform glands; flowers large; flesh yellow; ripening the middle of September. =Number 83.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:86. 1896. Listed in this reference. =Nutmeg.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 582. 1629. "The Nutmeg peach is of two sorts, one that will be hard when it is ripe and eateth not so pleasantly as the other, which will be soft and mellow; they are both small peaches having very little or no resemblance at all to a nutmeg except in being a little longer than round and are early ripe." =Oblong.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 458. 1883. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit large, roundish-oval, yellowish-red; ripens at the end of September. =Oceana.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =194=:46. 1901. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:58. 1910. Oceana was grown from a pit of Chili by B. F. Garver, Oceana County, Michigan. Fruit large, yellow; ripens just after Barnard. =October Beauty.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 161. 1881. =2.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:239. 1898. Tree upright, dense; leaves very large, with globose glands; clingstone; of little value. =October Free.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ 14. 1905-06. A yellow freestone, ripening in Missouri about September 13th. =October White.= =1.= _Am. Gard._ =11=:715. 1890. This is a late, white-fleshed peach which originated as a sport from Myers Rareripe. =October White Clingstone.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. Listed in this reference. =October Yellow.= =1.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =3=:334. 1868. A rather small, yellow, freestone peach of good quality, ripening in Illinois early in October. It may be the October Free from Missouri. =Octoberta.= =1.= _Austin Nur. Cat._ 10. 1909. T. Heep, Austin, Texas, raised this variety about 1909, probably from a pit of Elberta. The fruit ripens in September and October, according to the Austin Nursery Company, Austin, Texas. =O'Gwynne.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 205. 1858. Listed as growing in the south. =Oignies.= =1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =7=:45, 46, Pl. 1859. There is a difference of opinion as to the origin of this variety but it is generally believed to have come from seed in the province of Hainaut, Belgium. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish; suture large but shallow; skin heavily pubescent, greenish-yellow, more or less colored with red; flesh yellowish-white, colored at the stone, melting, juicy; stone oval, medium in size, free; ripens early in September. =Old English.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1889. Listed by the Texas Experiment Station. =Old Newington.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 104, Pl. 31 fig. 1. 1729. 2. Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:9, 10. 1832. _Newington._ =3.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. _Large Newington._ =4.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 226. 1817. _Newington Magdalene?_ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:200. 1858. Old Newington was at one time a favorite cling in England, having been cultivated there for over two hundred years. Flowers large; leaves doubly serrate, glandless; fruit large, globular, with a slight suture; skin pale yellowish-white, with a red cheek; flesh pale yellowish-white, stained with deep red at the stone, firm, juicy, rich; ripens the middle of September. =Old Royal Charlotte.= =1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 250, 251. 1831. Old Royal Charlotte has been known in England since about 1760. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large, pale; fruit of medium size, roundish, narrowed at the apex; skin pale greenish-yellow, marbled with deep red; flesh white to the stone, soft, vinous; stone obtuse, free; ripens from the middle to the last of August. =Old Settler.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 532. 1898. A hardy variety grown in Iowa. =Olden.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 392. 1891. This white-fleshed freestone ripens the first of September in southern Missouri. =Olga.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 41. 1877. A seedling of Lady Parham raised by L. E. Berckmans, Rome, Georgia, about 1873. =Onderdonk.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1891. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:806. 1896. =3.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:353. 1903. =4.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:134. 1911. _Onderdonk's Favorite._ =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 160. 1881. Onderdonk bears the name of its originator, G. Onderdonk, Nursery, Texas. Tree vigorous and productive in the south; leaves with reniform glands; fruit of medium size, oblong, flattened, with a pointed apex; color lemon-yellow; flesh yellow, slightly acid, moderately tender; quality fair; pit free; ripens in the south the first of August. =Opoix.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 103. 1901. Opoix is a Russian variety named in honor of a French gardener, a M. Opoix. Tree vigorous; leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, distinctly sutured; flesh white, vinous, juicy, sweet; freestone; ripens early in October. =Orange Cling.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 497. 1845. =3.= _Gard. & For._ =6=:520. 1893. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1899. _Orange._ =5.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 228. 1832. In California this variety is said frequently to produce a second crop of small, inferior fruit. Leaves serrate, often without glands; fruit large, round, with a distinct suture; skin deep orange, with a dark red cheek; flesh dark yellow, firm, juicy, with a vinous flavor; season September. =Orange Free.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 690. 1897. A medium-sized, round, freestone, with yellow flesh. =Orange Smock.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 290. 1893. Regarded by J. W. Kerr, Denton, Maryland, as superior to any other peach of the Smock type. The tree is stocky and productive and the fruit ripens in Maryland about September 5th. =Orchard Queen.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 237. 1848. =2.= Koch _Deut. Obst._ 539. 1876. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:258 fig., 259, 260. 1879. _Monstrueuse de Doué._ =4.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =5=:70. 1855. _Monstrous of Douay._ =5.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 33. 1874. This variety originated with Jamin Lorèze, near Doué, Maine-et-Loire, France, about 1847. Tree very hardy, productive; glands reniform; flowers small. Fruit valuable for the market, with its large size and firm flesh; oval, distinctly sutured; skin yellowish-white, blushed with purplish-red where exposed; flesh white, stained near the pit, firm, juicy, sprightly; stone free, large, ovoid, plump; matures late in August. =Ord.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 101. 1831. Ord is allied to Chancellor. Glands reniform; flowers small; skin greenish-yellow; flesh melting; of second quality; ripens at the beginning of September. =Oriole.= =1.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =21=:612. 1893. =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:105. 1901. Oriole originated with Dr. L. E. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia, about 1876 from a pit of General Lee. On the Station grounds the variety is a fair producer but the fruit is only good for pickling. Tree inclined to spread, vigorous; leaves broad, nearly flat, serrate; glands reniform; flowers appear in mid-season, large, pink; fruit large, oval to roundish-oval; cavity deep, narrow; suture shallow, deepening at the apex which ends in a mucronate tip; skin thick, tough, covered with coarse, thick pubescence; color golden-yellow, with a varying blush and often with splashes of duller red; flesh light yellow, stained at the pit, moderately juicy, meaty, coarse, sprightly; stone clinging, oval, pointed, winged; ripens the third week in September. =Orlando.= =1.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =22=:681. 1893. =2.= _Ibid._ =27=:943. 1894. Fruit of medium size; color white, with a red cheek; flesh stained near the pit; clingstone; ripens in Louisiana early in June. =Orleance.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 210. 1676. "Orleance red peach is a fine fruit, and leaves the stone." =Orleans.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 158. 1898. Orleans is best known in Orleans County, New York, where it originated with Julius Harris of Ridgeway. On the Station grounds the trees are not very productive. Trees upright, slightly spreading, open; leaves numerous, rugose at the midrib, slightly curled up; glands small and globose; flowers appear late, small; fruit large, roundish-oval to roundish-conic, halves unequal, bulged at the apex; cavity deep; suture shallow; apex often tipped with a mucronate point; skin tough, covered with thick pubescence, greenish-yellow, becoming almost orange, slightly splashed with dull red forming a mottled blush; flesh tinged with red about the pit, juicy, coarse, stringy, sweet, mild, high-flavored; very good in quality; stone free, large, ovate, conspicuously winged; ripens the middle of September. =Orman.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:34. 1899. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. Listed by the American Pomological Society as having originated in Texas. =Oro.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 263. 1892. Oro was brought to notice by C. S. Bell, Oroville, California. Glands reniform; fruit large, oblate-conic; skin thin, tender, yellow, with a bright red blush; flesh reddish-yellow, melting, juicy, vinous, subacid; freestone; ripens in California the last of September. =Ortiz Cling.= =1.= _Boonville Nur. Cat._ 19. 1912. This clingstone ripens in September and attains the size of Elberta. It is excellent for preserving. =Oscar.= =1.= Greening Bros. _Cat._ 81. 1899. _Oscar Black Prince._ =2.= _Ont. Sta. Rpt._ =43=. 1899. This variety is from Greening Brothers, Monroe, Michigan. The fruit is much like that of Alexander but darker in color and perhaps is a little better in quality; it ripens about two weeks later than Alexander. =Osceola.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:233, 234, fig. 115. 1866-73. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 629. 1869. A peach of the Indian type which originated in Macon County, Georgia. Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed at the ends; apex tipped with a mamelon point; skin thick, golden-yellow, with a red cheek; flesh stained with dull red at the pit, fibrous, sweet, pleasant; stone free, roundish-oval, plump; matures late in September. =Osprey.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 455. 1884. _Orfraie._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 55, 222. 1876. Osprey originated with Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, about 1860 from a seed of Pitmaston Orange nectarine. Leaves with globose glands; flowers small; fruit very large, oblate, distinctly sutured; skin creamy, with a crimson stain where exposed; flesh tender, melting, deeply stained at the pit to which it clings, sprightly. =Ostrander Early.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. This variety originated in Rochester, New York. The fruit resembles that of Early Crawford but is ten days earlier. =Ostrander Late.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:31. 1895. =2.= Brown Bros. _Cat._ 35. 1900. Listed as a yellow-fleshed freestone, bearing globose glands; ripens in November. =Overheiser.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:59. 1910. This is a variety from western Michigan resembling Honest John but the peach lacks the flavor and aroma of the fruit of Honest John. =Oviedo.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:819. 1896. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:149. 1904. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. S. J. Kennard, Waldo, Florida, grew Oviedo from a pit of Honey about 1892. In 1909 the variety appeared in the list of the American Pomological Society. Tree a rapid grower, productive; fruit roundish-oblong, bulged on one side; skin thin, tough, becoming smoother on ripening, greenish-yellow, marbled with dull red where exposed; flesh firm, meaty, white, stained at the pit, medium juicy, sweet, agreeable; quality very good; stone free, elliptical, curved, with a recurved point; season late in June in Florida. =Owen.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 195. 1849. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 287. 1854. J. Owen found this variety in his garden at Cambridge, Massachusetts. Glands globose; fruit very large, roundish; flesh yellow, tinged at the pit, tender, juicy; freestone; ripens the last of September. =Oxford.= =1.= _Concord Nur. Cat._ 16. 1899. According to the Concord Nurseries, Concord, Georgia, this variety is a very desirable peach for home or market to follow Elberta; flesh firm, crisp, adherent. =Ozark Queen.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ =1=:11. 1901. Listed in this reference. =Padley.= =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ =1=:Pl. 24 fig. 2. 1817. =2.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:33, Pl. 17 fig. 1. 1823. Padley was raised by William Padley, once a gardener for the King of England, at Hampton Court, England. It is described as being a peach with delicious flavor, ripening the first of August. =Palestine.= =1.= _Tex. Nur. Cat._ 4. 1913. Briefly described by the Texas Nursery Company, Sherman, Texas, as a very large, round, yellow clingstone, ripening from August to September. =Pansy.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 43. 1895. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:222. 1899. Fruit large, roundish-oblong, compressed, with a shallow suture; color yellow, washed and blushed with deep red; flesh yellow, tinged with red at the stone which is free, tender, melting, juicy, mild subacid; quality fair to good; season the middle of August. =Paragon.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 287. 1854. _Prince's Paragon._ =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 200. 1841. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 624. 1857. Paragon was probably first introduced by William R. Prince, Flushing, New York. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; fruit large, roundish-oval; skin yellowish-green, shaded with red; flesh white, red at the pit, juicy, sweet, rich, free; season the middle of September. =Parfumée de Montauban.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 408. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Parham.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1897. _Lady Parham._ =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 299. 1859. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 619. 1869. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 18. 1871. Parham appeared in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1871 as Lady Parham; in 1897 the name was changed to Parham. The variety originated with Thomas Affleck of Mississippi. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, halves unequal, distinctly sutured; skin yellowish-white; flesh pale red at the stone, firm, rich, vinous; freestone; ripens the middle of October. =Parker.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 311. 1889. =2.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 9. 1910. Originated about 1885 as a seedling of Early Crawford in the orchard of J. C. Parker, near San Diego, California. Fruit large, oblong, swollen on one side of the suture which is quite prominent; skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh yellow, red at the pit which is free, juicy, with an agreeable, acid flavor; ripens the first of October. =Parks.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 38. 1909. =2.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 206. 1913. _Parks' Cling._ =3.= _Gard. Mon._ =13=:56, 313, 348. 1871. Parks originated by chance on the grounds of A. L. Parks, Alton, Illinois. Fruit large, roundish-oblate, with a deep suture extending entirely around the fruit; skin light creamy-yellow, nearly covered with red; flesh adherent, creamy-white, stained with red along the veins and at the stone, very juicy; of fair quality; season very late. =Parnell.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =22=:275. 1880. Said to have been originated by J. H. Parnell, West Point, Georgia. Fruit large, dark red, very juicy and of an excellent flavor, with a small, free pit; season early. =Parson Early.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 310. 1889. =2.= Munson _Cat._ 6. 1905-06. This peach is supposed to be of California origin. It is a large, freestone fruit, with a red cheek and white flesh, ripening early, and the tree is an abundant bearer. =Pass-Violet.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 103, Pl. XXX fig. III. 1729. Fruit of an orange color, faintly dotted with brownish-red; flesh very red around the stone which is free; ripens early in August. =Patterson.= =1.= _Am. Gard._ =11=:379. 1890. Said to have originated in Greenfield, Indiana, some time prior to 1888. Fruit uniformly large, greenish-yellow, overspread with considerable red; flesh yellow, juicy, of fair quality; season the last of September. =Pau.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:41, 42. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:204, 205 fig., 206. 1879. _Lackpfirsich von Pau._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:211. 1858. Pau is an old sort spoken of early in the Seventeenth Century. Leaves with small, globose glands; flowers of medium size; fruit very large, roundish; cavity large; suture distinct; skin heavily pubescent, yellowish-white, marbled and striped with reddish-brown; flesh white, stained near the pit, melting, fibrous, juicy, sprightly; quality fair; stone free, large, ovoid, plump; ripens at the end of September. =Paul Boynton.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1896. Received at this Station in 1889 from the Greenmont Nurseries, Dansville, New York. A large, roundish-oval, yellowish-red peach of fair quality, ripening the last of October. =Pavie Abricotée.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 44. 1867. _Aprikosenartiger Härtling._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 387. 1889. Tree moderately vigorous, productive; leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit medium to above in size, oblate; suture deep; skin deep orange, intense red where exposed; flesh yellow, red about the stone, melting, fibrous, juicy, sugary, aromatic; stone clinging, oval; ripens early in September. =Pavie Alberge.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait Arb. Fr._ =2=:11. 1768. _Yellow Alberge Clingstone._ =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:22. 1832. _Herz-Pfirsiche._ =3.= _Deut. Obstcabinet_ =7=:Pl. 6. 1858. _Härtling Aprikosenpfirsich._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde._ =3=:219. 1858. _Pavie Alberge Jaune._ =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:209, 210 fig., 211. 1879. Tree medium in size, productive; leaves large, with reniform glands; flowers variable, rose-colored; fruit large, roundish, somewhat flattened, with a moderately deep suture; skin lightly pubescent, yellow, marbled with dark purplish-red; flesh golden-yellow, red at the pit which is closely adherent, juicy, sweet, aromatic; of fair quality; ripens the last of September. =Pavie Demming.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:216. 1879. Sent out in 1860 by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia. Fruit large, with a yellowish-orange color, dotted and washed with dark red; season late. =Pavie Duff Jaune.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:216, 217. 1879. According to Leroy this peach was sent out in 1860 by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia. Fruit large, greenish-white, with a deep red blush, ripening the last of August. =Pavie Duperron.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:63, 64, fig. 30. 1866-73. According to Mas, this peach was raised from seed of Malta by a M. Duperron, near Pont-de-Veyle, Ain, France. Fruit large, roundish-oval; skin yellowish-white, with considerable red in the form of a blush; flesh clinging, yellow, deep red near the pit, sweet, somewhat aromatic; quality good; ripens in October. =Pavie Genisaut.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:570. 1854. Listed as a yellow, clingstone peach coming from Bordeaux, France, many years ago. =Pavie d'Italie Très Hâtif.= =1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 185. 1825. Listed in this reference as a desirable fruit. =Pavie de Jalagnier.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 101. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Pavie Jaune.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:34. 1768. =2.= Christ _Wörterb_. 355. 1802. =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 230. 1832. =4.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 35, Pl. 1846. _Grosser Pavien-Aprikosenpfirsich._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:219, 220. 1858. _Pavie Alberge._ =6.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:481. 1860. Pavie Jaune should not be confused with Pavie Alberge which ripens later. Tree vigorous; glands reniform; flowers small, faintly colored; fruit very large, round, a little flattened; suture shallow, wide; skin heavily pubescent, dark yellow, blushed, marbled with darker red; flesh yellow, red about the pit, firm, not fibrous, vinous, juicy; quality good; stone adherent, oval, obtuse at the ends; ripens the middle of September. =Pavie Mazères.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:227, 228, fig. 112. 1866-73. This peach is a chance seedling found by a M. Mazères, Toulouse, France. Fruit large, roundish, irregular; skin yellowish-white, with a deep blush; flesh clinging, white, stained deep red at the pit, juicy, sweet and pleasantly flavored; season from the middle to the last of October. =Pavie Mirlicoton.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:223. 1879. A variety once grown in France but long since lost to cultivation. =Pavie Muy-Swantzel.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:224 fig., 225. 1879. Originated in America and introduced into France about 1850 by D. Dauvesse, Orleans, Loiret, France. Fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed at the base, with a distinct suture; color greenish-white, washed, striped and dotted with red; flesh white, tinged with red near the pit which is adherent, juicy, firm, sweet, with a pleasant, aromatic flavor; ripens the last of July. =Pavie de Pamiers.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:13, 14. 1832. =2.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 45. 1867. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:225 fig., 226, 227. 1879. Pavie de Pamiers is of French origin and was introduced into America in 1832 by William Robert Prince, Flushing, New York. Fruit large, roundish, flattened at the ends, with a large, distinct suture; skin white, with an attractive, red blush; flesh white, red at the stone, firm but tender, juicy, sweet; quality good; ripens in the south of France early in August. =Pavie de Pompone.= =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 498. 1845. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1877. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:229, 230 fig., 231. 1879. _Pavy Royal._ =5.= Langley _Pomona_ 105, Pl. 32 fig. 2. 1729. _Pavie rouge de Pomponne._ =6.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:37, 38, Pl. 26. 1768. _Monströse Härtling._ =7.= Christ _Handb._ 599, 600. 1817. _Monstrous Pavie._ =8.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 220. 1817. _Riesenpfirsche._ =9.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 185. 1825. _Monstreuse._ =10.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 17. 1828. _Monstrous Pomponne._ =11.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:197. 1831. _Monströser Lieblingspfirsich._ =12.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:207, 208. 1858. This old French variety was spoken of by many early writers. Among these was Arnauld d'Andilly who raised the first fruits in 1655 at his home, the Pompone estate, Seine-et-Marne, France. It was early introduced into America and in 1877 was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society where it remained for twenty years. Duhamel mentions a Red Pavie that differs from this variety only in that it ripens earlier and is smaller. Tree vigorous; leaves crenate, with reniform glands; flowers large; fruit very large, somewhat oval, with a well-defined suture; apex with a mamelon tip; skin an intense red on a yellowish-white ground; flesh firm, red at the pit; stone adherent, small for the size of fruit; ripens in dry seasons from the middle to the end of October. =Pavie Tardif.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 233, 234. 1832. =2.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 36, Pl. 1846. Fruit large, compressed at the sides, with a distinct suture; skin yellow, washed with a red blush; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, with a pleasant flavor; ripens the last of October. =Pavie Très-Tardif Madame Vergé.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 409. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Pavien Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:208. 1858. Tree hardy and productive; fruit moderately large, of a yellowish-straw color, with a dark reddish-purple blush; flesh firm, very juicy, with a pleasant, vinous flavor; ripens in September. =Pavier Pleureur.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:228 fig., 229. 1879. _Pêcher Pleureur._ =2.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 51, 52. 1867. _Trauerpfirsich._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. This curious old peach of unknown origin has been known for nearly a century. It is said to reproduce itself from seed. Fruit of medium size, roundish, regular; skin clear yellow, washed with red; flesh greenish-white, red at the pit, juicy, with a sharp, bitter flavor; clingstone; ripens the last of September. =Payne.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:60 fig. 1910. =2.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 428, 429, Pl. 35. 1910. Payne originated in 1901 as a sprout from a peach-stock in the orchard of E. B. Payne and Sons, near Cloverdale, Michigan. Fruit large, round, with a shallow suture; color yellow, blushed and splashed with crimson; flesh yellow, slightly stained with red at the pit, melting, tender, juicy, with a pleasant, subacid flavor; quality good; stone free; ripens the last of August. =Peach de Pavie.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 210. 1676. Said to be a good, yellow peach. =Peach du Troas.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 582. 1629. "The peach _du Troas_ is a long and great whitish yellow Peach, red on the outside, early ripe, and is another kinde of Nutmeg Peach." =Pearce.= =1.= Greening Bros. _Cat._ 82. 1899. =2.= _Ont. Fr. Exp. Sta. Rpt._ =7=:55. 1900. According to Greening Brothers, Monroe, Michigan, this variety was raised by P. S. Pearce, Catawba Island, Ohio. Fruit large, roundish; skin yellow, blushed with red; flesh yellow, free, with excellent flavor and good quality; season the middle of September. =Pearl I.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:178. 1857. Originated many years ago with Mrs. L. A. Franklin, Athens, Georgia. Fruit large, round, creamy-white, with a rich red cheek; flesh adherent, white but red at the pit, firm, juicy, vinous, excellent; season the last of August. =Pearl II.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 290. 1893. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:61. 1910. This peach is said to be a cross between Late Crawford and Hale Early, originating with C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan. Fruit large, roundish, slightly elongated, with a shallow suture; color creamy-white, slightly shaded with crimson stripes; flesh free, creamy-white, juicy, melting, fibrous, with a rich, vinous flavor; season the middle of September. =Pearson No. I.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =15=:114. 1868. Raised by a Mr. Pearson, Chilwell, England. Fruit large, yellow; flesh deep orange-yellow, very melting, juicy, pleasantly flavored; quality good. =Pêche Baboud.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:171, 172. 1883. Leaves of medium size, with reniform glands; flowers very small; fruit large, irregularly ovoid, surface uneven; apex with a mamelon tip; skin fine, with heavy pubescence, pale yellow, blushed with intense purple in the sun; flesh white, stained about the pit, slightly acidulated, aromatic; stone large, nearly free; ripens the middle of August. =Pêche de Bisconte.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Pêche Blonde. 1.= Poiteau Pom. Franc. =1=:No. 26, Pl. 1846. Leaves small, with reniform glands; flowers large; fruit of medium size, elongated, with rugose surface; skin yellow, blushed and striped with clear red; flesh white, stained faintly at the pit, vinous; stone large, long; ripens at the end of August. =Pêche de Brahy.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Pêche Everardt.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 316. 1889. Fruit large, regular, spherical; flesh orange-yellow, stained at the pit, juicy; ripens at the end of August. =Pêche Grosse Violette.= =1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =3=:89, Pl. 1855. Tree productive; fruit large, round, distinctly sutured; skin with a deep red blush on a greenish-yellow ground; flesh white, red at the pit, sweet, vinous, aromatic; matures the middle of September. =Pêche d'Ile.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Pêche d'Ispahan.= =1.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 7, Pl. 1846. This peach was raised from seed brought to Paris, France, from Asia, about 1800, by a French naturalist, Olivier. Fruit small, nearly round, marked with a deep suture; skin greenish-white; flesh greenish-white, juicy, fibrous, with a delicious flavor when fully mature; season the middle of September. =Pêche Jaune Hâtive de Doné.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed but not described. =Pêche de Lion.= =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 351. 1802. A beautiful, somewhat elongated fruit, with firm, yellow flesh; freestone; ripens at the end of October. =Pêche du Quesnoy.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 52. 1876. Said to resemble Grosse Mignonne. =Pêche Quétier.= =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 216. 1876. Said to be a seedling of an English variety, raised by a M. Quétier, Meaux, Seine-et-Marne, France. Fruit large, round, with a distinct suture; skin yellow, with a deep red blush; flesh free, yellow, sweet, vinous, excellent; season late. =Pêche Reine des Tardives.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 324, 325, Pl. 1889. Raised from a pit of Baltet which it resembles. Fruit large, oval, sides often unequal; skin yellow, washed with considerable red; flesh free, yellow, with red veins extending through it, juicy, with a sweet, aromatic flavor; season very late. =Pêche Rouge de Mai.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 276, Pl. 1888. Fruit roundish-oblate, somewhat irregular; skin almost entirely covered with bright red; flesh white, semi-free, very juicy, sweet, with a pleasant, vinous flavor; ripens the beginning of August. =Pêche de Sainte-Anne.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 51, 223. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 35, 210. 1895. Originated in the Province of Lombardy, Italy. Fruit large, beautifully colored with dark red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, fibrous, sweet; ripens the first of August. =Pêche Souvenir de Pierre Tochon.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 246, 247. 1906. This peach was raised in 1891 but its parentage is unknown. Fruit very large, regular; color yellow, blushed with red; flesh yellowish-white, juicy, sweet; purplish-red next the pit which is free; quality very good; ripens the middle of September. =Pêche de Syrie.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:7, 8, fig. 2. 1866-73. =2.= _Pom. France_ =6=:No. 26, Pl. 26. 1869. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:283, 284 fig., 285. 1879. _D'Egypt._ =4.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:270. 1854. _Syrische Pfirsich._ =5.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. This variety probably originated from a peach-pit brought to France from Egypt about 1802 by a M. Barral, a surgeon in the French army. Fruit medium in size, roundish-oval, with a moderately deep suture; skin pale yellow, washed with dark red; flesh yellowish-white, tinged with red at the center, juicy, sweet, with a pleasant, vinous, aromatic flavor; quality good; stone free; ripens from the first to the middle of September. =Pêche Théophile Sueur.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 574, 575, Pl. 1909. Arthur Chevreau, a horticulturist at Montreuil-sous-Bois, France, obtained this variety from a peach-pit which he planted in 1897. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit medium to large, roundish, with a highly colored surface; flesh white, with red veins at the center, juicy, sweet; good to very good in quality; stone free; season early in September. =Pêche Tondu.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 261, 262. 1888. Originated at Montreuil, France, in 1878. Tree vigorous, productive; glands reniform; fruit large, oval; skin blushed with deep red; flesh white, stained at the pit, sweet, aromatic; ripens at the end of September. =Pêche de Trianon.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 51. 1876. Listed in this reference. =Pêche de Vérone.= =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 356. 1802. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:239, 240, fig. 118. 1866-73. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:298 fig., 299. 1879. This peach originated about 1830 in Verona, Venetia, Italy. Fruit large, roundish-oval, with a distinct suture; skin yellowish-white, dotted and washed with red in the sun; flesh free, white, tinged with purplish-red at the pit, juicy, sweet, with a pleasant, vinous flavor; ripens the first of September. =Pêche de Verviers.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 52. 1876. A glandless variety with rose-colored flowers. =Pêche de Vigne Blanche.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 236. 1908. Listed as a pubescent, freestone variety. =Pêche de Vigne Jaune.= =1.= Baltet _Cult Fr._ 236. 1908. This is also a freestone peach with pubescent skin. =Pêche de Vigne Rouge.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 236. 1908. Still another pubescent, freestone peach. =Pêche Vineuse Jaune.= =1.= Carriére _Var. Pêchers_ 63. 1867. Said to have been obtained in France by a M. Morel. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat flattened; skin yellowish-orange, with a carmine blush; flesh free, pale yellow, purplish-red at the pit, juicy, sweet, aromatic; season the middle of August. =Pêcher à Bois Jaune.= =1.= Decaisne _Jard. Fruit._ =7=:Pl. 1872-75. =2.= _Rev. Hort._ 516. 1889. This variety originated in the vicinity of Toulouse, Haute Garonne, France, and is valued both for its fruit and as an ornamental. Fruit of medium size, nearly round, often depressed at the base, with a distinct suture; skin orange-yellow, dotted and washed with red; flesh free, yellow, somewhat red about the pit, juicy, sweet and aromatic; ripens the last of September. =Pêcher Douteux.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 102. 1867. The tree of this variety has many characteristics of the almond while the fruit resembles the peach. Fruit of medium size, marked with a deep suture; skin yellowish-white, blushed with red; flesh free, white, slightly tinged with red at the pit, rather sweet and aromatic, with an agreeable flavor; season very late. =Pêcher à Fleur Semi-Double.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:42, 43, Pl. XXX. 1768. _Pêcher à Fleurs Doubles._ =2.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 25, Pl. 1846. This curious old peach has double flowers and bears its fruits in clusters of from one to four. Fruit small, roundish, with a well-marked suture; skin pale yellow, washed with clear red; flesh greenish-white, often red at the pit, fibrous, juicy, sweet, with an agreeable flavor; ripens the last of September. =Pêcher Hâtif de Chine.= =1.= Decaisne _Jard. Fruit._ =7=:Pl. 1872-75. Said to resemble Honey in certain characters. Fruit medium in size, roundish; color greenish-yellow, with a red blush; flesh free, white or sometimes tinged with red, juicy, often with an astringent flavor; ripens the last of July. =Pêcher Hybride Quétier.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 115. 1888. =2.= _Ibid._ 42, 43. 1889. This peach originated with a M. Quétier, Meaux, Seine-et-Marne, France, as a cross between Grosse Mignonne and an apricot. Tree vigorous; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, somewhat flattened, with a deep suture; skin greenish-yellow, marbled with red; flesh strongly adherent to the stone, white, juicy, firm, with a sweet, aromatic flavor; ripens early in October in France. =Pêcher Nain à Fleur Double.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:45, 46. 1768. Said to be a dwarf, double-flowering peach seldom bearing fruit and useful only as an ornamental. =Pêcher Nain d'Orléans.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 42 fig. 18, 43, 44. 1908. According to the reference this peach was mentioned by Louis Ligier in 1714. Fruit of medium size, round, with a deep suture; skin pale greenish-yellow, with a red blush; flesh white, tinged red at the pit which is adherent, moderately sweet, not of high flavor. =Pêcher Petite Madeleine.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 78, 79. 1867. =2.= Decaisne _Jard. Fruit._ =7=:Pl. 1872-75. Leaves glandless; flowers small; fruit small, round, slightly depressed; skin greenish-white, marbled with red; flesh free, white, dark red at the stone, very juicy, sweet, with a pleasant, aromatic flavor; ripens the middle of August. =Pêcher Thuret.= =1.= Decaisne _Jard. Fruit_ =7=:Pl. 1872-75. This peach was raised in 1862 by Gustave Thuret, Antibes, Alpes Maritimes, France, from a seed sent from China. Fruit large, with a distinct suture on one side; skin yellow, washed with dark red; flesh yellowish-white, red at the pit which is usually free, juicy, sweet, pleasantly flavored; season the last of August. =Peck Orange Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. In the reference Luther Burbank says that this variety is an improved seedling of Orange Cling, originated at Healdsburg, California. Fruit large, with yellow flesh; valuable for market or drying. =Pendleton.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:240. 1898. =2.= Berckmans _Cat._ 13. 1899. A very large, yellow, clingstone peach of good quality, ripening the first of September. =Penelope.= =1.= Hoffy _N. Am. Pom._ =1=:Pl. 1860. This peach originated with Isaac Baxter, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Fruit large, roundish; skin greenish-white, slightly stained with red; flesh greenish-white, red at the pit which is free, juicy, rich; quality very good; season the middle of September. =Peninsula.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:223. 1899. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:353. 1903. _Peninsula Yellow._ =3.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Fruit large, roundish, often inclined to oval, with a shallow suture; color yellow, washed with red; flesh yellow, red at the pit which is free, juicy, firm, with a vinous, sprightly flavor; ripens the middle of September. =Pennington.= =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:14. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Peregrine.= =1.= _Garden_ =64=:126, 127, 157. 1903. =2.= _Ibid._ =69=:334. 1906. This variety is supposed to be a seedling of the Spencer nectarine, raised by Thomas Rivers and Son, Sawbridgeworth, England, and introduced about 1906. Fruit large, with a bright crimson color; flesh melting and juicy, with a pleasant flavor; season early August. =Perfection.= =1.= _Chico Nur. Cat._ 26. 1904. According to the Chico Nursery Company, Chico, California, Perfection originated near Weston, Umatilla County, Oregon. Fruit large, yellow, with a beautiful blush; flesh yellow, red at the pit, thick, fine-grained; season early in September. =Period Early Nutmeg.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 101. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Persian Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 317. 1889. =2.= _Fancher Creek Nur. Cat._ 27. 1906. This variety is supposed to have originated from a seed of Heath Cling at Visalia, California. Fruit large, with clear white skin; flesh white to the pit, very firm, sweet; valuable for canning; ripens with its parent. =Persique.= =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:40, 41, Pl. XXIX. 1768. =3.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 229, 230, fig. 15. 1817. =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:13. 1832. =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:236, 237. 1879. _Grosse Perseque._ =6.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 232. 1832. _Persique Clingstone._ =7.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:36. 1832. _Persischer Lackpfirsich._ =8.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:215. 1858. _Persée._ =9.= _Le Bon Jard._ 329. 1882. Persique is a very old variety of unknown origin, the name having often been confused with other sorts. Fruit large, oblong, somewhat angular, often with small protuberances over the surface and with a distinct swelling at the apex; skin velvety, with considerable red; flesh white, light red next the stone, juicy, melting, with a rich, agreeable flavor; stone large, free; ripens from the last of September to early October. =Peruvianischer Blutpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:194. 1858. Fruit large, dark red, almost black; flesh dark red; ripens at the end of September. =Pesca Mandorla.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 907. 1858. Exhibited at the Imperial and Royal Horticultural Society, Tuscany, Italy. =Pesca Melo.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 907. 1858. Also exhibited at the Imperial and Royal Horticultural Society, Tuscany, Italy. =Peter Cling.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 152. 1883. Listed in this reference as coming from Washington County, Texas. =Petite Bourdine.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:141, 142, fig. 7. 1883. Fruit of medium size, elongated-oval; skin pale yellowish-white, washed with deep red; flesh white, striped with dark red at the pit which is free, juicy, firm, sweet, with a pleasant, aromatic flavor; season the middle of September. =Petite Imperial.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1877. _Petit Imperial Mammoth White._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 155. 1858. _Petit's Imperial._ =3.= _Mag. Hort._ =30=:208. 1864. A large, white, moderately juicy, vinous peach with reniform glands, ripening rather late. =Petite Mignonne.= =1.= _Traité des Pêchers_ =8.= 1750. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:174, 175. 1831. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 402. 1889. _Double de Troyes._ =4.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:8, 9, Pl. IV. 1768. =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:107, 108 fig., 109. 1879. _Kleine Lieblingspfirsche._ =6.= Christ _Handb._ 596, 597. 1817. _Grosse rothe Frühpfirsche._ =7.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 179, 180. 1825. _Kleiner lieblicher Lackpfirsich._ =8.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:213, 214. 1858. Besides being larger than Red Nutmeg, with which it is sometimes confused, this variety has small flowers of a very pale rose-color. It was first spoken of by the French in 1670. Leaves with small, reniform glands; fruit small, globose; skin thin, white, with some red; flesh stained at the pit, firm, sweet, aromatic; stone free, small, ovoid, plump; matures early in August. =Petite Pavie d'Ounous.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =26=:152, 153. 1860. Tree small; fruit nearly round, marked with a distinct suture; skin yellowish-white, dotted with a rose-color; flesh white, streaked with red at the stone which is adherent, firm, juicy, subacid and somewhat insipid; season very late. =Petite Violette Hâtive.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:26, 27, Pl. XVI, fig. 2. 1768. Fruit large, nearly round; skin yellowish-white, with a reddish-violet blush; flesh whitish-yellow, red at the pit, juicy, sweet, with a vinous, aromatic flavor; season the first of September. =Pettingill Early.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =14=:119. 1863. Said to have originated in Missouri from seed brought from New Hampshire and planted in 1852. A bright, attractive fruit. =Pfirsich-Nectarine.= =1.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =VI=:No. 16, Pl. 16. 1882. This variety was raised from a nectarine seed about 1860 by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Fruit large, roundish, slightly compressed; skin practically smooth on the sides but with fine pubescence at the base and apex, yellowish-white, with a dark red blush; flesh white, red at the pit, firm, juicy; quality good; season the middle of September. =Pfirsiche mit Nicht Ablöslichem Stein.= =1.= _Deut. Obstcabinet_ =7=:Pl. 35. 1858. Fruit oval, with a deep suture; skin pale yellow, washed with purplish-red; flesh whitish-yellow, red at the pit, melting, with a pleasant, subacid flavor; season the middle of October. =Pfirsiche von Pau.= =1.= _Deut. Obstcabinet_ =7=:Pl. 11. 1858. Fruit large, round, with a shallow suture; color pale green, with some red; flesh white, red at the pit, melting, juicy, subacid and pleasant; ripens the middle of October. =Phfleiger.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 293. 1854. An unproductive variety which bears large, yellow, freestone fruit with good flavor and which ripens in September. =Phillips Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 317. 1889. =2.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 206. 1913. =Phillips.= =3.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 392. 1891. This peach originated with Joseph Phillips, Sutter County, California, and was introduced by J. T. Bogue of Marysville. Fruit large, round, slightly compressed; color lemon-yellow, lightly shaded with red; flesh yellow, firm, juicy, with a sweet flavor; quality good; season the first of September. =Piasa.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 166. 1895. Said to produce a large, attractive yellow, freestone peach of good quality, but not sweet, ripening August first. =Pickett.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:31. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:223. 1899. Said to have originated in Missouri. Fruit of medium size, roundish, slightly inclined to ovate; skin yellow, with a red blush; flesh clinging, yellow, red at the pit, firm, juicy, with a mild, sprightly flavor; quality fair; ripens the last of September. =Picquet Late.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 627. 1869. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =28=:151, 375. 1873. Originated with Antoine Picquet, Belair, Georgia. Glands reniform; fruit large, round, often somewhat flattened and one-sided; skin yellow, with a red cheek; flesh yellow, melting, sweet, rich and aromatic; stone free; ripens early in September. =Piel Pfirsich.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 410. 1889. Listed as a worthy, German variety. =Pierce Seedling.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1900. Listed without a description. =Pignutt Late.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 9. 1877. This variety is said to have been disseminated in southern Illinois, where it proved to be a superior sort. =Pinckney.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 200. 1841. A very large, excellent, late peach. =Pineapple.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. _Charlestowner Ananaspfirsche._ =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 350. 1802. _Grosse Charlestowner Ananaspfirsche._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 600, 601. 1817. _Pineapple Clingstone._ =4.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:414. 1826. _Ananas-Aprikosenpfirsich._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:220. 1858. Pineapple, according to Christ, is a seedling of Alberge introduced from South Carolina some time previous to 1800. When perfectly ripe, the juice is rich and lively and has the flavor of a pineapple. =Pingree.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =57=:21. 1898. Listed in this reference. =Pitmaston Seedling Noblesse.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 101. 1831. Listed but not described. =Plant.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:240. 1898. =2.= Berckmans _Cat._ 13. 1899. _Plant Cling._ =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 134. 1897. Plant is an attractive peach of unknown origin. Tree low, compact, only moderately healthy, unproductive; fruit very large, round, lemon-yellow, with a red blush; flesh pale yellow, juicy, coarse, sweet but of poor quality; clingstone; ripens from July 25th to August 10th. =Plowden.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =26=:288. 1871. =2.= _Gard. Mon._ =13=:245, 246, 278, 343. 1871. Plowden originated about sixty miles below Washington, D. C. The fruit resembles that of Hale Early but ripens about ten days earlier. Fruit large, roundish; flesh white, very juicy; quality good; stone free. =Pocahontas.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 205. 1858. Listed in this reference. =Poinsett.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =4=:277. 1849-50. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 287. 1854. Originated in South Carolina. Leaves glandless; fruit large, roundish-oval, with a pointed apex; color ruddy yellow; flesh firm, juicy; clingstone; season September. =Pond Late.= =1.= _Tex. Nur. Cat._ 13. 1909. According to the Texas Nursery Company, Sherman, Texas, this peach originated and was introduced by E. W. Kirkpatrick, McKinney, Texas. Fruit large, roundish-oblong; skin yellow; flesh yellow, free; of good quality; season September. =Pond Seedling.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 179. 1886. A large, desirable, hardy, late peach, ripening about September 25th. =Poole Island.= =1.= _Utah Sta. Bul._ =18=:14. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Poole Large Yellow.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 194. 1841. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 491. 1845. =3.= _Ont. Fr. Exp. Sta. Rpt._ =7=:54. 1900. _Pool Favorite._ =4.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 97. 1910. This peach originated near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, about 1840. Fruit large, roundish, with a distinct suture; skin deep yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh free, yellow, red at the pit, rich, juicy, of excellent flavor; ripens from the last of September to early October. =Porpree.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 105, Pl. XXXII fig. III. 1729. _Pourprée._ =2.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:87. 1771. Porpree, according to some authors, resembles Rossanna. Tree very branchy, productive; leaves sharply serrate; flowers small, purple; fruit large, round, often irregular; skin slightly pubescent, purplish; flesh purple, juicy, vinous; quality good; pit adherent, purplish; ripens the last of August. =Port Royal.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 102. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Porter.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 203. 1879. Listed in this reference. =Portugal.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. =2.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =3.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 277. 1831. _Portugiesische Pfirsche._ =4.= Christ _Handb._ 597. 1817. Leaves usually glandless; fruit large, round; skin pale yellow, dark red in the sun; flesh white, faint red at the stone which is closely adherent, firm, with a rich, vinous flavor; ripens the middle of September. =Potomac Heath.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 127, 128. 1854. This large, late peach of good quality is said to have been brought to notice by John Dowling, Fairfax, Virginia. =Pound Hardy.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:67. 1900. Mentioned in the reference as being a tree of medium growth. =Pourpre de Frogmore.= =1.= _Guide Prat._ 38. 1895. Of English origin. Glands globose; fruit medium in size, roundish, very largely covered with deep purple; flesh white, melting, sweet, refreshing; matures the second half of September. =Pourprée du Grand-Jardin.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. Glands globose; flowers of medium size; fruit large, red; of first quality; ripens late in August. =Pourprée Hâtive.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:19, 20; Pl. XI. 1768. This variety is distinct from Grosse Mignonne with which it has been confused. Fruit large, round, with a deep suture; color a deep, mottled red in the sun; flesh white, red at the pit, juicy, vinous, pleasantly flavored. =Pourprée Joseph Norin.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed by Mas. =Pourprée Tardive de Lyon.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 410. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Powell.= =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:14. 1892. _Powell's Mammoth._ =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Mentioned in these references. =Powers September.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Listed in this reference. =Prächtige von Choisy.= =1.= Gaucher _Pom. Prak. Obst._ No. 89, Tab. 7. 1894. Fruit large or very large, roundish-oval, with a distinct suture; skin greenish-yellow, with a deep, mottled blush; flesh whitish throughout, juicy, melting, pleasant-flavored; season the last of September. =Prachtvolle Blutpfirsich.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 411. 1889. _Sanguine Grosse Admirable._ =2.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 64. 1867. Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit of medium size; skin covered with a grayish pubescence, marbled and streaked with deep red; flesh deep red, juicy, moderately sweet; stone red, oval; ripens at the end of September. =Prado.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50, 222. 1876. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit large, ripening the last of September. =Präsident Griepenkerl.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 411. 1889. Mentioned in this reference. =Pratt.= =1.= _Cult. & Count. Gent._ =52=:746. 1887. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:223. 1899. Said to have been brought to notice by J. H. Hale, South Glastonbury, Connecticut. Fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed, with a distinct suture; color yellow, with a red cheek; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, tender, mild; quality good; pit free; ripens the last of August. =Précoce de Bagnolet.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 103. 1901. This peach was raised from seed of Grosse Mignonne Hâtive a number of years ago by a M. Savart, Bagnolet, Seine, France. Fruit large, flattened, with a small suture; skin white, slightly rose-colored in the sun; flesh white, juicy, sweet, vinous; quality good; stone free; ripens a few days earlier than Hale Early. =Précoce de Beauregard.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 237. 1908. Said to grow in the vicinity of Hyeres, Var, France. =Précoce de Bonpas.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 237. 1908. Said to grow in the Pyrenees Mountains. =Précoce de Chartreuse.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:271. 1854. Fruit of medium size, highly colored; skin fine; flesh delicate, melting, vinous; ripens early in September. =Précoce de Croncels.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 249, fig. 150. 1908. Fruit large, yellowish-amber, tinted with purplish-red; flesh juicy, firm, with an agreeable flavor; ripens the first of August. =Précoce Gaudin.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 411. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Précoce de Mezen.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 52. 1876. Said to have bell-shaped flowers and reniform glands. =Précoce du Périgord.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. Fruit large and of good quality. =Précoce de Saint-Assicle.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 411. 1889. _St. Ascycles._ =2.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 393. 1895-97. Said to be of French origin. =Precocious.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =17=:368. 1875. According to the reference, this is a seedling which grew with J. Lewis, Alvin, Illinois, about 1873. Said to have bloomed when three months old. =Premier.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =33=:80. 1877. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 456. 1884. This peach is a cross between Grosse Mignonne and Bellegarde, raised in the Royal Gardens, Frogmore, England. Fruit large, round; suture shallow, terminated at the apex with a sharp nipple; skin nearly covered with purplish-red, becoming very dark in the sun; flesh juicy, tender, melting, with a rich, pleasant flavor; stone free. =President.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:33, 34. 1832. =3.= _Pom. Mag._ =2=:54, Pl. 1839. =4.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 278. 1854. _Präsidenten-Lackpfirsich._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:211. 1858. President originated at Bedford, New York, nearly a century ago and has long since passed from cultivation. Tree healthy, productive, bearing leaves with globose glands; fruit large, roundish-oval, with a shallow suture; skin pale yellowish-green, with a red cheek; flesh white, red at the pit which is free, juicy, sweet, highly flavored; ripens the middle of September. =President Church.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 623, 624. 1857. =2.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:179. 1857. =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:221, 222, fig. 109. 1866-73. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:245, 246 fig. 1879. _Church._ =5.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 62. 1891. This variety was raised by Rev. A. Church, President of Franklin College, Athens, Georgia. Glands reniform; fruit large, roundish, inclining to oval; suture often a mere line; skin pale yellow, mottled and washed with dark red; flesh white, pale red at the pit, juicy, melting, with a delicious flavor; stone free; season the middle of September. =President Lyon.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 187. 1880. This variety was raised from a seed of Early Crawford planted in 1870 by C. C. Engle, Paw Paw, Michigan. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; glands reniform; fruit similar to Early Crawford but larger. =Preston.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 690. 1897. =3.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:105, 106. 1901. Preston originated with a Mr. Preston, near Greensboro, North Carolina, and was introduced by J. Van Lindley of Pomona. Its parentage is unknown. Fruit large, creamy-yellow, with a red cheek; flesh light yellow, juicy, adherent; quality good; ripens two weeks later than Chinese Cling. =Price.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:808, 809. 1896. Fruit of medium size, roundish, slightly pointed; color greenish-white, with a light red cheek; freestone; season the first of August. =Pride of Autumn.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50. 1876. This peach has rose-colored flowers, reniform glands and ripens in October. =Pride of Franklin.= =1.= _Rural_ N. Y. =46=:352. 1887. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 198. 1899. Said to be grown extensively in New Jersey. Fruit large, round, with yellow skin and flesh; freestone; quality good; resembles Late Crawford and ripens about five days later. =Pride of Idaho.= =1.= Chase _Cat._ 20. 1895. =2.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. According to the R. G. Chase Company, Geneva, New York, this peach originated in the mountains of Western Idaho. Fruit of medium size, having a yellow skin, with a slight blush; ripens after Late Crawford. =Pride of Northboro.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 434. 1904. Said to have done well in the vicinity of Shenandoah, Iowa. =Prince Blood Clingstone.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:32. 1832. A superior variety of its class raised by William Prince; used mostly for preserves, compotes, and pickles. Flowers small; fruit large, oval; skin very downy, dark purplish; flesh crimson; flavor indifferent. =Prince Climax.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 641. 1857. Said to have originated on the farm of George Mitchell, Flushing, New York. Tree very productive; fruit large, oval; skin yellow, mottled with a crimson cheek; flesh yellow, very rich, aromatic, with a pineapple flavor; stone adherent; ripens from the middle to the end of September. =Prince Eugène.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 228. 1866. _Eugen von Savoyen._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:205. 1858. _Prinz Eugen._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 50, 223. 1876. Similar to Early Purple, of which it is a seedling, but smaller and more deeply sutured. Tree vigorous and very productive; ripens the middle of August. =Prince John.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 302. 1859. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:246, 247 fig. 1879. This variety is of American origin and was sent to France in 1860 by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia. Fruit large, roundish or roundish-oval; skin orange-yellow, with a deep red blush; flesh deep yellow, firm, very juicy, with a delicious flavor; stone free; ripens the middle of September in France. =Prince Late Yellow Freestone.= =1.= Bridgeman _Gard. Ass't._ =Pt. 3=:107, 108. 1857. A beautiful, greenish-yellow fruit, tinged with red, having a firm, rich flesh. =Prince of Wales.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 229. 1866. =2.= _Am. Hort. Ann._ 79, 80. 1870. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1877. _Prinz von Wales._ =4.= Gaucher _Pom. Prak. Obst._ No. 90, Tab. 17. 1894. Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, raised this peach from a seed of Pitmaston Orange nectarine. It fruited first in America with James H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York, in 1869. The variety held a place in the American Pomological Society's fruit-list from 1877 to 1891. Tree vigorous, bearing leaves with reniform glands; fruit of medium size, roundish, slightly flattened, with one side enlarged; suture distinct, extending beyond the apex; skin creamy-white, shaded and mottled with red in the sun; flesh white, stained red at the stone from which it freely separates, juicy, tender, melting, sweet, with a rich, vinous flavor; ripens early in September. =Princess Paragon.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:177. 1857. Fruit large, oval, with one side larger than the other; skin yellowish-white, dotted and nearly overspread with red; flesh white, melting, juicy; quality good; freestone; ripens the middle of August. =Princess of Wales.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 229. 1866. =2.= _Am. Hort. Ann._ 80. 1870. =3.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =24=:471. 1873. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1877. _Princesse de Galles._ =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:248 fig., 249. 1879. _Prinzessin von Wales._ =6.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =VI=:No. 17, Pl. 1882. _Princess._ =7.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:223. 1899. This peach is another seedling raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, about 1863, from a seed of Pavie de Pompone. It first fruited in America some six years later with James H. Ricketts, Newburgh, New York. The American Pomological Society listed the variety in its fruit-catalog from 1877 until 1897. Tree vigorous, with leaves having globose glands; fruit large, round, narrowing towards the apex which is terminated by a nipple; suture indistinct; skin creamy-white, shaded with a red cheek; flesh free, white, red at the stone, juicy, melting, sweet, good; ripens the last of September. =Princesse Marie.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 228, 229. 1866. =2.= _Le Bon Jard._ 328, 329. 1882. _Prinzessin Marie von Württemberg._ =3.= Koch _Deut. Obst._ 540. 1876. Tree vigorous, with glandless leaves; fruit of medium size, roundish; skin yellowish-white, dotted with pale red and shaded with dark red; flesh yellowish-white, rayed with red at the pit, melting, juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor; stone free; season the middle of September. =Prize.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1899. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:223. 1899. =3.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:354. 1903. Fruit large, roundish, with a slight suture; skin yellow, more or less blushed with thin red; flesh free, yellow, red at the pit, juicy, very tender, with a vinous, sprightly flavor; ripens from the middle to the last of September. =Probst Friedrich Pfirsich.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Professeur Vilaire.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 238. 1908. Listed in this reference. =Proudfoot.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:137, 138, fig. 5. 1883. Probably originated with a Dr. Proudfoot, Cleveland, Ohio. Fruit large, roundish-conic; skin greenish-yellow, washed with dark red; flesh yellow, rather dark red at the pit which is free, juicy, sweet, tender, with a pleasant, aromatic flavor; ripens from the first to the middle of October. =Pry Favorite.= =1.= _W. Va. Sta. Bul._ =82=:406. 1902. Said to ripen earlier than Lorentz. =Pullen.= =1.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 177. 1908. _Pullen's Seedling._ =2.= _Gard. Mon._ =3=:215, 216 fig. 1861. Raised by Isaac Pullen, Hightstown, New Jersey. Fruit very large, compressed; color yellow, blushed with dark red; flesh yellow, with an excellent flavor; ripens the last of September. =Purdy.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 279. 1882. Valued for the size and attractiveness of the fruit; ripens just before Late Crawford. =Purple Peach.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =25=:305. 1883. This is a seedling, valued chiefly as an ornamental. =Pyramidal.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:250, 251 fig., 252. 1879. This peach which was found near Poissy, Seine-et-Oise, France, in 1823, is valued chiefly as an ornamental. Fruit small, roundish-oval, irregular; skin yellowish-white, marbled with deep carmine; flesh yellowish-white, slightly red at the pit, juicy, very sweet; quality good; stone free; season the first of September. =Quaker.= =1.= _Augustine Nur. Cat._ No. =43=:7. 1910. According to Augustine and Company, Normal, Illinois, this peach was found in northwestern Iowa about 1900, by Colonel Milton L. Haney, and was later introduced by the firm named. Tree hardy; fruit of medium size; of fair quality. =Quality.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 290. 1893. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 73. 1895. Originated with J. W. Kerr, Denton, Maryland. Fruit medium to large, roundish; color white, with a red cheek; flesh free, creamy-white, tinged with red at the stone, juicy, melting, vinous, sprightly; quality very good; season the last of August. =Queen.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ =1=:11. 1901. Mentioned as growing on the Missouri Station grounds. =Queen Caroline.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 102. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Queen of Delaware.= =1.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 178. 1908. Originated in Delaware. Tree vigorous; fruit large, attractive white, with a red blush; flavor excellent. =Queen Olga.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:67. 1900. _Königin Olga._ =2.= _Gard. Chron._ 437. 1885. =3.= Lucas _Handb. Obst._ 476. 1893. Queen Olga is a seedling of Willermoz grown at Reutlingen, Württemberg, Germany. Larger and earlier than its parent; flesh yellow, stained about the pit from which it separates readily. =Queen of the South.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:517. 1902. This peach is supposed to be a seedling of Peento and has been replaced by better sorts. Fruit large, roundish-oblong, with a shallow suture; skin dark yellow, washed with dull red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, firm, juicy, sweet, slightly acid, pleasant; stone free; season July. =Queenes.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 582. 1629. "The Queenes Peach is a faire great yellowish browne Peach, shadowed as it were over with deepe red, and is ripe at Bartholmew tide, of a very pleasant good taste." =Quetier.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 411. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 41. 1895. Glands reniform; fruit large; flesh yellow, tender, juicy, sweet, vinous, with a pleasant flavor; stone free; ripens from the first to the middle of October. =Quince.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. "Quince Peach is something of that fashion, yellow and good." =R. S. Stevens.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:225. 1899. =2.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 114. 1900. This peach is a seedling which originated on the grounds of late congressman, R. S. Stevens, Attica, New York. On the Station grounds the tree is rather strong, hardy, fairly productive; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed; suture distinct; apex a mere point; skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit, tender, very mild, vinous, juicy; quality good; pit very small, nearly round, plump; season early September. =Radclyffe.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 55. 1876. Obtained from a seed of Desse Tardive grown by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Fruit very large, with a pale color and excellent flavor; ripens the last of September. =Ragan Smock.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 94. 1881. This variety is a seedling of Smock raised by Z. S. Ragan, Independence, Missouri. The fruit has golden flesh, ripens late and is a delicious, semi-clingstone peach. =Ragan Yellow.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 404. 1894. Listed in this reference. =Rainbow.= =1.= _Can. Hort._ =24=:486 fig., 487. 1901. Rainbow was raised from a peach-pit brought from Mackinac Island, Michigan, in 1897 by David Sare, London, Ontario, Canada. Fruit large, with an attractive straw-color, mottled with purplish-red; flesh yellow, with pink markings, juicy, pleasant-flavored; stone nearly free. =Raisin.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:813. 1896. =2.= Munson _Cat._ 16. 1914-15. According to T. V. Munson and Son, Denison, Texas, this peach is supposed to be the result of a cross between Columbia and Heath Cling. Fruit small, oval, with an acute apex; skin dull yellowish-white, mottled with reddish-brown; flesh adherent, white, tinted with red, with a subacid flavor; quality good; ripens the middle of August in Texas. =Rambouillet.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. =2.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =3.= Christ _Wörterb._ 355. 1802. =4.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 268. 1831. =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:254. 1879. This variety was raised about 1670 near Paris, France, and evidently was named in honor of Marquis de Rambouillet of Paris. It was introduced into England in 1729 where it was grown for many years. Fruit of medium size, elongated-oval, with a deep suture; skin pale yellow, with a fine, red blush; flesh yellow, deep red at the pit which is free, juicy, with a pleasant, vinous flavor; ripens the middle of September. =Ramsey Early Cling.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1880. Originated by A. M. Ramsey, Mahomet, Texas; the fruit is said to excel Alexander. =Ramsey Late.= =1.= _Austin Nur. Cat._ 4. 1912. According to F. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas, this peach originated with Mr. Ramsey near Bowie, Texas. The tree is productive and the fruit is a white clingstone resembling Heath Cling; the fruit ripens in September. =Ranck.= =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 51 fig. 1888-89. This is a seedling of Early Crawford which originated with Martin A. Ranck about 1886. Fruit of medium size, roundish-oblate; color pale creamy-yellow, splashed and shaded with red; flesh free, nearly white, slightly red at the pit, juicy, moderately firm, with a rich, high flavor; ripens from the middle to the last of August. =Raymaekers.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:256, 257 fig. 1879. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 457. 1884. _Raymaekers' Magdalene._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:199. 1858. This peach was probably raised in Belgium about 1825. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat depressed, with a distinct suture; skin greenish-yellow, with a deep crimson blush; flesh greenish-white, stained with red at the pit from which it separates, juicy, melting, vinous; quality good; ripens early in September. =Raymond Cling.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:179. 1857. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1873. _Ray._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 628. 1869. This variety, grown by Dr. H. Ray, Yalobusha County, Mississippi, is a seedling of an old Indian peach. In 1873, it was listed in the American Pomological Society's fruit-catalog but was dropped in 1897. The variety should not be confused with Ray, a sort of more recent origin. Glands reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish, with a shallow suture; apex pointed; skin creamy-white, shaded and spotted with red; flesh white, juicy, vinous, well-flavored; ripens the last of August. =Read Seedling.= =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 167 fig. 1886-87. This variety was first brought to public notice in 1886 by Professor M. C. Read, Hudson, Ohio. Fruit of medium size, with white, juicy flesh which is red near the stone; quality good; stone free; season early September. =Reagen.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:813, 814. 1896. Fruit large; color greenish-white, with a red cheek; flavor pleasantly acid; stone free; season the last of July in Texas. =Red Bird.= =1.= Bradley Bros. _Cat._ 31. 1913. =2.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 206. 1913. According to Bradley Brothers, Makanda, Illinois, the tree of this variety is hardy and bears early and abundantly; fruit large, with bright, glowing red color and fine quality; ripens early. =Red Ceylon.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. =2.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 13. 1900. Fruit large, with a dull green color; flesh blood-red to the stone from which it separates freely, a little too acid for most palates but excellent for cooking; of the Peento type and productive in southern Florida. =Red Magdalen.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 100, Pl. 27 fig. =5.= 1729. =2.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ =1=:Pl. 26 fig. 3. 1817. =3.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 268, 269. 1831. _Madeleine Rouge._ =4.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:14, 15, Pl. VII. 1768. =5.= _Pom. France_ =6=:No. 7, Pl. 7. 1869. _Madeleine de Courson._ =6.= _Pom. Mag._ =1=:30, Pl. 1828. =7.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 262. 1831. =8.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:150, 151, fig. 152. 1879. _Coursoner Magdalene._ =9.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:196. 1858. _Rothe Magdalene._ =10.= _Ibid._ =3=:196, 197. 1858. _Rote Magdalenenpfirsich._ =11.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 412. 1889. This variety, probably known for over two centuries, has been confused with several other old sorts and, as the numerous synonyms show, has been grown under various names. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large; fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed, with a long, deep suture; skin pale yellow, with a deep red blush; flesh white, stained with red at the stone which is free, juicy, melting, vinous, rich; quality good; ripens the first of September. =Red Nectarine.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 1466. 1873. Mentioned as a hardy, free-bearing, Syrian variety. =Red Nutmeg.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 100. 1729. =2.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 251. 1831. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:174. 1831. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 482. 1845. _Avant-Pêche Rouge._ =5.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:7, 8, Pl. III. 1768. =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:50, 51. 1879. =7.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:163, 164, fig. 18. 1883. _Scarlet Nutmeg._ =8.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 16. 1820. _Rothe Frühpfirsche von Troyes._ =9.= Liegel _Anweisung_ 68. 1822. _Kleiner Rother Frühpfirsich._ =10.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:203, 204. 1858. _Rote Frühpfirsich._ =11.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 412. 1889. Red Nutmeg, probably known more than two centuries ago, has little to recommend it aside from its earliness. Tree moderate in growth, rather dwarf, having large, rose-colored flowers and leaves with reniform glands; fruit small, roundish, with a distinct suture; skin pale yellow, with a bright, rich red cheek; flesh yellowish-white, usually red at the stone which is free, juicy, sweet but with a musky flavor; ripens from the middle to the last of July. =Red Peach.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. "The red Peach is a faire Peach, and of a very good relish." =Red Rareripe.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 221. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 485, 486. 1845. =3.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 188. 1908. _Early Red Rareripe of Rhoades._ =4.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 220. 1832. _Early Red Rareripe._ =5.= _Ibid._ 184. 1841. This peach has often been confused with Early York and Morris Red Rareripe. The fruit is larger and broader and ripens a week later than the first and its serrate, glandless leaves serve to distinguish it from the latter. Because of its similarity to Royal George, it is supposed to be an American seedling of that variety. Leaves serrate, glandless; flowers small; fruit large, roundish but broad and depressed; suture broad, extending nearly around the fruit; skin white, mottled with red dots, with a rich, dark red cheek; flesh white, red at the stone, juicy, melting, rich, highly flavored; ripens from the middle to the last of August. =Red River.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:814. 1896. =3.= _Ont. Fr. Exp. Sta. Rpt._ =7=:55. 1900. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. Introduced by T. V. Munson and Son, Denison, Texas. Fruit large, roundish; skin creamy-white, with a fine red cheek; flesh creamy-white, juicy, fine-grained, with a pleasant flavor; quality good; pit nearly free; ripens the first of August. =Red Seedling.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:37. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:224. 1899. Supposed to have originated at South Haven, Michigan. Fruit of medium size, roundish, with a distinct suture; color creamy-white, with a bright red blush; flesh creamy-white, slightly red at the pit from which it separates, juicy, tender, with a mild, vinous flavor; season from the middle to the last of August. =Redding.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:240, 241. 1898. Originated at the Georgia Experiment Station, Experiment, Georgia. Glands globose; fruit of medium size, roundish; color deep yellow, with a red blush; flesh free, yellow, firm, juicy, melting; quality good; ripens the first of July in Georgia. =Reed.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 43. 1895. _Reed Early Golden._ =2.= _Gard. Mon._ =26=:308. 1884. Fruit large, roundish, with a shallow suture; skin yellow, blushed and striped with red; flesh yellow, tinged with red at the stone which is free, tender, mild subacid, rich; quality very good; ripens the last of August. =Reeks.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 279. 1882. Reeks ripens with Amsden and Alexander; is larger and fully as attractive as these sorts. =Reeves Mammoth.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. =2.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 13. 1900. This sort is said to have originated in Orange County, Florida. It is advertised as a fine, large, productive, freestone peach, ripening early in August. =Regan Pride.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 95. 1882. Listed in this reference as a good variety. =Ren.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:814. 1896. Tree vigorous but not productive; glands large, reniform; fruit of medium size, round, with an acute point; color yellow, splashed with red; flavor pleasant acid; stone clinging; ripens the last of June in Texas. =Rendatler.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 81. 1867. =2.= Decaisne _Jard. Fruit._ =7=:Pl. 1872-75. _Belle Mousseuse._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 52, 216. 1876. Fruit large, nearly round, with a distinct suture; skin pale yellow, with an attractive, red blush; flesh yellowish-white, tinged with red at the pit which is free, juicy, tender, sweet, with a pleasant flavor; ripens in Paris the last of August. =Reuinsiela.= =1.= _Ariz. Sta. Bul._ =15=:62. 1895. Listed in this reference. =Rey.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 412. 1889. Mentioned in this reference. =Reynolds.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Bul._ =12=:10, 11, Pl. 8. 1904. Fruit large, more oblate than Elberta; skin yellow, with a red blush; flesh yellow, of the texture of Elberta but juicier and better flavored; season ten days earlier than Elberta. =Richardson Mammoth.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Listed as growing in the Delaware Station Experiment orchard on the farm of Charles Wright, near Seaford, Delaware. =Richmond.= =1.= Tilton _Jour. Hort._ =8=:328, 329 fig. 1870. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 1st App. 122. 1872. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1877. Richmond is one of a large number of seedlings raised by Dr. E. W. Sylvester, Lyons, New York. It was placed upon the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1877 where it still remains. Glands reniform; fruit medium to large, roundish, slightly compressed, with a distinct suture; skin yellow, shaded and mottled with dark, rich red; flesh yellow, red at the stone which is free, juicy, melting, sweet, vinous; quality very good; ripens the last of September. =Rickets.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 106, Pl. XXXII fig. IV. 1729. First propagated by a Mr. Rickets. Fruit light yellow, with a vermilion blush; flesh white, red at the pit, juicy, melting, sweet; ripens the last of August. =Riepper.= =1.= _N. Mex. Sta. Bul._ =30=:235. 1899. Said to ripen in September in New Mexico. =Rigaudière.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:260, 261 fig. 1879. Raised in 1863 by Auguste Boisselot, Nantes, Loire-Inférieure, France. Fruit above medium in size, round, with a distinct suture; color clear yellow, mottled and washed with dark red; flesh free, white, red at the pit, juicy, with a sweet, aromatic flavor; ripens the first of August. =Ringold.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:814. 1896. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:224, 1899. =3.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:354. 1903. _Ringold Mammoth Cling_. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 161. 1881. Said to be taking the place of Heath Cling in Ohio and Michigan. Fruit large, roundish, Somewhat ovate; skin creamy-white; flesh entirely white, tender, rich, sprightly; quality good; clingstone; season early October. =Rival.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:517. 1902. Fruit roundish-oblong, flattened at the base and apex; color pale yellow, washed with dull red; flesh free, yellow, red at the pit, juicy, firm, with an agreeable, sweet, slightly acid flavor; season July. =River Bank.= =1.= _Utah Sta. Bul._ =18=:14. 1892. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:224. 1899. =3.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:354. 1903. Tree vigorous and hardy; fruit large, roundish-oval, slightly compressed; color greenish-yellow, with a dark red blush; flesh yellowish-white, juicy, tender, mild; quality good; pit semi-free; ripens the last of July. =Rivers Early York.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =34=:89. 1868. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 630. 1869. =3.= _Jour. Hort. N. S._ =17=:58. 1869. =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 458. 1884. This variety is a seedling of Early York, raised many years ago by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. It differs from its parent chiefly in having globose glands on its leaves. Tree not as susceptible to mildew as is Early York; fruit of medium size roundish; skin marbled with red; flesh melting, juicy, with a nectarine flavor; stone free; quality good; season in England, early August. =Robena.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 209, Pl. IV. 1893. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =143=:186. 1897. Raised about 1887 by Dr. Thomas Taylor, Washington, D. C. Tree productive; glands reniform; fruit large, roundish, with a long, shallow suture; skin yellow, shaded with red and crimson; flesh free, yellow, tinged with red at the pit, juicy, melting, mild subacid, vinous; quality good; season early October. =Robert.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =11=:44. 1891. =2.= Ibid. =42=:241. 1898. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. Glands large, globose; fruit large, roundish, with a lemon-yellow color; flesh semi-clinging, white but red at the pit, juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor; ripens early in August. =Robert Lavallée.= =1.= _Guide Prat._ 41. 1895. Fruit large, oval; color deep red in the sun; flesh yellowish-white, red around the pit which is nearly free, juicy, sweet, with a vinous flavor; ripens the middle of September. =Roberta.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 392. 1891. Fruit of medium size, roundish; color reddish-yellow, washed with dark red; flesh free, reddish-yellow, with a rich, vinous flavor; ripens from the first to the middle of August. =Robertson.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 412. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Robinson Crusoe.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 228. 1832. =2.= Bridgeman _Gard. Ass't._ Pt. =3=:108. 1857. _Early Robinson Crusoe._ =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 184. 1841. This peach was raised long ago by a Dr. Coxe, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from a pit brought from Juan Fernandez Island in the Pacific Ocean. Fruit large, round; skin pale yellow, with a light red blush; flesh very juicy, sweet and delicious; ripens early in September. =Rockey.= =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =63=:130, fig. 59. 1904. Introduced by J. W. Rockey, Miamisburg, Ohio. Fruit large, roundish; color yellow, with a blush; flesh yellow, sweet, free; ripens in southern Ohio about the middle of October. =Rodgers.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 290, 291. 1893. Said to have come from W. C. Rodgers, Nashville, Arkansas. Fruit below medium in size, oblong, pointed, irregular; skin dull yellowish-white, striped and blushed with red; flesh adherent, dull yellowish-white, with some red at the stone, firm, mild, sweet; quality good; season the middle of November in Arkansas. =Rodman Red.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 196. 1841. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 630. 1869. _Rodman's Cling._ =3.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 229. 1857. Fruit large, roundish-oblong; skin almost white, nearly covered with red; flesh white, red near the pit, juicy, firm, with a vinous, aromatic flavor; season the last of September. =Rogers I.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =19=:115. 1877. This peach, which originated in Newbury, Massachusetts, is supposed to be a seedling of Early Crawford. It resembles its parent but is earlier and sweeter; ripens the middle of September. =Rogers II.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:107. 1901. This variety is a seedling of Chinese Cling, having originated with a Mr. Rogers, near McKinney, Texas. Fruit of medium size, round; color creamy-white, with a full red cheek; flesh free, white, tender, melting, mild subacid; good; ripens just before Mamie Ross. =Roman.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 582. 1629. =2.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. Said to be a very good, yellow peach. =Romorantin.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:261, 262 fig. 1879. _Jaune de Romorantin._ =2.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 62. 1867. As its name indicates, this variety originated in Romorantin, Loir-et-Cher, France. Fruit medium to large, roundish, with unequal sides and a distinct suture; skin greenish-yellow, shaded with dark red; flesh white, red at the pit, very juicy, vinous, sweet; quality good; stone free; season the middle of September. =Romorantin à Chair Rouge.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference without description. =Ronde de Vallabrêques.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 103. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Rose Aromatic.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 630. 1869. Originated with J. F. Nesmith, Indian Town, South Carolina. Fruit of medium size, oblong, one side enlarged; suture distinct; skin yellow, washed with red; flesh white, red near the pit which is free, rather dry, with an aromatic flavor; season the last of July. =Rosebank.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 279. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 625. 1857. Originated with James Dougall, Windsor, Canada. Fruit large, round, with a deep suture; skin greenish-white, with a mottled, dark red cheek; flesh free, white, juicy, melting, rich, excellent; season varies from the last of August to early September. =Rosedale.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:816. 1896. Originated in southern Texas. A small, yellow, subacid, clingstone peach, ripening the last of August. =Rosen-Magdalene.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:200. 1858. Fruit of medium size, roundish, with a shallow suture; skin greenish-yellow, rarely tinged with red; flesh firm, moderately juicy; ripens the last of September. =Rosenburg Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 315. 1889. This large, yellow, clingstone peach originated on Kings River, Fresno County, California. It is said to be productive and superior to Lemon Cling. =Roser.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 179. 1886. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:224. 1899. Fruit of medium size, roundish, inclining to ovate; skin creamy-white; flesh free, white, juicy, tender, sprightly; quality fair; season early October. =Roseville.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:225. 1899. _Roseville Cling._ =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 315. 1889. Originated in Placer County, California. Fruit large, roundish-oval; color creamy-white; flesh adherent, creamy-white, red at the pit, juicy, firm, vinous, rich; quality good; season the last of September. =Rossanna.= =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:11, Pl. VI. 1768. =3.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 29. 1803. =4.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 269. 1831. _Rozanna._ =5.= Langley _Pomona_ 101, Pl. XXVII fig. 111. 1729. _Roussaine._ =6.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:88. 1771. _Alberge-Aprikosenpfirsich._ =7.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:217, 218. 1858. Rossanna, though called Alberge by several writers, is a distinct variety. Tree a medium grower, very productive; flowers small, pale, dull red; leaves crenate; glands reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish, slightly larger and more flattened than Alberge; suture prominent; apex terminating in a short nipple; skin yellow, almost entirely overlaid with deep purple; flesh deep yellow, red at the pit, firm, often mealy, sweet, vinous; stone small, free; ripens the middle of September. =Round Transparent.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:188. 1832. This peach is distinct from Grosse Mignonne although very similar in most characters. The chief differences between the two are that this sort has reniform glands and smaller fruit. The variety was introduced to America from France about 1825 by William Robert Prince, Flushing, New York. =Roussane Berthelane.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:265, 266 fig. 1879. Fruit large, roundish-oval, with a pronounced suture; skin clear greenish-yellow, with a dark red blush; flesh white, very juicy, tender, sweet, with a pleasant flavor; stone free; season the middle of September. =Roussanne Nouvelle.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:180. 1883. Fruit very large, round; skin very pubescent, deep red; flesh white, free; ripens the last of August. =Royal Charlotte.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 16. 1820. =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 103. 1831. _New Royal Charlotte._ =3.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 265. 1831. _Mittelgrossblühende Magdalene._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:197. 1858. _Madeleine à moyennes fleurs._ =5.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:151, 152, fig. 74. 1866-73. _Madeleine Hâtive._ =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:152, 153 fig., 154. 1879. This English peach originated in Kew Gardens and at first was known as Kew. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers of medium size, dark red; fruit above medium in size, ovate; skin pale greenish-white, with a deep red, marbled cheek; flesh white, stained at the pit, melting, juicy; stone ovoid, free; ripens early in September. =Royal George.= =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 356. 1802. =2.= _Pom. Mag._ =3=:119, Pl. 1830. =3.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 270. 1831. =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:179, 180. 1831. =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 485. 1845. =6.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 459, 460. 1884. =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:121, 122. fig. 59. 1866-73. _Millet's Mignonne._ =8.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 262, 263. 1831. _Königliche Magdalene._ =9.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:197. 1858. _König Georgs Pfirsich._ =10.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 402. 1889. It is very doubtful if the variety here described as Royal George is the original variety. According to Hogg the first mention of Royal George is by Switzer who said, in 1724, that it was raised by a Mr. Oram, Brompton Lane, England. At this time George the First was on the throne and, no doubt, the peach was named for him. The variety became popular but was difficult to propagate since it united with peach stocks very poorly. Hence, nurserymen substituted Millet's Mignonne, a new sort at that time which had been introduced by a Mr. Millet, North End, Fulham, England. The original Royal George was probably a seedling of Grosse Mignonne and but little different from that variety in many characters. The long list of synonyms given Royal George by writers attests the length of time this name has been extant and the confusion surrounding its identity. Flowers small; leaves serrate, without glands; fruit large, round, somewhat depressed, with a moderately deep suture; skin very pale yellowish-white, sprinkled with many red dots and marbled with deep red; flesh pale yellowish-white, very red at the stone from which it separates, very juicy, melting, rich and highly flavored; usually ripens the first of September. =Royal George Clingstone.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:20. 1832. Differs from Royal George by being more oblong in shape and having flesh adherent to the stone. =Royal George Mignonne.= =1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 270, 271. 1831. According to Lindley, this variety is reported to have been raised from seed by a friend of a Mr. Ronalds, Brentford, England. Although it closely resembles Royal George, Lindley says they are distinct. =Royal Vineyard.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. An English variety, ripening a week before Barrington; glands reniform. =Royale.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 212. 1676. =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:35, 36, Pl. 24. 1768. =3.= Leroy _Dict Pom._ =6=:267 fig., 268. 1879. _Late Admirable._ =4.= Langley _Pomona_ 106, Pl. 32, fig. 5. 1729. =5.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 260, 261. 1831. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1873. _Könglecher Lackpfirsich._ =7.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:209. 1858. Royale is an old French sort which originated about 1644 near Port-Royal-des-Champs, France. It resembles Admirable of which it is a seedling and has been confused more or less with Belle de Vitry, Bourdine and Teton de Venus, all of which are listed separately in this text. In 1873 there appeared a Late Admirable in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society which is identical with Royale. Leaves crenate, with globose glands; flowers small, pale red; fruit large, roundish, inclining to oval; suture deep; apex with a small, pointed nipple; skin pale greenish-yellow, marbled and streaked with dark red; flesh whitish, stained at the pit, melting, juicy; freestone; ripens at the end of September. =Royale de Barsac.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 237. 1908. Listed in this reference. =Rüdiger Starhemberg.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:205. 1858. A seedling of Karl Schwarzenberg which it closely resembles; ripens at the end of September. =Ruding Late.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 460. 1883. Glands reniform; flowers small; fruit large, roundish-conic; skin white, with a red blush; freestone; quality good; season the middle of September. =Rumbullion.= =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ =1=:Pl. 27 fig. 2. 1817. =2.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =2=:99, Pl. 53. 1823. _Rumbolion._ =3.= Langley _Pomona_ 106. 1729. Fruit large, light yellow, with a red blush; flesh yellow, light red at the pit, juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor; ripens early in September. =Runde Feine Durchsichtige.= =1.= Liegel _Anweisung_ 69. 1822. Fruit yellowish-white, blushed with attractive red; flesh white, red at the pit, sweet but with a slight subacid flavor. =Runyon Orange Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. Said to have originated with a Mr. Runyon on the Sacramento River, California, and to surpass Orange Cling. Glands globose; fruit very large, yellow, with a dark crimson cheek; flesh rich, sweet, with a vinous flavor. =Rupley.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:817. 1896. Said to have been originated by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; fruit small, oval, with a light orange color; flavor fair; clingstone; ripens the middle of July in Texas. =Russell.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 291. 1893. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1899. =3.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:355 fig. 1903. =4.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 429, Pl. LIII. 1911. _Russet No. 1._ =5.= _Gard. & For._ =8=:349. 1895. J. M. Russell, Wymore, Nebraska, grew Russell from a stone of Chili which may have been fertilized by Alexander. The variety first fruited in 1893. In 1899, it was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society. Fruit large, roundish-oblong; color creamy-white, shaded and washed with crimson; flesh greenish-white, with yellow veins, red at the pit, juicy, very melting, mild subacid, rich; quality very good; stone free; season in Nebraska a month later than Alexander. =Russell No. 3.= =1.= _Neb. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 277. 1901. Listed as a promising seedling in Nebraska. =Russet.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. "The russet Peach is one of the most ordinary Peaches in the Kingdome, being of a russet colour on the outside, and but of a reasonable rellish, farre meaner then many other." =Russian.= =1.= _Col. O. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =IV=:No. 4, 76. 1889. Flowers small; fruit small, round, with a white skin; flesh white, of good quality; ripens the middle of August. =Rutter.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:814. 1896. Listed as a small, late, worthless variety. =S. G. French.= =1.= _N. Mex. Sta. Bul._ =30=:224. 1899. Said to ripen about the middle of July in New Mexico. =Saint-Barthélemy.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:133, 134, fig. 3. 1883. This peach is a chance seedling found by the Barthère Brothers in a garden at Toulouse, Haute Garonne, France. Fruit large, roundish-oval; skin greenish-yellow, marbled, with dark brownish-red; flesh yellow, streaked with dark red around the pit, juicy, sweet, aromatic; quality good; season the last of August. =Saint Catherine.= =1.= _Pa. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ 586. 1878. Listed in this reference. =St. Clair.= =1.= _Ohio Sta. Bul._ =170=:180. 1906. Fruit medium to large, round, irregular; color greenish-white, shaded with red; flesh greenish-white, red at the pit which is free, firm, moderately juicy; quality good; ripens the middle of September. =Saint Fagus.= =1.= _Lond. Hort Soc. Cat._ 104. 1831. Listed in this reference. =St. Helena.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 21. 1877. This is a seedling of Chinese Cling and is said to be of good size and excellent quality. =Saint James.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Tex._ 580. 1629. Thought by Parkinson to be the same as the Queenes peach. =St. Joseph Yellow Rareripe.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 227, 229. 1874. Grown by a Mr. Pike of Royalton, Michigan, and once considered valuable in that section. =St. Louis.= =1.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 257. 1854. =2.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 230. 1857. A large, yellow, native peach. =Saint Marie.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. Listed in this reference. =St. Mary.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 21. 1877. This is a seedling of Chinese Cling and is said to be of excellent quality. =St. Michael.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 200. 1841. =2.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:178. 1857. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 409. 1889. Glands reniform; fruit very large, round; skin bright yellow, striped and marbled with dull red; flesh yellow, streaked with red near the apex but not at the stone, sweet, juicy; quality very good; clingstone; season early September. =Sallie Worrell.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =20=:311. 1878. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 171, 172. 1881. _Worrell._ =3.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:359. 1903. This peach was raised from seed by Mrs. Sallie Worrell, Wilson, North Carolina; introduced by C. W. Westbrook of the same place. Tree vigorous, productive, bearing glandless, serrate leaves; fruit large, roundish, with one side enlarged; suture shallow but distinct; skin creamy-white, shaded and mottled with light red; flesh free, white, red at the pit, juicy, melting, slightly vinous; of excellent quality; ripens the last of September. =Sallville.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Sanders.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 16. 1878. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:806. 1896. _Saunders._ =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 151. 1881. Fruit small, ovate, with an acute apex; color creamy-white; flesh yellowish-green, adherent, with a peculiar, vinous flavor; season the first of August in Texas. =Sangmel.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:819. 1896. =2.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 13. 1900. Sangmel is a seedling of Honey introduced by G. L. Taber, Glen Saint Mary, Florida, about 1892. Fruit above medium in size, roundish-oblong, pointed; skin white, overspread with red; flesh streaked with red; clingstone; ripens the last of June in the South. =Sanguine.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:272, 273 fig., 274. 1879. _Cardinale._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 95. 1831. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:194. 1858. _Cardinal de Furstemberg._ =4.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:185. 1883. Sanguine made its appearance in France early in the Seventeenth Century, being first described by Claude Sainte-Etienne. The Chartreux Monks, about 1704, gave this variety the name Cardinal de Furstemberg. Unfortunately this name was also given to Cardinale causing much confusion. Sanguine differs from the Sanguinole in ripening earlier and in having smaller flowers. Glands reniform; flowers of medium size, intensely rose-colored; fruit large, roundish-oblate, faintly sutured; skin orange-yellow, nearly entirely overlaid with deep carmine; flesh firm, fibrous, flesh-colored, with deeper streaks of red, juicy, rather acid; stone plump, ovoid, free; ripens early in September or the last of August. =Sanguine de Jouy.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:95, 96, fig. 46. 1866-73. _Pêche de Vigne._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:299. 1879. This is an old seedling found in a vineyard at Jouy-aux-Orches near Metz, France. Leaves devoid of glands; flowers small; fruit medium in size, ovoid, faintly mamelon at the apex; flesh marbled with red, melting, sugary; quality good; stone free, small; ripens from the middle to the end of September. =Sanguine de Manosque.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 65, 66. 1867. Sanguine de Manosque drew its name from the locality of the same name in Basses-Alpes, France, where Carrière believed it to have originated. He described it as having large flowers; glands globose; fruit large, roundish-oblong; skin streaked with violet; flesh red, melting, juicy; stone large, russet, obovate, free; ripens in August. =Sanguinole.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:43. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:275, 276 fig., 277. 1879. _Bloody Monsieur._ =3.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. _Bloody._ =4.= Langley _Pomona_ 107, Pl. 72 fig. 6. 1729. _Scarlet._ =5.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 230. 1817. _French Blood._ =6.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:198, 199. 1831. _Gemeiner Blutpfirsich._ =7.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:193. 1858. _Sanguinolente._ =8.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:477. 1860. _Gewöhnliche Blutpfirsich._ =9.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 397. 1889. This beet-red peach is very similar to Sanguine. It is needless to say that the two have been much confused. It was first described as Pêche Beterave by Friar Triquel in 1659. Glands small, reniform; flowers large; fruit roundish, more or less elongated; skin thick, adhering to the pulp; flesh dark red, rather dry, bitter, not very agreeable; stone free, small, ovoid; ripens early in October. =Sanguinole Melting.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 104. 1831. Glands reniform; flowers large; fruit large; flesh melting, of second quality; matures the last of September. =Sanguinole Pitmaston.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 104. 1831. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers large; fruit small, dark red; flesh melting; ripens at the end of September. =Sargent.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 223, 224. 1832. _Sargent's Rareripe._ =2.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 18. 1828. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:26. 1832. Sargent originated with Daniel Sargent, Boston, Massachusetts. Fruit medium in size, round; color pale yellow, tinged with a red blush; flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, excellent; ripens the first of September. =Savoy.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 210. 1676. _Early Savoy._ =2.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =3=:370. 1862. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 220. 1866. This is a large, early peach, having a deep red blush and fine, melting flesh. =Sawyer.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 46. 1897. A variety grown by W. N. Blackington, Denmark, Iowa. Fruit large, roundish; color golden yellow, blushed and splashed with red; flesh yellow, red at the pit which is free, mild subacid; quality very good; season the middle of September. =Scarlet Admirable.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 93. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Scarlet Anne.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 104. 1831. Said to have small leaves and large flowers. =Scheuster Choice.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Schieski.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 413. 1889. Mentioned by Mathieu. =Schley.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 170. 1899. This is a productive, yellow, freestone peach of very good quality, ripening ten days earlier than Elberta. =Schlomer Early.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:67. 1900. Tree medium in growth. =Schlössers Frühpfirsich.= =1.= Lucas _Handb. Obst._ 3rd Ed. 475. 1893. Fruit large, roundish, with a red blush; flesh tender and of good quality; ripens from July to August. =Schmidberger Pfirsich.= =1.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =VI=:No. 19, Pl. 1882. _Schmidberger's Magdalene._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:199. 1858. Fruit large, roundish, compressed at the base and apex; skin yellowish-white, dotted and mottled with dull red; flesh white, stained red at the pit, tender, juicy, with a delicate, aromatic flavor; season the last of August. =Schofields Seedling.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =9=:347. 1890. Planted for trial at this Station in 1890. =Schofields White.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =9=:347. 1890. Placed in the orchard of this Station for testing in 1890. =Schöne Pavie.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 414. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Schöne von Vilvorde.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Mentioned without a description. =Schöne Wächterin.= =1.= Liegel _Anweisung_ 70. 1822. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:210. 1858. Fruit large, purplish-red, with much reddish-black in the sun; flesh whitish-yellow, pink at the stone and often under the skin, with a pleasant, musky flavor; ripens the last of August. =Schöne von Westland.= =1.= Koch _Deut. Obst._ 540. 1876. _Schöne aus Westland._ =2.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =VI=:No. 25, Pl. 1882. Fruit large, roundish; skin dull yellowish-white, with a red blush; flesh whitish-yellow, with red at the pit, very tender, sweet; quality good; season September. =Schöner Peruanischer Lackpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:213. 1858. Fruit large, roundish-oval; skin yellow, with a deep red blush; flesh yellow, tender, good; season the first of September. =Scott.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:225. 1899. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:61. 1910. Alexander Hamilton, Allegan County, Michigan, introduced this variety. Leaves bear globose glands; flowers small; fruit large, yellow-fleshed, separating from the pit; ripens late. =Scott October.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 632. 1869. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1873. _Scott Cling?_ =3.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. _Scott._ =4.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:814. 1896. This sort originated with Jacob C. Lyons, Columbia, South Carolina. It is a pale yellow clingstone, ripening very late. =Scotts Early Red.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 487. 1845. Downing reports the peach of this variety excellent and the tree a prolific bearer; from New Jersey. Leaves with obscure, globose glands; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish; suture distinct; skin pale greenish-white, mottled with red; flesh very juicy, rich; ripens the middle of August. =Scotts Magnate.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 626. 1857. A variety of Red Rareripe; glands reniform; fruit very large, round, depressed; skin pale yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh white, luscious and well-flavored; ripens early in September. =Scotts Nectar.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 626. 1857. Another seedling from Red Rareripe; glands globose; fruit large, pale yellow, with a bright red cheek; flesh white; matures early in September. =Scruggs.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:814. 1896. Scruggs originated with J. W. Stubenrauch, Mexia, Texas, and later was introduced by T. V. Munson, Denison, Texas. Fruit medium in size, ovate; skin yellow, with a small, red blush; flesh light yellow, moderately tender and juicy, flavor insipid; stone semi-clinging; season late. =Sea Eagle.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =23=:211. 1881. =2.= _Flor. & Pom._ 152. 1882. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 460. 1884. _Aigle de Mer._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 54, 215. 1876. Sea Eagle was raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, from a seed of Early Silver. Fruit large, round and regular in shape, with a slight suture; skin pale lemon-yellow, with a deep red blush; flesh free, pale yellowish-white, stained with deep red next the stone, juicy, melting, with a rich, vinous flavor; ripens the last of September. =Seiders.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:107. 1901. This is a seedling of Thurber which originated with F. T. Ramsey, Austin, Texas. It is a medium-sized, round, yellow clingstone, ripening the middle of July. =Selby Cling.= =1.= Bridgeman _Gard. Ass't_ _Pt. 3_:110. 1857. Fruit large; skin white, with a red blush; flesh melting, juicy, with a peculiar, rich flavor; ripens the last of September. =Sellers Cling.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. _Sellers' Golden Cling._ =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. This variety originated on the farm of S. A. Sellers, Contra Costa County, California. It is a very large, rich, clingstone, with golden color, ripening with Late Crawford. =Sellers Free.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 141. 1883. Said to be desirable along the California coast. =Semis de Madeleine.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Semis de Pêche d'Egypte.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Mentioned by Mas without a description. =Semis de Plowden.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 414. 1889. Mentioned by Mathieu. =Sener.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:31. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:225. 1899. This is an unproductive, Michigan variety. Fruit large, nearly round or obscurely ovate; color yellow, blushed and marbled with red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, very juicy, tender, with a mild, vinous flavor; stone free; season the middle of September. =Sernach.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:35. 1832. _Pêche de Sernach._ =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =1=:149. 1835. Probably originated at Tarascon, Bouches du Rhône, France. Fruit medium in size, oval; skin yellowish-white, with a bright red blush; flesh free, pale yellowish-white, with some red at the pit, juicy, rich, pleasant; ripens early in September. =Serrate Ispahan.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 185. 1858. Listed in this reference. =Shannon Cling.= =1.= Johnson _Cat._ 1894. According to J. R. Johnson, Coshocton, Ohio, this peach originated in Coshocton County. It is a large, attractive, yellow clingstone of good quality, ripening the last of September. =Sharpe Nos. 1, 2 and 3.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1880. These three seedlings were raised by a Mr. Sharpe, Wooster, Ohio, and all are said to excel Alexander. =Shaw Mammoth.= =1.= _Va. Sta. Bul._ =2=:9. 1889. Growing in the Virginia Station orchard in 1889. =Sheester.= =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:15. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Shelby.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =11=:44. 1891. Mentioned in this reference. =Shepherd Early.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 154. 1883. Mentioned in this reference as an excellent freestone. =Sherfey Early.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1880. This variety was raised by Raphael Sherfey, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, who recommends it. =Sherman October.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 313. 1889. Said to have originated in Maryland. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large; skin white, without a blush; quality good; valuable for shipping; season the middle of October. =Shinn Rareripe.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 312. 1889. Originated with James Shinn, Niles, California. Fruit large, with a very dark red surface; flesh sweet, rich, white, red at the stone which is free; quality good for market; ripens soon after Early Crawford. =Shipler.= =1.= J. S. Kerr _Cat._ =4.= 1898. =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:107. 1901. This variety is a seedling of Chinese Cling originated by A. L. Shipler, Denison, Texas. It is described as a yellow clingstone, resembling Elberta and ripening in Texas about the middle of July. =Shipley.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:225. 1899. _Shipley's Late Red._ =2.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:15. 1892. =3.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 176. 1908. Fruit medium to large, roundish-ovate, compressed; color pale yellow, with a red cheek; flesh free, pale yellow, juicy, tender, with a sprightly, vinous flavor; quality fair; season the middle of September. =Shipley Rareripe.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 166. 1895. Fruit medium to large; flesh white, free; ripens early in August. =Shockley Early.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1873. This variety appeared in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society from 1873 to 1897. =Shop.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 43, 44. 1895. This peach grew near a building used as a shop by E. A. Riehl, Alton, Illinois. Fruit large, roundish; color creamy-white, with a slight blush; flesh white, with yellow veins, stained red at the stone, juicy, very tender, melting, sweet; quality good; stone free; season the middle of September. =Siebolt.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 295. 1854. Siebolt is a moderately large, freestone, greenish-yellow peach with a red blush, which has yellowish-white flesh and ripens in September. =Sieulle.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 232. 1866. =2.= Decaisne _Jard. Fruit._ =7=:Pl. 1872-75. Fruit large, roundish, inclining to oval; skin coarsely pubescent, greenish-yellow, with a dark red blush; flesh tender, juicy, rich; yellowish-white, deeply stained with red at the pit which is free; quality good; season the last of September. =Sill.= =1.= _Augustine Nur. Cat._ No. 43, 7. 1910. According to Augustine and Company, nurserymen at Normal, Illinois, Sill originated about 1904 with W. H. Sill, at Normal, as a seedling of Elberta. The fruit resembles Elberta but is larger, a little higher colored and ripens from a week to ten days later. =Silvan Seedling.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:110. 1847. Said to be an attractive peach of good quality. =Silver Medal.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 460. 1883. =2.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 175, =176.= 1908. Tree vigorous; fruit roundish-oblate; skin white, with an occasional blush; flesh white, free and of good quality; season the last of September. =Simms.= =1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:134. 1911. Fruit medium in size, round; color yellow, splashed with red stripes; flesh yellow, moderately juicy, subacid; quality good; freestone; ripens the last of July in Alabama. =Simon.= =1.= _Neb. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 175. 1895. Imported from China. Fruit round, flattened at the ends, of medium size; skin dark red; flesh yellow, hard, with a bitter-almond flavor; quality poor. =Sims.= =1.= Smith Bros. _Cat._ 14. 1913. According to Smith Brothers, Concord, Georgia, this peach resembles Columbia. The fruit is large with dark veins through its yellow flesh, of fine quality and ripens early in August. Said to come true from seed. =Sites Old Zack.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 287. 1854. _Old Zack._ =2.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 4. 1855. Originated at Columbus, Ohio. Fruit nearly large; skin yellow, with a dull red cheek; flesh yellow, juicy, separating freely from the stone; season early September. =Skinner Superb.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 287. 1854. This is a very good freestone peach which originated in the South, where it ripens in early August: =Slane.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. Listed as a large, good, yellow peach. =Slappey.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:356. 1903. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. =3.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:134, 135. 1911. Fruit medium in size, roundish, inclining to conic; color golden yellow, shaded with red and crimson; flesh yellow, somewhat mealy, sweet; quality good; pit free; ripens the last of June in Alabama. =Sleeper Dwarf.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =29=:554. 1875. =2.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1880. This dwarf peach originated with W. M. Sleeper, Oxford, Indiana. Tree dwarf and compact in habit of growth; fruit medium to large; skin greenish-white, tinged with crimson; flesh juicy, sweet, rich; season October. =Slindon Park.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 941. 1865. =2.= _Ibid._ 364. 1866. A. Stewart, Slindon Park, England, raised this variety from a pit of Late Admirable. It is a large, late, freestone peach, having very good flavor. =Sloan Carolina.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:35. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Slocum Early.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 295. 1854. Glands globose; fruit large; color yellow, shaded with red; flesh yellow; ripens in August. =Small White Magdalen.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:186. 1831. _Small White._ =2.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. Fruit small; skin white, dotted with red; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet; season the middle of August. =Smeigh.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 46. 1897. Raised by Daniel Smeigh, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Fruit nearly large, roundish-conic; skin white, washed and mottled with red; flesh adherent, white, red at the pit, firm, compact, sweet, rich; season very late. =Smith.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ 5. 1915. According to F. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas, this variety originated in Lampasas County, Texas, more than forty years ago. It is said to be a regular and abundant bearer of deliciously sweet fruit. =Smith Favorite.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 195. 1849. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 633. 1857. Raised by Calvin Smith, Lincoln, Massachusetts. Glands reniform; fruit large, roundish, with a deep suture; skin yellow, nearly covered with deep, rich red; flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, rich, delicious; freestone; season from the middle to the last of September. =Smith Indian.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ =4.= 1912. According to F. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas, this is a seedling which originated in Austin. It is a large, red-fleshed, juicy clingstone ripening the last of July. =Smith Newington.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 101, Pl. 28 fig. 1. 1729. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 498. 1845. _Early Newington._ =3.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. _New York Early Newington._ =4.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 218. 1817. _Weisser Härtling._ =5.= Liegel _Anweisung_ 72. 1822. _Härtlings Magdalene._ =6.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:200. 1858. _Pavie Blanc_ (_Gros_). =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:213 fig., 214. 1879. Smith Newington was never much grown in America but was at one time widely grown in England as an early clingstone. Flowers large; leaves serrate, without glands; fruit medium in size, oval; skin pale straw-color, with a lively red blush; flesh firm, juicy, pale yellow, stained red at the pit to which it adheres; of very good quality; ripens the last of August. =Smithson.= =1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ 1st App. 37. 1901. Listed in this reference. =Smooth-Leaved Royal George.= =1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 271, 272. 1831. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 224. 1832. This peach seems to have originated with a Mr. Lee, Hammersmith, England. Glands globose. Fruit large, nearly round, yellowish-white, blushed with a beautiful, deep red on carmine; flesh yellowish-white, deep red next the pit, melting, juicy, sweet, with a high, vinous flavor; ripens early in September. =Smoothstone.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:110. 1847. Listed in this reference. =Smyrna.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. Mentioned as a good, yellow peach. =Sneed.= =1.= _Gard. & For._ =6=:279. 1893. =2.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 44. 1895. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1897. =4.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:226. 1899. =5.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:107, 108. 1901. =6.= _Rev. Hort._ 350, 594, 595, Pl. 1904. Sneed originated about 1885 in the yard of Judge John L. T. Sneed, Nashville, Tennessee, and is said to be a seedling of Family Favorite. According to the references the variety has been grown in the southwest under the names Peebles and Bowers. Sneed was added to the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1897. Tree vigorous, moderately productive; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, with a shallow suture; color greenish-white, washed and mottled with bright red; flesh greenish-white, often stained with red under the skin, juicy, tender, melting, mild subacid, often slightly bitter; quality fair; stone small, clinging; season the middle to the last of July. =Snow.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 224. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 486, 487. 1845. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. =4.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 426. 1897. _Neige._ =5.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 40, 221. 1876. This unique peach is of American origin. The blossoms and the fruit are white, without a trace of color, and the flesh is white to the stone. Tree hardy, productive; glands reniform; flowers small, white; fruit large, round, with a slight suture; skin thin, clear white; flesh white to the pit, juicy, melting, rich, sprightly, free; ripens the first of September. =Snow Cling.= =1.= _Horticulturist_ =7=:177. 1857. _Snow._ =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:817. 1896. Fruit small, round, creamy-yellow, sweet, juicy, clingstone; glands small, globose; ripens early. =Snow Favorite.= =1.= _Can. Hort._ =23=:381. 1900. This peach originated in Syracuse, New York; it ripens with Early Crawford. Fruit of large size and high color; flavor excellent and quality good. =Snow Orange.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 114, 115, 321. 1873. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1875. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:61, 62. 1910. _Snow._ =4.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:226. 1899. =5.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:356. 1903. Snow Orange was introduced by L. P. Hall, Paw Paw, Michigan, more than fifty years ago and is supposed to be a seedling which originated upon the farm of a Mr. Snow of that place. Tree moderately vigorous and productive; glands obscurely reniform; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval, compressed; suture distinct; apex slightly pointed; color yellow, with a dull red cheek and slight mottlings of red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, tender, sweet, sometimes with a slight bitter taste; quality good; pit free, large, plump; ripens the last of August. =Sobiesky Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:205. 1858. Fruit roundish-oval; skin yellow, with a red blush; flesh white, sweet, with a vinous flavor; ripens the last of August. =Solomon.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 195. 1902-03. Listed in this reference. =Soulard Cling.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 122. 1854. Mentioned as a very good, native peach. =Southern Early.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 314. 1889. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:226. 1899. Originated in South Carolina. Fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed at the suture which is distinct; skin yellow, nearly covered with dark red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, moderately firm, with a pleasant, rich, sprightly flavor; quality good; stone free; season the last of August. =Southwick.= =1.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 175. 1908. _Southwick's Late._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 52. 1871. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 1st App. 122. 1872. Southwick is an accidental seedling found on the grounds of T. T. Southwick, Dansville, New York. Fruit large, roundish, with a distinct suture; skin yellowish-white, dotted and streaked with red; flesh white, separating freely from the stone, very juicy, melting, with a fine, delicate flavor; season the last of September. =Souvenir de Gérard Galopin.= =1.= _Guide Prat._ 42. 1895. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; fruit very large, with a purplish-black color; flesh juicy, good, yellow, red at the pit which is free; ripens the first of September. =Souvenir de Java.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:271. 1854. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:149, 150, fig. 73. 1866-73. _Andenken an Java_. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 387. 1889. This variety was raised in the vicinity of Liége, Belgium, about 1849 by Madam Brahy. It was so called by a M. Papeleu because of courtesies shown him while in Java by Madam Brahy's father. Branches slender; leaves with reniform glands; flowers small, rose-colored; fruit above medium in size, globular, slightly depressed at the ends; cavity deep; skin thin, separating from the flesh, whitish-yellow, purple where exposed; flesh yellow, crimson at the pit, melting, vinous; stone small, oval, slightly obovate, free; ripens the last of August. =Souvenir de Jean-Denis Couturier.= =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 108, 109. 1891. This peach was grown about 1856 by Jean-Denis Couturier at Montreuil, Seine, France. Fruit large, roundish; skin yellowish-white, with a fine red blush; flesh white, red at the pit from which it separates, juicy, sweet, with a pleasant, aromatic flavor; ripens the last of August. =Souvenir de Jean Rey.= =1.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 63. 1867. _Andenken an Jean Rey_. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 387. 1889. This is a variety raised by Jean Rey, a nurseryman, Toulouse, France. Leroy combines this variety with Schöne Toulouserin. Tree vigorous; leaves with reniform glands; flowers small, rose-colored; fruit medium, globular; suture shallow; skin strongly pubescent, pale yellow, deep red where exposed; flesh yellow, melting, juicy, aromatic; stone russet, obtuse, free; ripens early in September. =Spanish.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:32. 1832. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 183. 1835. _Spanish Clingstone_. =3.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. Fruit large, round; skin white, with a red blush; flesh adherent, very juicy, sweet, vinous, excellent; ripens early in October. =Späte Mignot Pfirsich.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. _Tardive des Mignots_. =2.= Carrière _Var. Pêchers_ 60. 1867. Fruit large, roundish, depressed at the base; skin white, washed with bright red; flesh free, white, red at the stone, juicy, sweet, pleasant-flavored; season early in September. =Später Lackpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:216. 1858. Fruit large, roundish, compressed at the ends; skin yellowish-white, with some red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, moderately firm; good; season late in October. =Spath Seedling.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:68. 1900. Said to be a tree of medium growth. =Spence.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ 10. 1909. According to F. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas, this variety originated in Austin. The fruit resembles that of Mamie Ross but is larger and has a better flavor. The flesh is inclined to be mealy; ripens the last of June in Texas. =Spottswood.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:99. 1892. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:226. 1899. =3.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:108. 1901. This peach originated with the late Judge Campbell, Pensacola, Florida, from a pit brought from Japan in 1860 by W. A. Spottswood, a Fleet Surgeon in the United States Navy. P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia, introduced the variety about 1868. Fruit medium in size, roundish, inclining to oval; color creamy-white; flesh white, red at the pit which is free, juicy, tender, mild, vinous; quality good; season early in September. =Spring Grove.= =1.= _Pom. Mag._ =3=:97, Pl. 1830. =2.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 272. 1831. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:17, 18. 1832. =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 232. 1866. _Schnellwachsender Lieblingspfirsich_. =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:206. 1858. This peach was raised by T. A. Knight, Downton Castle, Wiltshire, England, from a stone of Grosse Mignonne which had been fertilized by Red Nutmeg. Leaves crenate, with globose glands; fruit medium in size, round, with a shallow suture; color greenish-yellow, with a bright crimson blush; flesh greenish-yellow to the stone from which it separates, juicy, rich and pleasantly flavored; ripens the last of August. =Squaw.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:817. 1896. This is a small, inferior, yellow, freestone peach with small, reniform glands, ripening in Texas the last of July. =Staley.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 318. 1889. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:356. 1903. Staley originated as a sucker from a peach-root in Selma, Fresno County, California, and was introduced by F. M. Nevins of Selma. Fruit very large, elongated, somewhat flattened laterally; color creamy-white with touches of light red; flesh white, juicy, tender; quality very good; pit free; season late in California. =Stanley.= =1.= Griffing Bros. _Cat._ 11 fig. 1900. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:151. 1904. Stanley is a seedling of Honey which originated in the nursery of Griffing Brothers, Macclenny, Florida. The variety is subject to brown-rot and is a poor shipper. Fruit roundish-oblong, medium to large; cavity deep, open; apex short, conical, nearly straight or a mere point; skin thick, greenish-white, washed with deep red on the sunny side; flesh white, rather soft, easily breaking down, sweet, insipid, with a tinge of bitter around the stone; quality no more than fair; stone clinging, oblong, plump; ripens the middle of June in Florida. =Stanwick Early York.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =17=:365. 1875. This is a productive variety but the fruit is small and not very attractive and drops badly in dry weather. =Stark Early Elberta.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 46, 47. 1914. _Goldfinch._ =2.= Barnes Bros. _Cat. 5._ 1913. Stark Early Elberta was introduced by Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri. The variety first fruited with Dr. Sumner Gleason of Kaysville, Utah. It is a seedling of Elberta and much like that variety but is said to ripen about a week earlier and to be handsomer and of better quality. On the grounds of this Station it seems to be identical with Elberta. =Stark Heath.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 44. 1895. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:226. 1899. =3.= Stark Bros. _Yearbook_ 71. 1910. =4.= _Ibid._ 52. 1916. Stark Heath is said to be an improvement over Heath Cling. Fruit of medium size, roundish, slightly oval; apex prominent; suture distinct; color clear creamy-white, somewhat blushed; flesh creamy-white, juicy, tender, melting, with a vinous flavor; quality good; stone clinging; ripens a month after Elberta. =Steadley. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =28=:25. 1873. =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 460. 1883. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:226. 1899. =4.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:356. 1903. This variety is said to be a seedling of La Grange which it resembles. Leaves with reniform glands; fruit large, roundish, inclining to ovate, with a slight suture; skin creamy-white, washed with pink; flesh free, white, very juicy, tender, with a mild sprightliness; quality good; season from the middle to the last of September. =Stearns. 1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:62. 1910. This variety, which was introduced in 1906, originated with J. N. Stearns, South Haven, Michigan. The fruit is about the size of Elberta which it surpasses in quality and brilliancy of color. It is a perfect freestone, with yellow flesh and ripens just after Elberta. =Steele. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =24=:418. 1901. Originated with Dr. M. Steele, Tavistock, Perth County, Ontario. Tree productive; fruit large, with an attractive, creamy skin and red cheek; flesh white, tender, juicy; good; season the last of August. =Stenson October. 1.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =81=:31. 1905. Undesirable in Louisiana. =Stephenson Cling. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 641, 642. 1857. =2.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:178. 1857. This peach is supposed to be a seedling of Blood Cling grown by Thomas Stephenson, Clark County, Georgia. Fruit large, roundish, with a distinct suture; skin creamy-white, with a dark, dull, purplish-red blush; flesh white, with tinges of red and deep red at the stone, very tender, melting, juicy, with a pleasant, vinous flavor; ripens September first. =Stetson. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:114. 1847. =2.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =1=:53, Pl. 1851. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 626. 1857. This is an accidental seedling which sprang up in 1843 in the garden of N. Stetson, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. Fruit large, roundish, with a shallow suture; skin greenish-white, marbled and shaded with crimson; flesh white, pink at the stone, very melting, juicy, brisk, rich; stone free; ripens from the middle to the last of September. =Stevens Late. 1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:90. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:227. 1899. _Late Rareripe Stevens_. =3.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 25. 1876. =4.= _Ibid._ 15. 1878. _Stevenson's Oct._ =5.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =11=:10. 1890. Stevens Late originated in Delaware or New Jersey. Tree strong; fruit of medium size, roundish, with an indistinct suture; skin creamy-white, with a bright, mottled blush; flesh pale creamy-white, with a little red at the pit, moderately juicy, tender, with a sprightly, vinous flavor; quality good; season early October. =Stewart Nos. 1 and 2. 1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1897. Listed in the reference; received at this Station from S. Richardson, Richardson, Utah. =Stickler Cling. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 77. 1893. Listed in this reference. =Stiles.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 291. 1893. Stiles originated with Dr. E. P. Stiles, Austin, Texas, from a seed brought from Virginia and planted in 1866. Fruit of medium size, resembling Elberta in shape and color; flesh reddish-yellow, red at the pit, melting, juicy, free; quality good; ripens the last of June in Texas. =Stilson.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 314. 1889. Originated in California. Fruit very large, having a red cheek, with crimson stripes; flesh yellow, free; quality excellent; ripens after Late Crawford. =Stinson.= =1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:135. 1911. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. _Stinson Late._ =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 157. 1881. =4.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 263. 1892. _Stinson October._ =5.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =47=:11. 1893. Fruit large, broadly oval; color creamy-white, shaded with dark purplish-red; flesh adherent, white, veined with red and red at the pit, mild subacid; quality good; season late. =Stirling Castle.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 557. 1858. =2.= _Ibid._ 734. 1860. =3.= _Mag. Hort._ =28=:365. 1862. =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 44. 1876. Raised at Stirling Castle, England. Fruit large, roundish, with a well-colored, brownish-red surface; flesh red near the pit, vinous, aromatic; quality good; ripens early in September. =Stone.= =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =5=:318. 1893. Said to be a yellow-fleshed peach common in the south of Europe. =Stonewall Jackson.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 21. 1877. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:809. 1896. =3.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 207. 1913. _Stonewall._ =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1899. =5.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:108. 1901. _General Jackson._ =6.= _S. C. Sta. Rpt._ =19=:16. 1906. This peach may have originated in Texas as a seedling of Chinese Cling. Some authorities, however, say that it originated with Judge Campbell, Pensacola, Florida, from a peach-pit brought from Japan in 1860 by William A. Spottswood, a Fleet Surgeon in the United States Navy. It is supposed to have been introduced by P. J. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia, about 1868. Fruit of medium size, roundish-oblate, inclined to conic; suture distinct; color creamy-yellow, with a faint crimson blush and many red dots; flesh white, red at the pit, firm, juicy, rich, with a pleasant, subacid flavor; stone large, clinging; season early. =Storm No. 1.= =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 84. 1880. This is a seedling raised by James A. Storm of Missouri, and said to be a large, attractive, freestone peach, ripening just before Amsden. =Stranahan.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:62. 1910. _Stranahan's Late Orange._ =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 189. 1880. Stranahan is a seedling raised in Michigan. Fruit very large, nearly round; color deep yellow, with a red cheek; flesh golden yellow, firm, free; quality good; season very late. =Strawberry.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 200. 1841. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 487. 1845. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 32. 1877. _Rose._ =4.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 263. 1892. Strawberry was introduced by Thomas Hancock, Burlington, New Jersey. Fruit of medium size, roundish-oval; skin nearly all marbled with dark red; flesh white, juicy, melting, rich, with a sprightly, vinous flavor; ripens early in August. =Strong.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 44. 1895. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:227. 1899. Fruit medium to large, roundish; color creamy-white, with a bright red cheek; flesh white, red at the pit from which it is free, tender, melting, moderately juicy, mild subacid, vinous; quality good; ripens from the middle to the last of August. =Strout Early.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:357. 1903. Originated in Indian Territory and resembles Alexander. Fruit medium in size, roundish, slightly compressed; flesh streaked with red, firm; of good quality; stone free; ripens early. =Strunk.= Trees of this peach were received at this Station for testing in 1913 from W. P. Strunk, Roodhouse, Illinois, who originated it from seed in 1904. According to a statement of the originator, the trees are productive and bear large, yellow, freestone fruit of good quality which ripens the last of August. =Stuart.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 161. 1898. Fruit medium in size; color greenish-yellow, with a red blush; flesh clinging; quality good; season the last of July. =Studt.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 366. 1908. This is a seedling with Persian blood which originated in Solon, Johnson County, Iowa. =Sturtevant.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 290. 1852. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 80. 1862. Sturtevant was originated in 1826 by E. T. Sturtevant, Cleveland, Ohio. The American Pomological Society listed the variety in its fruit-catalog from 1862 until 1897. Fruit medium in size, roundish, compressed; skin very pubescent, rich yellow, nearly covered with dark red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, with veins of red running into the flesh; quality very good; pit free; ripens the last of August. =Suber.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:517, 518. 1902. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. Suber was originated by a colored man of that name at Lake Helen, Volusia County, Florida. Fruit large, roundish-oblong, with a shallow suture; color creamy-yellow, with a pinkish-red blush; flesh white, firm, meaty, sweet, vinous; quality good; clingstone; ripens early in Florida. =Success.= =1.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ =1=:11. 1901. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:357. 1903. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. Success probably originated in Texas. Fruit large, roundish, with a yellow surface; flesh firm, juicy, rich; good; pit free. =Sulhamstead.= =1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 252. 1831. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 232. 1866. =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:89, 90, fig. 43. 1866-73. This variety originated about a century ago in the garden of a Mrs. Thoytes, of Sulhamstead House, near Reading, Berkshire, England. Leaves deeply serrate, glandless; fruit large, roundish; skin clear, pale yellow, marbled with dark red; flesh pale yellow, melting, juicy, sweet, with a rich, vinous flavor; pit free; ripens from the first to the middle of September. =Sylphide.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:809. 1896. =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:109. 1901. _Sylphide Cling._ =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 161. 1881. Sylphide is a seedling of General Lee and originated in 1874 with Dr. L. E. Berckmans, Augusta, Georgia. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit medium to large, roundish-oblong, compressed, with a distinct suture; color creamy-white, dotted with red; flesh adherent, white, red at the pit, juicy, mild subacid; ripens the last of August. =Sumner Early.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 633, 634. 1869. Fruit medium to large, with an attractive blush; flesh white, firm, free; ripens early. =Sumner White Free.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 634. 1869. Originated in South Carolina. Fruit large, nearly round, slightly depressed, with unequal sides; suture distinct; skin whitish-green, shaded with red; flesh white, juicy, sweet; ripens the first of September. =Sunrise.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 25. 1904. Sunrise originated with Miller Brothers, Paw Paw, West Virginia, as a seedling of Heath Cling. Fruit large, roundish-oblong; color creamy-white, with a red blush; flesh firm, very juicy, sweet; quality good; clingstone; ripens very late. =Sunset.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:89. 1896. Listed in this reference. =Superbe de Choisy.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 41. 1895. Fruit very large; flesh juicy, sweet, agreeably aromatic, white, red at the pit which is free; ripens the last of September. =Superbe de Trévoux.= =1.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 115 fig. 1906. Fruit large, with a distinct suture which divides the fruit into two unequal faces; skin nearly covered with dark red; flesh juicy, sweet, pleasantly flavored; quality good; ripens the last of August. =Superior Late.= =1.= _Country Gent._ =26=:256. 1865. _Scattergood No. 1._ =2.= _Trans. Am. Inst._ 211. 1865. This is a seedling raised about sixty years ago by H. V. Scattergood, Albany, New York. It is a large clingstone of good quality, ripening early in October. =Surpasse Bon Ouvrier.= =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =1=:210. 1887. Fruit large, round, furrowed on one side; color deep scarlet in the sun; flesh melting, sweet, yellowish-white, red at the pit which is free; ripens the last of September. =Surprise.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:33. 1832. Tree productive; fruit very large, with a dingy-red or purplish surface; flesh deep yellow, with crimson veins running towards the center; quality very good; freestone. =Surprise de Jodoigne.= =1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:91, 92, Pl. 1858. Fruit medium in size, roundish, flattened at the base; skin yellow, mottled and dotted with red; flesh juicy, sweet, yellow, red at the pit which is free; quality fair. =Surprise de Pellaine.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 41. 1876. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:281, 282 fig. 1879. Introduced about 1864 by Henri Delloyer, a Belgian. Leaves glandless; fruit medium to large, roundish-oval, with a well-marked suture; skin pale greenish-yellow, washed with dark red; flesh greenish-white, red at the pit, juicy, sweet, aromatic; quality good; stone free; ripens the last of September. =Sure Crop.= =1.= Lovett _Cat._ 24 fig. 1906. Introduced by J. T. Lovett, Little Silver, New Jersey. Tree hardy, productive; fruit large, nearly round; skin white, with a bright carmine cheek; flesh very juicy, sweet, rich, sprightly; ripens early. =Surties.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ 1913. According to F. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas, this variety was originated by a Mr. Surties, Bexar County, Texas. The fruit resembles Honey but is less pointed; ripens the last of June in Texas. =Susquehanna.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 184, 214. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 633. 1857. =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:179, 180, fig. 88. 1866-73. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:282, 283 fig. 1879. _Griffith._ =5.= _Mag. Hort._ =24=:107. 1858. Susquehanna was raised many years ago by a Mr. Griffith on the banks of the Susquehanna River, Pennsylvania, but the exact place of origin has never been known. Tree vigorous, productive; leaves have large, reniform glands; fruit very large, nearly round; skin rich yellow, with a beautiful red cheek; flesh yellow, sweet, juicy, with a rich, vinous flavor; quality good; stone free; ripens the first of September. =Swainson Black.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 94. 1831. This is a dark red, medium-sized peach, ripening the first of September. =Swalsh.= =1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 221, 222. 1817. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 294. 1854. _Swalze._ =3.= Langley _Pomona_ 105, Pl. 32 fig. 1. 1729. _Double Swalsh._ =4.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 256. 1831. This variety is said to have been brought into England by Lord Peterborough before 1729. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small, dark red; fruit medium in size, ovate, with a deep suture; skin pale yellow, with a bright, deep red blush; flesh white, pale red at the pit from which it separates, melting, juicy, pleasantly flavored; ripens the first of September. =Swann Free.= =1.= _N. C. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:108. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Sweet.= =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 167 fig. 1886-87. Originated by M. E. Sweet, Kirtland, Ohio. Fruit large, roundish-oval; color orange-yellow, mottled and striped with bright red; flesh light yellow, juicy, sweet; quality very good; season September. =Sweet Water.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 16. 1820. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:24. 1832. _Early Sweetwater._ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:412. 1826. =4.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._, 184. 1846. According to Prince, Sweet Water originated in Flushing, New York, early in the Nineteenth Century. The peaches ripen a few days after Anne which Sweet Water resembles in shape of fruit and growth of tree. Leaves large, doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large; fruit of medium size, nearly round; skin thin, white, with a small amount of color on the exposed side; flesh melting, white, juicy, sweet; stone small, round, nearly flat, free. =Swick Wonder.= =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 236. 1906. Listed in this reference. =Switzerland.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =10=:249. 1868. =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 378. 1895. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:227, 228. 1899. This peach is supposed to have originated in Georgia. Tree productive, bearing leaves with globose glands; fruit medium to large, roundish, tapering slightly towards the apex, with a very shallow suture; color creamy-white, with a broad, dark red cheek; flesh white, red at the pit, tender, mild and vinous; quality good; pit free; ripens the last of August. =Taber.= =1.= _Fla. Sta. Rpt._ =8=:86. 1896. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:151, 152. 1904. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. =4.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:135. 1911. Taber originated in 1892 with G. L. Taber, Glen Saint Mary, Florida, as a seedling of Honey. The American Pomological Society added the variety to its fruit-list in 1909. Fruit large, roundish-oblong, with a long, recurved apex; skin white, well covered with red; flesh white, streaked with red, firm, juicy, rich, subacid; quality very good; clingstone; ripens the last of June in Florida. =Tacker.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:109. 1901. J. W. Tacker of Freestone County, Texas, grew this variety from an unknown peach-pit about 1845. It is said to reproduce itself closely from seed and is considered a valuable clingstone in Texas. =Tallman Nos. 1, 2 and 3.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:31. 1895. Listed in this reference. =Tante Mélanie.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. Tree very prolific; glands reniform; flowers very small; fruit well-colored. =Tarbell.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 194. 1849. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. =3.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 208. 1913. This variety was grown many years ago by C. H. Tarbell, Lincoln, Massachusetts. Fruit very large, roundish, flattened at the base, with a suture nearly around the fruit; skin rich yellow, almost entirely covered with deep red; flesh yellow, red at the pit, very juicy, rich, sweet; quality good; season the middle of September. =Tardive d'Avignon.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Tardive d'Auvergne.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:182. 1883. _Belle tardive d'Auvergne._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 48. 1876. Probably of Belgian origin. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, roundish; of first quality; matures early in October. =Tardive Béraud.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Tardive Chevallier.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. Mentioned in this reference. =Tardive de Gros.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Tardive des Lazaristes.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. Listed in this reference. =Tardive du Mont d'Or.= =1.= _Garden_ =52=:449. 1897. =2.= _Rev. Hort._ 520, 521, Pl. 1897. This peach seems to have been sent out about 1896 by Francisque Morel, a nurseryman at Lyons, Rhône, France. Fruit large, roundish-oval; skin yellow, shaded with deep red; flesh creamy-white, streaked with pink at the center, very juicy, sweet, aromatic; season the first of November in France. =Tardive de Montauban.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. A large, yellow-fleshed peach ripening at the end of September. =Tardive de Passebel.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Tasmanian Wonder.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. Mentioned in this reference. =Tausch.= =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 416. 1889. _Tausch's Lieblingspfirsich._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:206, 207. 1858. Fruit large, roundish, flattened at the base; skin yellowish-white, with a red blush; flesh yellowish-white, sweet, vinous; season the middle of September. =Taylor.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. =2.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 208. 1913. Originated in the District of Columbia. Fruit large, round, with a yellow surface; clingstone; very good. =Tecumsa.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 205. 1858. Said to be valuable in the South. =Teindoux.= =1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 229. 1817. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:16, 17. 1832. _Teindou._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:38, 39, Pl. 27. 1768. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:286, 287. 1879. _Teint-Doux._ =5.= Christ _Wörterb._ 356. 1802. _Sanftfarbige._ =6.= Christ _Handb._ 594. 1817. _Zartgefärbter Lackpfirsich._ =7.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:213. 1858. Glands globose; fruit large, round, divided into two unequal sections by a distinct suture; skin pale yellow, mottled with red; flesh juicy, sweet, melting, with a delicate flavor, white, faintly streaked with red around the pit which is free; ripens the last of September. =Teissier.= =1.= _Pom. France_ =6=:No. 16, Pl. 16. 1869. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 117 fig. 1906. _Pêche du Teissier._ =3.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =2=:32. 1862. This variety was found on the grounds of a M. Teissier at Oullins, near Lyons, France, and was introduced to the trade about 1855. Fruit large, roundish, inclining to conic, with a well-marked suture; skin pale yellow, washed and mottled with deep red; flesh juicy, sweet, white, red at the pit which is free, vinous; quality very good; ripens the last of September. =Temple Late.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 460. 1883. _Temple White._ =2.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Bul._ =3=:33. 1902. This is a medium-sized, oval, yellowish-red peach of good quality, ripening in September. =Tennessee.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 291. 1893. This peach was raised about 1890 by Rev. J. G. Teter, Athens, Tennessee. Fruit large, round; skin heavily pubescent, creamy-white, with a trace of red; flesh creamy-white throughout, juicy, firm, meaty, sweet, rich; quality very good; clingstone; ripens the last of October in Tennessee. =Tennessee Everbearing.= =1.= Hood _Cat._ 28. 1909. According to W. T. Hood and Company, Richmond, Virginia, this variety first fruited about 1888. It is a large, creamy-white clingstone with a deep blush and ripens its fruit continuously from August first to October first. =Terrel.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 77. 1893. Listed in this reference. =Teton de Venus.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:34, 35, Pl. XXIII. 1768. =2.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 227, fig. 12. 1817. =3.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 273. 1831. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 211. 1856. =5.= _Pom. France_ =6=:No. 30, Pl. 30. 1869. =6.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 45, 224. 1876. =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:288 fig., 289. 1879. _Tuteon de Venice._ =8.= Langley _Pomona_ 101. 1729. _Teton Venus._ =9.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. _Royal._ =10.= _Pom. Mag._ =2=:73, Pl. 1839. _Venusbrust._ =11.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:209. 1858. From all accounts this variety was known long before Merlet mentioned it in 1667 but its exact origin cannot be learned. According to Leroy it seems at one time to have been called Pêche du Chevalier but this name was permanently replaced by the present one about 1789--applied because of the unique shape of the fruit. In 1856 the American Pomological Society added the variety to its fruit-list but dropped it in 1862. Tree of moderate vigor and productiveness; leaves crenate, with globose glands; flowers small, pale red; fruit large, roundish, inclining to oblong, with a deep suture on one side; apex terminated by a broad, prominent, obtuse nipple; skin pale greenish-yellow, marbled with deep red in the sun; flesh greenish-white, faintly tinged with red at the pit, juicy, melting, sweet, having an excellent flavor; stone large, oval, free; season the last of September. =Texan.= =1.= _Tex. Nur. Cat._ 4. 1913. Texan originated in the yard of the First National Bank at Whitesboro, Texas, and was introduced by the Texas Nursery Company, Sherman, Texas. It is a large, white clingstone, with a blush, ripening with Elberta. =Texas.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 159. 1889. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1899. =3.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 208. 1913. _Texas King._ =4.= _Ohio Sta. Bul._ =170=:182. 1906. Fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed at the ends; color greenish-white, overspread with considerable crimson; flesh white, tinged with red at the pit and under the skin, firm, juicy, good; semi-clingstone; ripens about the middle of August. =Thames Bank.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 233. 1866. =2.= _Gard. Chron._ 1552. 1871. This variety was raised by a Mr. Rust, who was a gardener for L. Sullivan, Broom House, Fulham, England. Fruit large, roundish-oblong; skin deep orange-yellow, streaked on one side with crimson; flesh yellow, tender, melting, juicy, highly flavored; season late. =Thissell Free. 1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 313. 1889. _Thissell White._ =2.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 315. 1895-97. Originated with G. W. Thissell in California and is quite widely disseminated in that state. Fruit large, white, with a light red cheek; flesh white throughout, juicy, rich. =Thomas Burns. 1.= _Gard. Mon._ =20=:236. 1878. Introduced by Thomas F. Burns, Mt. Pulaski, Illinois. Fruit large, roundish, with a large suture; skin white, shaded and mottled with light red; flesh entirely white, juicy, melting, sweet, adherent; quality, very good; season very early. =Thomas November. 1.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =4=:146. 1856. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 51. 1876. Glands reniform; flesh white, juicy, very firm, highly flavored; ripens the first of November. =Thomas Rivers. 1.= _Garden_ =56=:34. 1899. =2.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 114. 1904. Originated with Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England. Leaves glandless; fruit large, round, with a brilliant red blush; quality good; freestone; ripens the last of September. =Thompson. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. A yellow freestone said to have originated in Florida. =Thompson Orange. 1.= _Gard. Mon._ =20=:273. 1878. =2.= _Flor. & Pom._ 84. 1880. Said to have been raised at Wilson, North Carolina. It is a large, early, attractive, freestone peach with a good, subacid flavor. =Tice. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 295. 1854. _Tice's Late Red and Yellow._ =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 194. 1841. Originated by James Tice, Middletown, New Jersey. Fruit large; color yellow, with a deep red blush; flesh free, yellow, juicy, sweet, delicious; ripens the last of September. =Tiebout. 1.= Munson _Cat._ 7. 1904-05. According to T. V. Munson and Son, Denison, Texas, this variety originated with V. J. Tiebout, Ellis County, Texas. Fruit large; color rich orange-yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh firm but tender, free; quality good; ripens in Texas the last of August. =Tillotson. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 279. 1854. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1883. _Early Tillotson._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 475. 1845. =4.= _Cultivator_ N. S. =6=:23, 86, 308. 1849. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 78. 1862. =6.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 315. 1867. _Tillotson Précoce._ =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:165, 166, fig. 81. 1866-73. =8.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:290 fig. 1879. According to Thomas, this peach originated many years ago in Cayuga County, New York. It seems to have been introduced by J. J. Thomas, Macedon, Wayne County, New York. The American Pomological Society added the variety to its fruit-list in 1862 as Early Tillotson but shortened the name to Tillotson in 1883. Tree hardy, moderately productive; leaves deeply serrate, glandless; flowers small; fruit of medium size, roundish, sides unequal, with a shallow suture; skin pale yellowish-white, shaded with deep red: flesh white, red at the stone which is partially clinging, melting, juicy, with a rich, excellent flavor; season the middle of August. =Tinley October.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 634. 1869. Said to have originated at Macon, Georgia. Fruit medium in size, somewhat oblong; color white, with a light wash of red; flesh white, juicy, vinous, good; season the middle of October. =Tippecanoe.= =1.= Hoffy _Orch. Comp._ =1=:Pl. 1841-42. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:252. 1842. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 499. 1845. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 80. 1862. _Pavie Tippécanoé._ =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:234 fig., 235. 1879. Tippecanoe was raised from seed by George Thomas, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and was brought to notice in 1840. The variety received a place in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1862. Leaves with reniform glands; fruit very large, nearly round, a little compressed on the sides; skin yellow, with a fine red blush; flesh yellow, adherent to the pit, firm, juicy, with a good, vinous flavor; ripens the last of September. =Tirlemonter Magdalene.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:197, 198. 1858. _Belle Tillemont._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 94. 1831. Fruit large, roundish; skin yellow, with a red blush; flesh yellowish-white, sweet, vinous; season the last of September. =Titus.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 634. 1857. =2.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =7=:107 fig. 1857. Originated with Mrs. Sarah Titus, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Fruit large, round; skin yellow, with a red blush; flesh yellow, red at the pit which is free, juicy, sweet; quality good; ripens from the middle to the last of September. =Toledo.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:31. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:228. 1899. _Early Toledo._ =3.= Storrs-Harrison _Cat._ 142. 1894. _Toledo Prolific._ =4.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:68. 1900. According to the catalog of the Storrs and Harrison Company, Painesville, Ohio, Toledo came from northeastern Ohio about 1890. Fruit large, roundish; color creamy-white, washed, mottled and distinctly striped with red; flesh creamy-white, slightly colored at the pit which is free, juicy, tender, with a sweet, pleasant flavor; ripens from the middle to the last of August. =Tonbridge.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 104. 1831. A hardy, yellow, dark red peach, ripening early in September. =Tong Pa.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =31=:58. 1887. =2.= _Col. O. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 150. 1893. Said to be a medium-sized peach of fair quality. =Topaz.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 404. 1894. =2.= _Ariz. Sta. Bul._ =34=:81. 1900. Fruit of medium size; skin greenish-white, tinged with red; flesh not juicy but free and of good quality; ripens the last of November in Arizona. =Toquin.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 291. 1893. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:228. 1899. Said to have originated with H. E. Harrison, Toquin, Michigan. Fruit medium in size, roundish; skin yellow, with a dull red cheek; flesh free, yellow, melting, juicy, mild subacid; quality good; season the middle of September. =Tornado.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:109. 1901. This seedling of Elberta originated with W. S. White, Denison, Texas. The fruit resembles that of Elberta but is larger and of better quality; season early July. =Toughina.= =1.= _Rural_ N. Y. =74=:1197. 1915. Toughina was originated by J. W. Stubenrauch, Mexia, Texas, as a cross between Elberta and Bell October. The fruit is said to surpass that of its parents in quality and adaptability for distant shipping. Fruit very large, with a bright yellow skin, nearly covered with attractive red; flesh yellow, firm; quality very good; ripens immediately after Elberta. =Towns Early.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1880. This is a large, early peach originated by a Mrs. Towns, Garnett, Kansas. =Townsend.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:228. 1899. =3.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =73=:152. 1904. Said to be a seedling from Honey. Fruit large, roundish, often flattened at the base, compressed; color yellow, blushed with red; flesh juicy, tender, mild, vinous, yellow, red at the pit which is free; quality good; season the last of September. =Transparente Ronde.= =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 357. 1802. Said to be red on one side; with a firm, pleasing flesh. =Triomphe de Saint-Laurent.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:291 fig., 292. 1879. _Triomphe Saint-Laurent._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 40. 1876. This peach was probably raised about 1860 by a M. Galopin in Liége, Belgium. Fruit large, roundish, with sides unequal; skin pale yellow, with a dark red blush; flesh white, red at the pit, juicy, sweet; quality good; stone free; ripens the middle of August. =Troy.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 210. 1676. Troy is a large, early, red peach of good quality. =Trueblood Late Free.= =1.= _Ind. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 27. 1869. Said to be a hardy variety of good quality. =Tuckahoe.= =1.= _N. Mex. Sta. Bul._ =30=:235. 1899. Said to ripen late in New Mexico. =Tufts Early.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 190. 1849. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 289. 1854. Raised by E. Tufts, Cambridgeport, Massachusetts. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish; skin yellowish-white, with a red cheek; flesh free, white, red at the pit, very juicy, melting, with a sweet, delicious flavor; ripens the last of August. =Tufts Rareripe.= =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 195. 1849. This peach was originated by Bernard Tufts, Billerica, Massachusetts, and is said to come true from seed. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; fruit medium in size, roundish; skin yellow, with a bright red blush; flesh yellow, melting, very sweet, free; ripens from the middle to the last of September. =Turenne.= =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:479. 1860. _Turenne Améliorée._ =2.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =5=:188. 1863. =3.= Decaisne _Jard. Fruit._ =7=:Pl. 1872-75. Turenne grew from seed many years ago near Lyons, Rhône, France. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat irregular; skin pale yellow, deeply mottled with crimson; flesh yellowish-white, deep red at the pit which is adherent, coarse, acid, bitter; ripens in September. =Tuskena.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1873. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 34. 1899. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:228. 1899. _Tuskena Cling._ =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 28. 1873. _Tuscan Cling._ =5.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:15. 1892. _Yellow Tuscany._ =6.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:360. 1903. Tuskena originated in Mississippi. It received a place on the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1873 but was dropped in 1897, only to be replaced in 1899. Fruit large, roundish-oval; skin yellow, with a dark red cheek; flesh adherent, yellow, red at the pit, firm, vinous, rich; quality good; season the last of September. =Twenty-Ounce Cling.= =1.= _Oregon Nur. Cat._ 36. 1913. According to the Oregon Nursery Company, Orenco, Oregon, this is a large, early peach desirable for canning. =Twyford.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 104. 1831. Twyford is probably a seedling of Noblesse. Fruit large, pale green, with a red blush; flesh tender and of good quality; season the first of September. =Tyehurst.= =1.= _Can. Hort._ =14=:317. 1891. =2.= _Ont. Fr. Exp. Sta. Rpt._ =2=:58. 1895. Tyehurst is a chance seedling which originated about thirty years ago with E. Tyehurst, Leamington, Ontario, Canada. Fruit medium in size, round; skin light yellow, with only a faint carmine blush; flesh yellow, slightly stained at the pit, sweet, firm, free; quality fair; ripens the middle of September. =Ulatis.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. =2.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:815. 1896. =3.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 310. 188g. Ulatis originated near Vacaville, California, and is supposed to be a seedling of Alexander. Fruit large, roundish-oval; color creamy-white, with a red blush; flesh white, with a good flavor; freestone; ripens with Alexander. =Unique.= =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:161, 162, fig. 79. 1866-73. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:293, 294 fig. 1879. _New Cut-leaved._ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 100. 1831. _New Serrated._ =4.= _Ibid._ 101. 1831. _Emperor of Russia._ =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 477. 1845. =6.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 184, 185. 1846. _De Smyrne._ =7.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:271. 1854. _Schöne Jersey Pfirsich._ =8.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 414. 1889. _Emperor._ =9.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 37. 1909. Unique was raised more than a century ago by Michael Floy, New York City, from a pit of a curious peach-tree with serrate leaves which he had discovered about 1809 in New Jersey. In England the variety was introduced about 1819 as Emperor of Russia. Tree of moderate vigor, bearing narrow, glandless leaves which are very deeply and doubly serrated; fruit large, roundish, broad, one side much longer than the other; skin dull yellowish-white, with a dark red cheek; flesh yellowish-white, firm, juicy, rich and aromatic; stone free; season the last of August. =Unnamed Chinese.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 291. 1893. Professor C. S. Sargent grew this variety at the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, from seed received in 1868 from Dr. Bretschneider, who found it as a cultivated variety in the mountains north of Pekin, China. Its chief importance is as a parent type in the production of new, hardy varieties. Fruit medium in size, roundish to oblong-conic, sides somewhat unequal, compressed; color greenish-white, with a faint, dotted blush; flesh greenish-white, slightly tinged with red at the free pit, firm, juicy, fibrous, subacid to sweet; quality good; season early September in Massachusetts. =Unvergleichlicher Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:206. 1858. _Unvergleichlich Schöne._ =2.= Liegel _Anweisung_ 70. 1822. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat flattened; skin yellow, with a deep red blush; flesh white, tender, sweet, vinous; season the first of September. =Utah Cling.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 6. 1897-98. Introduced in 1893 by T. V. Munson and Son, Denison, Texas. It is a large, prolific, yellow peach with a red cheek. =Utah Free.= =1.= Munson _Cat._ 6. 1897-98. Also introduced by T. V. Munson and Son. A large, prolific, valuable, rich yellow peach. =Vagaloggia Cotogna.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =25=:88. 1859. This is an attractive, Italian peach of excellent quality. =Vainqueur.= =1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 238. 1908. =2.= _U. S. D. A. Plant Immigrants_ =117=:958. 1916. This is an early variety of the type of Alexander, valuable chiefly for breeding. =Valdy.= =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 53. 1876. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:295 fig., 296. 1879. Valdy was originated more than fifty years ago by a M. Valdy, Croix-Blanche, Lot-et-Garonne, France. Fruit large, roundish; skin yellow, washed with a dark carmine blush; flesh yellow, red at the center, juicy, sweet, with a pleasant, aromatic flavor; pit free; ripens the middle of August. =Van Buren Golden Dwarf.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =3=:53. 1861. =2.= _Cult. & Count. Gent._ =28=:238. 1866. =3.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =2=:171, 172 fig. 1867. This sort is supposed by the originator, J. Van Buren of Georgia, to be an accidental cross between Italian Dwarf and Van Zandt, originating about 1857. The tree resembles a currant bush; has numerous buds; its fruits attain average size but vary in shape. Fruit large, oblong, sometimes round, pointed at the apex; skin golden yellow, with a crimson cheek; flesh firm, juicy, sprightly; clingstone; ripens from the middle of September until October. =Van Deman.= =1.= _Green Nur. Cat._ 23 fig. 1916. According to Green's Nursery Company, Rochester, New York, this peach originated near the summer home of the late Professor H. E. Van Deman, Beulah, Michigan. Fruit large, with a distinct suture; color clear yellow, with considerable red; flesh yellow, sweet, good; stone free; ripens early. =Van Deman Early.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 110, 111. 1880. Said to have originated with H. E. Van Deman, Geneva, Kansas. The tree fruited first in 1878. Fruit large; color white, covered with bright purple and crimson; flesh slightly adherent, white, good. =Van Zandt. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:296 fig., 297. 1879. _Van Zandt's Superb._ =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:15. 1832. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 487. 1845. Van Zandt originated about 1825 with R. B. Van Zandt, Flushing, New York. Leaves with globose glands; fruit of medium size, roundish, with a small suture; skin yellowish-white, mottled with dark red; flesh white, tinted with red at the pit, juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic; quality good; stone free; ripens the first of September. =Vandermark. 1.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 196. 1847. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 295. 1854. Said to be a seedling of Lemon Cling. Fruit large, roundish; color yellow, with a red blush; flesh yellow, acid, adherent to the pit; season September. =Vanderveer Optimum. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:12. 1832. This peach is a seedling of Old Newington and was named after a Dr. Vanderveer, of Long Island, New York. Fruit large, pale yellowish-white, blushed with red; flesh sweet, juicy, with a delicate flavor; clingstone; season the last of September. =Vanguard. 1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. =2.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 253. 1831. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 233. 1866. Probably Vanguard is but a variation of Noblesse, being included with it by some writers. The only distinction between the two is in habit of growth, Vanguard being more robust and hardy. =Vanmeter. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 210. 1906. A late variety resembling Krummel. =Variegated Free I. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =18=:276, 277 figs. 1863. This variety originated many years ago with Isaac Pullen, Hightstown, New Jersey. Fruit large, roundish, with a well-marked apex; skin yellow, striped and marbled with deep red; flesh yellow, moderately juicy, sweet; quality very good; ripens early in September. =Variegated Free II. 1.= Black _Cult. Peach & Pear_ 113. 1886. This peach is said to be a seedling of Variegated Free I and was introduced by H. R. Walker, Middletown, Delaware. It is a desirable white peach, with streaks and stripes of red. =Veritable Chancelliere. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:23, 24. 1768. _Kanzlerpfirsiche._ =2.= Christ _Handb._ 593. 1817. _Schöne Kanzlerin._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde._ =3=:198. 1858. This variety differs from Chancellor in having large flowers and globose glands. =Verona. 1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. Listed as a good, red peach. =Verte de Beaulieu. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:151, 152, fig. 12. 1883. This variety was introduced and possibly originated by a M. Dumas near Lectoure, Gers, France. Fruit large, roundish-oval; skin greenish-white, shaded with red; flesh white, juicy, sweet, aromatic; quality good; season the middle of September. =Very Large Seedling Peach. 1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 112. 1880. This variety is said to have been raised in New York City and to have ripened too late to be of value in the north. =Vessier.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =27=:545. 1861. Vessier is a late, French peach, with rich, melting flesh. =Victor.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:110. 1901. =2.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 11. 1907. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. _Early Victor._ =4.= _Mo. State Fr. Sta. Rpt._ 12, 13. 1905-06. Victor is a variety of unknown parentage which originated with John B. Bass, Bass, Texas. Fruit medium in size, roundish; color creamy-white with a red blush; flesh creamy-white, melting, juicy, subacid, with an almond flavor; quality good; stone semi-clinging; season early. =Victoria.= =1.= _Ariz. Sta. Bul._ =15=:62, 67. 1895. =2.= _Glen St. Mary Nur. Cat._ 14. 1900. Victoria is of American origin and belongs to the Spanish type. Fruit large, nearly round; skin yellow; flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, free; ripens in Florida early in August. =Vilmorin.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:68. 1900. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 119 fig. 1906. Vilmorin was obtained by Alexis Lepère, Montreuil, France. Fruit large, roundish, flattened at the base; skin pale yellow, washed with bright red; flesh free, white, tinged with dark red at the pit, juicy, with a pleasant, sweet, aromatic flavor; ripens from the middle to the last of September. =Vineuse de Fromentin.= =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 351. 1802. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 212. 1832. _Weinhafte Fromentinerpfirsche._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 594. 1817. _Fromentiner Lieblingspfirsich._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:202. 1858. The fruit of this variety is similar to that of Grosse Mignonne with which it is often confused. Glands round; flowers large; fruit roundish, somewhat compressed at the ends; skin nearly covered with dark red; flesh white except at the stone, tender, vinous, juicy; stone small, free. =Vineuse Hâtive.= =1.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =1=:No. 17, Pl. 1846. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:300, 301 fig., 302. 1879. Although Poiteau and Leroy differ somewhat as to the origin of this peach, there is probably no doubt but that it was found near Paris, France, more than two centuries ago. Fruit medium in size, roundish, compressed at the ends; skin greenish-yellow, with a dark red blush; flesh white, red under the skin and at the stone, juicy, vinous, sweet; stone free; ripens the last of August. =Vinous Purple.= =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:190. 1831. This variety resembles Grosse Mignonne but is distinct. Fruit large, divided on one side into two sections by a deep groove; skin fawn-colored, covered with very dark red; flesh white, red under the skin and around the pit, juicy, vinous, with a slightly acid flavor; stone free. =Violet Hâtive.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 104, Pl. 30 fig. 6. 1729. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 637. 1869. _Grosse Violette Hâtive._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:27, Pl. XVI fig. 1. 1768. _Violette Hâtive._ =4.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:33, Pl. 17 fig. 2. 1823. =5.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 233, 234. 1866. This is undoubtedly a French variety and may be a seedling of Galande. Fruit large, roundish; skin yellow, mottled with red over most of the surface; flesh white, juicy, sweet, vinous; season early September. =Violet Muscat.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. This variety is listed as a fine, violet-colored peach of good quality. =Violet Musk.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. This is a red peach with yellow flesh. =Violette de Montpellier.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:183. 1883. The tree of this variety is described as being moderately vigorous and bearing dense foliage which has reniform glands. =Violetter Aprikosenpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:218. 1858. Fruit of medium size, roundish-oblong; color yellow, with a violet-red blush; flesh juicy, tender, with a slightly acid flavor; ripens in August. =Voorheis No. 1.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:35. 1889. =2.= _Ibid._ =39=:815. 1896. Tree vigorous, unproductive; fruit of medium size, ovate, with a pointed apex; color yellow, with a red cheek; quality good; season the last of June in Texas. =Voorheis Silver.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =8=:35. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Wake Forest.= =1.= _N. C. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:108. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Walburton.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 289. 1854. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:359. 1903. _Walburton Admirable._ =3.= _Gard. Chron._ 702. 1841. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 627. 1857. =5.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:225, 226, fig. 111. 1866-73. =6.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 463. 1884. Walburton is a late peach raised more than seventy-five years ago by Andrew Morton, Walburton, Sussex, England. The variety is supposed to be a seedling of Noblesse which it resembles in many respects. Tree hardy, productive; glands globose; flowers small; fruit large, round, with a distinct suture; skin greenish-white, mottled, with a dark red blush; flesh white, stained at the pit, juicy, melting, with a rich, sweet flavor; ripens the last of September. =Waldo.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1891. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:518, 519. 1902. =3.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =156=:135. 1911. =4.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:359. 1903. Waldo was raised from a seed of Peento about 1886 by T. K. Godbey, Waldo, Florida; it first fruited in 1888. Tree moderately large and productive in the South; glands reniform; fruit medium to large, roundish, with a shallow suture; apex blunt, often with a recurved tip; skin yellow, washed with a delicate red blush; flesh yellowish-white, slightly pink near the pit, juicy, with a sweet, delicious flavor; freestone; ripens the first of June in the South. =Walker.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:228, 229. 1899. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:359. 1903. _Walker's Variegated Free._ =3.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 213. 1881. =4.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 177. 1908. Said to have originated in Delaware. Glands globose; flowers small; fruit medium to large, roundish-oval, with a slight suture; color creamy-white, with a bright red cheek; flesh creamy-white, with red at the pit, tender, juicy, vinous, sprightly; quality good; pit free; season the last of September. =Walker Early.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 500. 1871. A productive, market sort ripening in August. Glands globose; fruit small, roundish; color white, with a red blush; quality good. =Wallace.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:242. 1898. Tree moderately vigorous; glands reniform; fruit large, roundish; color greenish-yellow, with a red blush; flesh white, tough, rich, vinous, adherent; quality good; ripens the middle of August in Georgia. =Waller.= =1.= Berckmans _Cat._ 13. 1916-17. According to the P. J. Berckmans Company, Augusta, Georgia, this peach was originated by Waller Brothers near Sparta, Georgia. Tree productive, bears annually; fruit of the Crawford type, large; skin yellow but nearly covered with red; flesh stringy; of good quality. =Wallis Best.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 40. 1913. According to Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri, this peach originated as a seedling of Elberta on the grounds of Henry Wallis, St. Louis County, Missouri. It is said to resemble its parent in habit of growth, vigor and productiveness but is hardier and of higher quality. =Wallis Heath Free.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 40. 1913. This variety originated with Henry Wallis, St. Louis County, Missouri, according to Stark Brothers of Louisiana, Missouri. Tree hardy, vigorous, very productive; fruit very large; flesh creamy yellow and of fine quality. =Walter Early.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 183, 184. 1841. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 488. 1845. =3.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 191. 1849. Walter Early originated in New Jersey. Tree productive; leaves with globose glands; fruit large, roundish; skin white, with a red cheek; flesh white, tinged red at the stone, melting, juicy, sweet, pleasant; ripens the last of August. =Ward Late.= =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:305 fig., 306. 1879. =2.= Fulton _Peach Cult._ 191, 192. 1908. _Ward's Late Free._ =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 201. 1841. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 80. 1862. _Ward's Freestone._ =5.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 280. 1854. _Tardive de Ward._ =6.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:203, 204, fig. 100. 1866-73. According to Leroy, Doctor A. Ward, Athens, Georgia, originated this variety. There is no statement as to the date of origin. The American Pomological Society listed this peach in its fruit-catalog in 1862 where it has since remained. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose or reniform; flowers small; fruit large, roundish, inclining to oval, with a moderately deep suture; skin pale yellowish-white, with an attractive, crimson blush; flesh nearly white, occasionally tinged with red at the pit, free, rich, juicy, melting, with a vinous flavor; ripens the last of September. =Ware.= =1.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 372. 1856. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 80. 1862. Ware was placed in the fruit-list of the American Pomological Society in 1862 without a description but was dropped in 1869. =Wark.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =205=:31. 1903. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =44=:63. 1910. Wark originated as a sprout from the roots of an old peach-tree in the orchard of James Wark near Douglas, Michigan. It resembles Triumph but is larger and freer from leaf-curl and brown-rot. It ripens later than Triumph. =Washington.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =6=:409. 1826. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 488. 1845. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 289. 1854. =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:177, 178, fig. 87. 1866-73. =5.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:229. 1899. _Washington Red Freestone._ =6.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 179. 1835. _Washington Rareripe._ =7.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 234. 1866. Washington originated in America and was named and introduced by Michael Floy of New York City. Tree vigorous, productive; glands globose; fruit large, roundish, broad, with a deep suture extending nearly around the fruit; skin yellowish-white, with a deep crimson cheek; flesh pale yellowish-white, juicy, very tender, melting, sweet, rich; stone usually free; season the middle of September. =Washington Clingstone.= =1.= Prince _Cat. Fr. Trees_ 24. 1823. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 232. 1832. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 499. 1845. =4.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 289. 1854. Said to be of American origin. Glands reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish; skin yellowish-green, with a slight red blush; flesh very juicy, tender, melting, with a sweet, luscious flavor; ripens the last of September. =Watkin Cling.= =1.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =4=:146. 1856. This variety originated in the South as a seedling of Heath Cling which it resembles except in later ripening. =Watkin Early.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Weaver.= =1.= Ramsey _Cat._ 4. 1912. According to P. T. Ramsey and Son, Austin, Texas, this peach originated from seed grown by D. W. Weaver of Austin. Fruit large; color yellow, overspread with red; flesh very yellow and very firm, adherent; quality good; ripens the first of September in Texas. =Weber Golden Free.= =1.= Weber _Cat._ 17. 1906. According to H. J. Weber and Sons Nursery Company, St. Louis, Missouri, the fruit of this variety is medium in size, golden yellow, with a bright red cheek, sweet and good in quality. =Weber Prize.= =1.= _The Dalles Nur. Cat._ 17, fig. 1910. According to R. H. Weber, proprietor of The Dalles Nurseries, The Dalles, Oregon, this variety originated in The Dalles. Fruit very large; color rich golden-yellow, considerably overspread with deep carmine and crimson; flesh yellow, firm, rich, delicious; pit very free; ripens the last of September. =Weed.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 44. 1895. Weed originated on the farm of George Weed, Douglas, Michigan. Fruit of medium size, roundish; color yellow, with a purplish-red cheek; flesh free, yellow, deep red at the pit, soft, juicy, sweet, vinous; quality good; ripens the first of September. =Weeping.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 229. 1832. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 296. 1854. _Reid's Weeping._ =3.= _Horticulturist_ =29=:165, 166. 1874. _Reid._ =4.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:224. 1899. This variety originated many years ago on the grounds of William Reid, Elizabethtown, New Jersey. Tree vigorous, spreading, with graceful, drooping branches; fruit large, roundish-ovate; skin yellow, with a bright red cheek; flesh yellow, stained with red at the pit, very juicy, tender, vinous; quality good; pit free; ripens the last of August. =Weihnachts-Aprikosenpfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:220. 1858. Fruit medium in size, yellow, washed with red; flesh yellow, tender, sweet; season very late. =Weisse Charlotte.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:207. 1858. Fruit large, round; skin yellowish-white, partly washed with red; flesh yellowish-white, often with tinges of red, sweet but with a slight astringent flavor; season the middle of October. =Welch.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 272, 273, Pl. 35. 1903. Welch was introduced by Charles B. Welch, Douglas, Michigan, having been raised as a seedling of Chili about 1880. The variety resembles its parent but is considered hardier, less subject to leaf-curl and brown-rot, better in quality and ripens its fruit later. =Weld Freestone.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 179. 1835. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 289. 1854. Said to have been raised by Eben Weld, Roxbury, Massachusetts. Fruit large, roundish-oval; skin greenish-white, with a red blush; flesh rich, sweet, vinous, with a delicious flavor; ripens the last of September. =Wellington.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 105. 1831. =2.= _Can. Hort._ =24=:480. 1901. This old sort has long been growing in Toronto, Canada, but only recently came before the public. The fruit is a large freestone, with yellow flesh and the tree shows distinct hardiness and vigor. =West.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:242. 1898. This is a low, spreading variety with reniform glands. =Western Newington.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. Listed in this reference as a clingstone. =Whaley Favorite.= =1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ =28=:87. 1896. This is a seedling peach raised by Mark Whaley, Olinda, Ontario, Canada. The fruit is a yellow freestone of fair size and ripens two weeks ahead of Early Crawford. =Wheatstone.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =3=:22. 1884. Listed as growing upon the Station grounds in 1884. =Wheatley.= =1.= _Miss. Sta. Bul._ =93=:14. 1905. Listed in this reference. =Wheeler Early.= =1.= _Country Gent._ =23=:158. 1864. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 30. 1875. =3.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 416. 1888. Wheeler Early was listed by the American Pomological Society from 1875 until 1897. Glands globose; fruit small, roundish; skin white, blushed with red; flesh melting, not very high in quality; freestone; ripens early. =Wheeler Late.= =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:68. 1900. This is a strong-growing variety which does not ripen its fruit in Canada. =Wheeler Late Yellow.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. Listed as growing in Delaware. =White Ball.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:114. 1847. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 636. 1869. Said to have originated in Massachusetts. Glands reniform; fruit of medium size, roundish, slightly depressed; skin greenish-white, shaded and marbled with red; flesh free, white, juicy, melting, sweet; ripens early in September. =White Blossom.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. _White Blossomed Incomparable._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 97. 1831. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:19. 1832. _Pêcher à Fleurs et à Fruits Blancs._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =7=:13, 14, fig. 5. 1866-73. This singular variety has white blossoms and pale, straw-colored bark. It was found in a hedge in Kings County, New York. The fruit resembles the Snow peach but is inferior in size, flavor and appearance. Leaves light green, with reniform glands; fruit large, oval; flesh white to the stone, melting, juicy; ripens late in August. =White Cling.= =1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 25. 1876. This peach is a white-fleshed clingstone ripening in July. =White Double Crop.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. Mentioned in this reference. =White Globe.= =1.= _Cultivator_ =4=:146. 1856. This is a very juicy, clingstone peach, having a delicious, aromatic flavor and ripening early in September. =White Imperial.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 488, 489. 1845. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 279, 280. 1854. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 80. 1862. This old sort originated with David Thomas, Cayuga County, New York, and is believed to be a seedling of Noblesse. It was introduced by J. J. Thomas, a son of the originator, Macedon, New York. Growers and pomologists have confused White Imperial with the Imperial of southern origin. Tree hardy, vigorous; fruit large, roundish, broad, depressed at the apex; suture moderately deep; skin yellowish-white, tinged with light purplish-red in the sun; flesh nearly white, melting, juicy, of delicate texture, sweet; quality very good; freestone; ripens the last of August. =White July.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. =2.= _Ala. Bd. Agr. Rpt._ =36=:106. 1908. This is a superior clingstone peach which ripens early in Alabama. =White June.= =1.= _Green River Nur. Cat._ 15. 1899. According to the Green River Nurseries, Bowling Green, Kentucky, this variety originated with W. W. Ware, Hopkinsville, Kentucky. It is a white peach of good quality, ripening with Alexander. =White Magdalen.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 101, Pl. 27 fig. 6. 1729. =2.= Christ _Handb._ 598. 1817. =3.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 253. 1831. _Magdalen._ =4.= Rea _Flora_ 210. 1676. _Madeleine Blanche._ =5.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:11, 12, 13, Pl. VI. 1768. =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:147, 148 fig., 149, 150. 1879. _Madeleine Blanche précoce._ =7.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =12=:186. 1883. White Magdalen is an old French sort, having been mentioned as early as 1628 by Lectier. Leaves doubly serrate, glandless; flowers large, pale red; fruit below medium in size, somewhat globular, halves unequal; deeply sutured; skin yellowish-white, marbled with deep red; flesh melting, stained near the pit, juicy but not high in flavor; stone free, small, obtuse; ripens the middle of August. =White Monsieur.= =1.= Rea _Flora_ 211. 1676. Said to be a fine, early peach. =White Nectarine.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:111. 1901. This is an old English variety belonging to the Chinese Cling group of peaches. Fruit nearly large, roundish; color greenish-white, washed and striped with crimson; flesh white, tinged with red at the pit, juicy, melting, with a mild subacid, vinous flavor; pit free; season late. =White Nutmeg.= =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 100, Pl. 27 fig. 1. 1729. =2.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ 1752. _Avant-pêche blanche._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:5, 6, Pl. II. 1768. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:45, 46 fig., 47, 48. 1879. _Weisse Frühpfirsche._ =5.= Christ _Handb._ 598. 1817. _Kleiner weisser Frühpfirsche._ =6.= Liegel _Anweisung_ 68. 1822. =7.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_. =3=:196. 1858. =8.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 402. 1889. _Frühe Montagne?_ =9.= Liegel _Anweisung_ 68. 1822. _Earliest White Nutmeg._ =10.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:173. 1831. This is an old French sort spoken of in 1589. Leaves small, doubly serrate, without glands; flowers large, pale; fruit very small, oval, distinctly sutured; apex with an acute nipple; skin white, with a pale tinge; flesh white to the stone, juicy, musky; freestone; quality fair; stone small, oval; ripens the middle of July. =White Pace.= =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 637. 1869. This is a Southern variety, having Persian blood but with a comparatively white skin. Flesh yellowish, juicy, sweet, free; season August. =White Winter.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 17. 1820. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:32. 1832. This is an oval-shaped peach with white skin and flesh which ripens in October and is chiefly valued for preserves. =Whitehead Red Heath.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 197. 1841. This variety, which was sent out about 1840 by Richard Reynolds, Smithfield, Virginia, is said to be superior to Heath Cling with which it ripens. Fruit very large, with a deep red color. =Whitlow Choice.= =1.= _Green River Nur. Cat._ 16. 1899. This variety was found by the Green River Nurseries, Bowling Green, Kentucky, on the farm of W. H. Whitlow near Casky, Kentucky. It is a freestone of good quality, resembling Yellow Rareripe and ripening the last of July. =Wiard.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 117. 1900. Wiard originated about twenty years ago on the grounds of Harry Wiard, Syracuse, New York. Fruit large, with golden-yellow skin, nearly covered with bright crimson; flesh yellow, very juicy; of good quality; freestone; season the middle of September. =Wiggins.= =1.= _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =42=:242. 1898. =2.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =13=:111, 112. 1901. Said to have originated in Texas. Fruit medium in size, roundish-oblong, slightly compressed; skin creamy-yellow, with a red blush; flesh greenish-white, juicy, tender, sweet; quality excellent; stone free; ripens early in July in Texas. =Wilbur.= =1.= Leonard Coates _Cat._ 5. 1911-12. According to the Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, California, this is a very large, attractive, yellow, freestone peach ripening in September. =Wilder.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =17=:270. 1875. =2.= _Ibid._ =18=:82. 1876. Wilder probably originated with H. M. Engle, Marietta, Pennsylvania. It is said to be a promising variety. =Wilkins.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 382. 1891. _Wilkins Cling._ =2.= Kan. Hort. Soc. _Peach, The_ 148. 1899. Wilkins is said to have originated with Colonel Wilkins of Maryland as a seedling of Heath Cling and is thought to be identical with that variety except in being larger and having clearer and more creamy color. =Willard.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1900. This variety originated with S. D. Willard, Geneva, New York, and is a peach of good quality, ripening after Early Crawford. =Willett.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =118=:32. 1895. =2.= _Ibid._ =169=:229. 1899. =3.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 476, 477, Pl. LXI. 1902. Cornelius O'Bryan of New York City is said to have originated this peach more than fifty years ago from a stone brought from South America. In 1874 Mr. O'Bryan's property came into the possession of Wallace P. Willett, who was so impressed with the new seedling that the following year he induced C. L. Van Dusen, Geneva, New York, to propagate it. Fruit large, roundish-ovate, compressed; skin deep yellow, blushed and often striped with crimson; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, fairly tender, with a vinous flavor; stone free; quality good; ripens the last of September. =Williams.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 115. 1880. Williams was discovered about 1875 by Lewis Williams, Hillsboro, Maryland. The fruit is said to be earlier and better than that of Alexander. =Williams Catherine.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 95. 1831. Very much like Catharine. Leaves with reniform glands; flowers small; fruit large, pale green, blushed; of first quality; stone clings; matures late in September. =Williams Cling.= =1.= L. R. Johnson _Cat._ 6. 1894. L. R. Johnson, Coshocton, Ohio, says that this peach was grown from a seed of Bealmear Cling by J. F. Williams. It closely resembles its parent. =Williams Early Purple.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 105. 1831. This is said to be a good, pale green peach, blushed with dull red and ripening early in August. =Williamson.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt. 44._ 1895. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:229. 1899. _Williamson Choice._ =3.= _Col., O., Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 32. 1892. Fruit large, roundish; skin yellow, washed and striped with crimson; flesh yellow, red at the pit, juicy, tender, with a mild, vinous flavor; freestone; ripens the last of September. =Williamson Cling.= =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 186. 1835. Fruit large, oblong, with a pointed apex; skin white, with a red blush; flesh white, very juicy, with a good flavor; season the middle of October. =Willow-Leaf.= _1._ _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =31=:58. 1887. Listed in this reference. =Willson.= =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =24=:307. 1882. This variety originated about 1878 with Pierpont Willson, Vineland, New Jersey. Fruit large, roundish, inclined to oblong; color yellowish-white, with a slight blush; flesh yellowish-white, dark red at the pit, very juicy, of excellent flavor; freestone; season the first of September. =Wilson.= =1.= _Peachland Nur. Cat._ 12, 13. 1890. Wilson was introduced more than twenty-five years ago by Charles Wright, proprietor of the Peachland Nurseries, Seaford, Delaware. The variety resembles Reeves but is larger, more productive and ripens a week earlier. =Windoes.= =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 452. 1879. This is a freestone peach ripening in the middle of September and of only local interest in Michigan, where it originated. =Wine.= =1.= _Continental Pl. Cat._ 13, 14. 1915-16. Wine is an old variety recently introduced by the Continental Plant Company, Kittrell, North Carolina. Said to reproduce itself from seed. Fruit medium in size, with an attractive, red cheek; flesh very juicy and tender, with a wine-like flavor; freestone; season the last of July. =Winesburgh Large Yellow.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:110. 1847. This is said to be a large, very excellent seedling which originated long ago in Holmes County, Ohio. =Winifred.= =1.= Leonard Coates _Cat._ 5. 1911-12. According to the Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, California, this is a very late, yellow clingstone equal to Levy. =Winnepesaukee.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 149. 1897. This is a peach of New Hampshire origin. =Wirt Lady.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 84. 1898. Said to ripen with Crothers. =Witham Seedling.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 105. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Woburn Early Mignonne.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 100. 1831. Mentioned in this reference. =Woerner.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 291. 1893. Fruit of medium size, oblong, with a cream-white skin, faintly blushed with red; flesh white, firm, sweet, rich; quality very good; clingstone; season the last of October. =Wonderful.= =1.= _N. C. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:108. 1889. =2.= _Can. Hort._ =16=:81. 1893. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:229. 1899. =4.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:359. 1903. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 39. 1909. Wonderful is a seedling peach which originated in New Jersey nearly thirty years ago. It has been confused with Smock which it closely resembles. Tree hardy but lacking in productiveness; fruit large, roundish-oval, with a distinct suture; color yellow, with a red blush when exposed; flesh yellow, red at the pit, moderately juicy, tender, free; quality fair; season the last of September. =Woodlawn Golden.= =1.= _Woodlawn Nur. Cat._ 36. 1914. This variety was recently introduced by Allen L. Wood, proprietor of the Woodlawn Nurseries, Rochester, New York. Fruit large; color golden yellow, with a red cheek; flesh free, yellow, firm, with a fine, rich flavor; season the first of September. =Woodman Choice.= =1.= _N. Y. Sta. Rpt._ =15=:290. 1896. At one time grown on the Station grounds. Fruit large, roundish; skin greenish-yellow, with a mottled blush; flesh deep yellow, stained with red at the pit, juicy, firm; freestone; quality good; season the last of September. =Woolsey.= =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:359. 1903. _Woolsey Nebraska._ =2.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 40. 1913. Said to have originated in Gage County, Nebraska. Tree hardy in Nebraska; fruit large, roundish; color yellow, with a red and crimson cheek; flesh yellow, rich, melting, vinous, good; pit free. =Worcester.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 89. 1899. Dr. J. Warren Worcester, Middletown, New York, raised this variety from a pit of a California peach. Fruit large, round, with a distinct suture; flesh yellow, red at the stone, juicy, sweet, rich; freestone; ripens rather late. =World Fair.= =1.= Bailey _Am. Hort._ 185. 1892. This variety, which was introduced by the Home Nursery Company, Normal, Illinois, is said to have originated about 1892 in Sappington, Missouri. Tree hardy, vigorous; fruit very large, roundish; color yellow, with a deep red blush; flesh juicy, with an excellent flavor; season about the middle of June in Missouri. =Worth.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 40. 1913. Worth was introduced by Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri, many years ago. The peach is a yellow freestone, with a brilliant red blush, resembling Early Crawford. =Wright.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt. 291._ 1893. Tree very productive; fruit large, roundish; color rich orange-yellow, shaded with red; flesh yellow, tinged with red at the pit, firm, juicy, sweet, rich; quality very good; clingstone; season early in November in California. =Wright Seedling.= =1.= _Gard. & For._ =8=:349. 1895. =2.= _Neb. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 277. 1901. This peach was obtained by W. F. Wright, Johnson County, Nebraska. Said to reproduce itself from seed. =Wyandotte Chief.= =1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 50. 1879. =2.= _Ibid._ 110. 1880. This variety is said to have originated on the farm of Matthew Mudeator, near Wyandotte, Kansas. It is described as a handsome, dark red, rich, juicy, finely flavored, freestone peach, ripening very early. =Wylie Cling.= =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 200. 1908. This is an old seedling grown by John Wylie, Green Valley, California. It is superior to Orange Cling in not splitting at the pit or dropping from the tree; a fine peach for canning and drying. =XX Yellow.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. Listed in this reference. =Yates Early.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 296. 1854. Said to be inferior to Early York which it resembles. =Yates Red Cling.= =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 40. 1913. According to Stark Brothers, Louisiana, Missouri, this is a large, attractive, red-cheeked, white-fleshed, clingstone peach, ripening ten days earlier than Heath Cling. =Yazoo.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 39._ 1909. =2.= Waugh _Am. Peach Orch._ 209. 1913. This is a clingstone which originated in Mississippi. =Yellow Admirable.= =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:33, 34, Pl. XXII. 1768. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 216. 1832. =3.= _Gard. Chron._ 1159. 1864. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =6=:40, 41 fig., 42. 1879. _Abricotée._ =5.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 92._ 1831. =6.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 489. 1845. =7.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:476. 1860. _Apricot._ =8.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:194. 1831. _Gelbe Wunderschöne._ =9.= _Deut. Obstcabinet_ =Pt. 7=:9. 1858. _Gelber Aprikosenpfirsich._ =10.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:217. 1858. _Prachtvolle Apricosenpfirsich._ =11.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =VI=:No. 1, Pl. 1882. Yellow Admirable is an old French sort which has never been cultivated in America. Tree vigorous, productive; leaves small, with reniform glands; flowers usually large, with an intense rose-color; fruit large, round, flattened; suture shallow; skin thick, finely pubescent, yellow, blushed with red where exposed; flesh yellow, faintly red near the stone, firm, rather dry, sweet, with the flavor of the apricot; good in quality; pit small for the size of the fruit, partially clinging, oval, blunt at the apex; ripens the middle of October. =Yellow Apricot.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 18. 1828. Fruit very large; color yellow, with a red blush; flesh yellow, firm, with an apricot flavor; ripens the first of October. =Yellow August.= =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =39=:817. 1896. Said to be a very late and worthless variety in Texas. =Yellow Chance.= =1.= _Cal. Sta. Rpt._ 391. 1894-95. Said to be a seedling ripening the last of September. =Yellow Chevreuse.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 95._ 1831. Leaves with globose glands; flowers small; flesh melting. =Yellow Extra.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =31=:58. 1887. Listed in this reference. =Yellow Globe.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 228._ 1910-11. Mentioned in this reference. =Yellow Mignonne.= =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. 100._ 1832. Mentioned in this reference as a pale, greenish-yellow peach having a red blush, dull yellow flesh and ripening in early September. =Yellow Nutmeg.= =1.= Prince _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 16. 1820. =2.= _Cultivator_ =6=:308 fig. 1849. _Early Yellow Nutmeg._ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 101. 1831. This is a free grower having large flowers and reniform glands. Its flesh is deep yellow and of good quality and its season is early. =Yellow Peach.= =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 580. 1629. =2.= _Gard. Chron._ 1042. 1872. This is a very old peach once considerably used in making peach-brandy. Tree small, bushy; fruit large, with a bright golden, pubescent skin; flesh very firm, clinging tenaciously to the pit. =Yellow Preserving.= =1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 224. 1817. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:20. 1832. Fruit small, with a greenish-yellow skin; flesh greenish-yellow, dry, with but little flavor; freestone; ripens in September. =Yellow Rose.= =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 51. 1901. Yellow Rose is a seedling from F. G. Barker, Salina, Kansas. Trees hardy, reproducing true from seed; fruit fair in size; skin pale yellow, free from down; flesh firm, yellow; ripens early in October. =Yellow Seedling.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =27=:154. 1861. Listed as a large, promising freestone. =Yellow Swan.= =1.= Sneed & Wood _Cir._ 1906. According to John F. Sneed, Tyler, Texas, this peach was brought to notice by C. W. Wood, Swan, Texas. It is thought to be a seedling of Chinese Cling. Fruit large, roundish-oval, slightly compressed, with a shallow suture; skin yellow, mottled with red on one side; flesh yellow, sometimes faintly red at the pit, semi-clinging, tender, sweet yet sprightly; quality good; ripens early in August. =Yenshi.= =1.= _Green River Nur. Cat. 17._ 1899. _Yenshi Hardy._ =2.= Lovett _Cat._ 34 fig. 1896. According to the Lovett Company, Little Silver, New Jersey, this variety was introduced from northwestern China by Professor J. L. Budd, Ames, Iowa. Tree vigorous, very hardy; fruit large, roundish; color creamy-white, nearly covered with crimson; flesh tender, very juicy, high-flavored; freestone; ripens with Alexander. =Yocum.= =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt. 203._ 1879. This is an attractive, large, late, yellow peach. =York Pearl.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =143=:186. 1897. Listed in this reference. =Yulu.= =1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ App. =33=:37. 1901. Listed in this reference. =Yum Yum.= =1.= _Del. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:100. 1892. =2.= _Fla. Sta. Bul._ =62=:518, 519. 1902. Originated by a Dr. Cushing, Waldo, Florida. Fruit large, roundish-oblong, with a shallow suture; skin light creamy-white, dotted and washed with delicate red; flesh white, firm, meaty, juicy, sweet, with almost an almond flavor; quality very good; clingstone; season early June in Florida. =Zane.= =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt. 263._ 1892. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 74. 1895. Zane originated on Wheeling Island in the Ohio river and was brought to notice by Joseph Morrison, Cadiz, Ohio. Fruit medium in size, roundish-oblate; color yellow, with a dark red blush; flesh yellow, red at the pit, tender, juicy, mild subacid; quality good; freestone; season early September. =Zea.= =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =152=:199. 1898. =2.= _Ibid._ =205=:31. 1903. Zea is large and attractive but is not so good nor as productive as Waddell with which it ripens. =Zelhemer Lieblingspfirsich.= =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:207. 1858. Fruit medium in size, round; skin yellow, washed with red; flesh very yellow, with a sweet, vinous flavor; ripens the last of August. =Zelia.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 41. 1877. =2.= _Pa. Fr. Gr. Soc. Rpt._ 587. 1878. Zelia originated in 1873 with L. E. Berckmans, Rome, Georgia. Fruit large; skin white, with a red cheek; flesh white, juicy, vinous; quality very good; freestone; ripens the last of September. =Zell.= =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 39._ 1909. Listed in this reference. =Zella.= =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 246. 1893. Zella was brought to notice in 1893 by S. W. Gilbert, Thayer, Missouri. It is a large, white, freestone peach with a bright red blush and fine flavor. =Zipf Seedling.= =1.= _Hopedale Nur. Cat. 22._ 1912. According to the Hopedale Nurseries, Hopedale, Illinois, this variety originated as a chance seedling. Fruit large, roundish-oblong; flesh firm, of good flavor; ripens the middle of September. =Zoar Beauty.= =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 296. 1854. _Beauty of Zoar._ =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:110. 1847. Glands globose; fruit medium in size, round; skin mostly red; flesh free, tinged with red; ripens in September. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES, WITH ABBREVIATIONS USED The list of books which follows contains all American pomological works in which the peach is discussed at any length. Only such European books are listed, however, as were found useful in writing _The Peaches of New York_. Only periodicals are listed to which references are made in the text of the book. The reports and bulletins of experiment stations and horticultural societies are not included since the abbreviations used for such publications will be recognized by all. The date of copyright has been preferred to that of publication though sometimes it has been necessary to use the latter, as when there were several editions from the same copyright. Am. Gard. American Gardening. An Illustrated Journal of Horticulture and Gardener's Chronicle. New York: 1892-1904. Copyright, 1903. (Before its union with Popular Gardening in 1892, the publication was known as The American Garden. Both Popular Gardening and The American Garden resulted from the union or absorption of several other horticultural periodicals.) Am. Gard. Mag. The American Gardener's Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs. See Mag. Hort. Am. Hort. An. American Horticultural Annual. A Year-book of Horticultural Progress for the Professional and Amateur Gardener, Fruit-grower, and Florist. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1867. Copyright, 1867. New edition. New York: 1870. Copyright, 1869. Am. Jour. Hort. The American Journal of Horticulture and Florist's Companion. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 1-5. Boston: 1867-1869. Copyrights, 1867-1869. Continued as Tilton's Journal of Horticulture and Floral Magazine. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 6-9. Boston: 1869-1871. Copyrights, 1869-1871. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. Proceedings of the American Pomological Society. Issued usually biennially from 1850 to date. First published as the Proceedings of the National Convention of Fruit Growers in 1848. Ann. Hort. Annals of Horticulture and yearbook of information on practical gardening. 5 Volumes. London: 1846-1850. Ann. Pom. Belge Annales de Pomologie Belge et Étrangère; publiées par la Commission royale de Pomologie Institutée par S. M. le Roi des Belges. (_Illustré._) 8 Tomes. Bruxelles: 1853-1860. Bailey, Ann. Hort. Annals of Horticulture in North America for the Years 1889-1893. A Witness of Passing Events and a Record of Progress. By L. H. Bailey. New York: 1890-1894. Copyrights, 1889, 1891-1894. Bailey, Cyc. Hort. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture Comprising Suggestions for Cultivation of Horticultural Plants, Descriptions of the Species of Fruits, Vegetables, Flowers and Ornamental Plants Sold in the United States and Canada, Together with Geographical and Biographical Sketches. By L. H. Bailey, assisted by Wilhelm Miller. (_Illustrated._) In Four Volumes. New York: 1900-1902. Copyrights, 1900-1902. Bailey, Ev. Nat. Fruits Sketch of the Evolution of our Native Fruits. By L. H. Bailey. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1898. Copyright, 1898. Bailey, Stand. Cyc. Hort. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. A Discussion, for the Amateur, and the Professional and Commercial Grower, of the Kinds, Characteristics and Methods of Cultivation of the Species of Plants Grown in the Regions of the United States and Canada for Ornament, for Fancy, for Fruit and for Vegetables; with Keys to the Natural Families and Genera, Descriptions of the Horticultural Capabilities of the States and Provinces and Dependent Islands, and Sketches of Eminent Horticulturists. By L. H. Bailey. (_Illustrated._) In Six Volumes. New York and London: 1914-1917. Copyrights, 1900, 1901, 1914, 1915, 1916, 1917. Bailey, Sur. Unlike The Survival of the Unlike. A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. Bailey. (_Illustrated._) Fifth Edition. New York: 1906. Copyright, 1896. Baltet, Cult. Fr. Traité de la Culture Fruitière Commerciale et Bourgeoise. Par Charles Baltet. (_Illustré._) Quatrième Édition. Paris: 1908. Barry, Fr. Garden The Fruit Garden. By P. Barry. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1852. Copyright, 1851. Revised Edition, 1896. Copyright, 1883. Beverly, Hist. Va. History of Virginia. By Robert Beverly. 1722. Reprinted in Richmond, 1855. Black, Cult. Peach & Pear The Cultivation of the Peach And The Pear, on the Delaware and Chesapeake Peninsula; with a Chapter on Quince Culture and the Culture of Some of the Nut-Bearing Trees. By John S. Black, M. D. (_Illustrated._) Wilmington: 1886. Copyright, 1886. Bradley, Gard. New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, both Philosophical and Practical. In three parts. By Richard Bradley. (_Illustrated._) Seventh Edition with Appendix, London: 1739. Bridgeman, Gard. Ass't. The Young Gardener's Assistant, in three parts. By Thomas Bridgeman. New Edition, with an Appendix. New York: 1857. Copyright, 1847. Brookshaw, Hort. Reposit. The Horticultural Repository, containing Delineations of the best Varieties of the Different Species of English Fruits. By George Brookshaw. (_Illustrated._) In Two Volumes. London: 1823. Brookshaw, Pom. Brit. Pomona Britannica, or A Collection of the Most Esteemed Fruits at present Cultivated In Great Britain; selected principally from the Royal Gardens At Hampton Court, and the remainder from The Most Celebrated Gardens Round London; Accurately Drawn and Colored from Nature, with Full Descriptions of their Various Qualities, Seasons, &c. By George Brookshaw. Volumes I and II. London: 1817. Vol. I. The Peach. Budd-Hansen, Am. Hort. Man. American Horticultural Manual. By J. L. Budd, assisted by N. E. Hansen. (_Illustrated._) In Two Volumes. Volume 2. New York and London: 1903. Copyright, 1903. Bunyard-Thomas, Fr. Gard. The Fruit Garden. By George Bunyard and Owen Thomas. (_Illustrated._) London and New York: 1904. Can. Hort. The Canadian Horticulturist. (_Illustrated._) Toronto and Peterboro: 1878 to date. Carrière, Var. Pêchers. Description Et Classification des Variétés De Pêchers et de Brugonniers. Par E. A. Carrière. Paris: 1867. Cat. Cong. Pom. France Société Pomologique de France Catalogue Descriptif des Fruits Adoptés par le Congrès Pomologique. Lyon: 1887. Ibid.: 1906. Cecil, Hist. Gard. Eng. A History Of Gardening In England. By the Hon. Mrs. Evelyn Cecil. Third and enlarged edition. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1910. Christ, Handb. Handbuch über die Obstbaumzucht und Obstlehre. Von J. L. Christ. Vierte, sehr verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Frankfurt: 1817. Christ, Wörterb. Pomologisches theoretisch-praktisches Handwörterbuch, oder Alphabetisches Verzeichniss. Von J. L. Christ. Leipzig: 1802. Cole, Am. Fr. Book The American Fruit Book; containing directions for Raising, Propagating, and Managing Fruit Trees, Shrubs, and Plants; with a description of the Best Varieties of Fruit, including New and Valuable Kinds. By S. W. Cole. (_Illustrated._) Boston: 1849. Copyright, 1849. Country Gent. The Country Gentleman. Albany: 1853-1865. The Cultivator & Country Gentleman. Albany: 1866-1897. The Country Gentleman. Albany and Philadelphia: 1898 to date. Coxe, Cult. Fr. Trees A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees, and the Management of Orchards and Cider; with accurate descriptions of the most estimable varieties of Native and Foreign Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums and Cherries, cultivated in the middle states of America. By William Coxe. (_Illustrated._) Philadelphia: 1817. Copyright, 1817. Cultivator The Cultivator. Albany: 1834-1865. In 1866 united with The Country Gentleman. Cult. & Count. Gent. The Cultivator & Country Gentleman. See Country Gent. Darwin, Ans. and Pls. Domest. The Variation of Animals And Plants under Domestication. By Charles Darwin. (_Illustrated._) First edition. London: 1868. Second edition, revised. In Two Volumes. London: 1893. De Candolle, Or. Cult. Plants Origin of Cultivated Plants. By Alphonse de Candolle. Geneva [Switzerland]: 1882. New York: 1885. Decaisne, Jard. Fruit. Le Jardin Fruitier Du Muséum Ou Iconographie De Toutes Les Espèces Et Variétés D'Arbres Fruitiers Cultivés dans cet Établissement Avec Leur Description, Leur Histoire, Leur Synonymie, Etc. Par J. Decaisne. Tome Septième. Paris: 1872-1875. Decaisne & Naudin, Man. Amat. Jard. Manuel de L'Amateur Des Jardins Traité Général D'Horticulture. Par Jh. Decaisne et CH. Naudin. (_Illustré._) Tome Quatrième. Paris. Deut. Obstcabinet Deutsches Obstcabinet in naturgetreuen fein colorirten Abbildungen und Fruchtdurchschnitten zu Dittrich's systematischem Handbuche der Obstkunde und zu jedem pomologischen werke nebst einter kurzen Beschreibung und Diagnose der Obstarten. Neue Auflage. Section VII. Jena: 1858. Dochnahl, Führ. Obstkunde Der sichere Führer in der Obstkunde auf botanisch-pomologischen Wege oder Systematische Breschreibung aller Obstsorten. Von F. J. Dochnahl. Vier Bände. Nürnberg: 1855-60. Volume 3, 1858. Peaches. Downing, Fr. Trees Am. The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America: or the culture, propagation, and management, in the garden and orchard, of fruit trees generally; with Descriptions Of All The Finest Varieties Of Fruit, Native and Foreign, Cultivated In This Country. By A. J. Downing. (_Illustrated._) New York & London: 1845. Copyright, 1845. Second edition, same text, with colored plates, 1847. First revision, by Charles Downing. New York: 1857. Copyright, 1857. Second revision, by Charles Downing. New York: 1869. First appendix, 1872. Second appendix, 1876. Third appendix, 1881. Duhamel, Trait. Arb. Fr. Traité Des Arbres Fruitiers; Contenant Leur Figure, Leur Description, Leur Culture, &c. Par M. Duhamel Du Monceau. (_Illustré._) Tomes 1 et 2. Paris: 1768. Édition publié en 1872, en trois tomes. Nouvelle Édition en six tomes, 1807-1835. Elliott, Fr. Book Elliott's Fruit Book; or, the American Fruit-Grower's Guide in Orchard and Garden. By F. R. Elliott. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1858. Copyright, 1854. Revised edition. 1859. Fish, Hardy-Fr. Bk. The Hardy-Fruit Book. By D. T. Fish. (_Illustrated._) Two Volumes. London: probably 1882. Flor. & Pom. The Florist And Pomologist: A Pictorial Monthly Magazine of Flowers, Fruits, and General Horticulture. Conducted at first by Robert Hogg and John Spencer, later by Thomas Moore and William Paul. (_Illustrated._) London: 1862-1884. Floy-Lindley, Guide Orch. Gard. A Guide to the Orchard And Fruit Garden or an account of the Most Valuable Fruits cultivated in Great Britain. By George Lindley; edited by John Lindley. American edition by Michael Floy. New York: 1833. New edition; with an Appendix. New York: 1846. Copyright, 1846. Forsyth, Treat. Fr. Trees A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees. By William Forsyth. London: 1802. Same with an Introduction and Notes, by William Corbett. Albany: 1803. Seventh edition [English] London: 1824. Fulton, Peach Cult. Peach Culture. By James Alexander Fulton. (_Illustrated._) Copyright, 1889. New, revised, and greatly enlarged edition. New York: 1908. Gard. Chron. The Gardener's Chronicle. (_Illustrated._) London: 1841 to date. Gard. & For. Garden And Forest. A Journal of Horticulture, Landscape Art and Forestry. Conducted by Charles S. Sargent. (_Illustrated._) Volumes I-X. New York: 1888-1897, Copyrights, 1888-1897. Gard. Mon. The Gardener's Monthly and Horticultural Advertiser. Edited by Thomas Meehan. (_Illustrated._) Philadelphia: 1859-1887. Garden. The Garden. (_Illustrated._) London: 1872 to date. Gaucher, Pom. Prak. Obst. Pomologie des Praktischen Obstbaumzüchters. Von N. Gaucher. (_Illustrirt._) Stuttgart: 1894. Gen. Farmer. The Genesee Farmer. Edited by Luther Tucker, Rochester: 1831-1839. Then consolidated with the Cultivator. Another periodical of the same name was published in Rochester from 1845 to 1865. Also New Genesee Farmer and Monthly Genesee Farmer. Gerarde, Herball. The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes. By John Gerarde. Enlarged and amended by Thomas Johnson. London: 1633. Reprinted without alteration, 1636. Guide Prat. Guide Pratique de L'Amateur De Fruits. Description Et Culture, des Variétés De Fruits Classées Par Séries De Mérite composant les collections pomologiques De L'Etablissement Horticole Simon-Louis Frères. A Plantières-Les-Metz (Lorraine Annexée) Suivi D'Une Table Générale Alphabétique de tous les Synonymes connus, Francais et Étrangers appartenent à chaque variété. Deuxième Édition. Paris et Nancy: 1895. Hoffy, N. Am. Pom. Hoffy's North American Pomologist, containing numerous Finely Colored Drawings, accompanied by letter press descriptions, &c., of Fruits of American Origin. Edited by William D. Brincklé. Book No. 1. Philadelphia: 1860. Copyright, 1860. Hoffy, Orch. Com. The Orchardist's Companion. Alfred Hoffy, Editor and Publisher. A quarterly journal. Vol. I, 1841-2; Vol. II, 1842-3. Philadelphia. Hogg, Fruit Man. The Fruit Manual: A Guide to the Fruits and Fruit Trees of Great Britain. By Robert Hogg. First edition, London: 1860. Second edition, 1861. Third edition, 1866. Fourth edition, 1873. Fifth edition, 1884. Hooper, W. Fr. Book. Hooper's Western Fruit Book: a compendious Collection of Facts from the Notes and Experience of Successful Fruit Culturists, arranged for practical use in The Orchard and Garden. By E. J. Hooper. Cincinnati: 1857. Copyright, 1857. Hort. Reg. (Am.). Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine. Edited by T. G. Fessenden and J. E. Teschemacher. Volume I. Boston: 1835. Hort. Reg. (Eng.). The Horticultural Register and General Magazine. By Joseph Paxton and Joseph Harrison. Vol. I. London: 1833. Horticulturist. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste. Founded and first edited by A. J. Downing. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 1 to 30. Albany, Philadelphia and New York: 1846-1875. Hovey, Fr. Am. The Fruits of America, containing Richly Colored Figures, and full Descriptions of all the choicest Varieties cultivated in the United States. By C. M. Hovey. Volume I. Boston and New York: 1852. Volume II. Boston: 1856. Copyright, 1851. Jour. Hort. The Journal of Horticulture began as: The Cottage Gardener; or Amateur's and Cottager's Guide to out-door gardening and spade cultivation. 25 Volumes. London: 1849-1861. Continued as The Journal of Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Country Gentleman. A Journal of Horticulture, Rural and Domestic Economy, Botany and Natural History. New Series. 38 Volumes. London: 1861-1880. Continued as The Journal of Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Home Farmer. A Chronicle of Country Pursuits and Country Life, including Poultry, Pigeon, and Bee-keeping. Third Series. 59 Volumes. London: 1880-1909. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. The Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. London: 1846 to date. Vols. 1-9, 1846-55, bear the title of The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Kalm, Travels N. Am. Travels into North America. By Peter Kalm. Volumes 1-3. 1770-1771. Kenrick, Am. Orch. The New American Orchardist. By William Kenrick. Boston: 1833. Copyright, 1832. Second edition. Boston: 1835. Copyright, 1835. Seventh edition, enlarged and improved, with a supplement. Boston: 1845. Copyright, 1841. Knoop, Fructologie. Part I. Pomologie, ou Description des meilleures sortes de Pommes et de Poires. Part II. Fructologie, ou Description des Arbres Fruitiers. Par Jean Herman Knoop. (_Illustré._) Amsterdam: 1771. Koch, Deut. Obst. Die Deutschen Obstgehölze. Vorlesungen gehalten zu Berlin im Winterhalbjahr 1875-76. Von Karl Koch. Stuttgart: 1876. Kraft, Pom. Aust. Pomona austriaca, Abhandlung von den Obstbäumen. Von Johann Kraft. 2 Theile. Vienna: 1792. Langley, Pomona. Pomona, or the Fruit Garden Illustrated. By Batty Langley. London: 1729. Lauche, Deut. Pom. Deutsche Pomologie. Von W. Lauche. (_Illustrirt._) Berlin: 1882. Lauche, Ergänzungsband. Erster Ergänzungsband zu Lucas' und Oberdieck's Illustrirtes Handbuch der Obstkunde. Von W. Lauche. Berlin: 1883. Lawson, Hist. Carolina. History of Carolina. By John Lawson. 1714. Reprinted at Raleigh, 1860. Le Bon Jard. Le Bon Jardinier. 126e Édition Almanach Horticole, 1882 et 129e Édition, 1884. Paris. Leroy, Dict. Pom. Dictionnaire de Pomologie. Par André Leroy. (_Illustré._) 6 Tomes. Paris: 1867-1879. Tome 6, 1879. Peaches. Liegel, Anweisung. Anweisung, mit welchen Sorten verschiedene Obstbaum-Anlagen besetzt werden sollen. Von G. Liegel. Salzburg: 1822. Liegel, Syst. Anleit. Systematische Anleitung zur Kenntniss der vorzüglichsten Sorten des Kern-, Stein-, Schalen- und Beerenobster. Von Georg Liegel. Passau: 1825. Lindley, Guide Orch. Gard. A Guide to the Orchard And Kitchen Garden; or, an account of the most valuable fruit and vegetables cultivated In Great Britain: with Kalendars of the Work Required in the Orchard and Kitchen Garden during every month in the year. By George Lindley. Edited by John Lindley. London: 1831. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. A Catalogue of the Fruits Cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society of London. London: 1826. Second edition, 1831. Third edition, 1842. A supplement was published in 1853. Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum. Par J. C. Loudon. Deuxième Édition. Tome 2. London: 1844. Loudon, Enc. Gard. An Encyclopedia Of Gardening. By J. C. Loudon. (_Illustrated._) New edition. London: 1834. Lucas, Handb. Obst. Vollständiges Handbuch der Obstkultur. Von Ed. Lucas. (_Illustrirt._) Stuttgart: First edition, 1880; second edition, 1886; third edition, 1893. Third edition edited by Fr. Lucas, 1894. McIntosh, Bk. Gard. The Book of the Garden. By Charles McIntosh. (_Illustrated._) Two Volumes. London: 1855. McMahon, Am. Gard. Cal. The American Gardener's Calendar. By Bernard McMahon. Philadelphia: 1806. Mag. Hort. The Magazine of Horticulture. Boston: 1837-1868. First published as The American Gardener's Magazine, 1835-6. Edited by C. M. Hovey with P. B. Hovey, Jr., associate editor during 1835-6. Manning, Book of Fruits. Book of Fruits. By Robert Manning. (_Illustrated._) Salem: 1838. Copyright, 1838. Mas, Le Verger. Le Verger ou Histoire, Culture Et Description avec planches coloriées Des Variétés De Fruits Les Plus Généralement Connues. Par M. Mas. 8 Tomes. Paris: 1866-73 Tome 7. Peaches. Mas, Pom. Gen. Pomologie Générale. Par M. Mas. (_Illustré._) 12 Tomes. Paris: 1872-83. Tome 12, 1883. Peaches. Mathieu, Nom. Pom. Nomenclator Pomologicus. Von Carl Mathieu. Berlin: 1889. Mawe-Abercrombie, Com. Gard. The Complete Gardener. By Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie. London: 1829. Miller, Gard. Dict. The Gardener's Dictionary. By Philip Miller. Sixth edition. London: 1752. Revised edition. By Thomas Martyn. London: 1807. Miller, Gard. Kal. The Gardener's Kalendar. By Philip Miller. London: 1734. Nat. Nur. The National Nurseryman. Published by The National Nurseryman Publishing Co. (_Illustrated._) Rochester: 1893 to date. Nicholson, Dict. Gard. The Illustrated Dictionary of Gardening, a practical and scientific Encyclopedia of Horticulture for Gardeners and Botanists. By George Nicholson, assisted by J. W. H. Trail and J. Garrett. 4 Volumes. London. Supplement to same. By George Nicholson et al. London: 1900. Noisette, Man. Comp. Jard. Manuel Complet du Jardinier. Par M. Louis Noisette. Tome Deuxième, Paris: 1860. Oberdieck, Obst-Sort. Deutschlands beste Obst-Sorten. Von F. G. C. Oberdieck. Leipzig: 1881. Parkinson, Par. Ter. Paradisi in Sole. Paradisus Terrestris. By John Parkinson. (_Illustrated._) London: 1629. Parkinson, Tour Am. A Tour In America, in 1798, 1799 and 1800. Exhibiting Sketches of Society and Manners and a particular account of the American System of Agriculture, with its recent improvements. By Richard Parkinson. Volumes I and II. London: 1805. Phillips, Com. Orch. The Companion for the Orchard. An Historical And Botanical Account of Fruits Known In Great Britain. By Henry Phillips. New Edition, London: 1831. Poiteau, Pom. Franc. Pomologie Francaise. Recueil des Plus Beaux Fruits Cultivés En France. Par Antoine Poiteau. Tomes 1-4. Paris: 1846. Pom. France. Pomologie De La France ou Histoire Et Description de tous Les Fruits Cultivés En France Et Admis Par Le Congrès Pomologique. (_Illustré._) Tomes I-VIII. Lyon: 1863-1873. Tome VI, 1869. Peaches. Pom. Mag. The Pomological Magazine; or, Figures And Descriptions of the Most Important Varieties Of Fruit cultivated in Great Britain. Three Volumes. London: 1828-30. This work has also been published under the title Pomona Brittanica. Popular Gard. Popular Gardening. An Illustrated periodical devoted to Horticulture in all its branches. Volume I. Buffalo: 1886. Continued as Popular Gardening and Fruit Growing. Volumes II-VI. Buffalo: 1887-1891. Consolidated with The American Garden and continued as American Gardening. New York: 1892-1904. Prince, Cat. Fr. Trees. Catalogue of Fruit And Ornamental Trees & Plants, Bulbous Flower Roots, Green-House Plants, &c. &c. Cultivated at the Linnæan Botanic Garden, William Prince, Prop. Twenty-second edition. New York: 1823. Prince, Pom. Man. The Pomological Manual; or, A Treatise on Fruits. By William Robert Prince, aided by William Prince. Second Edition. Part I. New York: 1832. Copyright, 1831. Part II. New York: 1832. Copyright, 1832. Prince, Treat. Hort. A Short Treatise on Horticulture. By William Prince. New York: 1828. Copyright, 1828. Prince, Treat. Trees & Plants. A Treatise on Fruit and Ornamental Trees And Plants, cultivated at the Linnaean Botanic Garden, Flushing, Long-Island, near New-York. By William Prince. New York: 1820. Rea, Flora. Flora: Seu, De Florum Cultura; or A Complete Florilege. By John Rea. 3 Books. London: 1676. Book 3. Peaches. Rev. Hort. Revue Horticole. Journal D'Horticulture Pratique. (_Illustré._) Paris: 1829 to date. Rural N. Y. The Rural New-Yorker. A Journal for the Suburban and Country Home. (_Illustrated._) Rochester and New York: 1850 to date. Rutter, Cult. & Diseases Peach. The Culture And Diseases of The Peach. By John Rutter. Harrisburg: 1880. Copyright, 1880. Sickler, Teutsche Obst. Der teutsche Obstgartner oder gemeinnutziges Magazin Des Obstbaues in Teutschlands sammtlichen Kreisen; verfasser von einigen prachtischen Freunden Der Obstcultur und herausgegeben von J. B. Sickler. Volumes 8-13. Weimar: 1797-1800. Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom. Nationale D'Horticulture De France. Section Pomologique. Les Meilleurs Fruits au début du XXe siècle. (_Illustré._) Paris: 1904. Sou. Cult. The Southern Cultivator. A Monthly Journal, devoted to the improvement of Southern Agriculture. (_Illustrated._) Augusta, Ga.: 1843-1848. Thacher, Am. Orch. The American Orchardist. By James Thacher. Boston: 1822. Copyright, 1822. Thomas, Am. Fruit Cult. The American Fruit Culturist. By John J. Thomas. (_Illustrated._) First Edition. Geneva and Auburn, N. Y.: 1846. Copyright, 1846. Revised Edition. Auburn, N. Y.: 1851. Copyright, 1849. Revised Edition. New York: 1869. Copyright, 1867. Revised Edition. New York: 1885. Copyright, 1875-1885. Twentieth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. New York: 1897. Copyright, 1897. Twenty-first Edition, Revised and Enlarged. New York: 1911. Copyright, 1903. Thomas, Guide Prat. Guide Pratique de L'Amateur de Fruits. Par O. Thomas. 1876. Deuxiéme Édition. 1895. See Guide Pratique. Thompson, Gard. Ass't. The Gardener's Assistant; Practical and Scientific. By Robert Thompson. (_Illustrated._) Two Volumes. London: 1859. Same, revised by William Watson. Six Volumes. London: 1901. Tilton, Jour. Hort. Tilton's Journal of Horticulture and Floral Magazine. See Am. Jour. Hort. Trans. Lond. Hort. Soc. Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London. Volume I. London: 1815. Volume II. London: 1817. Volume III. London: 1820. Volume IV. London: 1822. Volume V. London: 1824. Volume VI. London: 1826. U. S. D. A. Rpt. Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1862-1894. U. S. D. A. Yearbook. Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1894 to date. U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt. Reports of the Agricultural section of the United States Patent Office: 1837 to 1861. Waugh, Am. Peach Orch. The American Peach Orchard. A Sketch of the Practice of Peach Growing in North America at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century. By F. A. Waugh. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1913. Copyright, 1913. Waugh, Syst. Pom. Systematic Pomology. Treating of the Description, Nomenclature, and Classification of Fruits. By F. A. Waugh. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1903. Copyright, 1903. Wickson, Cal. Fruits The California Fruits and How To Grow Them. By Edward J. Wickson. (_Illustrated._) Second Edition. San Francisco: 1891. Copyright, 1889. Fourth Edition. Los Angeles: 1909. Copyright, 1908. Seventh Edition. San Francisco: 1914. Copyright, 1914. Willich, Dom. Enc. Domestic Encyclopedia or a Dictionary of Facts. By A. F. M. Willich. First American edition with additions by James Mease. In five volumes. Volume 4, Philadelphia: 1803. INDEX (Names of varieties in this index, if accepted names, appear in Roman type; synonyms in italics.) À Bec, 291 _À Feuilles de Saule_ (syn. of French Willow Leaved), 364 Abbé de Beaumont, 291 Abbé Jodoc, 291 _Abricotée_ (syn. of Yellow Admirable), 495 _Abt Jodocus_ (syn. of Abbé Jodoc), 291 Abundance, 291 Acampo, 291 Acme, 291 Acton Scot, 291 Adèle Thirriot, 292 Admirable, 292 Admirable Jaune, 292 Admirable Jaune Tardive, 292 Admirable Saint-German, 292 _Admiral_ (syn. of Admiral Dewey), 178 Admiral Dewey, 178 Adrian, 292 Advance, 292 Aehrenthal, 292 _Aehrenthal Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Aehrenthal), 292 Affleck, Thomas, var. orig. with, 433 Agriculture, history of, 1 _Aigle doré_ (syn. of Golden Eagle), 370 _Aigle de Mer_ (syn. of Sea Eagle), 463 _Aikelin Frühpfirsich_ (syn. of Hâtive d'Aikelin), 379 Aiken, 293 Ailsworth, 293 Albatross, 293 Albemarle, 293 Alberge, 293 _Alberge-Aprikosenpfirsich_ (syn. of Rossanna), 456 Albert, 293 Albert Late Rareripe, 294 Albert Sidney, 294 Albertine Millet, 294 Alberza, 294 Albright, 294 _Albright_ (syn. of Albright Cling I), 294 Albright, var. orig. by, 294 Albright, Miss, var. orig. with, 294 Albright Cling I, 294 Albright Cling II, 294 _Albright October_ (syn. of Albright Cling I), 294 _Albright Winter_ (syn. of Albright Cling I), 294 Alexander, 179 Alexander, O. A., var. orig. by, 179 _Alexander's Early_ (syn. of Alexander), 179 Alexandra, 295 _Alexandra Noblesse_ (syn. of Alexandra), 295 Alexandre Dumas, 295 Alexiana Cherpin, 295 Alexis Lepère, 295 Alger Winter, 295 Algerine, 295 _Algiers Yellow_ (syn. of Late Yellow Alberge), 400 _Algiers yellow winter clingstone_ (syn. of Late Yellow Alberge), 400 Alice, 295 Alice Free, 295 _Alice Haupt_ (syn. of Alice), 295 Alida, 295 Allen, A. T., var. orig. by, 296 Allen, J. F., var. orig. by, 413 Allen I, 295 Allen II, 296 Allen October, 296 Allman Cling, 296 Almond, 296 Almond, relationship of the, to the peach, 11-13, 69-70, 80 Alpha I, 296 Alpha II, 296 Alpha III, 296 Alto Pass, 296 Alton, 180 Amande Douce, 296 _Amandier-Pêcher_ (syn. of Almond), 296 Ambrosia, 296 Amelia I, 297 Amelia II, 297 Ameliaberta, 297 American Apricot, 297 American Pound, 297 Ammirabile Belga, 297 Amsden, 297 Amsden, L. C., var. orig. by, 297 _Amsden June_ (syn. of Amsden), 297 Amsden Pine, 298 _Amygdalus laevis_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Amygdalus Nectarina_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Amygdalus Nuci-persica_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Amygdalus Persica_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Amygdalus Persica_ var. _nucipersica_. (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Ananas-Aprikosenpfirsich_ (syn. of Pineapple), 443 Ananiel, 298 _Andenken an Java_ (syn, of Souvenir de Java), 469 _Andenken an Jean Rey_ (syn. of Souvenir de Jean Rey), 469 André Leroy, 298 Andrews, 298 _Andrews Mammoth_ (syn. of Andrews), 298 Angel, 298 Angelle Lafond, 298 Angers Large Purple, 298 Anna Ruffin, 298 Anne, 298 _Anne Précoce de Fay_ (syn. of Fay Early Anne), 359 Annie Laurie, 299 Annie Trice, 299 Annie Wylie, 299 Antleys, 299 Antleys, var. orig. with, 299 Apex, 299 _Apricot_ (syn. of Yellow Admirable), 495 _Aprikosenartiger Härtling_ (syn. of Pavie Abricotée), 434 _Archiduc Jean_ (syn. of Erzherzog Johann), 356 Arctic, 299 Aremie, 299 _Argentée Précoce_ (syn. of Early Silver), 352 Arietta, 299 Arkansas, 299 _Arkansas Traveler_ (syn. of Arkansas), 299 Arlington, 299 Arp, 182 _Arp Beauty_ (syn. of Arp), 182 Arthur Chevreau, 300 Artz, 300 Asa Meek Seedling, 300 Ashby, G. W., var. orig. by, 300 Ashby Early, 300 Asia, the peach in, 13-25 Astor, 300 Astor, var. orig. with, 300 Athenian Cling, 300 Athens, 300 Atlanta, 300 Atwater, 300 Atwood, 301 Atwood, Roscius, var. orig. with, 301 Aubinel, var. orig. with, 424 Augbert, 301 Augusta, 301 Auguste Fau Jaune, 301 Aurora, 301 Austin, 301 _Austin Cling_ (syn. of Austin), 301 _Austins Late Red_ (syn. of Austin), 301 Australian Saucer, 301 Autour (syn. of Goshawk), 371 _Avant-Pêche blanche_ (syn. of White Nutmeg), 491 Avant-Pêche Jaune, 301 _Avant-Pêche Rouge_ (syn. of Red Nutmeg), 452 Avant-Précoce, 302 Avant-Précoce Pavie, 302 Avocat Collignon, 302 Azoo Cling, 302 Babcock, 302 Bagby Large, 302 Bailey, 302 Baker Cling, 302 Baker Early, 302 _Baker Early May_ (syn. of Baker Early), 302 Baldwin, 302 Baldwin, Dr. William, var. orig. by, 302, 343 _Baldwin Late_ (syn. of Baldwin), 302 _Baldwin October Free_ (syn. of Baldwin), 302 _Balsey_ (syn. of Greensboro), 222 Balsey, W. G., var. orig. by, 222 Baltet, 303 Baltet, var. orig. by, 303 Baltimore Beauty, 303 Baltimore Rose, 303 Bandel, 303 Bandel, var. orig. by, 303 Banner, 303 Barber, 303 Barcelona Yellow Clingstone, 303 Barker, F. G., var. orig. with, 303, 339, 496 Barker No. 13, 303 Barnard, 304 Barnes, 304 Baron Ackenthal, 304 Baron Dufour, 304 Baron Pears, 304 Baronne de Brivazac, 304 Barr, Colonel John, var. orig. with, 304 Barr Early, 304 Barr Late, 304 Barral, var. orig. by, 438 Barrington, 304 Barrington, var. orig. by, 304 _Barringtoner Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Barrington), 304 _Barthélemy_ (syn. of Bertholome), 311 Bartram, William, quoted, 42-43 Bass, John B., var. orig. with, 485 Bassford, Wallace, var. orig. by, 361 Batchelder, 305 Batchelder, William, var. orig. with, 305 Bateham, M. B., var. orig. by, 339 Baugh, 305 Baumann, Eugene, var. orig. by, 315 Baxter, Isaac B., var. orig. with, 389, 440 Baxter, William, var. orig. with, 305 Baxter Cling, 305 Bayne, Dr., var. introduced by, 305 Bayne Favorite, 305 Bayne New Heath, 305 Bealmear, Dr., var. orig, by, 305 Bealmear Cling, 305 Bear Early, 305 Bear Late, 305 Beatrice, 305 Beauchamp, 305 Beausse, Joseph, var. orig. by, 307 Beauté de la Saulsaie, 306 _Beauty Blush_ (syn. of Blush), 314 Beauty of Salisbury, 306 _Beauty of Vitry_ (syn. of Belle de Vitry), 309 _Beauty of Zoar_ (syn. of Zoar Beauty), 497 Beaver No. 2, 306 Beckwith, var. orig. by, 306 Beckwith Early, 306 Becquett Late, 306 _Becquette Cling_ (syn. of Bequette Cling), 310 _Becquette Free_ (syn. of Bequette Free), 184 _Beer_ (syn. of Beers Smock), 306 Beer, Samuel, var. orig. with, 306 Beer Late White Cling, 306 Beers, Joseph, var. orig. by, 306, 395 Beers Late, 306 _Beers Late Melocoton_ (syn. of Beers Late), 306 Beers Late Red Rareripe, 306 _Beers Melcatoon_ (syn. of Beers Late), 306 _Beers Red Rareripe_ (syn. of Beers Late Red Rareripe), 306 Beers Smock, 306 _Béguine de Termonde?_ (syn. of Congress), 334 Bell Favorite, 306 Bell October, 307 Belle, 183 Belle de Bade, 307 _Belle-Bauce_ (syn. of Belle Beausse), 307 _Belle Bausse_ (syn. of Belle Beausse), 307 Belle de Beaucaire, 307 _Belle Beauce_ (syn. of Belle Beausse), 307 Belle Beausse, 307 Belle Beauté, 307 _Belle de Bordeaux_ (syn. of Bordeaux), 316 Belle Cartière, 307 Belle de Charleville, 307 _Belle Chevreuse_ (syn. of Chevreuse), 328 Belle Conquête, 307 Belle de la Croix, 307 Belle de Doué, 308 Belle Dupont, 308 Belle et Bonne, 308 _Belle of Georgia_ (syn. of Belle), 183 Belle Henri Pinaud, 308 Belle Impériale, 308 Belle de Liège, 308 Belle de Logelbach, 308 Belle de Mes Yeux, 308 _Belle Mousseuse_ (syn. of Rendatler), 453 Belle de Neuville, 308 Belle d'Orbassano, 309 Belle de Saint-Geslin, 309 Belle de Saint-Geslin Blanche, 309 _Belle tardive d'Auvergne_ (syn. of Tardive d'Auvergne), 476 _Belle Tillemont_ (syn. of Tirlemonter Magdalene), 480 _Belle Toulousaine_ (syn. of Belle de Toulouse), 309 Belle de Toulouse, 309 Belle de Vitry, 309 Bellegarde, 309 _Bellegarde_ (syn. of Galande), 365 _Bellis_ (syn. of Belle de Vitry), 309 Bellows, 309 Beltzar, 309 Beltzar Early Rareripe, 309 Ben Hur, 310 Benade, 310 Benango, 310 Bennett Rareripe, 310 _Bequett Free_ (syn. of Bequette Free), 184 Bequette, Benjamin, var. orig. by, 185, 310 Bequette Cling, 310 Bequette Free, 184 Berckmans, 310 Berckmans, L. E., var. orig. by, 186, 259, 280, 310, 336, 372, 393, 429, 430, 474, 497 Berckmans, P. J., var. introduced by, 294, 371, 434, 470, 472; var. orig. by, 332 Berenice, 185 Bergame, 310 Bergen, 310 _Bergen Yellow_ (syn. of Bergen), 310 Bermuda Cling, 310 Bernard Verlot, 310 Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, 310 Berry, 311 Bertero, quoted, 65 Bertholome, 311 Bessie Kerr, 311 Best June, 311 Besy Robin, 311 _Beure_ (syn. of Butterpfirsich), 322 Beverly, Robert, quoted, 48-49, 82 Beville, 311 Bexar, 311 Bianci di Nizza, 311 Bickell, 311 Biddle, 311 Bidwell, A. I., var. orig. by, 311, 312 Bidwell Early, 311 Bidwell Late, 312 Bilice, 312 Billmeyer, 312 Billmeyer, J. H., var. orig. by, 312 Bilyeu, 312 Bilyeu, var. orig. with, 312 _Bilyeu Comet_ (syn. of Bilyeu), 312 _Bilyeu's October_ (syn. of Bilyeu), 312 Binney Late Red, 312 Bird Beauty, 312 Bishop, 312 _Bishop Early_ (syn. of Bishop), 312 Bivort, A., var. orig. by, 308, 315 Black, 312 Black, J. H., var. orig. by, 313 Black, John J., quoted, 127-128 Black Early, 313 _Black Extra Early_ (syn. of Black Early), 313 Black Seedling, 313 Blacke, 313 Blackmore, R. D., var. orig. by, 403 Blake, 313 Blanc de City, 313 Blanchard, 313 Blanchard, C. C. F., var. orig. by, 313 Blanche d'Ekenholm, 313 Blanche Énorme de Mézel, 313 _Blanche de Morris_ (syn. of Morris White), 249 Blanche Tardive de Sabarot, 313 Blanton Cling, 313 Bledsoe Early Cling, 313 Bledsoe Seedling, 313 Blodgett, Lorin, var. orig. by, 314 Blodgett's Seedlings, 314 Blondeau, 314 Blondeau, Joseph, var. introduced by, 314 Blood Cling, 187 _Blood Clingstone_ (syn. of Blood Cling), 187 Blood Free, 314 _Blood Freestone_ (syn. of Blood Free), 314 Blood Leaf, 188 _Blood-leaved Peach_ (syn. of Blood Leaf), 188 _Blood Peach_ (syn. of Blood Cling), 187 _Bloody_ (syn. of Sanguinole), 461 _Bloody Monsieur_ (syn. of Sanguinole), 461 Bloor, 314 Bloor, John, var. orig. by, 314 Blush, 314 Bogg, var. orig. by, 314 Bogg Leviathan, 314 _Bogg Mammoth_ (syn. of Bogg Leviathan), 314 Bogue, J. T., var. introduced by, 442 Boisselot, 314 Boisselot, Auguste, var. orig. by, 314, 454 Bokhara, 315 Boley, 315 Bollweiler Favorite, 315 Bollweiler Magdalene, 315 _Bollwiller de Madeleine_ (syn. of Bollweiler Magdalene), 315 Bonanza, 315 Bonito, 315 Bonlez, 315 _Bonlezer Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Bonlez), 315 Bonne Dame de Laeken, 316 Bonne Gros de Noisette, 316 Bonne Grosse, 316 Bonne-Julie, 316 Bonneuil, 316 _Bonneuil Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Bonneuil), 316 Bonouvrier, 316 Bonouvrier, var. orig. with, 316 Boon, Joel, var. orig. with, 301 Boquier, 316 Bordeaux, 316 _Bordeaux Cling_ (syn. of Bordeaux), 316 Boswell, quoted, 110 Böttchers Frühpfirsich, 316 Bourdeaux, 316 _Boudin_ (syn. of Bourdine), 317 _Bourdin Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Bourdine), 317 Bourdine, 317 Bourdine Royale, 317 Bowers Early, 317 _Bowslaugh_ (syn. of Bowslaugh Late), 317 Bowslaugh Late, 317 Boyd Early, 317 Boyles, 317 Boyles, James, var. orig. with, 317 Brackett, 317 Braddick American, 317 Braddick New York, 317 Braddick Red, 317 Braddick South American, 318 Braddick Summer, 318 _Braddick's North American_ (syn. of Braddick American), 317 Bradley, 318 Brahy, Madam, var. orig. by, 469 Brainard Large Yellow, 318 Brandy, 318 Brandywine, 318 Brant, 318 Braunauer Lackpfirsich, 318 Braunauer Magdalene, 318 _Braunauer Rote Frühe Pfirsich_ (syn. of Braunauer Lackpfirsich), 318 Bray, D., var. orig. with, 318 Bray Rareripe, 318 _Bray White_ (syn. of Bray Rareripe), 318 Brett, 318 Brevoort, 319 Brevoort, Henry, var. orig. by, 319 _Brevoort Seedling Melter_ (syn. of Brevoort), 319 Brevoort Seedling Pound, 319 Brice, Dr. S. M., var. orig. by, 319 Brice Early, 319 Brigdon, 189 _Brigg's Early May_ (syn. of Briggs), 319 Briggs, 319 _Briggs_ (syn. of Briggs Red May), 319 _Briggs_ (syn. of Governor Briggs), 372 Briggs, John G., var. orig. with, 319 _Briggs' May_ (syn. of Briggs), 319 Briggs Red May, 319 Bright, 319 Bright, Charles E., var. orig. by, 319 Brodie, 319 Bronough Cling, 319 Bronzée, 319 Brooks, 319 Brooks, var. orig. by, 319 Brown, 320 Brown, Orrin, var. orig. with, 320 Brown, W. L., var. orig. by, 320 _Brown Best_ (syn. of Brown Choice), 320 Brown Choice, 320 Brown Early, 320 Brown Nutmeg, 320 Browns Frühpfirsich, 320 Bruce, quoted, 48 Brunson, 320 Buck, 320 Buck, L. W., var. orig. by, 320 _Buck Prolific_ (syn. of Decker), 340 Buckeye, 320 _Buckingham Mignonne_ (syn. of Barrington), 304 Buckinghamshire Minion, 320 Budd, J. L., var. introduced by, 315, 496 Buisson, Charles, var. orig. by, 292, 326, 359, 402 Bullard, 320 Bullard, var. orig. with, 320 Bullard Cling, 320 Bullmann Aprikosenpfirsich, 320 Buonaparte, 320 Buonaparte, Joseph, var. introduced by, 320 Burbank, Luther, var. orig. by, 258 Burchell Early, 321 Burdock, 321 Burford October Cling, 321 Burgess Beauty, 321 Burke, 321 Burkhardt, John, var. orig. by, 311 Burlington Large Early, 321 Burnap, 321 Burns, 321 Burns, Mrs. L., var. orig. by, 355 Burns, T. F., var. introduced by, 479; var. orig. by, 321 Burrough, 321 Burton, Dr. E. L., var. orig. by, 343 Buski, 321 Bustian October, 321 Butler, J. T., var. orig. with, 321 Butler Late, 321 Butterpfirsich, 322 Buttram, 322 C. Cling, 322 Cabin, 322 Cable, 322 Cable, E., var. orig. by, 322 Cable Early, 322 _Cable Late_ (syn. of Cable), 322 _Cable Late Malacatune_ (syn. of Cable), 322 Cable Medium Melocoton, 322 Cabler Indian, 322 _Calaway_ (syn. of Calloway Cling), 322 California, 322 Callie Scaff, 322 Calloway Cling, 322 Camak Serrate, 323 _Camak Red Twigged_ (syn. of Camak Serrate), 323 _Cambray_ (syn. of Cambria), 323 Cambria, 323 Cambridge Belle, 323 Camden Superb, 323 Camelia, 323 Campbell, 323 Campbell, Judge, var. orig. by, 217, 323, 470, 472 Canada, 190 _Canadische Frühpfirsich_ (syn. of Canada), 190 Canary, 323 Canner Choice, 323 Cannon, 323 Cannon, H. P., var. orig. with, 323 Caper, 323 Capital, 323 Capps, 324 Capps Brothers, var. introduced by, 324, 418 Captain Ede, 191 _Cardinal de Furstemberg_ (syn. of Sanguine), 460 Cardinale, 324 _Cardinale_ (syn. of Sanguine), 460 Carey Mammoth Cling, 324 Carl Late, 324 Carl Wredow, 324 Carlisle, 324 Carman, 193 Carmine, 324 Carnation, 324 Caroline Beauty, 324 Caroline Incomparable, 324 Carolinen Härtling, 325 Carpenter, 325 Carpenter, Charles, var. orig. with, 295, 325 Carpenter, William S., var. introduced by, 325 _Carpenter Cling_ (syn. of Carpenter), 325 _Carpenter Late_ (syn. of Carpenter White), 325 Carpenter Red Rareripe, 325 Carpenter White, 325 Carrelet, var. orig. by, 310 Carroll, var. orig. with, 419 Carroll Late, 325 Carson, 325 Carter Large, 325 Cartière, Madame, var. orig. with, 307 Caruth Late, 325 _Cass_ (syn. of Chili), 197 Catharine, 325 _Catharinen-Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Catharine), 325. Catline, 325 Cécile, 326 Cécile Mignonne, 326 _Cedar County Hardy_ (syn. of Bailey), 302 Célestin Port, 326 Centennial, 326 _Chair Choice_ (syn. of Chairs), 194 _Chair's Choice_ (syn. of Chairs), 194 Chairs, 194 Chairs, Franklin, var. orig. by, 194 Chairs' Choice (syn. of Chairs), 194 Chalmer Yellow Free, 326 Champion, 195 Champion (of Michigan), 326 Chancellor, 326 Chapman, 326 Charles Ingouf, 327 Charles Rongé, 327 _Charles Schwarzenberg_ (syn. of Karl Schwarzenberg), 393 Chas. Wood, 327 _Charlestowner Ananaspfirsche_ (syn. of Pineapple), 443 Charlotte, 327 Chartreux, 327 Chase Early, 327 Chaucer, quoted, 35 Chazotte, 327 Chelcie Cling, 327 Cherokee, 327 Cherry Peach, 327 Chevalier, var. orig. with, 308 Chevreau, Arthur, var. orig. by, 300, 438 Chevreuse, 328 Chevreuse Clingstone, 328 Chevreuse à Feuilles Cloquées, 328 Chevreuse Hâtive, 328 _Chevreuse Hâtive_ (syn. of Chevreuse), 328 Chevreuse Tardive, 328 Chick, I. W. & R. S., var. orig. by, 328, 339 Chick Early Cling, 328 Chili, 197 Chili No. 2, 329 Chili No. 3, 329 Chilian, 329 Chilow, 329 Chilson, 329 Chinese Blood, 329 Chinese Cling, 198 Chinese Crooked, 329 _Chinese Flat_ (syn. of Peento), 261 Chinese Free, 200 Chinese Peach, 329 _Chinese Peach_ (syn. of Chinese Cling), 198 Chisolm, 330 Chisolm, W. H., var. orig. with, 330 Choate, R., quoted, 106 Christiana, 330 Christmas Seedling, 330 _Church_ (syn. of President Church), 446 Church, Rev. A., var. orig. by, 446 Cibot, quoted, 8, 20 Citry à Fruit Blanc, 330 Clara, 330 Clara Mayer, 330 Clarissa, 330 Clark, Lewis, var. orig. with, 330 Clark Early, 330 Clarke, 330 Clarke, A., var. orig. with, 330 Claudine Willermoz, 330 Cleffey Allen, 331 Clémence Isaure, 331 Cleveland I, 331 Cleveland II, 331 Clifton Park, 331 Climax, 201 Clingman May, 331 Clinton, 331 Cobb Mignonne, 331 Cobbler, 331 Coe Golden Cling, 332 Coggin Early, 332 Coigneau, 332 Cole, 332 _Cole Early_ (syn. of Cole), 332 _Cole Early Red_ (syn. of Cole), 332 Cole Large Yellow, 332 Cole White, 332 Cole White Melocoton, 332 Coleman, 332 Coleman, Thomas, var. orig. by, 332 Colerane, 332 Collinson, Peter, quoted, 57 Colmar, 332 Colon, 332 Colonel Ansley, 333 Colonel McFarland, 333 Colonel Tom Ruffin, 333 Columbia, 333 Columbus June, 333 Columella, quoted, 27 Comet, 333 Comice d'Angers, 333 Comice de Bourbourg, 334 Compton Pure Gold, 334 Comte d'Ansembourg, 334 Comte de Neperg, 334 Comtesse de Hainaut, 334 Comtesse de Montijo, 334 Con Cling, 334 Condor, 334 Congress, 334 Conkling, 334 Conkling, E. M., var. introduced by, 334 Connecticut, 335 Connett, 335 Connett, Rev. Alfred, var. orig. with, 335 _Connett Early_ (syn. of Connett), 335 _Conner Cling_ (syn. of Connor White), 335 Connor White, 335 Conover, 335 Cook, J. C., var. orig. by, 423 Cook, J. S., var. orig. by, 335 Cook Late, 335 _Cook Late White_ (syn. of Cook Late), 335 Cook Seedling, 335 Cooley Mammoth, 335 _Cooledge's Favorite_ (syn. of Coolidge), 336 Coolidge, 336 Coolidge, Joshua, var. orig. by, 336 Coolidge Mammoth, 336 _Coolidge's Favorite_ (syn. of Coolidge), 336 Cooner, 336 Cooper Early, 336 Cooper Late, 336 Cooper Mammoth, 336 Cooper Manet, 336 Cora, 336 Cora Wright, 336 Corbeil, 336 Corbet, Robert, var. orig. by, 425 Corlett, 336 Corlett, var. orig. by, 336 Cornelia, 337 Corner, 337 Corner, William, var. orig. by, 337 Corosa, 337 Corriell, 337 Cothelstone Seedling, 337 Coulombier, 337 Coulter, Thomas, quoted, 59-60 Countess, 337 Counts, 337 Counts, H. H., var. orig. with, 337 Coupers, 337 _Coursoner Magdalene_ (syn. of Red Magdalen), 451 Couturier, Jean-Denis, var. orig. by, 469 Cowan Late, 337 Cox Cling, 337 Cox October, 337 Coxe, Dr., var. orig. by, 400, 455 Coxe, William, life of, 254-255; quoted, 120, 254-255, var. orig. by, 333 _Crane_ (syn. of St. John), 269 Crawford, William, var. orig. by, 205, 240 _Crawford's Early_ (syn. of Early Crawford), 205 _Crawford's Early Melocoton_ (syn. of Early Crawford), 205 _Crawford's Late_ (syn. of Late Crawford), 240 _Crawford's Late Melocoton_ (syn. of Late Crawford), 240 _Crawford's Superb Malacatune_ (syn. of Late Crawford), 240 Cream, 337 Crimson Beauty I, 337 Crimson Beauty II, 338 Crimson Galande, 338 _Crimson Mignonne_ (syn. of Crimson Galande), 338 Crockett, 338 _Crockett Late_ (syn. of Crockett), 338 _Crockett Late White_ ( syn. of Crockett), 338 Crofts Golden, 338 Cromwell, var. introduced by, 338 Cromwell Seedling, 338 Crosby, 202 Crosby, var. introduced by, 203 Crothers, 338 Crothers, var. orig. with, 338 Crown, 338 Cumberland, 338 Curtis, 338 Cushing, Dr., var. orig. by, 496 Cutter, 339 _Cutter's Yellow_ (syn. of Yellow Rareripe), 289 Dabezac, 339 Dad, 339 Dagmar, 339 Daniels, E. T., var. orig. by, 337, 413, 428 Darby, 339 Darby, G., var. orig. by, 396 Darwin, Charles, quoted, 12, 65 Daun, 339 David Hill, 339 Davidson, 204 Davidson, G. W., var. orig. with, 204 Davidson No. 1, 339 Davidson No. 2, 339 Davis, R. A., quoted, 64-65 Dawson, 339 Dawson Early, 339 Day Yellow Free, 339 De Candolle, quoted, 6, 81 _De Chang-Hai_ (syn. of Chinese Cling), 198 De Citry, 340 De Corsa Heath, 340 _D'Egypt_ (syn. of Pêche de Syrie), 438 De Ferrières, 340 De Gloria, 340 De Grillet, 340 De Halle, 340 D'Ispahan à Fleurs Simples, 340 De Napier, 340 _De Smyrne_ (syn. of Unique), 482 De Thoissey, 340 De Tondensis, 340 De Trianon, 340 De Tullias, 340 De Zelhern, 340 Deaconess, 340 Dean, Martin, var. orig. by, 340 Dean Brothers, var. orig. by, 340 Dean Orange, 340 Dean Red Free, 340 December, 340 Decker, 340 Dekenhoven Pfirsich, 341 Delavan White, 341 Delaware, 341 Delloyer, Henri, var. introduced by, 474 Deming, 341 _Deming Orange_ (syn. of Deming), 341 _Deming September_ (syn. of Deming), 341 Demouilles, 341 Demouilles, var. orig. with, 341 Dennis, 341 Denton, 341 Désiré Vitry, 342 Desportes, Baptiste, var. orig. by, 416 Despot, 342 Desprez, 342 Desse, var. orig. by, 342, 351 _Desse Hâtive_ (syn. of Early Purple), 351 Desse Tardive, 342 _Dewey_ (syn. of Admiral Dewey), 178 Dewey Cling, 342 Dey, 342 Di Carema Giallo, 342 Diamond, 342 Diana, 342 Dickenson, O., var. orig. with, 349 Dimia-Chatenay, var. orig. by, 308 Dix, 342 Dixie, 342 Docteur Burkard, 343 Docteur Krans, 343 Docteur Lucas, 343 _Dr. Berckmans_ (syn. of Berckmans), 310 _Dr. Black_ (syn. of Black), 312 Dr. Burton, 343 Dr. Cummings, 343 Dr. Graham White Freestone, 343 Dr. Hogg, 343 Dr. Pilkington, 343 Dr. Tomlinson, 343 Domergue, 343 Domergue, var. orig. by, 343 Donahoo, 343 Donegal, 344 Doom, Judge, var. orig. with, 357 _Doppelter Bergpfirsich_ (syn. of Double Mountain), 344 Dorothy, 344 Dorsetshire Mignonne, 344 Double Blanche de Fortune, 344 Double Cramoisie de Fortune, 344 Double Jaune, 344 Double Mountain, 344 _Double Swalsh_ (syn. of Swalsh), 475 _Double de Troyes_ (syn. of Petite Mignonne), 441 Dougall, James, var. orig. with, 456 Dowling, 345 Dowling, John, var. orig. by, 444 _Dowling June_ (syn. of Dowling), 345 Down Easter, 344 Downer, 344 Downing, 345 Downing, A. J., quoted, 242 Drain Seedling, 345 Drap d'Or, 345 _Drap d'or Esperen_ (syn. of Drap d'Or), 345 Druid Hill, 345 Du Lin, 346 Du Moulin, 346 Du Quesnoy, 346 Du Thiers, 346 Duboisviolette, 345 Duboscq, 345 Duchess of Cornwall, 345 _Duchess of York_ (syn. of Duchess of Cornwall), 345 Duchesse de Galliera, 345 Dudley, quoted, 56-57 Duff, 346 _Duff Yellow_ (syn. of Duff), 346 Dufour, Baron, var. orig. with, 304 Duggar, 346 _Duggar Golden_ (syn. of Duggar), 346 Duggar White, 346 Duke of Marlborough, 346 Duke of York, 346 Dulany, 346 Dulce, 346 Dumas, var. orig. by, 484 Dumont, 347 Dumont, Peter, var. orig. by, 347 Dun, 347 Dunlap, 347 Dunnington Beauty, 347 Duperron, 347 Duperron, var. orig. by, 347, 434 Durasme, 347 Durchsichtiger Lieblingspfirsich, 347 Durham Favorite, 347 Dutchess, 347 _Duveteuse Jaune_ (syn. of Duff), 346 Dwarf Aubinel, 347 Dwarf Champion, 348 Dwarf Cuba, 348 Dwarf Orleans, 348 Dyer June, 348 Dymond, 348 Eagle Red, 348 Earliest Mignonne, 348 _Earliest Red Cling_ (syn. of Early Red Cling), 351 _Earliest White Nutmeg_ (syn. of White Nutmeg), 491 Early, 348 _Early Admirable_ (syn. of Admirable), 292 _Early Albert_ (syn. of Albert), 293 Early Alfred, 348 _Early Anne_ (syn. of Anne), 298 _Early Arlington_ (syn. of Arlington), 299 Early Ascot, 348 Early Avant, 348 _Early Barnard_ (syn. of Barnard), 304 _Early Beatrice_ (syn. of Beatrice), 305 Early Beauty, 348 _Early Belle_ (syn. of Hiley), 227 Early Bourdine, 348 _Early Canada_ (syn. of Canada), 190 Early Charlotte, 349 Early Chelmsford, 349 Early Chevalier, 349 Early China, 349 Early Crawford, 205 Early Crawford Seedling No. 1, 349 Early Crawford Seedling No. 3, 349 Early Cream, 349 Early Cronesteyn, 349 Early Curtis, 349 Early Downton, 349 _Early Favourite?_ (syn. of Favourite), 358 Early Free, 350 _Early George_ (syn. of Early Royal George), 352 _Early Grosse Mignonne_ (syn. of Frühe Mignonne), 364 Early Imperial, 350 Early Leopold, 350 _Early Lewis_ (syn. of Lewis), 403 Early Louise, 350 Early Lydia, 350 _Early Malden_ (syn. of Malden), 412 Early Michigan, 350 _Early Mignonne_ (syn. of Frühe Mignonne), 364 Early Miners, 350 _Early Newington_ (syn. of Smith Newington), 467 Early Newington Free, 350 _Early Orange Peach_ (syn. of Yellow Rareripe), 289 Early Purple, 351 Early Rareripe I, 351 Early Rareripe II, 351 Early Red I, 351 Early Red II, 351 Early Red Cling, 351 _Early Red Rareripe_ (syn. of Red Rareripe), 452 _Early Red Rareripe of Rhoades_ (syn. of Red Rareripe), 452 _Early Rivers_ (syn. of Rivers), 266 _Early Robinson Crusoe_ (syn. of Robinson Crusoe), 455 Early Rose I, 351 Early Rose II, 351 Early Rose III, 352 Early Royal George, 352 Early Sam, 352 _Early Savoy_ (syn. of Savoy), 461 Early Silver, 352 Early Strawberry, 352 _Early Sweetwater_ (syn. of Sweet Water), 475 Early Tallman, 352 _Early Tillotson_ (syn. of Tillotson), 479 _Early Toledo_ (syn. of Toledo), 480 Early de Tours, 352 _Early Victor_ (syn. of Victor), 485 Early Victoria, 352 _Early Vineyard_ (syn. of Grosse Mignonne), 375 Early Wheeler, 352 Early White, 353 Early White Cling, 353 _Early Yellow Alberge_ (syn. of Avant-Pêche Jaune), 301 _Early Yellow Malacatune_ (syn. of Red Cheek Melocoton), 264 _Early Yellow Nutmeg_ (syn. of Yellow Nutmeg), 496 Early York, 206 Eastburn, Rev. Joseph, var. orig. by, 353 Eastburn Choice, 353 Eaton, 353 _Eaton Golden_ (syn. of Eaton), 353 Ede, Captain Henry, var. orig. by, 192 Edgar Late Melting, 353 Edgemont, 208 _Edgemont Beauty_ (syn. of Edgemont), 208 Edith, 353 _Edle Magdalene_ (syn. of Noblesse), 427 _Edlepfirsche_ (syn. of Noblesse), 427 Edouard Andre, 353 Eduard Lucas, 353 Edward Late White, 353 Eladie, 353 Elate, 354 Elberta, 209 Elberta (Hottes), 354 Elberta Cling, 354 Eldred, 354 Eldred, var. orig. by, 354 Elisabeth Bonamy, 354 Eliza I, 354 Eliza II, 354 Ellison, 354 Ellwanger & Barry, var. orig. with, 279 Elma, 355 Elmira, 355 Elmo, 355 Elodie, 355 Elriv, 355 Elrose, 355 Ely, 355 _Emérillon_ (syn. of Merlin), 416 Emil Liebig, 355 Emma, 355 _Emperor_ (syn. of Unique), 482 _Emperor of Russia_ (syn. of Unique), 482 Emporia, 355 Endicott, 355 Engle, 211 Engle, C. C., var. orig. by, 211, 292, 329, 349, 351, 354, 377, 392, 393, 398, 400, 417, 423, 436, 446 Engle, H. M., var. orig. with, 345, 492 _Engle-Chili_ (syn. of Chili No. 2), 329 _Englischer Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Lemon Cling), 401 English, 355 _English Chancellor_ (syn. of Chancellor), 326 English Swash, 356 _Engol's Mammoth_ (syn. of Engle), 211 Enon, 356 Equinox, 356 Ermine, 356 Ernoult, 356 Ernst, 356 Erzherzog Carl, 356 Erzherzog Johann, 356 Espagne Jaune, 356 Essex Mammoth, 356 Estella, 356 Esther, 356 Esther Doom, 357 _Eugen von Savoyen_ (syn. of Prince Eugène), 447 Eureka, 212 Evangelist, 357 Evans, 357 Evans, J. C., var. orig. with, 369 Evans Cling, 357 _Evans No. 3_ (syn. of Evans), 357 Evelyn, Robert, quoted, 46 Everbearing, 357 Excellente, 357 Excelsior, 357 _Excelsior_ (syn. of Crosby), 202 Exquisite, 357 Extra Early, 358 Fabre, 358 Fahnestock, 358 Fahnestock, A., var. orig. with, 358 Fahnestock Mammoth, 358 Falcon, 358 Fame, 358 Family Favorite, 213 Fanning, 358 Farrnbacher Lackpfirsich, 358 _Faucon_ (syn. of Falcon), 358 Faut, 358 Favier, 358 Favourite, 358 _Favourite Large Red Clingstone?_ (syn. of Favourite), 358 Favourite Red (syn. of Favourite), 358 Fay, Lincoln, var. orig. by, 359 Fay Early Anne, 359 Fei Tau, 359 Felicie, 359 Felt, Cyrus, var. orig. with, 359 Felt Rareripe, 359 Fenwick, George, quoted, 56 Ferdinand, 359 Fetters, 359 Fetters, John, var. orig. by, 359 Fine Jaboulay, 359 Finley October, 359 Finley Superb, 360 Fisher, 360 Fitzgerald, 214 Flagg, W. C., var. orig. by, 400 _Flat Peach of China_ (syn. of Peento), 261 _Flater's St. John_ (syn. of St. John), 269 Fleenor, 360 _Fleitas St. John_ (syn. of St. John), 269 Flewellen, 360 Florence, 360 Florida, 360 _Florida Crawford_ (syn. of Florida), 360 Florida Gem, 360 Florida Own, 360 Florin, 360 Floss, 360 Floy, Michael, var. introduced by, 488; var. orig. by, 482 Floyd, 361 Flushing Heath, 361 Ford, 361 Ford Choice, 361 Ford Late, 361 Ford No. 1, 361 Ford No. 2, 361 Ford No. 3, 361 Ford Red, 362 Ford Seedling, 362 Fords, 362 Fords Improved, 362 Forrester, 362 Fortune, Robert, var. introduced by, 199 Foster, 216 Foster, J. T., var. orig. with, 216 _Foster's Seedling_ (syn. of Foster), 216 Four in One, 362 Fourteen Ounce, 362 Fox, 362 _Fox's Seedling_ (syn. of Fox), 362 Frances, 362 _Francis_ (syn. of Frances), 362 Frank, 363 Frankfort, 363 Franklin, 363 Franklin, Mrs. L. A., var. orig. by, 388, 436 Franquières, 363 Franz Koelitz, 363 Fredenburgh, 363 Fredenburgh, W. H., var. orig. by, 363 Free Mason, 363 Freehold, 363 Freeman, 363 Freeman, H. C., var. orig. by, 363 _Freeman Late_ (syn. of Freeman), 363 Freeman White, 363 _Freestone_ (syn. of Chevreuse à Feuilles Cloquées), 328 _French Blood_ (syn. of Sanguinole), 461 French Blood Cling, 363 French Chancellor, 363 French Mignonne, 364 French Willow Leaved, 364 Friday, Jacob, var. orig. by, 302 _Friday Seedling_ (syn. of Bailey), 302 Friers, 364 Fritze, August, var. orig. by, 392 Fritzes Sämling, 364 Frogmore Golden, 364 _Fromentiner Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Vineuse de Fromentin), 485 Frühe aus der Ortenau, 364 _Frühe Hollandische_ (syn. of Hâtive de Holland), 379 _Frühe Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Frühe Mignonne), 364 Frühe May von Brigg, 364 Frühe Mignonne, 364 _Frühe Montagne?_ (syn. of White Nutmeg), 491 _Frühe Peruvianerin_ (syn. of Chevreuse Hâtive), 328 _Frühe Purpurfirsche_ (syn. of Early Purple), 351 _Früher Aprikosenpfirsich_ (syn. of Avant-Pêche Jaune), 301 Früher Bergpfirsich, 364 _Früher peruanischer Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Chevreuse Hâtive), 328 Fruitland, 365 Fulkerson, 365 Fulkerson, R. P., var. orig. by, 365 Fullers Galande, 365 Furness, 365 G. & A., 365 G. Orange Cling, 365 Gaillard-Girerd I, 365 Gaillard-Girerd II, 365 Gain de Montreuil, 365 Galande, 365 _Galande von Montreuil_ (syn. of Gain de Montreuil), 365 Galande Pointue, 366 Galbraith, 366 Galland May, 366 Galopin, var. introduced by, 327; var. orig. by, 481 Galveston, 366 Gant Noir, 366 Garden Cling, 366 _Garfield_ (syn. of Brigdon), 189 Garver, B. F., var. orig. by, 428 Gass, S. M., var. orig. with, 428 Gates, J. W., var. orig. by, 366, 375 Gates Cling, 366 Gather Late October, 366 Gaujard, N., var. orig. with, 410 Gauthier, var. orig. by, 334 Gaylord, 366 Geary, 367 _Gearys Hold-On_ (syn. of Geary), 367 Gebhardt, 367 Gebhardt, Benton, var. orig. by, 367 _Gelbe Frühpfirsche_ (syn. of Avant-Pêche Jaune), 301 _Gelbe Pfirsche_ (syn. of Alberge), 293 _Gelbe Wunderschöne_ (syn. of Yellow Admirable), 495 _Gelber Aprikosenpfirsich_ (syn. of Yellow Admirable), 495 Gem, 367 _Gemeiner Blutpfirsich_ (syn. of Sanguinole), 461 _Gemeiner Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Grosse Mignonne), 375 Gemina, 367 General Bidwell, 367 General Custer, 367 General Grant, 367 General Greene, 367 General Harrison, 367 _General Jackson_ (syn. of Stonewall Jackson), 472 General Landon, 368 General Lee, 217 General Taylor, 368 Genesee, 368 Genueser, 368 _Genueser Aprikosenpfirsich_ (syn. of Genueser), 368 George IV, 218 George Late, 368 _George the Fourth_ (syn. of George IV), 218 _Georgia_ (syn. of Belle), 183 Georgia Press, 368 Gerarde, John, quoted, 36-37; varieties of peaches mentioned by, 36 Gest Superb, 368 Gestreifter Blutpfirsich, 368 Gettysburg, 368 _Gewöhnliche Blutpfirsich_ (syn. of Sanguinole), 461 Gibbon, 368 Gibbon October, 368 Gibson, 368 Gibson, Eugene, var. orig. by, 326, 368 Gibson Late, 369 Gibson Seedling, 369 Gill, var. orig. with, 218 Gillingham, 369 Gilman Early, 369 Gilmore, 369 Gladstone, 369 Glasgow, 369 Glen, 369 Glen Saint Mary Nurseries, var. orig. with, 282 Glendale, 369 Globe, 369 Godbey, T. K., var. orig. by, 330, 391, 486 Goff, E. S., quoted, 149 _Gold and Purple_ (syn. of Golden Purple), 370 Gold Ball, 369 Gold Drop, 219 Gold Dust, 369 Gold Mine, 370 Golden, 370 Golden Ampère, 370 Golden Ball, 370 Golden Belt, 370 Golden Cling, 370 Golden Cuba, 370 _Golden Drop_ (syn. of Gold Drop), 219 Golden Eagle, 370 Golden Gate, 370 Golden Purple, 370 Golden Rareripe, 371 Golden Sweet Cling, 371 _Goldfinch_ (syn. of Stark Early Elberta), 470 Goode, 371 _Goode October_ (syn. of Goode), 371 Gooding, 371 Gooding, var. orig. by, 371 Gordon, 371 Gorgas, 371 Goshawk, 371 Gough Late Red Clingstone, 372 Governor, 372 _Governor_ (syn. of Governor Hogg), 221 Governor Briggs, 372 Governor Campbell, 372 Governor Garland, 372 Governor Hogg, 221 Governor Hubbard, 372 Governor Lanham, 372 Governor Phelps, 372 Graham, M. J., var. orig. with, 419 Grand Admirable, 372 Grand Carnation, 372 Grand Monarque, 372 Grand Reporter, 373 Grandeville, 373 Granger, 373 Grant, var. orig. with, 373 Grant Cling, 373 Grant Large Yellow, 373 Grauer Pfirsich, 373 Graven Red Cheek Cling, 373 Graves, 373 Graves, T. H., var. orig. with, 374 Graves, William, var. orig. by, 373 _Graves Early_ (syn. of Graves), 373 _Graves Semi-Cling_ (syn. of Graves), 373 Gravier, var. orig. with, 410 Gray, 373 Great Eastern, 373 Great Northern, 373 Great Western, 373 Great White, 373 Green Catharine, 374 _Green Nutmeg_ (syn. of Anne), 298 Green Rareripe; 374 Green Winter, 374 Greening Brothers, var. introduced by, 262 Greensboro, 222 Gregory, 374 Gregory, C. T., quoted, 74-75 Gregory, William, var. introduced by, 374 _Gregory Late_ (syn. of Gregory), 374 Gresham, 374 Griffin, George W., var. introduced by, 220 Griffing Brothers, var. orig. with, 379, 415, 470 Griffing No. 4, 374 _Griffith_ (syn. of Susquehanna), 475 Griffith, var. orig. by, 475 Grimes, 374 _Grimwood's Royal George_ (syn. of Grosse Mignonne), 375 Griswold, 374 _Grosse Blutpfirsche_ (syn. of Cardinale), 324 Grosse Bourdine, 374 Grosse Charlestowner Ananaspfirsche (syn. of Pineapple), 443 Grosse Gallande, 374 Grosse Madeleine Lepére, 374 _Grosse-Madeline_ (syn. of Bollweiler Magdalene), 315 _Grosse Mignon Pfirsich_ (syn. of Grosse Mignonne), 375 Grosse Mignonne, 374 Grosse Mignonne Lepére, 375 Grosse Mignonne Saint-Cyr, 375 Grosse Montagne Précoce, 375 _Grosse Noire de Montreuil_ (syn. of Galande), 365 _Grosse Perseque_ (syn. of Persique), 440 _Grosse Pourprée_ (syn. of Late Purple), 400 _Grosse rothe Frühpfirsche_ (syn. of Petite Mignonne), 441 Grosse de Stresa, 375 _Grosse Violette Hâtive_ (syn. of Violet Hâtive), 485 Grosse de Vitry, 375 Grosser Blutpfirsich, 375 _Grosser Pavien-Aprikosenpfirsich_ (syn. of Pavie Jaune), 434 Grosster Aprikosenpfirsich, 375 Grover Cleveland, 375 Grover Red, 376 Grubbs Cling, 376 Guadalupe, 376 Gudgeon, 376 Guespin, 376 Guilloux, var. orig, by, 387 Guinn, 376 Guinn, var. orig. by, 376 Gulley, 376 Gulley, A. G., var. introduced by, 376 Gullis, Benjamin, var. orig. with, 371 Gurney, 376 Gurney, C. A., var. orig. with, 376 Gustave Thuret, 376 _Guter grosser Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Bonne Gros de Noisette), 316 Haas, 376 Hacker Seedling, 377 Hague, 377 Haines, 377 _Haines' Early Red_ (syn. of Haines), 377 Hale, 377 Hale, Col. E., var, orig. with, 377 Hale, J. H., var. introduced by, 285; var. orig. with, 234 _Hale_ (syn. of Hale Early), 223 Hale Early, 223 Hale Oblong, 377 Hale Rareripe, 377 Hale Round, 377 _Hale's Melocoton_ (syn. of Hale), 377 Hall, 377 Hall, L. P., var. introduced by, 468 Hall, M., var. orig. with, 344 Hall, R. C., var. orig. by, 377 _Hall Down-Easter_ (syn. of Down Easter), 344 _Hall Yellow_ (syn. of Hall), 377 Halliday, 377 Halsteads Early, 378 Hamilton, Alexander, var. introduced by, 462 Hamner, 378 Hance, 378 _Hance Golden_ (syn. of Hance), 378 _Hance Golden Rareripe_ (syn. of Hance), 378 Hance Smock, 378 Hancock, Thomas, var. introduced by, 472 Hannah, 378 Hannah, William, var. orig. by, 378 Hape, Dr. Samuel, var. orig. by, 378 Hape, Early, 378 Hardy White Tuscany, 378 Harker, 378 _Harker Seedling_ (syn. of Harker), 378 Harper Early, 378 Harris, Julius, var. orig. with, 431 Harris Early, 378 Harris Winter, 378 Harrison, C. W., var. orig. by, 367 Harrison, H. E., var. orig. with, 480 Harter Blutpfirsich, 379 _Härtling Aprikosenpfirsich_ (syn. of Pavie Alberge), 434 _Härtlings Magdalene_ (syn. of Smith Newington), 467 Hartshorn, 379 Hartshorn, J., var. introduced by, 379 Hastings, 379 Hastings Rareripe, 379 Hatch, 379 Hatch, A. T., var. orig. with, 370 Hatch, S. O., var. orig. with, 379 Hathaway, B., var. orig. by, 417 Hâtive d'Aikelin, 379 Hâtive de Chine, 379 Hâtive de Ferrières, 379 Hâtive de Gaillard, 379 _Hâtive de Gascogne_ (syn. of Comice d'Angers), 333 Hâtive de Holland, 379 Hâtive Lepère, 379 Hatt, 380 Haun Golden, 380 Haupt, 380 Haupt, William W., var. orig. by, 295, 380 Haupt Seedlings, 380 Hawkins Winter, 380 Heath, General, var. orig. with, 226 _Heath_ (syn. of Heath Cling), 224 _Heath_ (syn. of Heath Free), 226 Heath Cling, 224 Heath Free, 226 Heath Ringold, 380 Heberle Brothers, var. introduced by, 268 Heckel, 380 Heckel, George, var. orig. by, 380 Heep, T., var. orig. by, 429 Heim Lackpfirsich, 380 Hemphill, 380 Hemphill, Judge, var. orig. with, 380 Hemskirk, 380 Hennepin, quoted, 44 _Henrietta_ (syn. of Levy), 244 Henry Clay, 380 Henshaw, 380 Herbert, 381 Hermione, 381 Hero, 381 _Herz-Pfirsiche_ (syn. of Pavie Alberge), 434 Hewellay, 381 Hewellen, 381 Hicks Seedling, 381 High, A. H., var. orig. with, 191 Hilard, 381 Hilborn, 381 Hiley, 227 Hiley, Eugene, var. orig. with, 228 Hill, Henry, var. orig. by, 410 Hill Home Chief, 381 _Hill Madeira_ (syn. of Madeira), 410 _Hill's Chili_ (syn. of Chili), 197 Hilton, William, quoted, 42 Hine, Daniel, var. orig. by, 381 Hine Seedling, 381 Hinkley Seedling, 381 _Hinman_ (syn. of Barber), 303 Hlubek Lieblingspfirsich, 381 Hobbs Early, 381 Hobson, 381 Hobson Choice, 382 Hoffman, Martin, var. orig. with, 422 _Hoffman Pound_ (syn. of Morrisania), 421 Hoffmanns White, 382 Hoffmans Favorite, 382 Hoffner, 382 _Hogg's Malacatune_ (syn. of Red Cheek Melocoton), 264 _Hold-On_ (syn. of Geary), 367 Holder, 382 Holderbaum, 382 Hollister, 382 Holsinger, Major Frank, var. orig. by, 382 Holsinger Salwey, 382 Holt Early, 382 Honest Abe, 382 Honest John, 382 Honey, 383 Honey Cling, 383 Honey Seedling, 383 Honeywell, 383 Honeywell, John, var. orig. by, 383 Hoover Heath, 383 _Hoover Late_ (syn. of Hoover Heath), 383 _Hoover Late Heath_ (syn. of Hoover Heath), 383 Hopes Early Red, 383 Hopkinsville, 383 Horton Delicious, 384 Horton Rivers, 384 Houpt October, 384 _Hovey Cambridge Belle_ (syn. of Cambridge Belle), 323 Howard, 384 Howell Cling, 384 Howers Frühpfirsich, 384 Hoyte Lemon Cling, 384 Hoyte, var. orig. with, 384 Hubbard, I. G., var. orig. by, 196 Hubbard Early, 384 Hudson, 384 Hudson November, 384 Hughes I. X. L., 384 Hull Athenian, 384 Hull Late, 385 Hulse, John, var. orig. with, 397 Hunter, 385 Hunter, Dr., var. orig. by, 385 _Hunter Favorite_ (syn. of Hunter), 385 Husman, George, var. orig. with, 297, 407 Husted, J. D., var. orig. by, 178, 283, 350, 385, 394 Husted Early, 385 Husted No. 17, 385 Husted No. 20, 385 Husted No. 22, 385 Husted No. 26, 385 Husted No. 46, 385 Husted's Seedlings, 385 Huston Seedling, 385 Hutchinson, 385 Hyatt, 385 Hybride Quétier, 385 Hydelberg, 385 Hynds Yellow, 385 Hynes, 229 Hynes, E. F., var. introduced by, 372; var. orig. by, 229, 367, 384, 386, 396 Hynes Nectar, 386 _Hynes Surprise_ (syn. of Hynes), 229 Hyslop, David, var. introduced by, 386 Hyslop Cling, 386 Hyslop Favorite, 386 Ice Mountain, 386 Idaho Mammoth, 386 Ikeda, quoted, 21-22 Illinois, 230 Imperatrice Eugenie, 386 Imperial, 231 Imperial (Middleton), 386 Imperial (Pettit), 386 Improved Pyramidal, 386 Incomparable, 386 Incomparable en Beauté, 387 Incomparable Guilloux, 387 Indian, 387 _Indian Blood_ (syn. of Blood Cling), 187 _Indian Blood Cling_ (syn. of Blood Cling), 187 _Indian Blood Freestone_ (syn. of Blood Free), 314 Indian Chief, 387 Indian Rose, 387 Infant Wonder, 387 Ingold, 387 Ingold, Alfred, var. orig. with, 387 _Ingold Lady_ (syn. of Ingold), 387 Ingouf, Charles, var. orig. with, 327 Ingraham, 388 Ingram, var. orig. by, 364 Ireland Choice, 388 Iron Mountain, 232 Ironclad, 388 Isabella, 388 Island, 388 Ispahan, 388 _Ispahaner Strauchpfirsich_ (syn. of Ispahan), 388 Italian, 388 _Italian Dwarf_ (syn. of Dwarf Orleans), 348 Italian Red, 388 _Italienischer Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Italian), 388 Italienischer Lieblingspfirsich, 388 Ives, John M. var. orig. by, 314 Ives Blood Free, 388 J. Van, 388 J. H. Hale, 233 Jaboulay, Armand, var. introduced by, 307; var. orig. with, 359 Jack Ross, 388 Jackson Cling, 388 Jacques, 389 Jacques, Colonel, var. introduced by, 389 Jacques Late, 389 _Jacques' Rareripe_ (syn. of Jacques), 389 _Jacques' Yellow Rareripe_ (syn. of Jacques), 389 Jacquet, C., var. orig. by, 308 Jakobi-Aprikosenpfirsich, 389 Jane, 389 _Japan Blood_ (syn. of Japan Dwarf), 389 _Japan Dream_ (syn. of Japan Dwarf), 389 Japan Dwarf, 389 _Japan Dwarf Blood_ (syn. of Japan Dwarf), 389 Japan No. 1, 389 Japan No. 2, 389 Japan No. 3, 389 Japan No. 7, 389 Japan No. 9, 389 Japan No. 10, 389 Japanese Early, 390 Japanese Wonder, 390 _Jacques_ (syn. of Jacques), 389 Jarle Late, 390 _Jarle Late White_ (syn. of Jarle Late), 390 Jarrell Late Yellow, 390 Jarretts Late White, 390 Jaune d'Agen, 390 _Jaune d'Amerique?_ (syn. of American Apricot), 297 Jaune de Barsac, 390 Jaune de Bertholon, 390 Jaune des Capucins, 390 _Jaune du Comice_ (syn. of Comice d'Angers), 333 Jaune d'Espagne, 390 Jaune Hâtive de Doué, 390 Jaune de Mezen, 390 _Jaune de Romorantin_ (syn. of Romorantin), 455 Jellico, 390 Jenkins, H. W., var. orig. with, 342 _Jennie_ (syn. of Jennie Worthen), 235 Jennie Worthen, 235 Jennings, 390 _Jenny Lind_ (syn. of Chili), 197 Jersey Mixon, 391 Jersey Pride, 391 Jersey Yellow, 391 _Jessie Kerr_ (syn. of Kerr), 394 Jewel, 391 _John Haas_ (syn. of Haas), 376 _Johnson_ (syn. of Albert Sidney), 294 Johnson, W. E., var. orig. with, 388 Johnson Late Purple, 391 Jones, 391 Jones, J. H., var. introduced by, 301, 381; var. orig. by, 297, 314 Jones, S. T., var. orig. by, 391 Jones, Thomas, quoted, 50 Jones Cling, 391 Jones Early, 391 Jones Large Early, 391 Jones No. 34, 391 Jose Sweet, 392 Josephine, 392 Joyce, R. G., var. introduced by, 392 Joys Early, 392 Judd, 392 Jühlke Liebling, 392 Julia, 392 June Beauty, 392 June Elberta, 392 June Rose, 392 Juneripe, 392 _Jungfern-Magdalene_ (syn. of Maid of Malines), 411 _Jungfrau von Mecheln_ (syn, of Maid of Malines), 411 Juno I, 393 Juno II, 393 Kalamazoo, 236 Kallola, 393 Kalm, Peter, brief mention of life of, 43; quoted, 44, 52-54 Kalo Cling, 393 _Kaloola Free_ (syn. of Kallola), 393 _Kanzlerpfirsiche_ (syn. of Veritable Chancelliere), 484 Karl Schwarzenberg, 393 Katherine, 393 Katie, 393 Kay, 393 Keene Favorite, 393 Keevit Cling, 393 Keith, 393 Keith, Robert, var. orig. with, 393 Keller, John, var. orig. by, 352 Kelley, H. M., var. orig. by, 393 Kelley Early, 393 Kelly Surprise, 394 Kelsey, Stephen, var. orig. by, 394 Kelsey Cling, 394 Kennard, S. J., var. orig. by, 432 _Kennedy Carolina_ (syn. of Lemon Cling), 401 _Kennedy Lemon Cling_ (syn. of Lemon Cling), 401 Kenrick, John, life of, 57-58 Kenrick, William, life of, 58; var. introduced by, 289 Kenrick Clingstone, 394 _Kenrick Heath_ (syn. of Heath Free), 226 Kent, L. W., var. orig. with, 394 Kent I, 394 Kent II, 394 Kernloser Aprikosenpfirsich, 394 Kerr, 394 Kerr, J. S., var. introduced by, 325 Kerr, J. W., var. orig. by, 341, 355, 449 _Kerr Cling No. 1?_ (syn. of Kerr Dwarf), 394 Kerr Dwarf, 394 Kestrel, 394 Kew Seedling, 394 Keyport, 395 _Keyport White_ (syn. of Keyport), 395 Kibby Golden, 395 Kilbourn, 395 Kin, Yamei, quoted, 9-10 King Solomon, 395 Kinnaman, Samuel, var. orig. with, 395 Kinnaman Early, 395 Kirkpatrick, E. W., var. orig. by, 248, 352, 381, 443 _Kirschpfirsche_ (syn. of Cherry Peach), 327 Kite, 395 Kite, Robert, var. orig. with, 395 _Kite_ (syn. of Early Cream), 349 _Kite Honey_ (syn. of Early Cream), 349 Kitrells Favorite, 395 _Kleinblühender Kanzlerpfirsich_ (syn. of Chancellor), 326 Kleine Charlestowner Ananaspfirsche, 395 _Kleine Lieblingspfirsche_ (syn. of Petite Mignonne), 441 Kleiner Blutpfirsich, 395 _Kleiner lieblicher Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Petite Mignonne), 441 _Kleiner Rother Frühpfirsich_ (syn. of Red Nutmeg), 452 _Kleiner weisser Frühpfirsche_ (syn. of White Nutmeg), 491 Klondike, 395 Kohler Cling, 396 _Könglecher Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Royale), 458 _König Georgs Pfirsich_ (syn. of Royal George), 457 _Königin Olga_ (syn. of Queen Olga), 449 _Königliche Magdalene_ (syn. of Royal George), 457 Knapp Castle Seedling, 396 Knight, Thomas A., var. orig. by, 291, 296, 349, 470 Knight Early, 396 Knight Mammoth, 396 Knight Markley Admirable, 396 Knowles Hybrid, 396 Krans, Dr., var. introduced by, 343 Kraus 4 & 16, 396 _Krauser Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Mignonne Frizee), 418 Krengelbacher Lieblingspfirsich, 396 Krummel, 396 _Krummel Late_ (syn. of Krummel), 396 _Krummel October_ (syn. of Krummel) 396 Kruse, var. orig. by, 396 Kruse Kent, 396 La Belle, 396 La Chalonnaise, 396 La Fleur, 396 La Fleur, G. H., var. orig. with, 396 La France, 397 La Grange, 397 La Magnifique, 397 La Reine, 397 La Rieva, 397 Lacène, var. orig. with, 291 _Lackpfirsich von Pau_ (syn. of Pau), 433 Lady Anne Stewart, 397 Lady Farham, 397 Lady Lindsey, 397 Lady Palmerston, 397 _Lady Parham_ (syn. of Parham), 433 Lafayette I, 397 Lafayette II, 398 Lafayette Free, 398 Lakeside Cling, 398 Lamont, 237 Lamont, Charles, var. orig. with, 238 Lancaster, 398 _Lancaster Yellow Rareripe_ (syn. of Lancaster), 398 Lansdell, Henry, quoted, 24-25 Lane, 398 Lane, var. orig. by, 398 Langier, 398 Langlicher Blutpfirsich, 398 Lantheaume, 398 Laporte, 398 Laporte, A. M., var. orig. by, 398 Larents, 398 Large Early, 398 Large Early Mignonne, 398 _Large Early Mignonne_ (syn. of Frühe Mignonne), 364 _Large Early Rareripe_ (syn. of Large York), 238 _Large Early York_ (syn. of Large York), 238 Large-Fruited Mignonne, 398 _Large Newington_ (syn. of Old Newington), 429 Large White Cling, 399 _Large Yellow Pine Apple_ (syn. of Lemon Cling), 401 Large York, 238 _Largest Lemon_ (syn. of Monstrous Lemon), 420 Larkin, D. F., var. orig. by, 399 Larkin Early, 399 Larkin Trophy, 399 Last of Season, 399 _Late Admirable_ (syn. of Royale) 458 Late Barnard, 399 Late Catherine, 399 Late Crawford, 240 Late Delaware, 399 Late Devonian, 399 Late Elberta, 399 Late Free White, 399 Late Mignonne, 399 Late Morris White, 400 Late October, 400 Late Purple, 400 Late Rareripe, 241 _Late Rareripe Stevens_ (syn. of Stevens Late), 471 Late Red Magdalen, 400 _Late Red Rareripe_ (syn. of Late Rareripe), 241 Late Robinson Crusoe, 400 Late Rose, 400 Late Serrate, 400 _Late Stump_ (syn. of Stump), 277 Late White, 400 Late Yellow Alberge, 400 Laura, 401 Laura Cling, 401 Laurenel, 401 Laurent de Bavay, 401 Lawrence, 401 Lawrence, Rev. A. B., var. orig. by, 380 Lawson, John, quoted, 45-46 Lawton, 401 Lawton, C. W., var. orig. by, 401 La Page, quoted, 43-44 Leader, 401 Leatherbury Late, 401 Leatherland Late, 401 Lee, var. orig. with, 467 _Lee_ (syn. of General Lee), 217 _Lemon_ (syn. of Lemon Free), 243 Lemon Cling, 401 Lemon Clingstone (Hoyte), 402 Lemon Free, 243 Leny Winter, 402 Leona, 402 Léonie, 402 Lenoir, 402 Leopard, 402 Leopold I, 402 Leopold II, 402 _Leopold Clingstone_ (syn. of Leopold I), 402 _Leopold Free_ (syn. of Leopold II), 402 _Leopold Magdalene_ (syn. of Leopold II), 402 Lepère, 402 Lepère, Alexis, var. orig. by, 295, 365, 485 Leroy Winter, 403 Levy, 44 _Levy Late_ (syn. of Levy), 244 Lewenau Lieblingspfirsich, 403 Lewis, 403 Lewis, J., var. orig. with, 446 Lewis, N. W., var. orig. by, 403 Libra, 403 Liefmanns, 403 Liermann Pfirsich, 403 Lilard October, 403 Lillian, 403 Limon, 403 Lina Hauser, 403 _Lina Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Lina Hauser), 403 Lincoln, 403 Lincoln Cling, 404 Lindley, quoted, 11 Lindley I, 404 Lindley II, 404 Lindley, J. H., var. introduced by, 233 Lindsey, Mrs. George, var. orig. by, 397 Linzey White, 404 Lipscomb, 404 Lisk, Henry, var. orig. by, 287 Lisle, 404 Little Anne, 404 Lizzie, 404 Lock Cling, 404 _Lock Late_ (syn. of Lock Cling), 404 Locke, William H., var. orig. by, 214 Lockwood, 404 Lodge, 404 Lola, 245 _Lolo_ (syn. of Lola), 245 Lone Ark, 405 Lone Tree, 405 Long Leaved, 405 Longhurst, 405 Longworthy, 405 _Longworthy Late Rareripe_ (syn. of Longworthy), 405 Lonoke, 405 Lord Fauconberg Mignonne, 405 Lord Palmerston, 405 Lorentz, 405 Lorentz, Fred, var. orig. with, 405 _Lorenz Mandl_ (syn. of Mandls Magdalene), 413 Lorèze, Jamin, var. orig. with, 430 Lottie, 406 Loudon, 406 _Louise_ (syn. of Early Louise), 350 Louisiana, 406 Lounsbury, quoted, 65 Love All, 406 Lovejoy Cling, 406 Lovell, 406 Lovell White Madison, 406 Lovett, 406 Lovett, J. T., var. introduced by, 475 _Lovett White_ (syn. of Lovett), 406 Lowes Favorite, 406 Lowets White, 406 Lows Large Melting, 406 Lucia, 406 Luizet, Gabriel, var. orig. by, 407 Luizet Dwarf, 407 Lulu I, 407 Lulu II, 407 Luton, 407 Luton, J. T., var. orig. by, 407 Luttichau, 407 Luttichau, Baron H. Von, 407 Lydon Cling, 407 Lyendecker, J. F., var. orig. by, 331 Lynn Lemon Cling, 407 Lyon, 407 Lyon, T. T., life of, 270 Lyon Cling, 407 _Lyon Mammoth Cling_ (syn. of Lyon Cling), 407 Lyons, Jacob C., var. orig. with, 463 McAllister, 407 M'Clish, 407 McClung, var. orig. with, 221 McCollister, 407 McConnell Seedling, 408 McCormick, 408 McCowan, Dr., var. orig. by, 408 McCowan Cling, 408 McCoy, Henry, var. orig. with, 408 McCoy Free, 408 McCoy Seedling, 408 McDevitt, 408 McDevitt, Neal, var. orig. with, 408 McIntosh, 408 McIntyre Late Free, 408 McKay, W. L., var. introduced by, 291; var. orig. with, 408 McKay Late, 408 McKevitt, 409 McKevitt, A., var. orig. with, 409 McKinley, 409 McKinnel, 409 McKinney, 409 McLide Seedling, 409 McNair Late, 409 McNeil, 409 McNeil Early, 409 Macon, 409 McShaw, 409 Madame d'Andrimont, 409 Madame Bernède, 409 Madame Daurel, 409 _Madame Edouard Pynaert_ (syn. of Madame Pynaert), 410 Madame Gaujard, 409 Madame Malfilâtre, 410 Madame Pynaert, 410 Madeira, 410 _Madeira Freestone_ (syn. of Madeira), 410 _Madeleine Blanche_ (syn. of White Magdalen), 490 Madeleine Blanche d'Anoot, 410 Madeleine Blanche de Doué, 410 Madeleine Blanche de Loisel, 410 _Madeleine Blanche précoce_ (syn. of White Magdalen), 490 _Madeleine du Comice_ (syn. of Comice d'Angers), 333 _Madeleine de Courson_ (syn. of Red Magdalen), 451 _Madeleine Dekenhoven_ (syn. of Dekenhoven Pfirsich), 341 _Madeleine d'Ekenholen_ (syn. of Dekenhoven Pfirsich), 341 Madeleine Hariot, 410 _Madeleine Hâtive_ (syn. of Royal Charlotte), 457 Madeleine Hâtive à Moyennes Fleurs, 410 Madeleine à Mamelon, 410 _Madeleine à moyennes fleurs_ (syn. of Royal Charlotte), 457 Madeleine Paysanne, 410 _Madeleine Rouge_ (syn. of Red Magdalen), 451 Madeleine Striée, 410 Madeleine Superbe de Choisy, 410 Madison County Mammoth, 411 Magdala, 411 _Magdalen_ (syn. of White Magdalen), 490 Magdalen Clingstone, 411 Maggie I, 411 Maggie II, 411 _Maggie Burt_ (syn. of Maggie I), 411 Magistrate, 411 Magnifique de Daval, 411 Magnum Bonum, 411 Maid of Malines, 411 _Malacatune_ (syn. of Red Cheek Melocoton), 264 _Malacotune_ (syn. of Melocotone), 416 Malden, 412 Malta, 412 Malte de Gouin, 412 Malte de Lisieux, 412 Malte Saint Julien, 412 Mamie Ross, 246 Mammoth, 412 Mammoth Cling, 412 Mammoth Freestone, 412 Mammoth Golden, 412 Mammoth Heath, 412 Mammoth Melocoton, 413 Man, 413 _Mandel-Pfirsiche_ (syn. of Almond), 296 Mandelartige Magdalene, 413 Mandls Magdalene, 413 Manning, 413 Manning, Major, var. orig. with, 386 Marcella, 413 Marguerite, 413 _Marie Antoinette_ (syn. of Yellow Rareripe), 289 Marie de la Rochejaquelein, 413 Marie Talabot, 413 Marionville Cling, 413 Mark Chili, 414 Markham, 414 Markham, W. D., var. orig. by, 414 Marks Cling, 414 Marlborough, 414 Marquis of Downshire, 414 Marquise de Brissac, 414 Marshall, 414 _Marshall Late_ (syn. of Marshall), 414 Martha Fern Cling, 415 Martindale, 415 Martindale, var. orig. by, 415 Marwin, Dr., var. orig. with, 250 Mary, 415 Mary Choice (Kerr), 415 _Mary Choice_ (syn. of Mary), 415 Marydel, 415 Maryland Early, 415 _Mascotte_ (syn. of Masicot), 415 Masicot, 415 Mathews, 415 Mathews, J. C., var. orig. with, 415 _Mathews Beauty_ (syn. of Mathews), 415 _Matthews_ (syn. of Mathews), 415 _Matthews Beauty_ (syn. of Mathews), 415 Maule Early, 415 Maurice Desportes, 416 _May Beauty_ (syn. of St. John), 269 May Choice, 416 May Lee, 248 May Peach, 416 Mayflower, 416 Mazères, var. orig. by, 435 _Mellish Favorite_ (syn. of Noblesse), 427 Melocotone, 416 Melting, 416 Mena, 416 Mendenhall, 416 Merlin, 416 Merriam, 416 Merriam, E., var. orig. by, 416 Merriman, 416 Merveille de New-York, 417 Merveille d'Octobre, 417 Metelka, 417 Meyer, 417 Meyer, Frank N., quoted, 4-6, 22, 79 Meyer, H. F. W., var. orig. by, 417 Meyers Rareripe, 417 Michelin, 417 Michigan I, 417 Michigan II, 417 Michigan Chili, 417 Michigan No. 1, 417 Michigan No. 2, 417 Michigan No. 3, 417 Mid September, 417 Mid-Season Favorite, 417 Middleton Imperial, 417 Mifflin Pennsylvania, 417 Mignonne (American), 417 _Mignonne à bec_ (syn. of À Bec), 291 Mignonne Bosselée, 417 Mignonne Dubarle, 417 Mignonne Frizee, 418 Mignonne Purple, 418 Mignonne de Saint Loup, 418 _Mignonne Tardive_ (syn. of Late Mignonne), 399 Mikado, 418 Miller, 418 Miller Brothers, var. orig. with, 474 Miller Cling, 418 _Miller Cling_ (syn. of Miller), 418 Miller Orchard Company, var. introduced by, 209 _Millet's Mignonne_ (syn. of Royal George), 457 Millhiser, 418 Millhiser, M., var. orig. with, 418 Millionaire, 418 Miner, 419 Minerva, 419 Minion, 419 Minnich, Peter, C., var. orig. by, 298, 392, 411 Minnie, 419 _Minnie_ (syn. of Alton), 180 Miniot, 419 Mint Free, 419 _Miss Lola_ (syn. of Lola), 245 _Miss Lolo_ (syn. of Lola), 245 Miss Mary, 419 Miss Percival, 419 Missouri Apricot, 419 Missouri Beauty, 419 Missouri Mammoth, 419 Mitchell, 419 Mitchell, George, var. orig. with, 447 Mitchell Mammoth, 419 _Mittelgrossblühende Magdalene_ (syn. of Royal Charlotte), 457 Moas, var. orig. by, 223 Mobray Heath Cling, 419 Modena, 420 Modeste, 420 Mogneneins, 420 Molden White, 420 Monfrein, 420 Monsieur Jean, 420 _Monstreuse_ (syn. of Pavie de Pompone), 435 _Monströse Härtling_ (syn. of Pavie de Pompone) 435 _Monströser Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Pavie de Pompone), 435 _Monstrous of Douay_ (syn. of Orchard Queen), 430 Monstrous Free, 420 Monstrous Lemon, 420 _Monstrous Pavie_ (syn. of Pavie de Pompone), 435 _Monstrous Pomponne_ (syn. of Pavie de Pompone), 435 _Monstrueuse de Doué_ (syn. of Orchard Queen), 430 Monstrueuse de Saverdum, 420 Montagne Tardive, 420 _Montabon_ (syn. of Montauban), 420 Montauban, 420 Montgomery Late, 420 Monticola, 420 _Montigny_ (syn. of Honey), 383 Montreal, 420 Moore, H. K., var. orig. with, 421 _Moore_ (syn. of Moore Favorite), 421 Moore Favorite, 421 Moore June, 421 Moore Rareripe, 421 Moore Seedling, 421 Morel, var. orig. by, 439 Morello, 421 Morris, Robert, var. introduced by, 421 _Morris Blanche_ (syn. of Morris White), 249 Morris County, 421 Morris Red, 421 _Morris Red Freestone_ (syn. of Morris Red), 421 _Morris Red Rareripe_ (syn. of Morris Red), 421 Morris White, 248 _Morris White Freestone_ (syn. of Morris White), 249 _Morris White Rareripe_ (syn. of Morris White), 249 Morrisania, 421 _Morrisania Pound_ (syn. of Morrisania), 421 Morton, Andrew, var. orig. by, 486 Mother Porter, 422 Mountain Cling, 422 Mountain Rareripe, 422 Mountain Rose, 250 Mountain White, 422 Mountaineer, 422 Mr. Gladstone, 422 _Mrs. Brett_ (syn. of Brett), 318 Mrs. Huntley, 422 Mrs. Poinsett, 422 Mudeator, Matthew, var. orig. with, 494 Muhlenberg, Dr. H. A., var. orig. by, 351, 353, 398 Muir, 251 Muir, John, var. orig. with, 252 Munson, T. V., var. introduced by, 452, 463, 483; var. orig. by, 181, 296, 392, 422, 458 Munson Cling, 422 Munson Free, 422 Murat, 423 Murray, B. C., var. orig. with, 346 Murray Malacatune, 423 Murrays Early Anne, 423 Muscade de Montauban, 423 Muscogee, 423 Musi, 423 Musk, 423 Müskirter Aprikosenpfirsich, 423 Musser, 423 Muyzerwinkel, 423 My Choice, 423 Myer Seedling, 423 Myers, 423 Myers Rareripe, 423 Mystery, 423 _Nain_ (syn. of Dwarf Orleans), 348 Nain Aubinel, 424 Nall, 424 Nall, var. orig. with, 424 Namaper, 424 Nancy, 424 Nanticoke, 424 Napoleon, 424 Nash, 424 National, 424 Native Seedling, 424 Natural Seedling No. 81, 424 Navar, 424 Near, 424 Near, John, var. orig. with, 424 Nectar, 424 Nectarine, 425 Nectarine, characters and history of the, 81-85; explanation of the origin of the, 82-84 Nectarines, commercial adaptability and value of, in America, 84-85 Need, 425 _Neige_ (syn. of Snow), 468 Neil (Marshall), 425 _Neils Early Purple_ (syn. of Grosse Mignonne), 375 Nelson, 425 Nelson Seedlings, 425 Nesmith, J. F., var. orig. with, 456 Nettie Corbet, 425 Nevins, F. M., var. introduced by, 470 New Bellegarde, 425 _New Cut-leaved_ (syn. of Unique), 482 New England Cling, 425 _New Ford_ (syn. of Ford), 361 New Globe, 425 New Golden Purple, 425 New Noblesse, 425 _New Prolific_ (syn. of Prolific), 261 _New Royal Charlotte_ (syn. of Royal Charlotte), 457 _New Serrated_ (syn. of Unique), 482 New White Rareripe, 426 _New York Early_ (syn. of Smith Newington), 467 New York Early Lemon Clingstone, 426 _New York Rareripe_ (syn. of Large York), 238 _New York White Cling_ (syn. of Large White Cling), 399 _Newark Seedling_ (syn. of Niagara), 252 Newhall, 426 Newhall, Sylvester, var. orig. by, 426 Newington (of America), 426 _Newington_ (syn. of Old Newington), 429 _Newington Magdalene?_ (syn. of Old Newington), 429 Newman, 426 Newman, Charles, var. orig. by, 426 Niagara, 252 Nicarde, 426 Nichols, 426 Nichols, Joseph, var. orig. with, 426 _Nichols Orange Cling_ (syn. of Nichols), 426 Nicholson Smock, 426 Nicols Beauty, 426 Nina Cling, 426 Nivette, 426 _Nivette Veloutée_ (syn. of Nivette), 426 Nix, 427 _Nix Late_ (syn. of Nix), 427 _Nix Late Cling_ (syn. of Nix), 427 _Nix Late White_ (syn. of Nix), 427 _Nix October_ (syn. of Nix), 427 Noblesse, 427 Noblesse Early, 427 Noblesse of Oatlands, 427 _Noblesse Seedling_ (syn. of Alexandra), 295 _Noblest_ (syn. of Noblesse), 427 Noisette, var. orig. with, 316 Nonpareil, 427 Normand, 427 _Normand Choice_ (syn. of Normand), 427 North China No. 2, 427 _Northern Apricot_ (syn. of American Apricot), 297 Norton, G. H., var. orig. by, 344 Norton Late, 428 Norvell Mammoth, 428 Norvell, Dr. H. V., var. orig. by, 428 Norwood, quoted, 47, 64 Novalis, 428 Nugent, E. J., var. orig. with, 428 Nugent June, 428 Number 2, 428 Number 34H, 428 Number 83, 428 Nutmeg, 428 Nuttall, Thomas, quoted, 44 Oakenfull, quoted, 65 Oblong, 428 O'Bryan, Cornelius, var. orig. by, 492 Oceana, 428 October Beauty, 428 October Free, 428 October White, 428 October White Clingstone, 428 October Yellow, 429 _October yellow clingstone_ (syn. of Late Yellow Alberge), 400 Octoberta, 429 Oglethorpe, quoted, 50 O'Gwynne, 429 Oignies, 429 Old English, 429 Old Newington, 429 Old Royal Charlotte, 429 Old Settler, 429 _Old Zack_ (syn. of Sites Old Zack), 466 Olden, 429 Olga, 429 Oldmixon, Sir John, quoted, 50, 51; var. introduced by, 255 _Oldmixon_ (syn. of Oldmixon Cling), 254 _Oldmixon Clearstone_ (syn. of Oldmixon Free), 256 Oldmixon Cling, 254 Oldmixon Free, 256 Onderdonk, 429 Onderdonk, G., var. orig. by, 376, 429 _Onderdonk's Favorite_ (syn. of Onderdonk), 429 Opoix, 430 Opulent, 257 _Orange_ (syn. of Orange Cling), 430 Orange Cling, 430 Orange Free, 430 Orange Smock, 430 Orchard Queen, 430 Ord, 430 _Orfraie_ (syn. of Osprey), 431 Oriole, 430 Orlando, 430 Orleance, 431 Orleans, 431 Orman, 431 Oro, 431 Orr, C. P., var. orig. by, 182 Ortiz Cling, 431 Oscar, 431 _Oscar Black Prince_ (syn. of Oscar), 431 Osceola, 431 Osprey, 431 Ostrander Early, 431 Ostrander Late, 432 Overheiser, 432 Oviedo, 432 Owen, 432 Owen, J., var. orig. with, 432 Oxford, 432 Ozark Queen, 432 Padley, 432 Padley, William, var. orig. by, 432 Page, Mrs., var. orig. with, 357 Palestine, 432 Pallas, 258 _Pallas Honeydew_ (syn. of Pallas), 258 _Palmerston_ (syn. of Lord Palmerston), 405 Pansy, 432 Paragon, 432 Parfumée de Montauban, 432 Parham, 433 Parker, 433 Parker, Barnes, var. orig. with, 304 Parker, J. C., var. orig. with, 433 Parkinson, John, quoted, 38-39, 81-82, 294, 313, 324, 347, 372, 373, 388, 413, 428, 436, 449, 452, 459; varieties of peaches mentioned by, 38-39 Parkinson, Richard, quoted, 61-63 Parks, 433 Parks, A. L., var. orig. with, 433 _Parks' Cling_ (syn. of Parks), 433 Parnell, 433 Parnell, J. H., var. orig. by, 433 Parson Early, 433 Pass-Violet, 433 Patterson, 433 Pau, 433 Paul Boynton, 433 Pavie Abricotée, 434 _Pavie Admirable_ (syn. of Incomparable), 386 Pavie Alberge, 434 _Pavie Alberge_ (syn. of Pavie Jaune), 434 Pavie Alberge Jaune, 434 _Pavie Amelia_ (syn. of Amelia), 297 _Pavie Blanc (Gros)_ (syn. of Smith Newington), 467 _Pavie Citron_ (syn. of Lemon Cling), 401 Pavie Demming, 434 Pavie Duff Jaune, 434 Pavie Duperron, 434 Pavie Genisaut, 434 _Pavie Georgia_ (syn. of Exquisite), 357 Pavie d'Italie Très Hâtif, 434 Pavie de Jalagnier, 434 Pavie Jaune, 434 _Pavie Madeleine_ (syn. of Magdalen Clingstone), 411 Pavie Mazères, 435 Pavie Mirlicoton, 435 Pavie Muy-Swantzel, 435 Pavie de Pamiers, 435 Pavie de Pompone, 435 _Pavie rouge de Pomponne_ (syn. of Pavie de Pompone), 435 Pavie Tardif, 435 _Pavie Tippécanoé_ (syn. of Tippecanoe), 480 Pavie Très-Tardif Madame Vergé, 436 Pavien Lieblingspfirsich, 436 Pavier Pleureur, 436 _Pavy Royal_ (syn. of Pavie de Pompone), 435 Payne, 436 Payne, E. B. and Sons, var. orig. with, 436 Peach, adaptability and variability in the, 63-67; age of the, in China, 8-10; behavior of the, in South Africa, 64-65; behavior of the, in South America, 65; care of the, in colonial times, 59-63; chief uses of the, 110; diseases of the, 169-173; early history of the, 1-2; fruit-characters of the, 14-15; history of the, in America, 39-57; history of the, in Asia, 13-25; history of the, in Belgium, 33-34; history of the, in England, 34-39; history of the, in Europe, 25-39; history of the, in France, 32-33; history of the, in Germany, 33-34; history of the, in Greece, 26; history of the, in Holland, 33-34; history of the, in Italy, 27-32; history of the, in Japan, 21-22; history of the, in Mexico, 40-41; history of the, in Persia, 2-4; history of the, in Spain, 33-34; history of the, in Turkestan and Persia, 22-25; horticultural classifications of the, 91-97; insects detrimental to the, 173-177; mention of the, by Chinese writers, 7; mention of the, by French writers, 32-33; mention of the, by Greek and Roman writers, 6-7, 26-32; origin of the, 2-11; origin of the name of the, 2; original habitat of the, 3-4; place of the, in the genus Prunus, 68-70; relationship of the, to the almond, 11-13, 69-70, 80; tree- and fruit-characters of the, 71-77; uses of the wood of the, 117 Peach-acreage in New York, 132-133; -areas in New York, 131-132; -brandy, commercial value of, 116; -breeding, discussion of, 130; -culture, where started in America, 40; -flowers, value of, in classification, 75-76; -fruits, value of, in classification, 76; -growing, commercial beginning of, in America, 98-99; commercial development of, in the South, 101; commercial development of, in Connecticut, 101; development of, in New York, 101-102; development of, in Ohio, 102-103; -industry, climatic conditions affecting the, 133-143; development of the, in Michigan, 103; extent of the, in Delaware, 99-100; magnitude of the, in the United States, 109-110; profit derived from the, 100-101 Peach-leather, how made, 116; use of, 116 -orchard, care of the, 152-159; planting the, 153; -orchards, fertilizers best suited for, 155-156; intercropping of, 153-154; locations and sites for, 144-147; use of cover-crops in, 154-155; -production, tabulated report of, in the United States, 104-105; -products, 109-119; -stones, uses and value of, 116-117; -tree, ornamental forms of the, 79; -trees, number of, in New York, 131; -varieties, blooming dates of, 138-142; season of ripening of, 138-142; -yellows, discussion of, 118-130; first notice of, 118-119; magnitude of, 118; ravages of, in Delaware, 127-129; ravages of, in New England, 125; ravages of, in New Jersey, 122-123; ravages of, in New York, 123-125; ravages of, in the Central States, 125-127; regions first affected by, 120-122; symptoms and means of combatting, 169-171 Peaches, American, characters of, 20-21; canning of, as an industry, 110-112; Chinese, illustrations of the fruit-characters of, 15-20; classification of, by aid of glands, 73-75; classification of, by Onderdonk, 92-96; costs in the production of, 166-169; discussion of six varieties of, by Pliny, 28-30; distribution of, from New York, 163-166; early plantings of, in Florida, 42; evaporation of, as an industry, 112-116; first colonial plantation of, 46; grading and marketing of, 161-163; harvesting of, 159-161; history of, in New England, 56-57; history of, in New York, 54-55; history of, in Pennsylvania, 51-54; history of, in Virginia, 46-51; history of, in the colonies, 46-57; history of, in the South, 41-46; Indian, characters and history of, 41-46; key to varieties of, 96-97; new types of, 105-109; North China group of, 105-106; ornamental value of, 117-118; Peento group of, 108-109; practice of budding, when started, 57-59; pruning of, 156-159; soils for, 143-144; South China group of, 107-108; standard varieties of, 153; stocks and the propagation of, 147-152; types of, 66-67; varieties of, mentioned by Gerarde, 36; varieties of, mentioned by Parkinson, 38-39 Peach de Pavie, 436 Peach du Troas, 436 Pearce, 436 Pearce, P. S., var. orig. by, 436 Pearl I, 436 Pearl II, 436 Pears, Baron, var. orig. by, 304 Pearson, 259 Pearson, var. orig. by, 436 Pearson, J. M., var. orig. with, 260 Pearson No. 1, 436 Pêche Baboud, 436 Pêche de Bisconte, 437 Pêche Blonde, 437 Pêche de Brahy, 437 _Pêche Cerise_ (syn. of Cherry Peach), 327 Pêche Everardt, 437 _Pêche de Genes_ (syn. of Genueser), 368 Pêche Grosse Violette, 437 Pêche d'Ile, 437 Pêche d'Ispahan, 437 _Pêche d'Italie_ (syn. of Italian), 388 Pêche Jaune Hâtive de Doné, 437 Pêche de Lion, 437 _Pêche du New-Jersey_ (syn. of Stump), 277 Pêche du Quesnoy, 437 Pêche Quetier, 437 Pêche Reine des Tardives, 437 Pêche Rouge de Mai, 437 Pêche de Sainte-Anne, 438 _Pêche de Sernach_ (syn. of Sernach), 464 Pêche Souvenir de Pierre Tochon, 438 Pêche de Syrie, 438 _Pêche du Teissier_ (syn. of Teissier), 477 Pêche Théophile Sueur, 438 Pêche Tondu, 438 Pêche de Trianon, 438 Pêche de Vérone, 438 Pêche de Verviers, 438 _Pêche de Vigne_ (syn. of Sanguine de Jouy), 460 Pêche de Vigne Blanche, 438 Pêche de Vigne Jaune, 438 Pêche de Vigne Rouge, 438 Pêche Vineuse Jaune, 439 Pêcher à Bois Jaune, 439 Pêcher Douteux, 439 Pêcher à Fleur Semi-Double, 439 _Pêcher à Fleurs Doubles_ (syn. of Pêcher à Fleur Semi-Double), 439 _Pêcher à Fleurs et à Fruits Blancs_ (syn. of White Blossom), 490 _Pêcher à fleurs frisée_ (syn. of Mignonne Frizee), 418 Pêcher Hâtif de Chine, 439 Pêcher Hybride Quétier, 439 Pêcher Nain à Fleur Double, 439 Pêcher Nain d'Orléans, 439 Pêcher Petite Madeleine, 439 _Pêcher Pleureur_ (syn. of Pavier Pleureur), 436 Pêcher Thuret, 440 Peck Orange Cling, 440 Peento, 260 Pendleton, 440 Penelope, 440 Penhallow, P. D., quoted, 122-123 Peninsula, 440 _Peninsula Yellow_ (syn. of Peninsula), 440 Penn, William, quoted, 51 Pennington, 440 Peregrine, 440 Perfection, 440 Period Early Nutmeg, 440 _Persée_ (syn. of Persique), 440 Persia, fruit species from, 2 Persian Cling, 440 _Persica Davidiana_ (syn. of _P. Davidiana_), 85 _Persica flore pleno_, 37 _Persica laevis_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Persica lutea_, 37 _Persica nucipersica_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Persica platycarpa_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Persica praecocia_, 37 _Persica vulgaris_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 Persique, 440 _Persique Clingstone_ (syn. of Persique), 440 _Persischer Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Persique), 440 Peruvianischer Blutpfirsich, 441 Pesca Mandorla, 441 Pesca Melo, 441 Peter Cling, 441 Peters, Richard, quoted, 118-119, 120 _Petit Imperial Mammoth White_ (syn. of Petite Imperial), 441 _Petit's Imperial_ (syn. of Petite Imperial), 441 Petite Bourdine, 441 Petite Imperial, 441 Petite Mignonne, 441 Petite Pavie d'Ounous, 441 Petite Violette Hâtive, 441 Pettingill Early, 442 Pfirsich-Nectarine, 442 Pfirsiche mit Nicht Ablöslichem Stein, 442 Pfirsiche von Pau, 442 Phfleiger, 442 Phillips, Joseph, var. orig. with, 442 Phillips, Dr. M. W., var. orig. by, 355, 366 _Phillips_ (syn. of Phillips Cling), 442 Phillips Cling, 442 Piasa, 442 Pickett, 442 Picquet, Antoine, var. orig. with, 442 Picquet Late, 442 Piel Pfirsich, 442 Pierce Seedling, 442 Pignutt Late, 443 Pinckney, 443 _Pine Apple Clingstone_ (syn. of Lemon Cling), 401 Pineapple, 443 _Pineapple Clingstone_ (syn. of Pineapple), 443 Pingree, 443 Pitmaston Seedling Noblesse, 443 Plant, 443 _Plant Cling_ (syn. of Plant), 443 _Platt Pfirsich_ (syn. of Peento), 261 Pliny, quoted, 26, 28-31 Plowden, 443 Pocahontas, 443 Poinsett, 443 Pond Late, 443 Pond Seedling, 443 _Pool Favorite_ (syn. of Poole Large Yellow), 443 Poole Island, 443 Poole Large Yellow, 443 Porpree, 444 Port Royal, 444 Porter, 444 Portugal, 444 _Portugiesische Pfirsche_ (syn. of Portugal), 444 Potomac Heath, 444 Pound Hardy, 444 _Pourpre Dorée_ (syn. of Golden Purple), 370 Pourpre de Frogmore, 444 _Pourprée_ (syn. of Porpree), 444 _Pourprée à bec_ (syn. of À Bec), 291 Pourprée du Grand-Jardin, 444 Pourprée Hâtive, 444 _Pourprée Hâtive_ (syn. of Early Purple), 351 Pourprée Joseph Norin, 444 Pourprée Tardive de Lyon, 444 _Pourprée tardive à petites fleurs?_ (syn. of Late Purple), 400 Powell, 444 _Powell's Mammoth_ (syn. of Powell), 444 Powers September, 445 Prächtige von Choisy, 445 _Prachtvolle Apricosenpfirsich_ (syn. of Yellow Admirable), 495 Prachtvolle Blutpfirsich, 445 Prado, 445 Präsident Griepenkerl, 445 _Präsidenten-Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of President), 446 Prater, G. E., var. orig. by, 370, 392 Pratt, 445 Précoce de Bagnolet, 445 Précoce de Beauregard, 445 Précoce de Bonpas, 445 Précoce de Chartreuse, 445 Précoce de Croncels, 445 Précoce Gaudin, 445 _Précoce de Hale_ (syn. of Hale Early), 223 Précoce de Mezen, 445 Précoce du Périgord, 445 _Précoce Rivers_ (syn. of Rivers), 266 Précoce de Saint-Assicle, 445 Precocious, 446 Premier, 446 President, 446 President Church, 446 President Lyon, 446 Preston, 446 Preston, var. orig. with, 446 Price, 446 Price, quoted, 94 Pride of Autumn, 446 Pride of Franklin, 446 Pride of Idaho, 447 Pride of Northboro, 447 Prince, William, life of, 108-109; quoted, 121; var. orig. by, 239, 447 Prince, William Robert, quoted, 122, 123; var. introduced by, 358, 432, 435, 456; var. orig. by, 357 _Prince_ (syn. of Late Rareripe), 242 Prince Blood Clingstone, 447 Prince Climax, 447 Prince Eugène, 447 Prince John, 447 Prince Late Yellow Freestone, 447 _Prince Red Rareripe_ (syn. of Late Rareripe), 241 Prince of Wales, 447 _Prince's Excelsior_ (syn. of Excelsior), 357 _Prince's Paragon_ (syn. of Paragon), 432 _Princess_ (syn. of Princess of Wales), 448 Princess Paragon, 447 Princess of Wales, 448 _Princesse de Galles_ (syn. of Princess of Wales), 448 Princesse Marie, 448 _Prinz Eugen_ (syn. of Prince Eugène), 447 _Prinz von Wales_ (syn. of Prince of Wales), 448 _Prinzessin Marie von Württemberg_ (syn. of Princesse Marie), 448 _Prinzessin von Wales_ (syn. of Princess of Wales), 448 Prize, 448 Probst Friedrich Pfirsich, 448 Professeur Vilaire, 448 Prolific, 261 Proudfoot, 448 Proudfoot, Dr., var. orig. with, 448 Prunus, pubescent-fruited species of, from the United States, 90-91 _Prunus andersonii_, habitat of, 90 _Prunus Davidiana_, characters of, 85; origin and dissemination of, 85-86; specific description of, 87-88; value of, as a stock, 87, 148; value of, in hybridization, 87-88 _Prunus eriogyna_, habitat of, 90 _Prunus fasciculata_, habitat of, 90 _Prunus havardii_, habitat of, 91 _Prunus maritima_, use of, as a stock, 149 _Prunus microphylla_, habitat of, 91 _Prunus minutiflora,_ habitat of, 91 _Prunus mira_, characters of, 88-89; cultivation of, in America, 90; origin of, 89-90; specific description of, 89-90 _Prunus nana_, 87 _Prunus persica_, 14, 94; characters of, 77-78; botanical and pomological division of, 78-81; importance of, 68 _Prunus Persica_ var. _Davidiana_ (syn. of _P. Davidiana_), 85 _Prunus Persica_ var. _laevis_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Prunus Persica_ var. _necturina_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Prunus Persica_ var. _nucipersica_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Prunus Persica_ var. _platycarpa_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Prunus Persica_ var. _vulgaris_ (syn. of _P. persica_), 77 _Prunus persica potanini_ (sub-species of _P. persica_), 79 _Prunus subcordata_, use of, as a stock, 149 _Prunus texana_, 90 Pry Favorite, 448 _Pucelle de Malines_ (syn. of Maid of Malines), 411 Pullen, 448 Pullen, Isaac, var. orig. by, 448, 484 _Pullen's Seedling_ (syn. of Pullen), 448 Purdy, 448 _Purple Alberge_ (syn. of Alberge), 293 Purple Peach, 448 Pyramidal, 449 Quaker, 449 Quality, 449 Queen, 449 Queen Caroline, 449 Queen of Delaware, 449 Queen Olga, 449 Queen of the South, 449 Queenes, 449 Quetier, 449 Quétier, var. orig. by, 437, 439 Quince, 449 Quisenburg, James, var. orig. by, 383 _R. E. Lee_ (syn. of General Lee), 217 R. S. Stevens, 449 Radclyffe, 450 Ragan, Z. S., var. orig. by, 450 Ragan Smock, 450 Ragan Yellow, 450 Rainbow, 450 Raisin, 450 Rambouillet, 450 Ramsey, A. M., var. orig. by, 450 Ramsey, F. T., var. introduced by, 372; var. orig. with, 450, 463 Ramsey Early Cling, 450 Ramsey Late, 450 Ranck, 450 Ranck, Martin A., var. orig. with, 450 _Rareripe Jaune_ (syn. of Yellow Rareripe), 289 _Rareripe Rouge Tardive_ (syn. of Late Rareripe), 242 Ray, 262 Ray, D., var. orig. with, 263 Ray, Dr. H., var. orig. by, 451 _Ray_ (syn. of Raymond Cling), 451 Raymaekers, 450 _Raymaekers' Magdalene_ (syn. of Raymaekers), 450 Raymond Cling, 451 Rea, John, quoted, 312, 332, 364, 388, 420, 421, 423, 424, 431, 449 Read Seedling, 451 Reagan, 451 Red Bird, 451 Red Ceylon, 451 _Red Cheek_ (syn. of Red Cheek Melocoton), 264 _Red Cheek Malacatune_ (syn. of Red Cheek Melocoton), 264 _Red Cheek Malacotan_ (syn. of Red Cheek Melocoton), 264 Red Cheek Melocoton, 264 Red Magdalen, 451 Red Nectarine, 452 Red Nutmeg, 452 Red Peach, 452 Red Rareripe, 452 _Red Rareripe_ (syn. of Morris Red), 421 Red River, 452 Red Seedling, 452 Redding, 452 Reed, 453 _Reed Early Golden_ (syn. of Reed), 453 Reeks, 453 Reeves, 265 Reeves, Samuel, var. orig. with, 265 _Reeves' Favorite_ (syn. of Reeves), 265 _Reeves' Late_ (syn. of Reeves), 265 Reeves Mammoth, 453 Regan Pride, 453 Regel, Albert, quoted, 23-24 _Reid_ (syn. of Weeping), 489 Reid, E. W., var. introduced by, 405 Reid, William, var. orig. with, 489 _Reid's Weeping_ (syn. of Weeping), 489 Ren, 453 Rendatler, 453 Reuinsiela, 453 Rey, 453 Rey, Jean, var. orig. by, 309, 469 Reynolds, 453 Reynolds, W. M., quoted, 52 Richardson Mammoth, 453 Richmond, 453 Rickets, 453 Ricketts, Joseph H., var. introduced by, 318 Riehl, E. A., var. orig. with, 465 Riehl, E. H., var. orig. with, 230 Riepper, 454 _Riesenpfirsche_ (syn. of Pavie de Pompone), 435 Rigaudière, 454 Ringold, 454 _Ringold Mammoth Cling_ (syn. of Ringold), 454 Rival, 454 River Bank, 454 Rivers, 266 Rivers, Thomas, quoted, 11; var. orig. by, 267, 293, 295, 305, 333, 338, 339, 343, 345, 346, 348, 350, 352, 358, 369, 370, 371, 375, 394, 397, 398, 405, 411, 425, 431, 440, 442, 447, 448, 450, 454, 463, 479 Rivers Early York, 454 _Rivers' Frühe_ (syn. of Rivers), 266 Robena, 454 Robert, 454 Robert Lavallée, 454 Roberta, 455 Robertson, 455 Robin, Besy, var. orig. by, 311 Robinson, Joseph J., var. introduced by, 388 Robinson, W. P., var. orig. by, 200, 386 Robinson Crusoe, 455 Rochester, 268 Rockey, 455 Rockey, J. W., var. introduced by, 455 Rodgers, 455 Rodman Red, 455 _Rodman's Cling_ (syn. of Rodman Red), 455 Rogers, var. orig. with, 455 Rogers, Daniel E., var. orig. with, 288 Rogers, Lloyd N., var. orig. with, 345 Rogers I, 455 Rogers II, 455 Roman, 455 Romorantin, 455 Romorantin à Chair Rouge, 455 Ronde de Vallabrêques, 456 Rose, Preston, var. orig. with, 351 _Rose_ (syn. of Strawberry), 472 Rose Aromatic, 456 Rosebank, 456 Rosedale, 456 Rosen-Magdalene, 456 Rosenburg Cling, 456 Roser, 456 Roseville, 456 _Roseville Cling_ (syn. of Roseville), 456 Ross, Captain A. J., var. orig. with, 247 Rossanna, 456 _Rossanne_ (syn. of Alberge), 293 _Rote Frühpfirsich_ (syn. of Red Nutmeg), 452 _Rote Magdalenenpfirsich_ (syn. of Red Magdalen), 451 _Rothe Frühpfirsche von Troyes_ (syn. of Red Nutmeg), 452 _Rothe Magdalene_ (syn. of Red Magdalen), 451 _Rother Aprikosenpfirsch_ (syn. of Alberge), 293 _Rouge de Mai_ (syn. of Briggs), 319 Round Transparent, 456 _Roussaine_ (syn. of Rossanna), 456 Roussane Berthelane, 457 Roussanne Nouvelle, 457 _Royal_ (syn. of Teton de Venus), 478 _Royal Ascot_ (syn. of Marquis of Downshire), 414 Royal Charlotte, 457 Royal George, 457 Royal George Clingstone, 457 Royal George Mignonne, 457 _Royal Kensington_ (syn. of Grosse Mignonne), 375 Royal Vineyard, 458 Royale, 458 Royale de Barsac, 458 _Rozanna_ (syn. of Rossanna), 456 Rüdiger Starhemberg, 458 Ruding Late, 458 _Rumbolion_ (syn. of Rumbullion), 458 Rumbullion, 458 Rumph, L. A., var. orig. by, 183 Rumph, Samuel H., var. orig. by, 210 Runde Feine Durchsichtige, 458 Runyon, var. orig. with, 458 Runyon Orange Cling, 458 Rupley, 458 _Russel No. 1_ (syn. of Russell), 459 Russell, 459 Russell, J. M., var. orig. by, 459 Russell No. 3, 459 Russet, 459 Russian, 459 Rust, var. orig. by, 478 Rutter, 459 Rutter, quoted, 100-101, 122 S. G. French, 459 Safranpfirsch (syn. of Alberge), 293 _St. Ascycles_ (syn. of Précoce de Saint-Assicle), 445 Saint Barthélemy, 459 Saint Catherine, 459 St. Clair, 459 Saint Fagus, 459 _Saint George_ (syn. of Smock), 274 St. Helena, 459 Saint James, 459 St. John, 269 St. Joseph Yellow Rareripe, 459 St. Louis, 460 _Saint Marguerite_ (syn. of Marguerite), 413 Saint Marie, 460 St. Mary, 460 St. Michael, 460 Sallie Worrell, 460 Sallville, 460 _Salway_ (syn. of Salwey), 271 Salwey, 271 Sanders, 460 Sanders, L. T., var. introduced by, 213, 362 _Sanftfarbige_ (syn. of Teindoux), 477 Sangmel, 460 Sanguine, 460 _Sanguine Cardinale_ (syn. of Cardinale), 324 _Sanguine à gros fruit_ (syn. of Grosser Blutpfirsich), 375 _Sanguine Grosse Admirable_ (syn. of Prachtvolle Blutpfirsich), 445 Sanguine de Jouy, 460 Sanguine de Manosque, 461 _Sanguine à petit fruit_ (syn. of Kleiner Blutpfirsich), 395 Sanguinole, 461 Sanguinole Melting, 461 Sanguinole Pitmaston, 461 _Sanguinolente_ (syn. of Sanguinole), 461 Sargent, 461 Sargent, Daniel, var. orig. with, 461 _Sargent's Rareripe_ (syn, of Sargent), 461 _Saunders_ (syn. of Sanders), 460 Savart, var. orig. by, 445 Savoy, 461 Sawyer, 461 Scaff, J. D., var. orig. by, 322 _Scarlet_ (syn. of Sanguinole), 461 Scarlet Admirable, 462 Scarlet Anne, 462 _Scarlet Nutmeg_ (syn. of Red Nutmeg), 452 Scattergood, H. V., var. orig. by, 474 _Scattergood No. 1_ (syn. of Superior Late), 474 Scheuster Choice, 462 Schieski, 462 Schley, 462 Schlomer Early, 462 Schlössers Frühpfirsich, 462 Schmidberger Pfirsich, 462 _Schmidberger's Magdalene_ (syn. of Schmidberger Pfirsich), 462 _Schnabel Pfirsich_ (syn. of À Bec), 291 _Schnellwachsender Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Spring Grove), 470 Schofields Seedling, 462 Schofields White, 462 _Schöne von Beauce_ (syn. of Belle Beausse), 307 _Schöne von Doué_ (syn. of Belle de Doué), 308 _Schöne Jersey Pfirsich_ (syn. of Unique), 482 _Schöne Kanzlerin_ (syn. of Veritable Chancelliere), 484 _Schöne Magdalene_ (syn. of Belle et Bonne), 308 Schöne Pavie, 462 _Schöne Peruvianische_ (syn. of Chevreuse), 328 _Schöne Toulouserin_ (syn. of Belle de Toulouse), 309 Schöne von Vilvorde, 462 Schöne Wächterin, 462 _Schöne aus Westland_ (syn. of Schöne von Westland), 462 Schöne von Westland, 462 Schöner Peruanischer Lackpfirsich, 462 _Schöner peruanischer Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Chevreuse), 328 _Schöner von Vitry_ (syn. of Belle de Vitry), 309 Schumaker, 273 Schumaker, Michael, var. orig. with, 273 Schuyler, Eugene, quoted, 24 Scott, 462 _Scott_ (syn. of Scott October), 463 _Scott Cling?_ (syn. of Scott October), 463 Scott October, 463 Scotts Early Red, 463 Scotts Magnate, 463 Scotts Nectar, 463 _Scotts Nonpareil_ (syn. of Nonpareil), 427 Scruggs, 463 Sea Eagle, 463 Seiders, 463 Selby Cling, 463 Sellers, S. A., var. orig. with, 463 Sellers Cling, 463 Sellers Free, 463 _Sellers' Golden Cling_ (syn. of Sellers Cling), 463 Semis de Madeleine, 464 Semis de Pêche d'Egypte, 464 Semis de Plowden, 464 Sener, 464 Sernach, 464 _Serrate Early York_ (syn. of Early York), 206 Serrate Ispahan, 464 Shalcross, J. W., var. orig. by, 295 _Shanghae_ (syn. of Chinese Cling), 198 _Shanghai_ (syn. of Chinese Cling), 198 Shannon Cling, 464 Sharpe, var. orig. by, 464 Sharpe No. 1, 464 Sharpe No. 2, 464 Sharpe No. 3, 464 Shaw Mammoth, 464 Sheester, 464 Shelby, 464 Shepherd Early, 464 Sherfey, Raphael, var. orig. by, 464 Sherfey Early, 464 Sherman October, 464 Shinn, James, var. orig. with, 464 Shinn Rareripe, 464 Shipler, 465 Shipler, A. L., var. orig. by, 465 Shipley, 465 Shipley Rareripe, 465 _Shipley's Late Red_ (syn. of Shipley), 465 Shockley Early, 465 _Shoemaker's Seedling_ (syn. of Schumaker), 273 Shop, 465 Siebolt, 465 Sieulle, 465 Sill, 465 Sill, W. H., var. orig. with, 465 Silvan Seedling, 465 _Silver_ (syn. of Early Silver), 352 Silver Medal, 465 Simms, 465 Simon, 465 Sims, 466 _Sion_ (syn. of Double Mountain), 344 Sites Old Zack, 466 Skinner Superb, 466 Slane, 466 Slappey, 466 Sleeper, W. W., var. orig. with, 466 Sleeper Dwarf, 466 Slindon Park, 466 Sloan Carolina, 466 Slocum Early, 466 _Small White_ (syn. of Small White Magdalen), 466 Small White Magdalen, 466 Smeigh, 466 Smeigh, Daniel, var. orig. by, 466 Smith, 466 Smith, Calvin, var. orig. by, 467 Smith, Captain John, quoted, 46-47 Smith, Dr., var. orig. by, 370 Smith, W. W., var. orig. by, 350, 367 Smith Favorite, 467 Smith Indian, 467 Smith Newington, 467 Smithson, 467 Smock, 274 Smock, var. orig. with, 274 _Smock Freestone_ (syn. of Smock), 274 Smooth-Leaved Royal George, 467 Smoothstone, 467 Smyrna, 467 Sneed, 467 Sneed, John F., var. introduced by, 371 Sneed, Judge John L. T., var. orig. with, 467 Snow, 468 _Snow_ (syn. of Snow Cling), 468 _Snow_ (syn. of Snow Orange), 468 Snow Cling, 468 Snow Favorite, 468 Snow Orange, 468 Sobiesky Lieblingspfirsich, 468 Solomon, 468 Soulard Cling, 468 Southern Early, 468 Southwick, 468 Southwick, T. T., var. orig. with, 468 _Southwick's Late_ (syn. of Southwick), 468 Souvenir de Gérard Galopin, 469 Souvenir de Java, 469 Souvenir de Jean-Denis Couturier, 469 Souvenir de Jean Rey, 469 Spanish, 469 _Spanish Clingstone_ (syn. of Spanish), 469 Späte Mignot Pfirsich, 469 _Späte Purpurfarbige Pfirsiche_ (syn. of Late Purple), 400 Später Lackpfirsich, 469 _Später peruanischer Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Chevreuse Tardive), 328 _Später purpurrothe Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Late Purple), 400 Spath Seedling, 469 Spence, 469 _Spitze Galand Pfirsich_ (syn. of Galande Pointue), 366 Spottswood, 470 Spring Grove, 470 Squaw, 470 Stacy, Mahlon, quoted, 51 Staley, 470 Staley, S. L., var. orig. by, 373 Standish, var. orig. by, 348 Stanley, 470 _Stanley Late_ (syn. of Chili), 197 Stanwick Early York, 470 Stark Brothers, var. introduced by, 392, 470, 494; var. orig. by, 354 Stark Early Elberta, 470 Stark Heath, 470 Stayman, Dr. J., var. orig. with, 313 Steadley, 471 Stearns, 471 Stearns, J. N., var. orig. with, 236, 471 Steele, 471 Steele, Dr. M., var. orig. with, 471 Stenson October, 471 Stephenson, Thomas, var. orig. by, 471 Stephenson Cling, 471 Stetson, 471 Stetson, N., var. orig. with, 471 Stevens, 275 Stevens, B., var. orig. with, 276 Stevens, R. S., var. orig. with, 449 Stevens Late, 471 _Stevens Rareripe_ (syn. of Stevens), 275 _Stevenson's Oct._ (syn. of Stevens Late), 471 _Stewards Late Galande_ (syn. of Chancellor), 326 Stewart, A., var. orig. by, 466 Stewart No. 1, 471 Stewart No. 2, 471 Stickler Cling, 471 Stiles, 472 Stiles, Dr. E. P., var. orig. with, 472 Stilson, 472 Stinson, 472 _Stinson Late_ (syn. of Stinson), 472 _Stinson October_ (syn. of Stinson), 472 Stirling Castle, 472 Stone, 472 Stoner, G. W., var. introduced by, 322 _Stonewall_ (syn. of Stonewall Jackson), 472 Stonewall Jackson, 472 Storm, James A., var. orig. by, 472 Storm No. 1, 472 Stranahan, 472 _Stranahan's Late Orange_ (syn. of Stranahan), 472 Strawberry, 472 Stroman, var. orig. with, 297 Strong, 473 Strout Early, 473 Strunk, 473 Strunk, W. P., var. orig. by, 473 Stuart, 473 Stubenrauch, J. W., var. orig. by, 193, 246, 363, 404, 463, 481 Studt, 473 Stump, 276 _Stump-of-the-World_ (syn. of Stump), 277 _Stump the World_ (syn. of Stump), 276 Sturtevant, 473 Sturtevant, E. T., var. orig. by, 473 Suber, 473 Suber, var. orig. by, 473 Success, 473 Sugar (syn. of Chili), 197 Sulhamstead, 473 Summer Snow, 278 Sumner Early, 474 Sumner White Free, 474 Sunrise, 474 Sunset, 474 _Superb Royal_ (syn. of Grosse Mignonne), 375 Superbe de Choisy, 474 Superbe de Trévoux, 474 Superior Late, 474 Sure Crop, 475 Surpasse, 279 Surpasse Bon Ouvrier, 474 _Surpasse Melocoton_ (syn. of Surpasse), 279 Surprise, 474 Surprise de Jodoigne, 474 Surprise de Pellaine, 474 Surties, 475 Surties, var. orig. by, 356, 475 Susquehanna, 475 Swainson Black, 475 Swalsh, 475 _Swalze_ (syn. of Swalsh), 475 Swann Free, 475 Sweet, 475 Sweet, M. E., var. orig. by, 475 Sweet Water, 475 Swick Wonder, 476 Switzerland, 476 Sylphide, 474 _Sylphide Cling_ (syn. of Sylphide), 474 Sylvester, Dr. E. W., var. orig. by, 300, 453 _Syrische Pfirsich_ (syn. of Pêche de Syria), 438 Taber, 476 Taber, G. L., var. introduced by, 201, 298, 360, 397, 460; var. orig. by, 231, 332, 359, 476 Tacker, 476 Tacker, J. W., var. orig. by, 476 Tallman No. 1, 476 Tallman No. 2, 476 Tallman No. 3, 476 Tante Mélanie, 476 Tarbell, 476 Tarbell, C. H., var. orig. by, 476 Tardive d'Avignon, 476 Tardive d'Auvergne, 476 Tardive Béraud, 476 Tardive Chevallier, 476 Tardive de Gros, 476 Tardive des Lazaristes, 477 _Tardive d'Oullins_ (syn. of La Grange), 397 _Tardive des Mignots_ (syn. of Späte Mignot Pfirsich), 469 Tardive du Mont d'Or, 477 Tardive de Montauban, 477 Tardive de Passebel, 477 _Tardive de Ward_ (syn. of Ward Late), 487 Tausch, 477 _Tausch's Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Tausch), 477 Taylor, 477 Taylor, Dr. Thomas, var. orig. by, 454 Tecumsa, 477 _Teindou_ (syn. of Teindoux), 477 Teindoux, 477 _Teint-Doux_ (syn. of Teindoux), 477 Teissier, 477 Teissier, var. orig. with, 477 Temple Late, 477 _Temple White_ (syn. of Temple Late), 477 Tennessee, 478 Tennessee Everbearing, 478 Terrel, 478 Teter, Rev. J. G., var. orig. by, 478 _Teton Venus_ (syn. of Teton de Venus), 478 Teton de Venus, 478 Texan, 478 Texas, 478 _Texas King_ (syn. of Texas), 478 Thames Bank, 478 Thissell, G. W., var. introduced by, 252; var. orig. by, 406, 479 Thissell Free, 479 _Thissell White_ (syn. of Thissell Free), 479 Thomas, David, life of, 55-56; var. orig. with, 490 Thomas, George, var. orig. by, 480 Thomas, John J., quoted, 56, 124; var. introduced by, 479, 490 Thomas Burns, 479 Thomas November, 479 Thomas Rivers, 479 Thompson, 479 Thompson, James W., quoted, 128 Thompson Orange, 479 Thoytes, Mrs., var. orig. with, 473 Thurber, 280 Thuret, Gustave, var. orig. by, 376, 440 Tice, 479 Tice, James, var. orig. by, 479 _Tice's Late Red and Yellow_ (syn. of Tice), 479 Tiebout, 479 Tiebout, V. J., var. orig. with, 479 Tillotson, 479 _Tillotson Précose_ (syn. of Tillotson), 479 Tinley October, 480 Tippecanoe, 480 Tipton, W. K., var. introduced by, 401 Tirlemonter Magdalene, 480 Titus, 480 Titus, Mrs. Sarah, var. orig. with, 480 Todd, Rev. R. W., var. orig. by, 363 Toledo, 480 _Toledo Prolific_ (syn. of Toledo), 480 Tonbridge, 480 Tong Pa, 480 Topaz, 480 Toquin, 480 Tornado, 481 Toughina, 481 Towns, Mrs., var. orig. by, 481 Towns Early, 481 Townsend, 481 Transparente Ronde, 481 _Trauerpfirsich_ (syn. of Pavier Pleureur), 436 Triana, 281 _Triomphe_ (syn. of Triumph), 282 _Triomphe Saint-Laurent_ (syn. of Triomphe de Saint-Laurent), 481 Triomphe de Saint-Laurent, 481 Triumph, 282 Troth, 283 _Troth's Early_ (syn. of Troth), 283 _Troth's Early Rareripe_ (syn. of Troth), 283 _Troth's Early Red_ (syn. of Troth), 283 Troy, 481 Trueblood Late Free, 481 Tuckahoe, 481 Tufts, Bernard, var. orig. by, 481 Tufts, E., var. orig. by, 481 Tufts Early, 481 Tufts Rareripe, 481 Turenne, 481 _Turenne Améliorée_ (syn. of Turenne), 481 Turner, quoted, 36 _Tuscan Cling_ (syn. of Tuskena), 482 Tuskena, 482 _Tuskena Cling_ (syn. of Tuskena), 482 _Tuteon de Venice_ (syn. of Teton de Venus), 478 Twenty-Ounce Cling, 482 Twyford, 482 Tyehurst, 482 Tyehurst, E., var. orig. with, 482 Ulatis, 482 Unique, 482 Unnamed Chinese, 483 _Unvergleichlich Schöne_ (syn. of Unvergleichlicher Lieblingspfirsich), 483 Unvergleichlicher Lieblingspfirsich, 483 Utah Cling, 483 Utah Free, 483 Vagaloggia Cotogna, 483 Vainqueur, 483 Valdy, 483 Valdy, var. orig. by, 483 Van Buren, J., var. orig. by, 483 Van Buren Golden Dwarf, 483 Van Deman, 483 Van Deman, H. E., var. orig. with, 483 Van Deman Early, 483 Van Lindley, J., var. introduced by, 446; var. orig. with, 404 Van Orlé, var. introduced by, 402 Van Zandt, 484 Van Zandt, R. B., var. orig. with, 484 _Van Zandt's Superb_ (syn. of Van Zandt), 484 Vandermark, 484 Vanderveer Optimum, 484 Vanguard, 484 Vanmeter, 484 Variegated Free I, 484 Variegated Free II, 484 Veitch, var. introduced by, 348 Veitch, Messrs., var. orig. by, 399 _Veloutée de Piémont_ (syn. of Grosse Mignonne), 375 _Venusbrust_ (syn. of Teton de Venus), 478 Vergil, quoted, 27 Veritable Chancelliere, 484 _Véritable Pourprée hâtive à grande fleur_ (syn. of Early Purple), 351 Verona, 484 Verte de Beaulieu, 484 Very Large Seedling Peach, 484 Vessier, 485 Victor, 485 Victoria, 485 _Victoria_ (syn. of Early Victoria), 352 Vilmorin, 485 Vineuse de Fromentin, 485 Vineuse Hâtive, 485 Vinous Purple, 485 Violet Hâtive, 485 Violet Muscat, 486 Violet Musk, 486 _Violette Galande_ (syn. of Galande), 365 _Violette Hâtive_ (syn. of Violet Hâtive), 485 Violette de Montpellier, 486 Violetter Aprikosenpfirsich, 486 Voorheis No. 1, 486 Voorheis Silver, 486 _Virginia_ (syn. of Columbia), 333 Waddell, 284 Waddell, William, var. orig. with, 285 Wager, 286 Wager, Benjamin, var. orig. with, 286 Wake Forest, 486 Walburton, 486 _Walburton Admirable_ (syn. of Walburton), 486 Waldo, 486 Walker, 486 Walker, H. R., var. introduced by, 484 Walker Early, 487 _Walker's Variegated Free_ (syn. of Walker), 486 Wallace, 487 Wallen, var. orig. with, 268 Waller, 487 Waller Brothers, var. orig. by, 487 Wallis, Henry, var. orig. with, 487 Wallis Best, 487 Wallis Heath Free, 487 Walter Early, 487 Ward, Dr. A., var. orig. by, 487 Ward Late, 487 _Ward's Freestone_ (syn. of Ward Late), 487 _Ward's Late Free_ (syn. of Ward Late), 487 Ware, 488 Ware, W. W., var. orig. with, 490 Wark, 488 Wark, James, var. orig. by, 488 Warren, William G., quoted, 122 Washington, 488 Washington, quoted, 49 Washington Clingstone, 488 _Washington Rareripe_ (syn. of Washington), 488 _Washington Red Freestone_ (syn. of Washington), 488 Waterloo, 287 Watkin Cling, 488 Watkin Early, 488 Waugh, F. A., quoted, 95 Weaver, 488 Weaver, D. W., var. orig. by, 488 Weber, R. H., var. orig. by, 488 Weber Golden Free, 488 Weber Prize, 488 Webster, Captain Daniel, var. orig. by, 387 Weed, 488 Weed, George, var. orig. with, 488 Weeping, 489 Weihnachts-Aprikosenpfirsich, 489 _Weinhafte Fromentinerpfirsche_ (syn. of Vineuse de Fromentin), 485 _Weiniger Lieblingspfirsich_ (syn. of Early Purple), 351 Weisse Charlotte, 489 _Weisse Frühpfirsche_ (syn. of White Nutmeg,) 491 _Weisser Härtling_ (syn. of Smith Newington), 467 Welch, 489 Welch, Charles B., var. introduced by, 489 Weld, Eben, var. orig. by, 489 Weld Freestone, 489 Wellington, 489 West, 489 Westbrook, C. W., var. introduced by, 460 Western Newington, 489 Whaley, Mark, var. orig. by, 489 Whaley Favorite, 489 Wheatland, 288 Wheatley, 489 Wheatstone, 489 Wheeler Early, 489 Wheeler Late, 490 Wheeler Late Yellow, 490 White, W. S., var. orig. with, 481 White Ball, 490 White Blossom, 490 _White Blossomed Incomparable_ (syn. of White Blossom), 490 White Cling, 490 White Double Crop, 490 _White English_ (syn. of Heath Cling), 225 White Globe, 490 White Imperial, 490 White July, 490 White June, 490 White Magdalen, 490 White Monsieur, 491 White Nectarine, 491 White Nutmeg, 491 White Pace, 491 _White Rareripe_ (syn. of Morris White), 248; (syn. of Nivette), 426 White Winter, 491 Whitehead Red Heath, 491 Whitlow, W. H., var. orig. with, 491 Whitlow Choice, 491 Wiard, 491 Wiard, Harry, var. orig. with, 491 Wickson, quoted, 113-115 Wiggins, 492 Wilbur, 492 Wilcox, Deacon Pitman, var. orig. with, 197 Wilder, 492 _Wilder Blutpfirsich_ (syn. of French Blood Cling), 363 Wiley, H. S., var. introduced by, 384 Wilkins, 492 Wilkins, Colonel, var. orig. with, 492 Wilkins, Edward, quoted, 122 _Wilkins Cling_ (syn. of Wilkins), 492 Willard, 492 Willard, S. D., var. orig. with, 492 _Willermoz_ (Early Crawford), 205 Willett, 492 Williams, 492 Williams, J. F., var. orig. by, 492 Williams Catherine, 492 Williams Cling, 492 Williams Early Purple, 492 _Williams New York?_ (syn. of Large White Cling), 399 Williamson, 492 Williamson, David, var. orig. by, 399 _Williamson Choice_ (syn. of Williamson), 492 Williamson Cling, 493 Willow-Leaf, 493 Willson, 493 Willson, Pierpont, var. orig. with, 493 Wilson, 493 Wilson, E. H., quoted, 89-90 Windoes, 493 Wine, 493 Winesburgh Large Yellow, 493 Winifred, 493 Winnepesaukee, 493 Wirt Lady, 493 Witham Seedling, 493 Woburn Early Mignonne, 493 Woerner, 493 Wonderful, 493 Wood, Allen L., var. introduced by, 296, 494 Wood, C. W., var. orig. by, 496 Wood, Ira L., var. orig. by, 313 Woodlawn Golden, 494 Woodman Choice, 494 Woolsey, 494 _Woolsey Nebraska_ (syn. of Woolsey), 494 Worcester, 494 Worcester, Dr. J. Warren, var. orig. by, 494 World Fair, 494 Worrell, Mrs. Sallie, var. orig. by, 460 _Worrell_ (syn. of Sallie Worrell), 460 Worth, 494 Worthen, var. orig. with, 235 _Worthen_ (syn. of Jennie Worthen), 235 Wright, 494 Wright, var. orig. with, 323 Wright, Charles, var. introduced by, 493 Wright, W. F., var. orig. by, 494 Wright Seedling, 494 _Wunderschöner Lackpfirsche_ (syn. of Admirable), 292 Wyandotte Cling, 494 Wylie, John, var. orig. by, 494 Wylie Cling, 494 XX Yellow, 495 Yates Early, 495 Yates Red Cling, 495 Yazoo, 495 Yellow Admirable, 495 _Yellow Alberge_ (syn. of Alberge), 293 _Yellow Alberge Clingstone_ (syn. of Pavie Alberge), 434 Yellow Apricot, 495 Yellow August, 495 _Yellow Blanton Cling_ (syn. of Blanton Cling), 313 Yellow Chance, 495 Yellow Chevreuse, 495 _Yellow Cobbler_ (syn. of Cobbler), 331 Yellow Extra, 495 Yellow Globe, 495 _Yellow Malacatune_ (syn. of Red Cheek Melocoton), 264 Yellow Mignonne, 495 _Yellow Mystery_ (syn. of Mystery), 423 Yellow Nutmeg, 496 Yellow Peach, 496 Yellow Preserving, 496 Yellow Rareripe, 289 Yellow Rose, 496 _Yellow St. John_ (syn. of St. John), 269 Yellow Seedling, 496 Yellow Swan, 496 _Yellow Tuscany_ (syn. of Tuskena), 482 Yenshi, 496 _Yenshi Hardy_ (syn. of Yenshi), 496 Yocum, 496 York Pearl, 496 _York Précoce_ (syn. of Early York), 206 Yulu, 496 Yum Yum, 496 Zane, 496 _Zartgefärbter Lackpfirsich_ (syn. of Teindoux), 477 Zea, 497 Zelhemer Lieblingspfirsich, 497 Zelia, 497 Zell, 497 Zella, 497 Zipf Seedling, 497 Zoar Beauty, 497 _Zwergpfirsich_ (syn. of Dwarf Orleans), 348 FOOTNOTES: [209] Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 450-456. 1914. "_Trays for Drying._--The fruit is placed upon trays for exposure to the sun. There is great variation in the size of the trays. The common small tray is made of one-half inch sugar-pine lumber two feet wide and three feet long, the boards forming it being held together by nailing to a cleat on each end, one by one and a quarter inches, and a lath or narrow piece of half-inch stuff is nailed over the ends of the boards, thus stiffening the tray and aiding to prevent warping. A large tray which is used by some growers is four feet square, and is made of slats three-eighths of an inch thick, and one and a half inches wide, the slats being nailed to three cross slats three-eighths of an inch thick and three inches wide, and the ends nailed to a narrow strip one-half inch thick by three-quarters of an inch wide on the other side. Since large drying yards have been supplied with tramways and trucks for moving the fruit instead of hand carriage, larger trays, three feet by six or three feet by eight, have been largely employed. These tramways lead from the cutting sheds to the sulphur boxes and thence to various parts of the large drying grounds, making it possible to handle large amounts of fruit at a minimum cost. _Protecting Fruit from Dew._--In the interior there are seldom any deposit of dew in the drying season but occasionally there are early rains before the drying season is over. The fruit is then protected by piling the trays one upon another, in which operation the thick cleats serve a good purpose. In dewy regions the trays are piled at night, or cloth or paper is sometimes stretched over the fruit, thus reducing the discoloration resulting from deposits of moisture upon it. _Drying Floors._--For the most part the trays are laid directly on the ground, but sometimes a staging of posts and rails is built to support them, about twenty inches from the ground. The drying trays are sometimes distributed through the orchard or vineyard, thus drying the fruit with as little carrying as possible. Others clear off a large space outside the plantation and spread the trays where full sunshine can be obtained. Drying spaces should be selected at a distance from traveled roads, to prevent the deposit of dust on the fruit * * *. _Grading._--It is of great advantage in drying to have all the fruit on a tray of approximately the same size, and grading before cutting is advisable. Machines are now made which accomplish this very cheaply and quickly. _Cutting-Sheds._--Shelter of some kind is always provided for the fruit-cutters. Sometimes it is only a temporary bower made of poles and beams upon which tree branches are spread as a thatch; sometimes open-side sheds with boarded roof, and sometimes a finished fruit-house is built, two stories high, the lower story opening with large doors on the north side, and with a large loft above, where the dried fruit can be sweated, packed, and stored for sale. The climate is such that almost any shelter which suits the taste of the purse of the producer will answer the purpose. _Sulphuring._--The regulations promulgated under the pure food law enacted by Congress in 1906 established an arbitrary limit to the percentage of sulphur compounds in evaporated fruits, which was shown by producers to be destructive to their industry, and otherwise unwarranted and unreasonable. As a result of their protest the enforcement of such regulations was indefinitely postponed, pending the results of scientific investigation which began in 1898. From the point of view of the California producer it must be held that before the employment of the sulphur process, California cured fruits were suitable only to the lowest culinary uses. They were of undesirable color, devoid of natural flavor, offensive by content of insect life. They had no value which would induce production and discernible future. Placing the trays of freshly cut fruit in boxes or small 'houses,' with the fumes of burning sulphur, made it possible to preserve its natural color and flavor during the evaporation of its surplus moisture in the clear sunshine and dry air of the California summer. It also prevented souring, which with some fruits is otherwise not preventable in such open air drying, and it protected the fruit from insect attack during the drying process. By the use of sulphur and by no other agency has it been possible to lift the production of cured fruits of certain kinds from a low-value haphazard by-product to a primary product for which Californians have planted orchards, constructed packing houses and made a name in the world's markets. The action of sulphuring is not alone to protect the fruit, it facilitates evaporation so that about one-half less time is required therefor. Not the least important bearing of this fact is the feasibility of curing fruits in larger pieces. The grand half-peaches, half-apricots, half-pears of the California cured fruits are the direct result of the sulphur process. Without it the fruit must be cut into small sections or ribbons, which in cooking break down into an uninviting mass, while, with the sulphuring, it is ordinary practice to produce the splendid halves with their natural color so preserved that they lie in cut glass dishes in suggestive semblance to the finest product of the canners, and are secured at a fraction of the cost. There are various contrivances for the application of sulphur fumes to the freshly-cut fruit. Some are small for hand carriage of trays; some are large and the trays are wheeled into them upon trucks. The most common is a bottomless cabinet about five or six feet high, of a width equal to the length of the tray and a depth a little more than the width of the tray. The cabinet has a door the whole width of one side, and on the sides within cleats are nailed so that the trays of fruit slip in like drawers into a bureau. Some push in the trays so that the bottom one leaves a little space at the back, the next a little space at the front, and so on, that the fumes may be forced by the draft to pass between the trays back and forward. The essentials seem to be open holes or dampers in the bottom and top of the cabinet so that the fumes from the sulphur burning at the bottom may be thoroughly distributed through the interior, and then all openings are tightly closed. To secure a tight chamber the door has its edge felted and the cabinet is made of matched lumber. The sulphur is usually put on a shovel or iron pot, and it is ignited by a hot coal, or a hot iron, or it is thrown on paper of which the edges are set on fire, or a little alcohol is put on the sulphur and lighted, etc. The sulphur is usually burned in a pit in the ground under the cabinet. The application of sulphur must be watchfully and carefully made, and the exposure of the fruit should only be long enough to accomplish the end desired. The exposure required differs for different fruits, and with the same fruits in different conditions, and must be learned by experience. _Grading and Cleaning._--After the fruit is sufficiently dried (and it is impossible to describe how this point may be recognized except by the experienced touch), it is gathered from the trays in to large boxes and taken to the fruit house. Some growers put it into a revolving drum of punctured sheet iron, which rubs the pieces together and separates it from dust, etc., which falls out through the apertures as the drum revolves. Others empty the fruit upon a large wire-cloth table and pick it over, grading it according to size and color, and at the same time the dust and small particles of foreign matter fall through the wire cloth. The fanning mill for cleaning grain may also be used for rapid separation of dirt, leaves, etc., with proper arrangement of metal screens. _Sweating._--All fruit, if stored in mass after drying, becomes moist. This action should take place before packing. To facilitate it, the fruit is put in piles on the floor of the fruit house and turned occasionally with a scoop shovel; or, if allowed to sweat in boxes, the fruit is occasionally poured from one box to another. The sweating equalizes the moisture throughout the mass. Some large producers have sweat-rooms with tight walls, which preserve an even temperature. No fruit should be packed before 'going through the sweat.' If this is not done, discoloration and injury will result. _Dipping before Packing._--All fruits except prunes can be packed in good condition without dipping, provided the fruit is not over-dried. Efforts should be made to take up the fruit when it is just sufficiently cured to prevent subsequent fermentation. If taken from the trays in the heat of the day and covered so that the fruit moth can not reach it there is little danger of worms. The highest grades of fruit are made in this way. If, however, the fruit has been over-dried or neglected, it can be dipped in boiling water to kill eggs of vermin and to make the fruit a little more pliable for the press. The dipping should be done quickly, and the fruit allowed to drain and then lie in a dark room, carefully covered, for twenty-four hours before packing. _Packing._--To open well, packages of dried fruit should be 'faced.' The many fine arts of paper lining, etc., must be learned by observation. Flatten some fair specimens of the fruit to be packed (and reference is especially made to such fruits as apricots, peaches and nectarines) by running them through a clothes wringer or similar pair of rollers set to flatten but not crush the fruit. Do not face with better fruit than the package is to contain. It is a fraud which will not in the end be profitable. Lay the flattened fruit (cup side down) neatly in the bottom of the box. Fill the box until it reaches the amount the box is to contain, and then apply the press until the bottom can be nailed on. Invert the box and put on the label or brand; the bottom then becomes the top. Many different kinds of boxes are used. A very good size is made of seasoned pine, six inches deep by nine inches wide by fifteen inches long, inside measurements, and it will hold twenty-five pounds of fruit. * * * _Peaches._--Take the fruit when it is fully ripe, but not mushy; cut cleanly all around to extract the pit and put on trays cup side up; get into the sulphur box as soon as possible after cutting. Peaches are dried both peeled and unpeeled, but drying without peeling is chiefly done. Peeling is done with the small paring machines or with a knife. Peeling with lye has been generally abandoned because of discoloration of the fruit after packing, although it can be successfully done by frequently changing the lye and using ample quantities of fresh water for rinsing after dipping. Clingstone peaches are successfully handled with curved knives and spoon-shaped pitters in conjunction with ordinary fruit knives. Different styles are carried at the general stores in the fruit districts, and individuals differ widely in their preferences. The weight of dried peaches which can be obtained from a certain weight of fresh fruit, depends upon the variety; some varieties yield at least a third more than others, and clings yield more than freestones as a rule. Dry-fleshed peaches, like the Muir, yield one pound dry from four or five pounds fresh, while other more juicy fruits may require six or seven pounds. _Nectarines._--Nectarines are handled like peaches; the production of translucent amber fruit in the sun depends upon the skillful use of sulphur." [210] _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 505. 1912. [211] Information supplied by letter. [212] Smith, Erwin F. _U. S. D. A. Div. of Bot. Bul._ No. =9=:17, 18. 1888. This reference as well as most of those that follow, was found in Bulletin 9, Division of Botany, United States Department of Agriculture, the most complete account we have of peach-yellows, whether of historical facts or of natural history. [213] Smith, Erwin F. _U. S. D. A. Div. of Bot. Bul._ No. =9=:18, 19. 1888. [214] Smith, Erwin F. _U. S. D. A. Div. of Bot. Bul._ No. =9=:19. 1888. [215] _Ibid._ 19. 1888. [216] Coxe, Wm. _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 215-217. 1817. [217] Prince, Wm. _Treat. Hort._ 14, 15. 1828. [218] _Report of U. S. Com. Patents_ 242. 1851. [219] _Am. Pom. Soc. Rept._ 81. 1852. [220] Rutter _Cult. & Diseases of the Peach_ 70. 1880. [221] _Horticulturist_ =1=:318. 1846. [222] _Am. Farmer_ 100-102. 1875. [223] _Peach Yellows, Houghton Farm Experiment Department Ser. 3._ No. =2=:27-28. 1882. [224] _Horticulturist_ 503. 1849. [225] _N. Y. Farmer and Hort. Repository_ 46. 1831. [226] _Cultivator_ 255. 1844. [227] _Can. Hort._ 15-16. 1878. [228] _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 275. 1880. [229] _U. S. D. A. Condition of Growing Crops_ August. 1887. [230] _Ibid._ [231] _N. Y. Farmer and Hort. Repository_ 9. 1831. [232] Yoemans, John L. _Rpt. of U. S. Com. of Patents_ 166. 1852. [233] _Conn. Bd. Agr. Rpt._ 169. 1867. [234] _Ibid._ 173. [235] _Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc._ Pt. =1=:140. 1882. [236] _Houghton Farm Exp. Dept._ Ser. 3. No. =2=:27. 1882. [237] _Proc. Am. Pom. Soc._ 212. 1854. [238] _Rpt. U. S. Com. Patents_ 369. 1851. [239] _Ibid._ 378. [240] Smith, Erwin F. _U. S. D. A. Div. of Bot. Bul._ =9=:42. 1888. [241] _Ibid._ 45. [242] _Cult. & Count. Gent._ 765. 1877. [243] _Ibid._ 275. [244] _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 274. 1880. [245] Gulley, A. G. _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 249. 1878. [246] Ramsdell, J. G. _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 306. 1882. [247] Lannin, Joseph _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 11. 1884. [248] Black, John J. _Cult. Peach & Pear_, 81. 1886. [249] _Cultivator_ 167. 1843. [250] _Horticulturist_ 37. 1846. [251] Dunlap, Dr. F. S. _U. S. D. A. Div. of Bot. Bul._ No. =9=:57. 1888. [252] Smith, Erwin F. _U. S. D. A. Div. of Bot. Bul._ No. =9=:61. 1888. [253] Smith, Erwin F. _U. S. D. A. Div. of Bot. Bul._ No. =9=:68-79. 1888. [254] Welsh, F. S. _Letter_ June 9, 1916. [255] For a full report of this investigation see the Report of the New York State Fruit-Growers Association 180-187. 1908. [256] Hedrick, U. P. _N. Y. Sta. Bul._ =299=: 1908. [257] Goff, E. S. _Gard. & For._ =9=:448. 1896. [258] Welsh, F. S. and Anderson, E. H. _The Marketing of New York State Peaches_ 5. 1916. [259] Welsh, F. S. and Anderson, E. H. _The Marketing of New York State Peaches_ 5. 1916. [260] _Ibid._ 6-7. 1916. [261] For a brief history of William Prince, the first, and his contributions to American pomology, the reader is referred to _The Plums of New York_, page 389. [262] For a brief history of the life and horticultural activities of Andrew Jackson Downing, whose likeness is shown in the frontispiece of _The Peaches of New York_, the reader is referred to _The Cherries of New York_, page 244. [263] _The Plums of New York_ is dedicated to William Robert Prince through the likeness shown of him in the frontispiece. A brief history of his life is given on page 21 of _The Grapes of New York_ and reprinted on page 24 of _The Plums of New York_. [264] _Fruit Trees_, published in 1817 by William Coxe, is the first American pomology. Though written by an amateur, during most of his life a merchant, his work was done with so much care and exhibits such nice discrimination in selecting, describing and discussing varieties of fruits that until the later and more complete work of Andrew Jackson Downing and Charles Downing, Coxe's _Fruit Trees_, competing with several other manuals, was the standard pomological work of America. William Coxe was born in Philadelphia, May 3, 1762, and died near Burlington, New Jersey, February 25, 1831. He seems to have inherited wealth and with it scholarly habits and such refinement and charm of personality that in Philadelphia and later in Burlington, to which place he removed in early manhood, he was one of the leaders in literary, scientific and social circles. His tastes early led him to the cultivation of fruit and he began to grow the varieties then to be had in America and to import sorts from England and France so that by 1817 he was able to say that he had been "for many years actively engaged in the rearing, planting and cultivating fruit trees on a scale more extensive than has been attempted by any other individual in this country." Previous to this for some years, how long cannot be said, he was the moneyed partner with one Daniel Smith in what, for the times, was an extensive fruit-tree and ornamental nursery. Demands for information became so frequent that he determined to put his knowledge in print and his _Fruit Trees_ was the result. The objects he sought to obtain in writing are well set forth in the title page as follows: "A VIEW of the CULTIVATION of FRUIT TREES, and the Management of Orchards and Cider; with Accurate Descriptions of the Most Estimable Varieties of NATIVE AND FOREIGN APPLES, PEARS, PEACHES, PLUMS, AND CHERRIES, Cultivated in the Middle States of America; Illustrated by Cuts of two hundred kinds of Fruits of the natural size; Intended to Explain Some of the errors which exist relative to the origin, popular names, and character of many of our fruits; to identify them by accurate descriptions of their properties, and correct delineations of the full size and natural formation of each variety; and to exhibit a system of practice adapted to our climate, in the Successive Stages of A NURSERY, ORCHARD, AND CIDER ESTABLISHMENT." He was at one time a member of the State Legislature and later a Congressman intimately associated with Daniel Webster. He was, also, an honorary member of the Horticultural Society of London to which during many years he was a faithful correspondent. It was Coxe's privilege to see the very beginnings of commercial peach-growing in America and through his nursery, his orchard and his book he contributed much to American peach-culture. [265] Theodatus Timothy Lyon, fruit-grower, experimenter and writer, was for many years the leading pomological authority of his adopted State, Michigan. T. T. Lyon, as he always signed his name, was born in Lima, New York, January 13, 1813, and died in South Haven, Michigan, February 6, 1900. At the age of fifteen he moved with his parents to Michigan where until his thirty-first year, in 1844, he worked at most of the arts and crafts practiced by pioneers in a new country. In the year named, he began the career of horticulturist, by planting a nursery at Plymouth, Michigan. In the nearby regions French missionaries had early planted orchards and old settlers had long been importing varieties of fruit. The nomenclature of these fruits was in uttermost confusion. T. T. Lyon set himself the task of ascertaining the correct names of these varieties in the old settlements of the State. The result was he became the pomological authority of the State. In 1874 Mr. Lyon moved to the famous "_peach-belt_" of western Michigan, where he lived until his death. Here, at first, he was president of a prominent nursery company. In 1876 he was elected president of the State Horticultural Society and continued as its active president until 1891 and from then on until his death was honorary president. In 1888 T. T. Lyon wrote a _History of Michigan Horticulture_ which was published in the Seventeenth Report of the State Horticultural Society. From the beginning of his interests in horticulture in southwestern Michigan Mr. Lyon was particularly interested in peaches--growing seedlings, testing new varieties, planting orchards and in every way helping to forward the great peach-industry of the region. He was probably, in his time, the best informed, the most accurate and the most critical judge of peaches in this country. In 1889 he was given charge of the South Haven Sub-station of the Michigan Experiment Station which gave him added facilities for studying and describing fruits and a means of publishing, through his connection with the Experiment Station, bulletins on fruits. These, for accuracy of description of varieties, are still unsurpassed among American pomological publications. Besides these bulletins, the fruit-lists in the reports of the Michigan Horticultural Society and in the American Pomological Society, during the last half of the Nineteenth Century, show the results of his accurate judgment of fruits. A modest man, shrinking from publicity, his printed works but poorly represent his vast knowledge of fruits and his great influence in the betterment of American pomology. [Transcriber's Note: Page 144, "but appear he peach-growers" was changed to read "but appear to peach-growers". Page 373, "Hazelhurst, Mississippi" changed to read "Hazlehurst, Mississippi". Page 530, "Pavie Genisant" was changed to read "Pavie Genisaut". Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] 
7123	----	Charles Franks, Charles Aldarondo and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. HOME VEGETABLE GARDENING A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE PLANTING AND CARE OF ALL VEGETABLES, FRUITS AND BERRIES WORTH GROWING FOR HOME USE BY F. F. ROCKWELL Author of _Around the Year in the Garden_, _Gardening Indoors and Under Glass_, _The Key to the Land,_ etc., etc. PREFACE With some, the home vegetable garden is a hobby; with others, especially in these days of high prices, a great help. There are many in both classes whose experience in gardening has been restricted within very narrow bounds, and whose present spare time for gardening is limited. It is as "first aid" to such persons, who want to do practical, efficient gardening, and do it with the least possible fuss and loss of time, that this book is written. In his own experience the author has found that garden books, while seldom lacking in information, often do not present it in the clearest possible way. It has been his aim to make the present volume first of all practical, and in addition to that, though comprehensive, yet simple and concise. If it helps to make the way of the home gardener more clear and definite, its purpose will have been accomplished. CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION II WHY YOU SHOULD GARDEN III REQUISITES OF THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN IV THE PLANTING PLAN V IMPLEMENTS AND THEIR USES VI MANURES AND FERTILIZERS VII THE SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION PART TWO--VEGETABLES VIII STARTING THE PLANTS IX SOWING AND PLANTING X THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES XI THE VEGETABLES AND THEIR SPECIAL NEEDS XII BEST VARIETIES OF THE GARDEN VEGETABLES XIII INSECTS AND DISEASE, AND METHODS OF FIGHTING THEM XIV HARVESTING AND STORING PART THREE--FRUITS XV THE VARIETIES OF POME AND STONE FRUITS XVI PLANTING; CULTIVATION; FILLER CROPS XVII PRUNING, SPRAYING, HARVESTING XVIII BERRIES AND SMALL FRUITS XIX A CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS XX CONCLUSION CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Formerly it was the custom for gardeners to invest their labors and achievements with a mystery and secrecy which might well have discouraged any amateur from trespassing upon such difficult ground. "Trade secrets" in either flower or vegetable growing were acquired by the apprentice only through practice and observation, and in turn jealously guarded by him until passed on to some younger brother in the profession. Every garden operation was made to seem a wonderful and difficult undertaking. Now, all that has changed. In fact the pendulum has swung, as it usually does, to the other extreme. Often, if you are a beginner, you have been flatteringly told in print that you could from the beginning do just as well as the experienced gardener. My garden friend, it cannot, as a usual thing, be done. Of course, it may happen and sometimes does. You _might_, being a trusting lamb, go down into Wall Street with $10,000 [Ed. Note: all monetary values throughout the book are 1911 values] and make a fortune. You know that you would not be likely to; the chances are very much against you. This garden business is a matter of common sense; and the man, or the woman, who has learned by experience how to do a thing, whether it is cornering the market or growing cabbages, naturally does it better than the one who has not. Do not expect the impossible. If you do, read a poultry advertisement and go into the hen business instead of trying to garden. I _have_ grown pumpkins that necessitated the tearing down of the fence in order to get them out of the lot, and sometimes, though not frequently, have had to use the axe to cut through a stalk of asparagus, but I never "made $17,000 in ten months from an eggplant in a city back-yard." No, if you are going to take up gardening, you will have to work, and you will have a great many disappointments. All that I, or anyone else, could put between the two covers of a book will not make a gardener of you. It must be learned through the fingers, and back, too, as well as from the printed page. But, after all, the greatest reward for your efforts will be the work itself; and unless you love the work, or have a feeling that you will love it, probably the best way for you, is to stick to the grocer for your garden. Most things, in the course of development, change from the simple to the complex. The art of gardening has in many ways been an exception to the rule. The methods of culture used for many crops are more simple than those in vogue a generation ago. The last fifty years has seen also a tremendous advance in the varieties of vegetables, and the strange thing is that in many instances the new and better sorts are more easily and quickly grown than those they have replaced. The new lima beans are an instance of what is meant. While limas have always been appreciated as one of the most delicious of vegetables, in many sections they could never be successfully grown, because of their aversion to dampness and cold, and of the long season required to mature them. The newer sorts are not only larger and better, but hardier and earlier; and the bush forms have made them still more generally available. Knowledge on the subject of gardening is also more widely diffused than ever before, and the science of photography has helped wonderfully in telling the newcomer how to do things. It has also lent an impetus and furnished an inspiration which words alone could never have done. If one were to attempt to read all the gardening instructions and suggestions being published, he would have no time left to practice gardening at all. Why then, the reader may ask at this point, another garden book? It is a pertinent question, and it is right that an answer be expected in advance. The reason, then, is this: while there are garden books in plenty, most of them pay more attention to the "content" than to the form in which it is laid before the prospective gardener. The material is often presented as an accumulation of detail, instead of by a systematic and constructive plan which will take the reader step by step through the work to be done, and make clear constantly both the principles and the practice of garden making and management, and at the same time avoid every digression unnecessary from the practical point of view. Other books again, are either so elementary as to be of little use where gardening is done without gloves, or too elaborate, however accurate and worthy in other respects, for an every-day working manual. The author feels, therefore, that there is a distinct field for the present book. And, while I still have the reader by the "introduction" buttonhole, I want to make a suggestion or two about using a book like this. Do not, on the one hand, read it through and then put it away with the dictionary and the family Bible, and trust to memory for the instruction it may give; do not, on the other hand, wait until you think it is time to plant a thing, and then go and look it up. For instance, do not, about the middle of May, begin investigating how many onion seeds to put in a hill; you will find out that they should have been put in, in drills, six weeks before. Read the whole book through carefully at your first opportunity, make a list of the things you should do for your own vegetable garden, and put opposite them the proper dates for your own vicinity. Keep this available, as a working guide, and refer to special matters as you get to them. Do not feel discouraged that you cannot be promised immediate success at the start. I know from personal experience and from the experience of others that "book-gardening" is a practical thing. If you do your work carefully and thoroughly, you may be confident that a very great measure of success will reward the efforts of your first garden season. And I know too, that you will find it the most entrancing game you ever played. Good luck to you! CHAPTER II WHY YOU SHOULD GARDEN There are more reasons to-day than ever before why the owner of a small place should have his, or her, own vegetable garden. The days of home weaving, home cheese-making, home meat-packing, are gone. With a thousand and one other things that used to be made or done at home, they have left the fireside and followed the factory chimney. These things could be turned over to machinery. The growing of vegetables cannot be so disposed of. Garden tools have been improved, but they are still the same old one-man affairs--doing one thing, one row at a time. Labor is still the big factor--and that, taken in combination with the cost of transporting and handling such perishable stuff as garden produce, explains why _the home gardener can grow his own vegetables at less expense than he can buy them_. That is a good fact to remember. But after all, I doubt if most of us will look at the matter only after consulting the columns of the household ledger. The big thing, the salient feature of home gardening is not that we may get our vegetables ten per cent. cheaper, but that we can have them one hundred per cent. better. Even the long-keeping sorts, like squash, potatoes and onions, are very perceptibly more delicious right from the home garden, fresh from the vines or the ground; but when it comes to peas, and corn, and lettuce,--well, there is absolutely nothing to compare with the home garden ones, gathered fresh, in the early slanting sunlight, still gemmed with dew, still crisp and tender and juicy, ready to carry every atom of savory quality, without loss, to the dining table. Stale, flat and unprofitable indeed, after these have once been tasted, seem the limp, travel-weary, dusty things that are jounced around to us in the butcher's cart and the grocery wagon. It is not in price alone that home gardening pays. There is another point: the market gardener has to grow the things that give the biggest yield. He has to sacrifice quality to quantity. You do not. One cannot buy Golden Bantam corn, or Mignonette lettuce, or Gradus peas in most markets. They are top quality, but they do not fill the market crate enough times to the row to pay the commercial grower. If you cannot afford to keep a professional gardener there is only one way to have the best vegetables--grow your own! And this brings us to the third, and what may be the most important reason why you should garden. It is the cheapest, healthiest, keenest pleasure there is. Give me a sunny garden patch in the golden springtime, when the trees are picking out their new gowns, in all the various self-colored delicate grays and greens--strange how beautiful they are, in the same old unchanging styles, isn't it?--give me seeds to watch as they find the light, plants to tend as they take hold in the fine, loose, rich soil, and you may have the other sports. And when you have grown tired of their monotony, come back in summer to even the smallest garden, and you will find in it, every day, a new problem to be solved, a new campaign to be carried out, a new victory to win. Better food, better health, better living--all these the home garden offers you in abundance. And the price is only the price of every worth-while thing--honest, cheerful patient work. But enough for now of the dream garden. Put down your book. Put on your old togs, light your pipe--some kind-hearted humanitarian should devise for women such a kindly and comforting vice as smoking--and let's go outdoors and look the place over, and pick out the best spot for that garden-patch of yours. CHAPTER III REQUISITES OF THE HOME VEGETABLE GARDEN In deciding upon the site for the home vegetable garden it is well to dispose once and for all of the old idea that the garden "patch" must be an ugly spot in the home surroundings. If thoughtfully planned, carefully planted and thoroughly cared for, it may be made a beautiful and harmonious feature of the general scheme, lending a touch of comfortable homeliness that no shrubs, borders, or beds can ever produce. With this fact in mind we will not feel restricted to any part of the premises merely because it is out of sight behind the barn or garage. In the average moderate-sized place there will not be much choice as to land. It will be necessary to take what is to be had and then do the very best that can be done with it. But there will probably be a good deal of choice as to, first, exposure, and second, convenience. Other things being equal, select a spot near at hand, easy of access. It may seem that a difference of only a few hundred yards will mean nothing, but if one is depending largely upon spare moments for working in and for watching the garden--and in the growing of many vegetables the latter is almost as important as the former--this matter of convenient access will be of much greater importance than is likely to be at first recognized. Not until you have had to make a dozen time-wasting trips for forgotten seeds or tools, or gotten your feet soaking wet by going out through the dew-drenched grass, will you realize fully what this may mean. EXPOSURE But the thing of first importance to consider in picking out the spot that is to yield you happiness and delicious vegetables all summer, or even for many years, is the exposure. Pick out the "earliest" spot you can find--a plot sloping a little to the south or east, that seems to catch sunshine early and hold it late, and that seems to be out of the direct path of the chilling north and northeast winds. If a building, or even an old fence, protects it from this direction, your garden will be helped along wonderfully, for an early start is a great big factor toward success. If it is not already protected, a board fence, or a hedge of some low-growing shrubs or young evergreens, will add very greatly to its usefulness. The importance of having such a protection or shelter is altogether underestimated by the amateur. THE SOIL The chances are that you will not find a spot of ideal garden soil ready for use anywhere upon your place. But all except the very worst of soils can be brought up to a very high degree of productiveness-- especially such small areas as home vegetable gardens require. Large tracts of soil that are almost pure sand, and others so heavy and mucky that for centuries they lay uncultivated, have frequently been brought, in the course of only a few years, to where they yield annually tremendous crops on a commercial basis. So do not be discouraged about your soil. Proper treatment of it is much more important, and a garden- patch of average run-down,--or "never-brought-up" soil--will produce much more for the energetic and careful gardener than the richest spot will grow under average methods of cultivation. The ideal garden soil is a "rich, sandy loam." And the fact cannot be overemphasized that such soils usually are made, not found. Let us analyze that description a bit, for right here we come to the first of the four all-important factors of gardening--food. The others are cultivation, moisture and temperature. "Rich" in the gardener's vocabulary means full of plant food; more than that--and this is a point of vital importance--it means full of plant food ready to be used at once, all prepared and spread out on the garden table, or rather in it, where growing things can at once make use of it; or what we term, in one word, "available" plant food. Practically no soils in long- inhabited communities remain naturally rich enough to produce big crops. They are made rich, or kept rich, in two ways; first, by cultivation, which helps to change the raw plant food stored in the soil into available forms; and second, by manuring or adding plant food to the soil from outside sources. "Sandy" in the sense here used, means a soil containing enough particles of sand so that water will pass through it without leaving it pasty and sticky a few days after a rain; "light" enough, as it is called, so that a handful, under ordinary conditions, will crumble and fall apart readily after being pressed in the hand. It is not necessary that the soil be sandy in appearance, but it should be friable. "Loam: a rich, friable soil," says Webster. That hardly covers it, but it does describe it. It is soil in which the sand and clay are in proper proportions, so that neither greatly predominate, and usually dark in color, from cultivation and enrichment. Such a soil, even to the untrained eye, just naturally looks as if it would grow things. It is remarkable how quickly the whole physical appearance of a piece of well cultivated ground will change. An instance came under my notice last fall in one of my fields, where a strip containing an acre had been two years in onions, and a little piece jutting off from the middle of this had been prepared for them just one season. The rest had not received any extra manuring or cultivation. When the field was plowed up in the fall, all three sections were as distinctly noticeable as though separated by a fence. And I know that next spring's crop of rye, before it is plowed under, will show the lines of demarcation just as plainly. This, then, will give you an idea of a good garden soil. Perhaps in yours there will be too much sand, or too much clay. That will be a disadvantage, but one which energy and perseverance will soon overcome to a great extent--by what methods may be learned in Chapter VIII. DRAINAGE There is, however, one other thing you must look out for in selecting your garden site, and that is drainage. Dig down eight or twelve inches after you have picked out a favorable spot, and examine the sub-soil. This is the second strata, usually of different texture and color from the rich surface soil, and harder than it. If you find a sandy or gravelly bed, no matter how yellow and poor it looks, you have chosen the right spot. But if it be a stiff, heavy clay, especially a blue clay, you will have either to drain it or be content with a very late garden--that is, unless you are at the top of a knoll or on a slope. Chapter VII contains further suggestions in regard to this problem. SOIL ANTECEDENTS There was a further reason for, mentioning that strip of onion ground. It is a very practical illustration of what last year's handling of the soil means to this year's garden. If you can pick out a spot, even if it is not the most desirable in other ways, that has been well enriched or cultivated for a year or two previous, take that for this year's garden. And in the meantime have the spot on which you intend to make your permanent vegetable garden thoroughly "fitted," and grow there this year a crop of potatoes or sweet corn, as suggested in Chapter IX. Then next year you will have conditions just right to give your vegetables a great start. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS There are other things of minor importance but worth considering, such as the shape of your garden plot, for instance. The more nearly rectangular, the more convenient it will be to work and the more easily kept clean and neat. Have it large enough, or at least open on two ends, so that a horse can be used in plowing and harrowing. And if by any means you can have it within reach of an adequate supply of water, that will be a tremendous help in seasons of protracted drought. Then again, if you have ground enough, lay off two plots so that you can take advantage of the practice of rotation, alternating grass, potatoes or corn with the vegetable garden. Of course it is possible to practice crop rotation to some extent within the limits of even the small vegetable garden, but it will be much better, if possible, to rotate the entire garden-patch. All these things, then, one has to keep in mind in picking the spot best suited for the home vegetable garden. It should be, if possible, of convenient access; it should have a warm exposure and be well enriched, well worked-up soil, not too light nor too heavy, and by all means well drained. If it has been thoroughly cultivated for a year or two previous, so much the better. If it is near a supply of water, so situated that it can be at least plowed and harrowed with a horse, and large enough to allow the garden proper to be shifted every other year or two, still more the better. Fill all of these requirements that you can, and then by taking full advantage of the advantages you have, you can discount the disadvantages. After all it is careful, persistent work, more than natural advantages, that will tell the story; and a good garden does _not_ grow--it is made. CHAPTER IV THE PLANTING PLAN Having selected the garden spot, the next consideration, naturally, is what shall be planted in it. The old way was to get a few seed catalogues, pick out a list of the vegetables most enthusiastically described by the (wholly disinterested) seedsman, and then, when the time came, to put them in at one or two plantings, and sowing each kind as far as the seed would go. There is a better way--a way to make the garden produce more, to yield things when you want them, and in the proper proportions. All these advantages, you may suppose, must mean more work. On the contrary, however, the new way makes very much less work and makes results a hundred per cent. more certain. It is not necessary even that more thought be put upon the garden, but forethought there must be. Forethought, however, is much more satisfactory than hind-thought. In the new way of gardening there are four great helps, four things that will be of great assistance to the experienced gardener, and that are indispensable to the success of the beginner. They are the Planting Plan, the Planting Table, the Check List and the Garden Record. Do not become discouraged at the formidable sound of that paragraph and decide that after all you do not want to fuss so much over your garden; that you are doing it for the fun of the thing anyway, and such intricate systems will not be worth bothering with. The purpose of those four garden helps is simply to make your work less and your returns more. You might just as well refuse to use a wheel hoe because the trowel was good enough for your grandmother's garden, as to refuse to take advantage of the modern garden methods described in this chapter. Without using them to some extent, or in some modified form, you can never know just what you are doing with your garden or what improvements to make next year. Of course, each of the plans or lists suggested here is only one of many possible combinations. You should be able to find, or better still to construct, similar ones better suited to your individual taste, need and opportunity. That, however, does not lessen the necessity of using some such system. It is just as necessary an aid to the maximum efficiency in gardening as are modern tools. Do not fear that you will waste time on the planting plan. Master it and use it, for only so can you make your garden time count for most in producing results. In the average small garden there is a very large percentage of waste--for two weeks, more string beans than can be eaten or given away; and then, for a month, none at all, for instance. You should determine ahead as nearly as possible how much of each vegetable your table will require and then try to grow enough of each for a continuous supply, and no more. It is just this that the planting plan enables you to do. I shall describe, as briefly as possible, forms of the planting plan, planting table, check list and record, which I have found it convenient to use. To make the Planting Plan take a sheet of white paper and a ruler and mark off a space the shape of your garden--which should be rectangular if possible--using a scale of one-quarter or one-eighth inch to the foot. Rows fifty feet long will be found a convenient length for the average home garden. In a garden where many varieties of things are grown it will be best to run the rows the short way of the piece. We will take a fifty-foot row for the purpose of illustration, though of course it can readily be changed in proportion where rows of that length can not conveniently be made. In a very small garden it will be better to make the row, say, twenty-five feet long, the aim being always to keep the row a unit and have as few broken ones as possible, and still not to have to plant more of any one thing than will be needed. In assigning space for the various vegetables several things should be kept in mind in order to facilitate planting, replanting and cultivating the garden. These can most quickly be realized by a glance at the plan illustrated herewith. You will notice that crops that remain several years--rhubarb and asparagus--are kept at one end. Next come such as will remain a whole season--parsnips, carrots, onions and the like. And finally those that will be used for a succession of crops--peas, lettuce, spinach. Moreover, tall-growing crops, like pole beans, are kept to the north of lower ones. In the plan illustrated the space given to each variety is allotted according to the proportion in which they are ordinarily used. If it happens that you have a special weakness for peas, or your mother-in-law an aversion to peppers, keep these tastes and similar ones in mind when laying out your planting plan. Do not leave the planning of your garden until you are ready to put the seeds in the ground and then do it all in a rush. Do it in January, as soon as you have received the new year's catalogues and when you have time to study over them and look up your record of the previous year. Every hour spent on the plan will mean several hours saved in the garden. The Planting Table is the next important system in the business of gardening, especially for the beginner. In it one can see at a glance all the details of the particular treatment each vegetable requires-- when to sow, how deep, how far apart the rows should be, etc. I remember how many trips from garden to house to hunt through catalogues for just such information I made in my first two seasons' gardening. How much time, just at the very busiest season of the whole year, such a table would have saved! ------------------------------------------------------ 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 -----------------------------------------------------| 0| |PA| | | | RHUBARB-2 |RS| | SEED BED | | |LE|??| | 5| |Y | | | |-------------------------------------------------| | ASPARAGUS-2 | 10|-------------------------------------------------| | | | POLE BEANS-2 | 15|-------------------------------------------------| | TOMATOES-1 | |-------------------------------------------------| 20| CABBAGE EARLY-1 | | LATE -1 | |-------------------------------------------------| 25| BROCCOLI-1 | BRUSSELS SPROUTS-1 | | PEPPERS-1 | EGG PLANT-1 | |-------------------------------------------------| 30| CELERY-1 | |-------------------------------------------------| | | 35| ONIONS-5-1/2 | | LEEKS-1/2 | |-------------------------------------------------| 40| | | CARROTS-4 | |-------------------------------------------------| 45| | | BEETS-4 | |-------------------------------------------------| 50| TURNIPS-1-1/2 | RUTABAGA-1/2 | | PARSNIPS-1 | |-------------------------------------------------| 55| | | | | | 60| CORN-4 | | | | | 65| | | | |-------------------------------------------------| 70| | | | | | 75| PEAS-4 | | | | | 80|-------------------------------------------------| | | | BUSH BEANS-3 | 85|-------------------------------------------------| | | | LETTUCE-2 | 90| ONION SETS-1 | ENDIVE-1 | |-------------------------------------------------| | MUSKMELONS-6 HILLS | CUCUMBERS-7 HILLS | 95|-------------------------------------------------| | | | | PUMPKINS-4H | WATERMELONS-5H | 100| | | |-------------------------------------------------| | | SUMMER SQUASH, BUSH-8H | 105| WINTER SQUASH-5H | | | | SUMMER SQUASH, VINE-5H | | | | 110|-------------------------------------------------| A typical Planting Plan. The scale measurements at the left and top indicate the length and distance apart of rows. [ED. Distances are approximate, due to typing line constraints.] The Planting Table prepared for one's own use should show, besides the information given, the varieties of each vegetable which experience has proved best adapted to one's own needs. The table shown herewith gives such a list; varieties which are for the most part standard favorites and all of which, with me, have proven reliable, productive and of good quality. Other good sorts will be found described in Part Two. Such a table should be mounted on cardboard and kept where it may readily be referred to at planting time. The Check List is the counterpart of the planting table, so arranged that its use will prevent anything from being overlooked or left until too late. Prepare it ahead, some time in January, when you have time to think of everything. Make it up from your planting table and from the previous year's record. From this list it will be well to put down on a sheet of paper the things to be done each month (or week) and cross them off as they are attended to. Without some such system it is almost a certainty that you will overlook some important things. The Garden Record is no less important. It may be kept in the simplest sort of way, but be sure to keep it. A large piece of paper ruled as follows, for instance, will require only a few minutes' attention each week and yet will prove of the greatest assistance in planning the garden next season. VEGETABLE GARDEN RECORD--1910 -------------|---------------|--------|--------|---------------------- VEGETABLE |VARIETY | PUT IN | READY | NOTES -------------|---------------|--------|--------|---------------------- Beans, dwarf |Red Valentine | May 10 | July 6 | Not best quality. Try | | | | other earlies |Golden Wax | May 15 | July 22| Rusted. Spray next | | | | year Bean, pole |Old Homestead | May 16 | July 26| Too many. 6 poles | | | | next year |Early Leviathan| May 25 | Aug. 19| Good. Dry. Bean, lima |Fordhook | May 15 | | Rotted. Try May 25 Beet |Egyptian | Apr. 10| June 12| Roots sprangled |Eclipse | Apr. 10| June 14| Better quality Cabbage |Wakefield | Apr. 9 | June 20| Injured by worms. | | | |Hellebore next year Etc., etc. | | | | -------------|---------------|--------|-------|---------------------- The above shows how such a record will be kept. Of course, only the first column is written in ahead. I want to emphasize in passing, however, the importance of putting down your data on the day you plant, or harvest, or notice anything worth recording. If you let it go until tomorrow it is very apt to be lacking next year. Try these four short-cuts to success, even if you have had a garden before. They will make a big difference in your garden; less work and greater results. CHECK LIST Jan. 1st--Send for catalogues. Make planting plan and table. Order seeds. Feb. 1st--Inside: cabbage, cauliflower, first sowing. Onions for plants. Feb. 15th--Inside: lettuce, cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, beets. March 1st--Inside: lettuce, celery, tomato (early). March 15th--Inside: lettuce, tomato (main), eggplant, pepper, lima beans, cucumber, squash; sprout potatoes in sand. April 1st--Inside: cauliflower (on sods), muskmelon, watermelon, corn. Outside: (seed-bed) celery, cabbage, lettuce. Onions, carrots, smooth peas, spinach, beets, chard, parsnip, turnip, radish. Lettuce, cabbage (plants). May 1st--Beans, corn, spinach, lettuce, radish. May 15th--Beans, limas, muskmelon, watermelon, summer squash, peas, potatoes, lettuce, radish, tomato (early), corn, limas, melon, cucumber and squash (plants). Pole-lima, beets, corn, kale, winter squash, pumpkin, lettuce, radish. June 1st--Beans, carrots, corn, cucumber, peas, summer spinach, summer lettuce, radish, egg-plant, pepper, tomato (main plants). June 15th--Beans, corn, peas, turnip, summer lettuce, radish, late cabbage, and tomato plants. July 1st--Beans, endive, kale, lettuce, radish, winter cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts and celery plants. July 15th--Beans, early corn, early peas, lettuce, radish. Aug. 1st--Early peas, lettuce, radish. Aug. 15th--Early peas, lettuce, radish in seed-bed, forcing lettuce for fall in frames. Sept. 1st--Lettuce, radish, spinach and onions for wintering over. NOTE.--This list is for planting only (the dates are approximate: see note I at the end of the chapter). Spraying and other garden operations may also be included in such a list. See "Calendar of Operations" at end of book. PLANTING TABLE DEPTH TO -DISTANCE APART- VEGETABLE PLANT[1] SOW--INs. SEEDS[2] ROWS I. CROPS REMAINING ENTIRE SEASON Asparagus, seed April-May 1 2-4 in. 15 in. Asparagus, plants April 4 1 ft. 3 ft. Bean, pole May 15-June 10 2 3 ft. 3 ft. Bean, lima May 20-June 10 2 3 ft. 3 ft. Beet, late April-August 2 3-4 in. 15 in. Carrot, late May-July 1/2-1 2-3 in. 15 in. Corn, late May 20-July 10 2 3 ft. 4 ft. Cucumber May 10-July 15 1 4 ft. 4 ft. Egg-plant, plants June 1-20 .. 2 ft. 30 in. Leek April .. 2-4 in. 15 in. Melon, musk May 15-June 15 1 4 ft. 4 ft. Melon, water May 15-June 15 1 6-8 ft. 6-8 ft. Onion April 1/2-1 2-4 in. 15 in. Okra May 15-June 15 1/2-1 2 ft. 3 ft. Parsley[4] April-May 1/2 4-6 in. 1 ft. Parsnip April 1/2-1 3-5 in. 18 in. Pepper, seed June 1st 1/2 3-6 in. 15 in. Pepper, plants June 1-20 .. 2 ft. 30 in. Potatoes, main April 15-June 20 4-6 13 in. 30 in. Pumpkins May 1-June 20 1-2 6-8 ft. 6-8 ft. Rhubarb, plants April .. 2-3 ft. 3 ft. Salsify April-May 1 3-6 in. 18 in. Squash, summer May 15-July 1 1-2 4 ft. 4 ft. Squash, winter May 15-June 20 1-2 6-8 ft. 6-8 ft. Tomato, seed June 1/2 3-4 in. 15 in. Tomato, plants May 15-July 20 .. 3 ft. 3 ft. NOTE.--The index reference numbers refer to notes at end of chapter. ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ |SEED FOR | | 50 FT. | VEGETABLE | ROW | VARIETIES ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ Asparagus, seed | 1 oz. | Palmetto, Giant Argenteuil, Barr's | | Mammoth Asparagus, plants | 50 | Palmetto, Giant Argenteuil, Barr's | | Mammoth Bean, pole | 1/2 pt. | Kentucky Wonder, Golden, Cluster, | | Burger's Stringless Bean, lima | 1/2 pt. | Early Leviathan, Giant Podded, Burpee | | Improved Beet, late | 1 oz. | Crimson Globe Carrot, late | 1/2 oz. | Danver's Half-long, Ox-heart, Chantenay Corn, late | 1/2 pt. | Seymour's Sweet Orange, White Evergreen, | | Country Gentleman Cucumber | 1/2 oz. | Early White Spine, Fordhook Famous, Davis | | Perfect Egg-plant, plants | 25 | Black Beauty, N.Y. Purple Leek | 1/2 oz. | American Flag Melon, musk | 1/2 oz. | Netted Gem, Emerald Gem, Hoodoo Melon, water | 1/4 oz. | Cole's Early Sweetheart, Halbert Honey Onion | 1/2 oz. | Prizetaker, Danver's Globe, Ailsa Craig, | | Southport Red Globe, Mammoth | | Silverskin (white) Okra | 1/2 oz. | Perfected Perkins, White Velvet Parsley | 1/2 oz. | Emerald Parsnip | 1/4 oz. | Hollow Crowned (Improved) Pepper, seed | 1/2 oz. | Ruby King, Chinese Giant Pepper, plants | 25 | Ruby King, Chinese Giant Potatoes, main | 1/2 pk. | Irish Cobbler, Green Mountain, Uncle Sam | | (Norton Beauty, Norwood, early) Pumpkins | 1/4 oz. | Large Cheese, Quaker Pie Rhubarb, plants | 25 | Myatt's Victoria Salsify | 3/4 oz. | Mammoth Sandwich Squash, summer | 1/4 oz. | White Bush, Delicata, Fordhook, Vegetable | | Marrow Squash, winter | 1/4 oz. | Hubbard, Delicious Tomato, seed | 1/2 oz. | Earliana, Chalk's Jewel, Matchless, Dwarf | | Giant Tomato, plants | 20 | Earliana, Chalk's Jewel, Matchless, Dwarf | | Giant ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ PLANTING TABLE DEPTH TO -DISTANCE APART- VEGETABLE PLANT[1] SOW--INs. SEEDS[3] ROWS II. CROPS FOR SUCCESSION PLANTINGS Bean, dwarf May 5-Aug 15 2 2-4 in. 1-1/2-2 ft. Kohlrabi[4] April-July 1/2 - 1 6-12 in. 1-1/2-2 ft. Lettuce[4] April-August 1/2 1 ft. 1-1-1/2 ft. Peas, smooth April 1-Aug 1 2-3 2-4 in. 3 ft. Peas, wrinkled April 10-July 15 2-3 2-4 in. 3-4 ft. Radish April 1-Sept 1 1/2 2-3 in. 1 ft. Spinach April-Sept 15 1 3-5 in. 18 in. Turnip April-Sept 1/2-1 4-6 in. 15 in. III. CROPS TO BE FOLLOWED BY OTHERS Beet, early April-June 2 3-4 in. 15 in. Broccoli, early[4] April 1/2-1 1-1/2 ft. 2 ft. Borecole[4] April 1/2-1 2 ft. 2-1/2 ft. Brussels sprouts[4] April 1/2-1 1-1/2 ft. 2 ft. Cabbage, early[4] April 1/2-1 1-1/2 ft. 2 ft. Carrot April 1/2-1 2-3 in. 15 in. Cauliflower[4] April 1/2-1 1-1/2 ft. 2 ft. Com, early May 10-20 2 3 ft. 3-4 ft. Onion sets April-May 15 1-2 2-4 in. 15 in. Peas April 1-May 1 2 2-4 in. 3 ft. Crops in Sec. II. IV. CROPS THAT MAY FOLLOW OTHERS Beet, late July-August 2 3-4 in. 15 in. Borecole May-June[2] 1/2-1 2 ft. 2-1/2 ft. Broccoli May-June[2] 1/2-1 2 ft. 2-1/2 ft. Brussels sprouts May-June[2] 1/2-1 1-1/2 ft. 2-1/2 ft. Cabbage late May-June[2] 1/2-1 2-1/2 ft. 2-1/2 ft. Cauliflower May-June[2] 1/2-1 2 ft. 2-1/2 ft. Celery, seed April 1/2 1-2 in. 1 ft. Celery, plant July 1-Aug 1 .. 6 in. 3-4 ft. Endive[4] April-August 1/2 1 ft. 1 ft. Peas, late May 15-Aug 1 2-3 2-4 in. 4 ft. Crops in Sec. II. II. CROPS FOR SUCCESSION PLANTINGS ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ |SEED FOR | | 50 FT. | VEGETABLE | ROW | VARIETIES ------------------+---------+------------------------------------------ Bean, dwarf | 1 pt. | Red Valentine Burpee's Greenpod, | | Improved Refugee, Brittle Wax, | | Rust-proof Golden Wax, Burpee's | | White Wax Kohlrabi | 1/4 oz | White Vienna Lettuce | 50 | Mignonette, Grand Rapids, May King, | | Big Boston, New York, Deacon, Cos, | | Paris White Peas, smooth | 1 pt | American Wonder Peas, wrinkled | 1 pt | Gradus, Boston Unrivaled, Quite Content Radish | 1/2 oz. | Rapid Red, Crimson Globe, Chinese Spinach | 1/2 oz. | Swiss Chard Beet, Long Season, Victoria Turnip | 1/3 oz. | White Milan, Petrowski, Golden Ball III. CROPS TO BE FOLLOWED BY OTHERS Beet, early | 1 oz. | Edmund's Early, Early Model Broccoli, early | 35 | Early White French Borecole | 25 | Dwarf Scotch Curled Brussels sprouts | 35 | Dalkeith, Danish Prize Cabbage, early | 35 | Wakefield, Glory of Enkhuisen, | | Early Summer, Succession, Savoy Carrot | 1/2 oz. | Golden Ball, Early Scarlet Horn Cauliflower | 35 | Burpee's Best Early, Snowball, Sea-foam | | Dry Weather Corn, early | 1/3 pt. | Golden Bantam, Peep o' Day, Cory Onion sets | 2 pt. | Peas | 1 pt. | Crops in Sec. II. IV. CROPS THAT MAY FOLLOW OTHERS Beet, late | 1 oz. | Crimson Globe Borecole | 25 | Dwarf Scotch Curled Broccoli | 25 | Early White French Brussels sprouts | 35 | Dalkeith, Danish Prize Cabbage, late | 25 | Succession, Danish Ballhead Drumhead Cauliflower | 25 | As above [Savoy, Mammoth Rock (red)] Celery, seed | 1 oz. | White Plume, Golden Self-blanching, | | Winter Queen Celery, plant | 100 | White Plume, Golden Self-blanching, | | Winter Queen Endive | 1/2 oz. | Broad-Leaved Batavian, Giant Fringed Peas, late | 1 pt. | Gradus Crops in Sec. II. REFERENCE NOTES FROM THE TABLES 1 In the vicinity of New York City. Each 100 miles north or south will make a difference of 5 to 7 days later or earlier. 2 This is for sowing the seed. It will take three to six weeks before plants are ready. Hence the advantage of using the seed-bed. For instance, you can start your late cabbage about June 15th, to follow the first crop of peas, which should be cleared off by the 10th of July. 3 Distances given are those at which the growing _plants_ should stand, after thinning. Seed in drills should be sown several times as thick. 4 Best started in seed-bed, and afterward transplanted; but may be sown when wanted and afterward thinned to the best plants. CHAPTER V IMPLEMENTS AND THEIR USES It may seem to the reader that it is all very well to make a garden with a pencil, but that the work of transferring it to the soil must be quite another problem and one entailing so much work that he will leave it to the professional market gardener. He possibly pictures to himself some bent-kneed and stoop-shouldered man with the hoe, and decides that after all there is too much work in the garden game. What a revelation would be in store for him if he could witness one day's operations in a modern market garden! Very likely indeed not a hoe would be seen during the entire visit. Modern implements, within less than a generation, have revolutionized gardening. This is true of the small garden as certainly as of the large one: in fact, in proportion I am not sure but that it is more so--because of the second wonderful thing about modern garden tools, that is, the low prices at which they can be bought, considering the enormous percentage of labor saved in accomplishing results. There is nothing in the way of expense to prevent even the most modest gardener acquiring, during a few years, by the judicious expenditure of but a few dollars annually, a very complete outfit of tools that will handsomely repay their cost. While some garden tools have been improved and developed out of all resemblance to their original forms, others have changed little in generations, and in probability will remain ever with us. There is a thing or two to say about even the simplest of them, however,-- especially to anyone not familiar with their uses. There are tools for use in every phase of horticultural operations; for preparing the ground, for planting the seed, for cultivation, for protecting crops from insects and disease, and for harvesting. First of all comes the ancient and honorable spade, which, for small garden plots, borders, beds, etc., must still be relied upon for the initial operation in gardening--breaking up the soil. There are several types, but any will answer the purpose. In buying a spade look out for two things: see that it is well strapped up the handle in front and back, and that it hangs well. In spading up ground, especially soil that is turfy or hard, the work may be made easier by taking a strip not quite twice as wide as the spade, and making diagonal cuts so that one vertical edge of the spade at each thrust cuts clean out to where the soil has already been dug. The wide-tined spading-fork is frequently used instead of the spade, as it is lighter and can be more advantageously used to break up lumps and level off surfaces. In most soils it will do this work as well, if not better, than the spade and has the further good quality of being serviceable as a fork too, thus combining two tools in one. It should be more generally known and used. With the ordinary fork, used for handling manure and gathering up trash, weeds, etc., every gardener is familiar. The type with oval, slightly up-curved tines, five or six in number, and a D handle, is the most convenient and comfortable for garden use. For areas large enough for a horse to turn around in, use a plow. There are many good makes. The swivel type has the advantage of turning all the furrows one way, and is the best for small plots and sloping ground. It should turn a clean, deep furrow. In deep soil that has long been cultivated, plowing should, with few exceptions, be down at least to the subsoil; and if the soil is shallow it will be advisable to turn up a little of the subsoil, at each plowing--not more than an inch--in order that the soil may gradually be deepened. In plowing sod it will be well to have the plow fitted with a coulter, which turns a miniature furrow ahead of the plowshare, thus covering under all sods and grass and getting them out of the way of harrows and other tools to be used later. In plowing under tall-growing green manures, like rye, a heavy chain is hung from the evener to the handle, thus pulling the crop down into the furrow so that it will all be covered under. Where drainage is poor it will be well to break up the subsoil with a subsoil plow, which follows in the wake of the regular plow but does not lift the subsoil to the surface. TOOLS FOR PREPARING THE SEED-BED The spade or spading-fork will be followed by the hoe, or hook, and the iron rake; and the plow by one or more of the various types of harrow. The best type of hoe for use after the spade is the wide, deep-bladed type. In most soils, however, this work may be done more expeditiously with the hook or prong-hoe (see illustration). With this the soil can be thoroughly pulverized to a depth of several inches. In using either, be careful not to pull up manure or trash turned under by the spade, as all such material if left covered will quickly rot away in the soil and furnish the best sort of plant food. I should think that our energetic manufactures would make a prong-hoe with heavy wide blades, like those of the spading-fork, but I have never seen such an implement, either in use or advertised. What the prong-hoe is to the spade, the harrow is to the plow. For general purposes the Acme is an excellent harrow. It is adjustable, and for ground at all mellow will be the only one necessary; set it, for the first time over, to cut in deep; and then, set for leveling, it will leave the soil in such excellent condition that a light hand- raking (or, for large areas, the Meeker smoothing-harrow) will prepare it for the finest of seeds, such as onions and carrots. The teeth of the Acme are so designed that they practically constitute a gang of miniature plows. Of disc harrows there are a great many makes. The salient feature of the disc type is that they can tear up no manure, grass or trash, even when these are but partly turned under by the plow. For this reason it is especially useful on sod or other rough ground. The most convenient harrow for putting on the finishing touches, for leveling off and fining the surface of the soil, is the lever spike-tooth. It is adjustable and can be used as a spike-tooth or as a smoothing harrow. Any of the harrows mentioned above (except the Meeker) and likewise the prong-hoe, will have to be followed by the iron rake when preparing the ground for small-seeded garden vegetables. Get the sort with what is termed the "bow" head (see illustration) instead of one in which the head is fastened directly to the end of the handle. It is less likely to get broken, and easier to use. There is quite a knack in manipulating even a garden rake, which will come only with practice. Do not rake as though you were gathering up leaves or grass. The secret in using the garden rake is _not_ to gather things up. Small stones, lumps of earth and such things, you of course wish to remove. Keep these raked off ahead of where you are leveling the soil, which is accomplished with a backward-and-forward movement of the rake. The tool-house of every garden of any size should contain a seed-drill. Labor which is otherwise tedious and difficult is by it rendered mere play--as well as being better done. The operations of marking the row, opening the furrow, dropping the seed at the proper depth and distance, covering immediately with fresh earth, and firming the soil, are all done at one fell swoop and as fast as you can walk. It will even drop seeds in hills. But that is not all: it may be had as part of a combination machine, which, after your seeds are planted--with each row neatly rolled on top, and plainly visible--may be at once transformed into a wheel hoe that will save you as much time in caring for your plants as the seed-drill did in planting your seed. Hoeing drudgery becomes a thing of the past. The illustration herewith shows such a machine, and some of the varied attachments which may be had for it. There are so many, and so varied in usefulness, that it would require an entire chapter to detail their special advantages and methods of use. The catalogues describing them will give you many valuable suggestions; and other ways of utilizing them will discover themselves to you in your work. Valuable as the wheel hoe is, however, and varied in its scope of work, the time-tried hoe cannot be entirely dispensed with. An accompanying photograph [ED. Not shown here] shows four distinct types, all of which will pay for themselves in a garden of moderate size. The one on the right is the one most generally seen; next to it is a modified form which personally I prefer for all light work, such as loosening soil and cutting out weeds. It is lighter and smaller, quicker and easier to handle. Next to this is the Warren, or heart-shaped hoe, especially valuable in opening and covering drills for seed, such as beans, peas or corn. The scuffle-hoe, or scarifier, which completes the four, is used between narrow rows for shallow work, such as cutting off small weeds and breaking up the crust. It has been rendered less frequently needed by the advent of the wheel hoe, but when crops are too large to admit of the use of the latter, the scuffle-hoe is still an indispensable time-saver. There remains one task connected with gardening that is a bug-bear. That is hand-weeding. To get down on one's hands and knees, in the blistering hot dusty soil, with the perspiration trickling down into one's eyes, and pick small weedlets from among tender plantlets, is not a pleasant occupation. There are, however, several sorts of small weeders which lessen the work considerably. One or another of the common types will seem preferable, according to different conditions of soil and methods of work. Personally, I prefer the Lang's for most uses. The angle blade makes it possible to cut very near to small plants and between close-growing plants, while the strap over the back of a finger or thumb leaves the fingers free for weeding without dropping the instrument. There are two things to be kept in mind about hand-weeding which will reduce this work to the minimum. First, never let the weeds get a start; for even if they do not increase in number, if they once smother the ground or crop, you will wish you had never heard of a garden. Second, do your hand-weeding while the surface soil is soft, when the weeds come out easily. A hard-crusted soil will double and treble the amount of labor required. It would seem that it should be needless, when garden tools are such savers of labor, to suggest that they should be carefully kept, always bright and clean and sharp, and in repair. But such advice is needed, to judge by most of the tools one sees. Always have a piece of cloth or old bag on hand where the garden tools are kept, and never put them away soiled and wet. Keep the cutting edges sharp. There is as much pleasure in trying to run a dull lawnmower as in working with a rusty, battered hoe. Have an extra handle in stock in case of accident; they are not expensive. In selecting hand tools, always pick out those with handles in which the grain does not run out at the point where there will be much strain in using the tool. In rakes, hoes, etc., get the types with ferrule and shank one continuous piece, so as not to be annoyed with loose heads. Spend a few cents to send for some implement catalogues. They will well repay careful perusal, even if you do not order this year. In these days of intensive advertising, the commercial catalogue often contains matter of great worth, in the gathering and presentation of which no expense has been spared. FOR FIGHTING PLANT ENEMIES The devices and implements used for fighting plant enemies are of two sorts:--(1) those used to afford mechanical protection to the plants; (2) those used to apply insecticides and fungicides. Of the first the most useful is the covered frame. It consists usually of a wooden box, some eighteen inches to two feet square and about eight high, covered with glass, protecting cloth, mosquito netting or mosquito wire. The first two coverings have, of course, the additional advantage of retaining heat and protecting from cold, making it possible by their use to plant earlier than is otherwise safe. They are used extensively in getting an extra early and safe start with cucumbers, melons and the other vine vegetables. Simpler devices for protecting newly-set plants, such as tomatoes or cabbage, from the cut-worm, are stiff, tin, cardboard or tar paper collars, which are made several inches high and large enough to be put around the stem and penetrate an inch or so into the soil. For applying poison powders, such as dry Paris green, hellebore and tobacco dust, the home gardener should supply himself with a powder gun. If one must be restricted to a single implement, however, it will be best to get one of the hand-power, compressed-air sprayers--either a knapsack pump or a compressed-air sprayer--types of which are illustrated. These are used for applying wet sprays, and should be supplied with one of the several forms of mist-making nozzles, the non- cloggable automatic type being the best. For more extensive work a barrel pump, mounted on wheels, will be desirable, but one of the above will do a great deal of work in little time. Extension rods for use in spraying trees and vines may be obtained for either. For operations on a very small scale a good hand-syringe may be used, but as a general thing it will be best to invest a few dollars more and get a small tank sprayer, as this throws a continuous stream or spray and holds a much larger amount of the spraying solution. Whatever type is procured, get a brass machine--it will out-wear three or four of those made of cheaper metal, which succumbs very quickly to the, corroding action of the strong poisons and chemicals used in them. Of implements for harvesting, beside the spade, prong-hoe and spading- fork already mentioned, very few are used in the small garden, as most of them need not only long rows to be economically used, but horse- power also. The onion harvester attachment for the double wheel hoe, costing $1.00, may be used with advantage in loosening onions, beets, turnips, etc., from the soil or for cutting spinach. Running the hand- plow close on either side of carrots, parsnips and other deep-growing vegetables will aid materially in getting them out. For fruit picking, with tall trees, the wire-fingered fruit-picker, secured to the end of a long handle, will be of great assistance, but with the modern method of using low-headed trees it will not be needed. Another class of garden implements are those used in pruning--but where this is attended to properly from the start, a good sharp jack-knife and a pair of pruning shears (the English makes are the best, as they are in some things, when we are frank enough to confess the truth) will easily handle all the work of the kind necessary. Still another sort of garden device is that used for supporting the plants; such as stakes, trellises, wires, etc. Altogether too little attention usually is given these, as with proper care in storing over winter they will not only last for years, but add greatly to the convenience of cultivation and to the neat appearance of the garden. Various contrivances are illustrated in the seed catalogues, and many may be home-made--such as a stake-trellis for supporting beans. As a final word to the intending purchaser of garden tools, I would say: first thoroughly investigate the different sorts available, and when buying, do not forget that a good tool or a well-made machine will be giving you satisfactory use long, long after the price is forgotten, while a poor one is a constant source of discomfort. Get good tools, and _take_ good care of them. And let me repeat that a few dollars a year, judiciously spent, for tools afterward well cared for, will soon give you a very complete set, and add to your garden profit and pleasure. CHAPTER VI. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS To a very small extent garden vegetables get their food from the air. The amount obtained in this way however, is so infinitesimal that from the practical standpoint it need not be considered at all. Practically speaking, your vegetables must get all their food from the garden soil. This important garden fact may seem self-evident, but, if one may judge by their practice, amateur gardeners very frequently fail to realize it. The professional gardener must come to realize it for the simple reason that if he does not he will go out of business. Without an abundant supply of suitable food it is just as impossible to grow good vegetables as it would be to train a winning football team on a diet of sweet cider and angel cake. Without plenty of plant food, all the care, coddling, coaxing, cultivating, spraying and worrying you may give will avail little. The soil must be rich or the garden will be poor. Plant food is of as many kinds, or, more accurately speaking, in as many _forms_, as is food for human beings. But the first distinction to make in plant foods is that between available and non- available foods--that is, between foods which it is possible for the plant to use, and those which must undergo a change of some sort before the plant can take them up, assimilate them, and turn them into a healthy growth of foliage, fruit or root. It is just as readily possible for a plant to starve in a soil abounding in plant food, if that food is not available, as it would be for you to go unnourished in the midst of soups and tender meats if the latter were frozen solid. Plants take all their nourishment in the form of soups, and very weak ones at that. Plant food to be available must be soluble to the action of the feeding root tubes; and unless it is available it might, as far as the present benefiting of your garden is concerned, just as well not be there at all. Plants take up their food through innumerable and microscopic feeding rootlets, which possess the power of absorbing moisture, and furnishing it, distributed by the plant juices, or sap, to stem, branch, leaf, flower and fruit. There is one startling fact which may help to fix these things in your memory: it takes from 300 to 500 pounds of water to furnish food for the building of one pound of dry plant matter. You can see why plant food is not of much use unless it is available; and it is not available unless it is soluble. THE THEORY OF MANURING The food of plants consists of chemical elements, or rather, of numerous substances which contain these elements in greater or less degrees. There is not room here to go into the interesting science of this matter. It is evident, however, as we have already seen that the plants must get their food from the soil, that there are but two sources for such food: it must either be in the soil already, or we must put it there. The practice of adding plant food to the soil is what is called manuring. The only three of the chemical elements mentioned which we need consider are: nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash. The average soil contains large amounts of all three, but they are for the most part in forms which are not available and, therefore, to that extent, may be at once dismissed from our consideration. (The non-available plant foods already in the soil may be released or made available to some extent by cultivation. See Chapter VII.) In practically every soil that has been cultivated and cropped, in long-settled districts, the amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash which are immediately available will be too meager to produce a good crop of vegetables. It becomes absolutely necessary then, if one would have a really successful garden, no matter how small it is, to add plant foods to the soil abundantly. When you realize, (1) that the number of plant foods containing the three essential elements is almost unlimited, (2) that each contains them in different proportions and in differing degrees of availability, (3) that the amount of the available elements already in the soil varies greatly and is practically undeterminable, and (4) that different plants, and even different varieties of the same plant, use these elements in widely differing proportions; then you begin to understand what a complex matter this question of manuring is and why it is so much discussed and so little understood. What a labyrinth it offers for any writer--to say nothing of the reader--to go astray in! I have tried to present this matter clearly. If I have succeeded it may have been only to make the reader hopelessly discouraged of ever getting at anything definite in the question of enriching the soil. In that case my advice would be that, for the time being, he forget all about it. Fortunately, in the question of manuring, a little knowledge is not often a dangerous thing. Fortunately, too, your plants do not insist that you solve the food problem for them. Set a full table and they will help themselves and take the right dishes. The only thing to worry about is that of the three important foods mentioned (nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash) there will not be enough: for it has been proved that when any one of these is exhausted the plant practically stops growth; it will not continue to "fill up" on the other two. Of course there is such a thing as going to extremes and wasting plant foods, even if it does not, as a rule, hurt the plants. If, however, the fertilizers and manures described in the following sections are applied as directed, and as mentioned in Chapter VII., good results will be certain, provided the seed, cultivation and season are right. VARIOUS MANURES The terms "manure" and "fertilizer" are used somewhat ambiguously and interchangeably. Using the former term in a broad sense--as meaning any substance containing available plant food applied to the soil, we may say that manure is of two kinds: organic, such as stable manure, or decayed vegetable matter; and inorganic, such as potash salts, phosphatic rock and commercial mixed fertilizers. In a general way the term "fertilizer" applies to these inorganic manures, and I shall use it in this sense through the following text. Between the organic manures, or "natural" manures as they are often called, and fertilizers there is a very important difference which should never be lost sight of. In theory, and as a chemical fact too, a bag of fertilizer may contain twice the available plant food of a ton of well rotted manure; but out of a hundred practical gardeners ninety- nine--and probably one more--would prefer the manure. There is a reason why--two reasons, even if not one of the hundred gardeners could give them to you. First, natural manures have a decided physical effect upon most soils (altogether aside from the plant food they contain); and second, plants seem to have a preference as to the _form_ in which their food elements are served to them. Fertilizers, on the other hand, are valuable only for the plant food they contain, and sometimes have a bad effect upon the physical condition of the soil. When it comes right down to the practical question of what to put on your garden patch to grow big crops, nothing has yet been discovered that is better than the old reliable stand-by--well rotted, thoroughly fined stable or barnyard manure. Heed those adjectives! We have already seen that plant food which is not available might as well be, for our immediate purposes, at the North Pole. The plant food in "green" or fresh manure is not available, and does not become so until it is released by the decay of the organic matters therein. Now the time possible for growing a crop of garden vegetables is limited; in many instances it is only sixty to ninety days. The plants want their food ready at once; there is no time to be lost waiting for manure to rot in the soil. That is a slow process--especially so in clayey or heavy soils. So on your garden use only manure that is well rotted and broken up. On the other hand, see that it has not "fire-fanged" or burned out, as horse manure, if piled by itself and left, is very sure to do. If you keep any animals of your own, see that the various sorts of manure --excepting poultry manure, which is so rich that it is a good plan to keep it for special purposes--are mixed together and kept in a compact, built-up square heap, not a loose pyramidal pile. Keep it under cover and where it cannot wash out. If you have a pig or so, your manure will be greatly improved by the rooting, treading and mixing they will give it. If not, the pile should be turned from bottom to top and outside in and rebuilt, treading down firmly in the process, every month or two-- applying water, but not soaking, if it has dried out in the meantime. Such manure will be worth two or three times as much, for garden purposes, as that left to burn or remain in frozen lumps. If you have to buy all your manure, get that which has been properly kept; and if you are not familiar with the condition in which it should be, get a disinterested gardener or farmer to select it for you. When possible, it will pay you to procure manure several months before you want to use it and work it over as suggested above. In buying manure keep in mind not what animals made it, but what food was fed--that is the important thing. For instance, the manure from highly-fed livery horses may be, weight for weight, worth three to five times that from cattle wintered over on poor hay, straw and a few roots. There are other organic manures which it is sometimes possible for one to procure, such as refuse brewery hops, fish scraps and sewage, but they are as a rule out of the reach of, or objectionable for, the purposes of the home gardener. There are, however, numerous things constantly going to waste about the small place, which should be converted into manure. Fallen leaves, grass clippings, vegetable tops and roots, green weeds, garbage, house slops, dish water, chip dirt from the wood-pile, shavings--any thing that will rot away, should go into the compost heap. These should be saved, under cover if possible, in a compact heap and kept moist (never soaked) to help decomposition. To start the heap, gather up every available substance and make it into a pile with a few wheelbarrows full, or half a cartload, of fresh horse manure, treading the whole down firmly. Fermentation and decomposition will be quickly started. The heap should occasionally be forked over and restacked. Light dressings of lime, mixed in at such times, will aid thorough decomposition. Wood ashes form another valuable manure which should be carefully saved. Beside the plant food contained, they have a most excellent effect upon the mechanical condition of almost every soil. Ashes should not be put in the compost heap, because there are special uses for them, such as dusting on squash or melon vines, or using on the onion bed, which makes it desirable to keep them separate. Wood ashes may frequently be bought for fifty cents a barrel, and at this price a few barrels for the home garden will be a good investment. Coal ashes contain practically no available plant food, but are well worth saving to use on stiff soils, for paths, etc. VALUE OF GREEN MANURING Another source of organic manures, altogether too little appreciated, is what is termed "green manuring"--the plowing under of growing crops to enrich the land. Even in the home garden this system should be taken advantage of whenever possible. In farm practice, clover is the most valuable crop to use for this purpose, but on account of the length of time necessary to grow it, it is useful for the vegetable garden only when there is sufficient room to have clover growing on, say, one half- acre plot, while the garden occupies, for two years, another half-acre; and then changing the two about. This system will give an ideal garden soil, especially where it is necessary to rely for the most part upon chemical fertilizers. There are, however, four crops valuable for green-manuring the garden, even where the same spot must be occupied year after year: rye, field corn, field peas (or cow peas in the south) and crimson clover. After the first of September, sow every foot of garden ground cleared of its last crop, with winter rye. Sow all ground cleared during August with crimson clover and buckwheat, and mulch the clover with rough manure after the buckwheat dies down. Sow field peas or corn on any spots that would otherwise remain unoccupied six weeks or more. All these are sown broadcast, on a freshly raked surface. Such a system will save a very large amount of plant food which otherwise would be lost, will convert unavailable plant food into available forms while you wait for the next crop, and add _humus_ to the soil--concerning the importance of which see Chapter VII. CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS I am half tempted to omit entirely any discussion of chemical fertilizers: to give a list of them, tell how to apply them, and let the why and wherefore go. It is, however, such an important subject, and the home gardener will so frequently have to rely almost entirely upon their use, that probably it will be best to explain the subject as thoroughly as I can do it in very limited space. I shall try to give the theory of scientific chemical manuring in one paragraph. We have already seen that the soil contains within itself some available plant food. We can determine by chemical analysis the exact amounts of the various plant foods--nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, etc.--which a crop of any vegetable will remove from the soil. The idea in scientific chemical manuring is to add to the available plant foods already in the soil just enough more to make the resulting amounts equal to the quantities of the various elements used by the crop grown. In other words: ) Available plant food elements in ( the soil, plus > == Amounts of food elements Available chemical food elements ( in matured crop supplied in fertilizers ) That was the theory--a very pretty and profound one! The discoverers of it imagined that all agriculture would be revolutionized; all farm and garden practice reduced to an exact science; all older theories of husbandry and tillage thrown by the heels together upon the scrap heap of outworn things. Science was to solve at one fell swoop all the age- old problems of agriculture. And the whole thing was all right in every way but one--it didn't work. The unwelcome and obdurate fact remained that a certain number of pounds of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash--about thirty-three--in a ton of good manure would grow bigger crops than would the same number of pounds of the same elements in a bag of chemical fertilizer. Nevertheless this theory, while it failed as the basis of an exact agricultural science, has been developed into an invaluable guide for using all manures, and especially concentrated chemical manures. And the above facts, if I have presented them clearly, will assist the home gardener in solving the fertilizer problems which he is sure to encounter. VARIOUS FERTILIZERS What are termed the raw materials from which the universally known "mixed fertilizers" are made up, are organic or inorganic substances which contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid or potash in fairly definite amounts. Some of these can be used to advantage by themselves. Those practical for use by the home gardener, I mention. The special uses to which they are adapted will be mentioned in Part Two, under the vegetables for which they are valuable. GROUND BONE is rich in phosphate and lasts a long time; what is called "raw bone" is the best "Bone dust" or "bone flour" is finely pulverized; it will produce quick results, but does not last as long as the coarser forms. COTTON-SEED MEAL is one of the best nitrogenous fertilizers for garden crops. It is safer than nitrate of soda in the hands of the inexperienced gardener, and decays very quickly in the soil. PERUVIAN GUANO, in the pure form, is now practically out of the market. Lower grades, less rich in nitrogen especially, are to be had; and also "fortified" guano, in which chemicals are added to increase the content of nitrogen. It is good for quick results. NITRATE OF SODA, when properly handled, frequently produces wonderful results in the garden, particularly upon quick-growing crops. It is the richest in nitrogen of any chemical generally used, and a great stimulant to plant growth. When used alone it is safest to mix with an equal bulk of light dirt or some other filler. If applied pure, be sure to observe the following rules or you may burn your plants: (1) Pulverize all lumps; (2) see that none of it lodges upon the foliage; (3) never apply when there is moisture upon the plants; (4) apply in many small doses--say 10 to 20 pounds at a time for 50 x 100 feet of garden. It should be put on so sparingly as to be barely visible; but its presence will soon be denoted by the moist spot, looking like a big rain drop, which each particle of it makes in the dry soil. Nitrate of soda may also be used safely in solution, at the rate of 1 pound to 12 gallons of water. I describe its use thus at length because I consider it the most valuable single chemical which the gardener has at command. MURIATE and SULPHATE OF POTASH are also used by themselves as sources of potash, but as a general thing it will be best to use them in combination with other chemicals as described under "Home Mixing." LIME will be of benefit to most soils. It acts largely as an indirect fertilizer, helping to release other food elements already in the soil, but in non-available forms. It should be applied once in three to five years, at the rate of 75 to 100 bushels per acre, after plowing, and thoroughly harrowed in. Apply as long before planting as possible, or in the fall. MIXED FERTILIZERS Mixed fertilizers are of innumerable brands, and for sale everywhere. It is little use to pay attention to the claims made for them. Even where the analysis is guaranteed, the ordinary gardener has no way of knowing that the contents of his few bags are what they are labeled. The best you can do, however, is to buy on the basis of analysis, not of price per ton--usually the more you pay per bag, the cheaper you are really buying your actual plant food. Send to the Experiment Station in your State and ask for the last bulletin on fertilizer values. It will give a list of the brands sold throughout the State, the retail price per ton, and the actual value of plant foods contained in a ton. Then buy the brand in which you will apparently get the greatest value. For garden crops the mixed fertilizer you use should contain (about): ) Nitrogen, 4 per cent. ( Basic formula Phosphoric acid, 8 per cent. > == for Potash, 10 per cent. ( Garden crops ) If applied alone, use at the rate of 1000 to 1500 pounds per acre. If with manure, less, in proportion to the amount of the latter used. By "basic formula" (see above) is meant one which contains the plant foods in the proportion which all garden crops must have. Particular crops may need additional amounts of one or more of the three elements, in order to attain their maximum growth. Such extra feeding is usually supplied by top dressings, during the season of growth. The extra food beneficial to the different vegetables will be mentioned in the cultural directions in Part Two. HOME MIXING If you look over the Experiment Station report mentioned above, you will notice that what are called "home mixtures" almost invariably show a higher value compared to the cost than any regular brand. In some cases the difference is fifty per cent. This means that you can buy the raw chemicals and make up your own mixtures cheaper than you can buy mixed fertilizers. More than that, it means you will have purer mixtures. More than that, it means you will have on hand the materials for giving your crops the special feeding mentioned above. The idea widely prevails, thanks largely to the fertilizer companies, that home mixing cannot be practically done, especially upon a small scale. From both information and personal experience I know the contrary to be the case. With a tight floor or platform, a square-pointed shovel and a coarse wire screen, there is absolutely nothing impractical about it. The important thing is to see that all ingredients are evenly and thoroughly mixed. A scale for weighing will also be a convenience. Further information may be had from the firms which sell raw materials, or from your Experiment Station. APPLYING MANURES The matter of properly applying manure, even on the small garden, is also of importance. In amount, from fifteen to twenty-five cords, or 60 to 100 cartloads, will not be too much; although if fertilizers are used to help out, the manure may be decreased in proportion. If possible, take it from the heap in which it has been rotting, and spread evenly over the soil immediately before plowing. If actively fermenting, it will lose by being exposed to wind and sun. If green, or in cold weather, it may be spread and left until plowing is done. When plowing, it should be completely covered under, or it will give all kinds of trouble in sowing and cultivating. Fertilizers should be applied, where used to supplement manure or in place of it, at from 500 to 1500 pounds per acre, according to grade and other conditions. It is sown on broadcast, after plowing, care being taken to get it evenly distributed. This may be assured by sowing half while going across the piece, and the other half while going lengthwise of it. When used as a starter, or for top dressings--as mentioned in connection with the basic formula--it may be put in the hill or row at time of planting, or applied on the surface and worked in during the growth of the plants. In either case, especially with highly concentrated chemicals, care must be taken to mix them thoroughly with the soil and to avoid burning the tender roots. This chapter is longer than I wanted to make it, but the problem of how best to enrich the soil is the most difficult one in the whole business of gardening, and the degree of your success in growing vegetables will be measured pretty much by the extent to which you master it. You cannot do it at one reading. Re-read this chapter, and when you understand the several subjects mentioned, in the brief way which limited space made necessary, pursue them farther in one of the several comprehensive books on the subject. It will well repay all the time you spend upon it. Because, from necessity, there has been so much of theory mixed up with the practical in this chapter, I shall very briefly recapitulate the directions for just what to do, in order that the subject of manuring may be left upon the same practical basis governing the rest of the book. To make your garden rich enough to grow big crops, buy the most thoroughly worked over and decomposed manure you can find. If it is from grain-fed animals, and if pigs have run on it, it will be better yet. If possible, buy enough to put on at the rate of about twenty cords to the acre; if not, supplement the manure, which should be plowed under, with 500 to 1500 pounds of high-grade mixed fertilizer (analyzing nitrogen four per cent., phosphoric acid eight per cent., potash ten per cent.)--the quantity in proportion to the amount of manure used, and spread on broadcast after plowing and thoroughly harrowed in. In addition to this general enrichment of the soil, suitable quantities of nitrate of soda, for nitrogen; bone dust (or acid phosphate), for phosphoric acid; and sulphate of potash, for potash, should be bought for later dressings, as suggested in cultural directions for the various crops. If the instructions in the above paragraph are followed out you may rest assured that your vegetables will not want for plant food and that, if other conditions are favorable, you will have maximum crops. CHAPTER VII THE SOIL AND ITS PREPARATION Having considered, as thoroughly as the limited space available permitted, the matter of plant foods, we must proceed to the equally important one of how properly to set the table, on or rather in, which they must be placed, before the plants can use them. As was noted in the first part of the preceding chapter, most tillable soils contain the necessary plant food elements to a considerable extent, but only in a very limited degree in _available_ forms. They are locked up in the soil larder, and only after undergoing physical and chemical changes may be taken up by the feeding roots of plants. They are unlocked only by the disintegration and decomposition of the soil particles, under the influence of cultivation--or mechanical breaking up--and the access of water, air and heat. The great importance of the part the soil must play in every garden operation is therefore readily seen. In the first place, it is required to furnish all the plant food elements--some seven in number, beside the three, nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash, already mentioned. In the second, it must hold the moisture in which these foods must be either dissolved or suspended before plant roots can take them up. The soil is naturally classified in two ways: first, as to the amount of plant food contained; second, as to its mechanical condition--the relative proportions of sand, decomposed stone and clay, of which it is made up, and also the degree to which it has been broken up by cultivation. The approximate amount of available plant food already contained in the soil can be determined satisfactorily only by experiment. As before stated, however, almost without exception they will need liberal manuring to produce good garden crops. I shall therefore not go further into the first classification of soils mentioned. Of soils, according to their variation in mechanical texture, I shall mention only the three which the home gardener is likely to encounter. Rocks are the original basis of all soils, and according to the degree of fineness to which they have been reduced, through centuries of decomposition by air, moisture and frost, they are known as gravelly, sandy or clayey soils. CLAY SOILS are stiff, wet, heavy and usually "cold." For garden purposes, until properly transformed, they hold too much water, are difficult to handle, and are "late." But even if there be no choice but a clay soil for the home garden, the gardener need not be discouraged. By proper treatment it may be brought into excellent condition for growing vegetables, and will produce some sorts, such as celery, better than any warm, light, "garden" soil. The first thing to do with the clay soil garden, is to have it thoroughly drained. For the small amount of ground usually required for a home garden, this will entail no great expense. Under ordinary conditions, a half-acre garden could be under-drained for from $25 to $50--probably nearer the first figure. The drains--round drain tile, with collars--should be placed at least three feet deep, and if they can be put four, it will be much better. The lines should be, for the former depth, twenty to thirty feet apart, according to character of the soil; if four feet deep, they will accomplish just as much if put thirty to fifty feet apart--so it pays to put them in deep. For small areas 2-1/2-inch land tile will do. The round style gives the best satisfaction and will prove cheapest in the end. The outlet should of course be at the lowest point of land, and all drains, main and laterals, should fall slightly, but without exception, toward this point. Before undertaking to put in the drains, even on a small area, it will pay well to read some good book on the subject, such as Draining for Profit and Draining for Health, by Waring. But drain--if your land requires it. It will increase the productiveness of your garden at least 50 to 100 per cent.--and such an increase, as you can readily see, will pay a very handsome annual dividend on the cost of draining. Moreover, the draining system, if properly put in, will practically never need renewal. On land that has a stiff or clay sub-soil, it will pay well to break this up--thus making it more possible for the water to soak down through the surface soil rapidly--by using the sub-soil plow. (See Chapter V.) The third way to improve clay soils is by using coarse vegetable manures, large quantities of stable, manures, ashes, chips, sawdust, sand, or any similar materials, which will tend to break up and lighten the soil mechanically. Lime and land plaster are also valuable, as they cause chemical changes which tend to break up clayey soils. The fourth thing to do in treating a garden of heavy soil is to plow, ridging up as much as possible, in the fall, thus leaving the soil exposed to the pulverizing influences of weather and frost. Usually it will not need replowing in the spring. If not plowed until the spring, care should be taken not to plow until it has dried out sufficiently to crumble from the plow, instead of making a wet, pasty furrow. The owner of a clayey garden has one big consolation. It will not let his plant food go to waste. It will hold manures and fertilizers incorporated with it longer than any other soil. SANDY SOIL is, as the term implies, composed largely of sand, and is the reverse of clay soil. So, also, with the treatment. It should be so handled as to be kept as compact as possible. The use of a heavy roller, as frequently as possible, will prove very beneficial. Sowing or planting should follow immediately after plowing, and fertilizers or manures should be applied only immediately before. If clay soil is obtainable nearby, a small area of sandy soil, such as is required for the garden, can be made into excellent soil by the addition of the former, applied as you would manure. Plow the garden in the fall and spread the clay soil on evenly, harrowing in with a disc in the spring. The result will be as beneficial as that of an equal dressing of good manure--and will be permanent. It is one of the valuable qualities of lime, and also of gypsum to even a greater extent, that while it helps a clay soil, it is equally valuable for a sandy one. The same is true of ashes and of the organic manures--especially of green manuring. Fertilizers, on sandy soils, where they will not long be retained, should be applied only immediately before planting, or as top and side dressing during growth. Sandy soil in the garden will produce early and quick results, and is especially adapted to melons, cucumbers, beans and a number of the other garden vegetables. GRAVELLY SOIL is generally less desirable than either of the others; it has the bad qualities of sandy soil and not the good ones of clay, besides being poorer in plant food. (Calcareous, or limestone pebble, soils are an exception, but they are not widely encountered.) They are not suited for garden work, as tillage harms rather than helps them. THE IDEAL GARDEN SOIL is what is known as a "rich, sandy loam," at least eight inches deep; if it is eighteen it will be better. It contains the proper proportions of both sand and clay, and further has been put into the best of mechanical condition by good tilth. That last word brings us to a new and very important matter. "In good tilth" is a condition of the soil difficult to describe, but a state that the gardener comes soon to recognize. Ground, continually and _properly cultivated_, comes soon to a degree of fineness and lightness at once recognizable. Rain is immediately absorbed by it, and does not stand upon the surface; it does not readily clog or pack down; it is crumbly and easily worked; and until your garden is brought to this condition you cannot attain the greatest success from your efforts. I emphasized "properly cultivated." That means that the soil must be kept well supplied with humus, or decomposed vegetable matter, either by the application of sufficient quantities of organic manures, or by green manuring, or by "resting under grass," which produces a similar result from the amount of roots and stubble with which the soil is filled when the sod is broken up. Only by this supply of humus can the garden be kept in that light, friable, spongy condition which is absolutely essential to luxuriant vegetable growth. PREPARING THE SOIL Unless your garden be a very small one indeed, it will pay to have it plowed rather than dug up by hand. If necessary, arrange the surrounding fence as suggested in the accompanying diagram, to make possible the use of a horse for plowing and harrowing. (As suggested in the chapter on Implements), if there is not room for a team, the one- horse plow, spring-tooth and spike-tooth cultivators, can do the work in very small spaces. If however the breaking up of the garden must be done by hand, have it done deeply--down to the sub-soil, or as deep as the spading-fork will go. And have it done thoroughly, every spadeful turned completely and every inch dug. It is hard work, but it must not be slighted. PLOWING If the garden can be plowed in the fall, by all means have it done. If it is in sod, it must be done at that time if good results are to be secured the following season. In this latter case, plow a shallow furrow four to six inches deep and turning flat, as early as possible in the fall, turning under a coating of horse manure, or dressing of lime, and then going over it with a smoothing-harrow or the short blades of the Acme, to fill in all crevices. The object of the plowing is to get the sods rotted thoroughly before the following spring; then apply manure and plow deeply, six to twelve inches, according to the soil. Where the old garden is to be plowed up, if there has not been time to get in one of the cover crops suggested elsewhere in this text, plow as late as possible, and in ridges. If the soil is light and sandy, fall plowing will not be advisable. In beginning the spring work it is customary to put on the manure and plow but once. But the labor of double plowing will be well repaid, especially on a soil likely to suffer from drouth, if the ground be plowed once, deeply, before the manure is spread on, and then cross- plowed just sufficiently to turn the manure well under--say five or six inches. On stiff lands, and especially for root crops, it will pay if possible to have the sub-soil plow follow the regular plow. This is, of course, for thoroughly rotted and fined manure; if coarse, it had better be put under at one plowing, making the best of a handicap. If you have arranged to have your garden plowed "by the job," be on hand to see that no shirking is done, by taking furrows wider than the plow can turn completely; it is possible to "cut and cover" so that the surface of a piece will look well enough, when in reality it is little better than half plowed. HARROWING That is the first step toward the preparation of a successful garden out of the way. Next comes the harrowing; if the soil after plowing is at all stiff and lumpy, get a disc-harrow if you can; on clayey soils a "cut-a-way" (see Implements). On the average garden soil, however, the Acme will do the work of pulverizing in fine shape. If, even after harrowing, the soil remains lumpy, have the man who is doing your work get a horse-roller somewhere, and go over the piece with that. The roller should be used also on very sandy and light soils, after the first harrowing (or after the plowing, if the land turns over mellow) to compact it. To follow the first harrowing (or the roller) use a smoothing-harrow, the Acme set shallow, or a "brush." FINING. This treatment will reduce to a minimum the labor of finally preparing the seed- or plant-bed with the iron rake (or, on large gardens, with the Meeker harrow). After the finishing touches, the soil should be left so even and smooth that you can with difficulty bring yourself to step on it. Get it "like a table"--and then you are ready to begin gardening. Whatever implements are used, do not forget the great importance of making the soil thoroughly fine, not only at the surface, but as far as possible below Even under the necessity of repetition. I want to emphasize this again by stating the four chief benefits, of this thorough pulverization: First, it adds materially in making the plant foods in the soil available for use; secondly, it induces the growing plants to root deeply, and thus to a greater extent to escape the drying influence of the sun; thirdly, it enables the soil to absorb rain evenly, where it falls, which would otherwise either run off and be lost altogether, or collect in the lower parts of the garden; and last, and most important, it enables the soil to retain moisture thus stored, as in a subterranean storage tank, but where the plants can draw upon it, long after carelessly prepared and shallow soils are burning up in the long protracted drouths which we seem to be increasingly certain of getting during the late summer. Prepare your garden deeply, thoroughly, carefully, in addition to making it rich, and you may then turn to those more interesting operations outlined in the succeeding sections, with the well founded assurance that your thought and labor will be rewarded by a garden so remarkably more successful than the average garden is, that all your extra pains-taking will be richly repaid. Part Two--Vegetables CHAPTER VIII. STARTING THE PLANTS This beautifully prepared garden spot--or rather the plant food in it-- is to be transformed into good things for your table, through the ever wonderful agency of plant growth. The thread of life inhering in the tiniest seed, in the smallest plant, is the magic wand that may transmute the soil's dull metal into the gold of flower and fruit. All the thought, care and expense described in the preceding chapters are but to get ready for the two things from which your garden is to spring, in ways so deeply hidden that centuries of the closest observation have failed to reveal their inner workings. Those two are seeds and plants. (The sticklers for technical exactness will here take exception, calling our attention to tubers, bulbs, corns and numerous other taverns where plant life puts up over night, between growth and growth, but for our present purpose we need not mind them.) The plants which you put out in your garden will have been started under glass from seed, so that, indirectly, everything depends on the seed. Good seeds, and true, you must have if your garden is to attain that highest success which should be our aim. Seeds vary greatly--very much more so than the beginner has any conception of. There are three essentials; if seeds fail in any one of them, they will be rendered next to useless. First, they must be true; selected from good types of stock and true to name; then they must have been good, strong, plump seeds, full of life and gathered from healthy plants; and finally, they must be fresh. [Footnote: See table later this chapter] It is therefore of vital importance that you procure the best seeds that can be had, regardless of cost. Poor seeds are dear at any price; you cannot afford to accept them as a gift. It is, of course, impossible to give a rule by which to buy good seed, but the following suggestions will put you on the safe track. First, purchase only of some reliable mail-order house; do not be tempted, either by convenience or cheapness, to buy the gaily lithographed packets displayed in grocery and hardware stores at planting time--as a rule they are not reliable; and what you want for your good money is good seed, not cheap ink. Second, buy of seedsmen who make a point of growing and testing their own seed. Third, to begin with, buy from several houses and weed out to the one which proves, by actual results, to be the most reliable. Another good plan is to purchase seed of any particular variety from the firm that makes a leading specialty of it; in many cases these specialties have been introduced by these firms and they grow their own supplies of these seeds; they will also be surer of being true to name and type. Good plants are, in proportion to the amounts used, just as important as good seed--and of course you cannot afford losing weeks of garden usefulness by growing entirely from seed sown out-doors. Beets, cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce, tomatoes, peppers, egg-plant, and for really efficient gardening, also onions, corn, melons, celery, lima beans, cucumbers, and squash, will all begin their joyous journey toward the gardener's table several weeks before they get into the garden at all. They will all be started under glass and have attained a good, thrifty, growing size before they are placed in the soil we have been so carefully preparing for them. It is next to impossible to describe a "good" vegetable plant, but he who gardens will come soon to distinguish between the healthy, short-jointed, deep-colored plant which is ready to take hold and grow, and the soft, flabby (or too succulent) drawn-up growth of plants which have been too much pampered, or dwarfed, weazened specimens which have been abused and starved; he will learn that a dozen of the former will yield more than fifty of the latter. Plants may be bought of the florist or market gardener. If so, they should be personally selected, some time ahead, and gotten some few days before needed for setting out, so that you may be sure to have them properly "hardened off," and in the right degree of moisture, for transplanting, as will be described later. By far the more satisfactory way, however, is to grow them yourself. You can then be sure of having the best of plants in exactly the quantities and varieties you want. They will also be on hand when conditions are just right for setting them out. For the ordinary garden, all the plants needed may be started successfully in hotbeds and cold-frames. The person who has had no experience with these has usually an exaggerated idea of their cost and of the skill required to manage them. The skill is not as much a matter of expert knowledge as of careful regular care, daily. Only a few minutes a day, for a few sash, but every day. The cost need be but little, especially if one is a bit handy with tools. The sash which serves for the cover, and is removable, is the important part of the structure. Sash may be had, ready glazed and painted, at from $2.50 to $3.50 each, and with care they will last ten or even twenty years, so you can see at once that not a very big increase in the yield of your garden will be required to pay interest on the investment. Or you can buy the sash unglazed, at a proportionately lower price, and put the glass in yourself, if you prefer to spend a little more time and less money. However, if you are not familiar with the work, and want only a few sash, I would advise purchasing the finished article. In size they are three feet by six. Frames upon which to put the sash covering may also be bought complete, but here there is a chance to save money by constructing your own frames--the materials required, being 2x4 in. lumber for posts, and inch-boards; or better, if you can easily procure them, plank 2 x 12 in. So far as these materials go the hotbed and coldframe are alike. The difference is that while the coldframe depends for its warmth upon catching and holding the heat of the sun's rays, the hotbed is artificially heated by fermenting manure, or in rare instances, by hot water or steam pipes. In constructing the hotbed there are two methods used; either by placing the frames on top of the manure heap or by putting the manure within the frames. The first method has the advantage of permitting the hotbed to be made upon frozen ground, when required in the spring. The latter, which is the better, must be built before the ground freezes, but is more economical of manure. The manure in either case should be that of grain-fed horses, and if a small amount of straw bedding, or leaves--not more, however, than one-third of the latter--be mixed among it, so much the better. Get this manure several days ahead of the time wanted for use and prepare by stacking in a compact, tramped-down heap. Turn it over after three or four days, and re-stack, being careful to put the former top and sides of the pile now on the inside. Having now ready the heating apparatus and the superstructure of our miniature greenhouse, the building of it is a very simple matter. If the ground is frozen, spread the manure in a low, flat heap--nine or ten feet side, a foot and a half deep, and as long as the number of sash to be used demands--a cord of manure thus furnishing a bed for about three sash, not counting for the ends of the string or row. This heap should be well trodden down and upon it should be placed or built the box or frame upon which the sash are to rest. In using this method it will be more convenient to have the frame made up beforehand and ready to place upon the manure, as shown in one of the illustrations. This should be at least twelve inches high at the front and some half a foot higher at the back. Fill in with at least four inches--better six --of good garden soil containing plenty of humus, that it may allow water to soak through readily. The other method is to construct the frames on the ground before severe freezing, and in this case the front should be at least twenty-four inches high, part of which--not more than half--may be below the ground level. The 2 x 12 in. planks, when used, are handled as follows: stakes are driven in to support the back plank some two or three inches above the ground,--which should, of course, be level. The front plank is sunk two or three inches into the ground and held upright by stakes on the outside, nailed on. Remove enough dirt from inside the frame to bank up the planks about halfway on the outside. When this banking has frozen to a depth of two or three inches, cover with rough manure or litter to keep frost from striking through. The manure for heating should be prepared as above and put in to the depth of a foot, trodden down, first removing four to six inches of soil to be put back on top of the manure,--a cord of the latter, in this case, serving seven sashes. The vegetable to be grown, and the season and climate, will determine the depth of manure required--it will be from one to two feet,--the latter depth seldom being necessary. It must not be overlooked that this manure, when spent for heating purposes, is still as good as ever to enrich the garden, so that the expense of putting it in and removing it from the frames is all that you can fairly charge up against your experiment with hotbeds, if you are interested to know whether they really pay. The exposure for the hotbeds should be where the sun will strike most directly and where they will be sheltered from the north. Put up a fence of rough boards, five or six feet high, or place the frames south of some building. The coldframe is constructed practically as in the hotbed, except that if manure is used at all it is for the purpose of enriching the soil where lettuce, radishes, cucumbers or other crops are to be grown to maturity in it. If one can put up even a very small frame greenhouse, it will be a splendid investment both for profit and for pleasure. The cost is lower than is generally imagined, where one is content with a home-made structure. Look into it. PREPARING THE SOIL All this may seem like a lot of trouble to go to for such a small thing as a packet of seed. In reality it is not nearly so much trouble as it sounds, and then, too, this is for the first season only, a well built frame lasting for years--forever, if you want to take a little more time and make it of concrete instead of boards. But now that the frame is made, how to use it is the next question. The first consideration must be the soil. It should be rich, light, friable. There are some garden loams that will do well just as taken up, but as a rule better results will be obtained where the soil is made up specially as follows: rotted sods two parts, old rotted manure one part, and enough coarse sand added to make the mixture fine and crumbly, so that, even when moist, it will fall apart when pressed into a ball in the hand. Such soil is best prepared by cutting out sod, in the summer, where the grass is green and thick, indicating a rich soil. Along old fences or the roadside where the wash has settled will be good places to get limited quantities. Those should be cut with considerable soil and stacked, grassy sides together, in layers in a compost pile. If the season proves very dry, occasionally soak the heap through. In late fall put in the cellar, or wherever solid freezing will not take place, enough to serve for spring work under glass. The amount can readily be calculated; soil for three sash, four inches deep, for instance, would take eighteen feet or a pile three feet square and two feet high. The fine manure (and sand, if necessary) may be added in the fall or when using in the spring. Here again it may seem to the amateur that unnecessary pains are being taken. I can but repeat what has been suggested all through this book, that it will require but little more work to do the thing the best way as long as one is doing it at all, and the results will be not only better, but practically certain--and that is a tremendously important point about all gardening operations. SOWING THE SEED Having now our frames provided and our soil composed properly and good strong tested seed on hand, we are prepared to go about the business of growing our plants with a practical certainty of success--a much more comfortable feeling than if, because something or other had been but half done, we must anxiously await results and the chances of having the work we had put into the thing go, after all, for nothing. The seed may be sown either directly in the soil or in "flats." Flats are made as follows: Get from your grocer a number of cracker boxes, with the tops. Saw the boxes lengthwise into sections, a few two inches deep and the rest three. One box will make four or five such sections, for two of which bottoms will be furnished by the bottom and top of the original box. Another box of the same size, knocked apart, will furnish six bottoms more to use for the sections cut from the middle of the box. The bottoms of all, if tight, should have, say, five three- quarter-inch holes bored in them to allow any surplus water to drain off from the soil. The shallow flats may be used for starting the seed and the three-inch ones for transplanting. Where sowing but a small quantity of each variety of seed, the flats will be found much more convenient than sowing directly in the soil--and in the case of their use, of course, the soil on top of the manure need be but two or three inches deep and not especially prepared. Where the seed is to go directly into the frames, the soil described above is, of course, used. But when in flats, to be again transplanted, the soil for the first sowing will be better for having no manure in it, the idea being to get the hardest, stockiest growth possible. Soil for the flats in which the seeds are to be planted should be, if possible, one part sod, one part chip dirt or leaf mould, and one part sand. The usual way of handling the seed flats is to fill each about one- third full of rough material--screenings, small cinders or something similar--and then fill the box with the prepared earth, which should first be finely sifted. This, after the seeds are sown, should be copiously watered--with a fine rose spray, or if one has not such, through a folded bag to prevent the washing of the soil. Here is another way which I have used recently and, so far, with one hundred per cent, certainty of results. Last fall, when every bit of soil about my place was ash dry, and I had occasion to start immediately some seeds that were late in reaching me, my necessity mothered the following invention, an adaptation of the principle of sub-irrigation. To have filled the flats in the ordinary way would not have done, as it would have been impossible ever to wet the soil through without making a solid mud cake of it, in which seeds would have stood about as good a chance of doing anything as though not watered at all. I filled the flats one-third full of sphagnum moss, which was soaked, then to within half an inch of the top with soil, which was likewise soaked, and did not look particularly inviting. The flats were then filled level-full of the dust-dry soil, planted, and put in partial shade. Within half a day the surface soil had come to just the right degree of moisture, soaked up from below, and there was in a few days more a perfect stand of seedlings. I have used this method in starting all my seedlings this spring--some forty thousand, so far--only using soil screenings, mostly small pieces of decayed sod, in place of the moss and giving a very light watering in the surface to make it compact and to swell the seed at once. Two such flats are shown [ED., unable to recreate in typed format], just ready to transplant. The seedlings illustrated in the upper flat had received just two waterings since being planted. Where several hundred or more plants of each variety are wanted, sow the seed broadcast as evenly as possible and fairly thick--one ounce of cabbage, for instance, to three to five 13 x 19 inch flats. If but a few dozen, or a hundred, are wanted, sow in rows two or three inches apart, being careful to label each correctly. Before sowing, the soil should be pressed firmly into the corners of the flats and leveled off perfectly smooth with a piece of board or shingle. Press the seed evenly into the soil with a flat piece of board, cover it lightly, one- eighth to one-quarter inch, with sifted soil, press down barely enough to make smooth, and water with a very fine spray, or through burlap. For the next two days the flats can go on a pretty hot surface, if one is available, such as hot water or steam pipes, or top of a boiler, but if these are not convenient, directly into the frame, where the temperature should be kept as near as possible to that indicated in the following table. In from two to twelve days, according to temperature and variety, the little seedlings will begin to appear. In case the soil has not been made quite friable enough, they will sometimes "raise the roof" instead of breaking through. If so, see that the surface is broken up at once, with the fingers and a careful watering, as otherwise many of the little plants may become bent and lanky in a very short time. From now on until they are ready to transplant, a period of some three or four weeks, is the time when they will most readily be injured by neglect. There are things you will have to look out for, and your attention must be regular to the matters of temperature, ventilation and moisture. VEGETABLE DATE TO SOW SEED WILL BEST TEMPERATURE TO KEEP GERMINATE (ABOUT) (ABOUT) Beets Feb. 15-Apr. 1 5 years 55 degrees Broccoli Feb. 15-Apr. 1 5 years 55 degrees Brussels Sprouts Feb. 15-Apr. 1 7 years 55 degrees Cabbage Feb. 1-Apr. 1 7 years 55 degrees Cauliflower Feb. 1-Apr. 1 7 years 55 degrees Celery Feb. 15-Apr. 1 8 years 50 degrees Corn Apr. 1-May 1 2 years 65 degrees Cucumber Mar. 15-May 1 10 years 75 degrees Egg-plant Mar. 1-Apr. 15 7 years 75 degrees Kohlrabi Mar. 1-Apr. 1 7 years 55 degrees Lettuce Feb. 15-Apr. 1 5 years 55 degrees Melon, musk Apr. 1-May 1 7 years 75 degrees Melon, water Apr. 1-May 1 7 years 75 degrees Okra Mar. 15-Apr. 15 3 years 65 degrees Onion Jan. 15-Mar. 15 3 years 50 degrees Pepper Mar. 1-Apr. 15 5 years 75 degrees Squash Mar. 15-Apr. 15 7 years 75 degrees Tomato Mar. 1-Apr. 15 5 years 75 degrees The temperatures required by the different varieties will be indicated by the table above. It should be kept as nearly as possible within ten degrees lower and fifteen higher (in the sun) than given. If the nights are still cold, so that the mercury goes near zero, it will be necessary to provide mats or shutters (see illustrations) to cover the glass at night. Or, better still, for the few earliest frames, have double-glass sash, the dead-air space making further protection unnecessary. VENTILATION: On all days when the temperature within the frame runs up to sixty to eighty degrees, according to variety, give air, either by tilting the sash up at the end or side, and holding in position with a notched stick; or, if the outside temperature permits, strip the glass off altogether. WATERING: Keep a close watch upon the conditions of the soil, especially if you are using flats instead of planting directly in the soil. Wait until it is fairly dry--never until the plants begin to wilt, however--and then give a thorough soaking, all the soil will absorb. If at all possible do this only in the morning (up to eleven o'clock) on a bright sunny day. Plants in the seedling state are subject to "damping off"--a sudden disease of the stem tissue just at or below the soil, which either kills the seedlings outright, or renders them worthless. Some authorities claim that the degree of moisture or dampness has nothing to do with this trouble. I am not prepared to contradict them, but as far as my own experience goes I am satisfied that the drier the stems and leaves can be kept, so long as the soil is in good condition, the better. I consider this one of the advantages of the "sub-irrigation" method of preparing the seed flats, described above. TRANSPLANTING: Under this care the little seedlings will come along rapidly. When the second true leaf is forming they will be ready for transplanting or "pricking off," as it is termed in garden parlance. If the plants are at all crowded in the boxes, this should be done just as soon as they are ready, as otherwise they will be injured by crowding and more likely to damp off. Boxes similar to the seed-flats, but an inch deeper, are provided for transplanting. Fill these with soil as described for frames--sifted through a coarse screen (chicken-wire size) and mixed with one-third rotted manure. Or place an inch of manure, which must be so thoroughly rotted that most of the heat has left, in the bottom, and fill in with soil. Find or construct a table or bench of convenient height, upon which to work. With a flat piece of stick or one of the types of transplanting forks lift from the seedling box a clump of seedlings, dirt and all, clear to the bottom. Hold this clump in one hand and with the other gently tear away the seedlings, one at a time, discarding all crooked or weak ones. Never attempt to pull the seedlings from the soil in the flats, as the little rootlets are very easily broken off. They should come away almost intact. Water your seed-flats the day previous to transplanting, so that the soil will be in just the right condition, neither wet enough to make the roots sticky nor dry enough to crumble away. Take the little seedling by the stem between thumb and forefinger, and with a small round pointed stick or dibber, or with the forefinger of the other hand, make a hole to receive the roots and about half the length--more if the seedlings are lanky--of the stem. As the seedling drops into place, the tips of both thumbs and forefingers, by one quick, firm movement, compress the earth firmly both down on the roots and against the stem, so that the plant sticks up firmly and may not be readily pulled out. Of course there is a knack about it which cannot be put into words--I could have pricked off a hundred seedlings in the time I am spending in trying to describe the operation, but a little practice will make one reasonably efficient at it. In my own work this spring, I have applied the "sub-irrigation" idea to this operation also. The manure placed in the bottom of the boxes is thoroughly watered and an inch of soil put in and watered also, and the box then filled and the plants pricked in. By preparing a number of flats at one time, but little additional work is required, and the results have convinced me that the extra trouble is well worth while. Of the early cabbage and cauliflower, not two plants in a thousand have dropped out. Ordinarily about one hundred plants are put in a 13 x 19 inch flat, but if one has room and is growing only a few plants for home use, somewhat better plants may be had if fifty or seventy-five are put in. In either case keep the outside rows close to the edges of the flats, as they will have plenty of room anyway. When the flat is completed, jar the box slightly to level the surface, and give a thorough watering at once, being careful, however, to bend down the plants as little as possible. Set the flats close together on a level surface, and, if the weather is bright, shade from the sun during the middle of the day for two or three days. From now on keep at the required temperature and water thoroughly on bright mornings as often as the soil in the flats gets on the dry side, as gardeners say--indicated by the whitening and crusting of the surface. Above all, give all the air possible while maintaining the necessary temperature. The quality of the plants will depend more upon this than anything else in the way of care. Whenever the temperature allows, strip off the sash and let the plants have the benefit of the rains. A good rain seems to do them more good than any watering. Should your plants of cabbage, lettuce, beets or cauliflower by any chance get frozen, do not give them up for lost, for the chances are that the following simple treatment will pull them through: In the first place, shade them thoroughly from the sun; in the second, drench them with cold water, the coldest you can get--if you have to break the ice for it, so much the better. Try, however, to prevent its happening again, as they will be less able to resist subsequent injury. In hot weather, where watering and ventilation are neglected, the plants will sometimes become infested with the green aphis, which under such conditions multiplies with almost incredible rapidity. HARDENING OFF: For five days or a week before setting plants in the field they should be thoroughly hardened off. If they have been given plenty of air this treatment will mean little change for them--simply exposing them more each day, until for a few nights they are left entirely without protection. They will then be ready for setting out in the open, an operation which is described in the next chapter. STARTING PLANTS OUTSIDE Much of the above is applicable also to the starting of plants out-of- doors, for second and for succession crops, such as celery and late cabbage. Select for the outside seed-bed the most thoroughly pulverized spot to be found, enriched and lightened with fine manure. Mark off rows a foot apart, and to the necessary depth; sow the seed evenly; firm in if the soil is dry, cover lightly with the back of the rake and roll or smooth with the back of the spade, or of a hoe, along the drills. The seed, according to variety, will begin to push through in from four to twenty days. At all times keep the seed-bed clear of weeds; and keep the soil between the rows constantly cultivated. Not unless it is very dry will watering be necessary, but if it is required, give a thorough soaking toward evening. As the cabbage, celery and similar plants come along it will add to their sturdiness and stockiness to shear off the tops--about half of the large leaves--once or twice after the plants have attained a height of about six inches. If the precautions concerning seed and soil which I have given are heeded and the details of the work of planting, transplanting and care are carried out, planting time (April) will find the prospective gardener with a supply of good, stocky, healthy plants on hand, and impatient to get them into that carefully prepared garden spot. All of this work has been--or should have been--interesting, but that which follows in the next chapter is more so. CHAPTER IX SOWING AND PLANTING The importance of having good seeds has already been declared. They must not only grow, but grow into what we have bought them for--be true to name. Without the latter quality we cannot be sure of good gardens, and without the former they will not be full ones. A meagre "stand" from seeds properly sown is a rather exasperating and discouraging experience to encounter. The cost for fertilizing and preparing the land is just as much, and the cost of cultivating very nearly as much, when the rows are full of thrifty plants or strung out with poor ones. Whether you use ten cents' worth or ten dollars' worth, the best seed to be had will be the most economical to buy--to say nothing of the satisfaction that full rows give. And yet good seedsmen are more thoughtlessly and unjustly abused in the matter of seed vitality than in any other. Inexperienced gardeners seem universally to have the conviction that the only thing required in seed sowing is to cover the seed with soil. What sort of soil it is, or in what condition, or at what depth or temperature the seed is planted, are questions about which they do not trouble themselves to think. Two conditions--moisture and warmth--are necessary to induce germination of seeds, no matter how full of life they may be; and as was shown in the preceding chapter the different varieties have some choice as to the degree of each, especially of temperature. This means of course that some commonsense must be used in planting, and when planting outdoors, where we cannot regulate the temperature to our need, we simply must regulate our seed sowing to its dictates, no matter how impatient we may be. To insure the best possible germination, and thus the best gardening, we must, first of all then, settle the question of temperature when sowing out-of-doors. For practical work it serves to divide the garden vegetables into two groups, though in planting, the special suggestions in the following chapter should be consulted. WHEN TO SOW OUTDOORS Sow from the end of March to the beginning of May, or when plum and peach trees bloom, the following: Beet Cabbage Carrot Cauliflower Celery Endive Kale Kohlrabi Lettuce Onions Parsley Parsnip Peas Radish Spinach Turnip Water-cress Sow from the beginning of May to the middle of June, or when apple trees bloom, the following: Beans Corn Cucumber Melon, musk Melon, water Okra Pumpkin Squash Tomato Getting the seed to sprout, however, is only the first step in the game; they must be provided with the means of immediately beginning to grow. This means that they should not be left to germinate in loosely packed soil, full of air spaces, ready to dry out at the first opportunity, and to let the tiny seed roots be shriveled up and die. The soil should touch the seed--be pressed close about it on all sides, so that the first tiny tap root will issue immediately into congenial surroundings where it can instantly take hold. Such conditions can be found only in a seed-bed fine but light enough to pack, reasonably rich and sufficiently moist, and where, in addition to this, the seed has been properly planted. METHODS OF PLANTING The seed-bed, as it is called, is the surface prepared to receive the seed, whether for a patch of radishes or an acre of onions. For crops to be sown directly where they are to go, the chapter on Preparation of the Soil takes us to this point, and as stated at the conclusion of that chapter, the final preparation of the bed should be made only immediately prior to its use. Having, then, good seeds on hand and the soil properly prepared to receive them, the only problem remaining is what way they shall be put in. The different habits of growth characteristic of different plants make it patent at the outset that there must be different methods of planting, for very evidently a cabbage, which occupies but three or four square feet of space and stays in one place to make a head, will not require the same treatment as a winter squash, roaming all over the garden and then escaping under the fence to hide some of its best fruit in the tall grass outside. The three systems of planting usually employed are known as "drills," "rows" and "hills." I do not remember ever seeing a definition giving the exact distinctions between them; and in horticultural writing they seem to be used, to some extent at least, interchangeably. As a rule "drills" refer to the growing of plants continuously in rows, such as onions, carrots or spinach. "Rows" refer to the growing of plants at fixed distances apart in the rows such as cabbage, or potatoes--the cultivation, except hand weeding and hoeing, being all done in one direction, as with drills. "Hills" refer to the growing of plants usually at equal distances, four feet or more apart each way, with cultivating done in both directions, as with melons and squashes. I describe the different methods at length so that the reader may know more definitely just what is meant by the special instructions given in the following text. SOWING THE SEED If one observes the suggestions as to temperature just given, and the following precautions in placing the seed within the soil, failure of good seed to germinate is practically impossible. In the first place, plant _on a freshly prepared surface_, always just before a rain if possible, except in the case of very small seeds, when just after a rain will be better. If the soil is at all dry, or likely to be followed by a spell of hot, dry weather, always firm by using the back of the hoe for small seed, or the ball of the foot for larger ones, such as peas, beans or corn, to press the seed firmly and evenly into the soil before covering. Then when the soil is covered in over the seed, firm along the top of the row very lightly, just enough to mark it and hold the soil in place. The depth of the drill furrow in which the seed is to be sown will depend (1) on the variety of vegetable, (2) on the season of planting, and (3) on weather conditions. Remember that the seed must be supplied with moisture both to germinate and to continue to exist after germination; and also that it must have soil through which the air can to some extent penetrate. Keeping these things in mind, common sense dictates that seed planted in the spring, or during a wet spell of weather, will not need to be put in as deeply as should the same seed in summer or early autumn, or during a hot, dry spell. The old general rule is, to cover seed planted under glass, where the moisture can be controlled, to a depth of two or three times its diameter; and out-of-doors, to four or five times. I should say these depths were the minimums desirable. In other words, the smallest seed, such as onion, carrot, lettuce, will go in one-quarter to one-half inch deep. Beets, spinach, parsnips and other medium-sized seed one-half to one inch deep, and peas, beans, corn, etc., two to four inches deep-- usually near the first figure. After the seed is sown it is of course desirable to keep the ground from baking or crusting on top, as it is likely to do after a morning rain followed directly by hot sun. If the seed sprouts have not yet reached the surface of the soil, rake very lightly across the rows with an iron rake; if they have broken through, work as close as possible to the row. The best implement I have ever seen for this purpose is the disc attachment of the double wheel hoe--see Implements. An ordinarily good garden loam, into which the desirable quantity of short manure has been worked, will give little trouble by raking. In a clay soil, it often will pay, on a small scale, to sift leaf mould, sphagnum moss, or some other light porous covering, over the rows, especially for small seed. The special seed-bed, for starting late cabbage or celery, may easily be sheltered. In very hot, dry weather this method will be a great help. SETTING OUT PLANTS The reader has not forgotten, of course, that plants as well as seeds must go into the well managed garden. We have already mentioned the hardening-off process to which they must be subjected before going into the open ground. The flats should also be given a copious watering several hours, or the day before, setting out. All being ready, with your rows made straight and marked off at the correct distances, lift out the plants with a trowel or transplanting fork, and tear or cut them apart with a knife, keeping as much soil as possible with each ball of roots. Distribute them at their positions, but not so many at a time that any will dry out before you get them in place. Get down on your hands and knees, and, straddling the row, proceed to "set." With the left hand, or a trowel or dibber if the ground is not soft, make a hole large enough to take the roots and the better part of the stem, place the plant in position and firm into place by bearing down with the backs of the knuckles, on either side. Proceed so to the end of the row, being careful to keep your toes from undoing your good work behind you, and then finish the job by walking back over the row, still further firming in each plant by pressing down the soil at either side of the stem simultaneously with the balls of the feet. When all the rows are completed, go over the surface with the iron rake, and you will have a job thoroughly done and neatly finished. If the weather and soil are exceptionally dry it may be necessary to take the additional precautions, when planting, of putting a pint or so of water in each hole (never on the surface) previous to planting; or of puddling the roots in a thick mixture of rich soil and water. The large leaves also should be trimmed back one-half. In the case of plants that are too tall or succulent, this should be done in any case --better a day or two previous to setting out. AFTER-CARE Transplanting should be done whenever possible in dull weather or before rain--or even during it if you really would deserve the name of gardener! If it must be done when the sun continues strong, shade the plants from, say, ten to three o'clock, for a day or two, with half sheets of old newspapers held in tent-shaped position over the plants by stones or earth. If it is necessary to give water, do it toward evening. If the plants have been properly set, however, only extreme circumstances will render this necessary. Keep a sharp lookout for cut-worms, maggots or other enemies described in Chapter XIII. And above all, CULTIVATE. Never let the soil become crusted, even if there is not a weed in sight. Keep the soil loosened up, for that will keep things growing. CHAPTER X THE CULTIVATION OF VEGETABLES Before taking up the garden vegetables individually, I shall outline the general practice of cultivation, which applies to all. The purposes of cultivation are three--to get rid of weeds, and to stimulate growth by (1) letting air into the soil and freeing unavailable plant food, and (2) by conserving moisture. As to weeds, the gardener of any experience need not be told the importance of keeping his crops clean. He has learned from bitter and costly experience the price of letting them get anything resembling a start. He knows that one or two days' growth, after they are well up, followed perhaps by a day or so of rain, may easily double or treble the work of cleaning a patch of onions or carrots, and that where weeds have attained any size they cannot be taken out of sowed crops without doing a great deal of injury. He also realizes, or should, that every day's growth means just so much available plant food stolen from under the very roots of his legitimate crops. Instead of letting the weeds get away with any plant food, he should be furnishing more, for clean and frequent cultivation will not only break the soil up mechanically, but let in air, moisture and heat--all essential in effecting those chemical changes necessary to convert non- available into available plant food. Long before the science in the case was discovered, the soil cultivators had learned by observation the necessity of keeping the soil nicely loosened about their growing crops. Even the lanky and untutored aborigine saw to it that his squaw not only put a bad fish under the hill of maize but plied her shell hoe over it. Plants need to breathe. Their roots need air. You might as well expect to find the rosy glow of happiness on the wan cheeks of a cotton-mill child slave as to expect to see the luxuriant dark green of healthy plant life in a suffocated garden. Important as the question of air is, that of _water_ ranks beside it. You may not see at first what the matter of frequent cultivation has to do with water. But let us stop a moment and look into it. Take a strip of blotting paper, dip one end in water, and watch the moisture run up hill, soak up through the blotter. The scientists have labeled that "capillary attraction"--the water crawls up little invisible tubes formed by the texture of the blotter. Now take a similar piece, cut it across, hold the two cut edges firmly together, and try it again. The moisture refuses to cross the line: the connection has been severed. In the same way the water stored in the soil after a rain begins at once to escape again into the atmosphere. That on the surface evaporates first, and that which has soaked in begins to soak in through the soil to the surface. It is leaving your garden, through the millions of soil tubes, just as surely as if you had a two-inch pipe and a gasoline engine, pumping it into the gutter night and day! Save your garden by stopping the waste. It is the easiest thing in the world to do--cut the pipe in two. And the knife to do it with is-- _dust_. By frequent cultivation of the surface soil--not more than one or two inches deep for most small vegetables--the soil tubes are kept broken, and a mulch of dust is maintained. Try to get over every part of your garden, especially where it is not shaded, once in every ten days or two weeks. Does that seem like too much work? You can push your wheel hoe through, and thus keep the dust mulch as a constant protection, as fast as you can walk. If you wait for the weeds, you will nearly have to crawl through, doing more or less harm by disturbing your growing plants, losing all the plant food (and they will take the cream) which they have consumed, and actually putting in more hours of infinitely more disagreeable work. "A stitch in time saves nine!" Have your thread and needle ready beforehand! If I knew how to give greater emphasis to this subject of thorough cultivation, I should be tempted to devote the rest of this chapter to it. If the beginner at gardening has not been convinced by the facts given, there is only one thing left to convince him--experience. Having given so much space to the _reason_ for constant care in this matter, the question of methods naturally follows. I want to repeat here, my previous advice--by all means get a wheel hoe. The simplest sorts cost only a few dollars, and will not only save you an infinite amount of time and work, but do the work better, very much better than it can be done by hand. You _can_ grow good vegetables, especially if your garden is a very small one, without one of these labor-savers, but I can assure you that you will never regret the small investment necessary to procure it. With a wheel hoe, the work of preserving the soil mulch becomes very simple. If one has not a wheel hoe, for small areas very rapid work can be done with the scuffle hoe. The matter of keeping weeds cleaned out of the rows and between the plants in the rows is not so quickly accomplished. Where hand-work is necessary, let it be done at once. Here are a few practical suggestions that will reduce this work to a minimum, (1) Get at this work while the ground is soft; as soon as the soil begins to dry out after a rain is the best time. Under such conditions the weeds will pull out by the roots, without breaking off. (2) Immediately before weeding, go over the rows with a wheel hoe, cutting shallow, but just as close as possible, leaving a narrow, plainly visible strip which must be hand- weeded. The best tool for this purpose is the double wheel hoe with disc attachment, or hoes for large plants. (3) See to it that not only the weeds are pulled but that _every inch_ of soil surface is broken up. It is fully as important that the weeds just sprouting be destroyed, as that the larger ones be pulled up. One stroke of the weeder or the fingers will destroy a hundred weed seedlings in less time than one weed can be pulled out after it gets a good start. (4) Use one of the small hand-weeders until you become skilled with it. Not only may more work be done but the fingers will be saved unnecessary wear. The skilful use of the wheel hoe can be acquired through practice only. The first thing to learn is that it is necessary to watch _the wheels only:_ the blades, disc or rakes will take care of themselves. Other suggestions will be found in the chapter on Implements. The operation of "hilling" consists in drawing up the soil about the stems of growing plants, usually at the time of second or third hoeing. It used to be the practice to hill everything that could be hilled "up to the eyebrows," but it has gradually been discarded for what is termed "level culture"; and the reader will readily see the reason, from what has been said about the escape of moisture from the surface of the soil; for of course the two upper sides of the hill, which may be represented by an equilateral triangle with one side horizontal, give more exposed surface than the level surface represented by the base. In wet soils or seasons hilling may be advisable, but very seldom otherwise. It has the additional disadvantage of making it difficult to maintain the soil mulch which is so desirable. ROTATION OF CROPS There is another thing to be considered in making each vegetable do its best, and that is crop rotation, or the following of any vegetable with a different sort at the next planting. With some vegetables, such as cabbage, this is almost imperative, and practically all are helped by it. Even onions, which are popularly supposed to be the proving exception to the rule, are healthier, and do as well after some other crop, _provided_ the soil is as finely pulverized and rich as a previous crop of onions would leave it. Here are the fundamental rules of crop rotation: (1) Crops of the same vegetable, or vegetables of the same family (such as turnips and cabbage) should not follow each other. (2) Vegetables that feed near the surface, like corn, should follow deep-rooting crops. (3) Vines or leaf crops should follow root crops. (4) Quick-growing crops should follow those occupying the land all season. These are the principles which should determine the rotations to be followed in individual cases. The proper way to attend to this matter is when making the planting plan. You will then have time to do it properly, and will need to give it no further thought for a year. With the above suggestions in mind, and _put to use_, it will not be difficult to give the crops mentioned in the following chapter those special attentions which are needed to make them do their very best. CHAPTER XI THE VEGETABLES AND THEIR SPECIAL NEEDS The garden vegetables may be considered in three groups, in each of which the various varieties are given somewhat similar treatment: the root crops, such as beets and carrots; the leaf crops, such as cabbage and lettuce; the fruit crops, such as melons and tomatoes. ROOT CROPS Under the first section we will consider: Beet Carrot Kohlrabi Leek Onion Parsnip Potato Salsify Turnip Any of these may be sown in April, in drills (with the exception of potatoes) twelve to eighteen inches apart. The soil must be rich and finely worked, in order that the roots will be even and smooth--in poor or ill-prepared soil they are likely to be misshapen, or "sprangling." They must be thinned out to the proper distances, which should be done if possible on a cloudy day, hand-weeded as often as may be required, and given clean and frequent cultivation. All, with the exception of leeks and potatoes, are given level culture. All will be greatly benefited, when about one-third grown, by a top dressing of nitrate of soda. _Beet:_--Beets do best in a rather light soil. Those for earliest use are started under glass (as described previously) and set out six to seven inches apart in rows a foot apart. The first outdoor sowing is made as soon as the soil is ready in spring, and the seed should be put in thick, as not all will come through if bad weather is encountered. When thinning out, the small plants that are removed, tops and roots cooked together, make delicious greens. The late crop, for fall and winter use, sow the last part of June. For this crop the larger varieties are used, and on rich soil will need six to eight inches in the row and fifteen inches between rows. _Carrot:_--Carrots also like a soil that is rather on the sandy side, and on account of the depth to which the roots go, it should be deep and fine. The quality will be better if the soil is not too rich. A few for extra early use may be grown in the hotbeds or frame. If radishes and carrots are sown together, in alternating rows six inches apart, the former will be used by the time the carrots need the room, and in this way a single 3 x 6 ft. sash will yield a good supply for the home garden. Use Chantenay or Ox-Heart (see Chapter XII) for this purpose. The late crop is sometimes sown between rows of onions, skipping every third row, during June, and left to mature when the onions are harvested; but unless the ground is exceptionally free from weeds, the plan is not likely to prove successful. _Kohlrabi:_--While not truly a "root crop"--the edible portion being a peculiar globular enlargement of the stem--its culture is similar, as it may be sown in drills and thinned out. Frequently, however, it is started in the seed-bed and transplanted, the main crop (for market) being sown in May or June. A few of these from time to time will prove very acceptable for the home table. They should be used when quite young; as small as two inches being the tenderest. _Leek:_--To attain its best the leek should be started in the seed-bed, late in April, and transplanted in late June, to the richest, heaviest soil available. Hill up from time to time to blanch lower part of stalk; or a few choice specimens may be had by fitting cardboard collars around the stem and drawing the earth up to these, not touching the stalk with earth. _Onions:_--Onions for use in the green state are grown from white "sets," put out early in April, three to four inches apart in rows twelve inches apart; or from seed sown the previous fall and protected with rough manure during the winter. These will be succeeded by the crop from "prickers" or seedlings started under glass in January or February. As onions are not transplanted before going to the garden, sow directly in the soil rather than in flats. It is safest to cover the bed with one-half inch to one inch of coarse sand, and sow the seed in this. To get stocky plants trim back twice, taking off the upper half of leaves each time, and trim back the roots one-half to two- thirds at the time of setting out, which may be any time after the middle of April. These in turn will be succeeded by onions coming from the crop sown from seed in the open. The above is for onions eaten raw in the green state when less than half grown. For the main crop for bulbs, the home supply is best grown from prickers as described above. Prize-taker and Gibraltar are mostly used for this purpose, growing to the size of the large Spanish onions sold at grocery stores. For onions to be kept for late winter and spring use, grow from seed, sowing outdoors as early as possible. No vegetable needs a richer or more perfectly prepared soil than the onion; and especial care must be taken never to let the weeds get a start. They are gathered after the tops dry down and wither, when they should be pulled, put in broad rows for several days in the sun, and then spread out flat, not more than four inches deep, under cover with plenty of light and air. Before severe freezing store in slatted barrels, as described in Chapter XIV. _Parsnip:_--Sow as early as possible, in deep rich soil, but where no water will stand during fall and winter. The seed germinates very slowly, so the seed-bed should be very finely prepared. They will be ready for use in the fall, but are much better after the first frosts. For method of keeping see Chapter XIV. _Potato:_--If your garden is a small one, buy your main supply of potatoes from some nearby farmer, first trying half a bushel or so to be sure of the quality. Purchase in late September or October when the crop is being dug and the price is low. For an extra early and choice supply for the home garden, start a peck or so in early March, as follows: Select an early variety, seed of good size and clean; cut to pieces containing one or two eyes, and pack closely together on end in flats of coarse sand. Give these full light and heat, and by the middle to end of April they will have formed dense masses of roots, and nice, strong, stocky sprouts, well leaved out. Dig out furrows two and a half feet apart, and incorporate well rotted manure in the bottom, with the soil covering this until the furrow is left two to three inches deep. Set the sprouted tubers, pressing firmly into the soil, about twelve inches apart, and cover in, leaving them thus three to four inches below the surface. Keep well cultivated, give a light top dressing of nitrate of soda--and surprise all your neighbors! This system has not yet come extensively into use, but is practically certain of producing excellent results. For the main crop, if you have room, cut good seed to one or two eyes, leaving as much of the tuber as possible to each piece, and plant thirteen inches apart in rows three feet apart. Cultivate deeply until the plants are eight to ten inches high and then shallow but frequently. As the vines begin to spread, hill up moderately, making a broad, low ridge. Handle potato-bugs and blight as directed in Chapter XIII. For harvesting see Chapter XIV. While big crops may be grown on heavy soils, the quality will be very much better on sandy, well drained soils. Planting on well rotted sod, or after green manuring, such as clover or rye, will also improve the looks and quality of the crop. Like onions, they need a high percentage of potash in manures or fertilizers used; this may be given in sulphate of potash. Avoid planting on ground enriched with fresh barnyard manure or immediately after a dressing of lime. _Salsify:_--The "vegetable oyster," or salsify, is to my taste the most delicious root vegetable grown. It is handled practically in the same way as the parsnip, but needs, if possible, ground even more carefully prepared, in order to keep the main root from sprangling. If a fine light soil cannot be had for planting, it will pay to hoe or hand-plow furrows where the drills are to be--not many will be needed, and put in specially prepared soil, in which the seed may get a good start. _Radish:_--To be of good crisp quality, it is essential with radishes to grow them just as quickly as possible. The soil should be rather sandy and not rich in fresh manure or other nitrogenous fertilizers, as this tends to produce an undesirable amount of leaves at the expense of the root. If the ground is at all dry give a thorough wetting after planting, which may be on the surface, as the seeds germinate so quickly that they will be up before the soil has time to crust over. Gypsum or land-plaster, sown on white and worked into the soil, will improve both crop and quality. They are easily raised under glass, in autumn or spring in frames, requiring only forty to fifty degrees at night. It is well to plant in the hotbed, after a crop of lettuce. Or sow as a double crop, as suggested under _Carrots_. For outside crops, sow every ten days or two weeks. _Turnip:_--While turnips will thrive well on almost any soil, the quality--which is somewhat questionable at the best--will be much better on sandy or even gravelly soil. Avoid fresh manures as much as possible, as the turnip is especially susceptible to scab and worms. They are best when quite small and for the home table a succession of sowing, only a few at a time, will give the best results. LEAF CROPS Under leaf crops are considered also those of which the stalk or the flower heads form the edible portion, such as celery and cauliflower. Asparagus Brussels Sprouts Cabbage Cauliflower Celery Endive Kale Lettuce Parsley Rhubarb Spinach The quality of all these will depend largely upon growing them rapidly and without check from the seed-bed to the table. They are all great nitrogen-consumers and therefore take kindly to liberal supplies of yard manure, which is high in nitrogen. For celery the manure is best applied to some preceding crop, such as early cabbage. The others will take it "straight." Most of these plants are best started under glass or in the seed-bed and transplanted later to permanent positions. They will all be helped greatly by a top-dressing of nitrate of soda, worked into the soil as soon as they have become established. This, if it fails to produce the dark green healthy growth characteristic of its presence, should be followed by a second application after two or three weeks--care being taken, of course, to use it with reason and restraint, as directed in Chapter VI. Another method of growing good cabbages and similar plants, where the ground is not sufficiently rich to carry the crop through, is to "manure in the hill," either yard or some concentrated manure being used. If yard manure, incorporate a good forkful with the soil where each plant is to go. (If any considerable number are being set, it will of course be covered in a furrow--first being trampled down, with the plow). Another way, sure of producing results, and not inconvenient for a few hundred plants, is to mark out the piece, dig out with a spade or hoe a hole some five inches deep at each mark, dilute poultry manure in an old pail until about the consistency of thick mud, and put a little less than half a trowelful in each hole. Mix with the soil and cover, marking the spot with the back of the hoe, and then set the plants. By this method, followed by a top-dressing of nitrate of soda, I have repeatedly grown fine cabbage, cauliflower, lettuce and sprouts. Cotton-seed meal is also very valuable for manuring in the hill--about a handful to a plant, as it is rich in nitrogen and rapidly decomposes. The cabbage group is sometimes hilled up, but if set well down and frequently cultivated, on most soils this will not be necessary. They all do best in very deep, moderately heavy soil, heavily manured and rather moist. An application of lime some time before planting will be a beneficial precaution. With this group rotation also is almost imperative. The most troublesome enemies attacking these plants are: the flea- beetle, the cabbage-worm, the cabbage-maggot (root) and "club-root"; directions for fighting all of which will be found in the following chapter. _Asparagus:_--Asparagus is rightly esteemed one of the very best spring vegetables. There is a general misconception, however--due to the old methods of growing it--concerning the difficulty of having a home supply. As now cared for, it is one of the easiest of all vegetables to grow, when once the beds are set and brought to bearing condition. Nor is it difficult to make the bed, and the only reason why asparagus is not more universally found in the home garden, beside that mentioned above, is because one has to wait a year for results. In selecting a spot for the asparagus bed, pick out the earliest and best drained soil available, even if quite sandy it will do well. Plow or dig out trenches three feet apart and sixteen to twenty inches deep. In the bottoms of these tramp down firmly six to eight inches of old, thoroughly rotted manure. Cover with six to eight inches of good soil-- not that coming from the bottom of the trench--and on this set the crowns or root-clumps--preferably one-year ones--being careful to spread the roots out evenly, and covering with enough soil to hold in position, making them firm in the soil. The roots are set one foot apart. Then fill in level, thus leaving the crowns four to six inches below the surface. As the stalks appear give a light dressing of nitrate of soda and keep the crop cleanly cultivated. (Lettuce, beets, beans or any of the small garden vegetables may be grown between the asparagus rows during the first part of the season, for the first two years, thus getting some immediate return from labor and manure). The stalks should not be cut until the second spring after planting and then only very lightly. After that full crops may be had. After the first season, besides keeping cleanly cultivated at all times, in the fall clear off and burn all tops and weeds and apply a good coating of manure. Dig or lightly cultivate this in the spring, applying also a dressing of nitrate of soda, as soon as the stalks appear. If the yield is not heavy, give a dressing of bone or of the basic fertilizers mentioned earlier. It is not difficult to grow plants from seed, but is generally more satisfactory to get the roots from some reliable seedsman. _Broccoli:-The broccoli makes a flower head as does the cauliflower. It is, however, inferior in quality and is not grown to any extent where the latter will succeed. It has the one advantage of being hardier and thus can be grown where the cauliflower is too uncertain to make its culture worth while. For culture directions see _Cauliflower_. _Brussels Sprouts:_--In my opinion this vegetable leaves the cabbage almost as far behind as the cauliflower does. It is, if anything, more easily grown than cabbage, except that the young plants do not seem able to stand quite so much cold. When mature, however, it seems to stand almost any amount of freezing, and it is greatly improved by a few smart frosts, although it is very good when succeeding the spring crop of cauliflower. It takes longer to mature than either cabbage or cauliflower. _Cabbage:_--Cabbage is one of the few vegetables which may be had in almost as good quality from the green-grocer as it can be grown at home, and as it takes up considerable space, it may often be advisable to omit the late sorts from the home garden if space is very limited. The early supply, however, should come from the garden--some people think it should stay there, but I do not agree with them. Properly cooked it is a very delicious vegetable. What has already been said covers largely the conditions for successful culture. The soil should be of the richest and deepest, and well dressed with lime. Lettuce is grown with advantage between the rows of early cabbage, and after both are harvested the ground is used for celery. The early varieties may be set as closely as eighteen inches in the row, and twenty-four between rows. The lettuce is taken out before the row is needed. The late crop is started in the outside seed-bed about June 1st to 15th. It will help give better plants to cut back the tops once or twice during growth, and an occasional good soaking in dry weather will prove very beneficial. They are set in the field during July, and as it often is very dry at this time, those extra precautions mentioned in directions for setting out plants, in the preceding chapter, should be taken. If the newly set plants are dusted with wood ashes, it will be a wise precaution against insect pests. _Cauliflower:_--The cauliflower is easily the queen of the cabbage group: also it is the most difficult to raise. (1) It is the most tender and should not be set out quite so early. (2) It is even a ranker feeder than the cabbage, and just before heading up will be greatly improved by applications of liquid manure. (3) It must have water, and unless the soil is a naturally damp one, irrigation, either by turning the hose on between the rows, or directly around the plants, must be given--two or three times should be sufficient. (4) The heads must be protected from the sun. This is accomplished by tying up the points of leaves, so as to form a tent, or breaking them (snap the mid- rib only), and folding them down over the flower. (5) They must be used as soon as ready, for they deteriorate very quickly. Take them while the head is still solid and firm, before the little flower tips begin to open out. _Celery:_--This is another favorite vegetable which has a bad reputation to live down. They used to plant it at the bottom of a twelve-inch trench and spend all kinds of unnecessary labor over it. It can be grown perfectly well on the level and in the average home garden. As to soil, celery prefers a moist one, but it must be well drained. The home supply can, however, be grown in the ordinary garden, especially if water may be had in case of injurious drouth. For the early crop the best sorts are the White Plume and Golden Self- blanching. Seed is sown in the last part of February or first part of March. The seed is very fine and the greatest pains must be taken to give the best possible treatment. The seed should be pressed into the soil and barely covered with very light soil--half sifted leaf-mould or moss. Never let the boxes dry out, and as soon as the third or fourth leaf comes, transplant; cut back the outside leaves, and set as deeply as possible without covering the crown. The roots also, if long, should be cut back. This trimming of leaves and roots should be given at each transplanting, thus assuring a short stocky growth. Culture of the early crop, after setting out, is easier than that for the winter crop. There are two systems: (1) The plants are set in rows three or four feet apart, six inches in the row, and blanched, either by drawing up the earth in a hill and working it in about the stalks with the fingers (this operation is termed "handling"), or else by the use of boards laid on edge along the rows, on either side. (2) The other method is called the "new celery culture," and in it the plants are set in beds eight inches apart each way (ten or twelve inches for large varieties), the idea being to make the tops of the plants supply the shade for the blanching. This method has two disadvantages: it requires extra heavy manuring and preparation of soil, and plenty of moisture; and even with this aid the stalks never attain the size of those grown in rows. The early crop should be ready in August. The quality is never so good as that of the later crops. For the main or winter crop, sow the seed about April 1st. The same extra care must be taken as in sowing under glass. In hot, dry weather, shade the beds; never let them dry out. Transplant to second bed as soon as large enough to develop root system, before setting in the permanent position. When setting in late June or July, be sure to put the plants in up to the hearts, not over, and set firmly. Give level clean culture until about August 15th, when, with the hoe, wheel hoe or cultivator, earth should be drawn up along the rows, followed by "handling." The plants for early use are trenched (see Chapter XIV), but that left for late use must be banked up, which is done by making the hills higher still, by the use of the spade. For further treatment see Chapter XIV. Care must be taken not to perform any work in the celery patch while the plants are wet. _Corn salad or Fetticus:_--This salad plant is not largely grown. It is planted about the middle of April and given the same treatment as spinach. _Chicory:_--This also is little grown. The Witloof, a kind now being used, is however much more desirable. Sow in drills, thin to five or six inches, and in August or September, earth up, as with early celery, to blanch the stalks, which are used for salads, or boiled. Cut-back roots, planted in boxes of sand placed in a moderately warm dark place and watered, send up a growth of tender leaves, making a fine salad. _Chervil:_--Curled chervil is grown the same as parsley and used for garnishing or seasoning. The root variety resembles the stump- rooted carrot, the quality being improved by frost. Sow in April or September. Treat like parsnip. _Chives:_--Leaves are used for imparting an onion flavor. A clump of roots set put will last many years. _Cress:_--Another salad little grown in the home garden. To many, however, its spicy, pungent flavor is particularly pleasing. It is easily grown, but should be planted frequently--about every two weeks. Sow in drills, twelve to fourteen inches apart. Its only special requirement is moisture. Water is not necessary, but if a bed can be started in some clean stream or pool, it will take care of itself. Upland cress or "pepper grass" grows in ordinary garden soil, being one of the very first salads. Sow in April, in drills twelve or fourteen inches apart. It grows so rapidly that it may be had in five or six weeks. Sow frequently for succession, as it runs to seed very quickly. _Chard:_--See _Spinach. Dandelion:_--This is an excellent "greens," but as the crop is not ready until second season from planting it is not grown as much as it should be. Sow the seed in April--very shallow. It is well to put in with it a few lettuce or turnip seed to mark the rows. Drills should be one foot apart, and plants thinned to eight to twelve inches. The quality is infinitely superior to the wild dandelion and may be still further improved by blanching. If one is content to take a small crop, a cutting may be made in the fall, the same season as the sowing. _Endive:_--This salad vegetable is best for fall use. Sow in June or July, in drills eighteen to twenty-four inches apart, and thin to ten to twelve inches. To be fit for use it must be blanched, either by tying up with raffia in a loose bunch, or by placing two wide boards in an inverted V shape over the rows; and in either case be sure the leaves are dry when doing this. _Kale:_--Kale is a non-heading member of the cabbage group, used as greens, both in spring and winter. It is improved by frost, but even then is a little tough and heavy. Its chief merit lies in the fact that it is easily had when greens of the better sorts are hard to get, as it may be left out and cut as needed during winter--even from under snow. The fall crop is given the same treatment as late cabbage. Siberian kale is sown in September and wintered-over like spinach. _Lettuce:_--Lettuce is grown in larger quantities than all the other salad plants put together. By the use of hotbeds it may be had practically the year round. The first sowing for the spring under-glass crop is made in January or February. These are handled as for the planting outside--see Chapter VIII.--but are set in the frames six to eight inches each way, according to variety. Ventilate freely during the day when over 55° give 45° at night. Water only when needed, but then thoroughly, and preferably only on mornings of bright sunny days. The plants for first outdoor crops are handled as already described. After April 1st planting should be made every two weeks. During July and August the seed-beds must be kept shaded and moist. In August, first sowing for fall under-glass crop is made, which can be matured in coldframes; later sowings going into hotbeds. In quality, I consider the hard-heading varieties superior to the loose-heading sorts, but of course that is a matter of taste. The former is best for crops maturing from the middle of June until September, the latter for early and late sowings, as they mature more quickly. The cos type is good for summer growing but should be tied up to blanch well. To be at its best, lettuce should be grown very rapidly, and the use of top-dressings of nitrate are particularly beneficial with this crop. The ground should be light, warm, and very rich, and cultivation shallow but frequent. _Mushroom:_--While the mushroom is not a garden crop, strictly speaking, still it is one of the most delicious of all vegetables for the home table, and though space does not permit a long description of the several details of its culture, I shall try to include all the essential points as succinctly as possible, (1) The place for the bed may be found in any sheltered, dry spot--cellar, shed or greenhouse-- where an even temperature of 53 to 58 degrees can be maintained and direct sunlight excluded. (Complete darkness is _not_ necessary; it is frequently so considered, but only because in dark places the temperature and moisture are apt to remain more even.) (2) The material is fresh horse-manure, from which the roughest of the straw has been shaken out. This is stacked in a compact pile and trampled--wetting down if at all dry--to induce fermentation. This process must be repeated four or five times, care being required never to let the heap dry out and burn; time for re-stacking being indicated by the heap's steaming. At the second or third turning, add about one-fifth, in bulk, of light loam. (3) When the heat of the pile no longer rises above 100 to 125 degrees (as indicated by a thermometer) put into the beds, tramping or beating very firmly, until about ten inches deep. When the temperature recedes to 90 degrees, put in the spawn. Each brick will make a dozen or so pieces. Put these in three inches deep, and twelve by nine inches apart, covering lightly. Then beat down the surface evenly. After eight days, cover with two inches of light loam, firmly compacted. This may be covered with a layer of straw or other light material to help maintain an even degree of moisture, but should be removed as soon as the mushrooms begin to appear. Water only when the soil is very dry; better if water is warmed to about 60 degrees. When gathering never leave stems in the bed as they are likely to breed maggots. The crop should appear in six to eight weeks after spawning the bed. _Parsley:_--This very easily grown little plant should have at least a row or two in the seed-bed devoted to it. For use during winter, a box or a few pots may be filled with cut-back roots and given moderate temperature and moisture. If no frames are on hand, the plants usually will do well in a sunny window. Parsley seed is particularly slow in germinating. Use a few seeds of turnip or carrot to indicate the rows, and have the bed very finely prepared. _Rhubarb:_--This is another of the standard vegetables which no home garden should be without. For the bed pick out a spot where the roots can stay without interfering with the plowing and working of the garden--next the asparagus bed, if in a good early location, will be as good as any. One short row will supply a large family. The bed is set either with roots or young plants, the former being the usual method. The ground should first be made as deep and rich as possible. If poor, dig out the rows, which should be four or five feet apart, to a depth of two feet or more and work in a foot of good manure, refilling with the best of the soil excavated. Set the roots about four feet apart in the row, the crowns being about four inches below the surface. No stalks should be cut the first season; after that they will bear abundantly many years. In starting from seed, sow in March in frames or outside in April; when well along-about the first of June--set out in rows, eighteen by twelve inches. By the following April they will be ready for their permanent position. Manuring in the fall, as with asparagus, to be worked in in the spring, is necessary for good results. I know of no crop which so quickly responds to liberal dressings of nitrate of soda, applied first just as growth starts in in the spring. The seed stalks should be broken off as fast as they appear, until late in the season. _Sea-Kale:_--When better known in this country, sea-kale will be given a place beside the asparagus and rhubarb, for, like them, it may be used year after year. Many believe it superior in quality to either asparagus or cauliflower. It is grown from either seed or pieces of the root, the former method, being probably the more satisfactory. Sow in April, in drills fourteen inches apart, thinning to five or six. Transplant in the following spring as described for rhubarb--but setting three feet apart each way. In the fall, after the leaves have fallen--and every succeeding fall-- cover each crown with a shovelful of clean sand and then about eighteen inches of earth, dug out from between the rows. This is to blanch the spring growth. After cutting, shovel off the earth and sand and enrich with manure for the following season's growth. _Spinach:_--For the first spring crop of this good and wholesome vegetable, the seed is sown in September, and carried over with a protection of hay or other rough litter. Crops for summer and fall are sown in successive plantings from April on, Long-Standing being the best sort to sow after about May 15th. Seed of the New Zealand spinach should be soaked several hours in hot water, before being planted. For the home garden, I believe that the Swiss chard beet is destined to be more popular, as it becomes known, than any of the spinaches. It is sown in plantings from April on, but will yield leaves all season long; they are cut close to the soil, and in an almost incredibly short time the roots have thrown up a new crop, the amount taken during the season being wonderful. Spinach wants a strong and very rich soil, and dressings of nitrate show good results. THE FRUIT CROPS Under this heading are included: Bean, dwarf Bean, pole Corn Peas Cucumber Egg-plant Melon, musk Melon, water Okra Pepper Pumpkins Squash Tomato Most of these vegetables differ from both the preceding groups in two important ways. First of all, the soil should not be made too rich, especially in nitrogenous manures, such as strong fresh yard-manure; although light dressings of nitrate of soda are often of great help in giving them a quick start--as when setting out in the field. Second, they are warm-weather loving plants, and nothing is gained by attempting to sow or set out the plants until all danger from late frosts is over, and the ground is well warmed up. (Peas, of course, are an exception to this rule, and to some extent the early beans.) Third, they require much more room and are grown for the most part in hills. Light, warm, "quick," sandy to gravelly soils, and old, fine, well rotted manure--applied generally in the hill besides that plowed under, make the best combination for results. Such special hills are prepared by marking off, digging out the soil to the depth of eight to ten inches, and eighteen inches to two feet square, and incorporating several forkfuls of the compost. A little guano, or better still cottonseed meal, say 1/2 to 1 gill of the former, or a gill of the latter, mixed with the compost when putting into the hill, will also be very good. Hills to be planted early should be raised an inch or two above the surface, unless they are upon sloping ground. The greatest difficulty in raising all the vine fruits--melons, etc.-- is in successfully combating their insect enemies--the striped beetle, the borer and the flat, black "stink-bug," being the worst of these. Remedies will be suggested in the next chapter. But for the home garden, where only a few hills of each will be required, by far the easiest and the only sure way of fighting them will be by protecting with bottomless boxes, large enough to cover the hills, and covered with mosquito netting, or better, "plant-protecting cloth," which has the additional merit of giving the hills an early start. These boxes may be easily made of one-half by eight-inch boards, or from ordinary cracker-boxes, such as used for making flats. Plants so protected in the earlier stages of growth will usually either not be attacked, or will, with the assistance of the remedies described in the following chapter, be able to withstand the insect's visits. _Beans, dwarf:_--Beans are one of the most widely liked of all garden vegetables--and one of the most easily grown. They are very particular about only one thing--not to have a heavy wet soil. The dwarf or bush sorts are planted in double or single drills, eighteen to twenty-four inches apart, and for the first sowing not much over an inch deep. Later plantings should go in two to three inches deep, according to soil. Ashes or some good mixed fertilizer high in potash, applied and well mixed in at time of planting, will be very useful. As the plants gain size they should be slightly hilled--to help hold the stalks up firmly. Never work over or pick from the plants while they are wet. The dwarf limas should not be planted until ten to fourteen days later than the early sorts. Be sure to put them in edgeways, with the eye down, and when there is no prospect of immediate rain, or the whole planting is fairly sure to be lost. _Beans, pole:_--The pole varieties should not go in until about the time for the limas. Plant in specially prepared hills (see above) ten to twenty seeds, and when well up thin, leaving three to five. Poles are best set when preparing the hills. A great improvement over the old-fashioned pole is made by nailing building laths firmly across 2 x 3-in. posts seven or eight feet high (see illustration). To secure extra early pods on the poles pinch back the vines at five feet high. _Corn:_--For extra early ears, corn may easily be started on sod, as directed for cucumbers. Be sure, however, not to get into the open until danger from frost is over--usually at least ten days after it is safe for the first planting, which is seldom made before May 1st. Frequent, shallow cultivation is a prime necessity in growing this crop. When well up, thin to four stalks to a hill--usually five to seven kernels being planted. A slight hilling when the tassels appear will be advisable. Plant frequently for succession crops. The last sowing may be made as late as the first part of July if the seed is well firmed in, to assure immediate germination. Sweet corn for the garden is frequently planted in drills, about three feet apart, and thinning to ten to twelve inches. _Cucumber:_--This universal favorite is easily grown if the striped beetle is held at bay. For the earliest fruits start on sod in the frames: Cut out sods four to six inches square, where the grass indicates rich soil. Pack close together in the frame, grass side down, and push seven or eight seeds into each, firmly enough to be held in place, covering with about one and a half inches of light soil; water thoroughly and protect with glass or cloth, taking care to ventilate, as described in Chapter VIII. Set out in prepared hills after danger of frost is over. Outside crop is planted directly in the hills, using a dozen or more seeds and thinning to three or four. _Egg-plant:_--The egg-plant is always started under glass, for the Northern States, and should be twice transplanted, the second time into pots, to be of the best size when put out. This should not be until after tomatoes are set, as it is perhaps the tenderest of all garden vegetables as regards heat. The soil should be very rich and as moist as can be selected. If dry, irrigating will be necessary. This should not be delayed until the growth becomes stunted, as sudden growth then induced is likely to cause the fruit to crack. Watch for potato-bugs on your egg-plants. They seem to draw these troublesome beetles as a magnet does iron filings, and I have seen plants practically ruined by them in one day. As they seem to know there will not be time to eat the whole fruit they take pains to eat into the stems. The only sure remedy is to knock them off with a piece of shingle into a pan of water and kerosene. Egg-plants are easily burned by Paris green, and that standard remedy cannot be so effectively used as on other crops; hellebore or arsenate of lead is good. As the season of growth is very limited, it is advisable, besides having the plants as well developed as possible when set out, to give a quick start with cotton-seed meal or nitrate, and liquid manure later is useful, as they are gross feeders. The fruits are ready to eat from the size of a turkey egg to complete development. _Melon, musk:_--The culture of this delicious vegetable is almost identical with that of the cucumber. If anything it is more particular about having light soil. If put in soil at all heavy, at the time of preparing the hill, add sand and leaf-mould to the compost, the hills made at least three feet square, and slightly raised. This method is also of use in planting the other vine crops. _Melon, water:_--In the warm Southern States watermelons may be grown cheaply, and they are so readily shipped that in the small home gardens it will not pay to grow them, for they take up more space than any other vegetable, with the exception of winter squash. The one advantage of growing them, where there is room, is that better quality than that usually to be bought may be obtained. Give them the hottest spot in the garden and a sandy quick soil. Use a variety recommended for your particular climate. Give the same culture as for musk melon, except that the hill should be at least six to ten feet apart each way. By planting near the edge of the garden, and pinching back the vines, room may be saved and the ripening up of the crop made more certain. _Okra:_--Although the okra makes a very strong plant--and incidentally is one of the most ornamental of all garden vegetables-- the seed is quickly rotted by wet or cold. Sow not earlier than May 25th, in warm soil, planting thinly in drills, about one and a half inches deep, and thinning to a foot or so; cultivate as with corn in drills. All pods not used for soup or stems during summer may be dried and used in winter. _Peas:_--With care in making successive sowings, peas may be had during a long season. The earliest, smooth varieties are planted in drills twelve to eighteen inches apart, early in April. These are, however, of very inferior quality compared to the wrinkled sorts, which may now be had practically as early as the others. With the market gardener, the difference of a few days in the maturing of the crop is of a great deal more importance than the quality, but for the home garden the opposite is true. Another method of planting the dwarf-growing kinds is to make beds of four rows, six to eight inches apart, with a two-foot alley between beds. The tall-growing sorts must be supported by brush or in other ways; and are put about four feet apart in double rows, six inches apart. The early varieties if sown in August will usually mature a good fall crop. The early plantings should be made in light, dry soil and but one inch deep; the later ones in deep loam. In neither case should the ground be made too rich, especially in nitrogen; and it should not be wet when the seed is planted. _Pepper:_--A dozen pepper plants will give abundance of pods for the average family. The varieties have been greatly improved within recent years in the quality of mildness. The culture recommended for egg-plant is applicable also to the pepper. The main difference is that, although the pepper is very tender when young, the crop maturing in the autumn will not be injured by considerable frost. _Pumpkin:_--The "sugar" or "pie" varieties of the pumpkin are the only ones used in garden culture, and these only where there is plenty of ground for all other purposes. The culture is the same as that for late squashes, which follows. _Squash:_--For the earliest squash the bush varieties of Scallop are used; to be followed by the summer Crookneck and other summer varieties, best among which are the Fordhook and Delicata. For all, hills should be prepared as described at the beginning of this section and in addition it is well to mix with manure a shovelful of coal ashes, used to keep away the borer, to the attack of which the squash is particularly liable. The cultivation is the same as that used for melons or cucumbers, except that the hills for the winter sorts must be at least eight feet apart and they are often put twelve. _Tomato:_--For the earliest crop, tomatoes are started about March 1st. They should be twice transplanted, and for best results the second transplanting should be put into pots--or into the frames, setting six to eight inches each way. They are not set out until danger of frost is over, and the ground should not be too rich; old manure used in the hill, with a dressing of nitrate at setting out, or a few days after, will give them a good start. According to variety, they are set three to five feet apart--four feet, where staking or trellising is given, as it should always be in garden culture, will be as much as the largest- growing plants require. It will pay well, both for quality and quantity of fruit, to keep most of the suckers cut or rubbed off. The ripening of a few fruits may be hastened by tying paper bags over the bunches, or by picking and ripening on a board in the hot sun. For ripening fruit after frost see Chapter XIV. A sharp watch should be kept for the large green tomato-worm, which is almost exactly the color of the foliage. His presence may first be noticed by fruit and leaves eaten. Hand-picking is the best remedy. Protection must be made against the cutworm in localities where he works. All the above, of course, will be considered in connection with the tabulated information as to dates, depths and distances for sowing, quantities, etc., given in the table in Chapter IV, and is supplemented by the information about insects, diseases and harvesting given in Chapters XIII and XIV, and especially in the Chapter on Varieties which follows, and which is given separately from the present chapter in order that the reader may the more readily make out a list, when planning his garden or making up his order sheet for the seedsman. CHAPTER XII BEST VARIETIES OF THE GARDEN VEGETABLES It is my purpose in this chapter to assist the gardener of limited experience to select varieties sure to give satisfaction. To the man or woman planning a garden for the first time there is no one thing more confusing than the selection of the best varieties. This in spite of the fact that catalogues should be, and might be, a great help instead of almost an actual hindrance. I suppose that seedsmen consider extravagance in catalogues, both in material and language, necessary, or they would not go to the limit in expense for printing and mailing, as they do. But from the point of view of the gardener, and especially of the beginner, it is to be regretted that we cannot have the plain unvarnished truth about varieties, for surely the good ones are good enough to use up all the legitimate adjectives upon which seedsmen would care to pay postage. But such is not the case. Every season sees the introduction of literally hundreds of new varieties--or, as is more often the case, old varieties under new names--which have actually no excuse for being unloaded upon the public except that they will give a larger profit to the seller. Of course, in a way, it is the fault of the public for paying the fancy prices asked--that is, that part of the public which does not know. Commercial planters and experienced gardeners stick to well known sorts. New varieties are tried, if at all, by the packet only--and then "on suspicion." In practically every instance the varieties mentioned have been grown by the author, but his recommendations are by no means based upon personal experience alone. Wherever introductions of recent years have proved to be actual improvements upon older varieties, they are given in preference to the old, which are, of course, naturally much better known. It is impossible for any person to pick out this, that or the other variety of a vegetable and label it unconditionally "the best." But the person who wants to save time in making out his seed list can depend upon the following to have been widely tested, and to have "made good." _Asparagus:_--While there are enthusiastic claims put forth for several of the different varieties of asparagus, as far as I have seen any authentic record of tests (Bulletin 173, N. J. Agr. Exp. Station), the prize goes to Palmetto, which gave twenty-eight per cent. more than its nearest rival, Donald's Elmira. Big yield alone is frequently no recommendation of a vegetable to the home gardener, but in this instance it does make a big difference; first, because Palmetto is equal to any other asparagus in quality, and second, because the asparagus bed is producing only a few weeks during the gardening season, and where ground is limited, as in most home gardens, it is important to cut this waste space down as much as possible. This is for beds kept in good shape and highly fed. Barr's Mammoth will probably prove more satisfactory if the bed is apt to be more or less neglected, for the reason that under such circumstances it will make thicker stalks than the Palmetto. _Beans (dwarf):_--Of the dwarf beans there are three general types: the early round-podded "string" beans, the stringless round- pods, and the usually more flattish "wax" beans. For first early, the old reliable Extra Early Red Valentine remains as good as any sort I have ever tried. In good strains of this variety the pods have very slight strings, and they are very fleshy. It makes only a small bush and is fairly productive and of good quality. The care-taking planter, however, will put in only enough of these first early beans to last a week or ten days, as the later sorts are more prolific and of better quality. Burpee's Stringless Greenpod is a good second early. It is larger, finer, stringless even when mature, and of exceptionally handsome appearance. Improved Refugee is the most prolific of the green-pods, and the best of them for quality, but with slight strings. Of the "wax" type, Brittle Wax is the earliest, and also a tremendous yielder. The long-time favorite, Rust-proof Golden Wax, is another fine sort, and an especially strong healthy grower. The top-notch in quality among all bush beans is reached, perhaps, in Burpee's White Wax--the white referring not to the pods, which are of a light yellow, and flat --but to the beans, which are pure white in all stages of growth. It has one unusual and extremely valuable quality--the pods remain tender longer than those of any other sort. Of the dwarf limas there is a new variety which is destined, I think, to become the leader of the half-dozen other good sorts to be had. That is the Burpee Improved. The name is rather misleading, as it is not an improved strain of the Dreer's or Kumerle bush lima, but a mutation, now thoroughly fixed. The bushes are stronger-growing and much larger than those of the older types, reaching a height of nearly three feet, standing strongly erect; both pods and beans are much larger, and it is a week earlier. Henderson's new Early Giant I have not yet tried, but from the description I should say it is the same type as the above. Of the pole limas, the new Giant-podded is the hardiest--an important point in limas, which are a little delicate in constitution anyway, especially in the seedling stage--and the biggest yielder of any I have grown and just as good in quality--and there is no vegetable much better than well cooked limas. With me, also, it has proved as early as that old standard, Early Leviathan, but this may have been a chance occurrence. Ford's Mammoth is another excellent pole lima of large size. Of the other pole beans, the two that are still my favorites are Kentucky Wonder, or Old Homestead, and Golden Cluster. The former has fat meaty green pods, entirely stringless until nearly mature, and of enormous length. I have measured many over eight and a half inches long--and they are borne in great profusion. Golden Cluster is one of the handsomest beans I know. It is happily named, for the pods, of a beautiful rich golden yellow color, hang in generous clusters and great profusion. In quality it has no superior; it has always been a great favorite with my customers. One need never fear having too many of these, as the dried beans are pure white and splendid for winter use. Last season I tried a new pole bean called Burger's Green-pod Stringless or White-seeded Kentucky Wonder (the dried seeds of the old sort being brown). It did well, but was in so dry a place that I could not tell whether it was an improvement over the standard or not. It is claimed to be earlier. _Beets:_--In beets, varieties are almost endless, but I confess that I have found no visible difference in many cases. Edmund's Early and Early Model are good for first crops. The Egyptian strains, though largely used for market, have never been as good in quality with me. For the main crop I like Crimson Globe. In time it is a second early, of remarkably good form, smooth skin and fine quality and color. _Broccoli:_--This vegetable is a poorer cousin of the cauliflower (which, by the way, has been termed "only a cabbage with a college education"). It is of little use where cauliflower can be grown, but serves as a substitute in northern sections, as it is more hardy than that vegetable. Early White French is the standard sort. _Brussels sprouts:_--This vegetable, in my opinion, is altogether too little grown. It is as easy to grow as fall and winter cabbage, and while the yield is less, the quality is so much superior that for the home garden it certainly should be a favorite. Today (Jan. 19th) we had for dinner sprouts from a few old plants that had been left in transplanting boxes in an open coldframe. These had been out all winter--with no protection, repeatedly freezing and thawing, and, while of course small, they were better in quality than any cabbage you ever ate. Dalkeith is the best dwarf-growing sort. Danish Prize is a new sort, giving a much heavier yield than the older types. I have tried it only one year, but should say it will become the standard variety. _Cabbage:_--In cabbages, too, there is an endless mix-up of varieties. The Jersey Wakefield still remains the standard early. But it is at the best but a few days ahead of the flat-headed early sorts which stand much longer without breaking, so that for the home garden a very few heads will do. Glory of Enkhuisen is a new early sort that has become a great favorite. Early Summer and Succession are good to follow these, and Danish Ballhead is the best quality winter cabbage, and unsurpassed for keeping qualities. But for the home garden the Savoy type is, to my mind, far and away the best. It is not in the same class with the ordinary sorts at all. Perfection Drumhead Savoy is the best variety. Of the red cabbages, Mammoth Rock is the standard. _Carrots:_--The carrots are more restricted as to number of varieties. Golden Ball is the earliest of them all, but also the smallest yielder. Early Scarlet Horn is the standard early, being a better yielder than the above. The Danvers Half-long is probably grown more than all other kinds together. It grows to a length of about six inches, a very attractive deep orange in color. Where the garden soil is not in excellent condition, and thoroughly fined and pulverized as it should be, the shorter-growing kinds, Ox-heart and Chantenay, will give better satisfaction. If there is any choice in quality, I should award it to Chantenay. _Cauliflower_;--There is hardly a seed catalogue which does not contain its own special brand of the very best and earliest cauliflower ever introduced. These are for the most part selected strains of either the old favorite, Henderson's Snowball, or the old Early Dwarf Erfurt. Snowball, and Burpee's Best Early, which resembles it, are the best varieties I have ever grown for spring or autumn. They are more likely to head, and of much finer quality than any of the large late sorts. Where climatic conditions are not favorable to growing cauliflower, and in dry sections, Dry-weather is the most certain to form heads. _Celery:_--For the home garden the dwarf-growing, "self-blanching" varieties of celery are much to be preferred. White Plume and Golden Self-blanching are the best. The former is the earliest celery and of excellent quality, but not a good keeper. Recent introductions in celery have proved very real improvements. Perhaps the best of the newer sorts, for home use, is Winter Queen, as it is more readily handled than some of the standard market sorts. In quality it has no superior. When put away for winter properly, it will keep through April. _Corn:_--You will have to suit yourself about corn. I have not the temerity to name any best varieties--every seedsman has about half a dozen that are absolutely unequaled. For home use, I have cut my list down to three: Golden Bantam, a dwarf-growing early of extraordinary hardiness--can be planted earlier than any other sort and, while the ears are small and with yellow kernels, it is exceptionally sweet and fine in flavor. This novelty of a few years since, has attained wide popular favor as quickly as any vegetable I know. Seymour's Sweet Orange is a new variety, somewhat similar to Golden Bantam, but later and larger, of equally fine quality. White Evergreen, a perfected strain of Stowell's Evergreen, a standard favorite for years, is the third. It stays tender longer than any other sweet corn I have ever grown. _Cucumbers:_--Of cucumbers also there is a long and varied list of names. The old Extra Early White Spine is still the best early; for the main crop, some "perfected" form of White Spine. I myself like the Fordhood Famous, as it is the healthiest strain I ever grew, and has very large fruit that stays green, while being of fine quality. In the last few years the Davis Perfect has won great popularity, and deservedly so. Many seedsmen predict that this is destined to become the leading standard--and where seedsmen agree let us prick up our ears! It has done very well with me, the fruit being the handsomest of any I have grown. If it proves as strong a grower it will replace Fordhood Famous with me. _Egg-plant:_--New York Improved Purple is still the standard, but it has been to a large extent replaced by Black Beauty, which has the merit of being ten days earlier and a more handsome fruit. When once tried it will very likely be the only sort grown. _Endive:_--This is a substitute for lettuce for which I personally have never cared. It is largely used commercially. Broad-leaved Batavian is a good variety. Giant Fringed is the largest. _Kale:_--Kale is a foreigner which has never been very popular in this country. Dwarf Scott Curled is the tenderest and most delicate (or least coarse) in flavor. _Kohlrabi:_--This peculiar mongrel should be better known. It looks as though a turnip had started to climb into the cabbage class and stopped half-way. When gathered young, not more than an inch and a half in diameter at the most, they are quite nice and tender. They are of the easiest cultivation. White Vienna is the best. _Leek:_--For those who like this sort of thing it is--just the sort of thing they like. American Flag is the best variety, but why it was given the first part of that name, I do not know. _Lettuce:_--To cover the lettuces thoroughly would take a chapter by itself. For lack of space, I shall have to mention only a few varieties, although there are many others as good and suited to different purposes. For quality, I put Mignonette at the top of the list, but it makes very small heads. Grand Rapids is the best loose- head sort--fine for under glass, in frames and early outdoors. Last fall from a bench 40 x 4 ft., I sold $36 worth in one crop, besides some used at home. I could not sell winter head lettuce to customers who had once had this sort, so good was its quality. May King and Big Boston are the best outdoor spring and early summer sorts. New York and Deacon are the best solid cabbage-head types for resisting summer heat, and long standing. Of the cos type Paris White is good. _Muskmelon:_--The varieties of muskmelon are also without limit. I mention but two--which have given good satisfaction out of a large number tried, in my own experience. Netted Gem (known as Rocky Ford) for a green-fleshed type, and Emerald Gem for salmon-fleshed. There are a number of newer varieties, such as Hoodoo, Miller's Cream, Montreal, Nutmeg, etc., all of excellent quality. _Watermelon:_--With me (in Connecticut) the seasons are a little short for this fruit. Cole's Early and Sweetheart have made the best showing. Halbert Honey is the best for quality. _Okra:_--In cool sections the Perfected Perkins does best, but it is not quite so good in quality as the southern favorite, White Velvet. The flowers and plants of this vegetable are very ornamental. _Onion:_--For some unknown reason, different seedsmen call the same onion by the same name. I have never found any explanation of this, except that a good many onions given different names in the catalogues are really the same thing. At least they grade into each other more than other vegetables. With me Prizetaker is the only sort now grown in quantity, as I have found it to outyield all other yellows, and to be a good keeper. It is a little milder in quality than the American yellows--Danvers and Southport Globe. When started under glass and transplanted out in April, it attains the size and the quality of the large Spanish onions of which it is a descendant. Weathersfield Red is the standard flat red, but not quite so good in quality or for keeping as Southport Red Globe. Of the whites I like best Mammoth Silver-skin. It is ready early and the finest in quality, to my taste, of all the onions, but not a good keeper. Ailsa Craig, a new English sort now listed in several American catalogues, is the best to grow for extra fancy onions, especially for exhibiting; it should be started in February or March under glass. _Parsley:_--Emerald is a large-growing, beautifully colored and mild-flavored sort, well worthy of adoption. _Parsnip:_--This vegetable is especially valuable because it may be had at perfection when other vegetables are scarce. Hollow Crown ("Improved," of course!) is the best. _Peas:_--Peas are worse than corn. You will find enough exclamation points in the pea sections of catalogues to train the vines on. If you want to escape brain-fag and still have as good as the best, if not better, plant Gradus (or Prosperity) for early and second early; Boston Unrivaled (an improved form of Telephone) for main crop, and Gradus for autumn. These two peas are good yielders, free growers and of really wonderfully fine quality. They need bushing, but I have never found a variety of decent quality that does not. _Pepper:_--Ruby King is the standard, large, red, mild pepper, and as good as any. Chinese Giant is a newer sort, larger but later. The flesh is extremely thick and mild. On account of this quality, it will have a wider range of use than the older sorts. _Pumpkins:_--The old Large Cheese, and the newer Quaker Pie, are as prolific, hardy and fine in quality and sweetness as any. _Potato:_--Bovee is a good early garden sort, but without the best of culture is very small. Irish Cobbler is a good early white. Green Mountain is a universal favorite for main crop in the East--a sure yielder and heavy-crop potato of excellent quality. Uncle Sam is the best quality potato I ever grew. Baked, they taste almost as rich as chestnuts. _Radish:_--I do not care to say much about radishes; I do not like them. They are, however, universal favorites. They come round, half- long, long and tapering; white, red, white-tipped, crimson, rose, yellow-brown and black; and from the size of a button to over a foot long by fifteen inches in circumference--the latter being the new Chinese or Celestial. So you can imagine what a revel of varieties the seedsmen may indulge in. I have tried many--and cut my own list down to two, Rapid-red (probably an improvement of the old standard, Scarlet Button), and Crimson Globe (or Giant), a big, rapid, healthy grower of good quality, and one that does not get "corky." A little land-plaster, or gypsum, worked into the soil at time of planting, will add to both appearance and quality in radishes. _Spinach:_--The best variety of spinach is Swiss Chard Beet (see below). If you want the real sort, use Long Season, which will give you cuttings long after other sorts have run to seed. New Zealand will stand more heat than any other sort. Victoria is a newer variety, for which the claim of best quality is made. In my own trial I could not notice very much difference. It has, however, thicker and "savoyed" leaves. _Salsify:_--This is, to my taste, the most delicious of all root vegetables. It will not do well in soil not deep and finely pulverized, but a row or two for home use can be had by digging and fining before sowing the seed. It is worth extra work. Mammoth Sandwich is the best variety. _Squash:_--Of this fine vegetable there are no better sorts for the home garden than the little Delicata, and Fordhook. Vegetable Marrow is a fine English sort that does well in almost all localities. The best of the newer large-vined sorts is The Delicious. It is of finer quality than the well known Hubbard. For earliest use, try a few plants of White or Yellow Bush Scalloped. They are not so good in quality as either Delicata or Fordhook, which are ready within a week or so later. The latter are also excellent keepers and can be had, by starting plants early and by careful storing, almost from June to June. _Tomato:_--If you have a really hated enemy, give him a dozen seed catalogues and ask him to select for you the best four tomatoes. But unless you want to become criminally involved, send his doctor around the next morning. A few years ago I tried over forty kinds. A good many have been introduced since, some of which I have tried. I am prepared to make the following statements: Earliana is the earliest quality tomato, for light warm soils, that I have ever grown; Chalk's Jewel, the earliest for heavier soils (Bonny Best Early resembles it); Matchless is a splendid main-crop sort; Ponderosa is the biggest and best quality--but it likes to split. There is one more sort, which I have tried one year only, so do not accept my opinion as conclusive. It is the result of a cross between Ponderosa and Dwarf Champion--one of the strongest-growing sorts. It is called Dwarf Giant. The fruits are tremendous in size and in quality unsurpassed by any. The vine is very healthy, strong and stocky. I believe this new tomato will become the standard main crop for the home garden. By all means try it. And that is a good deal to say for a novelty in its second year! _Turnip:_--The earliest turnip of good quality is the White Milan. There are several others of the white-fleshed sorts, but I have never found them equal in quality for table to the yellow sorts. Of these, Golden Ball (or Orange Jelly) is the best quality. Petrowski is a different and distinct sort, of very early maturity and of especially fine quality. If you have room for but one sort in your home garden, plant this for early, and a month later for main crop. Do not fail to try some of this year's novelties. Half the fun of gardening is in the experimenting. But when you are testing out the new things in comparison with the old, just take a few plants of the latter and give them the same extra care and attention. Very often the reputation of a novelty is built upon the fact that in growing it on trial the gardener has given it unusual care and the best soil and location at his command. Be fair to the standards--and very often they will surprise you fully as much as the novelties. CHAPTER XIII INSECTS AND DISEASES AND METHODS OF FIGHTING THEM I use the term "methods of fighting" rather than the more usual one, "remedies," because by both experience and study I am more and more convinced that so long as the commercial fields of agriculture remain in the present absolutely unorganized condition, and so long as the gardener--home or otherwise--who cares to be neglectful and thus become a breeder of all sorts of plant pests, is allowed so to do--just so long we can achieve no remedy worth the name. When speaking of a remedy in this connection we very frequently are putting the cart before the horse, and refer to some means of prevention. Prevention is not only the best, but often the only cure. This the gardener should always remember. This subject of plant enemies has not yet received the attention from scientific investigators which other branches of horticulture have, and it is altogether somewhat complicated. Before taking up the various insects and diseases the following analysis and list will enable the reader to get a general comprehension of the whole matter. Plant enemies are of two kinds--(1) insects, and (2) diseases. The former are of two kinds, (a) insects which chew or eat the leaves or fruit; (b) insects which suck the juices therefrom. The diseases also are of two kinds--(a) those which result from the attack of some fungus, or germ; (b) those which attack the whole organism of the plant and are termed "constitutional." Concerning these latter practically nothing is known. It will be seen at once, of course, that the remedy to be used must depend upon the nature of the enemy to be fought. We can therefore reduce the matter to a simple classification, as follows: PLANT ENEMIES Insects Class Eating a Sucking b Diseases Parasitical c Constitutional d REMEDIES Mechanical Number Covered boxes........... 1 Collars................. 2 Cards................... 3 Destructive Hand-picking............ 4 Kerosene emulsion....... 5 Whale-oil soap.......... 6 Miscible oils........... 7 Tobacco dust............ 8 Carbolic acid emulsion.. 9 Corrosive sublimate.... 10 Bordeaux mixture....... 11 Poisonous Paris green............ 12 Arsenate of lead....... 13 Hellebore.............. 14 It will be of some assistance, particularly as regards quick reference, to give the following table, which shows at a glance the method of fighting any enemy, the presence of which is known or anticipated. While this may seem quite a formidable list, in practice many of these pests will not appear, and under ordinary circumstances the following six remedies out of those mentioned will suffice to keep them all in check, _if used in time:_ Covered boxes, hand-picking, kerosene emulsion, tobacco dust, Bordeaux mixture, arsenate of lead. ENEMY | ATTACKING | CLASS | REMEDY --------------------|----------------------------|--------|------- Aphis (Plant-lice) | Cabbage and other plants, | b | 5,8,6 | especially under glass | | Asparagus-beetle | Asparagus | a | 13, 12 Asparagus rust | Asparagus | c | 11 Black-rot | Cabbage and the cabbage | d | 10 | group | | Borers | Squash | b | 4 Caterpillars | Cabbage group | a |12, 14, 4 Caterpillars | Tomato | a | 4 Club-root | Cabbage group | c | see text Cucumber-beetle | Cucumber and vines | a | 1, 11, 8 (Striped beetle) | | | Cucumber-wilt | Cucumber and vines | c | 11 Cucumber-blight | Cucumber, muskmelon, | c | 11 | cabbage | | Cut-worm | Cabbage, tomato, onion | a |2,4,12,13 Flea-beetle | Potato, turnip, radish | a | 11, 5 Potato-beetle | Potato and egg-plant | a |12, 13, 4 Potato-blight | Potato | c | 11 Potato-scab | Potato (tubers) | c | 10 Root-maggot | Radish, onion, cabbage, | a | 4, 3, 9 | melons | | Squash-bug | Squash, pumpkin | b |4,8,12,5 White-fly | Plants; cucumber, tomato | b | 6, 5, 8 White-grub | Plants | a | 4 However, that the home gardener may be prepared to meet any contingency, I shall take up in brief detail the plant enemies mentioned and the remedies suggested. _Aphis:_--The small, soft green plant-lice. They seldom attack healthy growing plants in the field, but are hard to keep off under glass. If once established it will take several applications to get rid of them. Use kerosene or soap emulsion, or tobacco dust. There are also several trade-marked preparations that are good. Aphine, which may be had of any seed house, has proved very effective in my own work, and it is the pleasantest to use that I have so far found. _Asparagus-beetle:_--This pest will give little trouble on cleanly cultivated patches. Thorough work with arsenate of lead (1 to 25) will take care of it. _Black-rot:_--This affects the cabbage group, preventing heading, by falling of the leaves. In clean, thoroughly limed soil, with proper rotations, it is not likely to appear. The seed may be soaked, in cases where the disease has appeared previously, for fifteen minutes in a pint of water in which one of the corrosive sublimate tablets which are sold at drug stores is dissolved. _Borers:_--This borer is a flattish, white grub, which penetrates the main stem of squash or other vines near the ground and seems to sap the strength of the plant, even when the vines have attained a length of ten feet or more. His presence is first made evident by the wilting of the leaves during the noonday heat. Coal ashes mixed with the manure in the hill, is claimed to be a preventative. Another is to plant some early squash between the hills prepared for the winter crop, and not to plant the latter until as late as possible. The early squash vines, which act as a trap, are pulled and burned. Last season almost half the vines in one of my pieces were attacked after many of the squashes were large enough to eat. With a little practice I was able to locate the borer's exact position, shown by a spot in the stalk where the flesh was soft, and of a slightly different color. With a thin, sharp knife-blade the vines were carefully slit lengthwise on this spot, the borer extracted and killed and the vines in almost every instance speedily recovered. Another method is to root the vines by heaping moist earth over several of the leaf joints, when the vines have attained sufficient length. _Cabbage-caterpillar:_--This small green worm, which hatches upon the leaves and in the forming heads of cabbage and other vegetables of the cabbage group, comes from the eggs laid by the common white or yellow butterfly of early spring. Pick off all that are visible, and spray with kerosene emulsion if the heads have not begun to form. If they have, use hellebore instead. The caterpillar or worm of tomatoes is a large green voracious one. Hand-picking is the only remedy. _Club-root:_--This is a parasitical disease attacking the cabbage group, especially in ground where these crops succeed each other. Lime both soil and seed-bed--at least the fall before planting, unless using a special agricultural lime. The crop infested is sometimes carried through by giving a special dressing of nitrate of soda, guano or other quick-acting powerful fertilizer, and hilled high with moist earth, thus giving a special stimulation and encouraging the formation of new roots. While this does not in any way cure the disease, it helps the crop to withstand its attack. When planting again be sure to use crop rotation and to set plants not grown in infested soil. _Cucumber-beetle:_--This is the small, black-and-yellow-striped beetle which attacks cucumbers and other vines and, as it multiplies rapidly and does a great deal of damage before the results show, they must be attended to immediately upon appearance. The vine should be protected with screens until they crowd the frames, which should be put in place before the beetles put in an appearance. If the beetles are still in evidence when the vines get so large that the screens must be removed, keep sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. Plaster, or fine ashes, sifted on the vines will also keep them off to some extent, by keeping the leaves covered. _Cucumber-wilt:_--This condition accompanies the presence of the striped beetle, although supposed not to be directly caused by it. The only remedy is to get rid of the beetles as above, and to collect and burn every wilted leaf or plant. _Cucumber-blight_ or _Mildew_ is similar to that which attacks muskmelons, the leaves turning yellow, dying in spots and finally drying up altogether. Where there is reason to fear an attack of this disease, or upon the first appearance, spray thoroughly with Bordeaux, 5-5-50, and repeat every ten days or so. The spraying seems to be more effective on cucumbers than on melons. _Cut-worm:_--The cut-worm is perhaps the most annoying of all garden pests. Others do more damage, but none is so exasperating. He works at night, attacks the strongest, healthiest plants, and is content simply to cut them off, seldom, apparently, eating much or carrying away any of the severed leaves or stems, although occasionally I have found such bits, especially small onion tops, dragged off and partly into the soil. In small gardens the quickest and best remedy is hand-picking. As the worms work at night they may be found with a lantern; or very early in the morning. In daytime by digging about in the soil wherever a cut is found, and by careful search, they can almost invariably be turned out. As a preventive, and a supplement to hand-picking, a poisoned bait should be used. This is made by mixing bran with water until a "mash" is made, to which is added a dusting of Paris green or arsenate of lead, sprayed on thickly and thoroughly worked through the mass. This is distributed in small amounts--a tablespoonful or so to a place along the row or near each hill or plant--just as they are coming up or set out. Still another method, where only a few plants are put out, is to protect each by a collar of tin or tar paper. _Flea-beetle:_--This small, black or striped hard-shelled mite attacks potatoes and young cabbage, radish and turnip plants. It is controlled by spraying with kerosene emulsion or Bordeaux. _Potato-beetle:_--The striped Colorado beetle, which invariably finds the potato patch, no matter how small or isolated. Paris green, dry or sprayed, is the standard remedy. Arsenate of lead is now largely used. On small plots hand-picking of old bugs and destruction of eggs (which are laid on under side of leaves) is quick and sure. _Potato-blight:_--Both early and late forms of blight are prevented by Bordeaux, 5-5-50, sprayed every two weeks. Begin early-- when plants are about six inches high. _Potato-scab:_--Plant on new ground; soak the seed in solution prepared as directed under No. 10, which see; allow no treated tubers to touch bags, boxes, bins or soil where untreated ones have been kept. _Root-maggot:_--This is a small white grub, often causing serious injury to radishes, onions and the cabbage group. Liming the soil and rotation are the best preventives. Destroy all infested plants, being sure to get the maggots when pulling them up. The remaining plants should be treated with a gill of strong caustic lime water, or solution of muriate of potash poured about the root of each plant, first removing an inch or so of earth. In place of these solutions carbolic acid emulsion is sometimes used; or eight to ten drops of bisulphide of carbon are dropped into a hole made near the roots with the dibber and then covered in. Extra stimulation, as directed for _Club-root_, will help carry the plants through. _Squash-bug:_--This is the large, black, flat "stink-bug," so destructive of squash and the other running vines. Protection with frames, or hand-picking, are the best home garden remedies. The old bugs may be trapped under boards and by early vines. The young bugs, or "sap-sucking nymphs," are the ones that do the real damage. Heavy tobacco dusting, or kerosene emulsion will kill them. _White-Fly:_--This is the most troublesome under glass, where it is controlled by fumigation, but occasionally is troublesome on plants and tomato and cucumber vines. The young are scab-like insects and do the real damage. Spray with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap. _White-grub_ or _muck-worm:_--When lawns are infested the sod must be taken up, the grubs destroyed and new sward made. When the roots of single plants are attacked, dig out, destroy the grubs and, if the plant is not too much injured, reset. The remedies given in the table above are prepared as follows: MECHANICAL REMEDIES 1.--_Covered boxes:_--These are usually made of half-inch stuff, about eight inches high and covered with mosquito netting, wire or "protecting cloth"--the latter having the extra advantage of holding warmth over night. 2.--_Collars_ are made of old cans with the bottoms removed, cardboard or tarred paper, large enough to go over the plant and an inch or so into the ground. 3.--_Cards_ are cut and fitted close around the stem and for an inch or so upon the ground around it, to prevent maggots going down the stem to the root. Not much used. DESTRUCTIVE REMEDIES 4.--_Hand-picking_ is usually very effective, and if performed as follows, not very disagreeable: Fasten a small tin can securely to a wooden handle and fill one-third full of water and kerosene; make a small wooden paddle, with one straight edge and a rather sharp point; by using this in the right hand and the pan in the left, the bugs may be quickly knocked off. Be sure to destroy all eggs when hand-picking is used. 5.--_Kerosene emulsion_ is used in varying strengths; for method of preparing, see Chapter XVII. 6 and 7.--For use of whale-oil soap and miscible oils, see Chapter XVII. 8.--_Tobacco dust:_--This article varies greatly. Most sorts are next to worthless, but a few of the brands especially prepared for this work (and sold usually at $3 per hundred pounds, which will last two ordinary home gardens a whole season) are very convenient to use, and effective. Apply with a duster, like that described in Implements. 9.--_Carbolic acid emulsion:_--1 pint crude acid, 1 lb. soap and 1 gal. water. Dissolve the soap in hot water, add balance of water and pump into an emulsion, as described for kerosene emulsion. 10.--_Corrosive sublimate_ is used to destroy scab on potatoes for seed by dissolving 1 oz. in 7 gals, of water. The same result is obtained by soaking for thirty minutes in a solution of commercial formalin, at the rate of 1 gill to 15 gals. of water. 11.--_Bordeaux mixture:_--See Chapter XVII. POISONOUS REMEDIES 12.--_Paris green:_--This is the standard remedy for eating-bugs and worms. With a modern dusting machine it can be put on dry, early in the morning when the dew is still on. Sometimes it is mixed with plaster. For tender plants easily burned by the pure powder, and where dusting is not convenient, it is mixed with water at the rate of 1 lb. to 50 to 100 gals. and used as a spray. In mixing, make a paste of equal quantities of the powder and quicklime, and then mix thoroughly in the water. It must be kept stirred up when using. 13.--_Arsenate of lead:_--This has two advantages over Paris green: It will not burn the foliage and it will stay on several times as long. Use from 4 to 10 lbs. in 100 gals. of water; mix well and strain before putting in sprayer. See also Chapter XVII. 14.--_Hellebore:_--A dry, white powder, used in place of Nos. 12 or 13 on vegetables or fruit that is soon to be eaten. For dusting, use 1 lb. hellebore to 5 of plaster or flour. For watering or spraying, at rate of 1 lb. to 12 gals. of water. PRECAUTIONS So much for what we can do in actual hand-to-hand, or rather hand-to- mouth, conflict with the enemy. Very few remedies have ever proved entirely successful, especially on crops covering any considerable area. It will be far better, far easier and far more effective to use the following means of precaution against plant pest ravages: First, aim to have soil, food and plants that will produce a rapid, robust growth without check. Such plants are seldom attacked by any plant disease, and the foliage does not seem to be so tempting to eating- insects; besides which, of course, the plants are much better able to withstand their attack if they do come. Second, give clean, frequent culture and keep the soil busy. Do not have old weeds and refuse lying around for insects and eggs to be sheltered by. Burn all leaves, stems and other refuse from plants that have been diseased. Do not let the ground lie idle, but by continuous cropping keep the bugs, caterpillars and eggs constantly rooted out and exposed to their natural enemies. Third, practice crop rotation. This is of special importance where any root disease is developed. Fourth, watch closely and constantly for the first appearance of trouble. The old adages "eternal vigilance is the price of peace," and "a stitch in time saves nine," are nowhere more applicable than to this matter. And last, and of extreme importance, be prepared to act _at once_. Do not give the enemy an hour's rest after his presence is discovered. In almost every case it is only by having time to multiply, that damage amounting to anything will be done. If you will keep on hand, ready for instant use, a good hand-sprayer and a modern powder gun, a few covered boxes, tobacco dust, arsenate of lead and materials for kerosene emulsion and Bordeaux mixture, and are not afraid to resort to hand-picking when necessary, you will be able to cope with all the plant enemies you are likely to encounter. The slight expense necessary--considering that the two implements mentioned will last for years with a little care--will pay as handsome a dividend as any garden investment you can make. CHAPTER XIV HARVESTING AND STORING It is a very common thing to allow the garden vegetables not used to rot on the ground, or in it. There is a great deal of unnecessary waste in this respect, for a great many of the things so neglected may just as well be carried into winter, and will pay a very handsome dividend for the slight trouble of gathering and storing them. A good frost-proof, cool cellar is the best and most convenient place in which to store the surplus product of the home garden. But, lacking this, a room partitioned off in the furnace cellar and well ventilated, or a small empty room, preferably on the north side of the house, that can be kept below forty degrees most of the time, will serve excellently. Or, some of the most bulky vegetables, such as cabbage and the root crops, may be stored in a prepared pit made in the garden itself. As it is essential that such a pit be properly constructed, I shall describe one with sufficient detail to enable the home gardener readily to construct it. Select a spot where water will not stand. Put the vegetables in a triangular-shaped pile, the base three or four feet wide, and as long as required. Separate the different vegetables in this pile by stakes about two feet higher than the top of the pile, and label them. Then cover with a layer of clean straw or bog hay, and over this four inches of soil, dug up three feet back from the edges of the pile. This work must be done late in the fall, as nearly as one can judge just before lasting freezing begins, and preferably on a cold morning when the ground is just beginning to freeze; the object being to freeze the partly earth covering at once, so that it will not be washed or blown off. The vegetables must be perfectly dry when stored; dig them a week or so previous and keep them in an airy shed. As soon as this first layer of earth is partly frozen, but before it freezes through, put on another thick layer of straw or hay and cover with twelve inches of earth, keeping the pile as steep as possible; a slightly clayey soil, that may be beaten down firmly into shape with a spade, being best. The pile should be made where it will be sheltered from the sun as much as possible, such as on the north side of a building. The disadvantage of the plan is, of course, that the vegetables cannot be got at until the pile is opened up, in early spring, or late if desired. Its two advantages are that the vegetables stored will be kept in better condition than in any cellar, and that cellar or house room will be saved. For storing small quantities of the roots, such as carrots or beets, they are usually packed in boxes or barrels and covered in with clean sand. Where an upstairs room has to be used, swamp or sphagnum moss may replace the sand. It makes an ideal packing medium, as it is much lighter and cleaner than the sand. In many localities it may be had for the gathering; in others one may get it from a florist. In storing vegetables of any kind, and by whatever method, see to it that: (1) They are always clean, dry and sound. The smallest spot or bruise is a danger center, which may spread destruction to the lot. (2) That the temperature, whatever required--in most cases 33-38 degrees being best--is kept as even as possible. (3) That the storage place is kept clean, dry (by ventilation when needed) and sweet (by use of whitewash and lime). (4) That no rats or other rodents are playing havoc with your treasures while you never suspect it. So many of the vegetables can be kept, for either part or all of the winter, that I shall take them up in order, with brief directions. Many, such as green beans, rhubarb, tomatoes, etc., which cannot be kept in the ordinary ways, may be easily and cheaply canned, and where one has a good cellar, it will certainly pay to get a canning outfit and make use of this method. _Beans:_--Almost all the string and snap beans, when dried in the pods, are excellent for cooking. And any pods which have not been gathered in the green state should be picked, _as soon as dry_ (as wet weather is likely to mould or sprout them), and stored in a dry place, or spread on a bench in the sun. They will keep, either shelled or in the dry pods, for winter. _Beets:_--In October, before the first hard frosts, take up and store in a cool cellar, in clean, perfectly dry sand, or in pits outside (see Cabbage); do not cut off the long tap roots, nor the tops close enough to cause any "bleeding." _Brussels sprouts:_--These are improved by freezing, and may be used from the open garden until December. If wanted later, store them with cabbage, or hang up the stalks in bunches in a cold cellar. _Cabbage:_--If only a few heads are to be stored, a cool cellar will do. Even if where they will be slightly frozen, they will not be injured, so long as they do not freeze and thaw repeatedly. They should not be taken in until there is danger of severe freezing, as they will keep better, and a little frost improves the flavor. For storing small quantities outdoors, dig a trench, a foot or so deep, in a well drained spot, wide enough to admit two heads side by side. Pull up the cabbages, without removing either stems or outer leaves, and store side by side, head down, in the bottom of the trench. Now cover over lightly with straw, meadow hay, or any refuse which will keep the dirt from freezing to the cabbages, and then cover over the whole with earth, to the depth of several inches, but allowing the top of the roots to remain exposed, which will facilitate digging them up as required. Do not bury the cabbage until as late as possible before severe freezing, as a spell of warm weather would rot it. _Carrots:_--Treat in the same way as beets. They will not be hurt by a slight freezing of the tops, before being dug, but care must be taken not to let the roots become touched by frost. _Celery:_--That which is to be used early is blanched outside, by banking, as described in Chapter XI, and as celery will stand a little freezing, will be used directly from the garden. For the portion to be kept over winter, provide boxes about a foot wide, and nearly as deep as the celery is high. Cover the bottoms of these boxes with two or three inches of sand, and wet thoroughly. Upon this stand the celery upright, and packed close together. In taking up the celery for storing in this way, the roots and whatever earth adheres to them are kept on, not cut, as it is bought in the stores. The boxes are then stored in a cellar, or other dark, dry, cold place where the temperature will not go more than five degrees below freezing. The celery will be ready for use after Christmas. If a long succession is wanted, store from the open two or three different times, say at the end of October, first part of November and the latter part of November. _Cucumbers, Melons, Egg-plant:_--While there is no way of storing these for any great length of time without recourse to artificial cold, they may be had for some time by storing just before the first frosts in a cool, dark cellar, care being taken in handling the fruits to give them no bruises. _Onions:_--If the onions got a good early start in the spring, the tops will begin to die down by the middle of August. As soon as the tops have turned yellow and withered they should be pulled, on the first clear dry day, and laid in windrows (three or four rows in one), but not heaped up. They should be turned over frequently, by hand or with a wooden rake, and removed to a shed or barn floor as soon as dry, where the tops can be cut off. Keep them spread out as much as possible, and give them open ventilation until danger of frost. Then store in a dry place and keep as cool as possible without freezing. A few barrels, with holes knocked in the sides, will do well for a small quantity. _Parsley:_--Take up a few plants and keep in a flower-pot or small box, in the kitchen window. _Parsnips:_--These will stay in the ground without injury all winter, but part of the crop may be taken up late in the fall and stored with beets, carrots and turnips, to use while the ground is frozen. _Potatoes:_--When the vines have died down and the skin of the new potatoes has become somewhat hardened, they can be dug and stored in a cool, dry cellar at once. Be sure to give plenty of ventilation until danger of frost. Keep from the light, as this has the effect of making the potatoes bitter. If there is any sign of rot among the tubers, do not dig them up until it has stopped. _Squash and Pumpkins:_--The proper conditions for storing for winter will be indicated by the drying and shrinking of the stem. _Cut_ them from the vines, being careful never to break off the stem, turn over, rub off the dirt and leave the under side exposed to a few days' sunlight. Then carry in a spring wagon, or spring wheelbarrow, covered with old bags or hay to keep from any bruises. Store in the dryest part of the cellar, and if possible where the temperature will not go below forty degrees. Leave them on the vines in the field as late as possible, while escaping frosts. _Tomatoes:_--Just before the first frosts are likely to begin, pick all of the best of the unripened fruits. Place part of these on clean straw in a coldframe, giving protection, where they will gradually ripen up. Place others, that are fully developed but not ripe, in straw in the cellar. In this way fresh tomatoes may frequently be had as late as Christmas. _Turnip:_--These roots, if desired, can be stored as are beets or carrots. It is hard to retain our interest in a thing when most of its usefulness has gone by. It is for that reason, I suppose, that one sees so many forsaken and weed-grown gardens every autumn, where in the spring everything was neat and clean. But there are two very excellent reasons why the vegetable garden should not be so abandoned--to say nothing of appearances! The first is that many vegetables continue to grow until the heavy frosts come; and the second, that the careless gardener who thus forsakes his post is sowing no end of trouble for himself for the coming year. For weeds left to themselves, even late in the fall, grow in the cool moist weather with astonishing rapidity, and, almost before one realizes it, transform the well kept garden into a ragged wilderness, where the intruders have taken such a strong foothold that they cannot be pulled up without tearing everything else with them. So we let them go--and, left to themselves, they accomplish their purpose in life, and leave upon the ground an evenly distributed supply of plump ripe seeds, which next spring will cause the perennial exclamation, "Mercy, John, where did all these weeds come from?" And John replies, "I don't know; we kept the garden clean last summer. I think there must be weed seeds in the fertilizer." Do not let up on your fight with weeds, for every good vegetable that is left over can be put to some use. Here and there in the garden will be a strip that has gone by, and as it is now too late to plant, we just let it go. Yet now is the time we should be preparing all such spots for withstanding next summer's drouth! You may remember how strongly was emphasized the necessity for having abundant humus (decayed vegetable matter) in the soil--how it acts like a sponge to retain moisture and keep things growing through the long, dry spells which we seem to be sure of getting every summer. So take thought for next year. Buy a bushel of rye, and as fast as a spot in your garden can be cleaned up, harrow, dig or rake it over, and sow the rye on broadcast. Just enough loose surface dirt to cover it and let it sprout, is all it asks. If the weather is dry, and you can get a small roller, roll it in to ensure better germination. It will come up quickly; it will keep out the weeds which otherwise would be taking possession of the ground; it will grow until the ground is frozen solid and begin again with the first warm spring day; it will keep your garden from washing out in heavy rains, and capture and save from being washed away and wasted a good deal of left-over plant food; it will serve as just so much real manure for your garden; it will improve the mechanical condition of the soil, and it will add the important element of humus to it. In addition to these things, you will have an attractive and luxuriant garden spot, instead of an unsightly bare one. And in clearing off these patches for rye, beware of waste. If you have hens, or by chance a pig, they will relish old heads of lettuce, old pea-vines, still green after the last picking, and the stumps and outer leaves of cabbage. Even if you have not this means of utilizing your garden's by- products, do not let them go to waste. Put everything into a square pile--old sods, weeds, vegetable tops, refuse, dirt, leaves, lawn sweepings--anything that will rot. Tread this pile down thoroughly; give it a soaking once in a while if within reach of the hose, and two or three turnings with a fork. Next spring when you are looking for every available pound of manure with which to enrich your garden, this compost heap will stand you in good stead. Burn _now_ your old pea-brush, tomato poles and everything that is not worth keeping over for next year. Do not leave these things lying around to harbor and protect eggs and insects and weed seeds. If any bean-poles, stakes, trellises or supports seem in good enough condition to serve another year, put them under cover now; and see that all your tools are picked up and put in one place, where you can find them and overhaul them next February. As soon as your surplus pole beans have dried in their pods, take up poles and all and store in a dry place. The beans may be taken off later at your leisure. Be careful to cut down and burn (or put in the compost heap) all weeds around your fences, and the edges of your garden, _before_ they ripen seed. If the suggestions given are followed, the vegetable garden may be stretched far into the winter. But do not rest at that. Begin to plan _now_ for your next year's garden. Put a pile of dirt where it will not be frozen, or dried out, when you want to use it next February for your early seeds. If you have no hotbed, fix the frames and get the sashes for one now, so it will be ready to hand when the ground is frozen solid and covered with snow next spring. If you have made garden mistakes this year, be planning now to rectify them next--without progress there is no fun in the game. Let next spring find you with your plans all made, your materials all on hand and a fixed resolution to have the best garden you have ever had. Part Three--Fruits and Berries CHAPTER XV. THE VARIETIES OF POME AND STONE FRUITS Many a home gardener who has succeeded well with vegetables is, for some reason or other, still fearsome about trying his hand at growing his own fruit. This is all a mistake; the initial expense is very slight (fruit trees will cost but twenty-five to forty cents each, and the berry bushes only about four cents each), and the same amount of care that is demanded by vegetables, if given to fruit, will produce apples, peaches, pears and berries far superior to any that can be bought, especially in flavor. I know a doctor in New York, a specialist, who has attained prominence in his profession, and who makes a large income; he tells me that there is nothing in the city that hurts him so much as to have to pay out a nickel whenever he wants an apple. His boyhood home was on a Pennsylvania farm, where apples were as free as water, and he cannot get over the idea of their being one of Nature's gracious gifts, any more than he can overcome his hankering for that crisp, juicy, uncloying flavor of a good apple, which is not quite equaled by the taste of any other fruit. And yet it is not the saving in expense, although that is considerable, that makes the strongest argument for growing one's own fruit. There are three other reasons, each of more importance. First is quality. The commercial grower cannot afford to grow the very finest fruit. Many of the best varieties are not large enough yielders to be available for his use, and he cannot, on a large scale, so prune and care for his trees that the individual fruits receive the greatest possible amount of sunshine and thinning out--the personal care that is required for the very best quality. Second, there is the beauty and the value that well kept fruit trees add to a place, no matter how small it is. An apple tree in full bloom is one of the most beautiful pictures that Nature ever paints; and if, through any train of circumstances, it ever becomes advisable to sell or rent the home, its desirability is greatly enhanced by the few trees necessary to furnish the loveliness of showering blossoms in spring, welcome shade in summer and an abundance of delicious fruits through autumn and winter. Then there is the fun of doing it--of planting and caring for a few young trees, which will reward your labors, in a cumulative way, for many years to come. But enough of reasons. If the call of the soil is in your veins, if your fingers (and your brain) in the springtime itch to have a part in earth's ever-wonderful renascence, if your lips part at the thought of the white, firm, toothsome flesh of a ripened-on-the-tree red apple-- then you must have a home orchard without delay. And it is not a difficult task. Apples, pears and the stone fruits, fortunately, are not very particular about their soils. They take kindly to anything between a sandy soil so loose as to be almost shifting, and heavy clay. Even these soils can be made available, but of course not without more work. And you need little room to grow all the fruit your family can possibly eat. Time was, when to speak of an apple tree brought to mind one of those old, moss-barked giants that served as a carriage shed and a summer dining-room, decorated with scythes and rope swings, requiring the services of a forty-foot ladder and a long-handled picker to gather the fruit. That day is gone. In its stead have come the low-headed standard and the dwarf forms. The new types came as new institutions usually do, under protest. The wise said they would never be practical--the trees would not get large enough and teams could not be driven under them. But the facts remained that the low trees are more easily and thoroughly cared for; that they do not take up so much room; that they are less exposed to high winds, and such fruit as does fall is not injured; that the low limbs shelter the roots and conserve moisture; and, above all, that picking can be accomplished much more easily and with less injury to fine, well ripened fruit. The low-headed tree has come to stay. If your space will allow, the low-headed standards will give you better satisfaction than the dwarfs. They are longer-lived, they are healthier, and they do not require nearly so much intensive culture. On the other hand, the dwarfs may be used where there is little or no room for the standards. If there is no other space available, they may be put in the vegetable or flower garden, and incidentally they are then sure of receiving some of that special care which they need in the way of fertilization and cultivation. As I have said, any average soil will grow good fruit. A gravelly loam, with a gravel subsoil, is the ideal. Do not think from this, however, that all you have to do is buy a few trees from a nursery agent, stick them in the ground and from your negligence reap the rewards that follow only intelligent industry. The soil is but the raw material which work and care alone can transform, through the medium of the growing tree, into the desired result of a cellar well stored each autumn with fruit. Fruit trees have one big advantage over vegetables--the ground can be prepared for them while they are growing. If the soil will grow a crop of clover it is already in good shape to furnish the trees with food at once. If not, manure or fertilizers may be applied, and clover or other green crops turned under during the first two or three years of the trees' growth, as will be described later. The first thing to consider, when you have decided to plant, is the location you will give your trees. Plan to have pears, plums, cherries and peaches, as well as apples. For any of these the soil, of whatever nature, must be well drained. If not naturally, then tile or other artificial drainage must be provided. For only a few trees it would probably answer the purpose to dig out large holes and fill in a foot or eighteen inches at the bottom with small stone, covered with gravel or screened coal-cinders. My own land has a gravelly subsoil and I have not had to drain. Then with the apples, and especially with the peaches, a too-sheltered slope to the south is likely to start the flower buds prematurely in spring, only to result in total crop loss from late frosts. The diagram on the next page suggests an arrangement which may be adapted to individual needs. One may see from it that the apples are placed to the north, where they will to some extent shelter the rest of the grounds; the peaches where they will not be coddled; the pears, which may be had upon quince stock, where they will not shade the vegetable garden; the cherries, which are the most ornamental, where they may lend a decorative effect. And now, having decided that we can--and will--grow good fruit, and having in mind suggestions that will enable us to go out to-morrow morning and, with an armful of stakes, mark out the locations, the next consideration should be the all-important question of what varieties are most successfully grown on the small place. [Illustration: A suggested arrangement of fruit trees on the small place.] [ED. Unable to recreate in text format.] The following selections are made with the home fruit garden, not the commercial orchard, in mind. While they are all "tried and true" sorts, succeeding generally in the northeast, New England and western fruit sections, remember that fruits, as a rule, though not so particular as vegetables about soil, seem much more so about locality. I would suggest, therefore, submitting your list, before buying, to your State Experiment Station. You are taxed for its support; get some direct result from it. There they will be glad to advise you, and are in the best position to help you get started properly. Above all, do not buy from the traveling nursery agent, with his grip full of wonderful lithographs of new and unheard-of novelties. Get the catalogue of several reliable nurseries, take standard varieties about which you know, and buy direct. Several years ago I had the opportunity to go carefully over one of the largest fruit nurseries in the country. Every care and precaution was taken to grow fine, healthy, young trees. The president told me that they sold thousands every year to smaller concerns, to be resold again through field and local agents. Yet they do an enormous retail business themselves, and of course their own customers get the best trees. The following are listed, as nearly as I can judge, in the order of their popularity, but as many of the best are not valuable commercially, they are little known. Whenever you find a particularly good apple or pear, try to trace it, and add it to your list. APPLES Without any question, the apple is far and away the most valuable fruit, both because of its greater scope of usefulness and its longer season--the last of the winter's Russets are still juicy and firm when the first Early Harvests and Red Astrachans are tempting the "young idea" to experiment with colic. Plant but a small proportion of early varieties, for the late ones are better. Out of a dozen trees, I would put in one early, three fall, and the rest winter sorts. Among the summer apples are several deserving special mention: Yellow Transparent is the earliest. It is an old favorite and one of the most easily grown of all apples. Its color is indicated by the name, and it is a fair eating-apple and a very good cooker. Red Astrachan, another first early, is not quite so good for cooking, but is a delicious eating-apple of good size. An apple of more recent introduction and extremely hardy (hailing first from Russia), and already replacing the above sorts, is Livland (Livland Raspberry). The tree is of good form, very vigorous and healthy. The fruit is ready almost as soon as Yellow Transparent, and is of much better quality for eating. In appearance it is exceptionally handsome, being of good size, regular form and having those beautiful red shades found almost exclusively in the later apples. The flesh is quality is fully up to its appearance. The white, crisp-breaking flesh, most aromatic, deliciously sub-acid, makes it ideal for eating. A neighbor of mine sold $406 worth of fruit from twenty trees to one dealer. For such a splendid apple McIntosh is remarkably hardy and vigorous, succeeding over a very wide territory, and climate severe enough to kill many of the other newer varieties. The Fameuse (widely known as the Snow) is an excellent variety for northern sections. It resembles the McIntosh, which some claim to be derived from it. Fall Pippin, Pound Sweet and Twenty Ounce, are other popular late autumns. In the winter section, Baldwin, which is too well known to need describing, is the leading commercial variety in many apple districts, and it is a good variety for home growing on account of its hardiness and good cooking and keeping qualities; but for the home orchard, it is far surpassed in quality by several others. In northern sections, down to the corn line, Northern Spy is a great favorite. It is a large, roundish apple, with thin, tender, glossy skin, light to deep carmine over light yellow, and an excellent keeper. In sections to which it is adapted it is a particularly vigorous, compact, upright grower. Jonathan is another splendid sort, with a wider range of conditions favorable for growth. It is, however, not a strong-growing tree and is somewhat uncertain in maturing its fruit, which is a bright, clear red of distinctive flavor. It likes a soil with more clay than do most apples. In the Middle West and Middle South, Grimes (Golden) has made a great local reputation in many sections, although in others it has not done well at all. The Spitzenberg (Esopus) is very near the top of the list of all late eating-apples, being at its prime about December. It is another handsome yellow-covered red apple, with flesh slightly yellowish, but very good to the taste. The tree, unfortunately, is not a robust grower, being especially weak in its earlier stages, but with good cultivation it will not fail to reward the grower for any extra care it may have required. These, and the other notable varieties, which there is not room here to describe, make up the following list, from which the planter should select according to locality: _Earliest or Summer:_--Early Harvest, Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Benoni (new), Chenango, Sweet Bough, Williams' Favorite, Early Strawberry, Livland Raspberry. _Early Autumn:_--Alexander, Duchess, Porter, Gravenstein, McIntosh Red. _Late Autumn:_--Jefferies, Fameuse (Snow), Maiden's Blush, Wealthy, Fall Pippin, Pound Sweet, Twenty Ounce, Cox Orange, Hubbardston. _Winter:_--Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening, Northwestern Greening, Jonathan, Northern Spy, Yellow, Swaar, Delicious, Wagener, King, Esopus, Spitzenberg, Yellow Bellflower, Winter Banana, Seek-no-further, Talman Sweet, Roxbury Russett, King David, Stayman's Winesap, Wolf River. PEARS Pears are more particular than apples in the matter of being adapted to sections and soils. Submit your list to your State Experiment Station before ordering trees. Many of the standard sorts may be had where a low-growing, spreading tree is desired (for instance, quince-stock pears might be used to change places with the plums). Varieties suitable for this method are listed below. They are given approximately in the order of the ripening: Wilder: Early August, medium in size, light yellow, excellent quality. Does not rot at the core, as so many early pears are liable to do. Margaret: Oblong, greenish, yellow to dull red. Clapp Favorite: Very large, yellow pear. A great bearer and good keeper--where the children cannot get at it. Howell: A little later than the foregoing; large, bright yellow, strong-growing tree and big bearer. Duchesse d'Angouleme: Large greenish yellow, sometimes reaching huge size; will average better than three-quarters of a pound. The quality, despite its size, is splendid. Seckel: Small in size, but renowned for exquisite flavor--being probably the most universally admired of all. Beurre Superfine: October, medium size, excellent quality. Bartlett: The best known of all pears, and a universal favorite. Succeeds in nearly all sections. Anjou: One of the best keepers, and very productive. One of the best in flavor, rich and vinous. For trees of the standard type the following are worthy of note: Congress (Souvenir du C.): A very large summer sort. Handsome. Belle Lucrative: September to October. Winter Nelis: Medium size, but of excellent quality and the longest keeper. Kieffer: Very popular for its productiveness, strength of growth and exceptional quality of fruit for canning and preserving. Large fruit, if kept thinned. Should have a place in every home garden. Josephine de Malines: Not a great yielder but of the very highest quality, being of the finest texture and tempting aroma. PEACHES Success with peaches also will depend largely upon getting varieties adapted to climate. The white-fleshed type is the hardiest and best for eating; and the free-stones are for most purposes, especially in the home garden, more desirable than the "clings." Greensboro is the best early variety. Crawford is a universal favorite and goes well over a wide range of soil and climate. Champion is one of the best quality peaches and exceptionally hardy. Elberta, Ray, and Hague are other excellent sorts. Mayflower is the earliest sort yet introduced. PLUMS The available plums are of three classes--the natives, Europeans and Japans; the natives are the longest-lived, hardier in tree and blossom, and heavier bearers. The best early is Milton; brilliant red, yellow and juicy flesh. Wildgoose and Whitaker are good seconds. Mrs. Cleveland is a later and larger sort, of finer quality. Three late-ripening plums of the finest quality, but not such prolific yielders, are Wayland, Benson and Reed, and where there is room for only a few trees, these will be best. They will need one tree of Newman or Prairie Flower with them to assure setting of the fruit. Of the Europeans, use Reine Claude (the best), Bradshaw or Shropshire. Damson is also good. The Japanese varieties should go on high ground and be thinned, especially during their first years. My first experience with Japanese plums convinced me that I had solved the plum problem; they bore loads of fruit, and were free from disease. That was five years ago. Last spring the last one was cut and burned. Had they been planted at the top of a small hill, instead of at the bottom, as they were, and restricted in their bearing, I know from later experience that they would still be producing fruit. The most satisfactory varieties of the Japanese type are Abundance and Red June. Burbank is also highly recommended, CHERRIES Cherries have one advantage over the other fruits--they give quicker returns. But, as far as my experience goes, they are not as long-lived. The sour type is hardier, at least north of New Jersey, than the sweet. It will probably pay to try a few of the new and highly recommended varieties. Of the established sorts Early Richmond is a good early, to be followed by Montmorency and English Morello. Windsor is a good sweet cherry, as are also Black Tartarian, Sox, Wood and Yellow Spanish. All the varieties mentioned above are proved sorts. But the lists are being added to constantly, and where there is a novelty strongly recommended by a reliable nurseryman it will often pay to try it out--on a very small scale at first. CHAPTER XVI PLANTING: CULTIVATION: FILLER CROPS As the pedigree and the quality of the stock you plant will have a great deal to do with the success or failure of your adventure in orcharding, even on a very small scale, it is important to get the best trees you can, anywhere, at any price. But do not jump to the conclusion that the most costly trees will be the best. From reliable nurserymen, selling direct by mail, you can get good trees at very reasonable prices. As a general thing you will succeed best if you have nothing to do with the perennial "tree agent." He may represent a good firm; you may get your trees on time; he may have a novelty as good as the standard sorts; but you are taking three very great chances in assuming so. But, leaving these questions aside, there is no particular reason why you should help pay his traveling expenses and the printing bills for his lithographs ("made from actual photographs" or "painted from nature," of course!) when you can get the best trees to be had, direct from the soil in which they are grown, at the lowest prices, by ordering through the mail. Or, better still, if the nursery is not too far away, take half a day off and select them in person. If you want to help the agent along present him with the amount of his commission, but get your trees direct from some large reliable nursery. Well grown nursery stock will stand much abuse, but it will not be at all improved by it. Do not let yours stand around in the sun and wind, waiting until you get a chance to set it out. As soon as you get it home from the express office, unpack it and "heel it in," in moist, but not wet, ground; if under a shed, so much the better. Dig out a narrow trench and pack it in as thick as it will go, at an angle of forty-five degrees to the natural position when growing. So stored, it will keep a long time in cold weather, only be careful that no rats, mice, or rabbits reach it. Do not, however, depend upon this knowledge to the extent of letting all your preparations for planting go until your stock is on hand. Be ready to set it the day it arrives, if possible. PLANTING Planting can be done in either spring or fall. As a general rule, north of Philadelphia and St. Louis, spring planting will be best; south of that, fall planting. Where there is apt to be severe freezing, "heaving," caused by the alternate freezing and thawing; injury to the newly set roots from too severe cold; and, in some western sections, "sun-scald" of the bark, are three injuries which may result. If trees are planted in the fall in cold sections, a low mound of earth, six to twelve inches high, should be left during the winter about each, and leveled down in the spring. If set in the spring, where hot, dry weather is apt to follow, they should be thoroughly mulched with litter, straw or coarse manure, to preserve moisture--care being taken, however, against field mice and other rodents. The trees may either be set in their permanent positions as soon as bought, or grown in "nursery rows" by the purchaser for one or two years after being purchased. In the former case, it will be the best policy to get the strongest, straightest two-year stock you can find, even if they cost ten or fifteen cents apiece more than the "mediums." The former method is the usual one, but the latter has so many advantages that I give it the emphasis of a separate paragraph, and urge every prospective planter to consider it carefully. In the first place, then, you get your trees a little cheaper. If you purchase for nursery row planting, six-foot to seven-foot two-year-old apple trees, of the standard sorts, should cost you about thirty cents each; one-year "buds," six feet and branched, five to ten cents less. This gain, however, is not an important one--there are four others, each of which makes it worth while to give the method a trial. First, the trees being all together, and in a convenient place, the chances are a hundred to one that you will give them better attention in the way of spraying, pruning and cultivating--all extremely important in the first year's growth. Second, with the year gained for extra preparation of the soil where they are to be placed permanently, you can make conditions just right for them to take hold at once and thrive as they could not do otherwise. Third, the shock of transplanting will be much less than when they are shipped from a distance--they will have made an additional growth of dense, short roots and they will have become acclimated. Fourth, you will not have wasted space and time with any backward black sheep among the lot, as these should be discarded at the second planting. And then there is one further reason, psychological perhaps, but none the less important; you will watch these little trees, which are largely the result of your own labor and care, when set in their permanent positions, much more carefully than you would those direct from the nursery. I know, both from experience and observation, how many thrifty young trees in the home orchard are done to an untimely death by children, careless workmen, and other animals. So if you can put a twelve-month curb on your impatience, get one-year trees and set them out in a straight row right in your vegetable garden where they will take up very little room. Keep them cultivated just as thoroughly as the rest of your growing things. Melons, or beans, or almost any low-growing vegetable can be grown close beside them. If you want your garden to pay for your whole lot of fruit trees this season dig up a hole about three feet in diameter wherever a tree is to "go permanently." Cut the sod up fine and work in four or five good forkfuls of well rotted manure, and on these places, when it is warm enough, plant a hill of lima pole-beans-the new sort named Giant-podded Pole Lima is the best I have yet seen. Place a stout pole, eight to ten feet high, firmly in each hole. Good lima beans are always in demand, and bring high prices. Let us suppose that your trees are at hand, either direct from the nursery or growing in the garden. You have selected, if possible, a moist, gravelly loam on a slope or slight elevation, where it is naturally and perfectly drained. Good soil drainage is imperative. Coarse gravel in the bottom of the planting hole will help out temporarily. If the land is in clover sod, it will have the ideal preparation, especially if you can grow a patch of potatoes or corn on it one year, while your trees are getting further growth. In such land the holes will not have to be prepared. If, however, you are not fortunate enough to be able to devote such a space to fruit trees, and in order to have them at all must place them along your wall or scattered through the grounds, you can still give them an excellent start by enriching the soil in spots beforehand, as suggested above in growing lima beans. In the event of finding even this last way inapplicable to your land, the following method will make success certain: Dig out holes three to six feet in diameter (if the soil is very hard, the larger dimension), and twelve to eighteen inches deep. Mix thoroughly with the excavated soil a good barrowful of the oldest, finest manure you can get, combined with about one-fourth or one-fifth its weight of South Carolina rock (or acid phosphate, if you cannot get the rock). It is a good plan to compost the manure and rock in advance, or use the rock as an absorbent in the stable. Fill in the hole again, leaving room in the center to set the tree without bending or cramping any roots. Where any of these are injured or bruised, cut them off clean at the injured spot with a sharp knife. Shorten any that are long and straggling about one-third to one-half their length. Properly grown stock should not be in any such condition. Remember that a well planted tree will give more fruit in the first ten years than three trees carelessly put in. Get the tree so that it will be one to three inches deeper in the soil than when growing in the nursery. Work the soil in firmly about the roots with the fingers or a blunt wooden "tamper"; do not be afraid to use your feet. When the roots are well covered, firm the tree in by putting all your weight upon the soil around it. See that it is planted straight, and if the "whip," or small trunk, is not straight stake it, and tie it with rye straw, raffia or strips of old cloth-never string or wire. If the soil is very dry, water the root copiously while planting until the soil is about half filled in, never on the surface, as that is likely to cause a crust to form and keep out the air so necessary to healthy growth. Prune back the "leader" of the tree-the top above the first lateral branches, about one-half. Peach trees should be cut back more severely. Further information in regard to pruning, and the different needs of the various fruits in regard to this important matter, will be given in the next chapter. SETTING Standard apple trees, fully grown, will require thirty to forty-five feet of space between them each way. It takes, however, ten or twelve years after the trees are set before all of this space is needed. A system of "fillers," or inter-planting, has come into use as a result of this, which will give at least one hundred per cent, more fruit for the first ten years. Small-growing standards, standard varieties on dwarf stock, and also peaches, are used for this purpose in commercial orchards. But the principle may be applied with equally good results to the home orchard, or even to the planting of a few scattered trees. The standard dwarfs give good satisfaction as permanent fillers. Where space is very limited, or the fruit must go into the garden, they may be used in place of the standard sorts altogether. The dwarf trees are, as a rule, not so long-lived as the standards, and to do their best, need more care in fertilizing and manuring; but the fruit is just as good; just as much, or more, can be grown on the same area; and the trees come into bearing two to three years sooner. They cost less to begin with and are also easier to care for, in spraying and pruning and in picking the fruit. CULTIVATION The home orchard, to give the very finest quality of fruit, must be given careful and thorough cultivation. In the case of scattered trees, where it is not practicable to use a horse, this can be given by working a space four to six feet wide about each tree. Every spring the soil should be loosened up, with the cultivator or fork, as the case may be, and kept stirred during the early part of the summer. Unless the soil is rich, a fertilizer, high in potash and not too high in nitrogen, should be given in the spring. Manure and phosphate rock, as suggested above, is as good as any. In case the foliage is not a deep healthy green, apply a few handfuls of nitrate of soda, working it into the soil just before a rain, around each tree. About August 1st the cultivation should be discontinued, and some "cover crop" sown. Buckwheat and crimson clover is a good combination; as the former makes a rapid growth it will form, if rolled down just as the apples are ripening, a soft cushion upon which the windfalls may drop without injury, and will furnish enough protection to the crimson clover to carry it through most winters, even in cold climates. In addition to the filler crops, where the ground is to be cultivated by horse, potatoes may be grown between the rows of trees; or fine hills of melons or squash may be grown around scattered trees, thus, incidentally, saving a great deal of space in the vegetable garden. Or why not grow a few extra fancy strawberries in the well cultivated spots about these trees? Neither they nor the trees want the ground too rich, especially in nitrogen, and conditions suiting the one would be just right for the others. It may seem to the beginner that fruit-growing, with all these things to keep in mind, is a difficult task. But it is not. I think I am perfectly safe in saying that the rewards from nothing else he can plant and care for are as certain, and surely none are more satisfactory. If you cannot persuade yourself to try fruit on any larger plan, at least order half a dozen dwarf trees (they will cost about twenty cents apiece, and can be had by mail). They will prove about the best paying investment you ever made. CHAPTER XVII PRUNING, SPRAYING, HARVESTING The day has gone, probably forever, when setting out fruit trees and giving them occasional cultivation, "plowing up the orchard" once in several years, would produce fruit. Apples and pears and peaches have occupied no preferred position against the general invasion of the realm of horticulture by insect and fungous enemies. The fruits have, indeed, suffered more than most plants. Nevertheless there is this encouraging fact: that, though the fruits may have been severely attacked, the means we now have of fighting fruit-tree enemies, if thoroughly used, as a rule are more certain of accomplishing their purpose, and keeping the enemies completely at bay, than are similar weapons in any other line of horticultural work. With fruit trees, as with vegetables and flowers, the most important precaution to be taken against insects and disease is to _have them in a healthy, thriving, growing condition_. It is a part of Nature's law of the survival of the fittest that any backward or weakling plant or tree seems to fall first prey to the ravages of destructive forces. For these reasons the double necessity of maintaining at all times good fertilization and thorough cultivation will be seen. In addition to these two factors, careful attention in the matter of pruning is essential in keeping the trees in a healthy, robust condition. As explained in a previous chapter, the trees should be started right by pruning the first season to the open-head or vase shape, which furnishes the maximum of light and air to all parts of the tree. Three or four main branches should form the basis of the head, care being taken not to have them start from directly opposite points on the trunk, thus forming a crotch and leaving the tree liable to splitting from winds or excessive crops. If the tree is once started right, further pruning will give little trouble. Cut out limbs which cross, or are likely to rub against each other, or that are too close together; and also any that are broken, decayed, or injured in any way. For trees thus given proper attention from the start, a short jackknife will be the only pruning instrument required. The case of the old orchard is more difficult. Cutting out too many of the old, large limbs at one time is sure to give a severe shock to the vitality of the tree. A better plan is, first, to cut off _close_ all suckers and all small new-growth limbs, except a few of the most promising, which may be left to be developed into large limbs; and then as these new limbs grow on, gradually to cut out, using a fine-tooth saw and painting the exposed surfaces, the surplus old wood. Apples will need more pruning than the other fruits. Pears and cherries need the least; cutting back the ends of limbs enough to keep the trees in good form, with the removal of an occasional branch for the purpose of letting in light and air, is all the pruning they will require. Of course trees growing on rich ground, and well cultivated, will require more cutting back than those growing under poorer conditions. A further purpose of pruning is to effect indirectly a thinning of the fruit, so that what is grown will be larger and more valuable, and also that the trees may not become exhausted by a few exceptionally heavy crops. On trees that have been neglected and growing slowly the bark sometimes becomes hard and set. In such cases it will prove beneficial to scrape the bark and give a wash applied with an old broom. Whitewash is good for this purpose, but soda or lye answers the same purpose and is less disagreeably conspicuous. Slitting the bark of trunks and the largest limbs is sometimes resorted to, care being taken to cut through the bark only; but such practice is objectionable because it leaves ready access to some forms of fungous disease and to borers. Where extra fine specimens of fruit are desired, thinning is practiced. It helps also to prevent the tree from being overtaxed by excessive crops. But where pruning is thoroughly done this trouble is usually avoided. Peaches and Japan plums are especially benefited by thinning, as they have a great tendency to overbear. The spread of fruit diseases, especially rot in the fruit itself, is also to some extent checked. Of fruit-tree enemies there are some large sorts which may do great damage in short order--rabbits and field mice. They may be kept away by mechanical protection, such as wire, or by heaping the earth up to a height of twelve inches about the tree trunk. Or they may be caught with poisoned baits, such as boiled grain in which a little Rough on Rats or similar poison has been mixed. The former method for the small home garden is little trouble, safer to Fido and Tabby, and the most reliable in effect. Insects and scale diseases are not so easily managed; and that brings us to the question of spraying and of sprays. For large orchards the spray must, of course, be applied with powerful and expensive machinery. For the small fruit garden a much simpler and very moderate priced apparatus may be acquired. The most practical of these is the brass-tank compressed-air sprayer, with extension rod and mist-spray nozzle. Or one of the knapsack sprayers may be used. Either of these will be of great assistance not only with the fruit trees, but everywhere in the garden. With care they will last a good many years. Whatever type you get, be sure to get a brass machine; as cheaper ones, made of other metal, quickly corrode from contact with the strong poisons used. APPLE ENEMIES The insects most commonly attacking the apple are the codlin-moth, tent-caterpillar, canker-worm and borer. The codlin-moth lays its eggs on the fruit about the time of the falling of the blossoms, and the larvae when hatched eat into the young fruit and cause the ordinary wormy apples and pears. Owing to these facts, it is too late to reach the trouble by spraying after the calyx closes on the growing fruit. Keep close watch and spray immediately upon the fall of the blossoms, and repeat the spraying a week or so (not more than two) later. For spray use Paris green at the rate of 1 lb., or arsenate of lead (paste or powder, less of the latter: see accompanying directions) at the rate of 4 lbs. to 100 gallons of water, being careful to have a thorough mixture. During July, tie strips of burlap or old bags around the trunks, and every week or so destroy all caterpillars caught in these traps. The tent-caterpillar may be destroyed while in the egg state, as these are plainly visible around the smaller twigs in circular, brownish masses. (See illustration.) Upon hatching, also, the nests are obtrusively visible and may be wiped out with a swab of old bag, or burned with a kerosene torch. Be sure to apply this treatment before the caterpillar begins to leave the nest. The treatment recommended for codlin-moths is also effective for the tent-caterpillar. The canker-worm is another leaf-feeding enemy, and can be taken care of by the Paris green or arsenate spray. The railroad-worm, a small white maggot which eats a small path in all directions through the ripening fruit, cannot be reached by spraying, as he starts life inside the fruit; but where good clean tillage is practiced and no fallen fruit is left to lie and decay under the trees, he is not apt to give much trouble. The borer's presence is indicated by the dead, withered appearance of the bark, beneath which he is at work, and also by small amounts of sawdust where he entered. Dig him out with a sharp pocket-knife, or kill him inside with a piece of wire. The most troublesome disease of the apple, especially in wet seasons, is the apple-scab, which disfigures the fruit, both in size and in appearance, as it causes blotches and distortions. Spray with Bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, or 3-3-50 (see formulas below) three times: just before the blossoms open, just as they fall, and ten days to two weeks after they fall. The second spraying is considered the most important. The San José scale is of course really an insect, though in appearance it seems a disease. It is much more injurious than the untrained fruit grower would suppose, because indirectly so. It is very tiny, being round in outline, with a raised center, and only the size of a small pinhead. Where it has once obtained a good hold it multiplies very rapidly, makes a scaly formation or crust on the branches, and causes small red-edged spots on the fruit (see illustration). For trees once infested, spray thoroughly both in fall, after the leaves drop, and again in spring, _before_ growth begins. Use lime-sulphur wash, or miscible oil, one part to ten of water, thoroughly mixed. CHERRY ENEMIES Sour cherries are more easily grown than the sweet varieties, and are less subject to the attacks of fruit enemies. Sweet cherries are troubled by the curculio, or fruit-worm, which attacks also peaches and plums. Cherries and plums may be sprayed, when most of the blossoms are off, with a strong arsenate of lead solution, 5 to 8 lbs. to 100 gals. water. In addition to this treatment, where the worms have once got a start, the beetles may be destroyed by spreading a sheet around and beneath the tree, and every day or so shaking or jarring them off into it, as described below. PEACH ENEMIES Do not spray peaches. For the curculio, within a few days after the flowers are off, take a large sheet of some cheap material to use as a catcher. For large orchards there is a contrivance of this sort, mounted on a wheelbarrow frame, but for the home orchard a couple of sheets laid upon the ground, or one with a slit from one side to the center, will answer. If four short, sharp-pointed stakes are fastened to the corners, and three or four stout hooks and eyes are placed to reunite the slit after the sheet is placed about the tree, the work can be more thoroughly done, especially on uneven ground. After the sheet is placed, with a stout club or mallet, padded with a heavy sack or something similar to prevent injury to the bark, give a few sharp blows, well up from the ground. This work should be done on a cloudy day, or early in the morning--the colder the better--as the beetles are then inactive. If a considerable number of beetles are caught the operation should be repeated every two or three days. Continue until the beetles disappear. Peaches are troubled also by borers, in this case indicated by masses of gum, usually about the crown. Dig out or kill with a wire, as in the case of the apple-borer. Look over the trees for borers every spring, or better, every spring and fall. Another peach enemy is the "yellows," indicated by premature ripening of the fruit and the formation of stunted leaf tufts, of a light yellow color. This disease is contagious and has frequently worked havoc in whole sections. Owing to the work of the Agricultural Department and the various State organizations it is now held in check. The only remedy is to cut and burn the trees and replant, in the same places if desired, as, the disease does not seem to be carried by the soil. PEAR ENEMIES Pears are sometimes affected with a scab similar to the apple-scab, and this is combated by the same treatment--three sprayings with Bordeaux. A blight which causes the leaves suddenly to turn black and die and also kills some small branches and produces sores or wounds on large branches and trunk, offers another difficulty. Cut out and burn all affected branches and scrape out all sores. Disinfect all sores with corrosive sublimate solution--1 to 1000--or with a torch, and paint over at once. PLUM ENEMIES Plums have many enemies but fortunately they can all be effectively checked. First is the curculio, to be treated as described above. For leaf-blight--spotting and dropping off of the leaves about midsummer--spray with Bordeaux within a week or so after the falling of the blossoms. This treatment will also help to prevent fruit-rot. In addition to the spraying, however, thin out the fruit so that it does not hang thickly enough for the plums to come in contact with each other. In a well kept and well sprayed orchard black-knot is not at all likely to appear. It is very manifest wherever it starts, causing ugly, black, distorted knarls, at first on the smaller limbs. Remove and burn immediately, and keep a sharp watch for more. As this disease is supposed to be carried by the wind, see to it that no careless neighbor is supplying you with the germs. As will have been seen from the above, spraying poisons are of two kinds: those that work by contact, which must be used for most sucking insects, and germs and fungous diseases; and those that poison internally, used for leaf-eating insects. Of the former sort, Bordeaux mixture is the standard, although within the last few years it has been to a considerable extent replaced by lime-sulphur mixtures, which are described below. Bordeaux is made in various forms. That usually used is the 5-5-50, or 5 lbs. copper sulphate, 5 lbs. unslaked lime, 50 gals. water. To save the trouble of making up the mixture each time it is needed make a stock solution as follows: dissolve the copper sulphate in water at the rate of 1 lb. to 1 gal. This should be done the day before, or at least several hours before, the Bordeaux is wanted for use. Suspend the sulphate crystals in a cloth or old bag just below the surface of the water. Then slake the lime in a tub or tight box, adding the water a little at a time, until the whole attains the consistency of thick milk. When necessary, add water to this mixture if it is kept too long; never let it dry out. When ready to spray, pour the stock copper sulphate solution into the tank in the proportion of 5 gals. to every 50 of spray required. Add water to amount required. Then add stock lime solution, first diluting about one-half with water and straining. The amount of lime stock solution to be used is determined as follows: at the druggist's get an ounce of yellow prussiate of potash dissolved in a pint of water, with a quill in the cork of the bottle so that it may be dropped out. (It is poison.) When adding the stock lime solution as directed above, continue until the prussiate testing solution when dropped into the Bordeaux mixture will no longer turn brown; then add a little more lime to be on the safe side. All this sounds like a formidable task, but it is quite simple when you really get at it. Remember that all you need is a few pounds each of quicklime and copper sulphate, an ounce of prussiate of potash and a couple of old kegs or large pails, in which to keep the stock solutions, Lime-sulphur mixtures can be bought, or mixed by the home orchardist. They have the advantages over Bordeaux that they do not discolor the foliage or affect the appearance of the fruit. Use according to directions, usually about 1 part to 30 of water. These may be used at the same times and for the same purposes as Bordeaux. Lime-sulphur wash is used largely in commercial orcharding, but it is a nasty mess to prepare and must be used in late fall or winter. For the home orchard one of the miscible oils now advertised will be found more satisfactory. While they cost more, there is no time or expense for preparation, as they mix with cold water and are immediately ready for use. They are easier to apply, more comfortable to handle, and will not so quickly rot out pumps and spraying apparatus. Like the sulphur wash, use only during late fall and winter. Kerosene emulsion is made by dissolving Ivory, soft, whale-oil, or tar soap in hot water and adding (away from the stove, please!) kerosene (or crude oil); 1/2 lb. soap, 1 gal. water, 2 gals, kerosene. Immediately place in a pail and churn or pump until a thick, lathery cream results. This is the stock solution: for use, dilute with five to fifteen times as much water, according to purpose applied for--on dormant fruit trees, 5 to 7 times; on foliage, 10 or even 15. Of the poisons for eating-insects, arsenate of lead is the best for use in the fruit orchard, because it will not burn the foliage as Paris green is apt to do, and because it stays on longer. It can be used in Bordeaux and lime-sulphur mixtures, thus killing two bugs with one spray. It comes usually in the form of a paste--though there is now a brand in powder form (which I have not yet tried). This should be worked up with the fingers (it is not poison to touch) or a small wooden paddle, until thoroughly mixed, in a small quantity of water and then strained into the sprayer. Use, of the paste forms, from one- fourth to one lb. in 20 gals, clear water. Paris green is the old standard. With a modern duster it may be blown on pure without burning, if carefully done. Applied thus it should be put on during a still morning, before the dew goes. It is safer to use as a spray, first making a paste with a small quantity of water, and then adding balance of water. Keep constantly stirred while spraying. If lime is added, weight for weight with the green, the chances of burning will be greatly reduced. For orchard work, 1 lb. to 100 gals. water is the usual strength. The accompanying table will enable the home orchardist to find quickly the trouble with, and remedy for, any of his fruit trees. The quality of fruit will depend very largely upon the care exercised in picking and storing. Picking, carelessly done, while it may not at the time show any visible bad results, will result in poor keeping and rot. If the tissue cells are broken, as many will be by rough handling, they will be ready to cause rotten spots under the first favorable conditions, and then the rot will spread. Most of the fruits of the home garden, which do not have to undergo shipping, will be of better quality where they ripen fully on the tree. Pears, however, are often ripened in the dark and after picking, especially the winter sorts. Apples and pears for winter use should be kept, if possible, in a cold, dark place, where there is no artificial heat, and where the air will be moist, but never wet, and where the thermometer will not fall below thirty-two degrees. Upon exceptionally cold nights the temperature may be kept up by using an oil stove or letting in heat from the furnace cellar, if that is adjacent. In such a place, store the fruit loosely, on ventilated shelves, not more than six or eight inches deep. If they must be kept in a heated place, pack in tight boxes or barrels, being careful to put away only perfect fruit, or pack in sand or leaves. Otherwise they will lose much in quality by shriveling, due to lack of moisture in the atmosphere. With care they may be had in prime quality until late in the following spring. FRUIT | PEST | REMEDY | TIMES TO APPLY | | | AND WHEN ------+--------------+-------------------------------+---------------- Apple | Apple-scab | Bordeaux 5-5-50, or summer | 3.--b B O--a B | | lime-sulphur spray | F--f 14 d. | | | | Apple-maggot | Pick up and destroy all | (See key below.) | or | fallen fruits | | Railroad worm| Dig out or kill with wire; | | Borer | search for in fall and spring| | | | | Codlin moth | Arsenate of lead, 4 in 100; | | | or Paris Green, 1 in 200. | 2.--a B F-f | | Burlap bands on truck |20 d. | | for traps during July | | | | | Cankerworm | Same as above | | | | | Tent- | Same as above, also wipe out | | caterpillar | out or burn nests | | | | | Blister-mite | Lime-sulphur wash; kerosene | Late fall or | | emulsion (dilute 5 times) | early spring. | | or miscible oil (1 in 10 gal.)| | | | | Bud-moth | Arsenate of lead or Paris | 2.--When leaves | | Green | appear--b B O. ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- Cherry| Leaf blight | Bordeaux 5-5-50 | 4.--b B C--a | | | calyx closes--f | | | 15 d--f 15 d. | | | | Curculio | Arsenate of lead, 8 in 100. | 1.--a B F. | | Curculio catcher (see Plum) | 3 times a week | | | | Black-knot | Cut out and burn at once | | | (see Plum) | | | | | Fruit-rot | Pick before fully ripe. | | | spread out in cool airy room | ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- Peach | Borer | Dig out or kill with wire | | Yellows | Pull out and burn | | | tree--replant | | | | | Curculio | Do not spray. Catch on sheets | | | (see Plum) | | | | | Brown-rot | Summer lime-sulphur; open | | | pruning; pick rotten fruit | 3.--When fruit | | | is half | | | grown--f 10 | | | d--f 10 d. | | | | Leaf-curl | Bordeaux 5-5-50; lime-sulphur | 1--b buds swell, | | wash | fall or early | | | spring. ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- Pear | Blight | Cut out diseased branches; | | | clean out sores; disinfect | | | with corrosive sublimate 1 | | | in 1000; paint over | | | | | Scab | Bordeaux 5-5-50, or summer | 2.--b B O--a B | | sulphur (see Apple) | O--f 14 d. | | | | Blister-mite | | ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- Plum | Leaf-blight | Bordeaux or summer sulphur | 1.--After fruits | | | set. | Fruit-rot | Same; also thin fruits so as | | Black-knot | not to touch (see Cherry) | | Curculio | also have neighboring trees | | | cleaned up | | | Jar down on sheets stretched | | | beneath trees and destroy | a B F--cool | | | mornings-3 | | | times a week. ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- Any | San José | Lime-sulphur wash, kerosene | Late fall or | scale | emulsion, 5 times diluted; | early spring. | | miscible oil, 1 in 10 gals | | | | | Oyster-shell | Kerosene emulsion | May or June, | scale | | when young | | | whitish lice | | | appear. ------+--------------+-------------------------------+----------------- a-After. b-Before. d-Days. f-Follow up in. B-Blossoms. O-Open. F-Fall. Do not let yourself be discouraged from growing your own fruit by the necessity for taking good care of your trees. After all, you do not have to plant them every year, as you do vegetables, and they yield a splendid return on the small investment required. Do not fail to set out at least a few this year with the full assurance that your satisfaction is guaranteed by the facts in the case. CHAPTER XVIII BERRIES AND SMALL FRUITS Besides the tree-fruits discussed in the preceding chapters, there is another class which should be represented in every home garden--the berries and small fruits. These have the advantage of occupying much less room than the former do and are therefore available where the others are not. The methods of giving berries proper cultivation are not so generally known as the methods used with vegetables. Otherwise there is no reason why a few of each should not be included in every garden of average size. Their requirements are not exacting: the amount of skill, or rather of attention, required to care for them is not more than that required by the ordinary vegetables. In fact, once they are well established they will demand less time than the annual vegetables. Of these small fruits the most popular and useful are: the strawberry, the blackberry, dewberry and raspberry, the currant, gooseberry and grape. The strawberry is the most important, and most amateurs attempt its culture--many, however, with indifferent success. This is due, partly at least, to the fact that many methods are advocated by successful growers, and that the beginner is not likely to pick out _one_ and stick to it; and further, that he is led to pay more attention to how many layers he will have, and at what distance he will set the plants, than to proper selection and preparation of soil and other vital matters. The soil should be well drained and rich--a good garden soil being suitable. The strawberries should not follow sod or corn. If yard manure is used it should be old and well rotted, so as to be as free as possible from weed seeds. Potash, in some form (see Fertilizers) should be added. The bed should be thoroughly prepared, so that the plants, which need careful transplanting, may take hold at once. A good sunny exposure is preferable, and a spot where no water will collect is essential. The plants are grown from "layers." They are taken in two ways: (1) by rooting the runners in the soil; and (2) by layering in pots. In the former method they are either allowed to root themselves, or, which gives decidedly better results, by selecting vines from strong plants and pushing them lightly down into the soil where the new crown is to be formed. In the second method, two-inch or three-inch pots are used, filling these with soil from the bed and plunging, or burying, them level with the surface, just below where the crown is to be formed, and holding the vine in place with a small stone, which serves the additional purpose of marking where the pot is. In either case these layers are made after the fruiting season. SETTING THE PLANTS In using the soil-rooted layers, it is generally more satisfactory to set them out in spring, as soon as the ground can be worked, although they are sometimes set in early fall--August or September--when the ground is in very good condition, so that a good growth can at once be made. Care should be used in transplanting. Have the bed fresh; keep the plants out of the soil as short a time as possible; set the plants in straight, and firm the soil; set just down to the crown--do not cover it. If the soil is dry, or the season late, cut off all old leaves before planting; also shorten back the roots about one-third and be sure not to crowd them when setting, for which purpose a trowel, not a dibble, should be used if the condition of the ground makes the use of any implement necessary. If so dry that water must be used, apply it in the bottom of the hole. If very hot and dry, shade for a day or two. METHODS OF GROWING I describe the three systems most valuable for the home garden: (1) the hill, (2) the matted row, and (3) the pot-layered. (1) In the hill system the plants are put in single rows, or in beds of three or four rows, the plants one foot apart and the rows, or beds, two or three feet apart. In either case each plant is kept separate, and all runners are pinched off as fast as they form, the idea being to throw all the strength into one strong crown. (2) In the matted row system the plants are set in single rows, and the runners set in the bed at five or six inches each side of the plants, and then trained lengthways of the row, this making it a foot or so wide. The runners used to make these secondary crowns must be the first ones sent out by the plants; they should be severed from the parent plants as soon as well rooted. All other runners must be taken off as they form. To keep the beds for a good second crop, where the space between the rows has been kept cultivated and clean, cut out the old plants as soon as the first crop of berries is gathered, leaving the new ones--layered the year before-- about one foot apart. (3) The pot-layering system, especially for a small number of plants, I consider the best. It will be seen that by the above systems the ground is occupied three years, to get two crops, and the strawberry season is a short one at best. By this third system the strawberry is made practically an annual, and the finest of berries are produced. The new plants are layered in pots, as described above. The layers are taken immediately after the fruit is gathered; or better still, because earlier, a few plants are picked out especially to make runners. In either case, fork up the soil about the plants to be layered, and in about fifteen days they will be ready to have the pots placed under them. The main point is to have pot plants ready to go into the new bed as soon as possible after the middle of July. These are set out as in the hill system, and all runners kept pinched off, so that a large crown has been formed by the time the ground freezes, and a full crop of the very best berries will be assured for the following spring. The pot-layering is repeated each year, and the old plants thrown out, no attempt being made to get a second crop. It will be observed that ground is occupied by the strawberries only the latter half of the one season and the beginning of the next, leaving ample time for a crop of early lettuce, cabbage or peas before the plants are set, say in 1911, and for late cabbage or celery after the bed is thrown out, in 1912. Thus the ground is made to yield three crops in two years--a very important point where garden space is limited. CULTIVATION Whatever system is used--and each has its advocates--the strawberry bed must be kept clean, and attention given to removing the surplus runners. Cultivate frequently enough to keep a dust mulch between the rows, as advocated for garden crops. At first, after setting, the cultivation may be as deep as three or four inches, but as the roots develop and fill the ground it should be restricted to two inches at most. Where a horse is used a Planet Jr. twelve-tooth cultivator will be just the thing. MULCHING After the ground freezes, and before severe cold sets in (about the 1st to the 15th of December) the bed should be given its winter mulch. Bog hay, which may be obtained cheaply from some nearby farmer, is about the best material. Clean straw will do. Cover the entire bed, one or two inches over the plants, and two or three between the rows. If necessary, hold in place with old boards. In spring, but not before the plants begin to grow, over each plant the mulch is pushed aside to let it through. Besides giving winter protection, the mulch acts as a clean even support for the berries and keeps the roots cool and moist. INSECTS AND DISEASE For white-grub and cut-worm see pages elsewhere in the text. For rust, which frequently injures the leaves so seriously as to cause practical loss of crop, choose hardy varieties and change bed frequently. Spraying with Bordeaux, 5-5-50, four or five times during first season plants are set, and second season just before and just after blossoming, will prevent it. In making up your strawberry list remember that some varieties have imperfect, or pistillate blossoms, and that when such varieties are used a row of some perfect-flowering (bi- sexual) sort must be set every nine to twelve feet. VARIETIES New strawberries are being introduced constantly; also, they vary greatly in their adaptation to locality. Therefore it is difficult to advise as to what varieties to plant. The following, however, have proved satisfactory over wide areas, and may be depended upon to give satisfaction. Early crop:--Michel's Early, Haverland, Climax; mid- season crop:--Bubach No. 5, Brandywine, Marshall, Nic. Ohmer, Wm. Belt, Glen Mary, Sharplesss; late crop:--The Gandy, Sample, Lester Lovett. The blackberry, dewberry and raspberry are all treated in much the same way. The soil should be well drained, but if a little clayey, so much the better. They are planned preferably in early spring, and set from three or four to six or seven feet apart, according to the variety. They should be put in firmly. Set the plants in about as deep as they have been growing, and cut the canes back to six or eight inches. If fruit is wanted the same season as bushes are set, get a few extra plants--they cost but a few cents--and cut back to two feet or so. Plants fruited the first season are not likely to do well the following year. Two plants may be set in a place and one fruited. If this one is exhausted, then little will be lost. Give clean cultivation frequently enough to maintain a soil mulch, as it is very necessary to retain all the moisture possible. Cultivation, though frequent, should be very shallow as soon as the plants get a good start. In very hot seasons, if the ground is clean, a summer mulch of old hay, leaves or rough manure will be good for the same purpose. In growing, a good stout stake is used for each plant, to which the canes are tied with some soft material. Or, a stout wire is strung the length of the row and the canes fastened to this--a better way, however, being to string two wires, one on either side of the row. Another very important matter is that of pruning. The plants if left to themselves will throw up altogether too much wood. This must be cut out to four or five of the new canes and all the canes that have borne fruit should be cut and burned each season as soon as through fruiting. The canes, for instance, that grow in 1911 will be those to fruit in 1912, after which they should be immediately removed. The new canes, if they are to be self-supporting, as sometimes grown, should be cut back when three or four feet high. It is best, however, to give support. In the case of those varieties which make fruiting side-shoots, as most of the black raspberries (blackcaps) do, the canes should be cut back at two to three feet, and it is well also to cut back these side shoots one-third to one-half, early in the spring. In cold sections (New York or north of it) it is safest to give winter protection by "laying down" the canes and giving them a mulch of rough material. Having them near the ground is in itself a great protection, as they will not be exposed to sun and wind and will sometimes be covered with snow. For mulching, the canes are bent over nearly at the soil and a shovelful of earth thrown on the tips to hold them down; the entire canes may then be covered with soil or rough manure, but do not put it on until freezing weather is at hand. If a mulch is used, it must be taken off before growth starts in the spring. THE BLACKBERRY The large-growing sorts are set as much as six by eight feet apart, though with careful staking and pruning they may be comfortably handled in less space. The smaller sorts need about four by six. When growth starts, thin out to four or five canes and pinch these off at about three feet; or, if they are to be put on wires or trellis, they may be cut when tied up the following spring. Cultivate, mulch and prune as suggested above. Blackberries will do well on a soil a little dry for raspberries and they do not need it quite so rich, as in this case the canes do not ripen up sufficiently by fall, which is essential for good crops. If growing rank they should be pinched back in late August. When tying up in the spring, the canes should be cut back to four or five feet and the laterals to not more than eighteen inches. Blackberry enemies do not do extensive injury, as a rule, in well- cared-for beds. The most serious are: (1) the rust or blight, for which there is no cure but carefully pulling and burning the plants as fast as infested; (2) the blackberry-bush borer, for which burn infested canes; and (3) the recently introduced bramble flea-louse, which resembles the green plant-louse or aphis except that it is a brisk jumper, like the flea-beetle. The leaves twist and curl up in summer and do not drop off in the fall. On cold early mornings, or wet weather, while the insects are sluggish, cut all infested shoots, collecting them in a tight box, and burn. BLACKBERRY VARIETIES As with the other small fruits, so many varieties are being introduced that it is difficult to give a list of the best for home use. Any selections from the following, however, will prove satisfactory, as they are tried-and-true:--Early King, Early Harvest, Wilson Junior, Kittatinny, Rathburn, Snyder, Erie. THE DEWBERRY This is really a trailing blackberry and needs the same culture, except that the canes are naturally slender and trailing and therefore, for garden culture, must have support. They may be staked up, or a barrel hoop, supported by two stakes, makes a good support. In ripening, the dewberry is ten to fourteen days earlier than the blackberry, and for that reason a few plants should be included in the berry patch. Premo is the earliest sort, and Lucretia the standard. RASPBERRY The black and the red types are distinct in flavor, and both should be grown. The blackcaps need more room, about three by six or seven feet; for the reds three by five feet will be sufficient. The blackcaps, and a few of the reds, like Cuthbert, throw out fruiting side branches, and should have the main canes cut back at about two and a half feet to encourage the growth of these laterals, which, in the following spring, should be cut back to about one-third their length. The soil for raspberries should be clayey if possible, and moist, but not wet. RASPBERRY ENEMIES The orange rust, which attacks the blackberry also, is a serious trouble. Pull up and burn all infested plants at once, as no good remedy has as yet been found. The cut-worm, especially in newly set beds, may sometimes prove destructive of the sprouting young canes. The raspberry-borer is the larva of a small, flattish, red-necked beetle, which bores to the center of the canes during summer growth, and kills them. Cut and burn. RASPBERRY VARIETIES Of the blackcaps, Gregg, McCormick, Munger, Cumberland, Columbian, Palmer (very early), and Eureka (late), are all good sorts. Reds: Cuthbert, Cardinal (new), Turner, Reliance, The King (extra early), Loudon (late). Yellow: Golden Queen. CURRANTS The currant and gooseberry are very similar in their cultural requirements. A deep, rich and moist soil is the best--approaching a clayey loam. There need be no fear of giving too much manure, but it should be well rotted. Plenty of room, plenty of air, plenty of moisture, secured where necessary by a soil or other mulch in hot dry weather, are essential to the production of the best fruit. The currant will stand probably as much abuse as any plant the home gardener will have to deal with. Stuck in a corner, smothered in sod, crowded with old wood, stripped by the currant-worm, it still struggles along from year to year, ever hopefully trying to produce a meager crop of poor fruit. But these are not the sort you want. Although it is so tough, no fruit will respond to good care more quickly. To have it do well, give it room, four or five feet each way between bushes. Manure it liberally; give it clean cultivation, and as the season gets hot and dry, mulch the soil, if you would be certain of a full-sized, full-flavored crop. Two bushes, well cared for, will yield more than a dozen half-neglected ones. Anywhere north of New York a full crop every year may be made almost certain. PRUNING CURRANTS Besides careful cultivation, to insure the best of fruit it is necessary to give some thought to the matter of pruning. The most convenient and the most satisfactory way is to keep it in the bush form. Set the plants singly, three or four feet apart, and so cut the new growth, which is generously produced, as to retain a uniform bush shape, preferably rather open in the center. The fruit is produced on wood two or more years old. Therefore cut out branches either when very small, or not until four or five years later, after it has borne two or three crops of fruit. Therefore, in pruning currants, take out (1) superfluous young growth; (2) old hard wood (as new wood will produce better fruit); and (3) all weak, broken, dead or diseased shoots; (4) during summer, if the tips of the young growths kept for fruiting are pinched off, they will ripen up much better-- meaning better fruit when they bear; (5) to maintain a good form, the whole plant may be cut back (never more than one-third) in the fall. In special situations it may be advisable to train the currant to one or a few main stems, as against a wall; this can be done, but it is less convenient. Also it brings greater danger from the currant-borer. The black currant, used almost entirely for culinary or preserving purposes, is entirely different from the red and white ones. They are much larger and should be put five to six feet apart. Some of the fruit is borne on one-year-old wood, so the shoots should not be cut back. Moreover, old wood bears as good fruit as the new growth, and need not be cut out, unless the plant is getting crowded, for several years. As the wood is much heavier and stronger than the other currants, it is advisable gradually to develop the black currants into the tree form. ENEMIES OF THE CURRANT The worst of these is the common currant-worm. When he appears, which will be indicated by holes eaten in the lower leaves early in spring, generally before the plants bloom, spray at once with Paris green. If a second brood appears, spray with white hellebore (if this is not all washed off by the rain, wipe from the fruit when gathered). For the borer, cut and burn every infested shoot. Examine the bushes in late fall, and those in which the borers are at work will usually have a wilted appearance and be of a brownish color. VARIETIES OF CURRANTS Red Dutch, while older and smaller than some of the newer varieties, is hardier and not so likely to be hurt by the borer. London Market, Fay's Prolific, Perfection (new), and Prince Albert, are good sorts. White Grape is a good white. Naples, and Lee's Prolific are good black sorts. THE GOOSEBERRY This is given practically the same treatment as the currant. It is even more important that it should be given the coolest, airiest, location possible, and the most moist soil. Even a partially shaded situation will do, but in such situations extra care must be taken to guard against the mildew--which is mentioned below. Summer mulching is, of course, of special benefit. In pruning the gooseberry, it is best to cut out to a very few, or even to a single stem. Keep the head open, to allow free circulation of air. The extent of pruning will make a great difference in the size of the fruit; if fruit of the largest size is wanted, prune very close. All branches drooping to the ground should be removed. Keep the branches, as much as possible, from touching each other. GOOSEBERRY ENEMIES The currant-worm attacks the gooseberry also, and is effectively handled by the arsenate of lead, Paris green or hellebore spraying, mentioned above. The great trouble in growing gooseberries successfully is the powdery mildew--a dirty, whitish fungous growth covering both fruit and leaves. It is especially destructive of the foreign varieties, the culture of which, until the advent of the potassium sulfide spray, was being practically abandoned. Use 1 oz. of potassium sulfide (liver of sulphur) to 2 gals. water, and mix just before using. Spray thoroughly three or four times a month, from the time the blossoms are opening until fruit is ripe. GOOSEBERRY VARIETIES Of the native gooseberries--which are the hardiest, Downing and Houghton's Seedling are most used. Industry is an English variety, doing well here. Golden Prolific, Champion, and Columbus, are other good foreign sorts, but only when the mildew is successfully fought off. THE GRAPE No garden is so small that there cannot be found in it room for three or four grape-vines; no fruit is more certain, and few more delicious. If it is convenient, a situation fully exposed to the sun, and sloping slightly, will be preferable. But any good soil, provided only it is rich and thoroughly drained, will produce good results. If a few vines are to be set against walls, or in other out-of-the-way places, prepare the ground for them by excavating a good-sized hole, putting in a foot of coal cinders or other drainage material, and refilling with good heavy loam, enriched with old, well rotted manure and half a peck of wood ashes. For culture in the garden, such special preparation will not be necessary--although, if the soil is not in good shape, it will be advisable slightly to enrich the hills. One or two-year roots will be the most satisfactory to buy. They may be set in either fall or spring--the latter time, for New York or north, being generally preferable. When planting, the cane should be cut back to three or four eyes, and the roots should also be shortened back-- usually about one-third. Be sure to make the hole large enough, when setting, to let the roots spread naturally, and work the soil in well around them with the fingers. Set them in firmly, by pressing down hard with the ball of the foot after firming by hand. They are set about six feet apart. GRAPE PRUNING As stated above, the vine is cut back, when planting, to three or four eyes. The subsequent pruning--and the reader must at once distinguish between pruning, and training, or the way in which the vines are placed--will determine more than anything else the success of the undertaking. Grapes depend more upon proper pruning than any other fruit or vegetable in the garden. Two principles must be kept track of in this work. First principle: _the annual crop is borne only on canes of the same year's growth, springing from wood of the previous season's growth_. Second principle: _the vine, if left to itself, will set three or four times the number of bunches it can properly mature_. As a result of these facts, the following system of pruning has been developed and must be followed for sure and full-sized crops. (1) At time of planting, cut back to three or four eyes, and after these sprout leave only one (or two) of them, which should be staked up. (2) Following winter (December to March), leave only one cane and cut this back to three or four eyes. (3) Second growing season, save only two canes, even if several sprout, and train these to stake or trellis. These two vines, or arms, branching from the main stem, form the foundation for the one-year canes that bear the fruit. However, to prevent the vine's setting too much fruit (see second principle above) these arms must be cut back in order to limit the number of fruit-bearing canes that will spring from them, therefore: (4) Second winter pruning, cut back these arms to eight or ten buds-- and we have prepared for the first crop of fruit, about forty bunches, as the fruiting cane from each bud will bear two bunches on the average. However these main arms will not bear fruiting-canes another year (see first principle above) and therefore: (5) At the third winter pruning, (a) of the canes that bore fruit, only the three or four nearest the main stem or trunk are left; (b) these are cut back to eight or ten buds each, and (c) everything else is ruthlessly cut away. Each succeeding year the same system is continued, care being taken to rub off, each May, buds or sprouts starting on the main trunk or arms. The wood, in addition to being cut back, must be well ripened; and the wood does not ripen until after the fruit. It therefore sometimes becomes necessary to cut out some of the bunches in order to hasten the ripening of the rest. At the same time the application of some potash fertilizer will be helpful. If the bunches do not ripen up quickly and pretty nearly together, the vine is overloaded and being damaged for the following year. The matter of pruning being mastered, the question of training is one of individual choice. Poles, trellises, arbors, walls--almost anything may be used. The most convenient system, however, and the one I would strongly recommend for practical home gardening for results, is known as the (modified) Kniffen system. It is simplicity itself. A stout wire is stretched five or six feet above the ground; to this the single main trunks of the vine run up, and along it are stretched the two or three arms from which the fruiting-canes hang down. They occupy the least possible space, so that garden crops may be grown practically on the same ground. I have never seen it tried, but where garden space is limited I should think that the asparagus bed and the Kniffen grape- arbor just described could be combined to great advantage by placing the vines, in spaces left for them, directly in the asparagus row. Of course the ground would have to be manured for two crops. A 2-8-10 fertilizer is right for the grapes. If using stable manure, apply also ashes or some other potash fertilizer. If the old-fashioned arbor is used, the best way is to run the main trunk up over it and cut the laterals back each year to two or three eyes. The most serious grape trouble which the home gardener is likely to encounter is the black-rot Where only a few grapes are grown the simplest way of overcoming this disease is to get a few dozen cheap manila store-bags and fasten one, with a couple of ten-penny nails, over each bunch. Cut the mouth of the bag at sides and edges, cover the bunch, fold the flaps formed over the cane, and fasten. They are put on after the bunches are well formed and hasten the ripening of the fruit, as well as protecting it. On a larger scale, spraying will have to be resorted to. Use Bordeaux, 5-5-50, from third leaf's appearance to middle of July; balance of season with ammoniacal copper carbonate. The spray should be applied in particular just before every rain-- especially on the season's growth. Besides the spraying, all trimmed- off wood, old leaves and twigs, withered bunches and grapes, or "mummies," and refuse of every description, should be carefully raked up in the spring and burned or buried. Also give clean culture and keep the main stems clean. The grape completes the list of the small fruits worth while to the average home gardener. If you have not already experimented with them, do not let your garden go longer without them. They are all easily obtained (none costing more than a few cents each), and a very limited number will keep the family table well supplied with healthy delicacies, which otherwise, in their best varieties and condition, could not be had at all. The various operations of setting out, pruning and spraying will soon become as familiar as those in the vegetable garden. There is no reason why every home garden should not have its few rows of small fruits, yielding their delicious harvests in abundance. CHAPTER XIX A CALENDAR OF OPERATIONS One of the greatest difficulties in gardening is to get things started ahead at the proper time, and yet upon the thoroughness with which this is done the success of the garden must depend, in large measure. The reader may remember that in a previous chapter (Chapter IV) the importance of accurately planning the work ahead was emphasized. I mentioned there the check list used to make sure that everything would be carried out, or started ahead at the proper time--as with the sowing of seeds. The following garden operations, given month by month, will serve not only as a timely reminder of things to be done, but as the basis for such a check list. The importance of the _preparations_ in all matters of gardening, is of course obvious. JANUARY Probably one of the good resolutions made with the New Year was a better garden for the coming summer. The psychologists claim that the only hope for resolutions is to nail them down at the start with an _action_--that seems to have more effect in making an actual impression on the brain. So start the good work along by sending at once for several of the leading seed catalogues. _Planting Plan_. Make out a list of what you are going to want this year, and then make your Planting Plan. See Chapter IV. _Seeds_. Order your seed. _Do it now_ while the seedsman's stock is full; while he is not rushed; while there is ample time to rectify mistakes if any occur. _Manures_. Altogether too few amateur gardeners realize the great importance of procuring early every pound of manures, of any kind, to be had. It often may be had cheaply at this time of year, and by composting, adding phosphate rock, and several turnings, if you have any place under cover where it can be collected, you can double its value before spring. _Frames_. Even at this season of the year do not fail to air the frames well on warm days. Practically no water will be needed, but if the soil does dry out sufficiently to need it, apply early on a bright morning. _Onions_. It will not be too early, this month, to sow onions for spring transplanting outside. Get a packet each of Prizetaker, Ailsa Craig, Mammoth Silver-skin, or Gigantic Gibraltar. _Lettuce_. Sow lettuce for spring crop under glass or in frames. _Fruit_. This is a good month to prune grapes, currants, gooseberries and peach trees, to avoid the rush that will come later. FEBRUARY _Hotbeds_. A little early for making them until after the 15th, but get all your material ready--manure, selected and stacked; lumber ready for any new ones; sash all in good repair. _Starting Seeds_. First part of the month, earliest planting of cabbage, cauliflower and lettuce should be made; and two to four weeks later for main early crop. At this time also, beets and earliest celery. _Tools_. Overhaul them all now; order repairs. Get new catalogues and study new improvements and kinds you do not possess. _Poles and brush_. Whether you use the old-fashioned sort (now harder to obtain than they used to be) or make your "poles" and use wire trellis for peas, attend to it now. _Fruit_. Finish up last month's work, if not all done. Also examine plum and cherry trees for black-knot. MARCH _Hotbeds_. If not made last of February, should be made at once. Some of the seed sown last month will be ready for transplanting and going into the frames; also lettuce sown in January. Radish and carrot (forcing varieties) may be sown in alternating rows. Give much more air; water on bright mornings; be careful not to have them caught by suddenly cold nights after a bright warm day. _Seed-sowing under glass_. Last sowing of early cabbage and early summer cabbages (like Succession), lettuce, rhubarb (for seedling plants), cauliflower, radish, spinach, turnip, and early tomatoes; towards last of month, late tomatoes and first of peppers, and egg- plant. Sweet peas often find a place in the vegetable garden; start a few early, to set out later; they will do better than if started outside. Start tomatoes for growing in frames. For early potatoes sprout in sand. _Planting, outside_. If an early spring, and the ground is sufficiently dry, sow onions, lettuce, beet, radish, (sweet peas), smooth peas, early carrot, cabbage, leek, celery (main crop), and turnip. Set out new beds of asparagus, rhubarb and sea-kale (be sure to try a few plants of the latter). Manure and fork up old beds of above. _Fruit_. Prune now, apple, plum and pear trees. And this is the last chance for lime-sulphur and miscible-oil sprays. APRIL Now the rush is on! Plan your work, and _work your plan_. But do not yield to the temptation to plant more than you can look out for later on. Remember it is much easier to sow seeds than to pull out weeds. _The Frames_. Air! water! and do not let the green plant-lice or the white-fly get a ghost of a chance to start. Almost every day the glass should be lifted entirely off. Care must be taken never to let the soil or flats become dried out; toward the end of the month, if it is bright and warm, begin watering towards evening instead of in early morning, as you should have been doing through the winter. If proper attention is given to ventilation and moisture, there will not be much danger from the green plant-louse (aphis) and white-fly, but at the first sign of one fight them to a finish. Use kerosene emulsion, tobacco dust, tobacco preparations, or Aphine. _Seed sowing_. Under glass: tomato, egg-plant and peppers. On sod: corn, cucumbers, melons, early squash, lima beans. _Planting, outside_. Onions, lettuce, beet, etc., if not put in last month; also parsnip, salsify, parsley, wrinkled peas, endive. Toward the end of this month (or first part of next) second plantings of these. Set out plants of early cabbage (and the cabbage group) lettuce, onion sets, sprouted potatoes, beets, etc. _In the Garden_. Cultivate between rows of sowed crops; weed out by hand just as soon as they are up enough to be seen; watch for cut- worms and root-maggots. _Fruit_. Thin out all old blackberry canes, dewberry and raspberry canes (if this was not done, as it should have been, directly after the fruiting season last summer). Be ready for first spraying of early- blossoming trees. Set out new strawberry beds, small fruits and fruit trees. MAY _Keep ahead of the weeds_. This is the month when those warm, south, driving rains often keep the ground too wet to work for days at a time, and weeds grow by leaps and bounds. Woe betide the gardener whose rows of sprouting onions, beets, carrots, etc., once become green with wild turnip and other rapid-growing intruders. Clean cultivation and slight hilling of plants set out are also essential. _The Frames_. These will not need so much attention now, but care must be taken to guard tender plants, such as tomatoes, egg-plant and peppers, against sudden late frosts. The sash may be left off most of the time. Water copiously and often. _Planting, outside_. First part of the month: early beans, early corn, okra and late potatoes may be put in; and first tomatoes set out --even if a few are lost--they are readily replaced. Finish setting out cabbage, lettuce, cauliflower, beets, etc., from frames. Latter part of month, if warm: corn, cucumbers, some of sods from frames and early squash as traps where late crop is to be planted or set. _Fruit_. Be on time with first sprayings of late-blossoming fruits--apples, etc. Rub off from grape vines the shoots that are not wanted. JUNE _Frequent, shallow cultivation!_ Firm seeds in dry soil. Plant wax beans, lima beans, pole beams, melons, corn, etc., and successive crops of lettuce, radish, etc. Top-dress growing crops that need special manure (such as nitrate of soda on onions). Prune tomatoes, and cut out some foliage for extra early tomatoes. Toward end of month set celery and late cabbage. Also sow beans, beets, corn, etc., for early fall crops. Spray where necessary. Allow asparagus to grow to tops. _Fruit._ Attend to spraying fruit trees and currants and gooseberries. Make pot-layers of strawberries for July setting. JULY Maintain frequent, shallow cultivation. Set out late cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, leeks and celery. Sow beans, beets, corn, etc., for late fall crops. Irrigate where needed. _Fruit_. Pinch back new canes of blackberry, dewberry and raspberry. Rub off second crop of buds on grapes. Thin out if too many bunches; also on plums, peaches and other fruit too thick, or touching. Pot-layered strawberries may be set out. AUGUST Keep the garden clean from late weeds--especially purslane, the hot- weather weed pest, which should be always _removed_ from the garden and burned or rotted down. Sow spinach, rutabaga turnip, bush beans and peas for last fall crop. During first part of month, late celery may still be put out. Sow lettuce for early fall crop, in frames. First lot of endive should be tied up for blanching. _Fruit_. Strawberries may be set, and pot-layered plants, if wanted to bear a full crop the following season, should be put in by the Thin out and bag grapes. SEPTEMBER _Frames_. Set in lettuce started in August. Sow radishes and successive crop of lettuce. Cooler weather begins to tell on late- planted crops. Give cabbage, cauliflower, etc., deeper cultivation. "Handle" celery wanted for early use. Harvest and store onions. Get squash under cover before frost. From the 15th to 25th sow spinach, onions, borecole for wintering over. Sow down thickly to rye all plots as fast as cleared of summer crops; or plow heavy land in ridges. Attend to draining. _Fruit_. Trees may be set. Procure barrels for storing fruit in winter. At harvest time it is often impossible to get them at any price. OCTOBER Get ready for winter. Blanch rest of endive. Bank celery, to be used before Christmas, where it is. Gather tomatoes, melons, etc., to keep as long as possible. Keep especially clean and well cultivated all crops to be wintered over. Late in the month store cabbage and cauliflower; also beets, carrots, and other root crops. Get boxes, barrels, bins, sand or sphagnum moss ready beforehand, to save time in packing. Clean the garden; store poles, etc., worth keeping over; burn everything else that will not rot; and compost everything that will. _Fruit_. Harvest apples, etc. Pick winter pears just before hard frosts, and store in dry dark place. NOVEMBER _Frames_. Make deep hotbeds for winter lettuce and radishes. Construct frames for use next spring. See that vegetables in cellar, bins, and sheds are safe from freezing. Trench or store celery for spring use. Take in balance of all root crops if any remain in the ground, except, of course, parsnip and salsify for spring use. Put rough manure on asparagus and rhubarb beds. Get mulch ready for spinach, etc., to be wintered over, if they occupy exposed locations. _Fruit_. Obtain marsh or salt hay for mulching strawberries. Cut out old wood of cane-fruits--blackberries, etc., if not done after gathering fruit. Look over fruit trees for borers. DECEMBER Cover celery stored last month, if trenched out-of-doors. Use only light, loose material at first, gradually covering for winter. Put mulch on spinach, etc. _Fruit_. Mulch strawberries. Prune grape-vines; make first application of winter sprays for fruit trees. AND THEN set about procuring manures of all kinds from every available source. Remember that anything _which will rot_ will add to the value of your manure pile. Muck, lime, old plastering, sods, weeds (earth and all), street, stable and yard sweepings--all these and numerous others will increase your garden successes of next year. CHAPTER XX CONCLUSION It is with a feeling in which there is something of fear that I close these pages--fear that many of those little things which become second nature to the grower of plants and seem unimportant, but which sometimes are just the things that the beginner wants to know about, may have been inadvertently left out. In every operation described, however, I have tried to mention all necessary details. I would urge the reader, nevertheless, to study as thoroughly as possible all the garden problems with which he will find himself confronted and to this end recommend that he read several of the many garden books which are now to be had. It must be to his advantage to see even the same subjects presented again from other points of view. The more familiar he can make himself, both in theory and in practice, with all the multitude of operations which modern gardening involves, the greater success will he attain. Personally, the further I have gone into the growing of things--and that has now become my business as well as my pleasure--the more absorbingly interesting I find it. Each season, each crop, offers its own problems and a reward for the correct solution of them. It is a work which, even to the beginner, presents the opportunity of deducting new conclusions, trying new experiments, making new discoveries. It is a work which offers pleasant and healthy recreation to the many whose days must be, for the most part, spent in office or shop; and it gives very substantial help in the world-old problem of making both ends meet. Let the garden beginner be not disappointed if he does not succeed, for the first season or two, or possibly three, with everything he plants. There is usually a preventable reason for the failure, and studious observation will reveal it. With the modern success in the application of insecticides and fungicides, and the extension of the practice of irrigation, the subject of gardening begins to be reduced to a scientific and (what is more to the point) a sure basis. We are getting control of the uncertain factors. All this affects first, perhaps, the person who grows for profit, but with our present wide circulation of every new idea and discovery in such matters, it must reach soon to every remote home garden patch which is cared for by a wide-awake gardener. Such a person, from the fact that he or she is reading a new garden book, I take the reader to be. I hope this volume, condensed though it is, has added to your fund of practical garden information; that it will help to grow that proverbial second blade of grass. I have only to add, as I turn again to the problems waiting for me in field and under glass, that I wish you all success in your work--the making of better gardens in America. 
46994	----	melting buttery, sugary, highly flavored; Nov. and Dec. =Delcange. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1876. Fruit large; flesh melting; first quality; Sept. =Délices de la Cacaudière. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:9, fig. 1869. Gained by Count Eugène des Nouhes in 1846 near Pouzauges, Vendée, Fr. Fruit above medium, long-conic, slightly obtuse, mammillate at crown and irregular in contour, bright yellow, dotted with gray and greenish specks, colored with carmine on the cheek next the sun; flesh very white and fine, melting; juice abundant, acidulous, sugary, aromatic, rather savory; second; July and Aug. =Délices de Charles. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:10, fig. 1869. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 74, 262. 1876. _Wredow._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 886. 1869. Raised in 1826 by Simon Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium, turbinate-pyriform but inconstant in contour, dark lemon-yellow, dotted with russet; flesh white, fine, very melting, buttery, sweet, juicy, vinous and with a delicious tartness; good to very good; Oct. to Dec. =Délices de Chaumont. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 72. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:133, fig. 547. 1881. Fruit rather large, conic-ovate, olive spotted with gray; flesh white, buttery, melting, wanting in juice, very sweet; second, cooking. =Délices Everard. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 558. 1884. Raised by Gabriel Everard, Tournay, Fr., in 1840. It was sent to England in 1865 and received a first-class certificate from the Royal Horticultural Society in 1875. Fruit small, globular-turbinate, smooth, shining, bright yellow, much speckled and marked with russet; flesh salmon tint, tender, buttery, melting, very juicy, sweet, delicious flavor and fine perfume; Oct. to Feb. =Délices de Froyennes. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 558. 1884. Raised by Isidore Degaud, Froyennes, Tournay, Fr. Fruit medium, oval, yellow covered with fawn-colored russet; flesh tender, melting, very juicy, sugary and perfumed, vinous; Oct. and Nov. =Délices d'Hardenpont. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 99. 1825. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 558. 1884. Raised by Abbe Hardenpont, Mons, Bel., in 1759. There has been much confusion between this and _Délices d'Hardenpont d'Angers_ and the _Archiduc Charles_ and _Charles of Austria_. Fruit large, oblong-obovate-obtuse; skin smooth, bright green changing to yellow, with pale brown-russet dots; flesh white, tender, buttery, melting, rich, sweet, perfumed; good; Nov. =Délices d'Hiver. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:61, fig. 415. 1880. =2.= _Gard. Chron._ N. S. =26=:210. 1886. Distributed by M. Dauvesse, Orléans, Fr., early in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Fruit large; form variable from elongate-pyriform to globular-pyriform with short stalk set obliquely; skin thick, green, heavily dotted; flesh moderately fine, full of sugary juice, acid and delicately perfumed; Dec. to Jan. =Délices de Huy. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 56, 251. 1895. Fruit large, conic-pyriform, yellowish-green; flesh greenish-yellow, juicy, pleasantly perfumed; first; Sept. =Délices de Jodoigne. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:15, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 559. 1884. Obtained by Simon Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel., in 1826. Fruit medium, pyriform, irregular, slightly obtuse and larger on one side of the axis than the other, grass-green on the shaded side and reddish-gray on the exposed face, covered with numerous very fine dots of fawn; flesh white, firm, breaking, sweet, juicy, refreshing and aromatic; first; Oct. =Délices de Ligaudières. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 60. 1895. Fruit medium, of the style of White Doyenné, but the stem thicker and shorter; flesh fine, melting; first; Oct. =Délices de Lovenjoul. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:65, fig. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 734. 1869. _Jules Bivort._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:15, fig. 1869. A seedling of Van Mons in whose catalog of 1828 it is No. 521. Fruit medium, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow washed with orange-red, speckled all over with russet dots; color variable; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, semi-buttery; juice abundant, sugary, with an acid flavor and delicious perfume, rich; first; Oct. and Nov. =Délices de la Meuse. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 279. 1858. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:16, fig. 1869. Laurent de Bavay, Director of the Royal Nurseries of Vilvorde, near Brussels, sent this pear out in 1850. Fruit medium and above, ovate, irregular, bossed, more enlarged on one side than the other, greenish-yellow, very finely speckled with green and brown dots; flesh dirty white, coarse, breaking, gritty at center; juice variable in amount, moderately sweet, acid, musky; second; Feb. =Délices de Naghin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 90. 1895. Fruit rather large, turbinate, yellow, washed with fawn; flesh very juicy, very sweet; an exquisite pear; Nov. =Délices de Saint-Médard. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 70. 1895. Sent out from Belgium. Fruit medium or rather large, shining yellow touched with russet; flesh fine, melting, sweet; good quality; Sept. =Délices de Tirlemont. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 90. 1895. First placed in commerce by H. Millet, nurseryman at Tirlemont, Bel. Fruit medium or large; flesh melting; first; Jan. to Mar. =Délicieuse de Grammont. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1876. Raised by M. de la Croix d'Ogimont, Tournai, Bel. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, delicate yellowish-green; flesh white, very juicy; first; end of Aug. =Délicieuse de Swijan. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 90. 1895. Distributed by Baron de Trauttenberg, Prague, Bohemia. Tree very fertile and suitable for cold and mountainous climates. Fruit medium, globular, yellowish-green, dotted; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, sugary; very good; Nov. and Dec. =Délisse. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 72. 1895. Fruit medium, oblong, of even contour, much covered with fawn-russet; flesh fine, melting, very juicy; good; Sept. and Oct. =Delpierre. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:17, fig. 1869. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 70, 252. 1895. A wilding found in the Canton of Jodoigne, Brabant, Bel. Fruit large, ovate-obtuse-pyriform, wrinkled, thick, olive-green clouded with dark yellow; flesh greenish-white, coarse, semi-melting; juice acid, rather sweet, vinous, abundant; second; Sept. =Delporte Bourgmestre. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 90. 1895. Fruit rather large, yellowish; first; Mar. and Apr. =Democrat. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =25=:69. 1859. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 734. 1869. A seedling originated in Pennsylvania and introduced as new in 1859. Fruit medium or below, globular-obovate, greenish-yellow with nettings and patches of russet and dotted with russet and brown spots; flesh semi-melting, juicy, sweet, pleasant good; Sept. =Demorest. 1.= _Wash. Nurs. Cat._ 5. 1921. Reported as "luscious, larger, later and a better keeper than Bartlett." =Dempsey. 1.= Ont. Dept. Agr. _Fr. Ont._ 155. 1914. A Canadian pear produced from a seed of Bartlett fertilized with Duchesse d'Angoulême. fruit large, oblong-obovate-pyriform, smooth, yellowish-green with brownish-red cheek in sun; flesh white, fine-grained, tender, almost melting, with sweet, delicious flavor; Oct. and Nov. =Denis Dauvesse. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. Fruit medium to large, long-pyriform; flesh fine, melting, pleasantly perfumed; Sept. =Des Chartreux. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:171, fig. 84. 1866-73. Origin uncertain. Fruit small or nearly medium, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, light green, speckled with dots of a very deep green, washed with light red on the sunny side; flesh slightly yellow, fine, more firm than breaking; juice sugary, acidulous, slightly perfumed; second; Aug. =Des Deux Soeurs. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 463. 1863. The original tree was found in the garden of the Misses Knopp of Mechlin, Bel. Fruit medium, oblong, lemon-yellow; flesh melting, juicy, sugary, slightly astringent but wanting in perfume and flavor; grown both in Belgium and France; not first class. =Désiré Cornélis. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:18, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 560. 1884. The parent tree was from seed sown by Van Mons; first bore fruit in 1847. Fruit large, oblong-oval, obtuse; skin very fine, pale yellow and often orange-yellow, dotted and netted with greenish-gray; flesh very tender, buttery, melting; juice plentiful, sugary, deliciously perfumed; first; Sept. =Dessauer Weissbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:35. 1856. North German, 1804. Fruit medium, smooth, pale greenish-yellow changing to citron yellow, sometimes rather lightly blushed; flesh fine, somewhat soft, sweet, aromatic; good; Aug. =Deutsche Augustbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 202. 1889. _D'Aout Allemande._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:65, fig. 513. 1881. A German variety much cultivated in Saxony. Fruit small, ovate; skin rather thick, dull green, sprinkled with small and numerous gray dots, becomes yellow on ripening and somewhat blushed in the sun; flesh green and veined with green, semi-fine, buttery; juice sufficient, sugary, vinous, acid, pleasant; good; Aug. =Deutsche Glasbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:69. 1856. German, 1811. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, bent toward stalk, uniformly light yellow, blushed with russety-red on the side of the sun; flesh sweet; good; Sept. =Deutsche Kümmelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:157. 1856. German, 1802. Fruit small, globular, dirty yellow, washed with russet; flesh very tender, sweet, strongly aromatic and perfumed; good; Sept. =Deutsche Muskateller. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 106. 1825. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 202. 1889. _Muscat Allemand d'Hiver._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:439, fig. 1869. _German Muscat._ =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 772. 1869. An old pear of uncertain origin. La Quintinye mentioned it without description in 1690, but in 1768 Duhamel du Monceau gave a careful description to distinguish between it and _Royale d'Hiver_ which it somewhat resembles. Fruit medium or above, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, pale yellow, speckled with numerous large, gray dots; flesh yellowish, semi-fine, semi-melting, juicy, granular, sweet, slightly astringent; second; Mar. to May. =Deux Têtes. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:244. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:23, fig. 1869. _Zwibotzenbirne._ =3.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 162. 1825. =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 303. 1889. One of the most ancient pears cultivated in France. Charles Estienne described it in 1530 in his Seminarium, under the name _Pyra Bicipitia_ or _Poirè a Deux-Testes_. It takes its name from its large and oval calyx being placed on two prominences. Fruit small to medium, globular, somewhat turbinate, pale yellowish-green in the shade, blushed on the side next the sun; flesh white, coarse, breaking, juicy, slightly perfumed, but often having an unpleasant acidity; an indifferent dessert fruit; Aug. =Devergnies. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:57, fig. 1858. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:24, fig. 1869. Obtained from seed in 1817 in Hainaut by M. Devergnies of Mons. Fruit medium, turbinate-obtuse, much corrugated at summit, olive-green, nearly covered with gray-russet and slightly clouded with orange-red on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, buttery; juice abundant, acidulous, sugary, aromatic; second; Nov. and Dec. =Dewey. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 55. 1898. =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:480, fig. 160. 1913. An oriental pear, in form resembling Kieffer. Fruit medium, conical to globular-oval, rusty green with faint blush; skin rough; flesh white, juicy, coarse, gritty, fibrous; quality poor; Oct. =Dhommée. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:25, fig. 1869. A seedling raised by the Horticultural Society of Angers, Fr.; it first bore fruit in 1858. Fruit medium and often larger, long-ovate, bossed, one side always larger than the other, bright green, finely dotted and much mottled with russet; flesh white, firm, fine, melting, slightly gritty; juice abundant, sugary, acidulous, devoid of perfume; second; Oct. to Dec. =Dickerman. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 376. 1859. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 736. 1869. _Dikeman._ =3.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 700. 1897. Obtained by S. D. Pardee, New Haven, Conn. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, often irregular in outline, yellowish, bright cinnamon on the sunny side, covered with minute dots; flesh white, fine, melting, sugary, perfumed; first; Sept. =Diego. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. Described by John Parkinson in 1629 as a small pear growing in clusters, excellent, and musky in flavor. =Dienstbotenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:200. 1856. Dutch, 1807. Fruit medium, pyriform, light greenish-yellow turning to bright yellow, with only an indistinct red blush, if any; flesh granular, aromatic and sweet; good; Oct. =Dieudonné Anthoine. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =5=:85, fig. 1857. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:26, fig. 1869. Obtained by Dieudonné Anthoine at Ecaussines-d'Enghien, Bel., and bore fruit at Brussels in 1850. Fruit medium and above, globular, slightly turbinate, bossed, flattened at both ends, greenish-yellow, dotted with brown, mottled with russet, becoming at maturity a brilliant yellow, washed with vermilion on the side of the sun; flesh very white and very fine, breaking; juice sufficient, sweet, often astringent and only slightly perfumed; second; Oct. =Diller. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 36. 1852. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 736. 1869. This pear was approved at the American Pomological Congress in 1852, where it was reported to have been imported from Germany by the Diller family many years previously, but considered by others to be a native of Pennsylvania. Fruit below medium, globular-ovate, cinnamon-russet; flesh somewhat granular, whitish, buttery, melting; juicy with a fine aromatic flavor; good to very good; Aug. and Sept. =Diman. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., submitted this among other seedlings to the Fruit Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1866. Fruit 2-1/2 in. in diameter, russet, with red cheek; flesh breaking, melting, very sweet and juicy; ripens soundly; all Oct. This pear has improved, year by year, in size and character; first-rate. =Directeur Alphand. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ N. S. =17=:538. 1882. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 54. 1895. Sent out in 1880 by Messrs. Croux and Son, Chatenay, Seine, Fr. Fruit very large, oblong-pyriform, yellowish-green passing into golden-green, dotted and splashed with red; flesh white, semi-fine, generally gritty toward the center, sugary; very good for ornament and stewing; Feb. and Mar. =Directeur Hardy. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 542. 1894. =2.= _Ibid._ 500, fig. 153. 1894. From the seed beds of M. Tourasse and promoted by M. Baltet of Troyes, Fr. It was submitted to the Tasting Committee of the Pomological Society of France in 1894 and declared to be very good. Fruit large or medium, turbinate, elongated, obtuse, slightly bent, golden-yellow, washed with red on the exposed side; flesh white, fine, melting, very juicy, sugary, vinous, slightly perfumed; Sept. =Directeur Tisserand. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 7. 1900. Obtained by M. A. Sannier, Rouen, from Beurré d'Hardenpont fertilized with Doyenné du Comice; introduced in 1900. Fruit medium or rather large, ovate-turbinate; skin fine, shining, colored in the sun; flesh white, melting, juicy, sugary, having a peculiar flavor; good; Dec. and Jan. =Directeur Varenne. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 6. 1897. A cross between Easter Beurré and Bergamote Espéren, introduced by M. Arsène Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Fruit large to very large, approaching Easter Beurré in form and color; stem short; flesh very fine, juicy, with a slight aroma. =Dirkjes Peer. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:25, fig. 13. 1872. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1876. Dutch. Fruit medium, globular-conic, lemon-yellow streaked with brownish-red; flesh whitish, semi-breaking, agreeably acid and sugary; second; good for household use; Aug. =Dix. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:142. 1831. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 737, fig. 1869. Originated in the garden of Madame Dix, Boston, Mass.; it bore first in 1826. Fruit large, oblong or long-pyriform; skin rough, green, the exposed fruit becoming deep yellow when ripe, marked with distinct russet dots and sprinkled with russet around the stalk; flesh melting, rich, juicy, of a fine flavor and by some thought to be superior to the St. Germain; very good to best; Oct. and Nov. =Dixie. 1.= Griffing Bros. _Cat._ 19, fig. 1915. Originated in southern Georgia as a chance seedling, possibly a cross between Le Conte and the Sand Pear; and was introduced in 1914 by Griffing Brothers of Florida. Fruit medium to above, roundish, slightly oblong, light green, sweet, sprightly; Aug. =Doat. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:29, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:19, fig. 202. 1879. The parent tree was noticed by M. Doat in his garden near Fleurance, Gers, Fr. Fruit large, like Calebasse in form; skin rough to the touch, bright yellow dotted with fawn; flesh yellowish-white or greenish, semi-melting, gritty around the core; juice abundant, vinous, sugary, rather aromatic; second; Sept. =Docteur Andry. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:31, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 561. 1884. Raised in the nurseries of M. Boisbunel, Jr., at Rouen, Fr., in 1849. Fruit medium, globular, Bergamot-shaped, bright yellow all over, with dots of russet around the stalk, and sprinkled with small brown specks; flesh very white, fine, melting, somewhat gritty at center, juicy, sugary, with a delicate taste of musk; first; Nov. =Docteur Bénit. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:31, fig. 1869. Raised from seed by Van Mons in 1840. Fruit below medium, globular, larger on one side than the other, wrinkled, bronzed all over, dotted with bright grayish-green; flesh whitish, dense, semi-melting, veined with greenish-yellow; juice sufficient, rather sugary, vinous, slightly aromatic; third; Dec. and Jan. =Docteur Bourgeois. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 62. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Fruit medium, apple-shaped, lemon-yellow; flesh fine, somewhat granular at center, juicy, with agreeable perfume. =Docteur Bouvier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:33, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 738. 1869. An excellent French pear suitable for a mild climate. Fruit medium, globular-obovate-pyriform, greenish, more yellow at maturity, sprinkled, shaded and dotted with russet, sometimes with slight crimson and fawn on exposed cheek; flesh rather coarse, melting, juicy, vinous, having but little perfume; good to very good; Dec. to Mar. =Docteur Capron. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:34, fig. 1869. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 62, 255. 1895. Obtained by Van Mons in 1842. Fruit medium or rather large, ovate, lemon-yellow; flesh melting, yellow, buttery, sugary, juicy, of good flavor and scented with almond; first; Nov. =Docteur Chaineau. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1895. Fruit rather large; flesh melting; first; Oct. =Docteur Delatosse. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1895. Fruit exquisite; Oct. and Nov. Resisted the severe frost of 1879-80. =Docteur Gromier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. First published in 1873. Fruit medium; flesh very fine, buttery, melting, juicy, with an aroma of mingled rose and musk; first; Oct. =Docteur Joubert. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 561. 1893. Baltet Brothers, Troyes, Fr., introduced this pear in 1893. Fruit rather large, pyriform, clear green passing to pale yellow, dotted with fawn, rosy on the side of the sun; flesh melting; juice abundant, with a sugary taste and having a pleasant perfume; autumn. =Docteur Koch. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:36, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:7, fig. 196. 1879. Raised from seed by André Leroy in 1864. Fruit above medium, ovate, bossed, irregular, lemon-yellow, finely dotted and reticulated with russet, lightly washed with reddish-brown on the side exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, fine, firm, melting, rather gritty about the core, full of sugary juice, acid and pleasantly perfumed; first; Sept. =Docteur Lentier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:37, fig. 1869. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 74, 256. 1895. From seed sown in 1847 by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Brabant. Fruit medium, ovate, somewhat elongated, smooth, greenish or lemon-yellow, splashed and dotted with cinnamon-russet; flesh whitish, fine-grained, tender, buttery, melting, juicy, exceedingly rich, sweet and perfumed; first, of the highest merit; Oct. =Docteur Lindley. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 40. 1871. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 108. 1876. Shown at the annual exhibition of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1871. Fruit above medium, broadly turbinate, yellow, tinged with red and slightly traced with russet; flesh white, buttery, sweet, highly flavored; very good; Nov. =Docteur Meniere. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:38, fig. 1869. Raised from seed by André Leroy, Angers, Fr.; fruited first in 1864. Fruit large, cylindrical, slightly ovate; skin wrinkled, bright yellow, dotted with greenish-gray and partly covered with russet markings; flesh whitish, fine, melting, very juicy, sugary, slightly acid, agreeably-perfumed flavor; Sept. =Docteur Nélis. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:87, fig. 1856. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 2, 129, fig. 161. 1866-73. Obtained by M. Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel.; first published in 1847. Fruit above medium or small, turbinate-obtuse, generally much more curved on one side than the other, clear dark lemon-yellow, thinly dotted with russet; flesh yellowish, fine-grained, very tender, melting, juicy and sweet, rather aromatic; second; Sept. =Docteur P. Bruzon. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 463. 1906. Placed on the market as a new variety in 1906 by M. Bruant, Poitiers, Fr. Fruit very large, greenish-yellow, dotted and mottled with russet; flesh white, semi-fine but very juicy, very melting, sugary, pleasantly perfumed; good; Sept. =Docteur Pariset. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. Fruit large, nearly cylindrical, golden lemon-yellow; flesh buttery, melting, juicy, sugary and perfumed; first; Nov. =Docteur Pigeaux. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:40, fig. 1869. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1876. From a seed bed of Major Espéren of Mechlin, Bel., placed on the market in 1864. Fruit above medium and often rather large, globular-ovate, yellow tinged with rose; flesh fine, melting; good; Oct. to Dec. =Docteur Trousseau. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =5=:89, fig. 1857. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 738. 1869. One of the last of the seedlings of Van Mons; fruited in 1848. Fruit large, pyriform-obtuse, yellowish-green, dotted with bright fawn and stained with brown-russet around the stem; flesh white, buttery, melting, very juicy and aromatic; first; Nov. =Doctor Bachmann. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 190. 1867. Produced at the Pomaria nurseries, South Carolina, from seed and reported to the American Pomological Society in 1867. Fruit medium, globular, green with dull red cheek; flesh juicy, vinous and refreshing. =Doctor Engelbrecht. 1.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =11=:No. 70, Pl. 70. 1882. German. Fruit rather large, pyriform-elongated, nearly smooth, shining, green, clouded with greenish-yellow; flesh yellowish-white, fine, softish, melting, sweet, vinous, with an agreeable cinnamon flavor. =Doctor Hogg Bergamot. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 562. 1884. Raised by T. Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, Eng., from seed of Gansel Late Bergamot; received a first-class certificate from the Royal Horticultural Society in 1878. Fruit produced in great clusters, small, size of Seckel, obovate, even in outline, grass-green, with a dull brownish cheek, changing to deep yellow and bright red cheek with an orange glow; flesh melting, remarkably sweet like honey, with a brisk acidulous flavor and perfume of lemon; one of the richest flavored pears; Sept. =Doctor Hoskins. 1.= _Rural N. Y._ =44=:201, 203, figs. 120, 121. 1885. According to correspondence with J. T. Macomber of Adams, Vt., this variety is a seedling of Flemish Beauty. It is said to be medium to above in size, roundish-obtuse, pyriform, pale yellow, red on the sunny side and "very good" in quality. =Doctor Howe. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 2nd App. 146. 1876. Originated in garden of Dr. John T. Howe, Birmingham, Conn., about 1890. Fruit medium, globular, inclining to pyriform, somewhat obtuse, greenish changing to light yellow, netted and patched with russet dots; flesh whitish, semi-fine, juicy, melting, sweet, rich, slightly-vinous flavor; promising in 1890; Oct. =Doctor Turner. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 210. 1862. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 740. 1869. A pear of Connecticut origin. Tree of good growth, moderately spreading, rather an early and regular although not an over-abundant bearer; young wood a dark olive-brown. Fruit large, oblong-pyriform, with blunt neck; skin pale yellow, sometimes with a slight blush and thickly sprinkled with green and brown dots, a few traces of russet; stalk long, curved, set in a slight depression by a ring or lip; calyx closed; basin rather small; flesh white, juicy, half melting, slightly vinous, somewhat astringent; good; Aug. =Dodge. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:480, fig. 161. 1913. A hybrid-oriental variety. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform, narrowing rapidly to the stem, greenish-yellow, profusely dotted; skin thin but tough, russeted near stem; flesh white, juicy, melting, tender, free from grit; fair; Oct. =Doktorsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:61. 1856. German, from the Rhine country, 1833. Fruit large, pyriform, smooth, light-yellow without russet, slightly blushed on side next the sun; flesh agreeable, sweet; good; Oct. =Donatienne Bureau. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1895. On trial in 1895 at Simon Louis's grounds at Metz, Lorraine. Fruit large, ovate-long, bright yellow stained with brown; flesh fine; first. =Dones. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1876. Fruit small; flesh melting, juicy; first; Sept. and Oct. =Donville. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:42, fig. 1869. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 204. 1889. An old French pear mentioned first by Merlet in 1675. Fruit medium to large, pyriform-obtuse, bright yellow when ripe, washed with dark red on the side of the sun; flesh-yellowish, semi-fine or coarse, breaking; juice deficient, sweet, no perfume; first for kitchen use; Jan. to Apr. =Doppelttragende gelbe Muskatellerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:11. 1856. Originated in Thuringia, Ger., 1803. Fruit medium, conic, symmetrical, light greenish-yellow; flesh breaking, soft, mild, tender, aromatic; good; Aug. =Dörell Herbst Muskateller. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:96. 1856. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:1, fig. 385. 1880. Fruit nearly medium, ovate-pyriform, pale yellow sprinkled with very small, very numerous and regularly-spaced fawn dots usually free from any trace of russet; at maturity the yellow passes into clear lemon-yellow and on well-exposed fruits is washed with vermilion; flesh white, rather fine, breaking, dense, not juicy but sugary and perfumed; good for culinary purposes; winter. =Dorothée Nouvelle. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1876. Belgian; highly recommended. Fruit of first quality; Oct. Tree very fertile. =Dorothée Royale Nouvelle. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:39, fig. 500. 1881. Fruit small, pyriform, green changing to pale yellow, some russet markings and speckled with grayish dots; flesh whitish, melting, juicy, sugary, delicious; good; Oct. and Nov. =Dorr. 1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 154. 1849. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 421. 1859. Originated in New Hampshire. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, pale yellow, blushed with red; flesh rather coarse, deficient in juice, sweet, pleasant; cooking or eating; Aug. =Dorschbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 148, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small, obtuse-turbinate, somewhat globular, green changing to yellow when ripe, dotted with yellow-brown and marked with cinnamon-russet, blushed on the sun-exposed side; flesh tough, light yellow, very astringent, subacid and very juicy; Oct. =Dosoris. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =22=:88. 1867. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 100. 1869. Found in a field at Glen Cove, L. I, about 1866. Fruit full medium, obtuse-pyriform, when ripe a beautiful yellow with two-thirds bright scarlet; flesh sweet, juicy, agreeable, though deficient in flavor; beginning of Aug.; good but not first quality. =Double d'Automne. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 49. 1831. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:131. 1843. Fruit medium, Bergamot-shaped, entirely cinnamon-russet, through which a little green appears, with numerous small, gray specks; flesh white, breaking, rather gritty but mellow; juice saccharine. New in 1831 and considered promising but in 1843 was discarded by the London Horticultural Society. =Double-Fleur. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:177. 1768. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:123, fig. 254. 1879. _Double Blossom._ =3.= Langley _Pomona_ 132. 1729. =4.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 412, 1831. Of ancient and unknown origin. Mentioned by Nicholas de Bonnefonds in 1651 in his first edition of the _Jardinier Francais_, by Merlet in 1675 and Claude Saint-Etienne in 1660. Worth growing for ornament, its large, double flowers, with from twelve to fifteen petals, being very handsome. Fruit above medium, globular or globular-turbinate, generally enlarged on one side more than on the other, green but yellow when ripe, dark red or pale purple on the side of the sun; flesh greenish, semi-fine, quite crisp, juicy, sweet, rather sugary; excellent culinary pear; Feb. to May. =Double de Guerre. 1.= _Garden_ =56=:426. 1899. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 167. 1920. Introduced into England from Mechlin, Bel., about 1835. Tree hardy, productive. Fruit medium to above, pyriform, tapering to the stem, yellow-brown speckled with russet; stem short, stout, generally obliquely inserted; calyx open in a shallow basin; flesh yellow, firm, slightly acid; Dec. to Feb. =Double-Plouvier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:47, fig. 1869. Origin and age uncertain. Fruit above medium, long-ovate, more or less bossed, greenish, dotted all over with gray-russet; flesh whitish, semi-fine, semi-melting, scented; juice moderate but sugary; first for the kitchen; Jan. to Mar. =Double Rousselet. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:21, fig. 1858. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:48, fig. 1869. Raised by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., about 1845. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, regular in contour; skin fine, tender, green but almost entirely covered with cinnamon-colored russet; when ripe the russet becomes more golden and warmer in tint on the side next the sun; flesh white, very fine, melting, with abundant sugary juice, vinous, very agreeable; first; Oct. =Dow. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 92. 1858. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 377. 1859. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 741. 1869. Raised by Dr. Eli Ives, New Haven, Conn., in the middle of the nineteenth century. Fruit above medium, obovate, acutely pyriform, sometimes turbinate; skin rough, yellowish-green, with russet patches and dots; flesh white, buttery, juicy, melting, vinous flavored sometimes slightly astringent; good; Sept. and Oct. =Dowler. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =4=:193. 1838. Exhibited before the London Horticultural Society in 1838, under the name of _Dowler's seedling_. A small winter pear, described as one of the best and a good keeper. =Downton. 1.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:455. 1855. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:50, fig. 1869. Raised by T. A. Knight, Downton Castle, Eng., about 1840. Fruit medium or above, oval, somewhat irregular, greenish-yellow changing to lemon-yellow, a good deal russeted particularly on the side next the sun where it is completely covered and assumes a reddish-brown tinge; flesh whitish, not quite melting but tender, fine, free from grit, agreeably acidulous, sweet and juicy, with some taste of orange; first; Nov. and Dec. =Doyen Dillen. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:27, fig. 1853. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:51, fig. 1869. From seed sown by Van Mons at Louvain in 1827. Fruit medium to large, pyriform-conic, yellow, much covered with dots and patches of russet; flesh white, buttery, melting, free from grit; juice rather abundant, sweet, rich and pleasantly perfumed; first; Nov. =Doyenné Bizet. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1895. Tree moderately vigorous, very fertile. Fruit large; good; Mar. to June. =Doyenné Blanc Long. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 1, 27, fig. 12. 1866-73. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 74. 1895. Origin unknown. Fruit medium, growing often in bunches, pyriform; skin thin, fine, bright green changing to brilliant yellow, golden on the side next the sun, with some bright red shading; flesh white, fine, melting, musky; first; Oct. =Doyenné Boisnard. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1895. Fruit rather large; first; Dec. =Doyenné Boisselot. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 205. 1889. =2.= _Garden_ =50=:405. 1896. A little-known pear, large in size, some of the fruit weighing a pound, Bergamot in form, maturing about Christmas. =Doyenné de Bordeaux. 1.= _Pom. Fr._ =4=:No. 150, Pl. 150. 1865. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:57, fig. 1869. Origin unknown but cultivated in the environs of Bordeaux about 1820. Fruit large, globular, flattened at each end; skin thick, wrinkled and oily, golden-yellow sown with large dots of greenish-russet and marbled with the same, some orange-red on side next the sun; flesh very white, coarse, breaking, gritty at center; juice sufficient, sweet; third for dessert, first for compotes; Oct. to Dec. =Doyenné Bouyron. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1895. Distributed from Bordeaux, Fr. Fruit of the size, form and color of the Doyenné Gris; flesh fine, juicy, somewhat acid; Aug. =Doyenné du Cercle. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 742. 1869. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:59, fig. 1869. A seedling obtained by M. Boisbunel, a nurseryman at Rouen, Fr.; first published in 1857. Fruit medium, turbinate-globular, varying to irregular-ovate, pale yellow covered with very fine gray dots and stained with fawn, often encrimsoned on the side next the sun; flesh whitish, very melting, scented; juice abundant, sweet, highly vinous, with a delicate, tartish flavor; first; Nov. =Doyenné à Cinq Pans. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =25=:132. 1899. A cross effected in 1879 between Duchesse de Bordeaux and Easter Beurré by M. Herault. Fruit medium, rather globular, smooth, yellow, spotted and flecked with fawn; flesh fine, melting, juicy, sweet, with an aroma of Pelargoniums; Oct. and Nov. =Doyenné Defays. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 1, 73, fig. 35. 1866-73. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:62. 1869. _Doyenné d'Effay._ =3.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:461. 1855. Obtained by M. François-André Defays in the field of Saint Martin, near Angers, Fr. Fruit about medium, globular-obovate or Doyenné-shaped, bossed at the stalk end and generally larger and longer on one side, yellow, much covered with cinnamon-russet on the side next the sun; flesh tender, buttery, melting, very juicy, rich, sugary, vinous, with musky aroma; one of the best; Dec. =Doyenné Downing. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:63, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 566. 1884. A wilding found in a garden near Angers, Fr., by François Desportes, the noted nurseryman, in 1851; it was named after A. J. Downing. Fruit medium, globular or ovate, mammillate, one side always larger than the other, pale yellow, dotted and marbled with russet; flesh very white, tender, semi-melting; juice sufficient, sweet, acidulous, with a pleasant flavor of anis; Sept. =Doyenné Flon Ainé. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:65, fig. 1869. =2.= _Rev. Hort._ 133, 1894. Obtained from seed by M. Flon, senior, of Angers, Fr., in 1859. Fruit large, globular, generally mammillate at summit, greenish-yellow and yellowish-brown on the side of the sun, marbled and dotted with brown; flesh white, fine, very melting, juicy, sugary, slightly tartish, with a pronounced flavor of roses; first; Nov. to Feb. =Doyenné Fradin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 93. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:33, fig. 401. 1880. Regarded as a gain of M. Parigot of Poitiers. Fruit medium, globular, depressed at both extremities, water-green, dotted with brown, becoming citron-yellow on ripening; flesh whitish, fine, melting, gritty at core, full of sweet juice, vinous and richly perfumed. =Doyenné Georges Boucher. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 496, fig. 1906. =2.= _Ibid._ 197. 1907. Came from a seed bed of Doyenné du Comice made in 1884. Fruit large and very large, globular-turbinate, bossed at the extremities; skin rather thick, dark yellow, sprinkled with small dots and marbled with fawn, russeted and reddened on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, juicy, sugary; very good; Feb. to Apr. =Doyenné Goubault. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:66, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 566. 1884. Raised by M. Goubault, Angers, Fr. Fruit above medium, obovate, inclining to pyriform, pale yellow with russet markings and dots; flesh melting, sugary, vinous and highly perfumed; rich and excellent; Jan. =Doyenné de la Grifferaye. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:68, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:11, fig. 198. 1879. Obtained by M. le Gris, Angers, Fr.; gave its first fruit in 1853. Fruit medium, turbinate-oblate, very obtuse and irregular, greenish-yellow, finely dotted with russet and brown, stained with fawn; flesh white, fine, buttery, melting, full of sweet and perfumed juice; first; Sept. and Oct. =Doyenné Gris. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:208, Pl. XLVII, fig. 1. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:69, fig. 1869. _Doyenné Gray._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 745. 1869. _Red Doyenné._ =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 635. 1884. An ancient pear attributed to the garden of the Chartreux Monastery at Paris about the middle of the eighteenth century. Fruit medium and above, globular, flattened at each extremity; skin rather thin and wrinkled, yellow-ochre, nearly covered with cinnamon-colored russet, so that little of the true color is visible, brownish-red toward the sun; flesh white, tender, melting, very buttery, rich and delicious; one of the best dessert pears; Oct. =Doyenné Guillard. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 103. 1895. Described as a new variety by Simon-Louis Bros., Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Fruit rather glossy, brown, slightly dotted with green; flesh almost fine, white, very juicy, vinous; Nov. and Dec. =Doyenné des Haies. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:71, fig. 1869. A wilding found on the property of M. Bardi, Bwalt, Canton of Montastruc, Haute-Garonne, Fr., and first reported in 1855. Fruit medium, globular or globular-turbinate, flat at base, mammillate at summit, pale yellow, dotted and stained with fawn, blushed with tender rose on the side toward the sun; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, rather gritty around the core; juice abundant, sweet, very sugary, tasting of musk; second; Oct. =Doyenné Hudellet. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 2, 101, fig. 147. 1866-73. Obtained by M. Jules Hudellet at Ceyzeriat near Bourg, Ain, Fr.; it was first published in 1867. Fruit medium, globular-cylindrical, regular outline, bright green sprinkled with dots of gray-brown, passing to pale yellow, with some red on the side of the sun; flesh white, fine, melting, full of sweet juice, slightly musky; first; Nov. =Doyenné Jamin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:75, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:131, fig. 354. 1880. Gained by Jamin & Durand, nurserymen at Bourg-la-Reine, near Paris, in 1859 from seed. Fruit medium, turbinate-conic or turbinate-ovate, irregular, greenish-yellow changing to yellow and washed with rose on the sunny side, dotted with russet; flesh whitish, semi-fine, buttery, full of sweet juice, vinous, astringent, without much perfume; second; Jan. and Feb. =Doyenné de Lorraine. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:17, 201. 1879. Received by Diel, the eminent German pomologist, from a nurseryman at Metz under the name of _Doyenné d'Austrasie_ by which it is mostly known to German authors. Fruit medium, globular, depressed at each pole, water-green, with gray-brown dots, bright citron-yellow when ripe and golden on the side next the sun or sometimes washed with red; flesh white, semi-fine, semi-buttery; juice plentiful, sweet and slightly perfumed; good; Sept. and Oct. =Doyenné Louis. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:79, fig. 1869. Seedling of Van Mons, previous to 1820. Fruit small, turbinate-obtuse, regular in form, dark yellow, strewn with numerous gray-brown dots and carmined on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish, coarse, semi-melting, gritty at center; juice abundant, sugary, lacking in flavor; third; Sept. and Oct. =Doyenné de Montjean. 1.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 243, fig. 1906. Obtained in 1848 by M. Trottier, Montjean, Department of Maine-et-Loire, Fr., and first published in 1858. Fruit large to very large, ovate, nearly equally rounded at its two poles; skin thin and rough, yellow, much russeted; flesh white, very fine, melting, very juicy, with a slightly vinous and sweet flavor, perfumed; very good; Jan. to Mar. =Doyenné Nérard. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:237, fig. 117. 1866-73. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 68. 1895. Obtained in 1850 by M. Bonnefoy, a nurseryman at Saint-Genis-Laval, near Lyons, Fr. Fruit small, globular-conic, yellowish-white, marbled with bright red; flesh semi-breaking, very sugary; good; Aug. =Doyenné Nouveau. 1.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:461. 1855. Fruit medium, obovate; flesh tender and juicy; excellent; Apr. =Doyenné Perrault. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. Fruit medium, rather oblate, resembling Easter Bergamot with a long stalk; flesh fine, firm, melting; first; winter. =Doyenné Picard. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 93. 1876. Fruit medium; flesh melting; first; Aug. =Doyenné Rahard. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1895. Fruit large or very large; flesh fine, melting, very sweet; Dec. to Jan. =Doyenné de Ramegnies. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ N. S. =20=:85. 1883. Raised by M. Norbert Bouzin of Ramegnies-Chin near Tournai, Bel. Fruit large, turbinate and very symmetrically shaped; olive-brown, russeted; flesh fine, buttery, vinous; Oct. and Nov. =Doyenné Robin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:81, fig. 1869. Raised in 1840 at Angers, Fr., by a gardener named Robin. Fruit large, globular-ovate, yellowish, dotted and stained with bright russet; flesh melting, juicy, sweet, vinous, aromatic; first; Oct. =Doyenné Rose. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:82, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:21, fig. 299. 1880. From a seed bed made in 1820 by Edouard Sageret, author of _Pomologie physiologique_; it bore fruit first in 1830. Fruit above medium, globular, irregular, yellow-ochre on the shaded side and beautiful rose on the side of the sun; flesh very white, semi-melting, granular; juice scarcely sufficient, little perfume or flavor; second; Oct. =Doyenné Saint-Roch. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:83, fig. 1869. Largely grown in the Gironde, Fr., in the middle of the nineteenth century. Fruit above medium and sometimes larger, globular but variable, pale yellow dotted with russet passing to bright yellow on the side next the sun, where it is lightly washed with carmine; flesh white, semi-fine, melting or slightly breaking, juicy, sugary, acidulous, of delicate flavor; second; Aug. and Sept. =Doyenné de Saumur. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:84, fig. 1869. A French pear of uncertain origin but known in the districts of Saumur and Lyons early in the nineteenth century. Fruit medium and below, very variable in form, from ovate-elongated to turbinate-obtuse, bossed and swelled, pale greenish-yellow, dotted with gray-russet especially on the side next the sun; flesh white, very fine, melting, juicy, perfumed, having an after-taste of musk; first; Sept. =Doyenné Sentelet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:86, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:137, fig. 165. 1878. A gain of Van Mons, 1823. Fruit about medium or below, turbinate-ovate-obtuse, often irregular, deep rich yellow, much mottled and speckled with cinnamon-colored russet; flesh yellowish-white, melting, juicy, sugary, vinous; good; Oct. =Doyenné Sieulle. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:87, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 567. 1884. From a seed bed of Jean Sieulle, Vaux-Praslin, Fr.; it was placed on the market in 1815. Fruit above medium to medium, often globular and often Doyenné-shaped, deep rich yellow ground, mottled and speckled with cinnamon-colored russet; flesh very white, fine, semi-melting; juice sufficient, acidulous, sweet, with an agreeable almond flavor; variable, from second to first; Nov. =Drapiez. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:125. 1843. =2.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:461. 1855. Of Belgian origin. Fruit medium, obovate, pale green, very much marbled with gray; flesh tender, sweet, acidulous, strongly perfumed; a very excellent autumn fruit; Oct. and Nov. =Drone. 1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =3.= 1807. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:25. 1831. Fruit middle sized, globular, light green dotted with darker shade of same color; flesh white, breaking, full of sweet, musky juice; Aug. =Du Breuil Père. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:161, fig. 79. 1866-73. Alphonse Du Breuil obtained this variety from seeds of Louise Bonne de Jersey sown in 1840. Fruit medium, nearly a true sphere, slightly depressed at the two poles, lemon-yellow, much russeted and at maturity mottled with blood-red on the side next the sun; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy; first; Sept. =Du Mirror. 1.= Baltet _Trait. Cult. Fr._ 372. 1908. A first-class French perry pear, grown in the Haute-Savoie, yielding from 800 to 1000 litres of perry per tree; the beverage is clear, very sweet, rather sparkling, and becomes stronger with age. =Du Roeulx. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1895. Tree hardy. Fruit medium, pyriform, short, yellow, mottled with fawn; flesh yellowish, very melting, juicy and sugary, with an exquisite aroma; first; Sept. =Dubrulle. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 93, 267. 1876. Fruit rather large, globular, yellowish-green and gray mottled with fawn; flesh melting, very juicy, sugary, highly perfumed and of a luscious flavor; first; Sept. and Oct. =Duc Alfred de Croy. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:163, fig. 370. 1880. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 567. 1884. Propagated and disseminated by M. de Jonghe, Brussels. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, regular and handsome, smooth, yellowish-green, washed with pale brown on side next the sun; flesh white, tinted with green, not very juicy, but buttery, rich and with a fine spicy flavor and perfume; excellent; Nov. =Duc d'Aumale. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:91, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 568. 1884. A product of the Van Mons nursery at Louvain where it first fruited in 1847. Fruit small, turbinate-obtuse-pyriform; skin rough, greenish-yellow mottled all over with cinnamon-colored russet; flesh whitish, melting and juicy, sugary, acidulous, perfumed; first; Sept. and Oct. =Duc de Brabant. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:92, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:27, fig. 494. 1881. Sent by Van Mons as No. 45 to Simon Bouvier in Jodoigne, Bel., in 1827. Fruit medium, pyriform-obtuse, greenish-yellow, dotted with russet, marbled with fawn, sometimes washed with red on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, semi-breaking; juice sufficient, sugary, acidulous; good; sometimes second; Oct. =Duc de Morny. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:95, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 568. 1884. Raised by M. Boisbunel, Rouen, and first published in 1862. Fruit large, long-obtuse-pyriform, bossed, green, mottled and dotted with russet; flesh whitish, tender, melting, very juicy, too acid, little sugar or perfume; second; Nov. to Jan. =Duc de Nemours. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:96, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 568. 1884. Raised by Van Mons at Louvain in 1825. Fruit large and handsome, obovate, narrowing abruptly, bright greenish or lemon-yellow, even-dotted with russet and gray specks, sometimes reddened on cheek next the sun; flesh white, melting, rich, sweet, sprightly, juicy, perfumed; first; Oct. and Nov. =Duchesse d'Angoulême Bronzée. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. _Duchess Bronze._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. A sub-variety of Duchesse d'Angoulême found in a garden of M. Weber, Dijon, Fr., and introduced in 1873. Fruit large to very large, differs from type by its skin being red-brown or bronze, this feature being perfectly constant; flesh fine, melting, juicy, sugary; first; Oct. to Dec. =Duchesse d'Angoulême Panachée. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:102. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 569. 1884. A variegated form of Duchesse d'Angoulême, the wood, leaves and fruit being mottled with yellow and green. In 1848 it was attributed to M. Audusson, who originated Duchesse d'Augoulême, but Leroy claims that it proceeded from his nursery in 1840. =Duchesse Anne. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:102, fig. 1869. Raised in 1861 by Jacques Jalais, Nantes, Fr. Fruit above medium, like Calebasse in form, meadow-green, slightly yellowish, dotted with gray; flesh greenish-white, fine, melting; juice sufficient, sweet, acidulous, perfumed; first; Nov. =Duchesse d'Arenberg. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:103, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:35, fig. 498. 1881. Although distributed from the Royal Nurseries at Vilvorde-lez-Bruxelles without mention of origin its name suggests Belgium. Fruit medium and often larger, turbinate-obtuse-oblate, greenish-yellow passing to bright green on the side of the sun, dotted with gray-russet; flesh yellowish, coarse, melting, juicy, gritty around the core; sugary, perfumed, rather sour; second; Aug. =Duchesse de Berry d'Été. 1.= Leroy _Dic. Pom._ =2=:104. fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 569. 1884. Raised in a seed bed in the Commune of Saint-Herblain, Department of Loire-Inferieure, Fr., in 1827. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, yellow, dotted with dark gray; flesh very white, semi-fine, melting; juice abundant, sugary, aromatic; first; Aug. and Sept. =Duchesse de Bordeaux. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:105, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 570. 1884. =3.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 171. 1920. _Beurré Perrault._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =1=:133, fig. 65. 1866-73. _Bordeaux._ =5.= Cal. Com. Hort. _Pear Grow. Cal._ =7=:No. 5, 242. 1918. M. Secher, in the Commune of Montjean, Department of Maine-et-Loire, Fr., bought in 1850 from M. Perrault, Montrevault, some pear trees. Ten years passed away and then one of the trees produced the excellent fruit here described. M. Secher invited many persons to taste it, in particular MM. Perrault and Baptiste Desportes. Later the variety fruited with M. Perrault and was named by him _Beurré Perrault_. Secher affirmed he had properly given the variety the name of Duchesse de Bordeaux. Tree large, vigorous, upright. Fruit large, roundish-pyriform; skin thick, very tough, rough, greenish-yellow, with mottlings and patches of russet; stem rather long, thick, set in a moderately deep, acute cavity; calyx large, open, placed in a moderately deep basin; flesh yellowish-white, firm, granular, juicy, mild; good; Nov. and Dec. =Duchesse de Brabant. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:107, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 570. 1884. A posthumous seedling of Van Mons, which gave its first fruit in 1853. Fruit medium, short-pyriform-obtuse; skin thin, smooth, shining, greenish-yellow; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, melting; juice abundant, sweet, savory; good; Oct. =Duchesse de Brabant= (De Capeinick). =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:17, fig. 297. 1880. This variety, obtained by M. Capeinick, received medals at Brussels and at Tournai in 1853. Fruit medium, regular pyriform, bright green and speckled with dots of gray-green, becoming lemon-yellow at maturity, washed with blood-red on the side of the sun; flesh white, rather fine, melting; juice abundant, sugary, refreshing; first; Sept. =Duchesse de Brissac. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:108, fig. 1869. Came from a seed bed of Auguste Benoist, Brissac, Maine-et-Loire, Fr., and ripened for the first time in 1861. Fruit above medium, ovate, rather irregular, bright greenish-yellow, spotted with russet; flesh yellowish, melting, juicy, sugary, vinous, aromatic; first; Aug. and Sept. =Duchesse Grousset. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 91. 1895. Fruit large, elongated, very obtuse at base; bright yellow, speckled with brown dots; flesh fine, very melting, rather granular at center; Dec. =Duchesse Hélène d'Orléans. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:109, fig. 1869. From a seed bed made at Louvain, Bel., in 1839 by Van Mons; it first fruited in 1847. Fruit medium, ovate, always somewhat distorted, one side being longer than the other, yellowish-green, dotted and mottled with gray and russet, carmined on the cheek next the sun; flesh white, melting, very juicy, acidulous, sugary, good flavor; first; Sept. =Duchesse d'Hiver. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 749. 1869. _Tardive de Toulouse_. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:693, fig. 1869. M. Barthère, Sr., a nurseryman of Toulouse, Fr., found this pear in 1845 near Calmont on one of his travels through southern France. Tree moderately vigorous, characteristically small and pyramidal. Fruit large, roundish-pyriform, light yellow; flesh white, juicy; matures in winter and late spring. Although not a pear of highest quality it is worthy of notice because of its large size and long keeping. =Duchesse Hybrid. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:481. 1913. Form resembles Kieffer, lemon-yellow; flesh coarse; poor; Oct. =Duchesse de Mars. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:110, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 570. 1884. Origin uncertain; generally attributed to Belgium. Fruit medium, obovate but variable, yellowish-green, russeted; flesh buttery, white, melting, juicy, sweet, perfumed, well flavored; first class dessert pear; Nov. =Duchesse de Mouchy. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:112, fig. 1869. From a wilding noted in 1862 by the curé of Breteuil, Oise, Fr. Fruit large, turbinate-obtuse, bright olive-yellow, dotted with gray-russet; flesh yellowish-white, a little coarse, semi-breaking, juicy, sugary, vinous, slightly perfumed; second; Apr. and May. =Duchesse Précoce. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:113, fig. 1869. Came from a seed bed of Duchesse d'Angoulême made in 1850 by André Leroy. Fruit large and often very large, ovate, golden-yellow, sprinkled with large greenish dots, slightly carmined on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh very white, breaking or semi-melting, with seeds usually absent, juicy, sweet; flavor agreeable; second; Aug. =Duchovaya. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 22. 1887. _Scented._ =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 232. 1885. A Central-Russian pear. Fruit medium to above, obtuse-pyriform, yellow, russeted; flesh coarse, sweet, juicy; poor; mid-season. =Dudley. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:107. 1908. Originated with Mr. Dudley, Boston Highlands, Mass. Fruit medium long; very good; mid-season. =Dumon-Dumortier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:115, fig. 1869. From the Van Mons seed beds. Fruit medium, turbinate, yellowish-green, dotted with russet; flesh whitish, very fine, melting, juicy, sugary, acidulous, deliciously perfumed; first; Nov. =Dundas. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:60. 1842. =2.= _Ibid._ =9=:132, fig. 1843. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 750. 1869. Disseminated by Van Mons in 1834 in which year it was sent to America to both R. Manning and W. Kenrick. This pear is known in Europe mostly under the names of _Rousselet Jamin_, _Henri Nicaise_ and _Héliote Dundas_ or _Héloise Dundas_. Fruit medium, turbinate-obtuse, greenish-yellow or yellow-ochre, dotted with brown and gray and washed with beautiful carmine on the side of the sun; flesh white, with green veins, between breaking and melting; juice insufficient; very handsome but wanting in quality; Sept. and Oct. =Dunmore. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:154. 1847. =2.= _Ibid._ =18=:159, fig. 1852. One of the best seedling pears raised by Thomas Andrew Knight, Downton Castle, Wiltshire, Eng. It first fruited in 1822 being then reported in this country by C. M. Hovey. Fruit large, oblong-obovate; skin slightly rough, yellowish-green, with russet patches, brownish-red tinge next the sun; flesh yellowish, buttery, melting, rich, subacid, juicy, sprightly, vinous, perfumed and aromatic; excellent; Sept. and Oct. =Dupuy Charles. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:118, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 750. 1869. Louis Berckmans, Augusta, Ga., raised this pear in 1847 from seed sent from Ghent, Bel. Fruit medium to above, like Calebasse in form, rough to the touch, bright green, dotted with russet; flesh greenish-white, very fine, melting; juice abundant, sugary, acidulous; flavor delicate and slightly musky; first; Oct. and Nov. =Durandeau. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =26=:129. 1860. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc._ 111. 1862. _De Tongres_. =3.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =3=:15, fig. 1855. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 489. 1857. Originated from seed with Charles Louis Durandeau, Tongres-Notre-Dame, a village in Hainaut, Bel., probably about 1825. Tree fairly vigorous, pyramidal, an early and abundant bearer. Fruit medium large, obovate-pyriform, generally irregular; skin thin, covered with fine golden russet, blushed with carmine on the exposed cheek; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, very juicy, vinous, sprightly, with an exquisite aroma and of first quality; Oct. and Nov. =Durée. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 751. 1884. A wilding found by Isaac Hicks, Westbury, N. Y., and introduced by him before 1869. Fruit medium, oblong-acute-pyriform, pale yellow, dotted and patched with russet; flesh whitish, semi-melting, juicy, sweet, slightly musky; good to very good; Oct. =Durst-Lösche. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:155. 1856. Thuringia, 1809. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, greenish-yellow turning to yellow; flesh breaking, soft, honey-sweet and aromatic; good; Sept. =Early Ely. 1.= _Tex. Nursery Cat._ 10. 1913. Originated on the grounds of Silas Ely of Sherman, Tex., and was introduced by the Texas Nursery Company about 1906. Said to be small, yellow and good for both table and market. =Early Green Sugar. 1.= J. Van Lindley _Cat._ 51. 1921. Fruit large, yellow, blushed; June. =Easter Bergamot. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 751. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 572. 1884. _Bergamote de Pâques_. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:250, fig. 1867. An old French pear of which Merlet wrote in 1675, calling it _Bergamote de Pasques_ or the _La Grillière_. This variety was early known in England according to Switzer who saw trees of it at Hampton Court growing against a wall said to have been erected by Queen Elizabeth and which had every appearance of having stood there since that time. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, narrowing toward the stalk, grayish-green, dull, changing to pale yellow, thickly dotted with brown; flesh white, semi-fine, gritty, breaking; juice sweet, acid, with not much perfume or flavor; second only, on account of its extreme lateness; Mar. to May. =Eastern Belle. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 32. 1870. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 1st App., 126, fig. 1872. This pear originated with Henry McLaughlin, Bangor, Me. Tree hardy, vigorous, productive; fruit of medium size, obovate-pyriform; skin pale yellow, with nettings and patches of russet and many russet dots, occasionally blushed with bright red; flesh whitish-yellow, coarse at center, juicy, half-melting, sweet, rich, with a peculiar piquant aroma; good; Sept. =Echasserie. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:187, Pl. XXXII. 1768. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 753. 1869. _Walnut._ =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 90. 1856. _Besi de l'Echasserie._ =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:269, fig. 1867. The wilding from which this variety was derived was probably noticed about 1660 and La Quintinye before 1690 spoke of it as having been in French gardens for twenty years. It appears to have been a native of Anjou, where there are three places bearing the name given to it. Probably it had been locally cultivated under other names for a long time previous to its official recognition. Fruit medium to small, globular-oval but variable, always obtuse and bossed; skin rough to the touch, lemon-yellow dotted with fawn and with some patches of grayish-brown russet; flesh white, fine, melting, with very small grits around the core; juice extremely abundant, acidulous, saccharine, with an after-taste of musk, very agreeable; first; Nov. through Jan. =Edle Sommerbirne. 1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 327. 1881. Germany and Holland. Fruit small, pyriform and somewhat long-gourd-shaped, smooth yellowish-green changing to yellow at maturity, with reddish-brown on the side next the sun, dotted and speckled with gray; flesh fine, semi-melting, with a sweet, agreeable, aromatic flavor of rose; good for dessert and first for kitchen use; Aug. =Edward Seedling St. Germain, 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 754. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:155, fig. 462. 1880. Raised by Dr. W. D. Brincklé, Philadelphia, Pa. Fruit medium or rather large, globular-pyriform-obtuse, a little irregular in form, with its greatest diameter at the center; skin somewhat thick and tender, intense green at first, sprinkled with grayish-black dots changing at maturity to bright citron-yellow, some russet nettings and patches; flesh whitish, semi-fine, slightly granular yet melting, full of saccharine juice, acidulous and delicately perfumed; good; Oct. to Dec. =Effie Holt. 1.= J. Van Lindley _Cat._ 54. 1913. Said to have originated on the farm of L. W. Holt near Burlington, N. C.; introduced by J. Van Lindley Nursery Company about 1907. Tree healthy, thrifty. Fruit large, greenish-yellow; flesh light yellow, rich, juicy; season about the same as Duchesse d'Angoulême. =Eliot Early. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 52. 1871. =2.= _Rural N. Y._ =51=:602, figs. 242, 243. 1892. Said to have been raised by Judge Charles Eliot of Windsor, Ontario, Canada, from a cross between Madeleine and Doyenné d'Éte. Tree strong, vigorous, hardy, an early and productive bearer. Fruit small, pyriform, pale greenish-yellow, brownish-red next the sun; stem long, slender, curved; cavity small, russeted; calyx closed or partially open; base small; flesh whitish, half-fine, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly perfumed; good to very good; July. =Élisa d'Heyst. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =1=:99, fig. 56. 1866-73. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:125, fig. 1869. Obtained by Major Espéren of Mechlin, Bel. Fruit small but sometimes medium, ovate, with an irregular outline, grass-green, dotted and stained with clear fawn; flesh greenish, coarse, semi-melting, very gritty around the core; juice sweet, abundant, sugary, slightly perfumed, little flavor; second; Mar. =Elizabeth (Edwards). 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =5=. 1843. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =12=:441, fig. 34. 1846. This pear was raised at New Haven, Conn., by Governor Edwards[32] and was first exhibited in 1845. Fruit of medium size, roundish-obtuse-pyriform, slightly angular; skin smooth, pale lemon-yellow, profusely sprinkled with very small, pale russet dots and a few grayish-russet patches; flesh white, somewhat coarse, melting, very juicy, slightly subacid, with a vinous flavor; Oct. =Elizabeth Maury. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 2nd App., 147. 1876. A chance seedling on the ground of Reuben Maury, Charlottesville, Va. Fruit small, oblate, slightly elevated, pale greenish-yellow, sometimes with a shade of brown in the sun, with many greenish dots; flesh whitish, semi-fine, tender, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vinous; Aug. =Ellis. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =30=:370, fig. 13. 1864. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 755, fig. 1869. Raised from seed of Seckel in 1843 by Annie E. Ellis, New Bedford, Mass. Tree vigorous, hardy, prolific. Fruit large, oblong-obovate-pyriform, truncate, slightly uneven, greenish-yellow, patched and mottled with russet, sprinkled with many russet dots; stem rather long, rather stout, set in a small cavity; calyx large, open; basin uneven, slight; flesh whitish, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vinous, aromatic; very good; Sept. and Oct. =Ellis= (New York), =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 756. 1869. Downing says that there is another pear under the name of "Ellis" grown in western New York, entirely distinct from Ellis. The fruit is described as medium, acute-pyriform, greenish-yellow, shaded with crimson-red in sun, with very small brown dots; flesh white, juicy, melting, vinous, often astringent, disposed to rot at the core; good; Aug. and Sept. =Emerald. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 756. 1869. Belgian. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, pale green, with pale brownish-red next the sun and covered with russety dots; flesh white, melting, buttery, richly flavored, subacid, vinous; good; Nov. and Dec. =Émile d'Heyst. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:131, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 173. 1920. A seedling raised by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., which fruited in 1847. Fruit medium and often larger, ovate, rather long, irregular, generally with sides unequal, bossed, bronzed, dotted with fine specks; flesh greenish, fine and dense, melting, scented, free from grit; juice very abundant, refreshing, sugary, slightly acid but very agreeably perfumed; first; Oct. =Enfant Nantais. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 210. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1895. Originated by M. Grousset of Nantes, Fr. Tree vigorous and productive. Fruit large, conic, gray; flesh fine, buttery, juicy, aromatic but very slightly tart; Oct. =Enfant Prodigue. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 385. 1845. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:133, fig. 1869. _Rousselet Enfant Prodigue._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 846. 1869. _Verschwenderin._ =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 293. 1889. A Van Mons seedling of about 1830. Fruit medium to large, ovate but variable, greenish-yellow, largely obscured with cinnamon-colored russet, more or less carmined on the side of the sun; flesh greenish-white, dense, melting, juicy, sugary, aromatic, acidulous, astringent; second; Sept. =Épine d'Été. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:138, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 758. 1869. An old pear grown in the gardens of the Monastery of Chartreux, Paris, and stated in the catalog of that institution, of 1736, to be identical with the pear _Bugiarda_ of Italy. This Leroy has shown to be an error, the _Bugiarda_ being the pear known in France as _Trompeur_. Le Lectier appears to have grown it in 1628 in his famous gardens at Orléans, though under the name of _Poire d'Espine_. Fruit above medium, pyriform, more or less obtuse, bright green, finely dotted with gray-russet and lightly colored with tender rose on the side of the sun; flesh yellowish, fine, melting, juicy, sugary and musky; a moderately good autumn pear; Sept. =Épine d'Été Rouge. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94, 270. 1876. _Rother Sommerdorn_. =2.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 108. 1825. French, 1805. Fruit medium, ovate, slightly bossed, light grass-green turning to yellow-green, dark blush, dotted; flesh finely-grained; juice somewhat deficient, aromatic; good for the table, kitchen and market; Sept. =Épine d'Hiver. 1.= Langley _Pomona_ 132. 1729. =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:184, Pl. XLIV, fig. 3. 1768. _Winter Thorn._ =3.= Bradley _Gard._ 199. 1739. =4.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 410. 1831. A very old French pear, reported as early as 1675. Tree healthy, although not a strong grower, and bears well. Fruit medium to above, roundish-obovate, smooth, green becoming yellowish and irregularly covered with grayish-brown dots; stem rather long, fleshy at base, inserted without depression; calyx small, open, set in a rather shallow basin; flesh whitish, melting, tender, buttery, with a sweet and agreeable musky flavor; a dessert pear; Nov. to Jan. =Épine de Jernages. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1876. Fruit medium; first; Mar. =Épine du Mas. 1.= _Pom. France_ =1=:No. 31, Pl. 31. 1863. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:412, fig. 1869. _Belle Epine Dumas_. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 668. 1869. _Dumas_. =4.= _Rural N. Y._ =45=:480, figs. 292, 293. 1886. A wilding found about 1760 by a M. Chemison in the forest of Rochechouart near Mas, Department of Haute-Vienne, Fr. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, lively yellow or lemon-yellow, finely dotted with brown and washed with carmine on the sun-exposed cheek; flesh white, fine, tender, melting, sweet, gritty at center, juicy, acid, musky; good; Nov. and Dec. =Épine Royale. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 758. 1869. Of French origin. Fruit medium, pyriform, yellowish, blushed with bright red on the side next the sun; flesh fine, melting, juicy, sweet, vinous; Oct. =Épine-Royale de Courtray. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:127, fig. 256. 1879. Origin not clear though mentioned in the Bulletin of the Society of Van Mons in 1858. Fruit medium or large, pyriform-obtuse, green sprinkled with numerous brown dots, changing to pale yellow at maturity, with some red on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, buttery, juicy, sugary, pleasant; handsome and good for transportation; Aug. =Ermsinde. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:69. 1856. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:143, fig. 1869. A chance seedling found in the garden of M. Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel., and reported in 1851. Fruit above medium, in form variable from pyramidal to turbinate, lemon-yellow, dotted and marked with brown-russet, and blushed with dark red on the exposed cheek; second; early Oct. =Ernestine Auzolle. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 758. 1869. Of French origin. Fruit small, globular-pyriform, sometimes acute-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with a shade of brown in the sun, often netted and patched with russet; flesh rather coarse, yellowish, moderately juicy, semi-melting, sweet; good; Sept. and Oct. =Eseme. 1.= _Ia. Soc. Hort. Rpt._ 61. 1880. Cultivated on the northern steppes of Russia and introduced to this country by J. L. Budd of Iowa in 1880. =Esperine. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:73, fig. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 759. 1869. By Van Mons from an undated seed bed; it was first reported in 1826 and dedicated to Major Espéren, the enthusiastic and distinguished pomologist of Mechlin. Fruit large, obtuse-ovate, yellow with greenish tinge, much dotted with greenish-gray-russet, clouded with tender rose on the side of the sun; flesh white, semi-melting, full of juice, sugary, vinous, refreshing, perfumed; first; Oct. and Nov. =Esperione. 1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 561. 1885. Fruit medium, obovate, slightly pyriform, yellow, juicy, melting, perfumed; Sept. =Essex. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 759. 1869. Originated in the garden of W. Flack, Essex, N. Y., before 1869. Fruit below medium, oblong-obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with many brown and green dots, marbled with carmine in the sun; flesh whitish, juicy, melting, granular, sweet; good; Sept. =Esther Comte. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:39, fig. 404. 1880. Cataloged by Dauvesse of Orléans in 1857. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform, bright green changing to yellow, dotted with russet; flesh whitish, rather fine, semi-melting, juicy, sugary, delicately perfumed; good; winter. =Estranguillon. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:146, fig. 1869. According to Charles Estienne, 1530, this pear was at that time well known to French gardeners. First rate for making perry. Fruit small, ovate, yellowish, dotted with gray and slightly tinted with rose on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, rather coarse, breaking or semi-melting, very juicy, without perfume; Sept. =Esturion. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 759. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:41, fig. 405. 1880. Origin unknown. Fruit rather small, conic, pale green changing to yellow, tinged with light red on the side of the sun; flesh yellowish, fine, melting; juice abundant, sweet and perfumed. =Eugène Appert. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:148, fig. 1869. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 130. 1881. Raised from seed by André Leroy, Angers, Fr., and first gave fruit in 1862. It was introduced to this country about 1881, in which year it was described as of "very superior quality" and one of the "best of the kinds recently introduced." Fruit medium, globular, bossed, unequal, grass-green, with grayish stains and large dots; flesh yellowish-white, very fine and melting, very full of sugary, acidulous juice, having an exquisite aroma; first; Aug. and Sept. =Eugène Furst. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:167, fig. 468. 1880. A gain of Van Mons. Fruit medium, globular-conic, very obtuse, green changing to lemon-yellow, dotted with brown and more or less washed with red-brown on the side of the sun; flesh white, fine, buttery, melting, juicy, sugary, acidulous, with a characteristic perfume; first; Nov. and Dec. =Eugène Maisin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1876. Under trial in the nurseries of Simon-Louis Bros. of Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit medium; skin rough and grayish; flesh melting; first; Dec. and Jan. =Eugène des Nouhes. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:148, fig. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:65, fig. 129. 1878. M. Parigot, President of the Imperial Court of Poitiers, Fr., obtained this variety which he dedicated in 1856. Fruit above medium, obtuse-turbinate, dark yellow, dotted and stained with gray-russet, slightly vermilioned on the side of the sun; flesh whitish, melting, juicy, vinous, sweet, delicately perfumed; first; Sept. =Eugène Thirriot. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1876. Produced and placed on the market in 1868 by Thirriot Bros. Fruit large, pyriform, pale greenish-yellow; flesh melting, buttery, very juicy, sugary, perfumed; first; Oct. and Nov. =Euratsfelder Mostbirne. 1.= _Löschnig Mostbirnen_ 78, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium to large, globular; skin smooth, light yellow when ripe, sprinkled with rather fine dots, and russet speckles; flesh rather white, not very coarse, agreeably subacid, very juicy; Oct. and Nov. =Eureka. 1.= A. M. Augustine _Cat._ 45. 1916. According to correspondence with A. M. Augustine, Normal, Ill., the introducer of this pear, it was fruited in 1900 by a Mr. Dickinson of Eureka, Ill.; a chance cross between Seckel and Kieffer and shows characteristics of both parents. Tree reported similar to Kieffer in leaf, habit of growth and resistance to and recovery from blight. Fruit medium, shaped like Seckel; skin delicate, waxy, bright yellow, slightly russeted, with a bright red cheek; flesh flavor of Seckel, more solid, longer keeper. =Eva Baltet. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 312, fig. 1898. From a seed bed of Bartlett fertilized with Flemish Beauty. It was exhibited at the International Exhibition of St. Petersburg in 1893. Fruit very large, pyriform-truncated; skin fine, light cream passing into yellow, dotted with brown, extensively blushed with bright carmine; flesh white, fine, juicy, sugary and aromatic; first; Nov. but variable. =Excellente de Moine. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:59, fig. 318. 1880. Distributed by Burgomaster Rossy of Schönburg, in Moravia, Austria, in 1835. Fruit medium or rather large, globular-ovate, grass-green, dotted with gray-green specks; flesh white, rather greenish especially just under skin, buttery, juicy, delicately perfumed; good; latter half of August. =Excelsior. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 158. 1867. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 759. 1869. A seedling of Francis Dana, Boston, Mass., raised about 1860. Fruit medium, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with some russet and many brown dots; flesh juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant; good to very good; Sept. =Eyewood. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:149, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 759. 1869. Raised from seed by T. A. Knight about 1822 at Downton, Wiltshire, Eng. Fruit medium, globular; skin very thick, greenish-yellow, tinged with brown next the sun, much covered with pale brown-russet and large dots; flesh yellowish, very tender and melting, juicy, sweet, with a sprightly, vinous flavor and fine aroma; first, but sometimes has too little perfume; Oct. =Fall. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 102. 1875. A natural tree planted at least as early as 1650 by Gov. Prince at Eastham, on Cape Cod. Fruit about the size of a hen's egg, tapering towards both ends, green, nearly covered with thin russet, of inferior quality. In 1836 it was a flourishing, lofty tree, producing an average of fifteen bushels of fruit. =Fall Beurré d'Arenburg. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 119. 1875. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 175. 1881. Exhibited by Asahel Foote, Williamstown, Mass., at the Boston meeting of the American Pomological Society in 1875 as one of his seedlings. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, inclining to obtuse-pyriform, pale greenish-yellow, tinged with orange where well exposed, sometimes blushed on the cheek next the sun, slightly patched and netted and much dotted with russet; flesh whitish, rather coarse, juicy, melting, sweet, vinous, musky; very good; Oct. =Famenga. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 59. 1844. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 759. 1869. A foreign variety exhibited in 1843 by R. Manning, Salem, Mass. Fruit medium, obovate, greenish-yellow; Sept. =Faurite. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 69. 1848. Fruit medium, oblong-obovate, yellow, shining, tinged with red next the sun, and having numerous reddish dots; flesh yellowish-white, semi-melting, slightly perfumed; keeps nearly a year. =Fauvanelle. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 146. 1911. Considered by M. Chasset, Secretary-general of the Pomological Society of France, to be the finest of all cooking pears. Fruit long-pyriform, bright green, largely covered with fawn, and rayed or washed with red on the sun-exposed cheek; flesh yellowish-white, very sugary, giving a good red wine tone to the cooked fruit, with an agreeable aroma; very good for kitchen use. =Favorite Joanon. 1.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 259, fig. 1906. Obtained in 1833 by M. Joanon, at Saint-Cyr-an-Mont-d'Or, Rhône. Fruit medium to large, turbinate; skin smooth, bright yellow, dotted with gray, flushed with rose at maturity; flesh white, very fine, melting, very juicy, sweet, acidulous, perfumed; very good; Aug. and Sept. =Favorite Morel. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. Obtained from a seed of Bartlett by M. Morel, a nurseryman at Lyons, Fr., in 1874. Fruit rather large, obtuse-pyriform, suggesting in form a long Bartlett, somewhat bossed in outline; skin a little rough, passing from greenish-yellow to golden-yellow, mottled with fawn; flesh white, fine, melting, compact, juicy, fresh, vinous, acidulous; first; Oct. =Feast. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 759. 1869. Originated with Samuel Feast, Baltimore, Md., from seed of Seckel. Fruit medium, obovate-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with brown dots; flesh whitish, juicy, sweet; good; Sept. =Félix de Liem. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:151, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 759. 1869. A posthumous variety from the seedlings of Van Mons at Geest-Saint-Rémy, 1853. Fruit below medium, turbinate, generally obtuse, greenish-yellow, very much mottled with dirty or dusky brown, much speckled bronze-russet on side next the sun and some traces of crimson streaks; flesh yellowish, fine, melting, juicy, sugary, slightly perfumed; second; early Nov. =Félix Sahut. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 151. 1902. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. From Passe Colmar crossed with Bartlett by Arsène Sannier; new in 1902. Fruit similar in appearance to Passe Colmar; flesh fine, juicy, melting, sugary, with a very agreeable perfume; very good; Nov. to Jan. =Ferdinand Gaillard. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 103. 1895. Fruit large or very large; skin smooth, brilliant yellow all over; flesh yellowish-white, fine, tender, very melting, juicy, very sugary; good or very good; Nov. to Jan. =Ferdinand de Lesseps. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:154, fig. 1869. Raised by André Leroy in 1864. Fruit medium, ovate, not very regular, bright yellow, extensively washed and marbled with brown-russet; flesh white, very fine, melting; juice very abundant, acidulous, very sugary, with an exquisite flavor; first; early Oct. =Fertility. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =1=:555, fig. 100. 1880. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 174. 1920. Raised by T. Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, Eng., in 1875, from Beurré Goubault. Fruit medium, obovate, even and regular, entirely covered with a bright cinnamon coat of russet, tinged with orange on the side next the sun; flesh semi-melting or crackling, very juicy, sweet, with a rich, highly-perfumed flavor; good; Oct. =Figue. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:183. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 576. 1884. The pear described under this name by Duhamel in 1768 is quite different from the pear _Figue d'Alençon_ with which it has been confused, the _Green fig_ of Biedenfeld or _Longue Verte_ of Leroy. Origin uncertain. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, green and next the sun of a dull dark red, entirely covered with numerous dots and patches of brown-russet; flesh white, tender, buttery, melting; juice sweet, sugary, perfumed; excellent early dessert pear; Sept. =Figue d'Alençon. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:156, fig. 1869. =2.= _Rural N. Y._ =45=:233, figs. 150, 151. 1886. Obtained about 1829 near Alençon, Department Orne, Fr. Fruit above medium, sometimes large, long, very similar to the fig in form and color; flesh greenish-white, semi-fine and melting, sugary, acidulous and perfumed; first but requiring a favorable soil and climate; Oct. and Nov. =Figue de Naples. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 577. 1884. This has been confused with _Figue d'Alençon_ but is a distinct variety. Fruit above medium, oblong, greenish-yellow, entirely covered with thin, delicate russet, dark reddish-brown on the side next the sun; flesh greenish-white, buttery, melting, with a rich, sugary flavor; excellent; Nov. =Figueira. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 463. 1906. A variety introduced as new in 1906 by M. Bruant, Poitiers, Fr. Fruit of good size, having rather the form of a large fig, brilliant yellow, colored with purple on the side of the sun, of magnificent appearance; flesh very white, fine, melting, juicy, very sugary, with an agreeable perfume; first, one of the best of the season; July and Aug. =Fin Juillet. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 477, fig. 169. 1898. Obtained by M. Hérault, Angers, Fr., from Beurré Giffard crossed with Joyau de Septembre in 1879. Fruit medium, turbinate, ovate, enlarged at center, russeted all over; flesh fine, very melting, rather subject to mellowness, excessively juicy, very sugary, slightly acidulous and with a delicate, musky savor; good; Aug. =Fin-Or d'Orleans. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:160, fig. 1869. _Fine Gold of Summer._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 760. 1869. An old pear mentioned by the earliest French writers. Fruit small, turbinate, swelled, obtuse, golden-yellow, dotted with carmine on the shaded side and bright red on the other cheek; flesh greenish, semi-fine and melting, juicy, sugary, sourish, rather delicate; second; Aug. =Fin-Or de Septembre. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:156. 1768. 2. Hogg _Fruit Man._ 577. 1884. Under the names of _Finor_ and _Finoin_ Claude Saint-Etienne wrote of this pear in 1670. Fruit medium, pyriform-obtuse, yellowish-green speckled with brown-fawn dots, orange-yellow and brick-red on the side of the sun; flesh white, tender, semi-breaking; juice moderate, sugary, slightly acid, without pronounced perfume; third; Oct. =Fitzwater. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 73. 1895. Originated in New York. It resembles Lawrence. Fruit small, obtusely pyriform, yellow partly covered with russet; flesh very fine-grained and melting; fair; winter. =Flemish Bon Chrêtien. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 761. 1869. _Bon-Chrétien de Vernois._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:469, figs. 1867. Of Flemish origin. It was widely propagated in England in 1840. Fruit medium, obovate, green changing to yellow; flesh yellowish-white, crisp, sweet, perfumed; an excellent stewing pear; Nov. to Mar. =Fleur de Neige. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:163, fig. 1869. _Henri Van Mons._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 782. 1869. Obtained by Van Mons between 1830 and 1835. Fruit rather large, pyriform, narrowed toward the stalk, greenish-yellow, stained with russet and washed with dark brick-red on the cheek next the sun and dotted with carmine and maroon; stem long, slender; calyx open in a small basin; flesh white, melting, abounding in sugary juice, with a pleasant perfume; good to very good; Sept. and Oct. =Florent Schouman. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 762. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:153, fig. 77. 1872. A posthumous gain of Van Mons propagated by the Society Van Mons. Fruit nearly large, globular-turbinate, clear green, speckled with large, round, gray-brown spots; flesh white, fine, melting, sugary; juice abundant, vinous, acidulous; good; Oct. =Florida Bartlett. 1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =30=:28. 1905. Received for trial in Michigan in 1900 from Stark Bros., Louisiana, Mo. Fruit large, roundish-oval, tapering at both ends, yellow, with dark brown dots; flesh greenish, firm, juicy, half-breaking, granular, mild, almost sweet, perfumed; fair; Dec. and Jan. =Fluke. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 174. 1909. =2.= _Ibid._ 289. 1910. Disseminated by N. K. Fluke. Reported as hardy, blight-resistant and better than Kieffer. =Fondante Agréable. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =4=:83. 1854. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1876. Belgian; described as new in 1854 by M. P. Wilder. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, dull yellowish-green slightly russeted; flesh tender, juicy and melting, pleasant, refreshing, with a delicate aroma; very good; Aug. =Fondante Albert. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 2, 81, fig. 137. 1866-73. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 762. 1869. Obtained by Albert Boucqueau, Belgium. It was propagated in France in 1853. Fruit medium, globular-conic, depressed at the poles, green turning to yellow, with large dots and markings of fawn, flesh white; semi-fine, breaking, granular about the center; juice deficient, but delicate, vinous and aromatic; second; Sept. =Fondante d'Angers. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:79, fig. 520. 1881. Origin unknown, probably French. Fruit medium or rather large, turbinate; skin fine yet a little firm, clear green, dotted with greenish-gray, passing to yellow at maturity; flesh white, fine, entirely melting; juice abundant and sugary, vinous, acidulous; first; Oct. =Fondante de Bihorel. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 547. 1888. Fruited in France about 1866 from seed of a common French country pear. Tree hardy. Fruit small or medium, pyriform, deep green passing to bright yellow, speckled with gray dots, touched with carmine on the side of the sun; flesh delicate, melting, buttery, without grit; juice sufficient, sugary, acid, well perfumed; quality good; July. =Fondante de Brest. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:169, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 579. 1884. Mentioned by Claude Saint-Etienne in 1670 under the name of _Inconnue du Chesneau_. Fruit medium or nearly medium, ovate-pyriform, more or less swelled, smooth, shining, bright green changing to yellowish-green on the shaded side as it ripens, and red, mottled dark blood-red next the sun, covered with small gray dots; flesh white, rather coarse, breaking, gritty, juicy, sugary, perfumed, rose-water flavor; second; Oct. =Fondante de Charleville. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1895. Fruit large, pyriform, regular in outline, of a beautiful color; flesh melting, buttery, of an agreeable flavor; Nov. and Dec. =Fondante de Charneau. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:170, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 579. 1884. A wilding found by M. Légipont growing on his property at Charneau, in the Province of Liège, Bel., at the beginning of the last century. Fruit large, sometimes very large, pyriform but uneven in outline, pale greenish-yellow, thickly dotted with large gray specks and sometimes vermilioned on the side next the sun; flesh white, fine, very melting, juicy, scented, sugary and rich; excellent; Sept. to Nov. =Fondante de Cuerne. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =2=:5, fig. 1854. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 175. 1920. This variety was found by Reynaert Beernaert in the environs of Courtrai, Bel., but the time of its first production is unknown. Fruit large, conic-pyriform, rather irregular in outline, lemon-yellow, with numerous ash-gray dots; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine and melting, rather gritty about the core, very juicy, sugary, vinous, slightly aromatic; second; Sept. =Fondante des Emmurées. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. Obtained from a seed of Doyenné Boussock by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr., and placed on the market in 1873. Fruit medium, turbinate, clear yellow, dotted with gray; flesh yellowish, sugary, perfumed; good; Sept. =Fondante d'Ingendal. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 763. 1869. Belgian. Raised by M. Gambier and first published in 1856. Fruit medium, pyriform, greenish-yellow, touched with gray and with red; flesh fine, melting; good to very good; Sept. to Nov. =Fondante de Ledeberg. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 103. 1895. Belgian. Raised about 1890. Fruit pale green, dotted with brown; flesh very melting, white and slightly perfumed; first; Mar. and Apr. =Fondante de la Maitre-École. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:175, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 764. 1869. Produced in the gardens of Robert & Moreau, growers at Angers, Fr.; first tested in 1861. Fruit medium, oblong, golden or orange-yellow, dotted and mottled with fawn; flesh fine, yellowish, breaking, juicy, vinous, sugary and perfumed; second; Dec. and Jan. =Fondante de Malines. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:209. 1848. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:9, fig. 1858. Raised by Major Espéren at Mechlin (Malines), Bel., in 1842. Fruit large, globular-turbinate, smooth, of a deep golden-yellow with a crimson cheek in the sun, spotted with crimson dots; flesh white, a little coarse, buttery, juicy, sugary, tart, good but somewhat variable; Oct. and Nov. =Fondante de Mars. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:177, fig. 1869. Origin uncertain. Fruit above medium, globular, irregular, more or less bossed; skin rough, greenish, mottled and dotted with brown; flesh whitish, semi-fine, breaking, granular, wanting in juice and sugar; third; Dec. and Jan. =Fondante de Moulins-Lille. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:178, fig. 1869. Obtained in 1858 by M. Grolez-Duriez, Rouchin-lez-Lille, Fr., from a seed of the pear Napoleon. Fruit above medium, obtuse-pyriform, pale greenish-yellow; flesh white, coarse, melting, juicy, sugary, acidulous, with a delicious flavor; first; Nov. =Fondante de Nees. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 580. 1884. Fruit large, long-obovate, fine deep yellow, mottled and dotted all over with pale brown-russet; flesh yellowish, buttery, lacking sufficient juice, with a sprightly flavor; second; Oct. =Fondante du Panisel. 1.= _Pom. France_ =3=:No. 92, Pl. 92. 1865. _Délices d'Hardenpont d'Angers._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:13, fig. 1869. _Delices d'Angers._ =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 558. 1884. Raised about 1762 by the Abbé Hardenpont, Mons, Bel. Fruit medium to large, globular or conic-ovate; skin rough, thick, tender, green, almost entirely covered with marblings of olive-gray and dark green, the basic green changing to golden-yellow, and the stains to a russet-fawn on the side of the sun; flesh citrine, fine or semi-fine, melting, very juicy, with a sugary flavor and a very agreeable perfume; very good; Nov. and Dec. =Fondante des Prés. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =9=:80, fig. 1854. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:179, 180, fig. 1869. _Belgische Pomeranzenbirne._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ Obstkunde_ =2=:159. 1856. A seedling of Van Mons, Belgium, 1850. Fruit turbinate, inclining to pyriform, broad across the middle, yellowish-green changing to clear lemon-yellow, sometimes tinged with red next the sun; flesh white, melting, sweet, juicy, aromatic; very good; Oct. =Fondante de la Roche. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:180, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 580. 1884. Found on the property of M. Chesneau of la Haugrenière, in the Commune of Sainte-Gemmes-sur-Loire and named by the Horticultural Society of Maine-et-Loire. Fruit above medium, ovate, irregular, clear russet, washed with tender rose on the exposed cheek; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, sugary, acidulous, aromatic, with an agreeable musky taste; first; Oct. and Nov. =Fondante de Rome ou Sucré Romain. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:45, fig. 402. 1880. Origin uncertain. Fruit under medium, conic-pyriform, bright green changing to a beautiful golden-yellow, washed on the side of the sun with crimson-red; flesh yellowish, somewhat coarse, breaking, sweet and juicy; second; Aug. =Fondante de Saint-Amand. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1876. Belgian. Fruit medium, nearly spherical, orange-yellow slightly touched with russet; flesh fine, sugary, perfumed; first; Oct. =Fondante-de-Septembre. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =15=:68. 1860. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:133, fig. 259. 1879. Gained by Van Mons about 1824 or somewhat later. Fruit medium, globular-pyriform, dull green, speckled with very fine brown dots, changing to yellow and crimson at maturity; flesh green, transparent, very fine and melting, semi-buttery, full of sugary juice, pleasant and perfumed; first; Sept. =Fondante Sickler. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:17, fig. 9. 1872. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 581. 1884. Raised by Van Mons. Fruit small, ovate, sometimes a little pyriform; skin rather thick and firm, clear green, speckled with dots of a darker shade, passing when ripe to lemon-yellow and golden on the side of the sun, without any tinge of red; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine, semi-buttery, gritty about the core; juice sufficient, sugary and musky; second; Sept. to Nov. =Fondante de Thines. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:185, fig. 381. 1880. Distributed by the Society of Van Mons. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, very bright green changing to pale yellow, with a rosy blush; flesh white, with a tinge of yellow, very melting, plenty of sugary juice, with a delicate and agreeable flavor of musk; good; Oct. =Fondante Thirriot. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 47, 266. 1895. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 175. 1920. Obtained in 1858 by M. Thirriott, Charleville, Ardenne, Fr. Fruit rather large, pyriform, pale greenish-yellow, dotted with gray-brown; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, juicy, with an excellent flavor; first; Dec. =Fondante Van Mons. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =12=:289, fig. 15. 1846. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 581. 1884. Raised by Van Mons and introduced to this country by R. Manning, Salem, Mass. Fruit medium, globular, somewhat depressed; skin thin, delicate, smooth, removable like that of an orange when the pear is fully ripe and having a peculiar perfume and flavor, very agreeable to some persons; pale yellow, mottled with thin cinnamon-colored russet; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, sweet, melting, juicy, with a musky perfume; good; Oct. and Nov. =Fondante de Wollmet. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 581. 1884. Origin unknown. Fruit has some resemblance both in shape and color to Beurré de Rance, has the same coarseness of flesh, which has a greenish tinge under the skin, very juicy, rather crisp, with a fine brisk, vinous flavor; excellent; Nov. =Fontarabie. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:182, fig. 1869. A French pear mentioned by Le Lectier of Orléans in 1628, and Merlet in 1675. Fruit above medium, turbinate, obtuse, enlarged around the center, bright yellow, dotted with fine points of russet and extensively carmined on the side next the sun; flesh white, rather coarse, breaking, gritty at core, juicy, sugary, with an after-taste of musk; second, cooking only; Feb. to Apr. =Foote Seckel. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 99. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 765. 1869. Raised from seed of Seckel by Asahel Foote, Williamstown, Mass. Fruit small, oblate, obtuse-pyriform, yellow tinged with brownish-crimson on the side of the sun; flesh whitish, fine, juicy, melting, sugary, slightly vinous; very good; Sept. =Ford. 1.= _Ford Seed Co. Cat._ 52, fig. 1914. Originated with M. P. Ellison, Naples, N. Y., and was introduced by the Ford Seed Company about 1914. The tree is reported as healthy, a rapid grower, and an early and productive bearer; the fruit is similar in appearance to Bartlett and as large, practically free from seeds, with no core to speak of, rich, sweet, juicy, ripening three weeks later than Bartlett. =Forme de Bergamotte Crassane. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:186, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 766. 1869. A seedling of Van Mons which gave its first fruits in 1844. Fruit above medium, turbinate, slightly obtuse, yellowish-green, speckled with large gray-russet dots; flesh yellowish, rather fine, melting, juicy, sugary, vinous, aromatic; good; early Nov. =Forme de Curtet. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:9, fig. 101. 1878. A gain of Van Mons. Fruit small, exactly turbinate; skin fine, thin, bright green, sprinkled with very small grayish-green dots, changes on ripening to lemon-yellow, lightly tinged with red; flesh white, semi-fine and breaking; juice sufficient, sweet, slightly perfumed; second; Sept. and Oct. =Forme de Délices. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 388. 1845. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 582. 1884. A Flemish pear. Fruit medium, obovate, yellow, almost entirely covered with rather rough brown-russet; flesh tender, buttery, melting, with a rich, sweet flavor; an excellent dessert pear; Oct. and Nov. =Fortune. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 143. 1866. One of Dr. Shurtleff's seedlings raised at Brookline, Mass.; first fruited in 1866. Fruit small, turbinate, golden-yellow, with russet spots; flesh white, melting, juicy and very sweet; first; Oct. =Fortunée. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 436. 1845. _Bergamotte Fortunée._ =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =8=:29, fig. 1857. _Fortunée de Printemps._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:188, fig. 1869. A Belgian wilding found near Enghien in Hainaut; disseminated about 1830. Fruit small, globular or globular-turbinate; skin rough to the touch, deep yellow, covered with flakes and lines of brown-russet; flesh semi-melting, juicy, sweet; a cooking pear; May and June. =Fortunée Boisselot. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:187, fig. 1869. Raised from a bed of seeds of Fortunée by Auguste Boisselot, Nantes, Fr.; it gave its first fruit in 1861. Fruit large or above medium, turbinate, very obtuse and enlarged around center; skin thick and rough, greenish-yellow or yellow-ochre; flesh white, fine, melting, gritty around the core, juicy, sugary, delicate, somewhat aromatic; first; Jan. and Feb. =Fortunée Supérieure. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:190. 1869. This was obtained by M. Flon, Angers, Fr., about 1850 from a bed of seeds of Fortunée. In 1854 M. Flon submitted it to the Horticultural Society of Maine-et-Loire which found its flesh "very fine, very melting, agreeably perfumed and more free from acidity than the old pear Fortunée," and therefore gave it the name Fortunée Supérieure; Jan. to Apr. =Fourcroy. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:192, fig. 1869. Raised by Van Mons about 1810. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform; skin thick, rather rough to the touch, yellow or yellowish-green, covered with gray-russet dots; flesh white, very sugary, agreeably perfumed; good and sometimes first; winter. =Fouron. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:135, fig. 548. 1881. French. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, dark olive-green, dotted with grayish-white spots, large and numerous; flesh yellowish, fine, melting, with abundant sugary juice, vinous, sprightly and musky; good; Oct. =Franc-Réal. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:180. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:194, fig. 1869. _Franc Réal d'Hiver._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 766. 1869. Mentioned by Charles Estienne in 1540, and other French authorities of the seventeenth century. Fruit above medium and often larger, globular-turbinate and bossed, golden-yellow, strewed with large russet dots, and some brownish-red patches; flesh very white, breaking, juicy, hardly sweet, rather acid, without perfume; first for cooking; Nov. to Feb. =Frances. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =11=:252. 1845. A seedling raised by the Hon. H. W. Edwards of New Haven, Conn., and first published in 1845. Similar to Virgouleuse, rather large, and not so sweet. =Franchimont. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 766. 1869. Supposed French origin. Fruit below medium, globular-oblate, yellow shaded with red in the sun, netted and patched with russet, many russet dots; flesh yellowish, juicy, semi-melting, sweet, slightly aromatic; good or very good; Sept. and Oct. =Franchipanne. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:210, Pl. XLVII, fig. 2. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 582. 1884. _Frangipane._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:196, fig. 1869. This is the Franchipanne of Duhamel but not of Merlet, 1690, as Hogg and Leroy prove. Its origin is uncertain. Fruit medium or above, obtuse-pyriform, yellowish-green or lemon-yellow, dotted and veined with russet, dark deep red next the sun; flesh greenish-white, semi-fine and semi-melting, juicy, tender, buttery, perfume supposed to resemble Frangipani, a scent invented by the Marquis of that name; a dessert pear; Oct. and Nov. =Francis. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. A seedling raised by Dr. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., which fruited in 1862. Fruit medium, turbinate; skin tough and rather liable to crack, dark green; flesh fine-grained, white and delicate, with a flavor inclining to that of White Doyenné; first; Nov. =Francis Dana. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 80. 1877. One of several seedling plants given by Francis Dana to Eliphalet Stone who in 1877 showed its fruit. Fruit medium, globular-acute-pyriform, clear lemon-yellow, with tracings of thin russet; flesh buttery, juicy, good quality but not up to best; Sept. =François Hutin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 92. 1895. Fruit very large, long-turbinate, dark yellow; flesh fine, white, melting, juicy, sugary, acid; Oct. =Frangipane d'Hiver. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:105, fig. 533. 1881. Origin unknown. Is not to be confused with Franchipanne, a smaller ball pear. Fruit large, turbinate, much swelled at center; skin thin, intense green, sprinkled with numerous dots of a darker shade, changing to lemon-yellow at maturity, with some blush of brown-red or orange-red; flesh white, breaking, not very sweet, somewhat acidulous, with an aromatic flavor; suitable for kitchen use; all through the winter. =Frankenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:173. 1856. Würtemberg, Germany, 1830. Fruit medium, oval-obtuse, variable, bossed, grass-green changing to golden-yellow, blushed with reddish-brown; flesh whitish, breaking, fairly soft, very aromatic, acidulous, sweet; good; Sept. =Frankfurter Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:145. 1856. Baden, Germany, 1847. Fruit large, variable in form, often oblique, dirty yellow, brilliant red on the sun-touched side; flesh breaking, coarse-grained, very sweet and juicy; good; Sept. =Frau Louise Goethe. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =25=:132. 1899. Raised from a seed of Bergamotte Espéren, in the Horticultural School of Geisenheim in 1882. Fruit medium, Bergamot-shaped; skin thick, coarse, dark green, covered with fine warts, becoming a clouded yellow when ripe, with russety patches; flesh clouded yellow, sometimes salmon colored, juicy, sweet, aromatic, with an aroma reminiscent of the orange; winter. =Frederic Leclerc. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:198, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man_. 583. 1884. Raised in 1846 at Ghent, Bel., by Louis Berckmans. Fruit below medium, short-pyriform-obtuse, one side always less curved than the other, greenish-yellow, dotted, striped, veined and stained with fawn; flesh whitish, fine, semi-melting, slightly gritty; juice sugary, rich; second and sometimes first when its juice is abundant; Dec. and Jan. =Frédéric de Wurtemberg. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 173. 1832. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:199, fig. 1869. _Médaille d'Or._ =3.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =1=:91, fig. 1853. _Herbstsylvester._ =4.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =2=:No. 82, No. 82. 1883. Van Mons raised this variety from seed of the fourth generation about 1812 and named it _Sylvester d'Hiver_ after a secretary by the name of Sylvester. Upon the request of Frederick I, King of Württemburg, the pear was dedicated to that monarch and named Frédéric de Wurtemberg. Still further confusion arose in America when Knight of England sent to the Hon. John Lowell of Massachusetts this fruit, by mistake, under the name of _Capiaumont_. It was cultivated in the vicinity of Boston by that name for some time. Tree vigorous, upright, an early and excellent bearer; leaves roundish, broad, flat, entire. Fruit large, one-sided, obtuse-pyriform, deep yellow, marbled and dotted with red on the shaded side and of a most beautiful, bright crimson next the sun; stem medium, sometimes appearing a continuation of the fruit; calyx medium, partially open, placed even with the surface; flesh white, fine, juicy, melting, sweet and when in perfection buttery and good; Sept. =Frederica Bremer. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:24, fig. 1. 1850. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =7=:81, fig. 1859. Introduced by J. C. Hastings of Oneida Co., N. Y., in 1848 at the exhibition of the Pomological Convention of New York. Fruit above medium, globular-turbinate; skin very smooth, shining, dull green reminding one of many poor pears but on ripening becomes a fine citron, dotted with brown-russet and slightly colored with red on the side of the sun; flesh white, fine, buttery, sweet and vinous, slightly perfumed; one of the best; Oct. =Fremion. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:73. 1856. French, 1807. Bergamot type. Fruit small, globular, symmetrical, light green changing to light lemon-yellow, faintly blushed; flesh agreeable, buttery, gritty near the center, aromatic, sweet, acidulous; good; Oct. =Frensdorff rothe Flaschenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:140. 1856. Nassau, Bel., 1833. Fruit medium, smooth and shining, light yellow, blushed; flesh very juicy, sweet, with flavor of cinnamon; good; Sept. =Florimond Parent. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:164, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 762. 1869. A seedling of Van Mons raised about 1846. Fruit large, long, more or less obtuse, always contracted near the summit and much swelled in its lower part, dark yellow clouded with pale green, dotted and mottled with fawn and slightly washed with dark violet-red on the side exposed to the sun, sometimes also covered with small, black and scaly stains; flesh whitish, coarse, rather melting, gritty at center; juice abundant, sweet, sugary, wanting in perfume; third; Sept. =Frühe Backhausbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:161. 1856. Nassau, Bel., 1806. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, yellowish, light green changing to pale yellow, often blushed; flesh granular, rather astringent, sourish, musky, good for any situation; Aug. and Sept. =Frühe Schweizer Bergamotte. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:76. 1856. =2.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 241. 1881. Holland, 1804. Fruit fairly large, variable in form, often ovate, ventriculous-turbinate, and often pyriform, yellowish-light green changing to lemon-yellow, sprinkled with green and yellow-gray dots, marked with russet and often with fine yellow-gray russet on the side exposed to the sun; flesh snow-white, buttery, melting, very juicy, acidulous and aromatic; first; Aug. =Fuller. 1.= _Gard. Mon._ 302. 1885. =2.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 213. 1897. Originated in Madison, O., about 1885. Fruit similar in size, form and season to Beurré Giffard but not quite so good. It is, however, claimed that it is a better grower and less liable to crack; greenish-yellow; Aug. =Fullero. 1.= _Montreal Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 82. 1886. Fruit rather large, greenish, with some dull red on the sunny side; first; early summer. =Fulton. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:214. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 768, fig. 1869. Originated on the farm of a Mr. Fulton in Brunswick, Me. Exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1829. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, dark yellow, russeted; flesh, if picked and matured in the house, buttery, melting, full of rich juice. If allowed to remain on the tree it becomes breaking, dry and without flavor. A peculiarity of this pear first discovered by Manning in 1840 is that the fruits after they have attained half their size, are in good eating condition after lying a day or two; second; Oct. =Fusée d'Automne. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:203, figs. 1869. Origin ancient and obscure, but probably the neighborhood of Eisleben, Saxony. Fruit often above medium and often much less, very long, conic, bossed, golden-yellow or clear yellow, rather greenish, dotted with russet; flesh whitish, semi-fine and semi-melting, exempt from grit; juice rather lacking, sweet; third; Sept. =Fusée d'Hiver. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:205, fig. 1869. First described by Merlet in 1690. Fruit above medium and sometimes less, long and bossed, somewhat obtuse, wrinkled, clear green, freely dotted, mottled with gray-russet; flesh white, semi-melting; juice abundant, rather sugary, slightly acid, without pronounced scent; third; Feb. and Mar. =Gabourell Seedling. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 280. 1858. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:208, fig. 1869. Originated in early half of last century. Fruit below medium, globular, bossed, mammillate, yellowish-green, speckled with gray dots; flesh yellowish, coarse, breaking, gritty; juice rather lacking, sweet, vinous, slightly perfumed; third; Nov. to Jan. =Gakovsky. 1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:246. 1903. Introduced from Russia in 1879. Tree extremely hardy. Fruit medium, pyriform, greenish-yellow, stem long; flesh dingy white, fine-grained, buttery, juicy, mild, vinous, but not rich; good. =Galston Muirfowl Egg. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 583. 1884. Scotch. Fruit below medium, short-obovate, flattened at calyx, greenish-yellow, covered with thin, pale-brown russet, mottled with red on the side of the sun; flesh yellowish, tender, sweet and juicy, with a peculiar aroma; excellent; Sept. =Gans. 1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 390, Pl. VII. 1891. Found by Joseph Gans in a wood near Cheviot, O., in 1871. Fruit large, pyriform, yellow, with faint brownish cheek on sunny side; stem slender, rather long, in a slight depression; calyx open, in a shallow basin; flesh tender, melting, juicy; Aug. =Gänsekopf. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:148. 1856. North German, 1773. Fruit medium, conic, smooth and shining, green, changing to yellow, with brownish-red blush; flesh breaking, juicy, sweet, aromatic; first; Oct. and Nov. =Gansel Bergamot. 1.= Brookshaw _Pomona_ =2=:Pl. L. 1817. =2.= _Pom. Mag._ =1=:35, Pl. 1828. _Diamant-peer._ =3.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =1=:92, 135. 1771. _Bergamote Gansel._ =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:239, fig. 1867. Raised from seed of Autumn Bergamot by Lieutenant-General Gansel near Colchester, Eng., in 1768. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, greenish-yellow on the shaded side, reddish-brown on the side of the sun, dotted and marbled with russet, sometimes washed with red; flesh white, buttery, melting, a little gritty around the core; juice abundant, sugary, vinous, slightly musky and acid; first; Oct. and Nov. =Gansel Late Bergamot. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 369. 1854. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 294. 1866. _Bergamotte Tardive de Gansel._ =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 1, 125, fig. 61. 1866-73. Gansel Late Bergamot was raised from seed by a Mr. Williams, Pitmaston, Eng. Fruit similar in shape and size to Gansel Bergamot, green, thickly covered with russet dots and freckles which sometimes form patches, yellow-green when ripe, flesh white, rather coarse and gritty, not very juicy nor melting in England; in France and America, however, it seems to become more juicy, melting and rich, vinous and highly perfumed; good to very good; Nov. and Dec. =Garnier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:209, fig. 1869. _Besi Garnier._ =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 506. 1884. From a seed bed made by M. Garnier, Bouvardière, near Nantes, Fr.; first published in 1851. Fruit large, pyriform-obtuse, skin rough, thick, green, orange-yellow when ripe, washed with brick-red on the side of the sun; dotted and mottled with brown-russet; flesh white, semi-fine, breaking, rather granular, juicy, sugary; second. =Garnons. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 161. 1841. Fruit large, oblong, greenish-yellow, flesh buttery and excellent; second; Jan. =Gassenbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 150, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, symmetrical in contour, green changing to yellow at maturity, covered with gray-brown russet, dotted with brown-russet; flesh yellowish-white, rather coarse texture, very juicy and subacid; Oct. to Dec. =Gaston du Puys. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 93. 1895. Distributed by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit medium; flesh white, very fine, melting, sufficiently sweet and perfumed; good; Nov. =Gaudry. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 585. 1884. Fruit small, globular-ovate, even in outline, straw-colored, covered with russet dots and patches; flesh white, melting, juicy, brisk, vinous and sweet, with a pleasant rose-water flavor; good; Oct. and Nov. =Géant. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 280. 1858. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:210, fig. 1869. Probably of French origin. Cataloged in this country by T. W. Field in 1858. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate; skin wrinkled, thick, dark green speckled with gray-russet and almost entirely stained with brown; flesh whitish, coarse, breaking, watery, very gritty around the core; juice sugary, vinous, slightly perfumed; third. =Gefleckte Pomeranzenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:156. 1856. Hesse, Germany, 1833. Fruit small, globular, flattened at poles; skin rough, yellow, often green, marbled with russet, blushed, dotted with russet; semi-melting, granular, very aromatic; Sept. =Gefleckte Sommerrusselet. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:42. 1856. Nassau, Bel., 1807. Fruit small, globular, shortened, blunt, symmetrical; skin rough, often entirely covered with russet and blushed; flesh very juicy, coarse-grained, sweet and acid, melting and aromatic; first; Sept. =Gefundene. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:91. 1856. Belgian, Van Mons, 1833. Fruit small, light yellow, often entirely covered with russet, free from dots; flesh fine, strongly aromatic, with scent of cinnamon, sweet; Sept. =Geigenschnabel. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:195. 1856. Württemberg, Ger., 1830. Fruit medium, pyriform, uneven in outline, entirely covered with yellowish-gray russet; good; Oct. =Geishirtle. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 548. 1817. Fruit large, shaped like Winter Rousselet, green with brownish-red blush on the sun-touched side; flesh soft, breaking, sweet, juicy, with perfume of the Rousselets; Aug. =Gelbe frühe Sommerapothekerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:177. 1856. Of French origin, 1807. Fruit medium and above; skin glazed and smooth, greenish-yellow changing to lemon-yellow, with red blush on the side of the sun; flesh yellowish-white, gritty, soft; good; Aug. =Gelbe Fürsten-Tafelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:54. 1856. Widely diffused in Germany. Probably originated in that country about 1766. Fruit medium, rather shortened-pyriform, whitish-yellow changing to golden-yellow, with pale blush, green dots; flesh yellowish-white, mild, breaking, full of juice and sugar; first; Sept. =Gelbe Heckenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:161. 1856. Grown along the Rhine, Germany. Fruit small, turbinate, broad, light green changing to yellowish-green, often lightly blushed, russeted; flesh greenish-white, rather granular, acid, vinous, breaking; first; Sept. =Gelbe Holzbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 80, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium, globular-conic; skin firm, shining yellow when ripe, speckled with numerous green markings and finely dotted with russet; flesh yellowish-white, granular, very juicy, astringent, subacid; good for transportation; Oct. =Gelbe Landlbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 152, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small to medium, long-pyriform, rather obtuse; skin firm, green turning yellow, dotted with russet; flesh whitish, coarse, very juicy, astringent and subacid; good for transportation; Oct. and Nov. =Gelbe langstielige Alantbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:140. 1856. German Rheinland. Fruit medium and above, somewhat gourd-shaped; skin smooth and thin, uniformly lemon-yellow, somewhat marked with russet; flesh yellowish-white, wanting in juice, sweet, aromatic; third for table, good for market; Sept. =Gelbe Laurentiusbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 218. 1889. _Saint-Laurent Jaune._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:39, 212. 1879. This pear was known in Saxony early in the nineteenth century. Fruit medium, conic, uniform in contour, its largest diameter being below the center; skin rather thick, green at first sprinkled with dots of gray-green changing at maturity to bright citron-yellow, golden on the side of the sun of fruits well exposed, washed with a blush of dull red; flesh white, coarse, semi-breaking, gritty near the core, juicy, sweet, saccharine, but little flavor; second; Aug. =Gelbe Leutsbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 106, fig. 1913. A Lower-Austrian perry pear. Fruit small, long-pyriform, diminishing to the stalk, sides unequal; light green turning yellow when ripe, russet dots; flesh juicy and subacid; first for keeping and transportation; Oct. =Gelbe Scheibelbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 82, fig. 1913. An Austrian pear producing a good and clear perry. Fruit medium to large, globular, flattened at both poles, green changing to yellow at maturity, dotted with grayish-white; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, with a sweet and acid flavor; good; Oct. and Nov. =Gelbe Wasserbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 12, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown in Lower Austria. Fruit small to medium, globular-obtuse but diminishing toward stalk in upper part, yellow-green, slightly blushed on the sun-touched side, and speckled on the shaded side with dark green dots; flesh whitish, juicy, very sweet and slightly acidulous; good for transportation; Sept. =Gelbmostler. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 108, fig. 1913. A perry or wine pear grown in Austria and northern Switzerland. Fruit medium to fairly large, globular and diminishing rather acutely to the stalk, greenish-yellow changing to light yellow, often slightly blushed, speckled with russet dots; flesh yellowish-white, coarse-grained, juicy, very astringent, quickly becomes over-ripe; Sept. =Gemeine Kochbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 154, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small, globular-conic, green changing to greenish-yellow at maturity, occasionally with a dark red blush on the sun-exposed side; flesh yellowish-white, very juicy, saccharine, astringent and acidulous; Oct. and Nov. =Gemeine Pfundbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:187. 1856. Upper-Austria, 1851. Fruit above medium, globular-turbinate, medium convex, bossed, green turning to light yellow; flesh breaking, wanting in juice, sweet; third for dessert, best for culinary use; Oct. to Dec. =Général de Bonchamp. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:211, fig. 1869. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =30=:2. 1875. A seedling found on the estate of M. Panneton, Coteau, Maine-et-Loire, Fr. Fruit medium, variable in form, oblong-pyriform or globular-turbinate, dull greenish-yellow, dotted with russet; flesh white, melting, buttery, fine-grained, juicy, sweet, rich, aromatic; good to first; Aug. =Général Bosquet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:213, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 770. 1869. Obtained by M. Flon-Grolleau, Angers, Fr. The seed bed from which the tree sprang was made in 1845. Fruit large, conic, very long, rather swelled at the base and narrowed at the upper end; skin thick, grass-green, dotted and mottled with fawn and often bearing some small brownish stains; flesh whitish, fine, semi-melting or melting, rather granular at center; juice abundant, sweet, vinous, delicate; second; Sept. and Oct. =Général Canrobert. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:214, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 770. 1869. From a bed of the seeds of Saint-Germain made about 1843 by M. Robert, Angers, Fr. Fruit medium, long-conic and irregular, golden-yellow, dotted, marbled and stained with russet, washed with brown around the calyx and stem; flesh white, fine, melting and juicy, the juice being abundant, sweet, acid, rich and aromatic; first, though very exceptionally second when it has no flavor; Jan. and Feb. =Général Delage. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:155, fig. 270. 1879. A gain of Van Mons about 1823. Fruit medium, conic-pyriform, clear green, speckled with gray, changing to pale yellow at maturity, tinged with dark red on the side of the sun; flesh white, fine, buttery, melting, full of slightly sugary juice, refreshing and somewhat musky. =Général Dutilleul. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:215, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 585. 1884. A seedling of Van Mons. Fruit medium to large, pyramidal, uneven in outline, deep golden yellow, extensively washed with bright crimson where it is exposed to the sun; flesh firm, not very juicy, sweet, of good flavor; good; Sept. =Général Duvivier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:217, fig. 1869. _Beurré Duvivier._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 688. 1869. Raised from seed by M. Boisbunel, Rouen, Fr., in 1845. Fruit medium, long-conic, slightly obtuse, greenish-yellow, finely dotted and reticulated with russet, washed sometimes with dark red on the side facing the sun; flesh whitish, fine, semi-melting, watery, not gritty; juice plentiful, sugary, acidulous, aromatic, delicate; first; Mar. =General Kearney. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., which fruited in 1862. Fruit large, pyriform, greenish-yellow; flesh fine-grained, juicy, of rather high flavor; a good market pear; Sept. =General Lamoricière. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =18=:296, fig. 22. 1852. According to Leroy this name is synonymous with _Beurré Citron_. Mas, however, thought that _Beurré Citron_ was quite different. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyramidal, greenish-yellow, much reticulated and spotted and patched with russet; flesh greenish-white, fine, melting, tender, buttery; juice abundant, sugary, vinous and perfumed; first; Sept. to Nov. =General Sherman. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. A seedling of Dr. Shurtleff's submitted to the committee on fruits of the Horticultural Society of Massachusetts in 1866. "Fruited in 1856. Diam. 2-3/4 in.; flesh white, melting, breaking and juicy; November to December, turbinate." =General Taylor. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:75, 269. 1854. Introduced by L. N. Rogers, Baltimore, Md., the original tree having been found by him at Franklin, Md., in 1854. Fruit medium or under, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, yellow but practically all cinnamon-russet; flesh yellowish-white, granular, buttery, melting, sweet, highly flavored; good to very good; Oct. and Nov. =Général Thouvenin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 93. 1895. Origin unknown. Fruit medium, greenish; flesh rather yellow, fine, melting, juicy, very sugary and pleasantly perfumed; Dec. =Général Totleben. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =8=:57, fig. 1860. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 177. 1920. M. Fontaine de Ghélin, Mons, Bel., raised this variety from a seed bed made in 1839. Fruit large or very large, pyriform, slightly contorted, one side often rather longer than the other, yellow, covered with dots and patches of russet; flesh tinted with salmon-rose, melting, juicy, with a rich, sugary and perfumed juice; excellent; Nov. to Jan. =General Wauchope. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =30=:474, fig. 144. 1901. Raised about 1888 by Charles Ross, gardener to Captain Carstairs, Welford Park, Newbury, Eng., from a cross of Nec Plus Meuris and Duchesse d'Angoulême. Fruit moderate size, obtuse-pyriform, very regular, yellowish-green, with fine spotting; flesh soft, free from grit, rich, sweet, somewhat of the flavor Nec Plus Meuris; Dec. =Gensbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 32, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry and wine pear. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, diminishing toward the stalk from the center; skin tolerably fine and shining yellow when ripe, densely and finely dotted with russet; flesh white, coarse-grained, juicy, subacid, astringent; Sept. =George Augustus. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 91. 1872. A seedling exhibited to the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1872 by Francis Dana. Fruit similar to Winter Nelis, but larger and more oblong, and not quite so rich. =Georges Delebecque. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. Raised from seed of Joséphine de Malines and distributed by Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit medium, having some resemblance to Urbaniste, yellow, dotted with fawn and bronzed around the stem; flesh sometimes very salmon-colored, melting, with a slight perfume of rose; a good pear for the amateur; tree of moderate vigor and very fertile; Dec. and Jan. =Gerando. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =23=:161, fig. 9. 1857. Received by C. M. Hovey in 1845 from M. Jamin of Paris. Fruit large, globular-obovate; skin rather rough, dull greenish-russet, with a mottled yellow and light russet tinge when mature, thickly covered with conspicuous dark russet specks; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, melting and juicy, rich, sugary and slightly perfumed; good; Sept. and Oct. =Gérardine. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:119, fig. 156. 1878. Obtained by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., early in the nineteenth century. Fruit medium, turbinate, more or less short and swelled, reducing to a point at the top; skin thick, firm, intense green dotted with large brown specks, changing to dark yellow at maturity, with golden-russet on the side of the sun and some red blush; flesh white, rather fine, buttery, melting, gritty about the center, full of rich sugary juice, vinous and highly scented; Nov. =Gerdessen. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:61, fig. 223. 1879. According to Diel, this variety was obtained by the Pastor Gerdessen of Weigsdorf, in the Oberlausitz, Ger. Fruit rather small or nearly medium, almost spherical, even in contour, the greatest diameter being at the center, intense and somber green, without any russet; flesh yellow, rather fine, buttery; juice sufficient in quantity and richly saccharine, vinous and highly perfumed; first; Sept. =Gerippte Pomeranzenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:156. 1856. Nassau, Bel., 1833. Fruit small, orange-form, ribbed, a good yellow, lightly blushed with red; flesh juicy, semi-melting, cinnamon-flavored, sweet; second for dessert, good for the market; Sept. =Gernröder Pomeranzenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:160. 1856. Central Germany, 1773. Fruit small, flattened, green changing to yellowish, faintly blushed, speckled with gray; flesh greenish-white, tender; good; Oct. and Nov. =Gestreiffe Winter-Apothekerbirne. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 132. 1825. Fruit large; form that of Bon-Chrétien d'Été, light yellow, streaked, aromatic, sugary; good; Feb. to Apr. =Ghellinck de Walle. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =11=:24. 1892. Raised in the garden of M. Ghellinck de Walle near Ghent, Bel., described as new. Fruit medium, oblong-obovate, yellowish, speckled with russet; flesh creamy-white, melting, juicy, sugary, slightly acid and delicately perfumed. Said by M. Pynaert to be one of the best autumn pears; Nov. =Gibb. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:482. 1913. Raised from seed sent by Charles Gibb from Mongolia to Prof. Budd at Ames, Ia. Said to be very hardy and productive, coming into bearing when young. Fruit about the size of Bartlett, pyriform, nearly equal to Bartlett in quality, according to Prof. Budd. Seems to be of a better quality than most oriental pears. =Gilain. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 71. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:33, fig. 113. 1878. A gain of M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium, pyriform, pale green changing to yellow, a warm gold and sometimes red on the side next the sun; flesh white, fine, buttery, melting, rather gritty near the core; juice sufficient, sugary and perfumed; good; Sept. =Gilles ô Gilles. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:222, fig. 1869. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 219. 1889. _Girogile._ =3.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 177. 1920. A French pear of very ancient and uncertain origin. Jean Bauhin in his _Historia Plantarum_, 1580, wrote of a pear which appears to be identical with this and said that in Burgundy it was styled a _Poire de Livre_ or _Pound Pear_. Le Lectier in his catalog of 1628 and Merlet as well as Claude Saint-Etienne and La Quintinye also mention it though spelling it variously. Fruit large to very large, nearly spherical; calyx large, open, set in deep basin; skin thick, pale dull green, washed with brown-red on the face exposed to the sun, much covered with thin brown-russet; flesh greenish-white, semi-fine and semi-breaking, rarely gritty, very juicy, saccharine and sweet, without much perfume, occasionally spoiled by too much acerbity; third; cooking; Nov. to Feb. =Giram. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:151, fig. 74. 1866-73. A wilding found on the estate of Giram at Uryosse, Fr., and propagated by Dr. Doat. Fruit nearly medium, pyriform, sometimes rather turbinate; skin thick and firm, green, sprinkled with large dots of greenish-brown, becomes yellowish-green at maturity and blushed with red on the sun-exposed side; flesh very fine, tender, melting, very juicy, sugary and agreeably perfumed; first; Aug. =Girardon. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:225, fig. 1869. According to Diel this pear was raised in Paris by a M. Girandoux whose name Leroy identifies with Girardon. It seems to have dated from about the beginning of the nineteenth century. Fruit below medium, globular, flattened and deeply depressed at both poles, one side rather less swelled than the other; skin wrinkled, yellowish-green, dotted with clear brown and almost entirely mottled and reticulated with dark russet; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-melting, rather granular; juice very abundant, saccharine, acidulous, very musky; second; late Sept. =Glace d'Hiver. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:67, fig. 322. 1880. _Winter Eisbirne._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 300. 1889. Belgian. Fruit medium, globular-conic; skin rather thick, a lively green sprinkled with brown dots, changing to lemon-yellow, often golden on the side of the sun; flesh whitish, fine, breaking; juice sufficient, sugary, without appreciable perfume; good; end of winter. =Glastonbury. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =22=:73, 99, 126. 1872. =2.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 140. 1904. The _Benedictine_ of the English or Glastonbury pear, apparently originated as a wilding with W. G. L. Lovell, Glastonbury, Eng., but Bunyard believes it to be an old sort introduced by the monks. Grafts were first taken from the tree in 1862. Fruit large, oblong-obovate, russeted; flesh yellowish, melting, juicy, aromatic; Oct. =Gleck. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 93. 1895. Distributed by M. Niemetz, Winnitsa, Russia, and on trial with Simon-Louis Bros. at Metz in 1895. Fruit medium or large, green changing to yellow at maturity; flesh rather tart in flavor, juicy, good for drying as it diminishes little in volume; it makes good cider; Sept. and Oct. =Gliva. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1880. A Russian pear imported by J. L. Budd, from the northern steppes where the summers are "fully as dry and hot as ours and the winter far more severe." It shows marked traces of the Chinese forms of the pear in shape, serration, thickness and size of leaf and in the peculiar enlarged character of the scaly, terminal buds. =Gloire de Cambron. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:226, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 772. 1869. Probably derives its name from the famous Abbey of Cambron near Mons in Hainaut, Bel. It was in France early in the nineteenth century. Fruit below medium, acute-pyriform, generally rather contorted in the lower part, yellow-ochre in color, dotted with very fine gray-russet points; flesh white, semi-fine, breaking, dry and gritty, sweet and rather delicate in flavor; third; Nov. =Gloward. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 280. 1858. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:228, fig. 1869. Possibly of English origin. It was cultivated in the garden of the Horticultural Society of Angers, Fr., in 1838. Fruit medium and above; form rather variable but always ovate, more or less long, irregular, bossed, clear green sprinkled with grayish dots and a little stained with russet; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, watery, some grit around the core; juice sugary, very refreshing, rather savory; second; Oct. =Gnoico. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:229, fig. 1869. Italian, with the place of its origin in the old principality of Parma. Fruit below medium, long, obtuse-pyriform, whitish-gray on the shaded side, very clear dull green on the other face, dotted with russet, washed occasionally with fawn around the stalk and partially covered with a light bluish efflorescence; flesh greenish-white, fine, dense, breaking or semi-breaking, watery, almost exempt from grit; juice abundant and sugary, with a flavor of anis; Aug. =Goat-herd. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:131. 1908. On trial in the experimental orchard at Agassiz, B. C., in 1900. Fruit small, acute-pyriform, green, russeted, flesh red, buttery, juicy, subacid; mid-season. =Gogal. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D., from Parrot crossed by _Pyrus ovoidea_, and introduced by him in 1919. =Gold Dust. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:482. 1913. Fruit of Bergamot shape, with slender stem; skin very rough; Oct. =Gold Nugget. 1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 28, fig. 1916. This pear originated with F. H. Davis, Esmeralda, Cal., in the early seventies. A few years ago Stark Bros., Louisiana, Mo., secured control of the variety and introduced it to the trade in 1916. Tree vigorous, healthy, productive; fruit large, roundish-obovate-pyriform; skin thick; flesh fine-grained, juicy, with a honey-sweet flavor; ripens late. =Goldbirne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 544. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:48. 1856. Austrian, 1851. Fruit small, conic, beautiful light yellow; skin thin, light red blush; flesh semi-breaking, sweet, with muscatel flavor; best; beginning of Oct. =Goldbordirte Holzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:196. 1856. Classed by Dochnahl among varieties of special character. The tree has its leaves bordered with gold. Fruit small; flesh firm, insipid. =Golden Bell. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. A seedling fruited by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., in 1862. Tree prolific. Fruit medium, pyriform, golden-yellow; flesh fine, with good flavor; Sept. =Golden Beurré of Bilboa. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 177. 1832. =2.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =1=:99, Pl. 1851. _Beurré Doré de Bilboa._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:351, fig. 1867. Imported to this country from Bilboa, Spain, in 1821 by J. Hooper, Marblehead, Mass. Fruit medium to large, obovate-pyriform, golden-yellow, speckled evenly with small, brown dots, and slightly marked with russet; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, very buttery, vinous and excellent flavor; first; Sept. =Golden June. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Originated with Joe Houghlin, near Bloomfield, Ky., and introduced by Sunny Slope Nursery, Hannibal, Mo. Tree reported about 75 years old. Fruit said to have a small core, to be delicious and to ripen about June 20th. =Golden Knap. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 587. 1884. Grown extensively in the orchards of the border countries of Scotland. The name is a corruption of Golden Knob, the shape being that of a small knob. Fruit very small, globular-turbinate, russety, of no particular merit. =Golden Queen. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 587. 1884. Raised at the Royal Gardens, Frogmore, near Windsor, Eng., and was first exhibited in 1872. Fruit small, obovate, straw-colored, strewed with a few minute dots; flesh very tender and extremely juicy, sweet and highly perfumed; a delicious pear but when ripe speedily rots at the core; Sept. =Golden Russet. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 587. 1884. A seedling raised at the Royal Gardens, Frogmore, near Windsor, Eng., and first exhibited in 1863; entirely distinct from Japan Golden Russet, which bears the same name as a synonym. Fruit small, obtuse-obovate, bright cinnamon-russet; flesh yellow, fine-grained, buttery and melting, juicy, sweet and with a flavor resembling that of Marie Louise; an excellent little pear; Oct. =Goldwörther Lederbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 156, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small to medium, turbinate, diminishing rather acutely to the stalk, green covered with dark brown-russet; flesh yellow-green, coarse, saccharine, with an unpleasant acidity; very good for transport; Oct. and Nov. =Gönnersche Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:28. 1856. Hesse, Ger., 1806. Fruit almost medium, turbinate, light green changing to greenish-yellow, often with a rather pale blush; flesh granular and rather coarse; second; Sept. =Goodale. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 773, fig. 1869. =2.= Ont. Dept. Agr. _Fr. Ont._ 163, figs. 1914. Raised by E. Goodale, Saco, Me., from seed of the McLaughlin. Fruit large, oblong-obovate-pyriform, green, yellowing at maturity, shaded with crimson and fawn in the sun, slightly netted and patched with russet and sprinkled with small russet dots; flesh white, fine, rather gritty at core, juicy, sweet, pleasant, perfumed, slightly vinous; fair for dessert; first for market; Oct. =Got. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 280. 1858. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:231, fig. 1869. Origin unknown. According to Leroy this variety has been cultivated in Belgium ever since 1855. Fruit above medium; form rather variable, passing from long-conic and slightly obtuse to ovate, a little swelled; skin rough, fine, dark green; flesh white, semi-fine, breaking or semi-melting, granular around the core; juice sufficient, sugary, aromatic, rather delicate; second; Sept. and Oct. =Governor Carver. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1866. Fruited in 1863 by S. A. Shurtleff from seed. Fruit "Diam. 3 in.; flesh firm and very rich in flavor; keeps perfectly until June or July of following year, and ripens well; fine flavor, and a valuable pear. Turbinate." =Grabenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:159. 1856. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 64, fig. 1913. A German and Austrian pear, common in middle Franconia. Fruit small to medium, turbinate or conic; skin smooth, shining, yellow-green turning yellow, with green marblings, sometimes slightly blushed, dotted; flesh whitish, coarse-grained, breaking, juicy, saccharine, without any perceptible acid; mid-Oct. =Graf Moltke. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1876. =2.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =II=:No. 80, Pl. 80. 1882. Named after A. Von Moltke, a Prime Minister of Denmark, 1850. Fruit rather large, irregular in form although handsome; skin rough, yellowish-green covered with russet; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, very juicy, aromatic; quality variable; a table fruit; Oct. =Grand Bretagne. 1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =1=:83, Tab. II. 1771. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 774. 1869. Origin French or Belgian. Fruit large, obtuse-obovate, greenish-yellow, dotted with brown; flesh fine, juicy, buttery and melting; moderately good; Dec. to Feb. =Grand Isle. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App., 176, fig. 1881. =2.= _Rural N. Y._ =44=:242, figs. 135, 136. 1885. Raised by Benjamin Macomber, Grand Isle, Vt. Tree vigorous, upright, somewhat alternate in bearing. Fruit medium, roundish-oblong, straw color, covered with many small russet dots; stem medium long, rather slender; calyx small, open, in a small basin; flesh whitish, half-fine, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vinous; very good; Sept. and Oct. =Grand-Soliel. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:233, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 588. 1884. Introduced by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., in the early half of the nineteenth century. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, more or less bossed; skin rough to the touch, yellow, almost covered with gray-russet, blushed with red on the side next the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine, rather stringy, melting, vinous, sugary, with a particularly delicate aroma; first; Dec. and Jan. =Grant. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1866. A seedling fruited by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass, in 1862. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform; greenish-yellow; flesh sweet, fine, rich; first; Oct. =Graslin. 1.= _Pom. France_ =3=:No. 106, Pl. 106. 1865. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 775. 1869. A wilding found in the Commune of Flée, Sarthe, Fr.; introduced about 1840. Fruit large, oblate, somewhat irregular, larger on one side than the other, yellow-ochre, dotted and marbled with gray-russet, and stained with large markings of fawn; flesh fine, white, veined with greenish-yellow, very melting, juicy, sugary, acidulous, perfumed, delicate; first; Oct. and Nov. =Grasshoff Leckerbissen. 1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 305. 1881. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 222. 1889. German. Fruit medium, pyriform, often rather ovate, inclined or bent at the head; skin smooth, grass-green changing to yellow-green, thickly dotted, not much russet; flesh yellowish-white, rather gritty around the core, melting, fine, juicy, good flavor; very good for dessert and good for household use; early Oct. =Gratiola. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. "The Gratiola peare is a kinde of Bon Cretien, called the _Cucumber peare_, or _Spinola's peare_." =Graue Herbstrusselet. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:42. 1856. German, Upper Hesse, 1802. Fruit medium, ventriculous, uneven, rough, entirely covered with russet, changing at maturity to dull red on the side next the sun; flesh very juicy, coarsely granular and woody, sugary and musky; first for household purposes; Sept. =Graue Holzbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 110, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown throughout Austria under various names. Fruit medium, globular, diminishing toward the stalk; skin firm, rough, grayish-green turning at maturity to a dirty greenish-yellow, dotted with grayish-brown-russet; flesh yellowish-white, coarse-grained, very juicy, astringent and subacid; mid-Oct. =Graue Honigbirn. 1.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =2=: No. 84, Pl. 84. 1883. German. Published by Oberdieck in 1865. Fruit medium, turbinate; skin thin, rough, yellowish-green or yellow, blushed, and dotted and marked with cinnamon-russet; flesh yellowish-white, fine grained, breaking, tender, semi-melting, sweet, with an aromatic flavor of cinnamon. =Graue Pelzbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 158, fig. 1913. An excellent Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium, turbinate, inclining to pyriform; skin firm, rough, yellow ground when ripe, with cinnamon-brown-russet marking and grayish-brown dots, blushed on the sun-exposed side; flesh whitish, coarse grained, very juicy, subacid, with very little aroma; Oct. =Graue Speckbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:188. 1856. Reported from Germany, 1801. Fruit large, long, broad, conic, yellow, strongly and thickly dotted with gray; calyx small; stem fleshy; flesh granular, somewhat aromatic, sweet; third; Sept. =Graue Zuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:40. 1856. Dutch, 1758. Fruit small, rather oviform, smooth, greenish-yellow, dotted with green; flesh yellowish, semi-breaking, melting, very sweet, vinous, juicy; second for dessert, good for the market; Aug. =Grazbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 184, fig. 1913. Grazbirne is a variety of wild pear well distributed in Lower Austria. Fruit medium, globular, regular in form, green, dotted and heavily marked with russet; flesh subacid, vinous, astringent, wanting in juice; inferior; early Oct. =Great Cassolette. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:32. 1831. There appear to be several varieties of Cassolette three or four of which bear the synonym of _Lechfrion_. The Cassolette is so named from its resemblance to a small vessel made of copper and silver in which pastilles were burnt. Fruit small, globular-turbinate, 2-1/6 inches in height and 2-1/4 inches in breadth, entirely light green even at maturity, dotted all over with numerous green specks; flesh melting, of a very peculiar acid flavor which however, is not disagreeable when the fruit is ripe; Aug. =Great Citron of Bohemia. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 775. 1869. Fruit small, oblong, yellow; flesh sugary, juicy, a little coarse-grained, having little flavor; Sept. =Great Mammoth. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 239, 240. 1869. Grown in pioneer days in Indiana, Illinois, and neighboring states. =Green Chisel. 1.= Langley _Pomona_ 132. 1729. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 588. 1884. _Guenette._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:261, fig. 1869. The origin of this ancient early summer variety is unknown, but it was described by Mawe and Abercrombie in 1778, and was also mentioned by Philip Miller in 1734 as being still "in prime" in July in England. Under the name of _Guenette_ it was described by Merlet in articles written in 1675, and 1690 and appears to have been well known in English and French gardens. Hogg deems Chisel to be a corruption of the French name Choiseul. Fruit small or very small, growing in clusters, globular-turbinate, green or rarely yellowish-green, with sometimes a brownish tinge next the sun, sprinkled with small russet dots; flesh white, slightly green, fine, semi-breaking, sweet, slightly gritty around centre; juice ample in amount, sugary, acid, slightly aromatic; second; Aug. =Green Mountain Boy. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 386. 1859. A native variety. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, or obovate-pyriform, golden yellow, with russety-brown specks; flesh yellowish, melting, juicy, sweet; very good; Oct. =Green Pear of Yair. 1.= _Trans. Lond. Hort. Soc._ =4=:214. 1822. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 776. 1869. _Green Yair._ =3.= Hogg _Fruit. Man._ 589. 1884. An old Scotch pear raised at Yair on the Tweed, Peeblesshire. Fruit below medium, obovate, smooth, dark green changing to yellow, patched and dotted with russet; flesh tender, juicy, sugary; good; Sept. =Grégoire Bordillon. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:237, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 178. 1920. Raised by Leroy in 1855 from seed of Graslin, and fruited for the first time in 1866. Fruit large, ovate, rather larger on one side than the other, pale yellow on shaded side and dark yellow on the exposed cheek, mottled, striped, and dotted with brown; flesh yellowish, fine, very melting, very juicy and sugary; first; Aug. =Grey Good-Wife. 1.= Mawe-Abercrombie _Univ. Gard. Bot._ 1778. Fruit medium, globular, brown-red, moderately tender and of good flavor; Oct. to Dec. =Grise-Bonne. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:245. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:238, fig. 1869. _Französische Gute Graue Sommerbirne._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:16. 1856. The Dutch pomologist Pierre Van den Hoven writing in the middle of the eighteenth century affirmed that the Grise-Bonne was the _Sucrée Grise de Hollandaise_ and the _Pirum Falernum_ of the Romans. It may be noted that in 1586 Jacques Daléchamp thought he had found the _Falernum_ in the French _Autumn Bergamote_; and, again, in 1783 Henri Manger declared it to be still cultivated under the name _Bourdon_, the _Orange Musquée_; similarly Sickler wrote in 1802 that the _Bergamote d'Été_ appeared to him to be the _Falernum_. Fruit medium; form variable, sometimes irregular-turbinate, long and ventriculous, at other times regular-turbinate, clear green, russeted with gray, clouded with pale yellow on the shaded side and covered with large dots of golden or orange-yellow; flesh white, fine, dense, semi-breaking, watery, free from grit; juice very abundant, sugary, acidulous, musky; second; Aug. =Groom Prince Royal. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 54, 161. 1841. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 589. 1884. _Bergamotte Éliza Mathews._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:235, fig. 1867. _Princesse-Royale._ =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:561. 1869. A Mr. Groom, a nurseryman at Clapham near London, introduced this pear in 1841. Fruit medium, globular or Bergamot-shaped, greenish-brown, with a tinge of yellow and slight traces of gray-russet; flesh melting, buttery, sometimes rather gritty, sweet, vinous, perfumed; a good second-rate pear; Jan. to Mar. =Gros Blanquet Long. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:241, fig. 1869. _Large Blanquet._ =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 602. 1884. _Kreiselförmige Blankette._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 244. 1889. This is one of a group of pears which in the seventeenth century were designated by various pomologists with names such as _Blanquet à longue queue_, _Blanquet d'hiver_, etc. Their origin is ancient, possibly Roman. The variety here described is the largest of the Blanquettes and was said by Olivier de Serres in 1600 to be also named _de Florence_ from which it might be adduced that it came originally from Tuscany. Fruit below medium and often small, obtuse-pyriform, smooth, of a beautiful yellow color, dotted with bright green and sometimes carmined on the cheek next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, breaking, sweet, full of sugary juice possessing a musky-anis flavor; a dessert pear, second; July and Aug. =Gros Blanquet Rond. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:242, fig. 1869. An ancient dessert pear mentioned by Claude Saint-Etienne in the seventeenth century and by Mawe and Abercrombie in their _Universal Gardener and Botanist_ in 1778. Fruit below medium, globular-ovate, pale yellow covered with very fine russet dots, more or less washed with rose on the side of the sun; flesh yellow-white, breaking, rather coarse, almost exempt from grit; juice abundant, sugary, sourish, musky; third for dessert; Sept. =Gros-Hativeau. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:245, fig. 1869. This pear has been supposed to belong to a class identified with the _Pira Hordearia_ of Columella and of Pliny, and was mentioned by various French and German writers from the sixteenth century onward; if its origin is not clear it is at any rate one of the three varieties of the pear bearing the name of _Hativeau_ in the seventeenth century, _H. blanc_, or _Bergamotte d'Été_, and the _Petit-H._ being the other two. Fruit below medium, turbinate-obtuse; skin fine, yellowish-green, delicately dotted with olive-gray, washed with bright vermilion on the side next the sun; flesh whitish, coarse, breaking, gritty; juice rarely abundant, sugary, astringent and slightly aromatic; third; end of July. =Gros Loijart. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:126. 1843. Fruit large, irregular-obovate, green and yellow; flesh breaking, tough but neither gritty nor austere; for cooking purposes; Apr. and May. =Gros Lucas. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:246, fig. 1869. The fruit garden of the Horticultural Society of Angers, Fr. was formed in 1832 and the Gros Lucas soon afterwards appeared in its catalog. Fruit large, obtuse-ovate-globular, irregular and much bossed; skin rather thick, yellow, sprinkled with very small dots of green color, stained with patches of russet; flesh white, semi-fine, semi-breaking, spongy, gritty at the center; juice rather deficient, without perfume or much sugar; second, but good for kitchen use; Jan. and Feb. =Gros Muscat Rond. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:248, fig. 1869. Although the origin of this variety is doubtful it is almost certainly French. Diel received it from Holland but German pomologists appear to have regarded it as French. Claude Saint-Etienne described it in 1670. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, mammillate at summit, one side always more convex than the other, grayish-green on the shaded side and pale yellow on that exposed to the sun, dotted and slightly stained with gray-russet; flesh whitish, semi-fine and semi-breaking, watery, rarely very gritty; juice plentiful, very saccharine, acidulous and aromatic; second; Aug. =Gros Rousselet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:250, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 590. 1884. _Roi d'Été._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 843. 1869. Mentioned by Rea as being cultivated in England in 1665 under the name of _Great Russet of Remes_, under which name it was also known in France, there being known these two varieties, the _Gros Rousselet de Rheims_ and the _Petit-Rousselet_. Father Rapin, a French Jesuit, who wrote in 1666 the poem _Hortorum_, mentioned the pears of Rousselet in the Valley of Amiterne at the foot of the Apennines. In 1783 the German pomologist Henri Manger wrote that he believed the French _Rousselet_ was none other than the Roman _Favonianum_ mentioned by Pliny. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, yellowish or bright green changing to bright lemon-yellow, covered with numerous small brown spots, red on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish, semi-melting, semi-breaking, rich in sugary and perfumed juice; variable in quality, requires a warm, sheltered position; Aug. and Sept. =Gros Rousselet d'Aout. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =8=:53, fig. 1860. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 776. 1869. _Rousselet d'Aout._ =3.= _Pom. France_ =2=:No. 83, Pl. 83. 1863. This was one of the first seedlings raised by Van Mons and is 201 in his catalog of 1823. Fruit medium, pyriform, yellow washed with rose-red; flesh fine, melting, juicy, sugary, acidulous, with an agreeable perfume; a very good early fruit, ripening in August in Belgium. =Gros Trouvé. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1876. This seedling was found by Gabriel Everard in a garden at Tournai, Bel. Fruit very large, fusiform, washed with red on the side next the sun; flesh breaking; first for kitchen purposes; keeps until the autumn of the year following. =Grosse Eisbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:188. 1856. Reported in 1802. Fruit medium, onion-shaped; skin very smooth, shining and greasy, yellowish-green changing to light citron-yellow, often somewhat blushed; flesh coarse, solid and dry; third for the table, first for culinary use; Oct. =Grosse Figue. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95, 278. 1876. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, yellow stained with brown; flesh semi-melting, juicy, well perfumed; first; Nov. =Grosse gelbe Weinbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:49. 1856. Nassau, 1805. Fruit below medium, globular, obtuse-conic, often turbinate, light lemon-yellow, dotted with fine brown spots, somewhat russeted; flesh extremely juicy, vinous, mingled sweet and sour; third for dessert, very good for the kitchen. =Grosse-Herbst-Bergamotte. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:169. 1856. Reported in middle Germany, 1806. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, round, yellowish-green, russeted, speckled with gray dots; flesh breaking, firm, white, juicy, sweet; third for dessert, good for household use; Oct. =Grosse Landlbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbiren_ 66, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown throughout Austria. Fruit medium, turbinate, otherwise short-pyriform; skin smooth, shining, yellow when ripe, blushed on the side opposed to the sun, sprinkled with numerous dots of cinnamon-brown; flesh coarse-grained, yellow-white, very juicy, sweet, astringent and without aroma; excellent; Oct. to Dec. =Grosse Leutsbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 112, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, green covered all over with gray-russet; flesh very juicy, astringent, saccharine, with a sourish after-taste; good for transportation; Oct. =Grosse-Louise. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:253, fig. 1869. A chance seedling found in a garden of the town of Tourcoing, Fr. Fruit large, conic-turbinate-obtuse, bossed and generally mammillate at summit, yellow, slightly greenish, dotted all over with russet and having some small brown stains; flesh white, very fine, dense, free from grit; juice very abundant, sugary, sweet, delicately perfumed; first; Sept. =Grosse Mostputzer. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 114, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown throughout Austria. Fruit medium but variable in size, globular, turbinate, otherwise pyriform; skin firm, leaf-green turning bright yellow at maturity, with large russet dots; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, very juicy, subacid and strongly astringent; very good for transportation on account of its prolonged season of maturity; Oct. to Dec. =Grosse Petersbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:168. 1856. Reported in Thuringia, 1804. Fruit medium, obtuse-conic, yellow, blushed, some russet, dotted with green, thin-skinned; flesh sweet, deficient in juice; third for dessert, good for household use, good for the market. =Grosse Poire d'Amande. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:97, fig. 1856. _Grosse Angleterre de Noisette._ =2.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:524. 1860. Belgian. Fruit large, long-conic or obtuse-pyramidal, grayish-green becoming yellow at maturity, slightly bronzed on the side next the sun, speckled all over with numerous brown dots; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, buttery; juice very plentiful, sugary; flesh sweet and tasting strongly of almond; first; Sept. and Oct. =Grosse Poire de Vitrier. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:107. 1831. Fruit large, turbinate, yellow, with red blush, perfumed; Nov. and Dec. =Grosse Queue. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:257, fig. 1869. This variety probably originated about 1653 when Nicolas de Bonnefond named it in his _Jardinier francais_. In 1675, however, Merlet gave a rather complete description of it and a few years later it was admitted by La Quintinye into the orchard of Louis XIV at Versailles. Fruit medium, rather variable, always globular in the lower part, bossed and more or less conic near the summit, a little wrinkled especially on the side next the sun, olive-yellow, finely rayed and dotted with clear green, and washed with carmine on the exposed face; flesh very white, semi-fine, breaking or semi-melting, juice deficient, sweet mingled with sourness, musky; third; Sept. and Oct. =Grosse Rommelter. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1876. A French pear valued for perry making. Fruit medium, globular, green; first for perry; Oct. Tree very vigorous, extraordinarily fertile and succeeding everywhere. =Grosse schöne Jungfernbirne. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 124. 1825. German. Reported 1805. Fruit below medium, ventriculous-pyriform, sides rather unequal; skin extremely smooth, light yellowish-green turning to greenish-yellow, often washed with a slight brownish blush; second for dessert, first for the kitchen; end of Aug. for two weeks. =Grosse September Birne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 226. 1889. _Belle de Septembre._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:211, fig. 1867. An old variety originated in Prussia and cultivated chiefly in the north of Germany and especially in Pomerania. Fruit above medium and sometimes large, oblong or globular-turbinate, generally having unequal sides, pale yellow, stained with fawn, finely dotted with gray and sometimes washed with brown-red on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh greenish, fine, semi-melting, rarely gritty; juice abundant, saccharine, perfumed, delicate but rather astringent; second; end of Sept. =Grosse Sommer-Zitronenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:24. 1856. Reported in Saxony in 1803. Fruit medium, long-turbinate, sides uneven; skin extremely shining, light green changing to lemon-yellow, spotted with gray, rather rust-colored on the side next the sun; flesh coarse, melting, rather yellow in the interior, very aromatic, tender and juicy; first for dessert, household and market; end of Aug. for 14 days. =Grosse Sommersirene. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:49. 1856. Holland, 1804. Fruit small, ventriculous-pyriform, smooth, shining lemon-yellow, without any russet, watery, with a tart sweetness; third for dessert; best for market. =Grosse späte Weinbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:196. 1856. Switzerland. Reported first in 1848. Fruit above medium, ventriculous-turbinate, green-yellow, blushed with a brownish tint, spotted with white, and marked with russet; flesh coarse-grained, very juicy, astringent, vinous and sourish; very good for perry; Oct. =Grosser Roland. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:4. 1856. First reported from Treves, Prussia, in 1801. One of the group of Volema or Pound Pears. Fruit large, bent and uneven in form, light green changing to yellowish, blushed; flesh breaking, aromatic, juicy; first for household use; Sept. =Groveland. 1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:248. 1903. A native variety grown in Alabama and southeastern States. Fruit large, obovate, obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with brownish cheek, washed, netted and speckled nearly all over with russet; flesh creamy-white, tender, buttery, juicy, vinous; good; autumn. =Grubbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 116, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit rather large, irregular in form, diminishing toward the stem almost acutely, yellow-green slightly blushed, dotted and speckled with russet; flesh coarse-grained, juicy, astringent, saccharine and with an agreeable flavor; good for keeping and transporting; Oct. =Grumkow. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:260, fig. 1869. Discovered by M. Koberstein at Rügenwald, Basse-Pomerania, Prussia. Diel, first to describe it, placed its origin at about 1806. Fruit medium, very irregular, long, pyramidal, always obtuse, contorted and much warted, pale green, sprinkled with a few gray specks, more or less colored with brown-red on the sunny side; flesh whitish, fine, breaking, or semi-breaking; juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous, with a musky flavor; second; Oct. to Dec. =Grunbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:10. 1856. A German pound pear. Originated in Württemberg and reported in 1830. Fruit medium, long, sides unequal, dark green, with dark red blush on ripening; flesh greenish-white, breaking, granular, glutinous, juicy, aromatic; first for kitchen; Aug. =Grüne Confesselsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:193. 1856. Thuringia, 1797. Fruit small, obtuse-conic, grass-green changing to yellowish-green, green dots; flesh yellow, firm, insipid; second for table, good for household; May to Aug. =Grüne frühe Gewurzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:32. 1856. Nassau, 1816. Fruit small, turbinate, yellowish grass-green often rather blushed, very fine spotting, thick-skinned; flesh granular, semi-melting, aromatic, musky; second for dessert, good for domestic and market use; early Sept. for 8 days. =Grüne fürstliche Tafelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:135. 1856. Wetterau, 1797. Fruit small, globular, thin-skinned, light green changing to yellowish-green, seldom blushed; flesh white, buttery, melting, juicy, full of flavor; first for table and market; Aug. =Grüne gesegnete Winterbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:174. 1856. Holland, 1802. Fruit medium, globular, light green changing to yellowish-green, dotted with small brown specks; flesh coarse-grained near centre, breaking, juicy, very sweet; good for culinary use; Jan. to Mar. =Grüne langstielige Winterhirtenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:83. 1856. Said to be a Belgian variety, published by Diel in 1802. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, bossed, dark green changing to light green, a rather brownish blush, fine gray dots; flesh greenish-white, buttery, melting; first for table and household; Feb. =Grüne Pfundbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:6. 1856. _Poire Livre Verte._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:11, fig. 102. 1878. A German Rhineland Pound pear, 1826. Fruit very large, regular in form, five inches long by three and a half broad, uniform green turning to yellow-green, covered with dense star-like brown spots; flesh breaking, juicy, aromatic; first for kitchen; Oct. =Grüne Pichelbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 118, fig. 1913. A perry pear extensively grown under a variety of names throughout Austria. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, shining dark green, yellowish when ripe, white dots; flesh coarse-grained, yellow-white turning more yellow on ripening, juicy and astringent; Oct. and Nov. =Grüne Sommer-Bergamote. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:9. 1856. Saxony, 1803. A Volema or Pound pear. Fruit medium, globular, dark green changing to yellowish-green, blushed with streaks of brown; flesh glutinous, juicy, aromatic; first for household; Sept. =Grüne Sommer-Citronenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:156. 1856. Thuringia, 1841. Fruit small, ventriculous, rather variable, shining light green becoming a uniform light greenish-yellow, russeted with gray, specked with gray dots; flesh granular near the centre, melting, acid, sweet, strongly scented with musk; first for table and household. =Grüne Wiedenbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 120, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown throughout Austria. Fruit medium, turbinate, otherwise short-pyriform, irregular; skin smooth, shining green turning greenish-yellow when ripe, with numerous very fine green dots; flesh whitish, coarse, juicy, not particularly firm when ripe, astringent, sourish and saccharine; mid-Oct. for fourteen days. =Grüne Winawitz. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 122, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown under a variety of names in Upper and Lower Austria. Fruit medium, long-ovate, greatest diameter at its center, light green turning yellowish at maturity, covered with russet and green dots; flesh yellowish, coarse and juicy, saccharine, astringent; good for transport; Oct. and Nov. =Grünmostler. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 84, fig. 1913. A perry pear widely distributed in Switzerland and Austria. Fruit fairly large, globular-oblate, ventriculous, one side larger than the other; flesh greenish-white, coarse, juicy, saccharine and acidulous; mid-Oct., for about two weeks. =Gulabi. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 93. 1895. Sent out and recommended as one of the best sorts in the Caucasus by M. Niemetz of Winnitza in the former Government of Polish-Russia. The varieties of the Caucasus are for the most part highly saccharine, rather coarse, and the vegetation very vigorous. =Guntershauser Holzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:196. 1856. Württemberg, Ger., 1848. Fruit medium, turbinate, uniform whitish-green, russet dots; flesh fine-grained, very juicy, vinous, astringent, sweet; good; Oct. =Gustave Bivort. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 776. 1869. French. Fruit medium, globular, pale yellow, with stains and nettings of russet, blushed on side next the sun; flesh white, juicy, semi-melting, sweet, slightly perfumed; good or very good; Aug. =Gustave Bourgogne. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:262, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 776. 1869. Gained by Van Mons at Louvain about 1840. Fruit large or medium, turbinate-ovate, flattened at both poles, whitish-green, speckled with fine fawn dots, some bronze-green on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, almost melting; juice very abundant and sugary, delicately perfumed, refreshing, and agreeable; second for both eating and cooking; Sept. =Gustin Summer. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 575. 1857. =2.= _Ibid._ 776. 1869. Originated in New Jersey. Fruit small, globular, yellow, sweet without much flavor; Sept. =Gute Grüne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 524. 1817. German. Fruit medium, globular, green changing to yellowish, blushed; flesh tender, melting; beginning of Sept. for several weeks. =Habichtsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:146. 1856. Rhineland. Described by Diel in 1804. Fruit very large, 5 in. x 3 in., hook-nosed or like the beak of a bird, crooked, uniformly light green, densely speckled with light brown dots and marked with russet; flesh coarse-grained, semi-melting, breaking; third for table and good for cooking; Nov. and Dec. =Hacon Incomparable. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 20. 1841. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 591. 1884. About the year 1792 a Mrs. Rayner sowed the seeds of a Rayner's Norfolk Seedling at Norfolk, Eng. Subsequently, about 1814, one of the resultant trees was propagated from grafts by a Mr. Hacon of the same place. The hardy and productive tree renders it particularly valuable for climates similar to that of England. The blossoms bear the sharpest frosts without injury but the tree cannot be made to bear until it is eight to ten years old. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, flattened and depressed at both poles, pale yellowish-green, covered with numerous russety spots and markings; flesh yellowish-white, melting, buttery with a rich, vinous, sweet, musky flavor; Nov. to Jan. =Haddington. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:274. 1847. In 1828 J. B. Smith, a farmer near Haddington, Philadelphia, raised this pear from seed of a Pound pear. Fruit above medium, obovate-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with a brownish cheek and minute russet dots and patches; flesh yellowish, juicy, aromatic; texture varies, some being quite melting, others inclined to break; good; Jan. to Apr. =Haffner Butterbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 230. 1889. _Beurré Haffner._ =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 1, 77, fig, 37. 1866-73. A variety found as a chance seedling near Nuremberg, Bavaria, by the Brothers Haffner; first published in 1854 by Biedenfeld. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform, pale yellow, speckled and stained with russet; flesh white, sometimes a little yellow, rather granular but fine, slightly gritty at center, full of sugary, vinous juice, and has a perfume similar to that of the Beurré Gris; good; Oct. =Hagar. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 777. 1869. French, according to Downing. Fruit medium, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, pale yellow, shade of red in sun, some russet; flesh coarse, dry, sweet; poor; Oct. =Haight. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 777. 1869. An American variety. Fruit medium, globular-pyriform, yellow, shaded and mottled with red in the sun, with small brown dots and traces of russet; flesh white, pink at center, a little coarse, breaking, juicy, sweet and pleasant; good; Oct. =Hallische gelbe Honigbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:149. 1856. Saxony. Fruit small, oblate, flattened, sides unequal, yellowish-green changing to light yellow; flesh breaking, coarse-grained, very juicy and sweet; second for dessert, good for kitchen; Sept. =Hamburg. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =14=:12, fig. 2. 1891. Russian. Fruit medium, yellow-green; flesh juicy, perfumed; Sept. =Hamburger Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:5. 1856. A North German Pound pear; published in 1816. Fruit medium, turbinate or conic-obtuse, light green changing to light yellow, with dark russet markings; flesh breaking, juicy, aromatic; first for the kitchen; Oct. =Hamilton. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 777. 1869. Originated in South Carolina, where it is said to be of good quality. Fruit medium, oblate; skin rough, yellowish, some stains and numerous dots of russet; flesh yellowish, coarse, wanting in juice; Nov. =Hammelsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:170. 1856. Thuringia, 1794. Fruit below medium, ovate, yellow-green changing to citron-yellow, numerous small dots, thick-skinned; flesh granular, sweet; third for dessert, not of much value for culinary use. =Hamon. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:264, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 777. 1869. Raised by M. Nérard, a nurseryman at Vaise near Lyons, Fr., from seed sown by him in 1834. Fruit medium, irregular-ovate, often a little bossed, pale green, covered with large fawn dots; flesh slightly greenish, coarse, melting, juicy, sugary, acerb, with an agreeable flavor; second; Aug. =Hampden Bergamot. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 591. 1884. An old variety of uncertain origin and possessing many synonyms. Fruit large, globular, narrowing abruptly to the stalk, even and regular in outline, pale greenish-yellow, with traces of thin russet and greenish dots, sometimes a tinge of brownish-red next the sun; flesh white, rather coarse-grained, buttery, sweet, agreeable; handsome, but hardly more than second class; Sept. =Hampton Bergamot. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 778. 1869. Originated with W. C. Hampton, Mount Victory, Ohio. Fruit small, globular-oblate, yellow, netted and sprinkled with russet and green dots; flesh whitish, coarse, juicy, semi-melting, vinous; good; Sept. =Hampton Cluster. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 778. 1869. Raised by W. C. Hampton, Mount Victory, Ohio. Fruit borne in clusters, very small, globular, greenish-yellow, shaded with dull red on the sun-exposed side, netted with russet; flesh juicy, melting, sweet; very good; Sept. =Hampton Virgalieu. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 388, fig. 1859. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 778. 1869. Originated with W. C. Hampton, Mount Victory, Ohio, from a seed of the White Doyenné. Tree vigorous, hardy and productive. Fruit medium, globular, or slightly obtuse-pyriform, yellowish-green at maturity, with many russet dots and marblings of russet, the latter becoming reddish-brown in the sun; flesh white, buttery, juicy, rich, vinous, brisk; core small; very good; Oct. and Nov. =Hancock. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1866. A seedling fruited by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., in 1861. Fruit 4-1/2 in. long, 3 in. wide, obovate, light green; flesh breaking and juicy, a great bearer, and an excellent cooking pear, always sells readily; Sept. =Hangelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:145. 1856. Holstein, published 1788. Fruit large, long-gourd-shaped, yellow-green, yellow on the sunny side; flesh breaking, coarse-grained, fairly juicy, sweet; third for dessert, good for kitchen; Nov. to Apr. =Hannover'sche Jakobsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:172. 1856. =2.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =II=:No. 27, Pl. 27. 1882. Hanover, Prussia, 1851. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, dull grass-green changing to yellow, with a brownish blush, dotted with green on the yellow and with bright yellow on the flush; flesh whitish, fine, sweet, becoming mealy when over ripe; third for dessert, good for culinary use and market; July. =Hannover'sche Margarethenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:40. 1856. Hanover, Prussia, 1851. Fruit medium, turbinate, light green turning to light yellow; flesh yellowish-white, breaking, soon becoming mealy when ripe; second for table, good for kitchen use; end of July for 2 weeks. =Hanover. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 779. 1869. From Hanover Furnace, N. J. Fruit below medium, globular-obovate, green, with dull green-russet markings, and a brown cheek; flesh greenish-yellow, exceedingly melting and juicy; flavor pleasant, good; Oct. =Hardenpont frühe Colmar. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:100. 1856. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 96, 280. 1876. This is not the _Passe Colmar_ of Hardenpont, although regarded as such by Dochnahl. It ripens in August and September whereas Passe Colmar is in season during November and December. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, a beautiful uniform yellow; flesh fine-grained, musky; Aug. and Sept. =Harigelsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:172. 1856. Württemberg, 1830. Fruit medium, obtuse-conic, light green changing to golden yellow, with a dark blush; flesh rather astringent, sweet, breaking, aromatic; third for table, not of much account for cooking; Oct. =Harnard. 1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 11. 1877. Shown before the New Jersey State Horticultural Society in 1877. Said to be "a seedling from the farm of John Harnard, Springfield," N. J., and to have originated about 30 years previously. A cooking pear, valued for its regular and abundant bearing and keeping qualities. =Harris= (Georgia). =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 779. 1869. Disseminated from Georgia. Fruit medium, obovate-obtuse to obovate-acute-pyriform, pale yellow, deep red in the sun, many green and brown dots; flesh whitish, buttery, not juicy, sweet; good; Sept. =Harris= (Massachusetts). =1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 153. 1874. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 2nd App., 149, fig. 1872. Raised by Lemuel Clapp, Dorchester, Mass., from Urbaniste crossed with Beurré Bosc. Fruit above medium, ovate-pyriform, resembling Beurré Hardy; stem medium long; flesh yellowish-white, fine grained, very tender, melting, juicy, rich, vinous, spirited, aromatic; very good to best; Oct. =Harrison Large Fall. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 575. 1857. _Rushmore._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:608, fig. 1869. A fine old baking pear of American origin. Fruit large, irregular, inclined, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, pale yellow with a red cheek; Aug. to Oct. =Hartberger Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 14, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown in Hungary and Austria. Fruit medium, globular and irregular, somewhat acute toward the stalk, dark green turning to yellow-green, finely dotted and much covered with russet; flesh greenish-white, abnormally large core and seeds, firm and juicy; Oct. =Harte Neapolitanerin. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:192. 1856. Although cultivated mainly at Naples, Italy, in the middle of the last century and called the pear of Naples, it appears to have been first published in France in 1802. Fruit medium, turbinate, medium ventriculous, light green changing to lemon-yellow, blushed; flesh firm, sweetish, aromatic; very good for culinary uses; Jan. to summer. =Harvard. 1.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:457. 1855. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 779. 1869. _Belle de Flushing._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:201, fig. 1867. Originated at Cambridge, Mass. In 1851 it was taken from America to France without a label by Parsons, a nurseryman at Flushing, N. Y., and was named _Belle de Flushing_ by Leroy. Fruit rather large, oblong-pyriform, russety olive-yellow, with a brownish-red cheek; in France it seems to develop a vivid red on the side exposed to the sun, finely dotted with fawn; flesh white, semi-fine, tender, melting, slightly gritty; juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous and agreeably musky; second; a fine commercial variety; Aug. and Sept. =Harvest. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 779. 1869. An American variety. Fruit below medium, globular, pale yellow, tinged with brown-red on exposed side, brown and green dots; flesh whitish, not very juicy or melting, but sweet, pleasant; good; July. =Hassler. 1.= Cal. Com. Hort. _Pear Grow. Cal._ =7=:No. 5, 260, figs. 52, 53. 1918. Originated as a chance seedling with J. E. Hassler, Placerville, Cal. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with russet dots; calyx open: basin large, deep, irregular; stem heavy, medium long, inclined in a deep cavity; flesh, fine, juicy, buttery, pleasant; very good; Feb. and Mar. =Hausemerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:194. 1856. German, published 1847. Fruit medium, turbinate-obtuse, light green changing to whitish-yellow, blushed, with brown spots; flesh firm, somewhat aromatic; good for kitchen use; Dec. to Mar. =Hautmonté. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:266, fig. 1869. Origin unknown but was propagated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society of Angers in 1840. Fruit medium, long-turbinate, yellowish-green spotted with russet and washed with rose-carmine on the side next the sun; flesh whitish, coarse, breaking, juicy, gritty at center; second for dessert, first for stewing; Feb. to Apr. =Hawaii. 1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 84. 1880. =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:482. 1913. A Japanese pear; date of introduction unknown. Fruit medium, apple-shaped, light lemon-yellow, with rough, russet dots; flesh hard, gritty, wanting in flavor, subacid; Oct. =Hawes Winter. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 506. 1857. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 389. 1859. Originated on the farm of the Hawes family in King and Queen County, Virginia. Fruit large, globular, slightly flattened, dull yellow at maturity, with russet spots; flesh a little coarse, very juicy, rich, sweet, vinous; Nov. to Jan. =Hawkesbill. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The Hawkes bill peare is of a middle size, somewhat like unto the Rowling pears." =Hays. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1844. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 238. 1854. Exhibited, from the Pomological Garden, Salem, Mass., at the sixteenth annual meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, September, 1844. Placed on the rejected list of the American Pomological Society in 1854. =Heathcot. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =12=:438, fig. 33. 1846. Raised in 1812 on the estate of Governor Gore in Waltham, Mass. Fruit medium, obovate, greenish-yellow becoming lemon-yellow, very few dots and a few russet streaks, slightly browned on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, fine, very melting, buttery and juicy; in flavor it is rich, sprightly, juicy and excellent, with little perfume; Oct. =Hebe. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =21=:198, fig. 84. 1866. Raised by William Sumner of Pomaria, S. C. Fruit large; specimens have often weighed 28 ounces, 6 of fair size of this pear generally weigh 8 lbs., globular, obovate, with irregular protuberances, lemon-yellow inclined to greenish, dotted with russet specks and blotches; flesh melting, sprightly, buttery, slightly vinous, has no matured seeds, and seldom forms seeds at all; Dec. in South Carolina. =Hedwig von der Osten. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 231. 1889. _Hedwige d'Osten_. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3:=173, fig. 183. 1878. Herr Schmidt, Blumberg, received this variety from Van Mons under Number 51 and dedicated it to the daughter of a zealous pomologist of his country. Fruit rather large, long-pyriform, rather deformed in contour, water-green changing to dull pale yellow, usually rather golden on the face next the sun; flesh whitish, fine, buttery, very melting, very juicy and delicately perfumed; good for amateurs; Sept. and Oct. =Hegeman. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 780. 1869. _Hagerman._ =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 275. 1867. Originated on the farm of Andrew Hegeman, North Hempstead, Long Island. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, rather variable in form and color, greenish-yellow, netted and dotted with russet; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet; good to very good; Sept. =Heilige Angelika-Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:108. 1856. Coblenz, 1792; published by Diel, 1806. Fruit rather large, obtuse-conic, with unequal sides, pale green changing to light yellowish-green, dotted with rusty gray, and rather russeted on the side touched by the sun; flesh whitish, with light green veinings, fine-grained, buttery; first for dessert and household use; Nov. and Dec. =Hélène Grégoire. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:79, fig. 1856. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:270, fig. 1869. Xavier Grégoire, a tanner at Jodoigne, Bel., obtained this pear in 1840 from a bed of the seeds of the pear Pastorale. Fruit large or very large, ovate, inclined to be contorted at times, smooth, shining, dotted and veined with russet, stained with the same around the stem and calyx; flesh white, fine, melting, semi-buttery, green under the skin, free from grit, full of sweet juice, delicate and possessed of an exquisite buttery flavor; first; early Oct. =Hellmann Melonenbirn. 1.= Koch _Deut. Obst._ 481. 1876. =2.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =II=:No. 39, Pl. 39. 1882. German; first published in 1860. Fruit large, globular-obtuse, very variable; skin thick, dark green becoming citron-yellow at maturity, large russet dots, slightly washed with red on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, melting, agreeably sweet and vinous, very juicy and having a muscatel flavor; Nov. and Dec. =Hemminway. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:143. 1908. _Madame Hemminway._ =2.= Ellwanger & Barry _Cat._ 18. 1900. Introduced by Ellwanger and Barry. American. Fruit large, obovate-blunt-pyriform, green turning yellow, russeted; stem long, thick, in a small, narrow cavity; flesh yellowish, melting, sweet, juicy; good; Oct. =Henkel. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:61, fig. 5. 1847. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 781, fig. 1869. _Henkel d'Automne._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:272, fig. 1869. Van Mons raised this pear before 1834 and in 1835 or 1836 it was introduced at Boston by Kenrick and Manning. This is the _Cumberland_ of the Belgians. Fruit rather large, broad-obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, netted and patched with russet, sprinkled with green and brown dots; stem rather stout, inclined, inserted by a ring or lip; calyx partially open; flesh whitish, juicy, melting, rich, slightly vinous; very good to best; Sept. =Henri Bivort. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:462. 1854. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:273, fig. 1869. _Poire Henri._ =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:137, fig. 67. 1866-73. Issued from the last seed beds made at Louvain by Van Mons and bought in 1844 by Bivort who transplanted the seedlings to Geest-Saint-Rémy near Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit large or above medium, obtuse-pyramidal, smooth, olive-yellow, dotted with brown, striped and mottled with greenish russet; flesh yellowish-white, fine, semi-buttery, rather melting, rarely very gritty, juice plentiful, sweet, acid, aromatic and delicate; first; end of Aug. =Henri Bouet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:274, fig. 1869. Obtained in 1861 by Henri Bouet, a nurseryman at Fougereuse, Deux-Sèvres, Fr., from Duchesse d'Angoulême fertilized by Jargonelle (French). Fruit large, turbinate-ovate, bossed, mammillate at crown and generally somewhat contorted, pale yellow, dotted and striated with fawn, spotted with greenish-russet around stalk; flesh very white and fine, melting, gritty around the core, extremely juicy, sugary, perfumed, acidulous and possessing a delicious flavor; first; Oct. and Nov. =Henri de Bourbon. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 232. 1889. =2.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:64. 1908. Published in Germany in 1881. In Experimental Orchard at Agassiz, B. C., 1900. Fruit medium, pyriform, green changing to yellow, some brown; flesh juicy, melting, sweet; good to very good; mid-season. =Henri Capron. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:275, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 592. 1884. Stated by Baron Biedenfeld in 1854 to have issued from a seed bed of Van Mons, it was propagated by the Horticultural Society of Angers in 1848. Fruit medium, long-ovate-acute passing at the top into the stem; skin rough to the touch, gray-green, clouded with dark yellow and dotted with russet; flesh white, semi-fine, melting or semi-melting, inclined to decay before falling, very juicy, sugary, aromatic, often rather astringent; variable in quality; Sept. =Henri Decaisne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1876. =2.= _Le Bon Jard._ 362. 1882. On trial with Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit large, pyriform, greenish-yellow, handsomely washed with vermilion at maturity; flesh melting, and of agreeable flavor; first; Sept. and Oct. =Henri Desportes. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:276, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 782. 1869. Raised by Leroy, Angers, Fr., it fruited first in 1862. Fruit large or below, turbinate-obtuse, ventriculous, strongly bossed, generally irregular and much less curved on one side than the other; skin thick, orange-yellow dotted with gray-russet, slightly vermilioned on the side next the sun; flesh white, fine, very melting; juice abundant, vinous, sugary; first; Aug. =Henri Grégoire. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1876. =2.= _Ibid._ 93. 1895. On trial with Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1876, and in 1895 and was "very much recommended" by the firm in both of those years. Fruit medium; first; Nov. and Dec. =Henri Ledocte. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1876. One of M. Grégoire's seedlings. Fruit medium size; flesh melting; first; Dec. and Jan. =Henri Quatre. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =12=:173, fig. 6. 1846. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:277, fig. 1869. _Henry the Fourth._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 782. 1869. On the authority of Diel it appears that this pear was originated by M. de Witzthumb before 1815, and was afterward described by the Vicomte Vilain XIV, mayor of Ghent under Napoleon I. Fruit below medium, obtuse-pyriform, rather variable, often contorted and always has one side larger than the other, greenish-white, becoming deep lemon-yellow as it reaches maturity, much covered with fine cinnamon-russet on which are small greenish dots; flesh yellowish, coarse or semi-fine, breaking, gritty at center, very rich, sweet, juicy and with an aromatic flavor; good; Oct. =Henrietta. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =4=:231. 1838. =2.= _Ibid._ 487, fig. 42. 1847. A seedling of Governor Edwards, New Haven, Conn. Fruit a medium-sized and pretty pear, obovate, inclining to oval, tapering towards each end and rather obtuse at the stem; skin fair, smooth, dull yellow, tinged with red in the sun; flesh white, rather coarse, melting, juicy; good; Sept. =Henriette. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:37, fig. 1858. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 593. 1884. Raised from seed by Simon Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel., and produced its first fruit in 1825. Fruit small or medium, globular-turbinate; skin rough, almost entirely washed with russet, colored and stained with red-brown, carmined on the side next the sun; flesh white, rather fine, melting, full of sugary juice, of an agreeable perfume. =Henriette Van Cauwenberghe. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:171, fig. 86. 1872. From Lievin Van Cauwenburghe, a business man at Audenarde, Bel., where it bore fruit for the first time about 1827. Fruit medium or nearly large, pyriform-ovate, globular, a little bossed; skin rather thick and firm, pale water-green and whitish, dotted with gray-brown specks; at maturity it becomes dull or orange-yellow and golden on the side of the sun; flesh white, fine, melting, abounding in sweet juice, vinous and pleasantly perfumed; good; Oct. =Henry= (Connecticut). =1.= _Cultivator_ N. S. =2=:175, fig. 7. 1845. A seedling raised by the Hon. H. W. Edwards, Governor of Connecticut and described by him to the Pomological Society of New Haven in 1845. Fruit small, turbinate, green turning to yellow, with a coppery blush; flesh juicy, melting and exceedingly rich and sweet, not surpassed by any in richness; Sept. =Henry= (Illinois). =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 302. 1895. =2.= _Phoenix Nurs. Cat._ 13. 1906. Originated from French pear seed planted in 1871 by Henry C. Henry, Effingham County, Ill. Said to be a hardy and long-keeping pear of good quality. Fruit large, resembling Bartlett in shape and flavor. =Herbelin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1876. Fruit medium, having the appearance of Bartlett; flesh fine, a little dense, very sugary; Sept. =Herbin. 1.= _Guide Prat._. 96. 1876. =2.= Baltet _Trait. Cult. Fr._ 360. 1908. A French winter pear cultivated particularly at Saint-Erme, Department Aisne. Fruit medium, long, red; first; Feb. and Mar. =Herborner Schmalzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:189. 1856. Nassau, Bel. Published by Diel in 1806. Fruit medium, nearly pyriform; skin smooth, with fine scales, light yellow turning to citron-yellow, without russet; flesh granular, gritty, sweet and acid; good for kitchen use; Sept. =Herbst-Citronenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:156. 1856. Thuringia, published in 1810. Fruit small, globular, yellow-green changing to citron-yellow, dotted with green, lightly blushed; flesh yellowish-white, breaking, acidulous, sweet; second for dessert, first for culinary use; Sept. and Oct. =Herbst-Klöppelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:159. 1856. A seedling of Van Mons, 1852. Fruit small, turbinate-ventriculous, sides unequal, green turning to yellowish, blushed on the sunny side with brown; flesh yellowish-white, fine, semi-melting; second for the table, first for the kitchen; Sept. and Oct. =Herbsteierbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:190. 1856. Thuringia and Saxony; earliest report 1801. Fruit small, somewhat swelled, green-yellow, dotted with dark green, often strongly blushed with brown, with yellow dots; flesh greenish-white, sweet; third for the table, very good for kitchen use; Sept. =Herbstlanger. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 36, fig. 1913. A perry pear growing in the Voralberg and in Switzerland. Fruit large, long-pyriform, almost like Calebasse in form, greenish-yellow changing to lemon-yellow, finely dotted; flesh yellow-white, juicy, saccharine, with a slightly aromatic flavor; Sept. =Héricart. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:87. 1842. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 783. 1869. Cions of this variety were received in 1834 and 1835 by Manning and Kenrick from Van Mons of Belgium. It was placed on the list of rejected fruits by the American Pomological Society in 1854. Tree vigorous and productive. Fruit medium, obovate, often rather oblong, yellow, russety; stem medium long, rather slender, set in a small cavity; basin shallow; flesh white, fine-grained, buttery, not rich, peculiarly aromatic, gritty, slightly astringent; good; Sept. =Héricart de Thury. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:102. 1853. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 783. 1869. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:281, fig. 1869. _Thury Schmalzbirne._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:66. 1856. Raised from seed by Van Mons and dedicated to M. Héricart de Thury, president of the Society of Horticulture of France. Tree a good grower, rather pyramidal, neither an early nor a profuse bearer. Fruit medium or above, obtuse-ovate-pyriform, yellow, thinly shaded with red in the sun, slightly netted, thickly sprinkled with russet dots; stem long, rather slender, curved, set in a small cavity; calyx closed, set in a small, uneven, basin; flesh white, not very juicy, slightly astringent; good; Nov. and Dec. =Herkimer. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 783. 1869. Originated on the farm of S. Earl, Herkimer, New York, previous to 1869. Fruit medium to large, globular-oblate, pale greenish-yellow, clouded with dull red in the sun; flesh white, rather coarse-grained at center, juicy, sweet, melting and agreeable; good; Sept. and Oct. =Herr Late Winter. 1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 117. 1880. Described as a new fruit in 1879 by Barry. It was raised by A. G. Herr of Louisville, Ky. Fruit medium to large, good in quality and a long keeper, sometimes until May and June of the following year. =Hert. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =1=:145, fig. 71. 1866-73. From Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, near London, Eng. Fruit medium or nearly medium, ovate-pyriform; skin thick, firm, very pale green, sprinkled with gray-brown dots, citron-yellow when ripe and often golden on the side of the sun; flesh white, fine, semi-melting, sufficient juice which is sugary, refreshing, agreeable; good, for the season; end of winter and spring. =Hessenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:146, 1856. German; Hesse, 1815. Fruit medium and above, curved, thin-skinned, greenish-yellow changing to yellow, with a vivid blush, often mottled with yellowish-brown; flesh sweet, juicy, becoming mealy; second for dessert, first for kitchen; Sept. and Oct. =Hessle. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 593. 1884. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 180. 1920. Hessle is an old English pear, and takes its name from the village of Hessle in Yorkshire where it was first discovered. Fruit rather small, turbinate, greenish-yellow, much covered with large russety dots, giving it a freckled appearance; flesh nearly white, tender, with an agreeable, aromatic juice; a good market-garden pear; Oct. =Hewes. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:269. 1854. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 93. 1852. Raised at Brandywine, Del., from seed of the White Doyenné which it much resembles though smaller. In 1852 it was in possession of Aaron Hewes and was said then to have been in bearing about 28 years. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, yellow; Sept. =Heyer Zuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:55. 1856. _Sucrée d'Heyer._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:85, fig. 235. 1879. A Van Mons seedling sent in 1838 to his friend Herr Heyer, a grafter at Luneburg, Hanover, Ger. Fruit medium, long-turbinate, sides unequal, slightly bossed, light green turning to yellow, often flushed with vermilion, speckled with russet; second for the table, first for kitchen; Sept. =Hilda. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. Distributed by Daras de Naghin of Antwerp, Bel. Fruit resembles Joséphine de Malines; flesh yellowish-white tinted with green near the stalk, melting, very juicy, having the flavor of the Beurré Gris; Nov. and Dec. =Hildegard. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:172, 1856. A seedling of Van Mons; published in 1852. Fruit medium, turbinate-ventriculous, light green turning yellow, washed with brown, sometimes rusty red on the side of the sun; flesh fine, free from grit, very sweet; very good for general household use; all winter to April. =Hildesheimer Bergamotte. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 132. 1825. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 1, 13, fig. 5. 1866-73. _Bergamote d'Hildesheim._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:242, fig. 1867. Central Germany, 1825. Fruit medium, oblate, medium-ventriculous, sides unequal, light green turning to citron-yellow, without any red blush but a good deal russeted: flesh melting, very juicy; a good dessert pear; end of Sept. for 2 weeks. =Hildesheimer Späte Sommerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:189. 1856. A seedling of Cludius, Hildesheim, Ger., 1821. Fruit medium, pyriform-ventriculous, sides unequal, yellowish-green, washed with rusty russet on the side of the sun; flesh rosaceous, spongy, sweet, wanting in flavor; third for table, first for culinary use; Sept. =Hildesheimer Winterbirn. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 496. 1817. German. Fruit medium, Bergamot-shaped, of excellent flavor; Nov. to Mar. =Hingham. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 783. 1869. Originated in Hingham, Mass. Fruit medium, obovate-acute-pyriform, pale yellow, tinged with red on the side next the sun, freely dotted with brown specks; flesh whitish, melting, juicy, vinous; good; Oct. =Hirschbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 16, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear, raised from a wilding in Styria. Fruit one of the larger perry or wine pears, globular and Bergamot in form, greenish-yellow, brownish-red flush on the side opposed to the sun, brown dots; flesh yellow-white, fairly firm, juicy; good; Oct. =Hirsenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:36. 1856. Middle Rhineland, Germany, 1802. Fruit small, pyriform, rounded at the top, sides unequal, light green turning yellowish, often rather brown-blushed, some russet markings; flesh fine-grained, very juicy; second for the table, first for the kitchen; Aug. =Hitzendorfer Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 86, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit large, globular, somewhat like Bergamot in form, light green, blushed with a beautiful brown-red on the cheek next the sun, tender, dotted; flesh greenish-white, firm and very juicy; end of Sept. for two weeks. =Hoe Langer Hoe Liever. 1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =1=:93, Tab. III. 1771. Dutch. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, somewhat ventriculated toward the lower end, often rather deformed, pale green or yellowish-white; flesh fine, gritty, juicy, agreeable, savory, when eaten exactly at the right time, otherwise it is insipid; Sept. and Oct. =Hofsta. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:145. 1908. Sweden. C. Gibb called it a fine culinary variety. Fruit medium, pyriform; good; mid-season. =Holland Green. 1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 190, fig. 26. 1817. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 137. 1832. An old variety described by William Coxe in 1817, and stated by him to have been imported from Holland by William Clifton of Philadelphia. It was sometimes called the _Holland Table_ pear. Fruit rather large, irregular or turbinate in form, green, with numerous indistinct spots and small cloudings of russet; flesh melting, sprightly, greenish-white and juicy; thought much of at the beginning of the nineteenth century, but considered by Manning to be worthless in this country. Was discarded by the London Horticultural Society before 1837; Sept. and Oct. =Holländische Butterbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:136. 1856. North Germany, 1804, at Bremen. Fruit medium or below, sides unequal, light yellow changing to golden-yellow at maturity, blushed with cinnamon on the sunny side and speckled with brown dots; flesh white, melting, buttery, juicy and full of flavor; first for dessert; Sept. and Oct. =Holländische Gewürzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:14. 1856. Holland, 1849. Fruit medium, ventriculous-turbinate, covered with rough russet; flesh semi-melting, very juicy and aromatic; second for the table, very good for cooking; end of Sept. =Holländische Zuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:33. 1856. Possibly of Dutch origin but reported in Thuringia, 1799. Fruit small, globular but variable, light yellow, blushed and dotted with yellowish specks becoming greenish at maturity, thin-skinned; flesh breaking, musky, aromatic; third for dessert, first for kitchen; Aug. =Holmer. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 594. 1884. A well-known perry pear in Herefordshire, Eng. Fruit very small, globular-turbinate, even and regular in outline, dull greenish-yellow when ripe, and thickly covered with russet dots, so as to form a kind of crust on the surface; flesh yellowish, firm, crisp, and very astringent. =Homestead. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 2nd App., 150. 1876. Raised by Asahel Foote, Williamstown, Mass., from seed of White Doyenné. Fruit medium or above, oblong-obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, often pale yellow when fully matured, sometimes a shade of brownish-red where exposed, slightly netted and patched with russet and many russet dots; flesh whitish, rather coarse around the core, semi-fine, melting, sweet, juicy, slightly vinous and aromatic; Nov. and Dec. =Honey. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:216. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 784. 1869. _Deux Fois L'An._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:20, fig. 1869. Although known in this country as Honey, its original European name is _Deux Fois l'An_, or Two Times a Year, on account of its flowering twice in the season, the second crop ripening in September or October. It is of ancient and uncertain origin, but Le Lectier at Orléans possessed it in his immense orchard in 1598, and Merlet described it in 1675. Fruit medium or below, globular-pyriform, rarely very obtuse, generally much swelled in the lower part, diminishing abruptly toward the stem, rather bright greenish-yellow, stained and dotted with gray chiefly on the side exposed to the sun where it is also rayed and washed with carmine; flesh yellowish, coarse, semi-breaking, granular around the core; juice sufficient, sugary and possessing a pleasant, musky flavor; Aug. =Honey= (Russia). =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 21. 1887. =2.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:146. 1908. Introduced from Russia in 1879 under the Russian name _Gliva Medovaya_. Fruit small, globular-pyriform, yellow, blushed red; flesh coarse, juicy, sweet; mid-season. =Honey Dew. 1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 55. 1921. Originated by Mr. Raabe of Illinois and introduced by Stark Bros. in 1921. Fruit large, roundish, golden-yellow, almost covered with rich russet; flesh tender, crisp, very juicy, sweet; early fall. =Honigbergamotte. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:78. 1856. Nassau, 1833. Fruit medium, globular, symmetrical; skin smooth, uniformly greenish-yellow, brownish-red on the side next the sun; flesh semi-melting, aromatic; second for dessert; first for general culinary uses; Sept. =Honnelbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 38, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown in Lower Austria. Fruit fairly large, long-pyriform; skin rather smooth and shining, greenish-yellow changing to yellow; flesh whitish, coarse-grained, very juicy, saccharine, rather astringent and feebly aromatic; Oct. =Hoosic. 1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 116. 1880. =2.= Ont. Dept. Ag. _Fr. Ont._ 166. 1914. Raised by A. Foote, Williamstown, Mass., from seed of Hacon Incomparable, and distributed by him about 1870. Fruit large to very large, obtuse-pyriform, somewhat one-sided, yellow, with russet dots and light red blush in the sun; flesh fine, white, tender, moderately juicy, with a rich almond flavor; quality ranking as "best" for all purposes; first class for near market; Oct. =Hopfenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:190. 1856. Hesse, Germany, 1801. Fruit small, obtuse-conic; skin smooth, pale yellow, blushed with a dark glow; flesh rosy, fine, acid, juicy; third for the table, first for kitchen; end of Aug. =Hosenschenk. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =8=:458. 1853. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 784. 1869. Raised from seed about the year 1803 by John Schenk, Weaver Township, Pa. Fruit medium, roundish-oblate, light yellowish-green, rarely blushed; flesh rather coarse, tender, juicy, melting, slightly vinous, with a mild and pleasant flavor; first; end of Aug. =Housatonic. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 2nd App., 151. 1876. Originated in the garden of John J. Howe, Birmingham, Conn. Fruit rather large, globular-pyriform; surface uneven, greenish-yellow, with many green and brown dots; flesh white, semi-fine, juicy, melting, rich, vinous; Nov. =Houser. 1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 38. 1896. A native pear reported to the Missouri State Horticultural Society in 1896. =Hovey. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:284, figs. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 784. 1869. Propagated by André Leroy in 1853 and dedicated by him to the American pomologist Hovey. Fruit medium or above, conic-pyriform or turbinate-obtuse-pyriform, variable but always very long; skin fine and very smooth, bright yellow, finely dotted with gray and stained with patches of russet; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine, melting, watery and slightly granular; juice abundant, sugary, acidulous, and possessing a musky perfume; first; Nov. =Howard. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 785. 1869. Disseminated by D. W. Coit, Norwich, Conn. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, pale yellow, with patches of russet and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet, rich, slightly perfumed, pleasant; very good; Sept. =Howe Winter. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 273. 1858. Said to have originated in Virginia. Fruit large, globular, yellow-russeted; good; late. =Hubert Grégoire. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. In the trial orchards of Simon-Louis Bros. at Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit rather large; first; Jan. =Huffcap. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 415. 1831. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:209. 1832. Of several varieties of the Huffcap perry pears such as the Brown, Red, and Yellow, growing in Herefordshire, Eng., this is the best. Fruit middle sized, ovate, pale green marked with gray russet. =Hüffel Bratbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:3. 1856. Upper Hesse, Prussia, 1819. A variety of the Volema class. Fruit large, broad-turbinate, with unequal sides, light green turning to yellowish, often faintly blushed, numerous russet spots; flesh aromatic, breaking, juicy; first for household use; Dec. to Apr. =Huggard. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:147. 1908. Originated at Whitby, Ontario, Can., from Beurré Clairgeau crossed with Beurré d'Anjou. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, yellow with red blush; flesh sweet, juicy, good; medium late. =Huguenot. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 394. 1845. Originated by a Mr. Johonnot of Salem, Mass. Rejected by the American Pomologica. Society, October, 1850. Fruit medium, globular, smooth, pale yellow, sprinkled with large spots of bright red; flesh white, fine-grained, semi-breaking, sweet but wanting in flavor and juice; poor; Oct. =Huhle de Printemps. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:159, fig. 368. 1880. This pear was received in France by M. Papeleu from M. Hartwiss, director of the Imperial Gardens at Nikita, Southern Russia, about 1860. Fruit medium, cylindrical-ovate, rather in form like a small cask or keg, even in contour; skin thick, firm, more or less intense green, dotted with brownish-gray specks, very small and numerous and mingled with small strokes of russet over nearly all the surface; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, semi-breaking, rather gritty near the core, sufficiently juicy, with a refreshing and agreeable flavor; cooking; end of winter. =Hull. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:432. 1843. =2.= _Ibid._ =10=:211. 1844. The original tree was found in Swansey, Mass., about 1815. Fruit medium, obovate, yellowish-green, russeted, some dull red on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, melting, juicy, gritty at core, pleasantly perfumed; good to very good; Oct. =Hungerford Oswego. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 786. 1869. From Oswego, N. Y. Fruit medium, globular, yellow, with brown dots; flesh white, buttery, melting, juicy, gritty, sweet; good; Oct. =Hunt Connecticut. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =12=:305. 1846. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 575. 1857. An American cooking pear. Rejected by the American Pomological Society in 1854. Fruit medium, oblate, yellowish-green, coarse, dry, and sweet. =Huntington. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =23=:111, fig. 4. 1857. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:155, fig. 76. 1866-73. A wilding found by James Huntington, New Rochelle, N. Y. In 1857 it was considered to be 20 or 30 years old. Fruit under medium, globular-obovate, yellow, with numerous russet dots and sometimes a red cheek; flesh fine texture, buttery, slightly vinous, with a delicate aroma; very good; Sept. =Hurbain d'Hiver. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 594. 1884. Fruit small, Bergamot-shaped, even and handsome in outline, fine golden yellow in the shade, strewed and mottled with patches of thin cinnamon-colored russet, with a patch of russet around the stalk, washed with bright red on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish, melting, rather coarse, juicy, sweet, without much perfume; second; Nov. =Hussein Armudi. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 594. 1884. An oriental pear, published in 1832. Fruit below medium, obovate, smooth, bright green at first changing to greenish-yellow, strewed with russety dots of brown and some traces of russet; flesh whitish, gritty at core, tender, melting, very juicy, with a rich, vinous, sweet flavor; first for table; Sept. =Hutcherson. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:148. 1908. Reported in the experimental orchard at Agassiz, B. C., in 1900. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow; flesh melting, juicy, sweet; mid-season. =Huyshe Prince Consort. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ =12=:89, fig. 1867. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 180. 1920. Fruited in 1864 by the Rev. John Huyshe of Cullompton, Devon, Eng., from Beurré d'Arenberg fertilized by Passe Colmar. Fruit very large, oblong, uneven and bossed in outline, grass-green becoming sometimes yellowish-green, thickly covered with large russet dots; flesh yellow, with a greenish tinge, melting, rather crisp, very juicy, sweet, vinous, with a very powerful and peculiar flavor unlike any other pear; a first quality, delicious fruit; Nov. =Huyshe Prince of Wales. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 51. 1864. =2.= _Jour. Hort._ =1=:392, fig. 72. 1880. _Huyshe Bergamot._ =3.= _Gard. Chron._ =4=:836, fig. 1. 1857. =4.= _Mag. Hort._ =24=:276. 1858. Of the same origin as Huyshe Victoria. First fruited in 1856 and named _Huyshe Bergamot_ but later changed to Huyshe Prince of Wales. Fruit large, globular-oval, even in outline, lemon-yellow covered with a finely reticulated cinnamon-colored russet; flesh yellowish-white, tender, melting, juicy and richly flavored; first; end of Nov. to Jan. =Huyshe Princess of Wales. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 8. 1863. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 180. 1920. This pear, first fruited in 1863, is of the same origin as Huyshe Victoria. Fruit medium, oblong, even in outline, abrupt at the stalk, lemon-yellow sprinkled with patches, veins and dots of pale cinnamon-russet; flesh of a deep yellow, fine, very melting, abundantly juicy, richly flavored and highly aromatic; very excellent; Nov. =Huyshe Victoria. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ =4=:76. 1863. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 181. 1920. _Victoria._ =3.= _Gard. Chron._ 836, fig. 2. 1857. _Victoria d'Huyse._ =4.= _Pom. Gen._ =7=:33, fig. 497. 1881. Rev. John Huyshe, a clergyman at Clysthydon Rectory, near Cullompton, Devon, Eng., raised, about 1833, three plants from pips of one fruit from Marie Louise, hybridized with Gansel Bergamot. Of these three plants one produced fruit in 1854 or 1855 and was named Huyshe Victoria. The other two fruited in subsequent years and were named Huyshe Prince of Wales and Huyshe Princess of Wales, respectively; these three together with a fourth, Huyshe Prince Consort, being known as the _Royal Pears_. Tree vigorous, spreading, very productive. Fruit medium in size, ovate-pyriform or ovate-acute-pyriform, yellow, freckled and veined with thin, smooth cinnamon-russet; stem medium in length, stout, generally inclined and inserted without depression; calyx open; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, vinous; good to very good; Nov. =Hyacinthe du Puis. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 93. 1895. In trial orchards of Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Fruit medium; flesh rather fine, salmon tinted, savory, juicy; Nov. and Dec. =Ickworth. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 194. 1832. Originated by T. A. Knight, President of the London Horticultural Society, who in 1832 sent cions to Mr. Lowell and the Massachusetts Agricultural Society. Fruit melting, rich, rose-flavored; Mar. and Apr. =Ida. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. On trial with Messrs Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit large, Doyenné-shaped, yellowish-green washed with red-brown; flesh buttery; first; Oct. =Ilinka. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1895. =2.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =36=:368. 1904. This variety was published by Messrs. Simon-Louis, of Metz, Lorraine, in 1895 as having been received by them from M. Niemetz, Winnitza, European Western Russia. Fruit medium to large, yellow, blushed with red on the side of the sun; medium quality; end of July. =Impériale à Feuilles de Chêne. 1.= Duhamel _Trait Arb. Fr._ =2=:228, Pl. LIV. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:287, fig. 1869. _Oak-Leaved Imperial._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 822. 1869. _Impériale._ =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 596. 1884. The origin of this pear is unknown but it was propagated by the Chartreux Monks of Paris in 1752. The tree is very vigorous and hardy and the leaves are singular in that, due to their peculiar indenting and puckering, they have the appearance of being sinuated like those of the oak. Fruit large, ovate, irregular, mammillate at the summit and always having one side larger than the other, dull yellow, covered with large reddish dots; flesh whitish, coarse, semi-breaking, juicy, gritty at center, sugary, almost without perfume; first for cooking, third for dessert; Feb. to May. =Incommunicable. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 376. 1831. =2.= _Mag. Hort_. =9=:131. 1843. Flemish. In a list of pears grown in France and the Netherlands sent by Joseph Parmentier to the London Horticultural Society in 1824. Fruit above medium, pyramidal and compressed toward the stalk, pale grass-green, thickly sprinkled with small gray-russety specks; stem short, stout, inclined; flesh yellowish-white, tinged near the core with a light shade of orange, a little gritty, melting, juicy, saccharine, with a slight musky perfume; latter half of Oct. =Incomparable de Beuraing. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. A French pear, presumably, published first by Grégoire and on trial in the trial-orchard of Messrs. Simon-Louis in 1876. Fruit very large; flesh fine, melting, juicy; of rather good quality; Nov. =Indian Queen. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 32. 1870. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 66. 1875. Exhibited by Henry McLaughlin, Bangor, Me., before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1870. Fruit rather large, long-pyriform, greenish-yellow with a brown cheek; flesh coarse, semi-melting, sweet, not rich, insipid; good for market only; Sept. =Infortunée. 1.= Mas. _Pom. Gen._ =3=:69, fig. 131. 1878. Said to have been shown at the Exhibition of Gotha, Ger., in 1857. Fruit medium, turbinate-ovoid, ordinarily regular in contour; skin rather thick, clear green spotted with gray specks, round, small, numerous; at maturity the basic green becomes a dull pale yellow and golden on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish, semi-fine and melting, gritty round the core; juice sufficient and sweet; second; Aug. =Ingénieur Wolters. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1895. Sent out by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit medium; flesh fine, very sugary, perfumed; first; Oct. =Innominée. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:213. 1832. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 155. 1832. Raised by Van Mons who in 1831 sent cions of it to the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Fruit over 4 inches in length and nearly 3-1/2 in breadth, rather pyramidal, swollen at the middle; skin light green, mottled with pale fawn color, partially yellow at maturity; flesh delicate, melting, sweet, and full of a pleasant odor; good; between summer and autumn. =International. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1895. Reported in the trial orchards of Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Fruit medium; first; Dec. to Feb. =Iris Grégoire. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =23=:155. 1857. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:290, fig. 1869. A seedling raised by Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., it fruited for the first time in 1853. Fruit variable in size, sometimes below medium, long-conic, swelled at base, bossed, and corrugated at apex, a clear golden-yellow, finely dotted and streaked with gray, washed with fawn at either pole; flesh white, semi-fine and melting, rather dry and gritty; juice insufficient, sweet, having a pleasant aroma; second or even third when especially deficient in juice; Nov. and Dec. =Isabella. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 46. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass.; it fruited first in 1866. Fruit medium, pyriform, light green blushed with red on the side next the sun; flesh white, juicy, sprightly, agreeable; Oct. =Isabelle de Malèves. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:81, fig. 329. 1880. This pear is No. 43 in _Les fruits du jardin Van Mons_ by M. Bivort but is stated by Mas to have been obtained by Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit small or nearly medium, fig-like in form, i. e., ovate-conic, regular in contour, a lively green speckled with gray dots, some russet around each pole; at maturity the green becomes yellowish; flesh whitish, melting, juicy, vinous, refreshing; first; end of July and early Aug. =Island. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 273. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 788. 1869. Originated with Cornelius Bergen on Bergen Island adjoining Long Island about 1848. Fruit medium, short-pyriform inclining to turbinate, often turbinate or Bergamot-shaped, pale yellow, netted, sprinkled, and patched with russet, covered thickly with small brown spots and slightly shaded with crimson where exposed to the sun; flesh white, a little granular, juicy, melting, with a sprightly, perfumed, somewhat aromatic flavor; very good; Sept. and Oct. =Italienische Winterbergamotte. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:74. 1856. Italy, 1819. Fruit medium, turbinate, slightly bossed, light green changing to yellowish-green, often blushed with brown, speckled with numerous fine, brown dots; flesh yellowish, coarse-grained, juicy, melting and sweet; third for the table, first for kitchen; Apr. and May. =Ives. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 273. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 788. 1869. Raised by Dr. Eli Ives, New Haven, Conn. Fruit small to medium, rather globular, greenish, brownish-red cheek; flesh melting, sugary, juicy; good; Sept. =Ives August. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 788. 1869. Raised by Dr. Eli Ives. Fruit medium, oblong-obtuse-pyriform, green, with a brownish-red cheek; flesh greenish-white, semi-melting, juicy, rather astringent; good; Aug. =Ives Bergamotte. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 273. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 788. 1869. Originated by Dr. Eli Ives. Fruit medium or small, globular, greenish-yellow with some traces of russet; flesh rather coarse, buttery, melting, juicy, vinous; good; Sept. =Ives Seedling. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 273. 1858. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 392. 1859. Raised by Dr. Eli Ives. Fruit nearly medium, rather globular, greenish-yellow, shaded with crimson; flesh whitish, coarse and granular, melting, juicy, with a refreshing sugary flavor, perfumed; good; Sept. =Ives Virgalieu. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 273. 1858. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 392. 1859. Raised by Dr. Eli Ives. Fruit below medium, pyriform, greenish blushed with dull crimson; flesh whitish, granular, juicy, sweet, vinous, buttery and melting; good to very good; Oct. =Ives Winter. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 575. 1857. =2.= _Ibid._ 789. 1869. Raised by Dr. Eli Ives. Fruit medium, depressed-pyriform, yellowish, sprinkled with russet spots; flesh white, coarse, granular; cooking; Dec. =Ives Yale. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 789. 1869. Raised by Dr. Eli Ives. Fruit medium, globular, mammillate at base of stem, dull greenish-yellow, blushed with brownish-crimson in the sun; flesh greenish-white, moderately juicy; good; early Aug. =Jablousky. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:28. 1856. Originated at Wittenberg, Ger., in 1799. Fruit small, nearly round, symmetrical; skin smooth and polished, greenish-yellow turning to light waxy yellow, often slightly blushed; flesh semi-melting and rather coarse, having a musky aroma; second for the table, first for culinary uses, first for market; Sept. =Jackson. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 512. 1857. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 392. 1859. Origin, New Hampshire. Fruit medium, obovate, short-pyriform, pale yellow, somewhat russeted; flesh white and juicy, brisk, vinous; good to very good; Sept. =Jackson Elizabeth. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 789. 1869. Originated with S. S. Jackson, Cincinnati, Ohio. Fruit medium, globular-obovate-pyriform, greenish-yellow, tinged with crimson on the sunny side and thickly dotted with russet; flesh whitish, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant and slightly aromatic; good to very good; Sept. =Jacqmain. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:292, fig. 1869. From Simon Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel., about 1835. Fruit above medium, long-turbinate, obtuse, swelled at middle circumference, smaller on one side than the other; skin rugose, thick, greenish, dotted with clear gray and sometimes vermilioned on the side exposed to the sun; flesh greenish-white, coarse, semi-breaking, gritty; juice sufficient, sugary without any pronounced perfume; third; Oct. =Jacques Chamaret. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:293, fig. 1869. From the last seed beds made at Laval, France, in 1837 or 1838 by Léon Leclerc. Fruit above medium, turbinate, slightly obtuse, mammillate at base, bossed at summit, clear yellow, dotted and stained with russet; flesh white, fine, semi-melting, watery, rather granular at center; juice abundant, sweet, very sugary and perfumed; first; Nov. =Jacques Mollet. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. Published by Boisbunel in 1866. Fruit medium or large, oblong; first; Nov. to Feb. =Jakobsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:15. 1856. Reported from Wetterau. Fruit medium, long, green, changing to yellow, some brown-russet and very fine dots; flesh very sugary, balsamic, mild and tender; first for dessert, domestic and market uses; Sept. =Jalousie. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:211, Pl. XLVII, fig. 3. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 596. 1884. This is one of the oldest French pears, having been mentioned by the naturalist Daléchamp before 1586 and thought by him to have come from the Romans. Merlet mentioned it in 1667. Fruit rather large, obovate and sometimes obtuse-pyriform; skin rough to the touch, yellowish-green, very much covered with cinnamon-colored russet, ruddy on the sun-exposed side, and singularly marked with conspicuous, lighter-colored specks, which are slightly raised; flesh white, melting, juicy, sugary, sourish, having a pleasant flavor; hardly first class; Oct. =Jalousie de la Réole. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. Fruit medium; flesh fine, very melting, very sugary; delicious; Nov. to Jan. =Jalousie Tardive. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:297, fig. 1869. Origin unknown, but it was among the first trees planted in the garden of the Horticultural Society of Maine-et-Loire, Fr., on its creation in 1833. Fruit large, variable, long-turbinate, more or less obtuse, or very long-ovate, bossed and contorted, depressed at both poles, clear russet extensively washed with red-brown; flesh breaking; first for cooking; Feb. and Mar. =Jalvy. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:299, fig. 1869. Fruit above medium, long, slightly obtuse, swelled at the middle, contracted at both ends especially at the summit; skin rough to the touch, yellowish-green, dotted and reticulated with gray, washed with clear brown-russet on the side next the sun and bearing some black stains; flesh whitish, fine, semi-melting, free from grit, but apt to rot quickly; juice abundant, refreshing, sugary; second; Jan. =Jaminette. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 195. 1832. =2.= _Pom. France_ =3=:No. 116, Pl. 116. 1865. From a seedling in the garden of M. Pyrolle early in the nineteenth century. Fruit medium, turbinate-obtuse, pale yellowish-green, dotted and reticulated all over with gray-russet; flesh yellowish, semi-fine and semi-melting, very juicy, sugary, vinous and aromatic on light soils, but insipid and without perfume on clayey and humid land; first; Nov. to Jan. =Jansemine. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 271. 1865. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:302, fig. 1869. The origin of Jansemine is unknown but it has been cultivated in the neighborhood of Bordeaux for some 300 years. Fruit below medium or rather small, short-turbinate or globular-conic, grass-green, dotted with gray-russet and clouded with clear maroon on the side of the sun; flesh greenish-white, semi-fine, granular at the center, slightly breaking, juicy, sugary and pleasantly perfumed; rather good, but not first; July. =Japan. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =23=:71, fig. 34. 1868. Raised by Gideon Ross, Westfield, N. J., from seeds found in the trunk of his nephew who died on his way from Japan. Fruit medium, oblate; skin rough, reddish-russet-yellow with large light-colored specks; flesh coarse, gritty, firm, with a consistence and flavor much like that of a delicate quince; of no value for dessert; Oct. to Feb. =Japan Golden Russet. 1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 770. 1903. _Golden Russet._ =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:482, fig. 162. 1914. _Canners Japan._ =3.= _Huntsville Nurs. Cat._ 5. 1915. Said to closely resemble Gold Dust and Japan Wonder. Tree very hardy and a young bearer, often blossoming the first year and setting the fruit the second. Fruit large to medium, apple-shaped, rather flat, regular, light lemon-yellow, with many fine dots, russeted, especially about the stem; flesh juicy, aromatic, slightly sweetish; poor; texture coarse; Oct. =Japan Wonder. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:483. 1913. Japanese, introduced to this country by Doctor Whitaker, who says of it: "the fruit is rather flat, large, apple-like; color light yellow, with many white dots covering the entire surface; flesh white, brittle, juicy, poor in quality. Tree an open grower." =Japanese Sand. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:483. 1913. Fruit medium, apple-shaped, lemon-yellow, with russet dots; flesh hard, flavor much like Daimyo; poor; late Oct. =Jargonelle d'Automne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit medium, fusiform, long, yellow, sometimes washed with red; flesh very fine, very melting and juicy; excellent; Oct. and Nov. =Jaune Hâtive. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 282. 1876. =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:244. 1768. _Gelbe Frühbirne._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:41. 1856. French. Fruit small, pyriform, flattened at the lower end, obtuse at the apex, yellow-green; flesh white, coarse, sprightly, slightly perfumed; juice deficient; of value only on account of its early season; July. =Jaune de Merveillon. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:189, fig. 581. 1881. An old French variety. Fruit very small, turbinate, pale green, free from dots or marks, changing at maturity to pale yellow, golden on the side next the sun; flesh white, tinted with yellow beneath the skin, fine, semi-breaking, possessing sufficient juice, sugary, and refreshing, with an agreeable perfume of musk; good; beginning of July. =Jean Baptist. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:61. 1856. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:305, fig. 1869. A seedling raised at Ath, Hainaut, Bel.; first described in 1833. Fruit large, obtuse-conic; skin rough, grass-green, spotted with clear brown and stained with gray-russet; flesh yellowish, semi-melting and semi-fine, juicy, sugary, scented and delicate; second for the table, first for culinary purposes; Oct. and Nov. (Leroy); Jan. and Feb. (Dochnahl). =Jean-Baptiste Bivort. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:45, fig. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 780. 1869. Originated at Geest-Saint-Rémy in 1847. Fruit rather large, regular turbinate, bright green becoming partially yellow at maturity, marked and dotted with gray-russet; flesh white, melting, buttery, juicy, sugary and highly aromatic; Nov. =Jean-Baptiste Dediest. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:23, fig. 396. 1880. Obtained by M. Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Brabant; first reported in 1839. Fruit medium, globular; flesh fine, juicy, sugary; good; spring until July. =Jean Cottineau. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. =2.= _Ibid._ 68. 1895. On trial in the orchards of Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876 and rated by them in 1895 as a third-class summer pear. Fruit medium, globular, yellowish-green, spotted with red on the sun-exposed side; flesh white, sugary; good; mid-Aug. =Jean Laurent. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. =2.= _Ibid._ 94. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz in 1895. Tree of remarkable fertility; suitable for large orchards. Fruit small or medium; flesh breaking; first for culinary purposes; Dec. to June. =Jean Sano. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1895. Sent out by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel., and on trial in the orchards of Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Fruit medium or rather large; flesh semi-fine, very sugary and aromatic; Nov. and Dec. =Jean de Witte. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =7=:286. 1841. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:307, fig. 1869. _Passe Colmar François._ =3.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =8=:7, fig. 1860. Raised at Brussels early in the nineteenth century by M. Witzthumb, director of the Botanical Garden. Fruit below but sometimes up to medium, globular or turbinate, irregular, surface bossed and undulated, greenish, dotted and marbled with a more or less gray-russet; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, extremely juicy, sugary, perfumed, with a buttery flavor, quite delicious; first; Dec. =Jeanne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1895, having been received by them from M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit large or very large, oblong-obovate; flesh semi-melting, nearly breaking, juicy, sugary and aromatic; Nov. =Jeanne d'Arc. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 518, fig. 1904. Obtained by A. Sannier, Rouen, Fr., from a seedling of Beurré Diel fertilized with the Doyenné du Comice. Placed in commerce in 1893, and recommended by the Pomological Society of France ten years later. Fruit large, obtuse, rather of the aspect of the Duchesse d'Angoulême; skin slightly rough, pale lemon-yellow, tinted with rose on the side exposed to the sun, speckled with rose, some marks of fawn color; flesh white, granular about the core, fine, melting, very juicy, saccharine, acidulous, agreeable, only slightly perfumed; good; Oct. and Nov. =Jefferson. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 791. 1869. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 119. 1873. In a Report from Georgia to the American Pomological Society in 1873, P. Barry wrote of a Jefferson pear as a native of Alabama and an early summer fruit. Downing gives the following description of a pear of the same name originating in Mississippi. Fruit large, roundish-obtuse-pyriform, straw-color, shaded with red in the sun, and dotted with small green dots; flesh white, not juicy, sweet, coarse, decays quickly at core, not highly flavored; Aug. =Jersey Gratioli. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 598. 1884. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 182. 1920. In the Island of Jersey this is known as the _Gratioli_ and was at the beginning of the nineteenth century grown in England under that name. But as _Gratioli_ is the Italian name of Bon Chrétien d'Été, the name was changed in England to "Jersey Gratioli." Fruit above medium, globular-obovate, greenish-yellow, covered with large, rough, russet spots, tinged with pale brown next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, very melting, rich, sugary, vinous, sprightly; a dessert pear of the highest excellence. =Jerusalem. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The peare of Jerusalem, or the stript pear, whose barke while it is young, is as plainly seene to be stript with greene, red, and yellow, as the fruit it selfe is also, and is of a very good taste: being baked also, it is as red as the best Warden, whereof Master William Ward of Essex hath assured mee, who is the chiefe keeper of the King's Granary at Whitehall." =Jeschil Armudi. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 133. 1841. A Turkish variety, probably of small value. Fruit medium, pyriform, greenish-yellow; flesh sweet, perfumed; mid-season. =Jewel. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Originated with Captain Bankhead near Edgewood, Mo., about 1860. Said to be productive and not to have blighted. =Jewess. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:311, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 598. 1884. From a seedling raised by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., and so named because the tree grew on a wall fronting the Rue des Juifs (street of the Jews). It first fruited in 1843. Fruit medium, ovate, always a little bossed and more swelled on one side than on the other, uniformly pale yellow, dotted, veined, and mottled with gray-russet and often slightly roseate on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish, buttery, melting, very juicy, sugary and rich; first; Nov. to Feb. =John Cotton. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 32. 1862. =2.= _Ibid._ 45. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., and fruited in 1862. Fruit below medium, turbinate, green; flesh fine-grained, slightly acid; good market pear, ripens well and bears abundantly; Sept. =John Griffith. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 791. 1869. Originated in Westchester Co., N. Y. Fruit medium, globular-obovate-obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with numerous brown dots, nettings and patches of russet; flesh whitish, coarse, wanting in juice, melting, sweet, pleasant; good; Sept. =John Monteith. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 598. 1884. A good quality pear esteemed highly in Perthshire, Scotland. Fruit medium, angular toward the calyx where it becomes rather foursided; skin bright green changing to yellowish-green at maturity; flesh greenish-yellow, melting, buttery, sweet and pleasantly flavored; good. =John Williams. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 111. 1873. =2.= _Ibid._ 37, 136. 1875. An old American variety but not propagated until about 1870. In 1875 it was reported to be the best winter pear for Tennessee. Fruit large, pyriform, clear yellow washed with red; flesh white, very juicy, sugary, vinous and perfumed; good; Nov. and Dec. =Johonnot. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 177. 1832. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:484, fig. 40. 1847. Raised by George S. Johonnot, Salem, Mass., and first came unto bearing about 1823. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, irregular, swollen on one side, hardly tapering to the stem; skin slightly rough, very thin, pale greenish-yellow, partially covered with dull russet, and a little browned on the sunny side; flesh white, coarse, melting and very juicy, rich, brisk, with a delicious, musky aroma; core large and slightly gritty; good; Sept. =Joie du Semeur. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1895. Issued from a seed bed of Joséphine de Malines, which fruit it resembles in size and form, and was disseminated by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Flesh fine, melting, saccharine and aromatic; Nov. =Jolie Lille de Gust. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 792. 1869. Belgian. Fruit small, globular, acute-pyriform, pale yellow shaded with crimson; flesh white, coarse, dry; of no value except for its beauty; Sept. =Joly de Bonneau. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 599. 1884. First published by de Jonghe. Fruit medium or above, curved obovate, pale green, strewed with spots and veins of brown-russet; flesh reddened, or white with a pink tinge, fine, melting, juicy, sugary, vinous; first; Dec. =Jonah. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =15=:70. 1849. Known early in the last century in the city of New Haven, Conn., and said to be one of the parents of Howell. Fruit, "a very hard and tough winter pear, producing enormous crops every year that seldom becomes mellow and fit for dessert fruit, but when it does, it is very good, being full of rich, subacid, slightly astringent juice." =Jones. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 515. 1857. =2.= _Ibid._ 79, fig. 1869. Originated at Kingsessing, near Philadelphia. Fruit medium or below, pyriform, broad at calyx, tapering to the stem which meets it by a fleshy junction; yellow shaded with russet, bright cinnamon on the sunny side; flesh coarse, granular, buttery, sugary, brisk and vinous; very good; were it a little larger would be one of the most valuable; Oct. =Joseph Lebeau. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. Originated by Dr. Nelis. Fruit large; flesh melting; first; Mar. and Apr. =Joseph Staquet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:309, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 793. 1869. Obtained by Bivort from a seed bed made at Fleurus, Bel., in 1844. Fruit medium, often smaller, pyriform, somewhat obtuse; skin fine, tender, dull green passing to dark yellow, dotted, veined and stained with fawn; flesh whitish, fine, melting; juice sufficient, sugary, with a rather delicate aroma; second; end of Aug. and early Sept. =Joséphine de Binche. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. Described in 1869. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, bright yellow ground washed with brown; flesh semi-melting, very juicy, sugary, with an exquisite flavor; first; Nov. and Dec. =Joséphine de Maubrai. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ N. S. =18=:183. 1882. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate; flesh fine, melting, juicy, sugary; first; Nov. to Jan. =Josephsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:166. 1856. Austrian. Published in 1819. Fruit medium, obtuse-conic, light green turning to yellowish, often somewhat blushed; flesh granular, semi-melting, sweet; third for table, first for kitchen; Sept. =Joyau de Septembre. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 501, fig. 152. 1897. Obtained by A. Hérault, Angers, Fr., and first published in 1870. Fruit medium, turbinate, obtuse, curved, golden yellow at maturity, slight greenish near the summit, dotted with gray and often marbled with bronze-russet; flesh white, fine, free from grit, melting, very juicy, sugary, pleasantly acid and perfumed; first; Sept. and Oct. =Judge Andrews 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 794. 1869. Originated in Pennsylvania. Fruit medium, oblong-obovate-pyriform, yellowish, traced and mottled with red in the sun; flesh coarse, breaking, dry; of no value; Sept. =Jules d'Airoles= (Grégoire). =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:105, fig. 53. 1872. Raised by M. Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel, and first published in 1857. Fruit medium or rather large, spherical but somewhat irregular, often a little bossed or deformed in contour; skin rather firm and rough to the touch, bright green speckled with very numerous, irregular, blackish dots; at maturity the basic green becomes whitish-yellow; flesh white, semi-fine, buttery, melting, gritty at center; juice abundant, sugary, slightly acid and perfumed; good; Oct. =Jules d'Airolles= (Leclerc). =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:312, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 599. 1884. Obtained in 1836 by Léon Leclerc, Laval, Mayence, Fr. Fruit rather large, long-conic, greenish-yellow washed with carmine; flesh semi-melting, very sugary, juicy and perfumed; first; beginning of winter. =Jules Blaise. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:315. 1869. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 73. 1876. Stated to have been a gain of M. Millet, Nancy, Fr., and to have been known also as the _Bonne-Gris de Nancy_. Fruit small or medium, pyriform, mottled and dotted all over with fawn; flesh yellowish, buttery, melting, juicy, sugary, perfumed, refreshing; first; Oct. =Jules Delloy. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 600. 1884. Fruit rather small, globular-obovate, yellow covered with speckles and network of cinnamon-russet; flesh melting, pasty, flavorless; inferior; Dec. =Julie Duquet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:316, fig. 1869. Originated at Châlons-sur-Marne, Fr., about the year 1860. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, dark yellow stained and dotted with fawn; flesh whitish, breaking, granular; juice sufficient, insipid; third for dessert, second for the cuisine; end of Apr. to end of June. =Julienne. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 340. 1845. =2.= _Ibid._ 794. 1869. A beautiful and productive fruit and profitable for the market. Fruit medium but varying on different soils, obovate, regularly formed, very smooth, skin fair, clear bright yellow all over; flesh white, rather firm at first, semi-buttery, sweet, moderately juicy, rich, sprightly; should be gathered a few days before ripe and kept in the house; Aug. =Juvardeil. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:317, fig. 1869. Originated at Juvardeil, Maine-et-Loire, Fr.; its age is unknown. Fruit below medium though occasionally rather larger, turbinate, regular in form, slightly obtuse, swelled at the base, pale yellow, evenly dotted with russet and slightly tinged with rose on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine and breaking, gritty about the core; juice plentiful, sugary, acidulous and scented; second; Nov. and Dec. =Kaestner. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1876. Belgian. Raised by Van Mons. Fruit medium to small, oval, lemon-yellow, without russet, small light brown spots; skin scentless; flesh fine-grained, melting, very juicy, acid, sweet and aromatic; good; Sept. =Kalchbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 40, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown throughout Austria and the Northern Tyrol though under various names. Fruit fairly large to very large, long-pyriform, crooked toward the stalk; skin smooth and shining, green turning lemon-yellow at maturity, with a rather shining red blush, fine green dots; flesh whitish, coarse, very juicy, saccharine, aromatic, rather astringent, slightly acid; among the richest of the wine pears; Sept. =Kalmerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:53. 1856. Dutch, published 1758. Fruit large, conic, slightly obtuse, yellow flecked with brown; flesh rather tender and succulent, sweet and agreeable; second for table, first for culinary use; Aug. =Kamper-Venus. 1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 300. 1881. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:49, fig. 505. 1881. _Camperveen._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:556, fig. 1867. Of ancient and unknown origin. The Kamper-Venus has been cultivated in Holland for some centuries and a Dutch writer, De Lacour, writing in 1752, said, as M. Leroy thinks, that "the Romans possessed it and called it the _Pear of Venus_." Fruit large, pyriform, obovate, smooth, shining, very pale green, sprinkled with dark brown spots; at maturity the green changes to a beautiful bright lemon-yellow, marbled on the side of the sun with red; flesh white, rather fine, firm, melting; juice abundant, vinous, acidulous, perfumed; first class for kitchen use; winter. =Kathelenbirne. 1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort_. 301. 1881. German. Fruit small, in form of an orange and Bergamot; surface polished, grass-green becoming rather golden, russeted, without any red blush; flesh yellowish-white, juicy, aromatic; best for household use; Oct. and Nov., 6 weeks. =Katy. 1.= _Pearfield Nursery Cat._ 5. 1910. Said to have originated at New Ulm, Tex., and to be a seedling of Le Conte. It is reported that the tree is a rapid, upright grower, and an early and abundant bearer; and that the fruit resembles Howell in size, shape, and color, and is very juicy, buttery and refreshing, with a pleasant vinous flavor. =Keiser. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 377. 1831. Fruit medium, turbinate, gradually tapering from the middle to the stalk, pale green becoming yellowish-green, thickly sprinkled with small, gray-russety specks, and russet around the stalk; flesh greenish-white, a little gritty, melting, juicy, saccharine, without any particular flavor; keeps some weeks from mid-Oct.; hardy, and bears plentifully upon an open standard. =Kelsey. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =23=:363, fig. 106. 1868. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 794. 1869. About 1853 a pear seedling came up in the garden of William Kelsey, Columbus, Ohio, and was named Kelsey. Fruit above medium to large, globular-obovate, surface uneven, dull green becoming yellow at maturity, traces of russet all over the fruit, many small dark green spots; flesh greenish-yellow, melting, sweet, buttery, juicy, vinous, slightly aromatic; good; Oct. to Feb., ripening gradually. =Kennedy. 1.= _Cal. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 74. 1891. =2.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:156. 1908. Originated by General Bidwell, Rancho Chico, Cal. Fruit globular-oblate, small, russet; flesh tough, gritty; mid-season. =Kentucky. 1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =27=:22. 1904. Fruit small, turbinate, obovate, yellow, russeted; flesh white, melting, granular, mild; very poor; Sept. =Kenyon. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 523. 1904. Originated at McGregor, Iowa, about 1894. Fruit 2 to 2-1/2 inches in diameter, globular, begins to drop in September or October and then apparently of no account, but if picked then and properly cared for until the middle of November or later, changes in color from a dark green to a golden yellow or straw color and is tender, juicy, and sweet, with a very fine flavor. =Kermes. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:141. 1856. Raised by Van Mons, 1827. Fruit medium; gourd-shaped, green becoming yellowish-green, speckled with russet; flesh yellowish-white, semi-melting, full of juice; second for dessert, first for domestic use; Sept. =Kilwinning. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:131 1843. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 600. 1884. Fruit medium, oblong, dark green, strewed all over with gray dots, with some patches of russet, brownish-red next the sun, changing at maturity to yellowish-green and a livelier red; flesh yellowish-white, tender, pleasant, with a strong perfume; second; Oct. =King. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 794. 1869. Originated at Oswego, N. Y. Fruit medium or below, globular-oblate-pyriform, greenish-brown in the sun, with many green and brown dots; flesh whitish, coarse, semi-melting, sweet; good; Sept. and Oct. =King Edward. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:319, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 601. 1884. =3.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 182. 1920. An English variety cataloged by the Horticultural Society of London in 1842. Fruit enormous, sometimes 5-1/2 in. long and 3-1/2 wide, pyriform, gradually tapering to the stalk; skin smooth and shining, of a beautiful grass-green changing to yellow, speckled with dark green dots on the shaded side, red on the exposed cheek; flesh yellowish, buttery, melting, very juicy, sweet and acidulous, with a slight rose-water perfume; good for cooking; Sept. to Nov. =King Seedling. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 795. 1869. =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 770. 1903. Origin uncertain but probably American. Fruit medium, oblate, uneven, yellowish-green, rough; flesh granular, whitish-green, juicy, sugary, aromatic, perfumed; good; Sept. and Oct. =King Sobieski. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:156, 232. 1908. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, yellow, with red blush; flesh juicy, sweet, perfumed; good; mid-season. =Kirtland. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:112. 1850. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =4=:476, fig. 409. 1850. In 1819 Professor Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, raised several trees on his farm in Poland, Ohio, of which this is one. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, rich crimson-russet, varying to a dull green; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, rich, sweet, aromatic; first; Sept. =Klein Landlbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 68, fig. 1913. A perry pear known as _Landlbirne_ in Lower Austria, _Green Landlbirne_ in Upper and Lower Austria, and by other names in Upper Austria and Istria. Fruit small to medium, globular or turbinate and very even in contour, leaf-green changing to greenish-yellow when ripe, densely sprinkled with very fine russet spots; flesh whitish, fine-grained, juicy, astringent, saccharine, acidulous; good for transportation; end of Oct. to Dec. =Kleine Fuchselbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 160, fig. 1913. A pear used for perry in Lower Austria. Fruit small, turbinate to ovate, very regular in contour, yellow when ripe, covered with cinnamon-russet and finely dotted with green specks, some red on the sunny side; flesh white, tolerably fine, juicy, highly saccharine, only slightly astringent, very aromatic; Sept. =Kleine gelbe Bratbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:41. 1856. Rhineland. Reported in Diel in 1812. Fruit small, ovate, pale yellow-green turning to waxy yellow, dotted with fine, green specks; flesh granular, very juicy, sweet; second for table, first for kitchen; Aug. =Kleine gelbe Hessenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:31. 1856. Hesse, Ger. Reported in 1804 by Diel. Fruit small, pyriform, symmetrical, yellowish light-green changing to lemon-yellow, very fine dots; flesh breaking, white, granular, wanting in juice; first for culinary use; Sept. =Kleine gelbe Maukelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:31. 1856. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 241. 1889. Hesse, Ger. Published by Diel in 1804. Fruit small, round-ovate, symmetrical, smooth, light green changing to yellowish green, often lightly blushed; flesh snow white, buttery, semi-melting, musky, aromatic; first for the table, household and market purposes; Sept. =Kleine gelbe Sommer-Zuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:39. 1856. German. Published by Sickler, 1801. Fruit medium, variable in form, obtuse-conic, greenish-yellow turning to yellow, with very minute green and gray specks; flesh semi-breaking, very white, very sweet; second for table, first for cuisine, good for market; Aug. =Kleine gelbe Sommermuskatellerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:29. 1856. _Petite Bergamotte Jaune d'Été._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:185, fig. 285. 1879. Nassau. Published by Diel, 1805. Fruit very small, turbinate, shining skin, lemon-yellow, seldom blushed, very finely dotted with light green; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, semi-melting, musky, aromatic; first for household, good for market; mid-July. =Kleine grüne Backbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:189. 1856. German. Published by Diel, 1802. Fruit small, ovate, symmetrical, light green turning to yellow-green, very finely dotted, rather russeted; flesh glutinous, very sugary, aromatic; first for household use; end of Sept. for two weeks. =Kleine Lange Sommer-Muskatellerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:39. 1856. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 241. 1889. _Petite Muscat Long d'Été._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:151, fig. 268. 1879. Thuringia, Ger., 1798. Fruit small, sometimes ovate-turbinate, sometimes conic-ovate, regular in contour; skin thick and firm, clear green at first, sprinkled with dots of a darker shade changing to lemon-yellow with the dots little visible, orange-red on the side of the sun; flesh white, tinted with yellow, rather fine, semi-buttery, very sugary and musky; moderately good; early Aug. =Kleine Leutsbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 241. 1889. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 162, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown in Upper Austria under the name of _Holzbirne_ and by that of Kleine Leutsbirne and other names in Lower Austria. Fruit below medium, variable in form, mostly long-obtuse-pyriform, gray-green with dark green streaks downward from the stalk, changing to yellow-green when ripe, densely covered with minute dots; flesh whitish, moderately fine, juicy, acidulous, saccharine, unusually astringent; Nov. and Dec. =Kleine Pfalzgrafin. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 563. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:46. 1856. _Petite Comtesse Palatine._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:5, fig. 195. 1878. Appears to be an ancient and perhaps Roman variety. Reported in Germany in 1794. Fruit small, conic-ovate or ovate-pyriform, water-green dotted with small brown points; flesh yellowish, semi-fine, breaking, gritty near the center; juice sufficient and rich in sugar and perfume; good for the table, and first class for all the purposes of the cook; Sept. and Oct. =Kleine Pfundbirne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 559. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:186. 1856. Wetterau, Ger., 1789. Fruit large, globular-turbinate, grass-green changing to yellowish-green, rough, dotted with gray; flesh tender, pleasant, good for household; Oct. to Dec. =Kleine runde Haferbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:162. 1856. Thuringia, Ger., 1804. Fruit small, globular, light green changing to pale lemon-yellow, strongly blushed with dark red, dotted; flesh yellowish-white, coarse-grained, rather astringent, sourish; good for cooking, early Sept. =Kleine schlesische Zimmbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:46. 1856. German. Published 1801. Fruit small, pyriform, yellow-green with vivid red blush, finely dotted with gray and yellow-green; flesh breaking, very aromatic and sweet; second for table, first for cooking; Aug. =Kleine Sommer-Zuckerratenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:31. 1856. Rhineland, 1805, Dr. Diel. Fruit medium, turbinate, often rather conic, yellow-green turning to lemon-yellow, with dark red blush; flesh gritty, sugary, aromatic; second for dessert, first for kitchen; Sept. =Kleine Zwiebelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:171. 1856. Reported in Thuringia, 1819. Fruit small, bulbous or globular-turbinate, lemon-yellow, blushed, dotted with gray, splashed with gray-russet; flesh whitish, sweet, firm, breaking, juicy; good for culinary use; autumn. =Kloppelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:8. 1856. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 242. 1889. Hesse, Ger. Reported by Diel, 1805. One of the Volemas. Fruit medium, almost round, yellowish-white, changing to lemon-yellow with pale blush; flesh breaking, aromatic, juicy, perfumed; second for table, first for cooking; Dec. =Knabenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:32. 1856. German. Published by Diel, 1805. Fruit medium, turbinate, swelled, sides unequal; skin polished, light green changing to greenish yellow, often has a dark blush, green dots; flesh granular, very juicy, sweet and acid; second for dessert, first for household; end of Aug. =Knausbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:172. 1856. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 242. 1889. =3.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 42, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown under a variety of names in Austria and Germany. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, sides unequal, greenish light-yellow, washed and streaked with reddish-brown; flesh yellow-white, breaking, astringent, saccharine, with little flavor or aroma; third for the table, but good for cooking use, perry or drying; end of Sept. =Knechtchensbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:2. 1856. Thuringia, Ger., 1797. Fruit small, round pear-shaped, yellow, russet dots, blushed; flesh firm, insipid; good for cooking; Aug. and Sept. =Knight. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:449. 1847. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 796. 1869. Raised by William Knight of Cranston, R. I., and first exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1835. Fruit medium, oblate-pyriform, yellowish pale-green with grayish specks; flesh melting, juicy, sweet, rich, aromatic; Sept. and Oct. =Knollbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 186, fig. 1913. A perry pear of Swiss origin introduced into Austria about 1885. Fruit medium to rather large, long-ovate; skin leaf-green turning to yellow-green at maturity, half the fruit on the sun-exposed side often being a dark brown-red; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, very juicy, saccharine and astringent; good for transporting; Oct. and Nov. =Knoops Simmtbirne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98, 283. 1876. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 242. 1889. _Poire Canelle._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:143, fig. 552. 1881. Origin uncertain, possibly Dutch. Dr. Diel received it from Harlem under the name of _Franse Canneel-Peer_. Knoop described under the name _Fondante de Brest_, a variety to which he gave the synonym _Franse Canneel-Peer_, but it is not the _Fondante de Brest_ of Duhamel and other French authors. Fruit medium, nearly short-conic, and sometimes conic and somewhat pyriform; skin fine and thin, clear green sown with numerous small, brown dots changing to dull yellow; flesh white, slightly tinted with yellow, buttery or semi-buttery, gritty around the core, juice sufficient, sweet and perfumed; good for eating raw and very good for cooking; Sept. =Kolmasbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 164, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small, globular or longish-pyriform, smooth, shining, dirty greenish-yellow, golden on the sun-exposed side, dotted with red; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, very juicy, saccharine, astringent; late Sept. =Kolstuck. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:113, fig. 441. 1880. _Koolstock._ =2.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:158. 1908. Origin unknown. Reported on trial at the Experiment Station, Agassiz, B. C, in 1900. Fruit medium or nearly medium, obtuse-conic-pyriform, rather like Calebasse in form, often a little irregular in contour, clear green on which, in parts, are visible very small specks of gray-black; at maturity the basic green changes to pale yellow and the cheek exposed to the sun is extensively washed or flamed with bright vermilion; medium early. =König Karl von Württemberg. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 242. 1889. =2.= Lucas _Tafelbirnen_ 239, fig. 98. 1894. _Roi Charles de Wurtemberg._ =3.= _Guide Prat._ 61. 1895. Obtained about 1886 by Herr Müller, gardener to the King of Württemberg. Fruit large to very large, oval, bossed, obtuse, pale yellow, speckled with russet and brown dots; flesh fine, nearly melting, agreeably perfumed, juicy, good for dessert and is decorative for the table; Oct. and Nov. =Königliche Weissbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:35. 1856. Holland, 1804. Fruit medium, obtuse-conic, rounded at the apex, regular; skin shining, smooth, light green turning to greenish-yellow, green dots; flesh breaking, white, sweet, aromatic, fairly melting; second for dessert, first for cuisine; early Sept. =Königsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:142. 1856. North German, 1773. Fruit large, sides unequal, smooth, light green turning to yellow, dotted with fine gray; flesh breaking, tender, sweet; second for table, first for household; Aug. and Sept. =Konstanzer Langler. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 44, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown in the Voralberg, Austria, and in Bavaria, Baden and other parts of Germany. Fruit medium to large, long-pyriform, greenish, speckled with brownish-red dots and patches of russet; flesh greenish-white, juicy, of a saccharine and acidulous flavor; end of Sept. =Kraft Sommer Bergamotte. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 244. 1889. _Bergamotte d'été de Kraft._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1895. Fruit small, spherical-oblate, fine, bright yellow; flesh breaking, sugary; end of Aug. and beginning of Sept. =Krauelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:162. 1856. Reported in Holstein, Ger., 1788. Fruit small, globular, wrinkled and uneven; flesh granular, sweet, wanting in juice; third for dessert, good for culinary use; Nov. to Whitsuntide. =Kreiselförmige Flegelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:5. 1856. Upper Hesse, Ger., 1806. Reported by Diel. Fruit large, turbinate, entirely covered with russet, with very dark dots, breaking, fragrantly scented; first for household; Jan. =Kriegebirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:2. 1856. Switzerland, Schwaben, published 1804. Fruit small, globular, yellow-green, shining, dark blush with gray specks; first for household and market; Oct. =Krivonogof. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =27=:291. 1894. Originated in the Province of Toula, Russia. Tree very hardy. Fruit of good quality. =Krockhals. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:101. 1856. Nassau, 1806. Published by Diel. Fruit medium, pyriform, bent or acutely sloping, lemon-yellow, cinnamon-russeted, often having a dark blush, heavily dotted; flesh rather white, granular, buttery, melting, juicy and extremely aromatic; first for table and cooking; Nov. and Dec. =Krull. 1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 36, 112. 1890. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Pom. Man._ =2=:252. 1903. _Krull Winter._ =3.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 330. 1888. Originated on the farm of Mr. Krull, St. Charles, Mo., about 1808, and brought to notice by C. T. Mallinckrodt in 1888. Fruit type of Lawrence, medium, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, green with a tinge of yellow; stem short, thick, in a shallow cavity; calyx open, in a shallow basin; flesh yellowish, firm, granular, tough, rather dry, sweet, flat; poor to above; keeps into winter. =Krummgestielte Feigenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:191. 1856. Saxony, 1807. Fruit medium, pyriform, thick-skinned, yellow-green with brown blush and rather rust-colored on the side next the sun, speckled with very fine dots; flesh yellowish-white, glutinous, very sweet, wanting in flavor; third for dessert, first for domestic use; Oct. =Kuhfuss. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 245. 1889. _Pied-de-Vache._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:35, fig. 210. 1879. The origin of this pear, probably German, is not definitely known, but according to Oberdieck it was cultivated in almost all the large gardens of Hanover, and bore the name of _Pfundbirn_ or _Pound Pear_ at Hildesheim, Göttingen and Cassel. Fruit large, globular-turbinate; skin rather thick, of an intense green, speckled with dots of a darker shade, the green turning to yellow at maturity; flesh white, tinted with green, coarse, semi-melting; juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous and refreshing; good; Aug. =Kurskaya. 1.= _Neb. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 30. 1890. Introduced from Russia in 1879. Fruit oblong-obtuse-pyriform, brownish-green changing partially to deep yellow when fully ripe; stem set in a narrow, shallow depression; calyx open in a rather wide, smooth basin; flesh nearly white, tender, not very juicy, nearly sweet; fair; Oct. =L'Inconnue Van Mons. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =17=:67. 1851. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 596. 1884. _Unbekannte Von Mons._ =3.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 334. 1881. Fruit large, pyriform, rough to the touch, greenish-yellow, covered with large gray dots and patches of cinnamon-russet; flesh yellowish, firm, very juicy, rich and sugary, with an agreeable aroma; first; Feb. =L'Inconstante. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:63, fig. 530. 1880. _Inconstant._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 788. 1869. A seedling raised either by Van Mons or by his successor, Bivort. Fruit medium, conic or conic-pyriform, a little variable in form; skin thin, tender, pale green, sprinkled with very small and inconspicuous dots of gray fawn; on ripening the basic green changes to clear yellow, often preserving a green tint on the side next the sun, sometimes tinted with light red; flesh whitish, semi-fine, very melting, rather granular near the core; juice abundant, saccharine and more or less perfumed; good; Oct. =La Béarnaise. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 94. 1895. Obtained by P. Tourasse, Pau, Basses Pyrénées, Fr. Fruit above medium or large, well colored; flesh melting, juicy; first; Nov. =La Cité Gomand. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:105, fig. 149. 1878. Attributed by Van Mons to M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit small, short-obtuse-turbinate, usually regular in outline, very clear green, whitish, speckled with very small dots not clearly visible; at maturity the basic color changes to pale yellow, slightly golden or washed with a suggestion of red on the side next the sun; flesh white, rather fine, semi-buttery; juice slightly deficient, sugary, faintly perfumed; second; end of Sept. =La France. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3d Ser. =27=:350. 1900. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. Fr._ 282, fig. 1906. Obtained by Claude Blanchet, Vienne, Isere, Fr., about 1864. Fruit medium or rather large, globular-conic, irregular, strongly bossed, greenish, sometimes pale yellow, freely dotted with gray; flesh white, fine or nearly fine, very melting; juice very saccharine, perfumed; very good; Oct. and Nov. =La Moulinoise. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 797. 1869. A foreign variety, probably French. Fruit large, oblong-pyriform, greenish-yellow, partially netted and patched with russet and thickly sprinkled with brown-russet dots; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly vinous; first; Sept. =La Quintinye. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:570, fig. 1869. Raised from a bed made in 1846 by M. Boisbunel, a nurseryman at Rouen, Fr.; first published in 1860. Fruit above medium or sometimes less, globular, irregular, bossed, sides unequal, pale yellow, thickly dotted and shaded with gray-russet, and sometimes reddened on the side next the sun; flesh white, fine, semi-melting; juice abundant, saccharine, slightly aromatic but agreeably tart; second and sometimes first when the flesh is well perfumed; Mar. to May. =La Savoureuse. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =1=:25, fig. 19. 1866-73. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 797. 1869. Probably of German origin. Fruit nearly medium, globular-oblate, intense green with greenish-brown dots; flesh greenish-white, buttery, sweet, fine, agreeably refreshing, perfumed like the Bergamots, a little gritty around the center, third; all winter. =La Solsticiale. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. Reported on trial in the orchards of Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Fruit rather large, elongated, obtuse, yellowish tinted with russet; flesh saffron in hue, semi-breaking, very sugary and strongly perfumed; May to July. =La Vanstalle. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 178. 1832. "Fruit perfectly pyramidal; highly colored with red; of medium size; flesh granulous, becoming insipid, and finally soft; it keeps till the middle of October. I did not find this fruit excellent; it is however, better than the Doyenné, (St. Michael)." =Lacroix. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3d Ser. =1=:442. 1887. Published in _Revue Horticole_ in 1887. Fruit medium, regular pyriform, yellow blushed and spotted with red on the exposed side; flesh white, flavor said to be like that of Easter Beurré; Dec. and Jan. =Lady Clapp. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 178. 1896. =2.= Ellwanger & Barry _Cat._ 17. 1900. Fruit large, yellow; flesh juicy, melting, vinous; first; Sept., following Bartlett. =Lafayette. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 796. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:13, fig. 199. 1879. Originated in Connecticut. Fruit small, globular-pyriform, pale yellow, stained with russet, passing at maturity to lemon-yellow and the russet becoming golden, numerous dots of gray-brown; flesh yellowish, rather fine, melting, slightly gritty at the core, buttery, very juicy, sweet but lacking flavor; medium; Oct. =Lahérard. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:324, fig. 1869. Origin uncertain, but attributed to Van Mons. Fruit above medium, ovate, mammillate at summit, sometimes rather elongated but generally more swelled at the middle, thin-skinned, yellow-ochre or greenish-yellow, vermilioned on the face exposed to the sun, dotted with fine specks and stains of gray especially around the calyx; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, rather granular around the core; juice abundant, very sugary, acid, and having an exquisite savor; first; Oct. =Lammas. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 418. 1831. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 601. 1884. Originated possibly in the Highlands of Scotland, being recommended for that district by Lindley. Grown also in England. Fruit below medium, pyramidal, regular pale yellow, streaked with red next the sun; flesh melting, tender, juicy, agreeable; good; Aug. =Lämmerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:54. 1856. German. Franken, Bavaria, 1809. Fruit below medium, ovate-conic, whitish-green; flesh hard, juicy, somewhat aromatic, and sweet and acid; third for table, first for cooking and market; July. =Lancaster. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 119. 1875. A seedling grown by T. S. Lancaster, Gloucester, Mass., and exhibited in 1875. Fruit medium, oblong-pyriform, yellow, with brown-russet; flesh coarse, juicy, buttery; hardly good; late autumn. =Landsberger Malvasier. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:126. 1856. Raised by Burchardt at Landsberg, Ger., 1851. Fruit medium, often large, conic, even sides, dark yellow, speckled with russet dots; flesh rather white, buttery, melting; very valuable, first for dessert and market; Nov. and Dec. =Langbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:2. 1856. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 245. 1889. _D'Ane._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:129, fig. 1867. Switzerland and Germany, 1804; particularly popular in the former country where it is very generally cultivated, and often known as the _Étrangle_. Fruit medium or above, very long, like Calebasse in form, greenish-yellow turning to lemon-yellow, somewhat blushed, and speckled with dots of greenish-gray; first for culinary use; end of Aug. =Lange gelbe Bischofsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:140. 1856. Holland, 1804. Fruit medium, oblong; sides unequal; skin smooth, yellowish-green turning to light yellow, sometimes slightly blushed, dotted with yellow; flesh spongy, lacking juice, glutinous, sweet and scented with rose; third for table, first for kitchen and market; end of Aug. =Lange Gelbe Muscatellerbirne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1876. =2.= _Ibid._ 68. 1895. German. Tree vigorous, fertile, resisted the phenomenal frost in Europe 1879-1880. Fruit small, yellow, dotted with carmine; of moderate quality; second half of Aug. =Lange Grüne Winterbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 245. 1889. _Longue Verte d'Hiver._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:137, fig. 549. 1881. A German variety cultivated especially in Saxony and Thuringia. Fruit medium or nearly so, conic-pyriform, often rather deformed, one side being longer than the other at either end; skin firm, water-green, sprinkled with numerous indistinct dots regularly spaced, the basic green changing to greenish or yellowish-white; flesh white, rather fine, semi-melting; juice plentiful, sweet, sugary, agreeable but wanting in perfume; good; autumn and early winter. =Lange Mundnetzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:112, fig. 1856. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 246. 1889. Thuringia, 1794. Fruit medium, ventriculous, grass-green turning to greenish-yellow, often faintly blushed, dotted with green; very good for dessert, good for household and market; Aug. =Lange Sommer-Bergamotte. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:39. 1856. Thuringia, 1794. Fruit below medium, long-turbinate, yellow-green turning to whitish-yellow, rough, heavily dotted with brown, slightly russeted, thick-skinned; flesh yellowish-white, breaking, granular becoming glutinous; first for table; Aug. =Lange Wasserbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 46, fig. 1913. This perry pear is found spread throughout Upper and Lower Austria. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, very regular in contour; skin fine, smooth, shining, yellow-green when ripe, very densely dotted with fine spots, some cinnamon-brown russet around the stem and calyx; flesh whitish, coarse-grained, juicy, sweet but insipid and without aroma; Sept. =Langstieler. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:171. 1856. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 246. 1889. Switzerland, Baden and Württemberg, published 1830. Fruit small, pyriform, grass-green, russeted on the side next the sun, gray dots; flesh yellowish-white, fine-grained, tartish; third for the table, first for cider and culinary use; Oct. Suitable for every situation. =Langstielige Pfaffenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:43. 1856. Germany. Published by Diel in 1825. Fruit medium, pyriform, otherwise conic; skin rough and entirely covered with cinnamon-colored russet, often faintly blushed; second for table; third for household; Sept. =Langstielige Zuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:141. 1856. German. Published by Diel, 1833. Fruit medium, long-pyriform or even gourd-shaped, light green changing to light yellow, without russet or red blush, semi-melting, fine, juicy, sweet, with cinnamon flavor; second for dessert, first for culinary use; Nov. =Lansac. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:241, Pl. LVII. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:326, 327, fig. 1869. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 602. 1884. _Herbstbirne ohne Schale._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:86. 1856. Originated at Hazé near Tours, Fr. Merlet described it in 1667. In the catalog of the Chartreuse Fathers, Paris, there occurs in 1736 the following passage. "The Pear _de Lansac_, or _Dauphin_, which many authors name _Satin_ ... was presented for the first time to Louis XIV ... by Madame de Lansac...." As King Louis ascended the throne in 1638 the pear would seem to have been originated between that year and 1857, the year in which Madame de Lansac died. Fruit medium, sometimes less, globular-turbinate, dull yellow, sprinkled with numerous minute, russet dots; flesh fine, yellowish-white, melting, juicy, sweet, rich, aromatic, with an after-flavor of anis; second, but first when the flesh is well perfumed; Oct. to Dec. =Large Duchess. 1.= _Ala. Sta. Bul._ =30=:12. 1891. A variety of Oriental type planted at the Agricultural Experiment Station at Auburn, Ala., in 1885. It was reported in 1891 as free from blight, and still on trial. =Larissa. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:517. 1853. Submitted to the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society in 1853 as a seedling by a Mr. Ladd of Philadelphia. Fruit small, obovate-pyriform, greenish-yellow, a good deal russeted, with a mottled red cheek; flesh rather dry, saccharine and pleasant; scarcely good. =Laure Gilbert. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. Distributed by M. Gilbert, Antwerp, Bel., in 1886. The fruit bears much resemblance to that of the Chaumontel, but its flesh is much more melting and its flavor more sprightly; Oct. =Laure de Glymes. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:328, fig. 1869. The parent tree was raised from a seed bed made by Van Mons in 1827 at Louvain. Fruit ovate, or more or less globular and swelled, nearly always mammillate at summit; skin thick, bronzed, having on the side next the sun some orange-yellow; flesh white, semi-melting, watery, gritty about the core; juice sufficient, sweet, vinous, perfumed; second; Sept. =Laxton Bergamot. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ =26=:497. 1886. =2.= _Jour. Hort._ =13=:339. 1887. A new seedling pear shown by a Mr. Laxton, Bedford, Eng., at the Royal Horticultural Society's meeting at South Kensington in October, 1886. Tree fertile and the fruits are not easily blown off by the wind. Fruit small, exceedingly juicy and rich; a delicious pear. =Le Breton. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 798. 1869. Origin unknown. Fruit medium, obovate, obtuse-pyriform, irregular, yellow, netted and patched with russet, with numerous russet dots; flesh yellowish, rather coarse at core, melting, juicy, sweet, aromatic; good; Nov. to Jan. =Le Brun. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:503, fig. 1867. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 183. 1920. M. Gueniot, nurseryman at Troyes, Fr., sowed seeds the plants from which fruited in 1862. One of these he named Le Brun. Fruit above medium to large, oblong-conic, slightly obtuse and generally bossed and rather contorted about the summit, bright yellow, sprinkled with bright brown spots, and largely stained with fawn about calyx and stem and often also on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine, and dense, melting, seldom gritty and rarely has seeds; juice abundant, sugary, acidulous, savory but often with an excessive taste of musk, spoiling its delicacy; first; end of Sept. =Le Congo. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. Distributed by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel., and in the trial orchards of Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Tree vigorous and fairly prolific. Fruit medium; flesh semi-fine, very saccharine and highly scented; Nov. and Dec. =Le Lecher. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =4=:334. 1888. This seedling, raised by A. Lesuer, Ypres, Bel., resulted from Bartlett fertilized with Fortunée. Fruit large, pyriform, yellow, spotted with drab spots; flesh white, juicy, sugary, brisk and perfumed, free from grit; Jan. to Mar. =Leclerc-Thouin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:330, fig. 1869. Raised by M. André Leroy at Angers, Fr., and fruited first in 1867. Fruit above medium, conic, very obtuse and generally more curved on one side than on the other; skin uneven, clear yellow, clouded with green and partially covered with russet on which appear small specks of gray; flesh whitish, semi-fine, watery, very melting, granular around the core; juice sugary, vinous and slightly acid, perfumed flavor; first; Sept. =Lederbirne. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 89. 1845. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 202, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium, truncated-pyriform, somewhat bossed and irregular in outline, leaf-green turning greenish-yellow, gray russet dots, blushed on the sunny side; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, very juicy, subacid; Oct. to Dec. =Lee. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 375. 1854. Originated at Salem, Mass. Fruit small to medium, globular-oval, greenish-russet, brown in the sun; flesh white, coarse, juicy, good; Sept. =Lee Seckel. 1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 565. 1885. Fruit medium to large, obovate, rich russet; flesh buttery, rich, perfumed; very good; Sept. =Léger. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. Obtained from a seed bed of Winter Nelis by M. Sannier. Tree of moderate vigor, fertile and suitable for all forms of culture. Fruit medium, globular-ovate; flesh fine, acidulous; Oct. =Lehoferbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 126, fig. 1913. A perry pear widely distributed in Upper and Lower Austria under various names. Fruit medium to large, globular-pyriform, leaf-green turning yellow at maturity, dotted and marked with russet, well-exposed fruit blushed; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, very juicy, astringent, saccharine, acidulous; mid-Oct. and keeps in storage till end of Nov. =Leipziger Rettigbirn. 1.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =II=:No. 92, Pl. 92. 1883. _Radis de Leipsick._ =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:125, fig. 61. 1866-73. _Leipsic Radish._ =3.= _Can. Exp. Farms. Rpt._ 379. 1902. Originated at Duben near Leipsic, Saxony. It was published by Diel in 1807. Fruit small, nearly spherical or spherical-ovate, a little more constricted at the stem end then toward the calyx, light green turning to yellow-green and slightly golden on the cheek next the sun, brown around the summit, and with numerous light brown dots; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, juicy, very pleasantly perfumed, having a slight Bergamot flavor; good for dessert, first for cuisine; Aug. to Oct. =Lemon= (Massachusetts). =1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. A seedling of S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass.; first fruited in 1862. Fruit large, turbinate, yellow. =Lemon= (Russia). =1.= _Ind. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 82. 1886. =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 170. 1894. Imported from Russia in 1879. It was reported in 1894 to have fruited in Iowa, and collectively with some other varieties was described as "generally 'off' in color, coarse, some of them leathery and corky, and all without melting qualities or flavor." =Lenawee. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 106. 1856. =2.= Field _Pear Cult._ 273. 1858. Origin unknown. Distributed in Lenawee County, Mich., in 1856; it was named by the Adrian Horticultural Society. At that time it was supposed to have been introduced from western New York some twenty-five years previously. Fruit medium to large, oblate-pyriform, one side generally being larger than the other; surface frequently irregular, lemon-yellow, with small russet specks, washed with bright vermilion on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, tender, buttery, with a high and peculiar, aromatic flavor; very good; early to mid-Aug. =Leochine de Printemps. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:236. 1854. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1876. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit medium, obovate-pyriform, yellow, netted and patched with russet, sprinkled with russet dots; flesh melting, white, firm, not very juicy; a beautiful and good fruit; Feb. and Mar. =Léon Dejardin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1876. Obtained at Boussoir, Maubeuge, Nord, Fr. Fruit medium, pyriform, ventriculous, resembles the Beurré Bollwiller, semi-melting, juicy, sugary, refreshing; good for its season; May and June. =Léon Grégoire. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:63, fig. 1856. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:618, fig. 1869. This variety was gained by Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., and was fruited first in 1852. Fruit large, sometimes medium, oblong-obtuse-pyriform, sometimes more or less globular, dull yellow, dotted and marbled with fawn on its shaded side and entirely stained with grayish-russet on the exposed face, becoming pale yellow and golden at maturity; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, semi-melting, sweet, watery, acidulous, vinous, agreeable; second, inconstant in quality, sometimes good; Dec. and Jan. =Léon Leclerc Épineux. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:333, fig. 1869. In the bulletin of the Society Van Mons, 1857, this variety is stated to have been obtained by Van Mons, though some doubt has been raised as to its origin. Fruit large, ovate-pyriform, often rather contorted; skin rough, thick, grayish-yellow, finely dotted with russet and stained with the same around the calyx and stalk and sometimes clouded and streaked with red on the face exposed to the sun; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, breaking, granular at the center; juice sufficient, vinous and sugary; third for dessert, first for cooking; Nov. =Léon Leclerc de Laval. 1.= _Pom. France_ =3=:No. 99, Pl. 99. 1865. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 603. 1884. This, which is different from Léon Leclerc (Van Mons), was obtained at Louvain in 1825 by Van Mons. Fruit large, turbinate-obtuse-pyriform, yellow-ochre, finely dotted with gray-russet and marked with some tracing of russet, occasionally washed with a little red; flesh very white, semi-melting or semi-breaking, watery, gritty, juicy, sweet, slightly perfumed; third for dessert, first for stewing; Jan. to May. =Léon Recq. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1895, who received it from M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit large or nearly large, pyriform, lemon-yellow when ripe; flesh fine, slightly acid, sugary, perfumed; Nov. and Dec. =Léon Rey. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:336, fig. 1869. In 1856, M. Rey, Toulouse, Fr., sowed seeds of the best French pears, and in the following year selected the most promising seedlings, one of which received the name Léon Rey. Fruit medium and sometimes rather larger, turbinate, very round in its lower part, and conic-obtuse at the top, golden-yellow, finely dotted and stained with fawn and nearly always washed with tender rose on the face exposed to the sun; flesh very white and fine, melting, free from grit; juice very abundant, sugary, acidulous, having a delicious flavor; first; Oct. =Léonce de Vaubernier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 72. 1876. Tree vigorous on quince, very fertile. Fruit rather large, ovate, very pale green, touched with russet and washed with dark carmine; flesh yellowish, fine, dense, of a highly agreeable flavor; third; second half of Sept. =Léonie. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. Sent out by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit medium, of Doyenné form, globular-obovate; flesh melting, sugary; good. =Léonie Bouvier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 56. 1895. Obtained by M. Simon Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel. Tree vigorous on quince, fertile. Fruit medium, pyriform, whitish-yellow blushed with orange-red; flesh fine, very melting and juicy, sugary, vinous, perfumed; a very beautiful and excellent fruit; Sept. =Léonie Pinchart. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 800. 1869. Described in 1869 as a new Belgian variety. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, greenish-yellow, much covered, netted, and patched with yellow-russet and minute russet dots; flesh whitish, juicy, sweet, melting; very good; Sept. and Oct. =Léontine Van Exem. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 108. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:181, fig. 187. 1878. Obtained by Henri Grégoire, Beurechin, Bel. Fruit small, turbinate or conic-turbinate, very clear green changing to pale yellow at maturity, dotted with specks of darker green; some clear russet covers the calyx and the summit, and the side next the sun becomes golden; flesh white, fine, melting, full of juice rich in sugar and perfume of the almond; Oct. =Leopold I. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 518. 1857. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:338, fig. 1869. A posthumous gain of Van Mons which gave its first fruit in 1848. Fruit above medium, ovate, regular, swelled in the lower part, obtuse, grass-green, often yellowish, dotted, streaked, and stained with russet; flesh white, with some yellow tinge, fine, very melting, juicy, sweet, vinous, aromatic and delicate; good to very good; Nov. =Leopold Riche. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 801. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 603. 1884. One of M. de Jonghe's seedlings. Fruit rather large, obovate, yellow, thickly sprinkled with large cinnamon-russet dots; flesh rather coarse-grained, crisp, buttery, melting; juice abundant, rich, thick and sugary, with a fine almond flavor; a very richly flavored pear; Nov. =Lepine. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 801. 1869. Tree of moderate growth but very productive. Fruit small, oblate, yellowish, shaded with crimson, slightly russeted; flesh coarse, granular, melting, juicy, brisk, vinous, good; Nov. and Dec. =Lesbre. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 415. 1863. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:339, fig. 1869. Raised from seed at Boulogne-sur-Mer, before 1838, by M. Bonnet. Fruit medium or above, turbinate, very obtuse and swelled, nearly always mammillate at the top; skin rough, olive-yellow, sprinkled with many large russet dots and small brownish stains; flesh white, fine and melting, juicy, rather granular at the core; juice abundant, sugary, vinegary, with a delicate scent of anis; first; end of Aug. =Levard. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:340, fig. 1869. Grown on the seed beds of M. Leroy, Antwerp, Bel., and fruited in 1863. Fruit below medium, globular-turbinate, irregular, bossed and always less swollen on one side than on the other; color yellowish-green, dotted with brown and fawn, and entirely covered with bronze-russet on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh greenish-white, fine, melting and juicy, gritty around the core, sugary, acidulous, musky and very rich in flavor; first; Nov. =Levester Zuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:172. 1856. Hanover, 1852. Fruit small, obtuse-turbinate, sides unequal, light green changing to greenish-yellow, often streaked with red and finely dotted with greenish-russet; flesh fine, deficient in juice, granular near the center, highly aromatic; first for household and market purposes; Sept. and Oct. =Lewes. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. Described by John Parkinson in 1629, in England, as "brownish greene pears, ripe about the end of September, a reasonable well rellished fruit, and very moist." =Lewis. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:140. 1831. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 801. 1869. Originated on the farm of John Lewis, Roxbury, Mass., about 1811. Fruit below medium, globular, obovate, obtuse, dark green in autumn, pale green at maturity, with numerous russet specks; flesh yellowish-white, rather coarse, melting, juicy and rich in flavor, with a slight spicy perfume; Nov. to Feb. =Lexington. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 187. 1896. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:253. 1903. Originated in Kentucky and is said to resemble Bartlett, but to ripen two weeks earlier. Hardy and free from blight, but described as "too poor" in quality. =Liberale. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =21=:519. 1855. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 801. 1869. Belgian. Introduced to this country as a new variety about 1850. Fruit large, obtuse-pyramidal or truncate-pyriform; skin fair, smooth, yellowish-green, very thickly dotted with large, conspicuous, russety specks, and patched with russet; flesh yellowish-white, a little coarse, melting, juicy, sweet, rich, with a peculiar almond, aromatic perfume; a very handsome and fine fruit; Oct. =Liegel Honigbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 248. 1889. _Poire de Miel de Liegel._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:47, fig. 24. 1872. Origin uncertain, probably German. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform; skin fine and smooth, at first pale green turning to pale yellow, more golden on the side next the sun and very rarely touched with rose; flesh yellow, fine, melting, full of sugary juice, vinous, and with a distinct savor of musk; first; Oct. =Lieutenant Poidevin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:344, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 604. 1884. Flon-Grolleau, a Frenchman, obtained this variety in 1853. Fruit large, obovate and undulating; skin fine, yellow-ochre dotted with gray; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine, breaking, gritty around the center, sugary, vinous; second for dessert, first for cooking; Mar. and Apr. =Limon. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:57. 1842. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 802. 1869. A Van Mons seedling. Fruit rather small, obovate, yellow, with a faint red cheek; flesh white, buttery, melting and juicy, with a sprightly flavor; very good; mid-Aug. =Linzer Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 188, fig. 1913. A perry pear taking its name from the town of Linz near Hauptstadt in Upper Austria. Fruit medium, globular to pyriform, yellow, strongly carmined on the sun-exposed side and dotted with red; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, with a saccharine, astringent flavor; Oct. =Livingston Virgalieu. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 803. 1869. An old variety, grown to some extent along the Hudson River. Fruit globular-obovate, greenish-yellow, patched and dotted with russet; flesh whitish, juicy, nearly melting, sweet, pleasant; good; Sept. =Locke. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =3=:52. 1837. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 442. 1845. Raised from seed in the garden of James Locke, West Cambridge, Mass., in 1830. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, full at the crown, ending obtusely at the stem; skin fair, slightly rough, yellowish-green changing to lemon-yellow when ripe, spots of darker hue mingled with russet, tinged with red on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, melting and juicy, rich, sweet and perfumed; good; Dec. =Lodge. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 178, 179. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 803. 1869. A native of Pennsylvania and understood to have originated near Philadelphia. Fruit medium, pyriform, tapering to the stem and larger on one side than on the other, greenish-brown, the green becoming a little paler at maturity and much covered with patches of dull russet; flesh whitish, a little gritty at the core, juicy, melting, with a rather rich flavor, relieved by a pleasant acid; Sept. and Oct. =Loire-de-Mons. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:109, fig. 151. 1878. A gain of M. Loire, at Mons, Bel. Fruit medium, turbinate, or globular-turbinate, usually regular in contour; skin rather fine and tender, clear and bright green, sprinkled with gray-green dots; at maturity the green becomes clear lemon and golden on the side of the sun; flesh white, fine, very melting, full of juice, acidulous, delicately perfumed; first; end of Sept. =London Sugar. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 343. 1831. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 605. 1884. English. Much cultivated in Norfolk for the Norwich market. Fruit below medium, turbinate, pale green approaching lemon-yellow at maturity, with a slight brownish tinge; flesh tender, melting; juice saccharine and of a rich, musky flavor; an excellent early fruit; end of July. =Long Green. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 803. 1869. _Belgische Zapfenbirne._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:139. 1856. _Longue-Verte._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:349, fig. 1869. _Grüne Lange Herbstbirne._ =4=. Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 228. 1889. This French pear is distinct from the _Verte Longue_ which is synonymous with _Verte Longue d'Automne_, though these two pears have been confused and have various names in common. It has been cultivated in France for the last 100 years. _Longue Verte_ has ten French synonyms. Fruit above medium, very long, fig-like in form, narrowed from middle to stalk, acute, grass-green passing to brownish-green on the face exposed to the sun, uniformly sprinkled with dots of gray-russet; flesh greenish-white, fine or semi-fine, melting, rather granular around the seeds; juice abundant, saccharine, sweet, with a characteristic perfume, often very slight; second; Sept. =Long Green of Autumn. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 804. 1869. _Verte-Longue d'Automne._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:729, fig. 1869. _Lange grüne Herbstbirne._ =3.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 112. 1825. The Long Green of Autumn, better known abroad as the _Verte-Longue d'Automne_ or _Verte-Longue_, must be distinguished from the Long Green or _Longue-Verte_. It is of very ancient origin and mentioned in the catalog, published by Le Lectier, King's Attorney, in 1628, of the immense nursery he created in 1598. The German author Henri Manger, 1783, considered the _Verte-Longue_ identical with the _Viridium_ of Pliny. Fruit medium to large, turbinate, slightly obtuse, often larger on one side than on the other, green clouded with pale yellow, speckled with large gray spots and very rarely blushed on the exposed side; flesh white, fine, melting, very full of a saccharine, well-flavored, musky juice; first when its juice is well perfumed, but rather variable; Oct. =Long Green of Esperin. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 804. 1869. Belgian. Fruit medium, oblong-ovate-pyriform, greenish-yellow, blushed with crimson on the cheek next the sun, patched and netted with russet, with numerous brown dots; flesh yellowish-white, juicy, semi-melting, vinous; good; Sept. =Longland. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 415. 1831. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 605. 1884. A very old English perry pear chiefly grown in Herefordshire. Fruit small, turbinate, even, rather handsomely shaped, bright gold, tinged and mottled all over with a lively russety orange, the side next the sun having a pale red cheek; flesh yellow, very astringent. =Longue du Bosquet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:348, fig. 1869. A seedling raised by Leroy. It was reported in 1863. Fruit medium, conic, elongated, regular, obtuse and round at the top, greenish-yellow, dotted with gray, washed with brown at the extremities; flesh greenish, semi-fine, melting, rather gritty at the center; juice abundant, very saccharine, acidulous and deliciously perfumed; first; Sept. =Longue-garde. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1876. On trial in the orchards of Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit large, highly perfumed; in season until May. =Longue-Sucrée. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:49, fig. 217. 1879. Either German or Austrian. Cataloged by Jahn in 1864. Fruit nearly medium, conic-pyriform, dark green, dotted with gray-brown, changing to pale yellow, clouded with red on the side of the sun, speckled with whitish-gray; flesh whitish, fine, breaking, deficient in juice and sugar, acidulous, with an unpleasant perfume; third; end of Aug. =Longueville. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 605. 1884. Much grown in the South of Scotland. It has been conjectured that the tree was brought to Scotland from France by Douglas when Lord of Longueville in the fifteenth century. Fruit large, obovate, regular in outline and handsome, greenish-yellow, with a tinge of pale red next the sun, covered with numerous gray-russet specks, so numerous sometimes as to appear like network; flesh yellowish, breaking, tender, very juicy, sweet and richly flavored; good. =Longworth. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 172. 1892. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 41. 1909. Originated at Dubuque, Iowa. Its great hardiness and freedom from blight make it valuable in breeding for the North though its fruit is not of such quality as to recommend it where choice varieties can be grown. Fruit medium to large, obtuse-ovate, green turning to yellow; good; mid-season. =Lorenzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:47. 1856. Saxony, 1803. Fruit medium, obtuse-conic, light green, blushed with dark brown on the sunny side changing to light yellow, washed with vivid red, green dots and some cinnamon-russet; flesh yellowish-white, melting, rather gritty around the center; first for kitchen and market, second for dessert; Sept. =Loriol de Barny. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:351, fig. 1869. A gain of Leroy from his seed beds at Angers, Fr.; it fruited for the first time in 1862. Fruit medium or above, very long ovate-pyriform, often bossed in its contour; skin thin, yellow-ochre, speckled with minute gray dots and showing some stains of russet; flesh white, fine, melting, almost free from grit; juice very abundant and sugary having a delicate aroma; first; end of Aug. and beginning of Sept. =Lothrop. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 46. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass.; it first fruited in 1866. Fruit diameter 2-1/2 in., yellow with russet; flesh white, with good flavor; mid-Sept. =Loubiat. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98, 285. 1876. This variety bears the name of the owner of the parent tree living in the Dordogne. Fruit large, of handsome appearance; flesh yellow; third, yet of good quality for its season; spring until July. =Louis Cappe. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1876. A seedling of Easter Beurré and of similar quality. On trial in the orchards of Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Tree very fertile and vigorous. Fruit medium to large, Bergamot in form; Nov. and Dec. =Louis Grégoire. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:147, fig. 72. 1866-73. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 606. 1884. M. Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., obtained this pear from a seed bed made in 1832. Fruit below medium, obtuse-turbinate, irregular in form, much larger on one side than on the other, rather rough to the touch, greenish-yellow, dotted and mottled with russet and generally stained with fawn on the side of the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine and semi-melting, juicy, sugary, highly acid, often rather astringent, slightly musky, and sometimes rather delicate; second and sometimes third when the astringency of its juice is too pronounced; Oct. =Louis Noisette. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1876. Published by Boisbunel in 1867. Tree very vigorous and fertile. Fruit rather large, globular-turbinate; flesh fine, very melting and very juicy, sugary and sprightly; first; Nov. and Dec. =Louis Pasteur. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 223. 1909. Obtained by Arsène Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Fruit smooth and fine, clear yellow, strongly washed with fawn on one face and covered with patches of the same color on the other side; flesh yellowish-white, the yellow being more noticeable near the skin, very fine, melting, and sugary, sprightly and perfumed; very good; Dec. =Louis-Philippe. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 169. 1841. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:354, fig. 1869. Origin uncertain, though it was described by Prévost, Rouen, Fr., in 1848. Fruit large, turbinate, very obtuse and very irregular in form, swelled, especially on one side on its lower half; skin rough and bronzed all over on a basis of gray-green, sprinkled with numerous large, prominent, brownish dots; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-breaking; juice not abundant, more or less acid, wanting in sugar, slightly perfumed; second; early Oct. =Louis Van Houte. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 108. 1876. Classed by Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, with varieties of doubtful or little merit. =Louis Vilmorin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:355, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 1st App., 128. 1872. Originated from seed of Beurré Clairgeau about 1863 by André Leroy, Angers, Fr. Tree vigorous, rather spreading, very productive. Fruit medium to large, pyriform, variable, yellow, netted and dotted with russet, sometimes shaded with red; stem short, curved; calyx large, open; basin medium, uneven, russeted; flesh white, half fine, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly perfumed; good to very good; Dec. =Louise-Bonne. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:357, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 606. 1884. Merlet the French pomologist was the first to write of this pear in 1675. Fruit above medium, variable in form, ovate-obtuse and swelled in lower half, or long-pyriform, narrowed toward the stalk; skin thick, smooth, bright green changing as it ripens to yellowish-green, strewed with small dots and some markings of russet; flesh greenish-white, coarse, semi-melting, gritty at center, juicy, only slightly saccharine, generally sweetish and deficient in perfume; variable for dessert, but first for compotes; Dec. =Louise Bonne d'Avanches Panachée. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 607. 1884. A variegated form of Louise Bonne de Jersey, the wood and fruit being marked with golden stripes. It originated as a bud sport. =Louise-Bonne de Printemps. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:359, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 804. 1869. Obtained by M. Boisbunel, Rouen, Fr., and first published in 1857. Fruit above medium, long obtuse-pyriform, regular in contour, mammillate at summit and slightly bossed at base, yellow-ochre, dotted with greenish-gray; flesh semi-fine and semi-melting, white, gritty around the center, very juicy, rarely sugary, slightly sweet and slightly aromatic; grafted on pear and trained on espalier in a good situation it is a pear of high merit; Feb. to Apr. =Louise Bonne Sannier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 291, fig. 1906. M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr., obtained this pear; it was first reported in 1868. Fruit rather small or medium, oval, obliquely obtuse near the stem, dark yellow, touched with bright red; flesh yellow, juicy, melting, remarkably saccharine, sprightly and perfumed; good to very good; Oct. to Dec. =Louise de Boulogne. 1.= Barry _Fr. Garden_ 317. 1851. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:361. 1869. Described by Barry in 1851 among "new and rare pears, recently introduced, that give promise of excellence." Leroy wrote of it as a seedling of Van Mons. Fruit large, breaking, keeps through the winter. =Louise Dupont. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =2=:59, fig. 1854. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =23=:301. 1857. Louise Dupont was the product of one of the last seedlings raised by Van Mons and was harvested for the first time in 1853. Fruit rather large, sometimes of Doyenné form but usually longer and more turbinate; skin thin, dull green passing to golden yellow at maturity, colored with russet-fawn on the sunny side, dotted and marked with fawn all over; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, full of juice, saccharine and well perfumed; first; Oct. and Nov. =Louise d'Orléans. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =1=:140. 1846. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =2=:35, fig. 1853. From seed sown by Van Mons in 1827 at Louvain and first bore fruit in 1843. Fruit medium, oblong-obtuse; skin is of a fine bronzed-green, covered with gray speckles; flesh very white, fine grained and very melting; juice exceedingly rich, sugary and delicious; early Nov. =Louise de Prusse. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:362, fig. 1869. Obtained by Van Mons and published by him in September, 1832, but it had already been reported in 1826. Fruit large, turbinate-obtuse, more or less long, considerably swelled toward its lower end; skin thick and rough, yellow-ochre clouded with green, speckled with fine gray dots and stained with light brown around the calyx and stem; flesh white, semi-fine, breaking or semi-breaking, granular at center; juice abundant, very saccharine, acidulous, pleasantly perfumed; second; Sept. =Louison. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:86. 1831. French. Fruit large, oblong and almost conical, terminated obtusely; skin delicate and smooth, sometimes washed on the sunny side, and in other cases pretty deeply tinged with red, speckled with brownish-red dots, the other side being of a beautiful yellow, scattered with specks of russet; flesh very white, melting, full of very pleasant juice, slightly perfumed but not of high flavor; early Oct. =Lovaux. 1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 48. 1871. Reported by the Committee on Foreign Fruits of the Ohio State Horticultural Society as a new variety which they recommended. Fruit large to medium, juicy, sweet, melting; good; Sept. =Lübecker Prinzessin Birne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 249. 1889. _Princesse de Lubeck._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 103. 1876. German; extensively cultivated about Lubeck, Ger. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, beautiful yellow, extensively covered with brilliant crimson; flesh breaking, juicy; good; beginning of Aug. =Lubin. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:187, fig. 579. 1881. A seedling found by M. Pariset of Curciat-Dongalon, Ain, Fr.; first reported in 1869. Fruit medium, conic-pyriform, regular in its contour, obtuse, having its largest circumference well below its middle; skin fine, delicate, at first a clear and bright green, sprinkled with very numerous round, small, brown dots only very slightly visible on the side of the sun; at maturity the basic green passes to lemon-yellow, with a golden hue on the exposed side; flesh whitish, very fine, melting, juicy, saccharine, slightly vinous, acidulous; good; winter. =Lucie Audusson. 1.= _Pom. France_ =4=:No. 172, Pl. 172. 1865. Obtained by Alexis Audusson, Angers, Fr.; first published in 1861. Fruit large, long, nearly cylindrical, obtuse and slightly narrowed toward the stem, grass-green, finely dotted and speckled with fawn-colored russet; flesh yellowish-white, fine or semi-fine, melting; juice abundant, sugary, vinous, delicately perfumed; first; mid-Nov. to end of Dec. =Lucien Chauré. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. Obtained by Arsène Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Tree healthy, vigorous and adaptable for all forms of growth. Fruit medium, grayish-yellow; flesh melting, juicy, fine and sugary; Oct. and Nov. =Lucien Leclercq. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:366, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 806. 1869. From a seed bed made by Van Mons in 1829, but it did not bear fruit till after his death in 1844. Fruit below medium and sometimes rather larger, globular-ovate, regular, rarely bossed, pale yellow on the shaded side and darker yellow where exposed, dotted all over with fine gray and green spots; flesh white, coarse, semi-melting and juicy, sugary, acidulous, and aromatic, very gritty around the core; second; latter half of Aug. =Lucné Hative. 1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:525. 1860. Tree vigorous and productive. Fruit medium, elongated, pale green; flesh semi-melting, sugary, moderately perfumed; good; Sept. =Lucy Grieve. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 607. 1884. English; bore fruit first in 1873. Named in honor of the little girl who planted and tended the seed, but died before the tree fruited. Fruit large, oval, rather uneven in outline, bossed around the waist and about the calyx, lemon-yellow, with occasionally a brownish-red blush on the side next the sun, sprinkled with cinnamon-colored dots; flesh white, tender, melting, very juicy and richly flavored; first; Oct. =Luola. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Said to be a cross between Seckel and Dana Hovey originated by W. C. Eckard, Watervliet, Mich., about 1907. Fruit very small, globular, greenish-yellow, with faint blush, very rich; excellent; Oct. =Lutovka. 1.= _Me. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 62, 63. 1899. Russian. Introduced in 1882. Fruit large; good; mid-season. =Lutzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:190. 1856. German, published in 1801. Fruit medium, obtuse-conic, dull greenish-yellow, slightly blushed, strongly dotted, marked with russet, and covered with rusty russet on the sun-exposed side; flesh granular, gritty near center, semi-melting, aromatic; first for culinary uses; Sept. =Luxemburger Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 128, fig. 1913. A perry pear widely distributed in France, Luxemburg, Germany and Austria. Fruit large, globular-oblate, like Bergamot in form, gray-green turning yellow-green when ripe sprinkled with large russet dots and specklings; flesh whitish, coarse-grained, unusually juicy, astringent and sweet flavor; end of Sept. =Lycurgus. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =12=:365. 1857. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 806, fig. 1869. Originated with George Hood, Cleveland, Ohio, from seed of Winter Nelis. The tree is productive, and of rather spreading growth. Fruit small, oblong-pyriform, greenish-yellow, much covered with thin brownish-russet, many large grayish dots; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet, rich, rather aromatic, having some perfume; first, one of the best in quality of late winter pears; Dec. to Feb. =Lydie Thiérard. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 806. 1869. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1876. Originated from a seed of Crassane by Jules Thiérard, Bethel, Fr. Fruit rather large, Bergamot-shaped, clear green, dotted; flesh fine, very melting, sugary, perfumed; first; Jan. to Mar. =Lyerle. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1897. Raised by a Mr. Lyerle, Union County, Ill., in 1881 from seed of Bartlett. Fruit medium, pyriform, yellowish-green, with numerous patches of russet; flesh sugary; good; early July, four weeks ahead of Bartlett. =Lyon. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 807. 1869. Originated at Newport, R. I. Fruit medium, oblong-obovate or Doyenné-shaped, yellow, thick and smooth skin, finely dotted, blushed; flesh coarse, a little gritty at core, vinous; very good; Oct. =Mace. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 50. 1860. Francis Dana showed this among other seedlings of his to the Fruit Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1860. Fruit medium, oval, russet; flesh has something of the honeyed sweetness as well as some external resemblance to Dana Hovey. =Machländer Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 48, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit large, pyriform, green turning to yellowish-green, russeted; flesh granular, green under the skin, subacid; Sept. and Oct. =Mackleroy. 1.= _South. Nurs. Cat._ 4. 1921. This variety, introduced by the Southern Nursery Company, Winchester, Tenn., in 1921, is said to have been brought to Tennessee by Davis Mackleroy from South Carolina over 100 years ago. =McLaughlin. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:62. 1842. =2.= _Ibid._ =13=:251. 1847. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 807, fig. 1869. In October, 1831, General Wingate of Portland, Me., stated "That a person in Oxford County, many years since raised a number of pear trees from seeds, all of which produced inferior fruit, with the exception of one tree; and from that tree, the scions were taken and engrafted by a Mr. McLaughin, of Scarborough." Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform; skin slightly rough, bright cinnamon-russet, tinged with brownish-red on the sunny side, with some traces of a bright yellow ground on the shaded side; flesh yellowish, rather coarse, melting, juicy, rich, sugary; Nov. to Jan. =Macomber. 1.= _Rural N. Y._ =44=:263, figs. 145, 146. 1885. Raised by J. T. Macomber, Grand Isle, Vt. Fruit medium, pyriform, green changing to yellow, blushed; flesh buttery, melting, juicy, sweet; very good; Oct. and Nov. =McVean. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =9=:340. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 807. 1869. Originated in Monroe County, N. Y., about 1850 or earlier. Fruit large, obovate-acute-pyriform, yellow, with nettings and patches of russet, and numerous green and brown dots; flesh coarse, not juicy, or melting, sweet; good; Sept. =Madame Alfred Conin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:371, fig. 1869. Raised by André Leroy, Angers, Fr., in 1867. Fruit medium, turbinate, obtuse, much swelled around central circumference, fairly regular, clear yellow often covered all over with a layer of bronze on which are scattered, uniformly, numerous grayish-brown dots, scarcely visible; flesh whitish, fine, melting, watery, rarely gritty around the center; juice abundant, sugary, with an extremely delicious perfume; first; late Sept. =Madame André Leroy. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:372, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 608. 1884. Obtained from his seed beds by M. André Leroy at Angers, Fr.: first published in 1862. Fruit medium to large, long-conic, slightly obtuse, irregular, more or less misshapen, yellowish-green, entirely dotted, especially at its extremities, with small points and slight patches of gray; flesh greenish-white, fine or semi-fine, very melting, slightly granular at center, juicy, sugary, vinous, with a very delicate flavor; first; end of Sept. =Madame Antoine Lormier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 57. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit medium or large, regular pyriform, yellow, dotted; flesh fine, melting, very sugary; first; Sept. and Oct. =Madame Appert. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:373, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 608. 1884. Raised by M. André Leroy at Angers, Fr., in 1861. Fruit medium, long pyriform, slightly obtuse, largest circumference around its middle, much reduced at the extremities, especially at the summit, yellow, with gray-russet, and numerous fawn-colored dots on the side of the sun and around the stem; flesh whitish, fine, very melting, rarely gritty, juicy, sugary, with a delicate flavor of almond, acidulous; first; early Oct. =Madame Arsène Sannier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Fruit medium to large; flesh sugary, slightly perfumed and of a pleasant flavor; Oct. =Madame Ballet. 1.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 292, fig. 1906. Obtained by M. Ballet, nurseryman at Parenty, Fr., and was placed on the market in 1894. Fruit large, ovate, yellow, dotted with gray, and brightened with a rose blush on the side next the sun; very good; Jan. to Mar. =Madame Baptiste Desportes. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:374, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 608. 1884. A seedling from the nurseries of André Leroy at Angers, Fr., which ripened for the first time in 1863. Fruit above medium, globular-ovate, rather regular, often a little bossed about the base; skin rather fine, yellow-ochre, mottled, stained, and dotted with gray-russet; flesh fine or semi-fine, melting, excessively juicy, saccharine, vinous, with a very agreeable flavor; first; early Oct. =Madame Blanchet. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 76. 1895. Fruit medium, greenish-yellow covered with fawn; flesh fine, buttery, of a delicate flavor; good; Oct. and Nov. =Madame Bonnefond. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 2, 135, fig. 164. 1866-73. Obtained in 1848 by M. Bonnefond, Rhône, Fr., and placed on the market for the first time in 1867. Fruit large, like Calebasse in form, often irregular in contour; skin fine, delicate, clear yellow-green, sprinkled with very small points of darker green; flesh white, slightly greenish under the skin, fine, very melting and juicy, delicately perfumed; very good; end of autumn. =Madame Charles Gilbert. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Fruit medium sized, having much in common with Winter Nelis; Jan. to Apr. =Madame Chaudy. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ N. S. =18=:211. 1882. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 296, fig. 1906. Obtained by M. Chaudy at Chaponost, Rhône, Fr., from a seed bed made in 1861. Fruit large, sometimes of the form of the Bartlett, generally turbinate, swelled and bossed in its circumference; skin slightly rough, pale yellow, dotted with gray, reddened on the side next the sun, marbled and washed with clear fawn around the two ends; flesh rather white, granular at center, rather fine, melting, very juicy, saccharine, and agreeably acid and perfumed; very good; Nov. =Madame Cuissard. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:375, fig. 1869. Cuissard and Barret, nurserymen at Ecully-les-Lyon, Fr., obtained this variety in 1865 and placed it on the market in 1867. Fruit above medium, oblong and obtuse, swelled at its lower part and generally more enlarged on one side than on the other; skin fine, golden-yellow, sprinkled with large gray dots and some russet markings, and more or less stained with clear brown around the stem; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, gritty at the center; juice deficient; rather savory, but slightly acerb; second; mid-Aug. =Madame Delmotte. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 139. 1871. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:73, fig. 133. 1878. Obtained by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, dull green dotted with greenish-gray; flesh white, or slightly tinted with yellow, very fine, buttery, melting, full of sweet juice, delicately perfumed. =Madame Ducar. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:376, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 808. 1869. This was a posthumous gain of Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., dating from 1846. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, regular in form, slightly undulating around the summit; skin fine, rather dull yellow, finely dotted and streaked with fawn; flesh white, coarse, semi-melting, very gritty; juice sufficient, sugary, sweet, almost without perfume but having a certain delicacy of taste; second; end of Aug. =Madame Duparc. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:149, fig. 267. 1879. Gained by M. Bessard-Duparc, near Savenay, Fr., and fruited first about 1845. Fruit medium, ovate-obtuse-pyriform, regular in contour; skin rather thick, lively green, speckled with indistinct darker green spots, the green becoming brighter at maturity, a rather dense russet sometimes covering the calyx and the summit; flesh white, coarse, semi-buttery, gritty around the core; juice rather deficient, sugary and only slightly scented; indifferent; Oct. and Nov. =Madame Durieux. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:377, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 609. 1884. A variety which came from the seed beds of Van Mons but did not fruit till 1845. Fruit medium, globular, rather Bergamot-shaped, grayish or greenish-yellow, covered with patches of thin cinnamon-colored russet, yellowish, semi-fine, very melting, buttery, juicy, sugary, vinous, aromatic; first; Oct. =Madame Élisa. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:31, fig. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 808, fig. 1869. Raised in the seed beds of Van Mons and first bore fruit in 1848. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, often rather irregular in its upper half, greenish-yellow passing to lemon-yellow at maturity, with numerous small blackish-gray dots; flesh white, a little yellow next the skin, fine, melting, free from grit, full of rich saccharine juice, vinous; first; Sept. to Nov. =Madame Élisa Dumas. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:19, fig. 298. 1880. A seedling raised by M. Bonnefoy, near Lyons, Fr. He disseminated it in 1857. Fruit medium, conic-ovate, regular in contour; skin thick, at first whitish-green speckled with grayish-black dots, changing to pale yellow, and more golden on the side next the sun; sometimes stains of rough brown-russet are dispersed over its surface; flesh white, only slightly firm without being breaking, rather gritty around the center, full of sugary juice, vinous and refreshing; handsome and of good quality; Aug. =Madame Ernest Baltet. 1.= Baltet _Trait. Cult. Fr._ 317, fig. 208. 1908. French. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, reddish-brown-yellow, with light russet; flesh very fine, melting, very juicy, sugary, sprightly; very good; Sept. and Oct. =Madame Favre. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:379, fig. 1869. Obtained by M. Favre, president of the section of Arboriculture of the Agricultural Society of Shalon-sur-Marne, Fr.; it first fruited in 1861. Fruit above medium and often larger, globular surface unequal and bossed; skin rough, greenish-yellow, dotted, streaked, marbled, stained with gray-russet and vermilioned on the cheek next the sun; flesh white, very fine, melting; juice abundant, very sugary, vinous, deliciously perfumed; first; end of Aug. =Madame Flon. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1876. Published by M. Flon in 1868. Fruit medium, globular, yellow and gray-russet; flesh very melting and juicy, saccharine, sprightly, perfumed; first; end of Dec. =Madame Grégoire. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =8=:97, fig. 1860. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 809. 1869. Obtained in 1860 by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., and was published the same year. Fruit medium to large, long-oval, obtuse; skin greasy, clear green becoming yellow at maturity, marked with gray-russet, especially around the stem, and some dots of whitish-gray; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, very juicy, sugary, vinous, perfumed and acidulous; good or very good; Dec. and Jan. =Madame Henri Desportes. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:380, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 609. 1884. Raised by Leroy, Angers, Fr.; first fruited in 1863. Fruit large, turbinate, uneven in outline, yellow, covered with russety dots and patches; flesh yellowish-white, very fine and very melting, seldom gritty, very juicy, saccharine, acidulous, with a decided aroma and delicious flavor; excellent; first; Oct. =Madame Loriol de Barny. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:381, fig. 1869. =2.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 92. 1872. Raised by Leroy in 1866 at his nurseries at Angers, Fr., from seed of Bartlett. Fruit large, ovate and nearly cylindrical, always rather irregular, clear yellow clouded with green, more or less streaked and mottled with russet, covered with large, grayish-brown or greenish dots and often stained with fawn around the calyx and stem; flesh yellowish-white, excessively melting and fine, juicy, rarely gritty, sugary, perfumed, with a tart flavor and a delicate and agreeable after-taste of musk; first; Nov. =Madame Lyé-Baltet. 1.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 301, fig. 1906. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 185. 1920. Obtained by Ernest Baltet, nurseryman at Troyes, Fr.; placed on the market in 1877. Fruit medium or rather large, turbinate, obtuse, swelled, truncated at base; skin fine, green or yellow-green all over, dotted with russet and touched with fawn; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, sugary and perfumed; very good; Dec. and Jan. =Madame de Madre. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 95. 1895. =2.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =30=:271. 1901. Sent out by Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel., who raised it from Délices d'Hardenpont, in 1881. Fruit medium, pyriform, rather elongated, contracted at the lower end terminating in an oblique cone at the base, compressed on two sides at the narrow end, rounded at the upper end, citron-yellow lightly speckled with rust-red; flesh amber-white, very delicate, melting, very juicy, sweet, with a pleasant perfume, nutty and rather spicy; very good; Oct. =Madame Millet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:382, fig. 1862. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 610. 1884. Raised by Charles Millet of Ath, Bel., in 1840. Fruit large, short-obovate or turbinate, rather uneven in its outline; flesh tender, semi-melting, juicy, richly flavored; first; Mar. and Apr. =Madame Morel. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1876. Published by M. Morel in 1872. Fruit large; flesh very fine, compact, very melting, juicy, sugary, vinous, sprightly; first; Oct. and Nov. =Madame Planchon. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1876. Belgian. Fruit large or very large, in form similar to Bartlett, golden yellow dotted with russet; flesh granular, very juicy; cooking; end of Oct. and beginning of Nov. =Madame Du Puis. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 147. 1891. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 298, fig. 1906. A gain of Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel., in 1878. Fruit rather large or large, long, obtuse-pyriform, rounded at lower end, yellow but nearly covered with smooth fawn-russet; flesh very fine, melting, very juicy, sugary, sprightly and perfumed; very good; Dec. to Feb. =Madame de Roucourt. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 58. 1895. Distributed by Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit medium to large, yellowish, dotted with dark brown; flesh fine, saccharine, perfumed; good; Oct. =Madame Stoff. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ =2=:220. 1887. Obtained from seed by M. Stoff. Fruit large or medium, regular-pyramidal, olive-green speckled with red; flesh fine, melting, buttery, delicate and brisk in flavor; Feb. =Madame Torfs. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. Described as a new variety and distributed by Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel., in 1895. Fruit medium to large, greenish-yellow, sprinkled with patches of fawn-russet; flesh fine and juicy, white around center, clouded with green toward the skin, very sugary; Oct. =Madame Treyve. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:383, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 185. 1920. _Souvenir de Madame Treyve._ =3.= _Pom. France_ =2=:No. 63, Pl. 63. 1864. From seed sown in 1848 by M. Treyve, Trévaux, Fr. Fruit large, obtusely obovate, bossed and always very much swelled around its lower part, greenish-yellow, dotted, streaked, and often touched with fawn on the shaded side, but brilliantly encrimsoned on the side exposed to the sun and dotted on that side with gray; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, very juicy, saccharine, acidulous, with a delicate and fine aroma; first, a delicious dessert pear; Sept. =Madame Vazille. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:384, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 610. 1884. From the seed beds of M. Leroy, Angers, Fr.; first fruit in 1866. Fruit above medium, conic-obtuse, fairly regular in outline but always having one side larger than the other; skin thick, somewhat uneven, bronzed all over, sprinkled with dots widely apart and only slightly visible; flesh whitish, fine, melting or semi-melting, very juicy, saccharine, vinous, having a very pleasant flavor; first; Sept. =Madame Verté. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:385, fig. 1869. Origin uncertain, but it was first sent out by M. de Jonghe, Brussels, Bel., and then extensively propagated in France. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, irregular, yellowish-green, much washed with brown-fawn and speckled with small ashen-gray dots; flesh yellowish, semi-fine, semi-melting, granular at center; juice abundant, sugary, acidulous, with a somewhat savory perfume and after taste of anis; second, variable; from end of Nov. to Jan. =Madame Von Siebold. 1.= =Guide Prat.= 115. 1876. =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:485. 1913. Japan. The following description was made on the grounds of Messrs. Simon-Louis Bros., Metz, Lorraine: "Madame Von Siebold.--Fruit very large, rounded, a little narrow toward the cavity, where it is angular; truncated at the base and indented at the circumference.... Skin rather smooth, of a pretty brown color, dotted with large gray specks which are very regular and very apparent. Flesh white, slightly yellowish, medium fine, crisp, juicy, sweet, perfumed like quinces, almost eatable raw. The most beautiful of the Japanese--Simon-Louis Frères." =Madeleine d'Angers. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:386, fig. 1869. From the environs of Segré or of Beaupreau, districts in the same department (Maine), where it has been generally grown for 150 years. Fruit medium and sometimes below, conic and very elongated, somewhat contorted at the upper end, grass-green passing to greenish-yellow on the part near the stalk and dotted with gray-russet; flesh white, semi-fine or coarse, rather melting, watery and gritty; juice abundant, sugary, more or less acid, and only slightly perfumed; third; end of July. =Mademoiselle Blanche Sannier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1895. A French variety. Fruit large, oblong-pyriform; flesh fine, melting, perfumed, juicy; Oct. =Mademoiselle Marguerite Gaujard. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. Obtained by M. Gaujard at Ghent, Fr.; described as a new variety in 1895. Fruit oblong, rather gourd-shaped in form, covered with gray-russet and slightly blushed on the exposed side; flesh melting, of a sprightly taste, perfumed; Jan. to Mar. =Mademoiselle Solange. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =15=:120. 1888. Described by the Fruit Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society of England in 1887 as a new variety. Fruit small, nearly globular, green, juicy and of good flavor. =Magherman. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 110. 1876. Tree very vigorous, beautiful in aspect and extremely fertile. Fruit large or very large, long-pyriform, regular in outline, yellow streaked with carmine; flesh yellowish, excessively melting and very juicy, sugary and having an exquisite perfume; first; second half of Sept. =Magnate. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 610. 1884. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 186. 1920. A seedling raised by Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, Eng., from Louise Bonne de Jersey prior to 1880. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, even and symmetrical in outline, yellow covered with rather dark brown-russet, thickly strewed with large russet freckles, blushed and streaked with crimson; flesh yellow, tender, melting, rather gritty at the core, richly flavored, and with a slight perfume of rose-water; very good; Oct. and Nov. =Magnolia. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 41. 1909. =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:484. 1913. An oriental hybrid which originated in southern Georgia. Fruit large, globular to pyriform, smooth, yellowish-russet, with numerous irregular dots; flesh white, crisp, tender, juicy, mild, subacid; fair; "three or four weeks later than Kieffer in the South." =Malconnaître d'Haspin. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 810. 1869. Tree vigorous, hardy and productive. Fruit large, globular-obovate, dull yellow, with brownish-red cheek, stippled with coarse dots, and russeted at the calyx; flesh juicy, tender, and melting, rich, subacid, perfumed; Oct. and Nov. =Malvoisie de Landsberg. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:171, fig. 182. 1878. Obtained by Judge Burchardt, Landsberg, Brandenbourg, Ger. Fruit rather large, pyriform, more or less swelled, even in contour, but often irregular in form; skin somewhat firm, at first water-green, dotted with gray, the green changing to yellow and the side next the sun being at maturity slightly washed with rosy red; flesh white, rather fine, buttery, juicy, sweet, acidulous, having a sprightly and somewhat musky flavor; good; Oct. =Manchester. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 810. 1869. Originated in Providence, R. I. Fruit medium, obovate-pyriform, yellow, with traces and numerous dots of russet; flesh white, moderately juicy, semi-melting, sweet, agreeable; good; Oct. =Mandelblättrige Schneebirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:199. 1856. A French wilding; published 1810. Tree dwarf. Fruit small, globular-turbinate, green, smooth; flesh firm, astringent; winter. =Manning. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff of Brookline, Mass. Fruited in 1866. Fruit large, obovate, yellow with russet streaks and dots; flesh fine-grained, white, juicy, with a rich, pleasant flavor; first; Sept. =Mannsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:187. 1856. Württemberg, Ger., 1830. Classed among the Pound pears or Libralia. Fruit large, globular-turbinate, dull green changing to yellowish-green, blushed, both ends covered with russet, rusty dots; third for table, first for kitchen; Nov. and Dec. =Mansfield. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 811. 1869. A native variety of uncertain origin. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, yellowish-green, with considerable russet and many green and brown dots; flesh whitish, coarse, buttery, melting, sweet, a little astringent; good; Sept. =Mansuette. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:220, Pl. LVIII, fig. 1. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 611. 1884. _Solitaire._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 534. 1817. Origin unknown. Fruit large, long-obovate, irregular, obtuse, pale green, spotted with brown and much covered with the same color on the shaded side, and tinged with red on the side exposed to the sun; flesh white, semi-melting, moderately fine, inclined to grow soft, juicy, pleasantly acid and well flavored; a dessert pear; Sept. and Oct. =Mansuette Double. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:388, fig. 1869. This French cooking pear was first described in 1805. Fruit sometimes considerable, rather variable in form, often conic, obtuse, very swelled in the lower part and slightly bossed, sometimes very long ovate having one side near the base larger than the other, dark yellow, much covered with cinnamon-russet and large dots of ashy gray; flesh greenish-white, coarse, juicy, semi-breaking or breaking, very gritty at the core; juice abundant, deficient in sugar, wanting in perfume, often too acid; second; Oct. to Dec. =Marasquine. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:123, fig. 1866-73. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1876. Raised by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel. Fruit medium, regular-pyriform, tender green, sprinkled with grayish dots, golden at maturity; flesh very white, fine, buttery, melting, slightly gritty at the center; juice sufficient, having a characteristic perfume; end of Aug. =March Bergamot. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 811. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 611. 1884. Raised by T. A. Knight, President of the Horticultural Society of London. Fruit small or medium, globular, green or yellowish-brown, partially covered with russet; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, slightly gritty at the core, but very rich; in Europe it is a dessert pear of high merit; in this country, however, it seems to be of small worth; Mar. and will keep later. =Maréchal de Cour. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:390, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 612. 1884. A seedling of Van Mons of which he sent grafts to Alexandre Bivort, five months before his death, in April, 1842. Fruit large, sometimes very large, oblong-pyriform or obtuse-turbinate, one side always smaller than the other, thickly encrusted with russet so that but little of the yellow ground is visible; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, gritty at center, extremely juicy, sugary, vinous, perfumed; first; Sept. to Nov. =Maréchal Dillen. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:391, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 612. 1884. Raised by Van Mons in 1818 and was published by him in 1820. Fruit very large, obtuse-obovate, yellowish-green, mottled with patches and dots of brown-russet; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, very saccharine, having a very agreeable flavor of vinegar and musk; first, an excellent dessert pear; Oct. and Nov. =Maréchal Pelissier. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 523. 1857. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:393. 1869. This pear was raised by M. Flon, Senior, the well-known horticulturist, of Angevin, Fr., in 1845. Fruit medium, ovate, yellow, blushed with red on the side next the sun; flesh tender, juicy; Sept. and Oct. =Maréchal Vaillant. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:393, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 612. 1884. A seedling of M. Boisbunel of Rouen, Fr., gained in 1864. Fruit very large, obovate, uneven in outline, yellowish-green, mottled and dotted with russet; flesh whitish, rather fine, semi-melting; juice sufficient, sugary, vinous, richly flavored and musky; an excellent pear; mid-Dec. to end of Jan. =Margarethenbirne. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 119. 1825. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:30. 1856. German. Reported in 1789. Fruit small, turbinate, greenish-yellow and heavily dotted with green, seldom blushed; flesh semi-breaking, juicy and aromatic; third for dessert, first for kitchen and market; mid-July. =Marguerite d'Anjou. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:394, fig. 1869. M. Flon, Angers, obtained this from a seedling in 1863. Fruit above medium, irregular-ovate, and bossed, more enlarged on one side than on the other and often slightly contorted, clear yellow, slightly tinted with pale rose on the side next the sun; flesh white, fine, dense, melting, watery, free from grit; juice abundant, highly saccharine, acidulous, possesses a delicious flavor recalling the perfume of the violet; first; Oct. =Marguerite Chevalier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1876. Fruit medium, nearly spherical, almost entirely covered with fawn-russet; flesh fine, melting, juicy, sprightly; good; end of autumn. =Marguerite Marillat. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 45. 1895. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 186. 1920. Similar to Souvenir du Congrès but of brighter golden hue, obtained by M. Marillat, Craponne, near Lyons, Fr., 1874. Fruit large, pyriform-turbinate, pale yellow touched with fawn-russet, blushed with red on the side next the sun, sometimes a rich golden yellow at maturity; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine, very juicy, saccharine, acidulous, aromatic, slightly musky, very rich; second; early Sept. =Maria. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1895. Sent out by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit rather large, oblong-ovate; flesh yellowish, very agreeable; Feb. and Mar. =Maria de Nantes. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =2=:39, fig. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 812. 1869. Raised by M. Garnier near Nantes, Fr., and reported in 1853. Fruit nearly medium, globular-turbinate or oval-turbinate, greenish-yellow covered with fawn-russet; flesh fine, buttery, melting; juice saccharine, highly perfumed, and acidulous; first; Oct. to Dec. =Maria Stuart. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:69. 1856. Belgian, 1851. A Van Mons seedling. Fruit large, conic, bent, with unequal sides, lemon-yellow, covered densely with gray dots, lightly russeted; very good for all purposes; Oct. =Marianne de Nancy. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:396, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 812. 1869. A seedling of Van Mons who sent cuttings of it a few days before his death to M. Millot, a pomologist at Nancy, Fr. Fruit medium, obtuse-turbinate, very regular and even in contour, grass-green, stained with brown-russet; flesh whitish, fine, melting or semi-melting; juice abundant, very sugary, acidulous; second, though sometimes first when its flesh is very melting and its juice full of flavor; mid-Aug. =Marie Benoist. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:397, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 187. 1920. Obtained from seed by Auguste Benoist, Brissac, Maine-et-Loire, Fr., in 1853. Fruit large, turbinate, very irregular, obtuse and mammillate at the summit, globular at the base and generally much more enlarged on one side than on the other, clear green, dotted and veined with russet, stained with fawn especially around the calyx and stem; flesh white, fine, melting, a little gritty; juice abundant, saccharine, vinous, delicately perfumed; first; Dec. to Feb. =Marie Guisse. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:398, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 613. 1884. Grown from seed of St. Germain in 1834, near Metz, Lorraine. Fruit medium, obovate-oblong-pyriform, surface uneven, yellow, with shades of red in the sun, and large, dull dark specks; flesh yellowish-white, granular, melting, sweet, vinous; Dec. to Feb. =Marie Henriette. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1895. Sent out by Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit small or medium, globular; flesh granular, very juicy and sugary; first; Oct. =Marie Jallais. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1876. Obtained by Jules Buneau, 1868. Fruit medium, form variable; flesh melting, juicy, very sugary and perfumed, of a sprightly flavor; first; Oct. to Dec. =Marie Louise Nova. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 400. 1845. =2.= _Ibid._ 813. 1869. Sent by Van Mons to Mr. Manning, and though in some seasons very good, it cannot compare with Marie Louise. Fruit medium, regular-acute-pyriform, yellow, with a brownish-red cheek; flesh at first melting, juicy, but quickly decays; good; end of Sept. =Marie Louise d'Uncle. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 1060, 1179. 1865. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 187. 1920. Marie Louise d'Uncle is a seedling of Marie Louise raised by M. Gambier, a neighbor and contemporary of Van Mons. It produced its first fruits in 1846. Fruit rather large, pyriform, pale cinnamon-colored russet, rather similar to Marie Louise; flesh very fine, very melting, buttery, saccharine, very juicy and richly flavored; good to very good; Sept. and Oct. =Marie Mottin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Fruit large; flesh melting; first; Oct. =Marie Parent. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:401, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 814. 1869. Raised by Bivort, director of the nurseries of the Society Van Mons at Geest-Saint-Rémy, Bel., from a seed bed formed in 1844 from seeds of the last generation of Van Mons' seedlings. Fruit above medium, oblong, more or less cylindrical and bossed, or turbinate, very much swelled at the base and bossed at either extremity; skin fine ochre or golden yellow, dotted and stained with russet, washed with brick-red on the cheek next the sun; flesh white, fine, melting or semi-melting, containing numerous small grits around the core, juicy, sugary, vinous, perfumed; first; Oct., often till Dec. =Marietta. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:484. 1913. An oriental hybrid. Tree is said to be inclined to grow tall, with a single main stem. Fruit light yellow, with red blush; Oct. =Mariette de Millepieds. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:403, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 614. 1884. A very late pear which came from the seed beds of Maurice Goubalt, a nurseryman in the suburbs of Angers, Fr., fruiting after his death, in 1854. Fruit large, ovate, irregular and bossed or turbinate, slightly obtuse, one side larger than the other, rough to the touch, rather thick, yellowish-green, washed with dark russet on the cheek next the sun; flesh white, very fine, melting, juicy and scented, refreshing, sugary, acidulous, having an exquisite flavor; first; Mar. often till May. =Markbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:103. 1856. Mid-Germany, 1797. Fruit fairly large, ventriculous, faint light green turning to pale green, often blushed and dotted with greenish-gray specks and marked with russet; flesh white, fairly soft, buttery, melting, full of flavor; very good for the table and good for culinary purposes; Dec. and Jan. =Marksbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:162. 1856. Thuringia, Ger., 1799. Fruit small, globular, flattened, greenish-yellow, speckled with yellowish-gray and greenish dots; flesh firm, breaking, juicy and acidulous; first for household; Sept. =Marmion. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 814. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:29, fig. 111. 1878. According to the Bulletin of the Société Van Mons this was either obtained or propagated by M. Bivort in Belgium. Fruit nearly medium, turbinate, dull water-green, sprinkled with numerous and rather large brown spots, the basic green passing at maturity to lemon-yellow and warmly golden on the side of the sun; flesh white, rather fine, breaking, fairly juicy, saccharine and sprightly; dessert; Sept. =Marquise. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:221, Pl. XLIX. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 614. 1884. Of French origin. Merlet described it in 1675 in his _Abrégé des bons fruits_. Fruit above medium, turbinate, globular in the lower part, conic and slightly obtuse in the upper, bright green changing to yellowish, with a brownish tinge on the side next the sun, thickly covered with dots, which are green on the shaded side and brown or gray on the other; flesh white, semi-fine, breaking, full of sugary juice, slightly acid and musky, and very delicate; a good dessert pear; Nov. and Dec. =Marquise de Bedman. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 814. 1869. Foreign. Fruit medium or below, roundish-pyriform, pale greenish-yellow, with a few traces and patches of russet and many green and brown dots; flesh white, sweet, rather firm; good; Sept. =Marsaneix. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:406, fig. 1869. A cooking pear of no particular merit which originated at the market town of Marsaneix, Department of Dordogne, Fr., and was cultivated on the farms of that country in the middle of the eighteenth century. Fruit small, globular, regular in form; skin rough, entirely russeted, dotted with yellowish-gray; flesh whitish, semi-fine, breaking, scented, gritty; juice abundant but deficient in sugar, insipid; second and for cooking only; Jan. and Feb. =Marshall. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 179. 1881. Said to have originated on the farm of William Marshall, Cambridge, N. Y., some years previous to 1881. Fruit medium, globular, inclining to obtuse-pyriform, yellow, netted and patched with russet over nearly the whole surface and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; flesh white, semi-fine, juicy, semi-melting, slightly vinous and slightly aromatic; very good; end of Sept. =Marshall Wilder. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:407, fig. 1869. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =27=:150. 1872. Originated in the nurseries of M. Leroy at Angers, Fr., in 1866. Fruit large, long-conic, very irregular, somewhat like Calebasse in form, more or less bossed; skin rough, clear green slightly yellowish, dotted with gray-russet, marbled with brown and scaly; flesh yellowish-white, fine or semi-fine, juicy, very melting, sugary, deliciously perfumed and refreshing; first; Oct. and Nov. =Martha Ann. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:547. 1850. A seedling raised by Francis Dana, Roxbury, Mass. Fruit medium or below, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, yellowish-green, with patches and dots of russet; flesh coarse, juicy, astringent; poor; Oct. =Martin. 1.= _Kans. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 171. 1886. Originated in Cowley, Kans., and reported as a new fruit and a good substitute for the Vicar of Winkfield. Fruit medium to large, oblate-pyriform, irregular, greenish changing to yellowish-white, smooth; flesh firm, fine grained, buttery, juicy; fair; Jan. =Martin-Sec. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:408, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 615. 1884. _Trockener Martin._ =3.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 216, fig. 1913. Hogg tells us that this and the Martin Sire are among the earliest varieties known to have been grown in England, for they are mentioned among the fruits delivered into the Treasury by the fruiterer of Edward I in 1292. In 1530 Charles Estienne of Paris wrote of it as being cultivated in France and affirmed the Pears of Saint Martin were so named because their time of ripening coincided with the Festival of that Saint. Again, in 1675 Merlet in his _Abrégé des bons fruits_ spoke of the Martin-Sec of Provins or of Champagne. Fruit medium or above, long-pyriform-obtuse, regular in form, yellowish and russeted, dotted with gray points and extensively washed with carmine on the face exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine, very breaking, rather dry, but sweet and perfumed, very gritty when grafted on quince; third; mid-Nov. to Feb. =Martin-Sire. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:145, Pl. XIX, fig. 5. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:410, fig. 1869. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 615. 1884. This pear, sometimes known as _Lord Martin Pear_, was grown in England in the thirteenth century. By Claude Saint-Étienne in 1628 it was mentioned under two of its most ancient names, Martin-Sire and _Ronville_. In the eighteenth century Mayer in the _Pomona franconica_ said the name Martin-Sire which was the most generally recognized of its many names originated from a former Lord of Ronville whose name was Martin. Fruit medium, pyriform, obtuse and very regular; skin fine, smooth and shining, bright green changing to a fine deep yellow, dotted and marked with fawn, carmined on the side next the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine, breaking, fairly juicy, sweet, perfumed and often with an after-taste of musk; more fit for stewing than dessert; Dec. to Feb. =Marulis. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:388. 1843. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 397. 1854. Foreign. Fruit small, globular, greenish-yellow; poor; Sept. =Mary (Case). 1.= Downing. _Fr. Trees Am._ 815. 1869 Originated in the grounds of William Case, Cleveland, Ohio. Fruit small to medium, globular-pyriform, greenish-yellow, slight blush in the sun and many minute brown dots; flesh white, juicy, almost buttery, sweet and acid; very good; last of July. =Mary= (Van Mons). =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:411, fig. 1869. A seedling obtained by Van Mons, which gave its first fruit at Brussels about the year 1818. Fruit medium and often above medium, ovate, obtuse, rather regular but generally a little depressed on one side at the calyx, yellow-ochre stained with fawn-brown around the stem and sprinkled with light marblings and large dots of green and russet, very numerous around the base; flesh whitish, very fine, melting; juice very abundant, sugary, with a vinegary flavor both delicate and refreshing; first; mid-Oct. =Mascon Colmar. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:106. 1856. Originated from seed at Nassau, Ger., 1825. Fruit medium, obtuse-conic, distorted in form, light green turning yellowish-green at maturity, free from any red blush, but much russeted and dotted; flesh white, buttery, melting, juicy, full of flavor; good for dessert and culinary purposes; Feb. =Masselbacher Mostbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:193. 1856. A perry pear. Württemberg, Ger., 1847. Fruit small, almost a sphere, green turning to yellow, much covered with russet; flesh firm, granular, acidulous; very good for perry and good for household use; end of Sept. and early Oct. =Masuret. 1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 374. 1908. One of the best French perry pears suitable for commercial and amateur growers; good for the production of sparkling perry; juice clear and very full of perfume; end of Nov. =Mather. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 82. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 815. 1869. The Mather pear originated with John Mather, Jenkintown, Pa., from seed planted by him about 1810. Fruit below medium, obovate, yellow, with occasionally a red mottled cheek and russeted at the insertion of the stem; flesh rather coarse, buttery, of delicate flavor and agreeable; good; Aug. =Mathilde. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:55. 1856. A Van Mons seedling, 1852. Fruit medium, ovate, greenish changing to greenish-yellow, blushed, and speckled with gray dots; flesh semi-melting, granular, sweet, vinous; second for dessert, first for kitchen and market purposes; end of Aug. for 14 days. =Mathilde Gomand. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1876. Published by Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium; skin russeted; flesh melting; first; Jan. =Mathilde Recq. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, at Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit, flesh fine, very saccharine and highly perfumed; Nov. =Mathilde de Rochefort. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. Tree vigorous, forming good pyramids. Fruit small, ovate, covered with russet; flesh fine, melting, very juicy and sugary; Dec. =Matou. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:414, fig. 1869. A variety, known also as _Chat-Grillé_ and _Chat-Rôti_ in France and which must not be confounded with the _Chat-Brûlé_, already described, which ripens in December. Its origin is unknown. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform and enlarged around central circumference, golden-yellow, dotted and marbled with gray-russet, washed with carmine on the face exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine, breaking, watery, very granular at the center; juice rather abundant, rarely very saccharine, astringent, almost devoid of perfume; third; mid-Aug. =Matthews. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 82. 1903. =2.= _Hopedale Nurs. Cat._ 17. 1913. Brought from New Jersey about 1835 by a Mr. Chiever and planted at Delavan, Ill. Tree long-lived, a late bearer. Fruit medium to large, apple-shaped, green turning yellow, sweet, juicy; Oct. to Feb. =Maud Hogg. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ =20=:30. 1871. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 615. 1884. Raised by John Mannington, Uckfield, in the Weald of Sussex, Eng.; bore fruit in 1871 for the first time. Fruit above medium, oblong-obovate; skin entirely covered with a crust of warm brown-russet like that of the Beurré Gris, and has a slight orange glow on the side exposed to the sun, very much like the Chaumontel, no yellow or ground color visible; flesh yellowish-white, tender and buttery, very juicy, sweet, richly flavored; a dessert pear of the first quality; Oct. to Dec. =Maude. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1876. A French perry pear abundantly cultivated in the Haute-Savoie, Fr. Fruit medium, globular, grayish-green washed with red; flesh coarse, remarkably juicy. =Maurice Desportes. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:415, fig. 1869. This came from the seed beds of M. André Leroy, Angers, Fr., and first fruited in 1863. Fruit medium, oblong-conic, yellow, dotted with gray, blushed on the sunny side; stem long, rather stout, continuous with the fruit; calyx small, open, in a large cavity; flesh white, rather fine and rather melting, slightly granular, juicy, sweet; first; Sept. =Mausebirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:138. 1856. Hanover, Ger., 1852. Fruit medium to large, variable in form, distorted, bossed; skin fine, greenish turning to yellow when ripe, almost entirely covered with cinnamon-russet, sprinkled with green spots; flesh yellowish-white, sweet and scented with rose; first for the table and kitchen use; Oct. =Mayflower. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1866. A seedling raised by Dr. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., which fruited first in 1863. Fruit "short diameter 2-1/2 inches, long diameter 3 inches; flesh rather dry and firm; skin yellow, with red cheek; keeps soundly without extra care until May. A most prolific bearer. Short pyriform." =Maynard. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 52. 1857. =2.= _Ibid._ 815. 1869. Origin unknown but thought to have been first grown in Lancaster County, Pa. Fruit medium, obovate-pyriform, yellow with russet dots and a crimson cheek; flesh white, juicy and sugary; moderately good; end of July. =Mayr frühzeitige Butterbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:113. 1856. Reported at Gratz, Styria, Austria, 1833. Fruit medium, turbinate-pyriform, uniformly light yellow, slightly russeted on the side next the sun, often with no russet; flesh white, soft, melting, full of flavor, keeps well; first for dessert, good for culinary use and market; Sept. and Oct. =Max. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 73. 1895. A seedling of Flemish Beauty grown in Ohio. Fruit medium, globular-pyriform, yellow brightly blushed, flavor vinous, subacid; good; Sept. in Ohio. =Mecham. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 195. 1867. A seedling pear reported from St. George, Utah, in 1867. Fruit very large, bright green, ripens in Oct. =Medaille d'Été. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1876. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis of Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit large, ovate-pyramidal, lemon-yellow; flesh semi-breaking, very juicy, highly perfumed; Aug. =Medofka. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =17=:292. 1894. Russian. Fruit very small, conical, clear yellow; flesh very melting, agreeable. =Meissner Grossvatersbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:34. 1856. Reported to be of Saxon origin, 1833. Fruit small, turbinate, almost entirely covered with light brown-russet, and sprinkled with round red spots; flesh juicy, semi-melting, having a strong aroma of cinnamon. =Meissner Hirschbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:7. 1856. Saxony, 1803. Fruit medium, conic, bossed, pale light green changing at maturity to light lemon-yellow, often washed extensively with dark blood-red, numerous reddish dots, scentless; flesh breaking, juicy, aromatic; first for household and market; Aug. =Meissner langstielige Feigenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:167. 1856. Saxony, 1805. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, ventriculous and flat, crooked, somewhat uneven, light green changing to yellowish-green, often blushed with dark red, without dots, marked with russet; flesh yellowish-green white, coarse-grained, sweet, firm, breaking; third for dessert, first for kitchen; Oct. =Meissner Liebchensbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:167. 1856. German, chiefly found in Saxony. Fruit small, globular-ventriculous-conic; skin shining, lemon-yellow, becoming highly polished, strongly dotted with round red spots, often marked with fine russet on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, coarse-grained, firm, breaking, wanting in juice; third for the table, first for kitchen and market. =Meissner Zwiebelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:34. 1856. Saxony, 1833. Fruit small, globular, light yellow, speckled with numerous fine russety spots; flesh often melting, with musky aroma, fine-grained; first for table and very good for culinary purposes; end of Aug. for three weeks. =Mélanie Michelin. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:55, fig. 412. 1880. Gained by M. Boisbunel, Junior, Rouen, Fr. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform, even in contour; skin rather thick, whitish-green, sprinkled with fairly numerous and rather large green spots, scarcely visible and often absent altogether; when ripe the basic green takes a more yellow tone on the side of the sun, and in the case of well-exposed fruits is blushed with a very light rosy red; flesh whitish, slightly tinted with green, tender, a little soft, melting, full of sweet juice and delicately perfumed; good; mid-July. =Mellish. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 815. 1869. Fruit below medium, globular-pyriform, pale yellow, netted, patched and dotted with russet; flesh whitish, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant; good to very good; Oct. =Melon. 1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =1=:77, Tab. 1. 1771. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:417, fig. 1869. Of Dutch origin; first described in the Pomology of Knoop in 1766. Fruit medium, typically pyriform, slightly obtuse, regular in outline, sometimes a little uneven and crooked, greenish-yellow when ripe and more or less marked with black, or dark brown, stains, of poor appearance; flesh delicate and gritty, rather succulent and savory but having no particular flavor, not sprightly nor does it justify its name; Aug. and Sept. =Melon de Hellmann. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:83, fig. 330. 1880. Grown by M. Hellmann, Meiningen, Ger. Fruit large, spherical, even in outline, intense green passing to decided yellow when ripe and warmly golden on the side of the sun, numerous dark green spots; flesh white, coarse, semi-breaking; juice sugary, perfumed and agreeable; second, good for cooking; Sept. =Ménagère Sucrée de Van Mons. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:127, fig. 160. 1878. A seedling of Van Mons who distributed it without name. Fruit medium, conic-turbinate; skin thick, at first very clear green sprinkled with gray dots, numerous, very small but clearly visible; towards maturity the green changes to brilliant lemon-yellow and warmly golden on the side next the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine, semi-buttery and distinctly perfumed with clove; Oct. =Mendenhall. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 88. 1900. Mentioned as one of the "newer" varieties of pears, having given its first ripe specimens on July 5th, 1900. Fruit small, pyriform, yellow, much better in quality than Early Harvest. =Meresia Nevill. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 616. 1884. A seedling of John Mannington, Uckfield, Sussex, Eng.; first fruited in 1872. Fruit below medium, roundish-obovate or oval, even and regular in outline, entirely covered with thick, dark-brown russet; flesh semi-melting, crisp, juicy, sweet, with a rich vinous flavor; an excellent dessert pear; Dec. and Jan. =Merlet 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:418, fig. 1869. Merlet came from the nurseries of M. Boisbunel, Rouen, Fr.; it fruited first in 1861. Fruit medium, turbinate, slightly obtuse and bossed; skin smooth, fine and shining, yellowish-green, delicately dotted with gray; flesh greenish-white, semi-fine, melting, watery, granular around the core; juice abundant and saccharine, refreshing and having a highly delicate flavor; first; Aug. =Merriam. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 524. 1857. =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 284. 1867. Originated at Roxbury, Mass.; popular in Boston in 1867. Fruit large, globular, somewhat flattened at base and crown, smooth, rich yellow, covered with pale russet around the stem and calyx, and netted with russet all over; flesh yellowish, rather coarse, melting, juicy, sugary, perfumed, very good; Sept. and Oct. =Méruault. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:184, fig. 576. 1881. Obtained by M. Pariset from a seed bed of the Easter Beurré made in 1856. Fruit medium, ovate, shortened and thick, water-green sown with dots of fawn-brown, more often almost wholly covered with russet of fawn color; on ripening the basic green changes to an intense lemon-yellow, the russet clears, and the side next the sun becomes golden; flesh whitish, fine, buttery, melting, without grit; juice abundant, rich in sugar, delicately perfumed with musk; first; throughout winter. =Merveille de Moringen. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1876. Originated in the environs of Moringen, Ger., where it is very well thought of. Tree large, very fertile, resisted the phenomenal frost of 1879-1880 in Europe. Fruit small, turbinate, a beautiful lemon-yellow; flesh breaking; for cooking; Oct. =Messire Jean. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:173, Pl. XXVI. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 616. 1884. Of ancient and untraceable origin, but mentioned by Venette, Rochelle, Fr., in 1678 and 1683. Fruit medium, turbinate, sometimes slightly obovate, surface slightly bossed; skin rough, thick, dark green, passing to buff, washed with dark red on the side of the sun, strewed with speckles of darker russet; flesh white, slightly tinged with lemon, rather fine, breaking, juicy, richly saccharine, perfumed, sprightly; good, either for dessert or kitchen use; Nov. and Dec. =Messire Jean Goubault. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:422, fig. 1869. This variety dates from 1847 and came from a seed bed of M. Goubault, Angers, Fr. Fruit large or medium, turbinate, more or less globular, often irregular, bossed and much larger on one side than on the other; skin fine and wrinkled and entirely reddened and dotted with large grayish spots; flesh whitish, coarse, semi-melting, always doughy and containing some grit around the core; juice rather scanty, sugary, tart, slightly perfumed and very agreeable; second; Nov. =Michaelmas Nelis. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ N. S. =30=:272, fig. 82. 1901. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 188. 1920. A seedling from Winter Nelis, which Messrs. Bunyard, nurserymen, Maidstone, Eng., found by chance in a cottage garden, and sent out in 1901. It was given an award of merit at a meeting of the Fruit Committee of the Royal Horticultural Society in October, 1902. Fruit medium, pyriform, very shapely, light greenish skin, somewhat russety; flesh white, melting, very little grit, juicy and of delicious flavor; end of Sept. =Michaux. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =6=:45. 1840. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 239. 1854. Origin not clear but R. Manning, Salem, Mass., stated that he had received it from a town in Alsace, Fr. Fruit medium, nearly globular-pyriform, light yellowish-green changing to yellow, with a slight blush of red; flesh white, coarse, semi-buttery, juicy, sweet; second; Sept. and Oct. =Mignonne d'Été. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Obtained by M. Boisbunel, Rouen, Fr., and placed in commerce in 1874. Fruit medium to large, like Calebasse in form; skin glossy and yellow, finely dotted and streaked with gray-russet; flesh fine and melting; Aug. =Mignonne d'Hiver. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 816. 1869. An old Belgian variety. Fruit medium, obovate to oblong-ovate-pyriform, light yellow, mostly covered with thick, rough russet, and veined with crimson and fawn; flesh yellowish, rather granular, juicy, melting, sweet, vinous, aromatic; good; Nov. and Dec. =Mikado. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 115. 1876. =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:449, 484. 1913. Among the most successful importers of oriental plants was Freiherr V. Siebold who maintained a nursery and botanic garden in Leyden, Holland, during the first half of the nineteenth century. Of the pears imported by him, Mikado was one. This was procured from Von Siebold's nursery in 1873 by Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine. Fruit rather large, globular-ovoid; skin rough to the touch, yellowish-olive, dotted with gray specks; flesh white, fine, breaking, rather juicy, perfumed, with a pronounced quince flavor, subacid; poor, uneatable raw; end of Sept. =Milan d'Hiver. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:424, fig. 1869. A very old pear described in 1675 by Merlet, the French pomologist. Fruit large, globular-turbinate, usually mammillate at the summit and very regular; skin thick and rough to the touch, gray-russet, sprinkled around the stalk with large whitish-gray dots; flesh yellowish, fine, semi-melting, granular at the core; juice rarely plentiful, only slightly saccharine, acidulous, feebly aromatic; third; Nov. to Jan. =Milan de Rouen. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:425, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 617. 1884. Gained by M. Boisbunel, Rouen, Fr.; distributed in 1859. Fruit medium, globular, a little conic toward the summit, slightly bossed and one side less swelled than the other; skin thick, dull yellow, dotted and streaked with fawn, much stained with gray around the stem; flesh yellowish, semi-fine, and semi-melting, juicy, rather granular at the core, sugary; juice aromatic, often spoiled by an unpleasant acerbity; second; end of Aug. =Miller. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:426, fig. 1869. Raised from seed by André Leroy; first reported in 1864. Fruit medium and sometimes larger; in form it passes from rounded conic to globular, slightly flattened especially at the base; skin rough to touch, bronzed all over, dotted with russet, and dotted and mottled with greenish-yellow; flesh white, fine, melting, a little granular at the core, juicy, sugary, sourish, with a delicious aroma; first; Oct. =Millot de Nancy. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:427, fig. 1867. Produced in the nurseries of Van Mons at Louvain; first reported in 1843. Fruit medium, ovate, very obtuse, more or less regular and bossed, often rather globular, yellow-ochre dotted with gray-russet, mottled with olive-brown, sometimes washed with clear fawn on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine, melting or semi-melting, gritty at the center; juice rarely abundant, but very saccharine, aromatic and full of flavor, sometimes a little too acid; second; Oct. =Milner. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:181. 1908. Cataloged by Silas Wharton in 1824 under the name of _Milner's Favorite_. Fruit small, pyriform; good. =Mima Wilder. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 152. 1874. =2.= _Ibid._ 120. 1875. A seedling of Colonel Wilder, in a collection of new pears shown by him in 1874. In November of the following year it was found to have retained its previous good quality. =Ministre Bara. 1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 49. 1892. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1895. A gain of Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. It was exhibited by P. J. Berckmans of Augusta, Georgia, before the Georgia State Horticultural Society in 1892 and 1893. =Ministre Pirmez. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Published by Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium to large; flesh melting; first; Jan. and Feb. =Ministre Viger. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 113. 1901. Raised by Messrs. Baltet of Troyes, Fr., from seed of the Pierre Tourasse. It was much noticed at the International Exhibition at Paris in 1900. Fruit large, turbinate, bossed, tender yellow clouded with ochre, washed with rosy gray and salmon on the side next the sun, with speckles of fawn; flesh fine, melting, very juicy, saccharine, with perfume noticeable on the skin, and flavor recalling that of the Duchesse d'Angoulême; mid-Dec. to mid-Jan. =Minot Jean Marie. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1876. A seedling of Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit large, pyriform, shortened, covered with russet on a yellow foundation; flesh yellowish, breaking, very juicy, sugary; first; Dec. to Feb. =Missile d'Hiver. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 169. 1841. A foreign variety recommended by M. Dalbret and M. Jamin, well known pomologists. Fruit large, buttery, valuable according to M. Jamin; Nov. and Dec. =Mission. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 73. 1895. Originated at the old mission near Capistrano, California. Fruit medium, acutely pyriform, long, yellow, nearly covered with russet; flesh very fine and buttery; very mild or sweet; ripe in Sept. in southern California. =Mr. Hill's Pear. 1.= Langley _Pomona_ 132, Pl. LXIII, figs. 2, 4. 1729. Mentioned by Batty Langley, Twickenham, Eng., as bearing two crops in the year. Fruit rather small, obtuse-pyriform, usually distorted at the upper end, grows in clusters; in 1727 the first crop matured on Aug. 24, and the second crop on Oct. 1. =Mitchell Russet. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 525. 1857. =2.= _Ibid._ 817. 1869. Originated at Belleville, Ill. Fruit medium or small, obovate inclining to conic; skin rough, dark russet, thickly covered with gray dots; flesh juicy, melting, rich and highly perfumed, astringent; scarcely good; Oct. =Mitschurin. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =17=:292. 1894. Probably Russian. Fruit very large; a good kitchen fruit; mid-season. =Moccas. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 717. 1841. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 617. 1884. Raised from seed by Thomas Andrew Knight, Downton Castle, Eng. Fruit medium, oval, uneven, and bossed in outline, lemon-colored, marked with patches and veins of thin pale brown-russet and strewed with russet dots; flesh yellowish, fine, melting, tender, full of rich vinous juice, musky in flavor; a delicious dessert pear. =Mollet Guernsey Beurré. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 36, 85. 1842. Raised from seed by Charles Mollet of Guernsey, Channel Islands, who died in 1819. Fruit medium, obovate or somewhat pyramidal, with a remarkable fleshy extension of about 1/2 inch at the insertion of the stalk, surface of the pear uneven, yellow, but much obscured with ferruginous russet, sometimes equally scattered, but often disposed in broad, longitudinal stripes; flesh yellowish, very melting, buttery, with a rich Chaumontel flavor though distinct; Dec. =Monarch. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 312. 1866. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 188. 1920. _Knight Monarch._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 796. 1869. Raised by Thomas Andrew Knight, Downton Castle, Eng., in 1830. Bunyard says: "Tree easily recognized in winter by its very large oval buds, which stand out like those of a red currant." Fruit medium, globular, yellowish-green, much covered with brown-russet and strewed with gray-russet specks; flesh yellowish, buttery, melting and very juicy, with a rich, vinous, sugary, and agreeably-perfumed flavor; first, one of the most valuable; Dec. and Jan. =Monchallard. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:429, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 189. 1920. Found about 1810 by M. Monchallard at Valeuil, Dordogne, Fr. Fruit above medium to large, long-obovate, very obtuse; skin delicate, yellow, clear and dull, speckled uniformly with greenish dots and often washed with dark red on the cheek next the sun; flesh very white, fine or semi-fine, extremely melting, juicy, saccharine, acidulous, slightly aromatic and of delicious flavor; first; end of Aug. and Sept. =Mongolian. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 215. 1896. =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:482. 1913. Considered by Budd of Iowa to be the best of the oriental varieties yet tested in this country. Obtained from seed at Ames, Iowa. Fruit medium to large, globular-oval, narrowing at both ends, with its greatest diameter near the middle, similar to Kieffer in shape, inclined to ridging near the apex, greenish, with blushed cheeks and russet dots; flesh tender, melting, juicy; good when ripened indoors. =Monseigneur Affre. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom_. =2=:430, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 618. 1884. Raised by Van Mons though the tree did not produce fruit until 1845, three years after his death. Fruit medium, form variable, globular-obtuse-truncate, pyriform, greenish-yellow; flesh white, reddish under the skin, very melting, juicy, sugary, acidulous, aromatic, with a fine flavor; first; Nov. =Monseigneur des Hons. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:431, fig. 1869. M. Gibey-Lorne, Troyes, Fr., raised this pear from seed in 1856. Fruit below medium and often small, usually turbinate, rather long and obtuse, but sometimes cylindrical and bossed, olive-green dotted with russet on the shaded side, golden on the exposed face, sometimes blushed with carmine; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting; juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous, aromatic; second; end of Aug. =Monseigneur Sibour. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:432, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 817. 1869. Originated at Jodoigne, Bel., from a bed made by Xavier Grégoire; it dates from 1855. Fruit above medium but often less, ovate, swelled in its lower half, yellowish-green, dotted, marbled and streaked with gray-russet and more or less washed with brown-fawn on the side of the sun; flesh whitish, rather coarse, semi-melting, juicy, containing numerous grits around the core; juice saccharine, vinous and aromatic; second; end of Oct. =Moon. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:183. 1908. Cultivated by Silas Wharton in 1824. Its synonyms, _Moon's Pound_, and _Pound, Moon's_, are significant of its size. Fruit described by Ragan as medium sized, yellow; flesh melting, juicy; good; late. =Moorcroft. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 619. 1884. Often called in England the _Malvern_ pear, being much grown about that place; esteemed for perry. Fruit small, globular, even and regular in outline, greenish-yellow on the shaded side, and with a brownish tinge on the side next the sun, strewed all over with large ashy gray freckles of russet; flesh breaking. =Moorfowl Egg. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 361. 1831. _Muirfowl Egg._ =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 619. 1884. An old Scotch dessert pear partaking somewhat of the character of Swan Egg. Fruit below medium, globular, dull green changing to yellow-green, mottled with red next the sun, and thickly strewed with pale brown-russety dots; flesh yellowish, semi-buttery, tender, sweet and with a slight perfume; Oct. =Morel. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =21=:151. 1855. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:434, fig. 1869. Propagated by Alexandre Bivort, successor of Van Mons, and can be traced earlier than 1843. Fruit below medium or small, ovate, sensibly hexagonal, flattened at either extremity, and one side usually more enlarged than the other, yellowish-green, dotted and marbled with russet; flesh yellowish, fine, breaking, rather granular at the center; juice abundant, wanting in sweetness, insipid and of a very unpleasant astringency; second, but good only for cooking; Apr. =Morgan. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =14=:250, fig. 1859. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =25=:541. 1859. Originated on the farm of a Mr. Morgan in New Hanover County, North Carolina. Fruit large, oblate varying to obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, speckled with gray-russet intermingled with some tracery of the same; flesh white, a little gritty, juicy, sweet, slightly vinous; very good, nearly best; Oct. =Morley. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. Mentioned in Parkinson's list of orchard pears as a "very good peare, like in forme and colour unto the Windsor but somewhat grayer." =Morosovskaja. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1880. Mentioned in a paper read by Mr. J. L. Budd before the Horticultural Society of Iowa in 1880. It is a Russian variety, having gritty, thorn-like wood. =Moskovka. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:184. 1908. A Russian variety said to be largely grown for cooking. Fruit small, pyriform, juicy; early season. =Mostbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:173. 1856. Nassau, Ger., 1802. Fruit medium, pyriform, sides rather unequal, whitish-yellow skin changing to lemon-yellow, without any blush, dotted indistinctly, russeted; flesh yellow, breaking, coarse-grained, juicy, aromatic, sweet; third for dessert, but first for cooking and perry; Sept. and Oct. =Moyamensing. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:274. 1847. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 818. 1869. Supposed to be a native. The original tree stood in 1847 in the garden of J. B. Smith of Philadelphia. Fruit medium, variable in form, some globular, others obovate, uniform light yellow, with patches and dots of russet; flesh whitish, buttery, melting, coarse, sweet; with a rich, spicy and delicious flavor; good to best; Aug. and Sept. =Mrs. Seden. 1.= _Garden_ =76=:36, figs. 1912. A cross between Seckel and Bergamotte Espéren; exhibited by James Veitch and Sons, Chelsea, Eng., before the Royal Horticultural Society in January, 1912, and received an award of merit. Fruit small, round, yellow, toning to a bright crimson on the sunny side; flesh is free from the grittiness which sometimes characterizes the fruits of Bergamotte Espéren; the flavor is remarkably fine; Jan. =Muddy Brook. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1866. A seedling from S. A. Shurtleff of Brookline, Mass., which fruited in 1862. Fruit diameter 2-1/4 inches, short pyriform; skin dark green; flesh white, melting and juicy, with good flavor; great bearer and good market pear; Sept. =Muir Everbearing. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Originated with Hal Muir, Bloomfield, Ky., about 1870. Reported as "delicious; August to November." =Mungo Park. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:160, 1856. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1876. A seedling of Van Mons named after the celebrated Scotch voyager. Fruit small, turbinate-pyriform or globular-ovate, very pale green sprinkled with fawn dots, very small, numerous, and feebly visible, the basic green passing at maturity to pale whitish-yellow and becoming a little golden on the side of the sun; flesh white, very fine, melting, free from grit, full of sugary juice, sprightly and agreeably perfumed; first; Oct. =Munz Apothekerbirne. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =30=:370. 1891. Presumably German. A medium-sized pear, obovate, oblong, with a stalk rather more than an inch long, continuous with the fruit, yellowish; flesh white; of good flavor; Aug. =Muscadine. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =1=:364. 1835. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 818. 1869. The original tree is supposed to have grown on the farm of a Dr. Fowler near Newburgh, N. Y., and the pear was introduced to notice by Downing. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, regular in form, pale yellowish-green, thickly sprinkled with brown dots; flesh white, buttery, semi-melting, with an agreeable rich, musky flavor; good to very good, a valuable late summer variety; end of Aug. and beginning of Sept. =Muscat Allemand d'Automne. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:437, fig. 1869. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 256. 1889. Found in the Horticultural Society's Garden at Angers, Fr., in 1833. Its origin is uncertain but the name indicates that it came from Germany. Fruit medium and sometimes below, rather variable in form, from long-pyriform, slightly obtuse and regular in contour, to irregular-ovate and strongly bossed, somber yellow, dotted with clear gray, extensively washed with russet, and vermilioned on the side exposed to the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, rather granular, watery; juice abundant and saccharine, vinous, musky and almost always marred by too great an acidity; second; Oct. =Muscat Fleuri d'Été. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:121. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:441, fig. 1869. Known at Orléans at the end of the sixteenth century under the name _Muscat à longue queue_. Fruit small, globular-turbinate or turbinate slightly ovate, olive-yellow finely dotted with fawn and washed with red-brown on the cheek next the sun; flesh yellowish, coarse, semi-breaking, juicy, saccharine, acidulous, musky; second; end of July. =Muscat Robert. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:120, Pl. II. 1768. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 818. 1869. This pear was mentioned by Le Lectier in 1628 and by la Quintinye in 1690 under the name of _Pucelle de Saintonge_. Its name of Muscat Robert dates from about 1672 and Merlet wrote of it in 1675 as the _Amber Pear_ or Muscat Robert. It has also been widely known as the _Amber Pear_. Fruit small, globular, very round in all its lower part but slightly conic at its other extremity where it is a little wrinkled, yellowish-green, finely and uniformly dotted with olive-brown and sometimes rather carmined on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine, breaking or semi-breaking, inclined to rot before ripe, granular, very juicy, sugary, very musky; second; mid-July. =Muscat Royal. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:120. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:444, fig. 1869. An old French pear growing in kitchen garden at Versailles planted about 1670 by La Quintinye for Louis XIV. It was then called _Muscat fleuri d'Autumne_ or _Muscat à longue queue_, on account of its long stem. Fruit small, globular in its lower half but somewhat conic-obtuse in its upper half; skin fine, grayish-yellow, dotted with clear brown and partly covered with russet which often passes into brownish-red of a somber hue on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, melting or semi-melting, watery, rather granular round the seeds; juice abundant, very saccharine, more or less acid and having a pleasant flavor; second; Sept. =Muscat Royal de Mayer. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:225, fig. 111. 1866-73. This is the Muscat Royal described by the German Mayer in his _Pomona Franconia_, 1779, and by Diel in 1804, and must not be confused with the Muscat Royal of Duhamel. Fruit small or nearly medium on a pruned tree, globular-turbinate, largest circumference around the middle, very obtuse; skin thick, green, covered with a sort of white bloom which dulls it, sprinkled with numerous round, whitish-gray dots, especially apparent on the side next the sun where they are nearly white; at maturity the green brightens somewhat; by the time it becomes yellow the fruit is already over ripe; flesh greenish, coarse, gritty at the core, semi-buttery, fairly full of sugary juice, with an agreeable musky flavor; third, should be eaten promptly on ripening; end of July. =Muscat Roye. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:134. 1831. Fruit small, oblong; skin rough to the touch, yellowish-green on the shaded side, and of a "pleasant red" next the sun; flesh breaking and perfumed; end of Aug. =Muscatelle. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:448, fig. 1869. One of the last gains of Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., who died in 1847. Fruit small, nearly globular or globular-conic, at first water-green dotted with numerous round points brown in color, changing to lemon-yellow; flesh yellowish, transparent, semi- or nearly melting, full of sugary juice strongly scented with musk; first; Feb. and Mar. =Musette d'Anjou. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:446, fig. 1869. Claude Saint-Étienne wrote of this pear briefly in 1687, being the first writer to mention it. Probably it originated in the old province of Anjou. Its name and form recall the rural bag-pipes which the Breton country folk play, and dance to. Fruit below medium, very elongated, flattened at its extremities, constricted at the middle, the upper part being often bent so as to make it resemble the musical instrument after which it is named, lemon-yellow or yellow-ochre, dotted uniformly with gray and brown points; flesh white, coarse and breaking, watery and gritty; juice sufficient, rarely very saccharine, more or less astringent, slightly perfumed, and with a disagreeable after-taste; third; Sept. =Musette de Nancy. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 621. 1884. Fruit large, pyramidal and handsome, with an uneven and undulating outline, shaped like Beurré de Rance, lemon-yellow covered with a fine, warm, orange-brown or bright cinnamon-colored russet; flesh yellowish-white, rather crisp like the texture of Passe Colmar; juice abundant, rich, saccharine and very finely perfumed; first; end of Oct. and beginning of Nov. =Muskateller-Bergamotte. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:21. 1856. Origin uncertain, probably German. Fruit small, globular, light grass-green changing to yellowish-green, uniform in color, washed with brown on the side exposed to the sun, strongly dotted with brown; flesh melting, extremely musky; first for the table; Oct. =Muskingum. 1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 153. 1849. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 819. 1869. Origin uncertain, but probably either Ohio or Connecticut is its native habitat. Fruit medium, globular to obovate, greenish-yellow, with dark specks and much russet; flesh breaking, yellow-white, with many dark specks and much russet, juicy, sprightly, vinous, pleasantly perfumed, aromatic flavor; good; middle and last of Aug. =Muskirte Wintereirbirne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 508. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:57. 1856. A Dutch variety, published in 1801. Fruit small, ovate, medium ventriculous; skin fine and smooth, light straw-yellow changing to a waxy lemon-yellow and often washed with a golden blush; flesh semi-breaking, sweet, having a musky aroma; second for dessert, first for household; Dec. to Feb. =Musquée d'Espéren. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:448, fig. 1869. A seedling of Major Espéren; probably first reported in 1845. Fruit medium, variable in form, passing from ovate rounded at each end to ovate nearly cylindrical and more or less bossed; greenish-yellow, dotted and streaked with russet; flesh whitish, fine, breaking, perfumed; juice very abundant, saccharine, acidulous and very musky in flavor and agreeable; first; beginning of Feb. and through Mar. =Mussette. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:169. 1856. A Normandy perry pear. Fruit medium, rather long-pyriform; skin a dirty greenish-yellow changing to brown-green; flesh gritty, juicy, sweet, sharp and vinous; good for household use, first class for perry; end of Oct. =Mützchensbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:162. 1856. German, 1807. Fruit small, in clusters, short-turbinate, upper end flat, greenish-yellow, covered with cinnamon and dotted; flesh whitish-yellow, tender, sweet, vinous; third for dessert, first for culinary use; Oct. =Naegelgesbirn. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 80. 1876. A Rhenish-Prussian perry pear which is exceedingly prolific but produces a perry of inferior quality. =Nain Vert. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 914. 1860. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:450, fig. 1869. =3.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =32=:256. 1896. This strange variety was obtained from seed by M. de Nerbonne, in the commune of Huillé (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., and first fruited in 1839. The tree forms a bush between 3 and 4 feet high; it is remarkable for its dwarf habit, and its erect, thick, fleshy branches, Fruit medium and sometimes larger, globular, irregular, but variable in form; skin thin, slightly rough, yellowish-green, uniformly covered with large gray-russet dots; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-melting, rather dry; juice deficient, sugary, sweet, almost without perfume; third; Oct. =Napa. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 68. 1895. Originated in California and was introduced by Leonard Coates in 1886. Fruit very large, mid-season. =Naples. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:451, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 621. 1884. This old variety known in France for many centuries and described by Claude Saint-Étienne in 1670 was also known as the _Feuille de chêne_ or _Oak leaf_. Its name indicates that it came from Italy. Henri Manger said in 1780 that it appeared to him to be identical with the pear _Picentia_ described by Pliny. Fruit medium and often less, turbinate-obtuse much swelled at central circumference, and more or less bossed at both extremities, olive-yellow or bright green at first, changing to a beautiful lemon-yellow, finely dotted with fawn, brownish-red next the sun, changing to bright red as the ground color changes; flesh whitish, semi-fine, semi-breaking, almost free from grit; juice plentiful, sweet and sugary, possessing usually a slight after-taste of anis; second; Jan. to Mar. =Napoleon. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 819. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 189. 1920. _Napoleon I._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:453, fig. 1869. _Napoleon Butterbirne._ =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 257. 1889. Napoleon was raised in 1808 by M. Liard, a gardener at Mons, Bel. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, swelled toward the base; skin thin, smooth, bright green changing to greenish-yellow, covered with numerous brown dots, seldom blushed; flesh white and fine, tender, melting, rather granular, very juicy, with a very saccharine, refreshing and aromatic flavor; first, a valuable dessert pear; mid-Oct. or nearly Nov. to Dec. =Napoleon Savinien. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:71, fig. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 819. 1869. Obtained in the garden of the Society Van Mons at Geest-Saint-Rémy, Bel., in 1854. Fruit medium, turbinate-ventriculous or pyriform-ventriculous, acute at the top which passes into the stalk; greenish-yellow, dotted with gray-russet; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, juicy and perfumed, saccharine; juice musky, delicate; Oct. to Mar.; the long period of its ripening is its very valuable quality. =Napoleon III. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:457, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 622. 1884. The seedling which bore this beautiful fruit came from the seed beds of André Leroy. It was first reported in 1864. Fruit large, obovate, obtuse, uneven, deep yellow, dotted and streaked with russet, and marked with numerous brownish stains; flesh white, fine, juicy and vinous, saccharine, tastes sourish; an excellent pear, first; Sept. =Naquette. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:109, fig. 53. 1866-73. Under the name Naquette this pear was described by Claude Saint-Étienne in 1670. After that time it appears to have been classed in the Caillot family with the name _Caillot_. Later still it received among other names that of _Bergamot Early_ (Lindley) and _Bergamote Précoce_ (Calvel). Fruit medium or smaller, spherical, flattened at both poles; skin thin, smooth, grass-green dotted with fawn, when ripe clouded with yellow on the shaded side and washed or streaked with red on the cheek next the sun; flesh white, rather transparent, fine, melting, full of sugary juice, acidulous, pleasantly perfumed, very delicate; first; mid-Aug. =Nassau Ehre. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:47. 1856. Belgian, 1823. Fruit medium, pyriform, blushed, somewhat streaked with vermilion, slightly russeted; flesh semi-breaking, fine, cinnamon-flavored, sweet; second for dessert, first for household use; end of Aug. =Naudin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. Published in the _Revue Horticole_, Fr., in 1869. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, grass-green stained with gray; flesh extremely melting, very juicy, pleasantly relieved with a fresh savor; first; Aug. to Oct. =Naumkeag. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 149. 1841. Originated at Salem, Mass., by George Johonnot; derives its name from the old Indian name of Salem. Fruit medium, globular, yellow-russet; flesh juicy, melting but rather astringent in flavor; good; Oct. =Navez Peintre. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 622. 1884. Received by Hogg, the English pomologist, from M. Papeleu, Wetteren, Bel., in 1857. Fruit medium, ovate, even and regular in form, yellowish-green on the shaded side and marked with bands of brown-russet, but with a blush of brownish-red next the sun; flesh yellowish, melting, very juicy, piquant and sugary, with a fine aroma; a very fine pear; end of Sept. =Neapolitan. 1.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =2=:Pl. 72. 1823. Described by Brookshaw in 1823 as a valuable acquisition to English collections. Fruit thin-skinned, green changing to yellow when quite ripe, rich in flavor, and so juicy that it cannot be pared without a considerable quantity of the juice running from it; Nov. =Nec Plus Meuris. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 622. 1884. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 189. 1920. This is not the Nec Plus Meuris of France which is our Beurré d'Anjou. The origin is uncertain. Fruit small, round-oval, uneven, greenish-yellow, nearly covered with rough brown-russet; stem very short, stout, continuous with the fruit; calyx large, open, in a small basin; flesh pale, yellow, melting, deliciously perfumed; Feb. and Mar. =Nectarine. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 622. 1884. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, yellow covered with large dots and patches of pale brown-russet; flesh yellowish, buttery, rich, with a fine, brisk, acidulous flavor and agreeable aroma; first-rate, with a good deal of the character of the Passe Colmar; Oct. =Negley. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =26=:267, 397. 1860. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 820. 1869. Introduced in 1860 by J. S. Negley, Pittsburg, Pa. Fruit above medium, obtusely obovate, nearly regular, sometimes a perfect pyriform, rich lemon shaded with bright crimson in the sun, sprinkled with minute brown-russet dots; flesh white, a little coarse, moderately melting, juicy, richly saccharine, vinous, slightly aromatic; good to very good; Sept. =New Bridge. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:204. 1832. Described in the London Horticultural Society's catalog in 1832 as having been produced in the Horticultural Garden at Chiswick. Fruit below medium, turbinate, dull gray covered with thin gray-russet, and light, lively, shining brown on the sunny side; flesh melting, a little gritty, with a sugary juice, but without flavor; Oct. =New Haven. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =3=:327. 1837. A seedling raised in the garden of Dr. Ives, New Haven, Conn. It was said to partake of the habit of White Doyenné, to be a good cropper, and of excellent quality. =New Meadow. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 623. 1884. A perry pear, grown in Herefordshire, England. Fruit very small, turbinate, covered with brownish-gray russet, and a brownish cheek next the sun. =Newhall. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 37. 1867. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 820. 1869. A seedling of F. and L. Clapp, exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1867. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, inclining to oval, surface rather uneven, yellow at maturity, with some traces of russet, occasionally blushed on the side next the sun; flesh melting, buttery, tender, very juicy, sweet, with a musky aroma; very good; Oct. =Newtown. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 820. 1869. Originated at Newtown, Long Island. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, lemon-yellow, netted and patched with russet; flesh whitish, rather coarse, semi-melting, sweet, and pleasant; good; Sept. =Nicholas. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 10. 1869. A seedling shown by Messrs. F. and L. Clapp in November, 1869. Fruit medium, obovate; skin thin, yellow; very juicy and highly flavored. =Nickerson. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 820. 1869. Originated from seed planted at Readfield, Me. Fruit large, oblong-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with a dull red cheek on the side next the sun; flesh white, juicy, melting, vinous, sweet; good; Oct. =Nicolas Eischen. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. Reported in 1876 by Messrs. Simon-Louis as on trial in their nurseries at Metz, Lorraine. It was said to be a beautiful fruit, speckled and very musky like the Bartlett, but more perfumed; Dec. to Feb. =Niell d'Hiver. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:189. 1908. Shown at a meeting of the Cincinnati Horticultural Society in 1855. A late variety, acid in flavor. =Nikitaer Grüne Herbst-Apothekerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:182. 1856. _Bon-Chrétien de Nikita._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 282. 1895. German, published 1852. Fruit medium, conic, light green changing to light green-yellow, without any blush, numerous fine dots, russeted on the sun-exposed side; flesh yellowish-white, sweet, vinous; first for household purposes; Oct., eight weeks. =Niles. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:76. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 821. 1869. This variety was imported from France about 1850 by the Hon. J. M. Niles, Hartford, Conn., without a name. It was consequently designated "Niles." Some pomologists have considered it to be the Easter Beurré, but it appears to be more oblong in form, more yellow in color, to have a longer stem and to be earlier in time of maturity. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, yellow thickly covered with russet dots; flesh juicy, buttery, sweet and pleasant; Dec. =Niochi de Parma. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. A summer variety highly esteemed in Piedmont, Italy. It is suitable for cultivation on a large scale and is hardy, having resisted the phenomenal European frost of 1879-1880. =Noir Grain. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 180. 1832. A variety very highly esteemed in Flanders in the early part of the last century. Fruit is of medium size and matures in Sept., the flesh being buttery as is indicated by its synonym _Beurré noire graine_. =Noire d'Alagier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 96. 1895. A Caucasian variety sent out by M. Niemetz, Winnitsa, Podolia, Russia. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis of Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. The fruit is said to resemble Winter Nelis, gray, bronze-russeted, rough; flesh fine, juicy. =Nonpareil. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 821. 1869. A seedling raised by Judge Livingston, of New York. Fruit globular-oblate, russety-yellow, mostly overspread and shaded with red in sun, and bright fawn-russet in shade; flesh yellowish-white, melting, juicy, sweet, perfumed; Nov. =Nordhäuser Winter-Forellenbirne. 1.= _Deutschland Obst._ =2=:Pt. 6, Pl. 1906. A North German variety of the Forelle or Trout Pear. It is known as the _Winter Forelle_ or _Northern Forelle_. Fruit medium, conic-obtuse; skin smooth and shining, greenish-yellow, speckled and washed with red on the side next the sun, dotted all over on the shaded face with fine brownish-red; flesh white, melting, sweet, aromatic and agreeable; Jan. to Mar. =Norfolk County. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff of Brookline, Mass., and submitted by him to the Fruit Committee of the Horticultural Society of that state in 1866. Fruit, long diameter 3-3/4 inches, short diameter 3-1/4 inches, long turbinate, green with dots, good grain, juicy, with pleasant flavor, ripens well, a handsome fruit and large bearer; Oct. 11. =Normännische Ciderbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 168, fig. 1913. This pear was found growing wild in Normandy, Fr., and in Upper Austria, and is excellent for making perry and for distillation. Fruit very small, turbinate, greenish-yellow covered with cinnamon-russet and ashy-gray dots; flesh yellowish-white, rather dry, sweet but with some sprightliness; Sept. =Notaire Lepin. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 449. 1889. Notaire Lepin was obtained by M. Rollet, a horticulturist at Villefranche, Rhône, Fr., about 1860 and was placed on the market in 1879. Fruit large or very large, variable in size, obtuse-pyramidal but variable, skin fine, somewhat rough to the touch, yellow, dotted with russet, marbled with fawn, flesh white, granular around the core, fine, melting, very juicy, saccharine, slightly but agreeably perfumed; its quality very variable, rather good, and rarely very good; Jan. to Apr. =Notaire Minot. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:465, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 821. 1869. A posthumous gain of Van Mons of only very moderate merit. It fruited in nurseries at Geest-Saint-Rémy, Jodoigne, Bel., in 1844. Fruit medium, rather variable in form, but usually irregular ovate-globular or very obtuse-turbinate and ventriculous; skin thick and rather rough, grass-green, dotted all over with fawn and blushed with dark red on the side of the sun; flesh yellowish, semi-fine and semi-melting, very gritty around the core; juice insufficient, saccharine, aromatic, having a disagreeable astringency; third; Oct. =Nouveau Doyenné d'Hiver. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:9, fig. 5. 1872. Stated by Diel to have been a gain of Van Mons. Fruit medium, spherical or spherical-conic, slightly depressed at the two poles, even in its outline; skin thick and firm, of a very clear green, sprinkled with small brown dots regularly placed in a characteristic manner; at maturity the basic green passes to pale yellow and the side next the sun becomes a little golden; flesh white, rather fine, compact, breaking or semi-breaking; juice deficient, saccharine but wanting in perfume; not very desirable; end of winter. =Nouveau Poiteau. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:466, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 190. 1920. According to Leroy this was a seedling of Van Mons raised in his nursery at Louvain from a bed made in 1827. Fruit large and sometimes enormous, oblong or irregular-ovate, always much bossed, swelled around the middle and often more so on one side than on the other, grass-green, covered with numerous fawn dots, and with some squamose patches of brown-russet on the side of the sun; flesh white, greenish near the core, very fine, melting, juicy, saccharine, acidulous, savory; first; Oct. =Nouvelle Aglaé. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. Obtained by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Brabant. Fruit medium, long-obtuse-oval, dark yellow touched with fawn; flesh fine, juicy; first; end of autumn. =Nouvelle Fulvie. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:59, fig. 1857. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 190. 1920. _Belle de Jarnac._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:203, fig. 1867. A gain of M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. First reported in 1854. Fruit large or very large, pyramidal-pyriform, strongly bossed, lemon-yellow when ripe, colored with vivid red on the side exposed to the sun, marked and dotted with russet; flesh yellowish-white, very fine, melting, buttery; juice very abundant, sugary, having an exquisite perfume; good; Nov. to Feb. =Nussbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:162. 1856. Schwarben, Thuringer Wald, Ger., 1800. Fruit small, globular-turbinate, green, thick skin; flesh firm, breaking, vinous and acidulous; first for household; end of Aug. =Nypse. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. A winter pear received by Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, from Italy, and on trial in that firm's orchards in 1876. =Oakley Park Bergamotte. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:152. 1847. Raised from seed by T. A. Knight, Downton Castle, Eng. former President of the London Horticultural Society. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, greenish-yellow, with russet; flesh buttery, melting; good; Oct. =Ochsenherz. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:185. 1856. _Coeur-de-Boeuf._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 90, 258. 1876. South Germany, 1801. Fruit large, pyriform, crooked, light green turning to lemon-yellow, almost entirely blushed with dull light red, dotted with green; flesh pulpy and tender, not juicy, very sweet and musky; third for table, first for household and market; end of Oct. =Ockletree. 1.= _Hist. Mass. Hort. Soc._ 37. 1880. This was a seedling brought from Pittsburg, Pa., in 1804 and planted near Vincennes, Ind. In 1837 it produced 140 bushels of pears, the largest crop recorded from it. In 1855 it measured ten and one-half feet in circumference at the smallest place below the limbs, seventy-five feet across the top, and sixty-five feet in height. In 1867 it was split down by a tornado, and seven or eight years later the trunk also died. It took its name from Mr. Ockletree its owner. The fruit was of inferior quality. =Octave Lachambre. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:469, fig. 1869. M. Octave Lachambre, Loudon, Vienne, Fr., found this variety in the orchard of the Château of Guérinière about 1825. M. Lachambre propagated it and offered it to Leroy who placed it on the market in 1860. Fruit medium or less, globular-ovate, bossed, flattened at the top, and always smaller on one side than on the other, dull yellow, finely dotted and streaked with russet, slightly mottled with fawn on the cheek exposed to the sun and around the calyx and stalk; flesh whitish, fine, melting or semi-melting, rather granular around the core; juice extremely abundant, acidulous and saccharine, more or less aromatic but always full of flavor; first; May. =Oesterreichische Muskatellerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:24. 1856. Austria, 1851. Fruit medium, globular, medium ventriculous; skin thick, greenish-yellow, somewhat blushed with brown and without russet; flesh firm, somewhat gritty, very melting and juicy; first for dessert, household and market; Sept. =Oeuf de Woltmann. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:221, fig. 109. 1866-73. Of German origin. Fruit small to medium, exactly ovate, bright green, sprinkled with numerous dots, some gray and some dark green; at maturity the basic green changes to pale yellow the dots becoming less visible and on well-exposed fruits the side next the sun is slightly blushed with earthy-red on which are some dots of whitish-gray; flesh very white, semi-fine, semi-breaking, sugary, with a refreshing and agreeable perfume; good; end of July. =Ogereau. 1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =177=:39. 1899. Believed to be European. Fruit obovate-oblong-pyriform, yellow blushed with red, some russet; flesh white, buttery, vinous, medium quality, for market; Oct. and Nov. =Ognon. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 70. 1895. Sent out by M. Gilbert, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit small to medium, globular, irregular, green covered with russet; third class; Sept. =Ognonnet. 1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 375. 1908. A cider pear used in France for the production of alcohol by distillation. =Oignon. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:473, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 191. 1920. This is a variety which Leroy found cultivated in the western Departments of France which he thought might be the same as the pear called by Le Lectier in 1628 _Oignon d'Été de Bretagne_. In England it is one of the most fertile pears grown. Fruit above medium, spherical, much flattened at both ends and often smaller on one side than on the other; skin thick and rough, gray-fawn, entirely covered with large grayish dots; flesh whitish, coarse, breaking, rather granular around the core; juice moderate in amount, sweet, saccharine, only slightly perfumed; second; end of Sept. =Oignonet de Provence. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:474, fig. 1869. The origin of this pear is unknown, but it was propagated by M. Urbain Audibert, a nurseryman near Tarascon in the South of France. In 1812 M. Audibert sent it to M. Loiseleur-Deslongchamps who later published at Paris the _Nouveau Duhamel_. In this work it was described and illustrated in 1815. Fruit small, globular or ovate, decidedly rounded; skin fine and thin, grass-green, covered with small gray dots, generally speckled with fawn and washed with clear reddish-russet on the side of the sun; flesh greenish-white, fine or semi-fine, melting, gritty at the center; juice sufficient, saccharine, vinegary, with a rather agreeable taste of anis; second; end of July. =Oken. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:21. 1856. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:475, fig. 1869. _Winter Oken._ =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 668. 1884. A seedling of Van Mons which fruited about 1826. Fruit medium, nearly globular or globular-ovate; skin fine, tender, pale green sprinkled with gray, extensively stained with fawn and slightly vermilioned on the side next the sun; flesh very white and fine, melting, watery, rather granular around the core; juice abundant, saccharine and having an exquisite aroma; first; mid-Oct. to end of Nov. =Oldfield. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:210. 1832. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 624. 1884. This is one of the most popular English perry pears, and took its name from the field where it was raised near Ledbury in Herefordshire. Fruit small, globular, even and regularly formed; skin uniform yellow, covered with minute dots, and with a patch of russet around the stalk; flesh yellowish, firm, breaking and very astringent. =Olivenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:188. 1856. German Rhineland, 1806. Fruit medium or small, globular-turbinate, dark olive-green turning to dull yellowish, dotted, and somewhat blushed with brownish-red; flesh white, fine, cinnamon-flavored, gritty toward center; third for dessert, first for household; Nov. =Oliver Russet. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =10=:212. 1844. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 579. 1857. Oliver Russet originated about 1832 and was shown before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in the autumn of 1843 by G. W. Oliver, Lynn, Mass., in whose garden the parent tree was found growing. Fruit medium or below, obovate, obtuse; skin fair cinnamon-russet on a yellow ground, with a blush; flesh yellowish, coarse, melting, juicy without much flavor; Oct. =One-third. 1.= _Iowa Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 219. 1879. Reported to be growing on the Iowa State College Farm and to have been called One-third, from the fact that it is the third generation from seeds originally sown in Wisconsin. =Oneida. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 823. 1869. Originated in western New York. Fruit medium or below, globular, pale yellow, partially netted and patched with light russet; flesh white, coarse, juicy, semi-melting, agreeable; good; Sept. =Onion. 1.= Mawe-Abercrombie _Univ. Gard. Bot._ 1778. _La Grosse Oignonette._ =2.= Brookshaw _Pomona_ =2=:Pl. LIII. 1817. The Onion, or La Grosse Oignonette, is a rare pear and is distinct from Oignonet de Provence. Fruit medium, globular, brown-skinned; flesh sweet, well flavored but rather dry, and when too ripe becomes pithy; Sept. =Orange, 1.= _Mass. Hort Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1866. A seedling fruited by S. A. Shurtleff of Brookline, Mass., in 1862. Fruit diameter 3-1/2 inches, globular; skin tough and bright yellow, with dots; flesh fine-grained, keeps well and is a good cooking pear; end of Dec. =Orange-Bergamot. 1.= Bradley _Gard._ 199. 1739. =2.= Brookshaw _Horticultural Repository_ =1=:63, Pl. 31. 1823. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 625. 1884. Of English origin. Tree hardy, free bearer, succeeding on either pear or quince stock. Fruit small, globular-turbinate; skin smooth, pale green changing to yellow or yellow-green at maturity, blushed with dull red on the side next the sun, strewed with whitish-gray dots; flesh white, semi-melting, juicy, with a sweet, orange flavor; dessert pear; early Sept. =Orange d'Hiver. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:144, Pl. XIX, fig. 4. 1768. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 824. 1869. _Winter Pomeranzenbirne._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 507. 1817. _Winter Orange._ =4.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 390. 1831. This is a very old pear, probably of French origin. Tree rather vigorous, said to be a late but heavy bearer. Fruit medium, round, somewhat flattened at base and apex, bright yellow, covered all over with numerous brown dots and lined with russet; stem medium long, stout, inserted in a small, oblique cavity; calyx small, open, set in a small, round, very shallow depression; flesh white, rather gritty, firm, crisp, very juicy, with a pleasant, slightly musky, aromatic flavor; a good cooking pear and a fair dessert pear; Feb. to Apr. =Orange Mandarine, 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:483, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 625. 1884. Raised from seed by Leroy at Angers, Fr., and fruited first in 1863. Fruit below medium and sometimes a little larger, globular, rather regular in outline, more or less mammillate at the summit, pale yellow, passing to clear russet on the cheek exposed to the sun, and covered with minute brown dots; flesh white, very fine and very melting, slightly gritty at the center; juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous, endowed with an exquisite perfume; first; Oct. =Orange Musquée. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:140, Pl. X. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 625. 1884. _Müskierte Pomeranzenbirne._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 255. 1889. This is an old pear of uncertain origin, though probably French or Italian. Fruit medium, globular, more or less bossed, flattened at both ends though sometimes rather conic and obtuse at the top; smooth skin punctured like an orange, yellow-green changing to fine lemon, with a lively red next the sun but rather variable; flesh white, coarse, breaking, gritty at center; juice not very abundant, rather saccharine, sweet, possessing a musky flavor and perfume; quality variable, on the whole, good; end of Aug. =Orange Rouge. 1.= Duhamel _Trait Arb. Fr._ =2=:141. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:486, fig. 1869. _Red Orange._ =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 636. 1884. An old variety of obscure origin. Henri Manger wrote in 1783 that it appeared to him to be the _Favonianum Rubrum_ mentioned by Pliny, but it appears according to M. Leroy more likely to have originated at Poitiers, and to be the _Rousette_ or _Orange du Poitou_ or _Poire de Poitiers_. Fruit medium, round, even, regular or inclining to turbinate; skin thick, clear grayish-yellow, clouded with green on the shaded side, sprinkled with pale gray dots and extensively washed and streaked with a lively dark red; flesh whitish, semi-fine; juice abundant, more or less saccharine, acidulous and musky; second, often third; end of Aug. =Orange Tulipée. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:202, Pl. XLI. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ 488, fig. 1869. An old French pear grown in the south of France and sold in Paris at a very low price. It is known to have been cultivated for some three centuries, but is not worth growing today. Described in the _Jardinier François_ in 1665. Fruit medium and often below, globular-ovate, or turbinate-rounded, with one side larger than the other; skin thick and rough, yellow-green, sprinkled with large, gray, scaly dots, and well colored with red-brown on the side next the sun, and numerous carmine streaks and marks on the other side; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-melting, more or less granular around the core; juice sufficient, saccharine, slightly astringent, with a slight perfume of fennel; third; Sept. =Orange de Vienne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. _Wiener Pomeranzenbirne._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:150. 1856. A Van Mons seedling, 1825. Fruit small to medium, short-turbinate, clear yellow, with light brown dots; flesh granular, semi-melting, very sweet and sugary, having a Bergamot flavor; first for table and all purposes; mid-Sept. =Ordensbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:132. 1856. Originated in Nassau, a former German duchy, 1806. Fruit medium, even-sided; skin smooth and tender, yellowish-green turning to light yellowish and light green, seldom blushed, grass-green dots; flesh white, juicy, semi-buttery; very good for dessert and good for cooking and the market; mid-Aug. =Orel 15. 1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 187. 1896. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 41, 42. 1915. Introduced from Russia about 1880 by Professor Budd of the Iowa Agricultural College. Free from blight and apparently valuable as a stock for top-grafting. =Orpheline Colmar. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =2=:77, fig. 1854. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 260. 1889. The Orpheline Colmar was a gain of Van Mons a few years before his death and is a beautiful and handsome fruit. Fruit very large, pyriform and obtuse-pyramidal, clear green becoming yellow at maturity, streaked and dotted with grayish-brown and black and stained with russet-fawn on the side of the sun and around the calyx; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, rather granular around the core, full of saccharine juice and pleasantly perfumed; good. =Osband Summer. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =1=:211, fig. 59. 1846. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:492, fig. 1869. Originated in the vicinity of Palmyra in Wayne County, N. Y., about 1840 and was at first known as _Summer Virgalieu_ and so published in the _Genesee Farmer_ in 1845 or 1846. Fruit small, obovate-pyriform, clear yellow, thickly dotted with small greenish and brown dots, with a warm cheek on the side next the sun and with some traces of russet especially around the stem and calyx; flesh white, juicy, melting, with a rich sugary flavor and agreeable perfume of musk; first in quality and appearance; early in Aug. =Osborne. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =12=:338. 1846. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 825. 1869. A native variety which originated on the farm of John Osborne, Economy, Ind. It was introduced by Ernst, and published in the _Western Farmer and Gardener_ (Vol. 5), having first fruited in Ernst's nursery in 1844. Fruit small, short-pyriform, stem planted on one side; skin thin, yellowish-green, with numerous gray dots; flesh white, tender, juicy, brisk, sweet, vinous, with a slight astringency and highly-perfumed flavor; first; Aug. and Sept. =Oswego Beurré. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 825. 1869. Raised by Walter Read, Oswego, N. Y. Tree vigorous, hardy, and productive. Fruit medium, oblate, sometimes inclining to conic, yellowish-green, streaked and mottled with thin russet; flesh melting, buttery, juicy, with a fine, sprightly, vinous and aromatic flavor; good; Oct. and Nov. =Oswego Incomparable. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 826. 1869. Originated at Oswego, N. Y. Fruit rather large, obtuse-obovate-pyriform, yellow, slightly netted and patched with russet, a tinge of crimson in the sun and many russet dots; flesh whitish, coarse, semi-melting, sweet, juicy, agreeable; moderate quality, sometimes good; Sept. =Ott. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:424. 1848. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 826. 1869. Ott is a seedling of Seckel and was originated by Samuel Ott, Montgomery County, Pa., and introduced to the Massachusetts Horticultural Society by Dr. Brincklé of Philadelphia in the summer of 1848. Fruit small, globular-obovate, regular, largest about the middle, rounding off to the calyx end and narrowing to the stem where it is obtuse; skin slightly rough, dull green changing to yellow when mature, some russet, bronzy-red on the sunny side and dotted with russet specks intermixed with some greenish spots; flesh greenish-white, coarse, melting, very juicy, rich, sugary, with a spicy aroma resembling the Seckel; very good; end of Aug. =Owen. 1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Bk._ 174. 1849. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 826. 1869. Originated in the garden of John Owen, Cambridge, Mass. Fruit small, globular-obtuse-pyriform, dark green, shaded with dull red in the sun and thickly sprinkled with green and light dots; flesh tender, delicious and finely colored; one of the finest cooking pears in its season; Oct. to Dec. =Owener Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:10. 1856. Württemberg, 1830. Fruit globular-turbinate, greenish-yellow, with rather dark blush, russeted all over; flesh yellowish-white, astringent, juicy, breaking, aromatic, first for household use and the making of perry; end of Sept. =Ozark. 1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 38. 1895. Originated about 1845 from seed taken by a Mr. Rooks from Kentucky to Polk County, Missouri. Fruit large, oblate, greenish-yellow, with a few russet veinings and patches, dots numerous, minute, russet; stem medium long, in a large, deep basin; calyx large, open; flesh white, with yellow veins, buttery, granular, mild subacid; good; Aug. =Paddock. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 530. 1857. =2.= _Ibid._ 826. 1869. Sent out by Chauncey Goodrich, Burlington, Vt. Fruit rather below medium, oblong-ovate-pyriform, light yellow, sometimes with a faint blush; flesh fine-grained, melting, sweet, but not very highly flavored; good; end of July. =Pailleau. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:58. 1842. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 826. 1869. Attributed to Van Mons, Belgium. Fruit large, oblong, greenish-yellow, rough, with brown and green dots and patches of russet; flesh juicy, sweet, rich, good, but rather coarse-grained; excellent quality; early Sept. =Pain-et-Vin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:494, fig. 1869. Cultivated in Normandy early in the nineteenth century under the two names of _Pain-et-Vin_ and _Chêne-Vert_ or _Green-Oak_. Fruit medium, ovate, rather long and swelled; skin thin, rough, dark yellow ground covered with bronze, freely stained and dotted with gray and reddened on the side of the sun; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine, very firm, although semi-melting, rather gritty at core, very juicy, saccharine, acid, very vinous, with a particularly pleasant flavor; second; about mid-Sept, to beginning of Oct. =Palmischbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:171. 1856. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 190, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown in Germany and Upper Austria and known in different localities by various names. It was published in Germany in 1823. Fruit small, turbinate, regular in contour, greenish-yellow turning to light yellow, often with a dark blush, covered all over with large gray spots; flesh whitish, coarse-grained, very juicy, acidulous and saccharine, aromatic; third for the table, but first for perry; Sept. =Paradiesbirne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 525. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:182. 1856. Thuringia, Ger., 1797. Fruit small to medium, conic, yellow-green changing to golden yellow, slightly blushed, and dotted with brown, thin skin; flesh yellowish-white, very sweet, juicy; second for dessert, first for household; end of Oct. =Pardee. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 530. 1857. Raised by S. D. Pardee, New Haven, Conn. Fruit small, globular, greenish-yellow, much covered with russet; flesh coarse, granular, buttery, juicy, melting, with a high vinous flavor, strongly perfumed; Oct. =Parfum d'Aout. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:136. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:496, fig. 1869. The Parfum d'Aout described here is the variety described under that name by Jean Merlet in 1675 and 1690 and afterwards by Duhamel in 1768. It probably originated in the village of Berny, not far from Paris. Fruit small, long, nearly pyriform, enlarged on one side more than the other at the lower end; skin smooth, pale yellow, slightly tinged with green, covered with dots and small speckles of fawn, tinged with a beautiful red on the side exposed to the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, breaking or semi-breaking, some grit around the core; juice rarely abundant, saccharine, sweet, with a perfume of musky-anis; second; end of Aug. =Parfum d'Hiver. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 151. 1846. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:497, fig. 1869. As early as 1600, this variety was grown in France under the name _Bouvert Musqué_. Tree rather vigorous, very productive. Fruit medium, roundish-turbinate, olive-yellow washed with bright red; stem rather long; calyx large, partially open; flesh brittle, juicy; good for cooking; Feb. to Apr. =Parfum de Rose. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 1, 185, fig. 91. 1866-73. Obtained by Bivort and first introduced in 1849. Fruit small, long-pyriform, rather irregular in contour; skin fine, a little thick, water-green and whitish at first, sprinkled with small dots of grayish-green, combined with many stains of the same color, passing at maturity to dull yellow; flesh nearly white, very fine, buttery, melting; juice sufficient, having a distinct perfume of rose, which is its chief distinguishing feature; end of Sept. =Parfumé. 1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =3=: 1807. Fruit medium, globular; skin rather thick and tough, of a deep red color, spotted with brown; flesh melting, but dry and has a perfumed flavor; end of Aug. =Parfumée. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:186, fig. 578. 1881. French. Gained by M. Pariset, Courciat-Dongalon, Fr., and fruited for the first time in 1869. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, short and thick; skin thick, pale green, sprinkled with numerous greenish-gray dots only slightly visible on the side next the sun, at maturity pale yellow and the exposed cheek more or less warm gold; flesh white tinted with yellow, fine, melting, gritty around the center; juice abundant, sugary and perfumed; first; beginning of winter. =Parrot. 1.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 140. 1904. Introduced in England about 1900. Fruit like Bergamot in form; very richly flavored; Oct. =Parsonage. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 530. 1857. =2.= _Ibid._ 828. 1869. Originated at New Rochelle, N. Y. Fruit medium to large, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, often inclined, orange-yellow, rough, generally shaded with dull crimson, netted and patched with russet and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; flesh white, slightly coarse, somewhat granular, juicy, melting, with a refreshing vinous flavor; good; Sept. =Passa-tutti. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 497. 1817. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. An Italian autumn pear. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, much covered with yellowish-gray russet, lighter yellow on the sunny side, with some red blush; flesh agreeable, with a Muscat flavor; third; Nov. and Dec. =Passans du Portugal. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =4=:390. 1838. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 626. 1884. Passans du Portugal would seem from its name to be of Portuguese origin. It should not be confused with Summer Portugal although the two varieties have various synonyms in common and have some qualities in common. Fruit medium, oblate, flattened after the Bergamot type, lively green changing to pale yellow on ripening, red next the sun brightening toward maturity to a more vivid shade; flesh white, breaking, juicy, with a fine sugary and perfumed flavor; an excellent dessert pear; Aug. =Passe-Colmar des Belges. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:502. 1869. Origin unknown but was found growing under this name in the collection of the Horticultural Society of Angers early in the last century. Fruit above medium, turbinate-obtuse and bossed, yellow, dotted and streaked with russet; flesh white, coarse, semi-breaking, wanting in juice and sugar, sharp and acidulous; third; Nov. =Passe Colmar d'Été. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. French. Fruit small, turbinate, olive-green; flesh very juicy; good; Sept. =Passe Colmar Musqué. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =5=:45, fig. 1857. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 627. 1884. Obtained by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., from a bed of mixed seeds he made about 1831. It yielded its first fruit and was published in 1845. _Passe Colmar Musqué_ is also known as _Autumn Colmar_ but is distinct from the variety most usually known by that name. Fruit medium and sometimes less, turbinate, otherwise obtuse-conic, rather variable in form; skin thick, tender, green changing to golden-yellow, dotted, mottled and patched with pale cinnamon-russet and often washed on the side next the sun with a light transparent red; flesh slightly yellowish, very fine, melting, very saccharine, richly flavored, aromatic and scented; first; Nov. =Passe Crassane. 1.= _Pom. France_ =2=:No. 82, Pl. 82. 1863. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 192. 1920. This winter pear was raised by M. Boisbunel, a nurseryman at Rouen, Fr., from a bed of mixed seeds which he made in 1845; it bore fruit and was first published at Rouen in 1855. Fruit medium or rather large, turbinate or globular-conic, flattened in Bergamot fashion; skin rough, thick, of a dull pale green, mottled with russet markings and passing to yellow on the side turned to the sun; flesh white, fine, melting, very juicy, saccharine, perfumed, and agreeably sprightly; very good; Jan. to Mar. =Passe-Goemans. 1.= Mas. _Pom. Gen._ =3=:111, fig. 152. 1878. _Goemans Gelbe Sommerbirne._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:91. 1856. Belgian, and probably from Van Mons in 1825. Fruit medium, globular, ventriculous, sides unequal, very obtuse, uniformly citron-yellow, blushed with cinnamon on the sun-exposed side; flesh very full of flavor; first; end of Sept. =Passe Madeleine. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:131. 1843. Probably a French variety. Tree vigorous and very productive. Fruit medium, long, lemon-yellow, lightly tinted with gray on the side next the sun; flesh melting, sugary, rather perfumed; beginning of Sept. =Passe-Tardive. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ 506. fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 829. 1869. Obtained by Major Espéren of Mechlin, Bel., and first published in 1843. Fruit above medium to large, turbinate, regular, bossed and much swelled in all its lower part and greatly contracted at the summit; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-melting, gritty around the core; juice seldom abundant, sugary, agreeable, though but slightly perfumed; second or third for dessert, first for the kitchen; Apr. to June. =Pastor. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:197. 1908. Reported in the Experimental orchard at Agassiz, Br. C., in 1900 and at various Canadian Experiment Farms in 1902. Fruit medium, oblate-pyriform, yellow; flesh melting, sugary, juicy, perfumed flavor; good; late season. =Pastorale, 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:231, Pl. LV. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 628. 1884. Mayer, director of the gardens of the Grand Duke of Wurtzburg, Bavaria, described this pear in his _Pomona franconica_ in 1776 and 1801, and Duhamel du Monceau wrote of it in 1768. Earlier still Le Lectier spoke of its cultivation before 1628 under the name _Musette d'Hiver rosate_, Merlet called it _Pastorale_ in 1675, and La Quintinye named it _Pastourelle_ and _Musette d'Autumne_ in 1688. Fruit above medium, pyriform, slightly obtuse, much puckered at the summit and generally larger on one side than on the other; skin greenish, nearly covered with gray-russet, sprinkled with large brown dots, vermilioned on the side of the sun; flesh whitish, semi-fine, more or less gritty around the core; juice abundant, rather sugary, slightly acid; Nov. to Jan. =Pater Noster. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 532. 1857. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:33, fig. 1858. Mentioned in the Van Mons catalog of fruits cultivated from 1798 to 1823. Fruit above medium, and often large, variable in form, oblong or long-turbinate, slightly obtuse, contorted and bossed, clear olive-yellow; flesh white, fine, melting or semi-melting, watery; juice abundant, saccharine, very vinous, acidulous, with an agreeable aroma; first; Nov. =Paul Ambre. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 830. 1869. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1876. A Belgian variety resembling Nec Plus Meuris; origin unknown. Fruit globular or globular-oval, pale greenish-yellow, shaded with crimson on the side next the sun, dots and markings of russet; flesh whitish, buttery, melting, juicy, sweet; good to very good; Oct. =Paul Bonamy. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:215, fig. 106. 1866-73. M. Bonamy, a nurseryman at Toulouse, Fr., obtained this pear and named it after his son. It was first published in 1865. Fruit large, ovate, bossed; skin fine, thin, oily and scented at maturity; flesh white, semi-fine, a little fibrous when the fruit is too ripe, melting or semi-melting, streaming with sugary juice, sprightly, highly perfumed; good; Sept. =Paul Coppieters. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1895. Sent out by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel., previous to 1895. Fruit rather large, pyriform-turbinate, yellow, dotted and heavily marbled with reddish-yellow; flesh white, very fine, free from granulations, buttery, saccharine and aromatic; beginning of Nov. =Paul d'Hoop. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. Sent out in 1895 as a new variety by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Fruit medium, covered with fawn-russet; flesh fine, yellowish-white, buttery, vinous, saccharine, having a delicious aroma; Jan. and Feb. =Paul Thielens. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:510, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 830. 1869. Paul Thielens came from a seed bed made by Van Mons in 1829 in his nursery at Louvain, Bel. Fruit large, ovate, very irregular, bossed and swelled, or ovate, nearly globular; skin a little rough, transparent greenish-yellow, dotted and marked with grayish-russet, slightly blushed with dull red on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-melting, gritty at the center; juice rarely abundant, more or less saccharine, slightly aromatic; second; Oct. =Pauls Birne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. _Poire de Paul._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:15, fig. 488. 1881. Fruit large or rather large, globular-conic or conic-obtuse, dull water-green, usually entirely covered with a wash of cinnamon color which at maturity becomes golden, and the side exposed to the sun is blushed with a garnet red on which are numerous small gray dots; flesh white tinted with yellow, rather fine, breaking, gritty about the core, juicy, sugary, vinous, slightly perfumed; first for cooking; winter, lasting well toward the end. =Payen. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:511, fig. 1869. Raised by M. Boisbunel, a nurseryman at Rouen, Fr., from a mixed seed bed made in 1845. It was reported on in 1860 and propagated in 1863. It is distinct from both Beurré Payen and Président Payen. Fruit medium, obovate-pyriform, bright greenish-yellow, mottled with fawn and covered with large and numerous brownish dots; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, sweet; first class; Oct. =Payenche. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:512, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 830. 1869. _Paquency._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 404. 1845. Found in a hedge at the village of Payenche in Périgord, Fr. It was taken to Paris in 1805. Fruit nearly medium, oblong-ovate-pyriform, light yellow stained or marbled and dotted with gray-russet and colored with brick-red on the side of the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, melting or semi-melting, some grit around the core; juice extremely abundant, very saccharine, acidulous, with a savory perfume and a slight after-taste of anis; first; Oct. =Payton.= According to letters from Nicholas Hallock, Queens, N. Y., this variety originated on the premises of a Mr. Payton of Flatbush, L. I., and had been known locally as Payton for some time previous to 1898. Fruit obovate-obtuse-roundish, about the size of Doyenné Boussock, dull green becoming yellow, thickly sprinkled with small brownish dots; stem short, stout, set in a rather shallow, russeted cavity; calyx open, placed in a shallow, wide basin; flesh not coarse, not gritty, not stringy, white, moderately juicy, good but not highly flavored; Sept., later than Bartlett. =Peach. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 533. 1857. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 629. 1884. _Pêche._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:513, fig. 1869. A variety obtained by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., from a bed of mixed seeds he made in 1836, and first reported in 1845. Fruit small to medium, globular-obovate; skin smooth, pale greenish-yellow when ripe, occasionally tinted with a faint blush of red on the side toward the sun, dotted and mottled with brown; flesh white, citrine, fine, very melting, very juicy, sweet, richly flavored and delicately perfumed; first in France, but variable according to climate; Aug. =Pei-li. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 376. 1881. Pei-li or _Snow pears_: A race of pears grown in northwestern China; globular, white, juicy and generally regarded as the best fruits in the country. =Pemberton. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 831. 1869. A seedling of S. A. Shurtleff, Boston, Mass. Fruit medium, inclining to oval, light green, thickly sprinkled with dark dots, yellowish on the side of the sun, with sometimes a red cheek; flesh somewhat coarse, but juicy, sweet; good; Feb. and Mar. =Penderson. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 831. 1869. Raised by Samuel Penderson, New Haven, Conn. Fruit medium, globular, greenish-yellow; flesh white, breaking, semi-melting, brisk, rather astringent; good; Oct. =Pendleton Early York. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:381, fig. 41. 1848. _York-précoce de Pendleton._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 114, 313. 1876. Originated by Mrs. Jeremiah York, Connecticut, about 1826 from seed of Rousselet Hâtif. Fruit medium or below, obovate, varying to obtuse-pyriform, pale greenish-yellow, with russet specks, sometimes with a faint blush; flesh white, tender, sweet, melting, slightly perfumed; good; last of July. =Pengethley. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 197. 1832. Raised by T. A. Knight, President of the London Horticultural Society, who, in February, 1832, sent cions of the variety to Mr. Lowell and the Massachusetts Agricultural Society. Fruit medium, inclining to oval, obovate, pale green, covered with dark dots, changing to yellow as it ripens, sometimes having a red cheek; flesh somewhat coarse, but juicy, sweet, and good; Feb. and Mar. =Penn. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =18=:58, fig. 1863. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 831. 1869. The original tree was planted at the beginning of the last century close to the old Penn Manor in Pennsylvania and on the margin of land which became the track of the Camden and Amboy Railroad. Inasmuch as its position was so close to the railway the company threatened to cut it down. Hence it acquired the name of _Railroad Fuss_ by which it was known for many years. Fruit medium, oblate, sometimes globular-oblate, angular, pale lemon-yellow, thickly sprinkled with small grayish and russet dots, sometimes with a few patches and dots of russet around the calyx; flesh white, a little coarse, very juicy, melting, with a sweet, pleasant, refreshing flavor, slightly aromatic, with a little musky perfume; good to very good; Oct. =Pennsylvania. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =10=:213. 1844. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 832. 1869. A seedling found on the ground of J. B. Smith of Pennsylvania. In 1845 the original tree was stated to be nearly forty feet high, of a pyramidal form and remarkably robust habit. Fruit medium, obovate, tapering toward the stem, obtuse, brown-russet on dull yellow ground, ruddy on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, melting, juicy, rich, sugary, slightly perfumed and with a musky flavor; good but not strictly first rate; as an American fruit it may be ranked with Buffum, Cushing and Fulton; Oct. =Pepin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:515, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 629. 1884. This pear was growing in the orchard of Le Lectier in Anjou, Fr., in the year 1600 and was described by Claude Saint-Étienne in 1670. Fruit below medium and sometimes small, globular, bossed, always mammillate at the summit, meadow-green, clouded with pale yellow, dotted with gray and extensively washed with brick red on the side turned to the sun; flesh whitish, fine or semi-fine, breaking, watery; at the center are numerous granulations; juice very saccharine, sweet and savory; second; mid-Aug. =Perpetual. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 832. 1869. Said to have originated on Long Island, N. Y. Disseminated by Messrs. Berckmans, Augusta, Ga. Fruit medium, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, green and yellow, beautifully blushed in the sun; flesh whitish, firm, moderately juicy, sweet; good; keeps till May. =Perrier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Obtained by M. Morel in 1873. Fruit medium, globular, green; flesh fine, melting, juicy; good; beginning of Aug. Tree vigorous and fertile. =Pertusati. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:516, fig. 1869. Raised in the nurseries of M. André Leroy, Angers, Fr., in 1867. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, irregular, having one side larger than the other; skin rough, golden-yellow, finely dotted with gray, marbled with clear brown around the calyx and the stem; flesh white, fine, melting; juice abundant, very saccharine, with an acidulous flavor, very pleasant and delicately perfumed; first; Nov. =Petersbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:33. 1856. _Petite Poire de Pierre._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:101, fig. 243. 1879. _Kleine Petersbirne._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 242. 1889. Altenburg, Ger., 1799. Fruit small, clear green, sprinkled with numerous minute blackish-green dots, turning to dull yellow at maturity and washed over a large area of its surface with dark red, on which the dots are of a darker red; flesh greenish-white, very fine, semi-breaking, sufficiently juicy and agreeably perfumed; a good fruit to preserve or to dry; Aug. =Petit-Blanquet. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:132, Pl. VI. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:517, fig. 1869. _Little Blanquet._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 802. 1869. _Small Blanquet._ =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 646. 1884. This variety was known in French gardens in the middle of the sixteenth century under the name _Poire Perle_, and some years later also by that of _Petit-Blanquet_. Fruit small or very small; form rather inconstant, slightly obtuse-pyriform, or more obtuse-ovate; skin smooth and transparent and shining, clear pale yellow or of a white, waxy and pearl-like tone, sprinkled with greenish dots, with occasionally a blush of tender rose on the side next the sun; flesh very white, semi-fine, breaking and firm; juice rarely abundant, saccharine, savory although only slightly perfumed; a second class dessert pear; Aug. =Petit Catillac. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:3, fig. 98. 1878. _Kleiner Katzenkopf_. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 242. 1889. This pear is probably of German origin. It has points of resemblance in common with the old French Catillac but is distinguished by its size, being often less than that of the latter, its time of maturity being earlier, its flesh being less breaking, more saccharine and without any tartness. Fruit large, ovate-pyriform and much swelled, even in contour, green at first, sprinkled with large, regularly spaced, prominent, brown dots, the green passing to lemon-yellow at maturity, with a blush of red-brown on well-exposed fruits on the side next the sun; flesh white, coarse, semi-buttery; juice abundant, rather vinous and without any appreciable perfume; good for the kitchen; Oct. and Nov. =Petit-Chaumontel. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:519, fig. 1869. From the old garden of the Horticultural Society of Angers, Fr., and sometimes erroneously confused with Oignon which ripens some six weeks earlier. Fruit medium, globular, very bossed and irregular in form, clear green, dotted, veined with russet and extensively washed with carmine on the side turned to the sun; flesh very white, semi-fine, breaking, gritty at center; juice sufficient, saccharine, vinous, slightly astringent; second; latter half of Aug. =Petit-Hâtiveau. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:520, fig. 1869. A variety of ancient and unknown origin, but cultivated among a group of pears termed _Hâtiveau_ for over the last five centuries. It was called by the name _Petit-Hâtiveau_ by Claude Saint-Étienne in 1670 to distinguish it from the _Gros-Hâtiveau_. Fruit small, ovate, obtuse and more or less globular; skin smooth and fine, lemon-yellow, dotted with exceedingly minute greenish points and more or less stained with gray-russet around the calyx and stem; flesh whitish, breaking, semi-fine, scented, juicy and gritty, juice sugary, acid, and slightly musky; third; July. =Petit-Muscat. 1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =1=:75, Tab. 1. 1771. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:522, fig. 1869. _Little Muscat_. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 802. 1869. Jean Mayer, director of the gardens of the Grand Duke of Wurtzburg, Bavaria, in his _Pomona franconica_ published in 1801 showed that the Petit-Muscat was the antique pear _Superba_ described by Pliny. Various other pomologists wrote of it prior to Mayer as for instance Jacq. Daléchamp, 1615; Jean Jonston, 1662; and Henri Manger, 1783. Charles Estienne was the first to write of it in France, 1530, and he named it _Musquette_. Fruit very small, turbinate, more or less obtuse and sometimes globular-turbinate; the eye is placed in a regular-formed cavity and is always naked in consequence of the segments of the calyx falling off, pale greenish-yellow, finely dotted and slightly clouded with rose on the side of the sun (in France); flesh yellowish, semi-fine, breaking, not very juicy, sugary, acidulous and with a pleasant musk flavor; second; June. =Petit-Oin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:524, fig. 1869. _Winterwunder_. =2.= Christ Handb. 497. 1817. _Müskirte Schmeerbirne_. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:13. 1856. _Merveille d'Hiver_. =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 616. 1884. Valerius Cordus was the first to describe this pear which originated in Germany and belongs to the Schmeerbirne or greasy class. About 1650 it was cultivated in France under the name of _Oing_ or _Oin_, the French equivalent of the German _speck_ or _lard_. Fruit medium or less, globular-ovate or turbinate, slightly obtuse at summit, with thick but smooth and greasy skin, dull yellow-green, more or less gray, dotted and flecked with greenish-russet; flesh whitish, granular, scented, exceedingly melting and juicy, very saccharine, free from acid and having an exquisite flavor; third; Sept. to Nov. =Petite Charlotte. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. French. Fruit small, pyramidal, greenish-yellow, highly colored on the side of the sun; flesh breaking, juicy, vinous; excellent; Aug. and Sept. =Petite Fondante. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:153, fig. 461. 1880. _Kleine Schmalzbirne_. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 242. 1889. Origin unknown. Fruit small, nearly spherical, sometimes depressed at both poles, even in contour; skin rather thick and yet tender, pale water-green, sown with numerous very faint, very small, brown dots; at maturity the basic green whitens a little and the side next the sun of fruits well exposed becomes a lighter yellow; flesh whitish, semi-fine, semi-melting, rather gritty around the core, highly saccharine, vinous and sprightly; good; end of Aug. =Petite Marguerite. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:526, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 192. 1920. Raised in the nurseries of M. André Leroy, Angers, Fr., in 1862 and propagated in 1863. Fruit medium, irregular ovate, bossed, swelled at the base and having one side always larger than the other, grass-green, dotted with gray and brown and slightly bronzed on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh greenish-white, fine and very melting, slightly gritty at the center; juice extremely abundant and saccharine, acidulous, with a very pleasant perfume; first; Aug. =Petite Tournaisienne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. A variety on trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz. Fruit medium, oval, oblong, yellow; flesh very fine, semi-melting; Apr. and May. =Petite Victorine. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:528, fig. 1869. A seedling of M. André Leroy raised in 1863. Fruit below medium, globular, flattened at the base but slightly conic at its other extremity, greenish, dotted and marbled with russet; flesh white, fine, melting, generally free from grit; juice sufficient, saccharine, acidulous, with a specially exquisite, musky flavor; first; Dec. and Jan. =Petre. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =2=:437. 1836. =2.= _Ibid._ =3=:83. 1838. This valuable variety was raised by John Bartram, the proprietor of a botanic garden near Philadelphia, from seed received in a letter from Lord Petre of England about the year 1735. The tree still stands, although becoming decrepit. Fruit medium, obovate, truncate at both ends; skin thin, greenish-yellow, with small pale spots; flesh white, soft, juicy and buttery, with a delicious flavor, very slightly musky and vinous; very good; mid-Sept. to Dec. =Pfaffenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:193. 1856. Württemberg and Baden, Ger., 1847. Fruit small, turbinate, yellow, tinted with a dark cinnamon-colored blush on the side next the sun; the summit is covered with russet, thickly sprinkled with gray dots; flesh firm and tasteless. =Pfingstbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:96. 1856. German seedling, 1851. Fruit medium, globular, green turning yellowish-green, speckled and dotted with gray; skin thin and scentless; flesh rather white, sweet and musky; first for table, household and market; early summer. =Philiberte. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. French. Fruit rather large, nearly globular, a beautiful lemon-yellow; flesh very fine, melting, very juicy, agreeably perfumed; first; Dec. and Jan. =Philippe-Le-Bon. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:161, fig. 81. 1872. _Philipp der Gute_. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:4. 1856. According to the catalog of Van Mons of 1823 this was one of his seedlings. Fruit hardly medium, ovate, or turbinate-ovate, short and thick, usually even in outline; skin thick, firm, glossy, pale green, whitish-brown dots; at maturity the basic green passes to pale dull yellow, washed with some clear cerise-red; flesh white, rather coarse, buttery, not much juice, but vinous and perfumed; good; Sept. and Oct. =Philippe Couvreur. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 264. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 72. 1895. Of Belgian origin. Fruit medium to large, orange-yellow dotted with russet; flesh white, tinted with salmon, fine, juicy, perfumed; good; beginning of Oct. =Philippe Goes. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =3=:51, fig. 1855. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 833. 1869. A posthumous gain from the seed beds of Van Mons. The parent tree gave its first fruit in 1846. Fruit above medium, obovate, uneven and undulating in outline; skin rough to the touch, of a dark olive, much covered with a bright russet; flesh semi-melting, gritty, sweet, rather granular at the center, juice rarely abundant, saccharine, vinous and fairly well perfumed; second; Dec. =Philippot. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:530, fig. 1869. Originated with M. Philippot, a nurseryman at Saint-Quentin, Aisne, Fr. In 1852 it fruited for the first time and was propagated in 1860. Fruit large to very large, globular-conic, obtuse, swelled and fleshy at the base; skin yellowish, in part dotted and marbled with brownish-fawn; flesh very white, coarse, semi-breaking, watery; juice abundant, sweet, having little sugar or perfume although rather delicate; third for dessert, first for cooking; Jan. to Mar. =Philopena. 1.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 24. 1904. A chance variety brought to notice by Reuben Ragan of Indiana, about 1850 and named Philopena by him. Fruit small to medium, oblong-pyriform, yellow, with purple blush; calyx open, in a small, shallow basin; stem short, cavity small or absent; quality medium; three or four weeks after Bartlett. =Picciola. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 833. 1869. Of Belgian origin. Fruit small, globular-oblate, greenish-yellow, sometimes slightly blushed in the sun, with traces of russet; flesh whitish, very juicy, melting, with a vinous flavor; good to very good; Sept. =Pie IX. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:86. 1854. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:531, fig. 1869. _Pius IX._ =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 631. 1884. The parent tree of Pie IX sprang from seed sown in 1834 by Van Mons in his nurseries at Louvain, Bel. Fruit large, turbinate, more or less obtuse and elongated, much swelled at the middle, bossed and contorted at its summit, lemon-yellow, dotted and striped with fawn; flesh white, coarse or semi-fine, juicy and melting, rather gritty at the center, saccharine, sour, fairly well perfumed, sometimes disagreeably astringent; second; Sept. =Pierre Corneille. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. Pierre Corneille was obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr., from a seedling of Beurré Diel crossed with Doyenné du Comice; introduced about 1894. The fruit has the appearance of Duchesse d'Angoulême. Tree vigorous, fertile and pyramidal in form. Fruit large globular-obovate, greenish-yellow; flesh fine, melting, juicy, sugary, deliciously perfumed; Dec. and Jan. =Pierre Curie. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 174. 1907. This is a seedling from Doyenné d'Alençon crossed with Beurré Henri Courcelle by M. Arsène Sannier, a nurseryman at Saint-Sever-Rouen, Fr., and placed on the market in 1907. Fruit medium, oval, of the form of the Doyenné d'Alençon; skin gray; flesh extremely fine, with a very agreeable perfume; Jan. to Mar. =Pierre Macé. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. French, attributed to André Leroy. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit rather large, globular-turbinate, yellow dotted with fawn; flesh fine, melting, juicy, highly perfumed; first; second half of Sept. and early Oct. =Pierre Paternotte. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 60. 1895. Raised from seed of the Marie-Louise by Pierre Paternotte, at Molenbeck-Saint-Jean, near Brussels, Bel. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit large, long, yellow, dotted and marbled with gray; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy; first; Oct. and Nov. =Pierre Pépin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:532, fig. 1869. A seedling raised by Leroy, Angers, Fr., and first reported in 1868. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, bossed, and swelled in its lower half, more or less hollowed at either end, lemon-yellow, slightly clouded with green and much speckled and spotted with brown; flesh whitish, fine, melting, some grit around the core; juice abundant, saccharine, vinous, and agreeably perfumed; first; mid-Sept. =Pierre Tourasse. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 542. 1894. Exhibited in France by M. Tourasse, its originator, in 1894. Tree vigorous, upright, stocky, productive. Fruit of good size, broadly turbinate, spotted with brilliant fawn color upon a clear yellow ground, washed with orange and saffron; flesh fine, melting, very juicy, rich in sugar; last of Sept. and first of Oct. =Pimpe. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The Pimpe peare is as great as the Windsor peare, but rounder, and of a very good rellish." =Pinneo. 1.= _Cultivator_ 304. 1845. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 833. 1869. _Hebron_. =3.= _Mag. Hort._ =24=:419. 1858. _Boston_. =4.= _Ibid._ 500. 1858. The parent tree of this variety was found growing in a woodland, New Haven, Conn., by Dea. Pinneo who transplanted it to a spot near his dwelling about the year 1745. It was propagated and distributed over many farms and found a good market in Boston. By error it acquired also the names of _Boston_ and _Virgalieu_. Fruit medium or below, globular-oblate, slightly pyriform, pale yellow, netted, patched, and dotted with russet, slightly blushed on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, juicy, rich, sugary, brisk, with a refreshing and delicious aroma; good; Aug. =Piton. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:533, fig. 1869. A seedling found by M. Piton who lived at Cholet, Maine-et-Loire, Fr. The Horticultural Society of Angers described it in its Pomology, and it was named after its propagator. Fruit large to very large, long-turbinate-obtuse, depressed at each pole, clear dull green, sown with large russet dots; flesh white, semi-breaking and semi-fine, watery, containing some grit below the core; juice rather vinous, sugary, and more or less perfumed; second for dessert, first for compotes. =Pitson. 1.= _Gard. Mon._ =27=:14. 1885. A handsome pear from Stone and Wellington, Fonthill, Ont. Fruit medium, regularly pyriform, brown inclining to russet; good; Jan. =Pius X. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =37=:309. 1905. Described in 1905 as a new pear raised by the Alexiens Brothers at Tirlemont, Bel. Fruit large, somewhat cylindric, greenish-olive, with a few brown spots; flesh creamy-white, perfumed; reported to be of first rate quality; Oct. =Plantagenet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:534, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 834. 1869. The Plantagenet was raised from seed by the old Horticultural Society of Maine-et-Loire, The parent tree gave its first fruit in 1858 in the Society's garden at Angers. Fruit above medium, irregular-ovate, bossed, swelled at the central circumference, of a uniform bright green, some russet around the calyx and sprinkled with numerous dark brown dots; flesh whitish, fine or semi-fine, extremely melting; juice very abundant, extremely saccharine, acidulous, possessing a delicious perfume which gives an after-taste of musk; first; end of Sept. and early Oct. =Plascart. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:37, fig. 115. 1878. Sent out by the Society Van Mons, Bel., without any account of its origin. Fruit below medium, turbinate-ovate, even in outline; skin firm, pale water-green, covered with numerous large, brown dots, very prominent, the green changing at maturity to a beautiful golden yellow, washed on the side next the sun with a lively vermilion on which the dots are golden yellow; flesh yellowish, semi-fine, rather firm and breaking; juice rich in sugar and perfumed; good; Oct. =Platt. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 535. 1857. =2.= _Ibid._ 834. 1869. Originated on the farm of Thomas Tredwell, Beekmantown, Clinton County, N. Y. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, pale yellow, netted and patched with russet and sprinkled with russet dots; flesh whitish, juicy, buttery, semi-melting, agreeable; good; Oct. =Platte Honigbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:189. 1856. Nassau, 1801. Fruit medium, obtuse-turbinate, light yellow-green, with a pale blush, numerous gray dots, marked with russet; flesh coarse-grained, aromatic; third for dessert, first for household; Sept. =Pocahontas. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:525. 1847. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 834. 1869. Originated at Quincy, Mass., and was exhibited before the Horticultural Society of that State in October, 1847. Fruit below medium, obovate-pyriform, yellow, netted, patched, and dotted with russet, sometimes shaded in the sun with bright crimson; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly musky; pleasant; good to very good; Sept. =Pöckelbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 192, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown in Lower Austria. Fruit small to medium, globular-turbinate; skin tough, shining, smooth, green changing to greenish-yellow, blushed and streaked with red on the sunny side, dotted with yellow-brown; flesh yellowish-white, coarse-grained, juicy, subacid; good; Nov. =Poëte Béranger. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:536, fig. 1869. A seedling of Leroy which first fruited in 1867 and was placed in commerce in 1870. Fruit medium; form rather inconstant, nearly always having unequal sides, globular, or obtuse-turbinate; skin fine, rough, bright yellow shaded with green, dotted with gray and almost entirely washed and mottled with brown-russet, more or less scaly; flesh greenish-white especially under the skin, fine, extremely melting, free from grit; juice very abundant, saccharine, acidulous, vinous, with a delicate perfume; first; mid-Sept. =Poire d'Abbeville. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 81. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:99, fig. 338. 1880. The Poire d'Abbeville probably originated at the city of that name in the Department of the Somme, Fr.; for M. Jamin, Senior, propagated it about 1837 when he received it from M. Bennet of Boulogne-sur-Mer, who stated it was very well known and esteemed in the neighborhood of Abbeville. Fruit large, globular-conic but irregular, water-green sprinkled with numerous and large dots of fawn; at maturity the green changes to lemon-yellow; flesh white tinted with yellow, coarse, breaking, slightly gritty at the core, not very juicy or perfumed; first for culinary purposes, keeps easily for a long period; winter. =Poire d'Ange de Meiningen. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:105, fig. 341. 1880. This pear has been in much request in the neighborhood of Meiningen, Ger., for many years and should be distinguished from the ancient _Poire d'Ange_, now called Boutoc, which it does not resemble. Fruit small, ovate or ovate-pyriform, even in contour; skin fine, delicate, bright green changing to beautiful bright lemon-yellow, the side next the sun being blushed and streaked with vermilion; the very numerous brown dots change on the blushed part to yellow; flesh tinted with yellow, rather fine, semi-breaking; juice sweet and agreeably perfumed but rather deficient; second; latter half of Aug. =Poire d'Avril. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 536. 1857. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 488. 1884. Stated by Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, to have been received by them from England under this name. Fruit large, pyramidal, obtuse; skin smooth and shining, of a lively dark green, with a brown tinge next the sun, and patches of gray-russet on the shaded side, the whole surface being covered with very large pale-colored specks; flesh crisp, juicy and sweet; first class for cooking according to Messrs. Simon-Louis; Mar. and Apr. =Poire Brune de Gasselin. 1.= _Pom. France_ =4=:No. 165, Pl. 165. 1867. Gained by M. Durand-Gasselin, architect at Nantes, Fr., from a seed bed made in 1845. Fruit medium, ovate-pyramidal, yellow washed with fawn-russet; flesh very tender, juicy, very sugary and perfumed; first; Oct. and Nov. =Poire de Casserole. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 89. 1876. _Casserule._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 715. 1869. Of foreign origin, probably French. Fruit large, obovate-pyriform, yellow, with much russet and brown on cheek; flesh whitish, coarse, granular, breaking, very juicy, rich, with high aroma; first quality for cooking; Oct. and Nov. =Poire des Chartriers. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:133, fig. 451. 1880. This variety is mentioned by Van Mons in his Catalog and is therein considered to be of Belgian origin. Fruit medium, globular-pyriform, irregular and bossed; skin a little thick at first, water-green, rather dark, sprinkled with very small and numerous dots of gray-brown, the basic green becoming brilliant lemon-yellow and on maturity covered on the side next the sun with golden russet; flesh yellow, very fine, firm, buttery, melting, full of saccharine juice, vinous, perfumed; first; Oct. =Poire des Chasseurs. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =5=:31, fig. 1857. _Des Chasseurs._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 735. 1869. A posthumous gain of Van Mons tasted for the first time in 1842 and reported on by M. Simon Bouvier of Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium to large, ovate-pyriform, greenish, dotted with russet, and much stained with russet on the sun-exposed side; flesh yellowish, coarse, watery, melting, granular; juice vinous, agreeably perfumed; first; Oct. =Poire de Coq. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:600, fig. 1867. This variety is distinct from the _Poire de Coq_ synonymous with the Beurré de Bruxelles, and is of unknown origin. It was cultivated for many years in the old gardens of the Horticultural Society of Angers. Fruit large, long-turbinate, bossed, strongly mammillate at apex, citron-yellow, dotted and stained with dark gray, and washed with bright carmine on the side exposed to the sun; flesh white, semi-fine and melting; juice sweet with slight perfume but delicate flavor; second; Sept. Poire de Graisse. 1=.= Knoop _Pomologie_ =1=:111, Tab. IV. 1771. Probably of Belgian or French origin. In Holland it is known as the _Smeer-Peer_. Fruit medium, oblong, terminating acutely toward the stalk, greenish and speckled with blackish-brown; flesh rather gritty, soft, with a slightly spicy flavor; not of much value. =Poire de gros queue. 1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =3.= 1807. Fruit large, taking its name from its very thick stalk, globular, yellow, flesh breaking; wanting in juice, having a very musky flavor. =Poire de Hert. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =1=:145, fig. 71. 1866-73. Mas states he received this variety from Thomas Rivers, the well known English nurseryman of Sawbridgeworth near London, Eng. Fruit medium or nearly medium, ovate-pyriform, symmetrical in contour; skin thick, firm, very pale green all over, sprinkled with dots of gray, changing when ripe to lemon-yellow; flesh white, fine, semi-melting; juice sufficient, flavor refreshing, agreeable; good, of real merit for the season; end of winter and spring. =Poire de Houblon. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:101, fig. 51. 1872. Origin unknown, but cultivated for a long time in many localities in Germany. Fruit small, ovate or globular-ovate, swelled, usually regular in contour, bright green, sown with grayish dots, passing to golden yellow on the side of the sun; flesh whitish, a little yellow near the center, coarse, semi-breaking, fairly full of sweet juice, with a fresh perfume of rose; second rate for eating raw but an excellent variety to dry; end of Aug. =Poire de Klevenow. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:121, fig. 59. 1866-73. Originated in the environs of Klevenow, a village of Pomerania, Prussia. Fruit small or nearly medium, regular pyriform, sombre green and yellow blushed with carmine; flesh white, slightly greenish, fine, buttery; juice very sugary and abundant, vinous, perfumed; good; mid-Aug. =Poire Noire à Longue Queue. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:165, fig. 563. 1881. Origin thought to be German. Fruit nearly medium, ovate-pyriform, symmetrical in outline; skin thick, firm, dull green covered with a network of gray-russet, through which a light yellow shows at maturity; on the shaded side are some gray dots and on the sun-exposed side are numerous large black-red spots; flesh white, transparent, semi-fine, buttery; juice sufficient, saccharine, slightly acid; good for cooking; Aug. =Poire du Pauvre. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. =2.= _Rev. Hort._ 163. 1889. This pear was raised from seed of the Urbaniste sown in 1846. Fruit medium or large, oval, pyriform, ventriculous; skin fine and shining, white tinted with green, much covered with fawn around the two ends; flesh white, rather fine, a little gritty around the center, very melting; juice abundant, saccharine, and pleasantly perfumed, with a fresh flavor and agreeable astringency; Oct. and Nov. =Poire des Peintres. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Described by Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876 as a new variety. Tree vigorous and very fertile. Fruit rather large, oval-pyriform, dark yellow, extensively washed with lively red; flesh melting, juicy, saccharine and highly perfumed; end of Aug. and Sept. =Poire de Pendant. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:84. 1831. "It is from the long stem by which this pear is suspended, which is near two inches in length, that it obtains its title." The _Pendar_ of La Quintinye, and the _Hanging pear_ of Evelyn, although quoted as synonyms of this pear, are probably not the same as they are said to ripen in October. It is also very doubtful whether the synonyms of _Pendar_ and _Knaves' pear_ given by Miller and Forsyth apply to this fruit. Fruit, "The entire height of the fruit is twenty-eight lines, and its breadth two inches, and sometimes a line more;" turbinate; skin is ash-colored, approaching russet, and dotted over with small points of russet; flesh greenish-white, melting, sweet, and partially perfumed; end of Sept. =Poire de Preuilly. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Published in the French _Revue Horticole_, 1870. Tree vigorous and very fertile. This is a very large fruit used for decorative purposes. In form it is similar to the Bartlett; skin yellow-green, speckled; flesh breaking. =Poire de Rateau. 1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:532. 1860. Tree very vigorous when grafted on pear. Fruit very large, turbinate, greenish-white, reddish and sown with russet dots on the side next the sun; flesh breaking, slightly saccharine and perfumed; eatable raw, and good for cooking; mid-Dec. =Poire Rigoleau. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:136. 1854. Introduced in 1854 as a new variety. Origin unknown. Fruit small, nearly globular; skin thick, greenish-yellow, covered with russet specks, little russet at either stem and calyx; flesh white, tender, juicy, of a very pleasant flavor; first part of Nov. =Poire du Roeulx. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1876. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876; it was published in the _Revue de l'Arboriculture_ in France. Fruit medium, pyriform, short, irregular, yellow clouded with fawn; flesh yellowish, very melting, exceedingly juicy, very saccharine and with a very exquisite perfume; first; latter half of Sept. =Poire Souvenir d'Hortolès Père. 1.= _Pom. France_ =4=:No. 173, Pl. 173. 1865. A variety unpublished previous to 1865 but cultivated in France, where it had already existed for more than sixty years. Fruit small, pyriform, usually growing in clusters strongly attached to the tree, green, dotted, passing to yellow and washed with dark brilliant red on the side of the sun; flesh white, firm, melting, slightly gritty; juice abundant, with a strong perfume of Muscatel; good; July. =Poire Thouin. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:177, fig. 473. 1880. According to Diel, Poire Thouin was obtained by Van Mons. Fruit medium, ovate, more or less short, usually symmetrical in contour, largest circumference at center; skin a little thick and firm, bright green, sprinkled with numerous inconspicuous spots of a darker shade, changing to pale yellow, and washed with orange-red on the side next the sun of well-exposed fruits; flesh white, coarse, breaking, full of saccharine juice, perfumed; third, for the season of its maturity; early Sept. =Poire de Torpes. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 107. 1876. Tree hardy, very productive. Fruit rather large, globular, yellow stained with russet; flesh fine, melting; good; Oct. to Dec. =Poire des Trois Fréres. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 71, 308. 1876. A wilding found near Maizieres-les-Metz, Fr. It was propagated by Messrs. Maline and placed in commerce in 1863. Tree vigorous, very fertile, and suitable especially for wind-blown situations. Fruit medium, long, green; flesh whitish, buttery, sugary and perfumed; first; end of Aug. =Poire des Trois Jours. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 149. 1841. _Trois Jours_. =2.= _Cultivator_, 340. 1847. Kenrick says: "New and large; beurrée; of first-rate excellence, ripening at Paris in November, according to M. Jamin." =Poire de Vitrier. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:139, Pl. XLIV, fig. 4. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:746, fig. 1869. This is probably a variety of German origin, for Valerius Cordus, who was a native of Hesse and died in 1544, spoke of it as abounding in Saxony, in the suburbs of Eisleben, and very common in all Germany. Duhamel du Monceau described it in France in 1768. Fruit medium, rather regular-ovate, wrinkled and mammillate at the summit, dull yellow, much clouded over with gray-russet, dotted with light brown, and vermilioned on the side toward the sun; flesh whitish, watery, semi-fine and semi-melting, gritty around the center; juice sufficient, sugary, vinous, slightly musky; second; Nov. and Dec. =Poire du Voyageur. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 107, 311. 1876. Originated by M. Boisbunel of Rouen, Fr. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit medium, pyriform, yellowish-green; flesh juicy, granular around the core; third; summer. =Poirier de Jardin. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr_. =2=:143, Pl. XIX, fig. 3. 1768. _Garden Pear._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 770. 1869. Origin unknown; probably French. Fruit large, globular-oblate, orange-shaped, surface a little bossed, on the side of the sun a beautiful deep red, spotted with golden-yellow, the shaded side being streaked and rayed with bright red on yellow; flesh semi-breaking, a little coarse and somewhat gritty around the core; juice sugary and of a very good flavor; good; Dec. =Poiteau. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:537, fig. 1869. Raised by Van Mons, and first fruited at Louvain, Bel., in 1823. Fruit above medium, long-ovate, variable in form, sometimes being short-ovate and ventriculous, orange-yellow, dotted with brown, stained with greenish-russet around the calyx and stem, and mottled with the same on the cheek next the sun; flesh whitish, rather coarse, melting, gritty, full of saccharine juice, sometimes astringent, without pronounced perfume; second; Oct. =Polish Lemon. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1887. Known as _Cytrymova_ in Poland. It was received in 1882 by the Iowa State Agricultural College, and was subsequently propagated and distributed by the College. =Polk. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =11=:252. 1845. A seedling raised by H. W. Edwards, New Haven, Conn., at one time Governor of that state. It came into bearing in 1844. Fruit larger than the Seckel, like Bergamot in form; flesh juicy, melting, subacid, sweet and rich; first; Sept to Nov. =Pollan. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 834. 1869. A Pennsylvania pear. Fruit below medium, nearly globular, greenish-yellow, with a shade of brown in the sun; flesh whitish, a little coarse, moderately juicy, vinous, pleasant; good; Aug. =Pollvaskaja. 1.= _Iowa Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1880. A Russian variety growing on the Iowa State College Farm in 1880, and having thorny wood; it unites very imperfectly with the apple. It shows "marked traces of the Chinese forms of the pear in shape, serration, thickness and size of leaf, and in the peculiar enlarged character of the scaly terminal buds." =Polnische grüne Krautbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:155. 1856. Galicia, 1819. Fruit small, globular-flattened, distorted, grass-green changing to yellowish grass-green and often with a dark blush and brown-russet on the side next the sun; scentless skin; flesh coarse-grained, melting, vinous, very juicy, acidulous; second for dessert, first for household; mid-Sept. =Polnische Seidenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:145. 1856. Galicia, 1812. Fruit medium to large, regular in form, light lemon-yellow, often rather blushed, sprinkled with numerous small, prominent, light brown and often greenish dots; flesh breaking, and coarse-grained, sweet, Muscatel in flavor; third for dessert, very good for household purposes; Sept. =Pomeranzenbirn von Zabergäu. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 90, fig. 1913. A perry pear found in Germany and Upper Austria. Fruit large, globular-turbinate; skin smooth, shining, of a light leaf-green changing when ripe to light greenish-yellow, finely dotted, without russet; flesh yellow-white, rather coarse-grained, with small grits around the center, very juicy, saccharine, acidulous, having a strong scent; Oct. =Pomme d'Été. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:539, fig. 1869. The origin of the Pomme d'Été is uncertain, except that M. Leroy of Angers received it from the old garden of the Horticultural Society of Angers about 1849. Fruit medium and below, globular, much flattened and similar to the form of Caillot rosat and Naquette, yellow-ochre, entirely covered with gray dots; flesh white, fine and breaking, watery, rather granular around the core; juice abundant, saccharine, sweet and very musky; second; end of Sept. =Pope Quaker. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 834. 1869. Origin, Long Island, N. Y. Fruit very fair, medium-size, oblong-pyriform, smooth, yellows-russet; flesh melting, juicy and pleasant; hardly good; Oct. =Pope Scarlet Major. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =3=:15. 1837. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 834. 1869. Origin, Long Island, N. Y. Fruit nearly large, obovate, yellow, blushed on exposed side with bright red; flesh white, breaking, rather dry; very indifferent; Oct. =Portail. 1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =3.= 1807. =2.= Christ _Handb._ 503. 1817. Origin unknown beyond the fact that it was discovered in the old province of Poitou, Fr., and was held in high esteem there. Fruit "longer than it is round," greenish; flesh yellowish, dry, gritty and hard unless in very favorable seasons and upon very good soil, but may at times be tender and have an unforgetable musky aroma; it bakes well; Jan. to Mar. =Porter. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass. No. 16. Fruited in 1862 Diameter 2-1/2 inches, melting, sweet and juicy; ripens soundly; good market pear; Oct. =Portingall. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. "The Portingall peare is a great peare, but more goodly in shew then good indeed." =Posey. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1897. Found in a fence row on the farm of Jacob Grabel, where it originated about 1880. It was reported by A. R. Ryman, Cedar Grove, Ind. Fruit medium, pyriform, moderately smooth, lemon-yellow, with small brown spots; flesh whitish, buttery, mild subacid; good to very good; Sept. to Dec. =Prager Schaferbirne. 1.= Oberdieck _Obst. Sort._ 321. 1881. Germany. Fruit medium (3-1/2 x 2-1/2 in.), ovate and pyriform, smooth, greenish turning to lemon-yellow blushed on the sunny side, very finely dotted; flesh yellowish-white, tender, agreeably aromatic and sweet; first for kitchen and household purposes; Oct. to end of Jan. =Prairie du Pond. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 835. 1869. Introduced by A. H. Ernst, Cincinnati, Ohio. Fruit small, nearly globular, greenish-yellow, with many brown and green dots; flesh whitish, moderately juicy, semi-melting, vinous, astringent; poor; Sept. =Pratt. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =1=:210, fig. 58. 1846. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ 2:542, fig. 1869. The Pratt pear was first brought into notice by Owen Mason, Providence, R. I., who obtained cions from the original tree at Scituate, R. I., and distributed them in the spring of 1844. It appears to have originated at Johnson, R. I. Fruit above medium, obovate, greenish-yellow, sprinkled with numerous gray dots and russet spots; flesh white, tender, melting, fine-grained, abounding with saccharine, well-flavored juice; second; Sept. =Pratt Junior. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 151. 1862. Another native which originated on the same farm as the preceding variety and named by the Rhode Island Society in order to designate its origin; in appearance similar to Winter Nelis. =Pratt Seedling. 1.= _Chico Nurs. Cat._ 13. 1904. Originated in Salem, Oregon, with Captain Pratt. Shape and color of Sheldon; keeps until Mar. =Precilly. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 835. 1869. Belgian. Fruit medium to large, obovate-acute-pyriform, greenish-yellow, netted and patched with russet and sprinkled with brown dots; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, breaking, juicy; good for cooking; Oct. =Précoce de Celles. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Described by Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876 as a new variety received from Belgium. Fruit medium, like Bergamot in form; very good in quality for its season; early summer. =Précoce de Jodoigne. 1.= _Mas Pom. Gen._ =5=:101, fig. 339. 1880. Obtained by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Brabant, Bel., and first published in 1865. Fruit rather small or nearly medium, ovate-pyriform, regular in contour, vivid green covered with a sort of whitish bloom and sprinkled with green dots of a darker shade, changing to yellow and occasionally tinged with red on the side of the sun; flesh whitish, fine, buttery, melting, full of sweet juice, saccharine but not highly flavored; fairly good quality; July. =Précoce de Tivoli. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. Fruit medium, pyriform, pale yellow, flesh white, gritty, semi-breaking, saccharine; good; Aug. =Précoce de Trévoux. 1.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 328. 1906. Obtained by M. Treyve, Trévoux, Ain, Fr., and first published in 1862. Fruit full medium size, pyriform-truncate, fine and tender skin of a vivid yellow, very finely dotted with green and washed and streaked with carmine on the side next the sun; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, sugary and richly flavored, agreeable perfume; good to very good; beginning of Aug. =Précoce Trottier. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 352. 1912. A French pear described by M. de la Bastie in the _Journal of the Pomological Society of France_ in 1890. Fruit medium or a little above medium, turbinate-ventriculous; at first the skin is a very bright green changing to pale yellow with some green markings, and blushed with somber red on the side next the sun, dotted with brown; flesh white, semi-fine, nearly melting, juicy, saccharine, agreeably perfumed; good to very good; mid-July. =Premature. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 157. 1832. Originated in Scotland about 1830. Fruit below medium; flesh very juicy and delicious, superior to the Crawford, of Scotland, reputed a most superior early fruit; early Aug. =Prémices d'Écully. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:544, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 632. 1884. Obtained by M. Luizet, a nurseryman at Écully-lez-Lyon, Rhône, Fr., from a bed of mixed seeds made in 1847. Fruit rather large, irregular ovate, round and bossed, yellow, with here and there a green tinge, thickly spotted and stained with small blotches of brown-russet; flesh tender, whitish, fine, melting, juicy, easily becoming soft, sweet, saccharine, with a flavor of musk; Sept. =Prémices de Wagelwater. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 836. 1869. Fruit below medium, globular-obovate-pyriform, sides unequal, yellow with a few traces of russet and thickly sprinkled with brown dots; flesh whitish, melting, juicy, very sweet; good to very good; Oct. =Premier. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 632. 1884. Raised at the Royal Garden, Frogmore, Eng., and first exhibited in 1871. Fruit above medium, oblong, terminating abruptly and bluntly at the stalk, undulating in outline and contracted with a waist at the middle; skin covered with cinnamon-colored russet; flesh semi-melting, very juicy, sweet, and brisk, with a flavor resembling pineapple; good; Nov. =Premier Président Métivier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:545, fig. 1869. A variety raised in Leroy's nurseries at Angers, Fr., in 1867. Fruit above medium or large, globular, flattened at the poles, more enlarged on one side than on the other; skin rough, grass-green, dotted and veined with olive-russet on the shaded side, and bronzed and dotted with bright fawn on the face exposed to the sun; flesh very white, melting, fine or semi-fine, free from granulations, very juicy, acidulous, highly saccharine, with delicious perfume and flavor; first; Oct. =Présent de Van Mons. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:546, fig. 1869. A seedling of Van Mons raised at Louvain, Bel., but which first fruited with General Delaage at Angers, Fr., in 1844. Fruit large, turbinate, shortened and ventriculous in its lower part, very much narrowed and slightly constricted at the top which is rarely very obtuse, lemon-yellow, strewn with large gray dots, fully colored with dull red on the side exposed to the sun; flesh white, fine, or semi-fine, melting, gritty below the core; juice abundant; saccharine, sourish and vinous, with an aromatic flavor; first; Feb. to Apr. =President. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc._ Rpt. 44. 1865. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 836. 1869. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., and fruited in 1861. Fruit very large, globular-obovate, somewhat irregular; skin slightly rough, greenish-yellow, pale red in the sun, considerable russet next the base of the stalk and traces of russet and conspicuous dots all over; flesh yellowish-white, rather coarse, melting, juicy, slightly vinous; good; early Nov. =Président Barabé. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1895. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 193. 1920. First fruited in 1870 from a seed of Bergamotte Espéren with M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Fruit medium to below, short-turbinate, deep golden in color; flesh white, fine, melting, a little acid, juicy and of exquisite flavor; Jan. to Mar. =Président de la Bastie. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 265. 1889. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 330, fig. 1906. Originated with M. Boisselot, Nantes, Fr. Fruit large, shape of Bartlett; flesh white, fine, melting; good to very good; Feb. and Mar. =Président Boncenne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 97. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1895. This firm had received it from Poitiers. Tree very vigorous and makes a shapely pyramid. Fruit medium, pyramidal, greenish, slightly blushed with red on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, very juicy, perfumed, saccharine and with a flavor of almond; beginning of Sept. =Président Campy. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876 and stated to have been received from Belgium. =President Clark. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 98. 1881. This was a hybrid produced from the crossing of Seckel with Belle Lucrative. It was raised by Francis Dana, who, before he died, put several seedlings into the hands of Colonel Stone, Dedham, Mass., saying he thought there might be some very good varieties among them. This variety was among them, and was named after the first President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. Fruit full medium, turbinate, somewhat irregular and variable, clear lemon-yellow, with a carmine cheek next the sun; flesh white, fine-grained, very melting, juicy, slightly astringent, sweet and rich; very good to best; a little later in season than Bartlett. =Président Couprie. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. French. Fruit medium, oval; flesh yellow, very tender, melting, juicy, highly saccharine and perfumed; Sept. and Oct. =Président Deboutteville. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. Published by M. Boisbunel. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit rather large; first; Dec. =President Dr. Ward. 1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 157. 1905. Awarded a premium by the New Jersey Horticultural Society in 1905. =President d'Estaintot. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Obtained at Rouen, Fr., from a seed of Soldat-Laboureur, and published by Collette. The fruit is of first quality and is in season from Aug. to Oct. =President Felton. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 836. 1869. Originated with W. D. Brincklé, Philadelphia, Pa. Fruit medium, globular-oblate, pale yellow, with a crimson cheek in sun, nettings and tracings of russet, and many brown and gray dots; flesh fine, juicy, yellowish, semi-melting, slightly vinous, sweet; good; Oct. =Président Fortier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Fruit medium, ovate, slightly swelled; flesh white, very fine, melting, sugary, perfumed; Jan. to Apr. =Président Héron 1.=. _Rev. Hort._ 6. 1897. A new pear placed on the market in 1897 by Arséne Sannier, a nurseryman at Rouen, Fr. Fruit medium; form recalling that of Urbaniste, obovate or oblong-obovate; flesh very fine, juicy, and perfumed. =Président Mas. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 836. 1869. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom._ France 333, fig. 1906. First reported in 1865 as having been raised by M. Boisbunel, horticulturist at Rouen, Fr., and adopted by the Pomological Congress of France. Fruit large, sometimes very large, ovate-conic-obtuse and bossed round the stalk; skin rough, yellowish-green, much dotted with russet, marbled with fawn around the eye; flesh whitish, fine, melting, juicy with a sugary flavor, vinous and very pleasantly perfumed; very good; Nov. to Jan. =Président Muller. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. Published by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Brabant, and on trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit large; first; Nov. =Président Olivier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Gained by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., not long previous to 1876. =Président d'Osmonville. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:547, fig. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 194. 1920. This variety was a posthumous gain of M. Léon Leclerc, Laval, Fr., in 1834, an amateur well known among French pomologists. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform; skin smooth, fine and tender, very pale green changing to pale yellow, more golden on the side of the sun, or occasionally washed on the more-exposed fruits with a suggestion of rosy red; flesh yellow, very fine, entirely melting, filled with saccharine juice, vinous, and penetrated with a lively musk flavor; first; Oct. =Président Parigot. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:548, fig. 1869. A variety originated by Count Nouhes near Pauzauges in the Vendée, Fr., where the seedling gave its first fruit in 1852. Fruit above medium, long-conic, narrowed in its upper part and bossed; skin rather rough, orange-yellow, dotted with greenish-gray and extensively washed with clear gray; flesh whitish, semi-fine, melting, watery, granular around the core; juice abundant, very saccharine, vinous and with a delicious flavor; first; Oct. =Président Payen. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:549. 1869. This pear issued in 1860 from a seed bed made by M. Briffaut, Sévres, Fr. It was awarded a silver medal in 1861 by the Horticultural Society of Paris. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, golden-russet sometimes washed with a red blush; flesh fine, melting, juicy, saccharine, perfumed, and of good flavor; of moderate merit; beginning of winter. =Président Pouyer-Quertier. 1.= _Guide Prat_. 111. 1876. A French pear dedicated to a President of the Horticultural Society of Rouen. Fruit medium, rather long, covered with gray-russet; flesh very fine, juicy, saccharine; first; Dec. and Jan. =Président Royer. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:549, fig. 1869. M. Xavier Grégoire, the Belgian tanner of Jodoigne, obtained this pear in 1762 when it fruited for the first time. Fruit medium; form recalling that of the quince, very bossed, rather obtuse, base flat, bright yellow, dotted, streaked and mottled with russet and extensively washed with tender rose on the side of the sun; flesh fine, firm although quite melting, rather granular at core; juice abundant, saccharine, highly perfumed, possessing a slight acidity which renders it agreeable and refreshing; first; Oct. =Président Le Sant. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 102. 1876. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit medium, Bergamot-shaped; skin oily, symmetrical, yellow dotted with fawn; flesh fine, melting, juicy, saccharine, with an agreeable aroma; first; Oct. and Nov. =Président Watier. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1895. Obtained about 1880 by the Chevalier de Biseau d'Hauteville, at Binche, Bel. Fruit long-gourd-shaped; flesh salmon-colored, melting, saccharine, well-flavored; Nov. =Présidente Senente. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. On trial in 1895. Tree healthy, of moderate vigor and pyramidal. Fruit small to medium, globular-oblate; flesh melting, perfumed, very juicy with a pleasant acidity; Dec. and Jan. =Prévost. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:552, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 633. 1884. Obtained by Alexandre Bivort, director of the nurseries of the Society Van Mons at Geest-Saint-Rémy, Jodoigne, Bel, in 1847. Fruit above medium, rather irregular-ovate, bossed, often much swelled in the lower half, lemon-yellow or golden, dotted and a little speckled with bright maroon, carmined on the cheek turned to the sun; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-melting, having a pleasant muscat flavor; second; Jan. to Mar. =Pricke. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The peare pricke is very like unto the Greenfield peare, being both faire, great, and good." =Primating. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. Mentioned by John Parkinson in 1629, as "a good moist peare, and early ripe." =Prince Albert. 1.= _Pom. France_ =4=:No. 141, Pl. 141. 1865. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 836. 1869. This was a seedling of the eighth generation raised by Van Mons at Louvain, Bel., sown about 1840. Fruit medium, conic, obtuse and irregular, often contorted, sides unequal, greenish, striped and dotted with fawn, washed with russet around the stem; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-breaking, gritty; juice abundant, saccharine, aromatic, rather savory; second; Nov. and Dec. =Prince Harvest. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 837. 1869. Raised by William Prince, Flushing, L. I., N. Y. Fruit small, ovate-pyriform, pale yellow, rarely a brownish blush, red cheek in the sun, sprinkled with brown dots, and sometimes patched with russet; flesh white, firm, breaking, moderately juicy, sweet, slightly musky; good; end of July. =Prince Impérial. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 65. 1876. Obtained by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Brabant, Bel., in 1850. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit large, ovate, bright yellow all over; flesh salmon-colored, buttery, rather juicy, saccharine and having an agreeable perfume; first; Oct. and Nov. =Prince Impérial de France. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:554, fig. 1889. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 837. 1869. M. Grégoire, the well-known Belgian seedsman, obtained this variety at Jodoigne in 1850 from seed of Pastorale sown in 1835. Fruit above medium, irregular-ovate and rather swelled, having one side usually more enlarged than the other, bright green, dotted, streaked, patched and spotted with fawn-russet; flesh white, fine, juicy, melting, slightly gritty below the core; juice abundant, refreshing, saccharine, acidulous, perfumed; first; Sept. =Prince de Joinville. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 837. 1869. Belgian; first fruited in 1848. Fruit medium, globular, green changing to golden yellow, with a vivid blush on the cheek next the sun, brown spots and some russet; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine, melting, acidulous, sweet, agreeably aromatic; first for dessert, household and market; Nov. =Prince Napoléon. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:556, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 837. 1869. Raised by M. Boisbunel, Rouen, Fr., from seed of the Passe Crassane in 1864. Fruit medium and sometimes above, globular, rarely regular and often mammillate at the top, olive-yellow, covered largely with mottlings of brown and sprinkled with indistinct gray dots; flesh white-greenish or yellowish, semi-fine, semi-melting; juice sufficient, saccharine, vinous, with a delicate perfume; first; Feb. and Mar. =Prince d'Orange. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =21=:146. 1855. Raised by Van Mons at Louvain and numbered 891 in his Catalog of 1823, second and third series, and regarded by J. de Jonghe, Brussels, as one of Van Mons' more remarkable fruits; form and flavor of Passe Colmar. =Prince de Printemps. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 198. 1832. A Flemish pear imported by a Mr. Braddick in 1819. Fruit small, turbinate, green; flesh buttery, sweet; good; very late. =Prince Saint-Germain. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 447, fig. 207. 1845. Raised by William Prince, Flushing, Long Island, N. Y., and known also as _Brown Saint Germain_. Fruit medium, obovate inclining to oval-pyriform, green nearly covered with brownish-russet and blushed with dull red on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, melting, juicy, with a vinous and very agreeable flavor; very good; Nov. to Mar. =Prince Seed Virgalieu. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:163, fig. 562. 1881. Origin unknown. Fruit medium, turbinate-conic and ventriculous, usually regular in form, pale green, slightly tinted with yellow, sprinkled with brownish-gray dots, small but numerous; at maturity the basic green becomes brilliant lemon-yellow and the side exposed to the sun washed with pale red; flesh white, fine, buttery, very melting; juice sufficient, saccharine; good; Oct. =Princess. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =3=:260. 1882. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 194. 1920. Raised by Messrs. Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, Eng., from seed of Louise Bonne de Jersey. Growth compact, upright, free bearer, valuable for market culture, and one to be depended upon in poor seasons; fine as a cordon. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, tapering almost to stalk, not very symmetrical, smooth and shining, rarely russety, green and pale green with a brownish tinge, dark green dots under the skin; flesh white, juicy and melting, briskly acid; very good; Oct. to Christmas, rather variable in season. =Princess Maria. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 580. 1857. A seedling from Van Mons. Fruit medium or below, pyramidal, yellow, considerably covered with rough, dull russet, and thickly sprinkled with dots; flesh whitish, rather coarse, juicy, melting, vinous, aromatic; good; Sept. =Princesse Charlotte. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:558, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 633. 1884. A pear raised in 1846 by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel. Fruit medium, variable in form, much bossed and rather contorted, turbinate-obtuse to globular-ovate, grass-green with brown or orange glow on the sunny side, dotted and marbled with russet; flesh white, semi-fine, semi-melting, watery and gritty, but juicy, saccharine, acidulous, with a fine aroma; a fine pear, evidently of the Passe Colmar race, but quite distinct from that variety; Nov. and later. =Princesse Marianne. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:559, fig. 1869. _Calebasse Princesse Marianne_. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =5=:67, fig. 1857. Although very similar in color and form, this pear is distinct from Calebasse Bosc with which it has been confused. It was obtained by Van Mons at the Fidélité nursery near Brussels before 1817 from a graft of a wilding. Fruit large, pyriform and gourd-shaped, swelled in its lower part, more or less contracted near the summit and not very obtuse; skin rough, greenish-russet, dotted with clear gray and marbled or speckled with brown, flesh white or semi-fine, melting, some grit around the core, juicy, very saccharine, vinous and with a highly delicate aroma; first; Oct. =Princesse d'Orange. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:560. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 634. 1884. According to Van Mons this was found by Count de Coloma in the garden of the Riches-Claires Nunnery at Mechlin, Bel, about 1788, but remained unnamed for forty years. Fruit medium, globular or globular-ovate, bossed, seldom very regular in form, lemon-yellow, largely covered with reddish-brown russet, and more or less carmined on the side next the sun; flesh white and fine, melting or semi-melting, juicy, vinous, saccharine, slightly perfumed with anis; a first-class dessert pear; Oct. =Princière. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:562, fig. 1869. Of uncertain origin. Leroy received it in 1864 from Charles Baltet, Troyes, Fr., who also described it in the _Revue Horticole_ that year. Fruit above medium, globular, irregular, bossed, often much contorted and usually mammillate at the summit, golden yellow or bright yellow covered all over with large russet dots, streaked with fawn around the calyx; flesh white, fine, melting, full of juice, only slightly saccharine, vinous and slightly aromatic; second; Oct. =Priou. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:563, figs. 1869. This pear which is one of the best ripening in spring-time was made known in 1863 by M. Priou, a miller at Rondard, near Brissac, Maine-et-Loire, Fr. The parent tree stood in an open pasturage, and was then about fifty years old. Fruit above medium, rather inconstant in form, globular-ovate, irregular, bossed, mammillate at the summit, and pentagonal at its base or almost completely globular, bright yellow, dotted and streaked with gray-russet; flesh white, fine and juicy, melting, slightly gritty at the center, saccharine, agreeably acid, with a delicious perfume; first; May. =Professeur Barral. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:565, fig. 1869. M. Boisselot, Nantes, Fr., a well known seedsman, obtained this pear from seeds of Bartlett, in 1862. Fruit very large, globular, rather irregular and bossed; skin thick, orange-yellow, dotted with gray and lightly washed with bright russet on the exposed side; flesh whitish, fine or semi-fine, melting, watery; juice abundant, sugary, vinous, acidulous and full of flavor; first; Oct. and beginning of Nov. =Professeur Bazin. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 494. 1898. A posthumous variety raised from a seed bed of M. Tourasse and placed on the market in 1898 by M. Baltet, Troyes, Fr. Fruit large, often very large, pyramidal, ventriculous at the middle, water-green, passing to lemon-yellow, mottled with fawn-brown; flesh extremely fine and melting, juicy, saccharine, with a delicate perfume; very good; Dec. and Jan. =Professeur Dubreuil. 1.= _Pom. France_ =3=:No. 97, Pl. 97. 1865. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 634. 1884. Obtained by M. Dubreuil, professor of horticulture, from a bed of seeds of Louise-Bonne de Jersey made at the Botanical Garden of Rouen in 1840. Fruit medium, pyriform, more or less swelled; skin rather thick, oily, green changing to lemon-yellow, dotted with russet and carmined on the side of the sun; flesh white, fine, buttery, full of sugary juice, with an agreeable perfume; first; end of Aug. and early Sept. =Professeur Grosdemange. 1.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 340, 342, fig. 243. 1908. Fruit large, obovate-pyriform; coloring bright yellow with vermilion blush; flesh of good quality; Jan. to Mar. =Professeur Hennnau. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =8=:77, fig. 1860. M. Xavier Grégoire, a tanner at Jodoigne, Bel., obtained this variety from seed. Fruited in 1860. Fruit above medium, ovate, more or less irregular, swelled and bossed, often a little contorted in its lower part, olive-yellow dotted with ashen gray, veined or speckled with fawn and washed with golden russet on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh white, rather coarse, semi-melting, watery, very granular around the center; juice abundant, saccharine, tartish, delicate although slight perfume; second; Nov. =Professeur Hortolès. 1.= _Guide Prat_. 57. 1895. Raised by M. F. Morel, a horticulturist at Lyons, Fr. Tree vigorous and fertile, suitable for all forms of growth. Fruit rather large, pyriform-ventriculous, greenish-yellow, blushed with brownish-red on the side next the sun; flesh white, fine, melting, very juicy; first; Sept. and Oct. =Professeur Opoix. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 532, fig. 240. 1901. A seedling from the establishment of Baltet Brothers, Troyes, Fr. Reported in 1901. Fruit rather large, globular, slightly oval, a little bossed, bright green passing to whitish-yellow, dotted with brown; flesh fine, yellow-butter tinted, very juicy, melting, saccharine, with a pleasant aromatic perfume; excellent; Jan. to Mar. =Professeur Willermoz. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1895. Obtained by M. Joanon at Saint-Cyr near Lyons, Fr. Fruit large or rather large, pyriform ventriculous; flesh very fine, juicy, melting, saccharine and perfumed; Aug. and Sept. =Prud'homme. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1895. Published in the _Journal of the National Society of Horticulture_ of France in 1875. Tree vigorous and very fertile. Flesh saccharine, very sprightly; Sept. to Dec. =Pudsey. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 97. 1875. A native of Nova Scotia which compares "favorably in flavor, richness, and other qualities with some of the most popular sorts at present cultivated." =Puebla. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:568, fig. 1869. A seedling of M. André Leroy, Angers, Fr., reported in 1863. Fruit large, ovate, rather ventriculous and much bossed, with one side nearly always less swelled than the other; skin thick and rough, yellow, covered with large patches of russet and grayish dots; flesh very white and very fine, melting, with some grit at the center, full of sugary juice, with an acid taste and agreeable perfume; first; Oct. =Pulsifer. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =8=:460, fig. 1853. Dr. John Pulsifer of Hennepin, Ill., in the spring of 1843 planted in his garden a pear seed which produced a tree bearing fruit of great merit. An early and prolific bearer, hardy, vigorous. Fruit hardly medium, pyriform, dull golden-yellow, covered with an open network of slight russet; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet, and delicious, much like Louise Bonne de Jersey, but superior to it; Aug. =Pushkin. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. _Pyrus ovoidea_ x R. & K. 533, a Russian pear. Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D., and introduced by him in 1919. =Queen Jargonelle. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3d Ser. =2=:369. 1887. Of unknown origin but it appears to have been disseminated by the Rev. W. Kingsley, Thirsk, Yorkshire, Eng. Fruit soft, juicy and agreeable; Aug. =Queen Victoria. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 635. 1884. Raised by Mr. W. Willison, a florist at Whitby, Yorkshire, Eng. Fruit medium, obovate, even in its contour, greenish-yellow at maturity, with a crust of cinnamon-russet on the side next the sun; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, and with an almond flavor; end of Aug. =Quiletette. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:388. 1843. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 840. 1869. This is a Van Mons seedling, and was exhibited at the fifteenth annual exhibition of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in September, 1843, by R. Manning of Salem. Fruit nearly medium, globular, a little flattened, greenish, nearly covered with dull iron-colored russet; flesh white, buttery, melting, rich, sweet and perfumed; an odd-looking fruit, scarcely good; Nov. =Quince. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 46. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., and fruited in 1862. Fruit diameter 3 inches; skin lumpy and nodular; flesh fine-grained, juicy and sweet; great bearer; Sept. =Quinn. 1.= _Horticulturist._ =22=:42, 117, fig. 25. 1867. P. T. Quinn, Newark, N. J., submitted specimens of this pear to the Committee of the Farmers' Club of the American Institute which issued a report upon it on January 2d, 1867. The pear had been imported by Professor Mapes and the name lost, and at a previous meeting the Committee had named it Quinn. Fruit below medium, pyriform, tapering rapidly toward the stem end; skin inclined to golden-russet; flesh rich and juicy and in flavor and aroma occupies the first rank; good; Jan. and keeps till Mar. =Rainbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:166. 1856. Hesse, Ger., 1816. Fruit medium, ovate, somewhat swelled; skin polished, pale light green turning to lemon-yellow, without any red blush, sprinkled with numerous fine light brown dots, fine russet on the side next the sun; flesh granular, vinous and highly aromatic; first for culinary use; mid-Oct. =Rallay. 1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 382. 1854. An old variety of unknown origin. Fruit small to medium, globular-acute-pyriform; skin rough, dull yellow, dull reddish cheek, dotted all over with russet; flesh yellowish-white, breaking, juicy, gritty; good; Nov. and Dec. =Rameau. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 239. 1854. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:572, fig. 1869. _Silberästige Gewürzbirne._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:15. 1856. A seedling of Van Mons distinct from _Besi des Veterans._ Fruit above medium, oblong-oval; skin thick, rough, greenish, gray or bronzed on sunny side, stained and dotted with dark russet; flesh yellowish-white, very fine, melting, juicy, sweet, acidulous, aromatic; inferior. =Ramilies. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 165. 1841. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 195. 1920. Described in 1842 in the London Horticultural Society's Catalog of Fruits. Fruit large, obovate, yellow obscured with russet, red next the sun, beautiful in appearance; flesh breaking; very good for cooking; Nov. to Feb. =Rankin. 1.= _Van Lindley Nurs. Cat._ 53. 1913. Introduced by J. Van Lindley Nursery Company about 1905 and said to be a seedling of Duchesse d'Angoulême picked up from the side of the Southern Railway by W. H. Rankin, Guilford County, N. C. Tree strong, hardy. Fruit similar to Duchesse d'Angoulême but two weeks earlier. =Rannaja. 1.= _Iowa Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1880. Imported by Professor Budd from the northern steppes of Russia, where the summers are fully as dry and hot and the winters far more severe than those of Iowa; said to unite well with the apple when root or top grafted. =Rapelje. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =1=:239, fig. 62. 1846. A native variety introduced by Professor Stephens, Astoria, Long Island. Fruit medium, obovate, sometimes obtuse, and sometimes acute-pyriform, yellowish, covered with cinnamon-russet; flesh whitish, somewhat granular, juicy, melting, with a sweet, vinous, aromatic flavor; variable, sometimes poor; Sept. =Rastlerbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 18, fig. 1913. Found in Northern Tyrol and the Austrian Province of the Voralberg. Fruit large, globular-turbinate, almost acute, green turning yellow-green when ripe, faintly blushed; flesh granular, greenish-white; a very good perry pear and suitable for baking; Oct. and Nov. =Rateau Blanc. 1.= _Pom. France_ =4=:No. 155, Pl. 155. 1865. A variety of unknown origin, but cultivated from very early times in the Gironde, Fr., and much esteemed in the markets of the Pyrenees. Fruit above medium, irregular in form, usually pyramidal or long-ovate, sides unequal; skin rough to the touch, orange-yellow, shaded with green, whitish on the cheek opposed to the sun, stained with fawn around the stalk and covered, particularly on the lower part, with russet and large gray dots; flesh whitish, coarse, semi-breaking; juice rather deficient, slightly acidulous, somewhat saccharine; second for the table, first for the kitchen; Mar. =Ravenswood. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 196. 1858. Ravenswood was a seedling found in the woods of Astoria, L. I., and transplanted to the grounds of Charles Ehrard. Fruit small, obovate-pyriform, pale yellow, with sometimes a tinge of red in the sun and thickly sprinkled with green dots; flesh whitish, slightly coarse, extremely full of vinous, carbonated juice, with a rich aromatic flavor; good to very good, superior to most pears of its period; mid-July to mid-Aug. =Ravut. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 71. 1876. _Ravu._ =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =25=:256. 1859. Described by M. Baltet, Troyes, Fr., as a new fruit, in 1859. Tree moderately vigorous and very productive. Fruit medium, turbinate, pale yellow, dotted with russet; flesh fine, melting, sugary, remaining sound when ripe; Aug. and Sept. =Raymond. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 183. 1832. Raised by Joseph Wight, Raymond, Me. Fruit medium, obovate-pyriform, yellow, marked with russet near the stalk and tinged with a little red toward the sun, thickly sprinkled with russet dots; flesh white, buttery, melting, juicy, sweet, aromatic; good to very good; Sept. =Raymond de Montlaur. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 103. 1876. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876, and in 1895 placed in their list of pears of little value. Fruit very large, beautiful in form and color; flesh very white, fine, melting and very juicy, saccharine, and agreeably aromatic; Oct. =Raymould. 1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 8. 1895. Mentioned in a report of the Committee on New Fruits of the Ohio State Horticultural Society in 1895. Fruit fair but not of sufficient size or quality to be recommended for cultivation. =Re Umberto primo. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 224. 1896. Published in France in 1896 as a new Italian variety. Fruit ovate, lemon-yellow, dotted with small rough points; flesh rather breaking, slightly acidulous, very saccharine and highly perfumed. =Reading. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:173. 1853. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 841. 1869. A native variety, new about 1853. Introduced by Charles Kessler. Originated in Oley Township, Reading, Pa. Fruit medium to large, obovate-pyriform, tapering to the crown, yellow, thickly dotted with brown points and sprinkled with russet; flesh greenish-white, abounding in juice of a mild and agreeable flavor, melting, vinous; good; Jan. to Mar. =Recq de Pambroye. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1895 classed this among "new varieties" and stated that they had received it from M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Tree rather vigorous, forward according to accounts, fertile. Fruit medium or rather large, bronze in color, washed with red on the side exposed to the sun; flesh fine, juicy, sugary, vinous; Jan. =Red Garden. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 841. 1869. Raised by Josiah Youngken, Richlandtown, Pa. Fruit medium, obovate-pyriform, pale yellow, shaded and mottled with a few crimson dots on the side next the sun, netted and patched with russet and thickly sprinkled with brown dots; flesh whitish, a little coarse, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant; good to very good; Sept. =Red Pear. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 636. 1884. A perry pear grown largely in Herefordshire, Eng. Fruit small, globular, even and regular in outline, inclining to turbinate, almost entirely covered with rather bright red, yellow around the stalk where shaded, sprinkled all over with pale gray dots; flesh quite yellow, firm, dry and gritty. =Redfield. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 195. 1867. Raised from seed by J. W. Crosby, St. George, Utah, and first fruited in 1861. Fruit in size, shape and color resembles Bartlett, but is a little more tapering at the stem, yellowish-green, with a brownish-red cheek; flesh sweet, sprightly, melting; ripens a little later than Bartlett. =Refreshing. 1.= _Rural N. Y._ 242, figs. 133, 134. 1885. Raised by Benjamin Macomber, Grand Isle, Vt. Fruit below medium, bright golden yellow; stem stout, medium long, in a small cavity; flesh whitish, juicy, melting, sweet; very good; Sept. =Regina Margherita. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 224. 1896. An Italian pear published in 1896 as a new variety. Fruit in form similar to that of Passe Crassane, greenish-yellow, washed with green; flesh very saccharine, somewhat acid, buttery, perfumed. =Régine. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 841. 1869. A Van Mons seedling. Fruit medium, globular-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with slight nettings of russet and thickly sprinkled with green and brown dots; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant; good; Sept. =Regnier. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 185. 1854. A native variety which originated with Madame Regnier, Philadelphia, Pa. Reported by the Committee on Fruits of the American Pomological Society in 1854. Fruit above medium, ovate, yellow, with usually a colored cheek; very good. =Reichenäckerin. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:10. 1856. Württemberg, Ger., 1847. Fruit medium, globular, dark green, with brownish blush, gray dots; first for household; mid-Dec. and Jan. =Reine des Belges. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:578, fig. 1869. A seedling raised by Van Mons at Louvain, Bel., in 1832, Fruit above medium, ovate, tending to globular, always slightly mammillate at the top; skin fine and shining, pale yellow, sprinkled with very small russet dots, and slightly blushed with tender rose on the side exposed to the sun; flesh very white, a little coarse, melting or semi-breaking, watery, rather granular at center; juice saccharine, vinous, perfumed; second; Sept. =Reine d'Hiver. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 841. 1869. Fruit small, globular-oblate, yellow, with a brownish tinge on the cheek exposed to the sun and with nettings, patches and dots of russet; flesh yellowish, melting, juicy, sweet, pleasant; good; Nov. =Reine des Poires. 1.= Manning _Book of Fruits_ 84. 1828. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:581, fig. 1869. The Count de Coloma came into possession of the garden of the Nunnery of the Riches-Claires, Mechlin, Bel., directly after the suppression of the order in 1786 and two years later made seed beds from which were raised, among other good varieties, the Reine des Poires. Fruit below medium, turbinate-ovate but irregular in form; skin rather thick and yet tender, green dotted with small brown points, changing to yellow, much covered with a brownish-red russet; flesh whitish, semi-fine, melting; juice abundant, saccharine and acidulous, with an exquisite perfume; first; Oct. =Reine des Précoces. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:201, fig. 99. 1866-73. Probably of Belgian origin. Fruit small, globular-turbinate or nearly globular, regular in contour; skin thick, at first intense green sprinkled with numerous large, prominent, gray-green dots; the basic green changes to yellow on the shaded side and intense brownish-red on the side of the sun; flesh white, rather coarse, semi-buttery, a little gritty at the center, little juice or sugar, rather agreeable; second; end of July. =Reine des Tardives. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1876. Published by M. Bruant in 1865. Fruit rather large, vivid yellow; flesh juicy, saccharine; easily keeps till June. =Reine Victoria. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 842. 1869. Said to be a seedling from Van Mons. Fruit medium, obovate-acute-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with shades and patches of fawn; flesh white, tinted with rose, fine, melting, juicy, sweet; Dec. =Reliance. 1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 24. 1890. Introduced by P. J. Berckmans to the Georgia State Horticultural Society and accepted by that Society in 1890. It was raised from seed sown in 1857, and named Reliance "because it bears every year." Fruit small; a dessert pear almost as good as Seckel, rated as very good; summer season. =Remy Chatenay. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Tree healthy and of fair vigor, very fertile, and suitable for all forms of cultivation. Fruit of the form and appearance of Beurré d'Arenberg though not so large or delicate; matures in the spring. =René Dunan. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1895. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis at Metz, Lorraine, in 1895 and at Agassiz, British Columbia and other Canadian Experiment Stations in 1900. The tree pyramidal and very fertile. Fruit very large, lemon-yellow, vermilioned on the side of the sun; flesh fine, melting, acidulous, recalling the flavor of the Beurré Gris; Nov. and Dec. =Rettigbirne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 527. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:34. 1856. Of German origin. Reported in 1815. Fruit small, globular-pyriform, medium ventriculous, light yellow, dotted with gray, and speckled with brown; flesh acid and aromatic; first for all purposes; beginning of Sept. for three weeks. =Reuterbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:189. 1856. Nassau, Prussia, 1807. Fruit almost small, ovate, ventriculous, uneven in outline, pale yellow-green turning to light lemon-yellow, often covered with thin russet on the side of the sun; flesh dense, juicy, wanting in flavor, sweet and acidulous; third for dessert, first for household; Oct. =Rewell. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The good Rewell is a reasonable great peare, as good to bake as to eate rawe, and both wayes it is a good fruit." =Reymenans. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:152. 1856. A Van Mons seedling. Belgium, 1825. Fruit small, turbinate-globular, even in contour, light green turning to lemon-yellow, without any red blush, sprinkled with fine dots, with delicate russet on the cheek next the sun; skin without scent; flesh semi-melting, sweet, aromatic; second for dessert, first for household and market; Feb. and Mar. =Reynaert Beernaert. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =26=:220. 1860. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ 6:21, fig. 395. 1880. Obtained by M. Bivort, director of the Society Van Mons, Bel. Fruit medium or nearly large, globular, flattened at both poles, regular in contour; skin rather thick, water-green, sprinkled with numerous large and regularly-spaced, gray dots, turning at maturity to dull yellowish-green and the side next the sun golden or orange colored; flesh whitish, coarse, semi-melting, wanting in juice and sugar, vinous but without appreciable perfume; second; Nov. =Rheinische Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:6. 1856. Westphalia, a province of Prussia, 1802. Fruit large, ovate, light green turning pale yellow, without any blush, strongly dotted; flesh breaking, juicy, aromatic; first for household use; Oct. =Rheinische Herbstapothekerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:178. 1856. Nassau, Prussia, 1805. Fruit very large, conic, often very irregular in form, light yellow-green turning to pale light yellow, often stained blood-red, covered with very numerous and minute spots, speckled and marked with russet; flesh whitish, granular, semi-melting, sweet and aromatic; second for table, first for cooking. =Rheinische Paradiesbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:169. 1856. Thuringia, Ger., 1801. Fruit large, conic, yellow, blushed and streaked with light red, dotted with yellow; flesh yellow, gritty around the center, sweet; third for the table, first for culinary use; end of Oct. and Nov. =Rhenser Schmalzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:63. 1856. The German Rhineland, 1833. Fruit fairly large, pyriform, smooth, yellow, blushed with blood-red, covered with fine dots; flesh yellowish, breaking, sweet, aromatic; third for dessert, first for kitchen; Jan. to Mar. =Richards. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =22=:540. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 842. 1869. Originated at Wilmington, Del. It was placed on the list of the American Pomological Society in 1856 at its biennial session at Rochester. Fruit medium, obovate-acute-pyriform, yellow sprinkled with numerous small russet dots and patches of russet; flesh buttery, melting, granular, with a sweet, pleasantly vinous flavor; good; Oct. =Richardson. 1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 570. 1885. Fruit rather large, obovate; flesh melting, sprightly, pleasant; Oct. =Riche Dépouille. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:205. 1832. A French variety introduced early in the last century. Its name may be translated Rich-skinned. Fruit large, oblong-obovate, rather irregular in its outline and resembling in form the Saint Germain, clear lemon-yellow, with a tinge of scarlet on the side exposed to the sun, a little mottled with russet, and the whole skin rough like the skin of an orange; flesh white, melting, without perfume but sweet and pleasant; late autumn or winter. =Ridelle. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 87. 1845. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 842. 1869. Shown at the seventeenth annual exhibition of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in September, 1845, by the President of the Society. Fruit medium, oblate-turbinate, remotely pyriform, yellow covered nearly all over with bright red; flesh semi-fine, rather juicy, not melting or delicate in flavor; scarcely good; Sept. =Riocreux. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1876. Probably French. Fruit rather large, like Calebasse in form, symmetrical, yellowish-green; flesh fine, extremely melting, juicy, with an exquisite perfume; first; Aug. and Sept. =Ritson. 1.= Ont. Dept. Agr. _Fr. Ont._ 175, figs. 1914. Originated at Oshawa, Ontario, Can. W. E. Wellington stated that his grandmother, Mrs. John Ritson, planted the seeds from a pear sent to her from Boston, and that the tree had stood on the homestead as long as he could remember. Fruit medium, obovate-pyriform, usually one-sided, yellow, shaded with golden-russet and numerous minute dots of a darker hue; flesh medium, creamy-white, fine, tender, buttery, juicy, sweet, delicately perfumed; dessert, very good to best; Oct. =Ritter. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =23=:106. 1857. Dr. Brincklé, chairman of the Committee on Native Fruits of the American Pomological Society, reported in 1857 that specimens had been received from Louis Ritter, Reading, Pa. The tree from which they were obtained was purchased in the spring of 1851 for Seckel, but the tree instead of having a rounded head is pyramidal in growth. Fruit small, obovate, greenish-yellow, a good deal russeted, with occasionally a faint brown cheek; flesh fine texture, melting and buttery, saccharine, with the full Seckel aroma; best; Oct. =Rival Dumont. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Fruit rather large, oval-turbinate, russet washed with yellow; flesh melting, buttery-juicy, aromatic; first; Nov. and Dec. =Rivers. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:583, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 637. 1884. A delicious pear raised in 1864 by Leroy at Angers, Fr., and dedicated by him to Thomas Rivers, the distinguished English pomologist. Fruit medium, turbinate, regular in outline, greenish, dotted with brown and almost entirely covered with bright brown-russet; flesh very melting, white, fine, juicy, saccharine, vinous, refreshing, with a delicate musky perfume; first; Sept. =Robert Hogg=. 1. Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:584, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 637. 1884. Raised by Leroy, Angers, Fr., and named after Doctor Robert Hogg, the English horticulturist. It first fruited in 1868. Fruit above medium, ovate, more or less irregular and generally rather swelled in its lower part; skin slightly rough, rather deep green, much covered with fawn-colored mottles of russet and small gray dots; flesh whitish, watery, semi-fine, melting; juice very abundant, saccharine, richly flavored, aromatic, with an agreeable acidity; first; Sept. and Oct. =Robert Treel. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1876. Published by J. de Jonghe, Bel. Tree very fertile. Fruit medium; flesh melting; first; Feb. =Robine. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:174, Pl. XXVII. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 637. 1884. This is an ancient pear of unascertained origin, though the pomologists Turpin and Poiteau and others have regarded it as French. It is often known as the _Royale d'Été_, and has had various other synonyms. Fruit below medium, globular-turbinate, bright green changing to yellow, dotted with greenish-gray; flesh white, fine or semi-fine, almost breaking, rather dry, very saccharine, sweet and having an agreeable musky flavor; second; mid-Aug. =Robitaillié père. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 463. 1906. A French pear raised at the beginning of the present century by M. Robitaillié. Fruit very large; skin yellow, dotted with green and fawn, becoming golden at full maturity; flesh fine, saccharine, acidulous, very juicy; first; season late and prolonged until Jan. =Rockeneirbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:2. 1856. South Germany, 1847. Fruit small, smooth and shining; flesh yellow-white, somewhat blushed; first, for household use and perry; Sept. =Roe Bergamot. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 843. 1869. _Bergamotte de Roe_. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:117, fig. 59. 1872. Raised by William Roe, Newburgh, N. Y. Fruit medium in size, form oblate or Bergamot-shaped, rather irregular; skin smooth, yellow, with minute yellow dots on the shaded side, washed with red on the side of the sun; flesh rather coarse, sweet, rich, perfumed flavor suggestive of Gansel Bergamot but much more sugary; good to very good; Sept. Tree fairly vigorous and prolific. =Rogers. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 157. 1867. Reported as a new pear in 1867. Fruit said to be similar to the Louise Bonne de Jersey in shape and size but like the Washington in dots, markings and flavor; end of Sept. =Roggenhoferbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 170, fig. 1913. A perry pear which came first probably from Lower Austria. Fruit small to medium, turbinate to pyriform, the apex being rather acute; skin firm, grass-green turning to greenish-yellow, blushed on the sunny side, dotted all over with numerous gray-brown dots; flesh whitish, coarse-grained, fairly juicy, subacid; good for cider and drying; end of Aug. =Roi-Guillaume. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:91, fig. 238. 1879. Gained by Van Mons. Fruit medium, ovate, uneven on all its surface; skin at first pale water-green, sprinkled with brown dots, changing to lemon-yellow, more golden on the side next the sun and often washed with orange-red; flesh-white, coarse, granular, rather gritty at core; juice saccharine and perfumed but rather wanting in amount; third for the table, good for the kitchen; Sept. =Roi de Rome. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:51, fig. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr Trees Am._ 843. 1869. The Abbé Duquesnes, to whom we are beholden for many good fruits, found this pear in Hainaut, Bel. Fruit very large, pyriform, pyramidal, olive-green, with dark gray shading around the stalk and calyx, strongly blushed with orange-red and dotted with bright gray on the side next the sun, and yellow at maturity on the shaded cheek, with brown-black dots; flesh fine, semi-melting, yellowish-white; juice abundant, saccharine, with an agreeable perfume; second for table, first for household; Sept. =Roitelet. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 843. 1869. A Flemish pear. Fruit small, globular, yellow,--netted, shaded and sprinkled with russet; flesh whitish, semi-melting, juicy, sweet; good; Sept. =Rokeby. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 844. 1869. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:73, fig. 37. 1872. Gained by M. Bivort, Bel., and first published in 1848. Fruit medium or below, pyriform, swelled in lower half, lower end flat, bright green turning to bright yellow in the shade and blood-red on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, juicy, wanting in quality; second; Aug. and Sept. =Rolmaston Duchess. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =29=:148. 1874. Published in 1874. Fruit medium, pyriform, yellow-green; flesh fine, melting, juicy, vinous; very good; Oct. =Ronde du Bosquet. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:586, fig. 1869. Raised from seed and bore the name of the place where the parent tree, which was first described in 1863, grew in M. Leroy's grounds, Angers, Fr. Fruit below medium, irregularly globular and strongly bossed, bright yellow, dotted with brown, much mottled with russet; flesh whitish, watery, very fine, melting, rarely gritty; juice abundant, vinous, saccharine, possessing a delicious perfume; first; Oct. =Rondelet. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =12=:340. 1846. =2.= _Ibid._ =18=:436, fig. 32. 1852. Obtained in France by M. François Dehove. Fruit medium, remarkably oblate, with a slightly uneven surface, much flattened at each end; skin fair, smooth, green turning yellow at maturity, faintly blushed on the side next the sun, and thickly dotted with russet intermixed with a few greenish specks; flesh yellow-white, buttery, melting, juicy, saccharine and musky; first; Oct. =Ropes. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =12=:500. 1846. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 844. 1869. Originated with Mr. Ropes, Salem, Mass., about 1846. Fruit medium, obovate, cinnamon-russet; stem short; cavity inclined; calyx small, open, set in a shallow basin; flesh whitish, coarse, melting, juicy, sugary, aromatic; good; Oct. and Nov. =Rorreger Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 50, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit large, globular-turbinate to pyriform; skin smooth, shining green turning yellow, numerous small green dots; flesh whitish, rather coarse-grained, subacid and very juicy; mid-Oct. and Nov. =Rosabirne. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =8=:65. 1853. A foreign pear introduced to this country as a new variety in the middle of the last century. Fruit medium, obovate-acute-pyriform, surface uneven, dull greenish-yellow, almost entirely overspread with russet; flesh white, melting and juicy, with a delicious, brisk, subacid flavor, vinous, resembles Brown Beurré; promised to be very good, one of the best; Oct. and Nov. =Rosalie Wolters. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 98. 1895. Published in 1878. Fruit medium, oblong, whitish yellow; flesh yellowish, fine, very saccharine; first; Oct. =Rosanne. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:69, fig. 227. 1879. Origin unknown; Diel states he had received it from Strasland, Prussia. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform, symmetrical in contour, green marked with gray dots, changing at maturity to lemon-yellow, extensively washed on the side next the sun with wine red, over which are scattered numerous very distinct, brighter-red dots, giving the pear a great resemblance to Vermont Beauty; flesh whitish, rather fine, buttery; juice somewhat deficient but pleasantly acid; good; mid-Aug. =Rose Doyenné. 1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 713. 1897. Fruit rather large, obovate, yellow and crimson; flesh coarse, granular, flavor poor, rots at core; Oct. =Rose Water. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. An old English pear. Fruit medium, globular, rough skin, brownish-red; flesh breaking, of a fine and delicate flavor; of fair quality but superseded; mid-Sept. =Rosenhofbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 92, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium, globular-oblate; skin tough, shining, light yellow when ripe, blushed slightly on the sunny side, with numerous fine dots; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, juicy, very astringent; Oct. =Rosenwasserbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:41. 1856. Rheinfalz, Bavaria. Fruit medium, long-turbinate, even in outline; tender skin, green turning yellowish-white, without dots, often flecked with dark specks; flesh juicy, with a rose-like aroma, very white, semi-melting, very good; mid-Aug. =Rosinenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:73. 1856. On the Rhine, Ger., 1802. Fruit small, globular-flattened, light green turning to yellow-green, without any blush, covered with small dots and russet on the side next the sun, often flecked with dark russet; flesh breaking, fine, very sweet and aromatic; third for dessert and first for kitchen; Nov. =Roslyn. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 844. 1869. A wilding found on the land of W. C. Bryant, Roslyn, L. I. Fruit medium, almost spherical, yellow, netted, patched and dotted with russet; flesh whitish, melting, juicy, slightly vinous; good to very good; end of Aug. =Ross. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 165. 1841. A seedling introduced by Thomas Andrew Knight in 1832. Fruit large, obovate, yellowish-green interspersed with russet; flesh inclining to yellow, gritty near the center, rich, juicy, saccharine; second-class dessert pear; Jan. =Rossney. 1.= _Pioneer Nurs. Co. Cat._ fig. 1898. =2.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 402, Pl. LII. 1904. Raised in Salt Lake City, Utah, from a mixed lot of Winter Nelis and Bartlett seed planted for stocks by William Woodberry about 1881, and introduced by the Pioneer Nurseries Company, Salt Lake City, in 1898. Fruit medium to large, oval-pyriform, somewhat angular and ribbed towards the apex, golden yellow, blushed with scarlet and thinly overspread with a bluish-white bloom; dots numerous, minute, russet; stem rather long, moderately stout; calyx closed; flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, subacid; good; ten days later than Bartlett. =Rostiezer. 1.= Manning _Book of Fruits_ 72. 1838. Origin uncertain. It was, however, received from A. N. Baumann, Bollweiler, Alsace, by R. Manning, Salem, Mass., in 1834 or 1835. Often called _Early Seckel_ in the west. Fruit medium or below, pyriform, regular in form, grass-green on the shaded side, reddish on the exposed face and sprinkled with small gray dots; flesh greenish-white, fine, melting, rather granular below the core; juice very abundant, vinous, acidulous, very saccharine, with a most delicate flavor; first; last of Aug. =Rote Hanglbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 196, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small to medium, spherical; skin tough, lemon-yellow when ripe, no blush, dotted with russet; flesh yellowish-white, coarse-grained, juicy, subacid; very good for transportation; Nov. =Rote Holzbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 198, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, greenish to citron-yellow, slightly blushed on the sunny side and densely dotted with cinnamon; flesh yellowish, rather coarse-grained, very juicy, subacid; Oct. =Rote Kochbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 200, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small, globular-turbinate, greatest diameter at center, flat at base; skin tough, rough, grayish-green, dull blush on the exposed side; flesh yellowish-white, very firm, juicy, excessively astringent, subacid; Nov. and Dec. =Rote Pilchelbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 52, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear of second quality. Fruit fairly large, pyriform-obtuse, also conic, golden yellow when ripe, red on the sunny side, plentifully sprinkled with small dots; flesh yellowish, coarse-grained, very juicy, with subacid flavor; Sept. and Oct. =Rote Scheibelbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 94, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small to fairly large, flattened-globular, symmetrical in outline, smooth, polished, dark green changing to greenish-yellow, blushed on the sunny side, densely and finely dotted; flesh whitish, coarse, with an aroma peculiar to itself, subacid and very juicy; Oct. =Rote Winawitz. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 204, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small to medium, turbinate to pyriform, very variable; skin firm and rough, yellow when ripe, without any blush, dotted with numerous fine, russet spots; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, very juicy, subacid, aromatic; Oct. and Nov. =Rotfleischige Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 220, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small, globular-turbinate, calyx end flat, leaf-green, dotted with russet and flecked with red; flesh under the skin firm but near the core softer, coarse-grained, juicy, subacid; Oct. to mid-Nov. =Rothbackige Sommerzuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:49. 1856. Germany, 1801. Fruit small, pyriform, smooth, pale green turning to shining lemon-yellow, lightly blushed on the sunny side, dotted; flesh rose-tinted, saccharine, semi-melting, granular, deficient in flavor; second for dessert, first for cuisine and market; Sept. =Rothe Confesselsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:14. 1856. German, published in 1766. Fruit medium, oblong, somewhat swelled, skin thick, gray-green with brown russet; flesh yellowish, semi-melting, juicy, aromatic, tender; second for table, good for culinary use; Oct. =Rothe Jakobsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:48. 1856. Nassau, Ger., 1806. Fruit small, ovate, light green turning yellow-green, with brownish-red russet; flesh granular, agreeable, sweet; second for the table, good for household and market purposes; July. =Rothe langstielige Honigbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:11. 1856. Originated near the Rhine, Ger., 1804. Fruit medium, pyriform, ventriculous and bent, obtuse, sides unequal, light green, changing to dark red with indistinct yellow and light red spots; flesh tender, juicy, aromatic; second for the table; good for cooking. =Rothe oder grosse Pfalzgrafinbirne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 538. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:60. 1856. Germany, 1797. Fruit medium, conic, entirely covered with dark blush, densely sprinkled with gray dots and dark speckles; flesh yellow-white, honey-sweet, semi-melting, aromatic; third for the table, first for kitchen and market; Sept. =Rothe Rettigbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:34. 1856. Altenburg, Ger., 1821. Fruit small, spherical, yellow-green, covered all over with dirty red, densely dotted and speckled with russet; flesh whitish-yellow, granular, melting, juicy; first for table and cuisine; Aug. =Rothe Winterkappesbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:167. 1856. German, 1805. Fruit medium, long-turbinate, often spherical, flattened and sides unequal, green turning to lemon-yellow, firm and shining, blushed with red, dotted with gray; flesh rather white, coarse-grained, acidulous; good for the kitchen; Dec. to Feb. =Rothe Winterkochbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:192. 1856. Germany, on the Main, 1805. Fruit medium, obtuse-conic, symmetrical in contour, smooth and shining, light green turning to a beautiful lemon-yellow, finely dotted with gray, flecked with russet on the side opposed to the sun; flesh coarse, saccharine, juicy, wanting in aroma; third for dessert, very good for household use and market; Nov. and Dec. =Rothe Zucherlachsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:49. 1856. Nassau, Germany, 1805. Fruit medium, obtuse-long-conic, yellowish light green, dark red blush, changing to light lemon-yellow with carmine cheek, mottled and flecked with brown-russet; flesh semi-melting, granular, gritty near core, very sweet, vinous and acidulous; second for the table, very good for kitchen and market; Aug. =Rother Winterhasenkopf. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:147. 1856. Nassau, Ger., 1806. Fruit large, irregular in form, sides unequal, crooked, yellowish pale green turning yellow, with dark blush, very prominent brown dots; flesh breaking, sweet, acidulous, vinous; third for table, good for household use; considered by Messrs. Simon-Louis to be analogous to the Catillac; Jan. to Mar. =Rothgraue Kirchmessbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:109. 1856. Hesse, Ger., 1804. Fruit medium to rather large, conic, slightly bossed, sides unequal; skin rough and covered with brownish-gray russet, often faintly blushed; flesh yellowish-green, coarse-grained, sweet, acidulous and musky; second for dessert, first for kitchen; mid-Sept. =Rougeaude. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:88. 1831. Fruit medium, pyramidal, fairly regular, skin yellowish on the shaded side, but about three-fourths of the fruit is of a darker or lighter shade of red; flesh firm, dry, with some sweetness but insipid and wanting in flavor; indifferent; Jan. =Rouget. 1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:537. 1860. =2.= Baltet _Cult. Fr._ 404, 405. 1908. The flesh of this small French pear becomes red when cooked and the confectioners of Paris use large quantities of it obtained from the neighborhood of Etampes. It is also considered a first class pear for perry. =Roulef. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =17=:292, fig. 684. 1894. Raised from seed by Mr. Mitschurin, Tambow, Russia. Fruit medium, yellow, firm, vinous; good. =Rouse Lench. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 165. 1841. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 195. 1920. Raised by T. A. Knight, and first fruited in 1820. In 1850 it was placed on the "Rejected Fruits" list by the second Congress of Fruit Growers at New York. Fruit large, long-oval, uneven, pale yellow-green, with thin russet; no depression at base of very long woody stem; calyx open, basin shallow; flesh pale yellow, juicy; fair; Jan. and Feb. =Rousselet Aelens. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:92, fig. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 844. 1869. A Belgian pear of unknown origin. Fruit small to medium, turbinate, obtuse-pyriform, golden yellow at time of maturity, faintly colored on the sunny side, patches of russet, and dots of grayish red; flesh yellowish-white, rather fine, melting; juice abundant, sweet and possessing a decided perfume of the Rousselets; quality would be first class if the flesh were less granular; Nov. =Rousselet d'Anvers. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 58. 1895. A variety raised by M. Daras de Naghin, Antwerp, Bel. Tree vigorous and fertile, hardy, resisted the great European frost of 1879-1880. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, yellowish-green, slightly tinged with dark red; flesh semi-fine, melting, saccharine and well flavored; first; Oct. =Rousselet Baud. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:177, fig. 185. 1878. Gained by Dr. Van Mons and mentioned in his Catalog of 1823. Fruit small or rather small, ovate, more or less swelled, even in outline; skin a little thick, at first water-green with many very numerous and small dots, sometimes much covered with cinnamon-colored russet, changing to citron-yellow and the russet becoming golden on the side next the sun; flesh yellow-white, rather fine, dense, buttery, melting; juice sufficient, richly saccharine and perfumed; Oct. and Nov. =Rousselet Bivort. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:9, fig. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 845. 1869. Raised from a bed of the seeds of Simon Bouvier made in the grounds of the Society Van Mons at Geest-Saint-Rémy, Bel., in 1840. Fruit small, turbinate; skin smooth, bright green turning to lemon-yellow, shaded and mottled with russet-fawn especially on the side exposed to the sun, dotted with brown-black and brown-russet; flesh yellowish-white, fine, melting, semi-buttery; juice abundant, saccharine and agreeably perfumed recalling the scent of the Rousselets; good, suitable for large collections; Oct. to Jan. =Rousselet Blanc. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:37, fig. 307. 1880. Raised by Van Mons and cataloged by him in 1823. Fruit rather small, globular-turbinate, even in contour, bright green, whitish, a few very small, bright, gray dots, no russet, at maturity it becomes pale yellow and the side next the sun is blushed extensively with bright blood-red, a white bloom covering the whole surface of the fruit and numerous very small dots of golden-yellow appearing on the red; flesh whitish, rather fine, semi-buttery; juice sufficient, sugary, vinous, with the agreeable perfume of the Rousselets; first; Aug. =Rousselet de la Cour. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:589, fig. 1869. A wilding found on a farm which adjoined M. Leroy's nurseries of La Cour at Angers, Fr. Fruit below medium, turbinate, regular, acute, one side usually larger than the other; skin rough and thick, bronzed all over and covered with gray or white dots; flesh white, fine, breaking, watery; juice abundant, saccharine, sourish, with an agreeable perfume; second; end of Sept. and beginning of Oct. =Rousselet Decoster. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 845. 1869. Raised by Van Mons. Tree of medium vigor but very weak on quince stock. Fruit small to medium, globular-ovate, pale yellow, mottled with golden-russet and tinted with brownish-red; flesh yellowish, buttery, very saccharine, with the characteristic perfume of the Rousselets; first; Oct. and Nov. =Rousselet Doré d'Hiver. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:590, fig. 1869. Origin unknown, though Leroy, Angers, Fr., possessed it about 1845. Fruit below medium, variable in form, turbinate, slightly obtuse, or turbinate and spherical and nearly always larger on one side than on the other; skin thick and rough, shining, some bright and golden-russet, some small, brown and green spots; flesh whitish, fine, semi-melting, juicy, saccharine, vinous, fairly well perfumed; second; Feb. and Mar. =Rousselet Hâtif. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:148. 1768. =2.= Downing Fr. Trees Am. 846. 1869. _Early Rousselet_. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 571. 1884. The origin of this pear is uncertain though it was probably French, for in 1600 it was under cultivation at Orléans, Fr., according to Le Lectier. Fruit small, pyriform, slightly obtuse, sides often unequal; skin fine, lemon-yellow on the shaded side, and vivid red sprinkled with gray spots on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish, fine, semi-breaking and crisp; juice well perfumed, saccharine, abundant and aromatic; second; mid-July. =Rousselet de Janvier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:594, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 845. 1869. Gained by Alexandre Bivort, director of the nurseries of the Society Van Mons at Geest-Saint-Rémy, Bel., in 1848. Fruit medium, generally regular-ovate; skin slightly rough, lemon-yellow in the shade, washed with red-brown on the other cheek; flesh yellowish; very fine, melting; juice sufficient and fairly saccharine, vinous and richly perfumed; second; Dec. and Jan. =Rousselet Jaune d'Été.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:23, fig. 108. 1878. _Gelbe Sommerrusselet._ =2.= Christ _Handb._ 546. 1817. French, 1801. Fruit small; skin rough, almost entirely covered with brilliant red, densely covered with small gray dots, scentless; flesh granular, melting, saccharine, sweet; second for table, first for household; Sept. =Rousselet de Jodoigne.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:69, fig. 419. 1880. Described in 1876 as a "recent" gain of M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit small globular-turbinate, obtuse at apex; skin rather firm, bright and vivid green, sprinkled with numerous very small dots of gray-green, russeted around the calyx and lower part of the fruit; flesh white, tinted with green, semi-fine, semi-buttery; juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous, having the characteristic Rousselet perfume. =Rousselet de Jonghe.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 639. 1884. Fruit small, obovate, curved, uneven and irregular in its outline; skin smooth, of a uniform lemon; flesh yellow, fine-grained, firm, melting and juicy, with a very rich, sugary flavor; its delicious flavor compensates for its small size; Nov. and Dec. =Rousselet de Meestre.= =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 639. 1884. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform or pyramidal; skin smooth and shining, golden yellow, thickly dotted all over with large brown-russet freckles; flesh semi-buttery, firm, fairly juicy, and well flavored; of indifferent quality. =Rousselet Panaché.= =1.= _Guide Prat._ 80. 1876. A variegated variety of French origin and new about 1825. Fruit small, short-ovate, greenish-yellow, with light and dark streakings; first for dessert and household; end of Sept. =Rousselet de Pomponne.= =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:67, fig. 418. 1880. Obtained by MM. Pradel, nurserymen at Montauban, Fr. Fruit small, globular-ovate or nearly globular, even in outline, pale green at first, sprinkled with numerous large, regularly spaced dots of gray circled with darker green, changing at maturity to pale yellow and washed on the side opposed to the sun with bright rosy-red on which the dots are blood-red; flesh white, semi-breaking; juice sufficient, saccharine, with little flavor; second; mid-Aug. =Rousselet Précoce.= =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =18=:151. 1852. 2. Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:91, fig. 430. 1880. This is the variety known in Germany as _Frühe Geishirtlebirne_ and must be distinguished from the _Rousselet hâtif_ or _Poire de Chypre_ of Duhamel. It was classed in 1851 by Mr. Cabot, President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, among the new or recently introduced fruits. Fruit rather small, pyriform, regular in contour, vivid green slightly touched with yellow, sprinkled with very numerous, very small, gray dots, changing at maturity to lemon-yellow, preserving sometimes a tone of green, the side next the sun being washed with blood-red spots having yellow centers; flesh whitish, fine, tender, semi-buttery, juicy, saccharine, and scented with the perfume of the Rousselets; good; mid-July. =Rousselet de Rheims. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:147, Pl. XI. 1768. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 196. 1920. This pear is of very ancient and uncertain origin. Many authors have endeavored to trace it back to the days of the Romans. But Pliny and the other Latin horticulturists did not give descriptions of their fruits sufficiently technical to enable us to make identification of their varieties with ours certain. It is, however, clear that the Rousselet de Rheims has existed, particularly around the city of Reims, Fr., for some centuries. Fruit small, turbinate, regular in form, rarely very obtuse, bright green or yellow-green, sprinkled with large and small gray-russet dots and extensively shaded with reddish-brown on the side opposed to the sun; flesh white, fine or semi-fine, almost melting, not very juicy, rich in sugar, acidulous, refreshing, highly perfumed; one of the best early pears for dessert, very good for candying; Sept. =Rousselet de Rheims Panaché. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:597, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 639. 1884. A variety similar in all respects to the preceding, of which it is a bud sport, except that the leaves and fruit are striped with yellow and green. Its propagation antedates 1830. =Rousselet Royal. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1876. On trial with Messrs. Simon-Louis, Metz, Lorraine, in 1876. Fruit medium; first; Sept. =Rousselet Saint Nicolas. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 2, 13, fig. 103. 1866-73. Obtained by M. Bivort. Fruit small, turbinate-ventriculous, gray-green tinted with yellow, sprinkled with large brown or green dots, numerous and evenly distributed, changing at maturity to pale yellow, the side exposed to the sun being washed with brown-red on which are blackish-red dots; flesh yellowish, very fine, melting, rather gritty at the center, full of sweet juice, saccharine, agreeably perfumed; good; Oct. =Rousselet Saint-Quentin. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:53, fig. 507. 1881. _De Quentin_. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 635. 1884. Gained by M. Van Dooren, a former director of the middle school at Namur, Bel. Fruit small or medium on a pruned tree, globular-ovate or globular-conic, symmetrical in its contour, somber green sprinkled with large, widely spaced gray dots, changing to yellow, and well colored with brownish-red on the side next the sun; flesh white, slightly greenish, fine, buttery; juice sufficient, saccharine, having the characteristic perfume of the Rousselets; first; Sept. and Oct. =Rousselet Saint Vincent. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =16= 296. 1850. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:598, fig. 1869. The origin of this pear is uncertain. It seems probable to Leroy that it was raised by Van Mons. In this country it was placed on the Rejected List by the second Congress of Fruit Growers at New York in 1850. Fruit above medium, globular-ovate, irregular in outline especially at the summit, bright yellow, dotted with russet; flesh white, fine, juicy, saccharine, acidulous, of a delicate flavor though not recalling in the least that of the Rousselets; first; Oct. =Rousselet de Stuttgardt. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 639. 1884. _Des Chevriers de Stuttgardt_. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =1=:558, fig. 1867. _Stuttgarter Geisshirtel_. 3. Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 289. 1881. It is said that this was a wilding found by a shepherd in the neighborhood of Stuttgart, Ger., before 1779. Fruit below medium, pyriform, fine, tender, at first dark water-green sprinkled with very numerous large dots of a darker shade, changing to yellow-green, tinged on the side next the sun with brownish-red on which the dots become yellow; the surface is covered with a characteristic sort of grayish-white bloom which passes to a rosy-violet on the bright parts; flesh greenish, not very fine but tender, buttery, sufficiently juicy, aromatic; first; Aug. =Rousselet Thaon. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:73, fig. 229. 1879. The Bulletin of the Van Mons Society appears to indicate that Rousselet Thaon was a gain of M. Bivort. Fruit small, short-turbinate, symmetrical in outline; skin thick, firm, bright green dotted with darker green changing to pale yellow, the side next the sun being more golden and washed with brown-red on fruits well exposed; flesh white, coarse, semi-buttery; juice moderate in amount but saccharine and perfumed with musk; second; Sept. and Oct. =Rousselet Theuss. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:37, fig. 17. 1866-73. In his abridged descriptive Catalog published at Louvain in 1823 Van Mons stated that the Rousselet Theuss was raised by him. Fruit small or nearly medium, ovate-turbinate; skin rather thick and firm, at first bright water-green, sprinkled with gray-green dots turning pale yellow and encrimsoned on the side next the sun, sometimes very vividly on well-exposed fruits; flesh white, slightly yellow under the skin, semi-fine, melting, full of saccharine juice, acidulous, well perfumed with the characteristic Rousselet scent; owing to its excellence and beauty this pear deserves a place in the fruit garden as well as in the large orchard; Aug. =Rousselet Vanderwecken. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =3=:41, fig. 1855. Raised by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Tree pyramidal, of good vigor, very productive. Fruit small, turbinate to ovoid, yellow; stem short, curved, rather thick; calyx large for the size of the fruit, open; flesh white, fine, melting, very juicy, very sweet, musky, strongly aromatic; first; Nov. =Rousseline. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:153, Pl. XV. 1768. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 847. 1869. Merlet, the French pomologist, writing in 1675 appears to have been the first to describe this pear and he said it was well named Rousseline being so similar to Rousselet in the buttery character of its flesh and its extraordinarily musky flavor. Fruit below medium, pyriform inclining to obovate, swollen in the middle and narrowing obtusely toward the calyx and more acutely toward the stalk, dull green dotted with brown scales and partly covered with large russet stains intermingled with gray mottlings; flesh white, fine, semi-melting, some grit around the center; juice rarely abundant, highly saccharine, vinous and musky; second; Nov. and Dec. =Rousselon. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:601, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 847. 1869. This variety was gained by Major Espéren of Mechlin, Bel.; it fruited for the first time in 1846. Fruit medium and above, ovate, much swelled in its lower part and contracted near its summit; skin very shining, yellow-ochre, dotted with gray-russet, stained with the same at either extremity and carmined on the cheek touched by the sun; flesh yellow-white, semi-fine, semi-breaking, granular around the core; juice rather deficient, saccharine, sweet, more or less perfumed, rather delicate; second; Feb. to Apr. =Roux Carcas. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 55. 1865. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:602, fig. 1869. This pear bears the name of a nurseryman at Carcassone, Aude, Fr., who raised it in 1863. Fruit below medium or small, globular, flattened at both poles and often slightly bossed, yellow-green dotted with small gray points, slightly marbled with russet; flesh whitish, coarse, semi-melting, gritty at center; juice abundant, musky, and saccharine, possessing a rather astringent after-taste; second; end of Aug. =Rové. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 83. 1895. A perry pear which originated in the neighborhood of Metz, Lorraine, and is in much request there. Fruit rather large, orange-yellow, well colored with red; flesh breaking, juicy, saccharine, of an agreeable flavor; of first quality for perry and for cooking and also rather good to eat; end of winter and spring. =Rowling. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. "The Rowling peare is a good peare, but hard, and not good before it bee a little rowled or bruised, to make it eate the more mellow." =Royal. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 847. 1869. Raised from seed by Thomas R. Peck, Waterloo, N. Y. Fruit medium, globular-pyriform, yellow largely covered with thin crimson on the side next the sun, sprinkled with brown and russet dots; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet, slightly aromatic; good to very good; Sept. =Royal d'Hiver. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:191, Pl. XXXV. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 640. 1884. The origin of the Royal d'Hiver is uncertain. In 1704 Le Gentil, director of the orchard at the Chartreux Convent of Paris, said that it was a new pear and had been brought from Constantinople for the King (Louis XIV). The Turkish origin of the pear, however, was probably based on not much more than hearsay. Fruit large, turbinate-obtuse, bossed; skin fine, dull lemon-yellow, washed with orange-red on the side next the sun, dotted and marbled with fawn; flesh yellow-white, fine, melting or semi-melting, juicy, saccharine, sweet and having a pleasant, musky flavor; good; Nov. to Jan. =Royale Vendée. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:607, fig. 1869. Count Eugene of Nouhes obtained this variety from seed at la Cacaudière, in the commune of Pouzauges, Vendée, Fr., in 1860. Fruit medium, globular-ovate, bossed; skin rough, dark yellowish-green, lightly marbled with gray and bright fawn; flesh citrine, fine, very melting and juicy, with a saccharine, sprightly flavor and delicate perfume; very good; Jan. to Mar. =Ruhschiebler. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 96, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit small to medium, globular-turbinate, yellow-green, with large and small russet dots; flesh coarse, juicy, with a strong acid taste; good for transportation; end of Sept. and Oct. =Rummelter Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:193. 1856. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 98, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown extensively in Austria and Germany. Fruit medium, turbinate-oblate, light green, heavily sprinkled with gray dots, turning orange-yellow, with russet on the exposed side; flesh white, very coarse, subacid; end of Sept. to Nov. =Runde gelbe Honigbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:162. 1856. Saxony, 1804. Fruit medium, turbinate-oblate, light green turning white and straw color with a vivid light blush, fine light brown dots; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, gritty near center, astringent, honey-sweet; very good for household use and perry; end of Sept. for three or four weeks. =Runde Sommerpomeranzenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:150. 1856. Trieste, Austria, 1805. Fruit small, globular-ovate, flattened, sides unequal, yellowish light green turning to light lemon-yellow tinged with green and often slightly blushed with dull red; flesh semi-melting, aromatic; first for dessert, household and market; beginning of Sept. for fourteen days. =Russbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:173. 1856. Thuringia, Ger., 1803. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, variable in form; skin rough, almost entirely covered with cinnamon-russet, often with light brown blush; flesh whitish, coarse-grained, saccharine, breaking, juicy; third for the table, first for household; Nov. and Dec. =Russelet Petit. 1.= Langley _Pomona_ 132, Pl. LXIV. 1729. Fruit small, pyramidal, irregular; stem set on one side obliquely; late Aug. =Russet Bartlett.= About 1893 Robert McHinds, Clarksville, N. Y., planted 700 Bartlett pear trees. When these trees came into bearing, one was found to produce russet-colored fruits, whence the name Russet Bartlett. The tree is an exact counterpart of Bartlett in manner of growth and the fruit differs from Bartlett only in the russet skin. It is, therefore, not improbable that the variety is a bud sport of Bartlett. =Russet Catherine. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. "The Russet Catherine is a very good middle sized peare." =Rylsk. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =27=:292. 1894. Russian. Fruit medium yellow; flesh breaking, sweet; very late. =S. T. Wright. 1.= _Garden_ =66=:299, fig. 1904. This English pear raised by Messrs. Veitch, was introduced in 1904 at the Royal Horticultural Society's fruit show in London. It is the product of Beurré Bachelier and Bartlett. Fruit medium, oblate-pyriform, rather swelled; skin rich golden; of good flavor; Oct. =Sabine. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:610, fig. 1869. The parent tree of this variety was acquired by Van Mons from a garden at Schaerbeek, Bel., and ripened its fruit first in 1817. Fruit medium, sometimes irregular-conic, sometimes ovate-pyriform and often rather deformed in contour; skin rather rough, bright green, dotted uniformly with dark gray changing to lemon-yellow, washed with thin yet vivid crimson; flesh white tinted with yellow, fine, melting, rather gritty around the core, full of sweet juice and delicately perfumed; first; Dec. and Jan. =Sabine d'Été. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 348. 1831. Raised in 1819 by M. Stoffels of Mechlin, Bel. Fruit pyramidal, broadest at the base and tapering to a round, blunt point at the stalk; skin smooth and even, yellow on the shaded side, and of a fine scarlet, minutely dotted when exposed to the sun; flesh white, melting, juicy, highly perfumed; Aug. =Sacandaga. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 849. 1869. The parent tree was found on the farm of William Van Vranken, Edinburgh, N. Y. Fruit small, nearly globular, pale greenish-yellow, shaded with brownish-crimson, and netted and dotted with russet; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, rich, slightly perfumed; good to very good; Sept. =Sächsische Glockenbirne. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 130. 1825. Saxony. First published in 1816. Fruit medium, spherical, light citron-yellow turning golden yellow, blushed; flesh firm, coarse-grained, sweet and musky; third for dessert, good for kitchen purposes; Oct. =Sächsische Lange Grüne Winterbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 274. 1889. _Longue Verte d'Hiver_. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:137, fig. 549. 1881. A pear of German origin and cultivated especially in Thuringia and Saxony. Fruit medium or nearly medium, conic-pyriform, water-green, sown with dots of a darker green, passing to greenish-white or yellowish-white at maturity; flesh white, rather fine, semi-melting, full of sweet, saccharine juice but without any appreciable perfume; good; autumn and early winter. =Safran. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:611, fig. 1869. An old French pear known in the seventeenth century as the _Saffran d'Hyver_. Fruit medium and sometimes less, variable in form, usually ovate, very globular and irregular or slightly long-conic; skin rather rough, saffron-yellow, shaded with gray, dotted, veined and marked with brown-russet; flesh yellowish, semi-melting, and semi-fine, granular; juice sufficient, saccharine, acidulous, with a perfume resembling that of fennel rather than of musk; third; Oct. to Jan. =Saint André. 1.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =1=:79, fig. 1851. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:613, fig. 1869. The origin of this pear is unascertainable but it was introduced to this country by R. Manning, Salem, Mass., who imported cions of it from Messrs. Baumann, nurserymen, Bollwiller, Fr. (Bollweiler, Alsace), in 1834 or 1835. Fruit medium or below, ovate, rather symmetrical, bossed and sometimes a little ventriculated in its lower half; skin fine and smooth, yellow-green, dotted and streaked with gray, very rarely colored on the cheek next the sun; flesh greenish-white, fine and most melting, extremely juicy, sweet, saccharine, slightly vinous, delicate and highly perfumed; first; Oct. =Saint Andrew. 1.= Langley _Pomona_ 131. 1729. Described in 1729 as one of the best pears in England. Fruit large, oblong, very obtuse, greatest diameter two-thirds down toward the base, diminished only slightly toward the stem; Sept. =Saint Aubin sur Riga. 1.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:461. 1855. "A New Jersey pear of much excellence either as a wall or standard." Fruit large; flesh melting, tender, of rich flavor; excellent; Jan. and Feb. =Saint-Augustin. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:230, Pl. LVIII, fig. 3. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:614, fig. 1869. An old French pear published in 1650 by Ménage. Fruit below medium, pyriform-ovate, rather regular in form, slightly obtuse, dirty yellow, dotted with gray, stained with fawn around both poles and sometimes slightly clouded with brown-red on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, breaking; juice rather wanting, sweet, saccharine, slightly musky and pleasant; second; Feb. to Apr. =Saint Denis. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 849. 1869. Fruit small, turbinate and uneven in its outline, pale yellow, with a crimson cheek and thickly dotted with crimson dots; flesh semi-melting, very juicy and sweet, with a fine aroma; good; Aug. and Sept. =Saint Dorothée. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:110. 1848. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 849. 1869. A variety received in this country from France and fruited here for the first time in 1847. Fruit large, fusiform or spindle-shaped, bright lemon-yellow; flesh fine, buttery, with a saccharine, sprightly and highly perfumed flavor; good; Oct. and Nov. =Saint François. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:616, fig. 1869. Until 1675 when Merlet described it this variety was little known and he then called it _de Grillon_ or _Bonne-Amet_ but in 1690 on re-printing and completing his work he spoke of it as the Saint François. Fruit above medium and sometimes very large, long-conic, slightly obtuse and bossed, one side more swelled than the other, dull greenish-yellow, finely dotted with brown, widely stained with fawn around the stem and more or less flecked with the same and slightly carmined on the side of the sun; flesh white, extremely fine, semi-breaking, rarely gritty; juice scanty and wanting in sugar, musky, delicate in flavor; third for eating raw, first for cooking; mid-Nov. to end of Jan. =Saint Gallus Weinbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:194. 1856. Germany, on the Rhine, Württemberg and Baden. First published in 1830. Fruit small, apple-shaped, often flat-turbinate, medium swelled, uneven; skin very firm, green, almost entirely covered with a dark, dirty red blush, scarcely dotted at all; good for household use and perry; Jan. to Mar. =Saint George. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:617, fig. 1869. The Saint George was described by Diel, Stuttgart, Ger., in 1812, as a French pear originated on the Moselle. Fruit above medium and often larger, very long and always variable, often of Calebasse form, obtuse and contorted, sometimes ovate and regular in outline; skin thin, rough, greenish, much stained with gray around the calyx and covered with large brown dots and scaly patches of russet; flesh white, fine, melting, juice abundant, saccharine, acid and vinous, pleasantly perfumed; first; mid-Sept. =Saint Germain. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:225, Pl. LII. 1768. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 196. 1920. Merlet, the French pomologist, wrote in 1680 that this pear originated from a wilding on the banks of the Fare, a little river in the parish of Saint Germain d'Areé. Fruit medium or large, long-pyriform, slightly swelled, often irregular in contour; skin rather thick and rough, greenish-yellow, dotted with russet, slightly golden on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, fine, very melting, very juicy, rich in sugar with an agreeable, perfumed flavor; very good, but is gritty and worthless if grown on cold, moist soil; Nov. to Mar. =Saint Germain Gris. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:623, fig. 1869. Found by M. Prévost, long president of the Horticultural Society of Seine-Inférieure, Fr., in the ancient garden of the Friars of Saint-Ouen, at Rouen, about the year 1804. Fruit medium to large, long-ovate, irregular in its upper part and often bossed and elevated more on one side of the stalk than on the other, grayish-green dotted with brown; flesh yellowish, semi-fine, melting, saccharine, juicy, slightly acidulous, with a deliciously scented flavor; first; mid-Dec. and Jan. =Saint Germain Panaché. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:625. 1869. This variegated variety of Saint Germain is of French origin; the date of its publication is about 1819. Fruit simply a variegated form of the Saint Germain, covered with rather large bands of bright yellow sometimes extending from stem to calyx. =Saint Germain de Pepins. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 850. 1869. Foreign. Origin unknown. Fruit medium, nearly globular or obovate, slightly pyriform, pale yellow, lightly shaded or mottled with crimson in the sun, netted and patched with russet and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; flesh yellowish, coarse and gritty, with a hard core; good; Feb. =Saint Germain Puvis. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:625, fig. 1869. M. Pariset, Curciat-Dongalon, Fr., obtained this variety in 1842. Fruit above medium, long-conic, obtuse, irregular, much bossed, grass-green, clouded with olive-yellow, sprinkled with small gray dots; flesh whitish, semi-fine, watery and melting, almost free from granulations; juice rather deficient, saccharine, acidulous, agreeable; second; end of Sept. and Oct. =Saint Germain du Tilloy. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:626, fig. 1869. The origin of this pear is unknown though Leroy thought that its name indicated origin in the Department of the Nord where it formerly existed in important nurseries and where are two towns bearing the name Tilloy. Fruit medium and above, long-conic or cylindrical-conic, very obtuse, rather variable, golden-yellow, clouded with olive-yellow, covered with gray dots and speckles, always rather squamose, more or less washed with cinnamon-russet on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-melting, gritty at center; juice abundant, sugary, acidulous, aromatic; first; mid-Oct. to end of Nov. =Saint Germain Van Mons. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:628, fig. 1869. _Van Mons Hermannsbirne_. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:60. 1856. The parent tree of this variety was a seedling raised by Van Mons at Brussels which fruited for the first time in 1819. Fruit rather above medium or medium, obovate-pyriform, one side habitually more swelled than the other, yellow-ochre, sprinkled with numerous gray and green dots; flesh yellowish, semi-fine and semi-melting, very granular at the core; juice rarely abundant, sugary, acidulous, rather savory; second; Oct. =Saint Ghislain. 1.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =2=:45, fig. 1851. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:629, fig. 1869. This pear was raised at the village of Jammapes, Hainaut, Bel., by M. Dorlain and was propagated by Van Mons and others. Fruit medium; form irregular, globular gourd-shaped and swelled in its lower part or elongated gourd-shaped and sometimes regular-turbinate, always, however, diminishing acutely to the stalk; skin rather thick and rough, grass-green, covered all over with large gray dots and shaded with dull red on the side exposed to the sun; flesh white, fine or semi-fine, melting or semi-melting, watery; juice very saccharine, vinous, with a delicious perfume and an after-taste of musk; first; end of Aug. =Saint Herblain d'Hiver. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:147, fig. 74. 1872. The Saint Herblain d'Hiver was propagated by M. Bruneau, a nurseryman, Nantes, Fr., where it was raised, cultivated and much appreciated. Fruit medium, conic-ovate, usually symmetrical in outline; skin rather thick and firm, at first bright green sprinkled with brown dots very regularly spaced and prominent, changing to citron-yellow with the side next the sun a little golden; flesh white, semi-fine, dense, semi-breaking, full of sweet juice, saccharine, refreshing, more tender when eaten at its extreme maturity; a good winter, cooking pear; end of winter. =Saint Lézin. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:632, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 642. 1884. First among French pomologists to mention it was Claude Saint-Étienne, in 1670. Fruit large to very large, pyriform but variable, green clouded with pale yellow, dotted with small gray specks; flesh white, semi-fine, semi-breaking; juice plentiful, but deficient in sugar and without perfume; second for dessert, but good for stewing; Sept. and Oct. =Saint Louis. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:634, fig. 1869. Found in the ancient fruit garden of the Horticultural Society of Angers, Fr., and without any record of origin. Fruit medium or below, globular-ovate, somewhat bossed, yellow-ochre all over, sprinkled with dots and very small specks of fawn, more or less carmined on the face turned to the sun; flesh white, rather coarse, semi-melting; juice abundant, rather saccharine, sweetish, without any appreciable perfume; third; latter part of Aug. =Saint Luc. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:29, fig. 495. 1881. Origin unknown. Fruit rather small, ovate-pyriform, symmetrical in contour, having its largest diameter somewhat below the center; skin rather thick though tender, at first pale water-green, with dots of green-gray, changing at maturity to pale golden-yellow, tinged with very light red on the cheek opposed to the sun; flesh whitish, fine, buttery; juice fairly abundant, very saccharine and slightly perfumed; good; Aug. =Saint Luke. 1.= _Garden_ =66=:305. 1904. Introduced by Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, Eng., about 1900. At the Royal Horticultural Society's show of hardy fruits at Westminister in 1904 it was regarded as a valuable introduction, able to compete with the best, owing to its rich mellow flavor and melting flesh, and perfect shape and finish. Fruit rough, russety, deep cinnamon-brown with green patches; flesh melting, juicy, rich, sweet; Oct. =Saint Menin. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =22=:231, fig. 16. 1856. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:187, fig. 92. 1866-73. _Omer-Pacha_. 1. _Mag. Hort._ =21=:87. 1855. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:478, fig. 1869. Received in America from Leroy about 1855 under the name _Omer-Pacha_. It was known, however, as early as 1846 in this country under the name of _Saint Menin_. Fruit rather large, obovate-obtuse, pale yellow, slightly brown in the sun, netted and patched with russet, and thickly dotted with conspicuous russet dots; flesh whitish, fine, melting; juice abundant, saccharine, vinous, with a delicate aroma; first; Sept. =St. Michel Archange. 1.= _Pom. France_ =1=:No. 41, Pl. 41. 1863. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 324. 1866. A French pear originated in the neighborhood of Nantes in the middle of the last century. Fruit medium or rather large, turbinate but irregular in form, sometimes obovate, sometimes long-pyriform; skin fine, smooth, greenish-yellow, much dotted with gray-russet, washed with orange-red on the side next the sun; flesh yellow-white, fine, melting, very juicy, tender, agreeably perfumed; very good; Sept. and Oct. =Saint Patrick. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1866. Raised from seed by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., and fruited in 1863. Fruit, diameter 2-1/2 inches, short-pyriform, green, with dots and some blush; keeps well, and ripens perfectly, with a pleasant flavor; Feb. 15. =Saint Père. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:638, fig. 1869. _Poire de Saint Père_. =2.= _Guide Prat_. 82, 253. 1895. The origin of Saint Père is ancient and indeterminate. Without accepting the doubtful synonyms of _Bugiada d'Hiver des Italiens_ and _Brute-Bonne de Rome_ which have been applied to it, we may judge from its name, _Holy Father_, that it came from Italy. Fruit above medium and often larger, sometimes conic-pyriform and sometimes ovate-pyriform, but irregular in outline, yellow, much mottled with gray-russet, sprinkled with very many and rather large brown dots; flesh white, coarse, watery, semi-breaking, juicy, wanting in sugar, often acrid, without perfume; first for cooking purposes; Feb. to Apr. =St. Swithin. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ =35=:149, fig. 20. 1878. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 196. 1920. Raised by Rivers, Sawbridgeworth Nurseries, Eng., from seed of Calebasse Tougard. Fruit below medium, obovate or pyriform; skin smooth, grass-green, thickly dotted and mottled with russet and sometimes with a faint blush on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, with a greenish tinge, tender, juicy and sweet, with a fine, brisk flavor; good, superior to Doyenne d'Été; July and Aug. =Saint Vincent de Paul. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:641, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 851. 1869. M. Flon-Grolleau, a nurseryman, Angers, Fr., obtained this pear which was first tasted when ripe in mid-January, 1853. Fruit above medium, regular-obtuse-turbinate, meadow-green, sprinkled with yellow dots and russet, washed with fawn around the stem and on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, fine, breaking and gritty, juicy, having little sugar, rather astringent and without perfume; third for dessert, second for cooking; Oct. =Sainte Anne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1895. Obtained by M. Joanon at Saint-Cyr near Lyons, Fr. Fruit medium, oval, rounded at either end, greenish-yellow, washed with rose on the side next the sun; flesh white, rather fine, buttery, very juicy, melting, saccharine; matures after Beurré Giffard, about the beginning of Aug. =Sainte Thérèse. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:642, fig. 1869. Raised by André Leroy, Angers, Fr. It first fruited in 1863. Fruit medium and often larger, ovate, irregular and rather long, always larger on one side than on the other, water-green, dotted and mottled with russet and stained with patches of fawn; flesh white, fine, melting; juice very abundant, very saccharine, perfumed and possessing an agreeably acid flavor; latter half of Oct. =Salisbury. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 541. 1857. A native of western New York. Fruit depressed-pyriform; skin rough, somewhat covered with russet and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; flesh coarse; of only moderate quality; Oct. =Salviati. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:137, Pl. IX. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 643. 1884. Merlet, French pomologist, described this pear in _L'Abrégé des bon fruits_ in 1675. Fruit below medium to medium; form variable from obtuse-turbinate to slightly long ovate-turbinate; skin thin, wax-yellow, dotted with greenish spots, sometimes much stained with scaly russet and sometimes tinted with reddish-brown on the side touched by the sun; flesh whitish, coarse, semi-melting, gritty at the center; juice scanty, rather saccharine, sweet, but with a strong and disagreeable odor of musk; third; Sept. =Salzburger von Adlitz. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:14. 1856. A pear much esteemed in Bavaria, Württemberg, and Upper Austria. Fruit nearly medium, short-conic, even in outline, greenish-yellow, handsomely blushed, densely dotted with fine points; skin without scent; flesh mild, tender, melting; first for dessert, especially good for household and market; beginning of Sept. =Sam Brown. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 2nd App. 134, fig. 1872. Originated with Samuel Brown, Junior, Walnut Hills, Md. Exhibited at Philadelphia in 1869. Fruit full medium size or under, globular, obtuse-pyriform, a little uneven, pale yellow partly covered with thin russet, resembling Brown Beurré somewhat in appearance and very much in flavor, sometimes rather brownish in the sun; flesh white, a little coarse, melting, juicy, vinous and rich; very good, nearly best; Sept. =Samenlose. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 382. 1885. A Russian pear from the province of Vilna, which seems to be a near relative of the Bessemianka, but differs in expression of tree. Fruit above medium, of Bergamot type and good in quality. =Sanguine d'Italie. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:647, fig. 1869. Imported into France about the beginning of the last century. Fruit medium, turbinate and regular, rather obtuse, grass-green, dotted with gray on the shaded side and with yellow-red on the sun-exposed side; flesh breaking, gritty, coarse, dull yellow, veined with red especially about the core where the yellow almost entirely disappears under the blood-red; juice never abundant, saccharine, sweet, without much perfume; third; Aug. and Sept. =Sanguinole. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 851. 1869. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 197. 1920. _Sanguine de France_. 3. Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:645, fig. 1869. This old pear is of consequence only on account of the color of its flesh. According to Claude Mollet, 1810, it was imported to France from Switzerland. It was known in Germany in 1500. Fruit below medium or small, variable in form, turbinate-obtuse, or globular, bossed; skin rather thick and rough, green dotted with gray and red, sprinkled with streaks and patches of russet, and sometimes slightly carmined on the face exposed to the sun; flesh transparent, red, semi-fine, semi-breaking, juicy, saccharine, acidulous, more or less musky, agreeable; second, sometimes third, the flesh decomposing rapidly; Aug. and Sept. =Sanguinole de Belgique. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 852. 1869. _Belgische Blutbirne_. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:67. 1856. Raised by M. Berckmans, a Belgian nurseryman who came to the United States but also maintained the original establishment, where this seedling was produced in 1851. It is of interest only on account of its rose-tinted flesh. Fruit medium, long-ovate, vivid yellow, blushed and dotted with red, with some brown-russet; flesh yellowish-white, tinted with red, semi-melting, saccharine and highly aromatic; second for the table; Oct. and early Nov. =Sans-Pareille du Nord. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:648, fig. 1869. _Unvergleichliche_. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 291. 1889. A French variety described first in 1847. Its origin is unknown. Fruit large and sometimes very large, very long, cylindrical and contorted, often slightly constricted in the middle like Calebasse; skin thin, lemon-yellow, sprinkled with large gray dots, some fine patches of fawn, more or less tinted with vivid rose on the face opposed to the sun; flesh very white, semi-breaking and semi-fine; juice never abundant, sweetish, rather saccharine, wanting in perfume, but yet having a slight characteristic flavor; third for dessert, first for compotes; Nov. to Jan. =Sans Peau. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:150, Pl. XIII. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 644. 1884. _Skinless_. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 856. 1869. Of ancient and uncertain origin; the first certain French description was written by La Quintinye in 1690. Fruit below medium or small, ovate, more or less long but always regular; skin exceedingly thin, and slightly rough to the touch, yellow-white, sprinkled with dots of darker green and often washed with pale rose on the sun-exposed side on which the dots are gray; flesh yellowish, coarse, melting, watery; juice sufficient, saccharine, acidulous, feebly perfumed; second; Aug. =Santa Anna. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 68. 1895. Originated in Santa Anna, California. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, yellow-russeted; flesh tough, highly perfumed; first; season late. =Santa Claus. 1.= _Garden_ =67=:17, 35. 1905. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 197. 1920. Colonel Brymer, Dorchester, Eng., introduced this pear to the notice of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1905 explaining that the parent tree had come originally from Belgium some thirty years previously. Fruit medium, conical, slightly pyriform, fairly even, slightly rough, dull brown-red, practically covered with russet; stem long, slender; calyx partially open, in an even basin; flesh pale yellowish, melting, deliciously flavored; Dec. =Santa Rosa. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 68. 1895. Originated in California. Fruit large, pyriform; flesh buttery, vinous; mid-season. =Sapieganka. 1.= _Mont. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 56, fig. 1881-2. =2.= Cal. Com. Hort. _Pear Grow. Cal._ =7=:No. 5, 179. 1914. _Bergamotte Sapieganka_. =3.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 83. 1882. Originated in northern Poland and introduced into this country in 1879. There is a suspicion that it may be the Bergamotte d'Été renamed after a Polish nobleman. It has been found tender in Manitoba and the Northwest, but perfectly hardy at Ottawa and in Muskoka. Fruit medium, oblate, often somewhat flattened, brownish-yellow, with brownish-red in the sun, with numerous small dots; flesh white, coarse, somewhat firm and juicy; poor quality both for dessert and cooking, third for market; Aug. =Sarah. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 37. 1867. Raised by Thaddeus Clapp of Dorchester, Mass. It was exhibited at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's rooms in 1867. Fruit medium size, globular-obovate-pyriform, greenish-yellow, partially netted and patched with russet, and thickly sprinkled with brown dots; flesh white, fine, juicy, melting, sweet, rich, aromatic; very good; Oct. =Sarrasin. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:249. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 644. 1884. Duhamel du Monceau was the first writer to mention this pear, the origin of which is unknown. Fruit medium, turbinate, more or less obtuse and elongated, dull yellow, slightly greenish, dotted all over with bright russet, seldom mottled but amply washed with rose on the cheek exposed to the sun; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-breaking; juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous, having a taste of anis; second as a fruit to eat raw, first for compotes; Duhamel terms it the longest keeping of all pears; Mar. to June. =Sary-Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:56. 1856. Published in Germany in 1851. Also known as _Sary Armud_ and the _Turkish Musk Summer Pear_. Fruit small, ventriculous-conic, often somewhat bossed, greenish-yellow turning yellow, seldom blushed, dotted with fine russet points; flesh very sweet, semi-melting, granular, without any particular aroma; second for table, good for kitchen and market; Aug. =Säuerliche Margarethenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:165. 1856. _Marguerite-Acidule._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:43, fig. 22. 1872. Obtained by Diel in the neighborhood of Nassau, Ger. Fruit small, usually globular-turbinate and sometimes ovate-pyriform, yellowish light green changing to pale light yellow, often blushed with brownish-red on the side of the sun, on which are numerous dots; flesh granular, white, semi-melting; juice sufficient, moderately sweet, refreshing; third; end of July. =Schellesbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:172. 1856. Württemberg, Ger. First published in 1830. Fruit medium, turbinate, rather bossed and unequal-sided; skin testaceous, light green turning to yellow-green, light blood-red marblings, sprinkled with dark, grayish-green, round dots; third for the table; good for perry; beginning of Oct. =Schmalblättrige Schneebirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:199. 1856. Germany, 1809. Fruit grows in bunches, small, spherical; skin thick, yellow-green, dotted and speckled with brown; flesh coarse; third; Dec. and Jan. =Schmotzbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 136, fig. 1913. A perry pear known under many names in different parts of Austria. Fruit below medium, globular-ovate, often turbinate, smooth, yellow when ripe, thickly dotted with russet; flesh yellow-white, coarse-grained, very juicy, subacid; Oct. =Schnackenburger Winterbirne. 1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort_. 338. 1881. Published in Germany. Fruit rather large, flattened, globular-yellow washed with brownish-red; flesh breaking; a cooking pear; winter. =Schöberlbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 100, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium, Bergamot-form to short-turbinate, light green turning to greenish-yellow, dotted with russet; flesh very white, rather coarse, very juicy, subacid; mid-Oct. to Dec. =Schöne Müllerin. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:173. 1856. Nassau, Ger., published in 1805. Fruit very small, turbinate, or blunt-conic, grass-green turning to yellow-green, often with dark red blush and having brown dots changing to green, light brown-russet markings; flesh fine-grained, with sweet, cinnamon flavor, breaking and juicy; third for dessert, very good for household; end of Sept. to beginning of Oct. for five to six weeks. =Schönebeck Tafelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:50. 1856. Germany, on the Rhine, 1816. Fruit small, conic; skin polished, greenish-yellow turning to lemon-yellow, blushed with red, heavily dotted with green; flesh marrowy, acid, vinous; second for the table, good for household and market; beginning of Sept. for two weeks. =Schönerts Omsewitzer Schmalzbirne. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 108. 1825. _Fondante de Schönert_. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:223, fig. 110. 1866-73. According to Diel this pear was raised at the village of Omsewitz, near Dresden, by a farmer named Schönert. Fruit hardly medium, long-conic-pyriform, its greatest diameter being below its center; skin rather thick and firm, pale green changing to very pale yellow, without any blush, sprinkled with small gray-green dots; flesh white, fine, rather firm yet melting, full of saccharine juice, acidulous, refreshing, and delicately perfumed; first for household; Sept. =Schönlin Stuttgarter späte Winterbutterbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:133. 1856. Raised from seed at Württemberg, Ger., and first published in 1825. Fruit large, oblong, slightly bossed, light green turning lemon-yellow, red dots, marked with russet, thick-skinned; flesh white, buttery, melting, juicy, aromatic and excellent in flavor; first for dessert, household and market; Feb. to Apr. =Schuman. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 852. 1869. A native of Bucks County, Pa. Fruit medium, globular-obovate, pale yellow, tinted with red on the cheek next the sun; flesh coarse, pasty; poor; Sept. =Schwarze Birne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:170. 1856. Saxony. First published in 1804. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, grass-green turning yellowish, almost entirely covered with dark russet, often blushed with dirty brown red on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, firm, breaking, aromatic, sweet and vinous; first for household purposes; Jan. to Apr. =Schweizer Wasserbirne. 1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 338. 1881. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 206, fig. 1913. _Weingifterin_. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:162. 1856. Used in Austria and Switzerland for the making of perry. Fruit rather large, very globular, somewhat flattened at both poles; skin fairly rough, green-yellow, tinged with dull washed-out red, numerous dots and flecks of russet over the whole fruit; late Sept. to mid-Oct. for four weeks. =Sdegnata. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:653, fig. 1869. Major Espéren, the Belgian pomologist, raised this pear from seed, but at what date appears to be unknown. Fruit long-ovate, irregular and bossed; skin rather rough, greenish-yellow, dotted with russet and changing to meadow-green on the side exposed to the sun, marbled with gray-russet; flesh white, fine or semi-fine, juicy, dense although very melting, rather granular at the core; juice extremely abundant, saccharine, acidulous, with a characteristic flavor, deliciously perfumed; first; Aug. =Seal. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 852. 1869. Originated in Pennsylvania. Fruit medium or below, globular, pale yellow, lightly shaded with crimson in the sun and thickly sprinkled with green and russet dots; flesh white, coarse, moderately juicy, melting, slightly astringent; good; end of Aug. =Sébastien. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:181, fig. 573. 1881. Raised by M. Pariset, Ain, Fr., in 1852, and first published in 1867. Fruit medium, cylindrical-ovate, even in its outline; skin rather thin but firm, at first intensely green, sprinkled with brown dots, large and prominent, changing to a brighter green at maturity with russet coloring on the side next the sun; flesh white, slightly tinted with green, especially under the skin, very fine, entirely melting, full of sweet juice, saccharine, with an agreeable perfume; first; Dec. =Sebastopol. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:655, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 852. 1869. M. Minot, Jodoigne, Bel., obtained Sebastopol, which ripened for the first time in 1858. Fruit below medium, ovate-turbinate, symmetrical, green tinted with dull yellow, dotted with brown and mottled with russet; flesh white, rather coarse, semi-melting and watery, having some grit around the core, juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous, rarely much perfumed; second; mid-Aug. =Seckel Seedling No. 1. 1.= _Iowa Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 131. 1915. Mentioned in a report of the Supervising Committee of the Iowa Horticultural Society as a valuable seedling raised by Charles G. Patten. "The fruit is larger than the old Seckel, of excellent quality, and the tree is vigorous, hardy and free from blight." =Secrétaire Maréschal. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 281. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr.; published in 1886. Fruit medium, resembling Beurré Clairgeau; flesh very fine, juicy, perfumed; Nov. and Dec. =Secrétaire Rodin. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 281. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. It was first published in 1881. Fruit medium to large recalling in appearance the Duchesse d'Angoulême; flesh yellow, vinous, of an agreeable perfume and distinctive flavor; Nov. and Dec. =Seigneur Daras. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 99. 1895. Tree very fertile, not very vigorous and best cultivated on wild stock. Fruit medium, of the form of the Doyenné; flesh fine, juicy, saccharine, perfumed; Oct. =Seigneur d'Été. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 348. 1831. An old Flemish pear sent to England by M. Stoffels of Mechlin and exhibited by the Horticultural Society of London in 1819. Fruit above medium, obtuse-oval; skin fine orange, with bright scarlet on the sunny side, sprinkled with small brown spots and partially marked with larger ones of the same color; flesh melting, with an extremely small core, and a rich, highly flavored juice; beginning and middle of Sept. =Selleck. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 854. 1869. The origin of Selleck is unknown. Some thirty years ago the oldest known bearing tree of the variety was standing on the grounds of Columbus Selleck, Sudbury, Vermont, and was then still healthy and very productive. Fruit large, obovate-obtuse-pyriform, surface uneven; skin a fine yellow, with a crimson cheek and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; flesh white, a little coarse, juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic; good to very good; Sept. and Oct. =Semis d'Echasserie. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:188, fig. 580. 1881. Obtained by M. Pariset, Ain, Fr., from a seed bed made in 1840. It was first published in 1862. Fruit below medium, globular-ovate, symmetrical in contour; skin rather thick and rough to the touch, yellow-green passing to bright yellow at maturity, tinged with earthy-red on fruits well exposed to the sun; flesh a little coarse, semi-breaking, rather full of saccharine juice, slightly gritty about the core, insufficiently perfumed; second; Dec. and Jan. =Semis Léon Leclerc. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:173, fig. 279. 1879. Sent out by M. Bivort from Belgium about the year 1859. Fruit small or nearly medium on a well-pruned tree, ovate, often ventriculous, symmetrical in its contour; skin thin, smooth, green sprinkled with dots of darker green, changing at maturity to whitish-yellow, rather deeper on the side next the sun, sometimes washed with light red on which the dots are grayish or yellow; flesh white, semi-fine, melting, full of saccharine juice and pleasantly perfumed; good for its season; beginning of Aug. =Sénateur Préfet. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Published in France by M. Boisbunel. Tree vigorous and very fertile. Fruit medium or large, oval-pyriform; flesh white, fine, melting, juicy, saccharine, vinous; first; March to May. =Sénateur Vaisse. 1.= _Pom. France_ =4=:No. 169, Pl. 169. 1867. M. Lagrange, a nurseryman of Lyons, Fr., grew this pear from seed in 1861. Tree pyramidal, rather vigorous, productive. Fruit rather large, obovate, pale yellow, with a rosy tint on the sunny side; flesh crisp, juicy, very sweet, slightly gritty; good; Sept. =Seneca. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. A wildling found by James Payne and nurtured by A. C. Clark, both of Tyre, N. Y., and reported as about twelve years old in 1896. Similar to Bartlett but of higher quality, better color, and later season. Fruit large, obovate-pyriform, light yellow, with blushed cheek, green mottling and black dots on shady side; flesh white, vinous, sprightly; very good; Oct. and Nov. =Senfbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:183. 1856. Hanover. First published in 1852. Fruit medium, ventriculous and conic, often somewhat turbinate, unattractive green turning yellowish, often darkly blushed, spotted; flesh rather coarse, fairly juicy, sweet; first for household use; Oct. and Nov. for six weeks. =Seringe. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 1045. 1866. M. Nérard, a nurseryman at Lyons, Fr., obtained Seringe, which was published first in 1864. Fruit medium, oval, inclining to obovate, a little depressed at the ends; skin citron or pale yellow, smooth, with some russet specks; flesh white, very melting and sugary; Aug. =Serrurier. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 543. 1857. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:660. 1869. Van Mons obtained this variety from seed at Louvain, Bel., about 1825. Fruit large; form rather inconstant, passing from irregular ovate, swelled and much bossed, to ovate more or less globular, and mammillate at the summit; skin thick, olive-yellow, closely dotted with gray, stained with fawn around the calyx and touched with some brown-russet and occasionally vermilioned on the side exposed to the sun; flesh whitish, melting or semi-melting, juicy, vinous and saccharine, possessing a tartish flavor and a particularly pleasant aroma; first; Oct. and Nov. =Seutin. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 854. 1869. _Poire Seutin_. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:143, fig. 360. 1880. According to Bivort the pear Seutin was obtained by M. Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform, more or less long, sometimes symmetrical, sometimes rather angular in its contour; skin thick, firm, at first bright green sprinkled with dots of green-gray, changing to lemon-yellow tinged with golden-russet on the side next the sun; flesh whitish, rather fine, gritty at the center, semi-buttery, fairly juicy, sweet, and delicately perfumed; winter. =Sha Lea. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 303. 1879. =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:485. 1913. _Chinese Sand_. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 851. 1869. A Chinese sand pear imported from China by Wm. R. Prince, Flushing, N. Y. about 1820. Fruit medium, globular-pyriform, dull yellow, covered with a rough, sandy-like russet; flesh firm, moderately juicy; cooks well and acquires a fine flavor; Sept. =Shawmut. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =25=:209, fig. 14. 1859. Originated with Francis Dana, Roxbury, Mass. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, regular; skin fair, nearly smooth, dull yellow at maturity, dotted with large, round, russet specks, most numerous on the sunny side; flesh yellowish, coarse, melting, very juicy, rich, vinous, sprightly, with a pleasant musky perfume; Oct. =Shenandoah. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass. It fruited first in 1862. Fruit "Skin yellow; flesh fine-grained and sweet, keeps well, and is a good market pear; pyriform." =Sheppard. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 855. 1869. Raised by James Sheppard, Dorchester, Mass. Fruit large, obovate-pyriform; skin rough, yellow, sometimes with a brownish-red cheek, slightly sprinkled with russet dots and with some patches of russet; flesh whitish, coarse and granular, buttery, melting, juicy, vinous, perfumed; good to very good; end of Sept. and first of Oct. =Sheridan. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass. "Fruited in 1864. Short diam. 3 inches; long diam. 3-1/2 inches; good grain, juicy, rather vinous in flavor; color dark green; ripens soundly. Large bearer, and good market pear. Turbinate." =Shindel. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1897. This pear has been locally grown about Emigsville, Pa., since the early part of the last century, and up to 1897 was reported never to have been affected with blight. Fruit medium, globular-obovate; skin rather smooth, lemon-yellow, with thin golden-russet patches and veining; flesh whitish, rather fine, granular, moderately juicy, mild, sugary, moderately rich; good; Aug. and Sept. =Shobden Court. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 646. 1884. Raised by T. A. Knight, President of the Horticultural Society of London. Fruit below medium, oblate, symmetrical in form, deep rich yellow, blushed with red on the side next the sun, sprinkled all over with rough, russety dots; flesh white, coarse-grained, juicy, briskly acid and sweet, not highly flavored; second; Jan. and Feb. =Shurtleff. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1866. A seedling raised by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass. "Fruited in 1863. Short diam. 2-1/2 inches; long diam. 3 inches; flesh rather dry, and firm; skin yellow with red cheek; keeps soundly without extra care until May. A most prolific bearer. Short pyriform." =Sieboldii. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 115. 1876. =2.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:485. 1913. Japan. Sieboldii is a variety distinct from _Madame von Siebold_ and was described by Messrs. Simon-Louis of Metz, Lorraine, as follows: "Medium to large pyriform with elongated tendency, angled and irregular; ... color slightly red on sunny side, grayish in shade; flesh white, breaking, sweet, perfumed; cannot be eaten raw with pleasure." =Sievenicher Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 208, fig. 1913. A perry pear grown in Austria and Germany. Fruit medium to fairly large, globular, short, diminishing somewhat acutely to the stalk; yellow-green, blushed with brown; flesh coarse, subacid and dry; end of Sept. and beginning of Oct. =Sikaya. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:485. 1913. An Oriental variety. Fruit medium to small, oblate, symmetrical, buff, russeted; skin tough, almost covered with large russet dots; flesh yellowish-white, coarse, poor, insipid, subacid, melting, gritty; late. =Simon Bouvier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:666, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 646. 1884. _Souvenir de Simon Bouvier_. 3. _Guide Prat._ 108, 305. 1876. Raised by Simon Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium, symmetrical, ovate, always swelled toward the base, green shaded with dull yellow, dotted and stained with russet; flesh whitish, fine, juicy and melting, almost free from granulations; juice extremely abundant and saccharine, very acidulous, highly perfumed, having an after taste of musky-anis which adds to its delicacy; first; Sept. =Sinai'sche Buschelbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:198. 1856. Mount Sinai, Persia, 1815. Fruit very small, globular, flattened, greenish, blushed, very finely dotted; flesh hard, coarse-grained, juiceless, sour, but sweet when ripe; third; winter. =Sinclair. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:74. 1856. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 646. 1884. Raised by Van Mons. Fruit large and handsome, long-turbinate, very wide at the base and tapering abruptly by deep concave curves to a narrow point near the stalk, even and symmetrical in shape, smooth, fine, clear lemon-yellow, with a faint blush of red next the sun; flesh fine-grained, buttery, melting, very juicy and sweet, with a rich, vinous flavor and a slight musky perfume; very good for dessert and also for household and market purposes; Sept. and Oct. =Sirningers Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 210, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium to large, long-conic; skin firm, green turning yellowish-russet; flesh greenish-white, very firm, rather acid flavor; Oct. =Slavonische Wasserbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:183. 1856. Originated at Siebenbürgen, Ger. First published in 1851. Fruit below medium, ventriculous-conic, green turning greenish-yellow, with light brown wash on the sunny side; flesh coarse, saccharine, firm, very juicy and sweet; third for the table, first for household use; beginning of Sept. =Slutsk. 1.= Ragan _Nom. Pear, B. P. I. Bul._ =126=:231. 1908. Originated in Minsk, Russia, and received in this country about 1890. Fruit large, symmetrical, roundish-obtuse-pyriform, yellow, largely overspread with bright red and thickly sprinkled with brown dots; stem long, slender, in a deep cavity; calyx open; flesh moderately juicy, somewhat astringent, not sugary; good; Oct. =Smet Fils Unique. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 106. 1876. Fruit large, Doyenné in form; flesh fine, melting, juicy; first; end of autumn. =Smith. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:485, fig. 1913. An oriental variety or hybrid, very similar to Le Conte but blooms later. Fruit medium to large, oval, truncate at basin end; skin yellowish-green, smooth, with patches of russet; flesh white, firm, insipid, dry, mealy; poor; Oct. =Smith Beauty. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:485. 1913. An oriental hybrid, similar to Le Conte, with no blush, shorter than Dewey. Variety name has been listed as _Smith's Winter Beauty_. =Smith Duchess. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 101. 1883. An American hybrid of the Chinese Sand Pear. =Snow. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 149. 1873. Originated with Suel Foster, Muscatine, Ia. Reported in 1873 as "better than Vicar except for size and keeping. Its flesh is very white; valuable for cooking." =Soeur Grégoire. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:667, fig. 1869. Xavier Grégoire, the well-known Belgian seedsman, Jodoigne, Brabant, obtained this variety. It bore its first fruit in 1858. Fruit large, in form variable from irregular long gourd-shaped to long-cylindrical, usually rather bossed; skin thick and rough, yellow-ochre, dotted and stained with gray-russet and shaded with dark red on the cheek next the sun; flesh yellowish, semi-fine, melting, granular at the core; juice rarely abundant but very aromatic, saccharine and with a delicate flavor; first when sufficiently juicy, otherwise second; Nov. and Dec. =Soldat Bouvier. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:37, fig. 211. 1879. Raised by Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit nearly medium, globular-conic, regular in outline; skin rather firm, at first a dark green, sprinkled with dots of a darker shade, brightening to yellowish at maturity and extensively colored with blood-red on the cheek next the sun; flesh whitish, rather fine, buttery, melting; juice sufficient, saccharine and delicately perfumed; good to first; Sept. =Soldat Laboureur. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =3=:31, fig. 1855. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 198. 1920. Soldat Laboureur was obtained from a seed bed made about 1820 by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel. Fruit medium to large, ovate-pyriform or turbinate, bossed; skin smooth, rather thick, bright green passing to golden-yellow when perfectly ripe, dotted and shaded with fawn; flesh yellowish-white, semi-fine, melting; juice abundant, saccharine, perfumed, and, on land suiting it, very vinous; very good, highest quality; Oct. and Nov. =Sommer-Russelet. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:46. 1856. Thuringia, 1807. Fruit medium, pyriform, light yellow, blushed all over; flesh breaking, juicy, with a flavor of cinnamon; second for table, first for household and market; beginning of Aug. =Sommer-Zuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:53. 1856. Thuringia, Ger. Published in 1798. Fruit medium, long-pyriform, obtuse, yellowish-green turning a lighter tint at maturity, with dark blush on the side of the sun and yellow dots which turn green; flesh yellowish-white, breaking, saccharine; second for dessert and good for household and market purposes; Aug. =Sommeralantbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:14. 1856. _Poire d'Aunée d'Été_. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:77, fig. 327. 1880. Upper Hesse, Prussia; first published in 1802. Fruit medium, long-conic; skin fine, light green turning yellowish, with dark red blush and very fine dots; wanting in juice, buttery, mild and tender, aromatic; first for table, household and market; Aug. and Sept. =Sommerkönigin. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:109. 1856. Nassau, Ger.; published in 1804. Fruit above medium, obtuse-conic, inclined to one side at the top, yellowish-green turning to light yellow, with a pale blush, greenish dots and flecked with russet; flesh white, juicy, buttery, melting and full of flavor; Sept. =Sommerwachsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:50. 1856. Nassau, Ger.; published in 1805. Fruit medium, pyriform, symmetrical; skin smooth, straw-white turning to a waxy light yellow, with often a faint blush, light green dots turning red, without scent; flesh semi-melting, very juicy and saccharine; third for table, good for household purposes; first of Sept. =Sophie de l'Ukraine. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 647. 1884. Fruits rather large, obovate, even and regular, in shape rather resembling White Doyenné; pale yellow, covered with minute dots on the shaded side and with a tinge of warm orange on the side opposed to the sun; flesh neither melting nor juicy, only sweet; an inferior pear; soon becomes soft; Nov. =Sotschnaja. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1880. A northern European variety reported by J. L. Budd as imported by him and on trial at the Iowa State College. Shows marked traces of the Chinese forms of the pear in shape, serration, thickness and size of leaf. The wood is gritty and thorn-like and unites very imperfectly with the apple. =Soueraigne. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. "The Soueraigne peare, that which I have seene and taste, and so termed unto me, was a small brownish yellow peare, but of a most dainty taste; but some doe take a kind of Bon Chretien, called the _Elizabeth_ peare, to be the Soueraigne; how truly let others judge." =Soutmann. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:130. 1856. Holland, 1821. Fruit medium, globular-oblong, light green turning to yellowish-green, without any blush, small brown dots; flesh white, buttery, melting, juicy, and with a sweet aromatic flavor of cinnamon; very good dessert fruit; Dec. =Souvenir de l'Abbé Lefebvre. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Tree of moderate vigor, fertile and adapts itself to all forms of growth. Fruit medium in size; flesh very fine, perfumed and excellent; Nov. and Dec. =Souvenir de du Breuil Père. 1.= Pom. France =4=:No. 159, Pl. 159. 1867. _Poire du Breuil Père_. =2.= _Rev. Hort._ 202. 1889. Obtained from a bed of seeds of Louise Bonne de Jersey made by A. du Breuil, Rouen, Fr., in 1840. Fruit medium or rather large, sub-spherical, more often inclined by the oblique truncation of its wide top; skin very fine, yellow at maturity, much mottled and dotted with bright russet all over, the russet becoming purple on the side next the sun; flesh white, melting, very juicy, saccharine, pleasantly perfumed and sprightly; excellent; Nov. to Jan. =Souvenir Deschamps. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 182. 1891. =2.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =9=:57. 1891. Described in 1891 as a newly introduced seedling raised in the State School of Horticulture, Ghent, Bel. Fruit large, elongated, like Calebasse in form, sometimes spindle-form and straight, slightly constricted about the middle, greenish-yellow, marked with brown spots; flesh yellowish, delicate, melting, juicy, good; Sept. and Oct. =Souvenir Désiré Gilain. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 108. 1876. Stated in a Bulletin of the Society Van Mons to have been a gain of M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Fruit medium, ovate-pyriform, symmetrical in outline, having its greatest diameter well below the centre; skin rather firm, pale green, sown with dots of darker green, turning pale yellow when ripe, rather golden on the side next the sun and touched with a tinge of red; flesh white, fine, breaking, juicy, saccharine, vinous, with a flavor difficult to describe; Aug. =Souvenir d'Espéren de Berckmans. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =3=:151, fig. 172. 1878. Obtained by M. Berckmans at his establishment in this country and should not be confounded with the Souvenir d'Espéren raised by M. Bivort. Fruit medium or rather large, conic-pyriform, often a little irregular in contour; skin fine, thin, water-green, sprinkled with large brown dots, both numerous and prominent and patches of russet, changing to lemon-yellow at maturity, the russet becoming golden; flesh white, a little tinted with yellow, rather fine, buttery, melting; juice sufficient in amount and highly saccharine and perfumed; good; Oct. =Souvenir Favre. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =8=:65, fig. 1860. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 2nd App. 134. 1872. Originated by M. Favre, Chalons, Fr., from seed of Glou Morceau planted in 1850. Fruit medium to below, conic-pyriform, pale yellow, dotted with many brown and green dots; stem short, rather stout, in a slight cavity; calyx open; basin small, uneven, slightly russeted; flesh whitish, slightly coarse, half-melting, juicy, sweet, aromatic; good to very good; Oct. =Souvenir de Gaëte. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:671, fig. 1869. M. Ruillé de Beauchamp obtained the Souvenir de Gaëte from seed of the Beurré de l'Assomption. It received the recommendation of the pomological committee of the Horticultural Society of Paris. Fruit above medium and sometimes large, irregular-turbinate or ovate, mammillate at the top and ventriculated at the middle, bright yellow, finely dotted and streaked with fawn and extensively washed with tender rose on the cheek opposed to the sun; flesh white, very fine, melting and free from granulations; juice very abundant, saccharine, refreshing and vinous with a characteristic perfume and flavor; first; Oct. =Souvenir de Julia. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 60. 1895. Sent out by M. Daras de Naghin of Antwerp, Bel. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit medium, globular, whitish-yellow, blushed with rose; flesh fine, semi-melting, saccharine, juicy; first; Oct. and Nov. =Souvenir de Leroux-Durand. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 285. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1895. Published in Germany in 1879. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit large or very large, oblong, bright yellow, stained with golden-russet; flesh very melting, vinous, highly saccharine and very agreeably perfumed; first; Oct. =Souvenir de Lydie. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 58. 1895. A Belgian variety disseminated by Daras de Naghin of Antwerp. Fruit rather large, Doyenné in form, greenish-yellow; flesh semi-fine, melting, highly saccharine; first; Oct. =Souvenir de Madame Charles. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 285. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1895. Raised by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr., from seed of Serrurier. Tree vigorous, fertile and suitable for all forms of cultivation. Fruit medium to large, having the form of the Passe Colmar, gray; flesh very fine, melting, saccharine and perfumed; Dec. and Jan. =Souvenir de la Reine des Belges. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:673, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 857. 1869. Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., obtained this pear in 1855. Fruit above medium, turbinate, rather obtuse, ventriculous and symmetrical in its lower part and much contorted and bossed in its upper, pale yellow, dotted with gray, mottled with russet, especially over the side exposed to the sun; flesh yellowish, rather coarse, melting, juicy, gritty at the core; juice abundant, saccharine, slightly acidulous, with a delicate flavor and aroma; first and often second when the fruit is devoid of perfume; Oct. =Souvenir de Renault Père. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 397, fig. 126. 1893. M. Renault, Bulgnéville, Vosges, Fr., observed that the lower branches of an Easter Beurré produced foliage variegated with white while the remainder were of a beautiful green. Grafts from the variegated branches in due course perpetuated the variegation and produced a fruit similar to that of Easter Beurré but with the skin striped longitudinally from pole to pole, the variegation being more or less distinct according to the season and the vigor of the tree. Fruit large, obovate; skin hard to the touch, green turning to a golden yellow at maturity, variegated; flesh very white, fine, rather melting, fairly juicy, highly saccharine, rather gritty around the center; a good dessert pear; Jan. to Mar. =Souvenir de Sannier père. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1895. Obtained by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Tree moderately vigorous. Fruit medium, dark yellow, tinted with rose; first; Oct. =Souvenir de Simon Bouvier. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:674, fig. 1869. Obtained by Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., and first reported in 1846. Fruit below medium, turbinate, even in outline, rather swelled in all the lower part and somewhat obtuse at the summit; color pale yellow, dotted with gray and green, stained with brown-fawn and vermilioned on the cheek opposed to the sun; flesh white, juicy, semi-fine and semi-melting; juice very abundant, vinous, saccharine and strongly musky; second; Oct. =Souvenir du Vénérable de la Salle. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 236. 1886. Said to have been originated by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Tree of good vigor, medium productive. Fruit medium, resembling Bon-Chrétien d'Hiver in form; flesh fine, melting, sweet; of first quality; Oct. and Nov. =Souveraine de Printemps. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 544. 1857. Of foreign origin. Fruit medium, oblate, obscurely pyriform, angular, yellow, sprinkled with russet; flesh white, melting, coarse, granular, juicy, somewhat astringent, with a brisk vinous flavor; Mar. =Spae. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:676, fig. 1869. Obtained by M. Spae, Ghent, Bel., and was propagated in 1861. Fruit above medium, long-turbinate, obtuse, rather contorted at the base and always having one side larger than the other, dull yellow, shaded with bright green, dotted, with more or less brown-russet on the cheek next the sun; flesh semi-fine or semi-breaking, white, juicy, sweet, saccharine, rather deficient in perfume but delicate; second; Oct. =Späte Rotbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 54, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit medium to large, pyriform, dull green changing to greenish-yellow with widely spread dark blush, thickly speckled with whitish dots; flesh white, fine, aromatic; Nov. and Dec. =Späte Sommerbirne ohne Schale. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:38. 1856. Holland, 1806. Fruit very small, conic but variable, even sides; skin tender, greenish-yellow turning lemon-yellow, densely sprinkled with dark green dots; flesh very juicy, coarse, melting; second for dessert, first for household; mid-Aug. =Späte Todemannsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:146. 1856. Nassau, Ger., 1806. Fruit large, shallow-bossed, sides unequal, pyriform, light green turning to light lemon-yellow, often blushed, dotted, often speckled with russet and russeted on the side next the sun; flesh breaking, wanting in juice; third for dessert, very good for household; Dec. and Jan. =Späte Wasserbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:194. 1856. Württemberg, Ger., 1830. Fruit medium, turbinate, rather obtuse, light green turning dirty pale yellow, dull red blush, large gray dots; flesh firm, very juicy, tasteless; good for household purposes and perry; Sept. =Spätes Graumänchen. 1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 291. 1881. Bohemia. Fruit small, obtuse-pyriform, green changing at maturity to yellowish-green, very much russeted; flesh fine-grained, semi-melting, aromatic, cinnamon savor, sugary; good table fruit; Oct. to Jan. =Speckbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 138, fig. 1913. An Austrian perry pear. Fruit large, turbinate; skin smooth, light leaf-green turning to dull greenish-yellow at maturity, dotted with russet; flesh yellowish-white, very juicy, subacid, rather coarse-grained; Oct. to Dec. =Speedwell. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1866. A seedling raised and fruited in 1863 by Dr. S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass. Fruit, "Short diam. 2-1/4 inches, long diam. 3 inches; color green; flesh melting, juicy, with rich flavor; ripens soundly Sept. 1; quality fine; obovate." =Spillingsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:150. 1856. Germany, 1806. Fruit small, globular-turbinate, even in contour, pale green changing to light lemon-yellow, more golden on the side of the sun, with light green dots; flesh snow-white, breaking and coarse-grained, vinous, acidulous and saccharine; second for dessert, first for household; Aug. =Spindelförmige Honigbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:143. 1856. Grown in the middle Rhine country, Germany. Fruit medium, long-conic, regular, greenish-yellow, entirely covered with cinnamon-russet; flesh breaking and coarse, often semi-melting, saccharine and musky; very good for household use; Sept. =Spindelförmige Rehbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:132. 1856. Westphalia, 1828. Fruit large, oblong, shallow-bossed; skin rough, light cinnamon-russet all over, dotted with whitish-gray; flesh granular, aromatic, with sweet wine flavor; first for table and household use; Sept. and Oct. =Spinka. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:89, fig. 429. 1880. Origin uncertain, though Oberdieck thought it came originally from Bohemia. Fruit nearly medium, ovate, more or less shortened; skin thick and very firm, pale water-green, taking a white tint long before maturity, sprinkled with brown dots, changing to pale yellow and the side next the sun more or less warmly golden; flesh yellow-tinted, fine, semi-buttery; juice sufficient, saccharine and agreeably perfumed; fairly good; Sept. =Spreeuw. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:676. 1869. A rather worthless pear raised by Van Mons at Brussels which gave its first fruit in 1815. Fruit small, globular-ovate, green turning yellow, dotted with yellowish-red and blushed; flesh greenish-white, rather gritty, saccharine; in Germany is reckoned as second for dessert and first for household purposes; in France it appears to possess little merit; Oct. and Nov. =Star of Bethlehem. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =24=:334, fig. 1869. Originated at Bethlehem, Pa., and described in 1869 as a new variety. Tree resembles a persimmon tree with a low and spreading habit; branches never upright, very enduring and able to bear heavy weights; very productive and regular in bearing. Fruit very large, similar in form to the Beurré d'Anjou, obovate-pyriform-obtuse, regular; skin smooth, deep yellow, slightly russeted, with a handsome red cheek on the side exposed to the sun; flesh yellowish-white, somewhat coarse, buttery, melting, fine, sweet, rich and excellent flavor; highly spoken of at the time; Sept. =Steinbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 56, fig. 1913. A perry pear found in Austria and Switzerland. Fruit medium, globular-pyriform, greenish changing to yellowish-green when ripe, on the sun-exposed side washed with dull red, speckled with russet spots; flesh granular, firm; good for transportation; Nov. and Dec. =Steinmitz Catharine. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 858. 1869. Originated in Pennsylvania. Fruit small to medium, oblong-pyriform, greenish, with a tinge of brown in the sun; flesh white, moderately juicy, semi-melting, vinous; good; Sept. =Stevens Genesee. 1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Bk._ 157. 1849. Originated on the farm of M. F. Stevens, Lima, N. Y. Fruit large, globular-obovate, yellow; flesh white, tender, rather buttery, of a rich, excellent, aromatic flavor; good to very good; Sept. and Oct. but in some districts as early as Aug. =Sterling. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:443, 444, fig. 36. 1847. Raised by a Mr. Sterling in the neighborhood of Buffalo, N. Y., from seed brought from Connecticut about 1828. Fruit medium, almost spherical, slightly oval, yellow, with occasionally a few small patches of russet and on the sun-exposed cheek a mottled crimson blush; flesh rather coarse, juicy, melting, with a saccharine, brisk flavor; very good; Sept. =Stone. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:24, fig. 1843. Grew in the garden of a Mr. Stone, Cincinnati, O., and named in his honor. Fruit large, broad-pyriform, sides uneven, globular toward lower end and gradually diminishing toward the stem; bright yellow at maturity with a bright red cheek next the sun, beautifully intermixed with yellow streaks and specks; flesh white, somewhat buttery, rather melting, slightly astringent; Aug. =Stout. 1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 39. 1895. Originated at Monrovia, Ind., about 1840. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, green changing to yellow; flesh buttery, melting, juicy, subacid; very good; mid-season. =Strassburger Sommerbergamotte. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:40. 1856. Thuringia, 1766. Fruit medium, turbinate, medium ventriculous, greenish-yellow turning yellowish-white at maturity, with rather grayish spots; flesh semi-melting, very white, sweet, acid, aromatic; first for household use and market; Aug. =Stribling. 1.= _S. C. Sta. Rpt._ 16. 1914. A seedling believed to be of French origin brought to notice in 1912 by J. C. Stribling, Pendleton, S. C. Considered likely to prove one of the most valuable pears for the South because blight resistant. Fruit large, cordate, sides unequal, base rounded, apex flattened, light yellow, almost entirely covered with light russet; skin smooth, thin, tough, sprinkled with numerous light russet dots, indistinct, large at base, smaller and more numerous at apex; flesh coarse-grained, very juicy, slightly subacid, peculiar pineapple flavor with after nutty effect, rich, distinctive aroma; fair quality; Oct. and Nov. =Stümplerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:190. 1856. Supposed to have originated on the shores of Lake Constance between Germany and Switzerland. It was first published in 1805. Fruit small, oval, green changing to light yellow, almost covered with cinnamon-russet; flesh yellowish, dry, becoming mealy, without much flavor; good for kitchen use; Aug. =Sturges.= Originated with Mrs. Mary S. Sturges, Baker, Ore., about 1905. Fruit medium to large, obtuse-obovate-pyriform; stem short, thick, set in a very shallow, narrow, russeted cavity; calyx small, partly open, set in a shallow but broad basin; color dull green, considerably mottled with patches and flecks of russet; dots small, conspicuous; flesh yellowish, slightly granular, tender, juicy, good; Sept. =Styer. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =8=:31, 32, fig. 1853. Originated about 1837 with Charles Styer, White Plain township, Montgomery County, Pa. Fruit medium, globular, green changing to yellow, with many russet dots and markings; flesh yellowish-white, somewhat gritty at the core, buttery, melting; exceedingly rich and perfumed; good; Sept. =Styrian. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ =5=:267, fig. 1863. _Beurré Keele Hall._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 87. 1895. Received in England by the Horticultural Society from M. Bosc of Paris about 1824. Fruit large, long-obovate or pyriform, fairly even and regular in outline; skin even and shining, of a clear lemon-yellow, with a bright vermilion cheek next the sun, appearing as if varnished; flesh yellowish, very fine-grained, tender, buttery, melting and extremely juicy, sweet, brisk and having a fine flavor of vanilla; a first-rate and delicious dessert fruit; Oct. =Sucré-Vert. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:189. Pl. XXXIV. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:677, fig. 1869. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 649. 1884. Said to have come from Barmont, a chateau situated on the border of Burgundy. It was well known in Paris in 1670. Fruit medium or below, globular-turbinate; skin shining, intense green, dotted with numerous gray and green dots, a little whitened on the shaded side, yellowish when ripe; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, melting, semi-fine, some grit about the center; juice plentiful, sugary, slightly perfumed; excellent but variable; Oct. =Sucrée de Hoyerswerda. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 582. 1857. _Sucré-Vert d'Hoyerswerda_. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:679, fig. 1869. According to Diel this variety was a new pear in the first years of the last century found in the village of Hoyerswerda, Saxony. Fruit always below medium, turbinate-obtuse or globular-ovate, rather irregular; skin a little thick, bright yellow shaded with dull yellow, sprinkled all over with gray-russet dots on the shaded side and greenish-brown dots on the sun-exposed side on which it is also much encrimsoned; flesh greenish-white, semi-fine, breaking, watery, granular around the pips; juice sufficient, highly saccharine, acidulous, with an agreeable musky perfume; second; Aug. =Sucrée de Montluçon. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 48, 294. 1895. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 198. 1920. Found in a hedge at Montluçon, Fr., about 1812, by M. Rochet. Fruit medium, oval-conic, uneven, lemon-yellow; stem medium long, rather short and woody; calyx large, closed, in a narrow, shallow basin; flesh palest yellow, transparent, extremely juicy, well flavored, very delicious; Oct. =Sucrée Blanche. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:191, fig. 96. 1872. Obtained by M. Boisbunel, a nurseryman at Rouen, Fr. It was first published in 1856. Fruit rather large, long-pyriform or sometimes somewhat gourd-shaped; skin rather thick and firm, at first very bright green covered with a light white bloom on which are very small and faint dots, brightening still more at maturity but even in coloring all over the fruit; flesh white, semi-fine, melting; juice sufficient, saccharine, pleasant; good but not rich enough to be first class; Aug. or a little earlier. =Sucrée du Comice. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:680, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 861. 1869. Raised by the old Horticultural Society of Angers, Fr., and first fruited in 1855. Fruit above medium, more or less obtuse, turbinate, irregular, much swelled in its lower half; color golden yellow, entirely sprinkled with reddish dots and generally rayed with fawn around the calyx; flesh white, semi-fine and semi-melting, watery, very granular around the core; second; Sept. and Oct. =Sucrée Van Mons. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:683, fig. 1869. _Brüssler Zuckerbirne_. =2.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 114. 1825. A seedling raised by Van Mons. Fruit medium to large, ovate, irregular, sometimes nearly spherical; skin thick, very bright green, mottled with pale yellow, sprinkled with numerous large, grayish spots, turning a fine lemon-yellow at maturity and rather golden on the side next the sun; flesh white, semi-fine, semi-buttery and melting, saccharine, vinous, slightly perfumed; quality variable, due perhaps to differences of soil and climate; second to third; Oct. and Nov. =Sucrée de Zurich. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:684, fig. 1869. _Züricher Zuckerbirne_. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 303. 1889. Of doubtful origin but we may fairly assume it was Switzerland and probably Zurich. Fruit small, turbinate, slightly obtuse or ovate and even in contour, bright greenish-yellow, dotted uniformly with gray-russet; flesh whitish, fine, melting, juicy, very saccharine, acidulous, with a slight and agreeable scent of cinnamon; second; Sept. =Suet Lea. 1.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =332=:486. 1913. An oriental hybrid. Fruit medium to small, apple-shaped to oblong, regular in contour; light yellow, with large, rough, russet dots; flesh greenish-white, deficient in juice, hard and gritty, breaking; poor; late. =Suffolk Thorn. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 816. 1841. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 649. 1884. _Wilding aus Suffolk._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 298. 1889. Raised by Andrew Arcedeckene, Clavering Hall, Suffolk, Eng., from seed of Gansel Bergamot. Fruited first about 1841. Fruit medium, globular-turbinate, pale lemon-yellow, covered with numerous small dots and irregular patches of pale ashy-gray russet which are most numerous on the side next the sun; flesh yellowish-white, exceedingly melting, buttery and juicy, with a rich, sugary juice, exactly similar in flavor to Gansel Bergamot; first; Oct. =Sugar Top. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =3=:49. 1837. Said to be a native fruit and is called also July or Harvest Pear. Fruit globular, top-shaped, skin smooth, yellow; flesh juicy, breaking, sweet, with but little flavor; July. =Sülibirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 288. 1889. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 172, fig. 1913. A perry pear found in Austria and Germany. Fruit small, globular-pyriform, greenish-yellow, flecked and dotted with russet all over the fruit, frequently somewhat tinted with a brownish blush; flesh yellowish-white, coarse-grained, very acid; Oct. =Sullivan. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:57. 1842. A seedling sent to this country by Van Mons and named by Manning. Fruit medium, pyriform, smooth green skin, with russet specks; flesh greenish-white, fine-grained, tender, very juicy, pleasant but not highly flavored; second; Sept. =Summer Beurré d'Arenberg. 1.= _Jour. Hort._ =13=:315. 1867. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 199. 1920. Raised by Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, Eng., about 1860 and produced its first fruit in 1863. Fruit rather small, turbinate, even and smooth in outline; skin clear and very thin; flesh very fine throughout, scarcely any core, no trace of grit, melting, yellowish, buttery, tender, very juicy, with a sweet, rich and distinctive flavor; excellent; Sept. =Summer Hasting. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The Summer Hasting is a little greene peare, of an indifferent good rellish." =Summer Popperin. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. "Both of them are very good dry firme peares somewhat spotted, and brownish on the outside." =Summer Portugal. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 651. 1884. Fruit quite small, pyriform, bright grass-green, with a brownish blush on the side next the sun and dotted all over with dark green dots, at maturity becoming clear yellow, with a red cheek; flesh yellowish, tender, breaking, very juicy, sweet and pleasantly flavored; Aug. =Summer Saint Germain. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 347. 1845. _Saint Germain d'Été._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:622, fig. 1869. Of French origin. Imported to France from Belgium or Holland by Louis Noisette previous to 1830. It is better known in this country and in England as the _Summer Saint Germain_. Fruit below medium, obovate-pyriform, generally irregular, bright greenish-yellow, dotted with russet on the shaded side and extensively washed with vivid rose on the other cheek where it is sprinkled with gray points; flesh white, fine, soft, semi-melting, slightly gritty at the center; juice sufficient, saccharine, often rather astringent but always full of flavor; second and sometimes third; Sept. and Oct. =Summer Virgalieu. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 864. 1869. _Virgalieu d'été._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:5, fig. 3. 1872. Origin unknown. Tree moderately vigorous, productive. Fruit roundish, pyriform, yellow, slightly netted and patched with russet, thickly sprinkled with russet dots; stem rather long, set in a small cavity; calyx open; segments recurved; basin shallow, uneven; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, slightly vinous; good; Aug. =Superfondanta. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 153. 1841. Received by Simon-Louis Bros., Metz, Lorraine, from Italy. Fruit medium, obovate, smooth, pale yellow, marked with a few dots and sometimes marked with russet; flesh white, buttery, melting, very good; Oct. =Suprême Coloma. 1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 2, 49, fig. 121. 1866-73. _Kopertscher._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 796. 1869. Count Coloma, Mechlin, Bel., made seed beds in 1786. From these beds came the Suprême Coloma, a fruit of exquisite flavor. Fruit above medium, ovate, shortened, obtuse; skin delicate, olive-yellow, always mottled with greenish-russet and thickly covered with brown dots; flesh whitish, fine, melting, nearly free from grit, very full of saccharine juice, acidulous, with a special perfume of much delicacy; first; Oct. =Surpasse Crassane. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:687, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 652. 1884. A seedling of Van Mons obtained about 1820 in his nursery at Louvain, Bel. Fruit medium, globular or globular-turbinate, flattened at the base, mammillate at the summit; skin dark olive-yellow, much covered with russet and tinted with dark red on the cheek touched by the sun; flesh whitish, fine, melting, juicy, granular around the center; juice abundant, very saccharine, highly perfumed, with an agreeable tartish taste; first; Oct. to Dec. =Surpasse Meuris. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:688, fig. 1869. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 653. 1884. The Surpasse Meuris was gained by Van Mons at Brussels before 1818. Fruit large, pyriform or turbinate-obtuse, always ventriculated toward the base and generally rather bossed; skin rough, olive-yellow dotted with gray, mottled with fawn and often colored with brown-red on the side next the sun; flesh white, tinged with yellow, semi-fine and semi-melting; juice extremely abundant, very saccharine, tartish and savory; first, sometimes second when the juice is slightly perfumed; Sept. =Surpasse St. Germain. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 198. 1833. A seedling of Van Mons imported in 1819. Fruit rather large and oblong, rounded at the base and tapering toward the stalk, irregular in outline, green and brown; winter. =Surpasse Virgalieu. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 416, fig. 189. 1845. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:868, fig. 1869. The origin of this variety is unknown. Andrew Parmentier introduced it from his nursery at Brooklyn under this name about 1800. Fruit rather large, obovate; skin smooth, pale lemon-yellow with a very few minute dots and rarely a little faint red on the sunny side; flesh white, exceedingly fine-grained and buttery, abounding with delicious highly flavored, aromatic juice, differing from that of the Doyenné; first; Oct. =Surprise. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 41. 1916. Surprise is a valuable blight-resistant variety belonging to Pyrus communis and promises to make a blight-resistant stock on which to top-work commercial varieties. =Süsse Margarethenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:53. 1856. Germany; first published in 1833. Fruit medium, pyriform, light yellow, often, blushed with light red and thickly dotted; flesh semi-melting, granular, sweet, agreeably cinnamon-flavored; second for dessert, good for household and market; Aug. =Süsse Sommerlahnbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:52. 1856. German; published in 1805. Fruit fairly large, variable in form, ovate, often conic and ventriculous-pyriform, sides rather unequal, dull greenish-yellow turning to a fine citron-yellow, without any blush but russeted on the side next the sun, indistinct dots; flesh not juicy, saccharine, with flavor of black currant; second for dessert, very good for kitchen use and market; Aug. =Suwanee. 1.= Griffing Bros. _Cat._ 13, fig. 1909. Originated in southern Georgia and introduced by Griffing Brothers Company in 1909. Fruit large, oblong, tapering towards both ends, blunt; skin tough, dark golden-russet over a yellow ground, with a slight tinge of red; flesh white, crisp, tender; good. =Suzanne. 1.= Mas. _Pom. Gen._ =3=:129, fig. 161. 1878. Received by Oberdieck from Van Mons without a name. Fruit rather small, ovate, short and ventriculous, symmetrical in contour with its greatest diameter about the center; skin delicate, bright green, sprinkled with extremely numerous small brown spots, changing to pale yellow, golden on the side next the sun or sometimes touched with red; flesh white, tinted with yellow, very fine, buttery, melting, sufficiently juicy, saccharine and delicately perfumed; good; Sept. =Suzette de Bavay. 1.= _Pom. France_ =2=:No. 80, Pl. 80. 1863. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 865. 1869. Major Espéren of Mechlin, Bel., obtained this long-season pear. It fruited first in 1843. Fruit small or medium, globular, generally mammillate at the top; skin rough, pale yellow, dotted with greenish-brown and speckled with russet and reddish stains; flesh white, semi-fine, melting or semi-melting, juicy, almost free from grit; juice abundant, saccharine, acidulous, more or less perfumed with anis; Jan. to Apr. =Swan Egg. 1.= Langley _Pomona_ 132, Pl. LXIV. 1729. An English variety recommended by Lindley as suitable in the Highlands of Scotland. Fruit medium, globular-ovate; skin smooth, yellowish-green on the shaded side and clear brownish-red on the cheek exposed to the sun and covered with pale brown-russet; flesh yellowish-white, tender, very juicy, with a sweet and piquant flavor and musky aroma; good; Oct. =Sweater. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The Sweater is somewhat like the Windsor, for colour and bigeness but nothing neare of so good a taste." =Sylvie de Malzine. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1895. Sent out by Daras de Naghin, Anvers, Bel. Tree vigorous and fertile. Fruit medium, globular; flesh rather fine, melting, recalling the Beurré d'Angleterre by its flavor; Nov. and Dec. =Taglioretti. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:73, fig. 517. 1881. Tree bell-shaped, pyramidal; leaves bluish-green and dull, characteristically folded; stipules remarkably short. Fruit medium in size, ovoid, short, broad, resembling the Bergamotte d'Été and the Vallée Franche; skin rather firm, bright lemon-yellow to golden; dots conspicuous; calyx medium, open; basin narrow, rather deep; flesh white, medium fine, medium breaking, juicy; good; Aug. =Takasaki. 1.= _Ga. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 49, 54. 1892. Exhibited by P. J. Berckmans at the Georgia State Horticultural Society Meeting in 1892. Said to be a Japanese pear. =Talmadge. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =25=:125. 1870. _Northford Seckel_ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 123. 1881. Originated in the garden of Levi Talmadge at Northford, Conn., as a chance seedling of Seckel. Tree hardy and vigorous, with spreading head, very symmetrical, attaining double the size of the Seckel, very productive. Fruit larger and more uniform than Seckel, almost identical in form, with the same russet ground, slightly less ruddy coloring; flesh white, juicy, melting; inferior to Seckel; ripens with Seckel. =Tardive d'Ellezelles. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Probably originated in Belgium. Fruit large, grayish-green, pleasantly aromatic; heat resistant; Apr. and May. =Tardive Garin. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Tree very vigorous and very productive. Fruit large, roundish, grayish-yellow; flesh medium, melting, juicy, sweet; May and June. =Tardive de Mons. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 331. 1866. =2.= _Ibid._ 654. 1884. Fruit medium in size, oblong-obovate, even and regularly formed; skin uniformly yellow, orange tinge next the sun; dots large and russet; calyx large, open; stem rather slender, obliquely inserted without depression; flesh white, tender, buttery, melting, very juicy, rich, sugary; rated as an "excellent pear;" Nov. =Tardive de Montauban. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 107. 1876. Tree very productive. Fruit medium to small, rather long, reddish on the sunny side; flesh fine, yellow, sweet, medium melting; first; very late. =Tardive de Solesne. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 100. 1895. Tree vigorous and very productive. Fruit large to very large; flesh breaking, very sweet; first; Jan. and Feb. =Tatnall Harvest. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:424. 1853. The Pennsylvania Horticultural Society rated specimens of this variety submitted to it by Thomas Hancock, Burlington, N. J., as "scarcely good." =Tavernier de Boulogne. 1.= Field _Pear Cult._ 283. 1858. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:696, fig. 1869. Found in 1836 by M. Tavernier in a woods near Trelaze, Fr. Tree scraggly, productive, a good orchard tree. Fruit medium to above, longish-conic, greenish-yellow; flesh white, firm; of first quality for cooking; late spring and early summer. =Taylor. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 112. 1852. =2.= _U. S. D. A. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 282. 1853. Mr. Merriweather, Charlottesville, Va., is credited with having originated this pear, although it may have come from France about 1780. Tree vigorous, young wood olive; productive; fruit medium, roundish-oblate; skin light green, mottled with dark green; stalk rather long, fleshy at its termination in a very slight depression; calyx very small, set in a wide, superficial basin; flesh fine in texture, buttery; flavor vinous, with a delicate vanilla aroma; very good; Nov. to Feb. =Taynton Squash. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 654. 1884. _Squash._ =2.= Thacher _Am. Orch._ 191. 1822. An old pear which originated in Gloucestershire, Eng., previous to the year 1805 and which is widely known as a remarkably fine perry pear much grown in Herefordshire. It is early, tender of flesh, and "if it drops ripe from the tree it bursts from the fall, whence probably the name." Fruit medium to below, turbinate, dull greenish-yellow on the shaded side and dull brownish-red next the sun, covered with rough, russet dots; calyx open; stem slender; flesh white, with a brisk, sweet flavor. =Tea. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:154. 1850. =2.= _Ibid._ =20=:466, fig. 22. 1854. Mrs. Ezra Merchant, Milford, Conn., found seed from which this pear was raised in a pound of tea which she purchased, hence the name. Similar to White Doyenné, if not identical with it. Tree vigorous, with bright yellow wood and deep green foliage. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyramidal, with often a suture on one side, yellowish-green becoming blushed in the sun; stem short, stout, fleshy at the base; calyx open; flesh whitish, melting, juicy, vinous; very good to best; Sept. =Templiers. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:697, fig. 1869. The place of origin is uncertain but the time is at least prior to 1838. Fruit large, short-turbinate, dull yellow, spotted with ashy gray; of first quality for cooking, beginning of Sept. =Tepka. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 24, fig. 1913. A perry pear common to lower Styria, Carniola, and the maritime regions of Austria. Fruit Bergamot-shape, pale green becoming yellowish-green; calyx large, open, star-shape; stem brown, medium short, often bent; flesh juicy, sprightly; rots at the core and keeps poorly in storage; Sept. =Test. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Reported by Luther Burbank, Santa Rosa, Cal., as "A large pear, being four inches long by two and one-half across. In form much like Bartlett and in quality more like Le Conte, but far better and far more prolific than either. Ripens four weeks later than Le Conte. When canned is firm and white and fully equal to or better than Bartlett." =Tettenhall. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 733. 1841. "This pear, supposed only to flourish in the parish of Tettenhall, near Wolverhampton, though a very profuse bearer, has fruit almost worthless; but as a forest tree it is remarkable for its beauty, far surpassing in size, shape and masses of deep green foliage any other Pear-tree I ever saw." =Teutsche Augustbirne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 563. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:51. 1856. Reported from the regions of Thuringia, Hesse, and Württemberg about 1799. Fruit medium in size, oblong-oval, bright yellow, dotted, thick-skinned; calyx star-shape; stem fleshy; flesh breaking, sweet; fair, a good commercial variety; Aug. =Texas. 1.= Ragan _Fr. Recom. by Am. Pom. Soc., B. P. I. Bul._ =151=:41. 1909. This is a whitish-yellow, medium-large, pyriform pear of good quality, at one time considered promising along the Gulf Coast; said to have originated in Texas. =The Dean. 1.= J. Van Lindley _Cat._ 34. 1899. "A very large pear that has been bearing regularly near Oak Ridge, Guilford County, N. C., for more than 40 years. In appearance it resembles both Bartlett and Duchesse [d'Angoulême], and is as large as Duchesse and better in quality. Ripens between Bartlett and Duchesse, making a very valuable pear and of good quality." =Theilersbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:195. 1856. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 174, fig. 1913. A perry pear said to have appeared in Switzerland about 1848 as a wilding. Tree spreading, large, vigorous, strong, productive. Fruit small, ovate, yellowish-green becoming yellow, dotted strongly with russet; calyx open; stem medium long; flesh dull white, juicy, piquant, without aroma. =Theodor Körner. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:126. 1856. A seedling raised by Van Mons of Belgium about 1851. Tree rather vigorous, an early and good bearer. Fruit medium to above, conic, greenish-yellow; calyx star-shaped; segments long; flesh melting, juicy, vinous; first; Sept. =Theodore. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:16. 1856. According to Dochnahl this pear may have originated in Belgium about 1833. Fruit medium large, 2 inches wide and 2-1/2 inches long, smooth, bright yellow, sunny side washed with red; dots numerous; sweet, vinous; last of Aug. =Theodore Van Mons. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 164, 234. 1854. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:29, fig. 1856. Originated by Van Mons in 1827. Tree vigorous, pyramidal, productive. Fruit medium to above, obovate-pyriform to oblong-pyriform, greenish-yellow, russeted; dots gray-green, numerous; stem curved, about an inch long; cavity slight; calyx open; flesh yellowish-white, rather coarse, juicy, melting, vinous; good to very good; Sept. and Oct. =Theodore Williams. 1.= Stark Bros. _Year Book_ =5=:40. 1914. A seedling of Kieffer raised by Theodore Williams, and introduced by Stark Brothers Nurseries & Orchard Company about 1914. Tree hardy, is reported to have stood a temperature of 40 degrees below zero without injury. Fruit medium, yellowish-green, sweet, juicy. =Théophile Lacroix. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 290. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 50. 1895. Tree productive and of good vigor. Fruit large to very large, pyriform, similar to the type of Beurré Diel, deep yellow, plentifully spotted and marbled with cinnamon-red; flesh yellowish, fine, juicy, with an aroma suggestive of orange, a little gritty about the core; first; Dec. and Jan. =Thérèse. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Fruit rather large, Bergamot-shape, yellowish-green; flesh very melting, delicately aromatic; first; Oct. =Thérèse Appert. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:699, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 2d App. 136, fig. 1872. First fruited in 1861 from seed of Beurré Clairgeau by André Leroy, Angers, Fr. Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit medium, oblong, turbinate, yellowish-orange, washed with vermilion; stem short, a trifle inclined; cavity small; calyx open; basin shallow; flesh whitish-yellow, very juicy, very sweet, aromatic; very good; Sept. =Theveriner Butterbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:125. 1856. Said to have originated in France about 1852. Fruit medium large, turbinate, bright green becoming greenish-yellow, somewhat clouded and striped with red, covered with russet; calyx star-shaped; stem thick, one inch long; seeds mostly abortive; flesh yellowish, sweet, vinous; Oct. =Thibaut Butterbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:126. 1856. According to Dochnahl this is a seedling from Van Mons which originated in Belgium in 1851. Fruit medium large, turbinate, irregular and ill-shapen, bright green becoming yellowish-green, with gray dots, and spotted with russet; skin thin; calyx small, erect; stem slender, 2 inches long, fleshy at the base; core and seeds small; sweet, aromatic; very good; Oct. =Thick Stalked Pear. 1.= Mawe-Abercrombie _Univ. Gard. Bot._ 1778. Mentioned in the reference cited as a minor variety of winter pear having a very large, roundish fruit. =Thimothée. 1.= _Mas Pom. Gen._ =7=:181, fig. 574. 1881. This variety was raised from seed by M. Pariset, a seedsman of Ain, Fr., about 1852. Tree rather vigorous, upright, symmetrical. Fruit medium, roundish-pyriform, regular, greenish becoming pale yellow; calyx almost closed; stem very short, rather stout; flesh whitish, very fine, very melting, subacid, refreshing; good; Nov. and Dec. =Thompson= (Eng.). 1. _Mag. Hort._ =8=:64. 1842. =2.= _Pom. France_ 4:156, Pl. 156. 1867. Said to be a seedling of Van Mons originated about 1819. R. Manning, Salem, Mass., received cions in 1841. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit medium, obovate, lemon-yellow, russeted around the stem; stem short; almost no cavity; calyx medium, open, slightly depressed in a small basin; segments often united; flesh whitish-yellow, buttery, juicy; flavor rich, sugary, aromatic; seeds large, long; Oct. =Thompson= (N. H.). 1. Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 198. 1833. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =3=:51. 1837. Originated on the farm of Judge Thompson, Portsmouth, N. H. Fruit medium to below, turbinate, quite russeted; "esteemed for its extraordinary productiveness and long keeping" by those in the vicinity of its origin but regarded by R. Manning, Salem, Mass., as "unfit for cultivation." =Thooris. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:27, fig. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 868. 1869. This Belgian pear fruited for the first time in 1854 in the garden of the Society Van Mons. Fruit medium to below, round ovoid to oval, or Bergamot-shape; skin yellow, shaded and striped with grayish-red. Alexander Bivort gives, "flesh yellowish-white, half fine, melting; juice abundant, sugary, and with an agreeable perfume ... of first quality," whereas Downing says, "flesh white, coarse, dry, sweet, and poor ... unworthy of cultivation." Sept. =Thuerlinckx. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 553. 1857. _Beurré Thuerlinckx_. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 529. 1884. This pear was found in 1848 upon an estate purchased by M. Thuerlinckx, Mechlin, Bel. It is said to be a very large, coarse, showy pear of long-obovate shape, with a somewhat tender and juicy flesh but without any aroma, and very soon becoming mealy; Oct. to Dec. =Thurston Red. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 655. 1884. Hogg says, "a new Herefordshire perry pear of some repute." Fruit small, turbinate, even in outline, greenish-yellow, with a thin red cheek and a large patch of thin, pale-brown russet, especially around the calyx; calyx small and open; stem an inch and a quarter long, slender; cavity none; flesh yellow. =Tiffin. 1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 289. 1893. Originated with Henry Loose, Tiffin, O. Fruit described as large, broad-ovate, smooth, greenish-yellow; dots numerous, brown; stem medium long, slender, curved, inserted with no depression; basin wide, russeted; calyx small, open; skin thin; core large; seeds large, plump, brown; flesh white, buttery, subacid; good; Oct. =Tigrée de Janvier. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:141, fig. 71. 1872. Raised by L. J. Berckmans from seed produced by Major Espéren and obtained by the former after the latter's death. Tree vigorous, rather slender. Fruit small to below medium, ovoid-pyriform, yellowish; stem long; flesh yellow, medium fine, melting, very juicy, vinous; not of the most beautiful appearance yet of the highest flavor; Dec. and Jan. =Tillington. 1.= _Trans. Lond. Hort. Soc._ =4=:521. 1822. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 868. 1869. Exhibited by Thomas Andrew Knight before the London Horticultural Society in 1820 as "a Seedling Pear raised from a seed of the Autumn Bergamot impregnated with the pollen of the Jargonelle." Tree hardy, productive. Fruit medium, short-pyriform, greenish-yellow, with light brown russet dots; stalk short; calyx open; flesh yellowish, tender, buttery, melting, not juicy, vinous, aromatic; good; Oct. =Timpling. 1.= Buckman _Fruit Var. in Ex. Orch._ 6. 1901. Included in the list of varieties in the experimental orchard of Benjamin Buckman, Farmingdale, Ill. Mr. Buckman reports that it was from Ludwig Hencke, Collinsville, and that he received it in 1893. Mr. Hencke brought the Timpling with him from Germany. According to Mr. Buckman the tree is rather free from blight, moderately productive, and still in good shape at the age of 27 years. Fruit medium; good quality and color. =Tindall Swan Egg. 1.= _Trans. Lond. Hort. Soc._ =6=:396. 1826. Specimens of a new variety of Swan Egg pear were sent to the meeting of the London Horticultural Society in 1824 by George and William Tindall, Beverley, Yorkshire, Eng. "It is larger and browner than the Common Swan's Egg, and equal to it in flavor. It keeps well till the end of January, and sometimes later." =Tollbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 214, fig. 1913. A very productive perry pear of Europe with fruit notable because of its beautiful color. Tree vigorous, upright. Fruit medium, round-obovate, very uniform; skin tough, smooth, glossy, green changing to yellow, side next the sun blushed with bright carmine and dotted heavily with brown-russet dots, russeted at top and bottom; calyx small, open; stem medium long, slender; flesh almost white, juicy, tart; mid-Oct. to Dec. =Tolstoy. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Originated by N. E. Hansen, Brookings, S. D., from Clapp Favorite x Pyrus ovoidea, and introduced by him in 1919. =Tom Strange. 1.= Buckman _Fruit Var. in Ex. Orch._ 6. 1901. This variety is found in the experimental orchard at Farmingdale, Ill., of Benjamin Buckman, who writes: "The 'Tom Strange' pear is a small local variety received from a person of that name, not worthy of disseminating under a name and had better be dropped." =Tonkovietka. 1.= _Mont. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 53. 1882. _Limbertwig_. =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 321. 1885. _Thintwig_. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 59. 1887. One of the Russian pears imported by Prof. J. L. Budd from Dr. Regel, Petrograd, Russia, about 1879 and known by the Iowa Agricultural College under the numbers 513 and 14 m. Chas. Gibb, Abbottsford, Can., says this is the hardiest pear tree which bears edible fruit of which he knows. The name means slender stalk. Tree hardy, fine, productive. Fruit medium, conical, yellow, with red on the sunny side; flesh porous; ripens beginning of Aug. and keeps until Sept.; commendable for commercial orchards. =Tonneau. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:237, Pl. LVIII, fig. 5. 1768. _2._ Hogg _Fruit Man._ 656. 1884. _Fassbirne_. =3.= Christ _Handb._ 564. 1817. This large cooking pear has been confused by Leroy and others with _Uvedale St. Germain_, but Hogg and Mas agree that the two are quite distinct. The French word _tonneau_ and the German word _fass_ are both translated "cask," a term which describes the shape of this pear very well. Tree vigorous; shoots upright; leaves pubescent, light green, young leaves yellowish-green. Fruit very large, oblong-ovate or cask-shaped; skin clear yellow; calyx large, open; basin deep, wide; stalk an inch long, straight, woody; cavity deep, irregular; flesh very white, rather dry; flavor brisk; more an ornament than a dessert fruit; Nov. to Feb. =Toronto Belle. 1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ 82. 1882. "We tested the fruit late in December and found it in grand condition; in quality it is equal to Beurré Bosc, and almost identical in form and color. The tree is a slow grower but a heavy and regular bearer. It is without doubt the finest winter pear we know of, opening, as it does, a new era in the quality of winter pears." =Totten Seedling. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:109. 1848. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 868. 1869. Raised by Col. Totten, New Haven, Conn. Tree vigorous. Fruit small to medium, roundish-pyriform to obovate, pale yellow, slightly tinged with red in the sun; stalk long; calyx open; flesh white, sweet, perfumed; Sept. and Oct. =Tournay d'Hiver. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 111. 1876. Tree vigorous and productive, upright. Fruit large to very large, broadly turbinate; flesh buttery, melting, fine, vinous; first; Jan. and Feb. =Tout-il-faut. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:107, fig. 54. 1872. One of Van Mons' seedlings. The pear does not possess all the qualities that the name indicates. Tree hardy, productive, of medium vigor, early bearing. Fruit medium, regular, conic-pyriform, yellowish-green mostly covered by a brilliant crimson, very beautiful; flesh white, tender, sweet, rather juicy, agreeably aromatic; mid-Aug. =Träublesbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:194. 1856. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 140, fig. 68. 1913. This perry pear, named Träublesbirne because of the racemose or bunch-like manner in which the fruit develops, is said to have had its origin in Württemberg about 1830. Tree rather vigorous, broad-pyramidal, scantily foliaged, thrifty, early bearing, productive. Fruit long-pyriform to oval, somewhat blunt at the base, greenish, russeted at both base and apex; dots fine; calyx open; stem long; flesh white, juicy; good; Oct. =Tressorier Lesacher. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 290. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1895. Tree of moderate vigor, very fertile. Fruit medium, resembling White Doyenné; flesh very fine; of highest quality; Oct. =Trinkebirne. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 518, 562. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:14. 1856. Originated in Saxony, Ger., about 1802. Twigs thick and long, heavily dotted; buds small; leaves round. Fruit medium, large, conical, yellowish, somewhat blushed, very juicy; good; last of Sept. =Triomphe de Jodoigne. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:112. 1848. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:706, fig. 1869. =3.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 200. 1920. Raised by Simon Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel., in 1830. Fruit large, oval-pyriform, tapering markedly toward stem, uneven, green becoming lemon-yellow; calyx small, open, in a small, uneven basin; stem rather long, stout, woody, fleshy at insertion; flesh whitish, coarse, juicy, half-melting, sweet; good to very good; Oct. =Triomphe de Louvain. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 154. 1841. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:880, fig. 1889. Originated by Van Mons about 1820. Fruit medium, roundish-oblate, rather rough, greenish-yellow, mostly covered with dull russet, many brown russet dots; stem rather short, stout; calyx large, open; flesh whitish, coarse, not juicy, sweet; good; Sept. =Triomphe de Touraine. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 104. 1895. From the name, one infers that this variety originated near Touraine, Fr. Tree vigorous, very productive. Fruit large to very large, green, reddish on the side next the sun, clear yellow at maturity; flesh firm, fine, juicy, sweet, similar in taste to Duchesse d'Angoulême but of better quality; Nov. =Triomphe de Tournai. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ =20=:760, fig. 139. 1883. =2.= _Rev. Hort._ 512, fig. 1905. M. Daras de Naghin, Tournai, Bel., originated this fruit from seed produced in 1868. The Pomological Committee of Tournai after testing it in 1882 and 1883 unanimously awarded its raiser a bronze medal. Tree vigorous and productive, pyramidal, upright. Fruit medium, turbinate to long-pyriform, symmetrical, uniformly green becoming yellow, faintly pitted; stem short, stout; calyx medium, open; basin shallow; flesh white, melting, juicy, sweet; good to very good; Jan. and Feb. =Triomphe de Vienne. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =11=:261. 1888. =2.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 446, fig. 1904. _Triumph_. =3.= _Can. Hort._ =25=:442, fig. 1902. Raised in 1864 by M. Jean Colland, Vienne, Fr., and first distributed in 1874, this pear has been the recipient of several awards of merit. Tree vigorous, heavy-cropper, pyramidal. Fruit large, obovate-pyriform, rather irregular, greenish-yellow, with russet patches, often blushed with red; calyx open; core small; seeds usually imperfect; flesh white, melting, juicy; flavor rich, sweet, spicy; very good; Sept. and early Oct. =Trompetenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_. =2=:140. 1856. _Poire Trompette._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:97, fig. 49. 1872. Diel obtained this variety at Schaumburg, Westphalia, but it appears to have originated at Nassau, Prussia. Published in 1805. Fruit medium, pyriform-conic, often irregular in form and uneven on the surface; skin rather thick and firm, light green changing to light yellow, covered with numerous small, round, brown spots and on the side next the sun blushed with wine-red; flesh whitish, semi-melting, granular; juice sufficient in quantity, very vinous but a little too astringent; third for dessert, first for household; Oct. =Troppauer Goldgelbe Sommermuskatellerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:41. 1856. _Troppauer Muskateller._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 291. 1889. Said to have originated about 1851 in Troppau, Silesia, Austria. Fruit medium large, roundish, regular, bright yellow, frequently strongly russeted, flecked and dotted with brown; stem thin, medium long; flesh coarse, very sweet and somewhat musky; Aug. =Truchsess. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:20. 1856. Dochnahl credits this pear with having originated from seed in Dietz on the Lahn River, Ger., about 1826. Tree large and very fruitful; twigs long, glabrous; lenticels long; leaves ovate, entire. Fruit produced in clusters, medium large, roundish-ovate, bright green becoming yellowish, frequently russeted, strongly dotted; Nov. =Truckhill Bergamot. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =11=:327. 1845. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 869. 1869. Probably of English origin. Fruit medium or above, roundish-oblate, yellow with crimson and fawn in the sun, sprinkled with gray and green dots; stalk rather short; cavity deep; calyx open; basin deep, abrupt, uneven; flesh half-melting, somewhat coarse and gritty, moderately juicy; good; Sept. and Oct. =Tsar. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =17=:293. 1894. This is a Russian variety and may be synonymous with _Czar_ and _Tsarskaya_. It has been grown successfully in the Russian Province of Tambow, 53° north latitude. Tree very firm and wonderfully productive, pyramidal. Fruit moderate in size, conical, yellow, red on the sunny side; flesh soft, mellow, agreeable; flavor mild; Aug. and Sept. =Tudor. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 157. 1867. Said to be a seedling of Fulton and to resemble it very closely. Fruit peculiarly shaped, russeted; stem short; flesh melting, juicy; first; Sept. and Oct. =Turban. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:121, fig. 61. 1872. A beautiful early pear the origin of which is unknown. Tree vigorous, dependably productive, hardy, late in coming into bearing. Fruit medium in size, spherical-turbinate, green becoming pale yellow, covered with brown around base and apex; dots very large, dark green; calyx small; stem characteristically very short and very thick; flesh white, streaked with yellow, very fine, melting, juicy, sweet, aromatic; Aug. =Türkische müskirte Sommerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:19. 1856. The origin of this pear is ascribed to the Orient about the year 1832. Tree vigorous and productive; twigs glabrous; buds long and pointed. Fruit medium large, bulging, blunt, roundish, solid yellowish-green, sprinkled with russet; dots fine and bright-brown; calyx usually closed; stem woody, medium long; seeds numerous; flesh buttery; quality of the best; Sept. =Turnep. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The Turnep pear is a hard winter peare, not so good to eat rawe, as it is to bake." =Twice flowering Pear-tree. 1.= Mawe-Abercrombie _Univ. Gard. Bot._ 1778. "It often produces blossom twice a year, the first in the spring, and the second in autumn, so is preserved in many gardens as a curiosity." Classified as an autumn pear. =Tyler. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 5. 1843. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 869. 1869. Probably one of Gov. Edwards' seedlings which originated at New Haven, Conn., about 1840. Tree moderately vigorous; young wood reddish-yellow-brown. Fruit below medium, roundish-pyriform, yellow, netted and patched and dotted with russet; stem long, slender, in a moderate cavity, surrounded by russet; calyx open; basin shallow and uneven; flesh white, coarse, granular, buttery, melting, juicy, brisk, vinous; fair to good; Oct. =Ulatis. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. A seedling of Bartlett originated by R. E. Burton, Vacaville, Cal., and introduced in 1916. Fruit medium, pyriform, yellow; flesh white, fine, sweet; good; Sept. =Unterlaibacher Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 142, fig. 69. 1913. This perry pear is a native of Carniola and probably gets its name from the city of Laibach in that region. Tree of moderate growth, upright, tall, with strong wood, a late and alternate bearer, long-lived. Fruit round, large, greenish-yellow, russeted about the calyx end, finely dotted; calyx open, wide; basin shallow; stem short, thick, brownish-yellow, set at an angle; flesh yellowish-green, granular; Oct. =Upper Crust. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =4=:276. 1849. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 870. 1869. A seedling introduced by Col. Wm. Sumner, Pomaria, S. C., in 1849. Tree pyramidal, with "switchey" limbs and gray bark. Fruit below medium, roundish, green, covered with distinct, irregular, russet patches; stalk rather short, stout; cavity broad, shallow; calyx large, open; flesh granular, not juicy, rots at core; poor; Aug. =Ursula. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:7. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 872. 1869. Said to have originated in Belgium about 1826. Tree vigorous and very productive; twigs green, thickly dotted; buds small, long; leaves ovoid. Fruit below medium to above, oblong-acute-pyriform, yellowish mostly covered with golden-russet; stem long, curved; calyx open; basin shallow; flesh white, juicy, melting; good to very good; late Aug. =Uwchlan. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =6=:35, fig. 3. 1856. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:714, fig. 1869. Originated on the premises of Widow Dowlin, near the Brandywine, in Uwchlan Township, Pa. It fruited first in 1851. Tree of good growth, productive, pyramidal. Fruit below medium, roundish, inclining to obovate, pale whitish-yellow, shaded, mottled and dotted with crimson, and thickly covered with conspicuous brown dots; stem curved, inclined; cavity shallow, sometimes lipped; calyx partially closed; basin abrupt, large, deep; flesh white, very juicy, very sweet, melting, aromatic; good to very good; Sept. =Valentine. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 872. 1869. Said to have originated on Long Island. Fruit above medium, oblong-acute-pyriform, pale yellowish-green, tinge of red in the sun; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant; good; Aug. =Vallée Franche. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:74. 1768. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 658. 1884. _Poire de Vallée._ =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:113, fig. 55. 1866-73. A pear of ancient and unknown origin. It was grown in France in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Tree very large, exceedingly vigorous, very hardy, a regular bearer. Fruit medium or below, obovate or obtuse-pyriform, smooth, shining yellowish-green, sprinkled with small russet dots; flesh white, breaking, medium fine, very juicy, sweet, slightly musky; well reported from the Old World but as "unworthy of cultivation" from the New; last of Aug. =Valley. 1.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =2=:185, Pl. XCVII, fig. 2. 1823. Possibly of English origin. Fruit oval or lemon-shape, yellow, strewn with fine dots; skin thick; flesh soft, buttery; flavor very pleasant; mid-Aug. =Van Assche. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 55. 1852. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =3=:60, fig., front. 1853. _Van Assene._ =3.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:58. 1842. =4.= _Ibid._ =13=:60, fig. 4. 1847. M. Bouvier, Jodoigne, Bel., originated this pear about 1828. M. Manning received cions of the variety from Van Mons in 1835 under the name _Van Assene_, and this has led to incorrect statements in America that Van Assche is a seedling of Van Mons and should be called _Van Assene_. Tree productive, vigorous, erect, an early bearer. Fruit rather large, roundish-obovate-pyriform, pale yellow, covered with rather large russet specks; stem long, slender, curved; cavity medium deep; calyx closed; basin abrupt, deep flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant; good to very good; Sept. =Van Buren. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 5. 1843. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 873. 1869. A cooking pear raised from seed by Governor Edwards of New Haven, Conn. Fruit medium, roundish-oblate, yellow, with a rich orange-red blush next the sun, regularly dotted with conspicuous brownish specks; flesh white, crisp, sweet; Oct. =Van Deventer. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 873. 1869. Originated in New Jersey. Tree very vigorous, very productive, an early bearer. Fruit rather small, oblong-ovate-pyriform, greenish-yellow, shaded with brownish-red in the sun, with many gray and green dots; stem inclined, inserted by a lip and sometimes rings; calyx partially closed; basin shallow; flesh whitish, juicy, tender, half-melting, sweet, pleasant, good; mid-Aug. =Van Marum. 1.= _Pom. France_ =3=:No. 125, Pl. 125. 1865. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 873. 1869. _Calebasse Grosse_. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 541. 1884. Originated by Van Mons in 1823. Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit very large, sometimes measuring six inches long, oblong-pyriform, yellow; stem rather long, slender; cavity flattened; calyx large; basin shallow, regular; flesh white, apt to rot at the core, half-melting, not especially juicy, sweet, aromatic; fair to good; Oct. =Van Mons frühe Pomeranzenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:159. 1856. Originated by Van Mons about 1852. Fruit broadly turbinate, light green becoming yellow, thickly dotted, specked with russet; stem thick, one inch long; flesh half-melting; second-rate in quality; Aug. =Van Mons Sommer Schmalzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:142. 1856. Originated by Van Mons of Belgium about 1852, from seed. Tree vigorous and productive. Fruit medium large, 2 inches wide, 3-1/2 inches high, with protuberances, light green becoming greenish-yellow, without red, spotted with russet; calyx open, star-shaped; stem curved, medium long; flesh fine, moderately melting; last of Aug. =Van Mons späte Wirthschaftbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:187. 1856. Said to be a seedling of Van Mons originated about 1854. Twigs long, red; leaves small. Fruit oval, 2-3/4 inches wide, 3-1/2 inches high, with the bulge in the middle, green becoming yellowish-green; dots black; calyx almost closed; segments erect; stem woody, 1 inch long; flesh breaking, sweet; last of Nov. =Van Mons süsse Haushaltsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:182. 1856. Said to have been originated by Van Mons about 1852. Fruit conic-pyriform, 2-1/2 inches wide, 3 inches tall, bright green becoming lemon-yellow, sometimes striped with red, more or less flecked with russet; dots not conspicuous; basin shallow; stem thick, 3/4 inch long, inclined; flesh yellowish-white, fine, smooth, sweet; Sept. and Oct. =Van Tertolen Herbst Zuckerbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:89. 1856. _Sucré de Tertolen_. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 1, 129, fig. 63. 1868. _Tertolen Herbst Zuckerbirne_. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 289. 1889. Of Dutch origin. Tree light green; petioles long and very slender; leaves curved and sharply acuminate. Fruit nearly medium, globular-turbinate; skin rather thick, green, with large brown spots; flesh white, granular, buttery, rather gritty around the core, acidulous, perfumed; first; Nov. =Van de Weyer Bates. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =18=:417. 1852. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =5=:71, fig. 324. 1880. Said to have been originated by Van Mons about 1823. Tree vigorous, large, rather tall, an early and good bearer. Fruit below medium; roundish-obovate, pale yellow, covered with small brown dots and a few brown veins; stem short, rather stout; calyx large, open; flesh yellowish, buttery, juicy, rich, sugary, pleasantly aromatic; a fine late pear; Mar. to May. =Vanderveer. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:156. 1831. Originated from seed of White Doyenné with Dr. Adrian Vanderveer of Long Island, and was named after the originator by William Prince. Tree vigorous, very productive. Fruit medium, yellow, with a tinge of russet; flesh melting, buttery; Sept. =Varuna. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 44. 1866. A seedling fruited by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., in 1862. Tree productive. Fruit turbinate, 3-1/2 inches wide, 4 inches long, greenish-yellow; core small; flesh white, juicy, slightly acid; Sept. =Vauquelin. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:112. 1848. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:723, fig. 889. 1869. _Saint-Germain Vauquelin_. 3. _Pom. France_ 2:No. 65, Pl. 65. 1864. Raised by M. Vauquelin, Rouen, Fr., from seed sown about 1816. Tree vigorous, pyramidal. Fruit medium to above, obovate-pyriform to oblong-obovate-pyriform, undulating in outline, yellow, brownish next the sun, with patches and traces of russet and russet dots; stem inserted without depression; calyx large, open; flesh white, very juicy, brisk; good; Dec. and Jan. =Venusbrust. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:178. 1856. Said to have originated in Thuringia about 1796. Tree upright, leafy, very productive; leaves large, truncate. Fruit roundish-turbinate, rather large, beautiful bright yellow, usually red next the sun, dotted with fine brown dots, russeted at both ends; calyx segments short; flesh coarse-grained, granular, aromatic, sweet; Dec. to Apr. =Vergoldete oder wahre graue Dechantsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:92. 1856. Said to have originated in Austria about 1836. Tree an early bearer. Fruit small to above, roundish-turbinate, greenish-gray becoming golden, russeted and dotted with gray, very agreeable; Nov. =Verguldete Herbstbergamotte. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 551. 1817. A German variety. Fruit large, Bergamot-form; skin rough, yellow-brown and gray, golden-yellow when ripe; flesh tender, breaking and somewhat musky; end of Sept. =Verlaine d'Été. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =7=:29, fig. 1859. _Verlain._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 874. 1869. First reported in 1823 as a seedling of Van Mons. The name _Verlaine d'Été_ has been applied to two other varieties, Flemish Beauty and _Bergamotte Heems_. The pear here described is distinct from the former but resembles the latter somewhat closely. Tree vigorous, productive, carrying its branches horizontal. Fruit medium, oblong, obovate-pyriform, pale yellow-orange in the sun, with patches and dots of brownish-red; stalk slender, inserted in a small cavity; calyx with short, stiff segments; flesh white, half-fine, melting, juicy, sweet, vinous; Sept. =Vermillion d'en Haut. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:726, fig. 1869. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 874. 1869. Originated by M. Boisbunel, Rouen, Fr., and first reported in 1858. Tree moderately vigorous, productive, pyramidal. Fruit medium, turbinate-pyriform, olive-yellow, shaded with red in the sun; stem short, stout, inserted without depression; calyx large, open; flesh fine, melting, juicy, sweet; Sept. =Vermont. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 874. 1869. Supposed to be a seedling which is said to have been taken from Vermont to Oswego, N. Y., where it fruited. Tree upright. Fruit medium or below, obovate-pyriform, pale whitish-yellow, slight red in the sun, traced, netted and dotted with russet; stalk slender; cavity deep; calyx with erect segments; flesh whitish, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant; good to very good; Oct. =Vernusson. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:727, fig. 1869. In 1694 this variety was mentioned as having been named after the place Vernusson in Anjou, near Angers, Fr. Fruit medium in size, turbinate, pale yellow, shaded with rose on the side next the sun, covered at the base and apex with brown; calyx medium, open; flesh white, very fine, melting, juicy, sweet, aromatic; of first quality; Dec. to middle of Feb. =Verte-longue panachée. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:195, Pl. XXXVII. 1768. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =1=:65, fig. 1853. _Long Green Panache_. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 804. 1869. A striped variety of Long Green of Autumn, differing from the original in having the wood and fruit striped with green and yellow bands, and in having the leaves occasionally striped with yellow. =Verte-Longue de la Sarthe. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:732, fig. 1869. _Grosse Verte-Longue Précoce de la Sarthe_. 2. Mas _Pom. Gen._ 5:79, fig. 1880. A variety well known and esteemed for many years in the country around Mans in France. Fruit nearly medium, globular-conic, obtuse, bright green, speckled with grayish dots, often rather russeted toward the poles; at maturity the green changes to greenish-yellow; flesh whitish, fine, very melting, full of sugary juice, vinous and relieved with a refreshing savor; good; end of July. =Verulam. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 805, fig. 1855. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 202. 1920. A very old pear the origin of which is uncertain. Tree hardy, forming a round, spreading head, productive. Fruit rather large, almost oval, rough, entirely covered with yellowish-brown russet appearing almost black; stem woody; calyx open; flesh crisp, coarse-grained, assuming a fine red when cooked; seldom better than cooking quality; Jan. to Mar. =Vezouzière. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 88. 1856. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:734, fig. 1869. _Bergamotte von Vezouzière._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 177. 1889. From information gathered by André Leroy from M. Hutin, manager of the nurseries of M. Léon Leclerc of Laval, it would seem that this variety was found by Léon Leclerc in a field near the Château de la Vezouzière, Mayenne, Fr. Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit medium to below, roundish-turbinate, yellowish, sprinkled with minute gray and green dots; stalk long, curved, inserted in a broad, shallow cavity; calyx open, persistent, in a wide, uneven basin; flesh very juicy, melting, sweet; agreeable; good to very good; Sept. =Vicar Junior. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 92. 1872. Hon. M. P. Wilder notes: "A seedling of my own from the Vicar of Winkfield. Large, long, ovate-pyriform, color dull yellow, with a few traces of russet, and a brownish, red cheek; in shape and color resembling Louise Bonne de Jersey more than its parent. Flesh melting, very juicy and tender, flavor acidulous and rich. 'Very good.' Season the whole month of October." =Vice-Président Coppiers. 1.= _Gard. Chron._ 3rd Ser. =37=:69. 1905. A chance seedling raised by M. Coppiers of France. Fruit medium, regular-pyriform, brown, assuming an orange tint at maturity; stem moderately long; calyx slightly depressed; flesh delicate, with a slight almond flavor; Sept. and Oct. =Vice-Président Decaye. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 294. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1895. Tree of medium vigor, very productive. Fruit medium in size; flesh very fine, highly flavored, sweet; Sept. and Oct. =Vice-Président Delbée. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 294. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 64. 1895. Originated by M. Sannier, Rouen, Fr. Tree productive, of good vigor. Fruit medium to large, resembling Passe Crassane, borne in clusters; flesh fine, melting, of a peculiar flavor; through the winter. =Vice-Président Delehoye. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =1=:53, fig. 27. 1872. Originated by M. Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. Tree of good vigor, an early bearer. Fruit medium, oval to oblong-turbinate, clear bright yellow; flesh melting, juicy, delicately aromatic; first; Oct. and Nov. =Victor. 1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 235. 1886. _Miller Victor._ =2.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 235. 1886. W. P. Stark of Missouri, one of the introducers of this variety, states that he received it from Judge S. Miller, who said that it originated in Chester County, Pa., about 1856. Tree said to be little affected by blight. Fruit large, pyriform, smooth, greenish-yellow, slightly blushed; dots numerous, small; flavor subacid to sweet; Sept. =Victoria de Williams. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 112. 1876. Of English origin. Tree hardy. Fruit large, turbinate, lemon-yellow, with patches of brownish-red; stem fleshy; flesh fine, very tender, melting, buttery, very juicy, richly flavored, finely perfumed; first; Oct. =Victorina. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 59, 60. 1887. =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 170. 1894. A Russian sort received from Russia by the Iowa Station in 1879 and again in 1882. It is described as a hardy tree free from blight or sun scald and is given two stars for productiveness and quality by Dr. Fischer of Voronesh, a German pomologist. In this country it is said to be of no commercial importance. =Vigne. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:242, Pl. LVIII, fig. 2. 1768. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:736, fig. 1869. _Vine Pear._ =3.= Mawe-Abercrombie _Univ. Gard. Bot._ 1778. _Lady._ =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ 1:59. 1831. _Demoiselle._ =5.= Mas _Le Verger_ =3=:Pt. 2, 145, fig. 169. 1866-73. Said to have originated in France, possibly near Anjou, prior to 1675. Tree large, vigorous, scraggly, very productive. Fruit small, turbinate, rough, dull red, covered with gray specks; calyx large, open; stem long, slender; flesh yellowish, slightly granular, juicy, well perfumed; Oct. =Villain XIV. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:40. 1856. Said to have originated in Belgium in 1825. Tree an early and heavy bearer. Fruit medium in size, variable, oblong-turbinate, unequal, greenish-yellow, strewn with fine russet dots; calyx small, open; stem thick, medium in length; flesh melting, gritty near the core, sweetly perfumed; Sept. =Villéne de Saint-Florent. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:739, fig. 1869. It is said that this variety, which was known prior to 1846, may have been originated near and named after the village of Saint-Florent near Saumur, Fr. Tree of medium productiveness. Fruit large, variable in shape from ovoid to globular, unequal, green dotted with reddish-gray; flesh breaking; a cooking pear; Oct. =Vin de Anglais. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:740, fig. 899. 1869. An old pear of uncertain origin. Tree vigorous, very productive. Fruit small, turbinate, greenish-yellow, largely washed with bright red; flesh juicy, very sweet, high in quality; Aug. =Vineuse. 1.= _Pom. France_ =4=:No. 148, Pl. 148. 1859. _Vineuse Esperen._ =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =7=:89, fig. 1859. Raised by Major Espéren, Mechlin, Bel., and introduced about 1840. Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit medium, pyriform, pale yellowish-green, patched and netted with russet, dotted with many small, brown and green dots; calyx large, open; stem short, fleshy; flesh yellowish-white, half-fine, melting, very juicy, vinous, delicately perfumed; good; Oct. =Vingt-cinquième Anniversaire de Léopold I^{er}. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =7=:17, fig. 1859. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:742, fig. 901. 1869. _Twenty-fifth Anniversaire de Leopold I._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 869. 1869. _Souvenir de Leopold I^{er}._ =4.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =7=:171, fig. 566. 1881. Obtained by Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel., in 1855. Fruit medium, spherical; skin fine, thin, soft, very pale green sprinkled with small, faint grayish dots, few in number and unequally spaced, changing to jonquil-yellow; flesh very white, fine, semi-melting, only fairly juicy, but saccharine, with a flavor of sweet wine; first; Oct. =Virginale du Mecklembourg. 1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =4=:43, fig. 214. 1879. Originated, probably in Mecklenburg, previous to 1864. Tree pyramidal, vigorous, moderately productive. Fruit medium, regularly conic to conic-pyriform, bright yellow, sown with gray dots; calyx large, open; stem rather long, continuous with the base of the fruit; flesh white, half-fine, breaking, rather abundant in a rich sugary juice, agreeably high-flavored; Aug. =Virginie Baltet. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 546. 1903. =2.= _Ibid._ 92, fig. 1905. Raised, and introduced in 1904, by Charles Baltet, Troyes, Fr. Tree vigorous, pyramidal, very productive. Fruit large to very large, club-shaped, oblique at the base, yellowish, blushed with red; stem short; flesh melting, juicy, sugary, delicately perfumed; very good; Nov. and Dec. =Virgouleuse. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:224, Pl. LI. 1768. =2.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:Pl. XLIX, fig. 1. 1823. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 661. 1884. This variety originated at the village of Virgouleé, near Limoges, of which the Marquis Chambrette was the baron, and by whom it was first introduced about 1650. From this circumstance it has often been called _Chambrette_, after the marquis. The tree is strong and vigorous but is a late and indifferent bearer and is apt to drop its fruit before ripe. It is said that the fruit is very susceptible to absorbing odors and flavors and must be stored near materials which will improve rather than impair the flavor. In Europe it is regarded as an excellent dessert pear, but in this country it has not met with great success. Fruit medium to large, pyriform, rounded towards the eye and tapering thickly towards the stalk; skin smooth, delicate, lively green becoming a beautiful pale lemon-yellow, sprinkled with numerous gray and red dots; calyx small, open, set in a small shallow basin; stem an inch long, fleshy at the base, attached with no depression; flesh yellowish-white, delicate, buttery, melting, very juicy, with a sugary and perfumed flavor; Nov. to Jan. =Vital. 1.= _Rev. Hort._ 271, 425, figs. 110, 111. 1891. _Beurré Vital._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 185. 1889. Found near Pontoise, Fr., prior to 1890 by M. Vital. Tree vigorous, productive, an annual bearer. Fruit 3-1/4 in. long, 3 in. broad, resembling White Doyenné, unequal, sloping towards both top and bottom but more towards the stem end; skin beautiful golden-yellow in color; stem short; flesh whitish, melting, slightly granular, sweet, agreeably perfumed; sometimes keeping as late as May. =Vitrier. 1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =2=:139, Pl. XLIV, fig. 4. 1768. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =1=:106. 1831. Valerius Cordus, a botanist, who died in 1544, mentions a _Pyrum Vitreum_ common in Saxony, and it may be, then, that Vitrier is of this origin. Fruit large, oval, deep red speckled with brown points on the sunny side and light green dotted with deeper green on the shady side; stem moderately large, an inch long; flesh white but not very delicate, agreeable; Nov. and Dec. =Volkmarserbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:13. 1856. =2.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =II=:No. 96. Pl. 96. 1883. _Volkmarsen._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:750, fig. 1869. It is thought that this pear may have originated near the town of Volkmarsen, Ger., prior to 1795. Tree large, vigorous, hardy, very productive. Fruit small, oval, yellow, almost entirely covered with brown, sprinkled with numerous dots of a brighter color; calyx open; flesh half-melting, juicy, piquant, sweetish; Sept. =Von Zugler. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 877. 1869. Said by Downing in 1869 to be a new Belgian variety. Tree slender, productive. Fruit medium, roundish-acute-pyriform, yellow, nearly covered with cinnamon-russet; stem rather short, inclined in a slight depression by a fleshy lip; calyx small, open; segments short, erect; basin small; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly aromatic; very good; Sept. =Voscovoya. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 320, 323. 1885. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 60, 61. 1887. _Waxy_. 3. _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 323. 1885. A Russian variety introduced by the Iowa Agricultural College from P. J. Tretjakoff, Orel, Russia, about 1883, and said to be "an extra fine pear." Professor Budd thought it identical with _Vosovoya_ or _Waxen_. =Vosschanka. 1.= _Can. Hort._ =17=:291. 1894. A variety grown by M. Mitschurin, one of the most celebrated Russian horticulturists, in the Russian Province of Tambow, 53 north latitude. Fruit medium, yellow; "flavor excellent, ripens in the month of August, and keeps till October." =Wade. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Grown by I. C. Wade, Cornelia, Ga. Fruit rather large, roundish, short-pyriform, irregular, yellow; dots raised, russet, very prominent; stem short, very stout, fleshy, inserted in a round, very small, shallow, abrupt, russeted cavity; calyx small, closed, in shallow, abrupt basin; flesh white with yellow fibers, moderately juicy, tender, rather coarse, nearly sweet; good; mid-season. =Wadleigh. 1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 154. 1849. Originated in New Hampshire. Tree rather hardy, moderately vigorous. Fruit medium, almost globular, yellow, slightly netted and patched with russet; stem short, stout, inserted in a slight cavity, sometimes by a fold or lip; basin slight; calyx with small short lobes; flesh white, fine, a little gritty, juicy, melting, pleasant; good; Sept. =Wahre Canning. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:56. 1856. Said by Dochnahl to have originated in England about 1842. Tree vigorous and very productive. Fruit medium large, obovate, bright green becoming greenish-yellow, often blushed with bright brown, sparsely dotted; stem thin, 1-3/4 inches long; flesh non-aromatic, not juicy, sweet, becoming mealy; Aug. and Sept. =Wahre Faustbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:3. 1856. According to Dochnahl this pear originated in Germany about 1801. Tree very large and productive. Fruit very large, pyriform, regular, even yellow, flecked and dotted with russet; calyx large, deep set; stem an inch long; Oct. =Wahre Schneebirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:199. 1856 Probably a wild pear of Austria, first mentioned in 1810. Fruit round, green becoming yellow, somewhat blushed on the sunny side; dots yellowish; stem thick, flesh very sour becoming sweeter; Dec. =Wallis Kieffer. 1.= Stark Bros. _Year Book_ =5=:40. 1914. The introducers of this pear, Stark Brothers Nurseries and Orchards Company, received it from Henry Wallis of St. Louis County, Missouri. It is reported as a strong-growing tree, blight resistant, and a heavy bearer, fruit of better quality than Kieffer and two weeks earlier. =Warner. 1.= _Ind. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 123. 1885. Originated in Indiana in 1832. Tree said to be blight-resistant. Fruit medium, symmetrical, light yellow; flesh buttery, melting, mild; fair to good; last of Aug. and first of Sept. =Washington. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 187. 1832. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =10=:296, fig. 1844. _Robertson_. =3.= _N. E. Farmer_ =7=:259. 1830. Discovered in a thorn hedge at Naaman's Creek, Del., about 1801, by General Robertson or Robinson, the owner of the land, and said to have been named by him in honor of his friend and commander, George Washington. Tree vigorous, not large, an abundant bearer. Fruit medium, obovate, ending very obtusely at the stem, regular, smooth, clear yellow with a sprinkling of reddish dots on the sunny side; stem an inch and a half long, inserted in a slight depression; calyx small, partly closed, set in a shallow basin; flesh white, very juicy, melting, sweet, agreeable; very good; Sept. =Waterloo. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 663. 1884. Fruit medium, turbinate, broad at the apex, pale green becoming brownish-red, with a few streaks of brighter red next the sun, thickly covered with gray russety dots; stem rather short, inserted in a small round cavity; calyx open, in a deep, wide, even basin; flesh yellowish, crisp, juicy, sugary, perfumed; second-rate; Sept. =Watson. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =10=:212. 1844. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 878. 1869. Originated in Plymouth, Mass., on the farm of William Watson prior to 1843. Tree productive. Fruit below medium to above, roundish to obtusely obovate, yellowish, covered mostly with russet; flesh whitish, coarse, moderately juicy, sweet; of low quality; early Sept. =Webster. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 878. 1869. Said to have originated at Hudson, N. Y. Tree a moderate grower, productive. Fruit medium, globular-obtuse-pyriform, yellow with traces and nettings of russet and many brown dots; stem long, slender, inclined, set in a small russeted cavity; calyx open, segments long, reflexed; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly aromatic; good to very good; Nov. =Weeping Willow. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 37. 1867. A seedling by Asahel Foot "called Weeping Willow, from the remarkably pendulous habit of the tree, but the fruit is of third quality." =Weidenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:189. 1856. Said to have originated in Germany about 1807. Fruit medium large, pyriform, uneven, bright green becoming golden yellow, often blushed with red and strongly dotted with gray, flecked with dark spots; calyx large, open; stem crooked, an inch and a half long; flesh firm, fine-grained, sweet, aromatic; Sept. =Weidenblättrige Herbstbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:15. 1856. Said to have originated in Württemberg, Ger., about 1830. Tree of medium size. Fruit in clusters, medium large, pyriform, pale greenish-yellow, becoming somewhat striped with red or marked by reddish dots; Sept. =Weihmier Sugar. 1.= _Hopedale Nurs. Cat._ 18. 1912. It is said by the Hopedale Nursery Company, introducer of this variety, that it is not a new pear but an unknown old one renamed. Tree thrifty, blights somewhat. Fruit medium to large and regarded by some as of "highest possible flavor." =Weiler'sche Mostbirn. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 107. 1876. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 178, fig. 1913. A native of Austria and valued highly for perry. Tree vigorous, an early and heavy bearer. Fruit small, globular, greenish-yellow, dotted, russet at the apex; stem medium in length, somewhat curved and set in a slight depression; calyx open; flesh yellowish-white, firm, with a sweet, aromatic flavor; Oct. and Nov. =Weisse Fuchsbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 180, fig. 1913. A perry pear probably of Austrian origin. Tree rather vigorous, pyramidal, becoming more spreading. Fruit medium, usually turbinate, light yellowish-green, covered with numerous fine dots, flaked with russet around stem and calyx; calyx small, open; stem long, same color as the fruit and continuous with it; flesh white, rather fine-grained, juicy, sweet; Oct. =Weisse Hangelbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 70, fig. 1913. A perry pear probably of Austrian origin. Tree vigorous, broadly pyramidal, large, a late but regular and heavy bearer. Fruit small, round, greenish-yellow, covered with numerous fine, brown-russet dots and small russet splotches; calyx small, open; stem short, inserted without depression; flesh pure white, granular, very juicy, slightly acid; Oct. =Weisse Kochbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 102, fig. 1913. A perry pear of unknown origin. Tree pyramidal, not a dependable bearer. Fruit medium to above, globular, light-yellow, covered with numerous russet dots; calyx open, set in a narrow, abrupt basin; stem medium, brown; flesh pure white, slightly granular, very juicy, pleasantly sweet; Oct. =Weisse Pelzbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 144, fig. 1913. A perry pear of Austria. Tree moderately vigorous, compact, an early and regular bearer. Fruit medium, variable, turbinate, greenish-yellow to yellowish-white, heavily dotted and splotched with russet, especially about stem and calyx, often marked with scab spots; calyx open; stem medium, strong, set with little or no depression; flesh yellowish-white, slightly granular, juicy, sweetish, sometimes slightly bitter; Sept. and Oct. =Welbeck Bergamot. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 89. 1845. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 663. 1884. _Bergamotte Welbeck_. 3. Mas _Pom. Gen._ 5:87, fig. 332. 1880. Fruit above medium, roundish, uneven in outline, bossed about the stalk, smooth, shining, lemon-yellow, thickly sprinkled with large russet specks, blushed with light crimson on side next the sun; calyx small, open, set in a shallow depression; stem medium, inserted in an uneven cavity; flesh white, rather coarse-grained, half-melting, very juicy, sugary, without flavor; inferior; Oct. and Nov. =Wellington. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 43. 1864. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 879. 1869. This, with other seedlings, was imported from France about 1854 by A. Wellington, Braintree, Mass. It was exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1864. It may be that there is a second Wellington pear, or even a third, for in 1852 there was exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society "Wellington, (two varieties)." A description of a Wellington pear is given in the _Magazine of Horticulture_ of the following year, while in 1854 the American Pomological Society included a variety of similar name in its list of rejected fruits. At all events, the pear herein described is the one now known as Wellington. Fruit large, similar in shape to Beurré d'Anjou, but longer, yellow, clouded with green; calyx small, open, with short, stiff, slightly incurved lobes, basin shallow; stem very short, set in a slight cavity; flesh yellowish-white, somewhat coarse, juicy, melting, sweet, with a peculiar "confectionery" flavor or aroma; Nov. =Welsche Bratbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:2. 1856. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 26; fig. 1913. A perry pear of first rank which is said to have originated in Württemberg about 1823. Tree a very late yet regular and productive bearer. Fruit medium, roundish-oval to turbinate, whitish, splotched with yellowish-green, covered with numerous fine russet dots; calyx large, open, star-shaped; stem medium, rather stout, set in a small cavity as though stuck into the fruit; flesh greenish-white, granular, slightly firm, juicy, sweet; last of Sept. and Oct. =Weltz. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 52. 1871. A seedling introduced by Leo Weltz, Wilmington, Ohio. Fruit large, oblong-obovate-pyriform, good for cooking only. =Wendell. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:460. 1850. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 879. 1869. The name given, in honor of H. Wendell, Albany, N. Y., to one of Van Mons' seedlings which fruited in the Pomological Garden at Salem previous to 1850. Tree moderately vigorous, upright, productive. Fruit rather small to medium, roundish-pyriform, yellow, having a somewhat russety skin, tinged with red on the sunny side, sprinkled with dots; calyx small, partially open; stem short, stout; flesh whitish, fine-grained, juicy, melting, buttery, sweet, pleasant; good; Sept. =Wesner. 1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 32. 1886. A pear from W. D. Wesner, Prairiesville, Ark., which is said to be a very productive early variety and one that may be valuable for shipping. =Westcott. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:515. 1847. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =17=:261, fig. 30. 1851. _Trescott._ 3. _Horticulturist_ 2:241, 287. 1847. The Westcott, or _Wescott_, and the _Trescott_ are the same. Through a typographical error in the description of Westcott, later corrected, the name _Trescott_ first appeared. Westcott originated on the farm of Niles Westcott in Cranston, R. I., previous to 1847. Tree vigorous, an early bearer, productive. Fruit medium, roundish-obovate, occasionally slightly flattened laterally, greenish-yellow becoming a light orange-yellow, covered with numerous minute russet dots and with many conspicuous specks of the same color; calyx medium, open, set in a shallow basin; stem very long, rather slender, curved, inserted by a fleshy nob in a shallow cavity; flesh whitish, rather coarse, melting, juicy, sweet, agreeable; good; last of Sept. and early Oct. =Westphälische Melonenbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:116. 1856. First reported from Westphalia and Thuringia, Ger., about 1803. Tree very productive. Fruit oblong-obovate, pale green becoming pale yellow; dots grayish; skin thick; calyx open; stem rather short; flesh yellowish, deliciously melon-flavored; Jan. and Feb. =Westrumb. 1.= Liebel _Syst. Anleit._ 132. 1825. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:754, fig. 1869. Raised by Van Mons about 1825. Tree very productive. Fruit medium, turbinate, greenish-yellow, overcast with bronze and netted with gray; heavily dotted; stem very short, thick, continuous with the fruit; flesh very juicy, of a very savory perfume; of highest quality; Sept. =Wetmore. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 879. 1869. Raised by E. B. Wetmore, Westmoreland, N. Y. Tree upright, vigorous. Fruit small, roundish-oval, pale yellow, with nettings and patches of russet, and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; stem long, slender, set in a small cavity, sometimes by a lip; calyx open; lobes short, erect; basin shallow, slightly corrugated; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, aromatic; good to very good; Oct. =Wharton Early. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 560. 1857. _Précoce de Wharton._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 113. 1876. Origin unknown. Fruit medium, oblong-acute-pyriform, pale yellow, with traces of russet, and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; stem long, curved, rather slender, set in a slight cavity, sometimes by a lip; calyx open in a small basin; flesh whitish, juicy, melting, sweet, slightly musky; good to very good; Aug. =Wheeler. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =24=:505, fig. 21. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 880. 1869. About 1836 a maiden lady of Greenwich, R. I., planted the core of a Gardener pear, from which sprang a tree, fruit of which was brought to the attention of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society by Dr. Wheeler of Greenwich in 1851. The Society named the pear in honor of Dr. Wheeler. Tree vigorous, upright. Fruit medium, roundish-obovate, pale yellowish-green, mottled with greenish patches and dotted with numerous gray and green dots; stem medium, set in a small contracted cavity; calyx open, set in an uneven, abrupt basin; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant; good; Aug. =Whieldon. 1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 127, fig., Pl. XI. 1863. _McLellan._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 151. 1862. Originated in the garden of Wm. W. Whieldon, Concord, Mass., and first brought to notice about 1862. Tree moderately vigorous, upright-spreading, a profuse bearer. Fruit medium or above, obtuse-obovate, yellowish-green, tinged with red in the sun, dotted and netted with russet, stem long, slender, slightly inclined, set in a shallow cavity; calyx open, set in a medium sized, uneven basin; segments recurved; flesh whitish, a little gritty near the core, juicy, melting, buttery, sweet, pleasant, slightly aromatic; good to very good; Sept. =White Genneting. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 593. 1629. "The White Genneting is a reasonable good peare, yet not equall to the other." =White Longland. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 664. 1884. Said to be a good stewing pear, cooking to a splendid red color, but coarse and rough in flavor; also used for perry. Fruit medium, turbinate, even, regular, yellowish-green, pale red next the sun, thickly sprinkled with large russet dots, with lines of russet and a patch round the stalk; calyx open, set in a shallow basin; stem rather short, straight, inserted in a narrow, shallow cavity; flesh yellowish, firm, coarse-grained, with a brisk, sweet juice. =White Seedling. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:522. 1853. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 881. 1869. _Semis de White._ =3.= _Guide Prat._ 75, 292. 1895. A native of New Haven, Conn., exhibited in 1853. Tree vigorous, very productive. Fruit medium, roundish-obovate to oblong-obovate, greenish-yellow, sometimes with a brownish-blush in the sun, considerably netted and patched with russet, sprinkled with many russet dots; stem long, inclined, set in a shallow cavity, often by a fleshy lip; calyx open, with short, erect lobes, set in a small, uneven basin; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting; sweet, aromatic; good to very good; Oct. to Feb. =White Squash. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 664. 1884. A Herefordshire, Eng., perry pear. Fruit medium, roundish-turbinate, even and regular in outline, yellowish-green, strewn with small russety dots, with here and there a patch of russet, but always russety round the stalk and the calyx; calyx open, set in a saucer-like basin; stem medium, inserted without depression and with a fleshy swelling on one side; flesh coarse, crisp, very juicy, harshly astringent. =White Star. 1.= _Spring Hill Nurs. Cat._ 10, fig. 1921. Tree reported as hardy, productive and fruit as of the size of Bartlett, keeping until May and June, and good for dessert. =Whitfield. 1.= _Cultivator_ 66. 1839. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:296. 1850. Placed on the list of Rejected Fruits by the second Congress of Fruit Growers in 1850. Tree a good bearer. Fruit medium, oblong-obovate, yellowish-brown, buttery, very good; Oct. and Nov. =Wiest. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =18=:492. 1852. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 882. 1869. Reported from Pennsylvania in 1852. Tree vigorous, an early bearer, inclined to be alternate. Fruit medium or below, roundish-obovate, green, shaded with dull red and sprinkled with green and gray dots; stem rather stout, medium in length; calyx small, closed; lobes connivent; flesh whitish-green, juicy, melting, subacid; good; Sept. =Wilbur. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ 10:211. 1844. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 882. 1869. _Early Wilbur._ =3.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 4. 1843. The original tree, which was found growing wild in a piece of mowing land on the farm of D. Wilbur, Jr., in Somerset, Mass., was said in 1844 to be 66 years old. Shoots slender, light olive-brown. Fruit below medium, roundish-obovate, dull green, becoming pale yellow, slightly netted and patched with russet, and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; stem small, set in a small cavity; calyx open; segments long; basin small; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, slightly astringent; good; Sept. =Wilde Filzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:1. 1856. A wild pear reported from Belgium about 1800. Fruit small, roundish, greenish, becoming yellowish, dotted with gray; stem long; flesh acid, becoming sweetish; poor; fall and winter. May be used for dwarfing. =Wilde Herrnbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:188. 1856. Reported from Germany about 1804. Tree very large. Fruit medium, broad, bright green becoming yellowish-green, often somewhat blushed on the sunny side, often flecked and patched with russet; dots light gray; stem rather long, inserted by a fleshy protuberance; flesh white, slightly musky, sweet; fair and below; Sept. =Wilde Holzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:196. 1856. Reported as wild and widely disseminated as early as 1641; its seedlings are said sometimes to be used for stocks. Tree very large and productive. Fruit small, round, green, dotted with light russet; seeds numerous, dark brown; flesh very acid; Oct. =Wilder Sugar. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 135. 1920. Reported by Orange County Nursery Company, Anaheim, Cal., as "Medium large, greenish yellow shaded brown, excellent quality. Vigorous and productive. August." =Wilding von Einsiedel. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:2. 1856. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 182, fig. 1913. This perry pear, which has also been recommended as a street tree, was reported from Württemberg about 1832. Tree very vigorous, pyramidal, not leafy, very productive. Fruit bluntly conic pyriform, small, greenish-yellow, brownish on side next the sun; covered with characteristic brown to reddish-brown dots, russeted about stem and calyx; calyx half open; stem short, thick; flesh juicy, firm, acid; Oct. =Wilding von Gronau. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:96. 1856. Reported from Hesse, Ger., about 1844. Fruit small, blunt, broad-conic-pyriform, yellow, blushed on the sunny side, flecked and dotted with gray, russeted about base and apex; calyx closed; stem short; flesh sweet-scented, sweet; end of Sept. =Wilford. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. "A good and fair pear." =Wilkinson. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 187. 1832. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:470, fig. 25. 1854. This pear, one of the oldest American kinds, was introduced by the exhibition of specimens before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, in October, 1829, and given the name "Wilkinson," in compliment to the owner of the farm on which the tree originated and was then growing, Mr. Jeremiah Wilkinson, Cumberland, R. I., brother of the noted Jemima Wilkinson. Tree thrifty, hardy, a regular bearer; shoots long, upright, stout, olive-yellow, with oblong white specks. Fruit medium, ovoid, obtuse at both ends, smooth, glossy, yellow dotted with brown points; stem rather long, rather stout, inserted obliquely in a rather wide and deep cavity; calyx medium, open, set in a shallow basin; flesh very white, juicy, melting, sweet, rich, with a slight perfume; good; Oct. to Dec. =Wilkinson Winter. 1.= _Ill. Hort Soc. Rpt._ 113. 1876. =2.= _Ibid._ 83. 1880. A variety raised near Peoria, Ill., from seed planted by A. Wilkinson, and first reported before the Illinois State Horticultural Society about 1876. Tree said to be hardy, vigorous, productive, blight-resistant. Fruit said to be large, golden; very good; season until spring. =Willermoz. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:86, 461. 1854. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:756, fig. 1869. Fruited with M. Bivort, Jodoigne, Bel., in 1848. Tree an extremely good grower, forming a fine pyramidal growth, with young shoots dark, dull, olive-brown, very productive. Fruit large, obtuse-pyriform, greenish-yellow, tinged with red, with nettings and some large patches of russet and with many small russet dots; stem medium, rather stout, inclined, set in a small cavity; calyx open or partially closed, set in an abrupt basin; flesh whitish, buttery, juicy, melting, coarse at core, slightly vinous; good to very good; Nov. to Jan. =William. 1.= _Cultivator_ 175, fig. 8. 1845. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =11=:252. 1845. _William Edwards._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 420. 1845. This seedling pear is said to be a "species of Virgoulouse," and was raised by Governor H. W. Edwards of New Haven, Conn., previous to 1845. Tree very productive. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform, terminating rather abruptly at the stalk, yellow, becoming profusely dotted with red and russet points or dots on the sunny side; flesh yellowish-white, sweet, buttery, not juicy or melting enough for dessert purposes but good for baking; Sept. =William Prince. 1.= Mag. Hort. =17=:472. 1851. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 883. 1869. Other than that this variety was reported from the United States about 1848, nothing of its origin is known. Tree vigorous, upright, productive. Fruit medium, roundish-pyriform, greenish-yellow, shaded with crimson in the sun, covered with many brown dots; stem medium to below; calyx open, set in a shallow basin; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet; good to very good; Sept. and Oct. =Williams Double Bearing. 1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:215. 1832. Raised from a seed of the Saint Germain, in the garden of Mrs. Williams, Salem, Mass. Tree said to bear two crops, the fruit of the first of the size herein mentioned and ripening in early October, that of the second much smaller and ripening from two to four weeks later. Fruit large, resembles its parent but greater in diameter; flesh of fine quality, melting, but not highly flavored. =Williams Early. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =3=:51. 1837. =2.= _Ibid._ =14=:344, fig. 37. 1848. Originated with Aaron Davis Williams on his farm in Roxbury, Mass., probably about 1830. Tree a moderate grower, young shoots brownish red. Fruit medium to below, roundish-pyriform, ending obtusely at the stem, yellow, covered with bright crimson and thickly sprinkled with scarlet dots on the sunny side; stem rather long, stout, slightly fleshy at the base, inserted without any cavity; calyx open, slightly sunken in a furrowed basin; flesh yellowish-white, a little coarse-grained at first, becoming juicy, half buttery, with a slight musky flavor; good; middle of Sept. =Williams d'Hiver. 1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:760, figs. 1869. =2.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =9=:219, fig. 1871. _Williams Winter_. =3.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 380. 1902. Raised by M. Leroy, Angers, Fr., and first fruited in 1862. Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit blunt-pyriform, variable in shape, somewhat bossed, yellow, finely dotted and veined with yellow in basin, with lightish gray about stalk and on face next the sun; stem short, strong, thick, set rather obliquely and often to one side of the axis; calyx medium, half-closed, slightly sunken; flesh white, very fine, very melting, very juicy, sugary, acidulated, with a fine, fresh perfume, Dec. to Feb. =Williams panachée. 1.= _Guide Prat._ 80, 312. 1876. From the name, it is to be supposed that this is merely a striped-leaf variety of Bartlett. =Williamson. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =6=:494. 1851. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 883. 1869. This seedling sprang up in a piece of woodland belonging to Nicholas Williamson on the south side of Long Island. Tree hardy, vigorous, a good bearer. Fruit medium, roundish-obovate to roundish-oblate, obtuse at stem, greenish-yellow, sprinkled with russet dots and considerably russeted at both ends; stem short, stout, set in a medium sized cavity; calyx open, often wanting, set in a deep, rather narrow basin; flesh yellowish-white, rather coarse, half-melting, juicy, sugary, vinous; good to slightly above; Oct. =Wilmington. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 90. 1856. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =12=:111, fig. 1857. This is a seedling of Passe Colmar, raised in 1847 by Dr. Brincklé of Philadelphia, and first fruited in 1855. Tree a moderate grower, late bearer; young wood dull yellowish-brown. Fruit medium, obtuse-pyriform to roundish-ovate, greenish-yellow, netted and patched with russet, thickly sprinkled with russet dots; stem long, curved, inserted obliquely in a small cavity, often by a lip; calyx medium, open, set in a wide, moderately deep basin; flesh whitish green, juicy, buttery, melting, sweet, pleasant, slightly aromatic; good to very good; Sept. =Windsor. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592, fig. 10. 1629. =2.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 204. 1920. _Madame._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ 2:369, fig. 1869. _Summer Bell._ =4.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 571. 1885. According to Leroy this variety originated in Holland, and was published in 1771 under the name _Hallemine Bonne_ by Knoop. In French gardens it received the name _Madame_. In England, Windsor is often called _Cuisse Madame_. A "Windsor," which appears to be identical with the Windsor of Knoop, is described by English writers as early as 1629. Hogg quotes an English writer as saying, "It was raised from seed of the _Cuisse Madame_, by a person of the name of Williamson ..." before 1750. Moreover, it is mentioned in 1592 as being cultivated about Naples, and 1563 in England. What the origin is appears undeterminable. Tree one of the strongest growers, upright, tall, a regular and abundant bearer; shoots remarkably stout, perfectly upright, dark brown. Fruit large, pyriform or bell-shaped, very smooth, greenish becoming pale yellow; stem long, fairly stout, inserted without depression; calyx open, set on level with prominent ribs around; flesh white, tender, buttery, rather coarse-grained, slightly acid, somewhat astringent; rots at the core; Aug. =Winship. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =10=:212. 1844. =2.= _Ibid._ =13=:485, fig. 41. 1847. Originated in the nurseries of the Messrs. Winship, Brighton, Mass., about 1832. Tree vigorous, an early and productive bearer; young wood yellowish-reddish-brown. Fruit medium, oblong-acute-pyriform, greenish-yellow with traces and patches of russet; stem long, rather slender, inserted with no cavity; calyx large, closed, set in a small, corrugated basin; flesh white, rather coarse, not juicy, not melting; poor to fair; Aug. =Winslow. 1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1866. A seedling pear fruited by S. A. Shurtleff, Brookline, Mass., in 1865, and described by him as, "Diam. 2-1/2 inches; color, brown russet; flesh, sweet, juicy, buttery and high flavored; ripens well. Oct. 21. Roundish." =Winter. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 60. 1887. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =3=:74. 1888. _Osimaya_. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 60. 1887. Received by the Iowa Agricultural College in 1879 from R. Shroeder, Moscow, Russia. The tree is said to be hardy and free from blight and the fruit to be large than Bessemianka, quite as good in quality, and in season in central Russia the last days of September. =Winter Jonah. 1.= _N. J. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 214. 1889. =2.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 422. 1903. Tree a medium grower. Fruit medium, roundish, pale yellow with a faint blush on the sunny side, a few small, dark greenish-yellow spots, and many small, gray dots; stem medium, short, set in a very slight depression; calyx large, open, set in a narrow and shallow basin; winter. =Winter Pear. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:75. 1854. Sent to the Fruit Committee of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society in 1854 by Charles Kessler, Reading, Pa. Fruit medium, roundish, yellow, scarcely "good" in quality. =Winter Popperin. 1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 592. 1629. One of two "very good dry firme peares, somewhat spotted, and brownish on the outside." =Winter Rousselet. 1.= Mawe-Abercrombie _Univ. Gard. Bot._ 1778. _Rousselet d'Hiver_. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =2=:593, fig. 1869. An ancient French pear of unknown origin, though it was described by Claude Saint-Étienne in 1670 and by Duhamel in the eighteenth century. Fruit small, turbinate, more or less obtuse, usually somewhat contracted toward the top, and often depressed on one side and mammillate on the other, yellow-green dotted with gray russet and blushed with reddish-brown on the face exposed to the sun; flesh white, semi-breaking, watery, rather granular, juice abundant, saccharine, rarely having much aroma and sometimes acid; second; Feb. and Mar. =Winter Seckel. 1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 562. 1857. Said to have originated near Fredericksburg, Va., and to have been introduced by H. R. Roby. Fruit small, obovate, yellow, with a brownish cheek in sun, patched and netted with russet, and covered with many large and brown dots; stem slender; calyx large, open; flesh white, a little coarse at core, juicy, half-melting. =Winter Sweet Sugar. 1.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =2=:151, Pl. 81. 1823. Tree productive. Fruit turbinate, greenish, juicy, sweet, not very richly flavored; will keep till March. =Winter Williams. 1.= _Garden_ =67=:18. 1905. A cross between Bartlett and Glou Morceau shown before the Royal Horticultural Society in 1905 by Messrs. James Veitch & Sons, England. Fruit said to resemble Glou Morceau in shape; skin yellow; flavor like Bartlett; later than Bartlett. =Winterbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:70. 1856. Reported from northern Germany about 1773. Fruit medium, turbinate, smooth, bright green, dotted with gray; stem long; flesh yellowish, half breaking, sweetish; Dec. to Apr. =Winterliebesbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 301. 1889. _Poire d'Amour d'Hiver._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =6=:15, fig. 392. 1880. This pear is of German origin and bears also the name of _Kirschbirnen_ or _Church Pear_. Fruit small or nearly medium, conic or globular-conic, sometimes short and sometimes long; skin thick, firm, rough, water-green with numerous and conspicuous brown dots; changing to pale yellow covered over a large area of the side next the sun with a vivid currant red on the central part and more brown on the borders; flesh white, coarse, breaking, a little gritty around the core, juice sufficient in quantity and sweet, vinous and musky; good for kitchen purposes and keeps a long time; Oct. and Nov. =Winterrobine. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 500. 1817. =2.= Dochnahl Führ_. Obstkunde_ =2=:111. 1856. Thuringia, Ger., 1799. Fruit fairly large, ventriculous-conic, obtuse; apex inclined, sides unequal, green turning yellow-green, often somewhat blushed, dotted with dark green, speckled with russet; flesh gritty near the center, whitish-yellow, sweet, musky, buttery, melting, aromatic; first for all purposes; Jan. to Mar. =Witte Princesse. 1.= Knoop _Pomologie_ 96, 139, fig. 1771. An old pear, probably of French origin. Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit medium to above, oblong-pyriform, drawn to a point at the stem; whitish-yellow or whitish-green, dotted with pale brown dots and occasionally patched here and there with brown; stem medium to above in length; flesh mellow, gritty, agreeably but not highly flavored; Aug. and Sept. =Wolfsbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:2. 1856. =2.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 104, fig. 1913. A perry pear common to Württemberg from an early date. Tree medium vigorous, large, roundish, a late but good bearer. Fruit medium, roundish, yellow, covered with russet dots, devoid of red; calyx large, open; stem very long, set obliquely without depression; flesh yellowish-white, firm, acid; Oct. =Woodbridge Seckel. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 121. 1860. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 885. 1869. In 1860 a Mr. Woodbridge, Detroit, Mich., exhibited a seedling known as No. 2 before the Fruit Committee of the American Pomological Society. This seedling was subsequently named Woodbridge Seckel. Tree moderately vigorous. Fruit small, pyriform, pale yellow, shaded and marbled with crimson in the sun, thickly sprinkled with brown and crimson dots; stem long, slender; calyx open; flesh yellowish, juicy, melting, sweet, vinous; very good, but rapidly decays at the core; Sept. =Woodstock. 1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 201. 1856. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 416. 1859. Said to have originated at Woodstock, Vt., and first reported about 1856. Tree a moderate grower, very productive; young wood olive-brown. Fruit medium to below, roundish-obtuse to obovate-pyriform, pale yellow, netted and patched, and thickly sprinkled with russet dots; stem long, rather slender, inserted in a small cavity, often by a lip; calyx large, open, placed in a rather deep, abrupt basin; lobes long, slender, persistent; flesh white, juicy, melting, sweet, pleasant, slightly musky; good to very good; Sept. =Worden Meadow. 1.= _Cultivator_ N. S. =2=:340. 1845. Schuyler Worden, who originated the Worden grape, stated in 1845 that he had raised this pear in Oswego, N. Y., from grafts given him by an old countryman. Tree vigorous, productive. Fruit medium to large, shape variable and surface uneven; skin yellow at maturity; flesh fine-grained, melting, juicy, sweet, with a musky flavor; ripens about the middle of Sept. =Wörlesbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:194. 1856. A perry pear reported from Württemberg about 1830. Tree not vigorous, large, long-lived, very productive. Fruit small, oval or pyriform, solid bright green, turning lemon-yellow, numerously dotted with gray, somewhat flecked with russet; calyx in a slight depression; flesh juicy, acid, bitter. =Wormsley Grange. 1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 187. 1832. This is a variety which is said to have been sent to the Hon. John Lowell by Mr. Knight with the remarks that it requires to be gathered before it is quite ripe and that it is a variety of first-rate excellence in Herefordshire, Eng. In 1842 it was listed as having been removed from the gardens of the London Horticultural Society because of inferior merit. =Wurzer. 1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit_. 114. 1825. _Wurzer d'Automne._ =2.= _Mag. Hort_. =16=:296. 1850. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 240. 1854. Reported from Belgium about 1821. Tree vigorous, leafy, thorny. Fruit rather large, pyriform, solid green, becoming covered with russet, heavily dotted with reddish-brown; calyx small, set in a shallow basin; stem medium long, fleshy, set in a rather deep cavity; flesh pithy, sweet, vinous; Nov. =Yat. 1.= Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard_. 351. 1831. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom_. =2=:762, fig. 1869. _Gute Graue._ =3.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 124. 1825. _Beurré Gris d'Été de Hollande._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =2=:85, fig. 41. 1866-73. _Beurré Gris d'Été._ =5.= _Guide Prat._ 70, 245. 1876. This pear is said to have been brought to England from Holland about 1770 by Thomas Harvey. It is not to be confused with the Grise-Bonne. Tree large, vigorous, hardy, very productive. Fruit variable, small to above medium, obovate-pyriform to oblong-turbinate, green, thickly covered with russet, sprinkled with numerous gray specks, sometimes colored brownish-red when exposed to the sun; calyx small, open, set in a shallow basin; stem rather long, slender, obliquely inserted without depression and often by a fleshy protuberance; flesh white, tender, melting, juicy with a rich, sugary and highly perfumed flavor; rated as of little value by Downing, of first quality by Mas, as highly estimable by the Germans, and as an excellent early pear by Hogg; Aug. and Sept. =Yellow Huff-cap. 1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 669. 1884. A Herefordshire perry pear. Fruit quite small, obovate or turbinate, entirely covered with rough brown russet, and with only portions of the ground color showing through in specks; calyx small, open, with short horny segments, set even with the surface; stem rather long, inserted without depression; flesh yellowish, with a greenish tinge. =Youngken Winter Seckel.= According to correspondence this pear was raised from seed of Seckel by David Youngken, Richlandtown, Pa., about 1868. The tree is reported as being upright and prolific, and the fruit as keeping through the winter. =Zache. 1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =177=:39. 1899. =2.= _Ibid._ =187=:75. 1901. A Chinese sand pear, of value only as a novelty, grown at the South Haven Substation of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station in 1894. Tree a fine, strong grower with large, thick, glossy leaves. Fruit roundish oblate, resembling an apple in appearance, orange with many light yellowish dots and specks; flesh coarse, crisp; poor; winter. =Zapfenbirn. 1.= Christ _Handb._ 559. 1817. Tree large, very productive. Fruit long-acute-pyriform, yellow, finely dotted; flesh breaking, not juicy, musky; used for drying and for cooking; early winter. =Zarskaja. 1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1880. Reported by J. L. Budd to be a Russian variety which has gritty thorn-like wood and which therefore does not unite well when grafted upon apple stock. =Zénon. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 302. 1884. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 62. 1895. Of European origin, first reported in 1884. Tree moderately vigorous, producing excellent fruit upon quince stock. Fruit medium, of the form of White Doyenné; flesh very fine, juicy, sweet, agreeable, slightly aromatic, granular near the core; first; end of autumn. =Zéphirin Grégoire. 1.= _Horticulturist_ =9=:78, fig. 1854. =2.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =3=:79, fig. 1855. =3.= Bunyard _Handb. Hardy Fr._ 205. 1920. M. Grégoire, pomologist, Jodoigne, Bel., raised this variety supposedly from seeds of Passe Colmar about 1831. Tree pyramidal, vigorous, very productive, succeeds best upon pear stock; young wood smooth, light olive-yellow-brown. Fruit medium to above, roundish-obovate, pale greenish-yellow, becoming uniform pale waxen-yellow, covered with patches of russet and many green and gray dots, often reddish in the sun; stem medium in length, fleshy, very fleshy at insertion, set obliquely without depression; calyx small, open, set in a slight depression; lobes long; flesh yellowish-white, buttery, melting, juicy, rich, sugary, vinous, highly aromatic; good to very good; Nov. to Feb. =Zéphirin Louis. 1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:95, fig. 1856. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 886. 1869. This pear was raised by M. Xavier Grégoire, Jodoigne, Bel. It was first reported in 1849. Tree a moderately healthy grower, rather scraggly, moderately productive. Fruit medium or below, roundish, slightly obovate, greenish-yellow, rusty-red becoming bright vermilion in the sun, thickly sprinkled with large dark brown-russet patches and dots; stem very short, inserted in a small round cavity; calyx small, open, set in a deep basin; flesh yellowish-white, tinged with green, coarse-grained, crisp, rather half melting, juicy, sweet, slightly aromatic; good; Dec. and Jan. =Zieregger Mostbirne. 1.= Löschnig _Mostbirnen_ 146, fig. 1913. A perry pear which is said to have sprung from seed in Styria. Tree medium, roundish, a rather late and rather light bearer. Fruit roundish-oblate, medium in size, similar to Rummelter Birne but smaller, greenish-yellow, finely dotted, russeted; stem short, thick, brown; calyx half open to open, with erect lobes; flesh granular, whitish-green, not especially juicy, rich in sugar; Oct. =Zimmtfarbige Schmalzbirne. 1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:58. 1856. Middle Germany; first published in 1826. Fruit rather large, pyramidal, often obtuse, slightly ribbed; skin rough, entirely covered with light cinnamon russet, without dots; flesh granular and pulpy, sweet; third for dessert, very good for household use; Oct. =Zink Pfalzgrafenbirne. 1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 302. 1889. _Weisse Pfalzgrafenbirne._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =2=:49. 1856. Reported from Germany about 1766. Tree a late but productive bearer. Fruit medium, bulging pyriform, irregular, greenish-yellow, becoming lemon yellow, often blushed, dotted with yellow, later dotted with brown and green; stem thick, fleshy, rather long; calyx open; lobes long; flesh sweet, perfumed; fair; early Sept. =Zoar Beauty. 1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:110. 1847. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 347, fig. 1854. _Belle de Zoar._ 3. _Guide Prat._ 112, 234. 1876. Originated at Zoar, Ohio. Tree vigorous, an early and abundant bearer; shoots dark brown. Fruit medium or below, acute-pyriform, light yellow, thickly dotted with minute green dots, beautiful crimson or carmine in the sun with deep red dots; stem long, curved, slender, fleshy at insertion, often by a ring or lip, in a small cavity; calyx large for size of fruit, open; lobes erect or recurved; flesh white, granular, half breaking, moderately juicy, sweet, aromatic; good; early Aug. =Zoé. 1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ 72. 1883. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 101. 1895. A foreign sort, probably French. Tree very vigorous, thrifty. Fruit very large, oblong, deep green; flesh tender, melting, sweet; Dec. and Jan. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES, WITH ABBREVIATIONS USED The list of books which follows contains all American pomological works in which the pear is discussed at any length. Only such European books are listed, however, as were found useful in writing _The Pears of New York_. Only periodicals are listed to which references are made in the text of the book. The reports and bulletins of experiment stations and horticultural societies are not included since the abbreviations used for such publications will be recognized by all. The date of copyright has been preferred to that of publication, though sometimes it has been necessary to use the latter, as when there were several editions from the same copyright. Aepfel u. Birnen Aepfel und Birnen. Die wichtigsten deutschen Kernobstsorten. Herausgegeben im engen Anschlusse an die "Statistik der deutschen Kernobstsorten" von R. Goethe, H. Degenkolb und R. Mertens und unter der Leitung der Obstund Weinbau-Abteilung der Deutschen Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft. (_Illustrirt._) Berlin: 1894. Am. Gard American Gardening. An Illustrated Journal of Horticulture and Gardener's Chronicle. New York: 1892-1904. Copyright, 1903. (Before its union with Popular Gardening in 1892, the publication was known as The American Garden. Both Popular Gardening and The American Garden resulted from the union or absorption of several other horticultural periodicals.) Am. Gard. Mag. The American Gardener's Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs. See Mag. Hort. Am. Hort. An. American Horticultural Annual. A Year-book of Horticultural Progress for the Professional and Amateur Gardener, Fruit-grower, and Florist. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1867. Copyright, 1867. New edition. New York: 1870. Copyright, 1869. Am. Jour. Hort. The American Journal of Horticulture and Florist's Companion. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 1-5. Boston: 1867-1869. Copyrights, 1867-1869. Continued as Tilton's Journal of Horticulture and Floral Magazine. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 6-9. Boston: 1869-71. Copyrights, 1869-1871. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. Proceedings of the American Pomological Society. Issued usually biennially from 1850 to date. First published as the Proceedings of the National Convention of Fruit Growers in 1848. Ann. Hort. Annal of Horticulture and yearbook of information on practical gardening. 5 Volumes. London: 1846-1850. Ann. Pom. Belge Annales de Pomologie Belge et Étrangère; publiées par la Commission royale de Pomologie Instituée par S. M. le Roi des Belges. (_Illustré._) Huit Tomes. Bruxelles: 1853-1860. Bailey, Ann. Hort. Annals of Horticulture in North America for the Years 1889-1893. A Witness of Passing Events and a Record of Progress. By L. H. Bailey. New York: 1890-1894. Copyrights, 1889, 1891-1894. Baltet, Cult. Fr. Traité de la Culture Fruitière Commerciale et Bourgeoise. Par Charles Baltet. (_Illustré._) Quatrième Édition. Paris: 1908. Barry, Fr. Garden The Fruit Garden. By P. Barry. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1852. Copyright, 1851. Revised Edition, 1896. Copyright, 1883. Black, Cult. Peach & Pear The Cultivation of the Peach and the Pear, on the Delaware And Chesapeake Peninsula; with a Chapter on Quince Culture and the Culture of Some of the Nut-Bearing Trees. By John S. Black, M. D. (_Illustrated._) Wilmington: 1886. Copyright, 1886. Bradley, Gard. New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, both Philosophical and Practical. In three parts. By Richard Bradley. (_Illustrated._) Seventh Edition with Appendix. London: 1739. Bridgeman, Gard. Ass't. The Young Gardener's Assistant, in three parts. By Thomas Bridgeman. New Edition, with an Appendix. New York: 1857. Copyright, 1847. Brookshaw, Hort. Reposit. The Horticultural Repository, containing Delineations of the best Varieties of the Different Species of English Fruits. By George Brookshaw. (_Illustrated._) In Two Volumes. London: 1823. Brookshaw, Pom. Brit. Pomona Britannica, or A Collection of the Most Esteemed Fruits at present Cultivated In Great Britain; selected principally from the Royal Gardens At Hampton Court, and the remainder from The Most Celebrated Gardens Round London; Accurately Drawn and Colored from Nature, with Full Descriptions of their Various Qualities, Seasons, &c. By George Brookshaw. Volumes I and II. London: 1817. Vol. II. The Pear. Budd-Hansen, Am. Hort. Man. American Horticultural Manual. By J. L. Budd, assisted by N. E. Hansen. (_Illustrated._) In Two Volumes. Volume 2, New York and London: 1903. Copyright, 1903. Bunyard, Handb. Hardy Fr. A Handbook of Hardy Fruits more commonly grown in Great Britain. Apples and Pears. By Edward A. Bunyard. London: 1920. Bunyard-Thomas, Fr. Gard. The Fruit Garden. By George Bunyard and Owen Thomas. (_Illustrated._) London and New York: 1904. Can. Hort. The Canadian Horticulturist. (_Illustrated._) Toronto and Peterboro: 1878 to date. Cat. Cong. Pom. France Société Pomologique de France Catalogue Descriptif des Fruits Adoptés par le Congrès Pomologique. Lyon: 1887. Ibid.: 1906. Cecil, Hist. Gard. Eng. A History Of Gardening In England. By the Hon. Mrs. Evelyn Cecil. Third and enlarged edition. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1910. Christ, Handb. Handbuch über die Obstbaumzucht und Obstlehre. Von J. L. Christ. Vierte, sehr verbesserte und vermehrte Auflage. Frankfurt: 1817. Cole, Am. Fr. Book The American Fruit Book; containing directions for Raising, Propagating, and Managing Fruit Trees, Shrubs and Plants; with a description of the Best Varieties of Fruit, including New and Valuable Kinds. By S. W. Cole. (_Illustrated._) Boston: 1849. Copyright, 1849. Country Gent. The Country Gentleman. Albany: 1853-1865. The Cultivator & Country Gentleman. Albany: 1866-1897. The Country Gentleman. Albany and Philadelphia: 1898 to date. Coxe, Cult. Fr. Trees A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees, and the Management of Orchards and Cider; with accurate descriptions of the most estimable varieties of Native and Foreign Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums and Cherries, cultivated in the middle states of America. By William Coxe. (_Illustrated._) Philadelphia: 1817. Copyright, 1817. Cultivator The Cultivator. Albany: 1834-1865. In 1866 united with The Country Gentleman. Cult. & Count. Gent. The Cultivator & Country Gentleman. See Country Gent. De Candolle, Or. Cult. Plants Origin of Cultivated Plants. By Alphonse de Candolle. Geneva [Switzerland]: 1882. New York: 1885. Decaisne & Naudin, Man. Amat. Jard Manuel de L'Amateur Des Jardins Traité Général D'Horticulture. Par Jh. Decaisne et CH. Naudin. (_Illustré._) Quatre Tomes. Paris. Vol. 4. Pears. Deut. Obstsorten Deutschland's Obstsorten bearbeitet von Müller-Diemitz, Grau-Körbelitz, Bissmann-Gotha unter Mitwirkung hervorragender Fachmänner. Sechs Bände; Hefte 1-18. Stuttgart: 1905-10. Dochnahl, Führ. Obstkunde Der sichere Führer in der Obstkunde auf botanisch-pomologischen Wege oder Systematische Breschreibung aller Obstsorten. Von F. J. Dochnahl. Vier Bände. Nürnberg: 1855-60. Vol. 2, 1856. Pears. Downing, Fr. Trees Am. The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America: or the culture, propagation, and management, in the garden and orchard, of fruit trees generally; with Descriptions Of All The Finest Varieties Of Fruit, Native and Foreign, Cultivated In This Country. By A. J. Downing. (_Illustrated._) New York & London: 1845. Copyright, 1845. Second edition, same text, with colored plates, 1847. First revision, by Charles Downing. New York: 1857. Copyright, 1857. Second revision by Charles Downing. New York: 1869. First appendix, 1872. Second appendix, 1876. Third appendix, 1881. Downing, Selected Fr. Selected Fruits: from Downing's Fruits And Fruit-Trees of America. With Some New Varieties: including Their Culture, Propagation, and Management in the Garden and Orchard. By Charles Downing. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1872. Copyright, 1871. Duhamel, Trait. Arb. Fr. Traité Des Arbes Fruitiers; Contenant Leur Figure, Leur Description, Leur Culture, &c. Par M. Duhamel Du Monceau. (_Illustré._) Tomes I et II. Paris: 1768. Édition publié en 1872, en trois tomes. Nouvelle Édition en six tomes, 1807-1835. Elliott, Fr. Book Elliott's Fruit Book; or, the American Fruit-Grower's Guide in Orchard and Garden. By F. R. Elliott. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1858. Copyright, 1854. Revised edition, 1859. Field, Pear Cult. Pear Culture. A Manual for the Propagation, Planting, Cultivation, and Management of The Pear Tree. By Thos. W. Field. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1859. Copyright, 1858. Flor. & Pom. The Florist And Pomologist: A Pictorial Monthly Magazine of Flowers, Fruits, and General Horticulture. Conducted at first by Robert Hogg and John Spencer, later by Thomas Moore and William Paul. (_Illustrated._) London: 1862-1884. Forsyth, Treat. Fr. Trees. A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees. By William Forsyth. London: 1802. Same with an Introduction and Notes, by William Corbett. Albany: 1803. Seventh edition [English] London: 1824. Gard. Chron. The Gardener's Chronicle. (_Illustrated._) London: 1841 to date. Gard. & For. Garden And Forest. A Journal of Horticulture, Landscape Art and Forestry. Conducted by Charles S. Sargent. (_Illustrated._) Volumes I-X. New York: 1888-1897. Copyrights, 1888-1897. Gard. Mon. The Gardener's Monthly and Horticultural Advertiser. Edited by Thomas Meehan. (_Illustrated._) Philadelphia: 1859-1887. Garden The Garden. (_Illustrated._) London: 1872 to date. Gaucher, Pom. Prak. Obst. Pomologie des Praktischen Obstbaumzüchters. Von N. Gaucher. (_Illustrirt._) Stuttgart: 1894. Gen. Farmer The Genesee Farmer. Edited by Luther Tucker, Rochester: 1831-1839. Then consolidated with the Cultivator. Another periodical of the same name was published in Rochester from 1845 to 1865. Also New Genesee Farmer and Monthly Genesee Farmer. Gerarde, Herball The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes. By John Gerarde. Enlarged and amended by Thomas Johnson. London: 1633. Reprinted without alteration, 1636. Guide Prat. Guide Pratique de L'Amateur De Fruits. Description Et Culture Des Variétés De Fruits classées par séries de mérite Composant Les Collections Pomologiques De L'Etablissement Horticole des Frères Simon-Louis. A Plantières-Les-Metz (Lorraine Annexée) Suivi D'Une Table Générale Alphabétique de Tous Les Synonymes Connus, Français et Étrangers, appartenent à chaque variété. Par O. Thomas. Nancy: 1876. Deuxième Édition. Paris et Nancy: 1895. Hoffy, N. Am. Pom. Hoffy's North American Pomologist, containing numerous Finely Colored Drawings, accompanied by letter press descriptions, &c., of Fruits of American Origin. Edited by William D. Brincklé. Book No. 1. Philadelphia: 1860. Copyright, 1860. Hoffy, Orch. Com. The Orchardist's Companion. Alfred Hoffy, Editor and Publisher. A quarterly journal. Vol. I, 1841-2; Vol. II, 1842-3. Philadelphia. Hogg, Fruit Man. The Fruit Manual: A Guide to the Fruits and Fruit Trees of Great Britain. By Robert Hogg. First edition, London: 1860. Second edition, 1861. Third edition, 1866. Fourth edition, 1873. Fifth edition, 1884. Hort. Reg. (Am.) Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine. Edited by T. G. Fessenden and J. E. Teschemacher. Volume I. Boston: 1835. Hort. Reg. (Eng.) The Horticultural Register and General Magazine. By Joseph Paxton and Joseph Harrison. Vol. I. London: 1833. Horticulturist The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste. Founded and first edited by A. J. Downing. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 1 to 30. Albany, Philadelphia and New York: 1846-1875. Hovey, Fr. Am. The Fruits of America, containing Richly Colored Figures, and full Descriptions of all the choicest Varieties cultivated in the United States. By C. M. Hovey. Volume I. Boston and New York: 1852. Volume II. Boston: 1856. Copyright, 1851. Jour. Hort. The Journal of Horticulture: Began as The Cottage Gardener; or Amateur's and Cottager's Guide to out-door gardening and spade cultivation. 25 Volumes. London: 1849-1861. Continued as The Journal of Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Country Gentleman. A Journal of Horticulture, Rural and Domestic Economy, Botany and Natural History. New Series. 38 Volumes. London: 1861-1880. Continued as The Journal of Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Home Farmer. A Chronicle of Country Pursuits and Country Life, including Poultry, Pigeon, and Bee-keeping. Third Series. 59 Volumes. London: 1880-1909. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. The Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. London: 1846 to date. Vols. 1-9, 1846-55, bear the title of The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Kenrick, Am. Orch. The New American Orchardist. By William Kenrick. Boston: 1833. Copyright, 1832. Second edition. Boston: 1835. Copyright, 1835. Seventh edition, enlarged and improved, with a supplement. Boston: 1845. Copyright, 1841. Knoop, Fructologie Part I. Pomologie, ou Description des meilleures sortes de Pommes et de Poires. Part II. Fructologie, ou Description des Arbres Fruitiers. Par Jean Herman Knoop. (_Illustré._) Amsterdam: 1771. Koch, Deut. Obst. Die Deutschen Obstgehölze. Vorlesungen gehalten zu Berlin im Winterhalbjahr 1875-76. Von Karl Koch. Stuttgart: 1876. Kraft, Pom. Aust. Pomona austriaca, Abhandlung von den obstbäumen worinn ihre gestalt, erziehung und pflege angezeigt und beschrieben wird. Von Johann Kraft. Zwei Theile. Vienna: 1792. Langley, Pomona Pomona, or the Fruit Garden Illustrated. By Batty Langley. London: 1729. Lauche, Deut. Pom. Deutsche Pomologie. Chromolithographische Abbildung, Beschreibung und Kulturanweisung der empfehlenswerthesten Sorten Aepfel, Birnen, Kirschen, Pflaumen, Aprikosen, Pfirsche und Weintrauben. Nach den Ermittelungen des Deutschen Pomologen-Vereins herausgegeben von W. Lauche. (_Illustrirt._) Bände I-VII. Berlin: 1882-3. Vol. II. Pears. Le Bon Jard. Le Bon Jardinier. 126^e Édition Almanach Horticole, 1882 et 129^e Édition, 1884. Paris. Leroy, Dict. Pom. Dictionnaire de Pomologie. Par André Leroy. (_Illustré._) Six Tomes. Paris: 1867-1879. Vols. 1 & 2. Pears. Liegel, Syst. Anleit. Systematische Anleitung zur Kenntniss der vorzüglichsten Sorten des Kern-, Stein-, Schalen- und Beerenobster. Von Georg Liegel. Passau: 1825. Lindley, Guide Orch. Gard. A Guide to the Orchard And Kitchen Garden; or, an account of the most valuable fruit and vegetables cultivated In Great Britain: with Kalendars of the Work Required in the Orchard and Kitchen Garden during every month in the year. By George Lindley. Edited by John Lindley. London: 1831. Lindley, Pom. Brit. Pomologia Britannica; or, Figures and Descriptions of the most important Varieties of Fruit cultivated in Great Britain. By John Lindley. Three Volumes. London: 1841. Vol. 2. Pears. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. A Catalogue of the Fruits Cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society of London. London: 1826. Second edition, 1831. Third edition, 1842. A supplement was published in 1853. Loudon, Enc. Gard. An Encyclopedia Of Gardening. By J. C. Loudon. (_Illustrated._) New edition. London: 1834. Lucas, Handb. Obst. Vollständiges Handbuch der Obstkultur. Von Ed. Lucas. (_Illustrirt._) Stuttgart: First edition, 1880; second edition, 1886; third edition, 1893. Third edition edited by Fr. Lucas, 1894. McIntosh, Bk. Gard. The Book of the Garden. By Charles McIntosh. (_Illustrated._) Two Volumes. London: 1853-5. McMahon, Am. Gard. Cal. The American Gardener's Calendar. By Bernard McMahon. Philadelphia: 1806. Mag. Hort. The Magazine of Horticulture. Boston: 1837-1868. First published as The American Gardener's Magazine, 1835-6. Edited by C. M. Hovey with P. B. Hovey, Jr., associate editor during 1835-6. Manning, Book of Fruits Book of Fruits. By Robert Manning. (_Illustrated._) Salem: 1838. Copyright, 1838. Mas, Le Verger Le Verger ou Histoire, Culture Et Description avec planches coloriées Des Variétés De Fruits Les Plus Généralement Connues. Par M. Mas. Huit Tomes. Paris: 1866-73. Vols. 1-3. Pears. Mas, Pom. Gen. Pomologie Générale. Par M. Mas. (_Illustré._) Douze Tomes. Paris: 1872-83. Vols. 1 & 3-7. Pears. Mathieu, Nom. Pom. Nomenclator Pomologicus. Von Carl Mathieu. Berlin: 1889. Mawe-Abercrombie, Com. Gard. The Complete Gardener. By Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie. London: 1829. Miller, Gard. Dict. The Gardener's Dictionary. By Philip Miller. Sixth edition. London: 1752. Revised edition. By Thomas Martyn. London: 1807. Nat. Nur. The National Nurseryman. Published by The National Nurseryman Publishing Co. (_Illustrated._) Rochester: 1893 to date. Noisette, Man. Comp. Jard. Manuel Complet du Jardinier; Maraicher, Pépiniériste, Botaniste, Fleuriste et Paysagiste. Par M. Louis Noisette. Quatre Tomes. Paris: 1860. Vol. 2. Pears. Oberdieck, Obst-Sort. Deutschlands beste Obst-Sorten. Von F. G. C. Oberdieck. Leipzig: 1881. Parkinson, Par. Ter. Paradisi in Sole. Paradisus Terrestris. By John Parkinson. (_Illustrated._) London: 1629. Phillips, Com. Orch. The Companion for the Orchard. An Historical And Botanical Account of Fruits Known In Great Britain. By Henry Phillips. New Edition. London: 1831. Pom. France Pomologie De La France ou Histoire Et Description de tous Les Fruits Cultivés En France Et Admis Par Le Congrès Pomologique. (_Illustré._) Tomes I-VIII. Lyon: 1863-1873. Vols. 1-4. Pears. Pom. Mag. The Pomological Magazine; or, Figures And Descriptions of the Most Important Varieties Of Fruit cultivated in Great Britain. Three Volumes. London: 1828-30. This work has also been published under the title Pomona Brittanica. Popular Gard. Popular Gardening. An Illustrated periodical devoted to Horticulture in all its branches. Volume I. Buffalo: 1886. Continued as Popular Gardening and Fruit Growing. Volumes II-IV. Buffalo: 1887-1891. Consolidated with The American Garden and continued as American Gardening. New York: 1892-1904. Prince, Cat. Fr. Trees Catalogue of Fruit And Ornamental Trees & Plants, Bulbous Flower Roots, Green-House Plants, &c. &c. Cultivated at the Linnæan Botanic Garden, William Prince, Prop. Twenty-second edition. New York: 1823. Prince, Pom. Man. The Pomological Manual: or, A Treatise on Fruits. By William Robert Prince, aided by William Prince. Second Edition. Part I. New York: 1832. Copyright, 1831. Part II. New York: 1832. Copyright, 1832. Prince, Treat. Hort. A Short Treatise on Horticulture. By William Prince. New York: 1828. Copyright, 1828. Prince, Treat. Trees & Plants A Treatise on Fruit and Ornamental Trees And Plants, cultivated at the Linnæan Botanic Garden, Flushing, Long Island, near New-York. By William Prince. New York: 1820. Ragan, Nom. Pear. B. P. I. Bul. Nomenclature of the Pear; A Catalogue-Index of the Known Varieties Referred to in American Publications from 1804 to 1907. Complied by W. H. Ragan. Issued as U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Pl. Ind. Bul. 126: 1908. Rea, Flora Flora: Seu, De Florum Cultura; or A Complete Florilege. By John Rea. 3 Books. London: 1676. Book 3. Pears. Rev. Hort. Revue Horticole. Journal D'Horticulture Pratique (_Illustré._) Paris: 1829 to date. Rural N. Y. The Rural New-Yorker. A Journal for the Suburban and Country Home. (_Illustrated._) Rochester and New York: 1850 to date. Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom. Société Nationale D'Horticulture De France. Section Pomologique. Les Meilleurs Fruits au début du XX^e siècle. (_Illustré._) Paris: 1904. Thacher, Am. Orch. The American Orchardist. By James Thacher. Boston: 1822. Copyright, 1822. Thomas, Am. Fruit Cult. The American Fruit Culturist. By John J. Thomas. (_Illustrated._) First Edition. Geneva and Auburn, N. Y.: 1846. Copyright, 1846. Revised Edition. Auburn, N. Y.: 1851. Copyright, 1849. Revised Edition. New York: 1869. Copyright, 1867. Revised Edition. New York: 1885. Copyright, 1875-1885. Twentieth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. New York: 1897. Copyright, 1897; Twenty-first Edition, Revised and Enlarged. New York: 1911. Copyright, 1903. Thompson, Gard. Ass't. The Gardener's Assistant; Practical and Scientific. By Robert Thompson. (_Illustrated._) Two Volumes. London: 1859. Same, revised by William Watson. Six Volumes. London: 1901. Tilton, Jour. Hort. Tilton's Journal of Horticulture and Floral Magazine. See Am. Jour. Hort. Trans. Lond. Hort. Soc. Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London. Volume I. London: 1815. Volume II. London: 1817. Volume III. London: 1820. Volume IV. London: 1822. Volume V. London: 1824. Volume VI. London: 1826. U. S. D. A. Rpt. Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1862-1894. U. S. D. A. Yearbook Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1894 to date. U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt. Reports of the Agricultural section of the United States Patent Office: 1837 to 1861. Wickson, Cal. Fruits The California Fruits and How To Grow Them. By Edward J. Wickson. (_Illustrated._) Second Edition. San Francisco: 1891. Copyright, 1889. Fourth Edition. Los Angeles: 1909. Copyright, 1908. Seventh Edition. San Francisco: 1914. Copyright, 1914. Willich, Dom. Enc. Domestic Encyclopedia or a Dictionary of Facts. By A. F. M. Willich. First American edition with additions by James Mease. In five volumes. Volume 4. Philadelphia: 1803. Wilson, Nat. W. China A Naturalist In Western China with Vasculum, Camera, and Gun. Being some account of Eleven Years' Travel, Exploration, and Observation in the More Remote Parts of the Flowery Kingdom. By Ernest Henry Wilson. Two Volumes. New York: 1913. INDEX _Á Gobert_ (syn. of Angobert), 248 A. J. Cook, 236 Aarer Pfundbirne, 236 Abbé Fétel, 236 Abbé Pérez, 236 Abbott, 236 Abbott, Mrs. T., orig. of Abbott, 236 Abdon Birne, 236 Abele de St. Denis, 236 Abercromby, 236 Achalzig, 237 Achan, 237 Acidaline, 237 Acme, 237 Adams, 237 Adams, Dr. H., orig. of Adams, 237 _Adanson Apothekerbirne_(syn. of Aglaë Adanson), 239 Adélaïde de Rèves, 237 _Adèle_ (syn. of Adèle de Saint-Denis), 237 Adèle Lancelot, 237 Adèle de Saint-Denis, 237 Admirable, 238 _Admiral Cécile_ (syn. of Amiral Cécile), 245 Admiral Farragut, 238 Admiral Foote, 238 Adolphe Cachet, 238 Adolphe Fouquet, 238 Adolphine Richard, 238 Aehrenthal, 238 _Agathe de Lescours_ (syn. of Agathe de Lescourt), 238 Agathe de Lescourt, 238 Aglaë Adanson, 239 Aglaë Grégoire, 239 Agnès 239 Agricola, 239 Agua de Valence, 250 Ah-Mon-Dieu, 239 Aigue, 239 Aiken, 239 Aime Ogereau, 240 Aimée Adam, 240 Akatsupo, 240 Alamo, 240 Albertine, 240 Alcinöus, pear in garden of, 4 Alexander, 240 Alexander Lucas, 240 Alexandre Bivort, 240 Alexandre Chomer, 241 Alexandre de la Herche, 241 Alexandre Lambré, 241 Alexandre de Russie, 241 Alexandrina, 241 Alexandrine Douillard, 241 _Alexandrine Hélie_ (syn. of Belle Julie), 265 Alexandrine Mas, 241 Alexiens Bros., orig. of Pius X, 500 Alfred de Madre, 242 Alice Payne, 242 Allerton, 242 Alliance franco-russe, 242 Alouette, 242 Alpha, 242 Alphonse Allegatière, 242 Alphonse Karr, 242 Amadotte, 243 Amande Double, 243 Amandine, 243 Ambrette, 243 Ambrette d'Été, 243 _Ambrette d'Hiver_ (syn. of Ambrette), 243 Ambrosia, 244 Amédée Leclerc, 244 Amelanchier, relationship of, to pear, 57 Amélie Leclerc, 244 America, 244 America, arrival of pear in, 40; climate of, uncongenial to pears, 38; importation of European pear varieties into, 52; pear in, 37 American pear culture, influence of Oriental pears on, 55 American pear districts, 38 Amie Verdier, 244 Amiral, 244 Amiral Cécile, 245 Amiré Joannet, 245 Amlisberger Mostbirne, 245 _Amoselle panachée_ (syn. of Bergamote de Hollande Panachée), 269 Amour, 245 Amstettner Mostbirne, 245 Ananas, 245 Ananas de Courtrai, 245 _Ananas de Courtray_ (syn. of Ananas de Courtrai), 245 Ananas d'Été, 246 _Andenken an den Congress_ (syn. of Souvenir du Congrès), 218 Andouille, 246 André Desportes, 122 Andrew Murray, 246 Andrews, 246 Ange, 246 Angel, 246 Angeline, 246 Angélique de Bordeaux, 247 Angélique Cuvier, 247 Angélique Leclerc, 247 Angélique de Rome, 247 Angers, Horticultural Society of, orig. of Cassante du Comice, 329; Colmar d'Automne Nouveau, 342; Dhommée, 359; Gros Lucas, 404; Sucrée du Comice, 555 _Angleterre_ (syn. of Beurré d'Angleterre), 284 Angleterre d'Hiver, 247 Angleterre Nain, 247 Angobert, 248 Angoisse, 248 Angora, 248 Angoucha, 248 _Angouleme_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Angoulême), 154 _Anjou_ (syn. of Beurre d'Anjou), 127 _Anna Audisson_ (syn. Anna Audusson), 249 Anna Audusson, 249 Anna Nelis, 249 Anne de Bretagne, 249 _Anne of Brittany_ (syn. of Anne de Bretagne), 249 Ansault, 123 Anthoine, Dieudonné, orig. of Dieudonné Anthoine, 359 Anthony Thacher, 249 Antoine, 249 Antoine Delfosse, 249 Antoinette, 249 Anversoise, 250 Apfelblättrige Azerolbirne, 250 Apothekerbirne, 250 Apple, 250 Apple Pear, 250 Apples, relationship to pears, 58 Appoline, 250 Aqueuse d'Esclavonie, 250 Aqueuse de Meiningen, 251 Arabella, 251 Arbre Courbé, 251 Arcedeckene, Andrew, orig. of Suffolk Thorn, 556 Archduke of Austria, 251 Archiduc Charles, 251 Archiduc d'Été, 251 Archiduc Jean d'Autriche, 251 Archiduchesse d'Autriche, 251 Arendt Dechantsbirne, 252 Argent, 252 Argusbirne, 252 Arkansas, 252 _Arkansas Mammoth_ (syn. of Arkansas), 252 Arlequin Musqué, 252 Arlingham Squash, 252 Armand Prévost, 253 Arménie, 253 Arnold, 253 Arnold & Frazier, orig. of Arnold, 253 Arthur Bivort, 253 Arthur Chevreau, 253 Arundell, 253 Aspasie Aucourt, 253 _Aspidiotus perniciosus_ on pear, 117 Aston Town, 254 Audibert, 254 Audusson, Alexis, orig. of Lucie Audusson, 453 Audusson, Anne-Pierre, orig. of Beurré Audusson, 284 Augier, 254 Augustbirne, 254 Auguste de Boulogne, 254 Auguste Droche, 254 Auguste Jurie, 254 Auguste von Krause, 254 Auguste Miguard, 255 Auguste Royer, 255 Augustine, 255 Augustine Lelieur, 255 Augustus Dana, 255 Aurate, 255 Auray, 255 Autocrat, 256 Autumn Bergamot, parent of Gansel Bergamot, 391 Autumn Bergamot (English), 256 Autumn Colmar, 256 Autumn Joséphine, 256 Autumn Nelis, 256 Avocat Allard, 257 Avocat Nélis, 257 Avocat Tonnelier, 257 Ayer, 257 Ayer, O. H., orig. of Ayer, 257; Douglas, 150 Aylton Red, 257 Azerole, 257 _B. S. Fox_ (syn. of Fox), 168 Bachelier, Louis-François, orig. of Beurré Bachelier, 285 _Bacillus amylovorous,_ cause of pear blight, 112 Backhouse, James, orig. of Beurré Backhouse, 285 _Bacterium tumefaciens_, cause of crown-gall on pears, 116 Baguet, 257 Bailly, orig. of Beurré Bailly, 285 Bakholda, 258 Baking, 258 Baldschmiedler, 258 Balduinsteiner Kinderbirne, 258 Ballet, orig. of Madame Ballet, 456 Balosse, 258 Balsambirne, 258 Baltet, Charles, introd. of Roosevelt, 213; orig. of Virginie Baltet, 573 Baltet, Ernest, orig. of Beurré d'Avril, 285; Comte Lelieur, 346; Madame Lyé-Baltet, 458 Baltet Bros., orig. of Beurré Baltet Père, 286; Charles Ernest, 334; Docteur Joubert, 361; Guyot, 174; Ministre Viger, 473; Professeur Opoix, 514 _Baltet Senior_ (syn. of Beurré Baltet Père), 286 Bankerbine, 258 Bankhead, Capt., orig. of Jewel, 430 Banks, 258 Baptiste Valette, 258 _Bar Seckel_ (syn. of Barseck) 260 Barbancinet, 258 Barbe Nélis, 259 Barker, 259 Barland, 259 Barnadiston, 259 Baron Deman de Lennick, 259 _Baron d'hiver_ (syn. of Baronsbirne), 260 Baron Leroy, 259 Baron Trauttenberg, 259 Baron Treyve, 259 Baronne de Mello, 260 Baronsbirne, 260 Barry, 260 Barry, Patrick, biography of, 203 Barry, William Crawford, biography of, 204 Barseck, 260 Barthélemy du Mortier, 260 Barthère, discov. of Duchesse d'Hiver, 372 Bartlett, 124 Bartlett, Enoch, dissem. of Bartlett, 125 Bartlett, parent of Barseck, 260; Big Productive, 309; Dempsey, 357; Eva Baltet, 379; Favorite Morel, 381; Félix Sahut, 381; Le Lecher, 444; Lucy Duke, 194; Lyerle, 454; Professeur Barral, 514; S. T. Wright, 533; Ulatis, 567; Winter Williams, 584 Bartlett and Kieffer leading commercial pears, 84 Bartram, 260 Bartram, Ann, orig. of Bartram, 260 Bartram, John, orig. of Petre, 497 Bartranne, 260 Baseler Sommer-Muskatellerbirne, 261 Basiner, 261 _Bassin_ (syn. of Jargonelle (French)), 178 Baudry, 261 Baumann Brothers, orig. of Beurré Bollwiller, 288 Beacon, 261 Beadnell, 261 Beadnell, John, orig. of Beadnell, 261 Beau de la Cour, 261 Beau Présent d'Artois, 261 Beauchamp, orig. of Beurré de l'Assomption, 284; Beurré Beauchamp, 286; Souvenir de Gaëte, 550 Beaufort, 262 Beauvalot, 262 Beernaert, Reynaert, discov. of Fondante de Cuerne, 384 Beier Meissner Eierbirne, 262 _Belgische Blutbirne_ (syn. of Sanguinole de Belgique), 540 _Belgische Pomeranzenbirne_ (syn. of Fondante des Prés), 385 _Belgische Zapfenbirne_ (syn. of Long Green), 449 Belgium, pear in, 16 Belle Angevine, 262; parent of Bon-Chrétien Vermont, 315 _Belle Angevine_ (syn. of Pound), 208 _Belle après Noël_ (syn. of Fondante de Noël), 164 Belle des Arbrés, 262 _Belle Audibert_ (syn. of Audibert), 254 Belle de Beaufort, 262 Belle Bessa, 262 Belle de Bolbec, 263 Belle et Bonne de Hée, 263 Belle et Bonne de la Pierre, 263 Belle de Brissac, 263 Belle de Bruxelles sans Pepins, 263 Belle de Craonnais, 263 Belle de la Croix Morel, 263 Belle de Décembre, 264 _Belle Epine Dumas_ (syn. of Épine du Mas), 377 _Belle de Esquermes_ (syn. of Fontenay), 165 Belle de Féron, 264 Belle du Figuier, 264 _Belle de Flanders_ (syn. of Flemish Beauty), 163 Belle-Fleurusienne, 264 _Belle de Flushing_ (syn. of Harvard), 412 Belle Fondante, 264 Belle de Forêts, 264 Belle de Guasco, 264 Belle Guérandaise, 264 Belle Hugevine, 265 Belle Isle d'Angers, 265 Belle d'Ixelles, 265 _Belle de Jarnac_ (syn. of Nouvelle Fulvie), 483 Belle de Juillet, 265 Belle Julie, 265 Belle de Kain, 265 Belle de Lorient, 265 Belle Lucrative, 125; parent of P. Barry, 203; President Clark, 509 Belle de Malines, 265 Belle de Martigny, 265 Belle-Moulinoise, 265 _Belle de Noël_ (syn. of Fondante de Noël), 164 Belle de Noisette, 266 _Belle de l'Orient_ (syn. of Belle de Lorient), 265 Belle Picarde, 266 Belle Rouennaise, 266 _Belle de Septembre_ (syn. of Grosse September Birne), 406 Belle de Stresa, 266 Belle Sucrée, 266 Belle de Thouars, 266 Belle Williams, 267 _Belle de Zoar_ (syn. of Zoar Beauty), 588 Bellissime d'Automne, 267 _Bellissime d'Été_ (syn. of Jargonelle (French)), 178 Bellissime d'Hiver, 267 Belmont, 267 Beman, 267 Benadine, 267 Benoist, Auguste, orig. of Duchesse de Brissac, 372; Marie Benoist, 463; prop, of Beurré Benoist, 287 Benoist, Jean-Henri, orig. of Belle de Brissac, 263 Benoist Nouveau, 267 Benoit Caroli, 268 Bensell, 268 Bensell, orig. of Bensell, 268 Benvie, 268 Béquesne, 268 Berckmans, Louis, orig. of varieties, 240, 308, 373, 389, 540, 549, 563 Bergamot de Chantilly, 268 Bergamot Louvain, 268 Bergamot Seckel, 268 Bergamot Winter, 268 Bergamote Arsène Sannier, 268 Bergamote d'Automne Panachée, 269 Bergamote Balicq, 269 Bergamote Boussière, 269 _Bergamote du Bugey_ (syn. of Bergamotte Bugi), 270 Bergamote Espéren, parent of Directeur Varenne, 360 _Bergamote Gansel_ (syn. of Gansel Bergamot), 391 Bergamote Hamdens, 269 _Bergamote d'Hildesheim_ (syn. of Hildesheimer Bergamotte), 418 Bergamote de Hollande Panachée, 269 _Bergamote Lucrative_ (syn. of Belle Lucrative), 126 _Bergamote de Pâques_ (syn. of Easter Bergamot), 374 _Bergamote de la Pentecôte_ (syn. of Easter Beurré), 159 Bergamote Philippot, 269 Bergamote Rose, 269 Bergamotte d'Anvers, 269 Bergamotte d'Automne, 270 _Bergamotte Ballicq_ (syn. of Bergamote Balicq), 269 Bergamotte Bouvant, 270 Bergamotte Bufo, 270 Bergamotte Bugi, 270 Bergamotte de Coloma, 270 Bergamotte de la Cour, 271 _Bergamotte Crassane_ (syn. of Crassane), 350 _Bergamotte Crassane d'Hiver_ (syn. of Beurré Bruneau), 289 Bergamotte de Darmstadt, 271 Bergamotte de Donauer, 271 Bergamotte Double, 271 Bergamotte Dussart, 271 _Bergamotte Éliza Mathews_ (syn, of Groom Prince Royal), 403 Bergamotte Espéren, 271; parent of Beurré Henri Courcelle, 297; Bergamotte la Gantoise, 272; Président Barabé, 508 Bergamotte d'Espéren, parent of Frau Louise Goethe, 389 _Bergamotte d'Espéren_ (syn. of Bergamotte Espéren), 271 Bergamotte Espéren Souvenir de Plantières, 271 Bergamotte d'Été, 271 _Bergamotte d'été de Kraft_ (syn. of Kraft Sommer Bergamotte), 438 Bergamotte d'été de Lubeck, 272 Bergamotte Fertile, 272 Bergamotte Fortunée, parent of Le Lecher, 444 _Bergamotte Fortunée_ (syn. of Fortunée), 387 Bergamotte la Gantoise, 272 Bergamotte Heimbourg, 272 Bergamotte Hérault, 272 Bergamotte Hertrich, 272 Bergamotte-d'Hiver de Furstenzell, 273 Bergamotte d'Hollande, 273 Bergamotte Jars, 273 Bergamotte de Jodoigne, 273 Bergamotte Klinkhardt, 273 Bergamotte Laffay, 273 Bergamotte Lesèble, 273 Bergamotte Liabaud, 274 Bergamotte Mico, 274 Bergamotte de Millepieds, 274 Bergamotte Nicolle, 274 Bergamotte Oeuf de Cygne, 274 Bergamotte d'Oisan, 274 Bergamotte de Parthenay, 274 Bergamotte Picquot, 275 Bergamotte Ploskui, 275 Bergamotte Poiteau, 275 Bergamotte Pomme, 275 Bergamotte du Quercy, 275 Bergamotte Reinette, 275 _Bergamotte de Roe_ (syn. of Roe Bergamot), 522 Bergamotte de Rouen, 276 Bergamotte Rouge, 275 Bergamotte Rouge de Mayer, 276 Bergamotte Sageret, 276 Bergamotte Sanguine, 276 Bergamotte Sannier, 276 _Bergamotte Sapieganka_ (syn. of Sapieganka), 541 Bergamotte Silvange, 276 Bergamotte de Souchait, 276 Bergamotte de Soulers, 277 Bergamotte de Stryker, 277 _Bergamotte Suisse_ (syn. of Bergamote d'Automne Panachée), 269 Bergamotte Suisse Rond, 277 Bergamotte Tardive Collette, 277 _Bergamotte Tardive de Gansel_ (syn. of Gansel Late Bergamot), 391 Bergamotte Thuerlinckx, 277 Bergamotte de Tournai, 277 Bergamotte de Tournay, 278 _Bergamotte von Vezouzière_ (syn. of Vezouzière), 571 Bergamotte Volltragende, 278 _Bergamotte Welbeck_ (syn. of Welbeck Bergamot), 577 Bergbirne, 278 Bergen, 278 Bergen, Cornelius, orig. of Island, 425 Berlaimont, 278 Bernard, 278 Berriays, 278 Bertrand Guinoisseau, 278 Berzelius, 279 Besi de Caen, 279 Besi de Caffoy, 279 Besi-Carême, 279 _Besi de Chaumontel_ (syn. of Chaumontel), 335 Besi Dubost, 279 _Besi de l'Echasserie_ (syn. of Echasserie), 374 Besi Espéren, 279 _Besi Garnier_ (syn. of Garnier), 392 Besi Goubault, 279 Besi de Grieser de Böhmenkirsch, 279 Besi d'Héry, 280 _Besi Incomparable_ (syn. of Besi Sans Pareil), 281 Besi Liboutton, 280 Besi de Mai, 280 Besi de Moncondroiceu, 280 Besi de Montigny, 280 Besi de la Motte, 280 Besi de Naghin, 281 Besi de la Pierre, 281 Besi de Quessoy, 281 Besi de Saint-Waast, 281 Besi Sans Pareil, 281 _Besi Sanspareil_ (syn. of Besi Sans Pareil), 281 Besi Tardif, 281 Besi de Van Mons, 282 Besi des Vétérans, 282 Besi de Vindré, 282 Besi de Wutzum, 282 Bessard-Duparc, orig. of Madame Duparc, 457 Bessemianka, 282 Best Favorite, 282 Bettina, 282 Betzelsbirne, 283 Betzy, 283 Beurré Ad. Papeleu, 283 Beurré Adam, 283 Beurré d'Adenaw, 283 Beurré Alexandre Lucas, 283 _Beurré Alexandre Lucas_ (syn. of Alexander Lucas), 240 Beurré Allard, 283 Beurré Amandé, 283 Beurré d'Amanlis, 283 Beurré Ananas, 284 Beurré d'Angleterre, 284 Beurré d'Anjou, 127; parent of Huggard, 421; place in commercial pear culture, 84 Beurré Antoine, 284 Beurré Antoinette, 284 _Beurré d'Apremont_ (syn. of Beurré Bosc), 130 Beurré Aqualine, 284 Beurré d'Arenberg, 129; confusion of, with Glou Morceau, 129 _Beurré d'Arenberg_ (syn. of Glou Morceau), 172 Beurré de l'Assomption, 284; parent of Souvenir de Gaëte, 550 Beurré Audusson, 284 Beurré des Augustins, 285 Beurré Aunénière, 285 Beurré d'Automne de Donauer, 285 Beurré d'Avoine, 285 Beurré d'Avril, 285 Beurré Bachelier, 285; parent of S. T. Wright, 533 Beurré Backhouse, 285 Beurré Bailly, 285 Beurré Baltet Père, 286 Beurré Baud, 286 Beurré Beauchamp, 286 Beurré Beaulieu, 286 _Beurré Beaumont_ (syn. of Beurré de Mortefontaine), 301 Beurré Beek, 286 Beurré des Béguines, 286 Beurré Bennert, 286 Beurré Benoist, 287 Beurré Berckmans, 287 Beurré de Biseau, 287 Beurré Blanc Doré, 287 Beurré Blanc de Nantes, 287 Beurré Boisbunel, 287 Beurré Bollwiller, 288 Beurré de Bordeaux, 288 Beurré Bosc, 130; parent of Harris, 412; place of, in commercial pear culture, 84 Beurré Bourbon, 288 Beurré de Brême, 288 Beurré Bretonneau, 288 Beurré de Brigné, 288 Beurré Bronzé, 288 Beurré de Brou, 288 Beurré Brougham, 289 Beurré Bruneau, 289 Beurré de Bruxelles, 289 Beurré Burnicq, 289 Beurré du Bus, 289 Beurré Bymont, 289 Beurré de Caen, 289 Beurré Capiaumont, 289 Beurré Caty, 290 Beurré Caune, 290 Beurré du Cercle Pratique de Rouen, 290 Beurré du Champ Corbin, 290 Beurré Charron, 290 Beurré Chatenay, 290 Beurré Chaudy, 290 Beurré Christ, 290 Beurré Citron, 290 Beurré Clairgeau, 132; parent of Cardinal Georges d'Ambroise, 328; Huggard, 421; Louis Vilmorin, 451; Thérèse Appert, 562; place of, in commercial pear culture, 84 Beurré Clotaire, 290 Beurré de Coit, 291 Beurré Colmar, 291 Beurré Coloma, 291 Beurré du Comte Marcolini, 291 Beurré de Conitz, 291 Beurré Copretz, 291 _Beurré Curtet_ (syn. of Lamy), 184 Beurré Dalbret, 291 Beurré Daras, 291 Beurré Daviss, 291 Beurré Defays, 292 Beurré Degalait, 292 Beurré Delannoy, 292 Beurré Delbecq, 292 Beurré Délicat, 292 Beurré Derouineau, 292 Beurré Diel, 133; parent of Jeanne d'Arc, 429; Pierre Corneille, 499 Beurré Dilly, 292 Beurré Docteur Pariset, 292 _Beurré Doré de Bilboa_ (syn. of Golden Beurré of Bilboa), 398 Beurré Doux, 292 Beurré van Driessche, 293 Beurré Driessen, 293 Beurré Dubuisson, 293 Beurré Duhaume, 293 Beurré Dumont, 293 Beurré Dumortier, 293 Beurré Dupont, 293 Beurré Duquesne, 293 Beurré Durand, 293 Beurré Duval, 294 _Beurre Duvivier_ (syn. of Général Duvivier), 395 Beurré d'Ellezelles, 294 _Beurré d'Enghien_ (syn. of Beurré Colmar), 291 Beurré Épine, 294 _Beurré Épine_ (syn. of Colmar Épine), 343 Beurré d'Espéren, 294 Beurré d'Esquelmes, 294 Beurré Eugène Furst, 294 Beurré Fauve de Printemps, 294 Beurré Favre, 294 Beurré Fenzl, 294 Beurré de Février, 294 Beurré Fidéline, 295 Beurré Flon, 295 Beurré Fouqueray, 295 Beurré Gambier, 295 Beurré Gaujard, 295 Beurré van Geert, 295 Beurré Gendron, 295 Beurré de Germiny, 295 Beurré de Ghélin, 296 Beurré Giffard, 134; parent of August Jurie, 254; Fin Juillet, 382 Beurré Gilles, 296 Beurré Goubault, 296; parent of Fertility, 381 Beurré Graue Herbst, 296 Beurré Grétry, 296 Beurré Gris, 296; parent of Cabot, 323 Beurré-Gris d'Enghien, 296 _Beurré Gris d'Été_ (syn. of Yat), 586 _Beurré Gris d'Été de Hollande_ (syn. of Yat), 586 _Beurre Gris d'Hiver Nouveau_ (syn. of Beurré de Luçon), 300 Beurré de Grumkon, 296 Beurré Grumkower, 296 _Beurré Haffner_ (syn. of Haffner Butterbirne), 410 Beurré Hamecher, 297 Beurré d'Hardenpont, parent of Directeur Tisserand, 360 _Beurré d'Hardenpont_ (syn. of Glou Morceau), 172 Beurré d'Hardenpont d'Automne, 297 Beurré Hardy, 135 Beurré Hennau, 297 Beurré Henri Courcelle, 297; parent of Cardinal Georges d'Ambroise, 328; Pierre Curie, 499 Beurré Hillereau, 297 Beurré d'Hiver, 297 Beurré d'hiver de Dittrich, 297 Beurré d'Hiver de Kestner, 297 Beurré de Hochheim, 297 Beurré Hudellet, 297 Beurré Jalais, 298 Beurré Jean Van Geert, 298 Beurré de Jonghe, 136 _Beurré Keele Hall_ (syn. of Styrian), 554 Beurré Kennes, 298 Beurré Kenrick, 298 Beurré Knight, 298 Beurré Knox, 298 Beurré de Koninck, 298 Beurré Kossuth, 299 Beurré de Ladé, 299 Beurré Lagasse, 299 Beurré Lamoyeau, 299 Beurré Langelier, 299 Beurré de Lederbogen, 299 Beurré Lefèvre, 299 Beurré de Lenzen, 299 Beurré Liebart, 299 Beurré de Lindauer, 300 Beurré Loisel, 300 Beurré de Longrée, 300 Beurré de Luçon, 300; parent of Casimir, 329 Beurré Luizet, 300 Beurré de Mans, 300 Beurré Mauxion, 300 Beurré Menand, 300 _Beurré de Mérode_ (syn. of Doyenné Boussock), 152 Beurré Millet, 300 Beurré Moiré, 300 Beurré Mondelle, 301 Beurré de Mons, 301 Beurré de Montgeron, 301 Beurré Morisot, 301 Beurré de Mortefontaine, 301 Beurré de Mortillet, 301 Beurré Motte, 302 Beurré des Mouchouses, 302 Beurré de Naghin, 302 Beurré de Nantes, 302 Beurré de Nesselrode, 302 Beurré Obozinski, 302 Beurré Oudinot, 302 Beurré de Paimpol, 302 Beurré de Palandt, 303 Beurré Pauline, 303 Beurré Pauline Delzent, 303 Beurré Payen, 303 Beurré Perran, 303 _Beurré Perrault_ (syn. of Duchesse de Bordeaux), 371 Beurré Philippe Delfosse, 303 Beurré Pointillé de Roux, 303 Beurré de Popuelles, 303 Beurré Preble, 303 Beurré Précoce, 304 Beurré Pringalle, 304 Beurré de Quenast, 304 Beurré de Ramegnies, 304 Beurré de Rance, 304 Beurré Reine, 304 Beurré Richelieu, 304 _Beurré Robert_ (syn. of Doyenné du Comice), 153 Beurré Roland, 304 Beurré Romain, 304 Beurré Rome Gaujard, 305 Beurré Rose, 305 Beurré Rouge d'Automne, 305 _Beurré Rouppé_ (syn. of Easter Beurré), 159 Beurré Royal de Turin, 305 Beurré de Saint-Amand, 305 Beurré de Saint Arnaud, 305 Beurré Saint-Aubert, 305 Beurré Saint-François, 305 Beurré Saint-Marc, 305 _Beurré de Saint-Nicolas_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Orléans), 156 Beurré Samoyeau, 305 Beurré Scheidweiller, 306 Beurré Seutin, 306 Beurré de Silly, 306 Beurré Six, 306 Beurré Soulange, 306 Beurré Spence, 306 Beurré Stappaerts, 306 Beurré Steins, 306 Beurré Sterckmans, 306 Beurré de Stuttgardt, 307 Beurré Sucré, 307 Beurré Superfin, 137; parent of Comte de Lambertye, 346 Beurré Thoury, 307 _Beurré Thuerlinckx_ (syn. of Thuerlinckx), 563 Beurré Triguer, 307 Beurré de Ulm, 307 Beurré Vanille, 307 Beurré Varenne de Fenille, 307 Beurré Vauban, 307 Beurré Vert d'Été, 307 Beurré Vert Tardif, 308 _Beurré Vert de Tournai_ (syn. of Bergamotte de Tournai), 277 _Beurré Vital_ (syn. of Vital), 574 Beurré Wamberchies, 308 Beurré de Wetteren, 308 Beurré Winter, 308 Beurré Witzhumb, 308 Beurré Woronson, 308 Beurré Zotman, 308 Beyer Martinsbirne, 308 Beymont, 308 Bezi Blanc, 309 Bezi de Naples, 309 _Bezi Vaet_ (syn. of Besi de Saint-Waast), 281 _Bezy de Caissoy_ (syn. of Besi de Quessoy), 281 Bidwell, General, orig. of Kennedy, 434 Bied-Charreton, 309 Bierbaumer Mostbirne, 309 Big Productive, 309 Bijou, 309 Bill Campbell, 309 Binsce, 309 _Birn von Fontenay_ (syn. of Fontenay), 166 Birne von Turschud, 309 Biseau d'Hauteville, A. de, orig. of Beurré de Biseau, 287 Biseau d'Hauteville, Chevalier de, orig. of Président Watier, 511 Bishop Thumb, 309 Bivort, Alexandre, orig. of varieties, 237, 241, 264, 269, 284, 287, 303, 326, 340, 355, 431, 464, 465, 475, 490, 511, 520, 523, 528, 530, 531, 544, 581; work as pear breeder, 19 Bivort Zuckerbirne, 309 Black Hawk, 310 Black Huffcap, 310 Black mold of pear, 117 _Black Pear of Worcester_ (syn. of Black Worcester), 310 Black Sorrel, 310 Black Worcester, 310 Blackeney Red, 310 Blanchet, Claude, orig. of Claude Blanchet, 340; La France, 440 Blanquet Anastère, 310 Blanquet Long, 311 Blanquet à Longue Queue, 311 Blanquet Précoce, 311 Blanquet de Saintonge, 311 Blanquette de Toulouse, 311 Bleeker Meadow, 311 Blessed, 311 Blickling, 311 Blight, pear, control of, 113; notes on, 111 Blight resistance of _Pyrus ovoidea_, 81; _Pyrus ussuriensis_,78 Blight resistant pear varieties, 112 Block, 311 Block, A., orig. of Acme, 237; Block, 311 Blodget, 312 Blodget, David, orig. of Blodget, 312 Bloodgood, 138 Bloodgood, James, introd. of Bloodgood, 139 _Bloodgood's Sommerbirne_ (syn. of Bloodgood), 138 Blooming season of pear varieties, 88 Blooming time of pears, notes on, 87 Blumenbirne, 312 Blutbirne, 312 Bocksbirne, 312 Bödiker Dechantsbirne, 312 Bogenäkerin, 312 Böhmische frühe Jakobsbirne, 312 Boïeldien, 312 Boisbunel, orig. of varieties, 200, 243, 245, 266, 275, 278, 287, 290, 295, 324, 344, 347, 349, 361, 366, 370, 395, 427, 440, 451, 452, 462, 469, 470, 471, 472, 491, 493, 505, 509, 510, 512, 544, 555, 570 Boisselot, orig. of Fortunée Boisselot, 387; Président de la Bastie, 509; Professeur Barral, 514 Bolarmud, 312 Bollweiler, orig. of Bollweiler Butterbirne, 312 Bollweiler Butterbirne, 312 Bologna, 312 Bonamy, orig. of Paul Bonamy, 492 _Bon-Chrétien d'Auch_ (syn. of Bon-Chrétien d'Hiver), 314 Bon-Chrétien d'Auch (Calvel), 312 Bon-Chrétien d'Automne, 313 Bon-Chrétien Bonnamour, 313 _Bon-Chrétien de Bruxelles_ (syn. of Bon-Chrétien Fondant), 313 Bon-Chrétien d'Espagne, 313 Bon-Chrétien d'été, 313 Bon-Chrétien Fondant, 313 _Bon-Chrétien Fred Baudry_ (syn. of Baudry), 261 Bon-Chrétien Frédéric Baudry, 313 Bon-Chrétien d'Hiver, 314 Bon-Chrétien d'Hiver Panaché, 314 Bon-Chrétien Mathieu Joseph Lamarche, 314 _Bon-Chrétien de Nikita_ (syn. of Nikitaer Grüne Herbst-Apothekerbirne), 482 Bon-Chrétien Prevost, 314 _Bon-Chrétien de Rance_ (syn. of Beurré de Rance), 304 Bon-Chrétien du Rhin d'Automne, 314 Bon-Chrétien Ricchiero, 314 Bon-Chrétien Vermont, 315 Bon-Chrétien de Vernois, 315 _Bon-Chrétien de Vernois_ (syn. of Flemish Bon-Chrétien), 382 _Bon-Chrétien Williams'_ (syn. of Bartlett), 124 Bon Gustave, 315 Bon Parent, 315 Bon-Roi-René, 315 Bon Vicaire, 315 Bonne d'Anjou, 315 Bonne-Antonine, 315 Bonne de Beugny, 316 Bonne Carmélite, 316 Bonne de la Chapelle, 316 Bonne Charlotte, 316 _Bonne-Ente_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 Bonne d'Ezée, 316 Bonne de Jalais, 316 Bonne-Jeanne, 316 _Bonne Louise d'Avranches_ (syn. of Louise Bonne de Jersey), 193 Bonne de Malines, parent of Léger, 444 _Bonne de Malines_ (syn. of Winter Nelis), 232 Bonne Sophia, 316 _Bonne de Soulers_ (syn. of Bergamotte de Soulers), 277 Bonne Thérèse, 317 Bonne des Zoes, 317 Bonnefond, orig. of Madame Bonnefond, 456 Bonnefoy, orig. of Doyenné Nérard, 368; Madame Élisa Dumas, 457 Bonners, 317 Bonneserre de Saint-Denis, 317 Bonnet, orig. of Beurré Hardy, 136; Lesbre, 447 Bonnet Zuckerbirne, 317 _Bordeaux_ (syn. of Duchesse de Bordeaux), 371 Bordine Musk, 317 Borers on pear, 120 Bosc, introd. of Styrian, 554 _Bosc_ (syn. of Beurré Bosc), 130 _Bosc's Butterbirne_ (syn. of Beurré Bosc), 130 _Bosc's Flaschenbirne_ (syn. of Beurré Bosc), 130 _Boston_ (syn. of Pinneo), 499 Botany, structural, of pear, 58 Bouchamp, 317 Boucqueau, Albert, orig. of Fondante Albert, 383 Boucquia, 317 Bouet, Henri, orig. of Henri Bouet, 415 Bourdon de Roi, 317 _Boussock_ (syn. of Doyenné Boussock), 152 Boutoc, 317 _Bouvert Musqué_ (syn. of Parfum d'Hiver), 490 Bouvier, Simon, orig. of varieties, 184, 240, 241, 315, 318, 328, 343, 355, 356, 378, 416, 426, 446, 545, 546, 565, 568; work as pear breeder, 19 Bouvier d'Automne, 318 Bouvier Bourgmestre, 318 Bouviers Herbstbirne, 318 Bouzin, Norbert, orig. of Doyenné de Ramegnies, 369 Bowdoin, 318 Bowne Winter Russet, 318 Boyken June, 318 Braconot, 318 Brandes, 318 Brandywine, 140 Braunrote Speckbirne, 318 Braunrothe Frühlingsbirne, 319 Braunrothe Sommerrusselet, 319 Brederode, 319 Breeding pears, Van Mons' theory of, 18 Bremer Butterbirne, 319 Brewer, 319 Brewster, 319 Brialmont, 319 Brielsche Pomeranzenbirne, 319 Briffaut, 319 Briffaut, orig. of Président Payen, 510 Brincklé, Dr. W. D., orig. of Catherine Gardette, 330; Edward Seedling St. Germain, 375; President Felton, 509; Wilmington, 582 Brindamour, 320 Bringewood, 320 British Queen, 320 _Brockworth Park_ (syn. of Bonne d'Ezée), 316 Broncirte Winterbirne, 320 Bronx, 320 Bronzée Boisselot, 320 Bronzée d'Enghien, 320 Brookline, 320 Broom Park, 320 Brough Bergamot, 320 Brown, Samuel, orig. of Sam Brown, 539 _Brown Beurré_ (syn. of Beurré Gris), 296 Brown-Blotch of pear, 116 Bruant, introd. of Figueira, 382; orig. of Commandant Belaieff, 345 Bruce, A. L., orig. of Alamo, 240 _Bruderbirne_ (syn. of Pound), 208 Brugmans, 321 Brumbirne, 321 Brune Minême, 321 Brunet, 321 Brüsseler Herbstbergamotte, 321 _Brüssler Zuckerbirne_ (syn. of Sucrée Van Mons), 555 Brute Bonne, 321 Bryan, Edwards, 321 Bryant, mention of fruits in California by, 54; orig. of Cedarmere, 331 Brymer, Col., introd. of Santa Claus, 540 Buchanan, 321 Buchanan, Isaac, orig. of Buchanan, 321 Buckman, Benjamin, orig. of Timpling, 563 Bud-moth on pear, 120 Budd, J. L., introd. of Russian pears, 56; orig. of Gibb, 396 Buffalo, 321 _Buffam_ (syn. of Buffum), 141 Buffum, 141 _Bugiarda_ (syn. of Bon-Chrétien Fondant), 313; (Épine d'Été), 377 Buneau, Jules, orig. of Marie Jallais, 464 Bunte Mannabirne, 321 Buntebirne, 321 Burbank, Luther, orig. of Test, 560 Burchardt, Judge, orig. of Malvoisie de Landsberg, 461 Burchardt Butterbirne, 322 Buree Winter, 322 Burgoyne, 322 Burkett, 322 Burlingame, 322 Burlingame, Mrs., orig. of Burlingame, 322 Burnett, 322 Burnett, Joel, orig. of Burnett, 322 Burton, R. E., orig. of Ulatis, 567 Butt Pear, 322 Butterartige Bergamotte, 322 _Butterbirne von Saint-Nicolas_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Orléans), 156 Büttner Sachsische Ritterbirne, 322 Cabot, 323 Cabot, J. S., orig. of Cabot, 323 Cadeau, 323 Cadet de Vaux, 323 Caen de France, 323 Caesar, 323 _Caillot_ (syn. of Naquette), 480 Caillot Rosat (English), 323 Caillot Rosat (French), 323 Calbasbirn, 324 Calebasse, 324 _Calebasse Abbé Fétel_ (syn. of Abbé Fétel), 236 Calebasse d'Anvers, 324 Calebasse de Bavay, 324 Calebasse Boisbunel, 324 Calebasse Bosc, 324 Calebasse Delvigne, 325 Calebasse d'Été, 325 Calebasse Fondante, 325 _Calebasse Grosse_ (syn. of Van Marum), 569 Calebasse d'Hiver, 325 Calebasse Kickx, 325 Calebasse Leroy, 325 Calebasse Oberdieck, 325 Calebasse d'Octobre, 326 _Calebasse princesse Marianne_ (syn. of Princesse Marianne), 513 Calebasse Rose, 326 Calebasse Tougard, 326 Calebasse Verte, 326 Calhoun, 326 California, first commercial pear orchard in, 54 Caliorosa, 326 _Caliroa cerasi_ on pear, 119 Calixte Mignot, 326 _Calliot_ (syn, of Caillot Rosat (French)), 324 Calvillebirne, 326 Calvin, 326 Camak, 326 Camak, J., orig. of Camak, 326 Cambacérès, 327 Camerling, 327 Camille de Rohan, 327 _Camperveen_ (syn. of Kamper-Venus), 433 Canandaigua, 327; parent of Ontario, 202 _Canners Japan_ (syn. of Japan Golden Russet), 428 Canning, 327 Canning pears, 109 Canourgues, 327 Cantelope, 327 Canton, 327 Capeinick, orig. of Duchesse de Brabant, 372 Capiaumont, orig. of Beurré Capiaumont, 289 Capsheaf, 328 Capucine Van Mons, 328 Carasi, 328 Carcas, orig. of Roux Carcas, 532 Cardinal Georges d'Ambroise, 328 _Cardinale_ (syn. of Amiral), 244 Carleton, 328 Carmel, 328 Carminbirne, 328 Caroline Hogg, 328 _Carpocapsa pomonella_ on pear, 118 Carrière, 329 Cartheurserbirne, 329 Case, William, orig. of Mary (Case), 467 Casimir, 329 Cassante du Comice, 329 Cassante de Mars, 329 Cassel, 329 Cassel Nurs. Co., introd. of Cassel, 329 Casser, orig. of Columbia, 344 _Casserule_ (syn. of Poire de Casserole), 502 Cassolette, 329 Cassolette (Knoop), 329 Castelain, Florimond, orig. of Castelline, 330 Castelline, 330 Catch crops for pear orchards, 102 Caterpillars on pear, 120 Catherine Gardette, 330 Catherine Lambré, 330 Catherine Royal, 330 Catillac, 330 Catinka, 330 Cato, mention of pear by, 7 Cauwenberghe, Lievin Van, orig. of Henriette Van Cauwenberghe, 416 Cavaignac, 330 Cavelier de la Salle, 331 Cecil, Mrs. Evelyn, mention of pears by, 31 Cedarmere, 331 Cels Butterbirne, 331 Century, 331 _Cephalothecium roseum_, cause of pink-rot of pear, 117 Cerise Brune, 331 Cerise Double, 331 Cerruttis Durstlösche, 331 Certeau, 331 Certeau d'Automne, 331 Certeau d'Été, 331 Certeau d'Hiver, 332 Cesile, 332 Chænomeles, relationship of, to pear, 57 Chaigneau, 332 Chair-a-Dame, 332 _Chalk_ (syn. of Crawford), 350 _Chambers_ (syn. of Early Harvest), 158 Chambrette, Marquis, introd. of Virgouleuse, 573 Chamness, 332 Chamness, orig. of Chamness, 332 Champ Riche d'Italie, 332 Champagner Bratbirne, 333 Chancelier de Hollande, 333 Chancellor, 333 Chancellor, orig. of Chancellor, 333 Chantry, 333 Chaploux, 333 Chapman, 333 Chaptal, 333 Charlemagne, promotion of pear culture by, 12 Charles Bivort, 333 Charles Cognée, 334 Charles Ernest, 334 Charles Frederickx, 334 Charles de Guelin, 334 Charles Smet, 334 Charles van Hooghten, 334 Charles Van Mons, 334 Charli Basiner, 334 Charlotte de Brouwer, 334 Charlotte de Roucourt, 335 Charnock, 335 Charon, orig. of Beurré Charon, 290 Chat Brulé, 335 Chatenay, Pierre, orig, of Beurré Chatenay, 290 Chattanooga, 335 Chaudfontaine, 335 Chaudy, orig. of Madame Chaudy, 456 Chaumontel, 335; parent of Chaumontel Gras, 335 Chaumontel Gras, 335 Chaumontel Swan Egg, 336 Chaumontelle d'été, 336 Chelmsford, 336 Cher à Dames (Knoop), 336 Cherroise, 336 Chesill, 336 Chesneau, discov. of Fondante de la Roche, 385 Chevreau, Arthur, orig. of Arthur Chevreau, 253 Chilton, 336 China, 336 Chinese Pear. (See _Pyrus serotina_) _Chinese Sand_ (syn. of Sha Lea), 545 Chio, 337 Choak-pear, 337 Choisnard, 337 Cholwell, 337 Christmas, 337 Christmas Beurré, 337 Church, 337 Churchill, Mrs., orig. of Alexander, 240 Chypre, 337 Cincincis, 338 Cincincis Seedling, 338 Cinquantième anniversaire, 338 Cire, 338 Cité Gomand, 338 Citrina, 338 Citron, 338 _Citron des Carmes_ (syn. of Madeleine), 195 Citron d'Hyver, 339 Citron de Saint Paul, 339 Citron de Sierentz, 339 Citronnée, 339 Clairgeau, Pierre, orig. of Beurré Clairgeau, 132 _Clairgeau_ (syn. of Beurré Clairgeau), 132 _Clairgeau's Butterbirne_ (syn. of Beurré Clairgeau), 132 Clap, 339 Clap, William, orig. of Clap, 339 Clapp, F. & L., orig. of Newhall, 481; Nicholas, 481 Clapp, Lemuel, orig. of Dorset, 149; Frederick Clapp, 169; Harris (Massachusetts), 412 Clapp, Thaddeus, orig. of Clapp Favorite, 143; Sarah, 541 Clapp Favorite, 142; parent of Tolstoy, 564; place of, in commercial pear culture, 84 _Clapp No. 22_ (syn. of Frederick Clapp), 169 _Clapp's Favourite_ (syn. of Clapp Favorite), 142 _Clapp's Liebling_ (syn. of Clapp Favorite), 142 Clara, 339 Clara Durieux, 339 Claretenbirne, 339 Clark, 339 Clarksville, 340 Claude Blanchet, 340 Claude Mollet, 340 Clay, 340 Clean culture versus sod for pear orchards, 102 Clémence de Lavours, 340 Clémence van Rumbeck, 340 Clément Bivort, 340 Clementine, 340 Climate adapted to pear culture, 85 Climate of America uncongenial to pears, 38 Clinton, 340 _Clion_ (syn. of Vicar of Winkfield), 227 Cloche de Wittenberg, 340 Clot, orig. of Beurré Clotaire, 290 Cludius, orig. of Hildesheimer Späte Sommerbirne, 418 Codling moth on pear, 118 _Coeur-de-Boeuf_ (syn. of Ochsenherz), 484 Coit, Colonel, orig. of Beurré de Coit, 291; Coit Beurré, 340 Coit Beurré, 340 Cold resistant pears, 86 Cold storage of pears, 109 Cole, 341 Cole Winter, 341 Colland, Jean, orig. of Triomphe de Vienne, 566 Collins, 341 Colmar, 341 Colmar d'Alost, 341 Colmar d'Arenberg, 341 Colmar Artoisenet, 341 Colmar d'Automne Nouveau, 342 Colmar Bretagne, 342 Colmar Charni, 342 Colmar Daras, 342 Colmar Delahaut, 342 Colmar Demeester, 342 Colmar Dewez, 342 Colmar Épine, 342 Colmar d'Été, 343 Colmar Flotow, 343 Colmar-Hirondelles, 343 _Colmar des Invalides_ (syn. of Colmar Van Mons), 344 Colmar de Jonghe, 343 Colmar de Mars, 343 Colmar du Mortier, 343 Colmar Navez, 343 Colmar Neill, 344 Colmar Sirand, 344 Colmar Van Mons, 344 Colmart, 344 Coloma, Count de, orig. of Beurré Coloma, 291; Coloma Carmeliterbirne, 344; Reine des Poires, 519; Suprême Coloma, 557 Coloma Carmeliterbirne, 344 _Coloma's Herbst Butterbirne_ (syn. of Urbaniste), 224 Colonel Wilder, 143 Colorado Seedless, 344 Colorée de Juillet, 344 Columbia, 144 _Columbia_ (syn. of Barseck), 260 _Comet_ (syn. of Lawson), 186 _Cometbirne_ (syn. of Lawson), 186 _Comice_ (syn. of Doyenné du Comice), 153 Comice Horticole, originator of Doyenné du Comice, 154 Commandant Belaieff, 345 Commercial varieties of pears, 84; in New York, 101 Commissaire Delmotte, 345 Commodore, 345 Compotbirne, 345 Compote d'Été, 345 Comprette, 345 Comstock, 345 Comte Canal de Malabaila, 345 Comte de Chambord, 345 Comte d'Egmont, 346 Comte de Flandres, 346 Comte de Lambertye, 346 _Comte de Lamy_ (syn. of Lamy), 184 Comte Lelieur, 346 Comte de Meladore, 346 Comte de Morny, 346 Comte de Paris, 346 Comtesse d'Alost, 346 Comtesse de Chambord, 346 Comtesse Clara Frijs, 347 Comtesse de Grailly, 347 Comtesse de Paris, 347 Condorcet, 347 Conference, 347 Congrès de Gand, 347 Congrès Pomologique, 347 Conkleton, 348 Conklin, 348 Connecticut, 348 Conseiller de Hollande, 348 Conseiller Ranwez, 348 Constant, Thomas, orig. of Sudduth, 220 Constant Claes, 348 Constitutional characters of pear-trees, 59 Cooke, 348 Cooke, Elijah, orig. of Beurré Preble, 303 Coolidge, D. W., introd. of Winter Bartlett, 231 Copia, 348 Coppiers, orig. of Vice-Président Coppiers, 572 Cordus, discussion of pears by, 20 Cornélie Daras, 348 Cornemuse, 348 Cornewell, 349 Cost of growing pears, 110 Coter, 349 Coule-Soif de Cerutti, 349 Courte-queue d'Automne, 349 Courte-queue d'Hiver, 349 Cousin Blanc, 349 Couteau, 349 Coxe, experimental orchards of, 52; first American pomology by, 52 Craig, 349 Craig Favourite, 350 Crassane, 350; parent of Boïeldien, 312; Lydie Thiérard, 454 Crassane Libotton, 350 Crassane du Mortier, 350 Crawford, 350 Crawford, N. W., orig. of Carmel, 328 Crede kegelförmige Zuckerbirne, 350 Crede Sommerrusselet, 350 Crescenzi, discussion of pear by, 11 Crisco, 351 Crisco, Robert, orig. of Crisco, 351 [vC]rnivka, 351 Crocker, 351 Croft Castle, 351 Crosby, J. W., orig. of Redfield, 518 Cross, 351 Cross, orig. of Cross, 351 Crouch, 351 Crow, 351 Crown-gall on pear, 116 Cuissard and Barret, orig. of Madame Cuissard, 456 Cuisse Madame, parent of Windsor, 583 _Cuisse Madame_ (syn. of Jargonelle (French)), 178 Cullem, 351 Culture, pear, notes on, 83 Cumberland, 351 _Curé_ (syn. of Vicar of Winkfield), 227 Curé d'Oleghem, 352 _Curtet's Butterbirne_ (syn. of Lamy), 184 Cushing, 352 Cushing, Col. Washington, orig. of Cushing, 352 Cydonia, relationship of, to pear, 57 Czernowes, 352 D'Amboise, 352 _D'Ane_ (syn. of Langbirne), 441 _D'Aout Allemande_ (syn. of Deutsche Augustbirne), 358 D'Arad, 352 D'Auch, 352 D'Oeuf, 352 Daimyo, 353 Dallas, 353 Dame, 353 Dame-verte, 353 Dana, Francis, orig. of varieties, 146, 238, 244, 255, 380, 388, 396, 455, 466, 509, 545 Dana Hovey, 146; parent of Luola, 454 _Dana's Hovey_ (syn. of Dana Hovey), 146 _Dana's No. 16_ (syn. of Dana Hovey), 146 _Danas Hovey_ (syn. of Dana Hovey), 146 Daras de Naghin, orig. of varieties, 242, 250, 260, 268, 269, 296, 324, 335, 342, 347, 348, 392, 396, 418, 424, 429, 444, 446, 458, 459, 463, 464, 492, 493, 517, 527, 550, 559, 565 Darimont, 353 Darlington, 353 Dathis, 353 Dauvesse, orig. of Esther Comte, 378 David, 353 David d'Angers, 353 Davis, 354 Davis, orig. of Davis, 354; Gold Nugget, 399 _De Bavay_ (syn. of Autumn Colmar), 256 De Cerciaux, 354 De Chasseur, 354 De Croixmare, 354 De Duvergnies, 354 De la Farge, A., orig. of Belle et Bonne de la Pierre, 263; Besi de la Pierre, 281; Citron de Saint Paul, 339 De Fer, 354 De Fosse, 354 De Jonghe, J., introd. of varieties, 450; orig. of varieties, 261, 280, 292, 334, 343, 348, 370, 447, 522; work of, as pear breeder, 19 _De Jonghe's Butterbirne_ (syn. of Beurré de Jonghe), 136 De Lamartine, 355 De Longueval, orig. of Louise Bonne de Jersey, 193 De Louvain, 355 De Nelis, work of, as pear breeder, 19 De Prêtre, 355 _De Quentin_ (syn. of Rousselet Saint-Quentin), 530 De Rachinquin, 355 De Serres, discussion of the pear by, 14 _De Tongres_ (syn. of Durandeau), 373 Dearborn, 147 Dearborn, Gen. H. A. S., biography of, 147; orig. of Dearborn, 147 _Dearborn's Seedling_ (syn. of Dearborn), 147 _Dechantsbirne von Alençon_ (syn. of Doyenné d'Alençon), 150 Defays, François, orig. of Beurré Defays, 292; Doyenné Defays, 366 Degaud, Isidore, orig. of Délices de Froyennes, 356 Dehove, François, orig. of Rondelet, 523 Delannoy, Alexandre, orig. of Beurré Delannoy, 292 Delcange, 355 _Délices d'Angers_ (syn. of Fondante du Panisel), 385 Délices de la Cacaudière, 355 Délices de Charles, 355 Délices de Chaumont, 356 Délices Everard, 356 Délices de Froyennes, 356 Délices d'Hardenpont, 356 _Délices d'Hardenpont d'Angers_ (syn. of Fondante du Panisel), 385 Délices d'Hiver, 356 Délices de Huy, 356 Délices de Jodoigne, 356 Délices de Ligaudières, 356 Délices de Lovenjoul, 356 Délices de la Meuse, 357 Délices de Naghin, 357 Délices de Saint-Médard, 357 Délices de Tirlemont, 357 Délicieuse de Grammont, 357 Délicieuse de Swijan, 357 Délisse, 357 Delpierre, 357 Delporte Bourgmestre, 357 Democrat, 357 _Demoiselle_ (syn. of Vigne), 572 Demorest, 357 Dempsey, 357 Denis Dauvesse, 358 Derouineau, orig. of Beurré Derouineau, 292 Dervaes Bros., orig. of Bergamotte la Gantoise, 272 Des Chartreux, 358 _Des Chasseurs_ (syn. of Poire des Chasseurs), 502 _Des Chevriers de Stuttgardt_ (syn. of Rousselet de Stuttgardt), 531 Des Deux Soeurs, 358 Deschamps, Monseigneur, orig. of Beurré d'Arenberg, 129 Description blank for pear, opposite 68 Désiré Cornélis, 358 Desportes, François, orig. of Doyenné Downing, 366 Dessauer Weissbirne, 358 Deutsche Augustbirne, 358 Deutsche Glasbirne, 358 Deutsche Kümmelbirne, 358 Deutsche Muskateller, 358 _Deux Fois l'An_ (syn. of Honey), 420 Deux Têtes, 359 Devergnies, 359 Devergnies, orig. of Devergnies, 359 Dewey, 359 Dhommée, 359 _Diamant-peer_ (syn. of Gansel Bergamot), 391 Dickerman, 359 Dickinson, orig. of Eureka, 379 Diego, 359 _Diel_ (syn. of Beurré Diel), 133 _Diel's Butterbirne_ (syn. of Beurré Diel), 133 Dienstbotenbirne, 359 Dieudonné Anthoine, 359 _Dikeman_ (syn. of Dickerman), 359 Diller, 360 Dilly, V., orig. of Beurré Dilly, 292 Diman, 360 Dion, orig. of Belle Guérandaise, 264 Directeur Alphand, 360 Directeur Hardy, 360 Directeur Tisserand, 360 Directeur Varenne, 360 Dirkjes Peer, 360 Diseases of the pear, 110 Dix, 360 Dix, Madame, orig. of Dix, 360 Dixie, 360 Doat, 361 Doat, orig. of Doat, 361 Docteur Andry, 361 Docteur Bénit, 361 Docteur Bourgeois, 361 Docteur Bouvier, 361 Docteur Capron, 361 Docteur Chaineau, 361 Docteur Delatosse, 361 Docteur Gromier, 361 Docteur Joubert, 361 _Docteur Jules Guyot_ (syn. of Guyot), 173 Docteur Koch, 361 Docteur Lentier, 362 Docteur Lindley, 362 Docteur Meniere, 362 Docteur Nélis, 362 Docteur P. Bruzon, 362 Docteur Pariset, 362 Docteur Pigeaux, 362 _Docteur Rhéder_ (syn. of Reeder), 211 Docteur Trousseau, 362 Doctor Bachmann, 362 Doctor Engelbrecht, 363 Doctor Hogg Bergamot, 363 Doctor Hoskins, 363 Doctor Howe, 363 Dr. Jules Guyot, 173 _Doctor Reeder_ (syn. of Reeder), 211 Doctor Turner, 363 Dodge, 363 Dodoens, mention of pear varieties by, 16 Doktorsbirne, 363 Donatienne Bureau, 363 Dones, 363 Donville, 363 _Doppelte Philippsbirne_ (syn. of Doyenné Boussock), 152 Doppelttragende gelbe Muskatellerbirne, 364 Dörell Herbst Muskateller, 364 Dorlain, orig. of Saint Ghislain, 536 Dorothée Nouvelle, 364 Dorothée Royale Nouvelle, 364 Dorr, 364 Dorschbirne, 364 Dorset, 149 Dosoris, 364 Double d'Automne, 364 _Double Blossom_ (syn. of Double-Fleur), 364 Double-Fleur, 364 Double de Guerre, 365 Double-Plouvier, 365 Double Rousselet, 365 Douglas, 150 Douillard, orig. of Alexandrine Douillard, 241 Dow, 365 Downer, Samuel, introd. of Andrews, 246 Dowler, 365 Downton, 365 Doyen Dillen, 365 _Doyenné_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 Doyenné d'Alençon, 150; parent of Bergamotte Tardive Collette, 277; Pierre Curie, 499 Doyenné Bizet, 365 _Doyenné Blanc_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 Doyenné Blanc Long, 366 Doyenné Boisnard, 366 Doyenné Boisselot, 366 Doyenné de Bordeaux, 366. _Doyenné Boussoch_ (syn. of Doyenné Boussock), 152 Doyenné Boussock, 152; parent of Fondante des Emmurées, 384 _Doyenné Boussock Nouvelle_ (syn. of Doyenné Boussock), 152 Doyenné Bouyron, 366 Doyenné du Cercle, 366 Doyenné à Cinq Pans, 366 Doyenné du Comice, 153; parent of Directeur Tisserand, 360; Doyenné Georges Boucher, 367; Jeanne d'Arc, 429; Pierre Corneille, 499 Doyenné Defays, 366 Doyenné Downing, 366 _Doyenné d'Effay_ (syn. of Doyenné Defays), 366 Doyenné d'Été, parent of Eliot Early, 375 _Doyenné d'Été_ (syn. of Summer Doyenné), 221 Doyenné Flon Ainé, 367 Doyenné Fradin, 367 Doyenné Georges Boucher, 367 Doyenné Goubault, 367 _Doyenné Gray_ (syn. of Doyenné Gris), 367 Doyenné de la Grifferaye, 367 Doyenné Gris, 367 _Doyenné Gris_, parent of Avocat Allard, 257 Doyenné Guillard, 367 Doyenné des Haies, 367 _Doyenné d'Hiver_ (syn. of Easter Beurré), 159 Doyenné Hudellet, 368 Doyenné Jamin, 368 _Doyenné de Juillet_ (syn. of Summer Doyenné), 221 Doyenné de Lorraine, 368 Doyenné Louis, 368 _Doyenné de Mérode_ (syn. of Doyenné Boussock), 152 Doyenné de Montjean, 368 Doyenné Nérard, 368 Doyenné Nouveau, 368 Doyenné Perrault, 368 Doyenné Picard, 368 Doyenné Rahard, 369 Doyenné de Ramegnies, 369 Doyenné Robin, 369 Doyenné Rose, 369 Doyenné Saint-Roch, 369 Doyenné de Saumur, 369 Doyenné Sentelet, 369 Doyenné Sieulle, 369 _Doyenné Sterckmans_ (syn. of Beurré Sterckmans), 306 Drapiez, 369 Driessche, orig. of Beurré van Driessche, 293 _Driessen's Pomeranzenbirne_ (syn. of Beurré Driessen), 293 Drone, 370 _Drouard_ (syn. of Président Drouard), 210 Du Breuil, Alphonse, orig. of Du Breuil Père, 370; Souvenir de du Breuil Père, 549 Du Breuil Père, 370 Du Mirror, 370 Du Mortier, orig. of Bergamotte de Tournai, 278 Du Roeulx, 370 Dubreuil, orig. of Professeur Dubreuil, 514 Dubrulle, 370 Dubuisson, Isidore, orig. of Beurré Dubuisson, 293 Duc Alfred de Croy, 370 Duc d'Aumale, 370 Duc de Brabant, 370 Duc de Morny, 370 Duc de Nemours, 370 _Duchess of Angoulême_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Angoulême), 154 _Duchess Bronze_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Angoulême Bronzée), 371 _Duchess of Orleans_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Orléans), 156 Duchesse d'Angoulême, 154; parent of Bill Campbell, 309; Cassel, 329; Dempsey, 357; Douglas, 150; Duchesse Précoce, 372; General Wauchope, 395; Henri Bouet, 415; place of, in New York pear culture, 85 Duchesse d'Angoulême Bronzée, 371 Duchesse d'Angoulême Panachée, 371 Duchesse Anne, 371 Duchesse d'Arenberg, 371 Duchesse de Berry d'Été, 371 Duchesse de Bordeaux, 371; parent of Doyenné à Cinq Pans, 366 Duchesse de Brabant, 372 Duchess de Brabant (De Capeinick), 372 Duchesse de Brissac, 372 Duchesse Grousset, 372 Duchesse Hélène d'Orléans, 372 Duchesse d'Hiver, 372 Duchesse Hybrid, 372 Duchesse de Mars, 372 Duchesse de Mouchy, 372 Duchesse d'Orléans, 156 Duchesse Précoce, 372 Duchovaya, 373 Dudley, 373 Dudley, mention of pears by, 45; orig. of Dudley, 373 _Duhamel_ (syn. of Duhamel du Monceau), 157 Duhamel du Monceau, 157 _Duhamel's Butterbirne_ (syn. of Duhamel du Monceau), 157 Duke, Lucy, orig. of Beaufort, 262; Lucy Duke, 194 _Dumas_ (syn. of Épine du Mas), 377 Dumon-Dumortier, 373 Dumont, Joseph, orig. of Bergamotte de Tournai, 277; Beurré Dumont, 293; Beurré d'Esquelmes, 294 Dundas, 373 Dunmore, 373 Dupuy Charles, 373 Duquesne, Abbé, orig. of Colmar Van Mons, 344; Marie Louise, 198 Durand-Gasselin, orig. of Poire Brune de Gasselin, 501 Durandeau, 373 Durandeau, Charles Louis, orig. of Durandeau, 373 Durée, 374 Durst-Lösche, 374 Dussart, orig. of Bergamotte Dussart, 271 "Dutch Jacob", discoverer of Seckel, 215 Duval, orig. of Archiduc Charles, 251; Beurré Duval, 294 Dwarfing, best pear varieties for, 95; of pears, 94 Earl, S., orig. of Herkimer, 417 Early Ely, 374 Early Green Sugar, 374 Early Harvest, 158 _Early Butter of Indiana_ (syn. of Craig), 349 _Early Rousselet_ (syn. of Rousselet Hâtif), 528 _Early Wilbur_ (syn. of Wilbur), 580 _Early Wilder_ (syn. of Wilder Early), 230 Easter Bergamot, 374 Easter Beurré, 159; parent of Directeur Varenne, 360; Louis Cappe, 451; Souvenir de Renault Père, 550 Eastern Belle, 374 Echasserie, 374 Eckard, W. C., orig. of Luola, 454 Economic considerations in pear culture, 94 Edle Sommerbirne, 375 Edward Seedling St. Germain, 375 Edwards, Bryan, orig. of Bryan Edwards, 321 Edwards, Henry W., biography of, 375; orig. of varieties, 326, 327, 338, 340, 353, 375, 388, 416, 567, 568, 581 Effie Holt, 375 Eliot, Judge Charles, orig. of Eliot Early, 375 Eliot Early, 375 Élisa d'Heyst, 375 Elizabeth, 161 Elizabeth (Edwards), 375 _Élizabeth de Manning_ (syn. of Elizabeth), 161 Elizabeth Maury, 376 Ellis, 376 Ellis, Annie E., orig. of Ellis, 376 Ellis (New York), 376 Ellison, M. P., orig. of Ford, 386 Ellwanger, George, biography of, 205 Ellwanger & Barry, introd. into America of Alexander Lucas, 240 Ely, Silas, orig. of Early Ely, 374 Emerald, 376 Émile d'Heyst, 376 Endicott pear tree, 41 Enfant Nantais, 376 Enfant Prodigue, 376 England, pear in, 29 English and American pear-growing compared, 37 _Épargne_ (syn. of Jargonelle), 177 Épine d'Été, 377 Épine d'Été Rouge, 377 Épine d'Hiver, 377 Épine de Jernages, 377 Épine du Mas, 377 Épine Royale, 377 Épine-Royale de Courtray, 378 _Eriophyes pyri_ on pear, 119 Ermsinde, 378 Ernestine Auzolle, 378 Ernst, A. H., introd. of Prairie du Pond, 506 Eseme, 378 Espéren, Major, orig. of varieties, 165, 180, 219, 242, 271, 279, 288, 289, 315, 325, 329, 330, 334, 338, 362, 365, 375, 376, 384, 400, 430, 457, 462, 477, 478, 491, 492, 494, 513, 531, 542, 548, 558, 563, 573; work of, as a pear breeder, 19 _Esperen Waldbirne_ (syn. of Belle de Forêts), 264 _Esperen's Herrenbirne_ (syn. of Belle Lucrative), 126 Esperine, 378 Esperione, 378 Essex, 378 Essington, W. E., orig. of Autumn Joséphine, 256 Esther Comte, 378 Estienne, list of pears given by, 13 Estranguillon, 378 Esturion, 378 Eugène Appert, 379 Eugène Furst, 379 Eugène Maisin, 379 Eugène des Nouhes, 379 Eugène Thirriot, 379 Euratsfelder Mostbirne, 379 Eureka, 379 Europe, eastern and central, pear in, 19 European pear varieties imported into America, 52 Eva Baltet, 379 Everard, Gabriel, orig. of Délices Everard, 356 Excellente de Moine, 380 Excelsior, 380 Eyewood, 380 _Fabræa maculata_, cause of leaf-blight, 115 Fall, 380 Fall Beurré d'Arenburg, 380 Famenga, 380 _Farragut_ (syn. of Admiral Farragut), 238 _Fassbirne_ (syn. of Tonneau), 564 Faurite, 380 Fauvanelle, 380 _Favorite de Clapp_ (syn. of Clapp Favorite), 142 Favorite Joanon, 380 Favorite Morel, 381 Favre, orig. of Madame Favre, 458; Souvenir Favre, 550 Feast, 381 Feast, Samuel, orig. of Feast, 381 Feaster, Aaron, orig. of Bleeker Meadow, 311 Félix de Liem, 381 Félix Sahut, 381 Feraut, orig. of Augier, 254 Ferdinand Gaillard, 381 Ferdinand de Lesseps, 381 Fertility, 381 Fertility of pear, 99 Fertilizers for pears, 98 _Feuille de chêne_ (syn. of Naples), 479 Figue, 381 Figue d'Alençon, 382 Figue de Naples, 382 Figueira, 382 Fin Juillet, 382 Fin-Or d'Orleans, 382 Fin-Or de Septembre, 382 _Fine Gold of Summer_ (syn. of Fin-Or d'Orléans), 382 Fitzwater, 382 Flack, W., orig. of Essex, 378 Fleming, Mrs. Maria, orig. of Lincoln, 191 Flemish Beauty, 163; parent of Bergamotte Nicolle, 274; Doctor Hoskins, 363; Eva Baltet, 379; Max, 469 Flemish Bon Chrêtien, 382 Flon, orig. of Bertrand Guinoisseau, 278; Beurré Flon, 295; Doyenné Flon Ainé, 367; Fortunée supérieure, 387; Maréchal Pelissier, 462 Flon-Grolleau, orig. of Général Bosquet, 394; Lieutenant Poidevin, 448; Saint Vincent de Paul, 538 _Florelle_ (syn. of Forelle), 167 Florent Schouman, 383 Florida Bartlett, 383 Florimond Parent, 390 Flower-buds of pear, characteristics of, 62 Flowers of pear, characteristics of, 62 Fluke, 383 Fluke, N. K., introd. of Fluke, 383 Fondante Agréable, 383 Fondante Albert, 383 Fondante d'Angers, 383 _Fondante d'Automne_ (syn. of Belle Lucrative), 126 Fondante de Bihorel, 383 _Fondante des Bois_ (syn. of Flemish Beauty), 163 Fondante de Brest, 383 Fondante de Charleville, 384 Fondante de Charneau, 384 Fondante de Cuerne, 384 Fondante des Emmurées, 384 Fondante d'Ingendal, 384 Fondante de Ledeberg, 384 Fondante de la Maitre-École, 384 Fondante de Malines, 384 Fondante de Mars, 384 Fondante de Moulins-Lille, 385 Fondante de Nees, 385 Fondante de Noël, 164 Fondante du Panisel, 385 Fondante des Prés, 385 Fondante de la Roche, 385 Fondante de Rome ou Sucré Romain, 385 Fondante de Saint-Amand, 385 _Fondante de Schönert_ (syn. of Schönerts Omsewitzer Schmalzbirne), 542 Fondante-de-Septembre, 385 Fondante Sickler, 386 Fondante de Thines, 386 Fondante Thirriot, 386 Fondante Van Mons, 386 Fondante de Wollmet, 386 Fontaine de Ghélin, orig. of Général Totleben, 395 Fontarabie, 386 Fontenay, 165 Foote, Asahel, orig. of Fall Beurré d'Arenburg, 380; Foote Seckel, 386; Homestead, 420; Hoosic, 420; Weeping Willow, 576 Foote Seckel, 386 Ford, 386 Forelle, 167 _Forellenbirne_ (syn. of Forelle), 167 Forme de Bergamotte Crassane, 387 Forme de Curtet, 387 Forme de Délices, 387 Fortune, 387 Fortunée, 387; parent of Bergamotte Hertrich, 272; Fortunée Boisselot, 387; Fortunée supérieure, 387; Olivier de Serres, 200 Fortunée Boisselot, 387 _Fortunée de Printemps_ (syn. of Fortunée), 387 Fortunée supérieure, 387 Foster, Suel, orig. of Snow, 547 Fouqueray, orig. of Beurré Fouqueray, 295 Fourcine, W., orig. of Comtesse de Paris, 347 Fourcroy, 387 Fouron, 387 Fowler, Dr., orig. of Muscadine, 476 Fox, 168 Fox, Bernard S., biography of, 168; orig. of Colonel Wilder, 144; Fox, 168; P. Barry, 203 Franc-Réal, 388 _Franc Réal d'Hiver_ (syn. of Franc-Réal), 388 France, pear in, 12; rapid increase in pear varieties in, 15 Frances, 388 Franchimont, 388 Franchipanne, 388 Francis, 388 Francis Dana, 388 François Hutin, 388 _Frangipane_ (syn. of Franchipanne), 388 Frangipane d'Hiver, 388 Frankenbirne, 389 Frankfurter Birne, 389 _Französische Gute Graue Sommerbirne_ (syn. of Grise-Bonne), 403 _Französische Zapfenbirne_ (syn. of Brute Bonne), 321 Frau Louise Goethe, 389 Frederic Leclerc, 389 Frédéric de Wurtemberg, 389 Frederica Bremer, 389 Frederick Clapp, 169 Fremion, 390 French, connection of the, with history of pear in America, 46 French pear stocks, notes on, 95 Frensdorff Rothe Flaschenbirne, 390 Frühe Backhausbirne, 390 Frühe Schweizer Bergamotte, 390 Fruit characters of pomes, 63 Fruit setting of pears, discussion of, 99 Fuller, 390 Fullero, 390 Fulton, 390; parent of Tudor, 567 Fulton, orig. of Fulton, 390 _Fumago vagans_, cause of black mold of pear, 117 Fusée d'Automne, 390 Fusée d'Hiver, 391 Gabourell Seedling, 391 Gakovsky, 391 Gallo, mention of pears by, 12 Galopin, orig. of Chaudfontaine, 335 Galston Muirfowl Egg, 391 Gambier, orig. of Beurré Gambier, 295; Fondante d'Ingendal, 384; Marie Louise d'Uccle, 464 Gans, 391 Gans, Joseph, discoverer of Gans, 391 Gänsekopf, 391 Gansel, Lieutenant-General, orig. of Gansel Bergamot, 391 Gansel Bergamot, 391; parent of Gansel Seckel, 170 Gansel Late Bergamot, 391; parent of Doctor Hogg Bergamot, 363 Gansel Seckel, 170 _Gansel-Seckle_ (syn. of Gansel Seckel), 170 Garber, 171; place of, in commercial pear culture, 84 Garber, J. B., orig. of Garber, 171 _Garber's Hybrid_ (syn. of Garber), 171 Garden, pomological, of Robert Manning, 53 Garden, T. J., introd. of Cole Winter, 341 _Garden Pear_ (syn. of Poirer de Jardin), 505 Garnier, 392 Garnier, orig. of Garnier, 392; Maria de Nantes, 463 Garnons, 392 Gassenbirne, 392 Gaston du Puys, 392 Gaudry, 392 Gaujard, orig. of Mademoiselle Marguerite Gaujard, 460 Géant, 392 Gefleckte Pomeranzenbirne, 392 Gefleckte Sommerrusselet, 392 Gefundene, 392 Geigenschnabel, 392 Geishirtle, 392 _Gelbe Frühbirne_ (syn. of Jaune Hâtive), 428 Gelbe frühe Sommerapothekerbirne, 392 Gelbe Fürsten-Tafelbirne, 393 Gelbe Heckenbirne, 393 Gelbe Holzbirne, 393 Gelbe Landlbirne, 393 Gelbe langstielige Alantbirne, 393 Gelbe Laurentiusbirne, 393 Gelbe Leutsbirne, 393 Gelbe Scheibelbirne, 393 _Gelbe Sommerrusselet_ (syn. of Rousselet Jaune d'Été), 529 Gelbe Wasserbirne, 393 Gelbmostler, 394 _Gellert's Butterbirne_ (syn. of Beurré Hardy), 135 Gemeine Kochbirne, 394 Gemeine Pfundbirne, 394 Gendron, orig. of Beurré Gendron, 295 Général de Bonchamp, 394 Général Bosquet, 394 Général Canrobert, 394 Général Delage, 394 Général Dutilleul, 394 Général Duvivier, 395 General Kearney, 395 General Lamoricière, 395 General Sherman, 395 General Taylor, 395 Général Thouvenin, 395 Général Totleben, 395 General Wauchope, 395 Gensbirne, 395 George Augustus, 396 Georges Delebecque, 396 Gerando, 396 Gerarde, mention of pears by, 32 Gérardine, 396 Gerdessen, 396 Gerdessen, Pastor, orig. of Gerdessen, 396 _Gergonell_(syn. of Jargonelle), 177 Gerippte Pomeranzenbirne, 396 _German Muscat_ (syn. of Deutsche Muskateller), 358 Germany, pomological literature of, 20 Gernröder Pomeranzenbirne, 396 Gestreiffe Winter-Apothekerbirne, 396 Ghélin, Fontaine de, orig. of Beurré de Ghélin, 296 Ghellinck de Walle, 396 Ghellinck de Walle, orig. of Ghellinck de Walle, 396 Gibb, 396 Gibb, introd. of Russian pears by, 56 Gibey-Lorne, orig. of Monseigneur des Hons, 474 _Giffard_ (syn. of Beurré Giffard), 134 _Giffard's Butterbirne_ (syn. of Beurré Giffard), 134 Gilain, 397 Gilles ô Gilles, 397 Giram, 397 Girandoux, orig. of Girardon, 397 Girardon, 397 _Girogile_ (syn. of Gilles ô Gilles), 397 Glace d'hiver, 397 Glastonbury, 397 Gleck, 398 Gliva, 398 Gloire de Cambron, 398 Glou Morceau, 172; confusion with Beurre d'Arenberg, 129; parent of Bergamotte de Toumai, 277; Beurré Ad. Papeleu, 283; Souvenir Favre, 550; Winter Williams, 584 _Glout Morceau_ (syn. of Glou Morceau), 172 _Gloux Morceau_ (syn. of Glou Morceau), 172 Gloward, 398 Gnoico, 398 Goat-herd, 398 _Goemans Gelbe Sommerbirne_ (syn. of Passe-Goemans), 491 Gogal, 398 Gold Dust, 399 Gold Nugget, 399 Goldbirne, 399 Goldbordirte Holzbirne, 399 Golden Bell, 399 Golden Beurré of Bilboa, 398 Golden June, 399 Golden Knap, 399 Golden Queen, 399 Golden Russet, 399 _Golden Russet_ (syn. of Japan Golden Russet), 428 Goldwörther Lederbirne, 399 Gönnersche Birne, 399 Goodale, 400 Goodale, E., orig. of Goodale, 400 Goodrich, Chauncey, orig. of Paddock, 489 Gore, Gov., orig. of Heathcot, 413 Got, 400 Goubault, Maurice, orig. of varieties, 138, 274, 279, 281, 293, 296, 304, 310, 367, 465, 471 Governor Carver, 400 Grabel, Jacob, orig. of Posey, 506 Grabenbirne, 400 Grading of pears, 108 Graf Moltke, 400 Grafting pears, 106 Graham, F. J., orig. of Autumn Nelis, 256 _Graham Autumn Nelis_ (syn. of Autumn Nelis), 256 Grand Bretagne, 400 Grand Isle, 400 _Grand Monarque_ (syn. of Catallac), 330 Grand-Soliel, 400 Grant, 401 Graslin, 401 Grasshoff Leckerbissen, 401 Gratiola, 401 _Graue Flaschenbirne_ (syn. of Calbasbirn), 324 Graue Herbstrusselet, 401 Graue Holzbirne, 401 Graue Honigbirn, 401 Graue Pelzbirne, 401 Graue Speckbirne, 401 Graue Zuckerbirne, 402 Grazbirne, 402 Great Cassolette, 402 Great Citron of Bohemia, 402 Great Mammoth, 402 Greece, ancient, pear in, 3 Greeks, monographs on husbandry by, 7 Green, Charles A., introd. into America of Président Drouard, 210 Green Chisel, 402 Green Mountain Boy, 402 Green Pear of Yair, 402 _Green Yair_ (syn. of Green Pear of Yair), 402 Gregoire, Xavier, orig. of varieties, 238, 239, 249, 255, 257, 259, 273, 302, 303, 304, 338, 342, 345, 362, 396, 397, 414, 415, 425, 429, 432, 440, 445, 446, 451, 457, 458, 467, 473, 474, 483, 507, 510, 511, 512, 514, 529, 531, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 572, 573, 587; work as pear breeder, 19 Grégoire Bordillon, 403 Grey Good-Wife, 403 Gris, M. le, orig. of Doyenné de la Grifferaye, 367 Grise-Bonne, 403 Grolez-Duriez, orig. of Belle-Moulinoise, 265; Fondante de Moulins-Lille, 385 Groom, introd. of Groom Prince Royal, 403 Groom Prince Royal, 403 Gros Blanquet Long, 403 Gros Blanquet Rond, 403 Gros-Hativeau, 404 Gros Loijart, 404 Gros Lucas, 404 Gros Muscat Rond, 404 Gros Rousselet, 404 Gros Rousselet d'Aout, 405 Gros Trouvé, 405 _Grosse Angleterre de Noisette_ (syn. of Grosse Poire d'Amande), 406 Grosse Eisbirne, 405 Grosse Figue, 405 Grosse gelbe Weinbirne, 405 Grosse-Herbst-Bergamotte, 405 Grosse Landlbirne, 405 Grosse Leutsbirne, 405 Grosse-Louise, 405 Grosse Mostputzer, 405 Grosse Petersbirne, 406 Grosse Poire d'Amande, 406 Grosse Poire de Vitrier, 406 Grosse Queue, 406 Grosse Rommelter, 406 Grosse schöne Jungfernbirne, 406 Grosse September Birne, 406 Grosse Sommer-Zitronenbirne, 407 Grosse Sommersirene, 406 Grosse späte Weinbirne, 407 _Grosse Verte-Longue Précoce de la Sarthe_ (syn. of Verte-Longue de la Sarthe), 571 Grosser Roland, 407 Grousset, orig. of Enfant Nantais, 376 Groveland, 407 Grubbirne, 407 Grumkow, 407 Grunbirne, 407 Grüne Confesselsbirne, 407 Grüne frühe Gewurzbirne, 407 Grüne fürstliche Tafelbirne, 407 Grüne gesegnete Winterbirne, 408 _Grüne Lange Herbstbirne_ (syn. of Long Green), 449 Grüne langstielige Winterhirtenbirne, 408 _Grüne Magdalene_(syn. of Madeleine), 195 Grüne Pfundbirne, 408 Grüne Pichelbirne, 408 Grüne Sommer-Bergamote, 408 Grüne Sommer-Citronenbirne, 408 _Grüne Sommer-Magdalene_ (syn. of Madeleine), 195 Grüne Wiedenbirne, 408 Grüne Winawitz, 408 Grünmostler, 408 _Guenette_ (syn. of Green Chisel), 402 Gueniot, orig. of Le Brun, 443 Guéraud, orig. of Adèle de Saint-Denis, 237 Guillot, orig. of Bon-Chrétien Bonnamour, 313 Gulabi, 409 Guntershauser Holzbirne, 409 Gustave Bivort, 409 Gustave Bourgogne, 409 Gustin Summer, 409 _Gute Graue_ (syn. of Yat), 586 Gute Grüne, 409 _Gute Louise von Avranches_(syn. of Louise Bonne de Jersey), 193 Guyot, 173 Habichtsbirne, 409 Habit of growth of pear-trees, 59 Habitat of _Pyrus auricularis_, 73; _Pyrus betulaefolia_, 79; _Pyrus calleryana_, 80; _Pyrus communis_, 70; _Pyrus nivalis_, 72; _Pyrus serotina_, 75; _Pyrus serotina culta_, 76; _Pyrus serrulata_, 78; _Pyrus ussuriensis_, 77 Hacon Incomparable, 409; parent of Hoosic, 420 Haddington, 409 Haffner Bros., orig. of Haffner Butterbirne, 410 Haffner Butterbirne, 410 Hagar, 410 _Hagerman_ (syn. of Hegeman), 414 Haight, 410 Hallische gelbe Honigbirne, 410 Hamburg, 410 Hamburger Birne, 410 Hamilton, 410 Hammelsbirne, 410 Hamon, 410 Hampden Bergamot, 410 Hampton, W. C., orig. of Hampton Bergamot, 411; Hampton Cluster, 411 Hampton Bergamot, 411 Hampton Cluster, 411 Hampton Virgalieu, 411 Hancock, 411 Hancock, Thomas, orig. of Tatnall Harvest, 559 Hangelbirne, 411 Hannover'sche Jakobsbirne, 411 Hannover'sche Margarethenbirne, 411 Hanover, 411 Hansen, N. E., orig. of Pushkin, 515; Tolstoy, 564 Hardenpont, Abbé, efforts in breeding pears by, 16; orig. of varieties, 172, 206, 304, 356, 385 Hardenpont frühe Colmar, 411 _Hardenpont's Winter Butterbirne_ (syn. of Glou Morceau), 172 _Hardy_ (syn. of Beurré Hardy), 135 Harigelsbirne, 412 Harnard, 412 Harnard, John, orig. of Harnard, 412 Harris (Georgia), 412 Harris (Massachusetts), 412 Harrison Large Fall, 412 Hartberger Mostbirne, 412 Harte Neapolitanerin, 412 Hartwiss, M. De, orig. of Beurré Woronson, 308 Harvard, 412 Harvest, 412 Harvesting pears, 106 Harvey, Eli, owner of original tree of Brandywine, 140 Hassler, 413 Hassler, J. E., orig. of A. J. Cook, 236; Hassler, 413 Hastings, J. C., introd. of Frederica Bremer, 389 Hausemerbirne, 413 Hautmonté, 413 Hawaii, 413 Hawes Winter, 413 Hawkesbill, 413 Hays, 413 Heat resistant pears, 86 Heathcot, 413 Hebe, 413 _Hebron_ (syn. of Pinneo), 499 Hedwig von der Osten, 413 _Hedwige d'Osten_ (syn. of Hedwig von der Osten), 413 Hegeman, 414 Hegeman, Andrew, orig. of Hegeman, 414 Heilige Angelika-Birne, 414 Hélène Grégoire, 414 Hélin, Dr., orig. of Beurré Caty, 290 Hellinckx, orig. of Colmar d'Alost, 341 Hellmann, orig. of Melon de Hellmann, 470 Hellmann, Melonenbirn, 414 Hemminway, 414 Henkel, 414 _Henkel d'Automne_ (syn. of Henkel), 414 Henrard, Denis, orig. of Beurré Fenzl, 294; Bon-Chrétien de Vernois, 315 Henri Bivort, 414 Henri Bouet, 415 Henri de Bourbon, 415 Henri Capron, 415 Henri Decaisne, 415 Henri Desportes, 415 Henri Grégoire, 415 Henri Ledocte, 415 Henri Quatre, 415 _Henri Van Mons_ (syn. of Fleur de Neige), 382 Henrietta, 416 Henriette, 416 Henriette Van Cauwenberghe, 416 Henry, Henry C., orig. of Henry (Illinois), 416 Henry (Connecticut), 416 Henry (Illinois), 416 _Henry the Fourth_ (syn. of Henri Quatre), 415 Hérault, A., orig. of Bergamotte Hérault, 272; Fin Juillet, 382; Joyau de Septembre, 432 Herbelin, 416 Herbin, 416 Herborner Schmalzbirne, 416 Herbst-Citronenbirne, 417 Herbst-Klöppelbirne, 417 _Herbstbirne ohne Schale_ (syn. of Lansac), 443 Herbsteierbirne, 417 Herbstlanger, 417 _Herbstsylvester_ (syn. of Frédéric de Wurtemberg), 389 Héricart, 417 Héricart de Thury, 417 Herkimer, 417 Herr, A. G., orig. of Herr Late Winter, 417 Herr Late Winter, 417 Hert, 417 Hertrich, orig. of Bergamotte Hertrich, 272 Hervy, Michel-Christophe, orig. of Chaptal, 333 _Herzogin von Angoulême_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Angoulême), 154 Hessenbirne, 418 Hessle, 418 Hewes, 418 Heyer Zuckerbirne, 418 Hicks, Isaac, orig. of Durée, 374 Higginson, mention of pears by, 45 Hilda, 418 Hildegard, 418 Hildesheimer Bergamotte, 418 Hildesheimer späte Sommerbirne, 418 Hildesheimer Winterbirn, 418 Hingham, 419 Hirschbirne, 419 Hirsenbirne, 419 History of pear, long lapse in, 11 Hitzendorfer Mostbirne, 419 _Hochfeine Butterbirne_ (syn. of Beurré Superfin), 137 Hoe Langer Hoe Liever, 419 Hofsta, 419 Holland Green, 419 Holländische Butterbirne, 419 Holländische Gewürzbirne, 419 Holländische Zuckerbirne, 419 Holmer, 420 Holt, L. W., orig. of Effie Holt, 375 _Holzfarbige Butterbirne_ (syn. of Flemish Beauty), 163 Home ripening of pears, 109 Homer, mention of pear by, 4 Homestead, 420 Honey, 420 Honey (Russia), 420 Honey Dew, 420 Honigbergamotte, 420 Honnelbirne, 420 Hood, George, orig. of Lycurgus, 454 Hoosic, 420 Hopedale Nurs. Co., introd. of Weihmier Sugar, 576 Hopfenbirne, 421 Hosenschenk, 421 Houdin, orig. of Belle des Arbrés, 262 Houghlin, Joe, orig. of Golden June, 399 Housatonic, 421 Houser, 421 Hovey, 421 Howard, 421 Howe, Dr. John P., orig. of Doctor Howe, 363 Howe, John J., orig. of Housatonic, 421 Howe Winter, 421 Howell, 174; place in commercial pear culture, 84 Howell, Thomas, orig. of Howell, 175 _Howell's Seedling_ (syn. of Howell), 174 Hubert Grégoire, 421 Hudellet, Jules, orig. of Doyenné Hudellet, 368 Huffcap, 421 Hüffel Bratbirne, 421 Huggard, 421 Huguenot, 422 Huhle de Printemps, 422 Hull, 422 Hungerford Oswego, 422 Hunt Connecticut, 422 Huntington, 422 Hurbain d'Hiver, 422 Hussein Armudi, 422 Hutcherson, 422 Huyshe, Rev. John, orig. of "Royal Pears," 423 _Huyshe Bergamot_ (syn. of Huyshe Prince of Wales), 423 Huyshe Prince Consort, 423 Huyshe Prince of Wales, 423 Huyshe Princess of Wales, 423 Huyshe Victoria, 423 Hyacinthe du Puis, 423 Ickworth, 423 Ida, 423 Idaho, 175 Ilinka, 424 Impériale à Feuilles de Chêne, 424 Incommunicable, 424 Incomparable de Beuraing, 424 Inconstant, 424 Indian Queen, 424 Infortunée, 424 Ingénieur Wolters, 424 Ingram, Thomas, orig. of British Queen, 320 Innominée, 424 Insects affecting pear, 117 International, 425 Iris Grégoire, 425 _Iron Pear_ (syn. of Black Worcester), 310 Isabella, 425 Isabelle de Malèves, 425 Island, 425 Italienische Winterbergamotte, 425 Ives, 425 Ives, Dr. Eli, orig. of Dow, 365; Ives, 425; Ives August, 425; New Haven, 481 Ives August, 425 Ives Bergamotte, 426 Ives Seedling, 426 Ives Virgalieu, 426 Ives Winter, 426 Ives Yale, 426 Jablousky, 426 Jackson, 426 Jackson, S. S., orig. of Jackson Elizabeth, 426 Jackson Elizabeth, 426 Jacqmain, 426 Jacques Chamaret, 426 Jacques Mollet, 427 Jakobsbirne, 427 Jalais, Jacques, orig. of Beurré du Champ Corbin, 290; Beurré Jalais, 298; Bonne de Jalais, 316; Chaigneau, 332; Duchesse Anne, 371 Jalousie, 427 _Jalousie de Fontenay_ (syn. of Fontenay), 166 _Jalousie de Fontenay Vendée_ (syn. of Fontenay), 165 Jalousie de la Réole, 427 Jalousie Tardive, 427 Jalvy, 427 Jamin & Durand, origs. of Doyenné Jamin, 368 Jaminette, 427 Jansemine, 427 Japan, 428 Japan Golden Russet, 428 Japan Wonder, 428 Japanese Pear. (See _Pyrus serotina_) Japanese Sand, 428 Jargonelle, 177; ancient names of, 177 Jargonelle (French), 178; parent of Henri Bouet, 415 Jargonelle d'Automne, 428 Jaune Hâtive, 428 Jaune de Merveillon, 428 Jean Baptist, 428 Jean-Baptiste Bivort, 428 Jean-Baptiste Dediest, 429 Jean Cottineau, 429 Jean Laurent, 429 Jean Sano, 429 Jean de Witte, 429 Jeanne, 429 Jeanne d'Arc, 429 Jefferson, 429 Jersey Gratioli, 430 Jerusalem, 430 Jeschil Armudi, 430 Jewel, 430 Jewess, 430 Joanon, orig. of Favorite Joanon, 380; Professeur Willermoz, 514; Sainte Anne, 538 John Cotton, 430 John Griffith, 430 John Monteith, 430 John Williams, 430 Johonnot, 431 Johonnot, G. S., orig. of Huguenot, 422; Johonnot, 431; Naumkeag, 480 Joie du Semeur, 431 Jolie Lille de Gust, 431 Joly de Bonneau, 431 Jonah, 431; parent of Howell, 175 Jones, 431 Joseph Lebeau, 431 Joseph Staquet, 431 Joséphine de Binche, 431 Joséphine de Malines, 179; parent of Autumn Joséphine, 256; Georges Delebecque, 396; Joie du Semeur, 431 Joséphine de Maubrai, 431 _Joséphine von Mecheln_ (syn. of Joséphine de Malines), 179 Josephsbirne, 432 Josselyn, mention of pears by, 45 Joyau de Septembre, 432; parent of Fin Juillet, 382 Judge Andrews, 432 Jules d'Airoles (Grégoire), 432 Jules d'Airolles (Leclerc), 432 _Jules Bivort_ (syn. of Délices de Lovenjoul), 356 Jules Blaise, 432 Jules Delloy, 432 _Juli Dechantsbirne_ (syn. of Summer Doyenné), 221 Julie Duquet, 432 Julienne, 432 Juneberry, relationship of, to pear, 57 Juvardeil, 432 Kaestner, 433 Kalchbirne, 433 Kalmerbirne, 433 Kamper-Venus, 433 Kathelenbirne, 433 Katy, 433 _Keiffer_ (syn. of Kieffer), 180 Keiser, 433 Kelsey, 434 Kelsey, William, orig. of Kelsey, 434 Kennedy, 434 Kenrick, William, introd. into America of Beurré Bosc, 131; Doyenné Boussock, 152 Kentucky, 434 Kenyon, 434 Kermes, 434 Kessler, Charles, introd. of Reading, 517 Kieffer, 180; parent of Cassel, 329; Douglas, 150; Eureka, 379; Theodore Williams, 561 Kieffer, Peter, orig. of Kieffer, 181 Kieffer and Bartlett leading commercial pears, 84 _Kieffer's Hybrid_ (syn. of Kieffer), 180 Kilwinning, 434 King, 434 _King Catherine_ (syn. of Catherine Royal), 330 King Edward, 434 King Seedling, 434 King Sobieski, 435 Kingsessing, 182 Kirtland, 435 Kirtland, Prof., orig. of Kirtland, 435 Klein Landlbirne, 435 Kleine Fuchselbirne, 435 Kleine gelbe Bratbirne, 435 Kleine gelbe Hessenbirne, 435 Kleine gelbe Maukelbirne, 435 Kleine gelbe Sommer-Zuckerbirne, 435 Kleine gelbe Sommermuskatellerbirne, 435 Kleine grüne Backbirne, 435 Kleine Lange Sommer-Muskatellerbirne, 436 Kleine Leutsbirne, 436 _Kleine Petersbirne_ (syn. of Petersbirne), 495 Kleine Pfalzgrafin, 436 Kleine Pfundbirne, 436 Kleine runde Haferbirne, 436 Kleine schlesische Zimmbirne, 436 _Kleine Schmalzbirne_ (syn. of Petite Fondante), 497 Kleine Sommer-Zuckerratenbirne, 436 Kleine Zwiebelbirne, 437 _Kleiner Katzenkopf_ (syn. of Petit Catallac, 496) Kloppelbirne, 437 Knabenbirne, 437 Knausbirne, 437 Knechtchensbirne, 437 Knight, 437 Knight, Thomas Andrew, orig. of varieties, 289, 320, 351, 365, 373, 380, 423, 462, 473, 474, 484, 494, 524, 527, 546, 563 Knight, William, orig. of Knight, 437 _Knight Monarch_ (syn. of Monarch), 474 Knollbirne, 437 Knoop, Herman, orig. of Calebasse, 324 Knoop, Misses, orig. of Des Deux Soeurs, 358 Knoops Simmtbirne, 437 Kolmasbirne, 438 Kolstuck, 438 König Karl von Württemberg, 438 Königliche Weissbirne, 438 Königsbirne, 438 Konstanzer Langler, 438 Koolstock, 438 Koonce, 183 _Kopertscher_ (syn. of Suprême Coloma), 557 _Köstliche Van Mons_ (syn. of De Duvergnies), 354 Kraft Sommer Bergamotte, 438 Krauelbirne, 438 _Kreiselförmige Blankette_ (syn. of Gros Blanquet Long), 403 Kreiselförmige Flegelbirne, 438 Kriegebirne, 439 Krivonogof, 439 Krockhals, 439 _Kröten Bergamotte_ (syn. of Bergamotte Bufo), 270 Krull, 439 Krull, orig. of Krull, 439 _Krull Winter_ (syn. of Krull), 439 Krummgestielte Feigenbirne, 439 _Krummholzige Schmalzbirne_ (syn. of Arbre Courbé), 251 Kuhfuss, 439 _Kümmelbirne_ (syn. of Besi d'Héry), 280 Kurskaya, 439 L'Inconnue Van Mons, 439 L'Inconstante, 439 La Béarnaise, 440 _La Bonne Malinoise_ (syn. of Winter Nelis), 232 La Cité Gomand, 440 La France, 440 _La Grosse Oignonette_ (syn. of Onion), 486 La Moulinoise, 440 La Quintinye, 440 La Savoureuse, 440 La Solsticiale, 440 La Vanstalle, 440 Lachambre, Octave, orig. of Octave Lachambre, 484 Lacroix, 441 _Lady_ (syn. of Vigne), 572 Lady Clapp, 441 Lafayette, 441 Lagrange, orig. of Sénateur Vaisse, 544 Lahérard, 441 _Lamartine_ (syn. of De Lamartine), 355 Lammas, 441 Lämmerbirne, 441 Lampe, orig. of Belle de Juillet, 265 Lamy, 184 Lancaster, 441 Lancaster, T. S., orig. of Lancaster, 441 Landsberger Malvasier, 441 Langbirne, 441 Lange gelbe Bischofsbirne, 442 Lange Gelbe Muscatellerbirne, 442 _Lange grüne Herbstbirne_ (syn. of Long Green of Autumn), 449 Lange grüne Winterbirne, 442 Lange Mundnetzbirne, 442 Lange Sommer-Bergamotte, 442 Lange Wasserbirne, 442 Langelier, Réné, orig. of Beurré Langelier, 299 Langstieler, 442 Langstielige Pfaffenbirne, 442 Langstielige Zuckerbirne, 442 Lansac, 443 _Large Blanquet_ (syn. of Gros Blanquet Long), 403 Large Duchess, 443 Larissa, 443 Laure Gilbert, 443 Laure de Glymes, 443 Lawrence, 185; place of, in New York pear culture, 85 Lawson, 186 Lawson, owner of original tree of, 186 Laxton, orig. of Laxton Bergamot, 443 Laxton, Bergamot, 443 Le Breton, 443 Le Brun, 443 Le Congo, 444 Le Conte, 187; parent of Big Productive, 309; Conkleton, 348 _Le Curé_ (syn. of Vicar of Winkfield), 227 Le Lecher, 444 Le Lectier, 188 Le Lectier, improvement of pears by, 14 Leaf-blight of pear, notes on, 115 Leaf-buds of pear, characteristics of, 61 Leaf-spot of pear, notes on, 115 Leaves of pear, characteristics of, 61 Leclerc, Léon, orig. of varieties, 190, 244, 247, 318, 426, 432, 510 Leclerc-Thouin, 444 Lederbirne, 444 Lederbogen, orig. of Beurré de Lederbogen, 299 Lee, 444 Lee Seckel, 444 Leech, Isaac, owner of original tree of Kingsessing, 182 Lefèvre, orig. of Beurré de Mortefontaine, 301 Lefèvre-Boitelle, orig. of Beurré Pauline Delzent, 303 Léger, 444 Lehoferbirne, 444 _Leipsic Radish_ (syn. of Leipziger Rettigbirn), 444 Leipziger Rettigbirn, 444 Lemon (Massachusetts), 445 Lemon (Russia), 445 Lenawee, 445 Leochine de Printemps, 445 Léon Dejardin, 445 Léon Grégoire, 445 Léon Leclerc (Van Mons), 189; parent of Rutter, 214 Léon Leclerc Épineux, 445 Lèon Leclerc de Laval, 446 Lèon Recq, 446 Léon Rey, 446 Léonce de Vaubernier, 446 Léonie, 446 Léonie Bouvier, 446 Léonie Pinchart, 446 Léontine Van Exem, 446 Leopold I., 446 Leopold Riche, 447 Lepine, 447 _Leptothyrium pomi_, cause of brown-blotch of pear, 116 Leroy, André, discussion of increase in pear varieties by, 15; introd. of varieties, 258, 260, 262; orig. of varieties, 122, 123, 157, 238, 240, 242, 299, 300, 304, 315, 325, 349, 354, 362, 372, 379, 381, 403, 415, 421, 447, 450, 451, 455, 456, 458, 459, 466, 468, 472, 479, 486, 495, 497, 499, 501, 506, 508, 515, 521, 523, 528, 539, 562, 582 Lesbre, 447 Lesèble, Narcisse, orig. of Bergamotte Lesèble, 273 Lesuer, A., orig. of Le Lecher, 444; Le Lectier, 188 Levard, 447 Levester Zuckerbirne, 447 Lewes, 447 Lewis, 447 Lewis, John, orig. of Lewis, 447 Lexington, 447 Liabaud, orig. of Alexandre Chomer, 241; Bergamotte Liabaud, 274 Liard, orig. of Napoleon, 479 Liberale, 448 Libotton, orig. of Crassane Libotton, 350 Liegel Honigbirne, 448 Lieutenant Poidevin, 448 _Limbertwig_ (syn. of Tonkovietka), 564 Limon, 448 Lincoln, 190 Lincoln Coreless, 192 Linzer Mostbirne, 448 _Little Blanquet_ (syn. of Petit-Blanquet), 495 _Little Muscat_ (syn. of Petit-Muscat), 496 Livingston, Judge, orig. of Nonpareil, 482 Livingston Virgalieu, 448 _Livre_ (syn. of Black Worcester), 310 Locations and soils for pears, 91 Locke, 448 Locke, James, orig. of Locke, 448 Lodge, 448 Loire, orig. of Loire-de-Mons, 449 Loire-de-Mons, 449 Loisel, orig. of Beurré Loisel, 300 London Sugar, 449 Long Green, 449 Long Green of Autumn, 449 Long Green of Esperin, 449 _Long Green Panache_ (syn. of Verte-longue panachée), 571 Longland, 449 Longue du Bosquet, 450 Longue-garde, 450 Longue-Sucrée, 450 _Longue-Verte_ (syn. of Long Green), 449 _Longue Verte d'Hiver_ (syn. of Lange Grüne Winterbirne), 442; (Sächsische Lange Grüne Winterbirne), 534 Longueville, 450 Longworth, 450 Loose, Henry, orig. of Tiffin, 563 Lorenzbirne, 450 Loriol de Barny, 450 Lothrop, 450 Loubiat, 450 Louis Cappe, 451 Louis Grégoire, 451 Louis Noisette, 451 Louis Pasteur, 451 Louis-Philippe, 451 Louis Van Houte, 451 Louis Vilmorin, 451 _Louise_ (syn. of Louise Bonne de Jersey), 193 Louise-Bonne, 451 Louise Bonne d'Avanches Panachée, 452 Louise Bonne de Jersey, 193; parent of Du Breuil Père, 370; Magnate, 460; Princess, 512; Professeur Dubreuil, 514; Souvenir de du Breuil Père, 549 _Louise Bonne of Jersey_ (Syn. of Louise Bonne de Jersey), 193 Louise-Bonne de Printemps, 452; parent of Baron Leroy, 259 Louise Bonne Sannier, 452; parent of Boieldien, 312 Louise de Boulogne, 452 Louise Dupont, 452 Louise d'Orléans, 452 Louise de Prusse, 452 Louison, 453 Lovaux, 453 Lovell, W. G. L., orig. of Glastonbury, 397 Lowell, John, introd. into America of Forelle, 167; Marie Louise, 198; Winter Nelis, 233 Lübecker Prinzessin Birne, 453 Lubin, 453 Lucie Audusson, 453 Lucien Chauré, 453 Lucien Leclercq, 453 Lucné Hative, 454 _Lucrative_ (syn. of Belle Lucrative), 126 Lucy Duke, 194 Lucy Grieve, 454 Luizet, orig. of Prémices d'Écully, 508 Luola, 454 Lutovka, 454 Lutzbirne, 454 Luxemburger Mostbirne, 454 Lycurgus, 454 Lydie Thiérard, 454 Lyerle, 454 Lyerle, orig. of Lyerle, 454 Lyon, 454 Mace, 455 Machländer Mostbirne, 455 Mackleroy, 455 Mackleroy, Davis, orig. of Mackleroy, 455 McLaughlin, 455; parent of Goodale, 400 McLaughlin, Henry, orig. of Eastern Belle, 374; Indian Queen, 424 _McLellan_ (syn. of Whieldon), 579 Macomber, 455 Macomber, Benjamin, orig. of Grand Isle, 400; Refreshing, 518; prop. of Vermont Beauty, 226 Macomber, J. T., orig. of Macomber, 455 McVean, 455 _Madame_ (syn. of Windsor), 583 _Madame Adélaïde de Rêves_ (syn. of Adélaïde de Rèves), 237 Madame Alfred Conin, 455 Madame André Leroy, 455 Madame Antoine Lormier, 455 Madame Appert, 456 Madame Arsène Sannier, 456 Madame Ballet, 456 Madame Baptiste Desportes, 456 Madame Blanchet, 456 Madame Bonnefond, 456 Madame Charles Gilbert, 456 Madame Chaudy, 456 Madame Cuissard, 456 Madame Delmotte, 457 Madame Ducar, 457 Madame Duparc, 457 Madame Durieux, 457 Madame Élisa, 457 Madame Élisa Dumas, 457 Madame Ernest Baltet, 458 Madame Favre, 458 Madame Flon, 458 Madame Grégoire, 458 _Madame Hemminway_ (syn. of Hemminway), 414 Madame Henri Desportes, 458 Madame Loriol de Barny, 458 Madame Lyé-Baltet, 458 Madame de Madre, 458 Madame Millet, 459 Madame Morel, 459 Madame Planchon, 459 Madame Du Puis, 459 Madame de Roucourt, 459 Madame Stoff, 459 Madame Torfs, 459 Madame Treyve, 459 Madame Vazille, 459 Madame Verté, 460 Madame Von Siebold, 460 Madeleine, 195; parent of Eliot Early, 375 Madeleine d'Angers, 460 Mademoiselle Blanche Sannier, 460 Mademoiselle Marguerite Gaujard, 460 Mademoiselle Solange, 460 Magherman, 460 Magnate, 460 Magnolia, 461 Maine-et-Loire, Horticultural Society of, orig. of Plantagenet, 500 Maisonneuve, François, orig. of Beurré Favre, 294 Malassis, Abbé, orig. of Doyenné d'Alençon, 151 Malconnaître d'Haspin, 461 _Malines_ (syn. of Joséphine de Malines), 179 Malus, relationship to pear, 58 Malvoisie de Landsberg, 461 Manchester, 461 Mandelblättrige Schneebirne, 461 Manning, 461 Manning, Robert, biography of, 162; introd. into America of varieties, 131, 162; orig. of varieties, 264; pomological garden of, 53 _Manning's Elizabeth_ (syn. of Elizabeth), 161 Mannington, John, orig. of Caroline Hogg, 328; Maud Hogg, 468; Meresia Nevill, 470 Mannsbirne, 461 Mansfield, 461 Mansuette, 461 Mansuette Double, 462 Mapes, Prof., orig. of Quinn, 516 Marasquine, 462 March Bergamot, 462 Maréchal de Cour, 462 Maréchal Dillen, 462 Maréchal Pelissier, 462 Maréchal Vaillant, 462 Margaret, 196 Margarethenbirne, 463 _Marguerite-Acidule_ (syn. of Säuerliche Margarethenbirne), 541 Marguerite d'Anjou, 463 Marguerite Chevalier, 463 Marguerite Marillat, 463 Maria, 463 Maria de Nantes, 463 Maria Stuart, 463 Marianne de Nancy, 463 Marie Benoist, 463 Marie Guisse, 464 Marie Henriette, 464 Marie Jallais, 464 Marie Louise, 197; parent of British Queen, 320; Marie Louise d'Uccle, 464; Pierre Paternotte, 499 _Marie-Louise Delcourt_ (syn. of Marie Louise), 197 Marie Louise Nova, 464 Marie Louise d'Uccle, 464 Marie Mottin, 464 Marie Parent, 464 Marietta, 464 Mariette de Millepieds, 465 Marillat, orig. of Marguerite Marillat, 463 Markbirne, 465 Marketing pears, 106 Markets, local, pears for, 101 Marksbirne, 465 Marmion, 465 _Marmorirte Schmalzbirne_ (syn. of Doyenné d'Alençon), 150 Marquise, 465 Marquise de Bedman, 465 Marsaneix, 465 Marshall, 466 Marshall, William, orig. of Marshall, 466 Marshall Wilder, 466 Martha Ann, 466 Martin, 466 Martin-Sec, 466 Martin-Sire, 466 Marulis, 467 Mary (Case), 467 Mary (Van Mons), 467 _Mary_ (syn. of Margaret), 196 Mas, orig. of varieties, 241 Mascon Colmar, 467 Masselbacher Mostbirne, 467 Masuret, 467 Mather, 467 Mather, John, orig. of Mather, 467 Mathilde, 467 Mathilde Gomand, 467 Mathilde Recq, 467 Mathilde de Rochefort, 467 Matou, 468 Matthews, 468 Maud Hogg, 468 Maude, 468 Maurice Desportes, 468 Maurier, discov. of Duchesse d'Orléans, 156 Maury, Reuben, orig. of Elizabeth Maury, 376 Mausebirne, 468 Max, 469 Mayflower, 468 Maynard, 468 Mayr frühzeitige Butterbirne, 469 Mecham, 469 Medaille d'été, 469 _Medaille d'Or_ (syn. of Frédéric de Wurtemberg), 389 Medicine, pears used for, 10 Medlar, relationship of, to pear, 57 Medofka, 469 Meissner Grossvatersbirne, 469 Meissner Hirschbirne, 469 Meissner langstielige Feigenbirne, 469 Meissner Liebchensbirne, 469 Meissner Zwiebelbirne, 469 Mélanie Michelin, 469 Mellish, 470 Melon, 470 Melon de Hellmann, 470 Ménagère Sucrée de Van Mons, 470 Mendenhall, 470 Merchant, Mrs. Ezra, orig. of Tea, 560 Meresia Nevill, 470 Merlet, 470 Merriam, 470 Merriweather, orig. of Taylor, 560 Méruault, 471 _Merveille d'Hiver_ (syn. of Petit-Oin), 496 Merveille de Moringen, 471 Mespilus, relationship of, to the pear, 57 Messire Jean, 471 Messire Jean Goubault, 471 Meuris, discov. of Beurré Diel, 133 Michaelmas Nelis, 471 Michaux, 471 Mignonne d'été, 471 Mignonne d'Hiver, 472 Mikado, 472 Milan d'hiver, 472 Milan de Rouen, 472 Miller, 472 Miller, Judge S., introd. of Victor, 572 _Miller Victor_ (syn. of Victor), 572 Millet, orig. of Jules Blaise, 432 Millet, Charles, orig. of Madame Millet, 459 Millot de Nancy, 472 Milner, 472 Mima Wilder, 472 Ministre Bara, 473 Ministre Pirmez, 473 Ministre Viger, 473 Minot, orig. of Sebastopol, 543 Minot Jean Marie, 473 Missile d'Hiver, 473 Mission, 473 Mitchell Russet, 473 Mite on pear, 119 Mitschurin, 473 Mitschurin, orig. of Roulef, 527; Vosschanka, 575 Moccas, 473 Mollet, Charles, orig. of Mollet Guernsey Beurré, 473 Mollet Guernsey Beurré, 473 Monarch, 474 Monchallard, 474 Monchallard, discov. of Monchallard, 474 Mongolian, 474 Monseigneur Affre, 474 Monseigneur des Hons, 474 Monseigneur Sibour, 474 Moon, 475 Moorcroft, 475 Moore, Jacob, orig. of Barseck, 260 Moorfowl Egg, 475 Morel, 475 Morel, François, orig. of Favorite Morel, 381; Perrier, 495; Professeur Hortolès, 514; Morgan, 475; Souvenir du Congrès, 218 Morgan, orig. of Morgan, 475 Morley, 475 Morosovskaja, 475 Mortier, M. du, orig. of Beurré Daras, 291 Mortillet, M. de, orig. of Agricola, 239; Bijou, 309; Bon-Chrétien Ricchiero, 314 Moskovka, 475 Mostbirne, 475 Mount Vernon, 199; value of for local market in New York, 101 Moyamensing, 475 Mr. Hill's Pear, 473 Mrs. Seden, 476 Muddy Brook, 476 Muir, Hal, orig. of Muir Everbearing, 476 Muir Everbearing, 476 _Muirfowl Egg_ (syn. of Moorfowl Egg), 475 Mulkey, Mrs., orig. of Idaho, 176 Müller, orig. of König Karl von Württemberg, 438 Mungo Park, 476 Munz Apothekerbirne, 476 Muscadine, 476 Muscat Allemand d'Automne, 476 _Muscat Allemand d'Hiver_ (syn. of Deutsche Muskateller), 358 Muscat Fleuri d'Été, 476 Muscat Robert, 477 Muscat Royal, 477 Muscat Royal de Mayer, 477 Muscat Roye, 477 Muscatelle, 477 Musette d'Anjou, 477 Musette de Nancy, 478 Muskateller-Bergamotte, 478 _Müskierte Pomeranzenbirne_ (syn. of Orange Musquée), 487 Muskingum, 478 _Müskirte Schmeerbirne_ (syn. of Petit-Oin), 496 Muskirte Wintereirbirne, 478 Musquée d'Espéren, 478 Mussette, 478 Mützchensbirne, 478 _Mycosphærella sentina_, cause of pear leaf-spot, 115 Naegelgesbirn, 479 Nain Vert, 479 Napa, 479 Naples, 479 Napoleon, 479; parent of Fondante de Moulins-Lille, 385 _Napoleon I._ (syn. of Napoleon), 479 Napoleon III., 479 _Napoleon Butterbirne_ (syn. of Napoleon), 479 Napoléon Savinien, 479 Naquette, 480 Nassau Ehre, 480 Naudin, 480 Naumkeag, 480 Navez Peintre, 480 Neapolitan, 480 Nec Plus Meuris, 480; parent of General Wauchope, 395 _Nec plus Meuris_ (syn. of Beurré d'Anjou), 127 Nectarine, 480 Negley, 481 Negley, J. S., orig. of Negley, 481 Nelis, Jean Charles, orig. of Joseph Lebeau, 431; Winter Nelis, 233 _Nélis d'Hiver_ (syn. of Winter Nelis), 232 Nérard, orig. of Bergamotte Jars, 273; Beurré Antoine, 284; Colmar de Mars, 343; Hamon, 410; Seringe, 545 Nerbonne, M. de, orig. of Nain Vert, 479 Neuburg, orig. of Bremer Butterbirne, 319 New Bridge, 481 New England, introduction of pear in, 45 New Haven, 481 New Meadow, 481 Newhall, 481 Newtown, 481 Nicholas, 481 Nickerson, 481 Nicolas Eischen, 481 Nicolle, orig. of Bergamotte Nicolle, 274 Niell d'Hiver, 481 Nikitaer grüne Herbst-Apothekerbirne, 482 Niles, 482 Niles, J. M., orig. of Niles, 482 _Nina_ (syn. of Elizabeth), 161 Niochi de Parma, 482 Noir Grain, 482 Noire d'Alagier, 482 Noisette, Louis, introd. of Beurré d'Hiver, 297; Summer Saint Germain, 556; orig. of Bon-Chrétien d'Hiver Panaché, 314; De Rachinquin, 355 Nonpareil, 482 Nordhäuser Winter-Forellenbirne, 482 Norfolk County, 482 Normännische Ciderbirne, 482 _Northford Seckel_ (syn. of Talmadge), 559 Notaire Lepin, 483 Notaire Minot, 483 Nouhes, orig. of Délices de la Cacaudière, 355; Président Parigot, 510; Royale Vendée, 532 Nouveau Doyenne d'Hiver, 483 Nouveau Poiteau, 483 Nouvelle Aglaé, 483 Nouvelle Fulvie, 483 Nussbirne, 483 Nypse, 484 _Oak-Leaved Imperial_ (syn. of Impériale à Feuilles de Chêne), 424 Oakley Park Bergamotte, 484 Occidental pears, description of species of, 69 Ochsenherz, 484 Ockletree, 484 Ockletree, orig. of Ockletree, 484 Ockletree pear tree, 49 Octave Lachambre, 484 Oesterreichische Muskatellerbirne, 484 Oeuf de Woltmann, 484 Ogereau, 484 Ognon, 485 _Ognonet_ (syn. of Archiduc d'Été), 251 Ognonnet, 485 Oignon, 485 Oignonet de Provence, 485 Oken, 485 Oldfield, 485 Olivenbirne, 485 Oliver, G. W., orig. of Oliver Russet, 485 Oliver Russet, 485 Oliver, discov. of Président Drouard, 210 Olivier de Serres, 200; parent of Cavelier de la Salle, 331 _Omer-Pacha_ (syn. of Saint Menin), 537 One-third, 486 Oneida, 486 Onion, 486 Onondaga, 201 Ontario, 202 Orange, 486 Orange-Bergamot, 486 _Orange de Briel _(syn. of Brielsche Pomeranzenbirne), 319 Orange County Nurs. Co., introd. of Wilder Sugar, 580 Orange d'Hiver, 486 Orange Mandarine, 486 Orange Musquée, 487 Orange pear tree, old, 42 Orange Rouge, 487 Orange Tulipée, 487 Orange de Vienne, 487 Orchards, pear, care of, 97; catch crops for, 102 Orchards of mixed varieties of pears, 100 Ordensbirne, 487 Orel 15, 487 Oriental pears, descriptions of species of, 74; influence of, on American pear culture, 55 Orpheline Colmar, 488 _Orpheline d'Enghien_ (syn. of Beurré d'Arenberg), 129 Osband Summer, 488 Osborne, 488 Osborne, John, orig. of Osborne, 488 _Osimaya_ (syn. of Winter), 583 Oswego Beurré, 488 Oswego Incomparable, 488 Ott, 488 Ott, Samuel, orig. of Ott, 488 Owen, 488 Owen, John, orig. of Owen, 488 Owener Birne, 489 Oyster-shell scale on pear, 120 Ozark, 489 P. Barry, 203 Pacific states, introduction of pear-growing in, 53 Paddock, 489 Padres, early growers of pears, 54 Pailleau, 489 Pain-et-Vin, 489 Palmischbirne, 489 Papeleu, Adrien, orig. of Beurré Payen, 303; Navez Peintre, 480 _Paquency_ (syn. of Payenche), 493 Paradiesbirne, 489 Pardee, 489 Pardee, S. D., orig. of Dickerman, 359; Pardee, 489 Parfum d'Aout, 490 Parfum d'Hiver, 490 Parfum de Rose, 490 Parfumé, 490 Parfumée, 490 Parigot, orig. of Appoline, 250; Beurré Bourbon, 288; Comptesse de Chambord, 347; Doyenné Fradin, 367; Eugène des Nouhes, 379 Pariset, orig. of varieties, 239, 249, 279, 292, 307, 329, 344, 453, 471, 490, 536, 543, 544, 562 Parkinson, discussion of pears by, 32 Parkinson's pears known at present, 36 Parmentier, Andrew, introd. of Surpasse Virgalieu, 557; orig. of Bergamotte de Stryker, 277 Parrot, 490 Parry, William, orig. of Cincincis Seedling, 338 Parsonage, 490 Passa-tutti, 490 Passans du Portugal, 491 Passe Colmar, 205; parent of Alexandrine Mas, 241; Félix Sahut, 381; Wilmington, 582; Zéphirin Grégoire, 587 Passe-Colmar des Belges, 491 Passe Colmar d'été, 491 _Passe Colmar François_ (syn. of Jean de Witte), 429 Passe Colmar Musqué, 491 Passe Crassane, 491; parent of Prince Napoléon, 512 Passe-Goemans, 491 Passe Madeleine, 491 Passe-Tardive, 492 Pastor, 492 Pastorale, 492 _Pastorenbirne_ (syn. of Vicar of Winkfield), 227 Pater Noster, 492 Patemotte, Pierre, orig. of Pierre Patemotte, 499 Patten, Charles G., orig. of Seckel Seedling No. 1, 543 Paul Ambre, 492 Paul Bonamy, 492 Paul Coppieters, 492 Paul d'Hoop, 493 Paul Thielens, 493 Pauls Birne, 493 Payen, 493 Payenche, 493 Payne, James, discov. of Seneca, 544 Payton, 493 Payton, orig. of Payton, 493 Peach, 494 Pear, adaptability of the, to soils and locations, 92; black mold of the, 117; brown-blotch of the, 116; codling moth on the, 118; crown-gall on the, 116; descriptive blank of the, opposite 68; fertility of the, 99; history of the, 1; leaf-blight of the, 115; leaf-spots of the, notes on, 115; oyster-shell scale on the, 120; pink-rot of the, 117; San Jose scale on the, 117; structural botany of the, 58 Pear-blight, control of, 113; early occurrence of, in America, 51; notes on, 111 -borers, 120 -breeding, Van Mons' theory of, 18 -characteristics of the, unchanged since time of Pliny, 9 -culture, climate adapted to, 85; economic considerations important to, 94; importance of stocks in, 94; notes on, 83; statistics of, 83 -diseases, 110 -districts in America, minor, 51 -growing, a comparison of English and American, 37 -insects, 117 -mites, 119 -orchards, care of, 97; catch crops for, 102; sod versus clean culture for, 102; tillage of, 102 -psylla, 118 -scab, 114; treatment of, 114 -slug, 119 -stocks, notes on, 95 -thrips, 121 -trees, characters of, 59; description of leaf-buds and leaves of, 61; description of trunk and branches of, 60; flower-buds and flowers of, 62; age of, 40; setting of, notes on, 101 -varieties, adaptability of, for dwarfing, 95; blight resistant, 112; blooming season of, 88; ripening season of, 88 Pears, canning of, 109; cold storage of, 109; commercial, leading varieties of, 84; cost of growing, 110; descriptions of species of, 69; discussion of the setting of fruit of, 99; fertilizers for, 98; grading of, 108; grafting of, 106; hardy, notes on, 86; harvesting and marketing of, 106; home ripening of, 109; local market for, 101; methods of planting of, 99; mixed varieties of, in orchards, 100; occidental, description of species of, 69; oriental, description of species of, 74; pruning of, 103; self-fertile varieties of, 100; self-sterile varieties of, 100; soils and locations for, 91; wild, 1; wild, species of, 2 _Pêche_ (syn. of Peach), 494 Peck, Thomas R., orig. of Royal, 532 Pei-li, 494 Pemberton, 494 Penderson, 494 Penderson, Samuel, orig. of Penderson, 494 Pendleton Early York, 494 Pengethley, 494 Penn, 494 Pennsylvania, 494 Pepin, 495 Perpetual, 495 Perrier, 495 Perry, William, introd. of Lincoln Coreless, 192 Pertusati, 495 Pests, damage to American pears by, 38 Petersbirne, 495 Petit-Blanquet, 495 Petit Catillac, 496 Petit-Chaumontel, 496 Petit-Hativeau, 496 Petit-Muscat, 496 Petit-Oin, 496 _Petite Bergamotte Jaune d'Été_ (syn. of Kleine gelbe Sommermuskatellerbirne), 435 Petite Charlotte, 497 _Petite Comtesse Palatine_ (syn. of Kleine Pfalzgrafin), 436 Petite Fondante, 497 Petite Marguerite, 497 _Petite Muscat Long d'Été_ (syn. of Kleine Lange Sommer-Muskatellerbirne), 436 _Petite Poire de Pierre_ (syn. of Petersbirne), 495 Petite Tournaisienne, 497 Petite Victorine, 497 Petre, 497; first variety to originate in America, 51 Pfaffenbirne, 497 Pfingstbirne, 498 Philiberte, 498 _Philipp der Gute_ (syn. of Philippe-Le-Bon), 498 Philippe-Le-Bon, 498 Philippe Couvreur, 498 Philippe Goes, 498 Philippot, 498 Philippot, orig. of Philippot, 498 Philopena, 498 Picciola, 498 Pickering, or Warden pear tree, 44 _Pickering_ (syn. of Pound), 208 Pie IX, 498 _Pied-de-Vache_ (syn. of Kuhfuss), 439 Pierre Corneille, 499 Pierre Curie, 499 Pierre Macé, 499 Pierre Paternotte, 499 Pierre Pépin, 499 Pierre Tourasse, 499 Pimpe, 499 Pink-rot of pear, 117 Pinneo, 499 Pitmaston, 207 Pitmaston, William, orig. of Bergamot Seckel, 268 _Pitmaston Duchess_ (syn. of Pitmaston), 207 _Pitmaston Duchesse d'Angoulême_ (syn. of Pitmaston), 207 Piton, 500 Piton, discov. of Piton, 500 Pitson, 500 _Pius IX_ (syn. of Pie IX), 498 Pius X, 500 Plantagenet, 500 Planting methods for pears, 99 Plascart, 500 Platt, 500 Platte Honigbirne, 500 Pliny, medicinal qualities ascribed to pears by, 10; mention of pear varieties by, 8; pear characteristics given by, 9 Plutarch, discussion of the pear in Greece by, 4 Pocahontas, 500 Pöckelbirne, 501 Poëte Béranger, 501 Poire d'Abbeville, 501 _Poire d'Amour d'Hiver_ (syn. of Winterliebesbirne), 584 Poire d'Ange de Meiningen, 501 _Poire d'Aunée d'Été_ (syn. of Sommeralantbirne), 548 Poire d'Avril, 501 _Poire Baronne Leroy_ (syn. of Baron Leroy), 259 _Poire du Breuil Père_ (syn. of Souvenir de du Breuil Père), 549 Poire Brune de Gasselin, 501 _Poire Canelle_ (syn. of Knoops Simmtbirne), 437 Poire de Casserole, 502 Poire des Chartriers, 502 Poire des Chasseurs, 502 _Poire de Chevalier de Buttner_ (syn. of Buttner Sachsische Ritterbirne), 322 Poire de Coq, 502 _Poire Dingler_ (syn. of Lamy), 184 Poire de Graisse, 502 Poire de gros queue, 502 _Poire Henri_ (syn. of Henri Bivort), 414 Poire de Hert, 502 Poire de Houblon, 502 Poire de Klevenow, 503 _Poire de Lard Brune_ (syn. of Braunrote Speckbirne), 318 _Poire Livre Verte_ (syn. of Grüne Pfundbirne), 408 _Poire de Miel de Liegel_ (syn. of Liegel Honigbirne), 448 Poire Noire à Longue Queue, 503 _Poire des Nonnes_ (syn. of Beurré de Brigné), 288 _Poire de Paul_ (syn. of Pauls Birne), 493 Poire du Pauvre, 503 Poire des Peintres, 503 Poire de Pendant, 503 _Poire-Pomme_ (syn. of Apple Pear), 250 Poire de Preuilly, 503 Poire de Rateau, 503 Poire Rigoleau, 504 Poire du Roeulx, 504 _Poire de Saint Père_ (syn. of Saint Père), 538 _Poire Seutin_ (syn. of Seutin), 545 Poire Souvenir d'Hortolès Père, 504 Poire Thouin, 504 Poire de Torpes, 504 Poire des Trois Fréres, 504 Poire des Trois Jours, 504 _Poire Trompette_ (syn. of Trompetenbirne), 566 _Poire des Urbanistes_ (syn. of Urbaniste), 224 _Poire de Vallée_ (syn. of Vallée Franche), 568 _Poire de Vitrier_, 504 Poire du Voyageur, 505 Poirer de Jardin, 505 _Poirier sauger_. (See _Pyrus nivalis_) Poiteau, 505 Poiteau, orig. of Bergamotte Poiteau, 275 _Poiteau_ (_des Français_) (syn. of Bergamotte Poiteau), 275 Polish Lemon, 505 Polk, 505 Pollan, 505 Pollvaskaja, 505 Polnische grüne Krautbirne, 505 Polnische Seidenbirne, 505 Pome, definition of, 58; fruit characters of, 63 Pomeranzenbirn von Zabergäu, 506 Pomme d'Été, 506 Pomological garden of Robert Manning, 53 Pomology, first American by Coxe, 52 Pope Quaker, 506 Pope Scarlet Major, 506 Portail, 506 Porter, 506 Portingall, 506 Posey, 506 Pound, 208 Pradel Bros., orig. of Rousselet de Pomponne, 529 Prager Schaferbirne, 506 Prairie du Pond, 506 _Präsident Drouard_ (syn. of Président Drouard), 210 Pratt, 507 Pratt Junior, 507 Pratt Seedling, 507 Precilly, 507 Précoce de Celles, 507 Précoce de Jodoigne, 507 Précoce de Tivoli, 507 Précoce de Trévoux, 507 Précoce Trottier, 507 _Précoce de Wharton_ (syn. of Wharton Early), 579 Premature, 508 Prémices d'Écully, 508 Prémices de Wagelwater, 508 Premier, 508 Premier Président Métivier, 508 _Present Royal of Naples_ (syn. of Beau Présent d'Artois), 261 Présent de Van Mons, 508 President, 508 Président Barabé, 508 Président de la Bastie, 509 Président Boncenne, 509 Président Campy, 509 President Clark, 509 Président Couprie, 509 Président Deboutteville, 509 President Dr. Ward, 509 Président Drouard, 210 Président d'Estaintot, 509 President Felton, 509 Président Fortier, 509 Président Héron, 510 Président Mas, 510 Président Muller, 510 Président Olivier, 510 Président d'Osmonville, 510 Président Parigot, 510 Président Payen, 510 President Pouyer-Quertier, 510 Président Royer, 510 Président le Sant, 511 Président Watier, 511 Présidente Senente, 511 _Preul's Colmar_ (syn. of Passe Colmar), 205 Prévost, 511 Pricke, 511 Primating, 511 Prince, William, introd. of Sha Lea, 545; orig. of Prince Harvest, 511; Saint-Germain, 512 Prince Albert, 511 Prince Harvest, 511 Prince Impérial, 511 Prince Impérial de France, 512 Prince de Joinville, 512 Prince Napoléon, 512 Prince d'Orange, 512 Prince de Printemps, 512 Prince Saint-Germain, 512 Prince Seed Virgalieu, 512 Princess, 512 Princess Maria, 513 Princesse Charlotte, 513 _Princesse de Lubeck_ (syn. of Lübecker Prinzessin Birne), 453 Princesse Marianne, 513 Princesse d'Orange, 513 _Princesse-Royale_ (syn. of Groom Prince Royal,) 403 Princière, 513 Pringalle, Célestin, orig, of Beurré Pringalle, 304 Priou, 513 Priou, discov. of Priou, 513 Professeur Barral, 514 Professeur Bazin, 514 Professeur Dubreuil, 514 Professeur Grosdemange, 514 Professeur Hennau, 514 Professeur Hortolès, 514 Professeur Opoix, 514 Professeur Willermoz, 514 Prud'homme, 515 Pruning pears, 103 Psylla, pear, 118 Pudsey, 515 Puebla, 515 Pulsifer, 515 Pulsifer, Dr. John, orig. of Pulsifer, 515 Pushkin, 515 Pyrolle, orig. of Jaminette, 427 Pyrus, characters of, 57 _Pyrus amygdaliformis_, note on, 73 _Pyrus auricularis_, habitat of, 73; specific description of, 73 _Pyrus betulaefolia_, habitat of, 79; specific description of, 79 _Pyrus calleryana_, habitat of, 80; specific notes on, 80 _Pyrus communis_, behavior of, as a wild pear, 2; habitat of, 70; specific description of, 69 _Pyrus communis cordata_, specific notes on, 72 _Pyrus communis longipes_, specific notes on, 72 _Pyrus communis mariana_, specific notes on, 72 _Pyrus communis pyraster_, specific notes on, 71 _Pyrus communis sativa_, specific notes on, 72 _Pyrus elæagrifolia_, relationship of, to _Pyrus nivalis_, 73 _Pyrus heterophylla_, note on, 73 _Pyrus kotschyana_, relationship of, to _Pyrus nivalis_, 73 _Pyrus lindleyi_, relationship of, to _Pyrus serotina_, 75 _Pyrus nivalis_, behavior of, as a wild pear, 2; habitat of, 2, 72; specific description of, 72 _Pyrus ovoidea_, blight resistance of, 81; parent of Tolstoy, 564; specific description of, 80 _Pyrus pashia_, distinction of, from _Pyrus variolosa_, 82 _Pyrus salicifolia_, note on, 74 _Pyrus salvifolia_, relationship of, to _Pyrus nivalis_, 73 _Pyrus serotina_, behavior of, as a wild pear, 2; habitat of 3, 75; specific description of, 74; value of, as a pear stock, 96 _Pyrus serotina culta_, habitat of, 76; specific description of, 75 _Pyrus serotina stapfiana_, note on, 75 _Pyrus serrulata_, habitat of, 78; specific notes on, 78 _Pyrus sinensis_, relationship of, to _Pyrus serotina_, 74 _Pyrus syriaca_, note on, 74 _Pyrus ussuriensis_, blight resistance of, 78; habitat of, 77; specific description of, 77 _Pyrus variolosa_, notes on, 81 Queen Jargonelle, 515 Queen Victoria, 515 Quiletette, 515 Quince, 515 Quince, Japanese, relationship of, to the pear, 57 Quince stocks for pear, 96 Quinn, 515 Quintinye, La. (See La Quintinye) Raabe, orig. of Honey Dew, 420 _Radis de Leipsick_ (syn. of Leipziger Rettigbirn), 444 Ragan, Reuben, discov. of Philopena, 498 Rahm, Rev. W. L., introd. into England of Vicar of Winkfield, 227 Rainbirne, 516 Rallay, 516 Rameau, 516 Ramilies, 516 Rankin, 516 Rankin, W. H., discov. of Rankin, 516 Rannaja, 516 Rapelje, 516 Rastlerbirne, 516 Rateau Blanc, 516 Ravenswood, 517 _Ravu_ (syn. of Ravut), 517 Ravut, 517 Raymond, 517 Raymond de Montlaur, 517 Raymould, 517 Rayner, Mrs., orig. of Hacon Incomparable, 409 Re Umberto primo, 517 Read, Walter, orig. of Oswego Beurré, 488 Reading, 517 Recq de Pambroye, 517 _Red Doyenné_ (syn. of Doyenné Gris), 367 Red Garden, 518 _Red Muscadel_ (syn. of Jargonelle (French)), 178 _Red Orange_ (syn. of Orange Rouge), 487 Red Pear, 518 Redfield, 518 Reeder, 211 Reeder, Dr. Henry, orig. of Reeder, 211 _Reeder's Seedling_ (syn. of Reeder), 211 Refreshing, 518 _Regentin_ (syn. of Passe Colmar), 205 Regina Margherita, 518 Régine, 518 Regnier, 518 Regnier, Madame, orig. of Regnier, 518 Reichenäckerin, 518 Reine des Belges, 518 Reine d'Hiver, 519 Reine des Poires, 519 Reine des Précoces, 519 Reine des Tardives, 519 Reine Victoria, 519 Reliance, 519 Remy Chatenay, 519 René Dunan, 519 Rettigbirne, 519 Reuterbirne, 520 Rewell, 520 Rey, orig. of Léon Rey, 446 Reymenans, 520 Reynaert Beernaert, 520 Rheinische Birne, 520 Rheinische Herbstapothekerbirne, 520 Rheinische Paradiesbirne, 520 Rhenser Schmalzbirne, 520 Richards, 520 Richardson, 521 Riche Dépouille, 521 Ridelle, 521 Riehl, Edwin H., discov. of Riehl Best, 212 Riehl Best, 212 Riocreux, 521 Ripening of pears in the home, 109 Ripening season of pear varieties, 88 Ritson, 521 Ritson, Mrs. John, orig. of Ritson, 521 Ritter, 521 Ritter, Louis, discov. of Ritter, 521 Rival Dumont, 521 Rivers, 521 Rivers, Thomas, orig. of varieties, 308, 345, 347, 363, 381, 417, 460, 502, 512, 537, 538, 556 Robert, orig. of Belle du Figuier, 264; Général Canrobert, 394 Robert & Moreau, orig. of Beurré Fidéline, 295; Fondante de la Maitre-École, 384 Robert Hogg, 521 Robert Treel, 522 _Robertson_ (syn. of Washington), 575 Robin, orig. of Doyenné Robin, 369 Robine, 522 Robitaillié, orig. of Robitaillié père, 522 Robitaillié père, 522 Roby, H. R., introd. of Winter Seckel, 584; orig. of Cooke, 348 Rockeneirbirne, 522 Roe, William, orig. of Roe Bergamot, 522 Roe Bergamot, 522 Rogers, 522 Roggenhoferbirne, 522 _Roi Charles de Wurtemberg_ (syn. of König Karl von Württemberg), 438 _Roi d'Été_ (syn. of Gros Rousselet), 404 Roi-Guillaume, 522 Roi de Rome, 523 Roitelet, 523 Rokeby, 523 Roland, orig. of Beurré Roland, 304 Rollet, orig. of Notaire Lepin, 483 Rolmaston Duchess, 523 Rome, ancient, pear in, 7 Ronde du Bosquet, 523 Rondelet, 523 Rongiéras, orig. of Beurré des Mouchouses, 302 Rooks, orig. of Ozark, 489 Roosevelt, 213 Ropes, 523 Ropes, orig. of Ropes, 523 Rorreger Mostbirne, 523 Rosabirne, 523 Rosalie Wolters, 524 Rosanne, 524 Rose Doyenné, 524 Rose Water, 524 Rosenhofbirne, 524 Rosenwasserbirne, 524 Rosinenbirne, 524 Roslyn, 524 Ross, 524 Ross, Charles, orig. of General Wauchope, 395 Ross, Gideon, orig. of Japan, 428 Rossney, 524 Rostiezer, 525 _Rote Bergamotte_ (syn. of Bergamotte d'Automne), 270 Rote Hanglbirne, 525 Rote Holzbirne, 525 Rote Kochbirne, 525 Rote Pilchelbirne, 525 Rote Scheibelbirne, 525 Rote Winawitz, 525 Rotfleischige Mostbirne, 525 Rothbackige Sommerzuckerbirne, 525 Rothe Confesselsbirne, 526 Rothe Jakobsbirne, 526 Rothe langstielige Honigbirne, 526 Rothe oder grosse Pfalzgrafinbirne, 526 Rothe Rettigbirne, 526 Rothe Winterkappesbirne, 526 Rothe Winterkochbirne, 526 Rothe Zucherlachsbirne, 526 _Rother Sommerdorn_ (syn. of Épine d'Été Rouge), 377 Rother Winterhasenkopf, 526 Rothgraue Kirchmessbirne, 527 Rougeaude, 527 Rouget, 527 Roulef, 527 Rouse Lench, 527 Rousselet Aelens, 527 Rousselet d'Anvers, 527 _Rousselet d'Aout_ (syn. of Gros Rousselet d'Aout), 405 Rousselet Baud, 527 Rousselet Bivort, 527 Rousselet Blanc, 528 Rousselet de la Cour, 528 Rousselet Decoster, 528 Rousselet Doré d'Hiver, 528 _Rousselet Enfant Prodigue_ (syn. of Enfant Prodigue), 377 _Rousselet d'été Brun Rouge_ (syn. of Braunrothe Sommerrusselet), 319 Rousselet Hâtif, 528 _Rousselet d'Hiver_ (syn. of Winter Rousselet), 584 Rousselet de Janvier, 528 Rousselet Jaune d'Été, 529 Rousselet de Jodoigne, 529 Rousselet de Jonghe, 529 Rousselet de Meestre, 529 Rousselet Panaché, 529 Rousselet de Pomponne, 529 Rousselet Précoce, 529 Rousselet de Reims, parent of Bon Chrétien Vermont, 315 Rousselet de Rheims, 530 Rousselet de Rheims Panaché, 530 Rousselet Royal, 530 Rousselet Saint Nicolas, 530 Rousselet Saint-Quentin, 530 Rousselet Saint Vincent, 530 Rousselet de Stuttgardt, 531 Rousselet Thaon, 531 Rousselet Theuss, 531 Rousselet Vanderwecken, 531 Rousseline, 531 Rousselon, 531 Roux Carcas, 532 Rové, 532 Rowling, 532 Royal, 532 Royal d'Hiver, 532 Royale Vendée, 532 Ruhschiebler, 532 Rummelter Birne, 533 Runde gelbe Honigbirne, 533 Runde Sommerpomeranzenbirne, 533 _Rushmore_ (syn. of Harrison Large Fall), 412 Russbirne, 533 Russelet Petit, 533 Russet Bartlett, 533 Russet Catherine, 533 Russian pears, introduction into America, 56 Rutter, 214 Rutter, John, orig. of Rutter, 214 Rylsk, 533 S. T. Wright, 533 Sabine, 533 Sabine d'Été, 534 Sacandaga, 534 Sächsische Glockenbirne, 534 Sächsische Lange Grüne Winterbirne, 534 Safran, 534 Sage-leaved Pear. (See _Pyrus nivalis_) Sageret, orig. of Angleterre Nain, 247; Beauvalot, 262; Bergamotte Sageret, 276; Doyenné Rose, 369 Saint André, 534 Saint Andrew, 534 Saint Aubin sur Riga, 534 Saint-Augustin, 535 Saint Denis, 535 Saint Dorothée, 535 Saint François, 535 Saint Gallus Weinbirne, 535 Saint George, 535 Saint Germain, 535; parent of Marie Guisse, 464; Williams Double Bearing, 582 Saint Germain Gris, 536 Saint Germain Panaché, 536 Saint Germain de Pepins, 536 Saint Germain Puvis, 536 Saint Germain du Tilloy, 536 Saint Germain Van Mons, 536 _Saint-Germain Vauquelin_ (syn. of Vauquelin), 570 Saint Ghislain, 536 Saint Herblain d'Hiver, 537 _Saint-Laurent Jaune_ (syn. of Gelbe Laurentiusbirne), 393 Saint Lézin, 537 Saint Louis, 537 Saint Luc, 537 Saint Luke, 537 _St. Martial_ (syn. of Angélique de Bordeaux), 247 Saint Menin, 537 _Saint-Michael_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 St. Michel Archange, 538 _Saint-Nicolas_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Orléans), 156 Saint Patrick, 538 Saint Père, 538 St. Swithin, 538 Saint Vincent de Paul, 538 Sainte Anne, 538 _Sainte Germain d'Été_ (syn. of Summer Saint Germain), 556 _Sainte Madelaine_ (syn. of Madeleine), 195 Sainte Thérèse, 539 Salisbury, 539 Salviati, 539 Salzburger von Adlitz, 539 Sam Brown, 539 Samenlose, 539 San Jose scale on pear, 117 Sand Pear. (See _Pyrus serotina_) Sand pear, Chinese, parent of Garber, 171; Kieffer, 181; Le Conte, 187 _Sanguine de France_ (syn. of Sanguinole), 539 Sanguine d'Italie, 539 Sanguinole, 539 Sanguinole de Belgique, 540 Sannier, Arséne, orig. of varieties, 241, 276, 283, 297, 315, 360, 361, 381, 429, 451, 452, 453, 455, 456, 499, 508, 509, 510, 511, 519, 543, 549, 550, 551, 572 Sans-Pareille du Nord, 540 Sans Peau, 540 Santa Anna, 540 Santa Claus, 540 Santa Rosa, 541 Sapieganka, 541 Sarah, 541 Sarrasin, 541 Sary-Birne, 541 Säuerliche Margarethenbirne, 541 Scab, pear, 114; treatment of, 114 Scale insects on pear, 120 _Scented_ (syn. of Duchovaya), 573 Schellesbirne, 541 Schenk, John, orig. of Hosenschenk, 421 Schmalblättrige Schneebirne, 542 Schmotzbirne, 542 Schnackenburger Winterbirne, 542 Schöberlbirne, 542 _Schöne Angevine_ (syn. of Pound), 208 Schöne Müllerin, 542 _Schöne Zuckerbirne_ (syn. of Belle Sucrée), 266 Schönebeck Tafelbirne, 542 Schönerts Omsewitzer Schmalzbirne, 542 Schönlin Stuttgarter späte Winterbutterbirne, 542 _Schönste Sommerbirne_ (syn. of Jargonelle (French)), 178 Schuman, 542 Schwarze Birne, 542 Schweizer Wasserbirne, 543 Sdegnata, 543 Seal, 543 Sébastien, 543 Sebastopol, 543 Secher, orig. of Duchesse de Bordeaux, 371 Seckel, 215; parent of Adams, 237; Barseck, 260; Eureka, 379; Feast, 381; Gansel Seckel, 170; Luola, 454; President Clark, 509; Worden Seckel, 234; Youngken Winter Seckel, 586; place of, in commercial pear culture, 84 Seckel Seedling No. 1, 543 _Seckle_ (syn. of Seckel), 215 Secrétaire Maréschal, 543 Secrétaire Rodin, 543 _Seigneur_ (syn. of Belle Lucrative), 126 Seigneur Daras, 544 _Seigneur d'Espéren_ (syn. of Belle Lucrative), 126 Seigneur d'Été, 544 Self-fertile and self-sterile pears, 100 Selleck, 544 Semis d'Echasserie, 544 Semis Léon Leclerc, 544 _Semis de White_ (syn. of White Seedling), 579 Sénateur Préfet, 544 Sénateur Vaisse, 544 Seneca, 545 Senfbirne, 545 Seringe, 545 Serrurier, 545 Seutin, 545 Sha Lea, 545 Shawmut, 545 Sheldon, 217; place of, in commercial pear culture, 84 Sheldon, Major, owner of original tree of Sheldon, 217 Shenandoah, 545 Sheppard, 546 Sheppard, James, orig. of Sheppard, 546 Sheridan, 546 Shindel, 546 Shobden Court, 546 Shroeder, R., introd. of Winter, 583 Shurtleff, 546 Shurtleff, Dr. S. A., orig. of varieties, 238, 242, 258, 319, 320, 328, 335, 336, 338, 360, 387, 388, 395, 399, 400, 401, 411, 425, 430, 445, 450, 461, 468, 476, 482, 486, 494, 506, 508, 515, 538, 545, 546, 552, 570, 583 Sieboldii, 546 Sieulle, Jean, orig. of Doyenné Sieulle, 369 Sievenicher Mostbirne, 546 _Silberästige Gewürzbirne_ (syn. of Rameau), 516 _Silvange_ (syn. of Bergamotte Silvange), 276 Sikaya, 546 Simon Bouvier, 546; parent of Rousselet Bivort, 527 Sinai'sche Buschelbirne, 547 Sinclair, 547 Sirningers Mostbirne, 547 Six, orig. of Beurré Six, 306 Size and habit of pear-trees, 59 _Skinless_ (syn. of Sans Peau), 540 Slavonische Wasserbirne, 547 Slug on pear, 19 Slutsk, 547 _Small Blanquet_ (syn. of Petit-Blanquet), 495 Smet Fils Unique, 547 Smith, 547 Smith, J. B., orig. of Haddington, 409; Moyamensing, 475; Pennsylvania, 494 Smith, S. F., orig. of seedling pears, 338 Smith, W. & T., orig. of Ontario, 202 Smith Beauty, 547 Smith Duchess, 547 Snow, 547 Snow Pear. (See _Pyrus nivalis)_ Society Van Mons, distrib. of varieties, 264, 320, 500; orig. of varieties, 259, 316, 479, 527 Sod versus clean culture for pear orchards, 102 Soeur Grégoire, 547 Soils and locations for pears, 91 Soldat Bouvier, 548 Soldat Laboureur, 548; parent of Président d'Estaintot, 509 _Solitaire_ (syn. of Mansuette), 461 Sommeralantbirne, 548 _Sommerdechantsbirne_(syn. of Summer Doyenné), 221 Sommerkönigin, 548 Sommer-Russelet, 548 Sommerwachsbirne, 548 Sommer-Zuckerbirne, 548 Sophie de l'Ukraine, 548 Sotschnaja, 549 Soueraigne, 549 Soutmann, 549 _Souvenir_ (syn. of Souvenir du Congrès), 218 Souvenir de l'Abbé Lefebvre, 549 Souvenir de du Breuil Père, 549 Souvenir du Congrès, 218 Souvenir Deschamps, 549 Souvenir Désiré Gilain, 549 Souvenir d'Espéren, 219 _Souvenir d'Espéren_ (syn. of Fondante de Noël), 165 Souvenir d'Espéren de Berckmans, 549 Souvenir Favre, 550 Souvenir de Gaëte, 550 Souvenir de Julia, 550 _Souvenir de Leopold I^{er}_ (syn. of Vingt-cinquième Anniversaire de Léopold I^{er}), 573 Souvenir de Leroux-Durand, 550 Souvenir de Lydie, 550 Souvenir de Madame Charles, 550 _Souvenir de Madame Treyve_ (syn. of Madame Treyve), 459 Souvenir de la Reine des Belges, 550 Souvenir de Renault Père, 551 Souvenir de Sannier père, 551 Souvenir de Simon Bouvier, 551 _Souvenir de Simon Bouvier_ (syn. of Simon Bouvier), 546 Souvenir du Vénérable de la Salle, 551 Souveraine de Printemps, 551 Spae, 551 Spae, orig. of Spae, 551 _Spanish Warden_ (syn. of Bon-Chrétien d'Espagne), 313 _Sparbirne_ (syn. of Jargonelle), 177 Späte Rotbirne, 551 Späte Sommerbirne ohne Schale, 551 Späte Todemannsbirne, 552 Späte Wasserbirne, 552 Spätes Graumänchen, 552 Species of oriental pears, descriptions of, 74 Species of pears, 57; characters of, 57; descriptions of, 69 Speckbirne, 552 Speedwell, 552 Spillingsbirne, 552 Spindelförmige Honigbirne, 552 Spindelförmige Rehbirne, 552 Spinka, 552 Spreeuw, 553 _Squash_ (syn. of Taynton Squash), 560 Stair, discoverer of Bartlett, 125 Star of Bethlehem, 553 Stark, W. P., introd. of Victor, 572 Stark Bros., introd. of Florida Bartlett, 383 Statistics of pear culture, 83 Steinbirne, 553 Steinmitz Catharine, 553 Stephens, Prof., discov. of Rapelje, 516 Sterckmans, orig. of Beurré Sterckmans, 307 Sterility of pear, 99 Sterling, 553 Sterling, orig. of Sterling, 553 Stevens, M. F., orig. of Stevens Genesee, 553 Stevens Genesee, 553 Stocks for pears, importance of, 94; notes on, 95 Stoff, orig. of Madame Stoff, 459 Stoffels, orig. of Sabine d'Été, 534 Stone, 553 Stone, orig. of Stone, 553 Stone & Wellington, orig. of Pitson, 500 Stout, 553 Strassburger Sommerbergamotte, 553 Stribling, 554 Stribling, J. C., introd. of Stribling, 554 _Striped Bon Chrétien_ (syn. of Bon-Chrétien d'Hiver Panaché), 314 Structural botany of pear, 58 Stümplerbirne, 554 Sturges, 554 Sturges, Mrs, Mary S., orig. of Sturges, 554 _Stuttgarter Geisshirtel_ (syn. of Rousselet de Stuttgardt), 531 Stuyvesant, pear tree in garden of, 49 Styer, 554 Styer, Charles, orig. of Styer, 554 Styrian, 554 _Sucré de Tertolen_ (syn. of Van Tertolen Herbst Zuckerbirne), 569 Sucré-Vert, 554 _Sucré-Vert d'Hoyerswerda_ (syn. of Sucrée de Hoyerswerda), 555 Sucrée Blanche, 555 Sucrée du Comice, 555 _Sucrée d'Heyer_ (syn. of Heyer Zuckerbirne), 418 Sucrée de Hoyerswerda, 555 Sucrée de Montluçon, 555 Sucrée Van Mons, 555 Sucrée de Zurich, 555 Sudduth, 220 Sudduth, Titus, dissem. of Sudduth, 220 Suet Lea, 556 Suffolk Thorn, 556 Sugar Top, 556 Sülibirne, 556 Sullivan, 556 _Summer Bell_ (syn. of Windsor), 583 Summer Beurré d'Arenberg, 556 _Summer Franc Réal_ (syn. of Bergamotte d'Été), 271 Summer Hasting, 556 Summer Popperin, 556 Summer Portugal, 556 Summer Saint Germain, 556 Summer Virgalieu, 557 Summer, Col. William, introd. of Upper Crust, 567; orig. of Hebe, 413 _Superfin_ (syn. of Beurré Superfin), 137 Superfondanta, 557 Superstitions based on pears, 10 Suprême Coloma, 557 Surpasse Crassane, 557 Surpasse Meuris, 557 Surpasse St, Germain, 557 Surpasse Virgalieu, 557 Surprise, 558 Süsse Margarethenbirne, 558 Süsse Sommerlahnbirne, 558 Suwanee, 558 Suzanne, 558 Suzette de Bavay, 558 Swain, James R., orig. of Bronx, 320 Swan Egg, 558 _Swan's Orange_ (syn. of Onondaga), 201 Sweater, 558 Sylvie de Malzine, 559 Taglioretti, 559 Takasaki, 559 Talmadge, 559 Talmadge, Levi, orig. of Talmadge, 559 Tardive d'Ellezelles, 559 Tardive Garin, 559 Tardive de Mons, 559 Tardive de Montauban, 559 Tardive de Solesne, 559 _Tardive de Toulouse_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Hiver), 372 Tatnall Harvest, 559 Tavernier de Boulogne, 559 Taylor, 560 Taynton Squash, 560 Tea, 560 Templiers, 560 Tepka, 560 _Tertolen Herbst Zuckerbirne_ (syn. of Van Tertolen Herbst Zuckerbirne), 569 Test, 560 Tettenhall, 560 Teutsche Augustbirne, 561 Texas, 561 Thacher, Anthony, pear tree, 43 The Dean, 561 Theilersbirne, 561 Theodor Körner, 561 Theodore, 561 Theodore Van Mons, 561 Theodore Williams, 561 Théophile Lacroix, 561 Theophrastus, mention of pear by, 5 Thérèse, 562 Thérèse Appert, 562 Theveriner Butterbirne, 562 Thibaut Butterbirne, 562 Thick Stalked Pear, 562 Thiérard, Jules, orig. of Lydie Thiérard, 454 Thimothée, 562 _Thintwig_ (syn. of Tonkovietka), 564 Thirriot, orig. of Fondante Thirriot, 386 Thirriot Bros., orig. of Eugène Thirriot, 379 Thompson, Judge, orig. of Thompson, 562 Thompson (Eng.), 562 Thompson (N. H.), 562 Thooris, 562 _Thorp_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 _Thouin_ (syn. of Winter Nelis), 232 Thrips on pear, 121 Throop, Calvin, orig. of Calvin, 326 Thuerlinckx, 563 Thurston Red, 563 _Thury Schmalzbirne_ (syn. of Héricart de Thury), 417 Tiffin, 563 Tigrée de Janvier, 563 Tillage of pear orchards, 102 Tillington, 563 Timpling, 563 Tindall, George & William, orig. of Tindall Swan Egg, 563 Tindall Swan Egg, 563 Tollbirne, 564 Tolstoy, 564 Tom Strange, 564 Tonkovietka, 564 Tonneau, 564 Toronto Belle, 564 Totten, Col., orig. of Totten Seedling, 564 Totten Seedling, 564 _Tougard_ (syn. of Calebasse Tougard), 326 Tourasse, orig, of Comte de Lambertye, 346; Directeur Hardy, 360; La Béarnaise, 440; Pierre Tourasse, 499; Professeur Bazin, 514 Tournay d'hiver, 565 Tout-il-faut, 565 Träublesbirne, 565 Tredwell, Thomas, orig. of Platt, 500 Trees, pear, characters of, 59 _Trescott_ (syn. of Westcott), 578 _Trésor_ (syn. of Amour), 245 Tressorier Lesacher, 565 Treyve, orig. of Madame Treyve, 459; Précoce de Trévoux, 507 Trinkebirne, 565 Triomphe de Jodoigne, 565 Triomphe de Louvain, 565 Triomphe de Touraine, 565 Triomphe de Tournai, 565 Triomphe de Vienne, 566 _Triumph_ (syn. of Triomphe de Vienne), 566 _Trockener Martin_ (syn. of Martin-Sec), 466 Trompetenbirne, 566 Troppauer Goldgelbe Sommermuskatellerbirne, 566 _Troppauer Muskateller_ (syn. of Troppauer Goldgelbe Sommermuskatellerbirne), 566 Trottier, orig. of Doyenné de Montjean, 368 _Trois Jours_ (syn. of Poire des Trois Jours), 504 _Trout Pear_ (syn. of Forelle), 167 Truchsess, 566 Truckhill Bergamot, 566 Tsar, 566 Tudor, 567 Turban, 567 Türkische müskirte Sommerbirne, 567 Turnep, 567 Turner, mention of pears by, 32 Tusser, mention of pears by, 32 Tussock moth caterpillars on pear, 120 _Twenty-fifth Anniversaire de Leopold I_ (syn. of Vingt-cinquième Anniversaire de Léopold I^{er}), 573 Twice flowering Pear-tree, 567 Tyler, 567 Tyson, 222; value of, for local market in New York, 101 Tyson, Jonathan, owner of original tree of Tyson, 223 Ulatis, 567 _Unbekannte Von Mons_ (syn. of L'Inconnue Van Mons), 439 _Union_ (syn. of Pound), 208 Unterlaibacher Mostbirne, 567 _Unvergleichliche_ (syn. of Sans-Pareille du Nord), 540 Upper Crust, 567 Urbaniste, 224; parent of Harris, 412; Poire du Pauvre, 503 _Urbanister Sämling_ (syn. of Urbaniste), 224 Ursula, 567 Uvedale, Dr., orig. of Pound, 209 _Uvedale's St. Germain_ (syn. of Pound), 208 Uwchlan, 568 Valentine, 568 Vallée Franche, 568 Valley, 568 Van Assche, 568 _Van Assene_ (syn. of Van Assche), 568 Van Buren, 568 Van Deventer, 568 Van Dooren, orig. of Rousselet Saint-Quentin, 530 Van Geert, Jean, orig. of Beurré Jean van Geert 298; Beurré Van Geert, 295 Van Lindley, J., introd. of Alice Payne, 242 Van Marum, 569 Van Mons, Dr., discov. of var., 533; orig. of varieties, 131, 152, 161, 221, 237, 239, 240, 242, 243, 246, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 260, 265, 269, 272, 273, 278, 279, 282, 284, 285, 286, 288, 290, 291, 293, 297, 298, 299, 305, 307, 308, 312, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 330, 331, 333, 334, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 348, 349, 351, 353, 354, 355, 356, 358, 361, 362, 365, 368, 369, 370, 372, 373, 377, 378, 379, 381, 383, 385, 386, 387, 390, 392, 394, 405, 409, 413, 414, 415, 417, 418, 433, 434, 441, 443, 444, 445, 446, 448, 452, 457, 462, 463, 464, 467, 470, 472, 474, 476, 483, 485, 487, 488, 489, 491, 492, 493, 498, 502, 505, 508, 511, 512, 513, 515, 516, 518, 519, 520, 522, 527, 528, 531, 536, 545, 547, 553, 555, 556, 557, 558, 561, 562, 565, 569, 570, 578; prop. of var., 160; theory of, in pear breeding, 18; work of, in pear breeding, 17 _Van Mons Butterbirne_ (syn. of Léon Leclerc (Van Mons)), 189 Van Mons frühe Pomeranzenbirne, 569 _Van Mons Hermannsbirne_ (syn. of Saint Germain Van Mons), 536 Van Mons Sommer Schmalzbirne, 569 Van Mons späte Wirthschaftbirne, 569 Van Mons süsse Haushaltsbirne, 569 Van Tertolen Herbst Zuckerbirne, 569 Van Vranken, William, discov. of Sacandaga, 534 Van de Weyer Bates, 569 Vancouver, mention of fruits in California by, 54 Vanderveer, 570 Vanderveer, Dr. Adrian, orig. of Vanderveer, 570 Varet, A., orig. of Beurré Vauban, 307 Varro, fifty monographs of husbandry by Greeks named by, 7; forerunner of modern pear management, 7 Varuna, 570 Vauquelin, 570 Vauquelin, orig. of Vauquelin, 570 Veitch, Messrs., orig. of S. T. Wright, 533 _Venturia pyrina_, cause of pear scab, 114 Venusbrust, 570 _Vereins Dechantsbirne_ (syn. of Doyenné du Comice), 153 Vergoldete oder wahre graue Dechantsbirne, 570 Verguldete Herbstbergamotte, 570 _Verlain_ (syn. of Verlaine d'Été), 570 Verlaine d'Été, 570 Vermillion d'en Haut, 570 Vermont, 571 Vermont Beauty, 225; place of, in New York pear culture, 85; possibility of, being identical with Forelle, 167 Vernusson, 571 _Verschwenderin_ (syn. of Enfant Prodigue), 377 _Verte-Longue d'Automne_ (syn. of Long Green of Autumn), 449 Verte-longue panachée, 571 Verte-Longue de la Sarthe, 571 Verulam, 571 _Veterans_ (syn. of Besi des Vétérans), 282 Vezouzière, 571 _Vicar_ (syn. of Vicar of Winkfield), 226 Vicar Junior, 571 Vicar of Winkfield, 226 Vice-Président Coppiers, 572 Vice-Président Decaye, 572 Vice-Président Delbée, 572 Vice-Président Delehoye, 572 Vice-Président Delbée, parent of Cavelier de la Salle, 331 Victor, 572 _Victoria_ (syn. of Huyshe Victoria), 423 _Victoria d'Huyse_ (syn. of Huyshe Victoria), 423 Victoria de Williams, 572 Victorina, 572 Vigne, 572 Villain XIV, 572 Villéne de Saint-Florent, 573 Vin de Anglais, 573 _Vine Pear_ (syn. of Vigne), 572 Vineuse, 573 _Vineuse Esperen_ (syn. of Vineuse), 573 Vingt-cinquième Anniversaire de Léopold I^{er}, 573 _Virgalieu_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 _Virgalieu d'été_ (syn. of Summer Virgalieu), 557 Virginale du Mecklembourg, 573 Virginie Baltet, 573 Virgouleuse, 573 Vital, 574 Vital, discov. of Vital, 574 Vitrier, 574 _Volkmarsen_ (syn. of Volkmarserbirne), 574 Volkmarserbirne, 574 Von Muckenheim, orig. of Argusbirne, 252 Von Zugler, 574 Voscovoya, 574 Vosschanka, 575 _Wachsbirne_ (syn. of Cire), 338 Wade, 575 Wade, I. C., orig. of Wade, 575 Wadleigh, 575 Wahre Canning, 575 Wahre Faustbirne, 575 Wahre Schneebirne, 575 Walker, Samuel, owner of original tree of Mount Vernon, 199 _Walker_ (syn. of Amande Double), 243 Wallis, Henry, orig. of Wallis Kieffer, 575 Wallis Kieffer, 575 _Walnut_ (syn. of Echasserie), 374 _Wälsche Birne_ (syn. of Jargonelle), 177 Warden pear tree, 44 Warner, 575 _Warwicke_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 Washington, 575 Waterloo, 576 Watson, 576 Watson, William, orig. of Watson, 576 _Waxy_ (syn. of Voscovoya), 574 Weber, orig. of Duchesse d'Angoulême Bronzée, 371 Webster, 576 Weeping Willow, 576 Weidenbirne, 576 Weidenblättrige Herbstbirne, 576 Weihmier Sugar, 576 _Weihnachtsbirne_ (syn. of Fondante de Noël), 164 Weiler'sche Mostbirn, 576 _Weingifterin_ (syn. of Schweizer Wasserbirne), 543 Weisse Fuchsbirne, 576 Weisse Hangelbirne, 577 _Weisse Herbst Butterbirne_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 Weisse Kochbirne, 577 Weisse Pelzbirne, 577 _Weisse Pfalzgrafenbirne_ (syn. of Zink Pfalzgrafenbirne), 587 Welbeck Bergamot, 577 Wellington, 577 Wellington, A., introd. of Wellington, 577 Welsche Bratbirne, 577 Weltz, 578 Weltz, Leo, introd. of Weltz, 578 Wendell, 578 Wesner, 578 Westcott, 578 Westphälische Melonenbirne, 578 Westrumb, 578 Wetmore, 578 Wetmore, E. B., orig. of Wetmore, 578 Wharton Early, 579 Wheeler, 579 Wheeler, Dr., discov. of Wheeler, 579 Whieldon, 579 Whieldon, Wm. W., orig. of Whieldon, 579 _White Beurré_ (syn. of White Doyenné), 228 White Doyenné, 228; parent of Beurré Antoine, 284; Christmas Beurré, 337; Collins, 341; Hewes, 418; Homestead, 420; Vanderveer, 570 White Genneting, 579 White Longland, 579 White Seedling, 579 White Squash, 580 White Star, 580 Whitfield, 580 Wiegel, Christopher, orig. of Margaret, 197 _Wiener Pomeranzenbirne_ (syn. of Orange de Vienne), 487 Wiest, 580 Wight, Joseph, orig. of Raymond, 517 Wilbur, 580 Wilbur, Jr., D., orig. of Wilbur, 580 Wilcomb and King, introd. of Lawrence, 185 Wild Pears. (See Pears, Wild) Wilde Filzbirne, 580 Wilde Herrnbirne, 580 Wilde Holzbirne, 580 Wilder, Col. Marshall P., biography of, 128; introd. into America of varieties, 127, 472, 571 _Wilder_ (syn. of Wilder Early), 230 Wilder Early, 230 Wilder Sugar, 580 Wilding von Einsiedel, 581 Wilding von Gronau, 581 _Wilding aus Suffolk_ (syn. of Suffolk Thorn), 556 Wilford, 581 Wilkinson, 581 Wilkinson, A., orig. of Wilkinson Winter, 581 Wilkinson, Jeremiah, orig. of Wilkinson, 581 Wilkinson Winter, 581 Willamette Valley, introduction of pear culture in, 54 Willermoz, 581 William, 581 _William Edwards_ (syn. of William), 581 William Prince, 582 Williams, orig. of Gansel Late Bergamot, 391; Gansel Seckel, 170; prop. of Bartlett, 125 Williams, Aaron Davis, orig. of Williams Early, 582 Williams, John, orig. of Chaumontel Swan Egg, 336; Pitmaston, 207 Williams, Mrs., orig. of Williams Double Bearing, 582 Williams, Theodore, orig. of Theodore Williams, 561 _Williams_ (syn. of Bartlett), 124 _Williams' Apothekerbirne_ (syn. of Bartlett), 124 _Williams' Bon Chrétien_ (syn. of Bartlett), 124 _Williams Christbirne_ (syn. of Bartlett), 124 Williams Double Bearing, 582 Williams Early, 582 Williams d'hiver, 582 Williams panachée, 582 _Williams Winter_ (syn. of Williams d'hiver), 582 Williamson, 582 Williamson, Nicholas, orig. of Williamson, 582 Willison, W., orig. of Queen Victoria, 515 Wilmington, 582 Windsor, 583 Winship, 583 Winship, Messrs., orig. of Winship, 583 Winslow, 583 Winter, 583 Winter Bartlett, 231 _Winter Bell_ (syn. of Pound), 208 _Winter Bon Chrétien_ (syn. of Angoisse), 248 _Winter Dechantsbirne_ (syn. of Easter Beurré), 159 Winter Doyenné, parent of Doyenné à Cinq Pans, 366 _Winter Eisbirne_ (syn. of Glace d'hiver), 397 Winter Jonah, 583 _Winter Meuris_ (syn. of Beurré d'Anjou), 127 Winter Nelis, 232; parent of Colmar Sirand, 344; Comptesse de Chambord, 347; Lycurgus, 454; Michaelmas Nelis, 471; Reeder, 211; place of, in commercial pear culture, 84 _Winter Oken_ (syn. of Oken), 485 _Winter Orange_ (syn. of Orange d'Hiver), 486 Winter Pear, 583 _Winter Pomeranzenbirne_ (syn. of Orange d'Hiver), 486 Winter Popperin, 584 Winter Rousselet, 584 Winter Seckel, 584 Winter Sweet Sugar, 584 _Winter Thorn_ (syn. of Épine d'Hiver), 377 Winter Williams, 584 Winterbirne, 584 Winterliebesbirne, 584 Winterrobine, 584 _Winterwunder_ (syn. of Petit-Oin), 496 Witte Princesse, 585 Witzthumb, orig. of Jean de Witte, 429 Wolfsbirne, 585 Woodberry, William, orig. of Rossney, 524 Woodbridge, orig. of Woodbridge Seckel, 585 Woodbridge Seckel, 585 Woodstock, 585 Worden, Schuyler, orig. of Worden Meadow, 585 Worden, Sylvester, orig. of Worden Seckel, 234 _Worden_ (syn. of Worden Seckel), 234 Worden Meadow, 585 Worden Seckel, 234 Wörlesbirne, 585 Wormsley Grange, 585 Wormy pear, cause of, 118 _Worster_ (syn. of Black Worcester), 310 _Wredow_ (syn. of Délices de Charles), 355 Wright, Zaccheus, orig. of Chelmsford, 336 Wurzer, 586 _Wurzer d'Automne_ (syn. of Wurzer), 586 Yat, 586 Yellow Huff-cap, 586 York, Mrs. Jeremiah, orig. of Pendleton Early York, 494 _York-précoce de Pendleton_ (syn. of Pendleton Early York), 494 Youngken, David, orig. of Youngken Winter Seckel, 586 Youngken, Josiah, orig. of Red Garden, 518 Youngken Winter Seckel, 586 Zache, 586 Zapfenbirn, 586 Zarskaja, 587 Zénon, 587 Zéphirin Grégoire, 587 Zéphirin Louis, 587 Zieregger Mostbirne, 587 Zimmtfarbige Schmalzbirne, 587 Zink Pfalzgrafenbirne, 587 Zoar Beauty, 588 Zoé, 588 _Züricher Zuckerbirne_ (syn. of Sucrée de Zurich), 555 _Zwibotzenbirne_ (syn. of Deux Têtes), 359 FOOTNOTES: [1] _The Odyssey_, Book VII. Translated by S. H. Butcher and A. Lang. [2] Pliny _Nat. Hist._ =XV=: 15. From a translation made for the writer by Professor H. H. Yeames; Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y. [3] Goderonne: From godron, a sculptural ornament having the shape of an elongated egg. [4] Cordus, Valerius _Hist. Pl._ =3=:176-182. 1561. The writer is indebted to Professor H. H. Yeames, Hobart College, Geneva, N. Y., for the translation of this chapter from the original text. [5] _A Hist. of Gard. in Eng._ 35-37. 1910. [6] _Mass. Hist. Soc. Collections_ 1st Ser. =1=:118. [7] _Mass. Records_ =1=:24. [8] _Mass. Hist. Collections_ 3d Ser. =23=:337. [9] _Hist. Mass. Hort. Soc._ p. 16. 1829-1878. [10] _Report of Me. Pom. Soc._ =7=:1873. [11] Prince, William _Cat._ 1771. [12] For a brief account of the life and work of John Bartram, see _The Grapes of New York_, page 97. [13] For an account of the life and work of Coxe, see _The Peaches of New York_, page 254. [14] For an account of the life and work of Budd, see _The Plums of New York_, page 145. [15] Rehder, Alfred _Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts & Sci_. =50=:228. 1915. [16] Wilson, E. H. _Jour. Inter. Gar. Club 598._ 1918. [17] Galloway, B. T. _Jour. Her._ 11:29. 1920. [18] Rehder, Alfred _Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts & Sci._ =50=:237. 1915. [19] Reimer, F. C. _Bull. Com. Hort. Calif._ =5=:167-172. 1916. [20] Galloway, B. T. _Jour. Her._ =11=:32. 1920. [21] Reimer, F. C. _Reprint from 1916 annual report of Pacific Coast Association of Nurserymen_, 7. 1916. [22] Some very good preliminary work on harvesting and storing pears has been done by the Oregon Experiment Station, and is reported in Bulletin 154, June, 1918, from that Station. [23] For costs and profits in growing apples see Bulletin 376, New York Agricultural Experiment Station. [24] Hesler and Whetzel. _Manual of Fruit Diseases_ 330-331. 1917. [25] Marshall P. Wilder contributed to all fields of American horticulture as an ardent amateur grower and as a most generous patron. But it was as a pomologist and especially as a grower of grapes and pears that he established a permanent place for himself in the horticulture of the country. He was born in New Hampshire in 1798 and died in Boston in 1886, having lived in Dorchester, a suburb of Boston, for upwards of a half century. By vocation a merchant, he was a captain of industry in his day, yet most of his life, especially after the prime had been passed, was devoted to the avocation of horticulture. He was one of the founders of the American Pomological Society and had the great honor of being its president, excepting a single two-year term, from the first meeting in 1850 until his death. During the last years of his presidency, Wilder actively engaged in the reform of pomological nomenclature which the Society was then carrying on. He was an active member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for fifty-six years and its president from 1841 to 1848. He was also one of the founders of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture, of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, of the United States Agricultural Society, and was a trustee of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Besides membership and activity in these agricultural organizations, he served as colonel and commander in a military company and as president of the New England Historic and Genealogical Society from 1868 until his death. Wilder was a zealous collector and introducer of flowers. He specialized in camellias, azaleas, orchids, and roses. A rose bearing his name is still a garden favorite. Many floral novelties of his day owe their origin or introduction to Marshall P. Wilder. He was ever enthusiastic over American grapes and tested all of the many new varieties introduced about the middle of the last century. But the pear was even more to his fancy than the grape, and he endeavored to grow every native variety of any promise whatsoever. All told, he tested over 1200 varieties, and in 1873 exhibited more than 400 varieties. He originated several new pears and to him is due the honor of having introduced the Beurre d'Anjou in 1844. At his death he left the American Pomological Society $1000 for Wilder medals for new fruits and $4000 for general purposes. To the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, he left $1000 to encourage the introduction of new American pears and grapes. Among many distinguished American pomologists who sought to improve the pear, Marshall P. Wilder deserves most of any recognition for his services and a place is therefore accorded him for his likeness in the frontispiece of _The Pears of New York_ and the book is thereby dedicated to him. [26] The name is spelled by many writers Beurré d'Aremberg. [27] General Henry Alexander Scammell Dearborn, who followed the vocation of a soldier, statesman, and author, chose as his avocation horticulture and in several of its fields became eminent. A native of New England (1783-1851), son of General Henry Dearborn of Revolutionary fame, he was early educated to the profession of law and pursued that vocation until the war with Great Britain in 1812. Services in this war brought him the rank and title of general. After the war he served as Collector of the Port of Boston, in Congress, and as Mayor of Roxbury, Massachusetts, which office he held at the time of his death. But it is as a patron, friend, and lover of horticulture that the life and work of General Dearborn interest pomologists. He was one of the charter members in the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and a prime mover in its organization. He was elected its first president March 17, 1829. In the history of the Society published in 1880, of all the famous members of this truly remarkable organization, General Dearborn's portrait was chosen for the frontispiece. He was early interested in experimental gardens and rural cemeteries. The plans for experimental gardens advocated by him were never fully carried out, but no doubt his enthusiasm for such gardens, with his own garden as a model, did much to stimulate the planting in America in the early half of the nineteenth century of the many famous gardens which adorned and enriched every center of culture along the Atlantic seaboard. He helped to establish the Mount Auburn and Forest Hills cemeteries, famous among Boston cemeteries, and the first of rural cemeteries in this country. His life-long devotion to rural art as exemplified in gardens and cemeteries knew no bounds. On these subjects and on pomology he contributed many articles to the agricultural and horticultural papers of his time. Few men, it can be said, could better concentrate their thoughts and feelings on paper than he seems to have done. Besides the many papers from his own pen he published several translated treatises from the French, chief of which was a monograph on the Camellia in 1838 and another on _Morus multicaulis_ in 1830, the "Mulberry Craze" being in full swing at this time. General Dearborn was an ardent pear-grower and helped to test the hundreds of seedlings then being brought from Belgium and France and grew as well considerable numbers from his own seed-beds. Of all his seedlings, however, only Dearborn survives. [28] The fame of Robert Manning as an accurate and discriminating American pomologist will long endure. Few Americans, one conceives, as his life is reviewed, have rendered greater service in any field of the nation's agriculture. The quantity of his work was not remarkably large, but the quality was superfine. Systematic pomology in particular owes him much for his painstaking descriptions of fruits, and his corrections in nomenclature. Born in Salem, Mass., July 18, 1784, he made the town of his birth famous as a pomological center in America, where, at the time of his death, October 10, 1842, his garden probably contained a larger collection of fruits than had ever before been brought together in America. Manning began collecting fruits in 1823 when he established his "Pomological Garden" at Salem for the purpose of introducing and testing new varieties of fruits. He attempted to bring together all of the varieties of fruits that would thrive in eastern Massachusetts, and when his garden was fullest had about 2000 fruits, of which 1000 kinds were pears, to which fruit he gave most attention. He had many English, French, and Belgian correspondents from whom he received the most notable fruits grown in their countries. He is said to have had a most remarkable memory and could carry in mind the names, tree-habits, and qualities of any fruit he had ever seen and could identify it at sight. In whatever group of pomologists he chanced to be, his identifications and decisions on nomenclature were accepted as correct. Small wonder, therefore, that the _Book of Fruits_, published by Manning in 1838, at once took the place of authority for descriptions of tree-fruits and for such small-fruits, trees, and shrubs as the author described. It was the first, and is almost the only, American pomology in which the descriptions were all made with fruit in hand. The author intended this book to be the first of a series, but the books to follow never appeared. He was one of the founders of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Pear-growers are indebted to Manning for the work he did in testing the seedlings sent out by Van Mons, the famous Belgian breeder, most of whose pears came to American orchards through the agency of the Salem Pomological Garden. He also received and introduced valuable pears from the London Horticultural Society. His achievements mark Manning among the most notable American pomologists, of whom no other labored as devotedly for the attainment of better pears. [29] Bernard S. Fox was a pioneer nurseryman and fruit-grower in California who gave much time to improving the pear through seedlings. During his stay of thirty years in the state of his adoption he was noted for his energy and enterprise in every industry that had to do with fruit-growing. Fox was an Irishman who came to America in 1848 and began work in the garden and nurseries of Hovey and Company of Boston. A few years later he emigrated with the gold-seekers to California where, shortly, he settled at San Jose as a nurseryman and fruit-grower. Eventually he became possessed of a considerable amount of land the increasing value of which made him a very wealthy man, and he took pleasure in being a patron of horticulture as well as a worker in its several fields. Early in his career at San Jose his interest was aroused in the production of new pears from seed. He was a most conscientious selecter and only the best survived in his orchards. He was at all times extremely anxious not to cumber the list of pears with worthless varieties. Out of a great number of seedlings, only three finally received his approval, P. Barry, Fox, and Colonel Wilder. All have high places in the pear lists of California and the United States, and do honor to an enthusiastic and painstaking breeder of pears. For many years before his death in July, 1880, he was the Vice President of the American Pomological Society for California. Bernard S. Fox was one of the first fruit-growers to bring fame to California, and Californians are justly proud of him. [30] Peter Kieffer, a nurseryman of good reputation in his state, deserves pomological honors because of his keenness of vision in selecting for distribution the pear which bears his name. Few men would have recognized merit in the seedling from which the Kieffer pear came. Peter Kieffer was born in Alsace in 1812, whence he emigrated to America in 1834. In Europe he had worked for twelve years in the garden of the King of France and upon his arrival in America sought employment as a gardener which he found on the estate of James Gowen at Mt. Airy, near Philadelphia. In 1853 he started a small nursery at Roxborough, a short distance from Philadelphia. Much of his stock was imported from Europe, most of which came from Van Houtte, the famous Belgian nurseryman. From Van Houtte, Kieffer obtained seeds of the Chinese Sand pear from which came the Kieffer pear as described in the history of the variety. As a token of his faith in his new variety, Kieffer planted an orchard of this pear, some of the trees of which still live and bear. Peter Kieffer died in 1890, having made an important contribution to horticulture even though the variety sent out by him is far from perfect and has been much over-praised and over-planted. [31] Patrick Barry, one of the founders of the firm of Ellwanger and Barry, whose Mount Hope Nurseries at Rochester, New York, were long of national and international reputation, was born in Belfast, Ireland, in 1816 and died in Rochester, N. Y., in 1890. Besides contributing to the fame of the nursery company he helped to found, Barry was for many years one of the leading pomological editors and authors of the country. New York, especially western New York, is greatly indebted to George Ellwanger and Patrick Barry for the horticultural services of their firm. It is not an exaggeration to say that they introduced fruit-growing in western New York, a region now famous for its fruits. So, also, the parks and home grounds of the many beautiful cities, towns, and villages in western New York are adorned and enriched by ornamental trees, shrubs and vines from the nurseries of Ellwanger and Barry. Patrick Barry came to America in 1836 and with George Ellwanger founded the Mount Hope Nurseries in 1840. Here for a half century he devoted himself to the introduction and distribution of fruit and out-of-door ornamental plants. In the early life of the nursery company many importations were made from Europe and at a time when there were no railroads, telegraph wires, nor ocean steamboats. It was during this early period that the Mount Hope Nurseries began the importation of pears and soon built up one of the largest collections in the country and one which was maintained long after the famous collections farther east had disappeared. At one time or another over 1000 varieties of pears were tested on the grounds of this nursery. For a half century, fruit-growers have studied with pleasure and profit the exhibits of pears made by Ellwanger and Barry at the State and National exhibitions of note. From 1844 to 1852, Patrick Barry edited _The Genesee Farmer_, one of the best agricultural papers of its day and succeeded A. J. Downing in the editorship of _The Horticulturist_ which he brought to Rochester in 1855 where it was published until 1887. Barry's _Treatise on the Fruit-Garden_ appeared in 1851 and at once became one of the most popular books on pomology. In 1872 the "Treatise" was rewritten and published as _Barry's Fruit Garden_. Another notable work of which he was author was _The Catalogue of Fruits of the American Pomological Society_ which was compiled by him. Patrick Barry was one of the founders of the Western New York Horticultural Society, for many years the leading horticultural organization of the continent, and of which he was president for more than thirty years. Patrick Barry ranks with Coxe, Kenrick, the Downings, Warder, Eliot, and Thomas as a great leader in pomology of the time in which he lived. William Crawford Barry, son of Patrick Barry of the preceding sketch, was born in Rochester, New York, in 1847. As a boy he attended parochial schools at Rochester and at Seton Hall, South Orange, New Jersey. As a young man he studied in Berlin, Heidelberg, and the University of Louvain in Belgium. Upon returning to America he took a position in a seed house in New York that he might have practical knowledge of the seed business to bring to the firm of Ellwanger and Barry of which he was soon to become a member. After serving an apprenticeship in the seed business he returned to Rochester to enter the firm which his father and George Ellwanger had founded. From the time of entrance in this company he took a prominent part in its affairs, and for many years before his death, December 12, 1916, he was president of the corporation. Of his horticultural activities, he may be said to have been an organizer and promotor--one of the captains in the industry. For twenty-six years he was president of the Western New York Horticultural Society, having succeeded his father to this office. He was the first president of the American Rose Society, and in 1882 was president of the Eastern Nurserymen's Association. For three years he was president of the Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. He helped to establish and took a leader's part in developing the parks of Rochester which have made that city famous among lovers of landscapes. Highland Park was almost a creation of the firm of Ellwanger and Barry. In 1888 the firm gave the city twenty acres of land adjoining the Highland reservoir as the first step in establishing a park system for Rochester. Mr. Barry was chairman of the committee of the park board having in charge Highland Park from the creation of the board until the year before his death when it passed out of existence. Besides these horticultural activities, Mr. Barry was either president or an officer in six banks and trust companies in Rochester. His was a commanding figure in the horticulture of New York. No one attending the meetings of the Western New York Horticultural Society during the twenty-six years he was president can forget Mr. Barry. His knowledge in every division of horticulture, his devotion to grape and pear culture, his genial manner and pleasant greeting to all members, and his force and tact as a presiding officer fitted him so preëminently well for the place that he was unopposed for the presidency during twenty-six terms following the death of his father and until his death. George Ellwanger, one of the founders and thereafter until his death one of the partners in the Mount Hope Nurseries, Rochester, New York, was born in Germany in 1816 and died in Rochester, New York, in 1906. He came to the United States in 1835, having been educated as a horticulturist in Stuttgart, although possibly the training he received throughout his youth from his father, a grower of grapes and fruits, taught him most, for Ellwanger often said that it was from his father that he acquired his love of horticulture and was by him persuaded to devote his life to the vocation of nurseryman. Ellwanger settled in Rochester in 1839, and the next year joined with Patrick Barry in forming the nursery and seed firm of Ellwanger and Barry, calling their place of business "Mount Hope Nurseries." Ellwanger was one of the founders of the American Pomological Society, and of the Western New York Horticultural Society and throughout his life took an active interest in both organizations. Mr. Ellwanger had large business interests in Rochester and western New York and helped most materially to develop the city and the country about. His chief contributions to horticulture were made through the Mount Hope Nurseries, the influence of which is briefly set forth in the sketch of the life of Patrick Barry. [32] Henry Waggoman Edwards, at one time Governor of Connecticut, was a pioneer American pear breeder credited with making the first systematic attempt to grow new pears in this country. He was a grandson of the eminent theologian, Jonathan Edwards, was born at New Haven, Conn., in 1779, graduated at Princeton College in 1797, studied law at the Litchfield School and almost immediately entered into public life shortly to become prominent and famous in state and nation. He served Connecticut with honors as its Governor, and in the nation he distinguished himself as Representative in the House from Connecticut, Speaker of the House and as Senator. But it is as a pomologist that his career is of concern to the reader. Always interested in pomology, and no doubt especially interested in pears through the spectacular work of Van Mons, he planted pear seeds in the fall of 1817 with the aim of obtaining new and superior varieties of this fruit. Great success did not attend his attempts at pear breeding, but Governor Edwards made a start in work which Manning, Wilder and a score of others were to carry forward with more striking results. Out of many seedlings, at least five were named and were grown for a longer or shorter time by the pear-growers of a century ago. These are Elizabeth, Calhoun, Dallas, Henrietta and Citron, all described among the minor varieties of this text. While hardly to be considered among the foremost pomologists of the country, Governor Edwards is in the front rank of the lesser men whose combined work has done so much to give weight and impulse to American pomology. Transcriber's Notes: Words surrounded by _ are italicized. Words surrounded by = are bold. In this e-text, [vC] represents a capital letter C with a diacritical mark caron (v-shaped symbol) above it. Illustrations were relocated to correspond to their references in the text. Obvious printer errors corrected and inconsistent spellings have been kept, including inconsistent use of hyphen (e.g. "after-flavor" and "after flavor"), accents (e.g. "Müskirte" and "Muskirte"), capitalisation (e.g. "Nec plus Meuris" and "Nec Plus Meuris"), and proper names (e.g. "Luxemburg" and "Luxembourg"). Index entries that do not match their referenced text corrected (except where the text is an obvious printer error) and if necessary moved to the correct position according to alphabetical order, e.g. "Langstielege Zuckerbirne" corrected to be "Langstielige Zuckerbirne". Index entries that refer to non-existent text have been deleted. Page 247, word "it" removed from sentence "...though it it seems...." Page 284, word "it" removed from sentence "...where it it is...." 
6117	----	The Works of E.P. Roe VOLUME SEVENTEEN SUCCESS WITH SMALL FRUITS ILLUSTRATED 1881 I Dedicate this Book TO MR. CHARLES DOWNING A Neighbor, Friend, and Horticulturist FROM WHOM I SHALL ESTEEM IT A PRIVILEGE TO LEARN IN COMING YEARS AS I HAVE IN THE PAST PREFACE A book should be judged somewhat in view of what it attempts. One of the chief objects of this little volume is to lure men and women back to their original calling, that of gardening. I am decidedly under the impression that Eve helped Adam, especially as the sun declined. I am sure that they had small fruits for breakfast, dinner and supper, and would not be at all surprised if they ate some between meals. Even we poor mortals who have sinned more than once, and must give our minds to the effort not to appear unnatural in many hideous styles of dress, can fare as well. The Adams and Eves of every generation can have an Eden if they wish. Indeed, I know of many instances in which Eve creates a beautiful and fruitful garden without any help from Adam. The theologians show that we have inherited much evil from our first parents, but, in the general disposition to have a garden, can we not recognize a redeeming ancestral trait? I would like to contribute my little share toward increasing this tendency, believing that as humanity goes back to its first occupation it may also acquire some of the primal gardener's characteristics before he listened to temptation and ceased to be even a gentleman. When he brutally blamed the woman, it was time he was turned out of Eden. All the best things of the garden suggest refinement and courtesy. Nature might have contented herself with producing seeds only, but she accompanies the prosaic action with fragrant flowers and delicious fruit. It would be well to remember this in the ordinary courtesies of life. Moreover, since the fruit-garden and farm do not develop in a straightforward, matter-of-fact way, why should I write about them after the formal and terse fashion of a manual or scientific treatise? The most productive varieties of fruit blossom and have some foliage which may not be very beautiful, any more than the departures from practical prose in this book are interesting; but, as a leafless plant or bush, laden with fruit, would appear gaunt and naked, so, to the writer, a book about them without any attempt at foliage and flowers would seem unnatural. The modern chronicler has transformed history into a fascinating story. Even science is now taught through the charms of fiction. Shall this department of knowledge, so generally useful, be left only to technical prose? Why should we not have a class of books as practical as the gardens, fields, and crops, concerning which they are written, and at the same time having much of the light, shade, color, and life of the out-of-door world? I merely claim that I have made an attempt in the right direction, but, like an unskillful artist, may have so confused my lights, shades, and mixed my colors so badly, that my pictures resemble a strawberry-bed in which the weeds have the better of the fruit. Liberal outlines of this work appeared in "Scribner's Magazine," but the larger scope afforded by the book has enabled me to treat many subjects for which there was no space in the magazine, and also to give my views more fully concerning topics only touched upon in the serial. As the fruits described are being improved, so in the future other and more skillful horticulturists will develop the literature relating to them into its true proportions. I am greatly indebted to the instruction received at various times from those venerable fathers and authorities on all questions relating to Eden-like pursuits--Mr. Chas. Downing of Newburg, and Hon. Marshall P. Wilder of Boston, Mr. J. J. Thomas, Dr. Geo. Thurber; to such valuable works as those of A. S. Fuller, A. J. Downing, P. Barry, J. M. Merrick, Jr.; and some English authors; to the live horticultural journals in the East, West, and South; and, last but not least, to many plain, practical fruit-growers who are as well informed and sensible as they are modest in expressing their opinions. CORNWALL-ON-THE-HUDSON, NEW YORK. PREFACE TO THE NEW EDITION On page 315 of this volume will be found the following words: "To attempt to describe all the strawberries that have been named would be a task almost as interminable as useless. This whole question of varieties presents a different phase every four or five years. Therefore I treat the subject in my final chapter in order that I may give revision, as often as there shall be occasion for it, without disturbing the body of the book. A few years since certain varieties were making almost as great a sensation as the Sharpless. They are now regarded as little better than weeds in most localities." Now that my publishers ask me to attempt this work of revision, I find that I shrink from it, for reasons natural and cogent to my mind. Possibly the reader may see them in the same light. The principles of cultivation, treatment of soils, fertilizing, etc., remain much the same; My words relating to these topics were penned when knowledge--the result of many years of practical experience--was fresh in memory. Subsequent observation has confirmed the views I then held, and, what is of far more weight in my estimation, they have been endorsed by the best and most thoroughly informed horticulturists in the land. I wrote what I then thought was true; I now read what has been declared true by highest authorities. I have more confidence in their judgment than in my own, and, having been so fortunate as to gain their approval, I fear to meddle with a record which, in a sense, has become theirs as well as mine. Therefore I have decided to leave the body of the book untouched. When I read the lists of varieties I found many that have become obsolete, many that were never worthy of a name. Should I revise these lists, as I fully expected to do, from time to time? At present I have concluded that I will not, for the following reasons: When, between six and seven years ago, I wrote the descriptions of the various kinds of fruit then in vogue, I naturally and inevitably reflected the small-fruit world as it then existed. The picture may have been imperfect and distorted, but I gave it as I saw it. With all its faults I would like to keep that picture for future reference. The time may come when none of the varieties then so highly praised and valued will be found in our fields or gardens. For that very reason I should like to look back to some fixed and objective point which would enable me to estimate the mutations which had occurred. Originators of new varieties are apt to speak too confidently and exultantly of their novelties; purchasers are prone to expect too much of them. Both might obtain useful lessons by turning to a record of equally lauded novelties of other days. Therefore I would like to leave that sketch of varieties as seen in 1880 unaltered. To change the figure, the record may become a landmark, enabling us to estimate future progress more accurately. Should the book still meet with the favor which has been accorded to it in the past, there can be frequent revisions of the supplemental lists which are now given. Although no longer engaged in the business of raising and selling plants, I have not lost my interest in the plants themselves. I hope to obtain much of my recreation in testing the new varieties offered from year to year. In engaging in such pursuits even the most cynical cannot suspect any other purpose than that of observing impartially the behavior of the varieties on trial. I will maintain my grasp on the button-hole of the reader only long enough to state once more a pet theory--one which I hope for leisure to test at some future time. Far be it from me to decry the disposition to raise new seedling varieties; by this course substantial progress has been and will be made. But there is another method of advance which may promise even better results. In many of the catalogues of to-day we find many of the fine old varieties spoken of as enfeebled and fallen from their first estate. This is why they decline in popular favor and pass into oblivion. Little wonder that these varieties have become enfeebled, when we remember how ninety-nine hundredths of the plants are propagated. I will briefly apply my theory to one of the oldest kinds still in existence--Wilson's Albany. If I should set out a bed of Wilson's this spring, I would eventually discover a plant that surpassed the others in vigor and productiveness--one that to a greater degree than the others exhibited the true characteristics of the variety. I should then clear away all the other plants near it and let this one plant propagate itself, until there were enough runners for another bed. From this a second selection of the best and most characteristic plants would be made and treated in like manner. It appears to me reasonable and in accordance with nature that, by this careful and continued selection, an old variety could be brought to a point of excellence far surpassing its pristine condition, and that the higher and better strain would become fixed and uniform, unless it was again treated with the neglect which formerly caused the deterioration. By this method of selection and careful propagation the primal vigor shown by the varieties which justly become popular may be but the starting-point on a career of well-doing that can scarcely be limited. Is it asked, "Why is not this done by plant-growers?" You, my dear reader, may be one of the reasons. You may be ready to expend even a dollar a plant for some untested and possibly valueless novelty, and yet be unwilling to give a dollar a hundred for the best standard variety in existence. If I had Wilsons propagated as I have described, and asked ten dollars a thousand for them, nine out of ten would write back that they could buy the variety for two dollars per thousand. So they could; and they, could also buy horses at ten dollars each, and no one could deny that they were horses. One of the chief incentives of nurserymen to send out novelties is that they may have some plants for sale on which they can make a profit. When the people are educated up to the point of paying for quality in plants and trees as they are in respect to livestock, there will be careful and capable men ready to supply the demand. Beginning on page 349, the reader will find supplemental bits of varieties which have appeared to me worthy of mention at the present time. I may have erred in my selection of the newer candidates for favor, and have given some unwarranted impressions in regard to them. Let the reader remember the opinion of a veteran fruit-grower. "No true, accurate knowledge of a variety can be had," he said, "until it has been at least ten years in general cultivation." I will now take my leave, in the hope that when I have something further to say, I shall not be unwelcome. E. P. R. CORNWALL-ON-THE-HUDSON, N. Y. _January 16,1886._ CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PRELIMINARY PARLEY II. THE FRUIT GARDEN III. SMALL FRUIT FARMING AND ITS PROFITS IV. STRAWBERRIES: THE FIVE SPECIES AND THEIR HISTORY V. IDEAL STRAWBERRIES VERSUS THOSE OF THE FIELD AND MARKET VI. CHOICE OF SOIL AND LOCATION VII. PREPARING AND ENRICHING THE SOIL VIII. PREPARATION OF SOIL BY DRAINAGE IX. THE PREPARATION OF SOILS COMPARATIVELY UNFAVORABLE--CLAY, SAND, ETC X. COMMERCIAL AND SPECIAL FERTILIZERS XI. OBTAINING PLANTS AND IMPROVING OUR STOCK XII. WHEN SHALL WE PLANT? XIII. WHAT SHALL WE PLANT? VARIETIES, THEIR CHARACTER AND ADAPTATION TO SOILS XIV. SETTING OUT PLANTS XV. CULTIVATION XVI. A SOUTHERN STRAWBERRY FARM, AND METHODS OF CULTURE IN THE SOUTH XVII. FORCING STRAWBERRIES UNDER GLASS XVIII. ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES--HYBRIDIZATION XIX. RASPBERRIES--SPECIES, HISTORY, PROPAGATION, ETC XX. RASPBERRIES--PRUNING--STAKING--MULCHING--WINTER PROTECTION, ETC XXI. RASPBERRIES--VARIETIES OF THE FOREIGN AND NATIVE SPECIES XXII. RUBUS OCCIDENTALS--BLACK-CAP AND PURPLE-CANE RASPBERRIES XXIII. THE RASPBERRIES OF THE FUTURE XXIV. BLACKBERRIES--VARIETIES, CULTIVATION, ETC. XXV. CURRANTS--CHOICE OF SOIL, CULTIVATION, PRUNING, ETC. XXVI. CURRANTS, CONTINUED--PROPAGATION, VARIETIES XXVII. GOOSEBERRIES XXVIII. DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES OF SMALL FRUITS XXIX. PICKING AND MARKETING XXX. IRRIGATION XXXI. SUGGESTIVE EXPERIENCES FROM WIDELY SEPARATED LOCALITIES XXXII. A FEW RULES AND MAXIMS XXXIII. VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES XXXIV. VARIETIES OF OTHER SMALL FRUITS XXXV. CLOSING WORDS APPENDIX INDEX CHAPTER I PRELIMINARY PARLEY In the ages that were somewhat shadowed, to say the least, when Nature indulged her own wild moods in man and the world he trampled on rather than cultivated, there was a class who in their dreams and futile efforts became the unconscious prophets of our own time--the Alchemists. For centuries they believed they could transmute base metals into gold and silver. Modern knowledge enables us to work changes more beneficial than the alchemist ever dreamed of; and it shall be my aim to make one of these secrets as open as the sunlight in the fields and gardens wherein the beautiful mutations occur. To turn iron into gold would be a prosaic, barren process that might result in trouble to all concerned, but to transform heavy black earth and insipid rain-water into edible rubies, with celestial perfume and ambrosial flavor, is indeed an art that appeals to the entire race, and enlists that imperious nether organ which has never lost its power over heart or brain. As long, therefore, as humanity's mouth waters at the thought of morsels more delicious even than "sin under the tongue," I am sure of an audience when I discourse of strawberries and their kindred fruits. If apples led to the loss of Paradise, the reader will find described hereafter a list of fruits that will enable him to reconstruct a bit of Eden, even if the "Fall and all our woe" have left him possessed of merely a city yard. But land in the country, breezy hillsides, moist, sheltered valleys, sunny plains--what opportunities for the divinest form of alchemy are here afforded to hundreds of thousands! Many think of the soil only in connection with the sad words of the burial service--"Earth to earth, ashes to ashes." Let us, while we may, gain more cheerful associations with our kindred dust. For a time it can be earth to strawberry blossoms, ashes to bright red berries, and their color will get into our cheeks and their rich subacid juices into our insipid lives, constituting a mental, moral, and physical alterative that will so change us that we shall believe in evolution and imagine ourselves fit for a higher state of existence. One may delve in the earth so long as to lose all dread at the thought of sleeping in it at last; and the luscious fruits and bright-hued flowers that come out of it, in a way no one can find out, may teach our own resurrection more effectually than do the learned theologians. We naturally feel that some good saints in the flesh, even though they are "pillars of the church," need more than a "sea-change" before they can become proper citizens of "Jerusalem the Golden;" but having compared a raspberry bush, bending gracefully under its delicious burden, with the insignificant seed from which it grew, we are ready to believe in all possibilities of good. Thus we may gather more than berries from our fruit-gardens. Nature hangs thoughts and suggestions on every spray, and blackberry bushes give many an impressive scratch to teach us that good and evil are very near together in this world, and that we must be careful, while seeking the one, to avoid the other. In every field of life those who seek the fruit too rashly are almost sure to have a thorny experience, and to learn that prickings are provided for those who have no consciences. He who sees in the world around him only what strikes the eye lives in a poor, half-furnished house; he who obtains from his garden only what he can eat gathers but a meagre crop. If I find something besides berries on my vines, I shall pick it if so inclined. The scientific treatise, or precise manual, may break up the well-rooted friendship of plants, and compel them to take leave of each other, after the arbitrary fashion of methodical minds, but I must talk about them very much as nature has taught me, since, in respect to out-of-door life, my education was acquired almost wholly in the old-fashioned way at the venerable "dame's school." Nay more, I claim that I have warrant to gather from my horticultural texts more than can be sent to the dining table or commission merchant. Such a matter-of-fact plant as the currant makes some attempt to embroider its humble life with ornament, and in April the bees will prove to you that honey may be gathered even from a gooseberry bush. Indeed, gooseberries are like some ladies that we all know. In their young and blossoming days they are sweet and pink-hued, and then they grow acid, pale, and hard; but in the ripening experience of later life they become sweet again and tender. Before they drop from their places the bees come back for honey, and find it. In brief, I propose to take the reader on a quiet and extended ramble among the small fruits. It is much the same as if I said, "Let us go a-strawberrying together," and we talked as we went over hill and through dale in a style somewhat in harmony with our wanderings. Very many, no doubt, will glance at these introductory words, and decline to go with me, correctly feeling that they can find better company. Other busy, practical souls will prefer a more compact, straightforward treatise, that is like a lesson in a class-room, rather than a stroll in the fields, or a tour among the fruit farms, and while sorry to lose their company, I have no occasion to find fault. I assure those, however, who, after this preliminary parley, decide to go further, that I will do my best to make our excursion pleasant, and to cause as little weariness as is possible, if we are to return with full baskets. I shall not follow the example of some thrifty people who invite one to go "a-berrying," but lead away from fruitful nooks, proposing to visit them alone by stealth. All the secrets I know shall become open ones. I shall conduct the reader to all the "good places," and name the good things I have discovered in half a lifetime of research. I would, therefore, modestly hint to the practical reader--to whom "time is money," who has an eye to the fruit only, and with whom the question of outlay and return is ever uppermost--that he may, after all, find it to his advantage to go with us. While we stop to gather a flower, listen to a brook or bird, or go out of our way occasionally to get a view, he can jog on, meeting us at every point where we "mean business." These points shall occur so often that he will not lose as much time as he imagines, and I think he will find my business talks business-like--quite as practical as he desires. To come down to the plainest of plain prose, I am not a theorist on these subjects, nor do I dabble in small fruits as a rich and fanciful amateur, to whom it is a matter of indifference whether his strawberries cost five cents or a dollar a quart. As a farmer, milk must be less expensive than champagne. I could not afford a fruit farm at all if it did not more than pay its way, and in order to win the confidence of the "solid men," who want no "gush" or side sentiment, even though nature suggests some warrant for it, I will give a bit of personal experience. Five years since, I bought a farm of twenty-three acres that for several years had been rented, depleted, and suffered to run wild. Thickets of brushwood extended from the fences well into the fields, and in a notable instance across the entire place. One portion was so stony that it could not be plowed; another so wet and sour that even grass would not grow upon it; a third portion was not only swampy, but liable to be overwhelmed with stones and gravel twice a year by the sudden rising of a mountain stream. There was no fruit on the place except apples and a very few pears and grapes. Nearly all of the land, as I found it, was too impoverished to produce a decent crop of strawberries. The location of the place, moreover, made it very expensive--it cost $19,000; and yet during the third year of occupancy the income from this place approached very nearly to the outlay, and in 1878, during which my most expensive improvements were made, in the way of draining, taking out stones, etc., the income paid for these improvements, for current expenses, and gave a surplus of over $1,800. In 1879, the net income was considerably larger. In order that these statements may not mislead any one, I will add that in my judgment only the combined business of plants and fruit would warrant such expenses as I have incurred. My farm is almost in the midst of a village, and the buildings upon it greatly increased its cost. Those who propose to raise and sell fruit only should not burden themselves with high-priced land. Farms, even on the Hudson, can be bought at quite moderate prices at a mile or more away from centres, and yet within easy reach of landings and railroad depots. Mr. Charles Downing, whose opinions on all horticultural questions are so justly valued, remarked to me that no other fruit was so affected by varying soils and climates as the strawberry. I have come to the conclusion that soil, locality, and climate make such vast differences that unless these variations are carefully studied and indicated, books will mislead more people than they help. A man may write a treatise admirably adapted to his own farm; but if one living a thousand, a hundred, or even one mile away, followed the same method, he might almost utterly fail. While certain general and foundation principles apply to the cultivation of each genus of fruit, important modifications and, in some instances, almost radical changes of method must be made in view of the varied conditions in which it is grown. It is even more important to know what varieties are best adapted to different localities and soils. While no experienced and candid authority will speak confidently and precisely on this point, much very useful information and suggestion may be given by one who, instead of theorizing, observes, questions, and records facts as they are. The most profitable strawberry of the far South will produce scarcely any fruit in the North, although the plant grows well; and some of our best raspberries cannot even exist in a hot climate or upon very light soils. In the preparation of this book it has been my aim to study these conditions, that I might give advice useful in Florida and Canada, New York and California, as well as at Cornwall. I have maintained an extensive correspondence with practical fruit growers in all sections, and have read with care contributions to the horticultural press from widely separated localities. Not content with this, I have visited in person the great fruit-growing centres of New Jersey, Norfolk and Richmond, Va.; Charleston, S. C.; Augusta and Savannah, Ga,; and several points in Florida. Thus, from actual observation and full, free conversation, I have familiarized myself with both the Northern and Southern aspects of this industry, while my correspondence from the far West, Southwest, and California will, I hope, enable me to aid the novice in those regions also. I know in advance that my book will contain many and varied faults, but I intend that it shall be an expression of honest opinion. I do not like "foxy grapes" nor foxy words about them. CHAPTER II THE FRUIT GARDEN _Raison d'etre_ Small fruits, to people who live in the country, are like heaven--objects of universal desire and very general neglect. Indeed, in a land so peculiarly adapted to their cultivation, it is difficult to account for this neglect if you admit the premise that Americans are civilized and intellectual. It is the trait of a savage and inferior race to devour with immense gusto a delicious morsel, and then trust to luck for another. People who would turn away from a dish of "Monarch" strawberries, with their plump pink cheeks powdered with sugar, or from a plate of melting raspberries and cream, would be regarded as so eccentric as to suggest an asylum; but the number of professedly intelligent and moral folk who ignore the simple means of enjoying the ambrosial viands daily, for weeks together, is so large as to shake one's confidence in human nature. A well-maintained fruit garden is a comparatively rare adjunct of even stylish and pretentious homes. In June, of all months, in sultry July and August, there arises from innumerable country breakfast tables the pungent odor of a meat into which the devils went but out of which there is no proof they ever came. From the garden under the windows might have been gathered fruits whose aroma would have tempted spirits of the air. The cabbage-patch may be seen afar, but too often the strawberry-bed even if it exists is hidden by weeds, and the later small fruits struggle for bare life in some neglected corner. Indeed, an excursion into certain parts of Hew England might suggest that many of its thrifty citizens would not have been content in Eden until they had put its best land into onions and tobacco. Through the superb scenery of Vermont there flows a river whose name, one might think, would secure an unfailing tide from the eyes of the inhabitants. The Alpine strawberry grows wild in all that region, but the puritan smacked his lips over another gift of nature and named the romantic stream in its honor. To account for certain tastes or tendencies, mankind must certainly have fallen a little way, or, if Mr. Darwin's view is correct, and we are on a slight up-grade, a dreadful hitch and tendency to backslide has been apparent at a certain point ever since the Hebrews sighed for the "leeks and onions of Egypt." Of course, there is little hope for the rural soul that "loathes" the light manna of small fruits. We must leave it to evolution for another cycle or two. But, as already indicated, we believe that humanity in the main has reached a point where its internal organs highly approve of the delicious group of fruits that strayed out of Paradise, and have not yet lost themselves among the "thorns and thistles." Indeed, modern skill--the alchemy of our age--has wrought such wonders that Eden is possible again to all who will take the trouble to form Eden-like tastes and capacities. The number who are doing this is increasing every year, The large demand for literature relating to out-of-door life, horticultural journals, like the fruits of which they treat, flourishing in regions new and remote, are proof of this. The business of supplying fruit-trees, plants, and even flowers, is becoming a vast industry. I have been informed that one enterprising firm annually spends thousands in advertising roses only. But while we welcome the evidences that so many are ceasing to be bucolic heathen, much observation has shown that the need of further enlightenment is large indeed. It is depressing to think of the number of homes about which fruits are conspicuous only by their absence--homes of every class, from the laborer's cottage and pioneer's cabin to the suburban palace. Living without books and pictures is only a little worse than living in the country without fruits and flowers. We must respect to some extent the old ascetics, who, in obedience to mistaken ideas of duty, deprived themselves of the good things God provided, even while we recognize the stupidity of such a course. Little children are rarely so lacking in sense as to try to please their father by contemptuously turning away from his best gifts, or by treating them with indifference. Why do millions live in the country, year after year, raising weeds and brambles, or a few coarse vegetables, when the choicest fruits would grow almost as readily? They can plead no perverted sense of duty. It is a question hard to answer. Some, perhaps, have the delusion that fine small fruits are as difficult to raise as orchids. They class them with hot-house grapes. Others think they need so little attention that they can stick a few plants in hard, poor ground and leave them to their fate. One might as well try to raise canary-birds and kittens together as strawberries and weeds. There is a large class who believe in small fruits, and know their value. They enjoy them amazingly at a friend's table, and even buy some when they are cheap., A little greater outlay and a little intelligent effort would give them an abundant supply from their own grounds. In a vague way they are aware of this, and reproach themselves for their negligence, but time passes and there is no change for the better. Why? I don't know. There are men who rarely kiss their wives and children. For them the birds sing unheeded and even unheard; flowers become mere objects, and sunsets suggest only "quitting time." In theory they believe in all these things. What can be said of them save that they simply jog on to-day as they did yesterday, ever dimly hoping at some time or other "to live up to their privileges"? But they usually go on from bad to worse, until, like their neglected strawberry-beds, they are "turned under." In cities not a hundred miles from my farm there are abodes of wealth with spacious grounds, where, in many instances, scarcely any place is found for small fruits. "It is cheaper and easier to buy them," it is said. This is a sorry proof of civilization. There is no economy in the barbaric splendor of brass buttons and livery, but merely a little trouble (I doubt about money) is saved on the choicest luxuries of the year. The idea of going out of their rural paradises to buy half-stale fruit! But this class is largely at the mercy of the "hired man," or his more disagreeable development, the pretentious smatterer, who, so far from possessing the knowledge that the English, Scotch, or German gardeners acquire in their long, thorough training, is a compound of ignorance and prejudice. To hide his barrenness of mind he gives his soul to rare plants, clipped lawns, but stints the family in all things save his impudence. If he tells his obsequious employers that it is easier and cheaper to buy their fruit than to raise it, of course there is naught to do but go to the market and pick up what they can; and yet Dr. Thurber says, with a vast deal of force, that "the unfortunate people who buy their fruit do not know what a strawberry is." In all truth and soberness it is a marvel and a shame that so many sane people who profess to have passed beyond the habits of the wilderness will not give the attention required by these unexacting fruits. The man who has learned to write his name can learn to raise them successfully. The ladies who know how to keep their homes neat through the labors of their "intelligent help," could also learn to manage a fruit garden even though employing the stupidest oaf that ever blundered through life. The method is this: First learn how yourself, and then let your laborer thoroughly understand that he gets no wages unless he does as he is told. In the complicated details of a plant farm there is much that needs constant supervision, but the work of an ordinary fruit garden is, in the main, straightforward and simple. The expenditure of a little time, money, and, above all things, of seasonable labor, is so abundantly repaid that one would think that bare self-interest would solve invariably the simple problem of supply. As mere articles of food, these fruits are exceedingly valuable. They are capable of sustaining severe and continued labor. For months together we might become almost independent of butcher and doctor if we made our places produce all that nature permits. Purple grapes will hide unsightly buildings; currants, raspberries, and blackberries will grow along the fences and in the corners that are left to burdocks and brambles. I have known invalids to improve from the first day that berries were brought to the table, and thousands would exchange their sallow complexions, sick headaches, and general ennui for a breezy interest in life and its abounding pleasures, if they would only take nature's palpable hint, and enjoy the seasonable food she provides. Belles can find better cosmetics in the fruit garden than on their toilet tables, and she who paints her cheeks with the pure, healthful blood that is made from nature's choicest gifts, and the exercise of gathering them, can give her lover a kiss that will make him wish for another. The famous Dr. Hosack, of New York City, who attended Alexander Hamilton after he received his fatal wound from Burr, was an enthusiast on the subject of fruits. It was his custom to terminate his spring course of lectures with a strawberry festival. "I must let the class see," he said, "that we are practical as well as theoretical. Linnaeus cured his gout and protracted his life by eating strawberries." "They are a dear article," a friend remarked, "to gratify the appetites of so many." "Yes, indeed," replied the doctor, "but from our present mode of culture they will become cheap." It is hard to realize how scarce this fruit was sixty or seventy years ago, but the prediction of the sagacious physician has been verified even beyond his imagination. Strawberries are raised almost as abundantly as potatoes, and for a month or more can be eaten as a cheap and wholesome food by all classes, even the poorest. By a proper selection of varieties we, in our home, feast upon them six weeks together, and so might the majority of those whose happy lot is cast in the country. The small area of a city yard planted with a few choice kinds will often yield surprising returns under sensible culture. If we cultivate these beautiful and delicious fruits we always have the power of giving pleasure to others, and he's a churl and she a pale reflection of Xantippe who does not covet this power. The faces of our guests brighten as they snuff from afar the delicate aroma. Our vines can furnish gifts that our friends will ever welcome; and by means of their products we can pay homage to genius that will be far more grateful than commonplace compliments. I have seen a letter from the Hon. Wm. C. Bryant, which is a rich return for the few strawberries that were sent to him, and the thought that they gave him pleasure gives the donor far more. They are a gift that one can bestow and another take without involving any compromise on either side, since they belong to the same category as smiles, kind words, and the universal freemasonry of friendship. Faces grow radiant over a basket of fruit or flowers that would darken with anger at other gifts. If, in the circle of our acquaintance, there are those shut up to the weariness and heavy atmosphere of a sick-room, in no way can we send a ray of sunlight athwart their pallid faces more effectually than by placing a basket of fragrant fruit on the table beside them. Even though the physician may render it "forbidden fruit," their eyes will feast upon it, and the aroma will teach them that the world is not passing on, unheeding and uncaring whether they live or die. The Fruit and Flower Mission of New York is engaged in a beautiful and most useful charity. Into tenement-houses and the hot close wards of city hospitals, true sisters of mercy of the one Catholic church of love and kindness carry the fragrant emblems of an Eden that was lost, but may be regained even by those who have wandered farthest from its beauty and purity. Men and women, with faces seemingly hardened and grown rigid under the impress of vice, that but too correctly reveal the coarse and brutal nature within, often become wistful and tender over some simple flower or luscious fruit that recalls earlier and happier days. These are gifts which offend no prejudices, and inevitably suggest that which is good, sweet, wholesome and pure. For a moment, at least, and perhaps forever, they may lead stained and debased creatures to turn their faces heavenward. There are little suffering children also in the hospitals; there are exiles from country homes and country life in the city who have been swept down not by evil but the dark tides of disaster, poverty, and disease, and to such it is a privilege as well as a pleasure to send gifts that will tend to revive hope and courage. That we may often avail ourselves of these gracious opportunities of giving the equivalent of a "cup of cold water," we should plant fruits and flowers in abundance. One of the sad features of our time is the tendency of young people to leave their country homes. And too often one does not need to look far for the reason. Life at the farm-house sinks into deep ruts, and becomes weary plodding. There are too many "one-ideaed" farmers and farms. It is corn, potatoes, wheat, butter, or milk. The staple production absorbs all thought and everything else is neglected. Nature demands that young people should have variety, and furnishes it in abundance. The stolid farmer too often ignores nature and the cravings of youth, and insists on the heavy monotonous work of his specialty, early and late, the year around, and then wonders why in his declining years there are no strong young hands to lighten his toil. The boy who might have lived a sturdy, healthful, independent life among his native hills is a bleached and sallow youth measuring ribbons and calicoes behind a city counter. The girl who might have been the mistress of a tree-shadowed country house disappears under much darker shadows in town. But for their early home life, so meagre and devoid of interest, they might have breathed pure air all their days. Not the least among the means of making a home attractive would be a well-maintained fruit garden. The heart and the stomach have been found nearer together by the metaphysicians than the physiologists, and if the "house-mother," as the Germans say, beamed often at her children over a great dish of berries flanked by a pitcher of unskimmed milk, not only good blood and good feeling would be developed, but something that the poets call "early ties." There is one form of gambling or speculation that, within proper limits, is entirely innocent and healthful--the raising of new seedling fruits and the testing of new varieties. In these pursuits the elements of chance, skill, and judgment enter so evenly that they are an unfailing source of pleasurable excitement. The catalogues of plant, tree, and seed dealers abound in novelties. The majority of them cannot endure the test of being grown by the side of our well-known standard kinds, but now and then an exceedingly valuable variety, remarkable for certain qualities or peculiarly adapted to special localities and uses, is developed. There is not only an unfailing pleasure in making these discoveries, but often a large profit. If, three or four years ago, a country boy had bought a dozen Sharpless strawberry plants, and propagated from them, he might now obtain several hundred dollars from their increased numbers. Time only can show whether this novelty will become a standard variety, but at present the plants are in great demand. The young people of a country home may become deeply interested in originating new seedlings. A thousand strawberry seeds will produce a thousand new kinds, and, although the prospects are that none of them will equal those now in favor, something very fine and superior may be obtained. Be this as it may, if these simple natural interests prevent boys and girls from being drawn into the maelstrom of city life until character is formed, each plant will have a value beyond silver or gold. One of the supreme rewards of human endeavor is a true home, and surely it is as stupid as it is wrong to neglect some of the simplest and yet most effectual means of securing this crown of earthly life. A home is the product of many and varied causes, but I have yet to see the man who will deny that delicious small fruits for eight months of the year, and the richer pleasure even of cultivating and gathering them, may become one of the chief contributions to this result. I use the words "eight months" advisedly, for even now, January 29, we are enjoying grapes that were buried in the ground last October. I suppose my children are very material and unlike the good little people who do not live long, but they place a white mark against the days on which we unearth a jar of grapes. CHAPTER III SMALL FRUIT FARMING AND ITS PROFITS A farm without a fruit garden may justly be regarded as proof of a low state of civilization in the farmer. No country home should be without such simple means of health and happiness. For obvious reasons, however, there is not, and never can be, the same room for fruit raising as there is for grain, grass, and stock farming. Nevertheless, the opportunities to engage with profit in this industry on a large scale are increasing every year. From being a luxury of a few, the small fruits have become an article of daily food to the million. Even the country village must have its supply, and the number of crates that are shipped from New York city to neighboring towns is astonishingly large. As an illustration of the rapidly enlarging demand for these fruits, let us consider the experience of one Western city, Cincinnati. Mr. W. H. Corbly, who is there regarded as one of the best informed on these subjects, has gathered the following statistics: "In 1835 it was regarded as a most wonderful thing that 100 bushels of strawberries could be disposed of on the Cincinnati market in one day, and was commented on as a great event. A close estimate shows that during the summer of 1879 eighty to eighty-five thousand bushels of strawberries were sold in Cincinnati. Of course, a large part of these berries were shipped away, but it is estimated that nearly one half were consumed here. About the year 1838 the cultivation of black raspberries was commenced in this county by James Gallagher and F. A. McCormick of Salem, Anderson township. The first year, Gallagher's largest shipment in one day was six bushels, and McCormick's four. When they were placed on the market, McCormick sold out at 6 1/4 cents per quart, and Gallagher held off till McCormick had sold out, when he put his on sale and obtained 8 1/8 cents per quart, and the demand was fully supplied. It is estimated that the crop for the year 1879, handled in Cincinnati, amounted to from seventy-five thousand to eighty thousand bushels--the crop being a fairly good one--selling at an average of about two dollars per bushel." It has been stated in "The Country Gentleman" that about $5,000,000 worth of small fruits were sold in Michigan in one year; and the same authority estimates that $25,000,000 worth are consumed annually in New York city. In the future it would seem that this demand would increase even more rapidly; for in every fruit-growing region immense canning establishments are coming into existence, to which the markets of the world are open. Therefore, in addition to the thousands already embarked in this industry, still larger numbers will engage in it during the next few years. Those who now for the first time are turning their attention toward this occupation may be divided mainly into two classes. The first consists of established farmers, who, finding markets within their reach, extend their patches of raspberries, currants, or strawberries to such a degree that they have a surplus to sell. To the extent that such sales are remunerative, they increase the area of fruits, until in many instances they become virtually fruit farmers. More often a few acres are devoted to horticulture, and the rest of the farm is carried on in the old way. The second class is made up chiefly of those who are unfamiliar with the soil and its culture--mechanics, professional men, who hope to regain health by coming back to nature, and citizens whose ill-success or instincts suggest country life and labors. From both these classes, and especially from the latter, I receive very many letters, containing all kinds of questions. The chief burden on most minds, however, is summed up in the words, "Do small fruits pay?" To meet the needs of these two classes is one of the great aims of this work; and it is my most earnest wish not to mislead by high-colored pictures. Small fruits pay many people well; and unless location, soil, or climate is hopelessly against one, the degree of profit will depend chiefly upon his skill, judgment and industry. The raising of small fruits is like other callings, in which some are getting rich, more earning a fair livelihood, and not a few failing. It is a business in which there is an abundance of sharp, keen competition; and ignorance, poor judgment, and shiftless, idle ways will be as fatal as in the workshop, store, or office. Innumerable failures result from inexperience. I will give one extreme example, which may serve to illustrate, the sanguine mental condition of many who read of large returns in fruit culture. A young man who had inherited a few hundred dollars wrote me that he could hire a piece of land for a certain amount, and he wished to invest the balance--every cent--in plants, thus leaving himself no capital with which to continue operations, but expecting that a speedy crop would lift him at once into a prosperous career. I wrote that under the circumstances I could not supply him--that it would be about the same as robbery to do so; and advised him to spend several years with a practical and successful fruit grower and learn the business. Most people enter upon this calling in the form of a wedge; but only too many commence at the blunt end, investing largely at once in everything, and therefore their business soon tapers down to nothing. The wise begin at the point of the wedge and develop their calling naturally, healthfully--learning, by experience and careful observation, how to grow fruits profitably, and which kinds pay the best. There ought also to be considerable capital to start with, and an absence of the crushing burden of interest money. No fruits yield any returns before the second or third year; and there are often Unfavorable seasons and glutted markets. Nature's prizes are won by patient, persistent industry, and not by Wall Street sleight of hand. Location is very important. A fancy store, however well-furnished, would be a ruinous investment at a country crossroad. The fruit farm must be situated where there is quick and cheap access to good markets, and often the very best market may be found at a neighboring village, summer resort, or canning establishment. Enterprise and industry, however, seem to surmount all obstacles. The Rev. Mr. Knox shipped his famous "700" strawberries (afterward known to be the Jucunda, a foreign variety) from Pittsburgh to New York, securing large returns; and, take the country over, the most successful fruit farms seem to be located where live men live and work. Still, if one were about to purchase, sound judgment would suggest a very careful choice of locality with speedy access to good markets. Mr. J. J. Thomas, editor of "The Country Gentleman," in a paper upon the Outlook of Fruit Culture, read before the Western N. Y. Horticultural Society, laid down three essentials to success: 1. Locality--a region found by experience to be adapted to fruit growing. 2. Wise selection of varieties of each kind. 3. Care and culture of these varieties. He certainly is excellent authority. These obvious considerations, and the facts that have been instanced, make it clear that brains must unite with labor and capital. Above all, however, there must be trained, practical skill. Those succeed who learn how; and to add a little deftness to unskilled hands is the object of every succeeding page. At the same time, I frankly admit that nothing can take the place of experience. I once asked an eminent physician if a careful reading of the best medical text-books and thorough knowledge of the materia medica could take the place of daily study of actual disease and fit a man for practice, and he emphatically answered, "No!" It is equally true that an intelligent man can familiarize himself with every horticultural writer from the classic age to our own and yet be outstripped in success by an ignorant Irish laborer who has learned the little he knows in the school of experience. The probabilities are, however, that the laborer will remain such all his days, while the thoughtful, reading man, who is too sensible to be carried away by theories, and who supplements his science with experience, may enrich not only himself but the world. Still, there is no doubt that the chances of success are largely in favor of the class I first named,--the farmers who turn their attention in part or wholly toward fruit growing. They are accustomed to hard out-of-door work and the general principles of agriculture. The first is always essential to success; and a good farmer can soon become equally skillful in the care of fruits if he gives his mind to their culture. The heavy, stupid, prejudiced plodder who thinks a thing is right solely because his grandfather did it, is a bucolic monster that is receding so fast into remote wilds before the horticultural press that he scarcely need be taken into account. Therefore, the citizen or professional man inclined to engage in fruit farming should remember that he must compete with the hardy, intelligent sons of the soil, who in most instances are crowning their practical experience with careful reading. I do not say this to discourage any one, but only to secure a thoughtful and adequate consideration of the subject before the small accumulations of years are embarked in what may be a very doubtful venture. Many have been misled to heavy loss by enthusiastic works on horticulture; I wish my little book to lead only to success. If white-handed, hollow-chested professional men anxious to acquire money, muscle, and health by fruit raising,--if citizens disgusted with pavements and crowds are willing to take counsel of common-sense and learn the business practically and thoroughly, why should they not succeed? But let no one imagine that horticulture is the final resort of ignorance, indolence, or incapacity, physical or mental. Impostors palm themselves off on the world daily; a credulous public takes poisonous nostrums by the ton and butt; but Nature recognizes error every time, and quietly thwarts those who try to wrong her, either wilfully or blunderingly. Mr. Peter Henderson, who has been engaged practically in vegetable gardening for over a quarter of a century, states, as a result of his experience, that capital, at the rate of $300 per acre, is required in starting a "truck farm," and that the great majority fail who make the attempt with less means. In my opinion, the fruit farmer would require capital in like proportion; for, while many of the small fruits can be grown with less preparation of soil and outlay in manure, the returns come more slowly, since, with the exception of strawberries, none of them yield a full crop until the third or fourth year. I advise most urgently against the incurring of heavy debts. Better begin with three acres than thirty, or three hundred, from which a large sum of interest money must be obtained before a penny can be used for other purposes. Anything can be raised from a farm easier than a mortgage. Success depends very largely, also, on the character of the soil. If it is so high and dry as to suffer severely from drought two years out of three, it cannot be made to pay except by irrigation; if so low as to be wet, rather than moist, the prospects are but little better. Those who are permanently settled must do their best with such land as they have, and in a later chapter I shall suggest how differing soils should be managed. To those who can still choose their location, I would recommend a deep mellow loam, with a rather compact subsoil,--moist, but capable of thorough drainage. Diversity of soil and exposure offer peculiar advantages also. Some fruits thrive best in a stiff clay, others in sandy upland. Early varieties ripen earlier on a sunny slope, while a late kind is rendered later on a northern hillside, or in the partial shade of a grove. In treating each fruit and variety, I shall try to indicate the soils and exposures to which they are best adapted. _Profits_.--The reader will naturally wish for some definite statements of the profits of fruit farming; but I almost hesitate to comply with this desire. A gentleman wrote to me that he sold from an acre of Cuthbert raspberries $800 worth of fruit. In view of this fact, not a few will sit down and begin to figure,--"If one acre yielded $800, ten acres would produce $8,000; twenty acres $16,000," etc. Multitudes have been led into trouble by this kind of reasoning. The capacity of an engine with a given motor power can be measured, and certain and unvarying results predicted; but who can measure the resources of an acre through varying seasons and under differing culture, or foretell the price of the crops? In estimating future profits, we can only approximate; and the following records are given merely to show what results have been secured, and therefore may be obtained again, and even surpassed. "The Country Gentleman" gives a well-authenticated instance of a fruit grower who "received more than $2,000 from three acres of strawberries." In contrast, however, it could be shown that many fields have not paid expenses. I once had such an experience. The market was "glutted," and the variety yielded berries so small and poor that they did not average five cents per quart. Occasionally we hear of immense shipments from the South being thrown into the dock. Mr. William Parry, a veteran fruit grower in New Jersey, states the truth I wish to convey very clearly, and gives a fair mean between these two extremes: "YIELD AND PROFIT "There are so many circumstances connected with strawberry growing, such as varieties, soil, climate, location, markets, and the skill and management of the grower, that the results of a few cases cannot be relied on for general rules. "We have grown over two hundred bushels per acre here, and realized upward of six hundred dollars per acre for the crop; but that is much above the general average. Having kept a careful record, for fourteen years past, of the yield per acre and price per quart at which our strawberries have been sold, we find the average to be about 2,500 quarts per acre, and the price eleven cents per quart in market, giving the following results: "Commissions, 10 per cent $27.50 Picking 2,500 quarts, at 2c. per quart 50.00 Manure 17.50 Use of baskets 10.00 Cultivation, etc 25.00 Net profits per acre 145.00 "Gross proceeds, 2,500 quarts at 11e $275.00" In the year 1876 the same gentleman had ten acres of Brandywine raspberries that yielded about eighty-two bushels to the acre, giving a clear profit of $280, or of $2,800 for the entire area. This crop, so far from being the average, was awarded a premium as the most profitable that year in the section. J. R. Gaston & Sons, of Normal, Ill., have given the following record of a plantation of Snyder blackberries: "We commenced to pick a field of seven acres July 12th, and finished picking August 22. The total amount gathered was 43,575 quarts, equal to 1,361 bushels and 22 quarts. The average price was eight cents per quart, making the gross proceeds equal to $3,486. We paid for picking $435.75. The cost of trimming and cultivating was about $400; cost of boxes, crates, and marketing was $1,307.25, leaving a net profit of $1,343." A gentleman in Ulster Co., N.Y., stated that 200 bushes of the Cherry currant yielded him in one season 1,000 lbs. of fruit, which was sold at an average of eight cents per pound. His gross receipts were $80 from one-fourteenth of an acre, and at the same ratio an acre would have yielded $1,120. Is this an average yield? So far from it, there are many acres of currants and gooseberries that do not pay expenses. Thus it can be seen that the scale ranges from marvellous prizes down to blanks and heavy losses; but the drawing is not a game of chance, but usually the result of skill and industry, or their reverse. I might have given many examples of large, and even enormously large, profits obtained under exceptional circumstances; but they tend to mislead. I write for those whose hearts prompt them to co-work with nature, and who are most happy when doing her bidding in the breezy fields and gardens, content with fair rewards, instead of being consumed by the gambler's greed for unearned gold. At the same time, I am decidedly in favor of high culture, and the most generous enriching of the soil; convinced that fruit growers and farmers in general would make far more money if they spent upon one acre what they usually expend on three. In a later chapter will be found an instance of an expenditure of $350 per acre on strawberry land, and the net profits obtained were proportionately large. CHAPTER IV STRAWBERRIES: THE FIVE SPECIES AND THEIR HISTORY The conscientious Diedrich Knickerbocker, that venerated historian from whom all good citizens of New York obtain the first impressions of their ancestry, felt that he had no right to chronicle the vicissitudes of Manhattan Island until he had first accounted for the universe of which it is a part. Equally with the important bit of land named, the strawberry belongs to the existing cosmos, and might be traced back to "old chaos." I hasten to re-assure the dismayed reader. I shall not presume to follow one who could illumine his page with genius, and whose extensive learning enabled him to account for the universe not merely in one but in half a dozen ways. It is the tendency of the present age to ask what is, not what has been or shall be. And yet, on the part of some, as they deliberately enjoy a saucer of strawberries and cream,--it is a pleasure that we prolong for obvious reasons,--a languid curiosity may arise as to the origin and history of so delicious a fruit. I suppose Mr. Darwin would say, "it was evolved." But some specimens between our lips suggest that a Geneva watch could put itself together quite as readily. At the same time, it must be said that our "rude forefathers" did not eat Monarch or Charles Downing strawberries. In few fruits, probably, have there been such vast changes or improvements as in this. Therefore, I shall answer briefly and as well as I can, in view of the meagre data and conflicting opinions of the authorities, the curiosity, that I have imagined on some faces. Those who care only for the strawberry of to-day can easily skip a few pages. If there were as much doubt about a crop of this fruit as concerning the origin of its name, the outlook would be dismal, indeed. In old Saxon, the word was streawberige or streowberrie; and was so named, says one authority, "from the straw-like stems of the plant, or from the berries lying strewn upon the ground." Another authority tells us: "It is an old English practice" (let us hope a modern one also) "to lay straw between the rows to preserve the fruit from rotting on the wet ground, from which the name has been supposed to be derived; although more probably it is from the wandering habit of the plant, straw being a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon strae, from which we have the English verb stray." Again tradition asserts that in the olden times children strung the berries on straws for sale, and hence the name. Several other causes have been suggested, but I forbear. I have never known, however, a person to decline the fruit on the ground of this obscurity and doubt. (Controversialists and sceptics please take note.) That the strawberry should belong to the rose family, and that its botanical name should be fragaria, from the Latin fragro, to smell sweetly, will seem both natural and appropriate. While for his knowledge of the plant I refer the reader to every hillside and field (would that I might say, to every garden!), there is a peculiarity in the production of the fruit which should not pass unnoted. Strictly speaking, the small seeds scattered over the surface of the berry are the fruit, and it is to perfect these seeds that the plants blossom, the stamens scatter, and the pistils receive the pollen on the convex receptacle, which, as the seeds ripen, greatly enlarges, and becomes the pulpy and delicious mass that is popularly regarded as the fruit. So far from being the fruit, it is only "the much altered end of the stem" that sustains the fruit or seeds; and so it becomes a beautiful illustration of a kindly, genuine courtesy, which renders an ordinary service with so much grace and graciousness that we dwell on the manner with far more pleasure than on the service itself. The innumerable varieties of strawberries that are now in existence appear, either in their character or origin, to belong to five great and quite distinct species. The first, and for a long time the only one of which we have any record, is the Fragaria vesca, or the "Alpine" strawberry. It is one of the most widely spread fruits of the world, for it grows, and for centuries has grown, wild throughout Northern and Central Europe and Asia, following the mountains far to the south; and on this continent, from time immemorial, the Indian children have gathered it, from the Northern Atlantic to the Pacific. In England this species exhibits some variation from the Alpine type, and was called by our ancestors the Wood strawberry. The chief difference between the two is in the form of the fruit, the Wood varieties being round and the Alpine conical. They are also subdivided into white and red, annual and monthly varieties, and those that produce no runners, which are known to-day as Bush Alpines. [Illustration: SEEDS AND PULP OF THE STRAWBERRY] The Alpine, as we find it growing wild, was the strawberry of the ancients. It is to it that the suggestive lines of Virgil refer:-- "Ye boys that gather flowers and strawberries, Lo, hid within the grass an adder lies." There is no proof, I believe, that the strawberry was cultivated during any of the earlier civilizations. Some who wrote most explicitly concerning the fruit culture of their time do not mention it; and Virgil, Ovid, and Pliny name it but casually, and with no reference to its cultivation. It may appear a little strange that the luxurious Romans, who fed on nightingales' tongues, peacocks' brains, and scoured earth and air for delicacies, should have given but little attention to this fruit. Possibly they early learned the fact that this species is essentially a wildling, and like the trailing arbutus, thrives best in its natural haunts. The best that grew could be gathered from mountain-slopes and in the crevices of rocks. Moreover, those old revellers became too wicked and sensual to relish Alpine strawberries. Its congener, the Wood strawberry, was the burden of one of the London street cries four hundred years ago; and to-day the same cry, in some language or other, echoes around the northern hemisphere as one of the inevitable and welcome sounds of spring and early summer. But few, perhaps, associate this lovely little fruit, that is almost as delicate and shy as the anemone, with tragedy; and yet its chief poetical associations are among the darkest and saddest that can be imagined. Shakespeare's mention of the strawberry in the play of Richard III. was an unconscious but remarkable illustration of the second line already quoted from Virgil:-- "Lo, hid within the grass an adder lies." The bit of history which is the occasion of this allusion is given in the quaint old English of Sir Thomas More, who thus describes the entrance to the Council of the terrible "Protector," from whom nothing good or sacred could be protected. He came "fyrste about IX of the clocke, saluting them curtesly, and excusing himself that he had been from them so long, saieing merily that he had been a slepe that day. And after a little talking with them he said unto the bishop of Elye, my lord, You have very good strawberries at your gardayne in Holberne, I require you let us have a messe of them." He who has raised fine fruit will know how eagerly the flattered bishop obeyed. According to the poet, the dissembler also leaves the apartment, with his unscrupulous ally, Buckingham. "Where is my lord protector? I have sent For these strawberries," said the Bishop of Ely, re-entering. Lord Hastings looks around with an air of general congratulation, and remarks:-- "His grace looks cheerfully and smooth this morning; There's some conceit or other likes him well." The serpent is hidden, but very near. A moment later, Gloster enters, black as night, hisses his monstrous charge, and before noon of that same day poor Hastings is a headless corpse. Far more sad and pitiful are the scenes recalled by the words of the fiendish Iago,--type for all time of those who transmute love into jealousy:-- "Tell me but this-- Have you not sometimes seen a handkerchief, Spotted with strawberries, in your wife's hand?" "I gave her such a one; 'twas my first gift." was the answer of a man whom the world will never forgive, in spite of his immeasurable remorse. From the poet Spenser we learn that to go a-strawberrying was one of the earliest pastimes of the English people. In the "Faerie Queen" we find these lines:-- "One day, as they all three together went To the green wood to gather strawberries, There chaunst to them a dangerous accident." Very old, too is the following nursery rhyme, which, nevertheless, suggests the true habitat of the F. vesca species:-- "The man of the wilderness asked me How many strawberries grew in the sea; I answered him, as I thought good, 'As many red herrings as grew in the wood.'" The ambrosial combination of strawberries and cream was first named by Sir Philip Sidney. Old Thomas Tusser, of the 16th century, in his work, "Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry united to as many of Good Housewifery," turns the strawberry question over to his wife, and doubtless it was in better hands than his, if his methods of culture were as rude as his poetry:-- "Wife, into the garden, and set me a plot With strawberry roots, of the best to be got; Such, growing abroad, among thorns in the wood, Well chosen and picked prove excellent good." Who "Dr. Boteler" was, or what he did, is unknown, but he made a sententious remark which led Izaak Walton to give him immortality in his work, "The Compleat Angler." "Indeed, my good schollar," the serene Izaak writes, "we may say of angling as Dr. Boteler said of strawberries, 'Doubtless God could have made a better berry, but doubtless God never did;' and so if I might be judge, God never did make a more calm, quiet, innocent recreation than angling." If this was true of the wild Wood strawberry, how much more so of many of our aromatic rubies of to-day. John Parkinson, the apothecary-gardener of London, whose quaint work was published in 1629, is not so enthusiastic. He says of the wild strawberry: "It may be eaten or chewed in the mouth without any manner of offense; it is no great bearer, but those it doth beare are set at the toppes of the stalks, close together, pleasant to behold, and fit for a gentlewoman to wear on her arme, &c., as a raritie instead of a flower." In England, the strawberry leaf is part of the insignia of high rank, since it appears in the coronets of a duke, marquis, and earl. "He aspires to the strawberry leaves" is a well-known phrase abroad, and the idea occurs several times in the novels of Disraeli, the present British Premier. Thackeray, in his "Book of Snobs," writes: "The strawberry leaves on her chariot panels are engraved on her ladyship's heart." After all, perhaps it is not strange that the Alpine species should be allied to some dark memories, for it was the only kind known when the age was darkened by passion and crime. The one other allusion to the strawberry in Shakespeare is peculiarly appropriate to the species under consideration. In the play of Henry V., an earlier Bishop of Ely says:-- "The strawberry grows underneath the nettle, And wholesome berries thrive and ripen best Neighbored by fruit of baser quality." And this, probably, is still true, for the Alpine and Wood strawberries tend to reproduce themselves with such unvarying exactness that cultivation makes but little difference. All these allusions apply to the F. vesca or Alpine species, and little advance was made in strawberry culture in Europe until after the introduction of other species more capable of variation and improvement. Still, attempts were made from time to time. As the Alpine differed somewhat from the Wood strawberry, they were brought to England about 200 years later than the tragedy of Lord Hastings' death, which has been referred to. In connection with the White and Red Wood and Alpine strawberries, we find in 1623 the name of the "Hautbois" or Haarbeer strawberry, the Fragaria elatior of the botanists. This second species, a native of Germany, resembles the Alpine in some respects, but is a larger and stockier plant. Like the Fragaria vesca, its fruit-stalks are erect and longer than the leaves, but the latter are larger than the foliage of the Alpine, and are covered with short hairs, both on the upper and under surface, which give them a rough appearance. As far as I can learn, this species still further resembles the Alpines in possessing little capability of improvement and variation. Even at this late day the various named kinds are said to differ from each other but slightly. There is a very marked contrast, however, between the fruit of the Hautbois and Alpine species, for the former has a peculiar musky flavor which has never found much favor in this country. It is, therefore, a comparatively rare fruit in our gardens, nor do we find much said of it in the past. There is scarcely any record of progress until after the introduction of the two great American species. It is true that in 1660 a fruit grower at Montreuil, France, is "said to have produced a new variety from the seed of the Wood strawberry," which was called the "Cappron," and afterward the "Fressant." It was named as a distinct variety one hundred years later, but it may be doubted whether it differed greatly from its parent. Be this as it may, it is said to be the first improved variety of which there is any record. Early in the 17th century, intercourse with this continent led to the introduction of the most valuable species in existence, the "Virginian" strawberry (Fragaria Virginiana), which grows wild from the Arctic regions to Florida, and westward to the Rocky Mountains. It is first named in the catalogue of Jean Robin, botanist to Louis XIII., in 1624. During the first century of its career in England, it was not appreciated, but as its wonderful capacity for variation and improvement--in which it formed so marked a contrast to the Wood strawberry--was discovered, it began to receive the attention it deserved. English gardeners learned the fact, of which we are making so much to-day, that by simply sowing its seeds, new and possibly better varieties could be produced. From that time and forward, the tendency has increased to originate, name and send out innumerable seedlings, the majority of which soon pass into oblivion, while a few survive and become popular, usually in proportion to their merit. The Fragaria Virginiana, therefore, the common wild strawberry that is found in all parts of North America east of the Rocky Mountains, is the parent of nine-tenths of the varieties grown in our gardens; and its improved descendants furnish nearly all of the strawberries of our markets. As we have seen, the Fragaria vesca, or the Alpine species of Europe, is substantially the same to-day as it was a thousand years ago. But the capacity of the Virginian strawberry for change and improvement is shown by those great landmarks in the American culture of this fruit,--the production of Hovey's Seedling by C. M. Hovey, of Cambridge, Mass., forty-five years since; of the Wilson's Albany Seedling, originated by John Wilson, of Albany, N. Y., about twenty-five years ago, and, in our own time, of the superb varieties, Monarch of the West, Seth Boyden, Charles Downing, and Sharpless. As in the Alpine species there are two distinct strains,--the Alpine of the Continent, and the Wood strawberry of England,--so in the wild Virginian species there are two branches of the family,--the Eastern and the Western. The differences are so marked that some writers have asserted that there are two species; but we have the authority of Professor Gray for saying that the Western, or Fragaria Illincensis, is "perhaps" a distinct species, and he classifies it as only a very marked variety. There are but two more species of the strawberry genus. Of the first of these, the Fragaria Indica, or "Indian" strawberry, there is little to say. It is a native of Northern India, and differs so much from the other species that it was formerly named as a distinct genus. It has yellow flowers, and is a showy house-plant, especially for window-baskets, but the fruit is dry and tasteless. It is said by Professor Gray to have escaped cultivation and become wild in some localities of this country. Fragaria Chilensis is the last great species or subdivision that we now have to consider. Like the F. Virginiana, it is a native of the American continent, and yet we have learned to associate it almost wholly with Europe. It grows wild on the Pacific slope, from Oregon to Chili, creeping higher and higher up the mountains as its habitat approaches the equator. "It is a large, robust species, with very firm, thick leaflets, soft and silky on the under side." The flowers are larger than in the other species; the fruit, also, in its native condition, averages much larger, stands erect instead of hanging, ripens late, is rose-colored, firm and sweet in flesh, and does not require as much heat to develop its saccharine constituents; but it lacks the peculiar sprightliness and aroma of the Virginia strawberry. It has become, however, the favorite stock of the European gardeners, and seems better adapted to transatlantic climate and soil than to ours. The first mention of the Fragaria Chilensis, or South American strawberry, says Mr. Fuller, "is by M. Frezier, who, in 1716, in his journey to the South Sea, found it at the foot of the Cordillera mountains near Quito, and carried it home to Marseilles, France." At that time it was called the Chili strawberry, and the Spaniards said that they brought it from Mexico. From Mr. W. Collett Sandars, an English antiquarian, I learned that seven plants were shipped from Chili and were kept alive during the voyage by water which M. Frezier saved from his allowance, much limited owing to a shortness of supply. He gave two of the plants to M. de Jessieu, "who cultivated them with fair success in the royal gardens." In 1727, the Chili strawberry was introduced to England, but not being understood it did not win much favor. Mr. Fuller further states: "We do not learn from any of the old French works that new varieties were raised from the Chili strawberry for at least fifty years after its introduction." Duchesne, in 1766, says that "Miller considered its cultivation abandoned in England on account of its sterility. The importations from other portions of South America appeared to have met with better success; and, early in the present century, new varieties of the F. Chilensis, as well as of the Virginiana, became quite abundant in England and on the Continent." If we may judge from the characteristics of the varieties imported to this country of late years, the South American species has taken the lead decidedly abroad, and has become the parent stock from which foreign culturists, in the main, are seeking to develop the ideal strawberry. But in all its transformations, and after all the attempts to infuse into it the sturdier life of the Virginian strawberry, it still remembers its birthplace, and falters and often dies in the severe cold of our winters, or, what is still worse, the heat and drought of our summers. As a species, it requires the high and careful culture that they are able and willing to give it in Europe. The majority of imported varieties have failed in the United States, but a few have become justly popular in regions where they can be grown. The Triomphe de Gand may be given as an example, and were I restricted to one variety I should take this. The Jucunda, also, is one of the most superb berries in existence; and can be grown with great profit in many localities. Thus the two great species which to-day are furnishing ninety-nine hundredths of the strawberries of commerce and of the garden, both in this country and abroad, came from America, the Fragaria Chilensis reaching our Eastern States by the way of Europe, and in the form of the improved and cultivated varieties that have won a name abroad. We are crossing the importations with our own native stock. President Wilder's superb seedling, which has received his name, is an example of this blending process. This berry is a child of the La Constante and Hovey's Seedling, and, therefore, in this one beautiful and most delicious variety we have united the characteristics of the two chief strawberry species of the world, the F. Virginiana and F. Chilensis. It will be seen that the great law of race extends even to strawberry plants. As in the most refined and cultivated peoples there is a strain of the old native stock, which ever remains, a source of weakness or strength, and will surely show itself in certain emergencies, so the superb new varieties of strawberries, the latest products of horticultural skill, speedily indicate in the rough-and-tumble of ordinary culture whether they have derived their life from the hardy F. Virginiana or the tender and fastidious F. Chilensis. The Monarch of the West and the Jucunda are the patricians of the garden, and on the heavy portions of my land at Cornwall I can scarcely say to which I give the preference. But the Monarch is Anglo-Saxon and the Jucunda is of a Latin race; or to drop metaphor, the former comes of a species that can adapt itself to conditions extremely varied, and even very unfavorable, and the latter cannot. CHAPTER V IDEAL STEAWBERRIES VERSUS THOSE OF THE FIELD AND MARKET There are certain strong, coarse-feeding vegetables, like corn and potatoes, that can be grown on the half-subdued and comparatively poor soil of the field; but no gardener would think of planting the finer and more delicate sorts in such situations. There are but few who do not know that they can raise cauliflowers and egg-plants only on deep, rich land. The parallel holds good with this fruit. There are strawberries that will grow almost anywhere, and under any circumstances, and there is another class that demands the best ground and culture. But from the soil of a good garden, with a little pains, we can obtain the finest fruit in existence; and there is no occasion to plant those kinds which are grown for market solely because they are productive, and hard enough to endure carriage for a long distance. The only transportation to be considered is from the garden to the table, and therefore we can make table qualities our chief concern. If our soil is light and sandy, we can raise successfully one class of choice, high-flavored varieties; if heavy, another class. Many worry over a forlorn, weedy bed of some inferior variety that scarcely gives a week's supply, when, with no more trouble than is required to obtain a crop of celery, large, delicious berries might be enjoyed daily, for six weeks together, from twenty different kinds. The strawberry of commerce is a much more difficult problem. The present unsatisfactory condition of affairs was admirably expressed in the following editorial in the "Evening Post" of June 12, 1876, from the pen of the late William Cullen Bryant:-- STRAWBERRIES "In general, an improvement has been observed of late in the quality of fruit. We have more and finer varieties of apple; the pear is much better in general than it was ten years since; of the grape there are many new and excellent varieties which the market knew nothing of a few years ago, and there are some excellent varieties of the raspberry lately introduced. But the strawberry has decidedly deteriorated, and the result is owing to the general culture of Wilson's Albany for the market. Wilson's Albany is a sour, crude berry, which is not fully ripe when it is perfectly red, and even when perfectly ripe is still too acid. When it first makes its appearance in the market, it has an exceedingly harsh flavor and very little of the agreeable aroma which distinguishes the finer kinds of the berry. If not eaten very sparingly, it disagrees with the stomach, and you wake with a colic the next morning. Before Wilson's strawberry came into vogue there were many other kinds which were sweeter and of a more agreeable flavor. But the Wilson is a hard berry, which bears transportation well; it is exceedingly prolific and altogether hardy,--qualities which give it great favor with the cultivator, but for which the consumer suffers. The proper way of dealing in strawberries is to fix the prices according to the quality of the sort. This is the way they do in the markets of Paris. A poor sort, although the berry may be large, is sold cheap; the more delicate kinds--the sweet, juicy, and high-flavored--are disposed of at a higher price. Here the Wilson should be sold the cheapest of all, while such as the Jucunda and the President Wilder should bear a price corresponding to their excellence. We hope, for our part, that the Wilsons will, as soon as their place can be supplied by a better berry, be banished from the market. It can surely be no difficult thing to obtain a sort by crossing, which shall bear transportation equally well, and shall not deceive the purchaser with the appearance of ripeness." The reader will perceive that Mr. Bryant has portrayed both the evil and the remedy. The public justly complains of the strawberry of commerce, but it has not followed the suggestion in the editorial and demanded a better article, even though it must be furnished at a higher price. In spite, however, of all that is said and written annually against the Wilson, it still maintains its supremacy as the market berry. Those who reside near the city and can make, to some extent, special arrangements with enlightened customers, find other varieties more profitable, even though the yield from them is less and some are lost from lack of keeping qualities. But those who send from a considerable distance, and must take their chances in the general market, persist in raising the "sour, crude berry," which is red before it is ripe, and hard enough to stand the rough usage which it is almost certain to receive from the hands through which it passes. I do not expect to see the day when the Wilson, or some berry like it, is not the staple supply of the market; although I hope and think it will be improved upon. But let it be understood generally that they are "Wilsons,"--the cheap vin ordinaire of strawberries. Cities will ever be flooded with varieties that anybody can grow under almost any kind of culture; and no doubt it is better that there should be an abundance of such fruit rather than none at all. But a delicately organized man, like Mr. Bryant, cannot eat them; and those who have enjoyed the genuine strawberries of the garden will not. The number of people, however, with the digestion of an ostrich, is enormous, and in multitudes of homes Wilsons, even when half-ripe, musty, and stale, are devoured with unalloyed delight, under the illusion that they are strawberries. If genuine strawberries are wanted, the purchaser must demand them, pay for them, and refuse "sour, crude berries." The remedy is solely in the hands of the consumers. If people would pay no more for Seckel than for Choke pears, Choke pears would be the only ones in market, for they can be furnished with the least cost and trouble. It is the lack of discrimination that leaves our markets so bare of fine-flavored fruit. What the grower and the grocer are seeking is a hard berry, which, if not sold speedily, will "keep over." Let citizens clearly recognize the truth,--that there are superb, delicious berries, like the Triomphe, Monarch, Charles Downing, Boyden, and many others, and insist on being supplied with them, just as they insist on good butter and good meats, and the problem is solved. The demand will create the supply; the fruit merchant will write to his country correspondents: "You must send fine-flavored berries. My trade will not take any others, and I can return you more money for half the quantity of fruit if it is good." The most stolid of growers would soon take such a hint. Moreover, let the patrons of high-priced hotels and restaurants indignantly order away "sour, crude berries," as they would any other inferior viand, and caterers would then cease to palm off Wilsons for first-class strawberries. If these suggestions were carried out generally, the character of the New York strawberry market would speedily be changed. It is my impression that, within a few years, only those who are able to raise large, fine-flavored fruit will secure very profitable returns. Moreover, we are in a transition state in respect to varieties, and there are scores of new kinds just coming before the public, of which wonderful things are claimed. I shall test nearly a hundred of these during the coming season, but am satisfied in advance that nine-tenths of them will be discarded within a brief period. Indeed, I doubt whether the ideal strawberry, that shall concentrate every excellence within its one juicy sphere, ever will be discovered or originated. We shall always have to make a choice, as we do in friends, for their several good qualities and their power to please our individual tastes. There is, however, one perfect strawberry in existence,--the strawberry of memory,--the little wildlings that we gathered perhaps, with those over whom the wild strawberry is now growing. We will admit no fault in it, and although we may no longer seek for this favorite fruit of our childhood, with the finest specimens of the garden before us we sigh for those berries that grew on some far-off hillside in years still farther away. CHAPTER VI CHOICE OF SOIL AND LOCATION The choice that Tobias Hobson imposed on his patrons when he compelled them to take "the horse nearest to the stable-door" or none at all, is one that, in principle, we often have to make in selecting our strawberry-ground. We must use such as we have, or raise no berries. And yet it has been said that "with no other fruit do soil and locality make so great differences." While I am inclined to think that this is truer of the raspberry, it is also thoroughly established that location and the native qualities of the soil are among the first and chief considerations in working out the problem of success with strawberries. Especially should such forethought be given in selecting a soil suited to the varieties we wish to raise. D. Thurber, editor "American Agriculturist," states this truth emphatically. In August, 1875, he wrote: "All talk about strawberries must be with reference to particular soils. As an illustration of this, there were exhibited in our office windows several successive lots of the Monarch of the West, which were immense as to size and wonderful as to productiveness. This same Monarch behaved in so unkingly a manner on our grounds (very light and sandy in their nature) that he would have been deposed had we not seen these berries, for it was quite inferior to either Charles Downing, Seth Boyden, or Kentucky." It is a generally admitted fact that the very best soil, and the one adapted to the largest number of varieties, is a deep sandy loam, moist, but not wet in its natural state. All the kinds with which I am acquainted will do well on such land if it is properly deepened and enriched. Therefore, we should select such ground if we have it on our places, and those proposing to buy land with a view to this industry would do well to secure from the start one of the best conditions of success. It is of vital importance that our strawberry fields be near good shipping facilities, and that there be sufficient population in the immediate vicinity to furnish pickers in abundance. It will be far better to pay a much higher price for land--even inferior land--near a village and a railroad depot, than to attempt to grow these perishable fruits in regions too remote. A water communication with market is, of course, preferable to any other. Having considered the question of harvesting and shipping to market, then obtain the moist, loamy land described above, if possible. Such ground will make just as generous and satisfactory returns in the home garden, and by developing its best capabilities the amateur can attain results that will delight his heart and amaze his neighbors. Shall the fact that we have no such soil, and cannot obtain it, discourage us? Not at all! There are choice varieties that will grow in the extremes of sand or clay. More effort will be required, but skill and information can still secure success; and advantages of location, climate, and nearness to good markets may more than counterbalance natural deficiencies in the land. Besides, there is almost as solid a satisfaction in transforming a bit of the wilderness into a garden as in reforming and educating a crude or evil specimen of humanity. Therefore if one finds himself in an unfavorable climate, and shut up to the choice of land the reverse of a deep, moist, sandy loam, let him pit his brain and muscle against all obstacles. If the question were asked, "Is there anything that comes from the garden better liked than a dish of strawberries?" in nine instances out of ten the answer would be, "Nothing," even though sour Wilsons were grown; and yet, too often the bed is in a neglected corner and half shaded by trees, while strong-growing vegetables occupy the moist, open spaces. It is hardly rational to put the favorite of the garden where, at best, a partial failure is certain. Let it be well understood that strawberries cannot be made to do well on ground exhausted by the roots and covered by the shade of trees. On many farms and even in some gardens there are several varieties of soil. Within the area of an acre I have a sandy loam, a gravelly hillside, low, black, alluvial land, and a very stiff, cold, wet clay. Such diversity does not often occur within so limited a space, but on multitudes of places corresponding differences exist. In such instances, conditions suited to every variety can be found, and reading and experience will teach the cultivator to locate his several kinds just where they will give the best results. Moreover, by placing early kinds on warm, sunny slopes, and giving late varieties moist, heavy land, and cool, northern exposures, the season of this delicious fruit can be prolonged greatly. The advantage of a long-continued supply for the family is obvious, but it is often even more important to those whose income is dependent on this industry. It frequently occurs that the market is "glutted" with berries for a brief time in the height of the season. If the crop matures in the main at such a time, the one chance of the year passes, leaving but a small margin of profit; whereas, if the grower had prolonged his season, by a careful selection of soils as well as of varieties, he might sell a large portion of his fruit when it was scarce and high. Climate is also a very important consideration, and enters largely into the problem of success from Maine to Southern California. Each region has its advantages and disadvantages, and these should be estimated before the purchaser takes the final steps which commit him to a locality and methods of culture which may not prove to his taste. In the far North, sheltered situations and light, warm land should be chosen for the main crop; but in our latitude, and southward, it should always be our aim to avoid that hardness and dryness of soil that cut short the crops and hopes of so many cultivators. CHAPTER VII PREPARING AND ENRICHING THE SOIL Having from choice or necessity decided on the ground on which our future strawberries are to grow, the next step is to prepare the soil. The first and most natural question will be: What is the chief need of this plant? Many prepare their ground in a vague, indefinite way. Let us prepare for strawberries. Whether it grows North or South, East or West, the strawberry plant is the same, and has certain constitutional traits and requirements, which should be thoroughly fixed in our minds. Modifications of treatment made necessary by various soils and climates are then not only easily learned but also easily understood. When asked, on one occasion, what was the chief requirement in successful strawberry culture, Hon. Marshall P. Wilder replied substantially in the following piquant manner:-- "In the first place, the strawberry's chief need is a great deal of water. "In the second place, it needs more water. "In the third place, I think I would give it a great deal more water." The more extended and full my experience becomes, the less exaggeration I find in his words. The following strong confirmation of President Wilder's opinion may be found in Thompson's "Gardener's Assistant," a standard English work:-- "Ground that is apt to get very dry from the effects of only ten days' or a fortnight's drought is not suitable, on account of the enormous quantity of water that will be necessary; and if once the plants begin to flag for want of moisture, the crop is all but lost. A soil that is naturally somewhat moist, but not too wet, answers well; and where the land has admitted of irrigation, we have seen heavy crops produced every year." If this be true in England, with its humid climate, how much more emphatically should we state the importance of this requirement in our land of long droughts and scorching suns. Moisture, then, is the strawberry's first and chief need. Without it, the best fertilizers become injurious rather than helpful. Therefore, in the preparation of the soil and its subsequent cultivation, there should be a constant effort to secure and maintain moisture, and the failure to do this is the chief cause of meagre crops. And yet, very probably, the first step absolutely necessary to accomplish this will be a thorough system of underdrainage. I have spent hundreds of dollars in such labors, and it was as truly my object to enable the ground to endure drought as to escape undue wetness. Let it be understood that it is _moist_ and not _wet_ land that the strawberry requires. If water stands or stagnates upon or a little below the surface, the soil becomes sour, heavy, lifeless; and if clay is present, it will bake like pottery in dry weather, and suggest the Slough of Despond in wet. Disappointment, failure, and miasma are the certain products of such unregenerate regions, but, as is often the case with repressed and troublesome people, the evil traits of such soil result from a lack of balance, and a perversion of what is good. The underdrain restores the proper equilibrium; the brush-hook and axe cut away the rank unwholesome growth which thrives best in abnormal conditions. Sun, air, and purifying frosts mellow and sweeten the damp, heavy malarious ground, as the plowshare lifts it out of its low estate. A swamp, or any approach to one, is like a New York tenement-house district, and requires analogous treatment. If, however, we have mellow upland with natural drainage, let us first put that in order that we may have a remunerative crop as soon as possible. In suggesting, therefore, the best methods of preparing and enriching the ground, I will begin by considering soils that are already in the most favorable conditions, and that require the least labor and outlay. Man received his most essential agricultural instruction in the opening chapter of Genesis, wherein he is commanded to "subdue the earth." Even the mellow western prairie is at first a wild, untamed thing, that must be subdued. This is often a simple process, and in our gardens and the greater part of many farms has already been practically accomplished. Where the deep, moist loam, just described, exists, the fortunate owner has only to turn it up to the sun and give it a year of ordinary cultivation, taking from it, in the process, some profitable hoed crop that will effectually kill the grass, and his land is ready for strawberries. If his ground is in condition to give a good crop of corn, it will also give a fair crop of berries. If the garden is so far "subdued" as to yield kitchen vegetables, the strawberry may be planted at once, with the prospect of excellent returns, unless proper culture is neglected. Should the reader be content with mediocrity, there is scarcely anything to be said where the conditions are so favorable. But suppose one is not content with mediocrity. Then this highly favored soil is but the vantage-ground from which skill enters on a course of thorough preparation and high culture. A man may plow, harrow, and set with strawberries the land that was planted the previous year in corn, and probably secure a remunerative return, with little more trouble or cost than was expended on the corn. Or, he may select half the area that was in corn, plow it deeply in October, and if he detects traces of the white grub, cross-plow it again just as the ground is beginning to freeze. Early in the spring he can cover the surface with some fertilizer--there is nothing better than a rotted compost of muck and barn-yard manure--at the proportion of forty or fifty tons to the acre. Plow and cross-plow again, and in each instance let the first team be followed by a subsoil or lifting plow, which stirs and loosens the substratum without bringing it to the surface. The half of the field prepared in such a thorough manner will probably yield three times the amount of fruit that could be gathered from the whole area under ordinary treatment; and if the right varieties are grown, and a good market is within reach, the money received will be in a higher ratio. The principle of generous and thorough preparation may be carried still further in the garden, and its soil, already rich and mellow, may be covered to the depth of several inches with well-rotted compost or any form of barn-yard manure that is not too coarse and full of heat, and this may be incorporated with the earth by trenching to the depth of two feet. Of this be certain, the strawberry roots will go as deeply as the soil is prepared and enriched for them, and the result in abundant and enormous fruit will be commensurate. English gardeners advise trenching even to the depth of three feet, where the ground permits it. Few soils can be found so deep and rich by nature that they cannot be improved by art; and the question for each to decide is, how far the returns will compensate for extra preparation. Very often land for strawberries receives but little more preparation than for wheat, and such methods must pay or they would not be continued. Many who follow these methods declare that they are the most profitable in the long run. I doubt it. If our market is one in which strawberries are sold simply as such, without much regard to flavor or size, there is not the same inducement to produce fine fruit. But even when quantity is the chief object, deeply prepared and enriched land retains that essential moisture of which we have spoken, and enables the plant not only to form, but also to develop and mature, a great deal of fruit. In the majority of markets, however, each year, size and beauty count for more, and these qualities can be secured, even from a favorable soil, only after thorough preparation and enriching. I find that every writer of experience on this subject, both American and European, insists vigorously on the value of such careful pulverization and deepening of the soil. Having thus considered the most favorable land in the best condition possible, under ordinary cultivation, I shall now treat of that less suitable, until we finally reach a soil too sterile and hopelessly bad to repay cultivation. I will speak first of this same deep, moist loam, in its unsubdued condition; that is, in stiff sod, trees, or brush-wood. Of course, the latter must be removed, and, as a rule, the crops on new land--which has been undisturbed by the plow for a number of years and, perhaps, never robbed of its original fertility--will amply repay for the extra labor of clearing. Especially will this be the case if the brush and rubbish are burned evenly over the surface. The finest of wild strawberries are found where trees have been felled and the brush burned; and the successful fruit grower is the one who makes the best use of such hints from nature. The field would look better and the cultivation be easier if all the stumps could be removed before planting, but this might involve too great preliminary expense, and I always counsel against debt except in the direst necessity. A little brush burned on each stump will effectually check new growth, and, in two or three years, these unsightly objects will be so rotten that they can be pried out, and easily turned into ashes, one of the best of fertilizers. In the meantime, the native strength of the land will cause a growth which will compensate for the partial lack of deep and thorough cultivation which the stumps and roots prevent. Those who have travelled West and South have seen fine crops of corn growing among the half-burned stumps, and strawberries will do as well. But where trees or brush have grown very thickly, the roots and stumps must be eradicated. The thick growth on the sandy land of Florida is grubbed out at the cost of about $30 per acre, and I know of a gentleman who pays at the rate of $25 per acre in the vicinity of Norfolk, Va. I doubt whether it can be done for less elsewhere. In some regions they employ a stump extractor, a rude but strong machine, worked by blocks and pulleys, with oxen as motor power. From the "Farmer's Advocate" of London, Ont., I learn that an expert with one of these machines, aided by five men and two yoke of oxen, was in the habit of clearing fifty acres annually. I have cleaned hedge-rows and stony spots on my place in the following thorough manner: A man commences with pick and shovel on one side of the land and turns it steadily and completely over by hand to the depth of fourteen to eighteen inches, throwing on the surface behind him all the roots, stumps and stones, and stopping occasionally to blast when the rocks are too large to be pried out. This, of course, is expensive, and cannot be largely indulged in; but, when accomplished, the work is done for all time, and I have obtained at once by this method some splendid soil, in which the plow sinks to the beam. A drought must be severe, indeed, that can injure such land. There is a great difference in men in the performance of this work. I have one who, within a reasonable time, would trench a farm. Indeed, in his power to obey the primal command to "subdue the earth," my man, Abraham, is a hero--although, I imagine, he scarcely knows what the word means and would as soon think of himself as a hippopotamus. His fortunes would often seem as dark as himself to those who "take thought for the morrow;" and that is saying much, for Abraham is "colored" as far as man can be. I doubt whether his foresight often reaches further than bedtime, and to that hour he comes with an honest right to rest. He is a family man, and has six or seven children, under eight years of age, whom he shelters in a wretched little house that appears tired of standing up. But to and from this abode Abraham passes daily, with a face as serene as a May morning. In that weary old hovel I am satisfied that he and his swarming little brood have found what no architect can build--a home. Thither he carries his diurnal dollar, when he can get it, and on it they all manage to live and grow fat. He loses time occasionally, it is true, through illness, but no such trifling misfortune can induce him, seemingly, to take a long, anxious look into the future. Only once--it was last winter--have I seen him dismayed by the frowning fates. The doctor thought his wife would die, and they had nothing to eat in the house. When Abraham appeared before me at that time, "his countenance was fallen," as the quaint, strong language of Scripture expresses it. He made no complaints, however, and indulged in no Byronic allusions to destiny. Indeed, he said very little, but merely drooped and cowered, as if the wolf at the door and the shadow of death within it were rather more than he could face at one and the same time. It soon became evident, however, that his wife would "pull through," as he said, and then the wolf didn't trouble him a mite. He installed himself as cook, nurse, and house man-of-all-work, finding also abundant leisure to smoke his pipe with infinite content. One morning he was seen baking buckwheat cakes for the children; each one in turn received an allowance on a tin plate, and squatted here and there on the floor to devour it; and, from the master of ceremonies down, there was not an indication that all was not just as it should be. A few days later I met him coming back to his work with his pipe in the corner of his mouth, and the old confident twinkle in his eye as he said, "Mornin', Bossie." Now, Abraham carries his peculiar characteristics into grubbing. If I should set him at a hundred-acre field full of stumps and stones, and tell him to clear it to the depth of two feet, he would begin without any apparent misgiving, and with no more thought for the magnitude of his task than he has for the tangled and stubborn mysteries of life in general, or the dubious question of "what shall be on the morrow" in his own experience. He would see only the little strip that he proposed to clear up that day, and would go to work in a way all his own. Although not talkative to other people, he is very social with himself, and, in the early days of our acquaintance, I was constantly misled into the belief that somebody was with him, and that he was a man of words rather than work. As soon, however, as I reached a point from which I could see him, there he would be, alone, bending to his task with the steady persistence that makes his labor so effective; but, at the same time, until he saw me he would continue discussing with equal vigor whatever subject might be uppermost in his mind. I suppose he scarcely ever takes out a stone or root without apostrophizing, adjuring, and berating it in tones and vernacular so queer that one might imagine he hoped to remove the refractory object by magic rather than by muscle. When the sun is setting, however, and Abraham has complacently advised himself, "Better quit, for de day's done gone, and de ole woman is arter me, afeared I've kivered myself up a-grubbin'," one thing is always evident--a great many stones and roots are "unkivered," and Abraham has earned anew his right to the title of champion grubber. But, as most men handle the pick and shovel, the fruit grower must be chary in his attempts to subdue the earth with those old-time implements. It is too much like making war with the ancient Roman short sword in an age of rifled guns. I agree with that practical horticulturist, Peter Henderson, that there are no implements equal to the plow and subsoiler, and, in our broad and half-occupied country, we should be rather shy of land where these cannot be used. The cultivator whose deep moist loam is covered by sod only, instead of rocks, brush, and trees, may feel like congratulating himself on the easy task before him; and, indeed, where the sod is light, strawberries, and especially the larger small fruits, are often planted on it at once with fair success. I do not recommend the practice; for, unless the subsequent culture is very thorough and frequent, the grass roots will continue to grow and may become so intertwined with those of the strawberry that they cannot be separated. Corn is probably the best hoed crop to precede the strawberry. Potatoes too closely resemble this fruit in their demand for potash, and exhaust the soil of one of the most needed elements. A dressing of wood ashes, however, will make good the loss. Buckwheat is one of the most effective means of subduing and cleaning land, and two crops can be plowed under in a single summer. Last spring I had some very stiff marsh sod turned over and sown with buckwheat, which, in our hurry, was not plowed under until considerable of the seed ripened and fell. A second crop from this came up at once, and was plowed under when coming into blossom, as the first should have been. The straw, in its succulent state, decayed in a few days, and by autumn my rough marsh sod was light, rich, and mellow as a garden, ready for anything. If it should happen that the land designed for strawberries was in clover, it would make an admirable fertilizer if turned under while still green, and I think its use for this purpose would pay better than cutting it for hay, even though there is no better. Indeed, were I about to put any sod land, that was not very stiff and unsubdued, into small fruits, I would wait till whatever herbage covered the ground was just coming into flower, and then turn it under. The earlier growth that precedes the formation of seed does not tax the soil much, but draws its substance largely from the atmosphere, and when returned to the earth while full of juices, is valuable. In our latitude this can usually be done by the middle of June, and if on this sod buckwheat is sown at once, it will hasten the decay, loosen and lighten the soil in its growth, and in a few weeks be ready itself to increase the fertility of the field by being plowed under. In regions where farmyard manure and other fertilizers are scarce and high, this plowing under of green crops is one of the most effective ways both of enriching and preparing the land; and if the reader has no severer labors to perform than this, he may well congratulate himself. But let him not be premature in his self-felicitation, for he may find in his sod ground, especially if it be old meadow land, an obstacle worse than stumps and stones--the Lachnosterna fusca. This portentous name may well inspire dread, for the thing itself can realize one's worst fears. The deep, moist loam which we are considering is the favorite haunt of this hateful little monster, and he who does not find it lying in wait when turning up land that has been long in sod, may deem himself lucky. The reader need not draw a sigh of relief when I tell him that I mean merely the "white grub," the larva of the May-beetle or June-bug, that so disturbs our slumbers in early summer by its sonorous hum and aimless bumping against the wall. This white grub, which the farmers often call the "potato worm," is, in this region, the strawberry's most formidable foe, and, by devouring the roots, will often destroy acres of plants. If the plow turns up these ugly customers in large numbers, the only recourse is to cultivate the land with some other crop until they turn into beetles and fly away. This enemy will receive fuller attention in a later chapter. It is said that this pest rarely lays its eggs in plowed land, preferring sod ground, where its larvae will be protected from the birds, and will find plenty of grass roots on which to feed. Nature sees to it that white grubs are taken care of, but our Monarch strawberries need our best skill and help in their unequal fight; and if "Lachnos" and tribe should turn out in force, Alexander himself would be vanquished. CHAPTER VIII. PREPARATION OF SOIL BY DRAINAGE Excessive moisture will often prevent the immediate cultivation of our ideal strawberry land. Its absence is fatal, its excess equally so. Let me suggest some of the evil effects. Every one is aware that climate--that is the average temperature of the atmosphere throughout the year--has a most important influence on vegetation. But a great many, I imagine, do not realize that there is an underground climate also, and that it is scarcely less important that this should be adapted to the roots than that the air should be tempered to the foliage. Water-logged land is cold. The sun can bake, but not warm it to any extent. Careful English experiments have proved that well-drained land is from 10 to 20 degrees warmer than wet soils; and Mr. Parkes has shown, in his "Essay on the Philosophy of Drainage," that in "draining the 'Red Moss' the thermometer in the drained land rose in June to 66 degrees at seven inches below the surface, while in the neighboring water-logged land it would never rise above 47 degrees--an enormous gain." In his prize essay on drainage, Dr. Madden confirms the above, and explains further, as follows: "An excess of water injures the soil by diminishing its temperature in summer and increasing it in winter--a transformation of nature most hurtful to perennials, because the vigor of a plant in spring depends greatly on the lowness of temperature to which it has been subjected during the winter (within certain limits, of course), as the difference of temperature between winter and spring is the exciting cause of the ascent of the sap." In other words, too much water in the soil may cause no marked difference between the underground climate of winter and spring. Dr. Madden shows, moreover, that excess of water keeps out the air essential not only in promoting chemical changes in the soil itself and required by the plants, but also the air which is directly needed by the roots. Sir H. Davy and others have proved that oxygen and carbonic acid are absorbed by the roots as well as by the foliage, and these gases can be brought to them by the air only. Again, drainage alters the currents which occur in wet soil. In undrained land, evaporation is constantly bringing up to the roots the sour, exhausted water of the subsoil, which is an injury rather than a benefit. On the other hand, the rain just fallen passes freely through a drained soil, carrying directly to the roots fresh air and stimulating gases. Wet land also produces conditions which disable the foliage of plants from absorbing carbonic acid, thus greatly decreasing its atmospheric supply of food. Other reasons might be given, but the reader who is not satisfied had better set out an acre of strawberries on water-logged land. His empty pocket will out-argue all the books. The construction of drains may be essential, for three causes: 1st. Land that is dry enough naturally may lie so as to collect and hold surface water, which, accumulating with every rain and snow storm, at last renders the soil sour and unproductive. 2nd. Comparatively level land, and even steep hillsides, may be so full of springs as to render drains at short intervals necessary. 3rd. Streams, flowing perhaps from distant sources, may find their natural channel across our grounds. If these channels are obstructed or inadequate, we find our land falling into the ways of an old soaker. It should here be stated, however, that if we could cause streams to overflow our land in a shallow, sluggish current, so that a sediment would be left on the surface after a speedy subsidence, the result would be in miniature like the overflow of the Nile in Egypt, most beneficial, that is, if means for thorough subsequent drainage was provided. If there is an abundance of stone on one's place suitable for the construction of drains, it can often be used to advantage, as I shall show; but for all ordinary purposes of drainage, round tile with collars are now recommended by the best authorities. It is said that they are cheaper than stone, even where the latter is right at hand; and the claim is reasonable, since, instead of the wide ditch required by stone, a narrow cut will suffice for tile; thus a great saving is at once effected in the cost of digging. Tile also can be laid rapidly, and are not liable to become obstructed if properly protected at points of discharge by gratings, so that vermin cannot enter. They should not be laid near willow, elm, and other trees of like character, or else the fibrous roots will penetrate and fill the channel. If one has a large problem of drainage to solve, he should carefully read a work like Geo. E. Waring's "Drainage for Profit and for Health;" and if the slope or fall of some fields is very slight, say scarcely one foot in a hundred, the services of an engineer should be employed and accurate grades obtained. By a well-planned system, the cost of draining a place can be greatly reduced, and the water made very useful. On my place at Cornwall I found three acres of wet land, each in turn illustrating one of the causes which make drainage necessary. I used stone, because, in some instances, no other material would have answered, in others partly because I was a novice in the science of drainage, and partly because I had the stones on my place, and did not know what else to do with them. I certainly could not cart them on my neighbors' ground without having a surplus of hot as well as cold water, so I concluded to bury them in the old-fashioned box-drains. Indeed, I found rather peculiar and difficult problems of drainage, and the history of their solution may contain useful hints to the reader. In front of my house there is a low, level plot of land, containing about three acres. Upon this the surface water ran from all sides, and there was no outlet. The soil was, in consequence, sour, and in certain spots only a wiry marsh grass would grow. And yet it required, but a glance to see that a drain, which could carry off this surface water immediately, would render it the best land on the place. I tried, in vain, the experiment of digging a deep, wide ditch across the entire tract, in hopes of finding a porous subsoil. Then I excavated great, deep holes, but came to a blue clay that held water like rubber. The porous subsoil, in which I knew the region abounded, and which makes Cornwall exceptionally free from all miasmatic troubles, eluded our spades like hidden treasures. I eventually found that I must obtain permission of a neighbor to carry a drain across another farm to the mountain stream that empties into the Hudson at Cornwall Landing. The covered drain through the adjoining place was deep and expensive, but the ditch across my land (marked A on the map) is a small one, walled with stone on either side. It answers my purpose, however, giving me as good strawberry land as I could wish. On both sides of this open ditch, and at right angles with it, I had the ground plowed into beds 130 feet long by 21 wide. The shallow depressions between these beds slope gently toward the ditch, and thus, after every storm, the surface water, which formerly often, covered the entire area, is at once carried away. I think my simple, shallow, open drain is better than tile in this instance. [Illustration: Map showing experiments in the drainage of a strawberry farm] As may be seen from the map, my farm is peculiar in outline, and resembles an extended city lot, being 2,550 feet long, and only 410 wide. The house, as shown by the engraving, stands on quite an elevation, in the rear of which the land descends into another swale or basin. The drainage of this presented a still more difficult problem. Not only did the surface water run into it, but in moist seasons the ground was full of springs. The serious feature of the case was that there seemed to be no available outlet in any direction. Unlike the mellow, sandy loam in front of the house, the swale in the rear was of the stiffest kind of clay--just the soil to retain and be spoiled by water. During the first year of our residence here this region was sometimes a pond, sometimes a quagmire, while again, under the summer sun, it baked into earthenware. It was a doubtful question whether this stubborn acre could be subdued, and yet its heavy clay gave me just the diversity of soil I needed. Throughout the high gravelly knoll on which the house stands, the natural drainage is perfect, and a sagacious neighbor suggested that if I cut a ditch across the clayey swale into the gravel of the knoll, the water would find a natural outlet and disappear. The ditch was dug eight feet wide and five feet deep, for I decided to utilize the surface of the drain as a road-bed. Passing out of the clay and hard-pan, we came into the gravel, and it seemed porous enough to carry off a fair-sized stream. I concluded that my difficult problem had found a cheap and easy solution, and to make assurance doubly sure, I directed the men to dig a deep pit and fill it with stones. When they had gone about nine feet below the surface, I happened to be standing on the brink of the excavation, watching the work. A laborer struck his pick into the gravel, when a stream gushed out which in its sudden abundance suggested that which flowed in the wilderness at the stroke of Moss's rod. The problem was now complicated anew. So far from finding an outlet, I had dug a well which the men could scarcely bail out fast enough to permit of its being stoned up. My neighbors remarked that my wide ditch reminded them of the Erie canal, and my wife was in terror lest the children should be drowned in it. Now something had to be done, and I called in the services of Mr. Caldwell, city surveyor of Newburgh, and to his map I refer the reader for a clearer understanding of my tasks. Between the upper and lower swales, the ridge on which the house stands slopes to its greatest depression along its western boundary, and I was shown that if I would cut deep enough, the open drain in the lower swale could receive and carry off the water from the upper basin. This appeared Tobe the only resource, but with my limited means it was like a ship-canal across the Isthmus of Panama. The old device of emptying my drains into a hole that practically had no bottom, suggested itself to me. It would be so much easier and cheaper that I resolved once more to try it, though with hopes naturally dampened by my last moist experience. I directed that the hole (marked B on the map) should be oblong, and in the direct line of the ditch, so that if it failed of its purpose it could become a part of the drain. Down we went into as perfect sand and gravel as I ever saw, and the deeper we dug the dryer it became. This time, in wounding old "Mother Earth," we did not cut a vein, and there seemed a fair prospect of our creating a new one, for into this receptacle I decided to turn my largest drain and all the water that the stubborn acre persisted in keeping. I therefore had a "box-drain" constructed along the western boundary of the place (marked C) until it reached the lowest spot in the upper swale. This drain was simply and rapidly constructed, in the following manner: a ditch was first dug sufficiently deep and wide, and with, a fall that carried off the water rapidly. In the bottom of this ditch the men built two roughly faced walls, one foot high and eight inches apart. Comparatively long, flat stones, that would reach from wall to wall, were easily found, and thus we had a covered water-course, eight by twelve inches, forming the common box-drain that will usually last a lifetime. The openings over the channel were carefully "chinked" in with small stones and all covered with inverted sods, shavings, leaves, or anything that prevented the loose soil from sifting or washing down into the water-course. At the upper end of the box-drain just described, a second and smaller receptacle was dug (marked D), and from this was constructed another box-drain (E), six inches square, across the low ground to the end of the canal in which we had found the well (F). This would not only drain a portion of the land but would also empty the big ditch (G), and prevent the water of the well from rising above a certain point. This kind of stone-work can be done rapidly; two men in two short winter days built thirteen rods with a water-course six inches in the clear. To the upper and further end of the canal (G), I constructed another and cheaper style of drain. In the bottom of this ditch (H), two stones were placed on their ends or edges and leaned together so as to form a kind of arch, and then other stones were thrown over and around them until they reached a point eighteen inches from the surface. Over these stones, as over the box-drains also, was placed a covering of any coarse litter to keep the earth from washing down; and then the construction of one or two short side-drains, the refilling the ditches and levelling the ground completed my task. It will be remembered that this entire system of drainage ended in the excavation (B) already described. The question was now whether such a theory of drainage would "hold water." If it would, the hole I had dug must not, and I waited to see. It promised well. Quite a steady stream poured into it and disappeared. By and by there came a heavy March storm. When I went out in the morning, everything was afloat. The big canal and the well at its lower end were full to overflowing. The stubborn acre was a quagmire, and alas! the excavation which I had hoped would save so much trouble and expense was also full. I plodded back under my umbrella with a brow as lowering as the sky. There seemed nothing for it but to cut a "Dutch gap" that would make a like chasm in my bank account. By noon it cleared off, and I went down to take a melancholy survey of the huge amount of work that now seemed necessary, when, to my great joy, the oblong cut, in which so many hopes had seemingly been swamped, was entirely empty. From the box-drain a large stream poured into it and went down--to China, for all that I knew. I went in haste to the big canal and found it empty, and the well lowered to the mouth of the drain. The stubborn acre was now under my thumb, and I have kept it there ever since. During the past summer, I had upon its wettest and stiffest portion two beds of Jucunda strawberries that yielded at the rate of one hundred and ninety bushels to the acre. The Jucunda strawberry is especially adapted to heavy land requiring drainage, and I think an enterprising man in the vicinity of New York might so unite them as to make a fortune. The hole was filled with stones and now forms a part of my garden, and the canal answers for a road-bed as at first intended. In the fortuitous well I have placed a force-pump, around which are grown and watered my potted plants. The theory of carrying drains into gravel does hold water, and sometimes holes can be dug at a slight expense, that practically have no bottom. I have no doubt that in this instance tile would have been better and cheaper than the small stone drains that I have described. In the rear of my place there was a third drainage problem very different from either of the other two. My farm runs back to the rise of the mountain, whose edge it skirts for some distance. It thus receives at times much surface water. At the foot of the mountain-slope, there are about three acres of low alluvial soil, that was formerly covered with a coarse, useless herbage of the swamp. Between the meadow and the slope of the mountain, "the town" built a "boulevard" (marked II on the map), practically "cribbing" an acre or two of land. Ahab, who needed Naboth's vineyard for public purposes, is the spiritual father of all "town boards." At the extreme end of the farm, and just beyond the alluvial ground, was the channel of a brook (marked J). Its stony bed, through which trickled a rill, had a very innocent aspect on the October day when we looked the farm over and decided upon its purchase. The rill ran a little way on my grounds, then crept under the fence and skirted my western boundary for several hundred yards. On reaching a rise of land, it re-entered my place and ran obliquely across it. It thus enclosed three sides of the low, bushy meadow I have named. Its lower channel across the place had been stoned up with the evident purpose of keeping it within limits; but the three or four feet of space between the walls had become obstructed by roots, bushes, vines and debris in general. With the exception of the stony bed where it entered the farm, most of its course was obscured by overhanging bushes and the sere, rank herbage of autumn. In a vague way I felt that eventually something would have to be done to direct this little child of the mountain into proper ways, and to subdue the spirit of the wilderness that it diffused on every side. I had its lower channel across the place (K K) cleared out, thinking that this might answer for the present; and the gurgle of the little streamlet along the bottom of the ditch seemed a low laugh at the idea of its ever filling the three square feet of space above it. Deceitful little brook! Its innocent babble contained no suggestion of its hoarse roar on a March day, the following spring, as it tore its way along, scooping the stones and gravel from its upper bed and scattering them far and wide over the alluvial meadow. Instead of a tiny rill, I found that I would have to cope at times with a mountain torrent. At first, the task was too heavy, and the fitful-tempered brook, and the swamp-like region it encompassed, were left for years to their old wild instincts. At last the increasing demands of my business made it necessary to have more arable land, and I saw that, if I could keep it from being overwhelmed with water and gravel, the alluvial meadow was just the place for strawberries. I commenced at the lowest point where it finally leaves my grounds, and dug a canal (K K), twelve feet wide by four or five deep, across my place, stoning up its walls on either side. An immense amount of earth and gravel was thrown on the lower side so as to form a high, strong embankment in addition to the channel. Then, where it entered the farm above the meadow, I had a wide, deep ditch excavated, throwing all the debris between it and the land I wished to shield. Throughout the low meadow, two covered box-drains (L and M) were constructed so that the plow could pass over them. On the side of the meadow next to the boulevard and mountain, I had an open drain (N N) dug and filled with stones even with the ground. It was designed to catch and carry off the surface water, merely, from the long extent of mountain-slope that it skirted. The system of ditches to protect and drain the partial swamp, and also to manage the deceitful brook, was now finished, and I waited for the results. During much of the summer there was not a drop of water in the wide canal, save where a living spring trickled into it. The ordinary fall rains could scarcely more than cover the broad, pebbly bottom, and the unsophisticated laughed and said that I reminded them of a general who trained a forty-pound gun on a belligerent mouse. I remembered what I had seen, and bided my time. But I did not have to wait till March. One November day it began to rain, and it kept on. All the following night there was a steady rush and roar of falling water. It was no ordinary pattering, but a gusty outpouring from the "windows of heaven." The two swales in the front and rear of the house became great muddy ponds, tawny as the "yellow Tiber," and through intervals of the storm came the sullen roar of the little brook that had been purring like a kitten all summer. Toward night, Mature grew breathless and exhausted; there were sobbing gusts of wind and sudden gushes of rain, that grew less and less frequent. It was evident she would become quiet in the night and quite serene after her long, tempestuous mood. As the sun was setting I ventured out with much misgiving. The deepening roar as I went down the lane increased my fears, but I was fairly appalled by the wild torrent that cut off all approach to the bridge. The water had not only filled the wide canal, but also, at a point a little above the bridge, had broken over and washed away the high embankment. I skirted along the tide until I reached the part of the bank that still remained intact, and there beneath my feet rushed a flood that would have instantly swept away horse and rider. Indeed, quite a large tree had been torn up by its roots, and carried down until it caught in the bridge, which would also have gone had not the embankment above given way. The lower part of the meadow was also under water. It had been plowed, and therefore would wash readily. Would any soil be left? A few moments of calm reflection, however, removed my fears. The treacherous brook had not beguiled me during the summer into inadequate provision for this unprecedented outbreak. I saw that my deep, wide cut had kept the flood wholly from the upper part of the meadow, which contained a very valuable bed of high-priced strawberry plants, and that the slowly moving tide which covered the lower part was little more than backwater and overflow. The wide ditches were carrying off swiftly and harmlessly the great volume that, had not such channels been provided, would have made my rich alluvial meadow little else than a stony, gravelly waste. And the embankment had given way at a point too low down to permit much damage. The two swales in the front and rear of the house appeared like mill-ponds. In the former instance, the water had backed up from the mountain stream into which my drain emptied, and, therefore, it could not pass off; and in the latter instance I could scarcely expect my little underground channel to dispose at once of the torrents that for forty hours had poured from the skies. I must give it at least a night in which to catch up. And a busy night it put in, for by morning it had conveyed to depths unknown the wide, discolored pond, that otherwise would have smothered the plants it covered. As soon, also, as the mountain stream fell below the mouth of the lower drain, it emptied at once the water resting on the lower swale. Throughout the day came successive tales of havoc and disaster, of dams scooped out, bridges swept away, roads washed into stony gulches, and fields and gardens overwhelmed with debris. The Idlewild brook, that the poet Willis made so famous, seemed almost demoniac in its power and fury. Not content with washing away dams, roads, and bridges, it swept a heavy wall across a field as if the stones were pebbles. My three diverse systems of drainage had thus practically stood the severest test, perhaps, that will ever be put upon them, and my grounds had not been damaged to any extent worth naming. The cost had been considerable, but the injury caused by that one storm would have amounted to a larger sum had there been no other channels for the water than those provided by nature. My readers will find, in many instances, that they have land which must be or may be drained. If it can be done sufficiently, the very ideal strawberry soil may be secured--moist and deep, but not wet. CHAPTER IX THE PREPARATION OF SOILS COMPARATIVELY UNFAVORABLE--CLAY, SAND, ETC. We have now reached a point at which we must consider land which in its essential character is unfavorable to strawberries, and yet which may be the best to be had. The difficulties here are not merely accidental or remediable, such as lack of depth or fertility, the presence of stones or stumps, undue wetness of soil, etc. Any or all of these obstacles may be found, but in addition there are evils inseparable from the soil, and which cannot be wholly eradicated. The best we can hope in such a case is to make up by art what is lacking in nature. This divergence from the deep, moist sandy loam, the ideal strawberry land, is usually toward a stiff, cold, stubborn clay, or toward a droughty, leachy sand that retains neither fertility nor moisture. Of course, these opposite soils require in most respects different treatment. We will consider first the less objectionable, that is, the heavy clay. To call clay more favorable for strawberries than sandy land may seem like heresy to many, for it is a popular impression that light soils are the best. Experience and observation have, however, convinced me of the contrary. With the clay you have a stable foundation. Your progress may be slow, but it can be made sure. The character of a sandy foundation was taught centuries ago. Moreover, all the fine foreign-blooded varieties, as well as our best native ones, grow far better on heavy land, and a soil largely mixed with clay gives a wider range in the choice of varieties. If I had my choice between a farm of cold, stiff clay or light, leachy land, I would unhesitatingly take the former, and I would overcome its native unfitness by the following methods: If at all inclined to be wet, as would be natural from its tenacious texture, I should first underdrain it thoroughly with tile. Then, if I found a fair amount of vegetable matter, I would give it a dressing of air-slaked lime, and plow it deeply late in the fall, leaving it unharrowed so as to expose as much of the soil as possible to the action of frost. Early in the spring, as soon as the ground was dry enough to work and all danger of frost was over, I would harrow in buckwheat and plow it under as it came into blossom; then sow a second crop and plow that under also. It is the characteristic of buckwheat to lighten and clean land, and the reader perceives that it should be our constant aim to impart lightness and life to the heavy soil. Lime, in addition to its fertilizing effects, acts chemically on the ground, producing the desired effect. It may be objected that lime is not good for strawberries. That is true if crude lime is applied directly to the plants, as we would ashes or bone-dust; but when it is mixed with the soil for months, it is so neutralized as to be helpful, and in the meantime its action on the soil itself is of great value. It must be used for strawberries, however, in more limited quantities than for many other crops, or else more time must be given for it to become incorporated with the soil. The coarse green straw of the buckwheat is useful by its mechanical division of the heavy land, while at the same time its decomposition fills the soil with ammonia and other gases vitally necessary to the plant. A clay soil retains these gases with little waste. It is thus capable of being enriched to almost any extent, and can be made a storehouse of wealth. Where it can be procured, there is no better fertilizer for clay land than the product of the horse-stable, which, as a rule, can be plowed under in its raw, unfermented state, its heat and action in decay producing the best results. Of course, judgment and moderation must be employed. The roots of a young, growing plant cannot feed in a mass of fermenting manure, no matter what the soil may be. The point I wish to make is that cold, heavy land is greatly benefited by having these heating, gas-producing processes take place beneath its surface. After they are over, the tall, rank foliage and enormous fruit of the Jucunda strawberry (a variety that can scarcely grow at all in sand) will show the capabilities of clay. Heavy land is the favorite home of the grasses, and is usually covered with a thick, tenacious sod. This, of course, must be thoroughly subdued before strawberries are planted, or else you will have a hay-field in spite of all you can do. The decay of this mass of roots, however, furnishes just the food required, and a crop of buckwheat greatly hastens decomposition, and adds its own bulk and fertility when plowed under. I think it will scarcely ever pay to plant strawberries directly on the sod of heavy land. While buckwheat is a good green crop to plow under, if the cultivator can wait for the more slowly maturing red-top clover, he will find it _far better_, both to enrich and to lighten up his heavy soil; for it is justly regarded as the best means of imparting the mellowness and friability in which the roots of strawberries as well as all other plants luxuriate. There are, no doubt, soils fit for bricks and piping only, but in most instances, by a judicious use of the means suggested, they can be made to produce heavy and long-continued crops of the largest fruit. These same principles apply to the small garden-plot as well as to the acre. Instead of carting off weeds, old pea vines, etc., dig them under evenly over the entire space, when possible. Enrich with warm, light fertilizers, and if a good heavy coat of hot strawy manure is trenched in the heaviest, stickiest clay, in October or November, strawberries or anything else can be planted the following spring. The gardener, who thus expends a little thought and farsighted labor will at last secure results that will surpass his most sanguine hopes, and that, too, from land that would otherwise be as hard as Pharaoh's heart. Before passing from this soil to that of an opposite character, let me add a few words of caution. Clay land should never be stirred when either very wet or very dry, or else a lumpy condition results that injures it for years. It should be plowed or dug only when it crumbles. When the soil is sticky, or turns up in great hard lumps, let it alone. The more haste the worst speed. Again, the practice of fall plowing, so very beneficial in latitudes where frosts are severe and long continued, is just the reverse in the far South. There our snow is rain, and the upturned furrows are washed down into a smooth, sticky mass by the winter storms. On steep hillsides, much of the soil would ooze away with every rain, or slide downhill en masse. In the South, therefore, unless a clay soil is to be planted at once, it must not be disturbed in the fall, and it is well if it can be protected by stubble or litter, which shields it from the direct contact of the rain and from the sun's rays. But cow-peas, or any other rank-growing green crop adapted to the locality, is as useful to Southern clay as to Northern, and Southern fields might be enriched rapidly, since their long season permits of plowing under several growths. Lime and potash in their various forms, in connection with green crops, would give permanent fertility to every heavy acre of Southern land. In my judgment, however, barnyard manure is not surpassed in value by any other in any latitude. If one owned clay land from which he could not secure good crops after the preparation that has been suggested, he had better either turn it into a brick-yard or emigrate. _Sandy Ground._--Suppose that, in contrast, our soil is a light sand. In this case the question of cultivation is greatly simplified, but the problem of obtaining a heavy crop is correspondingly difficult. The plow and the cultivator run readily enough, and much less labor is required to keep the weeds in subjection, but as a rule, light land yields little fruit; and yet under favorable circumstances I have seen magnificent crops of certain varieties growing on sand. If sufficient moisture and fertility can be maintained, many of our best varieties will thrive and produce abundantly; but to do this is the very pith of our difficulty. Too often a sandy soil will not retain moisture and manure. Such light land is generally very deficient in vegetable matter; and therefore, whenever it is possible, I would turn under green crops. If the soil could be made sufficiently fertile to produce a heavy crop of clover, and this were plowed under in June, and then buckwheat harrowed in and its rank growth turned under in August, strawberries could be planted as soon as the heat of decay was over, with excellent prospects of fine crops for the three succeeding years. Did I propose to keep the land in strawberries, I would then give it another year of clover and buckwheat, adding bone-dust, potash, and a very little lime in some form. The green crop, when decayed, is lighter than clay, and renders its tenacious texture more friable and porous; it also benefits the sandy soil by supplying the absent humus, or vegetable mould, which is essential to all plant life. This mould is also cool and humid in its nature, and aids in retaining moisture. With the exception of the constant effort to place green vegetable matter under the surface, my treatment of sandy ground would be the reverse of that described for clay. Before using the product of the horse-stable, I would compost it with at least an equal bulk of leaves, muck, sods, or even plain earth if nothing better could be found. A compost of stable manure with clay would be most excellent. If possible, I would not use any manure on light ground until all fermentation was over, and then I would rather _harrow_ than plow it in. This will leave it near the surface, and the rains will leach it down to the roots--and below them, also--only too soon. Fertility cannot be stored up in sand as in clay, and it should be our aim to give our strawberries the food they need in a form that permits of its immediate use. Therefore, in preparing such land, I would advise deep plowing while it is moist, if possible, soon after a rain; then the harrowing in of a liberal top-dressing of rotted compost, or of muck sweetened by the action of frost and the fermentation of manure, or, best of all, the product of the cow-stable. Decayed leaves, sods, and wood-ashes also make excellent fertilizers. In the garden, light soils can be given a much more stable and productive character by covering them with clay to the depth of one or two inches every fall, and then plowing it in. The winter's frost and rains mix the two diverse soils, to their mutual benefit. Carting sand on clay is rarely remunerative; the reverse is decidedly so, and top-dressings of clay on light land are often more beneficial than equal amounts of manure. As practically employed, I regard quick, stimulating manures, like aguno, very injurious to light soils. I believe them to be the curse of the South. They are used "to make a crop," as it is termed; and they do make it for a few years, but to the utter impoverishment of the land. The soil becomes as exhausted as a man would be should he seek to labor under the support of stimulants only. In both instances, an abundance of food is needed. A quinine pill is not a dinner, and a dusting of guano or phosphate cannot enrich the land. And yet, by the aid of these stimulating commercial fertilizers, the poorest and thinnest soil can be made to produce fine strawberries, if sufficient moisture can be maintained. Just as a physician can rally an exhausted man to a condition in which he can take and be strengthened by food, so land, too poor and light to sprout a pea, can be stimulated into producing a meagre green crop of some kind, which, plowed under, will enable the land to produce a second and heavier burden. This, in turn, placed in the soil, will begin to give a suggestion of fertility. Thus, poor or exhausted soils can be made, by several years of skilful management, to convalesce slowly into strength. Whether such patient outlay of time and labor will pay on a continent abounding in land naturally productive is a very dubious question. Coarse, gravelly soils are usually even worse. If we must grow our strawberries on them, give the same general treatment that I have just suggested. On some peat soils the strawberry thrives abundantly; on others it burns and dwindles. Under such conditions I should experiment with bone-dust, ashes, etc., until I found just what was lacking. No written directions can take the place of common-sense, judgment, and, above all, experience. Soils vary like individual character. I have yet to learn of a system of rules that will teach us how to deal with every man we meet. It is ever wise, however, to deal justly and liberally. He that expects much from his land must give it much. I have dwelt at length on the preparation and enrichment of the land, since it is the cornerstone of all subsequent success. Let me close by emphasizing again the principle which was made prominent at first. Though we give our strawberry plants everything else they need, our crop of fruit will yet be good or bad in the proportion that we are able to maintain abundant moisture during the blossoming and fruiting season. If provision can be made for irrigation, it may increase the yield tenfold. CHAPTER X COMMERCIAL AND SPECIAL FERTILIZERS In preparing and enriching the soil, and especially in subsequent cultivation, concentrated fertilizers are very useful and often essential. In dealing with this subject, however, I think we tread upon uncertain ground. There is a great deal of apparent accuracy of figures and analyses, carried carefully into decimals, but a wonderful deal of vagueness, uncertainty, and contradiction in the experiences and minds of cultivators. It is well known that many commercial fertilizers are scandalously adulterated, and those who have suffered from frauds are hostile to the entire class. In their strong prejudice, they will neither discriminate nor investigate. There are others who associate everything having a chemical sound with "book farming," and therefore dismiss the whole subject with a sniff of contempt. This clique of horticulturists is rapidly diminishing, however, for the fruit grower who does not read is like the lawyer who tries to practice with barely a knowledge of the few laws revealed by a limited experience. In contrast, there are others who read and theorize too exclusively, and are inclined to assert that concentrated fertilizers supersede all others. They scout the muck swamp, the compost heap, and even the barnyard, as old-fashioned, cumbrous methods of bringing to the soil, in tons of useless matter, the essentials which they can deliver in a few sacks or barrels. On paper, they are scientific and accurate. The crop you wish to raise has constituents in certain proportions. Supply these, they say, and you have the chemical compound, or crop. A field or garden, however, is not a sheet of blank paper, but a combination at which nature has been at work, and left full of obscurities. The results which the agricultural chemist predicted so confidently do not always follow, as they ought. Nature is often very indifferent to learned authorities. There is yet another class--a large one, too--who regard these fertilizers as they do the drugs of an apothecary. They occasionally give their land a dose of them as they take medicine themselves, when indisposed or imagining themselves so. In either case there is almost entire ignorance of the nature of the compound or of definite reasons for its usefulness. Both the man and the field were "run down," and some one said that this, that, or the other thing was good. Therefore it was tried. Such haphazard action is certainly not the surest method of securing health or fertility. In no other department of horticulture is there more room for common-sense, accurate knowledge, skill, and good management, than in the use of all kinds of fertilizers, and, in my judgment, close and continued observation is worth volumes of theory. The proper enrichment of the soil is the very cornerstone of success, and more fail at this point than at any other. While I do not believe that accurate and complete directions for the treatment of every soil can be written, it is undoubtedly true that certain correct principles can be laid down, and information, suggestion, and records of experience given which will be very useful. With such data to start with, the intelligent cultivator can work out the problem of success in the peculiar conditions of his own farm or garden. It must be true that land designed for strawberries requires those constituents which are shown to compose the plant and fruit, and that the presence of each one in the soil should be in proportion to the demand for it. It is also equally plain that the supply of these essential elements should be kept up in continued cultivation. Therefore, the question naturally arises, what are strawberry plants and fruit made of? Modern wine, we know, can be made without any grape juice whatever, but as Nature compounds strawberries in the open sunlight, instead of in back rooms and cellars, she insists on all the proper ingredients before she will form the required combination. "The Country Gentleman" gives a very interesting letter from Prof. S. W. Johnson, of the Connecticut Experiment Station, containing the following careful analysis made by J. Isidore Pierre, a French writer. "Pierre," says the professor, "gives a statement of the composition, exclusive of water, of the total yield per hectare of fruit, taken up to June 30, and of leaves, stems and runners, taken up to the middle of August. These results, calculated in pounds per acre, are the following (the plants contained 62.3 per cent of water and fruit 90 per cent): Composition of the water-free strawberry crop (except roots), at the middle of August, in pounds per acre, according to Pierre: Plants Fruits Totals Organic matter, exclusive of nitrogen 4268.4 1053.5 5321.9 Nitrogen 88.5 16.0 104.5 Silica, iron and manganese oxides 43.3 1.5/3.8 48.6 Phosphoric acid 35.3 5.4 40.7 Lime 102.7 7.9 110.6 Magnesia 16.1 .7 16.8 Potash 89.1 19.7 108.8 Soda 6.4 .9 7.3 Other matters 120.9 8.8 129.7 Dry substance 4770.7 1118.2 5888.9" These are the constituents that, to start with, must be in the soil, and which must be kept there. This array of what to many are but obscure chemicals need not cause misgivings, since in most instances nature has stored them in the virgin soil in abundant proportions. Even in well-worn, long cultivated fields, some of them may exist in sufficient quantity. Therefore, buying a special fertilizer is often like carrying coals to Newcastle. Useless expenditure may be incurred, also, by supplying some, but not all, of the essential ingredients. A farmer applied six hundred pounds of superphosphate to a plat of corn-land, and three hundred pounds to an adjacent plat wherein the conditions were the same. The yield of the first plat was scarcely in excess of that of the second, and in neither case was there a sufficient increase to repay for the fertilizer. It does not follow that the man used an adulterated and worthless article. Analysis shows that corn needs nitrogen and potash in large proportions; and if these had been employed with the superphosphate, the result probably would have been very different. Superphosphate contains nitrogen, but not in sufficient degree. These considerations bring us to the sound conclusion that in enriching our land it would be wise to use complete fertilizers as far as possible; that is, manures containing all, or nearly all, the essential ingredients of the strawberry plant and fruit. If we could always know just what elements are lacking in our soils, we could merely supply these; but frequent analyses are expensive, and often misleading, at best. The safest plan is always to keep within reach of the plants the food we know they require, and the roots, with unerring instinct, will attend to the proportions. Hence the value of barnyard manure in the estimation of plain common-sense. A sensible writer has clearly shown that from twenty-three cows and five horses, if proper absorbents are used, $5.87 worth of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid can be obtained every twenty-four hours, estimating these vitally important elements of plant-food at their wholesale valuation. In addition, there are the other constituents of the yard manure which, if not so valuable, are still very useful. To permit the waste of any fertilizer that can be saved or made upon our places, and then buy the same thing with the chance of being cheated, is thus shown to be wretched economy. Commercial fertilizers can never supersede the compost heap, into which should go everything which will enable us to place in the soil organic matter and the other elements that were given in the analysis; and if all the sewage and waste of the dwelling and the products of the stable, stys and poultry-house were well composted with muck, sod, leaves, or even common earth, and used liberally, magnificent and continued crops of strawberries could be raised from nearly all soils. In many instances, however, home-made composts are wholly inadequate to supply the need, and stable manures are too costly or not to be obtained. The fruit grower should then go to those manufacturers of fertilizers who have the best reputation, and who give the best guarantees against deception. There are perfectly honest dealers, and it is by far the cheapest in the end to pay them their price for a genuine article. If such concentrated agents are used in connection with a green crop like clover, land can be made, and kept productive continuously. In the use of commercial fertilizers, there should be a constant and intelligent effort to keep up a supply of _all_ the essential ingredients. Wood-ashes is a specific for strawberries. I have never found any one thing so good, and yet it is substantially but one thing, potash, and I should remember that the plant also requires nitrogen, which guano, or some form of animal manure, would furnish; lime, which is best applied to the strawberry in the form of bone meal, etc. The essential phosphoric acid is furnished in bone meal, the superphosphates, and also in wood-ashes. By referring to an analysis of the ash of red clover, it will be found to contain nearly everything that the strawberry requires. The man who reads, observes, and experiments carefully, will find that he can accomplish much with lime and salt. If one has land full of vegetable or organic matter, an application of lime will render this matter fit for plant food, and the lime itself, in the course of a year or less, will be rendered harmless in the process. It also sweetens and lightens heavy, sour land, and thus, _in time_ renders it better adapted to the strawberry; but lime should not be applied directly, in any considerable quantity, to strawberry plants, nor should it be used on very light soils deficient in vegetable matter. The judicious use of salt in _small_ quantities will, I think, prove very beneficial, especially on light upland. It tends to prevent injury from drought, and to clear the land of the larvae of insects. I am inclined to think that much can be accomplished with this agent, and hope to make some careful experiments with it. But it should be used very cautiously, or it will check or destroy growth. I have received a letter from Mr. J. H. Hale, of South Glastonbury, Conn., that is such a clear and interesting record of experience on this subject that I am led to give it almost entire: "We have always used Peruvian guano, fish scrap, and ground bone to some extent, but until the past five years have depended mainly upon stable manure brought from New York city on boats, using about fifteen cords per acre yearly, and always with satisfactory results, the only objection being the expense. The price ranged from $8 to $12 per cord, or on an average of $150 per acre; and in trying to reduce this expense we commenced testing different fertilizers, planting, in 1874, one acre of strawberries manured with two tons of fish scrap, at $20 per ton, and one hundred bushels of unleached wood-ashes, at 30 cents per bushel; making a total cost of $70. The result was a strong, rapid growth of plants early in the summer, but in September and October they began to show signs of not having plant food enough, and then we saw our mistake in using fish in place of bone, or some other slow-acting fertilizer that the plants could not have taken up so greedily early in the summer, but would have had to feed on slowly all through the season. The fruit crop the following year, as might have been expected, was not a success, being only about half a crop. In 1875, we planted another acre, using one ton of ground bone and one hundred bushels of wood-ashes, at a total cost of $73; the result was a fine, even growth of plants all through the season, and a perfect crop of fruit the following year, fully equal to that on adjoining acres that had been manured with stable manure at a cost of $150 per acre, to say nothing of the carting of such a great bulk of manure. In the spring of 1876, being so well pleased with the appearance of our one acre manured with bone and ashes, we planned to fertilize all of our fruits in the same way. Then the question arose, where were we to get the ashes? We could buy enough for an acre or two, but not enough for our whole farm. What were we to do? Potash we must have, as that is the leading element of plant food required by small fruits of all kinds. We found we must look to the German potash salts for what we wanted, and we therefore bought several tons of High Grade (80 per cent) muriate of potash at $40 per ton, using 1,000 pounds per acre, and one ton of bone at $35, making a total cost of only $55 per acre. The plants did not grow quite as well early in the season as those on the fields where ashes were used, but later in the season they made a very fine growth, and at fruiting time, in 1877, we harvested a full and abundant crop of strawberries and raspberries. Since that time we have used nothing but ground bone and muriate of potash to manure all of our berry fields with, and continue to get fully as satisfactory results as in former years, when we depended upon stable manure at more than double the cost per acre. Some parties who have been looking into the matter suggest that possibly our satisfactory results are owing not so much to the fertilizers as to the liberal supply of stable manure used in former years. Yet the past season we picked 143 bushels of Charles Downings per acre, from a field manured with bone and potash, so poor and worn-out that two years before it would only produce six bushels of rye per acre. That land had no stable manure on it, and if it was not the bone and potash that furnished food for the berries, we would like to know what it was. The one mistake we have made is, I think, in not using six or eight hundred pounds of fish scrap or guano, and only 1,500 pounds of bone. The fish or guano, being such quick-acting fertilizers, would give the plants a much better start early in the season than would be the case if only the bone and potash were used. We shall try it the coming spring. In applying the potash great care should be taken to have it thoroughly incorporated with the soil, it being only about 55 per cent actual potash; the balance, being largely composed of salt, would, of course, kill the roots of young plants if brought directly in contact with them. In fields where we have used the potash, we have been troubled with white grubs only to a very limited extent, while portions of the same field where stable manure had been used were badly infested with them, and while I do not think salt will drive them ail out of the soil, I do believe it will do so to some extent. Besides the fertilizers I have named, we have in the past six years experimented in a small way with many others. Among them Stockbridge's strawberry manure and Mapes' fruit and vine manures, but have never had as good returns for the money invested as from the bone and potash; and yet, while they have proved of such great value to us, I would not advise you or any one to give up stable manure for them if you can get it at the same cost per acre, but if you cannot, then I say try bone dust and potash in a small way, until you learn just what _your soil_ wants, and then supply it, whether it be 500, 1,000, or 2,000 pounds per acre." Mr. Hale adds: "The most of our soil is a sandy loam. We have some heavy loam and a few acres of clay gravel, and we have always had good results from the use of bone and potash on all of these soils. "We have never used lime on our berry fields at the time of planting, and yet, as you know, all of our New England soils are deficient in lime. We use some indirectly, as we grow clover to plow under, and usually give at that time a good dressing of lime. As we try to have a new clover field every year, we get all around the farm in six or eight years, and we therefore get a dressing of lime all around once in that time, and have never been able to see any ill effects from it. In fact, we believe it a positive benefit in helping to keep down sorrel, if nothing more." There would be very few worn-out farms, or poverty-stricken farmers, if all followed the example of the Hale brothers. The value of potash and bone meal is thus clearly shown, but the latter does not contain nitrogen in sufficient quantity. I think Mr. Hale is correct in the opinion that he can secure better results by using at the same time some nitrogenous manure, like fish scrap, guano, etc. If he had heavy, cold, clay land to deal with, it is possible that he might find the stable manure the cheapest and best in the long run, even at its increased cost. Mr. W. L. Ferris, of Poughkeepsie, writes to me that he has found great advantage in the use of the Mapes & Stockbridge special fertilizers. "My experience," he says, "is only as to strawberries, and on them I would say that the result of applying equal values of manure--stable and commercial--as to cost, would be from ten to twenty-five per cent in favor of the commercial, as a stimulant to apply in the spring, or, in small quantities, to plants first starting. This does not apply to the first preparation of the ground. In this direction I propose to experiment. I have heretofore applied fertilizers early in spring by hand, distributing it along the rows." Records of varying experiences, and the discussion of commercial fertilizers, might be continued indefinitely, but enough has been said, I think, to suggest to each cultivator unacquainted with the subject in what directions he should seek success. If I were asked what is the one special manure in which the strawberry especially delights, I should answer unhesitatingly, the well decayed and composted production of the cow-stable, and if the reader had seen Mr. Durand's beds of the Great American variety in bearing, after being enriched with this material, he would be well satisfied to use it when it could be obtained. The vines of even this fastidious berry, that falters and fails in most soils, averaged one foot in height, and were loaded with enormous fruit. The subject may be summed up by an extract from a letter of Mr. Alexander Hyde to the "New York Times": "Nitrates, phosphates, and ammonia are good fertilizers, and just the chemicals which most lands need, but plants require a good bed as well as good food. The physical condition of the soil, as well as the chemical, must receive attention; and we know of nothing superior to a well-made compost for furnishing both the chemical and physical conditions necessary for the development of our crops." CHAPTER XI OBTAINING PLANTS AND IMPROVING OUR STOCK Having prepared and enriched our ground, we are ready for the plants. They can often be obtained from a good neighbor whose beds we have watched across the fence, and whose varieties we have sampled to our satisfaction. But the most liberal neighbors may not be able to furnish all we need, or the kinds we wish. Moreover, in private gardens, names and varieties are usually in a sad tangle. We must go to the nurseryman. At this point, perhaps, a brief appeal to the reader's common-sense may save much subsequent loss and disappointment. In most of our purchases, we see the article before we take it, and can estimate its value. Just the reverse is usually true of plants. We know--or believe--that certain varieties are valuable, and we order them from a distance, paying in advance. When received, the most experienced cannot be sure that the plants are true to the names they bear. We must plant them in our carefully prepared land, expend upon them money, labor, and, above all, months and years of our brief lives, only to learn, perhaps, that the varieties are not what we ordered, and that we have wasted everything on a worthless kind. The importance of starting right, therefore, can scarcely be overestimated. It is always best to buy of men who, in the main, grow their own stock, and therefore know about it, and who have established a reputation for integrity and accuracy. The itinerant agent flits from Maine to California, and too often the marvellous portraits of fruits that he exhibits do not even resemble the varieties whose names they bear. It is best to buy of those who have a "local habitation and a name," and then, if anything is wrong, one knows where to look for redress. Even if one wishes to be accurate, it is difficult to know that one's stock is absolutely pure and true to name. The evil of mixed plants is more often perpetuated in the following innocent manner than by any intentional deception: For instance, one buys from a trustworthy source, as he supposes, a thousand "Monarch" strawberry plants, and sets them out in the spring. All blossoms should be picked off the first year, and, therefore, there can be no fruit as a test of purity that season. But by fall there are many thousands of young plants. The grower naturally says: "I bought these for the Monarch, therefore they are Monarchs," and he sells many plants as such. When coming into fruit the second summer, he finds, however, that not one in twenty is a Monarch plant. As an honest man, he now digs them under in disgust; but the mischief has already been done, and scattered throughout the country are thousands of mixed plants which multiply with the vigor of evil. Nurserymen should never take varieties for granted, no matter where obtained. I endeavor so to train my eye that I can detect the distinguishing marks even in the foliage and blossoms, and if anything looks suspicious I root it out. The foliage of the Monarch of the West is so distinct that if one learns to know it he can tell whether his plants are mixed at a glance. If possible, the nurseryman should start with plants that he knows to be genuine, and propagate from them. Then, by constant and personal vigilance, he can maintain a stock that will not be productive chiefly of profanity when coming into fruit. This scrutiny of propagating beds is a department that I shall never delegate to any one else. It is not thrift to save in the first cost of plants, if thereby the risk of obtaining poor, mixed varieties is increased. I do not care to save five dollars to-day and lose fifty by the operation within a year. A gentleman wrote to me, "I have been outrageously cheated in buying plants." On the same page he asked me to furnish stock at rates as absurdly low as those of the man who cheated him. If one insists on having an article at far less than the cost of production, it is not strange that he finds some who will "cheat him outrageously." I find it by far the cheapest in the long run to go to the most trustworthy sources, and pay the grower a price which enables him to give me just what I want. When plants are both fine and genuine they can still be spoiled, or, at least, injured in transit from the ground where they grew. Dig so as to save all the roots, shake these clean of earth, straighten them out, and tie the plants into bundles of fifty. Pack in boxes, with the roots down in moss and the tops exposed to the air. Do not press them in too tightly or make them too wet, or else the plants become heated --a process which speedily robs them of all vitality. In cool seasons, and when the distance is not too great, plants can be shipped in barrels thickly perforated with holes. The tops should be toward the sides and the roots in the centre, down through which there should be a circulation of air. In every case, envelop the roots in damp moss or leaves--damp, but not wet. Plants can be sent by mail at the rate of one cent per ounce, and those obtained in this way rarely fail in doing well. This fact should be carefully kept in mind by those residing long distances from express offices, or the points from which they wish to order their plants. Packages weighing four pounds and less can be sent by mail and received with our letters, and by a little inquiry and calculation it may be found the cheapest and most convenient way of obtaining them. I find no difficulty in mailing all the small fruit plants to every part of the continent. The greater part of the counting and packing of plants should be done in a cellar, or some place of low, even temperature, in order to prevent the little fibrous roots, on which the future growth so greatly depends, from becoming shrivelled. The best part of the roots are extremely sensitive to sunlight or frost, and, worse than all, to a cold, dry wind. Therefore, have the plants gathered up as fast as they are dug and carried to a damp, cool room, where the temperature varies but little. From such a place they can be packed and shipped with the leisure that insures careful work. After having obtained good, genuine plants to start with, we can greatly improve our stock by a system of careful selection. This is a truth of great importance, but so obvious that we need not dwell long upon it. Let me illustrate what I mean by the course I propose to enter upon during the coming season. In our beds of each variety there will be a few plants that, for some reason, will surpass all the others in vigor, productiveness, and especially in the manifestation of the peculiar and distinguishing traits of the variety. I shall carefully mark such plants, remove all others from their vicinity, and propagate from them. Thus, in the course of two or three years, I shall renew my entire stock of standard varieties from the very best and most characteristic specimens of each kind. From this improved stock the best types should be chosen again and again; and by this course I am satisfied that a surprising degree of excellence can be attained. It is on the same principle of careful breeding from blooded and perfect animals. From very many localities come the complaint that Wilsons and other fine old varieties are "running out." How can it be otherwise, in view of the treatment they receive and the careless way in which they are propagated? Even when unmixed, they are usually the enfeebled children of degenerate parents. There is no variety in the country more badly mixed than the Wilson; and the trouble often arises from wild strawberries creeping in among them from the edges of the field. The spurious plants are taken up with the others, and the mixture is scattered up and down the land. The same is true with other varieties that have long been in cultivation. Indeed, I have found mixtures in new varieties obtained directly from the originators. Therefore the need that the plant grower should give personal and unceasing vigilance to the stock from which he propagates, and that those who take a pride in improving their stock should often scan their beds narrowly. Moreover, if a bed stands several years in the same place, new seedlings may spring up, and thus create a mixture. CHAPTER XII WHEN SHALL WE PLANT? Nature has endowed the strawberry-plant with the power of taking root and growing readily at almost any season when young plants can be obtained. My best success, however, has been in November and early spring. The latter part of May and the month of June is the only time at which I have not planted with satisfactory results. In Northern latitudes, early spring is preferable, for at this season the ground is moist, showers are abundant, and the impulse of growth is strong. The weather is cool, also, and therefore the plants rarely heat or dry out during transportation. In the South, autumn is by far the best time to plant. When the young plants are grown on the same place, they may be transferred to the fruiting beds and fields any time between July and the middle of November. The earlier they are set out, if they can be kept growing during the remainder of the hot season, the larger will be the yield the following spring. As a rule, plants, unless grown in pots, can not be shipped from the North or South until cold weather. The forwarding to the latitude of Richmond begins in September, and to points further south in October and November; from Florida to Louisiana I hear of almost unvarying success. Of late years the practice of growing plants in pots and sending them out as the florists do flowers has become very prevalent. These potted plants can be set out in July, August and September, and the ball of earth clinging to their roots prevents wilting, and, unless they are neglected, insures their living. Pot-grown plants are readily obtained by sinking two and a half or three inch pots up to their rims in the propagating-beds, and filling them with rich earth mingled with old, thoroughly rotted compost, leaf mould, decayed sods, etc., but never with fresh, unfermented manure. I have found the admixture of a little fine bone meal with the soil to be strong aid to vigorous growth. The young runners are then so guided and held down by a small stone or lump of earth that they will take root in the pots, indeed, quite large plants, if still attached to thrifty runners, may be taken up, their roots shortened to one-quarter of an inch, and these inserted in the little pots, which will be speedily filled with a new growth of roots. It is very important that abundant and continuous moisture should be maintained. A hot wind or a scorching sun will dry out within a few hours the small amount of earth the pots contain, and the plants thus receive a check from which they may never recover. The amateur should watch them closely, and the plant grower should employ a man with the clear understanding that he would lose his position if he permitted moisture to fail even for half a day. In about two weeks, with good management, the plants will fill the pots with roots, which so interlace as to hold the ball of earth compactly together during transportation. This ball of earth with the roots, separates readily from the pot, and the plant, thus sustained, could be shipped around the world if kept from drying out and the foliage protected from the effects of alternate heat and cold. The agricultural editor of the "New York Weekly Times" writes me that the potted plants are worth their increased cost, if for no other reason, because they are so easily planted in hot weather. The chief advantage of summer planting lies in the fact that we obtain a good crop the following season, while plants set out in spring should not be permitted to bear at all the same year. If we discover in May or June that our supply is insufficient, or that some new varieties offer us paradisiacal flavors, we can set out the plants in the summer or autumn of the same year, and within eight or ten months gather the fruits of our labors. If the season is somewhat showery, or if one is willing to take the trouble to water and shade the young plants, ordinary layers--that is, plants that have grown naturally in the open ground--will answer almost as well as those that have been rooted in pots. The fact that they do not cost half as much is also in their favor. The disposition to plant in summer or autumn is steadily increasing, and the following reasons are good and substantial ones for the practice. In our gardens and fields there are many crops that mature in July, August, and September. The cultivation of these crops has probably left the ground mellow, and in good condition for strawberries. Instead of leaving this land idle, or a place for weeds to grow and seed, it can be deeply forked or plowed, and enriched, as has been explained. Even in July, potted plants may be bought, and unless the ground is full of the larvae of the June beetle, or the plants are treated with utter neglect, not one in a hundred will fail. Say the plants cost us two and a half cents each by the time they are planted, instead of one half to one cent as in the spring, is there not a prospect of an equal or larger profit? A potted plant set out in summer or early autumn, and allowed to make no runners, will yield at least a pint of fruit; and usually these first berries are very large and fine, bringing the best prices. Suppose, however, we are able to obtain but ten cents a quart, you still have a margin of two and one-half cents on each plant. Adding two cents to the cost of each plant to cover the expense of cultivation, winter protection, spring mulching, picking, etc., there still remains a profit of half a cent on each plant. Supposing we have an acre containing 14,520 plants, our estimate gives a profit of $72.60 for the first year. If we clear but a quarter of a cent on each plant, we have a profit of $36.30. The prospects are, however, that if we plant early in the summer, on rich ground, and give good cultivation, our plants will yield more than a pint each, and the fruit sell for more than ten cents a quart. This estimate applies to the common market varieties raised with only ordinary skill and success. Suppose, in contrast, one plants the large, showy, high-flavored varieties, and is able to obtain from fifteen to thirty cents per quart. The expenses in this case are no greater, while the profits are very largely increased. [Illustration: A Potted Plant] Good potted plants can be bought for about $2.50 per 100, or $20 per 2,000. I do not think that they can be properly grown and sold at much lower rates and afford a living profit. Freight and express charges are a heavy item of expense, since the earth encasing the roots renders the packages very heavy, and but comparatively few plants can be shipped in one box. But, allowing for all expenses, I think it is evident that people can obtain a fair profit from potted plants within eight or ten months from the time of planting. Moreover, autumn-set plants start with double vigor in early spring, and make a fine growth before the hot, dry weather checks them; and the crop from them the second year will be the very best that they are capable of producing. Two paying crops are thus obtained within two years, and the cost of cultivation the first year is slight, for the plants are set after the great impulse of annual weed growth is past. With spring-set plants you get but one crop in two years. The first year yields nothing unless plants are sold, and yet the cultivation must be unceasing through May, June and July, when Nature seems to give no little thought to the problem of how many weeds can be grown to the square inch. If one wishes early plants, he certainly should practice autumn planting, for a plant set even in November will begin to make runners nearly a month earlier than one set in spring. Thus far we have looked at the subject from a business standpoint. Those who wish plants for the home supply certainly should not hesitate to furnish their gardens as early in the summer as possible. To wait two years of our short lives for _strawberries_ because the plants are a little cheaper in the spring is a phase of economy that suggests the moon. Such self-denial in a good cause would be heroic. If people will use a little forethought, they can practice summer and autumn planting with double success, independently of the plant grower. We have shown that there is no mystery in raising potted plants. Moreover, in the hottest summers there are showery, cloudy days when ordinary layer plants can be set with perfect safety. If the field or garden bed is near where the layer plants are growing, the latter can be taken up with earth clinging to their roots, and thus have all the advantages of potted plants. Even under the Southern sun, hundreds of acres are, in this manner, set annually in the vicinity of Charleston. As the autumn grows cool and moist, layer plants can be obtained from a distance and set out profitably in large quantities. The chief danger in late planting results from the tendency of the plants to be thrown out of the ground by the action of the frost, and a few varieties do not seem sufficiently hardy to endure severe cold. I obviate this difficulty by simply hoeing upon the plants two inches of earth, just before the ground freezes in November or December. This winter covering of soil enables me to plant with entire success at any time in the fall--even late in November--instead of spring, when there is a rush of work. The earth is raked off the plants in March or April, as soon as severe freezing weather is over; otherwise they would decay. Do not first put manure on the plants and then cover with earth--cover with earth only. Thus it will be seen that each period has its advantages, which will vary with different seasons. If drought and heat come in early May, spring-set plants may suffer badly. Again, periods in summer and autumn may be so hot and dry that even potted plants can only be kept alive by repeated waterings. My practice is to divide my plantings about equally between summer, fall, and spring. I thus take no chances of failure. CHAPTER XIII WHAT SHALL WE PLANT?--VARIETIES, THEIR CHARACTER AND ADAPTATION TO SOILS I have in my library an admirable little treatise written by the late R. G. Pardee, and printed twenty-five years ago. While the greater part of what he says, relating to the requirements of the plant and its culture, is substantially correct, his somewhat extended list of varieties is almost wholly obsolete. With the exception of Hovey's Seedling, scarcely one can be found in a modern catalogue. Even carefully prepared lists, made at a much later date, contain the names of but few kinds now seen in the garden or market. I have before me the catalogue of Prince & Co., published in 1865, and out of their list of 169 varieties but three are now in general cultivation, and the great majority are utterly unknown. Thus it would seem that a catalogue soon becomes historical, and that the kinds most heralded to-day may exist only in name but a few hence. The reasons can readily be given. The convex heart of every strawberry blossom will be found to consist of pistils, and usually of stamens ranged around them. When both stamens and pistils are found in the same blossom, as is the case with most varieties, it is called a perfect flower, or staminate. In rare instances, strawberry flowers are found which possess stamens without pistils, and these are called male blossoms; far more often varieties exist producing pistils only, and they are named pistillate kinds. Either of the last two if left alone would be barren; the male flowers are always so, but the pistillate or female flowers, if fertilized with pollen from perfect-flowered plants, produce fruit. This fertilizing is effected by the agency of the wind, or by insects seeking honey. The ovule in the ovarium to which the stigma leads represents, at maturity, a seed--the actual fruit of the strawberry--and within each seed Nature, by a subtile process of her own, wraps up some of the qualities of the plant that produced the seed, and some of the qualities also of the plant from which came the pollen that impregnated the ovule. This seed, planted, produces an entirely new variety, which, as a rule, exhibits characteristics of both its parents, and traits, also, of its grandparents and remote ancestors. The law of heredity is the same as in cattle or the human race. Thus it may be seen that millions of new varieties can be very easily obtained. A single plant-grower often raises many thousands to which he never gives a name, by reason of the fact--noted elsewhere than in the fruit garden--that most of these new strawberries in no respect surpass or even equal their parents. The great majority, after fruiting--which they do when two years old--are thrown away. A new variety which is not so good as the old ones from which it came should not be imposed upon the public. But they often are, sometimes deliberately, but far more often for other reasons; as, for instance, through the enthusiasm of the possessor. It is _his_ seedling; therefore it is wonderful. He pets it and gives it extra care, to which even very interior varieties generously respond. In the same old catalogue to which I have referred Prince & Co. announce: "We now offer a few of our superior new seedlings, with descriptions, and there is not an acid or inferior one among them. There is not one of them that is not superior to all the seedlings recently introduced." Not one of these thirty-five "superior seedlings," to my knowledge, is now in cultivation. They have disappeared in less than fifteen years; and yet I have no doubt that on the grounds of Prince & Co. they gave remarkable promise. Again, a fruit grower sends out second and third-rate kinds from defective knowledge. He has not judiciously compared his petted seedlings with the superb varieties already in existence. It is soon discovered by general trial that the vaunted new-comers are not so good as the old; and so they also cease to be cultivated, leaving only a name. The editor of the "Rural New Yorker" has adopted a course which would be very useful indeed to the public, if it could be carried out in the various fruit-growing centres of the country. He obtains a few plants of every new variety offered for sale, and tests them side by side, under precisely the same conditions, reporting the results in his paper. Such records of experience are worth any amount of theory, or the half-truths of those who are acquainted with but few vanities. I tested fifty kinds last year in one specimen-bed. The plants were treated precisely alike, and permitted to mature all their fruit, I being well content to let eight or ten bushels go to waste in order to see just what each variety could do. From such trial-beds the comparative merits of each kind can be seen at a glance. Highly praised new-comers, which are said to supersede everything, must show what they are and can do beside the old standard varieties that won their laurels years ago. I thus learn that but few can endure the test, and occasionally I find an old kind sent out with a new name. When visiting fruit farms in New Jersey last summer, I was urged to visit a small place on which was growing a wonderful new berry. The moment I saw the fruit and foliage, I recognized the Col. Cheney, forced into unusual luxuriance by very favorable conditions. Other experienced growers, whose attention I called to the distinguishing marks of this variety, agreed with me at once; but the proprietor, who probably had never seen the Cheney before and did not know where the plants came from, thought it was a remarkable new variety, and as such it might have been honestly sent out. Trial-beds at once detect the old kinds with new names, and thus may save the public from a vast deal of imposition. Such beds would also be of very great service in suggesting the varieties that can be grown with profit in certain localities. While the behavior of different kinds differs greatly in varying soils and latitudes, there is no such arbitrary mystery in the matter as many imagine. I am satisfied that the sorts which did best in my trial-bed give the best promise of success wherever the soil and climate are similar. In contrast, let a trial-bed be made on a light soil in Delaware or Virginia, and 100 varieties be planted. Many that are justly favorites in our locality would there shrivel and burn, proving valueless; but those that did thrive and produce well, exhibiting a power to endure a Southern sun, and to flourish in sand, should be the choice for all that region. To the far South and North, and in the extremes of the East and West, trial-beds would give still varying results; but such results would apply to the soils and climate of the region if proper culture were given. A horse can be mismanaged on a Kentucky stock-farm, and there are those who would have ill luck with strawberries in the Garden of Eden--they are so skilful and persist in doing the wrong thing. It would well remunerate large planters to maintain trial-beds of all the small fruits, and their neighbors could afford to pay well for the privilege of visiting them and learning the kinds adapted to their locality. I think it may be laid down as a general truth, that those kinds which do well on a light soil in one locality tend to do well on such soils in all localities. The same principle applies to those requiring heavy land. There will be exceptions, and but few of those containing foreign blood will thrive in the far South. In the brief limits of this chapter I shall merely offer suggestions and the results of some experience, premising that I give but one man's opinion, and that all have a right to differ from me. At the close of this volume may be found more accurate descriptions of the varieties that I have thought worth naming. Among the innumerable candidates for favor, here and there one will establish itself by persistent well-doing as a standard sort. We then learn that some of these strawberry princes, like the Jucunda, Triomphe de Gand, and President Wilder, flourish only in certain soils and latitudes, while others, like the Charles Downing, Monarch of the West, and Wilson, adapt themselves to almost every condition and locality. Varieties of this class are superseded very slowly; but it would seem, with the exception of Wilson's Albany, that the standards of one generation have not been the favorites of the next. The demand of our age is for large fruit The demand has created a supply, and the old standard varieties have given way to a new class, of which the Monarch and Seth Boyden are types. The latest of these new mammoth berries is the Sharpless, originated by Mr. J. K. Sharpless, of Catawissa, Pa.; which shows the progress made since horticulturists began to develop the wild _F. Virginiana_ by crossing varieties and by cultivation. The most accurate and extended list of varieties with which I am acquainted is to be found in Downing's "Encyclopedia of Fruits and Fruit Trees of America." It contains the names, with their synonymes, and the descriptions of over 250 kinds, and to this I refer the reader. The important question to most minds is not how many varieties exist, but what kinds will give the best returns. If one possesses the deep, rich, moist loam that has been described, almost any good variety will yield a fair return, and the best can be made to give surprising results. For table use and general cultivation, North and South, East and West, I would recommend the Charles Downing, Monarch of the West, Seth Boyden, Kentucky Seedling, Duchess, and Golden Defiance. These varieties are all first-rate in quality, and they have shown a wonderful adaptation to varied soils and climates. They have been before the public a number of years, and have persistently proved their excellence. Therefore, they are worthy of a place in every garden. With these valuable varieties for our chief supply, we can try a score of other desirable kinds, retaining such as prove to be adapted to our taste and soil. If our land is heavy, we can add to the above, in Northern latitudes, Triomphe de Gand, Jucunda, President Wilder, Forest Rose, President Lincoln, Sharpless, Pioneer, and Springdale. If the soil is light, containing a large proportion of sand and gravel, the Charles Downing, Kentucky Seedling, Monarch of the West, Duchess, Cumberland Triumph, Miner's Prolific, Golden Defiance, and Sharpless will be almost certain to yield a fine supply of large and delicious berries, both North and South. Let me here observe that varieties that do well on light soils also thrive equally well and often better on heavy land. But the converse is not true. The Jucunda, for instance, can scarcely be made to exist on light land. In the South, it should be the constant aim to find varieties whose foliage can endure the hot sun. I think that the Sharpless, which is now producing a great sensation as well as mammoth berries, will do well in most Southern localities. It maintained throughout the entire summer the greenest and most vigorous foliage I ever saw. Miner's Prolific, Golden Defiance, Early Hudson, and Cumberland Triumph also appear to me peculiarly adapted to Southern cultivation. As we go north, the difficulties of choice are not so great. Coolness and moisture agree with the strawberry plant. There the question of hardiness is to be first considered. In regions, however, where the snow falls early and covers the ground all winter, the strawberry is not so exposed as with us, for our gardens are often bare in zero weather. Usually, it is not the temperature of the air that injures a dormant strawberry plant, but alternations of freezing and thawing. The deep and unmelting snows often enable the horticulturist to raise successfully in Canada tender fruits that would "winter-kill" much further south. If abundant protection is therefore provided, either by nature or by art, the people of the North can take their choice from among the best. In the high latitudes, early kinds will be in request, since the season of growth is brief. The best early berries are Duchess, Bidwell, Pioneer, Early Hudson, Black Defiance, Duncan, Durand's Beauty, and, earliest of all, Crystal City. The last-named ripened first on my place in the summer of 1879, and although the fruit is of medium size, and rather soft, I fear, the plant is so vigorous and easily grown that I think it is worth general trial North and South. I am informed that it promises to take the lead in Missouri. MARKET STRAWBERRIES Thus far I have named those kinds whose fine flavor and beauty entitle them to a place in the home garden. But with a large class, market qualities are more worthy of consideration; and this phase of the question introduces us to some exceedingly popular varieties not yet mentioned. The four great requirements of a market strawberry are productiveness, size, a good, bright color, and--that it may endure long carriage and rough handling--firmness. Because of the indifference of the consumer, as explained in an earlier chapter, that which should be the chief consideration--flavor--is scarcely taken into account. In the present unenlightened condition of the public, one of the oldest strawberries on the list--Wilson's Seedling--is more largely planted than all other kinds together. It is so enormously productive, it succeeds so well throughout the entire country, and is such an early berry, that, with the addition of its fine carrying qualities, it promises to be the great market berry for the next generation also. But this variety is not at all adapted to thin, poor land, and is very impatient of drought. In such conditions, the berries dwindle rapidly in size, and even dry up on the vines. Where abundant fertility and moisture can be maintained, the yield of a field of Wilsons is simply marvellous. On a dry hillside close by, the crop from the same variety may not pay for picking. Plantations of Wilsons should be renewed every two years, since the plant speedily exhausts itself, producing smaller berries with each successive season. The Wilson is perhaps the best berry for preserving, since it is hard and its acid is rich and not watery. A rival of the Wilson has appeared within the last few years--the Crescent Seedling, also an early berry, originated by Mr. Parmelee, of New Haven, Conn. At first, it received unbounded praise; now, it gets too much censure. It is a very distinct and remarkable variety, and, like the Wilson, I think, will fill an important place in strawberry culture. Its average size does not much exceed that of the Wilson; its flavor, when fully ripe, is about equal in the estimation of those who do not like acid fruit. In productiveness, on many soils, it will far exceed any variety with which I am acquainted. It is just this capacity for growing on thin, poor soils--anywhere and under any circumstances--that gives to it its chief value. In hardiness and vitality it is almost equal to the Canada thistle. The young plants are small, and the foliage is slender and delicate; but they have the power to live and multiply beyond that of any other variety I have seen. It thrives under the suns of Georgia and Florida, and cares naught for the cold of Canada; it practically extends the domain of the strawberry over the continent, and renders the laziest man in the land, who has no strawberries, without excuse. One of my beds yielded at the rate of 346 bushels to the acre, and the bright, handsome scarlet of the berries caused them to sell for as much in the open market as varieties of far better flavor. It is too soft for long carriage by rail. Those to whom flavor and large size are the chief considerations will not plant it, but those who have a near and not very fastidious market, that simply demands quantity and fine appearance, will grow it both largely and profitably. The stamens of the Crescent are so imperfectly developed that every tenth row in the field should be Wilsons, or some other early and perfect-flowered variety. In the Champion, we have a late market berry that is steadily growing in favor. On rich, moist land it is almost as productive as the Crescent. The fruit averages much larger than the Wilson, while its rich crimson color makes it very attractive in the baskets. The berries, like the two kinds already named, turn red before they are ripe, and in this immature condition their flavor is very poor, but when fully ripe they are excellent. The transformation is almost as great as in a persimmon. Under generous culture, the Champion yields superb berries, that bring the best prices. It also does better than most kinds under neglect and drought. It is too soft for long carriage, and its blossoms are pistillate. Within a few years, a new variety named Windsor Chief has been disseminated, and the enormous yield of 17,000 quarts per acre has been claimed for it. It is said to be a seedling of the Champion fertilized with the Charles Downing variety. If there has been no mistake in this history of its origin, it is a remarkable instance of the reproduction of the traits of one parent only, for in no respect have I been able thus far to see wherein it differs from the Champion. The Captain Jack is another late variety, which is enormously productive of medium-sized berries. It is a great favorite in Missouri and some other regions. The berries carry well to market, but their flavor is second-rate. The good size, firmness, and lateness of the Glendale--a variety recently introduced--will probably secure for it a future as a market berry. In the South, Neunan's Prolific, or the "Charleston Berry," as it is usually called, is already the chief variety for shipping. It is an aromatic berry, and very attractive as it appears in our markets in March and April, but it is even harder and sourer than an unripe Wilson. When fully matured on the vine it is grateful to those who like an acid berry. Scarcely any other kind is planted around Charleston and Savannah. These six varieties, or others like them, will supply the first great need of all large markets--quantity. With the exception of the last, which is not productive in the North, and requires good treatment even in the South, they yield largely under rough field culture. The fruit can be sold very cheaply and yet give a fair profit. Only a limited number of fancy berries can be sold at fancy prices, but thousands of bushels can be disposed of at eight and ten cents per quart. Still, I would advise any one who is supplying the market, thoroughly to prepare and enrich an acre or more of moist but well drained land, and plant some of the large, showy berries, like the Sharpless, Monarch, and Seth Boyden. If he has heavy, rich soil, let him also try the Jucunda, President Lincoln, and, especially, the Triomphe de Gand. These varieties always have a ready sale, even when the market is glutted with common fruit, and they often command very high prices. When the soil suits them, they frequently yield crops that are not so far below the Wilson in quantity. Fifty bushels of large, handsome berries may bring as much, or more, than one hundred bushels of small fruit, while the labor and expense of shipping and picking are reduced one-half. I suppose that Mr. E. W. Durand, of Irvington, N. J., obtains more money from one acre of his highly cultivated strawberries than do many growers from ten acres. Mr. H. Jerolaman, of Hilton, N. J., has given me some accurate statistics that well illustrate my meaning. "My yield," he writes, in 1877, "from one acre, planted chiefly with the Seth Boyden, was 327 bushels 15 1/2 quarts, which were sold for $1,386.21. A strict account was kept. Since that time I have been experimenting with Mr. Durand's large berries, and have not done so well. In 1878, I obtained $1,181 from one acre, one-half planted with the Seth Boyden and the other with the Great American. The year of 1879 was my poorest. Nearly all my plants were Great American and Beauty, and the yield was 121 bushels, selling for $728. The average cost per acre, for growing, picking, marketing, and manure, is $350. I am not satisfied but that I shall have to return to the old Seth Boyden in order to keep taking the first State premiums, as I have done for the past three years." This record of experience shows what can be done with the choice varieties if an appreciative market is within reach, and one will give the high culture they demand. Last summer a neighbor of mine obtained eighteen cents per quart for his Monarch strawberries, when Wilsons brought but ten cents. At the same time, these superb rarities often do not pay at all under poor field culture and in matted rows. We may also note, in passing, how slowly fine old standard kinds, like the Boyden, are superseded by new varieties. I should not be at all surprised if the Charles Downing became one of the most popular market strawberries of the future. It is already taking the lead in many localities It is moderately firm--sufficiently so, with a little extra care, to reach most markets in good condition. It is more easily raised than the Wilson, and on thin, dry land is more productive. A bed will last, if kept clean, four or five years instead of two, and yield better the fifth year than the first. Although the fruit is but of medium size, it is so fine in flavor that it has only to be known to create a steady demand. The Kentucky Seedling is another berry of the same class, and has the same general characteristics--with this exception, that it is a very late berry, In flavor, it is melting and delicious. It does well on almost any soil, even a light and sandy one, and is usually very productive. The best white strawberry I have ever seen is Lennig's White. When exposed to the sun, it has a decided pink flush on one side. It is beautiful and delicious, and so aromatic that a single berry will perfume a large apartment. The fruit is exceedingly delicate, but the plant is a shy bearer. In the White and Bed Alpines, especially the ever-bearing varieties, and in the Hautbois class, we have very distinct strawberries that are well worthy of a place in the garden. From a commercial point of view, they have no value. This may settle the question with some, but not a few of us like to plant many things that are never to go to market. In conclusion, if I were asked what is the most beautiful and delicious strawberry in existence, I should name the President Wilder. Perfect in flavor, form and beauty, it seems to unite in one exquisite compound the best qualities of the two great strawberry species of the world, the _F. Virginiana_ and the _F. Chilensis_. The only fault that I have ever discovered is that, in many localities, it is not productive. No more do diamonds lie around like cobblestones. It is, however, fairly productive under good culture and on most soils, and yet it is possible that not one in a hundred of the habitues of Delmonico's has ever tasted it. CHAPTER XIV SETTING OUT PLANTS We may secure good plants of the best varieties, but if we do not set them out properly the chances are against our success, unless the weather is very favorable. So much depends on a right start in life, even in a strawberry bed. There are no abstruse difficulties in properly imbedding a plant. One would think that if a workman gave five minutes' thought and observation to the subject, he would know exactly how to do it. If one used his head as well as his hands, it would be perfectly obvious that a plant held (as in Figure _e_) with its roots spread out so that the fresh, moist earth could come in contact with each fibre, would stand a far better chance than one set out by any of the other methods illustrated. And yet, in spite of all I can do or say, I have never been able to prevent very many of my plants from being set (as in Figure _a_) too deeply, so that the crown and tender leaves were covered and smothered with earth; or (as in Figure _b_) not deeply enough, thus leaving the roots exposed. Many others bury the roots in a long, tangled bunch, as in Figure _c_. If one would observe how a plant starts on its new career, he would see that the roots we put in the ground are little more than a base of operations. All along their length, and at their ends, little white rootlets start, if the conditions are favorable, almost immediately. If the roots are huddled together, so that only a few outside ones are in contact with the life-giving soil, the conditions are of course most unfavorable. Again, many planters are guilty of the folly illustrated in Figure _d_. They hastily scoop out a shallow hole, in which the roots, which should be down in the cool depths of the soil, curve like a half-circle toward or to the very surface. In the most favorable weather of early spring a plant is almost certain to grow, no matter how greatly abused; but even then it does far better if treated properly, while at other seasons nature cannot be stupidly ignored. It is almost as easy to set out a plant correctly as otherwise. [Illustration: WRONG METHODS OP PLANTING] Let the excavation be made deep enough to put the roots, spread out like a fan, down their whole length into the soil. Hold the plant with the left hand, as in Figure _e_. First, half fill the hole with fine rich earth with the right hand, and press it firmly against the roots; next, fill it evenly, and then, with the thumb and finger of both hands, put your whole weight on the soil on each side of the plant--as close to it as possible--and press until the crown or point from which the leaves start is just even with the surface. If you can pull the plant up again by its leaves, it is not firm enough in the ground. If a man uses brain and eye, he can learn to work very rapidly. By one dexterous movement he scoops the excavation with a trowel. By a second movement, he makes the earth firm against the lower half of the roots. By a third movement, he fills the excavation and settles the plant into its final position. One workman will often plant twice as many as another, and not work any harder. Negro women at Norfolk, Virginia, paid at fifty cents per day, will often set two or three thousand. Many Northern laborers, who ask more than twice that sum, will not set half as many plants. I have been told of one man, however, who could set 1,000 per hour. I should examine his work carefully, however, in the fear that it was not well done. [Illustration: THE PROPER METHOD] If the ground is so flat that water lies upon it in wet seasons, then throw it up into beds with a plow, thus giving the plants a broad, level surface on which to grow; for I think the best success will generally be obtained with level culture, or as near an approach to it as possible. Always make it a point to plant in moist, freshly stirred earth. Never let the roots come in contact with dry, lumpy soil. Never plant when the ground is wet and sticky, unless it be at the beginning of a rainstorm which bids fair to continue for some time. If sun or wind strikes land which has been recently stirred while it is too wet, the hardness of mortar results. In spring it is best to shorten in the roots one-third. This promotes a rapid growth of new rootlets, and therefore of the plants. In the summer and fall the young plants are not so well furnished with roots, and usually it is best to leave them uncut. [Illustration: ROOT PRUNING] It often happens that during long transportation the roots become sour, black, and even a little mouldy. In this case, wash them in clean water from which the chill has been taken. Trim carefully, taking off the blackened, shrivelled ends. Sprinkle a couple of tablespoonfuls of fine bone meal immediately about the plant after setting, and then water it. If the weather is warm, soak the ground and keep it moist until there is rain. Never let a plant falter or go back from lack of moisture. How often should one water? Often enough to keep the ground _moist all the time_, night and day. There is nothing mechanical in taking care of a young plant any more than in the care of a baby. Simply give it what it needs until it is able to take care of itself. The plant may require a little watching and attention for a few days in warm weather. If an opportune storm comes, the question of growth is settled favorably at once; but if a "dry spell" ensues, be vigilant. At nine o'clock A.M., even well-watered plants may begin to wilt, showing that they require shade, which may be supplied by inverted flower-pots, old berry-baskets, shingles or boards. A handful of weeds, grass, or even of dry earth, thrown on the crown of the plant in the morning, and removed by five P.M., is preferable to nothing. Anything is better than stolidly sticking a plant in the ground and leaving it alone just long enough to die. Many, on the other hand, kill their plants with kindness. They dose the young things with guano, unfermented manure, and burn them up. Coolness, moisture, and shade are the conditions for a new start in life. As has been explained already, pot-grown plants, with a ball of earth clinging to their roots, can be set out during the hot months with great ease, and with little danger of loss. At the same time, let me distinctly say that such plants require fair treatment. The ground should be "firmed" around them just as strongly, and they should be so well watched as to guard against the slightest wilting from heat and drought. In ordinary field culture, let the rows be three feet apart, and let the plants stand one foot from each other in a row. At this distance, 14,520 are required for an acre. When land is scarce, the rows can be two and a half feet from each other. In garden culture, where the plow and cultivator will not be used, there should be two feet between the rows, and the plants should be one foot apart as before. With this rule in mind, any one can readily tell how many plants he will need for a given area. CHAPTER XV CULTIVATION The field for experiment in cultivation with different fertilizers, soils, climates, and varieties is indeed a wide one, and yet for practical purposes the question is simple enough. There are three well-known systems of cultivation, each of which has its advantages and disadvantages. The first is termed the "matted bed system." Under this plan the ground between the rows is cultivated and kept clean during the spring and early summer. As soon, however, as the new runners begin to push out vigorously, cultivation ceases, or else, with the more thorough, the cultivator is narrowed down till it stirs scarcely more than a foot of surface, care being taken to go up one row and down another, so as always to draw the runners one way. This prevents them from being tangled up and broken off. By winter, the entire ground is covered with plants, which are protected as will be explained further on. In the spring the coarsest of the covering is raked off, and between the rows is dug a space about a foot or eighteen inches wide, which serves as a path for the pickers. This path is often cheaply and quickly made by throwing two light furrows together with a corn plow. Under this system, the first crop is usually the best, and in strong lands adapted to grasses the beds often become so foul that it does not pay to leave them to bear a second year. If so, they are plowed under as soon as the fruit has been gathered. More often two crops are taken, and then the land is put in some other crop for a year or two before being planted with strawberries again. This rude, inexpensive system is perhaps more followed than any other. It is best adapted to light soils and cheap lands. Where an abundance of cool fertilizers has been used, or the ground has been generously prepared with green crops, plowed under, the yield is often large and profitable. But as often it is quite the reverse, especially if the season proves dry and hot. Usually, plants sodded together cannot mature fine fruit, especially after they have exhausted half their vitality in running. In clayey loams, the surface in the matted rows becomes as hard as a brick. Light showers make little impression on it, and the fruit often dries upon the vines. Remembering that the strawberry's chief need is moisture, it will be seen that it can scarcely be maintained in a hard-matted sod. Under this system the fruit is small at best, and it all matures together. If adopted in the garden, the family has but a few days of berries instead of a few weeks. The marketman may find his whole crop ripening at a time of over-supply, and his small berries may scarcely pay for picking. To many of this class the cheapness of the system will so commend itself that they will continue to practice it until some enterprising neighbor teaches them better, by his larger cash returns. In the garden, however, it is the most expensive method. When the plants are sodded together, the hoe and fork cannot be used. The whole space must be weeded by hand, and there are some pests whose roots interlace horizontally above and below the ground, and which cannot be eradicated from the matted rows. Too often, therefore, even in the neatest garden, the strawberry bed is the place where vegetable evil triumphs. There are modifications of this system that are seen to better advantage on paper than in the field or garden. The one most often described in print--I have never seen it working successfully--may be termed the "renewal system." Instead of plowing the matted beds under, after the first or second crop, the paths between the beds are enriched and spaded or plowed. The old plants are allowed to fill these former paths with new plants; which process being completed, the old matted beds are turned under, and the new plants that have taken the places of the paths bear the fruit of the coming year. But suppose the old beds have within them sorrel, white clover, wire-grass, and a dozen other perennial enemies, what practical man does not know that these pests will fill the vacant spaces faster than can the strawberry plants? There is no chance for cultivation by hoe or horse power. Only frequent and laborious weedings by hand can prevent the evil, and this but partially, for, as has been said, the roots of many weeds are out of reach unless there is room for the fork, hoe, or cultivator to go beneath them. In direct contrast with the above is the "hill system." This, in brief, may be suggested by saying that the strawberry plants are set out three feet--more or less--apart, and treated like hills of corn, with the exception that the ground is kept level, or should be. They are often so arranged that the cultivator can pass between them each way, thus obviating nearly all necessity for hand work. When carried out to such an extent, I consider this plan more objectionable than the former, especially at the North. In the first place, when the plants are so distant from each other, much of the ground is left unoccupied and unproductive. In the second place, the fruit grower is at the mercy of the strawberry's worst enemy, the _Lachnosterna_, or white grub. Few fields in our region are wholly free from them and a few of the voracious pests would leave the ground bare, for they devour the roots all summer long. In the third place, where so much of the ground is unoccupied, the labor of mulching, so that the soil can be kept moist and the fruit clean, is very great. In small garden-plots, when the plants can be set only two feet apart each way, the results of this system are often most admirable. The entire spaces between them can be kept mellow and loose, and therefore moist. There is room to dig out and eradicate the roots of the worst weeds. By frequently raking the ground over, the annual weeds do not get a chance to start. In the rich soil the plants make great, bushy crowns that nearly touch each other, and as they begin to blossom, the whole space between them can be mulched with straw, grass, etc. The runners can easily be cut away when the plants are thus isolated. Where there are not many white grubs in the soil, the hill system is well adapted to meet garden culture, and the result, in a prolonged season of large, beautiful fruit, will be most satisfactory. Moreover, the berries, being exposed on all sides to the sun, will be of the best flavor. In the South, the hill system is the only one that can be adopted to advantage. There the plants are set in the summer and autumn, and the crop is taken from them the following spring. Therefore each plant must be kept from running, and be stimulated to do its best within a given space of time. In the South, however, the plants are set but one foot apart in the rows, and thus little space is lost. I am satisfied that the method best adapted to our Eastern and Western conditions is what is termed the "narrow row system," believing that it will give the greatest amount of fine fruit with the least degree of trouble and expense. The plants are set one foot from each other in line, and not allowed to make runners. In good soil, they will touch each other after one year's growth, and make a continuous bushy row. The spaces between the rows may be two and a half to three feet. Through these spaces the cultivator can be run as often as you please, and the ground can be thus kept clean, mellow, and moist. The soil can be worked--not deeply, of course--within an inch or two of the plants, and thus but little space is left for hand-weeding. I have found this latter task best accomplished by a simple tool made of a fork-tine, with a section of the top left attached thus: T. Old broken forks can thus be utilized. This tool can be thrust deeply between the plants without disturbing many roots, and the most stubborn weed can be pried out. Under this system, the ground is occupied to the fullest extent that is profitable. The berries are exposed to light and air on either side, and mulch can be applied with the least degree of trouble. The feeding-ground for the roots can be kept mellow by horse-power; if irrigation is adopted, the spaces between the rows form the natural channels for the water. Chief of all, it is the most successful way of fighting the white grub. These enemies are not found scattered evenly through the soil, but abound in patches. Here they can be dug out if not too numerous, and the plants allowed to run and fill up the gaps. To all intents and purposes, the narrow row system is hill culture with the evils of the latter subtracted. Even where it is not carried out accurately, and many plants take root in the rows, most of them will become large, strong, and productive under the hasty culture which destroys the greater number of the side-runners. [Illustration: NARROW ROW AND HILL SYSTEMS] Where this system is fairly tried, the improvement in the quality, size, and, therefore, measuring bulk of the crop, is astonishing. This is especially true of some varieties, like the Duchess, which, even in a matted bed, tends to stool out into great bushy plants. Doctor Thurber, editor of the "American Agriculturist," unhesitatingly pronounced it the most productive and best early variety in my specimen-bed, containing fifty different kinds. If given a chance to develop its stooling-out qualities, it is able to compete even with the Crescent and Wilson in productiveness. At the same time its fruit becomes large, and as regular in shape as if turned with a lathe. Many who have never tried this system would be surprised to find what a change for the better it makes in the old popular kinds, like the Charles Downing, Kentucky, and Wilson. The Golden Defiance also, which is so vigorous in the matted beds that weeds stand but little chance before it, almost doubles in size and productiveness if restricted to a narrow row. The following remarks will have reference to this system, as I consider it the best. We will start with plants that have just been set out. If fruit is our aim, we should remember that the first and strongest impulse of each plant will be to propagate itself; but to the degree that it does so it lessens its own vitality and power to produce berries the following season. Therefore every runner that a plant makes means so much less and so much smaller fruit from that plant. Remove the runners as they appear, and the life of the plant goes to make vigorous foliage and a correspondingly large fruit bud. The sap is stored up as a miller collects and keeps for future use, the water of a stream. Moreover, a plant thus curbed abounds in vitality and does not throw down its burden of prematurely ripe fruit after a few hot days. It works evenly and continuously, as strength only can, and leisurely perfects the last berry on the vines. You will often find blossoms and ripe fruit on the same plant--something rarely seen where the plants are crowded and the soil dry. I have had rows of Tromphe de Gand in bearing for seven weeks. With these facts before us, the culture of strawberries is simple enough. A few days after planting, as soon as it is evident that they will live, stir the surface just about them _not more than half an inch deep_. Insist on this; for most workmen will half hoe them out of the ground. A fine-tooth rake is one of the best tools for stirring the surface merely. After the plants become well rooted, keep the ground mellow and clean as you would between any other hoed crop, using horse-power as far as possible, since it is the cheapest and most effective. If the plants have been set out in spring, take oft the fruit buds as soon as they appear. Unless the plants are very strong and are set out very early, fruiting the same year means feebleness and often death. If berries are wanted within a year, the plants must be set in summer or autumn. Then they can be permitted to bear all they will the following season. A child with a pair of shears or a knife, not too dull, can easily keep a large garden-plot free from runners, unless there are long periods of neglect. Half an hour's work once a week, in the cool of the evening, will be sufficient. A boy paid at the rate of twenty-five cents a day can keep acres clipped if he tries. If the ground were poor, or one were desirous of large fruit, it would be well to give a liberal autumn top-dressing of fine compost or any well-rotted fertilizer not containing crude lime. Bone-dust and wood-ashes are excellent. Scatter this along the rows, and hoe it in the last time they are cultivated in the fall. With the exception of guano and other quick-acting stimulants, I believe in fall top-dressing. The melting snows and March rains carry the fertilizing properties down to the roots, which begin growing and feeding very early in the spring. If compost or barnyard manure is used, it aids in protecting the plants during the winter, warms and mellows the soil, and starts them into a prompt, vigorous growth, thus enabling them to store up sufficient vitality in the cool growing season to produce large fruit in abundance. If top-dressings are applied in the spring, and a dry period follows, they scarcely reach the roots in time to aid in forming the fruit buds. The crop of the following year, however, will be increased. Of course, it is far better to top-dress the rows in spring than not at all. I only wish to suggest that usually the best results are obtained by doing this work in the fall; and this would be true especially of heavy soils. When the ground begins to freeze, protect the plants for the winter by covering the rows lightly with straw, leaves, or--better than all--with light, strawy horse-manure, that has been piled up to heat and turned over once or twice, so that in its violent fermentation all grass seeds have been killed. Do not cover so heavily as to smother the plants, nor so lightly that the wind and rains will dissipate the mulch. Your aim is not to keep the plants from freezing, but from freezing and thawing with every alternation of our variable winters and springs. On ordinarily dry land two or three inches of light material is sufficient. Moreover, the thawing out of the fruit beds or crown, under the direct rays of the sun, injures them, I think. Most of the damage is done in February and March. The good gardener watches his plants, adds to the covering where it has been washed away or is insufficient, and drains off puddles, which are soon fatal to all the plants beneath them. Wet ground, moreover, heaves ten times as badly as that which is dry. If one neglects to do these things, he may find half of the plants thrown out of the ground, after a day or two of alternate freezing and thawing. Good drainage alone, with three or four inches of covering of light material, can prevent this, although some varieties, like the Golden Defiance, seem to resist the heaving action of frost remarkably. Never cover with hot, heavy manure, nor too deeply with leaves, as the rains beat these down too flatly. Let the winter mulch not only coyer the row, but reach a foot on either side. Just before very cold weather begins--from the middle of November to December 1st, in our latitude--we may, if we choose, cover our beds so deeply with leaves, or litter of some kind, as to keep out the frost completely. We thus may be able to dig plants on mild winter days and early spring, in case we have orders from the far South. This heavy covering should be lightened sufficiently early in the spring to prevent smothering. Plants well protected have a fine green appearance early in spring, and, even if no better, will give much better satisfaction than those whose leaves are sere and black from frost. As the weather begins to grow warm in March, push aside the covering a little from the crown of the plants, so as to let in air. If early fruit is desired, the mulch can be raked aside and the ground worked between the rows, as soon as danger of severe frost is over. If late fruit is wanted, let in air to the crown of the plants, but leave the mulch on the ground, which is thus shielded from the sun, warm showers, and the south wind, for two or three weeks. I have now reached a point at which I differ from most horticultural writers. As a rule, it is advised that there be no spring cultivation of bearing plants. It has been said that merely pushing the winter mulch aside sufficiently to let the new growth come through is all that is needed. I admit that the results are often satisfactory under this method, especially if there has been deep, thorough culture in the fall, and if the mulch between and around the plants is very abundant. At the same time, I have so often seen unsatisfactory results that I take a decided stand in favor of spring cultivation if done properly and _sufficiently early_. I think my reasons will commend themselves to practical men. Even where the soil has been left mellow by fall cultivation, the beating rains and the weight of melting snows pack the earth. All loamy land settles and tends to grow hard after the frost leaves it. While the mulch checks this tendency, it cannot wholly prevent it. As a matter of fact, the spaces between the rows are seldom thoroughly loosened late in the fall. The mulch too often is scattered over a comparatively hard surface, which, by the following June has become so solid as to suffer disastrously from drought in the blossoming and bearing season. I have seen well-mulched fields with their plants faltering and wilting, unable to mature the crop because the ground had become so hard that an ordinary shower could make but little impression. Moreover, even if kept moist by the mulch, land long shielded from sun and air tends to become sour, heavy, and devoid of that life which gives vitality and vigor to the plant. The winter mulch need not be laboriously raked from the garden-bed or field, and then carted back again. Begin on one side of a plantation and rake toward the other, until three or four rows and the spaces between them are bare; then fork the spaces, or run the cultivator--often the subsoil plow--deeply through them, and then immediately, before the moist, newly made surface dries, rake the winter mulch back into its place as a summer mulch. Then take another strip and treat it in like manner, until the generous impulse of spring air and sunshine has been given to the soil of the entire plantation. This spring cultivation should be done early--as soon as possible after the ground is dry enough to work. The roots of a plant or tree should never be seriously disturbed in the blossoming or bearing period; and yet I would rather stir the _surface_, even when my beds were in full bloom, than leave it hard, baked, and dry; for, heed this truth well--unless a plant, from the time it blossoms until the fruit matures, has an abundance of moisture, it will fail in almost the exact proportion that moisture fails. A liberal summer mulch under and around the plants not only keeps the fruit clean, but renders a watering much more lasting, by shielding the soil from the sun. Never sprinkle the plants a little in dry weather. If you water at all, _soak_ the ground and _keep it moist all the time_ till the crop matures. Insufficient watering will injure and perhaps destroy the best of beds. But this subject and that of irrigation will be treated in a later chapter. When prize berries are sought, enormous fruit can be obtained by the use of liquid manure, but it should be applied with skill and judgment, or else its very strength may dwarf the plants. In this case, also, all the little green berries, save the three or four lowest ones, may be picked from the fruit truss, and the force of the plant will be expended in maturing a few mammoth specimens. Never seek to stimulate with plaster or lime, directly. Other plants' meat is the strawberry's poison in respect to the immediate action of these two agents. Horse manure composted with muck, vegetable mould, wood-ashes, bone meal, and, best of all, the product of the cow-stable, if thoroughly decayed and incorporated with the soil, will probably give the largest strawberries that can be grown, if steady moisture, but not wetness, is maintained. Many advise the mowing off of the old foliage after the fruit has been gathered. I doubt the wisdom of this practice. The crowns of the plants and the surface of the bed are laid open to the midsummer sun. The foliage is needed to sustain or develop the roots. In the case of a few petted and valuable plants, it might be well to take off some of the old dying leaves, but it seems reasonable to think that the wholesale destruction of healthful foliage must be a severe blow to the vitality of the plants. Still, the beds should not be left to weeds and drought. Neglect would be ungracious, indeed, just after receiving such delicious gifts. I would advise that the coarsest of the mulch be raked off and stored for winter covering, and then the remainder forked very lightly or cultivated into the soil, as a fertilizer immediately after a soaking rain, but not when the ground is dry. Do not disturb the roots of a plant during a dry period. Many advise a liberal manuring after the fruit is gathered. This is the English method, and is all right in their humid climate, but dangerous in our land of hot suns and long droughts. Dark-colored fertilizers absorb and intensify the heat. A sprinkling of bone dust can be used to advantage as a summer stimulant, and stronger manures, containing a larger per cent of nitrogen, can be applied just before the late fall rains. A plant just after bearing needs rest. After fruiting, the foliage of some of our best kinds turns red and seemingly burns and shrivels away. This is not necessarily a disease, but merely the decay of old leaves which have fulfilled their mission. From the crown a new and vigorous growth will eventually take their place. When one is engaged in the nursery business, the young plants form a crop far more valuable than the fruit. Therefore, every effort is made to increase the number of runners rather than to destroy them. Stimulating manures, which promote a growth of vines rather than of fruit, are the most useful. The process of rooting is often greatly hastened by layering; that is, by pressing the incipient plant forming on the runner into the soil, and by laying on it a pebble or lump of earth to keep it in its place. When a bed is closely covered with young plants that have not taken root, a top-dressing of fine compost will greatly hasten their development. Moisture is even more essential to the nurseryman than to the fruit grower, and he needs it especially during the hot months of July, August, and September, for it is then that the new crop of plants is growing. Therefore, his need of damp but well-drained ground; and if the means of irrigation are within his reach, he may accomplish wonders, and can take two or three crops of plants from the same area in one season. While the growing of strawberry plants may be very profitable, it must be expensive, since large areas must be laboriously weeded by hand several times in the season. Instead of keeping the spaces between the rows clear, for the use of horse-power, it is our aim to have them covered as soon as possible with runners and young plants. The Golden Defiance, Crescent Seedling and a few others will keep pace with most weeds, and even master them; but nearly all varieties require much help in the unequal fight, or our beds become melancholy examples of the survival of the unfittest. CHAPTER XVI A SOUTHERN STRAWBERRY FARM, AND METHODS OF CULTURE IN THE SOUTH Having treated of the planting of strawberries, their cultivation, and kindred topics, in that great northern belt, of which a line drawn through New York city may be regarded as the centre, I shall now suggest characteristics in the culture of this fruit in southern latitudes. We need not refer to the oldest inhabitant, since the middle-aged remember when even the large cities of the North were supplied from the fields in the suburbs, and the strawberry season in town was identical with that of the surrounding country. But a marvellous change has taken place, and berries from southern climes appear in our markets soon after midwinter. This early supply is becoming one of the chief industries of the South Atlantic coast, and every year increases its magnitude. At one time, southern New Jersey furnished the first berries, but Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia soon began to compete. Norfolk early took the lead in this trade, and even before the war was building up a fine business. That event cut off our Southern supply, and for a few years June and strawberries again came together. But after the welcome peace, many Southern fields grew red once more, but not with blood, and thronged, but chiefly by women and children. Soil, climate, and superb water communications speedily restored to Norfolk the vantage which she will probably maintain; but fleet steamers are giving more southern ports a chance. Charleston, South Carolina, is second only in importance. In the spring of '79, every week four steamers were loaded for New York, and strawberries formed no insignificant proportion of the freight. Indeed, the supply from Charleston was so large that the price in April scarcely repaid the cost of some shipments. The proprietor of a commission house, largely engaged in the Southern fruit trade, told me he thought that about one third as many strawberries came from Charleston as from Norfolk. From careful inquiries made on the ground, I am led to believe--if it has not already attained this position--that Norfolk is rapidly becoming the largest strawberry centre in the world, though Charleston is unquestionably destined to become its chief rival in the South. The latter city, however, has not been able to monopolize the far Southern trade, and never have I seen a finer field of strawberries than was shown me in the suburbs of Savannah. It consisted of a square of four acres, set with Neunan's Prolific, the celebrated Charleston berry. And now Florida, with its unrivalled oranges, is beginning to furnish tons of strawberries, that begin ripening in our midwinter; and, with its quick, sandy soil and sunny skies, threatens to render the growing of this fruit under glass unprofitable. I saw last winter, at Mandarin, quite an extensive strawberry farm, under the care of Messrs. Bowen Brothers, and was shown their skilful appliances for shipping the fruit. At Jacksonville, also, Captain William James is succeeding finely in the culture of some of our Northern varieties, the Seth Boyden taking the lead. I think I can better present the characteristics of strawberry culture in the South by aiming to give a graphic picture of the scenes and life on a single farm than is possible by general statements of what I have witnessed here and there. I have therefore selected for description a plantation at Norfolk, since this city is the centre of the largest trade, and nearly midway in the Atlantic strawberry belt, I am also led to make this choice because here is to be found, I believe, the largest strawberry farm in the world, and its varied labors illustrate most of the Southern aspects of the question. The reader may imagine himself joining our little party on a lovely afternoon about the middle of May. We took one of the fine, stanch steamers of the Old Dominion line at three P.M., and soon were enjoying, with a pleasure that never palls, the sail from the city to the sea. Our artistic leader, whose eye and taste were to illumine and cast a glamour over my otherwise matter-of-fact text, was all aglow with the varied beauties of the scene, and he faced the prospect beyond the "Hook" with no more misgivings than if it were a "painted ocean." But there are occasions when the most heroic courage is of no avail. Only in the peace and beauty that crowned the closing hours of the day as we steamed past Fortress Monroe and up the Elizabeth river, did the prosaic fade out of the hours just past, and now before us was the "sunny South" and strawberries and cream. In the night there was a steady downfall of rain, but sunshine came with the morning, and we found that the spring we had left at the North was summer here, and saw that the season was moving forward with quickened and elastic tread. Before the day grew warm we started from our hotel at Norfolk for the strawberry plantation, rattling and bouncing past comfortable and substantial homes, over a pavement that surpassed even the ups and downs of fortune. Here and there, surrounded by a high brick wall, would be seen a fine old mansion, embowered in a wealth of shrubbery and foliage that gave, even in the midst of the city, a suburban seclusion. The honeysuckle and roses are at home in Norfolk, and their exquisite perfume floated to us across the high garden fences. Thank Heaven! some of the best things in the world cannot be walled in. St. Paul's Church and quaint old burying-ground, shadowed by trees, festooned with vines, and gemmed with flowers, seemed so beautiful, as we passed, that we thought its influence on the secular material life of the people must be almost as good through the busy week as on the Sabbath. The houses soon grew scattering, and the wide, level, open country stretched away before us, its monotony broken here and there by groves of pine. The shell road ceased and our wheels now passed through many deep puddles, which in Virginia seem sacred, since they are preserved year after year in exactly the same places. A more varied class of vehicles than we met from time to time would scarcely be seen on any other road in the country. There were stylish city carriages and buggies, grocer and express wagons, great lumbering market trucks laden with barrels of early cabbages, spring wagons, drawn by mules, piled up with crates from many a strawberry field in the interior, and so, on the descending scale, till we reach the two-wheeled, primitive carts drawn by cows--all converging toward some Northern steamer, whose capacious maw was ready to receive the produce of the country. We had not proceeded very far before we saw in the distance a pretty cottage, sheltered by a group of tall, primeval pines, and on the right of it a large barn-like building, with a dwelling, office, smithy, sheds, etc., grouped about it. A previous visit enabled me to point out the cottage as the home of the proprietor, and to explain that the seeming barn was a strawberry crate manufactory. As was the case on large plantations in the olden time, almost everything required in the business is made on the place, and nearly every mechanical trade has a representative in Mr. Young's employ. As we drove up under the pines, the proprietor of the farm welcomed us with a cordial hospitality, which he may have acquired in part from his residence in the South. On the porch stood a slender lady, whose girlish grace and delicate beauty at once captivated the artists of our party. There was the farm we had come to see, stretching away before us in hundreds of green, level acres. As we drove to a distant field in which the pickers were then engaged, we could see the ripening berries with one side blushing toward the sun. Passing a screen of pines, we came out into a field containing thirteen acres of Wilson strawberries, and then more fully began to realize the magnitude of the business. Scattered over the wide area, in what seemed inextricable confusion to our uninitiated eyes, were hundreds of men, women, and children of all ages and shades of color, and from the field at large came a softened din of voices, above the monotony of which arose here and there snatches of song, laughter mellowed by distance, and occasionally the loud, sharp orders of the overseers, who stalked hither and thither, wherever their "little brief authority" was most in requisition. We soon noted that the confusion was more apparent than real, and that each picker was given a row over which he--or, more often, she--bent with busy fingers until it was finished. At central points crates were piled up, and men known as "buyers" received the round quart baskets from the trays of the pickers, while wide platform carts, drawn by mules, were bringing empty crates and carrying away those that had been filled. Along the road that skirted the field, and against a pretty background of half-grown pines, motley forms and groups were moving to and fro, some seeking the "buyers" with full trays, others returning to their stations in the field with a new supply of empty baskets. Some of the pickers were drifting away to other fields, a few seeking work late in the day; more, bargaining with the itinerant venders of pies, made to last all summer if not sold, gingerbread, "pones," and other nondescript edibles, at which an ostrich would hesitate in well-grounded fear of indigestion, but for which sable and semi-sable pickers exchange their berry tickets and pennies as eagerly as we buy Vienna rolls. Two or three barouches and buggies that had brought visitors were mingled with the mule-carts; and grouped together for a moment might be seen elegantly attired ladies from New York, slender mulatto girls, clad in a single tattered, gown which scantily covered their bare ankles and feet, and stout, shiny negro women, their waists tied with a string to prevent their flowing drapery from impeding their work. Flitting to and fro were numberless colored children, bare-headed, bare-legged, and often, with not a little of their sleek bodies gleaming through the innumerable rents of their garments, their eyes glittering like black beads, and their white teeth showing on the slightest provocation to mirth. Indeed, the majority of the young men and women were chattering and laughing much of the time, and only those well in the shadow of age worked on in a stolid, plodding manner. Mingled indiscriminately with the colored people were not a few white women and children, and occasionally a white man. As a rule, these were better dressed, the white girls wearing sun-bonnets of portentous size, whose cavernous depths would make a search for beauty on the part of our artist a rather close and embarrassing scrutiny. The colored women as often wore a man's hat as any other, and occasionally enlivened the field with a red bandana. Over all the stooping, moving, oddly apparelled forms, a June-like sun was shining with summer warmth. Beyond the field a branch of Tanner's Creek shimmered in the light, tall pines sighed in the breeze on the right, and from the copse-wood at their feet quails were calling, their mellow whistle blending with the notes of a wild Methodist air. In the distance rose the spires of Norfolk, completing a picture whose interest and charm I have but faintly suggested. Several of the overseers are negroes, and we were hardly on the ground before one of these men, in the performance of his duty, shouted in a stentorian voice: "Heah, you! Git up dar, you long man, off'n yer knees. What yo' mashin' down a half-acre o' berries fer?" Mr. Sheppard was quick to see a good subject, and almost in a flash he had the man posed and motionless in his attitude of authority, and under his rapid strokes Jackson won fame and eminence, going to his work a little later the hero of the field. The overseer's task is a difficult one, for the pickers least given to prayer are oftenest on their knees, crushing the strawberries, and whether they are "long" or short, much fruit is destroyed. North and South, the effort to keep those we employ off the berries must be constant, especially as a long, hot day is waning. Indeed, one can scarcely blame them for "lopping down," for it would be inquisitorial torture to most of us to stoop upon our feet through a summer day. Picking strawberries, as a steady business, is wofully prosaic. While the sun had been shining so brightly there had been an occasional heavy jar and rumble of thunder, and now the western sky was black. Gradually the pickers had disappeared from the Wilson field, and we at last followed them, warned by an occasional drop of rain to seek the vicinity of the house. Having reached the grassy slope beneath the pines in the rear of the dwelling, we turned to note the pretty scene. A branch of Tanner's Creek came up almost to our feet, and on either side of it stretched away long rows of strawberries as far as the eye could reach. Toward these the throng of pickers now drifted, "seeking fresh fields and pastures new." The motley crowd was streaming down on either side of the creek, while across a little causeway came a counter current, the majority of them having trays full of berries. The buyers, like the traders with the nomad Indians, open traffic anywhere, and at the shortest notice. A mule-cart was stopped, a few empty crates taken off and placed under the pines at our feet, and soon the grass was covered with full quart baskets, for which the pickers received tickets and then passed on, or, as was often the case, threw themselves down in the shade. The itinerant venders came flocking in like so many buzzards. There was at once chaffering and chaffing, eating and drinking. All were merry. Looking on the groups before us, one would imagine that the sky was serene. And yet, frowning upon this scene of careless security, this improvident disregard of a swiftly coming emergency, was one of the blackest of clouds. Every moment the thunder was jarring and rolling nearer, and yet this jolly people, who "take no thought," heeded not the warning. Even the buyers and packers seemed infected with a like spirit, and were leisurely packing in crates the baskets of berries scattered on the grass, when suddenly Mr. Young, with his fleet, black horse, came flying down upon us. Standing up in his buggy, he gave a dozen rapid orders, like an officer on the field in a critical moment. The women, who had been lounging with their hands on their hips, shuffled off with their trays; half-burned pipes are hastily emptied; gingerbread and like delicacies are stuffed into capacious mouths, since hands must be employed at once. Packers, mules, everybody, everything, are put upon the double-quick to prepare for the shower. It is too late, however, for down come the huge drops as they can fall only in the South. The landscape grows obscure, the forms of the pickers in the distance become dim and misty, and when at last it lightens up a little, they have disappeared from the fields. There they go, streaming and dripping toward the barns and sheds, looking as bedraggled as a flock of black Spanish fowls. Such of the mule-drivers as have been caught, now that they are in for it, drive leisurely by with the heavy crates that they should have gathered up more promptly. The cloud did not prove a passing one, and the rain fell so long and copiously that further picking for the day was abandoned. Some jogged off to the city, at a pace that nothing but a fiery storm could have quickened. A hundred or two remained under the sheds, singing and laughing. Men and women, and many bright young negro girls, too, lighted their pipes and waited till they could gather at the "paying booth," near the entrance of the farm, after the rain was over. This booth was a small shop, extemporized of rough boards by an enterprising grocer of the city. One side was open, like the counter of a restaurant, and within, upon the grass, as yet untrodden, were barrels and boxes containing the edible enormities which seem indigenous to the semi-grocery and eating-house. In most respects the place resembled the sutler's stand of our army days. There was a small window on one end of the booth, and at this sat the grocer, metamorphosed into a paymaster, with a huge bag of coin, which he rapidly exchanged for the strawberry tickets. Our last glimpse of the pickers, who had streamed out of the city in the gray dawn, left them in a long line, close as herrings in a box, pressing toward the window, from which came faintly the chink of silver. As night at last closed about us, we realized the difference between a strawberry farm and a strawberry bed, or "patch," as country people say. Here was a large and well-developed business, which proved the presence of no small degree of brain power and energy; and our thoughts naturally turned to the proprietor and the methods by which he achieved success. J. E. Young, Jr., is a veteran in strawberry culture, although but twenty-nine years of age. Mr. Young, Sr., was a Presbyterian clergyman who always had a leaning toward man's primal calling. When his son was a little boy, he was preaching at Plattsburgh, New York, and to his labors in the spiritual vineyard joined the care of a garden that was the pride of the town. Mr. Young, Jr., admits that he hated weeding and working among strawberries as much as any other boy, until he was given a share in the crop, and permitted to send a few crates to Montreal. He had seen but nine years when he shipped his first berries to market, and every summer since, from several widely separated localities and with many and varied experiences, he has sent to Northern cities increasing quantities of his favorite fruit. When but fifteen years of age he had the entire charge, during the long season, of three hundred "hands," and the large majority of them were Irish women and children. After considerable experience in strawberry farming in northern and southern New York and in New Jersey, his father induced him to settle at Norfolk, Virginia, and hither he came about ten years ago. Now he has under his control a farm of 440 acres, 150 of which are to-day covered with bearing strawberry plants. In addition, he has set out this spring over two million more plants, which will occupy another hundred acres, so that in 1880 he will have 250 acres that must be picked over almost daily. Mr. Young prefers spring planting in operations upon a large scale. Such a choice is very natural in this latitude, for they can begin setting the first of February and continue until the middle of April. Therefore, nine-tenths of the plants grown in this region are set out in spring. But at Charleston and further south, they reverse this practice, and, with few exceptions, plant in the summer and fall, beginning as early as July on some places, and continuing well into December. I must also state that the finest new plantation that I saw on Mr. Young's place was a field of Seth Boydens set out in September. This fact proves that he could follow the system of autumn planting successfully, and I am inclined to think that he will regard this method with constantly increasing favor. As an instance proving the adaptation to this latitude of the fall system of planting, I may state that 96,000 plants were sent to a gentleman at Richmond, in October, 1877, and when I visited his place, the following spring, there was scarcely a break in the long rows, and nearly fruit enough, I think, to pay for the plants. From his Seth Boydens, set out last September, Mr. Young will certainly pick enough berries to pay expenses thus far; and at the same time, the plants are already four times the size of any set out this spring. As the country about Norfolk is level, with spots where the water would stand in very wet weather, Mr. Young has it thrown up into slightly raised beds two and a half feet wide. This is done by plows, after the ground has been thoroughly prepared and levelled by a heavy, fine-toothed harrow. These ridges are but four or five inches high, and are smoothed off by an implement made for the purpose. Upon these beds, quite near the edges, the plants are set in rows twenty inches apart, while the depressed space between the beds is twenty-seven inches wide. This space is also designed for the paths. The rows and the proper distances for the plants are designated by a "marker," an implement consisting of several wheels fastened to a frame and drawn by hand. On the rim of these wheels are two knobs shaped like an acorn. Each wheel marks a continuous line on the soft earth, and with each revolution the knobs make two slight but distinct depressions twelve inches apart; or, if the variety to be planted is a vigorous grower, he uses another set of wheels that indent the ground every fifteen inches. A plant is dropped at each indentation, and a gang of colored women follow with trowels, and by two or three quick, dexterous movements, imbed the roots firmly in the soil. Some become so quick and skilful as to be able to set out six or seven thousand a day, while four or five thousand is the average. With his trained band of twenty women, Mr. Young calls the setting of a hundred thousand plants a good day's work. In April commences the long campaign against the weeds, which advance like successive armies. No sooner is one growth slain than a different and perhaps more pestiferous class rises in its place--the worst of the Philistines being nut-grass, quack-grass, and--direst foe of all--wire-grass. This labor is reduced to its minimum by mule cultivation, and Mr. Young has on his farm a style of cultivator that is peculiarly adapted to the work. As this is his own invention, I will not describe it, but merely state that it enables him to work very close to the rows, and to stir the soil deeply without moving it or covering the plants. These cultivators are followed by women, with light, sharp hoes, who cut away the few weeds left between the plants. They handle these tools so deftly that scarcely any weeding is left to be done by hand; for, by a rapid encircling stroke, they cut within a half-inch of the plant. For several years past, I have urged upon Mr. Young the advantage of the narrow row system, and his own experience has led him to adopt it. He is now able to keep his immense farm free of weeds chiefly by mule labor, whereas, in his old system of matted row culture it was impossible to keep down the grass, or prevent the ground from becoming hard and dry. He now restricts his plants to hills or "stools," from twelve to fifteen inches apart. The runners are cut from time to time with shoe-knives, the left hand gathering them up by a single rapid movement, and the right hand severing them by a stroke. One woman will, by this method, clip the runners from several acres during the growing season. To keep his farm in order, Mr. Young must employ seventy-five hands through the summer. The average wages for women is fifty cents, and for men seventy-five to ninety cents. In the item of cheap labor the South has the advantage of the North. With the advent of autumn, the onslaught of weeds gradually ceases, and there is some respite in the labors of a Virginia strawberry farm. At Charleston and further south, this respite is brief, for the winters there are so mild that certain kinds of weeds will grow all the time, and early in February they must begin to cultivate the ground and mulch the plants for bearing. Bordering on Mr. Young's farm, and further up the creek, there are hundreds of acres of salt meadows. From these he has cut, in the autumn and early winter, two hundred tons of hay, and with his lighter floats it down to his wharf. In December, acre after acre is covered until all the plants are quite hidden from view. In the spring, this winter mulch is left upon the ground as the summer mulch, the new growth in most instances pushing its way through it readily. When it is too thick to permit this, it is pushed aside from the crowns of the plants. Thus far he has given the bearing fields no spring culture, adopting the common theory that the ground around the plants must not be disturbed at this season. I advocate the opposite view, and believe in _early_ spring culture, as I have already explained; and I think his experience this year will lead him to give my method a trial in 1880. The latter part of April and early May was very dry at Norfolk, and the ground between the bearing plants became parched, hard, and in many instances full of weeds that had been developing through the long, mild spring of this region. Now I am satisfied that if he, and all others in this region who adopt the narrow row system, would loosen the ground deeply with a subsoil plow _early_ in the season, before the plants had made any growth, and then stir and pulverize all the surface between the plants in the rows, they would increase the size and quantity of the berries at least one-third, and in many instances double the crop. It would require a very severe drought, indeed, to injure plants thus treated, and it is well known, also, that a porous, mellow soil will best endure too frequent rains. I have sometimes thought that light and air are as indispensable to the roots of plants as to the foliage. The winter mulch need not prevent this spring culture. Let the men begin on one side of a field, and rake inward until half a dozen rows are uncovered. Down through these the subsoil plow and the cultivator can pass. Then the hay can be raked back again as the summer mulch, and a new space cleared, until the whole field is cultivated and the mulch left as it was before. Now, however, it is not a surface like hard-pan that is covered, but a mellow soil in which the roots can luxuriate. Mr. Young uses fertilizers, especially those containing ammonia, only to a limited extent, believing that while they undoubtedly increase the size of the fruit, they also render it soft and unfit for long carriage, and promote an undue growth of vine. This theory is true, to a certain extent, but I think the compensating benefits of fertilizers of almost any kind far outweigh the disadvantages. At his distance from the market, firmness in the berry is essential, but I think he will find this quality is dependent more upon the weather and the variety than upon the fertilizer. Of course, over-stimulation by hot manures will always produce an unwholesome, perishable growth, but a good coat of well-rotted compost scattered down the rows, just before they receive their fall or spring culture, would be exceedingly beneficial in nine cases out of ten. I most heartily agree with him, however, that all fertilizers containing potash are peculiarly adapted to the strawberry. Having considered his methods of planting and culture, we now return again to the culminating period in which the hopes and labors of the year are rewarded or disappointed. When we awoke the morning following our arrival, we found the landscape obscured by a dense fog. Through this, in dim, uncertain outline, throngs of pickers were streaming out from the city to Mr. Young's place and the strawberry farms beyond. The broad fields seemed all the more vast from the obscurity, and the stooping forms of the fruit-gatherers took on odd and fantastic shapes in the silvery mist. But while we drank our coffee the sun sipped these morning vapors, and when we stepped out under the pines, the day was hourly growing brighter and warmer. The balmy, fragrant air, the meadow larks singing in the distance, the cheery voices of the pickers in an adjacent field, would tempt gloom itself to forget its care and stroll away through the sunlight. The pickers were beginning to take possession of a field containing thirty acres of Triomphe de Gands, and we followed them, and there lighted on one of the oddest characters on the plantation--"Sam Jubilee," the "row-man," black as night, short, stout, and profane. It is Sam's business to give each picker a row of berries, and he carries a brass-headed cane as the baton of authority. As we came up, he was whirling a glazed hat of portentous size in one hand and gesticulating so wildly with his cane that one might think he was in convulsions of rage, but we soon learned that this was "his way." "Heah, you, dah!" he vociferated, to the slouching, leisurely pickers that were drifting after him, "what's de matter wid yer j'ints? Step along lively, or by--" and then came a volley of the most outlandish oaths ever uttered by a human tongue. "Don't swear so, Sam," said Mr. Young. "Can't help it, sah. Dey makes me swar. Feels as if I could bust inter ten thousand emptins, dey's so agerwatin. Heah, my sister, take dat row. You, gemlin" (to a white man), "take dat. Heah, chile, step in dar an' pick right smart, or I'll warm yer!" Sam "brothers and sisters" the motley crowd he domineers like a colored preacher, but I fear he is not "in good and regular standing" in any church in Norfolk. "He can give out rows more rapidly and systematically than any man I ever had," said Mr. Young; and we soon observed that wherever Jubilee led, with his stentorian voice and emphatic gestures, there was life and movement. Thus we learned that although there might be 1,500 people in the fields, there was no haphazard picking. Each one would be assigned a row, which could not be left until all the ripe berries on it were gathered. Passing to and fro across the fields are the two chief overseers of the farm, Harrison and Peters, both apparently full-blooded negroes, but in the vernacular of the South, "right smart men." They have been with Mr. Young eight or ten years, and were promoted and maintain their position solely on the ground of ability and faithfulness. They go rapidly from one to another, noting whether they are picking the rows clean. They also take from each tray a basket at random, and empty it into another, thus discovering who are gathering green or imperfect berries. If the fruit falls much below the accepted standard, the baskets are confiscated and no tickets given for them, and if the picker continues careless he is sent out of the field. Mr. Young says that he has never found any white overseers who could equal these men; and through the long year they drive on the work with tireless energy. Indeed, Peters often has much ado to keep his energy under control. A powerful engine cannot always be safe, and Peters slipped his bands one day to his cost. A woman would not obey him, and he threatened her with a pistol. Instead of obeying, she started to run. He fired and wounded her twice, and then tried to get off on the lame excuse that he did not know the pistol was loaded. The trouble was that he was overloaded. But his offence resulted more from these characteristics than from innate ugliness of temper. To make the business of the huge farm go has become his controlling passion; and he chafes at an obstacle like an obstructed torrent. Harrison, his associate overseer, unites more discretion with his force, and he gave us an example of this fact. As we were strolling about, we found, seated at the end of the strawberry rows, a group consisting of two young women and two children, with a colored man standing near. They had been picking in partnership, we were informed by one of the young women, who was smoking a pipe, and who replied to our questions, scarcely taking the trouble to look up. She was about half white, and her face was singularly expressive of sensuousness and indolent recklessness. "This man is your husband?" I suggested. "No, he's only my brudder. My ole man is pickin' on anoder farm," she drawled out, between the whiffs of her pipe. "I should think you and your husband would work together," I ventured. "We doesn't. He goes about his business and I goes about mine," she remarked, with languid complacency. Here is a character, I thought, as we passed on--the very embodiment of a certain kind of wilfulness. She would not resist or chafe at authority, but, with an easy, good-natured, don't-care expression, would do as she pleased, "though the heavens fell." A little later there was a heavy rumble of thunder in the west, and we met again the young woman whose marital relations resembled those of many of her fashionable sisters at the North. She was leading her small band from the field. The prospective shower was her excuse for going, but laziness the undoubted cause. Harrison, like a vigilant watch-dog, spied them and blustered up, never for a moment doubting that she would yield to his authority. But he had met his match. She merely looked at him with her slow, quiet, indolent smile, in which there was not the faintest trace of irresolution or fear, and he knew that the moment he stepped out of the way, she would pass on. His loud expostulations and threats soon ceased. What could he do with that laughing woman, who no doubt had been a slave, but was now emancipated a trifle too completely? He might as well try to stop a sluggish tide with his hands. It would ooze away from him inevitably. The instincts of this people are quick. Harrison knew he was defeated, and his only anxiety now was to retreat in a way that would save appearances. "I'se a-gwine home, M's'r Harrison," she said quietly. "You don't catch us gittin' wet ag'in." "Oh, well, if you is 'fraid ob gittin' wet, s'pose I'll habe to let you off jus' dis once," he began, pompously; and here, fortunately, he saw a man leaving the field in the distance. There was a subject with which he could deal, and a line of retreat open at the same time; and away he went, therefore, vociferating all the more loudly that he might cover his discomfiture. The woman smiled a little more complacently and went on, with her old easy, don't-care swing, as she undoubtedly will, whithersoever her inclinations lead, to the end of her life. To crystallize such wayward, human atoms into proper forms, and make them useful, is a problem that would puzzle wiser heads than that of the overseer. I think, however, that not only Harrison and Peters, but all who have charge of working people, rely too much on driving, and too little on encouraging and coaxing. An incident which occurred may illustrate this truth. My companion, Mr. Drake, soon mastered one of the labors of a strawberry farm--the gathering of the fruit--and out of the plenitude of his benevolence essayed to teach a little sable how he could pick to better advantage. "Put your basket down, sonny," he said. "Now you have two hands to work with instead of one--so, don't you see?" "Dat's mighty good in you, Mas'r," said a woman near. "Lor bress you! de people 'ud jess jump over derselves tryin' to do the work if dey got sich good words, but de oberseer's so cross dat we gits 'umptuous and don't keer." Still, to the majority, the strawberry season brings the halcyon days of the year. They look forward to it and enjoy it as a prolonged picnic, in which business and pleasure are equally combined. They are essentially gregarious, and this industry brings many together during the long bright days. The light work leaves their tongues free, and families and neighbors pick together with a ceaseless chatter, a running fire of rude, broad pleasantry, intermingled occasionally with a windy war of words in a jargon that becomes all the more uncouth from anger, but which rarely ends in blows. We were continually impressed by their courage, buoyancy, animal spirits, or whatever it is that enables them to face their uncertain future so unconcernedly. Multitudes live like the birds, not knowing where their next year's nest will be, or how to-morrow's food will come. It _has_ come, thus far, and this fact seems enough. In many instances, however, their humble fortunes are built on the very best foundations. "What can you do after the berry season is over?" we asked a woman who had but one arm. "I kin do what any other woman kin do," she said, straightening herself up. "I kin bake, cook, wash, iron, scrub--" "That will do," I cried. "You are better off than most of us, for the world will always need and pay for your accomplishments." The story of her life was a simple one. She did not remember when she lost her arm, but only knew that it had been burned off. When scarcely more than an infant, she had been left alone in the little cabin by the slave mother, who probably was toiling in the tobacco field. There was a fire on the hearth--the rest can be imagined only too vividly. She is fighting out the battle of life, however, more successfully with her one hand than are multitudes of men with two. She is stout and cheery, and can "take keer of herself and children," she said. Scattered here and there over the fields might be seen two heads that would keep in rather close juxtaposition up and down the long rows. "Dey's pairin' off," was the explanation. "You keep de tickets," said a buxom young woman to her mate, as he was about to take her tray, as well as his own, to the buyers. "You are in partnership," I remarked. "Yes, we is," she replied, with a conscious laugh. "You are related, I suppose?" "Well, not 'zackly--dat is--we's partners." "How about this partnership business--does it not last sometimes after the strawberry season is over?" "Oh, Lor' yes! Heaps on 'em gits fallen in love; den dey gits a-marryin' arter de pickin' time is done gone by." "Now I see what your partnership means." "Yah, yah, yah! You sees a heap more dan I's told you!" But her partner grinned most approvingly. We were afterward informed that there was no end to the love-making among the strawberry rows. There are from fifty to one hundred and fifty pickers in a squad, and these are in charge of subordinate overseers, who are continually moving around among them, on the watch for delinquencies of all kinds. Some of these minor potentates are white and some black. As a rule, Mr. Young gives the blacks the preference and on strictly business principles, too. "The colored men have more snap, and can get more work out of their own people," he says. By means of these sub-overseers, large numbers can be transferred from one part of the farm to another without confusion. Fortunes are never made in gathering strawberries, and yet there seems no dearth of pickers. The multitude of men, women, and children that streams out into the country every morning is surprisingly large. Five or six thousand bushels a day are often gathered in the vicinity of Norfolk, and the pickers rarely average over a bushel each. "Right smart hands," who have the good hap to be given full rows, will occasionally pick two bushels; but about thirty quarts per day is the usual amount, while not a few of the lazy and feeble bring in only eight or ten. As has been already suggested, the pickers are followed by the buyers and packers, and to these men, at central points in the fields, the mule-carts bring empty crates. The pickers carry little trays containing six baskets, each holding a quart. As fast as they fill these, they flock in to the buyers. If a trayful, or six good quarts, are offered, the buyer gives the picker a yellow ticket, worth twelve cents. When less than six baskets are brought, each basket is paid for with a green ticket, worth two cents. These two tickets are eventually exchanged for a white fifty-cent ticket, which is cashed at the paying-booth after the day's work is over. The pickers, therefore, receive two cents for every quart of good, salable berries. If green, muddy, or decayed berries are brought in, they are thrown away or confiscated, and incorrigibly careless pickers are driven off the place. Every morning the buyers take out as many tickets of these three values as they think they can use, and are charged with the same by the book-keeper. Their voucher for all they pay out is another ticket, on which is printed "forty-five quarts," or just a crateful. Only Mr. Young and one other person have a right to give out the last-named tickets, and by night each buyer must have enough of them to balance the other tickets with which he was charged in the morning. Thus thousands of dollars change hands through the medium of four kinds of tickets not over an inch, square, and by means of them the financial part of gathering the crop is managed. In previous years these tickets were received the same as money by any of the shops in the city, and on one occasion were counterfeited. Mr. Young now has his own printing-office, and gets them up in a way not easily imitated, nor does he issue them until just as the fruit begins to ripen. He has, moreover, given authority to one man only to cash these tickets. Thus there is little chance for rascality. He also requires that no ticket shall be cashed until the fields have all been picked over. Were it not for this regulation, the lazy and the "bummers" would earn enough merely to buy a few drinks, then slink off. Now they must remain until all are through before they can get a cent. Peters and Harrison see to it that none are lying around in the shade, and thus, through the compulsion of system, many, no doubt, are surprised to find themselves at work for the greater part of the day. And yet neither system nor Peters, with even his sanguinary reputation, is able alone to control the hordes employed. Of course the very dregs of the population are largely represented. Many go out on a "lark," not a few to steal, and some with the basest purposes. Walking continually back and forth through the fields, therefore, are two duly authorized constables and their presence only prevents a great deal of crime. Moreover, according to Virginian law, every landholder has the right to arrest thieves and trespassers. Up to the time of our visit, five persons had been arrested, and the fact that they were all white does not speak very well for our color. The law of the state requires that they shall be punished by so many lashes, according to the gravity of the offence, and by imprisonment. The whipping-post is one of the institutions, and man or woman, white or black, against whom the crime of stealing is proved, is stripped to the waist and lashed upon the bare back. Such ignominious punishment may prevent theft, but it must tend to destroy every vestige of self-respect and pride in criminals, and render them hopelessly reckless. Therefore, it should cease at once. It must be admitted, however, that very little lawlessness was apparent. In no instance have I received a rude word while travelling in the South, while, on the other hand, the courtesy and kindness were almost unstinted. The negroes about Norfolk certainly do not wear an intimidated or "bull-dozed" air. "Git off my row, dar, or I'll bust yo' head open," shouted a tall, strapping colored girl to a white man, and he got off her row with alacrity. Mr. Young says that the negro laborers are easily managed, and will endure a great deal of severity if you deal "squarely" with them; but if you wrong them out of even five cents, they will never forget it. What's more, every citizen of "Blackville" will be informed of the fact, for what one knows they all seem to know very soon. We were not long in learning to regard the strawberry farm as a little world within itself. It would be difficult to make the reader understand its life and "go" at certain hours of the day. Scores are coming and going; hundreds dot the fields; carts piled up with crates are moving hither and thither. At the same time the regular toil of cultivation is maintained. Back and forth between the young plants mules are drawing cultivators, and following these come a score or two women with light, sharp hoes. From the great crate manufactory is heard the whir of machinery and the click of hammers; at intervals the smithy sends forth its metallic voice, while from one centre of toil and interest to another the proprietor whisks in his open buggy at a speed that often seems perilous. After all, Mr. Young's most efficient aid in his business was his father (recently deceased). It gave me pleasure to note the frequency and deference with which the senior's judgment wa& consulted, and I also observed that wherever the old gentleman's umbrella was seen in the field, all went well. At four or five in the afternoon, the whole area would be picked over. The fields would be left to meadow-larks and quails, whose liquid notes well replaced the songs and cries of the pickers. Here and there a mule-cart would come straggling in. By night, all signs of life were concentrated around the barns and paying booth; but even from these one after another would drift away to the city, till at last scarcely a vestige of the hurry and business of the day would be left. The deep hush and quiet that settled down on the scene was all the more delightful from contrast. To listen to the evening wind among the pines, to watch the sun drop below the spires of Norfolk, and see the long shadows creep toward us; to let our thoughts flit whither they would, like the birds about us, was all the occupation we craved at this hour. Were we younger and more romantic, we might select this witching time for a visit to an ancient grave in one of the strawberry fields. A mossy, horizontal slab marks the spot, and beneath it reposes the dust of a young English officer. One bright June day--so the legend is told--one hundred and sixteen years ago, this man, in the early summer of his life, was killed in a duel. Lingering here, through the twilight, until the landscape grows as obscure as this rash youth's history, what fancies some might weave. As the cause of the tragedy, one would scarcely fail to see among the shadows the dim form and features of some old-time belle, whose smiles had kindled the fierce passion that was here quenched, more than a century since. Did she marry the rival, of surer aim and cooler head and heart, or did she haunt this place with regretful tears? Did she become a stout, prosaic woman, and end her days in whist and all the ancient proprieties, or fade into a remorseful wraith that still haunts her unfortunate lover's grave? One shivers, and grows superstitious. The light twinkling from the windows of the cottage under the pines becomes very attractive. As we fall asleep after such a visit, we like to think of the meadow-larks singing on the mossy tombstone in the morning. Daring a rainy day, when driven from the field, we found plenty to interest us in the printing-office, smithy, and especially in the huge crate manufactory. Here were piled up coils of baskets that suggested strawberries for a million supper-tables. Hour after hour the mule-power engine drove saws, with teeth sharper than those of time, through the pine boards that soon became crates for the round quart baskets. These crates were painted green, marked with Mr. Young's name, and piled to the lofty, cobwebbed ceiling. But Saturday is the culminating period of the week. The huge plantation has been gone over closely and carefully, for the morrow is Sunday, on which day the birds are the only pickers. Around the office, crate manufactory, and paying booth were gathered over a thousand people--a motley and variegated crowd, that the South only can produce. The odd and often coarse jargon, the infinite variety in appearance and character, suggested again that humanity is a very tangled problem. The shrewdness and accuracy, however, with which the most ignorant count their tickets and reckon their dues on their fingers, is a trait characteristic of all, and, having received the few shillings, which mean a luxurious Sunday, they trudge off to town, chattering volubly, whether any one listens or not. But many can not resist the rollicking music back of the paying booth. Three sable musicians form the orchestra, and from a bass viol, fiddle and fife they extract melody that, with all its short-coming, would make a deacon wish to dance. Any one, white or black, can purchase the privilege of keeping step to the music for two cents, or one strawberry ticket. Business was superb, and every shade of color and character was represented. In the vernacular of the farm, the mulatto girls are called "strawberry blondes," and one that would have attracted attention anywhere was led out by a droll, full-blooded negro, who would have made the fortune of a minstrel troupe. She was tall and willowy. A profusion of dark hair curled about an oval face, not too dark to prevent a faint color of the strawberry from glowing in her cheeks. She wore neither hat nor shoes, but was as unembarrassed, apparently, in her one close-fitting garment, as could be any ballroom belle dressed in the latest mode. Another blonde, who sported torn slippers and white stockings, was in danger of being spoiled by much attention. As a rule, however, bare feet were nothing against a "lady" in the estimation of the young men. At any rate, all who could spare a berry ticket speedily found a partner, and, as we rode away from the farm, the last sounds were those of music and merriment, and our last glimpse was of the throng of dancers on the green. The confused uproar and rush of business around the Old Dominion steamship made a marked contrast. To the ample wharves every species of vehicle had been coming all day, while all kinds of craft, from a skiff to a large two-masted schooner, waiting their turn to discharge their freight of berry crates and garden produce, reached half across the Elizabeth river. The rumble of the trucks was almost like the roar of thunder, as scores of negroes hustled crates, barrels and boxes aboard. Most of the time they were on a good round trot, and one had to pick his way with care; for, apparently, the truck was as thoughtful as the trundler. As the long twilight fades utterly into night, the last crate is aboard. The dusky forms of the stevedores are seen in an old pontoon-shaped boat on their way to Portsmouth, but their outlines, and the melody of their rude song, are soon lost in the distance. The ship, that has become like a huge section of Washington Market, casts off her lines, and away we steam, diffusing on the night air the fragrance of a thousand acres, more or less, of strawberries. It was late in the night that followed the next day before we reached New York, but on the great covered wharf, to which was given a noonday glare by electric light, there was no suggestion of the darkness and rain without. Various numbers, prominent on the sides of the building, indicated the lines of transit and the commission houses to which the immense, indiscriminate cargo was assigned. With a heavy jar and rumble that would not cease till the ship was empty, a throng of white laborers wheel each package to its proper place. Mr. Young's crates soon grew into what seemed, in the distance, a good-sized mound. The number above them stood for Eldridge & Carpenter, West Washington Market. Thither we followed them the next morning, but found that the most of them had already been scattered throughout the city, and realized that the berries we had seen a few hours before on the strawberry farm were even then on uptown breakfast-tables. CHAPTER XVII FORCING STRAWBERRIES UNDER GLASS Trained gardeners need no instruction from me on this topic. There may be those, however, who have never given the subject attention, and who would be glad to learn some of the first principles of success in forcing this fruit for market; while a still larger number, having small conservatories and warm south windows, would be pleased to see a few strawberries blossoming and ripening, as an earnest of the coming June. There are no greater difficulties in the way than in having flowers, for it is merely a question of doing the right thing at the right time. I do not believe in a system of minute, arbitrary directions, so much as in the clear statement of a few general principles that will suggest what ought to be done. The strawberry plant has the same character indoors as out, and this fact alone, in view of what has been written, should suggest moisture, coolness, light, and air. I shall endeavor to present, however, each successive step. First, prepare a compost of thoroughly rotted sods and the cleanings of the cow-stable, in the proportion of three parts sod-mould to one of manure. In the place of sods, decayed leaves, muck, sweetened by a year's exposure to air and frost, or any good, rich loam will answer. With this compost, made fine and clean by passing it through a coarse sieve, fill in June, and not later than July, as many three-inch pots as you desire; then sink them to their rims along the sides of the rows from which you propose to obtain winter-bearing plants. Varieties best adapted for forcing are those of a low, stocky growth, bearing perfect flowers and sweet or high-flavored berries. I should say the Triomphe de Gand was the best, and I observe that it and the La Constante, which it closely resembles, are highly recommended abroad. The bush Alpines are said to do finely, and I should think the Black Defiance would answer well. Mr. Henderson speaks highly of the Champion, which, however, must be grown with a perfect-flowered kind, since it is a pistillate. From the parent row, guide the first runners so that they will take root in the pots. Let each runner form but a single, strong plant, which it will do in about two weeks, filling the pot with roots. Then these plants, with their accompanying balls of earth interlaced with roots, are ready to be shifted into pots of from six to eight inches in diameter, which also should be filled with the compost already described. These larger pots should have three or four pieces of broken pottery in the bottom for drainage. One plant to each pot is sufficient, and the soil should be pressed firmly about the roots. The methods of growers now differ somewhat, but all agree in seeking to promote a continuous and healthy growth. It may be necessary to place the pots in a half-shady position for a few days, till the effects of shifting are over, and the roots have taken hold of the new soil. Then they should stand in an open, airy position, close together, where they can receive daily attention. Some recommend that they stand on boards, flagging, or bricks, or a layer of coal ashes, since earth-worms are thus kept out; others sink them in cold frames, where they can be protected somewhat from excessive heat and drenching storms; while others, still, sink the pots in the open ground, where it is convenient to care for and water them. It is obvious that moisture must be steadily and continuously maintained, and the plants be made to do their best until about the first of October. After this, they should be watered very sparingly--barely kept moist--since it is now our aim to ripen the foliage and roots and induce a season of rest. At the same time, they should not be permitted to dry out. About the first of November, an old hot-bed pit can be filled with dry leaves and the pots plunged in them, close together, up to their rims, and, as the season grows colder, the tops can be covered, so as to prevent the earth in the pots from freezing. The top of the pit can be covered with boards to keep out the wet, but not so tightly as to exclude the air. Our aim is to keep the plants dormant, and yet a little above freezing, and barely moist enough to prevent the slightest shrivelling. Since it requires from ten to fourteen weeks to mature the fruit under glass, it would be well to subject some of the plants to heat early in October, so as to have ripe berries at the holidays. They can thereafter be taken from the storage place every two or three weeks, so as to secure a succession. By this course, also, if a mishap befalls one lot of plants, there still remain several chances for winter fruit. In the forcing process, follow nature. The plants do not start suddenly in spring, but gradually awaken into life. The weather, also, is comparatively cool when they are blossoming. If these hints are not taken in the green-house, there may be much promise but little fruit. If the heat is turned on too rapidly when the plants begin to bloom, the calyx and corolla will probably develop properly, but the stamens will be destitute of pollen, while the pistils, the most complicated part of the flower, and that which requires the longest time for perfect formation, become "a mere tuft of abortions, incapable of quickening, and shrivelling into pitch-black threads as soon as fully in contact with the air." Let the conditions within-doors accord as far as possible with those under the open sky. The roots require coolness, continuous and evenly maintained moisture. One check from over-dryness may cause serious and lasting injury. The foliage needs air and light in abundance. Therefore the pots should be on shelves close to the glass; otherwise the leaf and fruit stalks will be drawn and spindling. If the pot can be shaded while the plant is in full light, all the better. When first introduced, the temperature should not exceed 45 degrees or 50 degrees. Air must be freely admitted at all times, though much less will suffice, of course, in cold than in warm weather. Watch the foliage, and if it begins to grow long and without substance, give more air and less heat. An average of 55 degrees to 70 degrees by day may be allowed, and from 45 degrees to 50 degrees by night. When the flower buds begin to open, the forcing must be conducted more slowly and evenly, so as to give the delicate organs time to perfect; but after the fruit is set, the heat can be increased till it occasionally reaches 75 degrees at midday. After the fruit begins to color, give less water--barely sufficient to prevent any check in growth, and the fruit will be sweeter and ripen faster. The upper blossoms may be pinched off, so as to throw the whole strength of the plant into the lower berries. Keep off all runners; syringe the plants if infested with the red spider, and if the aphis appears, fumigate him with tobacco. The plants that have fruited need not be thrown away as useless. If they are turned out of the pots into rich, moist soil, in April, and the runners are kept off all summer, they will make large, bushy stools, which will give a fine crop in autumn. The amateur, with a small conservatory or south window, by approximating as far as possible to the conditions named, can achieve a fair success. I have had plants do moderately well by merely digging them from the beds late in the fall, with considerable rich earth clinging to their roots, and then potting with more rich soil, and forcing them at once. Of course, fine results cannot be expected from such careless work, but _some_ strawberries can be raised with very little trouble. If one, however, wished to go into the business on a large and scientific scale, I would recommend a straw berry-house, designed by Mr. William Ingram, gardener at Belvoir Castle. A figure of the structure may be seen on page 74 in Mr. Fuller's valuable work, "The Small Fruit Culturist." On the same principles that we have been describing, the ripening of strawberries can be hastened by the use of hot beds, cold frames, and ordinary sash. During the Christmas holidays strawberries sell readily at from $4 to $8 per quart, and handsome fruit brings high prices till March; but the profit of raising them under glass threatens to diminish in future years, since Florida berries begin to arrive freely even in February. There are those who now seem to be doing well in the business of forcing, if we may judge from the jealousy with which they guard the open secrets of their calling from their neighbors. A rough and ready method of forcing is to dig up clumps of plants during a mild spell in winter or early spring, put them in boxes or pots of rich earth, and take them into the green-house. Considerable fruit is sometimes ripened in this way. An English writer says: "We find forced strawberries mentioned as being served at an installation dinner, April 23d, 1667; but the idea had already occurred to the great Lord Bacon, who writes, 'As we have housed the exotics of hot countries, so we may house our natives to forward them, and thus have violets, strawberries, and pease all winter.'" CHAPTER XVIII ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES--HYBRIDIZATION This chapter introduces us to great diversities of opinion, and to still greater differences in experience; and I fear that I shall leave the subject as indefinite as I find it. The scientist best versed in botany and the laws of heredity can here find a field that would tax his best skill for a lifetime, and yet a child may amuse himself with raising new kinds; and it would not be impossible that, through some lucky combination of nature, the latter might produce a variety that would surpass the results of the learned man's labor. As in most other activities of life, however, the probabilities are on the side of skill and continuous effort. We have already shown that all the seeds of the _F. Virginiana_ and _F. Chilensis may_ produce a new variety. These seedlings often closely resemble the parent or parents, and sometimes are practically identical with one of them; more often they present distinct differences. It is wholly impossible to predict the character of seedlings as they usually are produced. If we could obtain pure specimens of the two great species, and cross them, the element of chance would not enter into the result so largely as must be the case when seed is gathered in our gardens. The pedigrees of but few varieties are known, and in many instances the two great races are so mingled that we can only guess which element predominates, by the behavior and appearance of the plants. The kinds with which we start are hybrids, and, as Mr. A. S. Fuller sagaciously remarks, "Hybridizing, or crossing hybrids, is only mixing together two compounds, the exact proportions of neither being known." Therefore, the inevitable element of chance. Disagreeable traits and shiftless ways of strawberry grandparents and great-grandparents may develop themselves in a seedling produced by the union of two first-class varieties. At the same time it is possible that fine ancestral qualities may also assert themselves. The chance seedling, which comes up in a garden where good varieties have been raised, may prove a prize. The Forest Rose was found growing in a vineyard. If we propose to raise seedlings, however, we will, of course, select seeds from the best fruit of fine varieties, even in our first and most rudimental efforts. Before making any serious or prolonged attempt to originate new varieties, it would be well to familiarize ourselves with certain principles, and gather experience from the successes and failures of others. We have seen that the _F. Virginiana_ is the native species of the eastern section of our continent, and that its vigor and hardiness best adapt it to our extremes of climate. It were best to start, therefore, with the most vigorous strains and varieties of this hardy species. It is true that fine results can be obtained from crossing varieties of the _F. Chilensis_ with our native species--the President Wilder proves this--but few of such products are adapted to the country at large, and they will be almost sure to falter on light soils. We will achieve our best success in developing our native species. By observation, careful reading of the horticultural journals, and by correspondence, the propagator can learn what varieties show vigor and productiveness throughout a wide range of country, and in great diversities of soil and climate. These sturdy kinds, that seem bent on doing well everywhere, should be the robust forefathers of the strawberries of the future. Starting with these, we are already well on the way toward the excellence we hope to attain. The pith of our difficulty now is to make any further advance. How can we surpass that superb group of berries that prove their excellence year after year? As Mr. Durand well puts it, new varieties, to be of value, should produce berries that "measure from four to eight inches in circumference, of good form, color and flavor; very large specimens are not expected to be perfect in form, yet those of medium size should always be. The calyx should never be imbedded in the flesh, which should be sufficiently firm to carry well, and withstand all changes of our variable climate. The texture should be fine, flesh rich, with a moderate amount of acid--no more than just sufficient to make it palatable with sugar as a table berry. The plant should be hardy, vigorous, large, and strong; of great endurance as to climatic change, and able to stand any amount of manure of the right kind. It should be a prolific bearer, with stalks of sufficient length to keep the fruit out of the dirt, and bear its berries of nearly uniform size to the end. Any serious departure from such necessary qualities would be fatal to any new variety." What is the use of spending time on varieties that do not possess these good qualities, or many of them, so pre-eminently that they supersede those already in our gardens? Shall I root out the Charles Downing, Seth Boyden, and Monarch, and replace them with inferior kinds because they are new? That is what we have been doing too extensively. But if, in very truth, varieties can be originated that do surpass the best we now have, then both common-sense and self-interest should lead to their general cultivation. I believe that honest and intelligent effort can secure a continued advance in excellence which will probably be slow, but may be sure. The public, however, will suffer many disappointments, and every year will buy thousands of some extravagantly praised and high-priced new variety, in hope of obtaining the ideal strawberry; and they so often get a good thing among the blanks that they seem disposed to continue indefinitely this mild form of speculation. In the final result merit asserts itself, and there is a survival of the fittest. The process of winnowing the wheat from the chaff is a costly one to many, however, I have paid hundreds of dollars for varieties that I now regard as little better than weeds. From thorough knowledge of the best kinds already in cultivation, the propagator should not impose any second-rate kind on the public. And yet the public, or the law which the public sustains, renders this duty difficult. If a man invents a peculiar nutmeg-grater, his patent protects him; but if he discovers, or originates, a fruit that enriches the world, any one who can get it, by fair means or foul, may propagate and sell to all. To reap any advantages, the originator must put his seedling, which may have cost him years of effort, into the market before it is fully and widely tested. If he sends it for trial to other localities, there is much danger of its falling into improper hands. The variety may do splendidly in its native garden, and yet not be adapted to general cultivation. This fact, which might have been learned by trial throughout the country before being sent out, if there was protective law, is learned afterward, to the cost of the majority who buy. In view of the above considerations, it is doubtful whether the pecuniary reward will often repay for the time, trouble, and expense which is usually required to produce a variety worthy of general introduction. Other motives than money must actuate. As Mr. Durand once said, when so perplexed by the difficulties and complications of his labor, and so disheartened by the results that he was inclined to throw down the burden, "There is a fascination that binds me still." In other words, he was engaged in one of the divinest forms of alchemy. Having procured the vigorous stock from which we hope to obtain still stronger and more productive varieties, we may go to work several ways. We may plant our choice varieties in close proximity, and let the bees and summer gales do the hybridizing. It will be remembered that the organs of procreation in the perfect strawberry blossom are the pistils on the convex receptacle and the encircling stamens. The anthers of the latter produce a golden powder, so light that it will float on a summer breeze, and so fine that insects dust themselves with it and carry it long distances. When this dust, which is called pollen, comes in contact with the stigma of a pistil, it imparts the power of development both to the seed and that which sustains it--the receptacle which is eventually transformed into the juicy pulp. If the pistils are not fertilized, there will be no strawberries, as well as no seeds. Perfect-flowering varieties, therefore, are self-fertilizing. There are stamens and pistils in the same flower, and the pollen from the former impregnates the latter. In view of this fact, the probabilities are all against success in obtaining an improved variety. While the pollen _may_ pass from one perfect-flowering kind to another, and produce a seed which will give a new combination, the chances of self-fertilization, and that, in consequence, the seeds will produce degenerate and somewhat varying counterparts of the parent, are so great that it is a waste of time to plant them. There is little to be hoped, therefore, from the seed of perfect-flowering kinds left to nature's influences. In this country, we have pistillate varieties, or those that are wholly destitute of stamens. Mr. Fuller says that, for some reason, they do not originate abroad. It is obvious that, with these pistillates, we can attain a direct cross with some staminate or perfect-flowering variety; but if our pistillates grow openly in the garden, near several staminates, the seeds sown may have been fertilized by the poorest of them, or by pollen from wild strawberries, brought by the wind or insects. It is all haphazard work, and we can only guess at the parentage of the seedlings. There is no skilful combination of good qualities, such as the stock farmer makes when he mingles good blood. Gathering the seed, therefore, in our gardens, even under the most favorable auspices, is the veriest game of hazard, with nearly all the chances against us; and yet superb varieties are occasionally procured in this way. Indeed, as we have seen, they sometimes come up themselves, and assert their merit wholly unaided. By such methods, however, the propagator has not one chance in thousands, as much experience shows. We are, therefore, led to isolate our plants, and to seek intelligently and definitely to unite the good qualities of two distinct varieties. If they have no pistillate plants abroad, they must remove all the stamens from some perfect flower before they are sufficiently developed to shed their pollen, and then fertilize the pistils with the stamens of the other variety whose qualities they wish to enter into the combination. There is no need of our doing this, for it involves much trouble and care at best, and then we are always haunted by the fear that the stamens were not removed in time, or so completely as to prevent self-fertilization. With such pistillate varieties as the Golden Defiance, Champion, Spring-dale, and Crescent, we have as robust motherhood as we require. In order to present to the reader the most approved systems of hybridization, I will give the methods of two gentlemen who are among the best known in relation to this subject. The late Mr. Seth Boyden won world-wide celebrity by his success, and the berry named after him will perpetuate his memory for many years to come. When grown under the proper conditions, it presents a type of excellence still unsurpassed. Mr. Boyden's neighbor, Mr. Ogden Brown, of Hilton, N. J., writes to me as follows: "My method of raising seedlings is the one practiced by Mr. Boyden. In August I set the plants from which I wish to secure new combinations in a plot of ground the size of my glass frame, and in early spring set the frame over them, so that the plants may blossom before any others. Thus, no mixture from the pollen of outside plants can take place, for none are in bloom save those in the frame. The plants within the frame are two or three pistillate plants, all of one good variety like the Champion; and three or four superior, perfect-flowering kinds, any one of which, I think, will make a good combination with the pistillate variety. The seeds from the pistillate only are used, and when the fruit is ripened, these seeds are slightly dried and placed between two pieces of ice for about two weeks. I then put them in pure sand, wrapped up in a wet rag, and keep them sufficiently near the fire to preserve constant warmth until the germs are ready to burst forth. I then sow the seeds in a bed of finely riddled rich earth, and cover with boards about six inches from the soil. This is to prevent the sun from drying the ground. Plants thus raised will be sufficiently large to set in the fruiting-bed in September. In the fifteen years that I was acquainted with Mr. Boyden, I never knew him to fail in raising fruit from these plants the following summer. I do not know that Mr. Boyden's method has been improved upon." Mr. J. M. Merrick, Jr., recommends this same isolation of the pistillate plant under glass. It should be distinctly understood that while several perfect-flowering plants may be placed under the sash with a pistillate, the pollen of only one of these can fertilize a pistil. Mixing pollen from different kinds will never produce in a seedling the qualities of three or more varieties. The seedling is the product of two kinds only. Inclosing the plants in a frame ensures that all the pistils are fertilized by one or the other of the perfect-flowered varieties that are so fine as to promise a better combination of excellence than yet exists. The appearance of the seedling will probably show which of the kinds formed the combination, but often there would be uncertainty on this point, I think. Mr. E. W. Durand, who sent out the Black Defiance, Great American, Beauty, Pioneer, and several others, claims that the "true method is to propagate by pairs, each parent possessing certain distinctive features." "My course," he writes, in a paper read before the N. J. State Horticultural Society, "is to select my pistillates after years of trial, subject them to severe tests, and place alongside of each such a staminate as I think will harmonize and produce a certain desired effect. Another pistillate plant, of the same variety, is placed far away from the last, with a different staminate, and so on, till I exhaust the staminates or perfect-flowering kinds that I wish to test with that pistillate variety. Of late years, I have used but two or three kinds of pistillate plants, and they are a combination of excellence. I never show them to my most intimate friends, and the public know nothing about them. The years of trial and experiment necessary to produce such plants must necessarily discourage a beginner; yet it is the only course that will lead to success." I think that Mr. Durand takes too gloomy a view of the subject, and I can see no reason why any one starting with such pistillates as the Golden Defiance, Champion, and others, may not originate a variety superior to any now in existence. At the same time, I must caution against over-sanguine hopes. Mr. Durand states the interesting fact that he generally produces 3,000 new varieties annually, and including the year 1876, he had already originated about 50,000 seedlings. While some of these have already secured great celebrity, like the Great American, I do not know of one that promises to maintain a continued and national popularity. I regard his old Black Defiance and the later Pioneer as his best seedlings, so far as I have seen them. Very many others do not have even his success. We may have to experiment for years before we obtain a seedling worth preserving; nevertheless, in the heart of each propagator lurks the hope that he may draw the prize of prizes. I will close this chapter with a few simple and practical suggestions. It is not necessary to place the seeds in ice. They may be sown in July, in rich soil, rendered fine and mellow, and in a half-shady position; and the surface should be kept moist by watering, and a sprinkling of a little very fine compost, that will prevent the ground from baking. Some of the seeds will germinate that season, more will come up the following spring. Or, they may be started in a cold frame under glass, and hastened in their growth so that good-sized plants are ready for the fruiting-bed by September. Mr. Durand plants his seed in the spring, and the seedlings bear the following year. The plants should be set eighteen inches apart each way in the fruiting-bed. When they blossom, note and mark all the pistillates as such. Those that grow feebly, and whose foliage scalds or burns in the sun, root out at once. The Spartan law of death to the feeble and deformed should be rigorously enforced in the fruit garden. The first year of fruiting will satisfy you that the majority of seedlings are to be thrown away. Those that give special promise should be lifted with a large ball of earth, and planted where they may be kept pure from mixture, and given further trial. Remember that a seedling may do better the first year than ever after, and that only a continued and varied trial can prove its worth. All runners should be kept off, unless the ground is infested with grubs, and there is danger of losing a promising variety of which we have but one specimen. If so fortunate as to raise superior seedlings, test them side by side, and under the same conditions with the best kinds in existence, before calling to them public attention. Try them, also, in light and heavy soils; and, if possible, send them to trusted friends who will subject them to varied climates in widely separated localities. If, however, you find them vigorous and productive on the light, poor soil of your own place, you may hope much for them elsewhere. No berry will be generally popular that requires much petting. I only state this as a fact. In my opinion, some varieties are so superb in size and flavor that they deserve high culture, and well repay it. It is a question whether, except for the purposes of propagation, pistillate varieties should be preserved and sent out. Mr. Fuller and others take ground against them, and their views are entitled to great respect, but with such kinds as the Golden Defiance and Champion in my garden, I am not prepared to condemn them. One objection urged against them is that many purchase a single variety, and, should it prove a pistillate, they would have no fruit. They would not deserve any, if they gave the subject so little attention. Every fruit catalogue states which are pistillates, and their need of a perfect-flowering kind near them. Again, it is urged that this necessary proximity of two kinds leads to mixtures. It need not, and, with the plant grower, can only result from gross carelessness. The different beds may be yards apart. In order to secure thorough fertilization, it is not at all necessary to plant so near that the two kinds can run together. In a large field of pistillates, every tenth row should be of a staminate, blossoming at the same time with the pistillate. The Kentucky seedling is a first-class staminate, but it should not be used to fertilize the Crescent, since the latter would almost be out of bloom before the former began to blossom. Plant early pistillates with early staminates, and late with late. Many ask me: "Do strawberries mix by being planted near each other?" They mix only by running together, so that you can scarcely distinguish the two kinds; but a Wilson plant will produce Wilson runners to the end of time; and were one plant surrounded by a million other varieties, it would still maintain the Wilson characteristics. It is through the seeds, and seeds only, that one variety has any appreciable effect upon another. Many have confused ideas on this point. A man brought to the Centennial Exhibition, at Philadelphia, a pot of strawberries that attracted great attention, for the fruit was magnificent. I suggested to him that it resembled the Jucunda, and he said that it was a cross between that berry and the Seth Boyden. This was a combination that promised so well that I went twenty miles, on a very hot day, to see his bed, and found that the crossing was simply the interlacing of the runners of the two distinct varieties, and that I could tell the intermingled Jucunda and Boyden plants apart at a glance. Such crossing would make no marked change in varieties if continued for centuries. The enemies and diseases of the strawberry will be grouped in a general chapter on these subjects. CHAPTER XIX RASPBERRIES--SPECIES, HISTORY, PROPAGATION, ETC. I have given the greater part of this volume to the subject of strawberries, not only because it is the most popular fruit, but also for the reason that the principles of thorough preparation of the soil, drainage, culture, etc., apply equally to the other small fruits. Those who have followed me carefully thus far can soon master the conditions of success which apply to the fruits still to be treated. I shall now consider a fruit which is only second in value, and, by many, even preferred to all the others. Like the strawberry, the raspberry is well connected, since it, also, belongs to the Rose family. It has a perennial root, producing biennial woody stems that reach a height of from three to six feet. Varieties, however, differ greatly in this respect. Usually, the stems or canes do not bear until the second year, and that season ends their life, their place being taken by a new growth from the root. The flowers are white or red, very unobtrusive, and rich in sweetness. The discriminating bees forsake most other flowers while the raspberry blossoms last. The pistils on the convex receptacle mature into a collection of small drupes, or stone fruits, of the same character as the cherry, plum, etc., and the seeds within the drupes are miniature pits. These drupes adhere together, forming round or conical caps, which will drop from the receptacle when over-ripe. I have seen the ground covered with the fruit of certain varieties, when picking has been delayed. All peoples seem to have had a feeling sense of the spines, or thorns of this plant, as may be gathered from its name in different languages; the Italian term is _Raspo_, the Scotch _Raspis_, and the German _Kratsberre_, or Scratchberry. The Greeks traced the raspberry to Mount Ida, and the original bush may have grown in the shadowy glade where the "Shepherd Alexandre," _alias_ Paris, son of Priam, King of Troy, gave his fateful decision in favor of Venus. Juno and Minerva undoubtedly beguiled the time, while the favored goddess presented her claims, by eating the fruit, and perhaps enhanced their competitive beauty by touching their cheeks with an occasional berry. At any rate, the raspberry of the ancients is _Rubus Idoeus_. The elder Pliny, who wrote not far from 45 A.D., states that the Greeks distinguished the raspberry bramble by the term "_Idoea_," and, like so many other Grecian ideas, it has found increasing favor ever since. Mr. A. S. Fuller, one of the best-read authorities on these subjects, writes that "Paladius, a Roman agricultural author who flourished in the fourth century, mentions the raspberry as one of the cultivated fruits of his time." It thus appears that it was promoted to the garden long before the strawberry was so honored. While it is true that the raspberry in various forms is found wild throughout the continent, and that the ancient gardeners in most instances obtained their supply of plants in the adjacent fields or forests, the late Mr. A. J. Downing is of the opinion that the large-fruited varieties are descendants of the "Mount Ida Bramble," and from that locality were introduced into the gardens of southern Europe. In America, two well-known and distinct species are enriching our gardens and gracing our tables with their healthful fruit. We will first name _R. Strigosus_, or the wild red raspberry, almost as dear to our memory as the wild strawberry. It grows best along the edge of woodlands and in half-shadowy places that seem equally adapted to lovers' rambles. Nature, too, in a kindly mood, seems to have scattered the seeds of this fruit along the roadside, thus fringing the highway in dusty, hot July with ambrosial food. Professor Gray thus describes the native red species: "_R. Strigosus_, Wild Bed E. Common, especially North; from two to three feet high; the upright stems, stalks, etc., beset with copious bristles, and some of them becoming weak prickles, also glandular; leaflets oblong-ovate, pointed, cut-serrate, white-downy beneath, the lateral ones (either one or two pairs) not stalked; petals as long as the sepals; fruit light-red, tender and watery, but high flavored, ripening all summer." The second great American species, _R. Occidentals_, will be described hereafter. Since this book is not designed to teach botany, I shall not refer to the other species--_R. Triflorus, R. Odoratus, R. Nutkanno_, etc.--which are of no practical value, and, for the present, will confine myself to the propagation and cultivation of _R. Idoeus_ and _R. Strigosus_, and their seedlings. PROPAGATION Usually, varieties of these two species throw up suckers from the roots in sufficient abundance for all practical purposes, and these young canes from between the hills or rows are, in most instances, the plants of commerce, and the means of extending our plantations. But where a variety is scarce, or the purpose is to increase it rapidly, we can dig out the many interlacing roots that fill the soil between the hills, cut them into two-inch pieces, and each may be developed within a year into a good plant. Fall is the best season for making root cuttings, and it can be continued as late as the frost permits. My method is to store the roots in a cellar, and cut them from time to time, after out-of-door work is over. I have holes bored in the bottom of a box to ensure drainage, spread over it two inches of moist (not wet) earth, then an inch layer of the root cuttings, a thin layer of earth again, then cuttings until the box is full. If the cellar is cool and free from frost, the cuttings may be kept there until spring; or the boxes containing them can be buried so deeply on a dry knoll in a garden as to be below frost. Leaves piled above them ensure safety. Make sure that the boxes are buried where no water can collect either on or beneath the surface. Before new roots can be made by a cutting, a whitish excrescence appears at both its ends, called the callus, and from this the rootlets start out. This essential process goes on throughout the winter, and therefore the advantage of making cuttings in the fall. Occasionally, in the fall, we may obtain a variety that we are anxious to increase, in which case some of the roots may be taken off for cuttings before setting out the plants. These little root-slips may be sown, as one would sow peas, early in the spring as soon as the ground is dry enough to work. A plot of rich, moist land should be chosen, and the soil made mellow and fine, as if for seed; drills should then be opened eighteen inches apart, two inches deep on heavy land, and three inches deep on light. The cuttings must now be dropped three inches from each other in the little furrows, the ground levelled over them and firmed, which is best done by walking on a board laid on the covered drill, or else by the use of a garden roller. If the entire cutting-bed were well sprinkled with fine compost, and then covered so lightly--from one quarter to half an inch--with a mulch of straw that the shoots could come through it without hindrance, scarcely a cutting would fail. Unfailing moisture, without wetness, is what a cutting requires. Roots may be divided into half-inch bits, if forced under glass, and in this way nurserymen often speedily provide themselves with large stocks of very scarce varieties. The cuttings are placed in boxes of sand until the callus forms, and little buds appear on the surface of the roots, for which processes about five weeks are required. They are then sown in shallow boxes containing about three inches of soil, formed of equal parts of sand and decayed leaves, and subjected to the heat of the green-house. When they have formed plants from three to five inches high, they may be potted, if very valuable; or, if the weather is warm enough, they can be transplanted at once into the open nursery-bed, as one would a strawberry plant. I have set out many thousands in this way, only aiming to keep a little earth clinging to the roots as I took them from the shallow box. Plants grown from cuttings are usually regarded as the best; but if a sucker plant is taken up with fibrous roots, 1 should regard it as equally good. If we wish to try our fortune in originating new varieties, we gather the largest and earliest berries, dry them, and plant the seeds the following spring; or we may separate the seeds from the pulp by expressing it and mixing them with dry sand, until they are in a condition to be sown evenly in a sheltered place at once. As with strawberries, they should be raked lightly into moist, rich soil, the surface of which should not be allowed to become dry and hard. The probabilities are that they will germinate early in the spring and produce canes strong enough to bear the second year. If the seed is from a kind that can not endure frost, the young plant should receive thorough winter protection. There is nothing better than a covering of earth. In the spring of the second year, cut the young plant down to the ground, and it will send up a strong, vigorous cane, whose appearance and fruit will give a fair suggestion of its value the third year. Do not be sure of a prize, even though the berries are superb and the new variety starts off most vigorously. Let me give a bit of experience. In a fine old garden, located in the centre of the city of Newburgh, N. Y., my attention was attracted by the fruit of a raspberry bush whose roots were so interlaced with those of a grapevine that they could not be separated. It scarcely seemed to have a fair chance to live at all, and yet it was loaded with the largest and most delicious red raspberries that I had then ever seen. It was evidently a chance, and very distinct seedling. I obtained from Mr. T. H. Roe, the proprietor of the garden, permission to propagate the variety, and in the autumn removed a number of the canes to my place at Cornwall. My first object was to learn whether it was hardy, and therefore not the slightest protection was given the canes at Newburgh, nor even to those removed to my own place, some of which were left four feet high for the sake of this test. The winter that followed was one of the severest known; the mercury sank to 30 degrees below zero, but not a plant at either locality was injured; and in the old garden a cane fourteen feet long, that rested on the grape-arbor, was alive to the tip, and in July was loaded with the most beautiful fruit I had ever seen. It was un-injured by the test of another winter, and all who saw and tasted the fruit were enthusiastic in its praise. The Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded it their first premium, and Mr. Charles Downing said it was the finest red raspberry he had ever seen. The veteran horticulturist, Mr. Wm. Parry, who has had between forty and fifty years of experience in small fruits, visited my place that summer. The bushes he saw had never received any protection, and had already been three weeks in bearing, but they were still full of fruit. After picking several berries that measured plump three inches in circumference, he said, quietly, "Put me down for 500 plants." In no other way could he have stated his favorable opinion more emphatically. It was as delicious as it was large and beautiful, and surely I was reasonable in expecting for it a brilliant future. In my faith I planted it largely myself, expecting to make it my main dependence as a market berry. But in August of that year many of the canes lost their foliage. Those that thus suffered were not entirely hardy the following winter. It was eventually made clear that it belonged to the tender _Rubus Idoeua_ class, and, therefore, was not adapted to general cultivation, especially on light soils, and under sunny skies. As I have shown, its start was so full of vigor and promise that it won the favor and confidence of the horticultural veterans; but it suddenly manifested lack of stamina and sturdy persistence in well-doing. And this is just the trouble which every experienced propagator dreads. Only after years of test and trial in many localities can he be assured that his seedling may become a standard variety. If this chance seedling, the Pride of the Hudson, is given a moist soil in some half-shady location, it will yield fruit that will delight the amateur's heart, but, like Brinkle's Orange, which it resembles in flavor, only amateurs will give it the petting it requires. As suggested when treating the strawberry, so in seeking to originate new varieties of raspberries, our aim should be to develop our hardy native species, the _R. Strigosus_, and if we employ the _R. Idoeus_ class for parentage on one side, seek its most vigorous representatives, such as the Belle de Fontenay and Franconia. CHOICE OF LAND--ITS PREPARATION--PLANTING All that has been said about the thorough preparation of the soil for strawberries, by drainage, deep plowing, trenching, etc., applies to raspberries, but differences should be noted in respect to fertilizers. Land can scarcely be made too rich for any variety of strawberries, but certain strong-growing raspberries, like the Cuthbert, Herstine, and Turner, should not be over-fertilized. Some kinds demand good, clean culture, rather than a richness that would cause too great a growth of cane and foliage. In contrast, the feebler growing kinds, like the Brandywine, and most of the foreign varieties, require abundance of manure. Muck, sweetened by lime and frost is one of the simplest and best; but anything will answer that is not too full of heat and ferment. Like the strawberry, the raspberry needs cool manures that have "staying" qualities. Unlike the former fruit, however, the raspberry does well in partial shade, such as that furnished by the northern side of a fence, hedge, etc., by a pear or even apple orchard, if the trees still permit wide intervals of open sky. The red varieties, especially those of the foreign types much prefer moist, heavy soils; but the black-caps do quite as well on light ground, if moisture can be maintained. The latter, also, can be grown farther south than any other species, but below the latitude of New York, those containing foreign elements begin to fail rapidly, until, at last, a point is reached where even the most vigorous native red varieties refuse to live. If the climate, however, is tempered by height above the sea, as in the mountains of Georgia, they will thrive abundantly. [Illustration: SPRING AND FALL PLANTS] I prefer fall planting for raspberries, especially in southern latitudes, for these reasons: At the points where the roots branch (see Fig. A) are buds which make the future stems or canes. In the fall, these are dormant, small, and not easily broken off, as in Fig. B; but they start early in spring, and if planting is delayed, these become so long and brittle that the utmost care can scarcely save them, If rubbed off, the development of good bearing canes is often deferred a year, although the plants may live and fill the ground with roots. The more growth a raspberry plant has made when set out in spring, the greater the probability that it will receive a check, from which it will never recover. [Illustration: WINTER PROTECTION OF NEWLY SET PLANTS] I have often planted in May and June, successfully, by taking up the young suckers when from six inches to a foot high, and setting them where they are to grow. Immediately on taking them up, I cut them back so that only one or two laches of the green cane is left, and thus the roots are not taxed to sustain wood and foliage beyond their power. This can often be done to advantage, when the plants are on one's own place, and in moist, cloudy weather. My preference, however, is to plant the latter part of October and through November, in well-prepared and enriched land. The holes are made quite deep and large, and the bottom filled with good surface soil. If possible, before planting, plow and cross-plow deeply, and have a subsoiler follow in each furrow. It should be remembered that we are preparing for a crop which may occupy the land for ten or fifteen years, and plants will suffer from every drought if set immediately on a hard subsoil. On heavy land, I set the plants one inch deeper than they were before; on light soils two or three inches deeper. I cut the canes off six inches above the surface (see Fig. C); for leaving long canes is often ruinous, and a plant is frequently two or three years in recovering from the strain of trying to produce fruit the first year. The whole strength of the roots should go toward producing bearing canes for the season following; and to stimulate such growth, I throw directly on the hill one or two shovelfuls of finely rotted compost and then mound the earth over the hill until the cane is wholly covered (as in Fig. D). This prevents all injury from the winter's cold. When severe frosts are over, the mound is levelled down again. Under this system, I rarely lose plants, and usually find that double growth is made compared with those set _late_ in spring. I have always succeeded well, however, in _early_ spring planting; and well to the north, this is, perhaps, the safer season. With the exception of mounding the earth over the hill, plant in March or April as I have already directed. CULTIVATION In cultivation, keep the ground level; do not let it become banked up against the hills, as is often the case, especially with those tender varieties that are covered with earth every winter. Keep the surface clean and mellow by the use of the cultivator and hoe. With the exception of from four to six canes in the hill, treat all suckers as weeds, cutting them down while they are little, before they have sucked half the life out of the bearing hill. Put a shovelful or two of good compost--any fertilizer is better than none--around the hills or along the rows, late in the fall, and work it lightly in with a fork if there is time. The autumn and winter rains will carry it down to the roots, giving almost double vigor and fruitfulness the following season. If the top-dressing is neglected in the autumn, be sure to give it as early in the spring as possible, and work it down toward the roots. Bone-dust, ashes, poudrette, barnyard manure, and muck with lime can be used alternate years, so as to give variety of plant food, and a plantation thus sustained can be kept twenty years or more; but under the usual culture, vigor begins to fail after the eighth or tenth season. The first tendency of most varieties of newly set red raspberries is to sucker immoderately; but this gradually declines, even with the most rampant, and under good culture the fruiting qualities improve. In dry weather the fork should not be used during the growing or bearing season. The turning down of a stratum of dry, hot soil next to the roots must cause a sudden check and injury from which only a soaking rain can bring full relief. But in moist weather, and periods preceding and following the blossoming and fruiting season, I have often used the fork to advantage, especially if there is a sod of short, succulent weeds to be turned under as a green crop. If the ground between the hills was stirred frequently with an iron garden-rake, the weeds would not have a chance to start. This is by far the best and cheapest way of maintaining our part in the unceasing conflict with vegetable evil. An Irish bull hits the truth exactly: the best way to fight weeds is to have none to fight; and raking the ground over on a sunny day, about once a week, destroys them when they are as yet but germinating seeds. At the same time it opens the pores of the earth, as a physiologist might express himself. Unfailing moisture is maintained, air, light, and heat are introduced to the roots in accordance with Nature's taste, and the whole strength of the mellow soil goes to produce only that which is useful. But this teaching is like the familiar and sound advice, "Form no bad habits." We do form them; the weeds do get the start of us; and therefore, as a practical fact, the old moral and physical struggle must go on until the end of time. CHAPTER XX RASPBERRIES--PRUNING--STAKING--MULCHING--WINTER PROTECTION, ETC. Usually, there is no pruning either in the field or the garden beyond the cutting out of the old canes and the shortening in of the new growth. There is a difference of opinion as to whether the old canes should be cut out immediately after fruiting, or left to natural decay, and removed the following fall or spring. I prefer the former course. It certainly is neater, and I think I have seen increased growth in the young canes, for which more room is made, and to whose support the roots can give their whole strength. The new growth can make foliage fast enough to develop the roots; still, I have not experimented carefully, and so cannot speak accurately. We see summer pruning often advocated on paper, but I have rarely met it in practice. If carefully done at the proper season, however, much can be accomplished by it in the way of making strong, stocky plants, capable of standing alone--plants full of lateral branches, like little trees, that will be loaded with fruit. But this summer pinching back must be commenced early, while the new, succulent growth is under full headway, and continued through the busiest season, when strawberries are ripe and harvest is beginning. It should not be done after the cane has practically made its growth, or else the buds that ought to remain dormant until the following season are started into a late and feeble growth that does not ripen before the advent of early frosts. Few have time for pruning in May or June. If they have, let them try it by all means, especially on the black-cap species. It does not require so much time as it does prompt action at the proper period of growth. In the garden, summer pinching can transform a raspberry bush into an ornamental shrub as beautiful as useful. It is much better adapted to the hardier varieties than to those that must be bent down and covered with earth. With the _R. Occidentalis_ species, summer pinching would always pay well. The best I can do, usually, with the red varieties, is to prune in November and March; it should be done before the buds develop. Unless early fruit is wanted, I believe in cutting back heroically. Nature once gave me a very useful hint. One very cold winter, a row of Clarke raspberries was left unprotected. The canes were four or five feet high, but were killed down to the snow-level, or within eighteen inches of the ground; but from what was left uninjured, we had as many and far finer berries than were gathered from other rows where the canes had been left their full length and protected by a covering of earth. The fruit was later, however. I would remind careful observers of the raspberry how often buds on canes that have been broken off or cut away back develop into long sprays, enormously fruitful of the largest berries. I have counted fifty, and even eighty, berries on a branch that had grown from a single bud within one or two feet of the ground. These lower buds often do not start at all when the canes are left their full, or nearly their full length. In the latter case the fruit ripens much earlier and more together; and since an early crop, though inferior in quality and quantity, may be more valuable than a late one, the fruit grower often objects to pruning. But in the garden, while the canes of some early kinds are left their full length, I would recommend that others, especially those of the later varieties, be cut back one-half. Even for market purposes I believe that the superb fruit resulting from such pruning would bring more money in most instances. At any rate, the season of bearing would be greatly prolonged. _Mulching_ on a large scale would not pay in most localities. In regions where salt hay, flags, etc., can be cut in abundance, or where straw is so plenty as to be of little value, it no doubt could be applied profitably. On Staten Island I have seen large patches mulched with salt hay. The canes were unstaked, and many of them bent over on the clean hay with their burden of fruit. When there are no stakes or other support used, the berries certainly should be kept from contact with the soil. The chief advantage of the mulch, however, is in the preservation of moisture. When it is given freely, all the fruit perfects, and in a much longer succession. The weeds and suckers are kept down, and the patch has a neat appearance. Moreover, mulching prevents the foliage from burning, and enables the gardener to grow successfully the finer varieties further to the south and on light soils. In keeping down the weeds through the long summer, a mulch of leaves, straw, or any coarse litter, is often far less costly than would be the labor required. _Staking_ raspberries is undoubtedly the best, simplest, and cheapest method of supporting the canes of most varieties and in most localities. I agree with the view taken by Mr. A. S. Fuller. "Chestnut stakes," he writes, "five feet long and two or three inches in diameter, made from large trees, cost me less than two cents each, and my location is within twenty miles of New York City, where timber of all kinds commands a large price. I can not afford to grow raspberries without staking, because every stake will save on an average ten cents' worth of fruit, and, in many instances, three times that amount." Of course, split chestnut stakes look the neatest and last the longest; but a raspberry bush is not fastidious, and I utilize old bean-poles, limbs of trees--anything that keeps the canes from sprawling in the dirt with their delicate fruit. Thus, in many instances, the stakes will cost little more than a boy's labor in preparing them, and they can be of various lengths, according to the height of our canes. As they become too much decayed for further use, they make a cheery blaze on the hearth during the early autumn evenings. There are stocky growing varieties, like the Cuthbert, Turner, Herstine and others, that by summer pruning or vigorous cutting back would be self-supporting, if not too much exposed to high winds. The question is a very practical one, and should be decided largely by experience and the grower's locality. There are fields and regions in which gales, and especially thunder-gusts, would prostrate into the dirt the stoutest bushes that could be formed by summer pruning, breaking down canes heavy with green and ripe fruit. In saving a penny stake, a bit of string, and the moment required for tying, one might be made to feel, after a July storm, that he had been too thrifty. As far as my experience and observation go, I would either stake _all_ my bushes that stood separately and singly, or else would grow them in a loose, continuous, bushy row, and keep the fruit clean by some kind of mulch. Splashed, muddy berries are not fit either to eat or to sell. [Illustration: a. Canes snugly tied. b. Canes improperly tied. RIGHT AND WRONG WAYS OF TYING CANES] In many localities, however, stakes are dispensed with. In the garden, wires, fastened to posts, are occasionally stretched along the rows, and the canes tied to these. The method in this section, however, is to insert stakes firmly in the hill, by means of a pointed crowbar, and the canes are tied to them as early in spring as possible. Unless watched, the boys who do the tying persist in leaving the upper cords of the canes loose. These unsupported ends, when weighted with fruit and foliage, break, of course. The canes should be snugly tied their whole length. If bushes made stocky by summer pruning are supported, let the stake be inserted on the side opposite that from which heavy winds are expected. WINTER PROTECTION--TAKING UP PLANTS FOR SPRING USE--STORING THEM Nearly all foreign varieties and their seedlings need winter protection, or are the better for it, north of the latitude of New York City. Many of the hardier kinds, like the Herstine and Clarke, will usually survive if bent over and kept close to the earth by the weight of poles or a shovelful or two of soil; but all of the Antwerp class need to be entirely covered. To many, this winter covering is a great bugbear, even when only a small patch in the garden is involved. There is a constant demand for "perfectly hardy" varieties. It should be remembered that many of the best kinds are not hardy at all, and that perhaps none are "perfectly hardy." The Turner has never been injured on my place, and the Cuthbert is rarely hurt; but occasionally they are partially killed, more by alternations of freezing and thawing than by steady cold. What are termed "open winters" are often the most destructive. I find that it pays to cover all those kinds that are liable to injury, and, as the varieties are described, this need will be distinctly stated. The difficulties of covering are chiefly imaginary, and it can be done by the acre at comparatively slight cost The vast crops of the Hudson River Antwerp were raised from fields covered every fall. In the garden, I do not consider the labor worth naming in comparison with the advantages secured. Those who find time to carefully cover their cabbages and gather turnips should not talk of the trouble of protecting a row of delicious Herstine raspberries. Still, Nature is very indulgent to the lazy, and has given us as fine a raspberry as the Cuthbert, which thus far, with but few exceptions, has endured our Northern winters. In November, I have the labor of covering performed in the following simple way: B is a hill with canes untrimmed. C, the canes have been shortened one-third--my rule in pruning. After trimming, the canes are ready to be laid down, and they should all be bent one way. To turn them _sharply_ over and cover them with earth would cause many of the stronger ones to break just above the root; so I have a shovelful of soil thrown on one side of the hill, as in Fig. C, and the canes bent over this little mound. They thus describe a curve, instead of lying at right angles on the surface, with a weight of earth upon them. A boy holds the cane down, while a man on either side of the row rapidly shovels the earth upon them. If the work is to be done on a large scale, one or two shovelfuls will pin the canes to the earth, and then, by throwing a furrow over them on both sides with a plow, the labor is soon accomplished. It will be necessary to follow the plow with a shovel, and increase the covering here and there. In spring, as soon as hard frosts are over--the first week in April, in our latitude, usually--begin at the end of the row toward which the canes were bent, and with a fork throw and push the earth aside and gently lift the canes out of the soil, taking pains to level the ground thoroughly, and not leave it heaped up against the hills. This should not be done when the earth is wet and sticky. Keep off the ground at such times, unless the season is growing so late that there is danger of the canes decaying if not exposed to the air. The sooner they are staked and tied up after uncovering, the better. [Illustration: PRUNING AND LAYING DOWN CANES] For market or other purposes, we may wish a number of young plants, in which case there is much room for good sense in taking them up. Many lay hold upon the canes and pull so hastily that little save sticks comes out. A gardener wants fibrous roots rather than top; therefore, send the spade down under the roots and pry them out. Suckers and root-cutting plants can be dug in October, after the wood has fairly ripened, but be careful to leave no foliage on the canes that are taken up before the leaves fall, for they rapidly drain the vitality of the plants. It is best to cut the canes down to within a foot of the surface before digging. I prefer taking up all plants for sale or use in the latter part of October and November, and those not set out or disposed of are stored closely in trenches, with the roots a foot or more below the surface. By thus burying them deeply and by leaving on them a heavy covering of leaves, they are kept in a dormant state quite late in spring, and so can be handled without breaking off the buds which make the future canes. But, as we have already said, the earlier they are planted after the frost is out, the better. CHAPTER XXI RASPBERRIES--VARIETIES OF THE FOREIGN AND NATIVE SPECIES This chapter will treat first of the imported kinds, which usually are more or less tender, and then, by way of contrast, of the hardy varieties of our native _R. Strigosus_. I shall speak of those only that are now in general cultivation, naming a few, also, whose popularity in the past has been so great as to entitle them to mention. As was true of strawberries, so also varieties of raspberries that won name and fame abroad were imported, and a few of them have adapted themselves so well to American soil and climate as to have become standards of excellence. Among the best-known of these formerly was the Red Antwerp of England. Few old-fashioned gardens were without it at one time, but it is fast giving way to newer and more popular varieties. The canes are vigorous, stocky, and tall; spines light-red, numerous, and rather strong. Winter protection is always needed. The berries are large and very obtuse, conical, dark-red, large-grained, and covered with a thick bloom, very juicy, and exceedingly soft--too much so for market purposes. They made a dainty dish for home use, however, and our grandmothers, when maidens, gathered them in the lengthening summer shadows. The Hudson River Antwerp, the most celebrated foreign berry in America, is quite distinct from the above, although belonging to the same family. It is shorter and more slender in its growth, quite free from spines, and its canes are of a peculiar mouse-color. Its fruit is even larger, but firm, decidedly conical, not very bright when fully ripe, and rather dry, but sweet and agreeable in flavor. Mr. Downing says that its origin is unknown, and that it was brought to this country by the late Mr. Briggs, of Poughkeepsie, N.Y. "As this gentleman was leaving England" (thus the story is told, Mr. Downing writes to me), "he visited a friend to say good-by, and solicited this new raspberry. Since he was leaving the country, and could cause no injury to the sale of plants, his friend gave him a few in parting, although three guineas had been refused for a single plant hitherto, in the careful effort to secure a large stock before putting the variety on the market." Its name suggests Belgium as its original home. This Antwerp continues long in bearing, and the berries begin to ripen early. The good carrying qualities of the fruit, combined with great productiveness, made it at one time the most profitable market berry in this section; but its culture was chiefly confined to a narrow strip on the west shore of the Hudson, extending from Cornwall to Kingston. For some obscure reasons, it did not thrive in other localities, and now it appears to be failing fast in its favorite haunt. A disease called the "curl-leaf" is destroying some of the oldest and largest plantations, and the growers are looking about for hardier and more vigorous varieties. But in its palmy days, and even still, the Hudson River Antwerp was one of the great productions of the country, sending barges and steamers nightly to New York laden with ruby cones, whose aroma was often very distinct on the windward shore while the boats were passing. This enormous business had in part a chance and curious origin, and a very small beginning; while the celebrated variety itself, which eventually covered so many hundreds of acres on the west bank of the Hudson, may be traced back through two lines of ancestry. An English gardener, who probably obtained the plants from Mr. Briggs, gave some of them to a Mr. Samuel Barnes, who resided in Westchester County. From him, Mr. Thos. H. Burling, of New Rochelle, N.Y., secured an abundant supply for his home garden. Here its value was observed by Mr. Nathaniel Hallock, who transferred some of the canes to his place at Milton, N. Y. From his garden they spread over many fields besides his own. In respect to the other line of ancestry of this historical berry, I am indebted for the following facts to Mr. W. C. Young, of Marlboro', N. Y.: Many years ago a bundle of raspberry plants was left at a meat-market in Poughkeepsie, and Mr. Watters, the proprietor of the place, kept them several days, expecting that they would be called for. As they remained upon his hands, he planted them in his garden, where, like genuine worth, they soon asserted their superiority. Mr. Edward Young, of Marlboro', a relative of Mr. Watters, received a present of a few roots, which supplied his family with the largest and most beautiful berries he had ever seen. Good propagates itself as well as evil if given a chance, and Mr. Young soon had far more fruit than was needed by his family, and he resolved to try the fortunes of his favorite in New York market. "For this purpose," his son writes, "my father procured imported fancy willow baskets, holding about one pint each, and carefully packed these in crates made for the purpose. This mode proved a success, both in carrying them securely and in making them very attractive. The putting up such a fine variety of fruit in this way gave it notoriety at once, and it brought at first as much as one dollar per quart. My father was so well satisfied with his experiment that he advised his sons, Alexander, Edward and myself, to extend the culture of this variety largely. We entered into the business, and, pursuing it with diligence, were well compensated. Our success made others desirous of engaging in it, and so it spread out into its large dimensions." Mr. Alexander Young estimates that in the year 1858 1,000,000 pint baskets, or about 14,700 bushels, were shipped from Marlboro'; but adds that "since 1860 it has decreased as fast. From present appearances, the variety must become extinct, and I fear will never have its equal." Milton, Cornwall, New burgh, and other points competed in the profitable industry, and now, with Marlboro', are replacing the failing variety with other kinds more vigorous in growth, but thus far inferior in quality. That the great industry is not falling off is shown by the following statement, taken from the New York "Tribune" in the summer of 1779: "The village of Highland, opposite Poughkeepsie, runs a berry boat daily to New York, and the large night steamers are now taking out immense loads of raspberries from the river towns every evening, having at times nearly 2,000 bushels on board." From as careful a computation as I have been able to make, through the courtesy of the officers of the large Kingston boats the "Baldwin" and "Cornell," I am led to believe that these two steamers unitedly carried to the city over twenty thousand bushels of berries that same year. The magnitude of this industry on the Hudson will be still better realized when it is remembered that several other freight boats divide this traffic with the Kingston steamers. When we consider what a delicate and perishable fruit this is, it can be understood that gathering and packing it properly is no bagatelle. Sometimes you will find the fruit grower's family in the field, from the matron down to the little ones that cannot reach the highest berries. But the home force is wholly insufficient, and any one who will pick--man, woman or child--is employed. Therefore, drifting through the river towns during June and July, are found specimens almost as picturesque, if not so highly colored, as those we saw at Norfolk--poor whites from the back country and mountains; people from the cities on a humble "lark," who cannot afford to rusticate at a hotel; semi-tramps, who have not attained to the final stage of aristocratic idleness, wherein the offer of work is an insult which they resent by burning a barn. Rude shanties, with bunks, are fitted up to give all the shelter they require. Here they lead a gypsy life, quite as much to their taste as camping in the Adirondacks, cooking and smoking through the June twilight, and as oblivious of the exquisite scenery about them as the onion-eating peasants of Italy; but when picking the fruit on a sunny slope, and half-hidden by the raspberry bushes, Nature blends them with the scene so deftly that even they become picturesque. The little round "thirds," as they are termed, into which the berries are gathered, are carried out of the sunlight to sheds and barns; the packer receives them, giving tickets in exchange, and then, too often with the deliberation and ease induced by the summer heat, packs them in crates. As a result, there is frequently a hurry-scurry later in the day to get the berries off in time. The Fastollf, Northumberland Fillbasket, and Knevett's Giant are fine old English varieties that are found in private gardens, but have never made their way into general favor. The Franconia is now the best foreign variety we have. It was introduced from Paris by Mr. S. G. Perkins, of Boston, about thirty-seven years ago, and is a large, obtuse, conical berry, firm, thus carrying well to market, and although a little sour, its acid is of a rich, sprightly character. It is raised largely in Western New York, and in northern latitudes is one of the most profitable. It is almost hardy in the vicinity of Rochester, receiving by some growers no winter protection. Its lack of hardiness with us, and further southward, is due to its tendency--common to nearly all foreign berries--to lose its foliage in August. I am inclined to think that it would prove one of the most profitable in Canada, and that if it were simply pinned down to the surface of the ground, and thus kept under the deep snows, it would rarely suffer from the cold. It should be distinctly understood that the climate of Canada, if winter protection is given--indeed, I may say, without protection--is far better adapted to tender raspberries than that of New Jersey, Virginia, or even Pennsylvania. The long continuance of the Franconia in bearing is one of its best qualities. We usually enjoy its fruit for six weeks together. Its almost globular shape is in contrast with another excellent French variety, the Belle de Fontenay, a large, long, conical, but somewhat irregular-shaped berry of very superior flavor. Mr. Fuller says that it is entirely hardy. It survives the winter without protection on my grounds. The canes are very stocky and strong, and unless growing thickly together are branching. Its most marked characteristic, however, is a second crop in autumn, produced on the tips of the new canes. If the canes of the previous year are cut even with the ground early in spring, the new growth gives a very abundant autumn crop of berries, which, although much inclined to crumble in picking, and to be irregular in shape, have still the rare flavor of a delicious fruit long out of season. It certainly is the best of the fall-bearing kinds, and deserves a place in every garden. There are more profitable market varieties, however; but, if the suckers are vigorously destroyed, and the bearing canes cut well back, the fruit is often very large, abundant, and attractive, bringing the highest prices. As a plantation grows older, the tendency to sucker immoderately decreases, and the fruit improves. The Belle de Pallua and Hornet are also French varieties that in some sections yield fine fruit, but are too uncertain to become favorites in our country. I have a few canes of a French variety that Mr. Downing imported a number of years since, and of which the name has been lost. It certainly is the finest raspberry I have ever seen, and I am testing its adaptation to various soils. Having named the best-known foreign varieties, I will now turn to _R. Strigosus_, or our native species, which is scattered almost everywhere throughout the North. In its favorite haunts by roadside hedge and open glade in the forest, a bush is occasionally found producing such fine fruit that the delighted discoverer marks it, and in the autumn transfers it to his garden. As a result, a new variety is often heralded throughout the land. A few of these wildings have become widely popular, and among them the Brandywine probably has had the most noted career. Mr. William Parry, of New Jersey, who has been largely interested in this variety, writes to me as follows: "I have never been able to trace the origin of this berry. It attracted attention some eight or ten years since in the Wilmington market, and was for a time called the 'Wilmington.'" Subsequently Mr. Edward Tatnall, of that city, undertook to introduce it by the name of Susqueco, the Indian name for the Brandywine. It soon became the principal raspberry grown along the Brandywine Creek, and as the market-men would persist in calling it after its chief haunt, it will probably bear the historical name until it passes wholly out of favor. Its popularity is already on the wane, because of its dry texture and insipid flavor, but its bright color, good size, and especially its firmness and remarkable carrying qualities, will ever lead to its ready sale in the market. It is not a tall, vigorous grower, except in very rich land. The young canes are usually small, slender, of a pale red color, and have but few spines. Like nearly all the _R. Strigosus_ species, it tends to sucker immoderately. If this disposition is rigorously checked by hoe and cultivator, it is productive; otherwise, the bearing canes are choked and rendered comparatively unfruitful. This variety is waning before the Cuthbert--a larger and much better berry. The Turner is another of this class, and, in Mr. Charles Downing's opinion, is the best of them. It was introduced by Professor J. B. Turner, of Illinois, and is a great favorite in many parts of the West. It has behaved well on my place for several years, and I am steadily increasing my stock of it. I regard it as the hardiest raspberry in cultivation, and a winter must be severe, indeed, that injures it. Like the Crescent Seedling strawberry, it will grow anywhere, and under almost any conditions. The laziest man on the continent can have its fruit in abundance, if he can muster sufficient spirit to put out a few roots, and hoe out all the suckers except five or six in the hill. It is early, and in flavor surpasses all of its class; the fruit is only moderately firm. Plant a few in some out-of-the-way place, and it will give the largest return for the least amount of labor of any kind with which I am acquainted. The canes are very vigorous, of a golden reddish-brown, like mahogany, over which spreads in many places a purple bloom, like that on a grape, and which rubs off at the touch. It is almost free from spines, and so closely resembles the Southern Thornless in all respects that I cannot distinguish between them. The Turner is a fine example of the result of persistent well-doing. After having been treated slightingly and written down at the East for ten years or more, it is now steadily winning its way toward the front rank. Mr. A. S. Fuller, who has tried most of the older varieties, says that he keeps a patch of it for his own use, because it gives so much good fruit with so little trouble. I shall give its origin in Professor Turner's own words, as far as possible: "Soon after I came to Illinois, in 1833, I obtained, through a friend from the East, some raspberries sold to me as the 'Red Antwerp.' I do not know or believe that there was at that time any other red raspberry within one hundred miles of this place. Indeed, I have never seen a native wild red raspberry in the State, though it may be there are some. I found the Antwerp would not stand our climate, but by extreme care I protected it one winter, and it bore some fruit. I conceived the idea of amusing my leisure hours from college duty by raising new seedling raspberries, strawberries, etc., that would be adapted to the climate of the State. I had only a small garden spot, no particular knowledge of the business, and no interest in it outside of the public good. I read upon the subject, as far as I then could, and planted and nursed my seedlings. Out of hundreds or thousands sown, I got one good early strawberry, which had a local run for a time; one fair blackberry, but no grapes or raspberries that seemed worth anything. The seeds of the raspberries were sown in a bed back of my house, and the shoots reserved were all nurtured on the same bed. After I supposed them to be a failure, I set out an arbor vitae hedge directly across the raspberry bed, making some effort to destroy the canes so that the little cedars might grow. Sometimes, when they were in the way of the cedars they were hoed out. If any of them bore berries, the fowls doubtless destroyed them, or the children ate them before they ripened, until the cedars got so high as to give them protection. Then the children found the ripe fruit, and reported it to me. I have not the least doubt but this raspberry came from a seed of the plants obtained from the East as the Red Antwerp. The original canes may have been false to name, or a mixture of the true and false. Whatever they were, they bore good, red berries, which I supposed to be Antwerps; but the canes were so tender as to be worthless. It is wholly impossible that the new variety should have come from any other seed than that sown by me where the vitae hedge now stands." This letter is very interesting in showing how curiously some of our best varieties originate. Moreover, it suggests a dilemma. How is it possible that an Antwerp--one of the most tender varieties--could have been the parent of the hardiest known raspberry? How could a sort having every characteristic of our native _R. Strigosus_ spring direct from _R. Idoeus_? I have been familiar with the Antwerps all my life, and can see no trace of them in this hardy berry. Mr. A. S. Fuller writes to me, "The Turner is a true native--_R. Strigosus_;" and Mr. Charles Downing holds the same opinion. Hence I am led to believe that there was a native variety among the plants the professor obtained from the East, or that a seed of a native was dropped among the cedars by a bird, or brought thither in the roots of the cedars. Be this as it may, Professor Turner's good motives have been rewarded and he has given the public an excellent raspberry. In connection with this subject, Mr. Fuller added the following fact, which opens to the amateur a very interesting field for experiment: "If there is any doubt in regard to such matters, raise a few seedlings of the variety, and if it is a cross or hybrid, a part of the seedlings will revert back to each parent, or so near them that there will be no difficulty in determining that there was a mixture of blood. If all our so-called hybrid fruits were thus tested, we would then know more of their true parentage." In the sunny laboratory of the garden, therefore, Nature's chemistry will resolve these juicy compounds back into their original constituents. The Highland Hardy, or Native, also belongs to this species, and is quite a favorite still in some localities; but it has had its day, I think. Its extreme earliness has made it profitable in some regions; but its softness, small size and wretched flavor should banish it from cultivation as soon as possible. There are others, like the Thwack, Pearl, and Bristol; they are but second rate, being inferior in most regions to the Brandywine, which they resemble. In my opinion, the chief value of _R. Strigosus_ is to be found in two facts. In the first place, they endure the severe Northern winters, and--what is of far more consequence--their best representatives thrive in light soils, and their tough foliage does not burn under the hot sun. It thus becomes the one species of _red_ raspberry that can be raised successfully in the South, and from it, as a hardy stock, we should seek to develop the raspberries of the future. CHAPTER XXII RUBUS OCCIDENTALIS--BLACK-CAP AND PURPLE CANE RASPBERRIES We now turn to the other great American species--_Rubus Occidentalis_--the well-known black-cap, or thimble berry, that is found along almost every roadside and fence in the land. There are few little people who have not stained their lips and fingers, not to mention their clothes, with this homely favorite. I can recall the days when, to the horror of the laundress, I filled my pockets with the juicy caps. It is scarcely necessary to recall its long, rambling, purple shoots, its light-green foliage, silvery on the under side, its sharp and abundant spines, from which we have received many a vicious scratch. Its cultivation is so simple that it may be suggested in a few sentences. It does not produce suckers, like _R. Strigosus_, but the tips of the drooping branches root themselves in the soil during August and September, forming young plants. These, planted, produce a vigorous bush the first year that bears the second season, and then dies down to the perennial root, as is the case with all raspberries. Usually, the tips of the _young_ canes will take root, if left to themselves, unless whipped about by the wind. If new plants in abundance are desired, it is best to assist Nature, however, by placing a little earth on the tip just after it begins to enlarge slightly, thus showing it is ready to take root. This labor is quickly performed by throwing a handful or two of earth on the tips with a trowel. The tips do not all mature for propagation at one time; therefore, it is well to go over the plantation every two weeks after the middle of August and cover lightly with earth only such as are enlarged. If covered before this sign of readiness appears, the tip merely decays. If a variety is very scarce, we may cover not only the tips, but also much of the cane, lightly--an inch or two--with earth, and each bud will eventually make a plant. This should not be done, however, until the wood is well ripened, say about the first of October. Throw a few leaves over such layered canes in November, and divide the buds and roots into separate plants early in spring. They will probably be so small as to need a year in the nursery row. Sometimes, after the first tip is rooted, buds a little above it will push into shoots which also will root themselves with slight assistance, and thus the number of new plants is greatly increased. Spring is by far the best time, at the North, for planting these rooted tips; but it should be done as early as possible, before the bud has started into its brittle, succulent growth. At the South, November is probably the best season for planting. It is a species that adapts itself to most soils, even the lightest, and endures much neglect. At the same time, it responds generously to good culture and rigorous pruning, and if moisture is abundant the yield is simply enormous. It not only thrives far to the north, but can also be grown further south than any other class of raspberries. In planting, spread out the roots and let them go down their full length, but do not put over an inch or two of soil on the bud from which the new canes are to spring. Press the earth firmly _around_ this bud, but _not on_ it. Let the rows be six feet apart, and the plants three feet from each other in the row; at this distance, 2,400 will be required for an acre. Summer pinching back will transform these sprawling, drooping canes into compact, stocky bushes, or ornamental shrubs that in sheltered locations will be self-supporting. Clean culture, and, as the plantation grows older, higher stimulation, greatly enhance success. After the plants begin to show signs of age and feebleness, it is best to set out young plants on new ground. The varieties of this species are almost innumerable, since seedlings come up by the million every year; but the differences between the majority of them are usually very slight. There are four kinds, however, that have won honorable distinction and just popularity. The earliest of these is Davidson's Thornless, said to have originated in the garden of Mrs. Mercy Davidson, Towanda, Erie Co., N.Y. It is nothing like so vigorous a grower as the other three varieties; but the sweetness of the fruit and the freedom from thorns make it desirable for the home garden. Unless high culture or moist soil is given, I do not recommend it for market. Next in order of ripening is the Doolittle, or American Improved, found growing wild, about thirty-five years since, by Leander Joslyn, of Phelps, Ontario Co., N.Y., and introduced by Mr. H. H. Doolittle. This, hitherto, has been the most popular of all the species, and thousands of bushels are annually raised for market. The plant is exceedingly vigorous, producing strong, branching canes that literally cover themselves with fruit. I have seen long rows fairly black with caps. Perhaps it should be stated that the thorns are vigorous also. Latest in ripening is the Mammoth Cluster, or McCormick, which, thus far, has been my favorite. It is even more vigorous than the preceding, but not so briery or branching. The fruit is produced usually in a thick cluster or bunch at the end of the branch, and they ripen more together than the other kinds. The caps, too, are much larger, more juicy and fine-flavored. One is less conscious of the seeds. Between the thumb and finger you can often gather a handful from a single spray, it is so prodigiously productive. Thus far it has been unsurpassed, either for home use or market; but now it is encountering a rival in the Gregg, a new variety that is attracting much attention. Its history, as far as I have been able to learn it, is as follows: In the latter part of June, 1866, this black raspberry was found growing wild in a ravine on the Gregg farm, which is located in Ohio Co., Indiana. The original bush "was bending under the weight of colossal-sized clusters. It was then a single clump, surrounded by a few young plants growing from its tips. Before introducing it to the public, we gave it a most thorough and complete trial. We have put it on the tables of some of the most prominent horticultural societies, and by each it has been voted the highest rank in their fruit lists. At the Centennial Exposition, at Philadelphia, in competition with all the prominent varieties in the world, it was ranked highest by the judges. During eleven years of observation it has survived the coldest winters, and never failed to yield an abundant crop. It is a vigorous, rapid grower, producing strong, well-matured canes by fall. The fruit is beautiful in appearance, delicious, possessing excellent shipping and keeping qualities." The above is a mild and condensed statement of its claims, as set forth by Messrs. R. & P. Gregg, proprietors of the Gregg farm, and I believe these gentlemen have given a correct account of their experience. As the result of much inquiry, it would appear that this variety is also doing well throughout the country at large. Mr. N. Ohmer, who has been most prominent in introducing the Gregg, gives the following account of his first acquaintance with it: "At a meeting of the Indiana State Horticultural Society, held at Indianapolis, a gentleman asked for the privilege of making some remarks about a new black raspberry that he was cultivating. Being pretty long-winded, as most lawyers are, he spoke so long, and said so much in favor of his berry, that no one believed him, and were glad when he got through. The summer following, I chanced to call on the Secretary of the Indiana State Board of Agriculture, in the Capitol building, and was surprised to see on his table about half a peck of berries and an armful of canes loaded with the largest, handsomest, and best black raspberries I had ever seen. Mr. Herron, the Secretary, informed me that they were grown by Messrs. R. & P. Gregg. I obtained two hundred plants, a few of which bore fruit so fine, the following season, that all who saw it wanted plants." It was learned that Mr. Gregg was the lawyer who was thought "long-winded," and many who then yawned have since thought, no doubt, that they might have listened with much profit, for the demand for the plants has become greater than the supply. Only time can show whether the Gregg is to supersede the Mammoth Cluster. I observe that veteran fruit growers are very conservative, and by no means hasty to give a newcomer the place that a fine old variety has won by years of excellence in nearly all diversities of soil and climate. The Gregg certainly promises remarkably well, and Mr. Thomas Meehan, editor of the "Gardener's Monthly," who is well known to be exceedingly careful and conscientious in indorsing new fruits, writes: "We believe this variety is generally larger than any other of its kind yet known." There are many other candidates for favor, but thus far they are untried, or have not proved themselves equal to the kinds I have named. Quite a distinct branch of _R. Occidentalis_ is the Purple Cane family--so named, I think, from the purple cane raspberry that was so well known in old gardens a few years ago, but since it has been superseded by better kinds is now fast passing out of cultivation. It almost took care of itself in our home garden for forty years or more, and its soft, small berries would melt in one's mouth. Its canes were smooth and its fruit of a dusky-red color. In other respects, it resembles the black-cap tribe. The Catawissa, found growing in a Pennsylvania graveyard, is another berry of this class, which produces a second crop in autumn. It is tender in the Northern States, and has never become popular. The Philadelphia is the best known of the class, and at one time was immensely popular. Its canes are smooth, stout, erect in growth, and enormously productive of medium-sized, round, dusky-red berries of very poor flavor. It throve so well on the light soils about Philadelphia, that it was heralded to the skies, and the plants sold at one time as high as $40 per 100, but the inferior flavor and unattractive appearance of the fruit caused it to decline steadily in favor, and now it has but few friends. Unlike others of its class, it does not root from the tips, but propagates itself by suckers, producing them sparingly, however. When it was in such great demand, the nurserymen increased it by root cuttings, forced under glass. CHAPTER XXIII THE RASPBERRIES OF THE FUTURE We now come to a class that are destined, I think, to be the raspberries of the future, or, at least, a type of them. I refer to the seedlings of the three original species that have been described. As a rule (having exceptions of course), these native seedling varieties are comparatively hardy, and adapted to the climate of America. This adaptation applies to the South in the proportion that they possess the qualities of the _Rubus Strigosus_ or _Occidentalis_. To the degree that the foreign element of _R. Idoeus_ exists, they will, with a few exceptions, require winter protection, and will be unable to thrive in light soils and under hot suns. Forgetfulness of this principle is often the cause of much misapprehension and undiscriminating censure. I have known certain New Jersey fruit growers to condemn a variety unsparingly. Would it not be more sensible to say it belongs to the _R. Idoeus_ class, and, therefore, is not adapted to our climate and light soil, but in higher latitudes and on heavy land it may prove one of the best? It should here be premised that these seedlings originated in this country. Perhaps they are the product solely of our native species, or they may result from crossing varieties of _R. Idoeus_, in which case they will exhibit the characteristics of the foreign species; or, finally, from the foreign and our native species may be produced a hybrid that will combine traits of each line of its lineage. A conspicuous example of the second statement may be seen in Brinkle's Orange, originated by Dr. Brinkle many years ago. It is essentially an Antwerp in character, and yet it is more vigorous, and adapted to a wider range of country than the Antwerp. The berry is of a beautiful buff color, and its delicious flavor is the accepted standard of excellence. At the same time, it is well known that it will not thrive under hot suns or upon light land. It can be raised south of New York only in cool, moist soils, and in half-shady locations; but at the North, where the conditions of growth are favorable, it produces strong branching canes, covered with white spines, and is exceedingly productive of large, light-colored berries that melt on the tongue. There is the same difference between it and the Brandywine that exists between Stowell's Evergreen and flint field corn. It invariably requires winter protection. The Pride of the Hudson possesses the same general character as the Orange, and approaches it very nearly in excellence. It certainly is the largest, most beautiful red raspberry now before the public; but in its later development it has shown such sensitiveness to both heat and cold that I cannot recommend it for general cultivation. Give it a moist soil and a half-shady location, such as may be found on the northern side of a fence or hedge, and it will become the pride of any northern garden; but in the South, and on light soils, it can scarcely live. It should have winter protection. In contrast with these native berries of foreign parentage, we have the Herstine; Mr. B. K. Bliss, the well-known seedsman of New York City, kindly furnishes me the following facts of its history: "About ten years since I was invited, with several gentlemen (mostly horticulturists), to visit the late Mr. Herstine, at Philadelphia. We were to examine a lot of seedling raspberries, and select names for those that we thought worthy of general cultivation. We found quite a company there from the vicinity of Philadelphia and from Washington, while New York was represented by such eminent authorities as Dr. Thurber and A. S. Fuller. The raspberry bushes were completely loaded with large fine fruit--the finest I ever saw. Each variety was carefully examined, and the guests voted as to which, in his opinion, was the best. The Herstine stood first and the Saunders second. Mr. Herstine explained that they were raised from the Allen raspberry, which had been planted in alternate rows with the Philadelphia." This parentage would make it a hybrid of the _R. Strigosus_ and the purple cane branch of the _R. Occidentalis_ species; but the plant and fruit indicate the presence, also, of the _R. Ideous_ element. After several years' experience on my own place, I regard it as the best early raspberry in existence. The berry is large, obtusely conical, bright red, and delicious in flavor. It is scarcely firm enough for market where it must be sent any great distance, but if picked promptly after it reddens, and packed in a cool, airy place, it carries well and brings good prices. The canes are strong, red, stocky, and covered with spines. They are but half-hardy, and I think it is best to cover them before the first of December, in our latitude. The canes of the Saunders, also sent out by Mr. Herstine, are much darker in color, and not so vigorous, but sufficiently so. The berries are large, ripen later, are more globular, and are of the same excellent quality. It deserves greater popularity than it has received. It is, also, only half-hardy. In the Clarke, we undoubtedly have a variety containing considerable of the _R. Idoeus_ element. The berries are often very large, bright crimson, conical, with large, hairy grains. Occasionally, the fruit on my vines was very imperfect, and crumbled badly in picking. I found that by cutting the canes rigorously back--even one-half--I obtained much larger and more perfect berries, and in increased quantities. The canes are very strong, upright growers, ending usually in a thick tuft of foliage, rather than in long, drooping tips. It was originated by Mr. E. E. Clarke, of New Haven, Conn., and is but half-hardy. In the New Rochelle, we have a hybrid of the black-cap and red raspberry, the _R. Occidentalis_ element predominating, and manifesting itself in the stocky and branching character of the canes, and in the fact that they propagate themselves by tips, and not suckers. The New Rochelle, originated by Mr. E. W. Carpenter, of Rye, N.Y., is perhaps the best of this class. It is very vigorous, hardy, and enormously productive, and the fruit is of good size. I do not like its sharp acid, however, and its dun or dusky-brown color will probably prevent it from becoming a favorite in market, since bright-hued berries are justly much preferred. But Mr. Carpenter has sent out another seedling which, I think, is destined to have a brilliant future--the Caroline, It is thought to be a cross between the Catawissa and Brinkle's Orange. The canes are perfectly hardy, very strong, vigorous, branching, light-red, with a lighter bloom upon them here and there. It suckers freely, and also propagates itself sparingly from the tips. The fruit is exceedingly abundant and is a round cap of a beautiful buff color, almost equalling Brinkle's Orange in flavor. I think it will grow anywhere, and thus will find a place in innumerable gardens where the Orange does not thrive. At the same time, it is good enough for any garden. The Ganargua was said to be a hybrid, but Mr. J. J. Thomas writes to me: "I have never been able to discover proof that it is one. I think it all _R. Occidentalis_--a variety." The Reliance, a seedling of the Philadelphia, but far superior to it, is doing remarkably well on my place, and I hear favorable accounts from other localities. There are many others that are either old and passing into obscurity or else so new and dubious in character that limited space forbids their mention. We will close this sketch of varieties with the Cuthbert, which that experienced and careful horticulturist, Dr. Hexamer, calls the "best raspberry now in existence." This is a chance seedling, which the late Thomas Cuthbert found in his garden, at Riverdale, N.Y. His son has kindly furnished the following facts: "The raspberry in question was discovered by my father about eleven years ago in the garden of our country seat at Riverdale-on-the-Hudson. It is probably a seedling of the Hudson River Antwerp, as it was found growing near the edge of a patch of that variety, but its great vigor of growth and the size and quality of the fruit marked it at once as a new and distinct kind. Its canes were carefully separated from the others and a small plantation made of them. The next year, and from time to time since, plants were given to our friends in various parts of the State for trial. Without exception, their reports have been favorable, particular mention having been made of their unusual vigor of growth, their hardiness, and the firmness and good keeping qualities of the fruit. The first year or so we gave the canes winter protection, but finding that it was unnecessary, we have discontinued it, and I have never heard of the canes being winter-killed." From other sources I learn that Mr. Cuthbert made an arrangement with a nurseryman by the name of Thompson, to propagate and send out the variety. This gentleman dying soon after, the stock came into the possession of Mr. H. J. Corson, of Staten Island, N.Y., and by him and Mr. I. J. Simonson, a florist, the plants have been sent out to different parts of the country. This dissemination was very limited, and was characterized by an almost utter absence of heralding and extravagant praise. The berry has literally made its way on its own merits. Dr. Hexamer remarked to me that he had had it for years, and had wondered why its merits were so overlooked. My attention was called to it in the summer of 1878, and I took pains to see it in several localities. The large size of the berries, their firmness and fine flavor, convinced me that it was very valuable, and the fact that I found it flourishing luxuriantly on New Jersey sand, and maintaining a perfectly healthful foliage under an August sun, led me to believe that we had at last found a first-class variety that would thrive on light soils and under hot suns. The late W. C. Bryant, the poet, himself well versed in horticulture, closed a letter to me with the following words: "It has always seemed to me a scandal to our horticulture that in a region where the raspberry grows wild, we should not have a sort that would resist both the winter cold and summer heat, and produce abundantly." After another year of observation and of much correspondence, extending even to California, I am convinced that the Cuthbert does "resist both the winter cold and summer heat, and produce abundantly," far better than any other raspberry that equals it in size and flavor. The canes are strong, upright, branching, if space permits, reddish-brown, spines abundant, but not very long and harsh. It is a rampant grower on good soil, but the foliage, so far from being rank and large, is delicate, and the under side of the leaves has a light, silvery hue. After once getting hold of the soil, it suckers immoderately, but is no worse in this respect than other vigorous varieties; and this tendency rapidly declines after the second year. Is it perfectly hardy? No; and I do not know of a single good raspberry that is; except, perhaps, the Turner, which, however, is inferior to the Cuthbert. I have seen the latter badly winter-killed, but it had stood eight years on the same ground without injury before. Then, because of a rank growth late in the season, that especial patch was hit hard, while other fields, but a few miles away, were unharmed. If planted on well-drained soil, where the wood could ripen well, I think it would be injured very rarely, if ever; but I have no faith in talk about "perfectly hardy raspberries." Those who observe closely will often find our hardy native species killed to the ground, and I think many varieties suffer more from the mild, variable winters of the Middle States than from the steady cold and snowy winters of the North. Moreover, any variety that has not the power of maintaining a healthy foliage through the hot season will usually be too feeble to resist the winter following. The question of hardiness can often be settled better in August than in January. One of the most hopeful features of the Cuthbert, therefore, is its tough, sun-enduring foliage, which enables the wood to ripen perfectly. It has never received winter protection thus far, either in this region or in Michigan, where it is largely raised, but it may be found necessary to shield it somewhat in some localities. It is both absurd and dishonest to claim perfection for a fruit, and the Cuthbert, especially as it grows older and loses something of its pristine vigor, will, probably, like all other varieties, develop faults and weaknesses. We cannot too much deprecate the arrogant spirit often manifested in introducing new fruits. Interested parties insist on boundless praise, and if their advice were followed, the fine old standards would be plowed out to make room for a newcomer that often proves, on trial, little better than a weed. The Cuthbert is not exactly a novelty. Through the gifts of the originator, and sales running through several years, it has become widely scattered, and has proved a success in every instance, as far as I can learn. I show my faith in it by my works, for I am setting it out more largely than all other kinds together, even going so far as to rent land for the purpose. I am satisfied, from frequent inquiries in Washington Market, that it will take the lead of all others, and it is so firm that it can be shipped by rail, like a Wilson strawberry. In Delaware and Southern New Jersey, a variety named "Queen of the Market" is being largely set out. I have this variety in my specimen-bed, side by side with plants that came from Thomas Cuthbert's garden, and am almost satisfied that they are identical, and that Queen of the Market is but a synonym of the Cuthbert. I have placed the canes and spines of each under a powerful microscope and can detect no differences, and the fruit also appeared so much alike that I could not see wherein it varied. Plants of this variety were sent to Delaware some years since as they were to Michigan and California, and, wherever tested, they seem to win strong and immediate favor. Its chief fault in this locality is its lateness. CHAPTER XXIV BLACKBERRIES--VARIETIES, CULTIVATION, ETC. The small-fruit branch of the rose family is assuredly entitled to respect when it is remembered that the blackberry is the blackest sheep in it. Unlike the raspberry, the drupes cling to the receptacle, which falls off with them when mature, and forms the hard, disagreeable core when the berry is black, but often only half ripe. The bush is, in truth, what the ancients called it--a bramble, and one of our Highland wildcats could scarcely scratch more viciously than it, if treated too familiarly; but, with judicious respect and good management, it will yield large and beautiful berries. It would seem that Nature had given her mind more to blackberries than to strawberries, for, instead of merely five, she has scattered about 150 species up and down the globe. To describe all these would be a thorny experience indeed, robbing the reader of his patience as completely as he would be bereft of his clothing should he literally attempt to go through them all. Therefore, I shall give Professor Gray's description of the two species which have furnished our few really good varieties, and dismiss with mere mention a few other species. "_Rubus Villosus_, High Blackberry. Everywhere along thickets, fence-rows, etc., and several varieties cultivated; stems one to six feet high, furrowed; prickles strong and hooked; leaflets three to five, ovate or lance-ovate, pointed, their lower surface and stalks hairy and glandular, the middle one long-stalked and sometimes heart-shaped; flowers racemed, rather large, with short bracts; fruit oblong or cylindrical. "_R. Canadensis_, Low Blackberry or Dewberry. Rocky and sandy soil; long trailing, slightly prickly, smooth or smoothish, and with three to seven smaller leaflets than in the foregoing, the racemes of flowers with more leaf-like bracts, the fruit of fewer grains and ripening earlier." The _R. Cuneifolius_, or Sand Blackberry, is common in the sandy ground and barrens from New Jersey southward; the _R. Trivialis_, Southern Low Blackberry, is found in light soils from Virginia southward; the _R. Hispidus_ is a Running Swamp Blackberry whose long, slender stems creep through low, damp woods and marshes; the _R. Spectabilis_ produces purple solitary flowers, and grows on the banks of the Columbia River in the far Northwest. Whatever improvements may originate from these species in the future, they have not as yet, to my knowledge, given us any fine cultivated variety. _R, fruticosus_ is the best-known European species, but neither has it, as far as I can discover, been the source of any varieties worthy of favor. It is said to have a peculiar flavor, that produces satiety at once. The blackberry, therefore, is exceptional, in that we have no fine foreign varieties, and Mr. Fuller writes that he cannot find "any practical information in regard to their culture in any European work on gardening." The "bramble" is quite fully treated in Mr. R. Thompson's valuable English work, but I find little to interest the American reader. He suggests that the several native species that he describes are capable of great improvement, but I cannot learn that such effort has ever been made successfully. I do not know of any reason why our fine varieties will not thrive abroad, under conditions that accord with their nature. In America there are innumerable varieties, since Nature produces wild seedlings on every hillside, and not a few seeds have been planted by horticulturists in the hope of originating a prize berry. Nature appears to have had the better fortune, thus far, for our best varieties are chance seedlings, found growing wild. It is not so many years since the blackberry was regarded as merely a bramble in this country, as it now is abroad, and people were content with such fruit as the woods and fields furnished. Even still, in some localities, this supply is so abundant as to make the culture of the blackberry unprofitable. But, a number of years since, Mr. Lewis A. Seacor led to better things, by observing on the roadside, in the town of New Rochelle, Westchester County, New York, a bush flourishing where Nature had planted it. This variety took kindly to civilization, and has done more to introduce this fruit to the garden than all other kinds together. Mr. Donald GK Mitchell, in his breezy out-of-door book, "My Farm at Edgewood," gives its characteristics so admirably that I am tempted to quote him: "The New Rochelle or Lawton Blackberry has been despitefully spoken of by many; first, because the market fruit is generally bad, being plucked before it is fully ripened; and next, because, in rich, clayey grounds, the briers, unless severely cut back, grow into a tangled, unapproachable forest, with all the juices exhausted in wood. But upon a soil moderately rich, a little gravelly and warm, protected from winds, served with occasional top-dressings and good hoeings, the Lawton bears magnificent burdens. Even then, if you wish to enjoy the richness of the fruit, you must not be hasty to pluck it. When the children say, with a shout, 'The blackberries are ripe!' I know they are black only, and I can wait. When the children report, 'The birds are eating the berries!' I know I can wait. But when they say, 'The bees are on the berries!' I know they are at their ripest. Then, with baskets, we sally out; I taking the middle rank, and the children the outer spray of boughs. Even now we gather those only which drop at the touch; these, in a brimming saucer, with golden Alderney cream and a _soupcon_ of powdered sugar, are Olympian nectar; they melt before the tongue can measure their full soundness, and seem to be mere bloated bubbles of forest honey." Notwithstanding this eloquent plea and truthful statement, the Lawton is decidedly on the wane. It is so liable to be winter-killed, even with best of care, and its fruit is go unpalatable, in its half-ripe condition, that it has given place to a more successful rival, the Kittatinny--discovered in Warren County, K. J., growing in a forest near the mountains, whose Indian name has become a household word from association with this most delicious fruit. Mr. Wolverton, in finding it, has done more for the world than if he had opened a gold mine. Under good culture, the fruit is very large; sweet, rich, and melting, when fully ripe, but rather sour and hard when immature. It reaches its best condition if allowed to ripen fully on the vines; but the majority of pickers use their hands only, and no more think of making nice discriminations than of questioning nature according to the Baconian method. They gather all that are black, or nearly so; but if this half-ripe fruit is allowed to stand in some cool, dry place for about twelve hours, Kittatinny berries may be had possessing nearly all their luscious qualities. The plant is an upright and very vigorous grower, exceedingly productive if soil and culture are suitable. Its leaves are long-pointed, "finely and unevenly serrate." The season of fruiting is medium, continuing from four to six weeks, if moisture is maintained. Both of these varieties are derived from the _Rubus villosus_ species. In contrast is the next-best known sort, Wilson's Early--having many of the characteristics of the Dewberry, or running blackberry, and, therefore, representing the second species described, _R. Canadensis_. Whether it is merely a sport from this species, or a hybrid between it and the first-named or high blackberry, cannot be accurately known, I imagine; for it also was found growing wild by Mr. John Wilson, of Burlington, N. J. Under high culture, and with increasing age, the plants become quite erect and stocky growers, but the ends of the cane are drooping. Frequently, they trail along the ground, and root at the tips, like the common Dewberry; and they rarely grow so stocky but that they can be bent over and covered with earth or litter, as is the case with the tender raspberries. It is well that this is possible, for it has so little power of resisting frost that a winter of ordinary severity kills the canes in the latitude of New York. I have always covered mine, and thus secured, at slight expense, a sure and abundant crop. The fruit is earlier than the Kittatinny, and tends to ripen altogether in about ten days. These advantages, with its large size and firmness, make it a valuable market berry in New Jersey, where hundreds of acres of it have been planted, and where it is still very popular. Throughout the North and West, it has been found too tender for cultivation, unless protected. In flavor, it is inferior to the Kittatinny or Snyder. For many years, the great desideratum has been a perfectly hardy blackberry, and this want has at last been met in part by the Snyder, a Western variety that seems able to endure, without the slightest injury, the extremes of temperature common in the Northwestern States. From Nebraska eastward, I have followed its history, and have never heard of its being injured by frost. It originated on, or in the vicinity of, Mr. Snyder's farm, near La Porte, Ind., about 1851, and is an upright, exceedingly vigorous, and stocky grower, a true child of the _R. vittosus_. Its one fault is that it is not quite large enough to compete with those already described. On moist land, with judicious pruning, it could be made to approach them very nearly, however, while its earliness, hardiness, fine flavor, and ability to grow and yield abundantly almost anywhere, will lead to an increasing popularity. For home use, size is not so important as flavor and certainty of a crop. It is also more nearly ripe when first black than any other kind that I have seen; its thorns are straight, and therefore less vicious. I find that it is growing steadily in favor; and where the Kittatinny is winter-killed, this hardy new variety leaves little cause for repining. There are several kinds that are passing out of cultivation, and not a few new candidates for favor; but the claims of superiority are as yet too doubtful to be recognized. Mr. James Wilson, of West Point, N. Y., found some magnificent wild berries growing on Crow Nest Mountain. The bush that bore them is now in my garden, and if it should produce fruit having a flavor equal to Rodman Drake's poem, Mr. Wilson has, then, found something more real than a "Culprit Fay." Occasionally, a thornless blackberry is heralded, and not a few have reason to recall the "Hoosac," which was generally found, I think, about as free from fruit as thorns. We have, also, the horticultural paradox of white blackberries, in the "Crystal," introduced by Mr. John B. Orange, of Albion, Illinois, and some others. They have little value, save as curiosities. PROPAGATION, CULTURE, ETC. In most instances I think more difficulty would be found in making a blackberry die than live. A plant set out in fall or early spring will thrive if given the ghost of a chance. Late spring planting, however, often fails if subjected to heat and drought while in the green, succulent condition of early growth. Like the raspberry, the blackberry should be set, if possible, while in a dormant condition. If planted late, shade should be given and moisture maintained until danger of wilting and shrivelling is past. I advise decidedly against late spring plantings on a large scale, but in early spring planting I have rarely lost a plant. Almost all that has been said concerning the planting and propagation of raspberries applies to this fruit. Set the plants two or three inches deeper than they were before. With the exception of the early Wilson, all speedily propagate themselves by suckers, and this variety can be increased readily by root cuttings. Indeed, better plants are usually obtained from all varieties by sowing slips of the root, as has already been explained in the paper on raspberries. The treatment of the blackberry can best be indicated by merely noting wherein its requirements differ from the last-named and kindred fruit. For instance, it does best on light soils and in sunny exposures. The partial shade, and moist, heavy land in which the raspberry luxuriates would produce a rank growth of canes that winter would generally find unripened, and unable to endure the frost. Warm, well-drained, but not dry land, therefore, is the best. On hard, dry ground, the fruit often never matures, but becomes mere collections of seeds. Therefore the need in the preparation of the soil of deep plowing, and the thorough loosening, if possible, of the subsoil with the lifting plow. Any one who has traced blackberry roots in light soils will seek to give them foraging-room. Neither does this fruit require the fertility needed in most instances by the raspberry. It inclines to grow too rankly at best, and demands mellowness rather than richness of soil. More room should also be given to the blackberry than to the raspberry. The rows should be six feet apart in the garden and eight feet in field culture, and the plants set three feet apart in the rows. At this distance, 1,815 are required for an acre, if one plant only is placed in a hill. Since these plants are usually cheap, if one is small or unprovided with good roots, it is well to plant two. If the ground is not very fertile, it is well to give the young plants a good start by scattering a liberal quantity of muck compost down the furrow in which they are planted. This ensures the most vigorous growth of young canes in the rows rather than in the intervening spaces. As generally grown, they require support, and may be staked as raspberries. Very often, cheap post-and-wire trellises are employed, and answer excellently. Under this system they can be grown in a continuous and bushy row, with care against over-crowding. The ideal treatment of the blackberry is management rather than culture. More can be done with the thumb and finger at the right time than with the most savage pruning-shears after a year of neglect. In May and June the perennial roots send up vigorous shoots that grow with amazing rapidity, until from five to ten feet high. Very often, this summer growth is so brittle and heavy with foliage, that thunder-gusts break them off from the parent stem just beneath the ground, and the bearing cane of the coming year is lost. These and the following considerations show the need of summer pruning. Tall, overgrown canes are much more liable to be injured by frost. They need high and expensive supports. Such branchless canes are by no means so productive as those which are made to throw out low and lateral shoots. They can always be made to do this by a timely pinch that takes off the terminal bud of the cane. This stops its upward growth, and the buds beneath it, which otherwise might remain dormant, are immediately forced to become side branches near the ground, where the snow may cover them, and over which, in the garden, straw or other light litter may be thrown, on the approach of winter. It thus is seen that by early summer pinching the blackberry may be compelled to become as low and bushy a shrub as we desire, and is made stocky and self-supporting at the same time. Usually it is not well to let the bushes grow over four feet high; and in regions where they winter-kill badly, I would keep them under three feet, so that the snow might be a protection. It should be remembered that the Kittatinny is so nearly hardy that in almost all instances a very slight covering saves it. The suckers that come up thickly between the rows can be cut away while small with the least possible trouble; but leave the patch or field to its own wild impulses for a year or so, and you may find a "slip of wilderness" in the midst of your garden that will require not a little strength and patience to subdue. By far the best weapon for such a battle, and the best implement also for cutting out the old wood, is a pair of long-handled shears. CHAPTER XXV CURRANTS--CHOICE OF SOIL, CULTIVATION, PRUNING, ETC. They wore "curns" in our early boyhood, and "curns" they are still in the rural vernacular of many regions. In old English they were "corrans," because the people associated them with the raisins of the small Zante grape, once imported so exclusively from Corinth as to acquire the name of that city. Under the tribe _Grossulariae_ of the Saxifrage family we find the _Ribes_ containing many species of currants and gooseberries; but, in accordance with the scope of this book, we shall quote from Professor Gray (whose arrangement we follow) only those that furnish the currants of cultivation. "_Ribes rubrum_, red currant, cultivated from Europe, also wild on our northern border, with straggling or reclining stems, somewhat heart-shaped, moderately three to five lobed leaves, the lobes roundish and drooping racemes from lateral buds distinct from the leaf buds; edible berries red, or a white variety." This is the parent of our cultivated red and white varieties. Currants are comparatively new-comers in the garden. When the Greek and Roman writers were carefully noting and naming the fruits of their time, the _Ribes_ tribe was as wild as any of the hordes of the far North, in whose dim, cold, damp woods and bogs it then flourished, but, like other Northern tribes, it is making great improvement under the genial influences of civilization and culture. Until within a century or two, gardeners who cultivated currants at all were content with wild specimens from the woods. The exceedingly small, acid fruit of these wildings was not calculated to inspire enthusiasm; but a people possessing the surer qualities of patience and perseverance determined to develop them, and, as a result, we have the old Bed and White Dutch varieties, as yet unsurpassed for the table. In the Victoria, Cherry, and White Grape, we have decided advances in size, but not in flavor. CHOICE AND PREPARATION OF SOIL The secret of success in the culture of currants is suggested by the fact that nature has planted nearly every species of the _Ribes_ in cold, damp, northern exposures. Throughout the woods and bogs of the Northern Hemisphere is found the scraggy, untamed, hurdy stock from which has been developed the superb White Grape. As with people, so with plants: development does not eradicate constitutional traits and tendencies. Beneath all is the craving for the primeval conditions of life, and the best success with the currant and gooseberry will assuredly be obtained by those who can give them a reasonable approach to the soil, climate, and culture suggested by their damp, cold, native haunts. As with the strawberry, then, the first requisite is, not wetness, but abundant and continuous moisture. Soils naturally deficient in this, and which cannot be made drought-resisting by deep plowing and cultivation, are not adapted to the currant. Because this fruit is found wild in bogs, it does not follow that it can be grown successfully in undrained swamps. It will do better in such places than on dry, gravelly knolls, or on thin, light soils; but our fine civilized varieties need civilized conditions. The well-drained swamp may become the very best of currant fields; and damp, heavy land, that is capable of deep, thorough cultivation, should be selected if possible. When such is not to be had, then, by deep plowing, subsoiling, by abundant mulch around the plants throughout the summer, and by occasional waterings in the garden, counteracting the effects of lightness and dryness of soil, skill can go far in making good nature's deficiencies. Next to depth of soil and moisture, the currant requires fertility. It is justly called one of the "gross feeders," and is not particular as to the quality of its food, so that it is abundant. I would still suggest, however, that it be fed according to its nature with heavy composts, in which muck, leaf-mould, and the cleanings of the cow-stable are largely present. Wood-ashes and bone-meal are also most excellent. If stable or other light manures must be used, I would suggest that they be scattered liberally on the surface in the fall or early spring and gradually worked in by cultivation. Thus used, their light heating qualities will do no harm, and they will keep the surface mellow and, therefore, moist. The shadowy, Northern haunts of the wild currant also suggest that it will falter and fail under the Southern sun; and this is true, As we pass down through the Middle States, we find it difficult to make thrive even the hardy White and Bed Dutch varieties, and a point is at last reached when the bushes lose their leaves in the hot season, and die. From the latitude of New York south, therefore, increasing effort should be made to supply the currants' constitutional need, by giving partial shade among pear or widely set apple-trees, or, better still, by planting on the northern side of fences, buildings, etc. By giving a cool, half-shady exposure in moist land, the culture of the currant can be extended far to the south, especially in the high mountain regions. Even well to the north it is unprofitable when grown on light, thin, poor land, unless given liberal, skilful culture. PLANTING, CULTIVATION AND PRUNING I regard autumn as the best season for planting currants, but have succeeded nearly as well in early spring. If kept moist, there is little danger of the plants dying at any time, but those set in the fall or early spring make, the first year, a much larger growth than those planted when the buds have developed into leaves. Since they start so early, they should be set in the spring as soon as the ground is dry enough to work, and in the autumn, any time after the leaves fall or the wood is ripe. The plants of commerce are one, two and three years old, though not very many of the last are sold. I would as soon have one-year plants, if well rooted, as any, since they are cheaper and more certain to make strong, vigorous bushes, if given generous treatment in the open field, than if left crowded too long in nursery rows. For the garden, where fruit is desired as soon as possible, two and three year old plants are preferable. After planting, cut the young bushes back one-half or two-thirds, so as to ensure new and vigorous growth. In field culture, I recommend that the rows be five feet apart, and the plants four feet from each other in the row. In this case 2,178 plants are required for an acre. If it is designed to cultivate them both ways, let the plants be set at right angles five feet apart, an acre now requiring 1,742 plants. Sink them two or three inches deeper than they stood in the nursery rows, and although in preparation the ground was well enriched, a shovel of compost around the young plant gives it a fine send-off, and hastens the development of a profitable bush. In the field and for market, I would urge that currants be grown invariably in bush, rather than in tree form. English writers, and some here who follow them, recommend the latter method; but it is not adapted to our climate, and to such limited attention as we can afford to give. The borers, moreover, having but a single stem to work upon, would soon cause many vacancies in the rows. Currants are grown for market with large and increasing profits; indeed, there is scarcely a fruit that now pays better. Mr. John S. Collins, of Moorestown, N. J., by the following ingenious, yet simple, invention, is able to drive through his currant and raspberry fields without injuring the plants. "An ordinary cart is changed by putting in an axle fifteen inches longer than usual, the wheels thus making a track six feet and eight inches wide. The shafts and body of the cart are put just as close to one wheel as possible, so that the horse and the wheel will pass as near together, and as near in a line, as practicable. The axle of the other wheel being long, and bowing up several inches higher than ordinary in the middle, it passes over a row of bushes with little or no damage. Thus, fertilizers can be carried to all parts of the field." Of course, it would not do to drive through bushes laden with fruit; but after they were picked, such a vehicle could cause but little injury. In the garden and for home use there is the widest latitude. We may content ourselves, as many do, with a few old Red Dutch bushes that for a generation have struggled with grass and burdocks. We may do a little better, and set out plants in ordinary garden soil, but forget for years to give a particle of food to the starving bushes, remarking annually, with increasing emphasis, that they must be "running out." Few plants of the garden need high feeding more, and no others are more generally starved. I will guarantee that there are successful farmers who no more think of manuring a currant bush than of feeding crows. This fruit will live, no matter how we abuse it, but there are scarcely any that respond more quickly to generous treatment; and in the garden where it is not necessary to keep such a single eye to the margin of profit, many beautiful and interesting things can be done with the currant. The majority will be satisfied with large, vigorous bushes, well enriched, mulched and skilfully pruned. If we choose, however, we may train them into pretty little trees, umbrella, globe, or pyramid in shape, according to our fancy, and by watchfulness and the use of ashes, keep away the borers. In one instance I found a few vigorous shoots that had made a growth of nearly three feet in a single season. With the exception of the terminal bud and three or four just below it, I disbudded these shoots carefully, imbedded the lower ends six inches in moist soil as one would an ordinary cutting, and they speedily took root and developed into little trees. Much taller and more ornamental currant and gooseberry trees can be obtained by grafting any variety we wish on the Missouri species (_Ribes aureum_). These can be made pretty and useful ornaments of the lawn, as well as of the garden. Instead, therefore, of weed-choked, sprawling, unsightly objects, currant bushes can be made things of beauty, as well as of sterling worth. The cultivation of the currant is very simple. As early in the spring as the ground is dry enough, it should be thoroughly stirred by plow or cultivator, and all perennial weeds and grasses just around the bushes taken out with pronged hoes or forks. If a liberal top-dressing of compost or some other fertilizer was not given in the autumn, which is the best time to apply it, let it be spread over the roots (not up against the stems) before the first spring cultivation. While the bushes are still young, they can be cultivated and kept clean, like any hoed crop; but after they come into bearing--say the third summer --a different course must be adopted. If the ground is kept mellow and bare under the bushes, the fruit will be so splashed with earth as to be unsalable, and washed fruit is scarcely fit for the table. We very properly wish it with just the bloom and coloring which Nature is a month or more in elaborating. Muddy or rinsed fruit suggests the sty, not a dining-room. A mulch of leaves, straw, evergreen boughs--anything that will keep the ground clean--applied immediately after the early spring culture, is the best and most obvious way of preserving the fruit; and this method also secures all the good results which have been shown to follow mulching. Where it is not convenient to mulch, I would suggest that the ground be left undisturbed after the first thorough culture, until the fruit is gathered. The weeds that grow in the interval may be mowed, and allowed to fall under the bushes. By the end of June, the soil will have become so fixed that, with a partial sod of weeds, the fruit may hang over, or even rest upon it, without being splashed by the heavy rains then prevalent. This course is not so neat as clean cultivation or mulching. Few fruit growers, however, can afford to make appearances the first consideration. I have heard of oats being sown among the bushes to keep the fruit clean, but their growth must check the best development of the fruit quite as much as the natural crop of weeds. It would be better to give clean culture, and grow rye, or any early maturing green crop, somewhere else, and when the fruit begins to turn, spread this material under the bushes. On many places, the mowings of weedy, swampy places would be found sufficient for the purpose. After the fruit is gathered, start the cultivator and hoe at once, so as to secure vigorous foliage and healthful growth throughout the entire summer. Pruning may be done any time after the leaves fall, and success depends upon its judicious and rigorous performance. The English gardeners have recognized this fact, and they have as minute and careful a system as we apply to the grape. These formal and rather arbitrary methods can scarcely be followed practically in our hurried American life. It seems to me that I can do no better than to lay down some sound and general principles and leave their working out to the judgment of the grower. In most instances, I imagine, our best gardeners rarely trim two bushes exactly alike, but deal with each according to its vigor and natural tendencies; for a currant bush has not a little individuality. A young bush needs cutting back like a young grapevine, and for the same reason. A grapevine left to itself would soon become a mass of tangled wood yielding but little fruit, and that of inferior quality. In like manner nature, uncurbed, gives us a great, straggling bush that is choked and rendered barren by its own luxuriance. Air and light are essential, and the knife must make spaces for them. Cutting back and shortening branches develops fruit buds. Otherwise, we have long, unproductive reaches of wood. This is especially true of the Cherry and other varieties resembling it. The judicious use of the knife, kept up from year to year, will almost double their productiveness. Again, too much very young and too much old wood are causes of unfruitfulness. The skilful culturist seeks to produce and preserve many points of branching and short spurs, for it is here that the little fruit buds cluster thickly. When a branch is becoming black and feeble from age, cut it back to the root, that space may be given for younger growth. From six to twelve bearing stems, from three to five feet high, with their shortened branches and fruit spurs, may be allowed to grow from the roots, according to the vigor of the plant and the space allotted to it. Usually, too many suckers start in the spring. Unless the crop of young wood is valuable for propagation, all except such as are needed to renew the bush should be cut out as early as possible, before they have injured the forming crop. In England, great attention is paid to summer pruning, and here much might be accomplished by it if we had, or would take, the time. CHAPTER XXVI CURRANTS, CONTINUED--PROPAGATION, VARIETIES Pruning naturally leads to the subject of propagation, for much of that which is cut away, so far from being useless, is often of great value to the nurseryman; and there are few who grow this fruit for market who could not turn many an honest penny if they would take the refuse young wood of the previous summer's growth and develop it into salable bushes. In most instances a market would be found in their own neighborhood. Nothing is easier than success in raising young currant bushes, except failure. If cuttings are treated in accordance with their demand for moisture and coolness, they grow with almost certainty; if subjected to heat and drought, they usually soon become dry sticks. The very best course is to make and plant our cuttings in September or very early in October--just as soon as the leaves fall or will rub off readily. As is true of a root-slip, so also the wood cutting must make a callus at its base before there can be growth. From this the roots start out. Therefore, the earlier in the fall that cuttings are made, the more time for the formation of this callus. Often, autumn-planted cuttings are well rooted before winter, and have just that much start over those that must begin life in the spring. Six inches is the average length. See Figures A, B and C. Let the cuttings be sunk in deep, rich, moist, but thoroughly well-drained soil, so deeply as to leave but two or three buds above the ground. In the garden, where the design is to raise a few fine bushes for home use merely, let the rows be two feet apart and the cuttings six inches apart in the row. In raising them by the thousand for market, we must economize space and labor; and therefore one of the best methods, after rendering the ground mellow and smooth, is to stretch a line across the plat or field; then, beginning on one side of the line, to strike a spade into the soil its full depth, press it forward and draw it out. This leaves a slight opening, of the width and depth of the spade, and a boy following inserts in this three cuttings, one in the middle and one at each end. The man then steps back and drives the spade down again about four inches in the rear of the first opening, and, as he presses his spade forward to make a second, he closes up the first opening, pressing--indeed, almost pinching--the earth around the three slips that have just been thrust down, until but one or two buds are above the surface. We thus have a row of cuttings, three abreast, and about three inches apart, across the entire field. A space of three feet is left for cultivation, and then we plant, as before, another triple row. These thick rows should be taken up the following fall, when the largest may be sold; or planted where they are to fruit, and the smaller ones replanted in nursery rows. When land is abundant the cuttings may be sunk in single rows, with sufficient space between for horse cultivation, and allowed to mature into two-year-old plants without removal. If these are not planted or sold, they should be cut back rigorously before making the third year's growth. [Illustration: CURRANT CUTTINGS AND CALLUS] In moist land, cuttings can be made to grow even if set out late in the spring, especially if top-dressed and mulched; but if they are to be started on high, dry land, they should be out sufficiently early in the autumn to become rooted before winter. If our land is of a nature that tends to throw roots out of the ground--and moist, heavy land has this tendency--it may be best to bury the cuttings in bundles, tied up with fine wire, on a dry knoll, below the action of the frost, and set them out early--_as early as possible_--in the spring. At any season the rows of cuttings should be well top-dressed with fine manure, and if planted in autumn, they should be so well covered with straw, leaves, or some litter, as not to suffer or be thrown out in freezing and thawing weather. I manage to get half my cuttings out in the fall, and half in early spring. In the greenhouse, and even out-of-doors, under very favorable circumstances, plants may be grown from single buds; and green wood also propagates readily under glass. A vigorous young plant, with roots attached, may often be obtained by breaking off the suckers that start beneath the surface around the stems; and, by layering or bending bushes over and throwing dirt upon them, new plants are readily made also; but more shapely, and usually more vigorous, bushes are obtained by simple cuttings, as I have described. When it is designed to grow a cutting in a tree form, all the buds but two or three at the top should be carefully removed. If we wish to try our fortune in raising new varieties, we must sow seeds of the very best specimens we can find, gathered when perfectly ripe. These seeds should never be kept where it is hot or very dry, and should be soaked for a day or two in tepid water before planting. Sow early in spring, quarter of an inch deep, in fine rich soil, which must continually be kept moist, but never wet. Top-dressings of very fine, light manure would keep the surface from baking, thus giving the seeds a chance to germinate. Tolerate no weeds. Remove the seedlings in the fall to rows three feet apart, and the plants two feet distant in the row. There they may stand until their comparative value can be determined. VARIETIES Black currants form quite a distinct class in appearance and flavor, and are not as popular with us as in England. They are stronger and coarser-growing plants than the red and white species, and do not require as high culture. They can be grown to advantage in tree form, as they are quite exempt from insect enemies. The tent caterpillar is the only one that I have seen injuring them. They also require much less pruning, since the best fruit is borne on the young wood of the previous year's growth. If they are grown as bushes, they need more room--six feet apart each way--and the knife need be used only to secure good form and space for air and light. Two native species--_Ribes floridum_ and _Ribes aureum_--are cultivated to some extent (for description see "Gray's Botany"). Although these species and their varieties are of little value, Mr. Fuller thinks that they might become the parents of far better kinds than we now have, since they are strong growers, and their fruit is naturally of better flavor than that of the European black currant. _Ribes aureum_ is largely cultivated as an ornamental shrub, and its spicy-scented, bright yellow flowers of early spring are among my pleasantest memories. As has already been explained, we can make miniature trees of our white and red currants, by grafting them on its strong, erect-growing stems. _Ribes nigrum_ is the European species, and is found wild throughout the northern part of the Eastern Hemisphere. Mr. Fuller writes that the inhabitants of Siberia make a beverage from its dried leaves which is said closely to resemble green tea. Black Naples is the finest variety of this species. Charles Downing says of it: "Its berries often measure nearly three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Its leaves and blossoms appear earlier than those of the common, or English Black, but the fruit is later, and the clusters as well as the berries are larger and more numerous." Lee's Prolific is said by some to be a slight improvement on the above; by others it is thought to be very similar. Of red currants, the old Red Dutch is the most prominent. It is the currant of memory. From it was made the wine which our mothers and grandmothers felt that they could offer with perfect propriety to the minister. There are rural homes to-day in which the impression still lingers that it is a kind of temperance drink. From it is usually made the currant jelly without which no lady would think of keeping house in the country. One of the gravest questions in domestic economy is whether the jelly will "jell." Often it does not, and cannot be made to. The cause of its lamentable perversity is this: The currants have been left until over-ripe before picking, or they have been picked wet, just after rain. Gather them when dry, and as soon as possible after they have turned red, and I am informed by the highest domestic authority (my wife) that there will be no difficulty. In flavor, the Red Dutch is unequalled by any other red currant. It is also a variety that can scarcely be killed by abuse and neglect, and it responds so generously to high culture and rigorous pruning that it is an open question whether it cannot be made, after all, the most profitable for market, since it is so much more productive than the larger varieties, and can be made to approach them so nearly in size. Indeed, not a few are annually sold for Cherry currants. The White Dutch is similar to the Red in the growth and character of the bush. The clusters, however, are a little shorter, and the fruit a little larger and sweeter, and is of a fine yellowish-white color, with a veined, translucent skin. The White Grape is an advance in size upon the last-named, and of marvellous productiveness and beauty. It is not as vigorous as the White Dutch, and is more spreading in its mode of growth, requiring careful pruning to make a shapely bush. The fruit, also, is not spread so evenly over the wood, but is produced more in bunches. In flavor, it is one of the very best. Dana's Transparent, and other white varieties, do not vary materially from either the White Grape or Dutch. The great market currant is the Cherry. In the "Canadian Horticulturist" for September, 1878, I find the following: "The history of this handsome currant is not without interest. Monsieur Adrienne Seneclause, a distinguished horticulturist in France, received it from Italy among a lot of other currants. He noticed the extraordinary size of the fruit, and gave it, in consequence, the name it yet bears. In the year 1843 it was fruited in the nursery of the Museum of Natural History, and figured from these samples in the 'Annales de Flore et de Pomone' for February, 1848. Dr. William W. Valk, of Flushing, Long Island, N. Y., introduced it to the notice of American fruit growers in 1846, having imported some of the plants in the spring of that year." This variety is now very widely disseminated, and its culture is apparently becoming increasingly profitable every year. Two essentials are requisite to success with it--high manuring and skilful pruning. It has the tendency to produce long branches, on which there are but few buds. Rigorous cutting back, so as to cause branching joints and fruit spurs, should be practiced annually. The foliage is strong and coarse, and the fruit much more acid than the Dutch family; but size and beauty carry the market, and the Cherry can be made, by high culture, very large and beautiful. Versailles, or _La Versaillaise_, is a figurative bone of contention. The horticultural doctors disagree so decidedly that the rest of us can, without presumption, think for ourselves. Mr. A. S. Fuller has probably given the subject more attention than any one else, and he asserts, without any hesitancy, that this so-called variety is identical with the Cherry. Mr. Fuller is certainly entitled to his opinion, for he obtained plants of the Cherry and Versailles from all the leading nurserymen in America, and imported them from the standard nurseries abroad, not only once, but repeatedly, yet could never get two distinct varieties. The writer in the "Canadian Horticulturist" also states in regard to the Versailles: "Some pains were taken to obtain this variety on different occasions, and from the most reliable sources, so that there might be no mistake as to the correctness of the name; but after many years of trial we are unable to perceive any decided variation, either in the quality of the fruit, the length of the bunch, or the habit of the plant, from the Cherry currant." I must admit that I am inclined to take the same view; for, during several years, I have looked in vain for two distinct varieties. I have carefully kept the two kinds separate, but find in each case the same stout, stocky, short-jointed, erect shoots that are often devoid of buds, and tend to become naked with age, and the same dark green, thick, bluntly and coarsely serrated foliage. Mr. Downing thinks the difference lies in the fact that, while the Versailles strain produces many short bunches like the Cherry, it also frequently bears clusters, and that such long, tapering clusters are never formed on the Cherry. This is the only difference, I think, if any exists; but in no instance have I been able to find this distinction well defined and sustained by the bearing plantations that I have seen. Mr. Downing, however, has had tenfold more experience than I have, and his opinions are entitled to corresponding weight. That this class is much inclined to "sport," I think all will admit. One bush in a row may be loaded with fruit year after year, and the next one be comparatively barren. The clusters on one bush may be short and characteristic of the Cherry, while a neighboring bush in the same patch may show a tendency to mingle some long clusters with the short ones; and young bushes grown from the same plant will show these variations. I am satisfied that distinct and much improved strains could be developed by propagating from bushes producing the best and most abundant fruit, and that a variety having the characteristics of the Ideal Versailles could be developed. The importance of this careful selection in propagation can scarcely be overestimated, and the fruit grower who followed it up for a few years might almost double the productiveness and quality of many of his varieties. Victoria (known also as May's Victoria, and having a half-dozen other synonymes) is a distinct variety, whose great value consists in its lengthening out the currant season two or three weeks after the above-named kinds have matured. The fruit is also large--between the Red Dutch and Cherry in size--exceedingly abundant, and although rather acid, of good flavor when fully ripe. The clusters are very long--from five to seven inches--tapering, and the berries are bright red. If it is grown in some moist, cool, half-shady location, the bunches will hang on the bushes very late in the season. In many localities it is found very profitable, since it need not be sold until the others are out of the market. The young branches are rather slender, but the plant itself is vigorous, and can be grown at less expense than the Cherry. There are many other named varieties, but in the majority of instances the distinctions between them are slight, and as they are waning before the finer varieties that I have described, I shall not attempt to lighten the shadows that are gathering around them. The future promises more than the past, and I think that, before many years pass, some fine new kinds will be introduced. The enemies and diseases of the currant will be treated in a later chapter. CHAPTER XXVII GOOSEBERRIES I have treated the currant very fully, not only because it is the more popular fruit in this country, but also because the greater part of my suggestions under that heading applies equally to this branch of the _Ribes_ tribe. Possessing the same general characteristics, it should be treated on the same principles that were seen to be applicable to the currant. It flourishes best in the same cool exposures, and is the better for partial shade. Even in the south of England the more tender-skinned varieties often scald in the sun. However, I would recommend the shade of a fence or a northern hillside, rather than overhanging branches of trees. A rich soil, especially one that is deep and moist but not wet, is equally requisite, and the rigorous annual pruning is even more essential. As the wood becomes old and black, it should be cut out altogether. Fruit buds and spurs are produced on wood two or more years old, and cutting back causes these, but they must not be allowed to become too crowded. To no fruit are air and light more essential. We have in this country two very distinct classes of gooseberries-the first of foreign origin, and the second consisting of our native species. Gray thus describes _Ribes Grossularia_, garden or English gooseberry: "Cultivated from Europe for the well-known fruit; thorny and prickly, with small, obtuse, three to five lobed leaves, green flowers, one to three on short pedicels, bell-shaped calyx, and large berry." This native of northern Europe and the forests of the British Islands has been developed into the superb varieties which have been famous so long in England, but which we are able to grow with very partial success. It remembers its birthplace even more strongly than the currant, and the almost invariable mildew of our gardens is the sign of its homesickness. The cool, moist climate of England just suits it, and it is the pride of the gardens of Lancashire to surpass the world in the development of large specimens. Mr. Downing writes: "We are indebted to the Lancashire weavers, who seem to have taken it up as a hobby, for nearly all the surprisingly large sorts of modern date. Their annual shows exhibit this fruit in its greatest perfection, and a gooseberry book is published in Manchester every year, giving a list of all the prize sorts, etc." The extraordinary pains taken is suggested by the following quotation from the "Encyclopaedia of Gardening": "To effect this increased size, every stimulant is applied that their ingenuity can suggest. They not only annually manure the soil richly, but also surround the plants with trenches of manure for the extremities of the roots to strike into, and form round the stem of each plant a basin, to be mulched, or manured, or watered, as may become necessary. When a root has extended too far from the stem, it is uncovered, and all the strongest leaders are shortened back nearly one-half of their length, and covered with fresh, marly loam, well manured. The effect of this pruning is to increase the number of fibres and spongioles, which form rapidly on the shortened roots, and strike out in all directions among the fresh, newly stirred loam, in search of nutriment." This is carrying culture to an extreme rarely, if ever, seen in America. The annual referred to above recorded one hundred and fifty-five gooseberry exhibitions in 1863. The number of varieties is almost endless, and more than seven hundred prize sorts are named in Lindley's "Guide to the Orchard"; but not one of them, I fear, can be grown in this country, except under favorable conditions and with extra care. Even after supplying such conditions, they will often mildew in spite of our best efforts. Again, in some localities, and for obscure causes, they will thrive and continue for years quite free from this chief enemy of the foreign gooseberry. Repeated applications of the flowers of sulphur over the bushes, from the time the fruit sets until it is ripe, are probably the best preventive. Thorough mulching, rigorous pruning, and high culture are also to be recommended. Those who garden for pleasure would do well to try some of these fine foreigners. The following are some that Mr. Downing and others have recommended: I. Red Varieties: British Crown, Top Sawyer, Roaring Lion, Lancashire Lad, Crown Bob. II. White: Cheshire Lass, White Lion, Whitesmith, White Honey. III. Green: Laurel, Heart of Oak, Jolly Angler, Jolly Tar. IV. Yellow: Golden Fleece, Bunker Hill, Conqueror, etc. If but two or three foreign berries are to be chosen, I would recommend Crown Bob, Bearing Lion, and Whitesmith. I am sorry to say that seedlings of these foreign varieties have the same tendency to mildew shown by their parents. The Late Emerald was originated in the old garden at Newburgh, and is a sad example of this fact. For many years it thrived in its birthplace without a trace of mildew, but on my own place it has behaved so badly that I do not recommend it. Were it not for this fault, I should grow no other variety. In view of this inveterate evil, mildew, which is so seldom escaped and so difficult to overcome, we must turn to the second great class, our native species, since they are adapted to our climate. Of these there are several species, of which the following are the most prominent: _Ribes speciosum_, showy, flowering gooseberry of California, cultivated for ornament, especially in England, and likely to succeed in the southern Middle States. It is trained like a climber; has small, shining leaves, very handsome flowers resembling those of a fuchsia, berry prickly, and few-seeded. _R. rotundifolium_, more common in the West, is often downy-leaved; peduncles slender; the slender stamens and two-parted style longer than the narrow calyx; berry smooth. _R. cynosbati_ is found in the rocky woods of the North, is downy-leaved, with slender peduncle, stamens and undivided style not exceeding the broad calyx; large berry, usually prickly. _R. lacustre_, Lake or Swamp Gooseberry, with the prickly stems of the gooseberry, but with a raceme of flowers like those of a currant; found in the cold bogs and wet woods of the North; small, bristly berries, of unpleasant flavor. Last, but by no means the least, is the _Ribes hirtellum_, "commonest in our Eastern States, seldom downy, with very short thorns or none, very short peduncles, stamens and two-cleft style scarcely longer than the bell-shaped calyx; and the smooth berry is purple, small and sweet." (Gray.) This is the parent of the most widely known of our native varieties, the Houghton Seedling, named from its originator, Abel Houghton, of Lynn, Massachusetts. The bush is a vigorous grower, that will thrive, with decent culture, on any moderately good soil, and is very rarely injured by mildew. At the same time it improves greatly under high culture and pruning. The bush has a slender and even weeping habit of growth, and can be propagated readily by cuttings. From the Houghton have been grown two seedlings that now are justly the most popular. The first and best of these is the Downing, originated by Mr. Charles Downing of Newburgh. It is an "upright, vigorous-growing plant, very productive. Fruit somewhat larger than the Houghton, roundish-oval, whitish-green, with the rib veins distinct. Skin smooth. Flesh rather soft, juicy." I consider this the best and most profitable variety that can be generally grown in this country. In flavor, it is excellent. I have had good success with this whenever I have given it fair culture. It does not propagate readily from cuttings, and therefore I increase it usually by layering. The second seedling is Smith's Improved, a comparatively new variety that is winning favor. It more closely resembles the Houghton in its habit of growth than the Downing, and yet is more vigorous and upright than its parent. The fruit is considerably larger than the Houghton, oval, light green, with a bloom, moderately firm, sweet and good. Mountain Seedling, originating with the Shakers at Lebanon, New York, is the largest of the American varieties, but for some reason it does not gain in popularity. Cluster, or American Red, is a variety of unknown origin. The ancestral bush may have been found in the woods. The fruit is scarcely as large as that of the Houghton, is darker in color when fully ripe, hangs long on the bush, and is sweet and good. Mr. P. Barry says that it never mildews. Therefore, it should be made one of the parents of new varieties, for in this direction lies the future of this fruit in America. In support of this opinion, I am led to quote the following letter, recently received: "I write to call your attention to a native variety of gooseberry, of which you make no mention in your 'Scribner Papers,' growing in great abundance in the Sierra Nevada, at an elevation of from 2,000 to 3,000 feet, often in the most exposed places, generally on northern slopes. Thinking it may not have come to your knowledge, I will describe it. The bush is of stiff, erect habit, two to three feet high, a stocky grower and an abundant bearer. The berries vary from one-half to one and one-quarter inches in diameter, are covered with innumerable thorns, scarcely less savage in the green state than those on an ordinary wild bush of this country. When cooked, the prickles soften down to the same consistence as the skin, which is rather thick. When ripe, they are easily peeled, and well repay the trouble, the spines being then much less obdurate than when green. The mature fruit is of a deep, dull, coppery red color, and in flavor is equal, if not superior, to any of the _red_ varieties which I have eaten in England. I have often wondered whether cultivation might not remove the spines from the berries, or, that failing, whether a seedling could not be raised from them which would give us a berry far more reliable than any good gooseberry we now have. The scorching sun of the long, dry season of California seemed to have no effect on the foliage, and is five years' experience I never found a mildewed berry. "The berry is _round_, like the red English berries, instead of ellipsoid, like their white or golden ones. "There is also another variety, hairy instead of spiny, about the size of your picture of the Downing; bush not so free a grower, rarely reaching two feet, and the berry, to my taste, much inferior. Tastes, however, differ, and it may be the more promising fruit. "Both varieties are common throughout the eastern end of El Dorado, Placer, and Nevada counties." The first-named, or thorny gooseberry, probably belongs to the _Ribes cynosbati_, and the latter to the _R. rotundifolium_. The writer is correct in thinking that, if such gooseberries are growing wild, cultivation and selection could secure vast improvements. When we remember that English gardeners started with a native species inferior to ours, we are led to believe that effort and skill like theirs will here be rewarded by kinds as superb, and as perfectly adapted to our climate. CHAPTER XXVIII DISEASES AND INSECT ENEMIES OF SMALL FRUITS Nature is very impartial. It is evidently her intention that we shall enjoy all the fruits for which we are willing to pay her price, in work, care, or skill, but she seems equally bent on supplying the hateful white grub with strawberry roots, and currant worms with succulent foliage. Indeed, it might even appear that she had a leaning toward her small children, no matter how pestiferous they are. At any rate, under the present order of things, lordly man is often their servant, and they reap the reward of his labors. Did not Nature stumble a little when man fell? She manages to keep on the right side of the poets and painters, for it would seem that they see her only when in moods that are smiling, serious, or grand. The scientist, too, she beguiles, by showing under the microscope how exquisitely she has fashioned some little embodiment of evil that may be the terror of a province, or the scourge of a continent. While the learned man is explaining how wonderfully its minute organs are formed, for mastication, assimilation, procreation, etc., practical people, who have their bread to earn, are impatiently wishing that the whole genus was under their heels, confident that the organs would become still more minute. The horticulturist should be cast in heroic mold, for he not only must bear his part in the fight with moral wrong, like other men, but must also cope with vegetable and insect evil. Weeds, bugs, worms, what hateful little vices many of them seem in nature! I do not wish to be thought indiscriminate. Many insects are harmless and beautiful; and, if harmless, no one can object if they are not pretty. Not a few are very useful, as, for instance, the little parasite of the cabbage worm. There is need of a general and unremitting crusade against our insect enemies; but it should be a discriminating war, for it is downright cruelty to kill a harmless creature, however small. Still, there are many pests that, like certain forms of evil, will destroy if not destroyed; and they have brought disaster and financial ruin to multitudes. Mark Tapley hit upon the true philosophy of life, and it is usually possible to take a cheerful view of everything; such a view I suggest to the reader, in regard to the pests of the garden that often lead us into sympathy with the man who wished that there was "a form of sound words in the Prayer-Book which might be used in cases of great provocation." Under the present order of things, skills, industry, and prompt, vigilant action are rewarded. Humanity's besetting sin is laziness; but weeds and insects for months together make this vice wellnigh impossible, save to those who are so unfortunate as to live on the industry of others. Therefore, though our fruits often suffer, men are developed, and made more patient, energetic, resolute, persevering--in brief, more manly. Put the average man into a garden where there were no vegetable diseases, insects, and weeds to cope with, and he himself would become a weed. Moreover, it would seem that in those regions where Nature hinders men as much as she helps them, they are all the better for their difficulties, and their gardens also. Such skill and energy are developed that not only are the horticultural enemies vanquished, but they are often made the means of a richer and a fuller success. In a valuable paper read before the New Jersey State Horticultural Society, and recently published in the "American Entomologist," Mr. A. S. Fuller makes the following useful suggestions: "Insects and diseases are frequently so closely united, or so dependent upon each other, that the naturalist often finds it difficult to determine to which the fruit grower should attribute his losses. Some species of insects attack only diseased or dead plants; others only the living and healthy. If a plant shows signs of failing, we are inclined to speak of it as being diseased, whether the failure is caused by a lack of some element in the soil, attacks of parasitic fungi, or noxious insects. The loss is the same in the end, whether from one or all of these enemies combined. "There are two practical methods of combating insect enemies and diseases of plants; one is to so carefully cultivate and stimulate the growth of the plants that they may possess the power of resisting attack; the other is to make war directly upon them by artificial means. Of course, the first method is most applicable or practicable against the more minute species, such as the plant-lice, rust, smut, and mildew. I do not recommend forcing plants to extremes, in order to enable them to resist their enemies, as this might work an irreparable injury; but the condition to be aimed at should be a healthy, vigorous growth; for anything beyond this is more the sign of weakness than strength. "The half-starved, overworked and uncared-for horse is sure, sooner or later, to become the prey of various kinds of internal and external parasites, which are thrown off, or successfully resisted in their attacks, by the healthy, vigorous, and well-fed animal; and the same principle holds good all through the animal and vegetable kingdoms--whether the subject be a man, horse, sturdy oak, or delicate strawberry plant. Not that all diseases are due to loss of vigor through starvation and neglect; but that a large number of them are is well known." STRAWBERRIES We all have seen these principles verified. In the Great American strawberry, I think, we have an example of feebleness resulting from over-stimulation. The Wilson Seedling, that, in the local vernacular, is sometimes said to be "running out," is, in contrast, the consequence of starvation, neglect, and long-continued propagation from poor, mixed stock. Feebleness can scarcely be called a disease, and yet it is best counteracted by the tonic treatment suggested by Mr. Fuller. In loose, light soils, the Aphis, or Green Fly, often penetrates to the roots of strawberry plants in immense numbers, and they suck away life or vitality. The tonic of wood-ashes scattered over the rows will usually destroy the pests. Refuse from the tobacco-factory is also recommended. I think that wood-ashes and bone-dust are excellent preventives of burning or sun-scalding. They give the plants such vigor that they are able to resist sudden or great climatic changes, from heat to cold, or from drought to moisture. Many varieties are enfeebled by their disposition to run profusely. Kerr's Prolific, for example, will speedily sod the ground with small, puny plants, whose foliage will burn so badly that the fruit can scarcely mature. Set out these small plants, and give the tonic treatment of cutting off all runners, and large, bushy stools, with vigorous foliage and superb fruit, will result. Indeed, next to fertilizers and moisture, there is nothing that so enhances the vigor and productiveness of a plant as clipping the runners as fast as they appear. The uncurbed habit of running depletes almost like disease; and but few varieties will make large fruit buds and runners at the same time. In close, wet weather the fruit and leaf stalks will sometimes suffer from mildew; and occasionally a microscopic fungus, known as the strawberry brand, will attack the foliage. I have also seen, in a few instances, a disease that resembled the curl-leaf in raspberries. The plants were dwarfed, foliage wrinkled and rusty, and fruit misshapen, like small, gnarly apples. In all such instances I believe in tonic treatment, of wood-ashes, bone-dust, guano, and fertilizers of like nature, used with care. Plants do not need over-doses or over-feeding any more than we do ourselves. When a few plants are diseased, I believe in rigorously rooting them out and burning them. If a field is affected, as soon as possible turn the plants under, and renovate the land with clover, buckwheat, a light dressing of lime, and thorough exposure to the air, light, and frost. By such methods, and a wise selection of fertilizers, I believe that strawberries can be raised on the same ground for centuries. My plants have always been exceptionally free from all kinds of disease or rust, and I attribute it to the liberal use of wood-ashes. But there is one enemy that inspires me with fear and unmingled disgust. It is the type of a certain phase of character in society most difficult to deal with, and which the mantle of charity is rarely broad enough to cover--the stupidly and stolidly malignant, who have just sense enough to do a great deal of mischief, and to keep it hidden until too late for remedy. Science has dignified the detestable thing with a sonorous name, as usual--the _Lachnosterna Fusca_, already referred to. It does not deserve even its name in the common vernacular--White Grub; for its white is of a dingy hue, and its head dark, like its deeds. Has it a redeeming trait? "Give the de'il his due," says the proverb. The best I can say of the white grub is that crows, and an odorous animal I forbear to name, are very fond of it, This fact, I think, is its sole virtue, its one entry on the credit side; but there is a long, dark score against it. Of its havoc on the lawn and farm I will not speak, since it is sufficient for our purposes to state that it is the strawberry's worst foe. The best method of circumventing the "varmint" is to learn its ways; and therefore I shall outline its history, beginning at a period in its being when stupidity predominates over its evil-that is, when it is the May beetle or June bug, that blunders and bumps around in utter disregard of itself and every one else. In this stage it is like the awkward village loafer, quiet by day, but active and obtrusive in the early evening. It dislikes honest sunshine, but is attracted by artificial light, at which it precipitates itself with the same lack of sense and reason that marks the loafer's gravitation toward a lighted groggery. Moreover, in the beetle phase, it is sure to appear at the most inopportune times and unsuitable places, creating the inevitable commotion which the blunder and tactless are born to make. As it whisks aimlessly around, it may hit the clergyman's nose in the most pathetic sentence of his sermon, or drop into the soprano's mouth at the supreme climax of her trill. Satan himself could scarcely produce a more complete absence of devotion than is often caused by these brainless creatures. Because quiet by day, they are not out of mischief, as defoliated trees often prove. As midsummer approaches, they die off; but never until each female beetle has put into the ground about two hundred eggs, which never fail to hatch. The first year, the grubs are little, and, while they do all the harm they can, the small roots they destroy are not seriously missed by the plants. The second year, their ability keeps pace with their disposition, and they occasionally destroy strawberries by the acre. More often, certain patches of a field or garden are infested, and sometimes will be kept bare of plants in spite of all one can do. Too often, the presence of the grub is learned only after the mischief is complete. You may have petted a strawberry plant for a year, and after it has developed into noble proportions, and awakened the best expectations from its load of immature fruit, you will, perhaps, find it wilting some morning. You then learn, for the first time, that this insidious enemy has been at work for days, and that not a root is left. An inch or two beneath the dying plant, the grub lies gorged and quiet in the early morning; but if undisturbed it soon seeks the next-best plant it can find, and it is so voracious that it is hard to compute the number it can destroy throughout the long season in which it works. Having made its full growth in the spring of the third year, this grub passes into the chrysalis state, and in May or June comes out a perfect insect or beetle. It is "one, two, three, and out." While there are beetles every year, there is, in every locality, a special crop every third year; in other words, if we observe beetles in great numbers during the coming May and June, we may expect them again in like quantities three years after; and every second year from such super-abundance they will be very destructive in all those fields throughout the locality wherein the eggs were laid. REMEDIES When once our soil is full of them, scarcely any remedy is possible that year. Surface applications that would kill the grubs would also kill the plants. Where they are few and scattering, they can be dug out and killed. Sometimes boys are paid so much a pint. When seeing a wilting plant, it would scarcely be human nature not to dig out the pest and grind it under our heel. Prevention of the evil is usually our best hope. Mr. Downing writes to me: "I believe that if you would use refuse salt three or four years in succession, at the rate of five or six bushels to the acre, the grubs would not trouble you much. Salt will not kill the full-grown larvae, but those in a very young state." The reader will remember a statement in Mr. Hale's letter on commercial fertilizers confirmatory of this view. Experiments in this direction should be carefully made, since, in one instance that I am aware of, a fruit grower remarked, "I do not know whether the salt killed the grubs, but I know it killed my plants." It is my purpose, however, to try this agent very thoroughly. There is danger of our being misled in our estimate of the value of remedies, from forgetfulness of the habits of the insect. We find our ground full of larvae one year, and apply some cure or preventive. The following spring, the larvae become beetles and fly away, and, even if they fill the same ground with eggs again, the grubs are too small to be noticed that year; and therefore we may claim that our remedy is effectual, when there may have been no effect from it whatever. One of the best preventives is to keep the soil under cultivation, for this beetle rarely lays its eggs in loose soil, preferring old meadows and moist, loamy, sodded land; the larvae are equally fond of grass roots. This is one of the reasons why a year or two of cultivation must often precede the planting of strawberries. When this fruit is grown in matted beds, they afford as attractive a place for the deposit of eggs as grass land; and this is another fact in favor of the narrow-row system and thorough cultivation. Mr. Caywood, a nurseryman, says that he has prevented the approach of the grub by mixing a teaspoonful of sulphur in the soil just beneath a plant, when setting it out. Mr. Peter B. Mead recommends the pomace of the castor bean spread on the surface around the plants. I have never tried these preventives. One thing certainly might be done; exterminating war might be waged on the beetles. In the morning they are sluggish and easily caught; and in the evening we can treat them as whiskey venders do the loafers--burn them up. "Every female beetle killed heads off 200 grubs." If one could discover a complete remedy for this pest, he would deserve a statue in bronze. Mr. Fuller had a domesticated crow that would eat a hundred of these grubs daily. "When domesticated," he adds, "the crow forgets the tricks of his wild nature, and, not being a timid bird, he is not frightened by hoe or spade, but when the earth is turned over, is generally there to see and do his duty." A fruit grower writes to Professor C. V. Riley: "I inclose specimens of a terrible pest on my strawberry vines. The leaves are almost entirely destroyed. I must fight them some way, or else give up the fruit entirely," etc. In a letter to the "New York Tribune," Professor Riley replied: "The insect referred to is the Strawberry Worm (_Emphytus maculatus_), the larva of a saw-fly, which is of quite frequent occurrence in the West. I quote the following account of it from my Ninth Report: "'Early in the spring numerous flies may be seen hanging to and flying about the vines in fields which have been previously affected. They are dull and inactive in the cool of the morning and evening, and at these hours are seldom noticed. They are of a pitchy black color, with two rows of large, transverse, dull, whitish spots upon the abdomen. The female, with the saw-like instrument peculiar to the insects of this family, deposits her eggs, by a most curious and interesting process, in the stems of the plants, clinging the while to the hairy substance by which these stems are covered. "'The eggs are white, opaque, and 0.03 of an inch long, and may be readily perceived upon splitting the stalk, though the outside orifice at which they were introduced is scarcely visible. They soon increase somewhat in bulk, causing a swelling of the stalk, and hatch in two weeks--more or less, according to the temperature; and during the early part of May the worms attract attention by the innumerable small holes they make in the leaves. Their colors are dirty yellow and gray-green, and when not feeding, they rest on the under side of the leaf, curled up in a spiral manner, the tail occupying the centre, and fall to the ground at the slightest disturbance. After changing their skin four times they become fully grown, when they measure about three-fourths of an inch. "'At this season they descend into the ground, and form a weak cocoon of earth, the inside being made smooth by a sort of gum. In this they soon change to pupae, from which are produced a second breed of flies by the end of June and beginning of July. Under the influence of July weather, the whole process of egg depositing, etc., is rapidly repeated, and the second brood of worms descend into the earth during the fore part of August, and form their cocoons; in which they remain in the caterpillar state through the fall, winter, and early spring months, till the middle of April following, when they become pupae and flies again, as related. "'The remedy is the same as that employed against the currant worm, which belongs to the same family. It consists of white hellebore, used either in powder or liquid.'" I think that tobacco dust or a strong decoction from the stems would prove effective, also. I have never had any experience with this worm, but have read of instances in which fields had been entirely cleared of the pest by young chickens and turkeys. The common little flea-beetle has often caused great injury to my recently planted beds. I once paid nearly $100 for a new, high-priced variety, and before I was aware of it every plant had been devoured. They rarely injure large, fully matured plants, but are often very destructive to those recently planted, especially if set during the summer. You can not catch them; for, as your hand approaches a leaf on which they cluster, they scatter with a sudden bound, and are at once lost to view, so nearly do they resemble the color of the ground. Slight dustings of dry wood-ashes impede their feeding somewhat; but I think we must cope with this insect as we do with the Colorado or potato beetle. It must be poisoned. Paris green, of course, will finish them speedily, but such a deadly poison must be used with great care, and if there is any green or ripe fruit on the vines, not used at all. Hellebore, London purple, tobacco dust, may destroy them; and when little chickens can be employed, they are a sure remedy. "Black eyes," or the receptacle turning black, is caused by light frosts, to which the open flowers are very susceptible. If one's strawberry bed were in bloom, and there was a prospect of a frosty night, I think the blossoms could be saved by covering the bed with four or five inches of straw or hay, and raking it off again as soon as the temperature rose sufficiently high in the morning. Without doubt, new diseases and enemies to the strawberry will be developed in the future, and as they come we must experiment till we find some means of mastering them. RASPBERRIES AND BLACKBERRIES These two fruits are so near akin that they are subject to the attacks of the same diseases and enemies. The most fatal scourge of red raspberries that I have seen is what is called at Marlboro' the curl-leaf; and, if unchecked, it will eventually banish the famous Hudson River Antwerp from cultivation. As yet, no remedy has been found for it that I am aware of. I believe it to be contagious, and would advise that the plants be dug out and burned immediately, and that plantations of strong, healthy plants be made on new land that has never been in raspberries. I also suggest the free use of wood-ashes and well-decayed compost. As far as my experience goes, this disease is confined to foreign varieties, and almost wholly, as yet, to the Antwerps. Mr. Fuller, in the paper already named, describes a disease among blackberries that resembles the raspberry curl-leaf so closely that it may be identical, and spring from the same cause. "Some ten years ago, the cultivators of the blackberry in various parts of New Jersey noticed that the ends of the young, growing canes, in summer, would occasionally curl, twist about, and often assume a singular, fasciated form, resulting in an entire check to their growth. The leaves on these infested shoots did not die and fall off, but merely curled up, sometimes assuming a deeper green than the healthy leaves on the same stalk. At the approach of winter, the infested leaves remained firmly attached to the diseased stems; and all through the cold weather, and far into the spring, these leaf-laden and diseased stems were a conspicuous object in many of the blackberry plantations of this State. "If the infested shoots are examined in summer, thousands of minute insects, of a pale yellow color, and covered with a powdery exudation, will be found sucking the juices of the succulent stem and leaves, causing the crimping, curling, and twisting of these parts as described. "This parasite resembles somewhat an ordinary greenfly (_Aphis_) or plant louse; but, according to the observations of Professor Riley, it belongs to the closely allied Flea-lice family (_Psyllidae_), distinguished from the plant-lice by a different veining of the wings, and by the antennae being knobbed at the tip, like those of the butterfly, the knob usually terminating in two bristles. These insects jump as briskly as a flea, from which characteristic they derive their scientific name. The particular species in question was called by Professor Riley the 'Bramble-Flea-louse (_Psylla rubi_ [Footnote: "It can not be distinguished from _Psylla tripunctata_, Fitch (Catalogue of Homoptera, etc.), and, what is most singular, the same species is very common on pine-trees all over the eastern part of the continent, from Florida to Canada."]),' in the American Entomologist (Vol. I., p. 225). It has increased rapidly during the past half-dozen years or more, and unless fruit-growers make a more vigorous fight than they have yet done, it will soon get the mastery of many blackberry plantations. The only practical method as yet discovered for checking the ravages of this insect is to cut off the ends of the infested canes and burn them. This operation should always be performed either in the morning or during cool, wet weather, else many of the insects will escape; and at all times the severed shoots should be immediately dropped into bags, and in them carried to the place where they are to be burned, and there emptied into the fire. If every one having blackberry bushes in their gardens would practice this method of destruction, this pest would soon cease to do much harm." There are species of borers and gall insects that attack these two fruits, but as yet they have not become formidable. All infested canes should be cut out and burned with their contents, or else the pests may so increase as to cause much injury. The larvae of the _Selandria rubi_, an insect nearly related to the imported currant worm, and known as the raspberry saw-fly, is destructive in some regions. It is semi-transparent, and so like the foliage in color that it could scarcely be detected, did not the ragged, perforated leaves indicate both its presence and its mischief. This worm measures half an inch in length, when fully developed. It has two black eyes, like spots, upon a green head, and usually a slightly fuzzy body. The remedies recommended are the same as those used against the currant worm. I have had no experience with this pest. The Orange-rust (_Uredo rubrum_) is one of the worst of foes to both the blackberry and raspberry--the _Rubus occidentalis_, or black-cap family, suffering the most, usually. I have seen fields of the Early Wilson and Kittatinny blackberries in New Jersey that presented a melancholy appearance. It is believed to be very contagious, and it can be spread by both trimmer and pickers. Mr. Chas. A. Green, of Monroe County, N. Y., writes: "The end plant of a row in my garden was affected, and I let it remain, as an experiment. In three years, nearly every plant in the row was more or less diseased. We have tried picking the leaves and cutting back the canes, without relief, and have found that the only safe method is to dig out and destroy all affected plants without delay." Mr. Fuller says that "application of lime, salt, or some similar substance, may check the disease; but I know of no remedy except that of rooting up every affected plant, and burning it." Mr. Downing recommends the same course. It is one of those evils that should be stamped out at once. If a plantation were generally affected with this yellow symbol of contagion, it would be well to destroy all the plants, and, obtaining new, healthful stock from a distance, start again on different grounds. Should the snowy tree-cricket become very abundant, it might cause much injury, chiefly by cutting off the leaves, as the ordinary cut-worm serves the stem of a young plant. CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES We have not only imported our best currants from Europe, but also their worst enemies. The most formidable of these is popularly known as the currant worm. Robert Thompson, the English authority, thus describes it: "The magpie moth (_Abraxas grossulariata_) deposits its eggs upon the foliage, and from them is hatched a slightly hairy cream-colored caterpillar, spotted with black, and marked with orange along the sides, and which forms a loop in walking. It feeds upon the leaves, devouring all but the petiole, and often entirely defoliating both gooseberry and currant bushes. It changes into a pupa in May or June, and in about three weeks afterward, the perfect insect makes its appearance." Very naturally, this currant worm made its debut near Rochester, N. Y., a great fruit centre, receiving annually large importations of plants. Its first appearance was in 1857. In England, the caterpillar of the _Phalaena vanaria_, a similar insect, is often destructive. Whether it has appeared among us yet, I am not informed. They fight it abroad as they do the ordinary worm. The gooseberry and currant saw-fly (_Nematus ribesii_), another pestiferous foreigner, has made its appearance in some localities. We have, besides, a native saw-fly (_Pristiphera grossulariae_), which resembles its European congener, and emulates it in mischief. The larva of this fly feeds upon both, the currant and the gooseberry, but prefers the latter. Nature is liberal, and has given us, in addition, a native gooseberry span-worm, the larva of a small moth. These several worms, unchecked, would soon render the culture of the currant and gooseberry impossible in the regions where they abounded; and, at first, horticulturists were almost in despair, for the pests seemed proof against the usual insecticides and means of destruction. It was eventually discovered that powdered white hellebore was a specific remedy. Usually, it is applied unmixed with other substances; and pains should be taken to get a genuine article, or else it will not destroy the worms. Mr. H. T. Jones, of Rochester, recommends the following: "To one pailful of wood-ashes, add one quart each of white hellebore and flowers of sulphur; mix thoroughly; apply by sifting on the bushes while the dew is on them. I used nothing else on my plantation of over two acres last season, and want nothing better; but it must be used _daily_ as long as any worms are seen." I have heard that, if applied in a liquid form, a heaping table-spoonful of hellebore to a gallon of water is a good proportion. At the meeting of the New Jersey Historical Society, it was stated by good authorities, as the result of actual experience, that tobacco-dust would kill the worms as readily as hellebore. I hope this is true, since the latter is expensive when applied on a large scale, and the tobacco-dust can be bought at from two dollars to three dollars per barrel. I shall try it next year. I also quote the following from a recent editorial by Mr. Fuller, in the New York "Weekly Sun:" "White hellebore has long been considered one of the most efficacious of all poisons for the imported currant worm, but a New Jersey fruit-grower of considerable experience informed us not long ago that he had found strong tobacco water quite as good as the hellebore, and it was also soon washed off by heavy rains, whereby the fruit was not rendered unfit for use, as when other and more virulent poisons are employed. To make a strong solution, put a half-bushel or bushel of tobacco stems, or even the leaves, into a cask or barrel, and press down and hold in place with a stone or other weight; then pour on hot water enough to cover the tobacco, and leave it for a few days to steep. After steeping, the cask may be filled up with warm or cold water, and the solution is ready for use. If a half-pound or pound of crude potash is added, or a quart or two of soft soap is stirred in, the solution will be much improved, especially in its destructive properties. After using the first liquid, the barrels may be filled again with water, and left to steep a few days longer than the first time, or some fresh tobacco may be added, to give the solution the required strength. Tobacco water is certainly a cheap insecticide, and will frequently be found quite as efficacious as those that are more costly and troublesome to apply." A gentleman from Erie, Pa., writes to me that he has used this remedy for years, with complete success. Mr. J. McK. Beattie, of Pictou, Nova Scotia, has written to me of a still simpler method: "I notice in the April number of 'Scribner's Monthly' that you intend to use tobacco-dust to destroy the currant worms. It will prove effectual; but as I can give you a far more simple plan, I take the liberty of writing. It is one which I have proved for the past seven years, and never have known it to fail wherever tried. "After digging about my bushes, and manuring in the spring, I cover the earth around the bushes with tobacco stems, and place a handful in the middle of the bush, and the work is done for the season. I found that when using the dust I had to renew it after every heavy rain, whereas the stems did not need renewing, unless it was a very wet season, and then, if any worms appeared, a handful of fresh stems scattered through the bushes made them disappear. "The stems have several advantages: they are cheaper than dust; they serve as a mulch to keep the ground off the fruit; and when dug in about the bush, they make an excellent manure. I think if you once gave them a fair trial you would never be tempted to try any other method. "Last year stems were very scarce here, and I could not get enough to mulch all my bushes, so I only put a generous handful in the centre of a good many bushes, and they were not troubled; but I would not like to recommend that plan until I experimented further." For the past two years the worm has attacked my bushes savagely; but, as I am very fond of currants, and relish white, powdered sugar more than hellebore, I fought the pests successfully by hand-picking. I kept a boy, at moderate wages, whose business it was to kill insects and worms. He had a lively time of it occasionally, for Nature sometimes appeared to take sides with the pests. The cautious use of lime and salt around and under the bushes might prove beneficial, since the worm descends into the soil before changing into a pupa. The current and gooseberry are also infested with several species of plant-lice. A gentleman whose bushes were attacked by lice and the currant worm at the same time, wrote to the "Country Gentleman" that he destroyed both by a strong decoction of white hellebore, applied from a fine rose-sprinkling can. The bushes were turned back and forth, so as to get the solution on the under side of the leaves. The writer concludes: "The decoction of hellebore must be strong to be effectual. I make it as follows: To a gallon of boiling water add a tablespoonful of pulverized hellebore. After standing fifteen or twenty minutes, add three gallons of common soapsuds. When cool, apply with a sprinkler, I do not know that there is any virtue in the soapsuds, excepting it makes the solution stick to the leaves." There are three species of currant borers with unpronounceable names. Their presence is shown by yellow foliage and withering fruit in summer, and by brown, shrivelled branches in winter. Cutting out and burning is the only remedy. Usually, a vigorous bush will outgrow the attacks of this enemy; and good cultivation gives vigor, and also disturbs and brings to the surface the worms that have entered the soil to undergo their transformation. From first to last, tonic treatment supplements and renders more effective our direct efforts to destroy diseases and enemies. Most earnestly would I urge caution in using all virulent poisons like Paris green, London purple, hellebore, etc. Whenever it is possible to substitute a less poisonous substance, do so by all means. Some good people regard tobacco as the bane of banes; but to many it does not cause the feeling of repugnance and fear inspired by hellebore and more poisonous insecticides. Let all such articles be kept under lock and key; and one person should have charge of their use, and be held responsible for them. Moreover, any watering-can used with Paris green and like substances should be marked with the word _Poison_, in large letters. If insecticides are used in the form of a powder, great care should be exercised to keep it from falling on other vegetation or fruit that might be eaten by man or beast. I have known of pigs and horses dying from eating herbage on which Paris green had blown from a potato field. London purple, which, as a cheaper and equally effective article, is taking the place of Paris green, must be used with the same caution, since it is a compound of arsenic, and equally poisonous. It is my wish and intention to experiment carefully with the various means and methods of coping with the diseases and enemies of small fruits, and to give this chapter frequent revisions. CHAPTER XXIX PICKING AND MARKETING In the proceedings of the New Jersey State Horticultural Society, I find the following interesting paper from the pen of Mr. C. W. Idell, a commission merchant, whose intelligent interest in fruits extends beyond their current price. He gives so graphic a picture of the diminutive beginning of small fruit growing and marketing, that I am led to quote freely: "About the earliest knowledge I could obtain of the strawberry in our State is that it first grew wild in many regions, particularly in the county of Bergen. The negroes were the first to pick this fruit for the New York market, and invented those quaint old-fashioned splint baskets, with handles, that were and are still in use in that county. These berries were taken to New York, the baskets being strung on poles, and thus peddled through the city. I would state, for the benefit of those who have not seen these baskets, that it was the intention of the original makers of them to have them contain a half-pint each, but soon they became so reduced in size that each buyer was compelled to guess at the contents of those he bought. "Just when cultivated berries made their appearance, I am unable to say, but I am inclined to think they were derived from seedlings of the wild fruit. From the information I have gathered, I think that the cultivation of the fruit for the market originated in the vicinity of Hackensack, Bergen county, and from there spread over the State. As there were no railroads in that section at that early date, all the berries had to be carted to New York in wagons, crossing the Hudson at Hoboken. Quite recently I met with Mr. Andrew M. Hopper, of Pascack, who gave me several interesting points from his early recollections. "Mr. Hopper said: 'I am sixty-five years old, and can well remember picking berries for my father, when a boy ten years of age. At that time we had no crates as we have now, but packed them in large baskets that we called hampers. "'Our only shipping point to New York was Piermont, on the Hudson, New York State, a distance of about eight miles. "'At this point there was a line of sloops that sailed semi-weekly, when wind and tide permitted. In those days there were no commission merchants in New York that dealt in berries, and each farmer was compelled to go with and sell his own fruit. The fare on these vessels was one shilling for a round trip, board not included; and as it sometimes required two days to reach the city, each farmer provided a lunch for himself before starting from home, as well as provender for his team, which was left at the landing to await his return. The usual fee for caring for the team while they were gone was twenty-five cents.' "The Hautbois was the first named variety he could remember, which was introduced among them in 1835. In about 1840 the Scotch Runner was introduced at Hackensack. It was a valuable variety for the growers, as it was hardy, a good bearer, and the fruit grew unusually large for that period. An incident connected with the introduction of this variety is worth mentioning, showing the eagerness of the cultivators to procure the plants. "A gentleman living at 'Old Bridge,' which is a few miles above Hackensack, secured quite a number of plants and set them out in his garden for the purpose of propagating them, so that he could in due time plant a large patch of them. The vines being in great demand, his neighbors insisted upon his selling them; but this proposition he positively refused, and the consequence was that, one night, some person entered his garden and stole every plant he had. At this period and up to the introduction of the Wilson, all strawberries in that section were picked and marketed without the hulls. "For a long time I have been trying to find out the originator of the quart-berry-box and crate, and, thinking Mr. Hopper might possess some knowledge on this point, I inquired of him. He replied: 'I know nothing about the quart box, for I never used them, but I do about the crate. "'In 1840 I made the first crate ever used in our section, if not in the State, and I will tell you how I came to do it. In those days I raised large quantities of apricots, and marketed them in such baskets as we happened to have. In the year named my fruit was very large and finely colored, and knowing they would be damaged by carting in the usual way, I had a number of small baskets made, and then I constructed a crate to fit them. The next day after I made them, Gen. Acker, who was an old fruit grower, called on me, admired the arrangement, and suggested that they would answer to pack berries in, and requested me to make two for him, which I did. From these the use of them became general.' "The cases referred to were skeleton cases, some with and others without lids, each grower making them to suit his own convenience for handling; but they generally contained from one to two hundred baskets each. The number of baskets in each was marked either on the lid or slat." From the above quotation, the reader can realize what vast changes have taken place within the last fifty years. A few sable pedlers, with little baskets strung on poles, form a decided contrast with a Charleston steamer, bringing in one trip North far more strawberries, in patent refrigerators, than were then sold in a year; or with an Old Dominion steamship, discharging six thousand bushels as a single item of cargo. Ninety-four car-loads of strawberries have passed over the Delaware railroad in one day. According to one computation already given, New York consumes $25,000,000 worth of small fruits annually. If the business has grown to such proportions within the last half-century, may we not expect even greater increase in the future? The appliances for preserving fruit, and for transporting it quickly and safely, become more perfect every year. Thus a market is created in vast regions which, though populous, are not adapted to the raising of fruit. The modern conditions of marketing fruit are just the reverse of those described by Mr. Idell. Then the berries, both in size and quantity, were small; but the labor and difficulty in reaching the consumer were immense. Now, strawberries that in size resemble tomatoes can be forwarded by the ship and car load, with brief printed labels, and the commission merchant sells for his correspondent, who may reside hundreds of miles away, and for years never follow his fruits to their market. Our chief ground for solicitude is success in finding a commission house able to dispose of our fruit promptly at current rates, and sufficiently honest to make exact returns at the end of each week. There are many who do this, and not a few who do not. If one has not satisfactory business acquaintance in the city, I suggest that they learn from their neighbors who have been in the habit of shipping produce, the names of merchants that uniformly have made the best returns. Moreover, it is often well, if one has considerable fruit, to ship to two or more parties, and compare prices. The homely proverb hinting that it is not wise to put all our eggs in one basket, is sound. FRUIT PACKAGES My experience and observation have led me to market my strawberries in square quart baskets, and round pints, and raspberries in half-pints; although pints answer equally well for a firm raspberry, like the Cuthbert or Brandywine. If I were shipping long distances, I would prefer baskets of which, the round Beecher quarts and pints are the types. Such packages occupy too much space, however, to be forwarded in refrigerators. I think berries remain in good condition longer in this circular, open basket than in any other. Of the crate, it is sufficient to say that it should be light, strong, and so constructed as to permit free circulation of air. Few of the square "quart baskets" hold a quart. Indeed, there are but few honest baskets in the market; and the fact has come to be so well recognized that they are now sold by the "basket," the majority being aware that they are simply packages of fruit. I think there should be a change in this respect, and that the several packages should hold a full quart, pint, etc. Square quarts fill a crate compactly, requiring the least amount of space; there is no chance for the baskets to upset, and when the crate is opened there is a continuous surface of fruit, which is very attractive. Very large, showy strawberries appear best, however, in round baskets. If my market were a near one, I would plan to dispose of the bulk of my crop in round pints, since they could be used for strawberries, the firmer raspberries, and blackberries. Thus one stock and style of baskets would last throughout the whole season. A little good taste bestowed upon the appearance of a fruit package often adds several cents per pound or quart to the price received, and thus it comes that the brand of certain growers is sought after in the market. A few green leaves, judiciously placed, cost nothing, but may catch the eye and secure a fancy price. After much inquiry in the market, however, I am led to the conclusion that the size, quality, and appearance of the fruit count for far more than ail other considerations combined. The old Marlboro' thirds, still largely in use on the Hudson, should be superseded as soon as possible by baskets that permit circulation of air. We should use boxes cheap enough to be given away with the fruit. There is a box of this kind, called the "Sunnyside fruit-box," which can be obtained for about $10 per 1,000. The purchaser sees a pretty box of fruit at a shop, buys and takes it with him, and is at no trouble to return the box. The present frequent practice of pouring the fruit into brown-paper bags is villanous. Mr. J. T. Budd, of Wilmington, Del., in a sensible letter, gives several excellent reasons why it would be better, and, in the end, cheaper, to use such cheap crates and baskets that one could afford to let them go with the fruit. The expenses of transportation would thus be reduced, and the prices of the berries enhanced, not only because the purchaser would not have the trouble of returning packages, but chiefly for the reason that the fruit would always appear in fresh, new baskets, instead of those soiled, and often musty, from long use. Mr. Budd shows that, in Delaware, crates and baskets could be made sufficiently cheap for this practice. PICKING Having procured the baskets which suit us best, the next thing is to fill them properly, and get them into market looking fresh and attractive. It is just at this point that very many wrong themselves, or permit themselves to be wronged, The time is past when all strawberries will sell as such, at so much per quart. Appearance often doubles the price, or makes it difficult to sell the fruit at all. Soiled, muddy berries, even though large, will fetch but wretched prices; therefore the importance of mulching. The fruit may be in beautiful condition upon the vines and yet be spoiled by careless picking. The work is often performed by children, or by those who have had no experience, or who, from inherent shiftlessness, do everything in the worst possible way, I have seen beautiful berries that in their brief transit through grimy hands lost half their value. Many pickers will lay hold of the soft berry itself and pinch it as they pull it off; then, instead of dropping it into the basket, they will hold it in the hand as they pick others, and as the hand grows fuller, will squeeze them tighter, and when, at last, the half-crushed handful is dropped into the basket, the berries are almost ruined for market purposes. Not for $10 per day would I permit such a person to pick for me, for he not only takes fifty per cent from the price of the fruit, but gives my brand a bad reputation. If possible, the grower should carefully select his pickers, and have them subscribe to a few plain rules, like the following: 1. Each berry must be picked with the thumb and forefinger nails, and not held in the hand, but dropped into the basket at once. 2. No green, decayed, or muddy berries will be received. 3. There must be no getting down upon all fours in the beds, thus crushing both green and ripe fruit. 4. There must be no "topping off" with large berries, but the fruit must be equally good all through the basket. In the early pickings of Wilsons, when many of the berries are of good size, and of all the large, choice kinds, it is best to make two grades, putting the large and small by themselves, and keeping varieties separate. A small frame, with short legs at the corners, and a handle, is a convenient appliance to hold six or more baskets while picking. Give to each picker two sets of baskets, one for the small and one for the large berries, and pay equally for both, or perhaps a little more for the small ones, so that there may be no motive to thwart your purpose; one and a half to two cents per quart is the usual price. Have two styles of tickets, red and blue, for instance; the red having a higher value and being given to those who bring the berries to the place of packing in good order, according to rule; let the baskets not picked in conformity to the rules be receipted for with the blue tickets. Receiving many of the latter soon becomes a kind of disgrace, and thus you appeal to the principle of self-respect as well as self-interest. Get rid of those who persist in careless picking as soon as possible. Insist that the baskets be full and rounded up, and the fruit equal in quality down to the bottom. As far as possible, let the hulls be down out of sight, and only the fruit showing. If you have berries that are extra fine, it will pay you to pick and pack them yourself, or have some one to do it who can be depended upon. Do not pick the fruit, if you can help it, when it is wet with dew or rain; still, there are times when this must be done to save it. Never let the baskets or crates stand long in the sun and wind, as the berries so treated soon become dull and faded. As soon as a crate is filled, put it under cover in a cool place till shipped to market. As far as possible, insist upon careful, gentle handling. Raspberries should be treated with even greater care than strawberries, since they are softer and more perishable. They should never be put into anything larger than a pint basket, while thirds of a quart and half-pints are much better. Round half-pints seem to be coming into favor. There is a wide, shallow basket made in Rochester, that some growers think highly of. With most varieties of raspberries, if any considerable number are placed together they soon become a soft, mouldy mass. The ideal raspberry basket, therefore, is small, open, and shallow; and the crates should permit free circulation. Pick the fruit when dry, and as soon as it is ripe, as over-ripe berries decay quickly. Keep varieties by themselves. Mr. Parry says that raspberries will pay at ten cents per quart, but the margin of profit will be small. They usually sell at much higher figures. Black-caps of late years have scarcely brought paying prices in New York market. The following statement shows what a difference variety, and therefore quality, makes in the same market. On the 7th day of July, 1871, raspberries were sold at wholesale, in Philadelphia, as follows, viz.: Black-cap ....................5 cents per quart. Philadelphia ................ 8 " Pearl ................... 16 " Susqueco, or Brandywine .... 30 " Hornet ..................... 60 " Blackberries sell well in both quart and pint baskets, but if one is sending a long distance, pints will carry the fruit in better condition. One of the best methods of shipping currants is to have tills, or shallow boxes, two or three in number, fitting in one's berry crates, which can thus be made to serve a double purpose. Mark on these tills the net weight of the fruit. For large, Cherry currants, quart and verbena baskets are often used. Many like a long market basket, holding about twenty-five pounds, while those who raise grapes often make the same shallow boxes answer for both. Gooseberries are shipped in all kinds of packages, from barrels to quart boxes. I prefer a crate with tills, for both gooseberries and currants. These two fruits, especially the latter, are becoming increasingly profitable every year. In summing up, it may be briefly stated that with all fruits, and in all the large markets, beauty, size, and good keeping qualities are the points which are chiefly considered. Very few know much about the names of varieties, but eagerly purchase that which appears the most attractive. The grower who can make his crates of berries, when opened, look better than others near, will always receive good prices. If he tops off poor fruit with large berries, he will scarcely find a market eventually. If he always fills his baskets _well_ and _honestly_, and gives good weight, taking pains to make his packages appear attractive, his fruit will soon be in much demand and spoken for in advance. CHAPTER XXX IRRIGATION This is a topic on which a book might be written. The reader will draw a sigh of relief, however, on learning that I shall content myself with giving a few facts and suggestions, since I am well aware that, in spite of its title, this chapter will be dry to many. The first rays that fall from the lamp of history reveal vast systems of irrigation in full operation. In many parts of the globe artificial watering is absolutely essential, and there are few agricultural regions which might not be rendered far more productive if the supply of moisture could be regulated in accordance with the needs of each crop. The question, as we shall consider it, is a practical one. In California and other sections, the land _must_ be irrigated; here, and wherever the rainfall is more equally distributed throughout the year, we _can_ water if we find the practice remunerative. The increased yield from the proper application of water is often marvellous. Mr. James Neilson, in a paper read before the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, gives some interesting facts observed abroad. In regions along the Cavour Canal, the people were able to mow in one season six heavy burdens of grass, and in the vicinity of Edinburgh, by the use of sewage water, five or six crops of grass annually. In Belgium, "sandy, barren land (resembling the pine barrens of New Jersey) was put into profitable cultivation when it could be irrigated." The plain of Gennevilliers, near Paris, seemed utterly worthless for cultivation. It consisted almost wholly of coarse gravel, and bore no rent. No land owner would make any effort to use water, so the city of Paris bought about twenty-five acres and turned upon it part of the sewage. It now rents for nearly $50 per acre, with sewage supplied. In parts of Spain, land is worth $2,500 irrigated, and but $125 without the privilege of water. The enormous and long-continued crops of strawberries raised in California prove that water is equally effective in our new land, where the climate is similar, as in the older countries. Will irrigation pay in our latitude, where we hope for seasonable rains? I think that in many sections it will, and occasionally I hear of remarkable results obtained by the free use of water. In one instance a gravelly hillside, almost worthless for ordinary cultivation, became the wonder of the neighborhood, so large were the crops of strawberries secured by irrigation. Mr. Chas. W. Garfield, Secretary of the Michigan State Pomological Society, gives an interesting account of his visit to Mr. Dunkley, a successful gardener, at Kalamazoo: "A force," he writes, "were picking strawberries from rows of vigorous plants, and as we opened the vines in advance of the pickers, a more delightful strawberry prospect we had never seen. The varieties were Monarch, Seneca Chief, and Wilson, and under the system of irrigation employed they were just prime for market, after all the other berries in the vicinity had ripened and were gone. Very remunerative prices were thus secured. His vines were vigorous and independent of the rains. Every berry that set reached perfection in size and form." The abundant moisture greatly increases the size of the fruit, but retards the ripening. When the fruit has reached the proper stage for maturity, the water is withheld, and then the berries ripen fast, but in their perfect development are firm, and are shielded from the sun by the luxuriant foliage. "We water," said Mr. Dunkley, "only to supplement the rain. If the season is wet, we employ our artificial system but little, or not at all, and in such seasons get no profit from our investments; but generally, sometime during a season there is a drought that shortens some crop; then we irrigate, and have the advantage of neighboring gardeners." This statement suggests the practical question, Do droughts or dry seasons occur with sufficient frequency to warrant the outlay required for irrigation? In a very interesting paper read before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Mr. W. D. Philbrick gives much information on the subject of artificial watering, and its need in our latitude and section, and I quote from him freely: "The amount of water required will depend largely on the rainfall, velocity of the wind, atmospheric humidity, soil, etc. A loose, sandy soil will require much more water than a retentive clay. In general, however, it may be assumed that in the warm, growing months of May, June, July, August and September, most vegetation requires an inch in depth over the entire surface of the land every five days. This is, of course, only an _average_. This quantity, estimated as needed by our gardens, would be equivalent to six inches per month of rainfall. If we compare this amount with the actual rainfall, we shall arrive at an idea of what is to be supplied artificially. "The rainfall at Boston for the past six years (to 1878), for the five growing months named, varies from a maximum of 10.5 inches, in August, 1872, to a minimum of 0.65 inch, in June, 1873. During these six years there was not a single season when we did not suffer more or less from drought during some portion of the summer. Twenty-one of the thirty months in question had less rainfall than six inches per month, and the average of these twenty-one months was about 3.02 inches per month, or only about half of what was needed. Some of the protracted seasons of drought were almost entirely rainless for six weeks, during which the weather was excessively hot and windy, and vegetation suffered extremely in consequence." Mr. Philbrick estimates that 27,000 gallons, or 108 tons, of water are needed per acre at each watering, which, in a dry period, should be repeated every five days. This enormous quantity leads him to suggest that-- "before embarking in an enterprise of irrigation, it would be best to make sure that the source can be depended upon for a sufficient supply of water in the driest seasons; for it is precisely at such times that the most water is needed. Ordinary springs and wells, therefore, are entirely inadequate to furnish water for anything more than a small patch or garden. The only sources to be depended upon for large areas are unfailing streams, lakes, and ponds. There are few gardens so favorably situated that the water can be drawn from canals and ditches directly from some pond or stream. When this can be done it is by far the cheapest method; and it is in this way that the extensive irrigating works of Lombardy, Spain, France, California, and Colorado are constructed. Where this system is adopted, considerable expense is required to grade the land into inclined beds, so as to distribute the water easily and evenly; but, once done, the water is applied at a very trifling cost--so cheaply that it is used for farm crops in Lombardy and the South of France." In most instances, however, our land is so located that we cannot irrigate it by a natural flow and fall of water. In this case, it may be distributed by water-carts and by hand. This can be done only on a very small scale. The cost in time and labor would be much too great for profitable returns, and the ground would be so beaten and trampled as to cause much injury. Such methods may answer very well for small and well-mulched fruit gardens, making the home supply certain and large, but it is inadequate from a business point of view. Distributing water through pipes laid underground, beneath the plow, does not work well at all, practically, and is not in accordance with nature. Most of the water is wasted. Mr. Phil brick continues: "The only method of distributing water much used in gardens where pumping is practiced is the system of iron pipes laid underground, with hydrants distant 200 feet asunder, from which the water is distributed by 100 feet of India rubber hose. This is also the plan adopted by gardeners who make use of the public water supply." When practicable, such iron pipes should be carried along ridges and headlands, so as to let the water flow where we wish it by gravity as far as possible. "Where the water has to be distributed by hose and sprinkler it will be found good economy to use a powerful pump, that will give a head of at least thirty feet, and to use for distribution pipes of not less than one and a half inches in diameter; provided, of course, that any considerable area--an acre or more--is to be watered. Thus, for example, we will suppose that it is required to water five acres of land, and that we have near by a never-failing pond or river; we can locate a steam pump near the river, and, while at work watering, we load the safety-valve upon the delivering water pipe at fifteen pounds per square inch, which corresponds to a head of about thirty feet of water. We have 300 feet of iron pipe, two inches in diameter, and 100 feet of India rubber hose, one and a half inches in diameter, for the delivery of the water. This apparatus would be capable of delivering 45 gallons per minute, or 27,000 gallons per day of ten hours--enough for the thorough wetting of one acre per day, or every acre of the five once in five days; by running nights, ten acres could be watered. "When only a limited area is to be watered--less than an acre--the wind-mill furnishes a cheaper source of power than the steam pump. To make it available, large storage of water must be provided at a high level, so that the mill may work during stormy weather and store the water until needed. A wind-mill, costing with pump and tank about $500, will furnish water enough for one or two acres of land, provided storage can be provided for 200,000 gallons of water. To provide this storage might cost as much as a steam pump. Where elevated reservoirs can easily be made, and the amount of water needed is not over 10,000 gallons daily, the wind-mill is, without doubt, cheaper power than steam." Mr. Philbrick shows conclusively that where a gardener pays at the rate of twenty-five cents per 1,000 gallons, or even much less, only crops approaching $1,000 per acre in value will warrant the outlay. When land can be easily graded, and irrigated through canals and ditches, the yearly cost has been reduced, in some cases, as low as from one to three dollars per acre per year. "Wherever drainage is not perfect, it must be made so before irrigation can be safely practiced; otherwise, if a heavy fall of rain should occur just after application of water, the plants might suffer seriously from being too wet." In the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Mr. John B. Moore said, among other things: "No crop takes the moisture out of the soil more quickly than strawberries, and, for these and other crops which soon suffer from dryness, he lets the water run down the rows all night from half a dozen large pipes." Hon. Marshall T. Wilder then remarked that "the secret how Mr. Moore produced his large strawberries had now come out." (In a letter recently received, Mr. Moore further states: "In the garden, I have had the best results where I have let the water run out of open hose between the rows of raspberries, strawberries, etc., always making it a rule to wet the ground thoroughly, and then stop, and not apply any more until there is good evidence of the soil needing it again. A constant drizzle is detrimental to vegetation.") Mr. W. C. Strong said that the "even distribution of water was very important; otherwise, the ground became sodden in places, and other parts received no benefit. He thought that considerable part of the benefit of irrigation arose from showering the foliage, especially at night, as in a green-house." Mr. Philbrick said that he applied water in sunshine sometimes, but that in general he did not like to do so. (I would caution the reader to be very careful about wetting foliage under a hot sun, as it often causes both leaves and fruit to scald. I once lost a crop of gooseberries through a midday shower, followed by a hot afternoon.) Mr. E. P. Richardson had found a hose perforated with holes an eighth of an inch in diameter, and about three or four inches apart, very convenient for applying water. It can be laid anywhere, in a straight or crooked line, and under plants whose leaves are injured by watering in the bright sun. Such a hose may be left for hours without attention. In the garden at Kalamazoo already referred to, the water was obtained by damming up a spring. "The water was conveyed in a wooden conduit, made of two-inch plank, and rendered water-tight by coal tar." The whole apparatus was very inexpensive, and proves that in many instances the ingenious and enterprising horticulturist can work out a simple system of his own that, at slight cost, will answer his purpose. This chapter aims at little more than to put the reader on the right track for further investigation, and to suggest a few of the first principles and requirements of irrigation. The great majority have little realization of the amount of water required, and very often much loss is incurred and injury caused by attempting artificial watering with an insufficient supply. Mr. Dunkley, at Kalamazoo, started with a wind-mill, but found it wholly inadequate. Partial watering is worse than useless. By liberal mulching, very much less water is required, and much longer intervals between irrigation may elapse. If one designs to undertake irrigation upon a large scale, he should employ the services of an expert, and "make haste slowly." At the same time, many fruit farms are so located, or might be, that the laborer with a pick and shovel could solve the problem of an abundant supply of water. When unfailing moisture can be maintained, and plants are not permitted to bear in June, nor to make runners, almost a full crop may be obtained in the autumn. CHAPTER XXXI SUGGESTIVE EXPERIENCES FROM WIDELY SEPARATED LOCALITIES It is often said that there is no teaching like experience, and in view of this sound principle I am led to quote from a few of the letters that I have received. These statements, from successful and intelligent cultivators, throw side lights on the preceding pages from various standpoints. I would advise the reader to note carefully the adaptation of different varieties to different parts of the country. As we have just been discussing the subject of irrigation, I will first quote from California letters, since they touch on this topic. From Mr. James Shinn's interesting communication, I take the following facts: "NILES, ALAMEDA CO., CAL. "The greater part of the strawberries consumed in San Francisco are grown in the neighborhood of San Jose, some fifty miles south of the city. We are situated about halfway between, in the great valley that borders the bay of San Francisco. We have occupied this place over twenty years, and have made observations upon the culture of small fruits, and have always grown more or less ourselves. While, therefore, I do not claim to be authority on the points you inquire about, I feel pretty safe in mentioning one or two things in this connection, that I can hardly be mistaken about! "_First_--Those who plant extensively for market make it a _sine qua non_ to have at hand plenty of water; except in very favored localities, they can't be grown to profit without this essential. I know that the plants are planted on each side of a small ridge, previously thrown up for the purpose. The vines along the ridge stand twelve to fifteen inches apart. The space between the ridges allows three and a half feet for cultivation and water. The water is allowed to run between these ridges, and, of course, wets the roots effectually. It will be perceived that the ground must be nearly level. I cannot tell how often these rows are watered, but frequently. The proper season for planting is as early in the winter as the ground can be put in order--from November 1st, all winter--the earlier the better. If planted early, a fair crop of berries may be expected the next summer. For many years the Longwood's Prolific and Peabody Seedling were the varieties generally grown. Recently some other varieties have been introduced, but are mostly confined to the hands of amateurs. The Monarch of the West has, however, certainly secured a strong foothold among the large growers. This berry commanded a much larger price in the market than the old varieties. I just remark respecting irrigation that, of course, as you will see, the object of planting upon ridges is to place the vines so high that when the water is let in, the berries will be above its reach. Nearly all our large growers let their fields to Chinamen, who do all the work, boarding themselves, for half the net proceeds. "SAN JOSE, CAL. "In answer to your letter, asking about irrigation, I would state that in the first place we grade the land, after first plowing and harrowing it. We do not like to do too much grading. If the land is very uneven, we make the rows conform to it, bringing the water on the highest portions, and cutting escape ditches through the low parts, so that the water can run off readily. The rows are made three feet apart, and every alternate row is shovelled or plowed out to make a shallow ditch about three or four inches deep. Soil is thrown on or between the alternate rows, making the ground look like small beds. The plants are set in rows about six inches from the edge of the ditches. We are now ready for the water, which is nearly all taken from artesian wells. The first year, the plants do not require so much moisture; but the second year, we water about once a week. We keep all runners cut off. "J. H. Ogier." "Brown's Valley, Yuba Co., Cal. "My business is raising strawberries and blackberries for market, which is eleven miles distant, and I send all my fruit by stage. I have experimented with all leading varieties, since Orange Judd introduced the _Agriculturist_, but succeed best with Triomphe de Gand, Longworth's Prolific, Jucunda, and Colonel Cheney. The latter is rather soft to carry so far to market. I commence sending to market about the middle of April. About the middle of June the Triomphe begins to ripen a second crop. Last year they were the largest and finest berries I ever saw. In September the Jucunda bears a third crop. Prom May until October we depend entirely on irrigation. Our soil is red, stiff, and heavy. I use abundantly well-rotted stable manure and barnyard compost. I prepare by deep plowing, and then harrowing. I then go over the ground for the plants with Hexamer's pronged hoe, making the soil very fine. I set the plants two feet apart each way, and where each one is to grow, I work in a large shovelful of manure deeply and thoroughly. I give blackberries the same mode of culture, setting them three feet by eight. No winter protection is needed. In ordinary seasons, there are a few strawberries all winter long. Strawberries and blackberries are very productive, and enormous in size, but currants, gooseberries, and red raspberries do not succeed in this region, the long and intensely hot and dry season being unfavorable. John Palmer." "NEW CASTLE, CAL. "The President Wilder is the finest flavored berry we have ever tasted, and it is the most attractive in color of all. The Jucunda does not do well on our light soil. The Monarch is splendid. We grow raspberries quite extensively, our climate and location being better adapted to them, perhaps, than any other part of California. The earliest berry with us is the Red Antwerp (probably the English). It is a week earlier than the Franconia. The Herstine is a fine berry every way, except as regards firmness. The cap varieties are inferior in flavor here. C. M. SILVA & SON" From other sources I learn that the Triomphe de Gand and Seth Boyden are among the chief favorites in California. Mr. Felix Gillet, Nevada City, Cal., author of an excellent little treatise on the culture of the strawberry in his region, says: "The row and hill system is certainly the best of all, especially to raise large, fine fruit. The rows should be two feet apart, or thirty-six inches, if irrigating by running water in each row as it is done in California. The plants should be set, the large-growing sorts two feet from each other in the row, the smaller ones from twelve to eighteen inches." "AUSTIN, TEXAS "I put in water-works, and it is the best investment I ever made. I supply Austin with vegetables the whole year round. It was very dry last year, but I loaded three wagons with vegetables every day. We watered twenty acres regularly, and will water thirty this year. I am making a large reservoir on a hill, which will be supplied from a large well through a six-inch pipe. I use Knowles's steam pump, 30 horse-power, capable of pumping 750,000 gallons daily. Of strawberries, the Kentucky Seedling can stand the most heat and drought. Crescent Seedling looks well here, also the Forest Rose. Raspberries, currants, and gooseberries cannot be raised. We plant strawberries one foot apart in the row, and the rows are three feet apart We mulch early in spring, and cultivate by horse-power after the bearing season is over. I regard cow manure, leaf mould, and bone flour as the best fertilizers. I consider fall, October or November, as the best time for planting. "WILLIAM RADAM." "PALESTINE, TEXAS. "The Charles Downing, Seth Boyden, and President Wilder have done well. The Charles Downing has flourished as though native and to the manner born. The Kentucky has done remarkably well; the Wilson not so well. Raspberries, on the whole, have done well, but currants and gooseberries will not survive. The strawberries have done better than I hoped. I have always looked upon the strawberry as a semi-aquatic plant, and this view has been strengthened by an account of a wonderful crop produced in this region by abundant and systematic watering. The great difficulty against which we have to contend is the prolonged summer, when, for weeks, the thermometer ranges from 90 degrees to 95 degrees in the shade. To this must be added spells of dry weather, lasting sometimes for six or eight consecutive weeks in July, August, and September. "D. S. H. SMITH." "NEW ORLEANS, LA. "Experienced cultivators prepare for strawberries by thorough plowing and subsoiling. We cultivate by subsoil plow, cultivator, and hoe, with no stones to impede our work. The bearing season lasts about 90 days. I have had two full crops in the same season. The best time to plant is, 1st, in August; 2d, in December. The Wilson and Charles Downing do well. The black-cap raspberries succeed: the red raspberries are thus far a failure. Blackberries do very well. D. M. WIGGINS, _Agricultural editor_, 'N. 0. Times.'" Mr. H. W. Lamb, of Colorado Springs, writes me that strawberries and the hardy red raspberries do well in his section. They regard sheep manure as one of the best fertilizers. Dr. Samuel Hape, of Atlanta, Ga., writes: "In reply to your favor, I would say that strawberries and blackberries do splendidly here, raspberries moderately, and currants and gooseberries as exceptions; grapes finely. "Our soils are mostly loam, with some sand, and a clay subsoil. Bottom lands have the usual deposits of muck and partially decomposed vegetable matter. The damp, rich soil, of course, suits strawberries and blackberries; though the latter grow wild to such perfection, and in such abundance, as to do away with cultivation almost entirely. The red raspberry does not succeed very well as a rule. While damp, under-drained soil and sandy loam are best for strawberries, the dry uplands have almost invariably produced well. As to fertilizers, well-decomposed stable manure and bone meal have done the best with us. "No winter protection is needed. The fall, with us, is the best season to transplant strawberries, by all odds--as soon as the September rains set in. DR. SAMUEL HAPE." "JACKSONVILLE, FLA., Dec. 23, 1878. "With pleasure, I answer your questions to the best of my ability. 1. What varieties of small fruits do best in your locality? Strawberries and blackberries do well, but owing to the abundance of wild fruit, late and early, the blackberry is not cultivated largely. No other small fruits have been fairly tried. The general opinion is that our warm weather lasts too long for the raspberry, gooseberry, and currant. I have given the raspberry a trial, and cannot recommend it. 2. What soils are best adapted to them? We have two soils on which the strawberry thrives, the low hummock bordering on the river. It is rich in vegetable and mineral matter--clay from two to four feet under surface. The next is our pine land; soil light, and of grayish color, nearly devoid of vegetable matter, but largely supplied with lime and potash. Strawberries and blackberries do well on this soil. We have what is termed high hummock. It is a yellow loam, with clay, varying from two to six feet from surface. The orange, peach, grape, fig, quince and plum do well on this soil. 3. What is your mode of culture? For strawberries, I lay off beds, slightly raised, 8 feet wide. On each bed I put four rows of plants, running the full length of beds. For Wilsons, rows 18 inches, and 12 inches between plants; Charles Downing, and Seth Boyden, 18 by 18 inches. Cover all the space with pine-needles by the time warm weather sets in, and shade their fruit from the hot sun. I cultivate with a small hand cultivator, partly invented by myself, and by hoeing. 4. What fertilizer do you consider most efficient? A compost of stable manure, muck, and potash. 5. What winter protection do you give, if any? None needed. For summer protection, pine straw between plants; this answers a double purpose--to keep the fruit clean, also to protect the plants in warm, dry weather, and retain moisture. 6. Do you consider spring or fall the best season for planting in your locality? If I have home-grown plants, I prefer planting from last of August to first of December. Northern plants, unless grown in pots, do best if obtained in November or December. I will add here, for your information, Wilson's Albany is very shy of making runners for the first year or two after coming from the North. Seth Boyden and Charles Downing take possession of the ground after fruiting is over. WILLIAM JAMES." Mr. P. J. Berkmans, the well-known horticulturist of Augusta, Ga., informed me that the Kentucky, Charles Downing, and Crescent endured the southern sun well, and that the Captain Jack and Sharpless were fine with them; all the purple cane and black-cap raspberries did well, but none of the foreign kinds thrived. Mr. Berkmans remarked that, even after ten years of bearing, he hesitated to express a positive opinion concerning a fruit, so great are the differences caused by location and soil. It is your young men that have been two or three years in the business, who have positive opinions on every subject. In the suburbs of Savannah, Ga., I found three-quarters of an acre of strawberries that had yielded a clear profit of $800 in one season. The preparation and culture for this profitable crop were as follows: A good coat of manure was spread early in spring and plowed under. Cow-peas were then sown and plowed under in August, when another coat of manure was harrowed in. Planting was commenced August 10, and the plants set fourteen inches from each other, in beds with alleys between, twenty-eight inches wide. They were worked with a cultivator, mulched with pine straw in January, and stimulated from time to time with liquid manure. The fact that they secured a good home market accounts, in part, for the large profit. Through the courtesy of Captain Sigwald, himself a successful horticulturist, I was able to visit many strawberry plantations in the vicinity of Charleston, S. C., and will give a few statistics from one of the most nourishing. The plants were vigorous, and the long rows clean and free from runners. The best plants had been set out in the preceding September. The force employed to set five and a half acres was: five hands taking up the plants with a large patent transplanter, that brought away a ball of earth with the roots; five more laborers "toting," or carrying on hand-barrows, the plants from the propagating bed to the fruiting field, and four planting. The expense of planting was $15 per acre. Prom the five and a half acres, there were shipped to New York 15,200 quarts, on which the freight, at fifteen cents per quart, amounted to $2,280. Commission on sales was $413--leaving a balance of only $1,670, and out of this all other expenses had to come. Thus it way be seen that the expense of marketing the crop was greater than the expense of growing it and the net profit combined--a condition of things that should not last. The freight has been reduced to ten cents per quart this year, I understand. The Monarch seems peculiarly adapted to East Tennessee, and Mr. Ed. S. Sheppard, who first introduced them, found a sensation resulting that in its proportions resembled the mammoth berry. The Crystal City and Captain Jack are favorite varieties in Missouri. For the latitude and climate of New York, and westward, much suggestion has been given already. Mr. J. T. Lovett, of Little Silver, N. J., gives the following list as the best selection for their light sandy soils: FOR THE HOME GARDEN _Strawberries_ French's Seedling--best early crop. Charles Downing--best medium, or main crop. Kentucky--best late. _Red Raspberries_ Herstine--best early.[Footnote: "Requires winter protection to ensure a crop."] Turner--best entirely hardy early. Cuthbert--best medium and late. _Black-cap Raspberries_ Doolittle's Improved--best early. Mammoth Cluster--best medium and late. _Mammoth Blackberries_ Wilson's Early--best early. Kittatinny--best main crop. _Currants_ Cherry--best red. Red Dutch--best for culinary purposes. White Grape--best white. Victoria--best late. Black Naples--best black. _Gooseberries_ Downing FOR MARKET--OF VALUE IN THE ORDER NAMED _Strawberries_ Wilson's Albany, } Captain Jack, } For shipment. Crescent Seedling, } Charles Downing, } For near market. Downer's Prolific, } _Red Raspberries_ Cuthbert. Brandywine. _Black-cap Raspberries_ Mammoth Cluster. Doolittle's Improved. _Blackberries_ Kittatinny. Wilson's early. [Footnote: "In former years this was the most profitable of all sorts, but latterly it is so frequently injured by winter, and so generally attacked by disease or insects throughout the State, as to render it uncertain."] _Currants_ Cherry. Red Dutch. Black Naples. _Gooseberries_ Downing. Houghton Seedling. In the Sixth Annual Report of the New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, I find the following interesting statement from the well-known horticulturist, Mr. P. T. Quinn. "ONE ACRE OP STRAWBEREIES. "NEWARK, October, 1878. "The following are the methods of culture and the products of one acre of strawberries, grown on my farm near Newark, during the season of 1878. The ground on which these strawberries were grown was planted with Early Rose potatoes and heavily manured in the spring of 1877. These potatoes were dug and marketed during the last week in July and first week in August of the same year. The ground was at once cleared off, plowed and harrowed smoothly. Furrows were then opened four or five inches deep and two and a half feet apart. Between the 15th and 22d of August, 1877, the strawberry plants were set in these furrows from fifteen to eighteen inches apart, without any manure being added. Some plants died here and there, but the bulk of those set out made a strong growth before cold weather. They were kept free from weeds by running a cultivator twice between the rows and hoeing twice. This treatment kept the ground absolutely free from weeds. In the middle of December, the plants were covered over with a compost of the sweepings of the vegetable and fish markets, with some horse manure mixed through it. The whole was thoroughly decayed and light in character. About the middle of April, 1878, the coarsest part of this mulch was raked off the strawberry plants, and left in the spaces between the rows, the finer portion being left among the plants. To the coarse part raked off was added salt hay, pressed under the leaves of the plants on either side of the rows, enough being added to keep the soil around the plants moist and the fruit free from grit. There was no disturbance of the soil in any way in the spring, beyond the cutting off at the surface of a few straggling weeds that started up here and there. "The varieties grown upon this acre were Charles Downing and Green Prolific, and the yield was five thousand four hundred and eighty-seven (5,487) quarts. The gross receipts from this acre of berries was seven hundred and ninety-five dollars and sixty-one cents ($795.61). Deducting the commissions and picking the fruit, the net returns were $620.60." Messrs. Gibson and Bennett, of New Jersey, stated before the Western New York Horticultural Society, that they "liked the bedding system, say four-row beds, with plants one foot apart each way and two-feet walks between the beds. We fertilize with fine horse manure, spreading it heavily and plowing it under. We start plants in pots and transfer them to the beds in September, the earlier the better. These potted plants form fine large crowns ready for the finest fruit. The beds are covered with manure January 1. The fruit is picked the following June, and the beds then plowed under at once and planted with other crops." By this system, it will be seen that the plants occupy the ground but about ten months, and little or no cultivation is given. It is practically the same method as that employed around Charleston, S. C., and, I am inclined to think, could often be practiced at the North with great profit. In contrast, Mr. J. K. Sharpless said, on the same occasion, "We grow in the hill system, and expect the plants to last four or five years;" adding, "My experience teaches me that strawberries should not be cultivated deeply until their season of rest is over, say the last of August." I think this view sound. Mr. E. B. Underhill, of Poughkeepsie, N. Y., said that he "valued the Golden Defiance for late fruit. The Glendale is more vigorous. I think highly of the Champion and Kentucky. The Duncan is our best early of those well tested. As the mid-market in this section will probably be glutted with Crescents, I shall take great pains with the Cumberland Triumph, which, picked in pints (on account of its softness), will yield almost as well, and bring more dollars than any sort I have tested yet." From Mr. Frank S. Alling I learn that all the small fruits succeed finely on the shores of Puget Sound, Washington Territory. I will close this chapter of experiences with a very interesting letter from the Rev. Mr. A. A. Von Iffland, of Quebec, who gives an admirable statement of the conditions of success in the latitude of Northern Canada. It will be seen that his light, warm soil makes a difference of several degrees of latitude in his favor. "My soil is of a light gravelly nature, with a subsoil of coarse sand. It requires annual applications of large quantities of manure to bring about the best results, but _then_ yields generous returns. It is warm and quick, and so porous that it can be worked almost immediately after the heaviest showers. Plants form roots in the soil with marvellous rapidity. All kinds of vegetables can be successfully cultivated. Potatoes, tomatoes, squash, corn, carrots, parsnips, melons, cucumbers, beans, and peas are grown to perfection. Of course, it is liable to suffer severely in a drought--an evil which I find is best obviated by plenty of barnyard manure and cultivation. The climate is doubtless severe, and the winters long, but the abundance of snow affords the best kind of protection and is of the greatest possible advantage in the culture of small fruits. Winter sets in with us sometimes as early as the first of November, sometimes not till the middle of December, and the snow has not disappeared from the vicinity of the fences till the last week in April. The average depth of snow is 4 1/2 half feet, and we have cold spells of three or four days at a time, when the glass varies between 20 and 30 degrees below zero. "STRAWBERRIES "I think that all the varieties which are cultivated in the United States can be cultivated here under the same conditions of soil. I grow successfully the Colonel Cheney, Triomphe de Gand, Wilson, Charles Downing, Nicanor, Green Prolific, Monarch of the West, Seth Boyden, but have discarded Jucunda and Kentucky. I have the greatest success with the Cheney, Charles Downing, Wilson, and Triomphe, in the order written. I plant both in fall and spring, but prefer fall setting when it can be done early and you have good plants. "I used to strike plants in three-inch pots, but have abandoned that plan, and instead, lay the runners as early as I can get them (from 1st to 20th July), and when well rooted, set them out, with a ball of earth, from 15th to 20th August. If the season is at all moist, so that the young plants make good progress before the frosts set in (about middle of October), I get a good crop (half a full crop) the following summer. From plants set in the spring, I take no fruit. With this exception, fall and spring settings are treated alike. As the cultivation is all done by hand, I have found that planting in beds of three rows each combines the greatest advantages. The rows are 15 inches apart, and the plants 18 inches apart in the row--in the quincunx form; each bed is separated from the rest by a path 80 inches wide. I need not say that the soil has been previously well enriched--with compost, generally, and well-decomposed manure. In fact, as I usually plant on soil from which a crop of potatoes has been removed, the ground has received two applications the year the plants are set. As the Colonel Cheney is my favorite, in order to fertilize it, I plant alternate beds of some good staminate variety, Charles Downing, Triomphe, or Wilson. The cultivation of the young plants the first season consists in cutting off any runners that may form, and keeping them clear of weeds. When well established, the beds are top-dressed with an inch or two of old manure; this feeds the plants, keeps the soil about the roots moist, and acts as a mulch when the fruit sets, and yields the following summer. The following spring and summer, nothing is done to these beds till after fruiting, except to hoe out the weeds. After fruiting, a thorough weeding is effected, and the runners are cut every three weeks; and before the frosts set in, the beds are given a top-dressing of old manure. After the second crop of fruit is taken off, they are weeded, and the runners are allowed to strike. The third spring, wood-ashes are applied; and after fruiting the plants are turned under. No winter protection is given to the plants, unless you except the top-dressing of manures; but this is sometimes not applied till spring, and I observe no appreciable difference between the plants with and those without it. What I do observe is that an early winter, and plenty of snow, kills fewer plants than a winter in which the snowfalls have been delayed till after frosts and rains. "Strawberries begin to ripen with us about the 28th of June, and raspberries about the 15th of July. With the above treatment, I have grown Wilsons and Cheneys at the rate of 11,000 quarts, or 344 bushels, to the acre. "RASPBERRIES "I prefer fall planting, which may be done as late as they can be put in. I have set them the last day of October, without losing one. I plant them four feet apart, but five would be better, and tie the canes, when grown, to stakes four and a half feet high.[Footnote: "The following fall, of course; when planted, the canes are cut back, so as to be only six inches above ground."] Sometimes I have laid them down, and sometimes have tied up the young canes to the stakes in the fall, and I find but little difference. They always bear, and are never winter-killed. "As to blackberries, I have but little experience. That blackberries will succeed here, some canes I saw 15th August, in a friend's garden, some two miles from my house, afford ample proof. They were loaded with clusters of magnificent, large, luscious fruit, and were equally prolific last year. My friend told me he was obliged to give them. very warm protection--literally bury them in straw and earth. "Red and black currants grow well with us, under ordinary treatment. Gooseberries, however, are liable to mildew; that is, the English varieties. The native hybrids, of course, are safe enough. Still, under some conditions, I have seen the English varieties without a touch of mildew. My English varieties mildewed badly this summer, and the man from whom I got them says that he has never seen it in his garden, not far from me. I went to see his bushes, and there was not a sign of mildew affecting his gooseberries, which were very large and fine." CHAPTER XXXII A FEW RULES AND MAXIMS Suggestive experiences and the methods of successful men are usually far more helpful than a system of rules. Nevertheless, I have thought that some concise maxims and formulas would be of use to those not yet well versed in the labors of a fruit farm. Such rules, also, may be of service to the unfortunates who are dependent on the "hired man," since they can be copied and given to this minister of destiny whose hands work out our weal or woe so largely. There are two types of workmen that are incorrigible. The one slashes away with his haphazard hoe, while he looks and talks in another direction. His tongue, at least, is rarely idle, and his curiosity awakes when he does. If any one or anything goes by, he must watch it while in sight and then comment and expectorate. He is not only versed in all the coarse gossip concerning his neighbors, but also can talk by the hour of the short-comings of even their horses and dogs. The virtues of man or beast, however, make but little impression on what answers in his organism for a mind. That which is good, wholesome, and refined interests him no more than strawberries would a buzzard. To the degree that he is active, he usually makes havoc. The weeds do not suffer seriously from his efforts, but if you have a few choice plants, a single specimen or two of something unpurchasable and rare, or a seedling that you dream may have a future, the probabilities are that, unless watched and warned, he will extirpate them utterly. It rarely happens that you can teach this type of man better things. The leopard may change his spots and the Ethiopian his skin, but this man--though resembling both outwardly, through his uncleanliness--never changes. His blunders, garrulity, and brainless labor, however, would transform Izaak Walton himself into a dragon of irritability. The effort to reform such a man would be heroic, indeed, but let those who enter upon such a task give their whole souls to it, and not attempt gardening at the same time--unless the garden is maintained for the sake of the man, and they, in their zeal, approach Titania in her midsummer-night's madness, when she bade her attendant fairies to "feed" the "translated" weaver-- "With apricocks and dewberries, With purple grapes, green figs, and mulberries." This degenerate descendant of Bottom, however, needs no such considerate attention; he will help himself to the choicest and rarest. Scarcely better than the type portrayed above is the deliberate workman, who can soon show you how easy it is to spend two dollars in order to make one. His wages--the one thing he is prompt about--will leave little margin of profit on the berries that he has packed, although, by reason of his ancient pipe, they may outrank all the fruit in the market. This man never walks nor runs, no matter how great the emergency and press of work; he merely jogs around, and picks a raspberry as he would pry out a bowlder. He does his work fairly well, usually; but the fact that it would require a hundred such men to care for a small place causes not the slightest solicitude. He would smoke just as stolidly and complacently after bringing wreck and ruin to a dozen employers. Men of these types are as disastrous on a fruit farm as the _Lachnosterna_ or currant worm. Unless the reader has far more native goodness and acquired grace than the writer, he had better dismiss them speedily, or his feelings may resemble those that Sam Jubilee described on previously. I have given two extreme examples, but there are also gradations of these characters, who had better find employment from those requiring "hands" only. Successful work on a fruit farm, or in a garden, requires a quick brain, a keen eye, a brisk step and a deft hand. Many of its labors are light, and no profit can follow unless they are performed with despatch, at the right time and in the right way. The majority of those we employ wish to do right and to give satisfaction. They are not only willing but are glad to learn; and while only actual and long-continued experience can make a thorough gardener, perhaps the following rules, maxims, and principles, embodying the experience of others, may be of service to beginners, giving them a start in the right direction: 1. Never put off till spring work that might be done in the fall. Spring is always too short for the labor it brings, even when not wet and late. 2. Plow in the fall all heavy, loamy land that you intend to plant in spring. This exposes it to the action of frost, and if done late, tends to destroy insects and their larvae. Do not plow sand in the fall unless there is upon it sod, stubble, etc., that is to decay. 3. Top-dress very light land with an inch or two of clay or heavy loam in November, and let the winter frosts and rains blend the two diverse soils to their mutual advantage. Harrowing in fertilizers on light ground is better than plowing them in. 4. In the fall top-dress all the small fruits with compost, bone-dust or other fertilizers that have staying powers, spreading it along close to the rows and over the roots, and working it into the soil lightly by cultivation. This gives everything a vigorous start in the spring. 5. If possible, take out before winter all perennial weeds--sorrel, white clover, etc.--but do not greatly disturb the roots of strawberries, just on the approach of winter. 6. In most localities and soils, raspberries, currants, gooseberries, and blackberries do better if planted any time after they drop their foliage in the fall. Such planting can be continued even into the winter, on mild, still days, when frost is neither in the air nor soil. Frozen earth should never come in contact with roots. I plant strawberries, also, all through the autumn, even into December; and before the ground freezes, hoe upon them one or two inches of soil, raking it off as soon as freezing weather is over in the spring. 7. The earlier plants are set out in spring, the better, if the ground and weather are suitable. It is usually best to wait till the danger of severe frost is over. Do not plant when the ground is wet and sticky, or dry and lumpy, at any season, if it can be helped. Do not plant in a high, hot or cold wind. Make the most of mild, still, and cloudy days. If plants can be set before a storm or shower, much is gained; but this is not essential if roots are imbedded their whole length in moist (not wet) earth, and the soil made very firm, around them. Plantings may be made in very dry weather if the land is forked or plowed late in the afternoon, and the plants set immediately in the fresh, moist earth. Keep the roots from contact with unfermented manure. 8. In handling plants at any time, _never_ let the _little_ rootlets dry and shrivel. Keep them from sun, frost, and wind. If the roots of plants received in boxes are frozen, let them thaw out in a cellar undisturbed. If roots are black, shrivelled, or musty from long transportation, wash them in clean water, and, in the case of strawberries, shorten them one-third, and then plant at once in moist soil. 9. In cultivating strawberry plants recently set, stir the surface merely, with a rake, _not over half an inch deep_. 10. Never disturb roots by working among them in dry weather. At such times, stir the _surface only, and often_. 11. If you water at all, water thoroughly, and keep the soil moist till rain comes; otherwise watering is an injury. 12. The easiest and cheapest way to keep a garden clean is to rake the ground over once a week on sunny days. This method destroys the weeds when they are just appearing, and maintains moisture. 18. Pick fruit, if possible, when it is dry, and before it is over-ripe. Do not leave it in the sun or wind, but take it at once to coolness and shade. Pack carefully and honestly. A quart of small, decayed, green, or muddy berries scattered through a crate of fine fruit may reduce its price one half. 14. Mulch everything you can. Save all the leaves and litter that can be gathered on the place, and apply it around the plants only when the ground is moist. _Dry_ ground covered with mulch may be kept dry all summer. 15. Practice summer pinching and pruning only when plants are in their spring and early summer growth, and not after the wood begins to ripen. If delayed till then, wait till the plant is dormant in the fall. 16. Sandy or gravelly land can usually be worked immediately after rain; but if heavy land is plowed or cultivated when wet, or so dry as to break up in lumps, it is injured. 17. Watch all crops daily. Plants are living things, and need attention. Diseases, insects, drought, or wet may destroy them in a few days, or even hours, if left uncared for. 18. If you cultivate strawberries in the spring, do the work _very early_--as soon as the ground is dry enough to work. After the fruit buds show themselves, stir the ground with a rake or hoe only, and never more than an inch deep. I advocate early spring cultivation, and then the immediate application of the mulch. 19. Just as the ground begins to freeze, in the fall or early winter, cover strawberry plants with some light material that will prevent alternate freezing and thawing during the winter. Never use heavy, unfermented manure for this purpose. Leaves, straw, salt, hay, _light_ stable manure, or any old litter from the garden, answer. 20. In setting raspberry plants, or any fruit, never set in hard, unprepared soil. Do not stick them in little, shallow holes, nor in deep, narrow ones, wherein the roots are all huddled together; make the holes large and deep, either with the plow or spade, fill the bottom partly with fine, rich, moist, surface soil, free from lumps and manure, and _spread_ the roots out on this, then fill in with very fine pulverized earth, setting the plant, in light land, one or two inches deeper than it grew naturally; and in heavy land at the same depth. If manure is used, spread it on the surface, _around_, not up against, the stem of the plant. 21. Both for the sake of economy and thoroughness, use the plow and cultivator rather than fork and hoe, whenever it is possible. Ground can be laid out with a view to this rule. 22. In cultivating crops among trees, use short whiffle-trees, with the traces so fastened as to prevent the young trees from being scratched and wounded. 23. Save, with scrupulous economy, all wood-ashes, soap-suds, and all articles having fertilizing qualities. A compost heap is like a sixpenny savings bank. Small and frequent additions soon make a large aggregate. The fruit-grower and his land usually grow rich together, and in the same proportion. 24. Once more I repeat--in handling and setting out plants, _never_ let the roots shrivel and dry out. After plants and cuttings are in the ground, never leave them just long enough to dry out and die. Keep them moist--not wet and sodden, but _moist_ all the time. In setting out plants, especially strawberries, spread out the roots, and make the ground _very firm_ about them. In trenching stock, put the roots down deeply, and cover well half-way up the stems. The gardener who fails to carry out the principles under this number has not learned the letter A of his business. Mr. William Parry gives the following rule for ascertaining the number of plants required for one acre of land, which contains 43,560 square feet: "Multiply the distance in feet between the rows by the distance the plants are set apart in the row, and their product will be the number of square feet for each plant or hill, which, divided into the number of feet in an acre, will show how many plants or hills the acre will contain, thus: "Blackberries . . . 8 feet by 3 == 24)43,560( 1,815 plants. Raspberries . . . 7 " 3 == 21)43,560( 2,074 plants. Strawberries . . . 5 " 1 == 5)43,560( 8,712 plants. Strawberries . . . 3 " 16" == 4)43,560(10,890 plants." The same rule can be applied to all other plants or trees. I would suggest that fruit-growers take much pains to secure trustworthy pickers. Careless, slovenly gathering of the fruit may rob it of half its value. It often is necessary for those who live remote from villages to provide quarters for their pickers. Usually, the better the quarters, the better the class that can be obtained to do the work. CHAPTER XXXIII VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES To attempt to describe all the strawberries that have been named would be a task almost as interminable as useless. This whole question of varieties presents a different phase every four or five years. Therefore I treat the subject in my final chapter, in order that I may give revision as often as there shall be occasion for it, without disturbing the body of the book. A few years since, certain varieties were making almost as great a sensation as the Sharpless. They are now regarded as little better than weeds, in most localities. Thus the need of frequent revision is clearly indicated. In chapter thirteen I have spoken of those varieties that have become so well established as to be regarded as standards, or which are so promising and popular as to deserve especial mention. More precise and technical descriptions will now be given. I shall not copy old catalogues, or name those kinds that have passed wholly out of cultivation. Such descriptions would have no practical value, and the strawberry antiquarian can find them in the older works on this subject. Neither shall I name many foreign kinds, as the majority of them have little value this side of the Atlantic. Soil, climate, locality, and other reasons, cause such great differences in opinion in regard to varieties that I expect exceptions to be taken to every description. Many of the new sorts that I am testing have not, as yet, proved themselves worthy of mention. _Agriculturist._--Originated with the late Mr. Seth Boyden, of Newark, N. J. Through the courtesy of an old friend of Mr. Boyden, I am able to give his description of his own berry, copied from his diary by a member of his family: "No. 10.--Name, Agriculturist. A cross between No. 5 and Peabody's Georgia; a hardy, tall grower, with much foliage and few runners; berries very large, broad shoulders, slightly necked, often flat, and some coxcombed or double, high crimson color to the centre, very firm, and high-flavored. A staminate variety." (No. 5 is the Green Prolific.) The Agriculturist was once very popular, and is still raised quite largely in some localities, but is fast giving way to new varieties. It is peculiarly adapted to light soils, but on my place has scalded and "dampened off" badly. It seemingly has had its day. _Boyden's_ No. 30 (_Seth Boyden_).--I again let Mr. Boyden describe his own seedling: "Plant above medium size; round leaf, deep green; bears the summer heat well; berries necked, rather long, large; abundance of seed; dark red; has buds, blossoms, and ripe berries on the same peduncle; is of the Agriculturist family, and an eccentric plant. Perfect flower." From the reference above, I gather that No. 5, or Green Prolific, is one of the parents of this famous berry. Mr. Boyden speaks of some of his other seedlings more favorably than of this--another instance of the truth that men do not always form the most correct judgments of their own children. No. 30 will perpetuate Mr. Boyden's name through many coming years, and all who have eaten this superb berry have reason to bless his memory. No. 5 and No. 10 are rapidly disappearing from our gardens. The Boyden (as it should be named) is one of the largest and sweetest berries in cultivation--too sweet for my taste. It responds nobly to high culture, but it is impatient of neglect and light, dry soils. It is one of the best market berries, and although not hard, is firm and dry, and thus is well adapted for shipping. It is one of the few fancy berries that will endure long transportation by rail. As I have stated, Mr. Jerolemon has raised 327 bushels of this variety on an acre, and received for the same $1,386. Give it moist soil and cut the runners. _Bidwell._--Foliage light green, plant very vigorous; truss 3 to 5 inches high; berry very conical, bright scarlet, with a neck highly glazed, glossy; flesh firm, pink; calyx close; season very early. Not yet fully tested, but giving remarkable promise. It has seemed to me to be the best of the new early berries. Staminate. _Beauty._--Plant fairly vigorous, leaf crinkled; truss 4 to 6 inches high; berry obtusely conical; long, glazed neck; crimson, 3 to 6 inches in circumference; flesh light pink; flavor excellent; calyx spreading; season early--a very fine and beautiful variety for the amateur and fancy market. It requires petting, and repays it. It makes very few runners. It originated with Mr. E. W. Durand, of Irvington, N. J. Staminate. _Black Defiance._--Plant vigorous, if the soil suits it; foliage dark green, low, bushy; downy leaf-stalk; truss low; 2 1/2 to 4 inches; berry very dark crimson; very obtuse conical, often round and irregular; early, flesh dark crimson, flavor sprightly, high, and rich; moderately productive; calyx spreading; inclined to stool; its runners bear fruit in September. It is one of the best varieties originated by Mr. Durand, who has given me the following history: "It is a seedling of Boyden's Green Prolific, impregnated by the Triomphe de Gand. The seed was planted in 1860. The berry was exceedingly tart when first red, and was on that account pronounced worthless by competent judges (so considered). Having but limited experience at the time, I threw it aside, but afterward retained five plants to finish a row of trial seedlings. Eventually it was shown at the exhibition of the New Jersey Agricultural Society, and was awarded the first prize as the best new seedling, by such competent judges as A. S. Fuller, Dr. Thurber, and Chas. Downing." From that day to this all lovers of good fruit have indorsed their opinion. It is firm, and can be shipped long distances. Staminate. _Black Giant._--Said to be a decided improvement on the above, and to have the same general characteristics; but not yet tested by general cultivation. _Black Prince._--An old and once popular English variety, one of Keen's seedlings, now rarely grown in this country. _Brilliant._--Originated with W. B. Storer, of Akron, Ohio, who describes it as "a large conical berry; color a dark, glossy red, and deep red all through; flavor rich. Plant very hardy and prolific." _British Queen._--One of Myatt's seedlings, of which Mr. J. M. Merrick writes: "It is perhaps the most famous berry ever raised in England, where it is a favorite for market." Unfortunately, it does not come to full perfection here, and is not only tender but very capricious in choice of soils. It is the parent of many excellent kinds. The fruit is of the largest size and highest flavor. Staminate. _Brooklyn Scarlet._--One of the best-flavored berries, but too soft, except for home use. Originated with Mr. A. S. Fuller. Staminate. _Boston Pine._--Once a favorite in the vicinity of Boston, and largely used to fertilize Hovey's Seedling. But few are raised now, to my knowledge. Fruit quite large; slightly conical; deep, glossy crimson; rather firm; juicy, and of good flavor. The plant requires hill culture in rich soil. Staminate. _Burr's New Pine._--A medium-sized, roundish berry; scarlet in the sun; pale in the shade; juicy, sweet, aromatic, early, very soft. Pistillate. _Belle._--One of Mr. J. B. Moore's seedlings. New. I give an extract from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's report: "The Belle, we think, is the largest strawberry ever exhibited on our tables." As yet, not generally tested. _Captain Jack_.--Plant moderately vigorous; leaf-stalk smooth, wiry; very dark green foliage, which in many regions is inclined to burn; truss 5 to 7 inches; recumbent; very much branched, with from 12 to 18 berries; berry light scarlet, round, fair size and uniform; flesh pink, moderately firm; flavor poor; calyx close; season late; very productive; flowers grow above the leaves; the fruit endures transportation remarkably well; staminate. Originated with Mr. S. Miller, of Bluffton, Mo., and is a seedling of the Wilson. _Charles Downing_.--Plant very vigorous; foliage light green; tall and slender; leaf-stalk downy; truss 6 to 7 inches, slender, drooping; 8 to 10 berries, which are scarlet, with a pale cheek--crimson when fully ripe; berry round to obtuse conical; regular, the first slightly ridged; somewhat soft; flesh juicy, light pink; flavor very fine; size 3 to 5 inches in circumference; calyx spreading and recurved; season medium; very productive. This is one of the best family varieties, and is planted every year more largely for market. With care, it endures transportation very well, and those who once taste it ask for it again. There are few, if any other, varieties that do so well throughout the country at large. Originated with Mr. J. S. Downer, Fairview, Ky. Staminate. _Champion_.--Plant vigorous; foliage dark green; leafstalk downy; truss 5 to 6 inches, branched; berry dark crimson, round; flesh rather soft, crimson; flavor very good when fully ripe, but poor when it first turns red; size 2 1/2 to 5 inches; calyx recurved; season medium to late; exceedingly productive. One of the best and most profitable for near market. Originated with Dr. J. C. Neff, Carlisle, Pa. Pistillate. _Caroline_.--Plant a moderate grower; foliage light green; leaf-stalk somewhat downy; truss 4 to 5 inches; berry bright scarlet, with a varnished appearance; bulky, conical; flesh scarlet; flavor good; size 3 to 4 inches; calyx spreading; season medium. Originated with J. B. Moore, Concord, Mass. Staminate. _Crescent Seedling_.--Plant vigorous, tall, with dark green and very slender foliage; leaf-stalk rather smooth; truss 6 to 8 inches, well branched; bearing 12 to 18 berries; bright scarlet berry, round to conical, with a peculiar depression near the apex; large ones somewhat irregular; size 2 to 4 inches; flesh scarlet; flavor not good, unless grown on light land and the berry ripens in the sun; calyx recurved. Soft for long carriage; but its bright color and fair size, under good culture, cause it to sell readily in near markets. I think the public will demand better-flavored berries. It certainly should. There are few weeds that can compete with the Crescent in vigorous growth. It does well in the hot climate of the South. Indeed, there are few soils so poor and dry that it cannot thrive upon them; and, at the same time, under high culture, with runners cut, it improves wonderfully. It has yielded at the rate of 15,000 quarts to the acre. Originated with Mr. William Parmelee, of New Haven, Conn., in 1870. Pistillate, or nearly so. _Centennial Favorite_.--Plant vigorous, tall, with light green foliage; truss 3 to 7 inches, much branched; berry dark scarlet, round to flat, inclined to have a neck, 2 to 4 inches; smooth and glossy in appearance, uniform in size, flesh dark scarlet; flavor fine; calyx spreading; season medium to late; moderately productive. Originated with Mr. E. W. Durand, Irvington, N. J. Pistillate. _Cinderella_.-Plant very vigorous, with light green foliage; leaf-stalks soft, downy; truss 4 to 6 inches; berry conical, sometimes necked, bright scarlet, glossy; flesh moderately firm, light pink; flavor fair, but not high; size 3 to 5 inches; season early to medium; calyx spreading. The young plants are not very productive, but I think they would improve greatly in this respect if the runners were cut, and that they would bear better the second year. The berry is almost as beautiful and attractive as the Jucanda, which it resembles somewhat; and it can be grown on light soils, where the Jucunda cannot thrive. Originated with Mr. Oscar Felton, of New Jersey, 1878. Staminate. _Continental_.--Plant vigorous; leaf-stalk smooth; truss 5 to 7 inches, well branched, bearing 12 to 18 berries; berry dark crimson, obtusely conical; flesh firm, scarlet; flavor good; calyx recurving; season late; moderately productive, and, under hill culture, very prolific. Originated with Mr. Oscar Felton. Staminate. When visiting Mr. Felton, I saw several other seedlings of great promise, which I hope he will send out at an early date. _Colonel Cheney_.--Plant low, spreading, vigorous, with light green foliage; leaf-stalk downy; truss 3 to 5 inches, low, branching; berry light scarlet, long, conical, necked; large ones very irregular; flesh pink, watery, soft; the core tends to pull out with the hull; flavor poor; calyx spreading; season medium to late; very productive, and Mr. A. M. Purdy, editor "Small Fruit Recorder," writes to me that for near markets it is still grown with great profit in western New York. Pistillate. _Crimson Cone_.--(Scotch Runner or Pine-apple). About fourteen years ago, according to Mr. Fuller, there were more acres of this old-fashioned variety cultivated for the New York market than of all other kinds together. They were also called "Hackensacks," and were brought in the small, handled baskets already described, and were hulled as they were picked--their long neck making this an easy task. They are small, regular, conical, firm, with a rich, sprightly, acid flavor. It is not a pistillate, as many claim, Mr. Fuller asserts, but a spurious variety, largely mixed with it, is a pistillate. It is one of the historical strawberries, but it has had its day. In size and flavor it is a near approach to the wild berry. _Cumberland Triumph_.--Plant vigorous, with dark green foliage; leaf-stalk smooth; truss 6 to 7 inches; well branched; berry round and very uniform in shape, pale scarlet; flesh light pink, soft; very large; size 3 to 6 inches; calyx close; season early to medium. One of the best for family use. Under high culture, it is superb. Originated with Mr. Amos Miller, of Carlisle, Pa. Staminate. _Damask Beauty._--Foliage very dark green; leaf-stalk downy; truss low, 2 1/2 to 4 inches, berry very light scarlet obtusely conical; size 2 to 4 inches; flesh soft, juicy, pink; flavor fine; calyx close; season early. A very distinct variety, and interesting to an amateur, but of no great value. Staminate. _Duchesse._--Plant vigorous, tall; leaves dark green; leaf-stalk and midrib very downy; truss 7 inches; recumbent, well branched, 6 to 8 berries that hold out well in size; berry round, bulky, very uniform, moderately firm; bright scarlet; flesh pink, juicy; flavor fine; size 3 to 4 inches; season very early, but continuing quite long. Inclined to stool, or make large plants from a single root; enormously productive; from 50 to 200 berries to a plant, in hill culture. I regard it as the best early standard berry, and have always found it one of the most profitable for market. Originated with Mr. D. H. Barnes, of Poughkeepsie, N. Y, Staminate. _Duncan._--Plant vigorous; foliage light green; leaf-stalk downy; truss 5 to 7 inches; berry scarlet, round to oval, often decidedly conical; large ones irregular, and cox-combed, flesh pink, not very firm; flavor very good; calyx close to spreading; a productive, fine variety, that, I am inclined to think, has not been appreciated. Originated by Mr. J. G. Lucas, of Ulster Co., N. Y. Staminate. _Doctor Nicaise._--A French variety; enormously large; soft; not productive; and on my grounds wretched in flavor. _Downer's Prolific._--A light scarlet berry; medium to large; oval, roundish, soft; acid, but of good flavor, and perfumed like the wild berry. Plant very vigorous and capable of enduring much neglect; profitable for home use and near market. Originated with Mr. J. S. Downer, of Kentucky. Staminate. _Dr. Warder._--Plant tall, moderately vigorous; foliage light green; leaf-stalk downy; truss 7 to 9 inches, branched, full of different-sized berries; berry long, conical, well shouldered, crimson, firm; flesh pink; flavor good; size 4 to 6 inches; calyx close; season very late; burns badly, needs to be in shade. Staminate. A superb variety if it did not lose its foliage. _Early Hudson._--Plant very vigorous, with light green foliage; leaf-stalk downy; truss 4 to 5 inches, strong, well branched; berry crimson, flattish-round; when large, somewhat irregular; flesh crimson, juicy, soft; size 3 to 5 inches; season very early; very productive. One of the best for family use, and very productive and fine, with runners cut. Pistillate. _Eliza._--Plant moderately vigorous; dark green; leaf-stalk downy; truss 3 to 5 inches, stout, branched; berry light scarlet, round to conical, necked, large ones irregular and coxcombed; flesh firm, white; flavor excellent; calyx close; season late; moderately productive. One of the best foreign varieties. Staminate. _Early Adela._--Not worth growing on my grounds. _French's Seedling._--Plant vigorous, with light green foliage; leaf-stalk downy; truss 5 to 7 inches; berry round, scarlet; size medium; seeds deep-pitted; flesh pink, soft; flavor good; calyx spreading; season early; moderately productive. Found growing wild in a meadow, near Morristown, N. J. _Forest Rose._--Plant moderately vigorous; foliage light green; truss 3 to 5 inches, branching; berry bright scarlet, large, and the first somewhat irregular, 4 to 6 inches; flesh light pink; flavor very fine; calyx spreading and recurving; season early. One of the best where it can be grown, but in some regions the foliage burns. Discovered growing in a vineyard, by Mr. Fetters, of Lancaster, Ohio. Staminate. _Frontenac._--Foliage light green; plant moderately vigorous; leaf-stalk wiry; truss 5 inches, 6 to 8 berries; berry bright scarlet, roundish and slightly irregular; size 2 to 3 inches; flesh pink, solid; season late; moderately productive; the foliage is inclined to burn. _ Glendale._--This variety is now greatly praised as a market berry. Dr. Thurber and I examined it together, and agreed that its flavor was only second-rate; but, as we have already seen, the public does not discriminate very nicely on this point. It averages large, sometimes exceeding six inches in circumference. It is long, conical, uniform in shape, necked. The first berries are often ridged somewhat, but I have never seen it flat or coxcombed. It has a very large calyx, is light scarlet in flesh and color, very firm, and therefore will probably keep and ship well, the large calyx aiding in this respect also. The plant is vigorous and makes a long runner before the new plant forms. Leaves large and dark green; leaf-stalk downy; truss 4 to 6 inches; season very late. Found, by Mr. W. B. Storer, growing wild in Glendale Cemetery, Akron, O., in 1871. Staminate. I think this berry has a future as a market variety. _Green Prolific._---One of the late Mr. Seth Boyden's noted varieties, and a parent of far better berries than itself. I quote again from Mr. Boyden's diary: "No. 5; a cross with Hovey's Seedling and Kitley's Goliath; a large plant, and seldom injured by summer heat; very luxuriant grower and bearer; berries above medium size and of good quality. A pistillate." This berry was once very popular, but has been superseded. The fruit is very soft, and second-rate in flavor. The plant is so vigorous and hardy that, in combination with a fine staminate, it might be the parent of superior new varieties. _General Sherman._--New. Described as "large, conical, regular, brilliant scarlet; quality good; productive; early." _Great American._--Plant but moderately vigorous; foliage dark green; leaf-stalks downy; truss 4 to 7 inches; berry dark crimson, round to conical; under poor culture, 2 to 3 inches in size, but sometimes very large, 10 to 12 inches; flesh pink; flavor only fair; season late; unproductive, unless just suited in soil and treatment. In most localities, the foliage burns or scalds in the sun, and also seems just adapted to the taste of the flea-beetle and other insects. Originated with Mr. E. W. Durand, and under his exceedingly high culture and skilful management it yielded immense crops of enormous berries that sold as high as a dollar per quart; but throughout the country at large, with a few exceptions, it seems to have been a melancholy failure From this variety was produced a berry measuring over fourteen inches in circumference--probably the largest strawberry ever grown. Staminate. _Golden Defiance._--Plant tall, very vigorous, somewhat slender, light green; leaf-stalk moderately downy; truss 5 to 7 inches, 12 to 20 berries, well clustered--all the berries developing to a good size; berry dark scarlet, obtusely conical, smooth, sometimes necked, very uniform, 3 to 5 inches; flesh scarlet, quite firm, juicy; flavor very fine; calyx spreading and recurving; season late. For three successive years this has been the best late berry on my place, and one of the most beautiful. Unless it changes its character, it will win its way to the front rank in popularity. If its runners are cut, it is exceedingly productive of fruit that is as fine-flavored as showy. Pistillate. Originated with Mr. Amos Miller, of Pennsylvania. _Glossy Gone._--One of Mr. E. W. Durand's seedlings. A pretty berry, with a varnished appearance, but neither productive nor vigorous on my grounds, thus far. New. _Helen._--New. Plant tall, vigorous, with dark green foliage, very downy; truss 5 to 7 inches, branched; berry light scarlet, flat, conical; flesh white, firm; flavor fine; calyx close; season late. I fear the foliage is inclined to burn badly. Staminate. _Hervey Davis._-New Plant tall, rather vigorous, with light green foliage; leaf-stalk smooth, except when young; truss 5 to 6 inches; berry bright scarlet, shouldered, obtusely conical, glossy; flesh very light pink, firm; flavor good; calyx close; season medium; productive. It has seemed to me the most promising of Mr. J. B. Moore's seedlings. The berry resembles the Jucunda somewhat. Staminate. _Hovey's Seedling._--One of the most famous of the historical berries, and still raised quite largely around Boston. It was originated by Mr. C. M. Hovey, and was first fruited in 1835. Its introduction made a great sensation in the fruit world, and the fact of its being a pistillate gave rise to no end of discussion. Many who first bought it set it out by itself, and of course it bore no fruit; therefore they condemned it. When its need of fertilization was understood, many used wild plants from the woods for this purpose, and then found it to be the largest and most productive strawberry in cultivation at that period. Such large crops were often raised that the theory was advanced by many that pistillates as a class would be more productive than staminates, and horticulturists became as controversial as the most zealous of theologians. The berry and the vexed questions that it raised have both ceased to occupy general attention, but many of the new varieties heralded to-day are not equal to this old-fashioned sort. Mr. Downing thus describes it: "The vines are vigorous and hardy, producing moderately large crops, and the fruit is always of the largest size and finely flavored; the leaves are large, rather light green, and the fruit-stalks long and erect; fruit roundish-oval and slightly conical, deep shining, scarlet, seeds slightly imbedded; flesh firm; season about medium." _Huddleston's Favorite._--New. Thus described by E. Y. Teas, of Dunreith, Ind.: "A vigorous grower, with large, glossy foliage, that stands the sun well; berries of the largest size, round, with small calyx, of a bright, glossy, crimson color, ripening evenly, firm, with a rich, spicy flavor; late; very beautiful in appearance." _Jucunda._--A slow rather than feeble grower, on heavy soils; light green foliage; leaf-stalk smooth; truss 5 to 7 inches; berry high-shouldered, conical, of a bright, glossy crimson, very showy; flesh scarlet, firm; flavor fair and good when fully ripe; calyx close; season late. I am indebted to Dr. Hexamer for the following history: "The late Rev. Mr. J. Knox, of Pittsburgh, told me that in a bed of what he received as Bonte de St. Julien, he found a number of plants that seemed to him a new variety. Supposing them to be a new and very desirable seedling, he separated them from the others and propagated them under the name of '700.' Before he offered them for sale he discovered that they were identical with the Jucunda, and when they were brought out, in 1865, it was under the true name, Jucunda (Knox's 700)." One authority states that it originated in England, with a Mr. Salter; another says that it was imported from Belgium. This is of little consequence compared with the fact that it is the finest foreign berry we have, on _heavy_ soils. I do not recommend it for light land, unless the runners are cut and high culture is given. Mr. M. Crawford, of Cuyahoga Falls, Ohio, makes the interesting statement that Mr. Knox "sold over two hundred bushels of this variety in one day, at $16 per bushel." It has always been one of the most profitable on my heavy land. The young plants are small and feeble. Staminate. _Kentucky Seedling._--Plant tall, vigorous, but slender and apt to fall; light green foliage; truss 8 to 10 inches, with 8 to 10 berries; berry scarlet, conical, high-shouldered, somewhat flattened at the tip, regular in shape and uniform in size, a little rough, knobby, with seeds set in deep pits; flesh but moderately firm, and very white; flavor of the best; calyx spreading and recurving; season late and long-continued; very productive--one of the very best; size 3 to 4 1/2 inches. It succeeds well on light soils and under the Southern sun, and improves wonderfully under hill culture. Staminate. Originated by Mr. J. S. Downer, of Kentucky. _Lady of the Lake._--Plant tall, vigorous, dark green foliage; leaf-stalk downy; truss 7 to 8 inches; berry crimson, conical necked; flesh pink, firm; flavor good, but rather dry; size moderate; calyx spreading; season medium; productive. Staminate. It has been, and is still, a favorite with the market-men around Boston. Originated by a Mr. Scott, in Brighton, Mass. _La Constant._--One of the most beautiful of the foreign berries; flesh rosy white, sweet, juicy, very firm, and of exquisite flavor. The plants are dwarf and compact, and they require the highest culture. Even then the crop is uncertain; for the variety, like high-born beauty, is very capricious; but its smiles, in the way of fruit, are such as to delight the most fastidious of amateurs. Originated by De Jonghe. Staminate. It is one of the favorite varieties abroad for forcing. _Lady's Finger._--An old variety, now not often seen. Conical, and very elongated, and of a brilliant, dark scarlet color. It was once popular, but has been superseded. _Lennig's White_ (White Pine-apple).--This is not strictly a white berry, for it has a delicate flush if exposed to the sun. The flesh is pure white, juicy, melting, sweet and delicious in flavor, and so aromatic that one berry will perfume a large apartment. The plant is vigorous and hardy, but a shy bearer. Hill culture and clipped runners are essential to fruit, but, for a connoisseur's table, a quart is worth a bushel of some varieties. It is the best white variety, and evidently a seedling of the _F. Chilensis._ It originated in the garden of Mr. Lennig, of Germantown, Pa. Staminate. _Laurel Leaf._--New. Plant moderately vigorous; foliage dark green; leaf-stalk quite smooth; truss 3 to 5 inches, low, stocky; berry very light scarlet; round to conical, short neck; flesh soft, light pink; size moderate; flavor good; calyx close. Originated with Mr. A. N. Jones, Le Roy, N. Y. Staminate. _Longworth's Prolific._--An old variety, that is passing out of cultivation; still grown quite extensively in California. It is a large, roundish-oval berry of good flavor. The plant is said to be vigorous and productive. Originated on the grounds of the late Mr. N. Longworth of Cincinnati. _Longfellow._--New. Described as very large, elongated, conical, occasionally irregular; color dark red, glossy and beautiful; flesh firm, sweet, and rich; plant vigorous with dark green, healthy foliage, not liable to burn in the sun; very productive, continuing long in bearing, and of large size to the last. Originated with Mr. A. D. Webb, Bowling Green, Ky. _Marvin._-This new berry is already exciting much attention, and I am glad that I can give a description from so careful and eminent a horticulturist as Mr. T. T. Lyon, President Michigan State Pomological Society: "From notes taken at the ripening of the fruit: 'Plant vigorous, very stocky, of rather low growth, bearing a fine crop for young plants; foliage nearly round, thick in substance, flat or cupped; serratures broad and shallow; fruit large to very large, longish conical; large specimens often coxcombed; bright crimson; began to color June 16, and the first ripe berries were gathered on the 20th; stems of medium height--strong; flesh light crimson; whitish at the centre, firm and juicy; flavor high, rich, fine, with a very pleasant aroma; seeds prominent; greenish brown. We regard this as a highly promising, very large, late variety, and especially so for market purposes. Staminate.'" Originated with Mr. Harry Marvin, Ovid, Mich., and said to be from the Wilson and Jucunda--an excellent parentage. _Miner's Great Prolific._--Plant vigorous; leaves light green, smooth; leaf-stalk downy; truss six inches, well branched, slender, drooping; berry deep crimson, round and bulky, regular shouldered; tip green when half-ripe; flesh pink, moderately firm; flavor good; calyx spreading; size four to five inches; season medium to late. The berry holds out well in size, and resembles the Charles Downing somewhat, but averages larger. It has seemed to me as promising a new variety as the Sharpless. I believe it has a long future. Originated with late T. B. Miner in 1877. Staminate. _Monarch of the West._--Plant very vigorous; leaves light, when young, and later of a golden green, somewhat smooth; truss six inches; four to eight berries; berry often of a carpet-bag shape, square shouldered, and sometimes coxcombed, large, magnificent; pale scarlet; flesh light pink, tender; flavor very fine; calyx spreading and recurving; tip of berry green when not fully ripe, but it colors evenly if given time. When flavor is the gauge of excellence in the market, this famous berry will be in the front rank. Its color and softness are against it, but its superb size, deliciousness and aroma should make it eagerly sought after by all who want a genuine strawberry. In the open market, it already often brings double the price of Wilsons. In the home garden, it has few equals. With some exceptions, it does well from Maine to California. The narrow row culture greatly increases its size and productiveness. I have had many crates picked in which there were few berries that did not average five inches in circumference. Mr. Jesse Brady, of Plano, Illinois, gives me the following history: "The Monarch was raised by me in 1867, from one of a number of seedlings, grown previously, and crossed with Boyden's Green Prolific. The said seedling was never introduced to the public. I raised fourteen, and cultivated three of them several years. They were produced from an English berry, name unknown to me." _Martha._--A fine, large berry, but, as I have seen it, the foliage burns so badly that I think it will pass out of cultivation unless it improves in this respect. Staminate. _Neunan's Prolific_ (Charleston Berry).--Foliage tall, slender, dark green; fruit-stalk tall; berries light scarlet, inclined to have a neck at the North, not so much so at the South. First berries large, obtusely conical; the latter and smaller berries becoming round; calyx very large and drooping over the berry; exceedingly firm--hard, indeed--and sour when first red; but growing richer and better in flavor in full maturity; usually a vigorous grower. It was originated by a Mr. Neunan, of Charleston, S. C., and scarcely any other variety is grown in that great strawberry centre. _Napoleon III._--A very large foreign berry, often flattened and coxcombed. I found that its foliage burned so badly I could not grow it. Mr. P. Barry describes the plant as "rarely vigorous, and bearing only a few large, beautiful berries." _New Jersey Scarlet._--An old-fashioned market berry that succeeded well on the light soils of New Jersey. Once popular, but not much grown now, I think. Mr. Downing describes it as medium in size, conical, with a neck; light, clear scarlet; moderately firm, juicy, sprightly. Staminate. _Nicanor._--A seeding of the Triomphe de Gand, that originated on the grounds of Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, and is described by Mr. Barry as "hardy, vigorous, productive, early, and continuing in bearing a long time; fruit moderately large; uniform, roundish, conical; bright scarlet; flesh reddish, rather firm, juicy, sweet; of fine flavor." I found that it required heavy soil, high culture, with clipped runners, to produce, on my place, fruit large enough to be of value. The fruit ripened very early and was of excellent flavor. Staminate. _New Dominion._--Described by Mr. Crawford, as "very large, roundish, uniform in size and shape; bright red; glossy, firm, of good flavor, and productive; season medium." I have seen it looking poorly on light soil. Originated with Mr. C. N. Biggar, on the battlefield of Lundy's Lane. _Oliver Goldsmith._--New; a very vigorous grower, bearing a long, conical berry with a glazed neck. Untested, but very promising. Staminate. _President Lincoln._--Plant moderately vigorous; foliage light green; truss 5 to 6 inches, strong; berry crimson, conical; often long with a neck; the first large berries are coxcombed and very irregular; flesh firm, scarlet; flavor of the very best; size 3 to 6 inches; calyx close to spreading. One of the best varieties for an amateur. Among them often, without any apparent cause, are found small bushy plants with smaller leaves, and berries full of "fingers and toes." These should be pulled out. The variety evidently contains much foreign blood, but is one of the best of the class. The berries almost rival the Sharpless in size, and are better in flavor, but the plant is not so good a grower. Specimens have been picked measuring over eleven inches in circumference. It is said to have originated with a Mr. Smith, of New York City, in 1875. Staminate. _President Wilder._--In the estimation of many good judges, this is the most beautiful and best-flavored strawberry in existence--an opinion in which I coincide. It has always done well with me, and I have seen it thriving in many localities. It is so fine, however, that it deserves all the attention that it requires. It is a hybrid of the La Constant and Hovey's Seedling, and unites the good qualities of both, having much the appearance of the beautiful foreign berry, and the hardy, sun-resisting foliage of Hovey's Seedling. It has a suggestion of the musky, Hautbois flavor, when fully ripe, and is of a bright scarlet color, deepening into crimson in maturity. Flesh quite firm, rosy white, juicy, very rich and delicious. The berry is diamond-shaped, obtusely conical, very regular and uniform; seeds yellow and near the surface. The plant is low, compact, rather dwarf, the young plants quite small, but the foliage endures the sun well, even in the far South. The plants are more productive the second year of bearing than in the first. Young plants often do not form fruit buds. Mr. Merrick states that it "originated with President Wilder, in 1861, and was selected as the best result obtained from many thousand seedlings in thirty years of continual experimenting." Staminate. _Pioneer._--Plant vigorous; foliage light green, tall; leaf-stalk downy; truss 5 to 7 inches; berry scarlet, necked, dry, sweet, perfumed; flesh pink, only moderately firm; flavor of the best; calyx close to spreading; season early. This seems to me the best of all Mr. Durand's new varieties that I have seen, and it is very good indeed. The foliage dies down during the winter, but the root sends up a new, strong growth, which, I fear, will burn in the South and on light soils. Staminate. _Prouty's Seedling._--Plant not very vigorous; leaf-stalk very smooth; truss 3 to 5 inches; berry bright scarlet, glossy, very long conical; flesh pink, firm; flavor fair; calyx close. Very productive, but the plant does not seem vigorous enough to mature the enormous quantity of fruit that forms. With high culture on heavy soil, I think it might be made very profitable. Staminate. _Panic._--Mr. W. H. Coleman, of Geneva, writes me that this variety promises remarkably well in his region, but on my ground it burns so badly as to be valueless. It is a long, conical berry, very firm and of good flavor. Staminate. _Red Jacket._--Early, high-flavored, with a rich subacid, suggesting the wild berry in taste and aroma; of good size, round, dark crimson. Plant vigorous; a promising new variety. Staminate. _Russell's Advance._--A fine-flavored, early variety, but the plant proves not sufficiently vigorous and productive to compete with other early berries already described. Staminate. _Russell's Prolific._--A fine, large berry, deservedly popular a few years since. It has yielded splendid fruit on my grounds, but it seems to have proved so uncertain over the country at large as to have passed out of general favor. It is rather soft for market and not high-flavored enough for a first-class berry. Pistillate. _Romeyn's Seedling._--I cannot distinguish it from the Triomphe de Gand. Staminate. _Sharpless._--A very strong, upright grower, with large, crinkled foliage; truss 5 to 8 inches, strong branched; 6 to 10 large berries often on each; berry carpet-bag in shape, and often very irregular and flattened, but growing more uniform as they diminish in size; light red and glossy, 5 to 7 inches; flesh firm, light pink; flavor fine, sweet, perfumed; calyx recurving; season medium. One of the very best if it proves sufficiently productive over the country at large. Mr. J. K. Sharpless kindly writes me: "I have been much interested in growing strawberries for the last fifteen years, and after being disappointed in many of the new and highly praised varieties, the idea occurred to me that a seedling originating in our own soil and climate might prove more hardy and long-lived. Having saved a fine berry of each of the following varieties--the Wilson, Colonel Cheney, Jucunda, and Charles Downing--I planted their seeds in a box in March, 1872. The box was kept in the house (probably by a warm south window), and in May I set from this box about 100 plants in the garden, giving partial shade and frequently watering, By fall, nearly all were fine plants. I then took them up and set them out in a row one foot apart, protecting them slightly during the winter, and the next season nearly all bore some fruit, the Sharpless four or five fine berries. It was the most interesting employment of my life to grow and watch those seedlings. Some of the others bore fine, large berries, but I eventually came to the conclusion that the Sharpless was the only one worthy of cultivation." I am inclined to think that the Jucunda and Colonel Cheney formed the combination producing this berry. It is now in enormous demand, and if it gives satisfaction throughout the country generally, its popularity will continue. It is peculiarly adapted to hill culture, and the plant is so vigorous that it would develop into quite a bush on rich, moist land, with its runners clipped. Staminate. _Seneca Chief._--Plant vigorous and productive; large, downy leaf; truss low; berry bright scarlet, glossy, occasionally a little wedge-shaped; round to conical, shouldered; flesh firm, pink; seeds yellow and brown; flavor fine, rich subacid; season medium; size 3 to 5 inches; calyx close; a fine berry, originated by Messrs. Hunt & Foote, Waterloo, N. Y. Staminate. _Seneca Queen._--Plant vigorous, foliage dark green; leaf-stalk moderately downy; truss 3 to 5 inches; berry dark crimson, round; flesh red; flavor fair; size 3 to 5 inches; calyx close; season medium; productive; a promising variety. Staminate. _Springdale._--Plant low, stocky; leaf-stalk downy; leaf broad and smooth; truss 3 to 4 inches; berry bright scarlet, round, broader than long, 3 to 5 inches; flesh light pink, juicy, rather soft; flavor very good; calyx close; season early to medium. Originated by Amos Miller, of Pennsylvania. Pistillate. _Sucker State._--Plant seems vigorous; foliage dark green; leaf-stalk downy; berry light scarlet; flesh pink, juicy, firm. A new and promising variety. Staminate. _Stirling._--Only moderately vigorous; foliage low, light green; leaf-stalk downy; truss 3 to 5 inches, well branched; berry crimson, ovate, very uniform, somewhat necked; moderate-sized, 2 to 3 inches; flesh pink, very firm; flavor of the best; calyx close to spreading; season medium to late. The foliage burns so badly in most localities that this variety will pass out of cultivation. Pistillate. _Triomphe de Gand._--Plant light green; leaf-stalk and blade unusually smooth, truss 4 to 5 inches, berry, the average ones, round to conical, large ones irregular and coxcombed; light scarlet; glossy; flesh pink, juicy, and solid; flavor of the best; calyx close; size 3 1/2 to 5 inches; season long; rather feeble grower, and comes slowly to maturity. Admirably adapted to the narrow row system, and on heavy soils can be kept in bearing five or six years, if the runners are cut regularly. If I were restricted to one strawberry on a heavy, loamy soil, the Triomphe would be my choice, since, on moist land with high culture, it will continue six weeks in bearing, giving delicious fruit. When well grown, it commands the highest price in market. It is probably the best foreign variety we have, and is peculiarly adapted to forcing. It is said to be a Belgian variety. Staminate. The old-fashioned belief that strawberries thrived best on light soils caused this superb berry to be discarded; but it was introduced again by Mr. Knox, who proved, by a very profitable experience, that heavy land is the best for many of our finest varieties. _Triple Crown_.--Plant tall, slender; foliage light green; leaf-stalk wiry, smooth; truss 5 to 6 inches; berry dark crimson, conical; when large, irregular, with a glazed neck; flesh crimson, remarkably firm; flavor rich and fine; size 3 to 4 inches; season medium; very productive. One of the best, and I think the firmest strawberry in existence. I may be mistaken, but I think this berry will become exceedingly popular when it becomes better known. I am testing it on various soils. For canning and shipping qualities, it has no equal, and though so exceedingly firm, is still rich and juicy when fully ripe. Originated by Mr. Wm. Hunt, of Waterloo, N. Y. Staminate. _Warren_.--Described as very large, roundish, conical; very regular in shape and size; color dark red, ripening evenly; flesh firm and of good quality. Plant a luxuriant grower and a good bearer. New and untested. Originated by Mr. A. S. Webb, Bowling Green, Ky. _Wilding_.--Plant tall, vigorous; foliage dark green; leaf-stalk downy; truss 6 to 8 inches; well branched; 10 to 12 berries; ripe fruit and blossoms on the same stalk; berry crimson, high-shouldered, round to conical; size 3 to 5 inches; flesh moderately firm, pink; flavor good. New and very promising. Originated by Mr. A. N. Jones, Le Roy, N. Y. Staminate. _Wielandy_.--Plant vigorous, with dark green, very glossy foliage; leaf-stalk downy; truss low; berry bright scarlet, round to conical; flesh pink, soft; flavor fine; size 2 to 3 inches; season medium. New and untested, but of good promise for the home garden. Staminate. _Windsor Chief._--Said to have been originated by Mr. C. A. Gardner, of Eaton County, Michigan, and to be a cross between the Champion and Charles Downing. The plants that I obtained from Mr. Gardner resemble the Champion so closely, both in foliage and fruit, that I cannot yet distinguish between the mother and daughter. This year I shall fruit both in perfection, and fear that I shall have to record a distinction without a difference. I hope I may be mistaken. All that is claimed for the Windsor Chief is true if it is as good as the Champion, a variety that I have ever found one of the most profitable on my place. Pistillate. ALPINE STRAWBERKIES _Alpines, White and Red._--These are the _Fragaria Vesca_, the strawberries of the ancients, and well worthy of a place in our gardens to-day. As I have already stated, they are one of the most widely spread fruits in the world; for while they take their name from the Alps, there are few mountains, where the temperature is sufficiently cool, on which they are not found, either in this country or abroad. In the high latitudes they descend into the fields, and grow wild everywhere. The berries are conical, medium to small in size, and the fruit-stalks rise above the leaves. In flavor they are good, very delicate, but not rich. The plants are very hardy, and moderately productive. Grown from the seed they reproduce themselves with almost unvarying similarity, but the young seedlings produce larger berries than the older plants. The foliage of the White variety is of a lighter green than that of the Red, but in other respects there are no material differences, except in the color. _White and Red Monthly Alpines._--Varieties similar to the above, with the exception that they bear continuously through the summer and fall, if moisture is maintained and high culture given. If much fruit is desired, all runners should be cut, and the ground made rich. We are often misled by synonymes of these old varieties, as, for instance, Des Quatre Saisons, Mexican Everbearing, Gallande, etc. They are all said to be identical with the common monthly Alpines. _White and Red Bush Alpines_.--A distinct class that produces no runners, but are propagated by dividing the roots. In other respects the plant and fruit are similar to the common Alpines. No matter how small the division, if a little root is attached, it will grow readily. They make pretty and useful edgings for garden walks, and with good culture bear considerable fruit, especially in the cool, moist months of autumn. Because, throwing out no runners, they give very little trouble, and I have ever found them the most satisfactory of the monthly strawberries. I see no reason why a good demand for them, as a fancy fruit, could not be created. Be this as it may, there are many who are sufficiently civilized to consider the home market first; and a dainty dish of strawberries on an October evening, and a wood-fire blazing on the hearth, form a combination that might reconcile misanthropy to the "ills of life." Mr. Downing states that the Bush Alpines were first brought to this country by the late Andrew Parmentier, of Brooklyn. _Wood Strawberries, White and Red_.--These are the English phases of the Alpine, or _F. Vesca_ species. Their fruit is not so conical as the Alpine of the Continent, or our own land, but is "roundish ovate." They are said to be rather more productive, but I doubt whether they differ materially from the other Alpines, except in form. They are the strawberries that our British forefathers ate, and are the same that the Bishop of Ely brought to the bloody Protector from his "gardayne in Holberne." _Montreuil_.--Said to be an improved variety of the Alpines. _Green Alpine_ (Green Pine or Wood, _Fraisier Vert_).--"This variety was, by some, supposed to be a distinct species, but the appearance of the plant and fruit shows it to be a true Alpine. Berry small, roundish, depressed, greenish brown; flesh green, with a somewhat musky flavor." (Fuller.) Mr. Downing says the berry is tinged with reddish brown on the sunny side at maturity, and that it has a peculiar, rich, pine-apple flavor. Under the head of Alpines, one finds in the catalogues a bewildering array of names, especially in those printed abroad; but I am quite well satisfied that if all these named varieties were placed in a trial bed, and treated precisely alike, the differences between them, in most instances, would be found slight indeed, too slight to warrant a name and separate existence. HAUTBOIS STRAWBERRIES--FRAGARIA ELATIOR As far as I can learn, this class was more raised in former years than at present, both here and abroad. At any rate, the musky flavor of the "Hoboys" (as the term was often spelled in rural regions) has not won favor, and I rarely meet with them in cultivation. They are well worth a little space in the garden, however, and are well suited to some tastes. _Belle de Bordelaise_ is said to be the best variety. The berry is described by Mr. Fuller, as "roundish oval, dark, brownish purple; flesh white, juicy, sweet, with a strong, musky flavor." _Common Hautbois._--Fruit medium in size, reddish green, musky. The fruit-stalks rise above the leaves--hence the term _Hautbois_, or high wood. Not worthy of cultivation. _Prolific Hautbois_--(Double bearing, and having many other synonymes).--Mr. Downing speaks highly of this variety, saying that it is distinguished by its "strong habit, and very large and usually perfect flowers borne high above the leaves. The fruit is very large and fine; dark colored, with a peculiarly rich, slightly musky flavor." Productive. _Royal Hautbois._--Said to be one of the largest, most vigorous, and productive of this class. Mr. Merrick writes that the _Hautbois_ strawberries find few admirers in the vicinity of Boston, and seem equally neglected abroad. I am gathering these and the Alpines into trial-beds, and thus hope to learn more accurately their differences, characteristics and comparative values. _Chili_ strawberries are now rarely met with in cultivation. Mr. Merrick writes of them: "Although some of them are extolled for amateur culture, they are of little value. They are large, coarse, very apt to be hollow, with soft, poor-flavored flesh. They have been so thoroughly intermingled with other species that it is difficult to say of certain named kinds that they are or are not partly Chilis." True Chili, Wilmot's Superb, and the Yellow Chili are named as the best of the class. There are very many other named strawberries that I might describe, and a few of them may become popular. Some that I have named are scarcely worth the space, and will soon be forgotten. In my next revision, I expect to drop not a few of them. It should be our constant aim to shorten our catalogues of fruits rather than lengthen them, to the bewilderment and loss of all save the plant grower. The Duchess, for instance, is a first-class early berry. All others having the same general characteristics and adapted to the same soils, but which are inferior to it, should be discarded. What is the use of raising second, third, and fourth rate berries of the same class? Where distinctions are so slight as to puzzle an expert, they should be ignored, and the best variety of the class preserved. I refer those readers who would like to see a list of almost every strawberry named in modern times, native and foreign, to Mr. J. M. Merrick's work, "The Strawberry and its Culture." CHAPTER XXXIV VARIETIES OF OTHER SMALL FRUITS I have already written so fully of the leading and profitable varieties of raspberries, blackberries, currants, and gooseberries, that little more remains to be said; since, for reasons previously given, I do not care to go into long descriptions of obsolete varieties, nor of those so new and untested as to be unknown quantities in value. I am putting everything thought worthy of test in trial-beds, and hope eventually to write accurately concerning them. RASPBERRIES _Rubus Idceus and Rubus Strigosus_ _Arnold's Orange_.--Canes strong, branching, yellowish brown, almost smooth, and producing but few suckers. Fruit large, somewhat shorter than Brinkle's Orange, and of a darker orange color; rich in flavor, Originated with Mr. Charles Arnold, Paris, Ontario, C. W. _Antwerp_ (English).--See page 202. _Antwerp_ (Hudson Biver).--See pages 202-205. _Antwerp_ (Yellow--White Antwerp).--A tender variety that needs winter protection, good culture, and vigorous pruning; otherwise, the berries are imperfect and crumble badly in picking. The fruit is exceedingly delicate and soft, and must be picked as soon as ripe or it cannot be handled. It is much surpassed by Brinkle's Orange. The canes are vigorous and the variety is easily grown. _Brinkle's Orange_.--For description, see page 218. _Belle de Fontenay_.--See page 207. _Brandywine._--See page 208. _Belle de Palnau._--A French variety, that thrives in some localities. Canes are strong, vigorous, upright, covered with short, purplish spines, which are more numerous near the ground; berry large, obtuse conical, bright crimson; firm for so juicy and fine-flavored a berry; grains large. The berries were often imperfect on my place. _Catawissa._--See page 216. This variety is well spoken of by some good authorities. The fact that it bears in autumn should give it some consideration. _Clarke._--See page 220. _Caroline._--See page 221. _Cuthbert._--See pages 221-225. _Franconia._--See page 206. _Fastollf._--"An English variety of high reputation. It derived its name from having originated near the ruins of an old castle, so called, in Great Yarmouth. Canes strong, rather erect, branching; light yellowish brown, with few strong bristles; fruit very large, obtuse or roundish conical, bright, purplish red, rich and highly flavored, slightly adhering to the germ in picking." (Downing.) _French._--(Vice-President French).--Originated with Dr. Brinkle. "Canes strong, upright, spines short and stout; fruit medium to large, roundish, rich, bright crimson, large grains, sweet and very good." (Barry.) It is foreign in its parentage, and uncertain in many localities. _Herstine._--See pages 219, 220. _Hornet._--"Raised by Souchet, near Paris. Very productive. Canes very strong, vigorous, upright spines, purplish, rather stout, and numerous at the base; fruit very large, conical, often irregular, grains large, quite hairy, compact, crimson; flesh rather firm, juicy, sweet and good, separates freely." (Downing.) This variety appears to vary greatly with locality. _Kirtland._--(Cincinnati Red.)--One of the native varieties once grown largely, but now superseded. Fruit medium in size, obtuse conical, soft, and not very high-flavored. _Knevett's Giant._--Berry large, round, light crimson, adheres too firmly to the core, and often crumbles in picking, but is juicy and good. The canes are very strong and productive; spines purplish, short, scattering. An English variety. _Merveille de Quatre Saisons._--A French variety. This and the Belle de Fontenay are almost as hardy as any of our native kinds, and thus they form exceptions to the foreign sorts, which are usually tender. Good results might be secured by crossing them with our best native kinds. The canes of this variety must be cut to the ground in spring if much autumn fruit is desired. It is not equal to the Belle de Fontenay, to which class it belongs. _Naomi._--Identical with Franconia. _Northumberland Fillbasket._--An old-fashioned English variety, sometimes found in the garden of an amateur. _Pride of the Hudson._--See pages 190, 219. _Pearl, Bristol, Thwack._--Native varieties that resemble the Brandywine, but are not equal to it in most localities. They are passing out of cultivation. _Reliance._--A seedling of the Philadelphia, but judging from one year's test, much superior to it, and worthy of cultivation in those regions where the finer varieties cannot thrive. It is hardy, and will do well on light soils. _Saunders._--See page 220. _Rubus Occidentalis_ For descriptions of _Davison's Thornless, Doolittle, or American Improved, Mammoth Cluster,_ and _Gregg,_ see Chapter XXII. _American Black._--Common black-cap raspberry, found wild throughout the United States. Too well known to need description. _American White-Cap_ (Yellow-Cap, Golden-Cap).--"Also scattered widely throughout the country, but not common. Those who discover it often imagine that they have found something new and rare. Berries slightly oval, grains larger than those of the black-cap, yellow, with a white bloom. The canes are light yellow, strong, stocky, with but few spines. Propagated from the tips. It might become the parent of very fine varieties." (Fuller.) _Miami Black-Cap._--A vigorous, productive variety, found growing near the Miami River, in Ohio. The fruit approaches a brownish red in color, and is not equal to the Mammoth Cluster in value. _Philadelphia._--See page 220. _Seneca Black-Cap._--Raised by Mr. Dell, of Seneca County, N.Y. The fruit is between the Doolittle and Mammoth Cluster in size, and is later than the former; not so black, having a shade of purple, and is juicy, sweet, and good. _Lum's Everbearing, and Ohio Everbearing Black Raspberries._--Varieties that resemble each other. If a good autumn crop is desired, cut away the canes in the spring, so as to secure a strong early growth of new wood, on which the fruit is to be borne. _Golden Thornless._--A large variety of the American White-Cap, introduced by Purdy & Johnson, Palmyra, N.Y. _Florence._--A variety resembling the above. _Ganargua and New Rochelle._--See pages 220, 221. BLACKBERRIES In Chapter xxiv. I have described those varieties that have proved worthy of general cultivation. The Dorchester winter-killed so badly on my place, and the fruit was so inferior to that of the Kittatinny in size, that I discarded it. It is good in flavor. The Missouri Mammoth is tender and often not productive. There are new varieties that promise well, as Taylor's Prolific, Ancient Briton, Knox, Warren, Wachusett Thornless, Cro' Nest and several others. I am testing them, and do not care to express any opinion as yet, or write descriptions that would probably need considerable revision within six months. CURRANTS AND GOOSEBERRIES In chapters xxvi. and xxvii. may be found a description of those distinct varieties that are of chief value in this country. I find no good reason why I should fill pages with descriptions of varieties that are rarely cultivated, and which might well give place to better kinds. Eventually, I shall give the results gathered from my trial-beds, in which I am placing all the new and old varieties said to be worthy of cultivation. CHAPTER XXXV CLOSING WORDS Our ramble among the small fruits is over. To such readers as have not grown weary and left my company long since, I will say but few words in parting. In the preceding pages I have tried to take from our practical and often laborious calling its dull, commonplace, and prosaic aspects. It should be our constant aim to lift life above mere plodding drudgery. It is our great good fortune to co-work with Nature, and usually among her loveliest scenes. Is it not well to "look up to the hills" occasionally, from whence may come "help" toward a truer, larger manhood, and then, instead of going home to the heavy, indigestible supper too often spread for those who are weary and feverish from the long, hot day, would it not be better to gather some sprays of the fruit whose mild subacid is just what the material man requires in mid-summer sultriness? The horticulturist may thrive if he will, in body and soul; for Nature, at each season, furnishes just such supplies as are best adapted to his need. She will develop every good quality he possesses, especially his patience. As we have passed from one fruit to another, I have expressed my own views frankly; at the same time, I think the reader will remember that I have taken no little pains to give the opinions of others. Dogmatism in pomology is as objectionable as in theology. I shall be glad to have my errors pointed out, and will hasten to correct them. As a part of this book appeared as a serial in "Scribner's Magazine," I was encouraged by words of approval from many of the best horticultural authorities. I shall not deny that I was very glad to receive such favorable opinions, for I had much and just doubt of my ability to satisfy those who have made these subjects a lifelong study, and to whom, in fact, I am largely indebted for the little I do know. Still more am I pleased by assurances that I have turned the thoughts of many toward the garden--a place that is naturally, and, I think, correctly, associated with man's primal and happiest condition. We must recognize, however, the sad change in the gardening as well as gardeners of our degenerate world. In worm and insect, blight and mildew, in heat, frost, drought and storm, in weeds so innumerable that we are tempted to believe that Nature has a leaning toward total depravity, we have much to contend with; and in the ignorant, careless, and often dishonest laborer, who slashes away at random, we find our chief obstacle to success. In spite of all these drawbacks, the _work_ of the garden is the _play_ and _pleasure_ that never palls, and which the oldest and wisest never outgrow. I have delayed my departure too long, and, since I cannot place a basket of President Wilder Strawberries on the tables of my readers, I will leave with them the best possible substitute, the exquisite poem of H. H.: MY STRAWBERRY O marvel, fruit of fruits, I pause To reckon thee. I ask what cause Set free so much of red from heats At core of earth, and mixed such sweets With sour and spice; what was that strength Which, out of darkness, length by length, Spun all thy shining threads of vine, Netting the fields in bond as thine; I see thy tendrils drink by sips From grass and clover's smiling lips; I hear thy roots dig down for wells, Tapping the meadow's hidden cells; Whole generations of green things, Descended from long lines of springs, I see make room for thee to bide, A quite comrade by their side; I see the creeping peoples go Mysterious journeys to and fro; Treading to right and left of thee, Doing thee homage wonderingly. I see the wild bees as they fare Thy cups of honey drink, but spare; I mark thee bathe, and bathe again, In sweet, uncalendared spring rain. I watch how all May has of sun Makes haste to have thy ripeness done, While all her nights let dews escape To set and cool thy perfect shape. Ah, fruit of fruits, no more I pause To dream and seek thy hidden laws! I stretch my hand, and dare to taste In instant of delicious waste On single feast, all things that went To make the empire thou hast spent. APPENDIX NEW VARIETIES NEW STRAWBERRIES _The Jewell._--I quote the following description by the originators: "This new variety was raised from seed by P.M. Augur & Sons, in 1880, and is one of a lot of seedlings produced from one quart of Jersey Queen and one quart of Prince of Berries (the seed being sown together and taken from exhibition berries). The Jewell is the finest growing variety we have ever seen, producing an abundance of very large, high-colored fruit, of fine quality. Season medium, color bright red, changing to crimson when very ripe; flower pistillate; enormously productive; berry very solid and firm, promising to become the great market strawberry. The plant is robust and vigorous, and has never shown any signs of rust or blight." It has received the following high praise from Hon. Marshall P. Wilder: "The large size, good form, bright color and remarkable solidity and productiveness will make it a permanent variety for years to come." _Parry._--"All things considered, this surpasses any novelty that has appeared for many years. Fruit extra large, firm, handsome, and good; plant vigorous and productive, We can recommend it both for market and the home garden. Early to medium."--J.T. Lovett. This is high praise of a fruit produced by a rival fruit-grower, and does credit to the fairness of the writer. The Parry strawberry was produced from seed of the Jersey Queen, planted in the summer of 1880 by Mr. William Parry, the veteran fruit-grower of New Jersey. He thus describes it. "Plant a rank, vigorous grower, clean foliage, and very productive. Berries large, obtuse conical, bright glossy scarlet, firm, and of the best quality, ripening all over at once. Blossoms perfect." Dr. F.M. Hexamer, editor "American Garden," also speaks highly of it, as follows "The Parry has proved quite satisfactory on my grounds. The plants are very vigorous, healthy, have wintered well, and have yielded an abundant crop of large, handsome berries." It is also strongly praised by many other authorities, and has received many premiums. _Jersey Queen._--The plant is strong, stocky, and vigorous, but only moderately productive; the fruit large and beautiful. It must have high culture, and not be allowed to run, or it is not satisfactory. Pistillate. _Henderson._--Said to be moderately vigorous, producing handsome fruit of exquisite flavor. Early and perfect in flower. Not yet generally tested, but probably one of the best for amateurs. _Daniel Boone._--"Produces good crops; fruit of large size, attractive in appearance, medium quality, rather soft, and late in ripening; plant hardy and vigorous."--Charles A. Green. Further south and on light soils the foliage is said to blight. Pistillate. _Dollar._--"For beauty, firmness, and high quality has but few equals, but the foliage blights so badly at Monmouth as to greatly impair its value. However, it blossoms and fruits quite profusely in the autumn, giving us strawberries when other patches are bare of fruit. Perfect in flower."--J. T. Lovett. If the tendency to autumn bearing is so great as to enable us to secure a fair crop of berries in late summer and fall this variety is a valuable acquisition. I shall certainly give it a fair trial. Further north and on heavier soils the foliage may be entirely healthy. _Cornelia._--Highly praised by some, and declared to be unproductive by others. It undoubtedly requires high culture and runners clipped. With such treatment it promises to be one of the best _late_ berries. Pistillate. _Crystal City._-Said to have been found growing wild in Missouri. I have fruited it for years, and have ever found it the earliest and one of the most delicious of berries. It is not valuable for market, but for home use, if the runners are clipped, it yields a fair crop of berries, with the genuine wild flavor. _May King._--Described as almost identical with the old Crescent, with the advantage that the flower is perfect. _Garretson._--Much is claimed for this variety. As its chief virtue it is declared to maintain a uniform size and regular form throughout a long picking season. It has been awarded several flattering premiums. Pistillate. _Old Ironclad._--One of the best early berries, produced on an exceedingly vigorous plant that is said to be more productive on the second and third years of bearing than on the first. The fruit, not the plant, closely resembles the Wilson. Perfect flower. _Vineland._-Said to be an improvement on the Kentucky, which it resembles. Perfect flower. _Indiana._--Also said to be an improvement on the Charles Downing. If it is we all want it, but we have tried improvements on the fine old standards before. Perfect flower. _Hart's Minnesota._--"I know of no variety that responds more readily to good culture than this. Under neglect the berries are small, but of a bright scarlet color, quite firm and very good. With high culture it is very large, attractive, and holds its size remarkably well. Perfect flower."--M. Crawford. _Jumbo._--Another name for the old Cumberland Triumph. _Prince of Berries._--Originated by Mr. E. W, Durand, and, like nearly all the varieties sent out by him, requiring very high culture. The fruit is large, meaty, and firm in flesh, of excellent flavor, and possessing a fine aroma. It is a berry for the amateur to pet and enjoy upon his table, but not adapted to ordinary culture. Perfect flower. _Manchester._--Pistillate. "The Manchester has been a favorite with us, but, like most varieties, has its defects. It is deficient in flavor, is too light in color, is subject to leaf blight, and is exceedingly soft. It is necessary to pick every day in order to get it into market in good condition. We were pushed hard the past season, and did not pick the Manchester every day. The berries left the farm in apparently good condition, but our men reported that they melted on hot days like so much butter. They were often obliged to throw them away, from the fact that they were too soft to be sold. This softness, however, might have been obviated in a measure by picking more frequently. It is very productive, and the berries are of large size."--Charles A. Green. The words quoted above embody my own experience with this variety. _James Vick._--Should have been a better berry to bear so honored a name. After a thorough test I have discarded it. Nevertheless, in some localities it has proved a valuable market berry. Perfect flower. Many others might be named, but, as far as I can learn, they have but short careers before them. If by well-doing they win their way to the front we shall all be glad to recognize their merits. The _Jessie_, and _Crawfard's No. 6_ promise to claim considerable attention in the future. NEW RASPBERRIES _Golden Queen._--This new variety has a curious history. Apparently it is simply an albino of the Cuthbert, for to all intents and purposes it is this favorite berry with the exception of its color. Mr. Ezra Stokes, of New Jersey, found the parent bush growing in a twelve-acre field of Cuthberts, but is unable to say whether it is a sport or a seedling. At all events, it was taken up and propagated, and the result apparently is a fixed and valuable variety for home use. I doubt whether a white raspberry will ever find much favor in market--not, at least, until the people are sufficiently civilized to buy white grape currants. In color it is said to be a beautiful yellow; in flavor, hardiness, and vigor it is declared to be superior to its parent, which it nevertheless closely resembles. _Rancocas._--Another raspberry of New Jersey origin. It was found growing wild. Its discoverer claims that it has a sturdy upright growth, with a tendency to make branches like a miniature tree. These branches load themselves with red berries, which ripen early and nearly all together. Hardiness and other good qualities are claimed for it by the discoverer, who is the originator of the Hansel. If it is no better than this variety it is not destined to long-continued popularity in regions where better fruit can be grown. _Hansel._--Red. A variety of the wild or native type which in my grounds so closely resembled the Highland Hardy that, apart from its quality of earliness, I do not regard it of value. It is not by any means identical with the Highland Hardy; but, having picked berries of both varieties at the same time, I could not tell them apart, either in appearance or flavor. Such berries are better than none at all, and may be grown by those who can raise no better. It is also claimed that earliness in ripening, and hardiness of plants made the variety profitable; and this, no doubt, is true in some localities. _Marlboro._--A large, showy, good-flavored, red raspberry that was originated by Mr. A. J. Caywood, of Marlboro, N. Y. It has done well on my grounds, and promises finely as a market berry, as its earliness, bright color, firmness, and tendency to ripen its fruit rapidly and all together give the grower a chance to gather and sell his crop within a short period. I do not advise any one to grow only this variety, either for market or home use, for the reason that it gives too short a season. Employed to secure a succession of fruit, it is an excellent variety. I doubt whether the canes will prove hardy throughout any wide extent of country, for it evidently contains foreign blood. I think it well worth protection, however, if, in some regions, experience proves it to be not entirely hardy. BLACK-CAPS Of the newer black-cap varieties the _Souhegan_ is the best that I have seen or have heard spoken of. I think it may be regarded as the best early type of this class of berries. The fruit is of good size and flavor, moderately firm, and wonderfully abundant. For vigor, hardiness, and freedom from disease I do not know that it is surpassed by any other kind. The _Tyler_ in my grounds resembled the Souhegan so closely that I do not think that a distinction between them is worth maintaining. The _Centennial_ promised wonderfully well at first on my place, but after two or three years developed a feebleness and tendency to disease which led me to discard it. The _Ohio_ is said to be the most valuable of all for drying purposes, for the reason that it is very firm, and retains its flavor and form better than any of the others. It has been stated that but two and a half to three quarts of fresh berries will make a pound of dried fruit. I think it would be well for those who are far from market to experiment with this variety. If it is equal to the claims made for it, it can be made very profitable. The _Nemaha_ originated with Ex-Governor Furnas, of Nebraska. Charles A. Green says of this variety: "The season for ripening with the Nemaha is a trifle later than the Gregg. The berries are equally large, of better quality, equally productive and vigorous, and by far more hardy. This point of hardiness of the Nemaha, it is hoped, will make it the leading late variety, giving it preference over the Gregg." I have fruited it alongside of the Gregg on my grounds, but have failed to note any difference in fruit, cane, or season of ripening. The _Chapman, Hopkins,_ and others have been introduced, but I fail to see why they should take the place of the fine old standard varieties already described. For either market or home use the Souhegan (early) and Gregg (late) leave little else to be desired. BLACKBERRIES Of the blackberries recently introduced, _Wilson Junior_ without doubt produces the largest and finest fruit, and in this respect is probably unsurpassed by any variety now in existence. But it is a child of the old Wilson's Early, and I do not believe it will prove hardy north of New Jersey. It resembles its well-known parent, but the fruit is earlier, finer, and larger, fit for use as soon as black, and sufficiently firm to carry well to market. Those who have tested it affirm that, although it yields enormously, it has not failed to perfect its crop. I should give it winter protection in this latitude. The _Early Harvest_ is said to be the best very early blackberry yet introduced. Mr. J. T. Lovett describes it as "first-class in every respect, perfecting its entire crop before any other blackberry can be gathered," and as "wonderfully prolific," It is of medium size, of good flavor, and so firm that it carries to market in excellent condition. In hardiness it is said to be second only to the Snyder and Taylor. _Taylor's Prolific_ is a variety that I was testing when this book was written. It has fulfilled its promise. The plants have proved hardy with me, the fruit of medium size, unusually fine-flavored, and very abundant. In the West Mr. M. Crawford speaks of the _Stone_ and especially of the _Agawam_ as the hardiest of all the varieties that he had tested. They were comparatively uninjured when nearly all the others were killed to the ground. There are other kinds which are good, but since they do not equal the varieties already named in this volume, I see no reason for keeping them before the public. The _Industry_ gooseberry has been introduced by Ellwanger and Barry, of Rochester, N.Y., who think it will "revolutionize gooseberry culture in this country." It is an English variety, but has succeeded so well in this country that it has been propagated and disseminated. It remains to be seen whether it will continue to retain its vigor and health in our climate. It is said to be unequalled for size, of fine flavor, very productive, and showing no signs of mildew. 
46327	----	produced by Core Historical Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University) [Transcriber's Note: Bold text denoted by equal signs. Italics denoted with underscores.] [Illustration: CHARLES DOWNING] STATE OF NEW YORK--DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Twenty-second Annual Report--Vol. 2--Part II THE CHERRIES OF NEW YORK BY U. P. HEDRICK ASSISTED BY G. H. HOWE O. M. TAYLOR C. B. TUBERGEN R. WELLINGTON Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station for the Year 1914 II ALBANY J. B. LYON COMPANY, STATE PRINTERS 1915 NEW YORK AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, GENEVA, N. Y., _January 12, 1915_ _To the Honorable Board of Control of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station_: GENTLEMEN:--I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript copy for Part II of the 33d Annual Report of this Station. This contribution is the fourth monograph on the fruits of New York State, prepared under your direction by the Horticulturist of this institution and his associates. The cherry, which this manuscript discusses, is undoubtedly most widely grown of the tree-fruits of the State; for within easy reach of every rural housewife--in orchard or garden, along roadside or lane--the "pie cherry" will be found; and many a lawn, even in village or city, is graced by the stately trees which bear the delicious Yellow Spanish or Black Tartarian. In many parts of the State, also, cherry growing is an industry of much commercial importance, with orchards exceeded in value by those of the apple and peach alone. Because of its widespread popularity and commercial importance the cherry well merits treatment in this place in the series of monographs. It is hoped and believed that the growers and lovers of the fruit will appreciate and utilize to good advantage the result here presented of years of painstaking work by the authors. The discussions are based not alone on Station experience with hundreds of the thousand or more varieties described, but as well upon the collected observations of many cherry growers and the expressed judgments of the leading pomologists who have been interested in this fruit. W. H. JORDAN, _Director_ PREFACE This is the fourth of the monographs on the fruits of temperate North America published by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station. The nature and purposes of these treatises have been set forth in the prefaces of preceding volumes, but a summary of the purposes, with needed emphasis on several, is given for the convenience of all readers and the enlightenment of those who may not have the first three books. _The Cherries of New York_ contains an historical account of cultivated cherries, the botany of this fruit, a statement of its present economic status in America, descriptions of all known varieties of cherries, the synonymy and bibliography of the species and varieties, and biographical sketches of the persons who have contributed materially to cherry culture in America. The most important varieties are illustrated in colors. Everything that was thought would be helpful in breeding cherries has been included, and special search has been made for such material. So, too, whatever was thought to be of interest to students of ecology and of plant distribution has been added. In the monographs on grapes and plums it was necessary to devote much space to the botanical relationship of these fruits since each contains more than a score of species under cultivation, some of which are scarcely known and most of which are extremely variable. The botany of cultivated cherries is comparatively simple and has been made plain by botanical writers. Yet the contemplation of the several species from a horticultural standpoint adds something, we believe, to the botany of cherries, especially as concerns the forms of the Sweet Cherry and the Sour Cherry which have been variously treated by botanists. As compared with their congeners, especially the plums, the economic species of cherries are remarkably well delimited, showing far less responsiveness to environment and having seemingly less inherent variation, so that there need be little confusion in botanical classification. On the other hand varieties are so similar that it is only with the greatest difficulty that closely related sorts are distinguished and there is great confusion in the synonymy, the chief task of the present work being to distinguish the true names from the synonyms of the varieties described. In _The Cherries of New York_, as in the preceding fruit books from this Station, effort has been made to give as accurately as possible the region in which the species and varieties grow best and to set forth fully the local prejudices of the fruits. Such knowledge cannot but be of value in determining the factors which govern the distribution of plants. The establishment of community relationships and description of plant communities now constitute an important part of botany on the one side and of geography on the other. No phenomena give better expression of the climate and the soil of a region than plant communities. When monographs of several of the fruits of temperate North America shall have been completed, with statements of likes and dislikes of the fruits and their varieties as to climate and soil, material should be available to establish plant communities from which can be drawn valuable generalizations. All, howsoever interested in pomology, are dependent upon descriptions of fruits. A well-made description of a fruit, to one mentally equipped to interpret it, is second only, in the study of pomology, to having the fruit itself. With but few exceptions the descriptions of the major varieties are made first hand from cherries growing on the Station grounds, though in many cases fruits from different localities have been compared with those home-grown. Since there are fewer varieties of cherries than of plums, it has been possible to describe and illustrate a greater proportion of the sorts under cultivation than in the book on plums, yet a selection has had to be made of the worthiest of the many kinds. The choice of sorts for full descriptions and color-plates has been determined: (1) By the present value of the variety; (2) the probable value if the variety be a novelty; (3) by the value of the data to the cherry breeder; (4) because of historical value--to show what the trend of cherry evolution has been; (5) to show the relationships of species and varieties. The varieties not illustrated nor fully described are divided into two further groups in accordance with the same considerations. In botanical nomenclature the code adopted by the International Botanical Congress, held at Vienna in 1905, has been used. In the use of horticultural names we have followed somewhat closely the rules of the American Pomological Society, though in many cases strict observance of these rules, poor at best, would have added to rather than lessened the confusion in horticultural nomenclature and, therefore, they have been honored in the breach rather than in the observance. The references given are those that have been of use in ascertaining the history, the economic status, or the description of the variety that follows--no more, no fewer. These constitute a very small proportion of the references that have been read--a tremendous task involving two or three years' work for several persons. So, too, it has been a herculean task to search out the synonyms of cherries. French, German, English and American books on pomology overflow with such synonyms and all in a state of "confusion worse confounded." An enormous amount of work has been done in trying to bring order out of this confusion. Many of the synonyms of varieties have been given in times past because of adaptations to local environment. Such naming of ecologic forms is not an unmixed evil, since it draws attention to variable varieties and characters which otherwise might be overlooked. Under the ferment of Mendelian and De Vriesian ideas we seem to be at the beginning of an era of great improvement of plants. There have never been well-directed efforts to improve fruits, yet something has been done with all. Now, when there is an onrush of new discoveries in plant-breeding, seems to be a particularly opportune time to tell all that can be learned about how cherries have been brought from their wild state to their present perfection. This we try to do in giving the origin and history of varieties, especially as to parentage and manner of origin, though such information is scant and very fragmentary. As in the previous fruit books some prominence is given in foot-notes to biography. A knowledge of the career of those who have been giants in their day in the development of any industry is most helpful to the best understanding, indeed, is almost indispensable to the fullest comprehension, of the industry. The short foot-notes, it is hoped, will serve to give some conception of what the master builders in pomology were like in training, character, and methods of work. From the reception which these sketches in former fruit books have received, the writers feel that the considerable expenditure of time and thought that these biographical notices have required is amply justified and that the effort to give credit due and some small honor to the promoters of pomology has been well worth while. For aid in the preparation of _The Cherries of New York_ I am especially indebted to those whose names appear on the title page, to my associate, Mr. R. D. Anthony, for reading proof; to the Station editor, Mr. F. H. Hall, who has had charge of the proof reading; to Zeese-Wilkinson Company, New York City, who have had an especially difficult task in making the color-plates and who have done the work well; and to the J. B. Lyon Company, Albany, New York, for their painstaking work in printing the book. U. P. HEDRICK, _Horticulturist, New York Agricultural Experiment Station._ TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE v INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS xi CHAPTER I.--CULTIVATED CHERRIES 1 CHAPTER II.--THE HISTORY OF CULTIVATED CHERRIES 39 CHAPTER III.--CHERRY CULTURE 65 CHAPTER IV.--LEADING VARIETIES OF CHERRIES 97 CHAPTER V.--MINOR VARIETIES OF CHERRIES 205 BIBLIOGRAPHY, REFERENCES AND ABBREVIATIONS 337 INDEX 347 INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS PORTRAIT OF CHARLES DOWNING _Frontispiece_ FACING PAGE ABBESSE D'OIGNIES 98 ARCH DUKE 100 BING 104 BLACK TARTARIAN 108 BOURGUEIL 110 BRUSSELER BRAUNE 112 CARNATION 114 COE 120 DOUBLE NATTE 124 DOWNER 126 DYEHOUSE 126 EAGLE 128 EARLY PURPLE 130 EARLY RICHMOND 132 ELTON 136 EMPRESS EUGENIE 138 ENGLISH MORELLO 140 FLORENCE 140 GEORGE GLASS 142 IDA 144 KIRTLAND 148 KNIGHT 150 LAMBERT 152 LARGE MONTMORENCY 154 LATE DUKE 156 Louis PHILIPPE 158 MAY DUKE 164 MEZEL 168 MONTMORENCY 170 NAPOLEON 172 NOUVELLE ROYALE 174 OLIVET 176 OSTHEIM 178 _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (DOUBLE FLOWERING), BLOSSOMS OF 30 _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (MAZZARD) 72 _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (MAZZARD), BLOSSOMS OF 68 _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (YELLOW SPANISH), BLOSSOMS OF 28 _PRUNUS AVIUM_ × _PRUNUS CERASUS_ (REINE HORTENSE), BLOSSOMS OF 32 _PRUNUS CERASUS_ (AMARELLE GROUP), BLOSSOMS OF 24 _PRUNUS CERASUS_ (MORELLO GROUP), BLOSSOMS OF 26 _PRUNUS MAHALEB_ 74 _PRUNUS MAHALEB_, BLOSSOMS OF 70 _PRUNUS TOMENTOSA_ 34 REINE HORTENSE 180 REPUBLICAN 182 ROCKPORT 182 ROYAL DUKE 184 SCHMIDT 186 SHORT-STEM MONTMORENCY 188 SKLANKA 188 SUDA 192 TIMME 192 VLADIMIR 194 WINDSOR 198 WOOD 200 YELLOW SPANISH 202 THE CHERRIES OF NEW YORK CHAPTER I CULTIVATED CHERRIES CHERRIES AND THEIR KINDRED The genus Prunus plays a very important part in horticulture. It furnishes, in temperate climates, the stone-fruits, plants of ancient and modern agriculture of which there are a score or more commonly cultivated and at least as many more sparingly grown for their edible fruits. Of these stone-fruits the species of cherries rank with those of the plum and the peach in commercial importance while the several botanical groups of the apricot and almond are less important, but hardly less well-known, members of this notable genus. Prunus is of interest, too, because the history of its edible species follows step by step the history of agriculture. The domestication of its fruits from wild progenitors, most of which are still subjects of common observation, illustrates well the influences and conditions under which plants have generally been brought into domestication. The genus is also of more than ordinary note because the number of its economic species is being increased almost yearly by new-found treasures from North America and Asia, not varieties but species, which promise under future domestication still further to enrich horticulture. The plum and the peach surpass the cherry in diversity of flavor, aroma, texture, color, form and size, characters which make fruits pleasant to the palate and beautiful to the eye; but the cherry, perhaps, plays a more important part than the plum or the peach in domestic economy. It has fewer prejudices as to soil and climate, hence is much more widely distributed and is more easily grown, being better represented in the orchards and gardens in the regions where the three fruits grow. The cherry, too, fruits more quickly after planting, ripens earlier in the season and its varieties are more regular in bearing and usually more fruitful--characters that greatly commend it to fruit-growing people. Probably it is the most popular of all fruits for the garden, dooryard, roadside and small orchard. All in all, while adorning a somewhat humbler place in pomology, it is more generally useful than the showier and more delicate plum and peach. Though placed by most botanists in the same genus, each of the stone-fruits constitutes a natural group so distinct that neither botanist nor fruit-grower could possibly take one for another as the trees and fruits of the different groups are called to mind. But there are outstanding forms which seem to establish connections between the many species and the several groups of fruits and through these outliers the characters are so confounded in attempting to separate species that it becomes quickly apparent that there are few distinct lines of cleavage within the genus. For several centuries systematists have disputed as to whether the stone-fruits fall most naturally into one, two, or three genera--indeed have not been able to agree as to whether some species are plums or cherries, or others apricots or plums. Hybridization between the cultivated divisions of the genus--unquestionably it has taken place in nature as well--has added to the perplexities of classification. Accepting, then, for the present at least, the very artificial classification which, rather paradoxically, places in one genus a number of fruits commonly thought of as quite distinct, let us briefly note the characters which best distinguish cherries from their congeners. The cherry is nearest of kin to the plum. These two are roughly separated from the other cultivated members of the genus to which they belong by bearing their fruits on stems in fascicles while the others are practically stemless and are solitary or borne in pairs. The fruits of plums and cherries are globular or oblong, succulent and smooth or nearly so. Peaches, apricots, nectarines and almonds are more sulcate than plums and cherries and the almond has a drier flesh, splitting at maturity to liberate the stone; and, with the exception of nectarines and a few varieties of apricots, all are very pubescent. The stones of cherries and plums are smooth, or nearly so, while those of the other fruits are sculptured and pitted, though those of the apricot are often somewhat plum-like. Cherries are separated from plums by their smaller size and distinctive color of skin, juice and flesh; by the texture and distinct flavor of the flesh; by growth in corymbose rather than umbelliferous fascicles; by the more globular stone; and by the arrangement of the leaves in the bud. Leaves of the plum are usually convolute, or rolled up, in the bud, while those of the cherry are conduplicate, or folded lengthwise along the midrib. We have been discussing the cherries of common cultivation--the Sweet Cherry and Sour Cherry of the orchards, the fascicled cherries to which the botanists give the group name, Cerasus. But there is another group, the Padus cherries, well worthy of brief mention. The most noteworthy representatives of Padus are the bird cherry (_Prunus padus_) of the Old World and the choke cherry (_Prunus virginiana_) of the New World. These Padus cherries are distinguished botanically in having their flowers borne in racemes, that is, in long clusters of which those nearest the base of the shoot open first--rather than in the short-clustered fascicles of the Cerasus group. The cherries are small and almost or quite black. The Padus cherries are but sparingly cultivated but undoubtedly they are capable of some improvement under more thorough cultivation. DISTRIBUTION OF CULTIVATED CHERRIES The cherry is one of the most commonly cultivated of all fruits and the many varieties of its several forms encircle the globe in the North Temperate Zone and are being rapidly disseminated throughout the temperate parts of the Southern Hemisphere. For centuries it has been, as we shall see in the history of the species, one of the most valuable fruit-producing trees of Europe and Asia--an inhabitant of nearly every orchard and garden as well as a common roadside tree in temperate climates in both continents. From Europe, as a center of distribution, the cherry has played an important part in the orcharding in temperate regions of other continents. In North America varieties of the cherry are grown from Newfoundland to Vancouver Island on the north, to the Gulf of California, Texas and Florida on the south, yielding fruit in a greater diversity of soils and climates in Canada and the States of the Union than any other tree-fruit. The Sour Cherry is very cosmopolitan, thriving in many soils; is able to withstand heat, cold and great atmospheric dryness, if the soil contain moisture; and, though it responds to good care, it grows under neglect better than any other tree-fruit. The Sour Cherry, too, is rather less inviting to insects and fungi than most other stone-fruits, being practically immune to the dreaded San José scale. On the other hand the Sweet Cherry is very fastidious as to soils, is lacking in hardiness to both heat and cold and is prey to many insects and subject to all the ills to which stone-fruits are heir; it is grown at its best in but few and comparatively limited areas, though these are very widely distributed. USES OF THE CHERRY The cherry is a delectable early-summer fruit, especially grateful as a refreshing dessert and much valued in cookery, when fresh, canned, preserved or dried, for the making of pies, tarts, sauces and confections. During the last few years, in America at least, the consumption of cherries has been enormously increased by the fashion of adding preserved cherries, as much for ornament as to give flavor, to many drinks and ices. The great bulk of the cherry crop now grown in America for commercial purposes is canned, the industry being more or less specialized in a few fruit regions. The demand for cherries for canning seems to be increasing greatly but unfortunately it calls for but few varieties, the Montmorency being the sort sought for among the Sour Cherries, while the hard-fleshed varieties of the Bigarreau type are in greatest demand among the Sweet Cherries. The cherry, while a very common fruit in nearly all agricultural regions of America, does not hold the place in American markets as a fresh fruit that it does in the towns and cities of Europe. The great abundance of strawberries, raspberries, currants, gooseberries, dewberries, blackberries, as well as early varieties of tree fruits, makes keener here than abroad the competition in the fruit markets during cherry time. The fact, too, that market fruits in America are shipped long distances, for which the cherry is not well adapted, helps to explain the relatively small regard in which this fruit has been held for commercial purposes in the fresh state. In recent years, however, both Sweet Cherries and Sour Cherries, the former in particular, have been sent to the markets in far greater abundance, the impetus to their market value being due to a better product--better varieties, hence greater demand--and to greatly improved facilities for shipping and holding for sale. In Europe several liqueurs are very commonly made from cherries both for home and commercial uses. Such is not the case in America, where, except in very limited quantities in which unfermented cherry juices are used in the home, this fruit is not used in liqueur-making. In some of the countries of Europe, wine is made from the juice; a spirit, kirschwasser,[1] is distilled from the fermented pulp as an article for both home and commerce; and ratafias and cordials are very generally flavored with cherries. In the Austrian province of Dalmatia a liqueur or cordial called maraschino[2] is made by a secret process of fermentation and distillation. This liqueur is imported in America in considerable quantities to flavor preservatives in which the home-grown cherries are prepared for use in various drinks and confections. No attempts have been made to grow the Marasca cherry on a commercial scale in America but undoubtedly it could be grown and, with the process of making maraschino discovered, an important use would be developed for cherries--all the more to be desired since the foreign maraschino is now grossly adulterated and imitated in this country. Both the fruits and seeds of cherries, especially of the Mahaleb, are steeped in spirits for food, drink and medicinal purposes. An oil used in making perfumes for scenting soaps and confectionery is also extracted from the seeds of the Mahaleb because of which use this species is often called the "Perfumed Cherry." In the old herbals and pomologies much is made of the value of cherries for medicinal purposes. The fruit was supposed to be a sovereign remedy for various ailments of the digestive tract as well as for nervous disorders and epilepsy. The astringent leaves and bark, or extracts from them, were much used by the ancients in medicine and are still more or less employed both as home remedies and in the practice of medicine as mild tonics and sedatives. One of the active chemicals of the leaf, seed and bark is hydrocyanic acid to which is largely due the peculiar odor of these structures. A gum is secreted from the trunks of cherry trees, known in commerce as cerasin, which has some use in medicine and in various trades as well, especially as a substitute and as an adulterant of gum arabic. At least three cultivated cherry trees produce wood of considerable value. The wood of the cherry is hard, close-grained, solid, durable, a handsome pale red, or brown tinged with red. _Prunus avium_, the Sweet Cherry, furnishes a wood which, if sufficient care be taken to season it, is of much value in cabinet-making and for the manufacture of musical instruments. _Prunus mahaleb_ is a much smaller tree than the former but its wood, as much as there is of it, is even more valuable, being very hard and fragrant and dark enough in color to take on a beautiful mahogany-like polish. In France the wood of the Mahaleb cherry is held in high esteem, under the name _Bois de St. Lucie_, in cabinet-making and for toys, canes, handles and especially for the making of tobacco pipes. In Japan the wood of _Prunus pseudocerasus_ is said to be in great demand for engraving and in making the blocks used in printing cloth and wall-paper. In America the wood of the orchard species of cherries is seldom used for domestic purposes, that of the wild species being so much more cheaply obtainable and serving all purposes quite as well. To people who know it only for its fruit, the cherry does not appear particularly desirable as an ornamental. But wild and cultivated cherries furnish many beautiful trees in a genus peculiar for the beauty of its species. The color and abundance of the flowers, fruits and leaves of the cultivated cherries and the fact that they are prolific of forms with double flowers, weeping, fastigiate or other ornamental habits, make the several species of this plant valuable as ornamentals. Besides, they are vigorous and rapid in growth, hardy, easy of culture, comparatively free from pests and adapted to a great diversity of soils and climates. Both the ornamental and the edible cherries are very beautiful in spring when abundantly covered with flowers, which usually open with the unfolding leaves, as well as throughout the summer when overspread with lustrous green foliage and most of them are quite as conspicuously beautiful in the autumn when the leaves turn from green to light and dark tints of red. All will agree that a cherry tree in full fruit is a most beautiful object. In the winter when the leaves have fallen, some of the trees, especially of the ornamental varieties, are very graceful and beautiful, others are often picturesque, and even the somewhat stiff and formal Sweet Cherries are attractive plants in the garden or along the roadside. Very acceptable jellies, sauces and preserves are made from several of the wild cherries in the Padus group. The peasantry of the Eastern Hemisphere have in times of need found them important foods as have also the American Indians at all times. The fruits of some of the species of Padus are quite commonly used in flavoring liqueurs and on both continents are sometimes fermented and distilled into a liqueur similar to kirschwasser. The bark of different parts of the trees of this group is valuable in medicine--at least is largely used. The trees of several species form handsome ornamentals and some of them are in commerce for the purpose. _Prunus serotina_, one of the group, because of the strength of its wood and the beautiful satiny polish which its surface is capable of receiving, is a valuable timber tree of American forests. For the products of the members of this group, as just set forth, the domestication of some of the species of Padus might well be pushed. [1] Kirschwasser as a commercial article is made chiefly on the upper Rhine from the wild black Sweet Cherry (_Prunus avium_). In its manufacture, fruit--flesh and kernels--is mashed into a pulp which is allowed to ferment. By distillation from this fermented pulp a colorless liqueur is obtained. [2] Maraschino is a liqueur, or cordial, made from the fruit and leaves of the small, sour, black Marasca cherry. The product comes chiefly from Zara, the capital of the Austrian province of Dalmatia, where it has been made and exported for over 200 years. Such accounts of the process of making maraschino as have become public seem to agree that the liqueur is a distillation of a compote made from the fruit and young leaves. When ripe the cherries are picked early in the morning and sent at once to the distillery where the stones are extracted by machinery. The leaves are cut, pressed and added to the fruit with sugar and alcohol. This mixture is allowed to ferment for six months or thereabouts and from it is then distilled maraschino. It is then stored in cellars for three years before being placed on the markets. In both Europe and America there are many imitations of the maraschino liqueur in which neither fruit nor foliage of the Marasca nor any other cherry has any part. According to the Dalmatians all attempts to improve the Marasca cherry by culture have failed. They say, too, that it will not thrive elsewhere than in Dalmatia. Under culture, the fruits and leaves lose their distinctive aroma and taste as they do on any but the native soil of the variety. The poorer, sparser and more rocky the ferruginous soil, the wilder the tree, the smaller and sourer the cherries, the better the maraschino liqueur--so the present makers say. Since considerable quantities of cherries are put up in America in maraschino, or its imitation, and the manufacture of such products is a growing industry, the following ruling by the Board of Food and Drug Inspection of the United States Department of Agriculture, taken from Food Inspection Decision 141, is of interest to growers, canners and users of cherries: "In considering the products prepared from the large light-colored cherry of the Napoleon Bigarreau, or Royal Anne type, which are artificially colored and flavored and put up in a sugar sirup, flavored with various materials, the Board has reached the conclusion that this product is not properly entitled to be called 'Maraschino Cherries,' or 'Cherries in Maraschino.' If, however, these cherries are packed in a sirup, flavored with maraschino alone, it is the opinion of the Board that they would not be misbranded, if labeled 'Cherries, Maraschino Flavor,' or 'Maraschino Flavored Cherries.' If these cherries are packed in maraschino liqueur there would be no objection to the phrase 'Cherries in Maraschino.' When these artificially colored cherries are put up in a sirup flavored in imitation of maraschino, even though the flavoring may consist in part of maraschino, it would not be proper to use the word 'Maraschino' in connection with the product unless preceded by the word 'Imitation.' They may, however, be labeled to show that they are a preserved cherry, artificially colored and flavored. "The presence of artificial coloring or flavoring matter, of any substitute for cane sugar, and the presence and amount of benzoate of soda, when used in these products must be plainly stated upon the label in the manner provided in Food Inspection Decisions Nos. 52 and 104." LITERATURE OF THE CHERRY Despite the important part they have played in orcharding since the domestication of fruits in temperate zones, as shown by their history and their present popularity, pomological writers have singularly neglected cherries. There are relatively few European books devoted to them and in America, while there are treatises on all others of the common tree-fruits, the cherry alone seems not to have inspired some pomologist to print a book. Neither are the discussions in general pomologies as full and accurate as for other fruits. The reason for this neglect is that the cherry, until the last decade or two, has scarcely been a fruit of commerce, having been grown almost entirely for home use or at most for the local market. As a result of this neglect of the cherry by students of pomology, we have no authoritative nor serviceable system of classification of the varieties of cherries and the nomenclature of this fruit is in an appalling state of confusion, as a glance at the synonymy of some of the older varieties discussed in _The Cherries of New York_ will show. AMELIORATION OF THE CHERRY The amelioration of the cherry has been in progress almost since the dawn of civilization, yet few men have directed their efforts toward the improvement of this fruit. The histories of the varieties described in _The Cherries of New York_ show that nearly all of them have come from chance seedlings. Possibly there has been little interest in improving cherries because this fruit is comparatively immutable in its characters. In spite of the fact that there are a great number of varieties, 1,145 being described in _The Cherries of New York_, this of all stone-fruits is most fixed in its characters. The differences between tree and fruit in the many varieties are less marked than in the other fruits of Prunus and the varieties come more nearly true to seed. Though probably domesticated as long ago as any other of the tree-fruits, the cherry is now most of all like its wild progenitors. The plum is very closely related to the cherry but it has varied in nature and under cultivation much more than the cherry and in accordance with different environments has developed more marked differences in its species to endure the conditions brought about by the topographical and climatic changes through which the earth has passed. Under domestication more than twice as many orchard varieties of the plum have come into being as of the cherry. In spite of this stability, there are ample rewards in breeding cherries to those who will put in practice rightly directed efforts to improve this fruit--a statement substantiated by the histories of some of the best varieties, described later in this text, which were originated through what was passing as current coin in plant-breeding before the far better methods of the present time, brought about by Mendel's discovery, came into being. The cherry, as the histories of its many diverse kinds show, has been improved only through new varieties. There is no evidence, whatever, to show that any one of the several hundred cherries described in this text has been improved by selection as a cumulative process, or, on the other hand, that any one of them has cumulatively degenerated. Of varieties cultivated for their fruits there are no records of mutations either from the seed or from bud, though of the ornamental cherries not a few have arisen as bud-mutations, as, for example, the several double-flowered cherries and those of weeping or fastigiate habit of growth and the many sorts with abnormally colored foliage. Since improvement depends upon the bringing into being of new cherries it becomes highly important to know how the varieties we are dealing with in _The Cherries of New York_ have come into existence. The following is a summary of their manner of origin:-- No case is recorded in _The Cherries of New York_ of a variety known to have come from self-fertilized seed. The seed parent is given for 61 varieties. The statements as to seed parents are probably accurate, for a man planting cherry seeds would record the name of the seed parent correctly if he knew it. The seed and pollen parents of twenty of the cherries described in this work are given. Sixteen of these are hybrids originating with Professor N. E. Hansen of South Dakota, leaving but four sorts the parents of which were known before the recent work of Professor Hansen. No cherry cultivated for its fruit is reported to have come from a sport or a bud-mutation. Cherries arising from seed sown without knowledge of either parent or from natural seedlings are put down as chance seedlings; of these there are 147. The origin of 917 of the varieties here described is unknown. The total number of cherries under discussion is 1,145. To improve the cherry the breeder must know the material with which he is working. The following is a brief discussion of the characters of this fruit to be found in the technical descriptions of species and varieties. TREE AND FRUIT CHARACTERS OF THE CHERRY Species of cherries have very characteristic trees. The merest glance at the tree enables one to tell the Sweet Cherry, _Prunus avium_, from the Sour Cherry, _Prunus cerasus_. The first named is the larger of the two, especially reaching a greater height, is pyramidal in shape, with branches erect and bearing much less foliage than the Sour Cherry. The Sweet Cherry often lives for a century or more--the Sour Cherry attains but the three score years and ten of man. _Prunus cerasus_ is easily distinguished from _Prunus avium_ by its comparatively low, roundish and never pyramidal head. So, too, many of the varieties of either of these two species are readily told in the orchard by the size or habit of the plant. Other species are either shrubby or tree-like and their varieties may often be identified from the spaciousness or dwarfness of its trees. Size is rather more variable than other gross characters because of the influence of environment--food, moisture, light, isolation, pests and the like--yet size in a plant, or in the parts of a plant, is a very reliable character when proper allowances have been made for environment. Habit of growth, unlike size, varies but little with changing conditions and thus becomes a most important means of distinguishing species and varieties and not infrequently sets the seal and sign of desirability for an orchard cherry. More than any other character, habit of growth gives what is called "aspect" to a cherry tree. Thus, a species or a variety may be upright, spreading, round-topped, drooping or weeping in habit of growth; the head may be open or dense and may be formed by a central shaft with several whorls of branches or by three or four trunk-like stems each with its scaffolding branches. The trees may grow rapidly or slowly and may be long-lived or short-lived. The trunks may be short and stocky, or long and slender, straight or crooked, gnarled or smooth, these characters often determining whether a cherry is manageable or unmanageable in the orchard. The degree of hardiness is a very important diagnostic character for groups of cherries and often wholly indicates their value for agriculture. Thus, the varieties of _Prunus avium_ are but little hardier than the peach while those of _Prunus cerasus_ are as hardy or hardier than the apple. The range of varieties as to hardiness falls within that of the species and it is interesting to note that in Europe, where the wild _Prunus avium_ is very common, in the many centuries since the fruit has been under domestication, a cultivated variety hardier than the wild Sweet Cherry has not been developed. Cherries are designated in the technical descriptions as hardy, half-hardy and tender. Productiveness, age of bearing, and regularity of bearing are distinctive and valuable characters of orchard cherries but not of wild cherries. The care given the tree greatly influences fruitfulness, yet the quantity of fruit produced is often a helpful means of identifying a variety and is a character that must always be considered by the plant-breeder. Age of bearing and regularity of bearing are most important characters with the pome fruits, the apple, in particular, but while worth considering with the drupes are of relatively little value, all drupaceous fruits coming in bearing at about the same time for the species and all bearing regularly, as a rule, unless interfered with by some outside agency preventing the setting or causing the dropping of fruit. Immunity and susceptibility to diseases and insects are valuable taxonomic characters of both species and varieties of cultivated cherries. Thus, the varieties of _Prunus cerasus_ are very susceptible to black knot (_Plowrightia morbosa_), while those of _Prunus avium_ are almost immune. On the other hand, _Prunus avium_ is an inviting prey to San José scale (_Aspidiotus perniciosus_), while _Prunus cerasus_ is but little injured, indeed, seldom attacked; _Prunus mahaleb_ appears to be almost wholly immune to the powdery mildew (_Podosphaera oxyacanthae_), while _Prunus avium_ and _Prunus cerasus_ are much attacked, though Wood, a variety of _Prunus avium_, is almost immune. The English Morello, a variety of _Prunus cerasus_, is very subject to leaf spot (_Cylindrosporium padi_), while Montmorency, of the same species, is nearly immune. These examples can be multiplied many times by references to the discussions of varieties, and represent only observations on the grounds and in the neighborhood of this Station. They serve to show the great importance, to the fruit-grower, the plant-breeder and the systematist, of natural resistance to disease and insects. Both the outer and the inner bark have considerable value in determining species but are of little importance in identifying varieties and have no economic value to the fruit-grower and hence but little to the breeder. Smoothness, color, thickness and manner of exfoliation are the attributes of the outer bark to be noted, while the color of the inner bark is the only determinant and that relatively unimportant. In young trees the bark of the cherry of all species is smooth, glossy or even brilliant; but later it becomes uneven, scaly and dull, usually ash-gray but varying in all of these characters to an extent well worth noting for taxonomic purposes. Cherries, in common with most trees, have a lighter colored bark in cold than in warm regions, and in dry than in wet areas. Branches and branchlets are very characteristic in both species and varieties. The length, thickness, direction, rigidity and the branching angle are valuable determining characters and very stable ones, changing but little even with marked variations of soil and climate. Thus, a Sweet Cherry tree can be told from a tree of the Sour Cherry, or the English Morello can be distinguished from Montmorency by branch characters as far as the outlines of the trees are discernible. Few cherries bear spines but all are more or less spurred and these spurs are quite characteristic even in varieties. With the branchlets the length of the internodes should be considered and their direction, whether straight or zigzag; also color, smoothness, amount of pubescence, size and appearance of the lenticels, the presence of excrescences, are all to be noted in careful study though all are more or less variable, pubescence especially so, this character being too often relied upon in descriptions by European botanists and pomologists. Leaf-buds vary greatly in different species in size, shape, color of the buds and of their outer and inner scales and in the outline of the scales. The angle at which the bud stands out from the branchlet is of some taxonomic value. Vernation, or the disposition of the leaf-blade in the bud, is a fine mark of distinction in separating the cherry from other stone-fruits and while all cherry leaves are supposed to be conduplicate, that is, folded by the midrib so that the two halves are face to face, yet there are slight but important differences in the conduplication of the leaves in both species and varieties. The manner of bearing buds--whether single, in pairs, or in rosettes--must be taken into account, with species at least, and differences in shape and position of leaf and fruit-buds must be noted. Leaves in their season are very evident and either collectively or individually are valuable determinants of species and varieties. Fruit-growers take little note of leaves, however, though they should be taken into practical account, since their size and number often indicate the degree of vigor. The variability of leaves is usually within limits easily set and occurs most often in young plants, in extremes of soil and climate, and on very succulent growths or water-sprouts. Leaf-size is the most variable character of this organ but is yet dependable in separating several species, as, for example, _Prunus avium_ from _Prunus cerasus_, the leaves being very much larger in the former than in the latter species. Leaf-forms are very constant in species and varieties, hence especially valuable in classification. Much care has been taken to illustrate accurately the size and form of cherry leaves in the color-plates in this text but it is impossible to reproduce by color-printing the tints of the leaves, though these are quite constant in both species and varieties. Other characters of leaves taken into account in describing cherries are thickness, roughness, and pubescence, all of which are somewhat variable, being greatly influenced by climate and soil. Quite too much stress is laid upon the value of pubescence on leaves in determining groups, unless comparisons can be made between plants growing in the same habitat. Possibly more important than any other part of the leaf-blade, in the study of species at least, is the margin. This in the cherry is always serrated and often sub-serrated. These serrations are best studied at the middle of the sides of the leaves, those at the base and apex often being crowded or wanting. The petiole may be used to good advantage in distinguishing both species and varieties. Thus, in consequence of the great length and slenderness of the petiole of leaves of Sweet Cherries, the leaves are always more or less drooping, while those of the Sour Cherry are usually erect by reason of the petiole being short and strong. The color of the petiole is said by some to be correlated with that of the fruit--a statement that needs verification. The pubescence of the petiole must be noted. The position, size, shape and color of the glands on cherry leaves must be noted as they are fairly constant guides. They are usually on the petiole at the base of the leaf but are sometimes on the leaf itself. The glands are commonly given as globular or reniform in shape but there are often intermediate forms the shape of which is hard to classify. Stipules in this plant have considerable taxonomic value, having some distinguishing marks not possessed by the leaves. Cherry leaves springing from dormant leaf-buds have very small stipules, sometimes so minute as hardly to be seen, but on the current year's growth the stipules are larger, being largest at the tip of the branchlet. There is considerable difference in the size of these organs in varieties of the same species. Stipules of the cherry are nearly always borne in pairs. The small stipules, appearing with the first leaves, drop, at this Station, about the middle of June while those accompanying the later leaves on the wood growth of the current year remain until in July, there being a difference in varieties as to how long they remain. All stipules are deeply toothed and bear glands of varying color and shape on the serrations, the characters of both serrations and glands offering some distinguishing marks for species and varieties. The flowers of cherries are very characteristic, as a study of the color-plates of blossoms will show, furnishing a wholly distinctive mark of species and helping to distinguish varieties. The flowers are hermaphrodites and are borne in more or less dense, corymbose clusters. Individual flowers in species and varieties vary in size, shape, color and odor. The peduncles are long or short, as the case may be; the corolla furnishes distinctions in size, shape and color of petals; the calyces are chiefly distinguished by their glands and the amount and character of the pubescence; while stamens and pistils offer differences in size, color of their different parts and in the number of stamens. In plums the reproductive organs differ greatly in ability to perform their functions, some varieties being self-sterile. In New York there seem to be no marked differences in fecundity in cherries nor are there so frequently the malformations of reproductive organs which are found in plums. The season of flowering is a fine mark of distinction between species and varieties, a fact well brought out by the chart on pages 80-81. Of all organs, the fruit of the cherry is most responsive to changed conditions and hence most variable, yet the fruits furnish very valuable taxonomic characters in both botany and pomology. In pomology, in particular, the fruits must be closely studied. Size, shape, color, bloom, stem, cavity, apex, suture and skin are the outward characters of which note must be made; while the color, aroma, flavor and texture of the flesh are usually very characteristic. Both species and varieties are well distinguished by the time of ripening though there is much variation in ripening dates. The keeping quality is scarcely taken into account with cherries but varies a great deal, chiefly in accordance with firmness of the flesh. The flesh of cherries, as in all drupaceous fruits, clings to the stone or is wholly or partly free--a character of interest both to the systematist and to the fruit-grower. The color of the juice, whether colorless or red, is a plain and certain dividing line in both species and varieties. The pits of cherries are rather more lacking in distinction than in other stone-fruits, plums for example, yet they must be accounted of considerable value in determination and for this reason have been included in all of the color-plates of varieties. Cherry-pits from individual trees are almost lacking in differences except in size but between species and varieties show many distinctions not only in size but in shape, surfaces, grooves and ridges, in the ends and more or less in the seeds within. Cherries of any variety grown on poor soils or in incongenial climates tend to have large stones and little flesh, while the pits are smaller and there is more flesh with the opposite extremes in environment. As will be pointed out in the discussion of the group of cherries known as the Dukes, many varieties have pits with shrunken and abortive seeds coming, as we think, from the hybrid origin of these cherries. The several pages given to the discussion of the characters of cherries are in preparation for a proper understanding of the classifications and descriptions of species and varieties. We are now ready for the classification of the species of cherries which contribute or may contribute forms for cultivation either for their fruits or as stocks upon which to grow edible cherries. The following is a brief conspectus of the edible species of Prunus followed by a fuller conspectus of the sub-genus Cerasus to which cherries belong. A CLASSIFICATION OF CULTIVATED CHERRIES The genus Prunus is variously delimited and divided by systematic botanists. A simple, and from a horticultural point of view, a very satisfactory classification, is to put almonds and peaches in one sub-genus (Amygdalus), cherries in a second (Cerasus), plums and apricots in a third (Euprunus), and to place the racemose cherries and cherry-laurels, usually considered in Prunus, in another genus, Padus. In this division of Prunus into three sub-genera we may assign to each the following characters. A. Leaves convolute, _i. e._, rolled in the bud (showing best in the opening buds).[3] _Euprunus._ Plums and apricots. A.A. Leaves conduplicate, _i. e._, folded lengthwise along the midrib in the bud. B. Fruit more or less dry and hirsute; if juicy or glabrous the blossoms appear long before the opening of the leaves; fruits without stems. _Amygdalus._ Almonds and peaches. B.B. Fruit always juicy and usually glabrous; blooms appearing with the leaves. _Cerasus._ Cherries. Of these several divisions we are here concerned only with Cerasus, to which belong all fascicled cherries, the racemose, or Padus, cherries as yet having little or no value as esculents. The genus Prunus is from year to year being enlarged by the discovery of new species, the additions to Cerasus in particular being numerous. Thus, a decade ago, botanists placed in this sub-genus, at the outside, not more than a score of species but Koehne, the most recent monographer of Cerasus, describes 119 species. Of Koehne's species at least a dozen are more or less cultivated for their fruits and a score or more are grown as ornamentals. The following species are listed by Koehne:[4] SPECIES OF CHERRIES Div. I. TYPOCERASUS Koehne. Sect. 1 CREMASTOSEPALUM Koehne. Subsect. 1. MAHALEB Koehne. _Cerasus_ sect. _Mahaleb_ Roemer. _Fam. Nat. Syn._ =3=:79. 1847. _Prunus_ subgen. _Cerasus_ sect. _Mahaleb_ Koehne. _Deutsche Dendr._ 305. 1893. Ser. 1. EUMAHALEB Koehne. =1. Prunus mahaleb= Linnaeus. _Sp. Pl._ 472. 1753. Europe, Western Asia. Ser. 2. PARAMAHALEB Koehne. =2. Prunus mollis= Walpers. _Rep._ =2=:9. Western North America. =3. Prunus emarginata= Walpers. _Rep._ =2=:9. Western North America. _Cerasus californica_ Greene. _Fl. Francis_ =1=:50. =4. Prunus pennsylvanica= Linnaeus. _Syst._ ed 13 Suppl. 252. Eastern North America. Subsect. 2. EUCERASUS Koehne. _Prunus_ sect. _Eucerasus_ Koehne. _Deutsche Dendr._ 306. 1893. =5. Prunus fruticosa= Pallas. _Fl. Ross._ =1=:19. 1784. Europe to Siberia. =6. Prunus acida= C. Koch. _Dendr._ =1=:112. 1869. Southern Europe. =7. Prunus cerasus= Linnaeus. _Sp. Pl_. 474. 1753. Europe, Western Asia. =8. Prunus avium= Linnaeus. _Fl. Svec._ ed =2=:165. 1755. Europe, Western Asia. Subsect. 3. PHYLLOMAHALEB Koehne. Ser. 1. APHANADENIUM KOEHNE. =9. Prunus maximowiczii= Ruprecht. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =15=:131. 1857. _Prunus bracteata_ Franchet & Savatier. _Enum. Pl. Jap_. =2=:329. 1879. _Prunus apetala_ Zabel. _Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges._ =13=:60 (not Franchet & Savatier) 1904. Amur, eastern Manchuria, Korea, Saghalin, Japan from Hokkaido to Kiushiu. =Prunus maximowiczii= aperta Komarow. _Act. Hort. Petrop._ =22=:5, 48. 1904. Manchuria from the Ussuri through Kirin to Mukden and northern Korea =10. Prunus pulchella= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:197. 1912. Western Hupeh. Ser. 2. MACRADENIUM Koehne. =11. Prunus conadenia= Koehne. _l. c._ 197. Western Szechuan. =12. Prunus pleiocerasus= Koehne. _l. c._ 198. Western Szechuan. =13. Prunus macradenia= Koehne. _l. c._ 199. Western Szechuan. =14. Prunus discadenia= Koehne. _l. c._ 200. Western Hupeh. =15. Prunus szechuanica= Batalin. _Act. Hort. Petrop._ =14=:167. 1895. Szechuan. Subsect. 4. PHYLLOCERASUS Koehne. =16. Prunus tatsienensis= Batalin. _Act. Hort. Petrop._ =14=:322. 1897. Szechuan. =Prunus tatsienensis= adenophora (Franchet) Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:238. 1912. _Prunus maximowiczii adenophora_ Franchet. _Pl. Delavay._ 195. 1889. Yunnan. =Prunus tatsienensis= stenadenia Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:201. 1912. Western Szechuan. =17. Prunus variabilis= Koehne. _l. c._ 201. Western Hupeh. =18. Prunus pilosiuscula= (Schneider) Koehne. _l. c._ 202. _Prunus tatsienensis pilosiuscula_ Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1=:66. 1905. Western Hupeh and Szechuan. =19. Prunus polytricha= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:204. 1912. Western Hupeh. =20. Prunus rehderiana= Koehne. _l. c._ 205. Western Hupeh. =21. Prunus venusta= Koehne. _l. c._ 239. Western Hupeh. =22. Prunus litigiosa= Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1=:65. 1905. Hupeh. =Prunus litigiosa abbreviata= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:205. 1912. Western Hupeh. =23. Prunus clarofolia= Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1=:67. 1905. Szechuan. Subsect. 5. PSEUDOMAHALEB Koehne. =24. Prunus yunnanensis= Franchet. _Pl. Delavay._ 195. 1889. Yunnan. =25. Prunus macgregoriana= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=240. 1912. Western Hupeh. =26. Prunus henryi= (Schneider) Koehne. _l. c._ 240. _Prunus yunnanensis henryi_ C. K. Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1:=66 (in part) 1905. Yunnan. =27. Prunus neglecta= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=241. 1912. _Prunus yunnanensis henryi_ C. K. Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1:=66 (in part) 1905. Yunnan. Subsect. 6. LOBOPETALUM Koehne. Ser. 1. HETEROCALYX Koehne. =28. Prunus scopulorum= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=241. 1912. Western Hupeh. =29. Prunus glabra= (Pampanini) Koehne. _Prunus hirtipes glabra_ Pampanini. _Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital._ =17=:293. 1910; =18:=122. 1911. Hupeh. =30. Prunus involucrata= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=206. 1912. Western Hupeh. =31. Prunus hirtipes= Hemsley. _Jour. Linn. Soc._ =23:=218. 1887. =32. Prunus schneideriana= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=242. 1912. Chekiang. =33. Prunus duclouxii= Koehne. _l. c._ 242. Yunnan. =34. Prunus ampla= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=243. 1912. Szechuan. =35. Prunus malifolia= Koehne. _l. c._ 207. Western Hupeh. =Prunus malifolia rosthornii= Koehne. _l. c._ 243. Szechuan. Ser. 2. CYCLAMINIUM Koehne. =36. Prunus cyclamina= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=207. 1912. Western Hupeh. =Prunus cyclamina biflora= Koehne. _l. c._ 243. Western China. =37. Prunus dielsiana= Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1:=68. 1905. "_P. szechuanica_, var.?" or "_P. szechuanica dielsiana_ Schneider," _l. c._, not _P. szechuanica_ Batalin. Hupeh. =Prunus dielsiana laxa= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=208. 1912. Western Hupeh. =Prunus dielsiana conferta= Koehne. _l. c._ 244. Western Hupeh. =38. Prunus plurinervis= Koehne. _l. c._ 208. Western Szechuan. =39. Prunus rufoides= Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1:=55. 1905. Szechuan. =40. Prunus hirtifolia= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2:=209. 1912. Western Szechuan. Sect. 2. =PSEUDOCERASUS= Koehne. _Prunus_ subgen. _Cerasus_ sect. _Yamasakura_ Koidzumi. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =25=:183. 1911. Subsect. 7. HYPADENIUM Koehne. =41. Prunus glandulifolia= Ruprecht & Maximowicz. _Mém. Sav. Étr. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =9:=87 (_Prim. Fl. Amur._) 1859. Amur. Subsect. 8. SARGENTIELLA Koehne. =42. Prunus pseudocerasus= Lindley. _Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond._ =6:=90. 1826. Cultivated in China. _Cerasus pseudocerasus_ G. Don. Loudon _Hort. Brit._ 200. 1830. _Prunus sieboldii_ Koidzumi. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =25:=184. 1911. =Prunus pseudocerasus sieboldii= Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29:=102. _Prunus paniculata_ Ker. _Bot. Reg._ =10:= t. 800. 1824, not _Prunus paniculata_ Thunberg. _Cerasus paniculata_ De Candolle. _Prodr._ =2:=539. 1825. _Cerasus sieboldtii_ Carrière. _Rev. Hort._ 371. 1866. _Prunus sieboldii_ Wittmack. _Gartenfl._ =51:=272. 1902. _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata sieboldtii_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22:=102. 1908? _Prunus serrulata serrulata sieboldtii_ Makino. _l. c._ =23:=74. 1909. _Prunus pseudocerasus typica sieboldii_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ 182. _Prunus pseudocerasus flore roseo pleno_ Koehne. (Horticultural) _Prunus pseudocerasus naden_ Koehne. (Horticultural) =Prunus pseudocerasus watereri= Koehne. _l. c._ 172. 1909. _Cerasus wattererii_, cited by Lavallée _Icon. Arb. Segrez._ 119. 1885, as a synonym under _Cerasus pseudocerasus_? _Cerasus watereri_ Goldring. _Garden_ =33:=416, fig. p. 420. 1888? _Prunus serrulata serrulata wattererii_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =23:=75. 1909? (Horticultural) =Prunus pseudocerasus virescens= Koehne. _Prunus donarium_ Siebold. Rijks-Herbarium, Leyden. =43. Prunus paracerasus= Koehne. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =7:=133. 1909. Japan. (Horticultural) =44. Prunus serrulata= Lindley. _Trans. Hort. Soc. London_ =7=:138. 1830. _Prunus cerasus flore simplici_ Thunberg. _Fl. Jap._ 201. 1784. _Prunus donarium_ Siebold. _Verh. Batav. Genoot._ =12:= No. 1. 68 (_Syn. Pl. Oecon._) 1827. _Prunus jamasakura_ Siebold. _l. c._ 1827. _Cerasus serrulata_ G. Don. Loudon _Hort. Brit_. 480. 1830. _Prunus puddum_ Miquel. _Ann. Mus. Lugd.-Bat._ =2=:90, (in part, not Wallich) 1865. _Prunus pseudocerasus jamasakura glabra_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:93. 1809. _Prunus pseudocerasus jamasakura præcox_ Makino. _l. c._ 98. 1908. _Prunus pseudocerasus jamasakura glabra præcox_ Makino. _l. c._ 113. _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata glabra_ Makino. _l. c._ 101. _Prunus pseudocerasus spontanea hortensis_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ =23=:183. 1909. _Prunus cerasus flore pleno_ Thunberg. _Fl. Jap._ 201. 1784. _Prunus serrulata_ Lindley. cf. supra. _Cerasus serrulata_ G. Don. Loudon Arb. Brit. =2=:701, fig. 407. 1833. _Cerasus pseudocerasus_ Lavallée. _Icon. Arb. Segrez._ 119, t. 36. 1885, (ubi citatur: _Cerasus maeda_ h.). _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata glabra fugenzo_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:73. 1908. _Prunus serrulata serrulata fugenzo rosea_ Makino. _l. c._ =23=:74. 1909. _Prunus jamasakura elegans glabra_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ =25=:185. 1911. _Prunus jamasakura speciosa_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ 186. Japan, Korea. =Prunus serrulata albida= (Makino) Koehne. _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore simplici albo_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:102. _Prunus pseudocerasus_ Stapf. _Bot. Mag._ 131: t. 8012. 1905. _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata sieboldii albida_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:102. 1908. _Prunus serrulata serrulata albida_ Makino. _l. c._ =23=:74. 1909. _Prunus serrulata yashino_ Koehne. _Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges._ =18=:167. 1909. _Prunus pseudocerasus yoshino_ Koehne. (Horticultural) =Prunus serrulata lannesiana= (Carrière) Koehne. _Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges._ =18=:167. 1909. _Cerasus lannesiana_ Carrière. _Rev. Hort._ 198. 1872. _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore simplici carneo_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:102. _Prunus serrulata serrulata lannesiana_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =23=:74. 1909. _Prunus jamasakura speciosa nobilis_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ =25=:187. 1911. =Prunus serrulata kriegeri= Koehne. _Gartenfl._ =52=:2 (nomen nudum) 1902. _Cerasus pendula kriegeri_ F. Späth ex Koehne. =Prunus serrulata grandiflora= A. Wagner. _Gartenfl._ =52=:169, t. 1513a. 1903. _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore pleno viridi_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:102. _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata glabra viridiflora_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:102 1908. _Prunus serrulata serrulata viridiflora_ Makino. _l. c._ =23=:74. 1909. _Cerasus donarium_ Siebold. Rijks-Herbarium, Leyden. _Prunus pseudocerasus ukon_ Koehne. (Horticultural) =Prunus serrulata ochichima= Koehne. _Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges._ =18=:169. 1909. _Prunus serrulata serrulata fugenzo, 2. alborosea_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =23=:74. 1909. _Prunus pseudocerasus ochichima_ Koehne. (Horticultural) _Prunus pseudocerasus shirofugen_ Koehne. (Horticultural) =Prunus serrulata hisakura= Koehne. _Gartenfl_. =51=:2, t. 1494 b. 1902. _Cerasus caproniana flore roseo pleno_ Van Houtte. _Fl. des. Serres_ =21=:141, t. 2238. 1875. _Cerasus serratifolia rosea_ Carrière. _Rev. Hort._ 889, t. fig. B. 1877. _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore semipleno roseo_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =11=:699. 1883. _Prunus pseudocerasus hisakura_ Koehne. (Horticultural) _Prunus pseudocerasus benifugen_ Koehne. (Horticultural) _Prunus pseudocerasus "New Red_." Koehne. (Horticultural) _Prunus serrulata "W. Kou."_ Koehne. (Horticultural) _Prunus jamasakura speciosa nobilis donarium_ Koidzumi. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =25=:187. 1911. =Prunus serrulata veitchiana= Koehne. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =9=:122. 1911. _Cerasus pseudocerasus "James Veitch." Gartenfl._ =51=:497. 1902. (Horticultural) =Prunus serrulata mucronata= Koehne. _Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges._ =18=:170. 1909. _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore pulcherrimo pleno candido_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:102. _Prunus cerasus flore roseo pleno_ Koehne. (Horticultural) _Prunus serrulata flore pleno_ Koehne. (Horticultural) =Prunus serrulata shidare-sakura= Koehne. _Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges._ =18=:170. 1909. _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore carneo suffuso_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:102. _Prunus pseudocerasus shidare-sakura_ Koehne. (Horticultural) 44 × 88? =Prunus affinis= Makino. =Prunus pseudocerasus jamasakura ×n incisa?= Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:99. 1908. Japan. =45. Prunus sargentii= Rehder. _Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges._ =17=:159. 1908. _Prunus puddum_ Miquel. _Ann. Mus. Lugd.-Bat._ =2=:90 (in part, not Wallich) 1865. _Prunus pseudocerasus sachalinensis_ F. Schmidt. _Mém. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg sér._ 7, 12: No. 2. 124. _Prunus pseudocerasus spontanea_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:102. _Prunus mume crasseglandulosa_ Miquel. Rijks-Herbarium, Leyden. _Prunus pseudocerasus_ Sargent. _Garden and Forest_ =10=:462, fig. 58 (not Lindley) 1897. _Prunus Sp. Zabel_. Beissner, Schelle & Zabel _Handb. Laubholz-Ben._ 241. 1903. _Prunus pseudocerasus borealis_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:99. 1908. _Prunus serrulata borealis_ Makino. _l. c._ =23=:75. 1909. _Prunus pseudocerasus spontanea_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ 182. _Prunus jamasakura elegans compta_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ =25=:186. 1911. _Prunus jamasakura borealis_ Koidzumi. l. c. 187. Korea, Saghalin, Japan. =46. Prunus tenuiflora= Koehne. _Plant Wils._ Pt. =2=:209. 1912. Western Hupeh. =47. Prunus wildeniana= Koehne. _l. c._ 249. Hupeh. =48. Prunus leveilleana= Koehne. _l. c._ 250. Korea. =49. Prunus sontagiæ= Koehne. _l. c._ 250. Korea. =50. Prunus mesadenia= Koehne. _l. c._ 250. Nippon. =51. Prunus parvifolia= (Matsumura) Koehne. _l. c._ 251. _Prunus pseudocerasus parvifolia_ Matsumura. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =15=:101. 1901. _Prunus pseudocerasus typica parvifolia_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ =23=:182. 1909. _Prunus jamasakura elegans parvifolia_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ =25=:186. 1911. Japan. =Prunus parvifolia aomoriensis= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:251. 1912. Northern Nippon. =52. Prunus concinna= Koehne. _l. c._ 210. Western Hupeh. =53. Prunus twymaniana= Koehne. _l. c._ 211. Western Szechuan. Subsect. 9. CONRADINIA Koehne. =54. Prunus conradinæ= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:211. 1912. Western Hupeh. =55. Prunus helenæ= Koehne. _l. c._ 212. Western Hupeh. =56. Prunus saltuum= Koehne. _l. c._ 213. Western Hupeh. =57. Prunus pauciflora= Bunge._ Mém. Étr. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =2=:97 (_Enum. Pl. Chin. Bor._) 1835. Chili. =58. Prunus sprengeri= Pampanini. _Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital_. =18=:230. 1911. Hupeh. =59. Prunus yedoensis= Matsumura. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =15=:100. 1901. Cultivated in the gardens of Tokyo. Subsect. 10. SERRULA Koehne. =60. Prunus majestica= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:252. 1912. _Prunus puddum_ Franchet. _Pl. Delavay._ 197 (not Roxburgh following Brandis) 1889. _Prunus cerasoides tibetica_ Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1=:54 (in part) 1905. Yunnan. =61. Prunus serrula= Franchet. _Pl. Delavay_. 196. 1889. Yunnan. =Prunus serrula tibetica= (Batalin) Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:213. 1912. Western Szechuan. Subsect. 11. PUDDUM Koehne. =62. Prunus campanulata= Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ 29. 103. _Prunus cerasoides_ Koidzumi. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =23=:181 (in part, not D. Don) 1909. Fokien. Cultivated in Japan. =63. Prunus hosseusii= Diels. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =4=:289. 1907. Siam. =64. Prunus cerasoides= D. Don. _Prodr. Fl. Nepal._ 239. 1825. _Prunus silvatica_ Roxburgh. _Hort. Beng._ 92. 1814. _Cerasus phoshia_ Hamilton. De Candolle _Prodr._ =2=:535. 1825. _Cerasus puddum_ Seringe. De Candolle _Prodr._ =2=:537. 1825. _Prunus puddum_ Roxburgh. _Forest Fl. Brit._ Ind. 194. 1874. Nepal. =65. Prunus rufa= Steudel. _Nomencl_. Bot. =2=:404. 1841. _Cerasus rufa_ Wallich. _Cat._ No. 721. 1829. Eastern Himalaya. =66. Prunus trichantha= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:254. 1912. _Prunus rufa_ Hooker. _Fl. Brit. Ind._ =2=:314 (in part) 1878. Eastern Himalaya. Subsect. 12. MICROCALYMMA Koehne. =67. Prunus herincquiana= Lavallée. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:214. 1912. Western Hupeh. =Prunus herincquiana biloba= (Franchet) Koehne. Western Hupeh. _Prunus biloba_ Franchet in Herb. Paris. China. =68. Prunus subhirtella= Miquel. _Ann. Mus. Lugd.-Bat._ =2=:91. 1865. _Prunus subhirtella oblongifolia_ Miquel. _l. c._ _Prunus incisa_ Maximowicz. Bul. _Sci. Acad. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:99. _Prunus pendula ascendens_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =7=:103. 1893? _Prunus herincquiana ascendens_ Schneider. _Ill. Handb. Laubholzk._ =1=:608. 1906. _Prunus itosakra subhirtella_ Koidzumi. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =23=:180. 1908. Japan. =Prunus subhirtella fukubana= Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:118. 1908. _Prunus itosakra ascendens amabilis_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ =23=:181. 1909? =69. Prunus pendula= Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:98. _Prunus itosakura_ Siebold. _Verh. Batav. Genoot._ 12: No. 1. 68. 1830. _Cerasus pendula flore roseo_ Siebold. _Cat._ =5=:31. 1863, Maximowicz. _Cerasus pendula rosea_ Dombrain. _Floral Mag._ 10. t. 536. 1871. _Prunus subhirtella pendula_ Tanaka. _Useful Pl. Jap._ 153, fig. 620. 1895. _Cerasus itosakura_ Siebold. Herb., Maximowicz. _l. c._ _Cerasus herincquiana_ Lavallée. _Icon. Arb. Segrez_, 117. 1885. _Prunus miqueliana_ Schneider. _Ill. Handb. Laubholzk_, =1=:609 (not Maximowicz) 1906. _Prunus herincquiana_ Schneider. _l. c._ 608. _Cerasus pendula_ Siebold in herb., Koehne. _l. c._ _Prunus cerasus pendula flore roseo_ Koehne. _l. c._ (Horticultural) _Prunus itosakra pendula_ Koidzumi. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =23=:180. 1909. Japan. =70. Prunus taiwaniana= Hayata. _Jour. Coll. Sci. Tokyo_ =30=:87. 1911. Formosa. =71. Prunus microlepis= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:256. 1912. Hondo. =Prunus microlepis ternata= Koehne. _l. c._ 256. Hondo. Subsect. 13. CERASEIDOS (Siebold & Zuccarini) Koehne. _Ceraseidos_ Siebold & Zuccarini. _Abh. Akad. Münch._ =3=:743 t. 5. 1843. Ser. 1. PHYLLOPODIUM. =72. Prunus setulosa= Batalin. _Act. Hort. Petrop._ =12=:165. 1892. Eastern Kansu. =73. Prunus phyllopoda= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:257. 1912. Northern Shensi. =74. Prunus canescens= Bois. _l. c._ 215. Western Hupeh. =75. Prunus veitchii= Koehne. _l. c._.257. Western Hupeh. Ser. 2. DROSERINA. =76. Prunus giraldiana= Schneider. _Fedde Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1=:65. 1905. Northern Shensi. =77. Prunus droseracea= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:215. 1912. Western Szechuan. Ser. 3. OXYODON. =78. Prunus trichostoma= Koehne. _l. c._ 216. Western Szechuan. =79. Prunus latidentata= Koehne. _l. c._ 217. Western Szechuan. =80. Prunus micromeloides= Koehne. _l. c._ 218. Western Szechuan. =81. Prunus oxyodonta= Koehne. _l. c._ 218. Western Szechuan. =82. Prunus glyptocarya= Koehne. _l. c._ 219. Western Szechuan. =83. Prunus podadenia= Koehne. _l. c._ 258. Western China. =84. Prunus lobulata= Koehne. _l. c._ 220. Western Szechuan. =85. Prunus stipulacea= Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =11=:689. 1883. Kansu. =86. Prunus pleuroptera= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:221. 1912. Western Szechuan. =87. Prunus zappeyana= Koehne. _l. c._ 221. Western Hupeh. =Prunus zappeyana? subsimplex= Koehne. _l. c._ 222. Western Hupeh. =88. Prunus incisa= Thunberg. _Fl. Jap._ 202. 1784. _Cerasus incisa_ Loiseleur. _Nouveau Duhamel_ =5=:33. 1812. _Ceraseidos apetala_ Miquel. _Ann. Mus. Lugd.-Bat._ =2=:93 1865 (in part). Japan. Ser. 4. EUCERASEIDOS. =89. Prunus caudata= Franchet. _Pl. Delavay._ 196. 1889. Yunnan. =90. Prunus iwagiensis= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:259. 1912. Hondo. 91. Prunus nipponica Matsumura. _Tokyo Bot. Mag_. =15=:99. 1901. _Prunus miqueliana_ Koidzumi. _l. c._ =23=:184 (not Maximowicz) 1909. _Prunus ceraseidos_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:103. _Prunus apetala typica_ Schneider. _Ill. Handb. Laubholzk._ =1=:608. 1906. Japan. =92. Prunus autumnalis= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:259. 1912. _Prunus subhirtella autumnalis_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:117. 1908. Hondo. =93. Prunus kurilensis= Miyabe. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =24=:11. 1910. _Prunus ceraseidos kurilensis_ Miyabe. _Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist._ =4=:226 (Fl. Kurile Isl.) 1890. _Prunus incisa kurilensis_ Koidzumi. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =23=:184. 1909. =94. Prunus nikkoensis= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:260. 1912. Japan. =95. Prunus miqueliana= Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =11=:692 (not Schneider) 1883. Japan. =96. Prunus tschonoskii= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:261. 1912. _Prunus ceraseidos_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:103. _Prunus apetala iwozana_ Schneider. _Ill. Handb. Laubholzk._ =1=:608. 1906. Japan. =97. Prunus apetala= (Siebold & Zuccarini) Franchet & Savatier. _Enum. Pl. Jap._ =2=:329. 1879 (not Zabel, cf. _P. maximowiczii_, No. 9). _Ceraseidos apetala_ Siebold & Zuccarini. _Abh. Akad. Münch._ =3=:743. t. 5. 1843. _Prunus ceraseidos_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =29=:103. Japan. Ser. 5. AMBLYODON. _98. Prunus gracilifolia_ Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:223. 1912. Western Hupeh. =99. Prunus rossiana= Koehne. _l. c._ 223. Western Hupeh. Div. II. MICROCERASUS (Spach, Roemer) Koehne. _Cerasus_ sect. Microcerasus Spach. _Hist. Vég._ =1=:423. 1834. _Microcerasus_ Webb. _Phytogr. Canar._ =2=:19. 1836-40. Sect. 1. SPIRAEOPSIS Koehne. Subsect. 1. MYRICOCERASUS Koehne. =100. Prunus pumila= Linnaeus. _Mant. Pl._ 75. 1767. Eastern North America. =101. Prunus besseyi= Bailey. _Bul. Cor. Ex. Sta._ =70=:261. 1894. Eastern North America. Subsect. 2. SPIRAEOCERASUS Koehne. =102. Prunus dictyoneura= Diels. _Bot. Jahrb._ 36, Beibl. 82, 57. 1905. Shensi. =103. Prunus humilis= Bunge. _Mém. Étr. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =2=:97 (_Enum. Pl. Chin. Bor._) 1833. _Prunus salicina_ Lindley. _Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond._ =7=:239. 1830. _Prunus bungei_ Walpers. _Rep._ =2=:9 (not Moris) 1893. China. =104. Prunus glandulosa= Thunberg. _Fl. Jap._ 202. 1784. _Amygdalus pumila_ Linnaeus. _Mant._ =1=:74. 1767. _Cerasus glandulosa_ Loiseleur. _Nouv. Duhamel_ =5=:33. 1825. =Prunus glandulosa glabra= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:263. 1912. _Prunus japonica glandulosa_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Soc. Nat. Mosc._ =54=:13. 1879. Japan. =Prunus glandulosa glabra alba= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:263. 1912. _Prunus japonica_ Lindley. _Bot. Reg._ 8:t. 1801. 1835. =Prunus glandulosa glabra rosea= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:263. 1912. _Prunus japonica typica flore roseo_ Maximowicz, in sched. _Prunus japonica flor. simp._ Tanaka. _Useful Pl. Jap._ 153, fig. 621. 1895. _Prunus japonica glandulosa_ Matsumura. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =14=:136. 1900. Japan. =Prunus glandulosa glabra albiplena= Koehne. _Plant Wils._ Pt. =2=:264. 1912. _Cerasus japonica multiplex_ Seringe. De Candolle _Prodr._ =2=:539 (in part) 1825. _Prunus japonica flore pleno_ Siebold & Zuccarini. _Fl. Jap._ =1=:172 t. 90 f. 111. (in part) 1826. _Prunus japonica_ Oudemans. _Neerlands Plantentuin_ t. 2. 1865. _Prunus japonica flore albo pleno_ Lemaire. _Ill. Hort._ 5: t. 183. 1858. _Prunus japonica_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Soc. Nat. Mosc._ 54. 14 (in part) 1879. _Prunus japonica multiplex_ Makino. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =22=:72 (in part) 1908. Japan. =Prunus glandulosa purdomii= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:264. 1912. Northern China. =Prunus glandulosa trichostyla= Koehne. _l. c._ 224. =Prunus glandulosa trichostyla faberi= Koehne. _l. c._ 224. _Prunus japonica_ J. Hutchinson. _Bot. Mag._ 135: t. 8260 (not Thunberg) 1909. Shantung. =Prunus glandulosa trichostyla paokangensis= (Schneider) Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:264. 1912. _Prunus japonica packangensis_ Schneider. _Fedde Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1=:53. 1905. Western Hupeh. =Prunus glandulosa trichostyla sinensis= (Persoon) Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:265. 1912. _Amygdalus indica nana_ Plukenett. _Phytogr._ 1: t. 11. f. 4 (1691, new edit. 1769). _Prunus sinensis_ Persoon. _Syn._ =2=:36. 1807. _Cerasus japonica_ Seringe. De Candolle _Prodr._ =2=:539 (in part) 1825. _Prunus japonica flore pleno_ Siebold & Zuccarini. _Fl. Jap._ =1=:172 t. 90 f. 111. (in part) 1826. _Prunus japonica_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Soc. Nat. Mosc._ =54=:14 (in part) 1883. Northern Shensi. =Prunus glandulosa salicifoli= (Komarov) Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:265. 1912. _Prunus japonica salicifolia_ Komarov. _Act. Hort. Petrop._ =22=:754. 1904. Shing-king. =105. Prunus pogonostyla= Maximowicz. _Bul. Soc. Nat. Mosc._ =54=:11. 1879. _Prunus formosana_ Matsumura. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =15=:86. 1901. =Prunus pogonostyla globosa= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:265. 1912. Formosa. =Prunus pogonostyla obovata= Koehne. _l. c._ 265. Formosa. =106. Prunus japonica= Thunberg. _Fl. Jap._ 201. 1784. _Prunus japonica japonica_ Maximowicz. _Bul. Soc. Nat. Mosc._ =54=:12. 1879. _Prunus japonica typica_ Matsumura. _Tokyo Bot. Mag._ =14=:135. 1900. =Prunus japonica eujaponica= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:266. 1912. =Prunus japonica eujaponica fauriei= Koehne. _l. c._ 266. Japan. =Prunus japonica eujaponica oldhamii= Koehne. _l. c._ 266. Hupeh. =Prunus japonica gracillima= Koehne. _l. c._ 266. =Prunus japonica gracillima thunbergii= Koehne. _l. c._ 266. _Prunus japonica thunbergii_ Koehne. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =8=:23. 1910. Cultivated in the Späth Arboretum near Berlin, received from St. Petersburg. =Prunus japonica gracillima engleri= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:266. 1912. _Prunus japonica engleri_ Koehne. _l. c._ 266. Manchuria. =Prunus japonica gracillima minor= Koehne. _l. c._ 267. Cultivated in the Späth Arboretum, Berlin. =Prunus japonica gracillima sphaerica= (Carrière) Koehne. _l. c._ 267. _Prunus japonica sphaerica_ Carrière. _Rev. Hort._ 468, fig. 163. 1890. =Prunus japonica kerii= (Steudel) Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2=:267. 1912. _Prunus japonica_ Ker-Gawler. _Bot. Reg._= 1=: t. 27. 1815. _Amygdalus pumila_ Sims. _Bot. Mag._ =47=: t. 2176. 1820. _Prunus kerii_ Steudel. _Nomencl. Bot._ ed. 2, 403. 1841, which cites "_Cerasus" japonica_ Ker-Gawler. _Prunus japonica typica flore pleno_ Zabel. Beissner, Schelle & Zabel _Handb. Laubholz-Ben._ 238. 1903. Chekiang. Cultivated in England. ? =Prunus praecox= Carrière. _Rev. Hort._ 488, fig. 142, 143. 1892. Originated from sowings of _Prunus japonica sphaerica_ and supposed to be _Prunus japonica_ × _domestica._ =107. Prunus nakaii= Léveillé. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =7=:198. 1909. Korea. =108. Prunus carcharias= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:267. 1912. Szechuan. Sect. 2. =AMYGDALOCERASUS= Koehne. _Cerasus_ sect. _Microcerasus_ Spach. _Microcerasus_ Webb. _Phytogr. Canar._ =2=:19 (1836-50); Schneider _Ill. Handb. Laubholzk._ =1=:601. 1906. _Prunus_ subgen. _Microcerasus_ Focke. Engler & Prantl _Natürl. Pflanzenfam._ =3=:3, 54. 1888. _Prunus_ sect. _Trichocerasus_ et subgen. _Microcerasus_ Koehne. _Deutsche Dendr._ 302, 306. 1893. =109. Prunus tomentosa= Thunberg. _Fl. Jap._ 203. 1784.--Siebold & Zuccarini _Fl. Jap._ =1=:51, t. 22. 1826. Japan, western and northern China. =Prunus tomentosa spaethiana= Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2=:269. 1912. Cultivated in European gardens. =Prunus tomentosa graebneriana= Koehne. _l. c._ 269. Cultivated near the Botanic Garden, Berlin-Dahlem. =Prunus tomentosa insularis= Koehne. _l. c._ 269. Japan. Cultivated in Japan. =Prunus tomentosa souliei= Koehne. _l. c._ 269. Szechuan. =Prunus tomentosa kashkarovii= Koehne. _l. c._ 269. Tibet. =Prunus tomentosa endotricha= Koehne. _l. c._ 225. Western Hupeh. =Prunus tomentosa breviflora= Koehne. _l. c._ 270. Northern Shensi. =Prunus tomentosa trichocarpa= (Bunge) Koehne. _Plant. Wils._ =Pt. 2=:270. 1912. _Prunus trichocarpa_ Bunge. _Mém. Étr. Acad. Sci. St. Pétersburg_ =2=:96 (_Enum. Pl. Chin. Bor._) 1833. Northern China. =Prunus tomentosa tsuluensis Koehne.= _Plant. Wils._ Pt. =2=:270. 1912. Northern Shensi. =Prunus tomentosa heteromera Koehne.= _l. c._ 270. Szechuan. =110. Prunus batalinii= (Schneider) Koehne. _l. c._ 270. _Prunus tomentosa_, (?) _Batalinii_ Schneider. Fedde _Rep. Nov. Sp._ =1=:52. 1905. Szechuan. =111. Prunus cinerascens= Franchet. _Nouv. Arch. Mus. Paris._ sér. 2, =8=:216 (_Pl. David._ II. 34) 1885. Western Szechuan. =112. Prunus jacquemontii= (Edgeworth) Hooke. _Fl. Brit. Ind._ =2=:314. 1878. Afghanistan, Northwestern Himalaya, Tibet. =113. Prunus incana= (Pallas) Steven. _Mém. Soc. Nat. Mosc._ =3=:263. 1812. Armenia, Georgia, Himalaya? Cf. =Cerasus hippophaeoides= Bornmüller. _Oester. Bot. Zeit._ =49=:15. 1899. Cappadocia. =114. Prunus griffithii= (Boissier) Schneider. _Ill. Handb. Laubholzk._ =1=:606. 1906. Afghanistan. =115. Prunus prostrata= Labillardière. _Icon. Pl. Syr._ =1=:15, t. 6. 1791. Southern Europe, Crete, Algier, Western Asia to Persia and Syria. Cf. =Prunus bifrons= Fritsch. _Sitz. Akad. Wien_ =101=: pt. 1. 636, t. 3, fig. 1. 1892. Himalaya? =116. Prunus brachypetala= (Boissier) Walpers. _Ann._ =1=:272. 1848-49. Southern Persia. =117. Prunus microcarpa= C. A. Meyer. _Verz. Pfl. Caucas. Casp._ 166. 1831. Caucasia, Northern Persia. Cf. =Cerasus tortuosa= Boissier & Haussknecht. Boissier _Fl. Or._ =2=:647. 1872. Antilibanon, Cappadocia, Kurdistan. =118. Prunus verrucosa= Franchet. _Ann. Sci. Nat. sér._ 6, =16=:280. 1883. Turkestan. Cf. =Prunus calycosus= Aitchison & Hemsley. _Trans. Linn. Soc._ =3=:61, t. 8. 1888. Afghanistan. =119. Prunus diffusa= (Boissier & Haussknecht) Schneider. _Ill. Handb. Laubholzk._ =1=:606. 1906. Southwestern Persia. The geographical distribution of these cherries is most interesting.[5] From North America come but five species of cherries but two of which, _Prunus besseyi_ and _Prunus pumila_, furnish food and these two as yet are but sparingly grown; all five, however, are more or less used as stocks. Greene[6] has described, in addition to the five accepted ones, eleven new species of true cherries from the far west of the type of _Prunus emarginata_, some of which at least have furnished food to the Indians, miners and trappers and may have horticultural possibilities for the desert regions in which they are found either for fruit or as stocks. From the western portion of the Old World, including all of Europe, northern Africa, Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan and Afghanistan come 14 species. From this region, though the number of species as compared with East Asia is small, we have all of the cultivated esculent cherries, if possibly _Prunus tomentosa_ be excepted. Though nearly all of the species of this large territory are found--possibly all originated there--in the southeastern part of Europe and the adjoining southwestern part of Asia, yet they seem, with one or two exceptions, to be quite distinct from the species of the eastern half of the Old World--the Himalaya Mountains separating the two regions. It is probable that when west central Asia has been as well explored botanically as the east central part of the continent, many new species will be added to Prunus and its sub-genus Cerasus. It is in the eastern half of the Old World that the cherry flora is richest. More than 100 of the 119 species of Cerasus recognized by Koehne are found in the Himalaya Mountains and the region to the east including Japan and the Kuril Islands. Yet out of all of this wealth of raw material only _Prunus tomentosa_ has been truly domesticated as an esculent though possibly a score of these species are well-known ornamentals. Of the 100 eastern Asiatic species about 75 belong to China--the remainder to Formosa, Siam and Japan with its islands. Happily these Chinese cherries are being introduced, but a few at a time, it is true, to Europe and America and it can hardly be otherwise than that they will enrich horticulture as they are domesticated, hybridized or used as a consort upon which to grow the cherries now known to cultivation. In particular, it may be expected that cherries for the cold north and the bleak plains of our continent will be evolved from the Asiatic species better suited to these regions than the cultivated cherries we now grow. The number and diversity of the species of cherries which this brief review of Cerasus shows to exist suggest that our cultivated cherry flora is but begun. There can be no question but that others of these species than the few that have been domesticated will yield to improvement under cultivation and furnish refreshing fruits. It is just as certain that new types, as valuable perhaps as the hybrid Dukes we now have, can be produced through hybridization. In North America, we have no satisfactory stock for cultivated Sweet and Sour Cherries. Both of the stocks now commonly used, the Mazzard and the Mahaleb, as we shall see, have weaknesses that unfit them for general use. Surely out of the great number of forms we have just listed a better stock than either of the two named can be found. No doubt, too, many of these new species, even though they do not furnish food, will prove valuable timber or ornamental trees. We are ready now for a more detailed discussion of the cultivated species of cherries. [3] The leaves are conduplicate in vernation in a few species of American plums; these species are intermediate between plums and cherries. [4] The species are given as classified by Koehne, _Plantae Wilsonianae_ Pt. =2=:237-271. 1912. The liberty has been taken of changing the form of Koehne's citations to conform to that used at this Station. For the sake of brevity some of the citations of the original author have been omitted. Space does not permit the publication of Koehne's system of classification. This may be found in _Plantae Wilsonianae_ Pt. =2=:226-237. 1912. Conservative botanists will hardly accept all of Koehne's species, in describing which the author tells us he labored under the difficulty of paucity of material and that as more material comes to hand there must, therefore, be revisions. These species are provisionally accepted in _The Cherries of New York_ under the belief that botany and horticulture are best served by giving names freely so that all forms to which reference may need to be made may thus be better identified. The botanical student of Cerasus is referred to Schneider's comprehensive discussion of Prunus in his _Handbuch der Laubholzkunde_ =1=:589-637. 1906 and =2=:973-993; also Koehne's monographs of Cerasus, Sargent, C. S., _Plantae Wilsonianae_ Pt. =2=:197-271. 1912. Profitable though it might be, space does not permit in _The Cherries of New York_ a botanical discussion of other than the species cultivated for their fruits. [5] Koehne has presented the results of a careful study of the distribution of cherries in _Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges._ 168-183. 1912. [6] Greene (_Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash._ =18=:55-60. 1905), preferring Cerasus to Prunus as a generic name for racemose cherries, gives the following new species: _Cerasus californica_ (_Fl. Francis_. 50. 1891) from the hills of middle western California; _Cerasus crenulata_ from the Mongolian Mountains, New Mexico; _Cerasus arida_ inhabiting the borders of the desert at the eastern base of the San Bernardino Mountain, California; _Cerasus prunifolia_ found in the mountains of Fresno County, California; _Cerasus rhamnoides_ collected at Mud Springs, Amador County, California; _Cerasus kelloggiana_ from the middle Sierra Nevada Mountains in California; _Cerasus padifolia_ collected in the foothills near Carson City, Nevada; _Cerasus obliqua_ described from a single specimen from Oroville, California; _Cerasus parviflora_ known only from Mt. Shasta, California; _Cerasus obtusa_ from the arid interior of southeastern Oregon; and _Cerasus trichopetala_ found at Columbia Falls, Montana. The type specimens of these eleven species are in the National Herbarium at Washington. PRUNUS CERASUS Linnaeus. I. Linnaeus _Spec. Pl._ 474. 1753. _P. austera._ 2. Ehrhart _Beitr._ =5=:160. 1790. _P. acida._ 3. Ehrhart _l. c._ 1790. _P. aestiva._ 4. Salisbury _Prodr._ 356. 1796. _P. plena._ 5. Poiret, in Lamarck _Enc. Méth. Bot._ =5=:671. 1804. _P. rosea._ 6. Poiret, in Lamarck _l. c._ 1804. _P. Juliana._ 7. Reichenbach _Fl. Germ. Exc._ 643. 1832, not Poiret in Lamarck, 1805. _P. hortensis._ 8. Persoon _Syn. Pl._ =2=:34. 1807. _P. Marasca._ 9. Reichenbach _Fl. Germ. Exc._ 644. 1832. _P. oxycarpa._ 10. Bechstein _Forst. Bot._ =5=:424. 1843. _P. vulgaris._ 11. Schur _Enum. Pl. Transsilv._ 954. 1866. _Cerasus vulgaris._ 12. Miller _Gard. Dict._ ed. 8:No. 1. 1768. _C. hortenses._ 13. Miller _l. c._ No. 3. 1768. _C. acida._ 14. Borkhausen, in Roemer _Arch. Bot._ =1=:11, 38. 1796. _C. austera._ 15. Borkhausen, in Roemer _l. c._ 1796. _C. Caproniana._ 16. De Candolle _Fl. Fran._ ed. 3, =4=:842. 1805. _C. nicotianaefolia._ 17. Hort. ex De Candolle _Prodr._ =2=:536. 1825. _C. bigarella._ 18. Dumortier _Fl. Belg._ 91. 1827. _C. effusa._ 19. Host _Fl. Austr._ =2=:6. 1831. _C. Marasca._ 20. Host _l. c._ 1831. _C. Bungei._ 21. Walpers _Rep._ =2=:9. 1843. _C. Heaumiana._ 22. Roemer _Syn. Rosifl._ 69. 1847. _C. tridentina._ 23. Roemer _l. c._ 76. 1847. _C. Rhexii._ 24. Hort. Gall. ex Van Houtte _Fl. Serres, sér._ 2, =7=:159. 1868. _C. cucullata._ 25. Hort. ex Koch _Dendrol._ =1=:6. 1869. [Illustration: _PRUNUS CERASUS_ (AMARELLE GROUP)] Tree low, reaching a height of twenty to thirty feet, diffuse, open-headed, round-topped or spreading, often without a central leader; trunk at maturity a foot in diameter; bark reddish-brown overlaid with ashy-gray, smooth or sometimes roughened; branches spreading, slender and more or less drooping; branchlets slender and willowy, glabrous, reddish-brown becoming darker and overspread with ashy-gray; lenticels small, numerous, conspicuous, raised. Leaves resinous at opening, more or less erect, very numerous, three to four inches long and from one-half to two inches wide, obovate to oval, folded upward, thick and firm in texture; upper surface dark green, smooth, the lower surface paler green, with more or less pubescence; apex taper-pointed or acute, base abrupt or acute; margins finely serrate, often doubly so, teeth tipped with small, dark glands; petioles from a half-inch to two inches long, slender, grooved, with a few hairs on the upper surface, tinged with red; glands from one to four, usually small, variously colored, globose or reniform, usually at the base of the blade; stipules small, lanceolate, narrow, finely serrate, early caducous. Winter-buds small, short, obtuse or pointed, plump and free, arranged singly or in clusters; leaf-scars usually prominent; flowers appearing with or after the leaves, showy, an inch across, white; borne in dense or scattered, very scaly clusters and in twos, threes and fours on one-year-old wood; pedicels from a half to an inch and a half in length, slender, green and glabrous; calyx-tube obconic, glabrous, green or tinged with red; calyx-lobes broadly obtuse or acute, glabrous on both surfaces, reflexed, margin serrate, faintly red; petals white, roundish or oval to obovate, entire or crenate, sessile or nearly so; stamens about thirty, filaments one-fourth of an inch in length; anthers yellow; pistils about as long as the stamens, glabrous. Fruit roundish-oblate or cordate, sides slightly compressed, about three-fourths of an inch in diameter; suture lacking or indistinct; cavity well marked, usually abrupt; apex usually depressed; color from light to dark red; dots numerous, small, russet, more or less conspicuous; stem slender, from a half-inch to two inches in length, glabrous, without bloom; skin usually separating readily from the pulp; flesh dark red, with dark colored juice or pale yellow with colorless juice, tender, melting, sprightly, more or less acidulous, sometimes astringent; stone free or more or less clinging, roundish, pointed or blunt, smooth, less than a half inch in diameter; ventral suture usually ridged, sometimes smooth. The numerous synonyms of _Prunus cerasus_ indicate the state of confusion which prevails in the scientific nomenclature of the Sour Cherry. Yet the names given are scarcely a tithe of those that have been discarded or superseded for a whole or a part of this species by botanists. Happily, there is no language in which there is a possibility of confusing the Sour Cherry with the other two or three species of cultivated cherries if the common names be used. That men, learned or unlearned, speaking in their mother tongues distinguish species of cherries so readily by their common names, is ample excuse for not attempting to give in a pomological work all of the Latin names of the Sour Cherry that have been used by the many men who have at one time or another attempted to classify the plants in Prunus. Those here published are from botanists who have contributed most to the knowledge of the species. _Prunus cerasus_ is the Sour Cherry, or Pie Cherry, of many languages--grown and esteemed in temperate climates the world over and probably the most widely distributed of all tree fruits. The species is found truly wild, as we have set forth in detail in the following chapter, in southwestern Asia and southeastern Europe. It is a frequent escape from cultivation, multiplying from seed distributed by birds or human agencies or growing from suckers which spring so freely from the roots as to make the species unfit for a stock in orchard work. The number of cultivated varieties of _Prunus cerasus_ listed in _The Cherries of New York_ is 270. Sour Cherries cultivated for their fruits constitute two distinct groups, each of which is again divided into many varieties. The two groups vary more or less in both tree and fruit but have a constant difference only in a single, very easily distinguished character--the juice in the fruits of one is red, in the other it is colorless. The cherries with colorless juice are the Amarelles, from the Latin for bitter, a term probably first used by the Germans but now in general use wherever these cherries are grown, though the English often designate them as Kentish cherries and the French as Cerisier Commun. These Amarelles are pale red fruits, more or less flattened at the ends. Despite the derivation of the name Amarelle, they have less bitterness than the other group of varieties of the Sour Cherry. They are also less acid than the darker colored cherries and are therefore more suitable for eating out of hand while the dark colored cherries are almost exclusively culinary fruits. The common representatives of this group are Early Richmond, Montmorency and the various cherries to which the word Amarelle is affixed, as the King Amarelle and the Späte Amarelle. The second group, varieties with reddish juice and usually with very dark fruits which are more spherical or cordate in shape than the Amarelles, comprises the Morellos of several languages or the Griottes of [Illustration: _PRUNUS CERASUS_ (MORELLO GROUP)] the French. The first of these terms has reference to the color, the word Morello coming from the Italian meaning blackish while Griotte, from the French, probably is derived through agriotte from aigre, meaning sharp, in reference to the acidity of these cherries. Weichsel is the German group name for these cherries, rather less commonly used than the other two terms. The trees of the Morello-like varieties are usually smaller, bushier and more compact than those of the Amarelles. The branches, as a rule, are more horizontal, often drooping, are less regularly arranged and are more slender. The leaves, in typical varieties, are smaller, thinner, a darker green and are pendant while those of the Amarelles are either inclined to be upright or horizontal; the leaves are also toothed less deeply and more regularly. These differences in the leaves are well shown in the color-plates of the varieties of the two groups. There are differences, also, in the inflorescence and the floral organs in the extreme types but these disappear in the varieties that connect the two forms. The typical varieties of this group are English Morello, Ostheim, Olivet, Brusseler Braune, Vladimir and Riga. Attempts to give precise distinctions between the fruits and trees of the two groups fail because the varieties constituting them hybridize freely making it impossible, with the more or less blended characters, to classify accurately. The group name indicates but little more than whether the cherries have a colored or a colorless juice--a distinction well worth while for the fruit-grower. Ehrhart called Sour Cherries with colorless juice _Prunus acida_ and those with dark colored juice _Prunus austera_. To some extent botanists have followed Ehrhart's designations. Linnaeus thought the two groups sufficiently distinct to be botanical varieties of the species and denominated the cherry with colorless juice _Prunus cerasus caproniana_ and the one with colored juice _Prunus cerasus austera_. A third division of the species is the Marasca cherry from which is made maraschino, a distilled liqueur much used in Europe as a drink and in Europe and America in the manufacture of maraschino cherries. The Marasca cherry is a native of the province of Dalmatia, Austria, where the trees grow wild and are now sparingly cultivated. In 1831 Host gave this form the name _Cerasus marasca_ and a year later Reichenbach described it as _Prunus marasca_. Botanists now very generally include it in the species under discussion and Schneider[7] makes it a botanical variety, _Prunus cerasus marasca_, a disposition which we believe to be the best. The Marasca cherries differ from the other cultivated forms chiefly in the greater vigor of the trees, relatively finer serrations of the leaves, longer stipules and a more compact inflorescence. The fruits are much smaller than in the common Sour Cherries, are deep red or almost black in color and have intensely red flesh and juice. The cherries are very acid with a bitter taste that gives flavor to the maraschino made from them. Besides these divisions of the species cultivated for their fruits botanists describe several botanical forms which either have no horticultural value or are cultivated exclusively as ornamentals. It is not necessary to discuss these in a pomological work. Of these botanical derivatives of _Prunus cerasus_, Schneider enumerates nine and three hybrids between this and other species.[8] [7] Schneider, C. K. _Handb. Laubh_. =1=:615. 1906. [8] Schneider, C. K. _Handb. Laubh._ =1=:1906; =2=:1912. PRUNUS AVIUM Linnaeus. 1. Linnaeus _Fl. Suec._ ed. =2=:165. 1755. _P. nigricans_. 2. Ehrhart _Beitr._ =7=:126. 1792. _P. varia_. 3. Ehrhart _l. c._ 127. 1792. _P. sylvestris_. 4. Persoon _Syn. Pl._ =2=:35. 1807. _P. dulcis_. 5. Miller ex Reichenbach _Fl. Germ. Exc._ 644. 1832. _Cerasus nigra_. 6. Miller _Gard. Dict._ ed. 8: No. 2. 1768. _C. Avium_. 7. Moench _Méth._ 672. 1794. _C. varia_. 8. Borkhausen, in Roemer _Arch._ 1., =2=:38. 1796. _C. Juliana_. 9. De Candolle _Fl. Fran._ =4=:483. 1805. _C. duracina_. 10. De Candolle _l. c._ 1805. _C. rubicunda_. 11. Bechstein _Forstb._ 160, 335. 1810. _C. intermedia_. 12. Host _Fl. Austr._ =2=:7. 1831, not Loisel. in Duham. 1812. _C. decumana_. 13. Delaunay ex Seringe, in De Candolle _Prodr._ =2=:536. 1825. _C. macrophylla_. 14. Sweet Hort. _Brit. ed._ =1=:485. 1827. _C. dulcis_. 15. Borkhausen ex Steudel _Nom. Bot._ ed. sec., =1=:331. 1840. _C. pallida_. 16. Roemer _Syn. Rosifl._ 69. 1847. _C. heterophylla_. 17. Hort. ex Koch _Dendrol._ =1=:106. 1869. _C. asplenifolia_. 18. Hort. ex Koch _l. c._ 1869. _C. salicifolia_. 19. Hort. ex Koch _l. c._ 1869, not Ser. in De Candolle. 1825. [Illustration: _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (YELLOW SPANISH)] [Illustration: _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (DOUBLE FLOWERING)] Tree reaching a height of thirty to forty feet, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, semi-hardy, usually with a central leader; trunk a foot or more in diameter roughened; branches rather stocky, smooth, dull ash-gray, with few small lenticels; branchlets thick, long, with long internodes, grayish-brown, smooth, with small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves resinous at opening, more or less drooping, numerous, four to six inches long, two to three inches wide, strongly conduplicate, oblong-ovate, thin; upper surface dark green, rugose or sometimes smooth; lower surface dull green, more or less pubescent; apex acute, base more or less abrupt; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one and three-fourths inches long, slender, dull red, with from one to three small, globose, reddish glands on the stalk; stipules small, lanceolate, finely serrate, early caducous. Buds rather small, of medium length, pointed, appressed or free, arranged singly or in small, scaly clusters at the tips of branchlets or on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; blooming with or after the leaves; flowers white, one and one-quarter inches across; in clusters of two or three; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous; calyx-tube green or with a faint red tinge, brownish-yellow within, campanulate; calyx-lobes faintly tinged with red, long, acute, margin serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals oval, entire or crenate, tapering to a short, blunt claw; stamens nearly one-half inch long, thirty-five or thirty-six; anthers yellow; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit ripening in early July; about an inch in diameter, cordate; cavity deep, wide, abrupt; suture a line; apex roundish or pointed; color ranging from yellow through red to purplish-black; dots numerous, small, russet, inconspicuous; stem tinged with red, one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin toughish, adherent to the pulp; flesh yellow, red, or dark purple with colorless or colored juice, tender to firm, sweet; stone semi-clinging, three-eighths of an inch long, not as wide as long, elliptical, flattened, blunt, with smooth surfaces. Through its cultivated varieties _Prunus avium_ is everywhere known in temperate climates as the Sweet Cherry. In the wild state it is variously called Mazzard, Bird, Wild, Crab and the Gean cherry. It is not as hardy a species as _Prunus cerasus_ and is, therefore, less generally grown but still is a favorite orchard, dooryard and roadside plant in all mid-temperate regions. It refuses to grow, however, in the warmest and coldest parts of the temperate zones. Wherever the species thrives as an orchard plant it is to be found growing spontaneously along fences and roadsides and in open woods from seeds distributed by birds. The fruits of these wild Sweet Cherries are usually small and the flesh thin and dry, often unpalatable; but, on the other hand, trees are sometimes found as escapes from cultivation which rival in their products the orchard-grown cherries. It is from reverted seedlings that the description of the species herewith given has been made. The number of cultivated varieties of _Prunus avium_ listed in _The Cherries of New York_ is 549. The habitat of the species and its history as a cultivated plant are given in the following chapter. A further point of horticultural interest as regards its habitat is that wherever found truly wild, as in its original home in southern and central Europe and Asia Minor, it is to be found in moderately dry, calcareous soils and seldom in the shade, preferring always warm, sunny sites, as gravelly or stony hillsides. These predilections cling to the species in its cultivated varieties. _Prunus avium_ differs from _Prunus cerasus_ in an important horticultural character as the two species grow spontaneously--the former suckers from the root little or not at all, making it a suitable plant for a stock in orchard work, while the latter suckers so much as to make it unfit for use as a stock. _Prunus avium_ is variously divided by botanists and pomologists. Whatever distinct forms of the species may exist in the wild state, they are now interminably confused by hybridization under cultivation. It is impossible to divide the species into botanical varieties from the characters of the horticultural varieties, as many botanists have attempted to do. The species can be roughly divided into two pomological groups, the distinguishing character being the texture of the flesh. Sweet Cherries with soft, tender flesh form one group known by pomologists under the French group name Guigne or the English Gean. These are also the Heart cherries of common parlance. These soft-fruited cherries may again be divided into dark colored varieties with reddish juice and light colored sorts with colorless juice. Typical light colored Geans are Coe, Ida, Elton and Waterloo; dark colored ones are Black Tartarian, Early Purple and Eagle. It is to this group of cherries that Linnaeus gave the varietal name _Juliana_ and De Candolle the specific name _Cerasus Juliana_. The second group is distinguished by the firm, breaking flesh of the fruits--the Bigarreaus of several languages, the name originally having reference to the diverse colors of the fruits. This group is further divisible in accordance with color of fruit and juice into black Bigarreaus and light Bigarreaus. Chief of the black cherries falling into this division are Windsor, Schmidt and Mezel; of the light ones, which are much more numerous, Yellow Spanish and Napoleon are representative sorts. Linnaeus called these hard-fleshed cherries _Prunus avium duracina_; De Candolle called them _Cerasus duracina_; K. Koch, _Prunus avium decumana_; and Roemer, _Cerasus bigarella_. Besides these two orchard forms of _Prunus avium_ several other horticultural forms, quite as distinct or even more so, are grown as ornamentals, some of which are listed as distinct species or as botanical varieties of _Prunus avium_. To add to the confusion, a number of Latinized garden names are more or less commonly applied to these ornamental Sweet Cherries. Schneider,[9] in revising the genus Prunus, names four botanical forms of _Prunus avium_ and two natural hybrids with other species. [9] Schneider, C. K. _Handb. Laubh._ =1=:1906; =2=:1912. PRUNUS AVIUM × PRUNUS CERASUS The Duke cherries, long placed by most pomologists and botanists in a botanical variety of _Prunus avium_, are unquestionably hybrids between the Sweet Cherry and the Sour Cherry. A study of the characters of the varieties of the Duke cherries shows all gradations between _Prunus cerasus_ and _Prunus avium_, though, in the main, they resemble the latter more than the former, differing from the Sweet Cherries most noticeably in having an acid flesh. Sterility is a common attribute of hybridism. In this respect the Dukes behave like most hybrids. In several Duke cherries all of the seeds collected at this Station are sterile; in others, most of them are sterile and in none are the seeds as fertile as in varieties known to be pure bred as to species. So, too, shrunken pollen grains indicate hybridity. A study of the pollen of the Duke cherries shows many grains, the greater proportion, to be abnormal, a condition not found in the pollen of varieties true to species. May Duke, Reine Hortense and Late Duke are the leading hybrid varieties. [Illustration: PRUNUS AVIUM × PRUNUS CERASUS (REINE HORTENSE)] There are dark colored Duke cherries with reddish juice and light colored sorts with uncolored juice, just as in the two parent species. May Duke is a typical variety with colored juice while Reine Hortense is probably the best-known cherry among these hybrids with uncolored juice. About 65 of the cherries listed in _The Cherries of New York_ are "Dukes," or hybrids between the Sweet and the Sour Cherry. The name Duke comes from the variety May Duke which is a corruption of Médoc, a district in the department of Geronde, France, from whence this variety came. The cherries of this group are known as Dukes only in England; in France the name Royale is similarly used. These hybrid cherries have been placed in a distinct botanical group by several botanists. They constitute the _Cerasus regalis_ Poiteau and Turpin (_Traite des Arb. Fruit_. 123); the _Cerasus bigarella regalis_ Roemer (_Syn. Monogr_. =3=:69); and the _Prunus avium regalis_ Bailey (Cyc. _Am. Hort_. 1453. 1901). PRUNUS MAHALEB Linnaeus. 1. Linnaeus _Sp. Pl._ 474. 1753. 2. Bailey _Cyc. Am. Hort._ =3=:1451. 1901. 3. Schneider _Handb. Laubh._ =1=:617. 1906. _Cerasus mahaleb._ 4. Miller _Gard. Dict._ ed. 8: No. 4. 1759. _Padus mahaleb._ 5. Borkhausen _Handb. Forstb._ =2=:1434. 1803. Tree small, slender, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped; branches roughened, ash-gray over reddish-brown; branchlets numerous, slender and firm-wooded, with short internodes, dull gray, glabrous, with very numerous large, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, an inch in length, one and one-fourth inches wide, ovate to obovate, thick, leathery; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface light green, slightly pubescent along the midrib; apex and base abrupt; margin finely crenate, with reddish-brown glands; petiole one-half inch long, slender, greenish, with none or with from one to three small, globose, greenish glands variable in position. Buds small, short, obtuse, appressed or free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in clusters on small, slender spurs; flowers appearing late, after the leaves, small, averaging one-half inch across, white, fragrant; borne in clusters of six to eight scattered on a main stem an inch in length, with the terminal pedicels one-quarter inch long and basal pedicels one-half inch long; pedicels slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes narrow, entire, glabrous, reflexed; petals white, small, separated, ovate, tapering to short, narrow claws; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, about equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures about the middle of July; very small, one-fourth inch long, one-third inch wide, roundish-ovate; cavity shallow and abrupt; suture shallow or a mere line; apex roundish to slightly pointed, with stigma usually adherent; color black; stem slender, length of corymb about one and one-half inches; length of fruit-stem about one-quarter inch; skin thick, tough; flesh reddish-black, with scant reddish-black juice, tender and soft, very astringent, sour, not edible; stone free or nearly so, very small, averaging nine thirty-seconds inch long and seven thirty-seconds inch wide, ovate, slightly flattened, with pointed apex; ventral suture prominent. _Prunus mahaleb_ is now a wild inhabitant of all southern Europe as far north as central France, southern Germany, Austria-Hungary and eastward through Asia Minor and Caucasia to and within the borders of Turkestan. Wherever it grows spontaneously in the Old World it is said to prefer rocky, gravelly, sunny slopes and the climate in which the grape thrives best. Wild or cultivated, the Mahaleb is a shallow-rooted plant, a fact that must be taken into consideration in its use as a stock. _Prunus mahaleb_ is a common escape from cultivation in eastern North America especially about the nursery centers of central New York. The Mahaleb, or St. Lucie cherry, is of no importance to fruit-growers for its fruit but as a consort with nearly all of the Sweet and Sour Cherries now being propagated in North America it becomes of prime importance and so receives botanical consideration here. According to Schneider, in the reference cited, there are several spontaneous forms of _Prunus mahaleb_ and also several horticultural varieties grown as ornamentals. None of these, wild or cultivated, are of interest to fruit-growers, unless, perchance some one of them should prove to be a better stock upon which to work orchard cherries. Mahaleb stocks are usually grown as seedlings but may also be propagated from root cuttings. The wood of the Mahaleb tree is of value in cabinet making, possessing among other good qualities a pleasant and lasting odor. The leaves, too, are odoriferous and are more or less used in France in the manufacture of perfumes and in cookery to give savor to sauces. PRUNUS TOMENTOSA Thunberg. 1. Thunberg _Fl. Jap._ 203. 1784. 2. _Jack Garden & Forest_ =5=:580, fig. 99. 1892. 3. Bailey _Cyc. Am. Hort._ =3=:1451. 1901. 4. Schneider _Handb. Laubh._ =1=:601. 1906. 5. Koehne _Plantae Wilsonianae_ Pt. =2=:268. 1912. _Cerasus tomentosa._ 6. Wallich _Cat._ No. 715. 1829. [Illustration: _PRUNUS TOMENTOSA_] A dwarfish, bush-like plant attaining a height of ten or twelve feet, vigorous, dense-topped, hardy; trunk and branches stocky; branches smooth, grayish-brown; branchlets many, of medium thickness and length, thickly overspread with short pubescence, with short internodes, roughish, with a few large, raised lenticels near the base. Leaves numerous, two and one-eighth inches long, one and one-half inches wide, folded upward or flattened, broad-oval to obovate, velvety; upper surface dull, dark green, rugose; lower surface thickly pubescent, with a prominent midrib and veins; apex abruptly pointed; margin serrate; petiole three-sixteenths inch in length, reddish, pubescent, of medium thickness, with from twelve to fourteen small, globose, yellow glands, usually at the base of the blade. Buds very small, short, pointed, free, arranged as lateral buds and in clusters on small, short spurs; leaf-scars not prominent; season of bloom early; flowers appear with the leaves, white, thirteen-sixteenths inch across; borne singly or in pairs; pedicels short, thick, glabrous; calyx-tube reddish, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes narrow, acute, serrate, slightly pubescent, erect; petals white, roundish-ovate, entire, with short claws; anthers tinged with red; pistil pubescent at the base, longer than the stamens, often defective. Fruit matures in mid-season; a half-inch in diameter, roundish, slightly compressed; cavity deep, narrow, abrupt; suture shallow; apex depressed, with adherent stigma; color currant-red; dots numerous, small, grayish, obscure; stem thickish, one-eighth to one-quarter of an inch in length, pubescent; skin thick, tender, adheres slightly to the pulp, covered with light pubescence; flesh light red, with light red juice, stringy, melting, sprightly, sour; good in quality; stone clinging, one-quarter of an inch long, one-eighth inch wide, oval, slightly pointed, with smooth surfaces. The habitat of _Prunus tomentosa_ is probably Central Asia though it is now to be found growing spontaneously in East Tibet and the Chinese provinces of Setschuan, Hupe, Kansu and perhaps Tochlii. This shrub-like cherry is very generally cultivated in central, eastern and northern China and in Japan for its fruit and as an ornamental. It has been introduced into cultivation in many widely separated places in North America and appears to be promising for cold regions, both bud and wood withstanding perfectly the most rigorous climates of the United States. As it grows in America it is a bush and never a true tree. It is a twiggy, close-jointed plant, usually with many stems springing from the ground and these bearing branches quite to the base. Frequently these low-growing branches bend to the ground and take root forming new plants. The bushes are thickly clothed with leaves densely tomentose on the underside, in this respect and in shape, as well, very unlike the foliage of common cultivated cherries. The flowers appear in great abundance with the leaves, making a handsome ornamental; they are white, becoming rose-colored as they fall away. The fruit ripens in mid-season for cherries, setting profusely from the many blossoms. The cherries are a half-inch in diameter, bright currant-red, covered with inconspicuous hairs and contain a stone of medium size. They are pleasantly acid, very juicy and withal a decided addition to cultivated cherries. _Prunus tomentosa_ seems a most promising plant for domestication and of particular merit for small gardens and cold regions. Koehne, in his list of cherries, names ten botanical varieties of _Prunus tomentosa_. From this the species seems to be most variable and under cultivation would probably break up into many forms some of which might prove superior to the type species. Koehne's botanical varieties are given under the species on page 22. PRUNUS PUMILA Linnaeus. 1. Linnaeus _Mant. Pl._ 75. 1768. 2. Bailey _Cor. Bul. Ex. Sta_. =38=:96. 1892. Bailey _l. c_. =70=:260. 1894. 3. Bailey _Cyc. Am. Hort._ =3=:1450. 1901. _P. Susquehanae._ 4. Willdenow _Enum. Pl._ 519. 1809. _P. depressa._ 5. Pursh _Fl. Am._ =1=:332. 1814. _P. incana._ 6. Schweinitz Long's Expedition by Keating =2=:387. 1824. _Cerasus glauca._ 7. Moench _Meth._ 672. 1794. _C. pumila._ 8. Michaux _Fl. Bor. Am._ =2=:286. 1803. _C. depressa._ 9. Seringe, in De Candolle _Prod._ =2=:538. 1825. Plant a small shrub, five to eight feet in height, willow-like habit, weak, upright when young but becoming decumbent, slow-growing, hardy; trunk slender, smooth except for the raised lenticels; branches slender, smooth, twiggy, very dark, dull reddish-black with a tinge of gray; lenticels numerous, small, conspicuous; branchlets very slender, short, twiggy, with short internodes, dull grayish-brown, glabrous, with conspicuous, very small, raised lenticels. Leaves hanging late in the season, small, averaging one and three-fourths inches long, one inch wide, flat, abruptly pointed, narrowly oblanceolate to obovate, thin; upper surface dark, dull green, smooth; lower surface light green, thinly pubescent on the midrib and veins; midrib small, straight; veins very minute; margin serrate, teeth tipped with very small glands; petiole short, one-fourth inch in length, glandless. Flowers small, in two- to five-flowered umbels, white, appearing with the leaves; pedicels slender, a half-inch in length. Fruit nearly round, pendulous, variable in color but usually purple-black, without bloom, nearly a half-inch in diameter; flesh thin, variable in quality but often sour and astringent; season late July; stone turgid, nearly round. _Prunus pumila_, the Sand Cherry, or Dwarf Cherry, of eastern America, is found on sandy and rocky inland shores from Maine to the District of Columbia and northwestward to the Lake of the Woods in Canada. In particular it is common on the sand dunes of the Great Lakes. Everywhere in the wild state it grows in light sands suggesting its use in arid soils and especially on poor soils in cold climates. As yet there seem to be no named varieties of this cherry known to fruit-growers, its nearly related species, _Prunus besseyi_, offering greater opportunities to both the fruit-grower and the experimenter. Both the plants and fruits are so variable, the size, color and quality of the crop on some plants being quite attractive, that it is certain an opportunity to domesticate a worthy native plant is being overlooked. The species ought to have value, too, as a stock on which to work other cherries for sandy soils, dwarf trees and exacting climates. PRUNUS CUNEATA Rafinesque. 1. Rafinesque _Ann. Nat._ 11. 1820. 2. Bailey _Cor. Ex. Sta. Bul._ =38=:101. 1892. 3. Britton and Brown _Ill. Flora_ =2=:250. 1897. 4. Gray _Man. Bot._ ed. =7=:498. 1908. _P. pumila cuneata._ 5. Bailey _Cyc. Am. Hort._ =3=:1451. 1901. _Prunus cuneata_, sometimes called the Appalachian cherry, is not growing at this Station but is described in the references given as very similar to the Sand Cherry, differing in the following respects: The plant is dwarfer but is more erect never having prostrate branches; the branches are smoother and lighter colored; the leaves are shorter, more oval, more obtuse, thinner, less conspicuously veined, teeth fewer and the points more appressed; the flowers are larger, petals broader and are borne on slightly curled stems in umbels of two to four; the fruit and stone in the two species are much the same, possibly averaging smaller in this species. The habitat of _Prunus cuneata_ is from Maine to North Carolina and northwest to Minnesota, being most commonly found in wet, stiff soils near lakes and bogs but often found on rocky hills if the soil be not too dry. It is doubtful if this cherry is as promising for cultivation as the foregoing species and not nearly as worthy attention as the next cherry. PRUNUS BESSEYI Bailey. 1. Bailey _Cor. Ex. Sta. Bul._ =70=:261. 1894. 2. _Contrib. U. S. Nat. Herb._ =3=:156. 1895. 3. Bessey _Neb. Hort. Soc._ =26=:168. 1895. Bessey _l. c._ =37=:121. 1906. 4. Britton and Brown _Ill. Flora_ =3=:251. 1897. _P. pumila Besseyi._ 5. Waugh _Vt. Ex. Sta. Rpt._ =12=:239. 1898-99. 6. Bailey _Cyc. Am. Hort._ 3:1451. 1901. Plant a small shrub, spreading or diffuse, one to four feet in height, open-centered, slow-growing, hardy; trunk slender, smooth; branches slender, smooth, very dark brownish-black, with numerous lenticels; branchlets slender, short, with short internodes, dull grayish-brown becoming almost black, smooth, glabrous, with conspicuous, small, raised lenticels. Leaves hanging late, numerous, small, two and three-eighths inches long, one inch wide, thick, stiff, slightly folded upward or nearly flat; apex with a short taper-point, broadly lanceolate to nearly oval-lanceolate; upper surface dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface very light green, not pubescent; midrib distinct, glabrous; veins small but distinct; margin serrate, teeth appressed, tipped with indistinct, sharp glands; petiole thick, three-eighths inch in length, glandless or with from one to two very small, light colored, globose glands on the petiole at the base of the leaf; stipules very prominent, almost leaf-like. Flowers appearing with the leaves in sessile umbels, small, less than a half-inch across, white; fruit more than a half-inch in diameter, globose, sometimes oblong-pointed, yellowish, mottled or more often purple-black; variable in quality but always more or less astringent; ripening in early August; stone large, globose, slightly flattened. The habitat of _Prunus besseyi_ is not yet definitely bounded but it can, at least, be said that this species is to be found on the prairies from Manitoba and Minnesota to southern Kansas and westward into Montana, Wyoming and Utah. In its natural range it undoubtedly runs into that of _Prunus pumila_ to the east, and Waugh, in the reference given, holds that the two species grade into each other and he, therefore, makes this a variety of the eastern species. Certainly _Prunus pumila_ and _Prunus besseyi_ are as distinct as are many other of the more or less indefinite species of this genus--few, indeed, are the species of Prunus that do not have outliers which overlap other types and, as we shall see, there are hybrids between this and species of other cherries, plums and even peaches and apricots, showing that the lines of demarcation between the members of this genus are difficult to define. Although _Prunus besseyi_ has received attention from horticulturists less than a quarter-century it has aroused much interest, best indicated by the fact that now a considerable number of varieties of the species are under cultivation and there are more than a score of hybrids disseminated in which it is one of the parents. Indians, trappers and early settlers have long used the wild fruit under the name of Western Sand Cherry, Bessey's Cherry and Rocky Mountain Cherry. Among pioneers this cherry was held in high esteem for sauces, pies and preserves and, where there was a dearth of cultivated cherries, was eaten with relish out of hand. The flesh is tender, juicy and, while astringent as commonly found, plants bearing aromatic and very palatable cherries are often found growing wild while some of the domesticated plants bear very well-flavored fruits. All speak of the Sand Cherry as wonderful in productiveness and as having remarkable capacity to withstand the vicissitudes of the exacting climate in which it grows. A valuable asset of _Prunus besseyi_ is its great variability. Fruit from different plants varies in size, color and flavor suggesting that, under cultivation, amelioration will proceed rapidly. The plants of this species root freely from layers or root-cuttings and are therefore easily propagated and multiplied. But it is in its hybrids that this western cherry has proved most valuable in horticulture. There are now hybrids under cultivation between this species and the Sand plum (_Prunus augustifolia watsoni_), the Hortulana plum (_Prunus hortulana_), the Simonii plum (_Prunus simonii_), the Japanese plum (_Prunus triflora_), the American plum (_Prunus americana_), the Cherry plum (_Prunus cerasifera_), the Sweet Cherry (_Prunus avium_), the peach (_Prunus persica_), the apricots _(Prunus armeniaca_ and _Prunus mume_), and the common plum _(Prunus domestica_). It would almost seem that this species is the "go-between" of the many and varied types of the genus Prunus. It is true that few of these hybrids yet shine as orchard plants but, given time, it seems certain that some will prove valuable in general horticulture and that many will be grown in the special horticulture of the northern Mississippi Valley and the adjoining plains to the west. Credit must be given to Professor N. E. Hansen of the South Dakota Experiment Station for most of our present knowledge of hybridism between this and other species.[10] In his work with this species Hansen has also found that _Prunus besseyi_ makes a very good stock for peaches, apricots, Japanese and native plums and that, while it does not so readily consort with the true cherries, yet it can be used as a stock for them. On the other hand larger fruits of the Sand Cherry can be grown when it is budded on stocks of the Americana. [10] See bulletins 87 (1904), 88 (1904), 108 (1908) and 130 (1911) from the South Dakota Experiment Station, Brookings, S. D. MINOR SPECIES Besides these well-recognized species of cultivated cherries there are several others that play a much less conspicuous part in horticulture. _Prunus fruticosa_ Pallas, the Dwarf Cherry of Europe, is much cultivated, more especially its botanical variety _pendula_, as an ornamental and somewhat for its fruit. According to Wilson,[11] _Prunus involucrata_ Koehne is grown for its fruit in the gardens of China; the fruits, he says, are "small and lacking in flavour." The fruits of _Prunus emarginata_ Walpers are eaten by the Indians on the Pacific Coast and the early settlers used the species as a stock for orchard cherries. _Prunus jacquemontii_ Hooker, the Dwarf Cherry of Afghanistan and Tibet, is occasionally in culture for its fruit and as a park plant; so also is another dwarf cherry from southwestern Asia, _Prunus incana_ Steven. _Prunus pseudocerasus_ Lindley, the Flowering Cherry of Japan, is a well-known ornamental the world over and in Japan is used as a stock for orchard cherries for which purpose, as we have suggested in the discussion of stocks, it ought to be tried in America. [11] Wilson, E. H. _A Naturalist in Western China_ =2=:27. 1913. CHAPTER II THE HISTORY OF CULTIVATED CHERRIES THE ANCIENT USE OF CHERRIES History casts no direct light upon the period when the cherry first came under cultivation. Undoubtedly primitive men in all parts of the North Temperate Zone enlivened their scanty fruit fare with wild cherries. Cultivated cherries, we know, had their origin in the Old World. But history tells us nothing of the period when Europe and Asia were unbroken forests inhabitated by savages who eked out a precarious subsistence by the pursuit of the chase and from meagre harvests of wild grains, fruits and vegetables. On these continents agriculture and rude civilization began in ages immemorial and cultivated plants diversified, enriched and adorned the landscapes long before the first written records. Our knowledge of how wild cherries have been remodeled into the orchard and garden varieties of today--of what the methods and processes of domestication have been--is, therefore, doubtful and limited, for the mind and hand of man had been deeply impressed upon the cherry long before the faint traditions which have been transmitted to our day could possibly have arisen. The history of the cherry, then, goes back to primitive man. Direct proof of the ancient use of cherries is furnished by the finding of cherry-pits of several species in the deposits of Swiss lake-dwellings, in the mounds and cliff-caves of prehistoric inhabitants of America and in the ancient rubbish-heaps of Scandinavian countries. There are but few regions in which cultivated cherries are grown in which the inhabitants in times of stress, or by choice in times of plenty, do not now use as food wild cherries, some species of which grow in abundance and under the most varied conditions, almost from the Arctic Circle to within a few degrees of the Tropic of Cancer in a belt encircling the globe. It is probable that all of the wild species which have furnished fruit to the aborigines or to the modern inhabitants of a region have been sparingly cultivated--at the very least if they possessed any considerable food value they have been more or less widely distributed by the hand of man. But, curiously enough, out of the score or more of species of which the fruit is used as food as the plants grow wild, but two may be said to be truly domesticated. These are the Sour, or Pie Cherry, _Prunus cerasus_, and the Sweet Cherry, _Prunus avium_, with the histories of which we are now to be concerned. Pliny is generally accredited as the first historian of the cherry. Nearly eighteen and a half centuries ago he gave an account of the cherries of Rome with the statement that Lucullus, the Roman soldier and gourmet, had brought them to Rome 65 years before Christ[12] from the region of the Black Sea. This particular in the account proves to be a good illustration of the adage that old errors strike root deeply. Though disproved beyond all question of doubt time and time again by botanists and historians, Pliny's inadvertence is still everywhere current in text-books, pomologies and cyclopaedias--a mis-statement started, repeated and perpetuated from medieval days when to be printed in Pliny was sufficient proof. That Lucullus brought to Italy a cherry and one which the Romans did not know there is no reason to doubt, but other cherries there must have been, not only wild but cultivated, of _Prunus cerasus_ at least and probably of _Prunus avium_, and in comparative abundance long before Lucullus, returning from the war in Pontus with Mithridates, brought to Rome a cherry. With this brief mention of Pliny's inaccuracy, we pass to more substantial facts in the history of the cherry. The domestication of one or the other of the two generally cultivated species of cherries followed step by step the changes from savagery to civilization in the countries of Europe and of western Asia. For, as one sorts the accumulated stores of botanical and historical evidence, it becomes quickly apparent that both the Sweet and the Sour Cherry now grow wild and long have done so in the region named and that, from the time tillage of plants was first practiced in the Old World, this fruit has been under cultivation, feeble, obscure, and interrupted by war and chase though its cultivation may have been. Certainly the history of the cherry is as old as that of agriculture in the southern European countries and is interwritten with it. In beginning the history of a cultivated plant the first step is to ascertain where it grows spontaneously--where it may be found unplanted and unattended by man. This is the task now before us for _Prunus cerasus_ and _Prunus avium_, discussing them in the order named. [12] See quotation on page 45. THE ORIGIN OF CULTIVATED CHERRIES _Prunus cerasus_, of which the Montmorency is the commonest representative in America, is now to be found wild wherever Sour Cherries are much grown, for it is a favorite food of many birds which quickly scatter its seeds from centers of cultivation. Nearly all of the botanies of temperate regions in which agriculture is carried on name this cherry as an escape from cultivation into woods and hedgerows and along roadsides. The Sour Cherry, then, is now to be found truly wild in many parts of several continents. It is not so easy to say where the habitat and what the condition before the species was cultivated. But botany, archaeology, history and philology indicate that the original habitat of the Sour Cherry is southeastern Europe and the nearby countries in Asia. After saying that this cherry has been found wild in the forests of Asia Minor, the plains of Macedonia, on Mount Olympus and in neighboring territories, De Candolle, however, limits its habitat to the region "from the Caspian Sea to the environments of Constantinople."[13] But as a wild plant this cherry must have spread over a far greater area. Even the broadest boundaries of the habitat of _Prunus cerasus_ as set by De Candolle show over-caution. Thus, the Marasca cherry, a botanical variety of _Prunus cerasus_, is most certainly wild in the Province of Dalmatia on the Adriatic Sea in Austria; so, too, it is certain that this species is feral as far away from De Candolle's center of distribution as northern Austria and southern Germany and has been so for untold ages. It is safe to say that the original source of the Sour Cherry was the territory lying between Switzerland and the Adriatic Sea on the west and the Caspian Sea and probably somewhat farther north on the east. That is, our savage forefathers must have found this cherry in the region thus outlined, probably in a much more extended territory, into which it was brought in more or less remote times by agencies other than human from De Candolle's smaller area of origin. It is easier to define the geographic range of the wild Sweet Cherry. Botanists very generally agree that _Prunus avium_ as a wild plant inhabits all of the mainland of Europe in which the cultivated varieties of the species can be grown--that is, most of the continent south of Sweden, and may be found wild well into southern Russia. The species is reported sparingly wild in northern Africa and is a very common wild plant in southern Asia as far east as northern India. It must not be thought that the plant is everywhere abundant in the great area outlined as its habitat. To the contrary, the Sweet Cherry is an uncommon wild plant in Spain, Italy and other parts of southern Europe. All authorities agree that the region of greatest communal intensity for _Prunus avium_ is between the Caspian and Black Seas and south of these bodies of water. It might suffice to say that from about these seas the Sweet Cherry came--that here grew the trunk from which branches were spread into other lands by birds and animals carrying the seeds from place to place. The most important fact to be established, however, is that this cherry has long grown spontaneously over a widely extended territory and may, therefore, have been domesticated in several widely separated regions. [13] De Candolle, _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ 207. 1885. THE CHERRY IN GREECE; THE FIRST RECORD OF CULTURE AND THE NAME Having established the habitats of the two cultivated cherries we may next ask when and where their cultivation began. The domestication of plants probably began in China--certainly Chinese agriculture long antedates that of any other nation now in existence of which we have records. Agriculture in China, historians roughly approximate, goes back 4,000 years. But while the Chinese have many other species of cherry, as we have seen, some of which may be said to be partially domesticated, _Prunus cerasus_ and _Prunus avium_ are not found wild in China and were only in recent years introduced there as cultivated plants. Neither does the cherry of our civilization seem to have been known in the second great agricultural region of the world--Egypt and the extreme southwest of Asia. At least there are no words for the cherry in the languages of the peoples of that region and cherry pits have not been found with the remains of other plants in the tombs and ruins of Egypt, Assyria and Babylon. Nor does the cherry seem to have been cultivated in India until comparatively recent times. These very brief and general statements show that cherries were not cultivated in the first agricultural civilizations and serve to fix the time and the place of the domestication of the cherry a little more definitely. Records of cherries as cultivated plants begin, so far as the researches of botanical historians now show, with Greek civilization though it is probable, for several reasons, that some cultivated cherries came to Greece from Asia Minor. Theophrastus, to whom Linnaeus gave the title "Father of Botany," writing about 300 years before the Christian era in his _History of Plants_, is, according to botanical historians, the first of the Greek writers to mention the cherry. His statement is as follows:-- "The cherry is a peculiar tree, of large size, some attaining the height of twenty-four cubits, rather thick, so that they may measure two cubits in circumference at the base. The leaf is like that of the mespilus, rather firm and broader, the color of the foliage such that the tree may be distinguished from others at a good distance. The bark, by its color, smoothness and thickness, is like that of tilia. The flower [meaning, the cluster of flowers] is white, resembling that of the pear and mespilus, consisting of small [separate] flowers. The fruit is red, similar to that of diospyros [but what his diospyros was no one knows] of the size of a faba [perhaps nelumbo seed], which is hard, but the cherry is soft. The tree grows in the same situations as tilia; by streams."[14] From this passage we gather that the cherry Theophrastus knew was the Sweet Cherry, _Prunus avium_; the description shows it to be the same large, tall tree now naturalized in open woods and along roadsides in many parts of the United States. From the fact that Theophrastus describes the tree and the bark in more detail than the fruit we may assume that the cherry was more esteemed in ancient Greece as a timber-tree than as a fruit-tree. Curiously enough the name the Greeks at this time used for the Sweet Cherry is now applied to _Prunus cerasus_, the Sour Cherry. "Kerasos" was the Sweet Cherry in ancient Greece and from kerasos came _cerasus_, used by many botanists as the name of the genus. That the Sweet Cherry should by the use of _avium_ be denominated the "bird cherry" is clear since birds show much discrimination between cherries, but why the Sour Cherry should be given the specific name _cerasus_, first applied to the Sweet Cherry, is not apparent. Pages are written in the old pomologies and botanical histories as to the origin of the word _cerasus_. Pliny's statement that Lucullus called the cherry _cerasus_ from the town from which he obtained it, Kerasun in Pontus, on the Black Sea, is, in the light of all who have since looked into the matter, a misconception. To the contrary, commentators now agree that the town received its name from the cherry which grows most abundantly in the forests in that part of Asia Minor. The name, according to all authorities, is very ancient--a linguistic proof of the antiquity of the cherry. To sum up, the cherry comes into literature first from Greece in the writings of Theophrastus. There can be but little doubt, however, but that it had been cultivated for centuries before Theophrastus wrote. Whether one or both of the two cherries were domesticated by the Greeks, beginning with their civilization, or whether cultivated cherries came to Greece from Asia Minor, is not now known. It is very probable that some of the several varieties grown in Greece came under cultivation through domestication of wild plants; others were introduced from regions farther east. [14] Theophrastus, Book III, Chap. 13. THE SWEET CHERRY POSSIBLY THE PARENT OF THE SOUR CHERRY A digression may be permitted here to state a hypothesis suggested by De Candolle[15] which should interest both fruit-growers and plant-breeders. De Candolle, while considering the two species of cultivated cherries to be now quite distinct, suggests that, since they differ essentially but little in their characters and since their original habitats were in the same region, it is probable that one species came from the other. He surmises, since _Prunus avium_ is the commoner in the original home, is generally the more vigorous of the two, has spread much farther and probably at a much earlier date from the primal habitation in Asia Minor than _Prunus cerasus_, that the latter, the Sour Cherry, is derived from the Sweet Cherry. In the future breeding of cherries confirmatory evidence of such a relationship may be obtained though, should none be found, the negation should go for naught and the supposition can only remain an interesting and plausible hypothesis. [15] De Candolle, Alphonse _Origin of Cultivated Plants_ 210. 1885. THE CHERRY IN ITALY Pliny attempts to give the first full account of cultivated cherries and, even though among his statements are several inaccuracies, yet he may be said to have made a very good beginning of a flora of cultivated cherries for he names and describes ten varieties. The fact that there were as many as ten cherries in Italy at the time Pliny wrote, less than a century after the return of Lucullus from Pontus, is strong evidence that the cherry in Italy antedates Lucullus. Besides, it is hardly probable that Pliny knew and described all of the cherries to be found in the whole of his country. But even if these ten comprise the entire number, those who know how extremely difficult it is to introduce new plants in a country with the facilities we have in our day, will doubt that all of the cherries in Pliny's account could have been introduced in Italy 1900 years ago and have come under general cultivation, as according to Pliny they had, within the short space of a century. The following quotation, then, must be taken as an account of the cherries grown in Italy in the first century after Christ with little weight given to the historical evidence presented.[16] "The cherry did not exist in Italy before the period of the victory gained over Mithridates by L. Lucullus, in the year of the City 680. He was the first to introduce this tree from Pontus, and now, in the course of one hundred and twenty years, it has travelled beyond the Ocean, and arrived in Britannia even. The cherry, as we have already stated, in spite of every care, has been found impossible to rear in Egypt. Of this fruit, that known as the "Apronian" is the reddest variety, the Lutatian being the blackest, and the Caecilian perfectly round. The Junian cherry has an agreeable flavour, but only, so to say, when eaten beneath the tree, as they are so remarkably delicate that they will not bear carrying. The highest rank, however, has been awarded to the Duracinus variety, known in Campania as the "Plinian" cherry, and in Belgica to the Lusitanian cherry, as also to one that grows on the banks of the Rhenus. This last kind has a third colour, being a mixture of black, red, and green, and has always the appearance of being just on the turn to ripening. It is less than five years since the kind known as the "laurel-cherry" was introduced, of a bitter but not unpleasant flavour, the produce of a graft upon the laurel. The Macedonian cherry grows on a tree that is very small, and rarely exceeds three cubits in height; while the chamaecerasus is still smaller, being but a mere shrub. The cherry is one of the first trees to recompense the cultivator with its yearly growth; it loves cold localities and a site exposed to the north. The fruits are sometimes dried in the sun, and preserved, like olives, in casks." How are the cherries described in the passage from Pliny related to those of modern culture? A score or more of commentators have tried to tell but when the comments are compared Pliny's disorder becomes confusion worse confounded. Here, as in his historical statements, Pliny seems to have prepared the ground for a fine crop of misunderstandings. The speculations as to what particular cherry each of the descriptions fits quickly show the futility of specification. A few generalizations only are warranted. Thus, if we assume, as most commentators do, that Apronian, the first of Pliny's varieties, was named after Apronius, a Roman praetor of Pliny's day, there is nothing to indicate the character of the cherry except the word "reddest" which means but little for it is no more possible to distinguish cherries by redness than by its blackness to tell a pot from a kettle. It is as impossible to distinguish the second variety as the first. The name given is Lutatian, the variety having been dedicated, as all commentators agree, to Lutatius Catulus, a contemporary of Lucullus, revered by Romans for having rebuilt the capitol after it had been destroyed by fire. It is described as "being the blackest" but whether _Prunus avium_ or _Prunus cerasus_, sweet or sour, who can tell? The third variety is called the Caecilian cherry, which we are told is "perfectly round"--a character possessed in like degree by many cherries. The name, on the authority of Latin scholars, commemorates the Caecilius family, rich and powerful Romans, friends of Lucullus at the time he was promoting cherry culture. We may be a little more certain of the identity of the fourth cherry, called the Junian, and said to have been possessed of "an agreeable flavor but only, so to say, when eaten beneath the tree, as they are so remarkably delicate that they will not bear carrying." Whether the name was given in honor of the Roman Republican, Junius Brutus, who died 42 A. D. or from Junius, the month of their ripening, cannot be said. The description, as practically all agree, fits very well the French Guigne or English Gean group of cherries. It is probable that "Guigne" is a perversion of "Junian." There can be little question as to the cherry Pliny next describes, "the Duracinus variety" which he says has been awarded "highest rank" and to which he paid the compliment of giving it his own name, for he tells us that it is "known in Campania as the Plinian cherry." This hard-fleshed cherry of delectable quality can be no other than a Bigarreau--some protean Napoleon, Yellow Spanish, Windsor or the older Oxheart and Elkhorn. The sixth cherry is the Lusitanian, which, if the translations read aright, the Belgians rank highest. Ancient Lusitania is modern Portugal and the Lusitanian cherry may be the Griotte of Portugal grown from time immemorial in that country. The identity of the variety is not so important in this passage as is the connection that Pliny establishes in cherry culture at this early time between Portugal, Italy and Belgium. By such tokens does our author cast doubt upon his statement that Lucullus had but yesterday, as it were, brought the cherry from Pontus. The seventh cherry is one "that grows on the banks of the Rhenus" (Rhine), further described as "being a mixture of black, red and green," and of having "always the appearance of being just on the turn to ripening." It is useless to add another guess to those of the many commentators as to what this tri-colored cherry from the banks of the Rhine may be. The eighth description, that of the "laurel-cherry," applies to a graft and not to a variety. Of it, Pliny says, "It is less than five years since the kind known as the laurel-cherry was introduced, of a bitter, but not unpleasant flavor, the produce of a graft upon the laurel." It is barely possible that a cherry could be made to grow on a laurel five years but it is extremely doubtful, as all modern horticulturists who have tried it say, and it is impossible to have such a graft bear fruit. Pliny was misinformed. The ninth and tenth of Pliny's cherries, the Macedonian and the Chamaecerasus, are probably one and the same, since but one cherry that could possibly answer to the descriptions given could have been in Italy at the time Pliny wrote. The cherry described, then, was almost beyond doubt _Prunus fruticosa_ Pallas, a synonym of which is _Prunus chamaecerasus_ Jacquin, perpetuating the name used by Pliny. This is the European Dwarf Cherry, or Ground Cherry, which is now and was probably then a wild plant in parts of Italy and which is very well described by "a tree that is very small, and rarely exceeds three cubits in height." We have accredited Pliny with having first described cherries in Italy and discredited his account of their introduction in his own country, but chiefly on inferential evidence. Just a few words of direct proof that the cherry was long in cultivation by the Romans before Lucullus and we have done with the introduction of the cherry into Italy and have filled another gap between Theophrastus and our own times. Marcus Terentius Varro (B. C. 117-27), one of the illustrious scholars of ancient Rome, sometimes called the father of Roman learning, in his eightieth year, as he tells us in his first chapter, wrote a book on farming--one, which, by the way, may be read with profit by modern farmers.[17] In book 1, chapter XXXIX, he tells when to graft cherries, discussing the process not as if it or the cherry were new or little known but as if the cherry were as commonplace as the other agricultural crops of the times. Varro effectually disproves Pliny to whose mis-statement we have given so much space only because for nearly 2000 years it has been generally accepted as the truth. The gaps in the history of the cherry are long. Athenaeus,[18] Tertullian,[19] Ammianus,[20] and St. Jerome,[21] Roman writers of the Third and Fourth Centuries, mention cherries but chiefly to repeat and perpetuate Pliny's errors. It was not until the Sixteenth Century--a lapse of 1400 years--that an attempt was again made to describe in full cultivated cherries. Sometime in this century, Matthiolus (1487-1577), a Tuscan and one of the eminent naturalists not only of Italy but of the world in the Middle Ages, in translating and annotating the medical works of the Greek writer Dioscorides, made a list of the fruit-trees then grown in Italy. As the second descriptive list of cherries this contribution of Matthiolus might be worth reprinting were it not, as in Pliny, that but few of his varieties can be certainly made out. He does, however, make a number of additions to Pliny's list but space does not permit a consideration of these; especially since Gerarde, writing less than a century later in English, so well amplifies Matthiolus that we shall print his account. [16] Bostock and Riley _Nat. History of Pliny_ =3=:322. 1855. [17] A very good translation of Varro on farming is one by Lloyd Starr-Best, published by G. Bell & Sons, London. 1912. [18] Athenaeus _Dipnosophistæ_ Book II, Chap. XXXIV-V. [19] Tertullian _Apologeticum_ Chap. XI. [20] Ammianus _History of the Roman Emperors_ Book 22, Chap. XVI. [21] St. Jerome _Epistulae_ Book I, Letter XXXV. CHERRIES IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY Pliny mentions the cherry as growing in several countries and, by reading between lines, we may assume that cultivated cherries were distributed throughout all parts of Europe where agriculture was practiced, by Christ's time or shortly thereafter. Pliny speaks of the cherry in some connection with England, Germany, Belgium and Portugal. Surely we may assume that the cherry was being grown at the same time in at least the countries in Europe which are between or border on those named. But from Pliny to the Sixteenth Century the current of progress in cherry culture was immeasurably slow. In the intervening 1600 years not a score of new cherries were brought under cultivation. Attention was probably given during these dark ages to this and to all fruits as species and as divisions of species which came nearly or quite true to seed. It was only in the refinements of horticulture and botany brought about by the herbalists that true horticultural varieties came into common cultivation. Thus, the first of the German herbals, the _Herbarius_, printed at Mainz in 1491, does not describe or even name varieties of cherries but groups them in the two species as Sweets and Sours, the statement running:[22] "The cherries are some sweet, some sour, like the wild apple; the sours bring to the stomach gas and make the mouth fresh (frisch), those too sweet or too sour are of little use." A wood-cut in this old herbal illustrates a Sour Cherry. According to Müller,[23] not until 1569 did the Germans attempt to give names to varieties, when, in a medical herbal, the _Gart der Gesundheit_, cherries were roughly divided into four groups: (1) The Amarellen, sour, dark red cherries with long stems. (2) The Weichselkirschen, red cherries with white juice and short stems. (3) The Süsskirschen, red or black Sweet Cherries with long stems. (4) "Beside these yet more" distinguished by their shape and the province in which they are grown. Not until well into the Eighteenth Century do the Germans seem to have given names to more than a few of the most distinct varieties of cherries. Yet the cherry was more largely cultivated in Germany, one, two, or three centuries ago, as it is now, than in any other European country. This, one readily gleans from what has been written on cherries in different countries and from the acknowledgments of foreign pomologists to those of Germany for most of what has been printed regarding cherries. Not only has the cherry been a favorite orchard plant in Germany but since the Sixteenth Century it has been largely planted along the public roads. Of cherries on the continent, for this brief history, nothing more need be said. Most of the varieties that have been imported from Europe to America have come from England and we must, therefore, devote rather more attention to the history of the cherry in England than in other European countries. [22] Quoted from Müller, Hugo M. _Obstzüchter_ =8=:3. 1910. [23] _Ibid._ CHERRIES IN ENGLAND Cultivated cherries came to England with the Romans. _Prunus avium_ is indigenous in Great Britain but probably no care worthy the name cultivation was given these wild trees by the ancient Britons. Pliny states that the cherry was carried from Rome to Britain before the middle of the First Century--meaning probably some improved variety. In no part of the world does the cherry take more kindly to the soil than in England and no doubt this fruit became firmly established in Kent, where the Romans settled, before the downfall of the southern invaders. With the expulsion of the Romans and the subsequent influx of barbarians, agriculture, especially gardening and fruit-growing, became almost a lost art but still it is not probable that the cherry was wholly lost to cultivation during the Teutonic invasions of Britain. Fruit-growing could not have greatly prospered, however, in the centuries of strife with the barbarians which succeeded Roman rule in England; and a revival of cherry culture did not take place until the reintroduction of Christianity and the establishment of monasteries where, undisturbed by wars, the monks became notable horticulturists. They not only had opportunity in the comparative peace in which their lives were cast to grow fruit but many of them were men of superior intelligence and skill and from intercourse with the continental countries learned what plants were worth growing and how to grow them--the monasteries were the experiment stations of the times. Undoubtedly the monks in bringing to England treasures from the continent did not forget fruits and among them cherries. Passing by a considerable number of references which could be cited to show that cherries of one kind and another were cultivated in Britain from at least as early a date as the Ninth Century, we come to the discussion of this fruit by the herbalists of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. Of the three great English herbalists, Turner published his work in 1538; Gerarde's, printed in 1596, was revised and greatly improved by Johnson in 1633; Parkinson's _Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris_, or Park-in-Suns Earthly Paradise--the author evidently a punster--was published in 1629. All of these contain as full botanical and pomological discussions of cherries as knowledge then permitted. It must not be thought, by those unacquainted with the plant-lore of the times, that the cherry received consideration only from the pens of Turner, Gerarde, and Parkinson. During the time covered by the lives of these three men a score or more of books were written in English on botany and pomology in which accounts were given of the cherry, all showing the esteem in which this fruit was held in England during and before the reign of Queen Elizabeth. Space permits comments on the account of the cherry given by but one of these Elizabethan herbalists, and of the several Gerarde's seems best suited to our purpose. We have chosen Gerarde because he treats the cherry more fully than do the other writers of the period and because he was a compiler and a translator, having, as he quaintly says, "perused divers Herbals set fourth in other languages;" thus from Gerarde we obtain a conception of cherries growing on the continent as well as those growing in England. Students of the English herbals say that Gerarde translated, copied and adapted from Matthiolus, whose book we have noted, but more particularly from Dodoens who in 1554 published in Antwerp _A History of Plants_. These two worthies, in turn, had borrowed very freely from still more ancient writers--Theophrastus, Dioscorides, Columella and others. As might be suspected, errors centuries old were passed down, yet each new translation or compilation contains much added information and is far freer from error. In particular, Gerarde seems to have been a wise compiler and adapter and to have combined a large measure of first-hand practical knowledge with his borrowings from others. This is especially true of what he writes concerning cherries, a fruit with which he seems to have been very familiar. The following is Gerarde's account, with interpolations by the author: "The ancient Herbalists have set down four kinds of Cherry trees; the first is great and wild, the second tame or of the garden, the third hath sour fruit, the fourth is that which is called in Latin Chamaecerasus, or the dwarfe Cherry tree. The later writers have found divers sorts more, some bringing forth great fruit, others lesser; some with white fruit, some with blacke, others of the colour of black bloud, varying infinitely according to the clymat and country where they grow." The four cherries which Gerarde says the "ancient herbalists have set down" are, it is easy to see: first, the wild _Prunus avium_; second, cultivated sweet varieties of _Prunus avium_; third, the sour _Prunus cerasus_; fourth, the Dwarf Cherry, _Prunus fruticosa_. "The English Cherry tree groweth to a high and great tree, the body whereof is of a mean bignesse, which is parted above into very many boughes, with a barke somewhat smooth, of a brown crimson colour, tough and pliable; the substance or timber is also brown in the middle, and the outer part is somewhat white: the leaves be great, broad, long, set with veins or nerves, and sleightly nicked about the edges: the floures are white, of a mean bigness, consisting of five leaves, and having certain threds in the middle of the like colour. The Cherries be round, hanging upon long stems or footstalks, with a stone in the middest which is covered with a pulp or soft meat; the kernell thereof is not unpleasant to the taste, though somewhat bitter." This is _Prunus avium_, which is very generally wild in Britain--the Gean of the English. "The Flanders Cherry tree differeth not from our English Cherry tree in Stature or form of leaves or floures, the only difference is, that this tree brings forth his fruit sooner and greater than the other, wherefore it may be called in Latine, _Cerasus praecox, sive Belgica_." A cherry which "brings forth his fruit sooner and greater than the other" can be no other than one of the early varieties of the Sweet Cherry. "The Spanish Cherry tree groweth up to the height of our common Cherry tree, the wood or timber is soft and loose, covered with a whitish scaly barke, the branches are knotty, greater and fuller of substance than any other Cherry tree; the leaves are likewise greater and longer than any of the rest, in shape like those of the Chestnut tree: the floures are like the others in form, but whiter of colour; the fruit is greater and longer than any, white for the most part all over, except those that stand in the hottest place where the sun hath some reflexion against a wall: they are also white within, and of a pleasant taste." We have in this description a very good pen picture of Yellow Spanish, one of the Bigarreaus, of which there must have been several in common cultivation in Gerarde's time. "The Gascoin Cherry tree groweth very like to the Spanish Cherry tree in stature, flours and leaves: it differeth in that it bringeth forth very great Cherries, long, sharp pointed, with a certain hollownesse upon one side, and spotted here and there with certain prickles of purple color as smal as sand. The taste is most pleasant, and excelleth in beauty." Gascoin, sometimes "Gaskin" in England, is a corruption of Gascoigne, a name applied by the French to cherries produced in Gascony and said to have been brought to England by Joan of Kent when her husband, the Black Prince, was commanding in Guienne and Gascony. The variety is a very good Sweet Cherry, no doubt the one described in this text under the name Bleeding Heart. "The late ripe Cherry tree groweth up like unto our wild English Cherry tree, with the like leaves, branches and floures, saving that they are sometimes once doubled; the fruit is small, round, and of a darke bloudy colour when they be ripe, which the Frenchmen gather with their stalkes, and hang them up in their houses in bunches or handfulls against Winter, which the Physitions do give unto their patients in hot and burning fevers, being first steeped in a little warme water, that causeth them to swell and plumpe as full and fresh as when they did grow upon the tree. "The Cluster Cherry tree differeth not from the last described either in leaves, branches, or stature: the floures are also like, but never commeth any one of them to be double. The fruit is round, red when they be ripe, and many growing upon one stem or foot-stalke in clusters, like as the Grapes do. The taste is not unpleasant although somewhat soure." These two cherries, one sees at once, are varieties of _Prunus cerasus_. The first, Gerarde identifies for us on a succeeding page as the Morello. He says of it: "The late ripe cherries which the Frenchmen keepe dried against the winter, and are by them called Morelle, and wee after the same name call them Morell Cherries. "This Cherrie-tree with double floures growes up unto a small tree, not unlike to the common Cherrie-tree in each respect, saving that the floures are somewhat double, that is to say, three or foure times double; after which commeth fruit (though in small quantitie) like the other common Cherry. "The double floured Cherry-tree growes up like unto an hedge bush, but not so great nor high as any of the others, the leaves and branches differ not from the rest of the Cherry-tree. The floures hereof are exceeding double, as are the flours of Marigolds, but of a white colour, and smelling somewhat like the Hawthorne floures; after which come seldome or never any fruit, although some Authors have said that it beareth sometimes fruit, which my selfe have not at any time seen; notwithstanding the tree hath growne in my Garden many yeeres, and that in an excellent good place by a bricke wall, where it hath the reflection of the South Sunne, fit for a tree that is not willing to beare fruit in our cold climat." These two are double-flowered cherries, several of which seem to have been grown as ornamentals. Both belong to _Prunus cerasus_ and as we gather rather better elsewhere than here, both are of the Amarelle type of tree. "The Birds Cherry-tree, or the blacke Cherry-tree, that bringeth forth very much fruit upon one branch (which better may be understood by sight of the figure, than by words) springeth up like an Hedge tree of small stature, it groweth in the wilde woods of Kent, and are there used for stockes to graft other Cherries upon, of better tast, and more profit, as especially those called the Flanders Cherries: this wilde tree growes very plentifully in the North of England, especially at a place called Heggdale, neere unto Rosgill in Westmerland, and in divers other places about Crosbie Ravenswaith, and there called Hegberrie-tree: it groweth likewise in Martome Parke, foure miles from Blackeburne, and in Harward neere thereunto; in Lancashire almost in every hedge; the leaves and branches differ not from those of the wilde Cherry-tree: the floures grow alongst the small branches, consisting of five small white leaves, with some greenish and yellow thrums in the middle: after which come the fruit, greene at the first, blacke when they be ripe, and of the bignesse of Sloes; of an harsh and unpleasant taste. "The other birds Cherry-tree differeth not from the former in any respect, but in the colour of the berries; for as they are blacke; so on the contrary, these are red when they be ripe, wherein they differ." The cherries described in these two paragraphs, one black and one red, "that bringeth forth very much fruit upon one branch" and "groweth in the wilde woods" and "of an harsh and unpleasant taste" are of course the _Prunus padus_ of Britain and most of Europe--not a true cherry but the racemose Bird Cherry, or Choke Cherry. "The common blacke Cherry-tree growes up in some places to great stature: there is no difference between it and our common Cherry-tree, saving that the fruit hereof is very little in respect of other Cherries, and of a blacke colour." This must be some wild Gean or Mazzard. "The dwarfe Cherry-tree groweth very seldome to the height of three cubits: the trunke or body small, covered with a darke coloured blacke: whereupon do grow very limber and pliant twiggie branches: the leaves are very small, not much unlike to those of the Privite bush: the floures are small and white: after which come Cherries of a deepe red colour when they be ripe, of taste somewhat sharpe, but not greatly unpleasant: the branches laid downe in the earth, quickely take root, whereby it is greatly increased." Here we have _Prunus fruticosa_ very well described. "My selfe with divers others have sundry other sorts in our gardens, one called the Hart Cherry, the greater and the lesser; one of the great bignesse, and most pleasant in taste, which we call _Luke Wardes_ Cherry, because he was the first that brought the same out of Italy; another we have called the Naples Cherry, because it was first brought into these parts from Naples: the fruit is very great, sharpe pointed, somewhat like a man's heart in shape, of a pleasant taste, and of a deepe blackish colour when it is ripe, as it were of the colour of dried bloud." Gerarde's Hart is probably one of the Heart cherries, while "Luke Wardes Cherry" is one of the oldest named Sweet Cherries known in England, having been mentioned by Parkinson and other of the herbalists as well as in this list. "We have another that bringeth forth Cherries also very great, bigger than any Flanders Cherrie, of the colour of Jet, or burnished horn, and of a most pleasant taste, as witnesseth Mr. Bull, the Queenes Majesties Clockmaker, who did taste of the fruit (the tree bearing onely one cherry, which he did eat; but my selfe never tasted of it) at the impression hereof. We have also another, called the Agriot Cherry, of a reasonable good taste. Another we have with fruit of a dun colour, tending to a watchet. We have one of the Dwarfe Cherries, that bringeth forth fruit as great as most of our Flanders Cherries, whereas the common sort hath very small Cherries, and those of an harsh taste. These and many sorts more we have in our London gardens, whereof to write particularly would greatly enlarge our volume, and to small purpose: therefore, what hath beene said shall suffice. I must here (as I have formerly done, in Peares, Apples, and other such fruites) refer you to my two friends, Mr. _John Parkinson_, and Mr. _John Millen_, the one to furnish you with the history, and the other with the things themselves, if you desire them." One can only roughly surmise as to what the cherries mentioned in this paragraph are with the exception of the Agriot which is, if the synonymy of several European pomologists be correct, the Griotte Commune, a sort supposed to have been brought from Syria by the crusaders and to have been recorded under the last name in France as early as 1485. The end of the Seventeenth Century saw a great revival of agriculture in all of its branches on the continent; in England the revival began with the fall of the commonwealth. From this time the progress of cherry culture has been so rapid and so great that it would be an endless task to give even a cursory view of it--a task unnecessary, too, for succeeding the herbalists a great number of botanies, pomologies and works on agriculture were published to many of which reference is still easy. Moreover, the histories of varieties in this text carry us back quite to the beginning of the Eighteenth Century. There now remains for the history of the cherry but to sketch its introduction and culture in North America, an undertaking that can be done briefly and to the point, for the data are abundant, recent and reliable. Here, too, accounts of the origin of varieties and the development of the cherry may be looked for in the chapters which comprise the main part of the book. CHERRIES IN AMERICA The cherry was one of the first fruits planted in the fields cleared and enriched by our hardy American ancestry. From Canada to Florida the colonists, though of several nationalities and those from one nation often representing several quite distinct classes, were forced alike to turn at once to the cultivation of the soil as a means of subsistence. And while in all of the colonies the early settlers must have been busily engaged in the cultivation of cereals for the staff of life, in the South in growing cotton and tobacco for money and for purposes of barter, in the North in harvesting forest and fish products for bartering; yet the historians of the colonies notice so often and describe so fully and with such warmth of feeling the vegetables, flowers and fruits in the orchards and gardens of the New World that it is certain that the ground was tilled not only as a means of subsistence but because the tillers loved the luxuries of the land. What fruit better adapted to the uses of colonists than the cherry? It possesses in a high degree, especially the Sour Cherry, the power of adaptation to new environment and thrives under a greater variety of conditions than any other of our fruits unless it be the apple, which it at least equals in this respect. The cherry is easily propagated; it comes in bearing early and bears regularly; of all fruits it requires least care--gives the greatest returns under neglect; and the product is delectable and adapted to many purposes. We shall expect, then, in examining the early records of fruit-growing in America to find the cherry one of the first planted and one of the most widely disseminated of fruits. CHERRIES PLANTED BY THE FRENCH IN AMERICA While written records are lacking, the plantations of old trees and the development of cherry culture indicate that the French early planted cherries in Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince Edward Island and in the early settlements on the St. Lawrence River. The cherry is a favorite fruit of the French and the venerable trees that survived on the sites of their settlements when the English came into possession of Canada are proof sufficient that the émigrés from Provence or Normandy, fruit districts of France from which many French settlers came, brought with them seeds of the cherry with those of other fruits. Peter Kalm in his _Travels into North America_ in 1771,[24] records the very general culture of all the hardy fruits in Canada and leaves the impression that such had been the case from the first settlements. [24] Kalm, Peter _Travels into North America_ 1771. CHERRIES IN NEW ENGLAND The cherry came to New England with the first settlers. This we are told in all the records of early New England in which the conditions of the country are described and of it we have confirmatory proof in many enormous cherry trees, Sweet and Sour, both about ancient habitations and as escapes from cultivation in woods, fields and fence rows, all pointing to the early cultivation of this fruit. The early records are very specific. Thus, to quote a few out of an embarrassment of references: Francis Higginson writing in 1629, after naming the several other fruits then under cultivation in Massachusetts, notes that the Red Kentish is the only cherry cultivated.[25] In the same year, the 16th of March, 1629, a memorandum of the Massachusetts Company shows that "Stones of all sorts of fruites, as peaches, plums, filberts, cherries, pear, aple, quince kernells" were to be sent to New England.[26] These seeds, provided by the home company with forethought of the need of orchards in the colony, evidently produced fruit trees sufficient to supply both hunger and thirst; for John Josselyn, who made voyages to New England in 1638, 1639 and 1663, writing of "New England's Rarities Discovered," says:[27] "Our fruit Trees prosper abundantly, Apple-trees, Pear-trees, Quince-trees, Cherry-trees, Plum-trees, Barberry-trees. I have observed with admiration, that the Kernels sown or the Succors planted produce as fair and good fruit, without grafting, as the tree from whence they were taken: the Countrey is replenished with fair and large Orchards. It was affirmed by one Mr. Woolcut (a magistrate in Connecticut Colony) at the Captains Messe (of which I was) aboard the Ship I came home in, that he made Five hundred Hogsheads of Syder out of his own Orchard in one year. Syder is very plentiful in the Countrey, ordinarily sold for ten shillings a Hogshead. "The Quinces, Cherries, Damsons, set the Dames a work, Marmalad and preserved Damsons are to be met with in every house. It was not long before I left the Countrey that I made Cherry wine, and so may others, for there are good store of them both red and black. Their fruit trees are subject to two diseases, the Meazels, which is when they are burned and scorched with the Sun, and lowsiness, when the woodpeckers jab holes in their bark: the way to cure them when they are lowsie is to bore a hole in the main root with an Augur, and pour in a quantity of Brandie or Rhum, and then stop it up with a pin made of the same Tree." As early as 1641, a nursery had been started in Massachusetts and was selling among other trees those of the cherry. Troublesome pests had made their appearance, too, as may be seen from the following letter, probably from the first American nurseryman. The letter is written by George Fenwith of Saybrook, Connecticut, under date of May 6, 1641,[28] to Governor John Winthrop, Jr. "I haue receaued the trees yow sent me, for which I hartily thanke yow. If I had any thing heare that could pleasure yow, yow should frely command it. I am prettie well storred with chirrie & peach trees, & did hope I had had a good nurserie of aples, of the aples yow sent me last yeare, but the wormes have in a manner distroyed them all as they came vp. I pray informe me if yow know any way to preuent the like mischiefe for the future." These early plantations of cherries in New England were undoubtedly grown from seed; for buds, cions and trees could not have been imported unless the latter were brought over potted out as was not commonly done until a century and a half later--at least, the records make mention of seeds and not of trees as was the case just before and after the Revolutionary War. A statement left by one of the Chief Justices of Massachusetts, Paul Dudley, living at Roxbury, at as late a date as 1726, indicates that varieties were few. In a paper in the _Philosophical Transactions_[29] on agricultural conditions in Massachusetts, among many other interesting things, Justice Dudley says: "Our apples are without doubt as good as those of England, and much fairer to look to, and so are the pears, but we have not got all the sorts. Our peaches do rather excel those of England, and then we have not the trouble or expence of walls for them; for our peach trees are all standards, and I have had in my own garden seven or eight hundred fine peaches of the Rare-ripes, growing at a time on one tree. Our people, of late years, have run so much upon orchards, that in a village near Boston, consisting of about forty families, they made near three thousand barrels of cyder. This was in the year 1721. And in another town of two hundred families, in the same year I am credibly informed they made near ten thousand barrels. Our peach trees are large and fruitful, and bear commonly in three years from the stone. Our common cherries are not so good as the Kentish cherries of England, and we have no Dukes or Heart cherries, unless in two or three gardens." [25] _Mass. Hist. Soc. Collections_ 1st Ser. =I=:118. [26] _Mass. Records_ =I=:24. [27] _Mass. Hist. Collections_ 3d Ser. =23=:337. [28] _Mass. Hist. Collections_ 4th Ser. =VI=:499. [29] Abridgment =6=:pt. =II=:341, in _Hist. Mass. Hort. Soc._ 14-15. 1829-1878. CHERRIES IN NEW YORK Though settled at about the same time and having a more congenial climate, New York made progress in fruit-growing more slowly than Massachusetts. The early Dutch settlers in New York were transient traders and not home makers. Actual settlement with homes in view did not begin until after the historical bargain in which thrifty Peter Minuit had acquired Manhattan Island for $24.00 and the country became New Amsterdam. But troublesome times followed under the rule of Minuit, Wouter Van Twiller and Kieft, quarrels and actual war, or the fear of it, with colonists to the north and south as well as with the savages, preventing the planting of orchards and farms until in 1647 when the reins of government were taken in hand by Peter Stuyvesant. Governor Stuyvesant was a farmer as well as a soldier and there is something in history and much in tradition of the Bowery Farm, which flourished on the site of the present Bowery in New York. This farm was planted and tended by "Peter, the Headstrong" when he was not disputing with his burgomasters, watching the Yankees and fighting Swedes and Indians. The orchards and gardens, according to all accounts, were remarkably fine and were kept in a high state of cultivation. Stuyvesant founded the farm during the stormy times of his governorship but did not live on it until the English took possession of New Amsterdam in 1664 when he retired to the land and devoted the eighteen remaining years of his life to agriculture. From the neighboring colonies and from abroad he brought many fruits, flowers, farm and truck crops. Fruits came to him also from Holland and were disseminated from his orchard up the Hudson. The cherry was one of the fruits much grown by the Dutch. It would be wearisome and would serve little purpose even to attempt a cursory review of the literature of colonial days in New York showing the spread and the extent of fruit culture by the Dutch. Travel up the Hudson and its branches was easy and within a century after the settlement of New York by the Dutch, cherries were not only cultivated by the whites, according to the records of travelers, naturalists and missionaries, but were rudely tilled by the Indians. For a long time after its introduction in New York, the cherry, in common with other fruits, was grown as a species--varieties and budded or grafted trees were probably not known. Fruit-growing as an industry began in New York and in America, with the establishment of a nursery at Flushing, Long Island, in 1730, by Robert Prince, founder of the nursery which afterwards became the famous Linnæan Botanic Garden. At what date this nursery began to offer named cherries for sale cannot be said but advertisements appearing in 1767, 1774 and 1794 show that budded or grafted named cherries were being offered for sale by the Princes. In 1804, William Prince, third proprietor of the famous Flushing nursery, prepared a list of the named cherries then under cultivation in America for Willich's _Domestic Encyclopaedia_, an English work which was being edited and made "applicable to the present situation of the United States" by Dr. James Mease. The following is Prince's list:[30] "May Duke, ripe in May and June: long stem, round and red, an excellent cherry, and bears well. Black Heart, ripe in June: a fine cherry. White Heart (or Sugar Cherry) ripe in June: white and red. Bleeding Heart, ripe in June; a very large cherry of a long form and dark colour; it has a pleasant taste. Ox Heart, ripe in June: a large, firm, fine cherry. Spanish Heart, ripe in June. Carnation, ripe in July, it takes its name from its colour, being red and white, a large round cherry, but not very sweet. Amber, ripe in July. Red Heart, do. Late Duke, do. Cluster, planted more for ornament, or curiosity than any other purpose. Double Blossoms, ripe in July. Honey Cherry, do. small sweet cherry. Kentish cherry, ripe in July. Mazarine, do. Morello, do. and August; a red, acid cherry, the best for preserving, and for making cherry-brandy. Early Richmond Cherry. This fruit originated near Richmond in Virginia, and is the earliest cherry in America, and valuable on that account; it is the size of a May Duke, and resembles it in form. Red Bigereau, a very fine cherry, ripe in July, of a heart shape. White Bigereau, ripe in July and August: remarkably firm, heart shaped. Large Double Flowering Cherry. This tree produces no fruit but makes a handsome appearance in the spring, when it is covered with clusters of double flowers as large as the cinnamon rose; it differs from the common double flowering cherry which never forms a large tree, and has small pointed leaves. The three last were imported from Bordeaux in 1798. Small Morello Cherry, called also Salem Cherry, because it came originally from Salem County, N. J., is cultivated by Mr. Cooper of that state, who values it highly. The fruit has a lively acid taste. The tree produces abundantly, and is the least subject to worms of any cherry trees. Mr. C. says that the Bleeding Heart suits a sandy soil, but that the May-duke will not flourish in it." [30] Willich _Domestic Encyclopaedia_ 105. 1804. CHERRIES IN THE SOUTH It would be interesting but hardly of sufficient profit to trace further the history of cultivated cherries in the states of the Atlantic seaboard. References to the cherry abound in the colonial records of Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware but they bring out no facts differing materially from those abstracted from the records of the northern colonies. The Quakers and the Swedes in the states watered by the Delaware and the English in Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina, all early grew cherries as one of the easiest fruits to propagate and cultivate. Space can be spared for but two brief quotations to show the condition of cherry culture in the South in Colonial days. The first is from Bruce's Economic History of Virginia.[31] "In the closing years of the seventeenth century, there were few plantations in Virginia which did not possess orchards of apple and peach trees, pear, plum, apricot and quince.[32] The number of trees was often very large. The orchard of Robert Hide of York[33] contained three hundred peach and three hundred apple trees. There were twenty-five hundred apple trees in the orchard of Colonel Fitzhugh.[34] Each species of fruit was represented by many varieties; thus, of the apple, there were mains, pippins, russentens, costards, marigolds, kings, magitens and bachelors; of the pear, bergamy and warden. The quince was greater in size, but less acidulated than the English quince; on the other hand, the apricot and plum were inferior in quality to the English, not ripening in the same perfection.[35] Cherries grew in notable abundance. So great was the productive capacity of the peach that some of the landowners planted orchards of the tree for the mere purpose of using the fruit to fatten their hogs;[36] on some plantations, as many as forty bushels are said to have been knocked down to the swine in the course of a single season."[37] The second quotation is from Lawson's History of Carolina.[38] "We have the common, red and black cherry, which bear well. I never saw any grafted in this country, the common excepted, which was grafted on an indian plum stock, and bore well. This is a good way, because our common cherry trees are very apt to put scions all around the tree for a great distance, which must needs be prejudicial to the tree and fruit. Not only our cherries are apt to do so, but our apples and most other fruit trees, which may chiefly be imputed to the negligence and unskillfulness of the gardner. Our cherries are ripe a month sooner than in Virginia." [31] Bruce _Economic History of Virginia_ =1=:468. 1895. [32] Glover _Philo. Trans. Royal Soc._ 1676-1678, vols. XI-XII, p. 628. [33] _Records of York County_ vol. 1694-1697, p. 71, Va. State Library. [34] _Letters of William Fitzhugh_ April 22, 1686. [35] Glover _Philo. Trans. Royal Soc._ 1676-1678, vols. XI-XII, p. 628. [36] Beverley _History of Virginia_ p. 260. [37] Glover _Philo. Trans. Royal Soc._ 1676-1678, vols. XI-XII, p. 628. [38] Lawson _History of Carolina_ 183. 1714. (Reprint of 1860.) CHERRIES IN THE MIDDLE WEST At a surprisingly early date the cherry, with the apple, peach, pear and plum, was being grown far inland in the New World. Southeastern Michigan was settled in 1701 at Detroit and within a half-century settlements had been made at Vincennes, Indiana; Kaskaskia and Cahokia, Illinois; and at Saint Louis and several other points in Missouri. The orchards and gardens of the early French settlers in these states live in the traditions of all the settlements; but much more substantial evidence was to be found a century ago, and in the case of the apple and pear may still be found, in the venerable trees of all the tree-fruit in and about these old French posts. "The homes of these pioneers," so good an authority as Parkman tells us, "were generally placed in gardens surrounded by fruit trees of apples, pears, cherries and peaches." Were proof lacking of these early plantations, it might be assumed that people so fond of horticulture as the French would not long be unmindful of the value to themselves and their posterity of plantations of fruit trees. CHERRIES ON THE PACIFIC COAST The history of the cherry in America is not complete without some mention of its introduction, culture and the development of new varieties on the Pacific coast. Indeed, it is not too much to say that at no time nor at any place in its whole history has the cherry made greater advancement than during the last half-century in Oregon, California and Washington--naming the states in order of their contribution to cherry culture. At about the time the colonies were beginning their struggle with the mother country for independence, Franciscan monks were establishing missions in California. To these they brought seeds of fruits, grains, flowers and vegetables, as several historians of the missions tell us, and as the trees found by Americans a few decades later make certain as regards fruits. It is probable that by the close of the Revolutionary war all subtropical and temperate fruits of Europe were to be found cultivated in the missions of California. Among these, in an enumeration of the products of the missions, the cherry is listed by E. S. Capson.[39] From its introduction at approximately the close of the Eighteenth Century, the cherry continued to be cultivated, at times more or less sparsely to be sure, until, by conquest in the war with Mexico, California passed into the possession of the United States. A new era in horticulture began in California soon after the influx of gold-seekers in 1849, some of whom, noting the opportunities of fruit-growing, at once began the importation of seeds and plants. Modern fruit-growing on the Pacific Coast, however, began in Oregon. The California Argonauts of '49 were much too busily engaged in digging gold to think of getting it indirectly by tilling the soil, whereas the men who were then crossing the plains from Missouri or sailing around the Horn from New England to Oregon were home-makers and true tillers of the soil. These early Oregonians were the forerunners in the zeal and enterprise which have made horticulture on this coast the marvel of modern agriculture. But one of the several early horticulturists of Oregon can be mentioned here, he deserving special mention by virtue of his work with cherries. Until 1847 the few cultivated fruits to be found in Oregon were seedlings mostly grown by employees of the Hudson Bay Fur Company. In that year there was a notable importation of cultivated fruits across the plains--a venture which quickly proved pregnant with results in fruit harvests which have not ceased and give promise long to continue. Henderson Lewelling crossed the plains from Henry County, Iowa, and brought with him a choice selection of grafted fruits. These he transported in boxes of soil which he hauled in a wagon drawn by oxen. Arriving in Oregon late in the fall of 1847 he found that he had 300 trees alive which he planted at what is now Milwaukee, a few miles south of Portland on the east side of the Willamette River. Later, seeds were brought for stocks, though for the cherry the wild species, _Prunus emarginata_ and _Prunus virginiana_, were used and very successfully, until Mazzard and Mahaleb seeds could be obtained. In this travelling nursery, Lewelling brought to Oregon cherries of the Bigarreau, the English Morello and probably of several other types. The label of one of the cherries was lost and this unknown was renamed Royal Ann. Unfortunately, it was one of the best known of all cherries that for the time being lost its identity--the Napoleon, which probably has been cultivated for three centuries and since 1820 has borne the name of the great General. With dogged perseverance the West Coast fruit-growers continue the name "Royal Ann" to the great confusion of systematic pomology. But of chief import to cherry culture were the subsequent operations in the Lewelling nursery at Milwaukee. Lacking proper stocks, Seth Lewelling, who had succeeded Henderson in the nursery business, grew a great many cherries from seeds. From these he afterward selected and disseminated varieties that have made Oregon famous not only for what are probably the finest sweet cherries in the world but for a long list of new and desirable varieties--as Republican, Lincoln, Willamette Seedling and Bing. We call to mind no greater success in bringing into being new fruits from a few lots of seedlings than in the case of Lewelling and his cherries. Lewelling's work stimulated others to breed cherries and among many seedlings that have since been named in the Northwest the Lambert and Oregon are well worthy of mention. The facts of time and place in the beginning of cherry culture which we have tried to set forth in this chapter have, we think, some historical and narrative interest. Yet, the main value of the facts are not in history and story. Rather, at least so we hope they will be interpreted, these brief records show what the crude material was out of which our present cultivated cherry flora has been developed; what the steps were in the domestication and development of the cherry; what economic purposes they have served; and who the peoples are and what the methods were in bringing the cherry to its present state of development. In a word, the chapter will not have served the purpose for which it is mainly intended if it does not furnish facts and inspirations toward the further evolution of the cherry. [39] _History of California_ 111. 1854. Chapter III CHERRY CULTURE The magnitude of the cherry industry in the United States is not generally appreciated. This is because cherries are very largely grown in small home plantations and the product is either consumed at home and in local markets, or is sent to canning factories and is therefore disposed of without the display attending the production and marketing of fruits sold in the general market. The following figures from the last census show the importance of the industry. There were in 1909, according to the census taken in 1910, 11,822,044 bearing cherry trees in the United States and 5,621,660 trees not of bearing age. The bearing trees bore 4,126,099 bushels of fruit valued at $7,231,160. When this, the thirteenth census, was taken, the cherry ranked fifth in commercial value among orchard fruits, being surpassed in the order named by the apple, peach, plum and pear. The yield of fruit was 43.6 per centum greater in 1909 than in 1899. This high percentage of increase has been brought about in several ways. The recent development of rapid transportation, refrigerator service and of marketing facilities has greatly stimulated the culture of this as of all other fruits in the United States. An increased demand for canned and preserved cherries has sprung up so that cherries are much more used now than formerly, the trade in preserved cherries for confections and various drinks in particular having greatly increased. Lastly, better care of orchards and better means of combating insects and fungi have increased the yields during the last decade. Cherries are grown in greater or less quantities in every state in the Union but commercially the industry is confined to a few states having especial advantages in climate, soil and markets. In but six states, according to the last census, was the value of the cherry crop more than a half-million dollars, the states being: California $951,654, Pennsylvania $909,975, Ohio $657,406, Michigan $590,829, New York $544,508, Indiana $508,516. In New York in particular, recent plantings of this fruit have been so great that at this writing, July, 1914, the figures given for this State could be increased by a quarter at the very least, and no doubt they could be largely increased also for California and Michigan. The great growth of the canning industry is most largely responsible for the large plantings of cherries in recent years in regions especially suited to this fruit. In the several states named, the cherry industry is further localized. Thus, in the 61 counties in New York, the cherry is grown largely in but 12, the number of trees in each of these being: Columbia 78,526, Niagara 61,786, Monroe 49,831, Ontario 36,394, Wayne 35,385, Erie 29,483, Onondaga 25,932, Seneca 27,063, Chautauqua 24,483, Steuben 15,412, Orleans 14,682 and Cayuga 14,319. If the figures just given, the total number being 413,296, are compared with the number of trees in the State, 674,000, it will be seen that the industry is quite localized, two-thirds of the cherries being grown in 12 of the 61 counties, though the fact is brought out in the census that cherries are grown on 59,408 farms in New York, showing that this fruit is much grown for home use. Further figures of interest as regards New York are that the cherry crop in 1909 amounted to 271,597 bushels which sold for $544,508. The plantings in the State cover in the neighborhood of 9,500 acres. A canvass of the leading cherry-growers and nurserymen in the United States shows that, in all parts of the country excepting California, Oregon and Washington, Sour Cherries are much more commonly grown than Sweet Cherries. In New York at least 90 per cent of the cherry trees are of sour varieties and this proportion will hold for the region east of the Rockies. The leading commercial varieties of Sour Cherries, in order named, are Montmorency, Early Richmond and English Morello. No other variety is nearly as commonly grown as is even the least well known of these three. No one of the Duke cherries is mentioned as of commercial importance, but May Duke, Late Duke and Reine Hortense are frequently grown in home plantations. Growers of Sweet Cherries are not nearly as closely in accord as to the best varieties as are those who grow sour sorts. The most popular Sweet Cherries in the East seem to be Windsor, Black Tartarian, Napoleon and Wood with a very insistent statement of the few who have tried it that Schmidt is better than any of these for the market. On the Pacific Coast honors go to Napoleon, which the Westerners continue to call Royal Ann despite the fact that it has been cultivated for three centuries and had been called Napoleon for nearly a half-century before Lewelling took it to Oregon in 1847. Other popular sorts on the Pacific seaboard are Bing, Lambert and Republican--all western productions. Rather more important than the information obtained from growers of cherry trees as to varieties was that as to the stocks on which cherries are grown in America. This brings us to a discussion of the whole subject of stocks for cherries. STOCKS FOR CHERRIES Cherries have been grown in America for over 200 years and for 50 years the crop has been important commercially. Yet despite the extent and the importance of the industry and the years it has been in existence, curiously enough so fundamental a question as the best stock upon which to grow cherries has not yet been settled; indeed, though cherries behave markedly different on the several stocks, interest as to which is the best seems but recently to have been aroused. Now there is a rather warm controversy as to which is the better of the two leading stocks, the Mazzard or the Mahaleb. Fruit-growers on one side hold that the Mazzard is the best stock for all orchard varieties of this fruit while nurserymen controvert this view and say that the Mahaleb is at least a fit stock for sweet sorts and is the best one for Sour Cherries, and, moreover, that it is now impossible to grow cherries on Mazzard roots at prices that fruit-growers are willing to pay. Since no systematic attempts seem to have been made to determine the peculiarities and values of these two and other cherry stocks both sides dispute without many facts. Meanwhile, a fine crop of misunderstandings has grown up about the whole matter of cherry stocks. It is worth while to attempt to clear up some of the misunderstandings. The first step toward this end is to describe and give the botanical and horticultural relationships of the Mazzard and Mahaleb cherries to orchard cherries. The Mazzard, as we have seen, is a common name, of uncertain origin, of the wild Sweet Cherry, _Prunus avium_, from which has come all cultivated Sweet Cherries. It is important to recall that the trees of the Mazzard reach a height of thirty or forty feet and the trunk often attains a diameter of eighteen or twenty inches. Other characters to be kept in mind are that the Mazzard lacks hardiness to cold but grows vigorously and is usually healthy, though susceptible to several fungi, one of which, the shot-hole fungus, _Cylindrosporium padi_, makes it a most difficult plant to grow in the nursery. Trees and fruit coming from the Mazzard used as a stock are very uniform, a fact easy to ascertain in New York where this stock has been largely used for nearly a century. The Mazzard is almost always grown from seed for stocks though suckers are occasionally used--a poor practice. [Illustration: _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (MAZZARD)] The Mazzard, or at least the Sweet Cherry, has probably been more or less used as a stock since the earliest cultivation of this fruit. The Greeks and Romans practiced budding and grafting centuries before Christ's time and when the cherry came to them as a domesticated fruit, at least three or four centuries before Christ, they undoubtedly made use of budding and grafting[40] to maintain varieties and in the case of the Sour Cherry, if they had it, and they probably did, to avoid the suckers that spring from the roots of the trees. The literature of fruit-growing is scant and fragmentary during the Middle Ages but beginning with the herbals in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries there are many treatises on fruits and botany and in several of these the use of the wild Sweet Cherry, the Mazzard, is mentioned.[41] In America the Mazzard as a stock probably came into use soon after the establishment of Prince's nursery at Flushing, Long Island, about 1730, budding and grafting seeming to have been little practiced in the New World before the founding of this nursery.[42] The use of the Mazzard as a stock is mentioned probably for the first in Coxe's _Fruit Trees_,[43] the second American treatise on fruits, published in 1817, and again in Thacher's _American Orchardist_, published in 1822.[44] Both authors, as the foot-notes show, speak of the use of this stock as if it were in common use in American nurseries. Neither mentions the Mahaleb. [Illustration: _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (MAZZARD)] The Mahaleb, _Prunus mahaleb_, it will be remembered from the description previously given, is a bush or bush-like cherry, sometimes but not often attaining the height and port of a tree. The top is thick, with rather slender ramifying branches bearing small, green, smooth, glossy leaves, which resemble those of the apricot more than they do the leaves of either species of orchard cherries. The fruits are at first green, then yellowish, turning to red and at full maturity are shining, black and so hard, bitter and astringent as to be scarcely edible. This brief description of _Prunus mahaleb_ shows that it is quite distinct from either our commonly cultivated Sweet Cherry, _Prunus avium_, or the Sour Cherry, _Prunus cerasus_, differing from either much more than the two edible species differ from each other. It is quite as far removed from the Sweet or the Sour Cherry botanically as the apple is from the pear, the quince, or the thorn and if anything more distantly related than orchard cherries are to plums. One would expect the wood structure of the Mahaleb to differ from that of Sweet or Sour Cherries very materially and that even if the union proved in budding or grafting wholly normal that there would be some difficulty in the proper passage of nutritive solutions between stock and cion. This cherry, as we have seen, is propagated almost entirely from seed though it may easily be grown from layers, cuttings and suckers. The American supply of Mahaleb stock comes from France. The Mahaleb seems to have come into use as a stock for other cherries in France having been first mentioned for this purpose by Duhamel du Monceau in his _Traite des Arbres Fruitiers_ in 1768.[45] Miller in his _Gardener's Dictionary_, 1754, describes the Mahaleb cherry and says it was "Cultivated in 1714 by the Duchess of Beaufort." This seems to be the first mention of its culture in England though Gerarde in _The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes_ describes it. Neither mentions its use as a stock. In fact, it seems not to have been mentioned as a stock in England until 1824 when Loudon in the _Encyclopedia of Gardening_ speaks of it as "the most effectual dwarfing stock."[46] It was not until after the middle of the Nineteenth Century that the Mahaleb came into use in America, none of the horticultural writers in the first half of the last century, as Cobbett, 1803; McMahon, 1806; Coxe, 1817; Thacher, 1822; Prince, 1828; Kenrick, 1833; Manning, 1838; Thomas, 1846; Floy, 1846, nor Cole, 1849, having mentioned the Mahaleb though nearly all speak of the Mazzard as the stock upon which cherries are budded. Downing, in 1845, makes first mention of the Mahaleb as a stock in the New World;[47] Thomas in his second edition, 1851, recommends it as a stock to dwarf cherries;[48] Barry, 1852, says that Mahaleb stock is imported from Europe;[49] while Elliott, in 1854, also speaks of it as a dwarfing stock.[50] From this date on the Mahaleb is mentioned in all American works on pomology in which stocks for cherries are discussed. [Illustration: _PRUNUS MAHALEB_] Pains have been taken to show the exact date the Mahaleb began to be used as a stock in America. The quotations show that this was about 1850. They show, too, that at first and for a long time its only use was as a dwarfing stock. But now the Mahaleb has almost wholly superseded the Mazzard as a stock for all Sweet and Sour Cherries. Not many cherries were propagated on the new stock until after 1860 when its use, if we may judge from the accounts of fruit-growing, began to be general and it grew so rapidly in favor that by 1880 it was more popular than the Mazzard and in another decade had almost wholly taken the place of the latter. Probably 95 per centum of the cherries grown in this country are budded on the Mahaleb. Why has the Mahaleb supplanted the Mazzard? This is the question that immediately comes to mind and to the discussion of which we proceed. There is no question but that it is much easier to grow cherry trees on Mahaleb stock in the nursery than on Mazzard and that usually a better looking tree can be delivered to the fruit-grower on the first-named stock. Seedlings of both stocks are imported from Europe and those of the Mahaleb are usually cheaper. These reasons are sufficient for the exclusive use of Mahaleb by nurserymen, and, were it certain that the Mahaleb is the best stock for the fruit-grower, all hands might forthwith renounce the Mazzard. In what respects is it easier to grow cherries on the Mahaleb in the nursery than on the Mazzard? All know that the Sweet Cherry is a little difficult to grow--is capricious as to soils, climates, cultivation and pruning, and as to diseases and insects. The Mazzard now used for stocks has the faults of the species to which it belongs. The Mahaleb, on the other hand, is adapted to a greater diversity of soils; is hardier to either heat or cold; less particular about cultivation; will stand more cutting in the nursery if pruning be necessary; is less susceptible to aphids which in many parts of the United States trouble cherries in the nursery row; and, more to the point than all else, in New York at least, is not nearly as badly infested with the shot-hole fungus, _Cylindrosporium padi_, which often ruins plantations of Mazzard stock. Mahaleb stock, too, is more easily "worked" than the Mazzard both in the actual work of budding and in having a longer season for this nursery operation. Cherries on Mahaleb ripen their wood earlier than those on Mazzard and may thus be dug earlier in the fall. Nurserymen and fruit-growers alike agree to this statement of the superior merits of the Mahaleb as a nursery plant. The facts set forth are matters of common observation--so well known that it is not necessary to verify them experimentally. A half-century of experience in America on many soils, in many climates and under widely varied conditions has demonstrated that it is easier to grow cherries in the nursery on the Mahaleb than on the Mazzard stock. From experience in the orchard, fruit-growers have established several facts as to the relative value of Mazzard and Mahaleb stocks from their standpoint. These are: 1. Cherries on Mahaleb are hardier to cold than those on Mazzard stocks. This hardiness is due, in part at least, to the fact that cherry wood on Mahaleb ripens sooner than on Mazzard. This superior hardiness of the Mahaleb is evident in the nursery-row as well as in the orchard and is a matter of great importance in northern nursery regions. In this connection it should be said that the Mahaleb is not as hardy as might be wished and that there are, as we shall later show, still hardier stocks. 2. There is no question but that the Mahaleb is a dwarfing stock. It came into use and in Europe continues to serve almost the sole purpose of dwarfing varieties worked upon it. This retarding effect is not fully realized by American cherry-growers because for the first few years the diminution in size is not apparent and even at the close of a decade the difference in size is not as marked as it would be between standard and dwarf apples or pears of the same age. 3. Cherry-growers who have tried both stocks agree that most varieties come in bearing earlier on Mahaleb than on Mazzard stocks. From the known effects of dwarfing on other fruit trees this would be expected. 4. The size of the cherries is the same on trees grown on the two stocks. The claim is made that apples and pears are a little larger on dwarf trees and that when peaches and plums are dwarfed the fruit is smaller. No one seems to have seen or to have thought that there are differences in the size of cherries grown on Mazzard or Mahaleb stock. [Illustration: _PRUNUS AVIUM_ (MAZZARD)] 5. Better unions are made with Mazzard than with the Mahaleb. This would be expected because of the close relationship of the Mazzard to orchard cherries. 6. The Mahaleb is probably the more cosmopolitan stock--will thrive on a greater diversity of soils than the Mazzard stock. In particular it is somewhat better adapted to sandy, light, stony, and arid soils that are not well adapted to growing cherries. Its root system is much nearer the surface of the ground and it is, therefore, better adapted to shallow soils than the Mazzard. 7. Though the evidence is somewhat conflicting on this point it is probable that cherries on Mazzard live longer than on Mahaleb. It may be that the frequent statements to this effect arise from the knowledge that dwarf fruit-trees are generally shorter lived than standard trees since there seem to be no records of actual comparisons. 8. Lastly, in climates where the cherry can be grown with reasonable certainty and in soils to which this fruit is adapted, varieties on Mazzard are more productive and profitable than on the Mahaleb stock. This seems to be the concensus of opinion among growers in the great cherry regions of California, Oregon, Washington, Michigan and New York. Several other stocks have been more or less successfully used for cherries and a great number have never been tried that might make good stocks. In a country as diversified as ours and in a state as variable in soil and climate as New York and with the manifold varieties of Sweet and Sour Cherries, it is almost certain that under some conditions there are stocks more desirable than either Mazzard or Mahaleb. The resources of the cherry-grower in this direction are so great that in this account we can but briefly outline them, describing but a few of the many stocks that might be used. In the colder parts of New York and of the United States, undoubtedly seedlings of Russian cherries would make hardy and in most other respects very desirable stocks. These Russian cherries, too, as a rule, come nearly or quite true to seed, making very good orchard plants on their own roots. Some of them, if not most of them, sprout rather badly--not so serious a fault as one might think, especially in a cultivated orchard. For budding over to other varieties only sour sorts should be used, taking for trial such varieties as Bessarabian, Brusseler Braune, Double Natte, George Glass, Lutovka, Early Morello, Ostheim and Vladimir. Probably most of these would dwarf standard varieties more or less but in no case is it to be supposed that they would have the dwarfing effect of Mahaleb. In the North Mississippi Valley some of these, especially of the Ostheim or Morello type, have been very successfully used as stocks. The small, wild, red cherry locally known as the Bird, Pin and as the Pigeon Cherry, _Prunus pennsylvanica_, found from the Atlantic to the eastern slopes of the Coast Range on the Pacific in northern United States and southern Canada, is often used as a hardy stock. The writer has seen it so used in northern Michigan but from his observation can recommend it only for cold regions and as a makeshift since it dwarfs standard varieties and usually suckers badly. W. T. Macoun, Ottawa, Canada, Dominion Horticulturist, states that this stock is commonly used in the colder parts of Canada and with good results. This cherry is not as distantly related to orchard varieties as the Mahaleb and unites with Sour Cherries at least as readily as does the Mahaleb. In the West and Northwest the Sand Cherry, _Prunus pumila_, is used very successfully in cold, dry regions as a stock for Sour Cherries. The following is a very good account of its behavior from the pen of the late Professor J. L. Budd, a pioneer cherry grower in the Middle West.[51] "Those who have seen acres of the Sandy Cherry in the northwest loaded with fruit have not been ready to believe it a good stock for the cherry on account of its sprawling bushy habits of growth. But those who have watched its growth when young under culture on rich soil can comprehend the fact that it is as easy to work as the Mahaleb. As with the Mahaleb the seedlings grown in seed bed will be large enough to set in nursery row the next spring, and of good size for August budding. To illustrate its rapidity and uprightness of growth I will state that we rooted a few cuttings in plant house last winter. When set in nursery they had made a show of growth of from two to four inches, yet at budding time, the middle of August, they were fully as large, stocky and upright as the Mahalebs, and in all respects in as perfect condition for budding. "This hardiest of all cherries is very closely related to our garden cherries, so nearly indeed that our botanists long ago decided that valuable crosses on it might be made. "As yet its use for stocks is somewhat experimental, but we can say positively that it united well with our hardy sorts in budding, and it does not dwarf the sorts worked upon it to a greater extent during the first five years of growth than does the Mahaleb." [Illustration: _PRUNUS MAHALEB_] There are records of the Choke Cherry, _Prunus virginiana_,[52] and of the Rum, or wild Black Cherry, _Prunus serotina_, having been used as stocks but these long-bunch, or racemose, cherries are so distantly related to the short-bunch, or fascicled, orchard cherries that it would seem that their use would be desirable only under great stress. In Japan a horticultural variety of _Prunus pseudocerasus_ is used as a stock. Of this cherry for this purpose, Professor Yugo Hoshino of the Tohoku Imperial University at Sapporo, Japan, writes as follows: "You wish to know about the cherry stocks used in this country. It is very rare to use our common wild cherry as a stock for European cherries. In Hokkaido (Yozo Island), we commonly use the seedlings of European Sweet and Sour Cherries as stocks. But in the northern part of Japan proper (Main Island), it is a common practice to graft European cherries on a special kind of our cherry. This cherry has particular characters which fit it for propagation; namely, it roots very easily either from cuttings or by layering (mound). Its botanical position is not certain, but it is probable that it is a cultural variety of Pseudocerasus, especially bred for stock purposes. It is grown by nurserymen only and called Dai-Sakura. (_Dai_ means stock: _Sakura_ means cherry.) It has a somewhat dwarfing influence on cions and hastens their fruiting age." This stock ought to be tried in America if, indeed, it is not already under cultivation from introductions made by the United States Department of Agriculture. These are but a few of many cherries that have been or might be tried as stocks for orchard varieties. There are many species of cherries more closely related to the cultivated edible sorts than the Mahaleb. Many of the cherries from Asia, not now known to growers, will eventually find their way to America; a few have already been introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture; some of them can undoubtedly be used as stocks and from them we may hope to find a better stock than either the Mazzard or Mahaleb. Cherries are now grown almost wholly as budded trees but they can be more or less readily root-grafted, depending upon the variety. Under some circumstances it might be profitable to propagate them by grafting. Usually it is necessary to use a whole root and to graft at the crown of the stock. Budd recommends this practice for Iowa, using Mazzard stock but with the expectation that the cion will take root and eventually the tree will stand on its own roots.[53] We cannot believe, however, that grafting can ever take the place of budding as a nursery practice or that it can be profitably used except in very exceptional cases. Buds in propagating are usually taken from nursery stock, a practice of decades, and there is no wearing out of varieties. Old varieties have lost none of the characters accredited to them a century, or several centuries, ago by pomological writers. Nor does it seem to matter, in respect to trueness to type, whether the buds be taken from a vigorous, young stripling, a mature tree in the heyday of life or some struggling, lichen-covered ancient--all alike reproduce the variety. The hypothesis that fruit-trees degenerate or, on the other hand, that they may be improved by bud-selection, finds no substantiation in this fruit. There seems to be no limit to the number of times its varieties can be propagated true to type from buds. [40] Varro (B. C. 117-27), as we have seen on page 47, tells when to graft cherries and discusses the process as if grafting cherries were a common operation. [41] In _The Country-Man's New Art of Planting and Grafting_, written by Leonard Mascall, 1652, the writer says, "Sower Cherries ... will grow of stones, but better it shall be to take of the small Cions which do come from the roots; then plant them. "Ye must have respect unto the Healme Cherry, [a sweet cherry of the time] which is graft on the wild Gomire [Mazzard] which is another kind of great Cherry, and whether you do prune them or not, it is not materiall; for they dure a long time." R. A. Austen, in his _Treatise of Fruit Trees_, 1653, writes, "Concerning Stocks fit for Cherry-trees, I account the black Cherry stock (Mazzard) the best to graft any kind of Cherry upon. Yet some say the red Cherry stock is best for May-Cherries. But the black Cherry stocks are goodly straight Plants full of sap and become greater trees than the red Cherry trees." John Reid, _The Scots Gard'ner_, 1683, writes, "Dwarfe Cherries on the Morella, or on the common Red Cherrie. Or on that Red geen which is more Dwarffish than the black." John Lawrence, _The Clergyman's Recreation_, 1714, declared that, "Black Cherries (Mazzard) are the only Stocks, whereon to raise all, the several sorts of Cherries." [42] "The practice of grafting and inoculating in America is but of modern date. It was introduced by Mr. _Prince_, a native of New York, who erected a Nursery in its neighborhood about forty years ago. But since the late American revolution, others have been instituted in this and some other parts of the United States. Mr. _Livingston_ has lately established one, not far from the city of New York, which can vie with some of the most celebrated ones in Europe. May he, and others, who have undertaken in that useful branch of business, meet with encouragement and success. Nothing in the extensive field of Horticulture can afford more agreeable amusement or yield more solid satisfaction and advantage." Forsyth on _Fruit Trees_, Albany, N. Y., =1803=:278. [43] "The cherry is propagated by budding and ingrafting--from its disposition to throw out gum from wounds in the vessels of the bark, the former mode is most generally adopted. The heart cherries do not succeed well on any but the black Mazard stocks, but round or duke cherries do as well on Morello stocks, which are often preferred from their being less liable to the cracks in the bark, from frost and sun on the southwest side; this injury may be almost effectually prevented by planting on the east side of board fences or buildings, or by fixing an upright board on the southwest side of each tree in open situations. "The best stocks are raised from stones planted in the nursery. Stocks raised from suckers of old trees, will always generate suckers, which are injurious and very troublesome in gardens: diseases of old or worn out varieties, are likewise perpetuated by the use of suckers for stocks." Coxe _Fruit Trees_ =1817=:253. [44] "The cultivated cherry, when reared from the seed, is much disposed to deviate from the variety of the original fruit, and, of course, they are propagated by budding or grafting on cherry stocks: budding is most generally preferred, as the tree is less apt to suffer from oozing of the gum than when grafted. The stocks are obtained by planting the seeds in a nursery, and the seedlings are afterwards transplanted. Those kinds which are called heart cherries are said to succeed best on the black mazard stock; but for the round kind, the Morello stocks are preferred, on account of their being the least subject to worms, or to cracks in the bark, from frost and heat of the sun." Thacher _American Orchardist_ =1822=:212. [45] "So the good species and their varieties are perpetuated and multiplied by grafting upon the Merisier, upon the Cerisier with round fruit, and upon the Cerisier de Sainte-Lucie [Mahaleb]. All the Cerisiers succeed well upon the Merisier and it is the only subject which is suited to the high-headed trees. It has the advantage of not sending forth any or very few suckers. The Cerisier de Sainte-Lucie has the same advantage. It receives very well the graft of all species of cherries and adapts itself to the worst soils." Duhamel _Traite des Arbres Fruitiers_ =1=:197. 1768. [46] "Varieties of the cherry are continued by grafting or budding on stocks of the black or wild red cherries, which are strong shooters, and of a longer duration than any of the garden kinds. Some graft on the Morello for the purpose of dwarfing the tree, and rendering it more prolific; but the most effectual dwarfing stock is the mahaleb, which, however, will not succeed in the generality of soils in Britain. Dubreuil of Rouen recommends the wild cherry for clayey and light soils, and the mahaleb for soils of a light, sandy or chalky nature. The stones of the cultivated cherry are commonly, but improperly, substituted for those of the wild sort, as being more easily procured." Loudon _Enc. of Gard._ =1824=:924. [47] "When dwarf trees are required, the _Morello_ seedlings are used as stocks; or when very dwarf trees are wished the Perfumed Cherry, (Cerasus Mahaleb) is employed; but as standards are almost universally preferred, these are seldom seen here. Dwarfs in the nursery must be headed back the second year, in order to form lateral shoots near the ground." Downing _Fruit Trees of America_ =1845=:164. [48] "The stocks used for this purpose (to dwarf cherries) are the "Perfumed Cherry" or _Prunus Mahaleb_, which also possesses the advantage of flourishing on heavy clay ground. The grafts will usually grow quite vigorously for two or three seasons, but they soon form dwarf, prolific bushes." Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ =1849=:351. [49] "The principal stocks used for the cherry are the _mazzard_ for standard orchard trees, and the mahaleb for garden pyramids and dwarfs. "The _Mahaleb_ (Cerasus mahaleb) is a small tree with glossy, deep green foliage. The fruit is black, about the size of a marrow-fat pea, and quite bitter. It blossoms and bears fruit when about three years old. It is considerably cultivated in many parts of Europe, as an ornamental lawn tree. There are very few bearing trees in this country yet; consequently nearly all the stocks used are imported, or grown from imported seeds." Barry _The Fruit Garden_ =1851=:115, 117. [50] "_Dwarf Trees._--Are produced by propagating the Sweet or Duke varieties on the Mahaleb, or Morello roots. They should in all cases be worked just at the crown of the root, as it is there a union is best formed; and also, by means of pruning, (see page 30) they should be made to form heads branching immediately from the ground." Elliott _Fr. Book_ =1854=:185. [51] _Iowa Sta. Bul._ =10=:425. 1890. [52] _Prunus virginiana_ was used as a stock in Oregon in 1850 as there were no other stocks available. The union was very good but the stock was condemned because of suckering. Seth Lewelling _N. W. Horticulturist_ Nov. 1887. [53] "I will here say that one year with another we succeed as well in grafting on Mazzard roots as we do with pear on pear roots, and nearly as well as with apple on apple roots. In some cases since the appearance of the graft-box fungus our success has been more complete with the cherry than with the apple. This success is due to careful compliance with two main guiding rules, founded on the nature of cherry wood: (1) Keep the scions dry until used. If given an opportunity they will absorb water enough to start the buds and form a callus at the base. In this condition they will fail to unite with the root. (2) After grafting, pack in boxes with sand or moss and store in a root cave, kept uniformly cool by opening at night and keeping closed during the day. If the buds start prior to the time of planting in nursery they will usually fail to grow. It may prove useful to add, that the sprouts from deeply set trees on Mazzard root will always be true to the varieties planted, and the surface roots can be utilized for root cuttings, as noted on a future page." _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =10=:424. 1890. CHERRY CLIMATES AND CHERRY SOILS Climate and soil have been the chief determinants of location for cherry-growing in New York. Both Sweet Cherries and Sour Cherries are profoundly influenced by the natural environment in which they are grown--Sweet Cherries rather more so than any other fruit, either climate or soil dictating whether they may or may not be grown. The Sour Cherry is at home in a great variety of climates, the vagaries of weather affecting it but little. It is probably the hardiest to cold, in some of its varieties at least, of all our tree fruits, thriving almost to the Arctic Circle and from there southward, in some of its forms, quite to the limits of the Temperate Zone. The blossoming season is relatively late so that fruit-setting is seldom prevented by spring frosts. Yet, even with this hardy fruit, it is necessary to take thought of heat and cold in growing commercial crops; for spring frosts may wither the bloom or summer heat and wind blast the crop if the orchard site be not well selected as regards local weather. The Sweet Cherry, on the other hand, must be coddled in every turn of the season, in climatic requirements being particularly sensitive to heat and cold. This cherry stands with the peach in not being able to survive temperatures much below zero and in suffering greatly from spring frosts because of early blooming. It is even more susceptible to heat than the peach, and especially cannot endure long-continued heat, both fruit and foliage suffering. The Sweet Cherry is at its best in a warm, sunny, genial, equable climate. The Duke cherries, hybrids between the Sweet and the Sour species, in the matter of hardiness are midway between the hardy Sours and the tender Sweets though this is but a very general statement applying to the group as a whole and not to individual varieties. Some of these withstand cold and heat well while others are tender in either extreme. Cherries are more at the mercy of moisture than of temperature conditions. Continued rain at blossoming time will almost surely prevent a proper setting of fruit; and the cherries crack, and brown-rot becomes exceedingly aggressive if there is wet weather in harvest time. Late summer rainfall to supply moisture to the trees is a matter of small concern to the cherry-grower, for growth begins early and the crop is off the trees before summer droughts usually begin. Where irrigation is practiced water for the cherry is safely supplied at most seasons of the year except when harvest is in swing at which time the cherries will swell and crack if there be too much water. As with all fruits the direction, temperature and humidity of winds are factors which decree whether or not cherries can be grown profitably either in a locality or a region. A pocket in the hills filled with dead air or a wind-swept highland would be unsatisfactory extremes; for, in the first case, fungi, especially the dreaded brown-rot, would take too great toll, and, in the second, blossoms would be blasted or foliage frazzled and the fruit whipped. The harsh, drying winds of winter, too, would be disastrous to Sweet Cherry culture and if extreme, as on the Great Plains, wood and buds of Sour Cherries would suffer. Artificial wind-breaks have not been found profitable in the hilly and wooded East, entailing too many disadvantages, but if cherries be planted at all in the prairies of the Middle West, some protection from the winds must usually be provided. The two species from which cultivated cherries come grow with proper vigor in quite different soils. The Sour Cherry and most of its hybrid offspring, the Dukes, may be made to grow in almost any arable soil, but the Sweet Cherry is fastidious--to be pleased only by particular soils. Sour Cherry orchards in New York most excel on strong, even-tempered, loamy soils, naturally or artificially well drained yet retentive of moisture. There is possibly a shade of difference in favor of clay loams and some thriving plantations may be found on stiff clays having good depth and good drainage. Wet, sticky clays underlaid with a cold, clammy subsoil--a combination all too common in Central New York--furnish conditions which defy the best of care and culture. Sweet Cherry orchards are found excelling on lighter, and less fertile soils than those we have described for the grosser feeding Sours. Growers of Sweet Cherries conceive a perfect soil for this fruit to be a naturally dry, warm, deep, free-working, gravelly or sandy loam. If the soil is not naturally dry, it must be made so by artificial drainage, for this fruit is most impatient of too much moisture or a root-run restricted by water. In Sweet Cherry soils, as will be surmised, it is difficult to supply humus yet this must be done either by cover crops or by manure to make the soil sufficiently retentive of moisture. Sweet Cherries can be grown on other soils than those under discussion but, for a large, firm, finely finished product for the markets, only the soils described are suitable. The conditions of soil and climate, as we have briefly defined them, that favor cherry culture are to be found in several parts of New York. Briefly we may name and describe the cherry regions of the State as follows: The undulating, maritime plains of Long Island, covered with a thick deposit of sand, are very well adapted to cherries where the soil is rich enough to come under the plow. The genial climate, with its rather heavy rainfall, is precisely that in which the cherry thrives, the region falling short in the poorness of the soil--a fault easily remedied, where there is good bottom, by manuring. Despite the fact that occasional trees and plantations show that this fruit thrives on Long Island the cherry is not much grown here, the industry needing some leader to show the way. The valley of the Hudson from where the river leaves the mountains on the north to its entrance into the highlands of its lower stretch is admirably adapted to cherry-growing, both climate and soil meeting the requirements of this fruit. In parts of the valley the industry has been developed, Columbia County taking first place among the counties of the State, with its 78,526 trees in 1909. The product of this region goes chiefly to the great city market near at hand. Unfortunately the standard of cultivation is low in the Hudson Valley and the handling and marketing of the crop is also on a lower level than westward in the State. The cherry harvest is earlier here than elsewhere in New York, if we except the small crop of Long Island, an advantage, for prices usually fall rather than stiffen as the season advances. The great basin in which lie the Central Lakes of New York is far famed for its Sour Cherry industry, the product going largely to canneries. Some Sweet Cherries are grown--more and more are being planted--about these lakes; but the rich, heavy soils which mostly prevail hereabouts are more fit for varieties of the Sour Cherry; though the equable climate makes almost certain the Sweet Cherry crop on soils suited to its culture. Here, as elsewhere in the State, the acreage at this writing is greatly on the increase though it is doubtful if the advance will much longer weather the present depression in prices. All through this region, as in that to the north, the Sweet Cherry grows wild, thriving like the Biblical bay--seemingly a sheer gift of the soil and, like other gifts, generally neglected. The high plain along the shore of Lake Ontario from the St. Lawrence River to the Niagara River, extending from the lake on the north from ten to fifteen miles inland, is the region of greatest possibilities for the cherry in New York. The climate of this great stretch of territory is nearly perfect for this fruit and the soils are sufficiently diversified to furnish a suitable habitat for any of the many varieties of either Sweet or Sour cherries. In the past there have been so many ups and downs in the cherry industry that fruit-growers in this favored belt have given more attention to other fruits but for the last decade, until the recent downward turn in the cherry market, the plantings have been greatly increased, both Sweet and Sour cherries finding favor. Not unlike the Ontario shore in climate, but quite unlike it in its soils, is the shore of Lake Erie, the most westward topographical division of New York in which cherries are grown. The mainstay of this region is the grape, but, in seeking for a more diversified agriculture, Sour Cherry culture was introduced some twenty years ago and has become a thriving industry with prospects of continued growth. Here, as is so often the case in agriculture, credit must be given to some one leader for the development of a crop and the cherry orchards that dot the landscape for miles about the home of the late John Spencer speak eloquently of his leadership in this region. A necessary accompaniment to a discussion of climate is a statement of the dates of blooming of the various sorts of cherries; for often, through selection with reference to this life event of the plant, injurious climatal influences may be escaped at blooming-time. In the accompanying table averages of the blooming dates of varieties of cherries for the years just past, 1912 to 1914, are given. In making use of these dates, consideration must be given to the environment of the orchards at Geneva. The latitude of the Smith Astronomical Observatory, a quarter of a mile from the Station orchards, is 42° 52' 46.2"; the altitude of the orchards is from five hundred to five hundred and twenty-five feet above the sea level. The soil is a stiff and rather cold clay; the orchards lie about a mile west of Seneca Lake, a body of water forty miles in length and from one to three and one-half miles in width and more than six hundred feet deep. The lake has frozen over but a few times since the region was settled, over a hundred years ago, and has a very beneficial influence on the adjacent country in lessening the cold of winter and the heat of summer and in preventing early blooming. The dates are those of full bloom. They were taken from trees grown under normal conditions as to pruning, distance apart, and as to all other factors which might influence the blooming period. An inspection of the table shows that there is a variation of several days between the time of full bloom of the different varieties of the same species. These differences can be utilized in selecting sorts to avoid injury from frost. TABLE SHOWING BLOOMING DATES AND SEASON OF RIPENING ------------------+--------------------------------------+----------------- | Blooming date | Season of +--------------------------------------+ ripening | May | +--------------------------------------+-----+------+---- | | |Mid- | |4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18|Early|season|Late ------------------+--------------------------------------+-----+------+---- _P. avium_ | | | | Bing | * | | * | Black Tartarian | * | | * | California | | | | Advance | * | * | | Centennial | * | | | * Cleveland | * | | * | Coe | * | * | | Dikeman | * | | | * Downer | * | | * | Eagle | * | | * | Early Purple |* | * | | Elkhorn | * | | * | Elton | * | | * | Florence | * | * | | _P. avium_ | | | | Ida | * | * | | Kirtland | * | | * | Knight | * | * | | Lamaurie | * | * | | Lambert | * | | * | Lyons | * | | * | Mercer | * | | * | Mezel | * | | * | Napoleon | * | | | * Republican | * | | | * Rockport | * | | * | Schmidt | * | | * | Sparhawk | * | | * | Stuart | * | | | * Windsor | * | | | * Wood | * | * | | Yellow Spanish | * | | | * | | | | _P. cerasus_ | | | | Bourgueil | * | | | * Brusseler Braune | * | | | * Carnation | * | | * | Dyehouse | * | | * | Early Morello | * | | * | Early Richmond | * | | * | English Morello | * | | | * George Glass | * | | * | Heart-Shaped | | | | Weichsel | * | | * | King Amarelle | * | | * | Large Montmorency| * | | * | Louis Philippe | * | | * | Magnifique | *| | | * Montmorency | * | | * | Olivet | * | | * | Ostheim | * | | | * Sklanka | * | | * | Späte Amarelle | * | | | * Suda | * | | | * Timme | * | | * | Vladimir | * | | | * | | | | _P. avium_ × | | | | _P. cerasus_ | | | | Abbesse d'Oignies| * | | * | Double Natte | * | | * | Empress Eugenie | * | | * | Late Duke | * | | | * May Duke | * | | * | Nouvelle Royale | * | | * | Reine Hortense | * | | * | Royal Duke | * | | * | ------------------+--------------------------------------+-----+------+---- THE POLLINATION OF CHERRIES We cannot complain in New York of much uncertainty in the setting of the cherry crop. Late spring frosts occasionally catch the blossoms of Sweet varieties but seldom those of the Sour sorts. Cold weather, especially if accompanied by wet weather, not unfrequently cuts short the cherry crop by preventing proper setting. There is, however, no general complaint of poor crops through self-sterility. In fact from the behavior of perfectly isolated trees in all parts of the State it would be premised that the cherry is most nearly self-fertile of all tree-fruits. Yet there may be orchards or seasons in which cross-pollination cuts a figure, for Gardner[54], of the Oregon Station, found in experiments carried on by him in various parts of Oregon that many varieties of Sweet Cherries in the Pacific Coast environment are self-sterile. The work seems to have been very carefully done and the conclusions are worth reprinting in full, bearing in mind that they would be much modified under New York conditions. Gardener found: "1. All the varieties of the Sweet Cherry tested are self-sterile. This self-sterility is in no case due to a lack of germinability of the pollen produced. On the other hand, the pollen of each of the varieties studied is capable of producing a set of fruit on the variety or varieties with which it is inter-fertile. The list includes Bing, Black Republican, Black Tartarian, Coe, Early Purple, Elton, Knight, Lambert, Major Francis, May Duke, Napoleon, Rockport, Waterhouse, Willamette, Windsor, Wood. "2. Certain of these varieties--Bing, Lambert, and Napoleon are mentioned especially--are inter-sterile. Mixed plantings of these three varieties cannot be expected to set fruit unless the trees are within the range of influence of some other variety or varieties that are inter-fertile with them. "3. Among those studied, Black Republican, Black Tartarian, and Waterhouse seem to be the most efficient pollenizers for this group of varieties. "4. Other good pollenizers that may be mentioned are: Elton, Wood, Coe, Major Francis, Early Purple. These, however, proved somewhat variable in their pollenizing abilities. "5. _Some_ of the seedling trees found in and about cherry orchards are efficient pollenizers for the three varieties--Bing, Lambert, Napoleon. Probably _many_ of these seedling trees are efficient pollenizers, though the value of any particular seedling can be determined only by experiment or very careful observation. "6. At least some members of the Duke group of cherries are capable of pollinating some of the Bigarreaus. "7. At least some of the varieties of the Sour Cherry (P. cerasus) are capable of pollinating some of the Bigarreaus. "8. Inter-sterility of Sweet Cherry varieties is apparently not correlated with their closeness of relationship. "9. The ability of a variety of cherry to set fruit is not entirely dependent upon the kind of pollen available. Environmental factors are important." It is doubtful if New York cherry-growers will need to pay much attention to cross-pollination but, in case cherry trees are not setting full crops, and for no other apparent reason, the fertility of the blossoms may well receive attention. Should varieties be found self-sterile, sorts must be chosen which come into blossom at the same time, in which case the preceding table shows the sorts which bloom together or nearly enough so to make cross-pollination possible. [54] Gardner, V. R. Pollination of the Sweet Cherry, _Ore. Sta. Bul_. =116=:36. 1913 CHERRY ORCHARDS AND THEIR CARE It is patent to the eye of every passer-by that cherry trees are commonly set too thickly in most of the orchards in New York. While close planting is a universal fault, the amount of room differs greatly in different cherry centers, depending mostly upon the custom in the community, though, as all confess, it should depend upon the variety and the soil. The very erroneous notion seems to have prevailed in setting the plantations now reaching maturity that a large return could be skimmed from a small area by close setting, Sour Cherries often being put only twelve feet apart each way and Sweet Cherries, considering their great size, even closer, at sixteen feet. Experienced growers now put such dwarf kinds as the Morellos at from sixteen to eighteen, the Montmorencies and their kind at eighteen to twenty-two; and the large growing Sweet Cherries at from twenty-four to thirty feet. Cherries are usually planted two years from the bud. Spring is the season for setting, though the hardy Sour sorts might often be set advantageously in late autumn. The losses at setting time are greater with the cherry than with any other fruit, old hands in fruit-growing losing trees as well as beginners. An experiment at the Station shows that these losses are greatly mitigated by a change in the usual method of transplanting. The custom is to shorten-in all branches of transplanted fruit-trees but this, with the cherry in particular, removes the largest and presumably the best nourished buds--certainly those from which would soonest develop the leaves so necessary to sustain the breath of life in the young plant and to give it a start. In the experiment at this Station it was found that, if the top of the young tree was reduced by thinning the branches instead of cutting all back, a much larger proportion of the trees would strike root and live through our parching summers. Cherry trees in the past have been headed three or four feet above the ground but in new plantations they are now usually started lower--at half of the above distances. Two forms of top are in vogue, the spire-shape and the vase-shape. Sour Cherries are almost universally grown with closed centers but some growers prefer the form of the vase for Sweet varieties, though the majority hold to trees with central trunks and many subsidiary branches. Little pruning is done in cherry orchards after the first two or three years, by which time the sapling has been shaped. Subsequent pruning consists in removing dead, injured or crowded branches and an occasional superfluous one. Heading-in finds little favor with experienced growers. These few statements indicate that the cherry, as now grown, is pruned but little, and that that little must be done very carefully, the pruning knife in the hands of a careless man being, with this fruit, "a sword in the hands of a child." The general tuning-up in the cultivation of fruits during the past quarter-century has had its influence on cherry culture. Commercial orchards are no longer kept in sod and the clean, purposeful cultivation that has taken the place of grass has doubled the output of cherries, tree for tree, throughout the State, the difference in yield being especially noticeable in seasons when drought lies heavy on the land. Cultivation, as practiced by the best growers, consists of plowing the land in the spring and then frequently stirring the soil until the first of August, at which time a cover-crop is sown. If the soil is light, and therefore hungry and thirsty, the plowing should be done early and the cultivator kept constantly at work until cherry-picking. Cherry orchards often, without apparent cause, have an indefinable air of malaise--look dingy and unhappy--such require almost week-to-week cultivation to tide them over their period of indisposition. Grain, as well as grass, is discountenanced in cherry orchards, but cultivated truck and farm crops in young plantations, or, under some conditions, small fruits, are looked upon as permissible and often pay for the keep of the young trees until they come into profitable bearing. Cover-crops are in common vogue in cherry orchards in New York and, since with this fruit they can be sown earlier in the season, are used to better advantage than in other orchards to furnish a full supply of humus and to provide nitrogen. Brown-rot, an annual scourge in most cherry orchards, takes less toll from trees cultivated and cover-cropped, these operations covering the mummied fruits and keeping the spores they carry from coming to light and life. Cherry growers as a rule are not now using fertilizers for their crops. It would seem that this is not doing duty by the land; but it must be remembered that the cherry grows vigorously and that over-feeding may stimulate the growth too much, laying the orchard open not only to unfruitfulness but to winter injury of bud and tree. Among those who use fertilizers there is little accord as to what fertilizing compounds are best or as to what the results have been. There is common agreement, however, that Sour Cherries respond more generally to fertilizers than the Sweet sorts. Until there are carefully carried out fertilizer experiments with this fruit the vexatious problems of fertilization cannot be solved. Nitrate of soda seems to be a great rejuvenator in orchards laid down to grass. Whatever the cause, when leaves lack color and hang limp, this fertilizer is a sovereign tonic. Heavy dressings of stable manure are much used in grassed-over orchards, as they are, also, in such as have had none or but scant crops. THE COMMERCIAL STATUS OF CHERRY-GROWING IN NEW YORK Cherry growing is a specialist's business in which, under the best of conditions, there are more ups and downs than with other fruits. Because of the great profits that have come to a few in the years just past many growers have been drawn into the business in a small way or have planted an acreage beyond their means to manage. The inevitable depression that follows over-planting is, at this writing, at hand and spells ruin to some and disgust and discouragement in the industry to others. Perhaps no fruit can better be left to men of reserve capital than the cherry, and even with men of substance cherry-growing should largely be incidental to the culture of other fruits--an industry to fit in to keep land, labor and machinery employed. Cherry trees begin to bear in the climate of New York when set from three to five years. The varieties of _Prunus cerasus_ first produce profitable crops but, at from six to eight years from setting, both Sweet and Sour sorts are in full swing as money-making crops. The limits of profitable age are not set by the life of the tree but, rather, by its size. Thus, cherry trees of either of the species commonly cultivated are not infrequently centenarians but the profitable age of an orchard is not often more than from thirty to forty years. After this time the trees become large and the expense of caring for them and of picking the fruit becomes so great as to prevent profits. Moreover, disease, injuries and inevitable accidents will have thinned the ranks of trees until the orchard is below profit-making. Cherry-picking begins in New York about the first of July, following the rush in harvesting strawberries, and lasts, if the orchard contains both Sweet and Sour varieties, from four to six weeks. Workers may in this way fill in a gap between small-fruits and other tree-fruits and the crop becomes one in which the grower may often take small profits to keep his help employed; though, in the long run, if the more or less frequent depressions can be weathered, the cherry may prove as profitable as other fruits. The problem of labor is a most vexatious one under present conditions, it being impossible to obtain casual men laborers for cherry-picking and women and children are unsatisfactory, since the fruit must be carefully picked or both cherries and trees suffer. The problem is solved, unsatisfactorily in most cases, in various ways by different growers. Most of the crop is now picked by children in the teens under the eyes of men or women supervisors. In picking for the market the stem is left on and only the stem is touched by the fingers. Cherries for canning factories are less laboriously picked. The picking package is usually an eight-pound basket. The rate paid is one cent per pound. Pickers earn $1.50 to $2.00 per day in good seasons. Close watch is kept on pickers to prevent the breaking off of fruit-spurs, thereby destroying the succeeding year's crop, varieties fruiting in clusters suffering especially from carelessness in this respect. Cherries are picked a few days before full ripeness. Cherries are sent to canneries in various packages but chiefly in half-bushel baskets or paper-lined bushel crates, the container being often supplied by the cannery. The six- and eight-pound baskets are the favored receptacles for Sour Cherries in city markets but the Sweet sorts are rather oftener sent in four-pound baskets and still more frequently in quart boxes. In the larger packages not much effort is made to make the fruit attractive but in the smaller ones, stemless and bruised cherries are thrown out and the package filled, stem down, with the best fruits. In fancy grades all of the fruit in the box is layered. The demands of the market, of course, determine the package and the manner of packing. Cherries are seldom stored longer than a few days at most in common storage and a week or two weeks in cold storage. There is a marked difference in the shipping and keeping qualities of varieties of cherries, the sorts that keep longest and ship best, quite at the expense of quality, having the call of the markets. Undoubtedly this must remain so, though it is to be desired that local markets, at least, be supplied with the best, irrespective of handling qualities. A further factor that prevents the placing of choicely good cherries in distant markets at all times is brown-rot, to be discussed later, which more often attacks the juicy and usually the best-flavored varieties, oftentimes ruining the pack on the way to market--one of the most discouraging events incidental to cherry-growing. Marketing machinery for cherries is at present very costly, inadequate and frequently sadly out of gear. The fruit passes first from the grower to a local buyer who ships to a center of consumption, transportation companies taking heavy toll on the way. Jobbers or commission companies, who in some cases receive the fruit direct from the grower, then distribute the crop to retailers in the consuming centers. Lastly, the retailer parcels out the quantities and the qualities demanded by the housewife. The whole business of selling the crop is speculative and the grower is fortunate to receive half of what the consumer pays and not infrequently has all of his pains for nothing or may even be forced to dip into his pocket for transportation. The perishableness of the product and the present defects of distribution go far to make the crop the hazardous one it is but all look forward to better times coming under an improved system of marketing. Up to the present, it must be said, but little effort has been made in New York to ship far and to develop a trade in cherries other than at the canneries. The canners have until the last year or two taken the cream of the crop but with recent greatly increased plantings are now over-supplied. The average grower, possessing a mixture of mental inertia and business caution, has not sought other sources for the surplus fruit. Bolder and more energetic spirits are now developing new markets and opening up those to which other tree-fruits more generally go so that the present over-production may prove a blessing in disguise. The greatly increased demand, for Sour Cherries in particular, brought about by the development of markets in 1913-14, are most hopeful signs for the future of the cherry industry. CHERRY DISEASES Cherries, without preventive or remedial intervention, are at the mercy of two or three fungus diseases and sometimes several others are virulent, depending upon locality, season, weather and variety. One of these diseases, brown-rot, in spite of the great advances in plant pathology of recent years, is almost beyond the control of preventive or remedial measures. Happily, all the others yield better to treatment. Brown-rot[55] (_Sclerotinia fructigena_ (Persoon) Schroeter), sometimes known as fruit-mold or ripe-rot, very frequently attacks flowers and shoots but is most conspicuous on the ripe or ripening cherries where its presence is quickly detected by a dark discoloration of the skin which is afterwards partly or wholly covered with pustule-like aggregations of gray spores. The decayed fruits usually fall to the ground but sometimes hang to the tree, becoming shriveled mummies, each mummy being a storehouse of fungus threads and spores from which infestation spreads to the next crop. The disease, in some seasons, like a withering blight, attacks twigs, flowers and leaves early in the spring doing great damage to the young growth and often wholly preventing the setting of fruit. The rot spreads with surprising rapidity on the fruits in warm, damp weather either before the fruit is picked or in baskets while being shipped or stored. Preventive remedies have so far met with but indifferent success; probably the best method of control is to destroy the mummy-like fruits and all other sources of infection either by picking them from the trees, or much better by plowing them under deeply. Varieties of cherries show various degrees of susceptibility to brown-rot. All Sweet Cherries are more subject to the disease than the Sour sorts. But with either of the two species there are great variations in the susceptibility of the varietal hosts--a matter specially noted in a later chapter in the discussion of varieties. Another serious disease of the cherry, and probably the most striking one in appearance, is the black-knot[56] (_Plowrightia morbosa_ (Schweinitz) Saccardo), characterized by wart-like excrescences on shoots and branches. Black-knot looks more like the work of an insect than a fungus and was long supposed to be such even by those who were studying the trouble. The knots begin to form early in the summer and are of characteristic color and texture--dark green, soft and velvety, but in the fall, as the fungus ripens, the color changes to coal-black and the knots become hard and more or less brittle. The excrescences usually form on one side of a twig or branch so that death seldom follows quickly. The disease attacks both wild and cultivated plants in every part of this continent where cherries are grown but is epidemic only in the East, the cherry regions of the West being practically free from the disease. Up to the present time the fungus has not been found elsewhere than in America. Happily, black-knot may be controlled by cutting out the diseased wood. To completely eradicate the fungus, if it is especially virulent, however, the orchard must be gone over several times during a season. In New York the removal of black-knot is ordered by law, the results showing that when the law is obeyed, especially if there be hearty co-operation among growers, eradication is usually possible. Sweet Cherries are much less attacked by black-knot than the Sour sorts but the differences in immunity between varieties in either of the two species are not very marked--at least such is the case on the grounds of this Station where the disease is always present and is often very prevalent. _Exoascus cerasi_ Fuckel[57] is the cause of a very striking deformity of the cherry in Europe, both _Prunus avium_ and _Prunus cerasus_ being attacked. The disease has been reported in America but has not yet become virulent. The fungus attacks the branches, causing a clustering of the twigs in the form of a broom, giving it the name witches' broom. The leaves on the diseased twigs usually take on a crinkled shape and a reddish color. The malady may be readily prevented by the destruction of affected branches. In common with other species of Prunus the foliage of cherries is attacked by several fungi which produce diseased spots on the leaves, the dead areas usually dropping out leaving holes as if punctured by shot. Thus we have "shot-hole fungus," "leaf-spot" and "leaf-blight" as effects of these diseases. Three fungi are in the main responsible for these leaf troubles; these are _Cylindrosporium padi_ Karsten,[58] _Mycosphærella cerasella_ Aderhold[59] and _Cercospora circumscissa_[60] Saccardo. The ravages of these fungi are prevented by the proper use of bordeaux mixture and lime and sulphur, remedies which, however, must be used with some care to avoid spray injury. With these, as with other fungi, cultivation has a salutary effect as it destroys diseased leaves which harbor the fungi during their resting period. Cherry leaves are often covered with a grayish powder which in severe cases causes them to curl and crinkle and sometimes to drop. This powdery substance consists of the spore-bearing organs of a mildew[61] (_Podosphæra oxyacanthæ_ De Bary). Powdery mildew is much more common on nursery stock than on fruiting trees and in New York is a serious pest on young cherry trees. In the nursery, injury may be prevented by the use of copper sprays or lime and sulphur, either of which is also an efficient preventive in the orchard but the mildew is seldom prevalent enough on orchard plants to require treatment. Wherever cherries are grown in either the nursery or orchard, crown gall[62] (_Bacterium tumefaciens_ Smith and Townsend) has obtained a footing. In the North at least, it seldom greatly injures old trees, but if the galls girdle a nursery plant serious injury results. Therefore, badly infected young trees showing galls should not be planted. However, but little harm is liable to result under most conditions. When infected plants have been planted it has been found that galls vary greatly in duration, sometimes disappearing within a year or two and at other times persisting indefinitely. The tumor-like structures are usually at the collar of the plant and vary from the size of a pea to that of a man's fist, forming at maturity rough, knotty, dark-colored masses. Neither prevention nor cure has been discovered, though it is known that soils may be inoculated with the disease from infected stock and that, therefore, diseased trees should not be planted in soils virgin to the galls. It is probable that there are differences in the susceptibility of Sweet and Sour cherries to the fungus and that the varieties of the two species vary in their resistance but as yet no one seems to have reported on the differences in susceptibility of cherries to the disease. The leaf-rust[63] (_Puccinia pruni-spinosæ_ Persoon) of stone-fruits, occurring rarely on the fruit, sometimes attacks cultivated cherries and is a rather common disease of the wild _Prunus serotina_. This rust is troublesome only, however, in warm, moist climates. It is most apparent in the fall and is easily recognized through its numerous rust-colored sori on the underside of the leaves. Defoliation takes place in severe infestations. Either bordeaux mixture or lime and sulphur may be used as a preventive. Old cherry trees are often attacked by a fleshy fungus or "toadstool"[64] (_Polyporus sulphureus_ (Bulliard) Fries). This fungus is said to be world-wide in its distribution and to occur upon a large variety of trees. It is very striking in appearance, the clusters appearing during late summer or early autumn in large, shelving branches, the sporophores fleshy and of cheese-like consistency when young but becoming hard and woody with age. At first the "toadstools" are all yellow but later only the under surfaces are yellow while the upper surface is orange-red. The plants are more or less odoriferous, the odor increasing with age. Happily, the fungus is not very virulent but is often the cause of decay in the tree-trunk--the brown-rot of the wood of this and other orchard and forest plants. In localities where the fungus thrives it may usually be controlled by covering all wounds with tar or other antiseptic materials. At least two other fleshy fungi have been found injuring cherries. These are _Clitocybe parasitica_ Wilcox[65] and _Armillaria mellea_ Vahl.,[66] the latter the honey agaric, more or less abundant in both Europe and America. Both are associated with and are probably a cause of the root-rot of the cherry and other orchard fruits. Neither is a common enough pest in this country, however, to receive extensive description in texts on diseases of plants. Control measures are different in localities where fungi occur, consisting in the main of getting rid of stumps and roots in orchard lands and planting to field crops before using for orchard purposes. Infected trees should be removed or isolated by trenching about them. All stone-fruits suffer more or less from an excessive flow of gum. The name gummosis[67] is generally applied to these troubles. Gumming is much more prevalent in the far West than in the East but is to be found wherever stone-fruits are grown. This excessive gumming is a secondary effect of injuries caused by fungi, bacteria, insects, frost, sunscald, and mechanical agencies. There is a good deal of difference in the susceptibilities of varieties and species to this trouble, the Sweet Cherry suffering much more than the Sour sorts and varieties of other species having hard wood suffering less than those having softer wood. There is less gummosis, too, on trees in soils favoring the maturity of wood; under conditions where sun and frost are not injurious; and, obviously, in orchards where by good care the primary causes of the diseases are kept out. A number of diseases of the trunk arise from mechanical injuries from wind, sun, frost and hail. Few, indeed, are the fruit-growers whose trees are not occasionally damaged in one way or another in the vicissitudes of a trying climate. Very often these mechanical injuries are followed by fungal parasites or insects so as to make it difficult to distinguish the primary from the secondary trouble. There is a wide difference in the susceptibility of _Prunus avium_ and _Prunus cerasus_ to such injuries, the Sweet Cherry, with its softer wood, being much more easily injured by any and all stresses of weather than the Sour Cherry. In the main the elements cannot be combated but low heading of the trees is a preventive from sunscald, at least, and sometimes may have a favorable effect in preventing wind and frost injuries. [55] Smith, E. F. Peach Rot and Peach Blight, _Journ. Myc._ =5=:123-134. 1889. Quaintance, A. L. The Brown Rot, etc., _Ga. Sta. Bul._ =50=:237-269, figs. 1-9. 1900. [56] Farlow, W. G. The Black Knot, _Bulletin Bussey Institution_ 440-453. 1876. Halsted, B. D. Destroy the Black Knot, etc., _N. J. Sta. Bul._ =78=:1-14. 1891. [57] Duggar, B. M. _Fungous Diseases of Plants_ 185, fig. 68. 1909. [58] Higgins, B. B. Contributions to the Life History and Physiology of Cylindrosporium on Stone Fruits, _Am. Jour. Bot._ =1=:145-173. 1914. [59] Aderhold, R. Mycosphaerella cerasella n. spec., die Perithecienform von Cercospora cerasella Sacc. und ihre Entwicklung, _Ber. d. deut. bot. Ges._ =18=:246-249. 1900. [60] Duggar, B. M. _Fungous Diseases of Plants_ 314. 1909. Pierce, N. B. A Disease of Almond Trees, _Jour. Myc._ =7=:66-67, Pls. 11-14. 1892. [61] Duggar, B. M. _Fungous Diseases of Plants_ 226. 1909. [62] Smith, E. F. and Townsend, C. O. A Plant Tumor of Bacterial Origin, _Science_ =25=:671-673. 1907. Toumey, J. W. Cause and Nature of Crown Gall, _Ariz. Sta. Bul._ =33=:1-64, figs. 1-31. 1900. Hedgcock, G. C. Crown Gall, etc., _U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Pl. Ind. Bul._ =90=:15-17, Pls. 3-5. 1906. [63] Scribner, F. L. Leaf Rust of the Cherry, etc., _U. S. Dept. Agr. Rpt._ 353-355, Pl. 3. 1887. [64] Atkinson, Geo. F. Studies of Some Shade Tree and Timber Destroying Fungi, _Cor. Agl. Exp. Sta. Bul._ =193=:208-214. 1901. Schrenk, H. von. Div. Veg. Phys. and Path., _U. S. Dept. Agl._ =25=:40-52, Pls. 11 (in part), 13. 1900. [65] Wilcox, E. M. A Rhizomorphic Root-Rot of Fruit Trees, _Okla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul._ =49=:1-32, Pls. 1-11. 1901. [66] Duggar, B. M. _Fungous Diseases of Plants_ 473. 1909. [67] Hedrick, U. P. Gumming of the Prune Tree, _Ore. Sta. Bul._ =45=:68-72. 1897. CHERRY INSECTS Insects troubling cherries are numerous but hardly as destructive as with other tree-fruits. Entomologists list about 40 species of insects attacking cherries and about as many more occasionally attack the varieties of one or the other of the two cultivated species. The majority of these pests came with the tree from its habitat over the sea but several have come from the wild cherries of this continent. Of the pests peculiar to the cherry alone, possibly the cherry fruit maggot[68] (_Rhagoletis cingulata_ Loew) is, the country over, as troublesome as any. The adult insect is a small fly with barred wings which lays eggs under the skin of the cherry in mid-summer. From these eggs small, whitish maggots about one-third of an inch long hatch and eat out a cavity in the ripening fruit. These maggots when full grown pupate in the ground and remain there until the following season. The only effective preventive or remedial measure to take against the pest in large orchards is to spray with a sweetened arsenical, but in small plantations chickens are fairly effective in scratching up and eating the pupating maggots. The cherry fruit maggot is probably responsible for most of the "wormy" cherries in New York but the plum curculio is also a cause of "wormy" fruits and in some seasons is a most formidable pest. This curculio[69] (_Conotrachelus nenuphar_ Herbst) is a rough, grayish snout-beetle somewhat less than a quarter of an inch in length, so familiar an insect as scarcely to need further description. The female beetle pierces the skin of the young cherries and places an egg in the puncture. About this cavity she gouges out a crescent-shaped trench, this cut or sting being a most discouraging sign to the cherry-grower, for he well knows that from the eggs come, within a week or two, white and footless grubs which burrow to the stone and make "wormy fruit." Some of the infested cherries drop but many remain eventually to distract the housewife and those who eat cherries out of hand. Jarring the beetles from the trees, a method employed by plum-growers, is quite too expensive and ineffective for the cherry-grower and poisoning with an arsenate is the only practical means of combating the pest. Rubbish and vegetation offer hiding places for the insects and, therefore, cultivated orchards are freer from curculio than those laid down to grass. There are no curculio-proof cherries but, as with plums, the thin-skinned varieties are damaged most by the insect. The grub of the plum curculio is easily distinguished from the cherry fruit maggot. This "worm" is the larva of a beetle, a true grub, footless and with a brownish, horny head while the cherry fruit maggot, the larva of a two-winged insect, is a true maggot like that which comes from the common house-fly and hardly to be distinguished from the apple maggot. It is important to be able to distinguish in wormy cherries the grub of the curculio from the cherry fruit maggot in order to know and understand the nature of the two enemies in combating them. Another pest of this fruit is the cherry leaf-beetle (_Galerucella cavicollis_ Le Conte) the larvae of which sometimes do much damage to cherry foliage. The adult insect is an oval, reddish beetle about one-fourth of an inch long with black legs and antennae. Both the adult and the larvae feed on the leaves and do much damage if abundant. Usually there are two broods, the insect pupating in the ground. Fortunately the pest is easily controlled with the arsenical sprays. The cherry scale (_Aspidiotus forbesi_ Johnson) is commonly found on this fruit and occasionally on others as well. To the unaided eye it is very similar to the well-known San José scale, differing chiefly in being lighter in color. The remedy is the same as for the San José scale, which we next discuss. The dreaded San José scale[70] (_Aspidiotus perniciosus_ Comstock) is rather less harmful to cherries than to other tree-fruits and yet is sometimes a serious pest on Sweet Cherries. Sour Cherries are almost immune. The insect is now so well known in all fruit-growing regions that it needs no description. It is usually first recognized by its work, evidence of its presence being dead or dying twigs--oftentimes the whole tree is moribund. Examination shows the twigs or trees to be covered with myriads of minute scales, the size of a small pin-head, which give the infested bark a scurfy, ashy look. If the bark be cut or scraped a reddish discoloration is found. Leaves and fruit as well as bark are infested, the insidious pest, however, usually first gaining a foothold on the trunks or a large branch. Cherry-growers, in common with all fruit-growers, find the lime and sulphur solution the most effective spray in combating this insect. Several other scale insects feed on the cherries and, now and then, become pestiferous; among these the following may be named: The European fruit lecanium[71] (_Lecanium corni_ Bouché) occasionally does a great deal of damage in New York and now and then destroys the whole crop in an orchard. The winter treatment for San José scale is used to control this pest, but usually such treatment is supplemented by a summer spray about July first with such contact sprays as whale oil soap and kerosene emulsion. The fruit pulvinaria (_Pulvinaria amygdali_ Cockerell), the mealy bug (_Pseudococcus longispinus_ Targioni), the scurfy scale (_Chionaspis furfura_ Fitch), the West Indian peach scale (_Aulacaspis pentagona_ Targioni), the Putnam scale (_Aspidiotus ancylus_ Putnam), the walnut scale (_Aspidiotus juglans-regiæ_ Comstock), Howard's scale (_Aspidiotus howardii_ Cockerell), the European fruit scale (_Aspidiotus ostreæformis_ Curtis), the red scale of California (_Chrysomphalus aurantii_ Maskell), the oyster-shell scale (_Lepidosaphes ulmi_ Linnaeus), and the soft scale (_Coccus hesperidum_ Linnaeus), are all more or less common. Several borers occasionally infest cherry trees of which the peach borer[72] (_Sanninoidea exitiosa_ Say.) is the most troublesome. Larvae of the peach borer are frequently found in both Sweet and Sour Cherries, more particularly in Sweet Cherries, in eastern orchards. Fortunately this pest is not as rife with the cherry as with peaches and plums. Its work may be prevented by thorough cultivation, by mounding the trees and, according to some, by the use of a covering of tar or of obnoxious or poisonous washes. Usually preventive measures are not effective, however, and the borer must be destroyed--best done by digging it out with a knife and wire. Since the pest is easily discovered through the exudation of gum mixed with sawdust or excreta, close to the surface or just beneath the ground, its presence can be detected in time to prevent its doing much damage. The lesser peach borer[73] (_Sesia pictipes_ Grote & Robinson) often attacks old or weakened cherry trees, working in the growing tissues of the trunk anywhere from the ground to the main branches. The worm is much like the common peach borer, known by all, but is smaller, rarely reaching the length of four-fifths of an inch when full grown. The flat-headed apple tree borer[74] (_Chrysobothris femorata_ Fabricius) is a common pest in wild cherries and sometimes seriously attacks the cultivated species. It is treated as is the peach borer. The shot-hole borer[75] (_Eccoptogaster rugulosus_ Ratzeburg), though seldom injuring healthy trees, is very often a serious menace in old or decrepit cherry trees. It may be looked upon, however, as an effect rather than a cause. The peach bark-beetle[76] (_Phlæotribus liminaris_ Harris) is very similar in its work to the shot-hole borer and like it attacks only diseased and decrepit trees. All cherry-growers are familiar with the small, dark green, slimy slugs which feed on the surface of the leaves of the cherry, possibly more common on the foliage of pears, eating out the soft tissues and leaving but the skeleton of the leaf. If the slugs are numerous the tree may be defoliated or if the leaves remain the foliage looks as if scorched. The adult of this slug is a sawfly (_Caliroa_ (_Eriocampoides_) _cerasi_ Linnaeus) which lays its eggs within the tissue of the leaves. Despite the fact that it is easily destroyed by any of the arsenical sprays or by dusting with lime this slug everywhere does much damage to cherries. Wild cherries suffer severely from the tent caterpillar[77] (_Malacosoma americana_ Fabricius) and occasionally cultivated trees are attacked. The arsenical sprays are fatal to the pest. The spring canker-worm[78] (_Paleacrita vernata_ Peck) and the fall canker-worm[79] (_Alsophila pometaria_ Harris), the white-marked tussock moth (_Hemerocampa leucostigma_ Smith and Abbot), the rusty tussock moth (_Hemerocampa antiqua_ Linnaeus), and the definite-marked tussock moth (_Hemerocampa definita_ Packard) are all occasional cherry pests and all succumb to poisonous sprays. The two now notorious European pests recently introduced into America, gypsy moth (_Porthetria dispar_ Linnaeus) and the browntail moth (_Euproctis chrysorrhæa_ Linnaeus), attack cherry trees in common with other deciduous trees and may often do considerable damage. Sometimes, but not often, the buds of the cherry are attacked by the bud-moth (_Spilonota_ (_Tmetocera_) _ocellana_ Schiffermüller), the caterpillars of which bind the young leaves together as they expand so that small, dead, brown clusters of foliage are to be seen here and there where the pests are at work. Spraying with arsenicals is effective if done just as the buds begin to open. In sandy soils the cherry is sometimes attacked by hordes of the common rose-chafer (_Macrodactylus subspinosus_ Fabricius), leaves, flowers and even the fruit suffering from the pest. It is a difficult insect to control but a spray of arsenate of lead with molasses is fairly effective. It is important to know that the insect does not often breed in ground kept in clean cultivation. [68] Slingerland, M. V. _Bul. Cor. Ag. Ex. Sta._ =172=: 1899. [69] Riley, C. V. _An. Rpt. State Entom. Mo._ =1=:50-56. 1869; =3=:11-29. 1871. [70] Marlatt, C. L. The San José or Chinese Scale, _U. S. D. A. Bur. Ent. Bul._ =62=:1-89. 1906. [71] Lowe, V. H. The New York Plum Lecanium, _N. Y. Sta. Bul._ =136=:583. 1897. [72] Beutenmüller, _W. Sesiidae of America_, etc. 266-271. 1901. [73] _Ibid._ 291-292. 1901. [74] Riley, C. V. _An. Rpt. State Entoml. Mo._ =1=:46-47. 1869. [75] Lowe, V. H. _N. Y. Sta. Bul._ =180=:112-128. 1900. [76] Wilson, W. F. The Peach-tree Bark-beetle, _U. S. D. A. Bur. Ent. Bul._ =68=:91-108. 1909. [77] Lowe, V. H. The Apple-tree Tent Caterpillar, _N. Y. Sta. Bul._ =152=:279-293. 1898. [78] Riley, C. V. _An. Rpt. State Entom. Mo._ =2=:94-103. 1870. [79] _Ibid._ =7=:83-90. 1875. CHAPTER IV LEADING VARIETIES OF CHERRIES ABBESSE D'OIGNIES _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:182. 1866. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:161, 162 fig. 1877. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 276, 277. 1884. =4.= _Mich. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 329. 1888. =5.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:284. 1903. =6.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:62 fig. 1907. =7.= _N. Y. Sta. Bul._ =385=:307, 308, Pl. 1914. Abbesse d'Oignies has so many good characters that it is well worth trying commercially wherever cherries are grown in the United States. Curiously enough, it seems so far to have been tried only in the Middle West, Professor Budd having introduced it in Iowa from Russia in 1883. In the unfavorable soil and climatic conditions of the Mississippi Valley, Abbesse d'Oignies grows as well as any cherry of its class, if we may judge from the accounts of it. We do not know of its having been tried elsewhere in the East than on our grounds and here we find it, in competition with practically all of the varieties of its class, one of the best of the Dukes. At this Station it does so well that we described it, in the reference given, as one of the noteworthy fruits in our collection. The trees are large, vigorous, hardy, fruitful and very free from fungus diseases. The cherries are large, dark red, of most excellent quality, combining the flavor of the Dukes with a firmer and yet tenderer flesh than the Montmorency. The high quality, handsome appearance and good shipping qualities of the fruit, combined with the splendid characters of the tree, ought to make Abbesse d'Oignies a very good commercial variety. This cherry probably originated in Belgium about the middle of the Nineteenth Century. At least it was first listed in Belgian nursery catalogs in 1854. It is now a greater or less favorite wherever cherries are grown in the Old World, Professor Budd having found it, as we have said, in 1883, in Russia and immediately transported it to America. [Illustration: ABBESSE d'OIGNIES] Tree characteristically large and vigorous, upright-spreading, round-topped but with drooping branchlets, hardy, productive; trunk stocky, with shaggy bark; branches thick, smooth, ash-gray over reddish-brown, with many lenticels; branchlets short, with short internodes, brownish, roughened by transverse wrinkles and by numerous conspicuous, small, raised lenticels. Leaves two and one-half inches wide, five and one-half inches long, folded upward, obovate, thick; upper surface glossy, dark green; lower surface light green, slightly pubescent, distinctly ribbed by the larger veins; apex taper-pointed, base acute; margin with small, black glands, coarsely and doubly serrate; petiole one and one-quarter inches long, thick, lightly tinged with red, grooved, with one or two small, globose, reddish-orange glands. Buds rather long, pointed, free, arranged often in elongated clusters at the ends of long spurs; leaf-scars very prominent; season of bloom medium, averaging five days in length; flowers white, one and three-sixteenths inches across; borne in dense clusters at the ends of long spurs or spur-like branches, well distributed, varying from one to three; pedicels one-half inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube reddish, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged red, long, narrow, somewhat acuminate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish-oval, entire, nearly sessile, with a broad, shallow notch at the apex; filaments one-quarter inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit late; three-fourths inch long, seven-eighths inch thick, roundish-oblate, slightly compressed; cavity of medium depth, wide, regular; suture a line; apex roundish, slightly depressed; color dark red; dots numerous, small, light russet, conspicuous; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, adhering to the fruit; skin tough; flesh yellowish-white, with colorless juice, slightly stringy, tender and soft, sprightly subacid; of very good quality; stone free, about three-eighths inch in diameter, roundish, turgid, slightly pointed, with smooth surfaces; ridged along the ventral suture. ARCH DUKE _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 571. 1629. =2.= Rea _Flora_ 205. 1676. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2:=135. 1832. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 189, 190. 1845. =5.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 97, 98. 1846. =6.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:398 fig. 1847. =7.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 203. 1854. =8.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 135. 1867. =9.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 12. 1871. =10.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 278, 279. 1884. _Griotte de Portugal._ =11.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:190, 191, Pl. XIII. 1768. =12.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:297, 298 fig. 1877. _Portugiesischer Griottier Weichselbaum._ =13.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:6, Tab. 16 fig. 1. 1792. _Herzogskirsche._ =14.= Christ _Handb._ 670. 1797. =15.= Christ _Wörterb._ 282. 1802. =16.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 371-376. 1819. _Portugiesische Griotte._ =17.= Christ _Handb._ 674. 1797. _Cerise Royale de Hollande._ =18.= _Ann. Pom. Belge._ =1=:81, Pl. 1853. _Cerise de Portugal._ =19.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:148 fig. 37, 149, 150. 1866. Parkinson, nearly three hundred years ago, thought the Arch Duke "one of the fairest and best of cherries." It is now, however, quite surpassed by several others of the Dukes. The concensus of opinion of those who have known the true fruit of this name is that either May Duke or Late Duke is better. We give it prominence only because of its worthy past and that it may be better distinguished from May Duke with which it is often confused. As compared with the last-named variety it is two weeks later; the tree is more vigorous but not as productive; and the branches are larger, more divergent and more pendulous. The cherries are not as well flavored but are larger and have a shorter stalk. This old English variety was first mentioned by Parkinson in _Paradisus Terrestris_, 1629. For many years previous to the middle of the last century the true Arch Duke cherry was very scarce and was often confused with other varieties, some writers asserting that it was the May Duke; others, the Late Duke. In 1847, however, the true Arch Duke cherry was discovered in the nurseries of Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, having been grown there, according to Mr. Rivers, by his ancestors for nearly a century. It was then found that the fruit was quite unlike that of either May Duke or Late Duke, though the habit of the tree was similar. It is not known when Arch Duke was introduced into America but the American Pomological Society placed it upon its fruit list in 1871. [Illustration: ARCH DUKE] Tree medium in size, vigorous, somewhat upright, hardy, productive; trunk stocky, smooth; branches slender, long, smooth, reddish-brown, marked with considerable scarf-skin, with numerous, rather large lenticels; branchlets of medium length, curved, with short internodes, brown mottled with ash-gray, smooth, glabrous, with few small, slightly raised, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, about two inches wide, three inches long, folded upward, short-oval to obovate, of medium thickness; upper surface dark green; lower surface light green, very slightly pubescent; apex acutely pointed; margin finely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one inch long, tinged with dull red, slender, with one or two, rarely three small, globose, brownish glands at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, conical, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds or in clusters of variable size; leaf-scars rather prominent; season of bloom medium; flowers white, one and one-sixteenth inches across; borne in clusters of twos and threes; pedicels three-fourths inch long, rather slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a faint tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, of medium length and breadth, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, nearly sessile, the apex entire or with a shallow, wide notch; anthers yellowish; filaments three-sixteenths inch long; pistil glabrous, longer than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season; one and one-eighth inches in diameter, obtuse-cordate, slightly compressed, flattened at the extremities; cavity of medium depth, narrow, somewhat obtuse; suture distinct; apex flattened or depressed; color light red becoming dark red or almost black at full maturity; dots numerous, of medium size, russet, rather inconspicuous; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, rather stout at its point of insertion in the fruit, adherent to the fruit; skin moderately thick; flesh light to dark red, firm, crisp, slightly astringent at first, becoming a very pleasant subacid at full maturity, juicy, good to very good in quality; stone semi-clinging, seven-sixteenths inch long, three-eighths inch wide, oval, compressed, with smooth surfaces. BALDWIN _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ =23=:81. 1898. =2.= Kan. Hort. Soc. _Cherry, The_, 15, 16, Pl. 1900. =3.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:63. 1903. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. Baldwin is supposed to have grown from a sprout of a stock on which Early Richmond had been budded on the farm of S. J. Baldwin, Seneca, Kansas. The Early Richmond bud was in some manner broken off and the sprout, springing from the stock, was allowed to grow and first fruited in 1891. On the grounds of this Station Baldwin trees which came fairly direct from the originator turned out to be Olivet. The published descriptions that can be found are so scant and fragmentary that we cannot make out whether the variety is really distinct or, as in the case of our trees, is Olivet renamed. The variety has been rather widely disseminated in the Middle West but has not shown much merit either for home or for commercial orchards in the rather lengthy probationary period it has had in the East. The American Pomological Society added Baldwin to its fruit list in 1909. The description we give is a compilation. Tree vigorous, upright, round-topped; leaves large, broad; flowers white, changing to pink. Fruit ripens early; usually borne in pairs; large, round; stem of medium length, rather thick; color very dark red, yet almost transparent; flavor slightly acid, yet considered one of the sweetest and richest of the Morello class. BAUMANN MAY _Prunus avium_ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 168 fig. 60. 1845. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 279. 1884. _Frühe Maiherzkirsche._ =4.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:1, Tab. 1. 1792. =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 140, 141, 142. 1819. =6.= _Ill. Handb._ 49 fig., 50. 1860. =7.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 348, 349. 1889. _Süsse Maiherzkirsche._ =8.= Christ _Handb._ 662. 1797. _May Bigarreau._ =9.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 234. 1841. =10.= _Mag. Hort._ =7=:288. 1841. =11.= _Cultivator_ N. S. =4=:280 fig. 1. 1847. =12.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =1=:55, 56, Pl. 1851. _Guigne Précoce de Mai._ =13.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:54 fig. 2, 55, 56. 1866. =14.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:51, 52, fig. 26. 1882. _Bigarreau Baumann._ =15.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:176 fig., 177. 1877. _Guigne de Mai._ =16.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 102 fig., 103. 1904. Baumann May is an early Sweet Cherry which at one time held high place among its kind but a century of culture proved that it had little value except for extreme earliness and it is now but sparingly or not at all grown either in America or abroad. If the variety could be obtained it might be worth growing for breeding work because of its earliness and great productiveness. At one time this variety was rather largely grown in central and western New York and specimens of it must yet remain in this region. From the latter part of the Eighteenth Century, when we first find an account of this variety in Kraft's _Pomona Austriaca_, to the last of the Nineteenth, writers have described Baumann May under many different names. From all accounts it originated toward the latter part of the Eighteenth Century, in Germany. From Germany it was introduced into Alsace where F. J. Baumann, a nurseryman at Bollweiler, grew it in his nursery under the name Bigarreau Baumann and disseminated it throughout the French provinces. The cherry was received in America, with several others, by Colonel M. P. Wilder of Boston, Massachusetts, from Messrs. Baumann, about the year 1838. The American Pomological Society listed the variety, in 1862, in its fruit catalog as Bauman's May but dropped it again in 1871. The following description is a compilation: Tree vigorous, somewhat spreading, regular in form, compact, very productive; branches stocky, nearly horizontal but often curved downward; branchlets with short internodes, reddish-brown nearly covered with silver-gray scarf-skin; leaves medium to large, dark green, ovate-oblong, coarsely and deeply serrate; petiole rather short, with two large, reniform glands near the base of the leaf; buds large, ovate; flowers of medium size, opening very early. Fruit matures very early; medium to rather small, ovate-cordate, angular, irregular in outline; color dark red becoming nearly black when fully ripe; stem one and three-quarters inches long, rather thick; flesh purplish-red, with abundant juice, soft and tender, sweet, well flavored; of good quality; stone medium in size, roundish-ovate. BESSARABIAN _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Ia. Agr. Col. Bul._ 53. 1885. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =2=:38. 1888. =3.= _Ibid._ =19=:549. 1892. =4.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ =17=:6. 1892. =5.= _Mich. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 244. 1894. =6.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 39, 40. 1895. =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 17. 1897. =8.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:122, 123 fig. 8, 124. 1900. =9.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:12. 1910. By general consent Bessarabian has a place in home orchards in the colder parts of the Mississippi Valley and the Great Plains. It is very hardy and is said to thrive even under neglect--standing as much abuse as a forest tree. As compared with standard commercial cherries of the East the fruit is distinctly inferior in size and quality, being hardly fit to eat out of hand, and is sour and astringent even when cooked. The trees, though hardy and healthy, are dwarfish and not productive because of the smallness of the cherries. It is an early cherry but the fruit hangs long. The variety is said to root well from cuttings, which, if true, might make it worth while trying as a stock. Bessarabian is a variant of English Morello, the fruit of which sort greatly excels it wherever the trees can be equally well grown. This variety was brought to America from Russia about 1883, by Professor J. L. Budd of Ames, Iowa, who believed it to belong to a race of cherries originally found in central Asia. Tree of medium size, upright, becoming somewhat spreading, compact, healthy, unproductive, very hardy; branches somewhat drooping, long, slender; leaves abundant, medium to small, oval, coarsely serrate, dark green, broad, flat; glands few, usually on the stalk at the base of the leaf. Fruit matures medium early, remaining on the tree a long time in good condition; medium in size, roundish-oblate to cordate, irregular, bright red becoming dark red; stem long, varying from one and three-fourths to two inches in length, slender, curved; skin tender; flesh light to dark red, with abundant colored juice, variable in firmness, sprightly subacid becoming milder when fully ripe; fair in quality; stone variable in size, roundish-oval, semi-clinging. BIGARREAU PÉLISSIER _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 92 fig., 93. 1904. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 30 fig. 1906. _Pélissiers Knorpelkirsche._ =3.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 57. 1907. This variety originated in France as a chance seedling about 1883 and fruited first in 1891. It was introduced a few years later by M. Auguste Pélissier, a nurseryman at Château-Renard, Bouches-du-Rhône, France. Although not yet well established even in France, this cherry is considered promising for market, because of its firm flesh, handsome appearance, high quality and good tree-characters. It is included among the major varieties in _The Cherries of New York_ that the attention of American cherry-growers may be called to it. As yet it seems not to have been tried in this country. The following description is compiled: Tree upright, vigorous, very productive; branches rather long, large, bearing large, oval leaves; flowers large, semi-open; blooming season early. Fruit matures from early June to the last of June; large or very large, obtuse-cordate, slightly depressed at the apex, with a shallow yet distinct suture; stem short, thick; skin rather thick, firm, yellowish almost entirely overspread with vivid red which becomes darker at maturity but often showing streaks of clear red; flesh fine-grained, firm, juicy, red with streaks of white, sweet, aromatic; quality good to very good; stone of medium size, oval, with a pronounced suture. BING _Prunus avium_ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 262, Pl. 4 fig. a. 1892. =2.= _Wash. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 126, 128. 1893. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 24. 1899. =4.= _W. N. Y. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 112. 1900. =5.= _Ibid._ 26. 1904. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 192. 1907. =7.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 187. 1908. =8.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. =9.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:23. 1910. Bing is one of the best of the several very good cherries from the Pacific Northwest. But few Sweet Cherries equal it in size and attractiveness and none surpass it in quality, so that it may be said to be as good as any of the dessert cherries. It is, too, a very good shipping fruit, ranking with the best of the Bigarreaus, to which group it belongs, as a cherry for distant markets. Another quality commending the variety is that it hangs well on the trees and the crop ripens at one time so that the harvest consists of but one picking. While many cherry-growers speak well of the trees, unfortunately we cannot do so from their behavior on the grounds of this Station. They have not been as vigorous, as healthy or as productive as cherry trees should be in a commercial variety of first rank. The cause, however, may be in the location rather than in the variety, for in an orchard but a few miles distant Bing does much better than on these grounds. The variety, though comparatively new, is no longer on probation. It has a niche in the cherry flora of the country, deserving a place in the collection of every amateur by virtue of its splendid fruit. When it is happy in soil and climate, Bing is bound to be one of the leading commercial cherries. Seth Lewelling of Milwaukee, Oregon, the originator of several of our finest cherries, grew Bing from the seed of Republican in 1875. The variety was named after a Chinese workman. In 1899 the American Pomological Society placed the variety on its fruit list. Tree large, vigorous, erect becoming upright-spreading, rather open, productive; trunk and branches thick, smooth; branches brownish with numerous, small lenticels; branchlets thick, long, with long internodes, greenish-brown, smooth, pubescent, with small, raised, conspicuous lenticels. Leaves abundant, large, folded upward, ovate to obovate of medium thickness; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, pubescent; apex abruptly pointed, or acute, base abrupt; margin slightly serrate, glandular; petiole long, pubescent, thickish, tinged red, with from one to three large, reniform, reddish glands on the stalk. Fruit matures in mid-season or later; very large, one inch in diameter, broadly cordate, somewhat compressed, slightly angular; cavity deep, of medium width, abrupt, regular; suture a dark line; apex roundish or slightly depressed; color very dark red, almost black; dots small, russet, inconspicuous; stem variable in thickness, one and one-fourth inches long; skin of medium thickness, tough, adherent to the pulp; flesh purplish-red with dark purple juice, rather coarse, firm, very meaty, brittle, sweet; of very good quality; stone semi-free, large, ovate to oval, blunt, with smooth surfaces. BLACK GUIGNE _Prunus avium_ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:112. 1832. _Scheur-Kers._ =2.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 43. 1771. _Frühe Schwarze Herzkirsche._ =3.= _Christ Wörterb._ 274. 1802. _Guigne Bigaudelle_. =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:113. 1832. _Coburger Maiherzkirsche._ =5.= _Ill. Handb._ 51 fig., 52. 1860. =6.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 377. 1881. =7.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =III=:No. 1, Pl. 1882. _Guigne Noire Commune._ =8.= _Leroy Dict. Pom._ =5=:328, 329 fig., 330. 1877. _Noire Hâtive de Cobourg._ =9.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:123, 124, fig. 62. 1882. There is much confusion in the history of this old cherry. It undoubtedly originated in France and in that part of the country later conquered by the Germans, though Mas, in his _Pomologie Générale_, mentioned it as probably of German origin. In the time of Louis XIII this variety was known as the Guigne Noire Commune and was cultivated quite extensively in France and northern Italy. It was esteemed both for its earliness and its fine quality and was known as Guigne Guindoulle by the peasants of central France and by the Tuscans in Italy as Corbini because of the color of its skin. Black Guigne, Black Heart, and Early Purple, which, while similar in many characters, are entirely distinct, have been badly confused by both French and German writers and it is only with the greatest difficulty that the three can be separated. While this cherry was formerly considered of worth in Continental Europe, it is scarcely recognized there now and was probably never brought to America. The following description is compiled from European fruit-books: [Illustration: BING] Tree very large, round-topped, spreading, irregular in outline, productive; branches long, large, straight, brownish, mottled with gray scarf-skin; internodes long and unequal; leaves large, oval or oblong, acuminate; margin irregularly serrate; petiole long, slender, with large glands; blooming season late; flowers small. Fruit matures the last of June to the middle of July, usually attached in pairs but sometimes in threes; medium to large in size, obtuse-cordate; color bright reddish-black changing to deep purple; suture indistinct; stem slender, inserted in a deep, broad cavity; skin thin, tender; flesh dark purple, with abundant colored juice, half-tender, somewhat stringy, sweet yet sprightly, pleasantly flavored; quality good; stone small, oval. BLACK HAWK _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Horticulturist_ =6=:360, 361 fig. 1851. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 45, 235. 1854. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 190 fig. 1854. =4.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 258, 270, 271. 1857. =5.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 382. 1875. _Épervier Noir._ =6.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:41, 42, fig. 21. 1882. Despite the fact that Black Hawk was lauded by the horticulturists in the middle of the last century as one of the best of all black Sweet Cherries, it is now almost unknown. According to the older pomologists it was unsurpassed for eating out of hand but was only mediocre in all other characters of either fruit or tree. In particular it was surpassed in many ways by the better-known Eagle which fills about the same place in cherry culture. The variety was very popular in southern Ohio about Cincinnati where many trees may still be found and where it is still more or less planted. Possibly because of the excellent quality of the fruit, the amateur might well try a tree or two. The description is compiled. Black Hawk originated with Professor J. P. Kirtland of Cleveland, Ohio, sometime previous to 1845. It is one of the best of the many seedlings fruited by him. The American Pomological Society in 1854 named this sort as one of the promising new fruits and it still remains on the fruit-list of this organization. Tree large, vigorous, spreading, round-topped, resembling Yellow Spanish in habit, productive, healthy; branches stout, smooth, dark reddish-brown, straight; branchlets slender, with short internodes. Leaves large, folded upward, obovate, rather thick; upper surface dark green; lower surface pale green; apex abruptly pointed; margin coarsely and deeply serrate; petiole short, stout, bright red, with two or more orange-red, reniform glands. Buds of medium size, rather short, free; flowers small or medium in size; pedicels long, very slender; calyx-lobes straight, finely serrate, obtuse; petals roundish, broadly and deeply notched at the tip. Fruit matures about the middle of June, a few days later than Black Tartarian; medium to large, obtuse-cordate, surface uneven, sides compressed; cavity deep, broad, abrupt, nearly regular; color glossy, dark purplish-black changing to almost black at complete maturity; stem usually thick but often variable, of medium length; skin thick, adhering to the pulp; flesh purplish-black, tender, with abundant colored juice, aromatic, well flavored, sweet; of very good quality; stone of medium size, with uneven surfaces. BLACK HEART _Prunus avium_ =1.= Rea _Flora_ 205. 1676. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:115. 1832. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 169 fig. 1845. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 195. 1854. =5.= Thompson _Gard. Ass't_ 526. 1859. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. _Guignier à Fruit Noir._ =7.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:158, 159, 160, Pl. 1 fig. 1. 1768. _Frühe Schwarze Herzkirsche._ =8.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 116-119. 1819. =9.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 340, 349. 1889. _Guigne Noire Ancienne._ =10.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:66 fig. 7, 67, 68. 1866. _Bigarreau Noir d'Espagne._ =11.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:223 fig., 224. 1877. Although one of the oldest cherries under cultivation, Black Heart is still largely grown the world over. Prince, in 1832, said that it was more widely cultivated in the United States than any other variety and Downing, in 1845, said Black Heart was then better known than any other cherry in the country. While neither of these two statements would hold for Black Heart now, it having long since passed its heyday of popularity, it is still, because of the fruitfulness of the tree and the high quality and beauty of the fruit, a variety of much merit. Black Heart fails in the commercial fruit growing of nowadays, as compared with the cherry culture of the fruit connoisseurs of a generation ago, because it does not meet market demands, failing to do so through two defects: it does not ship well and when brown-rot is rife it quickly succumbs to this fungus. It is, too, now difficult to obtain the variety true to name, the trees at this Station, as an example, in several attempts, turning out untrue, which forces the use of a compiled description in this text. This cherry was mentioned by John Rea in 1676 but there can be no doubt but that it originated many years previous to this date. Probably it is the cherry mentioned by Robert Dodonée, a naturalist of Malines, Belgium, in 1552. When or by whom it was introduced to America is not known but it was being grown here very early in the Nineteenth Century and ever since has been considered a valuable variety for general planting. Nearly every nurseryman throughout the United States lists Black Heart, a fact attesting its popularity. The American Pomological Society placed Black Heart on its catalog of fruits in 1862, a place which it has since retained. Tree large, very vigorous, tall, wide-spreading, productive; branches stout, brownish, mingled with yellow, mottled with gray scarf-skin; lenticels numerous, small. Leaves very large, oblong, waved, acuminate, nearly flat; upper surface dark green; margin deeply and coarsely serrate; petiole of medium length, lightly tinged with red, with greenish glands. Buds large, oval, pointed; season of bloom early or very early; flowers medium in size; petals roundish, imbricated. Fruit matures early, season long; large, obtuse-cordate, somewhat compressed; cavity broad; suture deep; surface somewhat irregular; color dark purple becoming black; stem one and three-fourths inches long, slender; skin slightly shrivelled; flesh dark red, firm to very firm becoming tender at full maturity, with abundant colored juice, sweet; good in quality; stone large, roundish-ovate; dorsal suture deep. BLACK TARTARIAN _Prunus avium_ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 130-132. 1819. =2.= _Pom. Mag._ =1=:44, Pl. 1828. =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 55. 1831. =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:113, 114. 1832. =5.= _Proc. Nat. Con. Fr. Gr._ 52. 1848. =6.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:21. 1858. =7.= _Ill. Handb._ 61 fig., 62. 1860. =8.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:228, 229 fig., 230. 1877. =9.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 377, 378. 1889. =10.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 37. 1906. _Ronald's Large Black Heart._ =11.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 42, 43. 1803. _Guigne Noire à Gros Fruit._ =12.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 36. 1906. _Tartarian._ =13.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. Black Tartarian is probably the favorite dooryard and roadside Sweet Cherry in New York and ranks second or third among commercial cherries in the State, as it probably does for the whole region east of the Mississippi. It is known by all who grow or eat cherries. The preeminently meritorious characters which give it so high a place in cherry culture are: first, and most important, the elasticity of its constitution whereby it adapts itself to widely different soils and climates; second, the fruitfulness, healthfulness and robustness of the trees which also bear regularly, live to an old age and grow to a prodigious size, oftentimes attaining a diameter of two feet; third, this variety is comparatively free from the worst of cherry diseases, brown-rot; lastly, the cherries, though not as large as some similar sorts, are tempting to the eye through their rotund form and glossy black color and are a delight to the palate, the handsome purplish-red flesh being firm and crisp, yet juicy, with a sweet, rich flavor which all agree gives the quality the rank of "very good to best." It is a virile variety and from it have come several promising seedlings and it is one of the parents of a number of cross-bred cherries. Black Tartarian is earlier than most of the Sweet Cherries with which it must compete--under most conditions a help in marketing. Unfortunately it is a little too soft to handle well in harvesting and marketing or to hold its shape as a canned product. Its small size is also against it for the canner's trade. The several defects noted prevent Black Tartarian from taking first rank in commercial orchards but for the home plantation it is one of the best. Black Tartarian came originally from Russia. It was introduced into England in 1794 from Circassia, by Hugh Ronalds of Brentford, Middlesex, as Ronald's Large Black Heart. Two years later, John Fraser introduced a variety, a native of Crimea, which he purchased in St. Petersburg, as Fraser's Black Tartarian. This turned out to be the same as the cherry from Circassia. Some go farther back and say that Black Tartarian was carried to Russia from Spain, thence to England. It owes its introduction into this country to William Prince of Flushing, Long Island, probably in the early part of the Nineteenth Century. It was recognized in 1848 and placed on the schedule of fruits at the National Convention of Fruit Growers which later became the present American Pomological Society. The variety still retains a place among the recommended cherries but under the name Tartarian. The variety quickly became popular in America, finding a place in every orchard and in the lists of all nurserymen. Some nurserymen claim to have superior strains of the old variety; as, Green's Tartarian and Black Tartarian Improved. Comparisons show no differences. Black Russian, listed by some firms, is probably Black Tartarian as it is used many times as a synonym by foreign writers. [Illustration: BLACK TARTARIAN] Tree characteristically large, vigorous, upright, vasiform, productive; trunk of medium thickness, smooth; branches smooth, reddish-brown, slightly overspread with ash-gray, with large lenticels; branchlets rather long, brown almost entirely overspread with ash-gray, smooth, glabrous, with inconspicuous, slightly raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, five and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, obovate to elliptical, thin; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface light green, slightly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin varies from serrate to crenate; petiole two inches long, thick, tinged with red, with a few hairs, with from one to three reniform, reddish glands of medium size usually on the stalk. Buds pointed or obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds, or in small clusters on spurs of variable length; leaf-scars very prominent; season of bloom medium; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across, borne in scattering well-distributed clusters in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube faintly tinged with red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, long, broad, obtuse, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, with short, blunt claws; anthers yellowish; filaments nearly one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures early; less than one inch in diameter, cordate, compressed; cavity intermediate in depth and width, flaring; suture indistinct; apex pointed and slightly depressed; color purplish-black; dots numerous, small, russet, obscure; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, separating readily from the pulp; flesh purplish-red, with dark colored juice, firm, meaty, crisp, pleasant flavored, mild, sweet; of very good quality; stone free, ovate, slightly flattened and oblique, with smooth surfaces. BLEEDING HEART _Prunus avium_ =1.= Rea _Flora_ 205. 1676. =2.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 42. 1803. =3.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 104. 1846. =4.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 215. 1854. _Gascoigne._ =5.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 571, 572. 1629. =6.= Gerarde _Herball_ 1504. 1636. =7.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 298. 1884. _Red Heart._ =8.= Rea _Flora_ 206. 1676. =9.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =2:=183, Pl. 96 fig. 1. 1823. _Blutherzkirsche._ =10.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 224, 225, 226. 1819. _Gascoigne's Heart._ =11.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 174. 1845. _Blutrothe Molkenkirsche._ =12.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3:=29. 1858. _Guigne Rouge Hâtive._ =13.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5:=338 fig., 339. 1877. Bleeding Heart goes back almost as far as the history of cultivated cherries. It is only of historical interest now and this chiefly because it has been the parent of many sorts of present worth. According to the old writers it took highest rank in the cherry lists of a century and more ago by virtue of its high quality and handsome appearance, the name being indicative of color and form. So far as can be made out at this late date the variety has been grown but little or not at all in America, the description here given coming from old pomologies. This, like the preceding sort, is a cherry of several names, having been mentioned first by Parkinson in 1629 as the Gascoign Cherry. In England three different names have been applied to this variety, Gascoigne, Red Heart and Bleeding Heart. At least there seems to be little doubt that the Bleeding Heart and Red Heart listed by John Rea in 1676 were the Gascoign of Parkinson and Gerarde. Tree of largest size, very vigorous, not very productive; branches numerous, large, long, diverging, brownish-red, mottled with gray scarf-skin; leaves very large, oblong, acuminate; margin crenate; petiole thick, long, reddish, with well-developed glands; blooming season early. Fruit matures the latter half of July; usually in pairs, large, elongated heart-shaped, with pointed apex; color bright red changing to dark red, somewhat mottled; stem two inches long, slender; flesh reddish, rather tender although firm, with abundant juice, highly flavored, sweetish; good in quality; stone large, oblong. BOURGUEIL _Prunus cerasus_ _Cerise de Bourgueil._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:205. 1866. _Montmorency de Bourgueil._ =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:123, 124, fig. 60. 1866-73. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5:=364, 365 fig. 1877. Bourgueil is a variant form of Montmorency hardly differing enough in fruit from Large Montmorency to be distinguished from it and yet since it seems to be more productive than the last-named sort it is possibly worth adding to the cherry flora of the country. The variety, it must be remembered, is still on probation, but if trees true to name can be obtained it is worth planting in small numbers where growers want a cherry of the Montmorency type. This variety was found by a Doctor Bretonneau about 1844 in Bourgueil, Indre-et-Loire, France. It is known by the name of the finder as well as that of the locality in which it originated and through having the same place of origin is often confused with Cerise Rouge Pale. The United States Department of Agriculture received this variety in 1905 from Ferdinand Jamin, Bourg-la-Reine, Seine, France, and in turn forwarded it to this Station where it has been fruiting for the past few seasons. Nurserymen do not as yet offer it for sale and it is doubtful if it is known in more than a few places in America. [Illustration: BOURGUEIL] Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, vasiform, productive; branches slender, smooth, reddish-brown partly covered with ash-gray, with numerous lenticels; branchlets slender, long, brown, with some ash-gray, smooth, with numerous inconspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, four inches long, two inches wide, folded upward, obovate to ovate, thick; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, pubescent along the veins; apex and base variable in shape; margin doubly crenate; petiole one inch long, thick, with a dull tinge of red, pubescent, with none or with from one to three globose, yellow or brownish glands on the base of the blade. Buds small, short, variable in shape, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and on short spurs in clusters variable in size; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom late; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in scattering, well-distributed clusters, usually in threes; pedicels short, one-half inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube faintly tinged with red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, broad, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals crinkled, roundish, entire, sessile, with apex entire; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures in mid-season; three-fourths inch long, one inch wide, nearly oblate, somewhat compressed; cavity deep, wide, medium flaring, regular; suture indistinct; apex roundish to flattened; color bright red; dots small, russet, inconspicuous; stem stout, one and one-eighth inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin tender, free; flesh yellowish-white with colorless juice, tender and melting, sprightly, sour; of good quality; stone free, large, roundish-ovate, pointed, with smooth surfaces, tinged with red, with a prominent ventral suture. BRUSSELER BRAUNE _Prunus cerasus_ 1. Christ _Handb._ 676. 1797. 2. Christ _Wörterb._ 288. 1802. 3. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 533-536. 1819. 4. Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:63, 64. 1858. 5. Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 333, 341. 1889. 6. _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 24. 1899. 7. _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:124, 125, fig. 8. 1900. _Brüsselsche Bruyn_. 8. Krünitz _Enc._ 75, 76. 1790. _Zweite Grösser Herzkirschweichsel._ 9. Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:9, Tab. 22 fig. 1. 1792. _Ratafia._ 10. Hogg _Fruit Man._ 309, 310. 1884. From the standpoint of commercial cherry culture, Brusseler Braune has little value. The trees are uncertain in bearing; the cherries are small, sour, and astringent; and, worse than the faults named, the crop ripens very unevenly. It is of the English Morello type but in New York, at least, is far inferior to this well-known sort. Brusseler Braune has been much advertised for cold climates but there are many better cherries that stand cold nearly or quite as well and are better in both tree and fruit characters and, in particular, that will not vex the souls of growers by ripening so unevenly. The variety has two marked peculiarities: the leaves on the two-year-old wood are very small and the fruit-stems bear a small leaflet at their base. These leaflets on the fruit-stem would have to be removed in marketing the crop--another serious defect. No doubt Brusseler Braune originated in Holland but there is nothing definite as to the time though Truchsess, a German, writes of having received it in 1785 as Brüsselsche Bruyn. The synonyms of this variety are more or less confused with those of English Morello. This cherry was brought to America in 1883 by the late J. L. Budd with several other varieties. In the collection of trees sent out from the original importation, of which this was one, or from trees budded from them, were Griotte du Nord, Large Long Late, Shadow Amarelle, Lutovka, George Glass, Orel No. 27, or Gibb, and Bessarabian. Unfortunately the varieties were badly mixed and much confusion has resulted. It is not impossible that the first three are synonyms but the Lutovka, George Glass, Bessarabian and possibly the Gibb are distinct varieties. In 1895, this Station recommended a new cherry for trial for home and market and distributed buds throughout the state under the name Lutovka. Later it was found that an error had been made regarding the trees sent us as Lutovka, they being the Brusseler Braune. The American Pomological Society added Brusseler Braune to its fruit catalog list in 1899 but dropped it in 1909. [Illustration: BRUSSELER BRAUNE] Tree of medium size, vigorous, upright-spreading but with drooping branchlets, dense, round-topped, unproductive; trunk and branches smooth, stout; branches brownish, overspread with ash-gray, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets slender, with short internodes, nearly covered with ash-gray, smooth, glabrous, with small, lightly raised, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves three and one-half inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, obovate, thick, grooved along the midrib; upper surface very dark, dull green; lower surface light green, pubescent; apex taper-pointed, base acute; margin finely and doubly serrate; petiole one and one-eighth inches long, tinged with dull, dark red, grooved along the upper surface, with from one to four small, globose, yellowish-green glands. Buds pointed, plump, free, arranged as lateral buds and in clusters on scattering, short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom late; flowers one inch across, white; borne in scattering clusters in threes and fours; pedicels one and one-eighth inches long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube furrowed, tinted with red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, acuminate, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals oval to obovate, entire, nearly sessile, with a shallow, wide notch at the apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures very late; nearly one inch in diameter, although variable in size, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity of medium depth, narrow, abrupt; suture very shallow, indistinct; apex roundish, with a small depression at the center; color light red changing to dark red as the season advances; dots numerous, small, dark russet, inconspicuous; stem two and one-fourth inches long, with small leaflets at the base, strongly adherent to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separates readily from the pulp; flesh dark red, with dark colored juice, tender and melting, somewhat astringent, sour; of fair quality; stone nearly free when fully mature, fifteen-thirty-seconds inch long, roundish-oval, rather plump, blunt-pointed; surfaces smooth; ventral suture slightly enlarged near the base. BUNTE AMARELLE _Prunus cerasus_ 1. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 652-655. 1819. 2. _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 330. 1885. 3. _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =2=:40. 1888. 4. Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:272. 1903. So far Bunte Amarelle has found a place only in the trying cherry climate of Iowa and neighboring States. It is not attractive enough in appearance, good enough in quality, or certain and fruitful enough in bearing to compete with other Amarelles, to which group this variety belongs. Its saving grace is extreme hardiness of tree, though vigor and health help make it somewhat desirable in cold, prairie regions of the Mid-West where cherry growing is more or less precarious. There has been much uncertainty as to the true variety and we have had to discard the trees on the Station grounds and compile a description. This variety probably originated in Germany in the latter part of the Eighteenth Century. Truchsess, a German, in 1819, called the cherry Bunte Amarelle because of its variegated color before full maturity. The variety was introduced from Poland to America sometime previous to 1885 and has usually gone under the name of Amarelle Bunte. From all accounts Professor J. L. Budd of Ames, Iowa, the authority on these hardy cherries during his time, had two different cherries under the name Amarelle Bunte; for in his report at the Iowa Horticultural Society in 1885, he mentioned a variety under that name as being a large, dark purple and nearly sweet sort which could not have been the true Bunte Amarelle of Truchsess. Budd and Hansen in 1903 described a variety which agrees very closely with the true variety of Truchsess which we herewith describe. Tree vigorous, upright, hardy; foliage large, coarse. Fruit matures the second week in June; medium to large, roundish, flattened at the base; cavity variable in depth; suture shallow, indistinct; apex depressed; color yellow overspread with light red; stem green, straight, rather slender, one and one-half to two inches long; flesh slightly colored, juicy, firm but tender, pleasantly subacid; very good in quality; stone variable in size, broad. CALIFORNIA ADVANCE _Prunus avium_ 1. Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 289, 292. 1889. 2. _Wash. Sta. Bul_. =92=:25. 1910. _Advance_. 3. _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt_. 130. 1897. _Ulatis_. 4. _Mich. Sta. Bul_. =177=:32. 1899. California Advance is a Sweet Cherry, one of the "Hearts" of common parlance, distinguished and worth growing only because it is extra early, though when fully ripe it is of very good quality. It is usually described as a cherry of "large size" but on the grounds of this Station the cherries run small, as they are occasionally reported elsewhere to do, suggesting that the variety requires good care and a choice cherry soil for a finely finished product. On these grounds the variety seems to be preeminently free from fungus diseases but the robin and other birds take greater toll from it than from almost any other cherry, beginning their harvest long before the fruit is fit for human fare. California Advance might well be planted in a small way for a local market in New York, or a tree or two for home use, but it has no place in large numbers in this State. California Advance came from a seed of Early Purple sown by W. H. Chapman of Napa, California, the seedling being saved because the cherries were larger and ripened earlier than those of its parent. It has sometimes been confused with the Chapman cherry, of somewhat similar characteristics, which also originated in Napa, but the two are quite distinct. Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense, productive; trunk and branches stout, smooth; branchlets of medium thickness, brownish-bronze partly covered with ash-gray, glabrous; leaves numerous, five and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, long-obovate to elliptical, thin, medium green, slightly rugose; margin serrate, glandular; petiole nearly two inches long, slender, tinged with red, pubescent along the upper side and with a shallow groove, with from two to four large, reniform, reddish glands, usually on the stalk; buds large, obtuse or pointed, plump, arranged singly as lateral buds or in clusters of variable size on numerous short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom early; flowers one and one-eighth inches across; pistil equal to the stamens in length. Fruit ripens very early, season averaging eleven days; about three-fourths inch in diameter, roundish-cordate, compressed; color purplish-black; stem of medium thickness, often one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separates from the pulp; flesh reddish, with dark red juice, meaty, tender, mild, sweet; of very good quality; stone semi-clinging, three-eighths inch by eleven-thirty-seconds inch in size, roundish-oval, compressed, oblique, with smooth surfaces. CARNATION _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Rea _Flora_ 205. 1676. =2.= Langley _Pomona_ 86, Pl. 16 fig. 3. 1729. =3.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 42. 1803. =4.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 251. 1817. =5.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:138, 139. 1832. =6.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 194 fig. 83. 1845. =7.= Thompson _Gard. Ass't_ 529. 1859. =8.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =9.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:91, 92, fig. 44. 1866-73. =10.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 289. 1884. _Cerise d'Orange._ =11.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 41. 1771. _Rothe Oranienkirsche._ =12.= Krünitz _Enc._ 55, 56. 1790. =13.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 456-463. 1819. =14.= _Ill. Handb._ 175 fig., 176. 1860. Carnation is a conspicuous cherry because of its beautiful color--red, a little variegated with white or yellow, hence the name. It is one of the Amarelles, similar to Montmorency except in color in which character it is more pleasing than the better-known sort. The stone separates from the pulp very readily leaving the flesh unusually bright and clean. Because of their sprightly refreshing flavor, the cherries are pleasing to the palate, as well as attractive to the eye. Unfortunately the trees are but moderately vigorous and fruitful and these qualities count so heavily against it as a commercial cherry that Carnation cannot be more than a fruit for amateurs unless under exceptional conditions. For a home plantation, however, it would be hard to name a better cherry of its kind. Carnation is another of the choicely good, old cherries, being first mentioned by John Rea in 1676 and later by Langley in 1729. Having been cultivated for so long and disseminated among so many growers who kept meagre records in early days, this sort became badly confused with other varieties, especially with the "Cerisier à gros fruit rouge-pale," mentioned by Duhamel in 1768. How old the variety truly is or where it originated cannot be said. Carnation seems to have been first mentioned in America by William Coxe in 1817 and a few years later it was growing on the grounds of William Prince, Flushing, New York. Since that time it has been quite widely disseminated throughout the United States but is grown less extensively now than formerly. The American Pomological Society, in 1862, placed Carnation on its list of recommended fruits where it still holds a place. [Illustration: CARNATION] Tree medium in size, spreading, becoming drooping, not very productive; trunk intermediate in thickness; branches reddish-brown overspread with ash-gray, with numerous lenticels variable in size; branchlets brown or ash-gray, smooth, with numerous conspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves very numerous, four inches long, two inches wide, folded upward, oval to obovate, thin; upper surface dark green, roughened; lower surface dull, light green, thinly pubescent; apex acute; margin finely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole two inches long, slender, dull red on the upper surface, with one or two large, reniform, reddish glands on the stalk. Buds small, short, obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds, or in small clusters on numerous, short spurs; season of bloom late; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in scattered clusters in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, of medium thickness, glabrous, green; calyx-tube light reddish-green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged with red, of medium length, broad, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish-oval, entire, with short, broad claws, the apex notched; filaments in four series, the longest averaging one-half inch in length; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season or later; three-fourths of an inch long, one inch in thickness, roundish-oblate, compressed; cavity deep, abrupt; suture indistinct; apex flattened or with a deep depression; color medium to dark red; dots numerous, small, russet, inconspicuous; stem one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin tender, separating readily from the pulp; flesh yellowish-white, with abundant colorless juice, tender and melting, sprightly; of very good quality; stone free, nearly one-half inch in diameter, roundish, blunt, with smooth surfaces. CENTENNIAL _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 17, 159. 1885. =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 289. 1889. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 24. 1899. In California, Centennial is passing from the period of probation to one of general acceptance as a standard variety. Unfortunately it has not been well tested in the East but trees growing in a commercial orchard at Geneva show the variety to be a close competitor, in this instance at least, with its parent, Napoleon, the mainstay of Sweet Cherry growers in New York. In some respects it quite surpasses Napoleon. It is larger, sweeter and better flavored and has a smaller pit. The trees fall short of those of its well-known parent, however, in being less fruitful. Even more serious defects are, in the orchard under observation, that Centennial cracks and is less successful in resisting brown-rot than Napoleon though it surpasses many other well-known sorts in these respects. The two varieties under comparison may be further distinguished by the more oblate fruits of Centennial, by a more mottled color and by the pits which are longer and more pointed in the newer variety. Centennial is recommended for home orchards and experimentally for commercial plantations. Centennial is a seedling of Napoleon grown by Henry Chapman, Napa, California. It came in fruit in 1876 but was not introduced until 1885, Leonard Coates of Napa, California, being the introducer. Despite its many merits, Centennial did not win a place on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society until 1899. Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, productive; trunk thick, roughish; branches stout, smooth, brownish, with many large lenticels; branchlets thick, with internodes of medium length. Leaves numerous, large, flattened, long-oval to obovate, thick; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent; apex taper-pointed; margin coarsely serrate, with small and inconspicuous glands; petiole one and one-fourth inches long, pubescent, tinged with red, with from two to four large, reniform, greenish-red, flattened glands, usually on the stalk. Buds large, long, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds or in small clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; blooming season about the middle of May; flowers one and one-fourth inches across, usually arranged in twos and threes; pedicels variable in length averaging one and one-eighth inches, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube faintly tinged with red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes long, acute, glabrous on both surfaces, reflexed; petals oval, entire, tapering to short, narrow claws, with a slightly crenate apex; anthers greenish; filaments one-eighth inch long, shorter than the petals; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures the last week in June, length of season rather short; very large, short-cordate, compressed; cavity deep, wide; suture distinct, broad, shallow; apex roundish or slightly depressed; color amber-yellow, speckled and overlaid with crimson; dots whitish, inconspicuous; stem thick, one and one-fourth inches long, adherent to the pulp; skin thin, tender, cracks badly, adherent to the pulp; flesh whitish, with colorless juice, meaty, crackling, sprightly, sweet; of very good quality; stone semi-clinging, three-eighths inch in length, eleven-thirty-seconds inch in width, ovate, plump, oblique, with smooth surfaces; ridged on the ventral suture. CHOISY _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ _Cerisier à Fruit Ambré, à Fruit Blanc._ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:185, 186, 187, Pl. XI. 1768. _Schöne von Choisy._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 452-455. 1819. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 333, 334, 376. 1889. _Belle de Choisy._ =4.= _Pom. Mag._ =1=:42, Pl. 1828. =5.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:137. 1832. =6.= _Cultivator_ =10=:150 fig. 1843. =7.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 190 fig. 79. 1845. =8.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 27, Pl. 1846. =9.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 37, 38, 102. 1852. =10.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =1=:63, fig. 2. 1853. =11.= Elliott =Fr. Book= 189. 1854. =12.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =13.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:169, 170 fig. 45, 171, 172. 1866. =14.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:113, 114, fig. 55. 1866-73. =15.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 276, 280. 1884. =16.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 80 fig., 81. 1904. =17.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 18. 1906. It seems to be the consensus of opinion of a score or more of European and American pomologists who have known Choisy that it is the handsomest and most delicious of all Duke cherries--one of the very best of all dessert cherries. In it are delicately combined the richness of the Sweet Cherry and the sprightliness of the Sour Cherry. Unfortunately, while it bears early and regularly, the trees are seldom fruitful. As an offset to unfruitfulness, however, the trees are vigorous, hardy and healthy. The cherries keep and stand the wear and tear of marketing as well as those of any other Duke. Its qualities all commend it for the home orchard and for a local market. In particular it may be recommended for cold climates where a true Sweet Cherry is not quite hardy, this hybrid being nearly as hardy as the other parent, the Sour Cherry. Unfortunately suitable specimens of this beautiful cherry could not be obtained for a color-plate and the description has had to be compiled in part. Duhamel describes two amber-colored cherries, one of which is listed by Leroy as Belle de Choisy. The Cerise Blanche, or Cerise Ambrée (Grosse), according to Leroy, was cultivated in Central France as early as 1628 and in 1667 Merlet wrote of it as the most curious and rare of all cherries. Kenrick, _American Orchardist_, 1832, lists a variety, Ambrée, which according to Floy-Lindley's and Duhamel's descriptions must be Choisy. Some writers, however, say that Choisy was first grown by M. Gondouin, a gardener for Louis XV, in 1760, at the village of Choisy near Paris. The American Pomological Society, in its report for 1852, mentioned this variety as having promise and ten years later listed it in the Society's fruit catalog where it has since remained. Tree large, vigorous, spreading, somewhat open, hardy, but moderately productive; branches thick, of a clear grayish color with brownish-red tips; lenticels very numerous, large, roundish. Leaves numerous, very broad, obovate, rather abruptly pointed; upper surface shining dark green, deeply and regularly serrate to rather dentate. Buds large, thick, conical, clear brown somewhat covered with gray; season of bloom rather early; flowers white, large, numerous, borne in large clusters; petioles short, scarcely an inch in length; petals broadly round, edges dentate; calyx-lobes short, large; pistil longer than the stamens. Fruit matures in some localities just before May Duke, in others just after that variety, ordinarily ripe, however, at the end of June; usually attached in pairs, large, roundish to somewhat oval, flattened toward the base; cavity shallow, wide; suture shallow, indistinct; apex depressed; color attractive bright red mottled with yellow and amber; stem thick at the base, one and one-half to two inches long, generally forking at about one-half inch from the base; skin thin, somewhat firm, semi-transparent showing the netted texture of the pulp beneath; flesh pale amber, with abundant colorless juice, tender, melting, sweet, pleasant flavor; very good in quality; stone medium to small, roundish, pointed at the apex; dorsal suture indistinct; surfaces nearly smooth. CLEVELAND _Prunus avium_ 1. _Horticulturist_ =2=:60 fig. 1847-48. 2. Elliott _Fr. Book_ 191 fig., 192. 1854. 3. _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. 4. Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:131. 1866. _Knorpelkirsche von Cleveland_. 5. _Ill. Handb_. 45 fig., 46. 1867. Cleveland is a Bigarreau which falls so far short of its near kin, as it grows in New York at least, as not to be worth planting except as an early cherry of its type--earliness being its one saving asset. The cherries closely resemble Rockport in size, color, shape and flavor, are in no way better than that somewhat mediocre sort and are even more subject to brown-rot. It ripens with Black Tartarian and can never compete in orchard or market with that sort. Possibly Cleveland has too much merit to be wholly neglected yet it certainly is not worth planting in New York unless in a locality where it does exceptionally well and when an early cherry of its kind is wanted. Cleveland is said by its introducer, Professor J. P. Kirtland, to be a seedling from Yellow Spanish. Its close similarity to Rockport suggests that it may have come from a pit of that variety. It was brought out in 1842 but was not adopted by the American Pomological Society for its fruit list until 1862. Despite rapidly passing popularity it is still on this list. Tree of medium size and vigor, upright-spreading, open, very productive; trunk of medium diameter and smoothness; branches smooth, reddish-brown partly overspread with ash-gray, with many small lenticels; branchlets slender, brown partly overspread with ash-gray, smooth, with numerous small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, five inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, obovate to long-elliptical, thin; upper surface medium green, slightly rugose; lower surface light green, lightly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole often two inches long, reddish, rather slender, hairy, grooved, glandless or with from one to four reniform, reddish glands, usually on the stalk. Buds small, short, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds or in clusters of variable size on rather short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in scattered clusters, usually in twos; pedicels three-fourths inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, tinged with red, light green within, broadly campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged with red, broad, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, with short, broad claws, notched and crinkled at the apex; filaments in four series, the longest averaging one-half inch in length; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures early; about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, cordate, compressed, cavity wide, flaring, irregular; suture shallow, indistinct; apex somewhat obtusely-pointed; color light red overspreading yellow; dots numerous, small, yellowish, obscure; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating readily from the pulp; flesh light yellow, with colorless juice, tender and melting, sweet; of good quality; stone clinging, large, one-half inch long, oval, flattened at the base, plump, with smooth surfaces. CLUSTER _Prunus cerasus_ 1. Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572, fig. 10. 1629. 2. Gerarde _Herball_ 1505 fig. 6. 1636. 3. Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:132, 133. 1832. 4. Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 194 fig., 195. 1845. 5. Hogg _Fruit Man._ 290. 1884. _Flanders Cluster_. 6. Ray _Hist. Plant._ 1539. 1688. _Cerisier à Bouquet._ 7. Duhamel _Trait Arb. Fr._ =1=:176, 177, 178, Pl. VI. 1768. 8. Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ 2: No. 16, Pl. 1846. 9. Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:47, 48, fig. 22. 1866-73. _Tros-Kers._ 10. Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:43. 1771. _Trauben oder Bouquet Amarelle._ 11. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 621-629. 1819. 12. Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:70, 71. 1858. 13. Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 340. 1889. _Griotte à Bouquet._ 14. Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:278, 279 fig., 280, 281. 1877. Cluster is a curiosity, characterized by fruits borne in clusters at the extremity of a single peduncle. The pistils vary from one to a dozen, setting from one to five perfect fruits in the cluster or from eight to twelve as the trees become older. The variety is little known in America but is well known in Europe, having first been described by Daléchamp in 1586, according to Leroy. Its origin is uncertain. Parkinson speaks of it as Flanders Cluster, in 1629, and as it was cultivated in Germany before 1613 and nearly as soon in Switzerland it may be assumed that either South Germany or Flanders is its native home. It appears under several names in European fruit books, the terms trochet, bouquet, buschel, and trauben all signifying that the fruits are borne in clusters and usually referring to this variety. The Cerisier à Trochet of Duhamel is probably a distinct variety. The fruit has little value and is cultivated chiefly as a curiosity. The following description is compiled: Tree small and bushy, moderately vigorous, dense, productive; branches numerous, long, slender, somewhat curved, drooping and often breaking under a load of fruit; internodes long; leaves small, oblong, acuminate; margin doubly serrate; petiole thick, short, rigid, with small, roundish, conspicuous glands; blooming season late; flowers small. Fruit matures the last of June, attached in twos or threes, with from two to eight fruits per cluster; variable in size, roundish, flattened at the extremities; suture prominent; color clear red becoming darker at maturity; skin tough, transparent; stem long, inserted in a deep cavity; flesh nearly white, transparent, with abundant juice which is usually uncolored but sometimes tinged red, very tender, sour, yet agreeable; quality fair; stone small, roundish, compressed. COE _Prunus avium_ 1. _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. _Coe's Transparent._ 2. _Horticulturist_ =2=:71, 72 fig. 1847-48. 3. _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 211. 1856. 4. Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:87 fig., 88. 1866. 5. _Cult. & Count. Gent._ =36=:326. 1871. 6. Thomas _Guide Prat._ 15, 206. 1876. _Guigne Coé._ 7. Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:319 fig., 320. 1877. _Coe's Bunte Transparent._ 8. Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 343. 1889. Even earlier and certainly better than Cleveland, which we have just discussed, is Coe, long known as Coe's Transparent. This is the first of the light-colored cherries to ripen and is a splendid fruit in quality and appearance. The color-plate shows this variety very well--possibly too well, since one of its defects is variability in color, the variant usually being very light colored and not as attractive as the type. A second defect is that the fruit runs rather small. The tree-characters are in the main very good. The variety can be distinguished, as a rule, by the large, spreading tree and to a lesser extent by its hardiness, vigor, healthfulness and fruitfulness. Coe is worthy of a place in every home plantation, in orchards for local markets and in favored localities as an early cherry for the general market. Curtis Coe of Middletown, Connecticut, grew this variety early in the Nineteenth Century from a pit of what he supposed to be Ox Heart. The American Pomological Society included Coe in its list of recommended fruits in 1856. [Illustration: COE] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open, very productive; trunk stocky, shaggy; branches thick, smooth, dark reddish-brown overlaid with ash-gray, with many raised lenticels; branchlets stout, short, brown nearly covered with gray, smooth, glabrous, with numerous small, conspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, four and one-fourth inches long, two and one-fourth inches wide, folded upward or flattened, long-elliptical to obovate, thin; upper surface medium green; lower surface light green, thinly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin coarsely serrate, with small, black glands; petiole one and three-fourths inches long, thick, tinged with red, grooved, hairy, with from one to three large, reniform, greenish-yellow or reddish glands on the stalk. Buds large, long, conical, plump, free, in clusters on spurs variable in length; leaf-scars very prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers one and one-fourth inches across, white; borne in dense clusters, thickly distributed over the tree in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, green; calyx-tube green, broadly campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged with red, broad, obtuse, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, with a shallow notch at the apex; filaments one-quarter inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures early; nearly one inch in diameter, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity regular, abrupt; suture indistinct; apex blunt-pointed or slightly depressed; color pale amber faintly mottled with red; dots small, light yellow, inconspicuous; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, of medium toughness, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellow, with colorless juice, tender, meaty, mild, sweet; good to very good in quality; stone semi-free or free, one-half inch long, less than one-half inch wide, roundish, somewhat flattened, blunt, with smooth surfaces; ridged along the ventral suture. DIKEMAN _Prunus avium_ 1. _Del. Sta. Bul._ =35=:16, 17 fig. 1897. Dikeman has some merit as a very late Sweet Cherry but here its usefulness ends. The cherries are too small and the pits too large for this variety to have great worth. The tree is somewhat remarkable for its spreading habit and stout branches. Plant-breeders seeking for a very late sort might well choose Dikeman as a parent. Two very similar cherries, with a variation in the spelling, pass under this name. Late in the Eighteenth Century there appeared a cherry on the Dyckman farm near New York City. Some thought it to be identical with Black Tartarian; others said it was distinct and called it Dyckman. It was never more than of local note. Some few years ago the late S. D. Willard of Geneva introduced the Dikeman cherry from the farm of George B. Dikeman, Oceana County, Michigan. This variety often goes under the name Dykeman but from the information at hand we feel certain that Dikeman is the correct spelling. On our grounds this variety and Black Tartarian, although similar, are two distinct sorts, the Dikeman being later, firmer and a clingstone. Tree large, vigorous, broadly-spreading, open-topped, productive; trunk and branches thick, smooth; branches reddish-brown covered with ash-gray, with numerous lenticels which are variable in size; branchlets short, brown, partly covered with ash-gray, smooth, glabrous, with inconspicuous, slightly raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, four and one-half inches long, two and one-fourth inches wide, folded upward, obovate to long-elliptical, thin; upper surface medium green, slightly rugose; lower surface light green, faintly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin coarsely and doubly serrate; petiole about one and one-half inches long, tinged with red, with a few hairs, with from one to four reniform, reddish glands, usually on the stalk. Buds large, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds or in clusters variable in size on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and three-eighths inches across; borne in scattering clusters, in ones, twos or threes; pedicels one and one-fourth inches long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube tinged with red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes with reddish tinge, broad, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, nearly sessile, with a shallow notch at the apex; filaments one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures late; about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, cordate; cavity wide, flaring; suture shallow, indistinct; apex slightly pointed, with a small depression at the center; color purplish-black; dots numerous, small, dark russet, inconspicuous; stem slender, one and one-fourth inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, tender, adherent to the pulp; flesh dark red, with dark colored juice, very meaty, crisp, mild, somewhat aromatic, sweet; of good quality; stone clinging, longer than wide, ovate, flattened, with smooth surfaces, somewhat marked with a reddish tinge. DOUBLE GLASS _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ 1. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 440-451, 487-490, 689. 1819. 2. Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:51, 52. 1858. 3. _Ill. Handb._ 163 fig., 164. 1860. 4. _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 329. 1888. 5. _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 80. 1890. 6. _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ =17=:7. 1892. 7. Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:274. 1903. _Amarelle Double de Verre._ 8. Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:197-201, fig. 55. 1866. _Great Cornelian._ 9. Hogg _Fruit Man._ 299. 1884. _Glass._ 10. _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:70. 1903. Double Glass is a Duke, a hybrid more nearly resembling the Sweet Cherry than the Sour Cherry. The trees grow remarkably well in nursery and orchard and their behavior so pleased growers when the variety was brought to notice that it became for a time quite the vogue. But the trees turned out to be unproductive and the cherries so mediocre that the variety rapidly passed through its heyday of popularity. The fruits are curiously marked, the suture being so deep as to make them appear double--hence the name. The variety has no value where sweet sorts are hardy but possibly might find a niche somewhere in regions where a more tender Sweet Cherry cannot be grown. This variety, of ancient and unknown origin, dates back at least to 1792 when Truchsess received it from Christ under the names Grosse Frühkirsche and Englische Erzherzogskirsche, both of which were incorrect, the first because it was not characteristic since the fruit did not ripen early, and the second because it denoted a class of dark-fleshed cherries. In France, Double Glass has long been cultivated under the name Amarelle Double de Verre. The variety was brought to America from Russia in 1883 by Professor J. L. Budd. While grown for a time in the Central States it was never highly regarded and has now nearly passed from cultivation. The following description is a compilation: Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading becoming divergent with age, usually hardy, rather unproductive; branchlets thick, reddish-brown; leaves healthy, small to medium, ovate, with serrated margins; buds large, prominent. Fruit matures the latter part of June; usually large, roundish-oblate, with a very deep suture; color light red becoming much darker at maturity; stem long, thick; skin thin, tough, translucent; flesh yellowish, with abundant uncolored juice, firm, tender, sprightly; good in quality; stone medium in size, roundish. DOUBLE NATTE _Prunus cerasus_ 1. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 538, 539. 1819. 2. Hogg _Fruit Man._ 292. 1884. 3. _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 327. 1888. 4._Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:67. 1903. _Cerise van der Nat._ 5. Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:41. 1771. _Kirsche von der Natte._ 6. Krünitz _Enc._ 69, 70. 1790. 7. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 539-542. 1819. 8. _Ill. Handb._ 509 fig., 510. 1861. Budd's importations of Russian cherries, to which reference is so often made in this text, brought forth almost universal praise for any and all of the foreign sorts. Cultural tests soon demonstrated, however, that most of the varieties were comparatively worthless; Double Natte is one of these. It is a very mediocre cherry of the Morello group in nowise equal to English Morello except when earliness is a prime requisite, this sort being one of the earliest of the Morellos. In flavor it is equal to English Morello but is no better. At Geneva the trees are seldom very fruitful. From the eulogistic reports of its behavior in the Middle West it would seem that it was better adapted to Iowa, for instance, than for New York. This variety was first mentioned by Knoop, the Dutch pomologist, in 1771--origin not given. Some years ago Professor J. L. Budd also imported from Russia a cherry under the name Riga No. 18. This cherry has been grown as a separate variety under the name Riga but the descriptions of it are all identical with those of Double Natte and there can be no doubt but that they are one and the same. [Illustration: DOUBLE NATTE] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, somewhat vasiform, productive; trunk and branches smooth; branches brown nearly covered with ash-gray, with a few large lenticels; branchlets long, with short internodes, brown partly covered with ash-gray, smooth, with a few very large, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and three-eighths inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, short-obovate, thick, stiff; upper surface glossy, slightly rugose; lower surface pale green, thinly pubescent; apex sharp-pointed, tapering toward the base; margin coarsely serrate, glandular; petiole thick, dull red, grooved on the upper surface, nearly one inch long, glandless or with one or two small glands at the base of the blade. Buds conical or pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in small clusters on spurs; leaf-scars inconspicuous; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in scattering clusters in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a faint reddish tinge, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged red, long, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals obovate, entire, tapering to short, narrow claws, with a broad but shallow notch at the apex; filaments about one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures early; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, cordate to conical, compressed; cavity somewhat abrupt, regular; suture deep, distinct, often extending entirely around the fruit; apex depressed; color dark red; dots numerous, small, brownish, obscure; stem slender, one and three-fourths inches long, adheres strongly to the fruit; skin thin, tough, separating readily from the pulp; flesh dark red, with reddish juice, tender and melting, sprightly, sour; good to very good in quality; stone nearly free, longer than wide, nearly round, slightly flattened, with smooth surfaces; somewhat ridged along the ventral suture. DOWNER _Prunus avium_ =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 218. 1835. =2.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =2=:93, 94, Pl. 1851. _Downer's Red Heart._ =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 276. 1832. _Downer's Late._ =4.= _Proc. Nat. Con. Fr. Gr._ 52. 1848. =5.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =2=:65, Pl. 1854. _Guigne Tardive de Downer._ =6.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:95 fig., 96, 97. 1866. Downer is a Sweet Cherry, one of the so-called "Hearts" much prized by those who know it as a late cherry delicately and richly flavored. Possibly it is the best of the late Sweet Cherries. Several defects keep it from being of any considerable worth; it thrives only in the choicest soils; the trees are often unhealthy as well as lacking in vigor; the flesh is thin and the stone is large; and, though the cherries set abundantly, the yield is small because the fruits are small. So, while the variety is almost indispensable in a home orchard, ripening after almost all of the dessert cherries have gone, Downer has small place in a commercial plantation. It should be said further in its favor, however, as a commercial fruit, that it stands harvesting and shipping very well. Downer takes the name of Samuel Downer, Dorchester, Massachusetts, who grew it some time before 1832 when it first found a place in pomological works. It was included by the American Pomological Society in its schedule of fruits in 1848 as Downer's Late. It now appears as Downer with Downer's Late Red as a synonym in accordance with the rules of the Society. [Illustration: DOWNER] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense-topped, productive; trunk thick, with shaggy bark; branches thick, roughened, dark brown overspread with dark gray, with numerous large lenticels; branchlets slender, long, brown partly covered with ash-gray, smooth, with inconspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, obovate, rather stiff; upper surface dark green; lower surface light green, hairy along the veins; apex acute, base abrupt; margin doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one inch long, thick, dark red, grooved, glandless or with from one to three large, globose or reniform glands on the stalk. Buds small, except the terminals which are large, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds, or in small clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in thin clusters in ones and in twos; pedicels variable in length often one inch long, glabrous; calyx-tube faintly tinged with red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged with red, acuminate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, somewhat sessile, with a shallow notch at the apex; pistil glabrous, nearly equal to the stamens in length, often defective. Fruit matures among the latest; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity very shallow, flaring; suture obscure; apex variable in shape usually somewhat pointed; color light to dark red frequently showing an amber background on the shaded side; dots numerous, small, russet, inconspicuous; stem one and three-fourths inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin tough, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellow, with colorless juice, somewhat stringy, tender, with soft flesh, mild and pleasant, sweet when fully ripe; good to very good in quality; stone large, free, ovate, flattened, with smooth surfaces; somewhat ridged along the ventral suture. DYEHOUSE _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Horticulturist_ =25=:176, 177. 1870. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 161. 1881. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 17. 1897. Dyehouse is conspicuous among cherries for its earliness and for the beauty of its fruit. Early Richmond is the standard early cherry yet Dyehouse is a week earlier, just as attractive in appearance and equally well flavored. It is near of kin to Early Richmond but the two may be distinguished by the difference in time of ripening and by its brighter, clearer color, greater opaqueness, more highly colored juice and slightly smaller size. Possibly this cherry would supersede the better-known Early Richmond were it not for the defect in size and for the further faults of being less productive and more capricious to environment, as it fails to thrive in localities where the older sort is quite at home. It is a worthy rival of Early Richmond, however, and ought to be grown both for home and commercial purposes far more than it is. To H. T. Harris of Stamford, Kentucky, belongs the honor of introducing this well-known cherry. Although its parentage is unknown, it is almost certain that a Mr. Dyehouse, Lincoln County, Kentucky, raised the tree from a pit sixty or more years ago. At the time of its introduction its characteristics were not clearly drawn and many believed it to be the Early Richmond. In time, however, differences were shown, as we have set forth in the preceding paragraph. It was added to the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1897. [Illustration: DYEHOUSE] Tree small, vigorous, spreading, with drooping branchlets, dense, round-topped, productive; trunk and branches slightly roughened; branches reddish-brown covered with dark ash-gray, with large, elongated, raised lenticels; branchlets slender, willowy, variable in length, brown overspread with ash-gray, smooth, with a few small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, three inches long, one and one-half inches wide, slightly folded upward, obovate to long-oval; upper surface very dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, with a few hairs along the midrib; apex acute, base variable in shape; margin finely serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole one-half inch long, tinged with dull red, with a few hairs along the grooved upper surface, with from one to three small, globose, greenish-yellow glands at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly and in clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers one inch across, white; borne in dense but well-distributed clusters, usually at the ends of spur-like branches, in twos, threes or fours; pedicels one and one-half inches long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged with red, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish-obovate, entire, almost sessile, with entire apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, nearly equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures early; more than one-half inch in diameter, oblate, slightly compressed; cavity of medium depth, narrow, abrupt, regular; suture indistinct; apex flattened, with a small depression at the center; color dark red; dots numerous, small, obscure; stem one inch long, adhering to the pulp; skin thin, tough; flesh light yellowish-white, with pinkish juice, tender, sprightly, tart; of very good quality; stone nearly free, ovate, slightly flattened, with smooth surfaces; somewhat ridged along the ventral suture. EAGLE _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =104=:84. 1894. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 17. 1897. _Black Eagle._ =3.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 31. 1828. =4.= _Pom. Mag._ =3=:127, Pl. 127. 1830. =5.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 274, 275. 1832. =6.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 170 fig. 62. 1845. =7.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 102. 1846. =8.= _Mag. Hort._ =14=:386, 387 fig. 37. 1848. =9.= _Proc. Nat. Con. Fr. Gr._ 52. 1848. =10.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =1=:85, Pl. 1851. =11.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =4=:287. 1854. =12.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 108, 186. 1856. =13.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:77-79, fig. 12. 1866. =14.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:83, 84, fig. 42. 1882. =15.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 285, 286. 1884. =16.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =98=:491 fig. 86. 1895. We hesitatingly follow the American Pomological Society in calling this variety Eagle when it has so long been known as Black Eagle, the name given it by the great pomologist, Knight. Were this choicely good cherry larger in size, it would still be a prime favorite with growers for in many respects it is one of the best varieties of its species. Its flavor is excellent; the trees are usually fruitful; it ripens at a good time in the cherry season, just after Black Tartarian; the cherries are less liable to crack than many of its rivals; and the trees are as hardy, healthy and vigorous as those of any Sweet Cherry. Some complain that the trees do not bear well at first but are productive only with age. But, after all, it is its high quality that gives Eagle so much merit that it ought not to be forgotten--makes it worth a place in every home orchard and commends it highly to commercial growers of cherries who want a finely finished product for either local or general market. The fruit-stems of this variety are characteristically long. Eagle was grown about 1806 by Sir Thomas Andrew Knight at Downton Castle, Wiltshire, England, by fertilizing the Bigarreau of the old writers, our Yellow Spanish, with pollen of the May Duke. The correctness of the parentage as given has been questioned because of its inherited characteristics. But if the May Duke is a hybrid between a Sweet and a Sour, a pure Sweet offspring is not an impossibility. In 1823, Honorable John Lowell of Massachusetts received Eagle from Knight. Prince mentioned this cherry in his _Treatise of Horticulture_, 1828, but the exact date of its introduction into New York is unknown. In 1848 it was placed on the list of fruits adopted by the National Convention of Fruit Growers and since then it has been retained on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society. [Illustration: EAGLE] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense, unproductive at first but improving with age; trunk and branches thick, smooth; branches reddish-brown partly covered with ash-gray, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets thick, brownish partly covered with light ash-gray, the surface slightly ribbed and with small, raised, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, five inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, long, obovate to elliptical, thin; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface light green, thinly pubescent; apex variable in shape; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, with dark glands; petiole nearly two inches long, tinged with red, with a few hairs, with from two to four reniform, brownish glands usually on the stalk. Buds large, conical or pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in clusters on spurs of medium length; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom medium; flowers white, one and one-eighth inches across; borne in scattered clusters in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green faintly tinged with red, campanulate; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, obtuse, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals irregular-oval, crenate, with short, blunt claws and with a crenate apex; anthers yellowish; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures in mid-season; nearly one inch in diameter, oblate, somewhat cordate, compressed; cavity regular, flaring; suture a faint groove; apex pointed or slightly depressed; color dark red almost black; dots small, russet, medium in number, obscure; stem slender, two inches long; skin thin, tender; flesh dark red, with wine-colored juice, meaty, tender, crisp, pleasant flavored, mild, sweet; very good to best in quality; stone free except along the ventral suture, rather small, ovate, slightly flattened, blunt, with smooth surfaces; ridged along the ventral suture. EARLY MAY _Prunus fruticosa_ =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 86, Pl. 17 fig. 2. 1729. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:131. 1832. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 479. 1869. =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 295. 1884. _May._ =5.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 571. 1629. _Cerisier Nain à Fruit Rond Précoce._ =6.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:168, 169, 170, Pl. III. 1768. _Frühe Zwergweichsel._ =7.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 492-498. 1819. =8.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 349, 350, 372. 1889. _Amarell-Weichsel._ =9.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:57, 58. 1858. _Précoce de Montreuil._ =10.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:141, 142, fig. 69. 1866-73. _Griottier Nain Précoce._ =11.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:293 fig., 294. 1877. As the only cultivated representative of the European Dwarf Cherry, Early May should be of especial interest to cherry-growers. It is a true dwarf variety, the trees seldom attaining a height of more than six or seven feet. Both tree and branches are very flexible so that Early May is well adapted to the wall-training of European countries. It has further value in its earliness, being the earliest of all cherries. It is doubtful whether the variety can now be obtained in America but it ought to be reintroduced both for the fruit and because it is a handsome ornamental. Early May has several characters to recommend it to plant-breeders. The description herewith given is compiled from European fruit-books. Pliny in his _Natural History_ mentions the Macedonian and the Chamaecerasus cherries, both of which we now believe to have been _Prunus fruticosa_, the European Dwarf Cherry. Early May, according to European botanists, is a variety of this dwarf species and may be the identical cherry that Pliny described. Following Pliny it was mentioned by Estienne, a Frenchman, in 1540, by Knoop, the Dutch pomologist, in 1771, by Parkinson, the English herbalist, in 1629, and, as the references show, by most pomologists since. The names May and Early May have been applied to several varieties, and especially in the West to the Early Richmond but all are distinct and ought not to be confused with this, the true variety. Tree very small, rather weak; branches numerous, slender, somewhat curved, flexible, branchlets slender, pendant; leaves abundant, very small, obovate or oblong, acuminate; margin irregularly and deeply serrate; petiole short, slender, without glands; blooming season very early; flowers small; petals oval. Fruit matures very early, usually attached in pairs; small, roundish, slightly flattened; suture indistinct; color bright red becoming dark red at full maturity; stem one inch long, slender, set in a small, regular cavity; skin thin; flesh yellowish-white, sometimes tinged red under the skin, tender, juicy, brisk but pleasant subacid; quality fair; stone very small, roundish. EARLY MORELLO _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:118. 1900. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:275. 1903. _Orel No. 23._ =3.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 327. 1888. =4.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:68, 77 fig. 17. 1903. This, which we think is the true Early Morello, is worthy an extended description in _The Cherries of New York_ chiefly because there are several cherries of this name. The confusion results in much vexation to cherry-growers in the West where, only, these cherries have been planted. The full description should make clear at least the character of the variety which is being grown at this Station as Early Morello. About all that can be said of the variety as it grows here is that the trees are hardy, healthy, vigorous, fruitful and regular in bearing. The cherries show the variety to be of the Amarelle group but are such as to make it far inferior to Montmorency and other well-known Amarelles. The name is misleading, as the variety has little in common, in tree or fruit, with the true Morellos. The cherry described here as Early Morello was introduced by Professor J. L. Budd from Orel, Russia, as Orel No. 23. It has proved very productive and hardy throughout the West and resembles Early Richmond, though smaller, a trifle darker, less acid and a week later. A dark-fleshed variety from Erfurt, Prussia, was sent out from Rosedale, Kansas, where it is known as Early Morello. This, and one by D. U. Reed, Blue Springs, Nebraska, appear to be very similar to the Northwest, or Wier No. 29. Tree of medium size and vigor, upright-spreading, very productive; trunk rather thick, shaggy; branches with numerous large lenticels; branchlets slender, short; leaves two and three-fourths inches long, one and one-half inches wide, thick, stiff, dark green, rather glossy, smooth; margin finely and doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole glandless or with from one to three small, globose, brown or yellowish glands variable in position; buds small, short, obtuse, in small clusters at the ends of slender, branchlike spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom late; flowers one inch across; pistil equal to or slightly longer than the stamens, sometimes defective. Fruit matures in mid-season; about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, oblate, compressed; color attractive dark red; stem one inch long, adhering to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh light yellow, with pinkish juice, tender and melting, sprightly, tart; of very good quality; stone free, ovate, flattened, slightly pointed, with smooth surfaces, somewhat tinged with red. EARLY PURPLE _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. _Purple Cherry._ =2.= Ray _Hist. Plant._ 1540. 1688. _Early Purple Guigne._ =3.= _Cultivator_ N. S. =4=:280 fig. 2. 1847. =4.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =1=:93, 94, Pl. 1851. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 55. 1852. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 211. 1856. =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:129, 130, fig. 63. 1866-73. =8.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:57 fig. 3, 58, 59. 1866. =9.= _Horticulturist_ =25=:71 fig. 1870. =10.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:334, 335 fig., 336. 1877. =11.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 295. 1884. =12.= _Guide Prat._ 6, 193. 1895. _Purple Guigne_. =13.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 195 fig. 1854. Early Purple is a valuable cherry on account of its earliness, its attractive color and high quality. The trees bear well and regularly after having become established in the orchard. The variety has the reputation of being a poor grower in the nursery and as a young tree in the orchard but with age it takes on vigor and at all times is as healthy as those of any Sweet Cherry. More than most cherries, this variety responds to good care and a choice cherry soil--a warm, free-working loam being best. A rather unusual and serious defect of this variety is that the fruit-spurs are easily broken during picking and the crop of the next season thereby cut short. Another fault is that it is the favorite food of the robin where this, the worst of all cherry pests, abounds. The cherries of this variety do not attain their rich purple color until full maturity is reached. Hogg, the English pomologist, maintains that Early Purple does better on the Mahaleb than on the Mazzard stock. No home collection should be without this variety and it can often be profitably grown as an early cherry for the local market. Early Purple is the Early Purple Guigne of most fruit-books, the name having been shortened by the American Pomological Society, though, since the variety goes back to the Early Purple of Ray in 1688, the name here used has the right of precedence. As to what the origin and history of the variety were before Ray mentioned it, we can find no record. Early Purple was brought to America over a hundred years ago. According to Elliott, eastern growers received it directly from England, while in the West it was brought over by a party of German emigrants, under the name "German May Duke" and as such it is still much grown in localities in the Central West. In 1852, the American Pomological Society listed Early Purple as one of the promising new fruits and later, in 1856, it was given a place, which it has since retained, on the Society's catalog of fruits recommended for general cultivation. [Illustration: EARLY PURPLE] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, very productive; trunk thick, smooth; branches smooth, reddish-brown partly covered with ash-gray, with large lenticels; branchlets short, brown partly covered with ash-gray, roughened, with a few small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, four inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, oval to obovate, thin; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface light green, very lightly pubescent; apex and base acute; margin finely serrate, with small, dark colored glands; petiole one and three-fourths inches long, slender, tinged with red, with few hairs, with two or three small, globose, reddish glands on the stalk. Buds variable in size and shape, rather long, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in small clusters on spurs variable in length; season of bloom early; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in scattering clusters, usually in twos; pedicels characteristically long, often one and one-fourth inches, slender, glabrous; calyx-tube with a faint tinge of red, campanulate; calyx-lobes tinged with red, long, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals broadly oval, serrate, with short, blunt claws and a shallow, notched apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures very early; one inch in diameter, cordate, slightly compressed; cavity regular; suture a faint line; apex pointed; color purplish-black; dots numerous, small, grayish, obscure; stem tinged with red, slender, nearly two inches long, adhering to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating readily from the pulp; flesh dark reddish-purple, with dark colored juice, tender, melting, mild, sweet; of very good quality; stone free except along the ventral suture, rather large, broadly oval, compressed near the apex, with smooth surfaces. EARLY RICHMOND _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Thacher _Am. Orch._ 217. 1822. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:142. 1832. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 194, 195 fig. 1854. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 12. 1871. =5.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:115 fig., 116. 1900. _Flanders._ =6.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 571. 1629. _Kentish._ =7.= Miller _Gard. Kal._ 154. 1734. =8.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 660, 661. 1819. =9.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 196 fig., 197. 1845. =10.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =11.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:25, 26, fig. 11. 1866-73. _Cerisier Hâtif._ =12.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:170, 171, Pl. IV. 1768. =13.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 657, 658, 691. 1819. =14.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 13, Pl. 1846. =15.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:343, 344 fig., 345. 1877. _Cerise de Volger._ =16.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 43. 1771. _Frühzeitige Amarelle._ =17.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 616-618. 1819. =18.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:70. 1858. _Early Griotte._ =19.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:131, 132. 1832. _French._ =20.= _Quebec Pom. & Fr. Gr. Soc. Rpt._ 122, 123. 1906. Early Richmond has long been the leading Sour Cherry of its season--the first of its kind in the markets. It is not a remarkable variety in its fruit-characters, the cherries being but medium in size, mediocre in quality and not handsomer than other Amarelles with which it belongs. It is, however, a very good culinary fruit and when well ripened may be eaten out of hand with relish by those who like the refreshing acidity of a Sour Cherry. Though not in nearly as great demand for canning as Montmorency it still makes a very good canned product, being used more than it otherwise would be to prolong the canning season because of its earliness. Before cherries were largely canned for the markets, Early Richmond was much used in making dried cherries, the product, rightly cured, making a delicious sweetmeat which would keep for several months. The cherries are remarkable for the tenacity with which the stone clings to the stem. It is the tree in which the Early Richmond particularly surpasses. It thrives in varied soils and climates from the St. Lawrence to the Carolinas and from the Atlantic to the Pacific--possibly the most cosmopolitan of all cherries--and everywhere vigorous, healthy and fruitful. For the many purposes for which it may be used and because of the characters of the tree, Early Richmond is indispensable in every home and commercial orchard for an early cherry. After Montmorency it is more largely grown than any other cherry, Sweet or Sour, in New York. Early Richmond is the old Kentish of English writers, confused more or less with the different Montmorencies. Whether or not this variety was introduced into Kent, England, by the Romans and became thus early the Kentish or whether it came from Flanders or Holland where it was called Cerise de Volger, is not now certain. Probably, however, it is one of the many seedlings of the Cerise Commune, as are the Montmorencies, and was first known as Cerisier Hâtif. Early in the Sixteenth Century the gardener of Henry VIII made extensive plantings in Kent with trees supposed to have come from Flanders, and Parkinson, in 1629, mentions a variety as Flanders which was probably this cherry. The variety, soon known by many English writers as Kentish, was confused by the French who seem to have had two Kentish cherries. In English nurseries Kentish was soon confused with Montmorency. In this way the terms Kentish, Flanders, Flemish and Montmorency came into use for this sort. It was early brought to America where it became known as Early Richmond but even here it has several names. The belief that it originated at Richmond, Virginia, was due to the fact that William Prince secured his first trees from that source. By whom the variety was introduced into this country is unknown, although Thacher speaks of it as early as 1822. In the South it became known as Virginia May, while in the West it has been called Early May. The variety appeared on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society as Kentish in 1862 but in 1871 the name was changed to Early Richmond. It is listed by all prominent nurseries in this country as Richmond or Early Richmond while in England it is still known as Kentish. The French cherry, often spoken of as "the common French cherry," introduced into the lower St. Lawrence region, is very similar to Early Richmond. This strain, propagated from seed or sprouts, seems to be somewhat hardier than Early Richmond and varies slightly from it in size and quality. [Illustration: EARLY RICHMOND] Tree of medium size, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense, round-topped, productive; trunk and branches smooth; branches reddish-brown lightly overspread with dull gray, with numerous lenticels; branchlets slender, long, grayish, smooth, with numerous small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and one-half inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, obovate, thick; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface pale green; apex variable in shape, base abrupt; margin finely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole glandless or with one or two globose, greenish-yellow glands at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, obtuse, very plump, free, arranged singly and in clusters on very short spurs; blooms appearing in mid-season; flowers one and one-fourth inches across, white; borne in scattering clusters, usually in twos and threes; pedicels five-eighths inch long, glabrous; calyx-tube green or faintly tinged with red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, obtuse, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, sessile, with a shallow, wide notch at the apex; filaments over one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures early; three-fourths inch in diameter, roundish-oblate, compressed; cavity abrupt, regular; suture indistinct; apex roundish or flattened, with a slight depression at the center; color light red changing to dark red; dots numerous, small, russet, inconspicuous; stem slender, one inch long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, rather tough, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellow, with light pinkish juice, stringy, tender and melting, sprightly, pleasant flavored; good to very good in quality; stone free, small, roundish-ovate, slightly pointed, with smooth surfaces; somewhat roughened along the ventral suture. ELKHORN _Prunus avium_ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:117. 1832. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 213. 1854. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 24. 1899. _John Tradescantes Cherrie._ =4.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 574. 1629. _Hertogs-Kers._ =5.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 40. 1771. _Grosse Schwarze Knorpelkirsche._ =6.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 180-192. 1819. =7.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:36. 1858. =8.= _Ill. Handb._ 89 fig., 90. 1860. =9.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =III=: No. 6, Pl. 1882. =10.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 357, 358. 1889. _Tradescant's Black Heart._ =11.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 188 fig., 189. 1845. =12.= Thompson _Gard. Ass't_ 526. 1859. =13.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. _Gros Bigarreau Noir._ =14.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:108-111, fig. 24. 1866. =15.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:224, 225 fig., 226. 1877. _St. Margaret's Cherry._ =16.= _Flor. & Pom._ 105, Pl. 542. 1881. Elkhorn has served its day and is now being rapidly superseded by other cherries of the Bigarreau group to which it belongs. It was valued by the old pomologists because of the large size of the fruit, the firm flesh, late ripening, rich flavor, and because it hangs well on the tree long after maturity. But it fails in competition with other Bigarreaus in bearing cherries quite variable in size, in the diminishing size of the fruit as the trees attain age and more than all else in being but moderately productive. The bark of the trunk and main branches is so heavily overspread with gray as to make this a distinguishing mark. The fruit, too, is distinct in appearance by reason of the irregular surface of the skin. The variety possesses no characters, as it usually grows, to make it worth planting either for home or market. The history of this old cherry was almost hopelessly confused by the early horticulturists by the vast number of names they used for it, many of which belonged to other varieties. Elkhorn is supposed to have been raised by John Tradescant, gardener to Charles I of England, under the name Tradescant's Black Heart. Of this cherry, John Parkinson in 1629 says: "John Tradescantes Cherrie is most usually sold by our Nursery Gardiners, for the Archdukes cherrie, because they have more plenty thereof, and will better be increased, and because it is so faire and good a cherrie that it may be obtruded without much discontent: it is a reasonably good bearer, a faire great berrie, deepe coloured, and a little pointed." It is not known when or how Elkhorn got to America. The first cherry-grower in this country to mention it was William Prince, in 1832, who says that his father noticed the variety growing in a garden next to a hotel in Maryland about 1797 and brought cions of it to New York afterwards propagating and selling it under the name Elkhorn given to the cherry by the hotel proprietor. Elkhorn was at one time very popular and well disseminated throughout the United States and is sold now by a large number of nurserymen either under the name Tradescant's Black Heart or as Elkhorn. In 1862, the American Pomological Society listed in its fruit catalog Tradescant's Black Heart but dropped it in 1877. In 1899 this Society placed the variety in its catalog under the name Elkhorn and it still remains on its list of recommended fruits. From its history it is apparent that this cherry is rightly called Tradescant or Black Heart or by some combination of these terms but Elkhorn has been adopted by the American Pomological Society, is everywhere in common use on this continent and is so distinctive that we choose for this text the newer name. Tree large, very vigorous, upright, open-topped, moderately productive; trunk stocky, smooth; branches stout, smooth, with numerous small lenticels, reddish-brown heavily overspread with ash-gray; branchlets thick. Leaves numerous, three and three-fourths inches long, two and one-fourth inches wide, short-oval to obovate, thin; upper surface medium green, roughish; lower surface dull, light green, lightly pubescent; apex acute; margin coarsely serrate, glandular; petiole with from one to three raised glands of medium size, variable in shape, usually on the stalk. Fruit matures in late mid-season; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, cordate to conical, slightly compressed; cavity deep, wide, flaring; suture indistinct; apex roundish or pointed, with a slight depression at the center; color purplish-black; dots numerous, small, dark russet, inconspicuous; stem one and three-eighths inches long, adhering to the fruit; skin thin, tender, adhering somewhat to the pulp; flesh a characteristically dark purplish-red, with very dark colored juice, meaty, firm, crisp, mild, sweet; of good quality; stone semi-free, ovate, flattened, slightly pointed, with smooth surfaces, tinged with red. ELTON _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 49. 1831. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:121, 122. 1832. =3.= _Pom. Mag._ =2=:92, Pl 1839. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 186 fig. 77. 1845. =5.= _Proc. Nat. Con. Fr. Gr._ 52. 1848. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1850. =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1852. =8.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 194 fig. 1854. =9.= Thompson _Gard. Ass't_ 528. 1859. =10.= _Ill. Handb._ 105 fig., 106. 1860. =11.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:91 fig. 17, 92, 93. 1866. =12.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 463 fig. 1869. =13.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:196, 197 fig. 1877. _Flesh Coloured Bigarreau._ =14.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:128. 1832. =15.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 182 fig. 74. 1845. =16.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:192, 193 fig. 1877. Elton has been freely recommended and widely cultivated in Europe and America for the past century and probably no cherry has given more general satisfaction. The variety is distinguished by the form, color, flesh and flavor of its fruit. The cherries are oblong-heart-shaped--possibly too much drawn out for best appearance and often too oblique; the color, very well shown in the color-plate, is most attractive and makes up for any defect in shape--a dark red mottled with amber, very bright, clear and glossy; the flesh, a little too soft to ship well, is delicate and most pleasing to the palate; the flavor is peculiarly rich and luscious being hardly surpassed by that of any other cherry. The trees may be as readily told as the fruit, by the unusually dark red color of the petioles of the leaves. The branches are stout and bear the crop thickly placed close to the wood and in prodigious quantities. Unfortunately it has a fault which in America, at least, makes it almost unfit for a commercial plantation. Brown-rot, the scourge of the Sweet Cherry, attacks this variety more aggressively than almost any other sort and for this reason, while its merits can hardly be too highly spoken of, Elton must remain for most part a variety for the home orchard. The tree, perfect in most respects, is a little tender to cold. Leroy, the French pomologist, thinks it does better on Mahaleb than on the Mazzard stock. This is another cherry from Thomas Andrew Knight, the great English pomologist. Knight fruited it first about 1806, the tree coming from a pit of Yellow Spanish, the paternal parent being White Heart. From the first it took a high place in English and continental pomology as it did also in America upon being brought here in 1823. The variety is everywhere known and grown in America and is for sale by many nurserymen. Elton was one of the fruits to receive attention at the first meeting of the American Pomological Society in 1848, and in 1852 was put on the list of recommended fruits where it still remains. [Illustration: ELTON] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, very productive; trunk thick, smooth; branches smooth, reddish-brown covered with ash-gray, with small lenticels; branchlets long, brown partly covered with ash-gray, smooth, with inconspicuous, raised lenticels, intermediate in number and size. Leaves numerous, five and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, long-obovate to elliptical, thin; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface light green, thinly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole two inches long, heavily tinged with red, with a few scattering hairs along the upper surface, with from two to four reniform or globose, reddish-brown glands on the stalk. Buds large, long, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and on very short spurs variable in size; leaf-scars prominent; mid-season in blooming; flowers one and one-half inches across, white; borne in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged with red, long, broad, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, nearly sessile, with a shallow notch at the apex; filaments about one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures early; about one inch long, three-fourths inch wide, cordate to conical, somewhat compressed and oblique; cavity rather abrupt, regular; suture indistinct; apex distinctly pointed; color dark red with an amber tinge, faintly mottled; dots numerous, small, light yellow, obscure; stem slender, one and three-fourths inches long; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh white with a tinge of yellow, with colorless juice, slightly stringy, tender, very mild, sweet; of good quality; stone free except along the ventral suture, one-half inch long, long-ovate, slightly flattened, with smooth surfaces; somewhat ridged along the ventral suture. EMPRESS EUGENIE _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =7=:277. 1865. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:159 fig. 41, 160. 1866. =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:5, 6, fig. 1. 1866-73. =4.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 10, Pl. 10. 1871. =5.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 383. 1875. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 20. 1877. =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:348 fig., 349. 1877. =8.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 296, 297. 1884. =9.= Gaucher _Pom. Prak. Obst._ No. 78, Pl. 29. 1894. _Eugenie._ =10.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1883. This old French cherry, for many years largely advertised and widely sold in America, does not thrive in the New World as well as the reports say it does in the Old World. The two faults that condemn it, as it grows here, are that the cherries ripen very unevenly making several pickings necessary and the trees are so small that, though loaded with fruit, the total yield is not large. Lesser faults are that the cherries are not uniform in shape and are borne thickly in close clusters so that when brown-rot is rife this variety suffers greatly. The short stem, too, prevents easy picking. To offset these faults Empress Eugenie has to its credit the reputation of being about the most refreshing and delicious Duke. In a home plantation where the unevenness in ripening can be utilized to prolong the season and where dwarfness may not be undesirable, Empress Eugenie may well find a place. This cherry appeared in 1845 as a chance seedling on the grounds of M. Varenne at Belleville, near Paris, France. It first fruited about 1850 and four years later the Horticultural Society of Paris placed it, under the name Impératrice Eugenie, on its list of recommended fruits. M. A. Gontier, a nurseryman at Fontenay-aux-Roses introduced it to commerce in 1855. Empress Eugenie soon became quite generally disseminated throughout Europe and was considered nearly as good as May Duke, with which it has occasionally been confused. It must have been brought to America towards the beginning of the last quarter of the Nineteenth Century and here it gradually became widely distributed until today it is found in all the leading cherry plantations and is propagated by a large number of nurserymen throughout the United States. The American Pomological Society added this cherry to its fruit catalog list in 1877 under the name Empress Eugenie. In 1883 this name was shortened to Eugenie under which term it has since appeared in the Society's catalog. In _The Cherries of New York_ we have not adopted the shortened name as, by such a change, all trace is lost of the person after whom the cherry was christened. [Illustration: EMPRESS EUGENIE] Tree small, not very vigorous, upright, becoming round-topped, very productive; trunk slender, roughish; branches slender, much roughened, reddish-brown partly covered with ash-gray, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets with short internodes, brown slightly covered with ash-gray, smooth except for the numerous small, conspicuous, much-raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and one-half inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, obovate, thick; upper surface dark green, slightly rugose; lower surface light green, thinly pubescent; apex abruptly pointed, base variable in shape; margin doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole three-fourths of an inch long, tinged with red, with a few hairs along the upper surface, glandless or with one or two small, globose, greenish-yellow or reddish glands, usually at the base of the blade. Buds obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and on long or short spurs, in clusters variable in size; leaf-scars obscure; blooming in mid-season; flowers one and one-fourth inches across, white; borne in very dense clusters, in threes and fours; pedicels one inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a faint tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, with short but distinct claws; apex nearly entire; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures in mid-season; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, roundish-conic to oblate-conic, compressed; cavity narrow; suture very shallow, indistinct; apex flattened or depressed; color dark red; dots numerous, small, dark russet, obscure; stem one and one-fourth inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin tough, separating from the pulp; flesh pale red, with pinkish juice, tender, meaty, sprightly, pleasant flavored, tart; of good quality; stone semi-clinging, small, ovate, flattened, somewhat oblique, with smooth surfaces. ENGLISH MORELLO _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. =2.= Langley _Pomona_ 85. 1729. =3.= Christ _Handb._ 677. 1797. =4.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 197, 198 fig. 1845. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =7.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 306, 307. 1884. =8.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _Grosse Cerise à Ratafia._ =9.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:189. 1768. _Grosse Lange Lothkirsche._ =10.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 599, 600, 601. 1819. =11.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 326. 1888. =12.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 356, 357. 1889. _Large Morello._ =13.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:144. 1832. _Ratafia Griotte._ =14.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:147. 1832. =15.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 17, Pl. 1846. =16.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:299, 300 fig., 301. 1877. _Northern Griotte._ =17.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:146. 1832. 18. Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 18, Pl. 1846. =19.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:188 fig. 189, 190. 1866. =20.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 15, Pl. 15. 1871. =21.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 195. 1876. =22.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 331. 1885. _Colorado Morello._ =23.= Rogers _Cat._ 18. 1900. English Morello is the best of all its group and is the standard late Sour Cherry in North America, occupying at the close of the season the place held by Montmorency in mid-season for home, market and cannery. It is not a table fruit and can hardly be eaten out of hand until it loses some of its astringency and acidity by thorough ripening. In any way the cherries are prepared by cooking, however, it is one of the best, culinary processes giving the fruits a rich, dark wine color, very attractive in appearance, and a most pleasant, sprightly, aromatic flavor. The fruit is handsome in appearance, bears harvesting and shipping well, is resistant to brown-rot and hangs long on the trees after ripening, often until the last of August if robins can be kept away. Once seen, one may always know the trees. They are small, round-headed, with branches that distinctly droop. To be sufficiently productive an English Morello orchard must be closely set; for, though the trees are vigorous and productive for their size, they are too dwarf to yield heavily. The trees are hardy but not always healthy and are not adapted to as great a diversity of soils as might be wished. The variety distinctly fails in its tree-characters. The demand for English Morello has recently decreased and it is doubtful if it ever regains its popularity of a decade ago. There is a place for a late cherry which English Morello now fills but not sufficiently well. All of the early pomologists describe a Morello or a Morella but no one of them definitely gives its place of origin. The concensus of opinion is that it originated in either Holland or Germany from whence it was introduced into England and later into France. The early German writers listed a Grosse Lange Lothkirsche which is English Morello. Preceding them, Duhamel described the Grosse Cerise à Ratafia "as one praised for confitures and preserving," which is probably this cherry. Leroy believed English Morello to be the cherry that Mortillet brought to Paris from Holland calling it Griotte du Nord though he thought the variety had been grown in France for many years previous but under another name. It is possible that the term Du Nord originated through its being widely grown as an espalier demanding a northern exposure, rather than as some have thought, because it came from northern Germany. In 1862 English Morello was put on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society where it still remains. Wragg is thought to be identical with this cherry by some and, if not, it differs but little. Northern Griotte and Grosse Lange Lothkirsche, introduced by Budd from Russia, are English Morello. Morris, or Colorado Morello, put out by John Morris of Golden, Colorado, once thought to be distinct, is also English Morello. [Illustration: ENGLISH MORELLO] Tree small, upright-spreading, with drooping branchlets, dense-topped, productive; trunk slender, rough; branches slender, smooth, dark brown overlaid with dark ash-gray, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets slender, willowy, with short internodes, brownish, smooth, with numerous conspicuous, small, slightly raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, two and three-fourths inches long, one and one-half inches wide, folded upward, obovate to oval; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface light green; apex acute, base variable in shape; margin finely serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole one-half inch long, tinged with dull red, grooved, with from one to three small, globose or reniform, greenish-yellow glands at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds; leaf-scars obscure; season of bloom late; flowers one inch across, white; borne in scattering clusters in twos and threes; pedicels nearly one inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a faint tinge of red, somewhat campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, obtuse, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals distinctly veined, roundish, crenate, sessile, with crenate apex; filaments one-fourth of an inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures very late; about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, sometimes running larger, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity shallow, narrow, flaring, regular; suture a shallow groove; apex roundish, with a small depression at the center; color very dark red becoming almost black; dots numerous, small, dark russet, conspicuous; stem slender, one inch long, adhering well to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh dark red, with dark colored juice, tender and melting, sprightly, tart; of good quality; stone free, small, ovate, slightly flattened and pointed, with smooth surfaces, slightly tinged with red. FLORENCE _Prunus avium_ =1.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 29. 1828. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 277. 1832. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 187. 1845. =4.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 365. 1849. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1885. _Knevett's Late Bigarreau._ =6.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1831. _Bigarreau de Florence._ =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:204 fig., 205. 1877. _Florence Heart._ =8.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 43. 1904. Florence is a Bigarreau so similar to Yellow Spanish as to be hardly worth planting, since it is, all and all, surpassed by its better-known rival. The fruit hangs on the tree in edible condition an almost phenomenal length of time which has given rise to much divergence of opinion as to its season, some pomologists rating it as early, others as mid-season and still others as late. At Geneva the trees of this variety are not as healthful, vigorous or as fruitful as those of Yellow Spanish, with which it must compete, nor are the cherries quite as fine in appearance or quality. This variety was found in Florence, Italy, early in the Nineteenth Century by John Houblon, who took it to England from whence it was brought to America. It found a place in 1885 on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society where it remained until 1891, when it was discarded, with quite sufficient reason. [Illustration: FLORENCE] Tree vigorous, upright, open-topped, productive; trunk and branches thick, smooth; branches reddish-brown partly overspread with ash-gray, with numerous lenticels; branchlets thick, long, brown partly covered with ash-gray, smooth, with inconspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, variable in size, averaging four and one-fourth inches long, two and one-fourth inches wide, folded upward, long-oval to obovate, thin; upper surface rather dark green, rugose; lower surface dull light green, thinly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one and three-fourths inches long, thick, pubescent, dull red, with from two to four large, reniform, reddish glands on the stalk. Buds pointed, plump, free, arranged as lateral buds and grouped in large clusters on numerous short spurs; season of bloom intermediate; flowers one and one-fourth inches across, white; borne in dense clusters in twos and threes; pedicels three-fourths of an inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes greenish, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals broad-obovate to oval, entire, with very short, blunt claws, distinctly notched at the apex; filaments nearly one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, usually shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures early; one inch in diameter, cordate, compressed; cavity deep, wide; suture very shallow; apex somewhat pointed; color reddish over an amber background, marked with indistinct, whitish spots and streaks; dots numerous, small, whitish, inconspicuous; stem one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, separating from the pulp; flesh yellowish-white, with colorless juice, tender, meaty, crisp, sprightly, sweet; of very good quality; stone clinging, cordate, flattened, blunt, with roughish surfaces; enlarged along the ventral suture. GEORGE GLASS _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 328, 329. 1888. =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 79. 1890. =3.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 245. 1894. =4.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =31=:341. 1895. =5.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:125. 1900. =6.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:276, 277. 1903. =7.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:70. 1903. George Glass has been widely heralded as a desirable variety in the Middle West but in New York, where it has passed through a rather lengthy probationary period, practically all who have tried it are ready to declare it worthless. It is of the Amarelle group and cannot compete with the many good varieties of its kinship, as the Early Richmond or the several Montmorencies. Its season is between Early Richmond and Montmorency. As compared with the last-named variety, the standard Sour Cherry, the fruit of George Glass is smaller, sourer, less attractive in appearance and the trees are far less fruitful. Possibly the trees are more hardy, this character commending it for the colder parts of the Mississippi Valley. The origin of this variety is uncertain but it is supposed to have been introduced into Iowa by immigrants from northeastern Germany. In American collections it has often been confused with Brusseler Braune and Bessarabian and by some is declared to be identical with the latter sort. It is supposed to be a cross between a Duke and a Morello cherry. [Illustration: GEORGE GLASS] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, rather open, hardy, appears unproductive; trunk thick; branches thick, roughened, with numerous conspicuous, raised lenticels; leaves numerous, four inches long, two inches wide, obovate, thick, stiff, dark green; petiole three-fourths of an inch long, tinged with red, with a few hairs along the upper surface, with one or two small, globose, reddish-orange glands, usually at the base of the blade; buds intermediate in size and length; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers one and one-fourth inches across; borne in dense clusters. Fruit matures in mid-season; three-fourths of an inch long, one inch wide, oblate, compressed; cavity deep; color light red changing to dark red; stem one and one-eighth inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin separating from the pulp; flesh yellowish-white, with abundant colorless juice, stringy, tender and melting, rather mild for a sour cherry; good to very good in quality; stone free, roundish or slightly oblate, plump, blunt, with smooth surfaces; ventral suture prominent. HEART-SHAPED WEICHSEL _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 573-577. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:60, 61. 1858. =3.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 328. 1888. =4.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:17. 1910. _Herzförmige Sauerkirsche_. =5.= Christ _Wörterb._ 288. 1802. _Heart-Shaped Griotte_. =6.= Prince _Pom. Man._. =2=:149. 1832. =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:103, 104, fig. 50. 1866-73. This Sour Cherry, of the Morello group, is too poor in quality to recommend it for any purpose. The fruit is scarcely edible until dead ripe and even then is too puckering to eat out of hand with relish. The cherries are very attractive, being large for the kind, heart-shaped, of a handsome, clear, glossy dark purple color and very uniform in all characters. The tree is conspicuous because of its symmetrical shape, large size, round head and its many branches and branchlets. The leaves are characteristically small, as are the flowers, which are further distinguished by very narrow petals. The tree is hardy and productive and quite worth a place on a lawn as an ornamental if not in the garden for its fruit. The variety has several characters to commend it to plant-breeders. This variety came to light in written records in the early part of the Nineteenth Century in German fruit-books under the name Saure Herzkirsche or Herzkirschweichsel and was highly recommended for its fine flavor. Professor J. L. Budd of Iowa, in one of his European trips, was impressed with its symmetrical habit of growth and its abundant foliage where he found it growing in eastern Europe as a lawn tree. He included it among his importations but it has not proved valuable in the New World. Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, unproductive; branches rather slender, smooth except for the large, conspicuous lenticels; branchlets slender, long; leaves numerous, two and three-fourths inches long, one and three-eighths inches wide, obovate to oval, thin, dark green, smooth; petiole over one-half inch long, tinged with red, with from one to three small, globose, greenish-yellow or brownish glands at the base of the blade; buds intermediate in size and length, usually obtuse; season of bloom late; flowers one inch across; borne in scattered clusters; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil slightly shorter than the stamens, often defective. Fruit matures in mid-season; about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, roundish-conic, slightly compressed; color very dark, dull red; stem slender, one and one-fourth inches long, adhering to the fruit; skin thin, tough; flesh very dark red, with dark wine-colored juice, tender, rather meaty, very astringent, sour; of poor quality; stone nearly free, small, ovate, flattened, pointed, with roughish and colored surfaces. HILDESHEIM _Prunus avium_ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:131. 1832. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 196. 1854. _Guignier à Fruit Rouge Tardif._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:162. 1768. _Agathe._ =4.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:37. 1771. _Doppelttragende Kleine Rothe Spätkirsche._ =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 281, 282, 283. 1819. _Hildesheimer Ganz Späte Knorpelkirsche._ =6.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 321, 322, 323. 1819. _Late Red Guigne._ =7.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:113. 1832. _Bigarreau Tardif de Hildesheim._ =8.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 184. 1845. _Merveille de September._ =9.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 210. 1854. _Belle Agathe de Novembre._ =10.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =3=:9, Pl. 1855. _Hildesheimer Späte Knorpelkirsche._ =11.= _Ill. Handb._ 139 fig., 140. 1860. _Kratos Knorpelkirsche._ =12.= _Ill. Handb._ 59 fig., 60. 1867. _Schöne Agathe._ =13.= _Ill. Handb._ 63 fig., 64. 1867. _Bigarreau de Fer._ =14.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:199, 200 fig. 1877. _Belle Agathe._ =15.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:99, 100, fig. 50. 1882. _Bigarreau de Hildesheim._ =16.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 282. 1884. This variety, one of the oldest, has been called by a great number of names by European writers. The cherry mentioned by Duhamel, in 1768, as a late Guigne with red fruit, otherwise known as Guigne de Fer, can be no other than Hildesheim. The exact origin of the variety has never been known, though it is supposed to have sprung up in the neighborhood of Hildesheim, Prussia. It was brought to America early in the Nineteenth Century, probably by William Prince. With it came some of the numerous foreign names. It seems certain that Late Red Guigne mentioned by Prince was Hildesheim. Ripening late and being small and of rather undesirable texture, Hildesheim did not meet with much favor in America, never being widely disseminated, and has long since passed from cultivation. This variety, under the name Belle Agathe, was propagated in Belgium by M. Thiery about 1852 and for some time was supposed to be a separate sort. The following description is compiled: Tree very large, vigorous, upright, hardy, an annual bearer, unproductive while young producing good crops later; branches thick, large, long, straight; leaves numerous, of medium size, oval or elongated-oval, acuminate; margin finely and regularly serrate; petiole slender, rather short, tinged red, with large, flattened glands; blooming season early. Fruit matures very late, usually attached in fives but sometimes in threes and fours; small to medium, roundish-cordate, flattened on one side, somewhat irregular; color yellowish, mottled and marbled with dark red; stem two inches long, slender, somewhat curved; skin thick; flesh pale yellow, slightly tinged with red at the pit, firm, somewhat stringy, rather dry, with uncolored juice, pleasant flavored, sweet; quality good; stone medium to large, with reddish surface, long, compressed. IDA _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =20=:270, 271. 1878. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 162. 1881. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. Ida is a handsome, large, light red cherry resembling Napoleon in shape and Rockport in color, but differing from both in having soft flesh which places it among the Hearts rather than the Bigarreaus. Because of beauty of the fruit, earliness and good tree-characters, Ida promises to become a rather general favorite in home orchards though it falls short of several others of its near of kin in flavor and flesh-characters. It can never take a high place among commercial kinds because the cherries are too soft to handle well, show bruises plainly, are somewhat susceptible to brown-rot and come when better cherries are plentiful. The trees are vigorous, hardy and bear full crops regularly and in various environments. The variety is readily told by the upright habit of growth and by the large lenticels on trunk and branches. Ida has been very well tried as a commercial variety in this State but in the ups and downs of the industry has not held its own with other sorts and can be recommended only for home plantations. E. H. Cocklin of Shepherdstown, Pennsylvania, grew this variety as a seedling of Cocklin's Favorite, another of his cherries. The cherry was named after his daughter, Ida. It seems to have proved worthy of general culture, as it is now listed by many nurserymen. The American Pomological Society placed Ida on its fruit list in 1909. [Illustration: IDA] Tree large, vigorous, upright, open-topped, somewhat vasiform, very productive; trunk stout; branches very stocky, smooth, light ash-gray over brown, with large, much-raised lenticels; branchlets very stout, short, brown partly covered with ash-gray, roughish, with a few raised lenticels. Leaves five and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, elliptical to obovate, thin; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, pubescent along the midrib and larger veins; apex taper-pointed, base acute; margin doubly crenate, with small, black glands; petiole two and one-fourth inches long, thick, tinged with red, somewhat hairy along the grooved upper surface, usually with two large, reniform, reddish glands on the stalk. Buds large, long, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in dense clusters on numerous short spurs, also with many small, round, lateral leaf-buds on the secondary growth; leaf-scars not prominent; blooming in mid-season; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in clusters usually in twos; pedicels three-fourths of an inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, whitish within, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a tinge of red, acute, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, dentate at the apex, nearly sessile; filaments nearly one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures early; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, cordate, slightly compressed; cavity deep, flaring, regular; suture a distinct line; apex variable in shape; color amber overspread with light red, mottled; dots numerous, rather large, yellowish, somewhat conspicuous; stem one and one-half inches long; skin thin, separating readily from the pulp; flesh whitish, with colorless juice, tender and melting, mild, sweet; of good quality; stone free or semi-free, roundish, slightly flattened, blunt, with smooth surfaces; with distinct ridges along the ventral suture. JEFFREY DUKE _Prunus avium × Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:204. 1843. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 190, 191. 1845. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =5.= _Mas Pom. Gen._ =11=:119, 120, fig. 60. 1882. =6.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 302. 1884. _Royale._ =7.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:193, 194, Pl. XV. 1768. =8.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 482-484. 1819. =9.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:386, 387 fig., 388. 1877. _Königliche Süssweichsel._ =10.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 427-429. 1819. =11.= _Ill. Handb._ 73 fig., 74. 1867. _Jeffrey's Royal._ =12.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 99. 1846. _Royale Hâtive._ =13.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:134-138, fig. 32. 1866. This old variety, which has almost passed from cultivation, may have had its origin in France about the middle of the Eighteenth Century, though more likely it originated in England much earlier. Leroy mentions a Royale cherry which was introduced from England to France about 1730 and was first grown by M. le Normand in the garden of Louis XV. The name Royale was first used by the French about 1735 from the fact that it was grown in the royal gardens and since that time this name has clung to the variety in most of the French plantations. According to English writers, the variety was brought to notice in England by Jeffrey, proprietor of the Brompton Nursery at Brompton Park, England, and from that time it was known as Jeffrey's Duke. English pomologists maintain that Jeffrey renamed the old Cherry Duke of England, giving it his name. Jeffrey Duke appeared on the American Pomological Society's fruit catalog list in 1862 but was dropped in 1871. It is doubtful if the variety can now be found in America. The following description is compiled from the authors given in the references: Tree large, vigorous, very upright, unusually compact, slow-growing, productive; branches very numerous, stocky, straight, thickly set with fruit-spurs; internodes short; branchlets very short; buds closely set; leaves numerous, medium in size, oval or obovate, acuminate; margin finely and irregularly serrate; petiole short, slender, with small, flattened or globose glands; blooming season late; flowers small, very open. Fruit matures in mid-season, usually attached in pairs; medium in size, roundish, slightly flattened at the apex and base; suture a well-marked line; color lively red becoming dark red or almost black when fully ripe; stem slender, inserted in a moderately broad, deep cavity; skin thin; flesh firm but tender, yellowish-amber, with abundant colored juice, slightly stringy, highly flavored; good in quality; stone small, roundish, tinged with red. KING AMARELLE _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Christ Wörterb._ 293. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 610-615. 1819. =3.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 174. 1825. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 533 fig., 534. 1861. =5.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =III=: No. 23, Pl. 1882. =6.= _Am. Gard._ =9=:264. 1888. =7.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:62. 1900. 8. _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:72. 1903. =9.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _King's Cherry._ =10.= Rea _Flora_ 205. 1676. King Amarelle is an old European cherry that has taken on new life in America. It is of the Early Richmond type, differing from this standard Amarelle in bearing fruit a little earlier, lighter in color and with a longer stem. The fault which all but condemns the variety as a commercial cherry is the small size of the fruit, the cherries running smaller than those of Early Richmond which, in its turn, is rather too small. The tree is very like that of Early Richmond--quite as vigorous and productive, the same in size and shape and, if anything, a little more hardy. The variety is told from afar in blossoming-time by the peculiar distribution of the flower-clusters, which are numerous and dense but always separated by several inches or a foot of bare wood. King Amarelle can never displace Early Richmond but might be tried where a somewhat hardier cherry is wanted or it might be planted as a substitute where the better-known sort fails. This variety, of old and uncertain origin, sprang up in France about the same time as the Montmorencies and became confused with them. In both fruit and tree-characters, however, King Amarelle is very different from the Montmorencies, being more like Early May but ripening later and making a larger tree. The cultivation of King Amarelle never became extended in Europe because of the inferior quality of the fruit and poor tree-characters. Professor J. L. Budd brought the variety to America from Russia about 1883. The Royal Amarelle, grown on the Canadian Experiment Station grounds in 1900, is undoubtedly King Amarelle. The American Pomological Society placed it on its list of recommended fruits in 1909. Tree of medium size and vigor, upright-spreading, open-topped, very productive; trunk roughish; branches rather slender, smooth, reddish-brown overlaid with dark ash-gray; branchlets slender, of medium length, with short internodes, brown partly covered with ash-gray, smooth, with numerous conspicuous, small, raised lenticels. Leaves three and one-half inches long, one and one-half inches wide, folded upward, obovate, somewhat glossy, thick; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface light green, with a few scattering hairs; apex acute, base abrupt; margin finely and doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole one inch long, somewhat slender, lightly tinged with red, with a few hairs on the grooved upper surface and with from one to three small, globose, greenish-yellow glands at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, obtuse, very free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in clusters on few, short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in dense clusters usually in threes; pedicels over one-half inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes faintly tinged with red, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals somewhat obovate, entire, with an entire apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures early; three-fourths inch in diameter, roundish-oblate, compressed; cavity regular, somewhat abrupt; suture indistinct; apex roundish or flattened; color bright red; dots numerous, small, light russet, rather conspicuous; stem one inch long, adhering to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellow, with colorless juice, tender and melting, sprightly; fair to good in quality; stone free, ovate, somewhat flattened, pointed, with smooth surfaces, faintly tinged with red; ridged along the ventral suture. KIRTLAND _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 22. 1904-05. _Kirtland's Mary._ =2.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:123, 124 fig. 21. 1847-48. =3.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 365. 1849. =4.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 231. 1849. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 39. 1852. =6.= _Ibid._ 235. 1854. =7.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 198 fig. 1854. =8.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 262, 263. 1857. =9.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:55, 56, fig. 26. 1866-73. _Mary._ =10.= _Hogg Fruit Man._ 69, 86, 87. 1866. In the collection of cherries at this Station, Kirtland stands among the best of the Bigarreaus in quality of fruit--in fact is hardly surpassed in richness and delicacy of flavor. The fruit, too, as may be seen from the color-plate, is handsome, the cherries resembling the well-known Napoleon but being a little darker in color. The flesh is firm and meaty and stands handling well and also resists the brown-rot as well as any other cherry. With these splendid qualities of fruit, Kirtland would long ago have been one of the standard commercial cherries were its tree-characters better. Wherever tried, the complaint comes that the trees lack vigor and can be grown successfully only on choice cherry soils and under the best of care. With these faults the variety can be recommended only for home orchards and for local markets where there is demand for a very early Bigarreau, since this variety ripens before most other cherries of its kind. Kirtland was grown in 1842 by Professor J. P. Kirtland of Cleveland, Ohio, and ranks foremost in quality and appearance of all the seedlings raised by this well-known cherry-breeder. The American Pomological Society, in 1852, mentioned this sort as deserving of further trial and, in 1854, listed it among the varieties of promising fruits. Elliott, in his _Fruit Book_, noted this cherry under the name Kirtland's Mary, in honor of Professor Kirtland's daughter, and classed it as a variety worthy of general cultivation. Hogg, in 1866, dropped the name Kirtland and listed it as Mary, while in the _American Pomological Society's Special Report_ for 1905 it is called Kirtland. According to the rules of pomological nomenclature, Hogg was correct in holding the name Mary but, since there is another Mary and no worthy sort bearing the name of so eminent a horticulturist as Professor Kirtland, this Station follows the American Pomological Society in the use of Kirtland. [Illustration: KIRTLAND] Tree small, rather weak, upright-spreading, open-topped, productive; trunk and branches slender, smooth; branches reddish-brown partly overspread with ash-gray, with numerous lenticels; branchlets thick, brown almost entirely overspread with ash-gray, smooth except for the longitudinal, conspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves five inches long, two and one-fourth inches wide, folded upward, elliptical to obovate, thin; upper surface medium green, somewhat glossy, smooth; lower surface light green, thinly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole one and three-fourths inches long, slender, tinged with red, lightly pubescent along the upper side, with two or three reniform, reddish glands on the stalk. Buds pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds or on numerous, very short spurs in clusters variable in size; leaf-scars prominent; blooming in mid-season; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in dense clusters; pedicels one inch long, pubescent, reddish-green; calyx-tube tinged with red, light green within, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes reddish, obtuse, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish-oval, entire, with short, broad claws and a notched apex; filaments in four series, the longest one-half inch; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, cordate, compressed; cavity wide, flaring; suture a more or less distinct line; apex roundish or pointed, with a small depression at the center; color amber overspread with bright red; dots numerous, small, grayish, conspicuous; stem one and three-fourths inches long, adhering to the fruit; skin tough; flesh whitish, with colorless juice, tender, meaty, with a pleasant and refreshing flavor; very good to best in quality; stone free, small, roundish-ovate, with smooth surfaces; ridged along the ventral suture. KNIGHT _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. _Knight's Early Black._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. =3.= _Prince Pom. Man._ =2=:120. 1832. =4.= _Proc. Nat. Con. Fr._ Gr. 52. 1848. =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde._ =3=:19. 1858. =6.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:83. 1866. =7.= _Mas Pom. Gen._ =11=:85, 86, fig. 43. 1882. _Knights Frühe Herzkirsche._ =8.= _Ill. Handb._ 3 fig., =4.= 1867. This old English variety has long been popular in America, where it is generally known as Knight's Early Black, this name having been shortened by the American Pomological Society to Knight. Possibly Knight is to be found in dooryards and home gardens in Eastern United States as often as any other Sweet Cherry with the exception of Black Tartarian. The characters which give it popularity are excellent quality, handsome appearance because of its glossy, dark purple color and uniformity in color, shape and size, and its earliness, it being the earliest good Sweet Cherry. Unfortunately, even in the best soil and under the most painstaking treatment, the cherries run small, a defect for American markets. The small size also leads to comparatively low yields even though the fruits are often borne in prodigious numbers. Knight, in size, color and flavor, is much like Black Tartarian but the cherries are smaller and ripen earlier. As the trees grow on the grounds of this Station they are about all that could be desired in a Sweet Cherry. The trees are characteristically marked by smooth bark which is dotted with large lenticels. There are now better sweet varieties than Knight for most purposes but still this old variety has too many merits, especially for home grounds, to be wholly forgotten. Knight comes from a seed of May Duke crossed with Yellow Spanish by T. A. Knight, Downton Castle, Wiltshire, England, about 1810. The new variety sprang into prominence almost immediately, being mentioned by French, German and English writers. Knight is still one of the well-recognized sorts in Europe and America and has appeared continuously on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society since 1848. Mathieu has included several synonyms under this head which we question as we believe they belong to the Guigne Noir Hâtive, a distinct variety though very similar. [Illustration: KNIGHT] Tree of medium size, upright-spreading, open-topped, very productive; trunk stocky, variable in smoothness; branches smooth, light reddish-brown nearly overspread with ash-gray, with small lenticels; branchlets thick, brown lightly covered with ash-gray, variable in smoothness, with small, raised, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, five and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, obovate to long-oval, thin; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface light green, thinly pubescent; apex and base variable in shape; margin doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole two inches long, slender, tinged with red, with a shallow groove and with few hairs, with two or three large, reniform, reddish glands, usually on the stalk. Buds long, conical or pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in small clusters on spurs variable in length; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in dense clusters, usually in twos; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes lightly tinged with red, long, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals oval, entire, deeply notched at the apex; filaments nearly one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures early; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, cordate to conical; cavity wide, rather abrupt; suture indistinct; apex flattened, with a small depression at the center; color dark reddish-black, obscurely mottled; dots numerous, small, russet, obscure; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, adhering well to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh dark red, with dark colored juice, tender, meaty, mild, sweet; of good quality; stone free except along the ventral suture, small, roundish-ovate, with smooth surfaces. LAMBERT _Prunus avium_ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 24. 1894. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 24. 1899. =3.= _U. S. D. A. Yearbook_ 307-309, Pl. 31. 1907. Nowhere else in America, possibly nowhere else in the world, can the Sweet Cherry be grown as well as in Oregon and Washington. From these States, more particularly Oregon, several meritorious cherries have been added to pomology. One of the best of these is Lambert, now a standard sort in its native State but still on probation in Eastern America. Lambert is a Bigarreau, a seedling of Napoleon by Black Heart, and a worthy rival of its parents in most respects and superior in some. In appearance, Lambert is more like its male than its female parent, having much the same shape and color, but it is larger, more rotund, smoother, clearer and brighter--one of the handsomest of the dark-colored Sweets. The flesh and flavor leave little to be desired; the flesh is purplish-red marbled with lighter red, firm, meaty and juicy, with a sweet, rich flavor that at the first taste one marks very good. The tree is strong, vigorous, healthy and usually fruitful and regular in bearing. The fruit sets in great, loose clusters--often a dozen or more cherries to the fruit-spur. The leaves are remarkably large and dark green, the foliage betokening the vigor of the variety. Lambert is well worthy thorough testing for either home or market wherever the Sweet Cherry can be grown. Lambert originated as a seedling under a Napoleon tree which was planted by the late Henderson Lewelling[80] about 1848 in the orchard of J. H. Lambert, Milwaukee, Oregon. This seedling, supposed to have been a cross between Napoleon and Black Heart, was grafted to May Duke and later transplanted. About 1880, the top died and a sprout from the seedling stock formed a new top. Mr. Lambert gave the new variety his name and in 1895 turned over his stock to the Oregon Horticultural Society with the exclusive right to propagate. The variety was placed on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1899 where it still remains. [Illustration: LAMBERT] Tree medium to large in size and vigor, upright-spreading, very productive; branches smooth, dull reddish-brown, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets thick, long, dark reddish-brown nearly covered with ash-gray, smooth, glabrous, with a few inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves four and one-fourth inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, oval to obovate, thin; upper surface medium green, smooth; lower surface light green, lightly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one and one-half inches long, dull red, glandless, or with from one to three rather small, globose, reddish glands on the stalk. Buds large, pointed or conical, free, arranged singly as lateral buds or in small clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate, short; flowers one and one-fourth inches across, white; borne usually in twos; pedicels three-fourths of an inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes long, broad, obtuse, finely serrate; petals roundish, entire, with short claws and with dentate apex; filaments one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures in mid-season; one inch in diameter, roundish-cordate, compressed; cavity rather deep, slightly flaring; suture shallow, often a mere line; apex roundish, depressed at the center; color very dark red changing to reddish-black; dots numerous, small, russet, obscure; stem tinged with red, slender, one and one-fourth inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, adhering to the pulp; flesh dark red, with scant dark red juice, meaty, firm, pleasant flavored, sweet; of very good quality; stone clinging, large, wide, ovate, flattened, blunt, oblique, with smooth surfaces; prominently ridged along the ventral suture. [80] Little is known of the early life of Seth and Henderson Lewelling. They were of Welsh ancestry and both were born in Salem, North Carolina, Henderson on the 25th of April, 1809, and Seth on the 6th day of March, 1819. Henderson died in California December 28th, 1878, while Seth died in Milwaukee, continued: Oregon, February 21st, 1897. When the boys were still very young their parents moved from North Carolina to Ohio and founded the town of Salem in Ross County; later they moved to Indiana where their father established a nursery and became one of the pioneer fruit-growers of what was then the West and here again they founded a town of Salem. We next hear of Henderson Lewelling in Salem, Henry County, Iowa, the town of his naming, with the statement that in 1837 he planted a small nursery of 35 varieties of apples and some peach, plum and cherry trees. The history of the Lewellings now becomes more definite for we have it from Seth Lewelling[81] (we spell the name as does he and not "Luelling" as do many in writing of him) that in March, 1847, Henderson Lewelling planted an assortment of apples, pears, peaches, plums and cherries and loaded them into two wagons and started to Oregon. This traveling nursery was on the road from March to November and one can imagine the labor of watering and caring for the trees in this trip across mountains and plains. Henderson Lewelling formed a partnership with William Meek under the firm name of Meek & Lewelling, Milwaukee, Oregon. Seth joined his brother in the fall of 1850 bringing with him from the East a considerable quantity of fruit seed. For the next few years their nursery operations were on a large scale, over 100,000 grafts being planted in 1853. From time to time they made new importations of plants and fruit seeds from the East. Seth says that his brother quit the business and moved to California in 1853 and we hear no more of him until his death in 1878. In 1857, the partnership between Meek and Seth Lewelling was dissolved leaving the latter the owner of the Milwaukee nurseries. It was in 1860 that Seth Lewelling raised his first seedling cherry, the Republican, called by him Black Republican, which was sold to George Walling of Oswego and Mr. Hanson of East Portland, the proceeds bringing Lewelling $500. Mr. Lewelling counts the Republican and Bing cherries and the Golden Prune as his most notable contributions to pomology. The Lewellings are types of fruit-breeders who have done noble work for pomology in the settlement of all our states--men of for indomitable courage and will who have bred and grown fruits throughout their lives in spite of every adversity. Few other men labored longer and more devotedly to improve the cherry than Seth Lewelling. [81] _Oregon St. Bd. Hort. An. Rpt._ =2=:242. 1893. LARGE MONTMORENCY _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1885. =2.= _Ibid._ 25. 1899. =3.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:110, 114. 1900. =4.= _Am. Gard._ =22=:266, 267. 1901. _Flemish._ =5.= Bradley _Gard._ 211. 1739. =6.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 49. 1831. =7.= Thompson _Gard. Ass't_ 530. 1859. _Grosse Glaskirsche von Montmorency._ =8.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 465-470. 1819. =8.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:54, 55. 1858. =10.= _Ill. Handb._ 165 fig., 166. 1860. _Short Stem Montmorency._ =11.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:139, 140. 1832. =12.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:75. 1903. _Grosser Gobet._ =13.= _Ill. Handb._ 543 fig., 544. 1861. _Montmorency._ =14.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:195 fig. 54, 196, 197. 1866. As its synonyms show, Large Montmorency has been grown under various names in Europe and America--a testimony to its merits. Were it not that the true Montmorency is so much more fruitful than this larger-fruited offshoot of the same race of Amarelle cherries, Large Montmorency would be a leading commercial Sour Cherry, for it is equal to the smaller-fruited strain in all other characters with the advantage of size. The relationship between this and the other Montmorencies is apparent but Large Montmorency is easily distinguished by several marked characters from the common Montmorency, known by all, with which it is most often confused. Its fruits are more often borne singly, are larger, have a shorter, thicker stem, are more oblate and ripen a little earlier. The trees are more upright, with stouter branches and are far less fruitful. The flesh-characters of the two kinds are much the same--excellent in both, the flavor being particularly refreshing to those who like the acidity of the Sour Cherry. Large Montmorency has been tried and found so wanting in productiveness that it can rarely be recommended as a commercial variety but it is much too good a fruit to be wholly lost and should be grown by connoisseurs who want a large, finely flavored Sour Cherry. This variety has been much confused with other cherries, particularly Montmorency, Early Richmond and Short Stem Montmorency. Bradley, in 1739, mentioned a Flemish cherry which undoubtedly was the Large Montmorency of today, for the name Flemish has rather commonly been applied to this sort since Bradley's time. There is no doubt but that Large Montmorency sprang up about the same time as the true Montmorency, in the Montmorency Valley in France. It may have been a seedling of the Cerise Hâtive, afterwards known as Early Richmond, though some writers are of the opinion that the Montmorencies and Cerise Hâtive were all seedlings of the old Cerise Commune. At any rate, there have come to be at least three distinct types of Montmorency: the true Montmorency with long stems and moderate-sized fruit, called Montmorency à Longue Queue or, in America, Montmorency Ordinaire; the Large Montmorency with its large fruit and shorter, thicker stems, commonly known by the French and German writers as Montmorency à Gros Fruit, Gros Gobet, Grosse Glaskirsche von Montmorency and sometimes as Montmorency à Courte Queue; and the Short-Stem Montmorency, often called Montmorency à Courte Queue and sometimes Gros Gobet. Large Montmorency has often been sold for Montmorency, or for Early Richmond, hence the three varieties are more or less confused. Large Montmorency probably came to America about the same time as Montmorency and Early Richmond, early in the Nineteenth Century. In 1875, Ellwanger & Barry, Rochester, New York, disseminated this sort quite extensively but later it proved too unproductive for commercial use. It was soon replaced by the true Montmorency but often the names were interchanged and large forms of the Montmorency were thought to be this variety. The unproductiveness of this cherry has been consistently mentioned by nearly every writer from Duhamel's time to the present. Large Montmorency was added to the American Pomological Society's catalog list of fruits in 1885 as Montmorency Large but in 1899 this name was changed to Large Montmorency. [Illustration: LARGE MONTMORENCY] Tree rather large, vigorous, upright, vasiform, unproductive; trunk thick, roughened; branches stocky, nearly smooth, reddish-brown overspread with dark ash-gray, with numerous large, raised, conspicuous lenticels; branchlets thick, short, brown tinged with bronze, smooth except for the large, numerous yellowish, conspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and one-half inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, broad-oval to obovate, thick, stiff; upper surface dark green, slightly rugose; apex acute, base variable in shape; margin serrate, glandular; petiole one inch long, tinged with dull red, glandless or with from one to three globose, yellow or brownish glands, usually at the base of the blade. Buds usually pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in small clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one inch across; borne in scattering clusters, usually in threes; pedicels five-eighths inch long, glabrous, green; calyx-tube tinged with red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, long, broad, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals obovate, entire or slightly crenate, sessile, with a crenate apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to or longer than the stamens, often defective. Fruit matures in mid-season; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, oblate, compressed; cavity wide, flaring; suture shallow; apex flattened or depressed; color dark red; dots numerous, small, russet, somewhat conspicuous; stem thick, one inch long, adhering fairly well to the fruit; skin thick, separating from the pulp; flesh whitish, showing distinctly the fibers in the pulp, with abundant colorless or slightly tinged juice, tender and melting, sprightly, pleasant flavored, tart; of very good quality; stone free, roundish, plump, with smooth surfaces, tinged with red. LATE DUKE _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Pom. Mag._ =1=:45, Pl. 1828. =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 48, 49, 55, 56. 1831. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:134, 135. 1832. =4.= _Hort. Reg._ (Eng.) =1=:257, fig. 1833. =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 191 fig. 80. 1845. =6.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:397 fig. 33, 398. 1847. =7.= _Gard. Chron._ 556. 1848. =8.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =1=:37, 38, Pl. 1851. =9.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. _Wahre Englische Kirsche._ =10.= Christ _Handb._ 682. 1797. =11.= Christ _Wörterb._ 284. 1802. =12.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 405-410. 1819. =13.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:50. 1858. =14.= _Ill. Handb._ 499 fig., 500. 1861. _Späte Herzogenkirsche._ =15.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 434-437. 1819. _Anglaise Tardive._ =16.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:179-181, fig. 48. 1866. =17.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:67, 68, fig. 32. 1866-73. Late Duke is a variant of the well-known May Duke, ripening from two weeks to a month later. The size, color, flavor and season of the fruit all commend it, as do the vigor, health and fruitfulness of the trees. The cherries are not quite as sweet as those of May Duke, a little more marbled in color of skin and ripen through a longer season. The trees are readily told from those of the earlier Duke, being more open and spreading, scanter of foliage, with slender branches and with fruit more thickly clustered along the branchlets. Ripening in a season when hybrid varieties are gone or rapidly going, Late Duke is a valuable acquisition in the home orchard and for nearby markets to which tender-fleshed varieties can be shipped. If those who want late cherries will plant this variety on a northern slope, against a northern wall or where in any way shaded or in a cool soil, these delicious cherries can be had until well toward August. The tree is hardy and its blossoming-time is late so that the variety is well adapted to northern latitudes. The origin of this variety is unknown. In 1797, Christ mentions "a true English cherry" which is probably Late Duke. At least Oberdieck, in 1861, states that the true English cherry is identical with the Late Duke, or Anglaise Tardive. In 1823, Late Duke was introduced into England by the London Horticultural Society from M. Vilmorin, of Paris, under the name Anglaise Tardive. Though the French name of this variety seems to indicate an English origin, the old English writers were not aware of any cherry of this kind being in existence in England previous to its introduction by the Horticultural Society. Because of the close resemblance of Late Duke to May Duke it has often been confused with that sort and by some writers was supposed to be a late strain of May Duke. The American Pomological Society listed Late Duke in its fruit catalog in 1862. [Illustration: LATE DUKE] Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, becoming spreading at maturity, open-topped, productive; trunk and branches slender; branches brown overlaid with dark ash-gray, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets slender, short, reddish-brown, with ash-gray scarf-skin, with numerous conspicuous, small, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, obovate, thick; upper surface very dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, with a few scattering hairs; apex abruptly pointed; margin doubly crenate, with small, dark glands; petiole one inch long, lightly tinged with red, grooved and somewhat hairy on the upper surface, glandless or with one or two small, reniform, greenish glands, usually at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, obtuse or conical, plump, free, arranged singly and in clusters; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom late; flowers white, one inch across; borne in numerous, dense clusters, in twos, threes and fours; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, green; calyx-tube reddish, campanulate; calyx-lobes broad, obtuse, serrate, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, almost sessile; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures very late; one inch in diameter, blunt-cordate, somewhat compressed; cavity wide; suture shallow; color dark red; stem slender, one and one-half inches to two inches long, deeply inserted; flesh amber-colored, with abundant juice, tender, rich, sprightly subacid; stone semi-clinging, medium to large, roundish-ovate, compressed. LATE KENTISH _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees. Am._ 197. 1845. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _Kentish Red._ =3.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 249. 1817. _Pie Cherry._ =4.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 371. 1849. _Red Pie Cherry._ =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 103. 1852. _Kentish._ =6.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 217. 1854. This old cherry served well the needs of Americans in colonial times when all cherries were grown from pits or suckers. Though but little improvement on the wild _Prunus cerasus_, the trees were so hardy, vigorous, healthy and productive that any who had a bit of spare land could have cherries. This, therefore, became preeminently the "pie cherry" of New England and the North Atlantic States. The trees are long-lived and even so late as a generation ago Downing says that this variety is "better known among us than any other acid cherry, especially abundant on the Hudson and near New York." The variety is never planted now, having long since been superseded by better sorts, Early Richmond and Montmorency in particular, but it is still to be found as old trees or self-sown near where a tree of the variety formerly stood. Late Kentish and Early Richmond, the latter the Kentish of some authors, are much confused. Late Kentish is the old Pie Cherry of Colonial times. It is a seedling sort belonging to America, having been planted along fences and roadsides in the earliest times. This cherry is mentioned by the Pilgrims in 1620 and this and the May Duke were listed as market varieties in Massachusetts. Many believe it to be a seedling of Early Richmond, sometimes, as we have seen, called Kentish, but this variety being two weeks later, received the name Late Kentish. The name was put on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1873. The following description is a compilation: Tree small, bears annually, very productive, hardy. Fruit matures about two weeks after Early Richmond; medium or below in size, roundish, flattened; stem one inch to one and one-half inches in length, stout, straight; color deep, lively red; flesh light colored, with abundant colorless juice, very tender, sour, remaining quite acid even when fully ripe; stone does not adhere to the stalk. LITHAUER _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 328. 1888. =2.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ =17=:9. 1892. =3.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 245. 1894. =4.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:128. 1900. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 33. 1904-05. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. It is barely possible that Lithauer, if the trees can be obtained, may have some value in the coldest and bleakest parts of New York where less hardy sorts cannot be grown. The variety is too poor in quality to be worth planting where the better but less hardy cherries will grow. We greatly doubt whether it is worthy a place in the recommended list of fruits of the American Pomological Society. It is included here only because of the prominence given it by a place in the fruit list named. This is one of the varieties imported from Russia by Professor J. L. Budd of Iowa, who reported that it was much grown in southwest Russia for drying and in making cherry wine. As tested in various parts of this country Lithauer has proved of little value except in the extreme north. The American Pomological Society, in 1909, listed this sort in its catalog of recommended fruits for northern fruit regions. The following description is compiled: Tree large, vigorous, tall, weeping, hardy. Fruit matures from the middle to the last of July; small, roundish, slightly oblate; stem long, averaging one and one-half inches, slender; color dark purplish-red becoming almost black at maturity; skin thick, tough; flesh dark red, with reddish juice, firm, meaty, quite acid or bitter even when fully ripe; poor in quality; stone variable in size, roundish. LOUIS PHILIPPE _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 218. 1854. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =3.= _Horticulturist_ =22=:289, 290 fig. 1867. =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26, 195. 1876. =5.= _Cult. & Count. Gent._ =42=:378. 1877. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. Here again we have a very evident hybrid between some Sweet Cherry and a Sour Cherry of the Morello type in which Morello characters are most prominent. If the description and color-plates of this variety and Olivet be compared it will be found that the two cherries are nearly identical. They differ only in season of ripening and in minor tree-characters which may be best summarized by the statement that this cherry has in the tree more of the aspect of a Morello than has Olivet. It may be suspected that one or the other of the two varieties on our grounds is misnamed but the descriptions of all who have described the two show that they are very similar, if not identical. The history of Louis Philippe, long known in America but little or not at all known in Europe, throws some light on the question of its distinctness from Olivet, the origin of which is known, inasmuch as Louis Philippe seems to be the older of the two. The value of the two varieties to cherry-growers is the same and is indicated in the discussion of Olivet. Elliott,[82] the American pomologist, imported Louis Philippe from France in 1846 but the cherry does not seem to have been known at that time in Europe and it is possible that Elliott gave it its name. For the first few years the variety was not given the recognition it deserved but, in 1862, it was recognized by the American Pomological Society by a place on its list of recommended fruits which it still holds under the name, Philippe. [Illustration: LOUIS PHILLIPE] Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped; trunk and branches intermediate in thickness; branches with numerous very large, elongated, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, four and one-half inches long, two and one-eighth inches wide, oval to obovate, thick, leathery; upper surface dark, shiny green, smooth; lower surface olive-green, with a large, prominent midrib; apex taper-pointed; margin finely serrate, with reddish-brown glands; petiole one inch long, usually with one or two large, globose, yellowish-red, glands, variable in position. Flowers one and one-fourth inches across, white, well distributed, mostly in threes; pedicels one inch long, thick, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes broad, obtuse, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals slightly obovate, entire, broad, slightly notched at the apex; stamens one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal in length to the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season or later; nearly one inch in diameter, roundish-ovate; cavity abrupt; suture very shallow to a mere line; apex flattened, depressed; color very dark red; dots numerous, unusually small, obscure; stem one and one-fourth inches to one and one-half inches long, adhering well to the fruit; flesh light red, with much wine-colored juice, fine-grained, tender and melting, sour at first, becoming pleasantly tart at full maturity; good in quality; stone separates readily from the flesh, small, roundish-ovate, plump; ventral suture grooved; dorsal suture with a small ridge. [82] Elliott's _American Fruit Growers Guide_, published in 1858 and dedicated to Professor Jared P. Kirtland, was one of the notable pomological books of its day. Cherry growers, in particular, owe Elliott a debt of gratitude for the publicity that he gave to Kirtland's cherries, having described in his book 20 of the sorts originated by Professor Kirtland. Beside his fruit book he published _Popular Deciduous and Evergreen Trees_ (1868), _Handbook for Fruit-growers_ (1876) and _Handbook of Practical Landscape Gardening_ (1877). He also served pomologists well for many years, at various times, from 1850 to 1873, as the secretary of the American Pomological Society. Franklin Reuben Elliott was born in Guilford, Connecticut, April 27, 1817. We know, from complimentary speeches, accepted by Elliott, that he was a descendant of John Eliot, "The Apostle of the Indians." As a young man he engaged with a brother in New York as an importer of dry goods, the firm being rated at half a million dollars. Financial ruin came through a disastrous fire and, in 1836, Elliott went to Newburgh and was employed by A. J. Downing from whom he imbibed his knowledge and much of his love for pomology and horticulture. A roving disposition and dissipated habits led him to leave Downing for a position with a relative near Cincinnati who was a market-gardener. A ready pen seems from this time on to have been his chief means of livelihood for we find him successively in Cleveland, Ohio, and St. Louis, Missouri, in newspaper work; after a few years in each place he wandered to Washington where he was employed in the Agricultural Department of the Patent Office illustrating American fruits. From his hand in the Patent Office reports and from his fruit book, came some of the most accurate and beautiful representations of the fruits of this continent. It is probable that while in Washington he began work on his _Fruit Growers Guide_, the time for which, he tells us in his preface, took ten years. Social infirmities seem to have cost him his position in Washington and his last employment was with the _Cleveland Herald_, after which comes the record of his death and burial in a pauper's grave January 10, 1878. One of the most brilliant pomologists of his time, his career seems again and again to have been checked by the weaknesses of his life; even so, he rendered horticulture valuable services for which we must give him gratitude and honor. LUTOVKA _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 328. 1885. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 17. 1897. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 32, 33. 1904-05. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _Galopin._ =5.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 21. 1876. =6.= _Kan. Sta. Bul._ =73=:189. 1897. For a time Lutovka and Galopin were listed as two distinct varieties. Unquestionably they are the same despite the seeming difference in origin. All we know of Galopin is that it was said to have been originated by a nurseryman in Belgium whose name it bears. The Lutovka was introduced into this country by J. L. Budd of Iowa, in 1883, and, according to the introducer, was well known in Poland and Silesia as a roadside tree. Nothing is said of it in foreign literature. As was the case with many of Budd's importations, this variety did not stand the test of culture. It is a shy bearer and is now seldom recommended, although it was placed on the list of desirable fruits of the American Pomological Society in 1897 where it still remains. The variety has no value in New York. In 1895, this Station sent out buds which they had been led to believe were the Lutovka and which they later found to be Brusseler Braune. The following description is compiled: Tree large, upright, slightly spreading; leaves large, ovate, leathery, produced from short spurs along the main branches. Fruit ripens the forepart of July; medium to above in size, roundish-oblate; suture often a line, sometimes lacking; stem short, stout, set in a large, deep cavity; skin dark, clear red, thin, tough, translucent; flesh colorless, meaty, juicy, slightly acid; quality good; pit large, roundish, free. LYONS _Prunus avium_ _Bigarreau de Lyon._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:358. 1850. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 61, 62 fig. 1854. _Bigarreau Jaboulay._ =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 74. 1866. =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:100 fig. 20, 101. 1866. =5.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:17, 18, fig. 7. 1866-73. =6.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 16, Pl. 16. 1871. =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:213 fig., 214. 1877. =8.= _Flor. & Pom._ 117. 1878. _Early Lyons_. =9.= _Flor. & Pom._ 193, fig. 1. 1875. =10.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 294, 295. 1884. _Early Jaboulay._ =11.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 294. 1884. Of the one hundred and twenty-five cherries tested on the grounds of this Station during the past ten years, Lyons is one of the best. Though grown for nearly a century in Europe it seems never to have been well tried in America probably because it has not been considered particularly valuable in the Old World. From its behavior at this Station it appears to deserve extensive trial as an extra early market cherry for dessert purposes, as it is one of the few tender-fleshed cherries that give promise of standing handling for distant markets. Though commonly classed as a hard-fleshed Bigarreau it is really an intermediate between the firm-of-flesh cherries and the soft-fleshed Hearts. In the tree it is a typical Bigarreau. Besides being one of the earliest of the Heart-like cherries it is one of the largest, handsomest and best flavored. Unfortunately, because of an accident, we cannot show a color-plate of this splendid cherry. On these grounds the tree-characters are about all that could be desired, though we are making allowance for a slight lack of productiveness in the young tree which is one of the faults commonly attributed to Lyons by European writers; however, all agree that the trees become fruitful with age. The blossoms of this variety are conspicuously large and showy, with pistils unusual in being longer than the stamens. The merits of Lyons have been so pronounced in the several years we have watched it that we feel quite warranted in recommending it for both home and commercial orchards. About 1822, M. Jaboulay, a nurseryman at Oullins, near Lyons, France, grafted over a number of seedling cherries which had sprung up on his grounds. Five years later, having decided to dig out the trees, he was attracted by the superb growth made by one of them upon which the graft had not started and ordered the tree to be saved. This tree produced a full crop of exceedingly large and attractive fruit which matured far in advance of other varieties. Jaboulay decided to save all the grafts for propagation the succeeding year but found upon going to the tree the following spring that the wood had been stolen. About five years later M. Riviére, also a nurseryman at Oullins, placed upon the market at Lyons a very early cherry which he called Bigarreau Anglaise but which was recognized as the same as the one found by Jaboulay. Thus have come the several names given in the synonyms. Lyons has never been much grown in this country. Lewis B. Eaton of Buffalo, New York, in importing cherry trees from France in 1841 and 1842, found among them one without a label which turned out to be Bigarreau de Lyon, later the Lyons. Trees of this variety were received for testing at this Station from the United States Department of Agriculture under the name Hâtive de Lyons. These, as grown here, have proved identical in both tree and fruit characters with the many descriptions of Bigarreau Jaboulay, or Bigarreau de Lyon. Tree vigorous, a rapid grower, upright-spreading; branches straggling, reddish-brown; branchlets thick, long, with long internodes, grayish-brown, with numerous rather large, conspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, variable in size, averaging five and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, long-elliptical to obovate, thin; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, with few hairs; apex distinctly elongated, base abrupt; margin coarsely serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole often two inches long, thickish, pubescent on the upper surface, glandless or with from one to six large, reniform, reddish glands usually on the stalk. Buds large, long, conical, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in small, scattering clusters; leaf-scars obscure; season of bloom intermediate; flowers large, often one and one-half inches across, white; borne in dense clusters, in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, glabrous, green with a trace of red; calyx-tube distinctly reddish, somewhat obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes strongly tinged with red, broad, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals obovate, entire, tapering to distinct but short claws; apex entire or with a shallow, wide notch; filaments five-sixteenths of an inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to or longer than the stamens. Fruit matures early; one inch in diameter, cordate, compressed; cavity flaring; suture shallow, or a mere line, often extending around the fruit; apex roundish or pointed; color very dark red; dots numerous, small, russet; stem thick, one and one-half inches long; skin thin, rather tender, separating from the pulp; flesh reddish, with dark colored juice, meaty, sprightly, sweet; of very good quality; stone semi-clinging, large, ovate, plump, with smooth surfaces; ridged along the ventral suture. MAGNIFIQUE _Prunus avium × Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _Belle et Magnifique._ =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 279, 280. 1832. =3.= _Ibid._ 239. 1841. _Belle Magnifique._ =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 193. 1845. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1852. =6.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 191. 1854. =7.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 272. 1857. =8.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 82 fig., 83. 1904. _Belle de Magnifique._ =9.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =1=:61, fig. 1. 1853. =10.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 19, Pl. 19. 1871. _Belle de Chatenay._ =11.= _Ill. Handb._ 179 fig., 180. 1860. =12.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:175-178, fig. 48. 1866. =12.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:57, 58, fig. 27. 1866-73. =13.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 334, 343. 1889. =14.= _Guide Prat._ 9, 181. 1895. This good, old cherry has never been considered a commercial fruit in the United States; yet it is, and has been, surprisingly popular with nurserymen, most of whom for nearly a century have offered it for sale. A generation ago, when American fruit-growing was in the hands of connoisseurs, Magnifique was more popular than now. It has failed as a commercial cherry because the crop ripens very unevenly, there being sometimes green and fully ripe cherries on the tree at the same time, though the season is usually given as very late. This is one of the lightest in color of the hybrid Dukes, the Sour Cherry parent very evidently having been an Amarelle--a conclusion to which both fruit and tree point. The quality is usually counted as very good though it is too acid to be a first-rate dessert cherry for some. The trees are very vigorous and usually are fruitful. Magnifique has been grown so long that its place in the orchard would seem to have been fixed by experience; yet it might be made more than a cherry for the home orchard if some commercial grower would plant it in a shaded place and a cool soil and thereby retard ripening time until other cherries were gone. This valuable cherry was brought to notice in 1795 by Chatenay, surnamed Magnifique, a nurseryman near Paris. It seems, at first, to have been quite commonly called Belle de Chatenay but Belle de Magnifique became the commoner appellation ending in America at least with the universal name "Belle Magnifique." The variety was introduced into America from France sometime before 1830, by General H. A. S. Dearborn, Boston, Massachusetts, President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. The cherry is typically a Duke sort and is so listed by most writers, though Downing in 1845 placed it with the Morello cherries. Magnifique was placed upon the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1852 where it has since remained. Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, dense, productive; trunk and branches stocky, brown overlaid with dark gray; branchlets with many, small conspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and one-half inches long, two inches wide, obovate to oval, thickish; upper surface dark green, slightly rugose; lower surface finely pubescent; apex abruptly pointed, base variable in shape; margin finely serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole one inch long, tinged with dull red, grooved on the upper surface and with a few hairs, glandless or with one or two small, reniform, greenish glands usually at the base of the leaf. Buds obtuse or conical, plump, free, arranged as lateral buds or in rather dense clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars obscure; season of bloom late; flowers white, one inch across, wide open; borne in dense clusters on short spurs, usually in threes or fours; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, light green; calyx-tube greenish, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes broadly and shallowly dentate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals obovate, entire, with very short claws, indented at the apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures late; nearly one inch in diameter, cordate; cavity rather deep; suture very shallow; color pale red changing to bright red; dots numerous, small, russet, conspicuous; stem one and one-fourth inches long; skin thick, tough, adherent to the pulp; flesh whitish, with abundant colorless juice, fine-grained, meaty but tender, pleasantly tart, sprightly; very good in quality; stone free, small, oval, plump, slightly pointed, with smooth surfaces; slightly notched near the base of the ventral suture. MAY DUKE _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Bradley Gard._ 211. 1739. =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:194. 1768. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:133, 134. 1832. =4.= _Gard. Chron._ 57. 1843. =5.= Cultivator N. S. =2=:319 fig. 93. 1845. =6.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 191, 192 fig. 81. 1845. =7.= Bridgeman _Gard. Ass't Pt._ =3=: 53, 54. 1847. =8.= _Proc. Nat. Con. Fr. Gr._ 52. 1848. =9.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 211. 1854. =10.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:542, 543. 1855. =11.= _Mas Le Verger_ =8=:133, 134, fig. 65. 1866-73. =12.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 305, 306. 1884. =13.= _Guide Prat._ 8, 195, 196. 1895. _Duke Cherry._ =14.= Ray _Hist. Plant._ =2=:1540. 1688. _May Cherry._ =15.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =1=:1754. =16.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:138-140, fig. 33. 1866. _Rothe Maikirsche._ =17.= Christ _Handb._ 669. 1797. =18.= Christ _Wörterb._ 282. 1802. =19.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 377-389. 1819. =20.= _Ill. Handb._ 151 fig., 152. 1860. =21.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:135, 136, fig. 66. 1866-73. =22.= _Lauche Deut._ Pom. III: No. 16, Pl. 1882. =23.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 374. 1889. _Royale Hâtive._ =24.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: Nos. 23, 24, Pl. 1846. =25.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 4, Pl. 4. 1871. =26.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:389 fig., 390, 391. 1877. _Royale Cherry Duke._ =27.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:127, 128, fig. 64. 1882. _Esel Kirsche._ =28.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 22. 1892-93. _Anglaise Hâtive._ =29.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 78 fig., 79. 1904. May Duke is one of the oldest and, the world over, one of the most popular cherries. There are several reasons why it has attained and holds its popularity. It is finely flavored, especially when prepared for the table, and even before ripe; it is also delicious to eat out of hand if the cherries are dead ripe, when it is one of the best of the subacid cherries; while one of the earliest of its class, it may be left to hang for a month or six weeks, becoming daily sweeter and more aromatic; few or no cherries thrive in greater variations of soil and climates, this fact accounting in greatest measure for its world-wide distribution in temperate regions; despite its tender flesh, it ships well though it is grown only for local markets since its long period of ripening makes necessary several pickings--a fatal defect for a canning cherry or one for the general trade; lastly, the trees are as fruitful as any, and are hardy, vigorous and healthy. The fruit is remarkably well distributed in dense clusters on trees characteristically upright and vasiform and bearing a heavy canopy of dark green, luxuriant foliage. May Duke fills a particular place in the cherry orchard as a fruit for the local market and hundreds of new-comers have not been able to supplant it. The fact that it has lost none of its pristine vigor, health and productiveness in the two hundred and more years it has been known contradicts the idea that varieties of fruit degenerate or wear out with age. When we pass in review all of the varieties of cherries, all characters and purposes considered, May Duke remains one of the best. This variety seems to have been first mentioned by Ray in 1688. May Duke is supposed by some English writers to have originated in a district in France known as Médoc and the name to have been derived from the place. When this cherry first received attention, the old style of reckoning time was in vogue and the 11th of June was the last day of May. It may, therefore, be presumed that the variety derived its name from its season of ripening rather than from a corruption of Médoc. A few years ago Professor J. L. Budd of Iowa imported from Russia several cherries among which was one called Esel Kirsche. Later this cherry was distributed by the United States Department of Agriculture. As grown on the grounds of this Station, Esel Kirsche has proved to be May Duke. In Ohio the two could not be distinguished and with this evidence we have listed Esel Kirsche as a synonym of May Duke. In 1832, William Prince mentioned May Duke as being among the first of the cherries introduced to America from Europe. From the references to this variety in the horticultural literature and in the nursery catalogs throughout the United States we may say that it is one of the most widely distributed and best-known cherries in the country. The American Pomological Society placed May Duke on its fruit catalog list in 1848. [Illustration: MAY DUKE] Tree large, upright becoming somewhat vasiform and spreading with age, open-topped, very productive; trunk of medium thickness, somewhat shaggy; branches smooth or roughish, reddish-brown partly covered with ash-gray, with numerous lenticels variable in size; branchlets short, brown partly covered with light gray, smooth, with small, inconspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and one-half inches long, two inches wide, folded upward, obovate; upper surface very dark green, rugose; lower surface thinly pubescent; apex abruptly pointed, base acute; margin finely serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole one inch long, slender, tinged with red, grooved, glandless or with one or two small, globose, brownish glands, usually at the base of the blade. Buds obtuse, plump, free, in large clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in dense clusters, in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, rather long, narrow, acuminate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals broad-oval, entire, nearly sessile; apex crenate; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures early, although variable in habit; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, cordate to conical, compressed; cavity abrupt, regular; suture indistinct; apex roundish, with a small depression at the center; color light changing to dark red at full maturity; dots numerous, russet, obscure; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, adhering strongly to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh medium to dark red, with pinkish juice, tender and melting, sprightly subacid, pleasant flavored; of very good quality; stone nearly free, small, roundish to elliptical, with smooth surfaces; slightly ridged along the ventral suture. MERCER _Prunus avium_ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 262, Pl. 5. 1892. =2.= _Am. Gard._ =14=:39 fig. 1893. =3.= _Can. Hort._ =17=:322 fig. 693. 1894. =4.= Black & Son _Cat._ 22 fig. 1909. This comparatively new Bigarreau is on probation in many parts of the State and country, otherwise we should not give it prominence in _The Cherries of New York_, as the variety is all but worthless as it grows on the grounds of this Station. The trees are not sufficiently fruitful, the cherries are too small, the flavor in none too good and the fruit is not at all resistant to brown-rot--four fatal defects for a commercial cherry. This variety is reported to have sprung from a pit of a Mazzard tree and was introduced several years ago by Black & Son of Hightstown, New Jersey. The name, Mercer, after the county in New Jersey from which it was introduced, was given the cherry by H. E. Van Deman, then United States Pomologist. Tree vigorous, healthy, not always productive; branches long, grayish-brown, smooth, with a few small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, four and one-half inches long, two and one-fourth inches wide, folded upward, long-oval, leathery; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, pubescent, grooved along the midrib; apex taper-pointed, base abrupt; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one and one-half inches long, tinged with dull red, thick, with from two to five very large, reniform, reddish glands, variable in position. Buds of medium size and length, conical, plump, free; leaf-scars rather prominent; season of bloom early; flowers one and one-fourth inches across, in scattering clusters in twos and threes; pedicels three-fourths inch long, glabrous; calyx-tube green or faintly tinged red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes greenish streaked with red along the edges, long, obtuse, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals broad-oval, entire, slightly indented at the apex, tapering to short, blunt claws; filaments one-half inch long, shorter than the petals; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season; small, cordate to blunt-conic, compressed; cavity shallow, narrow, abrupt; suture an indistinct line; apex flattened or depressed; color black; dots small, numerous, obscure; stem slender, one and one-fourth inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, rather tender; flesh reddish, with dark colored juice, tender, meaty, crisp, aromatic, mild flavored, sweet; fair to good in quality; stone free or semi-clinging, variable in size, ovate, flattened, blunt-pointed, with smooth surfaces, tinged with red. MEZEL _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. _Bigarreau Monstrueux._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1831. _Bigarreau of Mezel._ =3.= _Horticulturist_ =1=:475 fig., 476. 1846-47. =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:107 fig., 108. 1866. =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 454. 1869. =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:218 fig., 219. 1877. _Great Bigarreau._ =7.= _Horticulturist_ =6=:20 fig., 21. 1851. =8.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 253. 1857. _Monstreuse de Mezel._ =9.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. _Schwarze Knorpel von Mezel._ =10.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 377. 1889. Mezel seems to have made a stir in pomological circles in the middle of the Nineteenth Century by reason of the great size and beautiful appearance of the cherries. Though on the recommended list of the American Pomological Society and frequently spoken of in the pomological works of the day and offered by some nurserymen, we have not been able to find many trees of this variety now growing in New York. We glean from the literature that Mezel pleased the eye more than the palate and that the trees, while vigorous and healthy, were not productive. At any rate after a decade or two of much advertising and what would seem to have been a very thorough trial, Mezel failed to receive very general approbation from cherry-growers and has now almost passed from cultivation. Contrary to the general behavior of the variety in New York, the tree and fruit from which the accompanying description was made have so many merits that one can well wish that the variety will not wholly pass out of cultivation. This variety was found at Mezel, Puy-de-Dôme, France, by M. Ligier sometime prior to 1846 when it was brought to notice. Even so, it had grown in a vineyard at that place for thirty years and was only made public after an excursion of several members of a horticultural society to the vineyard. It was immediately heralded as a coming variety and grafts were distributed. Great Bigarreau, which made its appearance a few years later, is here included as a synonym though many writers list it as a distinct sort. Bigarreau Monstrueux, first listed in the London Horticultural Society catalog for 1831, is held by many pomologists to be identical with Mezel which, if true, casts some doubt on the generally accepted history of the variety. Mezel appeared on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1862 but was discarded in 1869; it was replaced in 1883 and is still on the list though it is scarcely known in any part of the United States. [Illustration: MEZEL] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, hardy, variable in productiveness; trunk stocky, nearly smooth; branches thick, smooth, reddish-brown partly overspread with dark ash-gray, with lenticels medium in number and size; branchlets of average thickness, variable in length, with internodes of medium length, brown partly covered with ash-gray, smooth, glabrous, with small, inconspicuous, raised lenticels medium in number. Leaves numerous, five inches long, often two and one-half inches wide, long-oval, thin; upper surface dark green, strongly rugose giving a crumpled appearance; lower surface dull, light green, with slight pubescence; apex varies from abrupt to taper-pointed, base abrupt; margin glandular, coarsely serrate; petiole long, averaging one and one-half inches, slender, tinged with red, with from one to four reniform glands of medium size on the petiole. Buds intermediate in size and length, plump, pointed, arranged singly as lateral buds or in clusters of various sizes on both long and short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers one and seven-sixteenths inches across, well distributed in scattering clusters in twos and threes; pedicels one and one-eighth inches long, medium in thickness, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a slight tinge of red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes long, medium in width, acute, slightly serrate, glabrous within and without; petals somewhat obovate, crenate, nearly sessile, with a very shallow notch at the apex; anthers yellow; filaments shorter than the petals; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens, often defective. Fruit matures in mid-season; large, seven-eighths inch long, thirteen-sixteenths inch wide, cordate, compressed, the surface markedly irregular and broken into ridges; cavity very deep, wide, irregular, abrupt; suture variable, shallow to very deep and wide and at times double; apex blunt-pointed, usually not depressed; color attractive purplish-black; dots numerous, very small, somewhat russet, obscure; stem medium in thickness, long, averaging two and one-eighth inches, adheres well to the fruit; skin medium in thickness, rather tender but not inclined to crack, adheres slightly to the pulp; flesh purplish-red, with abundant dark red juice, tender, meaty, mild, very pleasant, sweet; very good to best in quality; stone clinging, large, strongly ovate, with slightly roughish surface. MONTMORENCY _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:181, 182. 1768. =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:6, Tab. 15 fig. 1. 1792. =3.= Christ _Wörterb._ 292. 1802. =4.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 656, 657, 691. 1819. =5.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 281. 1832. =6.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 14, Pl. 1846. =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:53, 54, fig. 25. 1866-73. =8.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 3, Pl. 3. 1871. =9.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:361, 362 fig., 363, 364. 1877. =10.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 369. 1889. =11.= _Guide Prat._ 9, 196. 1895. =12.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:112 fig. 4, 113, 114. 1900. =13.= _Am. Gard._ =22=:266, 267. 1901. =14.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _Kleine Glaskirsche von Montmorency._ =15.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 463, 464, 465. 1819. _Long Stem Montmorency._ =16.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:139. 1832. _Amarelle Royale._ =17.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:191-195, fig. 53. 1866. _Montmorency Ordinaire._ =18.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 17. 1897. =19.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:75, fig. 15. 1903. =20.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 33, 34, Pl. 2. 1904-05. Montmorency is the most popular Sour Cherry grown in America. No one questions its supremacy. Probably half of the cherry trees in New York, Sweet or Sour, are Montmorencies and at least three-fourths of all the trees of the Sour Cherry are of this variety. It leads in the demands for this fruit in the markets, for the cannery and for home use as a culinary cherry. Several characters give it first place. It is surpassed by no other Sour Cherry, in New York at least, in vigor, health and productiveness of tree. In the last character, in particular, it is supreme. Year in and year out, Montmorency trees are fruitful. Possibly, too, no other Sour Cherry is adapted to a greater diversity of soils than Montmorency, which, with capacity to stand heat and cold, makes the variety suitable to wide variations in environment. The cherries are in no way remarkable--not much above the average for an Amarelle in size, appearance or quality, in all of these characters being much inferior to Large Montmorency. The fruit has the advantage of being presentable in appearance and fit for culinary purposes several days before it is fully ripe and this adds to the value of the variety for the market. Brown-rot takes less toll from this cherry than of others of its kind probably because of relatively firm flesh and thick skin. These characters, also, make the fruit stand handling well in harvesting, shipping and on the markets. The preserved product, whether canned at home or commercially, is attractive in appearance and very good. Montmorency is not a dessert cherry but for those who like Sour Cherries it may be eaten out of hand with relish when it is fully matured. Some maintain that the variety falls short in the size of the tree, which is seldom more than medium, but the head is spreading and much-branched and the fruit is borne in clusters thickly scattered throughout the whole head so that the total yield from a tree is greater than would be thought from its size. For any and all purposes to which Sour Cherries are put Montmorency may be recommended as the best in its season. Unfortunately several quite distinct cherries bear the name Montmorency and it has been most difficult to separate them in pomological literature. To make matters worse, all of them have been much confused with other varieties, Early Richmond in particular. The different Montmorencies and Early Richmond originated in the Montmorency Valley, France, several centuries ago, at least before the Seventeenth Century, probably as seedlings of Cerise Hâtive or of Cerise Commune. These Montmorency cherries differ from each other principally in their stems and fruit, one having long stems and moderate-sized, regular fruit; one shorter stems and larger fruit; and the third, very short, thick stems and oblate, irregular fruit showing a distinct suture. The first cherry has been generally known, particularly among the French, as Montmorency à Longue Queue or sometimes Cerise de Montmorency. This is the Montmorency of this sketch. Duhamel, in 1768, was the first writer to mention this cherry directly and according to his statement it was then esteemed around Paris, being superior in productiveness to the Large Montmorency. Montmorency early found its way into England, where it soon became confused with its probable parent, the French Cerise Hâtive or the English Kentish. In a short time it had replaced Kentish in many nurseries and came to be called Kentish in much of the literature of the time. Just when Montmorency was introduced to this country is not known but it has been cultivated here under various names for many years. William Prince spoke of it in 1832 as the Long Stem Montmorency and it has long and commonly been known here as Montmorency Ordinaire. Montmorency is to be found in nearly every nursery in the United States under various names, some nurserymen using the French name, others the English, while still others are selling the variety as Large Montmorency. Many supposed strains have been given new names but it is doubtful if any distinct strains of this cherry exist. The American Pomological Society added Montmorency to its fruit catalog list in 1897 using the qualifying term Ordinaire which was dropped in 1909. [Illustration: MONTMORENCY] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, with the lower branches inclined to droop, round-topped, productive; trunk and branches smooth; branches reddish-brown tinged with light ash-gray, with a few lenticels of medium size; branchlets slender, reddish-brown partly overspread with ash-gray, smooth, with a few small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves three inches long, one and one-half inches wide, folded upwards or flattened, oval to obovate, leathery; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface pale green, with a few scattering hairs; apex and base variable in shape; margin doubly crenate, glandular; petiole one inch long, tinged with dull red, glandless or with from one to three small, globose, brownish or yellowish glands, usually at the base of the blade. Buds obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly or in clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars obscure; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in scattered clusters in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged with red, broad, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish to obovate, crenate, with short, blunt claws and shallow, crenate apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to or slightly longer than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, roundish-oblate, slightly compressed; cavity abrupt; suture very shallow; apex roundish; color light to rather dark red; dots numerous, small, russet, inconspicuous; stem thick, usually with a faint tinge of red, one inch long, adhering well to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellow, with a reddish tinge, with abundant light pink juice, tender and melting, sprightly, tart; of very good quality; stone free, small, roundish-ovate, flattened, pointed, with smooth surfaces which are tinged with red. NAPOLEON _Prunus avium_ =1.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 30. 1828. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 273, 274. 1832. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 183. 1845. =4.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 365. 1849. =5.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =1=:27, 28, fig. 2. 1853. =6.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 215. 1859. =7.= Thompson _Gard. Ass't_ 527. 1859. =8.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =9.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:132. 1866. =10.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 470. 1869. =11.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 9, Pl. 9. 1871. =12.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:219, 220 fig., 221. 1877. =13.= _Flor. & Pom._ 57, Pl. 465. 1878. =14.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:109, 110, fig. 55. 1882. =15.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =98=:493, fig. 87. 1895. =16.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ =5=:38 fig. 1898. _Gros Bigarreau Blanc._ =17.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr_. =1=:165. 1768. =18.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 308-310. 1819. =19.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:123-126, fig. 29. 1866. =20.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:179, 180 fig., 181. 1877. =21.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 354. 1889. _Lauermannskirsche._ =22.= Christ _Handb._ 664. 1797. =23.= Christ _Wörterb._ 280. 1802. =24.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 292-295, 323-328. 1819. =25.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 367. 1889. _Lange Marmorkirsche._ =26.= Christ _Handb._ 655. 1797. =27.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 330-333. 1819. _Holländische Grosse Prinzessinkirsche._ =28.= Christ _Wörterb._ 281. 1802. =29.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 295-299. 1819. =30.= _Ill. Handb._ 125 fig., 126. 1860. =31.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:117, 118, fig. 59. 1882. =32.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 357. 1889. _Harrison's Heart._ =33.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 42. 1803. =34.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:69, 70, Pl. 34 fig. 2. 1823. =35.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:145, 146, fig. 71. 1866-73. =36.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 362. 1889. _Grosse Weisse Marmorkirsche._ =37.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 316, 317, 682. 1819. _Holland Bigarreau._ =38.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 181 fig., 182. 1845. _Bigarreau d'Esperen._ =39.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:119, 120 fig., 121. 1866. =40.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 463. 1869. =41.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:11, 12, fig. 4. 1866-73. =42.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:198 fig., 199. 1877. =43.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 347. 1889. =44.= _Rev. Hort._ 321, 322. 1912. _Bigarreau Gros Coeuret._ =45.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:126-129, fig. 30. 1866. =46.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 23, Pl. 23. 1871. =47.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:208, 209 fig., 210. 1877. _Royal Ann._ =48.= _Cal. Bd. Hort. Rpt._ 59, Pl. 18. 1893-94. =49.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 192. 1907. =50.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:31, fig. 8. 1910. Napoleon is the leading firm-fleshed Sweet Cherry. It takes its place by virtue of the large size, handsome appearance and high quality of the fruit and the phenomenal productiveness of the trees. The accompanying plate shows well the large size and beautiful color of the cherries--unsurpassed in either character by any other Bigarreau and possibly by any other cherry. The flavor is rich and sweet which, with the abundant juice and firm, crackling flesh, makes this a most delicious and refreshing cherry for dessert and, with the great size and attractive color, gives it preference over all other Sweet Cherries for culinary purposes. In particular, cherry-canners find that Napoleon makes a finely finished product. The cherries carry well and keep long and are, therefore, well thought of by fruit-dealers. Besides being very productive, the trees come in bearing early and are as vigorous, hardy and healthy as those of any other Sweet Cherry. They may usually be known by their upright growth and large, sturdy limbs. Napoleon, however, is not without its faults. The cherries crack badly in wet weather and the variety can be grown with certainty only in the dry summer climate of the Pacific Coast, where, especially in Oregon and Washington, it reaches truly wonderful perfection. In the East, too, Napoleon is more susceptible to brown-rot than several of its rivals. Possibly the greatest fault, however, is in the tree, which is very fastidious as to soils, thriving only in choice cherry land and in a congenial cherry climate. Despite these rather serious faults, cherry-growers agree that Napoleon takes first place among Sweet Cherries for both home and commercial plantings. Napoleon is of unknown origin. Early in the Eighteenth Century it was grown by the Germans, French, Dutch and English, proof that it is a very old variety. Leroy believes that it was described by Merlet in 1667 but under another name. The great number of synonyms in several languages gives some idea of the countries in which the variety has been grown as well as the esteem in which it has been held. There are several accounts as to when the cherry was given the name Napoleon. Probably the best authenticated is that in which it is held that Parmentier, a Belgian, gave the cherry the name of the famous emperor in 1820. When the variety was taken to England, where at that time Napoleon was not in good repute, the name of his conqueror, Wellington, was substituted but seems to have been little used. As if not content with the score or more of European names, cherry-growers in America have added at least two more. In many parts of the country it is locally called the Ox Heart. On the Pacific Coast it is grown and sold by nurserymen and fruit-growers alike as Royal Ann, a name given it by its introducer, Seth Lewelling, of Milwaukee, Oregon, who lost the label bearing the old name in taking it across the Continent in early days and gave it a new name. With incomprehensible persistency Western horticulturists maintain this synonym to the confusion of horticultural nomenclature. The American Pomological Society placed Napoleon on its fruit list in 1862, it having been grown in America for at least 40 years before receiving this honor. [Illustration: NAPOLEON] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, very productive; trunk thick, shaggy; branches thick, roughened by the lenticels, dull brown overlaid with ash-gray, with numerous large, raised lenticels; branchlets thick, long, light brown overspread with gray, smooth, with a few inconspicuous, small lenticels. Leaves numerous, five and three-fourths inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, elliptical to obovate; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface light green, somewhat pubescent; apex acute, base variable in shape; margin doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole one and one-fourth inches long, thick, tinged with dull red, hairy along the upper surface, with from one to three large, reniform, reddish-orange glands, usually on the stalk. Buds variable in size, conical, free, arranged singly or in thin clusters from lateral buds and from spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-half inches across; borne in scattering clusters in ones or in twos; pedicels variable in length, averaging one inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes tinged with red, long, rather narrow, acuminate, serrate, reflexed; petals oval, entire, dentate at the apex, with short, narrow claws; filaments one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens, often defective. Fruit matures in mid-season; over one inch in diameter, conical to long-cordate, compressed; cavity deep, wide, flaring; suture a distinct line; apex much pointed; color, varying shades of bright red over a yellowish background, distinctly mottled; dots obscure; stem slender, more than one inch long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, rather adherent; flesh whitish, with a faint yellow tinge, with colorless juice, tender, meaty, crisp, mild, the flavor improving as the season advances, sweet; good to very good in quality; stone semi-clinging, small, ovate, flattened, pointed, with smooth surfaces. NOUVELLE ROYALE _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 72, Pl. 1862. =2.= _Gard. Mon._ =7=:248. 1865. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 70, 88. 1866. =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:147, 148, fig. 72. 1866-73. =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 484. 1869. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 31. 1875. =7.= Gaucher _Pom. Prak. Obst._ No. 80, Tab. 33. 1894. =8.= _Guide Prat._ 9. 1895. If this cherry were to be judged by its behavior on the grounds of this Station, it would be called one of the best of the hybrid Dukes. In particular, it would be commended by its product, the trees not making as good a showing as the fruit. The cherries are distinguished by their large size, dark red color, glossy surface, good quality, lateness in maturity and, even more particularly, sweetness, keeping in mind that the variety is a hybrid and not a true Sweet Cherry. The shape, too, offers a distinguishing character, the fruits being more oblate than in any other Duke. The long, stout stem is still another characteristic. Unfortunately the tree, while satisfactory in all other respects, is unproductive--a fatal fault in these days of commercial fruit-growing. Nouvelle Royale is not widely known in America and may well be given trial by those who want a late Duke. This variety is supposed from its fruit- and tree-characters to be a hybrid between Early Richmond and May Duke but where, how and when it came to light is not known. Downing, in 1869, mentions the Nouvelle Royale as having recently been introduced into this country and it was noted in the Report of the American Pomological Society for 1875 but has never received a place upon the Society's fruit catalog list. [Illustration: NOUVELLE ROYALE] Tree large, vigorous, upright, compact, moderately productive; trunk of medium size; branches upright, thickish; branchlets slender, long, brown partly covered with ash-gray, with very numerous conspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and one-half inches long, two inches wide, folded upward, obovate; upper surface dark green, glossy, rugose; lower surface light green, lightly pubescent; apex abruptly pointed, base acute; margin finely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one and one-fourth inches long, slender, tinged with dull red, grooved and with few hairs along the upper surface, glandless or with from one to four globose, greenish-yellow or reddish glands variable in size usually at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and on short spurs in clusters variable in size; leaf-scars obscure; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one inch across; borne in dense clusters in threes and fours; pedicels three-fourths of an inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes somewhat reddish, broad, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, nearly sessile, apex entire; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, longer than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season; nearly one inch in diameter, oblate, strongly compressed; cavity deep, narrow, abrupt; suture shallow; apex flattened or slightly depressed; color dark red; dots numerous, small, russet, inconspicuous; stem one and three-fourths inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellowish or with a tinge of red, with light pink juice, slightly stringy, tender and melting, pleasantly flavored, mildly tart; of very good quality; stone free, roundish-oval, plump, blunt, oblique, with smooth surfaces often tinged with red, with small ridges radiating from the base. OLIVET _Prunus avium × Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =19=:19. 1877. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 20. 1881. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 164. 1881. =4.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ =17=:11. 1892. =5.= _Cal. Sta. An. Rpt._ 316. 1895-97. =6.= _Va. Sta. Bul._ =133=:27. 1902. =7.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:76, 77. 1903. =8.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 24. 1904-05. =9.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:21. 1910. Olivet is a large, globular, deep red, glossy cherry with a rich, vinous, subacid flavor. Some writers call Olivet a Duke while others place it with the Morellos. The fruit, on the grounds of this Station, shows many characteristics of the Morellos while the tree appears to be a Duke, suggesting that it is a hybrid between trees of the two groups. The fruit, eaten out of hand, would be rated as a very good Morello or a subacid and somewhat mediocre Duke, a fruit hardly good enough for dessert and not as good as some of the sourer cherries for culinary purposes. It is one of the earliest of the Morello-like cherries and this may give it a place in the cherry flora of the country. The trees are large and vigorous and their much-branched, round tops would seem to give the maximum amount of bearing surface, but, unfortunately, the cherries do not set abundantly. On the grounds of this Station the variety is not fruitful, this being its chief defect. In other parts of the country, however, it is reported to be either very productive or moderately so. The descriptions of this cherry as given by American experiment stations and nurserymen show plainly that there are several distinct sorts passing under the name Olivet in this country. Olivet, of comparatively recent origin, was found at Olivet, Loire, France. American nurserymen introduced this variety sometime previous to 1877, for in that year the _Gardener's Monthly_ mentioned the cherry as being "a valuable Duke sort filling an unoccupied place among the list of early cherries in central New York." Olivet was entered on the American Pomological Society's catalog list of fruits in 1881 where it is still retained. [Illustration: OLIVET] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, round-topped, unproductive; trunk thickish, rather rough; branches thick, smooth, reddish-brown partly overspread with ash-gray, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets short, brown partly overspread with ash-gray, smooth, with numerous raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and one-half inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, obovate to oval, thin; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, glossy, with a few scattering hairs; apex acute; margin doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one and one-fourth inches long, greenish, glandless or with one or two globose, brownish glands variable in position. Buds usually pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in small clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one inch across; borne in dense clusters, usually in threes; pedicels one-half inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, long, of medium width, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals oval to slightly obovate, entire, nearly sessile; apex entire; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures in mid-season; nearly one inch in diameter, roundish to slightly oblate, somewhat compressed; cavity abrupt, regular; suture a line; apex roundish, with a small depression at the center; color bright red; dots russet, obscure; stem thickish, one and one-fourth inches long, adhering well to the fruit; skin tough, separating from the pulp; flesh light red, with abundant light red or wine-colored juice, tender and melting, sprightly, astringent, tart; of fairly good quality; stone free, small, roundish, slightly flattened, somewhat pointed at the apex, with smooth surfaces; somewhat ridged along the ventral suture. OSTHEIM _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 159. 1791. =2.= Christ _Handb._ 676. 1797. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 512-517. 1819. =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:145. 1832 =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:60. 1858. =6.= _Ill. Handb._ 187 fig., 188. 1860. =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:295, 296 fig. 1877. =8.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 371. 1889. =9.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 25. 1899. =10.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:121, 122. 1900. =11.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:78 fig. 18, 79. 1903. =12.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:14, 21, 22. 1910. Ostheim finds considerable favor in the prairie states of the Middle West but is all but worthless as grown in New York and other eastern states. It is one of the Morellos and falls far short of the best of its group, the cherries being too small and of but mediocre quality. The trees are typical Morellos, round-headed, with slender, drooping branches and branchlets and very dark green foliage. The fruit is borne toward the ends of short branches which are not well distributed over the main branches, leaving much bare wood. Like all Morellos the fruit hangs long after maturity and since the ripening season is late the variety may be worth growing because of its lateness; as it may, also, in cold climates because of great hardiness. The trees on their own roots throw up many suckers which are often used in propagation. The variety has the reputation, too, of coming true to name from seeds. Ostheim is a native of Spain and not of Germany as many have supposed. The trees were found in the region of the Sierra Morena Mountains, Spain, and were taken to Germany by a Dr. Klinghammer after the Wars of the Succession, 1701-1713. The cherry took the name Ostheim from the German town of that name where it was widely grown. The variety, being easily propagated, spread throughout Germany and soon became one of the best-known cherries. Later, the name seems to have come to be a class term for all cherries similar to the original Ostheim. The names Ostheim, Ostheimer, Griotte Ostheim and Ostheimer Weichsel are used interchangeably by foreign writers for this variety. American writers, however, have given these names to two very similar but distinct varieties. Ostheim was brought to the United States by William Robert Prince of the Linnean Botanical Gardens early in the Nineteenth Century. It has proved very satisfactory in some sections of the West and Canada, while in the East it is but a mediocre variety at best. At different times either buds or trees of so-called Ostheims have been imported to this country which have turned out not to be the true variety. What these sorts really are will remain uncertain until the several forms can be brought together and compared. Professor Budd imported a variety in 1883, which since has become known as Ostheim, carrying Griotte d'Ostheim as a synonym. Whether or not this is the old variety or a distinct strain of the Ostheim class we are unable to say. The Cerise d'Ostheim received by this Station has proved identical with this variety. Ostheim was first listed by the American Pomological Society in 1899. A cherry known as Minnesota Ostheim, introduced into Minnesota from Germany, is now recognized as a distinct sort. The variety as it is known in Kansas and Missouri is often called the German Ostheimer though some believe this to be different from the true sort. [Illustration: OSTHEIM] Tree below medium in size, vigorous, upright-spreading, with drooping branchlets, dense, very productive; trunk smooth; branches rather slender, smooth, dark ash-gray partly overspreading reddish-brown, with small, raised lenticels; branchlets slender, willowy, long, brown partly overspread with ash-gray, smooth, glabrous, with small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves very numerous, three and one-fourth inches long, one and one-half inches wide, folded upward, obovate to oval; upper surface very dark green, smooth; lower surface pale green, with a few scattering hairs; apex taper-pointed, base variable in shape; margin finely serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole slender, one-half inch long, short, tinged with dull red, grooved, with a few scattering hairs, with from one to three small, globose, greenish-yellow glands at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, usually obtuse, plump, free, arranged as lateral buds and in small clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom medium; flowers one inch across, white; borne in scattering clusters, in twos and threes; pedicels five-eighths of an inch long, rather slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green with a faint tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, rather long, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals obovate, entire, nearly sessile, apex entire; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, nearly equal in length to the stamens. Fruit matures very late; nearly three-fourths of an inch in diameter, roundish to slightly oblate, compressed; cavity very shallow and narrow, flaring; suture indistinct; apex roundish with a small depression at the center; color very dark red approaching black; dots numerous, small, dark russet, inconspicuous; stem slender, one and one-fourth inches long, but slightly adherent to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating readily from the pulp; flesh dark red, with much very dark colored juice, tender and melting, sprightly, tart, losing its astringency when fully ripe; of fair quality; stone free, nearly one-half inch in diameter, roundish-oblate, somewhat pointed, with smooth surfaces slightly stained with red. OX HEART _Prunus avium_ =1.= Miller _Gard. Kal._ 154, 1734. =2.= Christ _Handb._ 663. 1797. =3.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:36, Pl. 18 fig. 2. 1817. =4.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 249. 1817. =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 132-135. 1819. =6.= Downing Fr. _Trees Am._ 176. 1845. =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 244. 1858. =8.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:57, 58, fig. 29. 1882. =9.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 365, 366. 1882. =10.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 339, 371. 1889. _Bigarreau Gros Commun._ =11.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:203. 1843. Ox Heart is very commonly used as a class name for the large, meaty varieties of cherries which are cordate in shape. In America the name is most often given to the light-fleshed cherries, such as Yellow Spanish, Napoleon or White Bigarreau. At one time, however, the name was applied to a distinct variety known throughout England, Germany and America, being first mentioned by Miller, an Englishman, in 1734. Coxe, in 1817, was the first American writer to list the variety but it never became popular in the New World. Ox Heart appeared among the fruits rejected by the American Pomological Society in 1858 and from then on it gradually gave way to better varieties. The synonyms of the true Ox Heart are badly confused not only with other dark-fleshed varieties but with those of the Yellow Spanish type. As some of these varieties are merely listed while others have but a meager description, it is impossible to separate or group them with any degree of certainty. In the 1909 catalog of the American Pomological Society there appears an Ox Heart of American origin and of recent introduction, known in the West as Major Francis. There are also in several nursery catalogs a "white-fleshed Ox Heart." What this variety is we are unable to say. The following is a description of Ox Heart compiled from European fruit books: Tree medium in vigor, round-topped, spherical, productive; branches somewhat curved; internodes of medium length; leaves obovate, obtusely pointed, margin finely serrate; petiole short, rather slender, flexible, tinged red, with two reniform glands; flowers small; petals irregularly elliptical. Fruit matures the last of June or early in July; medium to large, cordate, pointed, sides unevenly compressed; color lively red changing to intense purple or nearly black; stem of medium length and thickness, usually tinged red, inserted in a broad, deep cavity; skin tough; flesh dark red, with abundant colored juice, half-tender but firmer than most Hearts, sweet though slightly bitter before complete maturity; quality good; stone medium in size, broadly cordate, adhering to the flesh along the ventral suture. REINE HORTENSE _Prunus avium X Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Gen. Farmer_ =11=:191 fig. 1850. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 55. 1856. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 211. 1856. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:54. 1858. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 167 fig., 168. 1860. =5.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 17, 204. 1876. =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:379-382, fig. 1877. _D'Aremberg._ =7.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 45. 1831. =8.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 215. 1835. _Hortense._ =9.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 196, 197 fig. 1854. =10.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. Were there not so many good Duke varieties of its season Reine Hortense would take high rank among hybrid cherries. Several qualities fit it admirably for home and somewhat for commercial plantations. To begin with, it is most excellent in quality, its flavor being a commingling of the refreshing acidity of the Sour Cherry and the richness of the Sweet Cherry, though to some there may be a little too much acidity for a first-class dessert fruit. The cherries are also handsome--large, round, bright, glossy red with a shade of amber and very uniform in size, color and shape. The fruit is especially attractive on the tree as it hangs on long stems in twos and threes thickly scattered and never much clustered. Unfortunately the fruit does not stand handling in harvesting and marketing quite as well as that of some other Dukes and is a little too susceptible to brown-rot for a good commercial cherry. The chief faults of the variety, however, are in the trees rather than in the fruit. The trees are but of medium size, are not as productive as some others of the hybrid sorts, are at their best only in choice cherry soils and demand good care. In Europe, Reine Hortense is much used as a dwarf and for training on walls. It would seem that its merits and faults, as it grows in America, are such as fit it preeminently well only for the amateur. Of the several accounts of the origin of Reine Hortense the one giving France as its home and Larose as its originator is here accepted as authentic. M. Larose of Neuilly-sur-Seine, Seine, a gardener of the imperial court, grew the original tree early in the Nineteenth Century from a seed of the Cerise Larose, a seedling of his introduction. Soon after the first mention of this variety, about 1841, there appeared the Louis XVIII, Morestin, Guigne de Petit-Brie and several others. The variety was seemingly rechristened by every nurseryman who got hold of it. At one time the name Monstreuse de Bavay was acceptable to many, it having been given to the variety by a Mr. Bavay of Vilvorde, Brabant, Belgium, about 1826. The theory that Reine Hortense comes true to seed and therefore has several strains has been discredited. The American Pomological Society recognized Reine Hortense in 1856, only a few years after being introduced into this country, by placing it on the recommended fruit list. In 1909, the Society shortened the name from Reine Hortense to Hortense but in this text we prefer to use the full name, thereby indicating clearly the person for whom the cherry was christened. [Illustration: REINE HORTENSE] Tree of medium size, upright-spreading, productive; trunk shaggy; branches smooth, dark reddish-brown covered with ash-gray, with a few large lenticels; branchlets rather slender, with short internodes, brown partly overspread with ash-gray, smooth, with inconspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, four and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, oval to obovate, thin; upper surface dark green, rugose; lower surface light green, pubescent along the midrib; apex taper-pointed, base abrupt; margin coarsely serrate, with dark glands; petiole one inch long, tinged with red, pubescent along the grooved upper surface, with none or with from one to four small, globose, greenish-yellow or brownish glands, usually at the base of the blade. Buds large, long-pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in small clusters on few long spurs; blooms appearing in mid-season; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in dense clusters usually in threes; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous; calyx-tube with a tinge of red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes long, acuminate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, sessile, with entire apex; filaments one-fourth of an inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season; nearly one inch in diameter, oblong-conic to obtuse-conic, compressed; cavity somewhat shallow, narrow, abrupt, often lipped; suture indistinct; apex roundish with a small depression at the center; color amber-red; dots numerous, light russet, conspicuous; stem tortuous, slender, one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin tender, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellow, with colorless juice, tender and melting, sprightly subacid; of very good quality; stone free, rather large, oblong to oval, flattened, blunt, with smooth surfaces. REPUBLICAN _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. _Black Republican._ =2.= _Cult. & Count. Gent._ =35=:534. 1870. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 20. 1875. =4.= _Am. Gard._ =9=:357 fig. 1888. =5.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 289. 1889. =6.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:23, 25. 1910. _Lewelling._ =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 127. 1875. =8.= _Gard. Mon._ =17=:336. 1875. =9.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. =10.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:28, 29, fig. 7. 1910. For some reason Republican does not make headway in the favor of cherry-growers though all who have described it speak well of it. Judged by the palate, Republican is one of the best of the Bigarreaus. The cherries are rich and sweet in flavor, firm of flesh and with an abundance of refreshing juice. Judged by the eye, too, it holds its own with the best of its class, the fruit having a pleasing rotundness of shape and a beautiful dark red, almost black, glossy color. In size the variety very often falls short; for, though often given as one of the largest, it turns out to be, in many orchards, but of medium size and sometimes is small. Here seems to be its fatal defect. It is exceedingly capricious as to soils, failing wholly or in part in all but the very choicest cherry environments. The trees are large, spreading and vigorous but on the grounds of this Station are more susceptible to the shot-hole fungus than any other Sweet Cherry. It has been reported to be very subject to this disease at the Washington Station also. The failure of this cherry to meet the demands of commercial cherry-growers during a probationary period of nearly a half a century means that it is, at most, of but local value. This variety, known under two other names, Black Republican and Lewelling, originated about the middle of the Nineteenth Century in the orchard of Seth Lewelling, Milwaukee, Oregon. In traveling across the continent in 1849, Mr. Lewelling took with him to Oregon, Bigarreau, Morello and Mahaleb cherries and from seeds of one of the Bigarreaus sprang several seedlings, among them one which was named Black Republican. The parentage of the sort is not known though it was thought to be a cross between Napoleon and Black Tartarian, having sprung up near these two trees. Some cherry-growers and nurserymen describe a cherry which they call Lewelling but in every case the descriptions agree very closely with Republican. Many list the two names separately as designating two distinct varieties of diverse origin. Of these, some have supposed Republican to be a seedling of Eagle originating in 1860. The American Pomological Society for many years listed Black Republican alone beginning in its catalog of 1875 but in 1909 the catalog contained the two names, Republican and Lewelling. Inasmuch as the consensus of opinion is that both names apply to a single cherry this Station has decided to list Republican only. [Illustration: REPUBLICAN] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, very productive; trunk thick, somewhat shaggy; branches stout, roughened, brown covered with ash-gray, with large, raised lenticels; branchlets stout, with long internodes, brown nearly overspread with ash-gray, smooth except near the base, with a few small, raised, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, five inches long, two and five-eighths inches wide, folded upward, obovate to oval, thin; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface slightly hairy; apex acute, base abrupt; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one and one-fourth inches long, thick, tinged with dull red, with two or three large, reniform, light green or reddish glands on the stalk. Buds pointed or obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly on the branchlets, or in small clusters on spurs of medium length; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-half inches across; borne in scattering clusters in ones and twos; pedicels variable in length, averaging one inch long, characteristically thick, glabrous; calyx-tube tinged with red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes variable in width, tinged with red, long-obovate to acute, finely serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals obovate, entire, with short, blunt claws, with shallow, notched apex; filaments five-sixteenths of an inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length, often defective. Fruit matures late; about one inch in diameter, wide, variable in shape, cordate or roundish-cordate, compressed, with angular and uneven surfaces; cavity deep, wide, flaring; suture a shallow groove, often extending around the fruit; apex with a small depression at the center; color purplish-black; dots numerous, small, dark russet, inconspicuous; stem thick, one and one-eighth inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin; flesh purplish-red, with dark colored juice, tender, meaty, crisp, mild, sweet or with slight astringency before fully mature; of good quality; stone semi-free, small, ovate, flattened, rather blunt, with smooth surfaces. ROCKPORT _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:59 fig., 60. 1847-48. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 201, 202 fig. 1854. =3.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 270, 271. 1857. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =5.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:131. 1866. =6.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 372. 1881. Rockport is of very doubtful commercial value and has too many faults to be included with the best sweet sorts for a home orchard. It is more easily characterized by its faults than its merits. Compared with the well-known Yellow Spanish, of which it is a seedling and to which it is similar, the cherries are smaller and the pits are larger than those of the parent variety,--quite too large for the amount of pulp. Worst of the faults of the variety is, however, that the cherries are not sufficiently firm of flesh to withstand harvesting, shipping and the attacks of the brown-rot fungus. To offset the defects of the fruit the flesh is rich, sweet and tender, making it, all in all, as good as any other Sweet Cherry for dessert. The trees, too, are very satisfactory, being large, vigorous and very fruitful, though with the reputation of requiring good soil and the best of care, of lacking a little in hardiness to cold, and of having the period of maturing the crop more or less changed by soil and culture. Rockport has been, and is, more or less popular in New York but it can be recommended only for a home orchard. Rockport is another of Professor Kirtland's introductions, having been raised by him at Cleveland, Ohio, about 1842, from a seed of Yellow Spanish. It soon won a place, in 1862, on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society where it still remains. It is mentioned by several foreign authors and many American nurserymen offer it for sale. Swedish is given as a synonym of Rockport by Hooper. [Illustration: ROCKPORT] Tree large, vigorous, upright, very productive; trunk somewhat slender, roughish; branches smooth, reddish-brown, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets stout, variable in length, with long internodes, brown almost entirely overspread with ash-gray, smooth, with conspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three and one-half inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, long-oval to obovate; upper surface dark green, somewhat rugose; lower surface dull, light green, pubescent along the veins; apex acute to taper-pointed, base abrupt; margin coarsely serrate, glandular; petiole two inches long, tinged with red, with a few hairs on the upper surface, glandless or with from one to four large, reniform, reddish glands variable in position. Buds large, long, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly and in clusters from lateral buds and short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in clusters usually in twos; pedicels one inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, dentate at the apex, nearly sessile; filaments nearly one-half inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens, often defective. Fruit matures early; one inch in diameter, cordate to conical, compressed; cavity shallow, wide, flaring, regular; suture a distinct line; apex roundish, with a small depression at the center; color bright red over an amber-yellow background, mottled; dots very numerous, small, light yellowish, somewhat conspicuous; stem one and one-half inches long, adhering well to the fruit; skin thin, tender; flesh pale yellowish-white, with colorless juice, tender, somewhat melting, aromatic, mild, sweet; good to very good in quality; stone free, ovate, plump, with smooth surfaces. ROYAL DUKE _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:204, 205. 1843. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 192. 1845. =3.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 369. 1849. =4.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:543. 1855. =5.= Thompson _Gard. Ass't_ 530. 1859. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 12. 1871. =7.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:125, 126, fig. 63. 1882. =8.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 311. 1884. _Royale d'Angleterre._ =9.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 159. 1791. _Cerise Royale._ =10.= Christ _Wörterb._ 284. 1802. =11.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 40 fig. 1906. _Königskirsche._ =12.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 422, 423, 424. 1819. _Ungarische Süssweichsel._ =13.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:51. 1858. _Anglaise Hâtive._. =14.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:161-163, fig. 42. 1866. =15.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:83, 84, fig. 40. 1866-73. =16.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 24, Pl. 24. 1871. =17.= _Guide Prat._ 17, 180. 1895. _Belle de Worsery._ =18.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:181. 1866. =19.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:39, 40, fig. 20. 1882. Royal Duke has a place in the cherry flora to follow in season the well-known May Duke and to precede another standard sort, Late Duke. It is so nearly like these two sorts, except in season, and so similar to Arch Duke, as well, that there is much difficulty in getting the variety true to name. It is more often taken for May Duke than for the other kinds named but it differs from this well-known sort in being a little later in season, and the cherries are larger, a little lighter in color, do not hang as thickly, being scattered along the branches, often singly, and are more oblate. The trees are markedly upright and the foliage is very dense. None of the Dukes are popular in America for market fruits and this is no exception though, among all, Royal Duke is as good as any--pleasantly flavored, juicy, refreshing and very good. The trees, too, are very satisfactory. The variety has a place in home orchards and for local markets. The French say that the tree makes a very weak growth budded on the Mahaleb and that it should be worked on the Mazzard, which is generally true of all Dukes. The buyer will have difficulty in getting the true Royal Duke in America. The origin of this variety is unknown but the Royale d'Angleterre, mentioned by Christ in 1791, was probably the variety now known as Royal Duke, although the description is too meager to be certain. According to Thompson, Royal Duke was one of the varieties formerly cultivated in England under the names Late Duke, Arch Duke, or Late Arch Duke and was probably introduced by the London Horticultural Society from France under the name of Anglaise Tardive. When or by whom this variety was introduced into America is not known but according to Downing it was very rarely found here in the first half of the Nineteenth Century. The American Pomological Society placed Royal Duke upon its catalog list of recommended fruits in 1871. [Illustration: ROYAL DUKE] Tree of medium size, vigorous, upright, vasiform, unproductive at this Station; trunk slender, roughish; branches stocky, with roughened surface, dark reddish-brown covered with ash-gray, with lenticels of medium number and size; branchlets stout, long, brown partly overspread with ash-gray, smooth except for the lenticels which are inconspicuous. Leaves numerous, variable in size, averaging four and one-half inches long, two inches wide, folded upward, oval to obovate; upper surface dark green, slightly rugose; lower surface medium green, pubescent along the midrib; apex abruptly pointed, base acute; margin serrate or crenate; petiole variable in length, often one and one-half inches long, not uniform in thickness, tinged with red, glandless or with one or two small, reniform, greenish-yellow or reddish glands, usually at the base of the blade. Buds rather small, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in very dense clusters on numerous short spurs; leaf-scars obscure; time of bloom mid-season; flowers white, one inch across; borne in very dense clusters, closely grouped in fours and fives; pedicels over one-half inch long, glabrous, green; calyx-tube green or with a tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, sessile, apex entire; filaments nearly one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, longer than the stamens. Fruit matures early; three-fourths inch in diameter, oblate, compressed; cavity rather narrow, abrupt, regular; suture a mere line; apex flattened or depressed; color bright red becoming darker at maturity; dots few, small, obscure; stem one and one-half inches long, adhering to the fruit; skin thin, rather tough, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellowish-white with tinge of red, pinkish juice, tender, sprightly, pleasantly acid; good to very good in quality; stone semi-free, small, ovate, slightly flattened, with smooth surfaces. SCHMIDT _Prunus avium_ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:38. 1858. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 37 fig., 38. 1867. =3.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =23=:169 fig. 1872. =4.= _Flor. & Pom._ 121, fig. 2. 1874. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 17. 1897. =6.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:290. 1903. _Smith._ =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. Schmidt, shortened in accordance with the rules of the American Pomological Society from Schmidt's Bigarreau, is not new nor can it be said to be little known, since it has been rather widely planted in America for a score of years. Yet in New York, at least, it is not receiving the attention that it deserves from commercial cherry-growers, being relegated to the rear of ten or a dozen kinds when it should be in the front rank. Indeed, about Geneva, where many Sweet Cherries are grown, while not the leading market variety, it is one of the best. The characters which entitle it to a high place as a money-maker are: large size, being unsurpassed in this respect by any other black cherry in this region; its round, plump form and glossy, black color which tempt the eye; crisp, firm, juicy flesh and sweet, rich flavor, delicious to the taste; dark ruby-red color under the skin which makes it as pleasing inwardly as outwardly; freedom from brown-rot, in this respect excelling any other market sort; and a vigorous, healthy, productive tree. The tree is further characterized by its abundant, large leaves of dark, luxuriant green. The fruit is often picked before it is ripe, at which time it is dark red and not black. There is a good deal of enthusiasm in New York over several new Sweet Cherries from the Pacific Coast but in this vicinity none of these is equal to Schmidt. Schmidt is a seedling of Festfleischige Schwarze Knorpelkirsche and was raised by Herr Schmidt, Forester at Casekow, Prussia, Germany, about 1841. It was introduced into England by Thomas Rivers of Sawbridgeworth and eventually found its way to America but how and when is not known. Schmidt appeared on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1897 but only for two years when for some reason it was dropped. In 1909, a Smith was listed, with Smith's Bigarreau as a synonym. Budd-Hansen in the publication of 1903 also mentioned a Smith which is probably Schmidt. We are inclined to hold to the German spelling, Schmidt. [Illustration: SCHMIDT] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, productive; trunk and branches stocky, smooth; branches dull reddish-brown covered with ash-gray, with numerous lenticels; branchlets thick, short, smooth, with rather conspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, six inches long, three inches wide, folded upward, obovate; upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface pale green, pubescent along the midrib and larger veins; apex acute, base abrupt; margin serrate, glandular; petiole one and one-half inches long, thick, dull red, with a narrow, deep groove along the upper surface, glandless or with one or two large, reniform, reddish glands on the stalk. Buds large, long, obtuse to conical, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in numerous small clusters; leaf-scars prominent; time of blooming mid-season; flowers white, one and one-half inches across; borne in scattering clusters in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, thick, glabrous; calyx-tube green or with a tinge of red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes long, broad, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals oval, crenate, with short, narrow claws; filaments three-eighths inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season; one inch in diameter, cordate, compressed, often slightly oblique; cavity deep, wide, flaring; suture indistinct; apex bluntly pointed; color purplish-black; dots numerous, small, dark russet, obscure; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, strongly adherent to the fruit; skin tough, separating from the pulp; flesh purplish-red, with dark colored juice, very meaty, crisp, firm, mild, sweet; of good quality; stone semi-clinging, ovate, slightly oblique, with smooth surfaces; ventral suture prominent. SHORT-STEM MONTMORENCY _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Christ. _Handb._ 679. 1797. =2.= _Prince Pom. Man._ =2=:141, 142. 1832. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:365, 366 fig., 367. 1877. _Gobet à Courte Queue._ =4.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:180, 181, Pl. VIII. 1768. =5.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:7, Tab. 18 fig. 1. 1792. _Gros Gobet._ =6.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 634-638. 1819. =7.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:71, 72. 1858. =8.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:204, 308. 1866. =9.= _Mas Le Verger_ =8=:51, 52, fig. 24. 1866-73. =10.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 299, 300. 1884. =11.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 358. 1889. =12.= _Guide Prat._ 9, 190. 1895. _Flemish._ =13.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 195 fig. 85, 196. 1845. _Cerise à Courte Queue._ 1=4.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 15, Pl. 1846. _Cerise Gros Fruit._ =15.= _Pom. France_ =7=: No. 11, Pl. 11. 1871. In tracing the history of the Montmorency cherries from Duhamel's time to the present we have been led to conclude that three distinct types are now being cultivated. Of these closely related strains, all of which probably originated about the same time in Montmorency Valley, France, Montmorency is by far the most important and the one now grown commercially in all parts of the country. Large Montmorency, while quite similar to Montmorency, is much less grown because of its unproductiveness, although in quality it is quite equal or perhaps superior to Montmorency. Short-Stem Montmorency, under discussion here, varies considerably both in tree and fruit from either of the other two, although it is frequently taken for Large Montmorency. The tree is smaller and more drooping but usually very productive. The fruit, similar in size to Large Montmorency, differs from it by being more oblate and irregular, and in having a very deep, wide suture which becomes an indistinct line towards the apex. The skin seldom becomes as dark red even at perfect maturity. The flavor is more sprightly but its quality is not as high. All three varieties have long lists of synonyms, many of which have been used for each of the three sorts. Many writers believe that only two distinct strains of Montmorency exist and that Short-Stem Montmorency is identical with Large Montmorency. The variety is little grown in North America and is not as worthy for any purpose as either of the other two better-known sorts. [Illustration: SHORT-STEM MONTMORENCY] Tree upright-spreading, round-topped, productive; trunk shaggy; branches roughish, reddish-brown covered with ash-gray, with numerous lenticels; branchlets slender, long, brown partly overspread with ash-gray, smooth, with conspicuous, numerous, small, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, variable in size, averaging four inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, long-oval to obovate, thick; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface medium green, with a prominent midrib; apex taper-pointed, base acute; margin doubly crenate, glandular; petiole one inch long, tinged with dull red, variable in thickness, lightly pubescent, glandless or with from one to three large, raised, reniform glands on the stalk. Buds small, short, variable in shape, free, arranged as lateral buds and on few, if any, spurs; leaf-scars obscure; season of bloom late; flowers white, one inch across; borne in a few scattering clusters, variable in number of flowers per cluster; pedicels one-half inch long, thick, greenish; calyx-tube green or with a tinge of red, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, obtuse, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish-oval, crenate, sessile, with a distinctly notched apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length, often defective. Fruit matures in mid-season; over three-fourths of an inch in diameter, decidedly oblate, irregular in outline, slightly compressed; cavity deep, wide, irregular, flaring; suture very deep near the stem but shallow at the apex which is flattened or depressed; color light to dark red; dots numerous, small, russet, inconspicuous; stem very thick, less than three-fourths of an inch long, adhering strongly to the fruit; skin rather tender, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellow, with colorless juice, tender and melting, sprightly, sour; of fair quality; stone clinging along the ventral suture, small, roundish, plump, blunt, with smooth surfaces, faintly tinged with red; ventral suture very prominent. SKLANKA _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 330. 1885. =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 327. 1888. =3.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 40, 41. 1895. =4.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:116 fig. 6, 117. 1900. =5.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:83 fig. 21, 84. 1903. Sklanka is evidently a cross between a cherry of the Amarelle group and one of the Morellos--another indication of the frequency of hybridization in this fruit. The cherries of Sklanka have the light-colored skin and juice of the Amarelles while the dwarfish, round-topped trees with pendant branches and abundant, small leaves are typical of the Morellos. The variety is in no way remarkable unless it be in hardiness, the pomologists of the colder parts of the Mississippi Valley holding that it is one of the hardiest of cherries. The fruit is not on a par with that of a score of other Amarelles and the trees, in New York at least, are too small and unproductive to be worth planting. The cherry has value, then, only where hardiness is a prime requisite. Sklanka was imported to this country from Russia in 1883 by Professor J. L. Budd of Ames, Iowa. Its parentage and origin are uncertain. It does not seem to have been grown in continental Europe outside of Russia but in certain sections of that country it is reported as being one of the hardiest and most productive of the Sour Cherries. As grown in our Northern Central States it has proved one of the hardiest of all varieties but has not, as yet, gained much reputation commercially even in these cold regions. It is mentioned but seldom in the literature and is listed by but few nurserymen. [Illustration: SKLANKA] Tree of medium size, vigorous, spreading, with drooping branchlets, open-topped, unproductive; trunk thick and smooth; branches rather slender, long, slightly roughened, reddish-brown partly overspread with ash-gray, with numerous rather small lenticels; branchlets slender and willowy, with short internodes, brown nearly covered with ash-gray, smooth except for the lenticels, which are small, numerous, raised, conspicuous. Leaves of medium number, three and one-fourth inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, obovate to elliptical, thick, stiff; upper surface very dark green, glossy, smooth; lower surface medium green, finely pubescent along the midrib and larger veins; apex and base acute; margin finely and doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole three-fourths of an inch long, thick, tinged with dull red, grooved, with a few hairs along the upper surface, with from one to four small, globose, orange-colored glands usually at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, variable in shape, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in few, very small clusters; time of blooming mid-season; flowers one and three-sixteenths inches across, white; borne in dense clusters usually at the ends of branches or spurs, well distributed, usually in threes; pedicels over one-half inch long, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes broad, obtuse, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish, entire, nearly sessile, with almost entire apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures early; about three-fourths of an inch in diameter, oblate, not compressed; cavity of medium depth, narrow, abrupt; suture lacking; apex flattened or strongly depressed; color bright currant-red; dots numerous, light colored, slightly conspicuous; stem thick, less than one inch long, adherent to the fruit; skin rather tough, separating from the pulp; flesh pale yellow, with colorless juice, tender and melting, sour; of good quality; stone semi-free, clinging only along the ventral suture, about one-third inch in diameter, roundish, slightly flattened, blunt, with smooth surfaces. SPARHAWK _Prunus avium_ =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 219, 220. 1835. _Sparhawk's Honey._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 177. 1845. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =4.= _Mas Le Verger_ =8=:143, 144, fig. 70. 1866-73. _Honey Heart._ =5.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 234 fig. 37, 235. 1849. Sparhawk has little to recommend it for either a home or commercial orchard; but the rich and honeyed sweetness of the cherries, scarcely surpassed in flavor, might make it worth planting by plant-breeders and connoisseurs of choicely good fruits. The name "honey" which appears in several of the synonyms is indicative of the flavor of the fruit. The cherries are quite too small and the pits altogether too large for a commercial product. The tree is upright-spreading, with numerous thick branches over which the cherries are rather thickly scattered in ones, twos and threes and never in clusters. The fruit-stems are characteristically long and slender. Though of the Bigarreau group the flesh is too tender to well withstand harvesting, shipping and the brown-rot. This cherry was introduced by Edward Sparhawk, for whom it was named, of Brighton, Massachusetts. The variety has been known under a number of different names, the number being no measure of its merit, however, for it has never been extensively cultivated. The American Pomological Society placed it in its fruit catalog list of recommended varieties in 1862 but dropped it in 1871 and for many years but little attention has been given it. It is now for sale in but few of the nurseries of the country. Tree large, vigorous, upright, rather open-topped, hardy, unproductive; trunk stocky, slightly shaggy; branches thick; branchlets medium in thickness and length; leaves numerous, five inches long, two and one-fourth inches wide, long-oval to obovate, thin, medium green; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole two inches long, thick, overlaid with red, with one or two large, reniform, reddish glands on the stalk; buds intermediate in size and length; season of bloom intermediate, average length five days; flowers one and one-fourth inches across; pistil shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season, average length about nineteen days; nearly seven-eighths inch in diameter, somewhat conical, compressed; color dark red over a yellowish background, finely mottled; stem of medium thickness, one and three-eighths inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, tough, separates from the pulp; flesh pale yellowish-white, with colorless juice, tender, crisp, highly flavored, mild, aromatic, sweet; very good in quality; stone nearly free, large for the size of the fruit, ovate, flattened, slightly oblique, with smooth surfaces. SPÄTE AMARELLE _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 679. 1797. =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 294. 1802. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 629-632. 1819. =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:67, 68. 1858. =5.= _Ill. Handb._ 541 fig., 542. 1861. =6.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:149, 150, fig. 73. 1866-73. =7.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =III=: No. 24, Pl. 1882. =8.= _Am. Gard._ =9=:264. 1888. =9.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =2=:36. 1888. =10.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:126, 127. 1900. _Späte Morello._ =11.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 78. 1890. =12.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:282, 283. 1903. This is another variety with Amarelle fruit and a Morello-like tree and is unquestionably a hybrid between varieties of the two groups. Several references from the Middle West mention Späte Amarelle as very promising but in New York, where such sorts as Early Richmond and the Montmorencies thrive, it is unpromising for any purpose. The cherries are quite too poor in quality, being very sour, and the trees too unproductive to make the variety even a poor rival of a score or more of Amarelles and Dukes with which it would have to compete in this State. The origin of this cherry is unknown but according to Truchsess it was sent out from Hanover as Späte Morelle in 1785. In 1797, Christ mentions a cherry under this name the description of which agrees with that of Späte Amarelle. Lauche states that Truchsess received the variety from Hanover under the name Späte Morelle and later changed the name to Späte Amarelle. This cherry was grown in the Paris National Nursery under the name Cerise Amarelle Tardive and at one time was commonly grown in gardens in France. In the spring of 1883, Professor J. L. Budd of Iowa brought to America a large number of cherries from central and eastern Europe. Somehow there was confusion in the description of these imported cherries and two kinds were described under the name Späte Amarelle, one a light-fleshed sort, the other with red flesh and colored juice. The true variety has light flesh and juice and a pleasant, acid flavor and is probably identical with the old French sort, Cerise Amarelle Tardive. The cherry sometimes called Späte Morello can be no other than the Späte Amarelle. Tree of medium size, vigorous, upright-spreading, round-topped, rather unproductive; trunk stocky, somewhat shaggy; branches smooth, dark brown overspread by ash-gray, with numerous lenticels variable in size; branchlets slender, rather short, brown nearly covered with ash-gray, smooth, with slightly raised, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous, small, folded upward, oval to somewhat obovate, rather stiff; upper surface dark green, smooth; lower surface medium green, pubescent only on the midrib and larger veins; apex acute, base variable in shape; margin finely serrate, glandular; petiole greenish or with a slight bronze tinge, glandless or with from one to four small, globose, brown or yellowish glands usually at the base of the blade. Buds small, pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in clusters on long or short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom late; flowers one inch across, white; borne in scattered clusters, usually in threes; pedicels three-fourths of an inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green with a tinge of red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes with a trace of red, rather narrow, acute, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals broad-oval, entire, slightly crenate at the apex; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to or longer than the stamens. Fruit matures in mid-season; one-half inch long, oblate, slightly compressed; cavity shallow, narrow; suture indistinct; apex roundish or depressed; color dark red; dots numerous, very small, obscure; stem slender, one and one-half inches long; skin thin, tender; flesh light red, with light colored juice, tender, tart; of good quality; stone free, roundish, flattened, with smooth surfaces; distinctly ridged along the ventral suture. SUDA _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _Suda Hardy._ =2.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 21. 1892-93. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 25. 1899. =4.= Stark Brothers _Cat._ 1899. =5.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:84 fig., 85. 1903. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc._ Sp. Rpt. 36. 1904-05. Suda has been widely advertised as an improved English Morello but, while there seem to be some slight differences between the two, the new variety is not an improvement on the old so far as can be discovered at this Station. The trees of Suda in general aspect are more upright and the stems of the cherries longer and more slender than those of English Morello, being but an inch in length in the one variety and an inch and three-fourths in the other. The trees on the grounds of this Station are not as productive as those of English Morello. The cherries, if anything, are not as high in quality as those of the older and probably the parent variety. It is doubtful if there is a place for Suda in the cherry industry of New York. This cherry originated in the garden of a Captain Suda, Louisiana, Missouri, about 1880. The American Pomological Society listed Suda in its fruit catalog of 1899 as Suda Hardy but in 1909 shortened the name to Suda, a change which has generally been accepted. [Illustration: SUDA] Tree vigorous, rather unproductive; branches slender, with numerous small lenticels; branchlets slender, long; leaves numerous, four inches long, two and one-fourth inches wide, obovate to oval, dull, dark green; margin doubly serrate, with dark glands; petiole one inch long, of medium thickness, tinged with dull red, glandless or with one or two reniform, yellowish-brown glands usually at the base of the blade; buds small, short, obtuse, arranged singly as lateral buds and on but very few, if any, spurs; season of bloom late; flowers white, one inch across; filaments one-fourth inch long; pistil shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures very late; three-fourths inch in diameter, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity flaring; suture indistinct; color dark purplish-red; stem slender, one and three-fourths inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin separating from the pulp; flesh dark red, with dark colored juice, tender, somewhat meaty, sprightly, astringent, very sour; poor in quality; stone free or nearly so, ovate, slightly pointed, with smooth surfaces. TIMME _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:85, 86. 1903. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. Timme can hardly be distinguished from Early Richmond, differing only in smaller fruits, and probably is a seed variation of that variety. On the grounds of this Station the trees of Timme are even more productive than those of Early Richmond, one of the most fruitful of all cherries, but the greater fruitfulness of the tree hardly offsets the smaller size of the cherries. It is doubtful if this new strain can displace the older Early Richmond, which is well established in the favor of cherry-growers everywhere. This variety is supposed to have been brought to America from Germany by a Mr. Timme of Omaha, Nebraska. It is of some local importance in Iowa and Nebraska but as yet has not been widely distributed in America. Possibly it will be found in time that it is some old German variety renamed. It was placed on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1909. [Illustration: TIMME] Tree medium in size, rather vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, healthy; trunk and branches thick, with numerous large lenticels; branchlets slender, long, willowy; leaves three and one-half inches long, one and five-eighths inches wide, ovate to obovate, thick, stiff, leathery, dark green; margin finely serrate, tipped with reddish-brown glands; petiole three-fourths of an inch in length, with one or two large, globose glands variable in position; flowers one inch across, in dense clusters. Fruit matures medium early; over one-half inch in diameter, roundish-oblate; color light red becoming dark red at full maturity; stem one inch long; flesh yellowish-white, with abundant pinkish juice, tender and melting, pleasant flavored, sprightly; good in quality; stone semi-clinging, roundish-ovate, plump; prominently ridged along the ventral suture. TOUSSAINT _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Duhamel Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:178-180, Pl. VII. 1768. =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:7, Tab. 18 fig. 2. 1792. =3.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 21, Pl. 1846. =4.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =1=:103, 104, Pl. 1853. =5.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:205, 308. 1866. =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:305, 306 fig., 307, 308. 1877. =7.= _Rev. Hort._ 250. 1906. _Stäts Blühender Kirschbaum._ =8.= Krünitz _Enc._ 42, 43. 1790. _All Saints._ =9.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 661-668. 1819. =10.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:152, 153. 1832. =11.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:72. 1858. =12.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 277. 1884. =13.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 332. 1889. Toussaint is a marked deviation from its species. Instead of bearing blossoms normally this variety sends out small branches from the buds. In the axis of the first four leaves are borne the buds destined to produce similar branches the following spring. As the branches elongate these buds remain dormant but others are borne which produce flowers in umbel-like clusters of two or three. The trees begin blooming three or four weeks later than other cherries and new buds and flowers appear continually until August or thereabouts. The tree, too, is most striking in appearance, being dwarfish in stature, thickly set with pendant branchlets and, all in all, attractive enough to make it a rather handsome ornamental. The cherries are of little or no value, being quite too acid to eat out of hand but furnishing very late fruit which may be used for culinary purposes. The description given is compiled. The history of the variety is uncertain. Leroy says that it was mentioned by Daléchamp, a French writer, as early as 1586. Duhamel seems to have been the first pomologist to describe it which he did in 1768 under the name Cerisier de la Toussaint. The variety is well known in Europe, being widely distributed in Austria, Germany, Belgium, France and England, pomologists and nurserymen in all these countries seeming to be well acquainted with it. There are no records of its culture in America, although Prince and Elliott describe it from European fruit books. Tree small, hardy, moderately productive; branches slender, numerous, pendant. Fruit small, flattened on the ends and sides; stem long; color clear red, darker on maturing, rather transparent; flesh white somewhat red at the center, with reddish juice; flavor, if mature, sour, though not excellent; stone large, long, clings to the flesh more than to the stem. The fruit borne in October never reaches maturity. VLADIMIR _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 84, 85. 1882. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1883. =3.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 327, 328. 1885. =4.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =19=:550. 1892. =5.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 454. 1895. =6.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ 12:128, 129. 1900. =7.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:87. 1903. =8.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. Vladimir is a Morello-like cherry not more promising in New York, at least in the orchard of this Station, than any other of the many competitors of English Morello. The cherries are large, very similar in size and appearance to those of English Morello; the pit is small, the skin very thin and separating readily from the pulp. The variety is further characterized by the very dark red flesh and dark colored juice which is too astringent and sour to eat out of hand but does very well for culinary purposes. The tree is much like that of English Morello but is far more dwarfish and not as productive, these being fatal faults for commercial planting in New York. It falls short of English Morello in another respect--the fruit ripens very unevenly. Vladimir has the reputation of being one of the hardiest of all cherries. It is said to come true from seed and does better on its own roots than on either Mazzard or Mahaleb. The Russians, according to Budd, succeed best with it when it is propagated from sprouts and allowed to form a bushy plant with several stems, the oldest of which are cut from time to time. There seems to be little in the variety to commend it for either home or commercial plantings in New York. Vladimir is a generic name for a group of varieties grown in Russia, principally in the province of Vladimir east of Moscow. Most of these cherries are large, black fruits with highly colored juice and good quality, much valued for market use in their native country. Professor J. L. Budd imported a number of these Vladimir cherries from Orel in Central Russia and grew them at the Experiment Station grounds in Iowa, giving to each a seedling number as a distinguishing characteristic. One, Orel No. 25, was selected as being superior in many respects to the others and was finally named Vladimir. This variety, typical of these Russian cherries, has been considerably propagated and is generally distributed throughout this country. The American Pomological Society added Vladimir to its list of recommended fruits in 1909. [Illustration: VLADIMIR] Tree dwarfish, round-topped, very hardy, productive; trunk medium or below in size; branches willowy, drooping, reddish-brown slightly overspread with ash-gray; branchlets slender, long, smooth, with a few small, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, three inches long, one and three-fourths inches wide, folded upward, oval, thick; upper surface dull, dark green, smooth; lower surface light green, with a few scattering hairs; apex acute, base slightly abrupt; margin finely serrate, with dark colored glands; petiole one-half inch long, tinged with red, with a few scattering hairs along the stalk, glandless or with from one to four small, reniform, greenish-yellow glands at the base of the blade. Buds small, short, very obtuse, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in small clusters on small spurs; leaf-scars obscure; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in scattering clusters in twos, threes and fours; pedicels three-fourths of an inch long, rather slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube with a tinge of red, somewhat obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes reddish, broad, obtuse, serrate, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals roundish or slightly obovate, irregularly crenate, with short, blunt claws, apex entire; filaments over one-fourth inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures very late; three-eighths of an inch long, seven-eighths of an inch wide, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity rather shallow; suture a line; apex roundish; color dark red almost black at full maturity; dots numerous, small, russet, inconspicuous; stem slender, one and one-half inches or more in length, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, separating from the pulp; flesh dark red, with very dark colored juice, slightly stringy, melting, sprightly, astringent, sour; of fair quality; stone semi-clinging, rather large, long-ovate to oval, with smooth surfaces, tinged with red. WATERLOO _Prunus avium × (Prunus avium × Prunus cerasus)_ =1.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 29. 1828. =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 56. 1831. =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:118. 1832. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 178. 1845. =5.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 101, 102. 1846. =6.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 213, 214. 1854. =7.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 314. 1884. This old sort, seemingly well thought of in Europe, has not been popular in America and has only historical value to cherry-growers of this country. It is an interesting cherry resembling the Bigarreaus in tree and leaf-characters while the flowers are more like those of the Dukes, the fruit, too, taking on more the aspect of the Dukes than of the Sweet Cherry. The variety has long since passed from general cultivation in the United States and can now be found only in collections or as an occasional dooryard tree. This cherry was raised early in the Nineteenth Century by T. A. Knight, Downton Castle, Wiltshire, England, and first fruited in 1815, shortly after the Battle of Waterloo, hence its name. It was supposed to be a cross between Yellow Spanish and May Duke. The variety was brought to this country by Honorable John Lowell of Newton, Massachusetts, though it was described by Prince in 1828 from European fruit books. The following description is compiled: Tree vigorous, thrifty, rather irregular and spreading, productive; branchlets thick, stocky, grayish; leaves large, drooping, wavy; margin slightly serrate; flowers large; stamens shorter than the pistil. Fruit matures the last of June or early in July; large, obtuse-cordate, broad at the base, convex on one side, flattened on the other; stem one and one-half to two inches in length, slender; color dark purplish-red becoming nearly black at maturity; skin thin; flesh purplish-red becoming darker next to the stone, firm but tender, juicy, fine flavored, sweet; good in quality; stone separating readily from the pulp, small, roundish-ovate, compressed. WHITE BIGARREAU _Prunus avium_ =1.= Thacher _Am. Orch._ 217. 1822. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:125. 1832. =3.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:283. 1842. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 180 fig., 181. 1845. =5.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 366. 1849. =6.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:541. 1855. _Tradescant._ =7.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 250. 1817. _White Oxheart._ =8.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 278. 1832. White Bigarreau is a cherry of the past, having been considered one of the good sorts of a century ago. Rivers, the English pomologist, believed it to have come originally from Russia. It is reputed to have been brought to America from France by Chancellor Livingston of Revolutionary fame. Thacher, in 1822, described the variety first under its present name. The variety, as the synonymy shows, has been grown under many names both in America and Europe. In 1845, according to Downing, this cherry was common in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia but since Downing's time no one seems to have mentioned it. The variety is usually spoken of in the United States as neither hardy nor productive. The fruit books describe it as follows: Tree medium in size, spreading, very tender, unproductive; leaves narrow, waved. Fruit matures the last of June or early in July; large to very large, heart-shaped, somewhat pointed; color yellowish-white with a bright red cheek, mottled; flesh very firm, breaking, pleasantly flavored, sweet; very good in quality; stone separating readily from the flesh. WHITE HEART _Prunus avium_ =1.= Bradley _Gard._ 211. 1739. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 173, 174 fig. 1845. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 216. 1854. =4.= _Horticulturist_ =15=:327, Pl. fig. 1. 1860. =5.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 315. 1884. _Amber Heart._ =6.= Miller _Gard. Kal._ 154. 1734. =7.= _Jour. Roy Hort. Soc._ =21=:355. 1898. _Frühe Bernsteinkirsche._ =8.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 304, 305. 1819. =9.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:39. 1858. =10.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:45, 46, fig. 23. 1882. =11.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 348. 1889. _Kentish Bigarreau._ =12.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 43. 1904. White Heart is mentioned in _The Cherries of New York_ only because of its reputation in Europe and the frequent references, therefore, that American cherry-growers see to it in European publications. Bunyard and Thomas, in the reference given, speak of it as one of the best and most profitable cherries grown in the famous Kent cherry orchards. Early American horticulturists describe it but it seems not to have been widely grown in America and has probably long since passed from cultivation. It failed, according to Elliott, because it was a "variable and uncertain bearer" and while an early cherry "not early enough to compete with many new varieties." White Heart seems to have been mentioned first by Miller in 1734. A little later it is found to be described in both Germany and France, indicating that it must have been known and widely distributed before the time given. It seems to have been brought to America before the War of the Revolution and to have been grown in this country under the several different names which are given in the list of synonyms. The following description is compiled: Tree large, vigorous, somewhat erect, very healthy, rather productive; branches stocky, somewhat angular, with large, roundish, light colored lenticels; internodes of unequal length; leaves medium in size, oval or obovate, sharply pointed; margin finely serrate; petiole short, slender, tipped with two reniform, orange-red glands; flowers medium in size; petals obovate. Fruit matures early in June; rather small, roundish-cordate, often one-sided, with a distinct suture; color whitish-yellow, tinged and speckled with pale red in the sun; stem long, slender, inserted in a wide, shallow cavity; skin firm; flesh light colored, firm, half-tender, breaking, juicy, sugary, pleasant; first quality; stone rather large, roundish-oval, with a pointed apex. WINDSOR _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =24=:208. 1882. =2.= _Cult._ & _Count. Gent._ =49=:636. 1884. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 22. 1885. =4.= _Del. Sta. Bul._ =35=:16 fig. 7. 1897. =5.= _Ont. Fr. Exp. Sta. Rpt._ =5=:41 fig. 1898. =6.= _Am. Gard._ 21:76. 1900. =7.= _Can. Hort._ =25=:3, 262 fig., 263. 1902. =8.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 56, 57. 1907. Windsor is the standard late Bigarreau and one of the most profitable of the hard-fleshed cherries grown in New York. Both fruit and trees deserve the approbation of cherry-growers. In color the cherries meet the market demand, buyers preferring a dark-colored Sweet Cherry. None would find fault with the appearance of Windsor. The flesh is firm and the product stands harvesting and shipping well and at a season of the year when brown-rot is usually rife this variety is fairly free from this scourge of the Sweet Cherry. The quality is from good to very good, equaled but not surpassed by others of its class. But it is in its tree-characters that the superiority of Windsor is best shown. The trees have the reputation of being the hardiest of the Bigarreaus and of thriving in many soils. They are usually fruitful. To offset these merits, the trees have two or three rather serious faults. Thus, they do not come in bearing early; they are tall and upright in growth, being almost fastigiate, making it difficult to harvest the crop; and the load of fruit is too much clustered. Cherry-growers agree that the worst of all pests of this fruit is the robin and that the Windsor, for some reason or other, is the freest of its kind from this and other thieving birds. From the behavior of the variety in New York, we can heartily join with practically all who are growing this variety in recommending it as a late, market Sweet Cherry. Windsor originated in the latter half of the Nineteenth Century on the farm of James Dougall, Windsor, Ontario, Canada, and was introduced to fruit-growers in 1881 by Ellwanger & Barry, Rochester, New York. It has been planted extensively in many sections of this country for both home and market use and is now offered for sale by a large number of nurserymen. The American Pomological Society added Windsor to its fruit catalog list in 1885 and the variety still holds a place there. Though rather widely known in the United States the commercial culture of this variety is almost wholly confined to New York. It seems as yet not to have found its way to Europe, a fact to be regretted, for its many good qualities would soon make it known in the Old World where the Sweet Cherry is better grown and more appreciated than in America. [Illustration: WINDSOR] Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, open-topped, very productive; trunk thick, shaggy; branches stocky, very smooth, brown nearly overspread with ash-gray, with large lenticels; branchlets thick, rather short, brown overspread with light ash-gray, smooth, with few small, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves four inches long, two inches wide, folded upward, obovate to oval, thin; upper surface dark green, slightly rugose; lower surface light green, pubescent; margin doubly crenate, glandular; petiole one and one-fourth inches long, tinged with dull red, with from one to three globose, reddish glands of medium size on the stalk. Buds conical or pointed, plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds and in very numerous clusters variable in size, on short spurs; leaf-scars somewhat prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in scattering clusters, in ones and twos; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube green, campanulate, glabrous; calyx-lobes greenish or with a tinge of red, acute, glabrous within and without, reflexed; petals broad-oval, slightly crenate, with short, blunt claws; filaments five-sixteenths of an inch long; pistil glabrous, shorter than the stamens. Fruit matures in late mid-season; three-fourths of an inch in diameter, slightly oblong to conical, compressed; cavity deep, wide, flaring; suture a line; apex roundish, with a depression at the center; color very dark red becoming almost black; dots numerous, small, russet, obscure; stem slender, one and one-fourth inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, adhering to the pulp; flesh light red, with reddish juice, tender, meaty, crisp, mild, sweet; good to very good in quality; stone semi-free, ovate, flattened, blunt-pointed, with smooth surfaces; ventral suture rather prominent near the apex. WOOD _Prunus avium_ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. _Governor Wood._ =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 196 fig. 1854. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 108. 1856. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:324 fig. 1877. Wood is preeminently a Sweet Cherry for the amateur, having many qualities that fit it for the home orchard and but few to commend it to commercial growers. The trees are a little tender to cold, are not quite productive enough to make the variety profitable and are, too, somewhat fastidious as to soils. To offset these defects, they are vigorous and healthy and bear early. But the chief fault of the cherry from the cherry-grower's standpoint is to be found in the fruit. The flesh is soft and the cherries will not stand handling in harvesting and shipping and are very susceptible to brown-rot and crack badly in wet weather. Wood has special merit in the home collection, however, because of its earliness, its beautiful appearance and delicious flavor. It is one of the first of the Sweet Cherries, is large and, as the color-plate shows, is a beautiful yellowish-white tinted with shades of crimson, with conspicuous russet dots--a beautiful fruit. The flesh separates readily from the skin, is tender, juicy, with an abundance of colorless juice and a flavor that has given it the reputation, wherever grown in America, of being one of the best in quality. It would be hard to name another cherry better suited for small plantations and it is to be hoped that it will long be kept in the gardens of connoisseurs of good fruit. Wood is one of the best of Professor J. P. Kirtland's[83] seedlings. It was raised by him in 1842 at Cleveland, Ohio, and named in honor of Reuben Wood, at one time Governor of Ohio. In 1856, it was added to the fruit list of the American Pomological Society where it still remains, being changed in 1909 to Wood with Governor Wood as a synonym. Its popularity is shown in the United States by the fact that practically every nurseryman in this country lists this variety. [Illustration: WOOD] Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, open, productive; trunk stout; branches thick, smooth, dull reddish-brown covered with ash-gray, with a few small lenticels; branchlets thick, reddish-brown slightly overspread with ash-gray, smooth, glabrous, with a few inconspicuous, raised lenticels. Leaves numerous, four and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, obovate, thin; upper surface light green, smooth; lower surface dull green, lightly pubescent; apex acute, base abrupt; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, glandular; petiole one and one-half inches long, slender, tinged with dull red, with from one to three reniform, reddish glands on the stalk. Buds large, long, pointed, very plump, free, arranged singly as lateral buds or in small clusters on short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers one inch across, arranged in twos and threes; pedicels one inch long, slender, glabrous, greenish; calyx-tube tinged with red, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes reddish, long, acute, glabrous on both surfaces, reflexed; petals roundish, crenate, with short, blunt claws; anthers yellowish; filaments one-eighth inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length, sometimes defective. Fruit matures in early mid-season; nearly one inch in diameter, roundish-cordate, compressed; cavity of medium depth, wide, flaring; suture variable in depth, distinct, wide; apex roundish; color shades of crimson on a yellowish-white background; dots numerous, small, light russet, somewhat conspicuous, especially just before maturity; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, adhering well to the fruit; skin thin, tender, separating from the pulp; flesh whitish, with colorless juice, tender, meaty, mild, sweet; very good in quality; stone clinging, rather large, roundish, blunt, with smooth surfaces; with a broad, ventral suture. [83] Jared P. Kirtland, M. D., though now less well known than some of his contemporaries, was one of the great pomologists of his time and a man of notable achievements in other branches of natural history as well. Professor Kirtland was born at Wallingford, Connecticut, November 10, 1793, and died at East Rockport, near Cleveland, Ohio, December 11, 1877. For sixty years of a long life his avocation was the production of new varieties of fruits and flowers and, though a half century has passed since he ceased active work, the results of his labors are yet to be found in the gardens and orchards of the whole country. In pomology he gave special attention to breeding grapes, raspberries, pears and cherries. He achieved success, too, as a hybridizer of peonies and in the introduction of rare foreign magnolias. Professor Kirtland is given credit as being the first horticulturist successfully to bud and graft magnolias, an achievement which has made possible their cultivation under many conditions and to a degree of excellence that otherwise could not be obtained. He was the founder of the Cleveland Society of Natural History and was for many years its president. He was a member of the American Philosophical Society, the highest recognition for scientific work to be obtained in his time in this country. He served as professor in several medical schools and filled other places of honor and trust. From his boyhood we are told that he was interested in natural history and was intimately acquainted with the plants and animals of Ohio, having special knowledge of birds and fishes, the propagation of the latter being one of his hobbies. In pomology we owe him most for the many new cherries he has given us, thirty varieties described in _The Cherries of New York_ having come from his breeding grounds. Among these are Wood, Pontiac, Powhatan, Tecumseh, Osceola, Kirtland and Red Jacket, sorts scarcely surpassed for high quality and grown commonly in America and to some extent wherever Sweet Cherries will thrive. His 84 years seem to have been well ordered, given almost wholly for the good of the public, and his name should be cherished by pomologists among those who have done most for fruits and fruit-growing on this continent. WRAGG _Prunus cerasus_ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 171. 1884. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 95. 1887. =3.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ =17=:15 fig. 8. 1892. =4.= _Neb. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 39. 1892. =5.= _Am. Gard._ =20=:178. 1899. =6.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:119, 120. 1900. =7.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:89, fig. 26. 1903. =8.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 38. 1904-05. =9.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:22, 23. 1910. Wragg is either English Morello or a strain of that variety. Trees on the grounds of this Station are identical with English Morello but it may be that here, and occasionally elsewhere, the older sort has been substituted for Wragg. In Iowa, where the new variety is most largely grown, pomologists claim that it is distinct and that it is an improvement on English Morello. Professor J. L. Budd, an authority on Russian cherries, believed that this sort is distinct and of Russian origin having, according to him, been brought to America by Ellwanger & Barry of Rochester, New York, in an importation of Russian trees. Captain C. L. Watrous of Des Moines, Iowa, another prominent pomologist of that State, was of the opinion that Wragg came to light on the grounds of J. Wragg, Waukee, Iowa, as a sprout from another tree. Colonel G. B. Brackett, pomologist of the United States Department of Agriculture, who visited Mr. Wragg's place some years ago and compared the new cherry with the English Morello, could find no distinguishing characters between the two. On the other hand, Mr. Wragg insisted that they were distinct. The American Pomological Society calls Wragg and English Morello the same. Those who believe that the two are distinct say that the fruit of Wragg is larger, the trees hardier and that the cherries ripen a little later than those of English Morello. With the information now at hand it is impossible to say here whether or not Wragg is distinct. A compiled description taken from the text describing this cherry is so unsatisfactory that we offer none and refer the reader to that of English Morello from which it differs but little, if at all. YELLOW SPANISH _Prunus avium_ =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =1=:1754. =2.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 42. 1803. =3.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 28. 1828. =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:125. 1832. =5.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 372. 1867. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 17. 1897. =7.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:291. 1903. _Biguarre Cherrie._ =8.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. =9.= _Rea Flora_ 205. 1676. _Spanish._ =10.= Gerarde _Herball_ 1503, fig. 3. 1636. _Bigarreau Commun._ =11.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:167, 168. 1768. =12.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:128. 1832. =13.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 5, Pl. 1846. =14.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:115-119, fig. 26. 1866. 15. _Pom. France_ 7: No. 2, Pl. 2. 1871. 16. Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:188-191, fig. 1877. 17. _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 20, fig. 1906. _Gemeine Marmorkirsche._ =18.= Truchsess-Heim Kirschensort. 301-303. 1819. =19.= _Ill. Handb._ 123 fig., 124. 1860. _Graffion._ =20.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 338-340. 1819. =21.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:69, Pl. 34 fig. 1. 1823. =22.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:137, 138. 1832. =23.= _Cultivator_ N. S. =6=:21, fig. 6. 1849. =24.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 208. 1854. _Bigarreau._ =25.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:202. 1843. =26.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 179 fig., 180. 1845. =27.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 102. 1846. =28.= _Proc. Nat. Con. Fr. Gr._ 52. 1848. =29.= _Cole Am. Fr. Book_ 233 fig. 31. 1849. 30. Hogg _Fruit Man._ 281, 282. 1884. For centuries Yellow Spanish must have been the best of all the Bigarreaus and it is only in comparatively late years that it has had rivals. Even yet in tree-characters it is hardly equaled, surpassing Windsor, which has a notable tree, in several respects and falling short of it only in hardiness. The trees are large,--perhaps the largest of all the varieties of _Prunus avium_,--having an upright-spreading top which gives a large bearing surface and forms a canopy of splendid foliage. The trees are vigorous, bear abundantly and regularly and come in bearing young, with the crop well distributed and not in clusters as is the case and the fault of Windsor. Unfortunately, the cherries, though very good in most characters, do not come up to the trees in points of superiority. They are rather smaller than those of Napoleon, the greatest competitor of Yellow Spanish, and are more subject to attacks of brown-rot than several others of the Bigarreaus. As may be seen by comparing the color-plates, however, Yellow Spanish is rather the handsomer of the two cherries, the crimson color being more evenly distributed and the skin not having the mottled appearance of Napoleon. In quality Yellow Spanish is the better of the two, having tenderer flesh and a sweeter and richer flavor. Yellow Spanish is notable in the nursery for its strong, upright growth and its large leaves, the leaves of no other cherry attaining so great a size. In blossoming time the variety may be distinguished by the whiteness of the blossoms as they open and a reddish tint as they drop. It is a mid-season cherry, ripening after Wood and a few days before Napoleon. Despite the great age of the variety it still remains one of the best, furnishing proof, by the way, that varieties of cherries do not degenerate with age. In New York Yellow Spanish cannot be spared from either home or commercial plantings. Yellow Spanish is so old and so widely disseminated that its origin can only be conjectured. From the name we naturally infer a Spanish nativity and yet it is almost equally well known as Bigarreau, a word of French derivation. Under the last name French pomologists believe that they trace its history to the First Century of the Christian Era as the variety described by Pliny under the name Cerasum Duracinum. The Germans and Austrians certainly knew this variety in the Eighteenth Century and probably much earlier, an inference to be drawn from the references given. Parkinson, the English herbalist, described a cherry in 1629 which he called the Biguarre Cherrie which later came to be known as the Bigarreau or Graffion by English writers and which we now know to be Yellow Spanish. Seven years later Gerarde described a Spanish cherry the description of which is not unlike our Yellow Spanish. Miller and Forsyth, English writers, also at an early date described a Spanish cherry which may be the fruit of this discussion. Fortunately we are well informed as to the history of Yellow Spanish in America. Prince, one of the most accurate of American pomologists, in 1832, gave the following historical account of the Graffion, or Yellow Spanish: "This tree was imported from London by the father of the author, in the year 1802, under the name Yellow Spanish, and one of the original trees is now growing in his garden, where it produces abundantly, and there is little doubt that from his stock have originated most of the trees of this kind now in our country, as he has taken much pains to recommend it." Why Prince and other Americans came to call the variety introduced by the elder Prince of Europe as Yellow Spanish, as Bigarreau and Graffion, does not appear unless the younger Prince wanted to make the name in this country conform to that in most common usage in England at the time. Besides the names already given, Yellow Spanish has been rather widely grown in America as Ox Heart and White Caroon. This variety was placed on the recommended list of the National Congress of Fruit Growers, which afterwards became the American Pomological Society, in 1848, under the name Bigarreau. The name was changed in 1897 to Yellow Spanish and it now appears on the list of that organization as Spanish. [Illustration: YELLOW SPANISH] Tree very large and vigorous, upright-spreading, rather open-topped, productive; trunk thick, of medium smoothness; branches stocky, reddish-brown covered with ash-gray, smooth except for the numerous large lenticels; branchlets short, brown nearly overspread with ash-gray, smooth, with small, slightly raised, inconspicuous lenticels. Leaves numerous five and one-half inches long, two and one-half inches wide, folded upward, obovate to elliptical; upper surface dark green, nearly smooth, grooved along the midrib; lower surface light green, lightly pubescent; apex acute, base variable in shape; margin coarsely and doubly serrate, with small, dark glands; petiole one and three-fourths inches long, thick, heavily tinged with dull red, grooved along the upper surface, with from one to four large, reniform, reddish-yellow glands variable in position. Buds conical, plump, free, arranged singly or in small clusters as lateral buds and from short spurs; leaf-scars prominent; season of bloom intermediate; flowers white, one and one-fourth inches across; borne in well-distributed clusters, in twos and in threes; pedicels about one inch long, glabrous, green; calyx-tube greenish, obconic, glabrous; calyx-lobes acute, reflexed; petals oval, entire, strongly dentate at the apex, tapering to short, blunt claws; filaments three-eighths inch long; pistil glabrous, equal to the stamens in length. Fruit matures in mid-season; one inch or over in diameter, cordate, compressed; cavity deep, wide, flaring; suture a mere line; apex roundish, not depressed; color bright amber-yellow with a reddish blush, slightly mottled; dots numerous, small, light russet, obscure; stem one and one-half inches long, adherent to the fruit; skin thin, tough, separating from the pulp; flesh whitish, with colorless juice, tender, meaty, crisp, aromatic, sprightly, sweet; very good to best in quality; stone free, ovate, slightly flattened, oblique, with smooth surfaces; with two small, blunt ridges along the ventral suture near the apex. CHAPTER V THE MINOR VARIETIES OF CHERRIES =À Coeur Hâtive.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Listed in this reference. =À Feuilles de Pêcher Grosse.= _P. cerasus?_ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 49. 1831. Merely mentioned; probably similar to Willow Leaved. =Abels Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. Mentioned in this reference as a black, hard-fleshed, Sweet Cherry. =Abundance= _P. avium._ =1.= Burbank _Cat._ 7. 1911-12. Abundance is one of Burbank's seedlings from Napoleon. The tree is a heavy, almost annual bearer. The fruit is large, never cracks, and exceeds the parent in productiveness and beauty; it ripens a week later. =Abbesse.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 80. 1890. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:284. 1903. Abbesse was found in North Silesia and is supposed to be a Red Duke cross. Fruit medium to large, cordate; stem long, thick at the base; cavity shallow; suture distinct; skin dark red; flesh meaty, with colored juice, mildly acid; quality good. =Act Gillos.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 22. 1892-93. Act Gillos was imported by Leo Weltz of Ohio, in a collection of sweet varieties said to have come from Bokhara, Turkestan. Tree vigorous; leaves large; fruit yellow, resembling Cleveland. =Adams Crown.= _P. avium._ =1.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:45, Pl. 23 fig. 1. 1823. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 275, 277. 1884. =3.= Mawe-Abercrombie _Comp. Gard._ 632. 1829. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:312 fig., 313. 1877. _Adams Herzkirsche._ =5.= _Ill. Handb._ 99 fig., 100. 1860. =6.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 332. 1889. _Adam._ =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:69, 70, fig. 33. 1866-73. Adams Crown is supposed to have been raised by a man named Adams in the vicinity of Sittingbourne, Kent, England. It was formerly grown in the orchards near London for market trade. Tree large, vigorous, usually productive, bears early; fruit medium in size, roundish-cordate, flattened at the base, slightly compressed; cavity wide, deep; suture shallow, indistinct; stem slender, long; skin thin, transparent, attractive pale red speckled with darker red deepening to carmine, showing distinctly the fibers underneath; flesh whitish, juicy, tender, somewhat stringy, sweet, sprightly, pleasant; very good in quality; stone small, roundish-ovate, flattened at the base, plump; season early. =Adlington.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 45. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Affane.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 45. 1831. Mentioned in this reference. =Afghanistan.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 315. 1897. =2.= Van Lindley _Cat._ 371. 1899. This variety is said by Van Lindley to have been introduced into North Carolina by a missionary from South Africa. The fruit closely resembles Windsor. Tree tall, spreading, vigorous; fruit large, cordate, often swollen along the suture giving it an angular appearance; skin dark red to reddish-black; flesh firm, tender, sweet; ships well; season the last of May. =Alaternblättrige Süssweichsel.= _P. avium_, =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:48. 1858. Fruit medium large, roundish, flattened, with a faint suture; skin glossy, brownish-red; stem mostly covered with leaves, greenish-yellow; flesh soft, acidulated; stone heart-shaped. =Albertine Millet.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. Received from Belgium without description; its value is questioned in _Guide Pratique._ =Alexandrine Béon.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 332. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Alfred Wesmael=. _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. This variety is similar to Montmorency according to _Guide Pratique_. =Allen.= _P. avium._ =1.= Storrs & Harrison _Cat._ 137. 1899. =2.= Brown _Cat._ 23. 1900. A seedling cherry found in Lake County, Ohio. It is darker, later and smaller than Windsor. The tree is healthy, very productive; fruit somewhat heart-shaped, nearly black, glossy, smooth; flesh meaty, firm, sweet; of small size. =Allen Late Favourite.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:123. 1832. Sent to the Prince nursery by Zachariah Allen of Providence, Rhode Island. The tree is vigorous; fruit of fine quality, juicy, well flavored; ripens in Rhode Island with Black Mazzard. =Allerfrüheste Bunte Maiherzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:19. 1858. Tree productive; fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate; stem long, deeply set; skin clear red, spotted with dark brown; flesh whitish, sweet; stone oval; ripens in mid-June. =Alte Königskirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 158. 1791. =2.= Christ _Handb._ 671. 1797. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 422. 1819. Tree large, very productive; fruit large, round, slightly heart-shaped; stem long; skin reddish-black; flesh very delicate, tender, juicy, sweet, with an aromatic, very pleasing sourness; stone small. =Altenlander Frühkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Ill. _Handb._ 465 fig., 466. 1861. _Cerise précoce d'Altenlaud._ =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:301. 1866. This variety is distinguished from Frühe Maiherzkirsche by its fruits which are larger, deeper in color, sourer and more angular and a few days later. Tree productive; fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate, sometimes angular; cavity wide, shallow; apex often widely depressed; stem stout, of medium length; suture shallow; skin glossy, charcoal black in some spots when fully ripe, rather tough; flesh reddish-black, tender, very juicy, sweet with a pleasing sourness; stone short, oval; season early. =Amaranthkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 277. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 215-219. 1819. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:28. 1858. In 1790, this variety was reported to have been brought to Hanover, Prussia, Germany, from England. Truchsess describes this cherry as being of medium size, roundish-cordate, with a pronounced suture; stem short; cavity shallow; apex abruptly rounded; skin red on the sunny side, yellowish, flesh-colored on the shady side; flesh tender, light yellowish-white, juicy, sweet yet without excellence; stone round, rather broad, not long, nearly free; unproductive. =Amarelle Hâtive.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ =17=:6 fig. 1892. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 24. 1899. =3.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:110. 1900. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. This variety was imported by Professor J. L. Budd of Iowa, in 1885. It resembles Early Richmond but ripens ten days later. It appeared on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1899 and in 1909 Morello Hâtive was given as a synonym. This variety, however, is of the Amarelle type while Morello Hâtive is a true Morello. =Amarelle mit Weissem Stempelpunct.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 655, 656. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:70. 1858. _Amarelle à point pistillaire blanc._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. According to Truchsess, this variety was first mentioned by Christ as early as 1795, under the name, Roque Cherydere. Fruit of medium size, roundish, flattened; stem short; skin dark red; flesh white, with colorless juice, although a glistening red when pressed out, subacid; season early; medium productive; resembles Bunte Amarelle. =Amber.= _P. avium._ =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 272. 1832. This variety was found in an old garden in Providence, Rhode Island. Fruit below medium in size, perfectly round; amber, delicate red towards the sun; flesh melting, lively, very sweet; early. =Amber Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 168. 1845. =2.= _Gard. Chron._ 1068. 1861. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 277. 1884. _Amber_? =4.= Rea _Flora_ 206. 1676. _Late Amber Gean._ =5.= Fish _Hardy-Fr. Bk._ =2=:105. 1882. This is probably the Amber of the old English writers--an attractive, small Gean or Mazzard. Tree bears abundantly; fruit small, obtuse-cordate, usually regular; stem long, slender, shallowly inserted; skin very thin, pellucid, exhibiting the texture of the flesh, pale yellow or amber, tinged with delicate red; flesh white, tender, juicy, melting, with a rich, sweet, pleasant flavor; ripens the last of July. =Ambrée de Guben.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:118, 119, 303. 1866. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:99, 100, fig. 48. 1866-73. _Gubener Bernsteinkirsche._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 342, 685. 1819. =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:42. 1858. This variety resembles Yellow Spanish; in fact the name is listed as a synonym of Yellow Spanish by Mortillet. We feel sure, however, that it is a distinct variety. Fruit large, roundish-cordate, truncate at the base; suture shallow; stem long; cavity wide, shallow; skin glossy, pale yellow washed with carmine in the sun; flesh firm, fibrous, sweet, with a sourness that disappears if allowed to remain on the tree; quality good; stone oval, slightly flattened at the base; ripens the first of July in France. =American Amber.= _P. avium._ =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 272. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 167. 1845. =3.= Bridgeman _Gard. Ass't_ Pt. =3=:54. 1847. =4.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 359. 1849. =5.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 214. 1854. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. This variety was introduced some time previous to 1832 by the originator, Daniel Bloodgood, Flushing, New York. It held a place on the American Pomological Society's list of fruits from 1862 until 1869. It resembles American Heart but differs in being a tender-fleshed fruit of regular outline. Tree productive; fruit hanging in bunches for a long time without rotting. Fruit borne in threes or fours, hangs well, of medium size, roundish-cordate often nearly round; stem long, slender, inserted in a slight, narrow cavity; skin very thin, smooth, glossy, clear, light amber becoming mottled and overspread with clear bright red; flesh amber, tender, sprightly, juicy, usually of only fair quality; pit large; season the last of June to the middle of July. =American Heart=. _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:202. 1843. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 178, 179 fig. 70. 1845. =3.= Bridgeman _Gard. Ass't_ Pt. =3=:54. 1847. According to Downing, this variety came from Long Island but its exact origin is unknown. Tree vigorous, spreading, variable in productiveness; fruit medium to large, cordate, often nearly angular and irregular in outline; cavity small, shallow; stem long, slender; skin tough, adhering to the pulp, pale yellow or amber-red; flesh very juicy, yellowish, half-tender, sweet, pleasant; very good in quality; stone medium in size. =Amos Owen.= _P. avium._ =1.= _N. C. Sta. Bul._ =184=:121. 1903. Amos Owen is a black Mazzard used by nurserymen as a stock for grafting. The fruit is small and black; of poor quality. =Andrews.= Species? =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 187. 1908. Andrews is a seedling named after C. N. Andrews, Redlands, California, who fruited it in 1896. It is grown in the mountain valley near Redlands and is apparently a fine shipping variety. =Anne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 204. 1854. =2.= Downing Fr. _Trees Am._ 254. 1857. This cherry is reported by Charles Downing to have originated at Lexington, Kentucky; distributed by A. V. Bedford, Paris, Kentucky. Tree moderate in growth; fruit of medium size, bright red; flesh tender, juicy, very sweet; quality excellent; early. =Annonay.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 28. 1882. =2.= Rivers _Cat._ 18. 1898-99. =3.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 43. 1904. _Annonayer Herzkirsche._ =4.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. A Heart cherry mentioned in 1882 as a promising new fruit because of its extreme earliness and excellent quality. This variety, introduced by Thomas Rivers & Son, Sawbridgeworth, England, should not be confused with an older French sort often known by the same name but of a reddish-brown color. Tree moderate in growth; fruit glossy, black, round, of medium size, produced in clusters; flesh charcoal-black, very rich in flavor. =Anstad.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ 17. 1908. A seedling from seeds planted in 1898 by A. P. Anstad, Trail, British Columbia. The fruit is large, heart-shaped; cavity of medium depth and width; stem long, slender; apex depressed; suture indistinct; skin moderately thick, tender, dark red or blackish; dots obscure; flesh dull red, meaty, juicy, sweet, pleasant; quality good; stone of medium size, clinging; season in Ontario, the end of July. =Argental Late.= _P. avium._ =1.= Barry _Fr. Garden_ 325. 1851. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 451. 1869. Downing says this variety is of French origin and that the fruit is unlike any other cherry in form. Tree spreading; branches slender, irregular; fruit of medium size, elongated-oval, sides compressed; suture narrow; stem medium in length, slender; cavity small; skin deep purplish-black; flesh half-tender, juicy, sweet, of peculiar flavor; quality very good; stone small, narrow, elongated-oval; ripens about July 10th. =Auburn Duke=. _P. avium × P. cerasus._ A stray variety not mentioned in cherry literature, occasionally grown in western New York. The fruit, on the Station grounds, is above medium size, roundish; skin glossy, amber-yellow with a dark red cheek, often wholly suffused with red, sometimes mottled with translucent spots underneath the skin; suture a distinct line; stem slender, one and one-half inches long, inserted in a broad cavity; flesh white, very tender, juicy, nearly sweet; quality good but not rich; stone small, adhering to the stem; season late June. The fruit cracks in wet weather. =August Duke.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Cultivator_ 3rd Ser. =1=:248 fig., 249. 1853. _Vail's August Duke._ =2.= _Horticulturist_ =4=:264 fig., 265. 1849-50. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 213. 1854. This variety originated with Henry Vail of Troy, New York. It is valued for its lateness, maturing three weeks after Downer, generally about the tenth of August. Tree hardy, healthy, moderate in growth; fruit borne in pairs, hanging in thick clusters along the branches, of medium size, obtuse-cordate; stem of medium length, thickening where it joins the fruit, set in a deep, narrow cavity; skin bright red; flesh tender, subacid, much like May Duke in flavor; pit oval. =Augustine de Vigny=. Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 333. 1889. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 54. 1856. Mentioned in the references given. =Aurischotte.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 589-591. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:65. 1858. According to Truchsess, this cherry was described in 1802 by Christ who states that it originated in Wanfred, Prussia, Germany. Truchsess believed, however, that the name was a corruption of Sauriotte, a sour or Weichsel cherry. Fruit round, somewhat flattened, above medium in size; suture indistinct; apex slightly depressed, gray; stem strong; skin dark red; flesh and juice of a slight reddish cast, sour, rather repulsive; stone large. =Badacsony.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =177=:31. 1899. =2.= _Ibid._ =187=:62. 1901. _Géanie de Badacson._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27, 194. 1876. _Badacsoner Riesenkirsche._ =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 333. 1889. _Badacconyi._ =5.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:198. 1899. _Badacsoner Schwarze Riesenkirsche._ =6.= _Reut. Pom. Inst. Festschrift_ 122. 1910. _Badacsonyer Knorpelkirsche._ =7.= _Obstzüchter_ =8=:74. 1910. A strong-growing variety of the Bigarreau group which originated in the volcanic regions near Balaton Lake, Hungary. Tree spreading, productive, subject to shot-hole fungus; fruit very large, heart-shaped, compressed; stem long, slender; cavity deep, wide; skin dark red, mottled with purple; flesh crisp, breaking, pinkish, juicy, sweet; quality good; ripens in July. =Baender.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =88=:20. 1892. =2.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:12. 1910. An unproductive Morello. Tree medium in size, upright, round-topped; fruit medium to large, round, flattened; stem stout, long; skin dark red, thin, tender; flesh firm, meaty, slightly stained, rich acid; stone long, smooth; ripens the last of July in Washington. =Baltavar.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 39. 1895. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:284. 1903. _Bigarreau monstreux de Baltava._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. _Baltavari._ =4.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:199. 1899. _Baltavaer Knorpelkirsche._ =5.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ =55.= 1907. Baltavar was introduced from Hungary by the United States Department of Agriculture. Tree upright, somewhat spreading; fruit resembles Napoleon in size and shape; cavity medium in depth, irregular, flaring; stem variable, slender; suture shallow; skin thick, glossy, light red changing to dark crimson on a yellow ground; dots numerous, minute, golden; flesh melting, yellowish, meaty, translucent, juicy, sprightly, mild subacid; quality good to very good; stone large, long, clinging; ripens the forepart of July. =Baluder Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Kan. Sta. Bul._ =73=:189. 1897. Tree upright, unproductive; fruit medium to large; stem slender; skin dull red, tough; flesh red, tender, juicy, acid, lacking in richness; ripens unevenly about June 18th; not a commercial variety. =Barnhart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =18=:242. 1876. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 161. 1881. This variety originated with Louis Shepler, Belle Vernon, Pennsylvania. Tree healthy, vigorous, bears abundantly; fruit of the Bigarreau type, large, obtuse-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity large, deep; stem rather long, slender; suture shallow; skin whitish-yellow, shaded and mottled with light and dark, rich red; flesh firm, juicy, sweet, with a rich, rather sprightly flavor; ripens the last of June. =Baseler Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. A medium-sized cherry of little value. =Bates.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Green _Cat._ 28 fig. 1906. Said to have originated with S. J. Bates, Shelby, Michigan; introduced by C. A. Green, Rochester, New York; not propagated at present. As grown on our grounds it is identical with Olivet but our trees may not be correctly named. =Bay State.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Adams _Cat._ 11. 1894. =2.= Sweet _Cat._ 18. 1907. Bay State on the Station grounds resembles Reine Hortense and may be identical. (See description of Reine Hortense.) In 1894 it was listed by J. W. Adams of Springfield, Massachusetts, under the name Bay State and in 1907 was offered for sale by The George A. Sweet Nursery Company of Dansville, New York. =Baylor.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. =Bedford Prolific.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. =2.= _Flor. & Pom._ 41, Pl. fig. 1. 1882. Bedford Prolific is similar to its parent, Black Tartarian, but has the advantage of being much hardier and more productive. It is inferior in quality to its parent. Many writers confuse it with Black Tartarian. =Belle Audigeoise.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =5=:65, Pl. 1857. _Schöne Audigeoise._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 376. 1889. Very similar to Choisy. Tree vigorous, but moderately productive; fruit large, roundish, flattened at the ends; stem of medium length; cavity large, round; skin glossy, transparent, almost entirely washed with red at complete maturity; flesh yellowish, juicy, sweet, acidulated; ripens in France late in July. =Belle Bosc.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 45. 1831. Listed in the reference given. =Belle de Boskoop.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Listed in this reference without description. =Belle de Caux.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. Listed as similar to Duchess de Palluau. =Belle de Couchey.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 412. 1866. 2. Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:137, 138, fig. 69. 1882. _Schöne von Couchey._ =3.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 57. 1907. Raton, a laborer, found this variety in 1715, growing in a garden in Cote d'Or, France. Here and in the surrounding country it was commonly known as Cerise Raton. Tree vigorous, abundantly productive; fruit large, heart-shaped, irregular, often flattened; stem long, slender, inserted in a large, deep cavity; apex conical; skin tender, at first clear purple changing to blackish-purple; flesh tender, rather succulent, intense purple, juicy, sweet, sugary, very pleasing; stone small for the size of the fruit, ovate, short, broad, turgid; ripens the last of June. In France, one of the best fruits of the season standing shipment well notwithstanding its tender flesh. =Belle Defay.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 334. 1889. Listed without a description in this reference. =Belle de Franconville.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 463. 1891. =2.= _Ibid._ 14, 15 fig. 1892. This variety is a chance seedling found in the forests of Seine-et-Oise, France, and propagated by M. Arthur Nienard, a nurseryman of the same place. The variety is valued for its lateness and its good shipping qualities. Fruit elongated-cordate, slightly depressed; suture rather deep; cavity rather large, regular; stem slender, long; skin glossy, brilliant purplish-red, firm; flesh clear yellow, rather transparent, juicy, sprightly yet sugary, agreeable but slightly strong; pit oblong, tapering at the top, truncate, partly adherent; season late September in France. =Belle l'Herissier.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 470, Pl. 1875. This cherry was raised from seed in 1865 by M. Doublet, horticulturist at Montrichard, Loir-et-Cher, France. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, usually borne in clusters, depressed on the side, with a faint suture; stem very long, slender, adhering strongly to the pit; skin a brilliant red but never black; flesh pale red, juicy, sweet, slightly sprightly; quality very good; pit irregular, very small, elongated; ripens the middle of June in France. =Belle de Kis-Oers.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 13. 1895. This is a Hungarian cherry. Fruit of medium size, elongated, marbled with red; flesh white, sugary; in France it ripens the middle of July. =Belle de Loche.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25, 187. 1876. This name is wrongly used as a synonym of Magnifique. Distributed by Jacquement-Bonnefont, nurseryman at Annonay, Ardèche, France, who described it as a very good, large, productive fruit, ripening in June. =Belle d'Orleans.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:358, 540 fig. 1850. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 211. 1856. =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:84, 85 fig., 86. 1866. =4.= _Leroy Dict. Pom._ =5=:314 fig., 315. 1877. _Beauty of Orleans._ =5.= _Ill. Handb._ 15 fig., 16. 1867. =6.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 415. 1899. _Belle de Bruxelles._ =7.= _Guide Prat._ 10, 17, 181. 1895. Some writers state that Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, originated this variety about 1852; others hold that it is of French origin. Tree large, very vigorous, productive; fruit usually attached in pairs, medium to above in size, roundish-oval or often cordate; stem medium in length, rather slender; skin transparent, clear pale yellow with a light red cheek, occasionally slightly mottled; flesh pale amber, juicy, tender, sweet; good in quality; stone large, roundish-obovate; season early. =Belle de Ribeaucourt.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:269. 1854. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ 2:181, 210. 1866. 3. Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:170 fig., 171. 1877. _Schöne von Ribeaucourt._ =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 335, 377. 1889. This variety probably originated in Northern France. Fruit globular, flattened at the ends, large, usually borne in twos; stem long; cavity large, deep; skin transparent, red, more intense in the sun; flesh yellow, rose-colored under the skin, sweet, juicy, acidulated; pit small, oval, round; ripens about the middle of June. =Belle de Rochelle.= Species? =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 1068. 1861. Mentioned as remarkable for its size, its abundant juice and rich flavor which are said to make it one of the best fruits of its season. Its long stems facilitate picking. =Belle de Rocmont.= _P. avium_ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:167, 168. 1768. _Glanzende goldgelb und roth marmorirte Kramelkirsche._ =2.= Kraft Pom. Aust. =1=:3, Tab. 5 fig. 2. 1792. _Schöne von Rocmont._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 311-316. 1819. _Pigeon's Heart._ =4.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 30. 1828. _Bigarreau belle de Rocmond._ =5.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1831. _Coeur de Pigeon Gros._ =6.= _Ibid._ 48. 1831. _Pigeon Heart Bigarreau._ =7.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:127. 1832. _Bigarreau de Rocmont._ =8.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=:No. 6, Pl. 1846. _Rocmonter Marmorkirsche._ =9.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:39. 1858. _Rothe Spanische Marmorkirsche._ =10.= _Ibid._ 39, 40. 1858. Belle de Rocmont is so similar to Yellow Spanish that some writers consider them the same. If not the same they are so nearly so that a description of this variety is unnecessary. =Belle de Saint Tronc.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. =2.= _Flor. & Pom._ 117. 1878. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 334, 359. 1889. This Heart cherry was introduced in 1873 by M. Antonie, Marseilles, Bouches-du-Rhône, France. It is described by the French as a brownish-black cherry but Rivers lists it as a light red sort. Fruit cordate; stem short; brownish-black; flesh deep red, juicy; first quality; early; productive. =Belle Vezzouris.= Species? =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 278. 1857. =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 664. 1897. A medium to large, light red, somewhat transparent cherry with a subacid flavor; quality good; ripens with Downer. =Belle de Voisery.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 334. 1889. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. Similar to Duchesse de Palluau according to _Guide Pratique._ =Bender= (of Michigan). _P. cerasus._ =1.= Wood _Cat._ 32. 1912. This is a seedling found by a man named Bender near Shelby, Michigan. It ripens between Early Richmond and Montmorency, surpassing the latter in size, color and quality; sour. =Bender= (of New York). _P. avium × P. cerasus._ _Marguerite._ =1.= McKay _Cat._ 7. 1912. This variety is an accidental seedling found by J. O. Bender, Fayetteville, New York, about 1875. It is a late cherry of the Duke group. The fruit is attractive both in size and color, making a valuable market sort. Fruit roundish-cordate to oblate, compressed; cavity medium, flaring; suture very shallow; stem slender, above medium in length; skin of medium thickness and toughness, separating from the pulp, light red, yellowish on the shaded side; flesh pale yellow, somewhat coarse and stringy, tender, melting, subacid, juicy; good in quality; stone large, slightly clinging along the ventral suture. Very similar to Late Duke. =Berlin Amarelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 549. 1901. A vigorous variety received from L. Spath, Berlin, Germany. Fruit medium to large, oval; skin glossy red; flesh tender, juicy, pleasingly acid; season from the middle to the last of July in Canada. =Bernard.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Am. Hort. An._ 88. 1869. Described by D. B. Wier, Lacon, Illinois, as a seedling of the Morello group. Tree vigorous, pyramidal in growth; fruit the size, shape, color and flavor of English Morello but with a smaller pit. =Bettenburger Glaskirsche.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 445, 446, 689. 1819. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 171 fig., 172. 1860. _Transparent de Bettenburg._ =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:77, 78, fig. 37. 1866-73. _Belle Allemande._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. Truchsess, a German, grew this variety from a stone of the Prager Muscateller, in 1794. The tree has a close growth and with its large, wide leaves is easily recognized from other light Duke cherries. The fruit is often confused with Double Glass but the color is darker, the stem longer and thicker, the flavor sweeter, and the season from eight to ten days later. Tree moderately vigorous; fruit large, cordate, rather obtuse, with a pronounced suture extending into the cavity; stem long, set in a smooth, shallow cavity; skin tough, clear purple changing to dark red; flesh yellowish-white, transparent, juicy, not colored unless well ripened, sweetish-sour, slightly aromatic; stone of medium size, globular, plump, truncate at the base; season late. =Bettenburger Herzkirsche.= _P. avium_. =1.= _Ill. Handb_. 65 fig., 66. 1860. _Bettenburger Schwarze Herzkirsche._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 115, 116. 1819. _Guigne de Bettenbourg._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:301. 1866. This variety is a seedling of a worthless black Heart cherry, raised by Truchsess in 1794. Fruit very large, flattened, heart-shaped, sides compressed; stem short, set in a shallow cavity; apex slightly depressed; skin tough, deep dark-brown with light spots. turning black when ripe; flesh tender, juicy, very sweet; stone almost small, plump, roundish; season the last of June in Germany. =Bettenburger Kirsche von der Natte.= _P. cerasus_. =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 507-511. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:61. 1858. A variety received by Truchsess as Kirsche von der Natte and disseminated by him as such. After a few years he found that it was not true to name and to avoid further confusion added the word Bettenburger. Fruit large, roundish, flattened at the base; suture indistinct; stem short, slender, shallowly inserted; skin tough, dull, dark brown, inclined to black; flesh dark red, juicy, aromatic, subacid; stone not large, plump; ripens the middle of July in Germany. =Bettenburger Weichsel.= _P. cerasus_. =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:62, 63. 1858. _Bettenburger Weichsel Grosser Gobet_. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 521, 522, 523. 1819. _Bettenburger Weichsel von der Natte_. =3.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit_. 171. 1825. _Griotte de Bettenbourg_. =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat_. 22, 194. 1876. This German variety came from seeds of Grosse Gobet planted by Truchsess in 1794. Fruit very large, sides compressed; skin tough, dark brownish-red; flesh and juice dark, pleasingly sour, improves if left on the tree; stone large, cordate, pointed. =Bicolor Van Mons.= Species? =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:99, 208. 1866. Fruit medium in size, slightly elongated; attractively variegated with red; of mediocre quality; matures the last fortnight of June. =Bigarreau Abbesse de Mouland.= _P. avium_. =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom_. 334. 1889. Listed in the reference given. =Bigarreau Antoine Nomblot.= _P. avium_. =1.= _Rev. Hort_. 569, 570, Pl. 1912. In 1903, Alfred Nomblot planted what he believed to be a seed of Bigarreau Dönnissen but the resulting tree in many of its characters resembled Bigarreau Noir de Kruger which stood near the supposed parent. A cross between these varieties might result in a dark fruit similar to this. Tree vigorous, upright, very productive; fruit above medium in size, cordate, attached in ones, twos and threes; stem long; skin marbled with purple changing to black; flesh firm, sugary, juicy, high flavored; pit small, ovoid; early. Recommended by the Société Pomologique de France as a good, early cherry. =Bigarreau Blanc Précoce.= _P. avium. 1._ Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:144. 1882. A short description of the tree-characters is given in this reference. =Bigarreau Blanc-Rosé de Piémont.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. Matures late; according to _Guide Pratique_, 1895, it is very similar to Napoleon. =Bigarreau Bordan.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:183, 184 fig. 1877. _Bordans frühe weisse Herzkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:27. 1858. _Bordans Herzkirsche._ =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 97 fig., 98. 1860. =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 197. 1876. _Guigne Blanche de Bordan._ =5.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:97, 98, 208. 1866. This variety was raised by M. Bordan of Guben, Prussia, Germany, and was first described by Oberdieck. Leroy lists it as a Bigarreau as he believes the flesh is too firm for a Guigne as many Germans have described it. Tree hardy, productive; fruit usually borne in pairs, elongated-cordate, sides and base often compressed; suture shallow; stem long, slender, set in a wide, deep cavity; skin glossy, yellowish, spotted and streaked with red, becoming almost entirely washed with red in the sun; flesh tender, whitish, juicy, sugary, slightly acidulated, pleasing; stone medium, oval, turgid; season early. =Bigarreau de Bourget.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 335. 1889. Listed without a description by Mathieu. =Bigarreau Brun.= _P. avium._ =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:35. 1771. Not described. =Bigarreau de Capucins.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Chron._ N. S. =19=:255. 1883. _Kapuziner Knorpel._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 364. 1889. This variety is little known out of Belgium. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, obtuse-oblong, regular, depressed at the ends; skin amber-yellow, blushed with red; flesh white, crisp, juicy. =Bigarreau de la Caserne.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 663. 1866. According to the reference this variety is spoken of in _La Belgique Horticole_ as a variety with prodigious leaves, yellow fruit dashed with red and of good quality. =Bigarreau Cayenne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:186 fig. 1877. _Cayenner Knorpelkirsche._ =3.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. This variety was received by Leroy in 1857 from Angouleme, Charente, France. Fruit generally borne in pairs; of medium size, oval, somewhat cylindrical, compressed at the extremities, with a large, rather deep suture; apex generally prominent; stem long; cavity broad and regular; skin thick, yellow, washed with pale red changing to lively red in the sun; flesh yellowish, firm, brittle, juicy, sweet, slightly sugary and aromatic; pit large, oval, slightly convex; ripens the last of June to the first of July. =Bigarreau de Châlons.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:131, 132, 209. 1866. A local variety, widely known in the departments of Jura and Saône-et-Loire, France, as Châlonnaise. Fruit large, roundish-cordate, depressed at the base, one face flattened, the other bulged; suture slight; stem short; skin a deep purple tint in the sun, spotted with clear red in the shade; flesh white or of a slight rose color, with uncolored juice, sugary, aromatic; pit small; season the middle of June. =Bigarreau de Champvans.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. This is an excellent cherry of the Bigarreau type with colored juice and transparent skin, which originated in the department of Saône-et-Loire, France; said in the second reference to be similar to Napoleon. =Bigarreau Corniola.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:191, 192 fig. 1877. The name Corniola is derived from cornaline, the French for cornelian. Tree medium in size and productiveness; fruit attached in twos or threes, large, roundish, slightly compressed at the ends and faces; suture deep; stem short, set in a rather deep cavity; skin whitish-yellow, largely washed with rose color and spotted with deep carmine; flesh yellowish, firm, not fibrous, juicy, sugary, slightly acidulated; first quality; season early June. =Bigarreau Court Picout Hâtif.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Listed in this reference. =Bigarreau Court Picout Tardif.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Mentioned in the reference given. =Bigarreau Dönnissen.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 16, 189. 1876. _Dönnissens gelbe Knorpelkirsche._ =2.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 162. 1825. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:44. 1858. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 145 fig., 146. 1860. _Bigarreau jaune de Dönissen._ =5.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:304. 1866. This variety is a seedling from Guben, Prussia, Germany, named for the originator; it fruited first about 1824. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit attached in twos, sometimes threes, large, roundish-cordate; suture slight; stem long, rather stout; cavity broad, shallow; skin glossy, transparent, yellowish-orange when ripe; flesh whitish, firm, slightly fibrous, moderately juicy, sugary, pleasingly acidulated; first quality; pit large, ovoid, plump; ripens the last of June to the first of July. =Bigarreau Doré.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 15. 1895. Fruit yellow, round. =Bigarreau Double Royale.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:195 fig., 196. 1877. _Königliche Fleischkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:34. 1858. _Königliche Herzkirsche._ =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 467 fig., 468. 1861. _Guigne Royale._ =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:301. 1866. The fact that Oberdieck received this variety from the Société Horticole de Prague under the French name Double Royale leads us to believe, as does Leroy, that it is of French rather than of Austrian origin as many German writers hold. Tree vigorous; fruit usually borne in pairs, large, cordate, rather abrupt at the ends; stem long, slender; cavity shallow; suture almost indistinct; skin glossy, reddish-brown to nearly black; flesh moderately tender, red, juicy, vinous, sweet; quality very good; pit small, ovoid, turgid; ripens about the middle of June. =Bigarreau Dur.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1831. Listed in this reference without description. =Bigarreau Duranno.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:191. 1877. This variety is first mentioned by Leroy in 1868, appearing in his catalog of 1875 incorrectly as Bigarreau Duracino. The trees are used for stocks. Fruit large, roundish-cordate, uneven; suture narrow; stem long, slender; skin deep red in the sun; flesh firm, dry, acidulated, sugary; matures early in July. =Bigarreau Galopin.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. =Bigarreau Glady.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:206 fig. 1877. This variety was sent from the Jumard nursery about 1850 to Eugène Glady, Bordeaux, France. Fruit above medium in size, cordate, elongated; stem of medium length, set in a straight, deep cavity; skin brownish-red, striped with carmine; flesh a light rose color, firm, crisp, juicy, sugary, slightly acidulated; first quality; pit of medium size; ripens the first of June. =Bigarreau Grand.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Pom. France_ =7=:No. 13, Pl. 13. 1871. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 15. 1895. This cherry was introduced into the vicinity of Lyons, France, in 1849 by M. Grand who probably brought it from his nurseries in Italy. It has many characters in common with Lyons. Tree moderately vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish-cordate, truncate at the base; suture wide, deep; stem medium, straight, set in a wide, deep cavity; skin thin, smooth, changing from a whitish-green to a rose-red and later to a deep crimson; flesh fine, half-tender, rose-colored, lighter near pit, with pale juice, sugary, aromatic; good; pit large, oval; season very early. =Bigarreau Groll.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 135 fig., 136. 1860. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:207 fig., 208. 1877. _Grolls bunte Knorpelkirsche._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 328, 329. 1819. _Bigarreau blanc de Groll._ =4.= _Guide Prat._ 17, 182. 1895. This seedling from Guben, Prussia, Germany, bearing the name of its originator, has been known and rather widely written about since early in the Nineteenth Century. Tree of moderate vigor; fruit generally borne in pairs, large, cordate, truncate at the base; sides compressed and marked by a suture; stem long, set in a wide, shallow cavity; skin red, becoming darker, spotted and streaked; flesh yellowish, somewhat firm, juicy, aromatic; first quality; stone large, oval; ripens in June and hangs for a long time. =Bigarreau Gros Noir de Luther.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. Listed in the reference given. =Bigarreau Hâtif de Champagne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. Found at Champagne, Ain, France, and introduced in 1873 by M. Fandon. The tree is an erect, vigorous grower; fruit large, brownish-black, ripening two weeks before Lyons; of little value. =Bigarreau Hâtif de Saint-Laud.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:107, 108, fig. 54. 1882. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 337. 1889. Fruit large, cordate, slightly irregular in outline; stem rather short, set in a wide, round cavity; skin clear red, striped with deeper red changing to purple; flesh rather tender, tinged red, with abundant colored juice, sugary, vinous; good; pit small, ovoid, slightly compressed; matures the middle of June. =Bigarreau d'Italie.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:102-104, 219, fig. 21. 1866. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:211, 212 fig. 1877. _Bohemian Black Bigarreau._ =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 76, 94. 1866. _Black Bohemian._ =4.= Fish _Hardy-Fr. Bk._ =2=:104. 1882. This old variety was much esteemed by the Italians and later by the Belgians who grew it as early as 1815; it is of more recent introduction into France and England. It is sometimes confused with the Florence of Hogg and Downing. Fruit roundish, slightly heart-shaped, flattened at both ends; suture distinct; stem thick, short, inserted in an acute, deep cavity; skin firm, thick, glossy, very deep purple changing to black; flesh firm, dark, juicy, sugary, aromatic; pit medium, roundish-oval, convex, suture and grooves prominent; season the last two weeks of June. =Bigarreau Jacquet.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 337. 1889. Listed in this reference. =Bigarreau Jumard.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict Pom._ =5=: 206. 1877. Mentioned as having been received by Eugène Glady, Bordeaux, Gironde, France, in a shipment of trees received about 1850 from the Jumard nursery. =Bigarreau Krüger.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:215, 216 fig. 1877. _Bigarreau noir de Krüger._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22, 190. 1876. _Krüger's Schwarze Knorpelkirsche._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 366. 1889. This variety was introduced into France by M. Eugène Glady, 1858, from Guben, Prussia, Germany, and is thought to have been originated by one of the Krüger family. Tree vigorous, bears early; fruit large to above, cordate, more or less roundish, faces compressed; suture wide; stem long, slender, set in a large cavity; skin yellowish-white, mingled with red, changing to brownish; flesh pale yellow, rather firm, slightly fibrous, juicy, sweet though sprightly; pit large, elongated-oval, flat; ripens toward the middle of June. =Bigarreau Legrey.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 74. 1866. A small, cordate-shaped Bigarreau, more curious than useful. =Bigarreau de Lory.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 205. 1819. _Bigarreau de Loire._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Mentioned as a medium-sized, dark brownish-red, firm-fleshed fruit. =Bigarreau Marjolet.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Guide Prat._ 7. 1895. _Guigne Marjolet._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:135, 136, fig. 68. 1882. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 360. 1889. _Bigarreau Marjeollais._ =4.= _Ibid._ 337. 1889. _Marjolets Knorpelkirsche._ =5.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 57. 1907. The descriptions of the Guigne Marjolet and the Bigarreau Marjolet are identical and we have combined the two. The variety was named after its originator, M. Marjolet; tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish-cordate, dark red; flesh tender, red, vinous, pleasing; ripens the middle of June. =Bigarreau Mongin.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 482. 1904. Tree of medium growth; fruit medium in size, cordate; stem long, inserted in a deep cavity; skin clear yellow blushed with red; flesh yellowish-white, tender, juicy, sweet, pleasant; ripens in July in Canada. =Bigarreau Monstreuse de Bavay.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 235. 1854. Spoken of, in 1854, as promising but evidently it has been discarded as no reference has been made to it since that date. It may be Reine Hortense. =Bigarreau Moreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 552, 553, Pl. 1913. This cherry recently originated as a chance seedling near Lyons, France, several persons claiming the honor of its discovery. Its value was discussed at the meetings of the Société Pomologique de France in 1909 and 1911 when it was adjudged by leading French pomologists to be one of the earliest of all varieties, earlier than Lyons, and showing high commercial possibilities. Tree handsome in type of growth, with open, somewhat erect branches; leaves large, deeply serrate; fruit very large; color beautiful clear red becoming darker at maturity; flesh white, breaking, very firm, with uncolored juice, sweet, very refreshing; stone medium to small; season in France very early. =Bigarreau Napoléon Noir.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. _Bigarreau Noir Napoléon III._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:227 fig., 228. 1877. _Napoléon Noir._ =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 307. 1884. _Herzkirsche Napoléon III._ =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 362. 1889. The origin of this cherry is uncertain. Leroy first noted it in the Simon-Louis catalog in 1867. To avoid confusion with the well-known Napoleon, he added the number III. Fruit usually attached in pairs, large, varying from elongated-oval to cylindrical; stem long, set in a large cavity; color dull red changing to deep maroon; flesh rose-colored, moderately firm, very juicy, sweet; ripens the last of June. =Bigarreau Noir d'Ecully.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 338. 1889. =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 522. 1906. _Ecullyer Knorpelkirsche._ =3.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit medium in size, black at maturity; flesh firm, crisp, dark, vinous, sugary, juicy, good; late. =Bigarreau Noir à Gros Fruits.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Le Bon Jard._ 345. 1882. Fruit large, flattened; flesh firm, sweet; first quality; ripens early in June. =Bigarreau Noir de Heintzen.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22, 190. 1876. _Heintzen's (Heintze's) Schwarze Knorpelkirsche._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 362. 1889. This is said to be a very good and productive cherry ripening in the fifth week of the cherry season. =Bigarreau Noir de Tabor.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 19, 190. 1876. _Tabors schwarze Knorpelkirsche._ =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 79 fig., 80. 1860. Tree vigorous, upright; fruit of medium size, cordate, often obtuse; sides compressed; suture but a line; stem medium long; cavity variable; skin glossy, dark reddish-brown; flesh firm, dark red, sweet, rich; stone small, roundish; ripens the last of June. =Bigarreau d'Octobre.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 243. 1858. _Oktober-Knorpelkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:38. 1858. This variety was refused a place on the American Pomological Society's fruit list in 1858. Fruit small, oval to roundish-cordate, flattened at the cavity; stem short; skin black, glossy; stone large, oval; good. =Bigarreau de l'Once.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 190. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:5, 6, fig. 3. 1882. It is thought that this variety originated in the vicinity of Nice, Alpes-Maritimes, France. Fruit very large, elongated-cordate; suture distinct on one side, a colored line on the other side; stem very long, slender; cavity deep, large; skin a clear cherry-red on a yellow ground; flesh yellowish, crisp, firm, sweet, refreshing, with abundant, uncolored juice; quality good; pit large; season the first of July. =Bigarreau Pourpré.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 190. 1876. _Gros Bigarreau pourpré._ =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:212, 215, 218. 1866. Tree vigorous; fruit large, roundish-cordate; skin deep reddish-brown; flesh firm, good; ripens early in July. =Bigarreau Printanier d'Oullins.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. =Bigarreau Reverchon.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:133. 1866. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:235 fig., 382. 1877. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 285. 1884. M. Paul Reverchon introduced this variety about 1855, into France from Italy, where it had long been known about Florence as Bigarreau Papal. Tree vigorous, moderately productive; fruit attached in ones or twos, large, obtuse-cordate, marked distinctly on one side by the suture; stem thick, short, set in a prominent cavity; skin smooth, glossy, tough, rose-yellow streaked with purple in the sun and with red in the shade; flesh light red, crisp, fibrous, moderately juicy, rather sweet; pit small, ovoid, plump; season the last of June to the first of July. =Bigarreau Richelieu.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:235, 236 fig. 1877. This variety, says Leroy, was introduced into France from Nikita, Crimea, Russia, about 1858. Fruit borne in pairs, large, elongated-cordate, with one side flattened; stem long, inserted in a small mamelonated cavity; skin glossy, yellowish-amber, with a rose-colored blush in the sun; flesh firm, breaking, filamentose, juicy, sweet, aromatic; first quality; stone of medium size, elongated-cordate; ripens the last of June. =Bigarreau Rosa.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:239 fig. 1877. Tree moderately productive; fruit usually borne in pairs, large, elongated-cordate, faces flattened; suture wide, deep; stem long, rather stout, set in a wide cavity; skin yellowish on rose-colored ground, amply washed with brilliant red on which are scattered small, white dots; flesh yellowish-white, firm, compact, filamentose, juicy, uncolored, rather sugary, acidulated, aromatic; second quality; pit large, turgid; ripens the last of June. =Bigarreau Rose Dragon.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 96. 1877. Reported by the Committee on Foreign Fruits in 1877 as worthy of trial but not grown at present. Fruit large, pale yellow, with a red cheek; flesh firm, juicy, sweet, good; season the middle of July. =Bigarreau de Schrecken.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 190. 1876. _Schreckens Kirsche._ =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 377. 1889. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, obtuse-cordate; brownish-black, glossy; flesh moderately firm; first quality; matures in mid-June. =Bigarreau Strié.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:114, 115, 208. 1866. Fruit large, elongated-cordate, faces compressed; suture wide; stem short, rather stout; skin many shades of red and purple on a rose-colored ground with flesh-colored spots; flesh reddish, firm, crisp, sweet; juice slightly colored; quality fair; stone small; season early; deteriorates rapidly. =Bigarreau de Trie.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 13. 1887. Origin unknown, but rather widely cultivated around Trie, Hautes-Pryénées, France. Tree vigorous; fruit of medium size, roundish, compressed, slightly cordate; stem long, slender; skin tough, deep red, transparent, with a slight blush of amber; flesh whitish-yellow, very firm, juicy, uncolored, sugary, aromatic; good; season early July. =Bigarreau à Trochets.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22. 1876. An extremely productive variety distributed in some parts of France; fruit large, red; flesh brittle; ripens in late June. =Bigarreau Turca.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:247, 248 fig. 1877. This old cherry was described in 1785 as Heaume Rouge but was found in 1862 by Leroy in Florence, Italy, as Bigarreau Turca by which name it was well known. It is probably not of Turkish origin as the name would indicate. Fruit often borne in pairs, large, obtuse-cordate; suture noticeable but not deep; stem short; cavity spacious; color deep red, lightly spotted with gray; flesh rather firm, fibrous, mottled with light red becoming darker near the pit, juicy, sweet, sprightly; pit large, ovoid, plump; ripens late in June. =Bigarreau de Walpurgis.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:250 fig. 1877. _St. Walpurgiskirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:35. 1858. _Walpurgiskirsche._ =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 41 fig., 42. 1867. _Cerise Walpurgis._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:157, 158, fig. 77. 1866-73. This variety is a seedling from the village of Walpurgisburg, near Cologne, Germany, originating about 1845. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit attached in pairs, very large, roundish-cordate, compressed; suture shallow, extending entirely around the fruit; stem slender, rather long; cavity wide, shallow, sides only slightly raised; skin firm, adherent, glossy, dark cherry-red changing to almost black; flesh firm, dark red, juicy, aromatic, vinous; pit of medium size, oval, dark red; ripens late in July. =Bigarreau de Zeisberg.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 190. 1876. _Zeisbergische Kirsche._ =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 31 fig., 32. 1867. _Cerise de Zeisberg._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:35, 36, fig. 18. 1882. Oberdieck received this variety, which bears the name of its originator, from Hanover, Prussia, Germany, in 1857. Fruit very large, obtuse-cordate; suture wide, flat on the dorsal side, extending slightly beyond the apex; stem long, rather slender, set in a flaring cavity; skin glossy, brownish-black, later becoming black, adhering to the pulp; flesh firm, dark red, juicy, pleasant, with an aromatic sweetness when mature; season the last of June. =Bigarreau Zschedowitzer Schwarze.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 23. 1876. Listed in the reference given. =Bigarreautier à Petit Fruit Noir.= _P. avium._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:503. 1860. A mediocre but productive cherry ripening in August. =Bigarreautier à Petit Fruit Rose.= _P. avium._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:503. 1860. A variety raised from seed in 1824; tree vigorous; stem long; flesh tender, white, sugary; quality fair; July. =Bill and Coo.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 454. 1869. Two lovers made the original tree their haunt, hence, the name "Bill and Coo." This variety originated on the grounds of Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio. Fruit of medium size, regular heart-shaped, flattened at the apex; stem long, slender; cavity deep; suture broad on one side, the opposite side knobby; color amber-yellow, marbled with clear red; flesh rich, delicate, sweet; ripens early in June. =Bismarck.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hoopes, Bro. & Thomas _Cat._ 20. 1907. This variety is a Sweet Cherry from near Baltimore, Maryland. Fruit very large, dark red, firm, sweet, juicy and rich; vigorous and productive; ripens the first of July. =Black American.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. Listed without description in this reference. =Black Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Knoop Fructologie_ =2=:35, 37, 38. 1771. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:130. 1832. _Bigarreau hâtif._ =3.= _Le Bond Jard_. 345. 1882. _Bigarreau noir Hâtif._ =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 285. 1884. Black Bigarreau is an old variety of unknown origin quite distinct from any others of its class. Tree productive; fruit medium to large, heart-shaped, obscurely flattened; stem long; skin at first dotted with red, later becoming black, glossy; flesh firm, rather dry, with dark colored juice, breaking, sweet; not high in quality; ripens the last of June and the first of July. =Black Bigarreau of Savoy.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 185. 1845. =2.= _Ibid._ 256. 1857. _New Large Black Bigarreau._ =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 234, 235. 1841. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 185. 1845. =5.= _Mag. Hort._ =16=:538 fig., 539. 1850. _Large Black Bigarreau of Savoy._ =6.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:251. 1842. _Walsh Seedling._ =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 196, 197. 1854. _Bigarreau noir de Savoie._ =8.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:33, 34, fig. 15. 1866-73. The original tree of this variety was brought from the south of France by the father of George Walsh, Charlestown, Massachusetts. The tree came into bearing about 1840. In 1841, fruits were exhibited from trees introduced into American collections from Italy as New Large Black Bigarreau, and were thought by several people to be the Black Bigarreau of Savoy. Until 1857, all writers held these two varieties to be distinct but Downing then declared them to be the same and on his authority we combine the two. Tree vigorous, handsome; fruit large, regular, cordate, slightly obtuse; stem long, rather stout, set in a narrow, even cavity; skin smooth, not very glossy, nearly black when mature; flesh dark purplish-red, firm, juicy, sweet, rich, slightly adherent to the stone; pit rather large; ripens the middle of July. =Black Hungarian Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. A round, black Guigne of second quality with tender, transparent flesh; used for dessert. =Black Margaret.= Species? =1.= Watkins _Cat._ 32. 1892. Described as a fine, black, very late, English cherry. =Black Prolific.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort Soc. Cat._ 55. 1831. Listed in the reference given. =Black Spanish.= _P. avium._ =1.= Rea _Flora_ 205. 1676. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 177-180. 1819. _Schwarze oder Späte Herzkirsche._ =3.= Krünitz _Enc._ 60, 61. 1790. _Spanish._ =4.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 217. 1835. _Schwarze Spanische Knorpelkirsche._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:37. 1858. _Bigarreau noir d'Espagne._ =6.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 23, 189. 1876. This is an old variety first mentioned by the English and in all probability is of English origin. It has been greatly confused by some German writers with other black cherries but Truchsess maintains that if placed beside the Grosse Schwarze Knorpelkirsche and the Grosse Schwarze Knorpelkirsche mit Festem Fleische, the two with which it is most often confused, differences could be noted especially as to firmness of flesh and smallness of pit. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate, compressed; suture distinct; stem slender, short; cavity small, smooth, shallow; skin dark reddish-brown changing to black, lighter along the suture; flesh more tender than in most hard-fleshed sorts, dark red, sweet; stone small, adhering before fully mature, colored; ripens early in July or earlier. =Black Turkey Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= Watkins _Cat._ 32. 1892. Fruit large, black, late; suitable for market and home use. =Blasse Johanni Kirsche.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 23. 1876. Received by Thomas with a recommendation from Baron Emanuel Trauttenberg of Prague. =Bocage.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. This variety is said, in _Guide Pratique_, 1895, to be similar to Carnation, a Sour Cherry, while Thomas says it is similar to Reine Hortense, a hybrid sort. =Bohemian Queen.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Can. Hort._ =13=:104. 1890. This variety is said to come true to seed; to be similar in fruit-characters to Ostheim, though larger and more fleshy; to be productive and a cherry of good flavor; and to succeed well in moist land. =Bon Bon.= Species? =1.= Childs _Cat._ 153 fig. 1893. A very early, large, dark red, juicy cherry; ships well and bears regularly. =Book.= Species? =1.= _Pa. Dept. Agr. Rpt._ Pt. =1=:427. 1902. This is a local variety recommended by John Weitzel, Bethesda, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Fruit medium to large, dark red; ripens the middle of June. =Boppard.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 415. 1899. _Boppard's Early._ =2.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:58. 1900. _Bopparder Frühkirsche._ =3.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. Tree vigorous; fruit large, obtuse-cordate; skin glossy, dark red; flesh red, firm, juicy, sweet. =Boquet Morello.= P. _cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 78. 1890. _Amarelle Boquet._ =2.= _Ibid._ 331. 1885. =3.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:110. 1900. This is one of Budd's importations of 1883, according to the third reference. It is often confused with the Boquet Amarelle of the French. The fruit resembles Early Richmond in size, shape, season and color, differing only in its flesh being more firm, its pit smaller, and the tree less productive; of no value commercially. =Boreatton.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 215. 1854. A small, roundish-cordate, nearly black Sweet Cherry, with half-tender flesh; poor quality; ripens in mid-July. =Boughton Early Black Duke.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Boulebonner Kirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 47 fig., 48. 1867. _Bigarreau Hâtif Boulbon._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:103, 104, fig. 52. 1882. This cherry was introduced into Belgium from France some years previous to 1867. Tree not vigorous, but productive; fruit large, broadly cordate, variable in size and form, sides compressed; suture distinct, deepest near the cavity; apex slightly depressed; stem slender, usually long, set in a wide, shallow cavity; skin a glossy, rose-red color with a yellowish tinge, dotted and streaked with clear blood-red and washed with dark purplish-red; flesh yellowish-white, reddish-white under the skin, firm, juicy, rich, pleasing; stone large, oval, somewhat flattened, with a short point; partially clinging; ripens the last of June and, according to Oberdieck, hangs during wet seasons without cracking. =Bount Dantzic.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Bouquet-Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:23. 1858. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 7 fig., 8. 1867. The tree of this variety has the growth of a Sweet Cherry with small, black, Heart fruits borne like the cluster cherries, one, two, three and four on the stem. The single fruits are roundish-cordate, with flattened ends while the double and triple fruits are more narrow and elongated; the fruit matures unevenly, having green, red and black fruits at the same time; pit roundish-oval, slightly pointed at the base, somewhat larger in the double fruits. =Bouquetweichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 291. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 519, 520, 521. 1819. This cherry was received by Truchsess in 1796 from Mayer under the name Bouquet-kirsche. Many of the flowers have six, seven, eight, and occasionally as high as twelve petals, with two or three pistils. Fruit usually very small, attached to a long, stiff, woody stem shallowly inserted; round, flattened beneath; suture shallow; flesh and juice reddish-black, with a bitterish-sour flavor, which it loses if allowed to remain on the tree; pit of medium size. =Boussieuer Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. A variegated Sweet Cherry. =Bowers' Seedlings.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:64. 1903. Three seedlings originated with John Bowers, Sigourney, Iowa. No. 1.--Fruit medium, dark red; juice colorless; quality fair. No. 2.--Tree hardy; bears regularly; fruit large, oblate, roundish; stem long, slender; skin dark red; juice colorless; fair in quality; late. No. 3.--Fruit large, red to dark red; juice slightly colored, mild subacid; of very good quality. =Bowyer Early Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 234. 1841. =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:15, 16, fig. 8. 1882. _Boyer's Early._ =4.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 269. 1857. =5.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult. 665._ 1897. _Roberts' Red._ =6.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 269. 1857. This variety probably originated in England nearly a century ago. Some writers confuse it with Early White Heart but the two are undoubtedly distinct. Tree vigorous, round-topped, hardy, productive; fruit medium in size, obtuse-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity shallow, wide; suture distinct; stem variable in length; skin of medium thickness, pale amber-yellow overspread with light red; flesh whitish, tender, juicy, sweet, sprightly, refreshing; very good in quality; stone of medium size, short-ovate, plump, blunt at the apex; season early. =Boyd Early Black.= Species? =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 138. 1881. Mentioned in a report from Ohio as a variety of great superiority and value. =Brandon.= _P. pumila._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 353. 1896. A prolific seedling of _Prunus pumila_; introduced by the Manitoba Station. =Brandywine.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =5=:492, Pl. 1855. Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 258. 1857. John R. Brinckle, Wilmington, Delaware, produced this variety from a seed of White Bigarreau grown near May Duke. It fruited for the first time in 1851. Tree vigorous, spreading, productive; fruit above medium in size, roundish, obtuse-cordate; suture indistinct; stem long, slender; cavity shallow, small; skin yellowish, mottled and marbled with light crimson, glossy; flesh semi-transparent, tender, very juicy, sprightly, acidulous; stone rather large; season the last of June; recommended for culinary uses. =Brant.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 191 fig. 1854. 3. Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 258. 1857. Brant was grown by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, about the middle of the Nineteenth Century, from a pit of Yellow Spanish. Tree vigorous, spreading; fruit large, roundish-cordate, uneven, sides slightly compressed; stem medium, set in an angular cavity; skin thin, lively purplish-red changing to dark purplish; flesh dark purplish-red with indistinct white lines radiating from the center, tender, with abundant, colored juice, sweet and richly flavored; pit medium in size, roundish-oval, nearly smooth; season from the middle of June to the first of July. =Brassington.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Call _Cat._ 5, fig. 1913. A chance seedling found in Oceana County, Michigan. Fruit large, dark red, sprightly subacid; ripens with Early Richmond; productive. =Braunauer Glaskirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 168. 1825. _Braunauer Amarelle._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:72. 1858. This variety originated about 1825. Tree large, moderately productive, with large, Sour Cherry leaves. Often classed as an Amarelle because of the resemblance in the branches. Fruit very large, round, compressed; suture distinct; stem very long, shallowly inserted; color dark red, rather cloudy; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, pleasing subacid when fully ripe; stone of medium size; ripens in August. =Braune Soodkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 287. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 583, 584, 585. 1819. Tree of medium growth; branches drooping; fruit large to very large, flattened, slightly depressed; stem long, set in a rather deep cavity; skin brownish-red; flesh dark red at the stone becoming clear red beneath the skin, tender, with abundant, red juice, pleasing subacid; stone roundish-elongated, one-half an inch long; season the last of July. =Braune Spanische Kirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 275. 1802. _Späte braune Spanische Herzkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Handb._ 660. 1797. _Braune Spanische Herzkirsche._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:22. 1858. This cherry differs from the black Hearts in being smaller, more compressed and sweeter, the flesh softer and more melting. Tree small, productive; fruit small, roundish, compressed on both sides; black, somewhat red on one side; ripens at the end of June. =Braunrote Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 544, 545. 1819. _Braune rothe Sauerkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 289. 1802. _Griotte rouge foncé._ 3. Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:306. 1866. This variety was found in Bernburg, Prussia, Germany. It is distinguished from the other Sour Cherries ripening with it by its lingering brownish-red color, its pleasing, mild sourness, its tender flesh, and by its wood. Tree not large, making a close growth, productive; branches erect; fruit bunch-like, large, almost round, flattened at the ends, sides slightly compressed; stem long, stout, inserted in a rather wide, deep cavity; color remains brownish-red for quite a period, later becoming almost black; flesh tender, with abundant, colored juice, pleasingly sour; stone egg-shaped, almost oval; season the last of July. =Briggs Sweet.= _P. avium._ =1.= Green-River Nur. _Cat._ 22. 1899. Briggs Sweet was raised from seed in the garden of Dr. J. A. Briggs, South Union, Kentucky, where it has fruited for twenty years. The tree is thrifty, a regular bearer and resembles Wood in appearance of both tree and fruit but is much hardier. =Brindilles.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 424. 1903. This is a vigorous cherry with a low, slender habit of growth, blooming the middle of June and ripening late in August. Fruit of medium size, round, depressed or oblate; stem long, set in a narrow cavity; skin light, clear red; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly. =Brown Best.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Brown Bros. _Cat._ 24. 1900. Brown Best was introduced some twenty-five years ago by Brown Brothers, Rochester, New York, having been budded from an old tree. Fruit large, dark red, tender, sour, rich; quality good; very late; productive. =Brown Seedling.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 214. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 457. 1869. Originated in Connecticut. Tree vigorous, upright; fruit medium in size, obtuse-cordate, compressed with a line and a light suture; cavity broad; skin whitish, shaded and mottled with red; flesh half-tender, juicy, sweet; quality fair; season early July. =Buckatzsch Weisse Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 277, 278, 677, 678. 1819. A medium-sized cherry of fair quality from Guben, Prussia, Germany, where it first fruited in 1816. =Buckatzsch Weisse Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 341, 685. 1819. This is another seedling from Prussia, Germany; stem of medium length; flesh somewhat tender and light. =Budd No. 533.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:14. 1910. This is probably a Russian seedling sent out by Professor J. L. Budd, Ames, Iowa. Tree small, round-topped, with slender, recumbent branches; foliage scant, mostly on the tips of the branches; fruit very large, roundish heart-shaped; stem short, thick; skin tough, thin, dark, mottled red; flesh firm, yellow, slightly stained with red, astringent, subacid; quality fair; stone large, round; season the last of July. =Buffalo.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =13=:150. 1871. This cherry was received from Buffalo, New York, by Smiley Shepard of Hennepen, Illinois, in the "fifties." The fruit with him proved very hardy and productive and promised to become a valuable sweet variety for prairie orchards. Mr. Shepard sent cions to different localities for testing but nothing has been heard further about the variety. =Bunte Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =19=:551. 1892. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:273. 1903. This is not a Morello, though grown in North Silesia under this name. Tree vigorous and hardy, but a late bloomer; fruit large, cordate, reddish; flesh light-colored, juicy. =Burbank.= _P. avium._ =1.= Burbank _Cat._ 4, 19. 1911. _Burbank Early._ =2.= Leonard Coates _Cat._ 1911. This is another of Burbank's cherries, trees of which have not yet fruited at the Station. Trees described as vigorous, sure croppers; foliage very large; fruit very large, attractive deep crimson; season very early. Its large leaves, it is claimed, protect the fruit from the birds and from cracking during late spring rains. =Burchardts Schwarze Rosenobel.= _P. avium._ 1. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 166, 167, 1819. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:91, 92, fig. 46. 1882. This cherry was raised by the German pomologist Burchardt from a seed of Rosenobel. Fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate; stem medium in length, set in a deep, straight cavity; skin purple, changing to almost black; flesh purple, rather tender, juice slightly colored, sweet; first quality; season the first of June. =Burghley Park.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 229, 230. 1870. =2.= _Gard. Chron._ 1057. 1870. Burghley Park is a seedling, raised by R. Gilbert, Burghley Park, Stanford, England; it was placed on the list of new fruits of the Royal Horticultural Society in July, 1871. There is a question as to whether it is distinct, some believing it to be Reine Hortense. Fruit very large, usually oval, often flattened, with an obscure suture; stem long, rather slender; skin very thin, transparent, a brilliant dark red if left hanging; flesh dull yellowish-red, veined or netted, very juicy, melting, with a pleasing astringency; ripens in mid-season. =Burr.= _P. avium._ =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 233. 1849. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 342. 1889. _Semis de Burr._ =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:163, 164, fig. 80. 1866-73. Burr originated about 1844, with Zera Burr, of Perrinton, New York. Tree vigorous, erect, round-topped, very productive, not always hardy; fruit medium to large, obtuse-cordate with a pointed apex; stem long, slender; skin thin, mottled with light and dark red; flesh whitish, rather tender, juicy, sprightly, agreeably sweet; very good in quality; stone small, irregularly ovate, short, thick; ripens in early mid-season. =Büttner Gelbe Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 361, 362, 363. 1819. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:129, 130 fig. 31. 1866. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:214 fig., 215. 1877. _Büttner's Yellow._ =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 185. 1845. =5.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 20. 1875. _Wachsknorpelkirsche._ =6.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:44, 45. 1858. Büttner, at Halle, Prussia, Germany, raised this cherry as a seedling and it is probably superior to any of the varieties originated by this horticulturist. It fruited for the first time about 1800 and was introduced shortly after. It was grown in America as Büttner's Yellow in the first half of the Nineteenth Century and was listed in the American Pomological Society's fruit catalog in 1875 but was dropped in 1899. Tree strong, vigorous, hardy, productive; fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate, flattened at the base; suture indistinct; stem thick, inserted in a broad, shallow cavity; skin firm, thick, pale yellow, slightly spotted with brownish-red; flesh pale yellow, firm, breaking, juicy, sweet, aromatic, with a rich, lively flavor; quality good; stone small, roundish-ovate, free; ripens early in July. =Büttner Rothe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 236, 237. 1819. _Büttner's rothe Molkenkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:29. 1858. Another seedling raised by Büttner about 1797 and later tested by Truchsess. Tree vigorous, very productive; fruit of medium size, heart-shaped, with sides somewhat compressed; stem long; skin yellowish-white mingled with clear red, sometimes dark red; flesh yellowish-white, very soft, juicy, sweet; quality fair; stone small, heart-shaped; matures the first half of July. =Büttner Rothe Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 299, 300, 301. 1819. _Büttner's rothe Marmorkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:43. 1858. _Bigarreau rouge de Büttner._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:132. 1866. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:240 fig., 241. 1877. Grown from seed about 1795, by Büttner. Büttner Späte Rote, one of Büttner's seedlings is similar to this one. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, with a shallow suture; skin thick, lively red on one side and shaded with carmine on the other; flesh yellowish, firm, breaking, strongly adhering to the pit, sweet, aromatic; quality good; stone of medium size, round; matures the last of June or the first of July. =Büttner Schwarze Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 122, 123, 124. 1819. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 204, 205. 1854. =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:64 fig., 65, 66. 1866. _Büttner's schwarze neue Herzkirsche._ =4.= Christ _Wörterb._ 275. 1802. _Bigarreau Noir Büttner._ =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:222 fig. 1877. Still another variety obtained from seed by Büttner in 1795. With several others it was sent to Truchsess, about 1801, for testing. Tree strong, vigorous, erect, hardy, productive; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, compressed; suture prominent; stem of medium length, set in a deep cavity; skin firm, glossy, deep reddish-black; flesh dark red, moderately firm, juicy, sweet and pleasant; quality good; stone of medium size, roundish-oval; ripens early in July. =Büttner Schwarze Sauerkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 601, 602, 603. 1819. _Büttner's schwarze neue Sauerkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 289. 1802. Raised from seed by Büttner and sent to Truchsess for testing about 1797. Fruit round, of medium size, glossy, black; flesh firm, red, moderately juicy, agreeably acid; quality fair; ripens in August. =Büttner Späte Rothe Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 329, 330, 682, 683. 1819. _Büttner's harte Marmorkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:43. 1858. _Bigarreau Rouge Tardif de Büttner._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:11, 12, fig. 6. 1882. _Büttner's Late Red._ =4.= _Can. Exp. Farm. Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:59. 1900. Another seedling raised by Büttner early in the Nineteenth Century and quite similar to Büttner Rote, except in its time of ripening, which is later. Tree of medium vigor, erect; fruit large, heart-shaped, flattened at the base, compressed at the apex; suture medium in depth; skin thick and firm, yellowish-white mingled with red, changing to dark red; flesh yellowish, firm, breaking, sweet, aromatic, with abundant, uncolored juice; quality good; stone large, oval, slightly clinging to the flesh; matures the last of July. =Büttner Späte Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 531 fig., 532. 1861. _Büttner's September und Octoberweichsel._ =2=. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 609. 1819. _Büttner's October Zucker Weichsel._ =3=. _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. _Büttner's Sehrspäte._ =4.= _Ibid._ 47. 1831. _Büttner's October Morello._ =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 193, 194. 1845. =6.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. _Griotte Tardive de Büttner._ =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:95, 96, fig. 46. 1866-73. _Bigarreau Tardif Büttner._ =8.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:245 fig., 246. 1877. _Büttner's October._ =9.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 288. 1884. Produced from seed about 1800, by Büttner. As one of the latest of all cherries, it was at one time considered of value for culinary purposes and for a time was grown to a limited extent in this country. The American Pomological Society placed it on its fruit catalog list in 1862 but dropped it in 1869. Tree hardy, productive; fruit often hangs to the tree till October, large, round, somewhat oblate; suture indistinct; apex depressed; stem long, slender; cavity shallow; skin thin but firm, reddish-brown, separating easily from the pulp; flesh light red, reticulated with whitish fibers, firm, breaking, juicy, sweet, rich, mingled with pleasant subacid; quality good; stone large, oval, semi-clinging; ripens the last of August and early September. =Byrnville.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed in this reference. =Cameleon.= Species? =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 574. 1629. A strange cherry, changeable in color, spoken of by Parkinson because of its peculiarities. The fruit is very red in color and of good taste, but varies greatly in color, shape and arrangement. It also bears blossoms, green and ripe fruit at the same time. =Cardinalskirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 159. 1791. =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 284. 1802. A cherry similar to the Doctorkirsche in both tree- and fruit-characters; fruit dark brown, with a subacid flavor. =Carmine Stripe.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 206. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 258. 1857. _Cerise Carminée._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:23, 24, fig. 12. 1882. Carmine Stripe is a seedling from Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio. Tree vigorous, spreading, very productive; fruit above medium in size, heart-shaped, compressed on the sides, surface often uneven, with a suture on one side, followed by a line of carmine; stem variable; skin amber-yellow, shaded and mottled with bright, lively carmine; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, with agreeable sprightliness; pit small; season the last of June. =Caroline.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 206. 1854. Originated by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio. Tree upright-spreading, vigorous; fruit above medium in size, roundish-oblong, one side slightly compressed; color pale amber, mottled with clear, light red, becoming rich red in the sun; flesh tinged with pale red, translucent, tender, juicy, sweet; pit of medium size, oblong, oval; season the last of June. Delicious for dessert. =Catskill.= Species? =1.= Chase _Cat._ 1888. This variety, sent out by R. G. Chase, Geneva, New York, in 1888, is probably now extinct. Fruit of medium size, heart-shaped; skin light yellow, nearly covered with light carmine; stem slender, long; flesh light yellow, juicy, sprightly, mild subacid; good. =Cerise Albanes.= Species? =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 284. 1861. Introduced from Revel, Haute-Garonne, France. It is a fruit of first size, excellent quality, with dark green leaves, productive; fruit white with more or less yellow. =Cerise d'Angleterre Précoce.= Species? =1.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=:No. 25, Pl. 1846. According to Poiteau, this cherry, sometimes called Cerise Nouvelle d'Angleterre, was confused by Duhamel with his Cerise Guigne. Fruit small in the first stages of ripening, later becoming larger, flattened at the base and apex; color clear red changing to almost black at complete maturity. =Cerise de l'Ardèche.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. _Belle grosse d'Ardèche._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. _Schöne von Ardêche._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 376. 1889. Distinct from other varieties in its manner of growth, according to Thomas. =Cerise Bellon.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. =Cerise de la Besnardière.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:181. 1866. =2.= Leroy. _Dict. Pom._ =5=:172 fig. 1877. _Kirsche von Bénardière._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 334. 1889. In 1841, Leroy mentioned this variety in his catalog stating that it was found in the gardens of the Baron of Besnardière. Mortillet believed it to be Carnation not being convinced of the contrary until after he had published his description of the Carnation. Tree strong, moderately productive; fruit attached singly, large, globular, compressed at the ends; suture apparent; stem of medium length, inserted in a rather wide, deep cavity; skin clear red, brilliant; flesh reddish at the surface, whitish near the center, tender, with abundant, slightly colored juice, pleasantly acidulated and sweet; first quality; stone small, round, plump; season the end of June in France. =Cerise du Bicentenaire.= _P. avium_ X _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 284, 285, Pl. 1903. _Bicentenaireweichsel._ =2.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 58. 1907. This variety is supposed to be a bud variation of Royal Duke found in a garden at Lieusaint, France. The trees resemble those of Royal Duke but the fruit is superior in size and ripens from three weeks to a month later. Said to be valuable on northern exposures which increase the advantages of late maturity. =Cerise Blanche à Petit Fruit.= _P. avium._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:507. 1860. Similar to the Cerisier à Gros Fruit Blanc but smaller. =Cerise Commune.= _P. Cerasus._ =1.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=:No. 11, Pl. 1846. =2.= Le Bon Jard. 346. 1882. One of the French varieties of cherries grown in the neighborhood of Paris to supply the early market trade. Sometimes called La Grosse Cerise Commune. =Cerise à Côtes.= _P. Cerasus._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:258, 259 fig. 1877. This cherry is similar in tree and fruit to Large Montmorency but the fruit is traversed on both sides by a prominent suture. Fruit attached in threes, of medium size, globular, compressed at the ends; suture deep, completely encircling the fruit; stem variable in length, inserted in a large, deep cavity; apex slightly depressed; skin clear red; flesh yellowish, transparent, tender, juicy, sugary, acidulated; pit of medium size, round; second quality; season the end of June; moderately productive. =Cerise d'Espagne.= _P. Cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. Fruit large, deep red, delicious, acidulated, ripening from June to July. =Cerise à la Feuille.= _P. Cerasus._ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:174, 175. 1768. The fruit is of medium size, roundish-cordate, faces flattened; stem long; cavity deep and straight; skin deep reddish-brown; flesh red, with an acid flavor which it loses somewhat at complete maturity; stone large, lightly tinted; ripens the middle of July. =Cerise de Gembloux.= _P. avium._ =1.= Ann. _Pom. Belge_ =8=:91, Pl. 1860. M. Staquet Berger of Gembloux, Belgium, grew this cherry from seed. Tree productive, vigorous; fruit large, roundish, slightly cordate; suture pronounced; stem long, slender; skin thin, glossy, nearly black; flesh red, fine, melting, juicy, sugary, acidulated; stone small, oval; ripens the last of July. =Cerise Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:195, 196, Pl. 16 fig. 1. 1768. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:140, 141 fig. 34, 142. 1866. =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:159, 160, fig. 78. 1866-73. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:254, 255 fig., 256. 1877. _Griotte Guigne._ =5.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:149. 1832. _Cerise Anglaise._ =6.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=:No. 26, Pl. 1846. _Rothe Muskateller._ =7.= _Ill. Handb._ 159 fig., 160. 1860. This cherry is now of historical interest only. It has been called Cerise Guigne since Duhamel described it in 1768, and may be the variety known long ago by the Romans as Cecilienne. There is no record to show that Cerise Guigne was ever brought to America. Tree large, vigorous, productive; fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate, flattened at the base; suture distinct; stem of medium thickness and length; skin thin; color clear red becoming reddish-brown; flesh clear red, with abundant, colored juice, tender, slightly stringy, sweet, sprightly, agreeable; quality good; ripens early. =Cerise de Mai Double.= Species? =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 40. 1771. Briefly discussed by Knoop. =Cerise de Mai Simple.= Species? =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 40, 41. 1771. Resembles Cerise de Mai Double but smaller. =Cerise de Martigné.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:147. 1882. The tree-characters are briefly described in this reference. =Cerise de Ostheim.=_ P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 78. 1890. _Ostheim._ =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:79, fig. 18. 1903. In 1883, Professor J. L. Budd of Ames, Iowa, brought this variety to Iowa. It is very similar to the Minnesota Ostheim but a few days later. Fruit of medium size, round, occasionally cordate; stem of medium length, slender, set in a shallow cavity; skin firm, deep red, with highly colored juice, mildly subacid; quality very good. =Cerise du Prince Maurice.= Species? =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 41. 1771. Tree vigorous, erect, productive; fruit scarlet, with whitish dots. =Cerise de Prusse.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:151 fig., 152, 153, 221, 304. 1866. _Guindoux de Provence._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 429, 430. 1819. _Prussian Cherry._ =3.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:150. 1832. _Provencer Süssweichsel._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:50. 1858. _Cerise de l'Esvière._ =5.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. _Cerise de Prusse noire?_ =6.= _Ibid._ =11=:160. 1882. This old variety is supposed to be of French origin. It is distinguished from other sorts by its cordate form, its more or less distinct suture, its thick skin, and its heart-shaped pit. Tree vigorous, moderately productive; fruit rather large, partially cordate, marked by a suture on both sides, more pronounced towards the base; stem of medium length, inserted in a rather deep cavity; skin thick, tough, separating from the pulp, deep reddish, almost black; flesh rather firm, deep red, juicy, sprightly, vinous, with a pronounced acidity; stone rather large, oval-pointed, turgid; ripens early in July. =Cerise de Rouen Double.= _P. avium._ =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 42. 1771. Tree vigorous and productive; fruit cordate, marked with a suture of moderate depth; color streaked with clear red on a yellow ground; flesh brittle, sweet, very agreeable. =Cerise de Rouen Simple.= _P. avium._ =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:42. 1771. Resembles the preceding variety in form, color and quality but is somewhat smaller. =Cerise Rouge Pale.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:89, 90, fig. 43. 1866-73. 2. Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:383, 384 fig., 385. 1877. _Cerisier à Gros Fruit Rouge-pâle._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb._ Fr. =1=:182, 183, 184, Pl. 9. 1768. =4.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:5, Tab. 14 fig. 1. 1792. _Villennes._ =5.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:140. 1832. _Bleichrothe Glaskirsche._ =6.= _Ill. Handb._ 75 fig., 76. 1867. This cherry is of interest only because of its past. Of its origin no record can be found. It is first mentioned by Duhamel, in 1768, under a somewhat longer name, "Cerisier à Gros Fruit Rouge-pâle," which many later writers have confused with Carnation. Tree large, vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish, flattened; stem long, thick; cavity deep, broad; skin thin; color a clear, brilliant red growing darker as maturity advances; flesh transparent, juicy, firm, tender, sweet, yet sprightly; of very good quality; season late. =Cerise Rouge Sanguine.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed in this reference. =Cerise Royale Ordinaire.= Species? =1.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=:No. 22, Pl. 1846. This variety is known in Normandy as Cerise Musquée because of its slight musky taste. Fruit small, sides compressed; skin red; flesh yellowish, juicy, sugary; quality fair. =Cerise de Soissons.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 55. 1831. _Französiche Süssweichsel._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:51. 1858. _Admirable de Soissons._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 476. 1869. Cerise de Soissons is described as a Morello, medium to above in size, broadly cordate, slightly compressed, with a slight suture; stem short; skin dark red; flesh red, tender, juicy, brisk subacid; ripens the middle of July. =Cerise de Tiercé.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed without a description. =Cerise de Xavier.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =17=:363. 1851. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 215. 1854. A Morello cherry, first shown in 1851, by M. P. Wilder, Dorchester, Massachusetts. Fruit medium in size, round, dark red, acid. =Cerisier Commun à Fruit Rond.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:172, 173. 1768. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 658, 659. 1819. Under this heading are grouped many wild cherries in France, grown from seeds, whose trees, leaves and flowers vary as well as the size, taste and time of ripening of the fruits. One of the best of these is grown around Paris, the fruit being small; stem long; pit large; quality and flavor variable. =Cerisier Commun Pleureur.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 397. 1888. This cherry was found in a Sour Cherry plantation. It resembles Montmorency in habit of growth and the Heart cherries in texture of flesh. The tree is used for ornamental planting and its fruit for culinary purposes. Tree very productive, bushy, branches inclined to droop; fruit large, oblong; stem long, inserted in a large cavity; skin glossy, dark red; flesh rose-colored, transparent, sugary, juicy; pit of medium size, elongated-oval; ripens early in June. =Cerisier à Feuilles Laciniées.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:267, 268 fig. 1877. This is a chance seedling first mentioned by Leroy in his catalog in 1860. Because of its foliage it is often used as an ornamental. Tree strong, moderately productive; fruit generally attached singly, small, oval; suture apparent; stem long; cavity moderately large; skin clear red, marbled with reddish-brown; flesh firm, yellowish-white, with abundant, uncolored juice, sugary, slightly acidulated; pit of medium size, elongated-oval, plump. =Cerisier à Gros Fruit Blanc.= _P. avium._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:507. 1860. A cherry ripening in July but described as very sugary and very good; flesh watery, aromatic; productive. =Cerisier Royal Tardif à Fruit Noir.= Species? =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:506. 1860. The fruit ripens in July, becoming deep black. =Cerisier Très-fertile.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:175, 176. 1768. _Weichselbaum mit bündelförmigen Früchten._ =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:5, Tab. 12 fig. 1. 1792. _Cerise à Trochet._ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 56. 1831. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:397, 398 fig. 1877. _Prolific Cherry._ =5.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:132. 1832. _Amarelle très-fertile._ =6.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:201 fig., 202, 203. 1866. Leroy states that this variety was long ago well known in France. Because it was grown in the neighborhood of Angers and Saint-Laud, and was of the Montmorency type, Leroy says it was locally named Cerisier Montmorency Hâtif de Saint Laud. He is doubtful whether it existed before the Eighteenth Century; Duhamel was the first to describe it in 1768. The tree resembles the Cluster cherry and is probably but a variation of the Cerise Commune type. Tree small; fruit generally attached in threes, of medium size, globular, compressed at the stem; cavity rather deep; apex small, somewhat prominent; stem of medium size, unequal in length; skin transparent, clear red, deeper when mature; flesh tender, white, juicy, sugary, strongly acidulated; stone medium in size, roundish, turgid; ripens the middle of June. Its graceful habit and productiveness make it a favorite for ornamental purposes. =Cerisier de Varenne.= Species? =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:507. 1860. _Belle de Varennes._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Tree erect, very vigorous; fruit large, compressed; stem long; color bright red. =Challenge.= _P. pumila._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 353. 1896. Challenge is a Sand Cherry seedling grown in Canada; fair flavor and of medium size. =Champagne.= Species? =1.= _Horticulturist_ =5=:76, 77 fig. 1850. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 205. 1854. Champagne is a seedling raised by Charles Downing,[84] Newburgh, New York, and so named because of the peculiar and lively mingling of sweet and acid in its flavor. Tree very hardy, vigorous, bearing regularly, and withstanding the attacks of rot and blight. Fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate, slightly angular; stem moderately long; cavity shallow, flat; skin lively brick-red, inclining to pink; flesh amber, juicy, sprightly, rich; ripens the middle of June. =Champion.= _P. pumila._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 307. 1898. Champion is one of many seedlings of the Manitoba Sand, a native Canadian cherry named and described in 1898, by Wm. Saunders of the Canadian Experimental Farms. Fruit large, very dark red, nearly black when ripe; flesh sweet, nearly free from astringency; quality good; ripens in Manitoba the last of August. =Chapman.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 130. 1897. =2.= _Cal. Nur. Cat._ =1=:14. 1898. =3.= _Ore. Nur. Cat._ 21. 1903. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. Chapman was grown by W. H. Chapman of Napa, California, and is supposed to be a seedling of Black Tartarian, surpassing that variety in size and earliness. By some horticulturists Chapman and California Advance are considered identical, but most growers, particularly in California, declare the two to be distinct. Fruit matures early; very large, roundish, purplish-black; stem long, slender; flesh slightly tender; very good in quality; stone small. =Cheresoto.= _P. pumila × P. americana._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =130=:184, Pl. 10, Pl. 11, 185. 1911. Cheresoto is a cross between the Sand Cherry and the De Soto plum from the South Dakota Experiment Station. The tree resembles the plum in growth but the fruit, in looks and flavor, is like that of the Sand Cherry. Fruit rather long with a prickle at the apex; about one and three-eighths inches in diameter; skin black with a bluish bloom, thin, free from acerbity; flesh yellowish-green, sprightly; pit clinging. =China Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:126. 1832. _China Heart._ =2.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 30. 1828. =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 48. 1831. This variety was raised from the seed of an Ox Heart by William Prince, Flushing, New York, and at first was called China Heart. W. R. Prince in his _Pomological Manual_ of 1832, calls it China Bigarreau as it is more of the Bigarreau than of the Heart type of cherries. Tree vigorous, large; fruit medium in size, roundish or oval-cordate, with a distinct suture; stem long, slender, set in a shallow cavity; skin when fully ripe, glossy red mottled with lighter red; flesh firm, somewhat melting, with a sweet, rich, peculiar flavor; ripens just after Black Tartarian and forms a link between it and the later varieties; very productive. =Choque.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 15, 191. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:141, 142. 1882. _Guigne Choque._ =3.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 482. 1904. Originated near Metz, Lorraine, Germany. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit rather large; of a deep red color at maturity; flesh white, slightly tinted with a rose color, firm, very juicy, sweet; ripens the last of June. =Christbauer.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 42. 1892. A sort reported to ripen before Early Richmond. =Christiana.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 206. 1854. This variety was raised by B. B. Kirtland, Greenbush, New York, and resembles May Duke in character of tree and fruit. The fruit is borne in clusters, is of a bright, lively red color, and has a sprightly subacid flavor. =Churchill Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 48. 1831. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 290. 1884. Tree hardy, productive; fruit large, heart-shaped; stem long; cavity shallow; skin glossy, of a clear, waxen, pale yellow, bright red when exposed to the sun, mottled with dark red and orange; flesh pale yellow, firm, sweet, rich, moderately juicy; season the end of July. =Cistena.= _P. pumila × P. pissardi._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =130=:190, 191. 1911. Cistena is a cross between the Sand Cherry and _Prunus pissardi_, interesting only because of its beautiful purple foliage. =Clark September.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ont. Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ =22=:XVIII. 1890. Clark September is a local sort from Lower Granville, Nova Scotia. The fruits are of medium size and when fully ripe are of a dark red color; flesh firm, of a sweet and agreeable flavor. =Cluster Black Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 481. 1904. Tree vigorous; fruit small or of medium size, cordate; stem long; skin glossy, black; flesh very dark red, tender, juicy, agreeably mild acid; ripens in July. =Cocklin Favorite.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =3=:249 fig., 1861. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 458. 1869. _Late Amber._ =3.= _Horticulturist_ =17=:381. 1862. This seedling was introduced by E. H. Cocklin, Shepherdstown, Pennsylvania, but its origin is unknown. Tree upright, conical, very productive; fruit large, roundish, regular, slightly compressed, somewhat flattened at the base, almost without a suture; apex depressed; stem long, slender; cavity deep; skin yellowish shaded and mottled in the sun with a light crimson; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, vinous; quality good; stone very small for the size of the fruit; season late. =Coe Late Carnation.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 216. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 275. 1857. _Coe's Späte Rote Kirsche._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 343, 344. 1889. This is a late variety of unknown origin--possibly a seedling of Carnation. Fruit medium to large, cordate; suture shallow; color yellowish-amber mottled with clear red; flesh tender, juicy, subacid; quality fair; season the last of July. =Coeur de Pigeon Noir.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:148. 1882. Fruit of medium size, cordate, slightly elongated. =Coeur de Poule.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:124. 1832. _Gros Bigarreau coeur-de-Poule_ =2.= _Rev. Hort._ 65. 1881. According to Prince, this variety was rather extensively cultivated in the south of France especially in the vicinity of Toulouse, where it was known as Cor dè Galino. The fruit ripens in July, has the form of the Hearts; its vivid red changes to nearly black as does also the juice. =Cole.= _P. cerasus._ Cole is a rather small-sized Morello of little value and no doubt now out of cultivation. Fruit cordate, compressed along the sutures; stem long, slender, set in a wide cavity; skin nearly black; flesh tender, rather meaty, dark red, lighter near the pit, having abundant, wine-colored juice, sour, sprightly; stone clings; season late. =Columbia.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 459. 1869. Tree vigorous, spreading, productive; fruit of medium size, heart-shaped, inclining to a point, surface angular and uneven, sides compressed; suture deep, narrow; stem long, slender; cavity large, deep; skin whitish-yellow, blushed and mottled with light red; flesh whitish, stained with pink, tender, juicy, pleasant; season the last of June. =Common Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:143, 144. 1832. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 103. 1852. _Wild Morello._ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. _Common Red Morello._ =4.= _Kan. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 144. 1886. This variety must not be confused with the well-known English Morello. Through self-propagation, it is widely known, as are its many seedlings which oft-times surpass it in size and quality. =Como.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Comtesse de Médicis Spada.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed without a description. =Condé.= Species? =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:35. 1771. Mentioned in the reference given. =Conestoga.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:423. 1853. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =17=:381. 1862. Conestoga was introduced by Casper Hiller, Conestoga, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Tree a rampant, spreading grower, very productive; fruit very large, obtuse-cordate, slightly compressed and indented at the apex; suture shallow; stem very long, inserted in an open cavity; skin deep red, purplish, somewhat mottled; flesh firm, rather tender, juicy, sugary, brisk; quality good; season early July. =Constance Maisin.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. This is a Belgian variety, which, according to _Guide Pratique_, 1895, is very similar to Montmorency. =Cook Imperial.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 25. 1904-05. This variety, a seedling of Napoleon, originated with Steven Cook, Benton Harbor, Michigan. It is mentioned as a promising new sort, resembling Black Tartarian in shape, flavor, color, and length of stem but earlier and larger. =Cornelia.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 459. 1869. Cornelia originated with Charles Pease, near Cleveland, Ohio. Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, very productive; fruit medium to above in size, compressed, heart-shaped; suture slight; stem long; cavity narrow, deep; skin whitish-yellow, shaded with bright crimson on the sunny side; flesh light yellow, tender, juicy, sweet, rather lively; quality good; stone small; season the last of June. =Corning.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 72. 1899. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:66 fig. 1903. Corning is a cross between the Wragg and Lutovka and originated with A. F. Collman, Corning, Iowa. Fruit oblate-cordate, above medium in size; suture lacking; stem of medium length, stout, inserted in a medium deep, narrow cavity; skin rather thick, tender, red; flesh firm, breaking; juice slightly colored, briskly subacid; quality good; stone medium large, ovate; ripens in August. =Corone.= _P. avium._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. =2.= Rea _Flora_ 205. 1676. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 291. 1884. _Englische Schwarze Kronherzkirsche._ =4.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 149-152. 1819. =5.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 347. 1889. Corone, as the references show, is one of the oldest-named varieties, though strictly speaking, since it was largely grown from seed, according to the old writers, it is a type and not a variety. In character of fruit it seems to be midway between Black Mazzard and Black Tartarian. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit below medium in size, roundish-cordate, compressed and often roughened; suture deep; stem slender, long; cavity deep, round, narrow; color a deep, shining black; flesh dark purple, very firm, sweet; ripens late. =Corwin.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Elliott Fr. _Book_ 216. 1854. This is a medium-sized, roundish, red Morello with tender, acid flesh and a large stone; season July. =Coularde.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 424-427. 1819. _Cerisier de Hollande._ =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:184, 185, Pl. 10. 1768. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:298, 346. 1877. =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 363. 1889. _Holländische Weichselbaum mit sehr grosser Frucht_ [or] _Coulard._ =5.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:5, Tab. 12 fig. 2. 1792. _Holländische grosse Kirsche Coulard._ =6.= Christ _Handb._ 670. 1797. _Holländische grosse Weichsel [or] Coulard._ =7.= Christ Wörterb. 284. 1802. _Holland Griotte._ =8.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:141. 1832. =9.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 280. 1832. _Holländische Süssweichsel._ =10.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3:=51. 1858. _Cerisier coulard de Holland._ =11.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2:=505. 1860. Leroy states that Coularde has been known since 1740 but is often confused with other cherries. According to Leroy, this variety was reintroduced as a novelty about 1864, under the name Belle d'Orleans. American writers, however, list a Belle d'Orleans as early as 1850, which is of the Guigne type rather than the Griotte. Tree the largest of its class; branches strong and straight; blooms profusely; fruit large, round; skin red; flesh firm, reddish-white, sweet, agreeable; ripens the end of June. The pistils being much longer than the stamens, many flowers are never fertilized which gives the blossoms a blighted appearance. =Courte-queue de Gaiberg.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 23, 192. 1876. _Courte-pendu de Gaiberg._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed as having been received from Germany on the recommendation of Oberdieck. =Crawford.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11:=160. 1882. Listed, not described. =Crown Prince.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 465. 1900. Tree vigorous; fruit above medium in size, cordate; skin yellow with a light red blush; flesh whitish, juicy, tender, refreshing; quality good; ripens the last of May. =Cserszeger Honigkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. A yellow Heart cherry. =Cullen Cherrie.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 574. 1629. "The Cullen Cherrie is a darke red cherrie like the Agriot, which they of those parts neere Cullen and Vtrecht &c. vse to put into their drinke, to give it the deeper colour." =Cumberland.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 205. 1854. _Triumph of Cumberland._ =2.= _Horticulturist_ =7=:100. 1852. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 267, 268. 1857. =4.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11:=87, 88, fig. 44. 1882. _Cumberland Heart._ =5.= _Gard. Mon._ =2=:118. 1860. _Cumberland Spice._ =6.= _Horticulturist_ =17=:498. 1862. Cumberland is a chance seedling found in Cumberland County, Pennsylvania; introduced by David Miller of Carlisle. Tree strong in growth, erect, vigorous, productive; fruit obtuse-cordate, sides compressed; stem rather long, slender, set in a broad, open cavity; apex slightly depressed; suture entirely around the fruit, but a line on one side; skin medium thick, tough, clear purple changing to a purplish-black; flesh deep purple, crisp, aromatic, with abundant, colored juice; quality good; pit roundish-oval, compressed, slightly clinging; ripens the middle of June. =Cyclone.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Nova Scotia Fr. Gr. Assoc. Rpt._ 23. 1894. This variety is said in Nova Scotia to be somewhat similar to Wood and Rockport but to be superior to either in size and quality. =Dacotah.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =26=:402, 403. 1860. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 459. 1869. Dacotah is a seedling of one of Professor J. P. Kirtland's sorts, originated by his son-in-law, Charles Pease, Cleveland, Ohio. In growth it resembles Rockport; in fruit, Black Tartarian although it is later. The fruit is borne on spurs on the body as well as on the limbs, thus being protected from birds by the foliage. Fruit medium to large, heart-shaped, compressed; suture shallow; stem long, slender; cavity deep, narrow; skin rich dark red, almost black, slightly roughened; flesh rather tender, purplish, juicy, sweet; of high quality; stone of medium size; productive. =Daiber Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 344. 1889. Listed by Mathieu. =Dankelmannskirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 242-246, 677. 1819. _Schwefelkirsche._ =2.= Krünitz _Enc._ 72, 73. 1790. _Agatkirsche._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 666. 1797. _Dankelmann's Weisse Herzkirsche._ =4.= _Ibid._ 666. 1797. _Kleine weisse Perlkirsche._ =5.= _Ibid._ 683. 1797. _Dankelmann's Molkenkirsche._ =6.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:28. 1858. _Bigarreautier à fruit jaune?_ =7.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:504. 1860. _Bigarreau jaune._ =8.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:133. 1866. In 1791, Truchsess received grafts of what he thought were several distinct varieties and disseminated them as such. Later, they were found to be identical with the Dankelmann. The fruit is recognized from others of its class by its small size, its honey sweetness, its peculiar color and its transparent skin. Fruit more round than cordate, with a shallow suture; stem slender, inserted in a narrow, shallow cavity; skin yellow washed with red, transparent allowing the pit to be visible; flesh yellowish-white, tender, very juicy, very sweet if ripened thoroughly; stone small, round, almost free when ripe; season the last of June to July. =Datge.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:59. 1900. Mentioned in this reference as being moderate in growth. =Davenport.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:154. 1832. _Davenport's Early Red._ =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 218. 1835. _Davenport's Early Black._ =3.= _Ibid._ 233. 1841. _Davenport's Early._ =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 172, 173. 1845. This early cherry, resembling somewhat Black Heart, was originated nearly a century ago by Edward Davenport, Dorchester, Massachusetts. Tree medium in size, productive; fruit above medium to large, roundish-cordate; stem long, rather thick; skin bright red becoming purplish-black; flesh firm but tender, sprightly, pleasant, juicy, sweet; very good in quality; season early. =De Belleu.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:59. 1900. Mentioned in this reference as being a variety of moderate growth. =De Jacap.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =De Ravaene.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed without a description. =De Sibérie à gros fruit et à rameaux pendans.= Species? =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:508. 1860. This is a dwarf ornamental tree bearing small, oval, mediocre fruits ripening in August and September. =De Spa.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =17=:363. 1851. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 278. 1857. De Spa is a medium-sized, dark red, acid Morello forming a prolific bush, ripening soon after May Duke. =De Vaux.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm. Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:59. 1900. Listed in the reference given. =Dearborn Red French.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 280. 1832. This is a Duke cherry imported from France by H. A. S. Dearborn, Roxbury, Massachusetts. The name having been lost, the importer renamed it. =Dechenaut.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 78. 1866. Fruit large, roundish-cordate, broad at the base, rather flattened; suture faint; skin bright cornelian-red, becoming darker red when ripe, glossy; stem long, set in a wide, deep cavity; flesh tender, succulent; resembling May Duke in flavor and season. =Delaware Bleeding Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mo. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 61. 1898. This is a medium-sized, dark red, nearly black fruit with solid flesh and good flavor. =Delicate.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 193 fig. 1854. Delicate was raised by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, in 1842, from a pit of Yellow Spanish, probably crossed with Black Tartarian, Black Mazzard, or May Duke. Tree moderately vigorous, upright-spreading, productive; fruit medium to large, roundish-oblate; suture rather pronounced; stem medium in length; skin thin, translucent, amber-yellow overspread and mottled with light carmine; flesh pale yellow, juicy, pleasant, sweet; very good in quality; stone small, roundish-oval; season the last of June and the first of July. =Délicieuse.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed by Mas. =Denner Black.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 48. 1831. Listed but not described. =Des Cheneaux.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Mentioned in the reference given. =Deutsche Belzweichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 290. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 603, 604, 605. 1819. Probably this is but a wild seedling used in grafting. Fruit of medium size, round; suture indistinct; stem long, slender, set in a shallow cavity; skin glossy, dark brown; flesh firm, dark, reddish directly under the skin, juicy, with a sourish wine-flavor; stone small, oval; ripens the middle of July. =Disnoder Gewürzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. Listed as a black Bigarreau. =Ditst.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=: 160. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Dobbeete Moreller.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Doctay.= Species? =1.= _Horticulturist_ =17=:498. 1862. Reported in the reference as a good, late cherry of second size as grown by E. Manning, Harrisburg, Ohio. =Doctor.= _P. avium._ 1. _Horticulturist_ =2=:123 fig. 1847-48. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:37, 38, fig. 17. 1866-73. _American Doctor._ =4.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 71. 1866. Doctor was originated by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, in 1842, from a pit of Yellow Spanish, probably crossed with Black Tartarian, Black Mazzard, or May Duke. Hogg called it American Doctor to distinguish it from the German Doctorkirsche. Tree of medium vigor, upright-spreading, healthy, very productive; fruit medium to large, roundish-cordate; stem long, rather slender; skin light yellow, mottled, blushed and at times almost entirely overspread with red; flesh pale yellow, juicy, tender, aromatic, sweet; good in quality; stone small. =Dr. Flynn.= _P. avium._ =1.= Coates _Cat._ 1911-12. Dr. Flynn is a chance seedling which originated in Portland, Oregon, with a Dr. Flynn. Fruit large, dark red; similar to Lambert in shape; preceding Napoleon. =Dr. Wiseman.= _P. avium._ =1.= Van Lindley _Cat._ 23. 1892. =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 321. 1897. This cherry was named after Dr. Wiseman, Davie County, North Carolina, who claimed it to be the earliest Sweet Cherry. Van Lindley believes it to be the Doctor which originated with Professor Kirtland. Fruit of medium size, light yellow, shaded with bright red, resembling Wood. =Doctorkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 161. 1791. =2.= Christ _Handb._ 674. 1797. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 402-405. 1819. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 497 fig., 498. 1861. This variety was first mentioned in 1791. It should not be confused with another sort mentioned by Büttner and Truchsess as Doctorknorpelkirsche. Fruit large, roundish, somewhat compressed; stem long; cavity rather deep; skin tough, brownish-red changing to reddish-black; flesh dark red, melting, juicy, sweet yet with a sprightly flavor; pit round, slightly pointed; ripens the middle of July. =Doctorknorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 201, 202, 203. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:37. 1858. According to Truchsess, this sort was received by him in 1797, from Büttner at Leipzig under the name of Doctorkirsche. Because one or two other sorts were growing at that time under this name, Christ changed this one, following Büttner's description, to Doctorkirsche mit Hartem Fleisch, which has since been shortened to Doctorknorpelkirsche. Fruit large, slightly compressed; stem long and slender; color black; flesh firm, clear red, juicy, agreeably sweet; ripens the middle of August. =Dollaner Schwarze.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 9 fig., 10. 1867. According to Oberdieck, this variety originated at Dollan, Bohemia, Austria, the home of the Dollaner prune. Fruit above medium in size, truncate-cordate, traversed entirely by a suture; stem slender, long, set in a narrow, shallow cavity; skin tough, brownish-black with light spots, wholly black when ripe; flesh and juice dark red, flesh firm, but tender enough to be classed among the Hearts, sweet, aromatic, with a slight sourness before fully ripe; stone elongated-oval; season late. =Donna Maria.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Barry _Fr. Garden_ 326. 1851. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =3.= _Am. Hort. An._ 84 fig. 41, 85. 1869. This is a Morello cherry, probably of French origin. It is distinct from the Early May grown in the West with which it has been confused. Donna Maria held a place on the American Pomological Society's catalog of fruits from 1862 until 1899. Tree small, productive; fruit medium in size, roundish, dark red; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly; good in quality; season late. =Doppelte Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 673. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 505, 506, 507. 1819. _Doppelte Amarelle._ =3.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 158. 1791. Christ first described this variety as Doppelte Amarelle but in his later writings changed it to Doppelte Weichsel. It is distinguished from the Spanische Frühweichsel in being larger, longer in stem, and sourer. Fruit above medium in size, globular; suture shallow; stem long, rather stout, set in a shallow cavity; skin dark brownish-red, thin, not glossy in wet years; flesh dark, firm for a Weichsel, juicy, light colored, pleasing subacid; pit small, more round than broad, free; season the end of June. =Dorotheenkirsche.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 347. 1889. Mentioned in this reference. =Dörrells Neue Himbeerkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl Führ. _Obstkunde_ =3=:27. 1858. Tree productive; fruit large, cordate, flattened; stem stout; skin dark red; flesh firm, whitish, sweet, aromatic; stone small; ripens at the end of June. =Doty.= Species? =1.= _Am. Inst. An. Rpt._ 212. 1867. This is a small but pleasantly flavored seedling exhibited by William M. Doty, Star Landing, New Jersey. =Double Yellow Spanish.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 331. 1885. This variety was imported to America by Professor J. L. Budd of Ames, Iowa. The tree has a drooping habit, large foliage and sweet fruit of best quality. =Douce de Bardowick.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Dougall.= Species? =1.= _Cult. & Count. Gent._ =39=:454. 1874. Dougall is a large, black, seedling fruit introduced by James Dougall, Amherstburgh, Canada. Ripens before Early Purple. =Doulin Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 460. 1869. This is a foreign variety which may not be distinct. Tree a rapid, spreading grower, bears early; fruit large, heart-shaped, compressed on one side; stem slender, curved, set in a deep cavity; suture slight; skin dark purplish-red; flesh pinkish, rather tender, juicy, sweet, pleasant; quality good; season early June. =Dove Bank.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Downing Red Cheek.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 186 fig. 76. 1845. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 205. 1854. _Rouge de Downing._ =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:85, 86, fig. 41. 1866-73. _Downing's Sämling._ =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 346. 1889. This attractive cherry, resembling Yellow Spanish, was raised by A. J. Downing,[85] Newburgh, New York, about 1840; its exact parentage is unknown. Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, productive; fruit medium to large, obtuse-cordate, slightly compressed; stem long, slender, inserted in a shallow cavity; skin thin, yellowish-white blushed and mottled with attractive dark crimson; flesh yellowish but often very nearly white, half-tender, juicy, delicate, sweet; good in quality; stone medium in size; ripens from the middle to the last of June. =Downton.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Pom. Mag._ =3=:138 Pl. 1830. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:124. 1832. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 485 fig., 486. 1861. _Downtoner Molkenkirsche._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:30. 1858. _Guigne Downton._ =6.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:98, 303. 1866. =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:321 fig. 1877. _Impératrice Downton_? =8.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =II=:161. 1882. Downton was raised early in the Nineteenth Century by T. A. Knight, Downton Castle, England, from a seed of Elton. Tree strong in growth, spreading; fruit attached in pairs, large, obtuse-cordate, roundish; stem rather long, slender; skin pale yellowish, heavily specked with red, which often merges into a blush on the sunny side; flesh light yellow, very tender, juicy; high in quality; stone slightly adherent; ripens after May Duke. =Dresdener Mai Herzkirsche.= _P. Avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 23. 1876. A very early Heart cherry received by Thomas from Germany. =Drogan White Bigarreau.= _P. Avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 79. 1866. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 188. 1876. _Drogan's Weisse Knorpelkirsche._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 341, 684. 1819. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 55 fig., 56. 1867. This is one of Drogan's seedlings from Guben, Prussia, Germany, 1809. Leroy includes Drogan's White and Yellow Bigarreaus with his Guigne Blanche (Grosse) but the three are distinct varieties. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish-cordate, flattened on one side; suture distinct; stem rather short, stout; cavity wide, deep; apex pointed; skin tough, pale yellow, mottled and blushed with red where much exposed; flesh firm, pale yellow, juicy, sweet; stone plump, ovate to oval; desirable for table and kitchen use; late. =Drogan Yellow Bigarreau.= _P. Avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 147 fig., 148. 1860. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 79, 80. 1866. =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:111, 112, fig. 54. 1866-73. Bigarreau (Golden)? =4.= Fell _Cat._ 41. 1893-94. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large to very large, oblate-cordate, resembling May Duke, compressed on the faces, truncate at the base, traversed by a shallow suture; stem long, stout, inserted in a wide, deep cavity; skin rather glossy, clear yellow, golden in the sun; flesh firm, yellowish, having abundant, uncolored juice, with a sweetness which increases as the season advances; quality high; pit small, turgid, roundish-oval, truncate at the base; ripens late. =Drogans Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. Avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 206, 207, 677. 1819. A Prussian seedling from Guben, Germany, which in favorable years is of good size and pleasant flavor; skin black; flesh firm, juicy, colored; ripens the middle of July. =Drooping Guigne.= _P. Avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:119. 1832. _Guignier à rameaux pendans._ =2.= Noisette Man. Comp. Jard. =2=:503. 1860. Noisette lists this variety under the Merisiers while others take it to be Toussaint which it resembles in habit of growth. Fruit large, roundish or heart-shaped, glossy black, with a long stem; flesh reddish-black, watery, sweet; season July; very productive. =Du Comte Egger.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed, not described. =Du Nord Nouvelle.= _P. Cerasus._ =1.= Barry _Fr. Garden_ 326. 1851. Mentioned as a Morello from France ripening in August. Fruit of medium size, bright red, tender, acid; useful because of its lateness. =Duchesse d'Angoulême.= _P. Cerasus._ =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:155, 156, fig. 76. 1866-73. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:261. 1877. =3.= Ia. _Sta. Bul._ =73=:67, fig. 12. 1903. _Herzogin von Angouleme._ =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 535 fig., 536. 1861. Duchesse d'Angoulême is supposed to have come from the vicinity of Vienna, Austria, although some writers give France as its place of origin. It is often confused with other sorts. Tree large, vigorous, upright, slightly spreading, productive; fruit medium to above in size, roundish-oblate; stem rather long and thick, set in a large, deep cavity; skin firm, bright red; flesh yellowish white, tender, juicy, sprightly, agreeably aromatic at extreme maturity; quality fair to good; stone nearly round, slightly compressed; ripens from the middle to the end of June. =Duchesse de Palluau.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:407 fig. 28. 1853. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:261, 262 fig. 1877. =3.= _Rev. Hort._ 236, 237, Pl. 1901. _Herzogin von Paluau._ =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 169 fig., 170. 1860. _Précoce Lemercier_ incor. =5.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:142-146, fig. 1866. Duchesse de Palluau was raised about 1840 by M. Pierre Bretonneau near Tours, Indre-et-Loire, France. In 1844 he gave cions of this variety, under the name Duchesse de Palluau, to Leroy who propagated and probably disseminated the sort. Tree large, productive; fruit medium to large, heart-shaped, compressed; stem long, slender; skin thin, dark purple becoming almost black; flesh tinged with red, juicy, brisk subacid becoming sweet; good in quality; stone nearly free, oblong-ovate, small; ripens in early mid-season. =Duke of Edinburgh.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales_ =19=:998. 1908. Tree stunted, upright; fruit too small and soft for market; similar to Belle d'Orleans; ripens in November in Australia. =Dumas.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Mentioned in the reference given. =Dunkelrothe Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensor_. 680-682. 1819. _Bigarreau à Longue Queue._ =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:121, 122 fig., 123, 219. 1866. _Bigarreau Rouge Foncé._ =3.= _Ibid._ =2=:302. 1866. _Bigarreau Violet._ =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:249 fig. 1877. This variety probably originated with Van Mons in Belgium about 1790. It was received by Truchsess a little later as a French sort under the name Bigarreau Violet. Fruit large, elongated-cordate, sides compressed; suture very distinct dividing the fruit into halves; stem very long, more deeply inserted in unripe fruits; skin firm but not tough, yellowish, overspread with dark red, verging to violet; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy; quality excellent; stone free, small, roundish-oval; apex acutely pointed; ripens the middle of June. =Duraccia.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 292. 1893. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 175. 1895. E. E. Goodrich, Santa Clara, California, received cions of this variety from Lucca, Italy, thinking it to be the famous "Pistojese" used extensively in Italy for brandying. Fruit above medium in size, cordate; stem long, slender, set in a large, deep, regular cavity; suture deep, extending beyond the apex; skin thin, tough, smooth, glossy, finely pitted, dark purple to almost black; flesh red with lighter veinings, firm, meaty, rich, sweet; quality very good; pit of medium size, plump, partially adherent; season at Santa Clara the last of July to August; ships well; has not been reported from the eastern states. =Dure Noir Grosse.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Not described. =Dwarf Siberian.= _P.fruticosa._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:153. 1832. _Dutch Weeping._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 48. 1831. _De Sibérie._ =3.= _Ibid._ 55. 1831. =4.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=:No. 20, Pl. 1846. _Weeping._ =5.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 283. 1832. _De Sibérie à fruit rond_? =6.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:508. 1860. Dwarf Siberian belongs to _Prunus fruticosa_, the dwarf cherry of the Old World, of which _Cerasus chamaecerasus_ is a synonym. This cherry was introduced into America by Prince of Flushing, New York, and was thought by him to be the most suitable species to furnish stocks for dwarf trees. At best the variety reaches a height of from three to four feet with branches very numerous, forming a dense shrub. The flowers have long peduncles, often solitary but are usually united in umbels of from three to five each, which are sessile and axillary; fruit globular, red, small; flesh red, very acid, tender. =Early Amarella.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Albertson & Hobbs _Cat._ 26. 1904. =2.= Vincennes _Nur. Cat._ 26. 1906. Tree upright, hardy, very productive; fruit large, brilliant red becoming darker as it gets riper; stem very long. =Early Amber.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69. 80. 1866, =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 45. 1831. _River's Early Amber Heart._ =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 234. 1841. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 177. 1845. _Guigne panachée précoce._ =5.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:97, 208. 1866. _Bigarreau Ambré Précoce._ =6.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:49, 50, fig. 23. 1866-73. =7.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:174, 175 fig. 1877. Thomas Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, England, is given credit for this variety as a strain of the old Early White Heart. Leroy, however, states that his grandfather propagated this cherry under the name Cerise Panache or Suisse, as early as 1790 but without knowing its origin. He dropped the _précoce_ because other varieties ripened long before this one. Tree vigorous, erect, productive; fruit borne in threes, medium in size, obtuse-cordate, slightly compressed; suture wide; stem long, slender, set in a straight, deep cavity; skin firm, medium thick, changing from lively red to reddish-brown; flesh yellowish, tender, cracking, with uncolored juice, sweet, aromatic; pit large for the fruit; season early. =Early Black Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 80. 1866. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:302. 1866. Fruit large, distinctly heart-shaped; stem long; color jet black; flesh dark purple, firm, rich, sweet; excellent; season the last of June and the first of July. =Early Eugene.= Species? =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 437. 1898. Reported by H. L. McGee, Villa Ridge, Illinois, as being a hardy and productive variety. =Early May.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =12=:375. 1861. =2.= _Trans. Ill. Agr. Soc._ =5=:199. 1861-64. =3.= _Am. Jour. Hort._ =1=:123. 1867. =4.= _Ibid._ =3=:18-22. 1868. =5.= _Am. Hort. An._ 84. 1869. =6.= _Country Gent._ =39=:118. 1874. This variety originated a generation or more ago in Virginia and was known there and in neighboring states as Early May. Later, it became widely disseminated in the Middle West where it was often confused with Early Richmond, Late Kentish and Montmorency. Early May should not be confused with a European cherry of the same name formerly grown upon the continent but now seldom seen. The fruit of the American sort is much like Early Richmond though of inferior quality and is now probably wholly replaced by the latter variety. =Early Prolific.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 193, 194. 1854. Early Prolific was raised by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, in 1842. Tree healthy, vigorous, upright, slightly spreading; fruit large, round, obtuse-cordate; suture distinct; stem variable; skin bright carmine-red mottled on a light amber-yellow ground; flesh rather tender, firm, juicy, rich, sweet; very productive; season early June. =Early Red Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:130. 1832. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 81, 94. 1866. =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 23. 1876. =Bigarreau Rouge de Guben.= =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:242 fig., 243. 1877. This variety originated about 1845, from seed in the garden of the Pomological Society, at Guben, Prussia, Germany. The Russians, who were growing it in 1858, sent the variety from Crimea to M. Eugène Glady, who in turn gave cions of it to Leroy. Tree moderately vigorous, productive; fruit usually attached in pairs; above medium to large, obtuse-cordate, more or less irregular, compressed; suture indistinct; stem long, slender, inserted in a deep cavity; skin thick, dark red changing to reddish-brown; flesh dark colored, firm, breaking, juicy, sweet, pleasant; quality excellent; stone rather large, ovate; ripens the last of June. =Early Red Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 23. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. =3.= Rivers _Cat._ 18. 1898-99. This cherry, of unknown origin, was propagated by Thomas Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, England. It is thought by some to be Elton. Fruit large, pale red; flesh very tender, rich and good; ripens in early June. =Early Red and Yellow.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:282. 1842. This variety was raised by Robert Manning, Salem, Massachusetts, from the seed of a white Bigarreau. Fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate; light red on a yellow ground; sweet, juicy; good; ripe the last of June. =Early Rivers.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 5 fig., 6. 1872. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 28, 204. 1876. =3.= _Flor. & Pom._ 117. 1878. =4.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 162. 1881. =5.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 296. 1884. _Guigne Early Rivers._ =6.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 104 fig., 105. 1904. Early Rivers is a seedling of Early Purple raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England; first fruited in 1869. Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading, hardy, productive; fruit large, roundish-cordate, somewhat uneven and indented on the surface; stem long, rather slender; skin thin, deep red changing to glossy black; flesh reddish, juicy, very tender, rich, sweet; very good in quality; stone very small, elongated; season early. =Early York.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 666. 1897. Fruit medium in size; flesh greenish-white, tender, juicy, subacid. =Ebenter Cherry.= Species? =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 111. 1879. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 347. 1889. This cherry is said to be cultivated on the shores of Lake Constance, Germany, notably at Lindau and Tettnang, and is distinguished for its firm flesh, large size and small stone. Ripens after all other table cherries. =Edouard Seneclause.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Not described. =Elfner Kirsche.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 347. 1889. Listed by Mathieu. =Elizabeth.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 207. 1854. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Elizabeth is a seedling from Caleb Atwater, Portage County, Ohio, 1823. Tree vigorous, upright, prolific; fruit medium to large, heart-shaped, flattened on the sides; stem of medium length, set in a regular cavity; skin rich, dark red; flesh yellowish, slightly tinged with red, rather tender, juicy, pleasantly sweet; pit roundish-ovate; season the middle of June. =Emperor Francis.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:111, 112, fig. 56. 1882. =2.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 42. 1904. =3.= _Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc._ =30=:133. 1906. _Bigarreau Empereur-Francois._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 16. 1876. _Kaiser Franz Josef._ =5.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 56. 1907. =6.= _Reut. Pom. Inst. Festschrift_ 122. 1910. The origin of Emperor Francis is not given in any of the references though the variety seems to be quite well known in both France and England. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, obtuse-cordate; stem rather short; cavity medium in size; skin marbled with red on a yellowish-white ground; flesh firm, crisp, sweet, high flavored; stone small, bluntly pointed; ripens rather late. =English Amber.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 207, 208. 1854. Probably this is an old variety known under some other name. Tree vigorous, strong in growth, very productive; fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate, regular; stem long; skin delicate amber, mottled with pale red; flesh whitish-yellow, half-tender, delicate, juicy, very sweet; pit of medium size; ripens the last of June. =English Bearer.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit_ Pl. 9. 1817. =2.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =2=:131, Pl. 71 fig. 3. 1823. _English Preserve._ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 49. 1831. This variety is grown in Kent, England, where it is known as English Preserver. It is distinguished from the Kentish only by its larger size and the dark, irregular spots under the skin. Ripens early in July. =English Gaskin.= Species? =1.= _U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt._ 309. 1854. An almost worthless sort mentioned in the reference given. =Englische Weinkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 284. 1819. Fruit large, roundish; stem long; skin tender, ground-color milky-white, crimson where exposed, on maturity the white changes to yellowish; juicy, vinous, aromatic; ripens in July. =Englische Weisse Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:27. 1858. _Englische weisse ganz frühe Herzkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Handb._ 683. 1797. =3.= Christ _Wörterb._ 280. 1802. =4.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 251, 252, 253. 1819. Possibly this is the same as the White Heart of England. It is without a doubt a separate variety from the Guignier à gros fruit blanc of Duhamel. Fruit above medium in size, elongated-cordate; stem very long, slender, set in a deep cavity; suture a line, skin yellowish-white, tinged with red in the sun, uneven, glossy, transparent; flesh white, not very tender, juicy, sweet; quality good; stone of medium size, cordate, acute; ripens at the end of June. =Enopa.= _P. pumila × P. triflora._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:1908. =2.= _Ibid._ =130=:178 Pl. 8. 1911. Enopa, a cross between the Sand Cherry and the Occident plum, was sent out in 1908 by the South Dakota Station. Fruit one and one-sixteenths inches in diameter, round, with a minute prickle at the apex; skin thin, free from acerbity, dark red, with blue bloom; flesh green. =Episcopale.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25, 193. 1876. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:265 fig. 1877. This variety, according to Leroy, was found in the vicinity of Paris and was introduced by M. Jamin-Durand, Bourg-la-Reine, in 1846. The tree is distinguished from that of Montmorency in being more erect, less dense, less productive; the fruit is more acid and later in ripening. =Eppers Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:67. 1858. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, oval, flattened at the base, brownish-red, with a deep suture; flesh clear red, juicy, strongly subacid; pit elongated; ripens in September. =Erfurter Augustkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 159. 1791. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 550-554. 1819. _D'Aout Erfurt._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:89, 90, fig. 45. 1882. _Délices d'Erfurt._ =4.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. _Erfurt Delicious._ =5.= _Gard. Chron._ =19=:429. 1896. _Hochgenuss Von Erfurt._ =6.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. This cherry is well known in and about Thuringia forest, Germany, where it is propagated by suckers and is valued for its lateness. Tree vigorous; fruit above medium in size, roundish-cordate, flattened; stem of medium length, set in a noticeable cavity; suture indistinct; skin tender, glossy, brownish-red changing to purplish-black; flesh tender, reddish, juicy, sugary, acidulated; stone free, small, pea-shaped; ripens the last of July. =Etopa.= _P. pumila × P. triflora._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:1908. =2.= _Ibid._ =130=:179. 1911. Etopa is a cross between the Sand Cherry and the Occident plum. Said to be excellent in quality and remarkable for its intense black, purplish color of skin, flesh and juice; skin thin, free from acerbity; ripens there about September twelfth. =Eugène Furst.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Guide Prat._ 18. 1895. _Fürst's Herzkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:23. 1858. Fruit above medium in size, elongated-cordate; stem of medium length, slender; skin black; flesh red, sugary, acidulated; matures the last of June to July. Said to be similar to May Duke. =Everbearing.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:13. 1892. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:276. 1903. Fruit large, roundish-oblate, somewhat compressed; stem long, inserted in a broad, shallow cavity; skin dull red to dark red when ripe; flesh quite tender, juicy, mildly acid; quality good. =Excellente Douce Tardive.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =2=:101, 102, Pl. 1854. This cherry was produced from seed, in France in 1839. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit above medium in size, roundish, flattened at the ends; stem long, stout, inserted in a deep, wide cavity; skin thin, glossy, deep red mottled with clear red changing to reddish-black, often yellowish-amber in the shade; flesh yellowish, melting, sugary, slightly acidulated; quality very good; pit small, yellowish, roundish, apex pointed; ripens in August. =Eyami.= _P. pumila X P. triflora._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:1908. =2.= _Ibid._ =130=:179. 1911. Eyami is a cross between the Sand Cherry and the Occident plum and was sent out by the South Dakota Station in 1908. Fruit one and three-sixteenths by one and five-sixteenths inches in size, round; skin thin, dark red, semi-transparent; flesh green, pleasant; pit large. =Ezaptan.= _P. pumila X P. triflora._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =130=:180 Pl. 9, 181. 1911. Ezaptan, a cross between the Sand Cherry and the Occident plum, was introduced in 1911 by the South Dakota Station. It is remarkable for its early and heavy bearing; skin thin, free from acerbity, dark purple; flesh black purplish-red to the pit. =Faversham Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 49. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Favorite.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 207 fig. 1854. _Elliott's Favorite._ =2.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:124. 1847-48. =3.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 361. 1849. =4.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. Favorite is one of Professor J. P. Kirtland's cherries originating in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1842, from a pit of Yellow Spanish, probably crossed with Black Tartarian, Black Mazzard, or May Duke. The tree resembles American Heart while the fruit is similar to Choisy in flavor and texture but larger. Tree vigorous, half-spreading, productive; fruit medium in size, round, regular, slightly compressed; stem long, set in an even and regular cavity; skin pale amber-yellow, with a bright, marbled, carmine-red cheek; flesh pale amber, translucent, tender, delicate, juicy, with a sweet, fine flavor; pit small, angular, smooth. =Festfleischige Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 35 fig., 36. 1867. _Grosse dunkel braunrothe Kramelkirsche._ =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:3, Tab. 7 fig. 1. 1792. _Grosse schwarze Knorpelkirsche mit festem Fleisch._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 193-195. 1819. _Bigarreau-noir à chair très-ferme._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 189. 1876. This cherry has the hardest flesh of all the black, hard-fleshed cherries, differing from the Grosse Schwarze Knorpelkirsche in its firmer flesh. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit rather large, plump, truncate at the apex, sides compressed; suture not prominent; stem stout, long, set in a variable cavity; skin tough, almost black at maturity; flesh very firm, juicy, colored, very sweet, although with a mixture of sourness; stone small, turgid, cordate, sides compressed, clinging; ripens late. =Flagg.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Cult. & Count. Gent._ =41=:502. 1876. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 164. 1881. Flagg was introduced by its originator, D. B. Wier, Lacon, Illinois, as Wier's Early Kentish, a selected seedling of Early Richmond, hardier and ten days earlier. Tree slender, short-jointed, regularly conical, moderate in growth; at its best in high, dry, airy situations, with light soil; fruit medium in size, heart-shaped; skin black, firm; flesh tender, purplish-red, juicy, changing from a rich subacid to a very sweet, rich flavor; pit small; adapted to kitchen and table use. =Flamentine.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 211-215. 1819. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:137, 138, fig. 67. 1866-73. _Bigarreautier à petit fruit hâtif._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:165, 166. 1768. _Bigarreau à petit fruit blanc._ =4.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1831. _Early Guigne._ =5.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:111, 112. 1832. _Early White Bigarreau._ =6.= _Ibid._ =2=:129. 1832. _Petite Bigarreau hâtif._ =7.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:130, 131. 1866. _Bigarreau Blanc_ (Petit). =8.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:182 fig., 183. 1877. _Türkine_? =9.= _Reut. Pom. Inst. Festschrift_ 121. 1910. This cherry probably originated more than a century ago in the vicinity of Angers, France. Names of wholly distinct varieties have sometimes been attached to it causing much confusion in the nomenclature. Tree strong, vigorous, productive; fruit usually in threes, above medium in size, obtuse-cordate, flattened at the base, compressed; suture often a line; stem long, almost stout, inserted in a deep, narrow cavity; skin thin, glossy, whitish-yellow, mottled with dark red; flesh yellowish-white, transparent, rather firm, juicy, aromatic, sugary; first quality; stone small, oval; ripens the middle of June. =Flemish Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. A small, red, obtuse-cordate fruit of fair quality and tender flesh, ripening early in July. =Fleurs Doubles.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:174. 1768. =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 49. 1831. _Great rose._ =3.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 402, 574. 1629. _Double Floured Cherry._ =4.= Gerarde _Herball_ 1505 fig. 8. 1636. _Bloem-kers double._ =5.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:35, 38. 1771. _Weichselbaum mit sehr gross gefüllter Blüthe._ =6.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:5, Tab. 11 fig. 1. 1792. _Glaskirsche mit dickgefüllter Blüthe._ =7.= Christ _Handb._ 680. 1797. _Amarellenbaum mit ganz gefüllter Blüte._ =8.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 640-644. 1819. _Small Double Flowering._ =9.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 31. 1828. _Dwarf Double Flowering._ =10.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:151, 152. 1832. _Gefülltblühende Amarelle._ =11.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:68. 1858. The tree of this variety, unlike many other double-flowering sorts, attains but moderate size, in many cases is but a bush or shrub. The blossoms are exceedingly double, very showy, with a slight tinge of pink on opening, the blooming season extending over three or four weeks. Frequently the blossoms have small leaflets intermingled with the petals, while often a smaller flower appears to rise out of the center of another. The trees very seldom, if ever, bear. Truchsess reports having fruited it twice in ten years. The early English writers make brief mention of several double-flowering sorts which have been included under this variety. =Fleurs Semi-doubles.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:173, Pl. V. 1768. =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 49. 1831. _Lesser rose._ =3.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 402, 574. 1629. _Red-flowered._ =4.= Ray _Hist. Plant._ 1538. 1688. _Bloem-kers double._ =5.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:35, 38. 1771. _Gefüllter Kirschbaume._ =6.= Krünitz _Enc._ 43, 44. 1790. _Weichsel mit halbgefüllter Blüthe._ =7.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:9, Tab. 21 fig. 1. 1792. _Glaskirsche mit halbgefüllter Blüthe._ =8.= Christ _Handb._ 680. 1797. _Gedoppelte Amarelle mit halbgefüllter Blüte._ =9.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 646-649. 1819. _Halbgefülltblühende Amarelle._ =10.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:68. 1858. _Amarelle mit halbgefüllter Blüthe._ =11.= _Ill. Handb._ 93 fig., 94. 1867. The home of this cherry is not known, it having been greatly confused with other double-flowering sorts. The flowers have a double row of from fifteen to twenty petals and often have two pistils, especially on the older trees. These generally bear twin-fruits though often the pistils are changed into small, green leaves, in which case the flowers are neither large nor attractive. The tree is of the Amarelle type, small, blooming profusely; fruit moderately round, compressed on one side with a shallow suture; stem long, stout; cavity wide; skin clear red, becoming darker and flecked with brown; flesh whitish, tender, juicy, sweet, pleasing, subacid at first; stone oval, bluntly pointed, often small and round, free when fully ripe; ripens the middle of July. =Florianer Kirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:34. 1858. A productive seedling Bigarreau of medium size, elongated, angular; stem short, stout; skin black; flesh sweet, aromatic; second quality; ripens at the end of June. =Folgerkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 283. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 415-419. 1819. _Holländische Folgerkirsche_ incor. =3.= Christ _Handb._ 673. 1797. _Cerise de Folger._ =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:158, 209. 1866. A few authors describe this cherry as Volgers; the Volger described by Knoop in 1771, however, is a distinct variety. Duhamel's variety, Cerise-Guigne, is possibly the same. Fruit large, roundish, truncate at the base, in unfavorable seasons the apex and sides are strongly compressed, with a noticeable suture; stem stout, long, set in a wide cavity; skin deep reddish-purple, glossy, tender; flesh delicate, sweet with a piquant taste; stone small, turgid, roundish-oval. =Folgers Swolfe.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 292. 1802. According to Christ, Salzman says that in Holland several Sour Cherries were known as Folgers. This is a large, black, pleasant subacid fruit with a very characteristic growth. =Fouche Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Am. Gard._ =9=:264. 1888. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:75. 1903. This variety is said to have been imported by Professor J. L. Budd, Ames, Iowa, from Riga, Russia, where it was found planted along walks and drives. Tree rather small; fruit small, roundish-oblate; cavity shallow, broad; stem slender, rather long; suture a line; skin thin, rather tough, dark red changing to crimson; flesh firm, breaking, juicy, colored, sprightly subacid; quality fair; stone nearly round, of medium size; ripens early in July. =Frauendorfer.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:125. 1900. _Frauendorfer Weichsel._ =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 513 fig., 514. 1861. =3.= _Montreal Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 103. 1886-87. _Griotte de Frauendorf._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22, 194. 1876. This variety was imported into this country by Professor J. L. Budd in 1883 from North Silesia. The Montreal Horticultural Society believes two forms exist, one from North Silesia being perfectly hardy while another from Metz, Germany, is far less so. Tree productive; branches drooping; fruit above medium in size, roundish-oblate; suture shallow; stem long; cavity small; skin thin, glossy, dark red at maturity; flesh tender, tinted with abundant, uncolored juice, acidulated; stone large; matures the last of June and the first of July. =French Amarelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =49=:453. 1890. Trees thrifty and tall but set fruit sparingly; fruit large, yellow with a blush, two weeks later than Early Richmond. =French Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =16=:99. 1891. In the reference this cherry is listed as a Russian variety introduced by Professor J. L. Budd. If so, it was probably under some other name, as it seems not to be mentioned by Budd. =Frogmore Early Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 606. 1865. =2.= _Hogg Fruit Man._ 298. 1884. =3.= _Flor. & Pom._ 148 fig. 1867. =4.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 43. 1904. _Frogmore Early Prolific._ =5.= Daniels Bros. _Cat._ 51. 1895. _Frogmore Bigarreau._ =6.= _Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales._ 998. 1908. Unlike the rest of its class, this cherry has tender flesh but is a Bigarreau in tree-habit, leaf and in appearance of fruit, and is therefore classified as such. The variety is a seedling raised by Thomas Ingram of the Frogmore Royal Gardens at Windsor, Berkshire, England. Tree bears freely in clusters; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, slightly compressed, with a faint suture; stem long, set in a small cavity; skin waxen, orange-yellow, with a network of red and a blush of deeper red on the sunny side; flesh of a primrose color, very tender, translucent, rich, sweet; stone spoon-shaped, indented on one side; season early but short. =Frogmore Early Crown.= Species? =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 364. 1866. Also a seedling from Mr. Ingram. It is a small, red fruit about ten days earlier than May Duke, of a rich flavor when fully ripe. =Frogmore Late Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 229, Pl. fig. 1. 1874. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 15. 1895. Still another seedling raised by Ingram of the Frogmore Royal Gardens. Fruit large, bluntly heart-shaped, hanging long without cracking; suture slight; stem very long; skin pale, waxy-yellow, bright red on the sunny side; flesh tender, juicy; season very late. =Frogmore Morrelo.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Thomas Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. _New Frogmore Morello._ =2.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:543. 1885. This variety attracted notice on account of the perfection to which it had been brought in the Royal Gardens at Frogmore, Berkshire, England, where it is believed to have originated. For productiveness and size it is said to far surpass the old Morello. =Fromm Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 63 fig., 64. 1860. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:68, 69 fig., 70. 1866. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:322, 323 fig. 1877. =4.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 549. 1901. _Fromms Schwarze Herzkirsche._ =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 164, 674. 1819. =6.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 150, 151. 1825. Fromm Heart was obtained from seed in 1806 by Fromm, at Guben, Prussia, Germany. In sandy soils and favorable years the trees are very productive; fruit usually borne in pairs, above medium in size, truncate-cordate, sides compressed; suture shallow; stem of single fruits long, stout, inserted in a wide, deep cavity; skin dark reddish-brown to glossy black; flesh tender, dark red, juicy, sugary, pleasingly acidulated, aromatic; second quality; pit medium in size, turgid, roundish; ripens the third week of the cherry season. =Frühe bunte Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 222, 223, 224. 1819. _Frühe Lange Weisse Herzkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 278. 1802. _Guigne panachée longue précoce._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 199. 1876. This cherry is easily recognized by its elongated, cylindrical form and should not be confused with several others of similar type. It was found near Weinberge, Germany, by Büttner who sent it to Truchsess in 1797. Fruit medium in size, cylindrical, flattened on both sides, slightly drawn in at the apex and base; suture distinct on one side; stem long, inserted in a shallow cavity; skin yellow, blushed and faintly splashed with red where exposed; flesh pale yellow with a slight red tinge underneath the skin, moderately firm, juicy, without much sweetness; stone small, elongated, pointed at the apex; ripens early. =Frühe Kurzstielige Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 55. 1907. Mentioned as a black, hard-fleshed cherry. =Frühe Maikirsche.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 391-394. 1819. Frühe Maikirsche differs from May Duke in being darker of skin and juice, smaller in size, sweeter, and less distinct in suture. =Frühe Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 185 fig., 186. 1860. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:306. 1866. =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:47, 48 fig. 24. 1882. =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 349. 1889. An old variety of uncertain origin. Tree large, spreading; fruit often large, roundish, flattened; suture indistinct; stem slender, shallowly inserted; skin tender, nearly black when mature; flesh tender, juicy, dark red, acidulated; stone round, plump; ripens the first of June in France. =Frühe Sauerkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 554, 555. 1819. This cherry is thought to be a sub-variety of Kirsche von der Natte. Tree medium in growth; branches slender; fruit medium in size, round, sides compressed; stem long; cavity shallow; skin tough, black; flesh tender, dark red, juicy, sour, without a trace of sweetness; ripens the middle of July. =Frühe Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 277. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 197, 198, 674, 675. 1819. Obtained by Büttner in 1797 who later sent it to Truchsess. Tree productive; fruit small, roundish-cordate, compressed; suture distinct; stem of medium length; skin glossy, reddish-black deepening to black; flesh hard, reddish-black, juicy, sweet, with a slight bitterness; stone ovate, rather large; ripens the first half of July. =Frühe von der Natte.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 153 fig., 154. 1860. _Frühe Natte aus Samen._ =2.= Christ _Handb._ 671. 1797. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 413, 414, 415. 1819. _Frühe Süssweichsel von der Natt._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:49. 1858. _Hâtive de Nattes._ =5.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:158, 304. 1866. _Natte hâtive de semis._ =6.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Christ received this cherry in 1793, as Frühe von der Natte aus Saamen. Fruit above medium in size, cordate, flattened on one side; suture distinct; stem long, often dividing about an inch down into two, three, or four stems; apex depressed; skin glossy, dark brown when ripe; flesh dark red, soft, tender, juicy, refreshing, subacid; stone medium, oval; ripens early. =Früher Gobet.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 619-621. 1819. _Gobet Hâtif._ =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:125, 126, fig. 61. 1866-73. Truchsess received this variety from Mayer as Gros Gobet which it resembles very closely in size, form, and flavor but is much earlier and not as flattened. Fruit of medium size, flattened; suture but a line; stem one inch long, often shorter, straight; cavity shallow; color clear red, becoming darker; flesh whitish with a reddish cast, tender, juicy, pleasingly acid; stone small, round, free but hanging to the stem. =Früheste Bunte Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 207-210. 1819. _Weiss und rothe grosse Herzkirsche._ =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:2, Tab. 3 fig. 1. 1792. =3.= Christ _Wörterb._ 277. 1802. _Frühkirsche_? =4.= Christ _Handb._ 672. 1797. _Früheste bunte Molkenkirsche._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:26. 1858. _Guigne panachée très-précoce._ =6.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:302. 1866. =7.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:13, 14, fig. 7. 1882. The origin of this variety is unknown although it probably originated in Austria, as the celebrated Austrian pomologist, Kraft, was the first to mention it. Tree vigorous and in favorable seasons productive; fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate, compressed, with a suture; stem medium, set in a deep, narrow cavity; skin tender, yellowish-white, striped with red around the base, spotted about the apex; flesh yellowish-white, with clear juice, sweet, pleasing, deteriorates on hanging; stone small, oval-cordate, clinging; ripens the last of May. =Früheste der Mark.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 350. 1889. =2.= Lucas _Handb. Obst._ 121. 1893. =3.= Lange _Allgem. Garten._ 440. 1897. Fruit medium to above, truncate-cordate; stem very long, slender, set in a wide, deep cavity; skin purplish, glossy; flesh reddish, firm, pleasing; ripens early. =Fürst Schwarze Septemberkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 153. 1825. Discovered by Liegel in Braunau, Bohemia, Austria, and named for his friend I. E. Fürst. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit small, oblate; stem very long; skin black; flesh firm, sweet, aromatic; stone large; one of the last to ripen, September to October. =Galusha.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 165. 1881. This cherry is seedling No. 11 from D. B. Wier, Lacon, Illinois. Tree hardy, vigorous, an abundant bearer; fruit above medium in size, light red changing to a very dark, bright red; subacid becoming a rich sweet; ripens three days before Early Richmond. =Gamdale.= Species? =1.= _Horticulturist_ =17=:498. 1862. A cherry described by E. Manning, Harrisburg, Ohio, as of second rank in size and quality. =Garcine.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:75 fig., 76, 77. 1866. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24, 198. 1876. Garcine was obtained from seed about 1808 by M. Garcine, near Grenoble, Isère, France. It is propagated in that locality by suckers, hence it was called by some, Aventurière. Tree pyramidal, productive; fruit large, oblate, ends drawn in and flattened, sides convex; stem long, inserted in a large, deep cavity; skin glossy black; flesh dark, firm, sugary, aromatic, juicy; stone large, turgid; ripens the middle of June. =Gardiner.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Me. Sta. An. Rpt._ =22=:175. 1906. Gardiner is a seedling of Black Tartarian. It is frequently killed back by severe winters in Maine. =Gaskins.= Species? =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 298. 1884. Gaskins is a corruption of Gascoignes. About Rye, Sussex, England, the name is still in general use, the people believing the variety was brought from Gascony, France. =Gauchers Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 56. 1907. Listed in this reference. =Geer.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 156. 1897. Geer is a new cherry from eastern Oregon said to be later than Napoleon and to surpass it in size and quality. =Gelbe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 161. 1791. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 342-349. 1819. _Grosser weisser glänzender Herzkirschbaum._ =3.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:2, Tab. 4 fig. 1. 1792. _Guigne Jaune._ =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:99, 303. 1866. _Guigne Grosse ambrée._ =5.= _Le Bon Jard._ 345. 1882. First mentioned in 1786 as Gelbe or Weisse Herzkirsche. It is distinguished from Goldgelbe Herzkirsche through its cordate form, lighter color and earlier ripening. Fruit above medium in size, borne in twos and threes, cordate, sides compressed; suture shallow; stem long, slender, slightly inserted; skin pale yellow, glossy, tough, adherent, blushed with red on the sides; flesh clear, not tender, juicy, acidulated; stone free, small, elongated-cordate; ripens in July. =Gelbe Wachskirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 355, 685, 686. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:33. 1858. An unproductive seedling from the North Sea, ripening later than Gelbe Herzkirsche which it resembles. Fruit medium in size, round, flattened; stem long; skin glossy, clear waxy-yellow, transparent; flesh yellowish, firm, moderately sweet, without aroma; ripens from the middle to the end of July. =Gemeine Glaskirsche.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ 1. Christ _Wörterb._ 292. 1802. This is a well-known Duke cherry in Germany. Tree large; fruit large, almost round; skin clear, light red on a yellow ground; flesh melting, with uncolored juice, pleasant sourness; ripens early in July and lasts a long while. =Genesee.= _P. avium._ A chance seedling of the Bigarreau type originating about twenty-five years ago and recently introduced by J. A. Morgan of Scottsville, New York. The fruit is above medium in size, cordate, compressed; cavity shallow, wide, flaring; suture a line; apex roundish; stem slender, long; skin medium thick, tender, adherent, dark red mottled with amber; dots numerous, small, obscure; flesh yellowish-white, juicy, meaty, crisp, mild, sweet; quality good; stone clinging, medium, ovate, flattened, smooth, slightly tinged red; use late market. =German.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:199. 1899. _German_ (Kraus). =2.= _Ibid._ =143=:181. 1897. German is said to have been introduced into Michigan from New York. Tree vigorous, though not productive; fruit large, roundish-cordate; stem long, slender, set in a broad, moderately deep cavity; color very dark red, nearly black; flesh firm, red, sweet, slightly bitter, with dark juice; ripens early in July. =German Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:147. 1832. _Griotte d'Allemagne._ =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:192, 193, Pl. XIV. 1768. =3.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 159. 1791. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:276, 277 fig. 1877. _Deutscher Griottier Weichselbaum._ =5.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:6, Tab. 16 fig. 2. 1792. _Deutsche Griotte._ =6.= Christ _Handb._ 675. 1797. =7.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 569, 570, 571. 1819. _Grosse Deutsche Belzkirsche._ =8.= _Ibid._ 421. 1819. _Griotte de Chaux._ =9.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. _German Duke._ =10.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 280. 1832. _Deutsche Weichsel._ =11.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:62. 1858. _Süssweichsel von Chaux._ =12.= _Ill. Handb._ 71 fig., 72. 1867. _De Chaux._ =13.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 478. 1869. _Cerise d'Allemagne._ =14.= _Le Bon Jard._ 346. 1882. This old variety is badly confused with other cherries and its origin is uncertain. Fruit large, roundish-oblate; stem long, slender; cavity deep, wide; skin glossy, tough, brownish, almost black; flesh firm, dark red, juicy, with pleasing acidity, sweet if in a dry, warm soil; stone large, oval-pointed; ripens the middle of July; productive. =Germersdorf.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:60. 1900. _Bigarreau noir de Germersdorf._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 22, 189. 1876. _Germersdorfer Grosse Kirsche._ =3.= _Lauche Deut. Pom._ =III=: No. 7, Pl. 1882. A seedling of German origin. Tree large, vigorous, productive; fruit very large, roundish-cordate; suture distinct; stem medium, set in a deep, wide cavity; skin dark brown with dark spots and streaks; flesh rather firm, light red, juice tinted, sweet, pleasingly acidulated; stone of medium size, oval; ripens the fifth week of the season. =Geschiltztblättrige Süssweichsel.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:47. 1858. An ornamental cherry distinguished from May Duke through its smaller fruit and laciniated leaves. =Gestriefte Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 259, 260. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:30. 1858. Fruit cordate; stem long, slender, set in a shallow cavity; skin thin, tender, white, streaked with red, which, if allowed to remain on the tree, becomes nearly solid red; flesh tender, soft, fibrous under the skin, juicy, colorless, honey-sweet, refreshing; ripens in July lasting about three weeks. =Gewöhnliche Muskatellerkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 672. 1797. Fruit smaller than that of the Black or Red Muskateller, roundish, very dark brown, almost black; flesh red, pleasant subacid; ripens at the end of June. =Giant.= _P. avium._ =1.= Burbank _Cat._ 8. 1914. Giant was grown in 1900 by Luther Burbank and introduced by The Luther Burbank Company in 1914. It is claimed by its introducer that it is the largest cherry grown. Tree rapid in growth, with large and heavy foliage; fruit glossy black, rich, sweet, delicious; ripens in California about June 20th. =Gibb.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =2=:39. 1888. =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 79. 1890. =3.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:17. 1910. Gibb was imported from Orel, Central Russia, without a name. It is much like Brusseler Braune in tree, fruit, and in habit of bearing a double crop of blossoms and fruit, but is hardier. Fruit large, roundish-cordate; stem stout; skin thick, tender, dark crimson changing to purplish-red; flesh dark red, meaty; quality good; stone large, oblong; ripens the last of July to early August. =Gifford.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing_ Fr. Trees Am._ 270. 1857. Fruit small, light red, roundish-cordate, very sweet; productive; season the last of June. =Glasherzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 246-248. 1819. _Grosse Glas-Herzkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 281. 1802. =Glas-Molkenkirsche.= =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:30, 31. 1858. This cherry differs from others of its class in being rounder, darker, and later. Fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate, convex on one side, compressed on the other, with a shallow suture; stem long, slender, shallowly inserted; skin mingled with dull red and clear white, often streaked; flesh yellowish-white, tender, juicy, sweet, but not high; stone large, acutely pointed; ripens the middle of July. =Glaskirsche von der Natte.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 470-473, 689. 1819. According to Truchsess this variety is very similar to, and often taken for Double Natte, Frühe von der Natte, and Double Glass. =Glasskirsche Kurzstielige.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 331. 1885. This Sweet Cherry is supposed to have come from Vilna, Russia. =Gloire de France.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat_. 26, 194. 1876. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom_. =5=:271, 272 fig. 1877. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 162. 1881. _Bonnemain_. =4.= _Guide Prat._ 9, 184. 1895. Originated from seed by Auguste Bonnemain, Etamps, Seine-et-Oise, France, fruiting in 1845 for the first time. On Mazzard stock the tree never reaches full size but on Mahaleb it grows large and regular and is more globular in form. At best it is only moderately productive. Fruit borne in threes, medium in size, roundish-oblate, somewhat depressed; suture broad, shallow, often indistinct; apex rather large, slightly depressed; stem short, thick, inserted in a wide cavity; skin a reddish-brick color, occasionally mottled with greenish-brown in the shade and red on the sunny side; flesh pale red, grayish, transparent, rather tender and fibrous, with abundant juice, sprightly acidulated, agreeable; pit of medium size, roundish-oval, convex; season the first of July. =Golden Knob.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. Golden Knob is a worthless, medium-sized, oval cherry ripening the middle of July; skin yellow and flesh firm. =Goldgelbe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 350-354. 1819. _Kleine Ambra_, [or] _Goldgelber Herzkirschbaum_. =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:2, Tab. 4 fig. 2. 1792. _Kleine Ambra._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 665. 1797. Distinguished from other yellow Heart cherries by its round form, dark yellow color, and rather firm flesh. Fruit of medium size, roundish; suture a line; stem very long, slender, deeply inserted; skin thin, tough, readily removed, transparent, glossy, golden-yellow; flesh moderately tender, yellowish, with darker spots showing through the skin, very juicy, with a pleasing sweetness when ripe; stone of medium size, oval, slightly adherent; ripens the last of June. =Goldsmith Black Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. Mentioned but not described in this reference. =Goodspeed.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:70. 1903. Goodspeed is of the Montmorency type ripening just after Early Richmond. The trees are long-lived and regular bearers. Fruit of medium size, oblate, slightly cordate; cavity deep, broad; suture shallow; stem short, stout; skin thin, tender, dark red; flesh moderately firm, tender, with uncolored juice, slightly subacid; quality good; stone free, of medium size, roundish-ovate. =Gormley.= Species? =1.= _Can. Hort._ =20=:317. 1897. =2.= _Ibid_. =21=:297. 1897. This hardy seedling, now about twenty-five years old, was found by John Gormley of Pickering, Canada. It resembles Montmorency in color, English Morello in shape, and a Bigarreau in texture. Its firm, yellowish flesh parts readily from the pit. =Gottorper.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 289, 290, 291. 1819. =2.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 159. 1825. _Gottorper Marmorkirsche._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:41. 1858. _Cerise de Gottorpe._ =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:117-119. 1866. Originated in the vicinity of Coburg, Germany, toward the latter part of the Eighteenth Century. It resembles Yellow Spanish. Tree above medium in size, very productive; fruit abruptly cordate to roundish; stem short, slender; cavity shallow; skin tough, red, mottled with yellow; flesh yellowish-white, not very firm, juicy, usually very sweet, slightly aromatic; stone small, oblate, free; ripens the fourth week of the cherry season; cracks in the rain when nearly mature; excellent for home use. =Gould No. X.= Species? =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 211. 1896. Reported by the Illinois Horticultural Society in 1896. =Governor Luce.= Species? =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =143=:181. 1897. Listed as growing at the Michigan Station. =Grafenburger Frühkirsche.= Species? =1.= _Reut. Pom. Inst. Festschrift_ 121. 1910. A very productive, strong-growing cherry recommended for table and market use; fruit large, truncate-cordate, red, early. =Graham.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:28. 1910. The Washington Experiment Station lists this variety as: Tree of medium size, upright, with abundant foliage; fruit small, round; skin thin, tender, dark red; flesh light red, juicy, rich, sweet; good; season the last of July; productive. =Grande Ronde.= Species? =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 156. 1897. A new, early, large, black cherry recommended in eastern Oregon; ships well. =Great Bearing.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Rea Flora_ 205. 1676. Fruit large, blackish-red on the outer side when ripe, blood-red within. Ripens late, with a sharp taste; bears well. =Great Leafed.= Species? =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 571. 1629. This is a variety with very large leaves; relatively unproductive, bearing pale red fruit of only medium size. =Gridley.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:123, 124. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 187. 1845. =3.= _Gard. Mon._ =11=:219. 1869. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 12. 1871. Apple. =5.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 234. 1849. This variety was discovered by William Maccarty about the beginning of the Nineteenth Century, growing in the garden of Deacon Samuel Gridley, Roxbury, Massachusetts. For a good many years it was considered a valuable cherry but later was supplanted by better sorts. Tree upright, vigorous, very productive; fruit medium in size, roundish; stem short; color black; flesh firm, purplish-red, medium juicy, sprightly, rather acid at first becoming milder when fully ripe; stone small; matures in mid-season. =Grenner Glas.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Ont. Dept. Agr. _Fr. Ont._ 94. 1914. Tree upright, vigorous, moderately productive; fruit borne in clusters, large, oblate, one-sided; suture distinct on one side; stem long; cavity broad, shallow; apex a small depression; skin bright red; flesh yellowish, tender, very juicy, tart; quality good; season the middle of July. =Griotte Acher.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:275 fig., 276. 1877. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:67, 68, fig. 34. 1882. =3.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 482. 1904. _Griotte Double._ =4.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:35, 38, 39. 1771. _Ächer's Weichsel_. =5.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 332. 1889. The origin of Griotte Acher is not known but it may have sprung up by chance in Holland a century and a half ago. Tree medium in growth, productive; fruit usually borne in pairs, medium to large, flattened heart-shaped with truncate sides; cavity narrow; suture distinct; stem variable, usually long, medium thick; skin rather firm, vivid purple shading to almost purplish-black; flesh tender, slightly stringy, reddish-purple, medium sweet, somewhat pleasing because of a slight tart, acid flavor, with abundant, violet juice; stone medium in size, ovoid, truncate at the base, turgid; ripens the last of July and the first of August. =Griotte de Büttner.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Am. Gard._ =9=:264. 1888. A dwarf sort that blossoms and ripens late; much like Imperial Morello. =Griotte Commune.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:508. 1860. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26, 194. 1876. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:282 fig., 283. 1877. _Griotte._ =4.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:187-189, Pl. XII. 1768. =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 431, 432. 1819. _Griotte simple._ =6.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 39. 1771. _Griottier Weichselbaum._ =7.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:6, Tab. 15 fig. 2. 1792. _Common French Griotte._ =8.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:148. 1832. _Gemeine Süssweichsel._. =9.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3:=49. 1858. _Cerise Commune._ =10.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:146 fig., 147, 148, 220. 1866. The origin of this variety is unknown but according to French writers it was brought from Syria by the Crusaders about 1485. Tree large, productive; fruit medium in size, usually borne in pairs, distinguished from others of its class by its firm flesh, its black skin, and its colored juice, oblate, flattened at the base; suture slight; stem long, rather stout, set in a broad, shallow cavity; skin thin, glossy, dark red, changing to black; flesh colored, firm, vinous, aromatic, juicy; first quality; pit small, turgid, round; ripens the first of July. =Griotte Douce Précoce.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:35, 39. 1771. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 21, 194. 1876. =3.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:118. 1900. _Süsse Frühweichsel._ =4.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 170. 1825. =5.= _Ill. Handb._ 183 fig., 184. 1860. _Liegel's Süsse Frühweichsel_. =6.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:58. 1858. This variety is often confused with Süsse Frühweichsel. The two are distinct, however, in that the latter has light colored flesh while the former is a dark fleshed sort. Tree vigorous, drooping, productive; fruit often borne in twos or threes, of medium size, roundish, compressed; suture shallow; stem rather slender, variable, medium to above in length, inserted in a narrow, shallow cavity; skin dark brownish-red changing to reddish-black; flesh tender, dark red, juicy, subacid, becoming milder at maturity; stone small, roundish; ripens the forepart of June. =Griotte de Kleparow.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:186 fig., 187, 221. 1866. _Polnische grosse Weichsel._ =3.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:8, Tab. 20 fig. 2. 1792. _Pohlnische Kirsche._ =4.= Christ _Handb._ 682. 1797. _Polnische Weichsel._ =5.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:60. 1858. _Kleparower Süssweichsel._ =6.= _Ill. Handb._ 69 fig., 70. 1867. _Kleparavoska._ =7.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1883. _Griotte Kleparite._ =8.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:277. 1903. =9.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:71 fig. 1903. Budd found this variety very hardy about Galicia, Austria, and Warsaw, Russia, and imported it for central and southern Iowa. It is grown from seed in the forests of Poland. The Griotte Kleparite of Budd-Hansen is probably the same variety. Tree strong in growth, large, productive; fruit of medium size, generally attached in pairs, roundish-cordate, sides often compressed; suture shallow, often a line; stem long, slender, set in a wide, deep cavity; skin tough, clinging to the flesh, glossy, dark brownish-red, deep black when ripe; flesh tender, fibrous, lightly colored, juicy, acid, although sugary, aromatic; quality fair; pit small, turgid, almost spherical; ripens the last of July. =Griotte Lodigiana.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:290, 291 fig. 1877. Introduced into France from Florence, Italy, by Leroy about 1864. Fruit of medium size, globular, compressed at the ends; stem of medium length, inserted in a wide cavity; apex depressed; skin deep red; flesh pale yellow, tender, slightly fibrous, juicy, very sugary, slightly acidulated; second quality; stone of medium size, round, turgid; ripens the last of June. =Griotte Noire.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26. 1876. Listed as a large, blackish-red, acidulated fruit, ripening in July. =Griotte Noire de Piémont.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:294, 295 fig. 1877. _Griotte à gros fruit noir de Piémont._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26. 1876. This variety, probably from Piedmont, Italy, was received by Leroy in 1864. Fruit generally borne in pairs, above medium in size, globular, compressed at the ends; suture indistinct; stem long, set in a deep cavity; skin uniformly blackish-red; flesh tender, reddish, very juicy, acidulated, slightly sweet; quality fair; stone of medium size, roundish-oval, swollen; ripens the middle of June. =Griotte du Nord Améliorée.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. Mentioned as possibly larger and better than Griotte du Nord. =Griotte à Petit Fruit.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. Listed in the reference given. =Griotte Précoce.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 329. 1885. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:277. 1903. According to the first reference, this variety was brought into Spain from Central Asia and was known in parts of Europe as "Early Spanish." It was imported to America from Russia. Tree hardy; fruit large, flattened; suture distinct; stem medium in size, curved, set in a deep cavity; skin bright, glossy red; flesh soft, breaking, uncolored; quality very good; ripens the middle of June. =Griotte Rouge de Piémont.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:303 fig., 304, 385. 1877. _Griotte à gros fruit rouge de Piémont._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26. 1876. According to Leroy, it is not at all improbable that this cherry is the one spoken of by Pliny under the name, "Apronian." Fruit attached in pairs, above medium in size, globular, compressed at the ends; suture indistinct; stem short, stout, set in a small cavity; skin lively red; flesh whitish, tender, juicy, acidulated, somewhat bitter yet sugary; second quality; stone of medium size, roundish-oval, swollen; ripens the last of June. =Griotte de Schaarbeck.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 353. 1889. Mentioned in this reference. =Griotte Tardive d'Annecy.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Listed in this reference. =Griotte Tardive de Plombières= _P. avium._ =1.= Rev. Hort. 503. 1888. This variety is recommended because of its lateness but it remains a local variety, little known outside of Plombières, Vosges, France, where it was found. Fruit oval-cordate, elongated at the apex; skin glossy, brownish at complete maturity; flesh firm, adherent to the stone, whitish-gray, very sweet, agreeable; pit cordate; ripens the last of August, remaining on the tree during September. =Griotte de Toscane.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:304, 305 fig., 396. 1877. Leroy brought this cherry from Florence, Italy, to France about 1864. Fruit globular, more or less compressed at the ends; suture very shallow; stem long, set in a pronounced cavity; skin intense red changing to blackish; flesh of a garnet color, tender, juicy, sugary, slightly bitter; second quality; stone of medium size, round, turgid; ripens in early July. =Griotte de Turquie.= _P. avium X P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. Fruit large, round, red; flesh tender, ripens early in July. Similar to Choisy. =Griottier à Feuilles Cucullées.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:267, 286 fig., 287. 1877. _Cerisier cuculle_? =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Originated at Tours, Inde-et-Loire, France. Its only point of merit is in its cucullated foliage. Fruit small, globular, compressed at the ends; suture imperceptible; stem short; cavity variable; skin almost clear red; flesh tender, light rose-colored, juicy, acidulated, mildly sweet; quality hardly fair; pit very small, round, more or less swollen; ripens at the end of June. =Griottier à Fruit Aigre.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:508. 1860. Tree of medium size, rather vigorous; fruit small, oval-roundish, blackish; flesh tender, juicy; mediocre quality; ripens in September and October in France. =Griottier à Longues Feuilles.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:291, 292 fig. 1877. Leroy grew this cherry as early as 1845 but did not know its origin. Fruit above medium in size, globular, slightly compressed at the ends; stem very short, inserted in a pronounced cavity; skin deep red, with gray dots; flesh tender, fibrous, yellowish-white, juicy, acidulated, slightly sweet, agreeable; second quality; stone of medium size, roundish-oval, turgid; ripens the first of July. =Groll Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 354. 1889. Listed in the reference given. =Gros Bigarreau Rond.= P. _avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:114, 208. 1866. Fruit large, even, roundish, though often larger and less flattened than Bigarreau d'Italie; stem medium in length; color becoming black; flesh red, firm, sweet, pleasing; pit small and slightly elongated; ripens the last of May. =Gros Guindoul Hâtif.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 335. 1870-71. Tree large; fruit of first size, superior quality, large, dark red, juicy, sprightly; ripens in June-July. =Grosse Blanche Carrée.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:204. 1843. A firm, red, heart-shaped cherry of second size and quality, used principally for the table, ripening in July. =Grosse Bunte Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 226, 227, 228. 1819. _Weiss Herzkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 161. 1791. _Grosse bunte Molkenkirsche._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:28. 1858. This cherry is distinguished from others of its class by its peculiar coloring. At one time it was recommended because of its size, flavor, and length of season. Fruit large, thick at the base, both sides compressed and marked by a suture; stem long, slender, set in a shallow opening; ground color a dingy pale yellow more or less covered with red; flesh tender, melting, pleasing; ripens at the end of June. =Grosse Friedrichskirsche.= Species? =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:39. 1858. Fruit large, compressed, roundish-cordate, pale yellow, washed with crimson; flesh slightly aromatic; ripens the end of June; productive. =Grosse Glaskirsche.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Krünitz _Enc._ 57, 58. 1790. =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 292. 1802. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 473-475. 1819. _Grosse Cerise Transparente._ =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:172-175, fig. 1866. =5.= _Guide Prat._ 18, 190. 1895. Through an error which he later rectified, Truchsess described the Double Glass as this variety. This cherry differs in having a shorter stem, larger size and in ripening later. Fruit very large, almost round, flattened at the ends, depressed at the apex; stem stout, short, inserted in a large cavity; skin glossy, becoming dark red; flesh pale yellowish, melting, juicy, mild yet with a piquant, pleasing sourness; stone roundish, turgid, clinging to the flesh more than to the stem; ripens in August. =Grosse Gomballoise.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:150, 151. 1882. _Bigarreau Grosse Gomballoise._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. Fruit large to very large, thickly cordate, often elongated, truncate at the ends; suture deep, but a colored line on one side; stem long, stout, set in a large, deep cavity; skin thick, firm, intense purple changing to almost black; flesh purple, firm, juicy, sugary, vinous, aromatic; pit of medium size; ripens at the end of June. =Grosse Guigne Blanche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 258. 1819. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:315, 316 fig. 1877. _Guigne a gros fruit blanc._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:161, Pl. 1 fig. 3. 1768. =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:98, 99. 1866. _Kleine weisse Frühkirsche._ =5.= Christ _Wörterb._ 278. 1802. _Guigne Blanche._ =6.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. =7.= _Pom. France_ =7=:No. 20, Pl. 20. 1871. _Early White Guigne._ =8.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:112. 1832. _White Heart._ =9.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 107. 1846. An old variety, probably of French origin, which, according to Leroy, was described by Merlet in 1667. Fruit large, attached in pairs, cordate, slightly elongated; stem medium in length, set in a wide cavity; skin dull yellow, tinged and mottled with dull red; flesh whitish, tender, juicy, slightly acidulated; quality fair, insipid in wet seasons; stone large, ovoid, clinging; ripens the last of June. =Grosse Guigne Noire à Court Pédicelle.= _P. avium._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:503. 1860. _Guignier à Gros Fruit Noir et Court Pédoncule._ =2.= _Pom. France_ =7=:No. 28, Pl. 28. 1871. An old variety of uncertain origin. Fruit large, roundish-cordate; suture broad; stem short, set in a narrow, shallow cavity; skin tender but firm, beautiful black at maturity; flesh soft, juicy, agreeable; quality good; stone of medium size, oval, reddish; ripens the last of June. =Grosse Höckerige Marmorkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:42. 1858. Fruit very large, uneven, roughened, dark red; flesh hard, rather sweet; ripens at the end of July; not very productive. =Grosse Mogulkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 160. 1791. Fruit large, cordate, red, dotted here and there with white; flesh mild; excellent; pit small. =Grosse Morelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1=. Christ _Wörterb._ 284. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 545-548. 1819. _Grosse Morelle double?_ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Fruit large, globular; stem medium in length, slender, set in a smooth cavity; skin glossy, smooth, inky-black; flesh blood-red, veined, juicy, wine-sour, not unpleasant; stone of medium size, blood-red; ripens from the end of June to July; often dried. =Grosse Nonnenkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 287. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 517, 518, 519. 1819. _Varrenne, De._ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 56. 1831. _Grosse Cerise des Religieuses._ =4.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:97, 98, fig. 49. 1882. Probably of French origin. Tree moderately productive; fruit of medium size, round, sides unevenly compressed, with a shallow suture; stem long, set in a wide cavity; skin brownish-black, glossy; flesh tender, colored, juicy, subacid; stone small, very broad, clinging to the stem; ripens the middle of July. =Grosse Picarde.= _P. cerasus._ The United States Department of Agriculture received this variety from F. Jamin, Bourg-la-Reine, France, in 1905, after which trees were sent to this Station for testing. Tree vigorous, rapid in growth; fruit of the Montmorency type, above medium in size, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; cavity intermediate in depth and width, abrupt; suture a line; apex roundish; stem slender, long; skin moderately thick, tough, separating readily from the pulp, very dark red; dots numerous, small, obscure; flesh dark red, stringy, tender, melting, astringent, sour, juicy; poor to fair in quality; stone of medium size, ovate, slightly pointed, smooth, tinged with purple; season very late. =Grosse Schwarze Frühe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:2, Tab. 2 fig. 2. 1792. =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 274. 1802. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 158. 1819. _Guigne à Gros Fruit Noir Hâtif._ =4.= _Pom. France_ =7=:No. 25, Pl. 25. 1871. This cherry differs from Frühe Maiherzkirsche in having a firmer flesh. Fruit above medium in size, cordate, pointed, black; suture distinct on one side; stem long, slender, deeply set; ripens in June. =Grosse Schwarze Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 275. 1802._Gemeine Schwarze Herzkirsche._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 142-145, 156, 157. 1819. _Gemeine Schwarze Herzkische._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 142-145, 156, 157, 1819. _Guignier à gros fruit noir_? =5.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:502. 1860. Fruit large, cordate, flattened on one side; stem long, set in a deep cavity; skin thick, dark red changing to black, pitted; flesh rather firm, tender, fibrous, dark red, juicy, exceedingly sweet and refreshing, with a slightly bitterish after-taste; stone clinging; ripens in July. =Grosse Späte Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 277. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 200, 201. 1819. Found in a German garden in 1797; distinguished from Elkhorn in ripening later. Fruit large, round, flattened on the sides and apex; skin black, glossy; stem thick; flesh firm, juicy; ripens early in August. =Grosse Süsse Maiherzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 126-130. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:20. 1858. _Grosse Süsse Maikirsche._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 662. 1797. Fruit above medium in size, roundish-cordate, sides compressed; stem of medium length, stout, set in a narrow, shallow cavity; skin tough, almost black; flesh tender, reddish-black, juicy, sprightly, rich; stone of medium size, broadly cordate, with a faint point; ripens at the end of June; used for table and kitchen. =Grosse Tardive.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 17. 1876. _Grosse späte Amarelle._ =2.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 58. 1907. Grosse Tardive is thought to have originated near Paris, France. It ripens the first of August when all other sweet, black cherries are gone. The tree resembles Montmorency. =Grosse Transparente.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:60. 1900. Mentioned in the reference given. =Grosse Ungarische Kirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Krünitz _Enc._ 66-68. 1790. _Ungarische Herzkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Handb._ 661. 1797. _Grosse schwarze ungarische Herzkirsche._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:20. 1858. Fruit large, oval, rather angular; stem medium in length; cavity deep, irregular; suture distinct; skin glossy, black; flesh dark red, fine-grained, aromatic, sweet; stone large, oval; ripens early in July; productive. =Grosse de Verrières.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 71, 72, Pl. 1870-71. This cherry is extensively grown at Verrières, France, where it is often called, "La Grosse." The fruit, however, is but a trifle larger than Cerise Commune from which it differs only in its slightly elongated-cordate form; stem medium in length; skin deep red; flesh red, juicy, sweet; season the middle of July. =Grosse de Wagnellee.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 465. 1869. A vigorous, productive cherry of Belgian origin; fruit large, oval; skin yellow, washed and spotted with red; flesh tender, juicy, sweet; ripens in July. =Grosse Weinkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 385. 1881. _Grosse-Griotte à vin._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 21, 196. 1876. Fruit flattened, roundish, rather large; stem rather long; suture indistinct; skin very dark, glossy red; flesh tender, dark red, juicy, sprightly, acid; pit egg-oval; ripens in July; used for conserves and coloring wines. =Grosse Weisse Frühkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 285, 679, 680. 1819. Fruit large, truncate-cordate, one side compressed, with a shallow suture; stem long, stout, set in a wide, shallow cavity; skin firm, tough, pale yellow, washed with deep red; flesh firm, juicy, sweet, pleasing; stone small, round, plump, partly clinging; ripens the middle of July. =Groth Braune Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 358. 1889. Listed without description in this reference. =Groth Gelbe Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 56. 1907. _Bigarreau jaune de Groth._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27, 189. 1876. _Groth's Wachskirsche._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 337, 358. 1889. Tree vigorous and very productive; fruit rather large, truncate-cordate; skin transparent, brilliant yellow; flesh rather firm, very sweet, agreeable; first quality; matures early in July. =Grünstiel-Kirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:22. 1858. Fruit black, of medium size, obtuse-cordate, noticeably furrowed; stem long, shallowly inserted; flesh firm, colored, subacid; pit of medium size, round, somewhat clinging; ripens the middle of July. =Guben.= _P. avium. 1. Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 549. 1901. _Bigarreau noir de Guben._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 190. 1876. _Gubener Schwarze Knorpel._ =3.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 369. 1881. _Late Black Bigarreau_? =4.= _Guide Prat._ 18. 1895. Guben originated near the town of the same name in Prussia, Germany. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate, sides slightly compressed; suture indistinct; stem rather long; cavity shallow; skin firm, glossy, nearly black; flesh firm, dark red, sweet, with a pleasing sourness; pit roundish; ripens the last of June. =Gubens Ehre.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 358. 1889. =2.= Lange _Allgem. Garten._ 423. 1897. Fruit large, dark red, with a slightly aromatic flavor. =Guigne Anglaise Blanche Précoce.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Guigne d'Argovie.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Guigne Blanche Précoce.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:316. 1877. Received by Leroy from Germany in 1860 and said by him to lack size and quality. =Guigne Bonne Alostoise.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 359. 1889. Mentioned in the reference given. =Guigne de Buxeuil.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Listed without a description. =Guigne Carnée Winkler.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:317, 318 fig., 319. 1877. _Winkler weisse Herzkirsche._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 278, 279. 1819. _Guigne Blanche de Winkler._ =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:161, 162, fig. 79. 1866-73. _Guigne de Winkler._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 15, 199. 1876. This variety is said to be a seedling raised by a Herr Winkler at Guben, Prussia, Germany, about 1816. Fruit attached in pairs, large, roundish-cordate, compressed; suture not prominent; stem long, inserted in a deep, narrow cavity; skin flesh-colored; flesh tender, slightly fibrous, light yellow, juicy, sweet, pleasingly aromatic; pit of medium size, plump, oval; ripens the second week of the cherry season. =Guigne de Chamblondes.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 359. 1889. Mentioned in the reference given. =Guigne Chamonale.= _P. avium._=1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:151. 1882. Flowers and foliage only described. =Guigne Chavanne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 359. 1889. Mentioned in the reference given. =Guigne Courte-queue d'Oullins.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:62 fig., 63, 218. 1866. _Guigne à courte queue_? =2.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 20. 1887. This variety is said to have originated at Oullins, near Lyons, France. Tree vigorous, upright, productive; fruit rather large, obtuse-cordate, truncate; stem short to very short, inserted in a shallow, narrow cavity; suture a well-marked line; skin rather thick, glossy, shaded with red changing to deep black; flesh red, tender but not soft, sweet with some acidity, agreeable; quality excellent; pit large for the size of the fruit, ovoid; ripens early in June. =Guigne Ecarlate.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. A worthless, medium-sized, red, oval fruit, with firm flesh, ripening in July. =Guigne de l'Escalier.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Thomas Guide Prat._ 24. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 11. 1895. This is a large, brownish-black, French cherry of the Heart class. Fruit with an uneven surface; flesh red, sugary, sweet; first quality; ripens the first of July. =Guigne de Gland.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 213. 1880. Guigne de Gland received its name from the small community of Gland, Aisne, France, where it appears to have been first cultivated. It is one of the first to be found on the markets; is very productive, and of good quality; fruit large, clear red, very sweet. =Guigne Grosse Rouge Hâtive.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. A firm, red, cordate cherry of second quality for table use; ripens in July. =Guigne Grosse Rouge Tardive.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Guigne Guindole.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 198. 1876. Many writers, including Leroy, believe this cherry to be identical with the Flamentine. Tree vigorous, productive; grown for market; fruit large, elongated-cordate; skin deep red with carmine mottling on a yellowish ground; flesh tender, soft, juicy, sugary; matures the last part of June. =Guigne Hâtive d'Elsdorf.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27, 198. 1876. A German variety "much recommended." =Guigne Marbrée.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Pom. France_ =7=:No. 18. Pl. 18. 1871. =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits._ 286. 1889. =3.= _Cat. Cong. Pom. France_ 523. 1906. The origin of this variety is uncertain. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate; suture wide, shallow; stem of medium length, set in a shallow, wide cavity; skin glossy, white, washed with a rose color changing to carmine, adherent to the pulp; flesh yellowish, firm, sweet, faintly aromatic; pit small, roundish; ripens early in July. =Guigne Marie Besnard.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 15. 1876. A large, oblong, Heart cherry of good quality; skin light yellow overspread with red; flesh tender, juicy; late. =Guigne de Nice.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 11. 1895. Fruit very large, oblong, light red; season early in warm years; trees rather tender. =Guigne Noir Luisante.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 208. 1854. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. _Guignier à gros fruit noir luisant._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait Arb. Fr._ =1=:162, 163. 1768. _Grosse glänzende schwarze Herkirsche._ =4.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:2, Tab. 3 fig. 2. 1792. =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 146, 147. 1819. _Grosse Guigne noire luisante._ =6.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:72 fig. 73, 74, 218. 1866. _Guigne Reinette noire._ =7.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24. 1876. _Guigne noire hâtive à gros fruits._ =8.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 108 fig., 109. 1904. This variety should not be mistaken for the Black Spanish of the Germans although Elliott speaks of it as such with the statement that it was grown in New Jersey about 1823, from whence it was introduced into Ohio. It was known as Guigne Reinette Noire about the provinces of Main and Anjou, France, where it is said to have originated. Some authors have confused it with Hogg's Black Heart from which it differs in being more firm. Tree large, vigorous, productive; fruit large, usually attached in threes, obtuse-cordate, plump; suture wide; stem medium in length, inserted in a rather wide, deep cavity; skin thick, glossy, brownish-red changing to black; flesh colored, tender, fibrous, juicy, sweet, vinous; quality good; pit small, roundish-oval, turgid; ripens the last of June. =Guigne Noire Hâtive.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. _Guignier à Gros Fruit noir hâtif._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:330 fig., 331. 1877. This old variety originated in France early in the Sixteenth Century. Tree moderately productive; fruit attached in threes, large, obtuse-cordate, irregular; stem long, stout; cavity large; skin becomes reddish-black; flesh deep red, fibrous, juicy, acidulated, sweet; quality fair; pit above medium, ovoid, plump; ripens the last of May. =Guigne Noire de Monstreux.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24. 1876. Described by M. M. Vérilhac, nurseryman at Annonay, France, as a large, good, productive cherry ripening the first part of June. =Guigne Nouvelle Espéce.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Guigne Olive.= P. _avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:79, 80 fig., 81, 220. 1866. Fruit large, elongated-oval, more pointed at the cavity; suture wide; stem long, slender, set in a slightly deep, abrupt cavity; skin at first rose-colored, marbled with red changing to almost black; flesh tender, colored, agreeably acid, with a slight bitterness; pit very large, oval, resembling the pit of an olive; ripens at the beginning of July. =Guigne Petite Blanche.= _P. vium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Guigne Petite Rouge.= P. _avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort Soc. Cat._ 51. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Guigne la Plus Hâtive.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:51-54, fig. 1866. _Guigne marbrée précoce._ =2.= _Mas Le Verger_ =8=:115, 116, fig. 56. 1866-73. _Guigne d'Annonay._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 15, 197. 1876. Fruit of medium size, cordate, often slightly elongated; skin thin, mottled with red changing to almost black; stem moderately slender, set in a rather deep, wide cavity; flesh purplish, tender, juicy, agreeably acidulated; pit small, ovoid; ripens the last of May. =Guigne Précoce Leo d'Ounons.= P. _avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 65. 1881. This variety was found in an orchard near Vigne, France. The fruit is large and sweet with an agreeably aromatic juice; ripens the first half of June. =Guigne Précoce de Mathère.= P. _avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. _Early Mathere._ =2.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 416. 1899. Tree vigorous; fruit of medium size, roundish-oval; stem short; skin red; flesh yellowish-red, juicy, sweet; stone small, clinging; early. =Guigne Précoce Ponctuée.= P. _avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:208. 1866. A variegated cherry with uncolored juice, mentioned by Mortillet. =Guigne de Provence.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18. 1876. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:152. 1882. =3.= _Guide Prat._ 18. 1895. Although very similar to Transparente de Coë, according to _Guide Pratique_, 1895, Guigne de Provence is a distinct variety. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate; skin reddish-carmine; flesh rather firm, sweet; first quality; matures the last half of June. =Guigne Ramon Oliva.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 355. 1888. =2.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 112 fig., 113. 1904. A chance seedling noticed first by M. Charozé, horticulturist, at Pyramide-Trelazé, near Angers, France. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large, usually borne in twos or threes, roundish-cordate; suture indistinct; stem long; color brownish-black, glossy; flesh fine, juicy, sweet; pit large, oval; ripens early in June. =Guigne Rose Hâtive.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24, 199. 1876. _Kleine frühe rothe Herzkirsche._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 164. 1819. _Rosenrothe Maikirsche._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:18. 1858. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 55 fig., 56. 1860. _Guignier à fruit rose hâtif._ =5.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:503. 1860. Guigne Rose Hâtive was received by Jahn from Dochnahl who believed Rheinpfalz, a former palatinate in Germany, to be its home. Tree productive, drooping; fruit of medium size, uneven particularly about the stem, roundish-cordate, sides flattened; suture indistinct; stem medium in length; cavity shallow; skin rose-colored in the middle of May, later changing to a reddish-purple or black; flesh tender, with colored juice, sweet if ripe; stone rather large, ovate to oval; ripens at the end of May or the beginning of June. =Guigne Rouge Commune.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:152. 1882. The flowers and foliage only are described. =Guigne Rouge Ponctuée.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:89 fig., 90, 91, 218. 1866. This cherry is similar to Rothe Molkenkirsche but is different in pit. It was found in the province of l'Isere, France. Fruit large to above, depressed at both extremities, flattened on both sides, one of which is traversed by a wide, shallow suture; stem above medium in length, set in a shallow, rather narrow cavity; skin firm, thick, brilliant, changing to deep red, mottled; flesh white, faintly rose-colored especially about the pit, moderately firm, at maturity it loses its sourness becoming sugary and aromatic; pit large, oblong-oval; ripens at the beginning of June. =Guigne de Russie à Fruit Blanc.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Guigne Très Précoce.= _P. avium._ 1. Hogg _Fruit Man._ 275, 301. 1884. A very early, black cherry, a week earlier than the Early Purple. Fruit rather small, obtuse-cordate, irregular in outline; stem long, slender, deeply inserted in a wide cavity; skin quite black; flesh very tender; juice colored; good. =Guigne van der Broek.= _P. avium._ =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:39, 40. 1771. A very small, juicy cherry similar to the Black Guigne in form, color and taste; somewhat oblong; dark, brownish-black; of a very sweet, agreeable taste. =Guigne Villeneuve.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 15, 1876. _Villeneuver Herzkirsche._ =2.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 57. 1907. This variety is believed to be native to the region around the Auvergne mountains, France. Fruit very large, quadrangular; skin a vivid rose color overspreading a whitish ground; ripens late in June. =Guignier à Fruit Noir et Très-long Pédoncule.= _P. avium._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:503. 1860. Obtained from seed and fruited first in 1824. Tree erect, vigorous; fruit small, conical, black; stem nearly four inches long; flesh watery, colored, sweet, agreeably acidulated. =Guignier à Petit Fruit Noir.= _P. avium._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:502. 1860. This variety differs from the Grosse Schwarze Herzkirsche only in size of fruit. =Guindoux Noir de Faix.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26. 1876. Mentioned by Thomas without description. =Gunsleber Späte Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 320, 321. 1819. A seedling of White Spanish ripening early in August. Fruit small, blushed with light and dark red on a white ground; flesh firm, sweet; unproductive. =Halbgefülltblühende Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:66, 67. 1858. _Schwarze Weichsel mit halb gefüllter Blüte._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 606, 607, 608. 1819. Truchsess says that only the semi-doubles have perfect pistils and the other flowers do not produce fruit. Fruit oblate; stem long, inserted in a shallow cavity; skin thin, tough, glossy, black; flesh tender, fibrous near the stem, with dark juice, pleasing. =Halifax.= Species? =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 94. 1854. Halifax is an old variety reported from Maryland. =Hallock.= _P. avium._ Hallock is a supposed seedling of Downer found by Nicholas Hallock, Milton, New York; not disseminated. It resembles Downer in color but is slightly smaller and about two weeks later. =Hallowell.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Me. Sta. An. Rpt._ =22=:175. 1906. Hallowell is a seedling of Black Tartarian. =Hamell Kirsche.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Mentioned in the reference given. =Hamels Arissen.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. =Hartlib.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. Listed without a description. =Hartlippe.= Species? =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. "The Hartlippe Cherrie is so called of the place where the best of this kinde is noursed up, being betweene Sittingbourne and Chattam in Kent, and is the biggest of our English kindes." =Hartz Mountain.= Species? =1.= _Minn. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 48. 1874. This variety was brought from Germany by a Mr. Meyer of St. Peter, Minnesota, with whom it has proved hardy and productive. =Hâtive de Balis.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 362. 1889. Mentioned in the reference given. =Hâtive ou Précoce.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. Listed without a description. =Hâtive de Prin.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 280, 281, Pl. 1893. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. _Priner Frühweichsel._ =3.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. This variety was introduced by M. Maquerlot of Fismes, Marne, France. It resembles Montmorency in shape, with a longer stem. Fruit often borne in fours; cavity deep; skin thin, deep red; flesh of a rose color, transparent, sugary, acidulated, juicy; pit of medium size, orbiculated. =Hâtive de St. Jean.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. Listed without a description. =Headley.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. =Healy.= _P. avium._ =1.= Sweet _Cat._ II. 1897. Healy is an old, sweet variety thought to have come from Pennsylvania; introduced by George A. Sweet, Dansville, New York. =Hedelfingen.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 549. 1901. _Hedelfingen Risenkirsche._ =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 77 fig., 78. 1860. _Colassale d'Hedelfingen._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:301. 1866. _Géante d'Hedelfingen._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 194. 1876. _Monstrueuse d'Hedelfingen._ =5.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:59, 60, fig. 30. 1882. _Bigarreau de Hedelfingen._ =6.= _Gard. Chron._ =20=:160. 1896. This variety probably originated in the village of Hedelfingen, Germany. Tree strong, vigorous, productive; fruit very large, obtuse-cordate; suture noticeable on both sides; stem very long; cavity deep, narrow; skin glossy, tough, dark brown changing to black, with light red dots; flesh fibrous, dark red, more tender than many Bigarreaus, yet firm, juicy, pleasing, aromatic; stone of medium size, long, truncate at the base; ripens in July; good for table, kitchen and market. =Hedwigs Kirsche.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 362. 1889. Listed but not described. =Heidelberger Kirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 290. 1802. A very dark, black, small, short-stemmed Sour Cherry ripening at the beginning of September. =Heiges.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 40. 1895. Heiges is a seedling of the Bigarreau type, from C. E. Hoskins, Springbrook, Oregon, ripening there the last of June. Fruit large, heart-shaped, very smooth; cavity medium in size and depth, regular, flaring; stem short, slender; suture shallow, narrow; skin thin, tenacious, dark purplish-black, with minute golden, indented dots; flesh very dark, purplish-black, with a few light veins, meaty, tender, juicy, sweet, aromatic; quality best; pit large, oval, semi-clinging. =Heintzen (Heintze's) Frühe Kirsche.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 362. 1889. Listed in the reference given. =Henneberger Grafenkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 675. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 548, 549, 550. 1819. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:64. 1858. =4.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 159. 1790. _Cerise du Comte de Henneberg._ =5.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:307. 1866. Fruit of medium size, flattened, without a suture; black when ripe; stem long, slender, shallowly inserted; flesh tender, with a pleasant sourness; ripens in July. =Hensel Early.= Species? =1.= _Horticulturist_ =22=:233 fig. 1867. Hensel is an accidental seedling found on the grounds of G. W. Zahm, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, and named after the former owner of the property. Tree moderate in growth, hardy, productive; fruit roundish, obtuse at the base; stem slender; flesh half-tender, juicy; good; ripens the first part of June; not disposed to rot. =Herzkirsche Léona Quesnel.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 62. 1889. Mentioned but not described by Mathieu. =Herzkirsche Trauben.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:153. 1882. The flowers and foliage only are described. =Herzkirsche Wils Frühe.= Species? =1.= Lange _Allgem. Garten._ 439. 1897. Listed without a description. =Herzkirschweichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 673. 1797. According to Christ, this cherry is a Morello; fruit large, with an indistinct suture; stem rather long, deeply set; color reddish-black; flesh tender, subacid; stone cordate; ripens the middle of July. =Herzog May.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 330. 1885. =2.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 22. 1892-93. Imported by Professor J. L. Budd from Southwestern Russia where it does well on wet, unfavorable soil. Tree open and upright, a true Duke of the best quality. =Hoadley.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 209 fig. 1854. Hoadley was raised by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, in 1842, and was named by Elliott in honor of George Hoadley of Cleveland. Tree healthy, vigorous, with a round, spreading head; fruit above medium in size, roundish-cordate; stem of medium length; cavity shallow; skin pale yellow, mottled and striped with clear carmine; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, sweet, sprightly, almost translucent; pit of medium size; season the last of June; valuable for table use but will not stand shipment. =Hockenberg.= _P. cerasus._ Mentioned in a letter from H. Back & Sons, New Trenton, Indiana, as resembling an Amarelle; of no particular value. =Hogg Black Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 84. 1866. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate; stem long; skin black, glossy; flesh and juice dark, rich, sweet, tender; season at the beginning of July. =Hogg Red Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 84. 1866. Fruit medium large, roundish, inclined to heart-shape; stem long; skin red, mottled with amber-yellow; flesh yellowish, tender, sweet, rich, with uncolored juice; ripens the first of July. =Hoke.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 24. 1894. Hoke is a Duke, long known in York County, Pennsylvania, and regarded as worthy of wider dissemination. It originated at Hanover, Pennsylvania, with Henry Wirt, and was known as Wirt until the farm changed hands in 1848, when it became known as Hoke. The fruit, as grown at this Station, is large, obtuse-cordate; cavity large, deep; skin thick, tough, resisting rot in rainy weather, dark, mottled with red; stem long, moderately thick, swollen at either end; flesh firm, meaty, dark pink, subacid, sprightly; quality very good; stone medium; season the last of June. =Höllandische Späte Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 677. 1797. =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 288. 1802. _Höllandische Kirsche._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 597-599. 1819. _Höllandische Weichsel._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:65. 1858. This variety is distinguished from others of its class by its smaller stone, tender flesh, longer stem and later ripening. Tree never large, productive; fruit large, nearly round, sides slightly compressed; suture distinct; stem long; color brownish-red; flesh tender, colored, juicy, very sour; ripens in August but hangs until September. =Holman Duke.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 86, Pl. 17 fig. 1. 1729. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:135, 136. 1832. =3.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 99. 1846. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:346, 347 fig. 1877. _Cerise Royale Tardive D'Angleterre._ =5.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =1=:107, 108, Pl. 1853. _Cherry-Duck._ =6.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:507. 1860. _Royale Tardive._ =7.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:155, 156 fig., 157, 158, 305. 1866. =8.= _Pom. France_ =7=:No. 1, Pl. 1. 1871. =9.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Holman Duke is thought to be of English origin and a seedling of May Duke. The name, Royale Tardive, a synonym of Holman Duke, has been used interchangeably for several Duke cherries. Fruit large to above, roundish-cordate; suture moderate; stem above medium in size, set in a rather deep, narrow, irregular cavity; skin thin, brownish-red changing to nearly black when fully mature; flesh red, fibrous, juicy, vinous, acidulated; pit of medium size, ovoid; dorsal suture not very apparent; ripens the middle of July. =Holme Late Duke.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. Mentioned by Thomas without a description. =Holstein.= Species? =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =17=:363. 1851. A medium-sized, round, red, seedling cherry. =Homer.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:71, 72. 1903. =2.= Jewell _Cat._ 35. 1906. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. Homer is a seedling of the Morello type from New Haven, Connecticut, introduced from Homer, Minnesota; said to be valuable in the Northwest. Fruit medium to large, roundish-oblate; stem short, stout; cavity shallow, moderately broad; skin red, becoming darker, thin, rather tough; flesh tender, uncolored, juicy, mildly subacid; pit round, semi-clinging; ripens the last of June. =Honey.= _P. avium._ =1.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 251. 1817. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 217. 1854. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 243. 1858. _Large Honey._ =4.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. _Yellow Honey._ =5.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:110. 1832. _Cream._ =6.= _Horticulturist_ =1=:148. 1846-47. _Summer's Honey_? =7.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 228. 1849. _Late Honey_? =8.= _Ibid._ 235, 236. 1849. Honey, though grown only in America, is probably of foreign origin--an old sort renamed. Tree similar to Black Mazzard but more spreading. Fruit small, roundish-oval, yellowish, mottled with red, becoming deep amber-red; stem long, slender; flesh tender, melting, juicy, sweet; pit large; season the middle of July. =Honey Dew.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Conn. Bd. Agr. Rpt._ =11=:340. 1877. Spoken of as a valuable variety originating in Connecticut. =Honeywood.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:205. 1843. Mentioned as unworthy of cultivation. =Hoppock Yellow.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =12=:164. 1886. This variety originated in Bucks County, Pennsylvania, from seed sown by Cornelius Hoppock. Fruit of medium size, cordate, sweet; very productive. =Hoskins.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 262. 1892. =2.= _Ibid._ 292, Pl. VI. 1893. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 150. 1895. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 24. 1899. Hoskins originated with C. E. Hoskins,[86] Newberg, Oregon, about 1880, as a seedling of Napoleon. Tree vigorous, upright, somewhat spreading; fruit large, roundish-cordate suture a line; stem short, set in a roundish cavity; color dull purplish-red; flesh purple, fibrous, firm, sprightly, sweet; quality good; ripens in mid-season. =Hovey.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hovey _Fr. Am._ =2=:25, 26, Pl. 1851. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:405, 406 fig. 27. 1853. =3.= Am. Pom. Soc. Cat. 74. 1862. Hovey originated with C. M. Hovey, Boston, Massachusetts, being selected from a bed of seedlings in 1839; first fruited in 1848. For a time it was considered a cherry of considerable value but at present it is but little known. Tree very vigorous, upright, spreading, productive; fruit large, obtuse-cordate; stem short, rather stout; skin rich amber mottled with brilliant red; flesh pale amber, rather firm but tender, sprightly becoming sweet; very good in quality; stone slightly adherent to the pulp, small, oval. =Hoy.= _P. avium._ =1.= Chase _Cat._ 12. 1909. =2.= _Ibid._ Pl. 1910. A new cherry recently found in one of the suburbs of Philadelphia and introduced in 1909 by the Chase Nursery Company, Geneva, New York, as a very valuable Sweet Cherry. As grown at the Geneva Station it is smaller and no better than Napoleon. Tree vigorous, hardy, healthy, unproductive on the Station grounds. Fruit large, roundish-cordate, slightly flattened, with irregular surfaces; cavity deep; suture a line; stem of medium thickness and length, adhering to the fruit; skin rather thin, of medium toughness, adhering to the pulp, amber covered with light red, sometimes spotted; flesh whitish, juicy, stringy, tender, somewhat meaty, crisp, sprightly, sweet; quality good; stone clinging, roundish, plump; ripens in mid-season. [86] Oregon has given to pomology two notable breeders of cherries, Seth Lewelling and C. E. Hoskins, the subject of this sketch. Cyrus Edwin Hoskins was born on a farm in Clinton County, Ohio, July 3, 1842, and there he grew to manhood. Almost at the first call for men to defend the Union in the Civil War, Mr. Hoskins responded and joined the 13th Ohio regiment, serving until the close of the war. Returning to Ohio, he gave attention to fruit culture, testing many varieties of several fruits and producing some new grapes and berries. In 1877 Mr. Hoskins moved to Newberg, Yamhill County, Oregon, settling on new land and thus becoming a pioneer in the Northwest. His first pomological venture in Oregon was in growing prunes, his orchard of this fruit being one of the first, and he is credited with having built one of the first evaporators for the curing of prunes in America. For some years he maintained his prune ranch and evaporator, developing a product that gave him the highest reputation in prune markets and made him one of the leading authorities on this fruit in the United States. Early in his orchard work in Oregon Mr. Hoskins began to produce new varieties of cherries and soon offered for sale a number of promising seedlings of which Vesta, Lake, Occident, Stryker and Hoskins were most worthy. Unfortunately, ill health in the family compelled Mr. Hoskins to move from Yamhill County, to which place, after having spent several years in Jackson County, Oregon, and in the Hawaiian Islands, he returned with the expectation of taking up his work in breeding cherries and prunes, but his death, August 18, 1908, occurred before his work had been again well begun. The Pacific Northwest owes a debt of gratitude to Mr. Hoskins for the spendid part he played in developing the fruit industry of that region and pomologists the country over owe him much for his labors in breeding cherries. =Hubbard.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 437. 1898. Hubbard is a variety of the Morello class grown about Villa Ridge, Illinois. Tree dwarfish, drooping, bears early, productive; fruit large, cordate, nearly black; precedes Early Richmond. =Hungarian Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 302. 1884. _Hungarian Cherry of Zwerts._ =3.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 574. 1629. =4.= Rea _Flora_ 206. 1676. Although there seems to be a discrepancy in the size of the cherry mentioned by Parkinson and Rea and the one described by Hogg, all three writers undoubtedly referred to the same sort. While the first two references describe the variety as exceptionally large no definite statements are made, thus giving strength to the following description made by Hogg many years later. Tree productive; fruit rather below medium in size, obtuse-cordate; skin amber, mottled with red on the sunny side; flesh white, half-tender, mildly sweet; quality fair; stone large, ovate; ripens in July. =Hyde Late Black.= _P. avium._ =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 237. 1849. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 262. 1857. This variety originated with T. & G. Hyde, Newton, Massachusetts. Tree strong in growth, productive; fruit medium in size, obtuse-cordate, purplish-black; flesh half-firm, melting, juicy; resembles Eagle but is later. =Hyde Red Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:284. 1842. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 175. 1845. _Hyde's Seedling._ =3.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 232. 1849. Another seedling from T. & G. Hyde, Newton, Massachusetts. Tree vigorous, hardy, spreading, productive; fruit of medium size, cordate; stem short; skin pale yellow, becoming lively red; flesh tender, with a pleasant sprightliness, juicy; season early July. =Imperial Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 279. 1857. _Poitou griotte._ =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:148. 1832. _Imperial._ =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 209. 1854. _Griotte Impériale._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 17, 195. 1876. =5.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ =17=:9. 1892. _Griotte à Courte Queue._ =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:284 fig., 285. 1877. _Guindoux du Poitou._ =7.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:113, 114, fig. 57. 1882. _Kaiserliche Weichsel._ =8.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 364. 1889. An old variety recently introduced into the Northwest where it has proved very hardy. Tree small, low-headed, productive, bears early; fruit medium to large, roundish-oval; stem very short, shallowly inserted; skin very dark red; flesh tender, juicy, pleasantly acid when ripe; pit small, long, pointed; ripens the middle of July. =Incomparable en Beauté.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Intorka.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 667. 1897. Intorka is an importation from Russia. Fruit of medium size, round, yellow and red; flesh firm, yellowish, subacid. =Jaune de Prusse.= _P. avium._ =1.= McIntosh _Bk. Gard._ =2=:544. 1855. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 466. 1869. =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:93, 94, fig. 47. 1882. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit small, obtuse-cordate; stem long, slender, inserted in a narrow cavity; skin firm, light yellow, translucent; flesh yellowish-white, tender, juicy, sweet but slightly bitter before it is fully ripe; pit large for the size of the fruit; ripens after Downer. =Jean Arendsen.= Species? =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:37. 1771. According to Knoop, it closely resembles the round Pragische Muskateller in both form and color but is not as good in quality. =Jenkin Black Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. Mentioned without description. =Jerusalem Kirsche von der Natte.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:153, 154. 1882. Flowers and leaves only are described. =Jerusalemskirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 557-561. 1819. _Späte Königliche Weichsel._ =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:8, Tab. 19 fig. 2. 1792. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 561-563. 1819. _Späte grosse königliche Weichsel._ =4.= Christ _Handb._ 683. 1797. _Pyramidenkirsche._ =5.= Christ _Wörterb._ 291. 1802. _Pyramidenweichsel._ =6.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 529-531. 1819. The origin of this old variety is unknown but it was chiefly grown in Germany. Tree unproductive; fruit large, oval, with a shallow suture; stem long, set in a shallow cavity; skin dark red, changing to black, glossy; flesh moderately firm, juicy, pleasing subacid; pit large, walnut-shaped, clinging; ripens the last of July in Germany. =Jocosot.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168, 404. 1853. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 197 fig. 1854. _Jockotos._ =3.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 270. 1857. Jocosot was raised by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, in 1842, from a pit of the Yellow Spanish and named after an Indian chief. Tree thrifty, round-topped, productive; fruit large, regular, obtuse-cordate, indented at the apex, sides compressed; suture broad; stem long, set in a cavity of medium size; skin glossy, of a dark-liver color, almost black; flesh tender, with indistinct radiating lines, juicy, sweet; pit below medium in size, smooth; ripens the last of June. =Joel Keil Kleine Schwarze Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:22. 1858. Fruit small, roundish-cordate; suture indistinct; stem long, slender, shallowly inserted; skin black; flesh rather firm, sweet, juicy, colored; pit oval, clinging; ripens the middle of July to the middle of August. =June Amarelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 330. 1885. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:72. 1903. _Cerisier juniat._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 649, 650, 691. 1819. _Junius Amarelle._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:70. 1858. _Juniat Amarelle._ =5.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. =6.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 328. 1888. =7.= _Vt. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:243. 1898-99. _June Morello._ =8.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =19=:548. 1892. Truchsess refers to this cherry as having been described by Sickler in 1805. Budd, in his importations of 1883, from Russia, included this variety. Tree of medium size, vigorous, rather unproductive; fruit above medium in size, roundish-oblate; stem stout, of medium length; suture indistinct; skin thin, rather tough, separating readily from the pulp, light red; flesh firm, meaty, yellowish, juicy; flavor subacid; quality fair; stone of medium size, somewhat round; season that of Early Richmond which it resembles in size, flavor and color. =June Duke.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book_ 269. 1857. _Shippen._ =2.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 248. 1817. A tart variety similar to May Duke, known about Philadelphia as Shippen and Wetherill. Tree vigorous; fruit large and pleasing; ripens late in June. =Justinische Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 291. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 523, 524. 1819. _Justinische Amarelle._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 683. 1797. This variety is separated from other Sour Cherries ripening with it, through its firm flesh, its straight, shallowly set stem and its astringent, sour flavor. Fruit of medium size, roundish, sides broadly compressed; stem of medium length, rather stout; suture shallow; skin tough, brownish-red; flesh dark red, with clear red juice. =Kamdesa.= _P. pumila × P. persica._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:1908. Noted in the reference as a cross between the Sand Cherry and the Opulent peach. "The blossoms show a tendency to double." =Kappenblättrige Süssweichsel.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:47. 1858. Distinguished from May Duke through its smaller fruit and rolled leaves. =Kassin Frühe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Lauche _Ergänzungsband_ 601. 1883. =2.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:60. 1900. Kassin, a vineyardist, in Potsdam, Prussia, Germany, raised this sort from seed. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate, sides compressed; suture indistinct; stem of medium length, thick, set in a small cavity; skin dark brown changing to reddish-black, dotted; flesh dark, juicy, sweet; excellent; stone roundish-oval; ripens the first week of the season. =Katie.= _(P. avium × P. cerasus) × P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Hort. An._ 86 fig. 1869. Katie is a seedling of Louis Philippe crossed with a Mazzard. The tree has the Mazzard habit of growth, yet produces fruit resembling May Duke in form and size but deeper in color; flesh tender; matures with Downer. =Kaufmann.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 345. 1906. Kaufmann is a stray seedling of English Morello from Minnesota. It is larger and a little longer in stem than the supposed parent and ripens with the last of the Early Richmond. =Kazan Seedling.= Species? =1.= _Vt. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:240. 1898-99. Listed in the reference given. =Kelly.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 253. 1903. A Sweet Cherry from Berrien County, Michigan. =Kennicott.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 210 fig. 1854. Kennicott was raised by Professor J. P. Kirtland and named by Elliott after Dr. J. A. Kennicott of Northfield, Illinois. Tree vigorous, hardy, spreading, productive; fruit large, oval-cordate, compressed; suture shallow; stem short, inserted in an irregular cavity; skin amber-yellow, mottled with bright, clear, glossy red; flesh yellowish-white, firm, juicy, sweet; pit below medium in size, smooth; ripens about the middle of July. =Kentish Drier.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. A medium-sized, red cherry of first quality used for culinary purposes; ripening in July. Confused by some with Early Richmond. =Kentish Preserve.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. Listed without a description. =Keokuk.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 210 fig. 1854. Keokuk is another seedling raised by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, from a pit of Yellow Spanish, probably crossed with Black Tartarian, Black Mazzard, or May Duke. Tree vigorous, strong; fruit large, cordate; stem stout; skin dark purplish-black; flesh half-tender, purple, rather coarse; deficient in flavor; pit of medium size; season early in July. =Kesterter Früh Kirsche.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 364. 1889. Listed in the reference given. =King George the Second.= _P. avium._ =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ Pl. 6. 1817. =2.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:3, Pl. II fig. 1. 1823. This variety is distinguished from other black cherries by its uneven surface. Fruit large, with a rich, sweet flavor; ripens the first of June and hangs for six weeks. =King Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 78. 1890. =2.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:60. 1900. =3.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:277. 1903. King Morello is another of Budd's importations from Russia. Tree very hardy, moderate in growth; fruit large, oblate; stem variable; skin dark red; flesh yellowish-white, firm, sprightly, juicy, good; pit very small; ripens with Early Richmond. =Kirsche von Basel.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 19 fig., 20. 1867. Jahn, in his _Handbuch_, calls attention to the error in calling this variety Bigarreau Hâtif de Bale as it is not a Bigarreau but a variegated Heart. Fruit compressed unevenly giving it a cordate appearance, small; suture shallow; apex slightly depressed; stem long, slender, set in a shallow cavity; skin thin, bright yellow washed with pale red, mottled and streaked; flesh pale yellow, soft, with abundant, uncolored juice, pleasing but not high in quality; stone large, roundish, slightly pointed; ripens the middle of July. =Kirchheimer.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 290. 1802. =2.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 549. 1901. _Kirchheimer Weichsel._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 580-583. 1819. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 85 fig., 86. 1867. This old cherry is from Kirchheim, Erfurt, Prussia, Germany. It is propagated by root cuttings and is used for wine and for canning. It is mentioned as growing in British Columbia but is otherwise not spoken of by American writers. Tree large, vigorous, drooping; fruit of medium size, round; suture a line; stem long, slender, shallowly inserted; skin thin, glossy, almost black when ripe; flesh mild subacid, pleasing, juicy; stone small, oval, turgid; ripens at the end of July. =Kirtland Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Horticulturist_ =22=:292, 293 fig. 1867. _Kirtland's Large Morello_. =2.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =3=:123. 1853. _Large Morello._ =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 210. 1854. A seedling originated by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio; it thrives in sections of the south and west where Sweet Cherries are generally unsuccessful. Tree vigorous, spreading; fruit uniformly distributed, borne in pairs, large, uniform, roundish; stem short; cavity round, narrow; skin glossy, dark red; flesh tender, juicy, acid; high quality; pit small; ripens early in July. =Kleindienst Braune Knorpel.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 365. 1889. _Bigarreau Brun Kleindienst._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:184, 185 fig. 1877. Leroy, in 1866, stated that this variety was raised from seed by M. Kleindienst, a vineyardist at Guben, Prussia, Germany. Tree moderately productive; fruit usually borne in pairs, large, cordate, flattened; stem long, moderately stout; skin vivid red, changing from grayish-red to almost black; flesh of a whitish-rose color, firm, filamentose, juicy, sugary, acidulated, aromatic; first quality; pit large, ovoid; ripens the last of June. =Kleine Amarelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 644-646. 1819. Truchsess states that this variety was described by Büttner in 1797, as Kleine Glaskirsche but that it belongs to the Amarelles. Tree productive; fruit small, globular, pale reddish-yellow; flesh melting, watery; ripens the middle of July. =Kleine Bunte Frühkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 248-251. 1819. _Bigarreau à petit fruit rouge hâtif._ =2.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:166, 167. 1768. =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 47. 1831. _Bigarreautier à petit fruit rouge._ =4.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 308-310. 1819. _Bigarreau rouge hâtif (petit)._ =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:243 fig., 244. 1877. _Petit Bigarreau Hâtif_? =6.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:105, 106, fig. 53. 1882. Fruit of medium size, usually attached in pairs, irregular, cordate, flattened on both faces; stem long, slender; skin almost wholly red, occasionally showing streaks of yellow; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, aromatic; pit of medium size, ovoid; ripens about the middle of June. =Kleine Bunte Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 219-222. 1819. _Kleine bunte Molkenkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:28. 1858. Fruit small, nearly round, sides compressed; suture distinct; stem long, slender, deeply inserted; skin dull blood-red, with yellow spots; flesh tender, pale yellow, juicy, honey sweet; stone small; ripens at the end of June. =Kleine Frühe Amarelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 650-652. 1819. Fruit small, round, flattened; stem short; suture a line; skin clear red, transparent, tender; flesh tender, pleasant subacid; stone small, adhering more to the stem than to the flesh; ripens the last half of July. =Kleine Natte.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 365. 1889. Listed in the reference given. =Kleine Nonnenkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ 1. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_ 585-588. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:65, 66. 1858. This variety is a seedling of the common wild Sour Cherry. The fruit is the smallest of the Sour Cherries and resembles the black Bird cherries but has a shorter stem. Tree of medium size, drooping; fruit very small, oblate; stem short, shallowly inserted; skin glossy, black, thin but tough; flesh firm, tender, juicy, with a peculiar sourness; stone small, round, adhering to the flesh more than to the stem, stained violet; ripens early in August continuing for three weeks. =Kleine Schwarze Frühe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 155, 156. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:20. 1858. No doubt this variety, the Kleine Schwarze Herzkirsche, and the Black Heart greatly resemble each other and some writers combine them. =Kleine Schwarze Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 275. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 148, 149. 1819. _Mayer's kleine schwarze Herzkirsche._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:22. 1858. This variety is distinguished from the Grosse Schwarze Herzkirsche only through its size and later ripening; fruit regular, cordate, somewhat flattened; skin brownish-black; flesh soft, tender; ripens the latter part of July. =Kleine Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 277. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 195-197, 674. 1819. Distinguished from others of its class through its smallness and firmness. Fruit small, variable, flattened at the ends; suture often lacking; skin very dark brown; flesh firm, dark red, juicy, not unpleasant but not excellent; stone small; ripens early in August; productive. =Kleine Weisse Frühkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 256-258. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:27. 1858. Described as one of the first to ripen. Fruit of medium size, oblate, compressed; stem long, inserted in a shallow basin; skin tough, yellowish-white, shaded with red; flesh tender, juicy, sweet; ripens early in June. =Kleiner Früher May Herzkirschbaum.= _P. avium._ =1.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:1, Tab. 2 fig. 1. 1792. Distinguished from the Grosser Früher Mai-Herzkirschbaum by its inferior size and lighter flesh and juice; ripens at the end of May. =Knapp.= Species? =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 290. 1889. This cherry is a seedling from George Knapp, Lafayette, Oregon; introduced by E. R. Poppleton, 1885; fruit of medium size, round, black. =Knight Late Black.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:204. 1843. _Bigarreau-noir de Knight._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 190. 1876. Fruit large, black, obtuse-cordate, firm; second quality; ripens at the end of July. =Knudson.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ According to a letter from the Utah Experiment Station, this variety was discovered by William O. Knudson, Brigham City, Utah, in 1896. Although similar to Late Duke, further testing may prove it distinct. Tree bears early, hardy; fruit medium to large, bright scarlet; ripens over a long period; used for pies and canning. =Knyasnaia Sjevera.= _P. cerasus × P. avium._ =1.= _S. P. I. Bul._ =72=:519. 1912. =2.= _Ibid._ =73=:536 Pl. 1912. This is a large-fruited cherry, originated in 1888 by the Russian plant-breeder, I. V. Mijurin, at Kozlov, Central Russia, and named "Knyasnaia Sjevera," meaning "Queen of the North." The United States Department of Agriculture introduced it into this country under the number 32674. It is claimed to be a hybrid between an early Vladimir and a variety of Sweet Cherry called "White Winkler." It possesses excellent shipping and keeping qualities. This cherry has stood the severe winters of Central Russia very well and may be expected to thrive in parts of the Middle West and where the climate is more or less semi-arid. Tree vigorous, upright, with few side branches; trunk smooth and clean; fruit large, pale red, with a fresh sour-sweet flavor; ripening about the end of June. =Koch Späte Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:38. 1858. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 365. 1889. Originated about 1851. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate; suture shallow; stem medium long, shallowly inserted; skin glossy, black; flesh firm, piquant; quality high; stone small, roundish-oval; ripens at the end of August. =Kochs Ostheimer Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. _Kochs verbesserte Ostheimer Weichsel._ =2.= _Reut. Pom. Inst. Festschrift_ 122. 1910. A strong-growing, productive variety, said to exceed its parent, Ostheim, in size, color, and flavor. =Koeper.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 341. 1893. Listed in the reference given. =Kolaki.= _P. avium._ 1. Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:29, 30, fig. 15. 1882. According to Oberdieck, this variety is of Bohemian origin. Fruit of medium size, cordate, slightly elongated; apex obtuse; suture distinct; stem medium long, slender, set in a narrow, shallow cavity; skin moderately firm, transparent, yellow in the sun, purplish in the shade; flesh tinged yellow, tender, juicy, somewhat sugary; first quality; pit small, oval, flattened at the base, obtuse at the apex; ripens the first of June. =Korkovanyer Kirsche.= Species? =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 56. 1907. Listed but not described. =Koslov.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:278. 1903. _Koslov bush Morello._ =2.= _Can. Hort._ =12=:216, fig. 58, 218. 1889. _Koslov-Morello._ =3.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:128. 1900. The Koslov cherries are seedlings, not a single variety. A number of seedlings were imported by the Ontario Fruit Growers' Association in 1889, from Koslov, Crimea, Russia, where they were grown by Russian peasants, being propagated from pits. The trees are low, bush-shaped, slow in coming into bearing and most of the fruit is worthless. The one most grown is moderately large, roundish, pointed at the apex; suture barely traceable; stem long, set in a slight depression; skin dark red, turning black; flesh dark red, tender, juicy, acid; ripens from the last of July to the last of August. =Kostelnice.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:19, 20, fig. 10. 1882. Originated in Neustadt, Prussia, Germany. Tree moderately vigorous; fruit medium to below in size, obtuse-cordate; stem short, set in a straight, rather deep cavity; skin tough, vivid purple changing to almost black; flesh tender, juicy, vinous, agreeably acidulated; good; stone very small, ovoid, turgid; ripens early in June. =Kostelniti.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Kriek van den Broek.= Species? =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 165, 166. 1819. This variety, coming to Truchsess in 1808, from Holland, was confused with several others received at the same time. =Kritzendorfer Einsiedekirsche.= Species? =1.= _Obstzüchter_ =8=:52. 1910. An intensely black, large, late cherry which is valued for market because of its color. =Kronberger Kirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 274. 1802. _Kronkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Handb._ 663. 1797. _Kronberg Black Heart._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 124-126. 1819. =4.= _Mag. Hort._ =9=:203. 1843. _Kronberger Herzkirsche._ =5.= _Lond. Hort. Soc._ Cat. 48. 1831. _Wildling von Kronberg._ =6.= Ill. _Handb._ 29 fig., 30. 1867. _Bigarreau de Kronberg._ =7.= _Guide Prat._ 15, 182. 1895. According to German pomologists, this variety was raised from seed at Kronberg, Prussia, Germany. Tree productive; fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate, sides unevenly compressed; suture indistinct; stem long, stout, set in a shallow cavity; skin tough, glossy, black when mature, lighter along the suture; flesh firmer than others of its class, dark red, aromatic, sweet; pit broadly cordate, somewhat adherent; ripens at the end of June. =Kronprinz von Hannover.= _P. avium._ =1.= Ill. _Handb._ 479 fig., 480. 1861. _Prince Royal du Hanovre._ =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:302. 1866. _Bigarreau Prince Royal de Hanovre._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:232 fig. 1877. _Prince de Hanovre._ =4.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:43, 44, fig. 22. 1882. Grown by M. Lieke, a nurseryman at Hildesheim, Prussia, Germany, fruiting for the first time in 1854. Tree moderately vigorous, productive; fruit large, usually attached in pairs, roundish to pointed-cordate; suture shallow; stem long, slender, inserted in a rather deep cavity; skin rather tender, glossy, yellowish, streaked and mottled with red; flesh firm, yellowish, juicy, pleasingly acidulated; pit medium large, ovate, plump; ripens early in June. =Krüger Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Ill. _Handb._ 67 fig., 68. 1860. _Krügers schwarze Herzkirsche._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 161, 162. 1819. _Krügers Herzkirsche zu Frankfurt._ =3.= Lond. _Hort. Soc. Cat._ 52. 1831. _Guigne de Kruger._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 198. 1876. =5.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11:=77, 78, fig. 39. 1882. This cherry was first heard of at Guben, Prussia, Germany, in 1810. It is distinguished from Eagle in being larger, shorter stemmed, lighter in color, and less tender in flesh. Tree vigorous, productive, upright; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, oblate; suture shallow; stem medium long, rather deeply inserted; skin dark brown or black; flesh dark red, juicy, vinous, tender, yet often firm; stone small, roundish-oval, plump, adhering slightly to the flesh on one side; ripens about the middle of July. =La Nappe.= Species? =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. Listed in this reference. =Lacure (Large).= _P. avium._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. "The great Lacure or Hart Cherrie differeth not in forme, but in greatnesse, being usually twice as great as the former [Lacure (Small)], and of a reddish blacke colour also: both of them are of a firme substance, and reasonable sweete. Some doe call the white cherrie, the White hart cherrie." =Lacure= (=Small=). _P. avium._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. "The smaller Lacure or Hart Cherrie is a reasonable faire Cherrie, full above, and a little pointing downward, after the fashion of a heart, as it is usually pointed, blackish when it is full ripe, and lesser than the next" [Lacure (Large)]. =Ladé Late.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:60. 1900. _Von Lade's Späte Knorpelkirsche._ =2.= Lauche _Ergänzungsband_ 605. 1883. _Bigarreau Tardif de Ladé._ =3.= _Guide Prat._ 15, 184. 1895. A German variety probably raised from seed by M. Ladé. Fruit of medium size, long, cordate, compressed at the stem, roundish at the apex; suture indistinct; stem long, thin, slightly curved; cavity shallow; skin yellowish overspread with glossy light red, darker in the sun, faintly streaked; flesh firm, yellowish, sweet, vinous; excellent; stone long, oval; ripens in September lasting a month; productive. =Lady of the Lake.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Country Gent._ =28=:398. 1866-67. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 467. 1869. Lady of the Lake is a seedling from Charles Pease, Cleveland, Ohio. Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, productive; fruit medium to large, roundish-obtuse-conic, compressed, with a shallow suture; stem medium, inserted in a deep cavity; skin light yellow, shaded and mottled with bright crimson; flesh half-tender, pale yellow, juicy, sweet, rich; season according to the climate, early May to late June. =Lady Southampton.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 85. 1866. _Lady Southampton's Yellow. =2.= Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 187. 1845. According to the reference, this is an almost worthless yellow Bigarreau. Fruit of medium size, heart-shaped; skin yellow; flesh pale, firm, rather dry, with uncolored juice, season the middle of July. =Laeder Kirsebaer.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. Mentioned but not described. =Lake.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 26. 1909. Lake was named in honor of Professor E. R. Lake, then of the Oregon Agricultural College, by the originator, C. E. Hoskins, Springbrook, Oregon. The tree came into bearing about 1892 and is reported in the American Pomological Society's fruit list of 1909 as succeeding well in the northwest. Fruit large, sweet, and very good. =Laker= or =Loker Bunte Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Lamaurie.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =177=:31. 1899. _Early Lamaurie._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 461. 1869. =3.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 286, 291. 1889. The chief asset of this variety is its earliness for which it is cultivated in England, France and America. The parentage and originator are unknown. Tree of medium vigor and productiveness; fruit large, roundish-cordate, compressed; stem slender; skin thin, moderately tough; color dark reddish-purple; flesh dark red, juicy, stringy, tender, mild, sweet; of very good quality; season very early. =Lampen Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 204, 205, 676. 1819. _Lampers Knorpel-Kirsche._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. _Bigarreau noir de Lampé._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:302. 1866. =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 190. 1876. =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:226 fig., 227, 352. 1877. A German cherry raised from seed at Guben, Prussia, Germany, in 1810, and named for its originator. Fruit above medium in size, attached in twos and threes, obtuse-cordate; stem slender, set in a wide, shallow cavity; skin thin, rather dark reddish-brown; flesh dark red, rather firm, juicy, sugary, wine-like; second quality; pit large, oval; ripens early in June. =Lancaster.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 163. 1881. =2.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:111. 1900. Lancaster is an accidental seedling on the grounds of Daniel Smeych, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Tree moderately vigorous, more open and spreading than Early Richmond; fruit medium large, heart-shaped to oblate, slightly roundish; cavity deep, broad; stem long, slender; suture very slight; apex small; skin light red, very thin, tender; flesh white, moderately soft, juicy, sweet with a sprightly flavor; stone roundish, slightly ovate, partially free; season June. =Langsurer Prachtweichsel.= Species? =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. Mentioned in this reference. =Large Black Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. A medium-sized, firm, black Heart cherry of poor quality, ripening early in July. =Large Double Flowering.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thacher _Am. Orch._ 217. 1822. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:111. 1832. =3.= Downing Fr. _Trees Am._ 199. 1845. _Merisziere._ =4.= Rea _Flora_ 20. 1676. _Merise à Fleur Double._ =5.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:157. 1768. =6.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. _Kramelkirschenbaum mit gross gefüllter Blüthe._ =7.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:4, Tab. 8. 1792. _Herzkirschenbaum mit grosse gefüllter Blüthe._ =8.= Christ _Handb._ 668. 1797. _Süsskirschenbaum mit ganz gefüllter Blüte._ =9.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 363-370. 1819. _Gefülltblühende Süsskirsche._ =10.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:18. 1858. This variety in growth and foliage resembles the Mazzard and Black Heart and not the common double-flowering cherry with its small tree and small, pointed leaves. The flowers which appear at the usual season are produced in the most showy profusion being from one to one and one-half inches in diameter; they are composed of about forty white petals disposed in the form of a rose, with about thirty stamens and a large, abortive pistil. The numerous double flowers, resembling clusters of small, white roses, make the tree a very useful ornamental. =Large Griotte.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:148. 1832. Large Griotte resembles Griotte Commune but is larger and earlier; skin glossy black; flesh dark red, firm, sweet, pleasing. =Large Guindolle.= Species? =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:149, 150. 1832. Leaves are deeply indented, double-toothed; fruit large, flattened at the ends, pale red; flesh white, melting, juicy; ripens at the end of June or beginning of July. =Large Heart-shaped Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:129. 1832. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 199 fig. 1854. _Bigarreau Gros Monstrueux._ =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1831. _Bigarreau Gros Coeuret._ =4.= _Ibid._ 46. 1831. =5.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 453. 1869. _Monstrous Heart._ =6.= _Hogg Fruit Man._ 78, 87. 1866. A variety of French origin which was never extensively grown in America. Tree strong, vigorous, productive; fruit large, roundish-cordate; suture often raised; stem variable, set in a shallow cavity; skin dark, glossy red, nearly black, surface uneven; flesh firm but tender, reddish, pleasant, moderately juicy; good in quality; stone large, oval; ripens the first of July. =Large Late Red Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:128, 129. 1832. _Bigarreau à gros Fruit Rouge Tardif._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 46. 1831. The fruit is somewhat smaller and much later in maturity than that of the Large Red Bigarreau. The color is dark red on the shaded side and on the other a brownish-red, almost black which has given it the name Black Bigarreau; flesh firm, juicy and of excellent flavor. =Large Spanish.= Species? =1.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =1=:1754. Mentioned in the reference given. =Laroses Glaskirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 177 fig., 178. 1860. _Larose._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:352 fig., 353. 1877. This cherry was raised from seed in 1826 by M. Larose, of Neuilly-sur-Seine, France. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit usually borne in pairs, large, obtuse-cordate; sides compressed; suture shallow; stem medium in length, set in a large, deep cavity; skin glossy, tough, mottled with pale red becoming darker; flesh yellowish, tender, slightly fibrous, juicy, mildly acid; pit rather large, plump, oval, flattened at the base; ripens the last of July. =Late Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:124. 1847-48. =2.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 235. 1849. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 199. 1854. Late Bigarreau was raised in 1842 by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio. Tree vigorous, round-topped, very productive; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, occasionally somewhat angular; stem long; skin attractive yellow, occasionally nearly overspread with crimson-red, delicately blotched or mottled; flesh yellowish, with distinct radiating lines, juicy, firm, crisp, sweet, pleasant; very good in quality; stone rather small, roundish; season late, the same as Downer. =Late Black Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:130. 1832. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:112 fig. 25, 113, 114. 1866. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 338. 1889. This variety differs from Black Bigarreau in being smaller, less heart-shaped, and in ripening later. It was first known as Bigarreau Noir Tardif but Prince, in 1832, at which time he possibly brought it to America, translated the name into English and called it Late Black Bigarreau under which name it is now known in English and American pomologies. Tree large, vigorous, upright, productive; fruit medium to large, cordate; suture indistinct; color dark brownish-red changing to glossy black; flesh purplish-red, with abundant, highly colored juice, very firm, crisp, sweet yet sprightly, aromatic; quality good; ripens in mid-season or later. =Late Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. According to the reference, this is a small, black Heart of poor quality ripening early in July. =Late Large Black Griotte.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:145, 146. 1832. Worthy of consideration because of its beauty and lateness, often remaining on the tree until October. Tree of medium size; branches numerous, slender; fruit large, roundish; stem very long; skin dark red, nearly black; flesh red, very acid and bitter, somewhat milder at maturity. =Late Purple Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 85. 1866. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 468. 1869. =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24. 1876. A large, dark red, German variety ripening the latter part of July; flesh firm, juicy, agreeable. =Late Richmond.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:111. 1900. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:73. 1903. The origin of this variety is uncertain but it seems to have been grown in the Middle West about forty years ago. It is supposed to be a seedling of Early Richmond differing from its parent in ripening later, being of better quality, and more upright in growth. Fruit round, conical; stem thick, moderately long; cavity shallow, broad; skin thin; flesh tender, with abundant, colorless juice, acid; quality good; ripens a week or ten days later than Early Richmond; unproductive. =Late Ripe.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Gerarde _Herball_ 1504, 1505, fig. 5. 1636. According to Gerarde, this cherry is similar to the wild English cherry in branches and foliage but the flowers are often doubled; fruit small, round, dark red, often dried with the stems on; used by physicians. =Late White Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:113. 1832. Fruit nearly round, with a deep suture; skin whitish or very pale amber, tinged with light red; flesh firm, agreeable; ripens in France in September. =Latham.= Species? =1.= _Ont. Sta. An. Rpt._ =3=:45. 1896. Listed as having been grown at the Simcoe Station. =Laura.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing Fr. _Trees Am._ 468. 1869. Laura originated with Charles Pease, Cleveland, Ohio. Tree spreading, upright, productive; fruit medium to large, heart-shaped, globular, often one-sided; stem medium, inserted in a shallow depression; skin pale yellow, largely overspread with rich, bright red; flesh white, juicy, sweet, rich, half-tender; pit medium to small; ripens early in June and hangs well. =Leather Stocking.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 211, 212. 1854. Leather Stocking was grown by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, in 1842, from a pit of Yellow Spanish. Tree vigorous, hardy, moderately productive; fruit large, heart-shaped, often obtuse; skin faint red becoming a rich reddish-black when fully ripe, with irregular stripes and blotches of black; cavity deep, open; flesh firm, tinged with red, sweet, fair; pit of medium size; season the last of July. =Leib.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =14=:28. 1872. =2.= _Horticulturist_ =29=:256. 1874. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 163. 1881. This variety was brought from Germany about 1850 and planted in the garden of a Mr. Leib, Galena, Illinois. It resembles Early Richmond and was claimed to be very productive and hardy at the time of its introduction; it has not been widely disseminated. Tree hardy, healthy, upright in growth, bearing abundantly; fruit of a crimson color, sweet; quality good; season the end of June, following Early Richmond. =Leitzkauer.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 287. 1802. _Sauer Einmach_ and _Backkirsche._ =2.= Krünitz _Enc._ 73, 74. 1790. _Leitzkauer Einmachweichsel._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 567-569. 1819. No doubt the name of this cherry arises from the cloister, Leitzkau, in Magdeburg, Prussia, Germany, where it is widely planted. It is propagated by root cuttings and if not pruned, grows tall, weak and drooping. Fruit medium to small, roundish; stem long; skin dark brown to glossy black; flesh reddish, juicy, sour; stone small, red; ripens in August; of little value. =Lemercier.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Hort. Reg._ (Am.) =1=:343, 344. 1835. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:399 fig., 400. 1847. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 85. 1866. =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:353, 354 fig. 1877. _Frühe Lemercier._ =6.= _Ill. Handb._ 157 fig., 158. 1860. Discovered by M. Lemercier in Brabant, Belgium, about 1830; introduced into Paris in 1835 and into America in 1842. It resembles Late Duke with which it ripens. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate; suture shallow; stem long, inserted in a wide, deep cavity; skin glossy, transparent, mottled with red; flesh yellowish before ripe, becoming red, firm but melting, juicy, slightly acidulated, with a peculiar fragrance; stone rather large, roundish, truncate at the base, slightly clinging; ripens the last of July. =Léopold (II).= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 367. 1889. Mentioned but not described. =Leopoldskirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 674. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 564-566. 1819. _Griotte de Léopold._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26, 195. 1876. This variety was received by Truchsess in 1796 from Pastor Winter as Brusseler Bruyn by which name it was called by a few German pomologists. It should not be confused with the present Brusseler Braune. Fruit large, almost round, compressed on one side; skin dark brown changing to nearly black; flesh dark red, juicy, melting, mild when mature; stone almost round; ripens toward the end of July. The drooping branches, the small, sour cherry leaves which turn yellow and drop and the sweetness in flavor separate it from the Grosse Morelle. =Leschken (Leschke's) Schwarze Knorpel Kirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 367. 1889. Mentioned in the reference given. =Lethe.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 40. 1895. Lethe was grown by C. E. Hoskins, Springbrook, Oregon. Fruit of the Bigarreau type, large, heart-shaped, surface smooth, glossy; cavity medium in size and depth, irregular, flaring, marked by irregular waves; suture shallow; stem very long, slender, curved; skin thin, tenacious, purplish-black; dots minute, indented; flesh very dark purplish-red, firm, meaty, juicy, mild subacid, almost sweet; quality good; pit large, oval, semi-clinging; ripens the last of June in Oregon. =Liefeld Braune.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 367. 1889. _Guigne brune de Liefeld._ =2.= _Guide Prat._ 6, 191. 1895. Tree of medium size, very vigorous and productive; fruit large, cordate, brownish, mottled; flesh red, sweet; of first quality; matures early in June. =Lieke Bunte Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 61 fig., 62. 1867. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 367. 1889. _Bigarreau Tardi de Lieke._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 21, 190. 1876. Originated with Herr Lieke of Hildesheim, Prussia, Germany, fruiting for the first time in 1851. The fruit is one of the latest to ripen; large, obtuse-cordate, compressed; stem long, slender, inserted in a rather wide, deep cavity; suture indistinct; skin glossy, tough, yellow, streaked and spotted with a mild red; flesh faintly yellow, firm, sweet with a pleasing sourness; stone small, oval; season late. =Lincoln (I).= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 468. 1869. Lincoln is a vigorous, spreading variety, found near Cleveland, Ohio. Fruit large, oblong-cordate, pointed; suture broad, shallow; stem long; cavity deep; skin dark brown when ripe; flesh firm, veined and mottled with shades of red, juicy, sprightly, sweet, pleasant; pit above medium in size; season the first to the middle of July. =Lincoln (II).= P. _avium._ =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 289. 1889. =2.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:29. 1910. Seth Lewelling of Milwaukee, Oregon, raised this variety in 1865 probably from a seed of Eagle. Tree large, spreading, with an open top, seriously affected with black aphis; fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate; skin very dark, thick, tough; stem short; flesh firm, deep red, juicy; good quality; pit small, round. =Lindley.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 211. 1854. Lindley was raised by Professor J. P. Kirtland from seeds given him by M. Lindley, Euclid, Ohio. Tree vigorous, moderately prolific; fruit large, heart-shaped, surface uneven; skin dark purplish-red; flesh almost firm, tinged red, juicy, deficient in richness; season the first of July. =Lipp.= _P. avium._ =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ ==2:279. 1903. _Lipp Late Blood._ =2.= Green _Cat._ 29. 1906. Lipp originated in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Fruit large, dark red or crimson; stem long; flesh and juice very dark, meaty; late. =Litham.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Stone & Wellington _Cat._ 33. 1907. This is a Russian cherry introduced by Stone & Wellington, Toronto, Ontario. Fruit of medium size; color red; flesh firm. =Little Phil.= Species? =1.= _Wyo. Sta. Bul._ =34=:129. 1897. Mentioned as not hardy in Wyoming. =Logan.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 200 fig. 1854. =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24, 201. 1876. Logan is another of Professor J. P. Kirtland's cherries originating in 1842 from a pit of Yellow Spanish. Tree hardly healthy, somewhat spreading; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, with a shallow depression at the apex; stem variable, set in a deep cavity; skin purplish-black when ripe; flesh firm, dark red, with white, radiating lines, juicy, sweet, rich; pit above medium in size, oval; mid-season. =Long Finger.= Species? =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 574. 1629. "The long finger Cherry is another small long red one, being long and round like a finger, whereof it took the name:...." =Look No Further.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. Pat Off. Rpt._ 294. 1853. This variety was introduced into this country in 1815, from the Royal Gardens of Luxembourg, Paris, by Samson V. S. Wilder of Bolton, Massachusetts. Said to be very productive, sweet, large and attractive. =Lord Belhaven White Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 56. 1831. Mentioned but not described. =Lothaunner Erfurter.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. =Lothkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 288. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 595-597. 1819. =3.= Dochnahl Führ. _Obstkunde_ =3=:65. 1858. Fruit large, nearly round, flattened on one side; stem long; skin reddish-black; flesh very tender, red, sour; ripens the first of August. =Louise.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Chase Bros. _Cat._ 20. 1907. Louise was found about 1887 by the late Lewis Chase in the vicinity of Rochester, New York. Tree hardy, productive; fruit large, dark red, sour; ripens in June. =Louisiana Iron Clad.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _La. Sta. Bul._ =2=:682. 1893. =2.= _Ibid._ =112=:11. 1908. This cherry originated in Louisiana about 1900 with A. K. Clingman. It is said to be the only cherry which will produce fruit in Louisiana; of the Morello type. =Löwener Frühkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 359. 1881. _Frühe Englische Kirsche aus Löwen._ =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 79 fig., 80. 1867. _Hâtive de Louvain._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 17, 200. 1876. _Lowener Frühweichsel._ =4.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. This variety probably originated in Belgium nearly half a century ago. Fruit variable in size, often large, sides and ends compressed giving it a square appearance; suture shallow; stem long, strongly inserted in a wide, regular, deep cavity; skin rather glossy, dark brownish-red; flesh dark red, tender, juicy, acidulated, refreshing; stone plump, almost round, base abrupt, with a slight depression; early. =Lucien.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 228, 229. 1819. =2.= Liegel _Syst. Anleit._ 157. 1825. =3.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:79, 80, fig. 38. 1866-73. =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 367. 1889. =5.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:61. 1900. _Guigne Lucien._ =6.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 198. 1876. This foreign variety is planted in Canada but is not known in the United States. It was found by Uellner in Lüneburg, Prussia, about 1806. Leroy is of the opinion that this is the cherry he calls Guigne Carnée Winkler which came out a few years later as a seedling of Winkler from Guben, Prussia. =Ludwig Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 86. 1866. _Guigne Ludwig._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 198. 1876. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:326 fig. 1877. _Ludwig's Bunte Herzkirsche._ =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 367, 368. 1889. Ludwig is a seedling obtained by Thomas Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, England, about 1860. Fruit large, cordate, terminating in a sharp point; suture slightly indistinct; stem very long, slender, inserted in a wide cavity; skin glossy, bright red, paler on the shaded side; flesh pale yellow, tender, melting; pit small, roundish, plump; ripens the last of June. =Lukeward.= _P. avium._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. =2.= Phillips _Comp. Gard._ 79. 1831. =3.= Floy-Lindley _Guide Orch. Gard._ 106. 1846. _Lukeward's Heart._ =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:125. 1832. A variety supposed to have come from Italy which has long since passed from cultivation. Fruit cordate, dark brown or nearly black; ripens early in August. =Lundie Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 43. 1803. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:118. 1832. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 218. 1854. Lundie Guigne is an old English cherry first spoken of by Forsyth in 1803. Tree vigorous, large; fruit medium in size, roundish-elongated, dark purplish-black; flesh tender, juicy, subacid, pleasant; season July. =McAdow.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Hort. An._ 88 fig. 1869. =2.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 32. 1869. McAdow is supposed to be a cross between Black Tartarian and Elton, grown from seed by Dr. McAdow, Chillicothe, Ohio. Tree vigorous, productive, bears early; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, compressed, without a suture; stem slender, deeply inserted; skin light, pale yellow, overspread and mottled indistinctly with light, clear red; flesh firm, yellowish, tender, juicy, pleasant but not rich; quality good; stone medium to large, oval. =MacRoach.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1=. _Green-River Nur. Cat._ 23. 1899. This cherry was found near Guthrie, Kentucky, on the farm of John MacRoach, where it has fruited for many years and is considered a very good cherry of the May Duke type. =Madame Courtois.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rev. Hort._ 335. 1870-71. Found by Bonamy, a nurseryman, in 1860, upon a farm belonging to the Château of Lamothe, near Puylaurens, Tarn, France. Tree productive; fruit large; skin clear red; flesh tinted with a rose color, sweet, very agreeable; ripens in June-July. =Madame Grégoire.= _P. avium. × P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 18. 1895. This variety is said in _Guide Pratique_, 1895, to be very similar to Reine Hortense. =Madeleine.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26, 201. 1876. _Cerise Commune (de la Madeleine_). =2.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=:No. 12, Pl. 1846. _Cerisier de la Madleine._ =3.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:507. 1860. _Amarelle de la Madleine._ =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:205. 1866. Madeleine is probably a late strain of the old Cerise Commune formerly extensively grown about Paris. Fruit of medium size, roundish, flattened at the ends; suture a line; stem medium in length; skin clear red changing to brownish-red; flesh whitish, tender, acid; pit small; ripens the last of July; productive. =Madison.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 211, 1854. _Madison Bigarreau._ =2.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 235. 1841. 3. Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 367. 1849. _Madison's Bunte Herzkirsche._ =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 368. 1889. Madison is a seedling of the White Bigarreau, raised by Robert Manning, Salem, Massachusetts. Tree healthy, productive, moderate in growth, spreading; fruit of medium size, regular, heart-shaped; stem rather short, slender; skin heavily dotted and mottled with rich red on amber-yellow ground; flesh yellowish, rather tender, juicy, with agreeable sprightliness; pit small, oval; season the last of June. =Magann.= _P. avium._ =1.= _New Haven Nur. Cat._ 12. 1899-1900. Magann is a hardy, Sweet Cherry originating in Franklin County, Missouri; fruit large, nearly black, borne in large clusters. =Magèse.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24. 1876. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:327 fig. 1877. Magèse was received by Leroy from Florence, Italy, about 1864. Fruit large, attached in twos and threes, obtuse-cordate; stem stout, short, inserted in a wide, deep cavity; skin yellow, washed with carmine; flesh yellowish, moderately tender, juicy, sugary, acidulated; first quality; stone small, round, plump; ripens the first of June. =Magnifique de Daval.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:154. 1882. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 368. 1889. The flowers and foliage are described by Mas in his _Pomologie Générale_. =Magog.= Species? =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:13. 1892. Listed in the reference given. =Mammoth.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ohio Pom. Soc. Rpt._ =10=:44. 1862. _Kirtland's Mammoth._ =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 198 fig. 1854. =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:31, 32, fig. 16. 1882. _Mammuthkirsche._ =4.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 56. 1907. Mammoth was raised, probably about 1842, by Professor J. P. Kirtland of Cleveland, Ohio, from a pit of a Yellow Spanish tree grown apart from other cherries. Tree large, vigorous, round-topped, usually unproductive; fruit of the largest size, often averaging three and one-half inches in circumference, obtuse-cordate, with a large, prominent suture; stem of medium thickness, long; skin moderately thick, attractive clear yellow, blushed or mottled with light red; flesh whitish, with abundant, uncolored juice, fine-grained, with distinct radiating lines, nearly tender, sweet yet almost sprightly; very good in quality; stone roundish-oval, regular; season early. =Mammoth Oxheart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Pioneer Nur. Cat._ 16. 1905-06. Listed, probably not propagated at present. =Manger.= Species? =1.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 211. 1896. Mentioned without a description. =Manning Early Black.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:282. 1842. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 218. 1854. This variety was grown from a pit of Black Heart by Robert Manning, Salem, Massachusetts. It differs from the parent only in time of ripening, which is ten days earlier, and in form of tree, which is more spreading. =Manning Early White Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 243. 1841. Still another seedling raised by Robert Manning, this one coming from a seed of White Turkey Bigarreau. Fruit of medium size, cordate, pale red, amber in the sun, sweet, fine; ripens in June. =Manning Late Black.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:284. 1842. =2.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 234. 1849. _Manning Black Bigarreau._ =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 235. 1841. _Black Bigarreau._ =4.= Bridgeman _Gard. Ass't_ Pt. =3=:54. 1847. This is another of Robert Manning's seedlings of the Black Heart. Tree vigorous, hardy, productive; fruit medium in size, roundish-cordate; skin deep purple, nearly black; stem long; flesh purplish-red, firm, rather juicy, sprightly, with a pleasant, luscious flavor; ripens the second week in July. =Manning Mottled.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 176. 1845. =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 361. 1849. _Mottled Bigarreau._ =3.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:283, 1842. Robert Manning, Salem, Massachusetts, raised this cherry from a seed of White Bigarreau. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit rather large, roundish-cordate, flattened on one side, with a distinct suture; stem slender, inserted in a shallow cavity; skin amber, shaded and mottled with red, with a semi-transparent, glossy appearance; flesh yellow when fully ripe, tender, with a sweet, delicious juice; stone large; season at the end of June. =Maple Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ Pl. 8. 1817. =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. This a rather firm-fleshed, red Heart of second size and third quality, ripening in July. =Marells Royal.= Species? =1.= _Ariz. Sta. Bul._ =15=:65. 1895. Mentioned as having been planted in Arizona. =Maria Gaucher.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 57. 1907. Listed as a variegated, hard-fleshed cherry. =Marie de Châteauneuf.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18. 1876. Probably named after the wife of the Marquis de Châteauneuf; fruit very large, obtuse-cordate, purplish-black; flesh rose-colored, moderately firm, juicy, sugary, agreeable; ripens the middle of June. =Marie Thérèse.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:358 fig. 1877. This variety originated with M. de Luigné near Châteaugontier, Mayenne, France, and was named after his daughter Marie Thérèse. Tree strong, vigorous, moderately productive; fruit above medium in size, roundish, flattened at the ends; suture broad; stem long, slender; cavity small; skin transparent, firm, red, dotted with whitish-gray; flesh yellow, compact, melting, juicy, aromatic; first quality; ripens the last of June. =Markirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:29, 30. 1910. Tree large, upright, open-topped, productive; foliage frequently attacked by aphis; fruit large, dark red, cordate, with a short stem; skin thick, tender, while the flesh is meaty and deeply stained; stone round, smooth; ripens the third week in July, often hanging on the trees until the middle of August. =Marsotte.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Guide Prat._ 12. 1895. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit medium in size; stem of medium length; skin black; flesh juicy, sugary; used in making Kirschwasser. =Mary.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 211. 1854. Mary was raised by B. B. Kirtland, Greenbush, New York. Fruit borne in clusters, having a bright, lively red color and a sprightly subacid flavor. =Master White Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 56. 1831. Listed in this reference. =Mastodon.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 185. 1894. _Black Mastodon._ =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 289. 1889. Mastodon is a seedling of Pontiac and originated with W. H. Chapman, Napa, California; introduced by Leonard Coates, then of the same place. Fruit very large, obtuse-cordate, base very broad; cavity large, deep; stem stout, long; skin entirely mottled with pinkish or heavy red; flesh firm, yellowish, tinged with red, meaty, moderately juicy, with a rich, lively sweet flavor. =Matilda.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 262. 1892. Matilda originated with C. E. Hoskins, formerly of Newburg, Oregon. Fruit medium to large, broad-cordate, surface smooth; skin glossy, dark red, nearly black; dots very fine; flesh dark red, firm, sprightly, sweet; very good; ripens in Oregon about the middle of June. =Matts.= _P. avium._ J. G. Youngken, Richlandtown, Pennsylvania, writes that this cherry is a seedling of Black Tartarian. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit large. =Mayo.= _P. avium._ =1.= Samuels & Co. _Cat._ 22. 1892. The original tree of Mayo is on the farm of a Mr. Mayo near Jackson, Tennessee. Tree vigorous, hardy, productive; fruit large, amber shaded with red, tender; resembles Wood. =Mazarine.= Species? =1.= Thacher _Am. Orch._ 216. 1822. Listed as one of the twenty principal varieties in the United States. =Mednyansky.= _P. avium._ =1=. _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =177=:31. 1899. _Moduyansky._ =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 185. 1894. This Hungarian variety was introduced to this country in 1894. In the second reference the name is spelled Moduyansky but in the first it is given Mednyansky which form is deemed best to follow here. Tree upright, spreading, rather vigorous; fruit cordate; suture variable, indistinct on some specimens but a noticeable ridge from the cavity to the apex on others; stem stout, long, inserted in a narrow, deep, irregular cavity; skin very dark purple turning black; flesh firm, rich, sweet, sprightly; quality very good. =Meininger Späte Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 137 fig., 138. 1860; =2.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 370. 1881. _Bigarreau-tardif de Meiningen._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 21, 190. 1876. Tree vigorous, productive, blooming late; fruit of medium size, cordate, sides compressed; suture shallow; stem slender, variable in length, set in a narrow, shallow cavity; color pale golden-yellow, spotted with pale red, which often conceals the ground color; flesh firm, whitish-yellow, reddish-yellow under the skin, juicy; stone large, oval, usually somewhat adherent; ripens in August lasting until September. =Meissener Weisse.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Mentioned in the reference given. =Merise Grosse Rose Oblongue.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. Probably a small, wild variety. =Merise Petite Ronda.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. Listed without a description. =Merisier Fastigié.= Species? =1.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=:No. 3, P1. 1846. Poiteau was uncertain as to the name of this variety which he noticed in the gardens of M. Cels. Tree very pyramidal; fruit yellowish-amber. =Michigan.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 17. 1885. Michigan is a supposed cross between Black Tartarian and Yellow Spanish fruiting for the first time in 1877. It was grown by Stephen Cook, Benton Harbor, Michigan. Fruit large, cordate, slightly compressed; stem long; suture lacking; skin deep red, nearly black; flesh firm, juicy, sweet; ripens early in July. Said to be nearly rot proof. =Miller.= Species? =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. Listed but not described. =Millet.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Brookshaw _Pom. Brit._ PL. 7. 1817. =2.= Brookshaw _Hort. Reposit._ =1=:45, P1. 23 fig. 2. 1823. Described as one of the best black, heart-shaped late Dukes, ripening the last of June and continuing until September; flesh moderately firm; stone small; excellent. =Minnesota.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:280. 1903. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =205=:27. 1903. Sprouts of this variety were brought from Sweden to Professor J. L. Budd, Ames, Iowa. Fruit medium in size, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; stem long; skin dark red; flesh dark, tender, juicy, subacid; very good. =Minnesota Ostheim.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:120. 1900. _Ostheim._ =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 371. 1881. This variety was introduced into Minnesota from North Germany by E. Meyer, St. Petersburg, Minnesota. It is well adapted to cold regions where the Montmorency group does not flourish. Tree upright, dense; fruit large, roundish-oblate, dark red; flesh dark, tender, sweet subacid; good in quality; stone roundish, slightly flattened; ripens the middle of July. =Minnie.= _P. pumila._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 353. 1896. Minnie is a vigorous seedling of _Prunus pumila_ grown in Manitoba, Canada; fruit large and good. =Monkirsche Rote.= Species? =1.= _Mas. Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. =Monstrous Duke.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Leroy Dict. Pom._ =5=:360 fig., 361. 1877. Monstrous Duke is mentioned by MM. Simon-Louis in 1866 as a new sort of the Anglaise hâtive. It is probably of English origin, but the name is misleading as the fruit is only moderately large; attached in pairs, globular; stem stout, short, shallowly inserted; skin transparent, yellowish, partly covered with red; flesh yellowish, tender, slightly fibrous, very juicy, sugary, sprightly; pit small, roundish, plump, adhering to the stem; ripens the last of June. =Monstrueuse Hennequine.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. Listed without description. =Montmorency Pleureur.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Guide Prat._ 17, 196. 1895. Described as a handsome tree with drooping branches. Its fruit is somewhat similar to that of the Montmorency. =Montmorency de Sauvigny.= _P. cerasus._ 1. _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 120 fig., 121. 1904. _Cerise de Sauvigny._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. _Belle de Sauvigny._ =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 334. 1889. _Schöne aus Sauvigny._ =4.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. This cherry is a popular fruit about Paris where it is used for confitures and brandy. Fruit large, roundish, attached in twos or threes; stem short; cavity large, shallow; color dark red; flesh yellow, transparent, slightly fibrous, acidulated; stone small, round; ripens the second half of July. =Montmorency Stark.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ =4=:46. 1913. Montmorency Stark is described as having been produced on the Stark Brothers Nursery grounds, Louisiana, Missouri, from a select tree which bore large fruit. =Montreuil.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =80=:23. 1892. =2.= _Ibid._ =194=:41. 1901. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _Belle de Montreuil._ =4.= _Rev. Hort._ 451. 1875. _Schöne von Montreuil._ =5.= _Reut. Pom. Inst. Festschrift_ 123. 1910. This variety was mentioned by European writers as early as 1875 but was not known in America until recently. It is a valuable cherry and was placed on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1909. Tree upright, spreading, vigorous, more productive than Reine Hortense; fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate; stem long, stout; skin mottled red approaching black; flesh tender, light red, with abundant, colored juice, subacid, pleasing; quality good; season July; valuable for dessert and culinary purposes. =Moorhouse.= _P. avium._ =1.= Leonard Coates _Cat._ 10. 1911. Moorhouse is no longer propagated, being inferior to its parent, Napoleon. =Morella Extra Noir.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. Listed without a description. =Morella Wye.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:61. 1900. Listed in this reference. =Morelle von Wilhelmshöhe.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Guide Prat._ 16. 1895. A very good table cherry ripening the seventh week of the season. =Moreller Langstilkede Sode.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. Listed without a description. =Morisco.= Species? =1.= Langley _Pomona_ 86. 1729. Mentioned without description. =Morocco.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. "The Morocco Cherrie hath a large white blossome, and an indifferent big berrie, long and round, with a long stalke of a darke reddish purple colour, a little tending to a blew when it is full ripe, of a firme substance; the juice is of a blackish red, discolouring the hands or lips, and of a pleasant taste: some doe thinke that this and the Morello be both one." =Morten Seedling.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Listed but not described. =Mosler Schwarze Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:23. 1858. Fruit medium in size, obtuse-cordate, sides compressed; stem long, slender; skin black, tough; flesh dark, tender, very sweet; pit oblong-cordate; ripens the middle of July; productive. =Moyer Honey Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Horticulturist_ N. S. =8=:22. 1858. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees_ Am. 469, 470. 1869. This variety was grown by Josiah G. Youngken, Allentown, Pennsylvania. Tree healthy, vigorous, productive; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, slightly compressed; suture small; stem long, slender; skin whitish, shaded and mottled with rich red; flesh yellow, juicy, sweet, pleasant; often partially clinging; ripens the middle of June. =Mückelberger Grosse.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 24. 1876. A Sweet Cherry originating in Guben, Prussia, Germany. =Murdock.= _P. avium._ =1.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:289. 1903. _Murdock's Bigarreau._ =2.= _Gard. Mon._ =28=:240, 241. 1886. =3.= Reid _Cat._ 35. 1892. Murdock is thought to have originated in 1887 with John R. and A. Murdock, then of Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. Tree large, vigorous, upright-spreading; fruit large, roundish-cordate; cavity deep, wide, rather abrupt; stem long, slender; skin thin, moderately tough, amber overlaid and mottled with light red; flesh whitish, firm, crisp, somewhat sprightly, juicy, sweet; quality very good; stone clinging, large, ovate, flattened, smooth; ripens early in July, hanging long on the trees; not susceptible to rot. =Nancy.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 470. 1869. Nancy originated with Charles Pease, Sr., Cleveland, Ohio. Tree upright-spreading; fruit large, obtuse-cordate; stem long, stout, inserted in a large cavity; suture slight; skin pale yellow, shaded and mottled with crimson; flesh tender, juicy, rich, sweet; very good; stone small; ripens the last of June. =Naples.= P. _avium._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. _Neapolitanische Knorpelkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:35. 1858. =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 39 fig., 40. 1867. _Bigarreau de Naples._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 189. 1876. This is an Italian cherry introduced into Germany, France and England from Florence, Italy. It is very productive and is distinguished by its color and its lateness. Tree vigorous, bears early; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, sides only faintly compressed; suture indistinct; stem of medium length, set in a wide, deep cavity; skin tough, firm, glossy, becoming dark brown or black; flesh firm, juicy, sweet, vinous; stone oval, plump; ripens the sixth week of the season. =Ne Plus Ultra.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =22=:208. 1880. Ne Plus Ultra was raised by John Mosely of Goodrich, Ontario. It resembles Napoleon but is inferior. =Neapolitanische Molkenkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:33. 1858. _Bigarreautier de Naples._ =2.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:504. 1860. _Napolitaine._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. This is a large, lemon-colored, rather firm-fleshed variety that should not be confused with Naples. Tree small, vigorous; flesh sweet, pleasing; ripens late in July. =Nebraska Sweet.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gage County Nur. Cat._ 8. 1906. Listed in this reference as a dark, Sweet Cherry doing remarkably well in Nebraska. =Nelson Kentish.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 23. 1892-93. Said to be more vigorous in growth and more hardy in bud than Early Richmond. =Neue Englische Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 542, 543. 1819. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 83 fig., 84. 1867. _Neue Englische Kirsche._ =3.= Christ _Wörterb._ 286. 1802. According to Truchsess, Mayer grew this cherry about 1775. Tree of medium height, moderately productive; fruit often large, roundish, more or less compressed; suture faint; stem straight, medium in length; cavity wide, deep; skin glossy, tender, black; flesh tender, dark red, juicy, pleasing subacid; pit plump, small, oval; ripens early in July. =Neue Ochsenherzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 73 fig., 74. 1860. _Herrnhäuser neue Ochsenherzkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:22. 1858. _Nouvelle Guigne des Boeufs._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:301. 1866. Fruit very large, acute-cordate, irregular near the apex; stem long, slender; skin glossy, brownish-black; flesh dark red, tender, sweet, vinous; stone cordate-oblong; ripens the middle of July; not very productive. =Neumann Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 370. 1889. Mentioned in the reference given. =New Century.= _P. cerasus × (P. avium × P. cerasus)._ =1.= _Texas Nur. Cat._ 10. 1907. New Century is thought to be a cross originating in Grayson County, Texas, between English Morello and some Duke; it was introduced by the Texas Nursery Company. Tree of the Duke type, upright; fruit medium to above in size; light red; good. The trees are free from mildew in Texas but do not hold their fruit well. =New Royal.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. Listed without a description. =Nienburger Frühe Bunte Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:27. 1858. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate, sides compressed; stem of medium length, stout, straight; skin yellowish, spotted and streaked; flesh aromatically sweet; pit oval; ripens the middle of June. =Noble.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Am. Gard._ =20=:576. 1899. =2.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 44. 1904. This variety is said to resemble May Duke. Fruit large; color deep crimson to darker; flesh firm, colored, rich; late; productive. =Noire des Vosges.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:105, 106, fig. 51. 1866-73. _Griotte Noire des Vosges. =2.= Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 98 fig., 99. 1904. This old variety is probably a native of eastern France. The fruit is used for confections and liquors. Fruit attached in pairs, medium in size, obtuse-cordate; suture indistinct; stem long, slender, set in a shallow cavity; color almost black at maturity; flesh dark, tender, vinous, acidulated; stone small, oval, obtuse at the apex; ripens late in July. =Nonpareil.= Species? =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 187. 1908. Nonpareil is a black cherry which originated at Vacaville, California. =Norfolk.= Species? =1.= _Mass. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 87. 1872. Mentioned as a seedling cherry grown by J. H. Fenno; not described. =Norma.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Fruit Grower_ =19=:368. 1908. Norma is a black cherry grown by R. H. Weber, The Dalles, Oregon; it is earlier than Napoleon. =Northeast.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Sp. Bul._ =27=:11. 1904. Northeast is a rather dwarf cherry of the Morello type; very productive. Said to be valuable as a late market variety but the trees are lacking in vigor and subject to leaf blight. =Northwest.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 165. 1881. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 25. 1899. =3.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:76 fig. 16, 88. 1903. This is one of the varieties originated by D. B. Wier, Lacon, Illinois, and first distributed by Professor J. L. Budd as Wier's No. 29; the fruit resembles Baldwin. The American Pomological Society placed Northwest on its fruit catalog in 1899 but dropped it in 1909. Tree medium in size, resembling English Morello closely both in size and habit, very productive; fruit medium to large, roundish, obscurely heart-shaped; stem long, adhering quite firmly to the fruit; skin tough, medium in thickness, dark attractive red, becoming nearly black; flesh deeply colored, firm, brisk but pleasant acid, mingled with a slight astringency; good in quality; stone small, roundish; season early. =Occident.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 40. 1895. Occident is a seedling of Napoleon which originated with C. E. Hoskins, Springbrook, Oregon. Fruit heart-shaped, above medium in size, smooth; stem long, slender; cavity large, regular, deep, flaring, shaded with pink; suture shallow; skin very dark purplish-red, thick, tenacious; dots numerous, small, russet, indented; flesh dark reddish, translucent, with white veining, firm, meaty, juicy, mild subacid, rich; good to very good; season late in June; a good shipper. =Ohio Beauty.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Horticulturist_ =2=:123 fig. 19. 1847-48. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 212. 1854. =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:93 fig. 18, 94, 95. 1866. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 12. 1871. _Bigarreau Bauté de l'Ohio._ =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:177, 178 fig. 1877. Ohio Beauty probably originated in 1842 with Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio; first disseminated in 1847. The American Pomological Society listed it on its fruit catalog in 1871 but dropped it in 1895. Tree large, vigorous, hardy, very productive; fruit medium to large, cordate, compressed; cavity of medium depth, wide; stem slender, long; skin thin, of medium toughness, light yellow overspread with crimson; dots numerous, light russet, conspicuous; flesh whitish, with colorless juice, tender, meaty, mild, sweet; good in quality; stone clinging, irregular-ovate; season early. =Okiya.= _P. pumila × P. americana._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:1908. =2.= _Ibid._ =130=:176, Pl. 6. 1911. Okiya is a cross between the Sand Cherry and Gold plum. Fruit roundish, dark red; flesh green; excellent quality. =Oliver.= Species? =1.= _Ariz. Sta. Bul._ =15=:65. 1895. =2.= _Neb. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 18. 1900. Oliver is said to be a valuable cherry for home use in Nebraska; slow in coming into bearing. =Opata.= _P. pumila × P. americana._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:1908. =2.= _Ibid._ =130=:173, 174 Pl. 4, 175, 176. 1911. Opata, a cross between the Sand Cherry and Gold plum which was sent out in 1908. It is a plum in habit of growth, vigorous; foliage large, glossy; fruit one and three-sixteenths inches in diameter, roundish; skin thin, tender, dark purplish-red with blue bloom; flesh green, firm; flavor very pleasant combining the sprightly acid of the Sand Cherry with the rich sweetness of the Gold plum; pit very small; season early, the middle of August. =Oregon.= _P. avium._ =1.= Wickson _Cat. Fruits_ 290. 1889. 2. _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 150. 1895. Oregon is a seedling of Napoleon originated by H. W. Prettyman, East Portland, Oregon, and named by the Oregon Horticultural Society in 1888. W. S. Failing of Portland introduced it the same year. Tree vigorous, upright; fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate, irregularly flattened along the suture; stem medium in length, stout, set in a deep, irregular cavity; skin black; flesh firm, very dark, juicy, sweet; later than Napoleon. =Orel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 327. 1888. =2.= _Maine Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 145. 1889. This name is given to a dwarf cherry similar to Vladimir from Orel, Russia. It has small leaves and a close habit of growth; comes into bearing when from three to four feet in height; fruit larger than Montmorency, nearly black when ripe, mildly subacid. =Orel No. 24. _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 328. 1888. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:77, 78. 1903. This variety was imported by Budd but the name was lost. Some believe it to be Lutovka but as grown at the Iowa Station it is more like Early Morello in form and size of tree and fruit. Tree smaller and more open than Lutovka; fruit of medium size, roundish-oblate; cavity deep; stem medium in length, stout; suture a faint line; skin thin, translucent, cornelian-red; flesh firm, colored, juicy, pleasingly acid; good; pit round, angular; season the latter part of June. =Orel Sweet.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =19=:549. 1892. =2.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:21. 1910. _Orel No._ 26. =3.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 328. 1888. Orel Sweet is known in Europe as Lianzkaja Black; it was introduced into America by Budd as Orel 26; one of the hardiest of Sweet Cherries. Tree large, with a spreading top; fruit of medium size, roundish-oblate; stem long, slender; skin thin, tender, dark red; flesh soft, subacid; pit small, round, stained; ripens the last of July in Washington. =Orleans.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Brown Bros. _Cat._ 19. 1906. Orleans originated in Orleans County, New York. Probably not propagated at present, although known to many as an improved Montmorency. =Orléa Smith.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Mentioned but not described. =Osceola.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 200 fig. 1854. =3.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. Professor J. P. Kirtland of Cleveland, Ohio, originated the Osceola in 1842, from a pit of the Yellow Spanish. It was placed on the fruit list of the American Pomological Society in 1862 but was taken from the list in 189=1.= Tree round, spreading, hardy, healthy, productive; fruit medium to large, cordate; stem moderately stout inserted in a deep cavity; suture deep, broad; color dark purplish-red, inclining to black; flesh dark red, juicy, rich, sweet; pit medium or small, ovate, rounded; season the last of June and early July. =Ostheim (of Morris).= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 75. 1890. This is a small, dark colored cherry differing from the Minnesota Ostheim in being later and slightly inferior in quality. Fruit round, compressed; quality fair, lacking in juiciness; pit large; ripens about August 6th in Ottawa, Canada. =Othello.= _P. pumila._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 353. 1896. One of the Canada Experiment Farm's seedlings of _Prunus pumila_, the Sand Cherry; fruit large, very black, fair. =Owanka.= _P. pumila × P. americana._ =1.= S. _Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:1908. =2.= _Ibid._ =130=:176. 1911. Owanka, a cross between the Sand Cherry and Gold plum, was discarded soon after it was sent out because of its bitter skin; tree hardy, productive; fruit one and three-eighths inches in diameter; apex terminated by a minute prickle; skin dark red, with blue bloom; flesh yellow. =Ox Heart (of America).= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 24. 1899. _Major Francis._ =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 127. 1875. =3.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:29. 1910. _Coeur de Boeuf nouveau_? =4.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. This cherry originated with G. W. Walling, Oswego, Oregon, about 1865, and was renamed in honor of Major Francis of Portland. As yet it is known only in the Northwest. The fruit is of good quality, attractive color, ripening with Black Tartarian, but is readily sought by the birds. Tree very large, vigorous, upright, productive; fruit large, heart-shaped, dark red; flesh deeply stained with red, juicy, sweet; quality good; too tender for long shipment; season early. =Pandys Glaskirsche.= Species? 1. _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. Listed but not described. =Paramdam.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 308. 1884. This variety was found nearly a century and a half ago in Paramdam, England. Tree small; fruit small, round; skin pale red; stem an inch long; flesh pale, tender, lively acid, agreeable; ripens the last of July. =Parent.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 302. 1890. Listed in the reference given. =Paretzer Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Listed in this reference. =Pariser Griotte.= _P. cerasus._ 1. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort._ 430. 1819. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 371. 1889. This cherry is thought by some to be Duhamel's Griotte but it differs in its more tender flesh, sweeter taste, and smaller stone. =Parisian Guindoux.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:140. 1832. Tree moderately large; fruit large, pale red; flesh sweet; excellent; ripens the middle of June. =Paul.= _P. avium._ =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 185. 1908. Paul was found by E. V. D. Paul of Ukiah, Oregon; it was propagated and introduced by the Leonard Coates Nursery Company, Morganhill, California, in 1908. Fruit large, black, mottled with dark red; late; a good shipper. =Pauline de Vigny.= Species? =1.= Mas. _Pom. Gen._ =11=:161. 1882. Listed without a description. =Peach-Blossomed.= Species? =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:151. 1832. An ornamental cherry with rose-colored flowers. =Pease.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Hort. An._ 86, 87. 1869. Pease is a black, sweet seedling from Charles Pease, Sr., Cleveland, Ohio. Tree upright; fruit large, obtuse-cordate; flesh purplish, juicy, rich; follows Black Tartarian in ripening. =Perlkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 667. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 237-242. 1819. =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 111 fig., 112. 1860. =4.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:25, 26, fig. 13. 1882. =5.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 371. 1889. This variety is often taken for the Yellow Spanish but is distinct. Tree strong, vigorous, productive; fruit usually large, roundish-cordate, sides compressed; suture distinct; stem short, shallowly but firmly inserted; skin tough, glossy, resembling Yellow Spanish; flesh moderately tender, juicy, pleasing, sweet; stone rather large, elongated-cordate, nearly free; ripens about the middle of July. =Perlknorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 305-308. 1819. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 129 fig., 130. 1860. _Espagne bigarrée._ =3.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:35, 38. 1771. _Perlmarmorkirsche._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:43. 1858. This Bigarreau, though called a Heart by some, should not be confused with Perlkirsche. Fruit medium to above, roundish-cordate; suture indistinct; stem medium short, shallowly inserted; skin tough, glossy, resembling Yellow Spanish; flesh firm, fibrous, juicy, pleasing, sweet; stone medium in size, plump, oval; ripens the last of July to first part of August. =Petite Morelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:182 fig., 183, 184, 216. 1866. This is a small, acid cherry used in northern Germany for wine-making and in the kitchen. Tree vigorous, small, bushy; fruit small, round; suture indistinct; stem short, set in a straight, shallow cavity; color dark red changing to black; flesh red, tender, always acid; pit small, reddish, oval, plump; ripens the fourth week of the season. =Pfitzmann Schwarze Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 372. 1889. Listed in the reference given. =Pierce Late.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:89, 134. 1854. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 45. 1854. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 265. 1857. This variety originated with Amos Pierce but was introduced by James Hyde and Son, Newton, Massachusetts. Tree upright, free, round-topped; fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate, dark red, mottled with light amber; stem slender, rather short; flesh soft, tender, very juicy, sweet, rich; stone small; ripens the last of July. =Pink Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 219. 1854. Pink Heart is a small, pinkish-red, oval Mazzard; stem short; ripens in July. =Planchoury.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =7=:248. 1865. =2.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:61, 62, fig. 29. 1866-73. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:374, 375 fig. 1877. _Cerise de Planchouri._ =4.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =6=:71, Pl. 1858. _Kirsch von Planchoury._ =5.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 372. 1889. A Dr. Bretonneau grew this variety on his grounds near the River Loire, France. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate, flattened at the base, slightly compressed on the sides, completely transversed by a suture; stem long, set in a large, deep cavity; skin glossy, clear red changing to darker red, uniform; flesh tinged with red, semi-tender, sugary, juicy, agreeably acidulated; first quality; stone large, oval, free; ripens early in July. =Plattgedrückte Schattenmorelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26. 1876. Differs from the English Morello in being more compressed in form. =Plumstone.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 27. 1909. _Plumstone Morello._ =2.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 29. 1828. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 198 fig. 1845. =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =5.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:120. 1900. The origin of this variety is unknown but it was found in Virginia early in the Nineteenth Century by William Prince who brought it to Flushing, New York. Its name seems to have arisen from the form of the stone. According to Prince, this variety surpasses all of the European Morellos for culinary purposes. Tree vigorous, medium in size, productive; fruit very large, roundish or inclined to obtuse-cordate; stem long, rather slender, straight; skin dark red becoming nearly black; flesh reddish, tender, juicy, highly flavored, sprightly, with pleasant acidity when fully mature; stone long, resembling a plum; season late July. =Plymouth Rock.= _P. avium._ =1.= Lovett _Cat._ 25 fig. 1895. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =169=:200. 1899. _Plymouth._ =3.= Ont. Dept. Agr. _Fr. Ont._ 102. 1914. Plymouth Rock is generally believed to have originated with J. H. Black, Hightstown, New Jersey. Tree vigorous, upright, round-topped; fruit above medium in size, heart-shaped, roundish; skin tender, reddish-amber, with a bright red blush; stem long, slender; cavity narrow, shallow; flesh rather tender, light colored, juicy; pit round, plump, small; season early July. =Podiebrad.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27. 1876. _Podiebrad Bunte Herzkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:29. 1858. =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 21 fig., 22. 1867. Probably a seedling from Podiebrad, Hungary. Tree vigorous, productive, bears early; fruit above medium in size, obtuse-cordate; suture indistinct; stem long; cavity wide, moderately deep; skin tender, translucent, sulphur-yellow, nearly entirely washed and spotted with red; flesh tender, pale yellow, juicy, sweet, without sourness; stone medium egg-shaped; ripens early in July. =Pointed Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:119. 1832. This cherry is so named because part of the style becomes hard and ligneous forming a sharp point at the apex of the fruit. Fruit cordate; color red on a yellow ground; flesh firm, crisp, rich, tinged with a slight bitterness; early. =Polsted.= Species? =1.= _Jour. Hort._ N. S. =24=:412. 1873. Polsted received its name from a parish in Suffolk, England, where it was extensively grown. =Polton Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. Listed without a description. =Pomeranzen.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 479-482. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:53, 54. 1858. _Cerise Orange._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:306. 1866. The name was given this cherry because of the appearance of the tree which resembles that of the orange. Tree round with a globular head; fruit large, broadly oblate; stem of medium length, firmly set in a deep cavity; suture a line; skin clear, almost brick-red, becoming glossy, darker, and transparent with many white spots; flesh clear, tinged red, with yellowish-white veins, juicy, sweetly acidulated; first quality; stone medium in size, round, turgid, sharply pointed; ripens the middle of July. =Pontiac.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 201 fig. 1854. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 89. 1866. Pontiac originated in 1842, with Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, from =a= pit of Yellow Spanish. Tree vigorous, upright, somewhat spreading, healthy, productive; fruit medium to large, obtuse-cordate, with sides compressed; stem long, slender, inserted in a broad, shallow cavity; skin moderately firm, dark purplish-red, becoming nearly black at maturity; flesh purplish-red, with dark colored juice, rather tender, juicy, pleasant, aromatic, sweet; good in quality; stone medium in size, smooth, separating readily from the flesh; ripens in mid-season. =Pope.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:150. 1832. Some of the fruits of this cherry are green in the middle of July whereas the majority are quite ripe; introduced into France from Italy. Fruit large, round, red; stem very long; flesh similar to but more firm than that of the Montmorency. =Portugal.= Species? =1.= _Rea Flora_ 205. 1676. =2.= Coxe _Cult. Fr. Trees_ 247. 1817. Tree productive; fruit cordate, red; flavor rich and pleasant; ripens early in June. =Powhattan.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =2.= Elliott Fr. _Book_ 201. 1854. =3.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =67=:23. 1890. This is one of the numerous seedlings originated by Professor J. P. Kirtland, from a pit of Yellow Spanish. Fruit roundish-cordate, uneven in outline, compressed on the sides; stem medium to long; skin brownish-red, glossy; flesh purplish-red, half-tender, juicy, sweet; stone small. =Pragische Muskateller.= _P. avium._ =1.= Krünitz _Enc._ 51, 52, 53. 1790. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 398-402. 1819. _Cerise de Prague tardive._ =3.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 42. 1771. _Muscat de Prague._ =4.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. The cherry, introduced into Germany from Holland about 1785 under the name Prager Muskateller, was undoubtedly the variety mentioned by Knoop in 1771, as Cerise de Prague Tardive. With this variety three other sorts were confused; the Cerise Blanche, Cerise Guigne, and the Grosse Ungarische Kirsche, but when fruit was obtained from all, separation was comparatively easy. Tree very productive; fruit large, globular; suture a line; stem rather thick, of medium length; cavity narrow, shallow; skin thin, brownish-red changing to black; flesh tender, melting, juicy, light red, sweet, wine-like; stone oval or roundish; ripens the middle of July. =Précoce de Marest.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 28. 1876. Of doubtful value according to the reference. =Précoce de Sabaret.= Species? =1.= _Gard. Chron._ 1068. 1861. =2.= _Rev. Hort._ 335. 1870. There seem to be several strains of this cherry; it is one of the earliest cultivated sorts in France, ripening at the beginning of June and lasting a month. =President.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 212. 1854. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 471. 1869. President is another of Professor J. P. Kirtland's cherries raised in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1842. Tree vigorous, spreading, productive; fruit medium to large, regular, cordate, slightly compressed; stem stout, slender; suture indistinct; skin red, slightly mottled with yellow; flesh yellowish-white, half-tender, juicy, sweet; good; pit medium in size; ripens from the middle to the last of June. =Pride of Washington.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Wash. Hort. Assoc. Rpt._ 95. 1905. This variety is a seedling of the Late Duke grown by J. F. Strong, Spokane, Washington. The tree is more productive and less disposed to seaming of limbs where connecting with the body than its parent and its fruit is also larger, earlier and of better quality. =Priesche Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Listed but not described. =Prince.= Species? =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36. 1771. Listed but not described by Knoop. =Prince Black Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 471. 1869. This variety was originated by William R. Prince, Flushing, New York. Tree vigorous, upright-spreading; fruit medium to large, cordate, slightly compressed; suture small; flesh purplish, rather tender, juicy, sweet; good to very good; ripens the last of June. =Prince Duke.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 29. 1828. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:136. 1832. Prince Duke was raised by William Prince, Flushing, New York, from a seed of Carnation which it resembles in tree-characters and in time of ripening. The fruit is red, more compressed than the parent and possesses the peculiar bitterness of Carnation before it is full ripe. =Prince Englebert.= Species? =1.= _Okla. Sta. Bul._ =2=:13. 1892. Listed as grown at the Oklahoma Station. =Prince Royal.= Species? =1.= Rea _Flora_ 205. 1676. According to Rea, this is a large, late ripe cherry, good to preserve. =Princess.= _P. avium._ =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36. 1771. =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:302. 1866. =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:75, 76, fig. 38. 1882. _Prinzesskirsche._ =4.= Christ _Wörterb._ 279. 1802. =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 261, 262. 1819. This is a variegated Heart originating in Germany. Tree of moderate vigor; fruit medium to large, cordate, sides compressed; apex acutely pointed; suture indistinct; stem very long; color yellow overlaid with red; flesh tender, juicy, bitterish at first; stone oval; ripens the fourth week of the season. =Prinzenkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 289. 1802. _Grosse schwarze Glanzkirsche_ incor. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 577-580. 1819. A Morello cherry of German origin. Fruit of medium size, roundish; suture indistinct; cavity shallow; skin tough, firm, glossy, black; flesh firm, fibrous, dark red, subacid; pit adherent, almost cordate; ripens at the end of July. =Prödlitzer Elitekirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Obstzüchter_ =8=:Pl. 1910. =2.= _Ibid._ =8=:51, 52. 1910. This cherry originated on the estate of Hugo Graf Kálnokyschen in Prodek, Moravia, Austria. Trees upright when young; fruit large to very large, blackish-brown, obtuse-cordate; suture distinct; stem long, slender; flesh dark, sweet with a touch of sourness; ripens in July. =Progress.= _P. pumila._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 353. 1896. A seedling of _Prunus pumila_ raised by the Manitoba Station. =Proskauer Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 57. 1907. A dark, hard-fleshed cherry mentioned in this reference. =Proudfoot.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 212. 1854. This variety was grown by D. Proudfoot, Cleveland, Ohio. Tree vigorous, spreading, moderately productive; fruit large, cordate, flattened at the base; skin dark purplish-red; cavity open; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, sweet; pit large; season the middle of July. =Puhlmann Frühe.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 373. 1889. =2.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 57. 1907. Listed as an early black Heart. =Punktirte Marmorkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:42. 1858. _Punctirte Süsskirsche mit festem Fleische._ =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 281. 1802. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 333-336. 1819. _Bigarreau Ponctué._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:81, 82, fig. 39. 1866-73. _Punktirte Knorpelkirsche._ =5.= _Ill. Handb._ 57 fig., 58. 1867. Tree vigorous, upright; fruit roundish-cordate, large; suture deep; stem long, adhering to the stone; cavity deep; color yellowish-white overspread with clear red; flesh rather tender but firm, fibrous, translucent, sweet; pit round, often rather large; ripens at the end of July. =Punktirte Molkenkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:29. 1858. Tree very large, branches long; fruit large, obtuse-cordate; suture indistinct; color yellow more or less overspread with red; flesh sweet; stone small, cordate; ripens early in July. =Purity (I).= _P. avium._ =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 289. 1889. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =177=:31. 1899. Purity (I) is a seedling of Elton which originated with W. H. Chapman, Napa, California, and was propagated by Leonard Coates of that place. Tree upright-spreading, fairly vigorous; fruit heart-shaped, compressed; suture broad, rather indistinct; stem long, slender; cavity broad, shallow; skin amber, shaded and mottled with bright red, waxy, transparent, thin; flesh rich, sweet, tender, juicy, melting; very good; season early; rather too tender for market. =Purity (II).= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Ont. Dept. Agr. _Fr. Ont._ 101. 1914. This is a productive cherry of the Morello class which resembles Dyehouse and ripens a little earlier than Early Richmond. Tree moderately vigorous, healthy, bears early; fruit of medium size, roundish; stem long; cavity deep; apex noticeably depressed; skin very dark red; flesh yellowish, tender, very juicy, pleasant subacid; quality good; season late June to early July. =Quaker.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 262. 1892. Quaker originated with C. E. Hoskins, Newberg, Oregon. Fruit of medium size, heart-shaped, dark red, almost black; dots numerous; flesh firm, dark purple, sprightly, sweet; quality very good; season early July. =Rainier French.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 55. 1831. Listed without a description. =Red Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Knoop Fructologie_ =2=:35, 38. 1771. =3.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 219. 1854. _Bigarreau à Gros Fruit Rouge._ =4.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:163-165, Pl. II. 1768. =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 308. 1819. =6.= _Pom. France_ =7=:No. 7, Pl. 7. 1871. _Purpurrothe Knorpelkirsche._ =7.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 340, 683, 684. 1819. _Large Red Bigarreau._ =8.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 273. 1832. =9.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:127. 1832. =10.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:104, 105 fig., 106, 301. 1866. Red Bigarreau is probably an old French variety. Fruit very large, roundish-cordate, irregular, swollen on one side; suture distinct; stem slender, long, set in a deep, wide cavity; color glossy, tough, dark red; flesh firm, sweet, rose-colored especially near the pit, juicy; pit small, oval, adherent along the suture; ripens in July. =Red Canada.= Species? =1.= _Ariz. Sta. Bul._ =15=:72. 1895. Listed without a description. =Red Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36. 1771. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:112. 1832. Fruit more oblong than the Early Guigne and somewhat larger; skin entirely red; flesh soft but not high in quality; ripens in June. =Red Jacket.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 202 fig. 1854. =2.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 148, Pl. 13 fig. 1. 1864. =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 19, 204. 1876. Red Jacket was raised in 1842 by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, from a pit of Yellow Spanish, crossed with Black Tartarian, Black Mazzard, or May Duke. It was formerly grown commercially in this country and Europe because of its productiveness and quality. Tree very vigorous, upright-spreading, hardy, very productive; fruit large, long, obtuse-cordate; stem rather long, slender; skin thin, pale red becoming rather bright red; flesh yellowish-white, half-tender, juicy, pleasant, somewhat astringent until fully ripe when it becomes sweet; good in quality; stone medium in size; ripens in late mid-season. =Red Muscatel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 330. 1885. =2.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 329. 1888. A variety from North Silesia where it is said to be commonly grown; fruit large, of good quality. =Red Oranien.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 329. 1888. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =19=:551. 1892. This name has been given by some writers as a synonym of Carnation but Red Oranien as introduced into America from Russia appears to be distinct and is probably another of the Duke hybrids. Tree productive; fruit large, dark red, mildly subacid. =Red Rock.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 434. 1905. Fruit of the Morello type, round; stem long, inserted in a noticeable cavity; skin clear red; flesh reddish-yellow with colored juice, mild but pleasantly acid, refreshing; ripens late in July. =Red Russian.= Species? =1.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 237. 1841. The original name of this variety was lost in importing it from Russia to Brooklyn, New York, about 1800. Fruit large, dark red, good; productive; ripens in August. =Reichart.= Species? =1.= _Pa. Fr. Gr. Soc. Rpt._ 11. 1881. Recommended as valuable in Pennsylvania. =Reine-Hortense Hâtive.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 28. 1876. A seedling of Reine Hortense introduced in 1873. It resembles the parent in many respects, differing, however, in earlier ripening and in having red flesh. =Remington.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing Fr. _Trees Am._ 188. 1845. _Remington Heart_ =2.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 30. 1828. =3.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 55. 1831. =4.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:117, 118. 1832. Remington originated in 1823 from a pit planted by Zachariah Allen, Providence, Rhode Island. Its only merit is lateness, not ripening until August; fruit small, cordate, yellow, tinged with red; flesh firm; bears abundantly. =Rentz Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mo. Bd. Agr. Rpt._ 243. 1878. Mentioned as succeeding fairly well in Missouri. =Resacks Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 373. 1889. Listed without a description. =Richardson.= _P. avium._ =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 238. 1849. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 212. 1854. Originated in the garden of J. R. Richardson, Boston, Massachusetts. Tree upright, hardy, productive; fruit large, heart-shaped, rather short, tapering to a point; stem short, slender; skin dark red, inclining to black; flesh deep red, half-tender, rich, luscious, sweet; ripens the last of June to July. =Richardson Late Black.= Species? =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:285. 1842. Originated in the garden of Dr. William P. Richardson, Salem, Massachusetts. A small, round, black cherry, ripening late in July; very juicy and productive. =Richter Sämling.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 373. 1889. Listed but not described. =Riga No. 108.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Tex. Sta. Bul._ =16=:99. 1891. Listed among the Russian fruits growing at the Texas Station. =Riga No. 109.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Kan. Sta. Bul._ =73=:189. 1897. Received from Professor J. L. Budd in 1890. Tree upright, unproductive; fruit borne singly, large; stem short; color dark red; flesh and juice colored, pleasant, but lacking in quality; ripens the middle of June. =Rival.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =7=:248. 1865. =2.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 69, 90. 1866. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 373. 1889. _Bigarreau Rival._ =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:236, 237 fig. 1877. This cherry probably came from M. Rival, Saint-Genis-Laval, Rhône, France. Fruit of medium size, borne in clusters, never less than four in a cluster, obtuse-cordate, flattened on one side; suture a colored line; apex shallow, eccentric; stem long, slender; cavity shallow; skin moderately firm, yellow, mottled with red becoming darker, nearly black when mature; ripens the last of July to August. =Rivers Early Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 177. 1845. =2.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 204. 1846. A seedling raised by Thomas Rivers, Sawbridgeworth, England, which he says originated about the same time as his Early Amber. The fruit is of the Heart class, medium in size and season. =Roberts Red Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:285. 1842. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 176. 1845. =3.= _Horticulturist_ =5=:76 fig. 1850. =4.= _Ibid._ =6=:21 fig. 1851. =5.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:119, 120, fig. 58. 1866-73. This variety originated with David Roberts, Salem, Massachusetts, and was first brought to notice by Robert Manning. Fruit of medium size, roundish-cordate, slightly obtuse; suture distinct; stem long, slender, set in a moderate cavity; skin pale amber overspread with pale red, mottled with deeper red and pale amber specks; flesh white, tender, juicy, sweet, sprightly; season at the end of July. =Rochaline.= _P. avium_ =1.= Leonard Coates _Cat._ 10. 1911. Rochaline, a seedling of Napoleon, is no longer propagated, being inferior to its parent. =Rock.= Species? =1.= Ray _Hist. Plant._ 1539. 1688. =2.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =1=:1754. Mentioned as a perfumed cherry. =Rockland.= Species? =1.= _Mass. (Hatch) Sta. An. Rpt._ =1=:33. 1889. Mentioned as growing at the Massachusetts Station. =Rocky Hill Honey Heart.= _P. avium_ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:424. 1847. A variety originating near Wethersfield, Connecticut, late in the Eighteenth Century. =Rocky Mountain.= _P. besseyi._ =1.= _Country Gent._ =26=:238. 1865. =2.= _Rural N. Y._ =52=:138, 330, fig. 46. 1893. =3.= _Cornell Sta. Bul._ =70=:261, Pl. 1 fig. =2.= 1894. =4.= Storrs & Harrison _Cat._ 136 fig. 1896. =5.= _Wis. Sta. An. Rpt._ =13=:229, 230. 1896. Rocky Mountain, a variety of Prunus besseyi, is a native of the mountains of Colorado having been discovered there many years ago. It is chiefly used as a dwarf ornamental, being adapted to a great variety of soils. Tree small, bushy, averaging about four feet high, very hardy and productive; fruit ripens after all other cherries are gone, small, variable in shape, from roundish to nearly oblong; color almost jet black; flavor sweet with some astringency but edible when fully mature. =Roe.= _P. avium_ =1.= _Better Fruit_ =5=:No. =11=:49. 1911. Roe is a seedling from Yamhill County, Oregon, being introduced by the Oregon Nursery Company, Salem, Oregon; it is said to resemble Napoleon but is much firmer and later. =Romaine.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 26. 1876. A variety of doubtful value; ripens in July. =Ronald.= Species? =1.= Bunyard-Thomas _Fr. Gard._ 44. 1904. According to the reference, this is a valuable late variety. Tree small, compact; fruit very large, bright red, transparent; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy. =Röschers Kirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 1 fig., =2.= 1867. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:9, 10, fig. =5.= 1882. A chance seedling found by a peasant, Röschers, near Heidelberg, Baden, Germany. Fruit medium, oblate-cordate; sides compressed, angular; stem long; cavity wide, deep; skin tough, black; flesh dark red, juicy, vinous; pit small, oval; ripens very early. =Rose Charmeux.= Species? =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1883. A Polish variety introduced by Professor J. L. Budd, Ames, Iowa; fruit large, red, delicate, watery and mild-flavored. =Rosenobel.= _P. avium_ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 280, 678. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl Führ. Obstkunde =3=:27. 1858. An old German variety fruiting for the first time in 1815. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate, yellow, streaked with red around the cavity; stem long; flesh white, tender, sweet; stone oval; ripens the last of June. =Rostraver Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Gard. Mon._ =28=:240, 241. 1886. This variety was introduced in 1887, by the originators, John R. and A. Murdoch, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. The trees, as grown on the Station grounds, are vigorous, moderately spreading; fruit large, blunt heart-shaped; suture indistinct; stem long, set in a large, deep cavity; skin thin, tough, rich yellow, mottled with red, similar to Napoleon; flesh meaty, firm, white, sweet, moderately juicy; season the middle of July. =Rothe Glanzkirsche.= Species? =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 490-492, 689. 1819. Fruit of medium size, roundish-oblate; suture distinct; stem slender, of medium length, set in a shallow cavity; color clear red mixed with darker red, glossy; flesh tender, white, fibrous; excellent; stone large, oval, smooth; ripens from the end of June to the middle of July. =Rothe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Krünitz _Enc._ 58, 59. 1790. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 437, 438, 439. 1819. _Herzförmige Süssweichsel._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:48. 1858. Fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate; suture indistinct; skin clear red changing to darker red, thin, tough; stem medium in length, set in a deep, narrow cavity; flesh tender, red near the stone, fibrous, vinous; stone broadly oblong, clinging to the flesh; ripens at the beginning of July. =Rothe Maiknorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 286, 287. 1819. Fruit medium in size, roundish-cordate, compressed on both sides; suture distinct; stem rather long; cavity shallow; color wholly red on a yellow ground; flesh yellowish-white, rather tender, pleasing; excellent; stone large, cordate, plump; ripens at the beginning of June. =Rothe Molkenkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 667. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 229-233. 1819. _Cerise de petit-lait rouge._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:302. 1866. Christ grew this variety from seed at Kronberg, Prussia, Germany. Tree productive; fruit of medium size, flattened at the ends and sides; ventral suture distinct; stem rather long; cavity shallow; skin thin, glossy, overspread with light red, darker in the sun; flesh tender, light yellow, juicy, bitter before ripe, sweet when mature; stone roundish, free, tinged with red along the suture; ripens with Black Tartarian. =Rothe Soodkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 294. 1802. _Soodamarelle._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 632-634. 1819. =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 27, 206. 1876. The fruit is borne in twos and threes, below medium in size, roundish, compressed on one side; apex shallow; stem long; color dull blood red, lighter near the suture; flesh melting, dull yellow; juice reddish, abundant, tart; stone small, broad, free. =Rouaanse Kirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 340. 1819. A Heart cherry, clear, light red spotted with red in color; flesh firm. =Rouge Pâle Tardive.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 55. 1831. Listed without a description. =Rouge des Vosges.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:107, 108, fig. 52. 1866-73. =2.= _Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom._ 100 fig., 101. 1904. Cultivated in the region of Fougerolle, Haute-Saône, France, as the Noire des Vosges and largely used in the manufacture of a liqueur. Fruit usually borne in pairs, large, elongated-cordate; suture distinct; stem long; cavity of medium size; skin glossy, dark red; flesh yellowish, tender, sprightly; stone small, roundish, with a small point at the apex; ripens the last half of July. =Round Sweet.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:61. 1900. Mentioned in this reference. =Royal American.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:62. 1900. Tree strong in growth; fruit large; skin light red becoming darker in the sun; flesh yellowish-white, firm, juicy, agreeable; ripens in July. =Royal Hâtif.= _P. avium._ =1.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:505. 1860. Tree very productive, of medium size; fruit large, compressed at the apex and base; stem green, short, often with stipules; flavor sweet; very good; ripens at the end of May. =Rumsey.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:122. 1900. _Rumsey's Late Morello._ =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 199 fig. 1845. This very late cherry was grown by Dr. J. S. Rumsey, Fishkill Landing, New York, about 1835. Fruit usually borne in pairs, large, roundish-cordate; suture distinct; stem long; cavity narrow, deep; skin glossy, a rich, lively red; flesh juicy, melting, acid; stone long; ripens from the first part of August until frosts. =Runde Marmorirte Süsskirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 280. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 336, 683. 1819. =3.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 382. 1881. =4.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 375. 1889. _Weiss und hellroth geflekte grosse Kramelkirsche._ 5. Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:3, Tab. 6 fig. =1.= 1792. Runde Marmorirte Süsskirsche is one of the varieties which has been confused with Napoleon and Yellow Spanish. Tree vigorous, very productive; fruit large, roundish-cordate, slightly compressed; suture shallow; stem long; cavity shallow, wide, depressed on the ventral side; skin yellow, streaked, dotted and overlaid with red--the amount depending on the exposure to the sun; flesh whitish-yellow, medium firm, juicy, very sweet, sprightly, excellent; stone ovate to oval; matures usually with Napoleon. =Rupert.= _P. pumila × P.?_ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 435. 1901. Mentioned in this reference as being a cross between the _Prunus pumila_, the Sand Cherry, and a plum. =Rupp.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 40, Pl. 3. 1895. =2.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =187=:62. 1901. Rupp is supposed to have originated with Solomon Rupp, York County, Pennsylvania. It was sent to several Experiment Stations for testing by the United States Department of Agriculture. As grown at the Michigan and Geneva Stations it cannot be distinguished from Reine Hortense and we are inclined to believe that the old variety has been overshadowed by a new name. =Russian Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Ont. Dept. Agr. _Fr. Ont._ 103. 1914. _Russian_ 207. =2.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 76. 1890. Tree upright, vigorous; fruit above medium in size, round, flattened at the base; stem long; skin bright red; juicy; fair quality; ripens the first of August. =Russian Seedlings Nos. 8, 42, 49, 54, 109, 128, 169, 199.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:80, 81. 1903. These seedlings were grown at the Iowa Experiment Station from selected seeds of Russian varieties. They show every variation from a low, compact, spreading tree to a tall, conical one, while the fruit varies in season from early June to late July. =Russie à Fruit Blanc.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 55. 1831. Listed without a description. =Ryley Black Tartarian.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 55. 1831. Listed in the reference given. =Sächsische Frühe Maikirsche.= Species? =1.= Christ _Handb._ 683. 1797. Listed without a description. =Sacramento.= Species? =1.= _Green River Nur. Cat._ 23. 1899. This is a productive variety, resembling May Duke, found near Sacramento, Kentucky. =Saint-Laurent.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Listed without a description. =Sansoto.= _P. pumila × P. americana._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =130=:184, Pl. 10, Pl. 11, 185. 1911. Sansoto is a cross from the South Dakota Experiment Station between the Sand Cherry and the De Soto plum. In growth the tree resembles that of the plum but the fruit in looks and flavor is more like the Sand Cherry, Fruit is round, about three-eighths inch in diameter; skin black with a bluish bloom, thin, free from acerbity; flesh yellowish-green, sprightly; pit clinging. =Sapa.= _P. pumila × P. triflora._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:Pl. 9. 1908. =2.= _Ibid._ =130=:176, 177 Pl. 7, 178. 1911. Sapa, a cross between the Sand Cherry and the Occident plum, was introduced in 1908 by the South Dakota Station. Tree plum-like in habit; fruit-buds numerous; fruit about one and three-eighths inches in diameter; skin glossy, dark purple; flesh rich, dark purple; season extremely early. =Sappington.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 22. 1892-93. =2.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:282. 1903. Grown about St. Louis, Missouri, where it originated. The tree resembles Mazzard in growth, vigor and productiveness; fruit sweet; early. =Sauerjotte.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Guide Prat._ 17. 1895. Listed as a variety of doubtful value. =Saure Herzkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 161. 1791. Described as a black, Sour Cherry of the first rank, with tender flesh and excellent juice. =Sauvigny Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 91 fig., 92. 1860. _Bigarreau de Sauvigny._ =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:302. 1866. _Dure de Sauvigny._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. Fruit large, elongated, obtuse-cordate, compressed more strongly upon the side showing a suture; stem variable, usually of medium length; cavity narrow, deep; skin glossy, dark brownish-red, mottled with lighter red; flesh very firm, dark red, juicy; quality very good; pit small, oval, acutely-pointed at the apex, free; ripens in late July. =Scharlachkirsche.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 669. 1797. This variety is supposed by some to be May Duke. Usually borne in twos and threes; fruit medium in size; stem above medium in length, slender; suture indistinct; ripens the latter part of June. =Schleihahn Sweet.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Press Bul._ =28=:1911. _Bigarreau de Schleihahn._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20, 190. 1876. A variety of German origin, introduced into Iowa about 1892 and described as a desirable variety for that State by the Iowa Agricultural College. It follows Early Richmond and has a long season. Tree productive, hardy for a sweet variety; fruit of medium size, cordate, sides flattened; stem long, slender, set in a rather deep, wide cavity; skin firm, glossy, surface often pitted; dots numerous, obscure; suture often lacking; color bright deep red, becoming dark red or black; flesh dark red, very firm, moderately juicy, sweet; good; pit above medium in size, pointed, oval, turgid, nearly free; season at Ames, Iowa, from June 20th to July 1st. =Schlössers Schattenmorelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Reut. Pom. Inst. Festschrift_ 123. 1910. =2.= _Pom. Inst. Reut._ 31. 1911-12. Tree vigorous; fruit large, round, dark brownish-red, similar to the Brusseler Braune but larger; sour. =Schmehls.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 549. 1901. Tree vigorous; fruit large obtuse-cordate; skin mottled with yellow and pale red; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, pleasing; ripens the middle of July. =Schmidt Bigarreau No. 2.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:62. 1900. Tree vigorous; fruit large, nearly round; skin dark red; flesh red, firm, juicy, sweet; season late June. =Schmidt Frühe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Lauche _Ergänzungsband_ 603. 1883. F. Schmidt, Potsdam, Prussia, Germany, grew this variety. Tree fruitful and succeeds in all soils; fruit large, abruptly cordate; suture indistinct; stem medium in length; cavity wide, deep; color glossy dark brown changing to black; flesh firm, juicy, sweet; good; stone medium, roundish; early. =Schneeberger Kirsche.= Species? =1.= _Obstzüchter_ =8=:52. 1910. This is a market cherry grown about Vienna, Austria, ripening about the middle of July and lasting for a month. Some fruits are round, others cordate, depending on the altitude in which it is grown; stem slender; color black; flesh moderately firm, adhering to the pit. =Schneider Frühe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 376. 1889. _Guigne-hâtive de Schneider._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 198. 1876. Tree vigorous and productive; fruit large, cordate, truncate; skin a brilliant brownish-black; flesh firm; of first quality; matures early in June. =Schneider Späte Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 370, 371. 1881. =2.= Lauche _Deut. Pom._ =III=:No. 8, Pl. 1882. Origin, Guben, Prussia, Germany. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit very large, oval, often cordate, sides compressed; suture indistinct; stem long, inserted in a wide, deep cavity; skin glossy, cherry-red changing to dark brown, with numerous flecks; flesh firm, yellowish, sweet, with slightly colored juice; stone elongated-ovate, large, plump; late. =Schöne von Brügge.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 376. 1889. _Belle Brugeoise Saint-Pierre._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Listed but not described in the reference given. =Schöne von Marienhohe.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 57 fig., 58. 1860. =2.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 57. 1907. _Belle glorie de Marie._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:300. 1866. _Belle de Marienhöhe._ =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 19, 187. 1876. _Beauty of Marienhohe._ =5.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 549. 1901. This old variety originated in 1836 from pits planted in the Royal nursery of Marienhöhe near Weimar, Saxe-Weimar, Germany. Trees strong, healthy and productive; fruit medium in size, heart-shaped, often variable; sides plump; cavity noticeable; apex a small yellowish-brown point in a slight depression; stem slender, green; skin thin, glossy, reddish-black; flesh and juice dark red, tender, sweet; quality very good; pit egg-shaped, smooth without a point, turgid; ripens the first of July. =Schröcks Späte Bunte Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:43. 1858. Fruit large, elongated-cordate, compressed, often uneven; suture noticeable; stem long, slender; skin dark red, variegated; flesh firm, vinous, sweet; stone elongated-cordate, adherent; ripens at the end of July. =Schwarze Forellenkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Krünitz _Enc._ 70, 7=1.= 1790. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 593, 594. 1819. Tree productive, not large; fruit large, roundish, slightly flattened; stem very long, set in a cavity of medium size; skin glossy, dark brownish-black becoming almost black; flesh very red, melting, juicy, sour; stone reddish, one-half inch long; ripens early in August. =Schwarze Maiweichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 285. 1802. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:58. 1858. _Schwarze Maikirsche._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 498, 499, 500. 1819. This variety differs from other Morellos in its very short stem. Tree small, not productive; fruit usually small, roundish, flattened; suture indistinct; stem short; color black when ripe; flesh dark red, juice lighter, sour, becoming aromatic on hanging; stone very small, round; ripens the middle of June. =Schwarze Muskateller.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 67=1.= 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 419, 420, 42=1.= 1819. Fruit round, somewhat flattened on one side; stem short; skin and flesh dark red; flesh soft, juicy, mingled with a slight sourness; ripens the latter part of July. =Schwarze Oranienkirsche.= Species? =1.= Krünitz _Enc._ 56. 1790. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 43=2.= 1819. _Schwarze Malvasierkirsche._ =3.= Ibid. 433, 434. 1819. Fruit large, pitch-black, aromatic; from Holland. =Schwarze Soodkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 286. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 556, 557. 1819. Branches slender, drooping; fruit of medium size, oblate, sides flattened; stem slender; cavity shallow; suture a fine line; color almost black; flesh tender, slightly fibrous, dark red at the stone, juicy, pleasingly subacid; stone small, roundish; season the middle of July. =Schwarzbraune Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 198, 199, 200, 675. 1819. Of German origin and first mentioned in 1797. Fruit moderately large, uneven, flattened at the base and sides; stem slender, rather long, deeply inserted; skin brownish-red approaching black, tough, leather-like; flesh firm, sweet, with violet juice when ripe; ripens early in August. =Schwarzes Taubenherz.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 147, 148. 1819. This variety is peculiar in that its stem is green and its fruit has a deep suture on the compressed side; skin very dark brown; flesh tender, soft, bitter, sweet when fully ripe but insipid; ripens early in July. =Sebril.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =152=:192. 1898. Listed as a Sweet Cherry. =Seckbacher.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 167-174. 1819. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 475 fig., 476. 1861. _Späte Maikirsche._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 660. 1797. _Seckbacher Knorpelkirsche._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:34. 1858. _Cerise de Seckbach._ =5.= Mas. _Pom. Gen._ =11=:55, 56, fig. 28. 1882. This variety probably originated in Prussia, Germany. Fruit small, round or cordate, compressed, with a faint suture; stem long, shallowly inserted; color glossy, black, lighter along the suture; flesh dark red, firm, juicy, aromatic, piquant; stone large; ripens the middle of June. =Seederberger.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Col. O. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 31. 1892. Listed as a sweet variety from Virginia and said to resemble Yellow Spanish but the fruit is larger and the tree more vigorous. =Select Beauty.= Species? =1.= Prince _Treat. Hort._ 30. 1828. A large, red, well-flavored cherry with a long stem; not very productive; ripens in July. =Shadow Amarelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 326. 1888. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:82 fig. 1903. =Frühe Schattenmorelle.= =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:64. 1858. _Schatten Amarelle._ =4.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 75. 1883. =5.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 329. 1885. =6=. _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:126. 1900. _Shadow Morello._ =7.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 78. 1890. =8.= Lucas _Handb. Obst._ 3rd Ed. 122. 1893. Professor J. L. Budd of Ames, Iowa, in 1893, imported this variety from south-central Asia. It is very similar to the Brusseler Braune and Lucas gives it as the same. Whether or not they are identical we cannot determine, as the variety is not grown on the Station grounds. The name Schatten is derived from the mirror-like reflection of the glossy skin when exposed to the sun. From the description it seems to differ from the Brusseler Braune in being smaller in size, not so globular, nor as dark in color, a few days earlier, and the tree is more spreading in growth. =Shailer.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ =55.= 1831. A yellowish-red, hard-fleshed Heart cherry of inferior quality; ripens in July. =Shannon.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Elliott Fr. Book 202, 203. 1854. =2.= Mag. Hort. =19=:167, 168. 1853. _Shannon Morello._ =3.= _Hogg Fruit Man._ 70, 91. 1866. _Gov. Shannon._ =4.= _Ill. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 33. 1873. Shannon was raised by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, 1829, and described in 1849, being named after Wilson Shannon, once Governor of Ohio. It sprung from a Morello tree standing near a Carnation cherry tree and bears fruit of the Morello type. Tree very hardy; fruit above medium in size, globular, flattened at the base; stem long, slender; cavity open; flesh tender, reddish-purple, juicy, acid; pit small. =Shelton.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Milton Cat._ 10. 1911. Shelton is a seedling of Napoleon grown by Judge William Shelton of Walla Walla, Washington. Tree hardy, vigorous, upright; fruit smaller than Napoleon; skin pale yellow with a red cheek; flesh sweet, tender, juicy; ripens two weeks before Napoleon. =Short-stem May.= Species? =1.= _Continental Plant Cat._ 22. 1914. Merely listed as an old, well-known, productive cherry. =Shubianka.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Mich. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 327. 1888. =2.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:83. 1903. Shubianka is an inferior small-fruited cherry of the Vladimir family imported from Russia in 1883 by Professor J. L. Budd, Ames, Iowa. Tree dwarf, round-topped; fruit small, round; stem long, slender; cavity broad, shallow; skin tough, thick, deep red; flesh firm, juicy, colored, sprightly, astringent with a bitter after-taste; stone round, rather large; season at the end of June; worthless. =Sibrel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Greening Bros. Cat._ 74 fig. 1899. Sibrel is of the Morello type and originated at Bettsville, Ohio; distinguished for its productiveness, lateness, size and quality. =Silver Thorne.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:83. 1903. Silver Thorne is supposed to have originated in Muscatine County, Iowa, about sixty years ago. It resembles Early Richmond in tree and fruit but the cherries have firmer flesh and are less acid. =Skublics Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 59. 1907. Mentioned in the reference given. =Sleinhaus.= Species? =1.= Mas. _Pom. Gen._ =11=:16_2._ 1882. Listed without a description. =Small Black Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:112. 1832. This cherry differs from Black Guigne in being shorter and inferior in quality. =Small Morello.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thacher _Am. Orch._ 217. 1822. A cherry from Salem County, New Jersey; the fruit has a lively acid taste. =Smidt Yellow.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Am. Fruit Cult._ 669. 1897. A good, early, prolific, southern variety. Fruit medium in size, yellow, mottled with red. =Socsany.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 41. 1895. Socsany was received from Hungary by the United States Department of Agriculture in 1893 and was sent to C. E. Hoskins, Springbrook, Oregon, for testing. Fruit small, smooth, cordate; suture shallow; stem long, slender; cavity medium in size, irregular, flaring; skin thick, tenacious, yellow, well covered with red, with numerous, subcutaneous, oblong dots; flesh yellowish, translucent, meaty, with whitish veins, juicy, sweet, aromatic; stone large, oval, clinging; very good; season the first of July. =Soft-stone Cherry.= Species? =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:145. 1832. _Soft Sheld._ =2.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 574. 1629. _Cerise à Noyau tendre._ =3.= Duhamel _Trait. Arb. Fr._ =1=:174, 175. 1768. Many writers mention a seedless cherry but Duhamel doubts its existence. He does, however, describe one with a tender, ligneous pit that is easily broken by the fingers. The fruit is round, almost an inch in diameter and very good. =Souths Breite Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 164. 1819. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 25. 1876. A large, black, glossy Heart cherry. =Souvenir d'Essonnes.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas. _Le Verger_ =8=:109, 110, fig. 53. 1866-73. This cherry was obtained by M. Courtin, a nurseryman at Essonnes, Seine-et-Oise, France, about 1860. Fruit of medium size, oval, slightly compressed; suture indistinct; stem medium; cavity of medium size, regular; skin tender, mottled on a red ground; flesh whitish, tender, sweet though sprightly; pit small, oval; ripens the middle of June. =Spanische Frühkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 149 fig., 150. 1860. _Spanische Herzkirsche._ =2.= Christ _Obstbäume_ 160. 1791. _Schwarze Spanische Frühkirsche._ =3.= Christ _Handb._ 662. 1797. =4.= Christ _Wörterb._ 282. 1802. =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 410-413. 1819. _Précoce d'Espagne._ =6.= Mas. _Le Verger_ =8=:73, 74, fig. 35. 1866-73. =7.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 16, 204. 1876. Fruit medium in size, roundish-cordate, sides compressed; suture wide, deep, often only a line on the dorsal side; stem long, slender, inserted in a shallow, narrow cavity; skin glossy, tough, deep red changing to black; flesh tender, juicy, sweet, with a pleasing sourness, brownish-red; pit elongated-oval, not plump, rather smooth; season the middle of June. =Spanische Frühweichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 674. 1797. =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 289. 1802. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 500, 501, 502. 1819. _Griotte Précoce d'Espagne._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:41, 42, fig. 19. 1866-73. Tree strong, vigorous, productive; fruit above medium in size, roundish, truncate at the base; suture marked on the side most compressed; stem long, moderately stout, inserted in a deep, narrow cavity; skin tender, purplish-brown, changing to black, somewhat lighter near the suture; flesh tender, juicy, dark red, with a pleasing acidity; first quality; stone small, roundish-oval, apex pointed; season the last of June. =Spanische Glaskirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 503 fig., 504. 1861. _Grosse Spanische Weichsel_? =2.= Christ _Handb._ 683. 1797. _Transparente d'Espagne._ =3.= Mas. _Le Verger_ =8=:101, 102, fig. 49. 1866-73. Fruit large, oblate, compressed on the dorsal side; suture lacking; stem rather long; cavity deep; color dark red; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, acidulated; stone small, nearly round; ripens from the middle to the end of June. =Spanish Griotte.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:136. 1832. Prince believed this variety to be a sub-variety of Arch Duke which it resembles. The fruit is larger than the Arch Duke, oblong, somewhat flattened along the sides; stem very large, of medium length; skin brownish-red approaching black; flesh red, firm, slightly melting, sweet; ripens at the beginning of July. =Spätblühende Glaskirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 683. 1797. _Weichselbaum mit gelb, weiss, und röthlich marmorirte Frucht._ =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:7, Tab. 17 fig. 2. 1792. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 477-479, 690. 1819. Fruit of medium size; stem long, slender; color red; flesh pleasingly subacid; ripens the middle of July; blooms very late. =Späte Maulbeerkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 276. 1802. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 75 fig., 76. 1860. _Späte Maulbeerherzkirsche._ =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 135-140. 1819. _Guigne mûre de Paris._ 4. Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:83, 207. 1866. Tree vigorous, with a broad crown, productive; fruit variable in size, flattened somewhat squarely; stem long, stout, straight; cavity wide, shallow; skin tough, black, rather dull; flesh tender, reddish-black, with abundant, colored juice, sweet with a piquant sourness; pit round; season the last of July. =Späte Rote Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 378. 1889. Listed without a description. =Späte Schwarze Forellenkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 291. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 605, 606. 1819. This variety was found in Bernburg, Anhalt, Germany. Tree medium in height, with branches drooping; fruit large, dark brownish-red; very sour; stone very long; ripens in September with a few fruits remaining until October. =Späte Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 43 fig., 44. 1867. Fruit very large, roundish, flattened, angular; suture but a line; stem rather long; cavity shallow; skin glossy, dark red, becoming black, streaked; flesh dark red, firm, sweet, aromatic, with a slight bitterness; stone oval; ripens in late August. =Späte Schwarze Spanische Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 664. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 152, 153. 1819. This variety is distinguished from all others of its class by its soft, tender stone; it differs from the Soft-stone Cherry in shape. Fruit elongated, tapering-cordate; skin glossy, dark brown, changing to black; flesh tender, dark red, juicy, aromatic; stone medium in size, flattened, often abortive, with a thin covering over the kernel easily broken by the hand; ripens in late August. =Speckkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 665. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 287-289. 1819. _Cerise Graisseuse._ =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:303. 1866. _Cerise Lard._ =4.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:81, 82, fig. 41. 1882. This cherry is sometimes mistaken for Corone. It differs from other Bigarreaus in its variable form. Tree productive; fruit medium to large; stem rather long, set in a shallow cavity; color dark red with lighter red flecks; flesh firm, pale yellow, subacid; stone rather large, nearly free; ripens the middle of July. =Spitzens Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 160, 161, 673. 1819. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 71 fig., 72. 1860. =3.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:301. 1866. =4.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 199. 1876. _Guigne noire Spitz._ =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:333 fig. 1877. _Bigarreau noire de Spitz._ =6.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Spitzens Herzkirsche is a seedling found in Guben, Prussia, Germany, about 1790. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit usually borne in pairs, large, obtuse-cordate, compressed; suture shallow; stem short; cavity shallow; skin glossy, tender, dark reddish-brown changing to black, lighter along the suture; flesh dark red, tender, fibrous, sweet, aromatic when fully ripe; stone of medium size, plump, oval, slightly adherent; season late. =Srdcovka v Skalka.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Obstzüchter_ =8=:51. 1910. A Heart cherry found in the markets of Brünn, Moravia, Austria. =Stanapa.= _P. pumila × P. pissardi._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =130=:190, 191. 1911. Stanapa is a cross between the Sand Cherry and Prunus pissardi, interesting only because of its beautiful purple foliage. =Standard.= _P. pumila._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 353. 1896. Standard is a seedling of _Prunus pumila_, the Sand Cherry, grown by the Experiment Station at Manitoba, Canada; fruit large, astringent. =Starr Prolific.= Species? =1.= _Ont. Fr. Exp. Sta. Rpt._ =1=:22. 1894. Mentioned as growing on the grounds of L. Woolverton, Grimsby, Ontario, Canada. =Strass Early Black.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 473. 1869. =2.= _Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales_ =19=:996. 1908. Many writers believe Strass Early Black to be Reine Hortense. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit small, partly cordate, flattened on one side; stem of medium length, set in a shallow cavity; skin dark red becoming almost black; flesh reddish-pink, rather soft, sweet, with pinkish juice; stone large. =Strauss.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:127. 1900. _Strauss Weichsel._ =2.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 328. 1885. =3.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ =17=:11. 1892. This is not the Strauss Weichsel of Europe but one of Budd's importations. Tree upright, hardy, round-topped, vigorous, unproductive; fruit medium to large, truncate, flattened at both ends; cavity medium; apex smooth; stem short, slender; flesh dark red almost black, firm, juicy, sprightly, acid, astringent; stone small, round; season the last of June. =Strauss Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 289. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 502-505. 1819. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ._ _Obstkunde_ =3=:59. 1858. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 81 fig., 82. 1867. Tree dwarfish, unproductive; fruit on a single stem but several come out of one bud and the buds are closely set; fruit large, flattened at both ends; apex slightly rounded; stem long, thin, straight; color brownish-black; flesh tender, dark red, with abundant, colored juice; quality good; ripens the middle of June. =Striker.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 41. 1895. Striker is a seedling of Napoleon grown by C. E. Hoskins, Springbrook, Oregon. Fruit large, cordate; cavity wide, deep, flaring, pink; stem of medium length, slender; suture shallow; skin thick, tender, glossy, yellow, washed and mottled with red; dots minute, russet, elongated; flesh yellowish, translucent, fibrous, firm, juicy, mild, sprightly; very good; pit of medium size, oval, semi-clinging; season the last of June to early July. =Striped-Leaved.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:151. 1832. _Cerasus hortensis foliis eleganter variegatis._ =2.= Miller _Gard. Dict._ =1=:1754. Cultivated as an ornamental. =Stuart.= _P. avium._ Stuart originated from nursery-sown pits and was propagated by C. W. Stuart of Newark, New York, who sent trees to this Station for testing in 1900. Tree of medium size, vigorous, productive; fruit large, cordate or inclined to conic, compressed; suture indistinct; stem long, slender; cavity deep, wide, obtuse; skin thin, tender; color light red over a yellowish background changing to dark, glossy red; flesh whitish, juicy, tender, meaty, crisp, mild, sweet; quality good; ripens in mid-season. =Sucrée Léon Leclerc.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 19, 206. 1876 _Guigne sucrée de Léon Leclerc._ =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:98. 1866. =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:339, 340 fig. 1877. _Léon Leclercs Herzkirsche._ =4.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 56. 1907. This variety originated with Léon Leclerc of Laval, Mayenne, France, about 1853. Tree small, productive; fruit of medium size, borne in twos or threes, cordate-ovoid; stem long, slender, inserted in a cavity of medium size; skin deep rose-carmine; flesh whitish, semi-tender, very sugary, aromatic; pit medium in size, elongated-oval; ripens about the end of June. =Summit.= _P. avium._ Summit is a seedling sent this Station by Isaiah Lower, Barberton, Ohio. According to Mr. Lower, the tree is vigorous and bears large, dark red cherries, very rich in juice and of a pleasing taste. =Süsse Amarelle.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:8, Tab. 20 fig. 1. 1792. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 618, 619. 1819. =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 89 fig., 90. 1867. =4.= Oberdieck _Obst-Sort._ 356, 357. 1881. _Späte Amarelle_ incor. =5.= Christ _Wörterb._ 294. 1802. This variety is probably of French origin. Tree medium in height, bushy, productive; fruit large, flattened on both ends and on one side giving it a four-angled appearance; stem short, stout; cavity flat, shallow; apex slightly depressed; suture short, slightly prominent; skin dark red, thin, tough, separating readily from the pulp; flesh tender, juicy, white, sweet; stone large, thick, round, free; season the middle of June. =Süsse Frühherzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 154, 155, 672. 1819. Fruit rather small, round, compressed and marked by a suture; stem long, slender; color dark brown, becoming black; flesh tender, sweet, piquant; stone large, adherent; season the end of June. =Süsse Frühweichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 288. 1802. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 536-538. 1819. =3.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 379. 1889. _Cerise Hâtive._ =4.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:23, 24, fig. 10. 1866-73. This cherry should not be confused with the dark-fleshed variety, Griotte Douce Précoce. Branches long, flexible; fruit usually borne in twos or threes, of medium size, roundish, flattened; suture rather distinct; stem short, set in a large cavity; skin tender, clear red becoming darker; flesh whitish, mild; stone small, roundish; ripens early in June. =Süsse Maiherzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 662. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 111-115. 1819. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:19. 1858. Fruit round, medium in size; suture indistinct; skin black; flesh dark red, piquant; stone small, plump, roundish, adherent along the suture; season the middle of June to July. =Süsse Spanische.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 233-235. 1819. =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 206. 1876. _Douce d'Espagne._ =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:21, 22, fig. 11. 1882. This cherry was sent out by Pastor Winter of Germany in 1796 as a seedling of White Spanish. Fruit above medium to large, cordate; sides compressed and marked by a suture; stem rather long, slender, set in a narrow cavity; skin dull yellow, spotted with red, often dull; flesh whitish-yellow with a reddish tinge near the skin, tender, sweet; stone small, broadly cordate, adherent; season late. =Süsskirsche mit Gefurster Blüthe.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Listed without a description. =Sweedish.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Cultivator_ N. S. =7=:270. 1850. Sweedish is one of Professor J. P. Kirtland's varieties, possibly identical with White Heart. Its strikingly rugose or wrinkled surface distinguishes it from other cherries. =Sweet Montmorency.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:284. 1842. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 193 fig. 1845. _Allen's Sweet Montmorency._ =3.= Bridgeman _Gard. Ass't_ Pt. =3=:183. 1847. The fruit of this variety resembles Montmorency in external appearance but it is of a sweet, delicate flavor and the growth and habit of the tree is that of a Heart. Probably it is a hybrid between a Heart and a Morello or Montmorency. It was raised by J. F. Allen, Salem, Massachusetts. Tree vigorous, somewhat spreading; fruit rather small, nearly round; suture shallow; stem short; cavity shallow; skin pale amber in the shade, deep orange in the sun, becoming darker, and mottled with yellow; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, sweet, high quality; stone small, round, slightly adherent; season the last of July to August. =Sweet Morello.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 54. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Tarascon Kirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 5 fig., 6. 1867. _Guigne de Tarascon._ =2.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:59-61, fig. 4, 219. 1866. =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 18, 199. 1876. =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:336, 337 fig. 1877. Tarascon Kirsche originated in Bouches-du-Rhône, France. Tree of medium height, moderately vigorous; fruit rather large, usually attached by fours, obtuse-cordate, surface irregular; suture indistinct; stem rather slender, medium in length; cavity often shallow; skin glossy, changing to nearly black; flesh colored, juicy, tender, sweet; ripens late in June. =Tardive d'Avignon.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:153, 154 fig. 39, 155. 1866. =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:395, 396 fig. 1877. This variety is grown at Avignon, Vaucluse, France. Tree vigorous, large; fruit usually attached in pairs, of medium size, compressed at the base, mamelon at the apex; suture indistinct; stem very long, slender, set in a broad, shallow cavity; apex prominent; skin thin but firm, dark glossy red, never becoming black, easily detached from the pulp; flesh clear blood-red netted with white, tender, juicy, sweet, with pronounced acidity; first quality; pit small, roundish, moderately grooved; matures at the beginning of July. =Tardive de Brederode.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:156. 1882. Leaves and flowers described. =Tardive Noire d'Espagne.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Mentioned in the reference given. =Tardive de Peine.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Listed without a description. =Tecumseh.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 203. 1854. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =19=:167, 168. 1853. =3.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:65, 66, fig. 33. 1882. Tecumseh was raised in 1842 by Professor J. P. Kirtland, Cleveland, Ohio, from a pit of Yellow Spanish, probably fertilized by Black Tartarian, Black Mazzard, or May Duke. Tree moderately vigorous, spreading, hardy, productive; fruit medium to large, obtuse-cordate, compressed, with a broad, shallow suture; stem long, moderately thick; skin thin, tender, deep reddish-purple changing to purplish-black, glossy, sometimes mottled with red; flesh reddish-purple, rather tender, very juicy, sweet yet sprightly but not high flavored; quality good; stone medium in size, smooth, round, slightly elongated; ripens from the middle to the end of July. =Temple.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Col. O. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 31. 1892. Temple is a large Duke, subacid in flavor, ripening about June 10th. Tree an upright grower. =Terry.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 168. 1897. =2.= _Del. Sta. An. Rpt._ =12=:122. 1900. =3.= Budd-Hansen _Am. Hort. Man._ =2=:283. 1903. _Terry Early._ =4.= Stark Bros. _Cat._ 21. 1910. Terry was probably imported by H. A. Terry, Crescent, Iowa, from Russia. Tree moderately upright, hardy; fruit of medium size, roundish, flattened laterally; suture indistinct; stem medium long; cavity shallow; skin tough, slightly astringent, deep red; flesh meaty, subacid, colored; stone small, roundish; ripens the middle of June. =Thirty Day.= Species? =1.= _Col. O. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 9. 1890. Thirty Day is said to ripen thirty days from the time of blossoming. It was grown by a Mr. Irwin of Fairfield County, Ohio; fruit large and of excellent quality. =Thompson.= _P. avium._ =1.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 290. 1889. Thompson is a seedling of Black Tartarian, which it closely resembles, from Napa County, California. Tree hardier and the fruit firmer than Black Tartarian. =Thränen Muskatellerkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 683. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 174-177. 1819. =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:35. 1858. _Bigarreautier à rameaux pendants._ =4.= _Ann. Pom. Belge_ =4=:85, 86, Pl. 1856. =5.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:233 fig., 234. 1877. _Muscat des Larmes._ =6.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:301. 1866. This old variety is said to have been introduced into Germany and France from the Island of Minorca in the Mediterranean. The branches very soon take on a drooping habit whence its name; leaves long and narrow, peach-like; fruit large, often borne in pairs, flattened at the stem as well as at the sides, marked by a suture; skin dark brownish-red; flesh dark red, firm, juicy; excellent; stone plump, oval; ripens the middle of July. =Tilgner Rothe Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 254, 255. 1819. =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:27. 1858. =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 103 fig., 104. 1860. _Guigne de Tilgener._ =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:302. 1866. _Bigarreau rouge de Tilgener_? =5.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. This variety is a seedling from Guben, Prussia, Germany. Tree large, productive; fruit above medium in size, cordate; suture shallow; stem medium to above in length, rather deeply inserted; color yellowish, spotted and streaked with red often becoming wholly red; flesh pale white, juicy, tender, sweet, aromatic; quality very good; stone oval, acutely pointed, plump, grooved; ripens at the end of June. =Tilgner Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ill. Handb._ 33 fig., 34. 1867. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 380. 1889. _Bigarreau noir de Tilgner._ =3.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:230 fig. 1877. Another seedling from Guben, Prussia, Germany, originating about 1852. Tree vigorous, healthy, productive; fruit usually borne in threes, very large, obtuse-cordate, often pointed, compressed; suture indistinct; stem short, stout, set in a deep, rather wide cavity; skin moderately tender, glossy, black when ripe; flesh rather tender, dark red, aromatic, pleasing; stone of medium size, oval; season late. =Tobacco-Leaved.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:122, 123. 1832. _Ounce._ 2. Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 571. 1629. _Cerise à Feuilles bigarrées._ 3. Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:35. 1771. _Four to the Pound._ 4. Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 267-277. 1819. =5.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 49. 1831. _Ächte (sein sollende) Kirsche Vier auf ein Pfund._ =6.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 283, 284, 679. 1819. _Bigarreautier à grandes feuilles._ =7.= Poiteau _Pom. Franc._ =2=: No. 10, Pl. 1846. _Gross blättrige Molkenkirsche._ =8.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:31. 1858. _Bigarreau à Feuilles de Tabac._ =9.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:201 fig., 202, 203, 204. 1877. The foliage is an object of curiosity in this variety, the leaves often measuring a foot in length and from five to eight inches in width. The fruits are rather below medium in size. The young shoots present a much undulated appearance. The variety is evidently of English origin, being mentioned in 1629, by Parkinson. Fruit below medium in size, heart-shaped; stem long, slender; skin tender, glossy, yellow overspread with red; flesh firm, transparent, juicy, rich, sweet; stone of medium size, ovate; ripens early in August. =Toctonne Précoce.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:156. 1882. The fruit is not described. =Tokeya.= _P. pumila × P. simonii._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:Pl. 4. 1908. =2.= _Ibid._ =130=:188 Pl. 13, 189. 1911. Tokeya is a cross between the Sand Cherry and the Simon plum and was introduced as South Dakota No. 7 by the South Dakota Station. The early fruiting and the dwarfing habit of the Sand Cherries are very evident; fruit one and three-eighths inches in diameter, flat, dark red; flesh green, sprightly subacid, intermediate between that of the two parents; of good quality; pit very small. =Tomato.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= _Hogg Fruit Man._ 92. 1866. _Pomme-d'Amour._ =2.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 21, 203. 1876. _Love Apple._ =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 3rd App. 163. 1881. Tomato is a Duke cherry of Spanish origin. Fruit large, roundish-oblate, often depressed or tomato-shaped; suture shallow; apex a dot; stem long, slender, set in a large, broad, moderately deep cavity; skin yellowish, shaded with red; flesh yellowish, tender, juicy, sprightly subacid; quality very good; ripens early in July. =Toronto.= Species? =1.= _Ohio Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 22. 1892-93. =2.= _Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales_ =19=:998. 1908. Tree upright, fairly vigorous, productive; fruit borne in twos and threes, small, cordate, flattened on the sides, dark red; flesh and juice dark red, soft. =Toupie.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:270. 1854. =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:17, 18, fig. 9. 1882. _Kreiselkirsche._ =3.= _Ill. Handb._ 25 fig., 26. 1867. _Bigarreau Toupie._ =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:246, 247 fig. 1877. A peculiar top-shaped fruit raised by M. Denis Henrard of the University of Liege, Belgium. Tree vigorous, moderately productive; fruit large, elongated, pointed-cordate, sides slightly compressed; suture indistinct; stem moderately long, slender, often curved, inserted in a narrow, shallow cavity; skin pale red becoming darker; flesh half-tender, juicy, dark red where exposed, sweet, acidulated; pit large, oval, tapering toward the apex, plump; ripens at the last of June. =Townsend.= _P. cerasus._ Townsend is a strong, vigorous, productive cherry grown by W. P. Townsend, Lockport, New York. Fruit large, obtuse-cordate, with a high shoulder, compressed; suture distinct; stem long, rather slender, set in a broad, somewhat deep cavity; skin light amber, mottled and shaded with carmine; flesh almost tender, juicy, sprightly, refreshing; pit small; ripens late in June. =Transparent.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 92. 1866. Transparent was grown by M. De Jonghe of Brussels, Belgium, from seed of Montmorency. Fruit above medium in size, oblate, with a faint suture which is distinctly marked at the apex; skin pale red, thin, transparent, showing the fibrous flesh beneath; flesh tender, melting, sweet, delicious. =Transparent Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 43. 1803. =2.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:119. 1832. =3=. Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 177. 1845. _Jahns Durchsichtige._ =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 143 fig., 144. 1860. _Transparent de Jahn._ =5.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:65, 66, fig. 31. 1866-73. This is a European cherry formerly grown to some extent in America. Tree moderately vigorous, erect at first; fruit small, borne in pairs, regular, oval-cordate; stem rather long, inserted in a narrow cavity; suture a wide, dark line; skin thin, glossy, pellucid, showing the stone, yellowish-white, blotched with fine red; flesh yellowish-white, with a reddish cast, tender, juicy, aromatic; stone medium in size, oval, free; ripens late in June. =Transparente de Meylan.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 28. 1876. Fruit large, round, transparent; flesh delicate, fine, acid at first becoming sugary; ripens at the end of May. =Transparente de Rivers.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 17, 207. 1876. This is an English variety introduced into France about 1865. Fruit large, spherical, depressed, with a spotted rose-carmine color; flesh firm, juicy, sugary, slightly acidulated; first quality; ripens early in July. =Transparente de Siebenfreund.= Species? =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 28. 1876. =2.= _Guide Prat._ 11. 1895. A large, beautiful cherry ripening the last of June from M. Siebenfreund, a druggist at Tyrnau, northwestern Hungary. =Triomphe de Fausin.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Listed in the reference given. =Troprichters Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 206, 676, 677. 1819. _Guigne Troprichtz._ =2.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:340, 341 fig. 1877. An old German variety. Fruit large, roundish-oval; skin clear red becoming more intense; flesh juicy, sweet, aromatic; of good quality; ripens early in June. =Truchsess Schwarze Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 380. 1889. Listed but not described. =Tubbs.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:86. 1903. Tubbs originated in Iowa City, Iowa. Fruit of medium size, oblate, slightly cordate; stem long, rather stout, inserted in a deep, narrow opening; suture very indistinct; apex convex; skin thick, dark red; flesh colored, crisp, meaty, slightly acid, juicy; quality very good; stone small, round; ripens late in June. =Türkine.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Handb._ 667. 1797. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 265-267. 1819. 3. _Ill. Handb._ 109 fig., 110. 1860. Christ once labeled the Flamentiner, Türkine, which has given rise to some confusion. The true Türkine was sent out by Sello as Runde Weisse Späte Kirsche. Tree not very vigorous or productive; fruit of medium size, very broad, cordate; suture indistinct; stem long, slender; cavity variable; skin spotted with red and yellow; flesh softer than most Hearts, white, juicy; quality very good; stone plump, roundish; ripens late in July. =Turkirsche Grosse.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Guide Prat._ 11. 1895. A German variety which resembles Elton; fruit large, pointed; flesh white, sweet; first quality; ripens throughout July. =Turner Late.= Species? =1=. Van Lindley _Cat._ 37. 1899. A productive black cherry of medium size ripening the middle of June. =Twyford.= Species? =1.= _Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales_ =19=:997. 1908. Tree vigorous, upright-spreading, productive; fruit borne singly and in pairs, above medium in size, roundish-cordate, flattened; stem slender, long; skin yellow, mottled with bright, light red; flesh rather firm, whitish, tinged red near the skin, with clear juice; good; ripens in New South Wales in November. =Uhlhorns Trauerkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 28. 1876. Thomas states that this is a weeping cherry from Germany; fruit large and very good. =Ungarische Weichsel.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:61. 1858. _Schwarze Ungarische Kirsche._ =2.= Christ _Wörterb._ 284. 1802. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 588, 589. 1819. This cherry should not be confused with the Grosse Ungarische Kirsche which is a Heart while this is a Morello. Fruit large, round, compressed; suture indistinct; stem slender, long, shallowly inserted; color black; flesh firm, tender, subacid, with dark red juice; pit small, elongated-oval; ripens the middle of July. =Urinall.= _P. avium._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. "The Urinall Cherrie in a most fruitfull yeare is a small bearer, having many yeares none, and the best but a few; yet doth blossome plentifully every yeare for the most part: the cherrie is long and round, like unto an Urinall, from whence it tooke his name; reddish when it is full ripe, and of an indifferent sweete rellish." =Utha.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Minn. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 57. 1894. Spoken of by Joseph Wood, Windom, Minnesota, as a hardy but almost worthless fruit; unproductive. =Van Gaasbeck.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 67. 1875. A seedling cherry of extrordinary keeping quality exhibited by W. Van Gaasbeck, Hudson, New York. The fruit is of medium size with firm, sweet flesh. =Vanskike.= Species? =1.= _Trans. Cal. Agr. Soc._ 472. 1873. A flesh-colored cherry listed as being cultivated successfully in California. =Vaughn.= Species? 1. _Can. Exp. Farm. Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:62. 1900. Listed as medium in growth; fruit not described. =Velser.= _P. avium X P. cerasus._ =1.= Krünitz _Enc._ 54, 55. 1790. =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 394-398. 1819. _Prague Tardif (Muscadét de)._ =3.= Knoop _Fructologie_ =2=:36, 42. 1771. _Wanfrieder Weichsel._ =4.= Christ _Handb._ 672. 1797. _Douce de Palatinat._ =5.= _Mag. Hort._ =20=:270. 1854. _Pfälzer Süssweichsel._ =6.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:49. 1858. _Cerise du Palatinat._ =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:153, 154, fig. 75. 1866-73. Tree of medium growth; branches long, straight; fruit above medium in size, obtuse-cordate, distinguishing it from other dark Dukes, compressed; suture distinct; stem long; color dark red; flesh colored, fibrous, juicy, sweet with a pleasing subacid flavor; stone small, broad, cordate, adhering to both stem and flesh. =Very Large Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. Mentioned in this reference. =Vesta.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Rpt._ 262. 1892. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 150. 1895. Vesta is a seedling of Napoleon which originated with C. E. Hoskins, Newberg, Oregon; fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate, very dark; flesh firm, sweet; quality good; ripens the middle of June. =Vilna Sweet.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ia. Hort. Soc. Rpt._ 330. 1885. =2.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:31. 1910. Vilna Sweet was imported by Professor J. L. Budd from Vilna, Russia. This variety shows much promise in the West as a local sort but is too tender to ship. Tree of medium size, upright, very hardy, free from diseases; fruit large, roundish to oblong, compressed; stem long, slender; cavity rather deep, narrow, often lipped on the side showing a suture; color red, often entirely covering the yellow ground; flesh whitish, tinged with pink, tender but meaty, sprightly, subacid becoming sweet; pit free, large, ovate, plump, smooth; ripens the middle of July hanging to the tree until the last of August. =Violet.= _P. cerasus._ According to a letter from H. Back & Sons, New Trenton, Indiana, Violet resembles English Morello but is more round and not as acid. =Virginia May Duke.= _P. avium._ =1.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 220. 1854. =2.= Hooper _W. Fr. Book 269._ 1857. A small, cordate, bright red, second rate Mazzard cherry. =Vistula.= Species? =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 149. 1896. Mentioned as planted and as having been killed by the winter. =Voronezh No. 27.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 76. 1890. A promising, vigorous variety imported under this number from Voronezh, Russia; Fruit very large, bright red, round, somewhat flattened; flesh juicy, subacid; pit small. season very late. =Wabash.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 41. 1895. Wabash was introduced by Samuel Kinsey, Kinsey, Ohio, the original tree having stood since 1848 on the grounds of Mrs. Ellen Pawlings, Wabash, Indiana. Fruit borne singly, of the Morello type, roundish-oblate, above medium in size, surface smooth; cavity large, wide, deep, flaring; stem long, slender, curved; suture a shallow line; skin thin, tough, glossy, bright crimson turning to dark red; dots very small, indented; flesh yellowish, veined, translucent, tender, melting, subacid, rich; quality very good; season a week later than Early Richmond. =Wachampa.= _P. pumila × P. triflora._ =1.= _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =130=:181. 1911. Wachampa is a cross between the Sand Cherry and the Occident plum. Fruit an inch to an inch and one quarter in diameter; skin bitter, dark purple; flesh and juice dark purple. =Wagner.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:31. 1910. Tree upright, round-topped, with long branches; fruit medium to large, roundish-oblate; stem short, stout; skin thin, tender, dark red; flesh yellow, meaty, melting, sweet, with a slight acidity; quality good; ripens the middle of July. =Warner.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =10=:247. 1859. Warner is a supposed seedling of American Amber grown by Mathew G. Warner, Rochester, New York; fruit amber to very dark red where exposed; stem long, slender; flesh firm, juicy, sweet; ripens late in July. =Warren Transparent.= Species? =1.= Cole _Am. Fr. Book_ 237. 1849. Originated with a Mr. Warren, Brighton, Massachusetts. Fruit roundish-cordate; skin pale yellow and red; flesh very tender, transparent; ripens early in July. =Washington Purple.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Listed without a description. =Waterhouse.= _P. avium._ =1.= _U. S. D. A. Pom. Rpt._ 25. 1894. This variety was originated by Dr. Warren Waterhouse, 1873, of Monmouth, Oregon. Fruit of the Bigarreau class, large, compressed, heart-shaped; cavity large, round; stem long, slender; suture a line; skin firm, smooth, glistening, yellowish-white with a bright red cheek, often nearly solid red; dots numerous, very small; flesh whitish, tinged yellow, firm, juicy, vinous, sprightly; quality very good. =Weeping.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:153. 1832. _Weeping or Pendulous Morello._ =2.= Fish _Hardy-Fr. Bk._ =2=:106. 1882. Under the name Weeping are included many varieties with a drooping or pendulant habit and mostly of ornamental value only. This variety, listed by Prince, although much like Toussaint, has branches more pendant than those of other weeping cherries. The Weeping or Pendulous Morello of Fish is included here. The head in this variety seldom exceeds four or five feet in diameter, and the slender branches droop on all sides until they trail on the ground; the fruit is of medium size and when fully ripe is of a pleasant acid flavor. =Weeping Black Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Flor. & Pom._ 16. 1879. _Trauerknorpelkirsche._ =2.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:40. 1858. _Bigarreau pleureur._ =3.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 23. 1876. One of the earliest black Bigarreaus. It differs from other sorts of its class in the weeping habit of the tree; very ornamental. =Weeping Napoleon.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 53. 1871. A seedling of Napoleon introduced by a Mr. Dougall, Windsor, Ontario. If budded high the branches are pendulous, which, with the large, dark fruit, makes a handsome ornamental. =Weis, Roth und Rosenfarbig Marmorirte Kramelkirsche.= Species? =1.= _Kraft Pom. Aust._ =1=:3, Tab. 6 fig. 2. 1792. Flesh white, breaking, firm, with colorless juice, pleasing; ripens the middle of July. =Weisse Rosenroth Marmorirte Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Christ _Wörterb._ 280. 1802. _Weiss und hellroth gefleckte grosse Kramelkirsche._ =2.= Kraft _Pom. Aust._ =1=:3, Tab. 6 fig. 1. 1792. Flesh white, less firm than others of this class; juice colorless; stone yellowish; ripens the middle of July. =Weisse Mandelkirsche.= Species? =1.= _Proskauer Obstsort._ 58. 1907. Listed, not described. =Wellington.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 56. 1831. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 220. 1854. _Wellington's Weichsel._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:60. 1858. _Griotte de Wellington._ =4.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:307. 1866. Mentioned by Elliott in 1854 as unworthy of further culture. Bigarreau Wellington, often used as a synonym of Napoleon, should not be mistaken for this Morello of supposedly English origin. Fruit of medium size, cordate; stem long; skin thin, glossy, black; flesh firm, dark red, moderately juicy, pleasant subacid; stone elongated, cordate, free; ripens the middle of July. =Wendell Mottled.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =13=:494 fig. 1847. =2.= Elliott _Fr. Book_ 213. 1854. =3.= Hoffy _N. Am. Pom._ Pl. 1860. Wendell Mottled was raised from a seed of Yellow Spanish planted in 1840, by Dr. Herman Wendell, Albany, New York. Tree upright, thrifty, bears early and abundantly; fruit large, obtuse-cordate, with a distinct suture; stem long, rather stout, set in a moderately deep cavity; skin dark purplish-red, mottled and streaked, nearly black; flesh deep crimson, firm, crisp, juicy; stone small; ripens the middle of July. =Wenzlecks Bunte Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mas Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Mentioned in the reference given. =Werder Early Black.= _P. avium._ =1.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 169. 1845. =2.= _Ill. Handb._ 53 fig., 54. 1860. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 93. 1866. _Werdersche Schwarze Allerfrüheste Herzkirsche._ =4.= Christ _Handb._ 683. 1797. =5.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 109-111. 1819. _Guigne Hâtive de Werder._ =6.= Mortillet _Le Cerisier_ =2=:82, 300. 1866. =7.= Mas _Le Verger_ =8=:27, 28, fig. 12. 1866-73. _Bigarreau Werder._ =8.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:251 fig. 1877. This cherry was received by Truchsess in 1794, from Christ; of unknown origin. Tree strong and upright in growth, very productive; fruit valuable for its earliness, rather large, flattened-cordate, with a deep suture on one side; stem of medium length and thickness, inserted in a rather small cavity; skin thin, rather deep purple changing to purplish-black; flesh deep purple, with abundant colored juice, firm, tender, sweet, yet moderately sprightly and aromatic; quality good; stone large, ovate, flattened at the base; ripens from the last of May to the first of June. =Werder'sche Bunte Herzkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 382. 1889. Listed without a description. =Wheeler.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:87. 1903. A hardy seedling of English Morello originating with H. J. Wheeler, Carnforth, Iowa. =White Bigarreau.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mich. Sta. Bul._ =205=:28. 1903. This variety was received by the Michigan Station from the United States Department of Agriculture in 1895; it is between the Duke and the Morello in type. Tree low, slow in growth; fruit large, light red, slightly darker on one side; flesh tender, juicy, sprightly subacid. =White French.= Species? =1.= _Pa. Fr. Gr. Soc. Rpt._ 11. 1881. Spoken of as doing well in Pennsylvania. =White French Guigne.= _P. avium._ =1.= Barry _Fr. Garden_ 323. 1851. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Cat._ 74. 1862. =3.= Garvin & Son _Cat._ 18. 1892. A distinct, rather large cherry listed in the fruit catalog of the American Pomological Society for 1862. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit creamy-white; flesh tender, melting, juicy, sweet; ripens the middle of July. =White Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. Listed, not described. =White Hungarian Gean.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 50. 1831. A tender-fleshed, obtuse-cordate cherry, amber in color, ripening in July; second quality. =White Mazzard.= _P. avium._ =1.= Manning _Book of Fruits_ 111. 1838. =2.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:285. 1842. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 171. 1845. White Mazzard originated with Robert Manning at Salem, Massachusetts, from a seed of White Bigarreau. Downing considered it similar to Black Mazzard, except in color. Tree handsome, upright in growth, productive; fruit of medium size, cordate, of a cream color, with a bright red cheek; not of the finest flavor; ripens late. =White Spanish.= _P. avium._ =1.= Parkinson _Par. Ter._ 572. 1629. =2.= Krünitz _Enc._ 61, 62, 63. 1790. =3.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 317-320. 1819. =4.= _Ill. Handb._ 127 fig., 128. 1860. This variety and Yellow Spanish are much alike in appearance yet the best European authorities consider them distinct. Tree healthy, not large, productive; fruit large, roundish-cordate, somewhat compressed; stem long; cavity depressed on the ventral side; color waxy yellow, streaked and dotted with red; flesh yellowish, firm, juicy, sweet, pleasant; ripens late. =White Tartarian.= _P. avium._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:114. 1832. =2.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 178. 1845. =3.= Hogg _Fruit Man._ 315. 1884. _Fraser's White Tartarian._ =4.= Forsyth _Treat. Fr. Trees_ 43. 1803. A variety with this name was grown for many years in America which was finally proved by William Prince to be a sub-variety of the White Heart. Tree vigorous, erect, usually productive; fruit rather small, roundish, inclined to obtuse-cordate; stem long, slender; skin transparent, pale yellow, approaching amber on the exposed cheek; flesh whitish-yellow, nearly tender, juicy, pleasant, brisk subacid becoming sweet; very good in quality; stone large, oval; season early. =White Transparent.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 56. 1831. Mentioned in the reference given. =Wier's Seedlings.= D. B. Wier, Lacon, Illinois, disseminated several seedlings which he selected from a large number originated by him. =Wier No. 2.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =49=:453. 1890. =2.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 37. 1904-05. This cherry is said to be a seedling of Early Richmond but of the Morello type. Tree medium to large, upright-spreading, fruiting regularly; fruit of medium size, oblate-conic; cavity shallow, broad; stem short; suture slight; color dark red; flesh firm, meaty, dark red, mildly subacid; quality fair; stone oval; precedes Early Richmond. =Wier No. 11.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt._ 37. 1904-05. Tree upright, productive, hardy; fruit cordate, black; juice dark, sweeter than many of the sour sorts; ripens earlier than Northwest and Early Richmond. =Wier No. 12.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:88. 1903. Sometimes listed as Wier, being one of the best of Mr. Wier's seedlings but only moderately productive. Tree of medium size, slightly spreading; fruit of medium size, elongated-cordate; cavity rather deep and broad; stem stout, rather long; suture obscure; skin thick, tender, dark red; flesh firm, crisp, with slightly colored juice, sprightly subacid; quality fair; stone large, oval; season from July 12th to 20th; the latest of the Wier seedlings. =Wier No. 13.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Kan. Sta. Bul._ =73=:190. 1897. Tree upright, with scant foliage; fruit of medium size; skin dark red, tough; flesh slightly colored, mild; precedes Early Richmond; of no value. =Wier No. 19.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Kan. Sta. Bul._ =73=:190. 1897. Fruit of medium size, oval, dark red; worthless. =Wier No. 24.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:88. 1903. Tree medium in growth, upright-spreading; fruit conical, cordate, of medium size; cavity shallow; stem of medium length; suture indistinct; skin smooth, dark red; flesh firm, light yellow, juicy, sprightly subacid; quality fair; stone almost spherical, smooth; ripens the middle of June; not worthy of further trial. =Wier No. 44.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =73=:88. 1903. =2.= Am. Pom. Soc. Sp. Rpt. 38. 1904-05. Tree medium in growth, upright-spreading; fruit small to medium, oblate; cavity shallow; stem short; skin thin, tender, light red; flesh tender, juicy, acid; good; season late June; less productive than No. 2. =Wild Ross-shire.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 57. 1831. A small, wild, round, red fruit with juicy flesh, ripening in July; allied to the Kentish. =Wilde Bunte Marmorkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:38. 1858. Distinguished from the Wild Red Bird cherry by its firmer flesh and later ripening. It grows wild and is sometimes cultivated along the highways; ripens the middle of August. =Wilhelmine Kleindienst.= _P. avium._ =1.= Thomas _Guide Prat._ 20. 1876. Of German origin; vigorous and productive; fruit large, brilliant reddish-brown; flesh firm, agreeably sweet; ripens the middle of July. =Wilkinson.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Mag. Hort._ =8=:284. 1842. =2.= Barry _Fr. Garden_ 323. 1851. =3.= Downing _Fr. Trees Am._ 476. 1869. Wilkinson is thought by Hovey to be a native of Rhode Island. Tree vigorous, productive; fruit of medium size, resembling Black Heart but is more sprightly; ripens the middle of July. =Willamette.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 127. 1875. =2.= Wickson _Cal. Fruits_ 290. 1889. =3.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:62. 1900. 4. _Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt._ 192. 1907. Willamette originated with Seth Lewelling, Milwaukee, Oregon, from a seed of Napoleon. Tree strong in growth; fruit large, light red; flesh whitish, firm, juicy, sweet, with a pleasant flavor; ripens in the Northwest in late June. =Willis Early.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farms Rpt._ 465. 1900. =2.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:62. 1900. Tree vigorous in growth; fruit of medium size, obtuse-cordate; skin yellow, mottled with red; flesh yellowish-white, juicy, tender, sweet; ripens early in May. =Willow-Leaved.= _P. avium × P. cerasus._ =1.= Prince _Pom. Man._ =2=:141. 1832. _May Duke, Willow-leaved._ =2.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 53. 1831. _Griottier à feuilles de Pêcher._ =3.= Kenrick _Am. Orch._ 280. 1832. _Weidenblättrige Süssweichsel._ =4.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:47. 1858. _Cerisier de Hollande à feuilles de saule ou de balsamine._ =5.= Noisette _Man. Comp. Jard._ =2=:505. 1860. _Griottier à feuilles de Saule._ =6.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:287 fig., 288. 1877. _Cerisier à Feuilles de Saule._ =7.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:160. 1882. The Willow-Leaved cherry seems to have originated in Holland and has been known since the middle of the Eighteenth Century. It differs from May Duke in the size and the shape of the foliage. It is not only cultivated for its singular foliage but also for its fine fruit. If the tree grows rapidly the leaves are said to assume normal shape. =Winkler Black.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Can. Exp. Farm Bul._ 2nd Ser. =3=:62. 1900. _Wincklers schwarze Knorpelkirsche._ =2.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 206, 676. 1819. _Winkler's schwarze Herzkirsche._ =3.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:35. 1858. _Bigarreau noir Winkler._ =4.= Leroy _Dict. Pom._ =5=:231 fig. 1877. This is a seedling from Guben, Prussia, Germany. Fruit borne in pairs of medium size, broad, obtuse-cordate, compressed; suture indistinct; skin dark red; flesh pale red, firm, aromatic, subacid, pleasing; pit rather large, oval; ripens early in July; not very productive. =Winter Schwarze.= Species? =1.= _Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat._ 57. 1831. Listed without a description. =Wohltragende Holländische Kirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Truchsess-Heim _Kirschensort_. 591-593. 1819. =2.= Mathieu _Nom. Pom._ 382. 1889. _Grosse wohltragende holländische Morellè._ =3.= Christ _Wörterb._ 288. 1802. Fruit large, sides unequally compressed; suture indistinct; stem medium in length, set in a large cavity; skin tough, dark brown when ripe; flesh fibrous, clear red, darker near the stone, with colored juice, pleasingly sour; stone long, colored; ripens late in July. =Yan.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Rural N. Y._ =61=:577 fig. 235. 1902. =2.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:32. 1910. Yan is a seedling grown by Seth Lewelling of Milwaukee, Oregon; named for a faithful Chinese workman. Fruit large, roundish-cordate, with a distinct suture on one side; stem long, stout; skin tough, dark purplish-red; flesh streaked and flecked with light red, firm, juicy, mild subacid; very late; productive. =Yellow Glass.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Ia. Sta. Bul._ =19=:551. 1892. =2.= _Ibid._ =73=:89. 1903. =3.= _Wash. Sta. Bul._ =92=:32. 1910. Yellow Glass was introduced from North Silesia by Professor J. L. Budd, Ames, Iowa. Tree large, upright, with abundant foliage; fruit medium to above in size, roundish-cordate; cavity deep; stem long; suture a line; skin thin, tough, light lemon in color; flesh firm, yellow, meaty, sweet, with colorless juice; quality good; stone large, round, clinging. =Young Large Black Heart.= _P. avium._ =1.= _Pioneer Nur. Cat._ 16. 1905-06. Merely listed in the reference given. =Yuksa.= _P. pumila × P. armeniaca._ 1. _S. Dak. Sta. Bul._ =108=:1908. Yuksa is noted in the reference as a cross between the Sand Cherry and the New Large Apricot. =Zimmtkirsche.= _P. cerasus._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:64. 1858. Fruit medium in size, round, flattened at the stem, without a suture; cavity deep; stem long; skin thin, dark red almost black; flesh aromatic, subacid; stone oval-pointed. =Zweifarbige Kirsche.= Species? =1.= Mathieu _Nom Pom._ 382. 1889. _Bicolor._ =2.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:159. 1882. Listed without a description. =Zwitterkirsche.= Species? =1.= Mas _Pom. Gen._ =11=:162. 1882. Mentioned in this reference. = Schwarze Knorpelkirsche.= _P. avium._ =1.= Dochnahl _Führ. Obstkunde_ =3=:35. 1858. Fruit large, elongated, sides strongly compressed; suture shallow; apex depressed; skin reddish-black; flesh very dark red, pleasing, slightly sweet; ripens in late July. [84] Charles Downing, whose likeness we show in the frontispiece, was born at Newburgh, New York, July 9, 1802. He spent his life in the place of his birth, dying January 18, 1885. His parents were natives of Lexington, Massachusetts, who shortly before the birth of Charles Downing, the eldest son, came to Newburgh, the father establishing a shop for the manufacture of wagons, a business which he soon abandoned to become a nurseryman. Here, in the first successful nursery established in the region, were trained Charles and Andrew Downing, receiving under the careful guidance of the father a knowledge of the business and of fruits which with later self instruction made them the most distinguished pomologists of their day. With the death of the father in 1822, before Charles had obtained his majority, the responsibility of conducting the business and the support of the family devolved upon him. Andrew J., the younger brother, in 1834, at the age of 19, united with Charles in the management of the nursery business under the firm name of C. & A. J. Downing, a partnership which lasted only until 1839. Charles continued in the nursery business for many years during which time he became the foremost pomologist in the United States and eventually, about 1850, sold his holdings to devote himself to the study of varieties of fruits and the revision of the _Fruits and Fruit Trees of America._ This great pomological book was projected and published by Andrew but most of the work of the book as it is now known was done by Charles in revising the original and adding to its many editions. It is and has long been, as all know, the highest authority on American fruits. Naturally of an inquiring turn of mind Charles Downing studied closely the qualities of the varieties that came under his observation and seldom described without the fruit in hand. His variety orchard is said to have contained at one time 1,800 varieties of apples and 1,000 pears with lesser numbers of the other fruits. A few trees of this wonderful collection still stand. Charles Downing was one of the most modest and retiring of men, in his younger days delighting in the things of which his brother wrote and seldom putting pen to paper until after his brother's death when he became a regular contributor to horticultural publications over the signature "C. D." He was never known to make a public speech. He earned his high distinction in American pomology by his accurate and conscientious descriptions and discussions of varieties of fruits. [85] Andrew Jackson Downing was born in Newburgh on the Hudson, the town in which he always lived and which he loved, October 30, 1815. He perished while trying to save other passengers in the burning of the steamer _Henry Clay_ on the Hudson River, July 28, 1852, at the age of 37. Andrew Downing's education was largely acquired from self instruction although he attended the schools of his native town and the academy in the adjoining village of Montgomery. His father, a nurseryman, whose work was mentioned in the sketch of Charles Downing, elder brother of Andrew, gave the younger son every opportunity to cultivate an early developed taste for horticulture, botany and the natural sciences. When but a youth he joined his brother Charles as partner in a nursery firm, a relationship maintained for but a few years and which he severed to begin a career as a writer on landscape gardening and pomological subjects. His first publication was a _Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening adapted to North America, with a view to the Improvement of Country Residences, with Remarks on Rural Architecture_, a book published in 1841, the author being but 26 years of age. The work passed into instant popularity and is the word of authority which has told thousands of Americans what to do to make their grounds beautiful. Within a few months so great was the success of the first venture that in response to the demand he published his _Cottage Residences, a_ companion book which was received with equal favor, thus giving Andrew Downing first rank as an authority on rural art. In 1845 the _Fruits and Fruit Trees of America_, then and now the chief pomological authority of this continent, was printed simultaneously in London and New York, a second edition coming out in 1850. In 1846 Andrew Downing became the founder and editor of the _Horticulturist_, which he continued to publish until his death. In 1849 he wrote _Additional Notes and Hints about Building in the Country_, published in Wightwick's _Hints to Young Architects._ The summer of 1850 was spent in England in the study of landscape gardening and rural architecture from the result of which came his _Architecture of Country Houses._ His last work was the editing of Mrs. Loudon's _Landscape Gardening for Ladies_ though _Rural Essays_ appeared after his death as a collection of his writings with a memoir by George William Curtis and a _Letter to his Friends_ by Frederika Bremer. He was employed in planting the public grounds of the Capitol, the White House and the Smithsonian Institution at Washington when he met his untimely death. Downing is the creator of American landscape gardening and shares with his brother Charles the honor of being the most distinguished pomologist of the country. In the epoch-making _Fruits and Fruit Trees of America_ Andrew Downing was the real genius, Charles Downing the conscientious and painstaking student who worked out the details. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND REFERENCES, WITH ABBREVIATIONS USED The list of books which follows contains all American pomological works in which the cherry is discussed at any length. Only such European books are listed, however, as were found useful in writing _The Cherries of New York_. Only periodicals are listed to which references are made in the text of the book. The reports and bulletins of experiment stations and horticultural societies are not included since the abbreviations used for such publications will be recognized by all. Am. Gard. American Gardening. An Illustrated Journal of Horticulture and Gardener's Chronicle. New York: 1892-1904. Copyright, 1903. (Before its union with Popular Gardening in 1892, the publication was known as The American Garden. Both Popular Gardening and The American Garden resulted from the union or absorption of several other horticultural periodicals.) Am. Gard. Mag. The American Gardener's Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs. See Mag. Hort. Am. Hort. An. American Horticultural Annual. A Yearbook of Horticultural Progress for the Professional and Amateur Gardener, Fruit-grower, and Florist. (_Illustrated_.) New York: 1867. Copyright, 1867. New edition. New York: 1870. Copyright, 1869. Am. Jour. Hort. The American Journal of Horticulture and Florist's Companion. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 1-5. Boston: 1867-1896. Copyrights, 1867-1869. Continued as Tilton's Journal of Horticulture and Floral Magazine. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 6-9. Boston: 1869-71. Copyrights, 1869-1871. Am. Pom. Soc. Rpt. Proceedings of the American Pomological Society. Issued usually biennially from 1850 to date. First published as the Proceedings of the National Convention of Fruit Growers in 1848. Ann. Hort. Annals of Horticulture and yearbook of information on practical gardening. 5 Volumes. London: 1846-1850. Ann. Pom. Belge Annales de Pomologie Belge et Étrangère; publiées par la Commission royale de Pomologie Instituée par S. M. le Roi des Belges. (_Illustré._) 8 Tomes. Bruxelles: 1853-1860. Bailey, Ann. Hort. Annals of Horticulture in North America for the Years 1889-1893. A Witness of Passing Events and a Record of Progress. By L. H. Bailey. New York: 1890-1894. Copyrights, 1889, 1891-1894. Bailey, Cyc. Hort. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture Comprising Suggestions for Cultivation of Horticultural Plants, Descriptions of the Species of Fruits, Vegetables, Flowers and Ornamental Plants Sold in the United States and Canada, Together with Geographical and Biographical Sketches. By L. H. Bailey, assisted by Wilhelm Miller. (_Illustrated._) In Four Volumes. New York: 1900-1902. Copyrights, 1900-1902. Bailey, Ev. Nat. Fruits Sketch of the Evolution of our Native Fruits. By L. H. Bailey. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1898. Copyright, 1898. Bailey, Sur. Unlike The Survival of the Unlike. A Collection of Evolution Essays Suggested by the Study of Domestic Plants. By L. H. Bailey. (_Illustrated._) Fifth Edition. New York: 1906. Copyright, 1896. Baltet, Cult. Fr. Traité de la Culture Fruitière Commerciale et Bourgeoise. Par Charles Baltet. (_Illustré._) Quatrième Édition. Paris: 1908. Barry, Fr. Garden The Fruit Garden. By P. Barry. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1852. Copyright, 1851. Revised Edition, 1896. Copyright, 1883. Bradley, Gard. New Improvements of Planting and Gardening, both Philosophical and Practical. In three parts. By Richard Bradley. (_Illustrated._) Seventh Edition with Appendix. London: 1739. Bridgeman, Gard. Ass't The Young Gardener's Assistant, in three parts. By Thomas Bridgeman. New Edition, with an Appendix. New York: 1857. Copyright, 1847. Brookshaw, Hort. Reposit. The Horticultural Repository, containing Delineations of the best Varieties of the Different Species of English Fruits. By George Brookshaw. (_Illustrated._) In Two Volumes. London: 1823. Budd-Hansen, Am. Hort. Man. American Horticultural Manual. By J. L. Budd, assisted by N. E. Hansen. (_Illustrated._) In Two Volumes. Volume 2, New York and London: 1903. Copyright, 1903. Bunyard-Thomas, Fr. Gard. The Fruit Garden. By George Bunyard and Owen Thomas. (_Illustrated._) London and New York: 1904. Can. Hort. The Canadian Horticulturist. (_Illustrated._) Toronto and Peterboro: 1878 to date. Cat. Cong. Pom. France Société Pomologique de France Catalogue Descriptif des Fruits Adoptés par le Congrès Pomologique. Lyon: 1887. Ibid.: 1906. Christ, Handb. Handbuch über die Obstbaumzucht und Obstlehre. Von J. L. Christ. Zweite vermehrte. Frankfurt: 1797. Christ, Obstbäume Von Pflanzung und Wartung der nüzlichsten Obstbäume. Von J. L. Christ. Zweiter Theil. Frankfurt: 1791. Christ, Wörterb. Pomologisches theoretisch-praktisches Handwörterbuch, oder Alphabetisches Verzeichniss. Von J. L. Christ. Leipzig: 1802. Cole, Am. Fr. Book The American Fruit Book; containing directions for Raising, Propagating, and Managing Fruit Trees, Shrubs, and Plants; with a description of the Best Varieties of Fruit, including New and Valuable Kinds. By S. W. Cole. (_Illustrated._) Boston: 1849. Copyright, 1849. Country Gent. The Country Gentleman. Albany: 1853-1865. The Cultivator & Country Gentleman. Albany: 1866-1897. The Country Gentleman. Albany and Philadelphia: 1898 to date. Coxe, Cult. Fr. Trees A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees, and the Management of Orchards and Cider; with accurate descriptions of the most estimable varieties of Native and Foreign Apples, Pears, Peaches, Plums, and Cherries, cultivated in the middle states of America. By William Coxe. (_Illustrated._) Philadelphia: 1817. Copyright, 1817. Cultivator The Cultivator. Albany: 1834-1865. In 1866 united with The Country Gentleman. Cult. & Count. Gent. The Cultivator & Country Gentleman. See Country Gent. Decaisne & Naudin, Man. Amat. Jard. Manuel de L'Amateur Des Jardins Traité Général D'Horticulture. Par Jh. Decaisne et CH. Naudin. (_Illustré._) Tome Quatrième. Paris. De Candolle, Or. Cult. Plants Origin of Cultivated Plants. By Alphonse de Candolle. Geneva [Switzerland]: 1882. New York: 1885. Dochnahl, Führ. Obstkunde Der sichere Führer in der Obstkunde auf botanisch-pomologischen Wege oder Systematische Breschreibung aller Obstsorten. Von F. J. Dochnahl. Vier Bände. Nürnberg: 1855-60. Volume 3, 1858. Cherries. Downing, Fr. Trees Am. The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America: or the culture, propagation, and management, in the garden and orchard, of fruit trees generally; with Descriptions Of All The Finest Varieties Of Fruit, Native and Foreign, Cultivated In This Country. By A. J. Downing. (_Illustrated._) New York & London: 1845. Copyright, 1845. Second edition, same text, with colored plates, 1847. First revision, by Charles Downing. New York: 1857. Copyright, 1857. Second revision, by Charles Downing. New York: 1869. First appendix, 1872. Second appendix, 1876. Third appendix, 1881. Duhamel, Trait. Arb. Fr. Traité Des Arbres Fruitiers; Contenant Leur Figure, Leur Description, Leur Culture, &c. Par M. Duhamel Du Monceau. (_Illustré._) Tomes 1 et 2. Paris: 1768. Édition publié en 1872, en trois tomes. Nouvelle Édition en six tomes, 1807-1835. Elliott, Fr. Book Elliott's Fruit Book; or, the American Fruit-Grower's Guide in Orchard and Garden. By F. R. Elliott. (_Illustrated._) New York: 1858. Copyright, 1854. Revised edition. 1859. Fish, Hardy-Fr. Bk. The Hardy-Fruit Book. By D. T. Fish. (_Illustrated._) Two Volumes. London: probably 1882. Flor. & Pom. The Florist And Pomologist: A Pictorial Monthly Magazine of Flowers, Fruits, and General Horticulture. Conducted at first by Robert Hogg and John Spencer, later by Thomas Moore and William Paul. (_Illustrated._) London: 1862-1884. Floy-Lindley, Guide Orch. Gard. A Guide to the Orchard And Fruit Garden or an account of the Most Valuable Fruits cultivated in Great Britain. By George Lindley; edited by John Lindley. American edition by Michael Floy. New York: 1833. New edition; with an Appendix. New York: 1846. Copyright, 1846. Forsyth, Treat. Fr. Trees A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees. By William Forsyth. London: 1802. Same with an Introduction and Notes, by William Corbett. Albany: 1803. Seventh edition [English] London: 1824. Gard. Chron. The Gardener's Chronicle. (_Illustrated._) London: 1841 to date. Garden The Garden. (_Illustrated._) London: 1872 to date. Gard. Mon. The Gardener's Monthly and Horticultural Advertiser. Edited by Thomas Meehan. (_Illustrated._) Philadelphia: 1859-1887. Gaucher, Pom. Prak. Obst. Pomologie des Praktischen Obstbaumzüchters. Von N. Gaucher. (_Illustrirt._) Stuttgart: 1894. Gen. Farmer The Genesee Farmer. Edited by Luther Tucker, Rochester: 1831-1839. Then consolidated with the Cultivator. Another periodical of the same name was published in Rochester from 1845 to 1865. Also New Genesee Farmer and Monthly Genesee Farmer. Gerarde, Herball The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes. By John Gerarde. Enlarged and amended by Thomas Johnson. London: 1636. Guide Prat. Guide Pratique de L'Amateur De Fruits. Description Et Culture des Variétiés De Fruits Classés Par Séries De Mérite composant les collections pomologiques De L'Établissement Horticole Simon-Louis Frères. A Plantières-Les-Metz (Lorraine Annexée) Suivi D'Une Table Générale Alphabétique de tous les Synonymes connus, Francais et Étrangers appartenent à chaque variété. Deuxième Édition. Paris et Nancy: 1895. Hoffy, N. Am. Pom. Hoffy's North American Pomologist, containing numerous Finely Colored Drawings, accompanied by letter press descriptions, &c., of Fruits of American Origin. Edited by William D. Brincklé. Book No. 1. Philadelphia: 1860. Copyright, 1860. Hoffy, Orch. Com. The Orchardist's Companion. Alfred Hoffy, Editor and Publisher. A quarterly journal. Vol. I, 1841-2; Vol. II, 1842-3. Philadelphia. Hogg, Fruit Man. The Fruit Manual: A Guide to the Fruits and Fruit Trees of Great Britain. By Robert Hogg. First edition, London: 1860. Second edition, 1861. Third edition, 1866. Fourth edition, 1873. Fifth edition, 1884. Hooper, W. Fr. Book Hooper's Western Fruit Book: a compendious Collection of Facts from the Notes and Experience of Successful Fruit Culturists, arranged for practical use in The Orchard and Garden. By E. J. Hooper. Cincinnati: 1857. Copyright, 1857. Hort. Reg. (Am.) Horticultural Register and Gardener's Magazine. Edited by T. G. Fessenden and J. E. Teschemacher. Volume I. Boston: 1835. Hort. Reg. (Eng.) The Horticultural Register and General Magazine. By Joseph Paxton and Joseph Harrison. Vol. I. London: 1833. Horticulturist The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste. Founded and first edited by A. J. Downing. (_Illustrated._) Volumes 1 to 30. Albany, Philadelphia and New York: 1846-1875. Hovey, Fr. Am. The Fruits of America, containing Richly Colored Figures, and full Descriptions of all the choicest Varieties cultivated in the United States. By C. M. Hovey. Volume I. Boston and New York: 1852. Volume II. Boston: 1856. Copyright, 1851. Ill. Handb. Illustrirtes Handbuch der Obstkunde, unter Mitwirkung mehrerer herausgegeben von ... F. Jahn ... Ed. Lucas und ... J. G. C. Oberdieck. Siebente Leiferung. Dritten Bandes. Stuttgart: 1860; Neunte Lieferung. Dritten Bandes. Stuttgart: 1861; Sechszehnte Lieferung. Sechsten Bandes. Ravensburg: 1867. Jour. Hort. The Journal of Horticulture began as: The Cottage Gardener; or Amateur's and Cottager's Guide to out-door gardening and spade cultivation. 25 Volumes. London: 1849-1861. Continued as The Journal of Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Country Gentleman. A Journal of Horticulture, Rural and Domestic Economy, Botany and Natural History. New Series. 38 Volumes. London: 1861-1880. Continued as The Journal of Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Home Farmer. A Chronicle of Country Pursuits and Country Life, including Poultry, Pigeon, and Bee-keeping. Third Series. 59 Volumes. London: 1880-1909. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. The Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. London: 1846 to date. Vols. 1-9, 1846-55, bear the title of The Journal of the Horticultural Society of London. Kenrick, Am. Orch. The New American Orchardist. By William Kenrick. Boston: 1833. Copyright, 1832. Second edition. Boston: 1835. Copyright, 1835. Seventh edition, enlarged and improved, with a supplement. Boston: 1845. Copyright, 1841. Knoop, Fructologie Part I. Pomologie, ou Description des meilleures sortes de Pommes et de Poires. Part II. Fructologie, ou Description des Arbres Fruitiers. Par Jean Herman Knoop. (_Illustré._) Amsterdam: 1771. Koch, Deut. Obst. Die Deutschen Obstgehölze. Vorlesungen gehalten zu Berlin im Winterhalbjahr 1875-76. Von Karl Koch. Stuttgart: 1876. Kraft, Pom. Aust. Pomona austriaca, Abhandlung von den Obstbäumen. Von Johann Kraft. 2 Theile. Vienna: 1792. Krünitz, Enc. Ausschnitt aus Krünitz' Encyklopädie. 1790. Cherries. Lange, Allgem. Garten. Allgemeines Gartenbuch. Von Theodore Lange. 2 Bände. Zweite vermehrte. Leipsic: 1897. Langley, Pomona Pomona, or the Fruit Garden Illustrated. By Batty Langley. London: 1729. Lauche, Deut. Pom. Deutsche Pomologie. Von W. Lauche. (_Illustrirt._) Berlin: 1882. Lauche, Ergänzungsband Erster Ergänzungsband zu Lucas' und Oberdieck's Illustrirtes Handbuch der Obstkunde. Von W. Lauche. Berlin: 1883. Le Bon Jard. Le Bon Jardinier. 126^e Édition Almanach Horticole, 1882 et 129^e Édition, 1884. Paris. Leroy, Diet. Pom. Dictionnaire de Pomologie. Par André Leroy. (_Illustré._) 6 Tomes. Paris: 1867-1879. Tome 5, 1877. Cherries. Liegel, Syst. Anleit. Systematische Anleitung zur Kenntniss der vorzüglichsten Sorten des Kern-, Stein-, Schalen- und Beerenobster. Von Georg Liegel. Passau: 1825. Lond. Hort. Soc. Cat. A Catalogue of the Fruits Cultivated in the Garden of the Horticultural Society of London. London: 1826. Second edition, 1831. Third edition, 1842. A supplement was published in 1853. Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. Arboretum, et Fruticetum Britannicum. Par J. C. Loudon. Deuxième Édition. Tome 2. London: 1844. Loudon's, Enc. Gard. An Encyclopedia Of Gardening. By J. C. Loudon. (_Illustrated._) New edition. London: 1834. Lucas, Handb. Obst. Vollständiges Handbuch der Obstkultur. Von Ed. Lucas. (_Illustrirt._) Stuttgart: First edition, 1880; second edition, 1886; third edition, 1893. Third edition edited by Fr. Lucas, 1894. Mag. Hort. The Magazine of Horticulture. Boston: 1837-1868. First published as The American Gardener's Magazine, 1835-6. Edited by C. M. Hovey with P. B. Hovey, Jr., associate editor during 1835-6. Manning, Book of Fruits Book of Fruits. By Robert Manning. (_Illustrated._) Salem: 1838. Copyright, 1838. Mas, Le Verger Le Verger ou Histoire, Culture Et Description avec planches coloriées Des Variétés De Fruits Les Plus Généralement Connues. Par M. Mas. 8 Tomes. Paris: 1866-73. Tome 8. Cherries. Mas, Pom. Gen. Pomologie Générale. Par. M. Mas. (_Illustré._) 12 Tomes. Paris: 1872-83. Tome 11, 1882. Cherries. Mathieu, Nom. Pom. Nomenclator Pomologicus. Von Carl Mathieu. Berlin: 1889. Mawe-Abercrombie, Com. Gard. The Complete Gardener. By Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie. London: 1829. Mawe-Abercrombie, Univ. Gard. Bot. The Universal Gardener and Botanist. By Thomas Mawe and John Abercrombie. London: 1778. Miller, Gard. Dict. The Gardener's Dictionary. By Philip Miller. 2 Volumes. London: 1754. Revised edition. By Thomas Martyn London: 1807. Miller, Gard. Kal. The Gardener's Kalendar. By Philip Miller. London: 1734. McIntosh, Bk. Gard. The Book of the Garden. By Charles Mcintosh. (_Illustrated._) Two Volumes. London: 1855. McMahon, Am. Gard. Cal. The American Gardener's Calendar. By Bernard McMahon. Philadelphia: 1806. Mortillet, Le Cerisier Arboriculture Fruitière. Les Meilleurs Fruits. Par M. P. De Mortillet. (_Illustré._) Tome II. Le Cerisier. Grenoble: 1866. Nat. Nur. The National Nurseryman. Published by The National Nurseryman Publishing Co. (_Illustrated._) Rochester: 1893 to date. Nicholson, Dict. Gard. The Illustrated Dictionary of Gardening, a practical and scientific Encyclopedia of Horticulture for Gardeners and Botanists. By George Nicholson, assisted by J. W. H. Trail and J. Garrett. 4 Volumes. London. Supplement to same. By George Nicholson et al. London: 1900. Noisette, Man. Comp. Jard. Manuel Complet du Jardinier. Par M. Louis Noisette. Tome Deuxième. Paris: 1860. Oberdieck, Obst-Sort. Deutschlands beste Obst-Sorten. Von F. G. C. Oberdieck. Leipzig: 1881. Obstzüchter Der Obstzüchter Zeitschrift für die Gesamtinteressen des Obstbanes. References in Volume VIII, Numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 and 10. Vienna: 1910. Parkinson, Par. Ter. Paradisi in Sole. Paradisus Terrestris. By John Parkinson. (_Illustrated._) London: 1629. Phillips, Com. Orch. The Companion for the Orchard. An Historical And Botanical Account of Fruits Known In Great Britain. By Henry Phillips. New Edition. London: 1831. Poiteau, Pom. Franc. Pomologie Francaise. Recueil des Plus Beaux Fruits Cultivés En France. Par Antoine Poiteau. Tomes 1-4. Paris: 1846. Pom. France Pomologie De La France ou Histoire Et Description de tous Les Fruits Cultivés En France Et Admis Par Le Congrès Pomologique. (_Illustré._) Tomes I-VIII. Lyon: 1863-1873. Tome VII, 1871. Cherries. Pom. Inst. Reut. Pomologisches Institut Reutlingen. Reutlingen: 1911-1912. Pom. Mag. The Pomological Magazine; or, Figures And Descriptions of the Most Important Varieties Of Fruit cultivated in Great Britain. Three Volumes. London: 1828-30. This work has also been published under the title Pomona Brittanica. Popular Gard. Popular Gardening. An Illustrated periodical devoted to Horticulture in all its branches. Volume I. Buffalo: 1886. Continued as Popular Gardening and Fruit Growing. Volumes II-VI. Buffalo: 1887-1891. Consolidated with The American Garden and continued as American Gardening. New York: 1892-1904. Prince, Pom. Man. The Pomological Manual; or, A Treatise on Fruits. By William Robert Prince, aided by William Prince. Second Edition. Part I. New York: 1832. Copyright, 1831. Part II. New York: 1832. Copyright, 1832. Prince, Treat. Hort. A Short Treatise on Horticulture. By William Prince. New York: 1828. Copyright, 1828. Prince, Treat. Trees & Plants A Treatise on Fruit and Ornamental Trees And Plants, cultivated at the Linnæan Botanic Garden, Flushing, Long-Island, near New-York. By William Prince. New York: 1820. Proskauer Obstsort. Proskauer Obstsorten. Von Professor Dr. Stoll. Proskau bei Oppeln: 1907. Quintinye, Com. Gard. The Compleat Gard'ner; or, Directions for Cultivating and Right Ordering of Fruit-Gardens, and Kitchen-Gardens. By Monsieur De la Quintinye. Second Edition. London: 1699. Ray, Hist. Plant. Historia Plantarum. By John Ray. Second volume. London: 1688. Rea, Flora Flora: Seu, De Florum Cultura; or A Complete Florilege. By John Rea. 3 Books. London: 1676. Book 3. Cherries. Reut. Pom. Inst. Festschrift Festschrift zum Fünfzigjährigen Bestehen des Pomologischen Instituts In Reutlingen. Reutlingen: 1910. Rev. Hort. Revue Horticole. Journal D'Horticulture Pratique. (_Illustré._) Paris: 1829 to date. Rural N. Y. The Rural New-Yorker. A Journal for the Suburban and Country Home. (_Illustrated._) Rochester and New York: 1850 to date. Soc. Nat. Hort. France Pom. Société Nationale D'Horticulture De France. Section Pomologique. Les Meilleurs Fruits au début du XX^e siècle. (_Illustré._) Paris: 1904. Sou. Cult. The Southern Cultivator. A Monthly Journal, devoted to the improvement of Southern Agriculture. (_Illustrated._) Augusta, Ga.: 1843-1848. Thacher, Am. Orch. The American Orchardist. By James Thacher. Boston: 1822. Copyright, 1822. Thomas, Am. Fruit Cult. The American Fruit Culturist. By John J. Thomas. (_Illustrated._) First Edition. Geneva and Auburn, N. Y.: 1846. Copyright, 1846. Revised Edition. Auburn, N. Y.: 1851. Copyright, 1849. Revised Edition. New York: 1869. Copyright, 1867. Revised Edition. New York: 1885. Copyright, 1875-1885. Twentieth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. New York: 1897. Copyright, 1897. Twenty-first Edition, Revised and Enlarged. New York: 1911. Copyright, 1903. Thomas, Guide Prat. Guide Pratique de L'Amateur de Fruits. Par O. Thomas. 1876. Deuxième Édition. 1895. See Guide Pratique. Thompson, Gard. Ass't. The Gardener's Assistant; Practical and Scientific. By Robert Thompson. (_Illustrated._) Two Volumes. London. 1859. Same, revised by William Watson. Six Volumes. London: 1901. Truchsess-Heim, Kirschensort Systematische Classification und Beschreibung der Kirschensorten. Von Christian Freiherrn Truchsess. Edited by Friedrich Timotheus Heim. Stuttgart: 1819. U. S. D. A. Rpt. Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1862-1894. U. S. D. A. Yearbook Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture: 1894 to date. U. S. Pat. Off. Rpt. Reports of the Agricultural section of the United States Patent Office: 1837 to 1861. Wickson, Cal. Fruits The California Fruits and How To Grow Them. By Edward J. Wickson. (_Illustrated._) Second Edition. San Francisco: 1891. Copyright, 1889. Fourth Edition. Los Angeles: 1909. Copyright, 1908. Seventh Edition. San Francisco: 1914. Copyright, 1914. Willich, Dom. Enc. Domestic Encyclopedia or a Dictionary of Facts. By A. F. M. Willich. First American edition with additions by James Mease. In five volumes. Volume 4. Philadelphia: 1803. INDEX (Names of varieties in this index, if accepted names, appear in Roman type; synonyms in italics.) À Coeur Hâtive, 205 A Feuilles de Pêcher Grosse, 205 Abbesse, 205 Abbesse d'Oignies, 97 Abels Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 205 Abundance, 205 _Ächer's Weichsel_ (syn. of Griotte Acher), 262 _Ächte (sein sollende) Kirsche Vier auf ein Pfund_ (syn. of Tobacco-Leaved), 326 Act Gillos, 205 _Adam_ (syn. of Adams Crown), 205 Adams, var. orig. with, 205 Adams Crown, 205 _Adams Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Adams Crown), 205 Adlington, 205 _Admirable de Soissons_ (syn. of Cerise de Soissons), 233 _Advance_ (syn. of California Advance), 113 Affane, 205 Afghanistan, 205 _Agathe_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 143 _Agatkirscke_ (syn. of Dankelmannskirsche), 240 Alaternblättrige Süssweichsel, 206 Albertine Millet, 206 Alexandrine Béon, 206 Alfred Wesmael, 206 _All Saints_ (syn. of Toussaint), 193 Allen, 206 Allen, J. F., var. orig. by, 324 Allen, Zachariah, var. orig. with, 206, 311 Allen Late Favourite, 206 _Allen's Sweet Montmorency_ (syn. of Sweet Montmorency), 324 Allerfrüheste Bunte Maiherzkirsche, 206 Alte Königskirsche, 206 Altenlander Frühkirsche, 206 Amaranthkirsche, 206 _Amarell-Weichsel_ (syn. of Early May), 128 _Amarelle à point pistillaire blanc_ (syn. of Amarelle mit Weissem Stempelpunct), 207 _Amarelle Boquet_ (syn. of Boquet Morello), 223 _Amarelle de la Madleine_ (syn. of Madeleine), 294 _Amarelle Double de Verre_ (syn. of Double Glass), 122 Amarelle Hâtive, 207 _Amarelle mit halbgefüllter Blüthe_ (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 Amarelle mit Weissem Stempelpunct, 207 _Amarelle Royale_ (syn. of Montmorency), 169 _Amarelle très-fertile_ (syn. of Cerisier Très-fertile), 234 _Amarellenbaum mit ganz gefüllter Blüte_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 252 Amber, 207 _Amber_ (syn. of Amber Gean), 207 Amber Gean, 207 _Amber Heart_ (syn. of White Heart), 197 Ambrée de Guben, 207 American Amber, 208 _American Doctor_ (syn. of Doctor), 242 American Heart, 208 Amos Owen, 208 Amygdalus, sub-genus of Prunus, 15 _Amygdalus indica nana_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa trichostyla sinensis_), 21 _Amygdalus pumila_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa_), 21; (syn. of _P. japonica kerii_), 22 Andrews, 208 Andrews, C. N., var. orig. with, 208 _Anglaise Hâtive_ (syn. of May Duke), 164; (syn. of Royal Duke), 184 _Anglaise Tardive_ (syn. of Late Duke), 155 Anne, 208 Annonay, 208 _Annonayer Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Annonay), 208 Anstad, 208 Anstad, A. P., var. orig. by, 208 Antonie, var. introduced by, 213 Appalachian cherry, botanical name of, 35 Arch Duke, 98 Argental Late, 209 Atwater, Caleb, var. orig. with, 249 Auburn Duke, 209 August Duke, 209 Augustine de Vigny, 209 Aurischotte, 209 Austen, R. A., quoted, 68 _Badacconyi_ (syn. of Badacsony), 209 _Badacsoner Riesenkirsche_ (syn. of Badacsony), 209 _Badacsoner Schwarze Riesenkirsche_ (syn. of Badacsony), 209 Badacsony, 209 _Badacsonyer Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Badacsony), 209 Baender, 210 Baldwin, 100 Baldwin, S. J., var. orig. by, 100 _Baltavaer Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Baltavar), 210 Baltavar, 210 _Baltavari_ (syn. of Baltavar), 210 Baluder Morello, 210 Barnhart, 210 Barry, quoted, 70-71 Baseler Herzkirsche, 210 Bates, 210 Bates, S. J., var. orig. with, 210 Baumann May, 100 Bay State, 210 Baylor, 211 _Beauty of Marienhohe_ (syn. of Schöne von Marienhohe), 317 _Beauty of Orleans_ (syn. of Belle d'Orleans), 212 Bedford, A.V., var. introduced by, 208 Bedford Prolific, 211 _Belle Agathe_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 144 _Belle Agathe de Novembre_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 143 _Belle Allemande_ (syn. of Bettenburger Glaskirsche), 213 Belle Audigeoise, 211 Belle Bosc, 211 Belle de Boskoop, 211 _Belle Brugeoise Saint-Pierre_ (syn. of Schöne von Brügge), 317 _Belle de Bruxelles_ (syn. of Belle d'Orleans), 212 Belle de Caux, 211 _Belle de Chatenay_ (syn. of Magnifique), 163 _Belle de Choisy_ (syn. of Choisy), 116 Belle de Couchey, 211 Belle Defay, 211 Belle de Franconville, 211 _Belle glorie de Marie_ (syn. of Schöne von Marienhohe), 317 _Belle grosse d'Ardèche_ (syn. of Cerise de l'Ardèche), 230 Belle l'Herissier, 211 Belle de Kis-Oers, 212 Belle de Loche, 212 Belle Magnifique (syn. of Magnifique), 163 _Belle de Magnifique_ (syn. of Magnifique), 163 _Belle et Magnifique_ (syn. of Magnifique), 163 _Belle de Marienhöhe_ (syn. of Schöne von Marienhohe), 317 _Belle de Montreuil_ (syn. of Montreuil), 298 Belle d'Orleans, 212 Belle de Ribeaucourt, 212 Belle de Rochelle, 212 Belle de Rocmont, 212 Belle de Saint Tronc, 213 _Belle de Sauvigny_ (syn. of Montmorency de Sauvigny), 298 _Belle de Varennes_ (syn. of Cerisier de Varenne), 234 Belle Vezzouris, 213 Belle de Voisery, 213 _Belle de Worsery_ (syn. of Royal Duke), 184 Bender, var. orig. with, 213 Bender, J.O., var. orig. with, 213 Bender (of Michigan), 213 Bender (of New York), 213 Berger, Staquet, var. orig. by, 231 Berlin Amarelle, 213 Bernard, 213 Bessarabian, 101 Bessey's Cherry, botanical name of, 37 Bettenburger Glaskirsche, 213 Bettenburger Herzkirsche, 214 Bettenburger Kirsche von der Natte, 214 _Bettenburger Schwarze Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Bettenburger Herzkirsche), 214 Bettenburger Weichsel, 214 _Bettenburger Weichsel Grosser Gobet_ (syn. of Bettenburger Weichsel), 214 _Bettenburger Weichsel von der Natte_ (syn. of Bettenburger Weichsel), 214 _Bicentenaireweichsel_ (syn. of Cerise du Bicentenaire), 231 _Bicolor_ (syn. of Zweifarbige Kirsche), 336 Bicolor Van Mons, 214 _Bigarreau_ (syn. of Yellow Spanish), 202 Bigarreau Abbesse de Mouland, 214 _Bigarreau Ambré Précoce_ (syn. of Early Amber), 247 Bigarreau Antoine Nomblot, 214 _Bigarreau Baumann_ (syn. of Baumann May), 100 _Bigarreau Bauté de l'Ohio_ (syn. of Ohio Beauty), 302 _Bigarreau belle de Rocmond_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 _Bigarreau blanc de Groll_ (syn. of Bigarreau Groll), 217 _Bigarreau Blanc_ (Petit) (syn. of Flamentine), 252 Bigarreau Blanc Précoce, 215 Bigarreau Blanc-Rosé de Piémont, 215 Bigarreau Bordan, 215 Bigarreau de Bourget, 215 Bigarreau Brun, 215 _Bigarreau Brun Kleindienst_ (syn. of Kleindienst Braune Knorpel), 282 Bigarreau de Capucins, 215 Bigarreau de la Caserne, 215 Bigarreau Cayenne, 215 Bigarreau de Châlons, 215 Bigarreau de Champvans, 216 _Bigarreau Commun_ (syn. of Yellow Spanish), 202 Bigarreau Corniola, 216 Bigarreau Court Picout Hâtif, 216 Bigarreau Court Picout Tardif, 216 Bigarreau Dönnissen, 216 Bigarreau Doré, 216 Bigarreau Double Royale, 216 Bigarreau Dur, 216 Bigarreau Duranno, 217 _Bigarreau Empereur-Francois_ (syn. of Emperor Francis), 249 _Bigarreau d'Esperen_ (syn. of Napoleon), 172 _Bigarreau de Fer_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 144 _Bigarreau à Feuilles de Tabac_ (syn. of Tobacco-Leaved), 326 _Bigarreau de Florence_ (syn. of Florence), 140 Bigarreau Galopin, 217 Bigarreau Glady, 217 _Bigarreau (Golden)_ (syn. of Drogan Yellow Bigarreau), 245 Bigarreau Grand, 217 Bigarreau Groll, 217 _Bigarreau Gros Coeuret_ (syn. of Large Heart-shaped Bigarreau), 288; (syn. of Napoleon), 172 _Bigarreau Gros Commun_ (syn. of Ox Heart), 178 _Bigarreau à Gros Fruit Rouge_ (syn. of Red Bigarreau), 309 _Bigarreau à gros Fruit Rouge Tardif_ (syn. of Large Late Red Bigarreau), 288 _Bigarreau Gros Monstrueux_ (syn. of Large Heart-shaped Bigarreau), 288 Bigarreau Gros Noir de Luther, 217 _Bigarreau Grosse Gomballoise_ (syn. of Grosse Gomballoise), 265 _Bigarreau Hâtif_ (syn. of Black Bigarreau), 222 _Bigarreau Hâtif Boulbon_ (syn. of Boulebonner Kirsche), 224 Bigarreau Hâtif de Champagne, 217 Bigarreau Hâtif de Saint-Laud, 217 _Bigarreau de Hedelfingen_ (syn. of Hedelfingen), 274 _Bigarreau de Hildesheim_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 144 Bigarreau d'Italie, 218 _Bigarreau Jaboulay_ (syn. of Lyons), 161 Bigarreau Jacquet, 218 _Bigarreau jaune_ (syn. of Dankelmannskirsche), 240 _Bigarreau jaune de Dönissen_ (syn. of Bigarreau Dönnissen), 216 _Bigarreau jaune de Groth_ (syn. of Groth Gelbe Knorpelkirsche), 268 Bigarreau Jumard, 218 _Bigarreau de Kronberg_ (syn. of Kronberger Kirsche), 285 Bigarreau Krüger, 218 Bigarreau Legrey, 218 _Bigarreau de Loire_ (syn. of Bigarreau de Lory), 218 _Bigarreau à Longue Queue_ (syn. of Dunkelrothe Knorpelkirsche), 246 Bigarreau de Lory, 218 _Bigarreau de Lyon_ (syn. of Lyons), 161 _Bigarreau Marjeollais_ (syn. of Bigarreau Marjolet), 218 Bigarreau Marjolet, 218 _Bigarreau of Mezel_ (syn. of Mezel), 167 Bigarreau Mongin, 218 Bigarreau Monstreuse de Bavay, 219 _Bigarreau monstreux de Baltava_ (syn. of Baltavar), 210 _Bigarreau Monstrueux_ (syn. of Mezel), 167 Bigarreau Moreau, 219 _Bigarreau de Naples_ (syn. of Naples), 300 Bigarreau Napoléon Noir, 219 _Bigarreau Noir Büttner_ (syn. of Büttner Schwarze Herzkirsche), 299 _Bigarreau-noir à chair très-ferme_ (syn. of Festfleischige Schwarze Knorpelkirsche), 251 Bigarreau Noir d'Ecully, 219 _Bigarreau Noir d'Espagne_ (syn. of Black Heart), 106 _Bigarreau noir d'Espagne_ (syn. of Black Spanish), 223 _Bigarreau noir de Germersdorf_ (syn. of Germersdorf), 259 Bigarreau Noir à Gros Fruits, 219 _Bigarreau noir de Guben_ (syn. of Guben), 268 _Bigarreau noir Hâtif_ (syn. of Black Bigarreau), 222 Bigarreau Noir de Heintzen, 219 _Bigarreau-noir de Knight_ (syn. of Knight Late Black), 283 _Bigarreau noir de Krüger_ (syn. of Bigarreau Krüger), 218 _Bigarreau noir de Lampé_ (syn. of Lampen Schwarze Knorpelkirsche), 287 _Bigarreau Noir Napoléon III_ (syn. of Bigarreau Napoléon Noir), 219 _Bigarreau noir de Savoie_ (syn. of Black Bigarreau of Savoy), 222 Bigarreau Noir de Tabor, 219 _Bigarreau noir de Tilgner_ (syn. of Tilgner Schwarze Knorpelkirsche), 326 _Bigarreau noir Winkler_ (syn. of Winkler Black), 335 _Bigarreau noire de Spitz_ (syn. of Spitzens Herzkirsche), 322 Bigarreau d'Octobre, 219 Bigarreau de l'Once, 220 Bigarreau Pélissier, 102 _Bigarreau à petit fruit blanc_ (syn. of Flamentine), 252 _Bigarreau à petit fruit rouge hâtif_ (syn. of Kleine Bunte Frühkirsche), 282 _Bigarreau pleureur_ (syn. of Weeping Black Bigarreau), 331 _Bigarreau Ponctué_ (syn. of Punktirte Marmorkirsche), 309 Bigarreau Pourpré, 220 _Bigarreau Prince Royal de Hanovre_ (syn. of Kronprinz von Hannover), 285 Bigarreau Printanier d'Oullins, 220 Bigarreau Reverchon, 220 Bigarreau Richelieu, 220 _Bigarreau Rival_ (syn. of Rival), 311 _Bigarreau de Rocmont_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 Bigarreau Rosa, 220 Bigarreau Rose Dragon, 220 _Bigarreau rouge de Büttner_ (syn. of Büttner Rothe Knorpelkirsche), 228 _Bigarreau Rouge Foncé_ (syn. of Dunkelrothe Knorpelkirsche), 246 _Bigarreau Rouge de Guben_ (syn. of Early Red Bigarreau), 248 _Bigarreau rouge hâtif (petit)_ (syn. of Kleine Bunte Frühkirsche), 282 _Bigarreau Rouge Tardif de Büttner_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Rothe Knorpelkirsche), 229 _Bigarreau rouge de Tilgener_ (syn. of Tilgner Rothe Herzkirsche), 326 _Bigarreau de Sauvigny_ (syn. of Sauvigny Knorpelkirsche), 315 _Bigarreau de Schleihahn_ (syn. of Schleihahn Sweet), 316 Bigarreau de Schrecken, 220 Bigarreau Strié, 221 _Bigarreau Tardif Büttner_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Weichsel), 229 _Bigarreau Tardif de Hildesheim_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 143 _Bigarreau Tardif de Ladé_ (syn. of Ladé Late), 286 _Bigarreau Tardif de Lieke_ (syn. of Lieke Bunte Knorpelkirsche), 291 _Bigarreau-tardif de Meiningen_ (syn. of Meininger Späte Knorpelkirsche), 297 _Bigarreau Toupie_ (syn. of Toupie), 327 Bigarreau de Trie, 221 Bigarreau à Trochets, 221 Bigarreau Turca, 221 _Bigarreau Violet_ (syn. of Dunkelrothe Knorpelkirsche), 246 Bigarreau de Walpurgis, 221 _Bigarreau Werder_ (syn. of Werder Early Black), 332 Bigarreau de Zeisberg, 221 Bigarreau Zschedowitzer Schwarze, 221 _Bigarreautier à fruit jaune_ (syn. of Dankelmannskirsche), 240 _Bigarreautier à grandes feuilles_ (syn. of Tobacco-Leaved), 326 _Bigarreautier de Naples_ (syn. of Neapolitanische Molkenkirsche), 300 _Bigarreautier à petit fruit hâtif_ (syn. of Flamentine), 252 Bigarreautier à Petit Fruit Noir, 221 Bigarreautier à Petit Fruit Rose, 222 _Bigarreautier à petit fruit rouge_ (syn. of Kleine Bunte Frühkirsche), 282 _Bigarreautier à rameaux pendants_ (syn. of Thränen Muskatellerkirsche), 326 _Biguarre Cherrie_ (syn. of Yellow Spanish), 202 Bill and Coo, 222 Bing, 103 Bismarck, 222 Black, J. H., var. orig. with, 306 Black American, 222 Black Bigarreau, 222 _Black Bigarreau_ (syn. of Manning Late Black), 295 Black Bigarreau of Savoy, 222 _Black Bohemian_ (syn. of Bigarreau d'Italie), 218 _Black Eagle_ (syn. of Eagle), 126 Black Guigne, 104 Black Hawk, 105 Black Heart, 105 Black Hungarian Gean, 222 Black Margaret, 223 _Black Mastodon_ (syn. of Mastodon), 296 Black Prolific, 223 _Black Republican_ (syn. of Republican), 181 Black Spanish, 223 Black Tartarian, 107 Black Turkey Heart, 223 Blasse Johanni Kirsche, 223 Bleeding Heart, 108 _Bleichrothe Glaskirsche_ (syn. of Cerise Rouge Pale), 233 _Bloem-kers double_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 252; (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 Bloodgood, Daniel, var. orig. by, 208 _Blutherzkirsche_ (syn. of Bleeding Heart), 109 _Blutrothe Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Bleeding Heart), 109 Bocage, 223 _Bohemian Black Bigarreau_ (syn. of Bigarreau d'Italie), 218 Bohemian Queen, 223 Bon Bon, 223 Bonamy, var. orig. with, 293 Bonnemain, Auguste, var. orig. by, 260 _Bonnemain_ (syn. of Gloire de France), 260 Book, 223 Boppard, 223 _Bopparder Frühkirsche_ (syn. of Boppard), 223 _Boppard's Early_ (syn. of Boppard), 223 Boquet Morello, 223 Boreatton, 224 Bordan, var. orig. by, 215 _Bordans frühe weisse Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Bordan), 215 _Bordans Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Bordan), 215 Bostock, quoted, 45 Boughton Early Black Duke, 224 Boulebonner Kirsche, 224 Bount Dantzic, 224 Bouquet-Herzkirsche, 224 Bouquetweichsel, 224 Bourgueil, 109 Boussieuer Knorpelkirsche, 224 Bowers, John, var. orig. by, 224 Bowers' Seedlings, 224 Boyd Early Black, 225 _Boyer's Early_ (syn. of Bowyer Early Heart), 225 Bowyer Early Heart, 225 Brandon, 225 Brandywine, 225 Brant, 225 Brassington, 225 _Braunauer Amarelle_ (syn. of Braunauer Glaskirsche), 225 Braunauer Glaskirsche, 225 _Braune rothe Sauerkirsche_ (syn. of Braunrote weichsel), 226 Braune Soodkirsche, 226 _Braune Spanische Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Braune Spanische Kirsche), 226 Braune Spanische Kirsche, 226 Braunrote Weichsel, 226 Bretonneau, Pierre, var. orig. with, 110, 246, 305 Briggs, J. A., var. orig. by, 226 Briggs Sweet, 226 Brinckle, John R., var. orig. by, 225 Brindilles, 226 Brown Best, 226 Brown Seedlings, 226 Bruce, quoted, 61-62 Brusseler Braune, 110 _Brüsselsche Bruyn_ (syn. of Brusseler Braune), 110 Buckatzsch Weisse Herzkirsche, 227 Buckatzsch Weisse Knorpelkirsche, 227 Budd, J. L., quoted, 74; var. introduced by, 97, 102, 111, 123, 129, 143, 147, 158, 160, 188, 195, 207, 224, 227, 232, 243, 254, 263, 275, 280, 281, 297, 303, 312, 318, 319, 322, 330, 336 Budd, No. 533, 227 Buffalo, 227 Bunte Amarelle, 112 Bunte Morello, 227 Burbank, 227 Burbank, Luther, var. orig. by, 205, 227, 259 _Burbank Early_ (syn. of Burbank), 227 Burchardt, var. orig. by, 227 Burchardts Schwarze Rosenobel, 227 Burghley Park, 227 Burr, 228 Burr, Zera, var. orig. with, 228 Büttner, var. orig. by, 228, 229 Büttner Gelbe Knorpelkirsche, 228 Büttner Rothe Herzkirsche, 228 Büttner Rothe Knorpelkirsche, 228 Büttner Schwarze Herzkirsche, 228 Büttner Schwarze Sauerkirsche, 229 Büttner Späte Rothe Knorpelkirsche, 229 Büttner Späte Weichsel, 229 _Büttner's harte Marmorkirsche_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Rothe Knorpelkirsche), 229 _Büttner's Late Red_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Rothe Knorpelkirsche), 229 _Büttner's October_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Weichsel), 229 _Büttner's October Morello_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Weichsel), 229 _Büttner's October Zucker Weichsel_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Weichsel), 229 _Büttner's rothe Marmorkirsche_ (syn. of Büttner Rothe Knorpelkirsche), 228 _Büttner's rothe Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Büttner Rothe Herzkirsche), 228 _Büttner's schwarze neue Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Büttner Schwarze Herzkirsche), 229 _Büttner's schwarze neue Sauerkirsche_ (syn. of Büttner Schwarze Sauerkirsche), 229 _Büttner's Sehrspäte_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Weichsel), 229 _Büttner's September und Octoberweichsel_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Weichsel), 229 _Büttner's Yellow_ (syn. of Büttner Gelbe Knorpelkirsche), 228 Byrnville, 230 California Advance, 113 Cameleon, 230 Cardinalskirsche, 230 Carmine Stripe, 230 Carnation, 114 Caroline, 230 Catskill, 230 _Cayenner Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Cayenne), 215 Centennial, 115 _Ceraseidos apetala_ (syn. of _P. apetala_), 21; (syn. of _P. incisa_), 20 Cerasus, group name of, 2; sub-genus of Prunus, 15 _Cerasus acida_ (syn. of _P. Cerasus_), 24 _Cerasus asplenifolia_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus austera_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Cerasus Avium_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus bigarella_, 30; (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 25 _Cerasus bigarella regalis_, 31 _Cerasus Bungei_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 25 _Cerasus californica_ (syn. of _P. emarginata_), 16 _Cerasus Caproniana_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Cerasus caproniana flore roseo pleno_ (syn. of _P. serrulata hisakura_), 18 _Cerasus cucullata_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 25 _Cerasus decumana_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus depressa_ (syn. of _P. pumila_), 34 _Cerasus donarium_ (syn. of _P. serrulata grandiflora_), 18 _Cerasus dulcis_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus duracina_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus effusa_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 25 _Cerasus glandulosa_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa_), 21 _Cerasus glauca_ (syn. of _P. pumila_), 34 _Cerasus Heaumiana_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 25 _Cerasus herincquiana_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Cerasus heterophylla_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus hortenses_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Cerasus hortensis foliis eleganter variegatis_ (syn. of Striped-Leaved), 323 _Cerasus incisa_ (syn. of _P. incisa_), 20 _Cerasus intermedia_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus itosakura_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Cerasus japonica_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa trichostyla sinensis_), 21 _Cerasus japonica multiplex_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra albiplena_), 21 _Cerasus Juliana_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus lannesiana_ (syn. of _P. serrulata lannesiana_), 18 _Cerasus macrophylla_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus mahaleb_ (syn. of _P. mahaleb_), 31 _Cerasus Marasca_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 25 _Cerasus nicotianaefolia_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Cerasus nigra_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus pallida_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus paniculata_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Cerasus pendula_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Cerasus pendula flore roseo_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Cerasus pendula kriegeri_ (syn. of _P. serrulata kriegeri_), 18 _Cerasus pendula rosea_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Cerasus phoshia_ (syn. of _P. cerasoides_), 19 _Cerasus pseudocerasus_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus_), 17; (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Cerasus pseudocerasus "James Veitch_" (syn. of _P. serrulata veitchiana_), 18 _Cerasus puddum_ (syn. of _P. cerasoides_), 19 _Cerasus pumila_ (syn. of _P. pumila_), 34 _Cerasus regalis_, 31 _Cerasus Rhexii_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 25 _Cerasus rubicunda_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus rufa_ (syn. of _P. rufa_), 19 _Cerasus salicifolia_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus serratifolia rosea_ (syn. of _P. serrulata hisakura_), 18 _Cerasus serrulata_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Cerasus sieboldtii_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Cerasus tomentosa_ (syn. of _P. tomentosa_), 33 _Cerasus tridentina_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 25 _Cerasus varia_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Cerasus vulgaris_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Cerasus watereri_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus watereri_), 17 _Cerasus wattererii_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus watereri_), 17 Cerise Albanes, 230 _Cerise d'Allemagne_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 _Cerise Anglaise_ (syn. of Cerise Guigne), 232 Cerise d'Angleterre Précoce, 230 Cerise de l'Ardèche, 230 Cerise Bellon, 230 Cerise de la Besnardière, 231 Cerise du Bicentenaire, 231 Cerise Blanche à Petit Fruit, 231 _Cerise de Bourgueil_ (syn. of Bourgueil), 109 _Cerise Carminée_ (syn. of Carmine Stripe), 230 Cerise Commune, 231 _Cerise Commune_ (syn. of Griotte Commune), 262 _Cerise Commune (de la Madeleine)_ (syn. of Madeleine), 294 _Cerise du Comte de Henneberg_ (syn. of Henneberger Grafenkirsche), 274 Cerise à Côtes, 231 _Cerise à Courte Queue_ (syn. of Short-Stem Montmorency), 187 Cerise d'Espagne, 231 _Cerise de l'Esvière_ (syn. of Cerise de Prusse), 232 Cerise à la Feuille, 231 _Cerise à Feuilles bigarrées_ (syn. of Tobacco-Leaved), 326 _Cerise de Folger_ (syn. of Folgerktrsche), 253 Cerise de Gembloux, 231 _Cerise de Gottorpe_ (syn. of Gottorper), 261 _Cerise Graisseuse_ (syn. of Speckkirsche), 321 _Cerise Gros Fruit_ (syn. of Short-Stem Montmorency), 187 Cerise Guigne, 231 _Cerise Hâtive_ (syn. of Süsse Frühweichsel), 324 _Cerise Lard_ (syn. of Speckkirsche), 321 Cerise de Mai Double, 232 Cerise de Mai Simple, 232 Cerise de Martigné, 232 _Cerise à Noyau tendre_ (syn. of Soft-stone Cherry), 320 _Cerise Orange_ (syn. of Pomeranzen), 306 _Cerise d'Orange_ (syn. of Carnation), 114 Cerise de Ostheim, 232 _Cerise du Palatinat_ (syn. of Velser), 329 _Cerise de petit-lait rouge_ (syn. of Rothe Molkenkirsche), 313 _Cerise de Planchouri_ (syn. of Planchoury), 305 _Cerise de Portugal_ (syn. of Arch Duke), 98 _Cerise de Prague tardive_ (syn. of Pragische Muskateller), 307 _Cerise précoce d'Altenlaud_ (syn. of Altenlander Frühkirsche), 206 Cerise du Prince Maurice, 232 Cerise de Prusse, 232 _Cerise de Prusse noire_ (syn. of Cerise de Prusse), 232 Cerise de Rouen Double, 232 Cerise de Rouen Simple, 232 Cerise Rouge Pale, 233 Cerise Rouge Sanguine, 233 _Cerise Royale_ (syn. of Royal Duke), 184 _Cerise Royale de Hollande_ (syn. of Arch Duke), 98 Cerise Royale Ordinaire, 233 _Cerise Royale Tardive D'Angleterre_ (syn. of Holman Duke), 276 _Cerise de Sauvigny_ (syn. of Montmorency de Sauvigny), 298 _Cerise de Seckbach_ (syn. of Seckbacher), 318 Cerise de Soissons, 233 Cerise de Tiercé, 233 _Cerise à Trochet_ (syn. of Cerisier Très-fertile), 234 _Cerise van der Nat_ (syn. of Double Natte), 123 _Cerise de Volger_ (syn. of Early Richmond), 132 _Cerise Walpurgis_ (syn. of Bigarreau de Walpurgis), 221 Cerise de Xavier, 233 _Cerise de Zeisberg_ (syn. of Bigarreau de Zeisberg), 221 _Cerisier à Bouquet_ (syn. of Cluster), 119 Cerisier Commun à Fruit Rond, 233 Cerisier Commun Pleureur, 233 _Cerisier coulard de Holland_ (syn. of Coularde), 239 _Cerisier cuculle_ (syn. of Griottier à Feuilles Cucullées), 264 Cerisier à Feuilles Laciniéees, 234 _Cerisier à Feuilles de Saule_ (syn. of Willow-Leaved), 335 _Cerisier à Fruit Ambré, à Fruit Blanc_ (syn. of Choisy), 116 Cerisier à Gros Fruit Blanc, 234 _Cerisier à Gros Fruit Rouge-pâle_ (syn. of Cerise Rouge Pale), 233 _Cerisier Hâtif_ (syn. of Early Richmond), 132 _Cerisier de Hollande_ (syn. of Coularde), 238 _Cerisier de Hollande à feuilles de saule ou de balsamine_ (syn. of Willow-Leaved), 335 _Cerisier juniat_ (syn. of June Amarelle), 279 _Cerisier de la Madleine_ (syn. of Madeleine), 294 _Cerisier Nain à Fruit Rond Précoce_ (syn. of Early May), 128 Cerisier Royal Tardif à Fruit Noir, 234 Cerisier Très-fertile, 234 Cerisier de Varenne, 234 Challenge, 234 Champagne, 234 Champion, 235 Chapman, 235 Chapman, Henry, var. orig. by, 116 Chapman, W. H., var. orig. by, 113, 235, 296, 309 Charozé, var. orig. with, 271 Chase, Lewis, var. orig. with, 292 Chase, R. G., var. introduced by, 230 Chatenay, var. orig. with, 163 Cheresoto, 235 Cherries, adaptions of, in America, 55-56; amelioration of, 8-9; ancient history of, 40; ancient use of, 39-40; beginning of domestication of, 42-44; blooming dates and season of ripening of, 80-81; characters of bark, branches and buds of, 11-12; characters of flowers and fruit of, 13-14; characters of leaves of, 12-13; classification of cultivated varieties of, 15; cultivated, origin of, 41-42; diseases of, 88-92; distribution of cultivated varieties of, 3; domestication of, 8; early planting of, in America, 56; geographical distribution of species of, 23-24, groups of, by German writers, 49; habit of growth of species of, 10; hardiness of species of, 10; history of, in England, 49-55; history of, in Greece, 42-44; history of, in Italy, 44-48; history of, in New England, 57-58; history of, in New York, 59-61; history of, in the Middle West, 62; history of, in the Sixteenth Century, 48-49; history of, in the South, 61-62; history of, on the Pacific Coast, 62-64; immunity of, to diseases and insects, 10-11; insects detrimental to, 92-96; lack of literature of, 7; list of, growing in America in 1804, 60-61; minor species of, 38; natural environment of, 76-80; number of described varieties of, 8; origin of described varieties of, 9; ornamental value of, 6-7; pollination of, 82-83; productiveness of, 10; relation of, to other species, 1-2; separation of, from plums, 2; species of, 16-38; stocks for, 67-76; susceptibility of, to diseases and insects, 10-11; tree and fruit characters of species of, 9-15; uses of fruit of, 3-6; uses of leaves and bark of, 6; wood-value of species of, 6 Cherry culture, commercial magnitude of, in the United States, 65-67 Cherry orchards, their care and management, 83-84 _Cherry-Duck_ (syn. of Holman Duke), 276 Cherry-growing, commercial status of, in New York, 85-88 China Bigarreau, 236 _China Heart_ (syn. of China Bigarreau), 236 Choisy, 116 Choque, 236 Christ, var. orig. by, 313 Christbauer, 236 Christiana, 236 Churchill Heart, 236 Cistena, 236 Clark September, 236 Cleveland, 118 Clingman, A. K., var. orig. with, 292 Cluster, 119 Cluster Black Heart, 236 _Coburger Maiherzkirsche_ (syn. of Black Guigne), 104 Cocklin, E. H., var. orig. by, 145; var. introduced by, 236 Cocklin Favorite, 236 Coe, 120 Coe, Curtis, var. orig. by, 120 Coe Late Carnation, 237 _Coe's Bunte Transparent_ (syn. of Coe), 120 _Coe's Späte Rote Kirsche_ (syn. of Coe Late Carnation), 237 _Coe's Transparent_ (syn. of Coe), 120 _Coeur de Boeuf nouveau_ (syn. of Ox Heart [of America]), 303 _Coeur de Pigeon Gros_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 Coeur de Pigeon Noir, 237 Coeur de Poule, 237 _Colassale d'Hedelfingen_ (syn. of Hedelfingen), 274 Cole, 237 Collman, A. F., var. orig. with, 238 _Colorado Morello_ (syn. of English Morello), 139 Columbia, 237 _Common French Griotte_ (syn. of Griotte Commune), 262 Common Morello, 237 _Common Red Morello_ (syn. of Common Morello), 237 Como, 237 Comtesse de Médicis Spada, 237 Condé, 237 Conestoga, 237 Constance Maisin, 238 Cook, Steven, var. orig. with, 238, 297 Cook Imperial, 238 Cornelia, 238 Corning, 238 Corone, 238 Corwin, 238 Coularde, 238 _Courte-pendu de Gaiberg_ (syn. of Courte-queue de Gaiberg), 239 Courte-queue de Gaiberg, 239 Courtin, var. orig. with, 320 Coxe, quoted, 68-69 Crawford, 239 _Cream_ (syn. of Honey), =276= Crown Prince, 239 Cserszeger Honigkirsche, 239 Cullen Cherrie, 239 Cumberland, 239 _Cumberland Heart_ (syn. of Cumberland), 239 _Cumberland Spice_ (syn. of Cumberland), 239 Cyclone, 239 Dacotah, 240 Daiber Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 240 Dankelmannskirsche, 240 _Dankelmann's Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Dankelmannskirsche), 240 _Dankelmann's Weisse Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Dankelmannskirsche), 240 _D'Aout Erfurt_ (syn. of Erfurter Augustkirsche), 250 _D' Aremberg_ (syn. of Reine Hortense), 179 Datge, 240 Davenport, 240 Davenport, Edward, var. orig. by, 240 _Davenport's Early_ (syn. of Davenport), 240 _Davenport's Early Black_ (syn. of Davenport), 240 _Davenport's Early Red_ (syn. of Davenport), 240 De Belleu, 240 _De Chaux_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 De Jacap, 240 De Jonghe, var. orig. by, 327 De Ravaene, 240 _De Sibérie_ (syn. of Dwarf Siberian), 247 _De Sibérie à fruit rond_ (syn. of Dwarf Siberian), 247 De Sibérie à gros fruit et à rameaux pendans, 241 De Spa, 241 De Vaux, 241 Dearborn, H. A. S., var. introduced by, 163 Dearborn Red French, 241 Dechenaut, 241 Delaware Bleeding Heart, 241 Delicate, 241 _Délices d'Erfurt_ (syn. of Erfurter Augustkirsche), 250 Délicieuse, 241 Denner Black, 241 Des Cheneaux, 241 Deutsche Belzweichsel, 241 _Deutsche Griotte_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 _Deutsche Weichsel_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 _Deutscher Griottier Weichselbaum_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 Dikeman, 121 Dikeman, George B., var. orig. with, 121 Disnoder Gewürzkirsche, =241= Ditst, 241 Dobbeete Moreller, =242= Doctay, 242 Doctor, 242 Dr. Flynn, 242 Dr. Wiseman, =242= Doctorkirsche, 242 Doctorknorpelkirsche, =242= Dollaner Schwarze, 242 Donna Maria, 243 _Dönnissens gelbe Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Dönnissen), 216 _Doppelte Amarelle_ (syn. of Doppelte Weichsel), 243 Doppelte Weichsel, 243 _Doppelttragende Kleine Rothe Spätkirsche_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 143 Dorotheenkirsche, 243 Dörrells Neue Himbeerkirsche, 243 Doty, 243 _Double Floured Cherry_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 252 Double Glass, 122 Double Natte, 123 Double Yellow Spanish, 243 Doublet, var. orig. by, 211 Douce de Bardowick, 243 _Douce d'Espagne_ (syn. of Süsse Spanische), 324 _Douce de Palatinat_ (syn. of Velser), 329 Dougall, 243 Dougall, James, var. introduced by, 243, 331; var. orig. with, 198 Doulin Bigarreau, 243 Dove Bank, 243 Downer, 124 Downer, Samuel, var. orig. by, 124 _Downer's Late_ (syn. of Downer), 124 _Downer's Red Heart_ (syn. of Downer), 124 Downing, A. J., life of, 244; quoted, 70, 157; var. orig. by, 244 Downing, Charles, life of, 234-235; var. orig. by, 234 Downing Red Creek, 244 _Downing's Sämling_ (syn. of Downing Red Cheek), 244 Downton, 244 _Downtoner Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Downton), 244 Dresdener Mai Herzkirsche, 245 Drogan, var. orig. by, 245 Drogan White Bigarreau, 245 Drogan Yellow Bigarreau, 245 Drogans Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 245 _Drogan's Weisse Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Drogan White Bigarreau), 245 Drooping Guigne, 245 Du Comte Egger, 245 Du Nord Nouvelle, 245 Duchesse d'Angoulême, 245 Duchesse de Palluau, 246 Dudley, Paul, quoted, 58 Duhamel, quoted, 70, 139 _Duke Cherry_ (syn. of May Duke), 164 Duke cherries, characters of, 31 Duke of Edinburgh, 246 Dumas, 246 Dunkelrothe Knorpelkirsche, 246 Duraccia, 246 Dure Noir Grosse, 247 _Dure de Sauvigny_ (syn. of Sauvigny Knorpelkirsche), 315 _Dutch Weeping_ (syn. of Dwarf Siberian), 247 _Dwarf Double Flowering_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 253 Dwarf Siberian, 247 Dyehouse, 125 Dyehouse, var. orig. by, 126 Eagle, 126 Early Amarella, 247 Early Amber, 247 Early Black Bigarreau, 247 Early Eugene, 247 _Early Griotte_ (syn. of Early Richmond), 132 _Early Guigne_ (syn. of Flamentine), 252 _Early Jaboulay_ (syn. of Lyons), 161 _Early Lamaurie_ (syn. of Lamaurie), 287 _Early Lyons_ (syn. of Lyons), 161 _Early Mathere_ (syn. of Guigne Précoce de Mathère), 271 Early May, 128 Early May, 247 Early Morello, 129 Early Prolific, 248 Early Purple, 130 _Early Purple Guigne_ (syn. of Early Purple), 130 Early Red and Yellow, 248 Early Red Bigarreau, 248 Early Red Guigne, 248 Early Richmond, 131 Early Rivers, 248 _Early White Bigarreau_ (syn. of Flamentine), 252 _Early White Guigne_ (syn. of Grosse Guigne Blanche), 266 Early York, 248 Ebenter Cherry, 249 _Ecullyer Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Noir d'Ecully), 219 Edouard Seneclause, 249 Elfner Kirsche, 249 Elizabeth, 249 Elkhorn, 134 Elliott, F. R., life of, 159; quoted, 71, 197; var. introduced by, 159 _Elliott's Favorite_ (syn. of Favorite), 251 Elton, 135 Emperor Francis, 249 Empress Eugenie, 137 _Englische Schwarze Kronherzkirsche_ (syn. of Corone), 238 Englische Weinkirsche, 249 _Englische weisse ganz frühe Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Englische Weisse Herzkirsche), 250 Englische Weisse Herzkirsche, 250 English Amber, 249 English Bearer, 249 English Gaskin, 249 English Morello, 138; susceptibility of, to leaf spot, 11 _English Preserve_ (syn. of English Bearer), 249 Enopa, 250 _Épervier Noir_ (syn. of Black Hawk), 105 Episcopale, 250 Eppers Weichsel, 250 _Erfurt Delicious_ (syn. of Erfurter Augustkirsche), 250 Erfurter Augustkirsche, 250 _Esel Kirsche_ (syn. of May Duke), 164 _Espagne bigarrée_ (syn. of Perlknorpelkirsche), 305 Etopa, 250 Eugène Furst, 250 _Eugenie_ (syn. of Empress Eugenie) 137 Euprunus, sub-genus of Prunus, 15 Everbearing, 251 Excellente Douce Tardive, 251 Eyami, 251 Ezaptan, 251 Faversham Heart, 251 Favorite, 251 Fenno, J. H., var. orig. by, 301 Fenwith, George, quoted, 58 Festfleischige Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 251 Flagg, 252 Flamentine, 252 _Flanders_ (syn. of Early Richmond), 131 _Flanders Cluster_ (syn. of Cluster), 119 _Flemish_ (syn. of Large Montmorency), 153; (syn. of Short-Stem Montmorency), 187 Flemish Gean, 252 _Flemish Coloured Bigarreau_ (syn. of Elton), 135 Fleurs Doubles, 252 Fleurs Semi-doubles, 253 Florence, 140 _Florence Heart_ (syn. of Florence), 140 Florianer Kirsche, 253 Flynn, var. orig. with, 242 Folgerkirsche, 253 Folgers Swolfe, 254 Forsyth, quoted, 68 Fouche Morello, 254 _Four to the Pound_ (syn. of Tobacco-Leaved), 326 _Französiche Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Cerise de Soissons), 233 _Fraser's White Tartarian_ (syn. of White Tartarian), 333 Frauendorfer, 254 _Frauendorfer Weichsel_ (syn. of Frauendorfer), 254 _French_ (syn. of Early Richmond), 132 French Amarelle, 254 French Weichsel, 254 _Frogmore Bigarreau_ (syn. of Frogmore Early Bigarreau), 254 Frogmore Early Bigarreau, 254 Frogmore Early Crown, 254 _Frogmore Early Prolific_ (syn. of Frogmore Early Bigarreau), 254 Frogmore Late Bigarreau, 255 Frogmore Morrelo, 255 Fromm, var. orig. by, 255 Fromm Heart, 255 _Fromms Schwarze Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Fromm Heart), 255 _Frühe Bernsteinkirsche_ (syn. of White Heart), 197 Frühe bunte Herzkirsche, 255 _Frühe Englische Kirsche aus Löwen_ (syn. of Löwener Frühkirsche), 292 Frühe Kurzstielige Knorpelkirsche, 255 _Frühe Lange Weisse Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Frühe bunte Herzkirsche), 255 _Frühe Lemercier_ (syn. of Lemercier), 290 _Frühe Maiherzkirsche_ (syn. of Baumann May), 100 Frühe Maikirsche, 255 Frühe Morello, 255 _Frühe Natte aus Samen_ (syn. of Frühe von der Natte), 256 Frühe Sauerkirsche, 256 _Frühe Schattenmorelle_ (syn. of Shadow Amarelle), 318 _Frühe Schwarze Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Black Guigne), 104; (syn. of Black Heart), 106 Frühe Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 256 _Frühe Süssweichsel von der Natt_ (syn. of Frühe von der Natte), 256 Frühe von der Natte, 256 _Frühe Zwergweichsel_ (syn. of Early May), =128= Früher Gobet, 256 Früheste Bunte Herzkirsche, 256 _Früheste bunte Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Früheste Bunte Herzkirsche), 256 Früheste der Mark, 257 _Frühkirsche_ (syn. of Früheste Bunte Herzkirsche), 256 _Frühzeitige Amarelle_ (syn. of Early Richmond), 132 Fürst Schwarze Septemberkirsche, 257 _Fürst's Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Eugène Furst), 250 _Galopin_ (syn. of Lutovka), 160 Galusha, 257 Gamdale, 257 Garcine, 257 Garcine, var. orig. by, 257 Gardiner, 257 Gardner, V. R., quoted, 82-83 _Gascoigne_ (syn. of Bleeding Heart), 109 _Gascoigne's Heart_ (syn. of Bleeding Heart), 109 Gaskins, 257 Gauchers Knorpelkirsche, 257 _Géante de Badacson_ (syn. of Badacsony), 209 _Géante d'Hedelfingen_ (syn. of Hedelfingen), 274 _Gedoppelte Amarelle mit halbgefüllter Blüte_ (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 Geer, 257 _Gefülltblühende Amarelle_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 253 _Gefülltblühende Süsskirsche_ (syn. of Large Double Flowering), 287 _Gefüllter Kirschbaume_ (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 Gelbe Herzkirsche, 257 Gelbe Wachskirsche, 258 Gemeine Glaskirsche, 258 _Gemeine Marmorkirsche_ (syn. of Yellow Spanish), 202 _Gemeine Schwarze Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Grosse Schwarze Herzkirsche), 267 _Gemeine Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Griotte Commune), 262 Genesee, 258 George Glass, 141 Gerarde, quoted, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 German, 258 _German Duke_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 _German_ (Kraus) (syn. of German), 258 German Morello, 258 Germersdorf, 259 _Germersdorfer Grosse Kirsche_ (syn. of Germersdorf), 259 Geschiltztblättrige Süssweichsel, 259 Gestriefte Herzkirsche, 259 Gewöhnliche Muskatellerkirsche, 259 Giant, 259 Gibb, 259 Gifford, 259 Gilbert, R., var. orig. by, 227 _Glanzende goldgelb und roth marmorirte Kramelkirsche_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 Glasherzkirsche, 259 _Glaskirsche mit dickgefüllter Blüthe_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 252 _Glaskirsche mit halbgefüllter Blüthe_ (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 Glaskirsche von der Natte, 260 _Glas-Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Glasherzkirsche), 259 _Glass_ (syn. of Double Glass), 122 Glasskirsche Kurzstielige, 260 Gloire de France, 260 _Gobet à Courte Queue_ (syn. of Short-Stem Montmorency), 187 _Gobet Hâtif_ (syn. of Früher Gobet), 256 Golden Knob, 260 Goldgelbe Herzkirsche, 260 Goldsmith Black Heart, 260 Goodspeed, 260 Gormley, 260 Gormley, John, var. orig. with, 260 Gottorper, 261 _Gottorper Marmorkirsche_ (syn. of Gottorper), 261 Gould No. X, 261 Governor Luce, 261 _Gov. Shannon_ (syn. of Shannon), 319 _Governor Wood_ (syn. of Wood), 199 Grafenburger Frühkirsche, 261 _Graffion_ (syn. of Yellow Spanish), 202 Graham, 261 Grand, var. introduced by, 217 Grande Ronde, 261 Great Bearing, 261 _Great Bigarreau_ (syn. of Mezel), 167 _Great Cornelian_ (syn. of Double Glass), 122 Great Leafed, 261 _Great rose_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 252 Grenner Glas, 261 Gridley, 261 Gridley, Samuel, var. orig. with, 261 _Griotte_ (syn. of Griotte Commune), 262 Griotte Acher, 262 _Griotte d'Allemagne_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 _Griotte de Bettenbourg_ (syn. of Bettenburger Weichsel), 214 _Griotte à Bouquet_ (syn. of Cluster), 119 Griotte de Büttner, 262 _Griotte de Chaux_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 Griotte Commune, 262 _Griotte à Courte Queue_ (syn. of Imperial Morello), 278 _Griotte Double_ (syn. of Griotte Acher), 262 Griotte Douce Précoce, 262 _Griotte de Frauendorf_ (syn. of Frauendorfer), 254 _Griotte à gros fruit noir de Piémont_ (syn. of Griotte Noire de Piémont), 263 _Griotte à gros fruit rouge de Piémont_ (syn. of Griotte Rouge de Piémont), 264 _Griotte Guigne_ (syn. of Cerise Guigne), 232 _Griotte Impériale_ (syn. of Imperial Morello), 278 _Griotte Kleparite_ (syn. of Griotte de Kleparow), 263 Griotte de Kleparow, 263 _Griotte de Léopold_ (syn. of Leopoldskirsche), 290 Griotte Lodigiana, 263 Griotte Noire, 263 Griotte Noire de Piémont, 263 _Griotte Noire des Vosges_ (syn. of Noire des Vosges), 301 Griotte du Nord Améliorée, 263 Griotte à Petit Fruit, 263 _Griotte de Portugal_ (syn. of Arch Duke), 98 Griotte Précoce, 263 _Griotte Précoce d'Espagne_ (syn. of Spanische Frühweichsel), 320 _Griotte rouge foncé_ (syn. of Braunrote Weichsel), 226 Griotte Rouge de Piémont, 264 Griotte de Schaarbeck, 264 _Griotte simple_ (syn. of Griotte Commune), 262 Griotte Tardive d'Annecy, 264 _Griotte Tardive de Büttner_ (syn. of Büttner Späte Weichsel), 229 Griotte Tardive de Plombiéres, 264 Griotte de Toscane, 264 Griotte de Turquie, 264 _Griotte de Wellington_ (syn. of Wellington), 332 Griottier à Feuilles Cucullées, 264 _Griottier à feuilles de Pêcher_ (syn. of Willow-Leaved), 335 _Griottier à feuilles de Saule_ (syn. of Willow-Leaved), 335 Griottier à Fruit Aigre, 264 Griottier à Longues Feuilles, 264 _Griottier Nain Précoce_ (syn. of Early May), 128 _Griottier Weichselbaum_ (syn. of Griotte Commune), 262 Groll Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 264 _Grolls bunte Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Groll), 217 _Gros Bigarreau Blanc_ (syn. of Napoleon), 171 _Gros Bigarreau coeur-de-Poule_ (syn. of Coeur de Poule), 237 _Gros Bigarreau Noir_ (syn. of Elkhorn), 134 _Gros Bigarreau pourpré_ (syn. of Bigarreau Pourpré), 220 Gros Bigarreau Rond, 265 _Gros Gobet_ (syn. of Short-Stem Montmorency), 187 Gros Guindoul Hâtif, 265 _Gross blättrige Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Tobacco-Leaved), 326 Grosse Blanche Carrée, 265 Grosse Bunte Herzkirsche, 265 _Grosse bunte Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Grosse Bunte Herzkirsche), 265 _Grosse Cerise à Ratafia_ (syn. of English Morello), 139 _Grosse Cerise des Religieuses_ (syn. of Grosse Nonnenkirsche), 266 _Grosse Cerise Transparente_ (syn. of Grosse Glaskirsche), 265 _Grosse Deutsche Belzkirsche_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 _Grosse dunkel braunrothe Kramelkirsche_ (syn. of Festfleischige Schwarze Knorpelkirsche), 251 Grosse Friedrichskirsche, 265 _Grosse glänzende schwarze Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Guigne Noir Luisante), 270 _Grosse Glas-Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Glasherzkirsche), 259 Grosse Glaskirsche, 265 _Grosse Glaskirsche von Montmorency_ (syn. of Large Montmorency), 153 Grosse Gomballoise, 265 _Grosse-Griotte à vin_ (syn. of Grosse Weinkirsche), 268 Grosse Guigne Blanche, 265 Grosse Guigne Noire à Court Pédicelle, 266 _Grosse Guigne noire luisante_ (syn. of Guigne Noir Luisante), 270 Grosse Höckerige Marmorkirsche, 266 _Grosse Lange Lothkirsche_ (syn. of English Morello), 139 Grosse Mogulkirsche, 266 Grosse Morelle, 266 _Grosse Morelle double_ (syn. of Grosse Morelle), 266 Grosse Nonnenkirsche, 266 Grosse Picarde, 266 Grosse Schwarze Frühe Herzkirsche, 267 _Grosse schwarze Glanzkirsche_ (syn. of Prinzenkirsche), 308 Grosse Schwarze Herzkirsche, 267 _Grosse Schwarze Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Elkhorn), 134 _Grosse schwarze Knorpelkirsche mit festem Fleisch_ (syn. of Festfleischige Schwarze Knorpelkirsche), 251 _Grosse schwarze ungarische Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Grosse Ungarische Kirsche), 267 _Grosse Spanische Weichsel_ (syn. of Spanische Glaskirsche), 320 _Grosse späte Amarelle_ (syn. of Grosse Tardive), 267 Grosse Späte Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 267 Grosse Süsse Maiherzkirsche, 267 _Grosse Süsse Maikirsche_ (syn. of Grosse Süsse Maiherzkirsche), 267 Grosse Tardive, 267 Grosse Transparente, 267 Grosse Ungarische Kirsche, 267 Grosse de Verrirées, 267 Grosse de Wagnellee, 268 Grosse Weinkirsche, 268 Grosse Weisse Frühkirsche, 268 _Grosse Weisse Marmorkirsche_ (syn. of Napoleon), 172 _Grosse wohltragende holländische Morellè_ (syn. of Wohltragende Holländische Kirsche), 335 _Grosser Gobet_ (syn. of Large Montmorency), 153 _Grosser weisser glänzender Herzkirschbaum_ (syn. of Gelbe Herzkirsche), 257 Groth Braune Knorpelkirsche, 268 Groth Gelbe Knorpelkirsche, 268 _Groth's Wachskirsche_ (syn. of Groth Gelbe Knorpelkirsche), 268 Grünstiel-Kirsche, 268 Guben, 268 _Gubener Bernsteinkirsche_ (syn. of Ambrée de Guben), 207 _Gubener Schwarze Knorpel_ (syn. of Guben), 268 Gubens Ehre, 268 _Guigne d'Annonay_ (syn. of Guigne la Plus Hâtive), 271 Guigne Anglaise Blanche Précoce, 268 Guigne d'Argovie, 268 _Guigne de Bettenbourg_ (syn. of Bettenburger Herzkirsche), 214 _Guigne Bigaudelle_ (syn. of Black Guigne), 104 _Guigne Blanche_ (syn. of Grosse Guigne Blanche), 266 _Guigne Blanche de Bordan_ (syn. of Bigarreau Bordan), 215 Guigne Blanche Précoce, 269 _Guigne Blanche de Winkler_ (syn. of Guigne Carnée Winkler), 269 Guigne Bonne Alostoise, 269 _Guigne brune de Liefeld_ (syn. of Liefeld Braune), 291 Guigne de Buxeuil, 269 Guigne Carnée Winkler, 269 Guigne de Chamblondes, 269 Guigne Chamonale, 269 Guigne Chavanne, 269 _Guigne Choque_ (syn. of Choque), 236 _Guigne Coé_ (syn. of Coe), 120 _Guigne à courte queue_ (syn. of Guigne Courte-queue d'Oullins), 269 Guigne Courte-queue d'Oullins, 269 _Guigne Downton_ (syn. of Downton), 244 _Guigne Early Rivers_ (syn. of Early Rivers), 248 Guigne Ecarlate, 269 Guigne de l'Escalier, 269 Guigne de Gland, 269 _Guigne à gros fruit blanc_ (syn. of Grosse Guigne Blanche), 265 _Guigne à Gros Fruit Noir Hâtif_ (syn. of Grosse Schwarze Frühe Herzkirsche), 267 _Guigne Grosse ambrée_ (syn. of Gelbe Herzkirsche), 257 Guigne Grosse Rouge Hâtive, 269 Guigne Grosse Rouge Tardive, 270 Guigne Guindole, 270 Guigne Hâtive d'Elsdorf, 270 _Guigne-hâtive de Schneider_ (syn. of Schneider Frühe Herzkirsche), 316 _Guigne Hâtive de Werder_ (syn. of Werder Early Black), 332 _Guigne Jaune_ (syn. of Gelbe Herzkirsche), 257 _Guigne de Kruger_ (syn. of Krüger Herzkirsche), 285 _Guigne Lucien_ (syn. of Lucien), 293 _Guigne Ludwig_ (syn. of Ludwig Bigarreau), 293 _Guigne de Mai_ (syn. of Baumann May), 100 Guigne Marbrée, 270 _Guigne marbrée précoce_ (syn. of Guigne la Plus Hâtive), 271 Guigne Marie Besnard, 270 _Guigne Marjolet_ (syn. of Bigarreau Marjolet), 218 _Guigne mûre de Paris_ (syn. of Späte Maulbeerkirsche), 321 Guigne de Nice, 270 Guigne Noir Luisante, 270 _Guigne Noire Ancienne_ (syn. of Black Heart), 106 _Guigne Noire Commune_ (syn. of Black Guigne), 104 _Guigne Noire à Gros Fruit_ (syn. of Black Tartarian), 107 Guigne Noire Hâtive, 270 _Guigne noire hâtive à gros fruits_ (syn. of Guigne Noir Luisante), 270 Guigne Noire de Monstreux, 271 _Guigne noire Spitz_ (syn. of Spitzens Herzkirsche), 322 Guigne Nouvelle Espéce, 271 Guigne Olive, 271 _Guigne panachée longue précoce_ (syn. of Frühe bunte Herzkirsche), 255 _Guigne panachée précoce_ (syn. of Early Amber), 247 _Guigne panachée très-précoce_ (syn. of Früheste Bunte Herzkirsche), 256 Guigne Petite Blanche, 271 Guigne Petite Rouge, 271 Guigne la Plus Hâtive, 271 Guigne Précoce Leo d'Ounons, 271 _Guigne Précoce de Mai_ (syn. of Baumann May), 100 Guigne Précoce de Mathère, 271 Guigne Précoce Ponctuée, 271 Guigne de Provence, 271 Guigne Ramon Oliva, 271 _Guigne Reinette noire_ (syn. of Guigne Noir Luisante), 270 Guigne Rose Hâtive, 271 Guigne Rouge Commune, 272 _Guigne Rouge Hâtive_ (syn. of Bleeding Heart), 109 Guigne Rouge Ponctuée, 272 _Guigne Royale_ (syn. of Bigarreau Double Royale), 216 Guigne de Russie à Fruit Blanc, 272 _Guigne sucrée de Léon Leclerc_ (syn. of Sucrée Léon Leclerc), 323 _Guigne de Tarascon_ (syn. of Tarascon Kirsche), 324 _Guigne Tardive de Downer_ (syn. of Downer), 124 _Guigne de Tilgener_ (syn. of Tilgner Rothe Herzkirsche), 326 Guigne Très Précoce, 272 _Guigne Troprichtz_ (syn. of Troprichters Schwarze Knorpelkirsche), 328 Guigne van der Broek, 272 Guigne Villeneuve, 272 _Guigne de Winkler_ (syn. of Guigne Carnée Winkler), 269 _Guignier à Fruit Noir_ (syn. of Black Heart), 106 Guignier à Fruit Noir et Très-long Pédoncule, 272 _Guignier à fruit rose hâtif_ (syn. of Guigne Rose Hâtive), 272 _Guignier à Fruit Rouge Tardif_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 143 _Guignier à gros fruit noir_ (syn. of Grosse Schwarze Herzkirsche), 267 _Guignier à Gros Fruit Noir et Court Pédoncule_ (syn. of Grosse Guigne Noire à Court Pédicelle), 266 _Guignier à Gros Fruit noir hâtif_ (syn. of Guigne Noire Hâtive), 270 _Guignier à gros fruit noir luisant_ (syn. of Guigne Noir Luisante), 270 Guignier à Petit Fruit Noir, 272 _Guignier à rameaux pendans_ (syn. of Drooping Guigne), 245 Guindoux Noir de Faix, 272 _Guindoux du Poitou_ (syn. of Imperial Morello), 278 _Guindoux de Provence_ (syn. of Cerise de Prusse), 232 Gunsleber Späte Knorpelkirsche, 273 _Halbgefülltblühende Amarelle_ (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 Halbgefülltblühende Weichsel, 273 Halifax, 273 Hallock, 273 Hallock, Nicholas, var. orig. with, 273 Hallowell, 273 Hamell Kirsche, 273 Hamels Arissen, 273 _Harrison's Heart_ (syn. of Napoleon), 172 Hartlib, 273 Hartlippe, 273 Hartz Mountain, 273 Hâtive de Balis, 273 _Hâtive de Louvain_ (syn. of Löwener Frühkirsche), 292 _Hâtive de Nattes_ (syn. of Frühe von der Natte), 256 Hâtive de Prin, 273 Hâtive de St. Jean, 273 Hâtive ou Précoce, 273 Headley, 274 Healy, 274 _Heart-Shaped Griotte_ (syn. of Heart-Shaped Weichsel), 142 Heart-Shaped Weichsel, 142 Hedelfingen, 274 _Hedelfingen Risenkirsche_ (syn. of Hedelfingen), 274 Hedwigs Kirsche, 274 Heidelberger Kirsche, 274 Heiges, 274 Heintzen (Heintze's) Frühe Kirsche, 274 _Heintzen's (Heintze's) Schwarze Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Noir de Heintzen), 219 Henneberger Grafenkirsche, 274 Henrard, Denis, var. orig. by, 327 Hensel Early, 274 _Herrnhäuser neue Ochsenherzkirsche_ (syn. of Neue Ochsenherzkirsche), 300 _Hertogs-Kers_ (syn. of Elkhorn), 134 _Herzförmige Sauerkirsche_ (syn. of Heart-Shaped Weichsel), 142 _Herzförmige Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Rothe Herzkirsche), 313 Herzkirsche Léona Quesnel, 275 _Herzkirsche Napoléon III_ (syn. of Bigarreau Napoléon Noir), 219 Herzkirsche Trauben, 275 Herzkirsche Wils Frühe, 275 _Herzkirschenbaum mit grosse gefüllter Blüthe_ (syn. of Large Double Flowering), 287 Herzkirschweichsel, 275 Herzog May, 275 _Herzogin von Angouleme_ (syn. of Duchesse d'Angoulême), 245 _Herzogin von Paluau_ (syn. of Duchesse de Palluau), 246 _Herzogskirsche_ (syn. of Arch Duke), 98 Hildesheim, 143 _Hildesheimer Ganz Späte Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 143 _Hildesheimer Späte Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 144 Hiller, Casper, var. introduced by, 237 Hoadley, 275 _Hochgenuss Von Erfurt_ (syn. of Erfurter Augustkirsche), 250 Hockenberg, 275 Hogg Black Gean, 275 Hogg Red Gean, 275 Hoke, 275 _Holland Bigarreau_ (syn. of Napoleon), 172 _Holland Griotte_ (syn. of Coularde), 239 _Holländische Folgerkirsche_ (syn. of Folgerkirsche), 253 _Holländische grosse Kirsche Coulard_ (syn. of Coularde), 239 _Holländische Grosse Prinzessinkirsche_ (syn. of Napoleon), 171 _Holländische grosse Weichsel_ [or] _Coulard_ (syn. of Coularde), 239 _Höllandische Kirsche_ (syn. of Höllandische Späte Weichsel), 275 Höllandische Späte Weichsel, 275 _Höllandische Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Coularde), 239 _Höllandische Weichsel_ (syn. of Höllandische Späte Weichsel), 275 _Holländische Weichselbaum mil sehr grosser Frucht_ [or] _Coulard_ (syn. of Coularde), 238 Holman Duke, 276 Holme Late Duke, 276 Holstein, 276 Homer, 276 Honey, 276 Honey Dew, 276 _Honey Heart_ (syn. of Sparhawk), 189 Honeywood, 276 Hoppock, Cornelius, var. orig. by, 277 Hoppock Yellow, 277 _Hortense_ (syn. of Reine Hortense), 179 Hoshino, Yugo, quoted, 75 Hoskins, 277 Hoskins, C. E., life of, 277; var. orig. by, 274, 277, 286, 291, 296, 301, 309, 323, 330 Houblon, John, var. orig, with, 141 Hovey, 277 Hovey, C. M., var. orig. with, 277 Hoy, 277 Hubbard, 278 _Hungarian Cherry of Zwerts_ (syn. of Hungarian Gean), 278 Hungarian Gean, 278 Hyde, T. & G., var. orig. with, 278 Hyde Late Black, 278 Hyde Red Heart, 278 _Hyde's Seedling_ (syn. of Hyde Red Heart), 278 Ida, 144 _Impératrice Downton_ (syn. of Downton), 244 _Imperial_ (syn. of Imperial Morello), 278 Imperial Morello, 278 Incomparable en Beauté, 278 Ingram, Thomas, var. orig. by, 254, 255 Intorka, 278 Irwin, var. orig. by, 325 Jaboulay, var. orig. with, 161 _Jahns Durchsichtige_ (syn, of Transparent Guigne), 328 Jaune de Prusse, 279 Jean Arendsen, 279 Jeffrey Duke, 146 _Jeffrey's Royal_ (syn. of Jeffrey Duke), 146 Jenkin Black Heart, 279 Jerusalem Kirsche von der Natte, 279 Jerusalemskirsche, 279 _Jockotos_ (syn. of Jocosot), 279 Jocosot, 279 Joel Keil Kleine Schwarze Herzkirsche, 279 _John Tradescantes Cherrie_ (syn. of Elkhorn), 134 Josselyn, John, quoted, 57 June Amarelle, 279 June Duke, 280 _June Morello_ (syn. of June Amarelle), 279 _Juniat Amarelle_ (syn. of June Amarelle), 279 _Junius Amarelle_ (syn. of June Amarelle), 279 _Justinische Amarelle_ (syn. of Justinische Morello), 280 Justinische Morello, 280 _Kaiser Franz Josef_ (syn. of Emperor Francis), 249 _Kaiserliche Weichsel_ (syn. of Imperial Morello), 278 Kamdesa, 280 Kappenblättrige Süssweichsel, 280 _Kapuziner Knorpel_ (syn. of Bigarreau de Capucins), 215 Kassin, var. orig. by, 280 Kassin Frühe Herzkirsche, 280 Katie, 280 Kaufmann, 280 Kazan Seedling, 280 Kelly, 280 Kennicott, 281 _Kentish_ (syn. of Early Richmond), 132; (syn. of Late Kentish), 157 _Kentish Bigarreau_ (syn. of White Heart), 197 Kentish Drier, 281 Kentish Preserve, 281 _Kentish Red_ (syn. of Late Kentish), 157 Keokuk, 281 Kesterter Früh Kirsche, 281 King Amarelle, 147 King George the Second, 281 King Morello, 281 _King's Cherry_ (syn. of King Amarelle), 147 Kinsey, Samuel, var. introduced by, 330 Kirchheimer, 281 _Kirchheimer Weichsel_ (syn. of Kirchheimer), 281 _Kirsch von Planchoury_ (syn. of Planchoury), 305 Kirsche von Basel, 281 _Kirsche von Bénardière_ (syn. of Cerise de la Besnardière), 231 _Kirsche von der Natte_ (syn. of Double Natte), 123 Kirschwasser, manufacture of, 4 Kirtland, 148 Kirtland, B. B., var, orig. by, 236, 296 Kirtland, J. P., life of, 200; var. introduced by, 118; var. orig. by, 105, 148, 183, 200, 222, 225, 230, 241, 242, 248, 251, 275, 279, 281, 282, 288, 290, 291, 292, 294, 302, 303, 306, 307, 310, 319, 324, 325 Kirtland Morello, 282 _Kirtland's Large Morello_ (syn. of Kirtland Morello), 282 _Kirtland's Mammoth_ (syn. of Mammoth), 294 _Kirtland's Mary_ (syn. of Kirtland), 148 Kleindienst, var. orig. by, 282 Kleindienst Braune Knorpel, 282 Kleine Amarelle, 282 _Kleine Ambra_ (syn. of Goldgelbe Herzkirsche), 260 _Kleine Ambra_, [or] _Goldgelber Herzkirschbaum_ (syn. of Goldgelbe Herzkirsche), 260 Kleine Bunte Frühkirsche, 282 Kleine Bunte Herzkirsche, 282 _Kleine bunte Molkenkirsche_ (syn. of Kleine Bunte Herzkirsche), 282 Kleine Frühe Amarelle, 282 _Kleine frühe rothe Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Guigne Rose Hâtive), 271 _Kleine Glaskirsche von Montmorency_ (syn. of Montmorency), 169 Kleine Natte, 282 Kleine Nonnenkirsche, 283 Kleine Schwarze Frühe Herzkirsche, 283 Kleine Schwarze Herzkirsche, 283 Kleine Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 283 Kleine Weisse Frühkirsche, 283 _Kleine weisse Frühkirsche_ (syn. of Grosse Guigne Blanche), 265 _Kleine weisse Perlkirsche_ (syn. of Dankelmannskirsche), 240 Kleiner Früher May Herzkirschbaum, 283 _Kleparavoska_ (syn. of Griotte de Kleparow), 263 _Kleparower Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Griotte de Kleparow), 263 Knapp, 283 Knapp, George, var. orig. with, 283 _Knevett's Late Bigarreau_ (syn. of Florence), 140 Knight, 149 Knight, T. A., var. orig. by, 127, 136, 150, 196, 245 Knight Late Black, 283 _Knight's Early Black_ (syn. of Knight), 149 _Knights Frühe Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Knight), 149 _Knorpelkirsche von Cleveland_ (syn. of Cleveland), 118 Knudson, 283 Knudson, William O., var. orig. with, 283 Knyasnaia Sjevera, 284 Koch Späte Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 284 Kochs Ostheimer Weichsel, 284 _Kochs verbesserte Ostheimer Weichsel_ (syn. of Kochs Ostheimer Weichsel), 284 Koehne, species listed by, 16-22 Koeper, 284 Kolaki, 284 _Königliche Fleischkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Double Royale), 216 _Königliche Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Double Royale), 216 _Königliche Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Jeffrey Duke), 146 _Königskirsche_ (syn. of Royal Duke), 184 Korkovanyer Kirsche, 284 Koslov, 284 _Koslov bush Morello_ (syn. of Koslov), 284 _Koslov-Morello_ (syn. of Koslov), 284 Kostelnice, 285 Kostelniti, 285 _Kramelkirschenbaum mit gross gefüllter Blüthe_ (syn. of Large Double Flowering), 287 _Kratos Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 144 _Kreiselkirsche_ (syn. of Toupie), 327 Kriek van den Broek, 285 Kritzendorfer Einsiedekirsche, 285 _Kronberg Black Heart_ (syn. of Kronberger Kirsche), 285 _Kronberger Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Kronberger Kirsche), 285 Kronberger Kirsche, 285 _Kronkirsche_ (syn. of Kronberger Kirsche), 285 Kronprinz von Hannover, 285 Krüger Herzkirsche, 285 _Krügers Herzkirsche zu Frankfurt_ (syn. of Krüger Herzkirsche), 285 _Krügers schwarze Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Krüger Herzkirsche), 285 _Krüger's Schwarze Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Krüger), 218 La Nappe, 286 Lacure (Large), 286 Lacure (Small), 286 Ladé, var. orig. by, 286 Ladé Late, 286 Lady of the Lake, 286 Lady Southampton, 286 _Lady Southampton's Yellow_ (syn. of Lady Southampton), 286 Laeder Kirsebaer, 286 Lake, 286 Laker or Loker Bunte Knorpelkirsche, 286 Lamaurie, 287 Lambert, 151 Lambert, J. H., var. orig. by, 152 Lampen Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 287 _Lampers Knorpel-Kirsche_ (syn, of Lampen Schwarze Knorpelkirsche), 287 Lancaster, 287 _Lange Marmorkirsche_ (syn. of Napoleon), 171 Langsurer Brachtweichsel, 287 _Large Black Bigarreau of Savoy_ (syn. of Black Bigarreau of Savoy), 222 Large Black Gean, 287 Large Double Flowering, 287 Large Griotte, 288 Large Guindolle, 288 Large Heart-shaped Bigarreau, 288 _Large Honey_ (syn. of Honey), 276 Large Late Red Bigarreau, 288 Large Montmorency, 153 _Large Morello_ (syn. of English Morello), 139; (syn. of Kirtland Morello), 282 _Large Red Bigarreau_ (syn. of Red Bigarreau), 310 Large Spanish, 288 Larose, var. orig. by, 180, 288 _Larose_ (syn. of Laroses Glaskirsche), 288 Laroses Glaskirsche, 288 _Late Amber_ (syn. of Cocklin Favorite), 236 _Late Amber Gean_ (syn. of Amber Gean), 207 Late Bigarreau, 288 Late Black Bigarreau, 289 _Late Black Bigarreau_ (syn. of Guben), 268 Late Duke, 155 Late Gean, 289 _Late Honey_ (syn. of Honey), 276 Late Kentish, 157 Late Large Black Griotte, 289 Late Purple Guigne, 289 _Late Red Guigne_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 143 Late Richmond, 289 Late Ripe, 289 Late White Guigne, 289 Latham, 289 _Lauermannskirsche_ (syn. of Napoleon), 171 Laura, 289 Lawrence, John, quoted, 68 Lawson, quoted, 62 Leather Stocking, 290 Leclerc, Léon, var. orig. with, 323 Leib, 290 Leitzkauer, 290 _Leitzkauer Einmachweichsel_ (syn. of Leitzkauer), 290 Lemercier, 290 Lemercier, var. orig. with, 290 _Léon Leclercs Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Sucrée Léon Leclerc), 323 Léopold (II), 290 Leopoldskirsche, 290 Leschken (Leschke's) Schwarze Knorpel Kirsche, 291 _Lesser rose_ (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 Lethe, 291 _Lewelling_ (syn. of Republican), 181 Lewelling, Henderson, life of, 151-152 Lewelling, Seth, life of, 151-152; var. orig. by, 103, 181, 291, 335 Liefeld Braune, 291 _Liegel's Süsse Frühweichsel_ (syn. of Griotte Douce Précoce), 262 Lieke, var. orig. with, 285, 291 Lieke Bunte Knorpelkirsche, 291 Ligier, var. orig. with, 168 Lincoln (I), 291 Lincoln (II), 291 Lindley, 291 Lipp, 292 _Lipp Late Blood_ (syn. of Lipp), 292 Litham, 292 Lithauer, 158 Little Phil, 292 Logan, 292 Long Finger, 292 _Long Stem Montmorency_ (syn. of Montmorency), 169 Look No Further, 292 Lord Belhaven White Heart, 292 Lothaunner Erfurter, 292 Lothkirsche, 292 Loudon, quoted, 70 Louis Philippe, 158 Louise, 292 Louisiana Iron Clad, 292 _Love Apple_ (syn. of Tomato), 327 Löwener Frühkirsche, 292 Lowener Frühweichsel, 292 Lucien, 293 Ludwig Bigarreau, 293 _Ludwig's Bunte Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Ludwig Bigarreau), 293 Luigné, M. de, var. orig. with, 296 Lukeward, 293 _Lukeward's Heart_ (syn. of Lukeward), 293 Lundie Guigne, 293 Lutovka, 160 Lyons, 161 McAdow, 293 McAdow, var. orig. by, 293 MacRoach, 293 MacRoach, James, var. orig. with, 293 Madame Courtois, 293 Madame Grégoire, 294 Madeleine, 294 Madison, 294 _Madison Bigarreau_ (syn. of Madison), 294 _Madison's Bunte Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Madison), 294 Magann, 294 Magèse, 294 Magnifique, 163 Magnifique de Daval, 294 Magog, 294 Mahaleb stock, comparison of, with Mazzard stock, 72-73; history and value of, 69-72 _Major Francis_ (syn. of Ox Heart [of America]), 303 Mammoth, 294 Mammoth Oxheart, 295 _Mammuthkirsche_ (syn. of Mammoth), 294 Manger, 295 Manning, Robert, var. orig. by, 248, 294, 295, 333 _Manning Black Bigarreau_ (syn. of Manning Late Black), 295 Manning Early Black, 295 Manning Early White Heart, 295 Manning Late Black, 295 Manning Mottled, 295 Maple Heart, 295 Maquerlot, var. introduced by, 273 Maraschino, history and manufacture of, 4-5 Marells Royal, 295 _Marguerite_ (syn. of Bender [of New York]), 213 Maria Gaucher, 295 Marie de Châteauneuf, 295 Marie Thérèse, 296 _Marjolets Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Marjolet), 218 Markirsche, 296 Marsotte, 296 Mary, 296 _Mary_ (syn. of Kirtland), 148 Mascall, Leonard, quoted, 68 Master White Heart, 296 Mastodon, 296 Matilda, 296 Matts, 296 _May_ (syn. of Early May), 128 _May Bigarreau_ (syn. of Baumann May), 100 _May Cherry_ (syn. of May Duke), 164 May Duke, 164 _May Duke, Willow-leaved_ (syn. of Willow-Leaved), 335 _Mayer's kleine schwarze Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Kleine Schwarze Herzkirsche), 283 Mayo, 296 Mazarine, 296 Mazzard stock, comparison of, with Mahaleb stock, 72-73; history and value of, 67-69 Mednyansky, 297 Meininger Späte Knorpelkirsche, 297 Meissener Weisse, 297 Mercer, 166 _Merise à Fleur Double_ (syn. of Large Double Flowering), 287 Merise Grosse Rose Oblongue, 297 Merise Petite Ronda, 297 Merisier Fastigié, 297 _Merisziere_ (syn. of Large Double Flowering), 287 _Merveille de September_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 143 Meyer, E., var. introduced by, 273, 298 Mezel, 167 Michigan, 297 Mijurin, I. V., var. orig. by, 284 Miller, 297 Miller, David, var. introduced by, 239 Millet, 297 Minnesota, 297 Minnesota Ostheim, 297 Minnie, 298 _Moduyansky_ (syn. of Mednyansky), 297 Monkirsche Rote, 298 _Monstreuse de Mezel_ (syn. of Mezel), 167 Monstrous Duke, 298 _Monstrous Heart_ (syn. of Large Heart-shaped Bigarreau), 288 _Monstrueuse d'Hedelfingen_ (syn. of Hedelfingen), 274 Monstrueuse Hennequine, 298 Montmorency, 169; immunity of, to leaf spot, 11 _Montmorency_ (syn. of Large Montmorency), 153 _Montmorency de Bourgueil_ (syn. of Bourgueil), 109 _Montmorency Ordinaire_ (syn. of Montmorency), 169 Montmorency Pleureur, 298 Montmorency de Sauvigny, 298 Montmorency Stark, 298 Montreuil, 298 Moorhouse, 299 Morella Extra Noir, 299 Morella Wye, 299 Morelle von Wilhelmshöhe, 299 Moreller Langstilkede Sode, 299 Morgan, J. A., var. introduced by, 258 Morisco, 299 Morocco, 299 Morten Seedling, 299 Mosely, John, var. orig. by, 300 Mosler Schwarze Herzkirsche, 299 _Mottled Bigarreau_ (syn. of Manning Mottled), 295 Moyer Honey Heart, 299 Mückelberger Grosse, 299 Müller, Hugo M., quoted, 49 Murdock, 299 Murdock, John R. and A., var. orig. by, 299, 313 _Murdocks' Bigarreau_ (syn. of Murdoch), 299 _Muscat de Prague_ (syn. of Pragische Muskateller), 307 _Muscat des Larmes_ (syn. of Thränen Muskatellerkirsche), 326 Nancy, 299 Naples, 300 Napoleon, 171 _Napoléon Noir_ (syn. of Bigarreau Napoléon Noir), 219 _Napolitaine_ (syn. of Neapolitanische Molkenkirsche), 300 _Natte hâtive de semis_ (syn. of Frühe von der Natte), 256 Ne Plus Ultra, 300 _Neapolitanische Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Naples), 300 Neapolitanische Molkenkirsche, 300 Nebraska Sweet, 300 Nelson Kentish, 300 _Neue Englische Kirsche_ (syn. of Neue Englische Weichsel), 300 Neue Englische Weichsel, 300 Neue Ochsenherzkirsche, 300 Neumann Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 300 New Century, 300 _New Frogmore Morello_ (syn. of Frogmore Morrelo), 255 _New Large Black Bigarreau_ (syn. of Black Bigarreau of Savoy), 222 New Royal, 301 Nienburger Frühe Bunte Herzkirsche, 301 Noble, 301 Noire des Vosges, 301 _Noire Hâtive de Cobourg_ (syn. of Black Guigne), 104 Nomblot, Alfred, var. orig. by, 214 Nonpareil, 301 Norfolk, 301 Norma, 301 Northeast, 301 _Northern Griotte_ (syn. of English Morello), 139 Northwest, 301 _Nouvelle Guigne des Boeufs_ (syn. of Neue Ochsenherzkirsche), 300 Nouvelle Royale, 174 Occident, 301 Ohio Beauty, 302 Okiya, 302 _Oktober-Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau d'Octobre), 219 Oliver, 302 Olivet, 175 Opata, 302 Oregon, 302 Orel, 302 _Orel No. 23_ (syn. of Early Morello), 129 Orel No. 24, 303 _Orel No. 26_ (syn. of Orel Sweet), 303 Orel Sweet, 303 Orléan Smith, 303 Orleans, 303 Osceola, 303 Ostheim, 176 _Ostheim_ (syn. of Cerise de Ostheim), 232; (syn. of Minnesota Ostheim), 297 Ostheim (of Morris), 303 Othello, 303 _Ounce_ (syn. of Tobacco-Leaved), 326 Owanka, 303 Ox Heart, 178 Ox Heart (of America), 303 Padus, genus of, 15 Padus cherries, distinguishing characters of, 3; use of, 7 _Padus mahaleb_ (syn. of _P. Mahaleb_), 31 Pandys Glaskirsche, 304 Paramdam, 304 Parent, 304 Paretzer Herzkirsche, 304 Pariser Griotte, 304 Parisian Guindoux, 304 Parkinson, John, quoted 98, 134, 239, 273, 286, 292, 299, 329 Paul, 304 Paul, E. V. D., var. orig. with, 304 Pauline de Vigny, 304 Peach-Blossomed, 304 Pease, 304 Pease, Charles, var. orig. by, 238, 240, 286, 289 Pease, Charles, Sr., var. orig. with, 299, 304 _Pèlissiers Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Pélissier), 102 Perlkirsche, 304 Perlknorpelkirsche, 305 _Perlmarmorkirsche_ (syn. of Perlknorpelkirsche), 305 _Petit Bigarreau Hâtif_ (syn. of Kleine Bunte Frühkirsche), 282 _Petite Bigarreau hâtif_ (syn. of Flamentine), 252 Petite Morelle, 305 _Pfälzer Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Velser), 329 Pfitzmann Schwarze Herzkirsche, 305 _Pie Cherry_ (syn. of Late Kentish), 157 Pierce, Amos, var. orig. with, 305 Pierce Late, 305 _Pigeon Heart Bigarreau_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 _Pigeon's Heart_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 Pink Heart, 305 Planchoury, 305 Plattgedrückte Schattenmorelle, 305 Plumstone, 305 _Plumstone Morello_ (syn. of Plumstone), 305 _Plymouth_ (syn. of Plymouth Rock), 306 Plymouth Rock, 306 Podiebrad, 306 _Podiebrad Bunte Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Podiebrad), 306 _Pohlnische Kirsche_ (syn. of Griotte de Kleparow), 263 Pointed Guigne, 306 _Poitou griotte_ (syn. of Imperial Morello), 278 _Polnische grosse Weichsel_ (syn. of Griotte de Kleparow), 263 _Polnische Weichsel_ (syn. of Griotte de Kleparow), 263 Polsted, 306 Polton Gean, 306 Pomeranzen, 306 _Pomme-d'Amour_ (syn. of Tomato), 327 Pontiac, 306 Pope, 307 Portugal, 307 _Portugiesische Griotte_ (syn. of Arch Duke), 98 _Portugiesischer Griottier Weichselbaum_ (syn. of Arch Duke), 98 Powhattan, 307 Pragische Muskateller, 307 _Prague Tardif_ (_Muscadét de_) (syn. of Velser), 329 _Précoce d'Espagne_ (syn. of Spanische Frühkirsche), 320 _Précoce Lemercier_ (syn. of Duchesse de Palluau), 246 Précoce de Marest, 307 _Précoce de Montreuil_ (syn. of Early May), 128 Précoce de Sabaret, 307 President, 307 Prettyman, H. W., var. orig. by, 302 Pride of Washington, 307 Priesche Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 308 Prince, 308 Prince, William, quoted, 203-204; var. introduced by, 108, 247; var. orig. by, 236, 308 Prince Black Heart, 308 Prince Duke, 308 Prince Englebert, 308 _Prince de Hanovre_ (syn. of Kronprinz von Hannover), 285 Prince Royal, 308 _Prince Royal du Hanovre_ (syn. of Kronprinz von Hannover), 285 Princess, 308 _Priner Frühweichsel_ (syn. of Hâtive de Prin), 273 Prinzenkirsche, 308 _Prinzesskirsche_ (syn. of Princess), 308 Prödlitzer Elitekirsche, 308 Progress, 308 _Prolific Cherry_ (syn. of Cerisier Très-fertile), 234 Proskauer Knorpelkirsche, 308 Proudfoot, 308 Proudfoot, D., var. orig. by, 308 _Provencer Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Cerise de Prusse), 232 Prunus, division of, 15; genus, importance of, in horticulture, 1 _Prunus acida_, 16 _Prunus acida_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus aestiva_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 44 × 48 ? _Prunus affinis_, 18 _Prunus ampla_, 17 _Prunus apetala_, 21; (syn. of _P. maximowiczii_), 16 _Prunus apetala iwozana_ (syn. of _P. tschonoskii_), 20 _Prunus apetala typica_ (syn. of _P. nipponica_), 20 _Prunus austera_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus autumnalis_, 20 _Prunus avium_, 16; characters of, 28-29; comparison of, with _Prunus cerasus_, 9; distribution and habitat of, 29; division of and how divided, 30; geographic range of, 41-42; specific description of, 28-30; use of wood of, 6; value of, as a stock, 67-69 _Prunus avium_ × _Prunus cerasus_, specific description of, 31 _Prunus avium decomana_, 30 _Prunus avium duracina_, 30 _Prunus avium regalis_, 31 _Prunus batalinii_, 22 _Prunus besseyi_, 21; characters of, 36; common names of, 37; habitat of, 36; hybridism of, with other species, 37; specific description of, 36-38; use of, as a stock, 37-38 _Prunus biloba_ (syn. of _P. herincquiana biloba_), 19 _Prunus brachypetala_, 22 _Prunus bracteata_ (syn. of _P. maximowiczii_), 16 _Prunus bungei_ (syn. of _P. humilis_), 21 _Prunus campanulata_, 19 _Prunus canescens_, 20 _Prunus carcharias_, 22 _Prunus caudata_, 20 _Prunus ceraseidos_ (syn. of _P. apetala_), 21; (syn. of _P. nipponica_), 20; (syn. of _P. tschonoskii_), 20 _Prunus ceraseidos kurilensis_ (syn. of _P. kurilensis_), 20 _Prunus cerasoides_, 19; (syn. of _P. campanulata_), 19 _Prunus cerasoides tibetca_ (syn. of _P. majestica_), 19 _Prunus cerasus_, 16; characters of, 25; comparison of, with _Prunus avium_, 9; distribution of, 26; division of and how divided, 26-28; geographic range of, 41; probable parentage of, 44; specific description of, 24-28 _Prunus cerasus austera_, 27 _Prunus cerasus caproniana_, 27 _Prunus cerasus flore pleno_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18; (syn. of _P. serrulata mucronata_), 18 _Prunus cerasus flore simplici_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 17 _Prunus cerasus marasca_, 28 _Prunus cerasus pendula flore roseo_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Prunus cinerascens_, 22 _Prunus clarofolia_, 16 _Prunus conadenia_, 16 _Prunus concinna_, 19 _Prunus conradinæ_, 19 _Prunus cuneata_, habitat of, 35; specific description of, 35-36 _Prunus cyclamina_, 17 _Prunus cyclamina biflora_, 17 _Prunus depressa_ (syn. of _P. pumila_), 34 _Prunus dictyoneura_, 21 _Prunus dielsiana_, 17 _Prunus dielsiana conferta_, 17 _Prunus dielsiana laxa_, 17 _Prunus diffusa_, 22 _Prunus discadenia_, 16 _Prunus donarium_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus virescens_), 17; (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 17 _Prunus droseracea_, 20 _Prunus dulcis_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Prunus duclouxii_, 17 _Prunus emarginata_, 16; use of, 38 _Prunus formosana_ (syn. of _P. pogonostyla_), 21 _Prunus fruticosa_, 16; use of, 38 _Prunus giraldiana_, 20 _Prunus glabra_, 17 _Prunus glandulifolia_, 17 _Prunus glandulosa_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa glabra_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa glabra alba_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa glabra albiplena_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa glabra rosea_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa purdomii_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa salicifoli_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa trichostyla_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa trichostyla faberi_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa trichostyla paokangensis_, 21 _Prunus glandulosa trichostyla sinensis_, 21 _Prunus glyptocarya_, 20 _Prunus gracilifolia_, 21 _Prunus griffithii_, 22 _Prunus helenæ_, 19 _Prunus henryi_, 17 _Prunus herincquiana_, 19; (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Prunus herincquiana ascendens_ (syn. of _P. subhirtella_), 19 _Prunus herincquiana biloba_, 19 _Prunus hirtifolia_, 17 _Prunus hirtipes_, 17 _Prunus hirtipes glabra_ (syn. of _P. glabra_), 17 _Prunus hortensis_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus hosseusii_, 19 _Prunus humilis_, 21 _Prunus incana_, 22; (syn. of _P. pumilla_), 34; use of, 38 _Prunus incisa_, 20; (syn. of _P. subhirtella_), 19 _Prunus incisa kurilensis_ (syn. of _P. kurilensis_), 20 _Prunus involucrata_, 17 _Prunus itosakra ascendens amabilis_ (syn. of _P. subhirtella fukubana_), 20 _Prunus itosakra pendula_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Prunus itosakra subhirtella_ (syn. of _P. subhirtella_), 20 _Prunus itosakura_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Prunus iwagiensis_, 20 _Prunus involucrata_, use of, 38 _Prunus jacquemontii_, 22; use of, 38 _Prunus jamasakura_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 17 _Prunus jamasakura borealis_ (syn. of _P. sargentii_), 19 _Prunus jamasakura elegans compta_ (syn. of _P. sargentii_), 19 _Prunus jamasakura elegans glabra_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus jamasakura elegans parvifolia_ (syn. of _P. parvifolia_), 19 _Prunus jamasakura speciosa_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus jamasakura speciosa nobilis_ (syn. of _P. serulata lannesiana_), 18 _Prunus jamasakura speciosa nobilis donarium_ (syn. of _P. serrulata hisakura_), 18 _Prunus japonica_, 21; (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra alba_, 21; of _P. glandulosa glabra albiplena_, 21; of _P. glandulosa trichostyla faberi_, 21; of _P. glandulosa trichostyla sinensis_, 21; of _P. japonica kerii_, 22) _Prunus japonica engleri_ (syn. of _P. japonica gracillima engleri_), 22 _Prunus japonica eujaponica_, 21 _Prunus japonica eujaponica fauriei_, 21 _Prunus japonica eujaponica oldhamii_, 21 _Prunus japonica flor. simp._ (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra rosea_), 21 _Prunus japonica flore albo pleno_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra albiplena_), 21 _Prunus japonica flore pleno_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra albiplena_), 21; (syn. of _P. glandulosa trichostyla sinensis_), 21 _Prunus japonica glandulosa_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra_), 21; (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra rosea_), 21 _Prunus japonica gracillima_, 22 _Prunus japonica gracillima engleri_, 22 _Prunus japonica gracillima minor_, 22 _Prunus japonica gracillima sphaerica_, 22 _Prunus japonica gracillima thunbergii_, 22 _Prunus japonica japonica_ (syn. of _P. japonica_), 21 _Prunus japonica kerii_, 22 _Prunus japonica multiplex_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra albiplena_), 21 _Prunus japonica packangensis_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa trichostyla paokangensis_), 21 _Prunus japonica salicifolia_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa salicifoli_), 21 _Prunus japonica sphaerica_ (syn. of _P. japonica gracillima sphaerica_), 22 _Prunus japonica thunbergii_ (syn. of _P. japonica gracillima thunbergii_), 22 _Prunus japonica typica_ (syn. of _P. japonica_), 21 _Prunus japonica typica flore pleno_ (syn. of _P. japonica kerii_), 22 _Prunus japonica typica flore roseo_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa glabra rosea_), 21 _Prunus Juliana_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus kerii_ (syn. of _P. japonica kerii_), 22 _Prunus kurilensis_, 20 _Prunus latidentata_, 20 _Prunus leveilleana_, 19 _Prunus litigiosa_, 16 _Prunus litigiosa abbreviata_, 16 _Prunus lobulata_, 20 _Prunus macgregoriana_, 17 _Prunus macradenia_, 16 _Prunus mahaleb_, 16; characters of, 31-32; habitat of, 32; importance of, in horticulture and commerce, 32-33; specific description of, 31-33; value of, as a stock, 69-72; value of wood of, 6 _Prunus majestica_, 19 _Prunus malifolia_, 17 _Prunus malifolia rosthornii_, 17 _Prunus Marasca_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus maximowiczii_, 16 _Prunus maximowiczii adenophora_ (syn. of _P. tatsienensis adenophora_), 16 _Prunus maximowiczii aperta_, 16 _Prunus mesadenia_, 19 _Prunus microcarpa_, 22 _Prunus microlepis_, 20 _Prunus microlepis ternata_, 20 _Prunus micromeloides_, 20 _Prunus miqueliana_, 20; (syn. of _P. nipponica_), 20; (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Prunus mollis_, 16 _Prunus mume crasseglandulosa_ (syn. of P. sargentii), 19 _Prunus nakii_, 22 _Prunus neglecta_, 17 _Prunus nigricans_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Prunus nikkoensis_, 20 _Prunus nipponica_, 20 _Prunus oxycarpa_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus oxyodonta_, 20 _Prunus padus_, 3 _Prunus paniculata_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Prunus paracerasus_, 17 _Prunus parvifolia_, 19 _Prunus parvifolia aomoriensis_, 19 _Prunus paucifolia_, 19 _Prunus pendula_, 20 _Prunus pendula ascendens_ (syn. of _P. subhirtella_), 19 _Prunus pennsylvanica_, 16; use of, as a stock, 74 _Prunus phyllopoda_, 20 _Prunus pilosiuscula_, 16 _Prunus pleiocerasus_, 16 _Prunus plena_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus pleuroptera_, 20 _Prunus plurinervis_, 17 _Prunus podadenia_, 20 _Prunus pogonostyla_, 21 _Prunus pogonostyla globosa_, 21 _Prunus pogonostyla obovata_, 21 _Prunus polytricha_, 16 _? Prunus praecox_, 22 _Prunus prostrata_, 22 _Prunus pseudocerasus_, 17; (syn. of _P. sargentii_), 19; (syn. of _P. serrulata albida_), 18; use of, 38; use of as a stock, 75; use of wood of, 6 _Prunus pseudocerasus benifugen_ (syn. of _P. serrulata hisakura_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus borealis_ (syn. of _P. sargentii_), 19 _Prunus pseudocerasus flore roseo pleno_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Prunus pseudocerasus hisakura_ (syn. of _P. serrulata hisakura_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore carneo suffuso_ (syn. of _P. serrulata shidare-sakura_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore pleno viridi_ (syn. of _P. serrulata grandiflora_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore pulcherrimo pleno candido_ (syn. of _P. serrulata mucronata_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore semipleno roseo_ (syn. of _P. serrulata hisakura_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore simplici albo_ (syn. of _P. serrulata albida_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus hortensis flore simplici carneo_ (syn. of _P. serrulata lannesiana_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus jamasakura X incisa_, 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus jamaskura glabra_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus jamasakura glabra præcox_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus jamasakura præcox_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus naden_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Prunus pseudocerasus "New Red"_ (syn. of _P. serrulata hisakura_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus ochichima_ (syn. of _P. serrulata ochichima_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus parvifolia_ (syn. of _P. parvifolia_), 19 _Prunus pseudocerasus sachalinensis_ (syn. of _P. sargentii_), 19 _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata glabra_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata glabra fugenzo_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata glabra viridiflora_ (syn. of _P. serrulata grandiflora_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata sieboldii albida_ (syn. of _P. serrulata albida_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus serrulata sieboldtii_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Prunus pseudocerasus shidare-sakura_ (syn. of _P. serrulata shidare-sakura_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus shirofugen_ (syn. of _P. serrulata ochichima_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus sieboldii_, 17 _Prunus pseudocerasus spontanea_ (syn. of _P. sargentii_), 19 _Prunus pseudocerasus spontanea hortensis_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus typica parvifolia_ (syn. of _P. parvifolia_), 19 _Prunus pseudocerasus typica sieboldii_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Prunus pseudocerasus ukon_ (syn. of _P. serrulata grandifolia_), 18 _Prunus pseudocerasus virescens_, 17 _Prunus pseudocerasus watereri_, 17 _Prunus pseudocerasus yoshino_ (syn. of _P. serrulata albida_), 18 _Prunus puddum_ (syn. of _P. cerasoides_, 19; of _P. majestica_, 19; of _P. sargentii_, 19; of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus pulchella_, 16 _Prunus pumila_, 21; characters of, 34-35; distribution of, 35; specific description of, 34-35; use of, as a stock, 74 _Prunus pumila Besseyi_ (syn. of _P. besseyi_), 36 _Prunus pumila cuneata_ (syn. of _P. cuneata_), 35 _Prunus rehderiana_, 16 _Prunus rosea_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus rossiana_, 21 _Prunus rufa_, 19; (syn. of _P. trichantha_), 19 _Prunus rufoides_, 17 _Prunus salicina_ (syn. of _P. humilis_), 21 _Prunus saltuum_, 19 _Prunus sargentii_, 19 _Prunus schneideriana_, 17 _Prunus scopulorum_, 17 _Prunus serotina_, value of wood of, 7 _Prunus serrula_, 19 _Prunus serrula tibetica_, 19 _Prunus serrulata_, 17 _Prunus serrulata_ cf. supra. (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus serrulata albida_, 18 _Prunus serrulata borealis_ (syn. of _P. sargentii_), 19 _Prunus serrulata flore pleno_ (syn. of _P. serrulata mucronata_), 18 _Prunus serrulata grandiflora_, 18 _Prunus serrulata hisakura_, 18 _Prunus serrulata kriegeri_, 18 _Prunus serrulata lannesiana_, 18 _Prunus serrulata mucronata_, 18 _Prunus serrulata ochichima_, 18 _Prunus serrulata serrulata albida_ (syn. of _P. serrulata albida_), 18 _Prunus serrulata serrulata fugenzo_ (syn. of _P. serrulata ochichima_), 18 _Prunus serrulata serrulata fugenzo rosea_ (syn. of _P. serrulata_), 18 _Prunus serrulata serrulata lannesiana_ (syn. of _P. serrulata lannesiana_), 18 _Prunus serrulata serrulata sieboldtii_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Prunus serrulata serrulata viridifiora_ (syn. of _P. serrulata grandiflora_), 18 _Prunus serrulata serrulata wattererii_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus watereri_), 17 _Prunus serrulata shidare-sakura_, 18 _Prunus serrulata veitchiana_, 18 _Prunus serrulata "W. Kou"_ (syn. of _P. serrulata hisakura_), 18 _Prunus serrulata yashino_ (syn. of _P. serrulata albida_), 18 _Prunus setulosa_, 20 _Prunus sieboldii_ (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus_), 17; (syn. of _P. pseudocerasus sieboldii_), 17 _Prunus silvatica_ (syn. of _P. cerasoides_), 19 _Prunus sinensis_ (syn. of _P. glandulosa trichostyla sinensis_), 21 _Prunus sontagiæ_, 19 _Prunus_ Sp. Zabel (syn. of _P. sargentii_), 19 _Prunus sprengeri_, 19 _Prunus stipulacea_, 20 _Prunus subhirtella_, 19 _Prunus subhirtella autumnalis_ (syn. of _P. autumnalis_), 20 _Prunus subhirtella fukubana_, 20 _Prunus subhirtella oblongifolia_ (syn. of _P. subhirtella_), 19 _Prunus subhirtella pendula_ (syn. of _P. pendula_), 20 _Prunus Susquehanae_ (syn. of _P. pumila_), 34 _Prunus sylvestris_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Prunus szechuanica_, 16 "_P. szechuanica_, var. ?" (syn. of _P. dielsiana_), 17 "_P. szechuanica dielsiana_" (syn. of _P. dielsiana_), 17 _Prunus taiwaniana_, 20 _Prunus tatsienensis_, 16 _Prunus tatsienensis adenophora_, 16 _Prunus tatsienensis pilosiuscula_ (syn. of _P. pilosiuscula_), 16 _Prunus tatsienensis stenadenia_, 16 _Prunus tenuiflora_, 19 _Prunus tomentosa_, 22; characters of, 33; habitat and distribution of, 33-34; specific description of, 33-34 _Prunus tomentosa_, _? Batalinii_ (syn. of _P. batalinii_), 22 _Prunus tomentosa breviflora_, 22 _Purnus tomentosa endotricha_, 22 _Prunus tomentosa graebneriana_, 22 _Prunus tomentosa heteromera_, 22 _Prunus tomentosa insularis_, 22 _Prunus tomentosa kashkarovii_, 22 _Prunus tomentosa souliei_, 22 _Prunus tomentosa spaethiana_, 22 _Prunus tomentosa trichocarpa_, 22 _Prunus tomentosa tsuluensis_, 22 _Prunus trichantha_, 19 _Prunus trichocarpa_ (syn. of _P. tomentosa trichocarpa_), 22 _Prunus trichostoma_, 20 _Prunus tschonoskii_, 20 _Prunus twymaniana_, 19 _Prunus varia_ (syn. of _P. avium_), 28 _Prunus variabilis_, 16 _Prunus veitchii_, 20 _Prunus venusta_, 16 _Prunus verrucosa_, 22 _Prunus virginiana_, 3 _Prunus vulgaris_ (syn. of _P. cerasus_), 24 _Prunus wildeniana_, 19 _Prunus yedoensis_, 19 _Prunus yunnanensis_, 17 _Prunus yunnanensis henryi_ (syn. of _P. henryi_), 17; (syn. of _P. neglecta_), 17 _Prunus zappeyana_, 20 _Prunus zappeyana ? subsimplex,_ 20 _Prussian Cherry_ (syn. of Cerise de Prusse), 232 Puhlmann Frühe, 309 _Punctirte Süsskirsche mil festem Fleische_ (syn. of Punktirte Marmorkirsche), 309 _Punktirte Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Punktirte Marmorkirsche), 309 Punktirte Marmorkirsche, 309 Punktirte Molkenkirsche, 309 Purity (I), 309 Purity (II), 309 _Purple Cherry_ (syn. of Early Purple), 130 _Purple Guigne_ (syn. of Early Purple), 130 _Purpurrothe Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Red Bigarreau), 309 _Pyramidenkirsche_ (syn. of Jerusalemskirsche), 279 _Pyramidenweichsel_ (syn. of Jerusalemskirsche), 279 Quaker, 309 Rainier French, 309 _Ratafia_ (syn. of Brusseler Braune), 110 _Ratafia Griotte_ (syn. of English Morello), 139 Raton, var. orig. with, 211 Red Bigarreau, 309 Red Canada, 310 _Red-flowered_ (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 Red Guigne, 310 _Red Heart_ (syn. of Bleeding Heart), 109 Red Jacket, 310 Red Muscatel, 310 Red Oranien, 310 _Red Pie Cherry_ (syn. of Late Kentish), 157 Red Rock, 310 Red Russian, 310 Reichart, 310 Reid, John, quoted, 68 Reina Hortense, 179 Reine-Hortense Hâtive, 310 Remington, 311 _Remington Heart_ (syn. of Remington), 311 Rentz Morello, 311 Republican, 181 Resacks Knorpelkirsche, 311 Richardson, 311 Richardson, J. R., var. orig. with, 311 Richardson, William P., var. orig. with, 311 Richardson Late Black, 311 Richter Sämling, 311 Riga No. 108, 311 Riga No. 109, 311 Riley, quoted, 45 Rival, 311 Rivers, Thomas, var. orig. by, 247, 248, 293, 311 _River's Early Amber Heart_ (syn. of Early Amber), 247 Rivers Early Heart, 311 Roberts, David, var. orig. with, 312 _Roberts' Red_ (syn. of Bowyer Early Heart), 225 Roberts Red Heart, 311 Rochaline, 312 Rock, 312 Rockland, 312 Rockport, 182 Rocky Hill Honey Heart, 312 Rocky Mountain, 312 Rocky Mountain Cherry, botanical name of, 37 _Rocmonter Marmorkirsche_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 Roe, 312 Romaine, 312 Ronald, 312 _Ronald's Large Black Heart_ (syn. of Black Tartaran), 107 Röschers, var. orig. with, 312 Röschers Kirsche, 312 Rose Charmeux, 312 Rosenobel, 312 _Rosenrothe Maikirsche_ (syn. of Guigne Rose Hâtive), 272 Rostraver Bigarreau, 313 Rothe Glanzkirsche, 313 Rothe Herzkirsche, 313 _Rothe Maikirsche_ (syn. of May Duke), 164 Rothe Maiknorpelkirsche, 313 Rothe Molkenkirsche, 313 _Rothe Muskateller_ (syn. of Cerise Guigne), 232 _Rothe Oranienkirsche_ (syn. of Carnation), 114 Rothe Soodkirsche, 313 _Rothe Spanische Marmorkirsche_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 Rouaanse Kirsche, 313 _Rouge de Downing_ (syn. of Downing Red Cheek), 244 Rouge Pâle Tardive, 313 Rouge des Vosges, 313 Round Sweet, 314 Royal American, 314 _Royal Ann_ (syn. of Napoleon), 172 Royal Duke, 184 Royal Hâtif, 314 _Royale_ (syn. of Jeffrey Duke), 146 _Royale d'Angleterre_ (syn. of Royal Duke), 184 _Royale Cherry Duke_ (syn. of May Duke), 164 _Royale Hâtive_ (syn. of Jeffrey Duke), 146; (syn. of May Duke), 164 _Royale Tardive_ (syn. of Holman Duke), 276 Rumsey, 314 Rumsey, J. S., var. orig. by, 314 _Rumsey's Late Morello_ (syn. of Rumsey), 314 Runde Marmorirte Süsskirsche, 314 Rupert, 314 Rupp, 314 Rupp, Solomon, var. orig. by, 314 Russian cherries, value of, for stocks, 73-74 Russian Morello, 314 _Russian 207_ (syn. of Russian Morello), 314 Russian Seedlings Nos. 8, 42, 49, 54, 109, 128, 169 and 199, 315 Russie à Fruit Blanc, 315 Ryley Black Tartarian, 315 Sächsische Frühe Maikirsche, 315 Sacramento, 315 Saint-Laurent, 315 St. Lucie cherry, 32 _St. Margaret's Cherry_ (syn. of Elkhorn), 134 _St. Walpurgiskirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau de Walpurgis), 221 Sand Cherry, botanical name of, 35; use of, as a stock, 74 Sansoto, 315 Sapa, 315 Sappington, 315 _Sauer Einmach and Backkirsche_ (syn. of Leitzkauer), 290 Sauerjotte, 315 Saure Herzkirsche, 315 Sauvigny Knorpelkirsche, 315 Scharlachkirsche, 316 _Schatten Amarelle_ (syn. of Shadow Amarelle), 318 _Scheur-Kers_ (syn. of Black Guigne), 104 Schleihahn Sweet, 316 Schlössers Schattenmorelle, 316 Schmehls, 316 Schmidt, 185 Schmidt, F., var. orig. by, 186, 316 Schmidt Bigarreau No. 2, 316 Schmidt Frühe Herzkirsche, 316 Schneeberger Kirsche, 316 Schneider Frühe Herzkirsche, 316 Schneider Späte Knorpelkirsche, 316 _Schöne Agathe_ (syn. of Hildesheim), 144 _Schöne Audigeoise_ (syn. of Belle Audigeoise), 211 _Schöne aus Sauvigny_ (syn. of Montmorency de Sauvigny), 298 _Schöne von Ardêche_ (syn. of Cerise de l'Ardèche), 230 Schöne von Brügge, 317 _Schöne von Choisy_ (syn. of Choisy), 116 _Schöne von Couchey_ (syn. of Belle de Couchey), 211 Schöne von Marienhohe, 317 _Schöne von Montreuil_ (syn. of Montreuil), 298 _Schöne von Ribeaucourt_ (syn. of Belle de Ribeaucourt), 212 _Schöne von Rocmont_ (syn. of Belle de Rocmont), 212 _Schreckens Kirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau de Schrecken), 220 Schröcks Späte Bunte Knorpelkirsche, 317 Schwarzbraune Knorpelkirsche, 318 Schwarze Forellenkirsche, 317 _Schwarze Knorpel von Mezel_ (syn. of Mezel), 167 _Schwarze Maikirsche_ (syn. of Schwarze Maiweichsel), 317 Schwarze Maiweichsel, 317 _Schwarze Malvasierkirsche_ (syn. of Schwarze Oranienkirsche), 317 Schwarze Muskateller, 317 _Schwarze oder Späte Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Black Spanish), 223 Schwarze Oranienkirsche, 317 Schwarze Soodkirsche, 317 _Schwarze Spanische Frühkirsche_ (syn. of Spanische Frühkirsche), 320 _Schwarze Spanische Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Black Spanish), 223 _Schwarze Ungarische Kirsche_ (syn. of Ungarische Weichsel), 329 _Schwarze Weichsel mit halb gefüllter Blüte_ (syn. of Halbgefülltblühende Weichsel), 273 Schwarzes Taubenherz, 318 _Schwefelkirsche_ (syn. of Dankelmannskirsche), 240 Sebril, 318 Seckbacher, 318 _Seckbacher Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Seckbacher), 318 Seederberger, 318 Select Beauty, 318 _Semis de Burr_ (syn. of Burr), 228 Shadow Amarelle, 318 _Shadow Morello_ (syn. of Shadow Amarelle), 318 Shailer, 319 Shannon, 319 _Shannon Morello_ (syn. of Shannon), 319 Shelton, 319 Shelton, William, var. orig. by, 319 Shepler, Louis, var. orig. with, 210 _Shippen_ (syn. of June Duke), 280 Short-stem May, 319 Short-Stem Montmorency, 187 _Short Stem Montmorency_ (syn. of Large Montmorency), 153 Shubianka, 319 Sibrel, 319 Siebenfreund, var. introduced by, 328 Silver Thorne, 319 Sklanka, 188 Skublics Weichsel, 319 Sleinhaus, 319 Small Black Guigne, 319 _Small Double Flowering_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 252 Small Morello, 319 Smyech, Daniel, var. orig. with, 287 Smidt Yellow, 319 _Smith_ (syn. of Schmidt), 185 Socsany, 320 _Soft Sheld_ (syn. of Soft-stone Cherry), 320 Soft-stone Cherry, 320 _Soodamarelle_ (syn. of Rothe Soodkirsche), 313 Sour Cherry, adaptation of, to culture, 3; comparison of, with the Sweet Cherry, 9; environment of, 76-80; geographic range of, 41; group name of, 2; probable parentage of, 44 Souths Breite Herzkirsche, 320 Souvenir d'Essonnes, 320 Spanische Frühkirsche, 320 Spanische Frühweichsel, 320 Spanische Glaskirsche, 320 _Spanische Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Spanische Frühkirsche), 320 _Spanish_ (syn. of Yellow Spanish), 202; (syn. of Black Spanish), 223 Spanish Griotte, 321 Sparhawk, 189 Sparhawk, Edward, var. introduced by, 190 _Sparhawk's Honey_ (syn. of Sparhawk), 189 Spätblühende Glaskirsche, 321 Späte Amarelle, 190 _Späte Amarelle_ (syn. of Süsse Amarelle), 323 _Späte braune Spanische Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Braune Spanische Kirsche), 226 _Späte grosse königliche Weichsel_ (syn. of Jerusalemskirsche), 279 _Späte Herzogenkirsche_ (syn. of Late Duke), 155 _Späte Königliche Weichsel_ (syn. of Jerusalemskirsche), 279 _Späte Maikirsche_ (syn. of Seckbacher), 318 _Späte Maulbeerherzkirsche_ (syn. of Späte Maulbeerkirsche), 321 Späte Maulbeerkirsche, 321 _Späte Morello_ (syn. of Späte Amarelle), 190 Späte Rote Knorpelkirsche, 321 Späte Schwarze Forellenkirsche, 321 Späte Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 321 Späte Schwarze Spanische Herzkirsche, 321 Speckkirsche, 321 Spitzens Herzkirsche, 322 Srdcovka v Skalka, 322 Stanapa, 322 Standard, 322 Starr Prolific, 322 _Stäts Blühender Kirschbaum_ (syn. of Toussaint), 193 Strass Early Black, 322 Strauss, 322 Strauss Weichsel, 322 _Strauss Weichsel_ (syn. of Strauss), 322 Striker, 323 Striped-Leaved, 323 Strong, J. F., var. orig. by, 307 Stuart, 323 Stuart, C. W., var. orig. by, 323 Sucrée Léon Leclerc, 323 Suda, 192 Suda, var. orig. with, 192 _Suda Hardy_ (syn. of Suda), 192 _Summer's Honey_ (syn. of Honey), 276 Summit, 323 Süsse Amarelle, 323 Süsse Frühherzkirsche, 323 Süsse Frühweichsel, 324 _Süsse Frühweichsel_ (syn. of Griotte Douce Précoce), 262 Süsse Maiherzkirsche, 324 _Süsse Maiherzkirsche_ (syn. of Baumann May), 100 Süsse Spanische, 324 Süsskirsche mit Gefurster Blüthe, 324 _Süsskirschenbaum mit ganz gefüllter Blüte_ (syn. of Large Double Flowering), 287 _Süssweichsel von Chaux_ (syn. of German Morello), 258 Swedish, 324 Sweet Cherry, adaptation of, to culture, 3; comparison of, with the Sour Cherry, 9; environment of, 77-80; geographic range of, 41-42; group name of, 2 Sweet Montmorency, 324 Sweet Morello, 324 _Tabors schwarze Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau Noir de Tabor), 219 Tarascon Kirsche, 324 Tardive d'Avignon, 325 Tardive de Brederode, 325 Tardive Noire d'Espagne, 325 Tardive de Peine, 325 _Tartarian_ (syn. of Black Tartarian), 107 Tecumseh, 325 Temple, 325 Terry, 325 _Terry Early_ (syn. of Terry), 325 Terry, H. A., var. introduced by, 325 Thacher, quoted, 69 Theophrastus, quoted, 43 Thirty Day, 325 Thomas, quoted, 70 Thompson, 325 Thränen Muskatellerkirsche, 326 Tilgner Rothe Herzkirsche, 326 Tilgner Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 326 Timme, 192 Timme, var. introduced by, 193 Tobacco-Leaved, 326 Toctonne Précoce, 327 Tokeya, 327 Tomato, 327 Toronto, 327 Toupie, 327 Toussaint, 193 Townsend, 327 Townsend, W. P., var. orig. by, 327 _Tradescant_ (syn. of White Bigarreau), 196 Tradescant, John, var. orig. with, 134 _Tradescant's Black Heart_ (syn. of Elkhorn), 134 Transparent, 327 _Transparent de Bettenburg_ (syn. of Bettenburger Glaskirsche), 213 Transparent Guigne, 328 _Transparent de Jahn_ (syn. of Transparent Guigne), 328 _Transparente d'Espagne_ (syn. of Spanische Glaskirsche), 320 Transparente de Meylan, 328 Transparente de Rivers, 328 Transparente de Siebenfreund, 328 _Trauben oder Bouquet Amarelle_ (syn. of Cluster), 119 _Trauerknorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Weeping Black Bigarreau), 331 Triomphe de Fausin, 328 _Triumph of Cumberland_ (syn. of Cumberland), 239 Troprichters Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 328 _Tros-Kers_ (syn. of Cluster), 119 Truchsess, var. orig. by, 213, 214 Truchsess Schwarze Herzkirsche, 328 Tubbs, 328 Türkine, 328 _Türkine_ (syn. of Flamentine), 252 Turkirsche Grosse, 329 Turner Late, 329 Twyford, 329 Uellner, var. orig. with, 293 Uhlhorns Trauerkirsche, 329 _Ulatis_ (syn. of California Advance), 113 _Ungarische Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Grosse Ungarische Kirsche), 267 _Ungarische Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Royal Duke), 184 Ungarische Weichsel, 329 Urinall, 329 Utha, 329 Vail, Henry, var. orig. with, 209 _Vail's August Duke_ (syn. of August Duke), 209 Van Gaasbeck, 329 Van Mons, var. orig. with, 246 Vanskike, 329 Varenne, var. orig. with, 137 _Varrenne, De_ (syn. of Grosse Nonnenkirsche), 266 Vaughn, 329 Velser, 329 Very Large Heart, 330 Vesta, 330 _Villeneuver Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Guigne Villeneuve), 272 Villennes (syn. of Cerise Rouge Pale), 233 Vilna Sweet, 330 Violet, 330 Virginia May Duke, 330 Vistula, 330 Vladimir, 194 _Von Lade's Späte Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Ladé Late), 286 Voronezh No. 27, 330 Wabash, 330 Wachampa, 330 _Wachsknorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Büttner Gelbe Knorpelkirsche), 228 Wagner, 330 _Wahre Englische Kirsche_ (syn. of Late Duke), 155 Walling, G. W., var. orig. by, 304 _Walpurgiskirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau de Walpurgis), 221 _Walsh Seedling_ (syn. of Black Bigarreau of Savoy), 222 _Wanfrieder Weichsel_ (syn. of Velser), 329 Warner, 331 Warner, Mathew G., var. orig. by, 331 Warren, var. orig. by, 331 Warren Transparent, 331 Washington Purple, 331 Waterhouse, 331 Waterhouse, Warren, var. orig. by, 331 Waterloo, 196 Weber, R. H., var. orig. by, 301 Weeping, 331 _Weeping_ (syn. of Dwarf Siberian), 247 _Weeping or Pendulous Morello_ (syn. of Weeping), 331 Weeping Black Bigarreau, 331 Weeping Napoleon, 331 _Weichsel mit halbgefüllter Blüthe_ (syn. of Fleurs Semi-doubles), 253 _Weichselbaum mit bündelförmigen Früchten_ (syn. of Cerisier Très-fertile), 234 _Weichselbaum mit gelb, weiss, und röthlich marmorirte Frucht_ (syn. of Spätblühende Glaskirsche), 321 _Weichselbaum mit sehr gross gefüllter Blüthe_ (syn. of Fleurs Doubles), 252 _Weidenblättrige Süssweichsel_ (syn. of Willow-Leaved), 335 Weis, Roth und Rosenfarbig Marmorirte Kramelkirsche, 331 _Weiss Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Grosse Bunte Herzkirsche), 265 _Weiss und hellroth gefleckte grosse Kramelkirsche_ (syn. of Weisse Rosenroth Marmorirte Herzkirsche), 331 _Weiss und hellroth geflekte grosse Kramelkirsche_ (syn. of Runde Marmorirte Süsskirsche), 314 _Weiss und rothe grosse Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Früheste Bunte Herzkirsche), 256 Weisse Mandelkirsche, 332 Weisse Rosenroth Marmorirte Herzkirsche, 331 Wellington, 332 _Wellington's Weichsel_ (syn. of Wellington), 332 Weltz, Leo, var. introduced by, 205 Wendell, Herman, var. orig. by, 332 Wendell Mottled, 332 Wenzlecks Bunte Knorpelkirsche, 332 Werder Early Black, 332 _Werdersche Schwarze Allerfrüheste Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Werder Early Black), 332 Werder'sche Bunte Herzkirsche, 332 Western Sand Cherry, botanical name of, 37 Wheeler, 332 Wheeler, H. J., var. orig. with, 332 White Bigarreau, 196 White Bigarreau, 332 White French, 333 White French Guigne, 333 White Gean, 333 White Heart, 197 _White Heart_ (syn. of Grosse Guigne Blanche), 266 White Hungarian Gean, 333 White Mazzard, 333 _White Oxheart_ (syn. of White Bigarreau), 196 White Spanish, 333 White Tartarian, 333 White Transparent, 333 Wier, D. B., var. orig. by, 252, 257, 301, 333, 334 Wier No. 2, 333 Wier No. 11, 334 Wier No. 12, 334 Wier No. 13, 334 Wier No. 19, 334 Wier No. 24, 334 Wier No. 44, 334 Wier's Seedlings, 333 _Wild Morello_ (syn. of Common Morello), 237 Wild Ross-shire, 334 Wilde Bunte Marmorkirsche, 334 Wilder, Samson V. S., var. introduced by, 292 _Wilding von Kronberg_ (syn. of Kronberger Kirsche), 285 Wilhelmine Kleindienst, 334 Wilkinson, 334 Willamette, 335 Willis Early, 335 Willow-Leaved, 335 _Wincklers schwarze Knorpelkirsche_ (syn. of Winkler Black), 335 Windsor, 198 Winkler, var. orig. by, 269 Winkler Black, 335 _Winkler weisse Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Guigne Carnée Winkler), 269 _Winkler's schwarze Herzkirsche_ (syn. of Winkler Black), 335 Winter, Pastor, var. introduced by, 334 Winter Schwarze, 335 Wirt, Henry, var. orig. with, 275 Wohltragende Holländische Kirsche, 335 Wood, 199; immunity of, to powdery mildew, 11 Wragg, 201 Yan, 335 Yellow Glass, 336 _Yellow Honey_ (syn. of Honey), 276 Yellow Spanish, 202 Young Large Black Heart, 336 Youngken, Josiah G., var. orig. by, 299 Yuksa, 336 Zahm, G. W., var. orig. with, 274 _Zeisbergische Kirsche_ (syn. of Bigarreau de Zeisberg), 221 Zimmtkirsche, 336 Zweifarbige Kirsche, 336 _Zweite Grösser Herzkirschweichsel_ (syn. of Brusseler Braune), 110 Zwitterkirsche, 336 Zzuckser Schwarze Knorpelkirsche, 336 [Transcribe's Note: Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation are as in the original.] 
56162	----	+-------------------------------------------+ | Note: | | | | = around word indicates bold =CAPSULE.= | | _ around word indicated italics _Erebus_ | +-------------------------------------------+ [Illustration: ARISTOLOCHIA ELEGANS.] THE ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF GARDENING, A PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC _Encyclopædia + of + Horticulture_ FOR GARDENERS AND BOTANISTS. EDITED BY GEORGE NICHOLSON, _Of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew_. ASSISTED BY PROFESSOR J. W. H. TRAIL, A.M., M.D., F.L.S., IN THE PARTS RELATING TO INSECTS AND FUNGI; AND J. GARRETT IN THE FRUIT, VEGETABLE, AND GENERAL GARDEN WORK PORTIONS. DIVISION I.--A TO CAR. PUBLISHED BY L. UPCOTT GILL, 170, STRAND, LONDON, W.C. SOLE AGENT FOR THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA, JAMES PENMAN, NEW YORK. 1887. LONDON: PRINTED BY A. BRADLEY, 170, STRAND. PREFACE. THE ILLUSTRATED DICTIONARY OF GARDENING aims at being the best and most complete Work on Gardening and Garden Plants hitherto published. The aim is, indeed, a high one; but the Publisher, whose taste for Flowers has rendered the production a labour of love, has, on his part, spared no expense that the Typography and Illustrations should be of a very high class. It is to be hoped that earnest efforts to attain accuracy, by consulting the best Authorities, combined with no small amount of original research, have contributed to render the _matter_ of the Work not unworthy of the _form_ in which it is presented to the reader. The large number of Illustrations is an important feature; and it is believed that the figures quoted, and the references given to various works--in which more detailed information is contained than is desirable, or, indeed, possible, in these pages, on account of space--will greatly add to the interest and value of the work. Considerable trouble has been taken in revising the tangled synonymy of many genera, and clearing up, as much as possible, the confusion that exists in garden literature in connection with so many plants, popular and otherwise. In the matter of generic names, Bentham and Hooker's recently-completed "Genera Plantarum" has, with few exceptions, been followed; that work being the one which will, for a long time to come, undoubtedly remain the standard authority on all that relates to generic limitation. With regard to the nomenclature of species, I have endeavoured to consult the latest and most trustworthy Monographs and Floras, and to adopt the names in accordance with them. Now and then, certain plants are described under their common garden names; but they will, in such cases, be also found mentioned under the genus to which they really belong. A case in point may be cited: _An�ctochilus Lowii_ is given under _An�ctochilus_, but the name it must now bear is _Dossinia_, and a reference to that genus will explain matters pretty fully, as far as the present state of knowledge goes. I am greatly indebted to Professor J. W. H. TRAIL, M.D., F.L.S., &c., for his valuable contributions on Insects, Fungi, and Diseases of Plants, branches of science in which he has long been specially interested, and in which he is an undoubted authority. Mr. J. GARRETT, of the Royal Gardens, Kew, late of the Royal Horticultural Society's Gardens, is responsible for Fruit and Vegetable Culture, for most of what appertains to Florists' Flowers, and for General Gardening Work. For information on many special subjects--Begonias may be cited as an example--I am obliged for much assistance to Mr. W. WATSON, also of the Royal Gardens, Kew; in fact, the article _Begonia_, in its entirety, was written by him. Mr. W. B. HEMSLEY, A.L.S., has, throughout, given me aid and advice; and I have to acknowledge constant help from several other colleagues. The Rev. PERCY W. MYLES, M.A., has taken no little trouble in working out the correct derivations of very many of the Generic Names; unfortunately, in a number of instances, lack of time prevented me from obtaining the benefit of his knowledge. I have to record my gratitude for help in so difficult a task, this special study being one to which Mr. MYLES has paid much attention. GEORGE NICHOLSON. ROYAL GARDENS, KEW. [Illustration] REFERENCE TO ILLUSTRATIONS OF PLANTS OTHER THAN THOSE FIGURED IN THIS WORK. It has been suggested, by an eminent Authority, that many readers would be glad to be informed where reliable Illustrations could be found of those Plants which are not figured in this Work. To meet this want, references to the figures in Standard Authorities have been given, the titles of the Works referred to being, for economy of space, abbreviated as follows: A. B. R. Andrews (H. C.). Botanist's Repository. London, 1799-1811. 10 vols. 4to. A. E. Andrews (H. C.). Coloured Engravings of Heaths. London, 1802-30. 4 vols. 4to. A. F. B. Loudon (J. C.). Arboretum et fruticetum britannicum.... London, 1838. 8 vols. 8vo. A. F. P. Allioni (C.). Flora pedemontana. Aug. Taur., 1785. 3 vols. Fol. A. G. Aublet (J. B. C. F.). Histoire des plantes de la Guiane Française. Londres, 1775. 4 vols. 4to. A. H. Andrews (H. C.). The Heathery. London, 1804-12. 4 vols. 4to. B. Maund (B.). The Botanist.... London, 1839. 8 vols. 4to. B. F. F. Brandis (D.). Forest Flora of ... India. London, 1876, 8vo. Atlas, 4to. B. F. S. Beddome (R. H.). Flora sylvatica. Madras [1869-73]. 2 vols. 4to. B. H. La Belgique Horticole.... Ghent, 1850, &c.* B. M. Botanical Magazine. London, 1787, &c. 8vo.* B. M. Pl. Bentley (R.) and Trimen (H.). Medicinal Plants. London, 1875-80. 8vo. B. O. Bateman (James). A Monograph of Odontoglossum. London, 1874. Fol. B. R. Botanical Register. London, 1815-47. 33 vols. 8vo. B. Z. Botanische Zeitung. Berlin, vols. i.-xiii. (1843-55). 8vo. Leipzig, vol. xiv. (1856).* C. H. P. Cathcart's Illustrations of Himalayan Plants. London, 1855. Fol. Enc. T. & S. Loudon (J. C.). Encyclopædia of Trees and Shrubs.... London, 1842. 8vo. E. T. S. M. _See_ T. S. M. F. A. O. Fitzgerald (R. D.). Australian Orchids. Sydney, 1876. Fol.* F. D. Flora Danica--usually quoted as the title of the work, Icones plantarum ... Daniæ et Norvegiæ.... Havniæ. 1761 to 1883. Fol. F. d. S. La Flore des Serres et des Jardins de l'Europe. 1845-82. 23 vols. 8vo. Fl. Ment. Moggridge (J. T.). Contributions to the Flora of Mentone.... London, 1864-8. Flora Flora oder allgemeine botanische Zeitung. 1818-42. 25 vols. 8vo. [New Series] 1843, &c.* F. M. Floral Magazine. London, 1861-71, 8vo. 1872-81, 4to. F. & P. Florist and Pomologist. London, 1868-84. 8vo. G. C. The Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette. London, 1841-65. Fol. G. C. n. s. The Gardeners' Chronicle. New Series, 1866, &c. Fol.* G. G. Gray (A.). Genera floræ Americæ.... Boston, 1848-9. 2 vols. 8vo. G. M. The Gardeners' Magazine. Conducted by Shirley Hibberd. London. G. M. B. The Gardeners' Magazine of Botany.... London, 1850-1. 3 vols. 8vo. Gn. The Garden. London, 1871, &c. 4to.* G. W. F. A. Goodale (G. L.). Wild Flowers of America. Boston, 1877. 4to. H. B. F. Hooker (W. J.). The British Ferns. H. E. F. Hooker (W. J.). Exotic Flora. Edinburgh, 1823-7. 3 vols. 8vo. H. F. B. A. Hooker (W. J.). Flora boreali-americana.... London, 1833-40. 2 vols. 4to. H. F. T. Hooker (J. D.). Flora Tasmaniæ. London, 1860. 2 vols. 4to. This is Part 3 of "The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of H.M. Discovery Ships _Erebus_ and _Terror_, in the years 1839-43." H. G. F. Hooker (W. J.). Garden Ferns. London, 1862. 8vo. H. S. F. Hooker (W. J.). Species Filicum. I. H. L'Illustration horticole. Gand, 1850, &c. 8vo.* I. H. Pl. _See_ C. H. P. J. B. Journal of Botany.... London, 1863. 8vo.* J. F. A. Jacquin (N. J.). Floræ austriacæ.... icones.... Viennæ, 1773-8. 5 vols. Fol. J. H. Journal of Horticulture and Cottage Gardener. Conducted by Dr. Robert Hogg. London. J. H. S. Journal of the Horticultural Society. London, 1846. 8vo.* K. E. E. Kotschy. Die Eiche Europas und des Orients. L. B. C. Loddiges (C.). Botanical Cabinet. London, 1812-33. 20 vols. 4to. L. C. B. Lindley (J.). Collectanea botanica.... London, 1821. Fol. L. E. M. La Marck (J. B. P. A. de M. de). Encyclopédie methodique ... Botanique. Paris, 1783-1817. 13 vols. 4to. L. J. F. Lemaire (C.). Le Jardin fleuriste. Gand, 1851-4. 4 vols. 8vo. L. R. Lindley (J.). Rosarum Monographia. London, 1820. 8vo. L. S. O. Lindley (J.). Sertum Orchidaceum.... London, 1838. Fol. L. & P. F. G. Lindley (J.) and Paxton (J.). Flower Garden.... London.... 1851-3. 3 vols. 4to. M. A. S. Salm-Dyck. Monographia generum Aloes et Mesembryanthemi. Bonnæ, 1836-63. 4to. N. Burbidge (F. W.). The Narcissus: Its History and Culture. With a Scientific Review of the Genus by J. G. Baker, F.L.S. London, 1875. 8vo. N. S. Nuttall (T.). North American Sylva.... Philadelphia, 1865. 3 vols. 8vo. P. F. G. _See_ L. & P. F. G. P. M. B. Paxton (J). Magazine of Botany. London, 1834-49. 16 vols. 8vo. Ref. B. Saunders (W. W.) Refugium botanicum.... London, 1869-72. 8vo. R. G. Regel (E.). Gartenflora. 1852, &c.* R. H. Revue Horticole.... Paris, 1852.* R. S. H. Hooker (J. D.). The Rhododendrons of Sikkim-Himalaya. London, 1849-51. Fol. R. X. O. Reichenbach, _fil._ (H. G.). Xenia orchidacea. Leipzig, 1858. 4to.* S. B. F. G. Sweet (R.). British Flower Garden. London, 1823-9. 3 vols. 8vo. Second Series. London, 1831-8. 4 vols. 8vo. S. C. Sweet (R.). Cistineæ. London, 1825-30. 8vo. S. E. B. Smith (J. E.). Exotic Botany.... London, 1804-5. 2 vols. 8vo. S. F. A. Sweet (R.). Flora australasica.... London, 1827-8. 8vo. S. F. d. J. Siebold (P. F. de) and Vriese (W. H. de). Flore des Jardins du Royaume des Pays-Bas. Leide, 1858-62. 5 vols. 8vo. S. F. G. Sibthorp (J.). Flora græca.... London, 1806-40. 10 vols. Fol. S. H. Ivy Hibberd (Shirley). The Ivy: a Monograph. London, 1872. 8vo. Sw. Ger. Sweet (Robert). Geraniaceæ, the natural order of Gerania. 1828-1830. Sy. En. B. Syme (J. T. B.), _now_ Boswell. English Botany.... Ed. 3. London, 1863-85. 12 vols. 8vo. S. Z. F. J. Siebold (P. F. von) and Zuccarini (J. G.). Flora Japonica.... Lugd. Bat., 1835-44. Fol. T. H. S. Transactions of the Horticultural Society. London, 1805-29. 7 vols. 4to. T. L. S. Transactions of the Linnæan Society. London, 1791-1875. 30 vols. 4to.* T. S. M. Emerson (G. B.). Trees and Shrubs ... of Massachusetts. Boston, Ed. 2, 1875. 2 vols. 8vo. W. D. B. Watson (P. W.). Dendrologia Britannica. London. 1825. 2 vols. 8vo. W. F. A. _See_ G. W. F. A. W. O. A. Warner (R.) and Williams (B. S.). The Orchid Album. London, 1882. 4to.* W. S. O. Warner (R.). Select Orchidaceous Plants. London, Series i, 1862-65. Fol. Series ii, 1865-75. Fol. W. & F. Woods and Forests. 1883-4. 1 vol. 4to. * Is still in course of publication. THE DICTIONARY OF GARDENING, An Encyclopædia of Horticulture. The following are the Abbreviations used:--_fl._ flowers; _fr._ fruit; _l._ leaves; _h._ height; _deg._ degrees; _rhiz._ rhizomes; _cau._ caudex; _sti._ stipes. The Asterisks (*) indicate plants that are especially good or distinct. =A.= In compound words from the Greek the initial _a_ has usually a privative meaning; as _aphyllus_, without leaves; _acaulis_, without a stem, &c. =AARON'S BEARD.= _See_ =Hypericum calycinum= and =Saxifraga sarmentosa=. =AARON'S ROD.= _See_ =Verbascum Thapsus=. =ABELE TREE.= White Poplar. _See_ =Populus alba=. =ABELIA= (named after Dr. Clarke Abel, Physician to Lord Amherst's Embassy to China, in 1817, and author of a "Narrative of a Journey to China" (1818); died 1826). ORD. _Caprifoliaceæ_. Very ornamental shrubs. Corolla tubular, funnel-shaped, five-lobed. Leaves petiolate, dentately crenated. Well suited for the cold greenhouse, either as trellis or pot plants; free-flowering when well grown, and of easy culture. May be treated in sheltered and warm climates as hardy; and can be grown out of doors during summer in less favoured spots. They thrive in a compost of peat and loam in equal parts, to which a small quantity of silver sand may be added. Increased by cuttings in summer, and by layers in spring, under a frame. Only two species, _floribunda_ and _rupestris_, are much grown in England. =A. floribunda= (many-flowered).* _fl._ rosy-purple, about 2in. long, in axillary clusters. March. _l._ opposite, oblong. _h._ 3ft. Mexico, 1842. The best and freest flowering evergreen species. =A. rupestris= (rock).* _fl._ sweet-scented, small, pink, in pairs at the ends of the branches; sepals of leafy texture, with a reddish tinge. September. _l._ small, oblong. _h._ 5ft. China, 1844. A deciduous, branching, hairy shrub. =A. serrata= (serrate-leaved). _fl._ pretty pale red, sweet-scented, very large, in one-flowered terminal peduncles; sepals leafy. March. _h._ 3ft. China, 1844. A fine evergreen species. =A. triflora= (three-flowered).* _fl._ pale yellow, tinged with pink, small, arranged in threes at the ends of the branches; sepals long and linear, clothed with long hairs. September. _l._ small, lanceolate. _h._ 5ft. Hindostan, 1847. A small evergreen branching shrub. =ABERRANT.= Deviating from the natural or direct way; applied, in natural history, to species or genera that deviate from the usual characters of their allies. =ABIES= (from _abeo_, to rise; alluding to the aspiring habit of growth of the tree; or, according to some, from _apios_, a Pear-tree, in allusion to the form of the fruit). Spruce Fir. The synonymy of this genus is much confused, plants belonging to several genera being frequently referred to _Abies_ in nurserymen's catalogues and gardening periodicals. ORD. _Coniferæ_. A genus of about twenty-five species, widely distributed over the mountainous regions of the Northern hemisphere. Cones cylindrical, or but slightly tapering, erect; catkins generally solitary; the carpels not thickened at the tip; and the leaves solitary, partially scattered in insertion, and more or less two-ranked in direction. Scales deciduous, falling off as soon as the seed is ripe, leaving the axis on the tree. All the species bear seeds at a comparatively early age; most are hardy. For culture, _see_ =Pinus=. =A. amabilis= (lovely).* _shoots_ rather rigid, furrowed with elongated cushions, covered with numerous small dark hairs. _l._ scattered, crowded, 1-1/2in. to 2in. long; linear obtuse, dark green above, silvery beneath. The cones are described as cylindrical, and about 6in. long. _h._ 180ft. California, 1831. A magnificent conifer, very massive in appearance. =A. baborensis.=* _l._ linear, dark green, silvery on the under surface, very numerous, those of the larger branches shortly pointed, and those of the branchlets more obtuse and pointless, 1/2in. to 1in. long. _cones_ erect, cylindrical, usually in clusters of four or five, 5in. to 8in. long, and about 2in. in diameter; scales reniform, greyish-brown, inclosing a thin, dry, and shrivelled bract. _h._ 40ft. to 60ft. Algiers, 1864. This is a very beautiful medium-sized tree. SYN. _A. Numidica_. =A. balsamea= (Balm of Gilead or Balsam Fir).* _l._ silvery beneath, apex emarginate or entire, somewhat recurved and spreading, 3/4in. long. _cones_ cylindrical, violet-coloured, pointing upwards, 4in. to 5in. long, and 1/2in. broad; scales 3/4in. broad, and the same in length. _h._ 40ft. to 60ft. United States and Canada, &c., 1696. A medium-sized slender tree. =A. bifida= (bifid). Identical with _A. firma_. =A. brachyphylla= (short-leaved).* _l._ linear, spirally inserted round the branchlets, but pointing laterally in two directions, 3/4in. to 1-1/2in. in length; lower ones longest, obtusely pointed or emarginate, bright green above, with two silvery lines beneath. _cones_ 3in. to 4in. long, purple. _h._ 120ft. Japan, 1870. A recently introduced magnificent fir, with an erect stem, regularly whorled horizontal branches. =A. bracteata= (bracted).* _l._ rigid, linear, flat, distichous, 2in. to 3in. long, bright glossy green above, and glaucous beneath. _cones_ about 4in. long, with the bracts developed into long rigid leaf-like linear spines, 2in. long, and slightly curved inwards. _h._ 25ft. Southern California, 1853. A very handsome tall slender tree, but, owing to its very early growth of new shoots, it is much injured by the spring frosts. =A. Brunoniana= (Brown's). Synonymous with _Tsuga Brunoniana_. =A. canadensis= (Canadian). A synonym of _Tsuga canadensis_. =A. cephalonica= (Cephalonian).* _l._ subulate, flat, dark green above, and silvery beneath, acute. _cones_ erect, cylindrical, green when young, afterwards reddish, and brown when ripe, 5in. to 6in. in length, and about 1-1/2in. in diameter; scales broad, thin, and rounded, shorter than the bracts. _h._ 50ft. to 60ft. Mountains of Greece, 1824. A very desirable tree for growing in exposed situations. =A. cilicica= (Cilician). _l._ linear, slightly curved or straight, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, dark green above, and glaucous beneath, crowded, in two ranks. _cones_ cylindrical, 6in. to 8in. long; scales broad, thin, entire, coriaceous. _h._ 40ft. to 60ft. Mount Taurus, in Asia Minor. This species seldom produces a good specimen tree in England, and cannot, therefore, be recommended for general cultivation. =A. concolor= (one-coloured).* _l._ linear, flat, obtuse, glaucous green, distichously arranged in double rows, those in the lower rows 2in. to 3in. long, upper ones shorter, channelled above. _cones_ cylindrical, obtuse both at base and top, 3in. to 5in. long, 2in. to 2-1/2in. in diameter; scales numerous, imbricated, larger than the bracts. _h._ 80ft. to 150ft. California, &c., 1851. A very beautiful species, with yellow bark on the young branches. SYNS. _A. lasiocarpa_ and _A. Parsonii_. =A. Douglasii= (Douglas'). A synonym of _Pseudotsuga Douglasii_. =A. dumosa= (short-leaved). Synonymous with _Tsuga Brunoniana_. =A. excelsa= (tall). A synonym of _Picea excelsa_. =A. firma= (solid).* _l._ rigid, coriaceous, spirally arranged around the branchlets, but point laterally in two directions, 1in. to 1-1/4in. long, very variable in young and old trees. _cones_ cylindrical, obtuse at both ends, 3in. to 6in. long; scales imbricated, bearing protruding keeled bracts. _h._ 100ft. Japan, 1861. An erect tree, of great beauty. =A. Fortunei= (Fortune's). It is said that in its native country, its aspect is peculiar rather than handsome, and that but one living representative is believed to be in existence in this country--at Veitch's Nursery. SYN. _Keteleeria Fortunei_. =A. Fraseri= (Fraser's). Double Balsam Spruce Fir. _l._ linear, emarginate, silvery beneath. _cones_ oblong, squarrose, somewhat leafy, obcordate, mucronate, half exserted, reflexed. _h._ 30ft. to 40ft. North Carolina, 1811. This species closely resembles _A. balsamea_, from which it differs in having shorter and more erect leaves, and smaller cones. =A. grandis= (splendid).* _l._ in double rows, on each side of the branchlets, flat, obtuse, emarginate, pectinate, silvery beneath, from 3/4in. to 1in. long. _cones_ lateral, solitary, cylindrical, obtuse at base and apex, 4in. to. 5in. long, 2in. wide; bracts ovate, acuminate, irregularly dentate, very short. _h._ 100ft. California, 1831. A handsome tree of symmetrical habit, and rapid growth. =A. lasiocarpa= (woolly-coned). Synonymous with _A. concolor_. =A. magnifica= (magnificent).* _l._ densely crowded, two-rowed, 1in. to nearly 2in. long, olive green, very glaucous on the upper surface when young, becoming duller with age, and marked with two silvery lines beneath. _cones_ 6in. to 7in. long, 2-1/2in. to 3in. in diameter; scales, outer edge incurved. _h._ 200ft. North California, 1851. A very tall and stately species, with, at successive intervals, whorls of horizontal branches. =A. Mariesii= (Maries'). _l._ erect, evenly disposed around the stem, linear-oblong, obtuse; apex notched, 1/3in. to not quite 1in. long; bracts ovate, oblong, retuse. _cones_ erect, cylindrical, 3-1/2in. to 5-1/2in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. wide, narrowed at the base and apex, blackish purple; scales entire, nearly 1in. wide, not quite so long as wide. Japan, 1879. A tall, pyramidal tree. =A. Mertensiana= (Merten's). Synonymous with _Tsuga Mertensiana_. =A. miniata= (vermilion). Synonymous with _Picea eremita_. =A. Morinda= (Morinda). Synonymous with _Picea Morinda_. =A. nobilis= (noble).* _l._ linear, mostly on one side of the branches, falcate, short, acute, silvery beneath, 1-3/4in. long. _cones_ cylindrical, erect, sessile, 6-1/2in. long, 2-3/4in. broad, brownish; scales triangular, without the bractea, 1-1/4in. long, and the same in breadth; bractea spathulate, imbricated backwards, 5/8in. long. _h._ 200ft. to 300ft. California, 1831. A majestic tree. =A. Nordmanniana= (Nordmann's).* _l._ linear, rigid, flat, and minutely bifid at the apex, on young trees spreading in two rows, with a half-twist at the base, 1in. long. _cones_ erect, slightly ovoid, pedunculate, 4in. to 6in. long, and 2-1/4in. to 2-3/4in. wide; bracts large, coriaceous, three-lobed, fringed, greatly exceeding the scales. _h._ 80ft. to 100ft. Crimea, &c., 1848. A magnificent and stately tree, of regular growth. =A. Numidica= (Numidian). Synonymous with _A. baborensis_. =A. obovata= (reversed-egg-coned). A synonym of _Picea obovata_. =A. orientalis= (eastern). Synonymous with _Picea orientalis_. =A. Parsonii= (Parson's). Synonymous with _A. concolor_. =A. pectinata= (comb-like).* _l._ linear, solitary, flat, obtuse, stiff, turned-up at the points, two-ranked, 1/2in. to 1in. long, shining green above, with two lines of silvery white on each side of the midrib beneath. _cones_ axillary, cylindrical, erect, 6in. to 8in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, when ripe, brown; scales with a long dorsal bractea, 1/6in. to 1-1/4in. long, and 1-1/4in. broad. _h._ 80ft. to 100ft. A very noble silver fir, of slow growth when young only. Central Europe, 1603. There are several unimportant varieties of this splendid species. =A. Pindrow= (Pindrow). In its native home, the Himalayas, this is a very beautiful tree, attaining the height of 150ft., but it has generally failed in England, in consequence of our late spring frosts destroying the young growth. It comes very near _A. Webbiana_, but is readily distinguished by its longer and more acutely bidented leaves, and smaller cones. =A. Pinsapo= (Pinsapo).* The Spanish Silver Fir. _l._ linear, disposed around the branches, nearly terete, and entire at the apex, not quite 1/2in. long, bright green, with faint silvery lines on the inner side. _cones_ sessile, oval, or oblong, 4in. to 5-1/2in. long, about 2in. wide; bracts short, concealed by the broad rounded scales. _h._ 60ft. to 80ft. South Spain, 1839. A very magnificent species, very regular and symmetrical in habit. The one or two varieties offered for sale are not desirable. =A. polita= (neat).* _l._ arranged spirally, short, erect, rigid, falcate, acute at the apex, tetragonal, but compressed. _cones_ ellipsoid, 3in. to 4in. long; scales light brown, coriaceous, minutely notched at the edge. Island of Nippon, 1861. This is a beautiful species, admirably adapted as a specimen tree for lawns. =A. religiosa= (sacred). _l._ linear, acute, quite entire, 1-1/2in. long. _cones_ roundish-oval, 2-3/4in. long, and 2-1/2in. broad; scales trapezoided-cordate; bracts the length of the scapes, spathulate-oblong. _h._ 100ft. to 150ft. Mexico, 1839. A very handsome species, but not hardy in this country. =A. sachalinensis= (Sachalin). _l._ in many rows, 1in. or very slightly more long, 1/12in. broad, twisted to one side, rigid, linear, obtuse. _cones_ sessile, erect, cylindrical, bluntly rounded at the apex, 3in. long, 1in. wide; scales transversely oblong, reniform; margin inflexed, denticulate; bracts 1/2in. wide, 1/4in. long, obovate, serrulate, terminating in a reflexed angular point, exceeding the scale. Japan, 1879. A tall pyramidal robust species. =A. Schrenkiana= (Schrenk's). Synonymous with _Picea Schrenkiana_. =A. sibirica= (Siberian). Like the last, this species is not recommended; its growth is very slow, even under the most favourable circumstances. Siberia. =A. Smithiana= (Smith's). A synonym of _Picea Morinda_. =A. subalpina= (sub-alpine).* On the high mountains of Colorado, &c., a tree 60ft. to 100ft. in height. Has not been long enough in English gardens for any decided opinion to be formed as to its merits as an ornamental tree. =A. Tsuga= (Tsugan). A synonym of _Tsuga Sieboldi_. =A. Veitchii= (Veitch's).* _l._ crowded, lateral ones spreading in a distichous manner, those on the upper side much shorter and pointing forwards, 1/2in. to 1in. long, linear, flat, glaucous above, silvery beneath; emarginate on the sterile branches, entire on the fertile ones. _cones_ erect, sub-cylindrical, purplish-brown, 2in. to 2-1/2in. long, 3/4in. to nearly 1in. wide; scales horizontal, reniform, densely packed, each enclosing a short, wedge-shaped bract as long as the scale. _h._ 120ft. to 140ft. Japan, 1860, and again in 1879. Described as a beautiful and interesting tree, as well as perfectly hardy; it should be planted on elevated spots open to the south or south-east. =A. Webbiana= (Webb's).* _l._ two-rowed, linear, flat, obtusely emarginate, silvery beneath, 1-1/2in. to 2-1/2in. long. _cones_ cylindrical, 6-1/2in. to 7in. long, 2in. or more broad, deep purple; scales kidney-shaped, roundish, closely compressed, imbricated, about 1in. long, and 1-1/4in. broad; bracts oblong, apiculate. _h._ 70ft. to 90ft. Himalayan Mountains, 1822. A large handsome pyramidal tree, with numerous branches spreading horizontally, much divided, and densely clothed. =A. Williamsoni= (Williamson's). A synonym of _Tsuga Pattoniana_. =ABOBRA= (its Brazilian name). ORD. _Cucurbitaceæ_. A genus of stove or greenhouse plants, having solitary axillary di�cious flowers, and finely divided leaves. The only species in cultivation is a very pretty half-hardy climbing perennial, having a fleshy root about 1ft. or more beneath the surface of the soil. It thrives well in warm sunny spots, and in a light soil; seeds may be sown in pots or pans of light soil early in April; the young plants can be planted out about the middle of June. The fleshy tuberous roots may be stored during winter in a greenhouse or frame. _See_ also =Gourds=. =A. viridiflora= (green-flowered). _fl._ pale green, fragrant; females succeeded by small oval scarlet fruits, which are about as large as a filbert. _l._ dark green, glossy, much divided into narrow segments. South America. A rapid growing plant, admirably adapted for training over arbours or trellis-work. It is a very pretty form of ornamental gourd. =ABORTION.= An imperfect formation, or the non-formation of an organ; any fruit or produce that does not come to maturity, or anything which fails in its progress before it is matured, frequently from a defect in the male or female flowers. =ABRAXAS GROSSULARIATA.= _See_ =Gooseberry or Magpie Moth=. =ABRICOCK.= A former mode of writing Apricot. =ABROMA= (from _a_, not, and _broma_, food; from its unwholesomeness). ORD. _Sterculiaceæ_. Handsome, free-flowering evergreen trees, with hairy lobed leaves, and extra axillary or terminal few-flowered peduncles. Of easy culture, in a stove temperature, in loam and peat soil. Propagated by seeds or cuttings, the former sown in March, the latter made in April from half-ripened wood, and placed under a bell glass. =A. augusta= (smooth-stalked).* _fl._ dingy purple, drooping. August. _l._ lower, cordate, three to five lobed; upper, ovate-lanceolate, undivided. _h._ 10ft. East India, 1770. =A. fastuosa= (prickly-stalked). _fl._ dark purple. June. _l._ lower, cordate, acutely five lobed; upper, ovate, entire. _h._ 10ft. New Holland, 1800. =ABRONIA= (from _abros_, delicate; referring to its involucrum). Sand Verbena. ORD. _Nyctaginaceæ_. A small genus of seven species, mostly natives of California, four of which only are known in general cultivation. They are of a dwarf trailing habit, producing showy blossoms in dense verbena-like clusters. Corolla funnel-shaped; limb spreading. They succeed best in light sandy soil, in a position fully exposed; if well drained, the rockery is perhaps the best place. Increased by seeds, the outer skin of which should be peeled off before sowing; sow during autumn in pots of sandy soil, and keep in a frame until the following spring, when they may be placed in their flowering quarters; or by young cuttings, set in spring, and also in sandy soil. [Illustration: FIG. 1. ABRONIA UMBELLATA, showing Flower and Habit.] =A. arenaria= (sand-loving).* _fl._ lemon-yellow, about 1/2in. long, in dense clusters, with a honey-like fragrance. July. _l._ broadly ovate, or reniform, on short, thick petioles. _h._ 9in. to 18in. 1865. Half-hardy perennial. SYN. _A. latifolia_. =A. fragrans= (fragrant).* _fl._ pure white, in terminal and axillary clusters, very delicately perfumed, expanding in the evening. May. 1865. A perennial, more or less erect in growth, forming large branching tufts from 1ft. to 2ft. high. Imported seeds only of this species will grow. =A. latifolia= (broad-leaved). A synonym of _A. arenaria_. =A. pulchella= (pretty). _fl._ pink. July. _h._ 6in. 1848. =A. rosea= (rose-coloured). _fl._ rose-coloured. June. _h._ 6in. 1847. An unimportant species. =A. umbellata= (umbel-flowered).* _fl._ rosy pink, in dense terminal clusters, slightly scented. April. _l._ oval or oblong. _h._ 6in. to 24in. 1823. An elegant prostrate half-hardy annual; but under greenhouse culture it is a perennial. SYN. _Tricratus admirabilis_. See Fig 1. =ABRUPT.= Suddenly terminating, as abruptly pinnate; when pinnate leaves are without a terminal or odd leaflet. =ABRUS= (from _abros_, soft, in reference to the extreme softness of the leaves). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A very ornamental and delicate much branched deciduous stove climber, whose roots have the virtues of the common liquorice. Leaves abruptly pinnate, bearing many pairs of leaflets. Requires a strong heat to keep it in a growing, healthy condition, and to flower it well; and thrives best in sandy loam. Increased by cuttings under a hand glass, in sand, or seeds raised in heat. =A. precatorius= (prayer). _fl._ pale purple, butterfly-shaped, disposed in axillary clusters. Seeds bright scarlet, with a black spot at the base, used by the Buddhists for making rosaries, whence the specific name. March to May. _l._ leaflets ligulate, oblong. _h._ 12ft. East Indies, 1680. Varieties are now and then met with having rose coloured or white flowers. =ABSORPTION.= The action by which liquids and gases become incorporated with various bodies, through molecular or other invisible means, to which function all parts of a growing plant contribute, the roots more especially. =ABUTA= (native name). ORD. _Menispermaceæ_. A strong growing ornamental stove evergreen climber. Used medicinally in Cayenne. Flowers di�cious, fascicled, males racemosely panicled; females loose and simply racemose. It grows freely in a mixture of loam and peat. Cuttings will root readily if planted in a pot of sand, with a hand glass placed over them, in heat. About half-a-dozen species are known. =A. rufescens= (rusty-coloured). _fl._ grey-velvety on the outside, dark purple on the inside. March. _l._ ovate; under surface brownish. _h._ 10ft. Cayenne, 1820. =ABUTILON= (Arabic name for a plant analogous to the Marsh Mallow). ORD. _Malvaceæ_. Very showy, decorative, and free-growing shrubs, both for the greenhouse and outside culture. Calyx naked, five-cleft, usually angular; style multifid at apex. The many beautiful hybrids (of which Fig. 2 represents a group) now in cultivation, far supersede the true species. Cultivation: Few plants are more easily grown and worthy of liberal treatment than these. The best soil for them is equal parts turfy loam, peat, and leaf mould, with some gritty sand. They may either be grown in pots, or planted out; but in all cases thorough drainage is indispensable, as they require an abundance of water, and stagnancy must be guarded against. At the end of May they may be planted outside, when they will flower profusely through the summer. In a free growing and flowering state they enjoy weak manure water. From the latter part of autumn till early spring they may be kept almost dry without injury, though in a warm conservatory some of the later struck plants will go on flowering throughout the greater part of the winter; or plants may be specially prepared for winter flowering. They are admirably adapted for forming standards of various heights, from 2ft. to 6ft. Some of the taller sorts are very useful for training under roof rafters. As pillar plants, too, very loosely trained, so as to allow the upper and side branches to droop to a considerable distance from the pillar, they are very effective. Propagation: They strike readily from cuttings made of the young wood, at almost any season; the best time, however, is early spring and September. Inserted in pots, in a compost of equal parts peat, leaf mould, loam, and sand, and placed in a temperature of from 65deg. to 70deg., they will then quickly root, and form good plants. Seeds may be sown in pans filled with soil as recommended for cuttings, and placed in a similar temperature. Those followed by a dagger (�) are the best for training to pillars, roofs, &c. =A. Bedfordianum= (Bedford's). _fl._ yellow and red. November. _l._ deeply-lobed. _h._ 15ft. Brazil, 1838. =A. Darwini= (Darwin's).�* _fl._ bright orange, with darker veinings, fine cupped form. April. _l._ large, broad. _h._ 4ft. Brazil, 1871. A handsome species, of good habit, equally suitable as a stove or greenhouse plant during winter, and for outdoor culture during summer months. There are a great number of garden hybrids from this. =A. globiflorum= (globe-flowered). _fl._ solitary, large, globose, cream-coloured. November. _l._ on long stalks, cordate, serrate. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. Mauritius, 1825. =A. igneum= (bright). Synonymous with _A. insigne_. =A. insigne= (handsome-flowered).* _fl._ large, purplish crimson, with dark venation, in axillary pendulous racemes; petals short, broad, much reflexed. Winter. _l._ large, cordate, thick, rugose. Stem deep green, with short brown hairs. _h._ 6ft. New Grenada, 1851. SYN. _A. igneum_. See Fig. 3. =A. megapotamicum= (big river).�* _fl._ small, bell-shaped, singularly beautiful, the sepals being dark red, petals pale yellow, and stamens dark brown. Autumn and winter. _l._ small, pointed. _h._ 3ft. Rio Grande, 1864. A free-flowering species, with a graceful drooping habit; the shoots should be well pressed in during spring. SYN. _A. vexillarium_. =A. pæoniflorum= (pæony-flowered). _fl._ pink, smaller than those of _A. insigne_, but very distinct. January. _l._ large, ovate. _h._ 6ft. Brazil, 1845. =A. pulchellum= (pretty).�* _fl._ white, on few-flowered axillary racemes. July. _l._ cordate, unequally crenated, downy beneath. _h._ 8ft. Habit very branching. New Holland, 1824. =A. striatum= (striped).* _fl._ orange yellow, with a thick veining of blood-red, on long curving stalks. _l._ large, lobed, on long slender petioles. Brazil, 1837. A free grower, and makes an excellent greenhouse plant. In sheltered positions, in the south-west of England, this species proves to be almost hardy. It requires to be freely pinched. A very continuous bloomer. =A. Thompsoni= (Thompson's). _fl._ striated yellow, large. Summer. _l._ small, vine-like, richly mottled with yellow and dark green. _h._ 3ft. or 4ft. Habit very neat and erect. =A. venosum= (veined).�* _fl._ orange, with red veins, very large, bell shaped, 3in. long; pedicels nearly 12in. long. July. _l._ large, deeply palmate. _h._ 10ft. This splendid species is distinguished by its unusually large flowers. =A. vexillarium= (standard). Synonymous with _A. megapotamicum_. =A. vitifolium= (vine-leaved).* _fl._ porcelain blue, large, cupped. May. _l._ cordate, five to seven lobed, assuming, towards the autumn, a fine golden hue. _h._ 30ft. Chili, 1837. This fine shrub, or tree, is hardy in Ireland and the south of England, but should have a protection from frost. It is not a fast grower. The following are some of the best varieties, which, although they do not include all the newest sorts, yet afford a good selection of first-rate kinds, which will give general satisfaction. They are arranged according to their respective colours. Those marked with a dagger (�) are best for roofs and pillars. =Orange-flowered.= AUREUM GLOBOSUM,* flowers deep orange, heavily red shaded, of medium size, with good form and substance; DARWINI MAJUS,* bright orange, deeply veined, extremely free, and of good form and size; FLEUR D'OR,� light orange, veined pale red, very free and dwarf; GRANDIFLORUM,* deep orange, red shaded, deeply veined with red, a robust, large-flowered variety; LEO, flowers pale below, deeper above, red-veined, of medium size; PRINCE OF ORANGE,�* a strong grower, and very free. =Ornamental-foliaged.= DARWINI TESSELATUM,�* foliage mottled with yellow, invaluable for sub-tropical bedding; SELLOWIANUM MARMORATUM,* very large maple-like foliage, heavily mottled with bright yellow, a most effective variety; THOMPSONI, leaves very freely blotched with yellow; VEXILLARIUM IGNEUM,�* very free, of good habit, prettily blotched. All these ornamental-foliaged varieties are invaluable for bedding purposes. [Illustration: FIG. 2. GROUP OF ABUTILONS.] =Purple-coloured.= EMPEROR,* flowers large, rich purple magenta shaded, habit vigorous; LOUIS VAN HOUTTE, very free, rosy purple; PURPUREA,* deep purple shaded lake, very attractive; SOUVENIR DE ST. MAURICE, flowers medium size, very profuse; VIOLET QUEEN,* bright violet purple, very distinct and free. =Red and Crimson-flowered.= BRILLIANT,* flowers of good form and substance, brilliant red inside, rather paler outside, dwarf and free; CRIMSON BANNER,* rich crimson, dwarf, very floriferous; FIRE KING,* bright red, orange shaded, veined with crimson; LUSTROUS,* brilliant red crimson, large, most profusely produced, habit dwarf; NE PLUS ULTRA,* intense crimson, of excellent form; SCARLET GEM,* flowers medium sized, brilliant scarlet, habit dwarf and free. =Rose-coloured.= ADMIRATION, light pink, shaded salmon, of good form and shape; ANNA CROZY,* deep pink, lilac shade, veined white, very showy; CLOCHETTE,* deep rosy pink, with crimson veins, very dwarf and free; DELICATUM, pale salmon rose, with deeper vein, flowers very large; KING OF THE ROSES,* rich deep rose, of good size and substance, habit dwarf and very free; LADY OF THE LAKE,* flowers medium sized, rich pink; LOUIS MARIGNAC, pale pink, veined white, splendid habit, a charming variety; PRINCESS MARIE,�* flowers rich rosy lake, very profuse, of excellent form; ROS�FLORUM,�* pale salmon rose, veined with crimson. =White-flowered.= BOULE DE NIEGE,�* very fine pure white flowers, the best in its class; PURITY,* very free, of good habit, and pure white; SERAPH,* dwarf, and very floriferous. [Illustration: FIG. 3. FLOWER OF ABUTILON INSIGNE.] =Yellow-flowered.= CANARY BIRD,�* similar in habit to Boule de Niege, bright primrose, very lovely; COURONNE D'OR,* bright yellow, of the finest form and substance, very bold foliage; GOLDEN GEM, rich canary yellow, extremely free, of dwarf habit; LEMOINEI,� very fine, pale yellow, good size; QUEEN OF THE YELLOWS,* very large, lemon yellow, good substance; YELLOW PRINCE,* rich golden yellow, of medium size, very profuse. =ABYSSINIAN PRIMROSE.= A common name for =Primula Boveana= (which _see_). =ACACIA= (from _ac_, a point, in Celtic; or from _akazo_, to sharpen; many of the species are furnished with spines). _See_ also _Albizzia_. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Shrubs or trees, very variable in habit and leaves. Flowers yellow, white, rarely red, disposed in globular heads or spikes, decandrous or polyandrous. Spines stipular, scattered, or wanting. This is a very polymorphous genus, and the majority of species described are known in this country only from herbarium specimens. It is very doubtful whether the entire genus is represented in our gardens by more than about fifty species, many of which are only to be found in botanic gardens; but this number is, without doubt, sufficiently characteristic. The number of species is close upon 400, and the genus one of the largest known. In our enumeration, we have strictly confined ourselves to describing such as are unquestionably in cultivation, and to this end we have adopted the only accurate method of deciding which are and which are not grown, viz., by consulting the trade lists of nurserymen, both in this country and on the Continent. Such lists, however, are not always correct, from a scientific point of view, in the matter of nomenclature. The species best deserving of cultivation are all natives of Australia, New South Wales, or other temperate regions, and are among the hardiest and most easily cultivated of all greenhouse plants. They are very floriferous. The greenhouse species are sufficiently hardy to withstand the winter in a temperature very little higher than freezing point. Cultivation: Some have a tendency to make long straight shoots; these should be selected for training upon rafters or pillars, on which they thrive well and form splendid ornaments in spring; whilst the more shrubby kinds will be equally at home in pots in the form of bushes. Roots and tops grow with great rapidity, and an abundance of water is required at all times. Immediately after flowering (usually about May) is the best time to prune Acacias; they may then be placed in the open air, and fully exposed to the sun, until October. They make a far healthier, cleaner growth, and ripen their wood much better outside than under glass; all they require is copious waterings, never allowing them to become dry, and keeping clear of weeds. In the first week in October house the plants, and winter in a temperature of 40deg. to 50deg. They delight in a light rich compost of equal parts turfy loam and leaf mould, freely intermixed with sand, or peat may be used instead of the leaf mould. Propagation: Cuttings of the half-ripened wood, put in with a heel, root readily during the summer. They do not bear heat well, nor do they require it. The soil should be equal parts peat and sand, covered with pure sand, thoroughly consolidated. Insert the cuttings as soon as made; water home, and leave them in the shade till dry. Then place the bell glasses over them, shade and water so as to prevent flagging. Pot off as soon as rooted, and keep in a close pit or house until the plants are thoroughly established. Seeds should be sown as soon as ripe, in sandy peat; about 1/4in. deep, or a little more, for large seeds. A temperature of 55deg. to 60deg. suits them well. Pot off when large enough to handle, and place in a cool close pit or house until quite established. The culture and propagation of the stove species are the same as for the greenhouse sorts, but the former require, of course, greater heat. Their flowers, however, are much less frequently produced than their more temperate congeners, consequently they are not so much grown. =A. affinis.=* _fl._ yellow. May. _h._ 5ft. New Holland, 1822. Greenhouse species. =A. albicans= (whitish).* _fl._ white; heads, two to five, aggregate, rising in racemes from the axils to the leaves. _l._ with eight to nine pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing nineteen to twenty-two pairs of oblong linear-leaflets. _h._ 5ft. Swan River. =A. am�na= (pleasing). This closely resembles _A. heterophylla_. =A. angustifolia= (narrow-leaved). _fl._ yellow, in heads two to four together, pedunculate. April. _l._ with fifteen to twenty pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing thirty to forty pairs of linear-acute, ciliated leaflets. _h._ 4ft. New South Wales, 1816. One of the numerous varieties of _A. longifolia_. =A. arabica= (Arabian).* Gum Arabic. _fl._ white; heads pedunculate, axillary, usually in threes. _l._ with four to six pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing ten to twenty pairs of oblong-linear leaflets. _h._ 20ft. Arabia, East Indies, &c., 1820. Greenhouse species. See Fig. 4. =A. argyrophylla= (silver-leaved). A synonym of _A. brachybotrya_. =A. armata= (armed, simple leaved).* _fl._ yellow, in solitary globular heads. April. _l._ phyllodia obliquely ovate-oblong, quite entire, one-nerved. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. Australia, 1803. =A. Benthami= (Bentham's). A synonym of _A. cochlearis_. =A. brachybotrya= (short-bunched).* _fl._ yellow, in axillary stalked globular heads. April. _l._ phyllodia silvery silky, obliquely obovate, or oblong. _h._ 8ft. Swan River. SYN. _A. argyrophylla_. =A. Catechu= (catechu). _fl._ yellow; spikes cylindrical, solitary, twin, or tern, axillary. March. _l._ with ten pairs of pinnæ, each of which bears forty to fifty pairs of linear pubescent leaflets. _h._ 20ft. to 40ft. East Indies, 1790. =A. cavenia= (Cavenia).* _fl._ yellow, disposed in globose heads, peduncles, axillary, aggregate. _l._ with usually about five pairs of pinnæ, each of which bears nine to ten pairs of linear-oblong leaflets, clothed with scabrous pubescence. _h._ 20ft. Chili. Greenhouse species. =A. cochlearis= (spoon-leaved). _fl._ yellow, in solitary globular heads. April. _l._ phyllodia linear lanceolate, many-nerved at the base, quite entire, mucronate. _h._ 4ft. West Australia, 1818. SYN. _A. Benthami_. =A. cultriformis= (knife-formed).* _fl._ yellow, in crowded heads, disposed in either axillary or terminal racemes. April. _l._ phyllodia eight to ten lines long, four lines broad, cultriform, ending in an acute hooked point, which bears to one side. _h._ 4ft. New South Wales, 1820. =A. cuneata= (wedge-shaped).* _fl._ yellow. April. Swan River, 1837. Greenhouse species. =A. cyanophylla= (blue-leaved). _fl._ yellow; racemes axillary; heads globose. March. _l._ phyllodia lanceolate, often 1ft. long, glaucous green, almost blue; branches drooping. _h._ 18ft. Swan River, 1838. Arboreous. =A. dealbata= (whitened).* The Silver Wattle. _fl._ yellow, in pedicellate heads, disposed in racemes along the axillary branches. July. _l._ from ten to twenty pairs of pinnæ, each of which bears thirty to thirty-five pairs of linear, much crowded pubescent leaflets. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. Australia and Tasmania, 1820. =A. diffusa= (spreading). _fl._ yellow, in globular heads, which are usually twin. May. _l._ phyllodia linear, one-nerved, ending in an oblique acumen; branches diffusely procumbent, angular. _h._ 2ft. Victoria and Tasmania, 1814. =A. Drummondi= (Drummond's).* _fl._ pale lemon; spikes axillary, drooping, cylindrical, simple. April. _l._ with two pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing two to three pairs of linear obtuse leaflets. Plant unarmed, silky. _h._ 10ft. Swan River. Very handsome and one of the best grown, forming a somewhat dwarf shrub. [Illustration: FIG. 4. ACACIA ARABICA (_a_) Flowering Branch, (_b_) Seed-pod.] =A. Farnesiana= (Farnesian). _fl._ yellow, sweet-scented, disposed in axillary, usually twin, unequally pedunculate heads. July. _l._ with five to eight pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing from fifteen to twenty pairs of linear glabrous leaflets. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. St. Domingo, 1656. Greenhouse species. =A. glauca= (milky white).* _fl._ white; spikes globose, stalked, axillary, usually twin. July. _l._ with four to six pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing about twelve to fifteen pairs of linear, distant, acute leaflets, which are glaucous beneath. _h._ 5ft. to 10ft. South America, 1690. =A. glaucescens= (greyish). _fl._ yellow; spikes twin, but solitary on the peduncles, axillary. June. _l._ phyllodia linear-lanceolate, attenuated at both ends, falcate, three-nerved. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. Queensland, 1822. SYN. _A. homomalla_. =A. grandis= (great).* _fl._ yellow; heads globular; peduncles solitary or twin, axillary, one-headed. February to May. _l._ with one pair of pinnæ, each pinna bearing eight to ten pairs of linear-lanceolate leaflets; branches hairy. _h._ 6ft. West Australia, 1850. A variety of _A. pulchella_. =A. heterophylla= (variable-leaved).* _fl._ yellow, in heads, disposed in a kind of raceme. May. _l._ phyllodia linear, attenuated at both ends, many-nerved. _h._ 5ft. Isle of Bourbon, 1824. _A. am�na_ is very like this. =A. hispidissima= (hairiest). A variety of _A. pulchella_. =A. holosericea= (all silky). _fl_. yellow, in axillary spikes, usually twin. May. _l._ 6in. long, oblong-lanceolate, ending in a soft point at the apex, three-nerved. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. Australia, 1818. The whole aspect of this tree is silky. SYN. _A. leucophylla_. =A. homomalla= (equal-woolled). A synonym of _A. glaucescens_. =A. Hugelii= (Baron Hugel's). _fl._ pale yellow. February. West Australia, 1846. Greenhouse species. =A. ixiophylla= (Ixia-leaved). _fl._ yellow; heads about twenty-flowered; peduncles downy, shortly racemose or solitary. March. _l._ narrow, oblong-lanceolate, sub-falcate, obtuse, obliquely mucronate, much branched. _h._ 2ft. New South Wales, 1844. =A. juniperina= (juniper-leaved). _fl._ yellow, in solitary heads. May. _l._ linear-subulate, ending in a pungent point; branches terete, pubescent. _h._ 6ft. Australia and Tasmania, 1790. Greenhouse. =A. Lebbek= (Lebbek).* _fl._ yellow, sweet-scented; heads many-flowered, pedunculate, three or four together, from the crowded upper nodes. May. _l._ with two to four pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing about six to eight pairs of oval, somewhat dimidiate leaflets, which are obtuse at both ends. _h._ 20ft. East and West Indies, 1823. Stove species. =A. leprosa= (leprous). _fl._ yellow, mostly five-parted, numerous in a globular head; peduncles mostly in pairs or clusters, 1/4in. long. May. _l._ narrow, linear-lanceolate, acute or obtuse with a small callous point, narrowed at base, 1-1/2in. to 3in. long, those of the barren shoots broader. Branchlets pendulous, more or less glutinous. Australia, 1817. (B. R. 1441.) =A. leucophylla= (white-leaved). A synonym of _A. holosericea_. =A. lineata= (lined). _fl._ yellow, mostly five-parted, ten to fifteen or rarely more in a small, globular head; peduncles slender, rarely exceeding the leaves. April. _l._ linear, with a small hooked point, about 1/2in., rarely 3/4in., long, one-nerved. Branches nearly terete, usually pubescent or villous. _h._ 6ft. Australia, 1824. (B. M. 3346.) =A. l. longissima= (longest). Synonymous with _A. longissima_. =A. longifolia= (long-leaved).* _fl._ yellow; spikes loose, axillary, cylindrical. March. _l._ phyllodia linear-lanceolate, narrowed at each end, three-nerved, striated. _h._ 10ft. Australia, 1792. A fine erect-growing greenhouse species. =A. longissima= (longest-leaved). _fl._ yellow; spikes several, axillary, generally branched. May. _l._ phyllodia very long, filiform, one-nerved, spreading. _h._ 4ft. New South Wales, 1819. Stove species. SYN. _A. linearis longissima_. =A. lunata= (half-moon).* _fl._ yellow; heads disposed in racemes, which are longer than the phyllodia. April. _l._ phyllodia obliquely oblong, rather falcate, narrowed at the base, terminating in an oblique callous mucrone. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Australia, 1810. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. oleæfolia_. =A. melanoxylon= (black wooded). _fl._ yellow; heads few, disposed in a kind of raceme. April. _l._ phyllodia lanceolate-oblong, rather falcate, obtuse, quite entire, many-nerved. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. Australia, 1818. Greenhouse species. =A. mollissima= (softest-leaved).* _fl._ yellow; heads pedicellate, disposed in racemes along the axillary peduncles. July. _l._ with eight to eighteen pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing thirty to forty pairs of linear, much crowded, pubescent leaflets, which are clothed with yellowish velvety down when young; branches and petioles angular. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. Van Diemens Land, 1810. =A. oleæfolia= (olive-leaved). A synonym of _A. lunata_. =A. oxycedrus= (sharp-cedrus).* _fl._ yellow; spikes axillary, solitary, elongated. April. _l._ phyllodia scattered, or somewhat verticillate, lanceolate-linear, ending in a pungent point, three-nerved. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. New South Wales, 1823. Greenhouse species. =A. paradoxa= (paradoxical). _fl._ yellow, disposed in solitary heads. March. _l._ phyllodia obliquely oblong-lanceolate, entire, wavy, one-nerved; branches clammy, glabrous. _h._ 6ft. New Holland. Greenhouse species. =A. penninervis= (feather-nerved). _fl._ yellow; heads about the size of a pea, racemose. April. _l._ phyllodia oblong, acuminated at both ends, straight, 2in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. broad, feather veined. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. New Holland, 1824. =A. platyptera= (broad-winged).* _fl._ yellow; heads solitary, on short peduncles. March. _l._ phyllodia short, bifarious, decurrent, obliquely truncate, mucronate; branches broadly winged. _h._ 3ft., Swan River, 1840. Greenhouse species. =A. pubescens= (downy).* _fl._ yellow; heads small, globose pedicellate, disposed in racemes along the axillary peduncles. March. _l._ with three to ten pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing six to eighteen pairs of linear glabrous leaflets. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. Branches terete, hairy. New Holland, 1790. =A. pulchella= (pretty).* _fl._ yellow; heads solitary. April. _l._, pinnæ bearing five to seven pairs of oblong-ovate, obtuse leaflets. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. New Holland, 1803. Greenhouse species. The variety _hispidissima_ has white flowers. =A. Riceana= (Rice's).* _fl._ pale yellow, in long, solitary, axillary spikes. May. _l._ linear, in clusters, dark green, scattered or whorled. _h._ 20ft. Tasmania. Habit graceful, like a weeping willow. Very handsome and distinct. SYN. _A. setigera_. See Fig. 5. =A. rotundifolia= (round-leaved). _fl._ yellow; heads globose, solitary, on long peduncles. March. _l._ phyllodia on short petioles, obliquely rounded, obtuse or retuse, mucronate. Branches angular, puberulous. _h._ 6ft. New Holland, 1842. =A. saligna= (willow-like). _fl._ yellow; heads solitary, on short peduncles. March. _l._ phyllodia linear, attenuated at both ends, quite entire, almost nerveless. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. New Holland, 1818. Greenhouse species. =A. Senegal= (Senegal). Gum Senegal. _fl._ white, small, glabrous, distant; spikes axillary, solitary, slender. _l._ with five to eight pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing fifteen to eighteen pairs of oblong-linear, obtuse, glabrous leaflets; branches white; prickles sometimes wanting. _h._ 20ft. Arabia, 1823. Stove species. =A. setigera= (bristly). Synonymous with _A. Riceana_. =A. sophoræ= (sophora-podded). _fl._ yellow; spikes usually twin, axillary. May. _l._ phyllodia obovate, oblong or lanceolate, quite entire, many nerved; sometimes there are bipinnate leaves at the tops of the branches. _h._ 20ft. New Holland, 1805. =A. sphærocephala= (round-headed).* _fl._ yellow; racemes axillary, usually twin, ovate-roundish. _l._ with numerous close-set linear falcate pinnules, which are usually tipped by a glandular yellow "food body;" spines twin, hollow. Mexico. A very remarkable stove species, inhabited by ants during certain seasons in its native country. =A. uncinifolia= (hook-leaved). _fl._ yellow; spikes usually twin, dense, on short peduncles, cylindrical. March. _l._ phyllodia long, linear-subulate, flat, recurved, mucronate, three-nerved; branches angular. _h._ 6ft. Swan River, 1846. =A. vera= (true). Egyptian Thorn; Gum Arabic. _fl._ white, usually in twin heads, pedunculate, axillary. July. _l._ with two pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing eight to ten pairs of oblong linear leaflets; branches and spines red. _h._ 20ft. Egypt, 1596. [Illustration: FIG. 5. A FLOWERING BRANCH OF ACACIA RICEANA.] =A. verticillata= (whorl-leaved).* _fl._ yellow; spikes axillary, solitary, oblong. March. _l._ phyllodia linear, ending in a pungent mucrone, disposed somewhat verticillately. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. A spreading, prickly, greenhouse species, of variable habit. New Holland, 1780. =A. vestita= (clothed).* _fl._ yellow, in loosely racemose heads, along the peduncles; upper ones solitary. June. _l._ phyllodia obliquely elliptic-lanceolate, one-nerved, ending in an awnlike mucrone, hispid. _h._ 4ft. New Holland, 1820. =A. viscidula= (clammy).* _fl._ yellow; heads globular, on short stalks, axillary, solitary or twin. February. _l._ linear, clammy; branches slender, clammy. _h._ 6ft., erect. New South Wales, 1844. =AC�NA= (from _akaina_, a thorn; in allusion to the slender spines on the calyx or fruit). ORD. _Rosaceæ_. A genus of dwarf sub-shrubby plants. Flowers capitate, or interruptedly spicate, uninteresting; petals absent. Leaves alternate, impari-pinnate. Excepting for rockwork, or as edgings to flower beds, they are not of much value; their habit is, however, very compact and neat. They require similar treatment to other hardy herbaceous plants, in ordinary soil. Increased by cuttings, creeping rootlets, divisions, and by seeds. =A. microphylla= (small-leaved).* _fl._ green, small, in close heads, furnished with showy, long crimson spines. Summer. _l._ small, pinnate. _h._ 1in. to 2in. New Zealand. A neat evergreen with a compact and cushion-like growth; it is a very effective subject for the rock garden, and grows freely in most situations. The crimson globular heads of spine-formed calyces form a conspicuous and ornamental feature of the plant. SYN. _A. Novæ Zealandiæ_. See Fig. 6. =A. millefolia= (myriad-leaved).* _fl._ inconspicuous. A very distinct species with finely-cut pale green leaves. The fruiting spikes of this are not collected in globular heads, as in the others, and their presence detract from its value as an ornamental plant. Otherwise, it is very graceful. [Illustration: FIG. 6. AC�NA MICROPHYLLA.] =A. myriophylla= (many-leaved).* _fl._ green, small, in rounded spikes. June. _l._ pinnate; leaflets deeply cut. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. Chili, 1828. Small, fern-like. =A. Novæ Zealandiæ= (New Zealand). A synonym of _A. microphylla_. =A. ovalifolia= (oval-leaved). _fl._ green. Summer. _h._ 9in. Chili, 1868. Good for rock gardens. =A. pulchella= (pretty).* _fl._ inconspicuous. A pretty bronzy-leaved species, admirably suited for rockwork crevices, where space is no object. It grows very rapidly, and forms handsome tufts. =ACALYPHA= (the name given by Hippocrates to the Nettle). ORD. _Euphorbiaceæ_. Stove ornamental and variegated nettle-like leaved shrubs. Flowers greenish or reddish, inconspicuous, in erect or drooping bracted axillary or terminal spikes; those of the upper portion sterile, of the lower, fertile. The undermentioned only are those most worthy of cultivation. They are very easily grown, with ordinary stove treatment, and in a peat and loam compost. When well cultivated, the leaves of the hybridised varieties are highly coloured, but rather coarse than otherwise. Increased by cuttings under a glass in sandy soil, in stove heat, during April. =A. Macafeeana= (Macafee's). _l._ red, blotched with bronzy crimson. 1877. =A. macrophylla= (large-leaved).* _l._ cordate ovate, russet brown, blotched with paler spots. The best and handsomest stove species. =A. marginata= (margined). _l._ large, very hairy, ovate-acuminate, centre brown, with a distinct margin of rosy carmine, about 1/4in. wide. Fiji Islands, 1875. =A. musaica= (mosaic).* _l._ bronzy green, variegated with orange and dull red. Polynesia, 1877. =A. torta= (twisted). _l._ dark olive, tinted green; margin cut into blunt, oblong segments. Samoan Islands. Remarkable for its curiously contorted foliage. It has erect stems, which are terete, and covered by the leaves in a very singular way. =A. tricolor= (three-coloured). A synonym of _A. Wilkesiana_. =A. Wilkesiana= (Wilkes').* _l._ ovate-acuminate, curiously blotched, mottled, and splashed with red and crimson; ground colour coppery green. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. New Hebrides, 1866. SYN. _A. tricolor_. =A. W. marginata= (Wilkes's margined).* _l._ large, olive brown, margined with rosy carmine. Fiji Islands, 1875. =ACANTHACE�.= A large order of soft-wooded, herbaceous plants, usually having gamopetalous axillary flowers; calyx composed of deeply imbricated scales; bracts large, leafy. =ACANTHEPHIPPIUM= (the derivation of this word is not apparent). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A peculiar class of terrestrial stove orchids. Flowers rather large, racemose, few; sepals combined in a broad oblique pitcher, including the petals, which are adnate to the base of the column; column short, produced into a long foot. Pseudo-bulbs oblong. Leaves few, large, longer than the scapes. The best species are the two first-mentioned. They will thrive well in sandy peat, with a quantity of small stones, broken pots, or gravel. A great deal of heat and moisture are absolutely essential during the growing period. Propagated, as soon as growth commences, by dividing the pseudo-bulbs. =A. bicolor= (two-coloured).* _fl._ purple and yellow, about 2in. long, campanulate, produced in clusters of three or four together; petals oblong-lanceolate, acutish; lateral lobes of lip rounded. June. _h._ 9in. Ceylon, 1833. =A. Curtisii= (Curtis's).* _fl._ same shape as above (except the lip), with numerous purple spots, light rose, and flush; column white, nail of lip yellow, keels yellowish, laciniæ white with purple. Malay Archipelago, 1881. The five keels between the side laciniæ distinguish it from the foregoing species and _A. sylhetense_. =A. javanicum= (Javanese).* _fl._ yellow and red, with distinct longitudinal stripes; petals triangular; lip three-lobed; lateral lobes truncate; intermediate lobe constricted in middle, ovate, and tuberculate at the apex, fleshy on both sides at base, with truncate emarginate inflexed teeth. September. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Java, 1843. =A. sylhetense= (Sylhet). _fl._ white, with many irregular spots and blotches towards the extremities of the outer portions. June. _h._ 9in. Sylhet, 1837. =ACANTHOLIMON= (from _akanthos_, a spine, and _limon_, sea lavender). ORD. _Plantagineæ_. Dwarf hardy tufted evergreen plants, distinguished from allied genera in having sharp-pointed rigid leaves. They are of rather slow growth, thriving best in a sandy soil, and sunny position, on rockwork more particularly. The flowers are similar to _Statice_ and _Armeria_. Increased by seeds (which germinate slowly), sown carefully on a warm but rather shaded border, and transplanted when large enough to handle; or by cuttings and very carefully made divisions. The cuttings should be made in late summer, and placed in a frame, to remain there during the winter. =A. glumaceum= (prickly).* _fl._ rose, spicate, about 1/2in. across, six to eight in a spikelet. Summer. _l._ densely packed and sharply pointed with spines. _h._ 6in. Armenia, 1851. Very compact and distinct. SYN. _Statice Ararati_. =A. Kotschyi= (Kotschy's). _fl._ white. A good species, but very rarely seen in British gardens. [Illustration: FIG. 7. ACANTHOLIMON VENUSTUM.] =A. venustum= (charming).* _fl._ rose, spicate, from twelve to twenty in each spike. Summer. _l._ broader than in the last, and glaucous. _h._ 6in. or 8in. Cilicia, 1873. A rare and handsome alpine. Larger than the preceding. See Fig. 7. =ACANTHOPH�NIX= (from _akantha_, a spine, and _phoinix_, the Date Palm). ORD. _Palmæ_. A very elegant stove palm, differing from _Areca_ principally in habit, and requiring a light sandy soil and a summer temperature of 65deg. to 80deg., winter 55deg. to 65deg. Increased by seeds only; these germinate best in a moist bottom heat, and a well decomposed compost of one part loam, one of peat, one of leaf mould, and the remainder of sand. They may remain in this soil for two or three years. =A. crinita= (hairy).* _fl._ spirally arranged, in threes, the central one being female. _l._ the fronds are arched, broadly ovate in outline, pectinately pinnate in division, with long linear acuminate segments, paler beneath. The stem is densely armed with black, needle-shaped spines, and much swollen towards the base. Seychelles, 1868. =ACANTHORHIZA= (from _akantha_, a spine, and _rhiza_, a root). ORD. _Palmæ_. A small genus of stove palms, differing from _Trithrinax_ by the aërial roots of the trunk hardening into spines (which are horizontal or pointed upwards), and by the blade of the leaf being divided down to the petiole. They delight in a rich loamy soil, and are propagated by seeds, in a moist, sweet hotbed, in spring. =A. aculeata= (spiny).* _l._ orbicular, palmately slit into numerous linear-lanceolate, glabrous segments, deep-green above, silvery beneath; petioles slender; the trunk is covered with a network of branching spines. Mexico, 1879. SYN. _Chamærops stauracantha_. =A. Wallisii= (Wallis's).* A recent introduction from tropical America, and not yet much cultivated; it is a tall palm with orbicular palmate leaves. =A. Warzcewiczii= (Warzcewicz's).* This differs from the preceding species by its more irregularly divided leaf blade, which is white below. Tropical America. =ACANTHOSTACHYUM= (from _akanthos_, a spine, and _stachys_, a spike). ORD. _Bromeliaceæ_. A monotypic genus of stove evergreen herbaceous plants; of easy culture in a compost of equal parts sand, decayed wood, and rotten leaves. Propagated by suckers, which strike readily in bottom heat. =A. strobilacea= (cone-fruited). _fl._ red and yellow; scape simple, long, scurfy; bracts coloured. June. _l._ radical, very long, incurved, narrow, thick, pungent, channelled, spiny-toothed, covered with white scurf. _h._ 4ft. Brazil, 1840. =ACANTHUS= (from _akanthos_, a spine; several species being spiny or prickly). Bear's Breech. ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. A group of stately, ornamental perennial plants, mostly hardy, remarkable for their vigorous growth and beautiful foliage. Flowers sessile, crowded, spicate; corolla tubular, one-lipped; lip three lobed. To attain perfection they require a deep soil, and a situation fully exposed to the sun. They will, however, thrive moderately well in common soil and partial shade. The habit being generally a bold one, they are most suited for isolated tufts, backgrounds of mixed borders, and the wild garden. Propagated by seeds, sown in gentle heat, or by division of the roots, in autumn or early spring. =A. carduifolius= (thistle-leaved). _fl._ blue. August. _h._ 3ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1816. Greenhouse species. =A. hispanicus= (Spanish). _fl._ white. August. _l._ large, shining, and deeply cut. _h._ 2ft. Spain, 1700. =A. longifolius= (long-leaved).* _fl._ purple, rose, in the axils of the bracts, which are oval, acuminate, spiny, of a reddish hue, forming a spike nearly 1ft. long. June. _l._ radical, 2ft. to 3ft. long; numerous. _h._ 3ft. to 4-1/2ft. Dalmatia, 1869. =A. lusitanicus= (Portugal). Synonymous with _A. mollis latifolius_. =A. mollis= (soft).* _fl._ white or rose, sessile in the axils of the deeply-toothed bracts; spikes about 1-1/2ft. Summer. _l._ sinuated, unarmed, heart-shaped in outline, 2ft. long by 1ft. broad. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Italy, 1548. =A. m. latifolius= (broad-leaved).* A variety of _A. mollis_, but larger and more robust in every part. This very handsome form is probably the best grown; it is one of the most suitable for sub-tropical gardening. A warm sunny spot is needful. SYN. _A. lusitanicus_. See Fig. 8. =A. montanus= (mountain).* _fl._ rose. August. _h._ 3ft. West Africa, 1865. A shrubby species. =A. niger= (black). _fl._ purplish white. July to September. _l._ sinuated, unarmed, glabrous, shining green. _h._ 3ft. Portugal, 1759. =A. spinosissimus= (most spiny).* _fl._ rosy, sessile, on a very handsome spike, with acute, recurved spines. Autumn. _l._ laciniate, pinnatifid, blistered, spiny; spines white. _h._ 3-1/2ft. South Europe, 1629. [Illustration: FIG. 8. ACANTHUS MOLLIS LATIFOLIUS.] =A. spinosus= (spiny).* _fl._ purplish, spicate; sepals spiny. Summer. _l._ deeply and regularly cut, each division terminated by a short spine. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. South Europe. See Fig. 9. =ACAULESCENT.= With apparently no stem. =ACCESSORY.= Something additional, not usually present. =ACCRETE.= Fastened with another body, and growing with it. =ACCUMBENT.= Lying against anything, in distinction to _incumbent_, or lying upon. =ACER=, (from _acer_, hard or sharp; wood is extremely hard, and was formerly much used for making pikes and lances). Maple. ORD. _Sapindaceæ_. A genus comprised, for the most part, of handsome hardy deciduous shrubs, or trees, adapted for forming shrubberies, plantations, &c. Flowers greenish, except where mentioned. _A. Pseudo-platanus_ is one of our most useful forest trees. Several of the species produce very useful timber; sugar is one of the constituent parts of the sap of all of them, and is obtained in large quantities from _A. saccharinum_, in North America. They all prefer a somewhat sheltered position. The most satisfactory soil is one free, deep, loamy, and well drained; the latter is especially desirable with some of the Japanese varieties. The varieties of _A. japonicum_, and _palmatum_ are well worth growing in pots for conservatory decoration. Propagation: By seeds, sown either in autumn or spring, covering them not more than a 1/4in. deep; the common varieties may be sown outside, while the rarer ones should be sown in a frame. By layers, and by grafting; the latter method is adopted with many of the rarer species and varieties, especially the variegated kinds; they are also readily increased by budding in summer. =A. austriacum= (Austrian). Synonymous with _A. campestre austriacum_. =A. campestre= (field).* Common Maple. _fl._ on erect racemes. May. _fr._ wings of fruit much divaricated. _l._ small, cordate, with five-toothed lobes. _h._ 20ft. Britain. A small tree with rough bark, full of deep fissures; wood often beautifully veined, when it is highly valued. =A. c. austriacum= (Austrian).* _fl._ much larger than those of the species. _fr._ smooth. Lobes of leaves somewhat acuminated. SYN. _A. austriacum_. =A. c. collinum= (hill-loving).* _fl._ smaller. _fr._ smooth. Lobes of leaves obtuse. France. =A. c. hebecarpum= (downy-fruited).* _fr._ clothed with velvety pubescence. [Illustration: FIG. 9. LEAF AND FLOWER SPIKE OF ACANTHUS SPINOSUS.] =A. c. lævigatum= (smooth-leaved). _l._ very smooth and shining. =A. c. nanum= (dwarf). Dwarf habit. =A. c. tauricum= (Taurian).* _l._ larger and less divided than in the species. =A. c. variegatum= (variegated).* _l._ beautifully variegated with blotches and stripes of white or whitish yellow; very distinct. =A. circinatum= (circinate).* _fl._ deep red, umbellate. April. _l._ seven to nine-lobed, serrulated. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. North West America, 1827. A very beautiful species, having pendulous branches clothed with leaves, which change into a bright scarlet colour in the autumn. =A. creticum= (Cretan). _fl._ on few-flowered erect corymbs. May. _fr._ smooth, with the wings hardly diverging. _l._ cuneated at the base, acutely three-lobed at the top. _h._ 4ft. Levant, 1752. Nearly evergreen. =A. dasycarpum= (thick-fruited).* _fl._ conglomerate, on short pedicels, apetalous. April. _l._ truncate at the base, palmately five-lobed, with blunt recesses, and unequally and deeply-toothed lobes. _h._ 40ft. North America, 1725. SYNS. _A. eriocarpon_, _A. tomentosum_, _A. glaucum_, and _A. virginianum_. =A. Douglasii= (Douglas). Synonymous with _A. glabrum_. =A. eriocarpon= (hairy-fruited). Synonymous with _A. dasycarpum_. =A. Ginnala= (Ginnalian).* _fl._ on compound, crowded, erect racemes. Amur River. This is generally classed as a variety of _A. tartaricum_, but its habit is much more graceful, and in this form the leaves are prettily cut and lobed, whilst the leafstalks and midrib are more deeply coloured. =A. glabrum= (smooth).* _fl._ corymbose, on short two-leaved branchlets, greenish-yellow. June. _l._ roundish-cordate, deeply three to five-lobed, or partite; the lobes biserrate, of a light green. _h._ 15ft. to 30ft. North West America. SYNS. _A. Douglasii_, _A. tripartitum_. =A. glaucum= (glaucous). Synonymous with _A. dasycarpum_. =A. heterophyllum= (various-leaved).* _fl._ corymbose. May. _l._ small, ovate, entire, and three-lobed, slightly serrated, smooth. _h._ 4ft. Levant, 1759. An evergreen. SYN. _A. sempervirens_. =A. ibericum= (Iberian). _fl._ corymbose. May. _l._ bluntly three-lobed; lobes with one or two teeth, lateral ones marked with the middle nerve to the insertion of the petiole. _h._ 20ft. Iberia, 1826. =A. japonicum= (Japanese).* _fl._ deep purplish-red, large. April. _l._ many-lobed, in early spring very light green. _h._ 20ft. Japan, 1863. The varieties of this species, although not well fixed in many cases, rank amongst the most handsome of the deciduous small shrubs grown, but often change in character as they attain any considerable size. Plants from 1-1/2ft. to 3ft. high are very useful in cool conservatories, and in the highly kept grounds surrounding the house. =A. laurifolium= (laurel-leaved). Synonymous with _A. oblongum_. =A. Lobelii= (Lobel's). _l._ very slightly heart-shaped, irregularly toothed, five-lobed; lobes more or less abruptly pointed. =A. macrophyllum= (large-leaved).* _fl._ on erect, compound, racemes. May. _l._ digitately five-palmate, with roundish recesses; lobes somewhat three-lobed. _h._ 60ft. Northern California, 1812. =A. monspessulanum= (Montpelier).* _fl._ on few-flowered corymbs, erect. May. _l._ cordate, three-lobed; lobes almost or quite entire, equal. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. South Europe, 1739. =A. montanum= (mountain). _fl._ on compound, erect racemes. May. _l._ cordate, three or slightly five-lobed, unequally and coarsely serrated. _h._ 18ft. Canada, 1750. SYN. _A. spicatum_. =A. Negundo.= _See_ =Negundo fraxinifolium=. =A. oblongum= (oblong). _fl._ on compound racemes, pale yellow. February. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acuminated, quite entire. _h._ 20ft. Nepaul, 1824. SYN. _A. laurifolium_. =A. obtusifolium= (obtuse-leaved). _fl._ drooping, corymbose. May. _l._ rounded, bluntly three-lobed, crenately serrulate, about the length of the petioles. _h._ 15ft. Crete. =A. Opalus= (Opalus). A synonym of _A. opulifolium_. =A. opulifolium= (Guelder-rose-leaved).* _fl._ on nearly sessile corymbs. May. Ovaries and fruit smooth. _l._ cordate, five-lobed; lobes obtuse, bluntly and coarsely toothed. _h._ 8ft. France, 1823. SYN. _A. Opalus_. =A. o. obtusatum= (bluntish).* A larger, strong growing, round-headed tree, with dark green leaves, which are covered with a whitish or rusty tomentum on the under surface. =A. palmatum= (palmate-leaved).* _fl._ on five to seven-flowered umbels. May. _l._ palmately divided into five to seven lobes beyond the middle; lobes oblong, acuminated, serrated. _h._ 20ft. Japan, 1820. =A. p. atropurpureum= (dark purple).* A vigorous handsome plant, with bold dark purple foliage. Japan. =A. p. crispum= (crispy or waved).* _l._ green, with red stalked, convoluted edges. Japan, 1871. Very distinct, and like a miniature Lombardy poplar in habit of growth. =A. p. dissectum= (finely-divided).* _fl._ red, on terminal-stalked racemes, five to six-flowered. May. _l._ nine to ten parted; lobes oblong, acuminated, deeply serrated. _h._ 30ft. Japan, 1845. =A. p. ornatum= (beautiful).* Very ornamental, having finely cut deep red leaves, with lighter midribs. Japan, 1871. This variety is also known as _dissectum_. =A. p. palmatifidum= (palmatifid).* _l._ very finely palmately divided, the lobes cut down quite to the midrib, of a beautiful light green colour. 1875. =A. p. reticulatum= (netted).* _l._ palmately seven-lobed; lobes unequal, sharply serrate, emerald green, with dark green veins. Japan, 1875. A very elegant variety, with slender branches. =A. p. roseo-marginatum= (rose-margined).* _l._ freely divided, the lobes deeply cut, light green, margined with rose. Japan, 1874. A very distinct and charming variety. =A. p. sanguineum= (blood-red).* _l._ deeply five-lobed, the lobes serrated, of a deep reddish-crimson colour, much brighter than the variety _atropurpureum_. 1874. This presents a very striking contrast to the last. =A. p. septemlobum= (seven-lobed).* _fl._ purplish, on numerous flowered umbels. Spring. _l._ varying much, from palmately five-lobed, with toothed undivided lobes, to deeply seven to nine-lobed, with more or less finely cut divisions. Japan, 1864. There are numerous beautiful forms of this variety. There are many varieties of this much varying species, but we have only mentioned those best known; many are only known by their native names, and there is some doubt as to their distinctive characteristics. They are all extremely handsome. =A. pennsylvanicum= (Pennsylvanian).* _fl._ in long drooping, simple racemes. May. _l._ cordate, three-lobed, acuminated, finely and acutely serrated. _h._ 20ft. Trunk elegantly striped with white lines. North America, 1755. SYN. _A. striatum_. =A. pictum= (painted).* _fl._ corymbose, stalked. _l._ five to seven-lobed; lobes triangular or oblong, entire, acuminated. _h._ 15ft. to 20ft. Temperate Asia, 1840. _A. p. connivens_ (converging), _A. p. marmoratum_ (spotted), _A. p. rubrum_ (red), and _A. p. variegatum_ (variegated), are varieties differing principally in the colouring of the leaves. All are very desirable. =A. platanoides= (plane-like).* The Norway Maple. _fl._ on nearly erect stalked corymbs. May, June. _l._ cordate, smooth, five-lobed; lobes acuminated, with a few coarse acute teeth. _h._ 50ft. Europe, 1683. A very ornamental hardy tree, growing with great rapidity when young. It prefers a deep, well-drained soil. =A. p. aureo variegatum= (golden-variegated).* _l._ variegated with yellow. Europe, 1383. This, to retain the variegation, requires to be propagated by budding or grafting. The same remarks are equally applicable to the other varieties. =A. p. laciniatum= (cut-leaved).* _l._ deeply and variously cut, green and yellow. =A. p. Schwedleri= (Schwedler's).* _l._ very large, deep bronzy-red. A vigorous grower, and most effective. =A. p. variegatum= (variegated).* _l._ variegated with white. There are several other varieties, but of less importance than the foregoing. =A. Pseudo-platanus= (Mock-plane tree).* Sycamore. _fl._ on rather compound pendulous racemes. May. _l._ cordate, with five acuminated unequally-toothed lobes. _h._ 30ft. to 60ft. Europe. There are few deciduous trees so well adapted for standing singly in rough exposed situations. A deep, soft, dry soil is most suitable for it, but it will grow in soils of very opposite qualities. =A. P. albo variegata= (white-variegated).* A very beautiful form, in spring especially. _l._ white and green. =A. P. flavo variegata= (yellow-variegated). _l._ variegated with yellow. =A. P. longifolia= (long-leaved).* _l._ more deeply cut, and the petioles much longer than in the species. =A. P. purpureum= (purple).* _l._ purple underneath. The tree, when slightly ruffled by the wind, alternately appearing clothed in purple and pale green. Numerous other varieties of more or less excellence are grown. =A. rubrum= (red).* Scarlet Maple. _fl._ scarlet, handsome, conglomerate, corymbose. _l._ cordate at the base, deeply and unequally toothed, palmately five-lobed, with acute recesses. Branches and fruit also scarlet. _h._ 20ft. Canada, 1656. A variety with leaves splashed with yellow is rare. An excellent species, thriving well in damp, swampy situations, and is commonly increased by layers. =A. rufinerve= (red-nerved).* "The leaves vary both in size and outline, from 2-1/2in. to 4in. each way; three to five-lobed, with irregularly toothed margins, glabrous above, but with reddish hairs along the nerves beneath. The young branches are conspicuous on account of the bluish-grey glaucescence with which they are covered." =A. r. albo-limbatum= (white-margined).* differs only from the species in having a very distinct white margin--not always constant. Japan, 1869. =A. saccharinum= (Sugar Maple).* _fl._ yellow, on drooping corymbs, on short peduncles; pedicels pilose. April. _l._ cordate, smooth, palmately five-lobed; lobes accuminated, sinuately toothed. _h._ 40ft. N. America, 1735. =A. s. nigrum= (blackish).* _fl._ on sessile corymbs, nodding. April, May. _l._ cordate, with the recess closed; palmately five-lobed. _h._ 40ft. North America, 1812. =A. Semenovi= (Semenov's).* A slender and graceful species, with leaves closely resembling those of _A. Ginnala_, but smaller. Turkestan, 1879. =A. sempervirens= (evergreen). Synonymous with _A. heterophyllum_. =A. spicatum= (spiked). Synonymous with _A. montanum_. =A. striatum= (striated). Synonymous with _A. pennsylvanicum_. =A. tartaricum= (Tartarian).* _fl._ white, on crowded, erect, compound racemes. May. _l._ more or less cordate, acuminated, serrated, with obsolete lobes. _h._ 20ft. 1759. This species is one of the first to expand its leaves in spring. =A. tomentosum= (tomentose). Synonymous with _A. dasycarpum_. =A. tripartitum= (three-parted). Synonymous with _A. glabrum_. =A. Van Volxemii= (Van Volxem's). _fl._ not known in England. _l._ palmately three to five-lobed, very large, light green above, silvery and quite glabrous beneath. Caucasus, 1877. Distinct and fine. =A. villosum= (hairy). _fl._ fragrant, on lateral racemes. April. Buds, fruit, and young leaves, silky, villous. _l._ cordate, five-lobed, villous beneath as well as the petioles; lobes ovate acute. _h._ 50ft. Himalaya, at high elevations. Not hardy. =A. virginianum= (Virginian). Synonymous with _A. dasycarpum_. =ACERACE�.= An order of very ornamental hardy trees, of which the sycamore and maple are well-known representatives. =ACERAS= (from _a_, without, and _keras_, a horn; the lip having no spur). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. An interesting genus of terrestrial orchids. Calyx of three ovate, equal, converging sepals; petals two, narrow, oblong; lip spurless, much longer than the calyx, narrow, oblong, with four linear lobes. The most interesting species is the native one. Indigenous to dry, chalky pastures in the south-east of England, and it will only thrive in similar soils when grown in gardens. Propagated by careful divisions of tubers only. [Illustration: FIG. 10. FLOWER OF ACERAS ANTHROPOPHORA.] =A. anthropophora= (The Green Man Orchis). _fl._ greenish, on a long spike, lip longer than the ovary; lip and petals often margined with red. June. _l._ lanceolate. _h._ 1ft. See Fig. 10. =ACERATIUM= (from _a_, not, and _keras_, a horn; the stamens being destitute of the terminal bristles so conspicuous in its near ally, _Elæocarpus_). ORD. _Tiliaceæ_. An interesting stove evergreen tree, very closely allied to _Tilia_. It thrives well in a mixture of loam and peat, and is increased by ripe cuttings, which root readily if placed in sand, under a hand glass, in heat. =A. oppositifolium= (opposite-leaved).* _fl._ white, on terminal three-flowered peduncles. June. _l._ opposite, elliptic-oblong, furnished with a few mucronated teeth. _h._ 20ft. Amboyna, 1818. =ACEROSE, ACEROSUS.= Needle-pointed, fine, and slender, with a sharp point. =ACETARIOUS.= An adjective applied to plants used in salads. =ACEUS.= A termination expressing a resemblance to the thing whose name it terminates--_foliaceus_, leaf-like, of the texture of a leaf or _folium_. =ACHANIA.= _See_ =Malvaviscus=. =ACHENE.= A hard, dry, one-seeded, superior seed-vessel. =ACHERONTIA ATROPOS.= _See_ =Sphinx Atropos=. =ACHILLEA= (named after Achilles, who is said to have first discovered the medicinal qualities of this plant). Including _Ptarmica_. Milfoil. ORD. _Compositæ_. A large genus (about fifty species), containing numerous hardy, border and alpine plants. Flower-heads small, corymbose; involucral scales oblong, often with a shrivelled appearance; receptacle with membranous scales, resembling chaff; ray florets few, sometimes rather large and showy; pappus none. Leaves ternate, simple or compound. All the species are easily cultivated in ordinary garden soil. _A. Eupatorium_ and other large-growing kinds are well suited for borders or groups, whilst the alpine section should be planted on the rockery. A great number of species, although excellent for naturalising in rough shrubberies, are totally unfitted for garden culture. Propagated, during spring, by root divisions, cuttings, and seeds. =A. ægyptiaca= (Egyptian).* _fl.-heads_ rich bright yellow, in closely packed terminal corymbs, which are from 2in. to 4in. across. Summer. _l._ pinnate; leaflets obtusely lanceolate, serrate, silvery white, 6in. to 8in. long. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2-1/2ft. Levant, 1640. Handsome perennial, thriving best in a warm position. =A. Ageratum= (ageratum-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ pure white, large, borne singly on stalks about 6in. or 8in. high. Summer. _l._ narrow, arranged in a dense silvery rosette, the margins prettily crimped. Greece. A pretty alpine, of compact habit. =A. asplenifolia= (asplenium-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ rose-coloured, small, in a compound corymb. June to September. _l._ lower ones stalked, pinnatifid, lobes pinnate; upper ones pinnate. _h._ 18in. North America, 1803. =A. atrata= (black-cupped).* _fl.-heads_ white. August. _l._ in a rosette, pinnatifid, deep shining green. Austria, 1596. A pretty alpine. =A. aurea= (golden-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ golden yellow, borne singly on stems 18in. high. Summer and autumn. _l._ larger than in _A. ageratifolia_, with which species it is sometimes confused. Levant, 1739. Habit tufted. Requires a warm position. [Illustration: FIG. 11. ACHILLEA CLAVENN�, showing Habit and detached Flower-heads.] =A. Clavennæ= (Clavenna's).* _fl.-heads_ white, in neat and compact heads. Spring and summer. _l._ bipinnatifid; segments linear, obtuse, slightly denticulated at the apex. _h._ 10in. Austria, 1656. A very neat and pretty species, having dwarf tufted habit and a hoary appearance. See Fig. 11. =A. decolorans= (staining). _fl.-heads_ whitish yellow. July. _l._ undivided. _h._ 1ft. Native country unknown. 1798. [Illustration: FIG. 12. ACHILLEA EUPATORIUM, showing Habit and detached Flower-head.] =A. Eupatorium= (fern-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ brilliant yellow, in dense convex, compound corymbs, which are often 5in. across, lasting two months in full beauty. June to September. _l._ numerous, linear, pinnate, lobed and serrated, hairy, rough. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. Caucasus, 1803. This noble plant should be grown at the back of the border, and kept neatly staked. SYN. _A. filipendula_. See Fig. 12. =A. filipendula= (dropwort-leaved). Synonymous with _A. Eupatorium_. =A. Herba-rota= (Herba-rota).* _fl.-heads_ white, in lax corymbs, on slender stems. May. _l._ lanceolate, serrated. _h._ 6in. France, 1640. When touched, this pretty little plant gives off an agreeable aromatic perfume. To attain full beauty it requires sandy loam and a sunny position. _A. macrophylla_ (large-leaved). _fl.-heads_ white. July. _l._ long and broad pinnate; leaflets horizontal. _h._ 3ft. Italy, 1810. =A. Millefolium roseum= (rosy).* _fl.-heads_ rose-coloured, in small ovoid heads, which are produced continuously for several months. _l._ strap-shaped; segments very narrow. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. England. It is well worth growing, both as a border plant, and for cutting purposes. =A. mongolica= (Mongolian). _fl.-heads_ white. July. _l._ undivided. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Siberia, 1818. =A. moschata= (musky).* _fl.-heads_ white, in lax corymbs. June. _h._ 6in. _l._ bright green, about 2in. long, pinnatifid. Italy, 1775. A pretty tufted alpine. =A. nana= (dwarf). _fl.-heads_ white. June to August. _l._ pinnate; leaflets horizontal. _h._ 6in. Italy, 1759. A rockery species. =A. odorata= (sweet-scented). _fl.-heads_ white, fragrant. June to August. _l._ bipinnate. _h._ 6in. Spain, 1729. =A. pectinata= (comb-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ white. June. _l._ bright green, about 2in. long, pinnatifid. Italy, 1775. A pretty tufted alpine. =A. Ptarmica flore-pleno= (double sneezewort).* _fl.-heads_ pure white, freely produced in terminal corymbs. All through the summer and autumn. _l._ lanceolate, serrulate. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. England. This is one of the most useful white border perennials grown, increasing very readily. When out of flower the stems should be cut down to the surface. =A. santolinoides= (lavender-cotton-like). _fl.-heads_ white. July. _l._ pinnate; leaflets transverse. _h._ 1ft. Spain. =A. serrata= (serrated).* _fl.-heads_ clear white, large, in small corymbose clusters, forming a somewhat spreading panicle. Summer. _l._ white, with adpressed hairs, sessile, lanceolate, deeply serrated. _h._ 15in. Switzerland, 1686. [Illustration: FIG. 13. ACHILLEA TOMENTOSA, showing Habit and detached Portion of Inflorescence.] =A. tomentosa= (downy).* _fl.-heads_ bright yellow, in repeatedly compound corymbs. Summer. _l._ woolly, bipinnatifid; segments linear, acute. _h._ 8in. to 12in. Europe. One of the best yellow-flowered species for the rock garden, having a dense habit. See Fig. 13. =A. umbellata= (umbel-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ white, six to eight in a simple umbel. June. _l._ regularly lobed; lobes obovate, entire; clothed with a dense, silvery pubescence, on which account the plant is chiefly cultivated. _h._ 4in. to 5in. Greece. A very pretty, dwarf rock plant. =A. vallesiaca= (Vallesian). _fl.-heads_ white. June to August. _l._ pinnate; leaflets horizontal. _h._ 1ft. Switzerland, 1819. =ACHIMENES= (from _cheimaino_, to suffer from cold; alluding to the general tenderness of the species). Including _Scheeria_. ORD. _Gesneraceæ_. A large genus of handsome, stove or warm greenhouse, branched, generally hairy, herbaceous perennials, with scaly, catkin-like stolons underground (see Fig. 14), and sometimes from the axils of the leaves. Corolla funnel-shaped; tube rather oblique, gibbous behind at the base; pedicels one-flowered, axillary, solitary or fasciculated, bracteated. Leaves opposite, or three in a whorl, serrated. [Illustration: FIG. 14. ROOT OF THE ACHIMENE, showing Tubercles.] [Illustration: FIG. 15. BOUQUET OF VARIOUS ACHIMENES.] To be successfully cultivated, they must be started and grown in stove heat till they commence flowering, when they may be removed to the conservatory or greenhouse, there to remain till after flowering. Batches of tubercles should be started in heat from February till the end of April, so as to give a succession of blossom. Shake each variety out of the old compost and insert separately in light, sandy soil; water sparingly at first, but when active they may receive more frequent supplies. When the shoots are about 2in. high, the tubercles may be transplanted to the pots, pans, or baskets in which it is intended to grow them, using as potting compost fibrous peat and leaf-soil in equal proportions, with about a sixth part of sheep's or rotten cow manure, and sufficient silver sand to make the whole porous and of a whitish appearance. Thorough drainage is indispensable, and a layer of the rougher soil, or sphagnum, should be placed over the potsherds, to prevent the loose soil stopping the drainage. Place the pans as near the glass as possible, and shade from bright sunshine. Give liberal supplies of water, with occasional doses of liquid manure; and, as the shoots lengthen, they may be pinched, to induce sturdy growth and a larger number of flowering branches. Place neat stakes to each stem, and keep well tied, arranging the stakes as symmetrically as possible, so as to ensure an even outline, but do not allow them to be seen. Light syringing with clear water, morning and evening, is beneficial. After the plants have done flowering, they should gradually have less water as the foliage and stems decay; a light airy situation is needed to mature and ripen the tubers. When the tops are quite dead, they may be removed, and the pots stored on the sides in any warm dry corner where the temperature will not fall below 50deg., keeping the plants quite dry until the time of starting again. Achimenes are liable to attacks of thrips, red-spider, and green-fly, especially if the atmosphere is kept dry; these are easily destroyed by fumigation with tobacco. This must only be done when the foliage is quite dry, otherwise the plants will suffer. Achimenes are especially beautiful when well arranged, especially if two or three varieties are mixed together, as white, red, and purple (Fig. 15). There are several methods of increasing these:--(1) By cuttings; these need not be cut off at a joint, as they will root from any portion of the stem. Insert them thickly in well-drained pots of sandy soil--say a mixture of equal parts of peat and sand--and place in bottom heat. (2) By leaves, which should be severed from the stems, and pricked in pots of similar soil to the cuttings, placing all the petiole below the surface; stand the pots in bottom heat. (3) By scales from the corms, which should be carefully rubbed off and sown, like seeds, in pots or pans of the same compost, barely covered with sand, and placed in bottom heat. (4) By seeds, which are very small, and, consequently, require to be carefully sown. The pans must be thoroughly drained and filled nearly to the rim, levelled, and well watered with a fine rose, after which the seed should be thinly scattered, covered very lightly with sand, and placed in a shady position. Keep nicely moist, and apply water very lightly, or the tiny germs will be disturbed. Place a sheet of glass over the seed-pans. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, they may be pricked off and afterwards treated like rooted cuttings. The best time for all modes of propagating is early spring. [Illustration: FIG. 16. FLOWER OF ACHIMENES LONGIFLORA.] =A. atrosanguinea= (dark-crimson).* _fl._ crimson; tube of corolla 1-1/2.in. long, cylindrical, saccate at base, pilose; limb small, spreading; peduncle one-flowered. July, August. _l._ pilose, oblong, sub-cordate, serrated, unequal. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Guatemala, 1848. =A. candida= (white).* _fl._ white; tube of corolla gibbous at base; limb oblique, the front segment largest; peduncles axillary, pilose, three-flowered. June. _l._ unequal, oblique at base, serrated, pilose. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Guatemala, 1848. =A. coccinea= (scarlet).* _fl._ scarlet; peduncles solitary, axillary. August. _l._ three in a whorl, ovate, acuminated, serrated, with minute leaves in the axils. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Jamaica, 1778. =A. cupreata= (coppery). _fl._ scarlet; calyx spotted inside, with a fringed mouth; petals ciliately toothed; peduncles one-flowered. April. _l._ elliptic, serrated, wrinkled, coloured. _h._ 6in. Mexico, 1845. Plant creeping, downy. =A. gloxiniæflora= (gloxinia-flowered).* _fl._ whitish, large, axillary; tube of corolla 2in. long; limb broad, spreading; lobes finely serrated, dotted with purple inside. June. _l._ serrated from middle to top. Stem slender, flexuous. _h._ 1ft. Mexico, 1845. =A. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ violet purple, very large, solitary, axillary; limbs of corolla spreading. June. _l._ equal, ovate, oblique at base, sparingly serrated. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Mexico, 1842. =A. heterophylla= (various-leaved). _fl._ solitary or twin; corolla scarlet; lobes ciliated. July. _l._ opposite, one smaller than the other, cordate ovate, acuminated, coarsely serrated. _h._ 1ft. Mexico. Plant rather hairy. =A. hirsuta= (hairy). _fl._ reddish, with yellow eye; limb of corolla flat, with rounded serrulate segments; peduncles one-flowered. July. _l._ cordate, serrated. _h._ 2-1/2ft. Stem bulbiferous. Guatemala, 1842. Plant hairy. =A. Kleei= (Klee's).* _fl._ lilac; corolla dark near the mouth, with a dash of yellow in the throat; calyx downy; peduncles one-flowered. August. _l._ ovate, acuminate, serrated. _h._ 6in. Guatemala, 1848. Plant hairy. =A. longiflora= (long-flowered).* _fl._ violet; segments of calyx lanceolate, erect; corolla with a long tube, and an ample spreading limb; pedicels one-flowered. July and August. _l._ three to four in a whorl, ovate or oblong, coarsely serrated. _h._ 1ft. Guatemala, 1841. Plant hairy. See Fig. 16. =A. multiflora= (many-flowered).* _fl._ pale lilac; sepals linear; corolla funnel-shape; tube curved; lobes roundish, lower one fringed; peduncles axillary, three to five-flowered. August. _l._ opposite, or three in a whorl, ovate, deeply and doubly serrated. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1843. Plant hairy. =A. ocellata= (eye-spotted).* _fl._ reddish yellow, with dark spots, solitary, drooping; petals nearly equally spotted. Autumn. _l._ on longish petioles, ovate, acuminate, serrated, wrinkled, coloured beneath. _h._ 1-1/2ft. 1845. Plant hairy. =A. patens= (spreading). _fl._ violet, blue; calyx downy; tube of corolla shorter than limb, which is spreading. June. _l._ ovate, acuminate, hispid above, serrate. _h._ 1ft. Mexico, 1845. =A. pedunculata= (long-stalked).* _fl._ scarlet, with yellow eye; corolla drooping, gibbous at base; peduncles in the axils of the upper leaves. July. _l._ rather unequal, obliquely cordate, ovate, serrated. _h._ 2ft. Stem simple, downy. Guatemala, 1840. =A. picta= (painted).* _fl._ scarlet, with yellow eye; tube of calyx turbinate; lobes of corolla roundish, three lower ones smallest; peduncles solitary or two-flowered, axillary one-flowered. July. _l._ opposite, or three in a whorl, cordate-ovate, coarsely serrated, velvety, and elegantly painted. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Mexico, 1843. =A. rosea= (rosy). _fl._ rose, pilose; limb of corolla equal to tube; peduncles filiform, many-flowered. June. _l._ sometimes three in a whorl, pilose. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Guatemala, 1848. The foregoing are the most important species known. Hybrid varieties are innumerable, and even surpass the species in beauty, the best of which are enumerated below in their respective colours. =Blue and Purple Flowered.= ADVANCE,* flowers reddish-purple, lighter at the eye, dwarf, and free habit; ARGUS,* rich plum, with deep orange eye, large and free; DR. BUENZOD,* flowers rich crimson purple, spotted with orange in the centre, very free; EXCELSIOR, rich violet-purple, very large and free, with compact habit; GEM,* flowers small, of good form, rich carmine-purple; GIBSONI,* flowers very large, clear mauve, with the tube white outside; GRANDIS, rich violet purple, with large orange eye, carmine shaded, a charming variety; LADY SCARSDALE,* flowers of fair size, very free, rich plum purple, shaded carmine; LONGIFLORA MAJOR,* a stronger grower than the type, freely producing large rich blue flowers, one of the finest varieties grown; MADAME GEORGE, deep purple shaded crimson; MAUVE QUEEN,* flowers very large, of a distinct mauve, with a brownish eye-shade, very profuse, with a grand habit, one of the best; PURPUREA ELEGANS,* deep claret purple, orange throat with dark spots, a very attractive variety; ROLLISONII,* flowers large, deep lavender-blue, yellow throat, spotted with deep crimson, very effective; VIVICANS,* dark carmine-purple, with crimson eye, a few blue rays streaking from the eye, habit good, and very free. =Crimson and Scarlet Flowered.= AURORA,* rich rosy-scarlet, with yellow throat, very large, fully 2in. across; CARL WOOLFORTH,* deep crimson, shaded lighter at the eye, very free; DAZZLE, flowers small, brilliant scarlet, pale yellow eye, very pretty and free; DIADEM,* crimson lake, shaded carmine, with deep yellow eye; ECLIPSE,* rich orange-scarlet, spotted with carmine, extremely floriferous, with a good habit; FIREFLY,* deep carmine red, golden eye, spotted with crimson, one of the best; HARRY WILLIAMS,* bright cerise red, yellow, maroon spotted, the edge prettily fringed, a very charming variety; LOVELINESS, rich magenta crimson, golden eye, spotted with maroon; METEOR, flowers rather large, bright crimson-scarlet, yellow eye, spotted carmine, very dwarf and free; SCARLET PERFECTION,* rich carmine-scarlet, deep orange eye, very beautiful; SIR TREHERN THOMAS,* deep crimson-lake, very profuse, with a good habit; STELLA, deep magenta, with orange eye, the margins fringed, very large and free, 2in. or more across; WILLIAMSII,* flowers large, stout, brilliant scarlet, orange throat, habit dwarf and free-branching, one of the finest varieties grown. =Orange-Flowered.= GEORGIANA DISCOLOR, flowers large, bright orange, with a distinct yellow centre; HENDERSONI,* rich orange-salmon, with yellow eye; MAGNET,* deep orange, spotted with crimson, with a distinct carmine zone, a very free-flowering and beautiful variety; PARSONSI* is a decided improvement upon the last. =Rose-Flowered.= ADMIRATION, deep rose, white throat, spotted with carmine; CARMINIATA SPLENDENS,* bright rose yellow, spotted in the centre, a charming variety; LEOPARD, bright magenta rose, freely spotted at the throat; LONGIFLORA ROSA,* rich lilac rose, deeper in centre, of medium size, very free and dwarf; MASTERPIECE,* deep rose, violet shaded, with a distinct white throat; _Pink Perfection_,* rich rose, the eye rich carmine and violet rayed, one of the best; ROSEA MAGNIFICA,* bright rose, with a yellow eye, very finely spotted, a very lovely variety; ROSE QUEEN,* flowers very large, rich rosy-lake, shaded deep purple, with a well defined orange throat; UNIQUE,* rosy-pink, deep yellow eye, spotted crimson, a very charming variety. =White-Flowered.= AMBROSE VERSCHAFFELT,* flowers of good size, pure white, with a dark rayed centre; LONGIFLORA ALBA,* similar in form and habit to Longiflora, but with large white flowers, slightly marked in the centre; MADAME A. VERSCHAFFELT,* flowers large, pure white ground, heavily veined with purple, a very attractive variety; MARGARETTA,* flowers of medium size, pure white, and destitute of any markings whatever. =ACHLAMYDEOUS.= Without floral envelope. =ACHRAS.= _See_ =Sapota=. =ACHYRANTHES.= _See_ =Chamissoa= and =Iresine=. =ACHYRONIA.= Included under =Priestleya= (which _see_). =ACHYROPAPPUS.= Included under =Schkuhria= (which _see_). =ACICULAR.= Needle-shaped. =ACINETA= (from _akineta_, immovable; the lip being jointless). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A small genus of cool house, robust, sub-terrestrial orchids allied to _Peristeria_. Flowers sub-globose, fleshy, arranged on stout, pendulous racemes. Leaves lanceolate, membranous, ribbed. Pseudo-bulbs angular, about as large as hens' eggs. The compost should consist of equal parts of fibrous peat and living sphagnum. In planting, first place a somewhat thick layer of the moss all round the inside of the basket, and press the soil firmly round the plant. During the growing season, the baskets should be taken down twice or three times a week and dipped into a tub of water, so that the whole may become saturated. In addition, the plants should be sprinkled with the syringe morning and evening, for they delight in an abundant supply of water and plenty of shade. When the growth is finished, they must be kept very dry, an occasional syringing, to keep the leaves from shrivelling, being all that is necessary. =A. Arcei= (Arce's). _fl._ yellow. Central America, 1866. =A. Barkeri= (Barker's).* _fl._ yellow and dark crimson, on stout scapes, produced from the base of the bulbs, and bearing fifteen to thirty fragrant flowers. Midsummer. _l._ broadly lanceolate, 2ft. long. Pseudo-bulbs 5in. to 7in. long. Mexico, 1837. SYN. _Peristeria Barkeri_. =A. chrysantha= (yellow-flowered).* _fl._ yellow, white, and crimson, fragrant; lower part of the lip having a blunt, papillose horn; racemes erect. May. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1850. =A. densa= (dense-flowered).* _fl._ sub-globose, and of a waxy consistence, lemon-yellow, dotted brown, sweet-scented; racemes rather short. Costa Rica, 1849. A robust-growing species, very like _A. Barkeri_. SYN. _A. Warczewiczii_. =A. Humboldtii= (Humboldt's).* _fl._ straw-colour, dotted with brown; scapes 2ft. long. May. _l._ broadly lanceolate, generally four. Columbia, 1872. A handsome species, but the flowers speedily fade. SYNS. _Anguloa superba_, _Peristeria Humboldtii fulva_. =A. sulcata= (grooved). _fl._ bright yellow. Columbia, 1879. Very like the last species, from which it differs in mere botanical detail. =A. Warczewiczii= (Warczewicz's). A synonym of _A. densa_. =ACINOS.= _See_ =Calamintha=. =ACIOTIS= (from _akis_, a point, and _ous_, an ear; in allusion to the shape of the petals). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. A small genus of pretty, stove, evergreen plants. Flowers small; panicles slender, loose, terminal; petals four, obliquely awned at the apex. Leaves thin, membranous. For culture, _see_ =Melastoma=.. =A. aquatica= (water-loving). _fl._ white, small, on loose, terminal, filiform panicles. June. _l._ cordate, ovate-oblong. _h._ 6in. to 12in. South America, 1793. The pots in which this species is grown should be kept in pans of water. =A. discolor= (various-coloured).* _fl._ small, red, in spicate racemes. _l._ petiolate, elliptic-oblong, purple beneath, deep shining green above. _h._ 1ft. Trinidad, 1816. =ACIPHYLLA= (from _ake_, a point, and _phyllon_, a leaf, referring to the sharply pointed segments of the leaf). ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. A genus of curious and remarkable erect hardy perennials, with densely fascicled, spicate, or panicled umbels of flowers; and pinnate or bi-tripinnate leaves. They are most suited for the rockwork, in a light sandy soil. Propagated by seeds or divisions in spring. =A. Colensoi= (Colenso's).* _fl._ white. This extraordinary evergreen forms a circular bush, 5ft. or 6ft. in. diameter, of bayonet-like spines, having flowering stems 6ft. to 9ft. high, covered with spreading spinous leaflets. New Zealand, 1875. =A. squarrosa= (rough-headed).* _fl._ white. _h._ 6ft. to 9ft. New Zealand. More frequently met with than the preceding, of very dense growth. Commonly known as the Bayonet Plant. =ACIS= (named after Acis, shepherd of Sicily, son of Faunus and the nymph Simæthis). ORD. _Amaryllidaceæ_. A genus of very pretty dwarf bulbous plants, suitable for the rockery, in sunny sheltered situations. This genus was formerly included with _Leucojum_, from which it is distinguished by its dwarf slender habit, filiform style, and membranous capsule. All are delicate little plants, with narrow linear leaves and bell-shaped flowers. They require a free, open, rich soil, and should remain and bloom undisturbed for years; divide the clumps every three or four years, and renew the soil. =A. autumnalis= (autumn-blooming).* _fl._, perianth white, delicate pink at the base, preceding the leaves; two to three on a stem. Autumn. _l._ few in number, very slender, sheathing the stems at the base. _h._ 4in. to 6in. Portugal, 1629. A charming species, and the only one at all common. =A. grandiflorus= (large-flowered).* _fl._, perianth white, larger than those of the last. August. _h._ 6in. Numidia, 1820. Somewhat rare in cultivation. =A. roseus= (rose-coloured).* _fl._, perianth rose red, not more than 1/4in. long; scape one to three-flowered. August. _l._ narrow, blunt, linear. _h._ 3in. Corsica, 1820. Very rare. =A. tingitanum= (Tangiers). Of recent introduction; has a many-flowered umbel, and very long leaves. =A. trichophyllus= (hair-leaved).* _fl._, perianth white, about 1/2in. long; segments loosely nerved, with a faint flush of red at the base. January. _h._ 6 in. Spain, 1820. =ACISANTHERA= (from _akis_, a point, and _anthera_, an anther; anthers jointed). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. A monotypic stove genus allied to Rhexia, of semi-shrubby habit. It grows well in a mixture of loam, sand, and peat; and cuttings root freely in the same soil in stove temperature. =A. quadrata= (square-branched). _fl._ purple, ventricose, alternate, axillary, solitary. July. _l._ three-nerved, ovate, crenated; branches square. Habit erect, branched at the apex. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Jamaica, 1804. More curious than ornamental. =ACMADENIA= (from _akme_, a point, and _aden_, a gland; in allusion to the anthers being terminated by pointed glands). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. A small genus of beautiful greenhouse shrubs. Flowers terminal, solitary, or few, furnished with imbricate sepal-like bracts; petals five, with long claws, which are bearded on the inside. Leaves imbricate, linear-oblong, or roundish. They thrive best in a mixture of peat and sand, with a little turfy loam; thorough drainage is also necessary. Young cuttings pricked in a pot of very sandy soil, covered with a bell glass, and shaded, will root freely in a cool house. =A. tetragona= (four-angled).* _fl._ white, large, sessile, solitary. June. _l._ roundish-rhomboidal, with scabrous margins. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1798. =ACMENA= (from _Acmenæ_, nymphs of Venus, who had an altar at Olympia). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. A small genus of greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Flowers in dense trichotomous cymes, with five small distant petals, and very conspicuous and pretty berries. They grow well in an equal mixture of peat, loam, and sand. Propagated readily by placing half-ripened cuttings in sand, under a glass, without heat. =A. floribunda= (many-flowered).* _fl._ white, in threes, disposed in a terminal panicled thyrse. May to September. _l._ full of pellucid dots, oval-lanceolate, acuminated at both ends. Berries globose, bright purple. _h._ 4ft. New Holland, 1790. =A. ovata= (ovate-leaved).* A new species, having, according to Mr. W. Bull, ovate leaves, which, along with the stems and petioles, are dark purple, giving the plants, when making new growth, a striking appearance. It has a neat habit. =ACOKANTHERA.= _See_ =Toxicophl�a=. =ACONIOPTERIS.= _See_ =Acrostichum=. =ACONITE.= _See_ =Aconitum=. =ACONITE, WINTER.= _See_ =Eranthis=. =ACONITUM= (from _Aconæ_, or _Acone_, a harbour of Heraclea, in Bithynia, near where it is said to abound). Aconite; Monk's Hood; Wolf's Bane. ORD. _Ranunculaceæ_. An extensive genus of very ornamental hardy perennials. Flowers in terminal racemes; sepals five, the upper one helmet shaped, the two sides broader than the two back ones; petals five, small, the two upper with long claws hooded at the tip; the three inferior smaller or undeveloped. Leaves palmate. They thrive well in any ordinary garden soil. If left undisturbed for several years, they will attain a goodly size, and produce fine panicles of handsome flowers. They are invaluable for growing beneath the shade of trees, where they succeed better than almost any other class of plants. All are very easily propagated by divisions of the roots and seeds; the latter should be sown as soon as ripe in a cold frame. Care should be taken not to leave pieces of the roots about, for, with but one exception, those of all the species are very poisonous. Although very unlike horse-radish, they have frequently been mistaken for it, with fatal results; and none of the species should be cultivated in or near the kitchen garden. Sect. I. Roots Tuberous. =A. acuminatum= (taper-pointed). _fl._ bluish purple; spur capitate; helmet closed, conical, beaked. July. _l._ with cuneate, bipinnate lobes. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Switzerland, 1819. =A. album= (white-flowered).* _fl._ pure white, large, with erect helmet, very freely produced. _l._ dark green, with oblong-cuneate divisions. August. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. Levant, 1752. This is a rare and very handsome species. =A. alpinum= (alpine). Synonymous with _A. rostratum_. =A. ampliflorum= (large-flowered). _fl._ bluish-purple, large; spur obtuse, straight. June. _l._ with blunt segments. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Austria, 1823. =A. angustifolium= (narrow-leaved).* _fl._ deep blue, in spiked panicles; spur capitate; helmet closed, hemispherical; lip bifid. June. _l._ palmately cut into linear lobes. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Siberia, 1824. =A. biflorum= (twin-flowered).* _fl._ pale blue, usually twin, sessile, the middle rather obscure and with yellowish edges, covered on the back with spreading down; spur truncate; helmet depressed; beak drawn out. June. _l._ lower ones on long stalks, with linear segments. _h._ 6in. Siberia, 1817. A very rare alpine species. =A. Cammarum= (Cammarum). _fl._ rich deep purple, on rather loose spikes; spur capitate; helmet closed, hemispherical. July to September. _l._ with short, bluntish lobes. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Austria, 1752. =A. cernuum= (drooping). _fl._ violet, large, on nodding, loose, hairy racemes; spur capitate, or a little hooked; helmet large, arched, beaked. July and August. _l._ with trapeziform, pinnate lobes. Branches axillary, spreading. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Europe, 1800. =A. delphinifolium= (Delphinium-leaved).* _fl._ pale bluish purple, large, on loose racemes; spur a little hooked; helmet hemispherical. June. _l._ smooth, deeply cut into five parts. Stems slender. _h._ 6in. to 2ft. North America, 1820. A rare alpine species. =A. elatum= (tall). _fl._ blue, very large, in loose panicled spikes; peduncles pubescent; spur capitate, inclining. June. _l._ with linear acute segments. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Europe, 1822. =A. eminens= (eminent).* _fl._ blue, on erectly spreading pubescent peduncles; spur capitate; helmet closed; lip very long, refracted. June. _l._ with cuneate bipinnate lobes. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Europe, 1800. =A. eriostemon= (woolly-stamened). _fl._ bluish-purple, disposed in long, beautiful, erect-spreading spikes; spur capitate; helmet closed, arched. June. _l._ with cuneate, bipinnate lobes. _h._ 4ft. Switzerland, 1821. =A. exaltatum= (exalted). _fl._ blue, on loose panicles, with ascending stiff branches; spur thick, somewhat hooked; helmet conical; beak elongated. July. _l._ with trapeziform, pinnate lobes. _h._ 6ft. Pyrenees, 1819. SYN. _A. hamatum_. =A. flaccidum= (flaccid). _fl._ pale violet, large, on erect spreading peduncles; racemes branched; spur hooked at the apex; helmet high, arched, inclining forwards, gaping. July and August. _l._ multifid, ciliated (as well as the petioles), when young. _h._ 6ft. Siberia, 1822. =A. gibbosum= (swollen). Synonymous with _A. nasutum_. =A. Gmelini= (Gmelin's). _fl._ cream-coloured, middle-sized, on very long loose racemes; spur straight, obtuse; bottom of the helmet rounded, cylindrical. July. _l._ on long stalks, villous beneath and shining above; lobes divided into narrow segments. _h._ 2ft. Siberia, 1817. SYN. _A. nitidum_. =A. gracile= (slender).* _fl._ pale blue or violet, large, on loose racemes; spur erect, clavated-hooked; helmet with a middle sized beak. June. _l._ smooth, with trapeziform, pinnate lobes. Stems slender. _h._ 2ft. Italy, &c. =A. Halleri= (Haller's).* _fl._ opaque violet, on elongated, loose racemes, with a few lateral ascending ones; spur capitate; helmet convex-hemispherical, gaping. June. _l._ lobes linear, dilated, very long. Stem straight, long, branched. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Switzerland, 1821. =A. H. bicolor= (two-coloured).* _fl._ white, variegated with blue, disposed in spikes or panicles. June. [Illustration: FIG. 17. FLOWER OF ACONITUM NAPELLUS, nearly Full Size.] =A. hamatum= (hooked). Synonymous with _A. exaltatum_. =A. hebegynum= (blunt-styled). Synonymous with _A. paniculatum_. =A. heterophyllum= (various-leaved). _fl._ pale yellow, and deep blue in front, large, numerous, dense. August. _l._ petiolate below, sessile above, broadly cordate, coarsely toothed at the edge, and deep green. _h._ 2ft. Himalayas, 1874. A new introduction, said to be non-poisonous, and used as a tonic in India. =A. illinitum= (anointed). _fl._ pale or deep violet, on very loose and much branched panicles, large; spur thick, long, abruptly pointed; beak blunt; helmet sub-conical. July. _l._ with broad cuneiform lobes, and obtuse lobules. _h._ 4ft. 1821. =A. intermedium= (intermediate). _fl._ blue, on a loose panicle, with ascending stiff branches; spur supine, somewhat hooked; helmet arched. June. _l._ with trapeziform, pinnate lobes. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Alps of Europe, 1820. =A. japonicum= (Japanese).* _fl._ flesh-coloured, on loose panicles, with ascending branches; helmet exactly conical, abruptly mucronate; beak acute, straight. July to September. _l._ stalked, trifid; lateral lobes bifid, middle lobe trifid, all blunt and deeply toothed. Stem round, smooth. _h._ 6ft. Japan, 1790. One of the best species grown. =A. j. c�ruleum= (blue). _fl._ blue. Japan. =A. laciniosum= (jagged). _fl._ pale blue, or with a white base, large, on somewhat contracted racemes; spur clavated-hooked; helmet arched, conical. June. _l._ with jagged, trapeziform pinnate lobes. _h._ 3ft. Switzerland, 1820. =A. lycoctonum= (true Wolf's-bane).* _fl._ livid-violet, rather large; racemes more or less pubescent, branched at the base; bottom of helmet cylindrical; beak elongated. July. _l._ large, seven-parted. Stem slender, simple, upright. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Europe, 1596. =A. maximum= (largest). _fl._ pale blue; panicle loose, furnished with a few long distant, few-flowered, pubescent branches; spur short, incurved; helmet hemispherico-conical, obtuse. July. _l._ multifid, large, smooth. _h._ 6ft. Kamtschatka, 1823. =A. meloctonum= (Badger's-bane). _fl._ cream-coloured, loose, pubescent; panicle large, with diverging branches; spur arched; bottom of helmet conico-cylindrical. July. _l._ five to seven-parted, deep green. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Piedmont, 1821. =A. Meyeri= (Meyer's). _fl._ bluish purple, on pubescent peduncles; spur capitate, inclining. June. _l._ with cuneate bipinnate lobes. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Bavaria, 1823. =A. molle= (soft). _fl._ violet, large, puberulous; racemes panicled, pubescent; helmet irregularly conical, obtuse; front erect; spur capitate, or a little hooked. June. _l._ smooth, with trapeziform, pinnate lobes. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. 1820. [Illustration: FIG. 18. ACONITUM NAPELLUS, showing Root, Seed-pod, Flower-spike, Leaf, and Flower with Sepals removed.] =A. Napellus= (little turnip).* Common Monk's Hood. _fl._ blue, large, on a large terminal raceme; peduncles erect, pubescent; spur capitate; helmet convex-hemispherical, gaping, smoothish; lip revolute. Summer. _l._ pedately five-lobed. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. There are a great number of varieties of this species cultivated and introduced. The following are some of the names representing slightly varying forms which have, however, been regarded as species by Reichenbach and other authors: _acutum_, _am�num_, _Bernhardianum_, _Braunii_, _callibotryon_, _Clusianum_, _commutatum_, _firmum_, _formosum_, _Funkianum_, _hians_, _Hoppeanum_, _K�hleri_, _lætum_, _laxiflorum_, _laxum_, _Mielichhoferi_, _napelloides_, _neomontanum_, _neubergense_, _oligocarpus_, _rigidum_, _strictum_, _tenuifolium_, _venustum_, _virgatum_. One of the most virulent of poisonous plants, both to cattle as well as human beings; and, notwithstanding its eminently handsome appearance, it should only be planted in places where no danger is likely to arise from its presence. See Figs. 17 and 18. =A. nasutum= (great-nosed). _fl._ violet; panicle contracted, quite smooth; spur elongated, arched; helmet conical, bending forward; beak short. June. _l._ with broad, trapeziform, pinnate lobes. _h._ 3ft. Caucasus, &c., 1818. SYN. _A. gibbosum_. =A. nitidum= (shining). Synonymous with _A. Gmelini_. =A. Ottonianum= (Otto's).* _fl._ blue, variegated with white; young peduncles nodding; spur supine, somewhat hooked; helmet arched. July, August. _l._ with trapeziform, pinnate lobes. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Carpathian Mountains, 1824. =A. paniculatum= (paniculate).* _fl._ large, violet; panicle terminal, much branched, loose or contracted, more or less pubescent; helmet conical, beaked; front sinuate. June to September. _l._ smooth, with trapeziform, pinnate lobes. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. France and Switzerland, 1815. SYN. _A. hebegynum_. =A. plicatum= (folded). Synonymous with _A. tauricum_. =A. productum= (long-lipped). _fl._ violet, downy, on few-flowered, loose, pubescent racemes; helmet straight, irregularly convex-conical, with a drawn-out beak; spur capitate. June. _l._ on long stalks with three-parted lobes. _h._ 1ft. Siberia. =A. rostratum= (beaked).* _fl._ violet; panicle rather loose; spur thick, depressed, globose; helmet conical, elongated, abruptly pointed in front; beak stretched out. June. _l._ with trapeziform, pinnate lobes. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Switzerland, 1752. SYN. _A. alpinum_. =A. Schleicheri= (Schleicher's). _fl._ blue or violet, middle sized, on short racemes; spur capitate; helmet convex-hemispherical, gaping, smoothish. Summer. _l._ with finely jagged lobes. Stem straight (or infracted), simple, slender. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Europe. SYN. _A. vulgare_. =A. semigaleatum= (half-helmeted). _fl._ pale blue, pubescent when young, on very loose racemes; peduncles elongated; spur hooked; helmet convex, navicular. June. _l._ multifid, few, membranous, smooth; root about the size and form of a pea. _h._ 6in. to 2ft. Kamtschatka, 1818. =A. Sprengelii= (Sprengel's). _fl._ bluish purple; spur obtuse, straight. June. _l._ with blunt, bipinnate lobes. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Europe, 1820. =A. tauricum= (Taurian).* _fl._ deep blue, disposed in dense racemes; peduncles erect, smooth; lateral sepals smooth inside; spur blunt; helmet closed, hemispherical. June. _l._ segments almost pedately disposed and divided into linear acuminate lobes. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Germany, 1752. SYN. _A. plicatum_. =A. tortuosum= (twisting). _fl._ pale or deep violet, large; panicle loose, few flowered; spur thick, long, abruptly pointed (neither arched, nor convolute). July. _l._ smooth, with narrow wedge-shaped lobes, and acute lobules. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. North America, 1812. =A. toxicum= (very poisonous). _fl._ violet, large, pubescent, on loose, also pubescent, racemes; spur hooked; helmet large, arched, with a blunt beak. June. _l._ smooth, with trapeziform pinnate lobes. Stem flexuous, almost simple. _h._ 2ft. America, 1825. =A. uncinatum= (hooked).* _fl._ generally lilac, large, smooth; racemes loose, rather umbellate at the apex, very rarely panicled; spur somewhat spiral, inclined; helmet regularly conical, compressed. July. _l._ with trapeziform pinnate lobes. Stem with branches rising from the axils of the leaves. _h._ 4ft. to 8ft. North America, 1768. [Illustration: FIG. 19. ACONITUM VARIEGATUM, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. variegatum= (variegated).* _fl._ blue, large, smooth; racemes panicled, loose; spur erect, clavated-hooked; helmet bent forward, inflated; beak ascending. July. _l._ lower, on long stalks; upper, sessile, smooth, thickish. _h._ 1ft. to 6ft. Europe, 1597. See Fig. 19. =A. v. albiflorum= (white-flowered).* _fl._ white, small; helmet straight. =A. v. bicolor= (two-coloured).* _fl._ white, edged with blue or lilac; helmet straight. =A. vulgare= (common). A synonym of _A. Schleicheri_. =A. Willdenovii= (Willdenow's).* _fl._ bluish-purple; peduncles pubescent; spur obtuse, straight. June. _l._ with blunt segments. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Carniola, 1823. Sect. II. Roots Fibrous or Napiform. =A. Anthora= (Anthora).* _fl._ pale yellow; panicles generally pubescent; spur refracted; lip obcordate; helmet arched. July. _l._ palmately cut into linear lobes. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Pyrenees, 1596. The following varieties of _A. Anthora_ are erroneously classed as species by some authors: =A. a. Decandollii= (Decandolle's). _fl._ yellow; panicle and flowers pubescent; helmet rather conical, bent, with a short, abrupt, and acuminated beak. _l._ with rather large dark green lobes. Alps of Jura, 1873. =A. a. eulophum= (well-crested). _fl._ yellow; panicles and flowers puberulous; helmet conical. Caucasus, 1821. =A. a. grandiflorum= (large-flowered). _fl._ yellow, large; panicle, flowers, and fruit pubescent; helmet rather conical. Alps of Jura, 1821. =A. a. Jacquinii= (Jacquin's). _fl._ yellow, smooth; helmet somewhat conical, drawn out into an elongated beak. =A. a. nemorosum= (grove-loving).* _fl._ yellow; panicle and flowers pubescent; helmet somewhat conical, bent; beak short. _l._ with broad lobes. =A. autumnale= (autumn-flowering).* _fl._ bluish-purple, in loose panicles; peduncles rigidly spreading; spur capitate; helmet closed; lip very long, refracted. July. _l._ with cuneate, bipinnate lobes. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Europe. =A. barbatum= (bearded).* _fl._ cream coloured, middle sized; racemes dense, puberulous; spur straightish, obtuse; bottom of helmet conical; middle sepals densely bearded. July. _l._ opaque, with the lobes divided into many linear segments, on long stalks, which are villous as well as the nerves. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. Siberia, 1807. SYN. _A. squarrosum_. =A. chinense= (Chinese).* _fl._ intense and very bright blue, in large compound racemes; pedicels slightly hairy above. Summer. _l._ lower ones large, deeply cut into three wedge-shaped segments, tapering at the base; upper ones sessile, gradually becoming more entire. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. China, 1833. =A. Lamarckii= (Lamarck's). _fl._ cream-coloured, pubescent; racemes long, cylindrical, crowded, branched at the base; spur spiral; helmet constricted, clavate. July. _l._ large, seven to nine-parted, with the lobes unequally cleft. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Pyrenees, 1800. =A. lupicidum= (Wolf's-bane). Synonymous with _A. Vulparia_. =A. macrophyllum= (large-leaved). _fl._ yellow, numerous, panicled; spur arched; helmet large, somewhat ventricose at the apex. July. _l._ large, more or less dissected. _h._ 4ft. to 8ft. Germany. =A. Nuttallii= (Nuttall's). Synonymous with _A. ochroleucum_. =A. ochroleucum= (yellowish-white).* _fl._ cream coloured, large; spur arched; bottom of helmet conico-cylindrical; middle sepals covered with short hairs; racemes puberulous, rather loose. July. _l._ five to seven-parted, deep green, the first ones are puberulous above. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Russia, 1794. SYNS. _A. Nuttallii_, _A. pallidum_. =A. Pallasii= (Pallas'). Probably a mere variety, with a continuous spur, of _A. anthora_. =A. pallidum= (pale). Synonymous with _A. ochroleucum_. =A. pyrenaicum= (Pyrenean).* _fl._ yellow, rather large; spur hooked; bottom of helmet cylindrical, rounded; racemes elongated, dense, puberulous. June. _l._ parted almost to the base, with pinnatifid lobes, rather hispid beneath, but smooth above, on long stalks. _h._ 2ft. Pyrenees, &c., 1739. =A. squarrosum= (rough). Synonymous with _A. barbatum_. =A. vulparia= (Fox-bane).* _fl._ pale yellow, smooth; spur spiral; helmet cylindrical, large; beak stretched out, acute; racemes crowded. July. _l._ three or five-lobed, ciliated. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Europe, 1821. SYN. _A. lupicidum_. The principal varieties of this species are:-- =A. v. carpaticum= (Carpathian). _fl._ panicled, of a lurid colour, sometimes variegated with yellow; helmet conico-cylindrical, compressed; peduncles smooth. _l._ profoundly cut. Stems smooth. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Carpathian Mountains, 1810. =A. v. Cynoctonum= (tall Dog's-bane). _fl._ (and stem) yellow, smoothish, numerous, panicled. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. France, 1820. =A. v. moldavicum= (Moldavian). _fl._ violet, panicled; helmet cylindrical, compressed. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Moldavia. =A. v. rubicundum= (reddish). _fl._ livid violet, panicled, villous, variegated with yellow; helmet conico-cylindrical, compressed. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Siberia, 1819. =A. v. septentrionale= (northern).* _fl._ blue, panicled, villous; helmet conico-cylindrical, compressed. _h._ 4ft. North Europe, 1800. =ACONTIAS.= _See_ =Xanthosoma=. =ACORN.= The seed or fruit of the oak. _See_ =Quercus=. =ACORUS= (from _a_, without, and _kore_, the pupil of the eye; in allusion to its reputed medicinal qualities). ORD. _Aroideæ_. A small genus of hardy herbaceous plants. Flowers on a sessile spadix; perianth six-cleft, inferior, persistent. They thrive best in a moist soil, and are very suitable for the banks of water, or even as aquatics in shallow water. Propagated easily by divisions during spring. =A. Calamus= (sweet-flag).* _fl._ yellowish, small, borne on a cylindrical spadix 4in. to 6in. long. Summer. _l._ sword-shaped, erect, striated 3ft. long. The root is cylindrical, channelled, and very fragrant. Europe. The variety with gold-striped leaves is more useful as a decorative plant. See Fig. 20. [Illustration: FIG. 20. ACORUS CALAMUS.] =A. gramineus= (grass-leaved). China, 1796. This is much smaller in all its parts than the above, but very pretty. =A. g. variegatus.=* A pretty variety with white striped leaves, forming handsome little tufts. =ACOTYLEDONS.= Plants having no cotyledons, or seed leaves, as in _Cuscuta_, but usually applied to cryptogamic or flowerless plants, such as ferns, mosses, &c. =ACRADENIA= (from _akra_, top, and _aden_, a gland; referring to the five glands on the top of the ovary). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. An excellent neat and compact evergreen bush, suitable for the cool conservatory. It requires a rich loam and leaf mould. Propagated by seeds and cuttings under a bell glass. =A. Frankliniæ= (Lady Franklin's).* _fl._ white, produced in great profusion, in terminal clusters. August. _l._ fragrant, opposite, trifoliate, gland-dotted. _h._ 8ft. Tasmania, 1845. =ACRE= (from _agros_, an open field). The English Statute acre consists of 160 square rods (perches, poles, roods, or lugs); or 4840 square yards; or 43,560 square feet. The following list shows the differentiation in the number of square yards per acre in the various districts of Great Britain and Ireland: Cheshire, 10,240; Cornish, 5760; Cunningham, 6250; Derby (W.), 9000; Devonshire, 4000; Herefordshire, 3226-2/3; Irish, 7840; Leicestershire, 2308-3/4; Scotch, 6150; Wales, North (customary), 3240; ditto (erw), 4320; Westmoreland, 6760; Wiltshire, 3630. =ACRIDOCARPUS= (from _akris_, a locust; and _karpos_, fruit; meaning not obvious). ORD. _Malpighiaceæ_. A handsome sub-tropical or warm greenhouse climber, requiring plenty of water, and a very free drainage. Increased by imported seeds, and by cuttings in bottom heat. =A. natalitius= (Natal).* _fl._ pale yellow; petals five, rounded, wedge-shaped, crenately-toothed at the edge; racemes simple, elongated, terminal. July. _l._ oblong or obovate, obtuse, leathery. Natal, 1867. =ACRIOPSIS= (from _akros_, top, and _opsis_, eye). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. A small genus of pretty stove epiphytal orchids, almost unknown to cultivation. Flowers small, arranged in loose panicles; lip adnate to the very curious column, from which it projects at right angles. =A. densiflora= (crowded-flowered).* _fl._ green and pink. May. _l._ linear-lanceolate. _h._ 6in. Borneo, 1845. =A. javanica= (Javanese). _fl._ yellow, green. May. _l._ linear-lanceolate. _h._ 3in. Java, 1840. =A. picta= (painted).* _fl._ white, green, and purple. May. _l._ solitary, linear. _h._ 6in. Bantam, 1843. =ACROCLINIUM= (from _akros_, top, and _kline_, a bed; referring to the open flowers). ORD. _Compositæ_. A small genus of elegant half hardy annuals with "everlasting" flower heads, which are solitary, terminal, and consist of tubular florets; involucrum many-leaved, imbricated. Leaves numerous, linear, smooth, acuminated. Stems numerous, erect. They thrive best in a loamy soil, and constitute very neat summer flowering annuals if sown out of doors in patches in June; they are also useful as winter decorative greenhouse plants if seed is sown in August in pots placed in a cold frame. The flower-heads should be gathered when young, if it is desired to preserve them. [Illustration: FIG. 21. ACROCLINIUM ROSEUM, showing Habit and Flower-head.] =A. roseum= (rosy).* _fl.-heads_ pretty rose, solitary, terminal, on erect, slender, and gracefully disposed branches. _l._ linear, acute. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. S. W. Australia, 1854. See Fig. 21. =A. r. album= (rosy white).* A very pretty white form of the preceding. =A. r. grandiflorum= (large-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ rose, larger than in the type. =ACROCOMIA= (from _akros_, top, and _kome_, tuft; referring to the position of the leaves). ORD. _Palmeæ_. A genus of South American palms, containing about eleven species, which are not easily distinguished, but having the following general characteristics: Trunk from 20ft. to 50ft. high, and clad with long prickles. The flowers, which appear in the axils of the lower leaves, are greenish or yellow, and their drupes are much the same colour. Leaves pinnate, with seventy to eighty leaflets on each side of the pinnæ. They require a warm greenhouse and rich sandy loam. Increased by suckers. Two species only are in general cultivation. =A. aculeata= (prickly). _h._ 40ft. West Indies, 1791. =A. fusiformis= (spindle-shaped). _h._ 40ft. Trinidad, 1731. =A. globosa= (globular). =h.= 20ft. St. Vincent, 1824. =A. horrida= (horrid). _h._ 30ft. Trinidad, 1820. =A. lasiospatha= (hairy spathed). _l._ drooping. Trunk about 40ft. high, smooth and ringed. Para, 1846. =A. sclerocarpa= (hard-fruited).* A very elegant species bearing a head of spreading pinnate leaves, with the rachises and petioles aculeate, and the leaflets linear, taper-pointed, glaucous underneath, about 1ft. long. _h._ 40ft. West Indies, 1731. SYN. _Cocos fusiformis_. =A. tenuifolia= (fine-leaved). _h._ 30ft. Brazil, 1824. =ACROGENS.= Plants increasing at the summit, as Ferns, &c. =ACRONYCHIA= (from _akron_, tuft, and _onux_, a claw; referring to the curved points of the petals). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. An ornamental rue-like greenhouse evergreen shrub. Petals and sepals four; stamens eight, inserted on a disk; fruit berry-like. It requires ordinary greenhouse treatment. Increased by cuttings in July in sand, under a bell glass. =A. Cunninghami= (Cunningham's).* _fl._ white, in clusters, resembling those of an orange, with an exquisite fragrance. July. _h._ 7ft. Moreton Bay, 1838. =ACROPERA.= _See_ =Gongora=. =ACROPHORUS.= _See_ =Davallia=. =ACROPHYLLUM= (from _akros_, top, and _phyllon_, a leaf; referring to the way in which the leaves are produced at the summit of the branches, above the flowers). ORD. _Cunoniaceæ_. Handsome greenhouse small, erect-growing, evergreen shrubs, flowering profusely during the spring months. They require a mixture of fibrous peat, a little loam, and sharp sand; thorough drainage, an airy situation, and as little artificial heat as possible, are important to its well-being. Re-pot in February. Propagated by cuttings of the half ripened shoots, which strike freely in a soil of sand and peat, if covered with a hand glass, and placed in a cool house. The roots should not be allowed to get dry, and light syringing during late spring and summer will be found beneficial in assisting to keep down thrips. =A. verticillatum= (whorled). A synonym of _A. venosum_. =A. venosum= (veined).* _fl._ pinkish white, in dense axillary spikes, which are borne on the upper part of the stems and branches. May and June. _l._ nearly sessile, oblong, cordate, acute, serrate, in whorls of threes. _h._ 6ft. New South Wales. SYN. _A. verticillatum_. =ACROPTERIS.= _See_ =Asplenium=. =ACROSTICHUM= (from _akros_, top, and _stichos_, order; meaning very obscure). ORD. _Filices_. This genus includes _Aconiopteris_, _Chrysodium_, _Egenolfia_, _Elaphoglossum_, _Gymnopteris_, _Olfersia_, _Photinopteris_, _P�cilipteris_, _Polybotrya_, _Rhipidopteris_, _Soromanes_, _Stenochlæna_, _Stenosemia_. A large and almost entirely tropical genus; it includes groups with a wide range in venation and cutting. Sori spread over the whole surface of the frond or upper pinnæ, or occasionally over both surfaces. The species having long fronds, are admirably suited for growing in suspended baskets, and the dwarfer sorts do well in Wardian cases. A compost of peat, chopped sphagnum, and sand, is most suitable. For general culture, _see_ =Ferns=. =A. acuminatum= (taper-pointed).* _rhiz._ thick, climbing. _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long, firm, erect, scaly throughout. _barren fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 1ft. or more broad, deltoid, bipinnate; upper pinnæ oblong-lanceolate, slightly lobed, truncate on the lower side at the base, 2in. to 3in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad; lower pinnæ, 6in. to 8in. long, 4in. to 5in. broad, with several small pinnules on each side; light green, with a firm texture. _fertile fronds_ 1ft. long, deltoid, tripinnate. Brazil. Stove species. SYN. _Polybotrya acuminatum_. =A. alienum= (foreign). _rhiz._ woody. _sti._ 6in. to 18in. long, scaly downwards. _barren fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, often 1ft. broad, the upper part deeply pinnatifid, with lanceolate lobes, the lower part pinnate, with entire or deeply pinnatifid lower pinnæ. _fertile fronds_ much smaller, with distant narrow linear or pinnatifid leafy pinnæ. Tropical America. Stove species. SYN. _Gymnopteris aliena_. =A. apiifolium= (parsley-leaved).* _cau._ stout, woody, erect. _sti._ of barren fronds 2in. to 3in. long, erect, densely clothed with tomentum. _barren fronds_ 4in. to 6in. each way, deltoid, tripinnate; pinnæ close, only the lowest pair with pinnatifid pinnules, ultimate divisions oblong-rhomboidal, 1/4in. to 1/3in. long, the base cuneate, the outer edge slightly toothed. _fertile fronds_ on a slender naked stem 6in. to 8in. long, the fronds panicled with a few distant, slender, simple, or compound branches. Philippine Islands, 1862. Stove species. SYN. _Polybotrya apiifolia_. =A. apodum= (stemless).* _cau._ thick, woody, the scales dense, linear, brown, crisped. _sti._ tufted, very short, or obsolete. _barren fronds_ 1ft. or more long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, the apex acuminate, the lower part narrowed very gradually, the edge and midrib densely fringed with soft, short, brown hairs. _fertile fronds_ much smaller than the barren ones. West Indies to Peru, 1824. Stove species. SYN. _Elaphoglossum apodum_. =A. appendiculatum= (appendaged).* _rhiz._ firm, woody. _barren fronds_ 6in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, simply pinnate. _sti._ 3in. to 6in. long, erect, naked, or slightly scaly; pinnæ 2in. to 4in. long, 3/8in. to 3/4in. broad, the edge varying from sub-entire to cut half-way down to the midrib of the blunt lobes, the upper side often auricled, the lower one obliquely truncate, dark green. _fertile fronds_ narrower, on a longer spike, the pinnæ roundish or oblong, often distinctly stalked. India, &c., 1824. Stove species. SYN. _Egenolfia appendiculata_. =A. aureum= (golden).* _cau._ erect. _sti._ erect, 1ft. to 2ft. long, strong. _fronds_ 2ft. to 6ft. long, 1ft. to 2ft. broad, the upper pinnæ fertile, rather smaller than the barren ones, which are usually stalked, ligulate oblong, 3in. to 1ft. long, 1/2in. to 3in. broad, acute or blunt, sometimes retuse with a mucro; edge quite entire, base sub-cuneate. Widely distributed in the tropics of both hemispheres, 1815. An evergreen aquatic stove species, requiring abundance of heat and moisture. SYN. _Chrysodium aureum_. =A. auritum= (eared).* _cau._ erect, woody. _barren fronds_ with a stipe 6in. to 9in. long, deltoid, 8in. to 12in. each way, ternate, the central segments deeply pinnatifid, with lanceolate entire lobes; the lateral ones unequal sided, with lanceolate oblong-lobed lower pinnules. _fertile fronds_ with a stem 12in. to 18in. long, deltoid, with distant linear pinnæ half line broad; upper simple, lower pinnatifid. Philippine Islands. Stove species. SYN. _Stenosemia aurita_. =A. axillare= (axillary). _rhiz._ slender, wide scandent. _barren fronds_ 6in. to 18in. long, about 1in. broad, simple, the point bluntish, the edge entire, the lower half tapering very gradually to the base or short stem. _fertile fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, one to three lines broad, flexuose, on a stem 1in. to 6in. long. Himalayas. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Chrysodium axillare_. =A. barbatum= (bearded). Synonymous with _A. scolopendrifolium_. =A. bifurcatum= (twice-forked). _sti._ densely tufted, 2in. to 4in. long, slender, stramineous, naked. _fronds_ 3in. to 4in. long, about 1/2in. broad, pinnate; lower pinnæ of fertile fronds two or three cleft, with linear divisions; those of the barren pinnæ broader, and not so deep. St. Helena. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Polybotrya bifurcata_. =A. Blumeanum= (Blume's).* _rhiz._ woody, wide climbing. _sti._ of barren fronds 6in. long, scaly. _barren fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 1ft. or more broad, with numerous sessile pinnæ on each side, which are 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. broad; apex acuminate, the edge slightly toothed; base rounded. _fertile fronds_ with distant pinnæ 4in. to 8in. long, 1/8in. to 1/4in. broad. Assam. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Chrysodium Blumeanum_. =A. callæfolium= (calla-leaved). A form of _A. latifolium_. =A. canaliculatum= (channelled).* _rhiz._ woody, wide climbing, spinulose and scaly. _sti._ 1ft. or more long, scaly throughout. _fertile fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 12in. to 18in. broad, tripinnate; lower barren pinnæ, 6in. to 9in. long, 4in. to 5in. broad; pinnules lanceolate, stalked, with oblong segments, both surfaces naked; fertile pinnules close, the segments 1/4in. long, bearing three to four sessile balls of sori. Venezuela. Stove or greenhouse species. SYN. _Polybotrya canaliculata_. =A. caudatum= (tailed). A synonym of _A. petiolosum_. =A. cervinum= (stag-horned).* _rhiz._ woody, creeping, scaly. _sti._ 1ft. or more long, scaly. _barren fronds_ 2ft. to 4ft. long, pinnate; pinnæ 4in. to 9in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad, entire or nearly so, unequal at the base; fertile pinnæ distant, linear, lanceolate, bipinnate, with short spreading sub-cylindrical pinnules. Brazil, 1840. Stove species. SYN. _Olfersia cervina_. =A. conforme= (conformed). _rhiz._ wide creeping, scaly. _sti._ 1in. to 12in. long, firm, erect, stramineous, naked or slightly scaly. _fronds_ 2in. to 9in. long, 1/2in. to 2in. broad, acute or bluntish, the base cuneate or spathulate, the edge entire. _barren fronds_ narrower than the fertile one. _A. laurifolium_, _A. obtusilobum_, and several others, are identical with the foregoing. Tropical America, also in the Old World. Stove species. SYN. _Elaphoglossum conforme_. =A. crinitum= (hairy).* _cau._ woody, erect. _sti._ of barren fronds 4in. to 8in. long, densely clothed with long scales. _barren fronds_ 9in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 9in. wide, broadly oblong; apex blunt, base rounded, edge entire and ciliated, texture subcoriaceous, both sides scattered over with scales like those of the stipes. _fertile fronds_ like the others, but much smaller, the stipes longer. West Indies, &c., 1793. Stove species. SYNS. _Chrysodium_ and _Hymenodium crinitum_. =A. cylindricum= (cylindrical). Synonymous with _A. osmundaceum_. =A. Dombeyanum= (Dombey's). A form of _A. lepidotum_. =A. flagelliferum= (rod-shaped). _rhiz._ woody, creeping. _sti._ of barren fronds 6in. to 12in. long, nearly naked. _barren fronds_ simple or with one to three pairs of pinnæ, the terminal one ovate lanceolate, entire or repand, often elongated and rooting at the point, the lateral ones 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad; fertile pinnæ 2in. to 3in. long, about 1/2in. broad. India, &c., 1828. Stove species. SYN. _Gymnopteris flagellifera_. =A. f�niculaceum= (fennel-leaved).* _rhiz._ slender, creeping. _sti._ distant, slender, 2in. to 8in. long, scaly. _barren fronds_ 1in. to 2in. broad, usually dichotomously forked, with filiform divisions. _fertile fronds_ 3/8in. broad, two-lobed. Andes of Ecuador. Stove species. (For culture, see _A. peltatum_). SYN. _Rhipidopteris f�niculaceum_. =A. Herminieri= (Herminier's).* _rhiz._ stout, creeping. _sti._ very short, or none. _barren fronds_ 1-1/2ft. to 3ft. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, simple, acuminate, the lower part narrowed very gradually. _fertile fronds_ short-stalked, 3in. to 4in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad. Tropical America, 1871. Stove species. SYN. _Elaphoglossum Herminieri_. =A. heteromorphum= (various-formed). _rhiz._ slender, wide creeping, scaly. _sti._ 1in. to 3in. long, slender, slightly scaly. _barren fronds_ 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, simple, bluntish, the base rounded, both surfaces scattered over with linear dark castaneous scales. _fertile fronds_ much smaller, and the stipes much longer. Columbia and Ecuador. Stove species. SYN. _Elaphoglossum heteromorphum_. =A. Langsdorffii= (Langsdorff's). Synonymous with _A. muscosum_. =A. latifolium= (broad-leaved).* _rhiz._ thick, woody, creeping, scaly. _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, firm, erect, naked, or scaly. _barren fronds_ 9in. to 18in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, simple, acute, gradually narrowed below, entire; texture leathery. _fertile fronds_ considerably narrower than the barren ones. _A. longifolium_, _A. callæfolium_, &c., are only varieties of this species. Mexico, Brazil, &c. Stove species. SYN. _Elaphoglossum latifolium_. =A. lepidotum= (scaly).* _rhiz._ thick, woody, very scaly. _sti._ 1in. to 3in. long, firm, scaly throughout. _barren fronds_ 3in. to 6in. long, about 1/2in. broad, simple, usually blunt, the base cuneate or rather rounded, both surfaces and midrib very scaly. _A. Dombeyanum_, of garden origin, is a varietal form of this, of which there are several others. Tropical America. Stove species. SYN. _Elaphoglossum lepidotum_. =A. longifolium= (long-leaved). A form of _A. latifolium_. =A. Meyerianum= (Meyer's). Synonymous with _A. tenuifolium_. =A. muscosum= (mossy).* _rhiz._ woody, densely scaly. _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long, firm, clothed with large pale brown scales. _barren fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, simple, narrowed at both ends; upper surface slightly scaly; lower quite hidden by imbricated brownish scales. _barren fronds_ much smaller than the others, the stipes longer. Madeira. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. Langsdorffii_. =A. Neitnerii.= Synonymous with _A. quercifolium_. =A. nicotianæfolium= (tobacco-leaved).* _rhiz._ woody, wide creeping, scaly. _sti._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft., scaly below. _barren fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 1ft. or more broad, with a large terminal pinna, and one to three lateral pairs, which are 6in. to 9in. long, 1in. to 3in. broad, acuminate, entire, or nearly so, the base slightly rounded, fertile pinnæ distant, 3in. to 4in. long, 3/4in. broad. Cuba, &c. Stove species. SYN. _Gymnopteris nicotianæfolium_. =A. osmundaceum= (osmunda-like).* _rhiz._ woody, wide scandent, scaly. _sti._ 12in. to 18in. long, firm, erect, scaly at the base. _barren fronds_ ample, bi- or tripinnate; the lower pinnæ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 8in. broad; pinnules stalked, lanceolate, with closely set sub-entire segments, of a light green colour; both surfaces naked. _fertile fronds_ nearly or quite as large as the barren ones; segments linear cylindrical, 1/4in. to 1/2in. long. Tropical America. Stove species. SYNS. _A. cylindricum_, and _Polybotrya osmundaceum_. =A. paleaceum= (chaffy). Synonymous with _A. squamosum_. [Illustration: FIG. 22. ACROSTICHUM PELTATUM.] =A. peltatum= (peltate-leaved).* _rhiz._ slender, wide creeping. _sti._ distant, slender, 1in. to 4in. long, scaly throughout. _barren fronds_ 1in. to 2in. each way, repeatedly dichotomously forked, with narrow linear ultimate divisions, quarter to half line broad. _fertile fronds_ 1/2in. broad, often two-lobed. West Indies. Stove or greenhouse species. This elegant little fern requires a liberal supply of water all the year round, and is best grown in a well drained pan of good fibrous peat, leaf soil, and sand, with some nodules of sandstone raised above the rim of the pan; do not disturb it more than is necessary. SYN. _Rhipidopteris peltata_. See Fig. 22. =A. petiolosum= (petioled). _rhiz._ woody, wide scandent. _sti._ woody, erect, scaly at the base. _fronds_ bipinnate, or tripinnatifid, 2ft. to 4ft. long, 1ft. to 3ft. broad, deltoid; the upper barren pinnæ lanceolate, pinnatifid, the longest sometimes 18in. long, and 6in. to 10in. broad; pinnules with long falcate lobes reaching half-way down to the midrib, both surfaces naked; fertile pinnules very narrow, and dangling, continuous or beaded. West Indies, Mexico, &c. Stove species. SYNS. _Polybotrya_ and _A. caudatum_. =A. piloselloides= (mouse ear-leaved). Synonymous with _A. spathulatum_. =A. platyrhynchos= (broad-beaked). _sti._ tufted, scarcely any. _fronds_ 12in. to 16in. long, 1in. broad, simple. _sori_ in a patch at the apex, 1in. to 2in. long, 3/8in. broad, which does not reach to the entire edge; the lower part narrowed gradually, with naked surfaces, and a coriaceous texture. Philippines. Stove species. SYN. _Hymenolepis platyrhynchos_. =A. quercifolium= (oak-leaved).* _rhiz._ stout, wide creeping. _sti._ of barren fronds 1in. to 2in. long, clothed with brownish hairs. _barren fronds_ 3in. to 4in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, the terminal pinnæ with blunt rounded lobes. _fertile fronds_ with a terminal pinna, 1in. to 2in. long, one line broad, and a pair of smaller lateral ones, with slender stipes 6in. to 9in. long, hairy at the base. Ceylon. Stove species. SYNS. _A. Neitnerii_ (of gardens), _Gymnopteris quercifolia_. =A. scandens= (climbing).* _rhiz._ woody, wide climbing. _sti._ 3in. to 4in. long, firm, erect, naked. _fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 1ft. or more broad, simply pinnate; barren pinnæ, 4in. to 8in. long, 3/4in. to 1-1/2in. broad, acuminate, the edge thickened and serrulate, the base cuneate, sessile, or slightly stalked, articulated; fertile pinnæ, 6in. to 12in. long, one and a half to two lines broad, the lower ones distant. Himalayas, &c., 1841. Stove or greenhouse species. SYN. _Stenochlæna scandens_. =A. scolopendrifolium= (scolopendrium-leaved).* _rhiz._ woody, creeping, scaly. _sti._ 4in. to 12in. long, firm, erect, densely clothed with blackish scales. _barren fronds_ often 1ft. long, 1-1/2in. to 3in. broad, simple, acute, the base narrowed gradually; edge and midrib scaly. _fertile fronds_ much smaller than the barren ones. Guatemala, &c. Stove species. SYN. _A. barbatum_. =A. serratifolium= (serrate-leaved). _rhiz._ woody, short creeping. _sti._ of barren fronds 12in. to 18in. long, slightly scaly. _barren fronds_ 2ft. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, with numerous sessile pinnæ on each side, 3in. to 6in. long, 3/4in. to 1-1/2in. broad, inciso-crenate, the base cuneate; fertile pinnæ distant, 2in. to 3in. long, 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, blunt, entire. Venezuela, &c. Stove species. SYN. _Chrysodium serratifolium_. =A. simplex= (simple-leaved). _rhiz._ woody, creeping, scaly. _sti._ 1in. to 4in. long, firm, erect, naked. _barren fronds_ 4in. to 12in. long, about 1-1/2in. broad, very acute, the lower part narrowed very gradually. _fertile fronds_ narrower than the barren ones, with longer stipes. Cuba to Brazil, 1798. Stove species. SYN. _Elaphoglossum simplex_. =A. sorbifolium= (service-leaved).* _rhiz._ thick, woody, often 30ft. to 40ft. long, clasping trees like a cable, sometimes prickly. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, simply pinnate; barren pinnæ 4in. to 6in. long, about 1/2in. broad, three to twenty on each side, articulated at the base, entire or toothed; fertile pinnæ 1in. to 2in. apart, 2in. to 4in. long, about 1/4in. broad. West Indies, 1793. There are several varieties of this species, chiefly differing in the number of pinnæ. Stove species. SYN. _Stenochlæna sorbifolia_. =A. s. cuspidatum= (cuspidate).* This is only a variety of the above species with long-stalked, ligulate-cuspidate pinnæ; but it is usually regarded as a distinct species in gardens. =A. spathulatum= (spoon-shaped). _sti._ tufted, 1in. to 2in. long, firm, erect, scaly. _barren fronds_ 1/2in. to 4in. long, 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, obovate-spathulate, blunt, tapering narrowly or gradually at the base, with a coriaceous texture; both surfaces and the margins copiously scaly. _fertile fronds_ smaller than the barren, with longer stipes. Tropical America, South Africa, &c. Stove species. SYN. _A. piloselloides_. =A. spicatum= (spiked). _rhiz._ woody, short creeping. _sti._ 1in. to 2in. long, firm. _fronds_ 6in. to 18in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad, the upper part contracted and fertile, entire, the lower part narrowed very gradually. Himalayas, &c. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Hymenolepis brachystachys_. =A. squamosum= (scaly).* _rhiz._ woody, densely scaly. _sti._ 2in. to 4in. long, densely clothed with pale or dark-coloured scales. _barren fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, about 1in. broad, simple, acute, the base narrowed gradually; both sides matted, and the edge densely ciliated with reddish scales. _fertile fronds_ as long as the barren ones, but much narrower, the stipes much longer. Widely distributed in both hemispheres. Stove or greenhouse species. SYN. _A. paleaceum_. =A. subdiaphanum= (semi-transparent).* _cau._ woody, erect. _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 6in. long, firm, erect, scaly. _barren fronds_ 4in. to 8in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, simple, both ends narrowed, the edge entire. _fertile fronds_ much narrower, on longer stipes. St. Helena. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Aconiopteris subdiaphana_. =A. subrepandum= (slighty-waved).* _rhiz._ woody, wide-creeping. _sti._ of barren fronds stout, erect, nearly naked. _barren fronds_ from 1ft. to 2ft. long, 2in. to 12in. broad, copiously pinnate, with linear-oblong entire or subrepand pinnæ on each side, which are sometimes 6in. to 8in. long, and 2in. broad. _fertile fronds_ like the others, but smaller. Isle of Luzon, &c. Stove species. SYN. _Gymnopteris subrepanda_. =A. taccæfolium= (yew-leaved).* _cau._ woody, densely scaly. _sti._ of barren fronds 1in. to 4in. long, scaly. _barren fronds_ from 1ft. to 2ft. long, 3in. to 12in. broad, simple, oblong-lanceolate, entire, copiously pinnate, with oblong-lanceolate pinnæ, 1in. to 6in. long, 1/2in. to 1-1/2in. broad, the upper ones narrowly decurrent, the lower ones forked at the base on the under side. _fertile fronds_ simple, 6in. to 12in. long, 1/8in. broad, or pinnate, with forked linear pinnæ. The three-lobed form of this species is sometimes known as _A. trilobum_. Philippines. Stove species. SYN. _Gymnopteris taccæfolia_. =A. tenuifolium= (narrow-leaved).* _rhiz._ wide scandent, woody, slightly scaly. _barren fronds_ simply pinnate, the stipes 4in. to 6in. long, naked, firm, erect, the fronds 3ft. to 5ft. long, 12in. to 18in. broad; pinnæ 6in. to 9in. long, 3/4in. to 1-1/2in. broad, acuminate, the edge thickened and serrulate, short-stalked. _fertile fronds_ bipinnate, with longer stipes; pinnæ long-stalked, with numerous distant pinnules. South Africa. Stove or greenhouse species. SYNS. _A. Meyerianum_ and _Stenochlæna tenuifolia_. =A. trilobum= (three-lobed). A form of _A. taccæfolium_. =A. villosum= (hairy).* _rhiz._ woody, densely scaly. _sti._ 2in. to 4in. long, slender, densely clothed with scales. _barren fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, acute, the lower part narrowed gradually; both surfaces scaly, and the edge more or less ciliated. _fertile fronds_ much smaller than the others. Mexico, &c. Stove species. =A. viscosum= (clammy).* _rhiz._ woody, creeping, densely scaly. _sti._ 3in. to 6in. long, firm, erect, scaly, often viscous. _barren fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad, simple, acute, the lower part narrowed gradually; both surfaces more or less viscid, and minutely scaly. _fertile fronds_ smaller, with longer stipes. Tropical America and the tropics of the Old World, 1826. Very variable in form. Stove species. =ACROTRICHE= (from _akros_, top, _i.e._, outermost--and _thrix_, a hair; the tips of the petals are bearded). ORD. _Epacridaceæ_. A genus of eight or nine species of dwarf, much branched, ornamental greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Flowers white or red; spikes axillary, short; corolla funnel-shaped; petals with deflexed hairs at apex. Cultivated in an equal mixture of sandy loam and peat, and propagated by cuttings made of the young shoots, pricked in sand, covered with a bell glass, and placed in a cool house; afterwards treated like _Epacris_. =A. cordata= (heart-leaved).* _fl._ white, small, axillary, twin, or solitary. April. _l._ cordate, flat, striated below. _h._ 1ft. New Holland, 1823. =A. divaricata= (straggling).* _fl._ white, small, in axillary spikes. May. _l._ lanceolate, mucronate, divaricate, flat, both surfaces green. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. New South Wales, 1824. =A. ovalifolia= (oval-leaved). _fl._ white, small, in axillary spikes. March. _l._ ovate and oval, obtuse, flat, with smooth margins. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. New Holland, 1824. =ACT�A= (from _aktaia_, an Elder; in allusion to the resemblance of the foliage to that of the Elder). Baneberry. ORD. _Ranunculaceæ_. A small genus of perennial herbaceous plants, with bi- or triternate leaves, and long, erect racemes of whitish flowers, which are succeeded by poisonous berries. They are excellent subjects for shady places, beneath trees, or in the wild garden. Easily increased by division of the roots, and seed during spring. =A. alba= (white).* _fl._ white; racemes simple. May, June. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, serrate or cut. Berries white, ovate-oblong, _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. N. America. [Illustration: FIG. 23. ACT�A SPICATA, showing Habit and Raceme of Flowers.] =A. spicata= (spiked).* _fl._ white, or bluish; racemes ovate. Summer. _l._ bi- or triternate, serrated. Berries oblong, black, poisonous. _h._ 1ft. England. See Fig. 23. =A. s. rubra= (red).* This differs from the type in having bright red berries, which are disposed in dense clusters on spikes overtopping the foliage. North America. A very handsome hardy perennial. =ACTINELLA= (from _aktin_, a ray; small rayed). SYN. _Picradenia_. ORD. _Compositæ_. A small genus of hardy herbaceous plants, having radiate capitules. The only species worth cultivating is _A. grandiflora_. It thrives in an open border with a light soil. Increased by divisions of the root in spring. =A. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, large, and handsome, 3in. in diameter. Summer. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Colorado. A very pretty branched perennial, suitable for the alpine garden. =A. lanata= (woolly). _See_ =Eriophyllum cæspitosum=. =ACTINIDIA= (from _aktin_, a ray; the styles radiate like the spokes of a wheel). ORD. _Ternstr�miaceæ_. A genus of ornamental hardy deciduous climbing shrubs, with axillary corymbs of flowers; sepals and petals imbricate. Leaves entire. Excellent for trellis-work or walls, and thriving best in a light rich soil. Increased by seeds, layers, or cuttings; the latter should be put in under a hand light in autumn, in sandy soil. [Illustration: FIG. 24. ACTINIDIA VOLUBILIS.] =A. Kolomikta= (Kolomikta).* _fl._ white, solitary, axillary, or cymose, 1/2in. in diameter; peduncles about 1/2in. long. Summer. _l._ ovate-oblong, petiolate, rounded or sub-cordate at the base, and tapering into a long point, serrate; the autumnal tints are very handsome, changing to white and red. N. E. Asia, 1880. Rarely met with. =A. polygama= (polygamous). _fl._ white, fragrant. Summer. _l._ cordate, serrate, petiolate. Japan, 1870. The berries of this species are edible. =A. volubilis= (twining).* _fl._ white, small. June. _l._ oval on flowering branches, elliptic on climbing stems. Japan, 1874. A very free growing species. See Fig. 24. =ACTINIOPTERIS= (from _aktin_, a ray, and _pteris_, a fern; the fronds are radiately cut into narrow segments). ORD. _Filices_. Sori linear-elongated, sub-marginal; involucres (= indusia) the same shape as the sorus, folded over it, placed one on each side of the narrow segments of the frond, opening towards the midrib. A small genus of beautiful and distinct stove ferns. They thrive in a compost of equal parts crocks and charcoal, about the size of peas, which must be mixed with silver sand and a very small portion of loam and peat. About half the pot should be filled with crocks, perfect drainage being necessary. A moist atmosphere is also essential, and the plants may be syringed two or three times a day. A mean summer temperature of 78deg. to 80deg., with a night one of not less than 65deg., is desirable. In winter, a mean temperature of about 73deg., and a night one of not less than 60deg., should be maintained. =A. radiata= (rayed).* _sti._ densely tufted, 2in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ fan shaped, 1in. to 1-1/2in. each way, composed of numerous dichotomous segments, half line broad, those of the fertile frond longer than those of the barren one. India, &c. (very widely distributed), 1869. In form this elegant little species is a perfect miniature of the Fan Palm, _Latania borbonica_. =A. r. australis= (southern).* _fronds_, segments fewer, larger, and subulate at the point. Plant much larger and more vigorous. =ACTINOCARPUS= (from _aktin_, a ray, and _karpos_, fruit; referring to the curiously radiated fruit, resembling a star fish). ORD. _Alismaceæ_. Pretty little aquatic perennials, with habit and inflorescence of _Alisma_. Carpels six to eight, connate at base, spreading horizontally. Excellent for naturalising in bogs and pools. Increased by seeds and divisions during spring. =A. Damasonium= (Damasonium). Ray Pod. _fl._ white, very delicate; each petal has a yellow spot at the base; scapes with a terminal umbel. June. _l._ radical, on long petioles, sometimes floating, elliptical, five-nerved. A native aquatic. The proper name of this plant is _Damasonium stellatum_. =A. minor= (smaller).* This greenhouse species, also with white flowers, from New South Wales, is smaller. =ACTINOMERIS= (from _aktin_, a ray, and _meris_, a part; referring to the radiated aspect of the plants). SYN. _Pterophyton_. ORD. _Compositæ_. A small genus of herbaceous perennials allied to _Helianthus_, but with compressed and winged achenes. Flower-heads corymbose, Coreopsis-like. Leaves ovate or lanceolate, serrate. They are hardy, ornamental plants, and of easy cultivation, in a loamy soil. Increased in spring, by seeds and division of the roots, on a warm border, with or without hand lights, or in cold frames. With the exception of _A. helianthoides_, they are but little known in this country. =A. alata= (wing-stalked). _fl.-heads_ yellow. July. _h._ 3ft. America. 1803. =A. helianthoides= (sunflower-like).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, 2in. across, July to September. _h._ 3ft. S. America, 1825. =A. procera= (tall).* _fl.-heads_ yellow. September. _h._ 8ft. N. America, 1766. =A. squarrosa= (rough-headed).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, in loose terminal panicles. July and August. _l._ decurrent, broadly lanceolate, coarsely toothed. Stem square, winged. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1640. SYN. _Verbesina Coreopsis_. =ACTINOPHYLLUM.= _See_ =Sciadophyllum=. =ACTINOSTACHYS.= Included under =Schizæa= (which _see_). =ACTINOTUS= (from _actinotos_, furnished with rays; referring to the involucre). ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. An Australian genus of greenhouse herbaceous perennials. Flowers shortly pedicellate, numerously disposed in simple umbels; petals none. Leaves alternate, petiolate. They thrive best in loam and peat, and are increased by root division and seeds. The latter should be sown on a hotbed, in spring, and in May the seedlings may be transplanted out in the open border in a warm situation, where they will flower and seed freely. =A. helianthus= (sunflower).* _fl._ white, in many-flowered capitate umbels; involucre many leaved, radiating, longer than the flowers. June. _l._ alternate, bipinnatifid; lobules bluntish. _h._ 2ft. 1821. SYN. _Eriocalia major_. =A. leucocephalus= (white-headed). _fl._ white. June. _h._ 2ft. 1837. [Illustration: FIG. 25. ADA AURANTIACA.] =ACULEATUS.= Armed with prickles. =ACULEOLATUS.= Armed with small prickles. =ACULEUS.= A prickle; a conical elevation of the skin of a plant, becoming hard and sharp-pointed. =ACUMEN.= An acute terminal angle. =ACUMINATE.= Extended into an acute terminal angle; this word is confined to considerable extension. =ACUNNA OBLONGA.= _See_ =Bejaria æstuans=. =ACUTE.= Sharp-pointed. =ACYNTHA.= A synonym of =Sanseviera= (which _see_). =ADA= (a complimentary name). ORD. _Orchideæ_. An evergreen orchid, very closely allied to _Brassia_, from which it differs chiefly in having the lip parallel with, and solidly united to, the base of the column. Some authorities now refer the plant to the genus _Mesospinidium_. It requires to be potted in peat and sphagnum, in equal parts. The drainage must be perfect, and, during summer, the water supply profuse. Although in winter far less will suffice, the plant should not be allowed to become dry. Propagated by divisions as soon as the plant commences growth. =A. aurantiaca= (orange).* _fl._ orange-scarlet, in long terminal nodding racemes, each bearing from six to ten blossoms; petals elongated, streaked with black inside. Winter and spring. _l._ two or three to each plant, linear, dark green, about 6in. in length. Habit erect, with somewhat cylindrical pseudo-bulbs, which taper upwards. See Fig. 25. =ADAMIA= (named after John Adam, some time Governor-General of India, and a promoter of natural history). ORD. _Saxifrageæ_. A small genus of Hydrangea-like greenhouse evergreen shrubs, having many flowered terminal corymbs of flowers, and opposite, petiolate, oblong-lanceolate, serrated leaves. They thrive well in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand; and cuttings will root readily in a similar compost, under a hand glass. =A. cyanea= (blue-berried). _fl._ whitish, or pink. June. _h._ 6ft. Nepaul, in rocky places, 1829. =A. sylvatica= (wood). _fl._ blue; cymes nearly undivided, on short peduncles, disposed in a close panicle. June. _h._ 6ft. Java, 1846. =A. versicolor= (many-coloured). _fl._ blue. August. China, 1844. =ADAM'S APPLE.= _See_ =Citrus Limetta= and =Musa paradisiaca=. =ADAMSIA.= _See_ =Geum=, =Puschkinia=, =Sieversia=. =ADAM'S NEEDLE.= _See_ =Yucca=. =ADANSONIA= (named after Michael Adanson, an eminent French botanist). Baobab Tree. ORD. _Sterculiaceæ_. This is reputed to be one of the largest trees in the world, as far as the girth of the trunk is concerned; but it is seldom seen in cultivation in this country. =A. digitata= (finger-leaved). _fl._ white, about 6in. across, with purplish anthers, on long, axillary, solitary pedicels. _l._ palmate, with three leaflets in the young plants, and five to seven in adult ones. _h._ 40ft. Africa. =ADDER'S FERN.= _See_ =Polypodium vulgare=. =ADDER-SPIT.= _See_ =Pteris aquilina=. =ADDER'S TONGUE.= _See_ =Ophioglossum=. =ADELOBOTRYS= (from _adelos_, obscure, and _botrys_, a cluster). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. Stove climbing shrubs with terete branches. Flowers white, crowded in cymose heads at the tops of the branches. Leaves clothed with rufous hairs on both surfaces when young, but in the adult state glabrous, except the nerves, petiolate, ovate, cordate, acuminated, ciliately serrated, five-nerved. For general culture, _see_ =Pleroma=. =A. Lindeni= (Linden's).* _fl._ white, changing to purple. Brazil, 1866. =A. scandens= (climbing).* This, the original species, possibly not now in cultivation, is a native of French Guiana. =ADENANDRA= (from _aden_, a gland, and _aner_, a male; the anthers terminate in a globose gland). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. Very beautiful little greenhouse shrubs from the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers large, usually solitary at the tops of the branches; stamens ten, the five opposite the petals sterile, five fertile ones similar in form, but shorter. Leaves usually alternate, flat, glandularly dotted. They thrive in a mixture of sand and peat, with a little turfy loam. The young tops, before they begin to throw out their buds, made into cuttings, and planted in a pot of sand, with a bell glass placed over them, will root without bottom heat. =A. acuminata= (acuminate). Synonymous with _A. am�na_. =A. am�na= (pleasing).* _fl._ large, whitish above, and reddish beneath, solitary, sessile, terminal. June. _l._ scattered, oblong or oval, bluntish, smooth, dotted beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1798. SYN. _A. acuminata_. =A. coriacea= (leathery-leaved). _fl._ large, pink, usually solitary on the tops of the branches. June. _l._ scattered, oblong, obtuse, revolute, quite smooth. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1720. =A. fragrans= (fragrant).* _fl._ rose colour, on long peduncles, fragrant; pedicels clammy, aggregate, umbellate. May. _l._ scattered, smooth, spreading very much, ovate-oblong, glandular, a little crenulated. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1812. =A. linearis= (linear-leaved). _fl._ white, terminal, on long, usually solitary, pedicels. June. _l._ opposite, linear, obtuse, spreading; branches and pedicels smooth. _h._ 1ft. 1800. =A. marginata= (margined).* _fl._ pale flesh-colour, on long peduncles; umbels terminal. June. _l._ scattered, smooth, transparent, cordate, lower ones ovate, upper ones lanceolate. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1806. =A. umbellata= (umbel-flowered).* _fl._ pink, almost sessile, terminal, umbellate, petals fringed. June. _l._ oblong or obovate, dotted beneath, fringed on the edges. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1790. =A. u. speciosa= (showy).* _fl._ large, pink, nearly sessile, terminal, umbellate. June. _l._ scattered, oblong or obovate, revolute, dotted beneath, smooth, but a little fringed on the edges. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1790. =A. uniflora= (one-flowered).* _fl._ large, whitish inside, and pinkish outside, nearly sessile, solitary, terminal. June. _l._ scattered, oblong-lanceolate, somewhat pointed, revolute, smooth, dotted beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1775. =A. villosa= (shaggy).* _fl._ pink, nearly sessile, terminal, umbellate; sepals, petals, and stamens fringed. June. _l._ crowded, ovate-oblong, fringed, pubescent and glandular beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1786. =ADENANTHERA= (from _aden_, a gland, and _anthera_, an anther; in reference to the anthers, which are each terminated by a deciduous, pedicellate gland). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A small genus of stove evergreen trees, with racemose spikes of small flowers and bipinnate or decompound leaves. They thrive well in a mixture of peat and loam. Increased by cuttings, which should be taken off at a joint and planted in heat in a pot of sand, placing a bell glass over them. =A. chrysostachys= (golden-spiked). _fl._ golden. _h._ 15ft. Mauritius, 1824. =A. falcata= (sickle-shaped). _fl._ yellowish. _h._ 6ft. India, 1812. =A. pavonina= (peacock-like).* Peacock Flower Fence. _fl._ white and yellow mixed. May. _l._ leaflets oval, obtuse, glabrous on both surfaces. _h._ 5ft. India, 1759. =ADENANTHOS= (from _aden_, a gland, and _anthos_, a flower; referring to the glands on the flowers). ORD. _Proteaceæ_. Ornamental greenhouse evergreen pilose shrubs, thriving in sandy peat. Propagated in spring by cuttings, which should be placed in sandy soil under a bell glass, with a gentle bottom heat. =A. barbigera= (bearded).* _fl._ red, axillary, solitary, pedunculate; perianth pilose, bearded at top; involucre spreading, villous. June. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, obtuse, triple-nerved. _h._ 7ft. Swan River, 1845. =A. cuneata= (wedge-leaved). _fl._ red. July. _h._ 5ft. New Holland, 1824. =A. obovata= (obovate-leaved).* _fl._ red. July. _h._ 5ft. New Holland, 1826. =ADENIUM= (from Aden, where it is found). ORD. _Apocynaceæ_. Greenhouse evergreen succulent shrubs. The species mentioned below is remarkable in having a globose thick caudex or stem; branches dichotomous; corolla salver-shaped. They require a well-drained compost of sand and loam. Half-ripened cuttings strike root readily in sand, under a hand glass. But little water is required when the plants are not in a growing state. =A. obesum= (fat). _fl._ pinky-crimson, downy; corymbs terminal, many-flowered; pedicels short. June. _l._ close together at the tops of the branches, 3in. long, oblong, narrowed at the base, abruptly terminated by a hard, short point. _h._ 3ft. or 4ft. Aden, 1845. =ADENOCALYMNA= (from _aden_, a gland, and _calymna_, a covering; referring to the conspicuous glands on the leaves and floral coverings). ORD. _Bignoniaceæ_. An elegant genus of stove evergreen climbers. Flowers racemose, trumpet-shaped, bracteate. Leaves ternate or binate. Stems slender. They require a hot and moist temperature to grow them successfully, and thrive best in a compost of loam and peat. Cuttings will root in sand, if placed under a bell glass, with bottom heat. =A. comosum= (hairy).* _fl._ yellow; racemes spicate, axillary, and terminal; bracts comose. September. _l._ trifoliate and conjugate, tendrilled; leaflets ovate, leathery, glandular. _h._ 10ft. Brazil, 1841. =A. longeracemosum= (long-racemed). _fl._ yellow. October. Brazil. =A. nitidum= (shining).* _fl._ yellow; racemes axillary, nearly terminal, velvety; corolla velvety; bracts narrow, glandular. February. _l._ trifoliate or conjugate, tendrilled; leaflets elliptic, oblong. _h._ 10ft. Brazil, 1848. =ADENOCARPUS= (from _aden_, a gland, and _karpos_, a fruit; in reference to the legumes being beset with pedicellate glands). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Shrubs, with numerous racemes of yellow flowers; divaricate branches, trifoliate usually aggregate leaves, having petiolar stipulas, and complicated leaflets. All the species are elegant when in flower, and well suited for ornamenting the fronts of shrubberies. Except where otherwise mentioned, all are hardy. They thrive best in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand; and may be readily increased by seeds or layers, or by grafting the rarer on the commoner kinds. Young cuttings will root freely in sand, covered by a hand glass, which should be taken off and wiped occasionally. Seeds may be sown in March, the hardy species out of doors, and the others in a cold house. =A. foliolosus= (slightly-leaved).* _fl._ yellow; racemes terminal; calyx covered with glandless hairs, with the lower lip elongated and trifid at the apex; the segments equal. May. _l._ (and branches) much crowded, hairy, trifoliate. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Canary Islands, 1629. A half-hardy evergreen species. =A. frankenioides= (frankenia-like).* _fl._ yellow, crowded; racemes terminal; calyx beset with glandular pubescence, with the lower lip having the middle segment longer than the lateral ones, and exceeding the lower lip. April. _l._ trifoliate, much crowded, hairy; branches velvety. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Teneriffe, 1815. Requires protection in winter; an evergreen. =A. hispanicus= (Spanish).* _fl._ yellow, crowded; racemes terminal; calyx beset with glands and hairs; lower lip of calyx with three equal segments, hardly longer than the upper lip. June. _l._ trifoliate, grouped; branchlets hairy. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Spain, 1816. Deciduous. =A. intermedius= (intermediate).* _fl._ yellow, not crowded; racemes terminal; calyx beset with glandular pubescence, with the lower lip trifid, the lateral segments shorter than the middle ones, and much exceeding the upper lip. May. _l._ trifoliate, grouped; branches rather shaggy. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Sicily and Naples, on mountains, 1816. Deciduous. =A. parvifolius= (small-leaved).* _fl._ yellow, not crowded; racemes terminal; calyx clothed with glandular pubescence, with the middle segment of the lower lip longer than the lateral ones, much exceeding the upper lip. May. _l._ trifoliate, grouped, small; branches glabrous. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. France, on exposed heaths, 1800. Deciduous. =A. telonensis= (Toulon).* _fl._ yellow, not crowded; racemes terminal; calyx clothed with glandless pubescence, the segments of the lower lip about equal in length, a little longer than the upper lip. June. _l._ trifoliate, grouped; branchlets smoothish. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. South France, 1800. Deciduous. =ADENOPHORA= (from _aden_, a gland, and _phoreo_, to bear; in reference to the cylindrical nectary which girds the base of the style). ORD. _Campanulaceæ_. A genus of elegant hardy border perennials, very similar in habit, shape of flower, &c., to _Campanula_, from which genus _Adenophora_ differs in having the style surrounded by a cylindrical gland. Flowers stalked, drooping, spicate. Leaves broad, stalked, somewhat whorled. They grow best in light rich garden soil, with a warm sunny position, and should be increased by seeds, as dividing the roots is the sure way to lose them. They are easily raised from seeds, which may be sown as soon as ripe, or in spring, in pots placed in a cold frame. =A. coronopifolia= (buckhorn-leaved).* _fl._ blue, large, three to ten, racemose, at the top of the stem, on short pedicels. July. _l._ radical ones petiolate, ovate-roundish, cordate, crenately toothed; upper ones sessile, linear-lanceolate, nearly entire, quite glabrous. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Dahuria, 1822. =A. denticulata= (toothed-leaved).* _fl._ blue, small, numerous, on short pedicels, disposed in a more or less loose elongated raceme. July. _l._ serrated, smoothish; radical ones petiolate, rounded; upper ones sessile, ovate-lanceolate. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Dahuria, 1817. SYN. _A. tricuspidata_. =A. Fischeri= (Fischer's).* _fl._ blue, or whitish blue, numerous, sweet-scented, disposed in a more or less compound, elongated, and loose pyramidal panicle. August. _l._ radical ones petiolate, ovate-roundish, cordate, crenately toothed; upper ones sessile, ovate-lanceolate, coarsely serrated. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Siberia, 1784. SYN. _A. liliiflora_. =A. Gmelini= (Gmelin's). _fl._ blue, secund, three to ten, on the top of each stem, rising from the axils of the upper leaves, disposed in a long raceme. July. _l._ upper ones erect, linear, very narrow, entire, glabrous. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Dahuria, in dry stony places, 1820. =A. intermedia= (intermediate). _fl._ pale blue, small, racemose. May. _l._ radical ones petiolate, cordate, toothed; upper ones lanceolate, tapering to a point at the base, serrated, crowded. _h._ 3ft. Siberia, 1820. =A. Lamarckii= (Lamarck's).* _fl._ blue; corolla funnel-shaped, disposed in an elongated, many-flowered, raceme, which is compound at the base. June. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acutely serrated, ciliated, glabrous, except on the margins. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Eastern Europe, 1824. =A. latifolia= (broad-leaved). Synonymous with _A. pereskiæfolia_. =A. liliiflora= (lily-flowered).* _fl._ numerous, sweet-scented, in a loose pyramidal panicle. Central and Eastern Europe. =A. pereskiæfolia= (pereskia-leaved).* _fl._ blue, rather numerous, scattered over the upper part of the stems, rarely subverticillate; peduncles one to two, or three-flowered. July. _l._ three to five in a whorl, ovate-oblong, acuminated, coarsely serrated, roughly ciliated. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Dahuria, 1821. SYN. _A. latifolia_. =A. periplocæfolia= (periploca-leaved). _fl._ pale blue, at the top of the stem, sometimes only one. June. _l._ petiolate, ovate, acute, somewhat cordate, crenately serrated. Stem ascending. _h._ 3in. Siberia, 1824. Rockery species. =A. stylosa= (long-styled).* _fl._ pale blue, small, few, disposed in a loose, naked, raceme. May. _l._ petiolate; lower ones obovate, sinuate; upper ones ovate, acuminated, glabrous. Stem ascending. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Eastern Europe, 1820. =A. tricuspidata= (three-cusped). Synonymous with _A. denticulata_. =A. verticillata= (whorl-leaved).* _fl._ pale blue, small, irregularly disposed at the tops of the stems; lower whorls many flowered, distant; peduncles one to three-flowered. June. _l._ in whorls, serrately toothed; radical ones petiolate, roundish; upper ones ovate-lanceolate; stems simple. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Dahuria, 1783. =ADENOSTOMA= (from _aden_, a gland, and _stoma_, a mouth). ORD. _Rosaceæ_. Hardy shrubs, having small racemose, five-petalled flowers. They grow freely in rich loam and peat in equal proportions. Propagated in spring or autumn, by cuttings made of the young shoots, placed in sand, under glass. =A. fasciculata= (fascicled).* _fl._ white, small, produced in terminal panicles. _h._ 2ft. California, 1848. A hardy, heath-like evergreen bushy plant, allied to _Alchemilla_. =ADESMIA= (from _a_, without, _desmos_, a bond; in reference to the stamens being free). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Chiefly greenhouse evergreen shrubs, or trailers, from South America, with lanceolate stipulas, abruptly pinnate leaves, ending in a bristle; axillary one-flowered pedicels, or the flowers racemosely disposed at the tops of the branches, in consequence of the upper leaves being abortive. They will grow well in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand. Propagated by cuttings placed in sand, covered by a hand glass, in a gentle heat; or by seeds, which are generally more satisfactory. The annual species--_A. muricata_, _A. papposa_, and _A. pendula_--are not worth growing. The following are fairly representative of the most ornamental species. =A. glutinosa= (sticky).* _fl._ yellow; racemes elongated, terminal, simple, spinescent, and are (as well as the linear bracteas) clothed with white hairs. May. _l._ with about three pairs of elliptic, hairy leaflets; branches spreading, beset with glandular, glutinous hairs. Stem shrubby; legumes three-jointed, very long. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1831. =A. Loudonii= (Loudon's). _fl._ yellow. May, _h._ 2ft. Valparaiso, 1830. =A. microphylla= (small-leaved).* _fl._ yellow; racemes somewhat capitate, terminal, simple, spinescent. June. _l._ with six pairs of small orbicular leaflets, on short petioles, pubescent; branches spinose. Stem shrubby. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1830. =A. Uspallatensis= (Uspallatan). _fl._ yellow. July. _h._ 1ft. China, 1832. =A. viscosa= (clammy). _fl._ yellow. August. _h._ 12ft. Chili, 1831. =ADHATODA= (its native name). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. Allied to _Justicia_. Very ornamental stove shrubs, requiring a good fibrous peat and loam, with a moderate addition of silver sand. To grow them well, they require liberal treatment and plenty of heat, when the flowers will be produced in great profusion. Increased by young cuttings in spring, placed in sandy soil, in bottom heat. _See_ =Justicia=. =A. cydoniæfolia= (quince-leaved).* _fl._ produced in rather dense clusters at the point of every branch; tube of corolla white, the upper lip white tipped with purple; the lower lip large, rich deep purple, with a white stripe down the centre. October. _l._ opposite, ovate, dark green, and are, as well as the branches, slightly downy. Brazil, 1855. This species is an excellent subject for training up pillars or rafters; and, when in bloom, makes a pretty basket plant. It has a somewhat straggling habit, but a little care only is needed in pruning and training to grow it into an elegant shape. =A. vasica= (Vasica). _fl._ purple. July. _h._ 10ft. India, 1699. =ADHERENT.= Strictly signifies sticking to anything, but is more commonly employed in the sense of adnate. =ADHESION.= The union of parts usually distinct. =ADIANTOPSIS.= _See_ =Cheilanthes=. =ADIANTUM= (from _adiantos_, dry, as if plunged in water it yet remains dry). Maidenhair. ORD. _Filices_. A large genus of handsome tropical and temperate ferns. _Sori_ marginal, varying in shape from globose to linear, usually numerous and distinct, sometimes confluent and continuous. Involucre the same shape as the sorus, formed of the reflexed margin of the fronds, bearing the capsules on its upper side. None of the Adiantums are truly hardy except the American _A. pedatum_; even our own native species requires protection. The chief requirements of this handsome genus of ferns are good drainage, and a compost of fibrous peat, loam and sand. In most cases, plenty of pot room is essential, and a larger quantity of loam will be needed for strong-growing sorts. For general culture, _see_ =Ferns=. =A. æmulum= (rival).* _sti._ slender, about 6in. long. _fronds_ slender, pyramidate, tri-subquadripinnate; pinnæ distinct, obliquely pyramidate, unequally-sided; pinnules rhomboid or oblong, tapering to the base, the terminal one distinctly cuneate, all sparingly lobate. _sori_, 2in. to 4in., circular, or nearly so. Brazil, 1877. Stove or greenhouse species. =A. æthiopicum= (�thiopian).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, rather slender, erect. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, deltoid, tri- or quadripinnate; lower pinnæ 3in. to 4in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, deltoid; ultimate segments 1/4in. to 1/2in. across, 1/4in. deep, suborbicular, the upper part broadly lobed; rachis and surfaces naked. _sori_ in several roundish patches. _A. Chilense_ (Chilian), _A. scabrum_ (scurfy), _A. sulphureum_ (sulphured) are mere forms of this species. Spain, and almost cosmopolitan. A very pretty greenhouse fern. SYNS. _A. assimile_, _A. emarginatum_. =A. affine= (related).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, erect. _fronds_ with a terminal central pinna 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, and several smaller erecto-patent lateral ones, the lowest of which are again branched; pinnules, 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, 1/4in. deep, dimidiate, the lower edge straight, the upper nearly parallel with it, crenate, like the oblique or bluntly rounded outer edge. _sori_ numerous, roundish. New Zealand. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. Cunninghami_. =A. amabile= (lovely). Synonymous with _A. glaucophyllum_. Also a garden name for _A. Moorei_. =A. am�num= (pleasing). Synonymous with _A. flabellulatum_. =A. andicolum.= A synonym of _A. glaucophyllum_. =A. aneitense= (Aneiteum).* _sti._ and _rachises_ castaneous, the latter glabrous beneath, ferrugino-pilose above; _fronds_ deltoid, three to four pinnate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, and broad; segments, about 1/2in. long, rhomboidal, ascending, nearly sessile, inner side close to rachis, lower erecto-patent, shallowly lobed. _sori_ round, reniform, in centre of lobes, four to six to a segment. Aneiteum Isles, 1880. Stove or greenhouse species. =A. assimile= (assimilated). An Australian form of the widely-distributed _A. æthiopicum_. =A. Bausei= (Bause's).* _fronds_ 1-1/2ft. to 2-1/2ft. long, spreading, triangular, tri-quadripinnate; pinnæ stalked, the lower ones obliquely triangular; pinnules broad, laterally deflexed, the basal ones obliquely ovate with a truncate base, the intermediate somewhat trapeziform, the terminal cuneate--all shallowly lobed and pedicellate. _sori_ oblong reniform, set across the apices of the lobes, 1879. A beautiful stove or greenhouse hybrid, between _A. trapeziforme_ and _A. decorum_. =A. bellum= (handsome).* _fronds_ tufted, 3in. to 6in. high, bipinnate. ovate-lanceolate; pinnæ of three to six pinnules, 1/2in. to 1-1/2in. long, stalked; pinnules cuneate or irregular transverse-oblong, the somewhat larger terminal ones cuneate, lobed, the margin erose, all shortly stalked. _sori_ two to three on the smaller pinnules, roundish, or sublunate. Bermuda, 1879. Greenhouse or Wardian case species. =A. Capillus-Veneris= (Venus's hair).* Common Maidenhair. _sti._ sub-erect, rather slender, 4in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ very variable in size, with short terminal and numerous erecto-patent lateral branches on each side, the lowest slightly branched again; segments 1/2in. to 1in. broad, deeply lobed, and the lobes again bluntly crenated. _sori_ placed in roundish sinuses of the crenation. Great Britain, and world-wide in its distribution. Greenhouse, case, or frame species. =A. C.-V. cornubiense= (Cornish).* _fronds_ very numerous, and dwarf, more or less oblong in general outline, with large, broad pinnules of a deep green, with finely-waved margins, and an almost pellucid, but firm texture. One of the best forms, but somewhat delicate in constitution. =A. C.-V. crispulum= (crisped).* _fronds_, with the stipes, from 6in. to 12in. long, more attenuated than those of the type, and narrower at the base; pinnules less numerous, but broad and thin, crisp, of a light green colour, more or less cut at the broadest part. A handsome variety, of vigorous growth. [Illustration: FIG. 26. ADIANTUM CAPILLUS-VENERIS DAPHNITES.] =A. C.-V. daphnites= (glistening).* _sti._ and _rachises_ dark brown, reaching a height of from 9in. to 14in. pinnæ and ultimate pinnules more or less confluent, the latter being broad, and of a dull green colour, usually forming a tufted crest at the extremities of the fronds. A charming subject for the Wardian case. Very distinct. See Fig. 26. =A. C.-V. fissum= (divided). Very dwarf in habit, with pinnules rather broader than those of the type, which are deeply and variously cut, so as to give the plant a distinctive appearance from most of the forms. =A. C.-V. Footi= (Foot's). Closely allied to the variety _fissum_, having fronds a foot or more long, with very ample pinnules deeply incised, light green. Vigorous. =A. C.-V. incisum= (deeply cut). Very closely allied to _A. C.-V. fissum_, but rather more vigorous in growth; pinnules broad, and deeply slit into segments near the base. =A. C.-V. magnificum= (magnificent).* _fronds_ from 9in. to 16in. long, more or less elongated in outline, 3in. to 4in. across; pinnules ample, rich green, with the margins finely cut and imbricated. The arching character gives this form a most distinct appearance. A very fine variety. =A. C.-V. rotundum= (rounded). Pinnules usually round, without the cuneiform base of the normal form; neither are the fronds so broad. Isle of Man. Variable in its habit. =A. C.-V. undulatum= (wavy).* _fronds_ dense, compact, having broad, roundish dark green pinnules, which are undulated at the edges. An elegant dwarf-growing form. =A. cardiochlæna= (heart-form indusium). A synonym of _A. polyphyllum_. =A. caudatum= (tailed).* _sti._ 2in. to 4in. long, tufted, wiry. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, simply pinnate, often elongated, and rooting at the extremity; pinnæ about 1/2in. long, 1/4in. deep, dimidiate, nearly sessile, the lower line straight and horizontal, the upper rounded, more or less cut, the point usually blunt, the lower ones slightly stalked. _sori_ roundish or transversely oblong on the edge of the lobes; _rachis_ and both sides of the frond villose. _A. ciliatum_ (of gardens) is probably a mere form, if not a synonym, of this species. Throughout the Tropics everywhere. Greenhouse or stove species; very fine for hanging baskets. =A. colpodes= (deep hollow).* _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long, slender, slightly fibrillose. _fronds_ 9in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, deltoid, tripinnate, light green; lower pinnæ spreading at right angles from the rachis, 2in. to 4in. long, 1-1/2in. broad, slightly branched below; ultimate segments about 1/2in. long, 1/4in. broad, the lower line often straight, the upper rounded, lobed, and toothed, all nearly or quite sessile. _sori_ placed in distinct teeth of the outer edge. Ecuador and Peru, 1875. Greenhouse species. =A. concinnum= (neat).* _sti._ 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, ovate-deltoid, tripinnate; pinnæ numerous, spreading, flexuous, the lowest 4in. to 6in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad; segments 1/4in. to 3/8in. across, broadly cuneate at the base, the upper edge irregularly rounded, deeply lobed, the lobes crenate, the lowest segment of each pinna and pinnule large, sessile. _sori_ numerous, ob-reniform. Tropical America. A most elegant species for baskets and the rockery. =A. c. Flemingi= (Fleming's). This variety, of garden origin, is also very handsome. =A. c. latum= (broad).* Differs from the type in being more erect and robust in habit, and broader in all its parts. It constitutes an excellent stove plant. =A. crenatum= (crenated).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ with a terminal central pinna 6in. to 9in. long and several large erecto-patent lateral ones on each side, the lowest of which are branched again; segments about 1/2in. long, 1/4in. deep, dimidiate, the lower line upcurved, the upper nearly straight, slightly crenate. _sori_ numerous, round, placed on the upper and sometimes outer edge. This is closely allied to _A. tetraphyllum_. Mexico. Stove species. SYN. _A. Wilesianum_. [Illustration: FIG. 27. ADIANTUM DECORUM.] =A. cristatum= (crested). _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, strong, erect, tomentose. _fronds_ 1-1/2ft. to 3ft. long, 9in. to 12in. broad, with a terminal central pinna 6in. to 9in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, and numerous rather distant lateral ones on each side, the lowest of which are sometimes again branched; segments 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, dimidiate, the lower line nearly straight, the upper nearly parallel or rounded, the point blunt. _sori_ in several oblong or linear patches. West Indies and Venezuela, 1844. Stove species. SYN. _A. Kunzeanum_. =A. cubense= (Cuba).* _sti._ 4in. to 8in. long, nearly black, erect. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, simply pinnate, or with a single pair of short branches; pinnæ 1in. to 2in. long, and about 3/4in. to 1in. broad, unilateral, the lower line slightly recurved, the upper rounded and broadly lobed, of a deep green colour, with a soft herbaceous texture. _sori_ in hollows of the lobes. Cuba and Jamaica. A very distinct stove species. =A. cuneatum= (wedge-shaped).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, slender, erect. _fronds_ 9in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, deltoid, tri- or quadripinnate; lower pinnæ 4in. to 6in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad; segments numerous, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, cuneate at the base, the upper edge deeply lobed. _sori_ four to six, obversely reniform. Brazil, 1820. This fine greenhouse species is more generally grown than any other; and a number of garden forms have received distinctive names. =A. c. dissectum= (dissected).* A pretty variety, with the pinnules more deeply lobed than in the type. =A. c. Lawsonianum= (Lawson's). This is a very abnormal form, curiously and finely cut, with the ultimate segments narrowly cuneate at the base, stalked, and distant. Of garden origin. Greenhouse variety. =A. c. mundulum= (neat).* _sti._ 3in. to 4in. high. _fronds_ dwarf, tufted, erect, hardly 3in. broad, deltoid, tripinnate; pinnæ and pinnules crowded; pinnules narrowly cuneate, rarely three-parted, with narrow wedge-shaped lobes; apex slightly crenate, and bears a roundish sorus set in a notch of the lobe or crenature. Of garden origin, 1879. Greenhouse variety. =A. Cunninghami= (Cunningham's). Synonymous with _A. affine_. =A. curvatum= (curved).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ dichotomous, with main divisions again once or twice forked; pinnæ 8in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad; pinnules 1-1/4in. to 1-1/2in. long, about 1/2in. deep, not truly dimidiate, but only the lower two-thirds of the under half cut away, the upper margin rounded and broadly lobed, with the lobes finely toothed and point often lengthened out. _sori_ linear, or transversely oblong. Tropical America, 1841. Stove species. =A. decorum= (decorous).* _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ sub-deltoid, 9in. to 15in. long, three to four pinnate; lower pinnæ and pinnules stalked, deltoid; side segments rhomboid, 1/4in. to 3/8in. long; outer edge distinctly lobed; lower segments equilateral, imbricated over main rachis. _sori_ round, in final lobes, four to six to a segment. This greenhouse species ranks midway between _A. concinnum_ and _A. cuneatum_. Peru. SYN. _A. Wagneri_. See Fig. 27. =A. deltoideum= (deltoid).* _sti._ densely tufted, 3in. to 4in. long, wiry, erect. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, 3/4in. broad, with a terminal lobe and numerous sub-opposite pinnæ, the lower ones distant, distinctly stalked, 1/2in. long, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, hastate-deltoid, cordate or cuneate at the base. _sori_ in interrupted lines along the sides of the pinnæ. West Indian Islands. Stove species. [Illustration: FIG. 28. ADIANTUM DIAPHANUM.] =A. diaphanum= (transparent).* _sti._ 4in. to 8in. long, slender, erect. _fronds_ 6in. to 7in. long, simply pinnate, or with one to three branches at the base; pinnules 1/2in. long, 1/4in. broad, the lower line rather decurved, the upper nearly parallel with it, crenate like the blunt outer edge. _sori_ obversely reniform, numerous. S.E. China, New Zealand, &c. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. setulosum_. See Fig. 28. =A. digitatum= (finger-leaved).* _sti._ 12in. to 18in. long, erect. _fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 6in. to 1ft. 6in. broad, furnished with numerous distant spreading or erecto-patent branches, gradually shortened upwards, the lowest of which are branched again; lower pinnæ 6in. to 9in. long, 3in. to 4in. broad; segments 3/4in. to 1in. each way, varying from deflexed to cuneate at the base, the upper edge rounded, deeply cut, and the lobes again less deeply cut, the lower ones distinctly stalked. _sori_ in lines along the edge of the lobes. Peru. It is generally cultivated under the name of _A. speciosum_. Stove or greenhouse species. =A. dolabriforme= (axe-shaped). Synonymous with _A. lunulatum_. =A. dolosum= (deceiving). Synonymous with _A. Wilsoni_. =A. Edgworthii= (Edgeworth's).* This differs from _caudatum_ by having more membranous texture, glabrous surfaces, and sub-entire pinnæ. Himalaya and China. =A. emarginatum= (notched at the end). Synonymous with _A. æthiopicum_. =A. excisum= (bluntly cut).* _sti._ 2in. to 3in. long, wiry, densely tufted. _fronds_ 6in. to 18in. long, 3in. to 6in. broad, with numerous flexuose short pinnæ on each side, the lowest of which are slightly branched again; segments two to three lines broad, cuneate at the base, the upper edge rounded and bluntly lobed. _sori_ two to four, large, obversely reniform, placed in distinct hollows on the lobes. Chili. =A. e. Leyi= (Ley's).* This is a very dwarf, copiously crested form, of garden origin, most suitable for case culture. Greenhouse variety. =A. e. multifidum= (much-cut).* A handsome garden variety; the apex of every frond is frequently divided into several branches, which oftentimes are again divided and crested, thus forming a beautiful tassel 2in. to 3in. long. Greenhouse species. =A. Feei= (Fee's).* _sti._ 12in. to 18in. long, strong, scandent. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 1ft. or more broad, tripinnate, the main and secondary rachises zigzag, all the branches firm and spreading at a right angle; lower pinnæ 6in. to 9in. long, 3in. to 4in. broad; pinnules 1in. to 2in. long, 1/2in. broad, consisting of a terminal segment and several distant suborbicular-cuneate lateral ones. _sori_ marginal, roundish, more than half line deep. Tropical America. Stove species. SYN. _A. flexuosum_. =A. flabellulatum= (small fan-leaved).* _sti._ erect, strong. _fronds_ dichotomously branched, and the divisions once or twice branched again; central pinnæ 4in. to 8in. long, 3/4in. broad; pinnules about 1/4in. broad and deep, dimidiate, the lower edge nearly straight, the upper rounded, the outer blunt, both entire or slightly toothed. _sori_ in several transversely oblong notches. Tropical Asia. Stove species. SYN. _A. am�num_. =A. flexuosum= (zigzagly-bent). Synonymous with _A. Feei_. =A. formosum= (beautiful).* _sti._ 12in. to 18in. long, strong, erect. _fronds_ 18in. to 24in. long, 12in. to 18in. broad, bi-, tri-, or quadripinnate; lower pinnæ 12in. to 15in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, deltoid; pinnules deltoid; ultimate segments 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, one and a half to two lines deep, dimidiate, the lower edge straight, the upper and outer rather rounded and deeply lobed, the lower ones distinctly stalked. _sori_ numerous, between obreniform and transversely oblong. Australia, 1820. Greenhouse species. =A. fovearum.= Synonymous with _A. intermedium_. =A. fulvum= (tawny).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, strong, erect. _fronds_ 9in. to 12in. long, 6in. to 8in. broad, deltoid in general outline, with a terminal pinna 4in. to 6in. long, about 1-1/2in. broad, and several erecto-patent branches, the lower of which are branched again; pinnules about 3/4in. long, 1/4in. deep, dimidiate, the lower edge nearly straight, the upper almost parallel, sharply toothed like the oblique outer edge. _sori_ large, numerous. New Zealand. Greenhouse species. =A. Ghiesbreghti= (Ghiesbreght's).* _fronds_ 18in. to 30in. long, ovate, deltoid, tripinnate; pinnules large, slightly crenate on the margins. A very fine stove fern, with the habit of _A. tenerum Farleyense_, but less dense. It is undoubtedly a variety of _tenerum_, having originated in Mr. Williams's nursery some years since. SYN. _A. scutum_. =A. glaucophyllum= (grey-leaved).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, erect. _fronds_ 12in. to 24in. long, 9in. to 15in. broad, deltoid, quadripinnate; lower pinnæ 6in. to 9in. long, 3in. to 6in. broad, deltoid, erecto-patent; segments 1/4in. broad, cuneate at the base, the upper edge irregularly rounded, more or less lobed. _sori_ four to six, obversely reniform, placed in distinct hollows in the apex of the lobes of the upper edge, deep green above, glaucous beneath. Closely allied to _A. cuneatum_. Mexico. Greenhouse. SYNS. _A. amabile_, _A. andicolum_, _A. mexicanum_. =A. gracillimum= (most graceful).* _fronds_ deltoidly ovate, 9in. to 24in. long, and 6in. to 10in. across, decompound, rich green; ultimate pinnules distant, minute, distinctly stalked, obovate, emarginate, or two to three lobed, the sterile lobes blunt. _sori_ solitary on the entire pinnules, two to three on the larger lobed ones. One of the most graceful and beautiful of greenhouse ferns; the very numerous minute segments and the ramifications of the rachis impart to a well grown plant a very charming appearance. Of garden origin. A form of _A. cuneatum_. =A. Henslovianum= (Henslow's).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, erect. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, ovate, tripinnate, furnished with numerous distant pinnæ on each side, the upper of which are simple, but the lowest slightly branched; segments 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, 1/4in. to 3/8in. deep, dimidiate, the lower line nearly straight, the upper rather rounded and lobed, the point bluntly rounded. _sori_ obversely reniform, placed in the hollows of the lobes. Columbia, Peru, &c., 1833. A most distinct and beautiful stove species. SYNS. _A. lætum_, _A. Reichenbachii_, _A. sessilifolium_. =A. Hewardia= (Heward's). _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, erect. _fronds_ simply pinnate or bipinnate, with a terminal pinna and two to four lateral ones on each side, the lowest pair of which sometimes with two to four pinnules each; pinnules 3in. to 4in. long, about 1in. broad, nearly equal sided, ovate lanceolate, nearly entire. _sori_ in continuous lines along both edges. Jamaica, &c., occurring over a wide area. Stove species. SYN. _Hewardia adiantoides_. =A. hispidulum= (hairyish).* _sti._ 6in. to 15in. long, strong, erect. _fronds_ dichotomous, with the main divisions flabellately branched; central pinnæ 6in. to 9in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad; pinnules 3/8in. to 3/4in. long, two to four lines broad, dimidiate, subrhomboidal, the outer edge bluntly rounded, upper and outer margin finely toothed, slightly stalked. _sori_ roundish, numerous, contiguous. Tropics of Old World, 1822. Greenhouse. SYN. _A. pubescens_. =A. intermedium= (intermediate). _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, erect, strong. _fronds_ with a terminal pinna 6in. to 9in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, and one to three small spreading lateral ones on each side; pinnules 1in. to 1-1/2in. long; 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, unequal sided, but not dimidiate, the point bluntish or acute, the inner edge nearly parallel with the stem, the upper nearly straight, scarcely toothed. _sori_ in interrupted marginal patches, one to two lines across, placed round the upper and lower edges. Stove. Tropical America, from the Antilles southwards to Peru and Rio Janeiro, 1824. SYNS. _A. fovearum_, _A. triangulatum_. =A. Kunzeanum= (Kunze's). Synonymous with _A. cristatum_. =A. lætum= (joyful). Synonymous with _A. Henslovianum_. =A. Lathomi= (Lathom's).* A garden variety, said to be a sport from _A. Ghiesbreghti_, which it closely resembles, being between it and _A. Farleyense_. It is a magnificent plant, producing _fronds_ from 18in. to 24in. long, with imbricated deeply-cut pinnules. Stove variety. =A. Legrandi= (Legrand's). Very closely allied to, if not identical with, _A. Pecottei_. Greenhouse variety, of garden origin. =A. Lindeni= (Linden's).* _sti._ black, naked. _fronds_ erect, large, pentagonal, tripinnate; rachises pubescent above, naked beneath; segments sub-distant, 1-1/2in. long, oblong-rhomboidal, falcate, acuminate, outer margins closely but bluntly lobed, of a deep green colour, the lobes toothed. _sori_ oblong or reniform. Amazons, 1866. A magnificent stove species. =A. lucidum= (shiny).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, strong, erect. _fronds_ 9in. to 15in. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, simply pinnate, with a large terminal pinna and six to ten lateral ones on each side, or the lowest very slightly branched, 3in. to 4in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad, nearly equal sided, lanceolate acuminate, slightly serrated towards the point. _sori_ in a continuous row along each side. West Indian Islands and Tropical America. Stove species. [Illustration: FIG. 29. ADIANTUM LUDDEMANNIANUM.] =A. Luddemannianum= (Luddemann's).* A very striking variety of the common Maidenhair, _A. Capillus-Veneris_, of garden origin, with smooth, dark, almost black stipes, branching about a third of the way up, while the pinnules are crested, usually clustered, at the extremities of the branches, of a deep green, sub-glaucous character. It is a very elegant little greenhouse variety. See Fig. 29. =A. lunulatum= (crescent-leaved).* _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long, tufted, wiry. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad, simply pinnate; pinnæ 3/4in. to 1in. broad, 1/2in. to 1in. deep, sub-dimidiate, the lower edge nearly in a line with the petiole, the upper edge rounded and, like the sides, usually more or less lobed. _sori_ in continuous lines along the edge. Hongkong, &c., widely distributed in both hemispheres. Stove species. SYN. _A. dolabriforme_. =A. macrocladum= (long-branched). Synonymous with _A. polyphyllum_. =A. macrophyllum= (long-leaved).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, strong, erect, nearly black. _fronds_ 9in. to 15in. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, simply pinnate; the lower pinnæ of the barren frond 3in. to 4in. long, 2in. broad, ovate, so broad at the base that the opposite ones frequently overlap, the margin rather deeply lobed; fertile ones narrower. _sori_ in long continuous, or slightly interrupted, marginal lines. Tropical America, 1793. One of the finest stove species in cultivation. =A. macropterum= (long-winged). Synonymous with _A. Wilsoni_. =A. mexicanum= (Mexican). Synonymous with _A. glaucophyllum_. =A. microphyllum= (short-leaved). A synonym of _A. venustum_. =A. monochlamys= (one-covered).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, wiry, erect, dark, chestnut brown; _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, ovate-deltoid, tripinnate, the pinnæ rather distantly placed; segments 1/4in. broad, cuneate at the base, the upper edge rounded, slightly toothed, of a light green colour, with a firm texture. _sori_ single, or very rarely two, in a hollow of the upper edge. Japan. A very distinct and pretty greenhouse species. =A. monosorum= (uni-soriate). A pretty species, from Solomon Islands, not yet in cultivation. =A. Moorei= (Moore's).* _sti._ 6in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ deltoid, 6in. to 15in. long, two to three pinnate; side segments about 1/2in. long, rhomboid, lower edge deflexed from tip of pedicel, outer lobed half way down. _sori_ round, placed in tip of lobes. Andes of Peru. Stove or greenhouse species. SYN. _A. amabile_, under which name it is frequently grown. =A. Moritzianum= (Moritz's). This appears to be a stronger, more robust grower (fronds from 12in. to 18in. high), with thicker stipes and larger pinnules than the typical _A. Capillus-Veneris_. South America. Greenhouse species. =A. neoguineense= (New Guinea).* _sti._ 6in. to 8in. long, chestnut brown, erect. _fronds_ spreading, deltoid, tri-quadripinnate, dark olive green with a glaucous tinge on both surfaces; pinnæ ovate; terminal pinnules cuneate, lateral ones trapezoid, about 1/2in. long, crenately lobed, the lobes rather large, entire. _sori_ small, 6in. to 8in., orbicular, entirely sunk in closed sinuses of the marginal lobes. New Guinea, 1877. A very charming stove species. =A. obliquum= (oblique). _sti._ 3in. to 6in. long, erect, wiry, pubescent. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, with a terminal lobe and three to twelve pairs of alternate pinnæ, the lowest 1in. to 2in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, costate nearly to the apex, the upper half the largest, rounded at the base, the lower half obliquely truncate at the base, those of the barren frond slightly toothed. _sori_ in numerous interrupted marginal patches, one to two lines broad. West Indies, &c., 1826. Stove species. =A. palmatum= (palmate).* _fronds_ with elongated zigzag rachises, elongate-oblong, narrowed to the apex, tripinnate, often reaching 3-1/2ft. long, 10in. broad; pinnules distinct; ultimate segments large, smooth, distant, distinctly stipitate, varying from obovate wedge-shaped to semi-orbicular in outline, but all deeply, palmately cut, 1in. to 1-3/4in. broad. _sori_ oblong, variable in length, situate at the tips of the segments, usually one to each. This is a very beautiful and graceful stove or greenhouse species. Peru, 1877. =A. patens= (spreading). _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, erect. _fronds_ dichotomously divided and the branches once or twice divided again; central pinnæ 6in. to 9in. long, 1-1/2in. broad; pinnules 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, 1/4in. deep, dimidiate, the two sides nearly parallel, the upper and outer ones broadly and bluntly lobed. _sori_ placed round the upper and outer edge, obversely reniform. Brazil, &c., 1824. Stove species. =A. Pecottei= (Pecot's).* This is a charming little variety, of garden origin, with short decompound fronds, imbricated segments, comparatively large, of a deep green colour, and likely to prove one of the most useful maidenhair ferns grown. =A. pedatum= (pedate).* _sti._ 9in. to 24in. long, erect, polished. _fronds_ dichotomous, with the main divisions flabellately branched; central pinnæ 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad; pinnules 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, 1/4in. deep, dimidiate, broadest on the side nearest the stem, the upper and outer margin lobed, shortly stalked. _sori_ roundish, one to two lines broad. North Hindostan, the United States, &c. Hardy species. See Fig. 30. =A. peruvianum= (Peruvian).* _sti._ 9in. to 18in. long, strong, erect. _fronds_ simply pinnate, or with one to three branches at the base, some of the latter sometimes again slightly divided; pinnules 2in. or more broad, 1-1/2in. deep, unequally ovate, cuneate at base, finely toothed and lobed round the upper and outer edge. _sori_ in interrupted patches round the sides of the pinnules. Peru. This is one of the finest of the large growing, evergreen stove kinds. =A. polyphyllum= (many-leaved).* _sti._ 12in. to 18in. long, strong, erect. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 12in. to 18in. broad, the upper part simply pinnate; lower pinnæ sometimes 1ft. long; 6in. broad, with a long terminal and numerous lateral pinnules; segments 3/4in. to 1in. long, 1/4in. deep, dimidiate, with nearly parallel edges, the point obtuse, the upper edge sharply toothed. _sori_ in numerous sub-orbicular patches, placed in hollows in lobes along the upper edge. Columbia. A magnificent stove species. SYNS. _A. cardiochlæna_ and _A. macrocladum_. =A. populifolium= (poplar-leaved). A synonym of _A. Seemanni_. =A. princeps= (princely).* _sti._ 9in. to 12in. long, stout, nearly erect. _fronds_ large, 12in. to 24in. long, 9in. to 18in. across the base, deltoid, pendent, quadripinnate, pale greyish; lower pinnæ obliquely elongate, triangular, the posterior side tripinnate, the anterior bipinnate; upper ones pinnate, with a large cuneately flabellate terminal pinnule, apex of fronds pinnate; pinnules 1in. long, 3/4in. broad, roundish rhomboidal or shortly trapeziform, shortly stalked; basal margin entire, slightly concave, the anterior margins and apex lobate, the lobes serrulate in the sterile parts, and, where fertile, bearing each a concave sorus, so that the lobes appear two-horned. New Grenada, 1875. A magnificent stove species. =A. prionophyllum= (saw-leaved). Synonymous with _A. tetraphyllum_. =A. pubescens= (downy). Synonymous with _A. hispidulum_. =A. pulverulentum= (covered with powder).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, strong, erect; _fronds_ with a terminal pinna and several spreading lateral ones on each side, which are 4in. to 8in. long, 1in. broad; pinnules 1/2in. long, one and a half to two lines deep, dimidiate, the lower line nearly straight, the upper one nearly parallel, both it and the outer edge finely toothed. _sori_ in a continuous line along the lower and upper edges. West Indies, &c. Stove species. [Illustration: FIG. 30. ADIANTUM PEDATUM.] =A. Reichenbachii= (Reichenbach's). Synonymous with _A. Henslovianum_. =A. reniforme= (kidney-shaped).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ simple, orbicular, reniform, of a deep green colour, 1-1/2in. to 2-1/2in. across, with usually a broad, open sinus. _sori_ all around the edge, one and a half to three lines broad. Madeira, &c., 1699. Greenhouse species. =A. r. asarifolium= (asarum-leaved). A rather larger growing variety of above species. =A. rhomboideum= (rhomboid). S. America, 1820. Probably identical with _A. villosum_. =A. rubellum= (reddish).* _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, deltoid, bipinnate; uppermost side of the pinnules cuneate, flabellate, nearly sessile, entire; lower rhomboid 1/2in. long, with lower border in a line with petiole, or rather decurved, inner produced over rachis, outer deeply lobed and finely toothed; end and lowest pinnules deltoid, 1/2in. broad. _sori_ round, placed in the tips of the lobes. This pretty species is purplish crimson when in a young state, changing to light green with age, but even then tinged with pink. Allied to _A. tinctum_ and _A. decorum_. Bolivia, 1868. Greenhouse species. =A. scutum= (shield). Synonymous with _A. Ghiesbreghti_. =A. Seemanni= (Seemann's).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, erect. _fronds_ 9in. to 20in. long, simply pinnate or the lower pinnæ compound; pinnæ 3in. to 4in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, ovate, acuminate; but rather unequally sided, the barren ones finely serrated, one side usually cordate at the base, the other obliquely truncate, petioles of the lowest, nearly an inch long. _sori_ in long continuous marginal lines. This is a very fine and distinct stove species. Central America, 1868. SYNS. _A. populifolium_, _A. Zahnii_ (of gardens). =A. sessilifolium= (sessile-leaved). Synonymous with _A. Henslovianum_. =A. setulosum= (bristly). Synonymous with _A. diaphanum_. =A. speciosum= (showy). Synonymous with _A. digitatum_. =A. subvolubile= (somewhat twining). _fronds_ subscandent, 2ft. to 4ft. long, oblong, tripinnate, 6in. to 8in. broad, with naked glossy castaneous stipes and zigzag rachises; central pinnæ lanceolate, with a few short spreading pinnules; side pinnules rhomboidal, about 1/4in. long, lower edge in a line with petiole, or deflexed, inner end touching or wrapped over rachis, outer shallowly lobed; lowest pinnules equilateral, much wrapped over rachis. _sori_ minute, round, six to twelve to a segment. E. Peru. Stove species. =A. tenerum= (tender).* _sti._ 1ft. or more high, erect. _fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 9in. to 18in. broad, deltoid, tri- or quadripinnate; segments 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, cuneate or tending towards rhomboidal, dimidiate in shape, the upper edge rounder or somewhat angular, broadly and deeply lobed, all stalked. _sori_ placed in numerous roundish patches in the lobes of the upper half. Mexico, &c., widely distributed. Stove species. =A. t. Farleyense= (Farley's).* A subfertile, subcristate variety of the foregoing; but, is, nevertheless, one of the most magnificent of Adiantums. It is nearly always known under the name of _A. Farleyense_. Barbados, 1865. Stove variety. =A. tetraphyllum= (four-leaved).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, strong, erect. _fronds_ nearly as broad as long, with a terminal pinna 6in. to 9in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, and numerous spreading lateral ones; segments 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, 1/4in. deep, subdimidiate, the lower line straight or somewhat decurved, the upper nearly parallel, finely toothed, the outer oblique. _sori_ interrupted, marginal. Tropical America. Stove species. SYN. _A. prionophyllum_. =A. t. Hendersoni= (Henderson's). A stove variety with small blunt pinnules. =A. tinctum= (tinted).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, deltoid, bipinnate; side pinnules rhomboid, three to four lines long, lower edge straight, inner parallel with rachis, or just wrapped over it, outer shallowly, bluntly lobed; lower pinnules equilateral, imbricated over main rachis; surfaces glabrous, when young of a delicate rose red colour, changing to a bright green. _sori_ round, placed in final lobes. Tropical America. Stove or greenhouse species. =A. trapeziforme= (rhomb-leaved).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, firm, erect. _fronds_ 12in. to 24in. long, with a central pinna 4in. to 8in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, and two to four large spreading ones on each side, the lowest of which are often branched again; segments 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, dimidiate, the sides nearly parallel, the outer edge oblique, both it and the upper one bluntly lobed, the lowest on stalks 1/4in. to 1/2in. long. _sori_ numerous, contiguous, placed round the upper and outer edge. West Indies, 1793. Stove species. =A. t. cultratum= (sharpened).* Outer edge of the segment bluntly rounded. =A. t. pentadactylon= (five-fingered). Lower margin of the segments somewhat decurved obliquely from the petiole. =A. t. Sanctæ Catherinæ= (of gardens).* This is a deeply cut, rather copiously divided variety of _A. trapeziforme_. =A. t. S. C. Funcki= (Funck's).* A deeply lobed, drooping variety, of garden origin. =A. triangulatum= (triangle-leaved). Synonymous with _A. intermedium_. =A. varium= (various). Probably identical with _A. villosum_. =A. Veitchianum= (Veitch's).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 9in. to 18in. long, deltoid, bipinnate in lower half, reddish when young; side pinnules rhomboid, about 1/2in. long, lower border straight, more or less deflexed from tip of pedicel, inner distant from rachis, upper and outer shallowly lobed; end segments 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, equilateral, rounded in upper, deltoid in lower half. _sori_ eight to ten to a segment, round, minute. Peruvian Andes, 1868. A very elegant and distinct stove species. =A. velutinum= (velvety).* _sti._ as long as fronds, slightly velvety. _fronds_ deltoid, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, three to four pinnate; rachises densely pubescent on both sides; pinnæ 6in. to 9in. long; segments twenty to thirty-jugate, sub-sessile, sub-rhomboidal, 1in. long, 1/2in. broad, lower border decurved, outer blunt or sub-acute, upper straight, shallowly, bluntly lobed. _sori_ straight, one to one and a half lines long at tips of lobes of upper edge, four to six to a segment. Columbia, 1866. A magnificent stove species. =A. venustum= (charming).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, wiry, erect, glossy. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, deltoid, tri-quadripinnate; ultimate segments about 1/4in. across, cuneate at the base, the upper edge rounded, and usually finely toothed, of a light green colour, with a firm texture. _sori_ one to three, roundish; in hollows of the upper edge. Himalayas, up to 8000ft. Greenhouse or frame, nearly hardy in sheltered places. SYN. _A. microphyllum_. =A. villosum= (hairy stalked).* _sti._ 9in. to 12in. long, strong, erect. _fronds_ with a terminal central and several spreading pinnæ on each side, 6in. to 12in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad; pinnules dimidiate, about 1in. long, 1/2in. broad, the lower line nearly straight, the upper edge nearly parallel with it, but considerably larger, slightly toothed, and the outer edge auriculed at the base. _sori_ in a continuous line round the upper and outer edge. West Indies, &c., 1775. Stove species. =A. Wagneri= (Wagner's). Synonymous with _A. decorum_. =A. Wilesianum= (Wiles's). Synonymous with _A. crenatum_. =A. Williamsii= (Williams's).* _sti._ 6in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 9in. to 18in. long, tripinnate, triangular; pinnæ ovate, distant, pinnules sub-rotund, slightly trapeziform, the basal line rather concave, the margin entire or slightly undulated, or divided into three to four lobes, crenately notched between the _sori_, the sterile portions with an erose diaphanous margin. _sori_ eight to ten, elongate reniform or lunate, occupying the whole of the semicircular outer edge. Mountains of Peru, 1877. In a young state, the stipes and fronds are dusted with a yellow powder. This is one of the most beautiful of the Maidenhair ferns. Greenhouse species. =A. Wilsoni= (Wilson's).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, erect. _fronds_ 9in. to 12in. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, simply pinnate, with a large terminal pinna and two to six sub-sessile lateral ones on each side, which are 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, nearly entire. _sori_ in continuous lines along both edges. Jamaica. Stove species. SYNS. _A. dolosum_, _A. macropterum_. =A. Zahnii= (Zahn's). Synonymous with _A. Seemanni_. =ADIKE.= A synonym of =Pilea= (which _see_). =ADINA= (from _adinos_, crowded; in reference to the flowers being disposed in heads). ORD. _Rubiaceæ_. A very pretty evergreen cool stove shrub, with opposite terete branches, and solitary, axillary peduncles. It thrives in a mixture of loam, sand, and peat. Propagated by cuttings, inserted in a rich, loamy soil, under a hand glass, in heat. =A. globifera= (globe-bearing).* _fl._ yellowish, sessile, crowded, collected into globose heads; corolla funnel-shaped; peduncles axillary, rarely terminal, solitary. July. _l._ lanceolate, glabrous, longer than the peduncles. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. China, 1804. =ADLUMIA= (from _adlumino_, to fringe with purple; flowers bordered with purple). ORD. _Fumariaceæ_. An interesting, delicate, and nearly hardy climber from North America. Flowers with four spongy, cohering petals. A warm, good soil is most suitable; sow seeds about May in a shady spot. It is a biennial, but in favourable spots is self-sowing, and thus may be treated as a perennial. If placed either against a wall or in the open it is a pretty subject for trailing over a shrub or twiggy branch. From its fragile character, it can only be seen to the best advantage under glass. =A. cirrhosa= (tendrilled).* _fl._ pale rose-coloured, about 1/2in. long; peduncles axillary, generally four-flowered. June. _l._ triply pinnate, pale green. _h._ 15ft. 1788. The Maidenhair fern-like leaves are borne in profusion on the slender twining stems. SYN. _Corydalis fungosa_. =ADNATE.= Grown to anything by the whole surface; anthers are said to be Adnate when they are attached to the filaments by their whole length. =ADONIS= (name of classical derivation). ORD. _Ranunculaceæ_. Handsome hardy herbaceous plants. Flowers solitary, terminal; petals five to fifteen. Leaves divided into numerous linear segments. Some of the annuals are much inferior to the perennial species. The latter section constitute very ornamental subjects for rockwork, borders, margins of shrubberies, &c. All the species will grow freely in common soil, and are propagated by seeds. The perennials may be divided at the root. =A. æstivalis= (summer).* Pheasant's Eye. _fl._ deep crimson; petals flat, oblong, obtuse, one-half longer than the calyx. June. Stem almost simple, elongated. _h._ 1ft. South Europe, 1629. Annual. See Figs. 31 and 32. =A. autumnalis= (autumnal).* Pheasant's Eye; Red Morocco. _fl._ of an intense blood-red, with a black centre, rarely pale, globose from the six to eight concave conniving petals, which are scarcely larger than the calyx. May. Stems branched. _h._ 1ft. Britain. Annual. =A. pyrenaica= (Pyrenean).* _fl._ almost sessile, yellow; petals eight to ten, smaller and more obtuse than in _A. vernalis_. July. _l._, lower ones on long stalks, with trifid petioles and many-parted segments; upper ones sessile, multifid, with linear very entire lobules. Stem 1ft. or more high, and usually much branched. Pyrenees, 1817. Perennial. [Illustration: FIG. 31. FLOWER OF ADONIS �STIVALIS.] =A. vernalis= (spring).* _fl._ yellow, large; petals, ten to twelve, oblong, rather denticulated. March. _l._ lower ones abortive, or reduced to somewhat sheathing scales, the middle and upper ones sessile and multifid, with very entire lobes. _h._ 9in. to 1ft. Europe, 1629. Charming rock plant. This handsome species requires a rich moist sandy loam, and should not be disturbed for years. Perennial. [Illustration: FIG. 32. ADONIS �STIVALIS, showing Habit and Flowers.] =A. v. sibirica= (Siberian) differs only in having larger flowers. =A. volgensis= (Volga). An intermediate species between _A. vernalis_ and _A. pyrenaica_, differing from the first in the stems being branched, leaves more distant; from the last by the lower leaves being abortive, and formed like scales; and from both in the sepals being pubescent on the outside, not smooth. _fl._ yellow. _h._ 1ft. Russia, 1818. =ADPRESSED.= Brought into close contact with anything without adhering. =ADULT.= The full grown of anything. Full grown leaves are termed adult. =ADVENTITIOUS.= Developed in an unusual position. Applied to buds, roots, &c. =ADVENTURE BAY PINE.= _See_ _Phyllocladus rhomboidalis_. =ADVERSE.= Opposite. =�CHMEA= (from _aichme_, a point; in reference to the rigid points on the calyces, or flower-envelopes). Including _Pironneaua_. ORD. _Bromeliaceæ_. Very handsome stove plants. Flowers scapose, panicled; perianth six-cleft, three outer segments sepaloid, longer than the three inner or petaloid ones. Leaves ligulate or sword-shaped, sometimes with marginal spines. The species thrive best in a well-drained compost of rich fibrous loam and leaf mould. They like plenty of light, which may be afforded by standing them on inverted pots, so as to raise their heads well up above the surrounding plants. Propagation: When the flower-spikes, which are sent up from the heart or crown of the plant, die away, suckers or offsets are produced near the base, and from these other flowers appear the year after. If large plants are desired, these suckers should be left to grow and spread around; but to produce single plants, the suckers must be taken off and potted singly, in sharp soil, and then stood where they can get a moist heat till rooted. To enable them to do this it is necessary to strip off a few of the lower leaves, and trim the bottom with a sharp knife, in order that it may heal over and callus more readily than it otherwise would. When rooted, the plants may be shifted into larger-sized pots; but for single crowns 32-sized pots are large enough, as the plants, being epiphytal in their nature, do not require much soil or any great supply of water, except when growing freely or sending up their flower-spikes. In winter, they should be kept rather on the dry side, to induce partial rest; and an important point is to see that water is not allowed to lie for any length of time in the crown of the plant, as when that is the case it is likely to cause them to rot. [Illustration: FIG. 33. �CHMEA FULGENS.] =�. calyculata= (calycled).* _fl._ bright yellow, tubular, with red bracts, borne in close roundish heads at the top of an erect scape. _l._ strap-shaped, with the ends having the appearance of being cut off, but armed with a sharp spine. _h._ 9in. Brazil, 1862. SYN. _Hoplophytum calyculatum_. =�. c�lestis= (heavenly blue).* _fl._ sky-blue, in close pyramidal panicles, on erect snipes. Winter. _l._ ligulate, concave, spiny-edged, scaly beneath. Brazil, 1874. SYN. _Hoplophytum c�leste_. =�. c�rulescens= (bluish). _fl._ bluish. _h._ 1ft. South America, 1870. This pretty species is very attractive on account of the large dense head of deep blue and pure white berries which are produced in October. SYN. _Lamprococcus c�rulescens_. =�. discolor= (two-coloured-leaved).* _fl._ scarlet, borne on a loose, branched panicle. June. _l._ broad, minutely toothed on the margin, deep green above, and rather purplish beneath. _h._ 2ft. Brazil, 1844. =�. distichantha= (two-ranked-flowered).* _fl._ sepals rose-coloured; petals bright purple; spikes densely clothed with bright red bracts. _l._ long, glaucous, linear-oblong, tapering to a sharp point, and distinctly armed with reddish brown spines. _h._ 1ft. South Brazil, 1852. SYN. _Billbergia polystachya_. =�. exudans= (exuding). _fl._ orange-coloured (exuding a white greasy substance, whence the specific name) interspersed with green bracts; scape erect, with scattered crimson lanceolate bracts, terminating in a dense head. _l._ oblong, spine-margined, grey-coated. _h._ 2ft. West Indies, 1824. SYN. _Hohenbergia capitata_. =�. fasciata= (banded).* _fl._ scape upright, clothed with leafy bracts of a rosy-pink colour; each of the pink blossoms in the dense conical head is subtended by a narrow, spiny-edged, similarly-coloured bract, longer than its own. _l._ broad, recurved, banded with white. Rio Janeiro, 1826. SYN. _Billbergia fasciata_. Lasts in perfection for a considerable length of time. =�. fulgens= (glowing).* _fl._ deep rich red, with a bluish tip, fifty or more in a large branching panicle; scape stout, erect, scarlet. August, September. _l._ somewhat sword-shaped, terminating rather abruptly. Cayenne, 1842. See Fig. 33. =�. Furstenbergi= (Furstenberg's). _fl._ rose; flower spike dense, with overlapping showy pink bracts. _l._ tufted, linear, spinous at the edge, recurved. _h._ 1ft. Bahia, 1879. =�. glomerata= (glomerate).* _fl._ violet; scape erect, stout, 8in. to 10in. high, with glomerate branches of crowded blood-red bracts. _l._ oblong-ligulate, cuspidate, about 18in. long, dull green; margin with short wide-set spines. Bahia, 1868. SYN. _Hohenbergia erythrostachys_. =�. hystrix= (bristly).* _fl._ in very dense, oblong spikes; floral leaves and bracts scarlet. February. _l._ densely crowded, ascending, linear lanceolate, saw-toothed. _h._ 2-1/2ft. Cayenne, 1880. =�. Legrelliana= (Legrell's). A synonym of _Portea Legrelliana_. =�. Lindeni= (Linden's). _fl._ yellow, in dense terminal heads, with lanceolate red bracts, shorter than the flowers. _l._ linear-oblong, rounded, apiculate; margins saw-toothed; habit tufted. _h._ 1ft. South Brazil, 1864. =�. Mariæ Reginæ= (Queen Maria's).* _fl._ tipped with blue, changing to salmon colour with age, arranged compactly upon the upper portion of the spike; scape erect, about 2ft. high; half the length is clothed with large boat-shaped bracts, some 4in. long, intensely rich rose-pink. June, July. _l._ 18in. long, with a tufted habit. Costa Rica, 1873. This is perhaps the best species. =�. Melinoni= (Melinon's). _fl._ bright scarlet, tipped with pink, cylindric; panicle dense, terminal. _l._ oblong, leathery, about 18in. in length, dark green; margin spiny. South America. =�. Ortgiesii= (Ortgies'). _fl._ red, on short spikes. _l._ numerous, channelled, recurved, spongy, broad at the base, and tapering to a point; stem short, gouty. Tropical America, 1860. SYN. _Ortgiesia tillandsioides_. =�. paniculigera= (panicled). _fl._ rose-coloured; petals projecting beyond the sepals, deep bright purple; panicle large, compound, 1ft. to 2ft. long; scape reddish, downy; rachides and bracts rose-coloured. _l._ ligulate, shortly acuminate. West Indies, 1881. =�. spectabilis= (showy).* _fl._ rosy; calyx fleshy, ovate; corolla 1in. long, rosy crimson. _l._ spreading, channelled, ligulate, 2-1/2ft. long, 3in. to 4in. broad. Guatemala, 1875. =�. Veitchii= (Veitch's).* _fl._ scarlet; spike densely clothed with scarlet toothed bracts, closely investing flowers. _l._ tufted, leathery in texture, broadly strap-shaped, spotted, and minutely serrulate. _h._ 1ft. Columbia, 1877. SYN. _Chevalliera Veitchii_. =�GICERAS= (from _aix_, a goat, and _keras_, a horn; alluding to the shape of its fruit). ORD. _Myrsineæ_. Small trees, with obovate entire leaves. Flowers white, fragrant, in terminal or axillary umbels. For culture, _see_ =Jacquinia=. =�. fragrans= (fragrant). _fl._ white, fragrant; umbels pedunculate, axillary, terminal. April. _l._ obovate, margin undulated, and unequally dilated, veiny; upper surface covered with saline excrescence. _h._ 6ft. New Holland, 1824. =�GILOPS.= _See_ =Quercus �gilops=. =�GIPHILA= (from _aix_, a goat, and _philos_, dear; a favourite with goats). ORD. _Verbenaceæ_. Stove ornamental evergreen shrubs, generally with ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, smooth leaves; and flowers in axillary and terminal panicles. They require a rich sandy loam. Propagated from cuttings, which will root in sand, under a glass, with bottom heat. =�. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ yellow, terminal, corymbose; corolla downy. November. Berry compressed, blue. _l._ verticillate oblong, entire, sub-cordate at base. _h._ 3ft. Havannah, 1843. The other species are probably not now in cultivation, and this one is not generally so. =�GLE= (from �gle, one of the Hesperides). Bengal Quince. ORD. _Rutaceæ_. A stove evergreen tree, producing very large fruit, which much resembles an orange in general appearance, very delicious to the taste, and exquisitely fragrant. This genus differs principally from _Citrus_ by its numerous disunited stamens. The pulp of the fruit is an aperient, and a valuable remedy in dysentery, the thick rind and the dried unripe fruit are astringent. It thrives best in a rich loamy soil. Propagated by ripe cuttings, which, if not deprived of any of their leaves, will root in sand under a hand glass, in heat. =�. Marmelos= (Marmelos). _fl._ white, very fragrant; panicles axillary, terminal. April. _fr._ fifteen-celled. _l._ trifoliate; leaflets toothletted. _h._ 10ft. India, 1759. =�OLANTHUS= (from _aiollo_, to vary, and _anthos_, a flower; referring to the variableness of the flowers). ORD. _Labiatæ_. A genus of few herbs, with thickish leaves. Flowers loosely panicled. They thrive in sandy loam, and increase freely from seeds sown in a similar compost. =�. Livingstonii= (Livingstone's). _fl._ brown. East Africa, 1859. =�. suaveolens= (sweet-scented). _fl._ lilac, secund; cymes axillary and terminal, erect, usually trifid, with floral leaves under the divisions. July. _l._ nearly sessile, obovate, obsoletely denticulated, thickish, pale green. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1859. A pretty stove annual, with a sweet odour. =AERANTHUS= (from _aer_, air, and _anthos_, a flower; referring to the habit). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A genus of a couple of species of remarkable stove orchids, requiring treatment similar to =Anguloa=, to which they are allied. =�. arachnitis= (spider-like). _fl._ green. _l._ linear. _h._ 4in. Madagascar, 1850. =�. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ yellowish-green, large, solitary, terminal. _h._ 8in. Madagascar, 1823. =AERATION.= The exposure of the soil to the free action of the air, as essential to the growth of plants. =AERIDES= (from _aer_, the air; in reference to the power the species have of deriving their sustenance from the atmosphere). ORD. _Orchideæ_. An extensive genus of epiphytal orchids, confined to the tropics of the Old World, including many large and showy-flowered species. The majority of them are extremely handsome. The thick fleshy leaves are noteworthy for their characteristically distichous arrangement--that is to say, they are arranged in two opposite rows. They are usually truncate at the apex, and for the most part deeply channelled down the centre, but in some species terete or nearly cylindrical. All of them throw out large fleshy roots from various parts of their stems, by which they absorb the moisture from the atmosphere; and, in order to grow them successfully, they must be fixed upon blocks of wood. But this method should be adopted only whilst the plants are young, as it is almost an impossibility for the cultivator to maintain a sufficient amount of atmospheric moisture to meet their requirements; and, unless this is managed, the leaves will shrivel and fall off, leaving only a few at the extremity. Therefore, as soon as the plants are established upon the blocks of wood, let them be removed and potted. Fill the pot three parts full of broken potsherds and lumps of charcoal, and then use nothing, but clean, living sphagnum, placing a few roots in the moss and leaving the others free. By this means a greater amount of moisture can be supplied to them, and thus beautiful and symmetrical specimens obtained. The Aerides are easily grown into handsome plants, which usually bloom profusely, and thus recommend themselves to all who cultivate orchids. From early spring until the end of September they should be treated liberally with water, at the same time taking care never to wet the flowers. After the above-named time, a gradual diminution in the water supply to the roots should take place; and the atmosphere, too, should be less densely charged with moisture. But drought should never be carried far enough to cause the leaves to shrivel, for, if this is done, the uniformity of the specimen is marred; and, although we are quite willing to admit the possibility of the plants producing a greater quantity of flower spikes after a thorough shrivelling, we prefer to advocate the system that gives a fair amount of flower coupled with good leafage. As before remarked, the Aerides are peculiarly eastern, and therefore are usually classed amongst the orchids which require the hottest houses. This is, in one sense, correct; yet they do not require the great amount of heat which many imagine, and which has, until recently, been given them. They must not, therefore, be excluded from the amateur's collection of orchids. During the winter season many of the species may be kept in a temperature of 58deg. to 60deg.; whilst during the growing season the temperature may run up by sun heat without limit, so long as a free circulation of air and a sufficiency of moisture are secured. The following status of temperature may be observed: In spring, from 65deg. in the night, to 70deg. or 80deg. by day; in summer, from 70deg. in the night, to 80deg. or 85deg. through the day; in winter, about 60deg. night, and 65deg. day. =A. affine= (related).* _fl._ delicate rose, produced, in great profusion, on branching spikes, which are sometimes 2ft. in length, and continue in bloom two or three weeks; the sepals and petals equal, rounded at the apex; the lip is sharply rhomboid and three-lobed, with a short spur. _l._ light green, about 1ft. long. _h._ 3ft. A very handsome species from India, forming an excellent exhibition plant. =A. a. superbum= (superb).* An improved variety, with larger and richer coloured flowers, and more compact habit. =A. Brookii= (Sir A. Brooke's).* _fl._ purple and white; labellum bright purple; sepals and petals white, very fragrant. _l._ very ornamental, of a glaucous (milky green) hue. Bombay. This species, although one of the handsomest, is very rare. =A. crassifolium= (thick-leaved).* This is a dwarf, densely-habited plant, with broad, thick, purple-dotted obliquely-bilobed leaves. The flowers, which are borne on long and drooping spikes, are bare--larger than those of _A. falcatum_, which they resemble in form, and have the segments tipped with rich purple or amethyst, the centre or throat of the flower being ivory-white. Compared with _A. falcatum_, the spur is here bent under at an angle, while in that plant it is straight; the side laciniæ of the lip are much broader and shorter in the present plant, and the two keels on the lip here stand close together at the base, and become divergent, whilst in _falcatum_ they are distant at the base, and become convergent near the middle of the lip. This species is described as being the best in the genus. It may be grown near the glass, suspended in a basket. Burmah, 1877. [Illustration: FIG. 34. FLOWER OF AERIDES CRISPUM.] =A. crispum= (curled).* _fl._ white, suffused with purplish rose, nearly 2in. in diameter; sepals and petals ovate, acute; lip three-lobed, the middle lobe being very large, toothed at the base, and fringed at the margin; the horn-like spur is slightly incurved; racemes ascending, more than double the length of the leaves, many-flowered. _l._ deep green, flat and broad, blunt at the ends, and two-lobed, about 4in. or 5in. long. Bombay, 1840. Lasts a long time in beauty. See Fig. 34. =A. c. Lindleyanum= (Lindley's). A robust-growing variety, producing a large, much-branched panicle of flowers; sepals and petals white; lip large, bright rich rose-coloured. =A. c. Warneri= (Warner's).* The leaves are smaller, and more slender than in the species; the sepals and petals are white, with a soft, rich, rose-coloured lip. =A. cylindricum= (cylindric).* _fl._ white and pink, as large as those of _A. crispum_; sepals and petals crispy. _l._ elongate, subulate, terete, 4in. to 6in. long. East Indies. A very rare and distinct species. SYN. _A. vandarum_. =A. dasycarpum= (thick-fruited). _fl._ brownish, rosy. India, 1865. =A. dasypogon.= _See_ =Sarcanthus erinaceus=. =A. difforme= (deformed). _fl._ green and brown. India, 1865. =A. Dominiana= (Dominy's).* This is a garden hybrid between _A. Fieldingii_ and _A. affine_, with the colour of the former, but markings and shape of the latter. Very rare. =A. falcatum= (sickle-leaved).* _fl._ sepals and petals white, dotted with reddish crimson, and tipped with soft rose; lip white at the sides, with a rosy-crimson centre; spur short, parallel with the lip; racemes pendulous, many flowered. _l._ closely set upon the stem, peculiar blue-green, coriaceous, obtuse and mucronate. This species is very closely allied to _A. crassifolium_. SYN. _A. Larpentæ_. [Illustration: FIG. 35. AERIDES ODORATUM.] =A. Fieldingii= (Fielding's).* The Fox-brush �rides. _fl._ white, numerous, large, beautifully mottled with bright rose colour; the much branched racemes are 2ft. to 3ft. long, and continue blooming three or four weeks. _l._ 8in. to 10in. long, in some plants light green, and in others dark green; long, broad, thick, and fleshy, obliquely two-lobed at the apex. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Assam. =A. Houlletianum= (Houllet's).* _fl._ sepals and petals buff, shading off into cream white at the base, with a purplish eye-spot at their tips; lip white; front part dark purplish, with some lines of the same colour on the sides; on densely crowded spikes. _l._ and growth similar to _A. virens_. Cochin China. SYN. _A. Mendelii_. =A. japonicum= (Japanese).* _fl._ white, with the lateral sepals slightly barred with brown purple; several on the pendent racemes; lip purple, spotted, marked with a dark violet central ridge. _l._ short, linear-oblong, obtusely bilobed. Stems short, about 4in. high. A pretty cool house species from Japan, 1862. =A. Larpentæ= (Lady Larpent's). Synonymous with _A. falcatum_. =A. Lobbii= (Lobb's).* _fl._ white in the centre, slightly tinted with blush-rose towards the outside, somewhat spotted with violet; lip marked with a whitish central bar, and stained with a deep violet on either side; on long, dense, cylindrical, pendent spikes. _l._ ligulate, obliquely two-lobed at the apex, thick and fleshy in texture, about 18in. long, and of a light green hue. Moulmein, 1868. This elegant plant, of which many distinct varieties are in cultivation, is one of the most delicate of the genus. =A. maculosum= (spotted). _fl._ large, with obtuse pale rose-coloured sepals and petals, which are spotted with purple; lip flat and undivided, bluntly ovate, and of a deep rosy-purple; racemes pendulous, proceeding from among the upper leaves, somewhat lax and branching. _l._ ligulate, thick, and fleshy, obtuse at the apex, 8in. or 9in. long, dark green. A somewhat slow growing species, with a rather stiff, dwarf habit. Bombay, 1840. =A. m. Schr�deri= (Schr�der's).* _fl._ very delicate white, tinged with lilac and spotted with rose; labellum beautiful rose coloured. _l._ dark green, 10in. long. _h._ 18in. East Indies. A very free growing and handsome variety, superior to the species, but rare in cultivation. =A. Mendelii= (Mendel's). Synonymous with _A. Houlletianum_. =A. mitratum= (mitred).* _fl._ waxy-white; lip violet coloured, on numerous dense erect racemes. April. _l._ cylindrical, attenuated, about 2ft. long, dark green. Moulmein, 1864. A rare but elegant species. =A. nobile= (noble).* _fl._ sepals and petals white tipped, and spotted with bright rose; lip three-lobed, the side lobes creamy yellow, and the middle lobe slightly bifid at the apex, white, dotted with rose-purple, very fragrant; racemes 2ft. to 3ft. long, pendulous, much branched, many flowered. _l._ strap-shaped, obliquely emarginate at the apex, light green, slightly spotted with brown. Not unlike _A. suavissimum_, but with larger and better coloured flowers, and more robust growth. East Indies. =A. odontochilum= (tooth-lipped). _h._ 2ft. Sylhet, 1837. =A. odoratum= (fragrant).* _fl._ sepals and petals creamy and white, tipped with pink; lip cucullate, with even side lobes, the middle lobe being ovate and inflexed, the spur conical and incurved, of the same colour as the sepals, very fragrant; racemes longer than the leaves, many-flowered, pendulous. _l._ oblique, obtuse, mucronate at the apex, and dark green. East Indies, 1800. See Fig. 35. =A. o. cornutum= (horned). _fl._ pink and white. Distinct. =A. o. majus= (greater).* Like _A. odoratum_ in growth, but with larger and longer spike of flowers. =A. o. purpurascens= (purplish).* A very robust variety, with broad dark green leaves and massive spike of large flowers, which are white, tipped with bright pink. =A. pachyphyllum= (thick-leaved). _fl._ light crimson lake; spur and column white, the small laciniæ of the blade of the lip on front part of spur painted with more or less warm purple (these laciniæ are just as insignificant as the spur is preponderant); raceme short, few-flowered. _l._ fleshy, short; apex obtuse, and unequally two-lobed. Burmah, 1880. =A. quinquevulnerum= (five-wounded).* _fl._ fragrant; sepals and petals obtuse, white, marked with five reddish crimson blotches, and tipped with purple; lip cucullate and funnel-shaped, the side lobes being erect and the centre lobe oblong, incurved and serrated, of the same colour as the sepals; spur conical, green, large; racemes longer than the leaves, pendulous, and many-flowered. Late summer and early autumn. _l._ ligulate, about 12in. long, tightly clasping the stem at the base, obliquely mucronate at the apex, bright shining green. Philippines, 1838. =A. q. Farmeri= (Farmer's).* A very rare variety of the above, with similar habit, but the flowers are pure white throughout, and fragrant. =A. Reichenbachii= (Reichenbach's).* _fl._, sepals neatly striped (not blotched); lip deep orange colour; racemes densely crowded. Borneo, 1858. A very rare species. =A. roseum= (rose-coloured).* _fl._, sepals and petals narrow, acute, pale rose colour, with darker spots; lip flat, entire, and acute, of a bright rose, freckled--like the sepals and petals--with spots of a darker hue; raceme pendulous, dense, and many-flowered, upwards of 1ft. in length. _l._ coriaceous, recurved, and channelled above with a blunt two-lobed apex. Moulmein, 1840. As this does not root freely, it requires less moisture than any other species. =A. r. superbum= (superb).* A fine variety, with stronger growth and larger and richer-coloured flowers. The spikes of this, as well as the typical species, are apt to die off if much water is given. =A. rubrum= (red). A synonym of _Sarcanthus erinaceus_. =A. suavissimum= (sweetest). _fl._ sepals and petals obtusely ovate, white, tipped or tinged throughout with deep lilac; lip three-lobed, pressed to the column, the side lobes being oblong and denticulate, the middle lobe linear and bifid, the whole lip being of a pale lemon colour, and the spur rosy-eyed; the numerous racemes are half pendulous and branched, bearing a profusion of deliciously fragrant flowers. _l._ flaccid, about 10in. long, light green, profusely freckled with brown dots. Malacca, 1848. There are one or two varieties. =A. tesselatum= (chequered). _fl._ lined and streaked with green, white, and purple. East Indies, 1838. A scarce species. =A. testaceum= (testaceous). A synonym of _Vanda testacea_. =A. Thibautianum= (Thibaut's). A synonym of _Saccolabium Huttoni_. =A. vandarum= (Vanda). A synonym of _A. cylindricum_. =A. virens= (vigorous). _fl._ deliciously fragrant; sepals and petals ovate, obtuse, soft white, tipped with rosy-purple; lip large; side lobes toothed at the apex, white, dotted with crimson; middle lobe bearing a red inflated tongue; racemes long, drooping, many-flowered, commencing to bloom early in April, and lasting until July. _l._ broad, oblique, rounded at the apex, with a depression in the centre, and very bright green, about 8in. long. =A. v. Ellisii= (Ellis's).* _fl._ sepals and petals large, white, suffused with rose, and tipped with amethyst; the lower sepals very round and broad; lip large; side lobes white, beautifully freckled towards the base, with short lines of amethyst; middle lobe broad, and deep rich amethyst in colour; spur stout, curved upwards, and tipped with brown; racemes about 18in. long, bearing generally from thirty to forty, or more, large flowers. _l._ pale green. A splendid variety. =A. Wightianum.= _See_ =Vanda testacea=. =A. Williamsii= (Williams's).* _fl._ delicate pinkish white, produced in great abundance; spikes 2ft. to 3ft. long, and branched, _l._ broad, dark green, drooping. A very scarce and pretty species. =AEROBION.= _See_ =Angræcum=. =AEROPHYTES.= Plants that are grown entirely in the air. =�SCHYNANTHUS= (from _aischuno_, to be ashamed, and _anthos_, a flower). ORD. _Gesneraceæ_. A genus of very beautiful twining, radicant or parasitical stove shrubs, with opposite, simple, entire leaves, and axillary, terminal, few flowered, umbellate peduncles. They possess all the qualifications worthy of extensive cultivation--handsome flowers, fine deep green leaves, an agreeable fragrance, and are easily grown on blocks, which must be covered with green moss, fastened on with small copper wire. Preparatory to fastening them on, the roots should be covered with moss, and the plants secured to the block also by wire. After this, but little attention is requisite, except duly syringing and occasionally dipping in tepid water. As pot plants they are very beautiful, and in this method perfection is only obtained by growing them on fast and strong by generous treatment, which consists in frequently repotting in light rich compost till they are large enough to be trained up a trellis, formed of slender rods of willow or hazel. Propagated by seeds and cuttings. The former are very unsatisfactory; the latter root readily during spring in a well-drained pot, filled with a light compost, and having a surface of pure white sand, about 1in. deep. The best are obtained from half-ripened wood, cut into 2in. or 3in. lengths, and all leaves, with the exception of one or two at the top, removed. The cuttings should then be covered over with a bell glass, and placed in moderate bottom heat. So soon as rooted, transfer them singly to small pots, and again place under hand glasses, until they are thoroughly established, then gradually harden off. When about twelve months old, place the plants in their permanent quarters. Baskets are commonly and very effectively employed. Line these with moss, and fill with a light rich compost; place the plant as near the centre as possible, and, to promote a uniform growth, fasten down the branches with small neat pegs, at equal distances. During the summer, give copious supplies of water, to produce a liberal growth, which is of the utmost importance the first season, when they should not be permitted to flower. The following winter they should be kept cool and rather dry, thus giving them a rest. The year following, if properly managed, they will bloom profusely. =�. atrosanguinea= (dark-red).* _fl._ dark red; corolla 1-1/2in. long, cylindrical, saccate at base, pilose; peduncle one-flowered. July. _l._ pilose, oblong, sub-cordate, serrated, unequal. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Guatemala, 1848. =�. Aucklandi.= (Lord Auckland's). Synonymous with _�. speciosus_. =�. Boschianus= (Bosch's).* _fl._ scarlet, axillary, clustered; corolla tubular, with wide throat; calyx tubular, smooth, purplish-brown. July. _l._ ovate, obtuse, entire. _h._ 1ft. Java, 1844. See Fig. 36. =�. cordifolius= (heart-leaved).* _fl._ deep red, striped with black, inside of the tube orange, axillary, clustered. Summer. _l._ cordate, quite smooth, dark green on the upper side, paler below. _h._ 1ft. Borneo, 1858. =�. fulgens= (shining).* _fl._ bright crimson, very long; throat and the under side of the tube orange; lobes striped with black, disposed in terminal umbels. October. _l._ large, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, thick and fleshy, bright dark green. _h._ 1ft. East Indies, 1855. =�. grandiflorus= (large-flowered).* _fl._ deep crimson and orange, large; corolla clavate; segments obtuse, with a dark mark at top, equal; umbels many-flowered. August. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acuminated, serrated, obscurely-nerved, fleshy, dark green, _h._ 5ft. East Indies, 1838. =�. javanicus= (Java). _fl._ bright red, stained with yellow in the throat; corolla downy, tubular; corymbs terminal, bracteate. June. _l._ small, ovate, slightly toothed, with sunk veins. Java, 1848. Plant scandent. =�. Lobbianus= (Lobb's).* _fl._ rich scarlet; calyx large, campanulate; corolla downy; corymbs terminal, bracteate. June. _l._ elliptic, entire or slightly serrated, glaucous. Java, 1845. Plant subscandent. [Illustration: FIG. 36. �SCHYNANTHUS BOSCHIANUS.] =�. longiflorus= (long-flowered).* _fl._ scarlet, erect, fascicled; corolla with a long clavate curved tube, and oblique constructed bilobed mouth; upper lobe bifid. Summer. _l._ broad-lanceolate, acuminate, entire. Java, 1845. Plant pendulous. =�. miniatus= (vermilion).* _fl._ rich vermilion; corolla tomentose; upper lip bilobed, lower one tripartite; peduncles axillary, three-flowered. June. _l._ oval acute, entire. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Java, 1845. SYN. _�. radicans_. =�. pulcher= (fair).* _fl._ bright scarlet; corolla three times larger than the calyx; corymbs terminal, bracteate. June. _l._ ovate, obscurely toothed. Java, 1845. Scandent. =�. radicans= (stem-fibred). Synonymous with _�. miniatus_. =�. speciosus= (showy).* _fl._ rich orange-coloured; corolla with long clavate curved tube, and obliquely four-lobed limb; upper lobe bifid, terminal, numerous, downy. Summer. _l._ upper ones always verticillate, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, slightly serrate. _h._ 2ft. Java, 1845. SYN. _�. Aucklandi_. =�. splendidus= (splendid).* _fl._ bright scarlet, spotted with black on the margins; corolla clavate, 3in. long, in terminal fascicles. Summer, lasting in perfection for a considerable time. _l._ elliptic lanceolate, acuminated, entire, rather undulated. _h._ 1ft. Hybrid. =�. tricolor= (three-coloured).* _fl._ deep blood red, usually twin; throat and base of the lobes bright orange, the three upper lobes being striped with black. July. _l._ cordate, dark green above, paler on the under side; edges, under surface, and stem, slightly hairy. _h._ 1ft. Borneo, 1857. =�. zebrinus= (zebra-marked). _fl._ green, brown. Autumn. Java, 1846. =�SCHYNOMENE= (from _aischuno_, to be ashamed; in reference to the leaves of some of the species falling on the slightest touch, like those of the Sensitive plant). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Stove herbs and shrubs, with impari-pinnate leaves, having many pairs of leaflets, and axillary racemes of usually yellow flowers. They thrive well in a good rich loam. Propagated by cuttings, placed in sand under a bell glass, in a brisk heat. Seeds of the herbaceous species require a good heat to start them into growth. The annuals are not worth growing. There are about forty other species known besides those mentioned, some of which may prove worthy of cultivation when introduced. =�. aristata= (awned). A synonym of _Pictatia aristata_. =�. aspera= (rough-stemmed). _fl._ yellow; racemes compound; peduncles, bracteas, calyces, and corollas, hispid. June. _l._ with thirty to forty pairs of linear leaflets, which (as well as the legumes) are smooth. Stem herbaceous, erect. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. East Indies, 1759. Perennial. =�. sensitiva= (sensitive).* _fl._ white; legumes and racemes glabrous; peduncles branched, few-flowered. June. _l._ with sixteen to twenty pairs of linear leaflets. Stem smooth. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. Jamaica, 1733. This shrub requires a sandy soil. =�SCULUS= (a name given by Pliny to a kind of oak having an edible fruit; derived from _esca_, nourishment). The Horse Chestnut. ORD. _Sapindaceæ_. A genus of hardy showy trees, well adapted for lawns or parks, having a beautiful appearance when in flower. They will do well in any soil, but the more loamy the better. Increased by layers, put down in the spring, or by grafting or budding on the common horse chestnut. Seeds, where procurable, should be sown singly in rows in spring, where they may remain until they are of sufficient size to be permanently planted out. This genus is distinguished from _Pavia_, in having its capsules echinated, _i.e._, covered with prickles, like a hedgehog; but this character is not always consistent. =�. carnea= (flesh-coloured). Synonymous with _�. rubicunda_. =�. glabra= (smooth-leaved).* _fl._ greenish yellow; corolla of four spreading petals, with their claws about the length of the calyx; stamens longer than the corolla. June. _l._ with five leaflets, very smooth; foliage larger than the common species. _h._ 20ft. North America, 1821. SYNS. _A. ohioensis_, _A. pallida_. =�. Hippocastanum= (Common Horse-Chestnut). _fl._ white, tinged with red, on very handsome terminal racemes, which are produced in great profusion; petals five. April and May. _l._ with seven obovately-cuneated, acute, toothed leaflets. Asia, 1629. This, the common horse chestnut, is well known by the beautiful parabolic form in which it grows, and during the period of its flowering no tree possesses greater beauty. It has two or three unimportant varieties, differing in the variation of their leaves, and one also with double flowers. These are increased by grafting only. =�. ohioensis= (Ohio). A synonym of _A. glabra_. =�. pallida= (pale-flowered). A synonym of _A. glabra_. =�. rubicunda= (red-flowered).* _fl._ scarlet, in very fine terminal racemes; petals four, having the claws shorter than the calyx; stamens eight. June. _l._ with five to seven obovately-cuneated, acute, unequally serrated leaflets. _h._ 20ft. North America, 1820. This is a very distinct and beautiful tree when in flower, and does not attain so large a size as _�. Hippocastanum_. SYN. _�. carnea_. =�STIVATION.= The manner of the folding of the calyx and corolla in the flower bud. =�THIONEMA= (from _aitho_, to scorch, and _nema_, a filament; apparently in allusion to some tawny or burnt appearance in the stamens). ORD. _Cruciferæ_. A genus of elegant little plants, distinguished from allied genera in having the four larger stamens winged, and with a tooth. Herbs or sub-shrubs, perennial or annual, branched from the base, diffuse or erect. Flowers in crowded terminal racemes. Leaves fleshy, sessile. They are well worth cultivating in sunny situations, where they form a freer flowering habit than when growing in a wild state. Some of the more hardy species may be planted on rock work, which, by their dwarf growth, they are well adapted for. The annual and biennial species may either be sown on rockwork or in the front of the flower-border. A light dry soil suits them best. The shrubby kinds of this genus should be kept in pots, which should be well drained with potsherds, and treated like other alpine plants. Propagated by seeds, sown in May; or by cuttings, planted in summer. =�. Buxbaumii= (Bauxbaum's). _fl._ pale red; racemes crowded, aggregate. June. _l._ oblong-spathulate, glaucous. _h._ 6in. Thrace, 1823. A pretty annual, with erect branched stems. SYN. _Thlaspi arabicum_. [Illustration: FIG. 37. �THIONEMA CORIDIFOLIUM, showing Habit and Flowers.] =�. coridifolium= (Coris-leaved).* _fl._ rosy lilac, small, in terminal dense rounded racemes. June. _l._ linear, glaucous, crowded. Asia Minor, 1871. A pretty perennial, shrubby below, with erect stems 6in. to 8in. high. See Fig. 37. =�. gracile= (slender). _fl._ purplish; racemes crowded, terminal; when in fruit, loose. June. _l._ lanceolate, pointed. _h._ 8in. Branches and branchlets slender, elongated. Sandy hills in Carniola, 1820. Shrubby perennial. [Illustration: FIG. 38. �THIONEMA GRANDIFLORUM, showing Habit and Flowers.] =�. grandiflorum= (large-flowered).* _fl._ of a warm shaded rose; racemes crowded, terminal, numerous. May to August. _l._ ovate-oblong, glaucous. Mount Lebanon, 1879. This perennial species forms a spreading bush about 1-1/2ft. high, and is perhaps the handsomest of the genus. It succeeds well in the ordinary border, but is far better suited for the rockery. See Fig. 38. =�. membranaceum= (membranous-podded). _fl._ purplish, in terminal racemes. June. _l._ linear, distant, somewhat fleshy, strictly appressed. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Persia, 1828. A small shrub, with filiform branches. =�. monospermum= (one-seeded). _fl._ purple, largish, in terminal racemes. July. _l._ oval or obovate, blunt, coriaceous; pods one-celled, one-seeded. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Spain, 1778. A pretty little biennial, with hardish branches. =�. pulchellum= (pretty).* This is said to be a new species, but it much resembles _�. coridifolium_. It is scarcely in full cultivation yet, but it proves one of the hardiest as well as one of the most handsome kinds. =�. saxatilis= (rock).* _fl._ purplish; racemes loose, terminal. May and June. _l._ lanceolate, acutish. _h._ 8in. Spain, 1820. A pretty annual. =AFRICAN ALMOND.= _See_ =Brabejum=. =AFRICAN BLADDER NUT.= _See_ =Royena lucida=. =AFRICAN FLEABANE.= _See_ =Tarchonanthus=. =AFRICAN HAREBELL.= _See_ =Roella ciliata=. =AFRICAN LILY.= _See_ =Agapanthus=. =AFRICAN LOTUS.= _See_ =Zizyphus=. =AFRICAN MARIGOLD.= _See_ =Tagetes erecta=. =AFRICAN OAK OR TEAK.= _See_ =Vitex Doniana=. =AFRICAN SATIN-BUSH.= _See_ =Podalyria sericea=. =AFZELIA= (named after Adam Afzelius, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University of Upsal, and for many years resident at Sierra Leone). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A pretty stove evergreen tree. For culture, _see_ =�giphila=. =A. africana= (African).* _fl._ crimson, disposed in racemes; petals four (furnished with claws), upper one largest. June. Legume ligneus, many-celled; seeds black, with scarlet aril. _l._ abruptly pinnate. _h._ 30ft. Sierra Leone, 1821. =AGALMYLA= (from _agalma_, an ornament; and _hule_, a wood; the species are great ornaments to the woods in which they grow wild). ORD. _Gesneraceæ_. A small but very handsome genus of climbing or radicant herbs, with simple alternate leaves and axillary fascicles of flowers, something like the blooms of a Gesnera. Corolla limb oblique, five-lobed, scarcely two-lipped. _A. staminea_, the most generally cultivated species, is best grown in a basket, planted in a compost of rough peat, a little leaf soil, fresh sphagnum moss, and nodules of charcoal. Give an abundance of moisture when growing, which should be lessened after flowering, and allow the plant to rest during winter. It may be planted out on rockwork in the stove. Half-ripened cuttings will root freely in heat under a glass. The temperature in summer should not be less than 75deg. by day, and 65deg. by night. =A. longistyla= (long-styled). _fl._ crimson. Java, 1873. =A. staminea= (long-stamened).* _fl._ scarlet, disposed in axillary fascicles; corolla tubular, incurved, with a dilated throat. Summer. _l._ alternate, oblong, acuminated, denticulated, nearly equal at the base, downy beneath, and on the edges. Stem and petioles hairy. _h._ 2ft. Java, 1846. Stove species. =AGANISIA= (from _aganos_, desirable; in reference to the beauty of these neat little plants). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. A small genus of epiphytal orchids, requiring to be grown upon a block of wood suspended from the rafters of the stove. A damp atmosphere, syringing the roots and leaves freely when in a growing state, and shade during very bright sunshine, are primary points to be observed in their cultivation. Increased by dividing the pseudo-bulbs just previous to starting into new growth. =A. c�rulea= (dark blue).* _fl._ peduncles axillary, few flowered. "The colour is the well known one of _Vanda c�rulea_. There are, however, darker blue blotches quasi-tesselated over the flower. The lip is veiled, and has two very small basilar teeth, and then a veiled middle lacinia, that is sacciform, bordered with most remarkable long bristles, and with a deep violet blotch on its middle part beneath. The white column has two cartilaginous quadrate arms close to the stigmatic hollow." _l._ cuneate, oblong, acuminate. Pseudo-bulbs distichous, depresso-ovoid. Brazil, 1876. =A. fimbriata= (fringed).* _fl._ white; lip blue. Demerara, 1874. This species has also a sacciform, fimbriate lip, but, when compared with the foregoing, its flowers, leaves, and bulbs are much smaller, and the lip is not slit up to the apex, but the sac is round. =A. graminea= (grass-leaved). A weedy looking species, of no garden value. Guiana, 1836. =A. ionoptera= (violet-winged). The flowers, not very much larger than those of the lily of the valley, are white, with violet petals, and violet tips and streaks on the sepals. Peru, 1871. =A. pulchella= (pretty).* _fl._ white, with a blotch of yellow in the centre of the lip; the spike is produced from the bottom of the bulb. _h._ 8in. Demerara, 1838. It blossoms at different times of the year, and lasts two or three weeks in perfection. This species is very rare and pretty, and is best grown in a pot, with peat, and good drainage; requires a liberal supply of water at the roots, and the hottest house. =AGANOSMA= (from _aganos_, mild, and _osme_, a smell; scent of flowers). ORD. _Apocynaceæ_. A genus of showy stove or warm greenhouse shrubs, with opposite leaves and terminal corymbs of large funnel-shaped flowers, the coronet of which is cup-shaped or cylindrical, "having its parts so united that they appear only as lobes around the mouth of the cup." All the species mentioned are well worth cultivating. They thrive best in a mixture of loam, sand, and peat, in equal proportions. Propagated by cuttings in sand, under glass, and with bottom heat. =A. acuminata= (pointed-leaved).* _fl._ large, white, fragrant; petals linear, falcate, curled; panicles axillary, longer than the leaves, scattered. _l._ from oblong to broad-lanceolate, acuminated, glabrous. Sylhet. Shrubby climber. =A. caryophyllata= (clove scented).* _fl._ pale yellow, tinged with red, deliciously clove scented; corymbs terminal. October. _l._ oval, acutish at both ends, tomentose beneath as well as the branches. India, 1812. Shrubby twiner. =A. cymosa= (cymose-flowered).* _fl._ small, whitish, fragrant; calyx and corolla hoary outside; cymes terminal, shorter than the leaves. _l._ elliptic, acuminated. Sylhet. Shrub. =A. elegans= (elegant).* _fl._ small, purple; corolla downy outside, as well as the calyces, bracteas, and pedicels; sepals longer than the tube of the corolla; corymbs terminal, crowded. _l._ elliptic, short-acuminated, glabrous. India. Shrubby twiner. =A. marginata= (bordered).* _fl._ numerous, large, white, fragrant; petals linear, falcate; panicles terminal, loose, corymbose, glabrous. _l._ lanceolate, smooth. Sylhet. Shrubby climber. =A. Roxburghii= (Roxburgh's).* _fl._ pure white, large, fragrant; calyx and corolla hoary outside; petals triangular; corymbs terminal. October. _l._ ovate-cordate, acuminated; petioles and veins red, glabrous, pale beneath, and shining above. India, 1812. Shrubby twiner. =A. Wallichii= (Wallich's).* _fl._ white, fragrant; calyx and corolla downy outside; corymbs terminal. _l._ elliptic-acuminated, shining above and pale beneath, glabrous. India. This species differs from the last in the veins of the leaves being parallel, not longitudinal, from the base to the apex. Shrubby twiner. =AGAPANTHUS= (from _agape_, love, and _anthos_, a flower). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. African Lily. A genus, with numerous varieties, of very handsome greenhouse or conservatory herbaceous plants. Flowers large, scapose; perianth tubular, tube short; stamens six, having the filaments somewhat declinate. Leaves linear or lorate, arching, radical. They are of easy culture, and thrive best in strong turfy loam, leaf mould, decomposed manure, and river sand. They may be grown in large pots or tubs outside, to be removed in autumn, and placed under the stage in the greenhouse, or where they will be protected from frost, and kept moderately dry. If planted and left outside, the crowns should be well covered with cocoa-nut fibre in winter. During the summer, and especially in dry weather, the plants can hardly be over watered. They thrive admirably on the margins of lakes or running streams, and few plants, alike in flower and foliage, are more effective. Clear manure water may be given previous to or when the plants are in flower, and, after flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water, until they are stowed away for the winter. They increase very rapidly, by offsets, and, if necessary, the old plants may be divided in early spring, to any extent required. In the more southern parts of this country they are quite hardy. [Illustration: FIG. 39. AGAPANTHUS UMBELLATUS.] =A. umbellatus= (umbelled).* _fl._ bright blue; perianth funnel-shaped, regular, deeply six-parted; tube short; scape tall, naked, bearing a many-flowered umbel. Summer and autumn. _l._ numerous, radical, linear, somewhat fleshy. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1692. See Fig. 39. =A. u. albidus= (whitish).* _fl._ pure white, on large full-sized umbels, smaller than those of the species, but very showy. Cape of Good Hope. This requires carefully drying off during the winter. =A. u. aureus= (golden). A variety in which the leaves are marked longitudinally with yellow. 1882. =A. u. flore-pleno= (double-flowered).* Identical in all respects with the species, except that it has double flowers, which are therefore, much more lasting than the single ones. A very handsome variety. =A. u. Leichtlinii= (Leichtlin's).* _fl._, perianth deep bright hyacinthine blue, 1-1/4in. long; scape about 1-1/2ft. long, with a more compact umbel than any other known form. June. _l._ similar in size to the species. Cape of Good Hope, 1878. =A. u. maximus= (larger).* _fl._ bright blue, in immense umbels. This is larger in all its parts than the type, and when well grown is truly a noble plant. There is also a white-flowered form of this variety, which is most desirable, being equally as large. =A. u. minor= (smaller).* This is smaller in all its parts, with narrow leaves, and slender scapes of deep blue flowers. A very elegant variety. =A. u. Mooreanus= (Moore's).* _fl._ dark blue. _h._ 1-1/2ft. 1879. A new variety, with shorter, narrower, and more upright leaves than the species; it has a dwarf habit. Perfectly hardy. =A. u. variegatus= (variegated).* Where variegated-leaved plants are desired, few could be more useful than this; its leaves are almost entirely white, with a few green bands, but they are neither so broad nor so long as in the type. It is an excellent subject for the domestic garden. =AGAPETES= (from _agapetos_, beloved; in reference to the showy character of the plants). ORD. _Vacciniaceæ_. A genus containing about eighteen species of warm greenhouse or stove evergreen shrubs. Flowers corymbose and racemose; corolla tubular. Leaves alternate, coriaceous. They are all worthy of cultivation, but only two or three species are grown in England. Peat, turfy loam, and sand, in equal parts, is the best compost for them; and young hardened cuttings will strike in sandy soil, under a hand glass, in stove temperature. =A. buxifolia= (box-leaved).* _fl._ bright red, about 1in. long, tubular, wax-like, disposed in corymbs. April. _l._ small, oval oblong, bright green, leathery; branches spreading, twiggy. _h._ 5ft. Bootan. =A. setigera= (bristly). _fl._ red, about 1in. long, tubular, numerous, in lateral and corymbose racemes, furnished with bristly hairs. _l._ scattered, lanceolate, acuminated, on very short robust petioles. Pundua Mountains, 1837. =A. variegata= (variegated). _fl._ scarlet, about 1in. long, tubular, lateral, corymbose. _l._ on short petioles, lanceolate, acuminated, denticulated, attenuated at the base, veiny. Khasia, 1837. =AGARICUS= (derived from _Agaria_, the name of a town in Sarmentosa). Mushroom. ORD. _Fungi_. The most extensive genus known. It, however, contains but one or two species of cultural value. The most important ones are the common field mushroom, _A. campestris_ (Fig. 44), the Fairy Ring mushroom, _A. pratensis_, and _A. vaginatus_. Familiar species are the Parasol mushroom, _A. procerus_ (Fig. 43); St. George's mushroom, _A. gambosus_ (Fig. 42); and the deadly Fly Agaric, _A. muscarius_ (Fig. 41). For practical purposes the majority of this genus are poisonous, and many virulently so. Great care must be exercised in experimenting with unknown species, even by experienced fungologists. _See_ =Mushroom=. =AGASTACHYS= (from _agastos_, admirable, and _stachys_, a spike). ORD. _Proteaceæ_. A greenhouse evergreen shrub, with four sepalled apetalous flowers, which are disposed in numerous spikes. It thrives in a compost of equal parts loam, sand, and peat. Cuttings of ripened wood will strike in sandy soil under a glass, in a cool house. =A. odorata= (fragrant).* _fl._ pale yellow, sweet scented, crowded; spikes 4in. to 5in. long. April. _l._ bluntly lanceolate, sub-sessile, thickish, about 2in. long. _h._ about 3ft. New Holland, 1826. =AGATH�A= (from _agathos_, excellent; in reference to the beauty of the flowers). ORD. _Compositæ_. Allied to _Cineraria_, and requiring the same greenhouse treatment. It makes a very pretty object for summer decoration in the flower garden. Young cuttings root freely, in a gentle heat, at all times; and the plant may be had in bloom all the year round. =A. c�lestis= (sky-blue).* _fl.-heads_ blue; peduncle one-headed. June. _l._ opposite, ovate, naked. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1753. Herbaceous perennial. See Fig. 40. [Illustration: FIG. 40. AGATH�A C�LESTIS.] =AGATHA ROSE.= _See_ =Rosa gallica Agatha=. =AGATHIS.= _See_ =Dammara=. =AGATHOPHYLLUM= (from _agathos_, pleasant, and _phyllon_, a leaf; referring to the pleasant clove-like smell of the leaf). Madagascar Nutmeg. ORD. _Lauraceæ_. A stove evergreen tree, of economic value only, having the fruit enclosed by the persistent calyx; thriving in peat and light rich loam. Of easy propagation by cuttings in sand, with a moderate bottom heat. =A. aromaticum= (aromatic). _fl._ white. _l._ stalked, alternate, obovate, obtuse, leathery, entire, smooth. _h._ 30ft. Madagascar, 1823. =AGATHOSMA= (from _agathos_, pleasant, and _osme_, smell; the plants contained in this genus have a pleasant smell). SYNS. _Bucco_, _Dichosma_. ORD. _Rutaceæ_. Beautiful small heath-like greenhouse shrubs, from the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers in terminal heads, or umbels; petals five, divided, with long claws, and scattered, short, narrow leaves, usually with revolute edges. They are of easy culture, thriving best in a mixture of sand and peat, with the addition of a little turfy loam. Young cuttings will strike root freely in a pot of sand, under a bell glass, in a cool house. They require to be shaded somewhat in the summer. Winter temperature, 40deg. to 45deg. About forty-six species are known. =A. acuminata= (taper-pointed leaved).* _fl._ violet; calyces smooth, glandular, on terminal subcapitate heads. April. _l._ ovate, somewhat cordate, long acuminated, fringed, at length spreading. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1812. =A. bruniades= (Brunia-like).* _fl._ lilac or white, on terminal sub-umbellate heads; peduncles fastigiate, elongated. April. _l._ scattered, linear-trigonal, awl-shaped, dotted, and a little fringed; branches hairy. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1820. =A. cerefolia= (chervil-leaved). _fl._ white, small; pedicels and calyces beset with glandular hairs; heads terminal sub-umbellate. April. _l._ crowded, lanceolate, acute, spreading, keeled, fringed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1794. =A. ciliata= (ciliated).* _fl._ white; pedicels smoothish; heads terminal sub-umbellate. April. _l._ scattered, lanceolate, acute, with toothletted-fringed, revolute edges, dotted beneath, and bearing hairs on the middle nerve, becoming at length reflexed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1774. =A. erecta= (upright).* _fl._ pale violet, terminal, sub-umbellate; peduncles short, villous. April. _l._ imbricate, trigonal, blunt, dotted beneath, a little fringed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1818. =A. hirta= (hairy). _fl._ purple, densely capitate; petals bearded at the claws. April. _l._ somewhat imbricate, linear, awl-shaped, channelled, hairy on the back, decurrent. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1794. [Illustration: FIG. 41. AGARICUS MUSCARIUS (FLY AGARIC).] [Illustration: FIG. 42. AGARICUS GAMBOSUS (ST. GEORGE'S MUSHROOM).] [Illustration: FIG. 43. AGARICUS PROCERUS (PARASOL MUSHROOM).] [Illustration: FIG. 44. AGARICUS CAMPESTRIS (COMMON MUSHROOM).] =A. hispida= (rough-haired). _fl._ violet, on terminal sub-umbellate heads; pedicels and sepals pubescent; petals quite smooth. May. _l._ crowded, linear, trigonal, blunt, spreading, hispid, keeled, and two-furrowed beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1786. =A. imbricata= (imbricated). _fl._ pale purple, in terminal sub-capitate heads; petals with a roundish limb; sepals smoothish; pedicels pubescent. April. _l._ imbricate, crowded, ovate, acuminated, dotted, fringed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1774. =A. orbicularis= (round-leaved). _fl._ white, on terminal sub-umbellate heads; stamens twice as long as the corolla; pedicels pubescent. April. _l._ scattered, spreading, orbicular, ovate, or reniform, smooth, reflexed, small, thickish, without any dots beneath; branches villous. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1790. =A. prolifera= (proliferous). _fl._ white, on terminal sub-umbellate heads; sepals smooth; pedicels somewhat fastigiate, pubescent. April. _l._ spreading, lanceolate, cuspidate; keel and edges fringed, dotted; branches whorled, proliferous. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. 1790. =A. pubescens= (downy). _fl._ white; umbels terminal; peduncles and sepals villous. April. _l._ lanceolate, trigonal, pointless, with margins and rib ciliated. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1798. =A. rugosa= (coarsely-wrinkled). _fl._ white, on terminal sub-umbellate heads; sepals pubescent; pedicels capillary, clothed with glandular hairs. April. _l._ spreading, oblong or ovate, blunt, keeled, wrinkled, villous beneath, reflexed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1790. =A. vestita= (clothed). _fl._ lilac, on terminal sub-capitate heads; pedicels quite smooth. May. _l._ closely imbricated, ovate, acuminated, keeled, fringed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1824. =AGATHYRSUS.= _See_ =Mulgedium=. =AGATI= (its Sanscrit name). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Ornamental stove trees from India, with lanceolate stipulas, abruptly-pinnate leaves, having many pairs of leaflets. Flowers large, few, racemose. Legumes 1-1/2ft. long. A mixture of loam, peat, and sand is most suitable. Young cuttings will root in a pot of sand, with a hand glass over them, placed in heat. =A. coccinea= (scarlet).* _fl._ red, rather smaller than the next species. Legumes rather terete. _l._ leaflets powdery. July. _h._ 20ft. to 30ft. 1768. =A. grandiflora= (large-flowered). _fl._ rosy red. July. Legumes evidently compressed. _l._ leaflets glabrous. _h._ 14ft. to 26ft. 1768. =A. g. flore-albo= (white flowered). _fl._ white, double. N. Australia, 1869. =AGAVE= (from _agauos_, admirable; referring to the stately form in which some of them flower). ORD. _Amaryllidaceæ_. Flower-scape tall, proceeding from the centre of the rosette of leaves; perianth funnel-shaped, six-parted. Leaves large, fleshy, tufted. Mr. B. S. Williams describes them as follows: "They are noble, massive-growing plants, and form magnificent ornaments in the greenhouse or conservatory; whilst, from their slow growth, they do not rapidly get too large, even for a small greenhouse. Indeed, some of the real gems of this genus are neat, compact-growing plants, seldom exceeding 2ft. in height. Besides being fine ornamental plants for indoor decoration, the larger growing kinds are unquestionably the finest objects for the embellishment of terrace-walks, or surmounting flights of steps in the open air during the summer season, and also for plunging in rockwork, or about any rustic nooks in the pleasure-grounds, as, in such situations, they are quite in keeping, and thrive admirably. As is well known, they attain maturity very slowly; but when this condition is reached, the plant sends up a flower spike, and, after perfecting this, dies." _A. Sartorii_, and a few others are, however, exceptional, and go on flowering year after year. It is certainly fallacious to suppose it takes them a hundred years to flower. Agaves succeed well potted in good loam and river sand, to which may be added a little peat and leaf mould for some of the smaller-growing kinds. The drainage should be good, as they enjoy a liberal supply of water during the summer season, but during winter considerably less will be required. They can be increased by suckers when these are to be obtained, and also by seeds, to secure the production of which, in the species that do not yield suckers, the flowers should be carefully impregnated. In the following descriptive list of species, only those of horticultural value are mentioned, some of which are still rare; and in describing them we have availed ourselves of Mr. J. G. Baker's excellent monograph, which appeared in the columns of the _Gardener's Chronicle_. Many are omitted, not from any deficiency in horticultural beauty, but because, in several instances, only one plant of a species is known to exist in cultivation, and such cannot, therefore, hope to become in general cultivation for many years hence. =A. albicans= (whitened). Probably a variety of _A. micrantha_. [Illustration: FIG. 45. AGAVE AMERICANA.] =A. americana= (American).* _fl._ yellowish green, 2in. to 3-1/2in. long; in very dense globose clusters, on pedicels 1/4in. to 1/2in. long; scape, including the thyrsoid panicle, 24ft. to 36ft. August. _l._ usually thirty to forty, sometimes more, in a rosette, oblanceolate-spathulate, 3ft. to 6ft. long, 6in. to 9in. broad above the middle, glaucous green, more or less concave all down the face, the outer leaves recurved, the dark brown pungent point 1in. to 2in. long; prickles brown tipped, 1/6in. to 1/4in. long. S. America, 1640. See Fig. 45. =A. a. mexicana= (Mexican). A variety much shorter in the leaves than the species, of which it may be regarded as one of the many small forms. =A. a. picta= (painted).* _l._ 2ft. to 3ft. long, about 4in. wide, lower ones recurved, upper ones erect, moderately thick, rich golden yellow on both sides, bordered with dark green. A very splendid variety. SYN. _A. ornata_. =A. a. variegata= (variegated). _l._ 6ft. or more in length, 6in. or 8in. wide, dark green in the centre, broadly margined with rich yellow. A very desirable variety. =A. am�na= (pleasing). Referred to _A. Scolymus_. =A. amurensis= (Amur River). Synonymous with _A. xylacantha_. =A. applanata= (plano-convex-leaved). _fl._ unknown. _l._ twenty to forty in a dense sessile rosette, reaching a couple of feet in diameter, oblong-spathulate, 8in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 3-1/2in. broad, the lower half of the face flat, the upper half concave, suddenly terminating in a pungent brown spine above 1in. long, blue-green bordered with brown; prickles 1/4in. to 1/3in. long, bright brown. Mexico, 1869. =A. atrovirens= (dark-green). Synonymous with _A. Salmiana_. =A. attenuata= (attenuated).* _fl._ greenish-yellow, 2in. long; pedicels about 1/4in. long, on a dense spike, 6ft. to 8ft. long, and 6in. in diameter; bracts overtopping the perianth. _l._ ten to twenty, in a dense rosette at the top of the stem, oblong-spathulate, 2ft. to 2-1/2ft. long, 8in. to 9in. broad two-thirds of the way up, narrowed to 2-1/2in. to 3in. above the base, persistently glaucous, one of the most fleshy of all in texture; face rather concave when young; tip not pungent, edge quite entire. Stem 4ft. to 7ft. high, 3in. to 4in. thick. Mexico, 1834. A most distinct species. =A. Beaucarnei= (Beaucarne's). Synonymous with _A. Kerchovei_. =A. Botterii= (Botteri's).* _fl._ greenish-yellow, about 1in. long, on a dense spike, longer than the leaves; primary bracts lanceolate, with a long point, the lower ones as long as the flowers; scape covered with adpressed lanceolate bracts. _l._ about fifty in a rosette, oblong-spathulate, about 2ft. long, 6in. broad above the middle, narrowed to 4-1/2in. above the base; pale green, concave in the centre; spine hard, pungent, about 1/2in. long; marginal teeth crowded, 1/8in., upcurved at the tip. Stemless. Mexico, about 1865. =A. bulbifera= (bulb-bearing). Synonymous with _A. vivipara_. =A. cæspitosa= (tufted). Synonymous with _A. Sartorii_. =A. cantula.= Synonymous with _A. vivipara_. [Illustration: FIG. 46. AGAVE CELSIANA.] =A. Celsiana= (Cels's).* _fl._ tinged purplish-brown, 2in. long, in a dense spike, 1ft. or more long, and 6in. to 8in. in diameter when expanded; scape 4ft. long, the lower bract leaves lanceolate, the upper ones subulate. _l._ twenty to thirty in a rosette, oblong-spathulate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 5in. broad at the middle, narrowed to 2-1/2in. to 3in. above the base, persistently glaucous, the point hardly at all pungent; spines very unequal in size and shape, green, largest brown and horny at the top. Mexico, 1839. This is a beautiful species, the stem of which scarcely rises off the surface of the ground. See Fig. 46. =A. coccinea= (scarlet). _fl._ unknown. _l._ twenty to thirty in a dense rosette, oblanceolate-spathulate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 6in. broad two-thirds of the way up, narrowed to 3in. above the dilated base, where it is 1in. to 1-1/4in. thick, deep heavy green; terminal spine 1-1/2in. or more in length, red; side prickles irregular, deltoid, unequal, nearly straight, 1/6in. to 1/4in. long, red. Mexico, 1859. =A. cochlearis= (cochleate). _fl._ yellowish green, above 4in. long, in dense clusters. _l._ forming a sessile rosette 10ft. broad, oblong-spathulate, 5ft. to 6ft. long, above 1ft. broad, 5in. thick at the base, opaque green, with a deeply excavated face; terminal spine very stout, pungent; side prickles curved variously, middle sized, deltoid. Stems 26ft. high. Mexico, previous to 1867. =A. Consideranti= (Considerant's). Synonymous with _A. Victoriæ Regina_. =A. Corderoyi= (Corderoy's).* _fl._ unknown. _l._ forty to fifty in a dense rosette, rigidly erecto-patent, ensiform, 1-1/2ft. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, bright green; terminal spine hard, brown, 1in. long; side prickles moderately close, erecto-patent, dark brown, 1/6in. long. Mexico, 1868. A very distinct and pretty species. =A. crenata= (crenated). Referred to _A. Scolymus_. =A. cucullata= (hooded). Referred to _A. Scolymus_. =A. dasylirioides= (Dasylirion-like).* _fl._ yellow, about 1-1/2in. long; spike as long as the scape, often decurved; lower bracts much longer than the flowers; pedicels obsolete; scape 6ft. long, densely clothed with spreading subulate bract leaves, the lower ones 1ft. long. _l._ eighty to a hundred in a dense rosette, linear-ensiform, 1-1/2ft. to 3ft. long, about 1in. broad, narrowing gradually from the middle to a short brown pungent point, pale glaucous green, rigidly leathery; edge minutely denticulate. Mexico, 1846. =A. d. dealbata= (whitened). A variety of preceding, but with more glaucous foliage. [Illustration: FIG. 47. AGAVE DENSIFLORA.] =A. densiflora= (close-flowered).* _fl._ yellowish-red, 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, on a dense spike, 2ft. long; pedicels very short; scape, including the spike, 6ft. long, the lower bracts ascending, the upper ones spreading. _l._ thirty to forty in a stemless rosette, oblanceolate-spathulate, 2ft. to 3ft. long, and 2-1/2in. to 5in. broad, bright green when mature; terminal spine 1/2in. long, thick, pungent, slightly decurrent; side spines crowded, short, bright chestnut brown. Mexico (previous to) 1857. See Fig. 47. =A. Deserti= (Desert's).* _fl._ yellow, under 2in. long, on a thyrsoid panicle, the branches very short, the lower horizontal, the upper ascending; pedicels short; scape 4ft. to 10ft. high, 1in. to 2in. thick at the base, furnished with distant lanceolate acuminate toothed bracts. _l._ few, in a rosette, oblanceolate, 6in. to 12in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad above the middle, thick, fleshy, very glaucous; face deeply concave; terminal spine 1in. to 2in. long, slender; prickles crowded, strong, hooked, horny, nearly 1/4in. long. California, 1877. =A. Desmetiana= (De Smet's). Probably synonymous with _A. miradorensis_. =A. Elemeetiana= (Elemeet's).* _fl._ yellowish-green, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, in a dense spike 8ft. to 9ft. long, 7in. to 8in. in diameter when expanded; pedicels 1/4in. long; scape, including the spike, 12ft. to 13ft. high, stiffly erect, lower 3ft. to 4ft., barren, with squarrose lanceolate bracts. _l._ twenty to twenty-five in a rosette, lanceolate-oblong, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 3in. to 6in. wide, slightly glaucous; face flat above the middle terminal spine, not pungent, the margin pale and quite entire. Stemless. A very distinct species. Mexico, 1864. =A. Fenzliana= (Fenzl's). Synonymous with _A. Hookeri_. =A. ferox= (fierce). _fl._ unknown. _l._ about twenty in a rosette, oblong-spathulate, 4in. to 8in. broad; face nearly flat, except at the top, slightly glaucous green; terminal spine above 1in. long, hard, pungent; margin slightly wavy between the large dark brown teeth, which are about 1/4in. long, and curved at the top. Mexico, 1861. =A. filifera= (thread-bearing).* _fl._ greenish, about 2in. long; pedicels very short and stout, in a dense spike 2ft. to 3ft. long; scape 3ft. to 4ft. long, its bract-leaves subulate, the lower ones ascending, the upper squarrose. _l._ sixty to a hundred in a dense rosette, stiff, straight, ensiform, 6in. to 9in. long, 1in. broad at the middle, gradually narrowing to a grey pungent tip; face flat, the continuous grey edge splitting off copiously into irregular spreading grey wiry threads; outer leaves of the rosette not all recurved, but spreading stiffly. Mexico. =A. f. filamentosa= (thready).* A form with larger leaves and scape; including the spike, 10ft. to 12ft. high. A well-known, handsome variety. =A. Galeotti= (Galeotti's). _fl._ unknown. _l._ thirty to forty in a dense rosette, 2ft. to 3ft. broad, oblong-spathulate, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long, 2in. to 6in. broad; face rather flat or convex, green; terminal spine hard, pungent; prickles close, straight, or slightly hooked, purplish-black. Mexico, 1877. =A. Ghiesbreghtii= (Ghiesbreght's). _fl._ unknown. _l._ thirty to forty in a dense rosette, rigid, lanceolate, 9in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, bright glossy green; terminal spine 1/2in. long, pungent; border narrow, red-brown till a late stage; side prickles numerous, irregular, two to three lines long. Mexico, 1862. Very handsome dwarf species. _A. Rohanii_ and _A. Leguayana_ are mere varieties. =A. heteracantha= (various-spined).* _fl._ greenish, 1-1/2in. long, on a dense spike 3ft. long; scape 3ft. to 4ft. long. _l._ fifty to eighty in a rosette, rigid, ensiform, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 2in. to 2-1/2in. broad in the middle, dull green, with numerous darker green lines on the back; terminal point 1in. long; side spines numerous, strongly hooked, lanceolate. Stemless. Mexico. =A. Hookeri= (Hooker's).* _fl._ large, yellow, very numerous, in stalked panicled cymes. _l._ thirty to forty in a sessile rosette, 8ft. or 9ft. in diameter, oblanceolate-spathulate, bright green on the face, rather glaucous on the back, 4ft. to 5ft. long, 5in. to 9in. broad, 2in. to 3in. thick; terminal spine 2in. long, and decurrent for nearly half a foot; face flattish or slightly concave; side prickles irregular, brown and horny, about 1/4in. long, and curved in different directions. Mexico. SYN. _A. Fenzliana_. A rare and noble species, very massive. =A. horrida= (horrid).* _fl._ unknown. _l._ thirty to forty in a dense rosette, rigid, lanceolate-spathulate, 8in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad, bright green; terminal spine pungent, nearly 1in. long; margin furnished with a continuous broad grey border, with copious prickles 3/8in. to 1/2in. long. =A. h. Gilbeyi= (Gilbey's).* _l._ about thirty, 3in. to 4in. long, 2in. broad, dark green with a pale stripe down the middle, three to four large spines on each side. Mexico, 1873. =A. h. lævior= (smoother). _l._ somewhat narrower, longer, with marginal spines less strongly developed, and of a paler colour. Mexico, 1870. =A. h. macrodonta= (long-toothed). _l._ fifty to sixty, 2-1/2in. broad; spines larger than in the typical form. Mexico, 1876. =A. h. micrantha= (small-toothed). Border of leaf narrower, and spines smaller, than in the typical form. =A. Jacobiana= (Jacob's). Synonymous with _A. Salmiana_. =A. Kerchovei= (Kerchove's).* _fl._ unknown. _l._ thirty to forty in a stemless rosette, stiff, rigid, typically ensiform, 6in. to 12in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, narrowing gradually to a pungent spine 1in. long, dull green, with a distinct pale central band, rounded on the back, without any stripes of dark green, the margin with a continuous moderately broad grey border; side prickles irregular, grey, lanceolate, curved, 1/6in. to 1/4in. long. SYN. _A. Beaucarnei_. There are several varieties of _A. Kerchovei_, of which the following are the most important:-- =A. K. diplacantha= (double-spined).* With very few distant, small teeth, often collected or united in pairs. =A. K. inermis= (unarmed). Dwarf, with spines entirely obsolete. =A. K. macrodonta= (long-toothed). _l._ 1-1/2ft. long, without any distinct central band, and with copious irregular grey lanceolate prickles, about 1/3in. long. =A. K. pectinata= (comb-like). _l._ 1ft. long, 2-1/4in. broad, without any central band. =A. lophantha= (crest-flowered).* _fl._ greenish, arranged in a dense spike 4ft. to 5ft. long; scape 7ft. to 8ft. long, its leaves brown, the lower ones 6in. long. _l._ thirty to forty in a rosette, rigid, ensiform, 2ft. to 3ft. long, 1-1/2in. broad at the middle, rather concave down the face, rounded on the back, not marked with any lines, dull green; terminal spine 1in. long; margins bordered by a very narrow continuous grey hoary line, furnished with distant linear falcate teeth, about 1/12in. long, sessile. Mexico. =A. l. c�rulescens= (bluish).* _l._ with a decided glaucous bloom. =A. l. longifolia= (long-leaved). A mere variety of above species. =A. macracantha= (long-spined).* _fl._ greenish, 2in. long, ten to twelve in a loose raceme 6in. long, all solitary on ascending pedicels 1/4in. to 1/2in. long; scape 2ft. to 3ft. long; bracts erect. _l._ thirty to fifty in a stiff rosette 1ft. to 2ft. broad, oblanceolate, 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, very stiff and rigid, very glaucous; face rather thicker in the lower half; terminal spine nearly black, very pungent, 1/2in. long; side prickles purplish-black, sub-distant, 1/8in. long, with a large point straight or slightly hooked. With a short stem, or stemless. Mexico, 1830. It has many varieties, among which are _A. Bessereriana_ and _A. flavescens_. =A. Maximiliana= (Maximilian's).* _fl._ unknown. _l._ about twenty in a sessile rosette, oblanceolate-spathulate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 1-3/4in. to 3in. broad; face slightly glaucous green; terminal spine pungent, brown, 1in. broad; side prickles bright chestnut brown, larger and more irregular than in _A. americana_, more hooked, and furnished with longer and sharper points, reaching 1/4in. long. Mexico. A very distinct species. =A. micracantha= (small-spined). _fl._ yellowish, 1-1/2in. long, in a dense spike 3ft. to 4ft. long, 6in. to 7in. broad when expanded. _l._ twenty to thirty in a shortly stalked rosette, oblanceolate oblong, 15in. to 18in. long, 3in. to 5in. broad above the middle, narrowed to 2in. to 3in. above the base, bright green; face flattish above the centre; terminal spine red brown, moderately firm; the copious close reddish-brown horny teeth about 1/12in. long, the upper ones ascending, the lower deflexed. Mexico, 1860. =A. miradorensis= (Mirador).* _fl._ unknown. _l._ about thirty in a sessile rosette, oblanceolate-spathulate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 2in. to 2-1/2in. broad above the middle, thin but firm in texture, very glaucous, with a firm red-brown terminal spine 1in. long; side prickles very minute, crowded, colourless, five or six to an inch in the centre of the leaf. Mexico, 1869. SYN. (probably) _A. Desmetiana_. =A. Noackii= (Noack's). A synonym of _A. Sartorii_. =A. ornata= (adorned). A synonym of _A. americana picta_. =A. Ortgiesiana= (Ortgies'). A dwarf form of _A. schidigera_ with a pale central band to the leaf. Mexico, 1861. A widely-distributed and desirable species. =A. pendula= (pendulous). Synonymous with _A. Sartorii_. =A. polyacantha= (many-spined).* _fl._ greenish-yellow, 1-1/2in. to 2in. long; flowering-stem 8ft. to 12ft. high, including the dense spike, which is 3ft. to 4ft. long. _l._ about thirty in a sessile rosette, oblanceolate-spathulate, rigid, 1ft. to 2ft. long, 2-1/2in. to 5in. broad above the middle, bright green, slightly glaucous when young; terminal spine dark brown, pungent, 1/2in. to 3/4in. long; side prickles crowded, deltoid, dark chestnut brown, irregular, 1/12in. or 1/8in. long, all sub-patent. Mexico, 1800. SYNS. _A. uncinata_, _A. xalapensis_. =A. Poselgerii= (Poselger's). _fl._ purplish, rather more than 1in. long; scape, including the spike, 6ft. to 10ft. _l._ twenty to thirty in a dense rosette, rigid, ensiform, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long; 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad at the middle, dull green, with a broad pale band down to the face, rounded and marked with numerous distinct green lines down the back; margin furnished with a continuous straight, moderately broad edge; terminal spine 1in. long, brown, pungent; side prickles moderately close, lanceolate, hooked, 1/6in. long. Trunk, 4in. to 6in. long. Texas. =A. potatorum= (drinkers'). _fl._ greenish yellow, 3in. long; scape 12ft. high, including the thyrsoid panicle, which is 4ft. to 5ft. long. _l._ about twenty in a dense sessile rosette, 4ft. to 5ft. broad, oblong-spathulate, 2ft. to 2-1/2ft. long, 7in. to 9in. broad above the middle, a dull glaucous green; face slightly concave; terminal spines hard, pungent, 1-1/2in. to 2in. long; side prickles deltoid-cuspidate, about 1/4in. long, with the edge slightly wavy between them. Mexico, 1830. =A. pruinosa= (frosty).* _fl._ unknown. _l._ ten to twenty in a dense rosette, spreading, oblanceolate-oblong, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 5in. broad above the middle, soft and fleshy in texture, pale glaucous green; terminal spine very weak; edge furnished with minute irregular spreading deltoid serrations, not more than quarter line long. Mexico, 1863. A very distinct species. =A. Roezliana= (Roezl's). _fl._ unknown. _l._ twenty to thirty in a sessile rosette, stiff, ensiform, 6in. to 7in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad at the middle, bright glossy green, with a distinct pale band down the centre, broadly rounded on the back, without any darker green lines, margined with a continuous moderately broad border, red brown at first, fading into grey when old; terminal spines bright reddish brown, pungent, 1/2in. to 3/4in. long; side prickles copious, spreading, lanceolate, curved, 1/4in. long. Mexico, 1869. [Illustration: ACACIA LEPROSA (LEMON). A. LINEATA (ORANGE).] =A. Salmiana= (Prince Salm-Dyck's).* _fl._ greenish yellow, 4in. long; panicle thyrsoid, 6ft. to 8ft. long, with erecto-patent branches and flowers in dense clusters; scape, exclusive of the panicle, 20ft. high. _l._ twelve to thirty in a dense rosette, which is often 5ft. to 6ft. broad, oblanceolate-spathulate, 2ft. to 4ft. long, 4in. to 6in. broad above the middle, a dull, slightly glaucous green; face more or less concave; terminal spine 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, hard and pungent; side prickles 1/4in. long, chestnut brown, hooked up or down. Mexico, 1860. SYNS. _A. atrovirens_, _A. Jacobiana_, _A. tehuacensis_. =A. S. latissima= (very broad). _l._ 2ft. to 3ft. long, by 8in. to 9in. broad above the middle. =A. Sartorii= (Sartor's). _fl._ greenish, 1-1/2in. long; pedicels very short, in a dense spike about 3ft. long, 5in. to 6in. broad when expanded; scape 3ft. to 4ft. long, the green linear ascending bracts 2in. to 4in. long. _l._ thirty to forty spaced out in a loose rosette, ensiform, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 3in. broad at the middle, bright green, with a pale band down the middle; face flat; terminal spine small, not pungent; side prickles minute, crowded, spreading, tipped with red-brown. Caudex 1ft. to 2ft. long, sometimes forked. SYNS. _A. cæspitosa_, _A. Noackii_, _A. pendula_. =A. schidigera= (spine-bearing).* _fl._ almost identical with _A. filifera_. _l._ fifty to eighty in a dense sessile rosette, stiff, ensiform, 12in. to 15in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad at the middle, similar in colour and texture to those of _A. filifera_, but the grey marginal border, and splitting off into flat shavings, not mere threads. =A. Schnittspahni= (Schnittspahn's). Referred to _A. Scolymus_. =A. Scolymus= (Scolymus). _fl._ greenish yellow, 2-1/2in. to 3in. long; branches few, with the flowers at the end in very dense clusters; scape 14ft. to 16ft. high, including the thyrsoid panicle, which is 4ft. long and 2ft. broad, furnished with green bracts. _l._ twenty to thirty in a dense rosette 1-1/2ft. to 3ft. broad, oblong-spathulate, 9in. to 18in. long, 3in. to 6in. broad above the middle, very glaucous, abruptly terminating in a pungent spine, 1in. or more long; side prickles chestnut brown, about 1/4in. long; edge wavy between them; those on the lower half smaller and directed downwards. Mexico, 1830. Other so-called species referred to this are _A. am�na_, _A. crenata_, _A. cucullata_, _A. Schnittspahni_, and _A. Verschaffeltii_. =A. S. Saundersii= (Saunders'). _fl._ about 1ft. long; teeth very large. =A. Seemanni= (Seemann's).* _fl._ unknown. _l._ twenty in a sessile rosette, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. broad, oblong-spathulate, 6in. to 9in. long, 3in. to 3-1/2in. broad at the middle, narrowed to 2in. above the dilated base, slightly glaucous; face flat, except close to the top; terminal spine pungent, dark brown, 1/2in. long; side prickles large, moderately close, slightly curved upwards or downwards. Guatemala, 1868. There are two or three garden forms of this species. =A. Shawii= (Shaw's).* _fl._ greenish yellow, 3in. to 3-1/2in. long; panicle thyrsoid, about 2ft. long and broad; clusters dense, composed of thirty to forty flowers, surrounded by large foliaceous fleshy bracts. _l._ fifty to sixty, or more, forming a dense globose sessile rosette 2ft. in diameter, oblong-spathulate, 8in. to 10in. long, 3-1/2in. to 4-1/2in. broad at the middle, deep green; terminal spine brown, 1in. long, the upper third or quarter entire, the rest furnished with crowded upcurved lanceolate prickles, 1/4in. to 1/2in. long. California, 1877. This species is very rare at present, but is a most distinct and handsome plant. =A. sobolifera= (soboliferous). _fl._ greenish yellow, 2in. to 2-1/2in. long, in a deltoid panicle, of which the lower panicles are 9in. to 12in. long, and bear a hundred flowers each; pedicels 1/4in. to 1in. long; scape 8ft. to 10ft. high, 2-1/2in. thick at the base. _l._ twenty to forty in a shortly caulescent rosette, oblanceolate-oblong-spathulate, 2ft. to 3ft. long, 3in. to 5in. broad at the middle, very bright green; face deeply channelled, the border much raised and tip often recurved; terminal spine sub-pungent, chestnut brown, 1/2in. long; side prickles distant, brown, hooked, 1/12in. to 1/8in. long. West Indies, 1678. =A. striata= (striated-leaved).* _fl._ brownish green outside, yellow inside, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long; pedicels very short; spike dense, 2ft. to 3ft. long; bracts linear, shorter than the flowers; scape 6ft. to 8ft. high, including the spike, furnished with numerous spreading subulate bracts, which are 2in. to 3in. long. _l._ 150 to 200 in a dense rosette, linear-ensiform, 2ft. to 2-1/2ft. long, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad above the deltoid dilated base, where they are 1/4in. thick and 1in. broad, narrowed gradually from the top of the base to the point, rigid in texture, glaucous green; face rather keeled, and the back more so; point brown, pungent, 1/2in. long; edges minutely serrulate. Mexico, 1856. =A. s. echinoides= (Echinus-like). _l._ about 6in. long, 1/3in. broad at the middle; face flat. Mexico, 1869. Dwarfer and stiffer in habit than the variety _stricta_. =A. s. recurva= (recurved-leaved). _l._ longer than in the type, 3ft. to 4ft., more or less falcate, narrower, and decidedly convex on both surfaces. =A. s. stricta= (upright). _l._ about 1ft. long, very stiff, 1/4in. broad at the middle, both faces convex. _A. Richardsii_ comes near to this variety. =A. tehuacensis= (Tehuan). Synonymous with _A. Salmiana_. =A. uncinata= (hooked). Synonymous with _A. polyacantha_. =A. univittata= (one-striped).* _fl._ green, 1-1/2in. long (or less); spike 10ft. to 12ft. long, 6in. to 7in. thick; pedicels 1/4in. long; scape 4ft. long, exclusive of the spike, its bracts dense and squarrose. _l._ fifty to eighty in a stemless rosette, rigid, ensiform, 2ft. to 2-1/2ft. long, 2in. to 3in. broad at the middle, narrowed slightly downwards, and very gradually upwards, dull green, with a broad pale band down the face, faintly lineate on the back; margin bordered by a narrow, continuous grey horny line, furnished with hooked lanceolate prickles, 1/8in. long, from 1/2in. to 1in. apart; terminal spine brown, pungent, 1in. long. Mexico, 1830. =A. utahensis= (Utahan).* _fl._ yellowish, about 1in. long; peduncles ultimately 1/4in. long; scapes, 5ft. to 7ft. high, including the 1ft. to 2ft. spike. _l._ stemless, ensiform, 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to nearly 2in. broad, thick, glaucous; terminal spine channelled, pungent, about 1in. long; marginal prickles, 1/8in. to 1/2in. long, white, with a darker base. Southern Utah, 1881. This is a true alpine species, perfectly hardy, and of very easy culture. =A. Vanderdonckii= (Vanderdonck's). Synonymous with _A. xylacantha_. =A. variegata= (variegated).* _fl._ greenish, about 1-1/2in. long; spike about 1ft. long, fifteen to twenty flowered; bracts minute, deltoid; scape 2ft. long, exclusive of the spike, bearing about twelve lanceolate bract leaves. _l._ fifteen to eighteen in a sessile rosette, spreading, ligulate-lanceolate, finally 12in. to 15in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad below the middle, narrowed slightly downwards, and gradually to the point, deeply channelled down the face, and copiously spotted with brown on a green ground; edge hard and tough, very obscurely serrulate. Texas, 1865. This very desirable variegated species is extremely rare in cultivation. =A. Verschaffeltii= (Verschaffelt's). Referred to _A. Scolymus_. =A. Victoriæ Regina= (Queen Victoria).* _l._ forty to fifty in a sessile rosette, stiff, rigid, lanceolate, 6in. long, 1-1/2in. to nearly 2in. broad above the dilated base, narrowed gradually to a rather obtuse point, dead green, margined with a continuous white border, like that of _A. filifera_, not splitting up into threads, but leaving distinct white vertical bands where it is pressed against the neighbouring leaves; terminal spine 1/2in. long, black, pungent, with usually one or two small spines on each side of it. Mexico, 1875. This is also much too rare a plant. SYN. _A. Consideranti_. =A. virginica= (Virginian).* _fl._ greenish yellow, 1in. to 1-1/4in. long; spike very loose, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long; lower flowers with very short pedicels and lanceolate bracts, about 1/4in. long; scape 2ft. to 3ft. high, exclusive of the spike, with only a few distant small bract leaves. _l._ ten to fifteen in a sessile rosette, spreading, lanceolate, 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad below the middle, narrowed gradually to the point and a little downwards; face channelled, undulated, pale green, or mottled with brown spots, the narrow hard and tough margin very obscurely serrulate. North America, 1765. _A. conduplicata_ is said to be allied to this species. =A. vivipara= (viviparous).* _fl._ greenish yellow, 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, often changed into bulbillæ, which bear lanceolate leaves 6in. long before they fall and take root; inflorescence reaching a height of 20ft. or more, the deltoid panicle about a quarter of the length of the scape; corymbs on stout peduncles, pedicels short. _l._ twenty to fifty in a dense, shortly caulescent rosette, ensiform, 2ft. to 3ft. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad at the middle, whence it gradually narrows to the point, dull green when mature, thin but firm in texture, flat or channelled down the face; terminal spine firm, brown, 1/2in. long; side teeth brown, hooked, 1/12in. or less long. A very widely spread species throughout tropics of the Old World, 1731. SYNS. _A. cantula_, _A. bulbifera_. =A. Warelliana= (Warell's).* _l._ about thirty in a rosette, oblong-spathulate, 9in. to. 10in. long, 3in. broad above the middle, narrowed to 2in. above the dilated base; face nearly flat, green, scarcely at all glaucous, tipped with a strong brown channelled spine 1in. long; border margined with close, very short teeth, dark purple when mature. Mexico. A rare but very handsome species. =A. Wislizeni= (Wislizenius's). _fl._ 2-1/2in. long; panicle thyrsoid, its branches 3in. to 6in. long; pedicels very short; scape 12ft. high. _l._ about thirty in a dense, rigid, sessile rosette, which is under 2ft. broad, oblong-spathulate, 3in. to 3-1/2in. broad above the middle, very glaucous, concave in the upper part; terminal spine hard, pungent, dark brown, 1in. long, and decurrent down the border a little; side prickles 1/8in. long, dark purple, moderately close, those below the middle of the leaf smaller and curved downward. Mexico, 1847. =A. xalapensis.= Synonymous with _A. polyacantha_. =A. xylacantha= (woody-spined).* _fl._ green, 1-1/2in. long; spike dense, rather shorter than the scape, its bracts linear-subulate; scape 5ft. to 6ft. long, its bracts subulate, all ascending, the lower ones 6in. to 8in. long. _l._ not more than twenty in a stemless rosette, ensiform, diverging irregularly and often curving, 1-1/2ft. to 3ft. long, 2in. to 3in. (rarely 4in.) broad at the middle, narrowed gradually upwards, a slightly glaucous dead green, marked with a few darker green lines on the back, furnished with a broad continuous horny border and a few very large irregular hooked teeth, often united or collected in pairs, 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, and 3/8in. to 1/2in. broad; terminal spine brown, pungent, 1in. long. Mexico. A long-known, widely-spread, and distinct species. SYNS. _A. amurensis_ and _A. Vanderdonckii_. =A. x. hybrida= is a striking dwarf variety with vittate leaves, and smaller, more crowded deltoid-cuspidate prickles than in the type. It is also commonly known as _A. x. vittata_ and _A. perbella_. [Illustration: FIG. 48. AGAVE YUCC�FOLIA.] =A. yuccæfolia= (Yucca-leaved).* _fl._ greenish yellow, 1-1/4in. to 1-1/2in. long, in a dense spike 6in. to 15in. long, about 14in. in diameter, sessile, solitary, or in pairs; scape 12ft. to 20ft. high. _l._ twenty to forty in a dense, shortly-stemmed rosette, linear, much recurved, 1-1/2ft. to 2-1/2ft. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad at the middle; face deeply channelled, dull, rather glaucous green, with a pale band down the centre, the tip not at all pungent, the back broadly rounded, edge entire, or obscurely serrulate. Mexico, 1816. A most distinct species. See Fig. 48. =AGERATUM= (from _a_, not, and _geras_, old; in reference to the flowers being always clear). SYN. _C�lestina_. ORD. _Compositæ_. This genus includes several American species, for the most part half-hardy annuals and biennials; or, if the seed is not allowed to ripen, they become perennials. Involucre cup-shaped, of many imbricated linear bracts; receptacle naked. Leaves opposite. A light rich soil is most suitable. Very easily increased by cuttings or seeds; if required true, the former is the only sure method of propagation. To grow large plants for greenhouse decoration, sow the seeds in January, in heat, in sandy soil, barely covering them. As soon as the young plants are large enough, prick them off into thumb pots, and keep in heat till they grow freely, then place them into a cooler house. Transfer into larger pots as soon as the others are full of roots, until they are finally shifted into 10in. or 12in. pots. When these are full of roots, the plants should be watered with liquid manure twice a week, and they soon flower well, making fine specimens. During hot weather especially, they should be well syringed with clear water daily, to keep down red spider. The plants required for bedding (for which purpose the dwarf garden varieties are mostly used) should be raised about the same time, kept in small pots, gradually hardened off, and planted out in the middle or end of June. Cuttings of all the varieties strike readily in heat, treated like most soft-wooded plants, and, when rooted, may be managed as recommended for the seedlings. =A. Lasseauxii= (Lasseaux's). _fl.-heads_ rose-coloured, small, disposed in corymbose heads. Summer. _l._ lanceolate-elliptic. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Monte Video, 1870. A much-branched plant, requiring greenhouse protection in winter, and suitable for planting out in summer. =A. latifolium= (broad-leaved). A synonym of _Piqueria latifolia_. =A. mexicanum= (Mexican).* The commonest and most useful species, with a profusion of lilac-blue flowers. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1822. When used for bedding purposes it may be pegged down like the Verbena, or be allowed to grow its full height. Several very dwarf varieties of it have originated under cultivation, which supersede the species for bedding, the best of which are:--CUPID,* rich blue, very dwarf and floriferous; IMPERIAL DWARF, about 9in. high, with porcelain blue flowers; LADY JANE, of the same colour, very free; QUEEN,* silvery grey, about 9in. high; SNOWFLAKE,* white, very free and showy; SWANLEY BLUE,* very deep blue, 6in. to 8in. high. There is also a white-flowered variety of _Mexicanum_, which is very showy; and a variegated form, sometimes grown for the sake of its pretty foliage. =AGGLOMERATE, AGGLOMERATED.= Collected into a heap or head. =AGGLUTINATED.= Glued together. =AGGREGATE, AGGREGATED.= Gathered together; usually applied to the inflorescence. =AGLAIA.= (mythological: from Aglaia, the name of one of the Graces, and given to this genus on account of its beauty and the sweet scent of the flowers). ORD. _Meliaceæ_. Stove evergreen trees or shrubs having very small flowers, disposed in branched axillary panicles. Leaves alternate, trifoliate, or impari-pinnate. There are several species, but the undermentioned is the only one worth growing yet introduced. It thrives well in a mixture of turfy loam and peat. Young cuttings ripened at the base, and taken off at a joint, will root in sand under a hand glass, in heat. =A. odorata= (sweet-scented). _fl._ yellow, small, in axillary racemes, very sweet-scented, said to be used by the Chinese to scent their teas. February to May. _l._ pinnate, with five or seven glossy leaflets. _h._ 8ft. to 10ft. China, 1810. =AGLAOMORPHA.= _See_ =Polypodium=. =AGLAONEMA= (from _aglaos_, bright, and _nema_, a thread; supposed to refer to the shining stamens). ORD. _Aroideæ_. Stove perennials, allied to _Arum_, and requiring similar treatment to the stove species of that genus. =A. commutatum= (changed).* _fl._ white. _l._ greyish-blotched. _h._ 1ft. Philippines, 1863. SYN. _A. marantæfolium maculatum_. =A. Mannii= (Mann's).* _fl._, spathe 2in. long, whitish, with a spadix one-third shorter, bearing white anthers and scarlet ovaries. _l._ elliptic-oblong, dark green. Stems thickish, erect. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Victoria Mountains, 1868. =A. marantæfolium maculatum= (Maranta-leaved, spotted). A synonym of _A. commutatum_. =A. pictum= (painted).* _fl._, spathe pale creamy yellow, folded round so as to appear globular-oblong, opening at top; spadix projecting, white. August. _l._ elliptic-acuminate, light green, blotched irregularly with broadish angulate patches of grey. Stems slender, erect. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Borneo. =AGNOSTUS.= _See_ =Stenocarpus=. =AGRAPHIS.= Included under =Scilla= (which _see_). =AGRIMONIA= (from _argos_, white; the cataract of the eye being white. Once reputed to contain medicinal qualities). Agrimony. ORD. _Rosaceæ_. A genus of hardy herbaceous perennials, with interruptedly pinnate leaves, each accompanied by a pair of stipules united to the petioles. Flowers small, numerous, spiked; calyx turbinate, involucrated by bristles; petals five. They are all of the easiest culture, growing in ordinary soil. Readily increased by root-division. The most showy species in cultivation are described below. =A. Eupatoria= (Eupatoria). _fl._ yellow, on an elongated spike. _l._ with elliptic-oblong, coarsely serrated leaflets, odd one stalked. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Britain. =A. nepalensis= (Nepaul). _fl._ yellow, on erect, slender racemes. _l._ with ovate, serrated leaflets, odd one stalked, villous. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Nepaul, 1820. =A. odorata= (sweet-scented).* _fl._ yellow; spikes several. _l._ with oblong lanceolate, deeply crenate-toothed leaflets, hairy. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Italy, 1640. =AGRIMONY.= _See_ =Agrimonia=. =AGRIOTES.= _See_ =Wireworm=. =AGROSTEMMA= (from _agros_, a field, and _stemma_, a crown; alluding to the beauty of the flowers, which were formerly made into crowns or garlands). Rose Campion. ORD. _Caryophyllaceæ_. Hardy evergreen perennials and annuals, with broadish leaves, and one-flowered peduncles. Of easy culture, and well adapted for borders. They will all grow freely in common garden soil. Increased by division of the roots, and seed. _A. c�li-rosa_, and _A. flos-Jovis_ are, perhaps, species of _Lychnis_, but the generic name which we have adopted is the most common one. All the species of this genus are exceedingly pretty free-flowering plants, and both annuals and perennials are well worth growing. =A. c�li-rosa= (rose of Heaven).* _fl._ delicate rose, white, or bright purple, solitary, terminal. Summer. Levant, &c., 1713. An annual species about 1ft. high, not tomentose; should be grown in patches. Sow the seed in April. [Illustration: FIG. 49. AGROSTEMMA C�LI-ROSA FIMBRIATA.] =A. c.-r. fimbriata= (fimbriate). A form having fimbriated petals. Known also as _nana_. _h._ 9in. See Fig. 49. =A. c.-r. purpurea= (purple).* A very pretty form, having dark purple flowers, and compact habit. See Fig. 50. =A. coronaria= (crowned).* _fl._ white, with the middle red; petals emarginate, crowned, serrated; peduncles elongated, one-flowered. July. _l._ lanceolate, very broad, leathery; plant woolly throughout. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. South Europe, 1596. This species is admirably adapted for naturalising on dry hill sides, and in the wild garden. There are several varieties seen in gardens with a great diversity of colour, including dark crimson, white, and sometimes double flowers. See Fig. 51. [Illustration: FIG. 50. AGROSTEMMA C�LI-ROSA PURPUREA.] [Illustration: FIG. 51. AGROSTEMMA CORONARIA, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. flos-Jovis.=* Flower of Jove. _fl._ purple or scarlet, in umbellate heads; peduncles short, rather branched. July. _l._ lanceolate, stem-clasping, silky, tomentose. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Switzerland, 1726. Plant white from tomentum. See Fig. 52. [Illustration: FIG. 52. AGROSTEMMA FLOS-JOVIS, showing Habit and Flower.] =AGROSTIS= (from _agros_, a field; the Greek name for a kind of grass). Bent Grass. ORD. _Gramineæ_. Annual or perennial grasses. Panicle loose; spikelets compressed. Several of the species are very effective, and well worth growing; and the spikes are pretty objects, when dried, for window vases, &c. They are of easy culture, in ordinary garden soil. Sow seeds during spring in the open border, in tufts, among ferns, &c., or in pots for decorative purposes. =A. elegans= (elegant). _h._ 1ft. Russia, 1834. [Illustration: FIG. 53. AGROSTIS NEBULOSA.] =A. nebulosa= (cloud).* Cloud Grass. _fl._ panicles resemble, when developed, a cloud resting over the ground. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Very light and elegant. Annual. See Fig. 53. =A. pulchella= (pretty).* Dwarfer, and with a more rigid habit than _A. nebulosa_. It is, nevertheless, a most graceful plant, and valuable for bouquet making, and for winter decorative purposes. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Russia. Annual. =A. spica-venti= (windward-spiked). _fl._ panicle large, silky looking, loosely spreading. England. Annual. =AGROTIS.= _See_ =Pot-herb Moths= and =Turnip Moth=. =AILANTUS= (from _ailanto_, referring to its lofty growth). Tree of Heaven. ORD. _Xanthoxylaceæ_. Tall deciduous trees. The stove species will grow freely in a mixture of loam and peat; and the best way to increase these is by pieces of the roots, planted in a pot with their points above the ground, and placed in a hotbed, where they will soon make fine plants. =A. excelsa= (tall). _fl._ whitish green, disposed similar to the following. _l._ abruptly pinnate, 3ft. long, with ten to fourteen pairs of leaflets coarsely toothed at the base, without glands. _h._ 66ft. India, 1800. A stove tree. =A. glandulosa= (glandulous).* _fl._ whitish green, disposed in large branched, terminal, fascicled panicles, exhaling a disagreeable smell. August. _l._ impari-pinnate; leaflets coarsely toothed at the base with glands. (The leaves on vigorous young trees are sometimes 6ft. in length.) _h._ 60ft. China, 1751. This tree grows with great rapidity for the first ten or twelve years, in favourable situations, afterwards its growth is much slower. It is quite hardy, and thrives in almost any soil, though one that is light and somewhat humid, and a sheltered situation, suits it best. It is a very desirable tree for plantations, or to stand singly on lawns, and is easily increased by slips of the roots. =AINSL�A= (in honour of Dr. Whitelaw Ainslie, author of a work on Indian drugs). ORD. _Compositæ_. Herbaceous perennials, of recent introduction. Although, no doubt, both species will prove tolerably hardy, they should have slight protection during winter. They thrive in light rich soil. Propagated by divisions of the root. =A. aptera= (wingless). _fl.-head_ purple, disposed in an elongated spike-like panicle. _l._ deeply cordate, sinuately toothed; petioles wingless, whence the name. Sikkim Himalayas, 1882. =A. Walkeræ= (Mrs. Walker's).* _fl.-heads_ slender, distant, shortly stalked, borne in erect or somewhat nodding racemes; the white corolla-lobes and the red purple anthers make a pretty contrast. _h._ about 1ft. Hong Kong, 1875. A very rare and graceful species. =AIR.= Pure atmospheric air is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, and a very small quantity of carbonic acid gas, all of which are essential to the growth of plants. Air-giving is a term used by gardeners to lessen the temperature of a greenhouse, or to equalise it with that outside. _See_ =Ventilation=. =AIRA= (from _aira_, applied by the Greeks to _Lolium temulentum_). Hair Grass. ORD. _Gramineæ_. Chiefly hardy grasses, of agricultural value. Panicle loose; spikelet compressed, with two perfect flowers, and sometimes a neuter. Of easy culture, in ordinary garden soil. Sow seeds in spring. =A. flexuosa= (waved).* The Waved Hair Grass. _fl._ shining brown; panicle erect, spreading, with waved angular branches and flower-stalks. _l._ short. Stem upwards of 1ft. high, erect, smooth. England. A very pretty and graceful perennial. [Illustration: FIG. 54. AIRA PULCHELLA.] =A. pulchella= (pretty).* _fl._ panicles loose, very delicate and graceful. _l._ very short. _h._ 6in. to 8in. South Europe. An elegant plant, with tufted filiform stems. One of the best of dwarf-growing ornamental grasses. See Fig. 54. =AIR-PLANT.= _See_ =Aerides=, also =Epiphytes=. =AITONIA= (in honour of W. Aiton, once Head Gardener at Kew). ORD. _Meliaceæ_. A small and rather interesting greenhouse evergreen shrub from the Cape of Good Hope, and thriving well in an equal mixture of sandy loam and peat. Young cuttings will root in sand, under a bell glass, with bottom heat. The cuttings must not be put in very close together, and the glass should be wiped frequently, as they are apt to damp off. =A. capensis= (Cape). _fl._ pink; petals four, shorter than the projecting stamens. July. _h._ 2ft. 1777. =AIZOON= (from _aei_, always, and _zoos_, alive; tenacious of life). ORD. _Portulacaceæ_. Greenhouse annuals, biennials, or evergreen shrubs. Flowers apetalous; calyx five-cleft, coloured on the inner surface. The undermentioned species is the only one worth growing. It requires no shade, a dry atmosphere, and light sandy soil. Propagated by seeds and cuttings. =A. sarmentosum= (sarmentose). _fl._ greenish, sessile. Summer. _l._ opposite, linear-filiform, rather connate, glabrous; branches rather villous, three-flowered at the apex, the two lateral flowers are bracteated, and spring from the sides of the middle one. Sub-shrub, erect, diffuse, glabrous, branched. South Africa, 1862. =AJAVA SEED.= _See_ =Ptychotis=. =AJAX MAXIMUS.= _See_ =Narcissus=. =AJOWAN.= _See_ =Ptychotis=. =AJUGA= (from _a_, not, and _zugon_, a yoke; in reference to the calyx being equal, not bilabiate). Bugle. ORD. _Labiatæ_. Hardy annual or perennial herbaceous plants, usually procumbent or ascending, sometimes stoloniferous. Whorls two or many flowered, dense, sometimes all axillary, when the floral leaves conform to those of the stem; sometimes the superior whorls are approximate into spikes, then the floral leaves are small, and of a different form from the stem ones. All the species are of easy cultivation in ordinary garden soil. Perennials increased by divisions, or by seeds sown in the open border, during spring or autumn. The seeds of annual kinds may be sown in the open border in spring, where they are intended to remain. =A. alpina= (alpine). Synonymous with _A. genevensis_. =A. australis= (southern). _fl._ blue; whorls six or more flowered; lower whorls remote, upper ones sub-spicate, floral leaves similar to the stem ones, exceeding the flowers. May to July. _l._ narrow-oblong, narrowed at the base, quite entire or sinuated, thickish, rather villous. Stem ascending, or erect. _h._ 6in. New Holland, 1822. Perennial. =A. Chamæpitys= (ground-pine). _fl._ yellow, dotted with red, pubescent outside; whorls two-flowered; floral leaves similar to the others, exceeding the flowers. April. _l._ deeply trifid, with linear, quite entire, or trifid lobes. Stem procumbent at the base, much branched, beset with long hairs, like the leaves. _h._ about 6in. England (rare). Annual. =A. genevensis= (Geneva).* _fl._ varying from blue to rose colour and white; upper whorls spicate, lower ones distant, six or more flowered. May. _l._ stem ones oblong-elliptic or obovate, narrowed at the base; lower ones petiolate; floral ones ovate or cuneated; superior ones scarcely equalling the flowers or shorter, all usually coarsely toothed, membranaceous, green on both surfaces, and beset with scattered hairs. Stem erect, pilose. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. Europe. A very variable species, admirably adapted as an alpine plant, and succeeds best in bog soil, where its roots will have plenty of room; it increases rapidly. Perennial. SYNS. _A. alpina_, _A. rugosa_. =A. orientalis= (oriental).* _fl._ blue; whorls six or more flowered, distant, or the upper ones are approximate. May. _l._ lower ones large, petiolate; ovate, coarsely and sinuately toothed, narrowed at the base; floral ones sessile, broad ovate, deeply lobed or toothed, exceeding the flowers. Stem ascending, pilosely woolly. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Eastern Europe, 1732. This species should be grown in a dry, sunny spot. =A. pyramidalis= (pyramidal).* _fl._ blue or purple; whorls many-flowered, upper ones or all spicate. May and June. _l._ stem ones approximate, scarcely petiolate, obovate; floral ones broad-ovate, clasping the flowers, tetragonally pyramidate; the upper ones often coloured, all quite entire or obscurely sinuated. Stem erect. _h._ 6in. Scotland. Perennial. Of this there are several handsome garden varieties. [Illustration: FIG. 55. FLOWER OF AJUGA REPTANS.] =A. reptans= (creeping).* _fl._ varying from blue to rose-colour; lower whorls remote; upper ones spicate, six to twenty flowered. May. _l._ ovate or obovate, quite entire or sinuated, and are, as well as the stem, nearly glabrous; radical one petiolate, stem ones nearly sessile. Stem creeping. The variegated and darkest leaved forms of this are superior to the type for horticultural purposes. Britain. Perennial. See Fig. 55. =A. rugosa= (wrinkled). Synonymous with _A. genevensis_. =AKEBIA= (its Japanese name). SYN. _Rajania_. ORD. _Lardizabalaceæ_. A pretty twining shrub, succeeding well in the south-western counties of England, or in Scotland, trained to a trellis, or rambling over other shrubs in the open; but, when so grown, it requires the protection of a mat in winter. It makes an excellent twiner for the cool greenhouse. Sandy loam, leaf soil, and peat are most suitable for its culture. Increased by root divisions and cuttings. =A. quinata= (five-leafletted).* _fl._ purplish brown, small, in axillary racemes, very fragrant. March. _l._ on very slender petioles, and palmately divided into usually five distinct petiolulate oval or oblong emarginate leaflets, the bottom pair smallest. _h._ 10ft. Chusan, 1845. =AKEE-TREE.= _See_ =Blighia sapida=. =ALA.= A lateral petal of a papilionaceous flower. =ALANGIACE�.= A very small order of trees or shrubs, usually with inconspicuous flowers, in axillary fascicles. Fruit succulent, eatable. The two genera best known in this country are _Alangium_ and _Nyssa_. =ALANGIUM= (from _Alangi_, the Malabar name of the first species). ORD. _Alangiaceæ_. Very showy stove evergreen trees, with alternate, exstipulate, entire leaves. Flowers few, sessile, in axillary fascicles; calyx campanulate; petals linear, spreadingly reflexed. They thrive well in a mixture of loam and peat, or any light rich soil. Cuttings root readily if planted in a pot of sand, with a hand glass placed over them, in heat. =A. decapetalum= (ten-petaled).* _fl._ pale purple, with a grateful scent, solitary, or two to three together in the axils of the leaves; petals ten or twelve. June. _l._ alternate, oblong-lanceolate, quite entire; branches glabrous, spinescent. _h._ 30ft. Malabar, 1779. =A. hexapetalum= (six-petaled). _fl._ purple, six-petaled. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acuminated, velvety beneath. _h._ 30ft. Malabar, 1823. =ALATUS.= Furnished with a membranous or thin wing or expansion. =ALBESCENT.= Growing white. =ALBICANT.= Growing whitish. =ALBINISM.= A pale condition due to the absence of chlorophyl. =ALBIZZIA= (named after an Italian). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Ornamental greenhouse or hardy trees or shrubs. For culture, _see_ =Acacia=, to which they are often referred. =A. Julibrissin= (Julibrissin). _fl._ white; heads pedunculate, forming a terminal somewhat corymbose panicle. August. _l._ with eight to twelve pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing about thirty pairs of dimidiate-oblong, acute, rather ciliated leaflets. _h._ 30ft. to 40ft. Hardy. Levant, 1745. SYN. _A. Nemu_. =A. lophantha= (crest-flowered).* _fl._ yellow; racemes ovate-oblong, axillary, twin. May. _l._ with eight to ten pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing twenty-five to thirty pairs of linear, bluntish leaflets; petioles and calyces clothed with velvety down. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. New Holland, 1803. A very distinct unarmed greenhouse species, and one of the best for window gardening. =A. Nemu.= A synonym of _A. Julibrissin_. =ALBUCA= (from _albicans_, or _albus_, white; the colour of the earlier species). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A rather extensive genus of Cape of Good Hope bulbs, requiring ordinary greenhouse culture. Closely allied to _Ornithogalum_. Perianth six-cleft, three outer segments spreading; three inner ones closed over the stamens. They, however, succeed admirably when grown in a warm sunny position out of doors, if covered with a hand glass, or litter, during winter. A light loamy soil, with leaf mould and sand, suits them well. Propagated by offsets from the old bulb, or seeds. There are but few species worthy of cultivation. =A. angolensis= (Angolan). _fl._ yellowish, large, in cylindrical racemes 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long. _l._ linear-lorate, sub-erect, fleshy, pale green, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long. _h._ 3ft. Angola. =A. aurea= (yellow).* _fl._ pale yellow, upright; peduncle very long, erect, spreading. June. _l._ linear-lanceolate, flat. _h._ 2ft. 1818. =A. fastigiata= (peaked).* _fl._ white; peduncle very long, spreading. May. _l._ linear, flattish, longer than the scape. _h._ 1-1/2ft. 1774. =A. flaccida= (weak). _fl._ pale yellow, with a green keel, drooping, six to eight in a loose raceme; peduncles spreading at right angles. July. _l._ lanceolate-linear, obliquely bent. _h._ 2ft. 1791. =A. Nelsoni= (Nelson's).* _fl._, perianth, 1-1/2in. long, ascending, white, with a dull red stripe down the back of each segment; scape stout, 4ft. to 5ft. high. Summer. _l._ bright green, very concave at the basal part, nearly flat in the upper part, 3ft. to 3-1/2ft. long, l-1/4in. to 2-1/4in. broad, at about one-third the way up, whence they are gradually narrowed to an acute point. Natal, 1880. This very handsome species is the best of the genus. =ALBUMEN.= The substance under the inner coat of the testa of seeds, surrounding the embryo. It is sometimes absent. =ALBUMINOUS.= Furnished with albumen. =ALBURNUM.= The white wood of a tree; the younger wood, not choked up by sedimentary deposit, and therefore permeable to fluids. =ALCHEMILLA= (from _Alkemelyeh_, the Arabic name of one of the species). Lady's Mantle. ORD. _Rosaceæ_. Hardy herbaceous perennials, with corymbose, apetalous flowers; calyx tubular, with the tube rather contracted at the apex. Leaves palmate or lobed. Of very easy culture, in common, but well drained soil. They are well adapted for rockwork and planting near the front of borders. Easily increased by divisions of the roots, and seeds. All here described are hardy, except _A. sibbaldiæfolia_. =A. alpina= (alpine).* _fl._ greenish, small; corymbose. June. _l._ digitate; leaflets five to seven, lanceolate-cuneated, obtuse, serrated, clothed with white satiny down beneath. _h._ 6in. Britain. =A. pubescens= (pubescent). _fl._ greenish; corymbs terminal, crowded, clothed with a coating of long weak hairs. June. _l._ roundish-reniform, seven-lobed, toothed, silky beneath. _h._ 6in. to 8in. Caucasus (Higher), 1813. =A. sericea= (silky).* _fl._ greenish, corymbose. June. _l._ digitate; leaflets seven, lanceolate-obovate, obtuse, connected at the base, serrated at the apex, clothed with satiny down beneath. _h._ about 6in. Caucasus, 1813. Much larger in every part than _A. alpina_, to which it is closely allied. =A. Sibbaldiæfolia= (Sibbaldia-leaved). _fl._ white, conglomerate; stem corymbosely many-flowered at the apex. July. _l._ deeply three-parted, clothed with adpressed pubescence beneath; segments deeply serrated, lateral ones bifid. _h._ 6in. Mexico, 1823. A greenhouse species, which should be grown in small well-drained pots, with a mixture of leaf soil and sandy loam. =ALDEA.= A synonym of =Phacelia= (which _see_). =ALDER.= _See_ =Alnus=. =ALETRIS= (from _aletron_, meal; referring to the powdery appearance of the whole plant). The American Star Grass. SYN. _Tritonia_. ORD. _Hæmodoraceæ_. Interesting hardy herbaceous perennials, closely allied to the _Amaryllids_. Perianth half-inferior, tubular; limb spreading or funnel-shaped; stamens inserted at base of perianth segments, filaments flat. They delight in a sunny but damp situation, with peat, leaf mould, and sand, and are slowly increased by division of the roots. =A. aurea= (golden).* _fl._ yellow, bell-shaped. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. North America, 1811. Similar in habit to _A. farinosa_. =A. capensis= (Cape). _See_ =Veltheimia viridifolia=. =A. farinosa= (mealy).* _fl._ white, bell-shaped, in a terminal spiked raceme, upon stems 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. high. _l._ lanceolate, ribbed. North America, 1768. A pretty species, forming a spreading tuft, and possessing intensely bitter properties. =ALEURITES= (from the Greek word signifying floury; all the parts of the plant seeming to be dusted with a farinaceous substance). ORD. _Euphorbiaceæ_. A handsome stove evergreen tree, with small, white, clustered flowers. Leaves alternate, stalked, exstipulate. Of easy culture in a loamy soil. Ripe cuttings, with their leaves untouched, root readily in sand, under a hand-glass. =A. triloba= (three-lobed).* Candleberry Tree. _l._ three-lobed, 4in. to 8in. long. _h._ 30ft. to 40ft. Moluccas and South Pacific Islands, 1793. =ALEXANDERS.= _See_ =Smyrnium=. =ALEXANDRIAN LAUREL.= _See_ =Ruscus racemosus=. =ALGAROBA BEAN, or CAROB.= _See_ =Ceratonia=. =ALGAROBIA.= Included under =Prosopis= (which _see_). =ALHAGI= (its Arabian name). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Manna Tree. Greenhouse shrubs or sub-shrubs, with simple leaves, and minute stipulas. Flowers few, in clusters. They thrive in pots filled with a mixture of sand, loam, and peat. Young cuttings will root in sand, with a bell glass placed over them, in heat; but by seeds, if they can be procured, sown in a hotbed, is a preferable mode of increasing the plants. They may be placed out of doors during the summer months. =A. camelorum= (camels). _fl._ red, few, disposed in racemes along the peduncles. July. _l._ lanceolate, obtuse, simple; stipulas minute. Stem herbaceous. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Caucasus, 1816. =A. maurorum= (Moors'). _fl._ purple in the middle, and reddish about the edges, disposed in racemes along the axillary, spinose peduncles. July. _l._ obovate-oblong, simple; spines strong, and longer than those of the above species. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Egypt, &c. The Manna is a natural exudation from the branches and leaves of this shrub, which takes place only in very hot weather. =ALIBERTIA= (in honour of M. Alibert, a celebrated French chemist, author of "Traite des Fievres Attaxiques," wherein he mentions the effects of Peruvian bark). ORD. _Cinchonaceæ_. A small stove evergreen tree, very ornamental when in flower. Flowers solitary or fascicled, di�cious; corolla leathery, tubular. A mixture of loam and peat is the best soil. Cuttings strike root freely, in a similar kind of soil, under a hand glass, in a moist heat. =A. edulis= (edible). _fl._ cream-coloured, solitary or in fascicles, terminating the branches, almost sessile. June. _fr._ edible. _l._ opposite, leathery, oblong, acuminated, shining above, and bearded in the axils of the veins beneath. _h._ 12ft. Guiana, 1823. =ALICANT SODA.= _See_ =Salsola=. =ALISMA.= (from _alis_, the Celtic word for water). Water Plantain. SYN. _Actinocarpus_. ORD. _Alismaceæ_. A genus entirely composed of hardy aquatic species. Flowers three-petalled. Leaves parallel-veined. Increased by division or seeds. The latter should be sown in a pot immersed in water, filled with loam, peat, and sand, and the former root freely in a moist loamy soil. The British species are most easily grown. [Illustration: FIG. 56. ALISMA NATANS.] =A. natans= (floating).* _fl._ white; peduncles simple. July. _l._ elliptical-obtuse; stem ones floating, on long stalks, scarcely nerved; those at the base of the plant are long, linear-lanceolate, membranous scales, or abortive root leaves. North Wales and Cumberland, but very rare; abundant in other parts of Europe. See Fig. 56. =A. Plantago= (plantain).* _fl._ delicate pale rose coloured; scape branched upwards. July. _l._ ovate, acute, all radical, on long stalks; branches all whorled, bracteated, compound. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Britain. A very handsome aquatic for naturalising. See Fig. 57. [Illustration: FIG. 57. PORTION OF INFLORESCENCE OF ALISMA PLANTAGO.] =A. P. lanceolata= (lance-shaped leaves). _fl._ pure white. July. _l._ lanceolate. Britain. =A. ranunculoides= (ranunculus-like). In general appearance very like the last named species, but smaller. Britain. =ALISMACE�.= A small order of aquatic or marsh plants, with three-petaled flowers, on leafless scapes, and simple radical leaves. The genera best known are _Alisma_ and _Sagittaria_. =ALKANET.= _See_ =Anchusa tinctoria=. =ALLAMANDA= (named in memory of Dr. Allamand, of Leyden, who first communicated seeds of this genus to Linnæus). ORD. _Apocynaceæ_. Elegant climbing evergreen stove plants. Peduncles terminal and many-flowered; corolla funnel-shaped, with a narrow tube, gamopetalous, large, inflated, five-cleft at the apex. Leaves verticillate. This genus differs from all others of the same order, in the figure of the corolla. Of comparatively easy culture. To obtain their beauty of foliage and flowers, the shoots should be tied to wires placed within 8in. or 9in. of the glass that forms the roof of the structure in which the plants are growing. Trained in this way, and the shoots allowed to ramble in a somewhat natural manner, the effect, when the plants are in flower, is grander and more pleasing in every respect than when the shoots are tied to a formal trellis, of whatever shape. When thoroughly established, they succeed admirably in a compost of three parts good fibry loam, and one part wood charcoal or coarse river sand, with some rotten cow manure added. When potting the plants, make the fresh compost firm round the old balls of soil, and do not fill the pots too full; leave room for plenty of water, as, when in active growth, they require a liberal daily supply. They must be pruned annually in January or February, cutting the previous year's shoots back to within a joint or two of the old wood. Allamandas should be exposed to the light as much as possible at all seasons of the year. In winter months they require but little water, but the drainage must always be perfect. They are remarkably free from insect attacks of any kind. It may be also observed that the temperature should never fall below 55deg. This genus is easily propagated by cuttings, which will root at any time of the year in a bottom heat of from 70deg. to 80deg. The usual time is, however, in spring, when the old plants are pruned back. Choose the tops of the shoots, retaining two or three joints to each cutting; place these in a compost of sand and peat or leaf mould in equal proportions, singly, in small pots. Press the soil firmly around each cutting, and, when all are inserted, give a good watering, and plunge the pots in the propagating bed. Attend to shading and watering, and in about three weeks' time they will have emitted roots, and started to grow at the tops. The pots should now be raised out of the plunging material, and placed upon the surface thereof, and there allowed to remain two or three weeks longer; when the young roots will have, by this time, filled the little pots, and a shift into the larger ones will be necessary. Return the plants to the propagating bed, but do not plunge them therein. As soon as it is certain that the roots have commenced growth in the fresh soil, pinch the point of each plant that is intended to be grown on a trellis. This will cause the remaining buds to push out fresh shoots; and these, as soon as they have made two joints or whorls of leaves each, should have their points pinched out also. By repotting the plants as often as they fill their pots with roots during the first season of their growth, and pinching the points out of the shoots twice or thrice in the same time, a good foundation will be formed, from which the future specimens will spring. In the case of plants intended to be trained up rafters or pillars, they should not have their points pinched out until they attain to the height where it is desirable they should have more than one shoot, and be repotted as recommended above, for the first year; but, after that, they will require to be repotted only once a year, and this should be done soon after the buds have started to grow afresh in the spring. =A. Aubletii= (Aublet's).* _fl._ yellow, large. June. _l._ four to five in a whorl, broad-oblong, acuminated, rather hairy beneath. Guiana, 1848. =A. cathartica= (purging).* _fl._ yellow, large. June. _l._ four in a whorl, obovate, obtuse, acutish, with sub-undulated edges, glabrous. Guiana, 1785. SYN. _A. Linnæi_. =A. chelsoni= (Chelsea).* _fl._ yellow, large. Summer. This splendid plant is least suited of any for trellis training, from its wood being stiffer and harder, and is therefore best for the roof of a house; it is one of the best kinds for cutting. Garden hybrid. =A. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ distinct pale yellow, rather large, very free bloomer. June. Brazil, 1844. =A. Linnæi= (Linnæus's). Synonymous with _A. cathartica_. =A. neriifolia= (oleander-leaved).* _fl._ deep golden yellow, elegantly streaked with orange, between funnel and bell shaped, the tube being wide, 1in. long; panicle many-flowered. June. _l._ oblong, on short petioles, acuminate. _h._ 3ft. South America, 1847. Shrub erect, glabrous. =A. nobilis= (noble).* _fl._ bright yellow, rather deeper tinted in the throat, large, full circular form, but without streaks or any other markings. July. _l._ in whorls of four or of three, tapered to the base, sessile, oblong, abruptly acuminate, membranaceous, hairy on both surfaces, especially beneath and on the midrib. Brazil, 1867. One of the best species. =A. Schottii= (Schott's).* _fl._ yellow, large, throat beautifully striped with rich brown. September. _l._ oblong, acuminated, four in a whorl, quite glabrous, on both surfaces. _h._ 10ft. Brazil, 1847. This species is a very strong grower, and suits the roof system best; it is also a very free bloomer. =A. verticillata= (whorl-leaved). _fl._ yellow, large. June. _l._ usually six in a whorl, ovate-oblong, obtuse, quite glabrous. South America, 1812. =A. violacea= (violet). _fl._ purple. Brazil, 1859. =ALLANTODIA= (from _allantos_, a sausage; in reference to the cylindrical form of the indusium). ORD. _Filices_. A greenhouse monotypic genus, differing from _Asplenium_ in the dehiscence of the involucre, and it may receive similar treatment to the Spleenworts. Sori dorsal, linear-oblong, attached to the primary veins. Involucre the same shape as the sorus and quite inclosing it, bursting in an irregular line down to the centre. =A. Brunoniana= (Brown's).* _fronds_ often 1ft. to 2ft. long, 1/2ft. to 1ft. broad; pinnæ 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. broad, entire. _sori_ confined to the anterior vein of the first fork. Himalayas, up to 6000ft., &c. SYN. _Asplenium javanicum_. =ALLARDTIA.= _See_ =Tillandsia=. =ALLEYS.= Small walks of various widths, but generally 1-1/2ft. or 2ft. wide, and formed in right lines, parallel to the main walks, or borders, sometimes covered with a thin coat of sand, gravel, or shells, or paved with flints, pebbles, &c. Spaces left between beds of seedling plants are generally meant when alleys are referred to. =ALL-HEAL.= _See_ =Prunella vulgaris=. =ALLIACEOUS.= Pertaining to the _Garlic_ family. =ALLIARIA.= _See_ =Sisymbrium=. =ALLIGATOR APPLE.= _See_ =Anona palustris=. =ALLIGATOR PEAR.= _See_ =Persea gratissima=. =ALLIUM= (from _all_, meaning hot or burning; in allusion to the well-known properties of the Onion tribe). Including _Porrum_, _Sch�noprasum_. ORD. _Liliaceæ_. Hardy bulbous plants, with flat or terete radical leaves, and capitate or umbellate flowers, enclosed in a membranous spathe at the summit of a slender, naked, or leafy scape; perianth spreading or campanulate. They are of very easy culture, increasing rapidly by offsets. The little bulbs, which are produced in clusters, may be separated and replanted, in autumn or early spring, about 4in. deep. Seeds are also easily obtainable. These may be sown thinly in light soil, in February or March, where they should remain until the autumn or following spring, when they may be transplanted to their flowering situations. During the growing season, all the attention required will be to keep the plants free of weeds, and place stakes to the tall-growing kinds. =A. acuminatum= (taper-pointed).* _fl._ deep rose, 1/2in. to 1in. across, in many-flowered umbels. July and August. _l._ rather shorter than the stems, very narrow, only about a line wide. _h._ 6in. to 10in. North-West America, 1840. =A. a. rubrum= (red). _fl._ deep red-purple; in other respects like the type. California. =A. ascalonicum= (Eschallot). _fl._ purple; umbels globose; scape rounded. Summer. _l._ subulate. _h._ 9in. Palestine, 1546. For culture, _see_ =Eschallot=. =A. azureum= (sky-blue).* _fl._ deep sky-blue, with a dark line through the middle of each division; umbels dense, globular, longer than the spathes which envelop them before expanding. Summer. _l._ triangular, from 6in. to 12in. long. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Siberia, 1830. One of the handsomest species grown. =A. Bidwelliæ= (Mrs. Bidwell's).* _fl._ bright rose, about 1/2in. across, in few-flowered umbels. July. _l._ narrow, rather longer than the stem. _h._ 2in. to 3in. Sierra Nevada, 1880. A very charming little species for the rockery. =A. Breweri= (Brewer's).* _fl._ deep rose, nearly or quite 1in. across, in few-flowered umbels. July. _l._ much longer than the flower-stem, 1/4in. or more broad. _h._ 1in. to 3in. California, 1882. =A. Cepa= (common Onion). _fl._ white; scape ventricose, longer than the leaves. June, July. _l._ fistular, rounded. _h._ 3ft. For culture, _see_ =Onion=. =A. C. aggregatum.= Aggregated, Tree, or Potato Onion. _See_ =Onion=. =A. c�ruleum= (blue-flowered).* _fl._ blue, in large compact globular heads. June. _h._ 8in. Russia, 1840. Very distinct. =A. Douglasii= (Douglas'). Synonymous with _A. unifolium_. =A. Erdelii= (Erdel's). _fl._ white, keeled with green, in compact umbels. _h._ 6in. Palestine, 1879. A rare but pretty species, and should be planted in a warm position on the rockery. =A. falcifolium= (sickle-leaved).* _fl._ pale rose, 1/2in. to 3/4in. across, in few-flowered umbels. August. _l._ two in number, thick, broadly linear, falcate. _h._ 2in. to 3in. North-West America, 1880. =A. falciforme= (sickle-formed). Probably a variety of _A. unifolium_, with pure white flowers, in several-flowered umbels. _h._ 6in. California, 1882. =A. flavum= (golden). _fl._ yellow, bell-shaped, and somewhat drooping, in pretty umbels; scape leafy at the base. _l._ round, not hollow, flattish above the base. _h._ about 1ft. Italy, 1759. A slender species. =A. fragrans.= _See_ =Nothoscordum=. =A. karataviense= (Karatavian). _fl._ white, in dense globose heads. May. _l._ very broad, flat, glaucous, sometimes variegated. _h._ 6in. Turkestan, 1878. =A. Macnabianum= (MacNab's).* _fl._ deep magenta, a colour quite unique in this family, in large umbels. _l._ nearly as long as the stem, channelled, about 1/4in. broad. _h._ 1ft. North America. =A. magicum= (enchanting). Synonymous with _A. nigrum_. [Illustration: FIG. 58. ALLIUM MOLY.] =A. Moly= (Moly).* _fl._ bright yellow, numerous, in compact umbels. Spring. _l._ few, broadly lanceolate. Stem sub-cylindrical. _h._ 10in. to 15in. South Europe, 1604. A very old favourite; bright-flowered and very fine in masses. See Fig. 58. =A. Murrayanum= (Murray's).* _fl._ rosy purple, in large heads. _l._ narrow, longer than the stem. _h._ 1ft. North America. A good variety of _A. acuminatum_. =A. mutabile= (changeable). _fl._ white, changing to rose, in many-flowered umbels. July. _l._ shorter than the stem, narrow, channelled. _h._ 12in. to 24in. North America, 1824. =A. neapolitanum= (Neapolitan).* _fl._ white, with green stamens, numerous, in a loose umbel, on stems exceeding the leaves in length; pedicels much longer than the flowers. Early summer. _l._ two or three, sheathing the flower stem, strap-shaped, about 1in. across. _h._ 15in. to 18in. South Europe, 1823. Probably the most ornamental white-flowered species. =A. nevadense= (Sierra Nevada). _fl._ white, or pale rose, about 1/2in. across, in several-flowered umbels. July. _l._ flat, rather longer than the stem, about 1/4in. wide. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Sierra Nevada and Utah, 1882. =A. nigrum= (blackish).* _fl._ dull violet, or whitish, with a green vein, very numerous, in a large umbel. Summer. _l._ thick, broadly lanceolate, acute, ciliated, toothed at the edges, at first erect and glaucescent, afterwards green and spreading, much shorter than the stem. _h._ 2-1/2ft. to 3-1/4ft. South of Europe. Very vigorous and free flowering. SYN. _A. magicum_. =A. paradoxum= (wonderful). _fl._ white, gracefully pendulous, borne on long footstalks springing from little nests of yellow bulbils. Spring. _l._ one or two, as long as the scape, linear-lanceolate, acute, keeled, striated, smooth, 1/4in. broad, drooping and recurved. _h._ 9in. to 14in. Siberia, 1823. =A. pedemontanum= (Piedmont).* _fl._ rosy-purple, large, bell-shaped, in large, graceful drooping clusters. July. _l._ lanceolate, shorter than the stem. Piedmont, 1817. A neat little plant for rockwork, or warm border. One of the handsomest species grown. =A. reticulatum= (netted). _fl._ varying from pink to white. Summer. _l._ narrow, or almost filiform, shorter than the stem. _h._ 9in. to 15in. North-West America, 1882. A rare species. =A. r. attenuifolium= (attenuate-leaved).* This may be regarded as an extremely handsome white-flowered variety. North-West America. =A. roseum= (rose-coloured).* _fl._ pale lilac-rose, large, in umbels of ten or twelve; stems round, rather longer than the leaves. Summer. _l._ strap-shaped, channelled, rolled inwards at the top, not hairy. _h._ 12in. to 16in. South Europe, 1752. =A. sativum= (cultivated). Garlic. _fl._ white; umbel bulbiferous. Summer. _l._ flat. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Sicily, 1548. For culture, _see_ =Garlic=. =A. sch�noprasum= (rush-leaved onion). Chives. _fl._ purple; umbel many-flowered, globose, without bulbils. June and July. _l._ cylindrical, somewhat tapering towards the point; stem with one leaf, or naked. _h._ 1ft. England. For cultivation, _see_ =Chives=. =A. Scorodoprasum.= Rocambole; Sand Leek. _fl._, perianth 1/3in. long, the segments red-purple, with white margins; head loose-flowered, with purple bulbils; scape slender. May to August. _l._ 6in. to 8in. long, flat, keeled, the edges scabrid. _h._ 3ft. Europe (Britain), 1596. _See also_ =Rocambole=. =A. sphærocephalum= (globe-headed).* _fl._ densely packed in a subspherical head; in a bud state the upper ones are reddish-purple, the lower green. June. _l._ narrow, shorter than the long terete stems. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2-1/2ft. South Europe, 1759. =A. stramineum= (straw-coloured). _fl._ yellow, in dense globular umbels. July. _l._ narrow, shorter than the stems. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Siberia. =A. striatum= (striated). _See_ =Nothoscordum=. =A. triquetrum= (three-cornered). _fl._ white, somewhat bell-shaped, with a narrow streak of pure green down each petal, in a loose, slightly drooping umbel, on erect triangular stems shorter than the leaves. Summer. _l._ green, broadly strap-shaped, keeled in a triangular manner, sometimes very long. _h._ 12in. to 18in. South Europe, 1789. =A. unifolium= (one-leaved). _fl._ bright rose. July. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. California, 1873. A handsome species, from California, resembling _A. roseum_, but differing from all known species by the circumstance that its bulbs are developed at a distance from each other, and are connected by a thread-like rhizome, 1/2in. to 1in. long. SYN. _A. Douglasii_. [Illustration: FIG. 59. ALLIUM URSINUM.] =A. ursinum= (bear). Broad-leaved Garlic; Ramsons. _fl._ pure white, with acute perianth segments; umbel level at top; scape triangular. Summer. _l._ one or two, radical, ovate-lanceolate, stalked, large, bright green. _h._ 1ft. Britain. See Fig. 59. =A. validum= (strong). _fl._ pure white or rose-coloured, in large, rather drooping umbels. Summer. _l._ 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, nearly as long as the stem. _h._ 12in. to 30in. Oregon and California, 1881. A pretty species. =A. Victorialis= (Victoria's). _fl._ greenish-white, in many-flowered, spicate umbels. May. _l._ broadly ovate-oblong, channelled, shorter than the stem. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Southern and Eastern Europe, 1739. Conspicuous from its broad leaves. Rare. =ALLOBROGIA.= A synonym of =Paradisia= (which _see_). =ALLOCHLAMYS.= A synonym of =Pleuropetalum= (which _see_). =ALLOPHYLLUS.= A synonym of =Schmidelia= (which _see_). =ALLOPLECTUS= (from _allos_, diverse, and _pleco_, to plait; the calyx appears as if it was plaited in diverse directions). ORD. _Gesneraceæ_. Very handsome stove evergreen shrubs. Corolla tubular or club-shaped, straightish; calyx coloured. Leaves opposite, one in each pair smaller than the other, petiolate, fleshy, scattered or decumbent, or erect, the under surface generally reddish; branches opposite. For cultivation, _see_ =Gesnera=. =A. bicolor= (two-coloured). _fl._ yellow, purple; corolla pilose; pedicels axillary, one-flowered. June. _l._ ovate, oblong, acuminate, denticulate, pilose above, downy beneath; branches tetragonal. _h._ 1ft. New Grenada, 1840. Plant erect, rather woody. =A. capitatus= (headed). _fl._ capitate; sepals red, leafy; corolla silky, ventricose above the middle; peduncles axillary. March. _l._ large, ovate, serrated, downy, reddish beneath. Stem bluntly tetragonal, red. _h._ 2ft. South America, 1847. =A. dichrous= (two-coloured). _fl._ purple, yellow, axillary, crowded, nearly sessile. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, quite entire, pubescent. Brazil, 1845. A climber. =A. peltatus= (peltate-leaved).* _fl._ whitish, about 2in. long, in axillary tufts. August. _l._ opposite, one is 1in. to 2in. long, and the other 6in. to 9in. long, and 2in. wide, oblong, shortly acuminate, rounded, peltate at the base, and raised on stout footstalks, 1in. to 2in. long. _h._ 1ft. Costa Rica, 1877. =A. repens= (creeping). _fl._ yellow; corolla with curved tube, four lobed; sepals ovate, spotted; peduncles axillary, solitary. February. _l._ ovate, rather fleshy, serrate, on short petioles. St. Martha, 1845. Plant downy; an evergreen trailer. =A. vittatus= (striped). _fl._, calyx crimson; corolla pale yellow; terminal and fasciculate, surrounded by vivid red foliaceous bracts. _l._ large, shortly-stalked, broadly-ovate, of a deep velvety green, having a broad greyish-green band down the centre, branching off along the course of the principal veins. Stems erect, fleshy. Peru, 1870. =A. zamorensis= (Zamora).* _fl._ yellow; sepals orange-red. _h._ 1ft. Columbia, 1875. =ALLOSORUS.= _See_ =Cryptogramme= and =Pellæa=. =ALLOTMENT GARDENS.= A system of assigning small portions of land to be cultivated by labourers after their ordinary day's work. The following are the most important rules to be carried out; but, should occasion arise, other rules must be made to meet particular cases:-- 1. Each Allotment should consist of a rood of land (=1/4 acre) to be let yearly at a rent of not more than 10s. 2. The Allotment to be let for one year only, to be re-let to the same occupier, provided his character has been satisfactory during the preceding year. 3. The rent shall be considered due at Michaelmas. If it remains unpaid for one month after that date, the Allotment shall be forfeited. 4. The Allotment to be cultivated solely by spade husbandry, and the same crop shall not be planted on the same part two years in succession. 5. Separate Allotments shall be divided by a space not less than 18in. 6. Any occupier trespassing on his neighbour's Allotment, or in any way interfering or damaging the same, shall not be allowed to hold his Allotment after the expiration of the year. =ALLSPICE.= _See_ =Calycanthus=. =ALLSPICE TREE.= _See_ =Pimenta=. =ALMEIDEA= (in honour of J. R. P. de Almeida, a Brazilian, who was of great assistance to St. Hilaire while travelling in Brazil). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. Stove trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, entire, stalked leaves. Racemes terminal, divided at the apex into compound thyrse-like panicles. The undermentioned species will grow freely in a mixture of loam, sand, and peat. Partly ripened cuttings will root in sand under a hand glass, in heat. =A. rubra= (red). _fl._ pink; petals very blunt; racemes compound. September. _l._ lanceolate, acute at base. _h._ 12ft. Brazil, 1849. Evergreen shrub. =ALMOND.= _See_ =Amygdalus=. =ALMOND-LEAVED WILLOW.= _See_ =Salix triandra=. =ALNUS= (from _al_, near, and _lan_, the bank of a river; general habitat of the genus). The Alder Tree. ORD. _Betulaceæ_. A genus of deciduous trees and shrubs. Flowers mon�cious; barren ones in long drooping autumnal catkins, lasting through the winter; fertile ones, produced in spring, in oval catkins, resembling a fir-cone in shape, the fleshy scales of which become indurated and ligneous as they approach maturity. Leaves stalked, roundish, blunt. Propagated usually by seeds, which are gathered towards the end of October; they require to be well dried, in order that the cones do not become mouldy. The seeds are sprinkled lightly on the ground with the slightest possible covering. Towards the end of the year, the seedlings will be about 10in. high. They are then planted in rows 1-1/2ft. apart, and 6in. from each other, where they may remain for two years, after which they can be placed out in the situations where they are intended to stand. Planting is best done in November or March; and, if it is designed to make a plantation of Alder, the young trees should be put in holes, made with an ordinary garden spade, about 9in. deep, and about 4ft. apart. They are also increased, but rarely, by cuttings, by suckers, and by grafting. =A. cordifolia= (heart-shaped-leaved).* _fl._ greenish-brown. March and April, before the development of the leaves. _l._ heart-shaped, acuminate, dark green, and shining. _h._ 15ft. to 50ft. Calabria and Naples, 1820. A large, very distinct, and handsome round-headed tree. It grows rapidly in dry soil, and is one of the most interesting of ornamental trees. =A. firma= (firm).* _l._ oval lanceolate, acuminate, sharply serrated, many-nerved. Japan. One of the most distinct of all the Alders. [Illustration: FIG. 60. ALNUS GLUTINOSA, showing Catkins and Fruit.] =A. glutinosa= (sticky).* _barren catkins_ long, large, and cylindrical, pendent, their footstalks branched. _fertile catkins_ small, ovate, with deep red scales. Spring. _l._ roundish-cuneiform, obtuse lobed at the margin, and serrated, somewhat glutinous, downy in the axils of the nerves beneath. _h._ 50ft. to 60ft. Britain. The Alder affects moist and damp situations, and, as it grows quickly, it is a useful tree to plant in bare situations. It is valuable as a nurse to other trees by the sea-side. See Fig. 60. =A. g. aurea= (golden).* Foliage golden colour. =A. g. incisa= (incised).* Compact form, with leaves quite like those of common hawthorn. SYN. _A. g. oxyacanthifolia_. =A. g. laciniata= (cut).* _l._ oblong and pinnatifid, with the lobes acute. This has elegant drooping branches and fern-like leaves, and is one of the best. =A. g. oxyacanthifolia= (sharp-prickled). Synonymous with _A. g. incisa_. =A. g. quercifolia= (oak-leaved).* _l._ with a sinuate outline, like that of the common oak. A very distinct form. The variety _imperialis_ (=_asplenifolia_) slightly differs in its more or less lobed or cut foliage; _A. g. variegata_ is a variegated form. =A. incana= (hoary).* _l._ broadly oval or ovate, rounded at the base, sharply serrate, whitened, and mostly downy beneath. _h._ 8ft. to 20ft. North Temperate regions. This affects drier situations than our native _A. glutinosa_. =A. viridis= (green). _fertile catkins_ slender stalked, clustered, ovoid. _l._ round oval or slightly heart-shaped, glutinous and smooth or softly downy beneath, serrate, with very sharp and closely set teeth. Mountainous regions of northern hemisphere. =ALOCASIA= (from _a_, without, and _Colocasia_). Allied to _Colocasia_. ORD. _Aroideæ_. Stove plants of great beauty, often with large and handsomely variegated, usually peltate, leaves, and shortly petiolate glaucous spathes. They are not difficult to grow, with a strong moist heat, and an abundant supply of water to the roots. The soil should consist of fibrous peat, with a little light fibry loam, in large lumps; to this add a good proportion of sphagnum and lumps of charcoal, with plenty of silver sand. Keep the bulbs and soil raised well above the rim of the pots, and finish off with a surfacing of either sphagnum or cocoa-nut fibre. The latter will soon encourage new rootlets. Crock the pot quite two-thirds up with clean, broken potsherds. Water freely when in good growth, and give liquid manure once or twice a week through the growing season. Shade during bright sunshine in the spring and summer months. Increased by seeds and division of the stems or rhizome. Winter temperature, 60deg. to 65deg.; summer, 75deg. to 85deg. _See also_ =Caladium= and =Colocasia=. =A. alba= (white). _fl._ white. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Java, 1854. =A. amabilis= (lovely). Synonymous with _A. longiloba_. =A. chelsonii= (Chelsea).* An interesting hybrid between _A. cuprea_ and _A. longiloba_. _l._ large, upper surface deep green, glossy and metallic, under side purplish, as in _A. cuprea_. =A. cucullata= (hood-leaved). _fl._ green, whitish. Spring. _h._ 2ft. India, 1826. =A. cuprea= (coppery).* _fl._, spathe purplish-red, with short lamina. _l._ cordate-ovate, peltate, deflexed, 12in. to 18in. long, rich bronze colour, purple beneath. _h._ 2ft. Borneo, 1860. SYNS. _A. metallica_, _Xanthosoma plumbea_. =A. gigantea= (gigantic). Synonymous with _A. longiloba_. =A. guttata= (spotted). _fl._, spathe white, spotted with purple. _l._ leafstalk also spotted. _h._ 2-1/2ft. Borneo, 1879. =A. hybrida= (hybrid).* A cross between _A. Lowii_ and _A. cuprea_. _l._ elliptic in outline, with a very short acuminate point, and very slightly parted at the base, deep olive-tinted green on the upper surface, having stout, well-defined ribs, and the margin of an ivory white; dull purple at the back. =A. illustris= (bright). _l._ ovate-sagittate, rich green, with olive-black patches, deflexed, 1-1/2ft. long. India, 1873. =A. Jenningsii= (Jennings's).* _l._ peltate, cordate-ovate, acuminate, with their blades deflexed from the top of the erect mottled stalks, ground colour green, surface marked with large wedge-shaped blotches of dark brown; veins bright green, 6in. to 8in. long. India, 1867. A very distinct and free growing species. =A. Johnstoni= (Johnston's).* _l._ semi-erect, arrow-shaped, peltate, the front lobe being about 12in. long, and the two back lobes 14in. long and divergent, olive-green, prettily variegated and strikingly veined with bright rosy red. The leafstalks are furnished at intervals with irregular whorls of stiff spines, the points of which are turned upwards. Stem darkly mottled with flesh-coloured bands just above the spines. Solomon Isles, 1875. This plant has quite a unique appearance. =A. Liervalii= (Lierval's). _l._ bright green. Philippines, 1869. =A. longiloba= (long-lobed). _l._ large, sagittate, with the upper part spreading out, green, with silvery veins. _h._ 4ft. Java, 1864. SYNS. _A. amabilis_, _A. gigantea_. =A. Lowii= (Low's). _fl._, spathe white. _l._ cordate-sagittate, 14in. to 16in. long, peltate, deflexed, olive-green, with thick white ribs, deep purple beneath. Borneo, 1862. =A. macrorhiza= (long-rooted). _fl._ green, whitish. _h._ 5ft. Polynesia. =A. m. variegata= (variegated). _l._ large, somewhat cordate, with slightly waved margins, bright green, blotched and marbled with white, sometimes nearly quite white; footstalks broadly streaked with pure white. Ceylon. A very striking and effective large growing plant. =A. Marshallii= (Marshall's). _l._ green, with dark blotches, and broad central silvery band. India, 1811. =A. metallica= (metallic). Synonymous with _A. cuprea_. =A. navicularis= (boat-shaped spathe). _fl._, spathe boat-shaped, whitish. _h._ 1ft. India, 1855. =A. Roezlii.= _See_ =Caladium marmoratum=. =A. scabriuscula= (roughish).* _fl._, spathe entirely white; limb 3in. long, oblong, cuspidate. _l._ spreading, not deflexed, sagittate, not in the least peltate, deep shining green above, pale green beneath, extreme length 22in. to 31in. _h._ 4ft. to 4-1/2ft. North-West Borneo, 1878. Although this is not such an ornamental species as _A. Lowii_, _A. Thibautiana_, or _A. cuprea_, it has the merit of being a much larger and bolder plant than either of these, and is one of the largest species in the genus. =A. Sedeni= (Seden's).* A hybrid between _A. Lowii_ and _A. cuprea_. _l._ oval, cordate, sagittate, deflexed, bronzy green, purple beneath, veins distinct ivory white. =A. Thibautiana= (Thibaut's).* _l._ ovate-acute, deeply cordate; basal lobes rounded and not sharply pointed, deep olive greyish-green, traversed by numerous grey veinlets branching from the midrib, which is greyish-white, purple beneath. Borneo, 1878. This is said to be by far the finest of the genus. =A. variegata= (variegated). _fl._ whitish. _l._ leafstalk mottled with violet. India, 1854. =A. zebrina= (zebra).* _l._ erect, broadly sagittate, rich dark green borne upon stout footstalks, which are pale green, mottled and striped with zigzag bands of dark green. _h._ 4ft. or more. Philippine Isles, 1862. =ALOE= (from _Alloeh_, its Arabic name). Allied genera: _Apicra_, _Haworthia_, _Pachidendron_, _Phylloma_. Including _Rhipodendron_. ORD. _Liliaceæ_. This hitherto much confused genus, and its allies, have been completely revised by Mr. J. G. Baker (_vide_ "Journal of the Linnean Society," vol. xxviii. pp. 152-182), to whose account we are indebted for many of the following particulars:--Plant with or without stems; shrubs or (rarely) trees; leaves thick, fleshy, frequently in a rosette; peduncles simple or racemed, endowed with few or many empty bracts. Flowers racemed; pedicels bracteated at base, solitary; perianth-tube straight or slightly recurved; segments elongated; stamens hypogynous, as long as the perianth, or longer. Mr. Baker describes over eighty species, many of which, for various and important reasons, have no claim upon our space. Natives of the Cape of Good Hope, except where otherwise stated. These very interesting and curious plants thrive well in a mixture of open loam and peat, together with a small quantity of well decomposed manure. If old brick rubbish, or any other similar material is mixed with the soil to ensure perfect and rapid drainage, so much the better. Water, especially during winter, must be carefully administered. They thrive in an ordinary greenhouse, and cannot have too much light at any time. =A. abyssinica= (Abyssinian).* _fl._, perianth twelve to fifteen lines long; raceme dense-oblong, 3in. to 4in. long, and 2in. to 3in. broad; lower pedicels nine to twelve lines long; peduncle branched, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. _l._ about twenty in a rosette, ensiform, 1-1/2ft. to 2-1/2ft. long, acuminate, green, sometimes spotted, five to six lines thick in middle; back rounded; marginal prickles distant, deltoid, one to two lines long. Stem simple, 1ft. to 2ft. long, 2in. to 3in. in diameter. Abyssinia, 1777. SYN. _A. maculata_. =A. a. Peacockii= (Peacock's). This is a rare variety. =A. africana= (African). _fl._, perianth yellow, fifteen to eighteen lines long; racemes dense, 1ft. in length, 3in. in diameter; peduncle very strong, branched. _l._ in a dense rosette, ensiform, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 2-1/2in. to 3in. broad, slowly narrowing from base to the apex, channelled above the middle, where it is four to five lines thick; marginal prickles close, one and a half to two lines long. Stem simple, when fully grown, 20ft. =A. albispina= (white-spined).* _fl._, perianth red, 1-1/2in. long; raceme dense, nearly 1ft. long, 4in. broad; lower pedicels fifteen to eighteen lines long; peduncles simple, 1-1/2ft. _l._ loosely disposed, lanceolate, ascending, 6in. to 8in. long, 2in. broad, green, without spots or lines; face concave upwards; middle three to four lines thick; back sparingly tubercled; marginal prickles white, horny, two lines long. Stem simple, short, 1in. to 1-1/2in. in diameter. 1796. =A. albocincta= (white-banded).* _fl._, perianth brilliant red, ten to twelve lines long; racemes twenty or more, shortly capitate, 2in. to 2-1/2in. in diameter when expanded; pedicels ascending, six to nine lines long; scape stout, branched, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. _l._ twelve to twenty in a dense rosette, outer ones recurved, lanceolate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, glaucous, obscurely lined and spotted; middle three to four lines thick; margin red or white tinted. Stems in old specimens, 1ft. to 2ft. long, 3in. to 4in. in diameter. SYNS. _A. Hanburyana_, _A. paniculata_, and _A. striata_. =A. arborescens= (tree-like).* _fl._, perianth red, fifteen to eighteen lines long; raceme dense, about 1ft.; pedicels ascending, twelve to fifteen lines long; peduncles strong, 1-1/2ft., simple or branched. _l._ (rosette 3ft. to 4ft. in diameter) dense, aggregate, ensiform, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft.; base 2in. broad, thence to apex attenuated, acuminated, green, rather glaucous, without spots or lines; middle three to four lines long; base five to six lines thick; upper surface beyond the base channelled; marginal prickles close, one and a half to two lines long, horny. Stem simple, finally 10ft. to 12ft. long, 2in. to 3in. in diameter. 1700. =A. a. frutescens= (shrubby). Dwarfer. _l._ often loose, and shorter, intensely glaucous; peduncle simple. Stem slender, sometimes racemosed. =A. aristata= (awned). _fl._, perianth red, fourteen to sixteen lines long; raceme simple, loose, 4in. to 6in. long, and about 4in. broad; pedicels sub-patent, thirteen to eighteen lines long; scape simple, 1ft. _l._ about fifty in a dense rosette, ascending, lanceolate, 3in. to 4in. long, six to eight lines broad, without spots or lines; face flat, sparingly tubercled; middle one and a half lines thick; back copiously tubercled; apex bearded with a pellucid awn; marginal teeth diffuse, white, half line long. 1824. =A. Bainesii= (Baines').* _fl._, perianth fifteen to sixteen lines long, yellowish red; raceme simple, dense, oblong, 3-1/2in. to 4in. in diameter when expanded; pedicels thick, two to three lines long; peduncles upright, strong, eight to nine lines in diameter. _l._ closely packed at the top of the branch, ensiform, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long, 2in. to 3in. in diameter, green, spotted, deeply channelled, recurved; middle two to three lines thick; marginal prickles pale, rather distant, one to one and a half lines long. Arborescent, branched. _h._ 40ft. to 60ft.; trunk 4ft. to 5ft. in diameter. SYNS. _A. Barberæ_, _A. Zeyheri_. =A. barbadensis= (Barbadoes). Synonymous with _A. vera_. =A. Barberæ= (Barber's). Synonymous with _A. Bainesii_. =A. brevifolia= (short-leaved).* _fl._, perianth red, fifteen to eighteen lines long; raceme dense, 6in. long, 2-1/2in. to 3in. in diameter; pedicels upright, six to twelve lines long; peduncles simple, hardly 1ft. long. _l._ thirty to forty in a dense rosette, lanceolate, 3in. to 4in. long, and 1in. broad at the base, glaucous, without spots or lines; face unarmed, below swollen or flat; middle three to four lines thick; back convex, sparingly tubercled; marginal teeth whitish, one to one and a half lines long. Stem short, simple. SYN. _A. prolifera_. =A. b. depressa= (depressed). _fl._ somewhat larger; peduncles 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long. _l._ 6in. long; bottom 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad; face sometimes sparingly tubercled. =A. cæsia= (bluish-grey).* _fl._, perianth red, fifteen to sixteen lines long; racemes dense, nearly 1ft. long, 2in. to 3in. in diameter; pedicels twelve to fifteen lines long; scape simple, 6in. _l._ rather dense, lanceolate acuminate, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft.; bottom 2in. to 3in. broad, intensely glaucous, without spot or lines, slightly channelled upwards; middle 3in. to 4in. thick; marginal prickles red, one to one and a half lines long. Stem simple, finally, in old specimens, 12ft. to 14ft. 1815. =A. Candollei= (De Candolle's). A mere form of _A. humilis_. =A. chinensis= (Chinese). _fl._, perianth yellow, 1in. long; raceme loose, simple, 6in. to 8in. long, and 2in. broad; pedicels one and a half to two lines long; peduncle simple, 6in. to 12in. _l._ fifteen to twenty in a dense rosette, ensiform, 9in. to 12in. long, 1-1/2in. broad at the bottom, pale green, not lined; base nearly flat; middle three to four lines thick; upper surface channelled; marginal prickles distant, pale, one to one and a half lines long. Stem short, simple. China, 1817. =A. ciliata= (ciliated).* _fl._, perianth brilliant red, twelve to fifteen lines long; raceme simple, loose, 2in. to 4in. long; pedicels three to four lines long; peduncles slender, simple. _l._ linear, widely spreading, amplexicaul, green, 4in. to 6in. long; base six to nine lines broad, slowly narrowing towards the apex, without spots or lines; middle one line thick; marginal teeth minute, white. Stems long, sarmentose; branches three to four lines in diameter; internodes six to twelve lines long, obscurely striated with green. 1826. =A. Commelyni= (Commelin's). A mere form of _A. mitræformis_. =A. consobrina= (related). _fl._, perianth yellowish red, twelve to fifteen lines long; raceme rather loose, oblong, cylindrical, 3in. to 4in. long, and 2in. in diameter; pedicels three to four lines long; scape 1-1/2ft., slender, branched. _l._ loosely disposed, ensiform, 6in. to 8in. long, and 1in. broad, green, spotted white; face channelled; middle three lines thick; marginal prickles minute, brownish; rosette 10in. to 12in. (sometimes 2ft.) in diameter; upper leaves ascending; central ones spreading half open; lower ones deflexed. Stem 2ft., simple, 1in. in diameter. South Africa, 1845. =A. Cooperi= (Cooper's).* _fl._, perianth fifteen to eighteen lines long; raceme close, 3in. to 6in. long, and 3in. to 4in. in diameter; lower pedicels 1in. to 2in. long; scape simple, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. _l._ when mature, 8in. to 10in. long, distichous, falcate, lined; outer ones 1-1/2ft. to 2ft., above the base six to eight lines broad, greenish, deeply channelled, sparingly spotted; middle one and a half to two lines thick; marginal teeth minute, close, white. Plant stemless. Natal, 1862. SYN. _A. Schmidtiana_. =A. dichotoma= (two-branched).* Quiver-tree. _fl._, perianth oblong, ten to twelve lines long; raceme loose, 2in. to 4in. long, and 2in. in diameter; pedicels three to four lines long; peduncles stout, branched. _l._ closely packed, at the top of the branch, lanceolate, 8in. to 12in. long; bottom twelve to fifteen lines broad, glaucous, without spots or lines, slightly channelled above the base; middle three to four lines thick, narrow-margined with white; marginal prickles minute, pale. Trunk short, sometimes 3ft. to 4ft. in diameter. _h._ 20ft. to 30ft. 1781. Arborescent, branched. =A. distans= (distant).* _fl._, perianth pale red, fifteen to eighteen lines long; raceme densely capitate, 3in. to 4in. in diameter; lower pedicels twelve to fifteen lines long; peduncles 1-1/2ft., usually simple. _l._ ascending, loosely disposed, ovate-lanceolate, 3in. to 5in. long, and 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, green, slightly glaucous, without spots and lines; face concave; middle three to four lines thick; back sparingly tubercled; marginal prickles close, white, horny, one to one and a half lines long. Stem short, simple, 1in. in diameter; internodes pale, striated green. 1732. =A. glauca= (milky-green).* _fl._, perianth pale red, fifteen to sixteen lines long; peduncles simple, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long, 3-1/2in. to 4in. in diameter; pedicels 1in. to 1-1/2in. long. _l._ thirty to forty in a dense rosette, lanceolate, 6in. to 8in. long; at the base 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, slowly narrowing towards the apex, intensely glaucous, spotless, obscurely lined; middle three to four lines thick; face above the base slightly concave; back tubercled at apex; marginal teeth spreading, brownish, one to one and a half lines long. Stem simple, at length, about 1ft., 1-1/2in. to 2in. in diameter. 1731. =A. gracilis= (graceful). _fl._, perianth yellow, straight, fourteen to sixteen lines long; raceme densely packed, simple, 2in. to 3in.; pedicels three to four lines long; peduncle simple, 6in. to 9in. long, two-edged at the base. _l._ loosely disposed, spreading, 6in. to 10in. long; base ten to twelve lines broad, ensiform, acuminated, glaucous, spotless and without lines; face slightly channelled; back rounded; marginal prickles close, minute. Stem leafy, simple. 1822. =A. Greenii= (Green's).* _fl._, perianth pale red, fourteen to fifteen lines long; raceme oblong, 4in. to 8in. long, and 3in. in diameter; lower pedicels five to six lines long; scape 2ft. long. _l._ in a dense rosette, lanceolate, 15in. to 18in. long; bottom 2-1/2in. to 3in. broad, slowly narrowing from middle to the apex; middle three to four lines thick; face flat, shining green, obscurely lined and spotted white; marginal prickles spreading, one and a half to two lines long, horny. Stem short, simple, 1-1/2in. in diameter. South Africa, 1875. =A. Hanburyana= (Hanbury's). Synonymous with _A. albocincta_. =A. humilis= (humble).* _fl._, perianth brilliant red, eighteen lines long; raceme loose, simple, 6in. long, and 2in. to 2-1/2in. in diameter; pedicels nine to twelve lines long; peduncles about 1ft. _l._ thirty to forty in a dense rosette, ascending, lanceolate, acuminate, 3in. to 4in. long, six to eight lines broad, glaucous green, obscurely lined; face slightly concave above, sparingly tubercled; middle three lines thick; back convex; marginal prickles pale, one line long. Plant stemless. 1731. =A. h. acuminata= (taper-pointed). _l._ ovate-lanceolate, 4in. to 5in. long, fifteen to eighteen lines broad; marginal prickles pale, two to two and a half lines long. _A. incurva_, _A. suberecta_, and _A. subtuberculata_, of Haworth; _A. Candollei_, and _A. macilenta_, of Baker, are mere forms of the foregoing species. =A. incurva= (incurved). A mere form of _A. humilis_. =A. latifolia= (broad-leaved).* _fl._, perianth brilliant golden scarlet, fifteen to eighteen lines long; raceme dense, corymbose, terminal, 4in. to 5in. long and wide; lower pedicels 1-1/2in. to 2in. long; peduncle robust, 2ft., often branched. _l._ twelve to twenty in a dense rosette, ovate-lanceolate, 6in. long, 2-1/2in. to 3-1/2in. broad at bottom, slowly narrowing from below the middle upwards, green, not lined, but copiously spotted white; middle three to four lines thick; marginal prickles one and a half to two lines long, horny, brownish. Stem at length, 1ft. to 2ft., 1-1/2in. to 2in. in diameter, simple. 1795. =A. lineata= (line-marked).* _fl._, perianth red, fifteen to eighteen lines long; raceme dense, 6in.; pedicels hardly perpendicular, fifteen to eighteen lines long; scape simple, 1ft. _l._ in a dense rosette, lanceolate, 6in. long, 2in. broad at base, narrowing slowly from thence to the apex, pale green, spotless, lined; middle three lines thick, channelled upwards on both sides, unarmed; marginal teeth numerous, red, one and a half to two lines long. Stem finally 6in. to 1ft., simple, 2in. in diameter. 1789. =A. macilenta= (thin). A mere form of _A. humilis_. =A. macracantha= (long-spined). _fl._ unknown. _l._ fifteen to twenty in a dense rosette, lanceolate, 15in. to 20in. long, and 3in. to 4in. broad at the bottom, slightly narrowed from middle to apex; middle four lines thick; face flat, green, obscurely lined, spotted; marginal prickles horny, three to four lines long. Stem simple, 2ft. to 3ft., 1-1/2in. to 2in. in diameter. South Africa, 1862. =A. macrocarpa= (large-fruited).* _fl._, perianth club-shaped, brilliant red, fifteen to sixteen lines long; raceme loose, terminal, 6in. long, and 2-1/2in. to 3in. in diameter; lower pedicels 1/2in. long; peduncles 2ft. _l._ twelve to twenty in a dense rosette, ovate-lanceolate, less than 1ft. long; bottom 3in. to 4in. broad; top channelled; middle three to four lines thick, green, copiously spotted; marginal prickles spreading, half line long. Stem short, simple. Abyssinia, 1870. =A. maculata= (spotted). Synonymous with _A. abyssinica_. =A. margaritifera= (pearl-bearing). _See_ =Haworthia margaritifera=. =A. mitræformis= (mitre-shaped).* _fl._, perianth brilliant red, eighteen to twenty-one lines long; raceme dense, corymbose, 4in. to 6in. long, and nearly as much in diameter; pedicels ascending; lower ones fifteen to eighteen lines long; peduncles strong, 1-1/2ft., sometimes branched. _l._ rather loosely disposed, ascending, lanceolate, about 1ft. long, 2in. to 3in. broad; green, slightly glaucous, without spots or lines; face concave; middle three to four lines thick; back convex, sparingly tubercled; apex horny, pungent; marginal prickles rather close, pale, one to one and a half lines long. Stem finally 3ft. to 4ft., simple, 1in. to 2in. in diameter. =A. m. flavispina= (yellow-spined). Differs from the type in having narrower and more lanceolate leaves, and yellow spines. _A. Commelyni_, _A. spinulosa_, _A. pachyphylla_, and _A. xanthacantha_, are also forms of this species. =A. myriacantha= (many-spined). _fl._, perianth pale red, eight to nine lines long; racemes densely capitate, 2in. in diameter; pedicels four to six lines long; peduncles slender, simple, 1ft. _l._ ten to twelve, falcate, linear, 5in. to 6in. long, four to five lines broad, green, glaucous; face deeply channelled; back convex, spotted white; marginal teeth numerous, white. Plant stemless. 1823. =A. nobilis= (noble).* _fl._, perianth red, fifteen to eighteen lines long; raceme dense, 6 or more inches long, 4in. broad; lower pedicels 1-1/2in. to 2in. long; peduncles simple, 1-1/2ft. _l._ rather loosely disposed, lanceolate, 9in. to 12in. long, 2-1/4in. to 4in. broad; face green, without spots or lines, concave above the base; middle three to four lines thick; apex rather pungent; back prickly upwards; marginal prickles rather close, one and a half to two lines long, horny. Stem simple, at length 3ft. to 4ft. high, 1-1/2in. to 2in. in diameter. 1800. =A. pachyphylla= (thick-leaved). A mere form of _A. mitræformis_. =A. paniculata= (panicled). Synonymous with _A. albocincta_. =A. Perryi= (Perry's).* _fl._, perianth greenish, nine to ten lines long; raceme dense, 3in. to 4in. long; pedicels three to four lines long; inflorescence 1-1/2ft. long, commonly two-headed. _l._ in a rosette, lanceolate, 7in. to 8in. long, and 2-1/2in. broad, from below the middle to the apex narrowed, pale glaucous green, spotless, obscurely lined, channelled above the base; middle three to four lines thick; marginal teeth close, horny, one line long. Stem simple, 1in. in diameter. Socotra, 1879. =A. prolifera= (proliferous). Synonymous with _A. brevifolia_. =A. purpurascens= (purplish). _fl._, perianth reddish, twelve to fifteen lines long; raceme dense, 6in. to 9in. long, and about 3in. in diameter; pedicels nine to twelve lines long; scape strong, simple, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. _l._ forty to fifty in a dense rosette, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long, ensiform, 2in. broad at the base, slowly narrowed towards the apex, green; base flat; middle three lines thick, slightly channelled upwards, sometimes spotted; marginal prickles small, white. Stem 2ft. to 3ft., sometimes forked. 1789. =A. rhodocincta= (red-margined), of gardens, is probably a form of _A. albocincta_. =A. saponaria= (soapy).* _fl._, perianth brilliant red, eighteen to twenty-one lines long; raceme dense, corymbose, 3in. to 4in. long and wide; lower pedicels 1-1/2in. to 2in. long; scape 1ft. to 2ft., simple, or sparingly branched. _l._ twelve to twenty in a dense rosette, lanceolate, 9in. to 12in. long, eighteen to twenty-four lines broad, narrowed from below the middle upwards; middle three to four lines broad; face flat at bottom; back swollen, green, copiously spotted, distinctly lined; marginal prickles adjoining, horny, one and a half to two lines long. Stem short, simple, 1-1/2in. to 2in. in diameter. 1727. =A. Schimperi= (Schimper's).* _fl._, perianth bright red, eighteen to twenty-one lines long; racemes densely corymbose, 4in. in diameter; pedicels twelve to fifteen lines long; scape strong, 3ft. long, strongly branched above. _l._ twenty in a dense rosette, oblong-lanceolate, about 1ft. long, 4in. broad, glaucous green, lined, sometimes spotted, three to four lines thick at middle, above which they are channelled; teeth minute, spreading. Stem short, simple. Abyssinia, 1876. =A. Schmidtiana= (Schmidt's). Synonymous with _A. Cooperi_. =A. serra= (saw). _fl._, perianth brilliant red, eighteen lines long; raceme simple, dense, 6in. long or more, 3in. to 4in. in diameter; pedicels six to twelve lines long; scape simple, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. _l._ thirty to forty in a dense rosette, lanceolate, 3in. to 5in. long, twelve to eighteen lines broad below, without spots and lines; base swollen, concave towards the apex; middle three to four lines thick, sparingly tubercled; marginal prickles close, one to one and a half lines long. Plant shortly stemmed. 1818. =A. serratula= (finely-toothed).* _fl._, perianth red, fifteen to eighteen lines long; raceme rather dense, 6in. long; pedicels six to nine lines long; peduncles simple, about 1ft. _l._ twelve to twenty in a dense rosette, lanceolate, 6in. to 9in. long; bottom 1-1/2in. to 2-1/4in. broad, pale green; face below the top flat or slightly concave, obscurely lined, spotted; margin minutely denticulated. Stem simple, finally 1ft. to 2ft. high, 1-1/2in. to 2in. in diameter. 1789. =A. spinulosa= (spiny). A mere form of _A. mitræformis_. =A. striata= (striated). Synonymous with _A. albocincta_. =A. striatula= (slightly striped).* _fl._, perianth yellow, twelve to fifteen lines long; raceme oblong, rather dense, simple, 3in. to 6in. long, and 2in. in diameter; pedicels short; peduncles simple, nearly 1ft. _l._ linear, spreading, green, 6in. to 9in. long; base not dilated, six to eight lines broad, above the base upwards narrowed, slightly channelled; middle one line thick; marginal prickles deltoid. Stem long, sarmentose; floral branches three to six lines in diameter; internodes 6in. to 12in. long. 1823. =A. suberecta= (slightly erect). A mere form of _A. humilis_. =A. subtuberculata= (slightly knobbed). A mere form of _A. humilis_. =A. succotrina= (Socotrine).* _fl._, perianth reddish, fifteen lines long; raceme dense, about 1ft. long, 2-1/2in. to 3in. in diameter; lower pedicels nine to twelve lines long; peduncles simple, 1-1/2ft. _l._ thirty to forty in a dense rosette, ensiform, acuminate, falcate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long; base 2in.; middle 1in. broad, green, slightly glaucous, sometimes spotted, slightly channelled upwards; marginal prickles pale, one line long. Stem 3ft. to 5ft., often forked. Isle of Socotra. 1731. =A. tenuior= (thinned). _fl._, perianth pale yellow, five to six lines long; racemes rather loose, simple, oblong, nearly 1ft. 2in. in diameter; pedicels three to four lines long; peduncles slender, simple, 4in. to 8in. _l._ loose, linear, 5in. to 8in. long, slowly narrowing from middle towards apex, green, spotless, slightly channelled; middle one line thick; marginal prickles minute, pale. Stem long, sarmentose. 1821. =A. tricolor= (three-coloured).* _fl._, perianth coral red, fleshy; raceme loose, oblong, 3in. to 4in. long, and 2in. broad; pedicels ascending, three to four lines long; scape 1-1/2ft. long, glaucous purple; panicle deltoid. _l._ twelve to sixteen in a close rosette, lanceolate, 5in. to 6in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad at bottom, slowly narrowing from below the middle to apex; middle five to six lines thick; back rounded; face slightly swollen, copiously spotted, not lined; marginal prickles close, spreading, about one line long. Stem short, simple. South Africa, 1875. =A. variegata= (variegated).* _fl._, perianth reddish, fifteen to sixteen lines long; raceme simple, loose, 3in. to 4in. long and about 3in. in diameter; pedicels three to four lines long; scape simple, tapering, 6in. to 8in. _l._ close, erecto-patent, lanceolate, 4in. to 5in. long, 1in. broad; face concave; back keeled, bright green, copiously spotted grey on both sides; margin whitish, denticulated. 1790. This is the variegated Aloe so frequently seen in cottage windows. [Illustration: FIG. 61. ALOE VERA.] =A. vera= (true).* _fl._, perianth yellow, cylindrical, 3/4in. to 1in. long; raceme dense, 6in. to 12in. long; scape strong, 2ft. to 3ft. long, simple or branched. _l._ ensiform, dense, aggregate, 2in. to 4in. broad, narrowing from the base to apex, pale green; middle about 1/2in. thick; face channelled above the base; marginal prickles subdistant, deltoid, horny. Stem rarely more than 1ft. or 2ft. 1596. SYNS. _A. barbadensis_, _A. vulgaris_. See Fig. 61. =A. vulgaris= (common). Synonymous with _A. vera_. =A. xanthacantha= (yellow-spined). A mere form of _A. mitræformis_. =A. Zeyheri= (Zeyher's). A garden synonym of _A. Bainesii_. =ALOMIA= (from _a_, not, and _loma_, a fringe). ORD. _Compositæ_. Allied to _Eupatoria_. An ornamental half-hardy evergreen plant. Grows freely in sandy loam, and may be propagated by cuttings. =A. ageratoides= (ageratum-like). _fl.-heads_ white, many flowered; involucrum campanulate, imbricate; scales narrow, acute; receptacle naked, convex. July. _l._ opposite, or upper ones alternate, petiolate, denticulated. _h._ 1-1/2ft. New Spain, 1824. =ALONA= (primitive name, _Nolana_--letters transposed; from _nola_, a little bell, in allusion to the shape of the flowers). ORD. _Nolanaceæ_. A genus of pretty evergreen shrubs closely allied to _Nolana_, but differing principally in having several ovaries from one to six-celled, whereas _Nolana_ has five four-celled ovaries. Leaves fasciculate; stems woody. They require ordinary greenhouse treatment, in a peat and loam compost. Cuttings root freely in sandy loam, with a very gentle bottom heat, in about a fortnight. =A. c�lestis= (sky-blue).* _fl._ pale blue, very large, axillary, solitary; peduncle elongated. July. _l._ terete, fascicled; plant nearly glabrous. _h._ 2ft. Chili, 1843. This pretty species is an excellent one for growing out-of-doors during summer months. =ALONSOA= (in honour of Z. Alonso, formerly Spanish secretary for Santa Fe de Bogota). ORD. _Scrophularineæ_. A genus of very pretty little half-hardy shrubs, herbaceous perennials, or annuals, with axillary, sub-racemose flowers, which are resupinate, with a sub-rotate five-cleft limb. Leaves opposite, or ternately whorled. They will grow freely in light rich soil; and are readily increased by cuttings in August or March, which should be placed in sandy soil in gentle heat, or by seeds sown in March. The herbaceous species may be treated as outdoor summer annuals, and should be raised in a little heat, and planted out early in May. =A. albiflora= (white-flowered).* _fl._ pure white, with yellow eye, in long terminal spikes. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Mexico, 1877. This is recommended for pot culture, as in the conservatory it will provide a succession of flowers throughout the autumn and winter. =A. caulialata= (wing-stemmed). _fl._ scarlet, racemose. June. _l._ ovate, acute, serrated. Stems and branches quadrangular, winged. _h._ 1ft. Peru, 1823. Half-hardy, herbaceous. =A. incisifolia= (cut-leaved).* _fl._ scarlet; peduncles long, alternate, disposed in terminal racemes. May to October. _l._ opposite, ovate, acute, deeply toothed, or serrate. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Chili, 1795. Glabrous greenhouse shrub. SYN. _Hemimeris urticifolia_. =A. linearis= (linear-leaved). _fl._ scarlet, with a dark bottom, like most of the species. May to October. _l._ opposite, or three in a whorl, linear, entire or remotely denticulated; young leaves fascicled in the axils of the old ones. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Peru, 1790. Greenhouse shrub. SYN. _Hemimeris coccinea_. =A. linifolia= (flax-leaved).* _fl._ scarlet. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. New Holland. This is an elegant little annual, forming symmetrical, graceful, and very free flowering plants, either for pot or outdoor culture. =A. Matthewsii= (Matthew's). _fl._ scarlet, in loose, terminal racemes. July. _l._ lanceolate, toothed, about 1in. long. Stem slender, quadrangular. _h._ 1ft. Peru, 1871. Greenhouse shrub. =A. myrtifolia= (myrtle-leaved). _fl._ scarlet, very large. New and pretty species. =A. Warscewiczii= (Warscewicz's).* _fl._ rosy scarlet. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Chili, 1858. This is probably a herbaceous variety of _A. incisifolia_, and one of the best annuals. =ALOYSIA= (in honour of Maria Louisa, mother of Ferdinand VII., King of Spain). Sweet-scented Verbena. ORD. _Verbenaceæ_. This genus is nearly allied to _Verbena_, which _see_ for generic characters. A greenhouse deciduous shrub, with a very fine perfume and graceful habit. The most satisfactory plan of culture is to obtain well-grown thrifty young plants in spring, and grow them on for the season. As the wood ripens, give less water until they are at rest, when it must be nearly withheld. About the end of January, bring into the light and warmth, and water thoroughly. As soon as the plants break, cut back to three or four eyes; and when the young shoots are about an inch long, transfer into rich sandy soil, using pots a size or two smaller than those they were in before. When the pots are full of roots, transfer to those that are to hold the plants for the season. By this mode of culture, good plants are to be maintained for any length of time. Aloysias form excellent pillar subjects for either a cold greenhouse, or out-of-doors, in which latter situation they thrive remarkably well, but require thorough protection, with straw bands or mats, from November until March, and afterwards at night, until danger from severe frosts has passed. They require no summer training, their young growth being continually cut off for the many purposes of decoration to which they are applied, and to which they are so well adapted. They are easily increased by young cuttings in spring, which should be placed in sandy soil and gentle heat, when they will root in about three weeks. =A. citriodora= (lemon-scented).* _fl._ whitish or lilac, very small, in terminal panicles. August. _l._ pale green, lanceolate, agreeably scented, arranged in whorls of threes; branches slender. Chili, 1781. SYNS. _Lippia citriodora_, _Verbena triphylla_. =ALPINE GARDEN.= A very interesting style of gardening, which succeeds best by imitating Nature as closely as possible. The situation may be an open or a sheltered one. In building a Rock or Alpine Garden, it should be so arranged that all aspects are secured--shady and sunny--fully or in degree only. Pockets and crevices of various sizes may be made, and filled with soil suitable for the subjects to be planted therein, each one having a direct connection with the bulk of the soil; and the constructing material should be arranged with a gentle fall, so that moisture drains towards rather than from the roots. Alpine plants, as a rule, flourish better on a properly constructed rockery than if placed in any other position, because thorough drainage is effected, and the long and fine roots can run down in the crevices, where the soil is cool and moist. Although most alpine plants are naturally exposed to the full action of sun and wind, they should be placed out in early autumn, or early spring, so as to become thoroughly established before the approach of scorching summer weather. Failing materials necessary for the construction of a rockery, many alpines are easily grown in the ordinary border, in a naturally or artificially well drained situation. Excavate to the depth of 18in., put in a layer of stones, broken bricks, &c., 6in. deep; fill up with rich fibrous loam and leaf mould, adding sufficient sand to keep the soil porous. When the desired subjects are firmly planted, cover the surface with small gravel or stone chippings, which, while allowing the rain to penetrate the soil, effectually checks evaporation, and keeps it moist and cool, as well as giving the appearance of rocky _débris_. The effect will be better if the surface is slightly undulated. =ALPINE ROSE.= _See_ =Rhododendron ferrugineum=. =ALPINIA= (in honour of Prosper Alpinus, an Italian botanist). ORD. _Zingiberaceæ_. A rather large genus of stove herbaceous perennials, with considerable grace and beauty. Flowers disposed in terminal spikes. Leaves lanceolate, smooth, even, entire, sheathed at the base, and having transverse veins. Roots fleshy, branched, having much of the smell and taste of ginger. The soil can hardly be too rich for the successful culture of these plants. A mixture of equal parts loam, peat, leaf mould, or thoroughly rotted hotbed manure, freely mixed with sharp sand or fine charcoal dust, forms an excellent compost. During the growing season, a top dressing of rotten dung, and a frequent application of weak manure water, prove excellent stimulants. They grow rapidly and consume a great deal of food in the production of so much stem and so many leaves. Unless the former is vigorous and of considerable thickness, it will fail to be crowned with spikes of flower. Alpinias require a high temperature, a rich, light soil, abundance of water, and not a little space, to grow them well. Soon after flowering, the plants will assume the yellow leaf, when water may be gradually withheld; but no attempt should be made to dry them off too severely, even after the stems die down. Nor must they be stored when at rest in a low temperature; in fact, they require as much heat to preserve them in health when resting as at any other time. The best time to divide the plants is after the young shoots have made an inch of growth in spring. =A. albo-lineata= (white-lined).* _l._ elliptic lanceolate, pale green, marked with oblique broad bands of white. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. New Guinea, 1880. =A. mutica= (beardless). _fl._ in pairs on a spike-like raceme; calyx white; corolla duplex, consisting of three outer oblong white segments; upper lobe concave and projecting, broad; lip large, bright yellow, veined with crimson; mouth finely crispulate at the edge. Borneo, 1882. A very handsome species. =A. nutans= (nodding).* _fl._ pink, sweetly-scented; racemes drooping. May. _l._ lanceolate, smooth, even, entire. _h._ 13ft. India, 1792. This species looks best in considerable masses, even larger than those shown in the illustration, grown in large pots or tubs, or planted out in borders of tropical houses. It should on no account be severely divided. See Fig. 62. [Illustration: FIG. 62. ALPINIA NUTANS, showing Form of Individual Flower.] =A. vittata= (striped).* _l._ 6in. to 8in. long, elliptic lanceolate, tapering to a long fine point, and also narrowed gradually towards the sheathing base, pale green, marked by broad stripes of dark green and creamy white, running off from the midrib in divergent lines, corresponding to the venation. South Sea Islands. See Fig. 63, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bull. =ALSIKE.= _See_ =Trifolium hybridum=. =ALSODEIA= (from _alsodes_, leafy; plants thickly beset with leaves). ORD. _Violarieæ_. Ornamental evergreen stove shrubs. Flowers small, whitish, racemose; petals equal; racemes axillary and terminal; pedicels bracteate jointed. Leaves usually alternate, feather-nerved; stipules small, deciduous. They thrive best in a mixture of loam and sand, and young cuttings root readily under a bell glass if planted in sand, in heat. =A. latifolia= (broad-leaved).* _fl._ on dense, glabrous racemes. _l._ ovate, obtusely acuminated. _h._ 6ft. Madagascar, 1823. =A. pauciflora= (few-flowered). _fl._ few, somewhat corymbose; pedicels reflexed. _l._ wedge-shaped, on short footstalks. _h._ 4ft. Madagascar, 1824. =ALSOPHILA= (from _alsos_, a grove, and _phileo_, to love; in reference to the situation which they affect in Nature). ORD. _Filices_. A magnificent genus of tropical and temperate tree ferns. Sori globose, dorsal, on a vein or in the forking of a vein; receptacle mostly elevated, frequently villous; involucre none. The species of this genus require an abundant supply of water, particularly in summer, and the young fronds must be carefully shaded from solar heat. They thrive well in a peat and loam compost. For general culture, _see_ =Ferns=. =A. aculeata= (prickly).* _fronds_ ample, tripinnate. _rachises_ brown-stramineous; pinnæ ovate-lanceolate, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long; pinnules sessile, ligulate, 3in. to 4in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad; segments close, ligulate, blunt, denticulate, often less than one line broad; both sides bright green, slightly hairy on the ribs, not scaly. _sori_ minute, medial; texture herbaceous. Tropical America; very common. A very effective stove species. SYN. _A. ferox_, &c. See Fig. 64. =A. armata= (armed).* _fronds_ ample, tripinnatifid or tripinnate. _rachises_ stramineous, densely pilose; pinnæ oblong-lanceolate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long; pinnules ligulate-lanceolate, sessile, 3in. to 5in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad; segments falcate, blunt, one to one and a half lines broad, sub-entire or toothed; both sides densely pilose on the ribs, not scaly. _sori_ subcostular. Tropical America; extremely abundant. Stove species. [Illustration: FIG. 63. ALPINIA VITTATA.] =A. aspera= (rough).* _cau._ slender, 10ft. to 30ft. high. _sti._ and _rachises_ strongly aculeated; main and partial rachis above strigillose, slightly scaly beneath and on the costa, the rest glabrous, often glossy. _fronds_ bipinnate; pinnules shortly petiolate, oblong; apex acuminated, pinnatifid half or two-thirds of the way down to the costa; lobes oblong-ovate, often acutely serrulate; costa bearing small, deciduous, bullate scales beneath. _sori_ very deciduous. West Indies, &c. Stove species. =A. australis= (southern).* _sti._ with very long, firm, subulate scales, 1-1/2ft. long, and as well as the main rachises, muricato-asperous, stramineous. _fronds_ ample, subglaucous beneath, more or less villous on the costæ and costule above, and very minutely bullato-paleaceous beneath, often quite naked, from 6ft. to 30ft. long; primary pinnæ 1-1/2ft. long, 6in. to 10in. wide; pinnules 3in. to 4in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. wide, oblong, acuminate, deeply pinnatifid, or towards the base even pinnate; ultimate pinnules or lobes oblong, acute, serrated, subfalcate. _sori_ copious, rather small. New Holland, &c., 1833. A very handsome greenhouse species. =A. comosa= (hairy). Synonymous with _A. Scottiana_. =A. contaminans= (contaminating).* _cau._ slender, growing from 20ft. to 50ft. high. _sti._ and _rachises_ purplish brown, glossy, aculeate. _fronds_ 6ft. to 10ft. long, ample, glabrous, deep green above, glaucous beneath; primary pinnæ 2ft. or more in length, oblong-ovate, acuminate; pinnules sessile, 4in. to 5in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. wide, deeply pinnatifid, linear-oblong, sub-falcate, entire. _sori_ nearer the costule than the margin. Java and Malaya. Stove species. SYN. _A. glauca_. =A. Cooperi= (Cooper's).* _fronds_ ample, tripinnate. _rachises_ stramineous, muricated, glabrous beneath; basal scales large, linear, pale, spreading; pinnæ oblong-lanceolate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long; pinnules ligulate, 4in. to 5in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, lowest long-stalked; segments ligulate, blunt, toothed, one and a half to two and a half lines broad. _sori_ small. Queensland, &c. Greenhouse. =A. excelsa= (tall).* _trunk_ about 30ft. high. _sti._ and main _rachises_ muricated. _fronds_ ample, dark green above, paler beneath; primary pinnæ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 6in. to 10in. wide; pinnules numerous, oblong-lanceolate, acuminated, deeply pinnatifid, often quite pinnate; ultimate divisions 1/4in. to 3/4in. long, oblong, acute or obtuse, falcate, the margins sub-recurved, serrated. _sori_ copious near the costules. Norfolk Island. This rapid-growing and splendid species proves nearly hardy in the neighbourhood of Cornwall; and is a most effective plant for sub-tropical gardening purposes generally. Greenhouse species. =A. ferox= (fierce). Synonymous with _A. aculeata_. =A. Gardneri= (Gardner's). Synonymous with _A. paleolata_. =A. gigantea= (gigantic). _cau._ growing from 20ft. to 40ft. high. _sti._ asperous; _fronds_, primary pinnæ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. and more long, deeply pinnatifid at the apex; pinnules, upper ones sessile, lower ones petiolate, oblong-acuminate, 3in. to 6in. long, five to nine lines wide, deeply pinnatifid; lobes triangular or rounded, serrated. _sori_ copious. India, &c. Stove species. SYN. _A. glabra_. =A. glabra= (glabrous). Synonymous with _A. gigantea_. =A. glauca= (grey). Synonymous with _A. contaminans_. =A. infesta= (troublesome). _fronds_ ample, tripinnatifid; pinnæ oblong-lanceolate, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long; pinnules ligulate, 3in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad, cut down to a narrow wing; segments 1/8in. broad, ligulate, blunt, nearly entire; texture sub-coriaceous; colour deep green on both sides. Tropical America; widely distributed. Stove species. =A. Leichardtiana= (Leichardt's).* _cau._ 10ft. to 20ft. high. _sti._ jointed upon the caudex; main and secondary rachises purple, deciduously powdery, spiny. _fronds_ 6ft. to 10ft. long, firm, dark green above, sub-glaucous beneath, naked and glaucous (or nearly so), tripinnate; primary pinnæ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, 8in. wide, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate; pinnules oblong-acuminate, sessile, pinnatifid only at the apex; ultimate divisions linear-oblong, acute, spinulose-serrate. _sori_ copious, close to the costa. Australia, 1867. Greenhouse species. SYNS. _A. Macarthurii_, _A. Moorei_. =A. lunulata= (moon-shaped pinnuled). _fronds_ ample, tripinnate. _rachises_ stramineous, glabrous below, densely muricated; pinnæ oblong-lanceolate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long; pinnules close, ligulate, sessile, 4in. to 5in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad; segments close, ligulate, falcate, blunt, one line broad, obscurely crenulate. _sori_ minute. _h._ 25ft. Polynesia. Greenhouse species. =A. Macarthurii= (MacArthur's). Synonymous with _A. Leichardtiana_. =A. Moorei= (Moore's). Synonymous with _A. Leichardtiana_. =A. paleolata= (scaly).* _cau._ slender, 10ft. to 20ft. high. _fronds_ ample, tripinnatifid. _rachises_ stramineous, smooth, pubescent below; pinnæ oblong-lanceolate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long; pinnules ligulate, sessile or shortly stalked, 3in. to 4in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, deeply cut, the segments blunt and nearly entire; texture sub-coriaceous; colour deep green, both surfaces deeply pilose, the lower scaly on the ribs. _sori_ large, medial. Columbia, &c. Stove species. SYN. _A. Gardneri_. =A. procera= (tall). _sti._ aculeated and paleaceous below, with large glossy, dark brown scales. _fronds_ bipinnate, glabrous, pinnatifid at the apex; primary pinnæ 1ft. or more long, the rachis winged above; pinnules 2in. to 3in. long, oblong-acuminate or obtuse, pinnatifid half way down to the costa; lobes short, sub-rotundate, often acute, mostly entire. _sori_ small on all the lobes, between the costule and the margin. Tropical America. Stove species. =A. pruinata= (as if hoar-frosted).* _sti._ densely woolly at the base. _fronds_ glaucous, bi-tripinnate; primary pinnæ petiolate, 12in. to 18in. long, ovate-lanceolate; pinnules 3in. to 4in. long, 1in. wide, petiolulate, from a broad base, oblong-acuminate, deeply pinnatifid, or again pinnate; ultimate divisions 1/2in. long, lanceolate, very acute, deeply and sharply serrated. _sori_ solitary. Tropical America, extending to Chili. Stove or greenhouse species. =A. radens= (rasping). _cau._ 3ft. high, 3in. diameter. _sti._ 2ft. to 3ft. long, clothed with ovate, pale brown scales. _fronds_ 6ft. to 8ft. long, lanceolate-ovate, bipinnatisect; primary segments 1-1/2ft. long, elongato-oblong, acuminate; secondary ones 2in. to 3in. long, petiolulate, linear-lanceolate, pinnati-partite; segments oblong, denticulate. _sori_ between the costule and the margin. Brazil. Stove species. =A. Rebeccæ= (Rebecca's).* _cau._ slender, 8ft. high. _fronds_ ample, bipinnate; pinnules twenty to thirty on each side, the lower ones stalked, linear, 2in. to 3in. long, more or less inciso-crenate, apex acuminate. _sori_ principally in two rows between the midrib and edge. Queensland. Greenhouse species. See Fig. 65, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bull. =A. sagittifolia= (arrow-leaved).* _fronds_ oblong-deltoid, 4ft. to 6ft. long, bipinnate. _rachises_ stramineous, muricated; pinnæ lanceolate, 3/4ft. to 1ft. long, the lower shorter, deflexed; pinnules sessile, ligulate, crenulate, cordate on both sides at the base, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, nearly 1/4in. broad. _sori_ large. Trinidad, 1872. Very handsome and distinct stove species. [Illustration: FIG. 64. ALSOPHILA ACULEATA.] =A. Scottiana= (Scott's).* _fronds_ ample, tripinnatifid. _rachises_ castaneous, naked and smooth beneath; pinnæ oblong-lanceolate, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long; pinnules sessile, 3in. to 4in. long, about 1/2in. broad, ligulate, cut down to a narrow wing on the rachis; segments ligulate, blunt, dentate, sub-falcate, not 1/8in. broad. _sori_ sub-costular. Sikkim, 1872. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. comosa_. =A. Tænitis= (Tænitis-like).* _fronds_ 3ft. to 6ft. long, bipinnate; pinnules distant, 3in. to 5in. long, lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous, sub-entire, petioled; petiole articulated on the rachis. _sori_ in a single series, equidistant between the costa and the margin, mixed with long, copious hairs. Brazil. An elegant stove species. =A. villosa= (villous).* _cau._ 6ft. to 12ft. high. _sti._ 1ft. or more long, tubercular, densely clothed at the base with ferruginous scales. _fronds_ from 6ft. to 8ft. long, bi- or sub-tripinnate, broadly lanceolate in outline; pinnules 1in. to 3in. long, oblong-lanceolate, obtusely acuminate, deeply pinnatifid; lobes oblong, obtuse, entire or coarsely serrated. _sori_ copious. Tropical America. A very beautiful stove species. =ALSTONIA= (in honour of Dr. Alston, once Professor of Botany at Edinburgh). ORD. _Apocynaceæ_. Usually tall, lactescent, or milk-bearing stove evergreen shrubs or trees, with small white flowers, which are disposed in terminal cymes. Leaves entire, opposite or often whorled. Of easy culture, thriving best in a mixture of peat, loam, and sand. Cuttings root readily in sand, in heat. Besides the one mentioned, there are eleven other species. =A. scholaris= (school). _fl._, corolla salver-shaped, white; cymes on short peduncles. March to May. _l._ five to seven in a whorl, obovate-oblong, obtuse, ribbed; upper surface glossy, under white, and having the veins approximating the margin. _h._ 8ft. India, 1803. SYN. _Echites scholaris_. [Illustration: FIG. 65. ALSOPHILA REBECC�.] =ALSTR�MERIA= (in honour of Baron Alströmer, a Swedish botanist and friend of Linnæus). ORD. _Amaryllidaceæ_. Tall handsome hardy or half-hardy tuberous rooted plants, with leafy stems and terminal umbels of richly-coloured flowers; perianth regular, six-parted, subcampanulate; inner segments narrower, two of which are somewhat tubulose at the base; stamens included within, and inserted with perianth; stigma trifid. Leaves linear, lanceolate, or ovate, and resupinate, or inverted in position by the twisting of the petiole. Cultivation: Few plants need less attention to grow them successfully, either in pots or planted out. The best position for those kinds which succeed outside is a deep and dry, sloping, sheltered border, in a compost of two-parts peat and leaf soil, and one loam with some sharp sand. Water freely if severe drought sets in; a surface covering of common moss, or cut fern in winter, will prove an advantage. They are very effective in masses. Propagation: They may be increased by seed or root division. Sow the former when ripe, or in early spring, thinly in pans, pots, or boxes, and place in a cool house or frame, so that they will receive some fostering in their early stages. The seedlings should be pricked out singly, when large enough to handle, and grown on till well established under glass. A mixture of peat, leaf mould, and sandy loam, is the best compost in which to sow the seeds and grow the young plants. When sufficiently established, they may be placed in a warm sheltered spot outside, and about 1ft. apart. The fasciculated masses of fleshy roots are readily separated into as many pieces as there are crowns; this operation may be performed during September or October, or February and March; but it must be done carefully. Except for the sake of increase, the less they are disturbed the better. They are excellent subjects for pot culture (some can only be managed thus, unless planted out in a house), and may be potted as early in the autumn as possible, in 8in., 10in., or 12in. pots. Thorough drainage is essential; arrange the crocks carefully, and place a layer of thin turfy loam over them. A compost of equal parts turfy loam, leaf mold, and fibrous peat, with an abundance of sand, will suit them admirably. Water sparingly at first, but when root-action is fully resumed, they must never be allowed to get dry. Support the stems by staking when they require it, and just previous to flowering, top-dress with some rotten manure and leaf soil. Occasional syringings will be necessary to keep down red spider, especially if the atmosphere is very dry. As the plants finish flowering, and the leaves fade, gradually diminish the supply of water until the stems are quite down, when they may be placed somewhere out of the way, free from frost, for the winter, but not kept dry enough to make them shrivel. In repotting, as much of the old soil as is practicable should be removed, without seriously disturbing the roots, and the plants shifted into larger or the same sized pots, according to their condition. Alströmerias were at one time much more largely grown than they are at present, and the genus was represented in nearly every garden. [Illustration: FIG. 66. ALSTR�MERIA AURANTIACA, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. aurantiaca= (golden).* _fl._ orange; two upper perianth segments lanceolate, streaked with red; arranged in a five to six stalked umbel, bearing ten to fifteen blooms. Summer and autumn. _l._ numerous, linear-elliptical, obtuse, glaucous, twisted and turned back at the base, about 4-1/2in. long. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Chili, 1831. A variable but very showy species, quite hardy. See Fig. 66. =A. caryophyllæa= (clove-like scent).* _fl._ scarlet; very fragrant, perianth two-lipped; peduncles longer than the involucre. February and March. _l._ spathulate-oblong. Stem erect. _h._ 8in. to 12in. Brazil, 1776. This stove species requires perfect rest in winter. SYN. _A. Ligtu_. [Illustration: FIG. 67. FLOWER OF ALSTR�MERIA PELEGRINA.] =A. chilensis= (Chilian).* _fl._ blood-red or pink, large, the two upper interior petals longer and narrower, variegated with yellow lines; in pairs on a five to six stalked umbel. Summer and autumn. _l._ scattered, obovate, spathulate; upper ones lanceolate, twisted at the base, minutely fringed on the edges, glaucescent. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Chili, 1849. Hardy. There are many varieties of this species, varying in colour from a rosy white to a deep orange or red. =A. densiflora= (thickly-flowered).* _fl._, perianth scarlet, dotted with black spots inside towards the base; umbels many-flowered, dense; pedicels pubescent, rarely bracteated. _l._ alternate, ovate, shortly acuminate, pubescent underneath. Stem climbing, glabrous. Peru, 1865. Tender species. =A. Flos Martini= (St. Martin's flower). Synonymous with _A. pulchra_. =A. Hookeri= (Hooker's). Synonymous with _A. Simsii_. =A. Ligtu= (Ligtu). Synonymous with _A. caryophyllæa_. =A. Pelegrina= (the native name).* _fl._ white, or pale yellow, striped with rose, and yellow spot on each segment; pedicels one-flowered, on a six or more stalked umbel. Summer. _l._ lanceolate, twisted at the base. _h._ 1ft. Chili, 1754. Rather tender. See Fig. 67. =A. p. alba= (white).* Lily of the Incas. _fl._ white. Perhaps this is the most chaste of all the Alströmerias, and more tender than many others; it should have a specially warm spot, or the protection of glass. 1877. =A. peruviana= (Peruvian). Synonymous with _A. versicolor_. =A. psittacina= (parrot-like).* _fl._ bright crimson at the base, greenish upwards, spotted with purple; upper perianth segments slightly hooded, hence the specific name; umbels many-flowered; peduncles angular. September. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acute, twisted at the base. Stem erect, spotted. _h._ 6ft. Mexico, 1829. Hardy. =A. p. Erembaulti= (Erembault's). _fl._ white, spotted with purple. August. _h._ 2ft. 1833. A beautiful but rather tender hybrid. =A. pulchella= (pretty). Synonymous with _A. Simsii_. =A. pulchra= (fair).* St. Martin's Flower. _fl._ in umbels of from four to eight in each; the lower perianth segments purplish outside, and edges of a sulphur-white; the upper part of the upper segments of a fine yellow, dotted with deep red spots, the lower part of a flesh colour; pedicels twisted. _l._ linear lanceolate. Stem erect. _h._ 1ft. Chili, 1822. A beautiful species, but one requiring protection. SYNS. _A. Flos Martini_, _A. tricolor_. =A. rosea= (rosy). A synonym of _A. Simsii_. =A. Simsii= (Sims's).* _fl._ brilliant yellow, with red streaks, very showy; umbels many-flowered; peduncles two-flowered. June. _l._ spathulate, ciliated. Stem weak. _h._ 3ft. Chili, 1822. Tender species. SYNS. _A. Hookeri_, _A. pulchella_, _A. rosea_. =A. tricolor= (three-coloured). A synonym of _A. pulchra_. [Illustration: FIG. 68. ALSTR�MERIA VERSICOLOR, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. versicolor= (various coloured).* _fl._ yellow, with purple marks; lowest segment the broadest; umbel of usually three shortly-stalked blooms, very floriferous. Late summer. _l._ linear-lanceolate, sessile, scattered. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Peru, 1831. This is a very robust species, with several beautiful varieties, which are both easily obtained and very cheap. SYN. _A. peruviana_. See Fig. 68. =A. v. niveo-marginata= (snowy-margined).* _fl._ rose, crimson and white, with green tips and black spots. _l._ lanceolate, stalked, white-edged. 1875. A charming but scarce variety. =ALTERNANTHERA= (in allusion to the anthers being alternately barren). ORD. _Amaranthaceæ_. Well known ornamental-leaved half-hardy plants, with inconspicuous flowers in axillary heads. Some of the undermentioned species and varieties belong, technically speaking, to _Telanthera_, in which genus the five stamens are inseparate below, and alternate with as many sterile filaments. They are so universally known in gardening under the present generic name, that we have here included them for convenience' sake. Where Alternantheras are used in large quantities (and if they are to be used effectively, a considerable number must be provided), their economical propagation becomes a matter of importance. A good colour can only be secured by growing them in some house or pit in the full light and warmth of the sun; for, unless so grown, green or badly coloured plants will be the result. The best and quickest way of producing this class of plants in large quantities, is to make up a special hotbed for them about the end of March or beginning of April. If a pit be used, it should be filled up within 6in. of the glass with leaves and manure, or any other material that will produce a steady bottom heat of 80deg. or 85deg., and will last for three weeks or so at that point; which, at this season, will be an easy matter. When the heat has become regular and steady, about 4in. or 5in. of light, rich, sandy soil should be placed all over the surface, adding, at the same time, a sprinkling of silver sand on the top, and pressing it moderately firm with a flat board. The cuttings may now be prepared and dibbled in, 1in. apart each way. If kept close, moist, and shaded from bright sunshine, in a few days they will be forming roots, and so soon as that takes place the shading should be discontinued, and the ventilation gradually increased until they are finally hardened off and planted out. If carefully lifted, and placed in trays or baskets, with a rhubarb leaf over them, they may be taken any distance, and planted without flagging; with this advantage-�that the plants being in good colour, the beds are effective at once. April is early enough to commence striking them, and these will be fit to plant out by the middle of June. The several species quoted in various dictionaries hitherto are unknown in English gardens. =A. amabilis= (lovely).* _l._ elliptic, acuminate, greenish in some stages, with the principal ribs stained with red, but under free growth becoming almost entirely suffused with rose colour, mixed with orange, the midribs continuing to be of a deep red hue. Brazil, 1868. =A. a. am�na= (charming).* _l._ small, spathulate, orange red and purple in colour, which is shaded with deep green and bronze. Brazil, 1865. A most elegant little plant, with a spreading habit. =A. a. tricolor= (three-coloured).* _l._ broadly ovate, glabrous, dark green at the edge, and have a centre of vivid rose, traversed by purple veins, an irregular band of orange yellow intervening between the centre and margin. Brazil, 1862. =A. Bettzichiana= (Bettzich's). _l._ olive and red. Brazil, 1862. =A. B. spathulata= (spathulate-leaved). _l._ spathulate, but more elongated than the others; the principal colours are reddish pink and light brown; these are shaded with bronze and green. Brazil, 1865. A rather tall species. =A. ficoidea= (fig-like).* _l._ variegated with green, rose, and red. India, 1865. =A. paronychioides= (Paronychia-like).* _l._ narrow, spathulate, ground colour deep orange red, beautifully shaded with olive green. Dense and compact grower, forming a little clump about 4in. high. =A. p. magnifica= (magnificent).* A very fine variety, with a much higher colour than the type. =A. p. major= (greater).* _l._ bronze, with rich orange tips; very effective. =A. p. m. aurea= (greater-golden).* _l._ bright golden yellow, which colour they retain all through the season. =A. versicolor= (various-colour).* _l._ medium sized, ovate, bright rosy pink and crimson, shaded with bronzy green, branching freely, and making a compact and handsome plant. Brazil, 1865. =ALTERNATE.= Placed on opposite sides of an axis on a different line, as in alternate leaves. =ALTH�A= (from _altheo_, to cure; in reference to the medicinal qualities of some of the species). Marsh Mallow. ORD. _Malvaceæ_. Hardy biennials or perennials, closely allied to _Malva_. Outer calyx six to nine-cleft, inner one five-cleft. Most species belonging to this genus are worthy of cultivation, particularly in woods, coppices, and shrubberies; they will thrive in almost any kind of soil. They may be either increased by dividing the plants at the roots, or by seeds; the biennial species must be raised from seed every year, which may be sown in spring where they are intended to remain, or in pans placed in a cold frame, from which the young plants may be removed when large enough. =A. cannabina= (Hemp-leaved).* _fl._ rose-coloured; peduncles axillary, many-flowered, loose, longer than the leaves. June. _l._ pubescent, lower ones palmately-parted, upper ones three-parted; lobes narrow, and grossly toothed. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. South France, 1597. Perennial. =A. caribæa= (Caribean).* _fl._ rose coloured, with a yellow base, solitary, almost sessile. March. _l._ cordate, roundish, lobed, crenate-serrated. Stem straight, hispid. _h._ 3ft. Caribbee Islands, 1816. Biennial. =A. ficifolia= (fig-leaved). Antwerp Hollyhock. _fl._ generally yellow or orange coloured, in terminal spikes, large, single or double. June. _l._ divided beyond the middle into seven lobes; lobes oblong, obtuse, irregularly toothed. _h._ 6ft. Siberia, 1597. Biennial. =A. flexuosa= (zigzag).* _fl._ scarlet, axillary, solitary, stalked; petals obcordate. June. _l._ cordate, somewhat seven-lobed, obtuse, on long footstalks. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. North India, 1803. Perennial. =A. frutex= (shrubby). Synonymous with _Hibiscus syriacus_. =A. narbonensis= (Narbonne).* _fl._ pale red; peduncles many-flowered, loose, longer than the leaves. August. _l._ pubescent, lower ones five or seven-lobed, upper ones three-lobed. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. France, 1780. Perennial. [Illustration: FIG. 69. FLOWER AND BUDS OF ALTH�A OFFICINALIS.] =A. officinalis= (officinal). Common Marsh Mallow. _fl._ of a delicate, uniform blush colour; peduncles axillary, many-flowered, much shorter than the leaves. July. _l._ clothed with soft, white tomentum on both surfaces, cordate or ovate, toothed, undivided, or somewhat five-lobed. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Marshes, Britain. Perennial. See Fig. 69. =A. rosea= (rose).* Hollyhock. _fl._ rose-coloured, large, axillary, sessile, somewhat spiked at the top. July. _l._ cordate, with five or seven angles, crenated, rough. Stem straight, hairy. _h._ 8ft. China, 1573. For special culture and varieties, _see_ =Hollyhock=. =A. striata= (streaked). _fl._ white, 2-1/2in. in diameter, solitary, on short pedicels; calyx striped. July. _l._ cordate, bluntly three-lobed, crenated. Stem puberulous, and somewhat scabrous. _h._ 5ft. Biennial. =ALUMINOUS.= Pertaining to, or containing alum, or alumina; as Aluminous soils. =ALUM-ROOT.= _See_ =Heuchera=. =ALYSSUM= (from _a_, not, and _lyssa_, rage; in reference to a fable that the plant allayed anger). Madwort. Including _Psilonema_, _Ptilotrichum_, _Schivereckia_. ORD. _Cruciferæ_. Annuals or dwarf, branching, shrubby perennials, often clothed with hoary, stellate hairs. Flowers small, cruciform, white or yellow. Leaves distant, or the radical ones tufted, usually entire. Several of the species are very much alike. They are excellent plants for the rockery, or for the front of borders, growing freely in common but well-drained garden soil. They may be increased by cuttings, by division of the roots, or by seed. The cuttings should be made from young shoots, 2in. to 3in. in length, inserted in sandy loam, early in the season, in a shady place. Seed may be raised outside, or in a frame in pans in sandy soil, most of them germinating in two or three weeks. =A. alpestre= (alpine).* _fl._ yellow; raceme simple. June. _l._ obovate, hoary. Stem rather shrubby at the base, diffuse, greyish. _h._ 3in. South Europe, 1777. Perennial. A very neat little tufted species. _A. argenteum_ (silvery), _A. Bertolonii_ (Bertoloni's), and _A. murale_ (wall), are larger growing species allied to the above, but of less cultural merit. [Illustration: FIG. 70. ALYSSUM SAXATILE.] =A. a. obtusifolium= (obtuse-leaved). _fl._ yellow, corymbose. June. _l._ obovate-spathulate, blunt, silvery on the under surface. _h._ 3in. Tauria, 1828. A rare alpine. [Illustration: FIG. 71. ALYSSUM SAXATILE VARIEGATUM, showing Flower and Habit.] =A. atlanticum= (Atlantic). _fl._ yellow; raceme simple. June. _l._ lanceolate, hoary, and pilose. Stems shrubby at the base, erect. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. S. Europe, 1820. _A. Marschallianum_ is intermediate between _A. alpestre_ and _A. a. obtusifolium_; but is seldom met with under cultivation. =A. gemonense= (German).* _fl._ yellow, in close corymbs. April to June. _l._ lanceolate, entire, greyish-velvety from stellate down. Stem shrubby at the base. _h._ 1ft. Italy, 1710. Closely allied to _A. saxatile_, but not so hardy; it is very desirable for rockeries. =A. macrocarpum= (large-fruited). _fl._ white, racemose. June. _l._ oblong, blunt, silvery. Stem shrubby, branched, somewhat spiny. _h._ 8in. South of France, 1828. _A. spinosa_ (thorny), and _A. halimifolia_ (purslane-leaved), are very like this species. _A. dasycarpum_ (thick-fruited) is an annual with yellow flowers. =A. maritimum.= _See_ =K�niga=. =A. montanum= (mountain). _fl._ yellow, sweet-scented; raceme simple. May to July. _l._ somewhat hoary; lower ones obovate; upper ones oblong. Stems rather herbaceous, diffuse, pubescent. _h._ 2in. or 3in. Europe, 1713. A distinct and charming species for the rockery, forming compact tufts of slightly glaucous green. _A. cuneifolium_ (wedge-leaved), _A. diffusum_ (diffuse), and _A. Wulfenianum_ (Wulfenius') come close to this species, the latter being the most desirable. =A. olympicum= (Olympian). _fl._ deep yellow, small, in roundish corymbose heads. Summer. _l._ spathulate, sessile, very small, greyish. _h._ 2in. to 3in. Northern Greece. =A. orientale= (Oriental).* _fl._ yellow, corymbose. May. _l._ lanceolate, repandly-toothed, waved, downy. Stems suffruticose at the base. _h._ 1ft. Crete, 1820. There is a variety with variegated leaves. =A. saxatile= (rock).* _fl._ yellow, in close corymbose heads. April. _l._ lanceolate, entire, clothed with hoary tomentum. Stems shrubby at the base. _h._ 1ft. Eastern Europe, 1710. A very common and showy spring plant. See Fig. 70. [Illustration: FIG. 72. FLOWER SPIKE OF AMARANTHUS CAUDATUS.] =A. s. variegatum= (variegated).* A constant and prettily variegated form, which is even more handsome than the type. On the rockery it does well, as it requires a sunny, well drained, position. See Fig. 71. =A. serpyllifolium= (Thyme-leaved).* _fl._ pale yellow, in simple racemes. April to June. _l._ very small, 1/4in. to 1/2in. long, ovate, scabrous, hoary. _h._ 3in. to 4in. Branches spreading, sub-woody at the base. South Europe, 1822. =A. tortuosum= (twisted). _fl._ yellow; raceme corymbose. June. _l._ hoary, somewhat lanceolate. Stem shrubby at the base, twisted, diffuse. _h._ 6in. Hungary, 1804. =A. Wiersbeckii= (Wiersbeck's).* _fl._ deep yellow, in close corymbose heads, about 1-1/2in. across. Summer. _l._ 2in. long, oval-oblong-pointed, sessile, attenuated at the base, roughish and hairy. Stems erect, scabrous, simple, rigid. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Asia Minor. =AMARANTHACE�.= An extensive order of herbs or (rarely) shrubs, with opposite or alternate leaves, and inconspicuous apetalous flowers, which are spicately or capitately disposed. The majority of this order are weeds; well-known exceptions being many species of _Amaranthus_. =AMARANTH, GLOBE.= _See_ =Gomphrena=. [Illustration: FIG. 73. FLOWER SPIKE OF AMARANTHUS HYPOCHONDRIACUS.] =AMARANTHUS= (from _a_, not, and _maraino_, to wither; in reference to the length of time some of the flowers retain their colour). ORD. _Amaranthaceæ_. Hardy or half-hardy annuals, with alternate entire leaves and small green or red flowers in large bracteate clustered spikes. Flowers polygamous, furnished with three bracts at the base of a three or five-lobed glabrous perianth. Stamens four or five. Of very easy culture; they thrive best in rich loamy soil, and are largely employed for sub-tropical and other bedding, for vases and conservatory decorations, being very ornamental. The seed should be sown in April in a hotbed, and the plants thinned out in the same situation when about 1/2in. high. About the end of May, they can be transplanted out of doors in their permanent situations. They are also very handsome when grown in pots. The young plants should be potted off early, and freely encouraged, allowing plenty of pot-room and moisture, and be kept near the glass, to bring out their brightest colouring. To develop their full beauty, plenty of room is required. There are about twelve species (indigenous to warm and tropical countries). =A. bicolor= (two-coloured). _l._ green, variously streaked with light yellow. _h._ 2ft. India, 1802. This species is rather delicate, and must have a warm sunny situation. =A. b. ruber= (red).* _l._ brilliant glistening scarlet, merging into a dark violet red, mixed with green. Hardier than the type. =A. caudatus= (caudate).* Love Lies Bleeding. _fl._ dark purplish, collected in numerous whorls, which are disposed in handsome drooping spikes. August. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. India, 1596. A very common and vigorous growing hardy annual. There is a yellowish-flowered variety, which, though less ornamental, is an effective contrast. See Fig. 72. =A. cruentus= (dark bloody). Synonymous with _A. hypochondriacus_. =A. Henderi= (Hender's). _l._ lanceolate, undulated, intense rosy carmine, varying with orange buff, golden yellow, and olive green. _h._ 3ft. A garden hybrid, closely allied to _A. salicifolius_. Pyramidal habit. =A. hypochondriacus= (hypochondriac).* Prince's Feather. _fl._ deep crimson, on densely packed, erect spikes. July. _l._ purplish beneath. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. Asiatic, 1684. SYN. _A. cruentus_. See Fig. 73. =A. h. atropurpureus= (dark purple).* An improved variety of above. =A. melancholicus ruber= (melancholy-red).* _h._ about 1ft. Japan. A compact growing variety, with large shaded crimson leaves. Largely used for bedding purposes. =A. salicifolius= (willow-leaved).* _l._ 7in. to 15in. long, willow-shaped, linear, and wavy, which, by their drooping outline, present a very elegant and effective appearance. When fully grown, the leaves are brilliantly banded and tipped with orange, carmine, and bronze. _h._ 3ft. Philippine Isles, 1871. =A. s. Princess of Wales.=* _l._ carmine, orange green, and bright yellow, beautifully blended. _h._ 3ft. A garden hybrid. =A. sanguineus= (bloody). _fl._ purple, disposed partly in small heads in the axils of the upper leaves, and partly in slender, flexible spikes, which form a more or less branching panicle. July. _l._ blood red. _h._ 3ft. Bahama, 1775. [Illustration: FIG. 74. AMARANTHUS TRICOLOR.] =A. speciosus= (showy).* _fl._ dark crimson purple, disposed in large erect spikes, forming a fine plumy panicle. July. _l._ suffused with a reddish tinge, which disappears at the time of flowering. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. Nepaul, 1819. =A. s. aureus= (golden). _fl._ of a fine brownish-golden hue. Very effective when grown in masses. =A. tricolor= (three-coloured).* _l._ of a fine, transparent, purplish-red or dark carmine from the base to the middle; a large spot of bright yellow occupies the greater part of the upper end of the leaf; point generally green; leafstalks yellow. _h._ 1-1/2ft. East Indies, 1548. See Fig. 74. There are several garden varieties of this species, requiring a somewhat warmer situation. =AMARYLLIDE�.= A large and important order of usually bulbous plants, sometimes with a stem. Flowers solitary, umbellate, or paniculate; perianth superior, six-lobed, often with a corona at the top of the tube. Leaves ensiform or linear. This order contains many very beautiful genera, including _Agave_, _Amaryllis_, _Crinum_, _Hæmanthus_, _Hippeastrum_, _Narcissus_, _Pancratium_, and several others. =AMARYLLIS= (from _Amaryllis_, the name of a country-woman mentioned by Theocritus and Virgil). ORD. _Amaryllideæ_. Half-hardy or hardy, deciduous, bulbous plants. Flowers large, sweet-scented, pedicelled; spathe two-leaved; umbels few-flowered; perianth with a very short tube, funnel-shaped, six-parted, sub-regular or irregular; segments many-nerved, broad, undulate, spreading somewhat at the apices; stamens at the summit of the tube, unequal, declined; anthers fixed by the middle, incumbent, curved into a circular arch after bursting; style declined; stigma thickened, sub-three-lobed; scape tall, solid, compressed. Capsule obovate; seeds globose, fleshy. Leaves appearing at a different season from the scapes, numerous, strap-shaped. The following genera are sometimes arranged hereunder, but in this work are treated separately: _Brunsvigia_, _Crinum_, _Hippeastrum_, _Nerine_, _Sprekelia_, _Sternbergia_, _Vallota_, _Zephyranthes_. Warm, dry, and well-drained positions in front of hothouses, or at the base of south or south-west walls, are the most suitable sites for _A. Belladonna_ and its varieties. The soil should be composed of good, fibrous loam, leaf mould, and sand, in equal parts. Insert the bulbs 6in. to 8in. deep, and surround with sand, after which they may be covered with the compost, which should be pressed firmly about them; they should not be again disturbed for years, when they will ultimately establish themselves, and produce grand masses of blossom. The best time to plant a fresh stock is June or July, when they commence root-action, before the flower-stems are sent up. In their growing season, and in dry weather, an occasional soaking of clear water, or liquid manure, will be greatly beneficial. The extremely ornamental plants now largely grown, and frequently classed as _Amaryllis_ in nurserymen's catalogues, belong to the genus _Hippeastrum_. For pot-culture of the Belladonna Lily, _see_ =Hippeastrum=. [Illustration: FIG. 75. AMARYLLIS BELLADONNA, showing Habit at Flowering Season.] =A. Belladonna.=* Belladonna Lily. This splendid species is very variable, both in the size and colour of the flowers, frequently producing variously-shaded flowers, from almost white to a reddish or purplish hue. Autumn. West Indies, 1712. See Fig. 75. The leaves and flowers are not produced together. In Fig. 76 they are both shown in the same illustration for economy of space. =A. B. pallida= (pale).* A pale-coloured variety. _h._ 2ft. =AMASONIA= (named in honour of Thomas Amason, one of the earlier American travellers). SYN. _Taligalea_. ORD. _Verbenaceæ_. A genus comprising six species (which may be reduced to four) of stove sub-shrubs, natives of tropical America. Flowers yellow or sulphur-coloured, racemose or panicled; calyx five-cleft; corolla five-cleft, sub-bilabiate. Leaves alternate, toothed or rarely entire. For culture of the only species introduced, _see_ =Clerodendron=. =A. punicea= (reddish-brown). _fl._ yellow, with pretty, brownish bracts; peduncles once or twice trifid, cymose or one-flowered. May and June. _l._ slender, 3in. to 2in. long, oblong- or elliptic-lanceolate, shortly acuminate, unequally toothed. Stem erect, simple or slightly branched. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Brazil, 1884. =AMATEUR.= This term is usually meant to refer to one who has a taste for a particular pursuit, and who is, in a pecuniary point of view, independent of it. An Amateur gardener is one who rears and grows his plants, and cultivates his garden, for his own amusement--for mere love of horticulture. [Illustration: FIG. 76. AMARYLLIS BELLADONNA, showing Bulb and Flower Spike.] =AMBER, SWEET.= _See_ =Hypericum Androsæmum=. =AMBER-TREE.= _See_ =Anthospermum=. =AMBROSINIA= (commemorative of Professor Giacinti Ambrosini, of Bologna). ORD. _Aroideæ_ (_Araceæ_). A curious, half-hardy, tuberous perennial, thriving in any light soil, with protection in winter. Increased by seeds, and by divisions. The former should be sown, as soon as ripe, in a cool house; and the latter should be made just previous to new growth in spring. =A. Bassii= (Bass's).* _fl._, spathes prolonged into a long tail, and a tongue-shaped spadix, with the male flowers on one side, and so placed as to preclude the access of pollen to the stigma on the other side of the spathe, save by insect agency. _l._ oblong, stalked. _h._ 4in. Corsica, Sardinia, 1879. =AMBURY=, or =ANBURY=. The name given to galls of small Weevils (_Ceuthorhynchus sulcicollis_) which appear on the roots of Cabbages and Turnips, as well as of the Wild Mustard, and of other weeds belonging to the genus _Brassica_. The galls form swellings individually about the size of split peas, but often two or more are joined to form considerable masses. In each is a space inclosing a white grub. Anbury is usually not very hurtful. It is quite distinct from Clubbing. The galled roots should be collected, before the grubs emerge, and burned. =AMELANCHIER= (Savoy name of the Medlar, to which this genus is closely allied). TRIBE _Pomaceæ_ of ORD. _Rosaceæ_. Hardy, deciduous shrubs or small trees, with racemes of white flowers, and simple, serrated leaves; bracteas linear-lanceolate. Pome, when mature, three to five-celled. They are of easy cultivation, in a somewhat rich, loamy soil, and are propagated by layers or cuttings, in autumn, in sheltered situations; by seeds, and by grafting, in early spring, on the Hawthorn or the Quince, or the weaker on the stronger-growing species. =A. canadensis= (Canadian).* Grape Pear. _fl._ white. April. Pome purple. _l._ oblong-elliptic, cuspidate, when young rather villous, but at length glabrous. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. Canada, 1746. A very ornamental tree, having a profusion of flowers in early spring, and rich autumnal foliage. SYN. _Pyrus Botryapium_. =A. c. florida= (flowery).* _fl._ white, numerous, in upright racemes. May. Pome purple. _l._ oblong, obtuse at both ends, coarsely serrate in the terminal portion, glabrous in every state. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. North America, 1826. =A. c. ovalis= (oval-leaved). _fl._ white; racemes pressed together. April. _l._ roundish-elliptic, acute when rather young, velvety beneath, glabrous when mature. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. North America, 1800. =A. c. parvifolia= (small-leaved). This has a dwarfer habit, and shorter leaves, than the type. =A. sanguinea=, (bloody). _fl._ white; racemes capitate. April. Pome blackish-purple. _l._ oblong, rounded at both ends, sharply serrated, always naked. _h._ 4ft. to 8ft. North America, 1800. This form differs principally from _A. canadensis_ in the fewer flowers, much shorter raceme, and shorter, broader, and more ovate petals. =A. vulgaris= (common).* _fl._ white. April. Pome darkish-purple. _l._ roundish-oval, bluntish, pubescent beneath, at length glabrous. _h._ 3ft. to 9ft. Europe, 1596. A desirable shrub, producing an abundance of flowers. SYN. _Mespilus Amelanchier_. =AMELLUS= (a name employed by Virgil for a blue, Aster-looking plant growing on the banks of the river Mella). ORD. _Compositæ_. Pretty, branched, ascending or diffuse, perennial herbs. Flowers in solitary heads. Leaves hairy, lower ones opposite, upper alternate. Of very easy culture, in ordinary garden soil. Increased by divisions, or cuttings, inserted under glass, in spring. =A. Lychnitis= (Lychnitis). _fl.-heads_ violet, solitary, terminal, and lateral. June. _l._ linear, lanceolate, entire, hoary. _h._ 6in. Cape of Good Hope. Evergreen, greenhouse trailer. =AMENTUM.= A catkin. A deciduous spike of unisexual, apetalous flowers. =AMERICAN ALMOND.= _See_ =Brabejum=. =AMERICAN ALOE.= _See_ =Agave americana=. =AMERICAN BLIGHT=, or =WOOLLY APHIS= (_Schizoneura lanuginosa_). The white, cottony-looking matter which is found upon the bark of the Apple and other trees of a similar nature, belongs to a species of Aphis, which has short legs: the females are wingless, while the males are winged; the latter appear in July and August. The insects belong to a group of Aphides unprovided with honey tubes on the hinder part of the body, and in which the third vein of the front wing shows only one fork The woolly coating also distinguishes them from true Aphides. The Blight is said to have been imported from America in 1787, but this is uncertain. As these insects get into the cracks and under the bark of trees, they are hard to dislodge. The injury inflicted is not apparent for some time; but, in process of time, large, cankerous wounds are produced, which gradually (with the aid of the insects) destroy the branches, and render the tree useless. If young trees are attacked, they are rendered valueless in a very short time. The insects hide in crevices of the bark of the trees each autumn, and remain dormant during the winter, ascending to their old quarters as the weather becomes warm. Trees which are covered with moss and lichens probably serve as places for hybernation; hence, it is desirable to remove such hiding-places, as well as all pieces of dead bark. To their being left may be frequently attributed the severe attacks of Blight experienced where they exist on trees. So soon as the cottony substance makes its appearance, one of the following remedies should be applied, and, if persisted in for a few seasons, the trees will be quite cleared. _Brushing and Scraping._ In winter, the trees should be thoroughly cleaned; and, so long as there is a chance of the insects being in the bark, all loose pieces, moss, &c., should be brushed off, and the parts affected should be thoroughly saturated with a strong solution of soft soap or of soft soap and lime-water, applied with a stiff brush, so as to enter all the crevices. _Gas Liquor._ This is the ammoniacal liquor from gas works. It must be diluted with from eight to twelve times its bulk of water, or it is dangerous to the trees; in fact, after dilution, it is advisable to test it, previous to using to any great extent. As the woolly covering of the insects resists water, it is desirable that the liquor be applied with a brush, and forced amongst the Blight. _Infusion of Tobacco Leaves_ (1/2lb. to 1 gallon) kills the insects on shoots dipped into it. _Paraffin or Petroleum._ This is a simple and useful remedy. Obtain a painter's half-worn sash-tool, free from paint, and just moisten it in the oil. Then brush out each infested place as often as the Blight appears, and in one season the trees will be cleared. _Spent Tan._ Collect spent tan into a heap a month or two before it is to be used, and if it has heated well and rotted, so much the better. In winter, clear away all leaves, rubbish, grass, &c., and spread the tan at the rate of about thirty loads to the acre, taking care that it surrounds the base of each tree infested with Blight. Practical proof of its utility has been given. _Turpentine and other Spirits._ The mode of applying these is the same as for paraffin, but they frequently injure the bark, and sometimes kill young trees. To kill insects on the roots, it is well to clear away the soil as far as possible from them, and to saturate the place with soapsuds or ammoniacal solutions; soot, quicklime, or other applications to the soil would also prove useful. Other remedies that have been suggested are the drainings of stables, and grafting-clay plastered over the bark. =AMERICAN CENTAURY.= _See_ =Sabbatia=. =AMERICAN CHINA ROOT.= _See_ =Smilax=. =AMERICAN COWSLIP.= _See_ =Dodecatheon=. =AMERICAN CRANBERRY.= _See_ =Oxycoccus macrocarpus=. =AMERICAN CRESS.= _See_ =Barbarea=. =AMERICAN DEWBERRY.= _see_ =Rubus canadensis=. =AMERICAN GOOSEBERRY.= _See_ =Pereskia aculeata=. =AMERICAN GREAT LAUREL.= _See_ =Rhododendron maximum=. =AMERICAN HIGH BLACKBERRY.= A common name for =Rubus villosus= (which _see_). =AMERICAN MANDRAKE.= _See_ =Podophyllum peltatum=. =AMERICAN MOUNTAIN ASH.= _See_ =Pyrus americana=. =AMERICAN PLANTS=. This term includes _Rhododendron_, _Azalea_, and several others of similar habit and constitution; indeed, any hardy, flowering shrubs requiring a moist peat border. =AMERICAN SPANISH OAK.= _See_ =Quercus falcata=. =AMERICAN SWAMP LILY.= _See_ =Saururus cernuus=. =AMERICAN WHITE OAK.= _See_ =Quercus alba=. =AMERICAN WILD BLACK CURRANT.= _See_ =Ribes floridum=. =AMERICAN WILD RED RASPBERRY.= _See_ =Rubus strigosus=. =AMERIMNON= (from _a_, privative, and _merinna_, care; in allusion to the little attention the plant requires; name originally applied to the House-leek). SYN. _Amerimnum_. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Ornamental, evergreen, stove shrubs, with alternate, stalked, ovate, somewhat cordate, simple leaves. For culture, _see_ =Anona=. =A. Brownei= (Browne's).* _fl._ white, sweet-scented; peduncles axillary, ten-flowered, glabrous or puberulous. May. _l._ ovate, somewhat cordate, acute, glabrous. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. Jamaica, 1793. Requires a trellis or other support. =A. strigulosum= (strigulose). _fl._ white; racemes axillary, solitary, three times longer than the petioles. May. _l._ ovate, rather cordate, obtuse, clothed with adpressed hairs on both surfaces; branches and petioles clothed with light brown, dense, short hairs. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. Trinidad, 1817. =AMERIMNUM.= A synonym of =Amerimnon= (which _see_). =AMHERSTIA= (commemorative of Countess Amherst, a zealous promoter of natural history, particularly botany). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A stove, evergreen tree of almost unsurpassed magnificence and brilliancy, requiring a very high and moist temperature. It delights in a rich, strong loam, and may be propagated by cuttings of the half-ripened wood, inserted in sand, under a glass in bottom heat of about 80deg.; also by seeds. =A. nobilis= (noble).* _fl._ of a fine vermilion colour, diversified with yellow spots, large; racemes long, pendulous, axillary. May. _l._ large, impari-pinnate, bearing six to eight pairs of leaflets. _h._ 30ft. to 40ft. India, 1837. The flowers are, unfortunately, somewhat ephemeral, lasting but a few days in perfection, during which period, however, no object in the whole range of the vegetable kingdom presents a more striking aspect than this tree. =AMICIA= (commemorative of J. B. Amici, a celebrated French physician). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A pretty, greenhouse or half-hardy perennial, succeeding in any warm, sheltered spot. Young cuttings will root in sand, under a hand glass, in heat. =A. Zygomeris= (two-jointed-podded).* _fl._ yellow, splashed with purple on the keel; peduncles axillary, five or six-flowered. Autumn. Legumes with two joints. _l._ abruptly pinnate, with two pairs of cuneate-obcordate, mucronate leaflets, which are full of pellucid dots; branches and petioles pubescent. _h._ 8ft. Mexico, 1826. =AMMOBIUM= (from _ammos_, sand, and _bio_, to live; in reference to the sandy soil in which it is found). ORD. _Compositæ_. This well-known everlasting is closely allied to _Gnaphalium_, from which it differs principally in habit. Receptacle with oblong, pointed, toothed, chaffy scales; involucre of imbricated leaflets. It may be treated as a half-hardy annual, or as a biennial, if seeds are sown in September and kept in a cool greenhouse during the winter, and this is the best way to grow it. Any moderately good soil suits it. =A. alatum= (winged). _fl.-heads_ about 1in. across, of a silvery whiteness, with the exception of the yellow disk florets, very numerous, in loose, corymbose panicles. May to September. _l._ oblong-lanceolate; radical ones in a tufted rosette. Stems winged--hence the specific name. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. New Holland, 1822. See Fig. 77. =A. a. grandiflorum= (large-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ purer white, nearly twice the size of those in the type. This variety, which comes true from seed, is a great acquisition. =AMMOCHARIS.= _See_ =Brunsvigia=. =AMMODENDRON= (from _ammos_, sand, and _dendron_, a tree; in reference to its natural habitat). SYN. _Sophora_. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A small, neat, hardy evergreen, silky shrub, having the petioles hardening into spines; an excellent subject for shrubberies. It thrives in an ordinary soil, with good drainage, and is propagated by layers and seeds. =A. Sieversii= (Sievers').* _fl._ purple, disposed in racemes. June. _l._ bifoliolate; leaflets lanceolate, silky-white on both surfaces. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Siberia, 1837. =AMMYRSINE.= _See_ =Leiophyllum=. =AMOMOPHYLLUM.= _See_ =Spathiphyllum=. [Illustration: FIG. 77. INFLORESCENCE OF AMMOBIUM ALATUM.] =AMOMUM= (from _a_, not, and _momos_, impurity; in reference to the quality of counteracting poison). ORD. _Zingiberaceæ_. Stove, deciduous, herbaceous perennials, chiefly aromatic, formerly used in embalming. Flowers produced close to the ground, in spikes or clusters, bracteate. Leaves distichous, sheathing at the base, lanceolate, entire. For culture, _see_ =Alpinia=. =A. angustifolium= (narrow-leaved).* _fl._ sometimes of a uniform chrome-yellow, sometimes crimson, with the labellum of a yellow colour, more or less pale, and sometimes entirely crimson; scape naked, from 3in. to 8in. in length; spike capitate. July. _l._ linear-lanceolate. _h._ 8ft. Madagascar. =A. Cardamomum= (Cardamom).* _fl._ brownish; lip three-lobed, spurred; scape compound, flexuous, procumbent. August. _h._ 8ft. East Indies, 1823. =A. Danielli= (Daniel's). _fl._ 4in. across; outer sepals fine red; the spreading labellum whitish, tinged with rose and yellow; scape short, arising from the bottom of the stem. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, 9in. long. _h._ 2-1/2ft. Western Africa. =A. grandiflorum= (large-flowered). _fl._ white, numerous, close; spike short. June. _l._ elliptic-lanceolate, pointed. _h._ 3ft. Sierra Leone, 1795. =A. Granum Paradisi.=* Grains of Paradise. _fl._ white, tinged with yellow and rose. _l._ elliptic-lanceolate, long-pointed. Stems very red at base, and dull purplish-red above from the long, sheathing leafstalks. _h._ 3ft. West Africa. =A. Melegueta= (Melegueta).* Grains of Paradise. _fl._ pale pink, solitary, with an orbicular, irregularly toothed lip. May. _l._ narrow, linear-elliptic, distichous, sessile. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Sierra Leone, 1869. Habit creeping. =A. sceptrum= (sceptre). _fl._ bright rose purple, large, sub-erect; the most conspicuous portion is the lip, which is 2-1/2in. in diameter; flower-scapes 6in. high. January. _l._ narrow, oblong-lanceolate. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. Old Calabar, 1863. =A. vitellinum= (yolk-of-egg-coloured). _fl._ yellow; lip oblong, obtuse, toothed; spike oblong, sessile, rather loose. April. _l._ oval. _h._ 2ft. East Indies, 1846. Plant stemless, glabrous. =AMORPHA= (from _a_, not, and _morphe_, form; incomplete formation of the flowers). Bastard Indigo. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A handsome genus of hardy deciduous shrubs with very graceful impari-pinnate leaves, and many pairs of leaflets, which are full of pellucid dots. Racemes spicate, elongated, usually in fascicles at the tops of the branches; corolla without wings and keel; vexillum or standard ovate, concave. They are well adapted for small shrubberies, requiring a sheltered situation, and thrive well in common garden soil. Increased by layers, or cuttings, taken off at a joint, and planted in a sheltered situation early in autumn; these should be allowed to remain undisturbed till the following autumn. Amorphas produce an abundance of suckers, from which they may be readily propagated. =A. canescens= (hoary).* The Lead Plant. _fl._ dark blue. July. _l._, leaflets ovate-elliptic, mucronate. _h._ 3ft. Missouri, 1812. Whole plant clothed with hoary hairs. =A. fruticosa= (shrubby).* The False Indigo. _fl._ very dark bluish purple. June. _l._, leaflets elliptic-oblong; lower ones distant from the stem. _h._ 6ft. Carolina, 1724. Shrub glabrous, or a little villous. There are several varieties, having mucronate, emarginate, or narrower leaflets, but all with purple flowers. A host of names, representing the merest forms of _A. fruticosa_, are to be found in nurserymen's catalogues. Amongst them are: _caroliniana_, _crocea_, _crocea-lanata_, _dealbata_, _fragrans_, _glabra_, _herbacea_, _nana_, _pubescens_, &c. These differ so slightly from the type and from each other, that it is impossible to distinguish them. =AMORPHOPHALLUS= (from _amorphos_, deformed, and _phallos_, a mace; alluding to the inflorescence). SYN. _Pythion_. Including _Proteinophallus_. ORD. _Aroideæ (Araceæ)_. A very remarkable genus, closely allied to _Arum_, but distinguished therefrom by "their spreading, not convolute, spathes; by their anthers opening by pores, not by longitudinal slits; by the numerous cells to the ovary; and by the solitary, erect ovules, those of _Arum_ being horizontal." A soil consisting of two-thirds good rich loam, with the additional third of sweet manure, thoroughly rotted, suits them well. Other essentials are plenty of pot room, a genial atmosphere, and a temperature ranging from 55deg. to 65deg., or even 70deg. They require to be kept dry, and warm in winter, as nothing is more fatal to them than cold or damp. Beneath a shelf or stage in the stove is an excellent spot for them, or they may be stored in sand, and kept free from frost. They are difficult to increase; the corms of most of them are of great size, and rarely make offsets. Efforts should consequently be made to induce the plants to seed whenever practicable. All the species are strikingly effective in sub-tropical bedding. For fertilising and growth of seedlings, _see_ =Arum=. =A. campanulatus= (bell-shaped).* Similar to _A. Rivieri_, but the flowers are brown, red, and black, and the scape is neither so stout nor so tall. _h._ 2ft. India, 1817. SYN. _Arum campanulatum_. =A. grandis= (large). _fl._, spathe green, white inside; spadix purplish. _h._ 3ft. Java, 1865. Stove species. =A. Lacourii= (Lacour's).* _l._ pedatisect, the ultimate segments lanceolate, yellow-spotted; petioles transversely mottled with yellow markings. Cochin China, 1879. Greenhouse. The correct name of this species is _Pseudodracontium Lacourii_. =A. nivosus.= _See_ =Dracontium asperum=. =A. Rivieri= (Rivier's).* _fl._, spadix, spathe, and scape, reaching 3ft. or more in height, appearing before the leaves; scape stout and strong, of a deep green colour, speckled or dotted with rose; spadix projecting, deep red; spathe of a rosy-green colour. March to May. _l._ solitary, decompound, 40in. to 50in. across, on tall marbled petioles. Cochin China. Perhaps the most useful species. SYN. _Proteinophallus Rivieri_. See Fig. 78. [Illustration: FIG. 78. AMORPHOPHALLUS RIVIERI, Foliage and Inflorescence.] =A. Titanum= (Titan's).* _fl._, spadix 5ft. high, black purple; spathe nearly 3ft. in diameter, campanulate in shape, with patent and deeply toothed edges. The deeper portion of the interior is pale greenish, but the limb is of a bright black purple hue; the outside is pale green, smooth in the lower portion, but thickly corrugated and crisp above; scape about 1-1/2ft. long, green, marked with small whitish orbicular spots. _l._ the divided blade covers an area of 45ft. in circumference. West Sumatra, 1878. As will be seen from the above, this extraordinary plant is of gigantic proportions, and, in size of the flowers, eclipsing nearly all others in the vegetable kingdom. SYN. _Conophallus Titanum_. =AMORPHOUS.= Without definite form. =AMPELOPSIS= (from _ampelos_, a vine, and _opsis_, resemblance; resembling the Grape Vine in habit, and to which it is closely allied). SYN. _Quinaria_. ORD. _Ampelideæ_. A genus nearly allied to _Vitis_. Calyx slightly five toothed; petals concave, thick, expanding before they fall; disk none. Fast growing and ornamental climbing, hardy deciduous shrubs, of very easy culture in common garden soil. Cuttings, having a good eye, may be taken in September, and pricked either under handlights in sandy soil on the open border, or in pots stood on the stage or shelf in a greenhouse; they root readily, and will be fit for transplanting early in the spring. Or cuttings made from the young soft wood, expressly grown for the purpose, in spring, root freely in gentle heat. This applies especially to _A. tricuspidata_. They are also easily increased by layers. Most of the species will thrive with equal vigour in almost any position, however exposed. =A. aconitifolia= (Aconite-leaved).* _l._ palmisect, with pinnatifid segments. China, 1868. A slender and very elegant free-growing species, with long reddish branches. There are two or more varieties. SYNS. _A. lucida_, _A. triloba_, _A. tripartita_, and _Vitis dissecta_. See Fig. 79. =A. bipinnata= (bipinnate). _fl._ green, small; raceme stalked, twice bifid. Berries globose. June. _l._ bipinnate, smooth; leaflets deeply lobed. _h._ 10ft. Virginia, 1700. =A. hederacea= (Ivy-leaved). Synonymous with _A. quinquefolia_. =A. japonica= (Japanese). Synonymous with _A. tricuspidata_. =A. lucida= (shining). Synonymous with _A. aconitifolia_. =A. napiformis= (turnip-like).* Greenish. China, 1870. See Fig. 80. =A. quinquefolia= (five-leaved).* Virginian Creeper. _fl._ greenish-purple; raceme corymbose. June. _l._ palmate, with three and five leaflets, smooth on both surfaces; leaflets stalked, oblong-acuminated, mucronately toothed; autumnal tint red. North America, 1629. SYN. _A. hederacea_. =A. q. hirsuta= (hairy). _l._ downy on both surfaces. =A. serjaniæfolia= (Serjania-leaved).* _l._ green, palmately five-parted, or the upper ones three-parted, the intermediate division being often ternate or pinnate; leaflets obovate acute, and incisely toothed or sublobate; the rachis is articulately winged. Japan, 1867. SYNS. _A. tuberosa_, _Cissus viticifolia_. Roots tuberous; see Fig. 81. [Illustration: FIG. 79. STEM AND LEAVES OF AMPELOPSIS ACONITIFOLIA.] =A. tricuspidata= (three-pointed).* _l._ very variable in shape; younger ones almost entire; older ones larger, roundish-cordate, divided to the middle into three deltoid lobes, which run into little tails, and are coarsely toothed at the margin. Japan, 1868. SYNS. _A. Veitchii_, _Vitis japonica_ (of gardens). =A. triloba= (three-lobed). A synonym of _A. aconitifolia_. =A. tripartita= (three-parted). A synonym of _A. aconitifolia_. =A. tuberosa= (tuberous). A synonym of _A. serjaniæfolia_. =A. Veitchii= (Veitch's). A synonym of _A. tricuspidata_. =AMPHIBLEMMA CYMOSUM.= _See_ =Melastoma corymbosum=. =AMPHIBLESTRA.= Included under =Pteris= (which _see_). =AMPHICARP�A= (from _amphi_, both, and _karpos_, a fruit; in allusion to the two kinds of pods--those of the upper flowers being scimitar-shaped, three or four-seeded; those of the lower, pear-shaped, fleshy, usually ripening but one seed; these lower pods bury themselves in the ground after fertilisation). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus of ornamental annuals, with herbaceous, twining stems, and sometimes apetalous flowers, allied to _Wistaria_. The species are of easy culture. Seeds should be sown in the open border, in spring, in a sunny situation. =A. monoica= (mon�cious). Hog Pea-nut. _fl._ with a pale violet vexillum, and white keel and wings; racemes axillary, pendulous. June to August. _l._ pinnately-trifoliate; leaflets ovate, glabrous. North America. 1781. [Illustration: FIG. 80. TUBERS AND LEAF OF AMPELOPSIS NAPIFORMIS.] [Illustration: FIG. 81. ROOTS OF AMPELOPSIS SERJANI�FOLIA.] =AMPHICOME= (from _amphi_, on both sides, and _kome_, a head of hair; in reference to the seeds being furnished with a tuft of hairs at both ends). ORD. _Bignoniaceæ_. Flowers axillary or terminal. Leaves alternate, unequally pinnate. Very ornamental greenhouse or half-hardy rock herbaceous plants. If planted outside, they must be protected during the winter from wet and severe frosts. A mixture of loam, sand, and leaf soil suits them well. Increased by striking the young shoots in spring in sandy soil in gentle heat; or by seed, which should be sown in early spring, in pots of sandy soil placed in a greenhouse. =A. arguta= (finely-cut).* _fl._ red, drooping; racemes axillary, terminal; corolla tubular near the base, ventricose above. August. _l._ alternate, impari-pinnate; leaflets opposite, on short petioles, three to four pairs, lanceolate, acuminated, deeply serrated. _h._ 3ft. Himalaya, 1837. =A. Emodi= (Emodian).* _fl._ rose and orange, erect; racemes axillary; corolla 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, bell-shaped, slightly tubular below. August to October. _l._ impari-pinnate, with numerous leaflets. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. India, at high altitudes, 1852. A very beautiful plant. =AMPHILOPHIUM= (from _amphilophos_, crested on all sides; limb of corolla much curled). SYN. _Amphilobium_. ORD. _Bignoniaceæ_. A handsome stove evergreen climber. Corolla somewhat coriaceous, with a short tube, and a large ventricose throat. Loam and peat, well mixed, suits it best; cuttings from young shoots root readily in sand, under a hand glass, with bottom heat, during the spring months. =A. paniculatum= (panicled).* _fl._ rose-coloured; panicle terminal, composed of three-flowered peduncles. June. _l._ joined by pairs, opposite; leaflets ovate-roundish, acuminated, sub-cordate. West Indies, 1738. =AMPLEXICAULIS.= Embracing the stem; usually applied to leaves. =AMPULLACEOUS.= Resembling a bladder or flask. =AMSONIA= (in honour of Charles Amson, a scientific traveller in America). ORD. _Apocynaceæ_. Very pretty hardy, herbaceous perennials, with alternate leaves, and terminal panicles of pale blue flowers; corolla with linear lobes, and a narrow funnel-shaped tube. They thrive in half shady positions in borders, or the edges of shrubberies, where they will not need to be frequently transplanted. Propagated by cuttings during the summer months, or by divisions of the roots in spring. =A. latifolia= (broad-leaved). Synonymous with _A. Tabernæmontana_. [Illustration: FIG. 82. AMSONIA SALICIFOLIA, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. salicifolia= (willow-leaved).* _fl._ light blue, in terminal corymbose cymes; corolla small, funnel-shaped, with a rounded tube; throat whitish, bearded. Summer. _l._ lanceolate, smooth, acute. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2-1/2ft. North America, 1812. Habit less erect than the following species. See Fig. 82. =A. Tabernæmontana= (Tabernæmontanus).* _fl._ pale blue, in cymes; petals lanceolate, acute, slightly hairy on the outside; sepals also lanceolate, acute. Summer. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acute, shortly stalked. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2-1/2ft. North America, 1759. SYNS. _A. latifolia_, _Tabernæmontana Amsonia_. =AMYGDALUS= (from _amysso_, to lacerate; fissured channels in the stone of the fruit). Almond. ORD. _Rosaceæ_. TRIBE _Drupaceæ_. Well known, ornamental, deciduous spring flowering shrubs. Drupe clothed with velvety pubescence, with a fibrous dry rind, separating irregularly, having the stone of the fruit pitted or smooth. The larger-growing species are very excellent for shrubberies, or as specimen trees; being in blossom before most other trees, they make a fine appearance in early spring. The dwarfer kinds are also well fitted for small shrubberies or the fronts of large ones. For greenhouse culture they should be obtained in a small pyramidal shape; they are not, however, suited to a small house, as the plants, to bloom well and be effective, ought to be at least 2ft. or 3ft. high, and proportionately wide. Plenty of root room is essential. After potting, water thoroughly, and place the trees in an orchard house for a few weeks, when they may be removed to their permanent station. A temperature of about 50deg. or 55deg. is sufficient to hasten the flowering; a higher temperature is apt to frustrate the object in view. After flowering, gradually harden off the plants until about the end of May, when they may be plunged out of doors for the season. Repotting should be done as soon as the leaves fall. Increased by budding upon seedling plum-stocks in summer. The Almond is grown on the Continent for its fruit. _See also_ =Prunus=. =A. argentea= (silvery). A synonym of _A. orientalis_. =A. Besseriana= (Besser's). A synonym of _A. nana_. =A. cochinchinensis= (Cochin China). _fl._ white; racemes small, sub-terminal. _fr._ ovate, ventricose, acute at the apex. March. _l._ oval, quite entire. _h._ 30ft. to 40ft. Cochin China, 1825. Greenhouse. [Illustration: FIG. 83. FLOWERING BRANCH OF AMYGDALUS COMMUNIS.] =A. communis= (common).* Common Almond. _fl._ white or rose coloured, solitary. March. _fr._ compressed, egg-shaped, tomentose. _l._ oblong lanceolate, serrulated. _h._ 10ft. to 30ft. Barbary, 1548. See Fig. 83. =A. c. amara= (bitter).* Bitter Almond. _fl._ larger, white, but rose coloured at the base. April. Seeds bitter. =A. c. dulcis= (sweet). Sweet Almond. _fl._ red, earlier; fruit ovate, compressed, acuminated. Seeds sweet. _l._ of a greyish green colour. =A. c. flore-pleno= (double-blossomed).* _fl._ flesh colour, full double, rosy in the bud. _l._ oval-elliptic, acuminate. =A. c. fragilis= (brittle). _fl._ pale rose coloured, rising with the leaves; petals broader, deeply emarginate. _l._ shorter than those of the type. =A. c. macrocarpa= (large-fruited).* _fl._ whitish rose colour, large, rising before the leaves, with broadly obcordate undulated petals. _fr._ larger than that of the type, umbilicate at the base, but acuminated at the apex. _l._ broader than the type, acuminated. There are also numerous other varieties. =A. incana= (hoary).* _fl._ red, solitary. April. Drupe compressed, pubescent. _l._ obovate, serrated, clothed with white tomentum beneath. _h._ 2ft. A handsome dwarf shrub. Caucasus, 1815. =A. nana= (dwarf).* _fl._ rose coloured, solitary. March. _fr._ of the same form as that of _A. communis_, but much smaller. _l._ oblong-linear, attenuated at the base, serrated, quite glabrous. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Tartary, 1683. SYN. _A. Besseriana_. =A. orientalis= (Oriental). _fl._ rose coloured. March. _fr._ mucronate. _l._ lanceolate, quite entire, almost permanent, clothed with silvery tomentum, as well as the branches. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Levant, 1756. SYN. _A. argentea_. =AMYLACEOUS.= Starch-like. =AMYRIDACE�.= _See_ =Burseraceæ=. =AMYRIS= (from _a_, intensive, and _myron_, balm; the whole of the trees in this genus smell strongly of balm or myrrh). ORD. _Burseraceæ_. Ornamental stove evergreen trees, abounding in a resinous fluid. Flowers white, disposed in panicles. Leaves unequally pinnate. They thrive well in a mixture of loam and peat; and cuttings root freely in sand, under a hand glass with bottom heat, during the spring months. =A. balsamifera= (balsam-bearing). Synonymous with _A. toxifera_. =A. braziliensis= (Brazilian).* _fl._ white; panicles axillary, shorter than the leaves. August. _l._ with one to three pairs of opposite leaflets; leaflets lanceolate, tapering to the base, rounded at the apex, mucronate, quite entire, veiny, shining above, discoloured beneath. _h._ 20ft. Brazil, 1823. =A. heptaphylla= (seven-leaved). _fl._ whitish yellow; panicles branched, axillary, and terminal. _l._ with three to four pairs of alternate, simple leaflets, which are stalked, obliquely-lanceolate, acuminated, entire. _h._ 16ft. India, 1823. =A. Plumieri= (Plumier's).* Gum Elemi Tree. _fl._ white; panicles branched, terminal. The fruit of this species is the shape and size of an olive, but red, having an odoriferous pulp within it. _l._ leaflets three to five, all stalked, somewhat serrated, ovate, acuminate, villous beneath. _h._ 20ft. West Indies, 1820. =A. toxifera= (poison-bearing).* _fl._ white; racemes simple, about the length of the petioles. _fr._ the shape of a pear, and of a purple colour, hanging in bunches. _l._, leaflets five to seven, stalked, ovate, somewhat cordate, acuminated. _h._ 50ft. West Indies, 1818. The wood, known as Rhodes Wood, bears a fine polish, and has a pleasant smell. SYN. _A. balsamifera_. =ANACAMPSEROS= (from _anakampto_, to cause return, and _eros_, love). SYN. _Rulingia_. ORD. _Portulacaceæ_. Very dwarf greenhouse succulent herbs or sub-shrubs, natives of the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers large, expanding only in the heat of the sun; petals five, very fugacious; sepals five, opposite, oblong, rather concrete at the base; pedicels one-flowered, short or elongated, disposed in racemes. Leaves ovate, fleshy. They grow freely in sandy loam, mixed with some lime rubbish; but little water is needed. Cuttings root freely if laid to dry a few days before planting. Leaves taken off close to the plants, and also left to dry for a short time before being planted, will take root. Seed, when obtainable, should be sown in the spring. =A. arachnoides= (cobwebbed).* _fl._ white; petals lanceolate; racemes simple. July. _l._ ovate, acuminated, difformed, green, shining, cobwebbed. _h._ 6in. to 9in. 1790. =A. filamentosa= (thready). _fl._ reddish, or deep rose coloured; petals oblong. August. _l._ ovate-globose, gibbous on both sides, and cobwebbed, rather rugged above. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. 1795. =A. intermedia= (intermediate). Very like _A. filamentosa_, but has broader and more numerous leaves. =A. rubens= (reddish).* _fl._ red; racemes simple. July. _l._ ovate, difformed, shining, dark green, somewhat reflexed at the apex. _h._ 6in. to 9in. 1796. =A. rufescens= (rusty-coloured). _fl._ reddish, similarly disposed to _A. varians_. July. _l._ crowded, expanded and recurved, ovate, acute, thick, green, usually dark purple beneath. _h._ 6in. 1818. =A. Telephiastrum= (Telephium-like). Synonymous with _A. varians_. =A. varians= (varying).* _fl._ reddish; racemes few-flowered, sub-panicled. July. _l._ ovate, difformed, glabrous. _h._ 3in. 1813. SYN. _A. Telephiastrum_. =ANACAMPTIS.= _See_ =Orchis=. =ANACARDIACE�.= A rather large order of trees or shrubs, with a resinous, milky juice. Flowers inconspicuous. Leaves generally dotless. Ovary containing a single ovule. This order contains, among other genera, _Anacardium_, _Mangifera_, and _Rhus_. =ANACARDIUM= (origin doubtful; probably from _ana_, like, and _kardia_, the heart; in reference to the form of the nut). ORD. _Anacardiaceæ_. An ornamental stove evergreen tree with entire, feather-nerved leaves and terminal panicles of flowers; nut reniform, umbilicated, seated laterally on a fleshy, wide, pear-shaped peduncle. It requires a light loamy soil. Ripened cuttings, with their leaves left on, root freely in sand under a hand glass, in heat. =A. occidentale= (Western). Cashew Nut. _fl._ reddish, small, very sweet scented, succeeded by an edible pome-like fruit of a yellow or red colour. _l._ oval, cuneated, very blunt, somewhat emarginate, obovate-oblong, entire, smooth. _h._ 16ft. West Indies, 1699. =ANADENIA.= _See_ =Grevillea=. =ANAGALLIS= (from _anagelas_, to laugh; removing despondency: meaning doubtful). Pimpernel. ORD. _Primulaceæ_. Annual or perennial trailers with angular stems, opposite or verticillate leaves, and solitary pedunculate flowers; corolla rotate or funnel-shaped, deeply five-cleft. All are very pretty and free flowering plants, of easy culture. The annuals are raised from seed sown in a sunny spot in spring; the perennials are increased by striking cuttings of the young shoots, or division, at any time, either under a hand glass or in a close frame. Keep in the shade until well established, and gradually harden off. Plant outside in light rich soil for summer flowering, and each year secure a stock in frames during the winter. They require, if left out of doors, a protection during the winter, except _A. tenella_. =A. fruticosa= (shrubby).* _fl._ axillary, large, vermilion, with a dark throat. May to August. _l._ verticillate, four in each whorl. _h._ 2ft. Morocco, 1803. A biennial. =A. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ very variable, but intense blue and deep vermilion red are predominant. May to autumn. _h._ 4in. Habit very compact and neat, and very floriferous. There are several varieties. Annual. =A. indica= (Indian). _fl._ deep blue, small. July. _h._ 1ft. Nepaul, 1824. Annual; trailing. [Illustration: FIG. 84. ANAGALLIS LINIFOLIA, showing Habit and Flowers.] =A. linifolia= (flax-leaved).* _fl._ brilliant blue, large, about 1/2in. in diameter. July. _l._ opposite. _h._ 9in. to 12in. Portugal, 1796. Perennial. There are many varieties, the best of which are the following. SYN. _A. Monelli_. See Fig. 84. =A. l. Brewerii= (Brewer's).* _fl._ red. June. _h._ 9in. Known also as _Phillipsii_. =A. l. Eugenie= (Eugenie's).* _fl._ blue, margined with white. =A. l. lilacina= (lilac-flowered). _fl._ lilac. May. _h._ 1ft. =A. l. Napoleon III.= (Napoleon's).* _fl._ crimson maroon, distinct and pretty. =A. l. Parksii= (Parks'). _fl._ red, large. =A. l. ph�nicea= (Ph�nician).* _fl._ scarlet. May. Morocco, 1803. =A. l. sanguinea= (bloody). _fl._ bright ruby colour. =A. l. Wilmoreana= (Wilmore's).* _fl._ bright blue purple, with yellow eye. _h._ 6in. =A. Monelli= (Monell's). A synonym of _A. linifolia_. =A. tenella= (delicate).* _fl._ delicate pink, with deeper veins; corolla bell-shaped. Summer. _l._ roundish, very small, opposite. A beautiful little native bog trailer, and one of the prettiest in the whole genus. Requires a boggy and wet soil. =A. Webbiana= (Webb's). _fl._ blue; petals with their tops slightly denticulated. June to August. _l._ several, verticillate. _h._ 4in. Portugal, 1828. =ANAGYRIS= (from _ana_, backwards, and _gyros_, a circle; the pods are curved backwards at their extremities). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. An ornamental greenhouse or half-hardy shrub, having the two stipules placed opposite the leaves. It thrives in a mixture of loam, sand, and peat in equal proportions. Young cuttings should be planted in July in a pot of sand, and placed under a hand glass. =A. f�tida= (f�tid). _fl._ yellow, hairy, like those of the Laburnum; racemes short. May. _l._ trifoliate; leaflets lanceolate, acute, entire. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. South Europe, 1750. This shrub is f�tid in every part when bruised. =ANALOGY.= Resembling a thing in form but not in function; or _vice versâ_. Corresponding with a thing in many points, but differing in more, or in points of more importance. =ANANAS= (from _nanas_, the South American name for the Pine Apple). SYN. _Ananassa_. Pine Apple. ORD. _Bromeliaceæ_. Stove herbaceous perennials, having the berries collected with the bracts into a compound fruit. Leaves rigid; edges spiny. The variegated form is a useful plant for decorative purposes, and may be employed without the usual harmful consequences attending stove plants generally, but it must not be subjected to cold draughts. The soil should consist of two parts fibrous loam, one of peat, one of dung and leaf mould, and another of sand. Those propagated from suckers, which should be laid by a day or two and then inserted in a strong heat, have, as a rule, longer and lighter-coloured leaves. Offsets are often produced at the base of the fruit, and make stout plants, with high-coloured foliage. When the plants are potted in spring, plunge them in bottom heat, to hasten their growth; but this is not absolutely necessary. Should it be desired to fruit the variegated form, the plants may be submitted to the same process of culture as detailed under =Pine Apple= (which _see_). =A. bracamorensis= (Bracamora). Brazil, 1879. =A. bracteata= (bracted). _fl._ crimson. April. _h._ 3ft. Brazil, 1820. =A. lucida= (shining). _fl._ pink. April. _h._ 3ft. South America, 1820. =A. macrodonta= (large-toothed).* _fl._ reddish, tinted buff; spike elongate-ovoid, with imbricating dentate bracts. _fr._ conical, about 8in. long and 4in. wide, with conspicuous bracts, and highly perfumed. _l._ with conspicuous teeth. 1878. SYN. _Bromelia undulata_. =A. Mordilona= (Mordilona; native name). _fr._ large, with a fine aroma. _l._ distinguished in being without spines. Columbia, 1869. =A. Porteana= (Porter's).* _l._ armed on the margins with sharp spines, deep olive green, with a broad band of pale yellow running down the centre from base to apex. This species has a somewhat erect habit of growth. Philippines, 1866. =A. sativa= (cultivated). Pine Apple. For culture, _see_ =Pine Apple=. =A. s. variegata= (variegated).* _l._ rosulate, finely arched, 2ft. or 3ft. long, serrated on the edges; centre bright green, sometimes with a few lines of white, broadly margined with rich creamy-yellow, tinged with red towards the margins. A very elegant variegated plant for vases, &c. =ANANASSA.= _See_ =Ananas=. =ANANTHERIX= (from _a_, without, and _antherix_, an awn; there are no horn-formed processes from the base of the leaflets of the corona, as in _Asclepias_, to which it is closely allied). ORD. _Asclepiadeæ_. A small genus of pretty, hardy herbs. _A. viridis_ is of easy culture in an open situation, and light soil. Increased by division of the root; or by seeds, which ripen in abundance. =A. viridis= (green). _fl._ purplish-green, large; corolla sub-campanulate, five-cleft; umbels proceeding from the stem, sub-panicled, few-flowered. August. _l._ opposite, sessile, obovate-oblong, pointed, smoothish. _h._ 1ft. North America, 1812. =ANAPELTIS.= Included under _Polypodium_. =ANARRHINUM= (from _a_, without, and _rhin_, a snout; the corolla being without a spur, or furnished with a very short one). ORD. _Scrophularineæ_. Elegant little half-hardy biennials or perennials allied to _Antirrhinum_. Flowers small, drooping, in long spike-formed, twiggy, and interrupted racemes. Radical leaves usually in a rosette; stem and branch leaves palmate-parted, or toothed at the apex; superior ones quite entire. They are of easy culture in ordinary garden soil; seed may be sown outside in spring, or they can be increased by growing cuttings, but they require protection during severe weather. =A. bellidifolium= (Daisy-leaved).* _fl._ white, or pale blue; racemes slender, elongated. June. _l._ radical ones spathulate or obovate-lanceolate, deeply toothed; branch leaves deeply three to seven-parted. _h._ 2ft. South Europe, 1629. =A. Duriminium= (Douro). A synonym of _A. hirsutum_. =A. fruticosum= (shrubby). _fl._ white, without a spur. July. _l._ lower ones mostly tridentate at the apex; superior ones oblong, quite entire. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. South Europe, 1826. Shrubby. =A. hirsutum= (hairy). _fl._ whitish, a little larger than those of _A. bellidifolium_, of which it is, perhaps, only a downy variety. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Portugal, 1818. SYN. _A. Duriminium_. [Illustration: FIG. 85. DRY FRUITING PLANT OF ANASTATICA HIEROCHUNTINA.] =ANASTATICA= (from _anastasis_, resurrection; plant recovering its original form, however dry it may be, on immersion in water). ORD. _Cruciferæ_. A very curious and interesting little annual, the leaves of which fall off from the plant after flowering, the branches and branchlets then become dry, hard, and ligneous, and rise upwards and bend inwards at their points. This plant has the remarkable property of resuming vitality on being placed in water, after being kept in a dry state for many years. Seeds should be sown in heat, in the spring, and the plants afterwards potted off and plunged again in heat to hasten their growth, which cannot otherwise be fully developed with our precarious and sunless summers. [Illustration: FIG. 86. ANASTATICA HIEROCHUNTINA.] =A. Hierochuntina.= Rose of Jericho. _fl._ small, white, sessile, disposed in spikes along the branches; petals obovate. July. _fr._, or silicle, ventricose, with the valves bearing each an appendage on the outer side at the end. _l._ obovate, with stellate hairs; lower ones entire, upper ones slightly toothed. Branches crowded lattice-wise into a globular form. _h._ 6in. Syria, &c., 1597. Supposed by some commentators to be the "_rolling thing_ before the whirlwind" mentioned by Isaiah. See Figs. 85 and 86. =ANASTOMOSE.= Branching of one vein into another. =ANBURY.= _See_ =Ambury=. =ANCEPS.= Two-edged; as the stem of an Iris. =ANCHIETEA= (named in honour of P. Anchietea, a celebrated Brazilian writer on plants). SYNS. _Lucinæa_, _Noisettia_. ORD. _Violarieæ_. An ornamental, stove, evergreen climber. Petals five, very unequal, two upper ones smallest, two intermediate ones longer, lowest one largest, with a spur at the base. The species thrives in a mixture of loam, sand, and peat. Young cuttings root freely under a bell glass if planted in sand, and placed in a moderate heat. =A. pyrifolia= (pear-leaved). _fl._ whitish, veined with red at the base, in axillary fascicles; lower petal obovate. July. _l._ alternate, stalked, stipulate, ovate, acute, crenated. Brazil, 1826. =ANCHOMANES= (name of doubtful origin). ORD. _Aroideæ_. A remarkable and beautiful stove tuberous-rooted perennial aroid, allied to _Amorphophallus_, and requiring somewhat similar treatment. As soon as the leaves die down, the plants should be repotted in rich sandy loam and leaf mould, with ample drainage. They will need scarce any water or attention until growth commences the following spring, when they must have an abundance of water, and a moist atmosphere. Summer temperature, 60deg. to 85deg.; winter, 55deg. to 60deg. Propagated by seeds and offsets. =A. Hookeri= (Hooker's).* _fl._, spathe pale purple, appearing before the leaf, much expanded; spadix whitish; scape prickly, shorter than the petiole. June. _l._, petiole slender, prickly, bearing on its summit the horizontal blade, about 3ft. in diameter; this is divided into three primary divisions, which are again cut up into several leaflets, the largest of these being toothed. _h._ 3ft. Fernando Po, 1832. There is a variety with a paler coloured spathe. SYN. _Caladium petiolatum_. =ANCHOVY PEAR.= _See_ =Grias cauliflora=. [Illustration: FIG. 87. ANCHUSA CAPENSIS, showing Flower and Habit.] =ANCHUSA= (from _anchousa_, paint for the skin; use of some species). ORD. _Boraginaceæ_. Very pretty hardy annuals, biennials, or perennials. Flowers in scorpoid racemes; corolla funnel-shaped; throat closed by erect, obtuse processes; nuts four, one-celled, inversely conical, with a contraction towards the point, fixed to the bottom of the calyx, perforated and concave at the base. Of easy culture, in ordinary soils, and preferring a sunny situation. Propagated by seeds, which should be sown in early spring in pots of sandy soil, when most of them will germinate in three or four weeks, some less. The honey-bee is very partial to this genus. =A. Agardhii= (Agardh's). _fl._ purple, on short pedicels, distant, disposed in terminal racemes, which are generally conjugate. July. _l._ linear-lanceolate, tubercled, strigose. _h._ 1ft. Siberia, 1820. Perennial. Rare. =A. azurea= (blue). Synonymous with _A. italica_. =A. Barrelieri= (Barrelier's). _fl._ blue, with a white tube and yellow throat; racemes conjugate, panicled, bracteate. May. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, denticulated, hispid. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. South Europe, 1820. Perennial. SYNS. _Buglossum Barrelieri_, _Myosotis obtusum_. =A. capensis= (Cape).* _fl._ blue; racemes terminal, panicled. July. _l._ linear lanceolate, hispid. Stem simple, hairy. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1800. Requires greenhouse protection in winter. Biennial. See Fig. 87. [Illustration: FIG. 88. INFLORESCENCE OF ANCHUSA ITALICA.] =A. italica= (Italian). _fl._ bright blue or purple, in panicled racemes. Summer. _l._ lanceolate, entire, shining; radical ones sometimes 2ft. long. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Caucasus, &c., 1810. One of the best. SYNS. _A. azurea_, _A. paniculata_. See Fig. 88. =A. latifolia= (broad-leaved). Synonymous with _Nonnea rosea_. =A. myosotidiflora= (Myosotideum-flowered). _fl._ fine blue; throat yellow; raceme terminal, panicled, bractless. July. _l._ large, radical ones on long petioles, reniformly cordate; those of the stem sessile, ovate, hairy. _h._ 1ft. Siberia, 1825. A pretty plant. SYN. _Myosotis macrophylla_. =A. officinalis= (officinal). _fl._ blue or purple, sessile, imbricate; spikes joined by pairs, terminal. June to October. _l._ lanceolate, hispid; radical ones tufted. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Britain, naturalised here and there. =A. o. incarnata= is a variety with flesh coloured flowers. =A. paniculata= (panicled). Synonymous with _A. italica_. =A. sempervirens= (evergreen). _fl._ rich blue, in short axillary spikes, generally leafy at the base. May. _l._ broadly ovate, lower ones upon long stalks. Stem erect. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Perennial; here and there naturalised in Britain. See Fig. 89. =A. tinctoria= (dyers'). Alkanet. _fl._ deep blue; tube blood-colour; racemes usually twin, terminal, many-flowered. June. _l._ oblong, hispid. _h._ 6in. South Europe, 1596. A diffuse perennial. =ANCYCLOGYNE.= A synonym of =Sanchezia= (which _see_). =ANDERSONIA= (in honour of Messrs. Anderson, surgeons, great promoters of botany). ORD. _Epacridaceæ_. Elegant and delicate little greenhouse shrubs. Flowers terminal, solitary, or spicate; corolla sub-campanulate, hypocrateriform, five-lobed. The undermentioned, which is the only species yet introduced, grows freely in a sandy peat with perfect drainage, which latter is most essential. Cuttings from the tips of young shoots may be made in autumn, winter, or spring, and planted in sand in a gentle heat, with a bell glass placed over them. =A. sprengelioides= (Sprengelia-like).* _fl._ pink, furnished with two small bracteas, spicate. March. _l._ spreading, bases curved inwards, so as to resemble a hood, ending in a flat point. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. New Holland, 1803. Evergreen squarrose shrub. SYN. _Sprengelia Andersoni_. =ANDIRA= (its Brazilian name). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Large ornamental stove evergreen trees, nearly allied to =Geoffroya= (which _see_ for cultivation). Flowers in axillary or terminal panicles. Pod drupaceous. Leaves alternate, unequally pinnate. =A. inermis= (unarmed). _fl._ purple, on short pedicels; panicles terminal. _l._ impari-pinnate; leaflets thirteen to fifteen, ovate-lanceolate, acute, glabrous on both surfaces. _h._ 20ft. to 30ft. Jamaica, 1773. Known as the Cabbage Tree. =A. racemosa= (branchy). _fl._ purple, in panicled racemes. _l._ impari-pinnate; leaflets thirteen, ovate-oblong, acuminated, glabrous on both surfaces. _h._ 20ft. to 60ft. Brazil, 1818. [Illustration: FIG. 89. ANCHUSA SEMPERVIRENS.] =ANDROCYMBIUM= (from _aner_, a man, and _cymbos_, a cavity; the stamens are enclosed in a hollow formed by the folding of the limb of the petals). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A peculiar greenhouse bulbous plant, requiring a light sandy soil, dry atmosphere, no shade, and a season of rest; during the latter period, scarcely any water is required. Propagated by seeds and offsets. =A. punctatum= (dotted). _fl._ whitish, few, in a dense sessile umbel, surrounded by about four spreading lanceolate, acuminate leaves, which are 5in. to 6in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad above the base, channelled down the centre from base to tip. South Africa, 1874. =ANDR�CIUM.= The male organ of the flower. =ANDROGYNOUS.= Producing male and female flowers on the same spike. =ANDROLEPIS= (from _aner_, a man, and _lepis_, a scale; referring to the scaly stamens). ORD. _Bromeliaceæ_. Stove evergreen epiphyte. For culture, _see_ =�chmea=. =A. Skinneri= (Skinner's). _fl._ white. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Guatemala, 1850. SYN. _Billbergia Skinneri_. =ANDROMEDA= (named after the daughter of Cepheus, who was rescued from the sea monster by Perseus). ORD. _Ericaceæ_. A dwarf, hardy shrub, found in peaty bogs in the temperate and Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere. Sow seeds as soon as ripe in pots or pans, very thinly, in sandy peat soil, and place in a cool frame, giving plenty of air. Place the young plants out in spring. Layers, pegged carefully down during September, will generally take twelve months to make sufficient roots to allow of their being separated, and thus become independent plants. For other species often included under this genus in catalogues, _see_ =Cassandra=, =Cassiope=, =Leucothoë=, =Lyonia=, =Oxydendrum=, =Pieris=, and =Zenobia=. =A. polifolia= (Polium-leaved). Wild Rosemary. _fl._ pinky white, drooping, sometimes tipped with red; corolla ovate, furnished with ovate, rather leafy imbricated bracteas, terminal, umbellate. June. _l._ linear-lanceolate, mucronulate, with the margins more or less revolute, quite entire, glaucous beneath, with an elevated rib, and reticulated veins. _h._ 1ft. The numerous varieties of this very beautiful native shrub principally differ in the colouring of the flowers. =ANDROPOGON= (from _aner_, a man, and _pogon_, a beard; tufts of hair on flowers). ORD. _Gramineæ_. A large genus of grasses with polygamous flowers. The majority of species are of no horticultural value; several, however, are very ornamental subjects, and thrive well in a rich, deep soil. Easily propagated by seeds or by division of the roots. The South European kinds succeed in the open air if planted in a warm dry border. =A. citratum= (Citrus-leaved). Synonymous with _A. Sch�nanthus_. =A. Sch�nanthus.= Lemon Grass. _fl._ in threes; spikes imbricate, conjugate, panicled. A handsome species, the leaves of which emit a very fragrant odour when bruised. _h._ 2ft. India, 1786. Stove species. SYN. _A. citratum_. Other species worth growing are _furcatus_, _halepensis_, _muricatus_, _pubescens_, _scoparius_, _squarrosus_, and _strictus_. =ANDROSACE= (from _aner_, a man, and _sakos_, buckler; in reference to the resemblance of the anther to an ancient buckler). Including _Aretia_. ORD. _Primulaceæ_. Dwarf annuals or perennials, entirely alpine, agreeing in most characters with _Primula_, but having the tube of the corolla narrowed at the mouth. An airy, well-drained, and partially sunny position is essential in their culture. They thrive well between fissures of rocks or stones with a rich sandy peat soil. Drought and a sour soil are alike fatal, and both will be greatly obviated if small pieces of sandstone are mixed with the soil. The woolly species are best arranged beneath a jutting ledge of the rockery, which will afford them protection from the hottest sunshine, and from excessive wet in winter; additional comfort will be provided from the latter ill if a piece of glass is placed over them during the autumn and winter months. They can also be well grown, and make charming little specimens, in pots, with rich sandy soil and thorough drainage. Sprinkle sand among the small rosettes of leaves. They are increased by divisions, cuttings, or seed; the latter should be sown as early as possible, and raised in a frame. =A. alpina= (alpine). _fl._ purplish rose; throat and tube yellow, solitary; peduncles about 1/2in. long. June. _l._ crowded, small, tongue-shaped, in small rosettes. _h._ 2in. to 3in. Switzerland, 1775. This species requires a rather shady aspect, and to be planted almost perpendicularly in a soil composed of leaf mould, peat, fibrous loam, and sharp sand. SYN. _A. glacialis_. =A. Aretia= (Aretius'). Synonymous with _A. helvetica_. =A. aretioides= (Aretia-like). Synonymous with _A. obtusifolia_. =A. argentea= (silvery).* _fl._ white, sessile, very numerous. June. _l._ densely imbricated, lanceolate, oblong, covered with short hairs, forming very pretty silvery-grey rosettes. _h._ about 2in. Switzerland, 1826. This requires a well drained, sunny fissure. SYN. _A. imbricata_. =A. carnea= (flesh-coloured).* _fl._ pink or rose, with a yellow eye, three to seven, on hairy stalked umbels. July. _l._ awl-shaped, smooth, acuminated, not forming rosettes. Stem somewhat elongated. _h._ 3in. or 4in. Switzerland, 1768. This forms charming little cushions if allowed to remain undisturbed; it is easily increased. SYNS. _A. Lachenalii_, _A. puberula_. =A. c. eximia= (select).* Larger and more robust than the typical species, and a more rapid grower. Forms compact tufts of dense rosettes, bearing heads of rosy-crimson yellow-eyed flowers, on stems 2in. or 3in. high. Auvergne Alps, 1871. It requires moist sunny ledges and fissures of rockwork in peat, loam, and sand. =A. Chamæjasme= (rock jasmine).* _fl._ blush, ultimately deep pink, with a yellow eye, umbellate. June. _l._ lanceolate, tapering to a point towards the base, in comparatively large, not dense, rosettes. _h._ about 2in. to 4in. Austria, &c., 1768. A very free flowering species, growing freely when established, ultimately forming large tufts. It thrives best in a deep, well drained and rich loam soil. =A. ciliata= (ciliated). _fl._ deep carmine red, on stems double as long as the leaves. June. _l._ lanceolate-oblong, smooth on both surfaces, with ciliated margins, imbricated. _h._ 2in. to 3in., forming dense cushions. Pyrenees. =A. coronopifolia= (buckhorn-leaved).* _fl._ pure white, on slender pedicels, umbellate on peduncles, about 6in. high. April to June. _l._ lanceolate, distantly serrated, smooth, in flattish rosettes. Russia, 1755. This is a charming little biennial, well worthy of a place on the rockery. A colony of it is extremely pretty; it seeds freely, and a batch of young plants almost invariably takes the place of the old ones. SYN. _A. septentrionalis_. =A. glacialis= (glacial). Synonymous with _A. alpina_. =A. helvetica= (Swiss).* _fl._ white, nearly sessile, with a yellow eye, larger than the little rosettes of leaves on the stalk from which they spring. May. _l._ lanceolate, obtuse, closely imbricated, small, ciliated. _h._ 1in., forming dense cushions. Switzerland, 1775. A rare little gem, requiring a partially shaded position, and very sandy soil. SYN. _A. Aretia_. =A. imbricata= (imbricated). Synonymous with _A. argentea_. =A. Lachenalii= (Lachenal's). Synonymous with _A. carnea_. =A. lactea= (milk-white).* _fl._ pure white, with yellow throat, large, on long graceful stalks, umbellate. June. _l._ linear, or nearly so, in rosettes, sometimes scattered on the elongated branches. _h._ about 4in. Austria, 1752. Very floriferous and strong growing. Should have an eastern or western aspect, and be propagated from seeds. SYN. _A. pauciflora_. [Illustration: FIG. 90. ANDROSACE LAGGERI.] =A. Laggeri= (Lagger's).* _fl._ pink, sessile; when approaching maturity the stem becomes elongated, and bears a tuft of stalked flowers. March. _l._ awl-shaped, sharply pointed, in tiny rosettes. _h._ 3in. Pyrenees, &c., 1879. Very like _A. carnea_, but more delicate, earlier, and more abundant flowering, with deeper green foliage. It suffers from exposure to the sun, and therefore requires a partially shady position. Should be propagated from seeds or cuttings, which latter strike freely. See Fig. 90. =A. lanuginosa= (woolly-leaved).* _fl._ delicate rose, with a small yellow eye, umbellate. June to October. _l._ nearly 1in. long, clothed with shiny silken hairs. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Himalaya, 1842. A very beautiful species, with spreading or trailing shoots, easily multiplied by cuttings or layers. It requires a warm sunny spot on the rockery, with a sandy peat soil. When planted so that its shoots drape the face of a rocky ledge, it is one of the most charming plants possible to grow. A. obtusifolia (blunt-leaved). _fl._ white or rose, with yellow eye; umbels five or six-flowered. Spring. _l._ lanceolate or rather spathulate, in rather large rosettes. Stems downy. _h._ 2in. to 6in. European Alps. A very pretty form, closely allied to _A. Chamæjasme_, and differing principally in its somewhat larger rosette of leaves and stronger growth. SYN. _A. aretioides_. =A. pauciflora= (few-flowered). Synonymous with _A. lactea_. =A. penicillata= (finely hairy). Synonymous with _A. villosa_. =A. puberula= (puberulous). Synonymous with _A. carnea_. =A. pubescens= (downy). _fl._ white, with a faint yellow eye, solitary, at the ends of the branchlets, very numerous. June. _l._ oblong-ovate, ciliated, in a crowded rosette. Stem with a small swelling close to the flower. _h._ 2in. Alps, 1869. Treat like _A. Chamæjasme_. =A. pyrenaica= (Pyrenean). _fl._ white, with yellowish eyes, on a scape about 1/4in high. Summer. _l._ narrow-oblong, ciliated, recurved, keeled at the back. _h._ 1in. Pyrenees. An exceedingly pretty and diminutive little alpine plant, grown, according to Mr. Robinson, "to great perfection in fissures between large rocks, with, however, deep rifts of sandy peat and loam in them. It will also grow on a level exposed spot, but in such a position should be surrounded by half-buried stones." =A. sarmentosa= (trailing).* _fl._ bright rose, with a white eye, in umbels of ten to twenty, on an erect scape. May and June. _l._ very silvery, forming dense rosettes, whence spring a number of runners, bearing at their extremities other tufts, which should be pegged down and covered with soil, when they will root freely. Himalayas, 1876. It requires rich sandy loam, a sunny position, and to be wedged between pieces of sandstone. Cover the rosettes during winter with a sheet of glass. See Fig. 91. =A. septentrionalis= (northern). Synonymous with _A. coronopifolia_. =A. villosa= (hairy).* _fl._ rose or blush, with a deeper coloured eye, and a honey-like perfume, umbellate. May. _l._ narrow, oblong, covered with soft white down, chiefly on the under surface, in compact tufts. _h._ 2in. to 4in. Pyrenees, &c., 1790. When well grown, the flowers are produced in great abundance, almost covering the green cushions. Plant in a sunny fissure of the rockery, in sandy loam and leaf soil. SYN. _A. penicillata_. [Illustration: FIG. 91. ANDROSACE SARMENTOSA, showing Habit, and the two kinds of Leaves, &c.] =A. Vitaliana= (Vital's).* _fl._ rich yellow, comparatively large; tube inflated at the middle, almost nestling among the leaves. May to July. _l._ linear, acute, greyish. Stems numerous. _h._ 1in. to 2in. Pyrenees, &c., 1787. When well grown, it produces flowers in abundance, and is the only species in cultivation having yellow flowers. A well-drained, sunny pocket is desirable, with a calcareous soil, covering the surface with nodules of sandstone. SYN. _Gregoria Vitaliana_. =A. Wulfeniana= (Wulfen's).* _fl._ rosy or crimson, large. Summer. _l._ oval, acuminated, in dense rosettes. _h._ 2in. Styria. A very rare species in cultivation in this country. =ANDROS�MUM.= _See_ =Hypericum=. =ANDROSTEPHIUM= (from _aner_, a man, and _stephos_, a crown; some of the stamens are barren and petaloid, forming a corona). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A very pretty little hardy bulb, of dwarf habit, allied to _Brodiæa_. It requires a rich sandy loam, in a sunny position, and may be propagated by offsets and seeds; the latter should be sown as soon as ripe in a cold frame. Plant 6in. deep, when it will require no protection in winter. =A. violaceum= (violet). _fl._ violet blue, about 1in. long, three to six in an umbel, on pedicels about their own length; tube infundibuliform, about as long as the spreading segments; corona half as long. Spring. _l._ four to six, very narrow. _h._ 6in. Texas, 1874. =ANDRYALA= (the meaning of this is unknown). ORD. _Compositæ_. These are pretty half-hardy evergreen herbaceous perennials, easily grown in ordinary well-drained garden soil. Increased by seeds and divisions in spring. Two species only are in cultivation. =A. lanata= (woolly).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, Hieracium-like. May. _l._ white, woolly, thick, oblong-ovate; radical ones stalked; upper ones sessile. Stems with a leaf at each joint. _h._ about 1ft. South Europe, 1732. =A. mogadorensis= (Mogador). _fl.-heads_ bright yellow, as large as a half-crown; disk bright orange. April. Morocco, 1871. This species is rare in cultivation. =ANEILEMA= (from _a_, not, and _eilema_, involucre; in reference to the absence of the involucre). ORD. _Commelynaceæ_. Greenhouse and stove evergreen perennials, with generally a trailing habit. A genus resembling _Commelyna_, from which it is distinguished by the inflorescence being sub-paniculate, and the peduncles entirely exserted from the bracts at the branching of the panicle. Flowers without any involucre. They thrive in a compost of loam, peat, leaf mould, and sand, well mixed. Increased by seeds and root divisions. There are a large number of species known to botanists. =A. biflora= (two-flowered).* _fl._ blue; floral stalks two-flowered. July. _l._ lanceolate. Stem creeping; plant smooth. New Holland, 1820. Greenhouse species. =A. sinicum= (Chinese). _fl._ pale blue; racemes about seven-flowered, alternate, placed in a panicle form. May. _l._ ligulate, acuminate. Stems branched, diffuse. _h._ 1ft. China, 1820. Greenhouse species. =ANEMIA= (from _aneimon_, naked; in reference to the naked panicles of sporangia). Including _Anemidictyon_. ORD. _Filices_. A well-marked genus of stove and greenhouse ferns, chiefly confined to Tropical America. Capsules small, very abundant, forming a copiously-branched panicle, quite distinct from the leafy part of the frond. This genus of handsome dwarf-growing ferns is of easy culture, in a compost of fibrous peat, leaf soil, and sand. Several species are exceedingly pretty for fern cases. For general culture, _see_ =Ferns=. =A. adiantifolia= (maidenhair-leaved).* _sti._ 12in. to 18in. long, firm, naked. _fronds_, barren portion shortly-stalked, 6in. to 9in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, deltoid, bi-tripinnate; pinnæ close, lanceolate, the lowest the largest; ultimate divisions oblong or linear-cuneate, the outer toothed, with a firm texture; panicle 3in. to 4in. long, the peduncle 1in. to 3in. long. West Indies, 1793. A very handsome stove fern. =A. ciliata= (ciliated). Synonymous with _A. hirsuta_. =A. collina= (hill). _sti._ 8in. to 12in. long, firm, erect, densely clothed with fine ferruginous hairs. _fronds_, barren portion sessile, 6in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, with about twelve sessile pinnæ on each side, which are 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, and about 1/2in. broad, unequal-sided, obliquely-truncate below, blunt, sub-entire, with a sub-coriaceous texture; panicle 2in. to 3in. long, close, the peduncle 4in. to 6in. long. Brazil, 1829. Very rare stove species. SYN. _A. hirta_. =A. deltoidea= (deltoid-like). Synonymous with _A. tomentosa_. =A. Dregeana= (Drege's).* _sti._ 8in. to 12in. long, firm, slightly villose. _fronds_, barren portion sub-sessile, 8in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, about equal in width in the lower half, with eight to twelve pinnæ on each side, which are 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, ovate-deltoid, unequal at the base, the upper side sub-cordate, the edge inciso-crenate; panicle 3in. to 4in. long, the lower branches elongated; peduncle same length. Natal. Stove species. =A. flexuosa= (wavy). Synonymous with _A. tomentosa_. =A. hirsuta= (hairy). _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, slender, naked. _fronds_, barren portion 2in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 3in. broad, sessile, oblong-deltoid, bipinnatifid; pinnæ in six to eight opposite pairs, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/4in. to 3/4in. broad, varying from oblong, obtuse, sub-entire, truncate at the base on the lower side, to deeply pinnatifid with narrow divisions; panicle 1in. to 2in. long, close; peduncle 2in. to 6in. long, slender. Jamaica, 1704. Very handsome stove species. SYNS. _A. repens_ and _A. ciliata_. =A. hirta= (hairy). Synonymous with _A. collina_. =A. mandioccana= (Mandioccan).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, deciduously villose. _fronds_, barren portion 1ft. or more long, 2in. to 4in. broad, oblong-lanceolate, the lower half about equal in width; pinnæ in twenty or more close pairs, the point narrowed, but scarcely acute; edge finely serrulate, the upper base parallel with the stem, the lower obliquely truncate; rachis and surfaces finely pilose; texture sub-coriaceous; panicle very compound, 3in. to 4in. long: peduncle longer. Brazil. A very beautiful and distinct stove species. =A. Phyllitidis= (Phyllitis-like).* _sti._ 6in. to 18in. long, stramineous, naked, or fibrillose. _fronds_, barren portion sessile, 4in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 8in. broad, ovate-oblong, simply pinnate; pinnæ in four to twelve sessile pairs, the lowest the largest, ovate, 1in. to 6in. long, 1/2in. to 2in. broad, the apex acute, the edge crenulate, the base rounded or cuneate, or unequal, with a firm texture; panicle dense, 3in. to 9in. long, the branches short; peduncles the same length. Cuba, Mexico, &c. SYN. _Anemidictyon Phyllitidis_. Greenhouse species. =A. P. lineata= (lined). _fronds_ with a yellowish-green central stripe down the pinnæ. South America, 1868. =A. P. plumbea= (leaden). Synonymous with _A. P. tessellata_. =A. P. tessellata= (tessellated). Pinnæ dark green, with bright green centre and leaden-grey border. Brazil, 1875. The forms of this species are numerous: _fraxinifolia_ and _macrophylla_ are names often met with, but only show slight deviations. They all have a more hardy constitution than the other species, and grow well in the greenhouse. SYN. _A. P. plumbea_. =A. repens= (creeping). Synonymous with _A. hirsuta_. =A. tomentosa= (tomentose).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, strong, erect, clothed with ferruginous hairs. _fronds_, barren portion 6in. to 12in. long, half as broad, ovate-deltoid, bipinnatifid or bipinnate; lowest pinnæ the largest, the blunt lobes 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, 1/4in. broad, nearly entire; rachis and surfaces densely pilose, with a firm texture; panicle 4in. to 9in. long, loose; peduncle 1in. to 2in. long. Tropical America. Greenhouse species. SYNS. _A. deltoidea_, _A. flexuosa_, _A. villosa_. =A. villosa= (hairy). Synonymous with _A. tomentosa_. =ANEMIDICTYON.= _See_ =Anemia=. =ANEMONE= (from _anemos_, wind; the greater part of the species grow in elevated places, much exposed to the wind). Wind Flower. ORD. _Ranunculaceæ_. An extensive genus of very ornamental hardy perennials. The generic characters of Anemone proper are: Involucre of three cut leaflets, distant from the flower; calyx of five to twenty petal-like sepals; petals absent. Of sub-genus Hepatica: Involucre of three entire leaflets, just under the flowers; calyx of six to nine petal-like sepals; petals absent. For botanical purposes, they are both now included under the one generic name of Anemone; but in gardens the Hepaticas are frequently regarded as a distinct genus. They delight in a rich sandy loam, but most will thrive in ordinary garden soil. Some are suitable for borders, while others thrive best on the rockery, most of them preferring a damp and partially shady position. For the numerous varieties of _A. coronaria_, both double and single flowered, the soil can hardly be too rich, and the position, though open, should be a sheltered one, and well drained. The tubers may be planted early in October, about 6in. apart, and 3in. deep, various colours being intermixed, when a splendid effect is produced in the following spring. After flowering, the tubers should be taken up--say in June--and spread out thinly, in a shady, airy situation, until they are dry, when they should be thoroughly cleaned, and, if necessary, divided, and finally stored away in a cool place, in pots or boxes of dry sand until the planting season. Anemones make admirable pot plants if placed in a compost of two parts turfy loam, and one of leaf mould or rotten hotbed or cow manure, with about a sixth part of sharp gritty sand; but, if so grown, they should be protected through severe weather, and brought into warmth as required. The herbaceous species are propagated by root divisions or root cuttings, or by seeds, in autumn or early spring; the seeds are better sown as soon as ripe in pans in a cold frame. Some, such as _A. japonica_, are freely increased by division; while others, such as _A. narcissiflora_, are very slow; and the tuberous rooted ones, by root division and seeds. The best and most rapid means of propagating the invaluable varieties of _A. coronaria_, and also of obtaining new ones, is by seed. A careful selection of flowers, and skilful hybridising, will produce results commensurate with the trouble incurred. So soon as the seed ripen, they should be gathered and sown at once in a warm sheltered situation outside, or in pans under glass, covering lightly with sandy soil, and keeping moist. They are somewhat difficult to sow on account of a mass of cotton-like down which adheres closely to them; they should be thoroughly separated therefrom by rubbing them in dry sand. Of course, if the seed are sown at different times, plants will be produced which will flower at different periods, and a succession of bloom may be had from April to November--indeed, nearly all the year. =A. alba= (white). _fl._ white; pedicel solitary; sepals five, obovate, very blunt. June. _l._ ternate or quinate; segments deeply toothed at top; those of the involucre stalked. _h._ 6in. Siberia, 1820. =A. alpina= (alpine).* _fl._ variously coloured, sometimes white, white with the back purple, cream, yellowish or yellow with their backs paler; sepals six, spreading, elliptical, rarely ovate. May. _l._ sometimes smooth, sometimes clothed with long crowded silky hairs, biternate; segments pinnate and deeply serrated; involucre of the same form. _h._ 6in. Middle Europe, 1658. Very handsome alpine. Plant on the rockery in rich deep soil, with a damp situation. SYN. _Pulsatilla alpina_. =A. a. sulphurea= (sulphur).* _fl._ beautiful soft yellow, 2in. to 2-1/2in. across when expanded, but they are usually cup-shaped; sepals six, covered with a silky down outside; anthers of a rich golden colour. May and June. _l._ radical, stalked, drooping, more than 1ft. long; leaflets pinnatifid, deeply toothed. A very beautiful form, thriving in ordinary garden soil, and a rather moist situation. See Fig. 92. [Illustration: FIG. 92. ANEMONE ALPINA SULPHUREA, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. americana= (American). A synonym of _A. Hepatica_. =A. angulosa= (angled).* _fl._ fine sky blue, over 2in. across, with numerous black anthers surrounding a tuft of yellow styles; sepals eight to nine, elliptical, spreading. February. _l._ palmately five-lobed; lobes serrated. _h._ 8in. to 12in. East Europe. A very fine species, twice the size of _A. Hepatica_ in all its parts; it is well suited for the border or rockery, enjoying a deep rich soil. SYN. _Hepatica angulosa_. =A. apennina= (Apennine).* _fl._ blue, 1-1/2in. across; sepals ten to fourteen, oblong, obtuse, erect; pedicel one-flowered. March. _l._ binately pinnate; segments lanceolate, deeply-toothed, acute. _h._ 6in. England (naturalised here and there), and Southern Europe. An exceedingly pretty plant, with soft-looking feathery foliage. It thrives best under the partial shade of trees, where the flowers retain their colour longer. Tuberous rooted. =A. baldensis= (Mount Baldo).* _fl._ white, clothed with adpressed hairs on the outside, and reddish tinged with blue; sepals eight to ten, oblong-oval; pedicels one-flowered. May. _l._ biternate; segments many-parted; lobes linear; involucral leaves multifid. _h._ 6in. Switzerland, 1792. _A. c�rulea_ is probably identical with this species. Shady parts of the rockery. Rare. Tuberous rooted. =A. blanda= (fair).* _fl._ deep blue, nearly 2in. across; sepals nine to fourteen, narrow. Winter or early spring. _l._ triternate; segments deeply cut and acute; involucral leaves stalked, trifid, deeply cut. _h._ 6in. Eastern Europe. A very handsome early flowering plant. It requires a rich, light, and well drained sandy loam, and a warm, sheltered position. It closely resembles _A. apennina_, of which it is merely a form, with deeper blue flowers. Tuberous rooted. =A. caroliniana= (Carolina). _fl._ purple or whitish, pubescent on the outside, on a long one-flowered pedicel; sepals ten to twenty, oblong-linear. May. _l._ ternate, with three-parted, or cut acutely-toothed lobes; involucral leaves trifid, with cut lobes. _h._ 9in. Carolina, 1824. A very slender and delicate plant. Shady parts of the rockery. Tuberous rooted. =A. cernua= (drooping). _fl._ somewhat drooping, dark purple; sepals six, spreading, elliptical-oblong. May. _l._ pinnate, villous underneath; segments pinnatifid; lobes cut, oblong; scapes, petioles, and peduncles clothed with downy hairs. _h._ 6in. Japan, 1806. Rare. =A. coronaria= (garland).* Poppy Anemone. _fl._ very various in colouring, solitary; sepals six, oval, approximate. April to May. _l._ ternate; segments multifid; lobules linear, mucronated; involucral leaves sessile, multifid. South Europe, 1596. This is one of the species from which the majority of "florists' varieties" have originated, which can be purchased at such a cheap rate, either in named varieties, or in mixture, and are invaluable for spring flowering. It thrives best in a good loamy soil, and should be somewhat shaded from the mid-day sun. Tuberous rooted. See Fig. 93. [Illustration: FIG. 93. ANEMONE CORONARIA FLORE-PLENO.] [Illustration: FIG. 94. ANEMONE FULGENS.] =A. decapetala= (ten-petaled).* _fl._ cream white or pale sulphur, about 1in. to 2in. across, erect; sepals eight to twelve, oblong, spreading. May to June. _l._ tripartite, and freely divided into numerous linear-acute segments, of a deep green colour. _h._ 12in. to 18in. North-West America, &c. A pretty free-flowering species, suitable for naturalising in woods, &c. It is less ornamental than many others, but is very distinct. [Illustration: FIG. 95. ANEMONE HEPATICA.] =A. dichotoma= (forked).* _fl._ white, with a tinge of red on the under side; sepals five, elliptical; pedicels many, usually bifid. May. _l._ three parted; lobes oblong, deeply-toothed at top; those of the involucrum sessile. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Siberia, North America, &c., 1768. Border, or for naturalising in woods. SYN. _A. pennsylvanica._ [Illustration: FIG. 96. FLOWER AND LEAF OF ANEMONE JAPONICA.] =A. fulgens= (shining).* _fl._ of a dazzling vermilion or scarlet, with a black central patch of stamens, about 2in. across; sepals obovate. May. Greece, South Europe, &c., 1865. A very beautiful variety, much more showy than _A. hortensis_ (of which it is generally regarded as a variety), and a universal favourite. In "Hardy Perennials," Mr. Wood says of this splendid species: "It may be grown in pots for conservatory or indoor decoration. It needs no forcing for such purposes; a cold frame will prove sufficient to bring the flowers out in winter. Borders or the moist parts of rockwork are suitable for it; but perhaps it is seen to greatest advantage in irregular masses in the half shade of trees in front of a shrubbery; and, after all, it is impossible to plant this flower wrong as regards effect. To grow it well, however, it must have a moist situation and good loam." See Fig. 94. =A. Halleri= (Haller's).* _fl._ purplish inside, large, erect; sepals six, oval-lanceolate. April. _l._ pinnate, very villous; segments three parted; lobes with lanceolate-linear, acuminated divisions. _h._ 6in. Switzerland, 1816. A sunny border or the rockery. SYN. _Pulsatilla Halleri_. =A. Hepatica= (supposed remedy for liver diseases). Common Hepatica. _fl._ usually blue; sepals six to nine. February. _l._ cordate, three-lobed; lobes quite entire, ovate, acutish; petioles and scapes rather hairy. _h._ 4in. to 6in. There are numerous varieties of this species. England, &c. SYN. _Hepatica triloba_. Varieties: _alba_ has large pure white flowers; _c�rulea_ (blue), the double form of _c�rulea_ is scarce and very showy; _rubra_ produces reddish-pink flowers, and of which there is also a double variety, very bright and lasting; _Barlowi_ has large sky-blue flowers. Besides these there are many others. They are all charming early spring-flowering plants, preferring rich light soil, and to remain undisturbed for years, when they form grand clumps, often producing seedlings where they stand. SYN. _A. americana_. See Fig. 95. =A. Honorine Jobert= (Honorine Jobert). Synonymous with _A. japonica alba_. =A. hortensis= (garden). Nearly approaches _A. coronaria_, the parent of a large number of garden forms. _A. fulgens_ and _A. stellata_ are by competent authorities placed as varieties. =A. Hudsoniana= (Hudson's). Synonymous with _A. multifida_. =A. japonica= (Japanese).* _fl._ rosy carmine, from 2in. to 2-1/2in. across, on footstalks which spring from a whorl of three or four leaves; anthers golden yellow. Autumn. _l._ ternate, with unequally lobed, toothed segments. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Japan, 1844. See Fig. 96. [Illustration: FIG. 97. ANEMONE JAPONICA ALBA.] =A. j. alba= (white).* This is a splendid variety, with a profusion of large pure white flowers, which are produced from August to November. This white form is one of the handsomest of border flowers. The blooms are 2in. to 3in. across, with a centre of dense lemon coloured stamens. For cutting purposes the flowers are invaluable. It thrives best in deep soil. SYN. _A. Honorine Jobert_. See Fig. 97. =A. j. elegans= (elegant).* Very like _A. japonica_, with broader leaves, and pale rose-coloured flowers, which are more than 3in. across. This is also called _rosea_ and _hybrida_. Japan. =A. lancifolia= (lance-leaved). _fl._ white; sepals five, ovate-acute; scapes one-flowered. May. _l._ all stalked, ternate; segments lanceolate, crenate-toothed. _h._ 3in. Pennsylvania, 1823. Very rare. Rockery. Tuberous rooted. =A. multifida= (many-cleft).* _fl._ red, whitish yellow, or citron colour, small; sepals five to ten, elliptical, obtuse; peduncles three, one-flowered, one of which is naked and earlier, the other two longer, and bearing two-leaved multifid involucels on their middle. June. _l._ radical ones ternate; segments cuneated, three parted, multifid, with linear lobes; those of the involucrum multifid, on short petioles. _h._ 6in. to 12in. North America. Border or rockery. SYN. _A. Hudsoniana_. [Illustration: FIG. 98. ANEMONE NARCISSIFLORA, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. narcissiflora= (Narcissus-flowered).* _fl._ usually cream coloured, sometimes purplish on the outside; umbels generally many-flowered; pedicels in some instances twice or three times longer than the involucrum, and in others very short; sepals five or six, ovate or oval, blunt or acute. May. _l._ radical ones palmately three to five parted; lobes deeply toothed; lobules linear, acute; those of the involucrum three to five cleft. _h._ about 1ft. Europe, North America, 1773. An extremely variable and beautiful species. Rockery. See Fig. 98. =A. nemorosa= (grove).* Wood Anemone. _fl._ generally white; sepals six, elliptical; scapes one-flowered. March. _l._ ternate; segments trifid, deeply toothed, lanceolate, acute; involucral leaves stalked. _h._ 6in. This species varies greatly in the colour of its flowers. It is a most beautiful little plant, frequent in our native woods, and suitable for planting in shaded shrubberies, &c. Tuberous rooted. =A. n. c�rulea=, (blue),* from the North-west States of America, is very near, if not identical with, the variety _Robinsoniana_, of our native woods. =A. n. flore-pleno= (double-flowered).* _fl._ pure white, over 1in. across, solitary, double. This is an exceedingly pretty plant, and remains in beauty considerably longer than the type. It should be grown in large clumps, and in rich loam. =A. n. Robinsoniana= (Robinson's).* _fl._ bright azure blue, large, over 1-1/2in. in diameter. A charming variety for the rockery or border, and one of the prettiest in the whole genus. =A. n. rosea= (rosy).* A very pretty form, with rose-coloured flowers, of which there is a double flowered sub-variety; there is also a double form of the type, named _bracteata_ _fl.-pl._, white flowers, surrounded with a large involucrum. =A. obtusiloba= (blunt-lobed-leaved). _fl._ cream coloured; sepals five, obovate; peduncles two to three, one-flowered, villous, naked, or the lateral ones are bracteate. June. _l._ three lobed cordate, and are, as well as petioles, very villous; segments broadly cuneated, and deeply crenate; involucral leaves trifid. Himalaya, 1843. This species requires a warm and sheltered position. =A. palmata= (palmate).* _fl._ golden yellow; sepals ten to twelve, oblong, obtuse; scape one, rarely two, flowered. May. _l._ cordate, sub-orbicular, bluntly three to five-lobed, toothed; involucral leaves trifid. South-west Europe, 1597. A white flowered variety, though scarce, is in cultivation, and is very pretty. True alpines, which should be grown on the rockery, where the soil is both rich and deep, with a somewhat damp situation. Tuberous rooted. =A. patens= (spreading).* _fl._ purplish, or rarely yellow, erect, spreading, in the involucre almost sessile; sepals five to six. June. _l._ pinnate, rising after the flowers; segments three parted; lobes toothed at the top. Northern Europe, &c., 1752. =A. p. Nuttalliana= (Nuttall's).* _fl._ purple, sometimes cream coloured, erect, villous on the outside; sepals five or six, erect, connivent. June. _l._ three parted; segments cuneate, trifid, cut; lobes linear-lanceolate, elongated; those of the involucre with linear lobes. _h._ 1ft. North America, 1826. A pretty border plant. =A. pavonina= (peacock). Synonymous with _A. stellata_. =A. pennsylvanica= (Pennsylvanian). Synonymous with _A. dichotoma_. =A. pratensis= (meadow).* _fl._ dark purple, pendulous; sepals six, erect, reflexed at the top, acute. May. _l._ pinnate, many parted; lobes linear. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Northern Europe, &c., 1731. Differs chiefly from the following species in having smaller flowers, sepals narrower and more acute, connivent at base, and reflexed at apex. SYN. _Pulsatilla pratensis_. =A. Pulsatilla= (common Pulsatilla).* Pasque Flower. _fl._ generally violet, sub-erect; sepals six, spreading, externally silky, very handsome. April. _l._ pinnate; segments many parted; lobes linear. _h._ 6in. to 12in. England, &c. A singular and beautiful species, thriving best in a dry situation and well-drained soil of a calcareous nature. It is a very pretty plant for a border or rockery; when well grown, it forms handsome tufts, and flowers very freely. See Fig. 99. SYN. _Pulsatilla vulgaris_. There are numerous varieties, the best of which are: =A. P. dahurica= (Dahurian). _fl._ erect; sepals oblong, very villous. Plant dwarf. Sunny border or rockery. [Illustration: FIG. 99. ANEMONE PULSATILLA.] =A. P. lilacina= (lilac). _fl._ lilac. =A. P. rubra= (red). _fl._ erect; sepals blunter. Plant dwarfer. =A. ranunculoides= (Ranunculus-like).* _fl._ usually yellow (but in the Pyrenean variety purple), generally solitary, single or double; sepals five to six, elliptical. March. _l._ radical ones three to five parted; segments subtrifid, deeply toothed; those of the involucrum on short stalks three parted, deeply toothed. _h._ 3in. Naturalised in English woods, but rarely. Tuberous rooted. [Illustration: FIG. 100. ANEMONE STELLATA.] =A. rivularis= (river).* _fl._ white; anthers purple; sepals five, oval, smooth; pedicels three, one of which is naked. April. _l._ villous, as well as petioles, three parted; lobes cuneated, trifid; lobules cut, acutely toothed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. North India, 1840. Should be grown on the banks of running water, or in a damp situation in the border. =A. sibirica= (Siberian). _fl._ white; sepals six, orbicular; scapes one-flowered. June. _l._ ternate; segments deeply toothed, ciliated, those of the involucrum on short stalks, ternate; segments lanceolate. _h._ 6in. Siberia, 1804. Rockery; very rare. =A. stellata= (star-leaved).* _fl._ purple, or rose red, or whitish, solitary; sepals ten to twelve, oblong, bluntish. April. _l._ three parted; lobes cuneated, deeply-toothed; involucral leaves sessile, oblong. _h._ 8in. to 10in. South Europe, 1599. A pretty and gay spring flowering plant. Tuberous rooted. SYN. _A. pavonina_. Double forms of this occur in cultivation. See Fig. 100. [Illustration: FIG. 101. ANEMONE SYLVESTRIS.] =A. sylvestris= (wood).* Snowdrop Windflower. _fl._ pure satin white, slightly drooping, 1-1/2in. across when fully open, fragrant; sepals six, elliptical; pedicel solitary. April. _l._ ternate or quinate, hairy beneath; segments deeply toothed at top, those of the involucrum stalked. _h._ 6in. to 18in. Europe, 1596. This distinct and showy species thrives best in a light vegetable soil in a rather shady and moist situation. The roots are creeping, and should be allowed plenty of room, so that they may ramble without check. See Fig. 101. [Illustration: FIG. 102. ANEMONE VERNALIS.] =A. trifolia= (three-leaved). _fl._ white, erect; sepals five, elliptical, obtuse. April. _l._ all stalked, ternate; segments ovate-lanceolate, acute, toothed. _h._ 6in. France, 1597. This species comes close to _A. nemorosa_. =A. vernalis= (spring).* _fl._ whitish inside, violet and covered with silky down outside, erect, sub-sessile or on pedicels; sepals six, straight, elliptic-oblong. April. _l._ pinnate; segments cuneate-lanceolate, trifid; involucrum very villous. _h._ 6in. Europe, 1816. A curious rather than a showy species; it makes a pretty pot plant, but must not, under any consideration, be allowed to want water. It can be plunged in sand or ashes in the open, and just as the flowers commence to expand, transfer to a cool frame. It thrives best in a peat and loam compost, to which small pieces of charcoal may be added. SYN. _Pulsatilla vernalis_. See Fig. 102. =A. virginiana= (Virginian).* _fl._ purplish green or pale purple, small; sepals five, elliptical, silky-pubescent on the outside; pedicels often rising in pairs from the involucel. May. _l._ ternate; segments trifid, acuminated, deeply toothed; those of the involucre and involucels stalked; peduncles three to four, much elongated, middle one naked, sometimes 1ft. high; lateral ones bearing two-leaved involucels. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1722. Border or woodlands, and damp places. =A. vitifolia= (vine-leaved). _fl._ white, villous on the outside; anthers copper colour; sepals eight, oval, oblong; pedicels one-flowered. July. _l._ large, cordate, five-lobed, beneath as well as the stems clothed with white wool; lobes broadly ovate, cut, and crenate; those of the involucrum stalked, woolly underneath, smooth above, bluntly cordate, five-lobed. _h._ 2ft. Upper Nepaul, 1829. This requires a warm sheltered position to stand the winter. Very near _A. japonica alba_, and probably the progenitor of it. =ANEMONOPSIS= (from _anemone_, and _opsis_, resemblance; flowers like those of the Anemone). ORD. _Ranunculaceæ_. A handsome and remarkable hardy herbaceous perennial, not unlike _Anemone japonica_, but smaller. It thrives in any light soil. Propagated by seeds and divisions of the root-stock in spring. =A. macrophylla= (large-leaved).* _fl._ in loose racemes; sepals about nine, concave, the outer three purple, internally pale lilac; petals twelve, in many rows, one-third the length of the sepals, linear-oblong. July. _l._ large, biternate, coarsely toothed, glabrous. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Japan, 1869. =ANEMOP�GMA= (from _anemos_, the wind, and _paigma_, sport). ORD. _Bignoniaceæ_. A handsome stove climbing shrub. For culture, _see_ =Bignonia=. =A. racemosum= (racemose).* _fl._ delicate buff coloured, in axillary racemes, large. September. Brazil, 1879. This beautiful and vigorous climber is, as yet, very rare in cultivation. =ANETHUM= (from _ano_, upwards, and _theo_, to run; in reference to its quick growth). ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. A genus of erect glabrous annuals. Flowers yellow; involucre and involucels wanting. Leaves decompound, with linear-setaceous lobes. This genus is of no ornamental value, its most important species being the garden Dill (_A. graveolens_), which _see_ for culture. =ANGELICA= (in reference to the supposed angelic medicinal virtues of some species). ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. Perennial or biennial herbs. Flowers white; umbels terminal; involucra wanting or of few leaves; involucels of many leaves. Leaves bipinnate. The common Angelica (_A. Archangelica_) is the only species that calls for mention. It is a native biennial, and was at one time in much request for confectionery, and as a herb of supposed great medicinal value. Seed should be sown in September or March in ordinary soil, and the young plants thinned out to about 18in. apart. =ANGELICA TREE.= _See_ =Aralia spinosa=. =ANGELONIA= (from _angelon_, the local name of _A. salicariæfolia_ in South America). SYN. _Schelveria_. ORD. _Scrophulariaceæ_. Very pretty stove herbaceous perennials. Flowers axillary, racemose; corolla irregular, bilabiate; lower lip saccate at the base, trifid; upper one smaller, bifid. Leaves opposite. Stem and branches quadrangular. A mixture of light turfy loam, peat, leaf soil, and sand, is a good compost. Cuttings of young shoots in spring strike readily under a hand glass, or plunged in the propagating bed, giving plenty of air daily. =A. salicariæfolia= (Willow-leaved).* _fl._ blue, hairy, axillary, solitary, pedicellate, disposed in terminal racemes. August. _l._ sessile, lanceolate, acute, serrated towards the apex, finely pubescent on both surfaces. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 3ft. South America, 1818. =ANGIOPTERIS= (from _aggeion_, a vessel, and _pteris_, a wing). Including _Psilodochea_. ORD. _Filices_. A genus of gigantic greenhouse ferns. Capsules eight to fifteen, opening by a slit down the side, sessile, very close but not concrete, arranged in linear-oblong or boat-shaped sori near the edge of the frond. These ferns require a very liberal supply of water, and plenty of room to fully expand. The most suitable compost is a mixture of strong loam and peat, with some sharp sand. Thorough drainage must be afforded. =A. evecta= (evectic). _cau._ erect, 2ft. to 6ft. high, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. thick, very fleshy. _sti._ swollen and articulated at the base, furnished with two large leathery persistent auricles. _fronds_ 6ft. to 15ft. long, bi- or tripinnate; pinnæ 1ft. to 3ft. long, spreading, the lowest the largest; rachis swollen at the base; pinnules 4in. to 12in. long, 1/2in. to 1-1/2in. broad, linear-oblong, sessile or shortly stalked, acuminate; edge entire or finely toothed. Tropics of Old World. This is the only clearly defined species; the others usually known as distinct species are but varieties of it, and its culture should not be attempted if plenty of room cannot be afforded it. =ANGOPHORA= (from _aggos_, a vessel, and _phero_, to bear; in reference to the shape of the fruit). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. Australian evergreen greenhouse ornamental trees or shrubs. Flowers corymbose; calyx five or six-cleft. Leaves large, opposite. A mixture of leaf soil, peat, and sand suits them well. Ripened cuttings will root in sandy soil under a hand glass in a cool house, in a few weeks. =A. cordifolia= (heart-leaved).* _fl._ yellowish, corymbose, large. May. _l._ sessile, ovate, cordate at the base, glabrous. _h._ 7ft. to 10ft. New Holland, 1789. =A. lanceolata= (lanceolate-leaved).* _fl._ white, corymbose. May. _l._ petiolate, lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. New Holland, 1816. =ANGR�CUM= (deduced from _angurek_, a Malayan name for air plants). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. TRIBE _Vandeæ_. These are among the most beautiful of epiphytal orchids. One characteristic, both remarkable and peculiar, is the long, hollow, tail-like spur depending from the base of the lip. The flowers are produced on spikes from the axils of the leaves. The leaves are evergreen, and arranged in two rows, the one opposite to the other, and, in many kinds, being curved, give the plant a very graceful appearance. The fact of these plants producing their blooms during the winter--a period when flowers are generally scarce--considerably enhances their value. They usually continue six or eight weeks in perfection, or even more. The following table of night temperatures should be almost universally adhered to for all the species enumerated, except _A. falcatum_, which thrives best in a cool house. From November to February, 58deg. to 63deg.; March to May, September and October, 65deg.; June to August, 70deg. The day temperature should be 7deg. or 8deg. higher than that of the night. A compost of crocks, charcoal, and sphagnum is best. A layer of a few large crocks at the bottom of the pot or pan will be required; over these spread another layer of charcoal and smaller crocks, just enough to allow the roots to support the plant; so that the first pair of leaves will be, in large plants, about 4in. above the rim of the pot, or proportionately less in the case of small plants. When the plant is carefully adjusted in its proper position, and held there with one hand, the other hand should work in among the roots more crocks and charcoal, ceasing so to do when within 2in. of the rim; the remaining space must be occupied with fresh sphagnum, pressed firm (this is most essential) in a cone shape, which may be built up to within 1/2in. of the lower pair of leaves. Prior to potting, which ought to be done between February and April, water should be withheld for a short time; but give a good soaking immediately after the operation. In the process of repotting, clear the roots of the old moss, all rotten stems, and particles of decayed roots. If plants are potted as we have recommended, a thorough soaking once a week only, or if grown on blocks of wood, or in suspended baskets or pans, about twice weekly will be found sufficient. Excessive fumigation, drought, whether atmospherical or at the roots, will cause the leaves to drop, and prevent any growth being made, in which case the plant ought to be lowered. If the stems have emitted but few roots, a ring of moss fastened round the stems, and kept constantly wet, will induce the plant to throw out additional roots, when the lowering may be proceeded with. To keep the plants free from insect pests, frequently sponge the foliage. Thrips generally prove very troublesome, and a moderate fumigation is needful, dislodging the insects that may be secreted low down in the centre of the plant, shortly before the operation, by dropping a little weak tobacco water or sulphur among them. =A. arcuatum= (curved).* _fl._ white; racemes from the axils of the two-year-old leaves, two or three being produced from a single growth, about 6in. long, arching. _l._ about 4in. long, and 3/4in. broad. Natal. SYNS. _Listrostachys arcuata_. _A. (Listrostachys) Sedeni_ comes close to the above species, but is excessively rare in cultivation. =A. bilobum= (two-lobed).* _fl._ white, with a tinge of rose, about 1-1/2in. in diameter; spur 2in. long, produced from the side of the stem, just above the two-year-old leaves; racemes pendulous, 6in. or more long, bearing about a dozen flowers, which possess a slight fragrance. October to December. _l._ 4in. long by 2in. broad, two-lobed at the apex, about eight on a plant. Stem erect, about 6in. high. Cape Coast, 1841. Should be grown in a basket. =A. caudatum= (tailed). _fl._ greenish yellow, mixed with brown; labellum pure white; spur thick, pale green, about 9in. long, two-lobed at the lowest portion; racemes arching, 1ft. or more long, produced from the base of the two-year-old leaves. Autumn. _l._ pale green, drooping, about 10in. long by 1in. broad. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Stem erect, or nearly so. Sierra Leone, 1834. =A. cephalotes= (capitate).* _fl._ white. Tropical Africa, 1873. =A. Chailluanum= (Chaillu's).* _fl._ white; sepals and petals narrow, acute; spur yellowish green, 4in. or more long; racemes pendulous, 8in. or 10in. long, about twelve medium sized flowers produced from the side of the stem, just above the axils of two-year-old leaves. _l._ 6in. long, 1-1/2in. broad, slightly wavy, two-lobed at the apex, arranged in an imbricate manner. West Africa, 1866. A rare species. =A. Christyanum= (Christy's). A curious species, with yellow or greenish-white flowers, having a much developed three-lobed lip. The plant has the aspect of _A. arcuatum_. 1880. =A. citratum= (citron-like).* _fl._ creamy white, or pale yellow, nearly 1in. in diameter; spurs about 1-1/2in. long; racemes three, on strong plants, produced from the axils of two-year-old leaves, arched, about 1ft. long, bearing sometimes twenty flowers. _l._ 4in. to 6in. long and 2in. broad, six or eight on a plant, occupying about 1-1/2in. of stem. Madagascar, 1868. Habit compact; stem nearly erect. =A. distichum= (two-rowed-leaved). _fl._ whitish, 1/4in. across, on one-flowered pedicels, which are produced from the axils of the leaves. _l._ very short, closely imbricated, deep bright green. _h._ 6in. Sierra Leone, 1834. A very neat growing little species, and quite distinct. =A. eburneum= (ivory-lipped).* _fl._ sepals and petals greenish white; lip uppermost, white, very large; racemes about 18in. long, from the axils of two-year-old leaves; footstalks erect, but gradually becoming pendulous from the commencement of the flowers. _l._ 20in. long by 2in. broad, light green, stiff. Madagascar, 1826. SYN. _�robion eburneum_. _A. virens_ is an inferior variety, but _A. e. superbum_ surpasses the type in beauty; it is, however, at present extremely rare. =A. Ellisii= (Ellis's).* _fl._ pure white, fragrant, about 2in. across, with narrow reflexed sepals and petals, the column standing very prominent; spur pale brownish, 6in. to 8in.; racemes frequently 2ft. long, on the side of the stem just above the axils of the two-year-old leaves, bearing about twenty blossoms. _l._ dark green, 9in. or 10in. long, and 2in. broad, divided at the apex into two unequal lobes. Madagascar, 1879. =A. falcatum= (sickle-shaped).* _fl._ pure white, very fragrant; spur upcurved, 2in. long; racemes from the axils of the two-year-old leaves, short, bearing from two to five blooms. _l._ 2in. to 4in. long, very narrow and fleshy, dark green. 1815. An elegant little cool house species, and one of the smallest belonging to this genus. It should be grown in peat, in a basket or small pot suspended about 2ft. from the glass, but rather shaded. =A. Kotschyi= (Kotschy's).* _fl._ yellowish white, perfume similar to the common white pink, 1in. to 1-1/2in. across; spur reddish-tinted, 6in. or 7in. long, distinguished by the two spiral twistings; racemes from the axils of the lower leaves, 18in. long, bearing about twelve blossoms. _l._ 6in. long by 3in. broad, of which there are generally six or more on a good plant. Zanzibar, 1880. Should be grown in a basket, or on a cylindrical block of teak wood. =A. modestum= (modest).* _fl._ pure white, 1in. to 1-1/2in. across. _l._ distichous, 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, elliptic or linear-oblong, acute, tip entire, pale bright green, leathery, nerveless. Stem short. Madagascar, about 1880. =A. pellucidum= (transparent).* _fl._ white, of a delicate semi-transparent texture, and with a finely fringed labellum; racemes from the axils of the lowest leaves, hanging perpendicularly from the stems, about 1ft. long, bearing thirty to forty blossoms. _l._ 12in. long by 2in. or 3in. broad. Sierra Leone, 1842. Must be grown in a suspended basket. =A. pertusum= (broken).* _fl._ pure white; spur comparatively short, with a well-marked yellow tinge; racemes from the axils of two-year-old leaves, horizontal, or slightly nodding, 6in. to 7in. long, with from forty to sixty densely packed, small blossoms. _l._ dark green, arching, 10in. long by 1in. broad. _h._ 1ft. Sierra Leone, 1836. Very distinct and attractive. =A. Scottianum= (Scott's).* _fl._ pure white, very delicate in texture, the lip is uppermost, 1in. or more across; spur narrow, yellowish, 3in. to 4in. long; peduncle slender, a little longer than the spur, usually but one-flowered. _l._ narrow, terete--thus differing from most of its congeners--tapering or awl-shaped, about 4in. long, 1/8in. to 1/4in. in diameter, channelled in the upper surface and ridged below. Comoro Islands, 1878. =A. Sedeni= (Seden's). A rare form of _A. arcuatum_. =A. sesquipedale= (foot-and-a-half).* _fl._ beautiful ivory white, on stout, solitary, axillary peduncles, with sepals and petals spreading out like rays, from 6in. to 8in. across; the whip-like spur or nectary hangs down from the labellum, often from 10in. to 18in. long. November, December, and January, and lasts about three weeks in beauty. _l._ dark green, distichous, about 10in. long. _h._ 1ft. Madagascar, 1823. It is one of the grandest of winter flowering orchids. =A. virens= (green). An inferior variety of _A. eburneum_. =ANGULAR.= Having angles, or forming angles. =ANGULOA= (commemorative of Angulo, a Spanish naturalist). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. A small genus containing about six species. The flowers, which are large and beautiful, are borne singly on scapes from 12in. to 16in. high, several of which are produced from the ripened pseudo-bulbs of the preceding year's growth. Pseudo-bulbs from 5in. to 8in. high, as thick as a man's wrist, bearing two to three erect, broad, lanceolate leaves, 2ft. to 4ft. long. Temperature, summer, day (maximum), 70deg.; night (minimum), 60deg. Winter, day (maximum), 60deg.; night (minimum), 45deg. These are bold growing cool-house plants, best grown in rough fibrous peat, with good drainage. They delight in an abundant supply of water both to the roots and foliage when growing, and require to be kept in a somewhat dark or heavily-shaded place. During the season of rest, and until young shoots commence growth, they should be kept rather dry. They are propagated by dividing the pseudo-bulbs, just before they commence to grow. The flowering season is summer. =A. Clowesii= (Clowes's).* _fl._ fragrant; sepals and petals concave, clear golden yellow; lip pure white; whole conformation globular, or tulip-like. Columbia (at 5000ft. to 6000ft. elevation), 1842. This is the largest growing species, of which there are one or two rare varieties. =A. eburnea= (ivory-flowered).* _fl._, sepals and petals of the purest white; lip spotted with pink. New Grenada. In other respects similar to above, but is very rare. =A. Ruckeri= (Rucker's).* _fl._, sepals and petals yellow, with crimson spots; lip deep crimson. Columbia, 1845. Not so large a grower as either of the foregoing, but with same sized flowers. =A. R. sanguinea= (bloody).* This variety has flowers of a deep blood red colour, but is rare. =A. superba= (superb).* Synonymous with _Acineta Humboldtii_. =A. uniflora= (one-flowered).* _fl._ sub-globose, pure white, sometimes freckled with brown, spotted profusely with pink inside. Columbia, 1844. One of the best in cultivation. =ANGURIA= (one of the Greek names for the cucumber). ORD. _Cucurbitaceæ_. A stove genus of evergreen climbers allied to _Momordica_. Flowers mon�cious; corolla joined to the calyx, ventricose, red, with a five-parted spreading border. Fruit somewhat tetragonal. Several species have been introduced from time to time, but they are rarely seen in our gardens. Some of them are handsome plants, and well worthy of cultivation. =ANHALONIUM.= _See_ =Mammillaria=. =ANIGOZANTHUS= (from _anoigo_, to expand, and _anthos_, a flower; in reference to the branching expansion of the flower stalks). SYN. _Schwægrichenia_. ORD. _Hæmodoraceæ_. Greenhouse or half-hardy perennial herbs. Flowers large, racemose or corymbose; perianth tubular, elongated, woolly. Leaves linear ensiform. The species thrive in a turfy compost of peat and loam, three parts of the former to one of the latter; the whole intermixed with sand to make it porous. In the growing season they must be kept well watered, and somewhat dry during their period of rest in winter. They are very easily propagated by dividing the roots in spring. =A. coccineus= (scarlet).* _fl._ scarlet; perianth swelling towards the summit, hairy, segments a little reflexed; disposed in dichotomously-forked panicles; pedicels rather long. June. _l._ lanceolate, deep green. Stem ciliated. _h._ 5ft. Swan River, 1837. [Illustration: FIG. 103. INFLORESCENCE AND LEAF OF ANIGOZANTHUS FLAVIDUS.] =A. flavidus= (yellowish-green-flowered).* _fl._ yellowish green, panicled; scapes long. May. _l._ lanceolate, smooth, as is also the stem; down of branches deciduous. _h._ 3ft. New Holland, 1808. There is a scarlet and green-flowered variety of this species. See Fig. 103. =A. Manglesii= (Mangle's). _fl._ green; stigma capitate, projecting beyond the tube, in a short terminal spiked raceme. May. Stem erect, clothed with short thick crimson persistent velvety down. _h._ 3ft. Swan River, 1833. =A. pulcherrimus= (beautiful).* _fl._ yellow; panicles much branched, clothed with rufous bristles. May. _l._ equitant, linear falcate, covered with stellate tomentum. _h._ 3ft. Swan River, 1844. =A. tyrianthinus= (purple).* _fl._ purple and white; panicle clothed with purple tomentum. May. _l._ linear, stiff, straight, glabrous. Stem tall, ternate, panicled, clothed with hoary tomentum below. _h._ 3ft. Swan River, 1844. =ANIL.= _See_ =Indigofera Anil=. =ANIME RESIN.= _See_ =Hymenæa Courbaril=. =ANIMATED OAT.= _See_ =Avena sterilis=. =ANISANTHUS.= _See_ =Antholyza=. =ANISE= (_Pimpinella Anisum_). A hardy annual, occasionally used for garnishing or seasoning. Sow seed, in ordinary garden soil, on a warm sunny border, in May, where it is intended for the plants to remain. =ANISEED TREE.= _See_ =Illicium=. =ANISOCHILUS= (from _anisos_, unequal, and _cheilos_, a lip; in reference to the inequality of both lips of calyx and corolla). ORD. _Labiatæ_. A very ornamental genus of stove perennials or biennials. Whorls of flowers densely imbricate into oblong cylindrical spikes; corolla with an exserted, defracted tube, inflated throat, and bilabiate limb. They thrive in any light rich soil. Cuttings will root in a sandy soil under a bell glass, in heat; seeds may be sown in February in heat. =A. carnosum= (fleshy). _fl._ lilac; whorls densely imbricate into oblong cylindrical pedunculate spikes. June to September. _l._ petiolate, ovate-roundish, obtuse, crenated, cordate at the base, thick, fleshy, tomentose on both surfaces. Stem erect. _h._ 2ft. East Indies, 1788. =ANISOMELES= (from _anisos_, unequal, and _melos_, a member; in reference to the anthers of the longer stamens being halved). ORD. _Labiatæ_. Ornamental greenhouse or evergreen stove shrubs, herbaceous perennials, or annuals. Whorls sometimes densely many-flowered, at others few, and loose; corolla with upper lip erect, oblong, entire; lower lip larger, spreading, and lateral lobes ovate, obtuse. They are of very easy culture in light rich soil; young cuttings strike freely in spring, in heat, under a bell glass. _A. furcata_ requires little or no artificial heat, but the protection of a bell glass is beneficial. Seeds of _A. ovata_ may be sown in spring, in heat, and, after due hardening off, the seedlings may be planted outside in May. =A. furcata= (forked).* _fl._ small, elegantly variegated with white, red, and purple, in loose many-flowered racemose cymes. July. _l._ petiolate, ovate, acuminated, crenated, cordate at the base, hispid on both surfaces. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Nepaul, 1824. =A. malabarica= (Malabar). _fl._ purplish; whorls distant, many-flowered, dense. July. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, 2in. to 4in. in length, obtuse, serrately crenated in the upper part, quite entire at the base. _h._ 2ft. to 5ft. Tropical Asia, in humid places, 1817. Shrub. =A. ovata= (ovate-leaved).* _fl._ purple; lower lip of a deeper colour; whorls many-flowered, lower ones distant, upper ones interruptedly spicate. August. _l._ ovate, obtuse, broadly crenated. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Nepaul, 1823. An annual. Habitat similar to last. =ANISOMEROUS.= Unequally-parted; unsymmetrical. =ANISOPETALUM.= _See_ =Bulbophyllum=. [Illustration: THREAD-LEAVED PINE, AGAVES, AND YUCCA, IN A GUERNSEY GARDEN.] =ANNUALS.= All plants which spring from the seed, flower, and die within the course of a year. A number of things, however, which are not strictly of annual duration, but which are sown every year in preference to housing the roots before they are killed by late autumn or winter frosts, are generally classed, for the sake of convenience, under the head of Annuals. Hardy Annuals are those which require no artificial aid to enable them to develop, but grow and flower freely in the open air. These are best sown in the spots where they are intended to remain during March and April, and care must subsequently be taken to keep the ground clear of weeds, and also to thin out the seedlings, allowing each sufficient room to develop and exhibit its true character. If allowed to remain too crowded, the plants, as a matter of course, suffer, and the size and number of the flowers and the general effect are considerably decreased. Successional sowings of a good many of the showy species will be found to prolong their flowering season. In well-kept establishments, where Annuals are duly appreciated, several sowings are made in pots at intervals of a few weeks. As the previously-sown clumps begin to get shabby, they are removed, and replaced by others which have still to flower. By this means a continual sheet of blossom can be maintained for a long time. It is much better to trust to plants grown in pots in order to carry out the plan just sketched, as these receive no check when placed in their new quarters; whilst transplanted clumps frequently fail, and many species do not transplant at all readily from an open border. In order to secure, in early spring, a fine show of such plants as several of the _Silenes_, _Myosotis_, _Saponaria_, and a number of others, it is best to sow the seeds in an open, sheltered border, about the end of July or beginning of August, taking care to keep a small reserve stock in a cold frame, in case very severe weather kills the unprotected plants. Half-hardy Annuals are those for which our climate is not sufficiently warm, or, rather, our summer is not, as a rule, either hot enough or long enough, to allow them to grow, flower well, and ripen seeds, if sown in the open air. Many of these are amongst the showiest of garden plants, so it is worth while to give them the shelter of a warm frame during their earlier stages, and gradually harden them off, planting out at the end of May or beginning of June, when danger resulting from severe weather is passed. After germination, the seedlings should have plenty of light and air, or a weak, spindly growth, and, as a consequence, poor flowers, will result. The most satisfactory method of watering very tiny seeds is to place a piece of fine muslin over the seed-pot, through which the water will be easily conveyed to the seeds, and thus prevent disturbance. Tender Annuals require the same treatment as the half-hardy ones, except that they need throughout their existence the protection of a glass structure. All, or nearly all, garden Annuals delight in full sunlight and plenty of air. In the open, these requirements, as a rule, obtain, but sometimes mistakes are made under glass by keeping the plants too close and over much shaded, as well as too great a distance from the glass. =ANNULAR.= Having a ring-like form. =ANNULATE.= With the appearance of rings. =AN�CTOCHILUS= (from _anoiktos_, open, and _cheilos_, a lip; in reference to the spreading apex of the lip). SYNS. _Anecochilus_, _Chrysobaphus_. ORD. _Orchideæ_. Stove terrestrial orchids, the radical leaves of which are the chief attraction, being amongst the most beautiful and delicate objects in the vegetable kingdom. The flowers, which should be pinched off so soon as they appear, are, as a rule, small and unattractive. Few of the species exceed 6in. in height, with leaves from 2in. to 6in. long, including the fleshy petioles. They require a good deal of attention. To one part of silver sand, thoroughly washed twice or three times, add two of sphagnum, which should also be well washed and picked over, when it should be chopped into minute particles, in order that it may freely amalgamate with the sand; mix a little loam and peat with the whole. In the pots, when well drained by first placing a large piece of potsherd over the bottom and nearly half filling up with pieces broken small and of uniform size, place a thin layer of crude sphagnum, afterwards filling firmly with the mixture above mentioned, and bringing it up more or less in the form of a cone above the rim of the pot, into which the plants should be firmly fixed. Plants which have been propagated by division should be carefully transferred to 32-sized pots. About five separate pieces might be placed evenly over the surface. Make holes with a neat dibble, and into these drop the roots their entire length, pressing the soil firmly with the dibble. Fix them so that they may grow inwardly, and not out over the rim of the pots, pegging each creeping root needing such attention firmly down upon the surface of the soil afterwards; after a good soaking, they may be replaced in any warm, shady situation. For propagating, a strong plant is necessary; it may be cut into pieces just below the first joint, each piece having a root. The bottom piece should have two eyes--one to root from, and the other to push into a shoot. The "bottom," or plant which has been cut, should be replaced in its pot, and then put under a bell glass. It will soon throw up a young shoot; this ought to be left on until well rooted, when it may be separated and treated similarly to the portion first removed, still leaving the old part in the pot. These plants must be grown in glass cases, or under bell glasses, but they should always have a little air, for, as Mr. Williams says, when too much confined, they grow up spindly, and damp off in the stem; the latter, being fleshy, requires more substance and sturdiness. Air should be admitted through a space of about 1in. or 2in. The following ranges of temperature are advised: Winter, night, 55deg. to 60deg.; day, 65deg. to 70deg. during March, April, and May; night, 60deg. to 70deg.; and, afterwards, a few degrees higher, with a maximum day temperature of 80deg. Bottom heat should not be given, as it induces a weak, fast growth. Great care will be needed to prevent ravages of insects. The most suitable month for repotting is March, just before growth commences, when the plants will need plenty of water up to October, excepting when it is desirous to utilise them as drawing-room ornaments, in which case they should be kept rather dry for a short time previous. _See also_ =Dossinia=, =Goodyera=, =Hæmeria=, =Macodes=, =Physurus=, and =Zeuxine=. [Illustration: FIG. 104. AN�CTOCHILUS FRIDERICI-AUGUSTI.] =A. argenteus pictus= (silvery-painted). A synonym of _Physurus pictus_. =A. argyroneurus= (silvery-veined).* _l._ light green, dark mottled; veins forming a beautiful silvery network. Java. =A. Boylei= (Boyle's).* _l._ ovate, acuminate, 2in. long and broad, olive-green, netted and pencilled with gold. India. =A. Bullenii= (Bullen's).* _l._ 2-1/2 in. long, ground colour bronzy green, with three broad distinct lines of coppery-red, or golden stripes running the entire length. Borneo, 1861. =A. concinnus= (neat). _l._ ovate, acuminate, rounded at base, dark olive-green, netted and striped with shining coppery-red. Assam. =A. Dawsonianus= (Dawson's).* _l._ ovate, of a dark velvety, rich olive-green, traversed by about seven longitudinal copper-coloured veins; the space on each side of the midrib being filled with fine reticulations of the same colour. Malay Archipelago, 1868. The proper name of this plant is _Hæmeria discolor Dawsoniana_. =A. Dayi= (Day's). A synonym of _Dossinia marmorata Dayi_. =A. Dominii= (Dominy's). _l._ dark olive-green, streaked down the centre with pale coppery-yellow, the main ribs marked by pale lines. Hybrid between _Goodyera discolor_ and _A. Friderici Augusti_. =A. Eldorado= (Eldorado). _l._ dark green, with small tracery of a lighter colour, deciduous. Central America. =A. Friderici-Augusti= (Frederick Augustus').* _l._ 2-1/2in. long, and 1-1/2in. broad, dark velvety green, with broad orange and green stripes down the centre, covered with a beautiful golden network. _h._ 5in. Very distinct. See Fig. 104. SYN. _A. xanthophyllus_. =A. Heriotii= (Heriot's). _l._ 3-1/2in. long, 2-1/2in. broad, dark mahogany-colour, golden-reticulated, and with shadowy network. India. =A. hieroglyphicus= (hieroglyphic-marked). _l._ small, dark green, with hieroglyphic-like, silvery-grey blotches. Assam. =A. intermedius= (intermediate).* _l._ 2-1/2in. long, and 1-1/2in. broad, with a silky surface, dark olive, striped and veined with gold. _h._ 3in. Will succeed with a glass covering, in a stove, if shaded. =A. javanicus= (Java). _fl._ pink, small, spicate; scape 9in. high. _l._ 2in. long, 1-1/2in. broad, dark olive-green, with lighter blotches and faint golden reticulation, pinkish beneath. Java. =A. latimaculatus= (broad-spotted).* _l._ dark green, with silvery markings. Borneo. A distinct and free-growing kind. =A. Lowii= (Low's).* _l._ 4in. to 5in. long, 3in. broad, dark velvety-green, shading to orange-brown, lined from base to apex with deep golden veins, crossed by lines of the same hue. _h._ 6in. Borneo. The correct name of this plant is _Dossinia marmorata_. =A. L. virescens= (greenish).* _l._ brighter green, with brighter markings over the whole surface. =A. Ordianus= (Ordi's).* _l._ shape and habit of _A. Dawsonianus_, but the colour is a vivid green, and lined with golden veins. Java, 1869. The proper name of this plant is _Hæmeria discolor Ordiana_. =A. pictus= (painted). A synonym of _Physurus pictus_. =A. querceticola= (forest-dwelling). A synonym of _Physurus querceticolus_. =A. regalis= (royal).* King Plant. _l._ 2in. long, 1-1/2in. broad; surface a beautiful velvety green, veined in regular lines, and covered with a network of gold. _h._ 4in. Java, 1836. If examined with a lens in sunshine, the beauty of the network will be plainly seen. SYN. _A. setaceus_ (of gardens). There are several varieties, the best of which are: =A. r. cordatus= (heart-shaped). _l._ rounder, and gold markings broader. Very rare. =A. r. grandifolius= (large-leaved).* _l._ light green, beautifully laced and banded with a network of gold. Also rare. =A. r. inornatus= (unadorned). _l._ dark rich velvety, with a few slight markings, destitute of the golden reticulation. Java. =A. Reinwardtii= (Reinwardt's).* _l._ rich, deep velvety-bronze, intersected with bright golden lines. Java. =A. Roxburghii= (Roxburgh's).* _l._ 2-1/2in. long, 1-1/2in. broad, dark velvety-green, striated with well-defined lines of silver. _h._ 3in. India. The true species is very rare; several are sold as such. =A. Ruckerii= (Rucker's).* _l._ broadly ovate-bronzy-green, with six rows of distinct spots running from base to apex. Borneo, 1861. =A. setaceus= (bristly). A garden synonym of _A. regalis_. =A. striatus= (striated). A synonym of _Zeuxine regia_. =A. Turneri= (Turner's).* _l._ large, rich bronze, freely golden-reticulated. One of the handsomest; a very free grower. =A. Veitchii= (Veitch's). A synonym of _Macodes Petola_. =A. xanthophyllus= (yellow-leaved). A synonym of _A. Friderici-Augusti_. =A. zebrinus= (striped).* _l._ ovate-lanceolate, deep olive green, with copper-coloured veins. India, 1863. Dwarf and elegant. =ANOMATHECA= (from _anomos_, singular, and _theca_, a capsule, or seed-pod). ORD. _Irideæ_. Very pretty little bulbous perennials. Perianth hypocrateriform; tube triquetrous, constricted at the throat. The species are hardy when planted in warm sunny situations in the open border. Their dwarf stature, brilliance, profusion of flowers, and habit of blossoming continuously over a long period, render them very popular subjects amongst growers of hardy perennials. Although generally credited with being hardy, when cultivated out of doors they should be lifted and stored in frost-proof quarters before winter commences, until the following March. They are excellent as window garden plants, and also for pot culture. If grown in pots, they should be shaken out, and repotted in February or March. They multiply very rapidly, and may be divided in patches, not by single bulbs, once yearly. Light sandy loam, mixed with a little leaf mould, is the best compost. Anomathecas are sometimes increased by seed, which may be sown so soon as ripe, very thinly, in seed pans. Thin out the seedlings if growing very close together; the next season they may be put out four or five in a pot. When they become crowded, shift into a much larger pot, but do not disturb the ball. The young seedlings will probably produce flowers the second season. =A. cruenta= (bloody).* _fl._ rich carmine-crimson; perianth segments elliptical, three lower ones broader than the others, with a dark blotch at the base; tube long, whitish; scapes secund, bearing about five or six flowers. Summer and autumn. _l._ two-ranked, about 1/2in. broad, sword-shape, somewhat tapering. Bulb ovate, rather large. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Cape of Good Hope, 1830. =A. juncea= (rushy). _fl._ very bright pink, with a dark spot at the base, produced in profusion. The leaves are narrower than those of the foregoing. Cape of Good Hope, 1791. A rare species. =ANONA= (_Anona_ is the name applied to these plants in St. Domingo). Custard Apple. ORD. _Anonaceæ_. Stove evergreen shrubs, with fragrant leaves. Petals six, in two rows. Carpels indefinite, joined into one fleshy, many-celled, edible, roundish fruit, with a muricated, scaly, or reticulated skin. Anonas thrive best in rich loamy soil, mixed with a little peat. Ripened cuttings, with leaves intact, will root if inserted in sand and placed under a hand glass, in a moist heat. When seeds are procurable, they should be sown in pots, and plunged into a hotbed. =A. Cherimolia= (The Cherimoyer). _fl._ outer petals somewhat concave, linear-oblong, brown on the outside, each marked with a dark spot at the base; peduncles opposite the leaves, solitary. July. _fr._ somewhat globose and scaly, dark purple; esteemed by the Peruvians as one of their most delicate, and as being not inferior to any fruit in the world. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, not dotted; under surface silky tomentose, strong scented. _h._ 20ft. Peru, 1739. =A. glabra= (smooth-fruited).* _fl._ outer petals ovate, obtuse, brown; calyx leathery, large; peduncles opposite the leaves, two-flowered. July. _fr._ greenish-yellow, conoid, blunt, smooth. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, smooth. _h._ 10ft. West Indies, 1774. =A. longifolia= (long-leaved). _fl._ purplish; outer petals concave, thick, all acute, large, axillary, solitary, stalked. May. _fr._ ovate-globose, dotted, and reticulated, flesh-coloured. _l._ oblong, acuminated, mucronate, smooth. _h._ 20ft. Guiana, 1820. =A. muricata= (muricated-fruited).* The Sour Sop. _fl._ outer petals cordate, concave, thick, acuminated, green on the outside, yellow inside, and spotted; peduncles solitary, one-flowered, sweet-scented. _fr._ muricated, with fleshy points, green. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, smooth, shining. _h._ 15ft. West Indies, 1656. =A. palustris= (marsh). Alligator Apple; Cork-wood. _fl._ yellow; petals all acute. _fr._ rather areolate, large, heart-shaped, sweet-scented. _l._ ovate-oblong, leathery, quite smooth. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. South America, 1788. =A. reticulata= (netted). The Custard Apple, or Bullock's Heart. _fl._ outer petals oblong-lanceolate, acute, somewhat concave at the base, brownish on the outside, whitish-yellow on the inside, marked with dark purple spots. _fr._ ovate-globose, reticulate, as large as a tennis ball, with yellowish soft flesh; it is much esteemed by some people. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acute, smooth, somewhat dotted. _h._ 15ft. to 25ft. Brazil, 1690. =A. squamosa= (scaly). Sweet Sop. _fl._, outer petals linear-oblong, somewhat concave at the base, nearly closing, greenish-yellow. _fr._ egg-shaped, scaly. _l._ oblong, bluntish, smooth, full of pellucid dots, rather glaucous beneath. _h._ 20ft. South America, 1739. =ANONACE�.= An order of trees or shrubs, mostly tropical, with axillary peduncles, lateral or opposite the leaves, and with alternate, simple, entire or hardly toothed leaves, without stipules. _Anona_ is the typical genus. =ANONYMO.= A synonym of =Saururus= (which _see_). =ANONYMOS BRACTEATA.= _See_ =Zornia tetraphylla=. =ANOPLANTHUS= (in part). A synonym of =Phelipæa= (which _see_). =ANOPLOPHYTUM.= _See_ =Schlumbergeria= and =Tillandsia=. =ANOPTERUS= (from _ano_, upwards, and _pteron_, a wing; in reference to the seeds, which are winged at the apex). ORD. _Saxifrageæ_. A very handsome greenhouse evergreen shrub, having a free branching habit, large dark shining green leaves, and long panicles of salver-shaped flowers. It would probably prove quite hardy in the south and west of England, and parts of Scotland, provided it had a slight winter protection. It grows well in sandy loam and peat. When grown in pots, it requires plenty of room and water. Half-ripened cuttings root freely under a bell glass in a cool house or frame in summer. =A. glandulosa= (glandular).* _fl._ white, rose tinted, large; racemes erect, simple, terminal. April, May. _l._ alternate, rarely nearly opposite, ovate-oblong, attenuated at both ends, nearly sessile, leathery, toothed. _h._ 3ft. Van Diemen's Land, 1823. =ANSELLIA= (named after Mr. Ansell, the botanical collector who accompanied the ill-fated Niger Expedition). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. Strong growing, free flowering stove epiphytal orchids. Best grown in large pots, as they produce a quantity of roots. They require a compost of turfy peat, with moderate drainage. An ample supply of water during the growing season is needed; but care must be taken not to let any remain in the heart of the plants, as they are very likely to rot. During the season of rest, little or no water, but a damp atmosphere, are the chief requirements. Propagated by divisions of the bulbs just after flowering. =A. africana= (African).* _fl._, sepals and petals nearly 2in. long, greenish yellow, spotted with brownish red; lip small, yellow; spikes large, drooping, branched, each sometimes bearing nearly a hundred blooms. Stems 3ft. to 4ft. high, with light evergreen foliage. Fernando Po, 1844. Lasts two months in perfection. =A. a. gigantea= (gigantic).* _fl._ on upright spikes from the top of the pseudo-bulbs, but smaller, of a light yellow tint, with very few narrow, transverse, brown bars, and a deep yellow lip, without warts of any kind on its middle lobe, and with more or less crenulated keels. Natal, 1847. The perfume is very peculiar. Very rare. =A. a. lutea= (yellow). Not so strong a grower; producing clusters of light yellow flowers from the top of the pseudo-bulbs. Natal. =A. a. nilotica= (Nile district).* As a garden plant this is much superior to the type. The habit is dwarfer, the colours of the flowers brighter and more distinctly defined. The sepals and petals, too, are more spreading. Eastern Africa. =ANSERINA.= _See_ =Potentilla anserina=. =ANTENN�.= Two movable, articulated organs attached to the heads of insects and crustacea, commonly called "horns" or "feelers." They are variable in form and length. Antennæ seem to serve for touch, and, perhaps, for smell and hearing. [Illustration: FIG. 105. ANTENNARIA MARGARITACEA, showing Habit and Inflorescence.] =ANTENNARIA= (from _antennæ_; in reference to the similarity which exists between the seed down of the plant and the antennæ, or feelers, of an insect). ORD. _Compositæ_. Hardy herbaceous perennials, distinguished by the dry, coloured, chaffy scales encircling each head of flowers, of which the stamens and pistils are on different plants. These are charming little alpine plants, admirably adapted for rockwork, pots, edgings, or borders, in any light soil. Propagated by divisions of the roots in spring, and seeds; the latter should be sown in spring in a cold frame. Grown chiefly for their leaves. =A. dioica= (di�cious).* _fl.-heads_ pink, in crowded corymbs, 3in. to 4in. high. June. _l._ radical ones spathulate, woolly chiefly beneath; upper ones lanceolate. Stems simple; shoots procumbent. Britain. The two or three varieties of this pretty species exceed the type in beauty. SYN. _Gnaphalium dioicum_. =A. d. hyperborea= (northern). _l._ woolly on both surfaces. =A. d. minima= (smallest).* A very small growing variety. =A. margaritacea= (pearly).* _fl.-heads_ white, corymbose. August. _l._ linear-lanceolate, acute, alternate, cottony, especially beneath. Stems branched above. _h._ 2ft. Naturalised in England and on the Continent. Said to have been introduced from America about the sixteenth century. The prettier but much rarer _A. triplinervis_, from Nepaul, comes close to this species. See Fig. 105. =A. tomentosa= (downy).* _fl.-heads_ corymbose. Summer. One of the dwarfest and best of silvery-leaved plants, either as an edging for small beds or for covering the higher portions of rockwork; it is much used in carpet bedding. It scarcely grows more than 1in. high, and forms a dense carpet in a short space of time. It should be grown separate from other plants. It is frequently known under the name of _A. candida_. =ANTERIOR.= Placed in front, or outwards. =ANTHEMIS= (from _anthemon_, a flower; referring to their general floriferous character). Camomile. ORD. _Compositæ_. Receptacle convex, chaffy. Involucre hemispherical or nearly flat; scales imbricated, membranaceous at the margin. Pappus none; ray florets ligulate; disk tubular. This is a large genus, principally of medicinal value, and contains very few species worth the cultivator's trouble. Of easy culture in any ordinary soil. Propagated by divisions. =A. Aizoon= (Aizoon).* _fl.-heads_ resembling a white Daisy; florets of the ray fourteen to eighteen, trifid, twice as long as the breadth of the disk. Summer. _l._ lanceolate, or broadly so, acutely and deeply serrated, narrowed towards the base, covered with white down; lower ones crowded; stem-leaves rather acute, gradually lessening in size. _h._ 2in. to 4in. Northern Greece. Free grower, dwarf, and compact. =A. Biebersteinii= (Bieberstein's).* _fl.-heads_ yellow. Summer. _l._ pinnately divided into linear three-lobed segments, which are covered with white silky pubescence. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Caucasus. =A. Chamomilla fl. pl.= _See_ =Matricaria=. =A. nobilis= (noble). Common Chamomile. _fl.-heads_ solitary; disk yellow; ray white; scales of the receptacle membranaceous, scarcely longer than the disk. _l._ bipinnate, segments linear-subulate, a little downy. Stem procumbent, and much branched. England. A very strong smelling plant, of great medicinal value. For culture, _see_ =Chamomile=. =A. tinctoria= (dyer's). _fl._ bright yellow, in large heads. July and August. _l._ bipinnatifid, serrate, downy beneath. Stem angular. _h._ 1-1/2ft. England. A very pretty plant. =ANTHER.= The male part of a flower containing the pollen. =ANTHERICUM= (from _anthos_, a flower and _kerkos_, a hedge; in reference to the tall flower stems). SYN. _Phalangium_. ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A large genus, belonging to the capsular group of the order, and inhabiting, for the most part, the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers white, racemose or panicled, scapose; perianth segments either spreading from near the base or campanulately united; stamens short, with naked or bearded filaments. Leaves radical, filiform or linear. The hardy varieties are now extensively grown, and are among the most ornamental of border plants. They thrive best in rich light soil, and are excellent subjects for pot culture; for which purpose use a compost of fibrous loam, leaf mould, or well-decayed manure, and coarse sand. The pots should be about 12in. across, well drained, and the plants potted just previous to, or so soon as, growth commences. During activity, plenty of water is needed, until the plants have finished flowering, when the quantity may be lessened; but never allow them to get dry. Propagated by division of the roots or seeds, sowing the latter, as early as possible after they are ripe, in a cold frame. =A. graminifolium= (grass-leaved). A garden name of _A. ramosum_. =A. Hookeri= (Hooker's). _See_ =Chrysobactron Hookeri=. =A. Liliago= (Liliago).* St. Bernard's Lily. _fl._ pure white, 1in. to 1-1/2in. across; perianth segments spreading; style curved. May to August. _l._ tufted, narrow, channelled, 12in. to 18in. high. South Europe, 1596. A very free flowering species, of which there is a _major_ variety in gardens. SYNS. _Phalangium_ and _Watsonia Liliago_. =A. Liliastrum= (Liliaster).* St. Bruno's Lily. _fl._ much larger than the last, 2in. long, and as much across, fragrant, of a transparent whiteness, with a delicate green spot on the point of each segment, campanulate, arranged in loose spikes. Early summer. _l._ long, narrow, six or eight to each plant, about 1ft. to 2ft. long, _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. South Europe, 1629. SYNS. _Czackia Liliastrum_ and _Paradisia Liliastrum_ (this is the correct name). See Fig. 106. [Illustration: FIG. 106. ANTHERICUM LILIASTRUM, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. L. major= (greater). _fl._ about 1in. larger than the type. _h._ about 6ft. A very desirable border plant. =A. ramosum= (branched).* _fl._ white, rather smaller than those of _A. Liliago_; perianth segments narrow and spreading; style straight; flower stems much branched. June. _l._ long, narrow, channelled, grass-like. _h._ 2ft. South Europe, 1570. A rapid grower. SYN. _A. graminifolium_ (of gardens). =A. serotinum= (late-flowering). _See_ =Lloydia=. =A. variegatum= (variegated). _l._ keeled, grass-like, striped and margined with white. South Africa, 1875. Half hardy. The proper name of this plant is _Chlorophytum elatum variegatum_. SYNS. _A. Williamsii_ and _Phalangium argenteo-lineare_. =A. Williamsii= (Williams'). Synonymous with _A. variegatum_. =ANTHERIDIA.= The reproductive organs in cryptogamic plants, analogous to anthers in flowering plants. =ANTHERIFEROUS.= Bearing anthers. =ANTHESIS.= The opening period of flowers. =ANTHOCARPOUS.= Bearing a fruit resulting from many flowers. =ANTHOCERCIS= (from _anthos_, a flower, and _kerkis_, a ray; in reference to the radiated corolla). ORD. _Solanaceæ_. Handsome greenhouse evergreen shrubs, with alternate leaves, attenuated into the petioles or base, thick, sometimes glandularly dotted. Flowers axillary, generally solitary; corolla campanulate. Cuttings strike freely in sand under a bell glass, with a mild bottom heat. So soon as they have well rooted, pot off into very small pots in two-thirds good loam and one of peat. After having made a little headway, the leading shoots should be pinched off, to induce a lateral growth; they may be transferred to pots a size larger when the roots have filled the first pot. Continue growing throughout the summer in frames or in the greenhouse, near the glass, allowing plenty of air. Vigorous growth should be checked; thus encouraging bushy plants. =A. albicans= (whitish-leaved).* _fl._ white, streaked with bluish-purple inside the tube, fragrant; petals longer than the tube. April. _l._ oblong, obtuse, densely tomentose on both surfaces, as well as the branches. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. New South Wales, 1824. =A. floribunda= (many-flowered). _fl._ white. _h._ 3ft. New South Wales. =A. ilicifolia= (Holly-leaved). _fl._ yellowish green. June. _h._ 6ft. Swan River, 1843. =A. littorea= (shore). _fl._ white. June. _h._ 3ft. New Holland, 1803. =A. viscosa= (clammy).* _fl._ large, white. May. _l._ obovate, glandularly dotted with scabrous margins; young leaves and branches clothed with fine down. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. New Holland, 1822. =ANTHOLOMA= (from _anthos_, a flower, and _loma_, a fringe; in allusion to the fringed or crenulated limb of the corolla). ORD. _Tiliaceæ_. A very fine greenhouse evergreen tree; it thrives best in a light loamy soil, mixed with a little peat. Cuttings of ripened wood will strike root in sand, under a hand glass. =A. montana= (mountain).* _fl._ white; corolla ovately cylindrical, with a crenate, rather toothed margin; racemes axillary, somewhat umbellate, reflexed. May. _l._ elliptical-oblong, leathery, stalked, scattered at the top of the branchlets. _h._ 20ft. New Caledonia, 1810. =ANTHOLYZA= (from _anthos_, a flower, and _lyssa_, rage; in reference to the opening of the flowers, which resemble the mouth of an enraged animal). SYN. _Petamenes_. Including _Anisanthus_. ORD. _Irideæ_. A very pretty genus of bulbous plants from the Cape of Good Hope, having narrow, erect, Iris-like leaves, and flower-spikes that over-top the foliage, bearing numerous bright-coloured flowers. Perianth tubular, six-cleft, unequal, the upper segments longest; stamens three. The species may be grown in a greenhouse, or planted out in a frame. They also thrive excellently out of doors, and should be planted 8in. or 9in. deep for fear of frost, or have a winter protection of several inches of cocoa-nut fibre refuse or litter. The safer plan is to raise the roots, winter them in some dry part of the greenhouse; but, previous to storing, divide the clumps, clean them, and re-plant or pot in February, or early in March. A mixture of equal parts peat, sandy loam, and leaf soil is most suitable for their culture. Just previous to flowering, if in pots, frequent doses of weak manure water will be found beneficial. They may be propagated by offsets, which are produced in abundance, at almost any time. Seeds are sometimes procured, which should be sown so soon as ripe, in light soil, in a cool house, where they will germinate the following spring, and will be fit to plant out in the summer of the same year. With the exception of _A. Cunonia_, they all much resemble each other. Only four or five species of this genus are worth cultivating. =A. æthiopica= (�thiopian).* _fl._ scarlet and green. June. _h._ 3ft. 1759. SYNS. _A. floribunda_, _A. præalta_. =A. æ. ringens= (gaping). _fl._ red and yellow, rather smaller than those of the type. SYN. _A. vittigera_. =A. bicolor= (two-coloured). Synonymous with _A. Cunonia_. =A. caffra= (Caffrarian).* _fl._ rich scarlet; spike distichous, many-flowered. June. _l._ long, linear, or linear-ensiform. _h._ 2ft. 1828. A very showy and pretty species, but rarely seen in our gardens. SYN. _Anisanthus splendens_. =A. Cunonia= (Cunon's).* _fl._ scarlet and black, a combination of colours uncommon among bulbous plants; spikes secund. June. _h._ 2ft. 1756. SYN. _Anisanthus Cunonia_. =A. floribunda= (much-flowered). A synonym of _A. æthiopica_. =A. præalta= (very tall). Synonymous with _A. æthiopica_. =A. vittigera= (glandular). Synonymous with _A. æ. ringens_. =ANTHOMYIA.= _See_ =Beet Fly=, =Cabbage Fly=, and =Onion Fly=. =ANTHONOMUS.= _See_ =Grubs=. =ANTHOSPERMUM= (from _anthos_, a flower, and _sperma_, a seed). Amber Tree. ORD. _Rubiaceæ_. An ornamental greenhouse evergreen shrub from the Cape of Good Hope. It thrives in peat, loam, and sand, with a summer temperature of 50deg. to 65deg., and winter, 40deg. to 45deg. Increased by cuttings, in sand, under a bell glass. There are above twenty other species belonging to this genus. =A. æthiopicum= (�thiopian).* _fl._ di�cious, male brownish, and the female ones green, disposed in verticillate spikes. June. _l._ linear-lanceolate, three in a whorl, shining above, glabrous beneath, about 1/4in. long. Stem much branched, downy above. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. 1692. =ANTHOTAXIS.= The arrangement of flowers on an inflorescence. =ANTHOXANTHUM= (from _anthos_, a flower, and _xanthus_, yellow). Spring Grass. Calyx of two valves, glumaceous, one-flowered; corolla double, each of two valves: the exterior awned; the interior small, awnless; stamens two, not three, as is usually the case with grasses. ORD. _Gramineæ_. A pretty native hardy perennial, of easy culture in common garden soil. [Illustration: FIG. 107. ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM.] =A. odoratum= (sweet). _fl._ panicle spiked, oblong, dense, becoming dullish yellow. _l._ short, pale green. _h._ 1ft. The pleasant smell of new-made Hay is chiefly owing to this plant, which in drying emits an odour similar to that of _Asperula odorata_. See Fig. 107. =ANTHURIUM= (from _anthos_, a flower, and _oura_, a tail; referring to the inflorescence). ORD. _Aroideæ_. Flowers densely disposed on a cylindrical spadix, at the base of which is a large bract-like spathe, that ultimately bends backwards. Leaves of various shapes. This very large genus of handsome stove and greenhouse plants is remarkable both for the peculiar inflorescence and often noble leaves, and is distinguished in structure from all the European members of the order in the flowers being hermaphrodite. Fibry peat, loam, sphagnum, broken crocks, or charcoal, and silver sand, form the most suitable compost. In preparing the peat, it should be broken up into small lumps, and then have most of the earthy matter knocked out of it by giving it a few raps with a stick, or by shaking it about in a sieve. To this, after so treated, add about one-fourth its bulk of sphagnum, and about half its bulk of fibrous loam, and just a sprinkling of fresh broken crocks, or small pieces of charcoal and sharp silver sand. In placing them in the pots--�which must be well drained--�carefully spread out the roots and work the mixture among them, keeping the plant well up, so that when finished it stands clear above the rim of the pot at least 2in. or 3in., and forms a kind of mound or hillock. They must then be kept freely syringed or watered, and placed in a moist atmosphere, where they can enjoy a temperature ranging between 60deg. and 70deg., or a few degrees lower for the less tender species. Raising plants from seed requires patience. About a year elapses from the time the flowers are fertilised--�which should be done artificially--before the seed ripens, and often another to get up plants. Sow as soon as ripe in shallow, well-drained pans or pots, filled with the potting mixture, and cover slightly, and place in a close, moist propagating case, where a temperature of from 75deg. to 85deg. is maintained, or they may be covered with bell glasses. The principal thing is to keep the air about them constantly humid, and the material in which they are sown in a uniformly moist condition; if this is done, the young seedlings will make their appearance in due course. When these are of sufficient size to handle, they should be pricked off in the same sort of compost, and be kept close and moist till they get a start, after which gradually inure them to more air. January is the best month of the year wherein to propagate these plants by divisions. This is done by carefully turning them out of their pots and shaking out what soil they have amongst their roots, which must be tenderly dealt with, so as not to bruise or injure them. This done, they may then be pulled apart, and as many plants made as there are separate crowns, or the mass may be simply halved or quartered, according to the stock required. Treat now as recommended above for potting. They are all moisture-loving plants, and must have a copious supply of water at all times, although, of course, much less during the winter than spring and summer months. There is no season of the year when they can be handled for any purpose with less risk or check than January. A moderate moist stove heat is advisable for them generally. The species enumerated are selected from nearly 150, and will be found to be a very representative collection. _See also_ =Spathiphyllum=. =A. acaule= (stemless).* _fl._, spadix blue in a young state, borne on long footstalks, sweetly scented. Spring. _l._ broad, oblong, acuminate, 1ft. to 3ft. in length, erect, arranged in a rosulate manner, dark shining green on the upper surface, somewhat paler beneath. West Indies, 1853. A noble species. [Illustration: FIG. 108. ANTHURIUM ANDREANUM.] =A. Andreanum= (André's).* _fl._, spadix about 3in. long, yellowish, with a broad central band of white; spathe open, cordate-ovate, orange red, leathery, 3in. to 4in. across, and 6in. to 9in. long; surface irregularly corrugated. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, deeply cordate, green. Columbia, 1876. A very beautiful species. See Fig. 108. =A. Bakeri= (Baker's).* _fl._, spathe small, green, reflexed; the spadix, wherein lies the plant's principal beauty, exhibits a lovely combination of pink and bright scarlet; the fleshy rachis being pink, and the pea-sized fruits bright scarlet. July. _l._ linear, leathery, green, with stout midribs. Costa Rica, 1872. =A. cordifolium= (cordate-leaved).* _l._ 3ft. long and 20in. broad, heart-shaped, deep shining green on the upper surface, and paler below. _h._ 4ft. New Grenada. One of the best, and may be grown in a greenhouse or even in a sheltered spot of the sub-tropical garden during July and August. _A. Browni_, although quite distinct, comes close to this species. =A. coriaceum= (leathery).* _l._ very thick, leathery, ovate, about 2ft. long; petioles stout, about the same length. Brazil. An admirable sub-tropical species. [Illustration: FIG. 109. ANTHURIUM CRYSTALLINUM.] =A. crystallinum= (crystalline).* _l._ large, ovate-cordate, acuminate, bright rich velvety green, principal veins elegantly banded with pure crystal white; when young, the leaves are violet colour; petioles terete. _h._ 2ft. Columbia. See Fig. 109. =A. cuspidatum= (cuspidate). _fl._, spathe crimson, reflexed, shorter than the purplish spadix. _l._ ovate-oblong, acuminate, 10in. to 20in. long, green. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Columbia. _A. ferrierense_ (Ferrières).* _fl._, spathe cordate, about 5in. long, and 4in. wide, bright red; spadix erect, about 4in. long, ivory white. _l._ large, cordate. A handsome hybrid between _A. ornatum_ and _A. Andreanum_. =A. fissum= (cut-leaved). _fl._, spathe green, erect, narrowly lanceolate-acuminate. _l._ cut into four to seven elliptic oblong-acuminate segments, green; petioles longish, terete. _h._ 2ft. Columbia, 1868. =A. Harrisii pulchrum= (beautiful).* _fl._, spathe linear-lanceolate, creamy white, deflexed, and pinkish at top; spadix erect, deep crimson; scape about 1ft. long, pale green. _l._ lanceolate, rounded at the base, pale green, with confluent white markings intermixed with dark green. Stem short. Brazil, 1882. A beautiful variegated plant. The typical _A. Harrisii_ is extremely rare. =A. Hookeri= (Hooker's). _fl._, spathe green; spadix green or violet. _l._ obovate-spathulate, narrowed to a wedge-shaped base, and shortly stalked, shining, about 30in. long and 8in. broad. _h._ 3ft. Tropical America, 1840. SYNS. _A. Huegelii_, _Pothos acaulis_. =A. Huegelii= (Huegel's). A synonym of _A. Hookeri_. =A. insigne= (showy).* _l._ three-lobed, middle lobe lanceolate, the two lateral ones are nearly ovate, and have from three to five longitudinal ribs; when young, the leaves have a bronzy tinge; petioles terete, slightly sheathing at the base. Columbia, 1881. A very handsome species. =A. Kalbreyeri= (Kalbreyer's).* _l._ palmate, about 2-1/2ft. across; leaflets nine, obovate-oblong, acuminate, sinuate, thick, glabrous, rich deep green, those furthest from the stem are much larger than those next the axis; petiole cylindrical, thickened at the top. New Grenada, 1881. A very handsome climbing species. =A. lanceolatum= (lanceolate). _fl._, spathe lanceolate, deflexed, yellowish green; spadix dark brown. _l._ lanceolate, stalked, green, 1ft. long, narrowed to the base. There appears to be much confusion as regards this and many varieties of _A. Harrisii_; and the specific designation is indiscriminately applied to lanceolate-leaved forms generally. The true species was introduced to Kew from the West Indies. SYN. _A. Wildenowii_. =A. leuconeurum= (white-nerved). Green. Mexico, 1862. =A. Lindenianum= (Linden's).* _fl._ fragrant, spathe very pretty, white, not reflexed, but the pointed apex slightly arches over and shelters the white or purplish spadix. October. _l._ deeply cordate, of a roundish outline; petioles long. _h._ 3ft. Columbia, 1866. SYN. _A. Lindigi_ (of gardens). =A. Lindigi= (Lindig's). A garden synonym of _A. Lindenianum_. =A. macrolobum= (large-lobed).* _l._ large, deflexed, cordate, acuminate, with an open sinus at the base, and about three acute marginal lobes, dark green, marked with about five pale green ribs; petioles green, terete. Stem erect, short. A fine hybrid. =A. nymphæifolium= (Nymphæa-leaved). _fl._, spathe white; spadix purplish. Venezuela, 1854. =A. ornatum= (adorned).* _fl._, spathe linear-oblong, white, 5in. to 6in. long, on terete green scapes, enclosing cylindrical purplish spadices of about the same length as the spathes, and studded with white points arranged spirally. Spring. _l._ ovate or oblong-cordate, on slender terete petioles. _h._ 2-1/2ft. Venezuela, 1869. =A. regale= (royal).* _l._ large, cordate-acuminate, 1ft. to 3ft. long, dull metallic green, with white veins; young leaves tinged with rose, on long smooth footstalks. East Peru, 1866. An excellent species for conservatory or window decoration during summer. [Illustration: FIG. 110. ANTHURIUM SCHERZERIANUM.] =A. Scherzerianum= (Scherzer's).* _fl._ on bright red peduncles, which spring from among the base of the leafstalks; spathe ovate-oblong, 3in. long and nearly 2in. broad, intense and brilliant scarlet; spadix orange coloured. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, 12in. to 18in. long, and 2in. or more broad, deep rich green, leathery. Costa Rica. A very compact dwarf-growing evergreen about 1ft. high. It continues in beauty about four months. See Fig. 110. =A. S. album= (white). A synonym of _A. Scherzerianum Williamsii_. [Illustration: FIG. 111. ANTHURIUM SCHERZERIANUM MAXIMUM.] =A. S. maximum= (greater).* A very fine variety, with "gigantic flower spathes, which measure about 9in. in length by 4in. in breadth, and are of the most brilliant scarlet colour." See Fig. 111. =A. S. pygmæum= (small).* Altogether smaller than the type, with narrow leaves, which are from 4in. to 6in. long, and about 1/2in. broad. It is one of the best varieties, and produces flowers very freely. 1880. =A. S. Rothschildianum= (Rothschild's). _fl._, spathe creamy white, spotted with crimson; spadix yellow. 1880. Exactly intermediate between its parent plants--the typical species and the following variety. =A. S. Wardii= (Ward's).* _fl._, spathe 6in. long, 4in. broad, very brilliant. _l._ broader and more robust than those of the typical species. A splendid variety. =A. S. Williamsii= (Williams's).* _fl._, spathe white; spadix yellowish. May. _l._ lanceolate-acuminate. Costa Rica, 1874. SYN. _A. Scherzerianum album_. =A. signatum= (well-marked). _l._ apparently three-lobed; front lobe about 1ft. long and 4in. wide; the two side ones 4in. long, and about 6in. from the midrib to the extremity, dark green; petioles about 1ft. long. Venezuela, 1858. =A. spathiphyllum= (Spathiphyllum). _fl._, spathe about 1-3/4in. long, and nearly as much broad, erect, boat-shaped, broadly ovate, white; spadix nearly 1in. long, very obtuse, pale yellow. _l._ narrow lanceolate, 16in. to 24in. long, and about 2in. wide, bright green above, pale greyish green beneath; midrib prominent; petiole 3in. to 6in. long, trigonous. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Tropical America, 1875. =A. splendidum= (splendid).* _l._ cordate, with an open sinus, the lobes meeting behind; "the course of the nerves is marked by a broadish band of deep lustrous velvety green, the intervening spaces of about equal width being in striking contrast, of a pale yellowish green; the leaf surface is scabrous, and the portions between the ribs strongly bullate, as if raised in papillose blisters; the veins on the under surface are angular, with tooth-like projections at intervals, while the whole under surface is punctuated with small pallid dots" (W. Bull). Stem short, thick. South America, 1882. A very beautiful species, quite distinct from any others of the genus. See Fig. 112. [Illustration: FIG. 112. ANTHURIUM SPLENDIDUM.] =A. subsignatum= (nearly allied to Signatum).* _l._ thick and fleshy, hastate, with blunt points, 12in. to 18in. long, and as much in breadth at the widest part; dark shining green above, paler beneath; petioles about 1ft. long. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Costa Rica, 1861. An excellent species. =A. tetragonum= (four-angled). _l._ erect, commences very narrow, 1ft. wide at its broadest part; margins undulate, deep shining green on the upper surface, paler below; petioles short, quadrangular. Tropical America, 1860. An excellent sub-tropical species. =A. triumphans= (superior). _fl._, spathe narrow, green; spadix stout, greenish-white; peduncle quadrangular. _l._ alternate, elongately cordate, bright green; ribs prominent, and of a paler hue. Stem erect. Brazil, 1882. A handsome plant. =A. Veitchii= (Veitch's).* _l._ ovate-oblong, greatly elongated, 2ft. to 3ft. long, with a breadth of less than one-third of these dimensions, leathery, deep green, with a glossy metallic surface when first expanded that becomes paler with age; the principal nerves are arched and deeply sunk, imparting a curiously waved appearance to the surface. _h._ 2-1/2ft. Columbia, 1877. Rare but very handsome. =A. Waluiewi= (Walujew's).* _l._ broadly cordate, 12in. to 14in. long, 8in. to 10in. broad, olive metallic green, when young, bright reddish crimson; petioles four to five-angled. _h._ 2ft. Venezuela, 1880. A very distinct and noble species. =A. Waroqueanum= (Waroque's).* _l._ elongated, from 24in. to sometimes 36in. long, and 8in. to 11in. broad, very rich deep green, of a velvety lustre; midribs and veins light, forming a very pleasing contrast. Columbia, 1878. A very free grower. =A. Wildenowii= (Wildenow's). A synonym of _A. lanceolatum_. It may be here remarked that by far the majority of species enumerated in the _Supplement_ of Johnson's Dictionary are chiefly of botanical interest, and will, therefore, never become extensively cultivated. =ANTHYLLIS= (from _anthos_, a flower, and _ioulos_, down; flowers usually downy). Kidney Vetch. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Herbaceous or sub-shrubby plants, of variable habit. Flowers in spikes or heads; calyx tubular, five toothed, permanent after flowering, more or less inflated. Petals nearly equal. Although not extensively grown, all the species are very beautiful when in flower, the hardy sorts being admirably adapted for rockwork. The herbaceous perennials may be easily propagated by seed or division. The seeds of the annual kinds should be sown in a rather dry, warm situation in the open ground. The shrubby evergreens will need the protection of a frame or cool greenhouse in cold northern climates, and are best grown in a mixture of loam, sand, and peat. Young cuttings of most species will root in a pot of sandy soil, with a bell glass placed over them, in a cool house or frame. =A. Barba-Jovis= (Jupiter's beard).* _fl._ pale yellow, numerous, in globose, bracteate heads. March. _l._ pinnate, and are as well as the branches, clothed with silky tomentum; leaflets nine to thirteen, oblong-linear. _h._ 4ft. to 8ft. Spain, 1640. Shrub. =A. erinacea= (prickly).* _fl._ bluish-purple; heads few flowered, on short peduncles, bracteate. April. _l._ very few, oval, or oblong. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Spain, 1759. A much branched, spiny, almost leafless, and slow-growing species; hardy in a dry sunny position on the rockery. SYN. _Erinacea hispanica_. =A. Hermanniæ= (Hermann's). _fl._ yellow; heads few flowered, nearly sessile in the axils of the upper leaves. April. _l._ almost sessile, simple, or trifoliate; leaflets oblong-cuneated, glabrous or clothed with adpressed pubescence. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Corsica, 1739. Shrubby, much branched. =A. montana= (mountain).* _fl._ pink or purplish, in dense heads, on peduncles, with a leafy involucre. June. _l._ pinnate, and are as well as the branches, silky and hoary; leaflets numerous, oval-oblong, acute, small, entire. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Alps of Europe, 1769. A very handsome little rock plant, with a dwarf and tufted habit. =A. tetraphylla= (four-leaved). _fl._ white; heads axillary, sessile, few flowered. July. _l._ pinnate, the terminal leaflets ovate and large, the other three small and acute. South Europe, 1640. A procumbent annual. =A. Vulneraria= (Common Woundwort).* _fl._ generally yellow, sometimes white, red, or pinkish, in crowded twin heads. Summer. _l._ pinnate, with five or more unequal leaflets; the lower ones smallest. An elegant native herbaceous, perennial, admirably adapted for rockwork. It is plentiful in most dry pastures. There are several varieties, the best of which is _alba_. =ANTIARIS TOXICARIA.= This is the famous Upas tree of Java, from which is obtained poison of a most deadly nature. It belongs to the NAT. ORD. _Urticaceæ_. =ANTIGONON= (from _anti_, against, or opposite, and _gonia_, an angle). ORD. _Polygonaceæ_. Elegant stove climbers. Flowers racemose, cirrhose at the apex of the rachides; petals five, three outer ones broadly cordate, two inner oblong. Leaves alternate, cordate. Although extremely handsome plants, they are difficult to flower. They seem to succeed best when planted out in a very thoroughly drained border over hot-water pipes or flues, the long climbing stems being trained near the glass in full light. =A. amabile= (lovely).* _fl._ bright rose, profusely borne in axillary and terminal racemes. _l._ 3in. to 5in. long, ovate-cordate, and deeply lobed at the base. It is of free slender growth, the young shoots are pubescent, and having a slight reddish tinge. An exceedingly attractive and effective species. =A. guatemalensis= (Guatemala). Probably the same as _A. insigne_. =A. insigne= (remarkable).* _fl._ very numerous, borne in tufts along the sides of long racemes or panicles, which terminate in branched tendrils; the calyx, which is the showy part of the flower, has five membranous sepals, the three outer are of a beautiful rosy pink colour, about 1in. in length by rather less in breadth, cordate at the base, oblong, rounded towards the apex; the two inner sepals about the same length as the outer ones, but much narrower, falcate, lanceolate; pedicels 3/4in. long. _l._ broadly ovate oblong, deeply cordate at the base, with two rounded lobes; 4in. by 3in., the upper ones smaller, supported on short terete downy stalks. Stems slender, angular, pubescent. Columbia, 1876. _A. leptopus_ (slender-stemmed). _fl._ numerous; the outer three sepals of a beautiful rose colour, the centre of a much deeper tint; racemes secund, bearing several coloured bracts as well as flowers, and end in a branched tendril. _l._ alternate, cordate, petiolate. Stem slender, sub-pubescent. Mexico, 1868. =ANTIGRAMME.= _See_ =Scolopendrium=. [Illustration: FIG. 113. ANTIRRHINUM CAPSULE, with Persistent Style.] [Illustration: FIG. 114. ANTIRRHINUM ASARINA, showing Habit and Flower.] =ANTIRRHINUM= (from _anti_, like, and _rhin_, a nose or snout; alluding to the shape of the corolla). Snapdragon. ORD. _Scrophulariaceæ_. Hardy herbaceous plants. Flowers in terminal racemes, or solitary and axillary; corolla personate; tube ample, saccate at the base; lobes of the upper lip erect; lower lip spreading, having the middle lobes smaller than the lateral ones, with an ample bearded palate, which closes the throat. Seed pod or capsule two-celled, upper cell bursting by one pore, lower by two many-toothed pores. See Fig. 113. Leaves entire, rarely lobed. The genus contains several very handsome species, suitable for borders and the rockery, while innumerable varieties have originated from _A. majus_, which are very popular, and extremely useful for bedding purposes; these may be increased by cuttings or seeds; if it is desired to increase certain colours or varieties, the former is the only sure method to adopt. They should be taken in September, when they will readily root in a cold frame, or under a hand glass, or they may be rapidly propagated in gentle heat in spring. Seeds should be sown in July or August, when they will produce good plants by the following season; or if sown in March in warmth, the plants will bloom late in the same year. The "Tom Thumb" strain is especially desirable for bedding, being very dwarf and free. All the other species may be increased by cuttings and seeds treated in the same way. Light soil, well enriched with manure, is most suitable for all of them, especially for the varieties of _A. majus_. [Illustration: FIG. 115. FLOWER-SPIKE OF ANTIRRHINUM MAJUS.] =A. angustifolium= (narrow-leaved). Synonymous with _A. siculum_. =A. Asarina= (Asarina).* _fl._ axillary, solitary; corolla 1-1/2in. long, white, sometimes tinged with red; palate yellow; tube glabrous, compressed on the back, marked by purple spots, and bearded by yellow hairs inside. June. _l._ opposite, on long petioles, five-nerved, five-lobed, cordate, and crenated. South France, &c., 1699. A greyish clammy procumbent plant, requiring a warm position on the rockery. See Fig. 114. =A. hispanicum= (Spanish). _fl._ in loose spikes; corolla hardly an inch long, purple, with a golden yellow palate; tube villous. Summer. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, contracted at the base, bluntish; lower ones opposite; superior ones alternate, narrower. _h._ 1ft. Spain, 1878. SYN. _A. latifolium_. =A. latifolium= (broad-leaved). Synonymous with _A. hispanicum_. =A. majus= (large).* Greater, or Common Snapdragon. _fl._ racemose, approximate; corolla 1in. to 2in. long, shades infinite; palate yellow at top, very prominent; tube downy outside. Spring, summer, and autumn. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, 1in. to 3in. long; upper ones narrower, attenuated at both ends, glabrous. Branches erect, usually branched again. _h._ 2ft. Europe (naturalised in Britain). The named varieties are numerous, but it is unnecessary to enumerate any, as an equal amount of variation can be obtained from seed. See Fig. 115. =A. molle= (soft).* _fl._ few, at the tops of the branchlets; corolla 1in. long, whitish, with a yellow palate; upper lip striped with purple. July. _l._ opposite, petiolate, clothed with glandular and clammy hairs, about 1/2in. long, and little more than 1/4in. broad; branches procumbent, slender, clothed with woolly hairs. Pyrenees, 1752. A very pretty plant, which should have a warm position on the rockery. _A. sempervirens_ comes close to this species. =A. Orontium= (Orontium). _fl._ axillary, distant; corolla rose-coloured or white, striped with purple; tube furnished with a few glandular hairs; palate veined with purple; sepals linear-lanceolate, large. June. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acutish, attenuated at both ends, glabrous, 2in. long. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Europe (British cornfields). Annual. See Fig. 116. [Illustration: FIG. 116. ANTIRRHINUM ORONTIUM.] =A. O. grandiflorum= (large-flowered). A variety with larger, paler, and more approximate flowers, and with broader leaves, than the type. Europe (British cornfields). =A. siculum= (Sicilian). _fl._ in loose racemes; corolla hardly 1in. long, white or yellowish, rarely purple; tube rather hairy; lobes of the upper lip and the middle lobe of the lower lip emarginate. July. _l._ 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, linear-lanceolate, opposite, alternate or three in a whorl, narrowed into petioles at the base. Branches erect. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Sicily, 1804. SYN. _A. angustifolium_. =A. tortuosum= (twisted).* _fl._ disposed in spiked racemes, approximating by threes and fours; corolla (the largest of the genus) purple; tube short; upper lip large. June. _l._ linear, acute, opposite or three in a whorl, 2in. long, attenuated at both ends; upper ones very narrow. Branches erect. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Italy. =ANTONIA.= A synonym of =Rhynchoglossum= (which _see_). =ANTROPHYUM= (from _antron_, a cavern, and _phuo_, to grow; referring to its place of growth). Including _Polytænium_. ORD. _Filices_. A small genus of stove ferns, very rarely seen in cultivation, all with simple fronds, of firm but fleshy texture, and copious, uniform, hexagonal areolæ. Sori carried along the veins, imperfectly reticulated. For culture, &c., _see_ =Ferns=. =A. cayennense= (Cayenne). _sti._ 1in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, lanceolate-oblong, narrowed at both ends; edge thickened, entire; areolæ half as broad as long. _sori_ sub-superficial, often forked. Guiana, &c. =A. coriaceum= (leathery). _fronds_ 6in. to 8in. long, about 1/2in. broad, narrowed very gradually from the centre to the base, very acute at the apex, very thick; areolæ very long and narrow, distinctly raised on the upper surface. _sori_ quite immersed, sometimes confluent. Himalayas, &c. =A. lanceolatum= (lance-leaved).* _fronds_ 1ft. or more long, 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, point acute, edge entire, the lower half narrowed very gradually to the base; areolæ two or three times as long as broad, about three rows between the midrib and the edge. _sori_ slender, superficial, often joining. West Indies, southwards to New Grenada, 1793. =ANTS= (_Formicidæ_). Well-known pests, easily distinguished from all other insects. There are a great number of species, differing more or less in habits; but, as a rule, they dwell underground in communities, and construct extensive ant-cities, which are occupied by three classes--the neuters or workers (by far the most numerous), the males, and the females. There are often, in addition to these, larger and stronger neuters, known as the "soldiers," or defenders of the community. Ants have a long, slender body, supported on long and slender legs. The head bears a pair of elbowed horns or antennæ, constantly waving about and touching everything the insect comes across. They have powerful mandibles for cutting, sawing, and biting, and it is with these instruments that Ants do mischief in gardens. The winged males and females become mature in summer, and on a warm day they ascend in a body into the air; after a short time, they fall to the ground, the females at once free themselves from the henceforth useless wings, and begin to form new colonies. Vast numbers of eggs are laid, from which issue larvæ, and these soon become pupæ, and then perfect Ants. Some kinds are injurious from their habit (in some species) of collecting aphides together, and farming them for the sake of the honey secreted by the aphides, and that passes out from their honey-tubes (thus helping to perpetuate the stock of these most injurious insects); and also from the mechanical damage they do in pots, and other receptacles for plants. They likewise cause unsightly hills on lawns and paths, and the large black species that live in decayed wood often injure the framing of greenhouses, &c., when the woodwork has become somewhat decayed. Where fruit, such as peaches or wall pears, are grown, Ants will at times inflict damage, and, therefore, they should be kept away; but this is a comparatively easy matter, as the placing of an obnoxious substance along the base of the walls and around the stems of the trees will deter them. For the extirpation of Ants from indoors, the Arsenical solution described below is most efficacious, but it is extremely dangerous. * * * * * _Lime._ Air-slaked lime plentifully dusted, in warm, dry, weather, over and around the hills and other places infested, will cause the Ants to vacate them in a short time. A thick chalk line drawn round a smooth tree, or across an upright board or post, will render it impassable. _Arsenic._ This must be used with the utmost caution, as it is a poison most fatal to animal life. Recipe: 1oz. of ordinary arsenic is placed in an old iron pot with a quart of water, and then boiled until reduced to a pint or a little more of liquid, to which is added 1/2lb. of coarse sugar. This mixture can either be dropped about the runs and around the nests, or placed in saucers in the Ants' haunts. _Ferrocyanide of Potassium._ This is also very dangerous: Ferrocyanide of potassium, 1dr.; raspings of quassia, 1dr.; and enough sugar to form a syrup. Use in the same way as the preceding. _Calomel and Sugar._ Mix together one part of calomel and ten parts of finely-powdered loaf sugar, and lay it in little heaps about their nests and runs; the Ants will eat it and die. Spring is the best season for this method. _Guano_, when fresh, if sprinkled on and around their quarters, is said to be efficacious in driving them away. _Camphor._ If a piece of camphor, about the size of a filbert, be placed in two quarts of hot water, and this, when cool enough, applied to pot or other plants infested with Ants, the insects will be driven off without injury to the plants. _Bones._ Lay a quantity of partially-picked boiled bones in the haunts, and they will be quickly covered with insects. As soon as this occurs, throw the bones into hot water. Before laying them down again, let all superfluous moisture drain off. This is a cheap remedy, and, if persisted in, is very effectual. _Carbolic Acid._ This, if of good strength, diluted with about ten or twelve times its bulk of water, and well sprinkled over paths or other places where there is no vegetation, will keep the Ants away. It has, however, an objectionable smell. _Paraffin Oil._ Paraffin, mixed with six times its bulk of water, and sprinkled over the nests every few days, will kill and drive away Ants; but the smell is disagreeable. _Quassia._ 4oz. of quassia chips, boiled in a gallon of water for about ten minutes, and 4oz. of soap added to the liquor as it cools, if used like the preceding, is fairly effectual; but this, like the other remedies, must be persisted in for some time. Fly pans or saucers, nearly filled with thin honey or sweet oil, attract Ants, and they are drowned in them. Ants are very hard to clear effectually out of a place, and therefore it is very desirable, in all attempts to be rid of them, to persist in the above remedies. When not living close to the roots or stems of plants, the best and surest remedy of all is to flood them out or scald them in with boiling water. The specifics are endless, but the best are mentioned above. =ANTWERP HOLLYHOCK.= _See_ =Althæa ficifolia=. =AOTUS= (from _a_, without, and _ous_, an ear; in allusion to the absence of appendages in the calyx, which distinguishes it from its allied genus, _Pultenæa_). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Elegant little greenhouse evergreen shrubs, with yellow flowers, and simple, linear-subulate leaves, revolute at the margins, alternate or nearly opposite, or three in a whorl. They should be grown in a compost of equal parts loam, sand, and peat, with a little charcoal, and the pots should be well drained. Cuttings of half-ripened wood, made in April, root freely in sand, under a bell glass. =A. gracillima= (most slender).* _fl._ yellow and crimson, small, on long, dense, graceful spikes, which are often over a foot long; pedicels short. May. _h._ 3ft. New Holland, 1844. A very pretty slender growing shrub. =A. villosa= (soft-haired). _fl._ axillary, disposed in racemose spikes along the branches; calyx silky. April. _l._ smoothish on the upper surface. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. New Holland, 1790. =APEIBA= (the native name in Guiana.) ORD. _Tiliaceæ_. Very handsome stove evergreen trees or shrubs, clothed with starry down. Flowers large, golden yellow, pedunculate, bracteate. Capsule spherical, depressed, rough from rigid bristles. Leaves broad, alternate, entire or serrate. They thrive in a mixture of loam and peat. The best way to induce them to flower in this country is by cutting a ring round the bark of a large branch; by this means the growth is stopped. Well ripened cuttings should be planted in sand in heat, under a bell glass, which should be tilted occasionally, so as to give a little air to the cuttings, otherwise they are apt to damp off. =A. aspera= (rough).* _fl._ golden yellow; peduncles opposite the leaves, branched, many flowered. May. _l._ ovate-oblong, somewhat cordate, quite entire, smooth. _h._ 30ft. to 40ft. Guiana, 1792. =A. Petoumo= (Petoumo). _fl._ yellow, similarly disposed to _A. aspera_. August. _fr._ densely clothed with bristles. _l._ ovate-oblong, somewhat cordate at the base, entire, hoary beneath. _h._ 40ft. Guiana, 1817. =A. Tibourbou= (Tibourbou).* _fl._ dark yellow. August. _fr._ densely clothed with bristles. _l._ cordate, ovate-oblong, serrated, hairy beneath. _h._ 10ft. Guiana, 1756. =APETALOUS.= Without petals. =APEX.= The summit or point of anything. =APHELANDRA= (from _apheles_, simple, and _aner_, a male; the anthers being one-celled). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. Very handsome stove evergreen shrubs, mostly of an erect habit of growth, and having handsome shining leaves, which in some instances are variegated. Flowers produced in terminal four-sided spikes-�the preponderating colours being brilliant shades of orange or scarlet�-conspicuously situated above the foliage; they are exceedingly attractive; corolla ringent, two-lipped, upper lip three-lobed; central lobe large. They bloom generally during the autumn months, and if the plants are removed to a warm dry atmosphere so soon as the flowers begin to open, they will continue much longer in perfection than if left in the moisture-laden atmosphere of the stove. From the time the flower spikes are at first seen till they bloom, the plants will derive much benefit from frequent applications of clear manure water. When the plants have finished flowering, they should be allowed to rest, by reducing the supply of water, but never allow them to shrivel. During this time they may be kept in a house or pit, where the atmosphere is rather dry, with a night temperature of 50deg. to 55deg. Here they may remain till March, when they should be pruned. This operation is commenced by thinning out the weakest shoots altogether, and cutting the others back to one or two of the strongest joints or buds above the old wood in order to keep the plants dwarf and bushy. When pruned, the plants should be placed in the stove, giving moderate supplies of water at the roots, and occasionally sprinkling the stems overhead till growth commences. When the young shoots have attained an inch or so in length, the plants should be turned out of the pots, removing the crocks and as much of the old soil as can be got away easily, at the same time shortening-in any of the straggling roots. They should then be placed into smaller-sized pots, keeping them rather close, and watering them carefully for a time till growth has commenced. When fairly started, they may be transferred into larger-sized pots, in which they are to flower. During the summer, these plants require a moist atmosphere, with a temperature of 65deg. by night, allowing it to rise 15deg. or 20deg. by day, and whilst active growth is taking place they should be frequently supplied with moisture at the roots, keeping them well exposed on all sides to the light. After growth has commenced, it is not advisable to stop the shoots, for the stouter and stronger they grow up the finer will be the flower spikes when they appear. The compost should consist of equal parts fibry loam, leaf soil, and peat, with a good proportion of sand added. In preparing it, it should be rather lumpy, and, before using, should be warmed to about the temperature of the house in which the plants are grown. Clean pots and perfect drainage are most essential. Cuttings are best prepared from half ripened wood, or taken off when young with a heel. The base of each cutting should invariably be cut clean across. These may be inserted an inch apart, in pots of sandy soil, and plunged in a brisk bottom heat. To obtain young shoots for cuttings, if the old plants break freely after pruning, and very large specimens are not required, when the shoots are 2in. long they should be thinned out, leaving the requisite number of the strongest to form the plant. If the surplus pieces are removed with a slight heel of the older wood, they make good cuttings, and should be treated the same as the others. These cuttings strike root quickest, and when rooted, if potted into 5in. or 6in. pots, and allowed to grow up without stopping or pinching out the tops, they will flower the first season. Although Aphelandras can be grown into large sized specimens, it will be found to be more generally satisfactory to have specimens of neat and moderate dimensions. The mealy bug and scale insects are very troublesome, and must be kept down, otherwise they will prove most prejudicial to the plants. =A. acutifolia= (acute-leaved). _fl._ large, deep vermilion red; the upper lip of corolla concave, and projected forward, the lower one consists of three oblong-obtuse spreading lobes. October. _l._ broad, oblong-ovate, acuminate. Columbia, 1868. =A. aurantiaca= (orange-coloured).* _fl._ deep orange scarlet; upper lip of corolla erect, bidentate, concave; lower one spreading horizontally, three lobed. December. _l._ broad, ovate, opposite, dark green, somewhat wavy at the edge. _h._ 3ft. Mexico, 1844. =A. a. Roezlii= (Roezl's).* Differs chiefly from the type in the curiously twisted leaves, which are dark green, shaded with a silvery hue between the primary veins; in the brighter scarlet of the flowers; and a few other, but purely technical, points. It is one of the best. Mexico, 1867. SYN. _A. Roezlii_. =A. cristata= (crested).* _fl._ brilliant orange scarlet, 2in. or 3in. long, in large terminal branching spikes. August to November. _l._ large, broadly ovate, and tapering to a point. _h._ 3ft. West Indies, 1733. A handsome and continuous bloomer. SYN. _Justicia pulcherrima_. =A. fascinator= (fascinating).* _fl._ bright vermilion, in very large spikes. Autumn. _l._ ovate acuminate, olive green, beautifully banded with silvery white, whilst the under side is of a uniform purplish violet. _h._ 1-1/2ft. New Grenada, 1874. =A. Leopoldi= (Leopold's).* _fl._ citron-yellow. _l._ opposite, ovate-oblong, acuminate; ground colour on the upper surface dark green, the midrib and primary veins pure white; under surface uniformly pale green. Brazil, 1854. =A. medio-aurata= (golden-centred). _fl._ unknown. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, sinuate, bright green, with yellow central brand. Brazil, 1871. SYN. _Graptophyllum medio-auratum_. =A. nitens= (shining).* _fl._ glowing vermilion-scarlet, very large, in erect, simple, terminal spikes, which, after the flowers have fallen, are clothed with the imbricating, lanceolate, appressed bracts. _l._ ovate, sub-acute, leathery, brilliant glossy on the upper surface, dark vinous purple underneath. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Columbia, 1867. =A. Porteana= (Porte's).* _fl._ in fine terminal heads; corolla and bracts bright orange. _l._ rich green, with metallic silvery-white veins. _h._ 2ft. Brazil, 1854. =A. pumila= (dwarfish).* _fl._ orange-coloured; upper lip erect, concave, entire; bracts large, purplish. _l._ large, cordate, ovate-oblong, acute. _h._ 8in. Brazil, 1878. Very distinct from all others. =A. punctata= (dotted).* _fl._ bright yellow, in large and rather dense spikes; the spiny-edged long pointed bracts are also yellow, with the exception of the tip, which is green, and forms a pleasing contrast. November. _l._ opposite, elliptic, acuminate; the green midrib is conspicuous in the middle of a white central band, which also extends beside the green veins, this silvery band breaking up on its margin into numerous small white dots, producing a pretty and distinct form of variegation. South America, 1881. =A. Roezlii.= A synonym of _A. aurantiaca Roezlii_. =A. variegata= (variegated). _fl._ yellow; spike, 6in. long, with bright orange-red bracts. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, dark green with white veins. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Brazil. =APHELEXIS= (from _apheles_, simple, and _exis_, habit). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of elegant dwarf evergreen greenhouse shrubs. Flower-heads large, solitary, or small and two or more together. Leaves small. These plants are valuable for exhibition purposes, on account of their bright colours, and the length of time they last in perfection; they are included among what are familiarly known as "everlastings." The most suitable soil is a compost of two parts of good fibrous peat and one of leaf mould, with a liberal supply of silver sand, and a few pieces of charcoal added to it. Repot the plants firmly in February, and allow thorough drainage. Cuttings can be made in spring or summer; small half-ripened side shoots are best; and these will root in sandy soil, under a bell glass, in a cool greenhouse. =A. ericoides= (heath-like).* _fl.-heads_ white. April. _l._ very small, three-cornered, imbricated, appressed; branches numerous, very fine, filiform. _h._ 1ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1796. =A. fasciculata= (fascicled). _fl.-heads_ purplish, solitary, terminal; peduncles scaly. March. _l._ acerose linear, roundish, downy above; lower spreading; upper appressed. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1779. There are two or three forms of this species, varying in the colour of the flowers. =A. humilis= (humble, or dwarf).* _fl.-heads_ pink, solitary, terminal, opening only in sunshine; peduncles scaly. April. _l._ subulate, erect, imbricate. Branches numerous, slender, covered with white tomentum. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1810. A handsome greenhouse plant, with much-branched stems, terminated by the flower-head. SYNS. _A. macrantha_ and _Helipterum humile_. =A. h. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ rosy-purple, produced in great abundance. Habit rather dwarf, and free branching. Very highly esteemed. =A. h. purpurea= (purple).* _fl._ dark purple, very abundant. _l._ silvery white and shining. A vigorous grower, and perhaps the best for exhibition purposes. It is known in gardens as _A. macrantha purpurea_; also under the name of _A. spectabilis_. =A. h. rosea= (rose-coloured).* _fl.-heads_ delicate rose, very profuse. Habit very compact and free-branching. A very showy and desirable variety, known in gardens as _A. macrantha rosea_. =A. macrantha= (large-flowered). Synonymous with _A. humilis_. =A. sesamoides= (Sesamum-like). _fl.-heads_ purple and white, sessile, solitary, terminal. April. _l._ acerose linear, keeled, smooth, appressed. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1739. =APHIDES=, or =PLANT LICE=. These belong to the order _Homoptera_, meaning "same winged," and the name has reference to the fact that the fore wings are uniform in their structure from base to apex, not divided into a leathery base and a membranous tip. Aphides are all minute in size, soft bodied, and generally long legged; the mouth is furnished with a curiously-constructed beak, or rostrum, for sucking the juice of plants; the antennæ, or feelers, are long and slender; the legs have usually two joints in the tarsi, one of which is generally very ill-developed; and near the tip of the abdomen, on the back of a ring, in many kinds, stand two prominent tubes, called honey-tubes, from which a sweet secretion, much sought after by ants, is emitted. They are very destructive, and nearly every plant has its own peculiar Aphis; but among the worst are the cherry fly and bean fly. All these insects are very destructive to the young shoots and foliage of plants, on which they cluster in large numbers, sometimes completely hiding the stems, increasing with marvellous rapidity. They produce eggs in autumn, which lie dormant through the winter, and upon the approach of warm weather in spring, hatch and produce individuals which, during the summer, are viviparous, budding off young insects at a surprising rate, which quickly in turn become possessed of the same marvellous power; hence the enormous number which are produced in so surprisingly short a time. It has been computed that in a few weeks many millions of young might be produced directly or descended from a single female. _See also_ =Black Fly= and =Bean Fly=. The following remedies may be successfully employed: _Tobacco._ This is applied, as a rule, in three forms, each of which is useful for particular purposes. Tobacco powder is useful as a dry application to plants where, from any cause, the other modes of employing it are not desirable. It causes no smell, and is useful in conservatories, &c., for that reason. The mode of applying it is to dredge or dust it over the foliage of the plants affected, and to syringe off in from three to thirty hours, according to the nature of the plants. Fumigation with tobacco, if done in a proper way, is very effective, but it leaves an unpleasant smell. The foliage of the plants should be quite dry, and a still day must be chosen for the work; the house should be filled with smoke, but no flame must arise in the burning. The plants should be well syringed the next morning, and full ventilation allowed; if the fumigation is repeated twice or thrice, it will prove very effectual. Tobacco water is made by soaking a pound of coarse shag in 6gals. of hot water, to which 1/2lb. of size or soft soap has been added. The plants should be dipped into or syringed with this mixture, and well syringed with clean tepid water about twelve hours after. It should not be employed for plants having woolly or hairy foliage. Tobacco paper and cloth are used for fumigating in the same manner as tobacco; but as they vary in strength, more care is necessary, as they sometimes cause the leaves to become spotted. Judiciously employed, they are cheaper than Tobacco. _Quassia._ Boil 1lb. quassia chips in 4gals. of soft water, for about ten minutes, and after straining off the chips, add 1lb. of soft soap. Apply in the same way as Tobacco water, and syringe the plants with clean water after ten minutes or a quarter of an hour. _Soft Soap._ This, in proportion of 8lb. to 12gals. of rain water, and 1gal. of tobacco water added after it is cold, is a cheap and good remedy out of doors, and requires the same mode of application as tobacco water. _Soap Suds._ Where bleaching powder, or much soda, is not mixed with these, they make a good insect killer for hard-foliaged plants, but should be washed off with clean water in twelve hours. No mixture containing chloride of lime should be used. _Various._ Fir-tree Oil, Gishurst's Compound, and Fowler's Insecticide, are all serviceable, if used as directed on the labels. Hardeman's Beetle Powder, applied with the little French powder-bellows which is sold with it, is very efficacious. For outdoor work, nothing surpasses clean cold water, applied often and forcibly with a syringe. The best mode of clearing Aphis off Beaus, Currants, &c., is to remove the tops of the infested shoots, and to wash the plants with soapy water, or a solution of Gishurst's Compound. In some cases, a good dusting with soot and wood ashes, while the plants are wet, will keep them in check. The "Golden Eyes" or "Lacewing" fly, and also ladybirds, are to be encouraged, as the larvæ of each of these wage incessant war against Aphides, especially the green varieties, and thin them out considerably. =APHROPHORA.= _See_ =Frog Hopper=. =APHYLLANTHES= (from _aphyllos_, leafless, and _anthos_, a flower; the flowers are on rush-like branches). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A very pretty rush-like hardy perennial, forming dense, erect tufts. It thrives best in sandy peat, requires a warm sunny situation, and slight protection in winter. Increased by division of the roots, and seeds; the latter should be sown in pots in a cool greenhouse as soon as ripe. =A. monspeliensis= (Montpelier).* _fl._, perianth six-cleft, spreading at the apex, deep blue, nearly an inch across, disposed in a small head, on slender scapes. June. _l._ absent; the very slender scapes are leaflike, with membranous sheaths at the base. South of France, 1791. =APHYLLOUS.= Without leaves. =APICRA= (from _apicros_, not bitter). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A group of succulents allied to _Aloe_, and having the following among other characters:--Flowers small, loosely sub-spicate; perianth regular, cylindrical, with short spreading segments; peduncles simple or forked. Plants small; rosette leaves always elongated. Leaves thick, diffuse, never spinosely dentated. They require treatment similar to Aloes, under which genus they are included by some authors. =A. aspera= (rough).* _fl._, perianth 1/2in. long; raceme loose, 3in. to 4in.; pedicels three to four lines long; peduncle slender, simple, nearly 1ft. _l._ dense, in many rows, spreading, rounded, deltoid, six to seven lines long and broad; face rather flat; middle three to four lines thick; back convex hemispherical, wrinkled. Cape of Good Hope, 1795. =A. bicarinata= (double-keeled).* _fl._ unknown. _l._ dense, in many rows, ascending, deltoid-lanceolate, nine to twelve lines long, six lines broad, dirty green; face flat; middle two lines thick; margin scabrous; back copiously tubercled. Cape of Good Hope, 1824. =A. congesta= (congested). _fl._, perianth six to seven lines, whitish; raceme loose, sub-spicate, about 1ft.; pedicels short; peduncles 6in. long, simple. _l._ dense, spreading, in many rows, deltoid-lanceolate, eighteen to twenty-one lines long, three to four lines thick; back convex; top unevenly keeled towards the margins. 1843. =A. deltoidea= (deltoid). _fl._, perianth greenish, five to six lines long; raceme about 1ft. long, sub-spicate; pedicels short; peduncles 6in., simple or branched. _l._ in five regular rows, spreading, nine to twelve lines long, deltoid, shining green; when mature, upper surface rather flat, apex pungent; middle two to three lines thick; back distinctly keeled upwards; margins and keels minutely serrated. South Africa, 1873. =A. foliolosa= (small-leafy).* _fl._, perianth greenish, five to six lines long; raceme loose, sub-spicate, about 1ft.; pedicels two to three lines long; peduncle 6in., simple. _l._ dense, spreading, in many rows, rounded deltoid, cuspidate, six to eight lines long and broad, without spots or tubercles; face rather flat; middle one and a half to two lines thick; back obliquely keeled upwards towards the margins. Cape of Good Hope, 1795. =A. imbricata= (imbricated). Synonymous with _A. spiralis_. =A. pentagona= (five-angled).* _fl._, perianth whitish, 1/2in. long; raceme about 1ft., loose; lower pedicels two to three lines long; peduncles 1ft., often branched. _l._ dense, regular, lower ones spreading, upper ones ascending, lanceolate-deltoid, fifteen to eighteen lines long; bottom six to eight lines broad, shining green; face flat; middle three to four lines thick; apex pungent; margin scabrous; back irregularly one to two keeled at top. Cape of Good Hope, 1731. =A. p. bullulata= (little-blistered). _l._ irregularly spiral, five rowed; back with spreading close wrinkled tubercles. =A. p. spirella= (small spiral). _l._ smaller and more deltoid, 1in. long, six to eight lines broad at the bottom, irregularly five rowed, or as if in many rows. =A. spiralis= (spiral).* _fl._, perianth reddish-white, 1/2in. long; raceme loose, nearly 1ft.; pedicels ascending, two to three lines long; peduncles 6in., simple or branched. _l._ dense, in many rows, strong, ascending, lanceolate-deltoid, twelve to fifteen lines long, six to eight lines broad; face almost flat, without tubercles; apex pungent; back swollen, scarcely keeled; margins obscurely crenulated. Cape of Good Hope, 1790. SYN. _A. imbricata_. =APICULATE=, =APICULATED=. Terminated in a little point. =APIOS= (from _apion_, a pear; in reference to the form of the tubers of the root). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. An elegant little hardy twining perennial, easily trained into almost any shape. It must have a well-exposed, sunny position, and the soil should be of a warm or light sandy nature. Propagated by division of the tubers. [Illustration: FIG. 117. APIOS TUBEROSA, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. tuberosa= (tuberous).* Ground Nut. _fl._ brownish-purple, sweet-scented, in axillary racemes. Summer and early autumn. _l._ pinnate. Tubers edible, farinaceous. Habit very light and graceful. Pennsylvania, 1640. SYN. _Glycine Apios_. See Fig. 117. =APIOSPERMUM.= A synonym of =Pistia= (which _see_). =APIUM= (from _apon_, Celtic for water; in reference to the habitat). ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. This genus contains no species worth growing for ornament, and nearly all are more or less acrid and poisonous. A. _graveolens_ is the Celery of gardens, for culture of which, _see_ =Celery=. =APLECTRUM= (from _a_, without, and _plectron_, a spur; flower spurless). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A monotypic genus from North America. A curious, hardy, terrestrial orchid, requiring a shady spot in light loam and leaf mould, moderately damp. Very difficult to cultivate. =A. hyemale= (wintry).* _fl._ greenish-brown, large, racemose, borne on a naked scape after the leaves have died down; labellum as long as the sepals; column sessile, rather long, wingless. April. Stem pseudo-bulbous, with one large, broad, ribbed leaf. _h._ 1ft. 1827. =APLOTAXIS.= Included under =Saussurea= (which _see_). =APOCARPOUS.= Having the carpels or fruit separate, or disunited. =APOCYNACE�.= A large order of trees, shrubs, or rarely herbs, usually with a poisonous, milky sap. Flowers regular, solitary or corymbose; corolla salver-shaped or campanulate. Leaves simple, opposite, sometimes alternate or whorled. Well known genera belonging to this order are: _Allamanda_, _Nerium_, _Tabernæmontana_ and _Vinca_. =APOCYNUM= (from _apo_, away, and _kyon_, a dog; adopted by Dioscorides, because the plant was supposed to be poisonous to dogs). ORD. _Apocynaceæ_. Dog's Bane. Perennial erect herbs, with cymose flowers and membranous, opposite leaves. There are several species belonging to this genus, but only the one described below is worthy of being cultivated. They are of extremely easy culture, thriving in any ordinary soil; and may be propagated by suckers, divisions, or seeds. The best time to divide is just as they are starting into fresh growth in spring. =A. androsæmifolium= (Tutsan-leaved).* _fl._ pale red, with darker stripes; corolla campanulate; cymes terminal and lateral. July. _l._ ovate, glabrous, petiolate, pale beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Virginia, and Canada, 1683. A very old garden favourite, thriving best in peaty soil, with Azaleas, &c. See Fig. 118. [Illustration: FIG. 118. INFLORESCENCE OF APOCYNUM ANDROS�MIFOLIUM.] =APONOGETON= (from _apon_, Celtic for water, and _geiton_, neighbour; alluding to the habitat of these plants). ORD. _Naiadaceæ_. Very ornamental aquatic perennials. There are several species, but _A. distachyon_ is superior to the others. This species may be cultivated in small tanks or aquaria; it delights in an abundance of light and air, and is perfectly hardy, having become naturalised in many parts of the country. Pot the plants in rich sandy loam and rotten cow manure, using, of course, small pots, if the vessel in which it is to be grown is restricted. When introducing it to large tanks or lakes, commence with strong, previously well-established plants, in large pots, breaking the latter when the plants are immersed. Place them in positions where the water is about 1ft. 6in. to 2ft. deep; they will then rapidly increase by offsets and seeds, and, when established, will flower nearly all the year round. The other kinds will thrive with the same treatment; but they are neither so hardy nor so vigorous, and should only be grown in small tanks or aquaria. [Illustration: FIG. 119. APONOGETON DISTACHYON, showing Habit and Flower-spikes.] =A. angustifolium= (narrow-leaved). _fl._ white. July. Cape of Good Hope, 1788. Half hardy. [Illustration: FIG. 120. APONOGETON DISTACHYON, showing Flower-spikes, Leaf, and Root.] =A. distachyon= (two-spiked).* Cape Pond Weed; Winter Hawthorn. _fl._ with a delicious Hawthorn-like perfume; petals none; bracts, or showy portion oval, entire, white; anthers purple-brown; scape two-spiked, each spike being from 2in. to 4in. long. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, entire, bright green, on long stalks, floating. Cape of Good Hope, 1788. See Figs. 119 and 120. =A. monostachyon= (simple-spiked). _fl._ pink. September. _h._ 1ft. East Indies, 1803. Stove species. Rare. =A. spathaceum junceum= (rush-like).* A very pretty, but rare, half-hardy aquatic plant, with the forked inflorescence having both bracts and flowers suffused with a delicate blush colour. _l._ rush-like, standing clear up out of the water. South Africa, 1879. =APORETICA.= A synonym of =Schmidelia= (which _see_). =APPENDICULATE, APPENDICULATED.= Having appendages. =APPLANATE.= Flattened out. [Illustration: FIG. 121. APPLE BLOSSOM.] =APPLE= (_Pyrus Malus_). The Apple is one of the most useful, and probably most largely cultivated, of our hardy fruits. It is known as the Crab in its wild state, and is indigenous to Britain and to all the temperate and warmer parts of Europe. It is supposed that the progenitors of the varieties now grown were introduced to this country at various times from the Continent, and not obtained here as direct improvements on the native Crab. Those now cultivated are extremely numerous, and include good varieties that can be made to prolong the season all the year round. Apart from its great value as a fruit, the apple is a strikingly handsome tree when in flower (see Fig. 121). A fruiting branch is shown at Fig. 122. [Illustration: FIG. 122. FRUITING BRANCH OF APPLE.] _Propagation._ Seeds are sown extensively, chiefly for raising stocks to graft approved sorts on; also with a view to raising new varieties. The seeds do not retain their germinative properties very long, consequently they must be sown soon after being taken from the fruit. As grown in this country, they are generally sown in the autumn, transplanted the following year, and so on until they are of sufficient size for Grafting purposes. The standard of excellence being at present so high, improved forms raised from seed are comparatively scarce. _Grafting._ This method of propagation is the one generally adopted for most purposes, the stocks being previously prepared for size or height of tree required. Cordon and other dwarf-trained trees should be worked near but not below the ground, while standards are best worked on stocks of the desired height. The practice of working standard trees low, and growing the scion to form the stem of the future tree, is not recommended, as many of the tenderer sorts will not grow straight or strong enough for the purpose. Whip-grafting is the most preferable mode adopted. The scions should be selected from healthy trees not later than January, and laid in singly in the ground until the stocks have slightly advanced in growth, which is generally about the middle of April. Several other methods of Grafting may be adopted with success, but the one above recommended is considered the best. _Budding._ Apples may be successfully propagated by Budding, and this method is practised much more now than formerly. It has many advantages, as it requires to be performed at a season when there is not so much work in hand. It should be done in damp, dull weather, if possible, as the weather if dry soon destroys the buds. July and August is the proper time for the purpose. The stocks and woods from which the buds are taken should be as much as possible in the same condition. _Propagation by Cuttings, Layers, &c._ This system may be made use of in the case of new varieties or where it is desired to increase any one variety with a limited number of scions, but the results are uncertain--at least in the case of cuttings; consequently, it is much better to resort to the safer method of Grafting. _Pruning._ _See_ =Pruning=. _Training._ _See_ =Training=. _Planting._ The best time to plant is as soon as most of the leaves have fallen, which is generally about the end of October. The roots being then in an active state, and the ground still retaining a certain amount of heat, they will form new roots before winter, which is a material advantage. Where it is impossible to plant at this time, it may be done in suitable weather any time during the winter, but it is best not deferred till spring. It is important in planting that the soil should be moderately dry and free from frost; this condition cannot always be obtained during winter. The effects of soil and situation have a very important bearing on the Apple, specimens of the same sort from different places being often hardly recognisable. Although not over fastidious in the matter of soil as far as growing is concerned, the best results are obtained where it is of a rich loamy character and well drained. Dry, sandy soils invariably produce canker, while the trees are often overgrown with lichens in undrained land. The addition of heavier loam, or sometimes trenching and mixing the sub-soil with that at the top, will convert light soils into those suitable for Apple culture; while, on the other hand, heavy soils may be improved by drainage, the addition of lime, vegetable refuse, burnt earth, and other matters. Rank manure should on no account be used anywhere near the roots, but a little well-decayed manure, mixed with the soil or used as a mulching, is beneficial. The site best suited is an open, though not exposed one, with a south, south-east, or south-west aspect. Shelter from north-east winds in spring, which destroys the bloom, and from west and south-west winds in autumn, which blow down the fruit, should be the aim of cultivators. Planting in a valley should be avoided on account of spring frosts. In Planting, care must be taken to make the bottom of the hole tolerably firm, and slightly raised under the base or bole of the tree. The roots should then be carefully spread out all round, and if any have been ruptured in transplanting, cut them clean off on the upper side, thus inducing new roots to be formed near the surface. The soil should be trodden firmly after a quantity has been filled in, if it is in a dry, suitable condition, as previously recommended. Secure with stakes in proportion to the size of tree, or injury will be caused by the wind. The distance at which Apple trees are planted varies considerably. Standards in orchards may be planted in good soil, from 20ft. to 40ft. apart, especially if they are strong-growing culinary sorts. Pyramids may be planted from 5ft. to 15ft., according to size; and similar distances will suit Bush trees. The oblique Cordon system of training admits of a large number of varieties being cultivated in a small space, as they may be planted as close as 18in. or 2ft. apart. Horizontal Cordons should be planted about 5ft. asunder, and one branch trained each way. Watering will be necessary after planting in most cases, especially should the winter and following season be at all dry. Thinning the fruit is sometimes advisable for obtaining good specimens, but it is not generally necessary, at least with many of the shy-setting sorts. If, however, the crop should be exceptionally heavy, it is best to thin the fruit, or the tree may be unable to make and ripen its wood for the crop of the succeeding year. _Gathering._ The three following tests are sure indications of the gathering period: (1) The apples will begin to fall of their own accord; (2) their seeds will be plump and brown in colour; and (3) the fruit will separate with a mere touch from the trees; the second test may be said to be infallible. All Apples should be gathered before the end of October, for none will bear frost with impunity. They must be gathered in dry weather, and handled with the greatest care, laid gently in baskets and trays, in single file only, and conveyed to the store room. _Storing._ The simplest and best method is in choosing or forming some room or place free from extremes of heat and cold, dryness or damp, where a temperature of about 45deg. is maintained. A current of air is not necessary. The shelves should be made of poplar, sycamore, lime, or other white wood. Deal, oak, ash, elm, and almost all other woods, give a bad taste to the fruit. One sheet of paper--and paper only--should be placed under the fruit. They ripen best, and are of the highest flavour when left fully exposed to the free atmosphere of the fruit room, and in order to preserve a more even temperature the light should be shut out. Early and late ripening varieties must be stored in separate places, as well as all inferior or injured fruit. The plan of isolating each fruit by packing in tissue paper, sand, burnt earth, or other substances, often destroys the flavour of the fruit, and possesses no material benefit otherwise. _Diseases._ Apple Mussel Scale, Apple or Codlin Grub, Canker, Mildew, American Blight, Scale, and Insect Pests, such as Caterpillars, Maggots, and Weevils, _see_ under their separate headings. The following are some of the best varieties in cultivation:-- =Adams' Pearmain.= Dessert. Fruit medium, very handsome; flavour juicy and sugary. December to March. =Alexander.= Kitchen. Very large, showy, and good. September to December. =Alfriston.= Kitchen. Very fine, large, white flesh. November to April. =Ashmead's Kernel=, or =Cockle Pippin=. Dessert. Fruit below medium; flavour very rich and sugary. This variety is, according to Mr. Rivers, much esteemed in Gloucestershire. November to January. =Bedfordshire Foundling.= Kitchen. Fruit large. One of the finest and most useful sorts, a great bearer. February to May. =Bess Pool.= Kitchen. Fruit large. Good late cooking apple. December to May. =Betty Geeson.= Kitchen. Fruit large, produced in great abundance. February to May. A valuable sort. =Blenheim Pippin.= One of the best kitchen sorts. November to February. =Boston Russet.= Dessert. Fruit medium; flavour very sugary and rich, similar to the Ribston Pippin. An excellent American variety. January to May. =Brabant Bellefleur.= Kitchen. Fruit large, round, pale yellow, red-streaked. A most useful cooking variety, also useful for dessert. November to April. [Illustration: FIG. 123. APPLE, CALVILLE BLANCHE.] =Calville Blanche.= Dessert. Fruit large; flavour first-class. October to December. See Fig. 123. =Cellini.= Kitchen. Fruit perfect in form, size, colour, and quality. October to January. =Claygate Pearmain.= Dessert. Fruit medium; flavour rich, aromatic, excellent, same as Ribston Pippin. January to May. =Coe's Golden Drop.= Dessert. Fruit small, with a crisp and juicy flavour. November to January. A delicious variety. =Cornish Aromatic.= Dessert. Fruit medium; flavour rich, juicy, and aromatic. October to December. =Cornish Gillyflower.= Dessert. Fruit medium; flavour very rich, quite aromatic. October, November to January. An excellent variety, thriving best in a warm situation. =Court of Wick.= Dessert. Fruit medium, very handsome; flavour somewhat similar to Golden Pippin. December to March. [Illustration: FIG. 124. APPLE, COURT PENDU PLAT.] =Court Pendu Plat.= Dessert or kitchen. Fruit medium, rich russet brown, of first-rate quality, and the tree is a good cropper. November to April. See Fig. 124. =Cox's Orange Pippin.= Dessert. Fruit medium, very handsome; flavour rich aromatic. October to December. One of the best apples grown. =Cox's Pomona.= Kitchen. Fruit very large, of superior quality. October. =Devonshire Quarrenden.= Dessert. Fruit medium, excellent quality, and handsome. July to September. A very prolific sort. =D. T. Fish.= Kitchen. Fruit large, roundish, of a clear straw-colour, with small specks of russet, slightly flushed with crimson on the side where the sun strikes it; flavour sub-acid. November to January. A fine and handsome variety. =Duchess of Oldenburgh.= Kitchen. Fruit large, red-striped. August to October. A very desirable and handsome Russian variety. =Duke of Devonshire.= Dessert. Fruit medium; flavour crisp, juicy, rich and sugary. December to March. =Dumelow's Seedling=, or =Wellington=, or =Normanton Wonder=. Kitchen. Fruit firm, large, and somewhat acid. November to March. =Early Harvest.= Dessert. Fruit medium; flavour juicy, excellent, with a pleasant sharpness. July to September. According to Mr. Rivers this variety is equally good for cooking or dessert, and is a very fertile tree on the Paradise stock. =French Crab.= Kitchen. Fruit large, pale green, firm, acid. An excellent sort, and the longest keeper. =Golden Pippin.= Dessert. Fruit small, very excellent flavour. November to January. A well-known and highly-esteemed sort. =Golden Reinette.= Dessert. Fruit rather small, yellowish red, streaked with red; flavour excellent, sweet and rich. One of the best and most useful of dessert apples. October to December. =Gravenstein.= Kitchen. Fruit large, handsome, sweet and crisp. November to January. A very prolific sort. =Greenup's Pippin.= Kitchen. Fruit very large. February to May. A vigorous grower and abundant bearer. =Irish Peach.= Dessert. Fruit medium, yellowish-green, very early; flavour juicy, excellent. July and August. A very good variety, often known as Early Crofton. =Jolly Beggar.= Kitchen. Fruit large, pale yellow, tender and juicy. November to January. A very desirable sort and an extraordinary cropper. =Keddlestone Pippin.= Dessert. Fruit small, yellow or golden colour, specked with russet; flavour delicious, highly aromatic. December to March. An excellent variety. =Kerry Pippin.= Dessert. Fruit medium, firm, yellow, and red; flavour sugary and rich. September to October. =Keswick Codlin.= Kitchen. Fruit large and early. August to October. An admirable sort for market purposes. =King of the Pippins.= Dessert. Fruit medium, yellow and red; flavour juicy and rich. October to January. =Lady Henniker.= Kitchen. Fruit yellow, with crimson streaks near the sun, highly flavoured, and with a pleasant perfume. February to May. An excellent sort, suitable for dessert or kitchen. =Lodgemore Nonpareil.= Dessert. Fruit small; flavour rich, sugary, and aromatic. January to May. An excellent sort. =Lord Suffield.= Kitchen. Fruit very large, white, soft, excellent for sauce and tarts. August to September. =Manx's Codlin.= Kitchen. Fruit large. September and October. One of the finest and most useful of kitchen sorts. =Mère de Ménage.= Kitchen. Large and good. October to March. =Mr. Gladstone.= Dessert. Fruit large and handsome, very early, scarlet cheek, striped and shaded; of excellent quality. July and August. New. =New= or =Winter Hawthornden=. Kitchen. Fruit very large, excellent. November to January. An extraordinary bearer, one of the best for sauce and cooking. =Nonsuch.= Kitchen. Fruit large, juicy. August to October. An admirable sort, unequalled for sauce and cooking. =Norfolk Beefing.= Kitchen. Large and good flavour, excellent keeper, most useful for baking whole and preserving. November to July. =Norfolk Greening.= Kitchen. Fruit medium; rather acid. Keeps till April or May. =Northern Spy.= Dessert. Fruit large, tender; flavour highly aromatic. December to May. =Old Nonpareil.= Dessert. Fruit medium, tender, and juicy. November to January. A prolific variety. =Pitmaston Pineapple.= Dessert. Fruit small; flavour very rich. July to September. According to Mr. Rivers this variety is a very abundant bearer on the Paradise stock; it is not a vigorous grower. =Red Astrachan.= Dessert. Fruit good size, bright; flavour delicate and rich. August to September. =Red Ingestrie.= Dessert. Fruit very pretty bright red next the sun, on a yellow ground, flesh pale yellow; flavour brisk and sparkling, like the Golden Pippin in quality. August and September. An excellent sort. =Red Juneating=, or =Margaret=. Dessert. Fruit medium, early, very good quality. July and August. A well-known sort, with numerous synonyms. =Red Quarrenden.= Dessert. Fruit under medium, bright scarlet; flavour crisp and sweet. August. One of the best summer sorts. =Reinette du Canada.= Dessert. Fruit greenish-yellow and brown, large; flavour juicy, brisk, sub-acid. November to May. See Fig 125. =Reinette Grise.= Dessert. Flesh yellowish-white, sugary, pleasant; flavour sub-acid. November to April. It does best on the Paradise stock, and is an abundant cropper. See Fig. 126. =Ribston Pippin.= Dessert. Fruit greenish-yellow and red, medium; flavour rich, aromatic, excellent. October to December. =Sam Young.= Dessert. Fruit small, yellowish with russet spots; flavour delicious, tender, and juicy. October to December. An excellent Irish sort. =Scarlet Crofton.= Dessert. Fruit medium, yellow and red; flavour crisp, juicy, and sweet. October to December. =Scarlet Nonpareil.= Dessert. Fruit well coloured, large; flavour crisp and juicy. January to March. =Small's Admirable.= Kitchen. Fruit large, green, crisp, sweet, and juicy. November to January. A prolific cropper. =Stamford Pippin.= Dessert. Fruit large, with a brisk flavour and an agreeable aroma. November to January. A very desirable sort. [Illustration: FIG. 125. APPLE, REINETTE DU CANADA.] =Sturmer Pippin.= Dessert. Fruit medium; flavour brisk and rich. February to June. =Syke House Russet.= Dessert. Fruit small; flavour very rich. January to May. An excellent sort. =Tower of Glammis.= Kitchen. Fruit yellow, very large, square-shaped, crisp, and excellent. February to May. A very excellent sort. =Van Mons Reinette.= Dessert. Fruit small, with a rich, aromatic, and excellent flavour. November to January. =Waltham Abbey Seedling.= Kitchen. Fruit large. November and December. An admirable sort. =Warner's King.= Kitchen. Fruit large, handsome, and good. November to March. =Worcestershire Pearmain.= Kitchen. Fruit large, conical, of a very brilliant colour; flavour crisp and juicy. August to October. A splendid variety, said to be as prolific as Lord Suffield. [Illustration: FIG. 126. APPLE, REINETTE GRISE.] =White Juneating.= Dessert. Fruit small, very early, and good quality, but a bad keeper. July and August. A prolific sort. =White Nonpareil.= Dessert. Fruit medium, very delicious. March to June. A very desirable sort. =Winter Quoining=, or =Queening=. Dessert. Fruit very bright, almost red; flavour excellent. November to May. An excellent sort, useful for dessert or culinary purposes. =Winter Strawberry.= Dessert. Fruit yellow, medium, striped with red; flavour brisk aromatic. November to March. A very useful sort. =Wormsley Pippin.= Kitchen or dessert. Fruit of an excellent quality, large, pale green; excellent for kitchen or dessert. September to October. =Yorkshire Greening.= Kitchen. Fruit large, juicy, tender. November to January. =For Cordons= the following are the best:--BETTY GEESON, COE'S GOLDEN DROP, COX'S ORANGE PIPPIN, DUKE OF DEVONSHIRE, KING OF THE PIPPINS, LODGEMORE NONPAREIL, NORTHERN SPY, REINETTE DU CANADA, RIBSTON PIPPIN, SCARLET NONPAREIL. =For Pyramidal, Bush, and Espalier Trees=, the best are:-�ADAMS' PEARMAIN, ASHMEAD'S KERNEL, BOSTON RUSSET, CLAYGATE PEARMAIN, CORNISH GILLYFLOWER, COURT OF WICK, COURT PENDU PLAT, COX'S ORANGE PIPPIN, EARLY HARVEST, GOLDEN PIPPIN, GOLDEN REINETTE, IRISH PEACH, KEDDLESTONE PIPPIN, KERRY PIPPIN, RED INGESTRIE, RED QUARRENDEN, REINETTE DU CANADA, RIBSTON PIPPIN, SAM YOUNG, SCARLET CROFTON, SCARLET NONPAREIL, STURMER PIPPIN, SYKE HOUSE RUSSET, WORMSLEY PIPPIN. The following Kitchen sorts are well adapted to this method:-�ALFRISTON, BED-FORDSHIRE FOUNDLING, BRABANT BELLEFLEUR, CALVILLE BLANCHE, CELLINI, COX'S POMONA, D. T. FISH, DUCHESS OF OLDENBURGH, DUMELOW'S SEEDLING, JOLLY BEGGAR, KESWICK CODLIN, LORD SUFFIELD, MANX'S CODLIN, NEW HAWTHORNDEN, NONSUCH, WALTHAM ABBEY SEEDLING, WARNER'S KING. =For Cold and Exposed Situations=, the following are the best:--BESS POOL, CLAYGATE PEARMAIN, FRENCH CRAB, GREENUP'S PIPPIN, KESWICK CODLIN, NONSUCH, STURMER PIPPIN, TOWER OF GLAMMIS, WINTER STRAWBERRY, WORMSLEY PIPPIN. =For Cottage Gardens=: ALEXANDER, BEDFORDSHIRE FOUNDLING, BLENHEIM PIPPIN, KING OF THE PIPPINS, MANX'S CODLIN, NEW HAWTHORNDEN, REINETTE DU CANADA, RIBSTON PIPPIN, STURMER PIPPIN, WALTHAM ABBEY SEEDLING, WARNER'S KING, WORMSLEY PIPPIN. =APPLE BERRY.= _See_ =Billardiera=. =APPLE-BLOSSOM WEEVIL= (_Anthonomus pomorum_). This is a small beetle of a reddish-brown colour, with three inconspicuous stripes of a paler colour behind the head; the wing cases show a large pitchy-coloured blotch, with oblique striæ and yellowish spots thereon. The female busily engages herself in piercing the flower buds; while the male may be usually seen flying about the trees during the breeding season, which, of course, varies according to the earlier or later expansion of the buds. The female, by means of strong jaws at the end of the long proboscis, bores a hole in the bud, in which she lays a single egg, finally closing the opening, then passing on to other buds. The laying season lasts for two or three weeks, or, indeed, as long as the buds remain unexpanded; eggs are never laid in open blossoms. In warm weather, the eggs are hatched in six or seven days, usually about the end of April, into small, white, legless maggots, which feed upon the stamens and pistil; hence, although the petals are normally coloured, and expand, the flowers ultimately wither, and in some seasons very serious consequences have arisen from these injurious little pests. The maggot is fleshy, whitish, with a few hairs and a black, hard head; in a few days, it turns into a brown chrysalis or pupa, which, in turn, is changed into the Weevil, only about a month having elapsed from the deposition of the egg till the Weevil is developed. It feeds upon the foliage during summer, and hybernates in crannies of the bark, or under the soil at the base of the trees, during winter, waking up in the following spring to go through the same performances as its parents. _Remedies._ Some of the methods advised for the extirpation of the American Blight will prove very useful for the destruction of this pest. Clear away all useless portions of the bark and rubbish round about the tree during the winter, and many will be destroyed. Place bandages of tarred cloth around the stem in spring; this will prevent the females crawling up, as they seldom fly. If a white cloth is placed beneath the tree affected when in bud, and the tree is severely shaken, a large number will be caught, as the Weevil falls to the ground when alarmed. Timely thinning of the trees, allowing the free admission of light and air, is also a very effectual preventive, as it has been proved that the greatest ravages are committed where neglect of this has been the rule; and that, on the other hand, in proportion to its being done, the pest has been lessened in numbers. =APPLE MUSSEL SCALE= (_Aspidiotus conchiformis_). This insect attacks the bark of Apple and Pear-trees. It is in outward appearance like the half of a mussel shell. Under the scale is the insect. It is closely allied to the true scale insects, and has similar habits. The scales are about 1/8in. long, brown, and wider at one end than at the other. The female is like a fat, green, fleshy maggot, without jointed limbs. The eggs of this curious insect are not laid, but simply remain in the body of the mother until she dies, thus leaving a protecting shield or case from which the hatched larvæ emerge. To get rid of this insect, therefore, the females containing eggs should be destroyed. It differs from most other species in the absence of the long tail filaments. If numerous, this Scale causes the trees to become sickly and unfruitful. It is difficult to extirpate. _Soft-soap Lather._ When the leaves fall, in autumn, the trees should be treated with a stiff sash-tool, and all the Scale rubbed off, keeping the brush just moist, and not rubbing the buds. Applied for two seasons, this should clear the trees. All loose bark should be removed. _Seal Oil_ is sometimes recommended as a good remedy: but oils are rather unsafe applications to the bark of trees, especially of the young branches. [Illustration: FIG. 127. CODLIN MOTH AND GRUB (CARPOCAPSA POMONANA).] =APPLE OR CODLIN GRUB= (_Carpocapsa pomonana_). During the month of May, the well-known Codlin Moth (see Fig. 127) lays its eggs in the calyces, usually one in each, of the young, quickly-growing apple. The moth itself is a small insect; the fore-wings are grey, prettily speckled with delicate, darker streaks, and with a curved golden mark on the hinder part, inclosing one of a reddish-brown colour. The hind wings are usually dark, as is also the body. The caterpillar, when hatched, is white, with black head and neck, and with four rows of black marks along the whole body. The colours soon, however, become less decided, taking an indistinct brownish or grey hue. After being hatched, the caterpillar gnaws its way down the fruit, keeping clear of the core, and gradually forces its gallery towards the rind of the fruit, which it finally pierces, the opening serving as the outlet for the dirt. When nearly full grown, it pierces the core and feeds upon the pips, which injury speedily causes the fruit to drop. The insect then emerges therefrom, and finds a suitable shelter in a cranny of the bark, where it spins a cocoon; and, according to British authorities, it remains in the larval state for some weeks, finally assuming the chrysalis form, and thus passing the winter; the moth emerges the following season. Shortly after development, the moths pair, the female depositing eggs in the fruit in June or July, according to the season. Practically, there is no preventive; but the following hints will serve to greatly reduce the numbers. All apples that fall ere they are ripe should be picked up as promptly as possible, and be given to the pigs; or pigs should be turned into the orchard to clear off the fallen fruit. The following is the only serviceable remedy: _Hayband Trap._ This is simply a loosely made hayband twisted around the stems of the trees, about 1ft. from the ground. The grubs, in searching for a suitable place in which to make a cocoon, will generally choose the bands. At the end of the season, all the haybands should be collected and burnt, and the stems of the trees from which they were removed should be cleared of any cocoons which may adhere to them. All loose bark and other rubbish should be removed from the tree trunks, and also from the ground below. =APPLE OR CODLIN GRUB TRAP.= An exceedingly ingenious and effective method of alluring that obnoxious pest, the Apple Grub. The trap (Fig. 128) consists of two, three, or more thin pieces of board, 12in. to 20in. in length, and 2in. to 4in. wide, with a screw (_a_) through their centre. The screw must be long enough to be firmly driven into the trunk of the tree, so as to hold the boards in position. Small slips of wood (_b_) are inserted between the boards, to keep them sufficiently open to allow of the entry of the grubs, as shown at _d_. The boards are cut on each side of the screw, as at _c_, to facilitate their separation when fastened together by the silken threads of the grubs, and to better expose the latter when the trap is opened. This handy trap, which is of American origin, is very cheap. A great number of them may be collected with little trouble, submitted to a killing heat, and replaced again; and they can be used either on the ground or on the trees. As regards killing the grubs when caught, Mr Weir, the inventor, says: "The quickest and best way is to have a large tin pan, bent in on one side, so as to fit closely to the trunk of the tree. When you reach the tree, drop upon your knees, place the depression in the pan against the trunk of the tree, hold it there by pressing your body against it, and you have both hands free to open the trap. When opening it, many of the pupæ or chrysalids will fall into the pan. The trap must be turned clear around, as many will be found between it and the bark. A person will open and kill the worms in from four hundred to eight hundred traps in a day." [Illustration: FIG. 128. APPLE OR CODLIN GRUB TRAP. B, OPEN. A, SHUT.] =APPOSITE.= Placed side by side. =APPROXIMATE=, =APPROXIMATED=, =APPROXIMATING=. Near together. =APRICOT= (_Armeniaca vulgaris_). The Apricot, or, as it was formerly written, "Abricock," is a much esteemed and luscious fruit. It is said to have been introduced into this country during the reign of Henry VIII. The Apricot is one of the earliest flowering of fruit-trees (see Fig. 129), and is generally in bloom during February. This fact is a great drawback, as it is a difficult matter to save the flowers from destruction by the spring winds and frosts. The fruit (see Fig. 130) contains less acid than most stone fruits, and in appearance it is perhaps the handsomest of all. Success with its culture in many gardens is by no means certain, but with careful preparation of borders and protection of the flowers in spring, satisfactory results are often obtained. Large quantities of fruit are annually imported to this country from France; but their quality and flavour cannot be compared with that of good home-grown produce. [Illustration: FIG. 129. BLOSSOM OF APRICOT.] _Propagation_ is effected by seeds or budding. The stones, selected from the best varieties, may be sown as soon as the fruit is ripe, in August or September, in light rich soil, and covered with about 2in. of earth, over which a little litter should be spread during winter. After one season's growth, the plants should be lifted, and the tap roots slightly cut back if the trees are intended for walls. They should then be planted in nursery lines, allowing about a yard between the rows, and 2ft. from plant to plant. [Illustration: FIG. 130. FRUITING BRANCH OF APRICOT.] Budding is the most general mode of propagating Apricots. They are frequently budded from the beginning to the middle of June on seedling, and also on plum stocks, of which latter the Mussell, Saint Julien, Brussels, and Black Damson are the best. For dwarf trees, the stock should be budded about 1ft. from the ground. There are many disadvantages in having a great length of stem. "Rider" trees require a stem from 3-1/2ft. to 6ft.; half-riders, 2-1/2ft. to 3ft. Grafting by the Whip method is sometimes employed, but, for many reasons, it is much inferior to Budding. _Planting, &c._ South-west and western aspects suit the Apricot best, but the fruit has been ripened in warm localities on walls facing several points north. Large areas of garden wall (see Figs. 131 and 132), the walls of stables, barns, outbuildings, and two sides of at least hundreds of cottages, might thus be utilised for the cultivation of this tree. If well drained, almost any garden soil will bring these fruits to perfection; light, fibrous, rather sandy loam will, however, prove most satisfactory. There should be a considerable depth of soil; a yard is not too much, provided it be on a dry base, which is most important. Heavy soils may be improved for Apricot culture by the addition of an equal portion of light loam, mortar rubbish, or charred refuse. In furnishing walls, the distance apart may vary from 2ft. between Cordons, to 12ft., 15ft., or even 20ft. between Fan-shaped trees. The roots should be carefully arranged, interlayered at all points with fine soil, and the whole covered to a depth of 3in. or 4in. Not only should the roots have a good covering of suitable earth, but a secondary one of litter, or other light material, should be added, to render them frost proof in winter, and drought and heat proof in summer. Newly planted trees should, on no account, be allowed to get dry at the root. A thorough soaking of soft rain, or manure water, will often save a crop, and restore the trees, when all other surface remedies or appliances fail. Surface sprinklings overhead with the garden engine, in the afternoons of bright days, are beneficial, and help to keep the foliage clean and healthy. So soon as the trees are cleared of their fruit, attention should be directed to the maturation of the wood. All superfluous shoots should be removed, any excess of growth left on the shoots cut back, and every effort made to perfect the wood already made, rather than force the tree to make more. Unless the weather be very dry, water should not be applied after this stage. [Illustration: FIG. 131. APRICOT TREE, showing method of Wall Training.] _Protection._ It is almost hopeless to expect a crop unless the blossoms are protected, by mats or other means, from spring frosts. Temporary wooden copings, from 1ft. to 2ft. wide, laid on iron brackets, are indispensable for warding off storms, and keeping other coverings away from the flowers. These should not be put up till the trees are just bursting into bloom, and may safely be removed about the end of May. A few fish or other nets, spread over the trees, afford considerable resistance to the radiation of heat. This is assuredly one of the easiest, if not one of the most efficient, modes of protection. Frigi-domo and other thick shadings are sometimes used, but they require to be removed from the trees in the day time. The thinner nets mentioned are generally not in use for other purposes at this time of year, and may remain over the trees altogether. Glass copings are the best, but, being rather expensive, they cannot be used by the majority of cultivators. They have, however, been applied with good results to trees that had previously failed. [Illustration: FIG. 132. APRICOT TREE, showing method of Training suitable for Gable Ends of Cottages.] _Cropping, &c._ Thinning of the fruit needs early and careful attention. The average of 3in. apart may be chosen for a maximum yield. As the fruit approach maturity, overhanging leaves, or branches of young wood, must be removed, to admit sun and light to properly ripen and colour them. Apricots for preserving should be gathered quite dry, and with the sun upon them. For dessert, they should be plucked in the morning, and placed in a cool room till wanted. _Under Glass._ The Apricot will hardly bear forcing. It is more sensitive to heat than almost any other of our semi-hardy fruits. Practically, it is found that a confined atmosphere, or the slightest excess of heat, brings its blooms off in showers, and this, of course, mars all prospect of fruit. But in cold climates and northern latitudes under glass is the best and only means of growing them. Should red-spider appear, it is proof that the roots or the atmosphere, probably both, have been too dry; more moisture, and syringing over the leaves, are the surest remedies. The borders need to be about 2ft. or 2ft. 6in. deep, of any light rich soil. Fresh planted trees should be frequently syringed overhead before and after the flowering period. After they have become fully established, less overhead sprinkling is needed. During all the earlier stages of growth, and until the fruit are stoned, an artificial temperature of 45deg. should not be exceeded. After that stage, the fruit will bear a heat of 50deg. or 55deg. It is hardly safe or desirable to exceed the latter under glass, and unless abundance of air is given, 55deg. may bring off the fruit, even at an advanced stage. A thorough soaking, at intervals of fourteen days during the height of the growing season, may be applied; and, should the trees be heavily cropped, manure water may be given at every alternate watering. It is also a good practice to mulch the surface of heavily cropped trees with 3in. or 4in. of good dung. The fruit should, however, be freely thinned to distances of from 4in. to 6in. apart at the most. There are three general methods of growing them under glass: The trees may be trained on trellises or walls; grown as natural standards, tall or dwarf; and as bushes, either planted out or in pots. _Varieties._ The varieties of Apricot, unlike most other fruit, are not numerous; and the following will be found in every way representative and satisfactory: =Blanche=, or =White Masculine=. A small and delicate fruited sort. Fruit pale whitish-yellow, tinged with brownish-red next the sun, covered with a fine white down; rich, delicate, and sugary. =Blenheim=, or =Shipley's=.* Very early and prolific. Colour deep yellow; flesh medium, rich, and juicy. Ripe in July. =Breda.=* A small sort, of excellent quality. Colour deep orange; flesh firm, juicy, and rich. Hardiest sort grown. =Kaisha.=* Fruit round, much smaller than Moorpark. Colour pale citron; flesh tender, rich, juicy; flavour delicate and delicious; kernel very sweet. =Large Red.= The deepest coloured of all. Fruit very large; colour deep reddish-orange; flesh rich and juicy; kernel bitter. =Moorpark.=* The sort most generally grown; large, handsome, and of excellent quality. Colour brownish-orange; flesh rich, juicy, and sweet. It is one of the best and most useful sorts in cultivation. =Peach=, or =Grosse Peche=. Distinct and very desirable. Fruit very large; flesh rich, firm, and juicy. One of the very best. =Royal.=* Not unlike Moorpark, but with a more robust constitution, and less given to limb dying. Fruit large, dull, yellow, rich, and juicy. =Turkey.=* A good variety. Colour pale yellow; flavour rich and juicy; flesh firm. For modes of Training and Budding, Diseases, Insect Pests, &c., full information will be found under each individual title. =APTERANTHES.= _See_ =Boucerosia=. =APTEROUS.= Without wings. =AQUATIC PLANTS.= The culture of Aquatic Plants, both indoors and in the open air, has been greatly neglected of late years; they are, therefore, rarely seen to perfection in places other than where their culture is made a speciality. Generally speaking, they are most easily grown. The following stove and greenhouse genera are well worth attention: _Aponogeton_, _Cyperus_, _Damasonium_, _Herpestis_, _Limnocharis_, _Nelumbium_, _Nymph�a_, _Ouvirandra_, _Pistia_, _Pontederia_, _Salvinia_, _Thalia_, _Trianea_, _Victoria_. Many species belonging to some of the foregoing genera are hardy, as are also the following: _Alisma_, _Butomus_, _Calla_, _Hottonia_, _Menyanthes_, _Nuphar_, _Polygonum_, _Sagittaria_, _Trapa_, _Typha_, _Villarsia_. =AQUATICUS.= Living in water. =AQUATILIS.= Living under water. =AQUIFOLIACE�.= _See_ =Ilicineæ=. =AQUILEGIA= (from _aquila_, an eagle; in reference to the form of the petals). Columbine. ORD. _Ranunculaceæ_. Erect hardy perennial herbs with fibrous roots. Flowers solitary or panicled, drooping; sepals five, petaloid, deciduous; petals five, concave, spurred; spurs very large, produced downwards into hollow tubes, and frequently curved at the extremity; carpels five, sessile, free. Radical leaves on long stalks, twice or thrice ternate, with trifid-toothed, usually blunt segments. Too much praise can scarcely be lavished upon this elegant genus of plants. They prefer a moist and sheltered situation, with exposure to the sun. The more robust species will thrive in ordinary garden soil, but the rarer and more delicate kinds require a good friable sandy loam and leaf soil, with good drainage. Seed is produced in abundance, and must be sown very thinly, as soon as practicable after being ripe, in a shady place or in pans in a cold frame. When up, and strong enough to remove, the seedlings may be planted out where they are to bloom, allowing every plant at least 9in. each way. The strong-growing kinds may be placed in the border, the dwarf ones on the rockery. When in bloom, the inferior sorts should be weeded out, retaining only the best varieties. To obtain seed true of any species, it is absolutely necessary to plant the separate kinds far apart, and cover them with fine muslin, to prevent the access of insects to the flowers, as none are more easily cross-fertilised. Division of the root is the only way to perpetuate any particular variety with certainty, unless seed is saved in the way mentioned, or imported from the native habitats of particular species. There are many beautiful hybrids, as well as species, in cultivation. =A. alpina= (alpine).* _fl._ from 2in. to 3in. in diameter when expanded, deep blue or blue and white, on leafy, two to three-flowered stems; spurs straight, but somewhat incurved at the apex, one-half shorter than the petal limb. May. _l._ with segments deeply divided into linear lobes. _h._ 1ft. Alps of Switzerland, in shady humid places, 1731. Plant this on the rockery. =A. arctica= (Arctic). A form of _A. formosa_. =A. atropurpurea= (dark purple). _fl._ dark purple or bluish violet, about 1in. or 1-1/2in. in diameter when expanded, two or three in a head; spurs straight, equal in length with the petals' limb; sepals about as long as the petals. May. _l._ petioled, biternate. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Siberia. Border plant. =A. aurea= (golden).* A synonym of _A. chrysantha flavescens_. =A. Bertoloni= (Bertoloni's).* _fl._ about 1in. across, blue-violet throughout; sepals about 3/4in. long, rounded; petals about the same length; spurs very short, knobbed; stems two to four flowered. June and July. _l._ small, dark green, and glaucous. A very pretty little alpine, growing about 1ft. high. SYN. _A. Reuteri_. [Illustration: FIG. 133. AQUILEGIA C�RULEA.] =A. cærulea= (sky-blue).* _fl._ several on a stem, blue and white, sometimes more or less tinted with lilac or claret, rarely pure white, when expanded 2-1/2in. to 3in. in diameter; spur very slender, nearly straight, green tipped, about 2in. long. April to July. _l._ large, biternate. _h._ 9in. to 15in. Rocky Mountains, 1864. A very lovely species for the border or base of the rockery. SYNS. _A. leptoceras_, _A. macrantha_. See Fig. 133. =A. c. alba= (white).* _fl._ the same size and form as the type, white throughout. Rocky Mountains. A very rare and lovely variety; sometimes met with under the name of _A. grandiflora_. =A. c. hybrida= (hybrid).* _fl._ blue and white, not so wide across as the type, but more numerous, and the plant has a much more vigorous habit. Of garden origin. =A. californica= (Californian).* A form of _A. formosa_. [Illustration: FIG. 134. AQUILEGIA CANADENSIS, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. canadensis= (Canadian).* _fl._ scarlet, mixed with yellow, less than 1in. in diameter; spur straight, longer than the limb; styles and stamens protruding; sepals acutish, a little longer than the petals' limb. April to June. _l._, segments three-parted, bluntish, and deeply toothed at the apex. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. North America, 1640. Border or rockery; very pretty. See Fig. 134. =A. chrysantha= (yellow-flowered).* _fl._, sepals primrose yellow, spreading horizontally in full expansion, nearly or quite 1in. long, tinted claret at the tip; limb of petals deeper yellow, not quite so long; spur straight, very slender, divergent, 1-1/2in. to 2in. long; stems many-flowered. May to August. _l._ biternate. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. California, 1873. One of the finest of all hardy perennials for the border. =A. c. flavescens= (yellow). _fl._ of a uniform bright canary yellow, tinged with red; spur somewhat shorter than in _A. canadensis_, and slightly incurved. California, 1872. SYN. _A. aurea_. [Illustration: FIG. 135. AQUILEGIA GLANDULOSA.] =A. eximia= (choice). Synonymous with _A. formosa_. =A. formosa= (handsome).* _fl._, sepals bright red, usually less than 1in. long, with an obtuse green tip; limb of petals yellow, about half as long as the sepals; spurs 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, slender in the lower half, nearly straight, distinctly knobbed at the tip; stems many-flowered. May to September. _l._ biternate. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. North America. Border. The following are synonyms and varieties: _A. arctica_, _A. californica_, _A. eximia_, and _A. f. truncata_, revealing only trivial differences. There is a very beautiful hybrid known in gardens as _A. californica hybrida_, with the sepals and petals yellowish, or tinged with orange, while the long slender spurs are orange red; it is one of the handsomest of all. All the forms are very showy, and well worth growing. =A. fragrans= (fragrant).* _fl._ white or pale claret purple, finely pubescent, very fragrant; sepals about 1-1/2in. long, not reflexing, twice longer than the broad petals' limb; spur slender, slightly curved, knobbed at the top, same length as the petals; stems few-flowered. May to July. _l._ biternate. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Himalayas, 1839. This requires a warm position. =A. glandulosa= (glandular).* _fl._, sepals bright lilac blue, about 1-1/2in. long, more than twice the length of the petals' limb; petals white; spur 1/4in. long, or but little more, stout, much incurved; stems one to three-flowered. Spring. _l._ biternate. _h._ 8in. to 12in. Siberia, 1822. Extremely pretty. See Fig. 135. =A. g. jucunda= (pleasant). _fl._ rather smaller. Very handsome little plants, freely hybridised, and it is necessary to keep raising fresh batches, as they are scarcely more than biennial. =A. glauca= (glaucous). _fl._ white, tinted claret, fragrant; sepals 1in. long, not reflexing; limb of petals 3/4in. long; spur straight, or a little curved, about 1/3in. long; stem three to four-flowered. June. _l._ biternate. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Himalayas, 1839. Rather tender; plant in a warm dry position. =A. leptoceras= (slender-horned). A synonym of _A. cærulea_. =A. macrantha= (large-flowered). A synonym of _A. cærulea_. =A. olympica= (Olympic).* _fl._ large, delicate mauve blue; petals white, rather shorter than the sepals; spur stout, short, obtuse. _l._ bi- or triternate, glaucous. _h._ 1-1/2ft. 1880. Mount Olympus. See Fig. 136. =A. pyrenaica= (Pyrenean).* _fl._, sepals bright lilac blue, about 1in. long, but not quite as much broad; limb of petals about 1/2in. long, and half as broad; spur slender, nearly straight, or rather incurved, nearly or quite 3/4in. long, scarcely knobbed at the end; stem one to three-flowered, with small and little compound deep green leaves. Summer. _h._ 9in. to 12in. Pyrenees, 1818. Plant on the rockery. =A. Reuteri= (Reuter's). Synonymous with _A. Bertoloni_. =A. sibirica= (Siberian).* _fl._ bright lilac; sepals very blunt, 1in. or a little more in length, spreading or slightly reflexing when fully expanded; limb of petals sometimes white, about 1/2in. long; spur stout, much incurved, 1/2in. to 3/4in. long; stems many-flowered, glabrous. Summer. _l._ biternate. _h._ 1ft. Siberia, 1806. Rockery species. Here are referred, by Mr. Baker, _A. bicolor_, _A. Garnieriana_, and _A. speciosa_. See Fig. 137. =A. thalictrifolia= (Thalictrum-leaved). _fl._, sepals oblong, acute, lilac blue, about 1/2in. long; limb of petals about as long, and rounded at the top; spurs slender, not quite as long as the sepals; stems about three-flowered. Summer. _l._ with three-stalked segments cut into deep oblong lobes. _h._ 2ft. Tyrol, 1879. Entire plant clothed with fine pubescence. =A. viridiflora= (green-flowered). _fl._, sepals oval-oblong, shorter than the petals; spurs straight and longer than the petals; stems two to three-flowered. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Siberia, 1780. Border. Rather a pleasing and sweet-scented green-flowered species, but not very ornamental. =A. vulgaris= (common). Common Columbine. _fl._ variously coloured; sepals ovate acute, about 1in. long, and half as broad; limb of the petal rarely exceeding 3/4in. long, and half as much broad, rounded at the apex; spur much incurved, stout, knobbed at the end, as long as the petals; stems many-flowered. Spring and early summer. _l._ biternate. England, &c. There are numerous varieties of this very handsome species, both double and single-flowered. =A. v. alba= (white). _fl._ pure white. =A. v. a. fl.-pl.= Double white flowers. =A. v. cærulea nana fl.-pl.= Very dwarf, with double deep blue flowers. =A. v. hybrida= (hybrid). _fl._, sepals lilac purple, oblong-lanceolate, less than 1in. long; limb of the petals white, about 1/2in. long; spur scarcely incurved. =A. v. Vervæneana.= This variety has pretty yellow mottled foliage. [Illustration: FIG. 136. AQUILEGIA OLYMPICA, showing Habit and Flower.] [Illustration: FIG. 137. AQUILEGIA SIBIRICA FLORE-PLENO, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. v. Wittmanniana= (Wittmann's). _fl._ large, bright lilac purple; sepals ovate-acute, 1in. to 1-1/4in. long, more than half as much broad; limb of petals white, about half the length of sepals; spur curved. A very fine variety. The following names are also met with in gardens, some of which represent specific forms, but none are effective as garden ornaments: _advena_, _Burgeriana_, _Haylodgensis_ (hybrid), _grata_, _longissima_, _nevadensis_, _oxysepala_, &c. =AQUOSUS.= Watery. =ARABIS= (origin of the word not clear). Wall Cress; Rock Cress. ORD. _Cruciferæ_. Hardy perennial trailers, except where otherwise stated. Flowers mostly white; racemes terminal; pedicels bractless. Radical leaves usually stalked; cauline ones sessile or stem-clasping, entire or toothed, rarely lobed. Most members of this genus are peculiarly well adapted for rockwork and the alpine garden, both from their natural hardihood as well as their early and profuse flowering habits. They are of the easiest possible culture in any dry soil. The perennial species may either be increased by divisions of the root, by cuttings, placed in a shady border during the summer, or by seed. The latter may be sown outside, or in pans, in spring, when most of them will germinate in two or three weeks. The annuals and biennials are for the most part devoid of any cultural beauty. =A. albida= (whitish).* _fl._ white; racemes terminal; pedicels longer than the calyx. January to May. _l._ few-toothed, hoary, or downy with branched hairs; radical ones obovate-oblong; cauline ones cordately sagittate, clasping the stem. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Tauria and Caucasus, 1798. SYN. _A. caucasica_. =A. a. variegata= (variegated).* A very pretty variegated form for edgings. [Illustration: FIG. 138. ARABIS ALPINA, showing Habit and Flowers.] =A. alpina= (alpine).* _fl._ white, smaller than those of _A. albida_; racemes terminal; pedicels longer than the calyx, which is smoothish. March to May. _l._ many-toothed, lanceolate, acute, villous with branched hairs; radical ones somewhat stalked; cauline ones cordate, clasping the stem. _h._ 6in. European rocks, in sunny places, 1596. There are one or two varieties, including a variegated-leaved form, in cultivation. See Fig. 138. [Illustration: FIG. 139. ARABIS ARENOSA, showing Habit and Flowers.] =A. arenosa= (sand-loving).* _fl._ rose coloured, very rarely white or bluish; petals obovate; pedicels spreading. April to July. _l._ villous, with forked hairs; radical ones pinnatifid, with the upper lobes much larger than the lower; cauline ones deeply toothed. Stem branched, hispid, with simple hairs. _h._ 6in. Middle Europe, 1798. See Fig. 139. =A. blepharophylla= (fringed-leaved).* _fl._ rosy purple; petals roundish, narrowing to the base, with slender claws. Spring. _l._ naked, except the margins, which are fringed with very stiff hairs; radical ones spathulate; cauline ones oblong, sessile. _h._ 3in. to 4in. California, 1874. This succeeds best in a cool frame, where it will flower in January. =A. caucasica= (Caucasus). A synonym of _A. albida_. =A. lucida= (shining).* _fl._ white; petals entire, narrowed at the base, twice as long as the calyx. Summer. _l._ obovate, thickish, shining, clasping the stem. _h._ 4in. to 6in. Hungary, 1790. A very pretty species, with a dwarf habit; it is especially adapted for edgings, borders, or rockwork. =A. l. variegata= (variegated).* A great improvement upon the type, being broadly edged with yellow, and the green somewhat lighter. When grown in tufts or as edging, it is very effective, and should be prevented from flowering. This exceedingly desirable variety is a gem for the rockwork, and when seen in crevices, or in bold tufts, it is very striking. It must be increased by slips or rootlets, which should be taken in early summer. =A. mollis= (soft). _fl._ white, in terminal racemes. May to July. _l._ grossly toothed, somewhat pubescent, with small stellate hairs; lower ones on long petioles, cordate-roundish; cauline ones ovate-cordate, clasping the stem. _h._ 2ft. Caucasus, 1823. =A. petræa= (rock).* _fl._ white; petals ovate, with stalks. June. _l._ smooth, ciliated or scabrous, with simple or bifid radical ones on longish stalks, entire, toothed; cauline ones oblong-linear, entire, or toothed. _h._ 3in. or 4in. Britain. =A. præcox= (early). _fl._ white; petals obovately cuneated, double the length of the calyx. April to June. _l._ oblong, acute, sessile, quite entire, smooth. Stem covered with close pressed rigid hairs. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Hungary. =A. procurrens= (procurrent). _fl._ white; petals obovate, double the length of the calyx. May and June. _l._ ovate, quite entire, smooth, ciliated with two-parted hairs; radical ones narrowed into a petiole; cauline ones sessile, pointed. Stolons creeping. _h._ 9in. Servia, 1819. There is a brilliantly variegated form of this pretty species well worth growing. =A. rosea= (rosy).* _fl._ rosy purple; petals oblong, somewhat wedge-shaped, double the length of the calyx; pedicels longer than the calyx. May to July. _l._, cauline ones oblong, somewhat cordate, and rather stem-clasping, scabrous with branched hairs. _h._ 1ft. Calabria, 1832. =A. verna= (spring). _fl._ small, purple, with a white claw; pedicels shorter than the calyx. May to June. _l._, cauline ones cordate, clasping the stem, toothed, scabrous with three-parted hairs. _h._ 3in. to 6in. South Europe, 1710. The best annual species. =ARACE�= or =AROIDE�=. An extensive order of herbaceous plants, with tuberous rhizomes. Flowers on a spadix, unisexual or hermaphrodite, protected by a spathe. Leaves large, radical. Well known genera belonging to this order are: _Alocasia_, _Arum_, _Caladium_, _Colocasia_, and _Dieffenbachia_. =ARACHIS= (from _a_, without, and _rachis_, a branch; plant branchless). Ground or Earth Nut. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A stove annual, of economical value. Corolla resupinate; calyx a long tube, with a bilabiate limb; ovary stipitate, inclosed in the tube of the calyx; the stipe at first short, but afterwards becoming elongated. Sandy loam is the soil most suitable for their cultivation. Seeds should be sown in heat; and, when the plants have grown to a sufficient size, they should be potted off singly, and placed among other stove annuals. After the plant has finished flowering, and the pods begin to lengthen, the pedicels force them into the earth, where they ripen their seeds. =A. hypogæa= (underground). Monkey Nut. _fl._ yellow, five to seven together in the axils of the leaves. May. _l._ abruptly-pinnate, bearing two pairs of leaflets, without any tendril; stipulas elongated, adnate to the petioles. _h._ 1ft., or procumbent. South America, 1812. See Fig. 140. =ARACHNIMORPHA.= A synonym of =Rondeletia= (which _see_). =ARACHNOID.= Resembling a cobweb in appearance; seeming to be covered with cobweb, in consequence of the entanglement of long, white hairs. [Illustration: FIG. 140. ARACHIS HYPOG�A, showing Leaf, Flower, &c., and Cluster of short wrinkled Pods.] =ARALIA= (meaning unknown). ORD. _Araliaceæ_. This widely-grown genus includes stove, greenhouse, and hardy, herbaceous and shrubby plants. Flowers inconspicuous, umbellate, the umbels usually disposed in panicles; petals five, inserted on the margin of the disk; stamens five (see Fig. 142). Leaves usually compound. These plants are of moderately free growth, and the majority are easy to manage. Those requiring indoor treatment thrive well under the ordinary routine of management. One most important requirement, however, is that they must be kept well supplied with water at the roots. The finer, or stove varieties, should be potted in a mixture of sandy loam and peat, with the addition of a little fibrous leaf soil, and sufficient sand to keep the whole porous. The stronger growing kinds thrive in a richer compost. Propagation by cuttings of the roots is a common and very successful method. To obtain the roots, one of the strongest plants should be turned out of the pot, and the roots should be cleared of soil by shaking or washing it out; the requisite number of pieces should then be selected. As each piece is removed, it should have the end nearest the stem cut horizontally, to distinguish it from the other or furthermost end. In planting cuttings of the roots, it is best to place the end nearest the stem uppermost. The pieces may be left about 2in. long, and should be inserted in pots, well drained, and filled with sandy soil, leaving the tops of the cuttings about level with the surface of the soil. A square of glass must be placed over the top of each pot, plunging them in moderate bottom heat. The stems of the plants from which the roots have been taken may be cut into pieces 1in. or 1-1/2in. long, leaving an eye or bud near the top; a slice of half the shoot may be taken off opposite the bud. When prepared, these pieces should be pressed into pots of sand or sandy soil, and plunged into bottom heat. The stems may be cut down without disturbing the roots; in that case, if the pots are plunged in bottom heat, and kept moderately supplied with water, they will probably throw up several suckers or shoots from the roots. These, if taken off with a portion of root to each, and placed in small sized pots, will, with a little care, soon make useful plants. All the hardy species and most of the greenhouse ones are propagated readily by cuttings or pieces of roots. Some of the stove species, however, are very difficult to increase, except by grafting. Among these are _A. leptophylla_, _A. Veitchii_, &c. These should be worked on stocks of _A. Guilfoylei_ or _A. reticulata_, the latter being the better of the two. Cuttings of either of these strike readily, and stocks fit for grafting are easily procured. In sheltered and warm positions, the greenhouse species are admirably suited for sub-tropical gardening, either planted singly or in groups. _See_ also =Dimorphanthus=, =Fatsia=, =Hedera=, =Heptapleurum=, =Monopanax=, =Oreopanax=, and =Panax=. =A. canescens= (greyish). A garden synonym of _A. chinensis_. =A. Chabrierii= (Chabrier's).* _l._ alternate, pinnate, about a foot long; pinnæ opposite, 6in. to 9in. long, linear-lanceolate, deep green, with a heavy crimson midrib. 1882. Suitable for table decoration. A charming stove species. [Illustration: FIG. 141. ARALIA CHINENSIS.] =A. chinensis= (Chinese).* _fl._ white; panicles terminal; peduncles umbelliferous. _l._ petiolate, coriaceous, woolly on both surfaces when young (only); pinnæ seven, ovate, serrated at the apex, erect and distinct. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. 1838. This species, if planted in a soil with a dry porous bottom, will prove to be hardy. SYN. _A. canescens_, of gardens. See Fig. 141. =A. concinna= (neat). _l._ unequally pinnate; pinnæ lobed and serrate. Stem spotted. New Caledonia, 1879. A handsome stove species, but very rare. SYNS. _A. spectabilis_, _Delarbrea spectabilis_. =A. crassifolia= (thick-leaved). A synonym of _Pseudopanax crassifolium_. =A. edulis= (edible).* _fl._ numerous, white; umbels globose, axillary and terminal, united into simple or compound racemes. Summer. _l._, lower ones pinnate, with five leaflets, or three pinnate, with divisions of three to five leaflets; upper ones generally simple, with stalked leaflets, having a cordate base, ovate, acute, finely toothed, downy. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Japan, 1843. Hardy, herbaceous, perennial, hairy, and spineless. =A. elegantissima= (most elegant).* _l._ digitate, on long dark green footstalks, which are mottled with white; leaflets seven to ten, filiform, and, being pendulous, impart a very graceful character to the plant. Stem straight, erect. South Sea Islands, 1873. Stove species, excellent for table decoration. =A. filicifolia= (fern-leaved).* _l._, leafstalks sheathing at the base, and terete in the upper part, expanding into a broad leafy limb which is impari-pinnately divided; pinnæ opposite, deeply pinnatifid, bright green, with a purplish midrib. Stem and leafstalks purplish, thickly marked with oblong white spots. Polynesia, 1876. =A. gracillima= (most graceful). Synonymous with _A. Veitchii gracillima_. =A. Guilfoylei= (Guilfoyle's).* _l._ pinnate, on long smooth terete petioles; leaflets oblong-elliptic, bluntish, from three to seven, they are sometimes obscurely lobed, and irregularly spinose, serrate, varying in size from 2in. to 3in. long, neatly and evenly margined with creamy white, the surface being in addition occasionally splashed with grey. Stem erect, copiously dotted with lenticular markings. South Sea Islands, 1876. Stove species. =A. heteromorpha= (many-formed).* _l._ sometimes ovate-lanceolate and serrated, and at others bifid or even trifid at the apex, about 6in. to 8in. or 9in. long, bright shining green. A very desirable species, of robust and compact habit. =A. japonica= (Japanese). Another name for _Fatsia japonica_. =A. Kerchoveana= (Count Kerchove's). _l._ digitate, almost circular in outline; leaflets nine to eleven, spreading, elliptic-lanceolate, conspicuously serrated or undulated margins, of a deep glossy green relieved by a pale midrib. 1883. A very elegant slender-stemmed plant from the South Sea Islands, and likely to prove valuable for decorative purposes. Stove species. =A. leptophylla= (slender-leaved).* _l._ compound, bearing often seven or more petiolate leaflets of a somewhat pendent character, and dark green in colour. 1862. An elegant stove or greenhouse slender growing species. =A. longipes= (long-stalked). _l._ digitate, long stalked, and rather distant; leaflets oblanceolate acuminate, slightly undulated at the edge; petioles elongated. Stems simple. North Australia, 1882. A very distinct erect-growing evergreen stove species. =A. maculata= (spotted). _l._ of a light green colour; leaflets oblong-acuminate, in about four pairs. Stem erect, which, as well as the stalks of the leaves, is of a blackish-purple hue, thickly spotted with green dots. This peculiar colouring is very distinct and conspicuous. South Pacific Islands. Stove species. =A. Maximowiczii= (Maximowicz's).* _l._ on long stalks, palmately five to seven-lobed; lobes lanceolate, 3-1/2in. long, serrate. Japan, 1874. An elegant and distinct hardy shrub, with erect spiny stem. SYN. _Acanthopanax ricinifolium_. =A. monstrosa= (monstrous).* _l._ pendent, pinnate; leaflets three to seven, oblong elliptic, deeply and irregularly serrated (this serration sometimes takes most fantastic forms), broadly margined with creamy white, the surface blotched with grey. South Sea Islands, 1880. Stove species. =A. nudicaulis= (naked-stemmed).* _fl._ greenish; scape trifid at the apex, shorter than the leaf, each division bearing a many-flowered umbel. June. _l._ radical, the divisions pinnately five foliate; leaflets oblong-oval, with a long tapering point, serrate. Root horizontal, very long. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. North America, 1731. Quite hardy, herbaceous perennial. =A. Osyana= (Osyan).* Resembling _A. leptophylla_, but with leaflets deeply bifid at the ends; surface colour bright green; primary veins and tips of the leaflets chocolate brown. South Sea Islands, 1870. Very elegant stove species. =A. pentaphylla= (five-leaved).* _l._ digitate, or sometimes only three leaflets are produced, each varying from 6in. to 10in. in length, and from 1in. to 2in. in breadth, deeply lobed or pinnatifid, bright shining green. Stem arboreous, prickly. _h._ 20ft. Japan. SYN. _Panax spinosa_. =A. p. variegata= (variegated). _l._ broadly edged with creamy white. Japan, 1874. =A. quercifolia= (oak-leaved).* _l._ opposite, trifoliate; leaflets deeply sinuate; lower petioles about 3in. long, light shining green. New Britain, 1880. Very pretty stove species. [Illustration: FIG. 142. FLOWER OF ARALIA RACEMOSA, enlarged.] =A. racemosa= (raceme-flowering).* _fl._ greenish-white, petals spreading; peduncles axillary, disposed in a terminal raceme, umbelliferous. June. _l._ petioles tripartite, the partitions bearing each three to five ovate or cordate, acuminated, serrated, smoothish leaflets. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. North America, 1658. Hardy herbaceous species, highly ornamental. See Fig. 142. =A. reticulata= (netted). _l._ alternate, strap-shaped when young, becoming larger with age, dark green, reticulated with a lighter shade of the same colour. A very handsome species, requiring stove heat during winter. In spring and summer it is admirably suited for conservatory or indoor decoration, having a light and graceful aspect. =A. rotunda= (round). _l._ sometimes of a single leaflet only, which is spreading, orbicular, cordate at the base, margined with distinct white tipped teeth; at other times, especially when approaching maturity, the leaves are trifoliate, the leaflets being rounded and toothed, and the terminal one being about double the size of the lateral ones. Stems erect, brownish-green, spotted when young with pale elongate blotches. Polynesia, 1882. =A. Scheffleri= (Scheffler's). _l._ on long petioles, digitate; leaflets five, petiolulate, lanceolate, attenuated at the base, serrulated, glabrous on both surfaces. Stem shrubby, smooth. New Zealand. Greenhouse species. =A. spectabilis= (showy). A synonym of _A. concinna_. =A. spinosa= (thorny).* Angelica Tree. _l._ doubly and triply pinnate; leaflets ovate, acuminated, deeply serrated. Stem simple, prickly (as are also the petioles), forming into an umbrella-like head, deciduous. _h._ 8ft. to 12ft. North America, 1688. A very fine hardy species for sheltered spots. =A. spinulosa= (small-spined). _l._ alternate, pinnate; pinnæ ovate acuminate, dark green, margined with little reddish-crimson spines or prickles. Stems and petioles spotted and suffused with crimson. 1880. A bold and robust stove plant. =A. ternata= (three-leafleted).* _l._ opposite, ternate; leaflets oblong-lanceolate; margins in some cases deeply serrate, in others sinuate, light green. New Britain, 1879. A slender growing species. =A. trifolia= (three-leaved). A synonym of _Pseudopanax Lessonii_. [Illustration: FIG. 143. ARALIA VEITCHII.] =A. Veitchii= (Veitch's).* _l._ digitate, with about eleven filiform undulated leaflets, glossy green above, dark red beneath; petioles long and slender. New Caledonia, 1867. A very handsome (said to be the best) species, with slender, erect growing stem. See Fig. 143, for which we are indebted to Messrs. Veitch and Sons. =A. V. gracillima= (most graceful).* _l._ alternate, spreading; leaflets nearly linear, but slightly narrowed at both ends, having a prominent ivory-white central rib. South Sea Islands, 1876. An erect growing species, with an elegantly graceful habit. It is allied to _A. reticulata_, but is more handsome. This charming variety is undoubtedly the finest for table decoration, and is frequently grafted upon stocks of the typical form. It enjoys plenty of heat. SYN. _A. gracillima_. =ARALIACE�.= An order of trees, shrubs, or (rarely) herbaceous plants, often pubescent, and sometimes spiny. Flowers variously disposed, hermaphrodite or unisexual, regular; petals usually five, and valvate. Leaves alternate, or (rarely) opposite. This order is closely allied to _Umbelliferæ_; and the best known genera are _Aralia_ and _Hedera_. =ARAR-TREE.= A common name for =Callitris quadrivalvis= (which _see_). =ARAUCARIA= (from _Araucanos_, its name in Chili). SYN. _Eutacta_. ORD. _Coniferæ_. A noble genus of di�cious or sub-di�cious evergreen trees, with usually imbricated persistent flat sessile scale-like leaves. Male cones large, cylindrical, terminal; female ones very large, globular, terminal, with dense ligneous deciduous scales, each bearing a solitary seed. The majority of the species are not, unfortunately, sufficiently hardy to withstand our winters out of doors. Few trees can compete with them in symmetry and elegant proportion for conservatory decoration, where they may be grown in large tubs, or planted out. Small plants grown in pots are most serviceable for table and other decorative purposes. They thrive in a good fibrous loam, mixed with leaf soil and sand. Propagation by means of seed is the surest and most satisfactory method; the seed should be sown in pans or boxes, or if in large quantities, in a bed, with but gentle heat; they usually take some time to germinate. Cuttings are procured by taking off the leading shoots, and fixing them firmly in a pot of sand; they first require a cool place, but may afterwards be subjected to slight warmth. When rooted, they should be potted off into the soil above mentioned. The young growths which afterwards shoot from the plant, whence the cutting, may be taken off and treated in much the same manner. These are the only methods of propagation worth pursuing. =A. Balansæ= (Balansa's). _male cones_ cylindrical-conical, 2in. _female cones_ elliptic globose, 4in.; scales obovate, cuneate. _l._ arcuately-uncinate, ovate triangular, imbricated round the distichous, simple branchlets. _h._ 130ft. to 160ft. New Caledonia, 1875. A fine greenhouse plumosely branched tree. =A. Bidwillii= (Bidwill's).* Bunya-Bunya Pine; Moreton Bay Pine. _cones_ sub-globose, longest diameter 10in. to 12in., shortest 9in. to 10in. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, in two nearly horizontal rows, acuminated, slightly convex above, concave beneath, leathery, deep shining green. _h._ 150ft. Moreton Bay. Habit very regular and symmetrical. Greenhouse species. =A. brasiliensis= (Brazilian). _l._ oblong-lanceolate, much attenuated at the point, loosely imbricated, deep green; lower part of the trunk usually free from branches, terminating in a rounded head. _h._ 70ft. to 100ft. Brazil, 1819. _A. b. gracilis_, and _A. b. Ridolfiana_ are two forms of this species. =A. columnaris= (columnar). A synonym of _A. Cookii_. =A. Cookii= (Cook's).* _l._ awl-shaped, short, densely imbricated around the frondose branches. Described by Mr. Abbay as having "a somewhat curious habit, even when growing alone, of shedding their branches for five-sixths or more of their height, and then replacing them by a smaller and more bushy growth, so that the tree at a distance presents a very columnar appearance, the resemblance being increased by the summit being crowned with a mass of foliage somewhat like a capital." _h._ 200ft. New Caledonia, 1851. SYN. _A. columnaris_. [Illustration: FIG. 144. ARAUCARIA EXCELSA.] =A. Cunninghami= (Cunningham's).* _l._ on the sterile branches needle-shaped, obscurely quadrangular, rigid, acute; on the fertile branches shorter, stouter, closely appressed, bright green; upper branches ascending, lower ones horizontal. _h._ 100ft. Moreton Bay. This fine species we have found to be quite hardy on the south-west coast of England. =A. C. glauca= (milky-green). A very handsome variety, with silvery glaucous leaves. =A. excelsa= (lofty).* The Norfolk Island Pine. _l._ awl-shaped, curved, sharply acuminated, bright green, densely packed on the frondose, deltoid, horizontal, or pendulous branches. When well grown, this is a beautifully symmetrical greenhouse or conservatory species, attaining to a height of 150ft., and a circumference of 20ft. or more. Norfolk Island. This is especially desirable in a small state. There are several varieties known, the best being: _A. e. glauca_, having lighter green, and very glaucous foliage; and _A. e. robusta_, which is larger in all its parts. See Fig. 144. =A. Goldieana= (Goldie's).* Allied to _A. Rulei_. _l._ produced in whorls, pendulous, dark green, varying in size. New Caledonia. Most distinct and elegant for conservatory decoration. =A. imbricata= (imbricated).* The Monkey Puzzle. _fl._, male and female catkins on separate trees; the males are six or seven in a cluster, pedunculate, yellow, and oval with numerous scales, imbricated, long, and recurved at the points; the female catkins are oval, with numerous wedge-shaped scales, with narrow oblong brittle points; they are produced at the ends of the branches. _cones_, when fully ripe globular, from 3in. to 4in. in diameter, dark brown. The branches are horizontal, inflexed, and ascending at the extremities, and are produced in whorls. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, sessile, thickened at the base, stiff, leathery, straight, somewhat keeled-shaped below, and strongly mucronate at the apex; verticillate, with seven or eight in a whorl, imbricate, and closely encircling the branches, concave, glabrous, shining, marked with longitudinal lines, dotted on both sides. _h._ 50ft. to 100ft. Chili, 1796. A well known hardy tree, of striking aspect, and indispensable to Arboreta and shrubberies. See Fig. 145. =A. Rulei= (Rule's).* _male cones_ oblong obtuse; _female cones_ oval. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, with a prominent dorsal nerve, more closely appressed, and less sharply pointed than in the foregoing species; imbricated in four rows. Branches horizontal; branchlets often quite pendulous. _h._ 50ft. Papuan Archipelago. =A. R. elegans= (elegant).* _l._ smaller; whorls of branches closer together; branchlets more slender. An elegant form; and, from its comparative dwarf and graceful habit, should be very generally grown. =ARBOR.= A tree. A perennial plant, having a distinct bole or trunk, from which the main branches grow. =ARBORESCENT.= Having a tendency to become a tree. =ARBORETUM.= A collection of hardy trees formed for pleasure or instruction, and which, when well managed, is a source of much interesting study. They afford shelter, improve the local climate, renovate bad soils, &c., and also, by concealing or hiding disagreeable objects, heighten the effect of agreeable ones, create beauty, and add value. A properly arranged Arboretum should be constructed with a view to picturesque beauty, and not systematically, as is usually the case in Botanic Gardens, although scientific purposes are best served by a systematic arrangement. =ARBOR-VIT�.= _See_ =Thuja=. =ARBOUR.= A seat surrounded by lattice work, covered by Vines, Wistarias, or other climbing plants. =ARBUTUS= (from _arboise_, Celtic for austere bush; in allusion to the austere quality of the fruit). Strawberry Tree. ORD. _Ericaceæ_. Trees and shrubs, with evergreen alternate laurel-like leaves. Corolla globose, or ovately campanulate; petals five, reflexed. Very ornamental subjects for lawns and shrubberies, thriving well in a light sandy or peaty soil. They may be propagated by seeds, which should be sown in sand during March; by budding, and by inarching; the first mentioned method is the one most generally employed, with good results. The various sorts may be grafted, budded, or inarched upon _A. Unedo_. The greenhouse species are rare in cultivation, but their management does not materially differ from other plants requiring a similar temperature. =A. Andrachne= (Andrachne).* _fl._ greenish-white; panicles terminal, erect, clothed with viscid down. March and April. _l._ oblong, bluntish, entire in some, a little serrated in others, glabrous. _h._ 10ft. to 14ft. Greece, 1724. A fine ornamental tree. =A. A. serratifolia= (saw-edge-leaved). _fl._ yellowish, disposed in rather large terminal clusters. _l._ serrated, and narrower than those of the species. SYN. _A. serratifolia_. [Illustration: FIG. 145. ARAUCARIA IMBRICATA.] =A. andrachnoides= (Andrachne-like). A synonym of _A. hybrida_. =A. canariensis= (Canary). _fl._ greenish-white; panicles erect, hispid. May. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, serrated, glaucous beneath. _h._ 8ft. to 10ft. Canary Islands, 1796. Greenhouse. =A. densiflora= (thickly-flowered).* _fl._ white; corolla oval; pedicels furnished with three bracteas at the base; panicle terminal, composed of closely packed racemes. _l._ 4in. to 5in. long, on long petioles, oblong, acute, sharply toothed, coriaceous, glabrous above and shining, but downy beneath, the middle nerve with rusty villi; branches angular, hairy. _h._ 20ft. Mexico, 1826. Greenhouse. =A. hybrida= (hybrid).* _fl._ white; panicle terminal, pendulous, downy. September to December. _l._ oblong, acute, serrated, glabrous; branches pilose. _h._ 10ft. to 0ft. A half-hardy garden hybrid; it originated about 1800. SYN. _A. andrachnoides_. =A. Menziesi= (Menzies').* _fl._ white; racemes axillary and terminal, panicled, dense-flowered. September. _l._ broad-oval, quite entire, glabrous, on long petioles. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. North-west America, 1827. A noble hardy tree. _A. laurifolia_ comes close to this species. SYN. _A. procera_. =A. mollis= (soft). _fl._ rosy, drooping; panicle terminal, crowded, racemose. June. _l._ oblong-acute, sharply toothed, coriaceous, clothed with soft pubescence above, and white tomentum beneath. _h._ 6ft. Mexico. Greenhouse shrub. =A. mucronata= (mucronate). A synonym of _Pernettya mucronata_. =A. pilosa= (pilose). A synonym of _Pernettya pilosa_. =A. procera= (tall).* A synonym of _A. Menziesi_. =A. serratifolia= (saw-edge-leaved). A synonym of _A. Andrachne serratifolia_. =A. Unedo= (Unedo).* The Strawberry Tree. _fl._ white, deep red in some of the varieties, nodding, in terminal racemose, bracteate panicles. September. _fr._ large, scarlet, nearly globose, granular, edible. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, glabrous, serrulated; branchlets clothed with glandular hairs. _h._ 8ft. to 10ft. West of Ireland, and South Europe. There are several varieties of this plant in cultivation. It is one of the greatest ornaments in the months of October and November--the season when it is in flower, and when, also, the fruit of the former year is ripe. =A. Xalapensis= (Xalapan). _fl._ reddish white; corolla ovate; panicle terminal, composed of many racemes. April. _l._ petiolate, oblong, acute, quite entire, about 2in. long, glabrous above, but clothed with brownish tomentum beneath; epidermis separating, brownish purple. Young branches glabrous, but beset with ramentæ. _h._ 6ft. to 9ft. Mexico. Greenhouse species. =ARCHEGONIUM.= The female organ in ferns, &c., analogous with the ovary in flowering plants. =ARCTOSTAPHYLOS= (from _arktos_, a bear, and _staphyle_, a grape; bears eat the fruit of some species). ORD. _Ericaceæ_. Handsome hardy or half-hardy shrubs or sub-shrubs, agreeing in generic characters with _Arbutus_, except that the fruit is five-celled and the cells one-seeded, and not granular on the outside. For culture, &c., _see_ =Arbutus=. =A. alpina= (alpine).* Black Bearberry. _fl._ white or flesh-coloured, in terminal, reflexed racemes; pedicels rather hairy. April. _l._ obovate, acute, wrinkled, serrated, deciduous. Stems procumbent, trailing. Scotland (but rare), &c. SYN. _Arbutus alpina_. =A. nitida= (shining).* _fl._ white; racemes terminal. May. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acute, smooth on both sides and shining above. _h._ 4ft. Mexico, 1839. An erect half-hardy evergreen. =A. pungens= (stinging).* _fl._ white; pedicels close; racemes short, at first terminal, but at length lateral. February. _l._ ovate-oblong, acute, mucronate, rather pungent, quite entire, coriaceous, clothed with fine down on both surfaces; branchlets angular, downy. _h._ 1ft. Mexico, 1839. A dwarf, much branched, half-hardy evergreen shrub. =A. tomentosa= (tomentose).* _fl._ pure white, campanulately urceolate, bracteate; peduncles axillary, shorter than the leaves, somewhat capitately racemose. December. _l._ oval, acute, sub-cordate at the base, clothed with white tomentum beneath, on short petioles; branches hispid. _h._ 4ft. North-west America, 1826. Shrubby species; hardy. =A. Uva-ursi.=* Bearberry. _fl._ flesh-coloured, with a red mouth, growing in small clusters at the extremities of the branches. April. _l._ obovate, quite entire, coriaceous, shining. Highlands of Scotland and Wales. A hardy evergreen procumbent trailer. SYN. _Arbutus Uva-ursi_. =ARCTOTHECA= (from _arktos_, a bear, and _theke_, a capsule; so named from the roughness of the fruit). ORD. _Compositæ_. Greenhouse herbaceous perennial, allied to _Arctotis_. Heads radiate; involucral scales imbricate in many rows, the outer linear, herbaceous, inner larger, scariose, very obtuse; receptacle honeycombed, bearing many little fringes; achenes ovate, somewhat four-sided, without wings or pappus. It thrives in a compost of peat, leaf soil, and loam. Propagated by divisions of the plant, or cuttings, in spring. Several species formerly classed in this genus are now included under _Arctotis_. =A. repens= (creeping). _fl.-heads_ yellow. July. _l._ petioled, lyrate-pinnatifid, green and mostly smooth above, white-woolly beneath. Cape of Good Hope, 1793. A stemless, creeping or decumbent herb. =ARCTOTIS= (from _arktos_, a bear, and _ous_, an ear; in reference to the shaggy fruit). ORD. _Compositæ_. Mostly half-hardy herbaceous perennials. Involucral bracts numerous, imbricated, scariose on the margin; receptacle pitted, studded with bristles between the florets; achenes grooved, crowned with a pappus of membranous scales. The species of this genus are of easy culture in a compost of loam and leaf soil. Propagated by cuttings at any time of the year; these should be pricked in pots of very sandy soil, and placed in gentle warmth; they must be kept uncovered and moderately dry, or they will rot. The Arctotis are very handsome plants in sunny, dry positions outside during the summer months, but they must be protected during winter. A. acaulis (stemless).* _fl.-heads_ yellow and red. Summer. _l._ hoary on each side, ternate, lyrate. Stem very short, decumbent. _h._ 4in. Cape of Good Hope, 1759. Very rarely met with. =A. arborescens= (tree-like).* _fl.-heads_, ray-florets white above, pink beneath; disk-florets yellow; disposed in large circular Daisy-like heads. Summer. _l._ linear-oblong, pinnate; upper ones amplexicaul; lower ones stalked. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1815. =A. argentea= (silvery). _fl.-heads_ orange. August. _l._ lanceolate-linear, entire, downy. _h._ 1ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1774. =A. aureola= (golden). Synonymous with _A. grandiflora_. =A. breviscapa= (short-stalked). Synonymous with _A. speciosa_. =A. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ orange; outer scales of involucre reflexed, cuneate, oblong, with a broad short point, somewhat cobwebbed. July. _l._ pinnatifid, serrulate, three-nerved. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1710. SYNS. _A. aureola_ and _A. undulata_. =A. reptans= (creeping). _fl.-heads_ white, orange. July. _l._ hairy beneath; lower lyrate toothed; upper lanceolate toothed. Stem ascending. _h._ 8in. Cape of Good Hope, 1795. =A. rosea= (rosy). _fl.-heads_ pink. Autumn. _l._ spathulate-lanceolate, repand-toothed, hoary. Stem procumbent. Cape of Good Hope, 1793. =A. speciosa= (showy).* _fl.-heads_ yellow; outer scales of involucre linear recurved. July. _l._ lyrate, pinnatifid, hoary beneath, three-nerved. Plant stemless. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1812. Closely allied to _A. acaulis_. SYN. _A. breviscapa_. =A. undulata= (wavy). Synonymous with _A. grandiflora_. =ARCUATE, ARCUATED.= Curved or bent like a bow; forming an arch. =ARDISIA.= (from _ardis_, a point; in reference to the acute, spear-pointed anthers). SYN. _Pyrgus_. ORD. _Myrsineæ_. An extensive genus of greenhouse or stove, mostly ornamental, evergreen trees and shrubs. Flowers white or rose-coloured, more or less panicled; panicles sometimes many-flowered at the extremities of the branches, and longer than the leaves, sometimes few-flowered and in the axils of the leaves. Leaves alternate, rarely almost opposite, or three in a whorl, dotted. Propagated by cuttings of the half-ripened wood taken from the side shoots of the plant any time from March to September; but, as the points of these side shoots bear the blossoms and fruit, they are not well adapted for making good plants. To obtain the best plants, the largest, ripest, and best-coloured berries should be sown early in spring, as soon as gathered, in a wide-mouthed pot or seed pan, well drained and filled with loam and peat in equal parts, with the addition of some sand, and plunged in bottom heat, the soil being kept moderately moist. The seeds will germinate in a few weeks after sowing, and when about 2in. high, the strongest seedlings should be selected and placed in 3in. pots, the same mixture of soil being used, with the addition of a fourth part well decomposed manure. After potting, the plants must be moistened overhead twice a day with a fine rose or syringe, and be kept in a close atmosphere until the roots have taken to the fresh soil. When the plants begin to grow again, they should be removed to a light situation in the house; and when the pots are well filled with roots, a shift into 6in. pots may be effected, water being given judiciously until well established, and here they may remain to fruit. Until the berries are coloured, clear manure water, given once or twice a week, will be found beneficial. The plants arrive at their best when about 18in. or 2ft. high; after that, they begin to get naked at the bottom. It will then be wise to cut the worst plants down to within 2in. of the pots, in early spring, allowing them to become dry at the roots before this operation is performed. By giving moisture to the roots when the cut has become dry, the plants will soon break into growth again, when some of the worst placed shoots should be rubbed off, leaving only one or two of the strongest and best placed, calculated to develop into a well formed plant. When the shoots have grown 2in. or 3in., the plants should be turned out of their pots, the soil shaken out from the roots, and the long ends of the roots trimmed in a little with a knife; they must then be placed in a pot sufficiently large to hold the roots without squeezing. The plants should now occupy the warmest end of the house in which they are grown, care being taken in watering until new roots are formed, when they may have more air and somewhat liberal supplies of water. As soon as they are sufficiently advanced in growth, they should be transferred to a larger-sized pot. With proper treatment, they will flower and fruit the same season as they are cut down, and form handsome plants. Although most species of this genus are classed as stove plants, they will succeed very well in a temperature that does not fall below 45deg. in winter; and, when so grown, they are not so liable to become infested with large brown scale and other insect pests. This is particularly the case with _A. crenulata_, and cool treatment is also favourable to the ripe berries hanging on the plants for a much longer time than when grown in a stove. Moreover, they do not suffer so much when removed for decorative purposes. =A. acuminata= (taper-pointed). _fl._ nearly white; petals small, acute, dotted; panicles terminal and axillary, many-flowered. July. _l._ entire, glabrous, oblong, acuminated, attenuated at the base. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. Guiana, 1803. [Illustration: FIG. 146. FLOWERING BRANCH OF ARDISIA CRENULATA.] =A. crenulata= (round-notched-leaved).* _fl._ reddish violet; panicles terminal; pedicels umbellate. June. Berries numerous, bright coral-like. _l._ lanceolate-ovate, tapering at both ends, repandly crenulated, pilose. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. Mexico, 1809. When grown in a cool atmosphere, as previously alluded to, it is quite common for one crop of berries to hang on the plants until another crop is ripe. This is a splendid plant, superior even to the red-berried Solanums for decorative purposes, for which it is largely grown. See Fig. 146. =A. crispa= (curled). _fl._ small, drooping, red; cymes terminal, usually solitary, often compound; pedicels smooth, finely veined, umbellate, drooping. July. Berries red, size of peas. _l._ bluntish, oblong-lanceolate, attenuated at both ends, with repandly crenulated glandular edges, glabrous. _h._ 4ft. India, 1809. =A. humilis= (humble). _fl._ rose-coloured; peduncles solitary, bearing each a simple racemose umbel of many pretty, large, drooping flowers; petals lanceolate, first recurved, afterwards revolute. June. Berries size of peas, shining, black, juicy. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acuminated at both ends, glabrous, veined, shining. _h._ 4ft. India, 1820. =A. japonica= (Japanese).* _fl._ white; pedicels red, sub-umbellate, secund, drooping; racemes simple, axillary. June. _l._ nearly opposite, or three to five in a whorl, on short petioles, cuneate-oblong, acute, glabrous, serrated; 4in. long. _h._ 1ft. Japan. Perhaps the hardiest of all the species. =A. macrocarpa= (large-fruited).* _fl._ flesh-coloured, dotted; petals ovate, obtuse; racemes terminal, corymbose, almost sessile, slightly hairy. Berries vermilion coloured, as large as gooseberries. _l._ oblong, acute, tapering downwards, glandularly crenated, dotted, close together, leathery, 6in. to 8in. long, paler beneath, veinless. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. Nepaul, 1824. A beautiful shrub. =A. Oliveri= (Oliver's).* _fl._ rose pink, white eye: corolla rotate, 1/2in. across; lobes obtuse; heads terminal, consisting of a number of stalked, many-flowered corymbs; pedicels about twice as long as the flower. July. _l._ nearly sessile, entire, glabrous, 6in. to 8in. long, by 2in. in the broadest portion; oblanceolate, acuminate, tapering towards the base. Costa Rica, 1876. =A. paniculata= (panicled).* _fl._ rose-coloured; panicles terminal, composed of many alternate compound branches, large and elegant; petals and sepals ovate. July. Berries red, smooth, size of a pea, juicy. _l._ glabrous, cuneate-oblong, almost sessile, reflexed, 6in. to 20in. long, and from 3in. to 5in. broad, crowded at the ends of the branches. _h._ 8ft. to 10ft. India, 1818. =A. punctata= (dotted). _fl._ greyish white, sub-campanulate, secund, beset with dark dots, and the pedicels with dark lines; peduncles umbellate, terminal, and axillary; umbels involucrated by deciduous bracts. June. _l._ glabrous, lanceolate, leathery, repandly crenated, tapering to the base. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. China, 1822. =A. serrulata= (finely serrated).* _fl._ deep red; petals ciliated; calyces and pedicels coloured; panicles terminal; pedicels umbellate. July. _l._ glabrous, lanceolate, acuminated, wrinkled, serrulated, beset with rusty dots beneath; branches downy. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. China, 1820. =A. villosa= (hairy). _fl._ whitish, umbels axillary and terminal, very villous. October. Berries villous. _l._ lanceolate, acuminated, villous beneath, crenulated, 5in. to 7in. long, tapering to the base, copiously dotted. China. All the upper parts of the plant are densely beset with hairs. =A. v. mollis= (soft).* This variety has very fine red berries, and is superior to the type. =A. Wallichii= (Wallich's). _fl._ red, in loose racemes; peduncles axillary, one-half shorter than the leaves, and are, as well as the pedicels, pilose. July. _l._ obovate, acute, or obtuse, narrowed into the marginate petioles, repandly crenulated, 4in. to 5in. long, and 2in. broad, thickish. _h._ 2ft. India. =ARDUINA= (in honour of P. Arduini, curator of the Economical Garden of Padua, in the time of Linnæus). ORD. _Apocynaceæ_. A singular and pretty greenhouse evergreen shrub, of easy culture in carefully drained pots of peat and loam, mixed in equal proportions. Propagated by cuttings in sand, under a glass. The winter temperature should not be allowed to fall below 40deg. =A. bispinosa= (two-spined). _fl._ small, white, sweet-scented, terminal, corymbose. March to August. Berry red. _l._ cordate-ovate, mucronate, nearly sessile, dark green, larger than those of Box. Spines twin, simple, but usually bifid; in this last case, one of the clefts points downwards, and the other upwards. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1760. SYN. _Carissa Arduina_. =ARECA= (_Areec_ is its name in Malabar, when an old tree). The Cabbage Palm. ORD. _Palmeæ_. This genus is now broken up into several, and many species formerly here arranged are now found under _Acanthoph�nix_, _Euterpe_, _Hyophorbe_, _Kentia_, _Oncosperma_, _Phænicophorum_. Very ornamental and graceful stove palms, with a branching spadix, and double spathe, which incloses the flowers. Flowers unisexual, borne upon the same spike; female flowers having six rudimentary stamens, and male flowers a six-cleft perianth. Fruit one-seeded. They thrive in a compost of loam, peat, and leaf soil, in equal parts, with a liberal addition of sand; but when they are fully grown, loam should preponderate to the extent of about two-thirds, and some rotten cow-manure may be added. Propagated from seeds, which should be sown in a compost similar to above, and placed in a moist gentle heat. They are employed, when young, with much success for the decoration of drawing rooms and dinner tables. =A. Aliciæ= (Princess Alice's). _l._ pinnatisect; segments sessile. North Australia. A very handsome species, with a comparatively dwarf habit; it is a valuable decorative plant. =A. Catechu= (Catechu). _l._ pinnate, from 3ft. to 6ft. long; leaflets 12in. to 24in. in length, and about 2in. broad, light green; petioles broadly sheathed at the base. _h._ 30ft. India, 1690. One of the best and oldest species in cultivation, very effective, in a young state, for dinner table decoration. It produces the Betel nut, of which enormous quantities are used in India. =A. concinna= (neat). _l._ pinnatisect, sub-glabrous; segments sickle-shaped, much acuminated. Stem green, 8ft. to 12ft. high, 1in. to 2in. in diameter. Ceylon. The Cingalese chew the albumen of the seeds with their Betel. =A. gigantea= (gigantic). A synonym of _Pinanga ternatensis_. =A. glandiformis= (gland-formed). _l._ pinnatisect, 9ft. to 12ft. long when fully grown. _h._ 30ft. Moluccas. A handsome stove palm, of bold aspect, and very suitable, when young, for decorative purposes. =A. Normanbyi= (Normanby's). A synonym of _Ptychosperma Normanbyi_. =A. triandra= (three-stamened). _l._ pinnate, like those of _A. Catechu_ in size, &c. _h._ 20ft. India, introduced to Britain about 1810. =ARENARIA= (from _arena_, sand; in which most of the species are found). Sandwort. ORD. _Caryophyllaceæ_. TRIBE _Alsineæ_. A very large genus of hardy herbaceous plants, consisting of about 150 species. It is distinguished by having generally three styles. The perennials only are worth growing; these are extremely pretty little alpine plants, and will thrive in any ordinary soil in exposed places; the rarer species may be grown in small pots, well drained, in a mixture of sand, loam, and leaf soil, or in well-drained crannies of the rockery. They may be increased by either division, seeds, or cuttings; the latter, placed under a hand-glass, will root freely. The best time to divide the plants is early spring, or July and August. Seeds should be sown in spring in a cold frame. =A. balearica= (Balearic).* _fl._ white, sepals erect; peduncles elongated, one-flowered. March to August. _l._ very small, ovate, shining, rather fleshy, ciliated. _h._ 3in. Corsica, 1787. A pretty little creeper, one of the best plants for covering damp borders of the rockwork. =A. cæspitosa= (tufted). Synonymous with _A. verna cæspitosa_. =A. ciliata= (ciliated). _fl._ white, usually solitary; sepals ovate, acute, five to seven ribbed; petals obovate, twice as long as the sepals. July. _l._ ovate, or obovate, roughish, with a few hairs, one-nerved, and ciliated. Ireland. _h._ 6in. A thick, tufted, spreading, procumbent plant. =A. graminifolia= (grass-leaved).* _fl._ white; panicle three-forked, hairy, loose; sepals very blunt, much shorter than the obovate petals. June. _l._ long, awl-shaped, filiform, scabrous on the margins from serratures. Stem erect, simple. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Caucasus, 1817. =A. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ white, usually solitary; peduncles very long, pubescent; sepals ovate, awned, three-nerved, smaller than the petals. June. _l._ awl-shaped, broadish, flat, three-nerved, ciliated, radical ones crowded. _h._ 3in. to 6in. France, 1783. _A. g. biflora_ is a two-flowered, and _A. g. triflora_ a three-flowered, variety. =A. laricifolia= (Larch-leaved).* _fl._ white; sepals bluntish, triple nerved, hairy; petals twice as long as the sepals; stems ascending, one, three, or six flowered, somewhat scabrous; calyx cylindrical. June. _l._ awl-shaped, denticulately ciliated. _h._ 6in. Switzerland, 1816. =A. longifolia= (long-leaved). _fl._ white; sepals ovate, obtuse, not half the length of the obovate petals; panicle three-forked, glabrous, crowded. June. _l._ awl-shaped, filiform, serrulated. Stem erect, simple. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Siberia, 1823. =A. montana= (mountain). _fl._ large, white; peduncles terminal, very long, one-flowered; sepals lanceolate, acuminated, much shorter than the corolla. April. _l._ lanceolate-linear; sterile stems very long, procumbent. _h._ 3in. France and Spain, 1800. =A. peploides= (Peplis-like). _fl._ white; sepals ovate, shorter than the oblong petals. May to July. _l._ ovate, light green, rather fleshy; branches procumbent, fleshy, deciduous. _h._ 3in. to 4in. Sea shores of Britain. SYN. _Honckenya peploides_. =A. purpurascens= (purplish).* _fl._ purplish; pedicels tomentose, scarcely exceeding the leaves; sepals lanceolate, smooth, with shrivelled margins, longer than the corolla; branches two to three-flowered. May. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acuminated, glabrous. Plant tufted, decumbent. _h._ 6in. Higher Pyrenees. =A. rotundifolia= (round-leaved).* _fl._ white, solitary; petals roundish-ovate, longer than the sepals. July and August. _l._ about 1/4in. across, roundish, ciliated, on spreading tufted branches. _h._ 4in. to 6in. Siberia. =A. tetraquetra= (four-angled). _fl._ white, somewhat capitate; sepals stiff, acute, keeled, ciliated, almost equal in length to the corolla. August. _l._ ovate, keeled, recurved, edged, imbricated in four rows. Stem straight, pubescent. _h._ 3in. to 6in. France, 1731. =A. verna= (spring-flowering). _fl._ small, white; sepals ovate, lanceolate, acuminated, with three remote equal ribs, longer than the obovate petals. May. _l._ awl-shaped, bluntish. Stems panicled, elongated. _h._ about 3in. =A. v. cæspitosa= (turfy). A variety having very leafy stems. Calyces and peduncles smoothish. Europe. SYN. _A. cæspitosa_. =ARENGA= (name of doubtful origin). SYN. _Saguerus_. ORD. _Palmæ_. An extremely useful and interesting palm. The medulla of the trunk is used as sago, and the saccharine juice forms excellent sugar. It requires a strong heat and rich mould. Propagated by seeds only. =A. saccharifera= (sugar-bearing). _fl._ striped. June. _h._ 40ft. Moluccas, 1829. =AREOLATE.= Divided into distinct angular spaces, or areolæ. =ARETHUSA= (mythological: named after a nymph of Diana's, who was changed into a fountain; in allusion to the habit of the plants). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A small genus of very pretty, but rare, terrestrial orchids. They require a moist shady spot with a northern aspect, and thrive best in a compost of well-rotted manure and sphagnum. A mulching in winter, by way of protection, is needed. =A. bulbosa= (bulbous).* _fl._ large, bright rose purple, solitary, sweet-scented, terminal; lip dilated, recurved, spreading towards the summit, bearded-crested down the face; scape one-leaved. May. _l._ linear, nerved. _h._ 8in. Carolina. =ARETIA.= _See_ =Androsace=. =ARGANIA= (from _argam_, its aboriginal name). ORD. _Sapotaceæ_. A very fine greenhouse evergreen tree, said by Don to flourish against a south wall, out of doors, with the protection of a mat in severe weather. It will thrive in ordinary garden soil. Increased by layers and cuttings in autumn and spring, the latter requiring a bell glass covering; both operations must be performed in a moderately heated greenhouse. =A. Sideroxylon= (Iron-wood). _fl._, corolla greenish yellow, cup-shaped, five-parted, with ovate-lanceolate, sub-emarginate segments; lateral and axillary, scattered, crowded, sessile. _fr._ dotted with white, size of a plum, full of white, milky juice. July. _l._ lanceolate, entire, bluntish, glabrous, paler beneath; branches terminated by strong spines. _h._ 15ft. to 20ft. Morocco, 1711. As the specific name implies, the wood is excessively close and hard, so much so that it sinks in water. SYNS. _Elæodendron Argan_, _Sideroxylon spinosum_. =ARGEMONE= (from _argema_, cataract of the eye; in allusion to some real or fancied medicinal properties). ORD. _Papaveraceæ_. Very handsome annuals and perennials, abounding with yellow juice, and covered with stiff prickles. Sepals two to three, concave, mucronate; petals four to eight; peduncles axillary, always erect. Leaves sessile, repand-sinuated, usually spotted with white; recesses spiny-toothed. The species will thrive in almost any garden soil in the open border. Seed may be sown out of doors about the end of March; those of the rarer species on a hotbed, and planted out about the end of June. =A. albiflora= (white-flowered).* _fl._ white; petals usually three. July and August. _l._ sessile, feather-nerved. _h._ 1ft. Georgia, 1820. Hardy annual. =A. grandiflora= (great-flowered).* _fl._ large, panicled, white with yellow anthers. July. _l._ sinuated, smooth, glaucous, spiny-toothed; nerves unarmed. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Mexico, 1827. This species, when raised from seed, does not flower until October; but when the roots have existed through the winter, the plants produce flowers early in the summer. Hardy perennial. See Fig. 147. =A. hirsuta= (hairy).* _fl._ pure white, 3in. to 5in. in diameter. September. _l._ pinnatifid, bristly. _h._ 2ft. California, 1879. A very beautiful hardy annual. [Illustration: FIG. 147. INFLORESCENCE OF ARGEMONE GRANDIFLORA.] =A. mexicana= (Mexican). Devil's Fig. _fl._ solitary, yellow; petals four to six. June. _l._ profoundly repand-sinuated, spiny, blotched with white. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1592. Hardy annual. =A. ochroleuca= (yellowish-white).* _fl._ pale yellow, solitary; petals six. August. _l._ profoundly sinuated or pinnatifid, glaucescent nerves with prickly bristles, blotched with white. Stem prickly. Mexico, 1827. Hardy annual. =ARGENTEUS.= Silvery. A pale colour resembling silver. =ARGOLASIA.= _See_ =Lanaria=. =ARGIYREIA= (from _argyreios_, silvery; in reference to the silvery undersides of the leaves). Silver-weed. ORD. _Convolvulaceæ_. An elegant genus of greenhouse and stove climbers. Sepals five; corolla campanulate. Shrubs for the most part silvery, but sometimes silky and tomentose. The greater number of the species are robust, extensive twiners or climbers, usually requiring plenty of room to run, before they will flower. _A. cuneata_, and one or two others, are of dwarf habit, and produce their splendid blossoms in abundance. All the species grow well in light rich soil, or a mixture of peat, loam, and sand. Cuttings root readily if planted in sand, with a hand glass placed over them, in a little bottom heat. =A. capitata= (headed). _fl._, corolla 1in. to 2in. long, rose coloured or purple, hairy outside; peduncles exceeding the petioles. July. _l._ cordate-ovate, acuminated, 2in. to 5in, long, and 1in. to 3in. broad, hairy on both surfaces; hairs glandular at the base. Plant clothed with strigose hairs. Silhet, 1823. =A. cuneata= (wedge-leaved).* _fl._, corolla large, of a beautiful deep bright purple; peduncles downy, shorter than the leaves, three to six-flowered. July. _l._ obovate-cuneate, emarginate, glabrous above, but beset with short, crowded hairs beneath, hardly petiolate. Stem clothed with powdery down at top. _h._ 2ft. to 5ft. India, 1822. =A. cymosa= (cyme-flowered).* _fl._, corolla pale pink, tubularly funnel-shaped, villous outside; peduncles as long or longer than the leaves, leafy at top, and cymosely many-flowered. _l._ roundish-cordate, or reniformly-cordate, obtuse, terminated by a very short prickle, glabrous on both surfaces, or clothed with pruinose down. Malabar (mountains), 1823. =A. malabarica= (Malabar). _fl._ rather small; bottom of the bell deep purple; throat pink, with the edges paler, almost white, and slightly ten-lobed; peduncles as long or longer than the leaves, many-flowered at the apex. June. _l._ roundish-cordate, acute, glabrous, or furnished with a few scattered hairs on both surfaces. Coromandel, 1823. =A. pomacea= (Apple-fruited). _fl._ large, rose coloured; peduncles villous, exceeding the petioles a little, cymose, many-flowered. Berry size of a cherry, yellow. _l._ ovate-elliptic, obtuse, clothed with cinerous, velvety down on both surfaces, but especially beneath, sometimes sub-emarginate at apex. Mysore, 1818. =A. speciosa= (showy).* _fl._, corolla nearly 2in. long, of a deep rose colour; peduncles about equal in length to the petioles, umbellately capitate. July. _l._ 3in. to 12in. long, and 2in. to 4in. broad, cordate, acute, glabrous above, or rarely villous, thickly nerved beneath, and clothed with silky, silvery down. India, 1818. =A. splendens= (splendid).* _fl._, corolla tubularly campanulate, 1-1/2in. long, rather villous outside, pale red; peduncles exceeding the (hoary) petioles, corymbosely many-flowered. November. _l._ ovate-oblong or ovate-elliptic, entire or pandurately sinuated, sometimes somewhat three-lobed, smooth above, but clothed with silvery, silky down beneath, 6in. long, acuminated. India, 1820. =ARGYROCH�TA.= A synonym of =Parthenium= (which _see_). =ARGYROXYPHIUM= (from _argyros_, silver, and _xyphion_, a corn-flag; in allusion to the leaves). ORD. _Compositæ_. An ornamental greenhouse perennial herb. Involucre campanulate; receptacle conical; heads pedunculate, racemose, or in thyrsoid panicles. Leaves alternate; lower ones close, elongated, thick, on both sides silver-lined. Stems simple or slightly branched. It thrives well in rich sandy loam and leaf mould. Propagated by seed-heads. =C. sandwicense= (Sandwich Islands). _fl.-heads_ purplish. _l._ linear lanceolate, imbricate, clothed, like the stems, with silvery hairs. _h._ 3ft. Sandwich islands, 1872. SYN. _Argyrophyton Douglasii_. =ARIA.= _See_ =Pyrus Aria=. =ARIS�MA= (from _aron_, Arum, and _sana_, a standard; in reference to the close alliance to _Arum_). ORD. _Aroideæ_. Small tuberous rooted greenhouse (except where stated otherwise) herbaceous plants. Spathe rolled round the spadix at the base; spadix bearing unisexual flowers below. and rudimentary flowers in the upper part. Leaves peltate, pedate, palmate, or simple. For culture, &c., _see_ =Arum=. =A. concinna= (neat).* _fl._, spathe convolute, tubular at the base; upper portion bent over at the mouth, and gradually narrowed into a tail-like appendage about 3in. long; spathe of the female plant longitudinally barred with white and green, the latter colour being replaced with blue-purple in the male. June. _l._ solitary, sheathing at the base, and made up of ten or twelve lanceolate, entire, light green leaflets, which radiate from the top of the petiole, the latter being 1ft. to 2ft. high. Sikkim, 1871. =A. curvatum= (curved).* _fl._ crowning a scape which overtops the foliage; tube of spathe cylindrical, green, obscurely striped with white; the elliptic blade arches forward, green on the inner surface, and brownish-red on the outer; spadix produced into a purplish-red tail, about 1ft. long. April. _l._ pedate. The large bracts, which sheath the base of the stem, are beautifully marbled with dark olive green, red, and light green. _h._ 4ft. Himalayas, 1871. SYN. _A. helleborifolium_. =A. galeata= (helmeted).* _fl._, spathe about 4in long; tube and cylindrical side of spathe green, tinted purplish at base, with many longitudinal white lines; inside of the tube purple. July. _l._ solitary, trifoliate; middle leaflet 6in. long by 3-3/4in. broad; lateral ones 7in. long and nearly 4in. broad. _h._ 1ft. Himalayas, Sikkim, 1879. =A. Griffithi= (Griffith's).* _fl._, spathe large, hood-like, brown-violet, with green veins; spadix brown-violet, and the barren end at the base above the flowers has a disk-like projection, while its free extremity is prolonged into a long thread-like appendage. Spring. _l._ with bold roundish leaflets. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Sikkim, 1879. Hardy; very handsome. SYN. _A. Hookerianum_. =A. helleborifolium= (Hellebore-leaved). A synonym of _A. curvatum_. =A. Hookerianum= (Hooker's). A synonym of _A. Griffithi_. =A. nepenthoides= (Nepenthes-like).* _fl._, spathe above the tubular portion extended into two decided auricles, which serve to distinguish it from other species, ochre, brown, green; spadix yellowish Spring. _l._ pedate, of five lanceolate or oblanceolate leaflets; central one 6in. long, the others shorter. _h._ 2ft. Himalayas, 1879. =A. præcox= (early). A synonym of _A. ringens_. =A. ringens= (gaping).* _fl._, spathe striped green and white, erect and cylindrical below, then arching suddenly over, and again contracting into a rather small deep purple orifice, with broad, reflexed margins; spadix erect, pale yellow-green. Spring. _l._, leaflets three, ovate-oblong, acuminate, and produced into a filiform point; peduncle short. Japan. Hardy. SYNS. _A. præcox_ and _A. Sieboldi_. =A. Sieboldi= (Siebold's). A. synonym of _A. ringens_. =A. speciosa= (showy).* _fl._, spadix deep glossy purple, greenish and white, with a long flexuous prolongation, sometimes nearly 20in. in length; spathe also terminating with a filiform elongation. March. _l._ solitary, trifoliate; leaflets petioled, dark green, conspicuously edged with blood red; petioles long, mottled with white. _h._ 2ft. Temperate Himalayas, 1872. [Illustration: FIG. 148. ARIS�MA TRIPHYLLA.] =A. triphylla= (three-leaved).* _fl._, spathe 4in. to 6in. long, striped with broad lines of purplish-brown, with about 1in. of green in the middle; spadix 3in. long, spotted with brown. June to July. _l._ on long stout petioles, trifoliate; leaflets entire, equal, acuminated. _h._ 9in. to 1ft. North America, 1664. This is quite hardy. SYNS. _A. zebrina_ and _Arum triphyllum_. See Fig. 148. =A. zebrina= (zebra). A synonym of _A. triphylla_. =ARISARUM= (name of Greek origin). ORD. _Aroideæ_. A small genus of half-hardy herbaceous plants, possessing but little horticultural interest, and allied to _Arisæma_. Flowers unisexual, spadix having no rudimentary flowers. Leaves on long stalks, heart-shaped or spear-shaped. The only species in cultivation thrives in a sand, loam, and peat compost. Propagated by seeds or divisions of the root in spring. =A. vulgate= (common). _fl._, spathe livid purple. May. _h._ 1ft. South Europe, 1596. =ARISTATE.= Having a beard or awn, as the glumes of barley. =ARISTEA= (from _arista_, a point or beard; in reference to the rigid points of the leaves). ORD. _Iridaceæ_. A genus of greenhouse herbaceous perennials from the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers blue; perianth rotate, six-parted, twisted after flowering; scape two-edged, rigid, often branched. Leaves narrow, sword-shaped. The species are more interesting than ornamental, and may be grown in a compost of three parts turfy peat, and one of loam. Easily propagated by divisions and seeds. They vary in height from 3in. to 3ft., and flower generally in summer. =A. capitata= (headed). _fl._ blue. July. _h._ 3ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1790. =A. cyanea= (bright blue). _fl._ blue. June. _h._ 6in. Cape of Good Hope, 1759. =ARISTOLOCHIA= (from _aristos_, best, and _locheia_, parturition; in reference to its supposed medicinal character). Birthwort. ORD. _Aristolochiaceæ_. A very large genus of stove, greenhouse, or hardy, evergreen or deciduous, climbing or erect shrubs. Flowers axillary, clustered, or solitary, pendulous, of most extraordinary forms; perianth tubular, curved, or straight, with an oblique, cordate limb; stamens six, rarely four, or numerous, adhering to the stigma; capsule six-valved. Leaves cordate entire or lobed. Good loam, with a small proportion of decayed manure and a slight addition of sharp sand to secure efficient drainage, is a good compost for the whole. They will thrive when planted out in the conservatory more satisfactorily than elsewhere; for as they usually grow a considerable height before flowering, they require very long trellises in pots, and have to be trained up and down; or, better still, round a pillar of uniform circumference, a pyramid form being useless. The best way is to train them round, close down to the pot, and keep on about 2in. from one turn to the next. Some of the larger sorts will require more room. Cuttings root freely in sand under a bell glass with bottom heat. =A. anguicida= (snake-killing). _fl._ white, spotted brown; tube of perianth inflated at base, dilated and oblique at the mouth; peduncles axillary, solitary, one-flowered. December. _l._ on short petioles, cordate acuminate; stipules cordate-roundish. _h._ 10ft. New Grenada, 1845. An evergreen stove twiner. =A. barbata= (bearded). _fl._ purple, axillary, 2-1/2in. long; perianth straight; limb spreading; lip spathulate, bearded at the end. July. _l._ cordate, oblong. _h._ 10ft. Caraccas, 1796. Stove evergreen. =A. caudata= (tailed).* _fl._ lurid; perianth cylindrical ventricose, and six-spurred at the base; lip cordate, cuspidate; the cusp twisted, filiform. June. _l._, lower ones reniform, lobed; upper ones three partite. _h._ 5ft. Brazil, 1828. Deciduous stove twiner. =A. ciliosa= (fringed).* _fl._ purple-yellow; tube of perianth obliquely ventricose at base, stretched out, from the middle to the apex cylindrical, fringed; peduncles one-flowered. September. _l._ cordate reniform. Plant glabrous. _h._ 6ft. Brazil, 1829. =A. Clematitis= (Clematis-like). _fl._ pale yellow, upright; lip oblong, shortly acuminate. July. _l._ cordate. Stem erect. _h._ 2ft. A hardy herbaceous perennial, naturalised here and there in Britain. =A. clypeata= (shielded). _fl._ axillary; tube yellowish, cylindrical; limb elliptic, white, blotched with purple, long and large, funnel-shaped. _l._ subcordate-ovate, acuminate. Columbia, 1871. =A. cordiflora= (cordate-flowered). _fl._ axillary, very large, with broad cordiform limb, creamy yellow, with blotchy purple veining. May. _l._ cordate acuminate. _h._ 30ft. Mexico, 1860. =A. deltoidea variegata= (deltoid variegated variety). _l._ variegated with white. _h._ 6ft. Columbia, 1870. =A. Duchartrei= (Duchartre's).* _fl._ racemose; tube brown; limb cream colour, with purple blotches. January. _l._ reniform-cordate, acuminate. Upper Amazons, 1868. _h._ 5ft. This stove species flowers from the old wood. SYN. _A. Ruiziana_. =A. floribunda= (free-flowering).* _fl._ numerous; limb purplish-red, with yellow veins, centre yellow. July. _l._ cordate ovate, acuminate. _h._ 10ft. Brazil, 1868. Stove species. =A. galeata= (helmeted). _fl._ creamy, with reticulated veins. August. _l._ cordate, with broad open sinus. _h._ 20ft. New Grenada, 1873. =A. gigas= (giant). _fl._ purple; perianth large, cordate ribbed outside, reticulated, downy; tube inflated, contracted in the middle; limb large, cordate ovate, with a long tail. June. _l._ downy, cordate, acuminate; peduncles solitary, bracteate. _h._ 10ft. Guatemala, 1841. =A. Goldieana= (Goldie's).* _fl._ greenish outside, deep yellow with chocolate veins inside, bent into two unequal portions, the lower portion surmounting the ovary about 8in. in length, somewhat cylindrical, terminating in a club-shaped curved knob; the upper portion, commencing from this knob, is about a foot long, funnel-shaped, ribbed, dilated above into a somewhat three-lobed limb. Stamens twenty-four--a very unusual number in the whole family. The enormous flowers are 26in. long by 11in. in diameter. July. _l._ ovate, or triangular-cordate, acuminated. Old Calabar River, 1867. This noble climber should be repotted in fresh soil in February or March. But little water will be necessary until the young shoots have made about 6in. of growth; the quantity should then be increased with moderation until early in September, when the old stem dies down within a few inches of the surface of the pot--at this period, and during winter, water must be entirely withheld. This species blooms freely in a temperature of 65deg. to 70deg. =A. indica= (Indian). _fl._ purple; perianth erect; peduncle many-flowered. July. _l._ elliptical, blunt, somewhat emarginate, slightly cordate. _h._ 10ft. India, 1780. Stove evergreen. =A. labiosa= (great-lipped).* _fl._ greenish; perianth incurved at base, saccate, two-lipped in the middle. July. _l._ reniform, roundish cordate, amplexicaul. _h._ 20ft. Brazil, 1821. Stove evergreen. =A. leuconeura= (white-veined). _fl._ purple brown. September. _l._ cordate, acuminate. _h._ 12ft. Magdalena, 1858. Stove species. =A. odoratissima= (sweetest-scented).* _fl._ purple, sweet-scented; peduncles one-flowered, longer than the leaf; lip cordate lanceolate, longer than the perianth. July. _l._ cordate, ovate, evergreen. Stem twining. _h._ 10ft. Jamaica, 1737. Stove evergreen. =A. ornithocephala= (bird's-head).* _fl._ purple, very large, and extremely singular. To render any description at all lucid, this species may be said to have the head of a hawk and the beak of a heron, with the wattles of a Spanish fowl, which, however, are grey, netted with brown; head of the same colour, veined; and the beak grey. _l._ between cordate and reniform, obtuse. October. _h._ 20ft. Brazil, 1838. Stove species. =A. ringens= (gaping).* _fl._ extremely grotesque, 7in. to 10in. long, pale green, marbled and reticulated with black purple. The perianth has an obovoid ventricose sac, or cup, 2-1/2in. long, which is woolly inside; tube ascending obliquely from the sac, terete, dividing into two very long lips, the upper of which (lower as the flower hangs) is oblong-lanceolate, recurved, and hairy inside below the middle, while the lower one is shorter, with recurved margins, and expanding into an orbicular or almost reniform limb. Unlike many other species, the flowers are produced on the young shoots. July. _l._ bright green, glabrous, roundish-reniform. _h._ 20ft. Brazil, 1820. Stove evergreen. =A. Ruiziana= (Ruiz's). A synonym of _A. Duchartrei_. =A. saccata= (pouch-flowered). _fl._ purplish-red, forming a large pouch; throat circular, vertical. September. _l._ 12in. to 15in. long, and 4in. broad, scattered, ovate-cordate, narrowed at apex, slightly waved and sinuated, entire, more silky beneath than above. _h._ 20ft. Sylhet, 1829. Stove evergreen. =A. sempervirens= (evergreen). _fl._ purple; perianth incurved. May. _l._ cordate, oblong, acuminate. Stem prostrate, flexuous, somewhat climbing. _h._ 4ft. Candia, 1727. Greenhouse species. [Illustration: FIG. 149. FLOWERING BRANCH OF ARISTOLOCHIA SIPHO.] =A. Sipho= (tube-bearing).* _fl._ yellowish-brown; corolla ascending; limb in three equal portions, not expanding, flat, brown; bracts of the peduncle large, ovate. May and June. _l._ cordate, acute. Stem twining. _h._ 15ft. to 30ft. North America, 1763. This hardy, climbing, deciduous shrub grows freely in a deep, free, rather dry soil. See Fig. 149. =A. Thwaitesii= (Thwaites'). _fl._ yellow. March. _h._ 3ft. Old Calabar, 1854. Stove species. =A. tomentosa= (tomentose).* _fl._ purple; perianth with its tube twisted back, and much more deeply divided than in _A. Sipho_, expanding, flat, and yellow, with the mouth of the tube of a deep purple; peduncle solitary, without a bract. July. _l._ cordate, downy beneath. _h._ 20ft. North America, 1799. Hardy. =A. tricandata= (three-tailed).* _fl._ dark purple-brown, solitary, split into three subulate tails. August. _l._ oblong acuminate, rugose, 5in. to 8in. long. Mexico, 1866. A curious, but pretty, stove shrub. =A. trilobata= (three-lobed). _fl._ purple; perianth cylindrical, broken saccate at base; lip cordate cuspidate. June. _l._ three-lobed. Stem twining. _h._ 8ft. South America, 1775. Stove evergreen. =A. ungulifolia= (claw-leaved). _fl._ racemose; perianth brownish-purple, stipitate at base, above which it is swollen out in a globose or oblong form, with two thickened projections near the end; upper end of tube contracted, somewhat curved, terminating in a two-lipped limb, one lip large, ovate, the other minute. June. _l._ 6in. to 7in. long, cordate, and pedately five-nerved at the base, three-lobed below the middle, with broad sinuses, the two lateral lobes arcuate, and blunt at the apex. Labuan, 1880. Stove species. =ARISTOLOCHIACE�.= An order of very curious plants, with singularly inflated flowers, consisting of a calyx only, of a dull, dingy colour. It is popularly known as the Birthwort family, and has an English representative in _Aristolochia clematitis_. =ARISTOTELIA= (said to be named in honour of Aristotle, the Greek philosopher). ORD. _Tiliaceæ_. A hardy evergreen shrub. Calyx campanulate; petals five, inserted in the base of the calyx, and alternating with its lobes. Easily grown, in ordinary garden soil, in the shrubbery. Propagated by ripened cuttings, which root freely if placed under a hand glass; or by layers. =A. Macqui= (Macqui's).* _fl._ small, greenish, axillary. May. _l._ nearly opposite, stalked, oblong, acute, smooth, shining, dentate, permanent. _h._ 6ft. Chili, 1733. A shrub esteemed for its handsome foliage. The berries are about the size of a pea, very dark purple, at length becoming black. The variegated form is not so hardy as the type, but much more ornamental. =ARMENIACA= (from Armenia, the native country of the Apricot). Apricot. ORD. _Rosaceæ_. TRIBE _Drupaceæ_. Small, hardy, deciduous trees. Flowers appearing before the leaves from scaly buds, solitary, or few together, almost sessile. Leaves, when young, convolute. Drupe ovate-globose, fleshy, covered with velvety skin, containing a nut, or stone, which is acute at one end and blunt at the other, with a furrow on both sides; the rest smooth, not wrinkled. For culture, &c., _see_ =Apricot= and =Prunus=. =A. brigantiaca= (Brigancon).* _fl._ white or pink, glomerate, almost sessile. March. _l._ somewhat cordate, acuminated, sharply toothed; the teeth numerous, and lapping over each other. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. South Europe, 1819. =A. dasycarpa= (thick-fruited).* _fl._ white, pedicellate; pedicels filiform. March. _l._ ovate, acuminate, serrated; petioles glandular. _h._ 10ft. to 15ft. China, 1800. =A. sibirica= (Siberian). _fl._ rose-coloured. April. _l._ ovate, acuminate; petioles glandless. _h._ 8ft. to 20ft. Dahuria, 1788. =A. vulgaris= (common).* Common Apricot. _fl._ pinkish-white, sessile. February. _l._ ovate, or cordate, glabrous, glandularly serrated. _h._ 15ft. Levant, 1548. Of this species numerous varieties, differing in the foliar outline, &c., are sometimes met with. _See_ =Apricot=. =ARMERIA.= (from _Flos Armeriæ_, Latin name for the flowers of a species of Pink). Thrift; Sea Pink. ORD. _Plumbagineæ_. A very interesting and pretty group of hardy alpine tufted perennials. Flowers pedicellate, collected in dense solitary heads; involucre scarious, sheathing the scape and turned downwards; petals cohering at the base, persistent; flower scapes leafless. Leaves linear, radical. As the majority of the species differ in mere technical details, we have given a representative group only. They are easily cultivated in a sandy loam and leaf soil, and are increased by seeds and division, separate pieces being planted as cuttings under hand glasses; or the rarer kinds should be potted and placed in a frame. The seed should be sown in spring, in pots of sandy soil, and placed in a cold frame. Although best grown as rock plants, most of them do well in pots and borders. _A. vulgaris_ makes one of the best of edging plants. =A. cephalotes= (round-headed).* _fl._ deep rose or crimson, in a large roundish head on erect stalk. Autumn. _l._ broadly lanceolate, glabrous, acute; petioles channelled, sheathing at the base. _h._ 12in. to 18in. South Europe, 1800. This is perhaps the finest species, and is best raised from an annual sowing of seed, as it is somewhat difficult to increase by divisions. SYNS. _A. formosa_, _A. latifolia_, _A. mauritanica_, and _A. pseudo-armeria_. =A. dianthoides= (Pink-like).* _fl._ light pink, in close heads about 6in. high. May and June. _l._ spreading, flattened, nerved, slightly downy. South Europe, 1810. =A. formosa= (handsome). Synonymous with _A. cephalotes_. =A. juncea= (rush-like).* _fl._ rose pink, in small heads about 3in. high. June. _l._ small, erect, roundish, pointed, deep green. South Europe. A very pretty little alpine species. =A. juniperifolia= (Juniper-leaved).* _fl._ deep rose, in small densely packed heads. May and June. _l._ short, stiff, erect, Juniper-like. _h._ 6in., with a dense tufted habit. Spain, 1818. Plant in a warm well-drained portion of the rockery in very sandy soil, with some nodules of sandstone intermixed. =A. latifolia= (broad-leaved). Synonymous with _A. cephalotes_. =A. leucantha= (white-flowered). A white-flowered variety of _A. plantaginea_. =A. maritima= (sea). Synonymous with _A. vulgaris_. =A. mauritanica= (Mediterranean). Synonymous with _A. cephalotes_. =A. plantaginea= (Plantain-leaved).* _fl._ bright rose; scapes taller than in _A. vulgaris_. _l._ broader, three to five-nerved, and with a stouter growing habit than the common species. _h._ 1ft. South Europe, 1818. A very pretty species. SYNS. _A. leucantha_, which is frequently called _A. p. alba_, and _A. scorzoneræfolia_. =A. pseudo-armeria= (false-Armeria). Synonymous with _A. cephalotes_. =A. scorzoneræfolia= (Scorzonera-leaved). Synonymous with _A. plantaginea_. =A. setacea= (bristly).* _fl._ light rose, in small heads about 2in. high, very freely produced from the axils of the leaves. April to June. _l._ in dense rosettes, erect, or nearly so, narrow, acute, the tufts having a bristly appearance. _h._ 3in. South Europe. Plant in a semi-perpendicular cranny of the rockery, with a sunny position. =A. vulgaris= (common).* Common Thrift; Sea Pink. _fl._ pink, rosy red, lilac, or white (the latter known as _A. v. alba_), collected into a rounded head on the top of the simple scape. June to August. _l._ all radical, numerous, linear, usually one-nerved, more or less pubescent. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Britain, on the sea coasts. _A. v. alpina_ is a dwarf alpine form of this species. The white-flowered variety is very handsome. _A. v. Laucheana_ is also a pretty form, with deep pink flowers in dense heads about 6in. high, and a very tufted habit. _Crimson Gem_, of garden origin, is stronger growing, with stems about 9in. high, carrying heads of bright crimson pink flowers, also of tufted habit. SYNS. _A. maritima_, _Statice Armeria_. =ARNEBIA= (its Arabian name). ORD. _Boraginaceæ_. Handsome hardy herbaceous perennials or annuals, allied to _Lithospermum_. Cuttings should be removed with a heel in autumn, dibbled in sandy soil in small pots, and placed in a cool house, where they will ultimately, though slowly, root; they should then be gradually hardened off, and finally planted out. _A. echioides_ is also easily increased by making cuttings of the strong roots, which should be dibbled in pots of sandy soil, and placed in gentle heat; it is also raised from seed. =A. echioides= (Echium-like).* _fl._ bright primrose yellow, with a purplish spot in the sinuses between the lobes of the corolla, which gradually disappears in a few days; spikes terminal, large, solitary, secund. May. _l._ sessile, alternate; margins-�as well as the stems-�ciliated. _h._ 9in. to 12in. Armenia. One of the showiest of hardy perennials for the border or rockery. =A. Griffithii= (Griffith's). This differs from above in having narrower leaves, rather smaller flowers, which are of a more decided yellow, a differently shaped calyx, and a longer corolla. _h._ 9in. North-west India. Equally desirable, were it a perennial; but, being an annual, it must be constantly raised from seed. =ARNICA= (from _arnakis_, lambskin; in reference to the texture of the leaves). ORD. _Compositæ_. Hardy, dwarf, herbaceous perennials, allied to _Senecio_. They thrive best in loam, peat, and sand; the plants are best divided in spring. Seeds should be procured when possible, and sown in a cold frame, in spring. The only species worth growing are described below. =A. Aronicum.= Synonymous of _A. scorpioides_. =A. Chamissonis= (Chamisso's).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, 1-1/2in. to 2in. across, arranged in a corymb. July to September. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acuminate or acute, tomentose, tapering to the base. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. North America. A rather scarce, showy species. =A. Clusii= (Clusius's). _fl.-heads_ yellow, solitary, terminal; stalks long, thickened towards the top, and covered with long hairs. Summer. _l._ soft, radical ones entire, or nearly so, oblong, obtuse, attenuated into the petiole; cauline ones sessile, half stem-clasping, lanceolate, toothed in the lower part. _h._ 1ft. Switzerland, 1819. SYN. _Doronicum Clusii_. =A. foliosa= (leafy).* _fl.-heads_ pale yellow, about 1in. across, from three to seven in a corymb. August. _l._ lanceolate, stalked, acute, denticulate, smooth. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Stems springing from slender rhizome-like shoots. United States. Closely allied to _A. montana_. It requires a damp situation. =A. montana= (mountain).* Mountain Tobacco. _fl.-heads_ yellow, three or four together, about 2in. in diameter; ray florets numerous. July. _l._ radical, except a few on the scape, oblong-lanceo-late, entire, smooth. Habit tufted. _h._ 1ft. Europe. 1731. A very handsome but rare plant; excellent for a rockery. It is slowly increased. See Fig. 150. [Illustration: FIG. 150. ARNICA MONTANA, showing Habit and Flower-head.] =A. scorpioides= (scorpion-like).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, large, solitary; scape one to three-flowered. Summer. _l._ pale green, denticulated; radical ones on long petioles, broadly ovate; the lower stem leaves shortly stalked, amplexicaul; the upper ones sessile. _h._ 6in. to 12in. South Europe, 1710. Border. SYNS. _A. Aronicum_, _Aronicum scorpioides_. =ARNOPOGON.= _See_ =Urospermum=. =AROIDE�.= _See_ =Araceæ=. =ARONIA.= _See_ =Cratægus Aronia= and =Pyrus=. =ARONICUM.= _See_ =Arnica scorpioides= and =Doronicum=. =ARPOPHYLLUM= (from _arpe_, a scimitar, and _phyllon_, a leaf; the leaf is sword-shaped). ORD. _Orchideæ_. Distinct evergreen epiphytes. There are about six species known, and the genus belongs to the _Epidendreæ_ division of orchidaceous plants; their general characters are: Flowers small, numerous, in closely packed cylindrical spikes; anther-bed broad, shorter than the broad extension of the upper edge of the stigma; pollinia eight. Stems rather long, with white sheaths. They thrive well in fibrous peat, one-third turfy loam, freely interspersed with lumps of fresh charcoal and an abundance of crocks. When growing, a liberal supply of water at the roots is essential, as is also a situation near the light, where they will blossom much more profusely than if in any way shaded. The flowers last in perfection about four weeks. =A. cardinale= (cardinal). _fl._, sepals and petals light rose; lip deep red, on upright spikes about 1ft. high. Summer. New Grenada. =A. giganteum= (gigantic).* _fl._ dark purple and rose, densely and symmetrically arranged on the cylindrical spikes, which are from 12in. to 14in. long. April and May. _l._ dark green, about 2ft. long, borne on slender pseudo-bulbs. Mexico. =A. spicatum= (spike-flowered).* _fl._ dark red, on an upright spike about 1ft. long. During winter. Guatemala, 1839. =ARRACACHA= (its Spanish name in South America). ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. A half-hardy tuberous perennial, highly esteemed as an esculent in South America, where it yields a food, which is prepared in the same manner as potatoes, and is said to be grateful to the palate and extremely easy of digestion. It thrives best in rich loam, and is increased by divisions of the roots. =A. esculenta= (edible). _fl._ white; umbels opposite the leaves or terminal; involucre wanting. July. _l._ pinnate; leaflets broadly ovate, acuminated, deeply pinnatifid, profoundly serrated; the two lower leaflets petiolate, sub-ternate. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Mountainous districts of Northern South America, 1823. SYN. _Conium Arracacha_. =ARRHOSTOXYLUM.= Included under =Ruellia= (which _see_). =ARROW ARUM.= _See_ =Peltandra virginica=. =ARROWGRASS.= _See_ =Triglochin=. =ARROW-HEAD.= _See_ =Sagittaria=. =ARROWROOT.= _See_ =Maranta=. =ARTABOTRYS= (from _artao_, to suspend or support, and _botrys_, grapes; in reference to the way the fruit is supported by the curious tendril). ORD. _Anonaceæ_. A handsome stove evergreen shrub, thriving in a good sandy loam and peat, to which a little rotten dung may be added. Propagated by cuttings made of ripened wood, insert in sand under a bell glass, with bottom heat, in early spring. Seed, when procurable, should be sown as soon after receipt as possible. =A. odoratissimus= (sweetest-scented).* _fl._ reddish brown, extremely fragrant; peduncles opposite the leaves, hooked beneath the middle. June and July. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acuminated, smooth, shining. _h._ 6ft. Malayan Islands, 1758. In Java, the leaves are held to be invaluable as a preventive of cholera. =ARTANEMA= (from _artao_, to support, and _nema_, a filament; in reference to a tooth-like process growing on the longer filaments). ORD. _Scrophularineæ_. An interesting and handsome greenhouse evergreen shrub, allied to _Torenia_. Flowers disposed in terminal racemes, and on short pedicels. Leaves opposite, sub-serrated. It may be treated as hardy during summer, for which purpose seeds should be sown in spring; but it requires the protection of a greenhouse during winter. Artanema grows freely in light rich soil, and is readily increased by cuttings and seeds. =A. fimbriatum= (fringed). _fl._, corolla blue, large, tubularly funnel-shaped, clothed with minute glandular pubescence outside; lobes unequally serrated; racemes terminal, four to sixteen-flowered. June, November. _l._ lanceolate, acute, serrated, rough to the touch from numerous elevated dots. Stem smooth, glossy. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. New Holland (on the banks of the Brisbane River at Moreton Bay), 1830. =ARTANTHE.= _See_ =Piper=. =ARTEMISIA= (from Artemis, one of the names of Diana). Mugwort; Southernwood; Wormwood. ORD. _Compositæ_. A very large genus of mostly hardy herbaceous perennials, few of which, comparatively speaking, are worth growing. Flower-heads disposed in spikes, or racemes, and these are usually arranged in panicles; pappus none; involucre few-flowered, ovate or rounded, imbricated; florets of the disk all tubular; of the ray, if any, slender, awl-shaped. Leaves alternate, variously lobed. All the species are of the easiest possible culture in any dry soil. The shrubby kinds are best propagated by cuttings; the herbaceous ones, by dividing at the root; and the annuals, by seeds. =A. Abrotanum= (aromatic herb).* Southernwood. _fl.-heads_ yellowish. August to October. _l._, lower ones bipinnate; upper ones pinnate, with the segments hair-like. Stem straight. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Europe, 1548. A deciduous shrub; well known for its fragrance. =A. A. humile= (low). A low spreading variety. _h._ 1-1/2ft. =A. A. tobolskianum= (Tobolskian). A much more vigorous growing variety than the last, and larger in all its parts than the type. =A. alpina= (alpine).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, solitary, on long slender stalks; scales of involucre lanceolate. Summer. _l._ pinnate, covered with whitish silky hairs; lobes linear, entire. _h._ 6in. to 10in. Caucasus, 1804. Dwarf, with a very tufted habit. =A. anethifolia= (Anethum-leaved). _fl.-heads_ yellowish-green, small; panicle very large, densely packed, nearly 2ft. long. Autumn. _l._ chiefly cauline, much divided into thread-like segments, greyish-green. Stem shrubby at the base, nearly glabrous, branching at the top. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Siberia, 1816. =A. argentea= (silvery).* _fl.-heads_ pale yellow, roundish, closely packed. July. _l._ ovate-oblong, very freely divided, densely clothed with soft silvery hairs. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Madeira, 1777. A very pretty species, requiring a warm sunny position on the rockery. =A. cana= (hoary).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, small, uninteresting, ovate, in a close spiky panicle. August. _l._ silky, hoary; lower ones wedge-shaped, sharply three-cleft; cauline ones linear-lanceolate, three-nerved. Stem ascending; branches erect. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. North America, 1800. This is a very distinct species, and its silvery leaves and stems render it well worthy of cultivation. =A. c�rulescens= (bluish).* _fl.-heads_ bluish, erect, cylindrical. August. _l._ hoary, most of them lanceolate, entire, tapering at the base; lower ones variously divided. _h._ 2ft. South Europe. An ornamental evergreen shrub. =A. Dracunculus.=* Tarragon. _fl.-heads_ whitish green; racemes panicled; heads sub-globose. July. _l._, radical ones three-fid; cauline ones sessile, linear or linear-oblong, acute, entire, toothed. _h._ 2ft. South Europe, 1548. _See_ =Tarragon=. =A. frigida= (frigid). _fl.-heads_ yellow, uninteresting, small, roundish, racemosely panicled. August. _l._ pinnate; segments narrow, silvery. _h._ 1ft. Siberia, 1826. A pretty creeping, herbaceous plant. =A. maritima= (maritime). _fl.-heads_ brown; racemes oblong, erect or drooping. August and September. _l._ downy, bipinnatifid, oblong; segments linear. Britain. A much branched, erect, or decumbent plant, excellent for rough rockwork or very dry banks, etc. =A. Mutellina= (Mutellina).* _fl.-heads_ yellowish-green; lower ones stalked, upper ones sessile. July. _l._ all palmate, multifid, white. Stem quite simple. _h._ 6in. European Alps, 1815. =A. pontica= (Pontine). _fl.-heads_ yellow, roundish, stalked, nodding. September. _l._ downy beneath; cauline ones bipinnate; leaflets linear. _h._ 3ft. Austria, 1570. =A. rupestris= (rock). _fl.-heads_ brown, globose, stalked, nodding. August. _l._ sub-pubescent; cauline ones pinnatifid; leaflets linear, acute. _h._ 6in. Norway, &c., 1748. =A. scoparia= (twiggy-branched). _fl.-heads_ small, whitish; panicle broad, densely packed, about 1-1/2ft. long. Autumn. _l._ much divided; segments hair-like; lower branches very slender. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. East Europe. =A. spicata= (spicate). _fl.-heads_ brown, spicate. June and July. _l._ hoary; radical ones palmate multifid; cauline ones pinnatifid; upper linear, entire, blunt. Stem quite simple. _h._ 1ft. Switzerland, 1790. =A. Stelleriana= (Steller's).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, uninteresting, round, somewhat erect. Summer. _l._, lower ones spathulate-incised; upper ones obtusely lobed; end lobes often confluent, about 2in. long, silvery white. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Siberia. =A. tanacetifolia= (Tanacetum-leaved). _fl.-heads_ brownish; racemes simple, terminal. Summer. _l._ bipinnate; lobes linear sub-lanceolate, entire, acuminated, rather downy. Stem sometimes branching at the base, herbaceous. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Siberia, 1768. =A. vulgaris= (common).* Mugwort. _fl.-heads_ yellow, somewhat racemed, ovate. August. _l._ pinnatifid; segments white, and downy beneath. Stems 3ft. to 4ft. high, furrowed. Britain. The variegated form of this species exhibits a very pleasing contrast. There is also a pretty variety with golden leaves. =ARTHROPHYLLUM MADAGASCARIENSE.= _See_ =Phyllarthron Bojeriana=. =ARTHROPODIUM= (from _arthron_, a joint, and _pous_, a foot; the footstalks of the flowers being jointed). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. Very pretty greenhouse herbaceous perennials, allied to _Anthericum_. Flowers purplish or white, in loose racemes. Leaves grass-like, radical. They thrive well in a compost of sandy loam and peat, and may be increased freely by divisions or seeds. =A. cirratum= (curled). _fl._ white; racemes divided; bracteas leafy. May. _l._ lanceolate, ensiform, spreading, 1ft. long. _h._ 3ft. New Zealand, 1821. =A. fimbriatum= (fringed). _fl._ white. July. _h._ 1-1/2ft. New Holland, 1822. =A. neo-caledonicum= (New Caledonian).* _fl._ small, white, on a much-branched, many-flowered panicle. May. _l._ tufted, linear-lanceolate, barred with black linear markings near the base. _h._ 1-1/2ft. New Caledonia, 1877. =A. paniculatum= (panicled).* _fl._ white; racemes divided; pedicels clustered; inner sepals crenulate. May. _l._ narrowly lanceolate. _h._ 3ft. New South Wales, 1800. _A. minus_ is a small form of this species. =A. pendulum= (pendulous).* _fl._ white, clustered in threes, pendulous. June to August. _l._ linear, keeled, shorter than the branched scape. _h._ 1-1/2ft. New Holland, 1822. =ARTHROPTERIS.= _See_ =Nephrodium= and =Nephrolepis=. =ARTHROSTEMMA= (from _arthron_, a joint, and _stemon_, a stamen; in reference to the stamens or connectives being jointed). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. Beautiful stove or greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Tube of calyx turbinate or campanulate, usually clothed with bristles, pili, or scales; lobes four, lanceolate, permanent, without any appendages between them; petals four. A mixture of loam, peat, and sand, suits them best; and cuttings of small firm side shoots will root, in April or August, under a hand glass in sandy soil. Only three or four out of the half-dozen species belonging to this genus have been as yet introduced. =A. fragile= (brittle). _fl._ rosy; cymes loose, terminal, few-flowered; calyx glandular. July. _l._ ovate-cordate, acute, five-nerved, serrated; branches tetragonal, beset with glandular hairs. _h._ 3ft. Mexico, 1846. Stove species. =A. nitida= (glossy-leaved). _fl._ lilac; peduncles axillary towards the top of the branches, three-flowered, longer than the petioles. June. _l._ ovate, acute, serrulated, glabrous on both surfaces, shining above, but glandularly hispid on the nerves beneath. Stems shrubby, erect, and are, as well as the branches, tetragonally winged, beset with coloured hairs. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Buenos Ayres, 1829 greenhouse species. =A. versicolor= (changeable-flowered). _fl._, petals obovate, ciliated, at first white, but at length becoming reddish, terminal, solitary. September. _l._ petiolate, ovate, serrulated, five-nerved, discoloured beneath. Plant shrubby; hairy. _h._ 1ft. Brazil (on the sea shore), 1825. Stove species. =ARTHROTAXIS.= _See_ =Athrotaxis=. =ARTICHOKE, GLOBE.= (_Cynara Scolymus_, a cultivated form of _C. Cardunculus_). As a vegetable, the Globe Artichoke is cultivated for the use of the immature flower-heads, and is highly esteemed. A good open position, free from overhanging trees, is best suited for its culture generally, but, by planting successional suckers in different aspects, the season may be considerably prolonged. The soil must be of good depth, rich, and not too heavy. It may be greatly improved for Artichoke culture by the addition of sea-weeds or salt applied as manure. [Illustration: FIG. 151. GLOBE ARTICHOKE.] _Preparation of Soil._ Trench the ground two spits deep if possible, mixing a liberal dressing of well-rotted manure in autumn, and ridge up for the winter, to sweeten. Crude manure full of straw, leaves, and sticks, often induce fungoid growths, and are most injurious to the crowns of the plants. Clay or stiff loam is about the worst soil on which to attempt the culture of this vegetable; this drawback may, however, to some extent be alleviated by the addition and thorough amalgamation of a light free soil or liberal dressings of sandy road drifts, or similar materials. An ill-drained soil is also fatal to good results. During hot, dry weather, the plants are greatly benefited by copious applications of clear water and dilute liquid manure; and this must be especially attended to on such soils as are liable to burn or dry up in summer. _Cultivation._ When the beds have been properly prepared, the plants should be put in them in April or May. Place three together in rows between 3ft. and 4ft. apart, and about 3ft. from plant to plant. Water-in carefully to settle the soil around the roots, and apply a mulching of half-decayed manure, to prevent an undue evaporation of moisture. During hot, dry weather, give liberal supplies of water, and the plants will become established as fine stools the first season. A few heads will probably be produced the first year; but there will not be much of a crop until the second season, when five or six good heads will be got from each plant, and for three or four years the produce will be large if the beds are properly attended to; after which time it will become desirable to make up new plantations. In October or November, it will be necessary to apply a good mulching of straw or fern to the beds, to protect the plants from frost. In April, all this litter should be cleaned off, a dressing of rotten manure applied, and the beds forked over and kept clean for the rest of the season, treating as before described. Great care must be taken to remove the heads as soon as they are in a fit state; and, when the whole of them are removed from the stems, cut the latter out as low as possible. Globe Artichokes will keep for some considerable time if laid in a cool place, although they will deteriorate in quality. These plants may be used in the background of flower borders in the kitchen garden, their handsome foliage being peculiarly well adapted for such purposes, whilst their economical value is also secured. See Fig. 151. Where there is plenty of room in light, warm sheds, orchard houses, or other places where frost can be kept out, some stools can be taken up with the root intact in the early part of November, placed in boxes of soil, and well watered-in. When drained, the boxes may be put in any of those positions for their winter quarters, and, if kept moist, will develop much earlier than the outdoor crops, provided they are planted out early in April on a warm border, and protected with mats when the weather is cold. Propagation may be effected by seeds, or by suckers from the old stools, the latter being the better plan. In the former case, sow the seeds in March, on a gentle hotbed, and prick the seedlings off singly, when large enough, into small pots. Harden off by the last week in May, and plant out in threes as previously recommended, protecting the plants from late frosts. During the growing season, give an abundance of water and liquid manure mulching, to prevent undue evaporation. In November, well cover with dry litter which will not heat; and, in hard frosts, or heavy snow, throw a few mats over the beds, uncovering at the same time as recommended above for the older plants. To propagate by rooted offsets or suckers, take up and divide the stools, when they have made a fair amount of growth in April or early in May, separating the suckers with as many roots and as much soil adhering to them as possible. The old woody portions are of little use, but they may be replanted to give off a fresh supply of suckers for the next year, if required. Propagation by suckers, if they are to be obtained, has many advantages; but care must be taken, in removing them from old plants, that some roots are attached, or growth will be uncertain. Seeds generally produce a large percentage of plants that are useless, and this is not found out until the flower-heads appear. On the other hand, suckers reproduce the parent plant, and if these are previously selected, the superior stock is thereby perpetuated. _Sorts._ The Green and Purple are the best for ordinary purposes; and of these preference should be given to the former. _See also_ =Cynara=. =ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM= (_Helianthus tuberosus_). A hardy tuberous-rooted herbaceous perennial, native of Brazil. The roots are used as a vegetable principally during the winter, sometimes as a dish, but more generally for flavouring purposes. Plants will grow in almost any position, but the best results and largest tubers are obtained where they receive plenty of room and liberal treatment. Their culture has been recommended as a substitute for the potato, but they are not likely to take the place of this vegetable, the flavour being disliked by many persons. A few are, however, generally acceptable. _Cultivation._ To ensure the most successful results, trench over a piece of ground in autumn, and give a light dressing of manure. Fork over in March; at the same time plant good-shaped tubers (see Fig. 152) in rows about 3ft. apart, and allow from 18in. to 2ft. between the tubers in the rows. Keep clear of weeds; and, as soon as the foliage is yellow, in the latter part of the autumn, the roots will be fit for use. The best plan with this crop is to leave it in the ground till wanted, or till the end of February, and then to take up every tuber, replanting those which are wanted for stock, and storing the others away in a cold dry place. When they commence growth, they turn black, and are of little use for cooking, save for flavouring soups. This vegetable has of late years grown into favour as a marketable crop, and the demand seems to be increasing. Considering its very easy culture, it is fairly remunerative. _See also_ =Helianthus=. [Illustration: FIG. 152. TUBERS OF JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE.] =ARTICULATE, ARTICULATED.= Jointed; having joints. =ARTILLERY PLANT.= _See_ =Pilea microphylla=. =ARTOCARPE�.= A tribe of the large order _Urticaceæ_. =ARTOCARPUS= (from _artos_, bread, and _carpos_, fruit; the fruit, when baked, resembling bread). Bread Fruit. SYNS. _Polyphema_, _Rademachia_, _Rima_. ORD. _Urticaceæ_. TRIBE _Artocarpeæ_. Included in this most remarkable tribe, in addition to the Bread Fruit Tree, is the virulent poisonous _Antiaris toxicaria_, and the economic Cow Tree (_Brosimum Galactodendron_), of Caraccas. A genus of stove evergreen trees, requiring a high and very moist atmosphere, a copious supply of water, perfect drainage, and a compost of two parts rich loam and one of leaf mould, with the addition of a little silver sand. Under all conditions, this genus is difficult to propagate; the young and slender lateral growths are adapted for cuttings; and suckers may be utilised when procurable, which is very rare. =A. Cannoni= (Cannon's).* _l._ alternate, petiolate; petiole and midrib bright red; upper surface glossy, of a rich, full bronzy crimson hue, beautifully tinted with purple; under surface bright vinous red. The leaves vary much in form; some are simple and cordate at the base, with the apex irregularly lobate; some have the apex regularly three-lobed, with short, entire lobes; and others, again, are deep three-lobed, being divided nearly to the base, the segments, of which the centre one is largest, being slightly sinuate-lobed. _h._ 7ft. Society Islands, 1877. This is a most distinct and handsome ornamental-leaved plant. =A. incisa= (incised).* True Bread Fruit. _l._ from 2ft. to 3ft. long, deeply lobed or incised, deep green on the upper side, paler below. _h._ 50ft. South Sea Islands, 1793. This is a noble tree when full grown, and forms a most distinct and beautiful stove plant. The extraordinary fruit is produced from the axils of the leaves in large globular heads, and is highly valued as an article of food in its native country. =A. integrifolia= (entire-leaved). _l._ oblong, undivided, sinuated, scabrous, downy beneath. _h._ 30ft. India, 1778. =A. laciniata metallica= (laciniate, metallic). _l._ bronzy above, reddish purple beneath. Polynesia. [Illustration: FIG. 153. ARUM MACULATUM.] =ARUM= (formerly _aron_, and probably of Egyptian extraction). ORD. _Aroideæ_. A large genus of ornamental or curious, hardy, greenhouse or stove perennials, with thick rhizomes and pedate or hastate leaves. Spathe large, convolute; spadix naked and club-shaped at the top. They are all of easy culture, and the indoor species will thrive with such treatment as is given to _Alocasias_, _Caladiums_, &c. Rich soil is one of the first conditions of success. Like most plants grown for the beauty of their foliage, rapid and free growth is necessary. A compost of good rich loam, with a third of sweet manure, thoroughly rotted, or leaf mould, with some sharp sand, is very suitable. Plenty of moisture is necessary during the growing season, after which the tender kinds should be kept moderately dry, warm, and at rest during the winter. The hardy kinds may be left in the ground. Propagated by seeds or division of the roots--usually the latter. The best time to divide them is just as they commence their new growth, securing as many roots as possible to each division. Any rootless pieces should be placed in heat shortly after removal; this hastens the formation of roots and excites top growth. Arums are useful in sub-tropical gardening, and are otherwise interesting plants both for indoors and outside cultivation; and the hardy kinds are very suitable for naturalising in woodlands, &c. There are many other species besides those here described, but the following list comprises the best. Sub-sections of the genus will be found treated separately, such as =Amorphophallus= (which _see_), &c. [Illustration: FIG. 154. ARUM DRACUNCULUS.] =A. bulbosum= (bulbous). Synonymous with _A. ternatum_. =A. Dracontium= (Green Dragon). _fl._, spadix subulate, longer than the oblong convolute green spathe. June. _l._ pedate, entire. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1759. Hardy. =A. Dracunculus= (Common Dragon).* _fl._, spadix lanceolate, shorter than the ovate, flat, smooth, brown spathe. July. _l._ pedate, entire. _h._ 3ft. South Europe, 1548. Hardy. SYN. _Dracunculus vulgaris_. See Fig. 154. =A. indicum= (Indian). _See_ =Colocasia indica=. =A. italicum= (Italian).* _fl._, spathe ventricose below, opening nearly flat and very broad above; apex often falling over very shortly after expansion, sometimes greenish yellow, at others nearly white; spadix yellowish or creamy white, club-shaped, about one-third as long as the spathe. Spring. _l._ appearing before winter, radical, triangular-hastate. _h._ 9in. to 2ft. Channel Islands and Cornwall, &c. Hardy. =A. i. marmorata= (marbled).* _l._ marbled with yellow. A very pretty and effective hardy border plant. =A. maculatum= (spotted). Lords and Ladies; Cuckoo Pint. _fl._, spathe ventricose below and above, constricted in the middle, with inflexed edges when open, spotted with dull purple; spadix usually purple, shorter than the spathe. Spring. _l._ vernal radical, hastate-sagittate, with deflexed lobes. _h._ 9in. Britain, &c. This species is admirably adapted for a corner in the wild garden. See Fig. 153. =A. Malyi= (Maly's). _fl._ whitish. Montenegro, 1860. =A. Nickelli= (Nickel's). Levant, 1859. A form of _A. italicum_. =A. orientale= (eastern). _fl._ resembling those of _A. maculatum_. June. _l._ brownish, simple, ovate, slightly sagittate. _h._ 1ft. Tauria, 1820. Hardy. =A. palæstinum= (Palestine).* _fl._, spathe 7in. to 11in. long, purplish blotched or spotted outside, rich velvety black inside and yellowish white at the base of the tube; spadix much shorter than the spathe; petiole usually rising 8in. or 9in. above the leaves. May. _l._ four or five, triangular-hastate, acute, from 6in. to 14in. long, and from 3-1/2in. to 7-1/2in. broad; petioles 12in. to 18in. long. Jerusalem, 1864. Tender. =A. pictum= (painted). _h._ 2ft. Corsica, 1801. Hardy. =A. proboscideum= (proboscis-like).* _fl._, spathe greenish purple, navicular, horizontal, terminated by a straight tail; scapes arising from among the petioles. May. _l._ radical, about four, cordate-elliptic, entire. _h._ 6in. South Europe, 1823. Hardy. =A. spectabile= (showy). _fl._, spathe ovate-oblong, acuminate, dark purplish inside, longer than the purplish spadix. _l._ broadly hastate-sagittate. _h._ 1ft. Asia Minor. Half-hardy. =A. spirale= (spiral). _fl._, spadix lanceolate, shorter than the oblong-lanceolate spirally twisted brown spathe. May. _l._ linear-lanceolate. Plant stemless. _h._ 1ft. China, 1816. Tender. =A. tenuifolium= (narrow-leaved).* _fl._, spadix subulate, longer than the white lanceolate spathe. April. _l._ linear-lanceolate. Plant stemless. _h._ 1ft. South Europe, 1570. Hardy. =A. ternatum= (three-leafleted). A synonym of _Pinellia tuberifera_. =A. variolatum= (variegated). Dalmatia, 1859. Hardy. =A. venosum= (veined). A synonym of _Sauromatum guttatum_. =A. Zelebori= (Zelebor's). A form of _A. maculatum_. =ARUM LILY.= _See_ =Richardia æthiopica=. =ARUNDINARIA= (altered from _arundo_, a reed). ORD. _Gramineæ_. A small genus of hardy or nearly hardy shrubby grasses, having strong jointed stems, and frequently included under _Bambusa_. For sub-tropical gardening purposes more particularly it is exceedingly ornamental as an isolated tuft. It thrives best in a deep, rich soil, and requires plenty of water when in a growing state. Increased by division of the roots. [Illustration: FIG. 155. ARUNDINARIA FALCATA.] =A. falcata= (sickle-shaped).* _l._ linear-lanceolate, very acute, shortly stalked, very light green. Stems freely branched, deep green, and very slender. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. India. An extremely handsome species for greenhouse decoration; also for outdoor work, particularly in the South of England, &c. SYN. _Bambusa gracilis_, of gardens. =A. Maximowiczii= (Maximowicz's). This Japanese species is believed to be allied to, if not identical with, _Bambusa Simonii_. Quite hardy. =A. Metake= (Metake). _l._ lanceolate, with very sharp points, dark green, persistent, narrowed into a short leafstalk, 6in. to 12in. long; sheath ample. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Japan. A handsome, hardy, dwarf, much-branched species, forming grand specimens, and producing flowers very freely. SYN. _Bambusa japonica_. =ARUNDO= (origin of word doubtful; stated by some authorities to be from _arundo_, a reed; and others as from the Celtic _arn_, signifying water). Reed. ORD. _Gramineæ_. A very ornamental group of half or quite hardy plants, of very easy culture in ordinary garden soil, preferring damp situations. Panicle loose; calyx two-valved, unequal, many-flowered; corolla of two very unequal valves; all, except the lower and imperfect one, surrounded by a tuft of hairs. Fruit free, covered by the corolla. Arundos are very valuable either for conservatory decoration, sub*-tropical gardening, or cultivation in clumps on the turf of the flower-garden or pleasure ground, and the margins of lakes. Although well worth growing, all are inferior to their ally, the Pampas Grass. Propagated by seeds or divisions, the spring being the best time to adopt either method of increase. =A. conspicua= (conspicuous).* _fl._ silky-white, on large drooping racemes, and lasting in beauty for several months. _h._ 3ft. to 8ft., but in a good deep and sandy loam it sometimes attains the height of 12ft. New Zealand, 1843. This fine species grows in dense tufts, from which arise numerous leathery, narrow, smooth (or slightly rough), long curving leaves, and erect, slender culms. The plant is not sufficiently hardy to withstand a severe winter, and should, therefore, be protected with mats, or be grown in tubs, so that it can be removed under shelter before the approach of winter. These precautions are unnecessary in the more southern counties of England. =A. Donax= (Donax).* Great Reed. _fl._ reddish, ultimately whitish, in numerous spikelets, forming a large compact panicle 12in. to 16in. long. Autumn. _l._ alternate, lanceolate-acute, large, and ornamental, glaucous green, arching. _h._ about 12ft. South Europe, 1648. This also requires protection during winter in the colder counties. See Fig. 156. =A. D. versicolor= (various-coloured).* _h._ 3ft. South Europe. Although much smaller, this variety is far superior to the type for gardening purposes, and has its leaves ribboned with white. It requires a deep, well drained, sandy loam to thrive well, and a thorough winter protection of cocoa-fibre refuse or coal ashes. For isolated tufts or groups, few plants can equal it. It is propagated by placing a stem in water, which induces little rooted plants to start from the joints; these should be separated, potted off, and kept in frames until thoroughly established. =A. mauritanica= (Mediterranean Reed). This is a rare greenhouse species, closely allied to _A. Donax_, but inferior to it. [Illustration: FIG. 156. ARUNDO DONAX.] =ARYTERA.= A synonym of =Ratonia= (which _see_). =ASAF�TIDA.= _See_ =Narthex Asaf�tida=. =ASARABACCA.= _See_ =Asarum europæum=. =ASARUM= (from _a_, not, and _saron_, feminine; derivation doubtful). ORD. _Aristolochiaceæ_. Curious hardy herbaceous perennials, with bell-shaped, three-cleft perianths. They should be planted at the foot of the rockery, or in borders or woodlands, as they are not very showy, but are, nevertheless, worth growing, and easily propagated by divisions, in spring. =A. canadense= (Canadian).* _fl._ brown, campanulate, on a short peduncle, sometimes nearly buried. May and June. _l._ in pairs, broadly reniform. _h._ 1ft. Canada, &c., 1713. [Illustration: FIG. 157. ASARUM CAUDATUM.] =A. caudatum= (tailed).* _fl._ brownish-red, with attenuated or caudate calyx lobes. July. _l_. cordate-reniform, hooded, sub-acute, or bluntish, slightly pubescent. California, 1880. A rare and pretty species. See Fig. 157. =A. europæum= (European). A sarabacca. _fl._ dull brown, solitary, rather large, drooping; segments of perianth incurved. May. _l._ two on each stem, roundish-reniform, stalked, slightly waved. _h._ 1ft. England. =ASCENDING.= Directed upwards; as the stem, which is the ascending axis. =ASCLEPIADE�.= A large order of, for the most part, lactescent, climbing shrubs. Flowers sub-umbellate, fascicled or racemose, interpetiolar; pollen collected in the form of waxy masses, coalescing to the cells of the anthers; follicles two, one of which is abortive. Leaves entire, usually opposite. =ASCLEPIAS= (the Greek name of �sculapius of the Latins). Swallow-wort. ORD. _Asclepiadeæ_. Erect, hardy, herbaceous or sub-shrubby perennials, except where otherwise specified. Corolla five-parted, reflexed; umbels interpetiolar; corona seated on the upper part of the tube of the filaments, five-leaved. Leaves opposite, verticillate, sometimes alternate. Most of the hardy species are very handsome border plants, thriving in peaty, or light rich soil, and are increased by dividing the roots in spring, and sometimes also by seeds. The doubtfully hardy or rarer species should always be grown in a peat soil, and have a little protection during severe frost, by mulching the roots. The most important of the greenhouse and stove species is _A. curassavica_. In order to obtain good bushy specimens of this, it will be necessary to cut the plants back annually, after keeping them slightly dry, and resting for a month or two in midwinter. When growth has sufficiently advanced, they should be shaken out and repotted. At this stage, a close, moist atmosphere will be needful to produce the usually very free growth. The points of the shoots must be nipped out, in order to promote a bushy habit. When the pots have become filled with roots, liquid manure may be applied; but it must be quite clear and not over strong. All the indoor species grow best in good fibry loam and leaf mould, and require to be potted firmly. Cuttings should be secured in spring, struck in gentle heat, under a bell glass, and as soon as they are well rooted, potted into 60-size pots. A shift must be given as often as the pots become filled with roots, up to the time when the plant commences flowering. Seeds may be sown in pots in spring, pricked out singly when large enough, and then treated similarly to cuttings. =A. acuminata= (taper-pointed).* _fl._ red and white; umbels lateral, solitary, erect. July. _l._ ovate, sub-cordate, acuminated, on short petioles; superior ones sessile, glabrous, but rough on the edges. Stems erect, glabrous, simple. _h._ 2ft. New Jersey, 1826. Hardy, herbaceous. =A. am�na= (pleasing).* _fl._ beautiful purple; umbels terminal, erect; appendages of corona exserted, red. July. _l._ opposite, almost sessile, oblong-oval, downy beneath, with a large purple middle nerve. Stem simple, with two rows of down. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. New England, 1732. Hardy, herbaceous. =A. Cornuti= (Cornuti's).* Synonymous with _A. syriaca_. =A. curassavica= (Curassavian). Redhead. _fl._ reddish orange-scarlet; umbels erect, solitary, lateral. July to September. _l._ opposite, oblong-lanceolate, tapering at both ends. Stem rather downy, simple, seldom a little branched. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Tropical America, 1692. The white-flowered variety is a very pretty contrast. Stove herbaceous. =A. Douglasii= (Douglas's).* _fl._ large, waxy, purplish-lilac, sweet-scented, in many-flowered umbels. Summer. _l._ opposite, ovate-cordate, acuminated, 6-1/2in. long by 5in. or more wide, glabrous above, downy beneath. Stem thick, woolly, simple. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. West America, 1846. =A. hybrida= (hybrid). A synonym of _A. purpurascens_. =A. incarnata= (flesh-coloured).* _fl._ red or purplish; umbels numerous, usually twin. July. _l._ opposite, lanceolate, rather woolly on both surfaces. Stem erect, branched and tomentose at the top. _h._ 2ft. Canada (on the banks of rivers), 1710. Hardy, herbaceous. =A. mexicana= (Mexican). _fl._ white; umbels many-flowered. July. _l._ verticillate, linear-lanceolate, with revolute edges; lower ones four to six in a whorl; upper ones three in a whorl, or opposite. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Mexico, 1821. Greenhouse evergreen. =A. phytolaccoides= (Phytolacca-like). _fl._ purple; corona white, with truncate leaflets; umbels lateral and terminal, solitary, on long peduncles, drooping. July. _l._ broad, ovate-oblong, acute, glabrous, paler beneath. Stem erect, simple, spotted with purple. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Virginia and Carolina (on the mountains), 1812. =A. purpurascens= (purplish). _fl._ purple; umbels erect. July. _l._ opposite, large, ovate, with a purplish middle nerve, villous beneath. Stem simple, rather hairy at top, brownish green at bottom. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Virginia (in shady swamps), 1732. Hardy. SYN. _A. hybrida_. =A. quadrifolia= (four-leaved).* _fl._ white, small, sweet-scented, with red nectaries; umbels twin, terminal, loose-flowered; pedicels filiform. July. _l._ ovate, acuminated, petiolate; those in the middle of the stem larger, and four in a whorl; the rest opposite. Stems erect, simple, glabrous. _h._ 1ft. New York, 1820. Hardy species. =A. rubra= (red), _fl._ red; umbels compound, July, August. _l._ alternate, ovate, acuminated. Stem erect, simple. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Virginia, 1825. =A. Sullivanti= (Sullivant's). Similar to _A. syriaca_, but having larger and deeper coloured flowers. =A. syriaca= (Syrian).* _fl._ pale purple, sweet scented, in large, loose, drooping umbels. July. _l._ opposite, lanceolate-oblong, or oval, gradually acute, tomentose beneath. Stems simple. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. North America, 1629. SYN. _A. Cornuti_. [Illustration: FIG. 158. FLOWERING BRANCH OF ASCLEPIAS TUBEROSA.] =A. tuberosa= (tuberous).* _fl._ bright orange, very showy; umbels disposed in a terminal sub-corymb. July to September. _l._ scattered, oblong-lanceolate, hairy. Stems erectish, divaricately branched at top, very hairy. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. North America (in stony, sandy fields and woods), 1690. A desirable hardy herbaceous border plant. See Fig. 158. =A. variegata= (variegated). _fl._, petals and foliola of corona white, fructification red, in dense umbels, very handsome; umbels almost sessile; pedicels hairy. July. _l._ opposite, ovate, petiolate, wrinkled, naked. Stems simple. erect, variegated with purple. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. New York to Carolina (on dry, sandy hills), 1597. =A. verticillata= (whorled). _fl._, corolla with yellowish green petals and white nectaries; umbels many-flowered. July and August. _l._ very narrow, linear, thick, quite glabrous, usually verticillate, but sometimes scattered. Stems erect, often branched, having a downy line on one side. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. New Jersey, 1759. =ASCYRON.= _See_ =Hypericum Ascyron=. =ASCYRUM= (from _a_, without, and _skyros_, hard; that is to say, a plant which is soft to the touch). ORD. _Hypericinæ_. A genus of elegant little herbs and sub-shrubs, with sessile, entire leaves, destitute of pellucid dots, but usually furnished with black dots beneath. Flowers resembling _Hypericum_. They require to be protected during winter by a frame; for this purpose they should be grown in pots, as they never exist long in the open border. A compost of peat, pure leaf soil, and sand, in equal portions, suits them well; young cuttings of the shrubby kinds will root in sand under a hand bell glass. Propagated by careful divisions of the roots in spring. All may be raised from seeds. =A. amplexicaule= (stem-clasping). _fl._ yellow, few, axillary, and terminal; corymbs naked. July. _l._ stem-clasping, ovate, cordate, sinuately-curled. Stem dichotomously panicled. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1823. The flowers and leaves are longer in this than in any other of the species. =A. Crux Andreæ.=* St. Andrew's Cross. _fl._, petals narrow-pale, yellow, nearly sessile, in terminal corymbs. July. _l._ ovate-linear, obtuse, usually in bundles in the axils. Stem shrubby, round. _h._ 1ft. North America (in sandy fields), 1759. This proves to be quite hardy in many situations. =A. hypericoides= (Hypericum-like). _fl._ yellow. August. _l._ linear-oblong, obtuse. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1759. =A. stans= (standing). St. Peter's Wort. _fl._ yellow. August. _l._ oval or oblong, somewhat clasping. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1816. =ASHES.= The earthy or mineral particles of combustible substances, remaining after combustion. Ashes are amongst the most economical manures. _Vegetable Ashes_ are generally the best application for manuring boggy, cold, and, consequently, sour and unprofitable land, in quantities of about forty bushels per acre, thinly and evenly distributed. The annual exhaustion of salts from large crops of grain, roots, and grass, is from 180lb. to more than 250lb. per acre; and the aggregate of a few years will so far impoverish the soil in one or more of the principles necessary to sustain a luxuriant vegetation, that it will cease to yield remunerating returns. The ashes of vegetables consist of such elements as are always required for their perfect maturity, and it is evident they must furnish one of the best saline manures which can be supplied for their growth; they contain, in fact, every element, and generally in the right proportions, for insuring a full and rapid growth. Both gardener and farmer will therefore perceive the great value of Ashes to their crops. _Coal Ashes._ The bituminous and anthracite coals afford Ashes, and, although inferior in quality to those made from wood and vegetables, are, like them, a valuable manure, and they should be applied to the land in a similar manner. If they contain many cinders, from not having been thoroughly burned, they are more suited to heavy than to light soils. Coal Ashes, if very fine, may be sprinkled half an inch deep on the surface, over peas and beans, &c., to preserve them from mice; they may also be used for garden and greenhouse walks, where bricks or tiles are absent, being tidy in appearance, and an excellent substitute for other and more expensive material. _Peat Ashes._ Peat approaching to purity, when thrown out of its bed and thoroughly dried, may be burned to an imperfect Ash, and when it does not reach this point, it will become thoroughly charred, and reduced to cinders. The process of burning should be as slow as possible. In either form, it is a valuable dressing for the soil. =ASH-TREE.= _See_ =Fraxinus=. =ASIATIC POISON BULB.= _See_ =Crinum asiaticum=. =ASIMINA= (meaning unknown). ORD. _Anonaceæ_. Hardy shrubs, with oblong, cuneated, usually deciduous leaves. Flowers sometimes rising before the leaves, usually solitary and axillary. They thrive freely in a mixture of sand and peat. Propagated by layers put down in the autumn, or by seed, procured from their native country. Seedlings should be raised in pots, and sheltered in winter, until they have acquired a considerable size. [Illustration: FIG. 159. FLOWERING BRANCH OF ASIMINA TRILOBA.] =A. triloba= (three-lobed).* _fl._ campanulate, the three outer petals pale purplish, and the three inner ones smaller, purplish on the outside as well as the inside at the base and apex, with the middle yellow, about 2in. diameter, produced between the upper leaves. May. _l._ oblong-cuneated, often acuminated, and, as well as the branches, smoothish. _h._ 10ft. Pennsylvania, 1736. A small tree or shrub. See Fig. 159. =ASKALLON= (the Eschallot). _See_ =Allium ascalonicum=. =ASPALATHUS= (from _a_, not, and _spao_, to extract; in reference to the difficulty of extracting its thorns from a wound). Including _Sarcophyllus_. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Shrubs or sub-shrubs, natives, with one exception, of the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers usually yellow, furnished with three bracteoles, or a leaf comprised of three leaflets. Leaves of three to five leaflets, disposed palmately, rarely pinnately, having scarcely any or very short petioles. All the species are pretty when in flower, and thrive in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand. Young cuttings of half-ripened wood will strike in April, in sand, under bell glasses, which must be wiped dry occasionally. But little water is needed. Over a hundred species are known; those introduced are very rarely seen in cultivation. =ASPARAGUS= (from _a_, intensive, and _sparasso_, to tear; in reference to the strong prickles of some species). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. Erect or climbing herbs or shrubs, with very small scale-like leaves, and a profusion of numerous slender fascicled-needle, rather spiny branchlets. Flowers axillary, inconspicuous. Fruit baccate. The indoor species will all thrive well in a warm greenhouse temperature, provided they have partial shade, a good supply of moisture at the roots, and are not kept too close, in a moderately rich sandy compost. The hardy species are propagated chiefly by seeds and divisions of the roots. Rich sandy loam is necessary, and otherwise they may be treated as ordinary perennials. Some of the species belonging to this genus are among the most elegant of foliage plants for cutting purposes. _A. decumbens_ and _A. scandens_ make excellent plants for Wardian cases, and may be cut in freely if they exceed their limits. ASPARAGUS (_A. officinalis_) AS A VEGETABLE. The value and importance of this plant as a vegetable cannot be over-estimated; it is extensively grown, and, when properly managed, produces a fairly lucrative crop. _Soil and Bed._ The first thing to be done in the preparation of an Asparagus bed to stand for any length of time, is to secure an efficient drainage; and on wet soils this is best effected by placing a layer of brick rubbish over the whole of the bottom, and connecting this with a drain. On gravelly or other soils which are drained naturally, of course, this is not needed; but if really good crops are a _desideratum_, water should not stand within 3ft. of the surface. In all cases, the ground must be dug to a depth of 18in., and, if stiff, a goodly amount of road sweepings, or other gritty materials, should be well mixed with the staple soil. Asparagus requires a good soil, neither too heavy nor too light. _Manuring._ After the soil has been well trenched, and has lain long enough to settle down, a good dressing of manure--thoroughly rotted, and not too rank, at the rate of from twenty to thirty tons to the acre, dug into the surface of the beds-�will be found very beneficial. If possible, this should be introduced in January; and then, if the weather permits, the beds should be forked two or three times by the end of March, so as to render the soil as friable as possible. A very good manure, and one that is easily obtained, is common garden salt. This may be given annually to established beds. A moderate dressing should be applied just before growth commences in spring, but a little will do no harm at other times during the summer. It is best scattered on with the hand, and a showery day should be selected, as it will then soon disappear. Salt, besides acting as a manure, has also the properties of keeping the beds cool and moist in hot weather, and of preventing the growth of weeds. _Planting._ Asparagus can be planted during March and April, the latter month being the best time for the work. The soil having been thoroughly prepared, the next point is to decide on the size of the beds; this depends on the size of garden, and the class of "grass" desired. When very large and fine stocks are the object in view, the best results will accrue if the plants are fully a yard apart each way; but this means a comparatively small crop. A good plan is to make the beds 3ft. wide, planting two rows, at a distance of 1ft. from each other, and allowing 18in. between each plant, placing them in alternate order. An 18in. alley should be allowed between the beds. The roots used for making the beds should be one year old, and fresh from the ground. In planting, pull out a wide drill with a hoe, or other tool, to the depth of about 3in. or 4in., and spread out the roots all round. Carefully shake the soil in amongst the roots, and, if dry, apply some water through a coarse-rosed watering pot, to settle the earth around them. At intervals, as necessary, give other waterings till September, when they should be discontinued. At all times, keep the beds free from weeds, removing them by the hand to prevent injury to the crowns of the plants. If the ground is good, no liquid manure will be needed the first year. As soon as the foliage turns yellow, cut it off, cleanly rake over the beds, and leave till about January, when a top-dressing of from 1in. to 3in. of thoroughly rotted manure may be applied with advantage. At the end of February, rake off the bed all loose straw or other _debris_, and throw on them a little of the soil from the alleys, raking down, and finishing off the edges squarely and neatly. During this and succeeding years, apply liquid manure and clear water, from time to time, as required; and, provided the manure is not of too great strength, there is scarcely any limit to its application; but, in many instances, beds which have only received an annual dressing have given a good return. Each year they must be cut over and dressed as before described, but care must be taken to keep them flat on the surface, otherwise the plants will die out for want of moisture. When the produce appears, the beds should be kept cut over until the 20th of June, after which, cutting should cease, or they will be rendered comparatively unproductive. Cutting can commence the second or third year, or as soon as there is any "grass" worth taking. Several methods of growing these plants could be cited, but that which we have recommended will be found most satisfactory. [Illustration: FIG. 160. ASPARAGUS, Crown for Lifting.] _Seeds._ Plants are raised by sowing seeds in rows across the kitchen garden, or selected quarter, about the month of April. The seedlings make a growth, and form good plants during the first season. In March or April of the following year, or the year after, they may be removed, and planted out permanently, as already alluded to. Many cultivators prefer growing their own plants from seed; because during the transit of the roots from any distance to where they are to be grown, a frequent and injurious exhaustion takes place, and particularly so when they are carelessly packed. _Forcing._ Asparagus can, if properly treated, be obtained from December onwards; and at Christmas time the produce is very valuable; but, in order to obtain it at this season, it will be necessary to resort to forcing. Prepare some beds to secure a lasting heat, and on these place about 3in. of ordinary garden soil, not very stiff. Then take the roots, and place them crown upwards, and moderately close together, shaking the soil well amongst the roots, and covering about a couple of inches deep. Water well, to settle the whole, and put on the lights, allowing a little ventilation, to let out any steam which may arise. Unless the weather be very cold indeed, give a little air at all times, and only cover the lights in actual frost. From time to time, apply fresh linings of hot manure, and in cold rains, or wind, cover the outsides of the frames with old sacks, or other things which will keep in the heat. A regular and steady temperature of 60deg. will force this plant with better results than a higher one. Houses that are fitted with hot-water pipes to give bottom heat can be used equally as well as manure beds, and so long as the soil is kept moist, the heat thus obtained is as good as any for the purpose, and much less trouble than fermenting materials. To keep up a regular supply, a succession of beds will be necessary. Asparagus can be forced, or rather forwarded, in pots or boxes, in a warm greenhouse or vinery, and, of course, when the plants are done with, they can be cast away. We give an illustration (Fig. 160) of a bearing crown fit for gentle forcing; but, of course, it must not be left so bare of earth as appears here, which is done for the purpose of clearness. _Varieties._ Connover's Colossal, and Giant, are the most esteemed. Strains are frequently largely advertised as improvements on the sorts above-mentioned, and the charges are higher accordingly. The difference may be generally attributed to the culture the plants receive more than to an improved variety. When saving seed for home sowing, they should be taken from the strongest growths, or deterioration will ensue. =A. æthiopicus ternifolius= (ternate). _fl._ white, in shortly-stalked racemes, very profuse. August. _l._, false ones in threes, flattened, narrow, linear; prickles solitary, reversed; branches angular. _h._ 30ft. South Africa, 1872. A greenhouse evergreen. =A. Broussoneti= (Broussonet's).* _fl._ very small, succeeded by small red berries. May. _l._, lower ones solitary, the others ternate, 1in. long, needle-shaped, persistent, distant, glaucescent; stipules with reflected spines at the base. Summer. Stem tapering, streaked, shrubby. _h._ 10ft. Canary Islands, 1822. A very pretty hardy climber. =A. Cooperi= (Cooper's). _fl._ axillary, one to three, from the same nodes as the false leaves; perianth cream-coloured, one line long. April and May. _l._ minute, deltoid, scariose, reddish-brown; false leaves six to fifteen to a node, subulate, moderately firm, 1/4in. to 3/8in. long, spreading or ascending. _h._ 10ft. to 12ft. Africa, 1862. A greenhouse climber, with a shrubby terete main stem, 1-1/2in. to 2in. thick at the base, sending out crowds of spreading branches, which bear abundant slender, firm, alternate branchlets; nodes of branches and branchlets, furnished with distinct red-brown, subulate prickles, those of the main stems 1/4in. long, deflexed, but not curved. =A. decumbens= (decumbent).* Stem unarmed, decumbent, much branched; branches wavy; leaves setaceous, in threes. Cape of Good Hope, 1792. A greenhouse evergreen herbaceous perennial. =A. falcatus= (hooked-leaved). _l._ fascicled, linear, falcate; branches round; prickles solitary, recurved; peduncles one-flowered, clustered. _h._ 3ft. India, 1792. A greenhouse evergreen perennial. =A. officinalis= (officinal). Common Asparagus. _fl._ greenish-white, drooping. August. _l._ setaceous, fasciculate, flexible, unarmed. Stem herbaceous, mostly erect, rounded, very much branched. _h._ 1ft. Said to grow on "Asparagus Island," Kynance Cove, Lizard, but we have never found it there, and it has probably long since been exterminated. =A. plumosus= (plumed).* _fl._ white, small, produced from the tips of the branchlets. Spring. _l._, true ones in the form of minute deltoid scales, with an acute ultimately reflexed point; the false ones are grouped in tufts, each being 1/8in. to 1/4in. long, bristle-shaped, and finely pointed. South Africa, 1876. An elegant evergreen climber, with smooth stems and numerous spreading branches. It forms an excellent plant when trained in pots, and is invaluable for cutting. =A. p. nanus= (dwarf).* A very elegant dwarf variety of above. Stems tufted, slender, and gracefully arching. South Africa, 1880. For bouquets, the cut sprays of both type and variety have the advantage of much greater persistency than any fern, retaining their freshness in water from three to four weeks. See Fig. 161, for which we are indebted to Messrs. Veitch and Sons. =A. racemosus= (racemose). _fl._ greenish-white, in many-flowered axillary racemes. May. _l._ bundled, linear-subulate, falcate; branches striated; prickles solitary. _h._ 3ft. India, 1808. Greenhouse evergreen shrub. [Illustration: FIG. 161. ASPARAGUS PLUMOSUS NANUS.] =A. ramosissimus= (very branching). _fl._ solitary, at the tips of the branchlets; pedicels hardly perpendicular, one and a-half to two lines long; cream coloured. June. _l._ obscurely spurred at the base; false leaves three to eight-nate, flattened; linear-falcate acute, 1/4in. to 3/8in. long, spreading. South Africa, 1862. A wide climbing, copiously branched, slender greenhouse shrub, with very numerous spreading or ascending branches and branchlets. =A. scandens= (climbing).* _fl._ whitish, axillary on the ultimate branchlets, succeeded by round orange-coloured berries. The annual, much-branched, unarmed stems bear, usually in threes, numerous small linear-pointed leaves, which on the ultimate branches spread nearly in one plane. Cape of Good Hope, 1795. An elegant climbing greenhouse perennial. =A. virgatus= (twiggy).* A remarkably elegant feathery looking plant, of shrubby habit. The stems, which issue from the crown of the stout fleshy roots, are of a dark green colour, and bear at the upper end a corymbose head of erect branches, of which the lowest is the youngest or most recently developed. These branches are again twice branched, the ultimate branchlets being furnished with needle-shaped false leaves, 1/2in. long, which usually grow in threes. South Africa, 1862. =ASPARAGUS BEETLE= (_Crioceris asparagi_), or "Cross-bearer." This beautiful little insect is blue-black or greenish; the thorax is red with two black spots, and the wing-cases are yellow, with a black cross on them; the legs and antennæ are black. The short grey larva is flat underneath, arched on the back, and covered with hairs. The sides are of an olive hue, and the little legs and head are black. It ejects a drop of blackish fluid from the mouth when touched. When full grown, which takes about a fortnight, the larva measures about two lines in length; the average length of the perfect Beetle is about three lines. Although this insect does not actually destroy the plants, it inflicts much damage on the foliage, and checks the growth of the stems after they have attained some size, in consequence of which the foliage becomes much less in the next season. The eggs are fixed to the shoots, and are small, dark, pointed bodies. The larvæ do the harm, as they feed on the bark and tender portions of the plants. The mature Beetles should be picked off by hand, and, by commencing early enough in the season, their numbers will be greatly reduced. Syringing the plants with water, heated to a temperature that will not injure the plants, is found a useful method for removing the grubs. _White Hellebore._ Freshly-ground White Hellebore, sprinkled over the foliage while it is damp, and repeating the operation at intervals of about eight days for a season, will generally effect a riddance; but the following will usually be found better in such cases. Neither must be applied until after cutting ceases, as they are very poisonous. _Paris Green._ This, mixed and used as for Cherry Fly (_see_ =Black Fly=), will generally got rid of the Beetle, if applied about thrice each season for two years. It should, however, only be used in severe cases. _Soot_, applied in the same manner as White Hellebore, and in liberal quantities, will, in a season or two, clear the beds. If a bushel of salt be mixed with each twenty bushels of soot, it will enhance the effect. =ASPARAGUS KNIFE.= The Asparagus Knife consists of a strong blade fixed in a handle. There are, or were, three kinds employed: In one form, the blade was blunt on both sides, straight, with a sharp tip, and not unlike a small chisel. Another had its blade slightly hooked, and serrated at one end. But the best is that now almost universally employed, and which is illustrated by Fig. 162. [Illustration: FIG. 162. ASPARAGUS KNIFE.] =ASPASIA= (from _aspazomai_, I embrace; the column embraced by the labellum). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. A genus of elegant stove Epidendrum-like epiphytal orchids, with the lip united to the column, and broad, thin pseudo-bulbs. The name Aspasia is now and then met with attached to a totally different genus. Salisbury gave it to a liliaceous plant which is now referred to _Ornithogalum_. For culture and propagation, _see_ =Stanhopea=. =A. epidendroides= (Epidendrum-like).* _fl._ whitish yellow; sepals linear oblong, acute; petals obtuse, concave, lateral lobes of lip roundish, entire, middle lobe crenated emarginate. February. Pseudo-bulbs oblong, two-edged. _h._ 1ft. Panama, 1833. =A. lunata= (crescent-marked).* _fl._ green, white, and brown, solitary; sepals and petals linear obtuse, spreading; lip three-lobed, lateral lobes short, middle one flat, nearly square, wavy. February. Pseudo-bulbs oblong, two-edged. _h._ 1ft. Rio Janeiro, 1843. =A. papilionacea= (butterfly-like).* _fl._, sepals and petals yellowish, mottled with brown lines on their internal inferior halves; lip fiddle-shape, its back very great, elliptic, apiculate; an orange-coloured area stands at its base, a wide violet disc before and around it. _h._ 9in. Costa Rica, 1876. Distinguished from _A. lunata_ in having thirteen keels at the base of the lip, which is higher inserted, and in the echinulate anther. It is a beautiful but rare novelty. =A. psittacina= (parrot-like).* _fl._, sepals and petals light green, with brown transverse bars, which sometimes consist of separate stripes, at other times of confluent ones; the fiddle-shaped lip shows two keels and a few purplish dots over its top; the column is brown at its top, then violet, and white at the base. Ecuador, 1878. It has a raceme of several flowers, usually one-sided, bent over. =A. variegata= (variegated).* _fl._ green, spotted with yellowish red; sepals linear oblong; petals somewhat rhomboid, acute; lateral lobes of lip recurved, middle one fleshy, serrated. February. _h._ 9in. Panama, 1836. Deliciously sweet-scented in the morning. =ASPEN.= _See_ =Populus tremula=. =ASPERA.= Rough, with hairs or points. =ASPERULA= (from _asper_, rough; in allusion to the leaves). Woodruff. ORD. _Rubiaceæ_. Hardy herbs, rarely small shrubs. Flowers terminal and axillary, in fascicles. Leaves opposite, with one, two, or three stipulas on each side; they are therefore called four to eight in a whorl, but between the uppermost leaves there are no stipulas. Stems and branches usually tetragonal. Most of the species are very pretty when in flower, and are, therefore, well adapted for borders, rockwork, and shady places, in almost any garden soil. Propagated by divisions of the roots during spring and early summer. Herbaceous perennials, except where otherwise stated. =A. azurea-setosa= (blue-bristly). A synonym of _A. orientalis_. =A. calabrica= (Calabrian). A synonym of _Putoria calabrica_. =A. cynanchica= (Cynanche-like). _fl._ on erect branches, forming a fastigiate corymb, white or bluish-coloured, elegantly marked with red lines, or sometimes pure white. Summer. _l._ four in a whorl; floral ones lanceolate-linear, acuminately awned; lower ones small, oblong, upper ones opposite. Plant glabrous, erectish. _h._ 9in. to 12in. England. =A. hirta= (hairy). _fl._ white at first, changing to pink, with oblong divisions. July and August. _l._ usually six in a whorl, four towards the upper part, linear, hairy, deep green. _h._ 3in. Pyrenees, 1817. A charming but rare little alpine, thriving best in a rather damp position on the rockery. =A. longiflora= (long-flowered).* _fl._ whitish, yellowish inside, and reddish outside; tube of corolla elongated; fascicles terminal, pedunculate; bracteas small, subulate. Summer. _l._ four in a whorl, linear; lower ones small, obovate; upper ones opposite. Stems weak, numerous, from the same neck, erectish, glabrous. _h._ 6in. Hungary, 1821. =A. montana= (mountain).* _fl._, corollas pink, four-cleft, scabrous externally; in fascicles. June, July. _l._ linear; lower ones six in a whorl; middle ones four; upper ones opposite; floral leaves linear. Stem weak, glabrous. _h._ 6in. to 8in. Hungary, 1801. =A. odorata= (sweet-scented).* Sweet Woodruff. _fl._ snowy white; corymbs terminal, pedunculate, usually trifid, each division bearing about four flowers. May, June. _l._ eight in a whorl, lanceolate, smooth, with serrulately scabrous edges. Stems tetragonal, simple, erect, or ascending. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Britain. This very pretty little plant is scentless when fresh, but, when dried, it diffuses an odour like that of spring grass; and when kept among clothes, it not only imparts an agreeable perfume to them, but preserves them from insects. =A. orientalis= (Oriental).* _fl._ sky blue, in terminal heads; bracts of involucre shorter than the flowers. Summer. _l._ lanceolate, bristly, about eight in a whorl. _h._ 1ft. Caucasus, 1867. A charming little, profuse blooming, hardy annual, bearing clusters of fragrant flowers, admirably adapted for bouquet making. SYN. _A. azurea-setosa_. See Fig. 163. [Illustration: FIG. 163. ASPERULA ORIENTALIS, showing Habit and Portion of Inflorescence.] =A. taurina= (bull). _fl._, corollas white, elongated; corymbs pedunculate, axillary, fasciculately umbellate, involucrated; bracteas ciliated. April to June. _l._ four in a whorl, ovate-lanceolate, three-nerved, with finely ciliated margins. Plant smoothish, erect. _h._ 1ft. South Europe, 1739. =A. tinctoria= (Dyers'). _fl._ white, reddish on the outside; usually trifid. June. _l._ linear; lower ones six in a whorl; middle ones four; and the uppermost ones opposite; floral leaves ovate. Plant procumbent, unless supported. Stem 1ft. to 2ft. long, purplish. Europe, 1764. =ASPHALT.= Artificial Asphalt is now generally used in England for footpaths, &c. The recipes are various, one of the best being the following: Lime rubbish two parts, coal ashes one part (both must be very dry), sifted very fine; mix them, and leave a hole in the middle of the heap, wherein pour boiling hot coal tar; mix well together. When as stiff as mortar, lay it down, 3in. thick, on a dry and previously well-levelled surface. A boy should follow with dry, finely-sifted sand, distributing just enough to prevent his boots sticking to the tar. Two men should be employed for the tarring, whilst another should attend to the boiling operation. Only just enough tar to last ten minutes must be taken from the furnace at one time, as, if it be not boiling, the walks will become soft under the action of very hot sun. This may be repeated every three years. It is imperative that the surface, lime, coal ashes and sand be perfectly dry, and that the days selected for the operation be very fine, the hotter the better. Another excellent plan is that of using gas lime and coal ashes. There must be a firm foundation and smooth surface. Spread the gas lime to about 1-1/2in. deep, and level with the back of a spade. Over this place a thin layer of coal dust, and well roll. The work is then complete. =ASPHODEL.= _See_ =Asphodelus=. =ASPHODELINE.= ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A genus of plants allied to _Asphodelus_, but distinguished from it by having erect leafy stems. They thrive in any ordinary garden soil. Propagated by division. =A. brevicaulis= (short-stemmed). _fl._ in lax, often panicled racemes, yellow, veined with green. _l._ subulate, ascending, lower ones 4in. to 6in. long. Stem slender, often flexuose. Orient. =A. damascena= (Damascene). _fl._ white, in dense generally simple racemes, 6in. to 12in. long. _l._ in dense rosette, 6in. to 9in. long, subulate. Stem simple, erect. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Asia Minor. =A. liburnica= (Liburnian). _fl._ yellow, striped with green, in generally simple lax racemes, 6in. to 9in. long. Stem simple, erect, strict, 1ft. to 2ft. high, upper half naked. South Europe. =A. lutea= (yellow). _fl._ yellow, fragrant, in a dense, very long, straight, simple raceme, in the axils of buff-coloured bracts, which are nearly as long as the flowers. Summer. _l._ numerous, awl-shaped, triangular, furrowed, smooth, dark green, marked with lines of a paler tint; root leaves tufted. Stem 3ft. or 4ft. high. Sicily, 1596. The best known and handsomest species. SYN. _Asphodelus luteus_. =A. l. fl.-pl.= This resembles the species, but the flowers are double, and last much longer than those of the typical form; it is a very pretty plant. =A. taurica= (Taurian). _fl._ white, striped with green, in generally simple dense racemes, 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 2in. wide. Stem simple, erect, 1ft. to 2ft. high, densely leafy at base of raceme. Asia Minor, &c. SYN. _Asphodelus tauricus_. =A. tenuior= (slenderer). _fl._ yellow, in simple lax-flowered racemes, 3in. to 4in. long, 2in. wide. Stem simple lower half leaf, upper naked, 1ft. Orient. SYN. _Asphodelus tenuior_. =ASPHODELUS= (from _a_, not, and _sphallo_, to supplant; in allusion to the beauty of the flowers). Asphodel. ORD. _Liliaceæ_. Very pretty hardy herbaceous perennials, with fleshy fasciculated roots. Perianth white or yellow, of six equal spreading segments; stamens six, hypogynous, alternately long and short. Leaves usually radical, tufted, narrow, or triquetrous. All the species enumerated thrive in good deep sandy loam, and are very suitable for borders and shrubberies. Propagated by division of the root, which is best done in early spring. =A. æstivus= (summer). _fl._ white. Summer. _h._ 2ft. Spain, 1820. =A. albus= (white).* _fl._ white; peduncles clustered the length of the bracts. May. _l._ linear, keeled, smooth. Stem naked, simple. _h._ 2ft. South Europe, 1596. =A. creticus= (Cretan).* _fl._ yellow. July. _l._ filiform, striated, toothed, ciliated. Stem leafy, naked above, branched. _h._ 2ft. Crete, 1821. =A. fistulosus= (pipe-stalked). _fl._ white. July, August. _l._ upright, striated, subulate, fistular. Stem naked. _h._ 18in. South Europe, 1596. =A. luteus= (yellow). A synonym of _Asphodeline lutea_. =A. ramosus= (branchy). _fl._ large, white, with a reddish-brown line in the middle of each segment, springing from the axils of ovate-lanceolate bracts, and in very long dense racemes. Summer. _l._ sword-shaped, stiff, sharply keeled below, channelled above. Stem much branched. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. South Europe, 1829. [Illustration: FIG. 164. ASPHODELUS VILLARSII, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. Villarsii= (Villars'). _fl._ white; raceme dense, elongated; bracts dark brown. Stem simple or rarely branched. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Eastern France. See Fig. 164. =ASPIDISTRA= (from _aspidiseon_, a little round shield; in reference to the form of the flower). SYN. _Porpax_ (of Salisbury). Including _Plectogyne_. ORD. _Liliaceæ_. Hardy, or nearly hardy, evergreen, foliage plants. Flowers insignificant, produced close to the ground, remarkable for the curious mushroom-like stigma, by which this genus is characterised. They thrive in almost any ordinary garden soil, but are best grown in rich loam, leaf soil, and sand; plenty of moisture being allowed. Propagated by suckers. =A. elatior= (taller).* _l._ oblong, large, on long petioles, leathery; plant stemless. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Japan, 1835. This very easily cultivated and quite hardy foliage plant is much grown for window gardening and other decorative purposes, for which it is well suited. =A. e. variegata= (variegated).* A fine variety with alternately-striped green and white leaves. [Illustration: FIG. 165. ASPIDISTRA LURIDA.] =A. lurida= (lurid). _fl._ purple. July. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, on long petioles. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. China, 1822. A very graceful species, with long evergreen leaves. It is an effective plant for the outdoor garden during summer, and is nearly, if not quite, hardy. See Fig. 165. =A. punctata= (dotted). _l._ lanceolate, on long stalks. _h._ 1ft. China. This is very closely allied to _A. elatior_, but of inferior value. =ASPIDIUM= (from _aspidion_, a little buckler; in allusion to the form of the involucre). Shield Fern. ORD. _Filices_. Including _Cyclodium_, _Cyclopeltis_, _Cyrtomium_, _Phanerophlebia_, and _Polystichum_. Stove, greenhouse, or hardy ferns. Sori sub-globose, dorsal or terminal on the veinlets; involucre orbicular, fixed by the centre. They thrive in a compost of sandy peat with a little loam. Several species are admirably adapted for the indoor fernery. The hardy species are best grown in the shade; a little sandstone should be incorporated with the soil. For general culture, _see_ =Ferns=. [Illustration: FIG. 166. ASPIDIUM ACULEATUM.] =A. acrostichoides= (Acrostichum-like).* _sti._ 6in. to 8in. long, densely scaly below. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 2in. to 6in. broad; pinnæ of the lower half barren, 2in. to 3in. long, 1/4in. broad, spinoso-serrated throughout, auricled at the base above; the pinnæ of the upper half fertile, much smaller. _sori_ occupying the whole under side. North America. SYN. _Polystichum acrostichoides_. Hardy. =A. a. grandiceps= (large-crested).* A very handsome fern, having the apices of the fronds and pinnæ heavily crested; equally desirable for the hardy or temperate fernery. Of garden origin. =A. a. incisum= (incised).* A variety with the pinnules deeply cut and acutely pointed. =A. aculeatum= (sharp-pointed).* The Hard Shield Fern. _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long, more or less scaly. _fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, ovate-lanceolate; lower pinnæ close, lanceolate, 4in. to 6in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad; pinnules ovate-rhomboidal, unequal sided, auricled on the upper base; teeth aristate. sori nearer the midrib than the edge. A variable and hardy species, common throughout the world. SYN. _Polystichum aculeatum_. _A. a. proliferum_ is a proliferous Australian form. _A. a. vestitum_ has the rachis densely clothed to the point, both with reddish-brown fibrillose and large lanceolate dark brown scales. See Fig. 166. =A. amabile= (lovely). _sti._ scattered, 6in. to 12in. long, slightly scaly below. _fronds_ 1ft. or more long, 6in. to 12in. broad, with a lanceolate terminal pinna, and three to six lateral ones on each side, which are 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, the lowest sometimes divided at the base; segments sub-rhomboidal, with at least half the lower side cut away, the upper side and part of the lower lobed and sharply spinuloso-serrated. sori sub-marginal. Ceylon. Stove species. SYN. _Polystichum amabile_. =A. angulare= (angular). The Soft Shield Fern. Botanically this is only a variety of _A. aculeatum_; but, to the cultivator, it is abundantly distinct. The fronds are not so tapered at the base, the pinnules are more equal in size, and the lower ones distinctly stalked, while the texture is much less rigid than in _A. aculeatum_, the caudex has a tendency to elongate. Almost cosmopolitan in its distribution. SYN. _Polystichum angulare_. There are an enormous number of varieties, many of which are not under cultivation. Amongst the best found in gardens are _alatum_, _Bayliæ_, _concinnum_, _corymbiferum_, _cristatum_, _curtum_, _dissimile_, _grandiceps_, _imbricatum_, _Kitsoniæ_, _lineare_, _parvissimum_, _plumosum_, _polydactylon_, _proliferum_, _rotundatum_, _Wakeleyanum_, _Woollastoni_. [Illustration: FIG. 167. ASPIDIUM ANGULARE GRANDICEPS.] =A. a. grandiceps= (large-crested). This is a narrow fronded variety, having the apices of the fronds branched and crested, ultimately producing a broad tasselled head. A very handsome fern. See Fig. 167. =A. anomalum= (anomalous). _sti._ tufted, 1ft. to 2ft. long, densely scaly below. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 1ft. or more broad; lower pinnæ 6in. to 9in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad; pinnules lanceolate, cut down in the lower part into oblong segments; teeth blunt or slightly mucronate. _sori_ placed near the sinuses of the pinnules. Ceylon. Stove species. SYN. _Polystichum anomalum_. =A. aristatum= (awned).* _rhiz._ creeping. _sti._ scattered, 9in. to 18in. long, very scaly below. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 9in. to 12in. broad, ovate-deltoid, tri- or quadripinnatifid; lower pinnæ largest, 4in. to 6in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad; lowest pinnules much the largest, lanceolate-deltoid; teeth copious aristate. _sori_ small, principally in two rows near the midrib. Japan, Himalayas, New South Wales, &c. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum aristatum_. =A. a. coniifolium= (Conium-leaved).* _fronds_ more finely divided; segments copiously toothed, with lower lobes distinct. =A. a. variegatum= (variegated).* A handsome variety, with a broad band of green running through the bases of the pinnules along the course of the rachis. =A. auriculatum= (eared).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 6in. long, scaly below or throughout. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad; pinnæ numerous, sub-sessile, usually close, 1in. to 2in. long, about 1/2in. broad, ovate-rhomboidal, falcate, acute, spinoso-serrated, the upper base auricled, the lower one truncate. _sori_ in two rows. India, widely distributed. Stove species. SYNS. _A. ocellatum_, _Polystichum auriculatum_. =A. a. lentum= (pliant). Pinnæ cut into oblong mucronate lobes about half-way down to the rachis, the auricle sometimes quite free. =A. a. marginatum= (margined).* A variety with more coriaceous texture; upper edge of the pinnæ slightly lobed. =A. capense= (Cape).* _sti._ scattered, 1ft. to 2ft. long, densely scaly below. _fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 12in. to 18in. broad, sub-deltoid; lowest pinnæ the largest, 6in. to 9in. long, 3in. to 4in. broad; pinnules and segments lanceolate, the latter bluntly lobed. _sori_ very large and copious. South America, New Zealand, Cape Colony, Natal, &c. Greenhouse species. SYNS. _A. coriaceum_, _Polystichum capense_. =A. confertum= (compressed). Synonymous with _A. meniscioides_. =A. coriaceum= (leathery). Synonymous with _A. capense_. =A. falcatum= (hooked).* _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long, densely scaly below. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, simply pinnate; pinnæ numerous, the lower stalked, ovate-acuminate, falcate, 3in. to 5in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad; edge entire or slightly undulated, the upper side narrowed suddenly, sometimes auricled, the lower rounded or obliquely truncate at the base. _sori_ small, copious, scattered. Japan, China, Himalayas, &c. SYN. _Cyrtomium falcatum_. =A. f. caryotideum= (Caryota-like) has pinnæ sometimes larger, sharply toothed, slightly lobed, sometimes auricled on both sides. SYN. _Cyrtomium caryotideum_. =A. f. Fortunei= (Fortune's).* This differs from the type in having pinnæ narrower and more opaque. All are most useful house ferns, and quite hardy in many parts of the country. SYN. _Cyrtomium Fortunei_. =A. falcinellum= (finely-hooked).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long, densely scaly. _fronds_ 9in. to 18in. long, 3in. to 6in. broad; central pinnæ 2in. to 3in. long, 1/4in. broad; point acute; edge finely serrated; the upper side bluntly auricled, the lower obliquely truncate at the base. _sori_ in two long rows. Madeira. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum falcinellum_. =A. flexum= (bending). _rhiz._ stout, wide-creeping. _sti._ scattered, 1ft. long, scaly. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 9in. to 12in. broad; lower pinnæ lanceolate-deltoid, 4in. to 6in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad; pinnules lanceolate-deltoid, cut down to the rachis below into oblong bluntly-lobed segments. _sori_ large, in two rows, copious. Juan Fernandez. Stove species. SYN. _Polystichum flexum_. =A. f�niculaceum= (Fennel-leaved).* _rhiz._ creeping. _sti._ scattered, 6in. to 12in. long, densely scaly below. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, and 9in. to 12in. broad, lanceolate-deltoid, four to five pinnatifid; lower pinnæ 6in. to 8in. long, 3in. to 4in. broad; ultimate divisions linear, awned, with a firm texture. _sori_ solitary. Greenhouse species. Sikkim, 7,000ft. to 10,000ft. SYN. _Polystichum f�niculaceum_. =A. frondosum= (leafy). _sti._ scattered, 1ft. to 2ft. long, densely scaly below. _fronds_ 18in. to 24in. long, 1ft. or more broad, sub-deltoid; lower pinnæ much the largest, long stalked; pinnules lanceolate; segments very unequal sided, pinnatifid, with rounded mucronate lobes, obliquely truncate at the base below. _sori_ large, copious. Madeira. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum frondosum_. =A. Hookeri= (Hooker's). _sti._ 1ft. or more long, naked. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long; pinnæ 6in. to 8in. long, 1in. broad, cut down to a broadly-winged rachis into nearly close, spreading, entire, linear-oblong lobes 1/8in. broad. _sori_ nearer the edge than the midrib. Malay Archipelago. Stove species. SYNS. _A. nephrodioides_ and _Cyclodium Hookeri_. =A. laserpitiifolium= (Laserpitium-leaved).* _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long, stramineous, scaly at base. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, ovate-deltoid, tripinnate; lower pinnæ the largest, with pinnules on the lower side prolonged, lanceolate, imbricated with small, distinct, bluntly-lobed segments. _sori_ in two rows, very copious. Japan. A very desirable greenhouse species. SYNS. _Lastrea Standishii_ (of gardens) and _Polystichum laserpitiifolium_. =A. lepidocaulon= (scaly-stemmed). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 9in. long, densely clothed with large cordate scales. _fronds_ 1ft. or more long, 4in. to 6in. broad, sometimes elongated and rooting at the point: pinnæ 2in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, lanceolate-falcate, the two sides unequal, the upper one auricled at the base. _sori_ principally in two rows, near the midrib. Japan. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum lepidocaulon_. =A. Lonchitis= (spar-like).* The Holly Fern. _sti._ densely tufted, 1in. to 4in. long, scaly at base. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 1in. to 3in. broad, pinnate throughout; pinnæ 1/2in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, ovate-rhomboidal, sub-falcate, the two sides unequal, point mucronate, edge spinuloso-serrated, the upper side sharply auricled at the base, the lower obliquely truncate. Britain, &c. A very widely-spread hardy species. SYN. _Polystichum Lonchitis_. =A. meniscioides= (Meniscium-like). _sti._ 1ft. to 2ft. long, scaly below. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 1ft. or more broad, pinnate; barren pinnæ sessile, 6in. to 9in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, oblong-acuminate, nearly entire; fertile pinnæ much smaller. _sori_ in two close rows between the primary veins. West Indies, &c. Stove species. SYNS. _A. confertum_ and _Cyclodium meniscioides_. =A. mohrioides= (Mohria-like). _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 6in. long, more or less densely scaly. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, bipinnate; pinnæ numerous, frequently imbricated, lanceolate, cut down below into slightly toothed, oblong-rhomboidal pinnules. _sori_ copious. Patagonia and the Cordilleras of Chili. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum mohrioides_. =A. mucronatum= (mucronated).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 4in. long, densely scaly. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, pinnate throughout; pinnæ very numerous, often imbricated, 3/4in. to 1in. long, 1/4in. to broad, sub-rhomboidal, unequal-sided, mucronate, sub-entire, distinctly auricled at the upper base. _sori_ in a long row on each side the midrib. West Indies. Stove or greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum mucronatum_. =A. munitum= (armed).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 9in. long, densely scaly. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 8in. broad; pinnæ close, 2in. to 4in. long, about 1/2in. broad, acuminate, finely spinulose and serrated throughout, the upper side auricled, and the lower obliquely truncate at the base. _sori_ in two rows near the edge. California, &c. Hardy; very fine. SYN. _Polystichum munitum_. =A. nephrodioides= (Nephrodium-like). Synonymous with _A. Hookeri_. =A. ocellatum= (spotted). Synonymous with _A. auriculatum_. =A. pungens= (stinging). _rhiz._ stout. _sti._ scattered, 1ft. long, scaly below only. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 9in. to 12in. broad; lower pinnæ 4in. to 6in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad; pinnules ovate-rhomboidal, unequal-sided, often deeply pinnatifid. _sori_ principally in two rows near the midrib. Cape Colony. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum pungens_. =A. repandum= (wavy-leaved). _sti._ 1ft. to 2ft. long, naked. _fronds_ 2ft. or more long, 12in. to 18in. broad, apex deeply pinnatifid, with linear-oblong, slightly sinuated lobes; lower pinnæ four to eight on each side, 6in. to 8in. long, 1-1/4in. to 1-1/2in. broad, acuminate; edge bluntly sinuated, the lowest stalked and forked. _sori_ in two distinct rows near the main vein. Philippines. Stove species. =A. rhizophyllum= (frond-rooting). _sti._ tufted, 1in. to 2in. long, slender. _fronds_ 2in. to 6in. long, 3/4in. broad, with the long, narrow upper half of the frond lengthened out and rooting, the lower half cut down to a flattened fibrillose rachis into oblong-rhomboidal sub-entire lobes about 1/2in. broad, 1/4in. deep. _sori_ scattered. Jamaica, 1820. Stove or cool house species. SYN. _Polystichum rhizophyllum_. =A. semicordatum= (half-cordate). _sti._ scattered, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 8in. to 12in. broad, simply pinnate; pinnæ spreading, 4in. to 6in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, nearly entire, acuminate, cordate or truncate at the base. _sori_ in one to three rows on each side, the inner one close to the midrib. Tropical America, &c. SYN. _Polystichum semicordatum_. =A. trapezioides= (Trapezium-like). Synonymous with _A. viviparum_. =A. triangulum= (triangular).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 6in. long, base scaly. _fronds_ 1ft. or more long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad; pinnæ numerous, sessile, lower ones distant, central ones 3/4in. to 1in. long, about 5/8in. broad, sub-deltoid, lower side obliquely truncate; apex mucronate, edge sub-entire or slightly lobed, with blunt or spinose teeth, one or both sides auricled at the base. _sori_ principally in two rows near the edge. West Indies. Stove or greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum triangulum_. =A. trifoliatum= (three-leaved). _sti._ tufted, 1ft. or more long, base only scaly. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, with a large ovate-acuminate terminal pinna, narrowed or forked at the base, and one or two lateral ones on each side, the lowest mostly forked. _sori_ in rows near the main veins. Tropical America. Stove species. =A. t. heracleifolium= (Heracleum-leaved). A form with pinnæ pinnatifid on both sides at the base. =A. tripteron= (three-winged). _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long, densely scaly at base. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, with a large terminal and two small spreading lateral pinnæ at the base of it, the former 2-1/2 in. to 3in. broad, with very numerous spreading pinnules on each side, 1-1/2in. long, about 1/2in. broad, unequal sided, acute, deeply inciso-pinnatifid, the lower lobes again toothed; lateral pinnæ 3in. to 5in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad. _sori_ principally in two rows midway between midrib and edge. Japan. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Polystichum tripteron_. =A. varium= (variable).* _rhiz._ sub-creeping. _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, densely fibrillose below. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 9in. to 12in. broad, lanceolate-deltoid; lower pinnæ much the largest, sub-deltoid, unequal sided, 4in. to 6in. long, 3in. to 4in. broad; pinnules lanceolate, imbricated, with oblong, blunt, slightly toothed segments. _sori_ principally in two rows near the midrib. Japan. Greenhouse species. SYNS. _Lastrea varia_ and _Polystichum varium_. It is frequently met with in gardens under the former name. =A. viviparum= (bud-producing). _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 6in. long, scaly at the base. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad; pinnæ numerous, nearly lanceolate, the central ones 2in. to 3in. long, about 1/2in. broad, mucronate, sometimes bud-bearing, the edge more or less deeply lobed, in the lower part sometimes quite down to the rachis, the upper side auricled. _sori_ in two or four rows. West Indies. Stove or greenhouse species. SYNS. _A. trapezioides_ and _Polystichum viviparum_. =ASPLENIUM= (from _a_, not, and _splen_, spleen; referring to the medicinal properties formerly attributed to the genus). Spleenwort. ORD. _Filices_. Including _Anisogonium_, _Athyrium_, _Ceterach_, _Cænopteris_, _Darea_, _Diplazium_, _Hemidictyum_, _Neottopteris_. A very large and widely-spread genus, including species suitable for the stove, temperate, and hardy ferneries. Sori dorsal or submarginal, linear or oblong. Involucre similar in shape, straight or occasionally curved, single or double, plane or tumid, bursting along the outer edge. The tropical species should be grown in a compost of peat, loam, and sand; the hardy sorts in a mixture of fibrous peat and sand. Good drainage is at all times required. For general culture, _see_ =Ferns=. [Illustration: FIG. 163. ASPLENIUM ADIANTUM-NIGRUM, showing Rootstock and back of Fertile Fronds.] =A. abscissum= (clipped). _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 3in. to 4in. broad, sometimes proliferous at the apex, with twelve to twenty horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, about 1/2in. broad, bluntish; edge inciso-crenate, the upper one narrowed suddenly at the base, the lower one obliquely truncate. _sori_ short, in two regular rows, falling short of both midrib and edge. Tropical America. Stove species. SYN. _A. firmum_. =A. acuminatum= (taper-pointed).* _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 9in. to 12in. broad, with very numerous close-placed lanceolate-oblong pinnæ on both sides, which are 4in. to 6in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad; pinnules numerous, unequal-sided, lanceolate, acuminate; edges sharply toothed, the lower base obliquely truncate. _sori_ in two rows in the upper part, of the pinnules, often diplazioid. Sandwich Islands. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. polyphyllum_. =A. Adiantum-nigrum= (Black Spleenwort). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad sub-deltoid; lower pinnæ deltoid, 2in. to 3in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad; all the pinnæ pinnate. _sori_ copious, at last often occupying the whole under surface of the segments. Great Britain. World-wide in its distribution. Hardy. _A. solidum_, from Cape Colony, is supposed to be a mere form of this species. There are several varieties the best of which are described below. See Fig. 168. =A. A.-n. acutum= (acute). _fronds_ 9in. to 15in. long, deltoid, tripinnate; ultimate segments linear, and very acute. Ireland. A copiously divided and very elegant variety. Habit more graceful than the type. [Illustration: FIG. 169. ASPLENIUM ADIANTUM-NIGRUM GRANDICEPS.] =A. A.-n. grandiceps= (large-crested). _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long; pinnæ comparatively short, and slightly crested; apex freely divided, and expanded into a broad crest, which gives the frond a very graceful contour. Frame or greenhouse variety. See Fig. 169. =A. A-n. oxyphyllum= (sharp-leaved). _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, ovate-lanceolate; ultimate segments narrow and very acute. A very pretty little variety. =A. affine= (related). _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 12in to 18in. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, bipinnate, with numerous pinnæ on each side, the lower ones lanceolate-rhomboidal; pinnules rhomboidal, inciso-serrate. _sori_ copious, linear. Mascaren Islands, &c. Stove or warm greenhouse species. SYN. _A. spathulinum_. =A. alatum= (winged).* _sti._ 4in. to 6in, long, slender, the upper part and the rachis, winged. _fronds_ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long, 3in. to 4in. broad, with twelve to twenty horizontal sessile pinnæ on each side, which are 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, and about 1/2in. broad, bluntish; edge uniformly inciso-crenate, the base nearly equal on both sides. _sori_ distant, not reaching either the midrib or edge. West Indies, &c. A very elegant stove species. =A. alismæfolium= (Alisma-leaved). _sti._ 2in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ varying in shape, from simple oblong-lanceolate, 6in. to 9in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad; apex acuminate; edges entire, to ternate or pinnate, with a large terminal and three pairs of lateral pinnæ, each like the entire frond of the simple state; texture coriaceous. Isle of Luzon. Stove species. SYN. _Anisogonium alismæfolium_. =A. alternans= (alternated). _sti._ tufted, 1in. to 2in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 8in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, lanceolate-oblong, cut down into numerous bluntly-rounded lobes on each side, which reach very nearly down to the rachis, the lower gradually reduced. _sori_ copious. N. W. Himalayas. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. Dalhousiæ_. =A. alternifolium= (alternate-leaved). Synonymous with _A. germanicum_. =A. angustifolium= (narrow-leaved).* _sti._ tufted, about 1ft. long. _fronds_ 18in. to 24in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, simply pinnate, lanceolate-oblong, flaccid, with twenty to thirty sub-sessile pinnæ on each side, sterile ones largest, 2in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. broad, acuminate; edge obscurely-crenate, base rounded and equal on both sides; fertile pinnæ narrower and more distant. _sori_ very close and regular, extending from the midrib nearly to the edge. Canada, &c. Greenhouse species. =A. anisophyllum= (unequal-leaved). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, oblong-lanceolate, simple pinnate, with ten to sixteen sub-sessile pinnæ on each side which are 3in. to 5in. long, about 1in. broad, acuminated, crenate, the two sides unequal, the upper one narrowed suddenly, the lower one obliquely truncate at the base. _sori_ distant, elliptical, reaching half-way from the edge to the margin. Cape Colony, &c. Greenhouse species. =A. apicidens= (apex-toothed). A variety of _A. Vieillardii_. =A. arborescens= (tree-like). _cau._ oblique. _sti._ 1ft. to 2ft. long. _fronds_ 3ft. to 4ft. long, 2ft. to 3ft. broad, deltoid, tripinnatifid, with numerous pinnæ, the lower ones 12in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad; pinnules 3in. long, about 1/2in. wide, acuminate, edge cut two-thirds of the way down to the rachis into nearly entire lobes, 1/4in. deep, 1/8in. broad. Lower _sori_ 1/8in. long. Mauritius, &c., 1826. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium arborescens_. =A. Arnottii= (Arnott's). _sti._ smooth, angular. _fronds_ ample, tripinnatifid; lower pinnæ 9in. to 12in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad; pinnules 3in. to 4in. long, 1in. or more broad, cut down below to a distinctly winged rachis into deeply crenate, blunt, oblong lobes, 1/2in. deep, 1/4in. broad. _sori_ copious, nearly all diplazioid, and filling up when mature nearly the whole surface of the lobes. Sandwich Islands, 1877. Greenhouse species. SYNS. _A. diplazioides_ and _Diplazium Arnottii_. =A. aspidioides= (Aspidium-like). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 8in. to 12in. broad, ovate-deltoid, tripinnatifid; lower pinnæ 6in. to 8in. long, lanceolate-deltoid; pinnules lanceolate, cut down below nearly to the rachis into inciso-pinnatifid ovate segments, two lines broad. _sori_ copious, oblong, the lower ones curved. Tropical America, &c. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. multisectum_. =A. attenuatum= (attenuated). _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ simple, linear-lanceolate, about 1ft. long, about 1/2in. broad, narrowed upwards very gradually, sometimes proliferous at the point, the margin toothed; the lower third also lobed; the lowest roundish, lobes reaching down nearly or quite to the rachis. _sori_ reaching nearly to the edge. Queensland, &c. Greenhouse species. =A. aureum= (golden). A variety of _A. Ceterach_. =A. auriculatum= (auriculated).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, simply pinnate, lanceolate-oblong, with ten to twenty-stalked horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 2in. to 4in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, lanceolate, often sub-falcate; edge deeply crenate, the two sides unequal, the upper one with a cordate auricle, the lower one obliquely truncate. _sori_ distant, not reaching either the midrib or edge. Tropical America, 1820. Stove species. =A. auritum= (eared). _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, simply pinnate, with ten to fifteen stalked horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 2in. to 3in. long, and about 1/2in. broad, acute or bluntish; edge sharply toothed or often lobed, especially on the upper side towards the base. _sori_ in two broad rather oblique rows. Tropical America. Stove species. =A. australasicum= (Australian). A variety of _A. Nidus_. =A. Baptistii= (Baptist's).* _sti._ 6in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. long, bipinnate, broadly ovate; pinnæ stipitate, the lower about 5in. long, with four narrow stipitate linear-toothed pinnules, 2in. long, and a terminal lobe, 3-1/2in. long, 1/4in. broad, furnished with distinct linear marginal teeth, pointing forwards, and terminating in a long attenuated point, which is toothed nearly to the end. _sori_ linear-oblong, straight, parallel with, and close to, the midrib. South Sea Islands, 1879. A very handsome stove species. =A. Belangeri= (Belanger's).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, bipinnate; pinnæ numerous, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/2in. broad, rounded at the point, truncate at the base on the lower side; pinnules linear, erecto-patent, half line broad; one vein and sorus to each segment, the latter marginal. Malayan Peninsula. Stove species. SYNS. _A. Veitchianum_, _Darea_, _Belangeri_, &c. =A. bipartitum= (twice-partite). _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 8in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, bipinnate, with about ten to fifteen stalked pinnæ on each side, which are 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, bluntish, cut down at the base on the upper side into one distinctly-stalked cuneate pinnule, sometimes into two or three, the outer edge inciso-crenate, the base on the lower side obliquely truncate. _sori_ in two regular rows, reaching nearly to the edge. Mascaren Isles. Stove species. =A. bisectum= (bisected).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, bipinnatifid, with twenty to thirty horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 2in. to 3in. long, 1/4in. broad, with a very long, narrow, deeply inciso-pinnatifid upper portion, the base on the upper side narrowed suddenly, on the lower obliquely truncate. _sori_ almost all in two parallel rows close to the midrib. West Indies, &c. Stove species. =A. brachypteron= (broadly-winged). _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, bipinnate, with twelve to twenty-four horizontal pinnæ on each side, of which from half to nearly the whole of the lower side is cut away, the largest 1/2in. to 5/8in. long, cut down to the rachis into simple or forked linear pinnules, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long. _sori_ solitary, often quite marginal. Madagascar, &c. Stove species. SYN. _Darea brachypteron_. =A. brevisorum= (shortly-soriate). _sti._ 12in. to 18in. long. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 9in. to 18in. broad, tripinnate; lower pinnæ 1ft. or more long; pinnules lanceolate, distant, 2in. to 3in. long, and 1-1/2in. broad; segments lanceolate, 3/4in. long, two lines broad, deeply and sharply toothed. _sori_ small, six to twelve to a segment, in two rows near the midrib, the lower ones curved, often double. Jamaica, &c. Stove species. SYN. _Athyrium brevisorum_. =A. bulbiferum= (bulb-bearing). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 8in. to 12in. broad, oblong-deltoid, with numerous horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are often proliferous from the upper surface, the largest 4in. to 8in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad; pinnules lanceolate-deltoid, slightly toothed. _sori_ oblong, when mature often filling the whole breadth of the segments. New Zealand, &c., very widely distributed. Greenhouse species. =A. b. Fabianum= (Fabia's). Lower segments deeply pinnatifid, with narrow divisions and sub-marginal sori. SYN. _A. Fabianum_. =A. b. laxum= (loose). Habit more slender; segments narrow, so that the sori are often as if marginal. =A. caudatum= (tailed). Probably a form of _A. falcatum_, but having the sori more confined to the centre of the pinnæ, being often restricted to two parallel rows close to the rachis. Polynesia, &c. Greenhouse species. [Illustration: FIG. 170. ASPLENIUM CETERACH.] =A. Ceterach.=* Scale or Scaly Fern. _sti._ densely tufted, 1in. to 3in. long, scaly. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, 1/2in to 1in. broad, cut down nearly or quite to the rachis into alternate, blunt, sub-entire, broadly-oblong or roundish pinnæ, with a rounded sinus between them; upper surface naked, lower densely clothed with deep brown membranous scales. _sori_ linear oblique. Britain, throughout Europe, Northern Asia, &c. This is a variable species, but the forms do not remain constant under cultivation. It should be firmly planted in a vertical chink of the rockery in loam, lime rubbish, rock chippings, and sand, and be watered freely during the summer. SYN. _Ceterach officinarum_. See Fig. 170. =A. C. aureum= (golden).* A large variety, producing fronds from 9in. to 15in. long, 1-1/2in. to 3in. broad, and pinnæ more oblong than the type; scales toothed. Canaries and Madeira. This is a charming fern, requiring greenhouse treatment. SYN. _Ceterach aureum_. =A. cicutarium= (Cicuta-leaved).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 15in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, tripinnate, with ten to fifteen horizontal pinnæ on each side, the lower ones 2in. to 3in. long, 1in. broad, cut down to the rachis into numerous ovate-rhomboidal pinnules, which are 3/8in. to 1/2in. long, 1/4in. broad, obliquely-truncate on the lower side; segments once or twice cleft at the apex. _sori_ principally in two rows along the pinnules. Tropical America, &c. Stove species. =A. Colensoi= (Colenso's). _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, tripinnatifid, with numerous rather rigid erecto-patent pinnæ, the lower on stalks 1/4in. to 1/2in. long; lower pinnules spreading, deeply inciso-pinnatifid, with linear segments. _sori_ oblong, solitary. New Zealand. A beautiful greenhouse species. SYN. _A. Hookerianum_. =A. compressum= (compressed). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 8in. to 12in. broad, simply pinnate, lanceolate-oblong, with ten to twenty sessile pinnæ on each side, which are 4in. to 6in. long, about 1in. broad, acute or bluntish at the point, edge slightly dentate, the upper ones decurrent at the base upon the stout fleshy compressed rachis, the upper side narrowed suddenly at about a right angle, the lower one obliquely truncate. _sori_ broad, distant, not reaching either the midrib or edge. St. Helena. Stove or greenhouse species. =A. contiguum= (contiguous). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, with twenty to thirty horizontal sub-falcate pinnæ on each side, which are acuminated at the apex; edge more or less serrated, the base narrowed suddenly, and sometimes auricled on the upper, obliquely truncate in a curve on the lower side. _sori_ close, copious, falling considerably short of the margin. Sandwich Isles. Greenhouse species. =A. crenatum= (crenated).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, scattered. _fronds_ 9in. to 15in. each way, deltoid, tri- or quadripinnate, with nine to twelve pinnæ on each side, the lowest much the largest, 6in. to 9in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad; pinnules lanceolate, cut down to the rachis except towards the point on each side into four to six blunt oblong segments, two lines long, one line broad, which are bluntly toothed. _sori_ two to six to a segment, oblong, usually nearly straight, often double. Scandinavia, &c. Hardy species. =A. cultrifolium= (hook-leaved).* _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, bipinnate, deltoid-ovate, with a lobed terminal point and six to ten pinnæ on each side, which are 3in. to 4in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, acute; edge broadly toothed, sometimes lobed below nearly or quite to the rachis, the base nearly at a right angle on the upper, but obliquely truncate on the lower side. _sori_ falling short both of the edge and midrib. West Indies, 1820. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium cultrifolium_. =A. cuneatum= (wedge-shaped). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 15in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, tripinnatifid, narrow-deltoid, with numerous spreading pinnæ on each side, the lower 3in. to 4in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, lanceolate-deltoid, cut down to the rachis into several distinct ovate-cuneate pinnules, which are dentate and cut down in the lower part nearly or quite to the rachis. _sori_ linear, sub-flabellate. West Indies, and widely distributed in both hemispheres, 1832. A very handsome stove species. =A. Dalhousiæ= (Dalhouse's). Synonymous with _A. alternans_. =A. decussatum= (decussate). _sti._ 1ft. to 2ft. long. _fronds_ 2ft. to 4ft. long, simply pinnate, with numerous pinnæ on each side, which are 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad, often proliferous in the axils; edge nearly entire. _sori_ reaching nearly to the edge, and copiously double. Polynesian and Malayan Islands, &c. Stove species. SYN. _Anisogonium decussatum_. =A. dentatum= (dentated).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 6in. long. _fertile fronds_ 2in. to 3in. long, 1in. broad, with six to eight pairs of stalked, sub-opposite pinnæ, which are 1/2in. broad, 3/8in. deep, oblong-rhomboidal, the lower side at the base truncate in a curve, the outer edge irregularly crenate. _sterile fronds_ smaller, on shorter stalks. _sori_ copious, in two parallel rows. West Indies, &c., 1820. A pretty little greenhouse species. =A. dimidiatum= (unequal-sided).* _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 15in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, deltoid, simply pinnate, with six to nine opposite pairs of pinnæ, which are 2in. to 3in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, acuminated, sharply serrated. _sori_ radiant, narrow, long linear. Tropical America. Stove species. =A. dimorphum= (two-formed).* _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 12in. to 15in. broad, ovate-deltoid, sterile and fertile ones different or combined; lower pinnæ ovate-deltoid, 6in. to 8in. long, 2in. broad, bluntly toothed, and the base on the lower side obliquely truncate; fertile pinnæ the same size, but with very narrow simple or forked pinnules. _sori_ linear, solitary, marginal. Norfolk Island. One of the handsomest warm greenhouse species. SYNS. _A. diversifolium_ (of gardens), and _Darea dimorpha_. =A. diplazioides= (Diplazium-like). A synonym of _A. Arnottii_. =A. diversifolium= (diverse-leaved). A garden synonym of _A. dimorphum_. =A. diversifolium= (diverse-leaved). Synonymous with _A. maximum_. =A. ebeneum= (ebony-stalked).* _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, linear-lanceolate, with twenty to forty sessile pinnæ on each side, which are about 1in. long, 1/8in. broad; point acute or bluntish; edge faintly serrate; base hastately auricled, often cordate. _sori_ ten to twelve on each side, oblong, short. Canada, &c., widely distributed, 1779. Greenhouse species. _A. ebenoides_ is very like this, but the pinnæ are not cut down to the rachis, and the frond has an elongated point, which is only sinuated with a single row of sori on each side. =A. erectum= (erect). Synonymous with _A. lunulatum_. =A. erosum= (bitten). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, deltoid, with nine to fifteen pinnæ on each side, which are 3in. to 4in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, the edge slightly lobed and crenato-dentate, the point acuminate, the two sides unequal. _sori_ falling short of the edge. West Indies. Stove species. =A. esculentum= (edible).* _cau._ sub-arborescent. _sti._ 1ft. to 2ft. long. _fronds_ 4ft. to 6ft. long, pinnate or bipinnate; lower pinnæ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 8in. broad; pinnules 3in. to 6in. long, about 1in. broad, acuminate; edge more or less deeply lobed; base narrowed suddenly, often auricled; lines of _sori_ often on all the lateral veinlets. India, &c., 1822. Stove species. SYN. _Anisogonium esculentum_. =A. extensum= (extended). _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 24in. long, about 1in. broad, with twenty to forty sessile pinnæ on each side, which are 1/2in. long, 1/4in. to 3/8in. deep, blunt and entire, the upper side rather the broadest and often cordate, the lower merely rounded at the base. _sori_ linear-oblong, two or three on each side of the midrib. Andes of Columbia and Peru. A very rare greenhouse species, allied to our native _A. Trichomanes_. =A. Fabianum= (Fabia's). Synonymous with _A. bulbiferum Fabianum_. =A. falcatum= (hooked).* _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, lanceolate, with six to twenty stalked, nearly horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 2in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad, acuminated, the edges lobed often one-third of the way down, and the lobes sharply toothed, the two sides unequal, and the lower one at the base obliquely truncate. _sori_ in long irregular lines reaching nearly to the edge. Polynesian Islands, &c., widely distributed. A very elegant greenhouse species. =A. fejeense= (Fijian).* _rhiz._ wide-climbing. _sti._ 6in. long, scaly below. _fronds_ 18in. to 24in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, lanceolate, caudate, or acuminate at the apex, and often proliferous, narrowed below to a truncate base, the margin nearly entire. _sori_ reaching from the midrib nearly to the edges. Fiji, Samoa. &c. Stove species. =A. Fernandesianum= (Juan Fernandez). A variety of _A. lunulatum_. =A. Filix-f�mina= (Lady Fern).* _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, oblong-lanceolate, with numerous pinnate pinnæ, the lower ones spreading, lanceolate, 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad; pinnules deeply inciso-pinnatifid. _sori_ linear-oblong, the lower ones often curved. Britain, and world-wide in its distribution. SYN. _Athyrium Filix-f�mina_. This handsome deciduous species has a great number of varieties, the most important of which are described below: =A. F.-f. acrocladon= (summit-branched).* _fronds_ 9in. to 15in. long, slender, bi- or tripinnate, the lower part very narrow, with the apices of the pinnæ sometimes crested; upper portion of the frond freely branched, divisions narrow and crested, the whole forming a broad head. =A. F.-f. acuminatum= (taper-pointed).* _fronds_ 9in. to 12in. long, lanceolate-acuminate in outline, with closely set pinnæ, which are similarly characterised, and particularly tapering at the apices. =A. F.-f. apiculatum= (apiculate).* _fronds_ 6in. to 15in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, lanceolate-acuminate in outline, with variously furcate apices; pinnæ closely set with distinctly acuminated apices, and small roundish obtuse serrated pinnules. =A. F.-f. Applebyanum= (Appleby's).* _fronds_ narrow, 12in. to 24in. long, with short blunt pinnæ, while the extremities are dilated into a broad furcated crest, which is very striking upon such a narrow frond. =A. F.-f. Barnesii= (Barnes's).* _fronds_ 9in. to 15in. long, 3in. to 4in. wide, lanceolate in outline, abrupt at the top, bipinnate; pinnæ alternate, closely set, lanceolate, acutely pointed, with densely set, narrow, acutely serrate pinnules, with a very membranous texture. =A. F.-f. calothrix= (beautiful-hair).* _fronds_ 9in. to 15in. long, copiously divided into exquisitely fine segments, so that the fronds present a very light and delicate appearance. =A. F.-f. contortum= (contorted).* _fronds_ very diversified, the various pinnæ occasionally combining the characters of the varieties _Applebyanum_ and _Victoriæ_. =A. F.-f. coronatum= (coronate).* _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 2in. wide; pinnæ distinctly forked, sometimes slightly crested at the apices; the upper extremity of the frond copiously forked, and by the ramification of the divisions a broad crest is formed, about 3in. to 4in. across. =A. F.-f. corymbiferum= (corymbose).* _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 7in. broad, lanceolate-acuminate in general outline; pinnæ closely set, usually forked and crested at the apices, while the extremities of the fronds are dilated into broad crests, nearly or quite as wide at the broadest portion of the frond. =A. F.-f. crispum= (crispy or curled).* _fronds_ 6in. long, densely set with very finely divided pinnæ, which are thickly curled, presenting a crispy appearance. =A. F.-f. dissectum= (dissected).* _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, ovate or broadly lanceolate in form, with irregular and unequal pinnæ; the pinnules also differ very much, and are deeply cut, nearly down to the rachises. =A. F.-f. Elworthii= (Elworth's).* _fronds_ 12in. to 20in. long, lanceolate, tripinnate, terminated with a very dense crest, from 4in. to 6in. across; pinnæ and frequently the pinnules also more or less forked and crested. =A. F.-f. Fieldiæ= (Field's).* _fronds_ 12in. to 20in. long, narrow, with regular or variously-forked divided pinnæ, sometimes arranged crosswise, with a very graceful disposition. =A. F.-f. Friselliæ= (Frisell's).* _fronds_ pendent, sometimes 2ft. long, rarely exceeding 1in. wide, bi- or tripinnate; pinnæ alternate, imbricated, flabellate, with the margins of the pinnules or ultimate divisions dentated. =A. F.-f. grandiceps= (large-crested).* _fronds_ 9in. to 15in. long, lanceolate in outline, copiously forked both at the extremities of the pinnæ and frond. The latter is furnished with a very large globose crest, which causes the frond to present a beautifully arched appearance. =A. F-f. Grantæ= (Grant's).* _fronds_ 9in. to 12in. long, lanceolate, or broadly so, very thickly set with pinnæ, copiously divided, with the apices of the latter turned up, so that the plant has a crisp or bristly appearance. =A. F.-f. Jonesii= (Jones's).* _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, oblong-lanceolate in outline, slightly acuminate, bipinnate, furnished at the extremities with a small crest; pinnæ alternate, copiously forked and crested at the apices, even having larger crests than the one at the upper extremity of the frond; pinnules narrow, dentate, slightly crested. =A. F.-f. minimum= (smallest).* _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. wide, lanceolate, bipinnate; pinnules densely set, imbricated, and crispy. =A. F.-f. Moorei= (Moore's).* _fronds_ 4in. to 8in. long, linear, terminated with a broad tasselled crest, 3in. or more in diameter; pinnæ small, scattered, variously forked, crested, and slender. =A. F.-f. multifidum= (many-fid).* A very vigorous growing variety, producing fronds as large as those of the type, terminated with large tasselled crests; pinnæ and pinnules narrow, the former furnished with small crested apices. A variety known as _nanum_ much resembles the foregoing, but the crests are more dense, and the fronds are usually not more than half the length. =A. F.-f. pannosum= (pannose).* _fronds_ 10in. to 20in. long, lanceolate in outline, from 4in. to 6in. in the broadest part, bi- or (rarely) tripinnate; pinnæ thickly set, closely alternated, lanceolate-acuminate in form, with deep cut pinnules, and distinctly but irregularly lobed; the whole frond is frequently tinged with reddish-purple. =A. F.-f. plumosum= (feathery).* _fronds_ 12in. to 30in. long, 4in. to 10in. broad, broadly lanceolate in outline, tripinnate, beautifully arched; pinnæ of the same form as the frond, copiously divided; pinnules again divided into very fine segments. There are several forms of this charming variety. =A. F.-f. Pritchardii= (Pritchard's).* _fronds_ 12in. to 30in. long, very narrow, tapering especially towards the apices; pinnæ decussate, imbricate, rather irregular, with the margins of the pinnules dentate. There is also a variety named _cristatum_, which is finely crested at the apices of the pinnæ, and is particularly striking. =A. F.-f. ramosa= (branched).* _fronds_ 9in. to 12in. long, the lower portion sparsely set with short irregular pinnæ, sharply cut into finely dentate pinnules; the upper part is divided into two main branches, which are again variously forked, and furnished with short pinnæ, the ultimate divisions furcate and slightly crested. =A. F.-f. scopæ= (heavily-crested).* _fronds_ 6in. to 16in. long, with a few scattered irregular pinnæ along the main rachis; some of the pinnæ are almost obsolete, while others are an inch long with oblong-dentate pinnules and a heavy terminal crest; the upper portion has several ramifications, each of which is copiously forked and heavily crested, the whole forming a corymbose head 3in. or 4in. in diameter, which gives the plant a pendent habit. =A. F.-f. sub-lunatum= (half-crescent-shaped).* _fronds_ 9in. to 20in. long, less than 1in. wide, with curious alternated, nearly crescent-shaped, much contracted pinnæ, sparingly divided, arching. =A. F.-f. Victoriæ= (Victoria's).* _fronds_ long, lanceolate in outline, with the apices crested, as well as those of the pinnæ; the latter are forked at the base, the divisions being divergent, and crossing those of the neighbouring pinnæ. A form named _gracilis_ has narrower fronds, is more compact, and cresting rather thicker. There is also another form named _lineare_, having very small heavily crested fronds, and an extremely elegant appearance. The foregoing are the most important varieties, but a very comparative few of the total number. Although forms of an essentially hardy species, the greater number--and particularly the rarer sorts--should have a winter protection; or, what is far more preferable and satisfactory, they should be grown in the frame or temperate fernery. =A. firmum= (firm-textured). Synonymous with _A. abscissum_. =A. fissum= (cut).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 2in. to 5in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad, oblong-deltoid, tripinnatifid, with a few distant pinnæ on each side; pinnules flabellato-cuneate, deeply pinnatifid; ultimate segments under half a line broad. _sori_ linear-oblong, when mature occupying the whole breadth of the segments. South Europe. A pretty little frame or greenhouse species. =A. flabellifolium= (fan-leaved).* _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ procumbent, wide straggling, elongated, and rooting at the apex, 6in. to 12in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, with ten to fifteen sessile flabellate pinnæ on each side, which are 1/4in. to 1/2in. each way, broadly lobed; lobes sharply toothed, the base cut away in a curve on the lower side. _sori_ oblique, irregular, copious. Temperate Australia, &c. Greenhouse species. =A. f. majus= (greater). This is a larger form, with longer fronds and broader pinnæ. =A. flaccidum= (relaxed). _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, often pendent, with numerous lanceolate pinnæ, which are 4in. to 8in. long, and about 1/2in. broad, sometimes rather rigid and recurved, sometimes quite flaccid and drooping, like the main rachis, sometimes deeply pinnatifid, but more often cut down to the thick rachis in oblique or sub-falcate linear lobes. _sori_ in the divided form quite marginal. New Zealand, &c. SYNS. _A. odontites_ and _Darea flaccida_. =A. f�niculaceum= (Fennel-like). A variety of _A. fragrans_. [Illustration: FIG. 171. ASPLENIUM FONTANUM.] =A. fontanum= (rock).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, oblong-lanceolate; lower pinnæ short, reflexed; central ones horizontal, about 1/2in. long; pinnules stalked, lower ones oblong, deeply inciso-pinnatifid. _sori_ copious, covering nearly the whole under surface of the pinnule. England, &c. Hardy. This requires to be planted in a well-drained chink of the rockery, in rich gritty soil. SYN. _A. Halleri_. _A. refractum_ is a well-marked variety. See Fig. 171. =A. formosum= (beautiful). _sti._ tufted, very short. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 1in. broad, with twenty to thirty sessile horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 1/2in. long, one and a-half to two lines deep; upper edge deeply cut, point rather obtuse, lower edge truncate in a straight line. _sori_ linear-oblong, short, oblique, placed one to four on each side of the midrib. Tropical America, &c., 1822. A very elegant stove species. =A. fragrans= (fragrant).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long, _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 3in. to 6in. broad, sub-deltoid, tripinnate, with numerous close placed deltoid pinnæ on each side, the lowest 3in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad; pinnules lanceolate-deltoid; segments sub-spathulate, one line broad, dentate round the outer edge. _sori_ copious. Tropical America, 1793. _A. f�niculaceum_ is a variety with narrowly linear ultimate segments. Both are very handsome stove plants, the latter being especially beautiful. =A. Franconis= (Franconis).* _sti._ tufted, 1ft. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 9in. to 15in. broad, deltoid, with numerous pinnæ on each side, the lower ones 6in. to 8in. long, much acuminated, cut down in the lower half into distinct pinnules, 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, 1/2in. broad, lanceolate, unequal sided, the edge cut half-way down below into oblong sharply-toothed lobes; the lower side obliquely truncate. _sori_ in parallel rows, not reaching the edge. Mexico, &c. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium Franconis_. =A. furcatum= (forked).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long, _fronds_ 6in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, with twelve to twenty pinnæ on each side, which are lanceolate-deltoid, 2in. to 3in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, nearly or quite pinnate; pinnules linear-cuneate, sharply serrated on the outer edge. _sori_ linear, distant. Very widely distributed in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres. A most elegant greenhouse species. SYN. _A. præmorsum_. =A. germanicum= (German).* _sti._ densely tufted, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 2in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad, lanceolate, cut down to the rachis into a few narrow flabellato-cuneate pinnæ on each side, the lowest of which are again deeply cleft. _sori_ linear, when mature covering the whole breadth, but falling short of the point of the pinnæ. Scotland and Norway to Hungary and Dalmatia. Hardy or frame species. SYN. _A. alternifolium_. =A. giganteum= (gigantic). A synonym of _A. radicans_. =A. Goringianum pictum= (painted).* A very pretty form of _A. macrocarpum_; the fronds are from 6in. to 18in. long, pendulous, somewhat lanceolate in form; rachis reddish, with the pinnæ next it on each side variegated, forming a central grey band throughout its entire length. Japan. Greenhouse species, or hardy in sheltered positions. =A. grandifolium= (large-leaved). _sti._ 1ft. or more long. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 9in. to 12in. broad, deltoid-lanceolate, the point pinnatifid, with twelve to twenty pinnæ on each side; the lower ones 2in. or more apart, distinctly stalked, 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, acuminate; edge slightly toothed, and sometimes broadly lobed below, the base equally rounded on both sides. _sori_ irregular, falling slightly short of both midrib and edge. Tropical America, 1793. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium grandifolium_. =A. Grevillei= (Greville's). _fronds_ undivided, 12in. to 18in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, lanceolate-spathulate, narrowed to an acute apex, and suddenly below to a broadly winged stipe, which grows very gradually narrower downwards; the margin entire. _sori_ usually extending within a short distance of the edge. India. Stove species. =A. Halleri= (Haller's). Synonymous with _A. fontanum_. =A. Hemionitis= (Hemionitis).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. each way, hastate, with a triangular, acute terminal lobe, and two large, cordate, acute lateral ones, again bluntly or acutely lobed at the base; the basal sinus rounded, 1in. or more deep, and the lobes on each side imbricated over one another and the petiole. _sori_ narrow upon the simple veins. South Europe, &c. A pretty greenhouse species. SYN. _A. palmatum_. =A. H. cristatum= (crested).* Similar in frond form and size to the species, but the apices are crested and tasselled. Where variety is sought, this should certainly be grown. =A. H. multifidum= (much-divided).* _fronds_ quite as broad as long; the main divisions again freely divided or deeply cut, so as to give them a fringed outline. Azores. =A. heterocarpum= (various-fruited).* _sti._ scattered, 4in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 15in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, narrow-lanceolate, with very numerous close-placed dimidiate pinnæ on each side, which are 3/4in. to 1in. broad, 1/4in. deep; the lower edge quite entire, the upper broadest towards the base, where it is narrowed suddenly, deeply incised throughout. _sori_ one, or rarely two, together in the teeth. Himalayas, and widely distributed in south-eastern Asia. A very lovely stove or greenhouse species. =A. heterodon= (variously-toothed). Synonymous with _A. vulcanicum_. =A. Hookerianum= (Hooker's). Synonymous with _A. Colensoi_. =A. incisum= (incised). _sti._ tufted, 1in. to 3in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, lanceolate, with numerous pinnæ on each side; lower distant and blunt, central ones 1in. long, 1/2in. broad, lanceolate-deltoid; pinnules ovate-rhomboidal, pinnate, much truncated at the base on the lower side and deeply inciso-pinnatifid. _sori_ linear-oblong, one to each vein. Japan, &c. Greenhouse species. =A. javanicum= (Javanese). _See_ =Allantodia Brunoniana=. =A. lanceolatum= (lanceolate).* _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad; lower pinnæ distant, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad; pinnules oblong-rhomboidal, sharply toothed, and often broadly lobed below. _sori_ copious, when mature covering nearly the whole under surface. South-west Europe, including southern England, &c. Hardy species. =A. l. crispatum= (curled).* _fronds_ 4in. to 8in. long, broadly-lanceolate, bipinnate, with the margins of the pinnules involute and sharply toothed, giving them a curled appearance. =A. l. microdon= (small-toothed).* _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, simply pinnate, with deeply lobed pinnæ, the margins of the lobes very finely dentated and toothed. A pretty little gem, well adapted for case culture. =A. lanceum= (lance-shaped). _sti._ scattered, 4in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, attenuated gradually upwards and downwards, the edge entire or slightly undulated. _sori_ linear, irregular, reaching nearly to the edge, but not to the midrib. Himalayas, &c. Greenhouse species. SYN. _A. subsinuatum_ and _Diplazium lanceum_. =A. laserpitiifolium= (Laserpitium-leaved).* _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long, naked. _fronds_ 1ft. to 4ft. long, 4in. to 18in. broad, deltoid-lanceolate, with numerous pinnæ on each side, 2in. to 9in. long, and from 2in. to 6in. broad, cut down to the rachis into numerous distinct pinnules, the lowest with rhomboidal-cuneate segments. _sori_ short, irregular. Polynesian Islands, North Australia, &c. A very handsome greenhouse species. =A. laxum= (loose). A variety of _A. bulbiferum_. =A. lineatum= (streaked). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, oblong-lanceolate, with twenty to thirty pinnæ on each side, which are 3in. to 4in. long, about 1/2in. broad, acuminate, dentate, nearly or quite sessile, the base cuneate. _sori_ very regular, reaching from the midrib nearly to the edge. Mauritius, &c. There are several forms of this species: those with small narrow cuneate pinnules, _inequale_; those with deeply bifid or pinnatifid pinnules, _bifida_. Stove species. =A. longissimum= (longest).* _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 2ft. to 8ft. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, lanceolate-elongate, pendulous, proliferous, and rooting at the apex, with very numerous pinnæ on each side, which are 2in. to 4in. long, 1/4in. broad, acuminated, the two sides nearly equal, with a distinct central midrib; edge slightly toothed, the base on both sides often auricled. _sori_ numerous, in two regular rows on each side the midrib, and reaching nearly to the edge. Malacca, &c., 1840. A very distinct stove fern for baskets. =A. lucidum= (clear). A synonym of _A. obtusatum lucidum_. =A. lunulatum= (crescent-shaped).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 18in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, simply pinnate, narrowly lanceolate-oblong, with twelve to twenty pinnæ on each side, which are 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, bluntish or acute, more or less deeply inciso-crenate throughout, the two sides unequal; the upper one on the base narrowed suddenly, the lower one obliquely truncate; lower pinnæ often deflexed. _sori_ falling short of both edge and midrib. Tropics. SYN. _A. erectum_. =A. l. Fernandesianum= (Fernandez).* A form with a more rigid rachis and sub-coriaceous, rather narrower pinnæ. Juan Fernandez. =A. macrocarpum= (large-fruited). _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 24in. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, ovate-lanceolate, with numerous pinnæ on each side, the lowest 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, lanceolate; pinnules oblong-rhomboidal, inciso-crenate or pinnatifid. _sori_ copious, large. Himalayas. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Athyrium macrocarpum_. =A. macrophyllum= (long-leaved). Synonymous with _A. nitens_. =A. marginatum= (margined). _sti._ 2ft. to 3ft. long, strong, erect woody, about 1/2in. thick at the base. _fronds_ simply pinnate, 4ft. to 6ft. long; pinnæ in several opposite pairs, the lowest 1ft. to 2ft. long, 3in. to 4in. broad, the edge entire, the base often cordate. _sori_ long, linear, confined to the free veins. Tropical America. Stove species. SYN. _Hemidictyum marginatum_. =A. marinum= (sea).* Sea Spleenwort. _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 18in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, oblong-lanceolate, apex pinnatifid; pinnæ of the lower half quite deltoid, the point acute or obtuse, margin crenato-dentate. _sori_ broad, falling short of the edge. Europe, including Britain. Although perfectly hardy, this requires to be grown in a frame or cool house. =A. m. coronans= (crowned).* _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, simply pinnate; pinnæ for two-thirds of the way up variable in form, and irregularly lobed and cut; the upper third freely branched with numerous imbricated, curled, and slightly crested divisions, forming a dense head 2in. or more across. A dwarf and pretty form. =A. m. crenatum= (crenated). _fronds_ 4in. to 8in. long, broadly-lanceolate; pinnæ nearly trapeziform, obtuse, with deeply crenated margins. A very pretty form. =A. m. mirabile= (wonderful).* _sti._ 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ about the same length, the rachis divided about half way down from the top into two nearly equal divisions, which are again freely forked, with the pinnules and segments obtusely lobed; the whole expanded, but not crested, into a breadth equal to the length of the frond; the lower pinnæ are more or less abnormal and bluntly lobed. =A. m. plumosum= (feathery).* _sti._ 3in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 15in. long, bi- or tripinnatifid, broadly-lanceolate; pinnæ very variable, closely set, and imbricated, cut nearly to the rachis into ovate or oblong divisions, which are again more or less deeply cut and lobed, the entire frond having a very elegant appearance. =A. m. ramo-plumosum= (branched and feathery).* _fronds_ divided nearly to the top of the stipes into two main branches, which are distinctly pinnate; pinnæ distant below, imbricated upwards, cut nearly to the rachis into ovate or oblong lobes, the margins of which are slightly dentated. It is a very handsome form, the width of the frond being greater than its length. =A. m. ramosum= (branched). _fronds_ from 4in. to 8in. long, branched at the apices; pinnæ oblong, with the margins obtusely-dentate, and slightly undulated. =A. m. sub-bipinnatum= (half-bipinnate). _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, lanceolate; pinnæ distant, deeply lobed, or cut nearly to the midribs. A very rare and pretty variety. =A. m. Thompsonii= (Thompson's).* _sti._ 3in. to 4in. long, smooth. _fronds_ 6in. to 10in. long, ovate-lanceolate, bipinnatifid; pinnæ closely set, sub-deltoid, unequal-sided, deeply cut into oblong, slightly undulated lobes below, gradually less divided upwards. A very rare and handsome variety. All the forms of _A. marinum_ require a very moist atmosphere, consequently they will not thrive in the open air, unless along the sea-coast. =A. maximum= (largest). _cau._ erect. _sti._ 2ft. or more long. _fronds_ several feet long, 2ft. to 3ft. broad, deltoid-lanceolate, with numerous pinnæ on each side, the lowest 9in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 8in. broad; pinnules sub-sessile, 2in. to 4in. long, 3/4in. broad; edge more or less lobed. _sori_ medial, the lowest two lines long. North India. Stove species. SYNS. _A. diversifolium_ and _Diplazium decurrens_. =A. melanocaulon= (black-stiped).* _sti._ 1ft. to 2ft. long. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 9in. to 18in. broad; lower pinnæ 4in. to 9in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad; pinnules lanceolate, 2in. to 3in. long, 3/4in. broad, cut down two-thirds of the way to the rachis into linear-oblong, falcate, inciso-crenate lobes. _sori_ short, oblong, not touching either midrib or edge. Fiji. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium melanocaulon_. =A. Michauxii= (Michaux's).* _cau._ stout. _sti._ 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 9in. to 24in. long, 3in. to 9in. broad, ovate-deltoid, bi- or tripinnate; pinnules oblong, deeply serrate, or cut quite to the rachis. United States. A very handsome hardy species, closely related to the Lady Fern, of which it may be only a variety. =A. monanthemum= (one-flowered).* _sti._ densely tufted, 3in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, about 1in. broad, with twenty to forty horizontal, sessile, sub-dimidiate pinnæ on each side, which are about 1/2in. long and 1/4in. deep, the upper side crenate, suddenly narrowed at the base, the lower more or less distinctly cut away in a straight, or, in the lower pinnæ, decurved line. _sori_ linear-oblong, usually one or two, parallel with the lower edge of the pinnæ. Temperate regions of both hemispheres. Greenhouse species. =A. montanum= (mountain).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 3in. long. _fronds_ 2in. to 3in. long, 1in. broad, lanceolate-deltoid; lowest pinnæ distinctly stalked, deltoid, sharply serrated round the outer edge. _sori_ short, copious. United States, 1812. Frame or greenhouse species. =A. multisectum= (much-cut). Synonymous with _A. aspidioides_. =A. musæfolium= (Musa-leaved). A variety of _A. Nidus_. =A. myriophyllum= (myriad-leaved). A variety of _A. rhizophyllum_. [Illustration: FIG. 172. ASPLENIUM NIDUS.] =A. Nidus= (nest).* Bird's-nest Fern. _fronds_ undivided, 2ft. to 4ft. long, 3in. to 8in. broad, lanceolate, acute or acuminate at the apex, tapering gradually below into a short stem; the edge entire, the midrib rounded on the back; veins fine and parallel, about 1/2in. apart. _sori_ reaching about half way towards the margin. India, &c., 1820. SYN. _A. australasicum_. See Fig. 172. =A. N. australasicum= (Australian). Midrib keeled on the back, often black. Australia, &c. The two former are best treated in the stove; the latter thrives well in the greenhouse. SYN. _Thamnopteris australasicum_. =A. N. musæfolium= (Musa-leaved).* _fronds_ larger, sometimes 6ft. long, 1ft. broad. _sori_ extending nearly to the edge. =A. nitens= (shining). _sti._ scattered, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, with twelve to twenty ascending or sub-falcate pinnæ on each side, which are 4in. to 6in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad, much acuminated; edge finely toothed, base broadly rounded on the upper, truncate in a curve on the lower side. _sori_ in close regular rows, not extending more than half way from the midrib to the edge. Mauritius. Stove species. SYN. _A. macrophyllum_, of gardens only. =A. nitidum= (shining).* _sti._ 1ft. long, naked. _fronds_ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, with many lanceolate-deltoid pinnæ on each side, which are cut down to the rachis into numerous stalked deltoid pinnules, these are again cut into broad fan-shaped cuneate segments, sharply serrated round the outer edge. _sori_ short. North India, Ceylon, &c. Greenhouse species. =A. novæ-caledoniæ= (New Caledonian).* _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 9in. to 12in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, sub-deltoid, tripinnate; lower pinnæ and pinnules deltoid; segments rigid, scarcely flattened, 1/2in. or more long, distant, and erecto-patent. _sori_ long, linear, marginal. New Caledonia. A rare greenhouse species. SYN. _Darea novæ-caledoniæ_. =A. obtusatum= (obtuse). _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 3in. to 4in. broad, oblong or ovate-deltoid, with a terminal pinna not much longer than the others, and two to six pairs on each side, which are 1in. to 2in. long and about 1/2in. broad, obtuse, edge crenate, the base truncato-cuneate, shortly stalked. _sori_ copious, broad, linear-oblong, falling short of the edge. Peru. _A. difforme_ is a variety with an ovate-deltoid frond, and the pinnæ cut quite down to a narrow-winged rachis in the lower part into distinctly separated roundish or oblong-sinuated pinnules. New Zealand, Australia, &c. Greenhouse kinds. =A. o. lucidum= (clear).* _fronds_ often 2ft. long, with fifteen to twenty pairs of pinnæ on each side, which are more herbaceous in texture, darker green in colour, the lowest 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, narrowed gradually to a long acuminated point, edge more deeply toothed. Greenhouse variety. SYN. _A. lucidum_. =A. obtusifolium= (obtuse-leaved).* _sti._ almost tufted, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, ovate-lanceo-late, with twelve to twenty stalked horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 2in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, acute; edges slightly undulato-crenate, the upper side with a distinct auricle at the base, and then narrowed suddenly, the lower side obliquely truncate. _sori_ distant, in two regular rows, falling short of the edge. West Indies, &c., 1838. Stove species. =A. obtusilobum= (obtuse-lobed).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, with nine to twelve sub-deltoid pinnæ on each side, of which only the inner third on the lower side is cut away, the largest nearly 1in. long, 3/4in. broad; lowest pinnules 3/8in. deep, flabellately cut into three to five linear blunt lobes. _sori_ sub-marginal. New Hebrides, 1861. A very pretty little stove species. SYN. _Darea obtusiloba_. =A. odontites= (much-toothed). Synonymous with _A. flaccidum_. =A. oxyphyllum= (sharp-leaved).* _sti._ firm, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, lanceolate, with several pinnæ on each side, which are 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad; pinnules lanceolate, in the larger forms again pinnatifid; teeth mucronate. _sori_ in two rows on the pinnæ or pinnules midway between the midrib and edge. Himalayas. A very variable greenhouse species. SYNS. _Athyrium oxyphylla_ and _Lastrea eburnea_. =A. paleaceum= (scaly).* _sti._ densely tufted, 1in. to 3in. long, spreading, densely scaly. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, sometimes proliferous and rooting at the apex, with twelve to twenty sub-sessile pinnæ on each side, which are 1in. long, about 1/2in. broad, bluntish; edge inciso-dentate, the upper base auricled and narrowed suddenly, the lower obliquely-truncate; the lower ones stalked, and nearly as broad as long. _sori_ linear, extending nearly to the edge. Tropical Australia. Stove or warm greenhouse species. =A. palmatum= (palmate). Synonymous with _A. Hemionitis_. =A. parvulum= (small). Synonymous with _A. trilobum_. =A. persicifolium= (Peach-leaved). _sti._ and _rachis_ grey, with a few scattered minute grey scales. _fronds_ oblong-lanceolate, 2ft. to 3ft. long, often gemmiferous at the apex; pinnæ ascending, fifteen to thirty-jugate, sub-petiolate, 4in. to 5in. long, linear-ligulate-acuminate, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, distinctly crenate throughout. _sori_ regular, reaching nearly to midrib and edge. Philippine and Sandwich Isles. Stove species. =A. Petrarchæ= (Petrarch's).* _sti._ densely tufted, 1in. to 2in. long. _fronds_ 2in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. broad, linear-lanceolate, with six to ten horizontal sessile pinnæ on each side, which are 1/4in. long and nearly as much broad, cordate-ovate, blunt; edge sinuated; the base unequal, slightly truncate on the lower side. _sori_ oblong, very short, four to six on each side of the midrib. South Europe, 1819. A very rare little gem, best treated in a cool house. =A. pinnatifidum= (pinnatifid). _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. or more broad at the base, lanceolate-deltoid, with a long, gradually narrowing point, which is sinuated only; the lobes below this 1/4in. to 1/2in. deep; the lowest ovate-oblong, 1/2in. deep by nearly as broad, sinuated and reaching down nearly to the rachis. _sori_ copious. Pennsylvania. Greenhouse or sheltered places outside. =A. planicaule= (flat-stiped).* _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 6in. long, naked. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, with twelve to twenty stalked horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, acute; edge lobed about half-way down, and deeply serrated. _sori_ copious, reaching nearly to the edge. Himalayas, up to 6000ft., &c., 1841. Greenhouse species. =A. plantagineum= (Plantain-like). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad, simple, acuminate, base rounded; edge slightly undulato-dentate upwards, sometimes lobed towards the base. _sori_ slender, linear, sometimes nearly touching both edge and midrib. West Indies, &c., 1819. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium plantagineum_. =A. polyphyllum= (many-leaved). Synonymous with _A. acuminatum_. =A. præmorsum= (bitten). Synonymous with _A. furcatum_. =A. prolongatum= (prolonged). Synonymous with _A. rutæfolium_. =A. pulchellum= (pretty).* _sti._ tufted. 1in. to 2in. long. _fronds_ 3in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, with twelve to eighteen pinnæ on each side, which are 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, two lines to three lines broad, bluntish, almost dimidiate; the upper edge crenate, and narrowed suddenly at the base. _sori_ linear, oblique, falling short of the edge. Tropical America. Stove species. =A. pumilum= (small). _sti._ tufted, 3in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. each way, deltoid, the upper part sinuated only, the lower cut down to the rachis into distinct pinnæ, of which the lowest pair are much the largest; the pinnules on the lower side sometimes 2in. long, reaching down to a slightly winged rachis, acuminate and deeply lobed. _sori_ very oblique, the lower ones sometimes 1in. long. West Indies, &c., 1823. A very rare and pretty stove species. =A. rachirhizon= (rachis-rooting). A variety of _A. rhizophorum_. [Illustration: FIG. 173. ASPLENIUM RADICANS.] =A. radicans= (rooting). _cau._ erect, sub-arborescent. _sti._ 1ft. to 2ft. long, tufted. _fronds_ 3ft. to 5ft. long, 2ft. to 3ft. broad, deltoid; lower pinnæ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 8in. broad; pinnules lanceolate, sessile, the upper ones entire, lower ones 3in. to 4in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, with blunt lobes, 1/4in. broad, reaching about half way down to the rachis. Lower _sori_ sometimes 1/4in. long. Tropical America. A very variable species. SYNS. _A. giganteum_, _Diplazium radicans_, _D. umbrosum_, &c. See Fig. 173. =A. refractum= (refracted). A variety of _A. fontanum_. =A. resectum= (cut or pared).* _sti._ scattered, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 15in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, lanceolate-oblong, with ten to thirty sub-sessile horizontal pinnæ on each side, which are 1in. to 3in. long, 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, almost dimidiate, the point bluntish, all except the truncate part crenate, the upper half at the base narrowed nearly at a right angle. _sori_ not reaching either the midrib or edge. India, &c., widely distributed, 1820. Greenhouse species. =A. rhizophorum= (root-bearing).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, elongated, and rooting at the apex; pinnæ twelve to thirty on each side, sub-sessile, 1-1/2in. to 2in. long, about 1/2in. broad, inciso-dentate throughout; the two sides unequal, the upper one auricled and narrowed, the lower one obliquely cuneate. _sori_ not reaching either to the edge or midrib. Tropical America. A very variable stove species. _A. r. rachirhizon_, has distinctly separated oblong-rhomboidal pinnules, again deeply cut into narrow segments. =A. rhizophyllum= (leaf-rooting). _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, cut down into numerous close-placed horizontal pinnæ on each side; central ones 1in. long, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, cut down throughout nearly to the centre into simple or forked erecto-patent pinnules, the lowest on the under side suppressed. _sori_ solitary, sub-marginal. _A. r. myriophyllum_ is a variety with broader fronds; central pinnæ 1-1/2in. long, with lower pinnules cut down into several simple or forked linear segments. North America, &c., 1680. Both handsome greenhouse kinds. =A. rutæfolium= (Rue-leaved).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 15in. long, 2in. to 4in. broad, ovate deltoid, with twelve to twenty pinnæ on each side, the lowest sub-deltoid, 2in. or more long, cut down to the rachis into numerous erecto-patent distant pinnules on each side, the lowest on the upper side again cut down into erecto-patent linear segments. _sori_ small, marginal. Cape Colony. A beautiful greenhouse species. SYNS. _A. prolongatum_ and _Darea rutæfolia_. =A. Ruta-muraria= (Wall-rue).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 1in. to 2in. long, about 1in. broad, deltoid, cut down to the rachis into a few pinnæ on each side, the lower ones again cut down into spathulato-cuneate pinnules, which are serrated round the outer edge. _sori_ copious. Great Britain, and almost worldwide in its distribution. Hardy species. This requires a well-drained position, and a soil composed mainly of old mortar rubbish. =A. salicifolium= (Willow-leaved). _sti._ tufted, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, oblong, with a terminal pinna and four to ten distinctly stalked ones on each side, which are 4in. to 6in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, acuminate; edge usually entire, the base equally truncato-cuneate on both sides. _sori_ falling short both of the edge and midrib. West Indies, &c. Stove species. =A. Sandersoni= (Sanderson's).* _sti._ tufted, 1in. to 2in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, linear, often gemmiferous at the apex, with twelve to twenty horizontal dimidiate pinnæ on each side, which are deeply crenate on the upper edge, and at the base narrowed suddenly into a winged petiole, the lower one nearly straight and quite entire. _sori_ oblong. Natal, &c. A very rare greenhouse species. =A. schizodon= (cut-toothed). Synonymous with _A. Vieillardii_. =A. Schkuhrii= (Schkuhr's). _cau._ erect. _sti._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long. _fronds_ deltoid, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. long, tripinnatifid; lower pinnæ distant, oblong-lanceolate, 6in. to 8in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad, rachis winged to base; pinnules ligulate-oblong, 3/8in. broad, sessile, cut into shallow, close, oblong blunt lobes. _sori_ 1/8in., medial in a single row in the pinnules. Ceylon. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium Schkuhrii_. =A. Selosii= (Selose's).* _sti._ densely tufted, 1in. to 2in. long, wiry. _fronds_ 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, palmately cleft, usually into three nearly equal forks, which are about one line broad, the edge slightly inciso-serrate. _sori_ copious, ultimately occupying the whole surface. Tyrol and Carinthia. A very rare and curious little species, requiring the protection of the frame or cool house; it should be firmly potted between pieces of sandstone in loam, leaf-soil, rock chippings and sand, with good drainage. =A. septentrionale= (northern).* _sti._ densely tufted, 3in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ simple, or cleft from the apex into two or three cuneate divisions, 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, one line broad, with a few sharp lateral and terminal teeth. _sori_ elongated, copious, often at last hiding the whole under surface. Great Britain, and widely distributed in both hemispheres. This rare little species requires to be securely planted in a well-drained elevated chink of the fernery outside, in loamy, gritty soil. =A. Shepherdi= (Shepherd's).* _sti._ tufted, 1ft. long. _fronds_ 12in. to 18in. long, 6in. to 9in. broad; lower pinnæ stalked, 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad, point acuminate, edge lobed above, 1/4in. broad, somewhat toothed. _sori_ linear, not reaching the edge. South America. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium Shepherdi_. =A. S. inæquilaterum= (unequal-sided). _fronds_, texture firm, colour duller than that of the type; pinnæ much acuminated; the lobes deeper, more uniform, and falcate, the two sides unequal, the lower one unequally truncate at the base. =A. spathulinum= (spathulate). A synonym of _A. affine_. =A. spinulosum= (very spiny).* _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, scattered. _fronds_ 9in. to 12in. each way, deltoid, tri- or quadripinnatifid, with nine to twelve pinnæ on each side, the lowest much the largest, 6in. to 9in. long, 2-1/2in. to 3in. broad, ovate-lanceolate; pinnules lanceolate, cut down to the rachis on each side into six to nine oblong-rhomboidal mucronate segments, two lines long, one line broad, which are sharply toothed. _sori_ two to ten to a segment, usually round, but occasionally oblong. Amur-land, &c. Greenhouse species. SYN. _Athyrium spinulosum_ and _Cystopteris spinulosa_. =A. splendens= (splendid). _rhiz._ creeping, scaly. _sti._ 6in. to 9in. _fronds_ deltoid, 6in. to 1ft. long, two to three-pinnate; lower pinnæ stalked, deltoid, 1in. to 2in. broad, pinnate or bipinnate; segments cuneate-flabellate, 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, slightly lobed, sharply toothed round outer edge. _sori_ copious, slender, irregular, reaching from base nearly to tip of segments. Cape Colony. A very rare greenhouse species. =A. subsinuatum= (half-waved). Synonymous with _A. lanceum_. =A. sundense= (Sundanese). Synonymous with _A. vittæforme_. =A. sylvaticum= (woods). _cau._ decumbent. _sti._ 1ft. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, ovate-lanceolate, with numerous spreading pinnæ, the largest 3in. to 4in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, acuminated; edge broadly and briefly lobed; base narrowed suddenly on both sides. _sori_ in long slender lines, reaching nearly to the edge. India, &c. Stove species. =A. thelypteroides= (Thelypteris-like). _sti._ 1ft. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, lanceolate, with numerous spreading pinnæ, the lower ones 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. broad, cut down to a broadly-winged rachis into numerous nearly entire elliptical spreading pinnules. _sori_ in close regular rows, reaching nearly from the midrib to the edge, slightly curved, the lower ones often double. North America, &c., 1823. Hardy or cool house species. SYN. _Athyrium thelypteroides_. =A. Thwaitesii= (Thwaites's).* _rhiz._ wide-creeping, stout. _sti._ 6in. long, slender, densely clothed with strong white woolly hairs. _fronds_ 1ft. or more long, 4in. to 6in. broad, with eight to ten distinct pinnæ beneath the pinnatifid apex, the largest 3in. long, 5/8in. broad, cut down two-thirds of the way to the rachis in oblong crenulated lobes, 1/4in. deep, two lines across. _sori_ reaching half-way to the edge, the lowest about one line long. Ceylon. Very fine stove species. SYN. _Diplazium Thwaitesii_. [Illustration: FIG. 174. ASPLENIUM TRICHOMANES.] =A. Trichomanes= (maiden-hair).* Maidenhair Spleenwort. _sti._ densely tufted, 1in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, about 1/2in. broad, with fifteen to thirty opposite pairs of sessile horizontal pinnæ, which are 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, one and a-half to two lines deep, edge slightly crenate, the two sides unequal, the upper one the broadest, and narrowed suddenly at the base. _sori_ linear-oblong, three to six on each side of the midrib. Great Britain, and almost cosmopolitan. Hardy species. See Fig. 174. There are several varieties in cultivation, of which the following are the most important: [Illustration: FIG. 175. ASPLENIUM TRICHOMANES CRISTATUM.] =A. T. cristatum= (crested).* _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, simply pinnate, with roundish pinnæ, and broad crests at their extremities, sometimes divided, each fork crested. A very pretty little variety, requiring frame or greenhouse treatment. See Fig. 175. =A. T. incisum= (deeply-cut).* _fronds_ 3in. to 6in. long; pinnæ deeply pinnatifid, the lobes again deeply cut or serrated. A very rare and pretty form. =A. T. multifidum= (much-divided).* _fronds_ 3in. to 6in. long, once, twice, thrice, or, rarely, quadri-furcate, each division terminated with a little crest. A free-growing kind. =A. T. ramosum= (branched).* _fronds_ 5in. to 8in. long, freely branched, each division being again forked; pinnæ deeply cut or crenated, or serrate. More hardy than any of the other forms. =A. trilobum= (three-lobed).* _sti._ tufted, 2in. to 3in. long. _fronds_ 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1in. broad, rhomboidal, apex acute, base cuneate, entire, the margin undulato-crenate, or the lower part deeply lobed, with broad inciso-crenate divisions. _sori_ broad and short. Chili and South Brazil. A very rare little stove species. SYN. _A. parvulum_. =A. umbrosum= (shady). _sti._ 1ft. or more long, scaly at the base. _fronds_ 2ft. to 5ft. long, 12in. to 18in. broad, ovate-deltoid; pinnæ ovate-lanceolate, 6in. to 9in. long, 3in. to 6in. broad, with lanceolate pinnules, which are again cut down to the midribs into unequal-sided rhomboidal lobes, with the margins sharply crenated. _sori_ copious, oblong, with large tumid membranous involucres. Madeira, Canaries, Himalayas, &c. Very widely distributed. A very handsome greenhouse species. SYNS. _Allantodia australe_, _Athyrium umbrosum_. =A. varians= (variable). _sti._ tufted, 1in. to 3in. long. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, 1in. broad, oblong-lanceolate, with eight to twelve pairs of pinnæ on each side, lower ones sub-deltoid, 1/2in. to 3/4in. long, 1/4in. broad, cut down to the rachis into a few cuneato-flabellate pinnules, the lowest two lines across, sharply toothed on the outer edge. _sori_ copious, when mature, covering nearly the whole under surface of the pinnules. Himalayas, and widely distributed. Greenhouse species. =A. Veitchianum= (Veitch's). Synonymous with _A. Belangeri_. =A. Vieillardii= (Vieillard's).* _sti._ tufted, 4in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, 6in. to 8in. broad, with large linear-lanceolate terminal pinna, lengthened out at the point, and deeply serrated, and three to four pairs of erecto-patent similar lateral ones, which are 3in. to 4in. long, upwards of 1/2in. broad, equally truncato-cuneate, and the lower ones slightly stalked at the base. _sori_ distant, falling short of both edge and margin. New Caledonia. A very graceful greenhouse species. SYN. _A. schizodon_. _A. apicidens_ is but a variety of this, with shortened sori and more obtuse venation. [Illustration: FIG. 176. ASPLENIUM VIRIDE, showing Barren and Fertile Pinnæ (_a_ and _b_), Sorus (_c_), and Sporangium (_d_).] =A. viride= (green). Green Spleenwort.* _sti._ densely tufted, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ 4in. to 6in. long, 1/2in. broad, with twelve to twenty sub-sessile pinnæ on each side, ovate-rhomboid; upper edge narrowed suddenly at the base, the lower one obliquely truncate, outer part deeply crenated. _sori_ copious, linear-oblong, oblique. Great Britain, &c., widely distributed in both hemispheres. It requires to be planted in a well-drained but moist situation. Hardy species. See Fig. 176. =A. vittæforme= (narrow-fronded).* _rhiz._ creeping. _sti._ short, erect. _fronds_ entire, lanceolate, 12in. to 18in. long, 1-1/2in. to 3in. broad, narrowed to an acute point, and very gradually into the stem below; margin obscurely toothed. _sori_ copious, often reaching from the midrib nearly to the edge. Java, &c. Stove species. SYN. _A. sundense_. =A. viviparum= (plant-bearing).* _sti._ tufted. 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 6in. to 8in. broad, ovate-lanceolate, with numerous close-placed erecto-patent pinnæ on each side, which are 3in. to 4in. long, 1-1/2. to 2in. broad, cut down to a compressed rachis into numerous pinnatifid pinnules, the lower segments of which are again forked; ultimate segments 1/4in. to 3/8in. long, quarter-line broad. _sori_ solitary, marginal. Mauritius, &c., 1820. A very handsome stove species. =A. vulcanicum= (volcanic). _sti._ 6in. to 9in. long. _fronds_ 1ft. to 2ft. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, oblong-lanceolate, with a linear-terminal pinna, or gemmiferous at the apex, and six to twelve lateral ones on each side; lower ones stalked, 2in. to 4in. long, 3/4in. to 1in. broad, acuminated; edge slightly dentate; the base truncate. _sori_ very regular and parallel, falling short of the edge. Malay Islands. Stove species. SYN. _A. heterodon_. =A. zeylanicum= (Ceylonese).* _sti._ scattered, 4in. to 8in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. to 2in. broad, the point acuminated, apex slightly lobed, the lower two-thirds more deeply so, and the base quite down to the rachis; lobes blunt, 1/4in. to 1/2in. across. _sori_ linear, two to three lines long. Ceylon. Stove species. SYN. _Diplazium zeylanicum_. =ASSONIA= (commemorative of Ignatius de Asso, a distinguished Spanish botanist, who wrote on the plants of Arragon). ORD. _Sterculiaceæ_. This genus is now included by best authorities under _Dombeya_. Ornamental stove evergreen trees, with undivided leaves, and axillary, bifid, sub-corymbose peduncles. They are of easy culture; thriving freely in any light rich soil, or a mixture of loam and peat. Young cuttings will root freely in sand, with a brisk bottom heat, if covered by a bell glass. =A. populnea= (Poplar-leaved). _fl._ white, disposed in a terminal, bifid corymb; peduncles scarcely longer than the petioles. June. _l._ cordate, acuminated, smooth, a little serrated. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. Bourbon, 1820. =A. viburnoides= (Viburnum-like). _fl._ white; peduncles three times longer than the petioles. _l._ cordate, somewhat acuminate, crenated, tomentose beneath, as well as younger leaves. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. Bourbon, 1822. =ASTARTEA= (a mythological name: Astarte, the Syrian Venus). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. An ornamental greenhouse evergreen shrub, requiring a mixture of loam, peat, leaf soil, and sand. Young cuttings root readily in sand under a bell glass in gentle heat. =A. fascicularis= (bundle-flowered). _fl._ white, pedicellate, solitary, axillary. May. _l._ opposite, linear, fleshy; when young, disposed in axillary fascicles. _h._ 6ft. to 9ft. West Australia, 1830. =ASTELMA= (from _a_, not, and _stelma_, a crown; in reference to the construction of the fruit). ORD. _Compositæ_. Greenhouse evergreen shrubs from the Cape of Good Hope. Some species of this genus, which is now generally referred to _Helipterum_, are very handsome, and thrive well in a mixture of fibrous peat, leaf soil, and sand, with thorough drainage. Fill the pots one-third full of crocks; water carefully, and only when absolutely necessary; and place in a situation near the glass, allowing a free admission of air. Seeds should be sown in pots of light, open soil, and placed in a gentle heat; half-ripened cuttings will strike readily in sandy soil with a hand glass placed over them. They are now but rarely seen under cultivation. =A. canescens= (hoary). _fl.-heads_ purple; scales of involucre ovate; branches one-flowered. May to June. _l._ oblong, blunt, imbricated. _h._ 1-1/2ft. 1794. =A. eximium= (fine).* _fl.-heads_ crimson; corymbs sessile. July. _l._ sessile, ovate, close, erect, white with thick woolly pubescence. Stem stout. _h._ 3ft. 1793. This is a very beautiful species. =A. speciosissimum= (showiest). _fl.-heads_ white, large, solitary, terminal. July. _l._ sessile, lanceolate-obovate, acute, three-nerved, woolly. _h._ 8ft. 1691. =ASTEPHANUS= (from _a_, without, and _stephanos_, a corona; corona absent). ORD. _Asclepiadeæ_. A genus of pretty evergreen greenhouse twiners. Flowers few, small, disposed in interpetiolar umbels; corolla campanulate. Leaves small, opposite. They thrive in a compost of turfy peat, leaf soil, and loam, in equal parts. Very little water is required when the plants are at rest. Cuttings root readily in sandy soil in a moderate heat. Propagation may also be effected by division. =A. linearis= (linear). _fl._ white; umbels dividing in threes, lateral and terminal. July. _l._ 1in. long, opposite, linear-lanceolate. Stem glabrous. Cape of Good Hope, 1816. =A. triflorus= (three-flowered).* _fl._ white; umbels generally three-flowered. July. _l._ opposite, lanceolate, villous beneath. Stems hairy. Cape of Good Hope, 1816. =ASTER= (from _aster_, a star; general shape of flower-heads). Michaelmas Daisy; Star-wort. SYN. _Pinardia_ (of Necker). ORD. _Compositæ_. Hardy herbaceous perennials, except where otherwise stated. Heads solitary, corymbose, or panicled, heterogamous, rayed; ray florets pistiliferous, one or two-seriate, fertile or neuter; ligule elongated, white, blue, or purple; disk florets hermaphrodite, fertile, tubular, yellow, five-cleft; involucre campanulate or hemispheric; bracts few or many-seriate, outer smaller or larger; receptacle flat or convex; pappus hairs few or copious, scabrid, outer sometimes shorter, rigid, and paleaceous. Leaves alternate. This large genus contains many handsome border and alpine deciduous perennials (rarely biennials) of easy culture in ordinary soil. They may be propagated by divisions in autumn or spring, or by seeds in spring. The greenhouse species are mostly evergreen shrubs, requiring a compost of peat, leaf soil, and loam. Cuttings root readily in a sandy soil, under a hand glass, with very little heat. =A. acris= (acrid). _fl.-heads_ blue; involucre imbricated, twice as short as the disk. August. _l._ linear-lanceolate, not dotted, three-nerved. _h._ 2ft. South Europe, 1731. =A. acuminatus= (taper-pointed).* _fl.-heads_ white; panicle corymbose. September. _l._ broad-lanceolate, narrowed at base, entire, with a very long point. Stem simple, flexuous, angular. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1806. =A. adulterinus= (false). _fl.-heads_ violet; involucre squarrose, shorter than the disk. September. _l._ amplexicaul, lanceolate; lower ones sub-serrate, smooth; those of the branches linear squarrose. _h._ 3ft. North America. =A. æstivus= (summer-flowering).* _fl.-heads_ blue. July. _l._ lanceolate, somewhat amplexicaul, narrowed at the end, scabrous at edge. Stem erect, hispid; branchlets pilose. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1776. =A. albescens= (whitish). _fl.-heads_ purple or whitish, nearly 1in. across; corymbosely panicled; scales of involucre ovate-linear, apiculate; ray twenty-flowered. August. _l._ lanceolate on short petioles, denticulate, downy. Plant beset with rusty down. _h._ 3ft. Nepal, 1842. =A. alpinus= (alpine).* _fl.-heads_ bright purple, 1in. to 2in. across; scales of involucre nearly equal, lanceolate, bluntish. July. _l._, radical ones lanceolate-spathulate; those of the stem lanceolate. Stem one-flowered. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Europe, 1658. A very attractive species, having a dwarf, stout habit; it forms a useful and handsome subject for edging, and its flowers are valuable for cutting purposes. See Fig. 177. =A. a. albus= (white).* _fl.-heads_ white, in other respects resembling the type; but it is much less desirable, and has not nearly so vigorous a habit. Europe, 1827. =A. altaicus= (Altaian).* _fl.-heads_ blue-purple, about 2in. across; stem simple, corymbose, downy. June, July. _l._ linear-lanceolate, entire, blunt mucronate, three-nerved at base, veiny. _h._ 1ft. Siberia, 1804. This, which is frequently considered a variety of _A. alpinus_, is one of the handsomest. =A. alwartensis= (Alwart). _fl.-heads_ red; ray very fine; involucre loosely squarrose. May. _l._ ovate, narrowed at base, entire, about five-nerved. _h._ 1ft. Caucasus, 1807. =A. Amellus= (Amellus).* _fl.-heads_ purple, solitary, numerous; involucre imbricated squarrose; leaves blunt; inner membranous, coloured at edge. August. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, scabrous. _h._ 2ft. Italy, 1596. One of the best border kinds. [Illustration: FIG. 177. ASTER ALPINUS.] =A. A. bessarabicus= (Bessarabian).* A most desirable variety, frequently seen in gardens; it is rather taller than the type, with larger flower-heads, of a deep purple colour. One of the showiest of all the Asters. See Fig. 178. [Illustration: FIG. 178. ASTER AMELLUS BESSARABICUS.] =A. amplexicaulis= (stem-clasping). _fl.-heads_ violet. July. _l._ ovate-oblong, acute, amplexicaul, cordate, serrated, smooth. Stem panicled, smooth; branches one to two-headed. _h._ 3ft. North America. =A. amygdalinus= (Almond-leaved). _fl.-heads_ white; involucre closely imbricated. August. _l._ lanceolate, narrowed at base, acuminated, scabrous at edge. Stem simple, corymbose at end. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1759. =A. argenteus= (silvery).* _fl.-heads_ purple. August. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, silky, sessile. Stem slender, decumbent, loosely branched; branches and branchlets one-headed. _h._ 1ft. North America, 1801. =A. bellidiflorus= (Daisy-flowered). _fl.-heads_ pale red; involucre with spreading scales. September. _l._ amplexicaul, narrow-lanceolate, scabrous above, lower sub-serrated. Stem much branched. _h._ 3ft. North America. =A. Bigelovii= (Bigelow's).* _fl.-heads_ corymbose, 2-1/2in. diameter, ray-florets lilac, disk yellow. Summer. _l._ scabrous pubescent, oblong-spathulate; cauline ones amplexicaul, ovate-oblong, crenate, obscurely-toothed. _h._ 2-1/2ft. Colorado, 1878. A very handsome biennial species. SYN. _A. Townshendi_. =A. blandus= (charming). _fl.-heads_ pale purple; racemes scarcely longer than the leaves. October. _l._ sub-amplexicaul, oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, sessile, smooth. Stem pyramidal. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1800. =A. canescens= (hoary). _fl.-heads_ pale purple; involucre imbricated, very acute, longer than disk. September. _l._ linear. Panicle corymbose, much branched, leafy. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1812. Biennial or perennial. =A. cassiarabicus= (Arabian Cassia). _fl.-heads_ pink; panicles corymbose. September. _l._ ovate, acute, serrated, tapering at the petioles. Plant erect, pilose. _h._ 2ft. Russia, 1834. =A. caucasicus= (Caucasian).* _fl.-heads_ purple, solitary; scales of involucre nearly equal, linear. July. _l._ ovate, sessile, scabrous. _h._ 1ft. Caucasus, 1804. =A. ciliatus= (ciliated). _fl.-heads_ white. September. _l._ ciliated; cauline ones linear-lanceolate, nerved; those of the branches very short lanceolate, three-nerved. Stem branched, downy; branches downy. _h._ 3ft. North America. =A. concinnus= (neat).* _fl.-heads_ purple; involucre closely imbricated. October. _l._ sub-amplexicaul, lanceolate; lower ones sub-serrate, smooth. Stem simple, panicled at end. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1800. =A. concolor= (one-coloured). _fl.-heads_ purple; raceme terminal. October. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, hoary on each side. Stem simple, erect, downy. _h._ 1ft. North America, 1759. =A. conyzioides= (Conyza-like). Synonymous with _Seriocarpus conyzioides_. =A. cordifolius= (heart-leaved). _fl.-heads_ blue, small, disposed in crowded racemes, which are slightly drooping. July. _l._ cordate, pilose beneath, finely serrated, stalked. Stem smoothish, panicled; panicle spreading. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1759. =A. coridifolius= (Coris-leaved). _fl.-heads_ pale blue. October. _l._ very numerous, linear, blunt, reflexed, hispid at edge. Stem branched, diffuse, smooth; branches one-headed. _h._ 1ft. North America. [Illustration: FIG. 179. ASTER CORYMBOSUS, showing Habit and Flower-head.] =A. corymbosus= (corymbose). _fl.-heads_ corymbose, about 1in. in diameter; ray-florets few, narrow, white; disk-florets pale yellow. Autumn. _l._ 3in. long, cordate acute, lobed at the base, coarsely toothed. Stems brittle, blackish purple. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. SYN. _Biotia corymbosa_. See Fig. 179. =A. diffusus= (diffuse). _fl.-heads_ white; involucres imbricated. October. _l._ elliptic-lanceolate, equal, serrated, smooth. Branches spreading. Stem pubescent. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1777. =A. Douglasii= (Douglas's).* _fl.-heads_ purple; involucral scales linear or spathulate-linear, loosely imbricated. August. _l._ lanceolate, acute, entire, or rarely serrate, mostly tapering at the base. Stem smooth, slender, paniculately branched, leafy. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. California, &c. =A. dracunculoides= (Tarragon-like).* _fl.-heads_ white, about 1in. across, disposed in dense cymose clusters; involucre imbricated. September, October. _l._ linear, acuminated, entire; lower ones linear-lanceolate, sub-serrate. Branches corymbose. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1811. A very handsome species. =A. dumosus= (bushy).* _fl.-heads_ white, about 1/2in. across, disposed in broad clusters; involucre cylindrical, closely imbricated. October. _l._ linear, glabrous; those of the branches very short. Branches panicled. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1734. =A. d. albus= (white).* _fl.-heads_ quite white, and rather smaller than those of the species. North America. =A. d. violaceus= (violet). _fl.-heads_ violet-purple. North America. =A. elegans= (elegant). _fl.-heads_ blue, small; corymb contracted, drooping; scales of involucre oblong-cuneate, blunt, squarrose. September. _l._ scabrous; cauline ones oblong-lanceolate, acute; radical ones oblong, stalked. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1790. A very elegant species, having a graceful habit. =A. eminens= (eminent). _fl.-heads_ light blue. October. _l._ linear-lanceolate, acuminate, scabrous at edge; lower ones sub-serrated. Stem panicled; branches one-headed. _h._ 2ft. North America. [Illustration: FIG. 180. ASTER ERICOIDES.] =A. ericoides= (Heath-like).* _fl.-heads_ white; involucre squarrose, leaflets acute. September. _l._ linear, glabrous; those of the branches subulate, close together; and those of the stem long. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1758. A very pretty species. See Fig. 180. =A. floribundus= (many-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ light purple. September. _l._ sub-amplexicaul, lanceolate; lower ones serrated. Stem smooth; branches corymbose. _h._ 4ft. North America. =A. foliosus= (leafy). _fl.-heads_ pale blue; involucre imbricate. September. _l._ linear-lanceolate, acuminate, narrowed at each end. Stem downy, panicled, erect; branches few-headed. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1732. =A. fragilis= (fragile). _fl.-heads_ flesh-coloured, small; involucre imbricated. September. _l._ linear, acuminate, entire; radical ones oblong, serrate. Branches in corymbose panicles. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1800. [Illustration: FIG. 181. ASTER GRANDIFLORUS.] =A. grandiflorus= (large-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ purple, large, terminal; scales of involucre squarrose. November. _l._ linear, rigid, acute, sub-amplexicaul; those of the branches reflexed, hispid at edge. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1720. See Fig. 181. =A. hyssopifolius= (Hyssop-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ white, or purple shaded; scales of the involucre about half as long as the disk. August to October. _l._ linear-lanceolate, acute, with the margins scabrous. Branches fastigiate and corymbose, smooth. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. North America. =A. lævigatus= (smooth-stemmed). _fl.-heads_ flesh-coloured, about 1in. across, disposed in large panicles. September. _l._ sub-amplexicaul, broad-lanceolate, sub-serrate, smooth. Stem glabrous. Branches many-headed. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1794. =A. lævis= (smooth).* _fl.-heads_ blue; involucre imbricated with cuneiform leaflets. September. _l._ sub-amplexicaul, remotely oblong, entire, lucid; radical ones sub-serrated. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1758. One of the best border species. =A. laxus= (loose-flowered). _fl.-heads_ white, about 1in. across; clusters loose. October. _l._ linear-lanceolate, scabrous at edge; lower ones sub-serrated; stem ones reflexed. Stem loosely panicled. _h._ 2ft. North America. =A. linarifolius= (Toad-flax-leaved). _fl.-heads_ pale blue. September. _l._ numerous, linear, mucronated, nerveless, not dotted, keeled, scabrous, rigid. Branches fastigiate, one-headed. _h._ 1ft. North America, 1699. =A. linifolius= (Flax-leaved). _fl.-heads_ white; involucre imbricated, short. July. _l._ linear, nerveless, dotted, scabrous, reflexed, spreading. Branches corymbose, fastigiate, leafy. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1739. =A. longifolius= (long-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ white, 1in. across, in dense corymbose panicles; involucre squarrose. October. _l._ linear-lanceolate, rarely toothed, very long, smooth. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1798. There are several varieties of this handsome species. =A. l. formosus= (charming).* _fl.-heads_ pink, produced in dense corymbs. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. =A. macrophyllus= (large-leaved). _fl.-heads_ white. August. _l._ large, ovate, stalked, serrated, scabrous; upper ones cordate, sessile. Stem branched, diffuse. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1739. =A. multiflorus= (many-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ white, small; corymb large, elongated; involucre imbricated; scales oblong, squarrose, acute. September. _l._ linear, glabrous. Stem much branched, diffuse, downy; branchlets one-sided. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1732. =A. myrtifolius= (Myrtle-leaved). _fl.-heads_ white; involucre imbricated; scales length of disk. August. _l._, stem ones, amplexicaul, scabrous; those of the branches small. _h._ 2ft. 1812. =A. novæ-angliæ= (New England).* _fl.-heads_ purple, in terminal clusters. September. _l._ linear-lanceolate, pilose, amplexicaul, auricled at base. Stem simple, pilose, straight. _h._ 6ft. North America, 1710. One of the best; having a tall and robust habit. =A. n.-a. rubra= (red).* _fl.-heads_ deep red pink, in other respects like the type. North America, 1812. =A. novæ-belgii= (New York).* _fl.-heads_ pale blue. September. _l._ sub-amplexicaul, lanceolate, glabrous, scabrous at edge; lower ones sub-serrated. Branches divided. _h._ 4ft. North America, 1710. There is a variety known in gardens which belongs to this species, under the name of _amethystinus_, the flowers of which are much larger and very showy. =A. obliquus= (oblique). _fl.-heads_ numerous; ray white; disk purplish. Autumn. _l._ alternate; lower ones linear-lanceolate, oblique; upper stem ones smaller. _h._ 5ft. North America. A very fine species, forming large tufts. =A. paniculatus= (panicled).* _fl.-heads_ light blue; involucre loose. September. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, sub-serrated, stalked, smooth; petioles naked. Stem much branched, smooth. _h._ 4ft. North America, 1640. =A. pannonicus= (Pannonian). _fl.-heads_ violet; scales of involucre lanceolate, blunt, equal. July. _l._ linear-lanceolate, hispid at edge. Stem simple, corymbose. _h._ 2ft. Hungary, 1815. =A. patens= (spreading). _fl.-heads_ light purple, about 1in. across. October. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, ciliate, cordate, amplexicaul, scabrous on each side, hairy. Stem branched, hairy. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1773. =A. pendulus= (drooping).* _fl.-heads_ pure white at first, ultimately rosy pink, small. September. _l._ elliptic-lanceolate, serrate, smooth, those of the branches distant. Branches much spreading, pendulous. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1758. A very pretty species. =A. peregrinus= (foreign).* _fl.-heads_ bluish purple, 2in. across. July, August. _l._ lanceolate, sub-acute, entire, smooth, those of the stem rather narrower than the radical ones. Stem smooth, or nearly so, two or three-flowered. _h._ 1ft. North America. A very pretty little species for the rockery or border. =A. pilosus= (pilose). _fl.-heads_ pale blue; involucre oblong, loose, imbricated. September. _l._ linear-lanceolate, hoary. Stem branched, villous; branchlets somewhat one-sided, one-headed. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1812. =A. præcox= (early). _fl.-heads_ violet; involucre imbricated; scales nearly equal; outer scales somewhat spreading. July. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, narrowed at the base. Stem hairy. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1800. =A. pulchellus= (beautiful).* _fl.-heads_ purple, solitary; scales of involucre nearly equal, linear, acuminate. June. _l._, radical ones spathulate; cauline ones linear-lanceolate. _h._ 1ft. Armenia. =A. puniceus= (red-stalked). _fl.-heads_ blue, about 1in. across; panicle large, pyramidal; involucre loose, longer than the disk. September. _l._ amplexicaul, lanceolate, serrate, roughish. Branches panicled. _h._ 6ft. North America, 1710. =A. pyrenæus= (Pyrenean).* _fl.-heads_ lilac-blue (disk yellow), large, three to five in a short corymb. July. _l._ scabrous on both sides; cauline ones oblong-lanceolate, acute, sessile, sharply serrated on the upper part. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Pyrenees. =A. Reevesi= (Reeves's). _fl.-heads_ white, with yellow centre, small; panicle dense, pyramidal. Autumn. _l._ linear, acute. Branches slender. _h._ 9in. to 12in. North America. A very desirable species, suitable for rockwork. =A. reticulatus= (netted). _fl.-heads_ white. July. _l._ lanceolate-oblong, acute at each end, sessile, revolute at end, netted, and three-nerved beneath. Plant hoary all over. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1812. =A. rubricaule= (red-stemmed). Synonymous with _A. spurius_. =A. salicifolius= (Willow-leaved). _fl.-heads_ flesh-coloured; involucre lanceolate, imbricate; scales acute, spreading at end. September. _l._ linear-lanceolate, nearly entire, smooth. Stem smooth, panicled at end. _h._ 6ft. North America, 1760. =A. salsuginosus= (salt-plains).* _fl.-heads_ violet-purple; involucral scales linear, loose, glandular. July. _l._ entire, the lower spathulate, obovate, tapering into a margined petiole; the upper ones lanceolate, acute, with broad base, usually sub-amplexicaul. Stem minutely pubescent, leafy nearly to the top, few-flowered. _h._ 9in. to 18in. North America, 1827. A very handsome species. =A. s. elatior= (tallest). This variety grows 2ft. or more high, and has rather larger flowers than the type. North America. =A. sericeus= (silky). _fl.-heads_ deep blue; terminal, about 1-1/2in. across. Summer and autumn. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, sessile, entire, three-nerved, silky with down. _h._ 3ft. Missouri, 1802. This is a half-hardy evergreen shrub, and requires a warm, well-drained soil. =A. serotinus= (late-flowering). _fl.-heads_ blue. September. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, sessile, smooth, scabrous at edge; lower ones serrated; branches corymbose, smooth. _h._ 3ft. North America. =A. Shortii= (Short's). _fl.-heads_ purplish blue, about 1in. across; panicles long, racemose. Autumn. _l._ lanceolate, elongated, acuminated, cordate at the base. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Stem slender, spreading. North America. =A. sibiricus= (Siberian). _fl.-heads_ blue; involucre loose; leaflets lanceolate, acuminate, hispid. August. _l._ lanceolate, sub-amplexicaul, serrate, pilose, scabrous. _h._ 2ft. Siberia, 1768. =A. sikkimensis= (Sikkimese).* _fl.-heads_ purple; leaflets of involucre linear, acuminate, sub-squarrose. October. _l._ lanceolate, acuminate, spinosely denticulate; radical ones on longer petioles; cauline ones sessile; corymbs large, of many heads, leafy, erect, glabrous, branched. _h._ 3ft. Sikkim, 1850. =A. spectabilis= (showy).* _fl.-heads_ blue; scales of involucre loose, leafy. August. _l._ lanceolate, roughish, somewhat amplexicaul; lower ones serrate in the middle. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1777. A very pretty species. =A. spurius= (spurious). _fl.-heads_ purple, large, few; inner scales of involucre coloured. September. _l._ linear-lanceolate, amplexicaul, polished. Stem virgate, panicled. Branches racemose. _h._ 4ft. North America, 1789. SYN. _A. rubricaule_. =A. tardiflorus= (late-flowering). _fl.-heads_ blue, numerous. Autumn. _l._ sessile, serrated, smooth, spathulate-lanceolate, narrowed at base, and bent down towards each side. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1775. =A. Townshendi= (Townshend's). Synonymous with _A. Bigelovii_. =A. Tradescanti= (Tradescant's).* _fl.-heads_ white; involucre imbricated. August. _l._ lanceolate-sessile, serrated, smooth; branches virgate. Stem round, smooth. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1633. _A. multiflorus_ is very much like this species, and, perhaps, a mere form thereof, with somewhat smaller flowers and more obovate-oblong leaves. =A. tripolium= (Tripoli). Michaelmas Daisy. _fl.-heads_ blue; disk yellow; scales of involucre lanceolate, membranous, obtuse, imbricated. August. _l._ linear-lanceolate, fleshy, obscurely three-nerved. Stem glabrous, corymbose. _h._ 2ft. Britain. [Illustration: FIG. 182. ASTER TURBINELLUS.] =A. turbinellus= (turbinate). _fl.-heads_ delicate mauve, disposed in panicles; involucre top-shaped, scales imbricate. Summer and autumn. _l._ lanceolate, smooth, entire, with fringed margins, somewhat stem-clasping; those of the branchlets awl-shaped. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. North America. A very desirable species. See Fig. 182. =A. undulatus= (undulated). _fl.-heads_ pale blue. August. _l._ oblong-cordate, amplexicaul, entire; petioles winged. Stem panicled, hispid. Branchlets one-sided. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1699. =A. versicolor= (various-coloured).* _fl.-heads_ white, changing to purple; scales of involucre shorter than disk. August. _l._ sub-amplexicaul, broad-lanceolate, sub-serrate, smooth. Stem glabrous. _h._ 3ft. North America, 1790. The annuals (_Callistemma hortensis_), usually known as French, German, or China Asters, are very extensively grown, both for beds and pots, and their diversity and generally compact growth render them almost universal favourites. They require a rich loamy soil, and as the roots are produced near the surface, a mulching of rotten dung will be found most beneficial. Seeds may be raised in a cold frame in March or April, and, when the seedlings are large enough, they must be transplanted into beds from 9in. to 12in. apart each way. If it is desired to have them in pots, they may be removed thence with a good ball of earth adhering just before they commence flowering, liberally watered, and kept lightly shaded from the sun, until root action is resumed. Those kinds required for exhibition purposes should have several of the side shoots removed, so that the whole growing energy of the plant may be centralised into from five to seven flower-heads, by which means fine blooms may be obtained. The dwarf kinds are most valuable for bedding and pots, as the taller kinds frequently require stakes for support. The following are the most important sections: =Betteridge's Prize.= Very beautifully formed and brilliantly coloured varieties, unsurpassed for exhibition purposes. As this class has rather a straggling habit of growth, it is less suitable for bedding and borders than many of the others. =Boltze's Miniature Bouquet Pyramidal.= Dwarf and elegant, in compact bouquets of six or eight; the truss of flower-heads springs directly from the ground, having only a few leaves at base. Colours very varied. _h._ 6in. to 8in. [Illustration: FIG. 183. TRUFFAUT'S PEONY-FLOWERED ASTER.] [Illustration: FIG. 184. TRUFFAUT'S PERFECTION ASTER.] =Crown.=* Distinct. The central portion, or disk, of the head of flowers is pure white, surrounded by a broad margin of coloured ray florets, such as purple, violet, crimson, rose, &c. Flower-heads large, flat, freely produced. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. =Dwarf Chrysanthemum-flowered.=* In size of flower-heads and habit of growth, this surpasses all other dwarf varieties. The flowers are full, Chrysanthemum-shaped, produced in clusters, or bouquets, from ten to twenty in a truss, very delicate and beautiful in colour. _h._ 1ft. =Dwarf Pyramidal= or =Dwarf Bouquet=. A pretty little class, and extremely floriferous, each plant producing from twenty to fifty heads of bloom. Some of the colours are: Exquisite carmine with white points, white with blue or carmine points, white with salmon centre, &c. _h._ 1ft. =Improved Imbricate.= The best strain of pyramidal Asters with recurved florets; fine regular form of flowers, double to the centre, producing but few seeds. Colours very brilliant. _h._ 2ft. =Improved Rose.= A handsome class, producing a branched head, displaying no less than fifty large double flower-heads, the outer florets finely imbricated, and filled up to the centre when quite open. The colours are of great brilliancy, and of many shades. _h._ 2ft. =Pompone Goliath.=* Flower-heads globular, and florets very closely set. Valuable for bouquets, as the flowers remain intact for a considerable time. =Pyramidal Hedgehog.= Singular and unique. Stems upright, and branched; each branch terminated by a single flower-head, which is filled up with quill-like florets. Colours various. _h._ 1-1/2ft. =Truffaut's Pæony Perfection.=* Vigorous upright growers, having large, hemispherical-formed heads of flowers with incurved florets, 4in. across. The colours also are very varied. _h._ about 2ft. See Figs. 183 and 184. [Illustration: FIG. 185. VICTORIA ASTER.] =Victoria.=* One of the most popular classes of Asters grown; flower-heads very double, imbricate, globular, 4in. in diameter, from ten to twenty on a plant, of various shades. _h._ 1ft., with a pyramidal habit. See Fig. 185. =ASTERACANTHA= (from _aster_, a star, and _acantha_, a spine; referring to the disposition of the spines). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. A handsome greenhouse herbaceous perennial, of easy culture in sandy loam. It should be grown in a sunny position, and be kept moderately dry, otherwise little but foliaceous growth will be produced; but, if thus treated, it flowers freely. Propagated by divisions in spring; or by seeds, sown in August. =A. longifolia= (long-leaved). _fl._ yellow, in dense axillary fascicles. July. _l._ lanceolate, tapering to the base, narrow, sessile, serrately ciliated. Stem quadrangular. Plant rather hairy. _h._ 2ft. India, 1781. =ASTERACE�.= _See_ =Compositæ=. =ASTEROCEPHALUS.= _See_ =Scabiosa=. =ASTILBE= (from _a_, without, and _stilbe_, brilliancy; in allusion to the inconspicuous flowers of some of the species). ORD. _Saxifragaceæ_. Tall branching herbs, with triternate or biternate leaves, allied to _Spiræa_, from which they differ in having not more than three carpels, eight or ten stamens, and numerous albuminous seeds. They are all more or less graceful, and some indispensable, either when grown in isolated clumps, or intermingled with other herbaceous plants. They thrive well in almost any rich garden soil, preferring damp positions, and are easily propagated by division, which is best done in early spring. _A. japonica_ is grown very extensively for decorative purposes, its elegant spikes of pure white flowers rendering it especially valuable. The majority of the plants cultivated are imported, but they may be grown fairly well in this country in heavily manured soil. They should be potted as early as possible in the autumn, and plunged in ashes or fibre outside, when they will soon commence to root, after which they may be placed in heat, and forced as required, always giving an abundance of water. Indeed, the pots may be stood in pans of water, especially when the plants are well furnished with growth. =A. barbata= (bearded). A synonym of _A. japonica_. =A. decandra= (ten-stamened). _fl._ white, in spicate racemose panicles. May. _l._ biternate; leaflets cordate, deeply lobed and serrated, glandular beneath, and on the petioles. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. North America, 1812. [Illustration: FIG. 186. ASTILBE JAPONICA.] =A. japonica= (Japanese).* _fl._ small, pure white, in large branching racemose panicles. May. _l._ triternate or pinnate, serrated. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Japan. This is best grown in pots, as early frosts generally cut it down in the open air. SYNS. _Spiræa barbata_ and _japonica_, also _Hoteia_ and _A. barbata_. See Fig 186. =A. j. variegata= (variegated).* _l._ prettily variegated with yellow; panicles much more dense than the type; indeed, it is far superior in that respect. [Illustration: FIG. 187. ASTILBE RIVULARIS.] =A. rivularis= (brook).* _fl._ yellowish-white, or reddish, in large panicled spikes. Late summer. _l._ biternate; leaflets ovate, doubly serrated, villous beneath and on the petioles. _h._ 3ft. Nepaul. A grand plant for the margins of lakes or damp woodlands. See Fig. 187. =A. rubra= (red).* _fl._ rose, very numerous, in dense panicles. Late summer and autumn. _l._ biternate; leaflets oblique, cordate, 1in. to 2in. long, with elongated, serrated points. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. India, 1851. A very pretty, but rare species; excellent for sub-tropical gardening. =A. Thunbergi= (Thunberg's).* _fl._ small, white, very numerous, in erect, much branched, pyramidal panicles, with reddish and slightly downy stalks. May. _l._ unequally pinnate or bipinnate; leaflets broad, yellowish green, sharply toothed. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Japan, 1878. This pretty little sub-shrub is extensively propagated on the Continent for forcing purposes. =ASTRAGALUS= (a name applied to a shrub by Greek writers). Milk Vetch. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A very large genus of hardy herbs or sub-shrubs. Flowers in axillary clusters; standard larger than the wings. Leaves unequally pinnate. About one hundred species have from time to time been introduced in English gardens; many of these are lost to cultivation; the comparative few here described are still generally grown, and are good representative species. They are all of easy culture. The shrubby kinds grow well in any light dry soil, and are slowly increased by cuttings placed in a cold frame, or by seeds. The herbaceous perennials prefer a dry light soil, and may be increased by divisions or seeds; the latter mode is preferable, as many species are very liable to die if transplanted or divided, which is at best but a slow method. Seed should be sown in pots of sandy soil placed in a cold frame as soon as ripe, or very early in the spring, as they may lie a long time before germinating. The dwarfer species constitute admirable rockwork plants, and can be grown in pots containing a mixture of loam, peat, and sand. Seeds of the two annual species, _A. Cicer_ and _A. Glaux_, merely require to be sown in the open border early in spring. =A. adsurgens= (adsurgent).* _fl._ bluish purple; spikes oblong, pedunculate, longer than the leaves, densely packed. June. _l._ with eleven to twelve pairs of ovate-lanceolate acute leaflets; stipules acuminated, length of leaves. Plant ascending, smoothish. Siberia, 1818. A very handsome and rare perennial species. =A. aduncus= (hooked). _fl._ rose purple, in oblong spikes; peduncles rather shorter than the leaves. June and July. _l._ with numerous pairs of roundish-ovate, smooth leaflets, sometimes downy. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Caucasus, 1819. Perennial. =A. alopecuroides= (foxtail-like).* _fl._ yellow, disposed in thick dense ovate-oblong spikes, on short axillary peduncles. June. _l._ with numerous ovate-lanceolate, pubescent leaflets; stipules ovate-lanceolate, acuminated. Plant erect. _h._ 2ft. to 5ft. Siberia, 1737. One of the finest perennial species grown. =A. alpinus= (alpine). _fl._ bluish-purple, sometimes whitish, drooping, disposed in racemes of about 1/2in. long. Summer. _l._ impari-pinnate, with eight to twelve pairs of ovate or oblong leaflets. Britain. A very desirable, hairy, prostrate perennial. =A. arenarius= (sand-loving).* _fl._ blue; peduncles few-flowered, rather shorter than the leaves. June. _l._ with linear-obtuse leaflets; stipules connate, opposite the leaves. Plant diffuse, tomentose from white adpressed down. _h._ 6in. Denmark, 1800. Perennial. =A. austriacus= (Austrian).* _fl._ few; upper petal, or vexillum, blue, the rest purple; racemes pedunculate, longer than the leaves. May. _l._, leaflets glabrous, linear, truncately emarginate. Plant diffusely procumbent. South Europe, 1640. Perennial. =A. canadensis= (Canadian). _fl._ yellow, disposed in spikes; peduncles about as long as the leaves. July. _l._ with ten to twelve pairs of elliptic-oblong, bluntish leaflets. Plant nearly erect, rather hairy. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. North America, 1732. Perennial. =A. Cicer= (Vetch-like). _fl._ pale yellow, disposed in spike-like heads; peduncles longer than the leaves. July. _l._ with ten to thirteen pairs of elliptic-oblong mucronate leaflets. Plant diffusely procumbent. Europe, 1570. Annual. =A. dahuricus= (Dahurian). _fl._ purple, in dense racemes, which are longer than the leaves. July. _l._, leaflets, seven to nine pairs, oblong, mucronate. Plant erect, pilose. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Dahuria to China, 1822. Perennial. =A. dasyglottis= (thick-tongued).* _fl._ purple, blue, and white mixed, in capitate spikes; peduncles a little longer than the leaves. June. _l._, leaflets elliptic-oblong, somewhat emarginate; stipules connate, opposite the leaves. _h._ 3in. to 4in. Plant diffuse. Siberia, 1818. A charming little alpine perennial. =A. falcatus= (hooked). _fl._ greenish yellow, in spikes; peduncles rather longer than the leaves. June. _l._ with sixteen to twenty pairs of elliptic-oblong, acute leaflets. Plant erect, rather hairy. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Siberia (in wet, grassy places). Perennial. SYN. _A. virescens_. =A. galegiformis= (Galega-like).* _fl._ pale yellow, pendulous, racemose; peduncles longer than the leaves. June. _l._ with twelve to thirteen pairs of elliptic-oblong leaflets. Plant erect, glabrous. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. Siberia, 1729. A showy perennial species. =A. Glaux= (Milkwort). _fl._ purplish, in dense heads; peduncles longer than the leaves. June. _l._ with eight to thirteen pairs of small, oblong, acutish leaflets. Spain, 1596. Procumbent annual, clothed with whitish hair. =A. glycyphyllos= (sweet-leaved).* _fl._ sulphur coloured, in ovate-oblong spikes; peduncles shorter than the leaves. June. _l._ with four, five, to seven pairs of oval, bluntish, smooth leaflets; stipules ovate-lanceolate, entire. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Britain. A perennial prostrate trailer. =A. hypoglottis= (under-tongued).* _fl._ variegated with purplish, blue and white, disposed in roundish heads; peduncles longer than the leaves, ascending. June. _l._ with numerous little ovate, obtuse, dark green leaflets, somewhat emarginate; stipules connate, ovate. Stems prostrate, rather hairy. _h._ 3in. Britain, &c. Perennial trailer. =A. h. alba= (white-flowered).* This resembles the type, except in the colour of the flowers. =A. leucophyllus= (hoary-leaved).* _fl._ pale yellow, about 1/2in. long, in dense racemes; peduncles much longer than the leaves. July and August. _l._, leaflets in numerous pairs, broadly-linear, covered with soft, silky pubescence. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. North America. Perennial. =A. maximus= (largest).* _fl._ yellow; spike sessile, cylindrical, nearly terminal. June. _l._ with ovate-lanceolate, pubescent leaflets; stipules oblong-lanceolate. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Armenia. A very handsome, erect, perennial species. [Illustration: FIG. 188. ASTRAGALUS MONSPESSULANUS, showing Habit and Flower.] =A. monspessulanus= (Montpelier).* _fl._ usually purplish, spicate; peduncles longer than the leaves. June. _l._, leaflets twenty-one to forty-one, ovate or lanceolate, outer ones rather the smallest. Leaves hoary, and plant almost stemless when growing in dry exposed situations; but in rich earth or moist places the leaves are almost glabrous, and the stem becomes elongated. South Europe, 1710. This species is much appreciated, and well deserves a place in all collections. Evergreen trailer. See Fig. 188. =A. narbonensis= (Narbonne). _fl._ yellow, disposed in somewhat globose spikes, on short axillary peduncles. June. _l._ with oblong-linear leaflets; stipules lanceolate. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Narbonne and Madrid, 1789. An erect hairy perennial. =A. odoratus= (sweet-scented). _fl._ pale yellow, sweet-scented, disposed in spikes; peduncles same length as leaves. June. _l._ with eleven to fourteen pairs of oblong acute leaflets; stipules connate. Plant erect, rather ascending. _h._ 6in. Levant, 1820. Perennial. =A. onobrychioides= (Onobrychis-like).* _fl._ beautiful purple, in capitate spikes on long peduncles. July. _l._ with eight to ten pairs of elliptic leaflets; stipules connate, opposite the leaves. Plant rather diffuse, shrubby at the base, clothed with adpressed hairs. _h._ 9in. to 12in. Iberia, Persia, &c., 1819. A very handsome perennial species. =A. Onobrychis= (Onobrychis). _fl._ purple; spikes oblong-ovate, pedunculate, longer than the leaves. June. _l._ with seven to sixteen pairs of oblong leaflets. _h._ 1-1/2ft., or procumbent. Mountains Southern Europe, 1640. This is an elegant perennial, and ranks among the very best. The varieties, all white flowered, are: _alpinus_, _major_, _microphyllus_ and _moldavicus_, but only the first-named is now in cultivation. =A. pannosus= (woolly).* _fl._ rose-coloured, in compact globose heads, with peduncles shorter than the leaves. July. _l._ with four, five, to nine pairs of ovate-lanceolate leaflets, thickly coated with long white woolly hairs. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Siberia. Perennial. =A. ponticus= (Pontic). _fl._ yellow; spikes sessile, almost globose. July. _l._ oblong, smoothish; stipules lanceolate. Stem rather hairy. _h._ 2ft. Tauria, 1820. A very showy, erect, border perennial. =A. purpureus= (purple). _fl._ purplish blue, disposed in capitate spikes; peduncles longer than the leaves. June. _l._, leaflets obovate, bidentate at the apex; stipules connate, opposite the leaves. Plant diffuse, procumbent, rather hairy. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Provence, 1820. Perennial. =A. sulcatus= (furrowed).* _fl._ pale violet, but with a white keel, tipped with brown; racemes pedunculate, longer than the leaves. July. _l._ with linear-lanceolate leaflets. Plant erect, glabrous; stem furrowed. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Siberia, 1783. Perennial. =A. Tragacantha= (great goat's thorn).* Gum Tragacanth. _fl._ pale violet, two to five together, axillary, sessile. June. _l._ with eight to nine pairs of linear hispid leaflets; young stipules connate, clothed with silky hairs; adult ones glabrous; petioles permanent, at length becoming hardened spines. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 3ft. Levant, 1640. Evergreen shrub. Tragacanth, a partially soluble gum, was formerly supposed to be furnished by this plant. It is, however, now known that _A. Tragacantha_ yields none. Several species from mountainous regions in Asia Minor, &c., furnish the gum. =A. vaginatus= (sheathed-stipuled). _fl._ rosy-purple, with white-tipped wings; calyx rather inflated, covered with soft white and black hairs; spikes dense. Summer. _l._ impari-pinnate, with seven or eight pairs of elongated-oblong leaflets, both surfaces covered with short silvery hairs. _h._ 1ft. Siberia. Perennial. =A. vesicarius= (bladdery). _fl._, upper petal purple, the wings yellow, and the keel white, tipped with yellow; calyx clothed with black adpressed down and long white spreading hairs; peduncles longer than the leaves. July. _l._ with five to seven pairs of elliptic leaflets. Plant diffusely procumbent, hoary from adpressed silky down. _h._ 6in. to 9in. France, 1737. Perennial trailer. =A viminens= (twiggy). _fl._, upper petal purplish rose, much longer than the pure white wings; calyx clothed with black hairs; spikes somewhat capitate, pedunculate, longer than the leaves. June. _l._ with four to six pairs of lanceolate acute leaflets, beset with adpressed hairs. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. Siberia, 1816. A handsome perennial. =A. virescens= (greenish). Synonymous with _A. falcata_. =A. vulpinus= (fox).* _fl._ pale yellow; spikes nearly globose, on very short peduncles. June. _l._ with obovate, obtuse, emarginate, rather velvety leaflets. Plant erect; stem glabrous. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Caucasus, 1815. A handsome border perennial. =ASTRANTIA= (from _astron_, a star, and _anti_, in composition signifying comparison; in reference to the appearance of the umbels of flowers). ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. Ornamental, hardy, herbaceous perennials, natives of Europe and Caucasus. Universal umbels irregular, of few rays, surrounded by variable involucre; partial umbels regular, and containing many flowers, surrounded by many-leaved involucels. Radical leaves petiolate, palmately lobed; cauline ones few, sessile. Roots blackish. These are suited for borders, banks, and woodlands, growing well in any ordinary garden soil, but preferring a damp position. Easily increased by root divisions in autumn or spring. =A. carniolica= (Carniolan).* _fl._ white. May. _l._ of involucre twelve to thirteen, quite entire, white, with a green line running along the middle of each, tinged with red; radical ones palmate; lobes five to seven, oblong, acuminated, unequally serrated. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Carniola, 1812. A pretty species. =A. helleborifolia= (Hellebore-leaved).* _fl._ (and involucre) pink, pedicellate. June. _l._ of involucre twelve to thirteen, ovate-lanceolate, exceeding the umbel a little, bristly; radical ones palmate; lobes three, ovate-lanceolate, unequally serrated. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Eastern Caucasus, 1804. SYN. _A. maxima_. =A. major= (greater).* _fl._ pinkish, pedicellate. May. _l._ of involucre fifteen to twenty, linear-lanceolate, quite entire, hardly longer than the umbel; radical ones palmate; lobes five, ovate-lanceolate, acute, rather trifid, toothed. _h._ 1ft to 2ft. Europe, 1596. Very distinct and ornamental. =A. maxima= (greatest). Synonymous with _A. helleborifolia_. =ASTRAP�A= (from _astrape_, lightning; alluding to the brightness of the flowers). ORD. _Sterculiaceæ_. Elegant stove evergreen trees. Peduncles axillary, long, bearing on their apex an umbel of large sessile flowers, enclosed in a leafy involucre. Leaves alternate, stalked, cordate, three to five-lobed. They thrive well in a mixture of loam and peat, and require a plentiful supply of water; but the best results accrue if the bottom of the pot can be stood in a saucer or tub of water. Propagated by cuttings of young wood, made in April, placed in a compost of loam and peat, or sand, under a bell glass, in heat. =A. tiliæflora= (Lime-tree leaved). _fl._ pink. _h._ 20ft. Isle of Bourbon, 1824. =A. viscosa= (clammy). _fl._ pink. _h._ 20ft. Madagascar, 1823. =A. Wallichii= (Wallich's).* _fl._ scarlet; umbels drooping. July. _l._ large, cordate, angularly lobed; stipulas leafy, ovate-acuminated; peduncles long, hairy. _h._ 30ft. Madagascar, 1820. This splendid species has often been described as being one of the finest plants ever introduced into this country; and, when in full flower, nothing can exceed it in beauty and grandeur. =ASTROCARYUM= (from _astron_, a star, and _karyon_, a nut; referring to the disposition of the fruit). SYN. _Ph�nico-phorum_. ORD. _Palmaceæ_. Very ornamental stove palms, allied to _Cocos_, having the trunk (when present), foliage, fruit-stalks, spathes, and sometimes the fruit, covered with spines. The flowers develop from the axils of the old decayed leaves. Drupes oval, one-seeded, orange or yellow, in some species fragrant. Leaves pinnate, with linear segments, dark green above, and often of a silvery white below. The species thrive in a compost of two-thirds rich loam and one-third vegetable mould; water may be given copiously. Propagation may be effected by seeds, which should be sown in spring in a hotbed; or by suckers, if they are to be obtained. =A. acaule= (stemless). _l._ pinnate, 3ft. to 10ft. long, slender and spreading; pinnæ narrow, arranged in clusters, pendent. Spines very numerous, long, flat, black. _h._ 10ft. Brazil, 1820. =A. aculeatum= (prickly). _h._ 40ft. Guiana, 1824. =A. argenteum= (silvery).* _l._ arching, wedge-shaped, pinnate, distinctly plicate, bright green on the upper surface, the under surface, as well as the stalks, covered with a fine white scurf, which gives them a silvered appearance. Columbia, 1875. One of the best of silver palms. =A. filare= (thready).* _l._ erect, narrowly cuneate, with two divergent lobes; petioles covered with white scurf, both on the upper and under surfaces. Distinct and elegant, with a comparatively small and slender growth. Columbia, 1875. =A. granatense= (New Grenadan). _l._ pinnate, with oblong-acuminate segments; the rachis is spiny, like the petiole, both on the upper and lower surfaces; leafstalks brownish, armed with numerous scattered needle-shaped dark-coloured spines. Columbia, 1876. =A. mexicanum= (Mexican). Mexico, 1864. =A. Muru-Muru= (Murumuru). _l._ pinnate, 10ft. to 12ft. long; leaflets lanceolate, sub-falcate, dark green above, silvery white below. Stem 12ft. to 15ft. high, densely clothed with strong reflexed black spines, over 6in. long. _h._ 40ft. Brazil, 1825. =A. rostratum= (beak-sheathed). _l._ irregularly pinnate, 3ft. to 8ft. long; pinnæ 12in. to 18in. long; terminal lobe much larger and bifid, dark green above, silvery white below; petioles broadly sheathing at the base, densely armed with black spines, sometimes 2in. long. Stem slender, densely clothed with long black spines. A slow grower, ultimately becoming 30ft. high. Brazil, 1854. =A. vulgare= (common). _h._ 30ft. Brazil, 1825. =ASTROLOBIUM.= _See_ =Ornithopus=. =ASTROLOMA= (from _astron_, a star, and _loma_, a fringe; in reference to the bearded limb of the corolla). ORD. _Epacridaceæ_. Very handsome, little, diffuse, greenhouse, evergreen shrubs. Flowers solitary, axillary; corolla tubular, distended above the middle, and with five bundles of hairs in the inside, near its base. Leaves crowded, alternate, linear, or obovate-lanceolate and mucronate. They thrive best in an equal mixture of sand, loam, and peat, with thorough drainage. Propagated by young cuttings, which root readily in sandy soil, under a bell glass, in a cool house. =A. denticulatum= (finely-toothed). _fl._ axillary, erect; corolla pale red, with a ventricose tube. May to July. _l._ scattered, lanceolate, ciliated, usually procumbent, but sometimes slightly erect. _h._ 1ft. New Holland, 1824. =A. humifusum= (trailing). _fl._ scarlet, similar to the foregoing. May and June. _l._ lanceolate-linear, rather convex above, with ciliated edges. Shrub prostrate, much branched. _h._ 1ft. New Holland, 1807. =ASTROPHYTUM MYRIOSTIGMA.= _See_ =Echinocactus myriostigma=. =ASYSTASIA= (meaning not clear). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. Stove evergreen shrubs. Flowers disposed in axillary or terminal clusters; corolla somewhat funnel-shaped, five-lobed; calyx five-lobed, regular. Branches slender. They require a compost of peat and loam, with a little sand, and, to induce a vigorous growth, a little dry cow-dung may be applied. Propagated by cuttings of young shoots, placed in sandy soil, under a bell glass, in April, with a brisk bottom heat. =A. chelonioides= (Chelonia-like).* _fl._ in terminal racemes, reddish purple, the border white. _l._ opposite, ovate-acute. _h._ 34ft. India, 1871. A pretty dwarf sub-shrub. =A. coromandeliana= (Coromandel). _fl._ deep lilac; racemes axillary, elongated, secund, strict. July. _l._ opposite, cordate-ovate; branches diffuse. _h._ 4ft. India, 1845. SYN. _Justicia gangetica_. =A. macrophylla= (large-leaved).* _fl._ bilabiate, bell-shaped, rosy purple outside, and almost pure white within; spikes terminal, erect, 1ft. long. June. _l._ very large, obovate-lanceolate. _h._ 8ft. to 20ft. Fernando Po, 1867. =A. scandens= (climbing).* _fl._ cream-coloured; tube of corolla widened and recurved above, lobes of limb crenately curved; racemes terminal, compact, thyrse-formed. July. _l._ obovate or ovate acute, glabrous. _h._ 6ft. Sierra Leone, 1845. This handsome stove climber requires a high, moist temperature after shifting. SYN. _Henfreya scandens_. =A. violacea= (violet).* _fl._ violet purple, striped with white, in terminal racemes. _l._ shortly-stalked, ovate-acuminate, deep green, minutely hairy on both surfaces. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. India, 1870. A pretty dwarf plant. =ATACCIA CRISTATA.= _See_ =Tacca integrifolia=. =ATALANTIA= (mythological: Atalanta, the daughter of Sch�neus). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. A genus of ornamental stove evergreen shrubs, having the eight stamens united below into a tube, and with undivided leaves. It comprises about ten species. They thrive well in a mixture of loam and peat. Propagated by means of ripened cuttings, which will root readily if planted in sand under a hand glass, in heat. =A. monophylla= (one-leaved). _fl._ small, white, in axillary racemes. _fr._ golden yellow, about the size of a nutmeg. June. _l._ simple, ovate-oblong, emarginate at the apex. Spines small, simple. _h._ 8ft. India, 1777. A thorny shrub. =ATAMASCO LILY.= _See_ =Zephyranthes Atamasco=. =ATHAMANTA= (named from Mount Athamas, in Sicily, where some species are found). ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. A genus of greenhouse or hardy herbaceous plants, usually velvety from villi on the stem, leaves, and fruit. Flowers white; involucra of one or few leaves; involucel of many leaves. The undermentioned is the only species in cultivation, and is a very graceful perennial, with Fennel-like foliage. It thrives well in any ordinary soil. Increased by divisions, or by seeds sown in spring. =A. Matthioli= (Matthioli's). _fl._ white, twelve to twenty-five to an umbel. Summer. _l._ three or four ternate; leaflets linear-filiform, elongated, divaricate. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Alps of Carinthia, 1802. =ATHANASIA= (from _a_, not, and _thanatos_, death; alluding to the length of time which the flowers last). ORD. _Compositæ_. Rather ornamental greenhouse evergreen shrubs with yellow flowers, from the Cape of Good Hope. They grow well in a soil consisting of three parts loam and one part peat. Propagation is effected by cuttings, taken from half-ripened wood in spring, and placed in sand, under a hand glass. =A. capitata= (headed).* _fl.-heads_ yellow. March. _l._ pinnati-partite; younger hoary, older smooth. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1774. =A. pubescens= (downy). _fl.-heads_ yellow. July. _l._ oblong, entire (or tridentate), softly hairy on both sides; when old, sub-glabrous. _h._ 6ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1768. =ATHEROSPERMA= (from _ather_, an awn, and _sperma_, seed; seeds awned). ORD. _Monimiaceæ_. A beautiful greenhouse evergreen tree, with the aspect of a stately conifer. Flowers panicled, di�cious; perianth five to eight-fid. Leaves opposite, aromatic. A compost of loam and peat, in about equal proportions, is necessary. It can be readily propagated by cuttings. =A. moschata= (Musk-scented). Plume Nutmeg. _fl._ white. June. _h._ 40ft. New Holland, 1824. =ATHEROSPERME�.= _See_ =Monimiaceæ=. =ATHRIXIA= (from _a_, not, and _thrix_, a hair; the receptacle being destitute of hairs). ORD. _Compositæ_. A greenhouse evergreen shrub. It succeeds best in turfy loam, peat, and sand, and requires to be potted firmly. Propagated by cuttings of young wood, placed under a bell glass in sandy soil, and treated like _Ericas_ (which _see_). =A. capensis= (Cape).* _fl.-heads_ bright crimson, solitary, terminal. April. _l._ narrow, lanceolate, alternate, entire. _h._ 3ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1821. =ATHROTAXIS= (from _athros_, crowded together, and _taxis_, arrangement; in reference to the disposition of the scales of the cones). ORD. _Coniferæ_. A small genus of Tasmanian evergreen di�cious trees or shrubs, with small scale-like leaves, and small globular cones of many imbricated scales, with from three to six carpels under each scale. In very sheltered situations they will probably prove hardy; but, otherwise, they are only suitable for botanical collections. Increased by cuttings. This genus is almost universally misspelt _Arthrotaxis_. =A. cupressoides= (Cypress-like). _l._ small, thick, leathery, spirally arranged, closely imbricated, deep glossy green. _h._ 30ft. A small, erect, and very slow growing tree, with numerous slender branchlets. =A. Doniana= (Don's). A synonym of _A. laxifolia_. =A. imbricata= (imbricated). A garden synonym of _A. selaginoides_. =A. laxifolia= (loose-leaved). Differing from _A. cupressoides_ in having longer, more pointed, open, and spreading leaves, which stand out from the stem in a Juniper-like fashion. Its lateral growths are rather pendulous. _h._ 20ft. to 25ft. SYN. _A. Doniana_. =A. selaginoides= (Selago-like). _l._ glossy green, scale-like, spirally disposed, closely appressed to the shoots, branches and their ramifications very numerous. _h._ variable, up to 40ft. Very interesting, and quite distinct. SYN. _A. imbricata_ (of gardens). =ATHYRIUM.= _See_ =Asplenium=. =ATRAGENE= (a name originally given to _Clematis Vitalba_ by Theophrastus). ORD. _Ranunculaceæ_. A genus of ornamental, hardy, climbing, deciduous shrubs, closely allied to _Clematis_, from which they differ in having numerous petals. They are increased by cuttings, which should be pricked in light sandy soil and placed under a hand glass; also by layering in the autumn. Both methods are slow; the layers should not be separated for about a year, when they will be vigorous plants. Seeds must be sown in early spring, in gentle heat; when the seedlings are large enough to handle, they should be pricked off and grown on in pots till they are strong plants. [Illustration: FIG. 189. ATRAGENE ALPINA, showing Habit, Twining Leafstalk, and Flower.] =A. alpina= (alpine).* _fl._ blue, varying to white; petals ten to twelve, linear at the base, but dilated at the apex; peduncles one-flowered, longer than the leaves. May. _l._ biternate; leaflets ovate-lanceolate, acuminated, serrate. Mountainous parts of Europe, 1792. The white-flowered variety, named _alba_, is in cultivation. SYNS. _A. austriaca_ and _A. sibirica_. See Fig. 189. =A. americana= (American).* _fl._ large, purplish-blue; petals acute; peduncles one-flowered. May. _l._ whorled, in fours, leaflets stalked, cordate, lanceolate, acuminated, entire or somewhat lobed, or serrated. North America, 1797. SYN. _Clematis verticillaris_. =A. austriaca= (Austrian). Synonymous with _A. alpina_. =A. macropetala= (large-petaled).* _fl._ blue. Manchuria, 1870. =A. sibirica= (Siberian). Synonymous with _A. alpina_. =ATRIPLEX= (from _a_, not, and _traphein_, to nourish). Orach. ORD. _Chenopodiaceæ_. A genus of, for the most part, uninteresting weeds, of very variable form and habit, and having the calyx, which encloses the fruit, enlarging after flowering. For culture, _see_ =Orach=. =A. hortensis= (garden). An annual species from Tartary, of no value as an ornamental plant, but considered a very desirable substitute for spinach. The leaves must be gathered for use when young. The variety _A. h. atro-sanguinea_ is a very pretty form, having handsome crimson leaves, and growing to a height of about 4ft. It is well worth growing with such plants as _Amaranthus_, &c. =ATROPA= (name of mythological origin). Belladonna; Dwale. ORD. _Solanaceæ_. A small genus, having a campanulate regular corolla, and a leafy persistent calyx. The berries of this native herbaceous perennial are exceedingly poisonous. The plant is of no horticultural value. [Illustration: FIG. 190. FLOWER OF ATROPA BELLADONNA.] =A. Belladonna.= _fl._ green and purple, solitary, pedunculate, drooping. Summer. Berries about the size of a small cherry. _l._ ovate, acuminate, 4in. to 8in. long _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Britain. See Fig. 190. =ATTALEA= (from _attalus_, magnificent; referring to the beauty of the genus). ORD. _Palmaceæ_. A genus of handsome stove palm trees, distinguished from other genera in having the pinnæ arranged vertically, and not horizontally. The leaves spring up almost perpendicularly at the base, but in the upper part arch over. The pinnæ stand at right angles to the rachis--which is very narrow in proportion to its thickness--and while those of the lower side of the arch hang straight down, those of the upper side point straight up. They thrive well in a mixture of peat and loam in equal quantities, and enjoy a copious supply of water. Summer temperature, 65deg. to 80deg.; winter, 55deg. to 60deg. All the species are robust trees; but, although several have been introduced, few appear to be generally grown. =A. amygdalina= (Almond-fruited).* _l._ pinnate, 3ft. to 6ft. long; pinnæ 12in. to 18in. long, and about 1in. broad; terminal lobe broad and bifid, rich dark green. Stem slender. New Grenada. One of the best. SYN. _A. nucifera_. =A. Cohune= (Cohune).* _l._ erect, ultimately spreading, pinnate, furnished with from three to four dozen dark green pinnæ, sometimes 18in. in length; petioles rounded, and dark brown below, flat and green upon the upper side. Plant unarmed. _h._ 50ft. or more in its native habitat. Honduras. =A. compta= (decked). _h._ 22ft. Brazil, 1820. =A. excelsa= (tall).* _h._ 70ft. Brazil, 1826. =A. funifera= (rope-bearing). The Piassaba Palm. _l._ vivid deep green, very ornamental, and of economic value in Brazil. 1824. The sheathing bases of the leafstalks separate into a coarse black fringe, which is collected and exported to Europe, being used in the manufacture of brooms, brushes, &c. =A. nucifera= (nut-bearing). A synonym of _A. amygdalina_. =A. speciosa= (showy).* _h._ 70ft. Brazil, 1825. =A. spectabilis= (remarkable). _h._ 70ft. Brazil, 1824. =ATTENUATED.= Tapering gradually to a point. [Illustration: FIG. 191. FRUITING BRANCH OF ROUND AUBERGINE.] [Illustration: FIG. 192. FRUITING BRANCH OF LONG AUBERGINE.] =AUBERGINE=, or =EGG PLANT= (_Solanum melongena_, variety _ovigerum_). These plants, besides being useful for culinary purposes, are very ornamental, and present an attractive appearance on walls or trellises, or in the flower garden; and, as they do well in any ordinary rich garden soil, if the position is warm, they give a good variation to the general run of plants used for decorative effects. The Black-fruited kind is particularly suited for this purpose. Sow the seeds in a gentle heat, in the middle of April. As soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle, prick off into 4in. pots, replacing in heat till they root out freely. Gradually harden off by June, and then transfer to the positions where they are to grow. Let the plants be at least 2ft. apart, and place a strong stick to each one to support the fruit when it comes. For trellises, select the more moderate-sized varieties. In hot, dry weather, the application of liberal supplies of liquid manure tends to increase the size of the fruit, and also to make the foliage more vigorous and handsome. Where very large fruit are needed for show or other purposes, it is well to remove all but the best one on the plant, and, by careful feeding with liquid manure, specimens of from 10lb. to 12lb. weight can be had. The foliage should not be pinched, as this would prevent the free swelling of the fruit. Aubergines are not so much grown in England for culinary purposes as in France and Italy, where they are largely used in stews and soups. The following are the most desirable varieties: New York Purple, the largest kind grown, and although not as ornamental as the next, is quite as useful; Black-fruited, large black fruit, with blackish violet leaves; and White-fruited, the sort most generally cultivated. See Figs. 191 and 192. =AUBRIETIA= (named after M. Aubriet, a famous French botanical draughtsman). ORD. _Cruciferæ_. A small genus of hardy evergreen trailers. Racemes opposite the leaves, and terminal, lax, few-flowered. Leaves ovate or oblong, entire or angularly toothed, hairy. They make excellent rock plants, and will thrive in a deep rich loam anywhere, excepting under the shelter of trees. Cuttings struck, or seeds sown, during April or May generally make fine, dense, cushion-like growths, if transplanted on to a somewhat cool or shaded border, and carefully lifted in the autumn; the cuttings are best "drawn," or grown until they are soft, in a frame before they are removed. Where a stock of old plants exist, layer the long slender branches any time after flowering, and cover with a mixture of sand and leaf soil; they will then root freely and establish themselves in time for spring blooming, for which purpose, when grown _en masse_, they are most useful. After flowering, they may be divided and transplanted. [Illustration: FIG. 193. AUBRIETIA DELTOIDEA.] =A. deltoidea= (deltoid).* _fl._ purple; petals twice the length of the calyx; pedicels short, filiform; racemes opposite the leaves and terminal, lax, few-flowered. Early spring. _l._ with one or two large teeth on each side (therefore they are rhomboidal, not truly deltoid), scabrous, with short branchy stellate hairs. _h._ 2in. to 4in. Naples, &c., 1710. There are several garden varieties, the best of which are described below; most of them are regarded as distinct species. See Fig. 193. (S. F. G. 628.) [Illustration: FIG. 194. AUBRIETIA PURPUREA.] =A. d. Bouganvillei= (Bouganville's).* _fl._ light violet purple, with very even imbricated petals. Habit very dwarf and compact, with short peduncles. A pretty form. =A. d. Campbelli= (Campbell's).* Larger deep violet blue flowers, and of far more vigorous constitution than the typical form. _Grandiflora_ comes very near this. SYN. _A. Hendersonii_. =A. d. Eyrei= (Eyre's).* A very fine variety, with a free branching habit, and large flowers of a rich violet-purple colour, rather longer than broad. _A. olympica_ is very near, if not identical with this. =A. d. græca= (Grecian).* _fl._ light purple. _h._ 4in. Greece, 1872. One of the best and largest flowered forms; very vigorous grower, with neat compact habit. A variety of this, named _superba_, has rather deeper-coloured flowers, produced over a very extended period. (R. G. 697.) =A. d. purpurea= (purple).* Larger flowers and more erect habit than the type. _l._ broader, with two to five teeth. Stems more leafy. There is a variegated form, which is very pleasing and effective, useful for carpeting or edging small beds. See Fig. 194. =A. d. violacea= (violet).* This is a hybrid form, even finer than _Campbelli_, with large deep violet-purple flowers, fading to reddish-violet, and is more effective than any of the others. =A. Hendersonii= (Henderson's). A synonym of _A. d. Campbelli_. =AUCUBA= (the Japanese name of the shrub). ORD. _Cornaceæ_. A genus of hardy evergreen shrubs, thriving better than any other in the smoky atmosphere of dense cities. They grow in ordinary well-drained garden soil, and require no special culture. If grown in pots, they should be planted firmly in rather sandy yellow loam, with plenty of drainage. They should not be allowed too large pots, or an unfruitful growth is likely to result. During the growing season, an abundance of water is needed, which must be lessened when the plants are fully developed. If cultivated in the greenhouse or conservatory, they should be plunged out of doors during summer. To insure a good supply of the very ornamental berries, which are produced on the female plant, careful fertilising is necessary. The time for applying the pollen is when the pistil exudes a slightly gummy substance, and otherwise shows signs of maturity. When it happens, as is sometimes the case, that the male blooms are open and the pollen mature before the female blooms are ready, the pollen should be collected on a dry camel-hair pencil, transferred to a piece of glass, and covered over by another piece, both of which must also be dry. It may be applied afterwards when wanted, as it retains its power for some weeks. Propagated by cuttings, inserted in any light sandy soil, with or without a covering, in spring or autumn; or readily increased from seeds, sown as soon as ripe. =A. himalaica= (Himalayan).* _l._ lanceolate, or lanceolate acuminate; branches of the panicle very pilose. Berries spherical, not oblong. Himalaya. (F. d. S. 12, 1271.) =A. japonica= (Japanese).* _l._ opposite, petiolate, broad, ovate-lanceolate, acuminated, toothed, leathery, glabrous, shining, pale green, beautifully spotted with yellow, having the midrib rather prominent, the rest of the leaf reticulately veined. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. Japan, 1783. The numerous varieties, both of the male and female forms, among which will be found many of great beauty, all differ, more or less, in the variegation of their leaves. They are in very general cultivation, and nearly every nurseryman has an assortment. Among the best of them are the following: _albo-variegata_, _aurea_, _bicolor_, _latimaculata_, _limbata_, _longifolia_, _macrophylla_, _ovata_, _pygmæa_, and _pygmæa sulphurea_. =AUDOUINIA= (in honour of V. Audouin, a profound entomologist). ORD. _Bruniaceæ_. An ornamental greenhouse evergreen shrub, thriving in a mixture of peat and sandy loam. Propagated by cuttings of half-ripened wood, inserted in sand, under a bell glass, in gentle heat. =A. capitata= (headed). _fl._ purple, crowded into oblong, spike-like, terminal heads. May. _l._ spirally inserted, a little keeled. Branches erect. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1790. =AULACOSPERMUM.= A synonym of =Pleurospermum= (which _see_). =AULAX= (from _aulax_, a furrow; the under surface of the leaves of the original species being furrowed). ORD. _Proteaceæ_. Greenhouse evergreen shrubs, from the Cape of Good Hope, thriving best in a compost of fibrous loam, leaf soil, and sharp sand, with thorough drainage. Ripened cuttings, taken off at a joint, and inserted in pots of sandy soil, will root readily under a hand glass, in a cool house. =A. pinifolia= (Pine-leaved). _fl._ yellow, racemose. July. _l._ filiform, channelled. _h._ 2ft. 1780. =A. umbellata= (umbelled). _fl._ yellow. June. _l._ flat, spathulate*-linear. _h._ 2ft. 1774. (B. R. 12, 1015.) =AURANTIACE�.= An order of trees or shrubs, including the Orange and Lemon trees. Flowers fragrant. Fruit fleshy, edible. Leaves alternate, articulated above the stem, filled with transparent oil cysts, giving them a dotted appearance. Well-known genera are _Citrus_ and _Limonia_. =AURICULA= (_Primula Auricula_). This favourite spring flower (see Fig. 195) was, at one time, almost universally cultivated, but has of late years fallen into much neglect; it is now, however, happily regaining enthusiastic admirers. Although its culture is not nearly so difficult as is generally understood, a few special items of treatment are nevertheless necessary to grow it successfully. [Illustration: FIG. 195. A VARIETY OF PRIMULA AURICULA.] _Frames_ for the reception of Auriculas should be prepared, with a good bottom drainage, and an inside staging, similar to the back stage of a lean-to greenhouse, arranged as near the glass as possible. If the frames are about 4ft. wide, they will be very convenient; 1ft. deep in the front, and about 3ft. at the back. This will allow for a good stage arrangement. Of course, it is not necessary to construct an expensive staging, as common boards can be laid upon pots of various heights, the same results being practically secured. These frames should face north from May to October, and south in winter, during which latter time it will be necessary to well cover the sides with straw or brake. When frosty, the lights must also be mated; but, unless there is absolute fear of frost, the glass should not be covered, as the more light the plants receive the better. On all suitable occasions, both during summer and winter, air must be freely admitted, and a good look-out kept during showery weather; hence it may be necessary to tilt the lights with blocks rather than remove them entirely. The latter plan should be adopted whenever practicable, especially during early spring, and after they are well established in their fresh pots in summer. This will greatly assist to ripen the crown, and produce hard, stout foliage, which will endure the winter much better than if grown with less air. Many cultivators prefer small span or lean-to houses to frames; and it must be admitted that these are better, more convenient, and in every way more beneficial. Simple, inexpensive structures, no higher than is absolutely necessary for convenience, with top and side ventilation, will meet all requirements; and if a 2in. hot-water pipe is arranged next the eaves inside, it will be a decided advantage during very severe weather. _Soil._ The best compost that can be prepared for Auriculas is as follows: Four parts good fibrous loam, one part well-rotted cow manure, one part good leaf soil, and one part coarse river or silver sand, with a little charcoal or pounded oyster-shells added. Carefully mix the whole together before using. The loam should be stored about twelve months previous to being used, and it should be selected from districts with a fine atmosphere; the turf should be cut about 3in. thick. Cow manure that has lain for a year or so, and been subjected to sharp frosts, is most suitable, as insect life, which it very probably contains, is thereby destroyed, and the whole materially sweetened. _Potting._ This operation requires to be carefully done as soon after flowering as possible, unless it is desired to save seed, when it must be deferred until the seed is ripened. May and June are the best months for general potting, and whatever the size of the pots used, they should be carefully and thoroughly drained. After a good layer of potsherds, place some charcoal, leaf mould, or spent hops. Many good growers use the last very advantageously. For good flowering plants, 48-sized pots are used, many cultivators preferring glazed pots to the unglazed; but such are not absolutely necessary to ensure success. Before repotting, remove most of the old soil, and with a sharp knife cut off any bruised or cankered portion of roots; the stout tap-root may also be cut away if devoid of fresh rootlets. Do not pot very firmly. Remove the plants to their summer quarters, withholding water for a few days, and keep the frames close. About a week after potting, water may be advantageously given, the plants will then soon resume root-action, and air may be admitted afterwards on all suitable occasions. The collar or neck of the plant must be left well above the surface of the soil. _Watering_ is a point that requires careful attention, as neglect in this matter will result in failure. During the growing season, Auriculas require an abundance of water; in fact, they must never be allowed to get dry. In the winter, they must only be watered when they are really dry, especially during a severe season. Care must be taken to avoid watering the leaves, particularly in early spring, as this tends to spoil the effect of the charming farinose foliage. Above all, water must not be allowed to stand in the heart of the plant, as such will inevitably cause incipient decay. Hence it is necessary to keep a sharp lookout for drippings from the glass, and to maintain tightly-glazed frames. On all occasions, decaying leaves must be removed, and especially during winter. _Top-dressing._ About the middle or end of February, when the plants commence new growth, the surface soil should be removed about an inch or so deep, and the pots re-filled with a rich compost made up of the following: Two parts of turfy loam, one of rotten cow or hen manure, and one of leaf soil; if a little Standen's Manure is added, the compost will be improved. After this top-dressing, the plants may be watered freely. _Propagation by Offsets._ When top-dressing, any offsets with roots should be removed, and as soon after as possible the remaining ones should be taken off, as it is much more desirable to do so early than later on, when repotting; for, when making the first growth, they are the more likely to root better, and stand a greater chance of making good plants before the season is over. Fill well-drained 3in. pots with sandy soil, and arrange about four offsets round the sides; place under a bell glass, or in a close handlight, watering very sparingly so as to prevent them damping off. They will soon establish themselves, after which air may be admitted, and the plants may ultimately be potted off singly. To induce choice varieties to make offsets, the top of the old plant should be removed and treated like the others, when, as a rule, several shoots will be produced, which in due time may be removed. By this means, a nice stock of the rarer kinds may be obtained; whereas, if such a course were not adopted, the rate of increase would be extremely slow. _Flowering._ During the flowering period, watering, as already stated, must be carefully attended to, for if the plants are allowed to get dry, the flowers will quickly shrivel. They must also be kept well shaded from sunshine, which quickly destroys the delicate blossoms. As the trusses are developing, particular attention must be given to night protection. It is, perhaps, better to cover every night than to run the risk of exposing the unexpanded flowers to frost, as the effect is very prejudicial; in fact, if subject to frost, smooth even flowers may not be expected. _Seed Saving and Sowing._ The only way to obtain new varieties is by seed; hence the value of careful seed-saving will be apparent. Severe discrimination must be exercised in the selection of parents, and the flowers must be very carefully crossed. The anthers should be removed from the pistillate parent, if possible, before expansion, so as to prevent any possibility of self-fertilisation; and, when the stigma is ready, the pollen must be conveyed by means of a small camel's-hair brush, care being taken not to mistake the brushes used in different classes. It has been observed in Auriculas that the issue from crossbred seed favours the pollen more than the pistillate parent; hence the necessity of selecting good pollen parents. It is best to confine hybridisation to separate classes--_i.e._, cross a Self with a Self, and a Green-edged variety with another of the same class. The importance of selecting the best in each class scarcely needs suggestion, having regard to constitution as well as the quality of the flowers. The seed should be sown as soon as ripe, or early in March, in well-drained pots, filled with sandy soil, which must be well watered previous to sowing. When this operation is completed, the seed must be lightly covered with coarse sand, a sheet of glass placed over the pot, and the latter stood in the hand glass, where the offsets are rooted. Some of the seedlings will appear in a month, but the bulk from that sown when ripe will not be seen until the following spring; while others will germinate even during the ensuing summer. The late comers should be particularly cared for, as they frequently produce the best varieties. When the seedlings are large enough, they must be pricked off in pots of sandy soil; and, when well established, potted off singly into small thumb pots, and afterwards encouraged as judgment suggests. Some growers allow the seedlings to remain in the store pots till they flower, when the best are kept, and those not required disposed of. _Insect Pests._ Green fly are often very troublesome, and should be exterminated as speedily as possible, by tobacco fumigation, or by dipping the plants in a solution of Gishurst's Compound, or carefully prepared Fir-tree Oil, all of which are effectual. Many authorities denounce fumigation, while others advocate it. The roots are also attacked by a mealy louse, named _Trama auriculæ_, which clusters about the roots and collar of the plants, sucking nutriment therefrom; and although, provided they do not attack the collar, they have no greatly prejudicial effect on the plant, yet it is desirable to exterminate them. The only effectual way of accomplishing this is to remove all soil, and thoroughly cleanse the roots and collar in a solution of soft soap, with a little Fir-tree Oil added. Of course, this is most easily managed when repotting; and, unless the plants are very badly infested, it would not be advisable to run the risk of root washing later in the year. _Classes._ Auriculas are now arranged in five classes, four of which constitute what are known as "show or stage Auriculas," while the other is known by the name of "Alpines." Each class is characterised by special points of distinction, which, in the opinion of the strict "florists" school, it is of the utmost importance to observe; and as there is room for systematists in this, as well as in any other branch of floriculture, we will follow the arrangement usually adopted, and describe the distinguishing features of, and enumerate some of the best varieties in, each class, with their raisers' names attached: =Green-edged.= Outer edge green, or but sparingly dusted with powder; next, a zone of colour known as the body colour, which varies, the darkest being most esteemed; both edges of this zone should be even, especially the inner one, but there are few flowers perfect in this respect. Next to the body-colour is the paste, which occupies the space between the inner circle of the latter and the throat, this should be pure and dense, with a distinctly circular outline at the throat; the throat and tube should be bright yellow. Of course, this ideal standard has not yet been reached, as there are supposed defects in all or some sections of the flowers at present known. _Leading Varieties_: ADMIRAL NAPIER (Campbell), ALDERMAN WISBEY (Headley), APOLLO (Beeston), CHAMPION (Page), COLONEL TAYLOR (Leigh), DUKE OF WELLINGTON (Dickson), FREEDOM (Booth), GENERAL NEILL (Traill), HIGHLAND BOY (Pollitt), IMPERATOR (Litton), LADY ANN WILBRAHAM (Oliver), LORD PALMERSTON (Campbell), LOVELY ANN (Oliver), LYCURGUS (Smith), PRINCE OF GREENS (Traill), PRINCE OF WALES (Ashton). =Grey-edged.= Edge heavily dusted with powder, so as almost to hide the normal green colour; other points same as the Green-edged varieties. _Leading varieties_: ALEXANDER MEIKLEJOHN (Kay), CHAS. E. BROWN (Headley), COMPLETE (Sykes), CONQUEROR OF EUROPE (Waterhouse), DR. HORNER (Read), F. D. HORNER (Simonite), GENERAL BOLIVAR (Smith), GEORGE LEVICK (Walker), GEORGE LIGHTBODY (Headley), JOHN WATERSTON (Cunningham), LANCASHIRE HERO (Lancashire), RICHARD HEADLEY (Lightbody), ROBERT TRAILL (Lightbody). =White-edged.= Edge so heavily dusted with farina as to completely hide the green and give it a white appearance; the powder frequently as dense as on the paste portion; other points like the first. _Leading varieties_: ACME (Read), ANNE SMITH (Smith), ARABELLA (Headley), BEAUTY (Traill), BRIGHT VENUS (Lee), CATHERINA (Summerscales), CONSERVATIVE (Douglas), COUNTESS OF WILTON (Cheetham), EARL GROSVENOR (Lee), FAVORITE (Taylor), FRANK SIMONITE (Simonite), GLORY (Taylor), JOHN SIMONITE (Walker), NE PLUS ULTRA (Smith), REGULAR (Ashworth), SMILING BEAUTY (Heap), SYLVIA (Douglas), TRUE BRITON (Hepworth). =Selfs.= Tube bright yellow, and circular at the top; paste dense, pure, with an even edge; all the rest of the flower of one colour, without shades or edging; any colour holds good. _Leading varieties_: APOLLO (Hay), BLACKBIRD (Spalding), C. J. PERRY (Turner), DUKE OF ARGYLE (Campbell), FORMOSA (Smith), GARIBALDI (Pohlman), HELEN LANCASTER (Pohlman), LORD OF LORNE (Campbell), MAZINNA (Pohlman), METEOR FLAG (Lightbody), METROPOLITAN (Spalding), MRS. DOUGLAS (Simonite), MRS. STURROCK (Martin), OTHELLO (Netherwood), PIZARRO (Campbell), TOPSY (Kaye). =Alpines.= Centre golden yellow, or white, and destitute of powder; body colour various; edge one-coloured, shading off paler towards the margin. These are much hardier than any of the other classes, and will do well outside in most places. _Leading varieties_: A. F. BARRON (Turner), BEATRICE (Turner), BLACK PRINCE (Turner), BRONZE QUEEN (Turner), COLONEL SCOTT (Turner), DIADEM (Gorton), DUCHESS OF CONNAUGHT (Turner), EVENING STAR (Turner), GEORGE LIGHTBODY (Turner), JOHN LEECH (Turner), MRS. BALL (Turner), MRS. DODWELL (Turner), MRS. LLEWELLYN (Turner), MRS. MEIKLEJOHN (Meiklejohn), MRS. THOMSON (Turner), QUEEN VICTORIA (Turner), RUBENS (Turner), SAILOR PRINCE (Turner), SELINA (Turner), SPANGLE (Turner), SYDNEY (Turner), TRIUMPHANT (Turner). =AURICULATE.= Having ear-like appendages. =AUSTRIAN ROSE.= _See_ =Rosa lutea=. =AVENA= (derivation obscure). The Oat. ORD. _Gramineæ_. A genus of grasses with loose panicles and compressed spikelets. Of agricultural importance only, with the following exception, which is an annual of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. Propagated by seeds, sown in spring or autumn. =A. sterilis= (barren). The Animated Oat. _fl._ in drooping panicles of large spikelets. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Barbary, 1640. An elegant plant. =AVENS.= _See_ =Geum=. =AVENUES.= In forming an Avenue, the plan must neither be tortuous nor of a "tedious sameness," but a gradually winding line should, above all, be obtained, which must in no way interfere with the view from the house. About 12ft. is the width usually allowed for the road, but this depends upon individual taste or idea--this remark applies to planting in double rows, the trees forming a series of triangles, or in single rows. The distance across the road from one row of trees to those opposite should be at least 24ft. The Lime is extensively used for Avenues on account of its regular growth and the shade it affords. The Cedar of Lebanon is one of the best and most suitable evergreens. The Dutch Elm is used because of its rapid growth, and forms one of the best deciduous trees for this purpose. The well-known Horse Chestnut, in sheltered spots, is very ornamental, as is also the Spanish Chestnut; the latter spreads rapidly. Where immediate effect is required, nothing gives more satisfaction than the White Poplar; it grows in a wet soil better than anything else. Deodars, Araucarias, Douglas Pine, the Mexican, Chinese, and Japanese Cypresses, and many others, are eminently suited for Avenue planting. Shrubs and herbaceous plants should be introduced between the trees, and so remove any bareness that may occur. _Diervilla rosea_, and its variegated form, _Aucubas_, _Rhododendrons_, _Hypericums_, and many others, could be mentioned to serve this purpose. A moderately good soil will be found to answer generally. =AVERRHOA= (in honour of Averrhoes, of Cordova, a celebrated Arabian physician, who resided in Spain during the domination of the Moors, about the middle of the twelfth century; he translated Aristotle into Arabic). ORD. _Geraniaceæ_. Ornamental stove trees, thriving in loam and peat. Half-ripened cuttings will strike in sand, under a hand glass, about April, with bottom heat. The leaves of the first-named species are irritable to the touch. [Illustration: FIG. 196 AZALEA BALSAMIN�FLORA.] =A. Bilimbi= (Bilimbi-tree). _fl._ reddish purple, disposed in racemes, rising from the trunk. May. _fr._ oblong, somewhat resembling a small cucumber, with a thin, smooth, green rind, filled with a grateful acid juice, and the substance and seeds not unlike that of a cucumber. _l._ alternate, with from five to ten pairs of ovate-lanceolate, entire, smooth leaflets on short stalks. _h._ 8ft. to 15ft. Native country unknown, 1791. (B. F. S. 117.) =A. Carambola.= Carambola-tree. _fl._ red, scattered, disposed in short racemes, usually rising from the smaller branches, but sometimes from the larger ones, and even the trunk. _fr._ the size of a hen's egg, acutely five-cornered, with a thin, yellow rind, and a clear watery pulp. _l._ alternate, with about four to five pairs of ovate, acuminated, entire, stalked leaflets, the outer ones largest. _h._ 14ft. to 20ft. 1793. This, as well as the first-named species, is cultivated throughout the hotter parts of India, but where it occurs truly wild is not known. =AVOCADO PEAR.= _See_ =Persea gratissima=. =AWL-SHAPED.= Narrow-pointed, resembling an awl. =AWLWORT.= _See_ =Subularia=. =AXIL.= Literally the armpit; in plants applied to the angle formed by union of the leaf and stem. =AXILLARIA.= _See_ =Polygonatum=. =AXILLARY.= Growing in the axil of anything. =AYRSHIRE ROSE.= _See_ =Rosa repens capreolata=. =AZALEA= (from _azaleos_, dry, arid; in allusion to the habitat of the plant). ORD. _Ericaceæ_. A genus of very popular and beautiful hardy or greenhouse plants. The species enumerated were included under _Rhododendron_ by Don, Loudon, and others, contrary to the classification of Linnæus, but the distinctive characters are not consistent. In this genus, the stamens are usually five, but in _Rhododendron_ ten is the typical number. _Ghent_ or _American Azaleas_. These are extremely popular hardy deciduous shrubs. When plants are grown in the open, artificial crossing will be unnecessary; but this method must be employed upon those grown in the cool greenhouse, if well fertilised seeds are required. The seed should be gathered and sown when ripe in a large shallow frame containing from 2in. to 3in. of peat, over which more peat must be laid very level by means of a fine sieve; or they may be kept until early the following spring. No covering will be necessary, but a thorough watering with a fine-rosed water-pot must be given. The lights should be darkened, and the frames kept close until the young seedlings begin to appear, when they must have air (carefully admitted), shade, and a daily sprinkling of water. By the autumn, they will be large enough to transplant in small clumps into boxes of peat and coarse sand, and to place in other frames, or in the open. In each case, they will need watering, shading, and to be kept close until growth commences. The hardier the plants are before winter commences, the better; but a protection of mats or similar material will prevent the probability of their being killed by severe frosts. During the following season, they will only require water during dry weather, and no protection need be afforded this winter. The next spring, they should be planted out singly in beds, sufficiently wide apart to allow the development of two years growth. If an upright growth is being made, the leading shoot must be shortened, in order to secure dwarf, well-branched plants. The same methods should be employed on a smaller scale where but a few are wanted. Grafting is largely practised to increase the stock of named varieties or choice seedlings, the stock employed being _A. pontica_. This process, of course, ensures the quicker production of flowering plants. Layering in March, encasing the part buried with moss, is also some times practised; but the layer must be left two years before separating. Cuttings of the last year's wood, 2in. or 3in. long, taken with a heel, root readily in sand; about the end of August is the best time for so doing. If they are pricked off in pots or pans of sandy soil, and kept in a cool frame until they are calloused, and afterwards introduced into a slight bottom heat, they root quicker, but this is not absolutely essential. When placed outside, they should be covered with a handlight for about two months, and, at the end of this time, air should be gradually given and increased. Ghent Azaleas are now forced extensively for the market as well as in private gardens; and, by judicious culture, they can be had in full blossom by Christmas. With this end in view, they should be grown in pots, and have the growth prematurely completed soon after flowering with the aid of a little artificial heat; after which they may be placed outside. During very hot and dry weather, the north side of a wall is necessary, to prevent their flowering in the autumn. The same plants must only be forced every alternate year. Commence to place the plants in heat in October, and keep up a succession until the following March. The best plants for forcing purposes are obtained from the Continent, where they are grown in enormous quantities. When grown permanently out of doors, the most suitable soil is peat and rough sand mixed. Failing this, leaf mould, maiden loam, and sand, will be found satisfactory. In many cases, we have known them to flourish in ordinary garden soil. The following varieties of Ghent Azaleas are distinct, and all worth growing; ADMIRAL DE RUYTER, deep red-scarlet, very fine; ALTACLERENSIS, bright yellow; AM�NA, light pink; CARNEA ELEGANS, pale pink, shaded sulphur; COCCINEA MAJOR, dark scarlet, very fine; CUPREA SPLENDENS, rich pink, shaded yellow; DECORATA, lovely pink; DIRECTEUR CHARLES BAUMANN, rich vermilion, spotted yellow; ELECTOR, rich orange-scarlet; GEANT DES BATAILLES, deep crimson, very fine; MADAME JOSEPH BAUMANN, bright pink, very free and good; MARIA VERSCHAFFELT, shaded pink and yellow; MIRABILIS, very lovely pink; MORTERI, rich yellow, shaded rosy-red; PONTICA MACRANTHA, rich deep sulphur, very large and fine; PRINCESSE D'ORANGE, salmon-pink, very fine; SANGUINEA, deep crimson; VISCOSA FLORIBUNDA, pure white, very fragrant. =A. arborescens= (tree-like).* _fl._ large, reddish, not clammy, leafy; tube of corolla longer than the segments; calyx leafy, with the segments oblong and acute. May. _l._, of the flower buds large, yellowish-brown, surrounded with a fringed white border, obovate, rather obtuse, smooth on both surfaces, glaucous beneath, ciliated on the margins, and having the midrib almost smooth. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. Pennsylvania, 1818. Deciduous species. =A. balsaminæflora= (Balsam-flowered).* _fl._ bright salmony red, finely double and rosette-like, the segments regularly imbricated, much resembling in general appearance the blooms of a Camellia-flowered Balsam. Japan. It is a distinct species, and remains in bloom for a considerable period; the flowers are invaluable for bouquets. See Fig. 196, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bull. =A. calendulacea= (Marigold-like).* _fl._ yellow, red, orange, and copper coloured, large, not clammy, rather naked; tube of corolla hairy, shorter than the segments. May. _l._ oblong, pubescent on both surfaces, at length hairy. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. Pennsylvania to Carolina, 1806. This is said to be the handsomest shrub in North America. There are several varieties of it in cultivation. Hardy; deciduous. (B. M. 1721, 2143.) =A. hispida= (bristly). _fl._ white, with a red border and a tinge of red on the tube, which is wide and scarcely longer than the segments, very clammy, leafy; stamens ten. July. _l._ long-lanceolate, hispid above, and smooth beneath, glaucous on both surfaces, ciliated on the margins, and having the nerve bristly beneath. Branches straight, and very hispid. _h._ 10ft. to 15ft. New York, &c., 1734. A hardy deciduous species. (W. D. B. 1, 6.) [Illustration: FIG. 197. FLOWER OF AZALEA LEDIFOLIA.] =A. ledifolia= (Ledum-leaved).* _fl._ pure white, showy; corolla campanulate; in threes at the extremities of the branches; calyx erect, glandular, and viscid. March. _l._ elliptic-lanceolate. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. China, 1819. The whole shrub is very hairy. Hardy; evergreen. SYN. _A. liliiflora_. See Fig. 197. (B. M. 2901.) =A. liliiflora= (lily-flowered). Synonymous with _A. ledifolia_. =A. nudiflora= (naked-flowered).* _fl._ in terminal clustered racemes, appearing before the leaves, rather naked, not clammy; tube of corolla longer than the segments; teeth of calyx short, rather rounded; stamens much exserted. June. _l._ lanceolate-oblong, nearly smooth and green on both surfaces, ciliated on the margins, having the midrib bristly beneath, and woolly above. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. North America, 1734. This species hybridises very freely with _A. calendulacea_, _A. pontica_, _A. viscosa_, &c., and descriptive lists of a host of hybrids of almost every conceivable shade, both double and single, are to be found in continental and home catalogues, to which the reader is referred. Hardy. (W. F. A., t. 36.) =A. pontica= (Pontic).* _fl._ leafy, clammy; corolla funnel-shaped; stamens very long. May. _l._ shining, ovate, oblong, pilose, ciliated. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Levant, Caucasus, &c., 1793. The varieties of this species are also numerous, differing principally in the colour of the flowers and the hue of the leaves. The flowers are of all shades, and frequently striped. The name generally adopted, as above, must not be confounded with _Rhododendron ponticum_. If the genus _Azalea_ is merged into Rhododendron, as is done by most systematists, this plant must be called by Don's name, _Rhododendron flavum_. (I. H. 1864, 415.) =A. procumbens= (procumbent). _See_ =Loiseleria procumbens=. =A. speciosa= (showy).* _fl._ scarlet and orange coloured; corolla silky, with obtuse, ciliated, lanceolate, undulated segments; calyx pubescent. May. _l._ lanceolate, ciliated, acute at both ends. Branches hairy. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. North America. The varieties of above are several, varying in the shape of the leaves and the colour of the flowers. (L. B. C. 1255) =A. viscosa= (clammy).* _fl._ white, sweet-scented, in terminal clusters, downy, clammy, leafy; tube of corolla as long as the segments. July. _l._ oblong-ovate, acute, smooth, and green on both surfaces, ciliated on the margins, having the midrib bristly. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. North America, 1734. Like nearly all species belonging to this genus, the varieties are many, varying in the colour of the flowers and otherwise. (T. S. M. 438.) =A. v. nitida= (shining).* _fl._ white, tinged with red, clammy, leafy; tube of corolla a little longer than the segments. April. _l._ oblanceolate, rather mucronate, leathery, smooth on both surfaces, shining above, having the nerve bristly beneath, with revolute, ciliated margins. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. New York, 1812. Hardy; deciduous. (B. R. 5, 414.) _Indian or Chinese Azaleas._ This is a section of greenhouse evergreen varieties obtained from _A. indica_ (which _see_), blooming continuously from November to June, or even later, and of the greatest value for all purposes, whether for decoration, cutting, or exhibition. Cultivation: Thorough drainage is essential, and a compost of half peat, the other half made up of fibrous loam, leaf soil, and sand, in equal quantities. They cannot have too much light and air, and may be grown to almost any size by shifting from one pot to a size larger. In repotting, the whole of the crocks should be taken away from the base of the ball of soil and roots, and the top should also be removed till the fine roots are reached. The plant should then be put in the new pot, and the additional soil rammed firm, in order to prevent the water running through it, and thus depriving the plant of any benefit therefrom. In all cases, the roots near the stem must be above the soil, so that the water may not sink in next the stem, or death will most certainly ensue. After potting, for a few days the plants should be kept close and freely syringed, and as the growth is completed, they may be well hardened off. The best time for potting is after flowering, before the new growth has been made. From October to June the plants should be in the greenhouse, and during the other months in a cold frame, or plunged in pots in the open; or, what is preferable in favoured localities, planted out in prepared beds; they will thus be kept cleaner, and the growth will be much superior. In autumn they may be lifted and repotted, placing in a shady position for a few days. Water in abundance must be given throughout the blooming and growing season; and the plants must, on no account, be allowed to become dry. At the same time, a proper amount of care is most essential, as an excessive amount of moisture is equally as fatal as drought. Cuttings should be placed in sand under a bell glass with moderate bottom heat; half-ripened ones are preferable. They must be cut up to a joint--the base of a leaf--the lower leaves for an inch stripped off, and the stem stuck into the sand, which should lay, about an inch thick, on the top of sandy peat soil; the bottom of the cuttings should reach, but not go quite into, the soil. The whole should be covered with a bell glass, which must be wiped dry every morning. Soon after the cuttings have commenced growing, place them in small pots. They are also very largely and easily increased by grafting; indeed, this is the only satisfactory method of securing standards. Seeds may be sown similar to the last section, but in the greenhouse, and, when well up, pricked out into little pots 1in. apart. Azaleas are liable to the attacks of thrips and red spider, the latter being especially troublesome if the plants are in a dry position; frequent syringing will materially help to eradicate both pests. If insufficient, syringe with a solution of Gishurst's Compound. =A. am�na= (pleasing). _fl._ almost campanulate, rich crimson, about 1-1/2in. across, hose-in-hose conformation, produced in great profusion. April. _l._ small, size of the common Box, hairy. _h._ 1ft. China. This is an elegant little neat and compact growing shrub, which has proved to be quite hardy in England. (B. M. 4728.) A very beautiful series of hybrids have been obtained by crossing this species with _A. indica_, which are most serviceable and free. The following are most desirable: LADY MUSGRAVE, light carmine; MISS BUIST, pure white; MRS. CARMICHAEL, rich magenta, shaded crimson; PRIME MINISTER, soft pink, deep shaded, very free; PRINCESS BEATRICE, light mauve, very distinct and free; PRINCESS MAUDE, rich magenta, rose shaded. [Illustration: FIG. 198. FLOWER OF AZALEA INDICA.] =A. indica= (Indian).* _fl._ campanulate, terminal, solitary or twin; calycine teeth long-lanceolate, obtuse, ciliated, spreading. _l._ cuneate-lanceolate, finely crenelated, covered with sharp, close-pressed rigid hairs, attenuated at both ends. Branches also covered with sharp, close-pressed, rigid hairs. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. China, 1808. See Fig. 198. There are a great number of garden seedlings of the Indian Azalea, including every shade and colour. A selection to any extent may be made from the nurserymen's catalogues, but, for the guidance of the amateur, we have made a rigid selection of the best double and single varieties. _Double-Flowered_: A. BORSIG, pure white; ALICE, rich deep rose, blotched with vermilion, very fine; BERNARD ANDR�, dark violet-purple, large, semi-double; CHARLES LEIRENS, dark salmon, good form and substance; COMTESSE EUGENIE DE KERCHOVE, white, flaked with red-carmine, semi-double; DOMINIQUE VERVAENE, bright orange, very fine; DR. MOORE, deep rose, with white and violet shading, very fine; EMPEREUR DE BR�SIL, rich rose, banded white, the upper petals marked red; FRANCIS DEVOS, deep crimson; IMBRICATA, pure white, sometimes flaked with rose; MADAME IRIS LEFEBVRE, dark orange, shaded with bright violet, and blotched with chocolate; PRESIDENT GHELLINCK DE WALLE, intense rose, upper petals blotched with lake, and crimson-rayed; SOUVENIR DE PRINCE ALBERT, rich rose peach, broadly margined with pure white, very free and beautiful. _Single-Flowered_: CHARMER, rich amaranth, very large; COMTESSE DE BEAUFORT, rich rose, the upper petals blotched with crimson; CRITERION, rich salmon pink, white-margined; DUC DE NASSAU, rich rosy-purple, very free and large; ECLATANTE, deep crimson, rose shaded; FANNY IVERY, deep salmon-scarlet, blotched magenta, very fine; FLAMBEAU, rich glowing crimson, extremely showy; JOHN GOULD VEITCH, lilac-rose, netted and bordered white, and blotched with saffron, very showy; LA SUPERBE, rich lake, bordered orange, and black spotted, a very fine variety; LA VICTOIRE, centre reddish, white towards the edge, the upper petals spotted with maroon-crimson; LOUIS VON BADEN, pure white, a grand variety; MADAME CHARLES VAN ECKHAUTE, pure white, with beautifully crisped edges, of excellent form and substance; MADAME VAN HOUTTE, richly flaked with carmine and rose, very large and free; MARQUIS OF LORNE, brilliant scarlet, of the finest form and substance; MRS. TURNER, bright pink, white-margined, and spotted with crimson; PRESIDENT VAN DEN HECKE, white, striped and speckled with crimson, with a yellow centre; PRINCESS ALICE, pure white, one of the best; REINE DES PAYS-BAS, rich violet-pink, margined with white; ROI D'HOLLANDE, dark blood-red, spotted with black; SIGISMUND RUCKER, rich rose, white bordered, with crimson blotches; WILSON SAUNDERS, pure white, striped and blotched with vivid red, very fine. =A. mollis= (soft). Synonymous with _A. sinensis_. =A. sinensis= (Chinese). _fl._ campanulate, downy, flame coloured; stamens equal in length to the petals. May. _l._ slowly deciduous, elliptic, acutish, pilosely pubescent, feather-nerved, with ciliated margins, greyish beneath. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. China and Japan. A large number of seedlings and hybrids from this species are in cultivation, known under the name of Japanese Azaleas, and all are valuable for the decoration of the cool conservatory, or for outdoor work. SYN. _A. mollis_. (L. B. C. 885.) =AZARA= (in honour of J. N. Azara, a Spanish promoter of science, but of botany in particular). ORD. _Bixineæ_. Showy evergreen, hardy and half-hardy shrubs, with alternate, simple, stalked stipulate leaves, and fragrant flowers. They thrive well in a compost of loam, leaf soil, and sand. Ripened cuttings root readily if placed in sand, under glass, in slight heat. It is believed that all the species enumerated will prove hardy if a slight winter protection in midland and northern counties be afforded. This precaution will be unnecessary in more southern parts. =A. dentata= (toothed). _fl._ yellow; corymbs sessile, few-flowered. June. _l._ ovate, serrated, scabrous, tomentose beneath; stipules leafy, unequal in size. _h._ 12ft. Chili, 1830. (B. R. 1728.) =A. Gillesii= (Gilles').* _fl._ bright yellow; panicles axillary, densely packed. Spring. _l._ large, Holly-like, ovate, coarsely toothed, smooth. _h._ 15ft. Chili, 1859. (B. M. 5178.) [Illustration: FIG. 199. AZARA MICROPHYLLA, showing Habit, and Foliage (half natural size).] =A. integrifolia= (entire-leaved).* _fl._ yellow, on numerous short axillary spikes, of an aromatic fragrance. Autumn. _l._ obovate or oblong, entire, smooth; stipules equal, permanent. _h._ 18ft. Chili (about Conception), 1832. The variegated-leaved form, although rare, is very ornamental. The variegation consists of greenish-yellow, with a blotch of dark green, and in a young state edged with deep pink. =A. microphylla= (small-leaved).* _fl._ greenish, corymbose, succeeded by numerous small orange-coloured berries. Autumn. _l._ small, distichous, obovate, obtuse, dark-shining green. _h._ 12ft. Chiloe and Valdavia, 1873. This shrub is very ornamental as a standard, and also excellent for covering walls. Quite hardy. See Fig. 199, for which we are indebted to Messrs. Veitch and Sons. =BABIANA= (from _babianer_, the Dutch for baboon; in reference to the bulbs being eaten by baboons). ORD. _Iridaceæ_. A genus of very ornamental bulbous plants confined to the Cape of Good Hope, with the exception of a single species, which is found in Socotra. Flowers occasionally fragrant, and generally characterised by their rich self-colours, or the striking contrast of very distinct hues in the same flower; perianth regular and symmetrical, with six ovate divisions (tube varying in length). Stems from 6in. to 9in. high, arising from a small bulb-like corm, and bearing tapering plaited leaves, which are usually more or less densely covered with long hairs; the scapes are racemose, each bearing about six or more simultaneously expanding flowers. They may be successfully grown in pots. By this plan there is, perhaps, less danger of loss, and their flowering season can be prolonged considerably. A light sandy compost, with a small proportion of well-decayed manure, is required, and thorough drainage is also most essential. Use 48 or 60-sized pots, placing four or five corms in the former, and two or three in the latter, and keep moderately dry until they commence to form roots. October is the best time to pot. As soon as the plants appear above ground, water may be carefully given, and the supply proportionately increased as the plants develop. Very weak liquid manure, applied twice a week, just as the spikes are pushing up, will be beneficial. When the flowers fade, and the stems show signs of decay, the supply of water must be gradually decreased, thus inducing the thorough maturation of the corms, upon which the next season's display depends. When quite down, store the pots in a dry place till the time for repotting arrives, when the corms should be carefully cleaned, and all offsets separated, the latter being potted up in the same way as the parent corms in order to produce flowering specimens; or they may be kept in a pot of sand and planted in a warm border outside in March. Outdoor culture: A sheltered, sunny, and well-drained situation is most essential to success. Although not absolutely necessary, it is preferable to replant every year in early spring, placing the bulbs about 5in. or 6in. deep, with a little sand sprinkled about them. Planting may, of course, be done in autumn, when it will be necessary to cover with cocoa nut fibre refuse to the depth of 5in. or 6in. In warm, sheltered situations, the corms may remain undisturbed; but, as a rule, it is desirable to remove them late in autumn, when the leaves are dead, and store them in dry sand through the winter in a cool, airy position, free of frost. Mixed Babianas may be purchased from dealers at a cheap rate, and, for general purposes, they are best to plant. Propagation may be effected by offsets and seeds. The former is the best and quickest method. The offsets should be grown in boxes or planted out in light rich soil until large enough for flowering. Seeds sown in pans, and placed in a gentle heat, will grow at almost any time; the young plants will require to be carefully transplanted each season until they develop into blooming corms. [Illustration: FIG. 200. BABIANA STRICTA RUBRO-CYANEA.] =B. c�rulescens= (bluish). Synonymous with _B. plicata_. =B. disticha= (two-ranked).* _fl._ with a Hyacinth-like fragrance; perianth pale blue; divisions narrow; margins undulated or crisped. June, July. _l._ lanceolate, acute. _h._ 6in. 1774. (B. M. 626.) =B. plicata= (folded).* _fl._ with a very fragrant clove carnation-like perfume; perianth pale violet-blue; anthers blue, and stigmas yellow. May, June. _l._ lanceolate, distinctly plicate. _h._ 6in. 1774. SYNS. _B. c�rulescens_, _B. reflexa_. (B. M. 576.) =B. reflexa= (reflexed). Synonymous with _B. plicata_. =B. ringens= (gaping).* _fl._ scarlet, irregular in form, gaping, very handsome. May, June. _l._ narrow, acute, deep green. _h._ 6in. to 9in. 1752. (L. B. C. 1006.) =B. sambucina= (Elder-scented). _fl._ bluish-purple, with an Elder-like fragrance; perianth divisions spreading. April, May. _l._ lanceolate, slightly plicate. _h._ 6in. to 9in. 1799. SYN. _Gladiolus sambucinus_. (B. M. 1019.) =B. stricta= (strict).* _fl._, perianth segments narrow, acute, outer three white, inner three lilac-blue, with a dark blotch near the base of each. May. _l._ broadly lanceolate, obtuse, ciliated. _h._ 1ft. 1795. (B. M. 621.) =B. s. angustifolia= (narrow-leaved). _fl._ fragrant; perianth bright blue, slightly pink in the tube. May and June. _l._ linear, acute, light green. _h._ 1ft. 1757. (B. M. 637.) =B. s. rubro-cyanea= (red-and-blue).* _fl._ 2in. or more in diameter; upper half of the perianth very brilliant blue, and the lower part rich crimson, forming a central zone, in striking contrast to the blue portion. May, June. _l._ broad, acuminated, downy on the under surface. _h._ 6in. to 8in. 1796. See Fig. 200. (B. M. 410.) =B. a. sulphurea= (sulphur-coloured).* _fl._ cream-coloured or pale yellow; anthers blue, and stigmas yellow; segments spreading. April, May. _l._ narrow-obtuse. _h._ 9in. 1795. SYNS. _Gladiolus sulphureus_, _G. plicatus_. (B. M. 1053.) =B. s. villosa= (villous).* _fl._, perianth smaller than the last, with the narrower segments rather more widely spreading than in _B. s. rubro-cyanea_, brilliant crimson, with violet-blue anthers. August. _h._ 6in. 1778. (B. M. 583.) =BABINGTONIA= (named after C. C. Babington, Professor of Botany at Cambridge, and a distinguished botanical author). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. A very pretty greenhouse evergreen shrub, allied to _Bæckea_, from which it differs in having the stamens collected in groups opposite the sepals. Cuttings of the young unflowering shoots may be planted in sand under a bell glass, and kept in a moderate heat until rooted, when they should be placed singly in small pots, in a compost of equal parts loam and peat, with the addition of a little sand. As the small pots fill with roots, the plants should be removed into larger ones, and the compost have less sand in it; but this should not be done until the next February. The established plants must have a good shift about March or April, and should be kept in a light, airy greenhouse; the first shoots may be topped to moderate their vigour, and to produce a greater profusion of less luxuriant ones. In May, when most plants are removed from the greenhouse, these should be set to grow under a frame which, while shielding them from heavy rains, and supporting some slight shading in the hottest parts of the sunny days, will not prevent a free circulation of air. To this end, the frame should be elevated from the rests or supports at its corners; the lights should be left off at night in fine, mild weather, and on dull, cloudy days, being only replaced during heavy rains, and when shading is necessary. Towards autumn, the plants must be returned to the greenhouse. =B. Camphorasmæ= (camphor-smelling).* _fl._ pinkish-white, in little cymes, disposed in long terminal racemes. Summer. _l._ linear, opposite, nerved. _h._ 7ft. Australia, 1841. (B. R. 28, 10.) =BACCATE.= Berried, fleshy; having a pulpy texture. =BACCHARIS= (from Bacchus, wine; referring to the spicy odour of the roots). Ploughman's Spikenard. ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of hardy, stove, or greenhouse herbs, shrubs, or trees. Flower-heads many-flowered, di�cious, terminal. Involucre sub-hemispherical or oblong, in many series, imbricated. Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate, deciduous, oblong-lanceolate, notched, serrated, or entire. Shrubs of short duration. These plants are neither beautiful nor ornamental, but are of easy cultivation in ordinary soil. Propagated by cuttings. =B. halimifolia= (Halimus-leaved). Groundsel Tree. _fl.-heads_ white. July. _l._ oblong-cuneate, obovate, coarsely toothed; branches angular. _h._ 6ft. to 12ft. Northern United States, 1683. Hardy. =BACHELORS' BUTTONS.= The double-flowered forms of _Ranunculus acris_, _Lychnis diurna_, &c. [Illustration: HYBRID ALSTR�MERIAS] =BACKHOUSIA= (commemorative of the late James Backhouse, a botanical traveller in Australia and South Africa). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. A greenhouse evergreen shrub, requiring a compost of fibry peat, loam, and a little white sand. Propagated, in April, by half-ripened cuttings, inserted in sand, under a bell glass, in a cool house. =B. myrtifolia= (Myrtle-leaved).* _fl._ white, disposed in corymbs, and often produced on cuttings soon after having struck root. May. _l._ ovate, acuminate, smooth. Branches slender. _h._ 16ft. New South Wales, 1844. (B. M. 4133.) =BACONIA.= A synonym of =Pavetta= (which _see_). =BACTRIS= (from _baktron_, a cane; the young stems being used for walking sticks). ORD. _Palmaceæ_. Very ornamental, slender growing, and prickly stove palms. Peduncle of the spadix bursting through about the middle of the leaf sheath. Drupes small, ovate, or nearly round, and generally of a dark blue colour. Leaves pinnatisect; segments generally linear and entire. Instead of being confined to the apex of the trunk, the leaves are scattered over nearly the whole surface, and the lower ones retain their verdure long after the upper ones have fully developed. Stems slender, varying from 2ft. to 10ft. in height. Some of the species are of easy culture in a compost of loam, peat, loaf mould, and sand, in equal parts; but most of them are very difficult to manage. Propagation may be effected by suckers, which are very freely produced. Many species are ornamental only when in a young state. =B. baculifera= (cane-bearing). _l._ pinnate, bifid at the apex, 2ft. to 6ft. long; pinnæ arranged in clusters about 1ft. long and 2in. broad, dark green above, paler below; petioles sheathing and densely clothed with sharp brown and black spines, 1-1/2in long. South America. =B. caryotæfolia= (Caryota-leaved).* _fl._, spathe ovate, prickly; branches of spadix simple, flexuous. _l._, pinnæ wedge-shaped, three-lobed, and erose; rachis, petioles, and caudex, prickly. _h._ 30ft. Brazil, 1825. =B. flavispina= (yellow-spined). Synonymous with _B. pallidispina_. =B. major= (greater). _fl._ greenish-yellow, with a broadly ovate spathe. _h._ 25ft. Carthagena, 1800. =B. Maraja= (Maraja). Maraja Palm. _fl._ yellow, with a prickly spathe. _h._ 30ft. to 50ft. Bahia, 1868. =B. pallidispina= (pale-spined).* _l._ pinnate, bifid at the apex; pinnæ clustered, 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. wide, dark; petioles sheathing at the base and furnished with a profusion of long, yellow spines, which are tipped with black. Brazil. SYN. _B. flavispina_. =BACULARIA= (from _baculum_, a walking-stick). ORD. _Palmaceæ_. A small genus containing a couple of stove species, which are amongst the smallest palms of the Old World. Both are confined to the east coast of tropical Australia. _B. monostachya_--in allusion to its slender stem, which rarely exceeds in thickness that of the thumb--is known as the Walking-stick Palm. =B. minor= (lesser). _l._ attaining 3-1/2ft. Stems, several from same rhizome, 2ft. to 5ft. high, 1/2in. thick. Queensland. =B. monostachya= (one-spiked). _l._ pinnate, pendent, 6in. to 12in. long, bifid at the apex; pinnæ about 4in. across, broad, irregular in shape, with ragged and irregular ends; dark green. Stem slender, petioles sheathing. _h._ 10ft. New South Wales, 1824. SYN. _Areca monostachya_. (B. M. 6644.) =BADGER'S BANE.= _See_ =Aconitum meloctonum=. =B�A= (commemorative of Rev. Dr. Beau, of Toulon, brother-in-law to Commerson, the discoverer of the genus). SYN. _Dorcoceras_. ORD. _Gesneraceæ_. Curious and pretty greenhouse herbaceous perennials, requiring a rich sandy loam. They are easily propagated by seeds. Probably the only species in cultivation is the following: =B. hygrometrica= (hygrometric).* _fl._ pale blue-coloured, yellowish at the throat; segments of the limb more or less reflexed; corolla five-lobed, somewhat resembling that of the Violet; scapes numerous, naked, few-flowered. Summer. _l._ in a rosette, thinly covered with coarse white hairs, ovate acute at both ends, crenate serrate. _h._ 6in. North China, 1868. (B. M. 6468.) =B�CKEA= (named after Abraham Bæck, a Swedish physician, and an esteemed friend of Linnæus). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. Very pretty greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Flowers white, pedicellate, small. Leaves opposite, glabrous, dotted. They thrive in a compost of sandy peat, leaf soil, and lumpy, fibrous loam. Cuttings, taken from young wood, root readily, if pricked in a pot of sand, with a bell glass placed over them, in a cool house. =B. diosmæfolia= (Diosma-leaved).* _fl._ axillary, solitary, approximate, sessile. August to October. _l._ oblong, rather cuneated, keeled, acute, crowded, imbricate, and are, as well as the calyces, ciliated. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. New Holland, 1824. =B. frutescens= (shrubby).* _fl._ solitary; pedicels axillary. November. _l._ linear, awnless. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. China, 1806. (B. M. 2802.) =B. parvula= (little). _fl._, peduncles axillary, umbelliferous. _l._ elliptic-oblong, obtuse, rather mucronate. _h._ 1ft. New Caledonia, 1877. This is very close to _B. virgata._ (R. G. 886, 2.) =B. virgata= (twiggy).* _fl._, peduncles axillary, umbelliferous. August to October. _l._ linear-lanceolate. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. New Caledonia, 1806. (B. M. 2127.) =B�RIA= (named in honour of Professor Baer, of the University of Dorpat). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus consisting of about half a dozen species. Probably the only one in cultivation is that mentioned below; it is a very pretty plant, of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. Propagated by seeds, sown in spring. =B. chrysostoma= (golden-mouthed). _fl.-heads_ bright yellow, solitary, terminal, about 1in. across; involucre of about ten leaflets, in two series. Early summer. _l._ linear, opposite, entire. Stems erect, downy. _h._ 1ft. California, 1835. (S. B. F. G. ii. 395.) =BAGGED.= Swelled like a sac or bag. =BAHIA= (probably from Port of Bahia, or San Salvador, in South America). SYN. _Phialis_. ORD. _Compositæ_. An ornamental, hardy, herbaceous perennial, much branched from the base of the stem, and having a greyish appearance. It may be increased by seeds, or by divisions. =B. lanata= (woolly). _fl.-heads_ yellow, solitary, produced in great numbers. Summer. _l._ alternate, or with the lower ones sometimes opposite, deeply divided, and sometimes ligulate and entire. _h._ 6in. to 15in. North America. This species thrives on borders of light and well-drained sandy soil. (B. R. 1167.) =BALANIUS.= _See_ =Nut Weevil=. =BALANTIUM= (of Kaulfuss). _See_ =Dicksonia=. =BALANTIUM= (of Desvaux). _See_ =Parinarium=. =BALBISIA= (commemorative of Giovanni Battista Balbis, a Professor of Botany at Turin). SYN. _Ledocarpum_. ORD. _Geraniaceæ_. A very ornamental half-hardy evergreen shrub, requiring a cool, dry atmosphere. As it is very liable to rot off, water must be applied with great care. Propagated by cuttings of half-ripened wood, inserted in sand, under a hand glass; or by seeds. =B. verticillata= (whorled). _fl._ yellow, large, with a whorl of narrow bracts beneath. Autumn. _l._ opposite, three-parted; segments linear-oblong. Branches slender, glaucous. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. Chili, 1846. (B. M. 6170.) =BALCONY.= A projection from the external wall of a house, usually resting on brackets, and having the sides encompassed by a balustrade. It should at all times be prettily decorated with plants, which in the summer is a comparatively easy matter. During winter, evergreens of various kinds are most serviceable, the best being Arbutus, Aucubas, Boxes, Euonymuses, Hollies, Irish and Goldon Yew, Portugal Laurel, Retinosporas, Vincas, &c. These may be grown in pots, and when replaced by the summer occupants, should be plunged in some reserve quarter, where they should receive plenty of water; by this means, they will increase in size, and keep in a healthy condition. Very little water will be required during the winter. Climbing plants, such as Ivy, Passion Flower, Virginian Creeper, Climbing Roses, &c., are indispensable for covering the trellises, and draping the pillars and arches. =BALDINGERA.= A synonym of =Premna=. =BALL.= This term is used in reference to the roots and mass of earth as they are moulded into form and pressed into hardness by the pot. The masses of roots and earth which, in the case of fibrous-rooted subjects (such as Rhododendrons), must be taken intact when removing the plants, are also termed Balls. =BALM= (_Melissa officinalis_). A perennial herb, often used in the manufacture of a drink for sick persons, and sometimes employed for culinary purposes. It may be grown in ordinary garden soil, and is propagated by divisions, in spring. A pretty variegated form is sometimes met with, having the additional advantage of being equal to the normal species for medicinal purposes. =BALM OF GILIAD.= _See_ =Cedronella triphylla= and =Populus balsamifera=. [Illustration: FIG. 201. CAMELLIA-FLOWERED BALSAM.] =BALSAM= (_Impatiens Balsamina_). A well-known ornamental and tender annual, native of India. It is one of the showiest of summer and autumn flowers, and well deserves a place in every garden. Although of comparatively easy cultivation, good blooms and well-grown plants are far too rarely seen. A good Balsam bloom should be quite as double as a perfect Camellia, and to show to the greatest advantage should appear like one in the arrangement of the petals. To secure this, seeds should only be saved from the finest and most perfect flowers, although the quantity must, of necessity, be small. They should be sown, about the third week in March, in properly prepared pans of rich sandy soil, and placed in a gentle bottom heat of about 65deg. As soon as the first rough leaf appears, the plants should be potted off into 3in. pots, care being taken to let the cotyledon, or seed leaves, be close to the soil. When the roots touch the sides of the pots, the plants should be moved into larger ones, and this should be repeated until they are in 8in. or 10in. pots. Some growers place one or two seeds in small pots, so as to avoid the first shift, and a good plan it is. During the time the plants are under glass, they should be kept as near the light as possible, and be frequently turned around, so that they do not draw to one side; and careful training must be given to those that are required in fine form. Disbudding is also necessary to such as are wanted at their best, removing all bloom from the main stem and base of branches until the plants are of sufficient size, and then the buds at the tops will bloom almost simultaneously. The buds that will be formed afterwards will cause a continuance of blossom for a long time, in fact, for some months, if the plants are liberally supplied with liquid manure. If it is desired for them to flower out of doors, the plants should be transferred, about May, to a frame where the heat is not above 50deg., and be kept in a steady growing state, air being admitted on all suitable occasions, cold winds and heavy rains avoided, and water supplied when needed; never allow them to get dry. They require training and disbudding the same as those grown in the greenhouse. About June, the plants should be fully exposed during the day; and, when danger of frost is over, the lights may be kept off altogether. These should bloom at the end of July. In all cases, plenty of drainage must be allowed, as the amount of water required is very great. Insects must be sharply looked after, as well as slugs and snails. There are several sections, such as Camellia-flowered (see Fig. 201), Rose-flowered, &c., each containing variously striped, spotted, and entire coloured blooms, and it is best to pay an extra figure to secure a good strain. =BALSAM APPLE.= _See_ =Momordica Balsaminea=. =BALSAMINA.= _See_ =Impatiens=. [Illustration: FIG. 202. BAMBUSA ARUNDINACEA.] =BALSAMINE�.= A tribe of plants belonging to the order _Geraniaceæ_. Sepals and petals all coloured, consisting of six segments, "two outer ones small, flat, and oblique; the next large, hood-shaped, ending below in a conical spur; the fourth opposite to it, small, very broad, concave; the two innermost very oblique, and more or less divided into two unequal lobes." The best known genus is _Impatiens_. =BALSAMODENDRON= (from _balsamon_-�an old Greek word used by Theophrastus-�balm or balsam, and _dendron_, a tree). ORD. _Burseraceæ_. Greenhouse or stove balsamiferous trees. Flowers small, green, axillary, often unisexual; calyx four-toothed, permanent; petals four, linear-oblong, induplicately valvate in æstivation; stamens eight, inserted under the annular disk, having elevated warts between them. Berry, or drupe, ovate, acute, one to two-celled, marked with four sutures. Leaves with three to five sessile, dotless leaflets. They thrive in a compost of thoroughly drained sandy loam. Propagated by cuttings of ripe young wood, taken in April, and placed under a hand glass, in bottom heat. The species named below doubtfully belongs to this genus, as the characteristics above enumerated will show. =B. zeylanicum= (Ceylon).* _fl._ white, three-petaled, glomerated, involucrated; racemes interrupted, downy. _l._ impari-pinnate, with five to seven-stalked, ovate, acute leaflets. _h._ 30ft. Ceylon. =BALSAM OF CAPEVI.= _See_ =Copaifera=. =BALSAM-TREE.= _See_ =Clusia=. =BAMBOO CANE.= _See_ =Bambusa=. [Illustration: FIG. 203. BAMBUSA AUREA.] =BAMBUSA= (from _bambu_, the Malay name). Bamboo Cane. ORD. _Gramineæ_. A genus of ornamental, shrubby, greenhouse, half-hardy or hardy shrubs, each culm flowering but once. Flowers usually hexandrous. Leaves, as a rule, relatively shorter than the stems, lanceolate, and narrowed at the base. Stems jointed, flexuose, branching, usually hollow, and, when mature, of a hard, woody nature. In well drained, sheltered situations, in the open, with rich, loamy soil, some of the species make extremely graceful objects, particularly so in the more southern counties of England, and in parts of Scotland. Unless a very severe winter is experienced, they may be left without protection. Plants of all the species, however, should have the shelter of a cold greenhouse till about the end of April; when they should be gradually hardened off, and transferred to a warm, sheltered spot, such as in woodlands, by the margins of lakes, &c., as they like plenty of moisture during the summer. A good watering must be given after planting, to settle the soil. Propagation is effected by careful division of well-developed plants, which should be done in early spring, just as new growth is commencing; and it is advisable to establish the divisions in pots. _See also_ =Arundinaria=. [Illustration: FIG. 204. BAMBUSA NANA.] =B. arundinacea= (reed-like).* Stem very stout, rising like a beautiful column to some 50ft. or 60ft. in height; the laterals producing a profusion of light green leaves, the whole presenting the appearance of a huge plume of feathers. India, 1730. This species is best treated as a stove plant, but it may be placed out of doors in summer. See Fig. 202. (B. F. S. 321.) =B. aurea= (golden).* _l._ lanceolate, acute, light green, distinguished from _B. nana_ by having their under surface less glaucescent, and the sheath always devoid of the long silky hairs. China. This very handsome species forms elegant tufts, with its slender much-branched stems, which attain a height of from 6ft. to 10ft., and are of a light green colour in a young state, ultimately changing into a yellowish hue. Hardy in most parts of the country. See Fig. 203. =B. Fortunei= (Fortune's).* _l._ linear-lanceolate, abruptly pointed, somewhat rounded at the base, on very short hairy stalks, serrated and often fringed with long hairs on the margin, downy on both sides, and distinctly variegated, the transverse veins often of a bottle-green colour. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Japan. A dwarf tufted species, with very slender stem. Quite hardy. There are only variegated varieties of this in cultivation, viz., _variegata_ and _argenteovittata_. (F. d. S. 1863, t. 1535.) =B. glauca= (milky-green). A synonym of _B. nana_. =B. japonica= (Japanese). Synonymous with _Arundinaria Metake_. =B. Maximowiczii= (Maximowicz's). Synonymous with _Arundinaria Maximowiczii_. =B. Metake= (Metake). Synonymous with _Arundinaria Metake_. =B. mitis= (small). _l._ deep green, lanceolate, acute, striated, clasping the stem; panicle simple, erect, close; spikes long, imbricated. Stem tapering. _h._ 40ft. Cochin China and Japan. This vigorous-growing species can be cultivated out of doors during summer, and, in most localities, it may be left out all the year. =B. nana= (dwarf).* _l._ lanceolate, acute, glaucous, stoutish, with the footstalks slightly downy. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. India, 1826. A rather tender species, requiring to be grown in the stove or greenhouse. SYNS. _B. glauca_ and _B. viridi-glaucescens_. See Fig. 204. =B. nigra= (black). _See_ =Phyllostachys nigra=. =B. Ragamowski= (Ragamowsk's).* _l._ 9in. to 18in. long, and about 1in. to 3in. broad. China and Japan. This species "can readily be recognised by the tomentose line on one side of the midrib, running nearly the whole length of the leaf on the underside, this line being always on the longer side of the leaf." Hardy. SYN. _B. tessellata_. =B. Simonii= (Simon's).* _l._ narrow, nearly 6in. to 10in. long, occasionally striped with white. Stems growing with great rapidity, mealy-glaucous at the joints; branchlets numerous, rather closely crowded. _h._ 10ft. China and Japan, 1866. =B. striata= (striated).* _l._ linear-oblong; culms striped yellow and green. _h._ 6ft. to 20ft. China, 1874. A very slender and graceful, rather tender, species. May be grown in the open air during summer, and in very favoured spots it is probably hardy, especially if covered with a mat in winter. It makes an excellent pot plant. SYN. _B. viridi-striata_. (B. M. 6079.) =B. tessellata= (tessellated).* A synonym of _B. Ragamowski_. =B. violescens= (nearly-violet).* _l._ green above, bluish-grey beneath, with an elongated ligule, surrounded by a bundle of black hairs. Stems much branched, blackish-violet. China, 1869. This handsome and vigorous species is intermediate between _Phyllostachys nigra_ and _B. nana_. It requires protection during winter. =B. viridi-glaucescens= (glaucous-green). A synonym of _B. nana_. =B. viridi-striata= (green-striped). A synonym of _B. striata_. =BANANA=, or =PLANTAIN=. _See_ =Musa=. =BANEBERRY.= _See_ =Actæa=. =BANISTERIA= (named after John Baptist Banister, a traveller in Virginia in the seventeenth century, author of a catalogue of Virginian plants, inserted in Ray's "Historia Plantarum"). ORD. _Malpighiaceæ_. Stove trees or shrubs, frequently climbing. Flowers yellow; calyx five-parted; petals furnished with long stalks; stamens ten. Leaves simple, stalked. They are for the most part very ornamental, but are not often seen in flower in this country. They will grow in a mixture of loam, leaf soil, and peat, with some sharp sand added. Cuttings, made from ripened wood, will root freely in sandy soil, under a hand glass, in stove heat, taking about three or four weeks to do so. =B. chrysophylla= (golden-leaved).* _fl._ deep orange, axillary, corymbose. _l._ ovate, oblong, acutish, somewhat sinuated towards the top, clothed beneath with golden shining down. Brazil, 1793. Climber. =B. ciliata= (ciliated).* _fl._ large, orange-coloured, umbellate. June. _l._ cordate, orbicular, smooth, ciliated. Brazil, 1796. Twiner. =B. ferruginea= (rust-coloured). _fl._ yellow; racemes panicled. June. _l._ 2in. long, ovate, acuminated, smooth above, and shining, rusty beneath, and are, as well as the petioles, clothed with close pressed hairs. Brazil, 1820. Climber. =B. fulgens= (glowing).* _fl._ yellow, in umbellate corymbs. _l._ ovate, acuminated, smooth above, and clothed with silky pubescence beneath, as well as the petioles. Branches dichotomous. West Indies, 1759. Climber. =B. Humboldtiana= (Humboldt's).* _fl._ yellow; umbels lateral and terminal, sessile. _l._ roundish-ovate, cordate, rather acuminated, mucronate, membranaceous, smoothish above, clothed beneath with soft hoary down as well as the branchlets. South America, 1824. Climber. =B. sericea= (silky). _fl._ yellow, racemose. July. _l._ ovate, obtuse, with a mucrone; younger ones downy on both surfaces, adult ones only on the under surface; down of a golden shining colour. Brazil, 1810. Climber. =B. splendens= (splendid).* _fl._ yellow; racemes axillary, dichotomous, umbellate. Floral leaves orbicular, and nearly sessile. _l._ cordate, kidney-shaped, orbicular, clothed with silky down beneath. South America, 1812. Climber. =BANKS.= These are usually formed with a view to increasing the amount of surface ground, and for the acceleration or retarding of vegetable crops, such as strawberries, &c. They should be from 6ft. to 12ft. apart, according to the depth of soil, and run from east to west. In constructing Banks of a uniform size, great care, and a constant use of the garden line, will be found necessary. For the warmest side of the Banks, Dwarf French Beans, Peas, Vegetable Marrows, Cucumbers, New Zealand Spinach, Capsicums, &c., may be grown. On the opposite side, and when a prolonged supply is desired, Cauliflower, Broccoli, Lettuce, Turnip, Spinach, &c., may be sown thinly in drills, to be thinned out, and remain. It needs but little discretion to produce valuable crops by this method. =BANKSIA= (named in honour of Sir Joseph Banks, once President of the Royal Society, and a distinguished patron of science, particularly of Natural History). ORD. _Proteaceæ_. Greenhouse evergreen shrubs, natives of Australia, principally grown for the beauty of their foliage. Leaves variable in form, usually dark green, clothed with white or rufous down beneath; margins deeply serrated or spinous, rarely entire. The following is the mode of culture recommended many years ago by Sweet. The pots should be well drained, by placing a potsherd about half way over the hole at the bottom of the pot, then laying another piece against it that it may be hollow, afterwards putting some smaller pieces all around them, and on the top of these some others broken very small. All the plants belonging to the order _Proteaceæ_ should be drained in a similar manner, as the roots are very fond of running amongst the broken potsherds, and consequently there is less danger of their being overwatered. Care must also be taken not to allow them to flag, as they seldom recover if once allowed to get very dry. The plants should be placed in an airy part of the house when indoors. Cuttings are generally supposed to be difficult to root, but this is not the case if properly managed. Let them be well ripened before they are taken off; then cut them at a joint, and place them in pots of sand, without shortening any of the leaves, except on the part that is planted in the sand, where they should be taken off quite close. The less depth they are planted in the pots the better, so long as they stand firm when the sand is well closed round them. Place them under hand glasses in the propagating house, but do not plunge them in heat. Take the glasses off frequently to give them air, and dry them, or they will probably damp off. When rooted, transfer to small pots; after which, place them in a close, unheated frame, and harden by degrees. Seeds are a very unsatisfactory means of multiplying the stock. =B. æmula= (rivalling).* _l._ 6in. to 10in. long, 1in. broad, linear-oblong, tapering slightly at the base; edges deeply toothed, deep green on both sides; midrib of under surface clothed with rich brown hairs. _h._ 20ft. 1824. SYN. _B. elatior_. (B. M. 2671.) =B. australis= (southern). A synonym of _B. marginata_. =B. Caleyi= (Caley's). _l._ 6in. to 12in. long, linear, deeply and regularly toothed from base to apex, dark green above, paler below. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. 1830. Said to be an elegant species. =B. collina= (hill-loving).* _l._ 2in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. broad, linear; apex præmorse, as if bitten straight off; upper surface dark green, silvery below. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. 1822. This forms a dense and handsome shrub, especially with its large head of yellow flowers. SYNS. _B. Cunninghami_, _B. ledifolia_, and _B. littoralis_. (B. M. 3060.) =B. Cunninghami= (Cunningham's). A synonym of _B. collina_. =B. dryandroides= (Dryandra-like).* _l._ 6in. to 10in. long, 1/4in. broad, pinnatifid, divided almost to the midrib; lobes triangular, deep green above, and reddish-brown below. Stem clothed with reddish-brown hairs. _h._ 6ft. 1824. This plant is extremely graceful and elegant as a table decoration. =B. elatior= (taller). Synonymous with _B. æmula_. =B. integrifolia= (whole-leaved). _l._ cuneate-oblong, 6in. long, nearly 1in. wide at the broadest part; edges entire; upper side dark green, silvery white beneath. _h._ 10ft. to 12ft. 1788. SYNS. _B. macrophylla_, _B. oleifolia_. (B. M. 2770.) =B. i. compar= (well-matched). _l._ very densely set upon the branches, oblong, tapering at the base, blunt at the apex; edges serrulate; upper side dark olive green, silvery white beneath. _h._ 6ft., finely branching. 1824. =B. latifolia= (broad-leaved). _l._ 6in. to 10in. long, 3in. broad, obovate-oblong; edges serrated; upper surface deep green, beneath clothed with woolly greyish hairs, those on the midrib bright brown. _h._ 20ft. 1802. (B. M. 2406.) =B. ledifolia= (Ledum-leaved). Synonymous with _B. collina_. =B. littoralis= (shore). Synonymous with _B. collina_. =B. macrophylla= (large-leaved). Synonymous with _B. integrifolia_. =B. marginata= (margined). _l._ 1in. to 2in. long, 1/2in. broad, blunt at the apex, armed with several short spines, and tapering at the base, deep green on the upper surface, snowy white beneath. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. 1822. SYN. _B. australis_. (B. M. 1947.) =B. occidentalis= (western).* _fl._ yellow, rather handsome, in spikes about 4in. long. April to August. _l._ 5in. to 6in. long, 1/4in. broad. _h._ 5ft. 1803. West coast of New Holland. A beautiful species. (B. M. 3535.) =B. oleifolia= (olive-leaved). Synonymous with _B. integrifolia_. =B. Solanderi= (Solander's).* _l._ 4in. to 6in. long, and over 2in. wide, deeply pinnatifid, with three to six pairs of lobes on each leaf; apex as if bitten off; upper side dark green, under silvery white. _h._ 6ft. 1830. =B. speciosa= (showy).* _l._ 8in. to 14in. long, about 1/2in. wide, pinnatifid, but divided almost to the midrib; lobes semicircular, with a spine on the end of each; upper side deep green, beneath silvery white, with the midrib clothed with ferruginous woolly hairs. _h._ 6ft. 1805. Both this and the preceding species are very handsome, and highly deserving of the most extensive culture. =B. quercifolia= (Oak-leaved). _l._ cuneate-oblong, deeply incised at the margins, and having a short spine upon each lobe. _h._ 5ft. 1805. (B. R. 1430.) =BANKSIA= (of Forster). A synonym of =Pimelea=. =BAOBAB-TREE.= _See_ =Adansonia=. =BAPHIA= (from _baphe_, a dye; the tree produces the camwood of commerce). Camwood or Barwood. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A stove tree, requiring a loam and peat soil. Cuttings, not deprived of any of their leaves, will root in a pot of sand, under a hand glass, in heat. =B. nitida= (shining). _fl._ white; corolla with a roundish spreading vexillum, linear wings, which are about the length of the vexillum, and an acute carina; pedicels two to three together, one-flowered, axillary. June. _l._ entire, oval-oblong, acuminated, shining. _h._ 30ft. Sierra Leone, 1793. (L. B. C. 367.) =BAPTISIA.= (from _bapto_, to dye; so named from the economical use of some of the species). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. North American hardy herbaceous plants, with trifoliate, rarely simple leaves, and racemes of yellowish or blue flowers. They are somewhat shy bloomers, but grow freely in a loamy soil. Propagated by divisions, or, more easily, by seed, which latter may be sown in sand and leaf mould in the open, or in pots placed in a cold frame. =B. alba= (white).* _fl._ white; racemes terminal. June. _l._ stalked, glabrous; leaflets elliptic-oblong, obtuse; stipules deciduous, subulate, shorter than the petioles. Branches divaricate. _h._ 2ft. 1724. (B. M. 1177.) =B. australis= (southern).* _fl._ blue; racemes few-flowered, elongated, shorter than the branches. June. _l._ stalked, smooth; leaflets oblong-cuneated, obtuse, four times longer than the petiole; stipules lanceolate, acute, twice the length of the petiole. Stem branched, diffuse. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. 1758. (Flora, 1856, 2; B. M. 509.) =B. confusa= (confused). _fl._ dark blue, alternate, bracteate; racemes elongated. June. _l._ stalked, smooth; leaflets oblong-cuneated or obovate; stipules linear-lanceolate, twice the length of the petioles. Stem branched. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1758. =B. exaltata= (exalted).* _fl._ deep blue; racemes many-flowered, elongated, twice the length of the branches. June. _l._ ternate, stalked; leaflets lanceolate-obovate, five times longer than the petioles; stipules lanceolate, acuminated, three times longer than the petioles. Stem erect, branched. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. 1812. (S. B. F. G. 97.) =B. leucophæa= (dusky-white). _fl._ cream-coloured; racemes many-flowered, lateral, with the flowers leaning to one side. July. _l._ sessile, somewhat villous; leaflets rhomboid-obovate; stipules and bracts ovate, acute, broad, leafy. _h._ 1ft. 1870. (B. M. 5900.) =B. minor= (less). _fl._ blue; racemes axillary, bracteate. June. _l._, leaflets rhomboid-lanceolate; stipules lanceolate, longer than the petioles. Stem erect, solid. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1829. =B. perfoliata= (perfoliate-leaved).* _fl._ yellow, small, axillary, solitary. August. _l._ perfoliate, roundish, quite entire, rather glaucous. _h._ 3ft. 1793. (B. M. 3121.) =B. tinctoria= (dyers').* _fl._ yellow, with wings each furnished with a callosity, or lateral tooth; racemes terminal. _l._ stalked, upper ones nearly sessile; leaflets roundish-obovate; stipules setaceous, almost obsolete. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. 1759. (L. B. C. 588.) =BARBACENIA.= (named after M. Barbacena, a Governor of Minas Geraes). Formerly placed in ORD. _Hæmodoraceæ_, but now referred by Bentham and Hooker to _Amaryllidaceæ_. Very singular and pretty stove evergreen herbaceous perennials, allied to _Vellozia_. Flowers purple, large, showy; perianth funnel-shaped, resinosely hairy on the outside; limb spreading; scapes one-flowered, usually clothed with glandular hairs. Leaves firm, spiral, spreading, acutely keeled. Lindley says that they are capable of existing in a dry, hot air without contact with the earth, on which account they are favourites in South American gardens, where, with Orchids and Bromeliads, they are suspended in the dwelling houses, or hung to the balustrades of the balconies, in which situation they flower abundantly, filling the air with their fragrance. They are rarely seen in our gardens. They may be grown in baskets of fibrous loam and peat, with some nodules of charcoal added. [Illustration: FIG. 205. FLOWER OF BARBACENIA PURPUREA.] =B. purpurea= (purple).* _fl._ funnel-shaped, six-cleft, terminal, solitary; ovarium elongated, tuberculated. July. _l._ linear, keeled, with spiny serratures. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Brazil, 1825. See Fig. 205. (B. M. 2777.) =B. Rogieri= (Rogers').* _fl._ purple; scape and ovaria tubercled; filaments broad, bifid. July. _l._ linear, acuminated, imbricate, with broad stem-clasping bases, finely spinely serrated on the margin, and keel recurved; caudex short. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Brazil, 1850. (L. J. F. 82.) =BARBADOS CHERRY.= _See_ =Malpighia=. =BARBADOS GOOSEBERRY.= _See_ =Pereskia aculeata=. =BARBADOS LILY.= _See_ =Hippeastrum equestre=. =BARBAREA= (anciently called Herb of St. Barbara). Winter Cress; American Cress. ORD. _Cruciferæ_. Hardy glabrous perennial herbs. Flowers yellow; racemes erect, terminal. Stems erect. They are of easy culture, but scarcely worth growing in the pleasure garden. Propagated by cuttings, suckers, divisions, or seeds. =B. præcox= (early). _l._, lower ones lyrate; terminal lobe ovate; upper ones pinnate-parted; lobes linear-oblong, quite entire. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Commonly known as American, or Black American Cress. Here and there on roadsides, and in dry gravelly places in Great Britain. An escape from cultivation. (Sy. En. B. 124.) =B. vulgaris= (common). _l._, lower ones lyrate; terminal lobe roundish; upper ones obovate, toothed, or pinnatifid. _h._ 1-1/4ft. The double flowering form of this native species is the only one of this genus worth growing for beauty; it is generally known as Double Yellow Rocket. The variegated form is also rather pretty, and comes true from seed. (Sy. En. B. 120.) =BARBATUS.= Having long weak hairs, in one or more tufts; bearded. =BARBERRY.= _See_ =Berberis=. =BARBIERIA= (in honour of J. B. G. Barbier, M.D., a French physician and naturalist, author of "Principes Generaux de Pharmacologie ou de Matière Medicale," Paris, 1806). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. An ornamental stove evergreen, requiring a mixture of peat, loam, and sand. Propagated by cuttings of half-ripened wood, which should be placed in sand, under a glass, in stove heat. =B. polyphylla= (many-leaved).* _fl._ scarlet, 2in. long; racemes axillary, few-flowered, shorter than the leaves. _l._ impari-pinnate, with nine to eleven pairs of elliptic-oblong, mucronate leaflets, pubescent in an adult state. Porto Rico, 1818. SYNS. _Clitorea polyphylla_ and _Galactia pinnata_. =BARBS.= Hooked hairs. =BARK.= The outer integuments of a plant beyond the wood, and formed of tissue parallel with it. =BARK-BOUND.= This condition is generally the result of very rich soil, or insufficient drainage. In most fruit trees a gummy exudation takes place. If caused by stagnancy, thorough drainage should immediately be effected. Scrubbing the stem is also recommended. Slitting the bark with a knife is likely to do more harm than good, particularly so in the hands of the inexperienced. =BARKERIA= (name commemorative of the late G. Barker, of Birmingham, an ardent cultivator of orchids). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. From a scientific point of view, this genus should be included in _Epidendrum_. Very handsome, deciduous, epiphytal, cool-house orchids, having slender pseudo-bulbs, from 6in. to 12in. high, from the top of which the numerous flower-stems are produced. In a cool, airy temperature, these plants grow vigorously, suspended in pans or small baskets close beneath the glass, and slightly shaded with tiffany. They succeed well also on flat blocks of wood, on the top of which they should be tied, without any moss, as their freely-produced, thick, fleshy roots soon cling to the blocks. During the season of growth, a good supply of water is needed, and in hot weather it may be applied three or four times daily; the blocks and plants are best immersed in water; but when at rest, a slight watering twice or three times a week will suffice. Propagated by divisions, just previous to the commencement of new growth. =B. elegans= (elegant).* _fl._ in loose racemes, four or five in each; each blossom about 2in. across; sepals and petals dark rose; lip reddish crimson, spotted and edged with a lighter colour. Winter. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1836. Of this beautiful slender-growing species, there are two or three varieties in cultivation. (B. M. 4784.) =B. Lindleyana= (Lindley's).* _fl._, raceme 2ft. long, very slender, bearing from five to seven blossoms near its apex; sepals and petals rosy purple; lip white, with a deep purple blotch at its apex. September, remaining in beauty for a considerable time. _h._ 2ft. Costa Rica, 1842. (B. M. 6098.) =B. L. Centeræ= (Center's).* _fl._ rosy lilac; lip oblong; margins crenulated or crisped; apex blotched deep purple. Costa Rica, 1873. =B. melanocaulon= (dark-stemmed).* _fl._ on an erect spike; sepals and petals rosy lilac; lip broader at the base than at the top, reddish-purple, having a blotch of green in the centre. August. _h._ 1ft. Costa Rica, 1848. Very rare. =B. Skinneri= (Skinner's).* _fl._ deep rose-coloured; spikes 6in. to 9in. long, from the apices of the ripened growth, often branched, forming a dense mass of deep purple blossoms, which, if kept dry, lasts from eight to ten weeks. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Guatemala. (P. M. B. 15, 1.) =B. S. superbum= (superb).* _fl._ dark rose; lip somewhat deeper tinted, and marked towards the base with yellow streaks. Guatemala. This far surpasses the type in size and number of flowers, as well as in brilliancy of colour. (W. S. O. 38.) =B. spectabilis= (showy).* _fl._ quite 2in. across, produced eight or ten together, on a spike issuing from the top of the pseudo-bulb; sepals and petals oblong, acuminate, rosy lilac; lip white, margined with deep lilac or rosy purple, and dotted or spotted with crimson. This very distinct and desirable species lasts from eight to ten weeks in beauty, and forms a very handsome object when placed in the drawing-room and covered over with a large glass shade. Guatemala, 1843. (B. M. 4094.) =BARKING-IRONS.= Instruments used in taking off the bark of trees. =BARKLYA= (named after Sir H. Barkly, formerly Governor of South Australia). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A large greenhouse tree, thriving in a compost of loam and leaf mould. Propagated by seeds and cuttings; the latter should be half ripened, and placed in sandy soil, under a bell glass, in a cool house. =B. syringifolia= (Syringa-leaved). _fl._ golden yellow, numerous, disposed in axillary or terminal racemes. _l._ alternate, simple, coriaceous. _h._ 30ft. Moreton Bay, 1858. =BARK STOVE.= A hothouse adapted for moisture-loving exotics, and having a pit from 2ft. to 4ft. deep, containing fermenting matter, chiefly tanners' bark, by which means a steady heat is maintained for a considerable time. The Bark Stove is now almost obsolete. Bark is, however, still largely used in pine pits, and in some propagating beds; but such beds are generally superseded by hot-water or hot-air tanks. =BARLERIA= (named after J. Barrelier, a French botanist of the seventeenth century). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. A genus of interesting and ornamental stove evergreen shrubs. Flowers axillary or terminal; calyx four-sepaled, the two outer larger than the others. They thrive best if grown in loam and peat, with a little rotten dung added. Propagated by cuttings made of the young wood, and placed in a similar compost, under a bell glass, in stove temperature, with bottom heat. =B. flava= (yellow).* _fl._ yellow, aggregate, terminal, tubular; bracts very narrow, setose. Summer. _l._ lanceolate, hairy, entire. Plant unarmed. _h._ 3ft. India, 1816. SYN. _B. mitis_. (B. M. 4113.) =B. Gibsoni= (Gibson's). _fl._ pale purple, rather large, sub-terminal. Winter. _l._ ovate or oblong-lanceolate. India, 1867. A glabrous stove shrub, of branched habit. (B. M. 5628.) =B. Leichtensteiniana= (Leichtenstein's).* _fl._ very curious; spikes axillary, 2in. to 3in. long, ovoid or oblong, consisting of a large number of closely packed overlapping bracts, all turned to the fore or lower part of the spike; bracts ovate-acuminate, mucronate, spine-toothed, one-ribbed, with prominent and curved veins, and 1in. to 1-1/2. long. _l._ opposite, 1in. to 2in. long, linear-lanceolate, entire, mucronate, tapering at the base into a very short stalk. Branches slender, virgate, sub-angular. South Africa, 1870. This plant is covered over its whole surface with close, white, hoary down. (G. C. 1870, p. 73.) =B. longifolia= (long-leaved). _fl._ white; spines of whorls six. Summer. _l._ ensiform, very long, rough. _h._ 2ft. India, 1781. This is a biennial. =B. lupulina= (Hop-headed). _fl._ yellowish; spikes ovate; bracts ovate, concave, imbricated. August. _l._ lanceolate, quite entire; spines simple, spreading. _h._ 2ft. Mauritius, 1824. =B. Mackenii= (MacKen's).* _fl._ purple, large, in a terminal raceme. Spring. _l._ recurved, narrow-ovate, or elliptic-lanceolate, sub-acute, petioled. Natal, 1870. (B. M. 5866.) =B. mitis= (small). Synonymous with _B. flava_. =B. prionitis= (Prionitis-like). _fl._ orange; spines axillary, pedate, in fours. Summer. _l._ quite entire, lanceolate-ovate. _h._ 3ft. India, 1759. =BARLEY.= _See_ =Hordeum vulgare=. =BARNADESIA= (named after Michael Barnadez, a Spanish botanist). ORD. _Compositæ_. Pretty greenhouse deciduous shrubs, requiring a dry atmosphere. They should be grown in peat, loam, and sand, in equal proportions. Propagated either by seeds, sown in hotbeds in March, or by cuttings, made of half-ripened wood in April, and placed in sand under a bell glass. [Illustration: FIG. 206. BARNADESIA ROSEA.] =B. rosea= (rosy).* _fl.-heads_ rose-coloured, solitary, ovate-cylindrical, downy, sessile; florets bilabiate, one lip oblong-emarginate, villous, the other filiform; hairs on receptacle twisted; pappus stiff, plumose. May. _l._ alternate, ovate, acute at both ends. _h._ 1-1/2ft. South America, 1840. See Fig. 206. (B. M. 4232.) =BARNARDIA.= Included under =Scilla= (which _see_). =BAROMETER.= An instrument for measuring the density of the atmosphere, and hence determining the probable changes of weather, or the height of any ascent. To the gardener the Barometer is indispensable as a warning to take due precaution. =BAROSMA= (from _barys_, heavy, and _osme_, smell; referring to the powerful scent of the leaves). Name often incorrectly spelt _Baryosma_. SYN. _Parapetalifera_. ORD. _Rutaceæ_. Very pretty small, Heath-like, greenhouse evergreen shrubs, from the Cape of Good Hope. Calyx equally five-parted; petals five, oblong; stamens ten. Leaves opposite or scattered, coriaceous, flat, dotted, with their margins sometimes glandularly serrulated, sometimes almost entire or revolute. They thrive in a mixture of sand, peat, and a little turfy loam, with good drainage and firm potting. Cuttings, taken from ripened wood, inserted in a pot of sand, and placed in a shady position in a cool house, with a bell glass over them, will root readily in a few weeks. =B. betulina= (Birch-leaved). _fl._ white, axillary, solitary. February to September. _l._ opposite, obovate, serrulate, sessile, spreading. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. 1790. (B. M. Pl. 45.) =B. dioica= (di�cious).* _fl._ purplish; peduncles axillary, usually in threes, shorter than the leaves. April. _l._ scattered; upper ones ternate, lanceolate, tapering to both ends, full of glandular dots, spreading. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1816. (B. R. 502.) =B. latifolia= (broad-leaved). _fl._ white, usually solitary, lateral. July. _l._ opposite, ovate-oblong, sessile, serrulated, smoothish, without glandular dots; branches villous. _h._ 1ft. 1789. =B. pulchella= (pretty).* _fl._ pale red or purple; peduncles axillary, usually solitary, exceeding the leaves. February. _l._ crowded, ovate, quite smooth, with thickened, crenate-glandular margins. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. 1787. =B. serratifolia= (saw-edged-leaved).* _fl._ white; peduncles axillary, sub-divided. March to June. _l._ nearly opposite, lanceolate, stalked, glandularly serrulated, smooth. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. 1789. (B. M. 456, and B. Z. 1853, 12.) =BARRED.= Marked in spaces with a paler colour, resembling bars. =BARREN FLOWERS.= The male or staminate flowers of many plants, such as the Cucumber, Melon, &c., are popularly known as Barren Flowers, _i.e._, they produce no fruit. This condition is, in some respects, similar to "blind" Strawberries or "blind" Cabbages, so far as fruition is concerned, but structurally and functionally it is widely different. The Barren Flowers of the Cucumber, Melon, &c., are produced by what are known as mon�cious plants, _i.e._, having male and female organs in different flowers, but on the same plant. In the Strawberry, &c., Barren Flowers are generally the result of unfavourable surroundings, or unskilful cultivation. A good example of Barren Flowers is seen in the ray-florets of many Composite plants, which are frequently really neuter, having neither male nor female organs. =BARREN SOILS.= A term signifying such soils as are normally unprofitable. The term can only be correctly applied in very few cases; as almost any soil may be rendered capable of affording a basis for some kind of vegetable life, arboreal or other. The question of planting up the enormous quantity of what is now waste land, might well engage the most practical consideration. Of course, the natural state of any land will, to a great extent, determine what would be its ultimate condition, after all that could be effected by mechanical agency has been accomplished. Drainage, irrigation, enrichment, pulverisation, are all matters which can only be considered upon a particular basis; but we doubt not that the thousands of acres of land now practically almost useless, might, by the adoption of proper means, be rendered fairly remunerative. =BARREN-WORT.= _See_ =Epimedium=. =BARRINGTONIA= (named after the Hon. Daines Barrington, F.R.S.). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. A genus of stove evergreen trees and shrubs, very difficult to cultivate. Flowers large, racemose. Leaves opposite or whorled, generally obovate; margins toothed or entire. Fruit one-seeded, fleshy. They require a compost of two parts loam, one peat, and one sand. Water should be given in abundance, and a moist atmosphere at all times maintained, the temperature ranging from 65deg. to 95deg. Propagated by cuttings obtained from the lateral shoots; these, taken off at a joint when the wood is ripe, planted in sand, with a hand glass over them, root readily. The cuttings should not be stripped of any of their leaves. =B. racemosa= (raceme-flowered). _fl._ red; racemes pendulous, very long. _l._ cuneate-oblong, acuminated, serrulated. _h._ 30ft. Malabar, 1822. (B. M. 3831.) =B. speciosa= (showy).* _fl._ purple and white, large and handsome, disposed in an erect thyrse. _l._ shining, cuneate-oblong, obtuse, quite entire. _h._ 20in. to 30in. in England. This beautiful species seldom attains a height of more than 6ft. or 8ft. (G. C. 1845, p. 56.) =BARROW.= Garden Barrows are very numerous, both with and without wheels. The Flower-pot Barrow has a wheel and a flat surface, on which plants, pots, or leaves are placed, either directly, or, when small, in shallow baskets. The Haum Barrow is an open box or case, of wicker or other work, placed on, or suspended from, a pair of handles, with or without a wheel, and is useful for carrying litter, leaves, &c. The Water Barrow, instead of a box, contains a barrel, tub, or cistern, in which fluid manure, or ordinary water, is conveyed to different parts of the garden. The Hand-barrow is a frame of wood, carried by two levers, which form four handles; for removing large pots or tubs of trees or shrubs it is very useful. [Illustration: FIG. 207. FLOWER OF BARTONIA AUREA.] =BARTLINGIA.= A synonym of =Plocama= (which _see_). =BARTONIA= (in honour of Benjamin S. Barton, M.D., formerly Professor of Botany at Philadelphia). ORD. _Loasaceæ_. Hardy annuals or biennials, downy, with stiff and bearded hairs. This genus is now placed under _Mentzelia_ in most standard botanical works. Flowers white or yellow, large, terminal, expanding in the evening, when they are very fragrant, and becoming reddish as they fade. Leaves alternate, interruptedly pinnatifid. The species are very showy, and well worth growing. Any ordinary garden soil suits them. Seeds should be raised in a gentle heat in spring; and, when the seedlings are sufficiently large, they should be potted singly into small, well-drained pots. In winter, they should be placed on a dry shelf in a greenhouse or frame. _B. aurea_ is one of the brightest of hardy annuals, and may be sown either in a frame, or in the open border in April. =B. albescens= (whitish).* _fl._, petals ten, pale yellow, disposed in a leafy panicle. July. _l._ sinuately toothed. Stem with a white shining epidermis. _h._ 1ft. to 4ft. Chili, 1831. Annual or biennial. (S. B. F. G. ii., 182.) =B. aurea= (golden).* _fl._ two or three together, terminal, bright golden yellow, as large as a half-crown; petals five. June. _h._ 1ft. California, 1834. Annual. See Fig. 207. (B. M. 3649.) =B. nuda= (naked) and =B. ornata= (adorned) are two very pretty white-flowered biennial species. _h._ 2ft. Missouri, 1811. =BARYOSMA.= _See_ =Barosma=. =BASAL=, or =BASILAR=. Situated at the base of anything; as the embryo, when situated at the bottom of the seed. =BASELLA= (its Malabar name). Malabar Nightshade. ORD. _Basellaceæ_. Annual or biennial stove trailers, with white or pinkish flowers, of no great horticultural value. In India, and elsewhere throughout the tropics, some of the species are cultivated as pot herbs, and are used as a substitute for Spinach. =B. alba= (white).* _fl._ white. August. _l._ heart-shaped, pointed. _h._ 8in. India, 1688. This plant, either when allowed to fall in festoons from the roof of a warm house, or treated as a basket plant, forms an elegant object when in flower. =BASELLACE�.= A series of usually herbaceous climbers, and considered a tribe of _Chenopodiaceæ_. =BASIL, SWEET= (_Ocymum basilicum_). This is a tender annual from India, and must be raised in gentle heat. The foliage is somewhat largely used for flavouring purposes. Seeds should be sown in April, the seedlings pricked out into boxes to strengthen, and finally planted out about 8in. asunder, in beds of light rich soil, in June, being well watered until fully established. As soon as they bloom, they should be cut down to within a few inches of the ground, and the portions cut off should be tied up in small bunches and dried in the shade for winter use. Some of the plants can be lifted in September, potted up, and placed in a warm greenhouse for the winter, when the fresh green leaves will be found very useful. Bush Basil (_Ocymum minimum_) is a dwarfer plant, but may be treated in the same way. Wild Basil is botanically known as _Calamintha Clinopodium_. =BASIL-THYME.= _See_ =Calamintha Acinos=. =BASI-NERVED.= When the nerves of a leaf spring from the base. =BASING-UP.= The raising of a small bank of earth entirely round a plant, so as to retain water immediately about the root. The term is sometimes used to signify =Earthing= or =Moulding=, which _see_. =BASKETS.= Few objects contribute more to the adornment of a window, or the decoration of the diningroom, drawing-room, or glass-house, than Hanging Baskets, tastefully filled with handsome foliaged and flowering plants. Baskets are made in different forms and of various materials, such as wire, terra-cotta, wood, and cork. The Wire Baskets have a very light and elegant appearance, and are generally used. In filling Baskets, the inside should be lined with a thick layer of moss, or _Selaginella Kraussiana_, next to which a layer of coarse sacking must be placed, to prevent the soil from working through. Terra-cotta Baskets are very pretty, and are extensively employed in domestic rooms, but they should always have one or more holes at the bottom, to facilitate drainage. Rustic Baskets, of cork or wood, are also very suitable for floral arrangements; those composed of teak-wood are very generally used for orchids. The compost should be prepared according to the requirements of the plant or plants intended to be grown, which can be easily ascertained on reference to such plants in this work. The soil should not be allowed to get dry; in the event of this happening, however, a thorough soaking by immersion must be given. As a rule, attention should be given in the matter of watering every other day, and light syringing every morning and evening during the spring and summer months will be most beneficial. The Baskets should be examined every week, all dead or decaying leaves being removed, and any insects, which are so likely to get a foothold, destroyed. In arranging the subjects, the centre plant should be the tallest, the next outer ones shorter, and the marginal ones of a trailing or drooping habit, so that the whole may present a symmetrical, and at the same time a natural, appearance. Wickerwork Baskets are used for carrying or transferring plants, and are generally made 18in. wide by 20in. deep; they are extremely useful, and should be in every garden. Split wood and withes are largely employed in making Baskets. The Planter's Basket, described by Loudon as a flat, rectangular utensil of wickerwork or boards, partitioned into three or more parts, for the purpose of carrying with the gardener when about to plant or remove plants, is now, unfortunately, almost obsolete. One division is for the plants, another for those taken up, and a third for the tools to be made use of, and for any decayed parts of plants, stones, weeds, or other refuse which may be collected. By using this Basket, order, accuracy, and neatness are secured. The Sussex "Truck" Baskets, made of willow-wood, are very useful, being both light and durable. _See also_ =Measures=. =BASSIA= (named after Ferdinando Bassi, Curator of the Botanic Garden at Bologna). ORD. _Sapotaceæ_. Handsome lofty-growing lactescent stove trees, with axillary, solitary, or aggregate flowers, and quite entire, smooth, coriaceous leaves. They require stove heat, and a compost of peat and loam. Cuttings, taken from ripened wood, strike readily in sand, under a hand glass, in a strong moist heat. =B. butyracea= (buttery). The Indian Butter Tree. _fl._, pedicels aggregate, and are, as well as the calyces, woolly. _l._ obovate, 8in. to 9in. long, and 4in. to 5in. broad, tomentose beneath. _h._ 30ft. to 70ft. Nepaul, 1823. (B. F. F. 35.) =B. latifolia= (broad-leaved). The Mahwah Tree of Bengal. _fl._, corolla thick and fleshy; pedicels drooping, terminal. _l._ oblong or elliptic, smooth above, whitish beneath, 4in. to 8in. long, and 2in. to 4in. broad. _h._ 50ft. India, 1799. (B. F. S. 41.) =B. longifolia= (long-leaved). _fl._, pedicels axillary, drooping, crowded round the ends of the branchlets. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, approximate at the tops of the branches, 6in. long, deciduous. _h._ 50ft. Malabar, 1811. (B. F. S. 42.) =BASS= or =BAST MATS=. These are prepared, chiefly in Russia, from the inner bark of various Limes (_Tilia_), and are very largely used in this country by nurserymen for packing purposes. They are also extensively employed as coverings, being excellent preventatives of the effects of frost. They are beneficial as a covering for beds of early vegetables, to prevent radiation during the night. For tying purposes they are now greatly superseded by Raffia Grass. Archangel Mats are larger, and of better quality than the St. Petersburgh. Dunnage Mats are heavy, and generally used for covering, as they are much cheaper. =BASTARD ACACIA.= _See_ =Robinia Pseudo-acacia=. =BASTARD BALM.= _See_ =Melittis=. =BASTARD BOX.= _See_ =Polygala chamæbuxus=. =BASTARD CABBAGE-TREE.= _See_ =Geoffroya=. =BASTARD CHERRY.= _See_ =Cerasus Pseudo-cerasus=. =BASTARD CINNAMON.= _See_ =Cinnamomum Cassia=. =BASTARD CORK TREE.= _See_ =Quercus pseudo-suber=. =BASTARD INDIGO.= _See_ =Amorpha=. =BASTARD LUPINE.= _See_ =Trifolium Lupinaster=. =BASTARD QUINCE.= _See_ =Pyrus Chamæmespilus=. =BASTARD VERVAIN.= _See_ =Stachytarpheta=. =BASTARD VETCH.= _See_ =Phaca=. =BASTARD WIND-FLOWER.= _See_ =Gentiana Pseudo-pneumonanthe=. =BASTARD WOOD-SAGE.= _See_ =Teucrium Pseudo-scorodonia=. =BAST MATS.= _See_ =Bass Mats=. =BATATAS= (its aboriginal name). ORD. _Convolvulaceæ_. This genus is now referred to _Ipomæa_. Strong, free-growing, greenhouse or stove deciduous twiners. Calyx of five sepals; corolla campanulate; stamens inclosed. They are of easy culture, only requiring plenty of room to spread, and are well adapted for trellis work, or to run up pillars. They are all tuberous rooted, and therefore require to be kept dry when in a dormant state. A rich, open, loamy soil is most suitable. Young cuttings strike readily under a hand glass, in heat. =B. bignonioides= (Bignonia-like).* _fl._, corolla dark purple, funnel-shaped, with a curled limb; peduncles many-flowered, nutant, shorter than the petioles. July. _l._ three-lobed; hind lobes rounded, imbricate. Cayenne, 1824. (B. M. 2645.) =B. Cavanillesii= (Cavanilles').* _fl._ pale whitish-red; lobes of corolla obtuse, crenulated; peduncles one to three-flowered. August. _l._ quinate; leaflets ovate, entire, unequal. Native country unknown, 1815. [Illustration: FIG. 208. BATATAS EDULIS, showing Tuber.] =B. edulis= (edible).* Sweet Potato. _fl._, corolla 1in. long, white outside and purple inside; peduncles equal in length to the petioles, or exceeding them, three to four-flowered. _l._ variable, usually angular, also lobed. Stem creeping, rarely climbing. East Indies, 1797. See Fig. 208. =B. glaucifolia= (milky-green-leaved). _fl._, corolla small, purplish, with an inflated tube, and ovate, acute segments; peduncles two-flowered, length of leaves. May. _l._ sagittate, truncate behind, on long petioles. Mexico, 1732. =B. heterophylla= (various-leaved). _fl._ blue; peduncles solitary, axillary, bearing each three sessile flowers. July. _l._ quinately palmate; lobes or leaflets ovate-spathulate, acute. Plant very villous. Cuba, 1817. =B. paniculata= (panicled).* _fl._ large, purple; peduncles much exceeding the petioles, many-flowered, dichotomously and corymbosely panicled. June _l._ palmate, five to seven-cleft; lobes ovate-lanceolate or elliptic, bluntish, rarely sub-acuminated. India, 1799. (G. C. n. s., x., 341.) =B. senegalensis= (Senegalese). _fl._ white or purplish, large; peduncles three-flowered. June. _l._ quinately palmate; lobes ovate, obtuse, middle one the largest. Stem white, tubercular. Guinea, 1823. =B. venosa= (veiny). _fl._ purple; peduncles umbellate, with an ovate-cordate, solitary leaf at the base of each pedicel. July. _l._ digitately quinate; leaflets petiolate, acuminated, quite entire. France, 1820. =BATEMANNIA= (named after Mr. J. Bateman, a collector and cultivator of orchids, and author of a "Monograph of Odontoglossum," and other works on orchidaceous plants). ORD. _Orchidaceæ_. A small and easily-grown genus of dwarf, compact-growing epiphytes, closely allied to _Maxillaria_, but differing from that genus in having the anther-bed with a membranous border. They may be grown in pots, in a compost of peat and moss, or on blocks of wood with moss. They require an intermediate house and plenty of water in the growing season. Propagated by divisions and offsets. They have generally a free-flowering habit; but some of the species are not so ornamental as many other orchids. =B. armillata= (braceleted). _fl._ green, white. 1875. (R. X. O. 316.) =B. Burtii= (Burt's). _fl._ red-brown, yellow base, 3in. across; lip white, tipped chocolate. Autumn. _l._ elliptic-oblong, or ligulate, sub-distichous. Plant bulbless. Costa Rica, 1872. (B. M. 6003.) =B. Colleyi= (Colley's). _fl._ on a pendulous raceme, rising from the base of the pseudo-bulbs; sepals and petals brownish-purple within, green without; lip white. Autumn. _h._ 6in. Demerara, 1834. (B. R. 1714.) =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._, flower-spike coming up with the young growth, bearing three or four flowers, of curious structure; sepals and petals olive-green, striped with reddish-brown; lip white, with reddish-purple streaks, orange or yellow towards the base. Pseudo-bulbs ovate, 3in. or 4in. long, and bearing two large, broad, leathery leaves. New Grenada, 1866. (B. M. 5567.) =B. Wallisii= (Wallis').* _fl._, sepals light greenish-yellow outside, olive-green to chestnut-brown inside, with some yellow at the base; petals with scarlet stripes at the very base, but otherwise coloured like the sepals; lip blade greenish, with a brownish hue at the anterior part; peduncles slender, corymbose. _h._ 1ft. Columbia, 1876. =BATSCHIA.= _See_ =Lithospermum=. =BAUERA= (named after Francis and Ferdinand Bauer, German botanical draughtsmen). ORD. _Saxifragaceæ_. Small shrubs, natives of Australia, New Zealand, &c. Flowers axillary, solitary, pedunculate. Leaves six in a whorl, approximating by threes, and therefore, as it were, opposite and ternate, exstipulate. Easily cultivated in a compost of sandy loam and peat. Propagated by cuttings, placed in sandy soil, under a glass. These very pretty little greenhouse evergreens flower nearly the whole year through. =B. humilis= (low). _fl._, corolla red, one-half smaller than _B. rubioides_, and the plant is altogether much smaller. July to December. _l._ oblong, crenated. _h._ 1ft. New South Wales, 1804. (L. B. C. 1197.) =B. rubiæfolia= (madder-leaved). Synonymous with _B. rubioides_. =B. rubioides= (madder-like).* _fl._ pale red, or pink. _l._ lanceolate, crenated. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. New South Wales, 1793. SYN. _B. rubiæfolia_. (A. B. R. 198.) =BAUHINIA= (in honour of John and Caspar Bauhin, two famous botanists of the sixteenth century). Mountain Ebony. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Very showy stove evergreen shrubs. Flowers racemose; petals five, spreading, oblong, rather unequal, upper one usually distant from the rest. Leaves two-lobed, constantly composed of two jointed leaflets at the top of the petiole, sometimes nearly free, but usually joined together, more or less, and with an awn in the recess. They succeed well in a mixture of sand, loam, and peat, requiring good drainage and moderately firm potting. Propagated by cuttings, which should be taken when the wood is neither very ripe nor very young; the leaves must be dressed off, and the cuttings planted in sand, under a glass, in moist heat. Although glorious objects in the tropics, few of the species flower under our comparatively sunless skies; those which hitherto have succeeded well in Britain are marked with an asterisk. =B. acuminata= (taper-pointed-leaved). _fl._ pure white; petals broadly ovate, hardly stipitate. June. _l._ rather cordate at the base, smoothish; leaflets connected beyond the middle, ovate, acuminated, parallel, four-nerved. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. Malabar, 1808. =B. aurita= (eared). _fl._ white; petals ovate, on short stipes. August. _l._ glabrous, cordate at the base; leaflets connected the fourth part of their length, oblong-lanceolate, nearly parallel, six to eight-nerved. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Jamaica, 1756. =B. corymbosa= (corymbose).* _fl._ in loose racemes; petals pinkish, regular, crenulated at the edge. Summer. _l._, leaflets semi-oval, obtuse, parallel, connected nearly to the middle, three-nerved, cordate at the base, the nerves on the under surface, as well as the petioles, branches, and calyces, clothed with rufous villi. Shrubby climber. India, 1818. (G. C. 1881, xvi., p. 204.) =B. inermis= (unarmed). _fl._ white; petals linear; racemes terminal, leafless, simple. _l._ ovate at the base, ferruginous beneath; leaflets oblong, acute, four-nerved, parallel, connected a little beyond the middle. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. Mexico, 1810. =B. multinerva= (many-nerved). _fl._ snow-white; petals linear. Legume 8in. to 12in. long. _l._ elliptic, rounded at the base, membranous, shining above, rather pilose beneath; nerves ferruginous; leaflets semi-ovate, obtuse, approximate, five-nerved; free. _h._ 20ft. Caracas, 1817. =B. natalensis= (Natal).* _fl._ white, 1-1/2in. across, opposite the leaves. September. _l._ small, alternate, of two obliquely-oblong rounded leaflets. Natal, 1870. (B. M. 6086.) =B. petiolata= (long-petioled). _fl._ white, 3in. long, in terminal clusters. Autumn. _l._ stalked, ovate-acuminate, five-nerved, glabrous. Columbia, 1852. SYN. _Casparia speciosa_. (B. M. 6277.) =B. pubescens= (downy). _fl._ white, large, much crowded; petals obovate; peduncles three to four-flowered. _l._ rather cordate at the base, pubescent beneath and on the petioles; leaflets connected beyond the middle, oval, obtuse, four-nerved, nearly parallel. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Jamaica, 1823. =B. purpurea= (purple). _fl._, petals red, one of them streaked with white on the claw, lanceolate, acute. Legume linear, 1ft. long. _l._ cordate at the base, coriaceous, ultimately glabrous; leaflets connected much above the middle, broadly ovate, obtuse, four-nerved; free. _h._ 6ft. India, 1778. =B. racemosa= (racemose). _fl._ white; petals obovate, obtuse; raceme somewhat corymbose. _l._ cordate at the base, clothed with silky villi beneath, as well as on the peduncles, petioles, branches, calyces, and petals; leaflets broadly ovate, obtuse, connected to the middle, five-nerved. India, 1790. Shrubby climber. (B. F. S. 182.) =B. tomentosa= (tomentose). _fl._, petals pale yellow, with a red spot at the claw, obovate, obtuse; peduncles one to three-flowered. _l._ ovate or roundish at the base; under surface villous, as well as the petioles, branches, stipules, peduncles, bracts, and calyces; leaflets connected beyond the middle, oval, obtuse, three to four-nerved. _h._ 6ft. to 12ft. Ceylon, 1808. =B. variegata= (variegated).* _fl._ red, marked with white, and yellow at the base, in loose terminal racemes; petals ovate, nearly sessile. June. _l._ cordate at the base, glabrous; leaflets broadly-ovate, obtuse, five-nerved, connected beyond the middle; free. _h._ 20ft. Malabar, 1690. =B. v. chinensis= (Chinese). _fl._, petals lilac, with one purple spot at the base of each, acute. _l._ rounded at the base. China. =BAWD-MONEY.= _See_ =Meum=. =BAY-TREE.= _See_ =Laurus nobilis=. =BEAK.= Anything resembling the beak of a bird, as in _Aconitum_; the point which ends the helmet or upper sepal; hard, sharp points. =BEAM TREE.= _See_ =Pyrus Aria=. =BEAN BEETLE= (_Bruchus granarius_). This insect, by depositing its eggs in the seeds of Beans and Peas, causes a great amount of injury. It is about an eighth of an inch long, black, with brown hairs and white spots; tip of the tail prolonged, downy; front pair of legs reddish. The most effectual means of prevention is to destroy, when sowing, all seeds infested by it; and this may be detected by the skin of the seed being unusually transparent above the tunnel for exit. Imported seeds of Broad Beans are often much infested. "Dipping the Beans or Peas in boiling water for one minute is stated to kill the grub inside; but, as dipping for four minutes generally destroys the germinating power, the experiment is much too hazardous for general use", (Ormerod). =BEAN CAPER.= _See_ =Zygophyllum=. =BEAN FLY.= _See_ =Aphides= and =Black Fly=. =BEANS.= There are three sections of these in cultivation for garden purposes, viz.: The Dwarf or French Bean; the Climbing, or Scarlet Runner; and the ordinary Broad Bean. _See also_ =Faba= and =Phaseolus=. [Illustration: FIG. 209. BROAD BEAN PLANT IN FLOWER (FABA VULGARIS).] _Soil._ All Beans like a somewhat loamy soil, which, to secure good crops, must be deeply worked and heavily manured. The Kidney Beans, dwarf and tall, however, do not care for so heavy a soil as the Broad and Long-podded kinds; and this fact should be borne in mind when selecting their respective situations. The term Kidney is generally applied to both the Dwarf or French and the Climbing or Scarlet Runner. [Illustration: FIG. 210. PODS OF BROAD BEAN.] [Illustration: FIG. 211. BROAD BEAN SEED.] BROAD AND LONG-PODDED (_Faba vulgaris_). _Cultivation_: As early as possible in the autumn, deeply trench a piece of ground, and work in a heavy dressing of manure, leaving the surface of the soil in ridges, to become well aërated by winter frosts. Where desired, a piece of ground on a warm, protected border, can also be deeply dug in November, and a few rows of Mazagans sown to stand the winter. When up, draw a ridge of soil on either side the rows, and in frosty weather strew a few handfuls of bracken, or other light, dry litter, over them. Not much is, however, gained by this winter sowing. Early in January, level the ridges with a fork, working the whole of the surface soil over, and towards the end of the month, make the first sowing, choosing Mazagan and other early varieties. Mark out two rows, 9in. asunder, leave a space of 30in., then another two rows, and so on throughout the piece sown. If preferred, they may be sown in single rows at intervals of 1-1/2ft. The drills should be about 3in. deep, and the seed from 7in. to 9in. apart in the rows. Where the double-row system is adopted, arrange the seed for the plants to come alternately. In March, get in the main sowing of the Broad and later Long-podded kinds, in the manner already described; another sowing for late use may be made in April. When the plants are about 6in. high, earth up as recommended for those sown in the autumn. As soon as a good crop is set, pinch out the tops of the plants, to assist the maturation of the Beans, and prevent the attacks of the fly. Figs. 209, 210, and 211 are excellent representations of the flowering plant, pods, and seed of the Broad Bean. _Sorts._ For early use: Early Mazagan, Long-pod, Marshall's Early Prolific, and Seville Long-pod. For late use: Carter's Mammoth Long-pod, and Broad Windsor (white variety). These are all distinct and good varieties. [Illustration: FIG. 212. FRUITING PLANT OF DWARF OR FRENCH BEAN (PHASEOLUS VULGARIS).] DWARF OR FRENCH KIDNEY BEANS (_Phaseolus vulgaris_). _Cultivation_: This class (see Fig. 212) also requires a rich and deeply trenched rather light soil. A very important point is to get the ground into a good condition, by frequently forking it over; and, as the seeds are not sown till the beginning of May, there is plenty of time for the work. The finer the soil is, and the more it is aërated, the better will it suit the crop. From the beginning of May till the end of June, at intervals, draw out drills about 2ft. apart, and 3in. deep, and in these place the Beans tolerably thick, as generally they are not all certain to grow. As soon as up, carefully thin them, and slightly earth up to prevent the wind blowing them about. They should not, however, be earthed higher than the seed leaves, or they will probably rot off in wet weather. Keep free from weeds, and maintain a sharp look out for slugs. In dry weather, water occasionally, giving good drenchings, and not mere sprinklings, which do more harm than good. A good mulching of half-rotted manure is very beneficial, as it prevents evaporation to a great extent, besides affording some amount of nourishment to the plants. Great care must be taken to pick off the Beans as soon as large enough for use, or they will exhaust the plants. Where seeds are needed, a number of plants should be left for the purpose, and these should be some of the best, to prevent deterioration, or loss of the true variety. _Forcing._ French Beans require more heat than can be obtained in either a frame or an ordinary greenhouse; and, although easy enough to grow in a structure suited to their requirements, yet, if such does not exist, they are almost sure to fail. A good heat, from 60deg. to 70deg., with abundance of moisture, is necessary for successful results. Plenty of light is also most essential. A position such as that of a cucumber house is generally a suitable one; but the plants must not be placed under the cucumbers. Successional sowings in pots or boxes must be made, from the end of August till March, to keep up a supply. For soil, use good maiden loam, with a little well-rotted manure added. Use 8in. pots, sowing five or six beans in each. The first sowing should be placed in a frame and kept well watered, bringing into heat in October; but the subsequent sowings should be placed directly in the house. Keep the soil moist, and the plants free from aphides and other insect pests, and give air at every favourable opportunity. The plants should be as near the light as possible, and kept from falling about by tying or placing small pieces of Birch wood round them. In dull weather, it will be found that the blooms will not set so freely as when the sun shines brightly; therefore, every care should be taken to secure both heat and ventilation when sunshine prevails. When the pots get full of roots, and the plants are bearing fruit freely, a little liquid manure is of great assistance; at no time must the plants get dry enough to flag. Allow plenty of room for the full development of foliage, and maintain a minimum temperature of 60deg., with plenty of moisture. _Sorts._ These are very numerous, among the best being Black Negro, Canadian Wonder, Canterbury, Fulmer's Forcing, Golden Dun, Newington Wonder, Osborn's Early Forcing, Sion House, and Sir Joseph Paxton. RUNNERS OR CLIMBING KIDNEY BEANS (_Phaseolus multiflorus_). _Cultivation_: Being tall growers, these need a greater space than the Dwarf French varieties, and they also require support. Rich soil is indispensable for them, and liberal supplies of water on light soils and in dry weather. A good overhead syringing from time to time is also advantageous. Trench and heavily manure a piece of ground in autumn, leaving it in ridges for the winter. In March, level the ridges down, and well work the ground, to render it friable and in good condition. The plants being extremely tender, it is not safe to sow before the end of April or the first week in May. It is preferable to sow in rows, which should be from 6ft. to 12ft. apart, and crop the ground between with other vegetables. Earth up and stake them as soon as ready, to prevent injury from rough wind. A good plan, which may be adopted to obtain early produce, is to raise the seeds in boxes in a cold frame, getting them ready for planting out in the middle of May. Plant at the same distances, and treat afterwards as recommended for those sown out of doors. If preferred, they can be grown on the ground without stakes. Under this treatment, they must have their tops pinched off when about 18in. high, continuing this pinching from time to time as necessary. If this plan is adopted, the rows need only be 3ft. apart, the ground not being otherwise cropped. In dry seasons and on light soils, there is an advantage attached to this method, namely, that those on sticks are liable to injury from drought, while the foliage of those pinched back keeps the soil moist underneath. [Illustration: FIG. 213. RUNNER OR CLIMBING KIDNEY BEAN (PHASEOLUS MULTIFLORUS).] Runner Beans may also be planted to cover arches or fences, and in various places of a like description. See Fig. 213. _Sorts._ Common Scarlet Runner, Champion, Painted Lady, and Giant White. The first two are those generally grown. =BEAN-TREE.= _See_ =Ceratonia Siliqua=. =BEARBERRY=, and =BEAR'S GRAPE=. _See_ =Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi=. =BEARD-TONGUE.= _See_ =Pentstemon=. =BEARS BREECH.= _See_ =Acanthus=. =BEAR'S FOOT.= _See_ =Helleborus f�tidus=. =BEATONIA.= _See_ =Tigridia=. =BEAUCARNEA= (a commemorative name). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A small genus of curious greenhouse plants, natives of Mexico. Leaves narrow, gracefully depending. Stems slender, and woody, with a peculiar swollen, somewhat napiform base. Mr. B. S. Williams recommends that these plants be potted in rich fibrous loam and sand, with ample drainage, and, during the growing season, liberally supplied with water. Propagated by cuttings, when obtainable; but chiefly by seeds, which have to be imported from their native country. Beaucarneas are principally grown for the beauty of their foliage, and are grotesque, graceful, and extremely curious in habit and form. =B. glauca= (grey).* _l._ pendent, glaucous, 2ft. to 3ft. long. Stem slender, the swollen base becoming woody with age. =B. g. latifolia= (broad-leaved) differs from the type only in its stouter and more robust stem and broader leaves. =B. longifolia= (long-leaved).* _l._ 6ft. to 10ft. long, narrow, pendent, dark green, forming a beautiful vase-like centre. _h._ 10ft. Mexico, 1868. Very distinct. (G. C. 1877, vii., 493.) =B. recurvata= (recurved-leaved).* _l._ very long, linear, gracefully pendulous, bright green. Mexico, about 1845. This is an excellent subject for open-air culture during the summer, as well as for the conservatory. SYN. _Pincenictitia tuberculata_. (G. C. 1870, 1445.) =B. r. rubra= (red). _l._ red at base. =B. stricta= (upright). _l._ 3ft. or more long, less than 1in. broad, very glaucous. Stem stout. Mexico, 1870. =BEAUFORTIA= (commemorative of Mary, Duchess of Beaufort, a botanical patroness). Including _Schizopleura_. ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. Elegant free-flowering greenhouse Australian shrubs. Flowers scarlet; calyx with a turbinate tube; stamens in bundles opposite the petals. Leaves sessile, opposite or scattered. Beaufortias require a compost of peat, leaf soil, and loam, lightened, if necessary, by the addition of sand. Cuttings of half-ripened shoots root freely in sandy soil, under a glass, with very little heat. =B. decussata= (decussate). _fl._ scarlet; bundles of stamens on very long claws; filaments radiating. May. _l._ opposite, decussate, ovate, or oval, many-nerved. _h._ 3ft. to 10ft. New Holland, 1803. (B. M. 1733.) =B. purpurea= (purple).* _fl._ purplish-red, in dense globular heads. _l._ three to five-nerved, erect or spreading, ovate-lanceolate to lanceolate-linear. New Holland. =B. sparsa= (few-leaved). _fl._ bright scarlet. _l._ many-nerved, scattered, ovate-elliptical, obtuse. West Australia. SYN. _B. splendens_. (P. F. G. xiii., 145.) =B. splendens= (splendid). Synonymous with _B. sparsa_. =BEAUMONTIA= (in honour of Mrs. Beaumont, formerly of Bretton Hall, Yorkshire). ORD. _Apocynaceæ_. A very ornamental stove twiner, remarkable for its handsome flowers. It succeeds best when planted out in the borders of a temperate house, in rich lumpy loam and peat. Propagated by cuttings, placed in sand, with bottom heat. =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._, corolla large, white, greenish outside near the base, and dark throat, with a short tube, and a large campanulate five-lobed limb; corymbs axillary and terminal, many-flowered. June. _l._ opposite, broad, oblong-ovate, with a little point, tapering towards the base, smooth and shining above, but rather downy beneath; young leaves and branches rusty. Chittagong and Sylhet, 1820. (B. M. 3213.) =BED.= A term usually applied to pieces of ground laid out in gardens for sowing small seeds, or for the isolation and better protection of small collections of plants in the reserve ground. The oblong is the best shape for this purpose, about 4ft. or 5ft. wide, somewhat raised, and having a narrow path on each side, so that the workman may attend to the plants or seeds without having to tread on the bed. Any one part of a flower-garden design, cut out in grass, or otherwise formed, is also generally termed a Bed. When required to be planted for effect, as in this case, the Bed should be proportionate in size to the plants that are to be put in it, always planting the highest in the centre and gradually sloping, with other sizes, to the edges, which should be the lowest. Circular Beds are best with one centre plant; and oblong or other shapes should have the height of the centre plants carried nearly the whole length, not, however, placing them in too formal a manner. =BEDDING-IN.= A method of seed-sowing, now almost obsolete, and chiefly employed in nurseries. "In this method, the ground being dug and formed by alleys into Beds, 4ft. or 5ft. wide, each alley being a spade's width or more between Bed and Bed, and the earth being drawn off the top of the Bed with a rake or spade, 1/2in. or 1in. deep into the alleys, the seed is then sown all over the surface of the Bed; which being done, the earth in the alleys is immediately cast over the Bed, again covering the seeds the same depth, and the surface is raked smooth" (Johnson). In the case of small seeds, a very light covering is needed, and that only of very fine soil. =BEDDING-OUT.= The temporary placing out of doors of greenhouse and other tender plants during the summer months. It is considered by some to be the showiest, most expensive, and most unnatural of any style. The geometrical arrangement of gaudy colours is not at all times satisfactory, and under the most favourable conditions the design is rarely retained more than two or three months, say, from July to September. The method is, however, so extensively adopted as to demand due notice in this work. Bedding usually commences in May. An important consideration is the proper preparation of the soil for the reception of the plants. It will be found to materially assist the growth if the soil is well dug over a fortnight before the plants are put in. By this means, it will acquire a certain amount of solidity, a point of great importance with fibrous-rooted plants that are subject to injury from the fine roots not taking a firm hold of the soil. Having decided upon the arrangement of the plants, proceed to work with the planting. With round, oval, or, indeed, almost any shaped bed, begin in the centre and work towards the edge; in borders, commence at the back and finish with the front row. Plant with a trowel, disturbing the balls as little as possible, and when in the holes press the soil moderately firm. After the Bed is finished, give a good soaking of water to settle the soil at the roots. Manure for Flower-beds should always be perfectly rotten, such as that from a spent hotbed. When the plants are thoroughly established, water must only be given if they show signs of distress; and then a good soaking should be applied. A careful hoeing of the surface after planting will be most beneficial, leaving it smooth and tidy. A Dutch hoe will be the best to use. Injudicious use of manure and water will only cause a foliaceous growth. The proper treatment of the various Bedding Plants will be found under their respective headings. For spring decoration, the Beds may be filled with Dutch bulbs, and spring-flowering annuals and perennials _ad infinitum_; or, after the plants are removed in autumn, the Beds may be filled with evergreens plunged in pots, such as Aucuba, Arbor vitæ, Euonymus, and various little Conifers, which have a bright appearance through the winter, and can be removed at any time. With the relative value, or advisability of adoption, of either or any system of gardening, it scarcely comes within the province of this work to deal. No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down as regards "style," and each individual may follow his own taste and inclination. [Illustration: FIG. 214. DESIGN FOR CARPET BEDDING.] [Illustration: FIG. 215. DESIGN FOR CARPET BEDDING.] _Carpet Bedding._ This mode of gardening, although not so generally employed as it was some few years ago, has many admirers, and small plots, geometrically arranged in multi-coloured beds on lawns, are frequently seen. In our large public parks, the system is largely adopted, and evidently proves very gratifying to the multitudes who visit these places; but probably no system is more unnatural or expensive, as such a large number of plants are necessary in order to produce a desirable effect. The illustrations (Figs. 214 and 215) represent two designs for Carpet Beds. The numbers placed in the various compartments indicate the way the different colours should be arranged, repeats being marked by the same cypher. A very varied and large selection of plants can be used for Carpet Bedding, some of which are quite hardy, such as _Herniaria glabra_ and _Veronica repens_, two of the best dwarf green plants; _Sempervivum californicum_, _Sedum lydium_, _S. glaucum_, _Antennaria tomentosa_, &c. These may be planted early in the season, with Golden Feather, and are especially valuable, as they are generally employed to a great extent. Other plants, not quite so hardy, are _Mentha Pulegium gibraltarica_ and _Echeveria secunda glauca_, both of which are extensively used; while the tenderest subjects are Alternantheras of various kinds, _Coleus Verschaffeltii_ and _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_. These latter should not be planted till the first or second week in June. As the plants are usually small, and require to be planted thickly, the work is best accomplished with the fingers, pressing the soil moderately firm. First of all, work out the design, and plant the leading lines; afterwards fill in the "panels." [Illustration: FIG. 216. DESIGN FOR BEDDING.] _Sub-Tropical Bedding._ This term is applied to the arrangement of tropical plants in Beds or groups outside for the summer months, and if discriminately adopted a very attractive and unique display may be made, depending greatly upon position, and mainly upon the material at command. If a sheltered and partially shady situation is enjoyed, a grand effect may be produced by the grouping of tree and other large ferns with palms, Cannas, Aralias, Dracænas, &c., avoiding, of course, formal arrangement, and yet, when finished, a symmetrical appearance should be produced. In more open positions, palms, Castor Oil Plants, Cannas, _Humea elegans_, Aralias, Phormiums, Wigandias, Nicotianas, &c., may be employed, the result being, if properly arranged, most gratifying. Sub-Tropical Bedding should not be done till the middle or end of June, and the Beds should be well dug and freely manured for those that are to be planted out. [Illustration: FIG 217. DESIGN FOR BEDDING.] Fig. 216 represents a Border or long piece of ground, which may be either marked out permanently with Box edging, dwarf-growing silver or golden leaved plants, tiles, stones, or pebbles, and filled in with silver sand or bright-coloured stones or gravel; or the lines may be widened out into walks. The whole of the small circles not numbered are intended for specimen foliage and other plants, such as Fuchsias, Yuccas, Aloes, Cannas, Solanums, variegated or plain Reeds, Grasses, Maize (_Zea_), &c. No. 1, tall plants of _Echeveria metallica_, edged with _E. glauca_; 2, 2, yellow or orange Calceolaria; 3, 3, Mrs. Leavers Pelargonium; 4, 4, Triomphe de Stella ditto; 5, 5, purple or blue Verbena; 6, 6, white ditto. The narrow border round the side may then be filled in with Golden-feather Pyrethrum, blue Lobelia, or _Alternanthera amabilis_. This same plan may also be treated in quite a different manner, according to the taste of those adopting it, or the stock of plants at command. [Illustration: FIG. 218. DESIGN FOR BEDDING OR CARPET BEDDING.] Fig. 217 illustrates a design admirably adapted for a rosery or small flower garden. Its only fault is the number of sharp angles at the corners of some of the Beds; but this can be counteracted by the predominance of curved lines. It is easily formed, and the effect is good if furnished in the following manner: The circle in the centre, 1, _Centaurea ragusina compacta_, edged with a double line of _Coleus Verschaffeltii_; the four figures 2, 2, 2, 2, scarlet Pelargoniums, such as Vesuvius, Bonfire, Triomphe de Stella, or others; 3, 3, Mrs. Pollock, golden-zoned Pelargoniums, edged with _Alternanthera am�na_; 4, 4, Lady Cullum, ditto, ditto, edged with ditto; 5, 5, _Lobelia speciosa_, Imperial Dwarf Ageratum, or Purple King Verbena; 6, 6, white Verbena or white Ivy-leaved Pelargonium. [Illustration: FIG. 219. ARRANGEMENT OF NURSERY FOR ROSE TREES AND SHRUBS.] [Illustration: FIG. 220. ARRANGEMENT OF NURSERY FOR ROSE TREES AND SHRUBS.] The group of Beds illustrated in Fig. 218 is effective on grass or gravel. If on the latter, the lines should be defined with Box, Golden Thyme, Cerastium, or Santolinas. The design is pretty on level, but is still more effective on sloping ground; in the latter case, it should rise from the straight walk (dotted line). Thus each Bed may be seen to the best advantage, and the group may be extended to any length. The circular Beds should be planted with two distinct colours, such as good pink and scarlet Pelargoniums of similar habits of growth, placing the colours in alternate Beds. The Beds, _a_, _a_, _a_, Flower of Spring, or another silver-leaved Pelargonium; _b_, _b_, _b_, Purple King Verbena, or Imperial Dwarf Ageratum; _c_, _c_, White Perfection Verbena, and silver-leaved or white-flowered Ivy-leaved Pelargonium; _d_, _d_, _Alternanthera magnifica_; _e_, _e_, Blue Lobelia. The long border, _Alternanthera paronychioides_, edged with _Antennaria tomentosa_; or _Iresine Lindenii_, edged with Pyrethrum, Golden Fleece or Crystal Palace Gem Pelargonium. The two sides may also be planted alike. The colours are reversed above to produce a greater variety and a more striking effect. This design is also well adapted for Carpet Bedding. [Illustration: BED A. BED B. BED C. BED D. BED E. BED F. BED G. BED H. FIG. 221. BEDDING-OUT DESIGNS.] _Nursery Bed._ This is merely a reserve ground or nursery for a large stock of plants of various sorts, such as Roses, &c. One of the first requirements is an easy access to the individual plants, and with the least possible waste of space. This may be obtained by arranging the Beds in regular geometric figures, as shown in Figs. 219 and 220, and, by exercising a little care and taste, the whole can be so contrived as to present an ornamental appearance. We are indebted to Messrs. Cannell and Sons for the diagrams of Bedding-out designs shown at Fig. 221, which may be made very effective: Bed A. This Bed may be planted with the following: Summer-flowering: 1, Gain's Yellow Calceolaria or Ageratum Lady Jane; 2, Geranium Vesuvius or another scarlet; 3 and 4, Viola Blue-bell or Purple King Verbena; 5, edged with _Gnaphalium lanatum_, or _Antennaria tomentosa_, white foliaged plants. Summer Foliage: 1, _Coleus Verschaffeltii_; 2, _Centaurea ragusina compacta_; 3 and 4, Mrs. Pollock Geranium; 5, band of any of the Echeverias, or _Kleinia repens_. Bed B. Plants mentioned for A will do for this. Bed C. This is really intended for a Carpet Bed. 1, _Alternanthera amabilis_, with a narrow line of _am�na_ for the edge; 2, _Mentha_, or _Herniaria glabra_; 3, band of _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_. Flowering: 1, Any kind of Scarlet Geranium; 2, Golden-leaved ditto; 3, Blue Lobelia (edge). Spring: 1, White Arabis; 2, _Myosotis dissitiflora_; 3, Golden Feather. Bed D. Summer: 1, Pink Geranium; 2, _Iresine Lindenii_; 3, Golden Feather. Carpet: 1, _Alternanthera versicolor grandis_; 2, _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_; 3, _Alternanthera magnifica_, edged with _Sempervivum montanum_. Bed E. 1, Scarlet Geranium; 2, Pink ditto; 3, _Lobelia speciosa_; or, 1, _Alternanthera am�na_; 2, _Mesembryanthemum cordifolium variegatum_; 3, _Echeveria secunda glauca_. Bed F. 1, _Dracæna_, _Chamæpeuce_, or any other graceful foliage plant for the centre; 2 and 4, _Alternanthera amabilis_, the divided lines, 6, being filled with Mentha or Echeverias; 3 and 5, _Alternanthera am�na_; and the outer edge, 7, with _Sempervivum californicum_. This bed would look well if planted with any of the above-mentioned spring flowers. Spring: Bed might be raised to a mound, and lined out with hardy Sedums, or Sempervivums, placing a larger growing one in the centre; and 2, 3, 4, and 5 divisions may be filled with any spring-flowering dwarf-growing plants. Bed G. 1, Small plant of Yucca; 2, _Coleus Verschaffeltii_; 3, _Alyssum variegatum_; 4, _Lobelia pumila magnifica_. Bed H. 1, Golden Feather; Mesembryanthemum; 3, Mentha; 4, _Alternanthera amabilis_; or 1, _Coleus Verschaffeltii_; 2, _Centaurea ragusina_; 3, Calceolaria Golden Gem; 4, Ageratum Lady Jane. =BEDDING PLANTS.= This term applies to many half-hardy subjects which are planted out in beds for summer display, such as Ageratums, Calceolarias, Geraniums, Heliotropes, Lobelias, Verbenas, &c., all of which will be treated under their respective headings. They are mostly soft-wooded plants and are easily cultivated with proper means, in spring and autumn. =BEDFORDIA= (named in honour of a former Duke of Bedford). ORD. _Compositæ_. Greenhouse evergreen shrubs, allied to _Cacalia_. They thrive in a mixture of sand, peat, loam, and brick rubbish, in equal proportions. Propagated by cuttings, which should be dried a little before inserting them in rough, sandy soil. =B. salicina= (willow-like). _fl.-heads_ yellow, axillary and solitary, or few together. April. _l._ alternate, lanceolate, linear, glossy above, covered with white tomentum underneath. _h._ 3ft. Victoria and Tasmania, 1820. SYN. _Cacalia salicina_. (B. R. 923.) =BEDSTRAW.= _See_ =Galium=. =BEECH.= _See_ =Fagus=. =BEES.= _See_ =Honey Bees=, =Humble Bees=, and =Wasps=. =BEET= (_Beta_, which _see_). The present varieties of Beetroot are the offspring of _Beta vulgaris_, a plant of biennial duration, and a native of the sea coasts of Southern Europe. It was cultivated in this country about 1656, but was probably long previously introduced by the ancient Romans. Beetroot is largely used as salad, more extensively on the Continent than with us, also pickled; medium sized, deeply coloured roots being the chief desideratum. Some varieties are largely grown for their highly-coloured foliage, being planted in bedding-out designs, and generally proving extremely effective. [Illustration: FIG. 222. LONG YELLOW BEETROOT.] Cultivation: For obtaining the best results, an open situation should be chosen, free from the shade of trees. The ground should be light and sandy, and, if possible, that which has been previously manured for some other crop, French beans, for instance. Trench the soil to a depth of 2ft. in the autumn, and ridge it up for the winter. As soon as dry enough to allow of working in spring, dig over the whole bed with a steel digging fork, and break the soil tolerably fine. Sow any time from the last week in April to the end of May. Prepare the drills about a foot or 15in. apart, and from 1in. to 2in. deep. The seeds grow quicker if steeped in water previous to sowing, afterwards allowing them to get dry enough to separate from each other. Sow thinly, and fill in the drills with a rake. As soon as the plants are up, hoe between the rows, and keep free from weeds. In a fortnight or three weeks after this hoeing, if the weather has been favourable, the plants will be large enough for thinning. Thin out to about 9in. apart, and carefully fill up, in dull weather, any blanks that may occur. Transplanting is, however, not generally a very satisfactory method. Carefully lift the roots in autumn, before frost comes, and wring off the leaves about an inch from the crowns. Place the roots in a cool shed or house, and allow the soil on them to get quite dry, when they may be stored for winter use in dry sand, or soil, in a shed free from frost. It is preferable to keep the crowns free from soil, to prevent decay from the ends of the leaves left on them. If this be carefully done, the roots will keep till the next season's early crop is ready. In all processes connected with the growing, storing, or cooking of this vegetable, the greatest care must be taken to avoid bruising or otherwise injuring the roots, as deficiency of colour would be the result, especially in the case of the red-fleshed kinds, in some cases rendering them valueless for table use. Seed Saving: When lifting the crop in autumn, select as many of the best formed and coloured roots as required, and store them separately from the rest. In April, plant them in a spot by themselves, where there is no danger of impregnation from other varieties, and in due time good seed will ripen. If good foliaged varieties are required, the best should be selected when growing in the summer, and either be marked by some means, or have the inferior ones removed from them. _Sorts._ These are somewhat numerous--almost every seedsman having a so-called "improved strain." Nutting's Dwarf Red, Chelsea, Pine Apple, Dell's Crimson and Red Castelnaudary, are the best of the crimson or red-fleshed kinds. The Egyptian Turnip-rooted is a distinct variety, with flesh of a good colour, and fine flavour; excellent for summer salads. Betterave de Bretagne is a Continental variety; the roots grow to a good size, with a distinct outer skin of a dark colour; flesh rich purple. The best of the yellow-fleshed kinds are Small Yellow and Long Yellow (see Fig. 222); but these are not grown nearly so much as the deep-coloured section; in fact, they are almost useless for garden purposes. [Illustration: FIG. 223. WHITE LEAF BEETROOT.] _Beetroot for Bedding Purposes_: In this case, where the foliage is the main object, the seed may be sown in a reserve bed, and the plants transferred to their positions in the flower garden. If, however, a line is required in a ribbon or other border, the best plan is to sow there, and thin out the plants to equal distances. Dell's Crimson is one of the best varieties for this purpose, being very compact and of a good dark colour. Varieties of the Leaf Beet (_Beta Cicla_), and Sea or Perennial Beet (_Beta maritima_), are sometimes, but very seldom, cultivated for the use of the leafstalks and leaves, the roots being hard and unfit for cooking purposes. They are at the best but substitutes for other vegetables--namely, the midrib for Sea-kale and the leaves for Spinach. If desired, seeds may be sown in the way described for Beetroot, in April for using in autumn and winter, and in August for spring use, plants of the latter sowing being protected in severe weather. The best sorts are Red-stalked, Yellow-stalked, and White (see Fig. 223) or Silver Leaf. =BEET CARRION BEETLE= (_Silpha opaca_). This destructive insect is frequently found in dead animals, but often its grub almost destroys the leaves of Beet and Mangold Wurzel crops. The grubs, which are black and shining, when full grown are from 1/3in. to 1/2in. long; the three segments next the head are rounded at the sides, but the other segments are sharp, and the tail segment has a sharp spine on each side. "When full-fed, the grubs bury themselves, and form cells at the depth of 3in. or 4in. below the surface of the earth, in which they turn to pupæ, and from these the Beetle has been seen to come up in about the space of a fortnight or three weeks" (Ormerod). The Beetles are flattish, and about five lines long, brown-black, with a tawny down; eyes large and oval; horns club-shaped; body somewhat oval; wing-cases very flat, turned up at the outer edge, each case having three sharp ridges running along it; tip of abdomen dull red. Any manures or methods of cultivation that would stimulate growth in the plants, so as to permit renovation of injuries, would be found useful. If farmyard manure were applied to the soil intended for Beet _in the autumn_ instead of in spring, it would lessen the risk of attack to the Beets. [Illustration: FIG. 224. COMMON GARDEN BEETLE.] [Illustration: FIG. 225. DEVIL'S COACH HORSE.] =BEETLES= (_Coleoptera_). Beetles form one of the most extensive orders of insects, there being upwards of 3000 known British species. They vary much in appearance, but a Beetle is readily recognised by its front wings, or elytra; these form a tough horny sheath or case, which lies over the real wings, and protects them when the insect is not flying. Sometimes, the elytra are very short (see Fig. 225); the mouth is fitted with jaws for cutting. The metamorphosis is complete, _i.e._, the larva or grub is very unlike either the quiescent pupa or the perfect insect. The period that elapses before Beetles arrive at their perfect state varies from a few weeks to two or three years, but is usually rather longer than in Butterflies or Bees. Various Beetles attack growing plants and roots. Thus, _Otiorhynchus sulcatus_ and _O. picipes_ attack Vines, Roses, and other plants, gnawing off the bark. Some species of Beetles attack Mushrooms, while others bore into the wood of old trees, or eat leaves (_e.g._ Turnip Fly), or burrow in the leaves, or form galls on roots (Cabbage-gall Weevil). Of some kinds, the beetles are hurtful; of others, the larvæ. Many kinds, however, are beneficial, such, for instance, as the common Ground Beetle (_Carabus_, Fig. 224), and the Devil's Coach Horse (_Ocypus olens_, Fig. 225). These live upon other insects and snails. One kind of Beetle--the Ladybird (see Figs. 226 and 227)--is very beneficial in a garden, as it preys upon the aphides, or plant lice. For instructions in dealing with the noxious kinds, _see_ =Asparagus Beetle=, =Bean Beetle=, =Beet Carrion Beetle=, =Click Beetle=, =Cockchafer=, =Lily Beetle=, =Rosechafer=, and =Turnip Fly=. [Illustration: FIG. 226. SEVEN-SPOTTED LADYBIRD.] [Illustration: FIG. 227. GRUB OF LADYBIRD. (Enlarged).] =BEET= or =MANGOLD FLY= (_Anthomyia betæ_). The maggots of this fly do considerable damage by feeding on the pulp of the Beet or Mangold leaves. The eggs are small, white, and oval, and are laid in small patches beneath the leaves; the maggots are about 1/3in. long, legless, cylindrical, and yellowish-white. As it is of such recent appearance in this country, specifics for its eradication are by no means numerous; but, according to Miss Ormerod, "the best treatment appears to be to nip it in the bud, where such treatment is possible, by destroying the infested plants, but generally by all means of good cultivation, or by special applications of artificial manure, to ensure a hearty growth, which may run the plants on past the power of average attacks to weaken the leafage to a serious extent." =BEFARIA= (named in honour of Bejar, a Spanish botanist). ORD. _Ericareæ_. SYN. _Bejaria_. An elegant genus of greenhouse evergreen shrubs, closely allied to _Rhododendron_. Flowers bracteate; corolla very deeply seven-cleft, spreading. Leaves racemose or corymbose, crowded, quite entire, coriaceous. They thrive in a compost of peat and loam. Propagated by cuttings, made of the young wood, and placed in sandy soil, in gentle heat. =B. æstuans= (glowing).* _fl._ purple; corymbs terminal, simple; peduncles, pedicels, rachi, calyces, and branchlets clothed with clammy glandular hairs. _l._ elliptic, rather glabrous above, but downy and glaucous beneath, while young clothed with rusty tomentum. Plant much branched; branchlets sub-verticillate. _h._ 10ft. to 15ft. Peru, 1846. SYN. _Acunna oblonga_. (G. C. 1848, 119.) =B. cinnamomea= (cinnamon-coloured). _fl._ purple; panicles close, terminal; peduncles woolly, hispid. _l._ slightly downy above, rusty tomentose beneath. Branches downy, hispid. _h._ 4ft. Peru, 1847. =B. coarctata= (close-headed). _fl._ purple; corymbs terminal, simple; peduncles, pedicels, rachi, and calyces clothed with rusty tomentum. _l._ oblong, glabrous, glaucous beneath. Shrub much branched. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. Peru, 1847. (G. C. 1848, 175.) =B. glauca= (glaucous).* _fl._ flesh-coloured; racemes terminal and axillary; pedicels somewhat fastigiate. June. _l._ oblong, obtuse, glaucous beneath. Shrub much branched; branchlets angular. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. South America, 1826. =B. ledifolia= (Ledum-leaved).* _fl._ purple; racemes terminal; peduncles, pedicels, rachi, branchlets, and calyces clothed with clammy glandular hairs. _l._ oblong, somewhat mucronate, with revolute edges, glaucous beneath, glandular. Shrub much branched; branches purplish. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. South America, 1847. (F. d. S. 3, 195.) =B. racemosa= (racemed). _fl._ purple, disposed in racemose terminal panicles. July. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, glabrous; branchlets smooth or hispid. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. Georgia, 1810. =BEGONIA= (named after M. Begon, a French patron of botany). ORD. _Begoniaceæ_. A large genus of succulent herbs or undershrubs (a few climbers), in many of which the stem is reduced to a tuberous rhizome, whilst some are distinctly tuberous. Flowers usually showy and large, white, rose, scarlet, or yellow, unisexual; perianth segments petaloid, four to five divisions, rarely two. Stamens numerous, filaments free or united at the base. Ovary inferior, styles two to four, free, sometimes connate, stigmas brandied or twisted. Fruit capsular, rarely succulent, often winged. Seeds numerous, minute. Leaves alternate, more or less unequal-sided, entire, or lobed, or toothed. Flower-stalks axillary, cymose. Distribution: Species about 350, in all tropical moist countries, especially South America and India; not known in Australia. Cultivated species (exclusive of garden hybrids and varieties) about 150. A large number of genera, or what were considered as such are now merged in Begonia--viz., _Barya_, _Baryandra_, _Casparya_, _Pritzelia_, &c. The rich colours and beautiful form of the flowers of Begonias, their prettily-marked foliage, and free-growing, free-blooming nature, have long marked them out as favourite garden plants. Within the last twenty years a new race, characterised by a tuberous root-stock, annual herbaceous stem, and large handsome flowers, has been introduced from the Andes of South America, from which, by means of careful cross-fertilisation and selection, a large number of beautiful and almost hardy kinds have been raised. The size, substance, and rich colours of the flowers of the majority of the plants of this race of Begonias are witness to what may be done by skilful cultivation and careful cross-breeding among plants. In the same way the large-leaved, stemless section, of which _B. Rex_ may be taken as the type and principal progenitor, have been improved both in the size and the coloration of their foliage, and countless forms are now in cultivation, both as garden plants and for the decoration of rooms, &c. The propagation of Begonias may be accomplished by means of seeds, which are freely produced by almost all the cultivated kinds, by cuttings, by division of the rhizomes, and--in the case of the large-leaved kinds--by leaf-cuttings. For the first of these methods it is necessary that the seeds should be well ripened before they are gathered, and kept dry until sown. Where it is desired to increase any particular kind of garden origin, seeds are useless, none of the hybrid or seedling forms perpetuating themselves through their seeds, although equally beautiful sorts may be raised from them. The characters of all true species are, however, reproduced in their seedlings. For the successful raising of Begonia seeds it is necessary to sow them on pans or pots of well-drained, light, sandy soil, which should be well watered before the seeds are sown. The seeds should not be covered with soil, or they will fail to germinate. Over the pans a pane of glass should be placed, and they should then be stood in warm house or a frame where a temperature of about 65deg. can be maintained, and shaded from sunshine. As soon as the plantlets are large enough to be safely manipulated, they should be pricked off into pans of light leaf-mould soil, in which they may remain until large enough to be placed singly in pots. Cuttings: These strike freely if planted in small pots, in sand and leaf mould, and placed on a bottom heat of 70deg. Where large quantities are required, a bed of cocoa nut-fibre in a stove or propagating frame may be used, and in this the cuttings may be planted and remain until well rooted. Leaf cuttings succeed best when laid on sand or cocoa-nut fibre, and shaded from bright sunlight. In preparing the leaves, old, well-matured ones should be selected, and incisions made with a sharp knife across the principal nerves on the underside. They should then be placed on the sand or fibre and held down by means of a few pieces of crock. Under this treatment, bulbils will form on the lower ends of the nerves of each section of the leaf, and these, when large enough, may be removed from the bed and potted. With the exception of _B. Evansiana_ (_discolor_), an almost hardy species from North China, all the shrubby species require a warm or intermediate house for their cultivation, although during the summer months a frame or sheltered bed answers for most of them, provided they are removed into their warm winter quarters on the approach of cold weather. Some of the species, such as _B. Dregei_, _B. semperflorens_, _B. nitida_, _B. fuchsioides_, _B. Lindleyana_, _B. Richardsiana_, along with the hybrids _Ascotensis_, _Knowsleyana_, _Weltoniensis_, and _Ingramii_, are grown in pots out of doors all the summer, and under liberal treatment they form large handsome specimens, which are of great value as flowering plants for the conservatory in winter. The tuberous-rooted herbaceous kinds should be started in heat in February, and, when vigorous growth has commenced, be gradually hardened off, for use either as bedding plants or as pot specimens for flowering in the greenhouse. A mixture of loam and leaf mould with a little sand and rotten cow-dung is suitable for the cultivation of these plants in pots. Liberal supplies of water should be given during the growing season. As the growth decays, water should be withheld until finally the tubers may be shaken out of the soil and placed in dry sand or cocoa-nut fibre, in a house or shed where a temperature above freezing can be maintained. _B. gracilis_ and its varieties, _diversifolia_ and _Martiana_, are beautiful greenhouse plants, which thrive well if treated as advised for the other tuberous-rooted kinds, with the addition of a few more degrees of heat. The _Rex_ section requires a light rich soil, plenty of moisture, and a shaded position in a warm greenhouse. These kinds are often employed with good effect for clothing peat-covered walls in ferneries, or as an undergrowth in large tropical houses. Large specimens have been grown under the stage in a warm house, the shade and moisture of such a position being exactly what they best delight in. _B. socotrana_, an interesting species from the island of Socotra, is somewhat singular in its requirements. The stem is herbaceous and annual, and about its base a cluster of bulbils are formed, from every one of which a plant will be developed the following year. The growing season for this species is from September to March, after which it goes to rest for the whole summer. A tropical temperature and all the light possible, are essential to the well-doing of this plant. It is interesting to note the apparent impossibility to cross any of the shrubby Begonias with the distinctly tuberous-rooted species; and even the species of the shrubby section, whose stems are semi-tuberous, have hitherto refused to commingle with the South American tuberous kinds, of which _B. Veitchii_, _B. rosæflora_, and _B. boliviensis_ may be said to be typical. The infusion of the blood of these large, handsome-flowered kinds into the tall, shrubby species, would almost certainly result in the production of a race of splendid winter-flowering greenhouse plants, and it is therefore in every way desirable that no pains should be spared to break through the obstacle to the union of the two races. Explanation of contractions: T, tuberous-rooted; S, shrubby. =B. acerifolia= (Acer-leaved). S. A tall-growing, thick, succulent-stemmed species, with green, lobed, serrated foliage, and large branching cymes of small white flowers; sepals of male flowers hairy; styles three, two-horned. Capsule triangular, with one of the angles prolonged into an obtuse wing. Spring. Quito, 1829. =B. acuminata= (taper-pointed-leaved). S. A low shrubby species, having semi-cordate, oblong, pointed leaves, with toothed margins, and the nerves on the under side and the petiole pilose. _fl._ white, in cymes, nearly 1in. across. Capsule wings, two short, the third 1/2in. long. Spring. Jamaica, 1798. (B. M. 4025.) =B. acutifolia= (acute-leaved). S. A smooth-stemmed, semi-erect species, 3ft. to 4ft. high, with cordate-oblong leaves, both sides and petiole glabrous, the margins denticulate. _fl._ in cymes, white and red, about 1in. in diameter. Capsule winged, one wing twice as long as the others. Spring. Jamaica, 1816. SYN. _B. purpurea_. =B. acutiloba= (acute-lobed).* A species with thick fleshy rhizomes, and palmate cordate leaves which are divided into five to seven lobes, with toothed margins and pointed apices, under side thinly covered with brown hairs. Flower-stalk tall, hairy, surmounted by a branching head of rather large white flowers. Summer. Mexico. =B. albo-coccinea= (white and red).* Stemless, with a thick root-stock. _l._ broadly ovate, peltate, entire, 3in. to 4in. long; petiole 3in. to 6in., pubescent. Flower-scape 6in. to 9in. long. _fl._ in dense cluster, bright rose on the outside, white within. Capsule regularly triangular, with short wings. Summer. India, 1844. SYN. _B. Grahamiana_. (B. M. 4172.) =B. alchemilloides= (Alchemilla-like). Stem fleshy, creeping. _l._ rotundate, with toothed, undulate, ciliated margins and short stalks. Flower-stem slender, few-flowered. _fl._ small, rose-coloured. Summer. Brazil. =B. amabilis= (lovely).* Stem creeping, fleshy, short. _l._ ovate, crenulate, acuminate, about 6in. long, tomentose, dark green, blotched with white, under side purple-red. Flower-stalk 9in. long. _fl._ rose or white, in clustering cymes. Capsule irregular. Summer. Assam, 1859. The foliage sometimes comes wholly green, but, under good treatment, it is handsomely variegated. =B. am�na= (pleasing).* Rhizome tuberous. Stem none, or very short. _l._ 3in. by 2in.; leafstalk 3in. Flower-stem 6in. long, few-flowered. _fl._ medium sized, pale rose. Capsule wings small, nearly equal. Summer. North India, 1878. SYN. _B. erosa_. =B. ampla= (large). S. Stem 1ft. to 2ft. high, very stout, woody. _l._ long-stalked, 8in. to 10in. in diameter, broadly ovate, cordate, pointed, when young densely covered with rusty stellate down. _fl._ on short petioles, rose-coloured, 2in. wide. Fruit a succulent berry, small. Summer. Guinea. =B. aptera= (wingless). Stem herbaceous. _l._ heart-shaped, pointed, shining green. _fl._ in short axillary cymes, white, small. Capsule four-angled. Spring. Celebes, 1878. =B. arborescens= (tree-like). S. A large growing species, sometimes forming a bush 8ft. to 10ft. in height. _l._ pale green, ear-shaped, 6in. long. _fl._ in large cymose clusters, white, small. Summer. Brazil. =B. argyrostigma= (silvery-spotted). Synonymous with _B. maculata_. =B. Arnottiana= (Arnott's). Synonymous with _B. cordifolia_. =B. asplenifolia= (Asplenium-leaved). S. A slender-stemmed, beautifully cut-leaved species, the foliage of which is pinnatisect, giving the plant the appearance of a Thalictrum rather than a Begonia. _fl._ very small, white. Guinea. =B. assamica= (Assam). Stem short, fleshy. _fl._ pinkish flesh-colour. _l._ oblique ovate, olive-green, marbled with silvery blotches above, and of a pale purplish-pink beneath; petioles pale green, softly hairy. Assam, 1883. =B. attenuata= (attenuated). Synonymous with _B. herbacea_. =B. aucubæfolia= (Aucuba-leaved). Synonymous with _B. incarnata_. =B. auriformis= (ear-formed). Synonymous with _B. incana_. =B. barbata= (bearded). S. Stem short, hairy. _l._ toothed, oval-shaped, pointed, hispid beneath, 4in. long. _fl._ medium-sized, white or pink; flower-stalk hairy. Capsule equal-winged. Summer. India. =B. Berkeleyi= (Berkeley's).* T. A garden hybrid, with thick, fleshy stems, and long ear-shaped foliage. _fl._ in erect panicles, rose-coloured. A useful winter-flowering kind. =B. bipetala= (two-petaled). Synonymous with _B. dipetala_. =B. biserrata= (doubly-serrated). S. Stem erect, branched, 2ft. to 3ft. high. _l._ 6in. long, 2in. to 3in. wide, deeply lobed, toothed, pale green. _fl._ in loose cymes, drooping, rose-coloured, 1-1/2in. wide, serrated edges. Capsule pilose, two short and one long wings. Summer. Guatemala, 1847. (B. M. 4746.) =B. boliviensis= (Bolivian).* T. Stem herbaceous, succulent, 2ft. high, branching. _l._ lanceolate, pointed, serrate, 3in. to 5in. long. _fl._ in drooping panicles, large, scarlet, males twice as large as females. Capsule three-winged. Summer. Bolivia, 1857. (B. M. 5657.) =B. Bowringiana= (Bowring's). Synonymous with _B. laciniata_. (B. M. 5657.) =B. braziliana= (Brazilian). S. Stem erect, tall, succulent. _l._ oblique, ovate, toothed, slightly pubescent; principal nerves brownish; stalk hairy. _fl._ white or rose, small, in short, few-flowered cymes. Capsule wing 1/2in. long. Summer. Brazil. =B. Bruantii= (Bruant's).* B. A garden hybrid between _B. Schmidti_ and _B. semperflorens_. _l._ green, with a brownish tint. _fl._ white or rose, in erect panicles. Summer, 1883. Used as a bedding plant in summer. =B. bulbifera= (bulb-bearing). Most likely a form of _B. gracilis_. =B. caffra= (Kaffrarian). A variety of _B. Dregei_. =B. carolineæfolia= (Carolinea-leaved). S. Stem erect, thick, fleshy. _l._ palmate, curiously divided into six to eight long ovate segments, each 6in. long. _fl._ in a dichotomous cyme, on long stalk, rose-coloured, small. Capsule small, wings one longer than others. Winter. Mexico, 1876. A singular-leaved species. (R. G. 1-25.) =B. Cathcartii= (Cathcart's). S. Caulescent. _l._ heart-shaped, acute, glabrous; stalks of flowers and leaves hairy; flowers and fruit as in _B. barbata_. Summer. India. SYN. _B. nemophila_. (C. H. P. 13.) =B. Chelsoni= (Chelsea).* T. A garden hybrid between _B. Sedeni_ and _B. boliviensis_. Stem fleshy, 2ft. high. _l._ oblique, lance-shaped, irregularly lobed. _fl._ large, orange-red, drooping. Summer, 1874. =B. cinnabarina= (vermilion).* S. Stem erect, short, herbaceous. _l._ 2in. to 4in. long, oblique, toothed; peduncles 6in. long, few-flowered. _fl._ (male), medium, red; female flowers very small. Summer. Capsule irregularly-winged. Bolivia, 1848. (B. M. 4483.) =B. cinnabarina= (vermilion). A variety of _B. fuchsioides_. =B. Clarkii= (Clarke's).* T. Stem purplish, fleshy, stout. _l._ oblique-cordate, serrate. _fl._ in pendulous racemes, abundant, large, bright red, very handsome, nearly related to _B. Veitchii_. Summer. Peru and Bolivia, 1867. (B. M. 5675.) =B. coccinea= (red).* S. Habit suffruticose. Stem sub-erect, 1ft. to 2ft. high, thick at the base. _l._ ovate-oblong, pointed; margins undulate and toothed. _fl._ in pendulous racemes, medium-sized; flowers and peduncles red. Capsule nearly regular; wings short. Summer. Brazil, 1842. (B. M. 3990.) =B. conchæfolia= (shell-leaved). Stem creeping, rhizomatous, thick. _l._ peltate, ovate, 3in. to 5in. long, edges almost entire; under side, along with leaf and flower-stalks, covered with ferruginous hairs; scape 9in. long, erect, surmounted by corymb of small whitish fragrant flowers. Capsule wings, one long, two short. Autumn and winter. South America, 1852. SYNS. _B. scutellata_, _B. Warscewiczii_. (R. B. 246.) =B. corallina= (coral-flowered). S. Stem woody, branching, sub-erect, brownish when matured. _l._ ovate-oblong, pointed, undulate, smooth, dull green, under side purple. _fl._ in long pendent racemes, numerous, medium-sized, bright coral-red. Summer. Brazil (?), 1875. A rare species, and one of the handsomest of the shrubby kinds, most likely closely related to _B. maculata_. =B. cordifolia= (heart-shaped). T. Stemless; root-stock fleshy. _l._ cordate, orbicular, toothed, 3in. wide, pilose above, pubescent below; flower-scape 6in. long, dichotomous. _fl._ numerous, medium-sized. Capsule with three narrow wings. Winter. Ceylon and India. SYN. _B. Arnottiana_. =B. coriacea= (leathery).* T. Stem 6in. high, herbaceous. _l._ reniform, 5in. wide by 3in. long, smooth above, pilose below. _fl._ rose-coloured, large, in twos or threes on the end of an erect scape, 8in. to 10in. long. Wings of capsule short, red. Summer. Bolivia. =B. coriacea= (leathery). Synonymous with _B. peltata_. =B. crassicaulis= (thick-stemmed). Stem short, thick, articulated, succulent. _l._ palmate; segments acuminate, toothed, under side clothed with rusty down. _fl._ in many-flowered cymes, dipetalous, white or rose-coloured, medium-sized. Capsule wings unequal. Near to _B. heracleifolia_. Spring. Guatemala, 1841. (B. R. 28, 44.) =B. crinita= (hairy).* S. Stem 1ft. high, fleshy, bright red, more or less hairy. _l._ ovate-cordate; margins toothed, dark green; petiole red and hairy, like the stems. _fl._ in lax, branching cymes, rose-coloured, 1-1/2in. in diameter. Fruit three-winged, one long and acute, two short and rounded. Spring. Bolivia, 1870. (B. M. 5897.) =B. cucullata= (hooded). A variety of _B. semperflorens_. =B. dædalea= (adorned).* Stem short, thick, succulent. _l._ large, green, thickly covered with a close network of russet-brown, scarlet when young; edges pilose. _fl._ white and rose, in loose panicles. Mexico, 1860. A handsome foliaged plant. (I. H. 1861, 269.) =B. Daveauana.= _See_ =Pellionia Daveauana=. =B. Davisii= (Davis's).* T. stemless, _l._ springing directly from root-stock, ovate-cordate, shining green, slightly hairy, underside red; petiole short, fleshy. Flower-scapes, pedicels, and flowers bright red; scape 4in. high, bearing half a dozen flowers in umbel. Capsule three-winged, one long, two very short. Summer. Peru, 1876. A handsome tuberous-rooted species, dwarf. See Fig. 228, for which we are indebted to Messrs. Veitch and Sons. (B. M. 6252.) =B. dichotoma= (branching). S. Stem tall, stout, fleshy. _l._ 5in. long by 4in. wide, lobed, dull green. _fl._ white, on long axillary scapes, numerous. Winter. 1860. =B. Digswelliana= (Digswell's). Stem short, semi-decumbent, large, green; margins red. _fl._ on long, erect scapes, pale pink, small, numerous. Useful for winter flowering purposes. A garden hybrid. (F. M. 236.) =B. dipetala= (two-petaled). Stems springing from a fleshy root-stock, erect, 18in. high, brown. _l._ half heart-shaped; margins toothed, upper surface thickly spotted with white, under side red. _fl._ in loose axillary cymes, two-petaled, large, pink. Capsule equal-winged. Spring. India, 1828. A handsome species. (B. M. 2849.) SYN. _B. bipetala_. =B. discolor= (two-coloured). Synonymous with _B. Evansiana_. =B. diversifolia= (diverse-leaved). A variety of _B. gracilis_. =B. Dregii= (Drege's).* Rootstock fleshy. Stems succulent; annual, 1ft. high. _l._ oblique, thin, green, slightly spotted with grey, reddish on the under side. _fl._ white, about 1in. across, in axillary cymes. Capsule three-winged, one much longer than the other two, and acute-pointed. Summer. Cape, 1840. SYNS. _B. caffra_, _B. reniformis_. =B. echinosepala= (spiny-sepaled).* Stem green, succulent, 18in. high. _l._ small, obliquely-oblong, serrulate. _fl._ on axillary peduncles, white, with curiously papillose sepals. Summer. Brazil, 1872. (R. G. 707.) =B. elliptica= (elliptic). Synonymous with _B. scandens_. =B. erecta multiflora= (erect, many-flowered). _fl._ bright reddish-pink, produced for several months, but especially during the winter. _l._ oblique, deep bronze coloured, very conspicuous. A decidedly handsome and very useful garden variety. =B. erosa= (bitten). Synonymous with _B. am�na_. =B. Evansiana= (Evans's).* T. Stem herbaceous, branching, smooth, 2ft. high. _l._ oblique, ovate-acute, sub-cordate, lobed; margins denticulate, green above, under side and petioles deep red; flower-stalks branching, axillary. _fl._ numerous, flesh-coloured, large. Capsule wings blunt-pointed, one longer than the others. Summer. Java, China, Japan, 1812. A handsome species, and almost hardy. SYNS. _B. discolor_, _B. grandis_. (B. M. 1473.) =B. eximia= (excellent).* A hybrid, raised from _B. rubro-venia_ and _B. Thwaitesii_. Stem short, succulent. _l._ bronzy-purple, tinged with red. A handsome foliage plant. (I. H. 1860, 233.) =B. falcifolia= (sickle-leaved).* S. Stem 1ft. to 2ft. high, erect, branching. _l._ 6in. long, 1-1/2in. wide, curved, tapering to a narrow point; margins toothed, upper surface green, more or less spotted with white, under side deep red. _fl._ on short axillary peduncles, drooping, dipetalous, bright red. Wings of capsule equal, 1/2in. wide. Summer. Peru, 1868. A pretty flowering plant. (B. M. 5707.) [Illustration: FIG. 228. BEGONIA DAVISII.] =B. ferruginea= (rust-coloured). S. Stem woody, erect, smooth branching, covered with ferruginous hairs. _l._ oblique, ovate-acute, acuminate, lobed; margins toothed. _fl._ in branching cymes, large red. Capsule unequal-winged. Summer. Bogota. SYN. _B. magnifica_. =B. Fischeri= (Fischer's). Similar to _B. falcifolia_, except that the foliage is unspotted, and the flowers are white and small. Brazil, 1835. (B. M. 3532.) =B. foliosa= (leafy).* S. Stem slender, branching, fleshy. _l._ small, ovate-oblong, dark green, numerous, distichous on stems. _fl._ small, numerous, white, tinged with pink. Summer. New Grenada, 1868. Useful for growing hanging baskets. SYN. _B. microphylla_. (Ref. B. 222.) =B. frigida= (frigid). S. Stem 1ft. high, smooth, green, succulent. _l._ cordate, acuminate, lobed, serrated, slightly pilose; upper side coppery-green, beneath deep rose-red, especially upon the veins. _fl._ small, white, in erect branching cymes. Capsule wings two long, one short. Summer. Country unknown, 1860. (B. M. 5160.) =B. Fr�beli= (Fr�bel's).* T. Stemless. _l._ numerous, cordate, acuminate, green, covered with purplish-velvety hairs. _fl._ in tall, lax, drooping, branching cymes, brilliant scarlet, large. Winter. Ecuador, 1872. A beautiful flowering plant, useful for conservatory work in winter. (Garden, pl. 96.) =B. fuchsioides= (Fuchsia-like).* S. Stem tall, drooping, herbaceous, smooth, green, tinged with red. _l._ copious, distichous, 1-1/2in. long, oblong-ovate, slightly falcate, serrated, smooth; margins tinged with red. _fl._ in branching pendulous panicles, numerous, rich, deep scarlet. Capsule wings two very short and one long. Summer. New Grenada, 1846. A handsome greenhouse plant, useful for covering pillars, &c. SYN. _B. miniata_. (B. M. 4281.) =B. f. miniata= (vermilion). _l._ smaller than in type. _fl._ cinnabar red. (F. d. S. 8, 787.) =B. gemmipara= (bud-bearing). S. Stem 1ft. high, from a tuberous root-stock, succulent, _l._ ovate-acuminate, cordate, lobed, smooth above, pilose below. _fl._ medium-sized, white, or with rose stripes, on pendulous, axillary peduncles; sometimes the peduncles bear, instead of flowers, quadrangular cups, which are closely packed with oblong viviparous bulbils. Summer. Himalaya. (C. H. P. 14.) =B. geranifolia= (Geranium-leaved).* Rootstock tuberous. Stem 1ft. high, erect, angular, succulent, green, with a purplish tinge, branched dichotomously. _l._ cordate, cut into unequal serrated lobes, green; margins red, whole plant perfectly smooth; peduncles terminal, bearing two to three flowers, which are inclined, drooping while in bud; outer petals orbicular, red, the two inner obovate, waved white. Summer. Lima, 1833. (B. M. 3387.) =B. geranioides= (Geranium-like).* T. Rootstock fleshy. Stemless. _l._ radical, somewhat reniform, lobed, serrated; surface scabrid, deep green; leafstalks red, hairy. _fl._ white, in lax, drooping panicle. Summer. Natal, 1866. A pretty, though delicate, species. (B. M. 5583.) =B. glandulosa= (glandular-leaved).* Stem a stout rhizome, scaly. Leafstalks thick, terete, erect, hairy, 9in. high. _l._ 6in. broad, fleshy, cordate, lobed, green; veins dark. _fl._ on tall, dark, erect scapes, numerous, greenish-white. Capsule wings, one very large, blunt. Costa Rica, 1854. SYNS. _B. hernandiæfolia_, _B. nigro-venia_. (B. M. 5256.) [Illustration: FIG. 229. BEGONIA HERACLEIFOLIA.] =B. gogoensis= (Gogoan).* _l._ peltate, ovate-orbicular, oblique, acute when young, with a bronzy metallic hue, ultimately changing to a deep velvety-green, intersected by the paler midribs and veins; the under surface deep red. _fl._ pale rose, in a lax panicle. Gogo, in Sumatra, 1881. A very handsome, ornamental-foliaged species. =B. gracilis= (slender).* T. Stem erect, unbranched, very succulent, _l._ thinly scattered along stems, half heart-shaped, slightly hairy, lobed, denticulate-ciliate. _fl._ on short axillary peduncles; umbel of few male and female flowers, two larger petals serrate, colour pink. Capsule winged, green. Mexico, 1829. In axils of leaves between stipules a cluster of bulbils are borne; these may be gathered and sown as seeds. This and its varieties, _annulata_, _diversifolia_, _Martiana_, &c., are beautiful summer flowering greenhouse Begonias, requiring a sandy peat soil and shade. When well grown, they are exceedingly ornamental. (B. M. 2966.) =B. Grahamiana= (Graham's). Synonymous with _B. albo-coccinea_. =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered). Synonymous with _B. octopetala_. =B. grandis= (great). A variety of _B. Rex_. =B. grandis= (great). Synonymous with _B. Evansiana_. =B. grandis= (great). Synonymous with _B. vitifolia_. =B. Griffithii= (Griffith's). Stemless; rhizome subterraneous. _l._ large, obliquely-cordate; margin crenate, hairy; surface granulated, colour a dark green; margin purple, zoned with grey, under side green, centre and margin deep purple. _fl._ on cymes, large, white internally, outside tinged with blush, slightly pilose. Capsule tubercled, one wing large, projecting. Winter. India, 1856. (B. M. 4984.) =B. Hasskarlii= (Hasskarl's). Synonymous with _B. peltata_. =B. heracleifolia= (cow-parsnip leaved). Rootstock thick, fleshy. _l._ radical, on long pilose stalks, palmate, large, bronzy green; margins toothed, hairy. Flower-stalks long, stout, erect, hairy, many-flowered. _fl._ rose-coloured. Capsule wings nearly equal. Spring. Mexico, 1831. This and the following varieties are handsome both in foliage and flowers. SYNS. _B. jatrophæfolia_, _B. punctata_, _B. radiata_. See Fig. 229. (B. M. 3444.) =B. h. longipila= (long-haired). _l._ greyish in middle; outer portions dark bronzy, blotched with green. Whole plant covered with long, stiff, fleshy hairs. _fl._ as in the type. =B. h. nigricans= (dark). This differs from the type in having foliage of a blackish tint all round the margins of the lobes, and the petals of the flowers nearly white. (B. M. 4983.) =B. h. punctata= (dotted). _l._ green, reddish near margin. _fl._ rose-colour, with deep red spots on the outside. =B. herbacea= (herbaceous).* Rhizome creeping. _l._ oblong-acute, lanceolate, toothed, ciliated. Flower-stalks shorter than leaves; male flowers in a cymose head, white, small; female flowers solitary, on very short stalks. Spring. Brazil, 1873. A small species, very succulent, with the appearance of a primrose when not in flower. SYN. _B. attenuata_. (G. C. 1873, 679.) =B. hernandiæfolia= (Hernandia-leaved). Synonymous with _B. glandulosa_. (Seemann.) =B. hernandiæfolia= (Hernandia-leaved). Synonymous with _B. nelumbiifolia_. (Gardens.) =B. hernandiæfolia= (Hernandia-leaved). Synonymous with _B. peltata_. (B. M. 4676.) =B. hirsuta= (hairy). Synonymous with _B. humilis_. =B. Hookeri= (Hooker's). A variety of _B. semperflorens_. =B. Hookeriana= (Hooker's). S. Stem woody, 5ft. to 6ft. high, branching, covered with minute rusty tomentum. _l._ ovate, unequal sided, blunt, 8in. long, tomentose, like the stem. _fl._ in axillary cymes, small, white. Spring. Brazil, 1850. =B. humilis= (dwarf).* Stem erect, fleshy, hairy. _l._ semicordate-oblong, acuminate, ciliate-serrate, hairy above, smooth beneath. _fl._ few, in cymes, small, white. Capsule unequal winged. Summer. Trinidad, 1788. Annual. SYN. _B. hirsuta_. =B. humilis= (dwarf). Synonymous with _B. suaveolens_. (B. R. 294.) =B. hybrida floribunda= (many-flowered).* A very beautiful summer blooming hybrid between _B. fuchsioides_ and _B. multiflora_. _fl._ bright rose, medium sized, produced in abundance. Summer. One of the best. =B. hydrocotylifolia= (Penny-wort-leaved).* Stem succulent, short, creeping. _l._ rotundate cordate, almost equal-sided; petiole short. Whole plant hairy. Flower-stalks 1ft. high, pilose. _fl._ in cymose head, medium-sized, dipetalous, rose-coloured, as also are pedicels and stalk. Capsule wings equal-sized, large. Summer. Mexico, 1841. (B. M. 3968.) =B. h. asarifolia= (Asarum-leaved). Leaves and flowers smaller than in the type, the latter white. Mexico. =B. imperialis= (imperial).* Stem rhizomatous, short, thick. _l._ large, broad, ovate-acute, cordate, rugose, hairy, dark olive-green; nerves banded with greyish-green colour. _fl._ in cymes, white, medium-sized. _fr._ unequal winged. Mexico, 1861. A handsome foliage species. (I. H. 1860, 262.) =B. i. smaragdina= (emerald-like). _l._ shining emerald green. =B. incana= (hoary). Stem erect, fleshy, tomentose. _l._ leathery, peltate, oblong-acute, sub-angular, whitish beneath. Flower-stalks long. _fl._ in small downy panicles, white. Winter. Mexico, 1840. SYN. _B. auriformis_. =B. i. auriformis= (ear-like). _l._ divided at the base, not peltate. _fl._ glabrous. =B. incarnata= (fleshy).* S. Stem erect, fleshy, 2ft. high, smooth; nodes swollen, reddish, spotted. _l._ on short, smooth petioles, unequally cordate, acuminate, sinuately-serrate, green. _fl._ large, rose-coloured, handsome; peduncles terminal, nodding. Capsule with unequal wings, the largest acute. Winter. Mexico, 1822. SYNS. _B. aucubæfolia_, _B. insignis_, _B. Lindleyana_. (B. M. 2900.) =B. i. maculosa= (spotted). _l._ spotted with white. =B. i. metallica= (metallic-leaved). _l._ with a bronzy-purple metallic lustre. =B. i. papillosa= (papillose). Foliage margined with bright rose; upper surface covered with little papillæ. (B. M. 2846.) =B. i. purpurea= (purple-leaved). Foliage deep bronzy-purple. =B. Ingramii= (Ingram's).* A garden hybrid, raised at Frogmore in 1849, from _B. fuchsioides_ and _B. nitida_. It combines the characters of the two parents. A useful winter-flowering plant; may be grown out of doors in summer. (G. M. B., p. 153.) =B. insignis= (remarkable). Synonymous with _B. incarnata_. =B. involucrata= (involucrate). S. Stem erect, tall, angular, covered with a reddish tomentum. _l._ oblique, ovate-acuminate, cordate; margins toothed and ciliate. _fl._ enclosed in a wrapper, or involucre, when young; peduncles graceful, bearing umbel of white, largish flowers. Capsule wings unequal, the largest falcate. Winter. Central America. =B. jatrophæfolia= (Jatropha-leaved). Synonymous with _B. heracleifolia_. =B. Josephi= (Joseph's). Stemless. _l._ radical, on petioles 6in. to 10in. long, ovate-acuminate, three-lobed, or orbicular, with numerous acute lobes, slightly pubescent; scape 1ft., branched. _fl._ small, rose-coloured. Capsule wings unequal; upper margins horizontal. Summer. Himalaya. =B. Kunthiana= (Kunth's).* S. Stem erect, smooth, slender, purple-brown. _l._ on short petioles, lance-shaped, acuminate, regularly serrated, smooth, dark green above, bright crimson below. _fl._ axillary, on short nodding peduncles, white, large, handsome. Summer. Venezuela, 1862. A pretty species. (B. M. 5284.) =B. laciniata= (cut-leaved).* Rhizome thick, fleshy. Stem short, thick, jointed, reddish, woolly. _l._ large, 6in. to 10in. long, 4in. to 6in. broad, unequally cordate; margins irregularly cut, serrated; upper side green, under dull, rufous. _fl._ on short axillary peduncles, large, white, tinted with rose. Capsule wings, one very long, others short. Spring. Nepaul to Birma, South China, 1858. SYN. _B. Bowringiana_. (B. M. 5182.) =B. Leopoldi= (Leopold's). A hybrid from _B. Griffithii_ and _B. splendida_, with large variegated foliage. 1858. =B. Lindleyana= (Lindley's).* S. Stem erect, fleshy, covered with ferruginous hairs. _l._ on long petioles, peltate, ovate, acute, 5in. to 6in. long, 3in. to 4in. wide, irregularly lobed, toothed, green above, tomentose below. _fl._ on branching peduncles, medium sized, white. Winter. Guatemala. =B. Lindleyana= (Lindley's). A garden synonym of _B. incarnata_. (Gardens.) =B. longipes= (long-stalked). S. Stem 3ft. or more high, stout, succulent, furrowed, covered with glands. _l._ large, rotundate-cordate; margin irregular, serrated, both sides green, pubescent when young. _fl._ numerous, small, white; peduncle 1ft. long, branched. Winter. Colombia, 1829. (B. M. 3001.) =B. longipila= (long-haired). A variety of _B. heracleifolia_. =B. lucida= (shining). Synonymous with _B. scandens_. =B. Lynchiana= (Lynch's). S. Stem erect, tall, succulent, smooth. _l._ fleshy, 10in. long, oblique, ovate-cordate, crenulate, green, smooth. _fl._ axillary, in drooping cymes, numerous, large, deep reddish-crimson. Winter. Mexico, 1880. One of the finest of the tall-growing winter-flowering species. When well managed, the flower-heads are almost a foot in diameter. SYN. _B. Roezlii_, of gardens. (B. M. 6758.) [Illustration: FIG. 230. BEGONIA MACULATA, showing Habit, Section of Capsule, and Flower.] =B. maculata= (spotted).* S. A woody shrub. Stems branching, smooth. _l._ oblique, ovate-oblong, leathery, slightly undulate; margins entire, under side bright crimson, above green, with numerous large round blotches of silvery white. _fl._ in drooping panicles, coral-like, handsome. Capsule with one long, narrow wing. Summer. Brazil, 1821. (B. R. 666.) There are numerous varieties of this species, some with leaves almost green, others with the markings more striking than in the type; in the flowers they differ also, ranging from white to coral-red. The beautiful _B. corallina_ is probably a variety of this. SYN. _B. argyrostigma_. See Fig. 230. =B. magnifica= (magnificent).* S. Stem erect, fleshy, smooth. _l._ ovate, unequal sided, toothed. _fl._ in terminal, cymose panicles, rosy-carmine, 1-1/2in. long. New Grenada, 1870. (R. H. 1870, 271.) =B. magnifica= (magnificent). Synonymous with _B. ferruginea_. =B. malabarica= (Malabar).* Stem thick, succulent, 2ft. high, branching. _l._ numerous, cordate, acute, unequal-sided, crenate or serrate, hairy above and sometimes below, or altogether glabrous, spotted white. _fl._ rose-coloured; peduncles axillary, short, few-flowered. Capsule wings equal, joined above and below. Summer. Malabar and Ceylon, 1828. _B. dipetala_ is made a variety of this, by Sir Joseph Hooker, in "Flora of British India." (L. B. C. 1730.) [Illustration: FIG. 231. BEGONIA MANICATA.] =B. manicata= (tunicated).* Stem fleshy, twisted, short. _l._ oblique, ovate-acute, cordate, dentate-ciliate, smooth on both sides, shining green nerves on under side, with fleshy, scale-like hairs. _fl._ pink, dipetalous, in branching cymes; upper portion of stalk scaly. Capsule wings nearly equal. Winter. Mexico, 1842. See Fig. 231. =B. Manni= (Mann's). S. Stem succulent, 2ft. to 3ft. high, branched, green; branchlets, young parts, petioles, and leaf-nerves clothed with rusty, furfuraceous pubescence. _l._ petioled, 5in. long, 2in. wide, lanceolate, cordate, acuminate, toothed. _fl._ numerous, rose-red, in axillary cymes; peduncle 1in. long. Capsule linear, densely tomentose. Winter. Fernando Po, 1862. (B. M. 5434.) =B. marmorea= (spotted). A variety of _B. xanthina_. =B. Martiana= (Martin's). A variety of _B. gracilis_. =B. maxima= (large).* Rhizome thick, hairy, creeping. _l._ large, oblique, orbicular-ovate, cordate, shortly acuminate; margins denticulate ciliate; petiole long, pilose. _fl._ in branching cymes; sepals orbicular, pilose on the outside, white. Summer. Mexico, 1853. =B. megaphylla= (large-leaved).* Stem short, thick, fleshy. _l._ large, palmate, cordate; lobes numerous, pointed; margins hairy, under side slightly pilose; nerves with scaly hairs. _fl._ in diffuse cymes, small, white; peduncles pilose. Capsule wings wide. Winter. Mexico. =B. metallica= (metallic). A variety of _B. incarnata_. =B. Meyeri= (Meyer's). S. Stem erect, stout, woody when mature. _l._ large, broadly and obliquely ovate, fleshy, pale green; margin sinuate, under side tinged with rose; both petiole and blade covered with short hairs. _fl._ on long axillary peduncles, in large paniculate heads, white. Capsule wings equal. Summer. Brazil, 1844. (B. M. 4100.) =B. microphylla= (small-leaved). Synonymous with _B. foliosa_. =B. microptera= (small-winged). Stem 1ft. high, terete, green, pubescent, as in the rest of the plant. Branches few. _l._ sub-distichous, 4in. to 6in. long, ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, serrated, dark green; petiole short; stipules as long as petiole. _fl._ in terminal panicles, medium-sized, white, tinted rose. Capsule long, triangular, two angles wingless, the other with a narrow wing. Winter. Borneo, 1856. (B. M. 4974.) =B. miniata= (vermilion). A variety of _B. fuchsioides_. =B. monoptera= (single-winged).* Stem erect, 1ft. to 2ft. high, rounded, swollen at the joints, dull red, papillose and downy. Radical leaves on long red stalks, large, reniform, truncate at the base; caulescent leaves smaller, on short petioles, angled, crenate, dark green above, red below, and minutely papillose. _fl._ on an elongated terminal raceme, white. Capsule three-angled, two wingless, the other with a long pointed wing. Summer. Brazil, 1826. A distinct and pretty species. (B. M. 3564.) =B. Moritziana= (Moritz's). Synonymous with _B. scandens_. =B. natalensis= (Natal).* T. Rootstock thick, fleshy. Stem 1-1/2ft. high, succulent, thick at the base, articulate, branched, smooth. _l._ unequal, semicordate, acuminate, lobed, toothed, spotted with white. _fl._ on axillary cymose peduncles, pale rose. _fr._ three-winged, two large, one small. Winter. Natal, 1855. (B. M. 4841.) =B. nelumbiifolia= (Nelumbium-leaved).* Rhizome thick, fleshy, creeping. _l._ on long hairy petioles; blade 12in. to 18in. long, 8in. to 12in. wide, peltate, hairy on under side; scape 1ft. to 2ft. high. _fl._ in cymose head, numerous, small, white or rose coloured. Winter. Mexico. A noble-foliaged plant. SYN. _B. hernandiæfolia_. =B. nemophila.= Synonymous with _B. Cathcartii_. =B. nigro-venia= (black-veined). Synonymous with _B. glandulosa_. =B. nitida= (shining).* S. Stem 4ft. to 5ft. high, erect, branched, woody when aged, smooth, shining. _l._ large, glossy, green on both sides, obliquely ovate, acute, crenated at margin. _fl._ in terminal and axillary panicles, numerous, large, deep rose, handsome. Capsule three-winged, one much larger than others. Jamaica, 1777. One of the best winter, and almost a perpetual, flowering species. SYNS. _B. obliqua_, _B. pulchra_, _B. purpurea_. (B. M. 4046.) =B. obliqua= (oblique). Synonymous with _B. nitida_. =B. octopetala= (eight-petaled).* T. Stemless. _l._ on long succulent downy petioles, 1-1/2ft. or more in length, cordate, 6in. long, deeply lobed and serrated at the margin, bright green; scape as long as petioles, rounded, downy. _fl._ in corymbs, greenish-white, males with eight petals, females generally fewer. Capsule three-angled, two wings almost suppressed, the other 1in. long; apex blunt, toothed. Autumn. Peru, 1835. SYN. _B. grandiflora_. (B. M. 3559.) =B. odorata= (sweet-scented). Synonymous with _B. suaveolens_. =B. opuliflora= (Guelder-rose-flowered).* S. Stem 1ft. high, branching, smooth. _l._ ovate oblong-acuminate, toothed, smooth above, hairy below. _fl._ white, in compact umbels, on erect scapes. Spring. New Grenada, 1854. =B. Ottoniana= (Otton's). A hybrid from _B. conchæfolia_ and _B. coriacea_. (R. G. 1859, p. 15.) =B. papillosa= (papillose). A variety of _B. incarnata_. =B. Pearcei= (Pearce's).* T. Stem 1ft. high, succulent, branching. _l._ lance-shaped, cordate, pointed, toothed, glabrous above, tomentose beneath, and pale red. _fl._ in loose axillary panicles, large, bright yellow. Summer. Bolivia, 1865. Interesting because of its being one of the progenitors of the handsome race of garden tuberous Begonias. =B. peltata= (shield-like). Stem short, tomentose; leaves 6in. by 4in., peltate, ovate, densely pilose. _fl._ in branching cyme, small, white; peduncle 6in. to 9in., pilose. Brazil, 1815. Interesting because of its distinctly peltate foliage and silvery appearance of whole plant. SYNS. _B. coriacea_, _B. Hasskarlii_, _B. hernandiæfolia_, _B. peltifolia_. =B. peltifolia= (peltate-leaved). Synonymous with _B. peltata_. =B. phyllomaniaca= (proliferous-stemmed). S. Stem thick, fleshy, rather twisted, green, hairy, clothed, when old, with small viviparous buds bearing small leaves, by which means the plant may be multiplied. _l._ ovate, acuminate, cordate, sinuately lobed, ciliate, smooth above and below. _fl._ in axillary cymes, drooping, pale rose. Capsule with one large wing. Winter. Guatemala, 1861. (B. M. 5254.) =B. picta= (ornamented).* T. Stem generally smooth, succulent, 6in. to 12in. high. _l._ ovate acuminate, nearly equally cordate, serrated, hairy above and on the nerves below, sometimes variegated. _fl._ pale rose, large, handsome; peduncle hairy, erect, short, few-flowered. Autumn. Himalaya, 1870. (S. E. B. 101.) =B. platanifolia= (plane-leaved).* S. Stem 5ft. to 6ft. high, erect, robust, smooth, green; joints annulated. _l._ 8in. to 10in. in diameter, reniform, lobed, hispid on both sides, dark green; lobes acute, toothed, ciliated. _fl._ in axillary, dichotomous cymes, large, white, tinted rose, handsome. Summer. Brazil, 1834. (B. M. 3591.) [Illustration: FIG. 232. BEGONIA POLYPETALA.] =B. polypetala= (many-petaled). Stem about 1ft. high, covered with a soft whitish tomentum. _l._ ovate-acute, toothed, pubescent above, and densely tomentose below. _fl._, petals nine or ten, of a fine red colour, smooth, external ones ovate-oblong, pointed; internal ones somewhat shorter and narrower; sepals two, ovate-elliptic. Capsule tomentose, three-winged, with one wing larger, ascendent. Winter. Andes of Peru, 1878. See Fig. 232. (Garden, Dec. 14, 1878.) =B. prestoniensis= (Preston).* A garden hybrid between _B. cinnabarina_ and _B. nitida_. _l._ green, lobed, glabrous. _fl._ brilliant orange-red, in drooping axillary cymes, very fragrant. Autumn and winter. 1867. (G. M. B. 3, 149.) =B. prismatocarpa= (prism-fruited).* Stems small, creeping, hairy; branchlets ascending. _l._ long, petioled, also hairy, obliquely cordate, ovate, three to five-lobed; lobes pointed, serrated; peduncles axillary, longer than foliage, bearing a small umbel of two to four dipetalous orange and yellow flowers, one female in each umbel. Capsule four-angled, scarcely winged. Summer. Tropical West Africa, 1861. The smallest of cultivated Begonias, and especially interesting because of its four-angled fruit. It forms a pretty cushion of bright shining green foliage, thickly studded with its brightly coloured flowers. Requires a stove temperature and a stony soil. (B. M. 5307.) =B. pruinata= (frosted).* Stem short, thick, fleshy, smooth. _l._ large, peltate, ovate, angular-sinuate, minutely-toothed; surface smooth, glaucous; margins pilose, on stout, fleshy petioles. _fl._ in large dense dichotomous, or small cymes, white. Winter. Central America, 1870. (R. B. 247.) =B. pulchra= (fair). Synonymous with _B. nitida_. =B. punctata= (dotted). A variety of _B. heracleifolia_. =B. purpurea= (purple). Synonymous with _B. acutifolia_. =B. purpurea= (purple). Synonymous with _B. nitida_. =B. Putzeysiana= (Putzeys'). S. Stem erect, branching, smooth. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acute, toothed, glabrous, under side spotted with white. _fl._ in copious small corymbs, white and rose, small. Capsule small, with rather large obtuse wings. Winter. Venezuela, 1871. =B. radiata= (rayed). Synonymous with _B. heracleifolia_. =B. ramentacea= (scaly).* S. Stem erect, branching, brown, scaly, as also are the leafstalks and peduncles. _l._ ovate, reniform, oblique; margins slightly angulate, recurved, under side red, scaly; peduncles branching. _fl._ drooping, pink and white, pretty. Capsule, when ripe, a bright scarlet; wings large. Spring. Brazil, 1839. (P. M. B. 12-73). =B. reniformis= (kidney-formed). Synonymous with _B. Dregei_. (Gardens.) =B. reniformis= (kidney-formed). Synonymous with _B. vitifolia_. (Hook.) [Illustration: FIG. 233. BEGONIA REX.] =B. Rex= (Royal).* Stemless; rhizome fleshy, creeping, subterraneous. Leafstalk round, red, setose. _l._ 8in. to 12in. long, 6in. to 8in. broad, ovate, oblique, sides unequal, cordate, villose; margins toothed, surface bullate, dark olive-green, with a metallic lustre, a broad silvery zone running all round, about 1in. from the margin. _fl._ in erect branching cyme, large, pale rose. Capsule wings, two short, one long and rounded. Assam, 1858. See Fig. 233. (B. M. 5101.) This magnificent species is the principal progenitor of the numerous ornamental-foliaged Begonias, a selection of which are given below. Most of them are well worth growing, but those named have been selected from a large number: MADAME WAGNER,* _l._ large, profound green, banded by a broad silvery zone, especially fine; MARSHALLI, _l._ very large, the margins and very centre dark green, while the greater portion of the surface is covered with a silvery-grey; REGINA,* _l._ rich olive-green, banded with a broad zone of bronze-red and silvery-grey, rendering it very attractive; ROI LEOPOLD,* _l._ on long stout petioles, very large, deep bronze-red in the centre, with a broad border of a rather lighter shade, very effective; ROLLISONI,* _l._ large, on long stalks, rich velvety-green, banded with silvery-grey; SPLENDIDA ARGENTEA,* _l._ large, of a greyish hue, veined with white, and tinged with bronze-red, very beautiful. The following varieties are also very good: ADRIEN ROBINE,* BERTHE PROUTIERE, CHARLES HOVEY, DISTINCTION,* JULIA SEROT,* LOUISE CHRETIEN,* MADAME J. MENOREAU,* NARGA,* NAVALA,* TALISMAN, W. E. GUMBLETON. =B. Richardsiana= (Richards').* T. Stem 1ft. high, erect, fleshy, with slender branches. _l._ palmately lobed, the lobes sinuate or toothed. _fl._ white, males bipetalous, females with five petals. Cymes axillary near ends of branches, few-flowered. Capsule three-winged, wings equal. Summer. Natal, 1871. (G. C., 1871, p. 1065.) =B. R. diadema= (of gardens).* This is referred to here because of its close resemblance to the above. It is most likely a hybrid between _B. Richardsiana_ and _B. dipetala_. _l._ palmately lobed, rather large, spotted with white. _fl._ large, rose-coloured. Summer. 1881. =B. ricinifolia= (Ricinus-leaved).* A garden hybrid between _B. heracleifolia_ and _B. peponifolia_. _l._ large, bronzy green, in shape like those of the Castor-oil plant. _fl._ numerous, on an erect scape. Winter. 1847. =B. Roezlii= (Roezl's). Synonymous with _B. Lynchiana_. =B. rosacea= (rosy). Stem succulent, short. _l._ ovate obtuse, slightly pubescent, toothed; petioles long, pilose. _fl._ in few-flowered cymes, medium-sized, rose-coloured. New Grenada, 1860. (Garden, pl. 152.) =B. rosæflora= (rose-flowered).* T. Stemless. Petioles, scapes, bracts, and stipules bright red. _l._ green, 2in. to 4in. wide, on stout hairy petioles, 2in. to 6in. long, orbicular-reniform, concave; margins lobed, red, toothed. Scapes stout, villous, three-flowered. _fl._ 2in. across, bright rose-red. Summer. Peru, 1867. One of the parents of the popular race of tuberous-rooted large-flowered Begonias. (B. M. 5680.) =B. rubricaulis= (red-stalked).* Stemless. Leafstalks, peduncles, pedicels, and ovaries, a deep red colour. _l._ obliquely ovate, 4in. to 6in. long, slightly hairy, bright green, wrinkled; margins toothed and ciliated. Scape 1ft. high, erect, stout, branching at the top, forming a head of about a dozen flowers, which are large, white inside, rose-tinted outside. Capsule with one large wing, the others almost suppressed. Summer. Peru, 1834. (B. M. 4131.) =B. rubro-venia= (red-veined).* Rootstock thick. Stems 12in. to 18in. high, red, pubescent. _l._ 4in. to 6in. long, elliptic or lanceolate acuminate, entire or slightly angular, toothed, green spotted with white above, purplish-brown below. Scapes axillary, red. _fl._ in cymose head; outer segments white with rose-red veins, inner segments pure white. Summer. Sikkim, &c., 1853. (B. M. 4689.) =B. sanguinea= (blood-red). S. Stems woody when old, tall, stout, red, with scattered paler spots. _l._ 4in. to 6in. long, unequally cordate, acuminate, thick and somewhat fleshy in texture, minutely crenate, green above, deep red below; peduncles axillary, long, erect, red. _fl._ in a branching cyme, rather small, white. Capsule wings sub-equal. Spring. Brazil, 1836. (B. M. 3520.) =B. scabrida= (rough). Stem stout, erect, somewhat succulent, covered with small tubercles. _l._ 6in. long, oblique, ovate-acute, cordate, toothed, slightly hairy. _fl._ white, small; cyme many-flowered. Capsule wings equal, large. Venezuela, 1857. =B. scandens= (climbing).* Stem flexuose, fleshy, creeping or climbing, smooth. _l._ 4in. long, ovate acuminate, sub-cordate; margins irregularly toothed, pale shining green. _fl._ in axillary branching cymes, white, small. South America, 1874. Useful either as a basket plant or for training against moist walls. SYNS. _B. elliptica_, _B. lucida_, _B. Moritziana_. (R. G. 758.) =B. sceptrum= (princely). S. _l._ obliquely ovate in outline, deeply lobed on one side; lobes oblong; obtuse, veins sunk, and the raised spaces between marked with large silvery blotches, and numerous smaller dots of silver grey. Brazil, 1883. =B. Schmidtiana= (Schmidt's).* Stems 1ft. high, branching, herbaceous. _l._ obliquely cordate, ovate-acute, small, dark metallic green above, tinged with red below. _fl._ in loose drooping axillary panicles, white, small, numerous. Winter. Brazil, 1879. (R. G. 990.) =B. scutellata= (salver-like). Synonymous with _B. conchæfolia_. [Illustration: FIG. 234. BEGONIA SEMPERFLORENS FRAU MARIA BRANDT, showing Habit and Flower.] =B. Sedeni= (Seden's). T. A garden hybrid between _B. boliviensis_ and _B. Veitchii_. Summer. 1869. A handsome plant, but much inferior to many of the more recent hybrids. (R. H. 1872, 90.) =B. semperflorens= (always-flowering).* Stem fleshy, erect, smooth, reddish-green. _l._ ovate-rotundate, hardly cordate; margins serrated, ciliated, surface smooth, shining green. _fl._ on axillary stalks, near apex of stems, white or rose, rather large. Capsule wings two short, one long, rounded. Autumn. Brazil, 1829. A useful summer and autumn flowering species, of which there are several named varieties more or less distinct from the type, either in colour or size of flowers, or in habit of plant. The varieties _carminea_, _gigantea_, and _rosea_ are perhaps the best. SYN. _B. spathulata_. (B. M. 2920.) =B. s. Frau Maria Brandt.= A dwarf compact variety, with rose-tinted flowers. See Fig. 234. =B. socotrana= (Socotra).* Stem annual, stout and succulent, forming at base a cluster of bulbils, each of which produces a plant the following year; sparsely hairy. _l._ dark green, orbicular, peltate, 4in. to 7in. across, centre depressed; margin recurved, crenate. _fl._ in terminal, few-flowered cymes, 1-1/2in. to 2in. wide, bright rose. Capsule three-angled, one-winged. Winter. Socotra, 1880. Should be rested through the summer, and started in heat in September. A distinct and beautiful species. (B. M. 6555.) =B. spathulata= (spathulate). Synonymous with _B. semperflorens_. =B. stigmosa= (branded).* Rhizome creeping, fleshy. _l._ 6in. to 8in. long, oblique, cordate-acute, irregularly toothed, smooth above, hairy beneath, green, with brownish-purple blotches; stalks scaly, as in _B. manicata_. _fl._ in cymose panicles, white, medium-sized, numerous. Brazil, 1845. =B. strigillosa= (strigillose).* Rhizome short, fleshy, creeping, _l._ 4in. to 6in. long, oblique, ovate-acute, cordate-toothed; margins ciliate, red; stalk and blade covered with fleshy scales; blade smooth, blotched with brown. _fl._ in branching cymes, dipetalous, small, rose-coloured. Summer. Central America, 1851. =B. suaveolens= (sweet-scented). S. Stem branching, 2ft. high, smooth. _l._ 3in. to 4in. long, oblique-ovate, cordate-acute, crenulate, glabrous. _fl._ in axillary panicles, large, white. Winter. Central America, 1816. Resembles _B. nitida_, but may be distinguished by its distinctly crenulate leaves and smaller flowers, which are white, and not pale rose, as in _B. nitida_. SYN. _B. odorata_. (L. B. C. 69.) =B. Sutherlandi= (Sutherland's).* T. Stems annual, 1ft. to 2ft. high, slender, graceful, red-purple. _l._ on slender red petioles, 2in. to 3in. long; blade 4in. to 6in. long, ovate-lanceolate, deeply lobed at base; margins serrate, bright green; nerves bright red. _fl._ in axillary and terminal cymes, numerous, orange-red, shaded with dark vinous-red. Capsule wings equal. Summer. Natal, 1867. (B. M. 5689.) =B. Teuscheri= (Teuscher's). S. A strong, erect-growing, large-leaved plant, from the Dutch Indies, not yet flowered. _l._ cordate-ovate, acute, olive-green above, with greyish blotches; under side rich claret-coloured. Hort. Linden. (I. II. 1879, 358.) =B. Thwaitesii= (Thwaites's).* Stemless. _l._ 2in. to 4in. in diameter, obtuse or sub-acute, cordate at base, minutely toothed, slightly pubescent, very shaggy when young, rich coppery-green, red-purple and blotched with white; under side blood red. _fl._ in an umbel, medium-sized; scape short, white. Capsule shaped like a Beech nut; wings short. Ceylon, 1852. One of the most beautiful of coloured-leaved Begonias, requiring a close, moist atmosphere in a stove. (B. M. 4692.) =B. ulmifolia= (Elm-leaved). S. Stem 2ft. to 4ft. high, branching. _l._ 3in. to 4in. long, ovate-oblong, unequal-sided, toothed, rugose, hairy. _fl._ on hairy peduncles, numerous, small, white. Capsule wings two small, one large, ovate. Winter. Venezuela, 1854. (L. C. 638.) =B. undulata= (wavy-leaved). S. Stem 2ft. to 3ft. high, erect, branching freely, turgid below, green, succulent until old. _l._ distichous, oblong-lanceolate, undulated, smooth, shining green. _fl._ in nodding axillary cymes, white, small. Winter. Brazil, 1826. (B. M. 2723.) =B. urophylla= (caudate-leaved). Stemless. Leafstalks terete, succulent, clothed with scattered bristly hairs. _l._ large, 12in. long, broad, cordate; margin irregularly cut, toothed; apex long-pointed, green, smooth above, hairy beneath; peduncle stout, paniculate. _fl._ crowded, large, dipetalous, white. Spring. Brazil. (B. M. 4855.) =B. Veitchii= (Veitch's).* T. Stem very short, thick, fleshy, green. _l._ orbiculate, cordate, lobed and incised; margins ciliated, green, principal nerves radiating from bright carmine spot near centre; under side pale green; petiole thick, terete, with a few hairs on the upper portion; scape 10in. to 12in. high, thick, terete, pilose, two-flowered. _fl._ 2-1/4in. in diameter, cinnabar red. Capsule smooth, two short, one long wings. Summer. Peru, 1867. One of the species from which the popular garden tuberous-rooted Begonias have been obtained. (B. M. 5663.) =B. Verschaffeltiana= (Verschaffelt's).* A hybrid between _B. carolinæfolia_ and _B. manicata_, with large ovate acutely-lobed leaves and flowers in large cymes, rose-coloured and pendent. Winter. (R. G. 1855, p. 248.) =B. vitifolia= (Vine-leaved). S. Stem 3ft. to 4ft. high, thick, smooth, and fleshy. _l._ large as vine foliage, and similar in shape; peduncles axillary, erect, branching into a cymose head of small white flowers. Capsules three-angled, one-winged. Winter. Brazil, 1833. SYNS. _B. grandis_, _B. reniformis_. (B. M. 3225.) =B. Wagneriana= (Wagner's). S. Stem 2ft. to 3ft. high, erect, glabrous, green, succulent, branched. _l._ cordate-ovate, acuminate; margins obscurely lobed, slightly serrate, quite glabrous; peduncles axillary and terminal, cymose. _fl._ numerous, white. Capsules, which are ripened in abundance, three-angled, one wing long, two short. Winter. Venezuela, 1856. (B. M. 4988.) =B. Warscewiczii= (Warscewicz's). Synonymous with _B. conchæfolia_. =B. Weltoniensis= (Welton). A garden hybrid; one of the oldest of cultivated winter-flowering kinds, with light pink flowers, very free. =B. xanthina= (yellow-flowered).* Stem short, thick, fleshy, horizontal, along with petioles thickly-clothed with brown scaly hairs; petioles 6in. to 12in. long, stout, terete, fleshy, reddish-brown; blade 8in. to 12in. long, cordate-ovate, acuminate, sinuate-ciliated, dark green above, purplish beneath. Flower-stalks erect, 1ft. high, bearing a cymose head of large golden flowers. Capsule with one large wing. Summer. Boutan, 1850. (B. M. 4683.) =B. x. Lazuli= (Lapis-lazuli).* Foliage metallic purple, with a bluish tinge. =B. x. pictifolia= (ornamented-leaved).* _l._ with large silvery spots, and pale yellow flowers. The following list comprises a selection of some of the best and most distinct of the innumerable varieties now existing in gardens, and which have been obtained by crossing and re-crossing the several tuberous-rooted species found in the temperate regions of South America. [Illustration: FIG. 235. FLOWERING BRANCH OF BEGONIA ADMIRATION.] =Single-Flowered Varieties.= _Crimson and Scarlet Shaded_: ADMIRATION, flowers vivid orange-scarlet, of dwarf, compact habit, and free flowering (see Fig. 235); ARTHUR G. SOAMES,* brilliant crimson scarlet, of excellent form, and very free; BALL OF FIRE,* glowing fiery-scarlet, flowers large and compact, very free; BLACK DOUGLAS,* dark carmine crimson, flowers large, of the finest form, one of the best; BRILLIANT, deep orange-scarlet, very free; CHARLES BALTET, rich velvety vermilion; COMMODORE FOOT,* brilliant velvety crimson, very free and showy; DAVISII, flowers small, dazzling scarlet, habit dwarf and free; DR. MASTERS,* flowers large, with immense spikes, deep red-crimson, very attractive; DR. SEWELL,* glowing crimson, grand form; EXONIENSIS, brilliant orange-scarlet, immense flowers; F. E. LAING, deep velvety crimson, full and free; HON. MRS. BRASSEY,* deep glowing crimson, very rich and floriferous; J. H. LAING,* brilliant scarlet, one of the freest; J. W. FERRAND,* rich vermilion, dwarf and free, one of the finest for bedding; LOTHAIR,* dark scarlet-carmine, crimson shaded, of grand form and size; MARQUIS OF BUTE, brilliant carmine-crimson, of the finest form, and immense flowers; SCARLET GEM,* very dark scarlet, flowers medium-sized, dwarf and very floriferous; SEDENI, rich rosy-crimson, dwarf, a good bedder; VESUVIUS,* bright orange-scarlet, compact and free, one of the finest bedders. [Illustration: FIG. 236. BEGONIA QUEEN OF WHITES.] _Rose-Coloured_: ALBERT CROUSS�,* bright salmon-rose, very free; ANNIE LAING,* large and free, rich pink; CAPT. THOMPSON, rich salmon-rose, very free and compact; DELICATUM, pale flesh-rose; EXQUISITE,* rich deep rose, very free and showy; J. AUBREY CLARK, flowers very large, rich, deep; JESSIE,* soft rosy-pink, with the tips of the petals shaded carmine, a very fine, perfect variety; LADY BROOKE,* dark rose, shaded magenta, very perfect in form, and large; LADY HUME CAMPBELL,* pale pink, of good form and size, an exquisite variety; MADAME STELLA,* flowers perfect in form, large, bright rosy-pink, one of the best; MARCHIONESS OF BUTE, light rosy-pink, with an immense bloom and handsome foliage; PENELOPE,* rich salmon-rose, very free and good; PRINCESS OF WALES, very delicate pink, and free; ROSE D'AMOUR, rich rose, delicately shaded. _White-Flowered_: ALBA FLORIBUNDA, flowers medium-sized, very free; MOONLIGHT, very free, with good flowers and handsome foliage; MRS. LAING,* flowers exquisite in form and shape, pure white, one of the best; NYMPH,* large and round, white, tinted with rose at the base; PRINCESS BEATRICE,* flowers large, of excellent form, and pure in colour; PURITY, flowers round, good size and colour; QUEEN OF WHITES,* flowers pure white, large, most freely produced (see Fig. 236, for which we are indebted to Messrs. Veitch and Sons); REINE BLANCHE,* one of the best, very pure; SNOWFLAKE,* flowers large, in full spikes, pure white, habit compact, and very free. _Yellow and Orange-Flowered_: CHROMATELLA,* habit dwarf and compact, pure yellow; EMPRESS OF INDIA, deep yellow, very showy; GEM OF YELLOWS,* rich deep yellow, of grand form and size, one of the best; GOLDEN GEM,* rich golden yellow, of excellent form and size, habit free, with prettily mottled foliage; J. L. MACFARLANE, rich orange, freest form, and large; LADY TREVOR LAWRENCE,* orange-yellow, of good form, with handsome foliage; MAUDE CHURCHILL,* pale yellow, deeper shaded, with elegant foliage; MRS. PONTIFEX,* rich orange yellow, very large flowers, copiously produced; POLLIE, pale yellow, fine round flower; SULPHUR QUEEN,* pale sulphur-yellow, of good form and size. =Double-Flowered Varieties.= _Crimson and Scarlet Shaded_: ACHILLES, rich dark crimson, very large and free; DAVISII HYBRIDA FL.-PL.,* rich coral-red, very full and free; DAVISII FL.-PL. SUPERBA,* brilliant crimson-scarlet, of good size, and extremely free; DR. DUKE,* brilliant scarlet, very large and double, one of the best; FRANCIS BUCHNER,* rich cerise-red, very double, perfect in form, and very large; FULGURANT, rich crimson, full, with dark foliage; GLOIRE DE NANCY,* rich vermilion, very free; HERCULES,* bright orange-scarlet, very large and extremely free, habit compact and vigorous; LEMOINEI, deep orange-vermilion, very floriferous; MONSIEUR BAUER, deep red, tinged with violet; NIMROD,* rich red-scarlet, very large and full, with a free and very vigorous habit; PRESIDENT BURELLE,* glowing red, tinted with scarlet, very free; QUEEN OF DOUBLES,* rich rosy-crimson, very double and floriferous, one of the best varieties; ROBERT BURNS,* brilliant orange-scarlet, tinted vermilion, very double and free; SIR GARNET, deep orange-scarlet, very vigorous; WM. BEALBY,* deep velvety scarlet, immense size and perfect form, very free. _Rose-Coloured_: ADA,* bright rosy-salmon, fringed at the edge, very full and free; COMTESSE H. DE CHOISEUL, pale rose, at first nearly white, very handsome; ESTHER,* rich rosy pink, with a distinct crimson margin; FORMOSA,* rich rosy carmine, with a white centre and crimson margin, very distinct and showy; GLORY OF STANSTEAD,* deep rose, with a well-defined white centre, very distinct and handsome; JOHN T. POE,* bright rose, tinted with cerise, of excellent form and vigorous habit; MADAME COMESSE,* rich satiny salmon-rose, immense, and most profuse; MADAME LEON SIMON, soft pale rose, very full and free; MARIE LEMOINE, light salmon with a rose centre; MRS. BRISSENDEN,* salmon-rose, with a cream-white centre, of excellent form and very free; P�ONIFLORA, flowers enormous, rich salmon-rose, very full; QUEEN OF SCOTS,* satiny-pink, salmon-shaded, of a perfect form and very large, habit compact and very free; ROSINA,* deep rose, violet shaded, of exquisite form, very vigorous and free. _White-Flowered_: ANTOINETTE QUERIN,* pure white, cream, shaded centre, very large and full, a magnificent variety; BLANCHE JEANPIERRE, pure white, cream tinted, of excellent form and very free; LITTLE GEM,* pure white, of the best form and good size, habit dwarf and extremely floriferous; MRS. LUDLAM,* white, tinted with pink, a very handsome variety; PRINCESS OF WALES,* flowers very full and profuse, almost pure in colour, and immense. _Yellow-flowered_: CANARY BIRD,* flowers large, of the finest form, deep yellow, habit dwarf and very free; GABRIEL LEGROS,* pale sulphur, changing to yellow, very full and imbricated, extremely showy. =BEGONIACE�.= An order comprising a large number of useful garden plants. The only genera are _Begonia_ and _Begoniella_ (which is not yet in cultivation). Flowers apetalous; perianth single; pistillate flowers having the perianth two to eight-cleft, staminate ones two to four-cleft; stamens numerous, collected into a head. Leaves alternate, stipulate. _See_ =Begonia=. =BEJARIA.= _See_ =Befaria=. =BELLADONNA.= _See_ =Atropa=. =BELLADONNA LILY.= _See_ =Amaryllis Belladonna=. =BELLEVALIA= (named in honour of P. R. Belleval, a French botanist). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. This genus is now usually placed under _Hyacinthus_. Hardy, bulbous-rooted plants, admirably adapted for spring bedding or forcing, and invaluable as cut flowers. Flowers small, whitish, or violet, tinged with green. Leaves few, radical, broadly linear. They are of extremely easy culture in ordinary garden soil. Propagated by offsets; also by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. =B. operculata= (lid-covered). Synonymous with _B. romana_. =B. romana= (Roman).* Roman Hyacinth. _fl._ white, racemose; perianth campanulate; pedicels longer than the flowers. April. _l._ from 4in. to 5in. long. _h._ 6in. Italy, 1596. A most desirable plant, and the best of the genus for forcing purposes. SYNS. _B. operculata_ and _Hyacinthus romanus_. (B. M. 939, under the name of _Scilla romana_.) _See_ =Hyacinthus=. =B. syriaca= (Syrian).* _fl._ white; peduncles spreading, racemose. May. _l._ glaucous, 1ft. long, channelled, rather scarious on the margins. _h._ 1ft. Syria, 1840. =BELL-FLOWER.= _See_ =Campanula=. [Illustration: FIG. 237. FRENCH BELL GLASS, OR CLOCHE.] [Illustration: FIG. 238. ENGLISH BELL GLASS.] =BELL GLASSES=, or =CLOCHES=. These are used for the purpose of protecting or accelerating the growth of a plant or plants. The French Cloche (see Fig. 237) is largely employed for this purpose. Ordinary Bell Glasses (see Fig. 238) are exceedingly useful for propagating purposes, especially for hard-wooded plants; or for placing over subjects which require a very moist atmosphere, such as Filmy ferns, Cephalotus, &c.; or for covering half-hardy plants or rare alpines, and thus protecting them from excessive moisture. Large Bell Glasses, inverted, serve as miniature aquaria, and many small aquatics are easily grown in them. =BELLIDIASTRUM= (from _bellis_, a daisy, and _astrum_, a star; flower-heads being star-like). ORD. _Compositæ_. A pretty dwarf, hardy, herbaceous perennial, allied to _Aster_. It thrives in a compost of loam, leaf soil, and peat. Increased by divisions in early spring, or directly after blooming. =B. Michelii= (Michel's).* _fl.-heads_ white; scape one-headed, naked; involucre with equal leaves; pappus simple. June. _l._ in a rosette, shortly stalked, obovate, repand. _h._ 1ft. Austria, 1570. =BELLIS= (from _bellus_, pretty, in reference to the flowers). Daisy. ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of hardy herbaceous perennials, distinguished from allied genera in having conical receptacles and an absence of pappus. They grow well in all loamy soils. The garden varieties are increased by division after flowering, each crown making a separate plant. The soil must be pressed about them moderately firm. Seeds may also be sown in March, but the plants thus obtained are seldom of sufficient floricultural merit to perpetuate. [Illustration: FIG. 239. BELLIS PERENNIS FLORE-PLENO.] [Illustration: FIG. 240. HEN AND CHICKENS DAISY (BELLIS PERENNIS PROLIFERA).] =B. perennis= (perennial).* Common Daisy. _fl.-heads_ white. June. _l._ numerous, lying flat on the ground, obovate, crenate, slightly hairy, tapering at the base. _h._ 3in. England. The varieties are very numerous, the double ones being particularly fine. See Fig. 239. The handsome variegated form, _aucubæfolia_, has its leaves richly stained and veined with yellow. There are both red and white-flowered forms of this variety. The Hen and Chickens Daisy is a proliferous form, rather more quaint than pretty. See Fig. 240. Good garden kinds are _B. p. conspicua_, red; CROWN, pink; ELIZA, purple; RUBENS, red; SNOWFLAKE, white. [Illustration: FIG. 241. BELLIS ROTUNDIFOLIA C�RULESCENS.] =B. rotundifolia c�rulescens= (round-leaved, bluish).* _fl.-heads_ from 3/4in. to 1-1/4in. in diameter, resembling those of the common Daisy, but with fewer, often broader, ray-flowers, which vary from white to pale blue. _l._ more or less hairy, with slender stalks, 1in. to 3in. long; blade ovate or sub-cordate, sinuate toothed, three-nerved. Morocco, 1872. A very beautiful perennial, requiring the shelter of a cold frame during severe winters. See Fig. 241. (B. M. 6015.) =BELLIUM= (from _bellis_, a Daisy; the flowers resembling those of that plant). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of pretty little, free-flowering plants, differing from the common Daisy only in having a pappus of six to eight broad scales, torn at the apex, alternating with a like number of long scabrous bristles. They thrive best in a mixture of sandy loam and peat. Propagation is readily effected by means of seeds or divisions; the latter should be made in spring. [Illustration: FIG. 242. BELLIUM BELLIDIOIDES.] =B. bellidioides= (Daisy-like).* _fl.-heads_ white, solitary. June to September. _l._ spathulate, radical. Stolons creeping. _h._ 4in. Italy, 1796. Annual. See Fig. 242. =B. crassifolium= (thick-leaved). _fl.-heads_ whitish-yellow; scapes much exceeding the leaves, downy. June. _l._ sub-radical, thick, obovate, entire, attenuate at base, rather downy. Stems many, ascending. _h._ 6in. Sardinia, 1831. Hardy perennial. (S. B. F. G. 2, 278.) =B. minutum= (very small).* _fl.-heads_ white and yellow, 1/2in. across, on slender stalks, longer than the foliage. June to September. _l._ narrow spathulate, attenuated at the base, slightly hairy. _h._ 3in. Levant, 1772. A rare little species, requiring a warm, well-drained position on the rockery. =BELLOWS.= These were formerly employed for fumigating, but are now entirely superseded by the ordinary fumigators. The Sulphur Bellows is a very useful instrument for the uniform distribution of flowers of sulphur on vines and other subjects infested with mildew. In form it is very like those in common domestic use, but has a rose of small holes at the end of its nozzle, through which the sulphur is ejected. =BELL-PEPPER.= _See_ =Capsicum grossum=. =BELOPERONE= (from _belos_, an arrow, and _peronne_, a band; in reference to the arrow-shaped connectivum). SYN. _Dianthera_. ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. Very pretty stove evergreen shrubs, allied to _Justicia_. Flowers blue or purple, borne in secund, axillary, or terminal spikes, frequently subtended with coloured bracts; corolla gaping, the upper lip concave, the lower trifid. They are easily cultivated in a compost of loam, leaf soil, peat, and sand. Propagated by young cuttings, taken in spring. Beloperones may also be treated like _Justicias_ (which _see_), and will succeed admirably. There are a large number of species, but few of which have been introduced. =B. oblongata= (oblong). _fl._ rosy-purple; spikes axillary; anthers calcarate at base; bracts bracteolate. Summer. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, opposite. _h._ 3ft. Brazil, 1832. (B. H. 9, 9.) =B. violacea= (violet-coloured).* _fl._ violet. _l._ lanceolate, acuminate, entire. _h._ 3ft. New Grenada, 1859. (B. M. 5244.) =BENDING-DOWN= the branches of fruit trees, by means of weights or string attached to pegs driven into the ground, is sometimes resorted to for the purpose of acquiring a particular shape, or fruitfulness; but authorities differ as to the usefulness of the plan for the latter purpose. Young trees that are inclined to grow strong in the middle may be more evenly balanced by adopting the plan of Bending the strong branches, and so diverting the sap to the weaker ones. =BENGAL QUINCE.= _See_ =�gle Marmelos=. =BENJAMIN-TREE.= _See_ =Ficus Benjamina=. =BENT GRASS.= _See_ =Agrostis=. =BENTHAMIA= (in honour of George Bentham, a distinguished English botanist). ORD. _Cornaceæ_. Hardy evergreen shrubs or low trees, now referred to the genus _Cornus_. The first-named species is rather tender in the neighbourhood of London, and can only be grown successfully against a wall, for which purpose it is very suitable. In Cornwall and other mild places, it attains a height of 20ft. in the open. Loudon thinks it might be rendered hardier by grafting it on _Cornus sanguinea_. Flowers disposed in heads, each head attended by an involucre, which consists of four petal-like parts, and resembles a corolla; calyx with a minute four-toothed limb; petals four, fleshy, wedge-shaped; stamens four; style one. Leaves opposite, exstipulate, sub-evergreen, entire. Fruit constituted of many pomes grown together. They thrive in rather moist, loamy soil, in a sheltered spot. Propagated by seeds, sown when ripe, in a cool-house; or by layering, in autumn. =B. fragifera= (Strawberry-flowered).* _fl._ large, white, sessile, densely aggregate, forming a round head. June to October. _fr._ large, about the size of that of the common Arbutus, reddish. _l._ lanceolate, acuminated at both ends, on short petioles, rather rough, with small, adpressed down. Branches spreading, smooth. _h._ 10ft. to 15ft. Nepaul, 1825. (G. C. xiv., 728.) =B. japonica= (Japanese). _fl._ yellowish-red. Spring. _h._ 8ft. Japan, 1847. (S. Z. F. J. 16.) =BERARDIA= (named after M. Berard, a Professor of Chemistry at Montpelier). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus containing a single species, confined to the high mountains of Western Europe. It makes a pretty rock plant, and grows best in thoroughly well-drained spots amongst rocky _débris_. Propagated by seeds, sown in spring. =B. subacaulis= (almost stemless). _fl.-heads_ whitish, solitary, very large. _l._ rounded oval, nearly heart-shaped at base, cottony. _h._ 3in. or 4in. (A. F. P. 3, 38.) =BERBERIDACE�.= An order of shrubs or herbaceous perennials. Flowers terminal or axillary, usually racemose; sepals three, four, or six in a double row; petals as many or double in number; stamens four to eight, opposite the petals. Fruit, a berry or capsule. Leaves alternate, compound. The order contributes a great number of handsome plants to our gardens. Well-known genera are _Berberis_, _Epimedium_, and _Nandina_. =BERBERIDOPSIS= (from _Berberis_, the Barberry, and _opsis_, like; resembling the Barberry). ORD. _Berberidaceæ_. A handsome evergreen shrub, with climbing habit. Sepals and petals nine to fifteen; outer small, spreading; intermediate orbicular, concave; inner obovate-cuneate, erect, inserted upon the fleshy torus. Stamens eight to nine, free. With a slight winter protection, or planted at the foot of a south wall, it will prove quite hardy, being of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. It is an excellent plant for the cool greenhouse. Increased by seeds, which should be sown in spring; by layering, in autumn; or by young cuttings, in spring. [Illustration: FIG. 243. FLOWERING BRANCHES OF BERBERIDOPSIS CORALLINA.] =B. corallina= (coral-red).* _fl._ crimson, in terminal, drooping racemes, leafy at the base. _l._ about 3in. long, alternate, simple, petiolate, oblong-cordate, obtuse or acute, spiny-toothed. Chili, 1862. See Fig. 243. (B. M. 5343.) =BERBERIS= (_Berberys_ is the Arabic name of the fruit, signifying a shell; many authors believe this to be the original derivation of the word, because the leaves are hollow, like a shell). Barberry. ORD. _Berberidaceæ_. Including _Mahonia_. A genus of hardy erect or trailing shrubs. Flowers yellow or orange, racemose or fascicled; sepals and petals similar, in two series. Leaves simple or compound, alternate or fascicled from the non-development of the branches, often spinose, or reduced to spines. The common sorts thrive well in any ordinary garden soil, but the rarer kinds require a compost of loam, peat, and a little sand. Propagation may be effected by suckers or layers, put down in the autumn; by ripened cuttings, taken at the same time, and planted in sandy soil, in a cold frame; or by seeds, sown in the spring, or, preferably, in the autumn, when, if fresh from the pulp or berry, they will germinate in the open in the following spring. The last-named is the method generally adopted. =B. Aquifolium= (Holly-leaved).* _fl._ yellow; racemes nearly erect, much crowded. Spring. _l._, leaflets two to three pairs, with an odd one, the lower part distant from the petiole; ovate, approximate, cordate at the base, one-nerved, spiny-toothed. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. North America, 1823. This is extensively planted in woodlands as an excellent covert plant. SYN. _Mahonia aquifolia_. (S. E. B. 49.) =B. aristata= (bearded). _fl._ yellow; racemes nodding, many-flowered, longer than the leaves; pedicels trifid, three-flowered. Spring. _l._ obovate-oblong or lanceolate, mucronate, membranous, smooth, serrated with four or five spinulose teeth; lower spines three-parted, upper ones simple, and hardly bidentate at the base. _h._ 6ft. Nepaul, 1820. (B. R. 729, under name of _B. Chitria_.) =B. asiatica= (Asiatic). _fl._, racemes short, many-flowered, corymbose, shorter than the leaves; pedicels elongated, one-flowered. _l._ oval, cuneated, or elliptical, mucronate, smooth; under surface glaucous, entire, or spinulosely-toothed; spines trifid, or simple. _h._ 4ft. to 8ft. 1820. Half-hardy. =B. buxifolia= (Box-leaved).* _fl._ solitary, on slender peduncles. Spring. _l._ nearly sessile, oval or oblong, about 1/2in. long, entire. _h._ 8ft. Straits of Magellan, 1830. _Nana_ is a charming little variety, not exceeding 18in. in height. SYN. _B. dulcis_. (B. M. 6505.) =B. canadensis= (Canadian).* _fl._, racemes many-flowered, nodding. Spring. _l._ obovate-oblong, remotely serrated; upper ones nearly entire; spines three-parted. _h._ 4ft. Canada, 1759. =B. cratægina= (Hawthorn-like). _fl._, racemes many-flowered, crowded, spreading, scarcely longer than the leaves. Spring. _l._ oblong, reticulated, hardly serrated; spines simple. _h._ 4ft. to 8ft. Asia Minor, 1829. =B. cretica= (Cretan). _fl._, racemes three to eight-flowered, rather shorter than the leaves. Spring. _l._ oblong-oval, entire, or somewhat serrated; spines three to five-parted. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. Crete and Cyprus, 1759. The variety _serratifolia_ has leaves ciliately-serrated. (S. F. G. 342.) =B. Darwinii= (Darwin's).* _fl._ orange, racemose, very numerous. May, and sometimes again in autumn. _l._ oval or oblong, about 1in. long, with usually five spiny teeth. _h._ 2ft. South Chili, 1849. This very fine species is, perhaps, the best; it forms a densely-branched, spreading, evergreen bush, thus making an excellent covert plant. (B. M. 4590.) =B. dulcis= (sweet). Synonymous with _B. buxifolia_. =B. emarginata= (emarginate). _fl._, racemes scarcely pendulous, shorter than the leaves. Spring. _l._ lanceolate-obovate, ciliately serrated; spines three-parted. _h._ 6ft. Siberia, 1790. =B. empetrifolia= (Empetrum-leaved).* _fl._ few, terminal, sub-umbellate, on slender pedicels. May. _l._ in fascicles of about seven, linear, closely revolute, sharply mucronate. _h._ 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. Straits of Magellan, 1827. (B. R. 26, 27.) =B. fascicularis= (fascicled). _fl._, racemes erect, much crowded. Spring. _l._, leaflets three to six pairs, with an odd one, the lower pair distant from the base of the petiole; ovate-lanceolate, rather distant, one-nerved, spiny toothed, with four to five teeth on each side. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. New Spain, 1820. Half-hardy. SYN. _Mahonia fascicularis_. (B. M. 2396.) =B. floribunda= (many-flowered).* _fl._, racemes many-flowered, loose, solitary, pendulous. June. _l._ obovate-lanceolate, or obovate-oblong, tapering much towards the base, ending in a mucrone at the apex, paler beneath, spiny-ciliated; spines three-parted, unequal. _h._ 10ft. Nepaul. A variety of _aristata_. =B. Fortunei= (Fortune's).* _fl._ small, in terminal clustered racemes. _l._, leaflets about seven, linear-lanceolate, distant, with numerous small spiny teeth, lower pair remote from the base of the petiole. China. =B. glumacea= (glumaceous). A synonym of _B. nervosa_. =B. iberica= (Iberian). _fl._, racemes many-flowered, pendulous. Spring. _l._ obovate-oblong, quite entire; spines simple and three-parted. _h._ 8ft. to 10ft. Iberia, 1818. =B. ilicifolia= (Holly-leaved). _fl._, peduncles short, four-flowered; pedicels elongated, somewhat corymbose. July. _l._ ovate, tapering at the base, coarsely and spinulosely toothed; spines three-parted. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Tierra del Fuego, 1791. (B. M. 4308.) =B. japonica= (Japanese).* _fl._, racemes in terminal clusters. Spring. _l._, leaflets usually nine, about 3in. long, quite sessile, broadly cordate, or rotundate at the base, oblique, with about five long spiny teeth, and a terminal one, the lowest pairs close to the base of the petiole. China and Japan. Very distinct, with unbranched stems and leaves about 1ft. long. _B. Beali_ and _B. intermedia_ are mere forms of this species, the latter differing from it in having narrower leaves and longer, slender racemes. (B. M. 4852.) =B. loxensis= (Loxanese). _fl._ unusually small, erect, in panicled racemes on a long peduncle quite clear of the leaves. _l._ very shining, blunt, obovate; sides often with several teeth; spines small, palmated. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Peru. Evergreen, not hardy. (P. F. G. 1, p. 13.) [Illustration: FIG. 244. BERBERIS NEPALENSIS.] =B. nepalensis= (Nepaulese).* _fl._ yellow; racemes few, elongated, slender. _l._ 1ft. to 2ft. long; leaflets five to nine pairs, obovate-oblong, cuspidate, rounded at the base, repand-toothed, with five to ten spiny teeth on each side, tricuspidate at the apex. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Nepaul. A very handsome species, thriving best in the southern parts of England. SYN. _Mahonia nepalensis_. See Fig. 244. =B. nervosa= (large-nerved). _fl._, racemes elongated. October. _l._, leaflets five to six pairs, with an odd one, the lower pair distant from the petiole; ovate, acuminated, remotely spiny toothed, somewhat three to five-nerved, with twelve to fourteen teeth on each side. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. North America, 1826. SYNS. _B. glumacea_, _Mahonia nervosa_. (B. M. 3949.) =B. repens= (creeping).* _fl._, racemes terminal, numerous, fascicled, diffuse, rising from the scaly buds. Spring. _l._, leaflets, two to three pairs, with an odd one, roundish-ovate, opaque, spiny toothed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. North America, 1822. SYN. _Mahonia repens_. (B. R. 1176.) =B. ruscifolia= (Ruscus-leaved). _fl._ a little larger than those of _B. vulgaris_; peduncles short, bearing four to five flowers at the apex. _l._ oblong, tapering at the base, mucronate, entire, or grossly and spiny toothed. _h._ 4ft. to 8ft. South America, 1823. Half-hardy. =B. sinensis= (Chinese).* _fl._, racemes many-flowered, nodding. May. _l._ oblong, obtuse, entire, or the lower ones are a little toothed; spines three-parted. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. China, 1815. (B. M. 6573.) [Illustration: FIG. 245. BERBERIS STENOPHYLLA, showing Habit and Flowering Twig.] =B. stenophylla= (naked-leaved),* with narrow mucronate leaves, is said to be a hybrid between _B. empetrifolia_ and _B. Darwinii_. See Fig. 245. =B. trifoliata= (three-leafleted). _fl._, racemes small, axillary, sessile, three to five-flowered. Spring. _l._, leaflets three, sessile at the ends of the petioles, deeply scalloped, bluish-green, variegated, glaucous beneath. _h._ 5ft. Mexico, 1839. Evergreen, not quite hardy. (P. F. G. 2, 168.) =B. trifurcata= (three-forked). _fl._, racemes compound, erect. Spring. _l._ pinnate; leaflets broad, three-forked. _h._ 6ft. China, 1850. Evergreen. (P. F. G. 3, 258.) =B. umbellata= (umbellate). _fl._, peduncles solitary, erect, bearing at the top several umbellate pedicels. _l._ obovate-oblong, mucronate, entire, glaucous beneath; spines three-parted, long, equal. _h._ 6ft. Nepaul, 1842. (P. F. G. 2, 181.) =B. vulgaris= (common).* Common Barberry. _fl._, racemes many-flowered, pendulous. Spring. _l._ somewhat obovate, ciliately-serrated; spines three-parted. _h._ 8ft. to 20ft. Britain, &c. There are yellow, violet, purple, black, and white fruited, and purple-leaved forms. (Sy. En. B. 51.) =B. Wallichiana= (Wallich's).* _fl._ on drooping, aggregated peduncles, six to eight or more in a cluster. Spring. _l._ in alternate fascicles, 2in. to 3in. long, spreading or recurved, lanceolate, sinuato-serrate; spines deeply three-parted, slender but rigid. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. Nepaul, 1820. See Fig. 246. (B. M. 4656.) =BERCHEMIA= (in honour of M. Berchem, a French botanist). ORD. _Rhamnaceæ_. A genus of erect, or twining, deciduous, mostly greenhouse shrubs. Flowers sub-umbellate, in the axils of the upper leaves, or disposed in terminal panicles. Leaves alternate, many-nerved, entire. The species mentioned below is probably the only one yet in cultivation. It is quite hardy, will grow in any common soil, and is well adapted for bowers or trellis-work. Propagated by ripened cuttings, and slips of the root, planted under a hand glass; or by layering the young shoots. =B. volubilis= (twining).* _fl._ greenish-white; panicles small, axillary and terminal. Drupe oblong, violaceous. June. _l._ oval, mucronate, a little wavy. Branches smooth. Carolina, 1714. A deciduous twiner. (G. G. 165.) =BERGAMOT.= _See_ =Mentha odorata=. =BERGERA= (named after C. J. Berger, a distinguished Danish botanist). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. Interesting stove evergreen trees, now usually referred to _Murraya_. Leaves impari-pinnate; leaflets alternate, acuminated, pubescent. They thrive in a mixture of turfy loam and peat. Propagated by ripened cuttings, taken off at a joint, and placed in sand, under a hand glass, in bottom heat; or by layers. =B. K�nigi= (Konig's). _fl._ whitish-yellow, small; racemes many, forming a corymb at the top of the branches. June. _l._, leaflets serrated. _h._ 40ft. India, 1820. (L. B. C. 1019.) =BERKHEYA= (named after M. J. L. de Berkhey, a Dutch botanist), ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of ornamental greenhouse or hardy thistle-like herbs or shrubs. Flower-heads surrounded by a spiny involucre, the scales of which are united at the base only; pappus of many flat, obtuse, or pointed, scales. They are of easy cultivation in a sandy loam soil. The perennials are increased by cuttings placed under a glass; the herbaceous perennials usually by divisions of the plant in spring. The species most frequently seen in English gardens is _B. purpurea_. [Illustration: FIG. 246. BERBERIS WALLICHIANA.] =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ yellow; scales of involucre spiny toothed. July. _l._ opposite, lanceolate, three-nerved, spiny toothed, downy beneath. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1812. Greenhouse evergreen. (B. M. 1844.) =B. pinnata= (pinnate). _fl.-heads_ yellow; involucral scales spine-pointed, entire or toothed. Autumn. _l._ oblong, woolly beneath, deeply cut into lance-shaped segments. SYN. _Stobæa pinnata_. (B. M. 1788.) =B. purpurea= (purplish).* _fl.-heads_ numerous, pedunculate, corymbose, circular, 3in. across, surrounded by an involucre of spreading or reflexed linear oblong bracts. _l._, lower ones 15in. to 18in. long, 2in. to 2-1/2in. wide, dark green, viscid above, paler and cottony beneath. _h._ 3ft. South Africa. A very handsome, hardy, herbaceous perennial. (G. C. 1872, p. 1261.) SYN. _Stobæa purpurea_. =B. uniflora= (one-flowered). _fl.-heads_ yellow; scales of involucre spiny toothed. June. _l._ alternate, lanceolate, three-nerved, spiny toothed, downy beneath. _h._ 3ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1815. Greenhouse evergreen. (B. M. 2094.) =BERMUDA CEDAR.= _See_ =Juniperus bermudiana=. =BERRY.= A fleshy fruit, containing seeds. =BERTHOLLETIA= (in honour of Louis Claude Berthollet, a celebrated French chemist). Brazil Nut Tree. TRIBE Lecythideæ of ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. _B. excelsa_ is a tall tree, having the young branches leafy at the apex. Leaves alternate, oblong, quite entire, rather coriaceous. From this Brazilian species are obtained the well-known Brazil or Para Nuts of commerce. The tree is of no value for decorative purposes. =BERTOLONIA= (named after A. Bertoloni, an Italian botanist, author of "Rariorum Italiæ Plantarum Decades," &c.). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. Elegant little creeping or dwarf-growing stove plants, chiefly cultivated for their exquisitely marked leaves. Flowers white or purple. Leaves stalked, ovate-cordate, five to eleven-nerved, crenulated; cymes corymbose, terminal. They thrive in a compost of equal parts peat, leaf mould, and sand, in a warm, close, and moist atmosphere, but are most successfully cultivated under a bell glass in the stove; in fact, the latter is the only plan of growing them where a constantly humid atmosphere cannot be otherwise obtained without such means. They are easily propagated by cuttings or seeds. =B. ænea= (coppery). _fl._ purple. _h._ 6in. Brazil. =B. guttata= (spotted). _See_ =Gravesia=. =B. maculata= (spotted).* _fl._ violet-purple; peduncles axillary, bearing at the apex a short raceme of six to seven flowers. _l._ on long petioles, cordate, ovate, quite entire, pilose on both surfaces and on the margins, five-nerved. Branches, petioles, peduncles, and calyces hispid from long bristles. Stem rooting at the base. Brazil, 1850. (B. M. 4551.) =B. marmorata= (marbled).* _l._ 5in. to 8in. long, ovate-oblong, hairy, five-nerved; upper side vivid bright green, beautifully marked with irregular streaks of pure white; under surface of a uniform rich purple. Stem fleshy. _h._ 6in. Brazil, 1858. =B. pubescens= (downy).* _l._ ovate-acuminate, 3in. to 4in. long, and 2in. to 3in. broad; bright light green, with a broad chocolate-coloured band down the centre; upper surface clothed with long white hairs. Ecuador. =BERZELIA= (named in honour of Berzelius, a celebrated Swedish chemist). ORD. _Bruniaceæ_. Very pretty little greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Heads of flowers naked, with three bracts at the base of each; usually crowded at the tops of the branches. Leaves short, somewhat trigonal, imbricate or spreading. They require a mixture of peat, loam, and sand, with thorough drainage and moderately firm potting. Young cuttings root freely in sand, under a bell glass, in gentle heat. =B. abrotanoides= (Abrotanum-like). _fl.-heads_ white, the size of a filbert, terminal, crowded, sub-corymbose; bracts clavate, green, smooth, ustulate at the apex. May to July. _l._ ovate, ustulate at the apex, smooth, spreading, on short petioles. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1787. (L. B. C. 355.) =B. lanuginosa= (woolly).* _fl.-heads_ white, about the size of a pea, at the tops of lateral branches, disposed in a fastigiate panicle; bracts spathulate, callose at the apex. June to August. _l._ triquetrous, spreading, callose at the apex, rather hairy. Branches erect, villous when young. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1774. (L. B. C. 572.) =BESCHORNERIA= (in honour of H. Beschorner, a German botanist). ORD. _Amaryllidaceæ_. Greenhouse evergreen succulents, allied to _Littæa_ and _Fourcroya_. Perianth deeply six-parted; segments linear spathulate, tubulose-connivent, often spreading at the point; stamens six, about as long as the perianth. For culture, &c., _see_ =Agave= and =Aloe=. =B. bracteata= (bracteate). _fl._ at first green, turning yellowish-red when mature; panicle 2ft. to 3ft. long; branches many-flowered and corymbose, subtended by large scariose reddish bracts. _l._ in a dense rosette, 12in. to 18in. long, thin, glaucous green with scabrous margin. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. Mexico. See Fig. 247. (B. M. 6641.) =B. Decosteriana= (Decoster's). _fl._ green, tinged with red, pendulous, bracteate; panicle 2ft. to 3ft. long, inclined, with numerous bracts. _l._ numerous, spreading, 18in. to 24in. long, by 1in. to 1-1/2in. broad; edges minutely serrulate. _h._ 8ft. Mexico, about 1880. =B. Tonelii= (Tonel's).* _fl._ tubular, 2-1/2in. long, drooping, pedicellate, dark blood-red below and down the centre, the rest very bright verdigris green; panicle 2ft. long, slender, inclined; bracts several to each fascicle of flowers; scape 4ft. high, red-purple. _l._ few, spreading, 15in. to 20in. long, by 2-1/2in. broad, acuminate and keeled beneath towards the top, minutely serrulate. Mexico, 1872. (B. M. 6091.) [Illustration: FIG. 247. BESCHORNERIA BRACTEATA.] =B. tubiflora= (tube-flowered). _fl._ greenish-purple, nutant, fascicled, bracteate; fascicles remote, secund; scapes erect, long, simple. May. _l._ radical, linear, channelled, recurved, spinosely denticulate. _h._ 6ft. Mexico, 1845. (B. M. 4642.) =B. yuccoides= (Yucca-like). _fl._ bright green, pendent, racemose, with rich rosy-red bracts; scapes slender, coral-red, simple. May and June. _l._ radical, thickish, lanceolate, acute, 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. long. _h._ 4ft. Mexico. =BESLERIA= (named in honour of Basil Besler, an apothecary at Nuremberg). SYN. _Eriphia_. ORD. _Gesneraceæ_. Very pretty stove sub-shrubs, usually erect, branched. Peduncles axillary, few-flowered. Leaves opposite, petiolate, thickish; nerves and veins very prominent beneath. Stems sub-tetragonal. A light rich earth, or a mixture of sand, loam, and peat, and a moist atmosphere, are necessary for successful cultivation. Beslerias may be increased by cuttings, which root readily in heat. =B. coccinea= (scarlet-berried).* _fl._ yellow; peduncles axillary bearing three to six flowers in an umbel at top; bracts two, at the division of the common peduncle, orbicularly cordate, toothed, scarlet. _l._ ovate, glabrous, stiff, a little toothed. Guiana, 1819. Climbing shrub. (A. G. 255.) =B. cristata= (crested). _fl._, corolla yellowish, hairy outside; peduncles axillary, solitary, one-flowered; bracts cordate, toothed, sessile, scarlet. June. _l._ ovate, serrated. Guiana, 1739. Climbing shrub. =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ large, campanulate, spotted with red; peduncles axillary, elongated, many-flowered. _l._ ovate-oblong, acuminated, crenated, densely pilose above, villous beneath, as well as on the branches. _h._ 3ft. Brazil. =B. Imrayi= (Imray's). _fl._ rather small, yellow, in axillary whorls. _l._ large, lanceolate, serrate, glabrous. Stems quadrangular. Dominica, 1862. Herbaceous perennial. (B. M. 6341.) =B. incarnata= (flesh-coloured-berried).* _fl._, corollas purplish; tube very long, ventricose; lobes of limb reflexed, roundish, unequal, fringed; peduncles axillary, solitary, one-flowered. _l._ oblong, crenated, tomentose on both surfaces. _h._ 2ft. Guiana, 1820. Herbaceous perennial. =B. violacea= (purple-berried). _fl._ purple, small; corolla with a curved tube and spreading limb; peduncles racemosely panicled, terminal. Berry purple, edible. _l._ ovate, acute, quite entire, stiff. Guiana, 1824. Climbing shrub. (A. G. 254.) =BESOM=, or =BROOM=. Birch-brooms are best for garden purposes, and are generally used. The most suitable for paved yards are those made of the common Ling (_Calluna vulgaris_). Those made of bass fibres are frequently used on paths, for which they are very suitable, but their expensiveness prevents them being generally employed. Whatever material is used in its composition, a Besom will last much longer if soaked in water for some time before using. =BESSERA= (in honour of Dr. Besser, Professor of Botany at Brody). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. An elegant little half-hardy, Squill-like, bulbous plant, from Mexico. Perianth bell-shaped, six-parted. Leaves narrow, linear. It requires a compost of loam, leaf soil, peat, and sand, with good drainage. If cultivated in pots, a plentiful supply of water must be given from the commencement of growth until ripening off. When at rest, however, it should be kept dry and cool, but secure from the effects of frost. If planted out, a well-drained sunny position must be chosen, such as close to the wall of a greenhouse with a southern aspect. Propagation may be effected by offsets. =B. elegans= (elegant).* _fl._ scarlet, or scarlet and white. July to September. _l._ 1ft. to 2ft. long, narrow, furrowed on the upper side. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1850. This is the only species. The colour of the flowers varies considerably, on which account other names have originated. (B. R. 25, 34.) =BETA= (from _bett_, the Celtic word for red; in reference to the colour of the Beet). Beetroot. ORD. _Chenopodiaceæ_. Perianth single, half-inferior, five-cleft, persistent. Seed one, reniform, imbedded in the fleshy base of the calyx. _B. Cicla_ is largely used as a decorative plant in sub-tropical and other styles of gardening. They require the same culture as the ordinary Beet. The other sorts, with dark blood-red leaves, are largely employed in flower gardens, and the roots utilised for culinary purposes. _See also_ =Beet=. [Illustration: FIG. 248. BETA HORTENSIS METALLICA, or VICTORIA BEET.] =B. Cicla= (Sicilian). _fl._ greenish, disposed in threes. August. _l._ with very thick ribs. Roots scarcely any. _h._ 6ft. Portugal, 1570. The variety, _B. c. variegata_, usually known as the Chilian Beet, is a very handsome plant, having its leaves often more than a yard in length and over 1ft. in diameter, with a remarkably handsome variegation. The midribs are usually dark orange or scarlet. It is a most desirable and effective plant for sub-tropical gardening. =B. hortensis metallica= (metallic). Victoria Beet. An ornamental variety with glistening deep blood-red leaves. Useful for decorative purposes in summer, either as a single specimen or in a mass. Roots may also be used for cooking. See Fig. 248. =B. maritima= (sea). _fl._ greenish, disposed in hairs. August. _l._, lower ones rhomboid-ovoid, acute; upper ones lanceolate. Stem diffuse. Root scarcely any. _h._ 1ft. Britain. =B. vulgaris= (common). The Common Beetroot. _fl._ greenish, clustered. August. _l._, lower ones ovate. Root fleshy. _h._ 4ft. South Europe, 1548. =BETCKEA.= _See_ =Plectritis=. =BETEL=, or =BETLE=. _See_ =Piper Betle=. =BETONICA.= This genus now forms a sub-division of _Stachys_ (which _see_). Betony (_Stachys Betonica_) is a native herb formerly much used in medicine, but now almost entirely discarded. =BETONY.= _See_ =Stachys Betonica=. =BETULA.= (according to some authorities, from _Betu_, its Celtic name; others give the derivation of the word as from _batuo_, to beat, the fasces of the Roman lictors, which were made of Birch rods, being used to drive back the people). Birch. ORD. _Cupuliferæ_. TRIBE _Betuleæ_. Ornamental, hardy (except where otherwise specified), deciduous trees or shrubs, allied to _Alnus_, having round, slender, often drooping branches, and the bark in most species in thin membranous layers. The flowers appear at the same time as the leaves. Male catkins cylindrical, lax, imbricated all round with ternate concave scales, the middle one largest, ovate; corolla none; filaments ten to twelve, shorter than the middle scale, to which they are attached. Female catkins similar, but more dense; scales horizontal, peltate, dilated outwards, three-lobed, three-flowered; corolla none. Nut oblong, deciduous, winged at each side. The Betulas are easily cultivated in any ordinary soil; but a light sandy loam suits them best. Most of the species are best increased by seeds, which ripen in September, and need to be dried, in order to prevent fermentation. They should be sown in March, in a sandy soil, the surface of which has been previously made perfectly level. They must be spread on the surface, and not covered with soil, but pressed down with the feet. When grown in quantities, beds 4ft. in width are preferred, with an alley of 1ft. between them. In early summer, if the weather be warm and dry, the beds should be shaded with branches. The young seedlings must be transplanted when a year old. The dwarfer kinds may be propagated by layering in the autumn. The numerous beautiful varieties are best increased by grafting or budding upon seedling stocks of the common kinds, the former being done in spring, and the latter in summer when the buds are ready. Those most useful as forest trees and for protection are quick-growing and very ornamental. The time of maturity of the Birch depends very much upon the soil and situation, but it seldom increases in size after it is thirty years old. The common species (_B. alba_) is one of the hardiest and most useful trees in cultivation, growing quickly, and withstanding exposure better than many others; consequently it is invaluable for skirting and nursing more tender subjects, and is especially desirable for clothing mountainous and exposed districts. It is also very beautiful and picturesque. It is the commonest tree throughout Russia, from the Baltic to the Eastern Sea, frequently monopolising gigantic forests. In Italy, it forms excellent forests up to 6000ft. altitude, and in our own Highlands of Scotland it occurs up to a height of 2500ft. In Greenland, although much reduced in size, it holds its own as the only arboreal vegetation. [Illustration: FIG. 249. LEAVES AND CATKIN OF BETULA ALBA.] =B. alba= (white).* Silver, White, or Common Birch. _fl._ whitish. February and March. _fr._ brown, ripe in September and October. _l._ ovate, acute, somewhat deltoid, unequally serrated; autumnal tints rich yellow, scarlet, or red. A diminutive shrub in the extreme north, but a tree from 50ft. to 60ft. high in the middle regions. Britain. A most beautiful and invaluable forest tree, with a large number of varieties. See Fig. 249. =B. a. alba-purpurea= (white and purple).* _l._ rich purple above, with a lustrous metallic hue, pale beneath. Branches with a sub-pendulous disposition. A very effective variety. =B. a. dalecarlica= (Dalecarlian).* _l._ deeply pinnatifid, with the lobes toothed. =B. a. foliis-variegatis= (variegated-leaved).* _l._ blotched with yellowish white. =B. a. laciniata pendula= (pendulous and laciniate).* _l._ rather larger than the typical form, deeply laciniated, deep green, and decidedly pendulous. It appears there are two forms of this, but that known as Young's variety is the best. =B. a. macrocarpa= (large-fruited).* Female catkins twice as long as those of the type. =B. a. pendula= (pendulous).* A well-known tree, distinct from the species in having the shoots more slender, smoother, and pendulous. =B. a. pontica= (pontic). _l._ somewhat larger than in the species, and the plant of more robust growth. (W. D. B. 2, 94.) =B. a. pubescens= (downy). _l._ covered with hairs. =B. a. urticifolia= (nettle-leaved).* _l._ deeply laciniated, serrated, and hairy. Several others, reputed as distinct, are mere forms of the typical _B. alba_. =B. Bhojpattra= (Bhojpattra).* _fl._, female catkins erect, cylindrical, oblong; bracts smooth, woody, two-parted, blunt, much longer than the fruit, which has narrow wings. May. _l._ oblong-acute, with nearly simple serratures, somewhat cordate at the base; their stalks, veins, and twigs hairy; the bark is of a pale cinnamon colour. _h._ 50ft. Himalayas, 1840. This requires a sheltered position. =B. carpinifolia= (Hornbeam-leaved). Synonymous with _B. lenta_. =B. daurica= (Daurian).* _fl._, catkins whitish-brown, larger than those of the common Birch. February and March. _l._ ovate, narrow at the base, quite entire, unequally dentate, glabrous; scales of the strobiles ciliated on their margins; side lobes roundish. _h._ 30ft. to 40ft. Siberia, 1786. The variety _parvifolia_ has smaller leaves than the type. =B. excelsa= (tall). Synonymous with _B. lutea_. =B. fruticosa= (shrubby).* _fl._ whitish-brown; female catkins oblong. February and March. _l._ roundish-ovate, nearly equally serrated, glabrous. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. in moist situations, but much higher on mountains. Eastern Siberia, 1818. (W. D. B. 2, 154.) =B. glandulosa= (glandular).* _fl._ whitish; female catkins oblong. May. _l._ obovate, serrate, quite entire at the base, glabrous, almost sessile; branches beset with glandular dots, glabrous. _h._ 2ft. Canada, 1816. A handsome little shrub. (F. D. 2583.) =B. lenta= (pliant). _fl._ greenish-white. May to June. _l._ cordate, ovate, acutely serrated, acuminate; petioles and nerves hairy beneath; scales of the strobiles smooth, having the side lobes obtuse, equal, with prominent veins. _h._ 60ft. to 70ft. Canada to Georgia, 1759. SYN. _B. carpinifolia_. (W. D. B. 2, 144.) =B. lutea= (yellow).* _fl._ greenish-white. May. _l._ 3-1/2in. long, and 2-1/2in. broad, ovate, acute, serrated; petioles pubescent, shorter than the peduncles; young shoots and leaves, at their unfolding, downy, but ultimately quite glabrous, except the petiole, which remains covered with fine short hairs; scales of the strobiles having the side lobes roundish. _h._ 70ft. to 80ft. Nova Scotia, 1767. SYN. _B. excelsa_. =B. nana= (dwarf).* _fl._ whitish-green; catkins erect, stalked, cylindrical, obtuse; the barren ones lateral, and the fertile ones terminal; scales of the latter three-lobed, three-flowered, permanent. April and May. _l._ orbicular, crenate, reticulated with veins beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Scotland, Lapland, Sweden, Russia, &c. A shrub with numerous branches, slightly downy when young, and beset with numerous little, round, firm, smooth, sharply crenated leaves, beautifully reticulated with veins, especially beneath; and furnished with short footstalks, having a pair of brown lanceolate stipules at their base. There is also a pretty variety named _pendula_, with drooping branches. =B. nigra= (black).* The Black Birch. _fl._ greenish-white; female catkins straight, and nearly cylindrical, about 2in. long. May. _l._ rhomboid-ovate, doubly serrated, acute, pubescent beneath, entire at the base; scales of the strobiles villose; segments linear, equal. _h._ 60ft. to 70ft. New Jersey to Carolina, 1736. SYN. _B. rubra_. (W. D. B. 2, 153.) =B. papyracea= (papery).* _fl._ greenish-white; female catkins on long footstalks, drooping; scales having the side lobes short, somewhat orbiculate. May to June. _l._ ovate, acuminate, doubly serrate; veins hairy beneath; petiole glabrous; the branches are much less flexible than those of the common Birch, and are more ascending. _h._ 60ft. to 70ft. North America, 1750. (W. D. B. 2, 152.) =B. p. fusca= (brown). _l._ smaller than those of the type, and less downy. =B. p. platyphylla= (broad-leaved).* _l._ very broad. =B. p. trichoclada= (hairy-branched).* _l._ cordate. Branches extremely hairy, and twigs in threes. =B. populifolia= (Poplar-leaved).* _fl._ greenish-white. April, May. _l._ deltoid, much acuminated, unequally serrated, quite smooth; scales of the strobiles having roundish side lobes; petioles glabrous. _h._ 30ft. Canada, 1750. This species, although very closely resembling _B. alba_, grows with less vigour, and does not attain so large a size. (W. D. B. 2, 151.) =B. p. laciniata= (laciniated).* _l._ large, shining, and deeply cut. =B. p. pendula= (pendulous).* Spray drooping, like that of _B. alba pendula_. =B. pumila= (dwarf).* _fl._ whitish; female catkins cylindrical. May and June. _l._ roundish ovate, on long footstalks, densely clothed with hairs on the under surface. Branches pubescent, dotless. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Canada, 1762. A very beautiful kind, suitable for furnishing large rockeries, or planting on hill sides, or rocky ground. (W. D. B. 2, 97.) =B. rubra= (red).* Synonymous with _B. nigra_. =BETULE�.= A tribe of deciduous shrubs or trees. Perianth none, or bract-like; flowers mon�cious, in catkins, in twos or threes. Fruit, a dry, compressed, lenticular, often winged, indehiscent nut. Leaves alternate, simple, stipulated. The genera are _Alnus_ and _Betula_. =BI.= In compound words, this signifies twice. =BIANCEA SCANDENS.= _See_ =Cæsalpinia sepiaria=. =BIARUM= (an ancient name of a plant). ORD. _Aroideæ_. A genus of small, hardy, tuberous-rooted perennials, much more curious than pretty, allied to _Sauromatum_. This genus, according to Dr. Masters, differs from _Arum_ in its spathe being tubular at the base, with the limb spreading. The female flowers have a distinct style, and the fruit contains only one ovule. They will thrive in any light, rich, well-drained soil, and may otherwise be treated similar to the hardy _Arums_. There are several other species besides those named, but they are not yet in general cultivation. =B. constrictum= (constricted). A synonym of _B. tenuifolium_. =B. gramineum= (grassy). A synonym of _B. tenuifolium_. =B. tenuifolium= (slender-leaved).* _fl._, spathe dark brown-purple, reflexed in the upper part; spadix very long, subuliform. June. _l._ linear-lanceolate. _h._ 6in. South Europe, 1570. SYNS. _B. gramineum_ and _B. constrictum_. (B. R. 512, under name of _Arum tenuifolium_.) =BIAURICULATE.= Having two auricles. =BIBRACTEATE.= Furnished with two bracts. =BIBRACTEOLATE.= Furnished with two secondary bracts. =BICARINATE.= Two-keeled. =BICOLOR.= Two-coloured. =BICONJUGATE.= Having two secondary petioles, each with a pair of leaflets. =BICORNUTE.= With two horn-like processes. =BIDENS= (from _bis_, twice, and _dens_ a tooth; in reference to the seed). Bur Marigold. ORD. _Compositæ_. A rather large genus of mostly hardy annual and perennial herbs, distinguished by the pericarp having from two to four rigid awns, which are rough with minute deflexed points. Involucre erect, of several oblong, nearly equal, parallel scales. Most of the species of this genus are of no merit as garden plants. Two are natives of Britain, viz., _B. cernua_ and _B. tripartita_. They thrive in any ordinary garden soil. Propagated by divisions of the plant; or by seeds. =B. atro-sanguinea= (dark-bloody). _fl.-heads_ black-crimson, very freely produced. Late summer and autumn. Leaves pinnate. Root tuberous. _h._ 3ft. Mexico. (B. M. 5227.) =B. ferulæfolia= (Ferula-leaved). _fl.-heads_ yellow. Autumn. _l._ bipinnatifid. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1799. SYN. _Coreopsis ferulæfolia_. (B. M. 2059.) =B. procera= (tall). _fl.-heads_ yellow, large. _l._ finely divided, deep green. A handsome perennial. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. Mexico, 1820. (B. R. 684.) =B. striata= (striped). _fl.-heads_ rather large, in a panicled leafy corymb; ray florets white; disk yellow. _l._ ternately pinnated, glabrous. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Autumn. Mexico. (B. M. 3155.) =BIDENTATE.= With two teeth. =BIEBERSTEINIA= (named after Frederic Marschall Bieberstein, a Russian naturalist, author of "Flora Taurico-Caucasica," and other works). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. A genus of half-hardy herbaceous perennials. They thrive in a compost of loam, peat, and sand. Propagated by cuttings, placed under a hand glass in early summer; or by seeds, sown in a slight hotbed in March or April. =B. odora= (sweet). _fl._ yellow; racemes terminal, simple; petals entire. May. _l._ impari-pinnate; leaflets roundish, deeply toothed. Plant beset with glandular hairs. _h._ 1ft. Altaia, 1837. =BIENNIAL.= A term applied to plants occupying two years in the development from seed to the maturation of seed: growing one year, flowering, fruiting, and dying the next. Seeds of Hardy Biennials are, as a rule, sown from June to August, to flower the succeeding season. Tender varieties are sown in a frame or cool house, and kept there all winter, being transferred from the frames or houses to the open border, in June. Wallflowers, Foxgloves, Canterbury Bells, and Sweet Williams, may be taken as fair types of Biennials, although they often assume more than a Biennial character on light sandy soils. =BIFARIOUS.= Two-ranked; arranged in two opposite rows. =BIFID.= Divided about half-way down into two parts; two-cleft. =BIFOLIATE.= Compound leaves with two leaflets. =BIFRENARIA= (from _bis_, twice, and _frænum_, a strap; in reference to a double strap or band, by means of which the pollen masses are connected with their gland). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A genus of pretty stove orchids, allied to _Maxillaria_, and distinguished from it by having two fræna or caudicles to their pollen masses. For culture, _see_ =Maxillaria=. =B. aurantiaca= (orange-coloured).* _fl._ orange; lateral lobes of lip semi-cordate, middle one transverse, sub-undulated, callous at the base; raceme erect. October. _l._ oblong, plicate. Pseudo-bulb roundish, compressed, two-leaved. _h._ 9in. Demerara, 1834. (B. R. 1875.) =B. aureo-fulva= (orange-tawny). _fl._ orange, on long pedicels; lip unguiculate, three-lobed; scape radical, many-flowered. October. _l._ oblong-lanceolate. Pseudo-bulb roundish-ovate, wrinkled, one-leaved. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1840. =B. Hadwenii= (Hadwen's). _fl._ each nearly 4in. across; petals and sepals 1/2in. broad, yellow green, beautifully blotched or mottled with a rich brown; lip large, above 1in. broad, white, with striped spots of rose. June. _l._ long, 1/4in. broad. _h._ 1-1/2in. Brazil, 1851. SYN. _Scuticaria Hadwenii_. (B. M. 4629.) =B. H. bella= (charming).* A new variety with sepals and petals whitish yellow outside, brilliant shining cinnamon inside, with a few spots, bars, and blotches of whitish sulphur colour; lip wide, white, with one light brown spot behind, and a larger one in front of the callus; radiating light brown lines on lateral lobes, and mauve ones on anterior lobe. =B. H. pardalina= (leopard-marked).* A very beautiful variety, having sepals and petals with brown circles or polygonal figures on a light yellow ground; lip light ochre-coloured at its basilar part, white in front, with radiating mauve-purple streaks. This variety is extremely rare. =B. vitellina= (yolk-coloured).* _fl._ yellowish purple; lip cuneate, three-lobed; lateral lobes acute, crenulated; racemes drooping. July. _l._ lanceolate. Pseudo-bulb ovate, bluntly angular, one-leaved. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1838. =BIFURCATE.= Twice-forked. =BIGELOVIA= (named after Dr. Jacob Bigelow, author of "Florula Bostoniensis," &c.). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of hardy shrubs, sub-shrubs, or herbaceous plants, as now understood, comprising several subjects formerly referred to _Chrysothamnus_, _Linosyris_, &c. Flower-heads disposed in corymbs; involucre imbricated, oblong, or campanulate; receptacle flat. Leaves alternate, linear or lanceolate. They thrive in any ordinary garden soil. Propagated by cuttings. =B. Howardii= (Howard's). _fl.-heads_ yellow; involucre narrow. A low shrub. SYN. _Linosyris Howardii_. =B. nudata= (naked). _fl.-heads_ yellow. September. _l._ scattered, oblanceolate or linear. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. New Jersey. Perennial. =B. paniculata= (panicled). _fl.-heads_ yellow, barely 1/2in. long, loosely panicled, five-flowered. California. Shrubby. =BIGEMINATE.= Doubly paired. =BIGLANDULARIA.= _See_ =Sinningia=. [Illustration: FIG. 250. BRANCH AND FLOWERS OF BIGNONIA MAGNIFICA.] =BIGNONIA= (so named by Tournefort, in compliment to the Abbé Bignon, librarian to Louis IV.). ORD. _Bignoniaceæ_. A large genus of usually scandent shrubs, furnished with tendrils; rarely erect trees or shrubs. Flowers axillary and terminal, usually panicled; corolla with a short tube, a campanulate throat, and a five-lobed, bilabiate limb. Leaves opposite, simple, conjugate, ternate, digitate or pinnatifid. These handsome plants are particularly suited for large houses, where, if well grown, they give great satisfaction. The primary point in their culture is to obtain free and, at the same time, sturdy growth, giving due attention to training, pruning, &c., or the plants soon exceed all limits. Like all free-growing plants, Bignonias thrive best planted out in the borders of the stove or greenhouse, or out of doors, as the case may be; but the space allowed should be limited, in order to restrict root production. They may either be trained to cover the back wall, or be planted in a border in front, and trained up the rafters, or on wires, arranged where most desirable. In summer, allow all the strongest shoots to grow, training them so as to have as much sunlight as possible-�which is absolutely necessary to well ripen the wood, and make it capable of producing flowers�-without entirely shutting it out from the plants below. Soil: A compost of two part fibrous loam, one part peat, one of leaf mould, and a due proportion of sand, will be found most satisfactory. The loam and peat should be used in a rough state, unsifted, as this will keep the border open for some years, and thorough drainage should be effected. Propagation: Seed being rarely procurable, the most satisfactory method of propagation is by cuttings, made of good strong shoots, in early spring. Three joints are sufficient to make a cutting, if short-jointed; if long-jointed, two are sufficient. Place them in a well-drained pot of sandy soil, under a bell glass, in bottom heat. As these cuttings are young and fleshy, they are liable to damp off; hence it is necessary, for the first two or three weeks, to wipe the moisture from the glasses every morning, and water sparingly. If well managed, they will root in about two months, and should then have the glasses left off every night for a week; they should then be transferred to small pots in the compost above described, passing it through a coarse sieve, to extract the stones and rough pieces of soil. After potting, the plants should be kept close for a short time, till they are able to bear full exposure to the light. In a year's time, they will be large enough to plant out in their permanent quarters. Bignonias may also be increased by layering. =B. æquinoxialis= (equinoxial). _fl._ yellow; peduncles two-flowered, terminal ones racemose. June to October. _l._ glabrous, conjugate; leaflets oblong-lanceolate. Tendrils simple, axillary. Cayenne, 1768. =B. æ. Chamberlaynii= (Chamberlayn's).* _fl._, corolla yellow, funnel-shaped; segments obtuse; racemes axillary, six to eight-flowered. April to October, _l._, leaflets ovate, acuminated, glabrous, shining above. Tendrils strong, simple. Brazil, 1820. (B. R. 741.) =B. æsculifolia= (Chestnut-leaved). A synonym of _Tabebiua æsculifolia_. =B. apurensis= (Apuran). _fl._ pedicellate, 2in. long; corolla yellow, funnel-shaped, with roundish, spreading, nearly equal lobes; spikes terminal, sessile. _l._ ternate; leaflets elliptic-oblong, short-acuminated, acutish at the base. Shady banks of the river Apures, near El Diamante, 1824. =B. argyreo-violascens= (silvery-violet). _l._ white-veined, in a young state violet. South America, 1865. (F. M. 1865, 26.) =B. aurantiaca= (orange). _fl._ orange-coloured. South America, 1874. =B. capreolata= (tendrilled).* _fl._, corolla orange; peduncles axillary, one-flowered, crowded. April to August. _l._ conjugate; leaflets cordate oblong; lower ones simple. Tendrils small, trifid. North America, 1710. Hardy in south of England. (B. M. 864.) =B. c. atro-sanguinea= (dark blood-red). _fl._ red-purple. Summer. United States. (B. M. 6501.) =B. Cherere= (Chirere).* _fl._, corollas orange, 2in. long; cymes axillary. June to November. _l._, lower ones ternate, upper ones conjugate, cirrhose; leaflets ovate, acuminated, sometimes sub-cordate, glabrous. Guiana (in woods and on the banks of rivers), 1824. (B. R. 1301.) =B. Chica= (Chica). _fl._, corolla funnel-shaped, violaceous; limb with nearly equal, rounded segments; panicles axillary, pendulous. _l._ 8in. to 10in. long, abruptly bipinnate; leaflets conjugate, elliptic-ovate, acuminated, deeply cordate, glabrous. Tendrils simple. Banks of the Orinoco, 1819. =B. chrysantha= (yellow-flowered). _fl._ terminal, crowded; corolla yellow, 2in. long. May. _l._, leaflets five, ovate, acuminated, tomentose, on pedicels 5in. long. _h._ 12ft. to 26ft. Caraccas, 1823. Tree. =B. chrysoleuca= (yellowish-white). _fl._, corolla yellow, with a white limb, glabrous, 1-1/2in. long; peduncles three to five-flowered. June, July. _l._ conjugate; leaflets 5in. to 6in. long, 2in. broad, oblong acuminated, glabrous, rounded at the base, shining. Tendrils undivided. Banks of the River Magdalena, 1824. =B. Clematis= (Clematis-like).* _fl._, corolla white, yellowish inside; lobes nearly equal, roundish, red; panicles axillary, downy. _l._ 7in. to 8in. long, conjugately pinnate, with an odd one; leaflets 2in. long, 1in. broad, ovate, narrowed at top, acute, cordate at the base, glabrous. Branches quadrangular, glabrous. Caraccas, 1820. =B. diversifolia= (diverse-leaved). _fl._, corolla yellow, campanulately funnel-shaped; panicles terminal. _l._ conjugate and simple; leaflets roundish-ovate, acuminated, sub-cordate, glabrous, shining. Tendrils undivided. Branches quadrangular, striated. Mexico, 1825. =B. floribunda= (many-flowered).* _fl._, corolla purplish, funnel-shaped, eight lines long; panicles axillary, powdery, with opposite branches and dichotomous branchlets. _l._ conjugate; leaflets 2-1/2in. long, oblong-elliptic, acuminated, acute at the base, glabrous, shining. Tendrils undivided. Branches beset with white warts and fine powder. Mexico, 1824. =B. lactiflora= (milk-flowered). _fl._, corolla milk white, 1-1/2in. long, villously tomentose on the outside; racemes twin, with a petiolate bract at the base of each pedicel. April and July. _l._ conjugate; leaflets 2in. long, cordate, ovate, glabrous. Branches striated. Tendrils trifid. Santa Cruz, 1823. =B. leucoxyla= (white-wooded). A synonym of _Tabebiua leucoxyla_. =B. litoralis= (shore). _fl._, corolla funnel-shaped, red, downy outside; panicles axillary, dichotomously branched. May to July. _l._ ternate; leaflets roundish-ovate, acuminated, clothed with soft hair on both surfaces. Branches terete, glabrous; branchlets hairy. Mexico, 1824. =B. magnifica= (magnificent).* _fl._ varying from delicate mauve to rich purplish-crimson; throat light primrose colour, very large, 3-1/2in. across; panicles large, branching. Summer. _l._ opposite, on rather long petioles, broadly ovate. Columbia, 1879. A very handsome species. See Fig. 250, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bull. =B. mollis= (soft). _fl._ small, downy; panicle terminal, many-flowered. _l._ trifoliate; leaflets 5in. long, ovate, sub-cordate, downy on both surfaces. Cayenne, 1818. =B. molissima= (very soft). _fl._, corollas somewhat funnel-shaped, downy inside; panicles axillary, dichotomously branched, downy. _l._ conjugate and simple; leaflets 2-1/2in. long, 1-1/2in. broad, ovate, acute, cordate, clothed with soft hairs above. Caraccas, 1820. =B. pallida= (pale).* _fl._ axillary, usually solitary; corolla 2in. long, funnel-shaped, with a yellow tube, and a pale lilac limb; lobes crenately ciliated. July. _l._ simple, opposite, oblong, obtuse, rather cordate at the base. Branches terete. St. Vincent, 1823. (B. R. 965.) =B. picta= (painted). A synonym of _B. speciosa_. =B. radicans= (rooting). _See_ =Tecoma radicans=. =B. reticulata= (netted). Columbia, 1873. =B. Roezlii= (Roezl's). Columbia, 1870. B. SALICIFOLIA (Willow-leaved). _fl._, corolla funnel-shaped, 1-1/2in. long, copper-coloured, with a white limb; peduncles axillary, three to six-flowered, downy. Summer. _l._ conjugate; leaflets lanceolate, 3in. long, acute at both ends, quite glabrous, shining. Branches terete, sulcate. Trinidad, 1824. =B. speciosa= (beautiful).* _fl._ pink, stained with purple; calyx spathaceous, split on one side; panicles terminal. May. _l._ pinnate, ternate and verticillate; leaflets oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, shining, serrate. _h._ 4ft. Uruguay, 1840. A glabrous evergreen shrub. SYN. _B. picta_. (B. M. 3888.) =B. spectabilis= (showy). _fl._, corolla 3in. long, rather coriaceous, glabrous, purple; racemes terminal, short, having the two lower pedicels three-flowered, and the rest one-flowered. _l._ conjugate; leaflets ovate-oblong, acuminated, obtuse. Santa Cruz, &c., 1820. =B. Tweediana= (Tweedie's). _fl._ yellow; corolla glabrous, limb deeply five-parted, ciliated; segments emarginate; peduncles one-flowered. Summer. _l._ conjugate; leaflets lanceolate, acuminate; petioles downy. Buenos Ayres, 1838. (B. R. 26, 45.) =B. variabilis= (variable).* _fl._, corolla 3in. long, with a greenish-yellow tube; limb ultimately white; racemes simple, short, many-flowered, terminal. June to August. _l._, lower ones biternate; superior ones conjugate; divisions ternate. Branches tetragonal. Tendrils trifid. Caraccas, 1819. =B. venusta= (lovely). _fl._, corolla crimson, clavately funnel-shaped, with a spreading border, villous inside; corymbs terminal, many-flowered. August to December. _l._, lower ones ternate; superior ones conjugate; leaflets oblong-ovate, acuminated oblique at the base. Brazil, 1816. (B. R. 249.) =BIGNONIACE�.= A large order of trees, or twining or climbing shrubby plants. Flowers usually trumpet-shaped; corolla usually irregular, four or five-lobed, and with a swollen portion below its mouth; stamens five, unequal. Fruit, a two-valved, often pod-like capsule. Leaves usually opposite, compound. The best-known genera are _Bignonia_, _Catalpa_, _Eccremocarpus_, _Jacaranda_, and _Tecoma_. =BIJUGATE.= A compound leaf, with two pairs of leaflets. =BILABIATE.= Having two lips. =BILBERRY.= _See_ =Vaccinium Myrtillus=. =BILIMBI TREE.= _See_ =Averrhoa Bilimbi=. =BILL.= A cutting instrument, curved forward, or hook-shaped toward the point, and fitted with a handle, like a hatchet. It is used for pruning, &c. When short, it is called a Hand-bill; when long, a Hedge-bill, or Hedge-hook. =BILLARDIERA= (in honour of Jacques Julien Labillardiere, a celebrated French botanist and traveller). Apple Berry. ORD. _Pittosporaceæ_. Very desirable greenhouse evergreen climbers. Peduncles solitary from the apex of the branches, one-flowered, pendulous; calyx of five subulate sepals; petals five, combined into a tube below, generally yellow; stamens five. Fruit edible. Leaves alternate. They thrive either in pots or planted out in a compost of fibrous loam, leaf soil, and peat, in equal proportions, with thorough drainage. Cuttings, dibbled in a pot of sandy soil, placed under a bell glass, in gentle heat, root readily. They may also be raised from seed, which several of the species produce in abundance. =B. angustifolia= (narrow-leaved). A synonym of _B. scandens_. =B. longiflora= (long-flowered).* _fl._ greenish-yellow, often changing to purple, solitary; pedicels glabrous. Berries blue. May to August. _l._ lanceolate, entire. Van Diemen's Land, 1810. A very free-growing and profuse-flowering species. SYN. _B. ovalis_. See Fig. 251. (B. M. 1507.) [Illustration: FIG. 251. FRUITING PORTION OF BILLARDIERA LONGIFLORA.] =B. mutabilis= (changeable). A synonym of _B. scandens_. =B. ovalis= (oval-leaved). A synonym of _B. longiflora_. =B. scandens= (climbing).* _fl._ cream-coloured, at length purplish, solitary; pedicels same length as the flower. June to September. _l._ lanceolate-linear, entire. Branches, when young, villous. New Holland, 1795. SYNS. _B. mutabilis_, _B. angustifolia_. (B. M. 1313.) =BILLBERGIA= (named after J. G. Billberg, a Swedish botanist). ORD. _Bromeliaceæ_. A genus of handsome stove plants. Flowers borne on light panicles; calyx three-parted; corolla of three convolute petals, scaly at the base; stamens inserted into the base of the perianth. Leaves harsh, rigid. These require much the same treatment as recommended for _�chmea_. The most suitable soil is a mixture of peat, leaf soil, and loam in about equal parts, to which is added some sharp sand, to keep it open and porous. Free and perfect drainage is absolutely necessary for the successful culture of this class of plants, and a layer of moss should be placed over the crocks previous to filling the pots with soil. Although fond of heat, Billbergias will, when in flower, bear removal to a cooler house than a stove; and, if they are kept a little dry at the same time, the change will greatly prolong their blooming period. The stronger growing kinds thrive well in rich, well-drained loam and leaf mould. Propagation is effected by carefully taking off the suckers which form at the base, after the plants have done flowering; but, before doing this, they should be allowed to attain a good size. The suckers grow quickly when attached to the parent stem, from which they derive their strength, and feel the check less when severed; besides which, they become more mature, and are in better condition for rooting. The best method to adopt is as follows: Take the sucker in the hand and gently twist it off the stem; next trim the base by the removal of a few of the lower leaves, and then insert each sucker separately in a small pot, in sharp soil. A bottom heat of about 80deg. will greatly facilitate new root-growth; failing this, they will root freely in the temperature of a stove if placed in a shaded position for two or three weeks, after which they will bear increased light and sunshine during the later part of the day. _See also_ =�chmea= and =Androlepis=. =B. am�na= (pleasing). _fl._ greenish-white, tipped with blue, loosely panicled; bracts rose-coloured. July to winter. _l._ ligulate, abruptly acuminate, slightly spiny. _h._ 2ft. Brazil, 1817. (B. R. 344.) =B. Baraquiniana= (Baraquin's).* _fl._ green; spikes long, the upper portion pendulous, bearing four or five large, oblong-lanceolate, bright scarlet bracts at the base of the flowers; the stem above the bracts is hoary white. Early spring. _l._ ligulate, tapering to a point, where, as well as at the edges, they are armed with sharp reddish spines, arched, transversely variegated with white scurfy bars. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Brazil, 1865. (I. H. 1864, 421.) =B. chlorosticta= (green-spotted). Synonymous with _B. Saundersii_. =B. iridifolia= (Iris-leaved).* _fl._ red and yellow, tipped with blue, in drooping spikes; rachis and bracts crimson. March. _l._ lanceolate, ensiform, 1-1/2ft., grey beneath. _h._ 1ft. Rio de Janeiro, 1825. (B. R. 1068.) =B. Liboniana= (Libon's).* _fl._, outer perianth segments beautiful coral red, about half as long as the inner ones, which are whitish at the base, and a splendid purple upwards. Winter. _l._ in a dense rosette. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1858. (B. M. 5090.) =B. Lietzei= (Lietz's).* _fl._ in loose terminal racemes, each subtended by lanceolate pink bracts; sepals rosy pink, half as long as the greenish corolla. _l._ tufted, ligulate, acute; margin spiny. Brazil, 1881. A double-flowered variety, with petaloid stamens, is mentioned by M. Morren, which is interesting in being the first double-flowered Bromeliad yet recorded. (B. H. 1881, 97.) =B. marmorata= (marbled).* _fl._ deep blue; calyces green, tipped with blue; bracts very large, leafy, oblong, bright scarlet; panicles erect, branched, much longer than the leaves. _l._ broadly ligulate, sheathing at the base, truncate-mucronate at the apex; edges very regularly toothed, deep green, freely blotched and barred with dull reddish-brown. (I. H. 2, 48.) =B. Moreli= (Morel's).* _fl._, sepals red, densely woolly, less than half as long as the purplish-violet petals; spike dense, drooping; bracts large, deep rosy red, much longer than the solitary sessile flowers. February. _l._ arching, lanceolate, shining green on both surfaces; marginal spines few and weak, _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1848. An excellent basket plant. SYN. _B. Moreliana_. (B. H. 1873, 1, 2.) =B. Moreliana= (Morel's). Synonymous with _B. Moreli_. [Illustration: FIG. 252. FLOWERS OF BILLBERGIA NUTANS.] =B. nutans= (nodding). _fl._, sepals reddish; petals yellowish-green, both with a blue margin; scapes slender, nodding, with a few large rosy bracts, terminating in a short drooping spike. Winter. _l._ numerous, long, narrow, ensiform, remotely spiny. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Brazil, 1868. See Fig. 252. (B. M. 6423.) =B. pallescens= (pallid). _fl._ greenish-white; ovary deeply grooved; spike pendulous; bracts lanceolate, of a beautiful rose-pink. Winter. _l._ dark green, and spotted on the upper surface, paler beneath, with transverse bars. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Brazil, 1856. SYNS. _B. pallida_ and _B. Wioti_. =B. pallida= (pale). Synonymous with _B. pallescens_. =B. pyramidalis= (pyramidal). _fl._ red, with purple margin, in erect spikes; bracts lanceolate, rosy. February. _l._ curved, ligulate-lanceolate, with white bands beneath. _h._ 1ft. Peru, 1822. (B. H. 1873, 16.) =B. Quesneliana= (Quesnel's).* _fl._ deep purple; bracts flesh-coloured; upper ones variegated with white. _h._ 6ft. Guiana, 1874. An erect growing species, possessing the same habit as _B. rosea-marginata_, but having the leaves more acuminate, and deep green in colour. SYN. _Quesnelia rufa_. (F. d. S. 10, 1026.) =B. rosea-marginata= (rose-margined).* _fl._, inflorescence a dense oblong spike of light blue, subtended by large, broad, deep, rose-coloured bracts, with scarious margins. January. _l._ sheathing at the base, about 2ft. long, channelled, spiny on the margin, and marked with transverse mealy bands. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Tropical America, 1880. SYNS. _B. rubro-marginata_ and _Quesnelia roseo-marginata_. =B. rubro-marginata= (red-margined). Synonymous with _B. rosea-marginata_. =B. Saundersii= (Saunders').* _fl._ about 2in. long, disposed in a loose pendulous inflorescence; sepals crimson, half the length of the petals, which are yellow outside and blue within. _l._ tufted, ligulate, rounded at the apex, terminated by a short mucro, saw-toothed, green above, purple beneath, and spotted white on both surfaces. Brazil, 1868. SYN. (according to Morren) _B. chlorosticta_. (F. M. n. s. 106.) =B. thyrsoidea= (thyrsoid). _fl._ dense, in thyrsoid spikes, almost without bracts. June. _l._ green, ligulate, shortly acuminate, the margin toothed. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1850. (B. M. 4756.) =B. vittata= (striped). _fl._ indigo blue, with crimson calyces and bracts; racemes nodding. _l._ banded, ligulate, elongate, shining. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Brazil, 1843. (B. H. 1871, 14, 15.) =B. Wioti= (Wiot's). Synonymous with _B. pallescens_ =B. zebrina= (zebra-streaked).* _fl._ greenish; scape clothed with large, pale, salmon-coloured bracts; inflorescence gracefully curved downwards. Early spring. _l._ sheathing for about half their length, forming thus a sort of tube, deep green, with zones of grey, the whole deepening with age. _h._ 1-1/2ft. South America, 1826. SYN. _Helicodea zebrina_. (L. B. C. 1912.) =BILOBATE.= Two-lobed. =BINATE.= In pairs. =BINDING.= The process of securing a graft or bud in its place by means of Raffia or Bast. The same term is applied to hard clay or other soil impervious to water, in summer. =BINDWEED.= _See_ =Convolvulus=. =BIOPHYTUM= (from _bios_, life, and _phyton_, a plant; the leaves of one species being sensitive to the touch). TRIBE _Oxalideæ_ of order _Geraniaceæ_. A genus of pretty and interesting perennials, differing from _Oxalis_, in which genus it has been included, in the valves of the capsule being patent and separate to the base. They will thrive in a mixture of loam and peat. Propagated by seeds, which should be sown in spring, on a hotbed. Probably the only species in cultivation is the following: =B. sensitivum= (sensitive). _fl._ yellow, small. July. _l._, leaflets oblong, obtuse, mucronate. _h._ 6in. India and China, 1823. The leaves of this plant contract on the slightest touch. SYN. _Oxalis sensitiva_. (B. R. 31, 68.) =BIOTA.= _See_ =Thuja=. =BIOTIA.= _See_ =Aster corymbosus=. =BIPARTITE.= Divided into two nearly to the base. =BIPINNATE.= Twice pinnate. =BIPINNATIFID=, or =BIPINNATIPARTED=. Having both primary and secondary segments of a leaf divided, but not to the base. =BIPLICATE.= Having two folds or plaits. =BIRCH.= _See_ =Betula=. =BIRD-CHERRY.= _See_ =Cerasus Padus=. =BIRDLIME.= A preparation made from Mistletoe berries and Holly bark. It is used for catching birds. =BIRD-PEPPER.= _See_ =Capsicum baccatum=. =BIRDS.= As a class, Birds are very much more useful than hurtful in gardens. Owls are of great use in catching mice, and Night-jars in catching night-flying insects. Rooks are very useful in lessening the numbers of wire-worms, and of hurtful insects in general; but, if very numerous, they may be driven to eat potatoes and other vegetable food, and may then do harm. The same may be said of Starlings. Blackbirds and Thrushes feed much on snails and worms, but they also feed on the ripe fruits in gardens. As a rule, slender-billed birds feed almost wholly on insects or other animals, and are to be encouraged in gardens at all seasons. Among these may be enumerated the Tree-creeper, Wryneck, Warblers, and Wrens of various kinds, Chats, Hedge-sparrow, Larks, Redstart, Robin, Titmice, and Wagtails. Swifts, Swallows, and Martins, are also great destroyers of insects. The Finches feed, in part, on insects, but also eat large quantities of seeds, and often do considerable damage among plants grown for seed, _e.g._, Cabbages, and in the seed-beds. Sparrows are about the most troublesome, though they are often assisted by Buntings, Chaffinches, Linnets, and others. When seed-beds or fruits have to be protected, this may be done by nets; or, more simply, by threads tied to sticks a few inches above the surface of the ground, or in front of the trees. =BIRD'S-EYE PRIMROSE.= _See_ =Primula farinosa=. =BIRD'S-FOOT.= _See_ =Ornithopus=. =BIRD'S-FOOT FERN.= _See_ =Pellæa ornithopus=. =BIRD'S-NEST FERN.= _See_ =Asplenium Nidus=. =BIRTHWORT.= _See_ =Aristolochia=. =BISCUTELLA= (from _bis_, double, and _scutella_, a saucer; in allusion to the form of the silicles). Buckler Mustard. ORD. _Cruciferæ_. Perennial or annual herbaceous plants, usually hispid, but sometimes downy or smoothish. Flowers yellow, scentless; pedicels filiform, bractless. Leaves oblong, entire, toothed or pinnatifid, somewhat radical or cauline. Stems round, erect, usually corymbosely branched at the top by racemes, which, when in flower, are short, but elongated at the time of fruiting. All the species produce seeds freely. The annuals should be sown in the open borders. Some of the perennial kinds are well adapted for ornamenting rockwork, in a dry, sunny situation. Of the annuals, _columnæ_, _lyrata_, _maritima_, and _obovata_, are best. Of the perennials, _coronopifolia_, _lævigata_, and _sempervirens_ are the most desirable, but none are worth cultivation outside botanical collections. =BISERIAL=, or =BISERIATE=. Arranged in two parallel rows. =BISERRATE.= Toothed in a saw-like manner, but with the primary teeth again serrated. =BISULCATE.= Doubly furrowed. =BITERNATE.= Twice ternate. =BITTER ALMOND.= _See_ =Amygdalus communis amara=. =BITTER APPLE.= _See_ =Cucumis Colocynthis=. =BITTER-SWEET.= _See_ =Solanum Dulcamara=. =BITTER VETCH.= _See_ =Orobus=. =BITUMINOUS.= Clammy, adhesive. =BIVON�A= (named after Antonio Bivona-Bernardi, a Sicilian botanist, author of "Sicularum Plantarum Centuria I. et II.," Palermo, 1806). ORD. _Cruciferæ_. A pretty little monotypic genus, well adapted for ornamenting rockwork or the front of flower borders. A dry sandy soil is most suitable for its culture. Propagated by seeds, sown in spring where the plants are intended to remain, thinning-out being necessary to ensure full growth. =B. lutea= (yellow).* _fl._ yellow, small; racemes terminal, elongated as they grow; pedicels filiform, bractless. April. _l._ alternate, lower ones stalked, the rest sessile, cordate, stem-clasping at the base, ovate, toothed, bluntish. Stem filiform, sparingly branched. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Sicily, 1823. An annual. =BIXA= (its South American name). Arnatto. ORD. _Bixineæ_. Stove evergreen trees, with dichotomous panicles of large reddish flowers, broad cordate leaves, and prickly capsules. A compost of loam and peat is well adapted to their culture. Propagated by seed, sown when ripe in bottom heat; or by cuttings, which root freely in sand, under a hand glass, in heat; the latter is the better method. If grown from seed, the trees attain a large size before they flower; whereas cuttings, taken from a flowering plant and struck, may be brought to flower when small plants. =B. Orellana= (Orellana). _fl._ pale peach-coloured; corymbs terminal, panicled; peduncles two, three, and four-flowered. May to August. _l._ cordate, ovate, acuminated, entire or angular, smooth on both surfaces. The drug called Arnatto is prepared from the red pulp which covers the seed of this species. It is used in the preparation of chocolate, and by farmers for colouring cheese, and also as an orange or yellow dye for silks. _h._ 30ft. West Indian Islands, 1690. See Fig. 253. (B. M. 1456.) =BIXINE�.= An order of smoothish tropical trees or shrubs, not remarkable for any particular beauty. Flowers with or without petals, when present five and sepal-like; stamens indefinite in number, inserted in the receptacle or at the bottom of the calyx; peduncle axillary or terminal, bracteate, one or many-flowered, usually forming terminal panicles. Fruit fleshy or dry. Leaves alternate, simple, entire, or slightly lobed, generally full of pellucid dots. The genera best known are _Azara_, _Bixa_, and _Flacourtia_. [Illustration: FIG. 253. FLOWERING BRANCH OF BIXA ORELLANA.] =BLACK BEARBERRY.= _See_ =Arctostaphylos alpina=. =BLACK BEETLES.= _See_ =Cockroaches=. =BLACK BRYONY.= _See_ =Tamus communis=. =BLACK BULLACE.= _See_ =Prunus insititia=. =BLACKBURNIA.= _See_ =Xanthoxylum=. =BLACK FLY or BEAN FLY= (_Aphis rumicis_), also called Collier and Black Dolphin. This Fly (see Fig. 254) is found on many herbaceous plants. It is very injurious to Beans; hence, immediate means of destruction must be employed directly the insect appears. Its extermination is an extremely difficult matter; but the following remedies are very effectual: _Tobacco Water._ This, made and applied as recommended for Aphides (which _see_) is a good remedy; but it is rendered more certain by the employment of soapsuds, instead of clear water, in its manufacture. [Illustration: FIG. 254. THE BEAN FLY. _a_, Female, magnified; _b_, Male, natural size, and magnified.] _Paris Green_ (Arseniate of Copper). Owing to its poisonous nature, this should not be used where there is fruit on the trees or vegetables under them; but there is no better destroyer of hard-dying insects. Its application is very simple. Mix 1lb. of the green with 30gals. of water, and well wet the infested parts of the trees, using a fine-rosed watercan or garden engine for the purpose. The operator's hands should be free from sores and scratches, or dangerous ulcerations may ensue. _Gas Liquor._ If this can be obtained from a gas-house, it should be diluted with twice its bulk of water, and applied in the same manner as Paris Green, being washed off with clean water in a few hours. If the process be repeated on two or three consecutive nights, it will be found certain in its effects; moreover, it is not very poisonous. The finger or thumb, or the Aphis brush, applied early, will often exterminate these obnoxious insects at once. The first of the methods above described is perhaps the most accessible and the safest to use. Poisonous insecticides are more or less dangerous, especially in the hands of the inexperienced. Black Fly is, however, one of the most difficult insects to eradicate, especially if allowed to multiply. A syringing of clean water should follow either of the above applications. _See also_ =Aphides=. =BLACK JACK OAK.= _See_ =Quercus nigra=. =BLACK MAIDENHAIR SPLEENWORT.= _See_ =Asplenium Adiantum-nigrum=. =BLACK PINE.= _See_ =Pinus austriaca=. =BLACKTHORN.= _See_ =Prunus spinosa=. =BLACK VARNISH TREE.= _See_ =Melanorrh�a=. =BLACK WATTLE.= _See_ =Callicoma serratifolia=. =BLADDER CATCHFLY.= _See_ =Silene inflata=. =BLADDER KETMIA.= _See_ =Hibiscus Trionum=. =BLADDER NUT.= _See_ =Staphylea=. =BLADDER SENNA.= _See_ =Colutea=. =BLADDER WORT.= _See_ =Utricularia=. =BLADE.= The lamina or expanded part of a leaf. =BL�RIA= (named after Patrick Blair, M.D., F.R.S., who practised medicine at Boston, in Lincolnshire, and was author of "Miscellaneous Observations," 1718; "Botanic Essays," 1820, &c.). ORD. _Ericaceæ_. Pretty little greenhouse evergreen shrubs, natives of Southern and Tropical Africa. Flowers terminal, glomerate; corolla short-tubular, with a four-cleft limb, very freely branched. Leaves verticillate, with revolute margins. For culture, _see_ =Erica=. =B. articulata= (jointed).* _fl._ reddish; heads drooping. May. _l._ four in a whorl, ovate or linear, glabrous, and shining; bracts solitary. _h._ 1ft. 1795. =B. ericoides= (Heath-like). _fl._ purplish-red. August. _l._ four in a whorl, oblong, obtuse, ringed; bracts three, length of the calyx. _h._ 2ft. 1774. SYN. _Erica orbicularis_. (L. B. C. 153.) =B. purpurea= (purple). _fl._ purple; heads drooping. June. _l._ four in a whorl, ovate, sub-ciliated. Stem flexuous, erect. _h._ 2ft. 1791. =BLAKEA= (named after Martin Blake, of Antigua, a great promoter of useful knowledge). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. Handsome stove evergreen shrubs or trees. Flowers red, large, showy; peduncles axillary, terete, one-flowered, naked, opposite or solitary, shorter than the leaves, usually with brown tomentum. Leaves petiolate, three to five-nerved, coriaceous, glabrous above and shining, but usually densely clothed with rusty tomentum beneath. They thrive well in peat, or a mixture of loam and peat, and require to be liberally supplied with water, particularly in spring and summer. Cuttings root freely if taken from shoots that are quite ripe (otherwise they are apt to rot), planted in a pot of sand, and plunged in a moist heat, under a hand glass. =B. quinquenervia= (five-nerved). _fl._ flesh-coloured, large, with white disks; peduncles twin, shorter than the petioles. June. _l._ elliptic, acuminated, naked, and shining on both surfaces, five-nerved. _h._ 10ft. to 16ft. Guiana, 1820. (A. G. 210.) =B. trinervia= (three-nerved). _fl._ rose colour, large; peduncles solitary, longer than the petioles. June. _l._ oval-oblong, three-nerved, glabrous and shining on both surfaces in the adult state, and when young serrulated; petioles and branchlets clothed with rusty tomentum. Roots issuing from the branches and stems. _h._ 4ft. to 8ft. Jamaica, 1789. (B. M. 451.) =BLANCHING.= This process is effected for the purpose of obtaining crispness, and for converting what would, under ordinary circumstances, be a dangerous plant--in the case of Celery especially so--into a highly popular delicacy. Blanching can only be accomplished by entirely excluding the light from the plants, thus depriving the colouring matters of their power to decompose water and carbonic acid gas. It is also termed Etiolation. =BLANDFORDIA= (named after George, Marquis of Blandford). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A very beautiful genus of greenhouse bulbous plants, natives of Australia. Flowers solitary, on recurved pedicels; perianth funnel-shaped, six-cleft; stamens six. Leaves linear, elongate, striate; radical ones dilated, and somewhat sheathing at the base; others shorter and more distant, appearing on the flower-stem. The best soil in which to grow them is loam and peat in equal proportions, with a little rough silver sand added. They should be repotted moderately firm in the autumn, allowing good drainage, and should then be placed under the greenhouse stage, or in any other position where they will be free from water drippings. Water must only be given when dry, until they commence to grow, when it may be gradually increased, and they may be introduced into a higher temperature, if necessary, there to remain till after flowering. When the foliage is ripened off, they may be stored away until the time for repotting. Propagated by seeds and offsets, or by division of the old plants, which must be done when repotting. =B. aurea= (golden).* _fl._ 1-1/2in. to 2in. long; scape bearing an umbellate cluster of three to five pure golden-yellow drooping bell-shaped flowers. Summer. _l._ narrow, linear, keeled or channelled, from the base of which the flower-scape arises. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. New South Wales, 1870. (B. M. 5809.) =B. Cunninghamii= (Cunningham's).* _fl._ rich coppery red, the upper part yellow; about 2in. long, bell-shaped, pendulous; from twelve to twenty, terminating in a stout scape 3ft. high. June. _l._ linear, slightly keeled at the back, about 1/3in. broad. New South Wales. This magnificent species should have a little charcoal mixed with the soil already mentioned. (B. M. 5734.) =B. C. hybrida= (hybrid). _fl._ red, margined with clear yellow, bell-shaped, in a dense drooping umbel. =B. flammea= (fiery).* _fl._ dullish yellow, in dense umbel-like clusters; bracts ovate-lanceolate, stiff; perianth inversely conical. June. _l._ linear, bluntly keeled. _h._ 2ft. Australia, 1849. =B. f. elegans= (elegant).* _fl._ crimson, tipped with yellow, large, funnel-shaped. Summer. _l._ long, linear-ensiform. This very handsome form is often taken for the type. =B. f. princeps= (magnificent).* _fl._ rich orange-red externally, and bright yellow within, about 3in. long, tubular, borne on a scape about 1ft. high, slightly pendulous, and arranged near the summit. Summer. _l._ stiff, sub-erect, long, bright green, disposed in a distichous manner. This is a very splendid greenhouse plant, and should be in every collection. Australia, 1873. SYN. _B. princeps_. See Fig. 255. (B. M. 6209.) =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ crimson, very large; bracts as long as the pedicels, the inner much the shortest. July. _h._ 2ft. New South Wales, 1812. (B. R. 924.) =B. intermedia= (intermediate). _fl._ yellow, pendulous, funnel-shaped, in sixteen to twenty-flowered racemes; bracts leaf-formed. September. _l._ channelled, acutely keeled, scabrous on the margins. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Australia. =B. marginata= (margined). _fl._ orange-red, conical, in long pendulous racemes; bracts narrow, foliaceous, about equalling in length the pedicels. July. _l._ stiff, sub-erect, with scabrous margins. _h._ 2ft. Tasmania, 1842. (B. R. 31, 18.) =B. nobilis= (noble).* _fl._ orange with yellow margins, on long pedicels, drooping, disposed in a terminal raceme; bracts twice as short as the pedicels. July. _l._ very narrow. _h._ 2ft. New South Wales, 1803. (B. M. 2003.) =B. princeps= (magnificent). Synonymous with _B. flammea princeps_. =BLATTA.= _See_ =Cockroaches=. =BLEABERRY.= _See_ =Vaccinium Myrtillus=. =BLEACHING POWDER.= _See_ =Chloride of Lime=. =BLECHNUM= (from _Blechnon_, the Greek name of a fern). ORD. _Filices_. A very attractive genus of stove and greenhouse ferns, thriving in a compost of peat, leaf soil, and loam. Sori linear, continuous, or nearly so, parallel with, and usually contiguous to, the midrib. Involucre distinct from the edge of the frond. Fronds uniform, generally pinnate or pinnatifid. Veins usually free. For general culture, _see_ =Ferns=. =B. australe= (southern).* _cau._ stout, creeping, scaly; _sti._ erect, 4in. to 6in. long. _fronds_ 9in. to 18in. long, and from 2in. to 3in. broad, lanceolate, narrowed towards both ends; pinnæ numerous, the barren ones 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, linear, hastate-cordate, or auricled at the base, especially on the upper side, with a very coriaceous texture; fertile pinnæ narrower. _sori_ in a continuous or slightly broken line, close, but not contiguous, to the midrib. South Africa, &c., 1691. Greenhouse species. =B. boreale.= _See_ =Lomaria Spicant=. =B. braziliense= (Brazilian).* _cau._ erect, stout, sub-arborescent, 1ft. or more long, densely clothed at the crown with dark brown scales. _sti._ short, stout, densely scaly. _fronds_ oblong-lanceolate, 2ft. to 4ft. long, 6in. to 16in. broad, narrowing downwards very gradually; pinnæ close, linear, 4in. to 8in. long, 1/2in. to 3/4in. broad, narrowed gradually towards the point, finely toothed or undulated, connected at the base. Brazil and Peru, 1820. See Fig. 256. (H. S. F. 3, 157.) There is a very pretty variety met with in gardens under the name of _Corcovadense crispum_, which is not quite so strong-growing as the type, with wavy, crispy edges. They will all thrive in the cool of a stove fernery. [Illustration: FIG. 255. BLANDFORDIA FLAMMEA PRINCEPS.] =B. cartilagineum= (cartilaginous). _cau._ oblique, densely scaly at top. _sti._ strong, erect, 4in. to 6in. long, scaly, muricated in the lower part. _fronds_ ovate-oblong, 2ft. to 3ft. long, 6in. to 12in. broad; pinnæ numerous, linear, 4in. to 6in. long, about 1/2in. broad, narrowed gradually towards the point, margin finely toothed, dilated, and connected at the base. _sori_ in a broad line close to the midrib. Temperate Australia, 1820. Greenhouse species. =B. hastatum= (halbert-shaped).* _rhiz._ short, stout, scaly. _sti._ 4in. to 6in. long, nearly naked. _fronds_ from 9in. to 18in. long, and 2in. to 4in. broad, lanceolate, with twenty to forty pinnæ on each side; the barren ones 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, lanceolate, falcate, narrowed gradually to a point, the lower side slightly truncate, and slightly lobed, the upper cordate, with a large hastate auricle; fertile pinnæ narrower. _sori_ midway between the midrib and margin; rachis and surfaces naked or slightly pubescent; texture coriaceous. Temperate South America, 1841. Greenhouse species. [Illustration: FIG. 256. BLECHNUM BRAZILIENSE.] =B. Lanceola= (lance-leaved). _rhiz._ slender, creeping, stoloniferous. _sti._ slender, erect, 2in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ lanceolate, undivided, 4in. to 6in. long, 1/2in. broad, or less, narrowed gradually from the centre towards each end. Tropical America, 1820. Stove species. =B. L. trifoliatum= (three-leaved). _fronds_ furnished with one or two pairs of small oblong-obtuse lateral pinnæ at the base of the large terminal one. Stove variety. (H. S. F. 3, 94.) =B. longifolium= (long-leaved).* _rhiz._ slender, creeping. _sti._ firm, erect, nearly naked, 6in. to 12in. long. _fronds_ 6in. to 9in. long, with a terminal pinna, and three to six lateral ones on each side, which are 3in. to 5in. long, and 1/2in. broad, narrowed gradually towards the point. _sori_ in broad lines close to the midrib; texture coriaceous. Tropical America, 1820. _B. l. fraxineum_ is a variety found in gardens under the name of _B. fraxiniifolium_, with a habit more close than the type; pinnæ six to eight on a side, sometimes 1in. broad. _B. intermedium_ (Link.) and _B. gracile_ (Kaulf.), often seen in gardens, are slender-growing varieties of this rather variable stove species. =B. nitidum= (shining).* _sti._ stout, erect, naked, 3in. to 4in. long. _fronds_ oblong-lanceolate, 1ft. or more long, 4in. to 6in. broad; pinnæ numerous, sub-falcate, linear, 3in. to 4in. long, 1/4in. to 1/2in. broad, narrowed gradually towards the point, dilated and connected at the base; edge undulate-dentate; texture coriaceous; both surfaces smooth. Stove species. The variety _contractum_, often seen in gardens, has its pinnæ contracted, and the edge much undulated. Brazil. (H. S. F. 3, 55.) =B. occidentale= (western).* _cau._ stout, erect, scaly at the top. _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, erect, scaly below. _fronds_ ovate-acuminate, 9in. to 18in. long, 4in. to 8in. broad, with twelve to twenty-four linear pinnæ on each side, which are 2in. to 4in. long, and about 3/4in. broad, narrowed gradually to a point, truncate or cordate; texture coriaceous. West Indies, southwards to Chili and South Brazil, 1823. A very handsome stove or greenhouse fern. =B. o. multifidum= (much-cut).* A pretty variety, said to have been introduced from Dominica; the apices of the pinnæ are copiously crested and tasselled, rendering it very desirable. Stove variety. =B. orientale= (oriental).* _cau._ stout, erect, clothed at the crown with dark brown scales. _sti._ 4in. to 8in. long, strong, erect, scaly below. _fronds_ 1ft. to 3ft. long, 6in. to 12in. broad, ovate, with very numerous nearly contiguous pinnæ on each side, which are 4in. to 8in. long, and about 3/4in. broad, narrowed to a long point. Australia, northwards to South China and the Himalayas. Greenhouse. =B. polypodioides= (Polypodium-like). A synonym of _B. unilaterale_. =B. serrulatum= (saw-edged).* _cau._ elongated, stout, ascending. _sti._ 6in. to 12in. long, strong, erect, smooth, nearly naked. _fronds_ oblong-acuminate, 1ft. to 2ft. long, 6in. to 9in. broad, with twelve to twenty-four pairs of quite distinct articulated linear oblong pinnæ on each side, which are about 4in. to 5in. long, 1/2in. broad, narrowed gradually towards the point, and downwards to a narrow base, the margins finely incised. Florida, &c., 1819. Stove or greenhouse. SYN. _B. striatum_. (H. S. F. 3, 159.) =B. striatum= (striped). A synonym of _B. serrulatum_. =B. unilaterale= (one-sided).* _cau._ elongated, densely scaly at the crown. _sti._ slender, erect, 1in. to 4in. long, slightly scaly below. _fronds_ lanceolate, 6in. to 12in. long, 1-1/2in. to 2in. broad; pinnæ numerous, spreading horizontally, linear, 3/4in. to 1in. long, central ones 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, point usually mucronate; edge entire, or nearly so, the lower part dilated to a broad base. _sori_ in a line close to the midrib. Tropical America, 1829. Widely distributed. Stove or greenhouse species. SYN. _B. polypodioides_, under which name it is usually found in gardens. =BLECHUM= (a Greek name for an unknown plant, supposed to resemble Marjoram). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. Stove herbaceous perennials. For culture, &c., _see_ =Justicia=. =B. Brownei= (Browne's). _fl._ white, in a dense bracteated spike, which is four-cornered; bracts ovate, downy. Summer. _l._ ovate elliptical, somewhat toothed. _h._ 2ft. West Indies, 1780. The other species introduced are: _angustifolium_, blue; _braziliense_, blue; and _laxiflorum_, white. =BLEPHARIS= (from _blepharis_, the eyelash; in reference to the fringed bracts of the calyx). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. Dwarf shrubs or herbs, often spiny and woody, allied to _Acanthus_. Flowers in bracteate spikes; calyx cruciately four-parted, bracteate; upper segment entire, three-nerved; lower, two-nerved; corolla-tube very short; lip five-lobed, three lobes often much larger than the others; stamens four, sub-didynamous. For culture, &c., _see_ =Acanthus=. =B. boerhaaviæfolia= (Boerhaavia-leaved). _fl._ blue. July. _l._ usually four in a whorl, elliptic, toothed. _h._ 1ft. India, 1829. Stove annual. =B. capensis= (Cape Colony).* _fl._ blue. July. _l._ narrow, lanceolate, spinose. _h._ 1ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1816. Greenhouse biennial. =B. furcata= (forked-spined). _fl._ blue. July. _l._ lanceolate, entire or spiny; bracts large, strongly spinose. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1846. Greenhouse evergreen shrub. =B. linearifolia= (narrow-leaved). _fl._ blue. July. _l._ long, entire, linear, glabrous or hairy, not spiny. _h._ 2ft. Guinea, 1823. Stove annual. =B. procumbens= (trailing).* _fl._ blue. July. _l._ linear lanceolate, spiny. _h._ 1ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1825. Greenhouse evergreen trailer. =BLEPHILIA= (from _blepharis_, the eyelash; in allusion to the ciliated bracts). ORD. _Labiatæ_. Ornamental hardy perennials, closely allied to _Monarda_, but differing from it in the calyx tube having thirteen instead of fifteen nerves, and being naked in the throat, while the corollas are much smaller and more dilated. They are of easy culture in ordinary soil. Increased readily by dividing the roots in early spring. =B. ciliata= (ciliated). _fl._ blue; whorls all distinct; bracts ciliated, reddish at top. July. _l._ almost sessile, ovate-oblong, narrowed at the base, canescent beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. North America, 1798. =B. hirsuta= (hairy). _fl._ purple or blue; whorls more numerous than in the preceding; upper ones approximate. July. _l._ petiolate, ovate, roundly cordate at the base, hairy on both surfaces. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Virginia, 1798. Habit more branched and loose than in _B. ciliata_. =BLESSED THISTLE.= _See_ =Cnicus benedictus=, properly =Carbenia benedicta=. =BLETIA= (in honour of Don Louis Blet, a Spanish botanist). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A large genus of, for the most part, stove terrestrial orchids. Flowers purple or whitish, in terminal racemes. Leaves narrow, grass-like. Pseudo-bulbs round, flattened. The flowers are freely produced when the plants are thoroughly established, and are valuable for bouquets, as well for their pleasing colour as for the time they last in perfection. Bletias thrive best in a compost of loam and leaf mould. About 2in. of crocks, covered with a layer of moss, should be placed in the bottom of the pot, which should be filled to within 1in. of the top with soil. The bulbs should then be inserted, and just covered. A good supply of water during the growing season is necessary, and only a moderate amount of heat. After growth has ceased, a period of rest is required, during which time very little water should be given. Propagation is effected by divisions, which should be made after the plants have finished flowering, or previous to their starting into growth. =B. campanulata= (bell-shaped). _fl._ deep purple, with a white centre, lasting a considerable time in perfection. Mexico. =B. florida= (florid).* _fl._ pale rose-coloured; lip not spurred. July and August. _h._ 2ft. West Indies, 1786. A very pretty species. (B. R. 1401.) =B. gracilis= (slender). _fl._ pale greenish-white; sepals and petals nearly equal, lanceolate, acuminate; lip red and yellow; scape simple. _l._ oblong, lanceolate, plicate. _h._ 1-1/2in. Mexico, 1830. (B. R. 1681.) =B. hyacinthina= (Hyacinth-like).* _fl._ purple, racemose; lip not spurred, beardless; scape about as long as the leaves. March to June. _l._ lanceolate. _h._ 1ft. China, 1802. This pretty species has proved to be quite hardy. (Garden, Nov., 1879.) =B. patula= (spreading-flowered). _fl._ purple, spreading; scape tall, branched. March. _l._ lanceolate. _h._ 2ft. Hayti, 1830. (B. M., 3518.) =B. Shepherdii= (Shepherd's).* _fl._ on branching spikes, purple, marked down the centre of the lip with yellow. Winter. _l._ long, lanceolate, dark green. Jamaica, 1825. (B. M. 3319.) =B. Sherrattiana= (Sherratt's).* _fl._ about a dozen on a spike, rich rosy purple; petals very broad, twice the breadth of the sepals; lip deep purple in front, marked with white and yellow down the centre. _l._ three to four-plicate. Pseudo-bulbs depressed. New Grenada, 1867. (B. M. 5646.) =B. verecunda= (modest). _fl._ purple; lip not spurred. January. _h._ 3ft. West Indies, Mexico, &c., 1733. (B. M. 930.) =BLIGHIA SAPIDA.= The Akee Tree. This is now included under the genus =Cupania= (which _see_). =BLIGHT=, or =BLAST=. Applied to various diseases of plants which are caused or accelerated either by the presence of parasitic fungi or insects, or by atmospheric influence. Blight generally proves fatal to the whole or part of the subject attacked. =BLIND.= A term applied to plants which fail to produce central buds. The defect is frequently noticeable in the Cabbage, and other plants of the _Brassica_ tribe; and is, perhaps, mainly due to the attacks of insects in a very early stage. Great care should therefore be exercised in keeping the seed beds clear of insect pests, by the application of ashes, lime, and soot, or spent hops. =BLOOD FLOWER.= _See_ =Hæmanthus=. =BLOODROOT.= _See_ =Sanguinaria canadensis=. =BLOOM.= A fine powder-like substance found on Grapes, Cucumbers, Plums, &c., and varying in colour in the different subjects. It should be carefully protected, as it improves the appearance of the fruit. The term is also generally used-�although incorrectly-�as the plural of blossom. =BLOSSOM.= The flower of a plant, or the essential organs of reproduction, with their appendages. =BLUE-BELLS.= _See_ =Campanula rotundifolia= and =Scilla nutans=. =BLUE-BOTTLE.= _See_ =Centaurea Cyanus=. =BLUE GUM TREE.= _See_ =Eucalyptus globulus=. =BLUETS.= The French name for _Centaurea Cyanus_. _See also_ =Houstonia c�rulea= and =Vaccinium angustifolium=. =BLUMENBACHIA= (in honour of John Frederick Blumenbach, M.D., Professor of Medicine at Göttingen, and distinguished as a comparative anatomist). ORD. _Loasaceæ_. Elegant branched, climbing or trailing, annual, biennial, or perennial herbs, generally covered with stinging hairs, which are very objectionable. Flowers axillary, solitary, bracteate, very pretty and interesting. Leaves opposite, lobed. They are of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. Propagated by seeds, which should be sown in pots, in spring, and placed in a gentle heat, where they will germinate in about a fortnight. When the seedlings are large enough, and after having been previously hardened off, they may be planted out in their blooming quarters, or potted on and trained to a trellis. [Illustration: FIG. 257. BLUMENBACHIA CHUQUITENSIS.] =B. chuquitensis= (Chuquitan).* _fl._ solitary, axillary, with five to ten boat-shaped red petals, which are yellow within. September. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, pinnate; segments pinnatifidly lobed. Peru, 1863. Half-hardy climbing perennial. See Fig. 257. (B. M. 6143.) =B. contorta= (twisted).* _fl._ orange-red, with cup-shaped green scales within. July. _l._ oblong-ovate, pinnatifid; lobes incisely toothed. Peru. Greenhouse climber, but may be grown against a wall, out of doors, during the summer. (B. M. 6134.) [Illustration: FIG. 258. FLOWER OF BLUMENBACHIA CORONATA.] =B. coronata= (crowned).* _fl._ of pure glossy whiteness, quadrangular, crown-shaped, 2in. in diameter each way. June. _l._ narrow, bipinnatifid, cut into small segments. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Chili, 1872. This is an elegant dwarf, tufted, erect biennial, with the pure white blooms imbedded in the metallic lustrous foliage. SYN. _Caiophora coronata_. See Fig. 258. =B. insignis= (remarkable).* _fl._ with whitish petals and reddish-yellow scales, axillary, on long peduncles, about 1in. in diameter. July. _l._, lower ones five to seven-lobed; upper ones deeply bipinnatifid. _h._ 1ft. Chili, 1826. Hardy annual trailer. SYN. _Loasa palmata_. (B. M. 2865.) =BOBARTIA= (named after Jacob Bobart, Professor of Botany at Oxford in the seventeenth century). ORD. _Irideæ_. A small genus of greenhouse or hardy bulbous plants, closely allied to _Sisyrinchium_. The species in cultivation are very pretty hardy plants, but require protection from severe frosts and excessive rains. They thrive best in a warm, light soil, and make pretty plants for rockwork. Propagated by separating the offsets during autumn. This genus has been much misunderstood. Among the plants which have been referred to it are some which now find places in the genera _Aristea_, _Sisyrinchium_, _Homeria_, _Marica_, _Moræa_, &c., &c. =B. aurantiaca.= _See_ =Homeria aurantiaca=. =B. gladiata= (sword-shaped). _fl._ yellow, thinly sprinkled with purple dots near the centre, handsome, nearly 2in. across. _l._ linear, ensiform, narrow, slightly glaucous, 1ft. or more in length. 1817. SYN. _Marica gladiata_. (B. R. 229.) =B. spathacea= (rush-like). _l._ rush-like, several feet in length; flower-stem as long as leaves, bearing near extremity a cluster of pale yellow flowers, with narrow segments. Each flower lasts but one day; as a good many, however, are developed in each spathe, there is a succession which lasts some time. 1832. SYN. _Xyris altissima_. (L. B. C. 1900.) [Illustration: FIG. 259. BOCCONIA CORDATA, showing Habit and Flower.] =BOCCONIA= (named after Paolo Bocconi, M.D., a Sicilian botanist, author of the "Museum des Plantes," and "Histoire Naturelle de l'Ile de Corse," &c.). ORD. _Papaveraceæ_. Two of the species are greenhouse or half-hardy shrubs. Flowers inconspicuous, in terminal panicles, with the branches and branchlets each furnished with one bract. Leaves stalked, glaucous, large, lobed. This genus does not well agree with the rest of _Papaveraceæ_, from its having one-seeded capsules and apetalous flowers. _B. cordata_ is a handsome, hardy, herbaceous plant, with a stately habit and finely-cut foliage, and, where bold subjects are desired, few will be found superior to it. As an isolated specimen on the lawn, or by frequented walks, where it will not be too closely surrounded by tall plants, it may be grown with marked effect. It also forms a good subject for pot culture, and is largely used for sub-tropical bedding. The soil most suitable for its culture is a good fat loam, of considerable depth. Propagated by cuttings, taken from the axils of the larger leaves, during early summer; or by young suckers, taken from established plants, during summer, as they will then flower the following season. If the former method is employed, the cuttings should be pushed on, so that there are plenty of roots before the winter sets in. The other two species require greenhouse culture; but both are eminently suited for sub-tropical gardening, in any light rich soil, or well-drained and airy situation. They are best propagated by seeds, sown in a hotbed in spring, the seedlings being placed out from June to September. =B. cordata= (cordate).* _fl._ buff-coloured, very numerous, borne in very large terminal panicles; individually they are not showy, but the fully grown inflorescence has a very distinct and pleasing appearance. Summer. _l._ large, reflexed, deeply-veined, roundish-cordate; margins lobed or sinuated. Stems growing rather close together, thickly set with leaves. _h._ 5ft. to 8ft. China, 1795, and 1866. Mr. Robinson recommends its being grown in the angle of two walls which shelter it from the north and east. It runs quickly at the roots, and the suckers may be cut off to the benefit of the parent plant; each sucker will form a strong plant in a year's time. SYNS. _B. japonica_ and _Macleaya yedoënsis_. See Fig. 259. (B. M. 1905.) =B. frutescens= (shrubby).* _fl._ greenish. October. _l._ large, sea-green, oval-oblong, cuneated at the base, pinnatifid. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. Mexico, 1739. (L. B. C. 83.) =B. integrifolia= (entire-leaved). _fl._ greenish; panicle crowded. _l._ flat, oblong, tapering towards each end, entire, or scarcely crenated. _h._ 9ft. Peru, 1822. =B. japonica= (Japanese). Synonymous with _B. cordata_. =B�BERA= (named after B�ber, a Russian botanist). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of evergreen greenhouse shrubs, now generally referred to _Dysodia_. They are of easy culture, thriving in ordinary garden soil. Propagated by cuttings, made of young, rather firm, shoots, and placed in sand, under a glass. There are several other species besides the one given below, but they are not of much horticultural value. =B. incana= (hoary).* _fl.-heads_ golden; peduncles one-headed. November. _l._ pinnate, rather hairy; leaflets linear acute, channelled, some entire, and some trifid. Stem hairy. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Mexico, 1828. (B. R. 1602.) =B�HMERIA= (named after George Rudolph B�hmer, a German botanist). ORD. _Urticaceæ_. A genus of shrubs or herbaceous plants, allied to _Urtica_, from which it is distinguished in not having stinging hairs. _B. nivea_ is the only species having any horticultural value. This thrives best in a warm, sandy soil; and is increased by divisions. =B. nivea= (snowy). _fl._ greenish, disposed in spikes. _l._ broadly cordate, about 6in. long by 4in. broad, terminating in a long slender point; edges serrate, covered on the under side with a dense coating of white down. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. China. A shrub-like perennial, rather more curious than beautiful. =BOG BEAN.= _See_ =Menyanthes trifoliata=. =BOG-EARTH.= _See_ =Peat=. [Illustration: FIG. 260. VERTICAL SECTION OF CYLINDER BOILER. A A, Wrought-iron Boiler, the shaded space showing the Waterway; B, Ashpit inside the cast base of Boiler; C, Fire-bars; D, Flue; E, Domed Top; F, Feeding Lid; G, Flow, and H, Return Pipe Sockets. ] =BOILERS.= These are very important articles in all gardens where there are glass houses, and the best should always be selected. They are made in cast and wrought iron, both of which have their special advantages and disadvantages. The former are less liable to burn through when encrusted with any deposit from the water, but will crack with sudden changes of temperature, by reason of the granular form of the metal not allowing gradual contraction; the latter may burn through where there is any deposit of mud or other matter, but they will not crack, and will stand a greater pressure than those made of cast metal. It is, however, the better plan to use Boilers of wrought iron, as, with careful usage, they are less liable to break down in hard frosts than are the others. As the value of the plants, as well as that of the Boiler, has to be considered, should such a contingency occur, it is certainly advisable to reduce all risks to a minimum; and as the average life of a Boiler is from ten to fifteen years, a slightly larger first cost is not of very serious moment. The forms of Boilers are very diverse, and, in some of the patented forms, complicated. But, whatever the shape, the following points are essential: A clear and unrestricted waterway of not less than 2in. in thickness; the greatest exposure of surface to the direct action of the fire; a sufficient fire space; and a fire-bar area calculated to supply enough fresh air to the fire to support thorough combustion. The forms generally used for horticultural work are the following, or some modifications of them; and, however grand the name, their chief value consists in the attested heating capacity at a given cost: The Saddle Boiler, which is made of various sizes, with or without check ends, cross tubes, and other devices for increasing the heating surface, and also of a tubular form; the Upright Cylinder (a vertical section of which is shown in Fig. 260); the Upright Tubular Cylinder; the Horizontal Tubular; and the Cornish or Horizontal Cylinder. Combinations of the various forms, and complicated patterns of different kinds, are made for particular purposes; but in no case should large Boilers be used, unless they are recommended, by one competent to judge, as suitable for the purpose they are needed to fulfil. In every case, it is necessary that the Boiler should be fixed in a proper manner. It is also good policy to have Boilers about 30, or even 50 per cent., more powerful than is actually required, when they are new, as, from various causes, their heating power falls off in a year or two in many places; and, under ordinary work, it is not desirable to stimulate the action in order to command sufficient heat. There is no doubt that, for general purposes, some modification of the Saddle or Cylinder Boiler is by far the best, all things duly considered; but it is impossible to give any practical advice without a thorough knowledge of the requirements of any particular place. Gas Boilers are also useful for small places. These are made in many forms, and are, as a rule, in the shape of a cylinder, with a coned inside, against which the flames play. Some Gas Boilers have also a superheater attached; this exhausts the heat from the air which has passed through the Boiler. Another good form is made of horizontal tubes, which contain the water, the flames playing over and amongst them. An atmospheric burner of approved construction should be used where gas is the heating power. A sufficient supply of gas should be assured by using supply pipes of a good size. Care should be taken to keep these pipes free from water, and protected from frost by silicate cotton lagging, or some other good non-conductor. Except for very small places, however, gas apparatus is almost useless, and will never supersede fuel Boilers. For other particulars regarding Boilers, _see_ =Heating= and =Stoking=. =BOIS-PERDRIX.= _See_ =Heisteria=. =BOLBOPHYLLUM.= _See_ =Bulbophyllum=. =BOLETUS= (from _bolos_, a mass; in reference to its massy or globular form). ORD. _Fungi_. The only species of this rather large genus demanding mention is _B. edulis_ (see Fig. 261), which is considered an excellent article of food. It is easily distinguished, and is often of large size and somewhat unshapely; the pileus is usually of a dusky yellow or brownish hue, but sometimes brighter and more of a chestnut colour; the flesh is white, and does not change to a blue colour when cut (this is a very important characteristic, and should always be noticed). It is a species common in most districts, usually growing in woods, and appearing chiefly in the autumn. [Illustration: FIG. 261. COMMON BOLETUS (BOLETUS EDULIS).] =BOLEUM= (from _bolos_, a ball; in reference to the shape of the seed-pods). ORD. _Cruciferæ_. An ornamental, hardy, evergreen shrub, well adapted for rockwork, in ordinary soil. It requires slight protection in winter if planted in very exposed situations. Propagated by seed, sown in a pot, in spring, and placed in a frame, or in the open border during summer. =B. asperum= (rough).* _fl._ cream-coloured; racemes erect, elongated; pedicels very short, the lower ones bracteate. April. _l._ alternate, oblong, linear; lower ones somewhat divided. A suffruticose, erect, branched plant, hispid from stiff hairs. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. France. 1818. =BOLLEA.= _See_ =Zygopetalum=. =BOLTED.= A term used in reference to plants that have prematurely run to seed. =BOLTONIA= (named after J. B. Bolton, an English professor of botany). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of rather pretty hardy herbaceous perennials. Flower-heads with white or purplish rays. Leaves pale green, lanceolate, sessile. They thrive in common garden soil. Propagated by divisions of the roots, in March. =B. asteroides= (Aster-like).* _fl.-heads_ flesh-coloured, stellate, disposed in a rather large terminal panicle. August. _l._ all entire, somewhat broadly lanceolate, narrowed at both ends. _h._ 2ft. North America, 1758. (B. M. 2554.) =B. glastifolia= (woad-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ pink. September. _l._, lower ones serrated. _h._ 1-1/2ft. North America, 1758. (B. M. 2381.) [Illustration: FIG. 262. FLOWERS OF BOMAREA CARDERI.] =BOMAREA= (derivation of name doubtful). ORD. _Amaryllidaceæ_. A genus of handsome half-hardy twiners, closely allied to _Alströmeria_, from which it is chiefly distinguished by its twining habit and some difference in the capsule. They are of comparatively easy culture, thriving in a compost of peat, leaf mould, loam, and sand, with good drainage. Manure water should be given during the season of growth. Although they make fine pot plants, their full beauty is only developed when planted out in the conservatory or greenhouse border. Propagated by seeds, or by careful divisions of the underground stem. In making a division, it is necessary to observe that the part taken has some roots by which to live till new ones are formed. It should be potted at first, and may, when established, be planted out or shifted on. Seeds may be raised in a warm house without difficulty. They germinate in a few weeks; and when the young plants are 2in. or 3in. high, they should be placed separately in small pots, shifting them on as necessary, or planting them out. In favoured southern localities, several species have proved hardy, but they are much the best when grown in a greenhouse. =B. acutifolia Ehrenbergiana= (Ehrenberg's acute-leaved). _fl._ undulate, outer segments deep orange, the inner ones paler and spotted. Spring. _l._ lanceolate acute, smooth. Mexico, 1878. (B. M. 6444). =B. Caldasiana= (Caldas's).* _fl._ orange yellow, spotted crimson. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acute. Peruvian Andes, 1863. =B. Carderi= (Carder's).* _fl._ 2-1/2in. long by 1-1/8in. in breadth at the widest part, regularly bell-shaped, with six segments, the three outer rose-coloured, the three inner nearly equal in length, crenulate, and spotted with purplish-brown; inflorescence pendulous, and consisting of a large terminal umbellate cyme, surrounded at the base by a series of crowded leaves. _l._ oblong lanceolate, acuminate, about 7in. by 2-3/4in. Columbia, 1876. See Fig. 262, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bull. =B. chontalensis= (Chontalese). _fl._ 1-1/2in. long, sub-campanulate, obtusely trigonous; outer segments thick, fleshy, wavy, rose-red, with a few brown spots round the margin at the tip, very convex; inner segments a little shorter, pale yellow blotched with brown; umbels surrounded by a whorl of leaves, and composed of several peduncles, each bearing four to six nodding flowers. August. _l._ lanceolate or ovate oblong, acuminate. Nicaragua, 1871. (B. M. 5927). =B. conferta= (dense-flowered).* A synonym of _B. patococensis_. =B. edulis= (edible). _fl._, outer segments rose, green tipped; inner spotted with rose. St. Domingo, &c. One of the oldest species in cultivation. The tubers are said by Tussac to be eaten in St. Domingo, like those of the Jerusalem Artichoke. See Fig. 263. =B. frondea= (leafy). _fl._ 2in. long, tubulate-campanulate; outer segments narrow, oblong, yellow; inner segments 1/2in. longer than the outer ones, canary yellow, spotted with red; cymes umbellate, many-flowered, about 8in. across, base leafy. _l._ lanceolate, acuminate. Bogota, 1881. (G. C. n. s. 17, p. 669.) =B. oligantha= (few-flowered).* _fl._ regularly funnel-shaped, about 1in. long; outer segments slightly shorter than the inner, oblanceolate, under 1/4in. abroad, obtuse, unspotted, reddish on the outside, yellow within; one or two to an umbel, on simple, flexuous, glabrous pedicels, about 1in. long. _l._ long, acute, about 2in. long, bright green on the upper surface, ciliated on the ribs beneath. Peru, 1877. See Fig. 264. [Illustration: FIG. 263. FLOWERING BRANCH OF BOMAREA EDULIS.] =B. patococensis= (Patococha). _fl._ 2in. to 2-1/2in. long, elongate-funnel-shaped; the three outer segments ovate lanceolate, about one-fourth shorter than the inner segments, both of a rich crimson colour; numerously borne in drooping, contracted tufts at the ends of the shoots; peduncles about 2in. to 2-1/2in. long, intermixed at the base with broadly ovate-acute, leafy bracts. August and September. _l._ scattered, shortly stalked, broadly lanceolate, tail pointed. Bogota, 1881. (G. C. n. s. 17, p. 187.) [Illustration: FIG. 264. FLOWERING BRANCH OF BOMAREA OLIGANTHA.] =B. salsilla= (Salsilla). _fl._ purple, about 1/2in. long, the two inner segments having a darker spot at the base, and all of them tinged with green towards the points; collected into a terminal umbel. June. _l._ few, lanceolate. South America, 1806. This has proved quite hardy under various conditions. =B. Shuttleworthii= (Shuttleworth's).* _fl._, perianth about 2in. long, funnel-shaped or elongate bell-shaped; segments nearly equal, oblong acute, outer ones orange vermilion, slightly tinged with green and dotted with small dark spots at the tips; inner ones more acutely pointed, canary yellow, with a red midrib, and green with dark spots at the tips; cymes umbellate, pendulous. _l._ ovate lanceolate, 5in. to 6in. by 2in., glabrous. Bogota, 1881. (G. C. n. s. 17, p. 77.) =B. Williamsii= (Williams's).* _fl._ rose-coloured, about 2in. long, elongate funnel shape; disposed in a compound umbellate cyme. _l._ lanceolate, very acute, and tapering to a very short twisted petiole. New Grenada, 1882. =BOMBACE�.= A division of _Sterculiaceæ_. =BOMBAX= (from _bombax_, one of the Greek names for cotton; the pods are filled with a fine silky substance like cotton, but which it is impossible to spin into thread, in consequence of the edges being perfectly smooth). Silk Cotton Tree. ORD. _Malvaceæ_. A genus of large soft-wooded stove trees. Flowers scarlet or white, large, usually rising laterally from the trunk or branches, either singly or in clusters. They grow best in a rich loamy soil. Cuttings, not too ripe, taken off at a joint, placed in sand under a bell glass, in moist heat, will root readily; but plants raised from seeds brought from their natural habitats make finer trees. =B. Ceiba= (Ceiba). _fl._ pale red, large. _l._ palmate, with five leaflets. _fr._ turbinate, concave at the apex. _h._ 100ft. South America, 1692. =BOMBYX NEUSTRIA.= _See_ =Lackey Moth=. =BONA-NOX.= _See_ =Ipomæa Bona-Nox=. =BONAPARTEA.= _See_ =Tillandsia=. =BONAPARTEA JUNCEA.= A synonym of _Agave geminiflora_. =BONATEA.= (in honour of M. Bonato, a distinguished Italian botanist, and a Professor of Botany at Padua). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A handsome terrestrial stove orchid, allied to _Habenaria_, and requiring similar culture. =B. speciosa= (showy).* _fl._ white, galeate; petals bipartite; raceme many-flowered, compact; bracts cucullate, acuminate. August. _l._ oblong, sub-undulate. Stem leafy. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1820. (B. M. 2926; L. B. C. 284.) =BONGARDIA.= (named after Heinrich Gustav Bongard, a German botanist). ORD. _Berberideæ_. A very pretty hardy tuberous-rooted perennial, requiring a sandy soil, and good drainage, with protection at all seasons from excessive wet, otherwise it will rot. It should be carefully planted in a compost of loam, peat, leaf soil, and sand, in equal proportions, and covered with a handlight. =B. Rauwolfii= (Rauwolf's). _fl._ golden yellow, on pyramidal branched panicles; stamens and petals nearly equal in length. May. _l._ radical, pinnate; leaflets sessile, oval-oblong, three to five-cleft at the apex, glaucous, each with a dark purple blotch at the base. _h._ 6in. Syria, Persia, 1740. SYN. _Leontice Chrysogonum_. (B. M. 6244.) =BONNAYA= (named after Bonnay, a German botanist). ORD. _Scrophulariaceæ_. A small genus of usually glabrous, rarely pilose, slender, creeping or erect, annual, biennial, or perennial stove plants, almost unknown in cultivation. Flowers axillary, opposite, or alternate from abortion, usually pedicellate, the upper ones sometimes racemose, pinkish, or blue. Leaves opposite, quite entire, or toothed. They thrive in a rich sandy loam. The annual species are propagated by seeds, the others by divisions and cuttings. =BONNETIA= (commemorative of Charles Bonnet, a French naturalist, who wrote some botanical papers in 1754). ORD. _Ternstr�miaceæ_. A genus of elegant middle-sized stove trees or shrubs. Flowers large, terminal; peduncles one or many-flowered. Leaves scattered, exstipulate, coriaceous, entire, one-nerved, marked with transverse veins, sub-sessile, narrowed to the base. They thrive well in a mixture of loam and peat. Cuttings of firm young shoots will root if placed in sand under a hand glass, in a moderate heat. =B. sessilis= (stalkless). _fl._ purplish, terminal. _l._ oblong, coriaceous, entire. _h._ 15ft. Guiana, 1819. =BORAGE.= _See_ =Borago officinalis=. =BORAGINACE�.= A large order of herbs or shrubs, having spirally-coiled inflorescence; corolla usually regular and five-lobed, with an imbricated æstivation; throat generally hairy; stamens five, inserted in the corolla. Leaves alternate, rough. Among other genera belonging to this order may be named _Anchusa_, _Borago_, _Cynoglossum_, _Echium_, _Lithospermum_, and _Myosotis_. =BORAGO= (derivation very uncertain; probably a corruption of some eastern name). Borage. ORD. _Boraginaceæ_. A genus of hardy herbaceous perennials or annuals, excellently adapted for naturalising in dry stony places. Flowers blue, panicled, drooping; corolla rotate; throat furnished with emarginate vaulted processes; anthers distinct, oblong or lanceolate, awned, fixed by the inner side, conniving into a cone. Nuts four, one-celled, turbinate, fixed to the bottom of the calyx. Leaves oblong or lanceolate. All the species are easily cultivated, thriving in any common soil. Propagated by divisions, in spring, or by striking the young cuttings in a cold frame. They may also be raised from seed, which should be sown from March to May, in any good garden soil, and the plants, when large enough, thinned out to 1ft. or more apart. In hot weather, Borage is generally in demand for claret cup and other drinks. =B. laxiflora= (loose-flowered).* _fl._ on long pedicels, racemose, drooping; corolla pale blue; segments ovate, bluntish, erectly spreading. May to August. _l._ oblong, and rough from strigæ; radical ones rosulate; cauline ones half stem-clasping. Stem decumbent, many from the same root, hispid from retrograde bristles. Corsica, 1813. (B. M. 1789.) =B. longifolia= (long-leaved).* _fl._ disposed in a terminal bracteate panicle; corolla blue; segments ovate, acute, spreading. July and August. _l._ linear-lanceolate, scabrous and downy beneath; cauline ones half stem-clasping. _h._ 1ft. Numidia, 1825. [Illustration: FIG. 265. FLOWER OF BORAGO OFFICINALIS.] =B. officinalis= (officinal).* Common Borage. _fl._ blue, purple, or white; segments of the corolla limb ovate, acute, spreading. June to September. _l._, lower ones obovate, attenuated at the base; cauline ones oblong, sessile, sub-cordate at the base. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Britain. This is the kind most cultivated in gardens for flavouring. See Fig. 265. (Sy. En. B. 36.) =BORASSUS= (a name applied by Linnæus to the spathe of the Date Palm). ORD. _Palmaceæ_. A very small genus of stove trees, containing two noble species, which are distinguished by unisexual flowers, produced upon distinct plants, the males being borne in dense branching catkins, and the females on simple, or, more rarely, slightly branched spikes. Fruit very large, brown, three-seeded. Leaves fan-shaped, with spiny petioles. Trunks unarmed, often 70ft. high. They may be grown in good fibrous loam, leaf mould, and sand, mainly the former. Increased by seeds only, which require to be sown in strong bottom heat. Rarely seen in cultivation. =B. æthiopicum= (African). _l._ nearly circular, and plaited, supported upon stout petioles, 6ft. to 7ft. long. Western Tropical Africa. This handsome, but rare, species is remarkable for the bulging out or swelling in its stem, near the middle, or about two-thirds of its height from the ground. =B. flabelliformis= (fan-shaped).* _l._ nearly circular, and plaited like a partially-open fan, with about seventy ribs, which radiate from a common centre. _h._ 30ft. India, 1771. =BORBONIA= (named after Gaston de Bourbon, Duke of Orleans, son of Henry IV. of France, a great lover and patron of botany). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus of very ornamental greenhouse evergreen shrubs, natives of the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers yellow, disposed in terminal heads, axillary. Leaves simple, amplexicaul, alternate, exstipulate, pungent. They thrive well in a mixture of peat, loam, and sand, with good drainage. Cuttings, half-ripened, obtained in April, will root freely in sandy soil if placed under a bell glass, in a cool house. =B. barbata= (bearded).* _fl._ sessile, villous on the outside. July. _l._ narrow, lanceolate, many-nerved, complicated, ciliately-bearded, and very much acuminated; branches diverging. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. 1823. =B. cordata= (heart-shaped). _fl._, corolla densely villous, with the vexillum obcordate. July. _l._ cordate, many-nerved, quite entire, glabrous. Branches villous. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. 1759. =B. crenata= (crenated).* _fl._ less villous than in the rest of the species. July. _l._ cordate, roundish, acute, denticulated, many nerved and reticulated between the nerves, and are, as well as the branches, glabrous. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. 1774. (B. M. 274.) =B. lanceolata= (lance-shaped). _fl._ densely villous. July. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, pungent, many nerved, quite entire, sessile, glabrous, as well as the stem. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. 1752. (L. B. C. 81.) =B. ruscifolia= (Ruscus-leaved). _fl._ sparingly villous. July. _l._ cordate, many-nerved, minutely ciliated, but are otherwise glabrous as well as the branches. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. 1790. (B. M. 2128.) =BORDERS, FLOWER.= Small beds, or a continuous bed, of greater length than width, skirting a wall or shrubbery, and containing plants of a heterogeneous character. They should be slightly raised above the surrounding level, and thoroughly drained. In the first preparation of the Border, it is most essential to deeply dig or trench the ground, thoroughly incorporating a large amount of well-bodied manure; and if the soil is very stiff, wood ashes or coarse sand should be well worked in with the manure. The best time to plant such Borders is in early autumn or in March. Where, as is frequently the case, the Borders are only 2ft. or 3ft. wide, not more than two rows of plants, either in groups or singly, will be allowable. The tall plants or shrubs should constitute the background, with dwarfer subjects in front; but formal arrangements must be avoided. The object should be to secure a continuous succession of flowers. This would entail some little trouble at first, which, however, would be amply repaid by results. No hard-and-fast rules can be laid down as to the arrangement of the plants, which depends on individual taste and means; but the best results are obtained when the border is mainly made up of hardy herbaceous perennials, as permanent occupants, assisted by liberal quantities of summer bedding plants, such as Dahlias, Fuchsias, Geraniums, Heliotrope, Tropæolums, &c., as well as many hardy annuals and biennials. By this means, a very varied and beautiful display may be maintained, especially if bulbs are used for early spring effect, such as Narcissi, Scillas, Snowdrops, Tulips, &c. Of course, the herbaceous perennials should be selected with much care, all weedy subjects being avoided, and variety in colour and time of flowering secured. Anything like a full list of these would occupy too much space for repetition here, but the following will be found very showy and useful: Achilleas, Aconitums, Anemones, Aquilegias, Armerias, Asters, Campanulas, Carnations and Picotees, Delphiniums, Dodecatheons, Doronicums, Fritillarias, Funkias, Gaillardias, Geraniums, Geums, Hollyhocks, Iberises, Irises, Liliums, Pæonies, Papavers, Pyrethrums, double and single, Ranunculus, Trolliuses, &c. =BORDERS, FRUIT.= These should be well drained, and if not naturally so, the soil should be excavated from 3ft. to 5ft. deep, in order to form a bottom of stones, pieces of brick, clinkers, &c. Where it is convenient, draining pipes should be added, if an outfall in the vicinity can be secured. The base of the Border should be sloped to the front, where the pipes should be laid, and the bottom covered with draining material, thereby effectually preventing the fruit trees rooting deep, which is detrimental to healthy growth. Gross-feeding vegetables or flowers should not be grown on the surface, but shallow-rooting crops will generally do no harm. Many advocate the surface being kept free from crops of any sort, simply letting it be freely exposed; whilst others equally as strenuously condemn this plan. Where necessary, chalk or some other mineral constituent of good soil which is naturally absent, may be added; but much animal manure is rarely required. The depth and width of Border may vary for different fruit trees, but efficient drainage is in all cases important. =BORECOLE= (_Brassica oleracea fimbriata_). An important division of the Brassica tribe, often cultivated in gardens under the name of Kale. It comes in very useful when hard weather has rendered cabbages, &c., unfit for use, as it endures cold better than most other green vegetables. Some are also grown as ornamental foliaged plants. Like all other plants of a similar description, they require rich soil, and they should be put out in June or early in July, as it is almost useless to plant this kind of vegetable after the middle of the latter month. To obtain the best results, the ground should be deeply dug and well manured; but it must not be full of crude manure at planting time, or it will make the plants too tender and succulent in wet seasons, with the result that the first sharp frost would cause them to rot. Good hard-stemmed plants are the kinds most needed, especially for crops required in spring, when green vegetables are scarce. Cultivation: Early in April, and again a month later for succession, the seeds should be sown thinly in nursery beds, not covering them too deeply. The soil should be in a friable condition, and it is an advantage if the first beds be made under a south wall. As soon as the seedlings appear, if they are too thick, they should be thinned, as those which are drawn up weak and spindly are useless. When large enough, they should be carefully planted out, choosing showery weather, if possible, for the operation. If it is necessary to plant them in dry weather, they must be well watered-in. The rows should be from 2ft. to 3ft. apart, according to the variety, and the plants 2ft. apart in the rows; or, if potatoes are planted wide apart, the Borecole may be arranged between them. Dead leaves must be cleared away from time to time, but no green ones should be broken off. When the tops are cut for use, the stems should not be denuded of foliage, as they will soon break again and form successional crops. The plants must be kept free from weeds. After April, the Kales are of little use; the stems may therefore be pulled up, and the ground planted with some other crop. They all require the same treatment, and at their various seasons come in equally useful. _Sorts._ The distinct forms are somewhat limited, but being largely cultivated on the Continent as well as all parts of Britain on account of its hardy nature, the varieties of Borecole receive a large number of names that are either synonymous with, or indistinct from, a few well-known types. Dwarf Green Curled or Scotch is probably the best and most grown; other good hardy sorts are Asparagus Kale (this name is applied to several different kinds, the best one being in use very late in spring), Buda, Cottagers', Dwarf Purple, Imperial Hearting, Ragged Jack, and Tall Green Curled. Melville's Variegated and Variegated Borecole, amongst others, have fine ornamental foliage. =BORONIA= (named after Francis Boroni, an Italian servant of Dr. Sibthorp, who perished from an accident at Athens; he collected specimens of many of those plants which are figured in the "Flora Græca"). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. Very elegant and useful shrubs, requiring similar treatment to ordinary greenhouse hard-wooded subjects, and much aided with a little extra heat in spring, when breaking into growth. Flowers pretty, pink-purplish, or white; peduncles terminal, but usually axillary on the extreme branches, one to many-flowered; pedicels furnished at the base and middle with two opposite, short bracts, jointed, commonly dilated under the calyx. Leaves opposite, simple, or impari-pinnate, entire, or a little serrulated, full of pellucid dots. They should be placed out of doors from July to the middle of September; the most convenient place for them is in pits, as there are then greater facilities for protecting them from heavy rains and thunderstorms. When first put out, Boronias should not be fully exposed, but in the course of a week they may remain open to the full influence of both sun and air. Potting should be performed once a year, as soon as the top growth ceases, as the roots then extend themselves in preparation for their next year's functions. The best compost for them is one of peat and maiden loam in equal parts, and about one-sixth sharp silver sand. Many cultivators, however, prefer a compost consisting of good fibry peat and silver sand, together with some pieces of charcoal, smaller or larger, according to the size of the pots used. The soil should be rammed firmly in the pots, which must be well drained. The leading shoots should be pinched, to ensure good bushy specimens. Propagation may be effected by young cuttings, or those made from the half-ripened wood; these should be put into a thoroughly drained pot of sandy soil, with 1in. of sand on the surface, and covered with a bell glass, which must be frequently taken off and wiped dry. When in the cutting state, water must be very carefully given around the rim of the pot, without taking off the glass. If placed in a temperature of about 50deg., and shaded from bright noonday sun, they soon root, when they may be potted off singly into small pots, and plunged in sawdust, or cocoa-nut fibre refuse, in which situation but little water is needed. Pinching repeatedly, when young, is the only means to secure good ultimate growth. Air must be given on all possible opportunities. =B. alata= (winged). _fl._ pale rose-colour, small; peduncles dichotomous, usually three-flowered; bracts fringed. May. _l._, leaflets three to five pairs, or more, crenate, revolute, pilose on the nerves beneath, as well as the rachis. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. New Holland, 1823. (L. B. C. 1833.) =B. anemonifolia= (Anemone-leaved). _fl._ pink; peduncles axillary, solitary, one-flowered. May. _l._ stalked, trifid; segments narrow, wedge-shaped, furnished with two or three teeth at the apex, or quite entire. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. New Holland, 1824. (P. M. B. 9, 123.) =B. crenulata= (crenulate).* _fl._ red, small, with a fringed calyx; pedicels axillary and terminal, one-flowered. July. _l._ obovate, mucronulate, crenulated. _h._ 1ft. to 4ft. King George's Sound. (B. M. 3915.) =B. denticulata= (finely-toothed). _fl._ rose-coloured; bracts deciduous; peduncles corymbose. March to August. _l._ linear, retuse, toothleted, terminated by a small point. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. King George's Sound, 1823. (B. R. 1000.) =B. Drummondi= (Drummond's).* _fl._ pretty rosy pink, freely produced during spring and summer. _l._ pinnatifid. _h._ 2ft. New Holland. A very pretty species, with a slender but compact habit of growth. There is a white-flowered variety of this species (F. d. S. 9, 881.) =B. elatior= (tallest).* _fl._ pendulous, rosy carmine, very fragrant, disposed in long dense clusters along the ends of the branches. May. _l._ very prettily pinnately cut into linear segments. _h._ 4ft. Western Australia, 1874. (B. M. 6285.) =B. ledifolia= (Ledum-leaved). _fl._ red; peduncles axillary, one-flowered, each bearing two bracts in the middle. March. _l._ linear-lanceolate, quite entire, downy beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. New Holland, 1814. (P. M. B. 8, 123.) [Illustration: FIG. 266. FLOWERING BRANCHES OF BORONIA MEGASTIGMA.] =B. megastigma= (large-stigma).* _fl._ numerous, axillary, fragrant, drooping, 1/2in. in diameter, sub-globose, campanulate; petals nearly orbicular, concave, maroon purple outside, and yellow within. _l._ sessile, pinnate, with three to five narrow linear rigid leaflets. _h._ 1ft. Of slender habit, with twiggy branches. South-western Australia, 1873. See Fig. 266. =B. pinnata= (pinnate).* _fl._ pink, with a scent like that of Hawthorn; peduncles dichotomous. February to May. _l._, leaflets two, three or four pairs, linear, acute, quite smooth. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. New Holland, 1794. (B. M. 1763.) =B. polygalæfolia= (Polygala-leaved). _fl._ red; peduncles axillary, solitary, one-flowered. March to July. _l._ linear-lanceolate, quite entire, opposite, alternate, and three in a whorl. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Port Jackson, 1824. =B. serrulata= (serrulate).* _fl._ of a deep rose colour, very fragrant; peduncles aggregate, terminal. July. _l._ trapeziform, acute, serrulated in front, smooth, full of glandular dots. _h._ 1ft. to 6ft. Port Jackson, 1816. (B. R. 842.) =B. tetrandra= (four-stamened). _fl._ pale purple; pedicels short, one-flowered. May. _l._ impari-pinnate; leaflets four to five pairs, linear, obtuse, smooth; branches pilose. _h._ 1ft. to 4ft. New Holland, 1824. (P. M. B. 16, 227.) =BORRERIA= (named after William Borrer, F.L.S., a profound botanist and cryptogamist). ORD. _Rubiaceæ_. A large genus of stove herbs or sub-shrubs, now referred to _Spermacoce_. Flowers small, white, rarely blue, disposed in verticillate heads, in the axils of the leaves, or on the tops of the branches, rarely cymose or corymbose. Leaves opposite, or the young ones disposed in fascicles in the axils of the old ones, and therefore appearing verticillate; stipules joining with the petioles, more or less sheathing, fringed by many bristles. Stems and branches usually tetragonal. The species are of easy culture, thriving in a light soil. Cuttings of the perennial kinds strike root readily in the same kind of soil, in heat. The annual kinds require a similar treatment to other tender annuals. =B. stricta= (straight). A dwarf shrub, but closely allied to the next species. Porto Rico. =B. verticillata= (whorled-flowered). _fl._ white. July. _l._ linear lanceolate, acuminated, opposite, but appearing verticillate from the fascicles of young leaves in the axils. _h._ 2ft. West Indies, 1732. =BOSCIA= (named after Louis Bosc, a French professor of agriculture). SYN. _Podoria_. ORD. _Capparidaceæ_. A small genus of stove plants, requiring a soil of lumpy, fibry loam and peat. Propagated by cuttings of firm wood, placed in sand, under a glass, in heat. =B. senegalensis= (Senegal). _fl._ white, small, apetalous, corymbose. _h._ 3ft. Senegal, 1824. An unarmed evergreen shrub. (L. E. M. 395.) =BOSSI�A= (named after M. Bossier Lamartinière, a French botanist, who accompanied the unfortunate La Peyrouse round the world). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus of elegant Australian greenhouse shrubs. Flowers yellow, axillary and solitary, the base of the vexillum or the keel generally blotched or veined with purple. Leaves simple, of various forms. A mixture of turfy loam, leaf mould, peat, and sand, with very free drainage, suits these plants best. Half-ripened cuttings will root freely if placed in a pot of sand with a bell glass over them, in a cool house. Seeds should be sown, in March, on a slight hotbed. =B. cinerea= (ashy-grey). _fl._ yellow, the vexillum furnished with a purple circle at the base, and the keel dark purple. May. _l._ nearly sessile, cordate acute, ending in a spiny mucrone, scabrous above, but pilose on the nerves beneath, with recurved margins. Branches terete, crowded with leaves, vinous. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. 1824. SYNS. _B. cordifolia_, _B. tenuicaulis_. (B. M. 3895.) =B. cordifolia= (heart-leaved). A synonym of _B. cinerea_. =B. disticha= (two-ranked).* _fl._ yellowish-red; peduncles solitary, axillary, one-flowered, longer than the leaves. March to May. _l._ distichous, ovate, obtuse. Young branches terete. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Swan River, 1840. (B. R. 1841, 55.) =B. ensata= (sword-shaped). _fl._ yellowish, with the back and base of the vexillum of a brownish orange-purple colour; keel brownish-purple. April. Branches flat, linear, leafless, toothed, the teeth bearing the flowers; upper bracts distant from the lower ones, shorter than the pedicel. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1825. (S. F. A. 51.) =B. foliosa= (leafy). _fl._ yellow and orange. May to June. _l._ alternate, small, orbicular, retuse, scabrous, with revolute margins, silky beneath; stipules permanent, hooked, longer than the petioles. Branches straight, terete, villous. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. 1824. =B. lenticularis= (lentil-leaved). A synonym of _B. rhombifolia_. =B. linnæoides= (Linnæa-like).* _fl._ yellow; keel dark brown; corolla about twice the length of the calyx; pedicels solitary one-flowered, elongated. May. _l._ elliptic, mucronate. Branches terete, prostrate, puberulous. 1824. A procumbent shrub. =B. linophylla= (Flax-leaved).* _fl._ orange and purple. July to August. _l._ linear, with recurved margins. Branches compressed, leafy. _h._ 1ft. to 4ft. 1803. (B. M. 2491.) =B. microphylla= (small-leaved). _l._ cuneiformly obcordate, glabrous. Branches terete, leafy, spinescent; young branches rather compressed and pubescent. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1803. (L. B. C. 656.) =B. rhombifolia= (diamond-leaved).* _fl._ yellow, the vexillum having a dark red zonate mark at the base; wings red at the base; keel brownish-purple. April. _l._ rhomboidal-orbicular, somewhat emarginate and mucronate. Branches terete; branchlets compressed, leafy. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. 1820. SYN. _B. lenticularis_. (L. B. C. 1238.) =B. rotundifolia= (round-leaved). _l._ roundish, or broadly obovate, somewhat mucronate, flat, four to five lines long and five to six broad. Branches and branchlets leafy, compressed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. 1824. =B. scolopendrium= (plank-plant). _fl._ yellow, with the back of the vexillum and keel brownish-red. May. _l._ (when present) ovate and smooth. Branches flat, linear, leafless, toothed, with the teeth bearing the flowers; keel naked; superior bracts permanent, imbricate, equal in length to the peduncles. _h._ 3ft. to 10ft. 1792. (B. M. 1235.) =B. tenuicaulis= (slender-stemmed). Synonymous with _B. cinerea_. =BOSWELLIA= (named after Dr. Boswell, formerly of Edinburgh). Olibanum Tree. ORD. _Burseraceæ_. Ornamental and economic evergreen stove trees. Flowers hermaphrodite; calyx five-toothed, permanent; petals five, obovate-oblong, spreading, with the margins incumbent in æstivation; disk cup-shaped, crenate; stamens ten; capsule trigonal. They are of easy culture, thriving well in loam and peat soil. Cuttings root readily if placed in sand under a glass. =B. glabra= (glabrous). _fl._ white, small, with a red nectary and yellow anthers; racemes aggregate, simple, terminal, shorter than the leaves. _l._ impari-pinnate; leaflets broad, lanceolate, blunt, serrated, smooth. _h._ 30ft. Coromandel, 1823. (B. F. S. 124.) =B. serrata= (saw-edged-leaved).* _fl._ whitish-yellow; racemes axillary, simple. _l._ impari-pinnate; leaflets ovate-oblong, taper-pointed, serrated, pubescent. _h._ 20ft. India, 1820. (T. L. S. xv., 4.) =BOTANY BAY GUM.= _See_ =Xanthorrhæa arborea=. =BOTANY BAY TEA= (and =TREE=). _See_ =Smilax glycyphylla=. =BOTHY.= A residence for under-gardeners, usually built behind the hothouses, or some high wall, in what is called a back shed. The place is too frequently a cramped, ill-ventilated hovel. A Bothy proper should be an independent structure, and fitted with modern conveniences; for, of all people, gardeners are the most susceptible to colds, &c. A library of standard horticultural and botanical works, as well as a few on other scientific subjects, and a moderate number of high-class books of fiction, one or more weekly gardening and other papers, should be supplied by the employer. During the winter months, for mutual improvement, lectures should be delivered, or papers read, by each gardener, on various subjects, after which a free discussion should take place upon the paper or lecture, by which means a great amount of good would be accomplished. =BOTRYCHIUM= (from _botrys_, a bunch; in reference to the bunch-like disposition of the indusia). Moonwort. ORD. _Filices_. A genus of very interesting and pretty little hardy ferns. Capsules sessile, arranged in two rows on the face of spikes which form a compound panicle. They require a compost of sandy loam; perfect drainage is most essential. For general culture, _see_ =Ferns=. =B. australe= (southern). A variety of _B. ternatum_. =B. daucifolium= (Daucus-leaved). _sti._ stout, 6in. to 12in. long; petiole of sterile segments 1in. to 6in. long, the latter 6in. to 12in. each way, deltoid, tripinnatifid or tripinnate, the lower pinnæ largest; segments lanceolate-oblong, 1/4in. to 3/8in. broad, finely toothed. _fertile peduncle_ equalling the sterile segments when mature; panicle 2in. to 4in. long; tripinnate, not very close. Himalayas, &c. Greenhouse species. SYN. _B. subcarnosum_. =B. Lunaria.= Common Moonwort.* _sti._ 1in. to 4in. long. _sterile segments_ sessile, or nearly so, 1in. to 3in. long, 1/2in. to 1in. broad, base much broader than the middle, cut down to a flattened rachis into several distinct, close, entire, or notched cuneate-flabellate pinnæ on both sides. _fertile peduncle_ equalling or exceeding the sterile portion; panicle close, 1in. to 2in. long. England, &c. Hardy. See Fig. 267. [Illustration: FIG. 267. BOTRYCHIUM LUNARIA, showing Habit, Capsule, and Spores.] =B. lunarioides= (Lunaria-like). A variety of _B. ternatum_. =B. obliquum= (oblique). A variety of _B. ternatum_. =B. subcarnosum= (sub-fleshy). A synonym of _B. daucifolium_. =B. ternatum= (ternate).* _sti._ 1in. to 2in. long. _petiole_ of the sterile segments 2in. to 4in. long, the latter 3in. to 6in. each way, deltoid, tri- or quadripinnatifid; lower pinnæ much the largest. _fertile peduncle_ 6in. to 9in. long; panicle 1in. to 6in. long; deltoid, very compound. Nootka and Hudson's Bay territory. Several so-called species come very close to this, including _australe_, _lunarioides_, and _obliquum_, which are only geographical varieties. Greenhouse species. =B. virginianum= (Virginian).* _sti._ 3in. to 18in. long. _sterile segments_ sessile, 4in. to 12in. each way, deltoid, quadripinnatifid; lower pinnæ much the largest; pinnules oval-oblong, close, cut down to the rachis into finely cut linear-oblong segments. _fertile peduncle_ equalling or exceeding the sterile part of the plant when mature; panicle 1in. to 4in. long, loose, oblong. Oregon, and North United States, 1790. A hardy species in sheltered places. (H. G. F. 29.) =BOTTLE-GOURD.= _See_ =Lagenaria=. =BOTTLE-TREE.= _See_ =Sterculia rupestris=. =BOTTOM HEAT.= This is usually secured by passing hot-water pipes through an air chamber, or a water tank, beneath a bed of plunging material. The covering of the tank or chamber is best made of slate. The heat must be regulated according to the requirements of the subjects grown; this is easily accomplished by using the valve. A thermometer should be placed in the tank or bed. Bottom-heat is indispensable for propagating plants from seeds and cuttings, especially in spring. _See_ =Heating= and =Hotbeds=. =BOUCEROSIA= (from _boukeros_, furnished with buffaloes' horns; in reference to the curved lobes of the corona) ORD. _Asclepiadaceæ_. A genus of greenhouse succulent perennials, allied to _Stapelia_, and requiring the same culture. Flowers numerous, terminal, umbellate; corolla sub-campanulate, five-cleft; segments broadly triangular, with acute recesses; stramineous corona fifteen-lobed; lobes disposed in a double series; the five inner ones opposite the stamens and lying upon the anthers; the rest exterior, erect, or a little incurved at apex, adhering to the back of the inner ones. Branches and stems tetragonal, with toothed angles. [Illustration: FIG. 268 BOUCEROSIA EUROP�A.] =B. europæa= (European). _fl._ purple-brown, yellow. Summer. _h._ 4in. Sicily, 1833. SYNS. _Apteranthes_ and _Stapelia Gussoniana_. See Fig. 268. (B. R. 1731.) =B. maroccana= (Morocco).* _fl._ dark red purple, with yellow concentric lines. Summer. _l._ minute, trowel-shaped, deflexed at tip of stem angles. _h._ 4in. Morocco, 1875. (B. M. 6137.) =BOUCHEA= (named after C. and P. Bouche, German naturalists). ORD. _Verbenaceæ_. A small genus of stove or greenhouse evergreen herbs or sub-shrubs. Flowers sub-sessile, in spicate racemes, which are either terminal or in the forking of two branches; corolla funnel-shaped. Leaves opposite, toothed. They thrive in a well-drained compost of loam and sandy peat. Propagated by cuttings, placed in sand, under a glass, and in a gentle heat, during spring. =B. cuneifolia= (wedge-shaped-leaved). _fl._ white. April. _h._ 4ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1821. A greenhouse evergreen shrub. SYN. _Chascanum cuneifolium_. =B. pseudogervao= (false-gervaô). _fl._ purplish, with white throat; spike terminal, 6in. to 10in. long, slender. September. _l._ opposite, ovate, or elliptic-ovate, acuminate, serrated. Stems tetragonous. _h._ 2ft. to 5ft. Brazil, 1874. A stove perennial. (B. M. 6221). =BOUGAINVILLEA= (named after De Bougainville, a French navigator). ORD. _Nyctagineæ_. Gorgeous warm greenhouse or conservatory plants, comprising some of the most showy climbers in cultivation. Their beauty lies in the bracts, which envelop the small greenish flowers. _B. glabra_ may be grown in pots, or planted out in the greenhouse borders; the others are best planted out, as they root very freely, and plenty of space would be occupied if allowed, but it is best to limit it, as they bloom much better. Strict training and pinching are not desirable, being prejudicial to the free production of bloom; indeed, the best plan is to allow the plants to ramble freely over the roof of a moderately high house, or along the upper portion of a back wall; they will then bloom profusely for several months in the year, provided proper attention be paid to watering, and that the plants are in a well-drained situation. In preparing a border for their reception, the first point to be considered is the drainage, which must be perfect. This is best effected by placing a layer of brick rubbish, 6in. to 9in. in thickness, communicating with the drain, by which means all sourness and stagnancy of the soil will be obviated. The bed should be excavated to a depth of 18in. or 2ft. Three parts turfy loam, and one part leaf soil, with the admixture of a liberal quantity of sharp gritty sand, will form a suitable compost for the culture of Bougainvilleas. The amount of sand incorporated must depend upon the quality of the other components, heavy loam requiring more than that which is more friable. The occasional incorporation of manure in the compost is not to be recommended; but a liberal application of liquid manure will be of material advantage, especially if the root space is limited. When the plants cease blooming each year�-about November or December�-they should be dried off and rested; and in February they should be closely spurred in, the same as with vines, and all weak leaders removed, so that strong wood only is left. When grown in pots, they must be started in brisk heat. They are easily increased by cuttings prepared from the half-ripened wood; these should be placed in sandy soil, in a brisk bottom heat, when they will soon root. Scale, red spider, and mealy bug are the only insects likely to infest the plants, and recipes for their destruction will be found under each individual name. [Illustration: FIG. 269. FLOWERING BRANCH OF BOUGAINVILLEA SPECTABILIS.] =B. glabra= (smooth).* _fl._, inflorescence panicled, smaller than that of _B. speciosa_, each branchlet producing cordate-ovate acute rosy bracts, in threes. Summer. _l._ bright green, smooth. Brazil, 1861. This is by far the best species for pot culture, and forms a very showy plant when well grown. =B. speciosa= (beautiful).* _fl._, bracts large, cordate, delicate lilac rose, produced in immense panicles, which, in well grown specimens, are so freely produced as to entirely shroud the whole plant. March to June. _l._ ovate, very dark green, covered on the upper surface with small hairs. Stems branched, abundantly furnished with large recurved spines. Brazil, 1861. (F. M. i., 62.) =B. spectabilis= (showy). _fl._, bracts of a dull brick-red, shaded with scarlet. South America, 1829. It is very difficult to obtain bloom on this plant; and when flowers are produced, they are extremely ephemeral. The species is, for all practical purposes, much inferior to either of the foregoing. SYN. _Josepha augusta_. See Fig. 269. =BOURBON PALM.= _See_ =Latania=. =BOUSSINGAULTIA= (named after Boussingault, a celebrated chemist). ORD. _Chenopodiaceæ_. Very pretty half-hardy, tuberous-rooted plants, requiring a rich vegetable sandy soil, and a well-drained sunny aspect, under which conditions the first-mentioned species develops into a very luxuriant trailing plant, attaining a length of 20in. or more. Propagated freely by means of the tubercles of the stem; these are, however, extremely brittle. =B. baselloides= (Basella-like).* _fl._ white, ultimately becoming black, fragrant, small, disposed in clusters, 2in. to 4in. long, which are axillary at the ends of the branches. Late autumn. _l._ alternate, cordate, smooth, shining, fleshy, slightly wavy. Stems very twining, tinged red, very quick-growing, producing tubercles. South America, 1835. (B. M. 3620.) =B. Lachaumei= (Lachaume's). _fl._ rose, constantly in perfection. Cuba, 1872. A stove species. [Illustration: FIG. 270. FLOWERING BRANCH OF BOUVARDIA.] =BOUVARDIA= (named after Dr. Charles Bouvard, formerly superintendent of the Jardin du Roi, at Paris). ORD. _Rubiaceæ_. Handsome greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Peduncles terminal, three-flowered, or trichotomous and corymbose; corolla funnel-shaped, tubular, elongated, beset with velvety papillæ outside, and a four-parted, spreading, short limb. Leaves opposite, or in whorls; stipules narrow, acute, adnate to the petioles on both sides. These extensively cultivated plants are among the most useful for conservatory or greenhouse decoration (see Fig. 270. for which we are indebted to Messrs. Cannell and Sons), and the flowers are largely employed in a cut state. Perhaps only two are fragrant, viz., _jasminiflora_ and _Humboldtii_. Cultivation: Presuming the grower to be commencing with young rooted cuttings, these should be potted off into a mixture of good fibrous loam, leaf soil, and sand, in equal proportions, to which may be added a small quantity of peat; they should then be placed in a temperature of from 70deg. to 80deg. until fully established in the small pots. It is necessary at this stage to stop the young plants back to the first joint, and as they continue to make fresh breaks, to keep on pinching them back during the whole period of cultivation, or until sufficiently bushy plants are produced. Many growers neglect stopping far too much, the result being ill-shaped and almost flowerless plants. The pinching, of course, can be regulated by the time the plants are required to flower; and it is unwise, in most cases, to stop them after the end of August. When the small pots are well filled with roots, the plants should be shifted into the flowering pots, viz., large 48-sized, which are quite commodious enough to grow very fine plants, a similar compost as in the first potting, with a little Standen's manure added, being used, and good drainage provided. A cool greenhouse, with a damp bottom for the pots to rest upon, and with a moist atmosphere, is the most suitable place in which to grow them during late spring and early summer, the moist air being very desirable as an effectual check to red spider, a pest very fond of the foliage, which it permanently disfigures. A cold pit or close frame is better during the summer months, as a moist atmosphere and cool bottom are then certain. Ventilation may be effected during the greater part of the day by tilting the lights below, and on fine nights they may be removed altogether. During bright sunshine, shading will be beneficial. All through the period of active growth, it is absolutely necessary that the plants should receive plenty of water, or they will surely suffer; and when the pots are filled with roots, occasional doses of manure water will be beneficial. Many cultivators plant them out about the end of June, in favoured situations, or in spent hotbeds, when they make very vigorous growth; and, if carefully pinched and watered, fine specimens are obtained. These are lifted in early autumn, with a good ball, potted, and kept shaded for a few days until the roots are again active, when they are taken to the house in which they are intended to bloom, and an enormous supply of flowers is secured. We have also seen Bouvardias planted out permanently in beds, in prepared pits, in which the winter temperature was not less than 55deg., with very satisfactory results; the quantity of bloom being very great. Of course, with the last-named treatment, it is essential to give the plants a rest and hardening-off after flowering, and when they are started into fresh growth to keep them well pinched and watered. Bouvardias are liable to the attacks of red spider and green fly. The former stands little chance of existence if the plants are kept well supplied with moisture; the latter may be destroyed by fumigating with tobacco. Mealy bug are also troublesome, and should be sponged off with a solution of Gishurst's Compound. Propagation: After flowering, and a slight rest and hardening-off, the old plants should be cut back, placed in heat, in a stove or cucumber pit, and freely syringed, which will cause them to break freely, and produce a good supply of cuttings. When the young shoots are from 1-1/2in. to 2in. long., they are in the best condition for striking. It is not necessary that they should be cut off at a joint, as they will root from any surface of the stem; and, working economically, it is wiser to cut them off just above the first joint, as other shoots will speedily break out, which may, in their turn, be taken. Pots about 5in. across should have previously been prepared for the cuttings, by being well drained and filled with a mixture of good fibrous loam, leaf soil, and coarse sand, in equal parts, with a copious supply of sand upon the surface, into which the cuttings should be dibbled pretty thickly. A good watering must be given without wetting, and thereby injuring, the foliage. The pots should be plunged in the cutting case, or in any bottom heat of about 70deg. or 80deg., and covered with a bell glass. All that is then necessary is to keep them moist and shady during sunshine, until they are rooted, which, as a rule, is effected in three weeks' time. When well established, they may be removed from the case, gradually hardened off, and finally potted singly into small thumb pots. =B. angustifolia= (narrow-leaved).* _fl._ pale red; corymbs somewhat trichotomous. September. _l._ three in a whorl, lanceolate, with revolute edges, glabrous above, but beset with fine hairs beneath. Branches terete, smoothish. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1838. (P. M. B. 7, 99.) =B. Cavanillesii= (Cavanilles's). _fl._ red; peduncles terminal, trifid, three-flowered. May. _l._ opposite, ovate-lanceolate, acuminated, rather villous beneath. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Mexico, 1846. SYN. _B. multiflora_. (J. H. S. 3, 246.) =B. flava= (yellow).* _fl._ yellow, drooping; racemes three to five-flowered; pedicels downy, slender. March. _l._ opposite, ovate-lanceolate, ciliated; stipules setaceous. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Mexico, 1845. (B. R. 32, 32.) =B. hirtella= (hairy). _fl._ pale red or flesh-coloured, corymbose. _l._ whorled, lanceolate, with revoluted edges, hairy on both surfaces. Branches terete. Mexico. =B. Humboldtii corymbiflora= (Humboldt's corymb-flowered).* _fl._ white, large, fragrant, disposed in terminal racemes; tubes long. Autumn and winter. _l._ ovate, oblong-acuminate, dark green. 1874. One of the finest kinds in cultivation. (G. C. 1873, 717.) =B. Jacquini= (Jacquin's). A synonym of _B. triphylla_. =B. jasminiflora= (Jasmine-flowered).* _fl._ white, fragrant, in compound cymes; very floriferous. Winter. _l._ opposite, elliptic-acuminate. South America, 1869. A very charming and largely grown species. (G. C. 1872, 215.) [Illustration: FIG. 271. BOUVARDIA LEIANTHA.] =B. leiantha= (smooth-flowered).* _fl._ scarlet; corymbs sub-trichotomous. July to November. _l._ ternate, ovate-acuminate, slightly hairy above, downy-villous beneath. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1850. See Fig. 271. (B. H. 2, 6.) =B. longiflora= (long-flowered).* _fl._ white, terminal, solitary, sessile, with the tube 2in. or 3in. long. _l._ opposite, oblong, acute, cuneated at the base, glabrous. Branches compressedly tetragonal, glabrous. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Mexico, 1827. (B. M. 4223.) =B. multiflora= (many-flowered). A synonym of _B. Cavanillesii_. =B. triphylla= (three-leaved).* _fl._ scarlet, nearly 1in. long; corymbs somewhat trichotomous. July. _l._ smoothish above, hairy beneath, three in a whorl, oblong. Branchlets trigonal, hairy. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Mexico, 1794. There are numerous varieties of this species. SYN. _B. Jacquini_. (B. M. 1854.) =B. versicolor= (various-coloured). _fl._, corolla with a scarlet tube, which is 3/4in. long, but having the limb yellowish inside; corymbs three-flowered, trichotomous, drooping. July to September. _l._ opposite, lanceolate, ciliated. Branches terete, glabrous, velvety while young. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. South America, 1814. (B. R. 245.) The garden hybrids are very handsome. A selection is given below: ALFRED NEUNER, flowers double, white, or slightly tinged with rose (see Fig. 272); BRILLIANT, flowers bright crimson, numerous, freely branching habit, and strong constitution; DAZZLER,* habit very bushy and compact, extremely floriferous, flowers rich scarlet, in dense clusters; HOGARTH, brilliant scarlet, very fine; LONGIFLORA FLAMMEA,* flowers long-tubed, blush-rose; MAIDEN'S BLUSH,* very free and floriferous, blush-rose; PRESIDENT GARFIELD, rich double, red-pink, very fine; QUEEN OF ROSES, rosy-pink, the tubes tinted with crimson, habit dwarf and very free; VREELANDI (=DAVIDSONI), flowers pure white, produced in great abundance; one of the most useful of them all, and grown very extensively. [Illustration: FIG. 272. BOUVARDIA ALFRED NEUNER.] =BOWENIA= (commemorative of Sir G. Bowen, Governor of Queensland). ORD. _Cycadaceæ_. A remarkable and handsome greenhouse fern-like plant, closely allied to _Zamia_, from which it is distinguished by having the leaflets decurrent to the petiole, instead of articulated, as in that genus. For culture, _see_ =Cycas=. =B. spectabilis= (showy).* _fl._, male cones small, ovoid, 1/2in. to 3/4in. long; female oblong-globose, 3-3/4in. long. _l._ bipinnatisect, on tall, slender petioles; leaflets falcate-lanceolate, decurrent; stem short, thick, cylindrical. Queensland, Australia, 1863. (B. M. 5398 and 6008.) =B. s. serrulata= (finely-toothed).* This differs from the type in having the margins distinctly toothed or serrated. Rockingham Bay, 1863. =BOWIEA= (named after J. Bowie, a botanical collector for the Royal Gardens, Kew). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A very interesting greenhouse or half-hardy twining bulbous perennial, thriving in a sunny border, under the wall of a greenhouse, where it will require protection during winter. It does well in any light well drained soil, and may be propagated by seeds or offsets. [Illustration: FIG. 273. BOWIEA VOLUBILIS, showing Habit, Flower, and Fruit.] =B. volubilis= (twining). _fl._ few, remote, pedicellate; perianth six-partite, persistent; segments equal, green, lanceolate, 1/4in. long, at length reflexed. October. True leaves are frequently not developed for years; but the green, fleshy, mostly abortive inflorescence performs their functions. South Africa, 1866. See Fig. 273. =BOX.= _See_ =Buxus=. =BOX ELDER.= _See_ =Negundo=. =BOX THORN.= _See_ =Lycium=. =BRABEIUM= (from _brabeion_, a sceptre; in reference to the racemosed flowers). African Almond. ORD. _Proteaceæ_. An ornamental greenhouse evergreen tree. For culture, &c., _see_ =Banksia=. =B. stellatifolium= (star-leaved). _fl._ white, sweet-scented, disposed in elegant, axillary, spiked racemes. August. _l._ whorled, simple, serrate. _h._ 15ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1731. =BRACHYCHITON= (from _brachys_, short, and _chiton_, a coat of mail; plants covered with imbricated hairs and scales). ORD. _Sterculiaceæ_. A genus of tropical or sub-tropical Australian trees or shrubs, allied to _Sterculia_, from which it differs in very minor points. They are of easy culture in a loamy soil. Propagated by young cuttings, planted in sandy soil, in gentle heat. =B. acerifolium= (Acer-leaved). _fl._ bright red. _l._ long-stalked, deeply five to seven-lobed. _h._ from 60ft. to 120ft. =B. Bidwillii= (Bidwill's).* _fl._ bright red, arranged in axillary bunches. _l._ stalked, heart-shaped, entire, or three-lobed, and covered with a soft pubescence. 1851. (B. M. 5133.) =B. diversifolium= (various-leaved). _l._ coriaceous, obtuse, lanceolate, entire, or three-lobed, glabrous; lobes acuminate. _h._ 20ft. to 60ft. 1824. =BRACHYCOME= (from _brachys_, short, and _kome_, hair). Swan River Daisy. ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of beautiful little half-hardy perennials or annuals, closely resembling _Bellis_ in structure. Involucral bracts membranous at the margin; receptacle pitted, naked. Fruit compressed, surmounted by a very short bristly pappus. _B. iberidifolia_ is one of the prettiest of summer annuals, and in the open border it flowers profusely, if in a dry, sunny spot. Towards the autumn, it may be removed to the greenhouse, where it will still continue flowering for several weeks. Seeds may be sown in a gentle hotbed, early in the spring, and, when large enough, planted out in borders or beds, 6in. apart; or they may be sown thinly out of doors, late in April, and thinned out, when they will flower a month later than those sown in the hotbed. =B. iberidifolia= (Iberis-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ blue or white, with a dark centre, about 1in. in diameter. Summer and autumn. _l._ pinnate; segments linear. Plant erect, glabrous. _h._ 1ft. Swan River, 1843. See Fig. 274. [Illustration: FIG. 274. BRACHYCOME IBERIDIFOLIA, showing Habit and Flowering Branch.] =BRACHYL�NA= (from _brachys_, short, and _læna_, a cloak or covering; referring to the shortness of the involucre). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of South African evergreen greenhouse shrubs, nearly allied to _Baccharis_. They thrive in a compost of peat and loam. Propagated by cuttings, made of half-ripened shoots, placed in a well-drained pot of sandy soil, under a bell glass. =B. dentata= (toothed). _fl.-heads_ yellow. _l._ lanceolate, acute, entire, rusty beneath when young, when adult quite glabrous. =B. nerifolia= (Nerium-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, in branching racemes or panicles. August to November. _l._ lanceolate, serrated with one or two teeth forward. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1752. =BRACHYOTUM= (from _brachys_, short, and _otos_, the ear; in reference to the short appendages at the base of the anthers). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. A handsome greenhouse evergreen shrub, with a bushy habit. Allied, and requiring similar culture, to _Pleroma_ (which _see_). =B. confertum= (crowded).* _fl._ purple, terminal, nodding, with cream-coloured bracts. November. _l._ oblong or ovate, small, three-nerved, with adpressed hairs. Andes, Peru, 1873. (B. M. 6018.) =BRACHYSEMA= (from _brachys_, short, and _sema_, a standard; the standard of the flower is very short). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Elegant procumbent or climbing greenhouse, evergreen shrubs. Racemes axillary and terminal, few-flowered. Leaves alternate, oval or ovate, entire, mucronate, silky on the under surface. They thrive in a compost of peat, leaf soil, and loam, in equal proportions, made porous, if necessary, by the addition of sand. Increased by cuttings, made of half-ripened shoots in summer, placed in sandy soil, under a bell glass, in a gentle bottom heat; or by layers. Seeds may be sown in March, in heat. Brachysemas require thorough drainage, whether grown in pots or planted out. _B. latifolium_ does best under the latter treatment, when it forms a magnificent climber for pillars or the roof. [Illustration: THE GIANT WATER LILY (VICTORIA REGIA).] =B. lanceolatum= (lanceolate-leaved). _fl._ rich scarlet, with the margin of the vexillum white, red at the disk, with a large yellow spot in the centre, each about 1in. long, disposed in axillary, sub-compound racemes. _l._ opposite, rarely alternate, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, entire, silky white beneath. _h._ 3ft. Swan River, 1848. (B. M. 4652.) =B. latifolium= (broad-leaved).* _fl._ crimson-scarlet, large; vexillum oblong-ovate. April. _l._ ovate, flat, silky beneath. New Holland, 1803. A handsome climber. (B. R. 118.) =B. melanopetalum= (black-petaled). Synonymous with _B. undulatum_. =B. undulatum= (undulated).* _fl._ deep violet-maroon, solitary or twin; vexillum oblong, cordate, convolute, and bluntish above. March. _l._ oblong-ovate, mucronate, undulated. New South Wales, 1820. A tall subscandent plant. SYN. _B. melanopetalum_. (B. R. 642.) =BRACHYSPATHA= (from _brachys_, short, and _spatha_, a spathe; the spathe is much shorter than the spadix). ORD. _Aroideæ_. Stove tuberous perennial, allied to, and requiring the same cultivation as, _Amorphophallus_ (which _see_). =B. variabilis= (variable).* _fl._ exhaling an abominable f�tor, which is, however, of very short duration; spathe much shorter than the spadix, greenish-purple, sharply acuminate, and many-nerved; spadix whitish, with female flower at the base, and above contiguous to them are the males without any intermediate neutral flowers; anthers orange red; the naked apex of the spadix is very long, wrinkled, and pitted on the surface. _l._ solitary, 18in. across; the spotted petiole divides at the top into three main divisions, each of which is again forked and deeply pinnately cut; the segments alternate, sessile, or decurrent, very unequal in size, ovate or oval-lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous, shining. _h._ 3ft. India, 1876. (G. C. 1876, 129.) =BRACHYSTELMA= (from _brachys_, short, and _stelma_, a crown; in reference to the short coronal processes of the flowers). ORD. _Asclepiadaceæ_. Extremely curious little suffruticose, tuberous, twining, greenhouse perennials. Corolla campanulate, having angular sinuses; corona simple, five-cleft, lobes opposite the anthers, simple on the back. Leaves opposite, membranous. They thrive best in fibry loam. Propagated by cuttings, which will root in sandy soil, in heat; also by divisions of the root. =B. Arnotti= (Arnott's). _fl._ brown, green. _l._ in opposite pairs, nearly sessile, crisped, ovate, dull green above, densely grey, pubescent beneath. _h._ 4in. South Africa, 1868. (Ref. B. i., 9.) =B. Barberæ= (Mrs. Barber's). _fl._ dingy purple, speckled with yellow. August. _l._ large, linear-oblong, acute. _h._ 6in. South Africa, 1866. (B. M. 5607.) =B. ovata= (ovate-leaved). _fl._ yellowish-green. _l._ ovate, shortly-stalked, pubescent. _h._ 1ft. South Africa, 1872. (Ref. B. 226.) =B. spathulatum= (spathulate-leaved). _fl._ green. June. _l._ spathulate, oblong, hairy. _h._ 1ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1826. (B. R. 1113.) =B. tuborosum= (tuberous). _fl._ purple. June. _l._ linear-lanceolate, ciliate. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1821. (B. M. 2343.) =BRACKEN=, or =BRAKE FERN=. See =Pteris aquilina=. =BRACTEATE.= Having bracts. =BRACTEOLATE.= Having secondary bracts between the true bracts and the flowers. =BRACTS.= Modified leaves placed near the calyx on the peduncle or pedicel. =BRAHEA= (named after Tycho Brahe, the celebrated astronomer). ORD. _Palmeæ_. A small genus of dwarf palms, with fan-shaped leaves, and hermaphrodite, greenish flowers. They require rich light loam and fibrous peat, in equal parts, to which may be added a good portion of washed sand; thorough drainage and liberal supplies of water are also absolutely necessary. Propagated by seeds. During summer, they may be removed to the greenhouse, and can be employed with much success for sub-tropical gardening. =B. dulcis= (sweet).* _l._ nearly circular, bright shining green; petioles clothed with woolly tomentum, armed at the edges with small close-set spines, and enveloped at the base in a network of brown fibre. Stem stout. Mexico, 1865. A rare and slow developing species. =B. filamentosa= (filamentose). A synonym of _Washingtonia filifera_. =BRAINEA= (commemorative of C. J. Braine, Esq., of Hong Kong, China). ORD. _Filices_. Sori continuous along transverse veins, near the midrib, and also produced along the veins in the direction of the edge of the frond. =B. insignis= (remarkable), which is the only species, has a _trunk_ 3in. to 4in. thick; scales linear, nearly 1in. long. _sti._ firm, 3in. to 4in. long, scaly only at the base. _fronds_ 2ft to 3ft. long, 8in. to 12in. broad, simply pinnate; pinnæ close, numerous, linear, finely serrated. Hong Kong, 1856. A very handsome and interesting greenhouse tree fern, requiring a soil of loam and peat, in equal parts, with the addition of some sharp sand, and thorough drainage. =BRAMBLE.= _See_ =Rubus=. =BRASSAVOLA= (named in honour of A. M. Brassavola, a Venetian botanist). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A genus of epiphytal orchids, requiring the heat of an intermediate house. Flowers large, usually with narrow acuminate greenish petals and sepals, and a white lip, which is sometimes broad; column having a pair of great falcate ears on each side of the front, and eight pollen masses. Leaves solitary, succulent. They are of easy culture on blocks of wood, with a little moss, suspended from the roof. Water should be plentifully given during the growing season; at other times, a very small quantity will suffice. About seventeen or eighteen species have been introduced, of which the following only are worth growing: =B. acaulis= (stemless). _fl._ large; sepals and petals long, narrow, greenish and creamy-white; lip large, heart-shaped, and pure white; base of tube spotted with dull rose. September. _l._ very narrow, rush-like. _h._ 4in. Central America, 1852. (P. F. G. ii., 152.) =B. Digbyana= (Digby's).* _fl._ solitary, 4in. across, produced from the top of the bulb; sepals and petals creamy-white; lip same colour, streaked with purple down the centre, and beautifully fringed. Winter. _h._ 9in. Honduras, 1844. A compact-growing evergreen. (B. M. 4474.) =B. Gibbsiana= (Gibbs's).* _fl._ white, spotted with chocolate, large, three on each spike. _l._ rather broad and very thick. This rare, erect-growing species must be potted in peat and sphagnum. =B. glauca= (glaucous).* _fl._ solitary, produced from a sheath at the top of the bulb; sepals and petals yellow; lip orange, with a white throat. Early spring. _l._ of a milky-green. _h._ 1ft. Vera Cruz, 1837. A very handsome fragrant species, somewhat difficult to flower, but this obstacle may be overcome by liberally growing during the proper season, and giving it a severe dry rest. (B. M. 4033.) =B. lineata= (lined).* _fl._ large, very fragrant; sepals and petals creamy-white; lip large, pure white. _l._ long, terete, channelled above, tapering to a point, very deep green. South America, 1850. (B. M. 4734.) =B. venosa= (veined).* _fl._ small and compact; sepals and petals cream-coloured; lip white, strongly veined. A pretty free flowering species. Honduras, 1839. (B. R. 26, 39.) =BRASSIA= (named after Mr. William Brass, who was sent by Sir Joseph Banks to Cape Coast and the neighbouring districts as a botanical collector, at the end of the last century). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A genus of tropical American orchids, very nearly allied to _Oncidium_, with which, indeed, Reichenbach unites it. From this genus, however, _Brassia_ may be distinguished by its simple inflorescence, elongated tail-like sepals, and short column, which is quite destitute of the side lobes or ears that form a marked feature in the species of _Oncidium_. There are about seventeen species, of which many are not sufficiently attractive to deserve the cultivator's attention. They will succeed either in pots or in baskets, the drainage of which must be perfect. They require to be potted in good fibrous peat, broken in pieces not less in size than a walnut, placed in the warm end of a Cattleya or Brazilian house, and supplied liberally with water during summer. In winter, they must still be kept in a tolerably warm place, and given sufficient water to keep the pseudo-bulbs from shrivelling. It is useless to dry off until shrivelling takes place, for experience assures us that when a plant shrivels it is generally safe to assume that it has been tried beyond its powers of endurance, and that its constitution has given way. Propagated by dividing the plants, when growth has commenced. =B. antherotes= (brilliant).* _fl._ 7in. in diameter from tip to tip of the sepals; sepals and petals yellow, brownish-black at the base, narrow, 1/8in. broad, tapering; petals 1-1/2in. long; lip triangular, yellow, barred with brown; spike strong, about 2ft. in length. Tropical America, 1879. =B. caudata= (tailed).* _fl._, sepals and petals yellow, barred with brown, from 4in. to 6in. long; lip broad and yellow, spotted with greenish-brown. When the plant is large and healthy, it produces numerous drooping spikes, 18in. long, and many-flowered. _h._ 1ft. West Indies, 1823 (B. R. 832.) =B. Gireoudiana= (Gireoud's). _fl._, sepals and petals bright yellow, spotted and blotched with deep red, produced in many-flowered scapes of singular and beautiful flowers during spring and early summer. This species much resembles _B. Lanceana_, but has larger flowers. Costa Rica. (R. X. O. 1, 32.) [Illustration: FIG. 275. SINGLE FLOWER OF BRASSIA LANCEANA.] =B. Lanceana= (Lance's).* _fl._, sepals and petals lanceolate and tapering, bright yellow, blotched with brown, or sometimes with deep red; lip wholly yellow, slightly spotted at the base, and much waved, deliciously fragrant; scapes radical, many-flowered. In the typical species, the lip is rather more than half as long as the sepals. _l._ rich dark green. _h._ 9in. Surinam, 1843. See Fig. 275. (B. R. 1754.) =B. L. macrostachya= (large-spiked).* _fl._, sepals and petals bright rich yellow, sparingly spotted with brown, as in the type; sepals lengthened out into tail-like appendages, which are sometimes nearly 5in. in length; lip wholly of a clear pale yellow. Demerara. =B. L. pumila= (dwarf). _fl._, sepals pale yellow, without spots or markings; petals of the same colour, tinged with purple near the base; lip about half the length of the sepals, slightly contracted in the middle, yellow, with a brownish-yellow base. Caracas. =B. Lawrenceana= (Lawrence's).* _fl._ large, sweet-scented; sepals and petals bright yellow, spotted with cinnamon and green; lip yellow, tinged with green. June to August. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1839. (B. R. 27, 18.) =B. L. longissima= (long-sepaled).* _fl._, sepals deep orange-yellow, blotched and spotted, especially towards the base, with reddish-purple, and lengthened out into tail-like appendages, which, in well-grown examples, measure 7in. in length; petals about 2-1/2in. long and 1/4in. broad at the base, marked in the same manner as the sepals; lip about 3in. long, pale yellow, dotted and spotted towards the base with purple. August and September. Costa Rica, 1868. A magnificent variety. =B. maculata= (spotted).* _fl._ large; sepals and petals pale yellow, irregularly spotted with brown; the former being short compared with those of the other species; lip white, spotted about and below the centre with brown and purple. Spring and early summer. Jamaica, 1806. See Fig. 276. (B. M. 1691.) =B. m. guttata= (spotted).* _fl._ on spikes 2ft. or 3ft. long; sepals and petals yellowish-green, blotched with brown; lip broad, yellow, spotted with brown. May to August. Guatemala, 1842. SYN. _B. Wrayæ_. (B. M. 4003.) =B. verrucosa= (warty-lipped).* _fl._ large; sepals and petals greenish, blotched with blackish-purple; lip white, ornamented with numerous little green protuberances or warts, hence the specific name; scape many-flowered. May and June. Guatemala. =B. v. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ twice the size of, and a lighter colour than, the type. This variety is very rare, and is said to be the best of the genus. =B. Wrayæ= (Wray's).* A synonym of _B. maculata guttata_. =BRASSICA= (old Latin name used by Pliny; from _Bresic_, the Celtic name for Cabbage). Cabbage. ORD. _Cruciferæ_. Herbaceous, usually biennial, rarely annual or perennial, or suffrutescent plants, usually with a short caudex. Flowers yellow, rarely white, but never purple nor veined. Radical leaves usually stalked, lyrate, or pinnatifid; cauline ones sessile or stem-clasping, entire; racemes elongated; pedicels bractless, filiform. Full cultural details will be found under the popular garden name of each variety. =B. oleracea= (herb-like). _fl._ pale yellow, large. May and June. _l._ glaucous, waved, lobed, smooth. Root-stem cylindrical, fleshy. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. England. Biennial. =B. o. acephala= (headless). Borecole or Kale. Stem round, elongated. _l._ expanded, racemes panicled. =B. o. botrytis asparagoides= (Asparagus-like). The Broccoli. _fl._ abortive. Stem taller than that of the Cauliflower. _l._ greyish-glaucous, elongated. Branchlets fleshy, bearing small flower-buds at the top. =B. o. b. cauliflora= (Cauliflower). Heads of flower-buds thick, terminal. Stem short. _l._ oblong, of a greyish-glaucous colour. =B. o. bullata gemmifera= (bud-bearing). Brussels Sprouts. Heads small, numerous, rising from the axils of the leaves along an elongated stem. =B. o. b. major= (larger). Savoy Cabbage. Heads of leaves loose, thick, terminal, roundish. _l._ blistered. =B. o. capitata= (headed). The Cabbage. Stem round, short. _l._ concave, not blistered, crowded into a head before flowering; racemes panicled. =B. o. Caulo-rapa= (Kohl-Rabi). Stem tumid and somewhat globose at the origin of the leaves. =B. Rapa= (Rape). The Turnip. Radical leaves lyrate, destitute of glaucous bloom, green, covered with bristly hairs; middle cauline ones cut; upper ones quite entire, smooth. [Illustration: FIG. 276. SINGLE FLOWER OF BRASSIA MACULATA.] =BRASSICACE�.= _See_ =Cruciferæ=. =BRAVOA= (named after Bravo, a Mexican botanist). ORD. _Amaryllidaceæ_. A pretty little graceful bulbous plant, hardy in very sheltered positions, but in exposed situations requiring a slight protection in winter. It is an admirable plant for cool-house culture, and delights in a compost of light rich loam, leaf mould, and sand. Propagated by offsets, which are obtainable in autumn; or by seeds, which should be sown as soon as ripe. =B. geminiflora= (twin-flowered).* Twin Flower. _fl._ rich orange-red, tubular, drooping, disposed in the upper part of the flower-stems, which are sometimes 2ft. long. July. _l._ linear, ensiform, pale green. Mexico, 1841. (B. M. 4741.) =BRAZILIAN TEA.= _See_ =Ilex paraguariensis= and =Stachytarpheta jamaicensis=. =BRAZIL NUT.= _See_ =Bertholletia=. =BRAZIL WOOD.= _See_ =Cæsalpinia brasiliensis=. =BREAD FRUIT.= _See_ =Artocarpus=. =BREAD NUT.= _See_ =Brosimum=. =BREDIA= (named in honour of Professor J. G. S. van Bred). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. An ornamental greenhouse shrub, thriving in rich light loam, leaf soil, and peat. Propagated by cuttings of the ripened shoots, inserted in sandy loam, under a hand glass, in heat; or by seeds. =B. hirsuta= (hairy).* _fl._ rose-pink, about 1/2in. across, disposed in loose, terminal, many-flowered cymes. Autumn. _l._ ovate acuminate, hairy. Japan, 1870. (B. M. 6647.) =BREEZE.= The small particles or refuse of gas coke. It constitutes a very cheap fuel, but, unless mixed with good coke, is only suitable for boilers of the saddle type, having a good draught. Breeze must not, however, be confounded with coke-dust. =BREVOORTIA COCCINEA.= _See_ =Brodiæa coccinea=. [Illustration: FIG. 277. FLOWERING BRANCH OF BREXIA MADAGASCARIENSIS.] =BREXIA= (from _brexis_, rain; the large leaves afford protection against rain). ORD. _Saxifrageæ_. Excellent stove trees. Flowers green, in axillary umbels, surrounded by bracts on the outside. Leaves alternate, simple, dotless, and furnished with minute stipules. Stems nearly simple. They require a compost of two parts loam and one of peat, with the addition of a little sand, to keep the whole open. A liberal supply of water must be given at all seasons. Cuttings, with their leaves not shortened, strike readily in sand under a hand glass, in heat; or a leaf taken off with a bud attached will grow. Leaves as in accompanying illustration (Fig. 277), and long, narrow, spiny-toothed ones, are often produced on the same plant. Probably the two species enumerated below are simply forms of one. Well hardened off, strong growing plants of _B. madagascariensis_ are very suitable for sub-tropical gardening. =B. madagascariensis= (Madagascar).* _l._ obovate or oblong, entire, while young minutely gland-toothed. _h._ 20ft. Madagascar, 1812. See Fig. 277. =B. spinosa= (spiny). _l._ lanceolate, 20in. long, 2in. broad, spiny-toothed. _h._ 20ft. Madagascar, 1820. =BREXIACE�.= A section of _Saxifrageæ_. =BRIAR.= _See_ =Rosa=. =BRICKS.= In England, the standard thickness of brick walls is a Brick and a-half, that is, the length of one brick and the breadth of another. Thirty-two paving bricks, laid flat, will form one square yard of flooring; if set on edge, eighty-four will be required for the same space. The best Bricks for walls are those termed Stocks, which are well burnt. Grizzells and Place Bricks, being only partially burnt, are soft and not durable. In various parts of the kingdom, different clays and methods of manufacture cause a disparity in the weight and appearance of the finished article. Several forms are made to suit various purposes, but the standard size is 9in. long by 4-1/2in. wide, by 2-1/2in. thick, although, since the remission of the duty, some slight variations occur, owing to shrinkage and other causes. Fire Bricks are made of a particular kind of clay, which will stand intense heat when once burnt, and are used in furnaces and other places where durability under great heat is a desideratum. Fire-clay should always be used in place of mortar in building with these. =BRILLANTAISIA= (named after M. Brillant). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. A very small genus of erect, branching, stove evergreen shrubs. Flowers large, in terminal panicles; corolla ringent; upper lip falcate and overarching, with a trifid apex, the lower one large, spreading, shortly trifid. Leaves ovate-cordate, on long petioles. For culture, _see_ =Barleria=. =B. owariensis= (Owarian).* _fl._ violet-blue; cymes sub-sessile, loose; panicles terminal. March. _l._ large, opposite, petiolate. _h._ 3ft. Western Africa, 1853. This plant, in its habit of growth, resembles some of the largest species of _Salvia_. (B. M. 4717.) =BRISTLES.= Stiff hairs. =BRISTLY.= Covered with stiff hairs. =BRISTLY-TOOTHED.= Furnished with teeth like bristles, or with the teeth ending each in a bristle. =BRIZA= (from _briza_, to nod). Quaking Grass. ORD. _Gramineæ_. A genus of ornamental hardy grasses. Panicle loose; calyx two-valved; corolla two-valved, awnless; exterior one ventricose, interior small and flat. Fruit adnate with the corolla. These extremely graceful plants delight in a soil composed of loam, leaf soil, and peat. Seeds may be sown in spring or autumn. For decorative purposes, the branches should be gathered as soon as full grown, and loosely placed in flower-stands, to dry. Tufts of these plants look extremely pretty on the rockery, or amongst hardy ferns. =B. gracilis= (graceful). Synonymous with _B. minor_. =B. maxima= (greatest).* _fl._, spikelets oblong-cordate, thirteen to seventeen-flowered; panicle nodding at the end. June and July. _l._ long, linear-acuminate. _h._ 1-1/2ft. South Europe, 1633. See Fig. 278. [Illustration: FIG. 278. BRIZA MAXIMA, showing Habit and single Flower.] =B. media= (middle).* Common Quaking Grass. _fl._, spikelets broadly ovate, of about seven florets (calyx shorter than the florets), tremulous with the slightest breeze, very smooth, shining purple. Branches of the panicle thread-shaped, divaricating, purple. June. _l._ short, linear acuminate. _h._ 1ft. Britain. (S. E. B. 1774.) =B. minima= (least). Synonymous with _B. minor_. [Illustration: FIG. 279. BRIZA MINOR, showing Habit and small Panicle of Flowers.] =B. minor= (small).* Little Quaking Grass. _fl._, spikelets triangular, seven-flowered; glumes longer than the flowers; panicle with hair-like branches. June and July. _l._ pale green, short, narrow. _h._ 8in. England (but very rare). An exceedingly pretty little annual or perennial grass. SYNS. _B. gracilis_ and _B. minima_. See FIG. 279. (S. E. B. 1775.) =B. spicata= (spiked). A recent introduction from Brazil, described as being very graceful and quite distinct, having erect spikes about 8in. in height. =BROADCAST.= A method of sowing seeds by means of the hand, scattering them over the surface of the ground as equally as possible. It is now superseded, for the majority of garden and field crops, by drilling, which not only economises the quantity of seed used, but greatly facilitates subsequent weeding and thinning out. =BROCCOLI= (_Brassica oleracea botrytis asparagoides_). A cultivated variety of the Cabbage, having the young inflorescence condensed into a fleshy, edible head (see Fig. 280). To grow this popular vegetable successfully, it is necessary to have rich soil of a good depth, in an open situation, where the plants can have plenty of sun and air to keep them sturdy. They succeed the autumn Cauliflower, and are in season from November till May. _Soil._ In preparing ground for Broccoli, trench, in the autumn, to the depth of from 1-1/2ft. to 2ft., and during the process work in a liberal dressing of rotten farmyard manure. Ground which has carried a crop of Celery is very suitable for the strong-growing kinds, as, by planting where the Celery rows have been, the necessity of trenching is, to a great extent, obviated. Smaller kinds, however, need to be planted closer in order to obtain a profitable crop. _Cultivation._ At the beginning of May, prepare seed beds on a south border, and sow the earlier and sprouting kinds. The later varieties would, perhaps, be best sown in April, but they must not be put in early and allowed to remain too long in the seed bed. Sow thinly, to get the plants as sturdy as possible; and, to prevent clubbing, work in a little soot or wood ashes on the surface of the beds. Care must also be taken to pick off the club excrescences at planting time, should there be any, and to destroy the grub inside. Clubbing is not so frequent in ground which has been well trenched, and where the plants are not allowed to suffer from drought. Showery weather should be selected for transferring them to their permanent quarters. If it is desired that they should succeed potatoes, they may be planted between every two alternate rows, and the latter crop can be removed when ready. Broccoli succeed best where the ground is firm, and not recently dug or manured. Planting with a crowbar is preferable to digging the ground afresh. If grown by themselves, a distance of from 2ft. to 3ft. should be allowed between the rows, and an equal distance from plant to plant. Some of the early varieties will, in favourable seasons, follow the later Cauliflowers, while the latest will not be fit for use until the following spring. The heads should be cut as soon as they are large enough; they will keep good for a week in a cold place, while a day or two might open them too much if allowed to remain on the plants. Broccoli which have to stand the winter are liable to injury from severe frosts, and some method of protection is necessary. Two plans are recommended for both large and small gardens, and either or both may be adopted, as found convenient. The first is to apply a covering of fern or other dry protective material, not using too much, but giving sufficient to break the rays of the sun, which, perhaps, do as much harm as the actual frost. The other plan is to take up the plants as soon as the flowers can be seen, and lay them in under a hedge or wall until required for use. In sheltered positions, or where there are trees to break the force of the wind, the covering with dry litter during severe weather will generally be found sufficient; still, a little precaution in lifting will frequently save a valuable crop. Broccoli should never follow a crop of any other kind of cruciferous plants, particularly Cabbage. [Illustration: FIG. 280. BROCCOLI.] _Sorts._ Veitch's Self-protecting Autumn, Purple and White Cape, Grange's Early White, and Snow's Winter White. These are the best for autumn and mid-winter supplies. A good selection for spring and late purposes is Mitchinson's Penzance, Knight's Protecting, Cooling's Matchless, Purple Sprouting, Model, Willcove, Leamington, and Cattell's Eclipse. =BRODI�A= (named after J. J. Brodie, a Scotch cryptogamist). SYN. _Hookera_. ORD. _Liliaceæ_. Pretty, slender, hardy, or in some positions only half-hardy, bulbs. The flowers are usually borne in large clusters or umbels; the prevailing colour is blue; _coccinea_ is, however, an exception, the flowers being scarlet. The scape is usually straight and slender, but strong. Leaves from two to four in number, enveloping the part of the scape beneath the surface, and procumbent thereon. Most of them are of easy culture in rich sandy loam; if grown in pots, a mixture of loam, leaf soil, and sand, suits them well. Increased freely by offsets, which should be left undisturbed with the parent bulbs till they reach a flowering state, when they may be divided and replanted in autumn. =B. capitata= (headed).* _fl._ deep violet-blue, funnel-shaped, disposed in a compact, many-flowered umbel; valves of the spathe also deep violet. May. _l._ narrow, linear. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. California, 1871. [Illustration: FIG. 281. BRODI�A COCCINEA, showing Flower and Habit.] =B. coccinea= (scarlet).* _fl._ 1-1/2in. long, tubular, rich blood-red below, the apex of the tube and the segments yellowish-green; umbels composed of five to fifteen drooping flowers. June. _l._ linear, loose, shorter than the scape. _h._ 1-1/2ft. California, 1870. Very handsome, distinct from all other species, requiring a warm, well-drained, and sunny position, and to remain undisturbed. SYN. _Brevoortia coccinea_. See Fig. 281. (B. M. 5857.) =B. congesta= (close-headed).* _fl._ blue, with the crown paler; segments cleft at the top; umbel bearing six to eight blooms. The stamens in this species are metamorphosed into fleshy scales, which adhere to the mouth of the perianth. Summer. _l._ few, long, slender, channelled on the inside. Bulb small, roundish, and much wrinkled. _h._ 1ft. Georgia, &c., 1806. A very free-growing and rapidly increasing species. =B. c. alba= (white).* _fl._ white; in other respects like the type, but not so vigorous. =B. gracilis= (graceful).* _fl._ deep yellow, with brown nerves, 1/2in. or rather more long, in few-flowered umbels. July. _l._ solitary, about 1/4in. broad, longer than the scape. _h._ 3in. to 4in. California, 1876. A scarce and rather tender little species, but very pretty. =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ bluish-purple, with entire pointed segments; umbels bearing two to seven somewhat scattered blooms. Summer. _l._ two to three or more, linear, pointed, slender, grooved on the inside, furnished with a few membranous scales. Bulb small, roundish, dry and wrinkled. _h._ 1-1/2ft. North America, 1806. SYN. _Hookera coronaria_. (B. R. 1183.) =B. Howellii= (Howell's).* _fl._ purplish-blue, about 3/4in. across, sub-bell-shaped, in many-flowered umbels. July and August. _l._ narrow acute, grooved, shorter than the scape. _h._ 18in. to 24in. California, 1880. =B. ixioides= (Ixia-like). _See_ =Calliprora lutea=. =B. lactea= (milky-white).* _fl._ white, usually with green midribs, 1/2in. to 3/4in. across, saucer-shaped, in many-flowered umbels. June and July. _l._ linear, acute, nearly as long as the scape. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. California, 1833. SYNS. _Hesperoscordum lacteum_, _Milla hyacinthina_. =B. multiflora= (many-flowered).* _fl._ blue-purple, very numerous, in sub-globose heads. May. _l._ linear, elongate, 1ft. to 2ft. long, rather fleshy. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. California, 1872. (B. M. 5989.) =B. volubilis= (twining). _fl._ rose-coloured, in dense umbels, each containing fifteen to thirty blooms; scape twining, sometimes 12ft. long. July. _l._ narrow, linear-lanceolate, 1ft. long, synanthous. California, 1874. Half-hardy bulb. (B. M. 6123.) =BROMELIA= (named after Bromel, a Swedish botanist). ORD. _Bromeliaceæ_. A genus of stove herbaceous perennials, allied to the Pineapple. Flowers, corolla three-petaled, convolute, erect, or spreading at the top. Leaves densely packed, rigid, lanceolate, with spiny margins. Stems short. These plants require much the same treatment as _Billbergia_. Allied genera are _�chmea_, _Ananassa_, _Billbergia_, _Disteganthus_, _Greigia_, _Karatas_, _Ruckia_ (which _see_). =B. antiacantha= (opposite-spined). _fl._ purple, scarlet. Brazil, 1864. SYN. _B. sceptrum_. =B. bicolor= (two-coloured).* _fl._ scarlet, in a close central sessile head. March. _l._ numerous, narrow, ensiform, outer green, central crimson; elegantly radiate. Chili, 1872. SYNS. _B. Joinvillei_, _B. pitcairniæfolia_. (B. H. 14.) =B. bracteata= (red-bracted).* _fl._ pink; scape elongated; raceme compound; bracts red, ovate-lanceolate. September. _l._ serrate, spiny. _h._ 2ft. Jamaica, 1785. =B. Fernandæ= (Fernanda's).* _fl._ yellowish, in ovoid heads; bracts orange-red. July. _l._ linear-ligulate, 24in. to 30in. long, recurved, spiny-edged. Para, 1872. =B. Joinvillei= (Joinville's). A synonym of _B. bicolor_. =B. Karatas.= _See_ =Karatas Plumieri=. =B. pitcairniæfolia= (Pitcairnia-leaved). A synonym of _B. bicolor_. =B. sceptrum= (sceptre-like). A synonym of _B. antiacantha_ and _Karatas Plumieri_. =BROMELIACE�.= An extensive order of stemless or short-stemmed plants, having rigid, channelled, and usually spiny leaves. Flowers very showy; outer perianth three-cleft, persistent, inner one of three withering segments; stamens six, inserted in the tube of the perianth. To this order belongs the Pineapple. The genera best known in gardens are _Ananassa_, _�chmea_, _Billbergia_, _Bromelia_, and _Tillandsia_. =BROMHEADIA= (in honour of Sir Edward Finch Bromhead). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A small genus of stove orchids, comprising a couple of species, with erect stems, large flowers, and cucullate lip, which is parallel with the column. For culture, _see_ =Ansellia=. =B. palustris= (marsh).* _fl._, sepals and calyx white; lip white externally, within streaked with purple, and having a yellow blotch in centre; spike terminal, distichous, flexuous, many-flowered, on a long peduncle; bracts short, stiff, tooth-like. June. _l._ distichous, oblong-linear, emarginate. _h._ 2ft. Singapore, 1840. (B. R. 30, 18.) [Illustration: FIG. 282. BROMUS BRIZ�FORMIS.] =BROMUS= (from _bromos_, the Greek name for a wild oat). _Ord._ _Gramineæ_. _B. brizæformis_ (see Fig. 282) is an elegant biennial grass, with drooping panicles of spikelets, about as large as those of _Briza maxima_. It grows about 2ft. high, and is of very easy culture in common garden soil. Sow seeds outside in patches, in July, thinning out the plants when necessary. There are numerous other species belonging to this genus, but the above-mentioned is the only one worth growing in gardens. It forms a beautiful object in the mixed border, or among ferns. =BRONGNIARTIA= (in honour of Adolphe Brongniart, a distinguished botanist, and one of the editors of "Annales des Sciences Naturelles"). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Handsome greenhouse evergreen sub-shrubs, clothed with silky villi. Flowers large, purple; pedicels twin, axillary, one-flowered. Leaves impari-pinnate, with many pairs of leaflets, the terminal one not remote from the rest. They require a compost of sandy loam, leaf soil, and fibry peat, with perfect drainage. Cuttings of the young shoots, if firm at the base, will root if dibbled in sand, under a bell glass, in a cool house. =B. podalyrioides= (Podalyria-like).* _fl._ purple, large. September. _l._ with two to five pairs of leaflets; leaflets elliptic-oblong, rounded, and mucronate at the apex, clothed with adpressed hairs on both surfaces, but silky when young. _h._ 1ft. New Spain, 1827. =B. sericea= (silky).* _fl._ purple. September. _h._ 1ft. _l._, leaflets ovate-oblong, acute, very silky on both surfaces. Mexico, 1843. =BROOK-LIME.= _See_ =Veronica Beccabunga=. =BROOM.= _See_ =Besom=. =BROOM.= _See_ =Cytisus scoparius=. =BROOM RAPE.= _See_ =Orobanche=. =BROOM, SPANISH.= _See_ =Spartium junceum=. =BROSIMUM= (from _brosimos_, edible; fruit edible). Bread Nut. ORD. _Urticaceæ_. A genus of stove evergreen shrubs or trees, principally of economic value in their native countries. Male and female flowers generally in a globular head, but sometimes borne on separate trees; calyx and corolla wanting. Leaves entire. They generally thrive in a rich fibry loam. Cuttings of ripe wood, with their leaves on, root if placed in sand, in moist heat. =B. Alicastrum.= _fl._, catkins globose, stalked, twin, axillary. _fr._ coated. _l._ ovate-lanceolate. _h._ 6ft. Jamaica, 1776. =BROUGHTONIA= (named after Mr. Arthur Broughton, an English botanist). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A very compact-growing stove evergreen, allied to _Lælia_, succeeding best if suspended from the roof on a block of wood, with a little moss; it requires a free supply of heat and water when in a growing state. Propagated by dividing the plant. The colour of the flowers is very distinct. =B. sanguinea= (blood-coloured).* _fl._ blood-coloured, rather large, disposed in a terminal panicle; scape divided; column distinct, or at the very base united with the unguiculate lip, which is lengthened at the base into a tube, connate with the ovarium. Summer. _l._ twin, oblong, seated on a pseudo-bulb. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Jamaica, 1793. (B. M. 3076.) =BROUSSONETIA= (named after P. N. V. Broussonet, a French naturalist, who wrote numerous works on Natural History). ORD. _Urticaceæ_. Ornamental fast-growing, deciduous, Mulberry-like trees. They require rather good open garden soil, and prove hardy in situations which are not very exposed. Propagated by suckers and cuttings of ripened wood, inserted in autumn, in a cool house; and by seeds, sown when ripe, or kept till the following April. =B. papyrifera= (paper-bearing).* The Paper Mulberry. _fl._ greenish, di�cious; males in pendulous, cylindrical catkins, each flower in the axil of a bract; females in peduncled, axillary, upright globular heads. May. _l._ simple, alternate, exstipulate, variously lobed or entire, hairy, large. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. China, 1751. There are several varieties, differing in the shape and character of the leaves. (B. M. 2358). =BROWALLIA= (named in honour of John Browall, Bishop of Abo, who defended the sexual system of Linnæus against Siegesbeck, in a book entitled "Examen epicriseos," &c., 1739). ORD. _Scrophularineæ_. A genus of handsome shrubs or herbs. Flowers blue or white, axillary and terminal; corolla salver-shaped, resupinate from the contortion of the peduncle; tube fifteen-nerved, ventricose at top. Leaves alternate, stalked, ovate in outline. They thrive best in a rich, open, sandy soil. To have strong plants in bloom by Christmas and after, seeds should be sown in July, in pans or pots of light rich sandy soil, and kept in a close frame, or hand light, where they can be shaded till germination takes place. When large enough to handle, the seedlings may either be pricked out, three in a pot, or potted singly, according to the size of the specimens required. In the former way, they form fine masses for conservatory or greenhouse decoration, or to cut from; and in the latter, they are very suitable for window recesses, &c. After potting, they should be stood in a pit or frame, and syringed every morning and evening, to ward off attacks of insect pests. An abundance of well-diluted liquid manure is required as soon as the flower-buds appear. To keep the plants dwarf and bushy, it will be needful to stop them about three times during the remainder of the summer and autumn, keeping as near the glass as possible; they should be housed by the end of September. These elegant little greenhouse annuals are unrivalled for affording choice, neat sprays for bouquets during the winter and early spring months, or for growing as pot plants, to furnish warm greenhouses or sitting-room windows. Many of the species and varieties are largely employed for summer decoration of the flower garden, with highly satisfactory results; for this purpose, seeds should be sown in gentle heat early in spring, and the plants transferred to the flower borders late in June, or early in July, having been previously encouraged in pots, and well hardened off. =B. abbreviata= (shortened). _fl._ light red; pedicels shorter than the calyx; calyx campanulate, with teeth as long as the tube. _l._ oval, hairy when young, quite glabrous when mature. 1852. (R. G. 94.) =B. demissa= (low).* _fl._ of a bright but pale blue colour, sometimes red or purple; peduncles axillary, one-flowered, downy. June. _l._ ovate-oblong, acuminated, oblique at the base. _h._ 6in. to 1ft. Panama, 1735. (B. M. 1136.) [Illustration: FIG. 283. BROWALLIA ELATA, showing Habit and Flower.] =B. elata= (tall).* _fl._ deep blue; calyx beset with glandular hairs; peduncles axillary, one or many-flowered. July. _l._ oval, acuminated. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Peru, 1768. Of this extensively-grown species there are two varieties, one with white flowers, and the other, _grandiflora_, with pale blue, both of which are well worth growing. See Fig. 283. (B. M. 34.) =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._, corolla with a greenish-yellow tube, which is clothed with glandular villi, and a white or very pale lilac limb; peduncles one-flowered, axillary, racemose at the tops of the branches. July. _l._ ovate, acute, attenuated into the petioles at the base. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Peru, 1829. (B. M. 3069.) =B. Jamesoni= (Jameson's).* _fl._ bright orange, with lighter-coloured throat, tubular. June. _h._ 4ft. New Grenada, 1850. This species has been recently re-introduced, after having been lost to cultivation for over thirty years. (B. M. 4605.) =B. Roezli= (Roezl's). _fl._ large, either of a delicate azure blue, or white, with a yellow tube. Spring to autumn. _l._ shining green. An exceedingly pretty species, having flowers double the size of any other, and forming a dense compact bush, 1-1/2ft. to 2ft. in height. Rocky Mountains. =BROWNEA= (named after Patrick Browne, M.D., author of a History of Jamaica). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Very handsome stove evergreen trees or shrubs, allied to _Amherstia_. Flowers of a rose-scarlet colour, rising in fascicled heads from the axillary buds. Leaves abruptly-pinnate, when young flaccid, and with the leaflets revolute at the edges; leaf-bud long and stipulaceous. All the species are well worthy of the most extensive cultivation. A mixture of loam, peat, and sand, is a soil well adapted for them, and great care should be taken not to over-water the plants in winter, as too great a supply will be sure to kill them. Propagated by cuttings, taken from ripened wood, planted in a pot of sand, and placed under a hand glass, in a moist heat. =B. Ariza= (Ariza).* _fl._ richest scarlet, produced in a large, globular, drooping head of immense size. Summer. _l._ pinnate, usually with six or eight pairs of pinnæ, which are oblong-lanceolate, and sharply tapered to a point. _h._ 20ft. to 40ft. Columbia, 1843. This noble tree requires a large house to fully perfect its beauty. SYN. _B. princeps_. (B. M. 6459.) =B. Birschellii= (Birschell's). _fl._ rose-coloured, in drooping racemes. April to July. _l._ pinnate; leaflets oblanceolate, 6in. long. _h._ 10ft. to 20ft. La Guayra, 1872. (B. M. 5998.) =B. coccinea= (scarlet).* _fl._ scarlet, fascicled. July to August. _l._ with two to three pairs of oval-oblong, acuminated leaflets. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. Venezuela, 1793. (B. M. 3964.) =B. grandiceps= (large-headed).* _fl._ red, in dense capitate spikes. July. _l._ with usually twelve pairs of oblong-lanceolate glandless leaflets, ending in a long cuspidate acumen; branches and petioles pubescent. _h._ (in its native home) 60ft. Caraccas, 1829. (B. M. 4859.) =B. latifolia= (broad-leaved). _fl._ red, in dense fascicles; involucre tomentose. _l._ with one to three pairs of ovate or obovate-cuspidate leaflets. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. Caraccas, 1824. =B. macrophylla= (large-leaved).* _fl._ orange-scarlet, in dense heads, often measuring nearly 3ft. in circumference. Central America, 1879. (G. C. 1873, p. 779.) =B. princeps= (chief). A synonym of _B. Ariza_. =B. racemosa= (clustered).* _fl._ rose-coloured, racemose; involucre and calyx clothed with fine tomentum. _l._ with four pairs of unequal-sided, oblong, or oblong-lanceolate, cuspidately-acuminated leaflets, which are glanduliferous at the base. _h._ 4ft. Caraccas, 1826. =B. Rosa del Monte.= _fl._ scarlet, in dense heads; leaflets of the involucre roundish, imbricated, and, when in a young state, rather velvety. June. _l._ with two to three pairs of oval-oblong acuminated leaflets; branches and petioles glabrous. _h._ 8ft. South America, 1820. (B. R. 1472.) =BROWNLOWIA= (named in honour of Lady Brownlow, daughter of Sir Abraham Hume, and a great patroness of botany). ORD. _Tiliaceæ_. Very handsome greenhouse evergreen trees, thriving well in a mixture of loam and peat. Cuttings of ripe shoots will root if placed in sand, under a hand glass, in heat. =B. elata= (tall).* _fl._ yellow; panicle terminal, conical, spreading. May. _l._ large, cordate, acute, seven-nerved, smooth. _h._ 60ft. India, 1823. (B. R. 1472.) =BRUCEA= (commemorative of James Bruce, the celebrated African traveller). ORD. _Simarubeæ_. Ornamental stove evergreen shrubs. Flowers small, purplish inside, disposed in interrupted glomerate spikes, or racemes. Leaves impari-pinnate, with six pairs of opposite, entire or serrated leaflets, without dots. Branches, peduncles, petioles, and nerves of leaves, clothed with rufescent down. They thrive in a loamy soil; and cuttings from ripened wood strike freely, in a pot of sand, under a hand glass, in a moderate heat. =B. antidysenterica= (antidysenteric). _fl._, racemes simple, spike-like. May. _l._, leaflets quite entire, clothed with rusty villi on the nerves beneath. _h._ 8ft. Abyssinia, 1775. =B. sumatrana= (Sumatra).* _fl._ dark purple; racemes usually compound. May. _l._, leaflets serrated, villous beneath. _h._ 20ft. Sumatra, 1822. =BRUCHUS GRANARIUS.= _See_ =Bean Beetle=. =BRUCHUS PISI.= _See_ =Pea Weevil=. =BRUGMANSIA.= _See_ =Datura=. =BRUNFELSIA= (named after Otto Brunfels, of Mentz, first a Carthusian monk, and afterwards a physician; he published the first good figures of plants in 1530). SYN. _Franciscea_. ORD. _Scrophularineæ_. Elegant free-flowering stove evergreens. Flowers sweet-scented; corolla large, funnel or salver-shaped, with a long tube, and a flat, five-lobed, obtuse, nearly equal limb. A light rich soil, or a compost of loam, leaf soil, and peat, is necessary to grow these plants successfully. Propagated by cuttings, planted in sand, and placed under bell glasses, in a moderate heat. When rooted, they should be placed in small pots, in a compost somewhat more sandy than that already mentioned. While growing, they require to be kept in a moist stove temperature, and should be hardened by placing them in a drier, and somewhat cooler, temperature after each growth is completed; the pots should be changed as often as the roots become thick around the ball of earth. The larger plants flower freely, and should be slightly pruned in annually, before commencing their new growth, thus securing neat and compact specimens. Repotting should be effected directly they have done flowering. The plants should then be placed in a temperature ranging from 60deg. to 68deg., and both the roots and foliage liberally supplied with water. When flowers appear--about October or November--the syringing must be less frequently performed. At this period, if it be desirable to prolong the flowering season, the plants should be removed to a temperature of about 48deg. A few administrations of weak liquid manure during the growing season are of great value. =B. acuminata= (taper-pointed-leaved).* _fl._ bluish-violet, few, sub-cymose, terminal. April. _l._ oblong, acuminated, attenuated a little at the base, glabrous; bracts lanceolate, acuminated, glabrous. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Rio Janeiro, 1840. (B. M. 4189.) =B. americana= (American).* _fl._ first yellow, then white, very sweet-scented; axillary flowers solitary, terminal ones numerous. June. _l._ obovate, elliptic, acuminated, longer than the petioles. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. West Indies, 1735. There are narrow and broad-leaved varieties of this species. (B. M. 393.) [Illustration: FIG. 284. FLOWER OF BRUNIA NODIFLORA.] =B. calycina= (cup-shaped).* _fl._ purple, disposed in large trusses, which are produced in succession throughout the whole year. _l._ large, lanceolate, shining light green. _h._ 2ft. Brazil, 1850. One of the largest-flowered species grown. (B. M. 4583.) =B. confertiflora= (dense-flowered). _fl._ soft blue, cymosely crowded, terminal. January to June. _l._ nearly sessile, oblong-acute, attenuated at the base, rather pilose, ciliated, yellowish-green above; bracteoles oblong, attenuated at the base, and are, as well as the calyces, clothed with rusty hairs. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Brazil. =B. eximia= (choice).* _fl._ produced from the points of the shoots, upwards of 2in. in diameter, deep purple. January to July. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, dark green, but not glossy. _h._ 2-1/2ft. Brazil, 1847. (B. M. 4790.) =B. grandiflora= (large-flowered). _fl._ greenish; limb of corolla 2in. in diameter, corymbose, terminal. June. _l._ elliptic-oblong, acuminated. Branches twiggy. _h._ 3ft. Peru. =B. hydrangeæformis= (Hydrangea-like).* _fl._ beautiful bluish-violet; cymes terminal, hemispherical, large. April. _l._ oblong, acute, cuneiform at base, quite glabrous, 1ft. long; bracts lanceolate, aggregate. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Brazil, 1840. This is one of the most elegant species of the genus. (B. M. 4209.) =B. latifolia= (broad-leaved). _fl._ at first lavender-colour, with a distinct white eye, eventually becoming almost white; deliciously fragrant, sub-cymose, terminal. Winter to early spring. _l._ broad-elliptic, acutish, greyish-white, 6in. to 7in. long, and 2in. to 2-3/4in. broad. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Brazil, 1840. (B. M. 3907.) =B. Lindeniana= (Linden's).* _fl._ rich purple, with a light eye. _l._ ovate-acuminate, dark green. Brazil, 1865. (B. H. 1865, 226.) =B. uniflora= (one-flowered). _fl._ solitary; corolla with a whitish tube, and a bluish-violet or purple limb. Winter. _l._ elliptic, acute; branches greenish, hoary, diffuse, spreading. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Brazil, 1826. (L. B. C. 1332.) =BRUNIA= (named after Corneille de Bruin, better known under the name of Le Brun, a Dutchman, a traveller in the Levant). ORD. _Bruniaceæ_. Elegant little greenhouse evergreen Heath-like shrubs, more or less branched, with the branches in whorls, erect or spreading. Flowers capitate, furnished with three bracts each, or sometimes deficient of the two lateral ones. Leaves small, closely imbricate. They require a compost of peat and sand, with a little leaf soil added, firm potting and good drainage. Cuttings of young shoots root freely in sand, under a hand light, in summer. =B. nodiflora= (knot-flowered).* _fl._ white; heads globose, size of a cherry, on the tops of the branches. July. _l._ lanceolate, awl-shaped, trigonal, acute, smooth, closely imbricate, not ustulate at the apex. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1786. See Fig. 284. =BRUNIACE�.= An order of much-branched Heath-like shrubs, usually having small leaves, which are crowded and entire. Flowers in terminal heads; petals five, alternating with the lobes of the calyx. The typical genus is _Brunia_. =BRUNONIA= (named after Robert Brown, the most eminent botanist of his time). ORD. _Goodenoviæ_. A stemless greenhouse perennial herb, with the habit of _Scabiosa_, downy from glandless simple hairs. Flowers distinct, with a whorl of five membranous bracts; corolla blue, marcescent. Radical leaves quite entire, spathulate; scapes undivided, each bearing one head; head hemispherical, lobate; lobes involucrated by foliaceous bracts. It thrives in a compost of decayed manure, or leaf soil and peat, with a little loam added; thorough drainage is necessary. Propagated by divisions, in early spring, previous to repotting. =B. australis= (southern)* is the only species known to be in cultivation. _h._ 1ft. New Holland, 1834. (B. R. 1833.) =BRUNSVIGIA= (named after the noble House of Brunswick). ORD. _Amaryllideæ_. Very showy greenhouse bulbous plants, from the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers red, on very long pedicels. Bulbs large. Leaves broad, horizontal; perianth with an evident longer or shorter tube, curving upwards, funnel-shaped, deeply six-parted, deciduous; segments sub-equal, many-nerved, flat, and recurved at the apex; stamens on the tube much curved upwards; scape appearing in summer without the leaves; umbels many-flowered. Propagation is effected by offsets, of which the large bulbs produce but few. These, when secured, may be removed after reaching some considerable size, carefully potted in a mixture of sandy loam and peat, with good drainage, and kept tolerably warm and close until established; water must be given but sparingly until root-action has commenced. The best place for growing the offsets into a flowering size is on a shelf near the glass, in a temperature of from 50deg. to 55deg. With an abundance of water while growing, and kept dry while semi-dormant, thus allowing them a rest, the bulbs will speedily increase in size; but it may be years before flowers are produced. Culture: This may be divided into two periods�-one of growth, and one of rest. After the latter period, they should be allowed to start into fresh growth, without stimulation, and, as soon as started, liberal supplies of water should be given, and a genial temperature of from 60deg. to 65deg. maintained, to make them grow vigorously. Good-sized pots are also necessary, with a mixture of loam, peat, and sand, in equal parts. They are usually confined to the greenhouse, or warm conservatory, but are sometimes successfully grown in a south border at the base of a wall, planted out in a pit, upon which the lights may be placed in winter, and matted if necessary, as they cannot endure frost. A good depth of soil, consisting of fibrous loam, peat, and sand, in equal proportions, with good drainage, should be prepared. In all cases, the bulbs should be planted somewhat deeply. One of the most satisfactory methods of ensuring the flowering of these plants consists in subjecting the bulbs, when at rest, to a hot dry heat of 70deg. or more, which thoroughly ripens them; but, after this treatment, it will be necessary to encourage the after-growth to the fullest possible extent. =B. ciliaris= (hair-fringed). _fl._ dull purple. _l._ strongly fringed with white hairs. _h._ 1ft. 1752. (B. R. 1153.) =B. Cooperi= (Cooper's).* _fl._ sulphur-coloured, edged with red; umbels twelve to sixteen-flowered. _l._ ligulate-obtuse, bifarious, fleshy. _h._ 1-1/2ft. 1872. (Ref. B. 330.) =B. falcata= (sickle-leaved).* _fl._ red. May. _l._ sickle-shaped, with a muricated, discoloured, cartilaginous edge. _h._ 9in. 1774. (B. M. 1443.) SYN. _Ammocharis falcata_. =B. Josephineæ= (Josephine's).* _fl._ scarlet; scape twice as long as the rays of the many-flowered umbel. _l._ strap-shaped, erect, spreading, glaucous. _h._ 1-1/2ft. This handsome species is much grown. 1814. (B. M. 2578.) _Minor_ and _striata_ are varieties. =B. multiflora= (many-flowered).* _fl._ red, loosely umbellate. June. _l._ linguiform, smooth, lying on the ground. _h._ 1ft. 1752. (B. M. 1619.) =B. toxicaria= (poison-bulb).* _fl._ pink; umbel hemispherical, many-flowered. September to October. _l._ many, erect, oblique, glaucous. _h._ 1ft. 1774. (B. R. 567.) _B. coranica_ is a variety of this. 1815. (B. R. 139.) [Illustration: FIG. 285. BRUSSELS SPROUTS.] =BRUSSELS SPROUTS= (_Brassica oleracea bullata gemmifera_). A cultivated variety of the Cabbage (Fig. 285). Leaves blistered. Stems covered with small, close heads. To secure this vegetable in its best form, it must be grown on deeply-worked and rich ground. In addition, the seeds should be obtained from a good source, as there are many spurious stocks in cultivation. Plenty of room must be allowed the plants to develop, and the tops and leaves should not be removed till after the sprouts are gathered; dead leaves, of course, excepted. It is a bad plan to plant Brussels Sprouts amongst potatoes or other crops, as they become unduly weakened, and never give such good returns as when grown by themselves. [Illustration: FIG. 286. BRYONIA LACINIOSA.] _Soil and Cultivation._ In February, and early in March, sow thinly in a cold frame, or carefully prepare seed beds on a warm south border. As soon as the plants are large enough, prick them off into prepared soil, to grow on; about the end of April, transplant into a piece of rich ground, which has been previously prepared for them, setting in rows from 2ft. to 3ft. asunder, and 2ft. apart in the rows. The earlier the plants are put out, the better; and they should be watered-in when planted, so that they receive as little a check as possible. They must be kept clear of weeds, and earthed up as soon an they get a good size. During severe frost, some light dry litter may with advantage be thrown over them for protection; and the less they are interfered with when frozen, the better. _Sorts._ The Imported is the best strain for general use; other good sorts are: Sutton's Matchless, The Aigburth, and Scrymger's Giant. =BRYA= (from _bryo_, to sprout; the seeds germinate before falling from the tree). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A small genus of stove shrubs or small trees, furnished with stipular spines, and solitary, or clustered, or pinnate leaves. The undermentioned species thrives in a rich fibry loam. Propagated by seeds, or by cuttings, placed in a hotbed. =B. Ebenus= (ebony). Jamaica Ebony. _fl._ bright yellow; peduncles two to three together, axillary, one to two-flowered, shorter than the leaves. July and August. _l._, leaflets aggregate, obovate. _h._ 12ft. to 14ft. West Indies, 1713. (B. M. 4670.) =BRYANTHUS= (from _bryon_, a moss, and _anthos_, a flower). ORD. _Ericaceæ_. A genus of small trailing shrubs, allied to _Loiseleuria_. Flowers terminal, somewhat racemose; calyx five-leaved, imbricate; corolla deeply five-parted, spreading. Leaves crowded, spreading, flattish. For culture, _see_ =Menziesia=. =B. empetriformis= (Crowberry-leaved). _fl._ reddish-purple, clustered near the extremities of the branches. _l._ crowded, linear, on short adpressed petioles. _h._ 6in. North-west America, 1829. SYN. _Menziesia empetrifolia_. (B. M. 3176.) =B. erectus= (erect). _fl._ red, pentamerous, broadly campanulate. _l._ linear, obtuse, obscurely serrated. _h._ about 1ft. Siberia. Trailer. (L. & P. F. G. 1, 19.) =B. Gmelini= (Gmelin's). _fl._ red; peduncles glandular, many-flowered. _l._ with denticulated margins. _h._ 2in. or 3in. Kamtschatka and Behring's Island. =BRYONIA= (from _bryo_, to sprout; in allusion to the annual growth from the tuber). Bryony. ORD. _Cucurbitaceæ_. Tuberous-rooted perennial herbaceous plants, producing annual climbing stems. The native species is well worth growing over unsightly hedges, fences, &c., and in the wild garden; it is a rapid grower, and of extremely easy culture. The stove perennial species should be grown in pots, and the stems trained up the rafters. Rich loam is the soil most suitable for their cultivation. Propagated by seeds, or by divisions of the tuber. =B. dioica= (di�cious). _fl._ greenish-white, racemose, di�cious. _fr._ globose, red. May to September. _l._ cordate, palmately five-lobed, toothed, scabrous, from callous points. England. (Sy. En. B. 517.) =B. laciniosa= (cut-leaved). _fl._ yellow, solitary; corollas hairy inside, smooth outside. _fr._ size of a cherry, striated with white. July. _l._ palmately five-parted, cordate, rough, and blistered, with oblong-lanceolate, acuminated, serrated segments; petioles muricated. Ceylon, 1710. Stove species. SYN. _Bryonopsis laciniosa_. See Fig. 286. =BRYONY.= _See_ =Bryonia=. =BRYOPHYLLUM= (from _bryo_, to sprout, and _phyllon_, a leaf; plants spring from the notches on the edges of the leaves when taken off the plant, and placed in a moist situation). ORD. _Crassulaceæ_. This very curious stove succulent thrives in pots of rich loamy soil; perfect drainage is essential, and but little water is at any time needed. =B. calycinum= (large-cupped). _fl._ yellowish-red; cymes panicled, terminal. April. _l._ opposite, thick, petiolate; some impari-pinnate, with one or two pairs of segments, the terminal one large; others solitary; all ovate and crenated. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. India, 1806. A fleshy, erect, branched evergreen shrub, grown chiefly for curiosity. =BUCCO.= _See_ =Agathosma=. =BUCIDA.= _See_ =Terminalia=. =BUCKBEAN.= _See_ =Menyanthes=. =BUCKLANDIA= (named after Dr. Buckland, a former Dean of Westminster, and Professor of Geology at Oxford). ORD. _Hamamelideæ_. A handsome greenhouse tree, allied to _Liquidambar_. It thrives in rich sandy loam, peat, and leaf mould; or peat may be left out if the leaf soil is good; perfect drainage is also essential. Cuttings of ripened shoots will strike in sandy loam, under a hand glass, with moderate heat. They must be watered carefully, or they are liable to rot off. =B. populnea= (Poplar-like). _l._ pale green, large, leathery, cordate, ovate-acute, on long stalks, pinkish when young; stipules very curious, large red, consisting of two leafy oblong plates, placed face to face in an erect position between the leafstalk and the stem. _h._ 100ft. Himalayas, 1875. (B. M. 6507.) =BUCKLER MUSTARD.= _See_ =Biscutella=. =BUCKTHORN.= _See_ =Rhamnus=. =BUCKWHEAT.= _See_ =Fagopyrum esculentum=. =BUCKWHEAT-TREE.= _See_ =Mylocaryum=. =BUDDING.= This process consists of taking an eye or bud attached to a portion of the bark, and transferring it to another and different plant; it is an operation almost confined to woody plants, but has been practised with more or less success upon herbaceous perennials. The stock should not be budded unless the sap is in circulation, which is assured if the bark will detach itself easily, when gently lifted, from the wood. There are many ways of performing the different systems, in preparing and inserting the Buds, &c., and all may prove more or less successful if undertaken when the Buds and stock are both in a suitable condition. The principal methods are Shield or T-budding, including the Circular, Square, and Inverted forms; Flute or Tube-budding, and Annular or Ring-budding. The first-named method, which is fully described below, is very extensively practised for propagating Roses and stone fruits. It is also coming more in use for the propagation of many other fruit trees, including Apples and Pears, especially new or scarce varieties, as the great advantage of making use of many more of the eyes, to form separate trees, is thereby attained. In large nurseries, where skilful propagators are employed, thousands of trees are annually budded, the majority of them with very successful results. It is, in most cases, preferable to purchase established fruit trees, as cultivators require the produce much quicker than they could get it by propagating trees themselves. The same system of Budding is, however, applicable for increasing Roses; and this may be adopted with every chance of success by even a cottager, if he takes the necessary care in performing the work. Rare varieties of ornamental deciduous trees are largely propagated in this way; for instance, many of the Acers, Elms, Horse Chestnuts, &c. Evergreen shrubs, such as Rhododendrons and Hollies, are also rapidly increased in some establishments by this means. In the case of fruit-frees, plump wood Buds must be selected, from medium-sized branches. On some sorts these are scarce, the majority being Flower-buds, and it is rather difficult to distinguish between them at the Budding season. The best time for the operation is from June to the end of August; but surrounding influences, condition of Buds, stocks, &c., must be taken into account. Clean cuts, with gentle and skilful handling, are even more important in the Budding of stone fruits than of Roses or other plants, and the ties should be lightly but firmly made. In all cases, the operation must be performed as quickly as possible, as both Bud and bark are injured if exposed to the air for any length of time. [Illustration: FIG. 287.] [Illustration: FIG. 288.] To proceed with the ordinary system of Shield-budding, the stock (see Fig. 287 _a_) should first have a longitudinal and a transverse incision made in the bark, the former about 1in. long. Next, the Bud should be prepared, removing half the leaf (see Fig. 288). Hold the branch with the left hand, and pass the knife from about 1/2in. below, gradually upwards and inwards under the Bud, bringing it out in a similar way at a somewhat shorter distance above. A portion of wood will also be taken out, and this is generally removed the opposite way to that in which the Bud has been cut. By skilful Budders, it is removed by a sort of twitch from either end. Great care must be taken not to pull out the base or root of the Bud at the same time, as this would render it useless. Should the whole come out together, leaving a hollow place under the eye of the Bud, it must be thrown away, and another prepared. The Bud being ready, loosen the bark at the point where the incisions meet, with the ivory knife handle, and insert it by means of the piece of leaf attached. It must then be tied in with soft matting or bast, to exclude air, but not tight enough to injure the bark. Shading from bright sun is advisable for a few days afterwards, and, as soon as the union takes place, the ties must be frequently examined, and loosened if necessary. Some prefer Budding late in the season, in order that the Bud may remain dormant during the winter, and breaking stronger the following spring. Occasionally, they are inserted in spring, just at the commencement of growth. The stocks of the Summer-budded trees should only be allowed a moderate amount of foliage during the autumn, and should be cut back to the established Bud before growth commences in spring. _Square and Circular Shield-budding_ consists in cutting out a piece of bark of either shape from the stock, and inserting another piece of exactly the same size, containing a Bud, and covering with a bandage, or piece of sticking plaster, all except the eye. This mode is seldom made use of. Inverted T or Shield-budding is preferred in the south of France for propagating Orange-trees, but is not otherwise much used. The only difference is that the transverse incision is made below, instead of above, the other, and the Bud inserted upwards, making it fit with the bark at the point where the stock is cut across. [Illustration: FIG. 289.] _Flute-budding_ is sometimes used, and answers well for some trees (see Fig. 289). A cylinder of bark is removed from the stock, and one of a similar size from the scion. containing Buds, is fitted in its place, being carefully made air-tight by means of a bandage or grafting wax. Some prefer splitting the hark, as shown in the illustration. and laying it over the tube or cylinder; but the parts cannot be fitted so well as when it is removed. _Ring Budding._ By this mode, it is not necessary to cut off the top of the stock. A ring of bark may be removed from any convenient part (see Fig. 290 _b_) and replaced with one containing eyes (see Fig. 290 _a_). The latter should be taken from a little larger branch than the stock, as the bark could then be made to fit better. As in Flute-budding, air must be excluded by means of adhesive paper and bandages or grafting wax. Budding operations may be performed at any time during the season; but dull cloudy weather, and morning or evening, are most suitable. If the branch, containing Buds, cannot be obtained as required for use, the ends may be placed in water, to keep them fresh; but unnecessary delay should be avoided. [Illustration: FIG. 290.] [Illustration: FIG. 291.] _Stocks for Budding upon._ For the Cherry, the Wild Gean, and seedlings from the Morello. make capital stocks for tall trees and those of moderate growth; and the Mahaleb, or Perfumed Cherry, for small trees for pots, bushes, pyramids, or cordons. For the Plum, the Mussel, Mirabelle, Magnum Bonum, St. Julian, &c., are mostly used for stocks, the Mirabelle being best for small trees. Peaches and Nectarines are generally budded on the Mussel, St. Julian, or Mirabelle Plums; the last are best for dwarfs. The Apricot is budded on the Mussel or Mirabelle Plums, for small plants; and the St. Julian Plum for standards. In France, the Damas Noir, or Black Damask, and the Cerisette, are also used. They should all be raised from seeds, and not from suckers. Seeds for raising plants for stocks may be sown as soon as ripe; but where quantities are used, the stones are thrown into heaps, so as to slightly ferment during winter. In the spring, they are sown in drills or beds, and transplanted the next year in rows 2ft. or 3ft. apart. and 10in. or 12in. from plant to plant. The dwarfs are generally budded the second year, and the standards the third or fourth. Dwarf trees are budded from within a few inches of the ground to 1ft. above; standards and riders from 3ft. to 9ft.; cordons, pyramids, &c., can hardly be budded too low. _Rose Budding._ Propagation of Roses by Budding is very extensively practised both with standard trees and dwarf plants. It is perhaps easier and more certain to succeed with these than with fruit trees; but the mode adopted is precisely the same--that of the shield-shaped Bud with the core, or root, and the bark attached. For standards, the common briar of the Dog Rose is the best. The earlier these are obtained and planted in November, the better, as roots are then formed at once. For dwarf plants, the Manetti stock is mostly used, being easily obtained and had in proper condition almost at any time when Buds are ready. Plants on this stock do not succeed in all soils, and suckers are also very liable to be produced. Budding on the seedling briar is attended with good results, and is practised more than hitherto. The De la Grifferaie stock is also used, more for Tea Roses than others, and is considered by some to produce better plants than the Manetti. The shoots on standard briars should be reduced to about three of the strongest, selected as close together as possible, and near the top, the briars having been previously cut back the desired height at planting time. Two Buds are sufficient for a good head; but, for certainty, three may be inserted. Fig. 291 represents a tall briar with three shoots; _a_ shows the shoot slit for the Bud; _b_, the Bud inserted; _c_, the Bud tied in. Fig. 292 is a branch showing Buds, the lowest ones of which are most suitable, being in firmer wood. Those at the top are often useless. Fig. 293 represents a Bud taken from Fig. 292, _a_, _b_, and Fig. 294 gives an idea of how the wood is removed. As previously remarked when describing the system, experienced Budders remove the wood from either end. Fig. 294 shows its removal from the lower end. [Illustration: FIG. 292.] [Illustration: FIG. 293. FIG. 294.] Budding as close as possible to the main stem is most desirable. Raffia grass is superior in every way for tying, which should be performed as soon after the Bud is inserted as possible. It requires much care, and, of course, the Bud itself must be entirely free. As soon as the Buds swell, the tying material should be loosened, and the top of the stock cut back to the level of the budded shoot. By Budding late, the Buds lie dormant till the next spring, and the necessity of tying the young shoots is dispensed with for that season. The shoots of the briar in advance of the Rose Buds must be cut back, as shown in Fig. 295, so soon as the Buds are safely established. The Manetti and other dwarf stocks are budded on the main shoot nearly close to, or underneath the ground, and if low enough to cover part of the rose stem when grown, the latter often roots as well and assists the stock. Being small, they may be grown in pots and removed to the required position at any time. [Illustration: FIG. 295.] Dog Roses, used for standards, are usually collected from hedgerows, and sold at about 8s. per hundred. Manetti stocks are increased by cuttings, which, after making one season's good growth, will be fit for use. Briars are raised from seed, which may be collected from hedges, and sown in the autumn, in drills. The seedlings should be transplanted the first year after sowing, and the following season they will be ready for working. =BUDDING KNIVES.= The best Budding Knives are those manufactured by Messrs. Saynor and Co., and Messrs. G. Hall and Son. They are made with handles of ivory, shaped in different ways at the end, for the purpose of opening the bark, in order to insert the Bud. Some of the blades are made with the edge rounded at the point, so as to cut the bark without the knife entering the wood underneath (see Figs. 296 and 297). Others, which may be used for Budding, and are much better for ordinary use for cutting flowers, &c., are made with the edge of the blade carried to a point, as in ordinary knives (see Figs. 298 and 299). Another form has the handle made of some other material, and a piece of ivory inserted for opening the bark; this is represented in Fig. 300. The first-named is the best, if required for Budding only; the second is the most useful for ordinary purposes, and answers admirably for Budding as well. None of the other shapes have any material advantages over these. [Illustration: FIG. 296. FIG. 297. FIG. 298. FIG. 299. FIG. 300. =BUDDING KNIVES.=] =BUDDLEIA= (named after Adam Buddle, who is so often mentioned in Ray's "Synopsis"; his collection of dried British plants is preserved in the British Museum). ORD. _Loganiaceæ_. A large genus of stove, greenhouse, or half-hardy shrubs. Flowers small, often tomentose, axillary, spicate, capitate, or thyrsoid; calyx equally four-toothed; corolla tubular-campanulate, regular; limb spreading, four-toothed. Leaves opposite, reticulately veined. Branches quadrangular. The species most extensively grown is _B. globosa_, which, among all our other shrubs, is quite unique; but it is only in the southern or favoured counties of England where it can be fairly termed hardy. It is readily propagated by cuttings or by seeds. The latter should be sown in a gentle heat the spring following the ripening, when they will vegetate pretty freely. With careful treatment and nurturing in pots for the first winter, in a frost-proof pit or house, they may soon be grown into elegant plants. Cuttings of the ripened wood, put in under bell glasses or hand lights, in a cool but frost-proof pit, will root slowly during the winter. They will root all the surer and quicker if each cutting has a heel of older wood attached to that of the current year's growth. They are best inserted in fine sand or in very sandy soil, and require but little water until rooted. As soon as fairly calloused over or rooted, their further progress may be much advanced by potting them off, and plunging them in a bottom-heat of 60deg. or 65deg. This is by no means an essential to secure success, but it hastens it, and promotes growth in an extraordinary manner. The surface temperature should range about the same as the bottom-heat. Under such treatment, the plants will be quite fit to place out about the middle of July. A warm, sheltered situation should be chosen, and a light, rich soil prepared for them; and if dry weather ensues, they only require water. South or west walls are, without doubt, the best situations for them. In all cool or unfavourable localities, much may be done to ensure success by planting on a dry bottom, and on poorish soil. A loose, free-and-easy style of training suits the plants best. This enables them to yield a great number of their peculiarly formed, distinct, and beautiful flowers; whereas, anything like a close, trim course of pruning or of training reduces the flowers to the lowest number. Throughout the southern parts of England, and, indeed, in many places in the north, _B. globosa_ makes an excellent bush for the shrubbery. It is only during severe winters that it gets badly cut. For the other presumably hardy species much the same plan as the foregoing may be adopted. The greenhouse and stove kinds may have the same routine of culture usually employed with plants requiring similar temperatures. Stove species, except where specified otherwise. =B. americana= (American). _fl._ yellow; spikes disposed in a terminal panicle, nearly 1ft. long; glomerules nearly globose, size of a sloe, on short peduncles. August. _l._ ovate, acuminated, narrowed at the base, serrately crenated. _h._ 8ft. to 12ft. Peru, 1826. =B. asiatica= (Asiatic).* _fl._ white, small, disposed in long, dense racemes. _l._ lanceolate, finely serrated. _h._ 3ft. India, 1874. A graceful and sweet-scented shrub. SYN. _B. Neemda_. (B. M. 6323.) =B. crispa= (curled). _fl._ lilac, with a white eye; numerously produced in long terminal branching spikes, forming a pyramidal head about 5in. long. March. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, crenately curled; lower ones cordate at the base; superior ones rounded, all thick and wrinkled, clothed with soft tomentum on both surfaces. _h._ 13ft. Western Himalayas. Half-hardy. (B. M. 4793.) =B. globosa= (globose).* _fl._ orange, or honey-colour; heads large, terminal, globose, pedunculate. May. _l._ lanceolate, acuminated, petiolate, crenated, 6in. long. Branches sub-tetragonal, clothed with hoary tomentum, as well as the under side of the leaves. _h._ 15ft. to 20ft. Chili, 1774. Hardy in most places. (B. M. 174.) =B. Lindleyana= (Lindley's). _fl._ purplish-red, hairy; disposed in terminal racemose spikes. September. _l._ ovate, shortly petiolate, serrate. Branches angular, glabrous. _h._ 6ft. China, 1844. Half-hardy. (B. R. 32, 4.) =B. Neemda= (Neemda). A synonym of _B. asiatica_. =BUDS, FLOWER.= These are developed like Leaf-buds, from which they differ chiefly in containing one or more incipient flowers within the leaves--the flowers being wrapped up in their own floral-leaves, within the ordinary leaves, which have their outer covering of scales. If a Bud be gathered from a Lilac or Horse-chestnut very early in spring, all the rudiments of the future flowers and leaves will be found within it, though the Bud itself may not be more than half-an-inch long, and the flowers not larger than the points of the smallest pins. =BUDS, LEAF.= These consist of rudimentary leaves, surrounding a growing vital point, and appear like a collection of scales arranged symmetrically one above the other. Leaf-buds universally originate in the horizontal or cellular system, and are formed under the bark at the extremity of the medullary rays, and at the margin or on the surface of leaves, whether perfect or rudimentary. Deciduous trees lose their leaves, but in the axil of each a little Bud previously forms, from which fresh leaves expand the following spring. In some cases, as in the Horse-chestnut, the Buds are covered with a gummy exudation. In Privet-trees, Leaf-buds are generally smaller and more elongated than Flower-buds. =BUETTNERIA= (named after David Sigismund Augustus Byttner, once a Professor of Botany in the University of Göttingen). ORD. _Sterculiaceæ_. Erect or scandent stove or greenhouse shrubs. Flowers small, usually dark purple; calyx and corolla valvate; umbels simple, disposed in something like racemes or panicles, rarely in corymbs. Leaves simple. All are of easy culture in a compost of loam and peat. _B. dasyphylla_, _hermanniæ-folia_, _microphylla_, and _scabra_, are occasionally met with, but they are hardly worth growing. =BUETTNERIE�.= A section of _Sterculiaceæ_. =BUFF-TIP MOTH= (_Pygæra bucephala_). This large and beautiful Moth is very common in many districts; it is easily recognised by the buff-coloured tips of the fore-wings--whence its common name; the head, and body between the wings and abdomen, are ochreous. According to Newman's "British Moths," "the caterpillars, when full grown, are about an inch and three-quarters long, and sprinkled with silky hairs; the general colour yellow, with black head, black lines running from the head to the tail, interrupted by a transverse orange band on each ring, and a black horny plate above the tail segment." They feed on the leaves of the Lime, Elm, and Oak, among other trees, and apparently the only remedy is that generally adopted in exterminating caterpillars, viz., to shake the branches which are infested, when the pest will be quickly dislodged, and fall to the ground. Miss Ormerod is of opinion that "as the caterpillars come down the tree to the ground for their change to chrysalids, it might be worth while to throw a few spadefuls of gas-lime, or of anything they would not cross, in a circle at about a yard from the tree; or a rough band of any material soaked in tar, or tar and oil, which would keep wet longer, would stop them from straying off ... and they might be cleared in sufficient numbers so as to considerably lessen future attack." This plan of prevention deserves a trial in any place where the destructive caterpillars of these Moths abound. It is almost a hopeless task to destroy them altogether when once established on the trees, such specimens as large Oaks being often almost or wholly denuded of foliage. =BUGLE.= _See_ =Ajuga=. =BUGLOSSUM BARRELIERI.= _See_ =Anchusa Barrelieri=. =BUGWORT.= _See_ =Cimicifuga=. =BULBIFEROUS.= Bearing bulbs. =BULBINE= (from _bolbos_, a bulb). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A genus of rather pretty hardy, or nearly hardy, herbaceous or bulbous plants, allied to _Anthericum_. Flowers showy, fragrant; perianth with spreading segments. Leaves somewhat fleshy, narrow. Stems short. They are all of easy culture in a compost of sandy loam. The bulbous-rooted species are increased by offsets, and the herbaceous sorts by suckers and divisions. The only species which can be grown satisfactorily in the open air is _B. annua._ All the others should be grown in the greenhouse, but may be placed in the open during the summer months. =B. alooides= (Aloe-like).* _fl._ yellow, disposed in a terminal panicle. April. _l._ fleshy, tongue-shaped, lanceolate, flat on both sides. _h._ 1ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1732. SYN. _Anthericum alooides_. (B. M. 1317.) =B. annua= (annual). _fl._ yellow; scape racemose. May, June. _l._ fleshy, subulate, rounded. _h._ 9in. Cape of Good Hope, 1731. An annual species, the seeds of which should be sown in a gentle heat during spring, and the seedlings may be transplanted to the open when large enough to handle. SYN. _Anthericum annuum_. (B. M. 1451.) =B. caulescens= (caulescent).* _fl._ yellow. March. _l._ fleshy, rounded. Stem shrubby, erect, branched. _h._ 2ft. Cape of Good Hope. 1702. A shrubby species, which should be propagated by cuttings, placed under a hand glass. SYN. _B. frutescens_. (B. M. 816.) =B. frutescens= (shrubby). Synonymous with _B. caulescens_. =BULBOCODIUM= (from _bolbos_, a bulb, and _kodion_, wool; referring to the woolly covering of the bulbs). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. TRIBE _Colchiceæ_. A very pretty little bulbous plant, much resembling the _Crocus_, from which it differs principally in having a superior ovary and six stamens. It is amongst the earliest of spring-flowering plants, the flowers preceding the foliage; and, like the majority of bulbs, delights in rich sandy loam. In such positions, they multiply rapidly from offsets. It is a good plan to take up the bulbs, divide, and replant them every second year, selecting in autumn, and renewing the soil or planting in new positions. Few plants prove more welcome in the garden, in February, than _B. vernum_, either in beds, patches, or masses. =B. Aitchisoni= (Aitchison's). A synonym of _Merendera Aitchisoni_. =B. Eichleri= (Eichler's). A synonym of _Merendera caucasica_. =B. trigynum.= A synonym of _Merendera caucasica_. [Illustration: FIG. 301. BULBOCODIUM VERNUM.] =B. vernum= (spring).* _fl._ violet-purple, with a white spot on the claw; long, tubular, funnel-shaped, two to three from each bulb; preceding the appearance of the leaves. Very early spring. _l._ usually three in number, broadly strap-shaped, concave, and surrounded at the base by well-developed sheaths. Bulb black, oblong. _h._ 4in. to 6in. Spain, 1649. See Fig. 301. There is a variety with the leaves striped white, which is also desirable. =BULBOPHYLLUM= (from _bulbos_, a bulb, and _phyllon_, a leaf; referring to the leaves issuing from the apex of the pseudo-bulbs). SYNS. _Anisopetalum_, _Bolbophyllum_, _Tri-brachium_. ORD. _Orchideæ_. Of this rather large genus of orchids but few are worth cultivating except as curiosities. Racemes long or spike-like, very rarely one-flowered or sub-umbellate; sepals usually nearly equal and free; lip jointed to the foot of the column. They are of easy culture when grown on small blocks of wood with a little moss, and suspended in a warm part of the house; the roots require a good supply of water. Propagated by dividing the pseudo-bulbs. The following comparative few of the aggregate number of species already introduced are really all that are worth the cultivator's attention; what the botanist often regards as being very pretty, &c., does not always appear such in the eyes of the grower. =B. barbigerum= (bearded).* _fl._, sepals and petals greenish-brown; lip covered with dark-coloured hair, and so loosely attached at the base as to be moved with the slightest breath. Sierra Leone, 1835. A curious dwarf-growing plant, with dark green leaves and pseudo-bulbs. (B. R. 1942.) =B. Beccarii= (Beccari's). _fl._ light brownish and painted with violet; lip brown, with a violet hue, proceeding from a rhizome at the base of the leaf (just below the small pseudo-bulb), and at once turning downwards; racemes dense, cylindrical, nodding. _l._ three, 25in. long, 18in, across, very thick. Rhizome 20in. long. Brazil, 1879. A remarkable and gigantic climbing species; the odour of this plant is intolerably f�tid and the leaves are larger than those of any other known orchid. This species requires plenty of heat. (B. M. 6517.) =B. Lobbi= (Lobb's).* _fl._ large; sepals and petals yellow, the upper part spotted with purple; solitary, on radical scapes. Summer. Java, 1845. (B. M. 4532.) =B. maculatum= (spotted). _fl._ prettily spotted, _l._ long, obtuse, bright green. India. =B. reticulatum= (netted-leaved).* _fl._ in pairs, white, striped inside with purple; lip spotted with the same colour. _l._ somewhat heart-shaped, with the nerves of a deeper green than the rest of the leaf, giving it a beautifully reticulated appearance. Brazil, 1866. Perhaps the handsomest of the genus. (B. M. 5605.) =B. saltatorum= (dancing). _fl._ greenish-brown, lasting some time in perfection. Winter. _h._ 6in. Sierra Leone, 1835. (B. R. 1970.) =B. siamense= (Siamese).* _fl._ pale yellow, striped with purple; lip yellow, streaked with purplish lines. A very pretty species, closely allied to _B. Lobbi_, but with longer and stouter leaves. Pseudo-bulbs ovate. Siam, 1867. Should be grown in a pot of peat and sphagnum. =BULBOSTYLES= (from _bolbos_, a bulb, and _stylos_, the style). ORD. _Compositæ_. A. small genus of stove evergreen plants, now referred to _Eupatorium_. =BULBS.= A Bulb is formed upon or beneath the ground, and is a swollen stock, consisting, in the first place, of a more or less fleshy disk, which below gives rise to the roots; secondly, of more or less fleshy coats, or scales, borne on the disk; thirdly, of a more or less central shoot, equally borne by the disk, protected by the coats or scales already mentioned, and formed of rudimentary leaves and flowers. In some instances, small Bulbs, called Cloves, are formed at the base of the scales of the original Bulb; these are destined to reproduce the plant. Shallot and Garlic are good examples. Bulbs are, in fact, storehouses, husbanding the strength and energy acquired by the plant during one season, for the exigencies of the next. They are classified under two sections--Scaly and Tunicated. In the former, the scales of the Bulb are imbricated, as in the Lily; in the latter, they form continuous coatings, one within the other, as in the Hyacinth, &c. In several Lilies, young Bulbs are found growing in the axils of the leaves, when they are known as Bulbils. Bulbs is also a popular term given to Dutch Flower Roots, mostly arriving here in the autumn for spring flowering. Crocus, Colchicum, Cyclamen, Gladiolus, and several others, are not Bulbs, but Corms. The flowering season varies according to the different sorts of Bulbs. The majority may be lifted and kept tolerably dry during the resting period; but they wither and become exhausted if not replanted at the proper time, thereby causing many failures. Dutch Bulbs generally arrive in September, and the best results are obtained from those potted or planted at once, although some for succession may be kept in reserve up till the beginning of November. The failure in cultivating imported Liliums and other Bulbs may be often caused by their long-continued confinement in a dry atmosphere, whereby their vitality is often almost lost. The roots of some Bulbs are nearly always, more or less, in action, and these, especially, should not be kept out of the ground for any length of time. =BULLACE.= _See_ =Prunus insititia=. =BULLACE=, or =MUSCADINE=. _See_ =Vitis vulpina=. =BULLATE.= Blistered or puckered. =BULRUSH=, or =CLUB-RUSH=. _See_ =Typha=. =BUNCHOSIA= (from _bunchos_, the Arabic name for Coffee; in allusion to the similarity between the seeds of this genus and those of Coffee). ORD. _Malpighiaceæ_. Ornamental greenhouse evergreen shrubs, nearly allied to _Malpighia_, but having the racemes of flowers axillary. Fruit fleshy, indehiscent, externally smooth, and containing two or three seeds. They thrive best in a compost of loam, peat, leaf soil, and sand, in about equal proportions. Cuttings of ripened shoots will root in sand under a bell glass, in moist bottom heat, taking several weeks to do so. Good drainage is essential, both in striking cuttings and in the cultivation of the plants. [Illustration: FIG. 302. BURBIDGEA NITIDA.] =B. argentea= (silvery).* _fl._ yellow; racemes opposite, simple, pubescent. July. _l._ lanceolate, silvery beneath. Branches puberulous. _h._ 10ft. Caraccas, 1810. =B. glandulifera= (gland-bearing). _fl._ yellow; racemes simple, axillary. March to May. _l._ elliptical-ovate, on short petioles, wavy, pubescent on both surfaces, furnished with four glands beneath at the base. _h._ 10ft. Caraccas, 1806. =B. nitida= (shining). _fl._ yellow; racemes elongated, almost the length of the leaves. July. _fr._ large, red; it is much eaten by turkeys and other large fowl. _l._ 4in. long, oblong, acuminated, smooth, glandless. _h._ 4ft. Jamaica, 1800. =B. odorata= (fragrant).* _fl._ yellow, sweet-scented; racemes opposite. May. _l._ ovate, emarginate, downy on both surfaces. _h._ 7ft. Carthagena, 1806. =BUPHTHALMUM= (from _bous_, an ox, and _ophthalmos_, the eye; the disk of the flower being ox-eye-like). Oxeye. ORD. _Compositæ_. Very showy and ornamental hardy perennial plants, thriving freely in common garden soil. They are propagated by divisions, made in autumn or spring. =B. grandiflorum= (large-flowered).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, large; involucre naked. June to October. _l._ alternate-lanceolate, somewhat toothleted, smooth. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Austria, 1722. Hardy herbaceous perennial. =B. salicifolium= (Willow-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ yellow, solitary, rather large, terminal; involucre naked. June. _l._ alternate, oblong-lanceolate, sub-serrated, three-nerved, villous. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Austria, 1759. Hardy herbaceous perennial. =B. speciosissimum= (showiest).* _fl.-heads_ yellow. July. _h._ 2ft. South Europe, 1826. Hardy herbaceous perennial. SYN. _Telekia speciosissima_. =BUPLEURUM= (derivation not satisfactorily explained). Hare's-Ear. ORD. _Umbelliferæ_. A somewhat extensive genus of quite glabrous shrubs or herbaceous plants. Flowers yellowish; umbels compound. Leaves mostly quite entire. But few of this genus are worth growing, and all are of the easiest culture in common garden soil. Seeds of the annuals may be sown out of doors in March or April; divisions of the herbaceous perennials made in autumn or spring; and cutting or divisions of the greenhouse species, in March or April. =B. fruticescens= (shrubby).* _fl._, umbels small, three to five-rayed; involucre of three to five, very short, subulate leaves. August. _l._ linear-subulate, stiff, striated, five to seven-nerved. Branches slender, elongated, erect. _h._ 1ft. Spain, 1752. Hardy and evergreen. =B. fruticosum= (shrubby).* Leaves of involucre oblong. July. _l._ of a sea-green colour; oblong, attenuated at the base, coriaceous, one-nerved, quite entire, sessile. Bark of branches purplish. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. Spain, 1596. Hardy. This is nearly the only species grown. (W. D. B. 1, 14.) =B. gibraltarica= (Gibraltar). _fl._ yellow. June. _l._ lanceolate, one-nerved, coriaceous. _h._ 3ft. Gibraltar, 1784. Evergreen, half-hardy. =B. graminifolium= (Grass-leaved).* _fl._ green-yellow. June. _l._ linear, grass-like. _h._ 6in. Switzerland, 1768. Hardy perennial. =B. longifolium= (long-leaved). _fl._ green-yellow. June. _l._ ovate-oblong; radical ones stalked; cauline ones amplexicaul. _h._ 3ft. Switzerland, 1713. Hardy perennial. =BUR.= _See_ =Centotheca lappacea=. =BURBIDGEA= (named after F. W. Burbidge, the discoverer of the genus, a traveller in Borneo, and author of several horticultural works). ORD. _Scitamineæ_. A very large, brilliant-flowered stove herbaceous perennial, allied to _Hedychium_. For culture, _see_ =Alpinia=. =B. nitida= (shining).* _fl._, perianth-tube 1in. to 1-1/2in. long, slender; outer segments 1-1/2in. to 2in. in diameter, bright orange-scarlet; panicle terminal, 4in. to 6in. long, many-flowered. Summer. _l._ 4in. to 6in. long, elliptic-lanceolate, cordate-acuminate, rather fleshy, bright green above. Stems tufted, 2ft. to 4ft. high, slender, terete, leafy. N. W. Borneo, 1879. See Fig. 302, for which we are indebted to Messrs. Veitch and Sons. (B. M. 6403.) =BURCHARDIA= (named after H. Burchard, M.D., a botanical author). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. An ornamental greenhouse herbaceous perennial, allied to _Androcymbium_. It thrives best in sandy peat, or peat mixed with a little loam. Propagated by offsets or divisions, made just previous to potting, in spring. It is best to repot annually. Good drainage should be allowed, and the plant must not be potted too firmly. =B. umbellata= (umbelled). _fl._ white, green. August. _h._ 2ft. New Holland, 1820. =BURCHCHELLIA= (named after W. Burchell, a botanical traveller in the Cape of Good Hope, and in Brazil). ORD. _Rubiaceæ_. A stove evergreen shrub from the Cape of Good Hope. Flowers scarlet, disposed in heads at the tops of the branches, sessile upon a villous receptacle, intermixed with small distinct bracteoles; and each head is propped up by the ultimate pair of leaves; corolla of a clavate-funnel-shape. Leaves ovate, acute, a little cordate at the base, petiolate; stipules interpetiolar, broad, cuspidate at the apex, deciduous. It grows well in a rich light soil, or a mixture of turfy loam, turfy peat, and sand. Cuttings, not too ripe, root readily if planted in sand, and placed under a hand glass, in a gentle heat. =B. bubalina= (buffalo). A synonym of _B. capensis_. =B. capensis= (Cape).* _fl._ deep scarlet, nearly 1in. long. March. _l._ ovate, acute, clothed with hispid pubescence; stipules very broad, and very short. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft.; 12ft. to 14ft. in a wild state. SYN. _B. bubalina_. (B. M. 2339.) =BURLINGTONIA= (named after the "amiable and accomplished" Countess of Burlington). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A small genus of epiphytal orchids, all of which are beautiful and eminently well worth growing. They may be grown upon small blocks of wood, or in rustic baskets, suspended from the roof of the plant stove, where, if liberally treated with water, and a genial moisture in the air during the growing season, very little else will be required to ensure health and vigour. In the dull days of winter, they should be watered less frequently, but the plants must not be allowed to exhibit the slightest signs of distress from drought, or the consequences may be fatal to their health. When fastening these plants to blocks of wood, a little sphagnum should be used, for experience proves that they thrive best when their thin white roots can escape and hang exposed to the air. If growing them in baskets, it is preferable first to fasten them securely upon small pieces of bare cork, then to fill the basket, and finally to cover the whole thinly with a layer of sphagnum. [Illustration: FIG. 303. FLOWER-SPIKE, PSEUDO-BULB, AND LEAF OF BURLINGTONIA DECORA.] Generally speaking, this genus is not a difficult one to cultivate; its great enemy is a small white scale, which secretes itself in the sheathing bases of the leaves. Here it rapidly multiplies, to the great detriment of the plants; the leaves soon turn yellow at the base, and drop off; the whole plant looks sickly, and soon dies, or else requires a very long time and much trouble to achieve its recovery to health. To prevent this, the bases of the leaves must be carefully looked into every time the plants are taken down to be dipped in water; and, should the slightest sign of this pest appear, a thorough washing with soft soap and tepid water must be given, repeating the operation every day until all traces of the insect are removed. Red thrip are also apt to work much mischief with these plants. They take up their abode in the same way as the white scale, and if not speedily removed or destroyed, soon make sad havoc. To put a stop to the ravages of this pest, a wash should be given, as before recommended, and after the soap has been rinsed out of the base of the leaf, a little tobacco powder should be sprinkled into the hollows, and allowed to remain for a day or two before brushing it off. This process will, however, cause a somewhat dirty appearance, but it will ensure ultimate health and vigour. Propagated by dividing the plants. =B. Batemanni= (Bateman's).* _fl._ white, deliciously-scented; lip beautiful mauve. A very pretty South American species, resembling _B. candida_. =B. candida= (white).* _fl._ snowy-white, with a slight stain of yellow on the upper part of the lip, in substance and appearance like white satin, trimmed with gold; large, sweet-scented, in gracefully drooping three to four-blossomed racemes, produced from the axils of the leaves. April and May, lasting about three weeks in perfection, and sometimes having a second flowering season. _l._ one or two in number, dark green, and firm in texture. _h._ 1ft. Demerara, 1834. A very compact species, well suited for basket culture; it should never be allowed to get dry. It may be distinguished from other species by having a single row of tubercles, forming a ridge upon each side of the slightly hastate lip. (B. R. 1927.) =B. decora= (comely).* _fl._ white or rose-coloured, spotted with red; lip pure white; scapes erect, five to ten-flowered. Winter. Brazil, 1852. This species differs entirely from _B. candida_, inasmuch as it possesses a long slender-rooting stem, from different parts of which arise small oval pseudo-bulbs, each bearing a leaf; a lesser leaf appears at the base of a bulb, and from the axil of this the scape springs. It is a rather straggling but nevertheless beautiful species, and is best grown fastened upon long strips of cork, a little sphagnum being used in the operation; whilst, to prevent the plant getting too much "away from home," the young growths should be twisted back as they advance, and the practice continued until the pseudo-bulb is ultimately left near the centre, or in any spot which may appear bare. It likes strong heat and a very moist atmosphere, when growing; but during the period of rest, it should be kept cool and dry. See Fig. 303. (B. M. 4834.) =B. d. picta= (painted).* A beautiful variety, differing from the type in having shorter and more acute leaves; flowers produced in greater profusion, rose-coloured, beautifully mottled and blotched with dark purple. October. Brazil. (B. M. 5419.) =B. fragrans= (fragrant).* _fl._ very gratefully fragrant, disposed in erect racemes. April, remaining in perfection about three weeks. _l._ long, rigid, dark green. Habit compact. Brazil, 1850. =B. pubescens= (downy). _fl._, sepals and petals snow-white; distinguished by the somewhat hastate lip, which has three yellow ridges on each side, and also by the downy column. November. _h._ 6in. Brazil, 1850. =B. rigida= (rigid).* _fl._ purplish-white, spotted with pink on the lip; produced in heads. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1838. A handsome plant, but difficult to flower. (L. S. O. 36.) =B. venusta= (charming).* _fl._ white, slightly tinted with pink; produced in heavy pendulous clusters at various seasons of the year; lip stained with yellow. _l._ rigid, dark green. Brazil, 1840. It forms a compact mass, and requires less heat than the kinds previously described. It is often confounded with _B. pubescens_, from which it may be distinguished by its larger and more loosely arranged flowers, by its smooth column, by the lip not being hastate in shape, and by the numerous shallow ridges borne near the base upon each side. (L. S. O. 2.) =BUR MARIGOLD.= _See_ =Bidens=. =BURNET= (_Poterium Sanguisorba_; from _poterion_, a cup; being used in cooling drinks). ORD. _Rosaceæ_. A native perennial. The leaves are sometimes used in soups, and with Borage in cooling drinks; they are also put in salads. The foliage only being useful, keep the flower-spikes removed, as this tends to increase the luxuriance of the plants. It thrives in any light soil. Propagated by division. =BURNET SAXIFRAGE.= _See_ =Pimpinella=. =BURNING BUSH.= _See_ =Euonymus atropurpureus= and =E. americanus=. =BURN ONION.= _See_ =Potato Onion=. =BUR REED.= _See_ =Sparganium=. =BURSARIA= (from _bursa_, a pouch; the capsules very much resemble those of the Shepherd's Purse). ORD. _Pittosporaceæ_. A handsome, much-branched, greenhouse evergreen shrub, forming a very pretty object when covered all over with its elegant white blossoms. It thrives well in a compost of sandy loam and peat, in equal proportions. Young cuttings will root freely in sand, under a bell glass, with a little bottom heat. =B. spinosa= (thorny).* _fl._ white, small, disposed either in lateral or terminal panicles. July to December. _l._ small, oblong-cuneated, entire. _h._ 10ft. New Holland, 1793. (B. M. 1767.) =BURSERA= (named after Joachim Burser, a disciple of Caspar Bauhin). ORD. _Burseraceæ_. Stove balsam-bearing trees. Flowers polygamous, or hermaphrodite; calyx small, four to six-toothed; petals four to six, spreading, generally valvate in æstivation; stamens eight to twelve; disk annular, with usually six to ten teeth; drupe oblong, covered by a three-valved succulent rind, containing three to five nuts. They thrive in a compost of loam and peat. Propagated by cuttings, placed under a glass, with bottom heat. =B. gummifera= (gum-bearing). _fl._ whitish, hexandrous; racemes terminal and axillary. _l._ deciduous, usually impari-pinnate; leaflets ovate, acute, membranous. _h._ 60ft. West Indies, 1690. =B. serrata= (serrate).* _fl._ whitish, decandrous; panicles axillary, shorter than the leaves. _l._ impari-pinnate, with three to five pairs of broad-lanceolate, bluntly-acuminated, serrulated leaflets; petioles and pedicels pubescent. _h._ 25ft. India, 1818. =BURSERACE�.= An order of shrubs or trees, abounding in resinous juice; with opposite compound leaves, full of pellucid dots, and axillary and terminal fascicles of flowers. Fruit indehiscent, somewhat drupaceous. The genera best known are _Amyris_, _Balsamodendron_, _Boswellia_, _Bursera_, and _Canarium_. =BURTONIA= (named after D. Burton, a plant collector for Kew Gardens). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus of handsome greenhouse dwarf Heath-like shrubs, natives of West Australia. Flowers axillary, often thickly gathered at the ends of the branches; corollas rich purple; keel generally of a deeper colour, and the standard having sometimes a yellow blotch at its base. Leaves simple or trifoliolate, sessile, usually awl-shaped. They thrive well in a mixture of loam, peat, leaf soil, and sand, in equal proportions, with thorough drainage; but care must be taken not to give them too much water, as they require to be kept moderately dry, and are difficult to preserve in a living state. Young cuttings root freely in a pot of sandy soil, in a cool house, with a bell glass placed over them; but some of the species produce seed in abundance, which are the best means of increasing them. =B. conferta= (cluster-flowered).* _fl._ violet. July. _l._ simple, very much crowded, six to eight lines long, linear-subulate, with revolute margins, and are, as well as the branches, smooth. _h._ 2ft. 1830. (B. R. 1600.) =B. minor= (smaller). A synonym of _Gompholobium minus_. =B. pulchella= (beautiful). A synonym of _B. scabra_. =B. scabra= (rough).* _fl._ purple; peduncles axillary, bi-bracteate. April. _l._, leaflets glabrous, linear-mucronate. Branches puberulous. _h._ 2ft. 1846. SYN. _B. pulchella_. (B. M. 5000.) =B. villosa= (villose). _fl._ purple, large; peduncles axillary, bi-bracteate. May. _l._, leaflets linear-subulate, bluntish, scabrid. _h._ 2ft. 1846. (B. M. 4410.) =BUSHEL.= _See_ =Measures=. =BUTCHER'S BROOM.= _See_ =Ruscus aculeatus=. =BUTEA= (commemorative of John, Earl of Bute, once a munificent patron of botany). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus of very ornamental stove evergreen unarmed trees. Racemes many-flowered; flowers three together, on short pedicels, and furnished with two bracteoles each, under the calyx; corolla deep scarlet; down on the calyces usually black and velvety. Leaves pinnately-trifoliate; leaflets large, ovate, roundish, stipellate. For culture, &c., _see_ =Erythrina=. =B. frondosa= (leafy). _fl._ 2in. long. _l._, leaflets roundish, obtuse, or emarginate, rather velvety beneath. Branches pubescent. _h._ 40ft. India, 1796. (B. F. S. 176.) =B. superba= (superb).* _l._, leaflets roundish, obtuse, velvety beneath. Branches glabrous. Coromandel, 1798. This approaches the preceding species, from which it differs mainly by its scandent habit, and not by any botanical characters. (B. F. F. 143.) =BUTOMACE�.= An order of aquatic plants, now usually included under _Alismaceæ_. =BUTOMUS= (from _bous_, an ox, and _temno_, to cut; in reference to the sharp leaves, which injure the mouths of cattle that browze upon them). Flowering Rush. ORD. _Alismaceæ_. A very handsome hardy perennial aquatic, of extremely easy culture on the margins of ponds or muddy banks. Propagated by divisions of the roots, in spring. [Illustration: FIG. 304. BUTOMUS UMBELLATUS, showing Habit and single Flower.] =B. umbellatus= (umbelled).* _fl._ rose-coloured, umbellate; pedicels with scariose sheathing bracts at the base; scape naked, terete, longer than the leaves. Summer. _l._ all radical, 2ft. to 3ft. long, linear, acuminate, triquetrous. Ditches and ponds; frequent in England, and rare in Ireland. See Fig. 304. =BUTTER AND EGGS.= The double-flowered variety of =Narcissus aurantius= (which _see_). =BUTTER AND TALLOW TREE.= _See_ =Pentadesma=. =BUTTER-BUR.= _See_ =Petasites vulgaris=. =BUTTERCUPS.= _See_ =Ranunculus=. =BUTTERFLY ORCHIS.= _See_ =Habenaria bifolia= and =H. chlorantha=. =BUTTERFLY PLANT.= _See_ =Oncidium Papilio=. =BUTTER NUT.= _See_ =Caryocar= and =Juglans cinerea=. =BUTTERWORT.= _See_ =Pinguicula=. =BUTTON FLOWER.= _See_ =Gomphia=. =BUTTON-TREE.= _See_ =Conocarpus=. =BUTTON-WOOD.= _See_ =Cephalanthus=. =BUXUS= (from _pyknos_, dense; referring to the hardness of the wood). Box Tree. ORD. _Euphorbiaceæ_. A genus of hardy evergreen shrubs or small trees. Flowers unisexual, mon�cious; male flowers, calyx of four minute segments, stamens four, inserted under the rudiment of a pistil; female flowers singly, at the tips of groups of male ones. Fruit, a regma, leathery, beaked with the styles. Leaves simple, opposite, exstipulate, evergreen. These well-known plants thrive in any light, well-drained soil. Seeds should be sown in similar situations as soon as ripe. Cuttings, made of the young shoots, from 4in. to 6in. in length, inserted in a shady place, in August or September, root readily. Layers of either young or old wood, made in autumn or early spring, will make good plants. They can also be increased by suckers and division. =B. balearica= (Balearic).* _l._ yellowish-green, oblong-elliptical, emarginate, coriaceous, about 2in. long, with a cartilaginous margin. _h._ 15ft. to 20ft. South Europe, 1780. This is a handsome species. The cuttings will require a shelter in winter, and in exposed situations it will be better to afford the plants protection. =B. sempervirens= (evergreen).* Common Box. _l._ oval-oblong, retuse, convex, coriaceous, shining; stalks slightly hairy. _h._ various. England. There are numerous forms of this popular shrub: _argentea_, silver-variegated; _aurea_ has its leaves variegated with a golden colour; _marginata_ has leaves with a golden margin; _myrtifolia_ has small, oblong, narrowish leaves; _obcordate-variegata_ is a variegated variety, with obcordate leaves, from Japan; _suffruticosa_ is the form usually cultivated for edgings, its leaves are small, obovate, this is readily increased by divisions, and requires to be planted firmly, in order to keep it dwarf. =BYRSONIMA= (from _byrsa_, a hide, and _nimius_, much used; because the bark of some of the species is used in tanning, in Brazil). ORD. _Malpighiaceæ_. Ornamental stove evergreen trees or shrubs. Flowers racemose, terminal, simple or branched. All the species thrive very well in any light soil, or a mixture of loam and peat. Cuttings made of half-ripened shoots will root freely in sand, under a hand glass, in a moist bottom heat. =B. altissima= (tallest).* _fl._ white; racemes clothed with rufous hairs. July. _l._ ovate-oblong, covered with rufous down beneath, but beset with bristles above, which are fixed by the centre. _h._ 60ft. Guiana, 1820. =B. chrysophylla= (golden-leaved).* _fl._ yellow; racemes simple. August. _l._ oblong, short, acuminated, acute at the base, rather wavy on the margin, and revolute, smooth above, clothed beneath with silky down, which is of a rusty golden colour. _h._ 14ft. South America, 1823. =B. coriacea= (leathery-leaved). _fl._ yellow, sweet-scented; racemes densely spiked, pubescent, erect. May. _l._ ovate, acute, quite entire and smooth. _h._ 30ft. Jamaica, 1814. =B. crassifolia= (thick-leaved). _fl._ yellow; racemes erect, elongated, brownish-velvety. July. _l._ ovate, acute at both ends, at length smooth above, but clothed with brownish down beneath. _h._ 6ft. Guiana, 1793. =B. lucida= (shining).* _fl._ pink; petals hastately kidney-shaped; pedicels hispid; racemes spiked, erect, short, smooth. May. _l._ obovate, cuneiform, obtuse, or mucronate, smooth, veinless, shining. _h._ 8ft. Caribbee Islands, 1759. Described as "a beautiful shrub." =B. verbascifolia= (Verbascum-leaved). _fl._ yellow; racemes terminal. July. _l._ lanceolate-obovate, quite entire, downy on both surfaces. _h._ 6ft. Guiana, 1810. =BYSTROPOGON= (from _byo_, to close, and _pogon_, a beard; in reference to the throat of the flower being closed up with hairs). ORD. _Labiatæ_. Greenhouse evergreen sub-shrubs, nearly allied to _Mentha_. Flowers small, in dichotomous, sub-corymbose, or panicled cymes; or else disposed in dense spicate whorls. Bracts lanceolate or subulate. This genus contains easily cultivated species, which are, however, of no value for garden purposes. =CAA-CUYS.= _See_ =Ilex paraguariensis=. =CAA-MINI.= _See_ =Ilex paraguariensis=. =CAAPEBA.= _See_ =Cissampelos Pareira=. =CAAPIM DE ANGOLA.= _See_ =Panicum spectabile=. =CAA-QUAZU.= _See_ =Ilex paraguariensis=. =CABARET.= The French name of _Asarum europæum_. =CABBAGE.= The common name for _Brassica_; but especially applied to the plain-leaved hearting garden varieties of _Brassica oleracea_. To obtain good tender Cabbages in early spring and throughout the summer, it is necessary that they should be planted on rich, deeply-trenched ground, in a position free from the shade of fruit or other trees. Stable dung or good farmyard manure is best for this crop, and should be applied when trenching is being done, burying the manure a spit below the surface. Cabbages should not be planted successionally on the same ground, nor should they follow any of the other species of _Brassica_, if it can be avoided. A warmer position, not too much sheltered to make the plants tender, will be found beneficial for the earliest spring crop. This should not be planted too soon in autumn, as the plants are more subject to run to seed, especially if the winter be mild. The several forms of Cabbage are well known, being so much cultivated by cottagers as well as gardeners. None of those forming close hearts will bear severe frost, but the Savoys are improved by a little in the early autumn. The Coleworts are very useful in winter, being perhaps the hardiest of all; and, as the hearts do not get so close and hard as the Savoy and other Cabbages, the frost, unless it is very severe, does not injure them so much. _Cultivation._ The crop obtained in April and May is usually the most important one, young Cabbages being then much appreciated by everyone. The time for seed-sowing varies in different localities, from the third week in July to the middle of August. The first date would probably prove suitable for the northern parts of the country; and the latter would be early enough for the south. The seed should be sown thinly in beds of rather light, well pulverised soil, afterwards covering these with netting, to protect the seed from birds. The plants will be ready, in most cases, for placing out during September, or as soon as the ground can be cleared of other crops and prepared for their reception. The Early Battersea, or one of its many allied sorts, is best for sowing at this season; and, when planting out, an allowance of 2ft. apart each way will be sufficient. Seed should again be sown on a mild hotbed in February, and occasionally afterwards, for succession; and a second crop may be obtained from the plants put out in autumn if they are allowed to remain. Drumhead and other strong-growing sorts, sown in spring, will require from 6in. to 1ft. more space when planted out. These are not, however, of such good quality as the smaller-growing varieties. _Savoys._ The seed of these should be sown in March or April, according to the locality, in the same way as described above, in seed beds; and the after treatment is also very similar. The young plants must not be allowed to starve in the seed bed, but should be kept watered, and planted out in June and July, choosing dull weather for the operation. The ground should occasionally be hoed between the plants, to keep the surface open and destroy weeds. Distances of from 15in. to 30in. between the plants, according to the variety, must be allowed. See Fig. 305. [Illustration: FIG. 305. SAVOY CABBAGE.] _Coleworts._ Seed of these should be sown about the end of June, and planted out 1ft. apart on a sheltered border, when large enough. Rosette is one of the best varieties; but the early Cabbages are often grown and used as Coleworts before they have had time to form close hearts. [Illustration: FIG. 306. EARLY YORK CABBAGE.] _Pickling Cabbage._ The Red Dutch is the variety generally grown for pickling, and is probably the best to keep its colour when so treated. Seed should be sown in August, to stand the winter, and again in February for a succession; only a few plants will, in the majority of cases, be required, as, if liberally treated, they grow to a good size. [Illustration: FIG. 307. OXHEART CABBAGE.] _Sorts of White Cabbage._ These are extremely numerous, and selections or improved forms are of annual appearance. Some of the old types are, however, still much cultivated. The following are a selection of the best sorts for general purposes: Atkins' Matchless, Carter's Heartwell, Early Battersea, Early York (see Fig. 306), Ellam's Early Dwarf, Enfield Market, Little Pixie, Oxheart (see Fig. 307), St. John's Day (see Fig. 308), Sugarloaf, Wheeler's Imperial, and Portugal or Couve Tronchuda. The last-named variety was introduced from Portugal some years ago, where it is much grown. It has a large midrib, and does not form very close hearts. It is very tender when cooked, and is only suitable for culture in summer. Under the name of Gilbert's Cabbage Broccoli, or Chou de Burghley, a variety of Cabbage was recently distributed which produces, if left long enough, hearts resembling Broccoli. Although there are different opinions as to its merits, it is said to be very tender when cooked, and is considered a decided acquisition. Of Savoys, the best are: Drumhead, Dwarf Green Curled, Early Ulm, Large Late Green, and Tom Thumb. [Illustration: FIG. 308. ST. JOHN'S DAY CABBAGE.] _Insects, &c._ The majority of the Cabbage tribe is attacked by a very large number of different caterpillars and other pests, both above and below ground. The plants in their young stages are always a prey for snails and slugs, and often require a dusting of soot and lime as a protection. When planting out, many of the plants are often found with a protuberance at the root, caused by an insect, and termed "clubbing." Those so injured should be thrown away if they can possibly be spared, and the others dipped in a thick solution of soot water. This is the worst kind of disease the Cabbage tribe is subject to. The caterpillars of several moths and butterflies are very destructive in summer, often eating through the hearts of Cabbages and Cauliflowers, and so rendering them totally unfit for use. Hand-picking, or dusting with lime, is apparently the only means of diminishing the numbers of these pests. =CABBAGE CATERPILLARS.= _Large Cabbage White_ (_Pieris brassicæ_). From May to July, and again in September and October, this, the most common of our butterflies, may be seen in great numbers, frequenting gardens, lanes, and fields, being especially numerous where Cabbages are growing. Their beautiful yellow eggs are laid singly on the under surface of the leaves, and securely fastened by a natural glue; from these, in due time, issue the small, but destructive, "green caterpillars." Shortly after birth, they become quite green in front and yellow behind. They then get hairy and dotted over with black; they have eight pairs of feet, of which the three front ones only are "true" legs, or those which ultimately develop into the legs of the butterfly. They change their skin several times, and at each moult become larger in size. When full grown, they are about 1-1/2in. long, of a light green or bluish hue above, and yellow beneath; along the back of the adult caterpillar is a conspicuous yellow line, edged on each side with black dots. [Illustration: FIG. 309. CATERPILLAR AND CHRYSALIS OF LARGE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY.] The chrysalis, or pupa, is commonly found on window-ledges, palings, walls, and similar places; but is sometimes attached to the plant (see Fig. 309). It is a rather curious object, of the colour of stone, and prettily chiselled. It is fastened to the plant by the tail and by a belt of silk round the middle. [Illustration: FIG. 310. LARGE WHITE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY.] [Illustration: FIG. 311. SMALL WHITE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY AND CATERPILLAR.] The perfect male insect has the body black and wings white on the upper side, except the tips of the fore-wings, which are black and crescent-shaped; and on the upper edge of the hinder wings there is a black spot. On the under side, the fore wings are white with yellow tips, and two black patches on each; the hind wings are yellow, with small black markings. The antennæ are alternately black and yellow, with the club black above and yellow beneath. The female (see Fig. 310) differs from the male in having two large black spots on each of the fore or upper wings, and a spot on the inner margin. _The Small White_ (_Pieris rapæ_, see Fig. 311) has two broods in the year, the first batch about April, and the second in July. The eggs are always placed on the upper side of the leaf, and are hatched in from ten to thirteen days, the caterpillars becoming full grown in about three weeks after emerging. The colour of the caterpillar is dark green, with a fine line of yellow, and a row of yellow spots down the sides. The chrysalis is attached by the tail and a band of silk to the place selected by the caterpillar, and varies greatly in colour, although generally it is of a whitish-brown. _Cabbage Moth_ (_Mamestra brassicæ_). Newman, in his "British Moths," thus describes the Cabbage Moth: "The antennæ are rather long and slender, and scarcely ciliated in either sex; the fore-wings are dark, smoky, grey brown, mottled and marbled with confused markings, both darker and paler; the orbicular spot is inconspicuous, but decidedly to be traced; the reniform stigma is delicately outlined with white or whitish-grey, and has a pale anterior disc, in which the same pale grey colour predominates; the hind wings are dark, smoky brown with rather pale base, and rather darker crescentic discoidal spot and wing-rays; the head, thorax, and body have the same colour as the fore and hind wings." The eggs are laid on Cabbages, or similar plants, and are hatched in a few days. The caterpillars are very voracious, feeding by day and night, and, what is worse, they spoil with their excrement, in the case of Cabbages, more than they eat. They are of a dark colour, with a kind of marbling, more or less distinct, on the back, the effect being produced by a triangular mark containing two white dots on each of their segments. On being disturbed, they roll themselves into a tight ring, and so remain until they suppose that danger is over. They descend into the earth for change to smooth red-brown chrysalids, and remain there till the following spring. If the chrysalids were collected and destroyed during the autumn and winter digging, much injury would be obviated through the succeeding spring and summer. The destruction of these pests is a very troublesome matter, as the grubs of the last-named kind bore into the heart of the cabbage. Hand-picking is the only sure method. Anything emitting a distasteful odour will also keep them at bay. Miss Ormerod recommends throwing gas-lime over the plants, but it must be previously weakened by a few months' exposure. The following remedy may also be recommended: _Paraffin_, or _Coal Oil_. Mix one ounce of oil with a gallon of soapsuds, and water the plants with the mixture before the caterpillars appear. If any have appeared, an application at the rate of two ounces to the gallon will generally clear them off. Of course, this operation must not be performed less than a month previous to cutting the cabbages, on account of the smell. Soapsuds alone will also clear caterpillars from most smooth-leaved subjects if frequently applied. =CABBAGE FLY= (_Anthomyia brassicæ_). Among the injurious insects which infest Cabbages, none commit greater havoc to both stem and root, than the maggots of the Cabbage Fly. "They are whitish, cylindrical, and legless, tapering to the head, and blunt at the tail, which has short teeth on the lower margin, and two brown tubercles in the middle. When full grown, they are about 1/3in. long. They then leave the plants, and turn, in the earth, to pupæ, with a few black spots at the head, and short teeth at the tail, inside which the flies form, and emerge in about a fortnight or three weeks. The fly is of an ashen-grey colour, and smaller than the Onion Fly, which it much resembles. The male is of a darker grey, and has a short black stripe along the back between the wings, with a curved one on each side of it, and one black stripe along the abdomen" (Ormerod). The presence of these maggots may be easily detected by the flagging and change of colour of the leaves. The infested plants should be immediately removed and destroyed. The following remedy will be found beneficial: _Lime._ Hot lime should be soaked in water for about twenty-four hours. When clear, the infested Cabbages should be well washed with the liquid. Superphosphate of lime may also be applied with advantage. =CABBAGE GALL WEEVIL= (_Ceutorrhynchus sulcicollis_). This is a pretty little beetle, about three-quarters of a line or one line in length. Its colour is dark, but the insect is really of a coppery hue; on the thorax and head are rather large depressions; the wing-cases vary in colour from green to greenish-blue, or even black, and along the entire length of the elytra are parallel lines or holes, as may be seen with the aid of an ordinary lens. This insect, which causes much damage to plants of the _Brassica_ family, is, in some places, very difficult to eradicate. It is also very destructive to other crops, and, therefore, any effectual remedy is valuable. The following methods may be recommended: _Carbolic Acid._ Mix 1oz. Calvert's No. 5 carbolic acid with two gallons of soapsuds, and add sufficient loam or clay to make a thin paste. Dip the roots of the whole of the plants into this before they are set out. Well stir the mixture, and put the plants out in a damp soil, so that watering will not be necessary. _Paraffin_, or _Coal Oil_. This, applied in the same manner as recommended for Carbolic Acid, is also very good. _Guano, Superphosphate of Lime, and Nitrate of Soda._ A good dressing of either of these, given after the ground is dug, and in wet weather, about a month before the plants are put out, has been found very beneficial; but, although preventatives, they do not totally clear the crop from insects for the season. _Soot and Lime._ Take equal parts of air-slaked lime and soot, and mix together. Set the plants with a trowel, and, having placed some soil over the roots, throw in a little of the mixture, filling up the hole with soil. =CABBAGE MOTH.= _See_ =Cabbage Caterpillars=. =CABBAGE PALM.= _See_ =Euterpe oleracea=. =CABBAGE POWDERED-WING= (_Aleyrodes brassicæ_). A small four-winged powdery fly, closely allied to the Aphides. As implied by its name, this pest infests the various sorts of Cabbages. It is more particularly prevalent in autumn. Its presence may be readily detected by the partial discoloration of the leaves attacked. The head and body between the wings are black, with yellow variegation; abdomen yellow or rosy; wings white and mealy (whence its common name), the upper pair each having a darker spot, near the centre. Its destructive power resides in the rostrum, or sucking-tube, with which its head is furnished. _Remedies._ The only effectual means of exterminating this pest is to destroy the leaves, preferably by burning. If its presence is detected early, an application of tobacco water, or diluted soft soap, may prove beneficial. =CABBAGE ROOT-EATING FLY.= _See_ =Root-eating Fly=. =CABBAGE-TREE.= _See_ =Euterpe oleracea=. =CABBAGE WEEVIL.= _See_ =Cabbage Gall Weevil=. =CABOMBA= (the native name in Guiana). ORD. _Nymphæaceæ_. SUB. ORD. _Cabombeæ_. Small and very interesting aquatics. They thrive well in a cistern 1ft. deep, with 2in. of loam in the bottom, for the plants to root in, then filled up with water, and placed in a warm part of the greenhouse during summer, being allowed a rest in a cool part of the stove in winter. Propagation may be effected by root division. =C. aquatica= (water-loving). _fl._ yellow, small; peduncles long, axillary, solitary, one-flowered. July. Submerged leaves opposite, stalked, cut into five divisions even to the petiole; segments multifid; floating leaves alternate, on long petioles, peltate, orbicular, entire. Guiana, 1823. SYN. _Nectris aquatica_. =C. caroliniana= (Carolina) is somewhat similar to _C. aquatica_. It is a native of the Southern United States. =CACALIA= (from _kakalia_, a name used by Dioscorides). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of hardy herbaceous perennials, here treated as distinct from _Senecio_, of which genus, from a botanical point of view, it is but a section. Heads five to many-flowered; florets all tubular and perfect; scales of the involucre in a single row; receptacle naked; pappus of numerous capillary bristles. For culture, _see_ =Senecio=. =C. atriplicifolia= (Atriplex-leaved). _fl.-heads_ white. August. _l._, lower ones triangular-kidney shaped, or slightly cordate; the upper rhomboid, toothed. Stem terete. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. United States of America. =C. hastata= (hastate). _fl.-heads_ white, nodding, racemose. Autumn. _l._ stalked, three-lobed, hastate, serrate. _h._ 1ft. Siberia, 1780. =C. reniformis= (reniform). _fl.-heads_ white, disposed in large corymbs. August. _l._ dilated, fan-shaped, 1ft. to 2ft. broad, repandly-toothed and angled, petiolate. Stem grooved and angled. _h._ 4ft. to 9ft. New Jersey, 1801. =C. suaveolens= (sweet-scented).* _fl.-heads_ white. Autumn. _l._ triangular-lanceolate, halbert-shaped, pointed, serrate; those of the stem on winged petioles. Stem grooved. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. North America, 1752. =C. tuberosa= (tuberous).* _fl.-heads_ whitish. June. _l._ thick; lower ones lanceolate or oval, nearly entire, tapering into long petioles; upper ones on short margined petioles, sometimes toothed at the apex. Stem angled and grooved. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. North America. =CACOUCIA= (its name in Guiana). ORD. _Combretaceæ_. A small genus of stove twining or climbing shrubs. Flowers large, showy, racemose. Leaves opposite, oblong or ovate-elliptical. For culture, _see_ =Combretum=. =C. coccinea= (scarlet).* _fl._ scarlet, alternate, bracteate at the base, disposed in long terminal racemes. May. _l._ ovate, acuminated, shortly petiolate. Guiana. (A. G. i., 179.). A handsome stove climber. =CACTE�.= A large order of succulent plants, with remarkable spines clustered on the cylindrical, angular, two-edged, or leafy stems. Flowers very variable, showy or minute, usually solitary, sessile, rarely in fascicles, ephemeral; petals disposed in two or more series, hardly distinguishable from the inner sepals, and sometimes united with them; sepals numerous, united and adnate a great length to the ovarium. Fruit fleshy, one-celled, many-seeded. Well-known genera are _Cereus_, _Melocactus_, _Mammillaria_, _Opuntia_, _Pereskia_, and _Rhipsalis_. =CACTUS= (from _kaktos_, a name used by Theophrastus to describe a spiny plant). This generic term is popularly applied to all members of the extensive family _Cacteæ_, which order may be distinguished by the following characteristics: Calyx composed of many sepals, usually indefinite in number, the inner series not readily distinguishable from the petals, united and adnate a great length to the ovary; with the tube smooth in the genera _Mammillaria_, _Melocactus_, and _Rhipsalis_; or with the lobes of the sepals crowning the fruit, and having the tube scaly, as in the genera _Cereus_, _Opuntia_, and _Pereskia_. Petals disposed in two or more series, hardly distinguishable from the inner sepals, and somewhat united to them; sometimes irregular, and disposed in a long tube at the base, but distinct at the apex, as in the genera _Mammillaria_, _Melocactus_, and _Cereus_; sometimes equal and distinct to the very base, forming a rotate corolla, as in the genera _Opuntia_, _Pereskia_, and _Rhipsalis_. Stamens indefinite, disposed in many series, more or less cohering with the petals or inner sepals; filaments slender, filiform; anthers ovate, versatile, two-celled. Ovarium obovate, fleshy, one-celled. Fruit fleshy, one-celled, many seeded, either smooth and crowned by the calyx, or covered with scales, scars, or tubercles, and umbilicate at the apex. This order contains fleshy or succulent shrubs, very variable in habit and size. Flowers very variable, showy, or minute, usually solitary, sessile, rarely in fascicles, ephemeral, expanding by night or day. Leaves usually wanting, but, when present, small, caducous, and terete, rarely flat and expanded, sometimes alternate and disposed in a spiral order, always glabrous and fleshy. Prickles or bristles disposed in fascicles, rising from the axils of the leaves. In the leafless genera, the fascicles of spines are disposed on the angles of the stem, rising from tubercles. Stems usually angular, winged, or regularly beset with tubercles, rarely terete, usually jointed; joints compressed. A group of Cacti is shown at Fig. 312, for which we are indebted to Herr Fr. Ad. Haage, jun., of Erfurt, Germany. _See_ =Cereus=, =Disocactus=, =Echinocactus=, =Epiphyllum=, =Leuchtenbergia=, =Mammillaria=, =Melocactus=, =Nopalea=, =Opuntia=, =Pelecyphora=, =Pereskia=, =Phyllocactus=, and =Rhipsalis=. _Cultivation._ Perhaps no class of plants more easily accommodate themselves to a general system of treatment, than do these; although certain genera would undoubtedly thrive better than when subjected to the lower temperature, suited to the requirements of those coming from cooler regions. Notwithstanding that nearly all the species are natives of the western hemisphere, they occur in various geographical and altitudinal areas, in which the temperature is proportionately lessened or increased, as the case may be; yet, presuming a special house is set apart for their culture, the majority of the species may be happily suited therein. The warmest end of the structure should be selected for the tropical kinds; while those found in cooler regions may be grown in the other portions of the house; even those which are hardy in our climate are really best wintered in a house or frame. Granted that several species will endure our winter outside, it is yet necessary to give them the shelter of a friendly ledge of the rockery, or frame, or to cover them in their permanent position with a hand light, or sheet of glass, in order to prevent the ill-effects of excessive moisture. Generally, a winter temperature of from 50deg. to 55deg., and a summer one of from 70deg. to 80deg. during shade, or in sunshine up to 90deg., will be found advantageous. When thus treated, it will be necessary to keep the tropical species, on the whole, very dry during the winter. As regards soil, potting, and general treatment, all may be treated alike, except _Epiphyllum_, _Disocactus_, and _Pereskia_ (which _see_). Some growers give them the protection of a house in winter, and stand them outside during the summer, which is not, however, a very commendable plan, as, in consequence of the very variable character of our climate being especially prejudicial to several of the tender and more delicate species, the often excessive amount of moisture they would receive, will produce a weakly state of health in many, while others will be lost. It is far better if their culture is attempted at all, to give them the proper treatment. The numerous species and varieties found on the Rocky Mountains are a most interesting series, and may be well managed in a cold frame facing south, arranging them on shelves as close to the glass as possible, and keeping them very dry through the winter. If the weather is very severe, the lights should be matted. One of the best collections of these in the country, is in the possession of E. G. Loder, Esq., Floore House, Weedon, Northampton, where a great number are admirably grown in frames, and under a large ledge of the rockery outside. Amateurs may grow quantities of handsome Cacti either in dwelling rooms near the window, or in small frames or greenhouses. As they are slow growing, not much space will be occupied; at the same time, a great deal of interest will be centred in their culture. As regards watering and insect pests, they are but little trouble. Miniature Cacti, of numerous kinds, are now often sold in small pots, and most attractive little subjects they prove. [Illustration: 1. Opuntia. 2. Cereus. 3. Opuntia streptacantha. 4. Cereus candicans. 5. Mammillaria. 6. Cereus peruvianus monstrosus. 7. Echinocereus electracanthus. 8. Mammillaria. 9. Echinopsis formosa. 10 Echinocactus Visnaga. 11. Cereus peruvianus var. 12. Opuntia candelabriformis. 13. Cereus strictus. 14. Pilocereus senilis. 15. Cereus Tweedii. 16. Cereus chilensis. FIG. 312. GROUP OF CACTI.] _Soil, Drainage, and Potting._ Good ordinary fibrous loam should form about one-half of the compost, the other half should be made up of sand, broken bricks, and lime rubbish in equal quantities; the whole to be carefully mixed together, and not used until it is moderately dry. It is absolutely necessary to ensure perfect drainage; a good "stopper" should, therefore, be placed over the hole at the bottom of the pot, and about one-third of its depth filled with draining material. The best time for potting is during February and March. Turn out the plants, and remove nearly all the old soil from the roots, taking away any dead or decaying roots which may be observable. Place some of the roughest soil next the crocks, and gradually fill the pots with the finer material, well working the same amongst the roots; finally press the soil moderately firm. Do not water for a few days after potting, but syringe every evening, especially if the weather be fine; a little extra heat may be given after potting, to excite new, healthy growth. It will not be necessary every year to repot specimens in large vessels. A good top-dressing, with an occasional dose of weak liquid manure, is all they will require for several seasons. _Watering._ This must be discriminately managed, especially during the winter; for, whatever their treatment as regards temperature during that season, they must be studiously watered, and anything like a saturated condition of the soil should be avoided. If the temperature is brisk, a little water may be given once a week, or perhaps not quite so often. If the plants are subjected to very cool treatment, water must be sparingly administered during November, December, and January; after which, they should be examined weekly, and very carefully attended to. During the summer months, when in active growth, they will not suffer if watered twice a week; and, on bright afternoons, light syringings may be advantageously given. _Propagation._ Three methods are adopted, viz., by cuttings or offsets, grafting, and seeds; the former is the plan generally adopted. The cuttings or offsets should be removed with a sharp cut, and laid upon a sunny shelf until the wound is healed and roots are emitted, when they should be potted in sandy soil, and placed with the others. They will thrive freely if kept syringed. Grafting is resorted to with delicate kinds, which, from some reason or another, will not grow freely except upon the stock of a stronger species; and, by this means also, such delicate kinds can be kept from the damp soil, which frequently causes incipient decay. The stocks usually employed are those of _Cereus tortuosus_, _C. peruvianus_, &c., according to the species intended for working; they readily unite with each other. If the scion and stock are both slender, wedge-grafting should be adopted; if both are broad, it is best to make horizontal sections, placing them together and securing in proper position by tying with matting, but not too tightly, or the surface may be injured. Propagation by seeds is not often adopted, as it is a very slow method; they should be sown in very sandy soil, and placed in a semi-shady position until germination commences, when they may be exposed, and very carefully watered. =CACTUS DAHLIA.= _See_ =Dahlia Juarezii=. =CADUCOUS.= Falling off soon; deciduous. =C�NOPTERIS.= _See_ =Asplenium=. =C�SALPINIA.= (in honour of Andreas Cæsalpinus, a celebrated Italian botanist, 1519-1603). Brasiletto. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. An ornamental genus of stove evergreen trees or shrubs, not much grown, on account of the space required and the time the species take to flower. Flowers yellow or red, produced in racemes, having a top-shaped calyx, divided at the end into five parts, the lowest larger than the others; petals five, unequal-stalked, upper one shortest; stamens ten. A mixture of loam and leaf mould suits them best. Cuttings are somewhat difficult to root, but sometimes will succeed if taken off from the mother plant in a growing state and planted in sand, with a hand glass placed over them, in heat. =C. alternifolia= (alternate-leaved). _fl._ orange, clustered. _l._ alternate, very elegant, compound. Central America, 1868. =C. brasiliensis= (Brazilian). Brazil Wood. _fl._ orange; racemes rather panicled. _l._ with seven to nine pairs of pinnæ, each pinna bearing about fifteen or sixteen pairs of oval-oblong, obtuse, glabrous leaflets. Brazil, 1739. Plant unarmed. =C. Sappan= (Sappan). _fl._ yellow, panicled. _l._ with ten to twelve pairs of plane, each pinna bearing ten to twelve pairs of unequal-sided, obliquely oval-oblong leaflets, which are emarginate at the apex. _h._ 40ft. Tropical Asia, 1773. This tree furnishes the Sappan-wood of commerce. =C. sepiaria= (hedge). _fl._ yellow. April. _l._ compound; pinnæ with about ten pairs of pinnules. _h._ 60ft. India, 1857. SYN. _Biancea scandens_. =C�SIOUS.= Lavender-colour, bluish-grey. =C�SPITOSE.= Growing in tufts. =CAFFER BREAD.= _See_ =Encephalartos Caffra=. =CAFFER TEA.= _See_ =Helichrysum nudifolium=. =CAFTA.= _See_ =Catha edulis=. =CAHOUN NUTS.= A name applied to the fruits of _Attalea Cohune_, which yield a valuable oil. =CAIOPHORA.= _See_ =Blumenbachia= and =Loasa=. =CAJAN.= _See_ =Cajanus=. =CAJANUS= (_Catjang_ is the Amboyna name). Cajan. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus of erect stove evergreen shrubs, clothed with velvety pubescence. Flowers yellow, distinctly peduncled, corymbose, racemose; standard sometimes beautifully veined with red. Leaves pinnately trifoliate. A light rich soil suits these plants well. Young cuttings will root in sand, with a hand glass placed over them, in heat; but plants are usually raised from seeds, obtained from the West Indian Islands and India. =C. indicus= (Indian).* Pigeon Pea. _fl._ yellow, or purple-spotted, in axillary racemes. July. _l._ pinnately trifoliate; leaflets lanceolate. _h._ 6ft. to 10ft. India. (B. M. 6440.) =C. i. bicolor= (two-coloured). _fl._ yellow. July. _h._ 4ft. India, 1800. (B. R. 31, 31.) =C. i. flavus= (yellow). _fl._ yellow. July. _h._ 4ft. India, 1687. =CAJUPUT OIL= and =CAJUPUT-TREE=. _See_ =Melaleuca leucadendron minor=. =CAKILE= (derived from the Arabic). Sea Rocket. ORD. _Cruciferæ_. A pretty hardy annual, frequently found on sea-shores. It is of easy culture in most sandy soils. Propagated by seed, sown in spring. =C. maritima= (sea). _fl._ lilac, large, densely corymbose. Summer and autumn. _fr._ a succulent pod, divided, when mature, by a horizontal partition into two cells, the upper containing a single erect seed, the lower a pendulous one. _l._ oblong, deeply lobed, fleshy. Stem much branched. _h._ 1ft. Sea-shores of Europe and North America. =CALABASH NUTMEG.= _See_ =Monodora Myristica=. =CALABASH, SWEET.= _See_ =Passiflora maliformis=. =CALABASH-TREE.= _See_ =Crescentia Cujete=. =CALABA-TREE.= _See_ =Calophyllum Calaba=. =CALADENIA= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _aden_, a gland; in reference to the disk of the labellum being finely beset with glands). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A genus of pretty greenhouse terrestrial orchids from New Zealand and Australia. They should be kept in a cool frame or greenhouse, and carefully watered, when not in a growing state. A compost of peat, loam, and sand, in equal parts, suits them well. Over thirty species are enumerated, but probably none are seen out of botanic gardens. =CALADIUM= (derivation of name doubtful; probably of Indian origin). ORD. _Aroideæ_. Stove perennials, chiefly grown for the great beauty and varied hue of their leaves. Spathe hood-like, rolled round at the base; spadix, upper portion entirely covered with stamens, but ultimately becoming bare at the extreme top, provided with blunt glands or sterile stamens in the middle, and ovaries beneath; anthers shield-shaped and one-celled; ovaries numerous, two-celled, with from two to four ascending ovules in each cell. Leaves upon long petioles, more or less sagittate, ovate, and usually very richly coloured. Fruit a one or two-celled berry, with few seeds. They are all of easy culture, and grow freely in a humid atmosphere. In March, when the tubers have been kept dry or rested for some time, they may be started into growth again, in small pots, placed in a stove or pit, where a night temperature of from 60deg. to 65deg. is maintained, and syringed daily once or twice at least. As soon as indications of activity are presented, they may be shifted into 4in., 5in., or 6in. pots, or larger ones may be used if good sized specimens are required. If the tubers should be in large pots, it is best to turn them out, dividing if necessary, and placing all the crowns in small pots, from which they can be removed when root action and growth are resumed, and they require more room. Large tubers, if sound, may be divided, and the pieces placed in pots of such sizes as it is desired to grow them in. _Soil._ Turfy loam, leaf mould, turfy peat, and a little well decomposed manure, in equal parts (not broken up too fine), with a good sprinkling of sharp sand, form an excellent compost, the whole being well incorporated together. Thorough drainage must be insured, as these plants require an abundance of water. After potting, they should be placed in a stove temperature, and kept well moistened by syringing two or three times daily. If accommodated with mild bottom heat at this time, they will make much freer and more vigorous growth than if otherwise treated. Water sparingly at first, but as soon as the leaves expand, increase the supply; and, when the pots are well filled with roots, apply clear liquid manure at every other time of watering. As the season advances, the temperature and humidity of the house should be increased. During bright sunshine, Caladiums should be slightly shaded for a few hours in the middle of the day, with some thin material, just to break the fierceness of the sun's rays; but the more they are exposed to the light at other times during growth, the brighter, richer, and more beautiful will the foliage be. As soon as the plants have attained a good size, some of them should be placed in the coolest part of the house, and partially hardened off; they may then be taken to the conservatory, allowing them a situation free from currents of cold air, and giving water only when really necessary. They may remain here for some time, but care must be taken to return them to the stove before they suffer from cold. Small neatly grown specimens make beautiful ornaments for table decoration, and their suitability for exhibition purposes is well known, and largely taken advantage of. Towards autumn, and as the foliage begins to fade, the supply of water should be gradually lessened, until all the leaves die down; the pots should then be placed under the stage in the stove, where they can be looked to now and then, and a little water given if required. By no means allow the tubers to get dried up, as is often done; for, if so, they will frequently rot away inside; whereas, kept in a semi-moist condition, even the most delicate can be preserved. In this state, they may remain until the following season. Caladiums will not endure a very low temperature; from 55deg. to 60deg. is as low as they can be safely kept. Very few of those known as "true species" are grown, being superseded, for general decorative purposes, by the numerous hybrids which have been raised of late, principally from _C. bicolor_. [Illustration: FIG. 313. CALADIUM CHANTINII.] =C. argyrites= (silvery).* _l._ small, sagittate, round colour light green; centre and margins white, with many irregular white blotches scattered over the remaining portion. Para, 1858. One of the smallest and most elegant of the genus, and much esteemed for table decoration. (I. H. 1858, 185.) =C. Baraquinii= (Baraquin's). _l._ from 20in. to 30in. long; centre deep red; margin dark green. Para, 1858. (I. H. 1850, 257.) =C. bicolor= (two-coloured).* _fl._, spadix shorter than the hooded spathe, which is contracted in the middle. June. _l._ peltate-cordate, sagittate, coloured in the disk. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1773. (B. M. 820.) =C. Cannartii= (Cannart's). _l._ green, with pale blotches; veins deep red. Para, 1863. =C. Chantinii= (Chantin's).* _l._ chiefly brilliant crimson, irregularly blotched with white, and margined with dark green. Para, 1858. See Fig. 313. =C. Devosianum= (Devosie's).* _l._ angular, blotched white and pink. Para, 1862. =C. esculentum= (edible). Synonymous with _Colocasia esculenta_. =C. Hardii= (Hardy's). _l._ red-tinged, slightly spotted with white. Para, 1862. =C. Kochii= (Koch's).* _l._ spotted with white. Para, 1862. =C. Lemaireanum= (Lemaire's). _l._ green, with whitish venation. Brazil, 1861. (I. H. 1862, 311.) =C. Leopoldi= (Prince Leopold's).* _l._ green, marbled with red, and blotched with pink. Para, 1864. =C. macrophyllum= (large-leaved).* _l._ large, palish green, blotched with greenish-white. Para, 1862. [Illustration: FIG. 314. CALADIUM MACULATUM.] =C. maculatum= (spotted).* _l._ oblong, acuminate, cuspidate, cordate at base, finely spotted with clear white. Plant erect, caulescent. South America, 1820. See Fig. 314. =C. marmoratum= (marbled).* _l._ broad, peltate, upwards of 1ft. long, sagittate-ovate, acute or shortly acuminate, the two basal lobes being slightly divergent, dark bottle-green, variegated with greyish or silvery angular spots and blotches; petioles terete, greenish, mottled with purple. Guayaquil. SYN. _Alocasia Roezlii_. The variety _costata_ differs from the type in having the midrib (or costa) marked out by a tapering band of silver grey. =C. Rougieri= (Rougier's). _l._ green, with white spots; the centre pale green, with red veins. Para, 1864. =C. rubronervium= (red-nerved). A synonym of _C. rubrovenium_. =C. rubrovenium= (red-veined).* _l._ greyish-green in the centre, with red veins. Para, 1862. SYN. _C. rubronervium_. =C. sanguinolentum= (blood-red blotched).* _l._ with a white midrib, blotched with red. Amazons, 1872. =C. Schoelleri= (Schoeller's). A synonym of _C. Schomburgkii_. =C. Schomburgkii= (Schomburgk's).* _l._ green, with white veins. Brazil, 1861. SYNS. _C. Schoelleri_ and _Alocasia argyroneura_. =C. S. Schmitzii= (Schmitz's). _l._, centre whitish, with green network; midrib and veins red. 1861. SYN. _Alocasia erythræa_. =C. sub-rotundum= (half-round). _l._ roundish, spotted with red and white. Brazil. 1858. =C. Verschaffeltii= (Verschaffelt's).* _l._ somewhat heart-shaped; ground colour brilliant green, entire surface irregularly spotted with bright red. Para. =C. Wallisii= (Wallis's). _l._ dark olive green, with large irregular shaped spots and blotches of the purest white, and the veins all yellowish-white. Para, 1864. The following descriptive list of hybrid varieties is, for the most part, a selection from Mr. Bull's catalogue, and contains all of importance: ADOLPHE ADAMS, green leaf-ground, densely speckled with white, and rose-coloured midribs; ADOLPHE AUDRIEN,* a very attractive variety, with fine large richly-coloured foliage; AGRIPPINE DIMITRY, leaves large, with white ground, narrow green margin and veins, and pink centre; ALCIBIADE,* crimson-rayed centre, surrounded with pale green, and blotched with pure white, green margin; ALFRED BLEU, leaves rich green, with pure white spots, and flesh-coloured centre; ALFRED MAME,* carmine-red, bordered with white, and profusely spotted with rose; ALPHAND, green, spotted with red, crimson centre; ALPHONSE KARR, rosy-carmine centre and red spots; ARISTIDE, light green, with crimson centre; AUGUSTE LEMONIER,* fine large leaves, with soft green centre, and rosy-crimson ribs and veins; AUGUSTE RIVIERE, white centre and rays upon a light green ground, with crimson spots; BARILLET,* bright rosy-crimson centre, and ribs on green ground, with broad margin of rich green; BARON DE ROTHSCHILD, rich blood-red centre, and spots, on mottled green leaf-ground; BARONNE JAMES DE ROTHSCHILD,* young leaves of a bright rose colour, the more matured foliage soft rose, with red veins; BARRAL, bright green, with a fine red centre, and large spots of rose; BEETHOVEN,* ground colour white, intersected and veined with green, centre rib delicate rose; BELLEYMEI,* fine white variegated leaves; BELLINI, mottled pale green ground, with rosy centre and spots; BLANQU�RTI, dark green, with grey veins and white spots; BUREL, dark bluish-green, veined bright rose, marked with rosy-violet, and spotted orange-red; CHANTINII FULGENS,* rich dark metallic-green, with attractive crimson centre and white spots; CHELSONI,* bright glossy green, suffused with brilliant red, and blotched with crimson; CLIO, ground colour deep rose, shaded white, green ribs and narrow green margin; DE CANDOLLE,* rich green, with beautiful rose-coloured spots and creamy white centre rays; DE HUMBOLDT, a fine variety, having glossy green leaves, spotted with scarlet; DEVINCK, leaves heart-shaped, delicate pink centre ribs, interspersed with white spots; DR. BOISDUVAL, centre rayed crimson, snow-white blotches on a green ground; DR. LINDLEY,* crimson centre, the green ground marked with rose blotches; DUC DE CLEVELAND, deep red centre, surrounded with pea-green, largely spotted with red; DUC DE MORNY,* deep green leaf borders, with large crimson-rayed centre; DUC DE NASSAU,* brilliant red centre and ribs, white spot on emerald green leaf borders; DUC DE RATIBOR, green ground, with red midribs marked with white spots; DUCHARTRE, leaf-ground white, flushed rose, green veins and red spots; EDOUARD ANDRE, crimson centre, and rose blotches; EDOUARD MOREAUX, mottled green ground, with lake centre; EDOUARD RODRIGUES,* deep carmine, margined with light green, and spotted with rose; E. G. HENDERSON,* green, with transparent rose spots and mottled crimson rays and centre; ELVINA, bright green, blotched with red, grey centre and veins; EMILIE VERDIER,* leaves of a light transparent rose colour, spotted with red; ETOILE D'ARGENT,* bright green, midribs and veins creamy-white, shaded with grey; EUCHARIS, rose centre, with violet reflections, margined with bright green, very fresh and bright looking; FELICIEN DAVID,* centre of leaf dark carmine, surrounded with white and beautifully veined with red on a light green ground; GOLDEN QUEEN, leaves large, pale golden yellow, uniform in colour; GRETRY, carmine centre, with white spots on a dark green ground; HELEVY, white midribs and marked with crimson blotches, on a green ground; HEROLD,* dark carmine veins, surrounded by light green, blotched with pure white, and margined dark green; IBIS ROSE,* a magnificent variety, with beautiful rich rose-coloured foliage, extremely attractive; ISADORA LEROY, rich metallic green, with crimson-red centre rays; JULES DUPLESSIS, bright rose centre, shaded with rich red and bordered with green; JULES PUTZEYS, rich green, with crimson midrib and veins, centre mottled grey, and the whole surface blotched with red; LAINGII,* reddish-carmine centre, surrounded with yellowish-green, the whole of the leaf sprinkled with white; LAMARTINE, deep crimson centre, with white and red spots; LA PERLE DU BR�SIL,* exceedingly attractive, large leaves, white, delicately tinted with rose, midrib and veins dark green; LEPLAY, leaves attractively marked with white, and beautifully veined with rosy-violet; LOUISE DUPLESSIS, red rays and veins on a white ground, green margin; LUDDEMANNII,* deep crimson ribs, the leaf blotched with magenta and white, border pea green; MADAME ALFRED BLEU, deep green, with large white blotches, and broad crimson-scarlet veins; MADAME ALFRED MAME, light green, covered with large white spots, rosy-carmine centre; MADAME DE LA DEVANSAYE, leaves white, shaded rose, and veined with red and green; MADAME DOMBRAIN,* centre and ribs pale yellowish-green, shaded rose, surface covered with large white and rose spots; MADAME FRITZ K�CHLIN,* white ground, with violet-rose ribs and green veins, a beautiful dwarf-growing variety; MADAME HEINE,* silvery white, stained and edged with pale green, distinct; MADAME HUNNEBELLE, leaves veined with light garnet colour on a white ground, and margined with green veins; MADAME JULES M�NOREAU, fine large leaves, with white centre tinted rose, veined rich bright rose, and margined green; MADAME LAFORGE, centre and ribs reddish-crimson, with green margin; MADAME MARJOLIN SCHEFFER,* a beautiful variety, with white foliage, charmingly veined and netted with pure rosy-lake; MADAME WILLAUME, a charming variety, with transparent leaves, of a delicate salmon-rose colour; MARQUIS DE CAUX, red centre and veins, with rose blotches on margins; MARTERSTYGINUM, crimson centre and white spots; MERCADANTE, pale copper-coloured centre and veins, bordered with green; MEYERBEER,* white leaf-ground, green veins, and red midribs; MINERVE,* silvery white midrib and rays, surrounded with greyish white, green margin, with snowy white spots; MITHRIDATE, ground colour crimson-lake, with darker ribs, and dark bronze-green margin; MONSIEUR A. HARDY, rich reddish-carmine veins on white ground, tinted with rose and spotted with green; MONSIEUR J. LINDEN,* a fine large whitish leaf, with metallic reflections, coral-rose veins, and reticulated green border; MRS. LAING,* white ground, deep rose centre and veins, green margin; MURILLO,* centre and veins metallic-red, with large crimson blotches, broad margin of lustrous bronzy-green; NAPOLEON III.,* flamed crimson centre, with forked rays, and carmine spots on green ground; ONSLOW, deep rosy-crimson centre, with broad green margin, spotted with rose; PAILLET, crimson centre, broad green margin, splashed with crimson, and dotted with white; PAUL VERONESSE, large leaves, with pinkish-white centre, deep scarlet ribs, and broad green margin; PHILIPPE HERBERT, deep mottled crimson rays, and clear white margin, spotted with crimson; PICTUM, green blotched, and spotted with white; PRINCE ALBERT,* dark emerald green, rich crimson midrib, radiating from centre to margins, the intervening spaces spotted with white; PRINCE OF WALES,* a very handsome variety, with large golden-yellow leaves; PRINCESS ALEXANDRA,* rosy-salmon leaf, green centre rib, bordered with magenta-crimson, green margin, with light pink chain; PRINCESS OF TECK,* ground colour bright orange-yellow, the veins suffused with deep red; PRINCESS ROYAL, leaves of a golden ground, with crimson centre; PYRRHUS, centre and ribs deep crimson, pea-green margins; QUADRICOLOR, centre of leaf pale yellowish-green, ribs white, edged rosy-crimson, and margined green; RAMSAU, centre and ribs deep reddish-crimson, surface covered with white blotches, shaded red; RAULINII, rich red centre and veins, finely spotted with white; REGALE, silvery grey centre, rosy-red ribs, spotted with vermilion-red; REINE MARIE DE PORTUGAL,* violet-rose centre, with red veins, dark maroon zone, and green border, very handsome; REINE VICTORIA,* green veins and margins, spotted or marbled with white and rich crimson; ROSSINI, large leaf, with pale centre, pink midribs, and red blotches; ROUILLARD, glossy green margin, pale green centre, midrib and rays rich violet-plum, the whole leaf spotted crimson; SANCHONIANTHON, crimson centre, deep glossy crimson ribs, and pea-green margin; SIEBOLDII, rich green, with fiery-red crimson-rayed centre, green spaces, spotted with claret red; SOUVENIR DE MADAME E. ANDRE,* large deep green leaves, marbled with pure white, veins fine rosy crimson; SPONTINI, pea-green, with white spots, and rosy-pink ribs and veins; THIBAUTII, fine large leaf, with rich crimson veins on a red ground; TRICOLOR, edges of leaves grey-green, intersected with dark green, centre red-lake, carmine midribs; TRIOMPHE DE L'EXPOSITION,* crimson centre, with red ribs, and green border; VERDI, crimson-lake centre with small green zone and apple-green margin; VESTA, greenish-white veins, surrounded with crimson, the whole of the leaf spotted bright rose; VICOMTESSE DE LA ROQUE-ORDAN, red midrib, and rays bordered with white, the margin beautiful emerald green; VILLE DE MULHOUSE, a beautiful variety, with greenish-white leaves, shaded rose, and rich green centre; VIRGINALE,* clear shining white, veined with dark bluish-green, a handsome variety. =CALAIS.= _See_ =Microseris=. =CALAMAGROSTIS= (from _calamos_, a reed, and _agrostis_, grass). ORD. _Gramineæ_. An extensive genus of grasses, for the most part hardy. Panicle more or less spreading; spikelets compressed, one-flowered; empty glumes two, sub-equal, lanceolate, pointed, keeled, awnless. They thrive in any ordinary garden soil. Seeds may be sown during autumn. =C. lanceolata= (lanceolate). _fl._ purple, spreading in all directions; panicle erect, loose, much branched. July. Culms about 3ft. high, smooth, slender. Britain (moist woods and hedges). (Sy. En. B. 1724.) =C. stricta= (upright). _fl._ brown, spreading in all directions; panicle erect, close. June. Culm about 2ft. high, very slender, smooth. England, &c. (bogs and marshes), but very rare. (Sy. En. B. 1725.) =CALAMANDER WOOD.= _See_ =Diospyros qu�sita=. =CALAMINT.= _See_ =Calamintha=. =CALAMINTHA= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _mintha_, mint). Calamint. ORD. _Labiatæ_. A genus of hardy herbaceous plants, having the following essential characters: Calyx two-lipped; stamens diverging; upper lip of corolla nearly flat; tube straight. Rather pretty plants, with Thyme-like flowers, well suited for furnishing rock gardens. They grow in almost any garden soil. Increased by seeds, cuttings, or divisions of the roots, in spring. =C. Acinos= (Acinos). Basil Thyme. _fl._ bluish-purple, variegated with white and dark purple, disposed in whorls, one on each flower-stalk. July and August. _l._ acute, serrate. Stems branched, ascending, leafy. _h._ 6in. England. Annual. SYNS. _Acinos vulgaris_ and _Thymus Acinos_. (Sy. En. B. 1048.) =C. alpina= (alpine). _fl._ purplish, almost sessile, four to six in a whorl, June to September. _l._ petiolate, roundish or ovate, slightly serrated. _h._ 6in. S. Europe, 1731. A freely branched, tufted plant. =C. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ purplish, 1-1/2in. long, in loose racemes; throat much inflated. June. _l._ petiolate, ovate, acute, coarsely toothed, rounded at the base, 2in. to 3in. long. Herbaceous stems branched at the base, and decumbent. _h._ 1ft. 1596. =C. patavina= (Paduan). _fl._ pale or purplish-red, rather large. June. _l._ petiolate, ovate, acute, pubescent. _h._ 6in. to 9in. S. Europe, 1776. =CALAMPELIS.= _See_ =Eccremocarpus=. =CALAMUS= (from _kalamos_, a reed; old Greek name used by Theophrastus). ORD. _Palmeæ_. An elegant genus of stove palms. Flowers small, usually of a rose or greenish colour, clustered upon branching spikes, each branch having a separate spathe, which is not large enough to enclose it. Fruit one-seeded, and covered with smooth, shining scales. Leaves pinnate. Stems reed-like, 1in. to 2in. in thickness. When in a young state, these palms are most effective as drawing or diningroom decorations; and, when in a more mature condition, they are excellent as stove ornaments and for exhibition purposes. They are all of slender growth, and of easy culture in a compost of equal parts loam and vegetable mould; a copious supply of water being needed to keep them in a flourishing state. Propagated by seeds. _C. Rotang_, _C. viminalis_, and several other species furnish the canes usually employed in this country for the bottoms of chairs, couches, &c. =C. accedens= (yielding). _l._ long, arching, dark green, pinnate; pinnæ long, narrow, closely set; petioles with slender black spines. India. A rare, but elegant, slender-growing, miniature tree. =C. adspersus= (scattered). _l._ pinnate; pinnæ 6in. to 8in. long, narrow, deep green; petioles about 6in. in length, sheathing at the base, clothed with long, slender, black spines. Stem not much stouter than a large wheat straw. _h._ 20ft. Java, 1866. =C. asperrimus= (very rough).* _l._ pinnate, 3ft. to 12ft. long; pinnæ 1ft. to 2ft. in length, 1in. in breadth, pendent, light green, upper side with two rows of hair-like spines; petioles broadly sheathing at the base, densely armed with long, stout, black spines. Java, 1877. A beautiful species, which attains a considerable size. (I. H. 275.) =C. ciliaris= (fringed).* _l._ pinnate, clothed with a quantity of soft hair-like bristles; petioles sheathing at the base. Stem erect and slender. India, 1869. From the plume-like habit of the leaves, it makes a splendid plant for table decoration, as well as being a beautiful specimen for exhibition. =C. draco= (dragon). _l._ 4ft. to 6ft. in length, beautifully arched, pinnate; pinnæ 12in. to 18in. long, narrow, slightly pendent, dark green; petioles sheathing at base, armed with long, flat, black spines. _h._ 20ft. to 30ft. India, 1819. A very handsome species, with a robust constitution. =C. fissus= (cleft). _l._ ovate in outline, pinnate, when young bright cinnamon; leaflets pendent, dark green, bearing on the upper side a few black hair-like bristles; petioles armed with dark, stout spines. Borneo. A very ornamental species. =C. flagellum= (whip-like). _l._ 6ft. to 8ft. in length when fully grown, pinnate; pinnæ pendent, about 1ft. in length and 1in. in breadth, dark green, furnished on the upper side with two rows of long, white, hair-like spines; petioles sheathing, copiously armed with stout white spines, much swollen at the base, and tipped with black. Stem slender. =C. Hystrix= (bristly). _l._ pinnate; petioles spiny. A compact-growing and very graceful species. =C. Jenkinsianus= (Jenkins's). _l._ pinnate, gracefully arched, 2ft. to 6ft. long; pinnæ 6in. to 12in. long, 1in. broad, rich dark green; petioles slightly sheathing at the base, armed with long flat spines. Sikkim. =C. leptospadix= (slender-spadix).* _l._ pinnate; pinnules about 1/3in. wide, and from 6in. to 12in. long, subulately acuminate; upper surface with three bristle-bearing ribs; a few smaller bristles are disposed along the midrib underneath; margins finely and regularly toothed with small ascending bristles; petiole channelled, tomentose towards the base, bearing three or four solitary needle-like spines, about 1in. long. India. A rare species, and described as one of the most graceful. =C. Lewisianus= (Lewis's).* _l._ ultimately spreading, 2ft. to 6ft. long, pinnate: pinnæ equidistant, 1/2in. broad, and front 13in. to 15in. long: veins on the upper surface bristled, under surface smooth; margins rough, with appressed bristles; petioles white, with a broad, sheathing, blackish-brown base, densely armed with long, flat, black spines. India. A fine, but somewhat rare, species. =C. Rotang= (Rotang). _l._ pinnate, from 3ft. to 4ft. in length. very gracefully arched; pinnæ 6in. to 12in. long, less than 1in. broad; upper side dark green, with two rows of hair-like spines; petioles and stems armed sparingly with stout, slightly reversed spines. Stems slender. India. When young, especially, this plant is very handsome. =C. Royleanus= (Royle's).* _l._ pinnate, arching; pinnæ very numerous, narrow, pendent, deep green; petioles with few spines, dark green. North-west Himalayas. =C. spectabilis= (showy).* _l._ pinnate, with a few pairs of smooth linear-lanceolate, three-ribbed leaflets, measuring 6in. to 8in. long; petioles green, furnished with numerous short conical white spines, tipped with brown. Malacca. A slender-growing species. =C. verticillaris= (whorled). _l._ pinnate, with a very ornamental plume-like appearance; pinnæ long, broad, drooping; petioles with the spines arranged verticillately. Malacca. This beautiful species is extremely rare. =C. viminalis= (twiggy).* _l._ 1ft. to 2ft. long, pinnate; pinnæ about 6in. long, narrow, light green; petioles sheathing, densely armed with long flat white spines. When only 3ft. or 4ft. in height, its spiny whip-like spikes of flowers are often produced. Stem slender. _h_. 50ft. Java, 1847. The following are other, but less-known, species: _australis_, _elegans_, _micranthus_, _niger_, _oblongus_, and _tenuis_. =CALAMUS AROMATICUS.= An old name of =Acorus Calamus= (which _see_). =CALAMUS ODORATUS.= An old name of =Andropogon Sch�nanthus= (which _see_). [Illustration: FIG. 315. CALANDRINIA MENZIESII, showing Flower and Habit.] =CALANDRINIA= (in honour of L. Calandrini, an Italian botanist, who lived in the beginning of the eighteenth century). ORD. _Portulaceæ_. A rather large genus of fleshy, glabrous, annual or perennial, herbaceous plants, some fourteen or fifteen species growing in Australia, the rest occurring in the New World. Flowers usually rose or purple, solitary, or in terminal umbels or racemes. Leaves quite entire, radical or alternate. Only four or five species are cultivated in this country; these are treated as half-hardy annuals--with the exception of _C. umbellata_, which is best treated as a biennial--and as such they are extensively grown in small gardens, with most satisfactory results. They should be sown in the spots where they are intended to flower, as transplantation, unless performed with more than ordinary care, will considerably check their growth or result in loss. Their flowers only expand during bright sunshine, and, consequently, they are less grown than they otherwise would be. The plants thrive in a light sandy soil. _C. umbellata_ may be sown in a pan, placed in a cold frame, in May or June; and when the plants are large enough to handle, they should be potted off, or placed out in colonies where they are to bloom. =C. discolor= (two-coloured). _fl._ bright rose, with a yellow tuft of stamens in the centre, 1-1/2in. across; raceme long. July, August. _l._ fleshy, obovate, attenuated at the base, pale green above, purple beneath. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Chili, 1834. (B. M. 3357.) =C. grandiflora= (large.flowered).* _fl._ rosy, about 2in. across; calyx spotted; raceme simple, loose. Summer. _l._ fleshy, rhomboid, acute, petiolate. Stem suffruticose. _h._ 1ft. Chili, 1826. (B. R. 1194.) =C. Menziesii= (Menzies').* FL. deep purple-crimson, from 1/2in. to 1in. across, terminal and axillary, solitary. June to September. _l._ elongated, spathulate, much attenuated at the base. Stems much branched, prostrate. California, 1831. SYN. _C. speciosa_. See Fig. 315. (B. R. 1598.) =C. nitida= (shining). _fl._ rose-coloured, about 2in. across; raceme leafy, many-flowered. Summer. _l._ oblong-spathulate, sub-acute, glabrous, attenuated at the base, 1in. to 2in. in length. _h._ 6in. Chili, 1837. A very pretty hardy annual, forming a tuft from 4in. to 6in. across. =C. speciosa= (showy). A synonym of _C. Menziesii_. [Illustration: FIG. 316. CALANDRINIA UMBELLATA, showing Flower and Habit.] =C. umbellata= (umbellate).* _fl._ of a dazzling magenta-crimson, about as large as a sixpence; corymb cymose, terminal, many-flowered. Summer. _l._ radical, linear, acute, pilose. _h._ 6in. Peru, 1826. A very charming half-hardy biennial. See Fig. 316. (P. M. B. 12, 271.) Other species occasionally met with are: _compressa_, _micrantha_, and _procumbens_; they are, however, inferior to those described above. =CALANTHE= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _anthos_, a flower). ORD. _Orchideæ_. SEC. _Vandæ_. A very handsome genus of stove terrestrial orchids. They may be characterised as robust-growing plants, producing large, broad, many-ribbed, or plaited leaves, which are, with one or two exceptions, evergreen, and long spikes, bearing many flowers, distinguished by their calcarate lip, which is attached to the column, and by the eight thick, waxy pollen masses adhering to a separate gland. Calanthes should be special favourites with amateurs, as, in the first place, they produce an abundance of showy flowers, which last a long time in perfection; and, secondly, because they are so easily managed. In potting these plants, it will be necessary to depart from the usual style of potting orchids, and, instead of elevating them above the rim of the pot upon a cone of peat and sphagnum, they must be kept below the rim, as in potting ordinary plants. In place of the usual soil and moss, these plants should have a mixture of loam, leaf mould, and peat, broken up rough, to which may be added some silver sand and dried cow manure. During the growing season, they require abundant supply of water, and in winter even this element must be administered freely to the evergreen kinds; whilst the deciduous ones, on the contrary, enjoy a thorough rest after blooming. Good drainage is essential to all. Little more need be said upon the cultivation of Calanthes during the summer months. When growing, they enjoy strong heat and plenty of moisture; but, when growth is complete, a cooler situation is most beneficial. They are subject to the attacks of various insects, which must be continually searched for, and, when found, destroyed; for, if neglected in this particular, the bold and handsome leaves will be much disfigured, and rendered far from ornamental. Propagated by suckers and divisions. About forty species are known, of which the following are a selection: =C. curculigoides= (Curculigo-like). _fl._ beautiful orange-yellow, disposed in an erect spike. Summer and autumn. _l._ large, evergreen, plaited. _h._ 2ft. Malacca, 1844. (B. R. 33, 8.) =C. Dominyi= (Dominy's).* _fl._, sepals and petals lilac; lip deep purple. This fine hybrid is a cross between _C. Masuca_ and _C. veratrifolia_. (B. M. 5042.) =C. furcata= (forked). _fl._ creamy white, very freely produced; spikes erect, 3ft. long. June to August. Luzon Isles, 1836. An excellent exhibition plant. =C. Masuca= (Masuca).* _fl._, sepals and petals deep violet colour, with an intense violet-purple lip; numerously produced on spikes 2ft. long. June to August. India, 1838. (B. M. 4541). The variety _grandiflora_ differs from the type in its greater size both of spike and individual flower; the gigantic spikes are from 3ft. to 4ft. high, and continue blooming for three months. =C. Petri= (Peter Veitch's).* _fl._ whitish-yellow. Said to be very like _C. veratrifolia_, but bearing leaves a little narrower, and a system of five curious sulcate yellowish calli on the base of the lip, without the single lamella and teeth which are proper to that species. Polynesia, 1880. =C. pleiochroma= (many-coloured). _fl._ whitish, purplish, ochre, orange. Japan, 1871. =C. Regnieri= (Regnier's). _fl._, sepals and petals white; lip rosy-pink; middle lobe short, wedge-shaped, and emarginate. Pseudo-bulbs jointed, Cochin China. _fausta_ is a fine variety, with the base of the tip and column a warm crimson. =C. Sieboldii= (Siebold's).* _fl._ yellow, large; spikes erect. _l._ broad, dark green, plaited. _h._ 1ft. Japan, 1837. An elegant evergreen dwarf-growing species. (R. H. 1855, 20.) =C. Textori= (Textor's). _fl._ cream-white, washed with violet on the petals and column, as well as on the base of lip, where the calli are brick-red, changing later on to ochre-colour, excepting the white-lilac base of sepals and petals and the column; lip very narrow. Japan, 1877. [Illustration: FIG. 317. SINGLE FLOWER OF CALANTHE VEITCHII.] =C. Veitchii= (Veitch's).* _fl._ rich bright rose, with a white throat; spikes often attaining a height of 3ft., and bearing an immense quantity of flowers. Winter. _l._ large, plaited, light green, deciduous. Pseudo-bulbs flask-shaped. This very beautiful hybrid is the result of a cross between _C. vestita_ and _C. rosea_ (SYN. _Limatodes rosea_). See Fig. 317. (B. M. 5375.) =C. veratrifolia= (Veratrum-leaved).* _fl._ pure white, except the green tips of the sepals and the golden papillæ on the disk of the labellum; spikes 2ft. to 3ft. high, freely produced on well-grown plants. May to July. _l._ 2ft. or more long, dark green, broad, many-ribbed, with wavy margins. India, 1819. See Fig. 318. (B. M. 2615.) [Illustration: FIG. 318. SINGLE FLOWER OF CALANTHE VERATRIFOLIA.] =C. vestita= (clothed).* _fl._, sepals and petals pure white, numerously produced in a many-flowered, nodding spike. _l._ deciduous. Pseudo-bulbs large, whitish, _h._ 2-1/2ft. Burmah. (B. M. 4671.) The varieties of this species are very numerous. =C. v. igneo-oculata= (fire-eyed).* _fl._, base of the column purplish, over which is a dazzling fire-colour, the blotch in the base of the lip of the same colour. Borneo, 1876. =C. v. nivalis= (snowy).* _fl._ pure white, entirely destitute of any colour on the lip. Java, 1868. =C. v. rubro-oculata= (red-eyed).* _fl._ delicate white, with a blotch of rich crimson in the centre; upwards of 2in. across; spikes long, drooping, having a white downy covering, and rising from the base of the silvery-green pseudo-bulbs, when the latter are without leaves. October to February. =C. v. Turneri= (Turner's).* _fl._ pure white, with rose-coloured eye, larger, and produced on longer flower-spikes than the other kinds; form of flowers more compact. Java. This is considered by some authorities, to be a distinct species. =CALATHEA= (from _kalathos_, a basket; in reference to the basket-shaped stigma, or to the leaves being worked into baskets in South America). ORD. _Scitamineæ_. This genus of very ornamental-leaved stove plants is distinguished from _Maranta_ by mere botanical characters; and the two genera are often confounded. Flowers in terminal spikes, bracteate; perianth six-cleft, outer segments lanceolate, inner ones blunt and irregular; stamens three, petal-like. Leaves large, springing from the contracted stem, near the root. They delight in a rich, loose, open soil, consisting of peat, loam, and leaf soil, in about equal proportions, with the addition of a good sprinkling of sand, to keep it open and porous. The mixture should be used in a rough, lumpy state, so that the roots, which are of large size, may be able to travel with freedom. Nearly all the species admit of easy increase by division. July is a favourable time to set about it, or it may be carried out any time between that and the spring months. In order to make the necessary separation without damaging the roots, the plants should be shaken out from the soil, when they may be divided into as many pieces as there are separate crowns. Whether an increased stock be desired or not, Calatheas require fresh soil annually; and, if not reduced by division, they become much too thickly foliaged to properly develop, unless they are shifted into larger-sized pots, which can always be done if large specimens are required. When making divisions, see that each crown is well furnished with roots, so that they may at once commence sending up fresh young foliage. Although Calatheas require an abundant supply of water while growing, a stagnant moisture is most injurious; good drainage is, therefore, essential. To have the leaves in fine, healthy condition, plenty of atmospheric moisture must be maintained during their growth; and, if syringing is resorted to for the purpose of securing this, clear soft water should be used, or an unsightly deposit will be the result, by which the beauty of the plants, unless they are frequently sponged, will be spoiled. These plants require, in addition to plenty of moisture, moderate shade during the summer, as they dislike strong sunshine, and may, therefore, be grown among ferns, under creepers, in situations that would be of little use for other purposes. Calatheas are not subject to insects if properly supplied with water while growing, and a sufficiently moist atmosphere is at all times maintained; but, if either of these are lacking, red spider soon put in an appearance, and quickly disfigure the leaves. =C. applicata= (inclined). _fl._ white. Brazil, 1875. SYN. _Maranta pinnato-picta_. (B. H. 1875, 18.) =C. arrecta= (erect).* _l._ rich satin-green on the upper side, and heavy ruby colour on the under side. Ecuador, 1872. A fine species, with a very elegant growth. (I. H. 1871, 77.) =C. Bachemiana= (Bachem's). _l._ silvery, with green lines and blotches. Brazil, 1875. =C. Baraquinii= (Baraquin's).* _l._ ovate-lanceolate; ground colour bright green, relieved by beautiful bands of silvery white. Amazons, 1868. =C. bella= (handsome).* _l._ greyish-green, with the margins and two series of central patches deep green. Brazil, 1875. SYN. _Maranta tessellata Kegeljani_. =C. crocata= (saffron-coloured). _fl._ orange. Brazil, 1875. =C. eximia= (choice). 1857. SYN. _Phrynium eximium_. (R. G. 686.) =C. fasciata= (banded).* _l._ 8in. to 12in. long, 6in. to 8in. wide, broadly cordate; ground colour bright green, with broad bands of white running across from midrib to the margin; the under side pale green, tinged with purple. _h._ 1ft. Brazil, 1859. (R. G. 255.) =C. hieroglyphica= (hieroglyphic). _l._ broadly obovate, obtuse; ground colour rich dark velvety green, which, towards the midrib, shades off into light emerald green; primary veins oblique, and the spaces between them ornamented with irregular streaks and bars of silvery white; under surface of a uniform dark vinous purple. Columbia, 1873. Dwarf and distinct. (I. H. 1873, 122.) =C. illustris= (bright).* _l._ somewhat obovate; upper surface of a bright pea-green, streaked with transverse bands of a deeper green; midrib pink, with two irregular blotches of white traversing the leaves from base to point, midway between the margin and costa; under surface deep purple. Ecuador, 1866. =C. Kerchoviana= (Kerchove's).* _l._ cordate, oblong, obtuse, shortly and abruptly acuminate, greyish-green, with a row of purplish blotches on each side of the midrib. _h._ 6in. Brazil, 1879. SYN. _Maranta leuconeura Kerchoviana_. =C. Legrelliana= (Le Grell's). _l._ very dark green, relieved by a feathery band of white, extending the whole length between the midrib and margin. Ecuador, 1867. =C. Leitzei= (Leitze's). _l._ oblong-lanceolate, deep metallic green, and shining on the upper surface, with feather-like markings of deeper colour, purplish-violet beneath. Brazil, 1875. (R. G. 935.) =C. leopardina= (leopard).* _l._ oblong, pale or yellowish-green, marked on each side of the costa with several oblong acuminate blotches of deep green. _h._ 2ft. Brazil, 1875. (R. G. 893.) =C. leuconeura= (white-nerved). A synonym of _Maranta leuconeura_. =C. leucostachys= (white-spiked). _h._ 1ft. A fine species, allied to _C. Warscewiczii_. Costa Rica, 1874. (B. M. 6205.) =C. Lindeni= (Linden's).* _l._ oblong, 6in. to 12in. long, deep green, with blotches of yellowish-green on each side of the midrib; under surface purplish-rose, through which the markings of the upper side are visible. Peru, 1866. Very handsome and free-growing. (I. H. 1871, 82.) =C. Luciani= (Lucian's). _l._ shining green, the midrib festooned with silvery white. Tropical America, 1872. =C. Makoyana= (Makoy's).* _l._ oblong, somewhat unequal-sided, 6in. to 8in. long, upwards of 4in. broad; outer margin deep green, the central portion semi-transparent, beautifully blotched with creamy-yellow and white; the central part is also ornamented between the transverse veins with oblong blotches of deep green; petioles slender, purplish-red. Tropical America, 1872. SYN. _C. olivaris_. (G. C. 1872, p. 1589.) =C. Massangeana= (Massange's).* _l._ beautifully covered with rich marking, presenting a somewhat similar appearance to the wings of certain butterflies. The outer portion is olive-green; the middle, on both sides of the costa, of a delicate silvery-grey colour, from which the whitish side veins run out in a well-defined and regular manner; the portion of the leaf surrounding the silvery centre is ornamented with large blotches of dark velvety purplish-maroon, occasionally shaded with brownish-crimson; the whole of the leaf being marked with silky and sparkling reflections. Brazil, 1875. It is of neat habit, growing in close tufts, its ample foliage covering the ground. =C. medio-picta= (middle painted). _l._ oblong-acute, tapering to the base, dark green, with a feathered white central stripe. Brazil, 1878. =C. micans= (glittering).* _l._ oblong-acuminate, 2in. to 3in. long, a little over 1in. in breadth, dark shining green, with a white feathery stripe down the centre. Tropical America. The smallest species of the genus with a spreading habit, and quickly forming dense and beautiful tufts. There is a variety of this named _amabilis_. Brazil. =C. nitens= (shining).* _l._ oblong, green, with a bright glossy surface, marked on each side of the midrib with a series of oblong acute bars, alternating with numerous lines of a dark green on a pale bright green ground. Brazil, 1880. An elegant and small-growing plant. =C. olivaris= (olive-green). Synonymous with _C. Makoyana_. =C. ornata= (ornamented).* _l._ oblong acuminate, 6in. to 9in. long, 3in. or more broad, yellowish-green, relieved by broad transverse bands of dark olive-green; under side tinged with purple. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Columbia, 1849. =C. o. albo-lineata= (white-lined). Columbia, 1848. SYN. _Maranta albo-lineata_. =C. o. majestica= (majestic). Rio Purus, 1866. SYN. _Maranta majestica_. =C. o. regalis= (royal). Peru, 1856. SYNS. _Maranta regalis_ and _M. coriifolia_. =C. o. roseo-lineata= (rosy-lined).* _h._ 1ft. 1848. SYN. _Maranta roseo-lineata_. =C. pacifica= (Pacific). _l._ oblong ovate, of a fine dark green on the upper surface, olive-brown beneath. Eastern Peru, 1871. [Illustration: FIG. 319. CALATHEA VEITCHII.] =C. pardina= (leopard).* _fl._ yellow, large, handsome, produced in great abundance. _l._ 10in. to 18in. long, 5in. to 6in. wide, ovate, pale green, with dark brown blotches on each side the midrib, and which occur at regular intervals the whole length of the leaf. New Grenada. (F. d. S. ii., 1101.) =C. prasina= (leek-green). _l._ with a yellow-green central band. Brazil, 1875. =C. princeps= (magnificent).* _l._ 12in. to 18in. long; centre rich dark green, broadly margined with yellowish-green, purple beneath. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Peru, 1869. A superb large-growing species. =C. pulchella= (pretty). _l._ bright green, with two series of deep green blotches, alternately large and small. Brazil, 1859. This much resembles _C. zebrina_ in general appearance, but is not so strong a grower, and the leaves are not so dark. =C. rosea-picta= (rose-coloured). _l._ somewhat orbicular, of a rich glossy green; midrib of a lovely rose-colour, between the margin and midrib are two irregular bands of the same colour, traversing the entire length of the leaf. Upper Amazon, 1866. (R. G. 610.) =C. Seemanni= (Seemann's). _l._ about 1ft. long, 6in. broad, satiny emerald-green; midrib whitish. Nicaragua, 1872. =C. splendida= (splendid). _l._ large, oblong-lanceolate, deflexed, 10in. to 18in. long, rich dark olive-green, with distinct blotches of greenish-yellow. Brazil, 1864. =C. tubispatha= (tube-spathed).* _l._ somewhat obovate, obtuse, 6in. to 12in. long, pale greenish-yellow, beautifully relieved by a row of rich brown oblong blotches, set in pairs on each side of the midrib, throughout the entire length of the leaf. West Tropical America, 1865. An elegant species. (B. M. 5542.) =C. Vanden Heckei= (Van den Heck's).* _l._ rich dark glossy green, shaded with transverse bands of a lighter green; midrib broadly margined with silvery-white, two bands of the same colour traverse the leaf from base to apex, midway between midrib and margin; under side of a uniform purplish-crimson. Brazil, 1865. Very distinct and handsome. =C. Veitchii= (Veitch's).* _l._ large, ovate elliptic, over 1ft. long, very rich glossy green, marked along each side the midrib with crescent-shaped blotches of yellow, softened by shades of green and white; under surface light purple. _h._ 3ft. W. Tropical America, 1865. Probably the handsomest of the genus. See Fig. 319. =C. virginalis= (virginal). _l._ large, broadly ovate, light green; midrib white, also with a white band on each side; the under side of a greyish-green. Amazons, 1857. Habit dwarf and compact. =C vittata= (striped). _l._ ovate-acuminate, 9in. long, very light green, with narrow transverse bars of white on each side of the midrib. Brazil, 1857. =C. Wallisii= (Wallis's).* _l._ rather large, of a rich and pleasing light green, beautifully relieved with a ray of rich dark green. South America, 1867. A handsome and distinct sort, but somewhat rare. =C. W. discolor= (two-coloured). _l._ bright velvety green, with the centre and margins grey. South America, 1871. =C. Warscewiczii= (Warscewicz's).* _l._ 2ft. long, about 8in. wide, deep velvety green in colour, relieved by a feathery stripe of yellowish-green on either side the midrib, and extending from the base to the apex. _h._ 3ft. Tropical America, 1879. A fine sort. (R. G. 515.) =C. Wioti= (Wiot's). _l._ bright green, with two series of olive-green blotches. Brazil, 1875. [Illustration: FIG. 320. CALATHEA ZEBRINA.] =C. zebrina= (zebra).* _l._ 2ft. to 3ft. long, 6in. to 8in. wide, beautiful velvety light green on the upper side, barred with greenish-purple; under side of a dull greenish-purple. _h._ 2ft. Brazil, 1815. This is a very old inhabitant of our stoves, and, for general usefulness is not much surpassed. See Fig. 320. (B. R. 385.) =CALATHIAN VIOLET.= _See_ =Gentiana Pneumonanthe=. =CALCARATE.= Spurred, or having a spur. =CALCEOLARIA= (from _calceolus_, a little slipper, in allusion to the form of the corolla; the form _calceolarius_, shoemaker, probably chosen to include a reference to F. Calceolari, an Italian botanist of the sixteenth century). Slipperwort. ORD. _Scrophularineæ_. A genus of hardy or half-hardy shrubs, sub-shrubs or herbs. Peduncles one or many-flowered, axillary or terminal, corymbose; corolla with a very short tube; limb bilabiate; upper lip short, truncately rounded, entire; lower lip large, concave, slipper-shaped. Leaves opposite, sometimes three in a whorl, rarely alternate. SHRUBBY SECTION. In addition to the widely-known utility of this class for bedding purposes, they are fine decorative plants when well grown, and useful alike in conservatory or dwelling house. It will be found more convenient to grow these in a pit or frame, as in such places they are less liable to the attacks of fly, and make sturdier growth. If large plants are required, cuttings should be taken in August, placed in a cold frame facing the north, in sandy soil, and, when rooted, potted off into 3in. pots. They should then be placed in a light sunny frame, where they may remain until the middle of February. The points should then be pinched out. When the plants break, they must be shifted into 48-sized pots. If there are from four to six breaks to each plant, it will be sufficient; but, should such not be the case, the plants must be stopped again, when the requisite number will probably be obtained. Directly the roots touch the pots, the plants should be transferred to 7in. or 8in. pots, in which they will flower, and the shoots must be tied out so as to develop fully. Every effort should be exerted to keep the foliage green to the base of the plants, and they should be fumigated on the first appearance of green fly. As the flower-spikes are thrown up, weak liquid manure, applied two or three times a week, will prove beneficial. For potting, the following compost is most suitable: One-half good fibrous loam, one-eighth thoroughly rotted manure, and the remainder leaf soil, with enough sharp sand to keep the whole open. During frosty weather, of course, it will be necessary to protect the frames with mats, and to water judiciously, to avoid damping. Those plants intended for bedding will not require to be repotted, but should be inserted, about 3in. apart, in sandy soil, in a cold frame. The tops must be taken off early in March; and from the middle of April to the middle of May, they may be planted out where they are to remain. Should frosty weather, accompanied by drying winds, ensue, the plants will require the protection of inverted flower-pots, with pieces of slate or crock placed over the holes. A good soil, abundantly enriched with rotten manure, is most desirable for them. [Illustration: FIG. 321. HERBACEOUS CALCEOLARIA.] _Varieties._ These are very numerous. The best of them are the following: BIJOU, dark red, very free; GAINE'S YELLOW, rich deep yellow, extremely free; GENERAL HAVELOCK, crimson-scarlet, very fine; GOLDEN GEM, bright yellow, perhaps the best; SPARKLER, crimson-gold, dwarf; VICTORIA, dark maroon, very attractive. HERBACEOUS SECTION. These, like the preceding, are very useful, both for house and conservatory decoration (see Fig. 321). A packet of seed from a first-class firm will, if properly managed, produce a good percentage of excellent flowers. The seed may be sown from June to August, when large batches are required (when only one sowing is made, July will be the best month), on pans of light, sandy soil, which should be soaked with water before sowing. Care must be taken to make the surface of the soil level, and also to sow the seed as evenly as possible. It is better not to cover with soil, but a sheet of glass should be laid over the pan, which must be placed in a shady part of the greenhouse or cold frame until the young plants show the first leaf. The glass can then be gradually removed. When large enough to handle, the seedlings must be pricked out, about 2in. asunder, in pans or boxes, and placed in a close, shaded situation. As soon as of sufficient size, they must be placed singly in 3in. pots, returned to the frame, kept close for a few days, and as near the glass as possible, to make them sturdy. When necessary, they should be shifted into 5in. pots, in which they may be kept through the winter; or the later batches may be placed in small pots. By the end of October or early in November, the plants will be strong and fit for wintering; at this stage, the best place for them is in a dry, frost-proof pit, or on an airy shelf of the greenhouse, giving them sufficient water to prevent flagging. All dead leaves must be removed. On the first appearance of green fly, the plants should be fumigated with tobacco. From the end of January onwards, in order to encourage growth, the plants should be removed into 7in. or 8in. pots, giving plenty of drainage, and a compost consisting of one-half good light fibrous loam, one-fourth thoroughly decayed sheep manure, and one-fourth leaf soil, to which must be added sufficient coarse sand to keep the whole open. After potting, the plants must be again placed in the same position, and, as they require it, plenty of room given. Careful attention to watering is necessary, as they must not be allowed to get dry. Air must be given on all suitable occasions. The flower-stems, as they require it, should be supported with small neat sticks. About May, the plants will commence to bloom, and continue to do so for a couple of months. The best flowers should be selected, and cross-fertilised with a camel-hair pencil, in order to produce a good strain of seed for future sowing. The attention of horticulturists appears to be almost wholly confined to the innumerable hybrids raised from _amplexicaulis_, _arachnoidea_, _corymbosa_, _integrifolia_, _purpurea_, _thyrsiflora_, and a few others. Very few pure species are seen in cultivation, although most of them are well worth growing. =C. alba= (white). _fl._ white; peduncles elongated, racemose, dichotomous. June. _l._ linear, remotely serrated. Plant suffruticose, clammy, and resinous. _h._ 1ft. Chili, 1844. Shrubby. (B. M. 4157.) =C. amplexicaulis= (stem-clasping).* _fl._ yellow, umbellately fascicled; corymbs terminal; pedicels pilose. _l._ stem-clasping, ovate-oblong, acuminated, cordate, crenately-serrated, pilose. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Peru, 1845. Half-hardy, herbaceous. (B. M. 4300.) =C. arachnoidea= (cobwebby).* _fl._ purple; peduncles terminal, twin, elongated, dichotomous. June to September. _l._ lingulately-oblong, a little toothed, narrowing downwards into long winged petioles, which are connate at the base; about 5in. long, wrinkled. Stem herbaceous, branched, spreading, clothed with white cobwebbed wool, as well as the leaves and other parts, except the corolla. _h._ 1ft. Chili, 1827. (B. M. 2874.) =C. bicolor= (two-coloured).* _fl._ in large terminal cymes; upper lip yellow, small; lower lip large, gaping, conchiform, the front clear yellow, the back white. July to November. _l._ broadly-ovate, sub-acute, coarsely crenated, wrinkled. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Stem much branched, woody at the base. Peru, 1829. SYN. _C. diffusa_. (B. R. 1374.) =C. Burbidgei= (Burbidge's).* _fl._ rich yellow, with large lower lip. Autumn and winter. _l._ ovate, distinctly obtusely biserrate, sub-acute, with a narrow wing running down the petiole; both surfaces downy. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. This is a handsome hybrid between _C. Pavonii_ and _C. fuchsiæfolia_, raised by F. W. Burbidge, Esq., Trinity College Botanic Gardens, Dublin, 1882. =C. chelidonioides= (Chelidonium-like). _fl._ yellow. June. _h._ 1ft. Peru, 1852. Annual. =C. corymbosa= (corymbose). _fl._ yellow, marked with purple dots and lines, corymbose. May to October. _l._, radical ones ovate and cordate, petiolate, doubly crenated, white beneath; cauline ones few, cordate, half amplexicaul. Stems herbaceous, leafless at bottom, but dichotomous and leafy at top. Plant hairy. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Chili, 1822. (B. R. 723.) =C. deflexa= (bending). Synonymous with _C. fuchsiæfolia_. =C. diffusa= (spreading). A synonym of _C. bicolor_. =C. flexuosa= (flexuose). _fl._, corolla yellow; lower lip large, ventricose; peduncles axillary and terminal, many-flowered; pedicels umbellate. _l._ cordate, unequally and bluntly crenated, petiolate, remote. Plant shrubby, rough, beset with glandular hairs. _h._ 3ft. Peru, 1847. (B. M. 5154.) =C Fothergillii= (Fothergill's).* _fl._, upper lip of corolla yellowish; lower lip sulphur colour, having the margins spotted with red, four times the size of the upper one; peduncles scape-formed, one-flowered. May to August. _l._ spathulate, quite entire, pilose above, about 1in. long. Stem herbaceous, a little divided near the root. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Falkland Islands, 1777. (B. M. 348.) [Illustration: FIG. 322. CALCEOLARIA VIOLACEA.] =C. fuchsiæfolia= (Fuchsia-leaved).* _fl._ yellow, disposed in terminal panicles; upper lip nearly as large as the lower one. Spring. _l._ lanceolate, glandless. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Peru, 1878. This is a very handsome winter-flowering shrubby species, but it is difficult to keep the foliage in anything like good condition. SYN. _C. deflexa_. (Garden, March, 1879.) =C. Henrici= (Anderson-Henry's). _fl._ yellow, disposed in terminal corymbose cymes; both lips of corolla much inflated, so as to entirely close the mouth. _l._ rather large, elongate-lanceolate, downy beneath. _h._ 2ft. Andes of Cuenca, 1865. Shrubby evergreen. (B. M. 5772.) =C. hyssopifolia= (Hyssop-leaved).* _fl._ in terminal cymes; upper lip clear yellow, about half the width of the lower, and meeting closely to it; lower lip clear canary-yellow above, nearly white beneath. May to August. _l._ sessile, linear-lanceolate, sub-acute, entire. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Chili. Shrubby. (B. M. 5548.) =C. integrifolia= (entire-leaved). Synonymous with _C. rugosa_. =C. lobata= (lobed). _fl._ yellow, disposed in erect, loosely-branched cymes; lip curiously folded on itself, and spotted on the inner surface. _l._ palmately lobed. _h._ 9in. Peru, 1877. Herbaceous species. (B. M. 6330.) =C. Pavonii= (Pavon's).* _fl._ rich yellow and brown, in large terminal clusters; upper lip small; lower lip large, widely gaping. _l._ perfoliate, the petioles connected by a broad wing, running all their length; blade broadly ovate, coarsely serrate-dentate; both sides covered with soft down. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Herbaceous. (B. M. 4525.) =C. pinnata= (pinnate). _fl._ sulphur-coloured; peduncles twin or tern, panicled. July to September. _l._ pinnate; leaflets or segments toothed, lower ones pinnatifidly toothed. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Peru, 1773. Annual, clothed with clammy hairs. (B. M. 41.) =C. pisacomensis= (Pisacomanese). _fl._ rich orange-red, large; lower lip of corolla so bent upwards as to close the mouth; cymes produced from all the upper axils, forming long leafy panicles. _l._ ovate, obtuse, coarsely crenate. _h._ 3ft. Peru, 1868. A sub-shrubby perennial, of strong, erect habit. =C. plantaginea= (Plantain-like).* _fl._ yellow; lower lip of corolla large, hemispherical; upper one small, bifid; scapes generally two to three-flowered, pilose. August. _l._ radical, ovate, rhomboid, rosulate, serrated. Plant herbaceous, stemless, pubescent. _h._ 1ft. Chili, 1826. (B. M. 2805.) =C. purpurea= (purple). _fl._, corolla of an uniform reddish-violet, rather small; corymbs terminal, many-flowered. July to September. _l._ wrinkled, hispid; radical ones cuneate-spathulate, serrated, quite entire behind, petiolate, acutish; cauline ones cordate, decussate, with a few long scattered hairs on their surfaces. Stems herbaceous, many from the same root. _h._ 1ft. Chili, 1826. There are several hybrids between this and other species. (B. M. 2775.) =C. rugosa= (wrinkled). _fl._ yellow; panicles terminal, corymbose, pedunculate. August. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, or lanceolate, denticulated, wrinkled, opaque, rusty beneath; petioles winged, connate. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Chili, 1822. Shrubby species. SYN. _C. integrifolia_. (B. R. 744.) Two varieties of this are _angustifolia_, and _viscosissima_. =C. scabiosæfolia= (Scabious-leaved).* _fl._, corolla pale yellow; lower lip large, ventricose; peduncles terminal, corymbose. May to October. _l._, lower ones pinnate; superior ones pinnatifid, three-lobed, or simple, the terminal segment always the largest. Plant rather hairy. Peru, 1822. Evergreen trailer. (B. M. 2405.) =C. tenella= (small). _fl._ golden yellow, with orange-red spots within the lower lip; corymbs few-flowered. _l._ opposite, ovate, acuminated. _h._ 6in. Chili, 1873. Hardy, herbaceous. (B. M. 6231.) =C. thyrsiflora= (thyrse-flowered). _fl._ yellow, downy inside; thyrse terminal, crowded; peduncles compound, umbellate. June. _l._ linear, attenuated at both ends, serrate-toothed, sessile, 2in. long, and two lines broad. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Chili, 1827. Shrubby, clammy. (B. M. 2915.) =C. violacea= (violet).* _fl._, corolla pale violet, spotted with deeper violet beneath; lip spreading in a campanulate manner; peduncles terminal by threes, corymbose; pedicels one to two-flowered. June. _l._ petiolate, ovate-lanceolate, coarsely serrated, white beneath. _h._ 2ft. Chili, 1853. Shrubby. (B. M. 4929.) See Fig. 322. =CALCEOLATE.= Shaped like a slipper or round-toed shoe. =CALDASIA.= _See_ =Galipea heterophylla=. =CALDCLUVIA= (named after Alexander Caldcleugh, F.R.S. and F.L.S., who collected and sent to this country many plants from Chili). ORD. _Saxifrageæ_. A greenhouse evergreen tree. Flowers panicled, terminal. Leaves opposite, simple, serrate, glabrous; pedicels jointless; stipules twin, sub-falcate, toothed, caducous. It thrives well in a compost of peat and loam, and may be propagated by cuttings of the half-ripened shoots, planted in sand, under a hand glass, and placed in a very gentle bottom heat. =C. paniculata= (panicled). _fl._ white. June. Chili, 1831. =CALEA= (from _kalos_, beautiful; referring to the flowers). ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of stove evergreen herbs or small shrubs. Pappus hairy; receptacle paleaceous; involucre imbricated. They thrive in a compost of peat and loam. Side shoots root readily, if placed in sand, under glass, and with bottom heat; seeds may be sown in March. Warmer parts of New World. =CALEANA= (named after G. Caley, Superintendent of the Botanical Garden, St. Vincent). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A genus of greenhouse terrestrial orchids, natives of Australia. Flowers few, greenish-brown; column broad, thin, concave; sepals and petals narrow, reflexed; lip posticous, peltate, unguiculate, highly irritable. In fine weather, or if left undisturbed, this lip bends back, leaving the column uncovered; but in wet weather, or if the plant is shaken, the lip falls over the column, securely fastening it. Leaves solitary, radical. They are of easy culture, in a compost of fibry peat, lumpy loam, and a little charcoal. =B. major= (greater). _fl._ green-brown. June. 1810. =C. minor= (less). _fl._ green-brown. June. 1822. =C. nigrita= (blackish-flowered). _fl._ dark. =CALECTASIA= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _ektasis_, extension; in allusion to the star-like perianth segments). ORD. _Juncaceæ_. An elegant greenhouse suffruticose perennial, with dry, permanent, starry flowers. It thrives best in a compost of peat and loam. Propagated by divisions. =C. cyanea= (blue). _fl._ bright blue, solitary, on short terminal branches. June. _l._ needle-shaped, sheathing at the base. Australia, 1840. (B. M. 3834.) =CALENDULA= (from _calendæ_, the first day of the month; in allusion to the almost perpetual flowering). Marigold. ORD. _Compositæ_. A genus of showy greenhouse and hardy annuals, and some few greenhouse shrubby species. Pappus none; receptacle naked; involucre of one or two series of sub-equal, acuminate, generally scarious-edged bracts. The shrubby species are propagated by cuttings, and thrive best in a compost of loam and peat.. For culture of the annuals, _see_ =Marigold=. [Illustration: FIG. 323. FLOWERS OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS.] =C. arvensis= (field). _fl.-heads_ yellow. Pericarps urceolate, obovate, smooth; outer lanceolate-subulate, muricated at back. _h._ 2ft. Europe, 1597. Hardy annual. =C. maderensis= (Madeira).* _fl.-heads_ orange. Pericarps cymbiform, incurved, muricated; outer five ovate-lanceolate, membranous, toothed at edge. _h._ 2ft. Madeira, 1795. Hardy. SYN. _C. stellata_. =C. officinalis= (officinal).* Common Marigold. _fl.-heads_ orange. June to September. Pericarps cymbiform, all incurved, muricated. _h._ 3ft. South Europe, 1573. Hardy annual. See Fig. 323. =C. o. prolifera= (proliferous). A garden form, analogous to the Hen and Chickens Daisy. See Fig. 324. =C. stellata= (stellate). A synonym of _C. maderensis_. [Illustration: FIG. 324. FLOWER OF CALENDULA OFFICINALIS PROLIFERA.] =CALICO BUSH.= _See_ =Kalmia latifolia=. =CALIFORNIAN EVERGREEN REDWOOD.= _See_ =Sequoia sempervirens=. =CALIFORNIAN MAYBUSH.= _See_ =Photinia arbutifolia=. =CALIFORNIAN PEPPER-TREE.= _See_ =Schinus Molle=. =CALIFORNIAN POPPY.= _See_ =Platystemon californicus=. =CALIPHRURIA= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _phroura_, prison; from the handsome spathe inclosing the flowers). ORD. _Amaryllideæ_. Pretty half-hardy greenhouse bulbs. Tube of perianth narrow, funnel-shaped, nearly straight; limb regular, stellate; stamens furnished with a bristle on each side. They thrive best in a compost of sandy loam, a little peat, leaf soil, and sand. Propagated by offsets. After flowering, the plants should have a slight heat; and, when starting into new growth, should be repotted. =C. Hartwegiana= (Hartweg's).* _fl._ greenish-white; umbels seven-flowered; scape nearly terete, glaucous. May. _l._ petiolate, depressed, ovate, sub-plicate, green. _h._ 1ft. New Grenada, 1843. (B. M. 6259.) [Illustration: FIG. 325. CALIPHRURIA SUBEDENTATA.] =C. subedentata= (rarely-toothed).* _fl._ white, funnel-shaped, disposed in a truss, on a long scape. Winter. _l._ stalked, ovate-oblong. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Columbia, 1876. See Fig. 325. (B. M. 6289.) =CALISAYA BARK.= _See_ =Cinchona Calisaya=. [Illustration: FIG. 326. CALLA PALUSTRIS, showing Habit and detached Inflorescence.] =CALLA= (from _kallos_, beauty). SYN. _Provenzalia_. ORD. _Aroideæ_ (_Araceæ_). A monotypic genus. The species is a native of Central and Northern Europe and North America, has creeping or floating stems, and cordate entire leaves. _C. palustris_ is sometimes grown in collections of aquatics or bog plants; and, although, perhaps, hardly worth cultivating as a pot plant, is well worth a place in open ornamental waters. _Richardia æthiopica_ is frequently erroneously called _Calla æthiopica_. =C. palustris= (marsh). _fl._, spadix protected by a flat white spathe, upper ones female, lower hermaphrodite, with numerous thread-like stamens. _l._ stalked, emerging from a sheath. _h._ 6in. Hardy aquatic, naturalised here and there in Britain. See Fig. 326. =CALLI.= Small callosities, or little protuberances. =CALLIANDRA= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _andros_, a stamen; referring to the elegant long, silky, purple or white stamens). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus of beautiful stove evergreen shrubs. Flowers usually borne on stalked globose heads; corollas small, hidden by the numerous filaments of the stamens. Leaves bipinnate; leaflets varying in size and number. They thrive in a compost of peat and loam. Propagated by cuttings of rather firm young wood, inserted in sand, under a hand glass, in heat. =C. Harrisii= (Harris's). _fl._ pink; peduncles axillary, fascicled, glandularly downy. February. _l._ bipinnate; leaflets obovate, falcate, downy; stipules small, falcate. Branches puberulous. _h._ 10ft. Mexico, 1838. (B. M. 4238.) =C. Tweediei= (Tweedie's).* _fl._ red; peduncles longer than the petioles; bracts linear. March and April. _l._ with three or four pairs of pinnæ; leaflets numerous, oblong-linear, acutish, ciliated, pilose beneath; stipules ovate, acuminate. Branches and petioles pilose. _h._ 6ft. Brazil, 1840. (B. M. 4188.) =CALLICARPA= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _karpos_, fruit; referring to the beautiful berries). SYN. _Porphyra_. ORD. _Verbenaceæ_. A genus of stove, greenhouse, or nearly hardy evergreen shrubs, closely allied to _Petræa_. Flowers inconspicuous, disposed in axillary cymes; corolla-tube short, with the limb four-lobed. Fruit a very ornamental small juicy berry or drupe. The following mode of culture has been recommended: "After the old plants have been cut back in the spring, and started into growth, the young shoots will strike as readily as a Fuchsia, and with exactly the same treatment. In order to make good plants, short-jointed cuttings should be selected; and, as soon as these are struck, they should be potted into 2-1/2in. pots, using a compost of equal parts loam and peat, with a little charcoal and river sand. When they commence to grow, after being potted, remove to a pit or house with a temperature ranging from 60deg. to 75deg. Pinch out the tops of the plants as soon as they have three pairs of leaves, and whenever each of the laterals has made two pairs of leaves, pinch out their points, and continue this operation with all the rest of the shoots till the beginning of August, at the same time keeping off all the flower-buds. The next shift will be into 4in. or 5in. pots. They should always have plenty of light and air, but more especially after they come into flower." =C. americana= (American). _fl._ red, small, in axillary cymes. Berries violet-coloured. _l._ ovate-oblong, toothed, silvery beneath, with a scurf of tomentum. _h._ 6ft. South America, 1724. Greenhouse. =C. japonica= (Japanese). _fl._ pink. August. _l._ stalked, ovate, oblong, acuminate, serrate. _h._ 3ft. Japan, 1850. Stove. (L. & P. F. G. ii., p. 165.) =C. lanata= (woolly). _fl._ purplish. June. Berries purple. _l._ sessile, ovate, acuminate, serrate, hairy beneath. _h._ 3ft. India, 1788. Stove. (S. F. d. J. 1861, p. 96.) =C. purpurea= (purple). _fl._ insignificant, borne in cymose clusters, upon axillary footstalks. Berries very numerous, bright glossy deep violet coloured. _l._ opposite, ovate, acuminate; edges serrated; profusely clothed, as well as the stem, with hairs. _h._ 3ft. India, 1822. Stove. (Garden, June, 1833.) =C. rubella= (reddish). _fl._ red. May. _l._ sessile, obovate, acuminate, cordate at the base, hairy on both surfaces. _h._ 2ft. China, 1822. Half-hardy. (B. R. 883.) =CALLICHROA= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _chroa_, colour; referring to the bright yellow colour of the flowers). ORD. _Compositæ_. This genus is now usually included under _Layia_. Hardy annual, of easy culture in common garden soil. Seeds may be sown in March, on a slight hotbed, and transplanted to the open border early in May; or if sown out of doors in April, it will flower in the autumn. =C. platyglossa= (broad-tongued). _fl.-heads_ yellow, solitary, pedunculate; ray florets large, cuneate. Autumn. _l._ alternate, sessile, ciliated. _h._ 1ft. California, 1836. SYN. _Layia platyglossa_. (B. M. 3719.) =CALLICOMA= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _kome_, hair; in reference to the tufted heads of flowers). ORD. _Saxifrageæ_. A greenhouse evergreen shrub. Flowers capitate; heads terminating the tops of the branchlets, pedunculate, globose. Leaves simple, coarsely serrated, stalked. Stipules membranous, bidentate, caducous. It thrives well in a sandy peat soil. Half ripened cuttings will root if placed in the same sort of soil, under a hand glass. =C. serratifolia= (saw-leaved). Black Wattle. _fl._ yellow. May to August. _l._ lanceolate, acuminate, hoary beneath, attenuated at the base. _h._ 4ft. New South Wales, 1793. (B. M. 1811.) =CALLIGONUM= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _gonu_, a knee-joint; in reference to its leafless joint). ORD. _Polygonaceæ_. SYNS. _Pallasia_, _Pterococcus_. A genus containing about a score species of very curious, erect, evergreen, hardy shrubs, found growing in dry, arid, sandy spots in Northern Africa and Western Asia. They will thrive in any well-drained sandy loam. Cuttings will root in spring or autumn if placed under a hand glass. =C. Pallasia= (Pallas's). _fl._ whitish, in groups. May. _fr._ winged; wings membranous, curled and toothed, succulent, acid, edible. _l._ simple, alternate, exstipulate, deciduous, caducous, minute. Shoots rush-like, smooth, green. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Caspian Sea, 1780. =CALLIOPSIS.= _See_ =Coreopsis=. =CALLIPRORA= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _prora_, a front; referring to the front view of the flower). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A very pretty little bulbous plant, now often referred to _Brodiæa_. It thrives in a well-drained spot on the lower flanks of rockwork, in dry, rich, sandy soil. Propagated by offsets, which should remain on the parent bulbs until they are a good size. =C. lutea= (yellow).* Pretty Face. _fl._, segments purplish-brown in the middle on the outside. Summer. _l._ linear-lanceolate, acuminated, channelled, longer than the flower-stem; bracts sheathing, scarious, much shorter than the pedicels. _h._ 9in. North California, 1831. SYNS. _Brodiæa ixioides_, _Milla ixioides_. (B. M. 3588.) =CALLIPSYCHE= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _psyche_, a butterfly; alluding to the handsome flowers). ORD. _Amaryllidaceæ_. Ornamental greenhouse bulbs; requiring shade, and a compost of rich sandy loam and leaf mould, with good drainage. Propagated by seeds and offsets. They should have plenty of water when growing, and, during the winter, be kept moderately dry, but not dried off, so as to cause them to shrivel. As the leaves wither, water should be gradually withheld. =C. aurantiaca= (orange).* _fl._ deep golden-yellow, several in an umbel, spreading, much flattened sideways; stamens green, twice the length of the perianth; scape erect, nearly 2ft. high. _l._ few, oblong-acute, bright green, conspicuously veined, stalked, 6in. long. Andes of Ecuador, 1868. (Ref. B. 167.) =C. eucrosiodes= (Eucrosia-like).* _fl._ scarlet and green; stamens very long, incurved; scape about ten-flowered, glaucous. March. _l._ few, green, tessellated, pitted, 4in. wide. _h._ 2ft. Mexico, 1843. (B. R. 1845, 45.) =C. mirabilis= (wonderful)*, _fl._ greenish-yellow, small, with stamens three times as long as the perianth, and spreading out on all sides; disposed in an umbellate head of about thirty blooms; scape 3ft. high. _l._ about two, oblong-spathulate, green, 1ft. long. Peru, 1868. An extremely curious plant. (Ref. B. 168.) =CALLIPTERIS= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _pteris_, a fern). ORD. _Filices_. A genus of stove ferns, founded upon the sub-genus _Diplazium_, which is now included under _Asplenium_. =CALLIRHOE= (of mythological origin, from Callirhoe, a daughter of the river-god Achelous). Poppy-Mallow. Allied to _Malva_. Species belonging to this genus have been erroneously referred to _Malva_ and _Nuttallia_. ORD. _Malvaceæ_. A genus of elegant annual or perennial herbs, natives of North America. They are of extremely easy cultivation, thriving in a compost of light, rich, sandy loam. Propagation of the perennial species may be effected by means of both seeds and cuttings; of the annuals, by seeds only. Seeds should be sown in spring, either outside, or in pans in a cold frame. Young cuttings should be taken and dibbled in sandy soil in a frame. =C. digitata= (fingered).* _fl._ reddish-purple; peduncles long, axillary, one-flowered. Summer. _l._ sub-peltate, six to seven-parted, with linear-entire or two-parted segments; upper ones more simple. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. 1824. Perennial. (S. B. F. G. 129, under the name of _Nuttallia digitata_.) =C. involucrata= (involucrate).* _fl._ crimson, nearly 2in. across, loosely panicled. Summer. _l._ divided nearly to the base, three to five-parted; segments narrow, lanceolate, three to five-toothed, hairy on both surfaces. Habit procumbent; stems hairy. _h._ 6in. Perennial. (G. W. P. A. 26.) SYN. _Malva involucrata_ (B. M. 4681). =C. Papaver= (Poppy-like).* _fl._ violet-red; sepals ovate-acute, ciliated. Summer. _l._, root leaves lobed or pedate; lower stem leaves palmato-pedate, upper digitate or simple. _h._ 3ft. Louisiana, 1833. Perennial. SYN. _Nuttallia Papaver_. (B. M. 3287.) =C. pedata= (pedate-leaved). _fl._ cherry-red, panicled. August. _l._ laciniately-pedate; upper ones trifid. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. 1824. Annual. (R. H. 1857, 148.) =C. triangulata= (triangular-leaved). _fl._ pale purple. August. 1836. Perennial. SYN. _Nuttallia cordata_ (under which name it is figured in B. R. 1938). =CALLISTACHYS.= _See_ =Oxylobium=. =CALLISTEMMA.= _See_ =Callistephus=. =CALLISTEMON= (from _kallos_, beauty, and _stemon_, a stamen; in most of the species, the stamens are of a beautiful scarlet colour). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. Handsome greenhouse evergreen shrubs or trees, having the inflorescence rising from the old branches in crowded spikes, as in the species of _Melaleuca_, but with the stamens free, as in _Metrosideros_. Leaves elongated, stiff, alternate, usually lanceolate. All the species of this genus are very ornamental and neat in habit. They are well adapted for a conservatory. The soil best suited for them is a mixture of loam, peat, and sand. Ripened cuttings strike root in sand, under a hand glass; seeds are frequently produced on large plants, and these may also be used to increase the stock, but they do not produce flowering plants for a considerable time; whereas plants raised from cuttings, taken from flowering plants, come into flower when small. =C. linearis= (linear-leaved).* _fl._ scarlet; calyces clothed with velvety pubescence. June. _l._ linear, stiff, acute, keeled beneath, channelled above, villous when young. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. New South Wales, 1788. =C. lophanthus= (crest-flowered). Synonymous with _C. salignus_. =C. salignus= (willow). _fl._ straw-coloured, distinct, spicate, nearly terminal; petals rather pubescent, ciliated; calyx pilose. June to August. _l._ lanceolate, attenuated at both ends, mucronate, one-nerved, villous when young, as well as the branches. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Australia, 1806. SYN. _C. lophanthus_. (L. B. C. 1302.) =C. speciosus= (showy).* _fl._ scarlet; calyx villous. March to July. _l._ lanceolate, mucronate, flat, middle nerve rather prominent; when young, rather silky from adpressed villi, and reddish. _h._ 5ft. to 10ft. West Australia, 1823. SYN. _Metrosideros speciosa_. See Fig. 327. (B. M. 1761.) [Illustration: FIG. 327. CALLISTEMON SPECIOSUS.] =CALLISTEPHUS= (from _kallistos_, most beautiful, and _stephos_, a crown; in allusion to the appendages on the ripe fruit). China Aster. SYN. _Callistemma_. ORD. _Compositæ_. A hardy annual, requiring an open situation and a rich loamy soil. Involucre of many fringed bracts; receptacle naked, pitted; pappus double. Propagated by seed, sown in a hotbed in March, the seedlings being hardened off and transplanted in May. For culture of these much grown plants and their varieties, _see_ =Aster=. [Illustration: Chrysanthemum-flowered Aster. Truffaut's Pæony-flowered Aster. Victoria Aster. FIG. 328. FLOWER-HEADS OF CALLISTEPHUS CHINENSIS VARS.] =C. chinensis= (Chinese).* _fl-heads_ dark purple. July. _l._ ovate, coarsely toothed, stalked; stem ones sessile, cuneate at the base. Stem hispid. Branches with single heads. _h._ 2ft. China, 1731. See Fig. 328. =CALLITRIS= (probably altered from _kallistos_, most beautiful; referring to the whole plant). ORD. _Coniferæ_. SYN. _Frenela_. Half-hardy evergreen shrubs or small trees, with long, very slender-jointed branches, and often very minute, scale-like, persistent leaves. Flowers mon�cious. Fruit globular, composed of four to six--rarely eight�-unequal, woody, valvate scales, with one or two seeds at the base of each. All the species are somewhat tender, in England, except in the more southern districts. They require a sandy loam compost. Propagated by cuttings, inserted under a handlight in autumn, and protected by a cold pit; or by seeds. =C. quadrivalvis= (four valved). Arar-tree; Sandarach Gum-tree. _fl._, female catkin tetragonal, with four oval valves, each furnished with a point, and two of which bear seeds. February to May. _l._ flattened, articulate. _h._ 15ft. to 20ft. Barbary, 1815. =CALLIXENE.= _See_ =Luzuriaga=. [Illustration: FIG. 329. FLOWERS AND LEAVES OF CALOCHORTUS VENUSTUS.] =CALLOSE.= Callous, hardened. =CALLOUSLY-GLANDULAR.= Having hardened glands. =CALLOUSLY-SERRATED.= Having hardened serratures. =CALLUNA= (from _kalluno_, to sweep, from the use of the plant in brooms). Common Ling; Heather. ORD. _Ericaceæ_. A small hardy spreading shrub, very common throughout Northern and Central Europe. Corolla campanulate, four-lobed, shorter than the calyx. For culture, _see_ =Erica=. =C. vulgaris= (common).* _fl._ disposed in long, terminal, spicate racemes. July to September. _l._ trigonal, obtuse, very short, imbricating in four rows, having the margins revolute and the base sagittate. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Britain. There are numerous very ornamental varieties of this species, which are admirably adapted for planting in borders and clumps. The white-flowered (_alba_, _Serlii_, and _Hammondi_), flesh-coloured (_carnea_), and double-flowered varieties (_fl.-pl._) are all well worth growing in shrubberies; _aurea_ and _argentea_, with gold and silver coloured shoots, are also very ornamental. The value of the common form can scarcely be over-estimated for planting on barren hill sides or spaces; it affords excellent shelter for game, and food for bees. =CALLUS.= The new formation at the end of a cutting before it puts forth roots; when the Callus is formed, it shows that the cutting is in a healthy state. =CALOCHILUS= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _cheilos_, a lip; referring to the beauty of the labellum or lip). ORD. _Orchideæ_. Interesting greenhouse terrestrial tuberous-rooted orchids, allied to _Epipactis_. Sepals yellowish-green; lip purple, covered with rich brown hairs. For culture, _see_ =Bletia=. =C. campestris= (field). _fl._ greenish and brown. April to June. _l._ narrow, oblong, pointed. Stem leafy, slender, terete. _h._ 9in. Australia, 1824. (B. M. 3187.) =C. paludosus= (marsh).* _fl._ very similar in colour to those of _C. campestris_, but rather larger. May and June. _l._ rather broader. _h._ 9in. Australia, 1823. (F. A. O., part 4.) =CALOCHORTUS= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _chortos_, grass; referring to the leaves). Mariposa Lily. ORD. _Liliaceæ_. Handsome bulbous plants. Flowers showy, on erect scapes; perianth deciduous; three outer segments sepaloid, three inner ones much larger and broader, and bearded on the inside. Leaves ensiform. Bulbs tunicated. These have not, hitherto, been generally grown in the open air with much success; but in warm localities and sheltered positions, they may be flowered outside. A frame, in a sunny situation, is the best possible place for their cultivation. Here they may be fully exposed to the sun and air, during mild weather, through the winter; and, when expedient, they may be protected from excessive moisture, as that is the primary cause of failure, rather than cold, for they are perfectly hardy, and capable of enduring all the frost we are likely to get. From May onwards, the lights might be wholly removed. From the end of June to August, the bulbs will be in bloom, when, if necessary, the flowers should be fertilised to secure seed; and when the capsules are forming, material assistance would be given by placing the lights on again, allowing plenty of air. Assuming that fresh bulbs are being planted, they should be in the soil early in the autumn, as nothing is more prejudicial than keeping them dry through the winter. A good depth of soil should be provided, composed of fibrous loam, leaf soil, and sand, in equal proportions, in a well-drained position. The bulbs must be planted 3in. deep, and some sand placed about them; they may be left undisturbed for years. Of course, where no frame can be provided, they may be planted in a well-drained, sunny position in the same soil. They are also easily managed in pots, but it is necessary to pot in the autumn, and keep in a frame. Through the winter, they must never be allowed to get dry, until the leaves are withering in the autumn, when water may be withheld. _Propagation._ This may be effected by seeds or offsets, and by the tiny bulbs frequently produced on the upper portion of the stem. Sow seeds in pans, in a cool house or frame, as soon as ripe, or in the early part of the year, and keep the plants close to the glass during their early stages, as they are very liable to damp off. Sow thinly, so as to enable the young plants to pass a second season in the seed pots or pans. Early in the third season, pot off and plant out singly, encouraging them to grow freely. Propagation by offsets is the most usual method. With liberal treatment, most of the species increase pretty freely. The offsets are best removed when the plants are in a dormant state. They may be either grown in pots or pans, or planted out in pits or frames, until they reach flowering size. During the season of rest, it is the safest plan, with those in pots, to keep them in the earth in which they were grown. =C. albus= (white).* _fl._ snow-white, with a rich blotch, bearded and ciliated, large, globose, pendent; umbels many-flowered, on stems from 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. high. California, 1832. This handsome species is rare. SYN. _Cyclobothra alba_. (B. R. 1661.) =C. Benthami= (Bentham's).* _fl._ rich yellow; petals obtuse, densely covered with yellow hairs; stem three to six-flowered. July, August. _l._ linear, much elongated. _h._ 4in. to 8in. Sierra Nevada. SYN. _C. elègans lutea_. =C. c�ruleus= (bluish).* _fl._ lilac, more or less lined and dotted with dark blue, the petals covered and fringed with slender hairs; stem two to five-flowered. July. _l._ solitary, linear. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Sierra Nevada. =C. elegans= (elegant).* _fl._ greenish-white, purplish at base; stems three-flowered; petals not ciliate on the margin, or sparingly so. June. _h._ 8in. California, 1826. This is a rare species. =C. e. lutea= (yellow). A synonym of _C. Benthami_. =C. Gunnisoni= (Gunnison's).* _fl._ light lilac, yellowish-green below the middle, with a purple band encircling the base of the perianth; large, 2in. to 3in. in diameter. Rocky Mountains. =C. Leichtlinii= (Leichtlin's). A synonym of _C. Nuttallii_. =C. lilacinus= (lilac).* _fl._ pale pink, hairy below the middle, 1-1/2in. across, with three segments narrow and three broad; scape slender, leafy, bearing one to five flowers. _l._ solitary, narrow lanceolate, radical. _h._ 6in. to 8in. California, 1868. SYN. _C. umbellatus_. (B. M. 5804, under the name of _C. uniflorus_.) =C. luteus= (yellow).* _fl._ terminal, two or three together; exterior segments of the perianth greenish; the inner yellow, bordered with purple hairs. September. _h._ 1ft. California, 1831. (B. R. 1567.) =C. l. oculatus= (eyed). _fl._ very charming bright yellow, with a bold eye on the inside of each petal. =C. macrocarpus= (large-capsuled). _fl._ very large, lavender-coloured, on stems 1ft. high. August. California, 1826. (B. R. 1152.) =C. Maweanus= (Mawe's). _fl._, sepals purplish, broadly obovate acute; petals white or bluish-purple, longer than the sepals, the surfaces more or less covered with long purplish hairs. June, July. _l._ glaucous, linear. Stem three to six-flowered. _h._ 6in. to 10in. San Francisco, &c. (B. M. 5976, figured under the name of _C. elegans_.) =C. Nuttallii= (Nuttall's).* _fl._ large, 2-1/2in. across; the three smaller segments of the perianth of a greenish colour streaked with red; the three larger segments pure white, with a purple spot at the base on the inner surface; two or three flowers on a stalk. June. _l._ linear, glaucous. _h._ 6in. California, 1869. SYN. _C. Leichtlinii_. (B. M. 5862.) =C. pulchellus= (beautiful).* _fl._ bright yellow, globular, drooping; umbels three to five-flowered, on stems from 10in. to 12in. high. Summer. California, 1832. A lovely species. (B. R. 1662.) SYN. _Cyclobothra pulchella_. =C. purpureus= (purple).* _fl._, outer segments of the perianth green and purple outside and yellow within; inner segments purple outside and yellow within. August. _h._ 3ft. Mexico, 1827. (S. B. F. G. ser. ii., 20.) =C. splendens= (splendid).* _fl._ clear lilac, large. August. _h._ 1-1/2ft. California, 1832. (B. R. 1676.) =C. umbellatus= (umbelled). A synonym of _C. lilacinus_. =C. venustus= (charming).* _fl._ large, white, nearly 3in. in diameter, yellow at the base, deeply stained with crimson, and blotched on each segment with crimson. _h._ 1-1/2ft. California, 1836. See Fig. 329. (B. R. 1669.) There are three varieties of this species, viz., _brachysepalus_ (short-sepaled), _lilacinus_ (lilac), and _purpureus_ (purple-flowered). =CALODENDRON= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _dendron_, a tree). ORD. _Rutaceæ_. A very handsome greenhouse evergreen tree. Flowers in terminal panicles. Leaves large, opposite, simple, crenated. It will grow freely in a mixture of loam and peat. Cuttings of half-ripened wood root in sand if placed under a bell glass, in gentle bottom heat. =C. capensis= (Cape). _fl._ flesh-coloured; pedicels compressed, dilated under the flower; panicle trichotomously divided. Branches opposite, or three in a whorl. _h._ 40ft. Cape of Good Hope, 1789. This is supposed to be one of the finest trees at the Cape of Good Hope. (G. C., 1883, xix., 217.) See Fig 330, for which we are indebted to Mr. Bull. =CALODRACON.= _See_ =Cordyline=. =CALONYCTION.= _See_ =Ipom�a=. =CALOPHACA= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _phake_, a lentil; in allusion to the beauty of the plant, and to its being one of the leguminous kind). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A hardy deciduous shrub, with axillary pedunculate racemes of yellow flowers, and impari-pinnate leaves. This is well adapted for the front of shrubberies. It is somewhat difficult to propagate, except by seeds, which, however, in fine seasons, are produced in abundance. Grafted high on the common Laburnum, it forms an object at once singular, picturesque, and beautiful, whether covered with blossoms, or with its fine reddish pods. =C. wolgarica= (Volga).* _fl._ yellow. May, June. _l._, leaflets six or seven pairs, orbicular, velvety beneath, as well as the calyces. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Siberia, 1786. (W. D. B. 83.) =CALOPHANES= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _phaino_, to appear; alluding to the flowers). ORD. _Acanthaceæ_. A genus of about thirty species, widely distributed, principally in the tropical regions of both hemispheres. The best garden plant is that mentioned below; it is an interesting hardy herbaceous perennial, excellent for growing in borders, in loam and peat, or sandy loam soil; and may be propagated by dividing the roots, in March. =C. oblongifolia= (oblong-leaved).* _fl._ blue; corolla funnel-shaped, throat ventricose, limb bilobed, nearly equal; tube of corolla one-half longer than the calyx; pedicels axillary. August. _l._ opposite, oblong-spathulate, entire, acuminated. _h._ 1ft. Florida, &c., 1832. (S. B. F. G., ser. ii., 181.) =CALOPHYLLUM= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _phyllon_, a leaf; the leaves are large, of a beautiful green, and elegantly veined). ORD. _Guttiferæ_. Fine stove evergreen trees. Flowers disposed in axillary racemes. Leaves furnished with numerous transverse, parallel nerves. They thrive in a compost of loam, sand, and peat. Cuttings of half-ripened shoots will root in sand, if placed under a glass, in bottom heat. =C. Calaba.= Calaba-tree. _fl._ white, sweet-scented, loosely racemose; racemes lateral, very short. _fr._ green. _l._ obovate or oblong, obtuse or emarginate. _h._ 30ft. West Indies, &c., 1780. =C. inophyllum= (fibrous-leaved). _fl._ snow-white, sweet-scented, loosely racemose; racemes axillary; peduncles one-flowered, usually opposite. _fr._ reddish, the size of a walnut. _l._ oblong or obovate, obtuse, but usually emarginate. Branches round. Tropics of the Old World, 1793. A medium-sized tree. [Illustration: FIG. 330. CALODENDRON CAPENSIS.] =CALOPOGON= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _pogon_, a beard; in reference to the fringe on the lip). ORD. _Orchideæ_. Very pretty, hardy, tuberous-rooted orchids, admirably suited for a good shady position at the foot of the rockwork, or for an open situation in a hardy fernery. Propagated by offsets, taken from the tuberous roots; but this method of increase is very uncertain. Perhaps the only species in cultivation is the following: =C. pulchellus= (beautiful).* _fl._ purple, with a very pretty pale yellow beard or tuft of hairs growing from the lip; two or three to a plant. Late summer. _l._ few, radical, grass-like. _h._ 1-1/2ft. North America. 1791. SYN. _Limodorum tuberosum_. (S. B. F. G. 115.) =CALOSANTHES INDICA.= A synonym of _Oroxylum indicum_. =CALOSCORDUM= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _skorodon_, garlic). ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A genus of half-hardy bulbs, allied to _Allium_, but now referred to _Nothoscordum_. For culture, _see_ =Calochortus=. =C. nerinæflorum= (Nerine-flowered).* _fl._ rose; umbels about twelve-flowered; spathe one-valved. June and July. _l._ narrow, semi-terete, channelled above. _h._ 6in. Chusan, 1843. (B. R. 1847, 5.) =CALOSTEMMA= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _stemma_, a crown). ORD. _Amaryllidaceæ_. Handsome greenhouse bulbous plants, natives of New Holland. Flowers funnel-shaped, irregular; perianth with the orifice surmounted by a corona; stamens erect, united by their dilated bases; ovary three-celled, many-seeded. Leaves linear-lorate. =C. album= (white). _fl._ white. May. _l._ ovate, acute, 3in. to 5in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad. _h._ 1ft. 1824. =C. luteum= (yellow). _fl._ yellow. November. _l._ strap-shaped, narrow. _h._ 1ft. 1819. (B. M. 2101.) =C. purpureum= (purple). _fl._ purple. November. _l._ like those of _C. luteum_. _h._ 1ft. 1819. (B. M. 2100.) =CALOTHAMNUS= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _thamnos_, a shrub; in reference to the elegance of the shrubs, from their scarlet flowers and terete leaves). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. Greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Flowers scarlet, axillary and solitary, sessile. Leaves scattered, crowded, terete. They require much the same culture as _Callistemon_. Cuttings of young wood, firm at the base, will root in sand, if covered by a hand glass, which requires to be occasionally taken off and wiped, to prevent damp. =C. quadrifidus= (four-cleft). _fl._ scarlet, somewhat secund; bundles of stamens four, distinct, equal. July. _l._ glabrous (as well as the flowers). _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. West Australia, 1803. (B. M. 1506.) =C. villosa= (villous). _fl._ scarlet, quinquefid; bundles of stamens equal, distinct. July to September. _l._ villous (as well as the fruit). _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. West Australia, 1823. (B. R. 1099.) =CALOTIS= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _ous_, _otos_, an ear; in reference to the chaffy scales of the pappus, or seed-head). Allied to _Bellium_. ORD. _Compositæ_. Greenhouse or half-hardy herbaceous perennials, rarely annuals, all natives of Australia. Receptacle naked; involucre nearly equal, many-leaved, in a single or double row. They may be grown successfully in any ordinary garden soil. Propagated by divisions of the root. =C. cuneifolia= (wedge-leaved).* _fl.-heads_ blue, solitary, terminal. July and August. _l._ cuneate, cut, toothed at end. _h._ 1ft. 1819. Greenhouse herbaceous perennial. (B. R. 504.) =CALOTROPIS= (from _kalos_, beautiful, and _tropis_, a keel; literally "beautifully twisted," apparently in reference to the corolla of _C. gigantea_). ORD. _Asclepiadeæ_. A genus of stove evergreen shrubs, or small trees. The three species bear large handsome flowers, in interpetiolar umbels. They thrive best in a mixture of loam, sand, and peat. Young cuttings, thinly dibbled in a pot of sand, strike root freely under a hand glass, in heat. Care must be taken that they do not receive an excess of moisture, or they will rot. =C. gigantea= (gigantic).* _fl._ very handsome, a mixture of rose and purple; corona shorter than the gynostegium, obtuse, circinately recurved at the base; umbels sometimes, though rarely, compound, surrounded by several involucral scales. July. _l._ decussate, broad, wedge-shaped, bearded on the upper side at the base, woolly-downy on the under side, 4in. to 6in. long, 2in. to 3in. broad. _h._ 6ft. to 15ft. India, &c., 1690. (B. R. i. 58.) =C. procera= (tall). _fl._ white; petals spreading, marked at the top by a purple spot. July. _l._ obovate-oblong, on short petioles, whitish from wool. _h._ 6ft. Persia, 1714. (B. R. 1792.) =CALPICARPUM.= _See_ =Kopsia=. =CALPIDIA.= A synonym of =Pisonia= (which _see_). =CALTHA= (a syncope of _kalathos_, a goblet; in allusion to the form of the perianth, which may be likened to a golden cup). Marsh Marigold. ORD. _Ranunculaceæ_. Hardy herbaceous perennials, of easy culture on the margin of a piece of water, or in a marshy bog, or in the ordinary border, where their showy blossoms look very brilliant. Propagation is readily effected by dividing the roots, in early spring, or in summer after flowering. =C. leptosepala= (slender-sepaled).* _fl._ pure white, one to two upon erect, scape-like peduncles. May, June. _l._ radical, cordate, the margins nearly entire, or sometimes crenate. _h._ 1ft. Northwestern America, 1827. (H. F. B. A. 1, 10.) [Illustration: FIG. 331. CALTHA PALUSTRIS MONSTROSA PLENA.] =C. palustris= (marsh).* _fl._ golden-coloured, large; peduncles furrowed. Spring. _l._ cordate, somewhat orbicular, roundly-crenate, with rounded auricles. Stems dichotomous, erect. _h._ 1ft. Great Britain. (Sy. En. B. 40.) The double forms of this species, under the names of _nana plena_ and _monstrosa plena_ (see Fig. 331) are excellent plants, and, though growing best in the immediate vicinity of water, and most appropriate for rough scenery, they, like the type, do very well in ordinary well-enriched soil. A variety named _purpurascens_, from Southern Europe, is also showy, more erect, and branching; the shoots and pedicels purplish. =C. p. biflora= (two-flowered). A twin-flowered variety of _C. palustris_. North America, 1827. This is not quite so tall as the type, and the flowers are rather larger. =C. p. parnassifolia= (Parnassia-leaved). _fl._ yellow, on few-flowered peduncles. April, May. _l._ cordate-ovate, crenated. _h._ 3in. to 4in. North America, 1815. =C. radicans= (rooting).* _fl._ bright yellow, several in small cyme. April, May. _l._ reniform-cordate, sharply crenate-serrate, spreading. _h._ 6in. Scotland. (Sy. En. B. 41.) =CALTROPS.= _See_ =Tribulus=. =CALTROPS, WATER.= _See_ =Trapa natans=. =CALUMBA, FALSE.= _See_ =Coscinium fenestratum=. =CALUMBA ROOT.= _See_ =Jateorrhiza Calumba=. =CALUMBA WOOD.= _See_ _Coscinium fenestratum_. =CALYCANTHACE�.= A natural order of shrubs, with square stems, having four woody axes surrounding the central one. Flowers solitary, lurid; calyx of numerous coloured sepals compounded with the petals. Leaves opposite, entire, exstipulate. The two genera known are _Calycanthus_ and _Chimonanthus_. =CALYCANTHUS= (from _kalyx_, _kalykos_, a calyx, and _anthos_, a flower; in reference to the calyx being coloured, and appearing like a corolla). Allspice. ORD. _Calycanthaceæ_. A genus of hardy, deciduous, North American shrubs. Flowers lurid purple, axillary, and terminal, stalked, sweet-scented; stamens numerous. Leaves opposite, oval or ovate-lanceolate, entire, generally rough on the surface; sweet-scented. All are handsome and well worth growing. They thrive best in a peaty compost, but grow freely in almost any soil. Increased by layers, put down in the summer; or by seed, sown as soon as ripe, or in spring, in a cold frame. =C. floridus= (Floridan).* Carolina Allspice. _fl._ with a sweet apple scent. May. _l._ ovate, downy beneath, as well as the branchlets. Branches spreading. Wood and roots smelling strongly of camphor. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Carolina, 1726. See Fig. 332. (B. M. 503.) There are several varieties of this species. [Illustration: FIG. 332. FLOWERING BRANCH OF CALYCANTHUS FLORIDUS.] =C. glaucus= (glaucous).* _fl._ lurid purple, not strongly scented. May. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acuminated, glaucous and pubescent beneath. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. Carolina, 1726. SYN. _C. fertilis_. (B. R. 404.) _C. oblongifolius_ is a variety with ovate-lanceolate elongated leaves. [Illustration: FIG. 333. FLOWERING BRANCH OF CALYCANTHUS L�VIGATUS.] =C. lævigatus= (smooth-leaved).* _fl._ lurid purple. May. _l._ oblong, thin, either blunt or taper-pointed, bright green, and glabrous, or nearly so, on both sides, or rather pale beneath. Branches strictly erect. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. Mountains of Pennsylvania, &c., 1806. See Fig. 333. (B. R. 481.) =C. macrophyllus= (large-leaved). A garden synonym of _C. occidentalis_. =C. occidentalis= (Western).* _fl._ brick-red, sweet-scented, 3in. to 4in. across, each petal about 2in. long and 1/2in. broad. June to October. _l._ oblong or ovate-cordate, acuminate, slightly pubescent on the veins only beneath. _h._ 6ft. to 12ft. California, 1831. In California, this is called the Sweet-scented Shrub. SYN. _C. macrophyllus_, of gardens. (B. M. 4808.) =CALYCIFLOR�.= A sub-division of dicotyledonous plants, having the stamens inserted on the calyx or disk. =CALYCIFORM.= Formed like a calyx. =CALYCINE.= Of, or belonging to, the calyx. =CALYCOPHYLLUM= (from _kalyx_, a calyx, and _phyllon_, a leaf; in allusion to one of the teeth of the calyx being expanded into a large petiolate coloured leaf). ORD. _Rubiaceæ_. Stove evergreen shrubs, requiring a compost of loam, peat, and a little sand and charcoal. Cuttings of half ripe shoots will root in sand if placed under a bell glass, in bottom heat. =C. candidissimum= (whitest).* _fl._, corolla white, campanulate, with a bearded throat, three together, the middle one bearing a petiolate leaf, but the two lateral ones naked; corymbs terminal. _l._ ovate, bluntly acuminated, 2in. to 3in. long. _h._ 30ft. Cuba, 1830. =CALYCOTOME= (from _kalyx_, _kalykos_, calyx, and _tome_, a section; lips of calyx fall off). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A small genus of hardy, divaricately-branched, spiny shrubs, formerly included as a section of _Cytisus_. Flowers yellow, disposed in short branched leafy fasicles. For culture, _see_ =Cytisus=. =C. spinosa= (spiny). _fl._ yellow. June and July. _l._, leaflets obovate-oblong. Branches angular, spiny. _h._ 5ft. to 6ft. Genoa, Corsica, &c., 1846. (B. R. 55.) =CALYCULATE.= Having bracts so placed as to resemble an external or additional calyx. =CALYMMODON.= _See_ =Polypodium=. =CALYPSO= (from the beautiful nymph, _Calypso_, or from Greek _kalypto_, to conceal; in reference to its place of growth). ORD. _Orchideæ_. An elegant terrestrial monotypic genus. It thrives well in half-shady spots on the margins of a rock garden or artificial bog, in a light, moist, vegetable soil, composed of peat, leaf soil, and sand, mulched with cocoa-nut fibre refuse in winter. Propagated by offsets. =C. borealis= (Northern).* _fl._ solitary, delicate rose and brown, with a yellow crest on the lip; labellum longer than the sepals, the lateral lobes cohering in their upper part over the saccate central one, which is usually bifid at the tip, resembling those of a Cypripedium. Summer. _l._ solitary, thin, many-nerved, ovate or cordate. Stems usually thickening into pseudo-bulbs. _h._ 1ft. High latitudes of Northern hemisphere, 1820. (B. M. 2763.) =CALYPTRA.= Literally an extinguisher; applied to the hood which covers the theca in mosses. =CALYPTRANTHES= (from _kalyptra_, a covering, and _anthos_, a flower; in allusion to the operculum of the flower). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. Strong-growing stove evergreen shrubs or small trees. Peduncles axillary, many-flowered. Leaves feather-veined. They are of easy culture, in a compost of loam and peat, and may be propagated by layers, or by cuttings, placed in heat. =C. Chytraculia= (Chytraculia). _fl._ white, small, glomerate; peduncles axillary and terminal, trichotomous, panicled, and are, as well as the flowers, clothed with rufous velvety down. March. _l._ ovate, attenuated at the apex, stiffish, glabrous. _h._ 10ft. Jamaica, 1778. (N. S. 1, 26.) =C. Syzygium= (Syzygium). _fl._ white, on short pedicels; peduncles axillary, trichotomous, many-flowered. May to July. _l._ ovate, obtuse, stiff. _h._ 10ft. to 12ft. Jamaica, 1779. =CALYPTRARIA.= _See_ =Centronia=. =CALYPTRATE.= Resembling an extinguisher. =CALYPTRIFORM.= Shaped like an extinguisher. =CALYPTRION.= _See_ =Corynostylis=. =CALYPTROCALYX= (from _kalyptra_, an extinguisher, and _kalyx_, a calyx, in allusion to the form of the outer perianth segments). ORD. _Palmeæ_. A monotypic genus of stove palms. For culture, _see_ =Calamus=. =C. spicatus= (spiked). _fl._, spadices elongated, spicate, leafy at base; spathe opening longitudinally. _l._ terminal, pinnatisect; segments reduplicate, linear, acuminate, bifid at the apex; petiole fibrous at the base. Caudex finally smooth. _h._ 12ft. Moluccas. SYNS. _Areca_ and _Pinanga globosa_. =CALYPTROGYNE= (from _kalyptra_, an extinguisher, and _gyne_, a woman--pistil--in allusion to the form of the pistil). Including _Calyptronoma_. ORD. _Palmeæ_. A small genus comprising five species of handsome stove palms, allied to _Geonoma_ (which _see_ for cultivation). =C. Ghiesbreghtiana= (Ghiesbreght's). _fl._, peduncles erect, overtopping the leaves, bearing a single cylindrical, undivided spadix, 9in. to 12in. in length. _l._ pinnate, 2ft. to 5ft. long; pinnæ opposite or alternate, sessile, of unequal breadth, the narrower ones one to two-nerved, the broader ones six to ten-nerved, usually from six to twelve on each side of the rachis; the intervals between the pinnæ vary from 1in. to 2in.; petiole broadly sheathing at the base, from a few inches to 1-1/2ft. long. Stem short or absent. Mexico. A very elegant dwarf-growing species. SYNS. _Geonoma Ghiesbreghtiana_, _G. magnifica_ and _G. Verschaffeltii_. (B. M. 5782.) =C. spicigera= (ear-bearing). _l._ irregularly pinnate, 2ft. to 3ft. long, 1ft. broad, deeply bifid at apex, rich bright green; petioles short, sheathing at the base, flat on the upper side, rounded below. Stems stout. _h._ 5ft. Guatemala. A very elegant species. =C. Swartzii= (Swartz's). _l._ equally pinnatisect; pinnæ deeply reduplicate at the base, bifid at the top. Trunk smooth. _h._ 50ft. to 60ft. Jamaica, 1878. A handsome plant when young, and useful for general decorative purposes. SYN. _Calyptronoma Swartzii_. =CALYPTRONOMA SWARTZII.= _See_ =Calyptrogyne Swartzii=. =CALYSTEGIA= (from _kalyx_, a calyx, and _stege_, a covering; in reference to the two large persistent bracts enclosing the calyx). Bearbind. ORD. _Convolvulaceæ_. Hardy, glabrous, twining or prostrate herbs. Peduncles solitary, one-flowered; corolla campanulate, five-plicate. All the species are of easy cultivation in common garden soil. Propagation may be effected by dividing the plants; or by seeds, sown in spring. =C. dahurica= (Dahurian).* _fl._, corolla of a rosy-purple; sepals lanceolate, acute, the two outer ones broadest; peduncles tetragonal, tomentose; bracts broad-ovate, acute, longer than the calyx. July. _l._ glabrous or hairy, oblong-cordate, having the margins and nerves on the under side tomentose. Dahuria, 1826. (B. M. 2609.) =C. inflata= (inflated). Synonymous with _C. sepium incarnata_. [Illustration: FIG. 334. FLOWERING BRANCH OF CALYSTEGIA PUBESCENS FLORE-PLENO.] =C. pubescens flore-pleno= (downy, double-flowered).* _fl._ 2in. to 3in. across; petals long, narrow, wavy, and reflexed, flesh-colour, but ultimately bright rose; pedicels 2-1/2in. to 3-1/2in. long. Summer and autumn. _l._ alternate, hastate, downy. China, 1844. See Fig. 334. =C. sepium= (hedge). Common Bindweed. _fl._ white, sometimes tinged with red; peduncles tetragonal, exceeding the petioles; bracts cordate, keeled, acute, longer than the calyx, but one-half shorter than the corolla. Summer. _l._ sagittate or cordate, very acute; hind lobes obtuse, or truncate, entire. Britain. A very troublesome weed. (Sy. En. B. 924.) There is a variety named _incarnata_, with rose-coloured flowers. North America. SYN. _C. inflata_. (B. M. 732.) =C. Soldanella= (Soldanella-like).* Sea Bells. _fl._ pale red, with five longitudinal, yellowish plaits, large; peduncles angular, angles winged; bracts large, ovate, blunt, mucronate, generally shorter than the calyx. June. _l._ rather fleshy, reniform, entire or a little angular. Sea-shores, Britain. This pretty species can only be grown with success in a very sandy soil. (Sy. En. B. 925.) =CALYTHRIX= (from _kalyx_, a calyx, and _thrix_, a hair; in reference to the lobes of the calyx, which each end in a long hair). ORD. _Myrtaceæ_. A genus of very pretty and interesting greenhouse Heath-like shrubs, natives of Australia. Flowers small; bracteoles two under each flower; they are either free or joined together at the base, sometimes in the form of an operculum. Leaves scattered, crowded, opposite, full of dots, axillary, solitary, almost sessile. They grow well in a mixture of loam, peat, and sand, with good drainage and firm potting. Cuttings, made from young shoots, will root in April or May, if placed in sand, under a bell glass, in a cool house. =C. ericoides= (Heath-like). A synonym of _C. tetragona_. =C. glabra= (glabrous). A synonym of _C. tetragona_. =C. tetragona= (tetragonal).* _fl._ white; bracts one-half shorter than the tube of the calyx. _l._ scattered, petiolate, glabrous; stipules deciduous. _h._ 2ft. 1825. SYNS. _C. ericoides_, _C. glabra_. (B. R. 409.) _C. angulata_, _aurea_, and _breviseta_ are other species which have been introduced, but are not worth house room when that described above is grown. =CALYX.= The external whorl of floral leaves. =CAMARIDIUM= (from _kamara_, an arched roof; in reference to the arched tip of the stigma). ORD. _Orchideæ_. A pretty stove orchid, allied to _Cymbidium_. It thrives best if grown in a shallow basket, or raised above the surface of the pots with sphagnum and broken pots. =C. ochroleucum= (yellowish-white).* _fl._ yellowish-white. July. _l._ ligulate. Pseudo-bulbs oblong, compressed, smooth. _h._ 1ft. Trinidad, 1823. SYN. _Cymbidium ochroleucum_. (B. M. 4141.) =CAMAROTIS.= _See_ =Sarcochilus=. [Illustration: FIG. 335. CAMASSIA ESCULENTA.] =CAMASSIA= (from _Quamash_, so called by the North American Indians, who eat the bulbs). SYN. _Sitocodium_. ORD. _Liliaceæ_. A small genus (two species) of handsome bulbous plants. Perianth of six segments, slightly connected at base, and spreading out horizontally, but not equally. Leaves narrow, about 1ft. long, grooved down the inside. They thrive best in a sheltered, partially-shaded situation, but will do fairly well in almost any ordinary good garden soil. A compost of loam and leaf mould, with a liberal mixture of sharp sand, suits them best. They need not be disturbed for several years; but a top-dressing of rich soil or well-rotted manure may be given yearly. Propagated by offsets and seeds. The plants are so hardy that they ripen seeds in warm situations. These may be sown as soon as ripe, or the following spring, either in a warm situation out of doors, or in pots or boxes, under glass. The young plants make rapid progress, and should remain for at least two years in the seed beds. The best time for final transplanting is in February. Offsets are produced very freely, and should be removed either when in a dormant condition, or just previously to starting into fresh growth, and arranged in clumps or lines, placing a little sand about them. =C. esculenta= (edible).* Camash or Quamash. _fl._ blue, about 2in. across; racemes loose, ten to twenty-flowered, borne on stout scapes; perianth six-cleft, the five upper segments close together, the sixth standing by itself. Summer. _l._ linear, about 1ft. high. Columbia, &c., 1837. The colour of the flowers varies from a deep blue to nearly white. See Fig. 335. (B. R. 1486.) The white-flowered form is figured in B. M. 2774, under the name of _Scilla esculenta flore albo_. =C. e. Leichtlini= (Leichtlin's).* _fl._ creamy-white, larger than those of the type, with more numerous nerves in the keel of the segments of the perianth; racemes longer, and sometimes compound. Spring. _h._ 2ft. Columbia, 1853. This also differs from the type in its more robust habit and broader leaves. SYN. _Chlorogalum Leichtlini_. (B. M. 6287.) =C. Fraseri= (Fraser's).* _fl._ pale blue, smaller than those of _C. esculenta_; pedicels and scape much more slender. _l._ narrow, acute; capsule more acutely angled. _h._ 1ft. Eastern States of North America. A smaller and more slender plant. (B. M. 1574, as _Scilla esculenta_.) =CAMBESSEDESIA= (named after James Cambessedes, coadjutor of Auguste St. Hilaire, in his "Flora Brasiliæ Meridionalis," and author of several botanical memoirs). ORD. _Melastomaceæ_. A genus of elegant, erect, or ascending, dichotomously branched stove shrubs or herbaceous plants. Flowers terminal and axillary, in paniculate cymes; petals five, obovate; calyx bell-shaped. Leaves sessile, opposite or verticillate, obovate, oblong or linear. They thrive best in a compost of peat and sand. Propagated by half-ripened cuttings, which root freely in a similar mixture, if placed in heat and under a hand glass. There are about eight species known to science, but probably that mentioned below is the only one in cultivation. =C. paraguayensis= (Paraguay). _fl._ rose-red, 2/3in. in diameter, in terminal corymbose, glandular, hairy panicles. July. _l._ nearly 1in. long, sessile, ovate, acute, three-nerved, pale green, with entire ciliate margins. Stem annual, herbaceous, leafy. _h._ 10in. to 18in. 1880. (B. M. 6604.) =CAMBIUM.= The formative fluid found between the bark and wood of Exogens, in spring. =CAMBUY FRUIT.= _See_ =Eugenia=. =CAMELLIA= (named in honour of George Joseph Camellus or Kamel, a Moravian Jesuit and traveller in Asia, who wrote a history of the plants of the Isle of Luzon, which is inserted in the third vol. of John Ray's "Historia Plantarum"). Japanese Rose. Including _Thea._ ORD. _Ternstr�miaceæ_. A genus of elegant hardy or nearly hardy evergreen shrubs or trees. Flowers large; sepals five or six, gradually passing from bracts into petals, the latter slightly cohering at the base; stamens numerous. Leaves coriaceous. By close attention to a few particulars in the management of these beautiful plants, much disappointment may be avoided, and a succession of flowers obtained from October till the following July. The fact of the buds frequently dropping off, deters many would-be growers from attempting the culture of the Camellia. Dryness of the atmosphere, and want of water at the roots, are generally the primary causes of failure; the remedy for these evils rests with the cultivator. The roots are apt to get matted together, compressing the earth around them into a hard ball, impervious to water; hence attention is necessary to see that the water poured into the pot thoroughly moistens all the soil. In order to form handsome plants, they should be trained with single stems to rods, and pruned, so as to make them throw out side branches from every part of the stem; they must not be placed too close to each other on the stage, or when planted out. A liberal supply of water is always necessary, but especially so during the flowering period. Plants that are required to flower early may remain in the warm house till they commence to blossom, when they should be removed to a cold place, such as the back of a greenhouse, giving them plenty of light. Those kept in a hothouse or vinery during summer, will flower in the beginning or middle of October; and a large plant, having from fifty to one hundred buds, will continue in flower till the month of January. Those that are removed early, will blossom in January, and so succeed the others. The plants that have finished flowering should be brought back to the hothouse, where they will begin to make new wood, and be ready to come in succession next season. By thus shifting the plants from a warm to a cold situation, a regular succession will be secured from October to July. The soil should be kept constantly moist, and in the summer months the leaves occasionally syringed. Camellias flower best when kept in small pots or tubs. In order to raise and exhibit these handsome plants to the best advantage, they should be grown in a separate house, of ample height, as they never look so well as when 6ft. or 8ft. high, trained in a conical form, with branches from the root upwards; and the plants should be raised near to the glass on a movable stage, which should be lowered as they grow. In summer, they may either be placed in the open air in a sheltered spot, or the glass roof of the house can be taken off. The hardier sorts, such as the Double-red, Blush, and Pæony-flowered, succeed in the bed or border of a conservatory, if the roof can be taken off in summer, so as to admit air. If this cannot be managed, they are better grown in portable pots or boxes. The most suitable time for shifting Camellias is directly after flowering; they should then be put into a vinery or hothouse, where there is a little heat; or the warmest part of a greenhouse. They will soon begin to make new wood, where they should be allowed to remain, amply supplied with water, till they form their flower buds, at the extremity and sides of the young growth. A few should then be removed to a cold place, and shaded during strong sunshine. In a few weeks afterwards, others may also be transferred, so as to have a regular succession of flowering plants. _Propagation._ The red Camellias are generally propagated by layers, but cuttings will also succeed; the single red Camellia being raised by either cuttings, layers, or seeds. This latter forms suitable stocks on which to inarch or graft the rarer kinds. The ripened shoots of the preceding summer should be taken off in August, cutting them smoothly at a joint or bud. Two or three of the lower leaves should be taken off, and the cuttings planted firmly in the soil with a dibble. Some growers use peat earth and sand to strike in, while others prefer a loam mixed with sand and peat. The pans containing the cuttings should be kept in a plant or cold frame, without being covered with glasses, but shaded during powerful sunshine. In the following spring, such as have struck will begin to push, when they need to be placed in a gentle heat. The following September or October, the rooted plants will be fit to pot off, and in the second or third spring they may be used as stocks. Inarching or grafting is done in early spring, as soon as growth commences. When this process is completed, care must be taken to fix the pot containing the stock so that it may not be disturbed during the connection of the scion with the parent plant. The grafting being clayed over, is then covered with moss, to prevent its cracking. When independent grafting is resorted to, the mode called "side grafting" is generally employed, as in the case of Orange-trees; but the operation of tongueing is generally omitted, as tending to weaken the stock. Liquid or other manure is not required; nor is it desirable to apply it, as it often, sooner or later, causes the destruction of the plants. As a rule, insects do not trouble this class of plants; but scale will sometimes appear, and can easily be removed by hand. Thrips occasionally put in an appearance, but a little smoke will quickly get rid of them. =C. euryoides= (Eurya-like). _fl._ white; peduncles lateral, one-flowered, scaly. May to July. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, serrated, silky beneath. Branches hairy. _h._ 4ft. China, 1822. (B. R. 983.) [Illustration: FIG. 336. FLOWERING BRANCH OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA.] =C. japonica= (Japanese).* Common Camellia. _fl._ variously coloured, axillary, sessile. _l._ ovate, acuminate, acutely serrated. _h._ 20ft. Japan and China, 1739. The innumerable hybrids are chiefly the offspring of this species. See Fig. 336. [Illustration: FIG. 337. FLOWER OF CAMELLIA JAPONICA ANEMON�FLORA.] =C. j. anemonæflora= (Anemone-flowered). All, or nearly all, the stamens, &c., in this variety are transformed into small petaloid bodies, and the flower has the general aspect of a double Anemone. See Fig. 337. (B. M. 1654.) [Illustration: FIG. 338. FLOWER OF CAMELLIA OLEIFERA.] =C. oleifera= (oil-yielding).* _fl._ white, very numerous, fragrant, solitary. November. _l._ elliptic-oblong, acute, serrated, coriaceous, shining. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. China, 1820. See Fig. 338. (B. R. 942.) =C. reticulata= (netted-leaved). _fl._ bright rose, large, semi-double. l. oblong, acuminated, serrated, flat, reticulated. _h._ 10ft. China, 1824. There is a form of this species with full double flowers. =C. theifera= (Tea-bearing). _fl._ white, spreading, of five sepals and five petals, axillary. November to spring. _l._ elliptical-oblong, obtuse, serrated, more than twice as long as broad, dark green. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. China, Japan, and India, 1780. This species varies very considerably. In different countries, it has become modified by cultivation. The Green and Black Teas, formerly supposed to be produced by different species, are obtained from the same bushes, but subjected to different processes. Less-known species are: _drupifera_, _lanceolata_, _rosæflora_, and _Sasanqua_. The true species are rarely seen in cultivation. The following is a selection of the best forms of _C. japonica_; the list is a limited one, and is capable of great extension: ALBA PLENA,* double white; ARCHIDUCHESSE AUGUSTA, petals deep red, veined with blue, a white band; ARCHIDUCHESSE MARIE,* flowers bright red, banded with white, imbricated; AUGUSTE DELFOSSE, bright reddish-orange, stripes down the centre of petals; AUGUSTINA SUPERBA,* flowers clear rose, free bloomer; BEALII ROSEA, one of the best and latest deep crimson varieties known; BICOLOR DE LA REINE, white and rose; BONOMIANA,* ground colour white, banded with intense deep red; CARYOPHYLLOIDES,* white, marbled with rosy-carmine, flowers very large; CHANDLERII ELEGANS,* flowers large, light rose; COMTE DE GOMER,* petals soft rose, striped with crimson, beautifully imbricated; COMTE DE PARIS, rich pink, large and full; CONTESSA LAVINIA MAGGI, pure white, broadly flamed with rosy-cerise; CONTESSA LAVINIA MAGGI ROSEA, flowers rich rosy-red, fine form, a superb variety; CORRADINO, rose, veined with salmon, centre delicate blush pink; COUNTESS OF DERBY,* beautifully imbricated, white, striped with rose; COUNTESS OF ELLESMERE,* colour varying from pure white to flesh, streaked with carnation; COUNTESS OF ORKNEY, pure white, striped with carmine, sometimes pink, shaded with deep rose; CUP OF BEAUTY,* pure white and rose, a beautifully imbricated flower; DAVID BOSCHI, clear pink, shaded with deep rose; DE LA REINE, petals white, striped with carmine; DONCKELAARII,* large flowers, semi-double, rich crimson, marbled white; DUCHESSE DE NASSAU,* flowers light pink, very large, and of superb form; DUCHESS OF BERRY, pure white, and cupped, beautifully imbricated, one of the most beautiful of all the double whites; EMPEROR OF RUSSIA, large crimson; FANNY BOLIS, white, striped and splashed with deep crimson; FIMBRIATA ALBA,* similar to _Alba plena_, outer petals notched at the edges; GENERAL CIALDINI, beautifully imbricated, bright carmine, flaked with red; HENRI FAVRE, flowers rosy-salmon, finely imbricated; HOVEY, C. H.,* bright crimson, well imbricated; HOVEY, C. M.,* deep velvety crimson, darkly shaded, very distinct; HOVEY, MRS.,* delicate pink, very smooth in outline, medium size; IL CYGNO, flowers pure white, petals Ranunculi-formed and imbricated; IL 22 MARZO, clear rose, the petals sometimes banded with white; IMBRICATA, deep carmine, occasionally variegated; JARDIN D'HIVER, a fine variety, flowers beautifully imbricated, colour bright rose; JEFFERSONII, fine crimson; JENNY LIND,* flowers imbricated to the extreme centre, broad, and of good substance, white, striped and marbled with rose; JUBILEE,* flowers very large, with broad, round, imbricated petals, white, marbled with rose, centre pure white; LADY HUME'S BLUSH,* flowers flesh-colour, and of excellent form; LA MAESTOSA, rose, mottled with white; LEEANA SUPERBA, flowers salmon-red, very fine; LEON LEGUAY, rich crimson; MADAME AMBROISE VERSCHAFFELT,* white, shaded with blush, and dotted with red; MADAME LEBOIS, bright rose, finely imbricated, and of good form; MATHOTIANA,* flowers brilliant red, and beautifully imbricated, extra fine; MATHOTIANA ALBA, flowers large, finely imbricated to the centre, pure white; MONTIRONI,* a fine pure white flower; MRS. ABBEY WILDER, ivory-white, striped with rose, well imbricated; MRS. COPE,* white, delicately shaded with pink, and striped with rose; MRS. DOMBRAIN,* shape and substance excellent, colour beautiful soft pink; NAPOLEON III., flowers rose, beautifully veined with deep rose, and edged with pure white; PRINCE ALBERT, white, beautifully flaked with carmine; PRINCESS BACCIOCCHI,* rich velvety carmine; PRINCESS FREDERICK WILLIAM,* flowers white, tipped with bright carmine; QUEEN OF ROSES, flowers delicate rose; REINE DES BEAUT�S,* very delicate clear rose, fine form, extra fine variety; REINE DES FLEURS,* finely imbricated, petals of good substance and perfect symmetry, colour vermilion-red, flaked occasionally with white; RUBENS, deep rose-white stripes; SACCOIANA,* a finely imbricated flower, colour very variable, occasionally clear rose, at other times spotted with pure white; SARAH FROST, flowers bright red; STORYI, outer petals bright rose, centre almost white; TARGIONI, flowers beautifully imbricated, pure white, striped with cerise; TEUTONIA, flowers sometimes red, at other times white, but occasionally half red and half white; THOMAS MOORE,* flowers 4-1/2in. across, perfectly round, and well imbricated, petals also round, and well filled up in the centre, colour rich carmine, shaded with crimson; TRICOLOR DE MATHOT, flowers red, marbled with white, semidouble; TRICOLOR IMBRICATA PLENA, blush white, flaked with carmine and rose; VALTEVAREDA, colour bright rose, often spotted with snowy white; WILDERII,* soft rose, of excellent form. [Illustration: 1. C. lactiflora. 2. C. rotundifolia Hostii. 3. C. carpathica turbinata. 4. C. carpathica alba. FIG. 339. GROUP OF CAMPANULAS.] =CAMOENSIA= (named in honour of Luis Camoens, a celebrated Portuguese poet). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus containing a couple of handsome species. _C. maxima_ is the largest-flowered leguminous plant known. It thrives well in rich loam and leaf mould. Cuttings root in sandy loam, in bottom heat, if placed under a bell glass. It has not yet flowered in this country. The other species has not been introduced. =C. maxima= (greatest).* _fl._ cream-colour, yellow, 1ft. long, in short axillary racemes. Angola, 1878. (T. L. S. 25, 36.) =CAMOMILE.= _See_ =Chamomile=. =CAMPANEA= (from _campana_, a bell; alluding to the shape of the flowers). ORD. _Gesneraceæ_. Stove herbaceous climbing perennials, the only one at present introduced being _C. grandiflora_. For cultivation, _see_ =Gesnera=. =C. grandiflora= (large-flowered).* _fl._ in axillary tufts, at ends of long, axillary, and terminal peduncles; corolla white, lined and dotted with crimson. June. _l._ opposite, oval, acuminated, oblique, soft, crenated, stalked. Plant hairy. _h._ 2ft. Santa Fé, 1848. (R. H. 1849, 241.) =CAMPANULA= (diminutive of _campana_, a bell; in reference to the shape of the flowers). Bell-flower; Slipperwort. ORD. _Campanulaceæ_. A genus of mostly perennial--rarely annual or biennial--herbs. Flowers blue or white, for the most part pedunculate, usually racemose, rarely spicate or glomerate. Radical leaves usually different in form from the cauline ones, especially in size. All the species of this genus are elegant when in flower (see Fig. 339), and are very largely grown. The dwarf varieties make excellent subjects for pot culture, rockeries, or the fronts of borders. A rather rich sandy loam, with plenty of drainage, suits these plants. The forms of _C. pyramidalis_ may be kept in cold frames during the winter, and firmly repotted in summer, the crown of the plant being kept just a trifle raised above the soil, or they are at times liable to damp off, through the water lodging around the necks. During hot weather, the pots should be plunged in a bed of ashes. Campanulas are easily raised from seeds, which should be sown in spring. _General Culture._ As a rule, few plants are so easily cultivated as these. The strong-growing kinds may be grown with the greatest success in ordinary garden soil, well enriched with manure, while the alpine kinds are easily managed on the rockery. Sow seeds of the annuals in April, and of the biennials in June, in the open, or in a cold frame. The perennials are chiefly propagated by dividing the roots, or by young cuttings, in spring--the latter is by far the best method of propagation with many of the species--or by seeds. Those kinds requiring special treatment are particularised, and those suitable to the rockery are so designated. Perennials, except where otherwise mentioned. =C. Adami= (Adam's). _fl._ bluish, nearly erect, one on the top of each stem; corolla funnel-shaped. July. _l._ slightly ciliated; radical ones on long petioles, cuneate-spathulate, coarsely toothed at the apex; cauline ones sessile, obovate or linear. _h._ 6in. Caucasus, 1821. Alpine. =C. Allionii= (Allioni's).* _fl._ usually blue, rarely white, subnutant, large, solitary. July to September. _l._, radical ones linear-lanceolate, nearly entire, ciliated; lower ones rosulate, bluntish. Stem rather pilose. Root creeping. _h._ 3in. to 4in. Piedmontese Alps, &c., 1820. A little gem, requiring a well-drained position, in rich sandy loam, with plenty of grit in it, and an abundance of moisture when growing. SYNS. _C. alpestris_ and _C. nana_. (B. M. 6588.) =C. alpestris= (rocky). A synonym of _C. Allionii_. =C. alpina= (alpine).* _fl._ deep blue, few or numerous, scattered in a pyramidal manner along the whole stem. July. _l._ linear-lanceolate, repandly-crenate, woolly; radical ones crowded, narrowed at the base. Stem glabrous or woolly. _h._ 3in. to 9in. Europe, 1779. Rockery. (B. M. 957.) =C. americana= (American). _fl._ erect, one to three from the axil of each bract; corollas blue, a little longer than the calycine lobes. July. _l._, radical ones rosulate, ovate, acute, a little cordate, petiolate, serrated; cauline ones ovate-lanceolate, acuminated at both ends, serrulated. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. North America, 1763. Borders. =C. barbata= (bearded).* _fl._ nutant, disposed in a loose, often secund raceme; pedicels one-flowered, rising from the axils of the superior leaves; corolla pale blue or white (in the variety _alba_), glabrous outside, but woolly in the mouth. June. _l._ villous, nearly entire; radical ones crowded, lanceolate; cauline ones few, ligulate. _h._ 6in. to 18in. European Alps, 1752. This is best grown on the rockery. The white variety is very handsome. (B. M. 1258.) =C. Barrelierii= (Barrelier's). A synonym of _C. fragilis_. =C. betonicæfolia= (Betony-leaved).* _fl._ terminal and axillary, the branchlets usually bearing three; corollas purplish-blue, with a pale yellow base, tubular. May. _l._ elliptic-oblong or ovate, acute, crenate-toothed; radical ones shortly petiolate. Stems much branched. Plant pilose. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Mount Olympus in Bithynia, 1820. Borders. (S. F. G. 210.) =C. bononiensis= (Bononian).* _fl._ bluish-violet, rather small, numerous, disposed in long racemes. July. _l._ serrulated, ovate, acuminate, dark green above, pale beneath; radical ones cordate, petiolate; upper ones stem-clasping. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Europe, 1773. Borders. There is also a very showy white-flowered variety. =C. cæspitosa= (tufted).* _fl._ drooping, terminal, solitary, and sometimes three to four at the top of each stem; corollas deep blue or pure white (in the variety _alba_). May to August. _l._, radical ones crowded, on short petioles, ovate, glandularly toothed, shining. Stems numerous, tufted. Root fibrous, creeping. _h._ 4in. to 6in. Temperate parts of Europe, 1813. Rockery, delighting in rich fibrous loam and leaf mould. [Illustration: FIG. 340. FLOWERING STEM OF CAMPANULA CARPATHICA.] =C. carpathica= (Carpathian).* _fl._ blue, broadly campanulate, disposed in loose panicles, on long peduncles, which are elongated, naked, and terminated by an erect flower. June to August. _l._, lower ones on long petioles, ovate-roundish, cordate, toothed; upper ones on short petioles, ovate, acute. Stems leafy, branched. _h._ 9in. Transylvania, 1774. Borders or rockery. See Fig. 340. (B. M. 117.) =C. c. alba= (white).* _fl._ quite white, otherwise like the type. See Fig. 339. [Illustration: FIG. 341. CAMPANULA CARPATHICA PELVIFORMIS.] =C. c. pelviformis= (pelvis-formed).* _fl._ lilac, nearly 2in. across, numerously produced in lax panicles on much-branched stems, 9in. to 18in. high; fragrant. August. _l._ ovate, cordate, toothed. A distinct seedling from _C. c. turbinata_. See Fig. 341. [Illustration: FIG. 342. CAMPANULA CARPATHICA TURBINATA.] =C. C. turbinata= (top-shaped).* _fl._ nearly 2in. across, erect; corolla deep purple, campanulate. Summer. _l._ ovate, rigid, greyish-green, toothed, and pointed, with cordate bases, in stiff tufts. Stems short, erect. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Transylvania, 1868. Borders or rockery. See Figs. 339 and 342. There is also a desirable variety named _pallida_, with very pale purple flowers. =C. c. t. Hendersoni= (Henderson's). _fl._ rich mauve, in large pyramidal racemes, rather open. July to September. _l._, lower ones cordate, or ovate cordate, slightly crenulated, on long stalks; upper ones oblong, sessile. _h._ 1ft. Very handsome hybrid for borders. =C. caucasica= (Caucasian). _fl._ few, terminal and axillary, drooping; corollas glabrous outside, but bearded inside, of a violaceous-blue colour. July. _l._ crenulated; lower ones obovate, obtuse, petiolate; upper ones lanceolate, sessile. Stems erect, branched, terete, scabrous, pilose. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Caucasus, 1804. Rockery; very pretty. =C. celtidifolia= (Nettle-tree-leaved).* A synonym of _C. lactiflora_. =C. cenisia= (Mont Cenis).* _fl._ deep blue, solitary, terminal, erect. June. _l._ entire; radical ones rosulate, obovate, obtuse; cauline ones ovate-oblong. Stems numerous, glabrous, or slightly pilose. _h._ 3in. Italy, &c., 1775. A rare little rockery gem, requiring a deep gritty loam and leaf soil, between stones. (A. F. P. 3, 6.) =C. Cervicaria.= Throatwort. _fl._ blue, pilose outside; heads terminal, round, bracteate. July. _l._ crenately serrated; radical ones linear-lanceolate, bluntish, on short petioles; cauline ones linear-acuminated. Stem simple. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Mountains of Europe, 1768. Biennial. Borders. (L. B. C. 452.) =C. collina= (hill).* _fl._ deep blue, funnel-shaped, few, secund, disposed in a long raceme. July. _l._, lower ones on long petioles, ovate-oblong, crenulated; middle ones lanceolate; upper ones linear-acuminated. Stems simple, rather pilose. _h._ 1ft. Caucasus, 1803. Borders. (B. M. 927.) =C. colorata= (coloured). _fl._ purple; corolla tubular, velvety; peduncles elongated, terminal and axillary. September. _l._ scattered, lanceolate, acute, repandly denticulated. Stem branched, downy. Sikkim Himalayas, 1849. This requires frame protection during winter. (B. M. 4555.) =C. dichotoma= (forked). _fl._ bluish-purple, with a paler tube, drooping, terminal, solitary in the forks of the branches and stem. July. _l._, cauline ones ovate, acute, a little crenated. Stem erect, with dichotomous branches. Plant clothed with stiff hairs. _h._ 6in. South-western Europe, 1820. Annual. Borders. (S. F. G. 211.) =C. drabifolia= (Draba-leaved). _fl._ pedicellate, opposite the leaves; corolla inflated, with a white tube and a violaceous-blue limb. July. _l._ elliptic-oblong, toothed. Stem many times forked, slightly erect. Plant hispid. _h._ 3in. Island of Samos, 1823. Annual. Rockery. (S. F. G. 215.) =C. Elatines= (Elatine).* _fl._ scattered over the upper part of the plant, sometimes racemose, and sometimes panicled; corollas bluish-purple. June to August. _l._ cordate, coarsely and acutely toothed, ovate-acute; lower ones roundish. Stem branched. Plant downy. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Piedmont, 1823. Rockery. (A. F. P. 3, 7.) =C. Erinus= (Erinus).* _fl._ terminal and axillary, situated in the angles of the forks of the branches; corollas of a pale bluish-rose-colour, or white, pilose at the base, tubular. May to August. _l._ obovate or ovate, toothed. Stem much branched. Plant hispid. _h._ 3in. to 9in. Europe, 1768. Annual. Rockery. (S. F. G. 214.) =C. excisa= (excised). _fl._ drooping; stem one-flowered; corollas blue, funnel-shaped. June. _l._ entire, or remotely-denticulated, linear-acuminated. Stems numerous, erect, slender, simple, naked at top. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Switzerland and Transylvania, 1820. Rockery. A rare species, requiring to be treated like _cenisia_. (L. B. C. 561.) =C. floribunda= (many-flowered). A synonym of _C. isophylla_. =C. fragilis= (fragile).* _fl._ clear lilac-purple, white in the centre, solitary or in pairs, axillary, erect, or nearly so, on spreading branches. July and August. _l._, radical ones reniform, or roundish-cordate, rather deeply lobed; cauline ones broadly-ovate, slightly cordate, all stalked. _h._ 4in. to 6in. South Italy. SYN. _C. Barrelierii_. (B. M. 6504.) =C. garganica= (Gargano).* _fl._ axillary, in fascicles; corollas blue, rotate, deeply five-lobed. May to September. _l._, radical ones reniform, on long petioles; cauline ones cordate, all crenately toothed, downy. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Italy, 1832. An extremely variable species. Rockery, in rich sandy loam. (B. R. 1768.) [Illustration: FIG. 343. FLOWER-SPIKE OF CAMPANULA GLOMERATA.] =C. glomerata= (clustered).* _fl._ sessile, disposed in terminal heads on the branches and stems; corollas bluish-violet or white, glabrous, except the nerves outside, funnel-shaped. May to September. _l._ serrulated; radical ones ovate, acute; bracts ovate, acuminated. Stems simple, or branched. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Britain, &c. Borders. See Fig. 343. (Sy. En. B. 866.) A double-flowered variety, and also a white-flowered form, are very desirable. There are numerous varieties of this species which are frequently described as distinct species. The following are among the number: =C. g. cervicaroides= (Cervicaria-like). _fl._ bluish-violet, terminal and axillary. Lower leaves on long petioles. Stem flexuous, hairy. =C. g. elliptica= (elliptical). _fl._ blue, large, capitate. _l._ on long petioles, elliptic; bracts large, often longer than the flowers. =C. g. nicæensis= (Nice). _fl._ bluish-violet, disposed in short, dense spikes. _l._ approximate, ovate, acute, sessile. =C. g. pusilla= (diminutive).* _fl._ few, capitate. _l._ round, cordate. _h._ 1in. to 2in. In addition to these, there are _aggregata_ and _speciosa_ (= _dahurica_). The latter is an excellent variety, with large heads of deep-coloured flowers. =C. grandiflora= (large-flowered). _See_ =Platycodon grandiflorum=. =C. grandis= (large).* _fl._ pale violet-blue, broadly bell-shaped, with large pointed divisions, axillary and alternate, on the upper part of the stem. June. _l._ sessile, lanceolate, serrated. Stem simple, furrowed. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Siberia, 1842. Borders. There is also a very showy white-flowered variety named _alba_. =C. haylodgensis= (Hay Lodge). _fl._ light blue, rather open, bell-shaped, few, at the ends of the stems. August. _l._, radical ones tufted, roundish-cordate, with the margins slightly indented; cauline ones ovate-cordate, conspicuously toothed, light green. _h._ 6in. to 9in. Rockery. This is a hybrid, raised by Mr. Anderson-Henry, Hay Lodge, Edinburgh, probably between _C. carpathica_ and _C. pusilla_. =C. hederacea= (Ivy-like). _See_ =Wahlenbergia hederacea=. =C. Hostii= (Host's).* A synonym of _C. rotundifolia Hostii_. =C. isophylla= (equal-leaved).* _fl._ numerous, erect, disposed in a corymb; corolla lilac-blue, with a grey centre, large, salver-shaped, deeply five-lobed. August. _l._ broadly ovate, cordate, and toothed. Stems firm. North Italy, 1868. Borders and rockery. SYN. _C. floribunda_. (B. M. 5745.) C. i. alba (white).* _fl._ pure white; in other respects like the species. It is a charming rockery plant, flowering very freely. [Illustration: FIG. 344. FLOWERS OF CAMPANULA LACINIATA.] =C. laciniata= (cut-leaved). _fl._ long-stalked, in lax panicles. Stem erect, branchy, somewhat hairy. _h._ 1ft. Islands in Grecian Archipelago, 1790. This biennial species is impatient of much moisture during winter, and is therefore best kept in a cold frame. See Fig. 344. =C. lactiflora= (milk-coloured-flowered).* _fl._ in loose panicles; peduncles erect, short, usually three-flowered; corollas erect, milk-coloured, tinged with blue, or quite blue, as in the variety named _c�rulea_. July to September. _l._ sessile. ovate-lanceolate, acutely serrated. Stems branched. _h._ 2ft. to 6ft. Caucasus, 1814. Borders. SYN. _C. celtidifolia_. See Fig. 339. (B. R. 241.) [Illustration: FIG. 345. CAMPANULA LANGSDORFFIANA.] =C. Langsdorffiana= (Langsdorff's). _fl._ blue, either solitary or in few-flowered panicles, not unlike those of _C. rotundifolia_. _l._ either entire or toothed. _h._ 3in. to 9in. Mountains of Northern Asia and America. Perennial. See Fig. 345. =C. latifolia= (broad-leaved). _fl._ disposed in spicate racemes; peduncles erect, one-flowered; corolla blue, but sometimes white (in the variety _alba_) campanulately funnel-shaped, large. July. _l._ large, doubly serrated; radical ones petiolate, cordate, ovate-oblong; cauline ones sessile, ovate-acuminated. Stems simple, smooth. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Britain. (Sy. En. B. 868.) =C. l. eriocarpa= (woolly-fruited). _fl._, tube of calyx very hispid. _l._ less acuminated. Stem and leaves pilose and pale. Caucasus, 1823. Borders. =C. l. macrantha= (large-flowered).* _fl._, corollas purplish-blue, larger than those of the type. Stem and leaves rather pilose; teeth of leaves more distinct. A hybrid. Borders. =C. Loefflingii= (L�ffling's). _fl._ solitary, terminating the naked branchlets, loosely panicled, drooping; corolla blue or violaceous, with a deeper-coloured zone beneath the middle, white at the base, both inside and out, funnel-shaped. July. _l._ crenulated; lower ones ovate-reniform; superior ones ovate, stem-clasping. Stem much branched. Annual. _h._ 6in. to 18in. South-west Europe, 1818. (B. R. 29, 19.) =C. Loreyi= (Lorey's). A synonym of _C. ramosissima_. =C. lyrata= (lyrate). _fl._ disposed in a long, many-flowered, loose raceme; corolla blue, tubular, with rather pilose nerves. June. _l._, lower ones petiolate, cordate, ovate, acute, crenated; superior ones sessile, ovate-lanceolate, serrate-toothed. Stem branched. Eastern Europe, Levant, &c., 1823. Borders. [Illustration: FIG. 346. CAMPANULA MACROSTYLA.] =C. macrostyla= (large-styled). _fl._ dull purple, reticulated with violet, solitary, on stout stalks; hairy towards the base. July. _l._, lower ones ovate-oblong, acute; upper ones ovate-lanceolate, recurved, small for the size of the plant, hispid on both surfaces, and ciliated with bristles. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Taurus Mountains. Annual. Borders. The rigid habit, bristly, almost prickly, stem and leaves, curious calyx appendages, short gaping corolla, and wonderful stigma, mark this as the most singular Campanula hitherto introduced. See Fig. 346. =C. Medium= (middle-sized).* Canterbury Bells. _fl._ numerous, large, disposed in racemes; corolla blue, purple, and white, campanulate, inflated, single and double. July. _l._ sessile, ovate-lanceolate, crenately toothed. Stem erect, branched. _h._ 1ft. to 4ft. South Europe, 1597. See Fig. 347. A well-known and very handsome biennial, of which there are numerous varieties. Borders. =C. muralis= (wall).* A synonym of _C. Portenschlagiana_. =C. nana= (dwarf). A synonym of _C. Allionii_. =C. nitida= (shining).* _fl._ blue or white, disposed in spicate racemes; corolla campanulately rotate. Summer. _l._ in rosettes, leathery, very dark and shining green, oblong, crenated; cauline ones linear-lanceolate, almost entire. Stem simple. _h._ 3in. to 9in. North America, 1731. Borders. There are also double blue and white flowered forms of this species. SYN. _C. planiflora_. =C. nobilis= (noble).* _fl._ drooping, crowded towards the ends of the branchlets; corollas reddish-violet, or white, or cream-coloured, spotted, 3in. or more long. July. _l._ hairy; lower ones petiolate, ovate, toothed; upper ones lanceolate, nearly or quite sessile. _h._ 2ft. China, 1844. Borders. (B. R. 32, 65.) There is also a white-flowered variety. =C. patula= (spreading). _fl._ panicled, terminal, and axillary, on long pedicels, large, erect; corollas blue or white, funnel-shaped. July. _l._, radical ones crowded, obovate, crenated; cauline ones linear-lanceolate, sessile, nearly entire. Stems branched. Branches diverging. Europe. Borders. (Sy. En. B. 873.) [Illustration: FIG. 347. FLOWERING BRANCH OF CAMPANULA MEDIUM.] =C. peregrina= (foreign).* _fl._ disposed in a dense spicate raceme, sessile; corollas of a dark violet colour at the base, not so deep in the middle, and paler towards the margins, funnel-shaped. July. _l._ crenated; lower ones obovate; superior ones ovate, acute. Stem simple, angular. _h._ 2ft. Mount Lebanon, 1794. Borders. (B. M. 1257.) =C. persicæfolia= (Peach-leaved).* _fl._ terminal and axillary, pedunculate, solitary, inclined, racemose; corollas blue and all the intermediate shades to white, large, broadly campanulate. July. _l._ glabrous, stiff, crenulated; radical ones lanceolate-obovate; cauline ones linear-lanceolate. Stems nearly simple. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Britain. (Sy. En. B. 871.) The forms of _C. persicæfolia_ are very numerous in gardens. The following are well worth growing: _alba_, pure white, single-flowered; _alba coronata_, pure white, semi-double; _alba fl.-pl._, flowers very double and Camellia-like, constituting one of the best hardy flowers for cutting; _cærulea coronata_, blue, in form like the white; _cærulea fl.-pl._, flowers semi-double. =C. phrygia= (Phrygian). _fl._, corolla bluish-violet, spreading, having the nerves more intensely coloured. July. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, crenated; lower ones obtuse, upper acute. Stem branched. Branches very naked, divaricate, each terminating in a single flower. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Mount Olympus, 1820. Rockery annual. =C. planiflora= (flat-flowered). A synonym of _C. nitida_. =C. Portenschlagiana= (Portenschlag's).* _fl._ light blue-purple, erect, or nearly so, bell-shaped, with spreading segments, several at the ends of the shoots, and one or two in the upper axils. June, July. _l._, radical ones broadly reniform, conspicuously but irregularly toothed, on long slender petioles; cauline ones passing from reniform to ovate. _h._ 6in. to 9in. South Europe. Rockery. SYN. _C. muralis_. (B. R. 1995.) =C. primulæfolia= (Primula-leaved). _fl._ disposed in a spicate raceme; corolla blue or purple, with a whitish downy bottom, campanulately rotate, nearly glabrous. July. _l._ unequally and doubly crenated; radical ones lanceolate, bluntish; cauline ones ovate-oblong, acute. Stem hispid, simple. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Portugal. Borders. (B. M. 4879.) =C. pulla= (russet).* _fl._ terminal, large for the size of the plant; corollas violaceous-blue, campanulate. June. _l._ glabrous, crenulately toothed; lower ones on short petioles, ovate-roundish; superior ones sessile, ovate, acute. Stems rarely pilose at the base. _h._ 3in. to 6in. Eastern Europe, 1779. Rockery, in rich sandy peat and leaf soil. (L. B. C. 554.) =C. pumila= (dwarf). A synonym of _C. pusilla_. [Illustration: FIG. 348. UPPER PORTION OF FLOWERING STEM OF CAMPANULA PUNCTATA.] =C. punctata= (dotted). _fl._ whitish, spotted with red on the inner surface; large, pendulous. _l._ ovate-acute, somewhat crenate. Stem simple, erect, few-flowered. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Siberia, Japan, &c. Border perennial. See Fig. 348. =C. pusilla= (small).* _fl._ axillary and terminal at the upper part of the slender stems, pendulous, bell-shaped, passing from deep blue to white. July, August. _l._, radical ones tufted, broadly ovate or roundish, slightly cordate, obtusely serrated, on petioles longer than the laminæ; cauline ones linear-lanceolate, distinctly toothed, sessile. _h._ 4in. to 6in. Southern Europe. SYN. _C. pumila_. (B. M. 512.) There is a pale-coloured variety named _pallida_, and a pure white variety named _alba_, both of which, as well as the species, are most desirable for the embellishment of rockeries, or for planting in sandy soil as a front line for a border. [Illustration: FIG. 349. CAMPANULA PYRAMIDALIS, showing Habit and Flower.] =C. pyramidalis= (pyramidal).* Chimney Bell-flower. _fl._ very numerous, pedicellate, usually three together from the same bract, the whole disposed in a large pyramidal raceme, which is loose at the base; corollas pale blue or white, with a dark base. July. _l._ glandularly toothed; lower ones petiolate, ovate-oblong, somewhat cordate; cauline ones sessile, ovate-lanceolate. Stem nearly simple, but furnished with floriferous branchlets. _h._ 4ft. to 5ft. Europe, 1596. See Figs. 349 and 350. There are several excellent varieties, but the light and dark blue and white are the best. Borders, and for pot culture. =C. Raineri= (Rainer's).* _fl._ blue, erect; corolla turbinate. June. _l._ almost sessile, ovate, tomentose, remotely serrated; lower ones the smallest, obovate. Stems erect, firm, branched. Branches one-flowered, leafy. _h._ 2in. to 3in. Switzerland, Italy, &c., 1826. A beautiful little alpine, requiring a warm position in rich gritty soil; it must be religiously protected against slugs. (F. d. S. 1908.) [Illustration: FIG. 350. FLOWERING BRANCH OF CAMPANULA PYRAMIDALIS.] =C. ramosissima= (much-branched). _fl._, corolla with a white base; middle part or base of the lobes pale blue, and the lobes bluish-violet; peduncles long, naked, glabrous, bearing each an erect flower at the apex. June. _l._ sessile, glaucous; lower ones obovate, crenated; middle ones ovate-lanceolate; superior ones linear, entire. Stem branched. _h._ 6in. to 12in. South Europe, 1824. Annual. SYN. _C. Loreyi_. (B. M. 2581.) =C. r. flore-albo= (white-flowered) only differs from the type in having white flowers. [Illustration: FIG. 351. CAMPANULA RAPUNCULUS.] =C. rapunculoides= (Rapunculus-like).* _fl._ drooping, solitary, disposed in spike-formed racemes, secund, but usually hanging on all sides in strong garden specimens; corollas bluish-violet, funnel-shaped, and bearded a little inside. June. _l._ scabrous, ovate, acuminated; radical ones petiolate, cordate, crenulated; cauline ones serrulated. Stems glabrous or scabrous, usually branched in gardens, but simple in the wild state. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Europe. Borders. (Sy. En. B. 869.) =C. r. trachelioides= (Trachelium-like). Stem and leaves, but particularly the calyx, beset with stiff white hairs. =C. Rapunculus= (little turnip).* Rampion. _fl._ nearly sessile, or pedicellate, erect, forming a long raceme, which is branched at the base; corolla blue or white, funnel-shaped. July. _l._, lower ones obovate, on short petioles, nearly entire; cauline ones sessile, linear-lanceolate, entire. Stem simple, but sometimes furnished with a few branches towards the top. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Europe. Borders. See Fig. 351. (Sy. En. B. 872.) =C. rhomboidalis= (rhomboidal). _fl._ usually drooping, few, disposed in loose racemes, pedunculate; corolla blue, campanulate. July. _l._ sessile, ovate, acute, serrate. Stem glabrous, or a little pilose, furnished with flower-bearing branches at top. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Europe, 1775. Border. SYN. _C. rhomboidea_. (L. B. C. 603.) =C. rhomboidea= (diamond-leaved). A synonym of _C. rhomboidalis_. =C. rotundifolia= (round-leaved).* Blue-bell; Hare-bell. _fl._ drooping, solitary, pedunculate, few on each stem; corolla deep blue, campanulate. June to August. _l._, radical ones petiolate, cordate roundish, crenately toothed; cauline ones linear or lanceolate. Stems numerous. _h._ 6in. to 12in. Britain. (Sy. En. B. 870.) =C. r. alba= (white).* _fl._ white, the same size as those of the type. Stems much more leafy. =C. r. Hostii= (Host's).* _fl._ rich blue, much larger than those of the type, produced on stouter profusely branched stems. July, August. _l._, radical ones roundish only in a very early state; cauline ones linear, acuminate, sometimes 3in. to 4in. long. SYN. _C. Hostii_. See Fig. 339. There is a white-flowered form of this, not quite so vigorous as the blue-flowered form, but the flowers are equal in size. [Illustration: FIG. 352. FLOWERS OF CAMPANULA ROTUNDIFOLIA SOLDANELL�FLORA.] =C. r. soldanellæflora= (Soldanella-flowered).* _fl._, corolla blue, semi-double, turbinate, with shallow marginal divisions, very acutely pointed. June. _l._ long, linear, acute, sessile. Stem simple, slender. _h._ 1ft. 1870. (R. G. 473.) All the forms of _rotundifolia_ are pretty, and suitable for the front of borders, or the rockery; rising from the crevices of the latter, with their slender stems laden with flowers, they are especially beautiful. See Fig. 352. [Illustration: FIG. 353. FLOWERS AND LEAVES OF CAMPANULA SARMATICA.] =C. sarmatica= (Sarmatian).* _fl._ nutant, usually secund, terminal and axillary, forming a long, loose, scattered raceme; corolla pale blue, velvety outside. July. _l._ tomentose; lower ones petiolate, cordate, rather hastate, crenately toothed; superior ones sessile, ovate-lanceolate, serrate-toothed. Stems simple, straight, downy. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Caucasus, 1803. Borders. (B. R. 237.) See Fig. 353. =C. saxatilis= (rock). _fl._ three to five, disposed in a loose raceme; corolla blue, tubular, nutant. May. _l._ crenated; radical ones rosulate, somewhat spathulate; cauline ones ovate, acute. Stem erect. _h._ 6in. Crete, 1768. Rockery. Very rare. =C. Scheuchzeri= (Scheuchzer's).* _fl._ dark blue, pendent, on slender stems, broadly bell-shaped. July, August. _l._, lower ones similar to those of _C. pusilla_; upper ones linear. _h._ 3in. to 6in. South European Alps, 1813. (L. B. C. 485.) =C. Scouleri= (Scouler's). _fl._ pale blue, paniculate, bell-shaped. July, August. _l._, lower ones ovate, on long petioles, coarsely serrated; cauline ones ovate-lanceolate. _h._ 1ft. North-west America, 1876. Rockery. =C. sibirica= (Siberian). _fl._ panicled, numerous, drooping; corollas bluish-violet, large. July. _l._ crenulated; radical ones crowded, petiolate, obovate, obtuse; cauline ones sessile, oblong-lanceolate, undulated, acuminated. Plant beset with bristle-like hairs. Stem branched. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. East Europe, 1783. Biennial. Borders. (B. M. 659.) =C. s. divergens= (divergent).* _fl._ violaceous, rather large, at first erect, but drooping in the expanded state; peduncles many-flowered, and, like the stem, usually trichotomous. June. _l._, radical ones sub-spathulate, crenulated, narrowed at the base; cauline ones sessile, lanceolate, acuminated. Plant pilose, panicled. _h._ 1-1/2ft. Siberia, 1814. Biennial. SYN. _C. spathulata_. (S. B. F. G. ii., 256.) =C. spathulata= (spathulate). A synonym of _C. sibirica divergens_. =C. speciosa= (beautiful).* _fl._ pedicellate, disposed in a pyramidal raceme; corolla blue, purple or white, 1in. long, smooth outside, but often villous inside. June, July. _l._ sessile, repandly crenated; radical ones rosulate, linear-lanceolate; cauline ones linear. Stem simple. _h._ 12in. to 18in. South-west Europe, 1820. Borders. (B. M. 2649.) =C. spicata= (spicate). _fl._ sessile, one to three from each bract; spike long, interrupted at the base; corolla blue, funnel-shaped. July. _l._ sessile, nearly entire; radical ones crowded, linear-lanceolate; cauline ones linear, acuminated. Stem simple. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Europe, 1786. Biennial. Borders. (A. F. P. 3, 46.) =C. stricta= (strict). _fl._ almost sessile, few, solitary, spicate; corolla blue, tubular. July. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, acute, serrated, pilose. Stem branched, pilose. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Armenia, 1819. Biennial. Borders. [Illustration: FIG. 354. CAMPANULA THYRSOIDEA, showing Entire Plant and Single Flower.] =C. thyrsoidea= (thyrsoid).* _fl._ disposed in a dense pyramidal spike, sessile; corolla sulphur-coloured, oblong. July. _l._ entire, pilose; lower ones lanceolate, obtuse; cauline ones linear-lanceolate, acute. Stem simple, covered with leaves and flowers. Plant pilose. _h._ 1ft. to 1-1/2ft. Alps of Europe, 1785. Biennial. Rockery. (B. M. 1290.) See Fig. 354. =C. Tommasiniana= (Tommasini's).* _fl._ pale blue, tubular, slightly angled, in closely set, several-flowered, axillary cymes. July, August. _l._ nearly or quite sessile, linear-lanceolate, acuminate, distinctly serrated, there being no difference between the lower and upper ones. Stems at first erect, ultimately drooping through the weight of the flowers. _h._ 9in. to 12in. Italy. A very handsome alpine species. (B. M. 6590.) =C. Trachelium= (Throat-wort).* _fl._ drooping a little, one to four together, terminating the branchlets; corolla variously coloured, campanulate, bearded inside. July. _l._ scabrous, acuminated, coarsely and crenately toothed; radical ones petiolate, cordate. Stem angular, simple or branched. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Europe. Borders. (Sy. En. B. 867.) There are double blue, double white, and variously shaded single forms of this species. =C. trichocalycina= (hairy-calyxed). _fl._ disposed in an almost simple terminal raceme, approximate at the top, one to three rising from each axil, at the time of flowering erect, but afterwards drooping; corolla profoundly five-cleft, funnel-shaped. July. _l._ on short petioles, ovate, acute, coarsely serrated. Stem simple. _h._ 1ft. to 3ft. Europe, 1823. Borders. =C. Van Houttei= (Van Houtte's).* _fl._ dark blue, bell-shaped, pendulous, 2in. long, axillary and terminal. July, August. _l._, lower ones roundish-cordate, crenate on long stalks; cauline ones oblong-lanceolate, sessile, serrated. _h._ 2ft. This is a very fine hybrid. Differing from it only in colour and other unimportant details is _C. Burghalti_, a handsome hybrid, found in gardens; the flowers are of a pale purple colour, very large, pendent. These are two of the best border Bell-flowers in cultivation. =C. versicolor= (various-coloured). _fl._ disposed in long spicate racemes; corolla of a deep violaceous colour at bottom, pale in the middle, and the lobes pale violet, companulately rotate. July to September. _l._ serrated; radical ones petiolate, ovate, acute, rather cordate; cauline ones on short petioles, ovate-lanceolate, acuminated. Stems erect. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Greece, 1788. Borders. (S. F. G. 207.) =C. Vidalii= (Vidal's). _fl._ large, racemose; corolla white, wax-like, between urceolate and campanulate, pendulous; disk singularly broad, surrounded by a thick bright orange-coloured annulus. July and August. _l._ thick and fleshy, oblong spathulate, viscid, coarsely serrated. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Azores, 1851. Perennial. Cool greenhouse or (during summer) herbaceous border. (B. M. 4748.) [Illustration: FIG. 355. CAMPANULA WALDSTEINIANA.] =C. Waldsteiniana= (Waldstein's).* _fl._ three to four at the top of each stem, one of which is terminal, and the others from the axils of the superior leaves, always looking upwards; corollas violaceous-blue, campanulate. June. _l._ greyish, sessile, lanceolate, serrated; lower ones obtuse; superior ones long-acuminated. Stems erect, flexuous, stiff, simple, numerous from the same root. _h._ 4in. to 6in. Hungary, 1824. See Fig. 355. =C. Wanneri= (Wanner's). A synonym of _Symphyandra Wanneri_. =C. Zoysii= (Zoys's).* _fl._ pedicellate, drooping; corolla pale blue, with five deeper-coloured lines, cylindrical, elongated. June. _l._ entire; radical ones crowded, petiolate, ovately obovate, obtuse; cauline ones obovate-lanceolate, and linear. Plant small, tufted. _h._ 3in. Carniola, 1813. A scarce little alpine gem, thriving in a sunny chink in rich gritty soil. =CAMPANULACE�.= A large order of herbs or sub-shrubs. Flowers blue or white; corolla regular, bell-shaped, usually five-lobed. Leaves alternate, exstipulate. The genus best known is _Campanula_; other genera are _Adenophora_, _Jasione_, and _Phyteuma_. =CAMPANULATE.= Bell-shaped. =CAMPANUM�A= (altered from _Campanula_). ORD. _Campanulaceæ_. A genus of greenhouse herbaceous, tuberous-rooted, twining perennials. Flowers involucrated, solitary, on axillary and terminal peduncles. Leaves opposite, petiolate, glaucescent beneath. Stems and branches terete. They thrive best in a rich sandy loam, with a little peat. Propagated by seeds and divisions. =C. gracilis= (graceful). _fl._ pale blue; corolla membranous, with a tubular base, dilated throat, and slightly expanded, truncated limb. _l._ on long petioles, ovate, blunt. Himalayas. SYN. _Codonopsis gracilis_. (C. H. P. t. xvi. A.) =C. inflata= (inflated). _fl._ yellowish, with brownish veins; corolla herbaceous, ventricose; peduncles opposite the leaves, one-flowered. _l._ alternate, ovate-cordate, acute. Himalayas. (C. H. P. t. xvi. C.) =C. javanica= (Javan). _fl._ yellowish, with brownish veins; corolla herbaceous, very broadly campanulate, with five spreading lobes. _l._ variable, opposite and alternate, ovate-cordate, crenate. Himalayas. (C. H. P. t. xvi. B.) =CAMPEACHY WOOD=, or =LOGWOOD=. _See_ =Hæmatoxylon campechianum=. =CAMPHORA= (Camphor, commercial name of its chief product). Camphor-tree. ORD. _Laurineæ_. Cool stove evergreen trees, now referred to _Cinnamomum_. The true Camphor of commerce is a product of the oil procured from the wood, branches, and leaves of this tree, by means of dry distillation. The species thrives in a compost of peat and loam, and may be propagated by cuttings. =C. officinalis= (officinal). _fl._ greenish-white. March to June. _l._ triple-nerved, lanceolate, ovate. _h._ 20ft. Japan, 1727. SYN. _Cinnamomum Camphora_. =CAMPHOR-TREE.= _See_ =Camphora=. =CAMPION.= _See_ =Silene=. =CAMPION, MOSS.= _See_ =Silene acaulis=. =CAMPION, ROSE.= _See_ =Lychnis=. =CAMPSIDIUM= (from _kampsis_, a curving). ORD. _Bignoniaceæ_. A small genus, the best-known (perhaps the only) species being a handsome greenhouse climber. For culture, _see_ =Bignonia=. =C. chilense= (Chilian). Pipil Boqui. _fl._ rich orange colour; corolla tubular, almost regular; anthers parallel. _l._ pinnate, dark shining green. _h._ 30ft. to 40ft. Chili. (G. C. 1870, 1182.) =CAMPTERIA.= Included under =Pteris= (which _see_). =CAMPTODIUM.= _See_ =Nephrodium=. =CAMPTOPUS= (from _kamptos_, curved, and _pous_, a foot; the flower-stalk is curved downwardly). ORD. _Rubiaceæ_. A curious shrub, now referred to _Cephaelis_. It requires a most stove temperature. Cuttings will root in sandy loam, under a hand glass, in bottom heat. =C. Mannii= (Mann's). _fl._ white, numerously produced in subglobose, compound heads; peduncles stout, scarlet, drooping, from 12in. to 18in. long. Summer. _l._ large, opposite, obovate or obovate-lanceolate, glabrous, coriaceous; midrib thick, red beneath. _h._ 15ft. Fernando Po, 1863. (B. M. 5755.) =CAMPTOSORUS.= _See_ =Scolopendrium=. =CAMPYLANTHERA.= A synonym of =Pronaya=. =CAMPYLIA.= Included under =Pelargonium=. =CAMPYLOBOTRYS.= _See_ =Hoffmannia=. =CAMPYLONEURON.= _See_ Polypodium. =CAMWOOD.= _See_ =Baphia=. =CANADA BALSAM.= _See_ =Abies balsamea=. =CANADA RICE.= _See_ =Zizania aquatica=. =CANADA TEA.= _See_ =Gaultheria procumbens=. =CANALICULATE.= Channelled, or furrowed. =CANARINA= (so named from its habitat). SYN. _Pernettya_ (of Scopoli). ORD. _Campanulaceæ_. A beautiful, glaucescent, greenhouse, herbaceous perennial. It thrives in a compost of loam, leaf mould, thoroughly decomposed manure, and sand, in equal parts; ample root space and perfect drainage are essential, and when new growth commences, a little extra heat will considerably accelerate the development of the flowers. Water should be liberally supplied during the growing season. The plant may be propagated by divisions when repotting, in January; or by young cuttings, inserted in sandy soil, in a gentle warmth. =C. Campanula= (bell-shaped).* _fl._ of a yellowish purple or orange colour, with red nerves, drooping, solitary, terminating axillary branchlets; corolla six-lobed at the apex, large, campanulate. January to March. _l._ opposite, hastately sub-cordate, irregularly toothed. _h._ 3ft. to 4ft. Canary Islands, 1696. (B. M. 444.) =CANARIUM= (from _Canari_, its vernacular name in the Malay language). ORD. _Burseraceæ_. A rather large genus of stove trees. Flowers small, in axillary panicles; petals usually three, valvate, or slightly imbricate in the bud. Drupe ovoid or ellipsoid, often three-angled. Leaves large, impari-pinnate. For culture, _see_ =Boswellia=. =C. commune= (common). _fl._ white, glomerate, nearly sessile, bracteate; panicle terminal. _l._, leaflets seven to nine, on long stalks, ovate-oblong, bluntly acuminated, entire. India. The fruit has a thin olive skin, and when the nuts are mature, they contain a sweet kernel, which does not become rancid, and resembles a Sweet Chestnut; they are also used for various economic purposes. (B. M. Pl. 61.) =CANARY-BIRD FLOWER.= _See_ =Tropæolum peregrinum=. =CANAVALIA= (from _Canavali_, the name of one of the species in Malabar). ORD. _Leguminosæ_. A genus of elegant twining or climbing stove herbs or subshrubs. Flowers in racemes, produced from the axils of the leaves; calyx bell-shaped, two-lipped; corolla papilionaceous. Leaves trifoliate. They are well adapted for training up the rafters in a stove or warm greenhouse. For culture, _see_ =Dolichos=. =C. bonariensis= (Buenos Ayrean). _fl._ purple; racemes drooping, longer than the leaves. July and August. _l._, leaflets ovate, obtuse, coriaceous, glabrous. Buenos Ayres, 1824. (B. R. 1199.) =C. ensiformis= (ensiform).* _fl._ white, red, pendulous; racemes longer than the leaves. June. _l._, leaflets ovate, acute. India, 1790. SYN. _C. gladiata_. (B. M. 4027.) =C. gladiata= (sword-podded). Synonymous with _C. ensiformis_. =C. obtusifolia= (obtuse-leaved). _fl._ purple. July, August. _l._, leaflets ovate obtuse. Malabar, 1820. =CANBIA= (named in honour of W. M. Canby, of Wilmington, Delaware). ORD. _Papaveraceæ_. A monotypic genus, remarkable for its persistent (not caducous) corolla. Sepals three, caducous; petals six, barely 1/6in. in length; stamens six to nine. [Illustration: FIG. 356. CANBIA CANDIDA.] =B. candida= (glossy white). _fl._ white, solitary, on little scapes. _l._ alternate, linear, entire. _h._ about 1in. Discovered in sandy soil in South-east California, in 1876. See Fig. 356. =CANCELLATE.= Latticed; resembling lattice-work. =CANDELABRUM= or =CHANDELIER TREE=. _See_ =Pandanus candelabrum=. =CANDLEBERRY MYRTLE.= _See_ =Myrica cereifera=. =CANDLEBERRY-TREE.= _See_ =Aleurites triloba=. =CANDLE-TREE.= _See_ =Parmentiera cerifera=. =CANDOLLEA= (named after Augustus Pyramus De Candolle, formerly Professor of Botany, at Geneva, and author of numerous botanical works). ORD. _Dilleniaceæ_. A genus of very ornamental greenhouse evergreen shrubs, natives of Australia. Flowers yellow, sub-solitary, at the tips of the branches; sepals five, oval, mucronate; petals obovate or obcordate. They thrive in a compost of equal parts loam and peat, with which sufficient sand may be mixed to render the whole porous. Cuttings will root, if placed in a similar compost, under a hand glass; seeds are also sometimes obtainable. [Illustration: FIG. 357. FLOWERS AND BUDS OF CANDOLLEA CUNEIFORMIS.] =C. cuneiformis= (wedge-shaped).* _fl._ yellow. July. _l._ smooth, obovately cuneated, blunt at the top, entire. Branches cinerous. _h._ 7ft. 1824. See Fig. 357. (B. M. 2711.) =C. Huegelii= (Huegel's). _fl._ at tops of the branches, among the leaves, on short pedicels; sepals acuminate, hoary outside, longer than the petals. May. _l._ linear, quite entire, villous when young. _h._ 6ft. 1837. =C. tetrandra= (four-stamened). _fl._ yellow, solitary; petals emarginate. June. _l._ oblong, cuneate, toothed. _h._ 7ft. 1842. (B. R. 1843, 50.) =CANDYTUFT.= _See_ =Iberis=. =CANE-BRAKE.= A common name for different species of _Arundinaria_. =CANELLA= (a diminutive of _canna_, a reed; in allusion to the rolled bark, like cinnamon). ORD. _Canellaceæ_. The best-known species of this genus is a very ornamental and economically valuable stove evergreen tree, which thrives in a mixture of loam and sand. Well-ripened cuttings, taken off at a joint, will root in sand, under a hand glass, with bottom heat, in April or May; but care should be taken not to deprive them of any of their leaves. Sweet says that large old cuttings are best. =C. alba= (white).* _fl._ violet-colour, small, growing at the tops of branches in cluster, but upon divided peduncles. _l._ alternate, obovate, cuneated at the base, white, or glaucous beneath, somewhat coriaceous, sometimes full of pellucid dots. _h._ 15ft. The whole tree is very aromatic, and, when in blossom, perfumes the neighbourhood. The flowers dried, and softened again in warm water, have a fragrant odour, nearly approaching to that of Musk. The leaves have a strong smell of Laurel. West Indies, &c., 1735. (T. L. S. i., 8.) =CANELLACE�.= A small order of tropical American aromatic shrubs, allied to _Bixineæ_, from which it differs only in having the albumen firmer, and with a smaller embryo. The genera are _Canella_ and _Cinnamodendron_. =CANESCENT.= Hoary, approaching to white. =CANICIDIA.= A synonym of =Rourea= (which _see_). =CANISTRUM= (from _canistrum_, a basket; in allusion to the inflorescence resembling a basket of flowers). ORD. _Bromeliaceæ_. Stove epiphytes, with showy inflorescence, and requiring similar culture to =Billbergia= (which _see_). =C. aurantiacum= (orange).* _fl._ orange-yellow, in a cup-shaped involucre of orange-red bracts; scapes erect. June to September. _l._ ligulate-lorate denticulate, deflexed. Brazil, 1873. See Fig. 358. (B. H. 1873, 15.) [Illustration: FIG. 358. CANISTRUM AURANTIACUM.] =C. eburneum= (ivory).* _fl._ white, green, disposed in a depressed head, the white ovaries of which give an appearance as of eggs in a basket. May. _l._ tufted, mottled, the central ones cream-coloured, surrounding the flower-heads. _h._ 2ft. SYNS. _Guzmannia fragrans_ and _Nidularium Lindeni_. Brazil, 1876. (B. H. 1879, 13, 14.) =C. roseum= (rose-coloured). _fl._ white, green; bracts rosy. 1879. =C. viride= (green). _fl._ green. _l._ green, canaliculate, acuminate, irregularly toothed. Brazil, 1875. SYN. _Nidularium latifolium_. (B. H. 1874, 16.) =CANKER.= This is a disease presenting very serious difficulties, principally in the cultivation of Apples and Pears. Both the trees and fruits, especially of some varieties, are, in many localities, so far injured as not to be worth cultivating. What causes the disease is not at all times known; indeed, it is, in most cases, but imperfectly understood. Were the causes better known, the remedy might generally be much easier found. Some of the primary causes are cold and undrained soil, severe and careless pruning, extreme variations of temperature, and excessive growth, made late in the season, when it has not sufficient time to get well ripened. Trees that are badly Cankered may often be improved by lifting, and replanting in improved or better-drained soil. Immediately the disease is detected in young trees, by the cracking of the bark or the skin of the fruits, measures should be taken to find the cause, if possible, and avert its progress. Some Pear-trees, in various localities, will not produce fruit without Canker in the open garden, but they will do so when planted against a wall; and as such may be the very best varieties, trees should be placed in the latter position. The removal of large branches, late in spring, will sometimes produce Canker, at the point where mutilation has taken place; and it may be caused by severe late pruning, which induces the growth of soft shoots that are almost certain to be injured by severe frosts. The difference in the seasons, as regards the amount of moisture, is one that can scarcely be provided against. One spring may be favourable to rapid growth, and the following may be most unfavourable, thereby arresting the natural flow of the sap until the latter part of the summer, when excessive growth will probably take place. Such checks invariably produce Canker. At times, the disease seems caused by the punctures of insects, in an early stage, on the stems or branches. In such instances, a thorough cleansing, and a smearing of quicklime, made into a wash, often proves successful. Strong tobacco water will destroy insects, and a weak solution of sulphuric acid is also fatal to lichens and mosses, which should never be allowed to obtain a footing. The chief preventatives, therefore, are: Planting in well-drained soil; avoiding the use of any rank manure, to cause excessive growth; changing the old, or adding new, soil to injured trees; careful pruning, and the encouragement of early growth in spring, and subsequent well ripening in autumn. [Illustration: FIG. 359. CANNA INDICA, showing Habit, Flowers, and Leaves.] =CANNA= (derivation uncertain; according to some, from _cana_, the Celtic name for cane, or reed). Indian Shot. ORD. _Scitamineæ_. A large genus of stove herbaceous perennials, very extensively employed in sub-tropical and other methods of summer gardening. Flowers spathaceous; anther attached to the edge of the petal-like filament. Leaves very ornamental. Few plants are more easily grown, or more quickly propagated. Seeds of many of the finer sorts may be bought cheaply from respectable seedsmen. These should be sown in heat, in February or March. A warm house or cucumber pit is the best place for sowing the seeds, which are very hard. If soaked in tepid water for twenty-four hours, germination will be materially stimulated. A mixture of sand and leaf mould is best for them, and a covering of 1-1/2in. or 2in. of earth is not excessive. They should be sown thinly, in pans. As Cannas are gross, and have somewhat brittle roots in a young state, it is a good plan to sow the seed singly in small pots. This method preserves all the roots intact, and prevents any check in potting off or dividing the plants out of seed pans or boxes. When this is not done, the plants must be potted off singly, as soon as they have formed two leaves, 3in. pots being used for the first shift. The soil can hardly be too rich and porous. Equal parts rotted dung, loam, and sand, with a little peat, form a capital mixture for them. The plants must be kept in a growing temperature of 60deg. or so, during their earlier stages, and shifted as required into larger pots. Under proper management, the roots will fill 6in. pots by the middle or end of May. They ought not to be planted out till the end of May or the first week in June. Should fairly rich soil and a sheltered place be selected for them, they will not only grow, but flower freely during the late summer and autumn months. Cannas are also very effective indoors, either for greenhouse or room decoration. For these purposes they may be grown on in 8in., 10in., or even 12in., pots, with rich soil, and placed either in a stove, intermediate house, warm or cool conservatory, window, or room. Liberal supplies of manure water will be of very great benefit. Propagation is also effected by means of divisions; they form a root-stock very like some of the commoner and more free-growing Irises, each portion of which, with bud and roots attached, may be converted into an independent plant. The best mode of procedure is to divide the root-stock in early spring, when the pieces may be placed in 4in. pots at once; and, if plunged in a bottom heat of 60deg. or so, they will quickly resume root action and grow rapidly. They may also be propagated by division without bottom heat. Those who grow large quantities seldom put their plants in pots at all. Stored in pots or boxes for the winter, they are divided and placed singly in similar positions in the spring, and transferred from such vessels into the open air. The best open site for Cannas is in a sheltered spot, with a good depth of rich soil, and plenty of moisture. In such a position, their noble leaves are not so much injured by rough winds. After flowering, or at the end of the season, they may be lifted and stored away in boxes, or in pots of earth, in dry, frost-proof sheds, or under greenhouse stages during winter. In warm, sheltered situations, with dry bottoms, they winter safely in the open, provided their crowns are covered with 1ft. of litter or cocoa fibre refuse. But where the soil is wet and cold, or the situation bleak and unprotected, they should be lifted and stored away, as already described. =C. Achiras variegata= (variegated Achiras).* _fl._ dark red. August. _l._ bright green, striped with white and yellow. Better adapted for indoor culture than out. =C. Annæi= (M. Année's).* _fl._ salmon-colour, large, well formed. June. _l._ large, green, glaucescent, ovate-acute, 2ft. long by 10in. wide. Stems vigorous, stiff, sea-green. _h._ 6ft. (R. H. 1861, 470.) Of this there are many forms, the best of which are: =C. A. discolor= (two-coloured).* _fl._ rosy-yellow, few, small. Late summer. _l._ lanceolate, erect, light red, 2-1/2ft. long, 10in. wide. Stems dark red. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. =C. A. fulgida= (red).* _fl._ orange-red, large, well-opened. _l._ 20in. long, 6in. wide, deep purple, erect. Stems small, dark red. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. =C. A. rosea= (rose).* _fl._ carmine-rose colour, small, few. Late summer. _l._ 2ft. long, very narrow, pointed, erect. Stems dark green, with a reddish base, numerous. _h._ 5ft. =C. Auguste Ferrier= (A. Ferrier's).* _fl._ orange-red, medium-sized. _l._ very large, oval, erect, pointed, deep green, with narrow stripes and margins of dark purplish-red. Stem green, very thick, downy. _h._ 10ft. =C. aurantiaca= (orange). _fl._, segments of perianth rose-coloured outside, reddish inside; upper lip orange, lower one yellow, dotted with orange. _l._ large, broadly lanceolate, pale green; margins slightly undulated. _h._ 6-1/2ft. Brazil, 1824. =C. Bihorelli= (Bihorell's).* _fl._ deep crimson, produced upon branching spikes in great abundance. _l._ red when young, changing to deep bronze with age. _h._ 6ft. to 7ft. One of the best. =C. Daniel Hooibrenk.= _fl._ bright orange, large, freely produced. _l._ large, glaucous-green, acuminate, with bronzy margin. Stalks strong, green. _h._ 6ft. =C. Depute Henon.=* _fl._ pure canary-colour, with a yellowish base, large; spikes numerous, rising gracefully above the foliage to a height of 1-1/2ft. _l._ ovate-acute, erect. _h._ 4ft. =C. discolor= (two-coloured).* _fl._ red. _l._ very large, broad, ovate-oblong; lower ones tinged with a blood-red hue; upper ones streaked with purple. Stems stout, reddish. _h._ 6ft. South America, 1872. (B. R. 1231.) =C. edulis= (edible). _fl._ large, with purple outer segments, inner ones yellowish. _l._ broadly ovate-lanceolate, green, tinged with maroon. Stems deep purple tinged. _h._ 6ft. to 7ft. Peru, 1820. (B. R. 775.) =C. expansa-rubra= (red-expanded).* _fl._ large, with rounded bright purple segments. _l._ very large, sometimes over 4ft. long, and nearly 2ft. broad, ovate, obtuse, spreading horizontally, dark red. Stems numerous, very thick. _h._ 4ft. to 6ft. =C. flaccida= (flaccid). _fl._ yellow, very large, not very unlike those of the native _Iris pseudo-acorus_. _l._ ovate-lanceolate, erect. _h._ 2-1/2ft. South America, 1788. (L. B. C. 562.) =C. gigantea= (gigantic).* _fl._ large, very ornamental, with orange-red outer, and deep purple red inner segments. Summer. _l._ about 2ft. long; petioles covered with a velvety down. _h._ 6ft. South America, 1788. (B. R. 206.) =C. indica= (Indian).* Indian Reed. _fl._ rather large, irregular; spikes erect, with light yellow and carmine-red divisions. Summer. _l._ large, alternate, ovate-lanceolate. _h._ 3ft. to 6ft. West Indies, 1570. See Fig. 359. (B. M. 454.) =C. insignis= (magnificent). _fl._ orange-red, few, small. _l._ ovate, spreading horizontally, green, rayed and margined with purplish-red. Stems violet, downy. _h._ 3ft. to 5ft. =C. iridiflora= (Iris-flowered). _fl._ rose, with a yellow spot on the lip; spikes slightly drooping, several emanating from the same spathe. Summer. _l._ broadly ovate-acuminate. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. Peru, 1816. (B. R. 609.) =C. i. hybrida= (hybrid). _fl._ blood-red, very large, only properly developed when grown in a greenhouse. _l._ green, very large. Stem green, downy, somewhat reddish. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. =C. limbata= (bordered).* _fl._ yellowish-red, disposed in long loose spikes; spathes glaucous. _l._ oblong-lanceolate, acute. _h._ 3ft. Native country uncertain, 1818. (B. R. 771.) =C. l. major= (larger-bordered). _fl._ orange-red, large. _l._ large, lanceolate, 2-1/2ft. long, 8in. wide, spreading, deep green. Stems downy. _h._ 5ft. to 6-1/2ft. =C. nigricans= (blackish).* _l._ coppery-red, lanceolate, acuminate, erect, 2-1/2ft. long, 10in. to 12in. broad. Stems purplish-red. _h._ 4-1/2ft. to 8ft. One of the finest kinds. _C. atro-nigricans_ has leaves of a purplish shade, passing into dark red, of a deeper hue than those of _C. nigricans_. =C. Premices de Nice.= _fl._ bright yellow, very large. Stems and leaves like those of _C. Annæi_. =C. Rendatleri= (Rendatler's).* _fl._ salmon-red, numerous, large. _l._ much pointed, deep green, tinged with dark red. Stems purplish-red. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. [Illustration: FIG. 360. FLOWERING SPIKE OF CANNA SPECIOSA.] =C. speciosa= (showy).* _fl._ sessile, in pairs; petals two, erect, bifid; lip spotted, revolute. August. _l._ lanceolate. _h._ 3ft. Nepaul, 1820. See Fig. 360. (B. M. 2317.) =C. Van-Houttei= (Van Houtte's).* _fl._ bright scarlet, large, very abundantly produced. _l._ lanceolate, 2ft. to 2-1/2ft. long, acuminated, green, rayed and margined with dark purplish-red. =C. Warscewiczii= (Warscewicz's).* _fl._ with brilliant scarlet inner, and purplish outer segments. _l._ ovate-elliptic, narrowed at both ends, deeply tinged with dark purple. _h._ 3ft. Costa Rica, 1849. (B. H. 2, 48.) There are several varieties of this species, the best two are: _Chatei_, with very large dark red leaves, and _nobilis_, with deep green leaves, rayed and margined with dark red. =C. zebrina= (zebra-striped).* _fl._ orange, small. _l._ very large, ovate, erect, deep green, passing into dark red, rayed with violet-purple. Stems dark violet-red. _h._ 6ft. to 8ft. =CANNABINACE�.= This order, of which the genus _Cannabis_ (Hemp) is the type, is now merged into _Urticaceæ_. =CANNABIS= (from the Greek word _kannabis_, used by Dioscorides, and that from Sanskrit _canam_). Hemp. ORD. _Urticaceæ_. A small genus, of but little ornamental value. Flowers racemose, di�cious. Nut two-valved, within the closed calyx. The undermentioned species is a hardy annual, of easy culture in ordinary garden soil. Propagated by seeds, sown in spring. =C. sativa= (cultivated). _fl._ greenish. June. _l._ on long stalks; leaflets from five to seven, long, lanceolate, acuminated; margins serrated. _h._ 4ft. to 10ft., or even 20ft. India, &c. This plant is cultivated very extensively for the sake of its valuable fibre. Well-grown plants have rather an ornamental appearance during the summer months. See Fig. 361. [Illustration: FIG. 361. HEAD OF CANNABIS SATIVA.] =CANNON-BALL TREE.= A common name for =Couroupita guianensis= (which _see_). =CANSCORA= (from _Kansgan-Cora_, the Malabar name of _C. perfoliata_, as yet unintroduced). SYN. _Pladera_. Including _Phyllocyclus_. ORD. _Gentianeæ_. Small, erect, simple or branched, stove or greenhouse annuals. Flowers stalked or sub-sessile. Leaves opposite, sessile or amplexicaul. Corolla funnel-shaped, with a four-cleft, unequal limb; the two outer segments equal, two lower ones combined a greater distance. Stems tetragonal. _C. Parishii_ requires similar treatment to =Balsam=, and grows best in a soil to which chalk or limestone débris is added. =C. Parishii= (Parish's). _fl._ white. _l._ opposite, perfectly connate, so that the united two apparently form an exactly orbicular leaf. _h._ 2ft. Moulmein, 1864. Greenhouse. (B. M. 5429.) =CANTERBURY BELLS.= _See_ =Campanula Medium=. =CANTHARELLUS CIBARIUS.= _See_ =Chantarelle=. =CANTHIUM.= A synonym of =Plectronia=. =CANTUA= (from _Cantu_, the Peruvian name of one of the species). SYN. _Periphragmos_. ORD. _Polemoniaceæ_. Very pretty erect, branched greenhouse evergreen shrubs. Flowers in corymbs, at the termination of the branches, rarely solitary and axillary. Leaves entire or almost pinnatifid, alternate, petiolate, elliptic, acuminated, or cuneate-oblong, glabrous, or downy on both surfaces when young. They are of easy culture in a compost of turfy loam, leaf-mould, and sand, if good drainage is allowed. Propagated by cuttings, placed in sand, under a hand glass. In the western parts of England, these plants--particularly _C. buxifolia_--thrive remarkably well in sheltered situations. =C. bicolor= (two-coloured). _fl._ solitary; corolla with a short yellow tube and scarlet limb. May. _h._ 4ft. Peru, 1846. (B. M. 4729.) =C. buxifolia= (Box-leaved).* _fl._, corolla pale red, straight, funnel-shaped, with a very long tube; corymbs few-flowered; peduncles tomentose. April. _l._ cuneate-oblong, mucronulate, quite entire. _h._ 4ft. Peruvian Andes, 1849. An elegant plant, having the tops of branches, calyces, and young leaves, downy. SYN. _C. dependens_. See Fig. 362. (B. M. 4582.) =C. dependens= (hanging). Synonymous with _C. buxifolia_. =C. pyrifolia= (Pyrus-leaved).* _fl._, corolla yellowish-white, curved; stamens twice as long as the corolla; corymbs terminal, dense-flowered. March. _l._ elliptic or obovate acute, entire or sinuate-dentate. _h._ 3ft. Peru, 1846. (B. M. 4386.) =CAOUTCHOUC.= The elastic gummy substance known as indiarubber, which is the inspissated juice of various plants growing in tropical climates in different parts of the world; such as _Castilloa_, _Ficus elastica_, _Hevea_, various species of _Landolphia_, _Manihot_, &c., &c. =CAPE EVERLASTING.= _See_ =Helichrysum=. =CAPE GOOSEBERRY.= _See_ =Physalis peruviana=. [Illustration: FIG. 362. FLOWERING BRANCH OF CANTUA BUXIFOLIA.] =CAPE GUM.= The gum of _Acacia Karroo_ or _A. capensis_. =CAPE JESSAMINE.= _See_ =Gardenia florida=. =CAPER-TREE.= _See_ =Capparis=. =CAPILLARY.= Very slender; resembling a hair. =CAPITATE.= Growing in a head. =CAPITULATE.= Growing in small heads. =CAPITULUM.= A close head of flowers; the inflorescence of Composites. =CAPPARIDE�.= An order of herbs or shrubs, rarely trees. Flowers clustered, or solitary; sepals four to eight, imbricate or valvate; petals four, arranged crosswise, sometimes, but rarely, five, or eight, rarely absent. Leaves alternate, very rarely opposite, stipulate or exstipulate. The order is distributed throughout the tropical and warm temperate regions of both hemispheres, the frutescent species being largely represented in America. There are about twenty-three genera--the best-known being _Capparis_, _Cleome_, and _Cratæva_--and about 300 species. =CAPPARIS= (_kapparis_, old Greek name used by Dioscorides, from Persian _kabar_, Capers). Caper-tree. ORD. _Capparideæ_. Greenhouse or stove evergreen shrubs, of considerable beauty. Calyx four-parted; petals four; stamens numerous; succeeded by a berry. They thrive best in a compost of well-drained sandy loam. Cuttings of ripe shoots will root in sand, under a hand glass, in moist heat. This genus contains about 120 species, but it is very doubtful if more than six are to be found under cultivation in this country. =C. amygdalina= (Almond-like).* _fl._ white; peduncles axillary, compressed, corymbiferous. _l._ elliptical-oblong, narrowed towards both ends, with a callous point; upper surface smooth; under surface, as well as the branches, covered with silvery scaly dots. _h._ 6ft. West Indies, 1818. Stove. =C. cynophallophora= (Dog-phallus bearing). _fl._ white, large, fragrant; peduncles few-flowered, shorter than the leaves. _l._ smooth, leathery, oblong, on short petiole. _h._ 8ft. to 25ft. West Indies, 1752. Stove. (R. G. 1862, 351.) =C. odoratissima= (sweetest-scented).* _fl._ violet, sweet-scented, about the size of Myrtle, with yellow anthers; peduncles racemiferous at the top. _l._ oblong, acuminate, on long footstalks; upper surface smooth; under surface covered with little hard scales. _h._ 6ft. Caraccas, 1814. Stove. [Illustration: FIG. 363. FLOWER AND BUD OF CAPPARIS SPINOSA.] =C. spinosa= (spiny).* Common Caper. _fl._ white, tinged with red on the outside; pedicels solitary, one-flowered. June. _l._ ovate, roundish, deciduous. _h._ 3ft. South Europe, 1596. This is an excellent greenhouse shrub, and one which we have found perfectly hardy in the southern counties of England. See Fig. 363. (B. M. 291.) =CAPRIFOLIACE�.= A rather large order of shrubs or herbs, often twining. Flowers terminal, corymbose, or axillary; corolla superior, regular or irregular. Leaves opposite, exstipulate. Well-known genera are: _Linnæa_, _Lonicera_, _Sambucus_, and _Viburnum_. =CAPRIFOLIUM.= _See_ =Lonicera=. [Illustration: FIG. 364. FRUIT OF LONG AND ROUND CAPSICUMS.] =CAPSICUM= (from _kapto_, to bite; on account of the biting heat of the seeds and pericarp). ORD. _Solanaceæ_. Shrubs or sub-shrubs, rarely herbs. Peduncles extra-axillary, one-flowered. Leaves scattered, solitary, or twin, and quite entire. Many of the species, although possessing considerable beauty, are but rarely grown, either for decoration or for the use of their fruit; consequently, we confine our specific enumeration to the Common Capsicum, the Bird Pepper or Chili, and the Bell Pepper. The first two of these have long been in cultivation, for use either in a green state for pickles and for making Chili vinegar, or ripened and ground as Cayenne Pepper. Some sorts are exceedingly ornamental for greenhouse decoration in winter, if plants are well grown in rather small pots, and the fruit ripened under glass. The varieties producing small pods are the hottest, and consequently best suited for making Cayenne Pepper. These are generally called Chilies. All other varieties of Capsicum have a more or less pungent flavour, and those bearing larger pods are more profitable for use in a green state. The fruits of all are either red or yellow when ripe, and are of various sizes and shapes. Some are produced and stand erect on the upper side of the branches; others hang underneath. Fig. 364 represents hanging fruits of Long and Round Capsicums, the shapes of which are produced by both red and yellow varieties. _Cultivation._ Being natives of tropical countries, Capsicums cannot always be depended upon to thoroughly ripen in the open air; but a good crop of green fruits may generally be obtained by preparing the plants early in the season, and planting out in a warm situation. Sow the seeds in February or early in March, in pots or pans, placing them in heat; and so soon as the plants are large enough, pot off singly into 3in. pots, still keeping them in heat until well rooted. Place them into 6in. or 7in. pots before they become starved; and gradually harden off and plant out about 2ft. asunder, in June. The fruits ripen better if the plants are placed against a south wall and tacked on to it. The safest plan to obtain a crop of ripe fruits is to cultivate under glass. Pots of 7in. diameter are large enough. Rich soil must be used, and any spare frames are suitable in summer. Plenty of water and frequent syringings should be applied, as the plants are very liable to injury from red spider and other insects if this is in any way neglected. The fruits will keep some time after being ripe, but are never better than when fresh gathered; they may, however, be kept on the plants for a considerable period. _Sorts._ Chili, Long Red, Long Yellow, Small Red Cayenne, Round Red, and Round Yellow. Good ornamental varieties are: Little Gem, a very dwarf variety, of comparatively recent introduction, covered with small, erect, red pods; and Prince of Wales, free fruiting, with hanging bright yellow pods. =C. annuum= (annual). Common Capsicum. _fl._ white, solitary. June. Petioles glabrous. _fr._ oblong, pendulous, and erect, red or yellow, variable in shape. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. South America, 1548. =C. baccatum.= Bird Pepper or Chili. _fl._ greenish; peduncles twin. June. _fr._ small, erect, almost globose. _l._ oblong, glabrous, as well as the petiole. Branches angular, striated. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. Tropical America, 1731. Greenhouse shrub. =C. grossum= (large). Bell Pepper. _fl._ white. July. India, 1759. =CAPSULAR.= Like a capsule. =CAPSULE.= A dry dehiscent seed vessel or fruit. =CARAGANA= (_Caragan_ is the name of _C. arborescens_ among the Monguls). Siberian Pea-tree. ORD. _Leguminosæ_. Very ornamental hardy deciduous trees or shrubs. Flowers usually yellow, axillary, either solitary or crowded, but always single on thin stalks. Leaves abruptly pinnate, the midrib ending in a bristle or spine; leaflets mucronate. They are well adapted for shrubberies, and are of the easiest culture in sandy soil. Propagated by cuttings, made of the roots, or by seeds; the low-growing shrubs by seeds and layers. Caraganas are generally increased by grafting on _C. arborescens_, which is easily raised from seed, sown when ripe or in spring. =C. Altagana= (Altagana). _fl._ yellow; pedicels solitary. April to July. _l._ with six to eight pairs of glabrous, obovate-roundish, retuse leaflets; petiole unarmed. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Dahuria, 1789. Shrub. =C. arborescens= (tree-like).* _fl._ pale or bright yellow; pedicels in fascicles. April, May. _l._ with four to six pairs of oval-oblong villous leaflets; petiole unarmed. Stipules spinescent. _h._ 15ft. to 20ft. Siberia, 1752. Tree. (B. M. 1886.) =C. Chamlagu= (Chamlagu). _fl._ yellow, at length becoming reddish, large, pendulous; pedicels solitary. May. _l._ with two pairs of distant, oval, or obovate glabrous leaflets; stipules spreading, and, as well as the petioles, spinose. _h._ 2ft. to 4ft. China, 1773. Shrub. =C. frutescens= (woody).* _fl._ yellow, resupinate; pedicels solitary. April. _l._ with two pairs of leaflets, approximating the top of the petiole, obovate-cuneated; stipules membranous; petiole furnished with a short spine at the apex. _h._ 2ft. to 3ft. Siberia, 1752. Shrub. (S. B. F. G. 3, 227.) There are one or two varieties of this species. =C. jubata= (bearded).* _fl._ white, suffused with red, few; pedicels solitary, very short. April. _l._ with four or five pairs of oblong-lanceolate, lanuginously-ciliated leaflets; stipules setaceous; petioles somewhat spinose. _h._ 1ft. to 2ft. Siberia, 1796. Shrub. SYN. _Robinia jubata_. (L. B. C. 522.) * * * * * +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber notes: | | | | P. 14. 't rminal' under Aciotis, changed to 'terminal'. | | P. 21. 'Ternstroemiaceoe' changed to 'Ternstroemiaceæ' | | P. 27. 'producing fronds', fronds is usually in italics. Changed. | | P. 27. 'A synonymn of A. venustum.', changed 'synonymn' | | to 'synonym'. | | P. 41. 'deeply chanelled', changed 'chanelled' to 'channelled'. | | P. 41. 'A. Wislizeni ... which is under 2ft. broad'; should 'broad'| | be 'long'? Left as a query. | | P. 49. A. Scorodoprasum. 'Europ' changed to 'Europe'. | | P. 53. A. ageratoides. 'receptable" changed to 'receptacle'. | | P. 87. 'surface is punctuate', changed 'punctuate' to 'punctuated'.| | P. 87. 'of less than than', taken out one 'than'. | | P. 134. A. umbrosum. 'laceolate' changed to 'lanceolate'. | | P. 162. 'Caraccas', changed to 'Caracas'. | | P. 171. 'browish when matured.', changed 'browish' to 'brownish'. | | P. 174. 'numerous arge round', changed 'arge' to 'large'. | | P. 190. 'part the day' changed to 'part of the day'. | | P. 190. 'Rio Janeiro, 1825.' changed to 'Rio de Janeiro, 1825.' | | P. 210. 'Caraccas', changed to 'Caracas'. | | P. 213. 'Syn. B Joinvillei, B. pitcairniæfolia.', changed 'Syn.' | | to 'Syns.' | | P. 222. 'There is a is a variety', removed extra 'is a'. | | P. 235. 'petioles sheating' changed to 'petioles sheathing'. | | P. 259. 'CAPSIDIUM' is 'CAMPSIDIUM' in another volume. Changed. | | Fixed various punctuation. | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+